,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #cbd ,,new ,,york1 ,,march #ah1 #ahhb ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xiii1 ,no4 #cbd4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,mechanics--,machine ,tools for ,boiler ,makers4 #b figures4--,improved boiler plate radial drill4--,improved boiler plate bending roller4 ,modern ,ordnance4 ,by ,,colonel ,,maitland4--,rifled cannon4--,built guns4--,steel castings4--,breech loading4--,long guns4--,slow burning of powder4--,breech closers4--,projectiles4--,destructive power of guns4 ,oscillating ,cylinder ,locomotive4 #b figures4--,shaw's oscillating cylinder locomotive4 ,gas ,motors and ,producers4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,,siemens--#b figures4 ,the ,bazin ,system of ,dredging4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,langley4--#c figures4 ,,ii4 ,,chemistry4--,on the ,mydriatic ,alkaloids4 ,by ,,albert ,,ladenberg4 --,i4 ,atropine4--,,ii4 ,the ,atropine of ,datura ,stramonium4 --,,iii4 ,hyoscyamine from ,hyoscyamus4 ,detection of ,small ,quantities of ,morphia4 ,by ,a4 ,,jorissen4 ,the ,estimation of ,manganese by ,titration4 ,by ,c4 ,g4 ,,sarnstrom4 ,on the ,estimation and ,separation of ,manganese4 ,by ,,nelson ,h4 ,,darton4 ,delicate ,test for ,oxygen4 ,determination of ,small ,quantities of ,arsenic in ,sulphur4 ,by ,h4 ,,schaeppi4 ,,iii4 ,,biology1 ,,etc4--,researches on ,animals ,containing ,chlorophyl4 --,abstract of a long and valuable paper ,on the ,nature and ,functions of the ,yellow ,cells of ,radiolarians and ,coelenterates1 read to the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh4 ,by ,,patrick ,,geddes4 ,the ,hibernation of ,animals1 ,an interesting review of the winter habits of some of our familiar animals1 insects1 etc4 ,,iv4 ,,horticulture1 ,,silk ,,culture1 ,,etc4--,how to ,plant ,trees4 ,by ,n4 ,,robertson4 ,the ,growth of ,palms4 ,the ,future of ,silk ,culture in the ,united ,states4 ,report of ,united ,states ,consul ,peixotto1 of ,lyons4 ,a valuable and encouraging summary of the conditions and prospects of silk culture in the ,united ,states4 ,v4 ,,technology1 ,,etc4--,compressed ,oil ,gas for ,lighting ,cars1 ,steamboats1 and ,buoys4 ,an elaborate description of the apparatus and appliances of the ,pintsch system of illumination4 #ad figures4 ,elevation and plan of works4--,cars4--,locomotive and car lamps4--,buoys4--,regulations1 etc4 ,,vi4 ,,art1 ,,architecture1 ,,etc4--,cast ,iron in ,architecture4 ,,vii4 ,,electricity1 ,,magnetism1 ,,etc4--,on the ,mechanical ,production of ,electric ,currents4 #ab figures4 ,rousse's ,secondary ,battery4 ,,viii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,dangers from ,lightning in ,blasting4 ,the ,tincal ,trade of ,asia4 ,sir ,w4 ,palliser4 ,obituary and summary of his inventions4 ,the ,tides4 ,influence of the tides upon the history of the earth4 ,drilling ,glass4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,machine ,,tools ,,for ,,boiler-,,makers4 ,we give this week an engraving of a radial drilling machine designed especially for the use of boiler-makers1 this machine1 together with the plate bending rolls1 forming portion of a plant constructed for ,messrs4 ,beesley and ,sons1 boiler makers1 of ,barrow-in-,furness4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,boiler ,,plateradial ,,drill4 ,this radial drill1 which is a tool of substantial proportions1 is adapted not only for ordinary drilling work1 but also for turning the ends of boiler shells1 for cutting out of flue holes tube boring1 etc4 ,as will be seen from our engraving1 the pillar which supports the radial arm is mounted on a massive baseplate1 which also carries a circular table #f ft4 in diameter1 this table having a worm-wheel cast on it as shown4 ,this table is driven by a worm gearing into the wheel just mentioned4 ,on this table boiler ends up to #h ft4 in diameter can be turned up1 the turning tool being carried by a slide rest1 which is mounted on the main baseplate1 as shown1 and which is adjustable vertically and radially4 ,for cutting out flue holes a steel boring head is employed1 this head having a round end which fits into the center of the table4 ,when this work is being done the radial arm is brought into the lowest position4 ,flue holes #dj in4 in diameter can thus be cut out4 ,the machine has a #d in4 steel spindle with self-acting variable feed motion through a range of #aj in41 and the radial arm is raised or lowered by power through a range of #b ft4 #h in4 ,when the arm is in its highest position there is room for a piece of work #d ft4 high between the circular table and the lower end of the spindle4 ,the circular table serves as a compound table for ordinary work1 and the machine is altogether a very useful one for boiler-makers4 ,the plate-bending rolls1 which are illustrated on first page1 are #aj ft4 long1 and are made of wrought iron1 the top roll being #ab in4 and the two bottom rolls #aj in4 in diameter4 ,each of the bottom rolls carries at its end a large spur-wheel1 these spur-wheels1 which are on opposite sides of the machine1 each gearing into a pinion on a shaft which runs from end to end below the rolls1 and which is itself geared to the shaft carrying the belt pulleys1 as shown4 ,this is a very simple and direct mode of driving1 and avoids the necessity for small wheels on the rolls4 ,there is no swing frame1 but the top roll is arranged to draw through between the arms of the spur-wheels1 a very substantially framed machine being thus obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,boiler ,,plate ,,bending ,,roller4 ,the chief novelty in the machine is the additional roll provided under the ordinary bottom rolls4 ,this extra roll1 which is used for straightening old plates and for bending small tubes1 pipes1 etc41 is made of steel1 and is #g in4 in diameter by #e ft4 long4 ,it is provided with a swing frame at one end to allow of taking-off pipes when bent1 etc41 and it is altogether a very useful addition4 ,the machine we illustrate weighs #aa tons1 and is all self-contained1 the standards being mounted on a strong bedplate1 which also carries the bearings for the shaft with fast and loose pulleys1 belt gear1 etc4 ,thus no foundation is required4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,modern ,,ordnance4 ,footnote3 ,a paper read ,feb4 #h1 #ahhb1 before the ,society of ,arts1 ,london4 ,by ,,colonel ,,maitland4 ,a great change has lately been taking place throughout ,europe in the matter of armaments4 ,artillery knowledge has been advancing by leaps and bounds2 and all the chief nations are vying with each other in the perfection of their matriel of war4 ,as a readiness to fight is the best insurance for peace1 it behooves us to see from time to time how we stand1 and the present moment is a peculiarly suitable one for taking stock of our powers and capabilities4 ,i propose1 therefore1 to give you1 this evening1 a brief sketch of the principles of manufacture of modern guns1 at home and abroad1 concluding with a few words on their employment and power4 ,the introduction of rifled cannon into practical use1 about twenty years ago1 caused a complete revolution in the art of gun-making4 ,cast iron and bronze were found no longer suitable for the purpose4 ,cast iron was too brittle to sustain the pressure of the powder gas1 when its duration was increased by the use of elongated projectiles2 while the softness of bronze was ill adapted to retain the nicety of form required by accurate rifling4 ,from among a cloud of proposals1 experiments1 and inventions1 two great systems at length disentangled themselves4 ,they were the ,english construction of built-up wrought iron coils1 and the ,prussian construction of solid steel castings4 ,wrought-iron1 as you are all aware1 is nearly pure iron1 containing but a trace of carbon4 ,steel1 as used for guns1 contains from #j4c to #j4e per cent of carbon2 the larger the quantity of carbon1 the harder the steel4 ,since the early days of which ,i am now speaking1 great improvement has taken place in the qualities of both materials1 but more especially in that of steel4 ,still the same general characteristics were to be noted1 and it may be broadly stated1 that ,england chose confessedly the weaker material1 as being more under control1 cheaper1 and safer to intrust with the lives of men2 while ,prussia selected the stronger but less manageable substance1 in the hope of improving its uniformity1 and rendering it thoroughly trustworthy4 ,the difference in strength1 when both are sound1 is great4 ,roughly1 gun steel is about twice as strong as wrought iron4 ,i must now say a few words on the nature of the strains to which a piece of ordnance is subjected when fired4 ,gunpowder is commonly termed an explosive1 but this hardly represents its qualities accurately4 ,with a true explosive1 such as gun-cotton1 nitro glycerine and its compounds1 detonation and conversion of the whole into gas are practically instantaneous1 whatever the size of the mass2 while1 with gunpowder1 only the exterior of the grain or lump burns and gives off gas1 so that the larger the grain the slower the combustion4 ,the products consist of liquids and gases4 ,the gas1 when cooled down to ordinary temperature1 occupies about #bhj times the volume of the powder4 ,at the moment of combustion1 it is enormously expanded by heat1 and its volume is probably somewhat about #f1jjj times that of the powder4 ,i have here a few specimens of the powders used for different sizes of guns1 rising from the fine grain of the mountain gun to the large prisms and cylinders fired in our heavy ordnance4 ,you will readily perceive that1 with the fine-grained powders1 the rapid combustion turned the whole charge into gas before the projectile could move far away from its seat1 setting up a high pressure which acted violently on both gun and shot1 so that a short1 sharp strain1 approximating to a blow1 had to be guarded against4 ,with the large slow-bursting powders now used1 long heavy shells move quietly off under the impulse of a gradual evolution of gas1 the presence of which continues to increase till the projectile has moved a foot or more2 then ensues a contest between the increasing volume of the gas1 tending to raise the pressure1 and the growing space behind the advancing shot1 tending to relieve it4 ,as artillery science progresses1 so does the duration of this contest extend further along the bore of the gun toward the great desideratum1 a low maximum pressure long sustained4 ,when quick burning powder was used for ordnance1 the pressures were short and sharp2 the metal in immediate proximity to the charge was called upon to undergo severe strains1 which had scarcely time to reach the more distant portions of the gun at all2 the exterior was not nearly so much strained as the interior4 ,in order to obviate this defect1 and to bring the exterior of the gun into play1 the system of building up guns of successive tubes was introduced4 ,these tubes were put one over the other in a state of tension produced by shrinkage4 ,this term is applied to the process of expanding a tube by the application of heat1 and in that condition fitting it over a tube larger than the inner diameter of the outer tube when cold4 ,when the outer tube cools it contracts on the inner tube and clutches it fast4 ,the wrought-iron guns of ,england have all been put together in this manner4 ,prussia at first relied on the superior strength of solid castings of steel to withstand the explosive strain1 but at length found the necessity for re-enforcing them with hoops of the same material1 shrunk on the body of the piece4 ,the grand principle of shrinkage enables the gunmaker to bring into play the strength of the exterior of the gun1 even with quick powders1 and to a still greater extent as the duration of the strain increases with the progress of powder manufacture4 ,thus1 taking our largest muzzle-loaders designed a few years ago1 the thin steel lining tube1 which forms an excellent surface1 is compressed considerably by the wrought-iron breech coil holding it1 which1 in its turn1 is compressed by the massive exterior coil4 ,when the gun is fired1 the strain is transmitted at once1 or nearly at once1 to the breech coil1 and thence more slowly to the outer one4 ,now1 as the duration of the pressure increases1 owing to the use of larger charges of slower burning powder1 it is evident that the more complete and effective will be the transmission of the strain to the exterior1 and1 consequently1 the further into the body of the gun1 starting from the bore1 and traveling outward1 does it become advantageous to employ the stronger material4 ,hence1 in ,england1 we had reason to congratulate ourselves on the certainty and cheapness of manufacture of wrought iron coils1 as long as moderate charges of comparatively quick burning powder were employed1 and as long as adherence to a muzzle-loading system permitted the projectiles to move away at an early period of the combustion of the charge4 ,then the pressures1 though sharp1 were of short duration1 and were not thoroughly transmitted through the body of the gun1 so that the solidity1 mass1 and compression of the surrounding coils proved usually sufficient to support the interior lining4 ,now that breech-loading and slow powders have been introduced1 these conditions have been changed4 ,the strains1 though less severe1 and less tending to explosive rupture1 last longer1 and are more fully transmitted through the body of the gun4 ,sheer strength of material now tells more1 and signs have not been wanting that coils of wrought iron afford insufficient support to the lining4 ,it becomes1 therefore1 advantageous to thicken the inner tube1 and to support it with a steel breech piece4 ,carrying this principle further1 we shall be led to substitute the stronger for the weaker metal throughout the piece4 ,this has been done by the ,germans in the first instance1 and recently by the ,french also4 ,it is probable that we shall follow the same course4 ,when ,i say probable1 ,i intentionally guard myself against uttering a prediction4 ,it is never safe to prophesy1 unless you know1 as the ,american humorist puts it4 ,and in this case we do not know1 for a very dangerous rival1 once defeated1 but now full of renewed vigor1 has entered the lists against forged steel as a material for ordnance4 ,this rival's name is wire4 ,tempered steel wires can be made of extraordinary strength4 ,a piece of round section1 only one thirty-fifth of an inch in diameter1 will just sustain a heavy man4 ,if1 now1 a steel tube1 suitable for the lining of a gun1 be prepared by having wire wound round it very tightly1 layer over layer1 it will be compressed as the winding proceeds1 and the tension of the wire will act as shrinkage4 ,you will readily understand that a gun can be thus formed1 having enormous strength to resist bursting4 ,unfortunately1 the wires have no cohesion with one another1 and the great difficulty with construction of this kind is to obtain what gun-makers call end strength4 ,it is of but little use to make your walls strong enough1 if the first round blows the breech out4 ,in the early days of wire this was what happened1 and ,mr4 ,longridge1 who invented the system1 was compelled to abandon it4 ,lately1 methods have been devised in ,france1 by ,m4 ,schultz2 at ,elswick1 by ,sir ,w4,g4 ,armstrong ,co42 and at ,woolwich1 by ourselves1 for getting end strength with wire guns4 ,they are all in the experimental stage2 they may prove successful2 but ,i prefer not to prophesy at present4 ,the diagrams on the wall show the general construction of the modern ,german1 ,french1 and ,english heavy breech-loading guns4 ,the ,germans have a tube1 a jacket1 and hoops4 ,the ,french1 a thick tube or body1 and hoops4 ,the ,english1 a tube1 a jacket1 and an overcoat1 as it may be called4 ,in each system of construction1 the whole of the wall of the gun comes into play to resist the transverse bursting strain of the charge4 ,the longitudinal or end strength varies3 thus1 in the ,german guns1 the tube and hoops do nothing--the jacket is considered sufficient4 ,the ,french construction relies entirely on the thick body1 while the ,english method aims at utilizing the whole section of the gun1 both ways4 ,of course1 if the others are strong enough1 there is no particular advantage in this2 and it is by no means improbable that eventually we shall find it cheaper1 and equally good1 to substitute hoops for the overcoat4 ,i fear ,i have detained you a long time over construction1 but it is both instructive and interesting to note that certain well defined points of contact now exist between all the great systems4 ,thus1 a surface of steel inside the bore is common to all1 and the general use of steel is spreading fast4 ,shrinkage1 again1 is now everywhere employed1 and such differences as still exist are matters rather of detail than of principle1 as far as systems of construction are concerned4 ,we now come to a part of the question which has long been hotly debated in this country1 and about which an immense quantity of matter has been both spoken and written on opposite sides--,i mean muzzle loading and breech-loading4 ,the controversy has been a remarkable one1 and1 perhaps1 the most remarkable part of it has been the circumstance that while there is now little doubt that the advocates of breech-loading were on the right side1 their reasons were for the most part fallacious4 ,thus1 they commonly stated that a gun loaded at the breech could be more rapidly fired than one loaded at the muzzle4 ,now1 this was certainly not the case1 at any rate1 with the comparatively short guns which were made on both systems a few years ago4 ,the public were acquainted with breech-loaders only in the form of sporting guns and rifles1 and argued from them4 ,the muzzle-loading thirty eight ton guns were fired in a casemate at ,shoeburyness repeatedly in less than twenty minutes for ten rounds1 with careful aiming4 ,no breech-loader of corresponding size has1 ,i think1 ever beaten that rate4 ,with field-guns in the open1 the ,no4 #a of the detachment can aim his muzzle loader while it is being loaded1 while he must wait to do so till loading at the breech is completed4 ,again1 it was freely stated that1 with breech-loaders greater protection was afforded to the gunners than with the muzzle-loaders4 ,this entirely depends on how the guns are mounted4 ,if in siege works or en barbette1 it is much easier to load a muzzle loader under cover than a breech-loader4 ,but ,i need not traverse the old ground all over again4 ,it is sufficient for me to say here1 that the real cause which has rendered breech-loading an absolute necessity is the improvement which has been made in the powder4 ,you witnessed a few minutes ago the change which took place in the action of fired gunpowder when the grains were enlarged4 ,you will readily understand that nearly the whole of a quick burning charge was converted into gas before the shot had time to start2 suppose for the moment that the combustion was really instantaneous4 ,then we have a bore1 say sixteen diameters long1 with the cartridge occupying a length of1 say1 two diameters4 ,the pressure of the gas causes the shot to move4 ,the greater the pressure1 the greater the impulse given4 ,as the shot advances1 the pressure lessens2 and it lessens in proportion to the distance the shot proceeds4 ,thus1 when the shot has proceeded a distance equal to the length of the cartridge1 the space occupied by the gas is doubled1 and its original pressure is halved4 ,as the shot travels another cartridge length1 the space occupied by the gas is trebled1 and its pressure will be but one-third of the original amount4 ,when the shot arrives at the muzzle--that is1 at eight times the length of the cartridge from the breech--the pressure will be but one ninth of that originally set up4 ,remember1 this is on the supposition that the powder has been entirely converted into gas before the shot begins to move4 ,now1 suppose the powder to be of a slow-burning kind1 and assume that only one-third of it has been converted into gas before the shot starts1 then the remaining two-thirds will be giving off additional gas as the shot travels through the bore4 ,instead1 therefore1 of the pressure falling rapidly1 as the shot approaches the muzzle1 the increasing quantity of gas tends to make up for the increasing space holding it4 ,you will at once perceive that the slower the combustion of the powder the less difference there will be in the pressure exerted by the gas at the breech and at the muzzle1 and the greater will be the advantage1 in point of velocity1 of lengthening the bore1 and so keeping the shot under the influence of the pressure4 ,hence1 all recent improvement has tended toward larger charges of slower burning powder1 and increased length of bore4 ,and it is evident that the longer the bore of the gun1 the greater is the convenience of putting the charge in behind1 instead of having to ram it home from the front4 ,i may here remark1 that the increased length of gun necessary to produce the best effect is causing even those who have possessed breech-loaders for many years to rearm1 just as completely as we are now beginning to do4 ,all the old short breech loading guns are becoming obsolete4 ,another great advantage of breech-loading is the facility afforded for enlarging the powder chamber of the gun1 so that a comparatively short1 thick cartridge may be ,i employed1 without any definite restriction due to the size of the bore4 ,there is yet one more point in which breech-loading has recently been found1 in the ,royal ,gun ,factory1 to possess a great advantage over muzzle-loading as regards ballistic effect4 ,with a shot loaded from the front1 it is clear that it must be smaller all over than the bore1 or it would not pass down to its seat4 ,a shot thrust in from behind1 on the contrary1 may be furnished with a band or sheath of comparatively soft metal larger than the bore2 the gas then acting on the base of the projectile1 forces the band through the grooves1 sealing the escape1 entering the projectile1 and1 to a great extent1 mitigating the erosion of surface4 ,this is1 of course1 universally known4 ,it is also pretty generally known among artillerists that the effect of the resistance offered by the band or sheathing on the powder is to cause more complete combustion of the charge before the shot moves1 and therefore to raise the velocity and the pressure4 ,but ,i believe it escaped notice1 till observed in ,may1 #ahhj1 in the ,royal ,gun ,factory1 that this circumstance affords a most steady and convenient mode of regulating the consumption of the charge1 so as to obtain the best results with the powder employed4 ,supposing the projectile to start1 as in a muzzle loader1 without offering any resistance beyond that due to inertia1 it is necessary to employ a powder which shall burn quickly enough to give off most of its gas before the shot has proceeded far down the bore2 otherwise the velocity at the muzzle will be low4 ,to control this comparatively quick burning powder1 a large air space is given to the cartridge1 which1 therefore1 is placed in a chamber considerably too big for it4 ,supposing1 on the other hand1 the projectile to be furnished with a stout band1 giving a high resistance to initial motion1 a much slower powder can be used1 since the combustion proceeds as if in a closed vessel1 until sufficient pressure is developed to overcome the resistance of the band4 ,this enables us to put a larger quantity of slower burning powder into the chamber1 and in fact to use1 instead of a space filled with air1 a space filled with powder giving off gas1 which comes into play as the projectile travels down the bore4 ,thus1 while not exceeding the intended pressure at the breech1 the pressure toward the muzzle is kept up1 and the velocity very materially increased4 ,following this principle to this conclusion1 it will be found that the perfect charge for a gun will be one which exactly fills the chamber1 and which is composed of a powder rather too slow to give the pressure for which the gun is designed1 supposing the shot to move off freely4 ,the powder should be so much too slow as to require for its full development the holding power of a band which is just strong enough to give rotation to the shot4 ,having settled that the gun of the future is to be a breech-loader1 we have next to consider what system of closing the breech is to be adopted4 ,the ,german guns are provided with a round backed wedge1 which is pushed in from the side of the breech1 and forced firmly home by a screw provided with handles2 the face of the wedge is fitted with an easily removable flat plate1 which abuts against a ,broad well ring1 let into a recess in the end of the bore4 ,on firing1 the gas presses the ring firmly against the flat plate1 and renders escape impossible as long as the surfaces remain uninjured4 ,when they become worn1 the ring and plate can be exchanged in a few minutes4 ,mr4 ,vavasseur1 of ,southwark1 constructs his guns on a very similar plan4 ,in the ,french guns1 and our modern ones1 the bore is continued to the rear extremity of the piece1 the breech end forming an intermittent screw1 that is1 a screw having the threads intermittently left and slotted away4 ,the breech block has a similarly cut screw on it1 so that when the slots in the block correspond with the untouched threads in the gun1 the block can be pushed straight in1 and the threads made to engage by part of a revolution4 ,in the ,french ,marine the escape of gas is stopped very much as in ,krupp's system2 a ,broadwell ring is let into a recess in the end of the bore1 and a plate on the face of the breech-block abuts against it4 ,in the ,french land service the escape is sealed in quite a different manner4 ,a stalk passes through the breech-block1 its foot being secured on the exterior4 ,the stalk has a mushroom-shaped head projecting into the bore4 ,round the neck of the stalk1 just under the mushroom1 is a collar of asbestos1 secured in a canvas cover2 when the gun is fired1 the gas presses the mushroom against the asbestos collar1 and squeezes it against the walls of the bore4 ,it is found that this cuts off all escape4 ,we are at present using the ,elswick method1 which consists of a flat-backed cup1 abutting against the slightly rounded face of the breech plug4 ,the lips of the cup rest against a copper ring let in the walls of the bore4 ,on firing1 the gas presses back the cup against the rounded end of the breech-block1 and thus forces the lips hard against the copper ring4 ,it is difficult to compare the excellence of these various systems1 so much depends on the care of the gunners1 and the nicety of manufacture4 ,the ,german and ,french marine methods permit the parts to be quickly exchanged when worn1 but it is necessary to cut deeply into the walls of the gun1 and to make the wedge1 or breech-screw1 considerably larger than the opening into the chamber4 ,the ,elswick plan is decidedly better in this last respect1 but it requires several hours to extract and renew the copper ring where worn4 ,the ,french land service 7,de ,bange7 arrangement requires no cutting into the gun1 and no enlargement of the breech screw beyond the size of the chamber1 while it is renewable in a few minutes1 merely requiring a fresh asbestos pad when worn4 ,as regards durability1 there is probably no great difference4 ,i have been informed that with a light gun as many as #c1jjj rounds have been fired with one asbestos pad4 ,but usually it may be considered that a renewal will be required of the wearing surfaces of any breech-loader after a number of rounds1 varying from six or seven hundred1 with a field gun1 to a hundred or a hundred and fifty with a very heavy gun4 ,full information is wanting on this point4 ,having now decided on the material of which the gun is to be composed1 and the manner in which it is to be constructed1 and having1 moreover1 settled the knotty point of how it is to be loaded1 we come to the general principles on which a gun is designed4 ,it must not be overlooked that a gun is a machine which has to perform a certain quantity of work of a certain definite kind1 and1 like all other machines1 must be formed specially for its purpose4 ,the motive power is gunpowder1 and the article to be produced is perhaps a hole in an armor-plate1 perhaps a breach in a concealed escarp1 or perhaps destructive effect on troops4 ,these articles are quite distinct1 and though all guns are capable of producing them all to some extent1 no gun is capable of producing more than one in the highest state of excellence4 ,thus1 for armor piercing1 a long pointed bolt1 nearly solid1 is required4 ,it must strike with great velocity1 and must therefore be propelled by a very large charge of powder4 ,hence an armor-piercing gun should have a large chamber and a comparatively small bore of great length4 ,for breaching fortifications1 on the other hand1 curved fire is necessary2 the escarps of modern fortresses are usually covered from view by screens of earth or masonry in front1 so that the projectiles must pass over the crest of the screen1 and drop sufficiently to strike the wall about half-way down1 that is to say1 at an angle of #ae to #bj4 ,to destroy the wall1 shell containing large bursting charges of powder are found to be particularly well adapted4 ,now it is clear that1 for a shell to drop at an angle of #ae or #bj at the end of a moderate range1 the velocity at starting must be low4 ,hence1 for pieces intended for breaching no enlarged powder chamber is wanted2 the effect on the wall is due to the shell1 which must be made of a shape to hold the most powder for a given weight2 and1 therefore1 rather short and thick4 ,this gives us a large bore1 which need not be long1 as little velocity is required4 ,for producing destructive effect among troops1 a third kind of projectile is employed4 ,it is called shrapnel1 and it consists of a thin shell1 holding a little powder and a large quantity of bullets4 ,the powder is ignited by a fuse1 which is set to act during flight1 or on graze1 when the shell is nearing the object4 ,the explosion bursts the shell open1 and liberates the bullets1 which fly forward1 actuated by the velocity of the shell at the moment of bursting4 ,hence1 to render the bullets effective1 a considerable remaining velocity is requisite4 ,the gun must therefore take a large powder charge1 while1 as the shell has to hold as many bullets as possible1 the bore must be large enough to take a short projectile of the given weight4 ,thus1 the proportions of the shrapnel gun will be intermediate between those of the armor-piercing gun and the shell gun4 ,there are certain axioms known from experience1 which should be mentioned here4 ,first1 the length of the powder chamber should not be more than three and a half or four times its diameter1 if it can possibly be avoided1 because1 with longer charges1 the inflamed powder gas is apt to acquire rapid motion1 and to set up violent local pressures4 ,next1 the strength of a heavy gun1 as reckoned on the principle of all the metal being sound and well in bearing1 should not be less than about four times the strain expected4 ,again1 though there are several opinions as to the best weight of shot for armor piercing1 in proportion to diameter1 yet among the most advanced gun-makers1 there is a growing tendency toward increased weight4 ,the value of w_/d1 that is1 the weight in pounds divided by the cube of the diameter in inches1 as this question is termed1 is in the hands of the ,ordnance ,committee1 and it is to be confidently hoped that efforts will shortly be made to arrive at a solution4 ,in the meantime1 from about #j4de to #j4e appears to be a fairly satisfactory value1 and is adopted for the present4 ,lastly1 it may be broadly stated1 that with suitable powders1 a charge of one-third the weight of the shot demands for most profitable use a length of bore equal to about twenty-six calibers2 a charge equal to half the weight of the shot should be accommodated with a bore of about thirty calibers2 while a charge of two-thirds the weight of the shot will be best suited by a bore thirty-five calibers long4 ,of course1 in each case1 greater length of bore will give increased velocity1 but it will be gained at the expense of additional weight1 which can be better utilized elsewhere in the gun4 ,the amount of work performed by gunpowder1 when exploded in a gun1 is a subject which has engaged a vast quantity of attention1 and some highly ingenious methods of calculating it have been put forward4 ,owing1 however1 to the impossibility of ascertaining how fast the combustion of large grains and prisms proceeds1 a very considerable amount of experience is required to enable the gunmaker to apply the necessary corrections to these calculations2 but1 on the whole1 it may be said that1 with a given charge and weight of shot1 the muzzle velocity may now be predicted with some accuracy4 ,you now have the chief data on which the designer bases his proposals1 and lays down the dimensions of the gun to suit such conditions as it may be required to fulfill4 ,in actual practice1 the conditions are almost always complicated1 either by necessities of mounting in particular places1 such as turrets and casemates2 or by the advantages attending the interchangeability of stores1 or other circumstances2 and it requires great watchfulness to keep abreast of the ever-growing improvements of the day4 ,i will now conclude with a few words on the power of heavy guns1 when employed in various ways4 ,the first consideration is accuracy of fire4 ,no matter how deadly the projectile may be1 it is useless if it does but waste itself on air4 ,accuracy is of two kinds--true direction and precision of range4 ,all modern guns are capable of being made to shoot straight2 but their precision of range depends partly on the successful designing of the gun and ammunition1 so as to give uniform velocities1 and partly on the flatness of the trajectory4 ,the greater the velocity1 the lower the trajectory1 and the greater the chance of striking the target4 ,supposing a heavy gun to be mounted as in the fortresses round our coasts1 and aimed with due care1 the distance of the object being approximately known1 we may fairly expect to strike a target of the size of an ordinary door about every other shot1 at a range of a mile and a half4 ,here we have carriages mounted on accurately leveled platforms2 we have men working electric position finders1 and the gunners live on the spot1 and know the look of the sea and land round about4 ,now1 consider the case of guns mounted in ships4 ,you at once perceive the difficulties of the shooter4 ,even supposing the ship to be one of our magnificent ironclads1 solid1 steady1 yielding little to the motion of the water1 yet she is under steam1 the aim of her guns is altered every moment1 some oscillation is unavoidable1 and she can only estimate the range of her adversary4 ,great skill is required1 and not only required1 ,i am glad to say1 but ready to hand1 on the part of the seamen gunners2 and low trajectory guns must be provided to aid their skill4 ,if we go to unarmored ships of great tonnage and speed1 we shall find these difficulties intensified2 and if we pass on to the little gunboats1 advocated in some quarters for attacking ironclads in a swarm1 we shall find that unsteadiness of platform in a sea-way renders them a helpless and harmless mark for the comparatively accurate practice of their solitary but stately foe4 ,the destructive power of guns is little known to the general public1 and many wild statements are sometimes put forward4 ,guns and plates have fought their battle with varying success for many years4 ,one day the plate resists1 another day the gun drives its bolt through4 ,but it is frequently overlooked that the victory of a plate is a complete victory4 ,if the shot does not get through1 it does practically nothing4 ,on the other hand1 the victory of the gun is but a partial triumph2 it is confined to a small arc4 ,i mean that1 when the plate is struck at an angle exceeding #cj or so1 the shot glances harmlessly off2 while1 even when perforation is obtained1 it is at the expense of the more deadly qualities of the projectile1 which must be a nearly solid bolt1 unable to carry in with it heavy bursting charges of powder or destructive masses of balls4 ,about six years ago1 an experiment carried out at ,shoeburyness taught a lesson which seems to be in danger of being forgotten4 ,we hear sometimes that unarmored vessels are a match for ironclads and forts2 and ,i will conclude this paper with a short extract from the official account of the results of firing shrapnel shell at an unprotected ship's side4 ,i shall say nothing of boilers and magazines1 but shall state simply the damage to guns and gunners4 ,a target was built representing the side of a certain class of unarmored ships of war2 behind this target1 as on a deck1 were placed some unserviceable guns1 mounted on old carriages1 and surrounded by wooden dummies1 to represent the men working the guns4 ,the attacking gun was a twelve-ton nine-inch muzzle-loader1 of the old despised type1 and the projectiles were shrapnel shell4 ,the charges were reduced to represent the striking force at a range of #ejj yards4 ,two rounds did the following damage inside1 besides tearing and ripping the ship's side in all directions4 #ast ,gun4--,seven men of detachment killed4 #b;d ,gun4--,carriage destroyed4 ,six men blown to pieces1 all the remainder of the detachment severely hit4 #c;d ,gun4--,no damage to gun or carriage4 ,five men killed1 one blown to bits1 and one wounded in leg4 #dth ,gun4--,gun dismounted4 ,the whole of the gun detachment blown to pieces4 ,that is the amount of destruction achieved in an unarmored ship by two rounds of shrapnel shell4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,oscillating ,,cylinder ,,locomotive4 ,this locomotive is the design of ,mr4 ,henry ,f4 ,shaw1 of ,boston4 ,this engine has oscillating cylinders placed between the driving-wheels4 ,fig4 #b represents a section of one of these cylinders1 from which it will be seen that each has two pistons and piston-rods1 which are connected directly to the crank-pins4 ,his invention is described as follows in his specification3 ,midway between each set of wheels1 e and f1 is located the oscillating steam-cylinder1 g1 having its journals1 g' and g1 supported in the stationary arm1 h1 which is secured in a suitable manner to the frame1 c4 ,to each cylinder1 g1 is secured or cast in one piece therewith a balanced vibratory beam or truss1 i1 as shown4 ,within the cylinder1 g1 are two movable pistons1 k and k'1 ,fig4 #b1 provided with piston-rods1 l and l'1 and cross-heads1 m and m'1 as shown4 n n are slides for the cross-head1 m1 on the insides of one end of the truss or beam1 i1 and n' n'1 are similar slides in the other end of said truss or beam1 for the cross-head1 m'4 ,to the driving-wheel1 e1 is attached a crank-pin1 passing through the cross-head1 m1 and to the driver-wheel1 f1 is attached a similar crank-pin1 ,f1 that passes through the cross-head1 m'4 o is the slide-valve within the steam-chest1 ,g1 which slide-valve is operated forward and back by means of the valve-rod1 o1 the outer end of which is hinged to the upper end of the slotted lever1 o1 ,fig4 #a1 that is hung at o1 on the end of the balanced and vibratory beam of truss1 i1 as shown4 ,on the crank1 ,f1 is secured an eccentric1 that works within the slot of the slotted lever1 o1 during the revolution of the crank1 ,f1 and in this manner imparts the requisite motion to the slide valve1 o1 to admit the steam into the cylinder1 g1 alternately between the pistons1 k and k'1 and at the ends of said cylinder1 g1 so as to alternately force the pistons1 k and k'1 from and toward each other1 and thus1 in combination with the vibratory motion of the truss1 i1 impart a rotary motion to the driving-wheels1 e and f4 ,illustration3 ,,shaws ,,oscillating ,,cylinder ,,locomotive4 ,the steam is admitted to and from the cylinder1 g1 as follows3 ,when the pistons1 k and k'1 are at the outer ends of their stroke the steam enters through the channel1 p1 back of the piston1 k1 and at the same time through the channel1 p'1 back of the piston1 k'1 and thus causes both pistons to move toward each other1 the steam between them being at the same time exhausted through the channels1 q and q'1 the former communicating with the exhaust1 r1 by means of the space1 s1 in the valve1 o1 and the latter communicating with the exhaust1 r'1 through the channel1 s'1 in the said valve1 o4 ,the steam that passes to the back of the piston1 k1 comes direct from the steam-chest1 ,g1 through the open end of the channel1 p1 the valve1 o1 being at this time moved to one side to leave the port1 p1 open4 ,the steam is admitted to the back end of the piston1 k'1 from the steam-chest1 ,g1 through the channel1 s1 in the valve1 o1 and from thence to the channel1 p'4 ,when the pistons1 k and k'1 have reached their inner positions the live steam is admitted through the channels1 q and q'1 direct from the steam-chest1 ,g1 to the former1 and through the recess1 s1 and channel1 s'1 in the valve1 o1 to the latter1 the exhaust steam back of the piston1 ,k1 passing out through the channel1 p1 to the recess1 s1 in the valve1 o1 and thence to the exhaust1 r1 the exhaust steam back of the piston1 k1 passing out through channel1 p'1 and through channel1 s1 in the valve1 o1 and thence to the exhaust1 r'4 ,the valve-rod1 o'1 is to be connected to a link and reversing lever as usual1 such being1 however1 omitted in the drawings4 ,the advantages claimed for it are that it is composed of very few parts1 and it is very powerful on account of its having a separate steam actuating piston for each of its driving-wheels4 ,it has great strength and resistance1 owing to the fact that no pressure is exerted on the journals on which the steam cylinders oscillate1 and all the pressure from the steam pistons is directly transferred to the crank-pins on the driving-wheels4 ,the engine is perfectly balanced in any position during the stroke1 and it may therefore be run at a much higher speed than the common engines now in use4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gas ,,motors ,,and ,,producers4 ,by ,c4,w4 ,,siemens1 ,london4 ,the cylinder of the engine--assuming that it has only a single-acting one1 placed with its axis vertical--consists of two parts2 the upper hot part being lined with plumbago1 fire-clay1 or other refractory material1 and the lower part kept cool by a water casing4 ,the cylinder has a trunk piston working in the lower part1 and on its upper side a shield that almost fills the hot part of the cylinder when the piston is at the extreme of its upstroke4 ,the trunk-rod of the piston passes through a stuffing-box in the cylinder bottom1 and is connected to a crank on the engine-shaft2 and this 7unless multiple cylinders are employed7 carries a heavy fly-wheel4 ,from the lower end of the cylinder there is a passage which1 by means of a rotating or reciprocating slide1 is alternately put in communication with inlets for gas and air 7regulated by suitable cocks or valves7 and with a strong receptacle4 ,as the piston1 makes its upstroke1 air and gas are drawn into the annular space surrounding its trunk1 and the mixed air and gas are compressed by the downstroke of the piston1 and delivered into the receptacle1 in which considerable pressure is maintained4 ,the receptacle is made of cylindrical form1 with a domed cover of thin sheet metal2 so that in case of excessive internal pressure it can operate as a safety-valve to save the body of the receptacle from damage4 ,from the upper end of the cylinder there is a passage that1 by means of a rotating or reciprocating slide1 is alternately put in communication with the receptacle and with a discharge outlet4 ,in this passage are fixed a number of wire gauze screens or pieces of metal with interstices4 ,these constitute a regenerator of heat1 and also prevent a communication of flame from the cylinder to the receptacle4 ,in the upper end of the cylinder or of the piston shield are provided electrodes which give an electric spark1 or a platinum wire which is rendered incandescent by a current from an inductor or other source of electricity to ignite the combustible charge of the cylinder4 ,after the engine has been for some time at work1 the heat at the upper part of the cylinder may suffice for effecting ignition without provision of other means for this purpose4 ,in combining such an engine with means for generating the combustible gas1 a gas producer is employed4 ,in this producer a current of heated air is introduced into the heart of a body of kindled fuel1 and the gases produced--partly by distillation and partly by imperfect combustion of the fuel--are conveyed to the gas inlet of the cylinder or pump of the engine4 ,as the gas in leaving the producer is hot1 it is caused to pass through regenerating apparatus1 to which it delivers a large portion of its heat before it reaches the engine1 and the air which supplies the producer is made to pass through this regenerating apparatus so as to take up the heat abstracted from the gas4 ,in the accompanying engravings1 ,fig4 #a shows a front elevation 7partly in section7 of a pair of engines constructed according to this invention4 ,the lower part1 ,a1 of each cylinder is cooled by water circulating through its casing4 ,the upper part1 ,b1 is lined with refractory material1 such as fire-clay4 ,the trunk piston1 ,c1 is made hollow1 and formed with a shield covered by refractory material to protect the packing of the piston and the surface of the lower part of the cylinder from heat4 ,the pistons of the two cylinders are connected by rods1 ,d1 to opposite cranks on the shaft1 ,e4 ,this shaft1 by means of bevel gear1 ,f1 works a revolving cylindrical valve1 ,g1 situated in a casing between the two cylinders4 ,the lowest part of this casing is supplied with combustible gas and with air1 in proportions capable of being regulated by stopcocks or valves4 ,the highest part of the casing communicates with a discharge-pipe2 and the middle part of it with a reservoir which can be cut off from communication by a stopcock1 so that the charge in the reservoir may be retained when the engine is stopped4 ,the middle space of the hollow valve1 ,g1 communicates1 by a number of holes1 with the middle space of the slide casing4 ,it also1 by means of a port at its lower part1 communicates alternately with the annular spaces of the two cylinders2 this communication in each case being made when the piston is performing the latter part of its downstroke4 ,the interior of the slide also1 by means of a second port at its upper part1 communicates alternately with the tops of the two cylinders2 this communication being in each case made while the piston is performing the first portion of its downstroke4 ,during the upstroke of each piston the slide1 by means of another port1 makes communication alternately to each cylinder from the bottom of the slide casing1 and by means of a fourth port make communication alternately from each cylinder to the top of the slide casing4 ,in the passage connecting the top of the slide casing to each cylinder is placed a regenerator1 consisting of a number of perforated metal plates or sheets of wire gauze4 ,illustration3 ,,siemens' ,,gas ,,producer ,,and ,,gas ,,motor4 ,fig #a4 ,in order that gas of poor quality or gas diluted with a large proportion of air may be utilized1 an igniting arrangement is employed which operates as follows3 ,i is a vessel containing a supply of hydrocarbon oil1 preferably of volatile character4 ,from this vessel pipes lead to two cocks1 one for each cylinder2 these corks being caused to revolve in time with the engine-shaft by a chain1 ,m1 communicating motion from a wheel on the engine shaft to a chain-wheel of equal size on the spindle of the two cocks4 ,the plug of each cock has on its side a small hollow1 which during one part of its revolution presents itself under the oil-pipe1 and receives a charge of oil4 ,during another part of its revolution1 which is timed to correspond with the flow of gaseous mixture to the cylinder1 the hollow of the plug presents itself to the bend of a pipe leading from the top of the cylinder to a port opening into the cylinder below the regenerator1 in which port are situated two wires of platinum4 ,these wires are connected with the brushes of a commutator1 ,k1 on the engine-shaft1 which commutator is in electrical connection with the poles of a battery1 dynamo-electric machine1 or other source of electricity4 ,instead of two wires to produce a spark1 a single wire may be arranged to become incandescent at the proper time for ignition4 ,the operation of the engine is as follows3 ,each piston as it ascends draws into the annular space under it a supply of gas and air in proportion regulated by the cocks or valves1 and as it descends it forces this charge into the interior of the revolving valve and its casing1 and into the reservoir which communicates therewith4 ,when either piston is at the top of its stroke1 the revolving valve admits to the upper part of the cylinder a supply of the gaseous mixture from the reservoir and valve casing1 and this passes through the generator4 ,at the same time a portion of the charge passes by the pipe1 and becomes enriched by admixture of the hydrocarbon oil delivered to it by the cock4 ,the enriched mixture1 in passing the platinum wires1 which at that time give an electrical spark1 is ignited1 and ignites the charge that is passing through the regenerator into the cylinder4 ,the mixture thus ignited expands1 and acting on the full area of the piston propels it downward1 the under side of the piston being at that time subject to pressure only on its annular area4 ,when the piston has completed its down-stroke the passage is opened to the discharge-pipe1 and the expanded products of combustion then pass from the cylinder through the regenerator1 and are discharged4 ,in their passage they give out to the regenerator a large portion of their heat1 which the charge entering the cylinder for the next stroke receives in passing through the regenerator4 ,illustration3 ,,siemens' ,,gas ,,producer ,,and ,,gas ,,motor4 ,fig #b4 ,fig4 #b is a vertical section of a gas producer and scrubber1 which1 as stated above1 may be employed in combination with engines such as have been described for supplying them with combustible gas4 ,the producer is a vessel lined with refractory material4 ,at the top it has a supply opening covered by a cap1 ,u1 having a flange dipping into a sand joint4 ,at the bottom it has an opening surrounded by inclined bars1 ,v1 which rest upon a water-pipe perforated with small holes1 by which water issues to cool the bars and generate vapor4 ,this vapor rises along with a limited supply of air through the incandescent fuel above1 and combustible gas is produced1 which collects in the annular space1 and is led thence by a pipe to the scrubber4 ,the scrubber is a vessel containing in its lower part water1 ,w1 supplied by a pipe1 and having an overflow4 ,by means of a perforated deflecting plate the gas is caused to bubble through the water1 whereby it is cleansed and cooled1 and it passes by a pipe1 ,x1 to supply the engine4 ,the upper end of the vertical pipe of the scrubber is made open and covered by a cap sealed in water while the producer is at work4 ,in starting the producer this cap is removed and a chimney pipe put in its place1 so as to give a draught for kindling the fuel in the producer4 ,when the fuel is kindled the chimney is removed and the cap substituted1 whereupon the suction of the engine continues the draught as required4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,bazin ,,system ,,of ,,dredging4 ,by ,,mr4 ,a4,a4 ,,langley4 ,this paper1 lately read before the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers1 ,london1 is a description of the construction and working of a dredger on ,m4 ,bazin's system1 as used by the author for the past three years in dredging sand and other material in ,lowestoft ,harbor4 ,the dredger is represented in its general features on next page1 ,fig4 #a4 ,the total length of the hull is #fj ft41 with #bj ft4 beam4 ,in the after part of the hold is placed a horizontal boiler1 ,a1 which supplies steam to a pair of inverted vertical engines1 ,b4 ,these engines drive1 through belts and overhead pulleys1 a centrifugal pump1 ,c1 which discharges into the open trough1 ,h4 ,the suction pipe1 ,d1 of this pump passes through the side of the dredger1 and then forms an elbow bent downward at an angle of #de deg4 ,to this elbow is attached a flexible pipe1 ,e1 #ab in4 in diameter and #be ft4 long1 made of ,india-rubber1 with a coil of iron inside to help it to keep its shape4 ,at the lower end of this pipe is an elbow-shaped copper nozzle which rests on the bottom1 and is fitted with a grating to prevent stones getting into the pump and stopping the work4 ,the flexible tube is supported by chains that pass over the head of a derrick1 ,f1 mounted at the stern of the dredger1 and then round the barrel of a steam winch4 ,by this means the depth of the nozzle is altered1 as required to suit the depth of water4 ,a man stands at the winch1 and lifts or lowers the pipe as is required1 judging by the character of the discharge from the pump4 ,if the liquid discharged is very dark and thick the nozzle is too deep in the sand or gravel2 if of a light color the pipe must be lowered4 ,the best proportion of water to sand is #e to #a4 ,when loose sand is the only material to be dealt with1 it can be easily sucked up1 even if the nozzle is deeply buried2 but at other times stones interfere with the work1 and the man in charge of the flexible tube has to be very careful as to the depth to which the nozzle may be buried in the sand4 ,the pump is shown in ,figs4 #b and #c4 ,the fan is #b ft4 diameter1 and has only two blades1 a larger number being less efficient4 ,the faces of the blades1 where they come in contact with the sand1 are covered with flaps of ,india-rubber4 ,small doors are provided at the side of the pump for cleaning it out1 extracting stones1 etc4 ,the fan makes #cej revolutions per minute1 and at that speed is capable of raising #djj tons of sand1 gravel1 and stones per hour1 but the average in actual work may be taken at #bjj tons per hour4 ,this is with a #aj-;horse power engine1 and working in a depth of water varying from #g ft4 to #be ft4 ,the great advantage of this dredger is its capability of working in disturbed water1 where the frames of a bucket dredger would be injured by the rise and fall of the vessel4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,brazin ,,systemem ,,of ,,dredging4 ,thus at ,lowestoft bucket dredgers are used inside the harbor1 and the ,bazin dredger at the entrance1 where there are sand and gravel1 and where the water is more disturbed4 ,the dredger does not succeed very well in soft silt1 because1 owing to its slow precipitation1 it runs over the sides of the hopper barges without settling4 ,nor does it do for dredging solid clay4 ,it gives1 however1 excellent results with sand and gravel1 and for this work is much superior to the bucket dredger4 ,the experience in working was then described1 showing that a great many very discouraging failures preceded successful working1 about a year being expended in getting good results4 ,,cost ,,of ,,working4 ,the vessel or barge for carrying the machinery and pumps cost #fjj1 and the contract price of the machinery and pumps was #a1bjj4 ,but before the dredger was taken over by the company the alterations before enumerated had cost about #cjj1 bringing the total for barge and dredger up to #b1ajj4 ,in building a second dredger this might of course be greatly reduced4 ,the cost of repairs for one month's working has been only #e4 ,the contractor receives for labor alone #a-a_/h;d4 per ton1 being at the rate of about #a;d4 for the dredging and #c_/h;d4 for taking to sea--a lead of two miles--all materials being supplied to him4 ,the consumption of coal is at the rate of about #a ton for #a1jjj tons of sand dredged4 ,at ,lowestoft ,harbor the total amount of dredging has been about #bjj1jjj tons yearly1 but this is now much reduced in consequence of the pier extension recently constructed by the author1 which now prevents the sand and shingle from the sea blocking the mouth of the harbor4 ,the total cost of working has been #b4egb;d4 per ton4 which with #aj per cent interest on capital1 #j4bdj;d41 makes the total cost per ton #b4hab;d4 ,the repairs to steam tug1 hopper1 barges1 and dredger have averaged about #b;d4 per ton4 ,before the discussion on the paper commenced1 ,mr4 ,langley remarked that attempts had been made to connect the engine direct to the pump of a ,bazin dredger1 but this arrangement failed1 and the belt acted as a safety arrangement and prevented breakage by slipping when the pump was choked in any way4 ,a new lock was constructed near ,lowestoft a short time ago1 and the dredger pump was used to empty it2 when half empty the men placed a net in front of the delivery pipe and caught a cartload of fish1 many of which where uninjured4 ,in the discussion ,mr4 ,wallick1 who had superintended the use of the dredger at ,lowenstoft1 gave some of his experience there1 and repeated the information and opinions given by ,mr4 ,langley in the paper4 ,mr4 ,ball1 ,london agent for ,m4 ,bazin1 said that as devised by ,m4 ,bazin the pump was placed below water level1 so that the head of water outside should be utilized2 but he--,mr4 ,ball--now placed the pump considerably above water level1 as no specially formed craft was thus necessary4 ,he also described some of the steps by which he had arrived at the present arrangements of the whole plant1 and gave some particulars of its working4 ,mr4 ,crampton asked some questions1 in reply to which ,mr4 ,ball said the longest distance they had carried the material was #a1bjj yards in two relays--namely1 a second pump on a floating barge with special engine4 ,the distance to which they could carry the material depended upon its character4 ,fine sand would travel well2 mud would not1 bowlders would not1 though gravel would4 ,to give the water a rotary motion he had inserted a helical piece of angle iron1 and so prevented deposition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,danger ,,from ,,lightning ,,in ,,blasting4 ,although the accident in the tunnel in process of construction at ,union ,hill by the ,new ,york1 ,ontario1 and ,western ,railroad ,company1 which took place on ,tuesday afternoon1 was happily attended with no loss of life or serious injuries to the men employed in the shaft1 it reads a new lesson as to the firing of charges of powder by electricity1 and one that should be carefully noted by railway and civil engineers1 and even by the torpedo service of the ,united ,states4 ,the exact cause of the explosion has scarcely been fully and accurately set forth by the various reports of the affair4 ,it appears that the wires usually employed lo supply the electric lamps in the excavation were used for the purpose of firing the charges1 being disconnected from the electric light system for the moment and connected with the explosives4 ,as a rule1 six charges were fired together1 those of the afternoon relay of men being exploded at very regular hours--the last usually at #e3de ,p4,m4 ,there were only sixteen men in the shaft1 and the work of connecting the wires had commenced1 when the flash of lightning that occurred at #e3db ,p4,m41 suddenly charged the conductors and produced the explosion4 ,there were two flashes of lightning between the hours of #e and #f o'clock ,tuesday afternoon1 the first taking place at #e3bc1 and the second nineteen minutes later4 ,the former1 according to testimony elicited by our reporter1 simply caused a slight perturbation of the lights in the tunnel1 but did not extinguish them4 ,five minutes later the work of disconnection and reconnection began1 but only two of the six charges were ready for the pressure of the button when the last flash interrupted the proceedings4 ,the fact that the time of the explosion corresponded to the second with that of the aerial electrical discharge furnishes indubitable evidence that the accident was not caused by any carelessness on the part the electrician in charge1 and exonerates all parties from blame4 ,at the same time it should be remembered by engineers in of such work that atmospheric electricity cannot be altogether disregarded in such cases1 and that as a source of accident it may at any time prove dangerous4 ,the concurrence of circumstances on ,tuesday was particularly fortunate4 ,in the first instance only two of the six charges had been connected with the firing battery1 and in the second the rock in which the charges were inserted was so peculiarly soft and porous as to deaden the force of the eight pounds of giant powder thus prematurely set off4 ,had the cartridges been set in the harder and more solid rock of the east heading1 instead of the west1 and the explosion taken place there1 probably not a man in the shaft would have escaped destruction4 ,the lesson to engineers is one of no less importance than if the whole number of men had been killed1 and should lead to the exercise of great care and precaution at times when the air is charged with electrical energy4--,new ,york ,times4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cast ,,iron ,,in ,,architecture4 ,whatever may be the misgivings entertained by many engineers respecting the future use of cast iron for structures of certain kinds1 it is clear that for architectural purposes this material is likely to be employed to an extent hardly contemplated by many who have looked upon it with disfavor4 ,at the present moment many buildings may be seen in ,london1 in which cast iron has been introduced instead of stone for architectural features1 and the substitution of cast iron for faades in many warehouses and commercial buildings seems to show that1 notwithstanding the prejudices of the ,english architect against the importation of the iron architecture of our transatlantic brethren1 there is a prospect of its being largely employed for frontages in which ample lighting and strength are needed4 ,the extensive window space necessary in narrow city thoroughfares1 and the difficulty of employing brick in large masses1 such as pilasters and lintels1 have chiefly led to the adoption of material having less of the uncertain durability and strength of either stone or terra-cotta in its favor4 ,architects would gladly resort to the last-named material if it could be procured in sufficient size and mass without the difficulties attendant upon shrinkage in the burning1 and the winding and unevenness of the lines thereby caused4 ,they have also an even more tractable material in concrete ready to their hand1 if they would seriously bring themselves to the task of stamping an expressive art upon it1 instead of going on designing concrete houses as if they were stone ones4 ,cast iron has the advantage of being a tried material2 it is well adapted for structures not liable to sudden weights or to vibration1 and so it has come to be used for features of an architectural kind1 by a sort of tacit acknowledgment in its favor4 ,those who are desirous of seeing examples of its employment in fronts of warehouses will find instances in ,queen ,victoria ,street1 ,southwark ,street1 and ,bridge ,road1 and ,theobalds ,road1 where the whole or portions of fronts have been constructed of cast iron4 ,at some corner premises in ,southwark1 the piers as well as the windows are formed of cast iron1 the former being made to assume the appearance of projecting pilasters4 ,there is nothing to which the most captious critic could object in the treatment adopted here2 the pilasters and other features have plain moulded members1 and there is no principle of design in cast work which has been violated--the only question being the purely aesthetic one--is it justifiable to copy features in cast iron which have generally been constructed in stone or marble8 ,the answer is obvious3 ,certainly not1 when those features suggest the mass and proportions or treatment proper only for stone or marble2 but when they do not so represent the material1 it is quite optional for the architect to build up his front with castings1 if by so doing he can obtain greater rigidity of bearing1 strength1 and durability4 ,he ought1 of course1 to vary the proportions of his pilasters and horizontal lintels1 and make them more in accord with the material4 ,it is the wholesale reproduction of the more costly and ornamental features1 such as we see in many buildings of ,new ,york and ,philadelphia1 where whole fronts are manufactured of cast iron and sheet-metal1 which has shocked the minds of architects of culture and sensitive feeling4 ,such imitations and cheap displays outrage the artist by the attempt to produce in cast or rolled metal what properly belongs to a stone front4 ,bearing this distinction in mind1 we are not presuming too much to assert that architects have in cast iron1 when properly employed under certain restrictions1 a material which might be turned to account in narrow fronts where the use of brick or stone piers would encroach too much upon the space for light4 ,for warehouse fronts1 we have evidence for thinking that the employment of iron might be attended with advantage1 especially in combination with brickwork for the main vertical piers4 ,plain classic mouldings1 capitals and bases of the ,doric or ,tuscan order1 are well suited for cast-iron supports to lintels or girders4 ,in one attempt to make use of the structural features of the latter1 the fronts of the girders between the piers are divided into panels1 the flanges and stiffening pieces to the webs forming an effective framework for cast or applied ornament to be introduced4 ,the iron framework thus constructed lends itself to the minor divisions of the window openings1 which can be of wood4 ,in the new ,leaden ,hall and ,metropolitan ,fruit and ,vegetable ,markets1 cast-iron fronts have been largely employed1 consisting of stanchions cast in the form of pilasters1 with horizontal connections and other architectural members4 ,regarding the more constructive aspects of cast iron1 the employment of it in fronts having numerous points of support and small bearings is clearly within the capabilities of the material4 ,so long as it is used in positions in which its resistance to compression is the chief office it has to fulfill1 cast iron is in its right place4 ,in the fronts of buildings1 therefore1 where it is made to carry the floors and rolled joists1 and the lintels of openings1 either as piers1 pilasters1 or simply as mullions of windows1 it is strictly within its legitimate functions4 ,so with regard to lintels and heads of openings where short spans exist1 cast iron is free from the objection that can be urged against it for long girders4 ,in fact1 no position is better fitted for a brittle1 granular material than that of a vertical framework to receive windows and ornamentation1 and for such purposes cast iron is1 to our minds1 admirably suited4 ,for bridge-building the value of this metal has lately been much disputed1 though we have several notable examples of its use in the earlier days for such structures4 ,in fact1 the use of cast iron for structural purposes is not older than the time of ,smeaton1 who in #agee employed it for mill construction1 and about the same time the great ,coalbrookdale ,viaduct was erected across the ,severn near ,broseley1 which gave an impetus to the use of cast iron for bridge construction4 ,the viaduct had a span of #ajj feet1 and was composed of ribs cast in two pieces2 it was erected from castings designed by ,mr4 ,pritchard1 of ,shrewsbury1 an architect1 and this circumstance is worthy of note as showing that an architect really was the first to employ this material for important structural work1 and that the same profession was the first to reject it upon traditional grounds4 ,it is quite certain1 however1 the bridge-builder lost no time in trying his hand upon so tractable a material2 for not long after ,telford erected a bridge at ,buildwas of even a greater span1 and the famous cast-iron bridge over the river ,wear at ,sunderland was erected from the designs of ,thomas ,paine1 the author of the ,age of ,reason4 ,iron bridges quickly followed upon these early experiments1 for we hear of several being built on the arched system1 and large cotton-mills being erected upon fireproof principles at the commencement of the present century1 the iron girders and columns of one mill being designed by ,boulton and ,watt4 ,a little later1 ,eaton ,hodgkinson proved by experiments the uncertainty of cast iron with regard to tensile strength1 which he showed to be much less than had been stated by ,tredgold4 ,cast iron was afterwards largely adopted by engineers4 ,the experiments of ,hodgkinson supplied a safe foundation of facts to work upon1 and cast iron has ever since retained its hold4 ,thomas ,paine's celebrated bridge at ,sunderland had a span of #bcf feet and a rise of #cd feet1 and was constructed of six ribs1 and is remarkable from the fact that the arched girder principle used in the ,coalbrookdale and ,buildwas bridges was rejected1 that the ribs were composed of segments or voussoirs1 each made up of #abe parts1 thus treating the material in the manner of stone4 ,each voussoir was a cast-iron framed piece two feet long and five feet in depth1 and these were bolted together4 ,the ,southwark bridge over the ,thames1 by ,sir ,john ,rennie1 followed1 in which a similar principle of construction is adopted4 ,there is much to be said in favor of a system which puts each rib under compression in the manner of a stone arch1 and which builds up a rib from a number of small pieces4 ,at least1 it is a system based on the legitimate use of cast iron for constructive purposes4 ,the large segmental castings used in the ,pimlico bridge1 and the new bridge over the ,trent at ,nottingham1 from ,mr4 ,m4 ,o4 ,tarbotton's design1 are excellent examples of the arched girder system4 ,the ,nottingham bridge has each rib made up of three ,i-shaped segments bolted together and united transversely2 the span is #ajj feet in each of the three openings1 and the ribs are three feet deep at the springing1 diminishing about six inches at the crown4 ,we have yet to learn why engineers have abandoned the arched bridge for the wrought iron girder system1 except that the latter is considered more economical1 and better fitted for bearing tensile stress4 ,cast-iron bridges constructed as rigid arches1 subject to compression and composed of small parts1 have all the mechanical advantages of stone without some of its drawbacks1 while artistically they can be made satisfactory erections4--,building ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sir ,w4 ,,palliser4 ,we announce with regret the death of ,major ,sir ,william ,palliser1 which took place suddenly on ,february #d1 #ahhb4 ,sir ,william had been suffering from disease of the heart for a considerable period1 but we believe that no one anticipated that the end was so near4 ,for some twenty years ,sir ,william had devoted himself to the improvement of guns1 projectiles1 and armor4 ,to him is attributed the invention of the chilled-headed projectiles which are known by his name4 ,there seems to be no doubt that chilled projectiles were suggested at ,woolwich ,arsenal1 and even made1 before ,sir ,william took the matter up1 but there is excellent reason to believe that ,sir ,william knew nothing of this1 and that the invention was original with him2 at all events1 he1 aided by the efforts of the foundry and the laboratory at ,woolwich1 brought these projectiles to perfection1 and unless steel-faced armor defeat them they cannot be said to have as yet met their match4 ,a most valuable invention of the deceased officer was the cut-down screw bolt for securing armor plates to ships and ports4 ,it was at one time feared that no fastening could be got for armor plates1 as on the impact of a shot the heads or the nuts always flew off the bolts4 ,the fracture usually took place just at the point where the screw-thread terminated4 ,sir ,william adopted the bold course of actually weakening the bolt in the middle of its length by turning it down1 so that the screw stands raised up instead of being cut into the bolt1 and by this simple device he changed the whole face of affairs1 and the expedient applied in other ways1 such as by drilling holes longitudinally down bolts1 has since been extensively adopted where great immunity from fracture is required4 ,it is1 however1 for the well-known converted gun that ,sir ,william ,palliser's name will be best remembered4 ,when our smooth-bore cast iron guns became obsolete they were converted into the rifled compound guns by a process which led to their being known as ,palliser guns4 ,the plan was to bore out a cast iron gun and then to insert a wrought iron rifled barrel consisting of two tubes of coiled iron one inside the other4 ,by the firing of a proof charge the wrought iron barrel was tightened inside the cast iron casing4 ,by this means we obtained a converted gun at one-third of the cost of a new gun1 and saved #adj on a #fd-pounder and #baj on an #hj-pounder4 ,the process of conversion involved no change in the external shape of the gun1 and it could1 therefore1 be replaced upon the carriage and platform to which it formerly belonged4 ,the converted guns were placed upon wooden frigates and corvettes and upon the land fronts of fortifications1 and were adopted for the defense of harbors4 ,the many services ,sir ,william ,palliser had rendered to the science of artillery secured him the ,companionship of the ,bath in #ahfh1 and knighthood in #ahgc4 ,in #ahgd he received a formal acknowledgment from the ,lords of the ,admiralty of the efficiency of his armor bolts for ironclad ships4 ,his guns have been largely made in ,america and elsewhere abroad2 and in #ahge he received from the ,king of ,italy the ,cross of ,commander of the ,crown of ,italy4 ,the youngest son of ,lieutenant ,colonel ,wray ,palliser--,waterford ,militia--he was born in ,dublin in #ahcj1 and was therefore only fifty-two years of age4 ,he was educated successively at ,rugby1 at ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 and at ,trinity ,hall1 ,cambridge1 and1 finally passing through the ,staff ,college at ,sandhurst1 he entered the ,rifle ,brigade in #ahee1 and was transferred to the ,eighteenth ,hussars in #aheh4 ,he remained in the service to the end of #ahga1 when he retired by the sale of his commission4 ,at the general election of #ahhj1 ,sir ,william ,palliser was returned as a ,conservative at the head of the poll for ,taunton4 ,in the ,house of ,commons ,sir ,william gave his chief attention to the scientific matters on which his authority was so generally recognized4 ,under the many disappointments and unkind cuts1 which fall to the lot of the most successful inventors1 ,sir ,william ,palliser displayed qualities that won hearty admiration4 ,the confidence with which he left his last well-known experiment to be carried out in his own absence almost under the directions of those whose professional opinions were adverse to his own1 may be called chivalrous4 ,his liberality and kindness of ,colonel of the second ,middlesex ,artillery ,volunteers had gained him the affection of the entire corps2 in short1 where it might naturally be expected that he should win respect1 he won the love of those who were thrown with him4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,cedars ,,of ,,lebanon4--,regulations were lately issued by ,rustem ,pasha for the guidance of travelers and others visiting the ,cedars of ,lebanon4 ,these venerable trees have now been fenced in1 but1 with certain restrictions1 they will continue to be accessible to all who wish to inspect them4 ,in future no encampments will be permitted within the enclosure1 except in the part marked out for that purpose by the keeper1 nor may any cooking or camp fires be lighted near the trees4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,mechanical ,,production ,,of ,,electric ,,currents4 ,the object of these articles is to lay down in the simplest and most intelligible way the principles which are concerned in the mechanical production of electric currents4 ,every one knows now that electric lights are produced from powerful currents of electricity generated in a machine containing magnets and coils of wire1 and driven by a steam engine1 or gas engine1 or water-wheel4 ,but of the thousands who have heard that a steam engine can thus provide us with electric currents1 how many are there who comprehend the action of the generator or dynamo-electric machine8 ,how many1 of engineers even1 can explain where the electricity comes from1 or how the mechanical power is converted into electrical energy1 or what the magnetism of the iron magnets has to do with it all8 ,take any one of the dynamo-electric machines of the present date--the ,siemens1 the ,gramme1 the ,brush1 or the ,edison machine--of each of these there exist descriptions excellent in their way1 and sufficient for men already versed in the technicalities of electric science4 ,but to those who have not served an apprenticeship to the technicalities--to all but professed electricians--the action of these machines is almost an unknown mystery4 ,as1 however1 an understanding of the how and the why of the dynamo-electric machine or generator is the very ,a ,b ,c of electrical engineering1 an exposition of the fundamental principles of the mechanical production of electric currents demands an important place in the current science of the day4 ,it will be our endeavor to expound these principles in the plainest terms1 while at the same time sacrificing nothing in point of scientific accuracy or of essential detail4 ,the modern dynamo-electric machine or generator may be regarded as a combination of iron bars and copper wires1 certain parts of the machinery being fixed1 while other parts are driven round by the application of mechanical forces4 ,how the movement of copper wires and iron bars in this peculiar arrangement can generate electric currents is the point which we are proposing to make clear4 ,friction has nothing to do with the matter4 ,the old-fashioned spark-producing electrical machine of our youthful days1 in which a glass cylinder or disk was rotated by a handle while a rubber of silk pressed against it1 has nothing in common with the dynamo-electric generator1 except that in both something turns upon an axis as a grindstone or the barrel of a barrel-organ may do4 ,in the modern dynamo we cannot help having friction at the bearings and contact pieces1 it is true1 but there should be no other friction4 ,the moving coils of wire or armatures should rotate freely without touching the iron pole-pieces of the fixed portion of the machine4 ,in fact friction would be fatal to the action of the dynamo4 ,how then does it act8 ,we will proceed to explain without further delay4 ,there are1 however1 three fundamental principles to be borne in mind if we would follow the explanation clearly from step to step1 and these three principles must be laid down at the very outset4 #a4 ,the first principle is that the existence of the energy of electric currents1 and also the energy of magnetic attractions1 must be sought for not so much in the wire that carries the current1 or in the bar of steel or iron that we call a magnet1 as in the space that surrounds the wire or the bar4 #b4 ,the second fundamental principle is that the electric current is1 in one sense1 quite as much a magnetic fact as an electrical fact2 and that the wire which carries a current through it has magnetic properties 7so long as the current flows7 and can attract bits of iron to itself as a steel magnet does4 #c4 ,the third principle to be borne in mind is that to do work of any kind1 whether mechanical or electrical1 requires the expenditure of energy to a certain amount4 ,the steam engine cannot work without its coal1 nor the laborer without his food2 nor will a flame go on burning without its fuel of some kind or other4 ,neither can an electric current go on flowing1 nor an electric light keep on shedding forth its beams1 without a constant supply of energy from some source or other4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,the last of these three principles1 involving the relation of electric currents to the work they can do and to the energy expended in their production1 will be treated of separately and later4 ,meantime we resume the task of showing how such currents can be produced mechanically1 and how magnetism comes in in the process4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,surrounding every magnet there is a field or region in which the magnetic forces act4 ,any small magnet1 such for example as a compass needle1 when brought into this field of force1 exhibits a tendency to set itself in a certain direction4 ,it turns so as to point with its north pole toward the south pole of the magnet1 and with its south pole toward the north pole of the magnet2 or if it cannot do both these things at once1 it takes up an intermediate position under the joint action of the separate forces and sets in along a certain line4 ,such lines of force run through the magnetic field from one pole of the magnet to the other in curves4 ,if we define a line of force as being the line along which a free north-seeking magnetic pole would be urged1 then these lines will run from the north pole of the magnet round to the south pole1 and pass through the substance of the magnet itself4 ,in ,fig4 #a a rough sketch is given of the lines of magnetic force as they emerge from the poles of a bar magnet in tufts4 ,the arrow heads show the direction in which a free north pole would move4 ,these lines of forces are no fiction of the imagination1 like the lines of latitude and longitude on the globe2 they exist and can be rendered visible by the simplest of expedients4 ,when iron filings are sprinkled upon a card or a sheet of glass below which a magnet is placed1 the filings set themselves--especially if aided by a gentle tap--along the lines of force4 ,fig4 #b is a reproduction from nature of this very experiment1 and surpasses any attempt to draw the lines of force artificially4 ,it is impossible to magnetize a magnet without also in this fashion magnetizing the space surrounding the magnet2 and the space thus filled with the lines of force possesses properties which ordinary unmagnetic space does not possess4 ,these lines give us definite information about the magnetic condition of the space where they are4 ,their direction shows us the direction of the magnetic forces1 and their density shows us the strength of the magnetic forces2 for where the force is strongest there we have the lines of force most numerous and most strongly delineated in the scattered filings4 ,to complete this first consideration of the magnetic field surrounding a magnet1 we will take a look at ,fig4 #c1 which reproduces the lines of filings as they settle in the field of force opposite the end of a bar magnet4 ,the repulsion of the north pole of the magnet upon the north poles of other magnets would be1 of course1 in lines diverging radially from the magnet pole4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c ,we will next consider the space surrounding a wire through which a current of electricity is flowing4 ,this wire has magnetic properties so long as the current continues1 and will1 like a magnet1 act on a compass needle4 ,but the needle never tries to point toward the wire2 its tendency is always to set itself broadside to the current and at right angles to it4 ,the field of a current flowing up a straight wire is1 in fact1 not unlike the sketch shown in ,fig4 #d1 where instead of tufted groups we have a sort of magnetic whirl to represent the lines of force4 ,the lines of force of the galvanic field are1 indeed1 circles or curves which inclose the conducting wire1 and their number is proportional to the strength of the current4 ,in the figure1 where the current is supposed to be flowing up the wire 7shown by the dark arrows71 the little arrows show the direction in which a free north pole would be urged round the wire2#a a south pole would1 of course1 be urged round the wire in the contrary direction4 ,now1 though when we look at the telegraph wires1 or at any wire carrying a current of electricity1 we cannot see these whirls of magnetic force in the surrounding space1 there is no doubt that they exist there1 and that a great part of the energy spent in starting an electric current is spent in producing these magnetic whirls in the surrounding space4 ,there is1 however1 one way of showing the existence of these lines of force2 similar1 indeed1 to that adopted for showing the lines of force in the field surrounding a magnet4 ,pass the conducting wire up through a hole in a card or a plate of glass1 as shown in ,fig4 #e1 and sprinkle filings over the surface4 ,they will1 when the glass is gently tapped1 arrange themselves in concentric circles1 the smallest and innermost being the best defined because the magnetic force is strongest there4 ,fig #f is an actual reproduction of the circular lines produced in this fashion by iron filings in the field of force surrounding an electric current4 ,footnote #a3 ,it will not be out of place here to recall ,ampere's ingenious rule for remembering the direction in which a current urges the pole of a magnetic needle4 ,suppose a man swimming in the wire with the current1 and that he turns so as to face the needle1 then the north pole of the needle will be deflected toward his left hand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d ,this experimental evidence must suffice to establish two of the three fundamental points stated at the outset1 for they prove conclusively that the electric current may be treated as a magnetic phenomenon1 and that both in the case of the pole of a magnet1 and in that of the wire which carries a current1 a portion1 at any rate1 of the energy of the magnetic forces exists outside the magnet or the current1 and must be sought in the surrounding space4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f ,having grasped these two points1 the next step in our argument is to establish the relation between the current and the magnet1 and to show how one may produce the other4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g ,if we wind a piece of copper wire into a helix or spiral1 as in ,fig4 #g1 and pass a current of electricity through it1 the magnetic whirls in the surrounding space are modified1 and the lines of force are no longer small circles wrapping round the conducting wire4 ,for now the lines of force of adjacent strands of the coil merge into one another1 and run continuously through the helix from one end to the other4 ,compare this figure with ,fig4 #a1 and the similarity in the arrangement of the lines of force is obvious4 ,the front end of the helix acts1 in fact1 like the north pole of a magnet1 and the further end like the south pole4 ,if a small bar of iron be now pushed into the interior of this helix1 the lines of force will run through it and magnetize it1 converting it into an electro-magnet4 ,the magnetic field of such an electro-magnet is shown in ,fig4 #h1 which is reproduced from the actual figure made by iron filings4 ,to magnetize the iron bar of the electro-magnet as strongly as possible the wire should be coiled many times round1 and the current should be as strong as possible4 ,this mode of making an iron rod or bar into a powerful magnet is adopted in every dynamo-electric machine4 ,for1 as will be presently explained1 very powerful magnets are required1 and these magnets are most effectively made by sending the electric currents through spiral coils of wire wound 7as in ,fig4 #h7 round the bars that are to be made into magnets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h ,the reader will at this point probably be ready to jump to the conclusion that magnets and currents are alike surrounded by a sort of magnetic atmosphere1 and such a view may help those to whom the subject is fresh to realize how such actions as we have been describing can be communicated from one magnet to another1 or from a current to a magnet4 ,nevertheless such a conclusion would be both premature and inaccurate4 ,even in the most perfect vacuum these actions still go on1 and the lines of force can still be traced4 ,it is probably more correct to conclude that these magnetic actions are propagated through space not by special magnetic atmospheres1 but by there being movements and pressures and tensions in the ether which is believed to pervade all space as a very thin medium more attenuated than the lightest gas1 and which when subjected to electro-magnetic forces assumes a peculiar state1 and gives rise to the actions which have been detailed in the preceding paragraphs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,the next point to be studied is the magnetic property of a single loop of the wire through which an electric current flows4 ,fig4 #i represents a single voltaic cell containing the usual plates of zinc and copper dipping into acid to generate a current in the old-fashioned way4 ,this current flows from the zinc plate through the liquid to the copper plate1 and from thence it flows round the wire ring or circuit back to the zinc plate4 ,here the lines of magnetic force in the surrounding space are no longer only whirls like those drawn in ,fig4 #d and #f1 for they react on one another and become nearly parallel where they pass through the middle of the ring4 ,the thick arrows show the direction of the electric current1 the fine arrows are the lines of magnetic force1 and show the paths along which a free north pole would be urged4 ,all the front face1 where the arrow-heads are1 will be like the north pole of a magnet4 ,all the other face of the ring will be like the south pole of a magnet4 ,our ring resembles a flat magnet1 one face all north pole the other face all south pole4 ,such a magnet is sometimes called a magnetic shell4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the rule for telling which face of the magnetic shell 7or of the loop circuit7 is north and which south in its magnetic properties is the following3 ,if as you look at the circuit the current is flowing in the same apparent direction as the hands of a clock move1 then the face you are looking at is a south pole4 ,if the current flows the opposite way round to the hands of a clock1 then it is the north pole face that you are looking at4 ,since the circuit through which the current is flowing has these magnetic properties1 it can attract other magnets or repel them according to circumstances4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,if a magnet be placed near the circuit1 so that its north pole1 ,n1 is opposite that side of the circuit which acts as a south pole1 the magnet and the circuit will attract one another4 ,the lines of force that radiate from the end of the magnet1 curve round and coalesce with some of those of the circuit4 ,it was shown by the late ,professor ,clerk-,maxwell1 that every portion of a circuit is acted upon by a force urging it in such a direction as to make it inclose within its embrace the greatest possible number of lines of force4 ,this proposition1 which has been termed ,maxwell's ,rule1 is very important1 because it can be so readily applied to so many cases1 and will enable one so easily to think out the actual reaction in any particular case4 ,the rule is illustrated by the sketch shown in ,fig4 #aj1 where a bar magnet has been placed with its north pole opposite the south face of the circuit of the cell4 ,the lines of force of the magnet are drawn into the ring and coalesce with those due to the current4 ,according to ,faraday's mode of regarding the actions in the magnetic field there is a tendency for the lines of force to shorten themselves4 ,this would occur if either the magnet were pulled into the circuit1 or the circuit were moved up toward the magnet4 ,each attracts the other1 and whichever of them is free to move will move in obedience to the attraction4 ,and the motion will in either case be such as to increase the total number of lines of force that pass through the circuit4 ,lest it should be thought that ,fig4 #aj is fanciful or overdrawn1 we reproduce an actual magnetic field made in the manner described in the preceding article4 ,fig4 #aa is a kind of sectional view of ,fig4 #aj1 the circuit being represented merely by two circular spots or holes above and below the middle line1 the current flowing toward the spectator through the lower spot1 and passing in front of the figure to the upper hole1 where it flows down4 ,into this circuit the pole1 ,n1 is attracted1 the tendency being to draw as many lines of force as possible into the embrace of the circuit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,so far as the reasoning about these mutual actions of magnets and currents is concerned1 it would therefore appear that the lines of force are the really important feature to be understood and studied4 ,all our reasons about the attractions of magnets could be equally well thought out if there were no corporeal magnets there at all1 only collections of lines of force4 ,bars of iron and steel may be regarded as convenient conductors of the lines of force2 and the poles of magnets are simply the places where the lines of force run out of the metal into the air or vice versa4 ,electric currents also may be reasoned about1 and their magnetic actions foretold quite irrespective of the copper wire that acts as a conductor2 for here there are not even any poles2 the lines of force or magnetic whirls are wholly outside the metal4 ,there is an important difference1 however1 to be observed between the case of the lines of force of the current1 and that of the lines of force of the magnet4 ,the lines of force of the magnet are the magnet so far as magnetic forces are concerned2 for a piece of soft iron laid along the lines of force thereby becomes a magnet and remains a magnet as long as the lines of force pass through it4 ,but the lines of force crossing through a circuit are not the same thing as the current of electricity that flows round the circuit4 ,you may take a ,i loop of wire and put the poles of magnets on each side of it so that the lines of force pass through in great numbers from one face to the other1 but if you have them there even for months and years the mere presence of these lines of force will not create an electric current even of the feeblest kind4 ,there must be motion to induce a current of electricity to flow in a wire circuit4 ,faraday's great discovery was1 in fact1 that when the pole of a magnet is moved into1 or moved out of1 a coil of wire1 the motion produces1 while it lasts1 currents of electricity in the coil4 ,such currents are known as induced currents2 and the action is called magneto-electric induction4 ,the momentary current produced by plunging the magnet pole into the wire coil or circuit is found to be in the opposite direction to that in which a current must be sent if it were desired to attract the magnet pole into the coil4 ,if the reader will look back to ,fig4 #aj he will see that a north magnet pole is being attracted in from behind into a circuit round which1 as he views it1 the current flows in an opposite sense to that in which the hands of a clock move round4 ,now1 compare this figure with ,fig4 #ab1 which represents the generation of a momentary induced current by the act of moving the north pole1 ,n1 toward a wire ring1 which is in this case connected with a little detecter galvanometer1 ,g4 ,the momentary current flows round the circuit 7as seen by the spectator from the front7 in the same sense as the movement of the hands of a clock4 ,the induced current which results from the motion is found1 then1 to be in a direction exactly opposed to that of the current that would itself produce the same movement of the magnet pole4 ,if the north pole1 instead of being moved toward or into the circuit1 were moved away from the circuit1 this motion will also induce a transient current to flow round the wire1 but this time the current will be in the same sense as that in ,fig4 #aj1 in the opposite sense to that in ,fig4 #ab4 ,pulling the magnet pole away sets up a current in the reverse direction to that set up by pushing the pole nearer4 ,in both cases the currents only last while the motion lasts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,now in the first article it was pointed out that the lines of force of the magnet indicate not only the direction1 but the strength of the magnetic forces4 ,the stronger the pole of the magnet is1 the greater will be the number of lines of force that radiate from its poles4 ,the strength of the current that flows round a circuit is also proportional to the number of lines of force which are thereby caused to pass 7as in ,fig4 #i7 through the circuit4 ,the stronger the current1 the more numerous the lines of force that thread themselves through the circuit4 ,when a magnet is moved near a circuit near it1 it is found that any alteration in the number of lines of force that cross the circuit is accompanied by the production of a current4 ,referring once more to ,fig4 #aj1 we will call the direction of the current round the circuit in that figure the positive direction2 and to define this direction we may remark that if we were to view the circuit from such a point as to look along the lines of force in their own direction1 the direction of the current round the circuit will appear to be the same as that of the hands of a clock moving round a dial4 ,if the magnet1 ,n ,s1 be now drawn away from the circuit so that fewer of its lines of force passed through the circuit1 experiment shows the result that the current flowing in circuit will be for the moment increased in strength1 the increase in strength being proportional to the rate of decrease in the number of lines of force4 ,so1 on the other hand1 if the magnet were pushed up toward the circuit1 the current in the circuit would be momentarily reduced in strength1 the decrease in strength in the current being proportional to the rate of increase in the number of lines of force4 ,similar considerations apply to the case of the simple circuit and the magnet shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,in this circuit there is no current flowing so long as the magnet is at rest2 but if the magnet be moved up toward the circuit so as to increase the number of lines of force that pass through the circuit1 there will be a momentary inverse current induced in the circuit and it will flow in the negative direction4 ,while if the magnet were moved away the decrease in the number of lines of force would result in a transient direct current1 or one flowing in the positive direction4 ,it would be possible to deduce these results from an abstract consideration of the matter from the point of view of the principle of conservation of energy4 ,but we prefer to reserve this point until a general notion of the action of dynamo-electric machines has been given4 ,the following principles or generalized statements follow as a matter of the very simplest consequence from the foregoing considerations3 7a7 ,to induce a current in a coil of wire by means of a magnet there must be relative motion between coil and magnet4 7b7 ,approach of a magnet to a coil or of a coil to a magnet induces currents in the opposite direction to that induced by recession4 7c7 ,the stronger the magnet the stronger will be the induced currents in the coils4 7d7 ,the more rapid the motion the stronger will be the momentary current induced in the coils 7but the time it lasts will1 of course1 be shorter74 7e7 ,the greater the number of turns in the coil the stronger will be the total current induced in it by the movement of the magnet4 ,these points are of vital importance in the action of dynamo electric generators4 ,it remains1 however1 yet to be shown how these transient and momentary induction currents can be so directed and manipulated as to be made to combine into a steady and continuous supply4 ,to bring a magnet pole up toward a coil of wire is a process which can only last a very limited time2 and its recession from the coil also cannot furnish a continuous current since it is a process of limited duration4 ,in the earliest machines in which the principle of magneto-electric induction was applied1 the currents produced were of this momentary kind1 alternating in direction4 ,coils of wire fixed to a rotating axis were moved past the pole of a magnet4 ,while the coil was approaching the lines of force were increasing1 and a momentary inverse current was set up1 which was immediately succeeded by a momentary direct current as the coil receded from the pole4 ,such machines on a small scale are still to be found in opticians' shops for the purpose of giving people shocks4 ,on a large scale alternate current machines are still employed for certain purposes in electric lighting1 as1 for example1 for use with the ,jablochkoff candle4 ,large alternate-current machines have been devised by ,wilde1 ,gramme1 ,siemens1 ,de ,meritens1 and others4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,unit ,,weight ,,and ,,mode ,,of ,,constitution ,,of ,,compounds4 ,dr4 ,odling delivered a lecture on the above before the ,chemical ,society1 ,london1 ,february #b1 #ahhb4 ,the lecturer said that it had been found useful to occasionally bring forward various points of chemical doctrine1 on which there were differences of opinion1 to be discussed by the society4 ,on this occasion he wished not so much to demonstrate certain conclusions1 or to make a declaration of his opinions1 as to invite discussion and a thoughtful consideration of questions of importance to chemists4 ,originally three questions were proposed3 ,first1 ,is there any satisfactory evidence deducible of the existence of two distinct forms of chemical combination 7atomic and molecular78 ,second1 ,is the determination of the vapor density of a body alone sufficient to determine the weight of the chemical molecule8 ,third1 ,in the case of an element forming two or more distinct series of compounds1 e4g41 ferrous and ferric salts1 is the transition from one series to another necessarily connected with the addition or subtraction of an even number of hydrogenoid atoms8 ,he would1 however1 limit himself to the first of these questions2 at the same time the three questions were so closely associated with one another that in discussing the first it was difficult to know where to begin4 ,the answer to this question 7,is there any satisfactory evidence deducible of the existence of two distinct forms of chemical combination87 depends materially on the view we take of the property called in text-books valency or atomicity2 and before discussing the question it is important to have a clear idea of what these words valency and atomicity really mean4 ,it is necessary1 too1 to start with some propositions which must be taken for granted4 ,these propositions are3 ,first1 that in all chemical changes1 those kinds of matter which we commonly call elementary1 do not suffer decomposition4 ,second1 ,that the atomic weights of the elements as received are correct1 i4e41 that they do really express with great exactitude the relative weights of the atoms of the individual elements4 ,if we accept these two propositions1 it follows that hydrogen can be replaced atom for atom by other elements not only by the hydrogens but by alkali metals1 etc4 ,hydrogen is1 it may here be remarked1 an element of unique character2 not only can it be replaced by the elements of the widely different classes represented by chlorine and sodium1 but it is the terminal of the series of paraffins1 ,cn,h#bn2 ,c#c;,h#f1 ,c#b;,h#d1 ,h#b4 ,the third proposition which must be taken for granted is1 that the groups of elements1 ,c#b;,h#e1 ,,ch#c1 behave as elements1 and that these radicals1 ethyl1 methyl1 etc41 do not suffer decomposition in many chemical reactions4 ,now as to valency or atomicity1 accepting the received atomic weights of the elements1 it is certain that there are at least four distinct types of hydrogen compounds represented by ,cl,h1 ,,oh#b1 ,,nh#c1 ,,ch#d4 ,the recognition of these types1 and their relations to each other as types1 was one of the most important and best assured advances made in theoretical chemistry4 ,when we compare the formula of water with that of hydrochloric acid1 we find that there is twice as much hydrogen combined with one atom of oxygen as there is combined with one atom of chlorine2 and in a great many other instances1 we find that we can replace two atoms of chlorine by one atom of oxygen1 so that we get an idea of the exchangeable value of these elements1 and we say that one atom of oxygen is worth two of chlorine1 or is bivalent2 similarly1 nitrogen is said to be trivalent4 ,the meaning attached to the word valency1 is simply one of interchangeability1 just as we say a penny is worth two halfpennies or four farthings4 ,the question next arises1 is the valency of an element fixed or variable8 ,if the word be defined as above1 it is absolutely certain that the valency varies4 ,thus1 tin may be trivalent1 ,sn,cl#b1 or tetravalent1 ,sn,cl#d4 ,accordingly elements have been classed as monads1 dyads1 triads1 etc4 ,the lecturer objected most strongly to the word atomicity2 he could not conceive of one atom being more atomic than another2 he could understand the atomicity of a molecule or the equivalency of an atom1 but not the atomicity of an atom2 the expression seemed to him complete nonsense4 ,he next considered the possibility of assigning a fixed limit to this valency or adicity of an atom1 and concluded that the adicity was not absolutely fixed1 but was fixed in relation to certain elements1 e4g41 ,c never combines with more than four atoms of ,h2 ,o never more than two atoms of ,h1 etc4 ,the adicity of an element when combined with two or more elements is usually higher than when combined with only one1 e4g41 ,,nh#c1 ,,nh#d;,cl4 ,the term capacity of saturation1 may be used as a synonym for adicity1 if care be taken to distinguish it from other kinds of saturation1 such as an acid with an alkali1 etc4 ,adicity is1 however1 quite distinct from combining force2 the latter is indicated by the amount of heat evolved in the combination4 ,the lecturer then proceeded to criticise a statement commonly found in text books1 that chemical combination suppresses altogether the properties of the combining bodies4 ,the reverse of this statement is probably true4 ,to take the case commonly given of the combination of copper and sulphur when heated2 this is good as far as it goes1 but there are numerous instances1 as ,cl,i1 ,s,se1 etc41 where the original properties and characters of the combining elements do not completely disappear4 ,the real statement is that the original properties of the elements disappear more or less1 and least when the combination is weak and attended with the evolution of a slight amount of heat1 and in every case some properties are left which can be recognized4 ,so with reference to the question of atomic and molecular combination1 as atomic combination does not necessarily produce change1 it does not differ in this respect from what is usually called molecular combination4 ,the lecturer then referred to an important difference in the adicity of chlorine and oxygen4 ,chlorine can combine with methyl or ethyl singly4 ,oxygen can combine with both and hold them together in one molecule4 ,the recognition of this fundamental difference between chlorine and oxygen1 this formation of double oxides as opposed to single chlorides1 marks an epoch in scientific chemistry4 ,the lecturer then considered the subject of chemical formul2 it is the bounden duty of every formula to express clearly the number of atoms of each kind of elementary matter which enters into the constitution of the molecule of the substance4 ,a formula may do much more than this4 ,if we attempt to express too much by a complex formula we may veil the number of atoms contained in it4 ,this difficulty may be avoided by using two formul1 a synoptic formula giving the number of atoms present1 and a complex formula perhaps covering half a page1 giving the constitution of the molecule4 ,but between the purely synoptic formula and the very elaborate formula there are others--contracted formul--which labor under the disadvantage1 as a rule1 of being one-sided1 and so create a false impression as to the nature of the substance4 ,thus1 for instance1 to take the formula of sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,so#d4 ,this suggests that all the oxygen is united to the ,s2 7,,ho7#b,,so#b suggests that two atoms of hydroxyl exist in the molecule2 then1 again1 we might write the formula ,,hso#b,,oh1 or ,h#b,,oso#c4 ,all of these are justifiable1 and each might be useful to explain certain reactions of sulphuric acid1 but to use one only creates a false impression4 ,the only plan is to use them variously and capriciously1 according to the reaction to be explained4 ,again1 ethyl acetate may be written-- ,h#c;,c ,h#b;,c_/ ,o _/ ,,oc ,h#c;,c_/ ,or condensed-- ,h#e;,c#b ,o ,h#c;,c#b,o_/ ,or ,h#e;,c#b,o4,c#b;,h#c,o1 or ,h#e;,c#b4;,c#b;,h#c,o#b4 ,now each of these two latter formul is a partial formula1 each represents a one-sided view2 it is justifiable if you use both1 but unfair if you use only one4 ,we now come to the question as to the existence or non-existence of two distinct classes of compounds1 one in which the atoms are combined directly or indirectly with each other1 and the other in which a group of atoms is combined as an integer with some other group of atoms1 without any atomic connection by so-called molecular combination4 ,these two modes of combination are essentially distinct4 ,the question is not one of degree4 ,are there any facts to support this theory that one set of compounds is formed in one way1 another in a different way8 ,take the case of the sulphates3 ,starting with ,,so#c1 we can replace one atom of ,o by ,,ho#b1 and obtain ,,so#b7;,,ho7#b or ,h#b,,so#d2 replacing a second atom1 we get ,,so7,,ho7#d or ,h#d,,so#e1 glacial sulphuric acid1 a perfectly definite body corresponding to a definite class of sulphates1 e4g41 ,h#b,mg,s,o#e1 ,zn#b,,so#e1 etc4 ,by replacing the third atom of ,o we get ,s7,,ho7#f or ,h#f,,soh#f2 this corresponds to a class of salts1 gypsum1 ,h#d;,ca,s,o#f1 etc4 ,these are admitted without dispute to be atomic compounds4 ,are we to stop here8 ,we may write the above compounds thus3 ,h#b,,so#d1 ,h#b,,so#d;,h#b,o1 ,h#b,,so#db;,h#b,o4 ,if we measure the heat evolved in the formation of the two latter compounds1 it is1 for ,h#b,,so#d;,h#b,o1 #f4bgb2 ,h#b,,so#db;,h#b,o1 #c4jib4 ,but if we now take the compound ,h#b,,so#dc;,h#b,o we have heat evolved #a4gdd2 so we can have ,h#b,,so#dd;,h#b,o1 etc4 ,where are we to draw the line between atomic and molecular combination1 and why8 ,it comes to this3 ,all compounds which you can explain on your views of atomicity are atomic1 and all that you cannot thus explain are molecular4 ,similarly with phosphates1 arsenates1 etc4 ,in all these compounds it is impossible to lay one's finger on any distinction as regards chemical behavior between the compounds called atomic and those usually called molecular4 ,two points remain to be mentioned3 ,the first is the relationship between alteration of adicity and two series 7ous and ic7 of compounds4 ,tin is usually said to be dyad in stannous compounds and a tetrad in stannic compounds1 but in a compound like ,sn,cl#b;,am,cl1 is not tin really a tetrad8 ,cl ,cl ,sn ,cl ,,nh#d and yet it is a stannous compound1 and gives a black precipitate with ,h#b,s2 so that valency does not necessarily go with the series4 ,the second point is that an objection may be urged1 as1 for example1 in ammonium chloride 7the lecturer stated above that here ,n was a pentad1 the addition of the chlorine having caused the ,n to assume the pentadic character71 it may be said1 why should you not suppose that it is the chlorine which has altered its valency1 and that the compound should be written3 ,h ,h ,n ,h--,cl ,h_/ ,there is something to be said for this view1 but on the whole the balance of the evidence is in favor of nitrogen being a pentad4 ,in conclusion the lecturer stated that his principal object was to direct the attention of chemists1 and especially of young chemists1 to the question3 ,is there or is there not any evidence derived from the properties1 the decompositions1 or the relative stabilities of substances to warrant us in believing that two classes of compounds exist3 one class in which there is interatomic connection alone1 and another in which the connection is molecular8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,french ,,toilet ,,articles4 ,mr4 ,martenson1 of ,st4 ,petersburg1 who1 it will be remembered1 was one of the ,russian delegates to the ,international ,pharmaceutical ,congress1 has been analyzing a number of ,french preparations for the toilet1 most of which are familiar to our readers1 at any rate by name and repute4 #a4 ,eau de ,fleurs de ,lys--7,planchon and ,riet1 ,paris47--,an infallible banisher of freckles1 etc41 etc4 ,the bottle contains #ajj grammes of a milky fluid1 made up of #ig per cent4 of water1 #b4e per cent4 of precipitated calomel1 and a small quantity of common salt and corrosive sublimate1 and scented with orange flower water4 #b4 ,eau de ,blanc de ,perles4--,the bottle contains #abj grammes of a weak alkaline solution1 with a thick deposit of #ae per cent4 of carbonate of lead1 and scented with otto of roses and geranium4 #c4 ,nouveau ,blanc de ,perle1 ,extra ,fin4--7,lubin1 ,paris47--,the bottles contains #ce grammes of a liquid consisting of water1 holding in suspension about equal parts of zinc oxide1 magnesic carbonate1 and powdered talc1 perfumed with otto of roses4 #d4 ,lait de ,perles4--,a close imitation of ,no4 #c1 the bottle holding nearly three times the quantity for the same price4 ,the amount of the precipitate in this case is #bj per cent4 #e4 ,lait de ,perles4--7,legrand1 ,paris74--,the bottles contain #fe grammes of a thick white fluid1 the precipitate from which consists of zinc oxide and bismuth oxychloride1 and is scented with rose water4 #f4 ,lait ,antiphlique4--7,cands and ,co41 ,paris47--,each bottle contains #adj grammes of a milky fluid1 smelling strongly of camphor1 and having an acid reaction4 ,it contains alcohol1 camphor1 ammonic chloride1 half per cent4 of corrosive sublimate1 albumen1 and a little free hydrochloric acid4 #g4 ,lait de ,concombres4--,the bottle contains #afj grammes of a very inelegantly made emulsion1 smelling of very common rose-water1 with an unpleasant twang about it1 and giving a strongly alkaline reaction4 ,it consists of soap1 glycerin1 and cotton seed oil1 made into a semi-emulsion4 #h4 ,crme de ,fleurs des ,lys2 ,blanc de ,ville ,onctueux4--,about #cj grammes of a kind of weak ointment contained in a small pomatum pot prettily ornamented4 ,it is simply a salve made of wax oil1 and possibly lard1 mixed with a large proportion of zinc oxide1 and smelling of inferior otto of roses4 #i4 ,pte de ,velonas4-,this paste consists of almond1 and possibly other meal mixed with soap powder1 and has a strong alkaline reaction4 ,it is scented with orris-root4 #aj4 ,rouge ,vgtal4--,the box contains #h grammes of raspberry colored powder1 consisting chiefly of ,china clay and talc1 tinted to the proper depth with extract of cochineal4 #aa4 ,rouge ,extra ,fin ,fonc4--,a small square bottle containing #aa grammes of a deep red solution1 smelling of otto of roses and ammonia4 ,it consists of a solution of carmine in ammonia1 with an addition of a certain amount of alcohol4 #ab4 ,rouge de ,dorin4--,extract des ,fleurs des ,indes4--,a round pot containing a porcelain disk1 covered with about #f grammes of a bright red paste1 which is a mixture of carthamin or safflower with talc4 ,this rouge1 which differs from all the others1 is harmless and effectual1 but must bear a high profit seeing that the ingredients cost only a few half-pence1 while it sells in ,st4 ,petersburg at about #ds4 #i;d4 a pot4 #ac4 ,etui ,mystrieux ou ,boite de ,maintenon4--,a prettily got-up box containing red and white paint1 and two sticks of black and blue cosmetic for the eyebrows and veins1 with camel's hair pencils for applying the latter4 ,sells in ,st4 ,petersburg at #fs4 #d;d4 #ad4 ,philidore4--,remde ,specifique pour oter les ,pellicules de la tte1 etc4--,the bottle contains #ajj grammes of a strong alkaline solution smelling strongly of ammonia1 and containing potash1 ammonia1 alcohol1 glycerin1 and eau de cologne4 #ae4 ,colorigne ,rigaud4--,a blue bottle containing #afj grammes of a clear fluid with a slight black deposit1 consisting of a mixture of equal parts of a #ad per cent4 solution of sodic hyposulphate1 and a #d per cent4 solution of lead acetate4 ,of course the longer this solution is kept the more lead sulphate it deposits4 ,it sells in ,st4 ,petersburg at #hs4 per bottle4 ,it is also stated to be much more powerful if used in conjunction with the ,pommade ,miranda ,rigaud4 ,this beats ,mrs4 ,allen completely out of the field4--,pharmaceutische ,zeitschrift fr ,russland4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,mydriatic ,,alkaloids4 ,by ,,albert ,,ladenburg4 ,we translate the following important article1 says the ,chemists' ,journal1 from the ,moniteur ,scientifique of last month4 ,it may be explained for the sake of our student readers that the word mydriatic is derived from the ,greek mudriasis1 which means paralysis of the pupil4 ,the synthetical researches which ,i have undertaken with a view to explain the constitution of atropine have shown me the necessity of studying the connection of atropine with the other alkaloids1 which have an analogous physiological action4 ,according to the early researches we could not discover any of these relationships which only become evident when we come to study the new discoveries which have been made in connection with the tropines1 to which class belong both duboisine and hyoscyamine1 which1 although differing from atropine1 are equally mydriatic in their action4 ,i4--,,atropine4 ,discovered by ,mein in #ahca in the roots of belladonna4 ,more thoroughly studied some time after by ,geiger and ,hesse1 who confirmed ,mein's results4 ,liebig next published an analysis of the alkaloid1 which was afterward shown to be incorrect4 ,he consequently modified his formula1 and gave the following as the composition of atropine2 ,c#ag;,h#bc,,no#c4 ,liebig's amended analysis was afterward confirmed by ,planta1 who further showed that the alkaloid itself melted at #aid ,f41 and its double gold salt at #bge ,f4 ,it is worthy of remark that the first figure was considered correct until my researches proved the contrary4 ,the physiological action of atropine1 especially in relation to the eye1 has been most carefully studied by several celebrated ophthalmologists1 such as ,graef1 ,donders1 ,bezold1 and ,bloebaum4 ,its chemical properties have also been the object of very extensive researches by ,pfeiffer1 ,kraut1 and ,lassen4 ,pfeiffer first discovered that benzoic acid was one of the products of decomposition of atropine1 and ,kraut split atropine by means of baryta water into atropic acid1 ,c#i;,h#f,o#b1 and tropine1 ,c#h,o#ae,,no4 ,lassen1 who used hydrochloric acid1 discovered the true products of the splitting up of atropine1 viz41 tropic acid1 ,c#i;,h#h,o#c1 and tropine1 ,c#h;,h#ae,n1 and proved at the same time that atropic acid is easily formed by the action of boiling baryta water on tropic acid1 while hydrochloric acid at all temperatures forms isatropic acid1 an isomer of atropic acid4 ,kraut confirmed these results1 and showed that atropic acid as well as cinnamic acid gives benzoic acid by oxidation1 and hydratropic acid 7the isomer of phenylpropionic acid7 by reduction with sodium amalgam4 ,these results are sufficient to show that tropic acid may have one of the following two formulae4 ,i ,,ii ,,ch#b,,oh ,,ch#c _/ _/ ,c#d;,h#e;,,ch or ,c#h;,h#e--;,c--,,oh ,,ooho ,,cooh ,fittig and ,wurster1 who discovered atrolactic acid1 ,c#b;,h#aj,o#c1 an isomer of tropic acid1 gives tropic acid the second formula1 while ,burgheimar and myself have shown that it is the true formula of atrolactic acid4 ,lately we have succeeded in performing the complete synthesis of atropic acid1 and the artificial preparation of atropine has been greatly facilitated since ,i have shown that we can easily reconstruct atropine by starting from its products of decomposition1 tropic acid1 and tropine4 ,before my researches nothing was known of the constitution of tropine4 ,new unpublished researches into this problem have shown that it closely resembles neurine1#a a body which ,i hope will speedily lead us to the complete synthesis of atropine4 ,footnote #a3 ,as we shall probably hear a great deal about this alkaloid1 it may be as well to state that1 although found in the brain and liver1 it may be prepared synthetically by the action of ethylene oxide1 7,,ch#b7b,o1 water1 ,h#b,o1 and trimethyiamine1 ,n7,,ch#c7c4 ,its constitution is that of trimethyl-ethylene-hydrate-ammonic-hydra te1 and has the following constitutional formula3 7,,ch#b7b,,oh ,,ch#c ,n ,,ch#c ,,ch#c ,,oh or in other words1 it is the hydrate of trimethyl-hydrethylene-ammonium4 ,the fusing point of atropine is not #aid ,f41 as stated by ,planta1 but #bcg ,f4 ,crystallized from not too dilute alcohol it forms crystals which are aggregations of prisms4 ,toluene1 alcohol1 and chloroform all dissolve atropine readily4 ,its double gold salt is very characteristic4 ,it is generally precipitated in the form of an oil which solidifies rapidly and may be crystallized from hot water after the addition of a little hydrochloric acid4 ,this clouds in cooling1 and after a certain time it separates in small crystals of indeterminate form which unite in warty concretions4 ,after drying the salt forms a dull powder1 melting between #bge ,f4 and #bhj ,f4 ,it also melts in boiling water1 and its aqueous solution exposed to the light is partially reduced1 #ajj grammes of water acidulated with #aj cubic centimeters of #a4aij solution of hydrochloric acid dissolves #j4acg gramme of the gold salt at #acf ,f4 to #adj ,f4 ,i should fancy that the above particulars are sufficent to completely differentiate atropine from all the other mydriatic alkaloids4 ,,ii4--,,the ,,atropine ,,of ,,datura ,,stramonium4 ,planta has already tried to show that atropine is identical with the daturine obtained by ,geiger and ,hesse1 founding his opinion on facts which we nowadays look upon as doubtful4 ,this identity was generally admitted by all chemists4 ,the pharmacologists1 headed by ,soubeiran1 ,erhardt1 ,schroff1 and ,poehl1 were much more reserved in their judgment4 ,i thought it as well1 therefore1 to recommence the study of daturine1 the more so as ,i had already determined the incorrectness of the long accepted point of fusion of atropine1 and that my researches on hyoscyamine convinced me that this base is an isomer of atropine1 although very analogous to it4 ,i have also shown that ,merck's daturine differs from atropine1 and is merely pure hyoscyamine4 ,a short time afterward there appeared a paper by ,schmidt which again asserted the identity of daturine and atropine4 ,i therefore requested ,mr4 ,merck1 of ,darmstadt1 to send me all the bases which he obtained from datura4 ,this eminent manufacturer was good enough to comply with my request1 and sent me two products1 one of which was marked light daturine1 the other heavy daturine1 the separation of which was effected in the following manner3 ,the solution of crude daturine in concentrated alcohol was mixed with a little hot water2 this treatment caused the deposition of the heavy daturine1 while the light daturine remained in the mother liquor4 ,the heavy daturine1 of which only a small quantity is obtainable1 is far from being a body of definite composition1 that is to say1 it is a mixture of atropine and hyoscyamine4 ,if we convert the base into a double gold salt we obtain by a single crystallization a dull looking salt1 melting at from #bge ,f4 to #bhj ,f41 the appearance of which is very different to that of atropine4 ,i have succeeded in splitting up heavy daturine by two different methods4 ,by recrystallizing the gold salt six times from boiling water1 the salt of hyoscyamine1 which melts at from #caf ,f4 to #cbc ,f41 crystallizes our first1 and by the successive evaporation of the mother liquor at last obtain the pure gold salt of atropine1 which melts at #bge ,f4 to #bhj ,f4 ,if we only want to isolate the atropine1 it is better to crystallize the free base two or three times from alcohol at #ej per cent41 always taking the earliest formed crystals4 ,these facts prove the presence of atropine in datura2 but while ,planta and ,schmidt assert that only this alkaloid is found in the plant1 ,i have proved that the proportion of atropine in it is but small1 while its richness in hyoscyamine is great4 ,i think1 therefore1 that both ,planta and ,schmidt must have worked with a mixture of atropine and hyoscyamine4 ,it is true that ,schmidt had received pure atropine under the name of daturine1 for ,i have proved most conclusively that the so-called daturine supplied by ,trommsdorff1 of ,erfurt1 is pure atropine and nothing else4 ,it has no action whatever on polarized light4 ,,iii4--,,hyoscyamine ,,from ,,hyoscyamus4 ,discovered by ,geiger and ,hesse in #ahcc4 ,it was first obtained in the form of needles1 which were much more soluble than atropine4 ,in the pure state it forms a viscous mass with a repulsive odor4 ,these researches were repeated by ,thibout1 ,kletinski1 ,ludwig1 ,lading1 ,bucheim1 ,wagymar1 and ,renard4 ,hoehn and ,reichardt have recently studied hyoscyamine in a very complete manner4 ,they have obtained the body in the form of warty concretions as soft as wax1 and melting at #aid ,f41 having a formula according to them of ,c#ae;,h#bc,,no#c4 ,they have also studied the splitting up of the alkaloid by means of baryta water1 and have obtained an acid which they have named hyoscinic acid1 and which melts at about #bai ,f41 and a basic body1 hyoscine1 ,c#f;,h#ac,n4 ,they represent the reaction as follows3 ,c#ae;,h#bc,,no#c ,c#i;,h#aj,o#c ,c#f;,h#ac,n4 ,according to this view hyoscyamine ought to be the hyoscinate of hyoscine1 or at any rate an isomer of this body4 ,it is to be remarked that they compare hyoscinic acid not with tropic acid1 of which it possesses the composition1 but with atropic acid1 ,c#i;,h#h,o#b4 ,i have worked with the hyoscyamine of both ,merck and ,trommsdorff1 as well as with a product which ,i obtained from hyoscyamus seeds myself4 ,the best way of purifying the alkaloid is by recrystallizing its gold salt several times1 so as to obtain it in brilliant yellow plates1 melting at #cbj ,f4 ,by passing a stream of hydrosulphuric acid gas through the liquor the gold is precipitated in the form of sulphide4 ,the liquid is filtered and evaporated1 precipitated by an excess of a strong solution of potassium carbonate1 and the alkaloid extracted by chloroform4 ,the solution is dried over carbonate of potassium1 and part of the chloroform is distilled off4 ,by leaving the solution to evaporate spontaneously the alkaloid is obtained in silky crystals4 ,the crystals are then dissolved in alcohol1 which1 on being poured into water1 parts with them in the same form4 ,hyoscyamine crystallizes in the acicular form1 with greater difficulty even than atropine1 it also forms less compact crystals4 ,its fusing point is #adi4f ,f4 ,i have not yet succeeded in crystallizing any of its more simple salts4 ,the double platinum salt melts at #cib ,f41 with decomposition4 ,the double gold salt1 which has been described above1 does not melt in boiling water1 and its aqueous solution is reduced neither by boiling nor by long exposure to light4 ,by leaving the hot saturated solution to cool it does not cloud1 but the double salt separates pretty rapidly in the form of plates4 ,one liter of water containing #aj cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid at #a4ai dissolves #fe centigrammes of the salt at #adf ,f4 ,these characteristics allow us to differentiate atropine and hyoscyamine1 the reactions of which are almost identical1 as will be seen from the following table1 which shows the action of weak solutions of the acids named on the hydrochlorates of the bases3 ,reagents4 ,hyoscyamine4 ,atropine4 ,picric acid4 ,an oil solidifying ,crystalline precipitate4 immediately into tabular crystals4 ,mercuropotassic ,white cheesy ,same4 iodide4 precipitate4 ,iodized potassic ,an immediate ,a brown oil crystallizing iodide4 precipitate of after a time4 periodate4 ,mercuric chloride4 ,same as picric acid4 ,same4 ,tannic acid4 ,slight cloud4 ,cloud hardly visible4 ,platinum chloride4 ,o4 ,o4 7,to be continued47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,detection ,,of ,,small ,,quantities ,,of ,,morphia4 ,by ,a4 ,,jorissen4 ,the solution of morphia1 free from foreign bodies1 is evaporated to dryness1 and the residue is heated on the water bath with a few drops of sulphuric acid4 ,a minute crystal of ferrous sulphate is then added1 bruised with a glass rod1 stirred up in the liquid1 heated for a minute longer1 and poured into a white porcelain capsule1 containing #b to #c c4c4 strong ammonia4 ,the morphia solution sinks to the bottom1 and where the liquids touch there is formed a red color1 passing into violet at the margin1 while the ammoniacal stratum takes a pure blue4 ,the reaction is very distinct to #j4jjjf grm4 ,codeine does not give this reaction4 ,if sulphuric acid at #aij to #bjj is allowed to act upon morphia1 there is ultimately formed an opaque black green mass4 ,if this is poured dropwise into much water1 the mixture turns bluish1 and if it is then shaken up with ether or chloroform1 the form takes a purple and the latter a very permanent blue4 ,codeine gives the same reaction1 but no other of the alkaloids4 ,this reaction can be obtained very distinctly with #j4jjjd grm4 of morphia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,estimation ,,of ,,manganese ,,by ,,titration4 ,footnote3 ,from ,jernkontorets ,annaler1 vol4 xxxvi4--,iron4 ,by ,c4 ,g4 ,,sarnstrom4 ,if we dissolve black oxide of manganese1 permanganate of potash1 or any other compound of manganese of a higher degree of oxidation than the protoxide in hydrochloric acid1 we obtain1 as is well known1 a dark colored solution of perchloride of manganese1 which1 when heated to boiling loses color pretty rapidly1 chlorine being given off1 until finally only protochloride remains4 ,this decomposition also proceeds at the common temperature1 though much more slowly1 and we may therefore say that manganese when dissolved in hydrochloric acid always tends to descend to its lowest1 and1 considered as a base1 strongest degree of oxidation1 which is not raised to a higher degree even by chameleon solution4 ,in slightly acid1 neutral1 or alkaline solutions on the other hand1 protoxide of manganese absorbs oxygen with great avidity and forms with it different compounds1 according to the means of oxidation employed4 ,thus1 for example1 manganese is slowly deposited from an ammoniacal solution1 when it is permitted to take up oxygen from the air1 as hydrated sesquioxide1 and from neutral or alkaline solutions1 as hydrated peroxide on the addition of chlorine1 bromine1 or chameleon solution4 ,for if to an acid solution of protochloride of manganese we add a solution of bicarbonate of soda1 as long as carbonic acid escapes or till the free acid is saturated and the protochloride of manganese converted into carbonate of protoxide of manganese1 which forms with bicarbonate of soda a soluble double salt1 resembling the carbonate of lime and magnesia1 we obtain a solution which is1 indeed1 acid from free carbonic acid1 but has a slight alkaline reaction with litmus paper1 and with the greatest ease deprives chameleon solution of its color1 the permanganic acid being reduced and the protoxide of manganese being oxidized to peroxide1 which is precipitated as hydrate4 ,this reaction proceeds according to the formula1 #c,mn,c,o#c #b,k,mn,o#d ,h#b,o #b,,khco#c #e,mn,o#b ,,co#b and it may be employed for estimating the content of manganese by titration4 ,as follows from the formula two equivalents of permanganate of potash are required for the titration of three equivalents of protoxide of manganese1 which has also been established by direct experiments1 as well as that the escape of carbonic acid indicated by the formula actually takes place4 ,the precipitate of manganese is dissolved either in water to which #j4e per cent4 of hydrochloric acid has been added1 or in boiling nitric acid4 ,when manganese occurs along with iron1 which in general is the case1 we must take care that the iron in the solution is in the state of peroxide1 which is precipitated on the addition of the bicarbonate of soda1 and is allowed to remain as a precipitate1 because it does not affect the titration injuriously4 ,the removal of this precipitate by filtering would be more loss than gain1 partly because there would be a risk of losing manganese in this way1 partly because the precipitate of manganese1 which occurs immediately on the addition of the chameleon solution1 proceeds both more rapidly and with greater completeness in the presence of the iron precipitate than otherwise4 ,this appears to be caused by the iron precipitate as it were inclosing1 and mechanically drawing down the light manganese precipitate1 provided a weak chemical union between the two precipitates does not even take place1 depending on the tendency of peroxide of manganese to behave toward bases1 as1 for instance1 hydrate of lime as an acid4 ,hence it thus follows that it ought to be arranged that a sufficient quantity of iron#a 7at least the same quantity as of manganese7 be present in the liquid at titration1 also that time be given for the precipitate to fall1 so that the color of the solution may be observed between every addition of chameleon solution4 ,footnote #a3 ,for this in case of need a solution of perchloride of iron free of manganese may be employed4 ,when the content of manganese is large1 it is sometimes rather long before the solution is ready for titration4 ,the reason of this appears to be that a part of the manganese is first precipitated as hydrated sesquioxide1 which is afterward oxidized to hydrated peroxide1 for the upper portion of the liquid may sometimes be colored by chameleon1 while the lower portion1 which is in closer contact with the precipitate1 is less colored or absolutely colorless4 ,from this we also see how advisable it is to stir the liquid frequently during titration4 ,toward the close of it1 it is also advantageous1 when the contents of manganese are large1 to warm the solution to about #ej ,c41 because the removal of color is thereby hastened4 ,when the fluid1 which is well stirred after each addition of chameleon1 has obtained from it a perceptible color1 which does not disappear after several stirrings1 the whole of the manganese is precipitated and the color of the solution remains almost unchanged after the lapse of at least twelve hours4 ,when the content of manganese is large the solution may be divided into two equal portions1 one of which is first to be roughly titrated to ascertain its content approximately1 after which the whole is to be mixed together and the titration completed1 which can thus be performed with greater speed and certainty4 ,if too much chameleon has been added1 one may titrate back with an accurately estimated solution of manganese1 which is prepared most easily by evaporating fifteen cubic centimeters chameleon solution down to two or three cubic centimeters1 boiling with two to three cubic centimeters hydrochloric acid so long as the smell of chlorine is observed1 and then diluting the solution to ten cubic centimeters1 when one cubic centimeter of it corresponds to the same measure of chameleon4 ,with respect to the delay which must take place during the titration in order to give the precipitate time to fall1 it is advantageous1 in order to save time1 to work with several samples2 but it is1 in such a case1 desirable to have a separate burette for each sample1 in order to avoid noting every addition of the chameleon solution and afterward adding them up4 ,if burettes are wanting1 and one must be used for several samples1 a ,mohr's burette with glass cock is the most convenient to use4 ,for the titration of iron with chameleon solution1 the latter is commonly used of such a strength that #j4ja gramme of iron corresponds to about one cubic centimeter of chameleon solution1 which is obtained by dissolving #e4ge grammes permanganate of potash in #a1jjj cubic centimeters water4 ,the titration is determined by means of iron1 a salt of iron or oxalic acid4 ,a drop of such a solution1 corresponding to about one-twentieth cubic centimeter1 or #j4jjja gramme ,mn1 is sufficient to give a perceptible reddish color to #bjj cubic centimeters of water4 ,as what takes place in the titration of iron with chameleon is indicated by the following formula1 #aj;,fe,o #b,k,mn,o#d #e;,fe#b,o#c ,k#b,o #b,mn,o#b1 it appears1 on making a comparison with the formula given above1 that ten equivalents of iron correspond to three equivalents of manganese1 and that there is thus required for three equivalents manganese as much chameleon solution as for ten equivalents iron4 ,when we know the titration of the chameleon solution for iron1 that for manganese is obtained by multiplying the former by 7#c x #ee7_/7aj x #ef7 #j4bie4 ,if1 for instance1 one cubic centimeter chameleon solution corresponds to #j4ja gramme iron1 the figure for manganese is #j4ja x #j4bie #j4jjbie gramme per cubic centimeter4 ,we can of course also determine the titration for manganese in a chameleon solution with the greatest certainty by titrating a compound of manganese with an accurately estimated content of it1 for instance1 a spiegeleisen or ferromanganese2 the test is carried out in the following way3 ,the substance1 which is to be examined for manganese1 is dissolved by means of hydrochloric acid4 ,if the manganese1 as in slags1 be combined with silica1 it is frequently necessary first to fuse the specimen with soda4 ,iron ores and refinery cinders may indeed1 if they are reduced to a very fine state of division1 be commonly decomposed by boiling with hydrochloric acid with or without the addition of sulphuric acid1 but the undissolved silica is generally rendered impure by manganese1 which can only be removed by fusion with soda4 ,the dissolving of the fused mass in hydrochloric acid does not need to be carried to dryness for the separation of the soluble silica1 but the boiling1 after the addition of a little nitric acid1 is only kept up until the iron passes into perchloride and the manganese into protochloride4 ,the quantity1 which ought to be taken for the test1 depends on the accuracy with which it is desired to have the manganese estimated4 ,of ferromanganese and other very manganiferous substances1 in which the manganese need not be determined with greater exactness than to #j4a per cent41 only #j4ja gram4 is taken for a test2 but of common pig1 wrought iron1 steel1 iron ore1 slags1 etc41 there is taken #j4e to #a gramme according to the supposed content of manganese and the desired exactness of the estimation4 ,for instance one gramme iron1 which has passed through a metal sieve with holes half a millimeter in diameter1 is placed in a beaker #abe mm4 in height and #fj mm4 in diameter1 and has added to it twenty cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid of #a4ab specific gravity1 which1 with a well-fitting glass cover1 is boiled for half an hour1 in order that the combined carbon may be driven off in the shape of gas4 ,after at least the half of the hydrochloric acid has been boiled away1 there are added at least five cubic centimeters nitric acid of #a4b specific gravity1 partly to bring the iron to peroxide1 partly to destroy the organic matters formed from the carbon1 which might possibly be remaining and might tend to remove the color of the chameleon solution4 ,the boiling is now continued till near dryness1 when five cubic centimeters hydrochloric acid are added1 after which the solution is boiled as long as any reddish-yellow vapors of nitrous acid are observed4 ,when these have disappeared a drop of the liquid taken up on a small glass rod is tested with an newly prepared solution of red prussiate of potash 7#b grammes in #ajj cubic centimeters water71 to ascertain whether there is any protoxide of iron remaining4 ,first1 when no indication of blue or green is visible1 the test shows a pure yellow1 it is certain that there are no reducing substances in the solution4 ,if a trace of protoxide of iron remains in the solution another cubic centimeter of nitric acid ought to be added and the boiling continued so long as any reddish-yellow vapors are visible1 more hydrochloric acid also being added to keep the solution from being dried up4 ,the process is continued in this way until two tests have given no reaction of protoxide of iron1 when the solution is diluted with water2 but no dilution should take place until the oxidation is complete1 because in the course of it the solution ought to be kept as concentrated as possible4 ,silica1 and graphite when it is present1 need not be removed by filtration1 if it is not intended to estimate them1 or there be no fear that the graphite is accompanied by any humous substance1 or that any oily1 viscous compound has been deposited on the sides of the beaker4 ,in the last mentioned case the solution should be transferred into another beaker1 and filtered1 if graphite be present4 ,when the solution is evaporated to dryness1 the remainder has five cubic centimeters hydrochloric acid added to it1 and the liquid is then brought to boiling in order that the perchloride of manganese possibly formed during the evaporation to dryness may be reduced to protochloride1 after which the solution is diluted with water till it measures about #ajj cubic centimeters4 ,to this is now added in small portions and with constant stirring as much of a saturated solution of bicarbonate of soda 7thirteen parts water dissolve one part salt71 that all the iron is precipitated1 after which1 when the escape of carbonic acid has ceased1 the solution is diluted with water till it measures #bjj cubic centimeters and is then ready for titration4 ,a large excess of bicarbonate ought to be avoided1 because in a solution of pure protochloride of manganese it renders the liquid milky and turbid2 the addition of more water1 however1 makes it clear4 ,the solution of bicarbonate must be free from organic substances which may tend to remove the color of the chameleon solution4 ,to ascertain this1 the latter is added to the former drop by drop so long as the color is removed4 ,if it be desired to estimate the silica in the same test1 the iron1 as when it is analyzed for silica1 may be also dissolved in sulphuric acid1 and afterward oxidized with nitric acid1 after which the solution is boiled to near dryness1 so that the organic substances are completely destroyed4 ,in order afterward1 to drive off the nitric acid and get the manganese with certainty reduced to protoxide1 the solution is boiled with a little hydrochloric acid4 ,in this way the solution goes on rapidly and conveniently1 but the titration takes longer time than when the iron is dissolved in hydrochloric acid1 because the iron precipitate is more voluminous1 and1 in consequence1 longer in being deposited4 ,to diminish this inconvenience the solution ought to be made larger4 ,in such a case the rule for dissolving is1 one gramme iron 7more if the content of silica is small7 is dissolved in a mixture of two cubic centimeters sulphuric acid of #a4hc specific gravity and twelve cubic centimeters of water in the way described above1 and boiled until salt of iron begins to be deposited on the bottom of the beaker4 ,five cubic centimeters hydrochloric acid are now added1 and the solution tested with red prussiate of potash for protoxide of iron1 and the boiling continued till near dryness1 when all the nitric acid is commonly driven off4 ,should nitrous acid still show itself1 some more hydrochloric acid is added and the boiling continued4 ,as in dissolving in hydrochloric acid and oxidizing with nitric acid the solution ought to be twice tested for protoxide of iron1 even although at the first test none can be discovered4 ,the silica is taken upon a filter1 dried1 ignited1 and weighed4 ,the filtrate is treated with bicarbonate of soda1 and titrated with chameleon solution in the way described above4 ,if the content of manganese is small 7under #j4e per cent47 it is not necessary to warm the liquid before titration2 but in proportion as the content of manganese is larger there is so much greater reason to hasten the removal of color by warming and constant stirring toward the close of the titration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,estimation ,,and ,,separation ,,of ,,manganese4 ,footnote3 ,read before the ,american ,chemical ,society1 ,dec4 #af1 #ahha ,by ,,nelson ,h4 ,,darton4 ,the element manganese having many peculiarities in its reactions with the other elements1 is now extensively used in the arts1 its combinations entering into and are used in many of the important processes2 it is consequently often brought before the chemist in his analysis1 and has to be determined in most cases with considerable accuracy4 ,many methods have been proposed for this1 all of them of more or less value2 those yielding the best results1 however1 requiring a considerable length of time for their execution1 and involving so large an amount of manipulatory skill as to render them fairly impracticable to a chemist at all pressed for time1 and receiving but a mere trifle for the results4 ,as ,i have had to make numerous estimations of manganese in various compounds1 as a public analyst1 ,i have been induced to investigate the volumetric methods at present in use to find their comparative values1 and if possible to work out a new one1 setting aside one or more of the difficulties met with in the use of the older ones4 ,this paper is a part summary of the results4 ,first1 ,i will detail my process of estimation1 then on the separation4 ,from all compounds of manganese1 excepting those containing cobalt and nickel1 the manganese is precipitated as binoxide2 those containing these two elements are treated with phosphoric acid1 or as noted under ,separation4 ,a4--,the ,estimation4 ,the binoxide of commerce1 as taken from the mine1 is well sampled1 powdered1 and dried at #ajj;,c4 #j4e gramme of this is taken and placed in a #bej c4c4 flask2 in analysis the binoxide on the filter1 from the treatments noted under separation is thoroughly washed with warm water2 it is then washed down in a flask1 as above1 after breaking the filter paper2 sufficient water is added to one-third fill the flask1 and about twice the approximate weight of the binoxide in the flask of oxalate of potassa2 these are agitated together4 ,a twice perforated stopper is fitted to this flask1 carrying through one opening a #be c c4 pipette nearly filled with sulphuric acid1 sp4 gr4 #a4d1 the lower point of which just dips below the mixture in the flask1 and the upper end1 carrying a rubber tube and pinch cock to control the flow of acid4 ,through the other opening passes a glass tube bent at an acute angle and connected by a short rubber tube to an adjoining flask1 two-thirds filled with decinormal baryta solutions4 ,these connections are all made air tight4 ,sulphuric acid is allowed in small portions at a time to flow into the mixture4 ,carbonic acid is evolved1 and1 passing into the adjoining flask1 is absorbed by the baryta1 precipitating it as carbonate4 ,to prevent the precipitate forming around or choking up the entrance tube1 the flask must be agitated at short intervals to break it off4 ,the reaction so familiar to us in other determinations is expressed thus3 ,mn,o#b,,ko1,c#b,o#cb,,so#c ,mn,o1,,so#c,,ko4,,so#cb;,,co#b1 ,when no more carbonic acid is evolved1 another tube from this last flask is connected with the aspirator1 the pinch-cock of the pipette open1 and air drawn through the apparatus for about half a minute1 and thus all the carbonic acid evolved absorbed1 or the flasks may be slightly heated4 ,if danger of more carbonic acid being absorbed from the air is feared1 and always in very accurate analysis1 a potassa tube may be connected to the pipette before drawing the air through4 ,the precipitate formed is allowed to settle1 #ej c4c4 of the supernatant solution is removed with a pipette and transferred to a beaker2 #ej c4c4 of decinormal nitric acid and some water is added with sufficient cochineal tincture4 ,it is then titrated back with decinormal soda2 from this is now readily deducted the amount of carbonic acid1 and from that the ,mn,o#b1 holding in view that #dd parts of carbonic acid is equivalent to #dc4e of ,mn,o#b or #ih4hg per cent1 and that #a c4c4 of the ,n_/#aj baryta solution is equivalent to #j4jjbb grm4 of ,,co#b4 ,if a carbonate1 chloride1 or nitrate1 be present in the native binoxide1 it must be removed with some sulphuric acid4 ,this is afterward neutralized with a little caustic soda4 ,this method yields the following results for its value in amount of manganese to #ajj3 #ii4ia-ii4ijb-ii4hie1 and can be executed in about twenty minutes4 ,fifteen determinations can be carried on at once without loss of time1 this1 however1 depending on the operator's skill4 ,i have made many assays1 and assays by this method with similarly excellent results4 ,of the other methods1 ,bunsen's is acknowledged to be the most accurate1 but is1 of course1 too troublesome to be used in technical work1 although it is used in scientific analysis4 ,ordinary samples are not sufficiently accurate to allow the use of this method4 ,the methods of reducing with iron and titrating this with chromate of potassa1 etc41 have given a constant average of from #ih4fj-ii4ja4 ,these results are fair1 but hard to obtain expeditiously4 ,of the methods of precipitating the compounds of the protoxide and estimating the acid1 that of the phosphate is by far the most accurate1 titrating with uranium solution2 #ii4hb is a nearly constant average with me1 much depending on the operator's familiarity with the uranium process4 ,the methods of ,lenssen1 or ferricyanide of potassium method1 yields very widely differing results4 ,i have found the figures of ,fresenius about the same as my own in this case2 that is from #ih4jj-ajj4aj4 ,b4--,on the ,separation4 ,first1 from its soluble simple combinations with the acids or bases containing no iron or cobalt2 if they are present1 it is treated as is noted later4 ,if sulphuric acid is present it must be separated by treating the solution of the compound with barium chloride and filtering4 ,a nearly neutral solution is prepared in water or hydrochloric acid and placed in a flask4 ,here it is treated with chlorine by passing a current of that gas through it as long as it causes a precipitate and for some time afterward4 ,it is then discontinued1 the mixture allowed to deposit for a few moments1 and about two-thirds of the supernatant solution decanted2 it is mixed with some more water1 and these decantations repeated until they pass away without reaction1 or by filtering it and washing on the filter2 it is then dissolved in hot hydrochloric acid1 this nearly neutralized1 a solution of sesquichloride of iron is added1 and again treated with an excess of chlorine4 ,after washing it is transferred to the flasks of the apparatus mentioned in the first part of this paper1 and estimated4 ,myself and several others have found this always to be a true ,mn,o#b1 and not a varying mixture of protosesquioxide and binoxide1 and will thus yield accurate results4 ,this reprecipitation may sometimes be dispensed with by adding the iron salt before the first precipitation1 but it of course depends upon the other elements present4 ,from ,compounds containing ,cobalt1 ,cobalt and ,nickel1 ,iron and group ,,iii41 together or with other elements4--,group ,,iii4 and sesqui4 iron are separated by agitation with baryta carbonate1 some chloride of ammonia being added to prevent nickel and cobalt precipitation traces1 and filtering4 ,if cobalt is present we treat this filtrate with nitrite of potassa1 etc41 to separate it 7that is1 if it and nickel are to be separated and estimated in the same sample2 but if they are to be estimated as one1 or not separated1 the treatment with nitrite1 etc41 is not used74 ,the filtrate from this last is directly treated with chlorine4 ,if nickel and cobalt are not to be estimated in this sample1 the solution1 as chlorides1 is mixed with some chloride of ammonium and ammonia1 then with a fair excess of phosphoric acid1 a sufficient quantity more of ammonia to render the mixture alkaline4 ,the precipitate formed is transferred to the filter and well washed with water containing ,,nh#c;,cl and ,,nh#d,o1 then dissolved in hydrochloric acid and reprecipitated with ammonia1 filtering and washing as before4 ,it is again dissolved in ,h,cl and titrated with uranium solution1 or decomposed by tin1 as noted below1 and the manganese precipitated as binoxide with chlorine1 and determined4 ,the latter method is hardly practicable1 and ,i never have time to use it1 as the titration and all together yields a value of #ii4hj in most cases1 if accurately executed4 ,from the bases of groups ,v4 and ,,vi4 these are separated by hydrogen sulphide1 from iron in alloys1 ores1 etc41 and in general the iron is separated as basic acetate1 and the manganese afterward precipitated with chlorine4 ,bromine is generally used in place of chlorine1 the use of which chemists claim as troublesome2 but in a number of examinations ,i have found it to yield more satisfactory results than bromine1 which is much more expensive4 ,from the acids in insoluble and a few other compounds1 chromic1 arsenic1 and arsenious acids1 by fusion with carbonate of soda in presence of carbonic acid gas2 borate of manganese is readily decomposed when the boracic acid is to be determined by boiling with solution of potassa1 dissolving the residue in hydrochloric acid and precipitating the manganese as binoxide4 ,this boiling1 however1 is seldom needed1 as the borate is soluble in ,h,cl4 ,from phosphoric acid ,i always use ,girard's method of treatment with tin1 using it rasped1 and it yields much more accurate results with but little manipulation4 ,when the other acids mentioned above are present in the compound1 we treat it as directed there4 ,from silicic acid1 by evaporation with hydrochloric acid4 ,from sulphur or iodine1 by decomposing with sulphuric acid and separating this with baryta chloride4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,researches ,,on ,,animals ,,containing ,,chlorophyl4 ,footnote3 ,abstract of a paper ,on the ,nature and ,functions of the ',yellow ,cells' of ,radiolarians and ,coelenterates1 read to the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1 on ,january #ad1 #ahhb1 and published by permission of the ,council4--,nature4 ,it is now nearly forty years since the presence of chlorophyl in certain species of planarian worms was recognized by ,schultze4 ,later observers concluded that the green color of certain infusorians1 of the common fresh water hydra and of the fresh water sponge1 was due to the same pigment1 but little more attention was paid to the subject until #ahgj1 when ,ray ,lankester applied the spectroscope to its investigation4 ,he thus considerably extended the list of chlorophyl containing animals1 and his results are summarized in ,sachs' ,botany 7,eng4 ed474 ,his list includes1 besides the animals already mentioned1 two species of ,radiolarians1 the common green sea anemone 7,anthea cereus1 var4 ,smaragdina71 the remarkable ,gephyrean1 ,bonellia viridis1 a ,polychte worm1 ,chtoperus1 and even a ,crustacean1 ,idotea viridis4 ,the main interest of the question of course lies in its bearing on the long-disputed relations between plants and animals2 for1 since neither locomotion nor irritability is peculiar to animals2 since many insectivorous plants habitually digest solid food2 since cellulose1 that most characteristic of vegetable products1 is practically identical with the tunicin of ,ascidians1 it becomes of the greatest interest to know whether the chlorophyl of animals preserves its ordinary vegetable function of effecting or aiding the decomposition of carbonic anhydride and the synthetic production of starch4 ,for although it had long been known that ,euglena evolved oxygen in sunlight1 the animal nature of such an organism was merely thereby rendered more doubtful than ever4 ,in #ahgh ,i had the good fortune to find at ,roscoff the material for the solution of the problem in the grass-green planarian1 ,convoluta schultzii1 of which multitudes are to be found in certain localities on the coast1 lying on the sand1 covered only by an inch or two of water1 and apparently basking in the sun4 ,it was only necessary to expose a quantity of these animals to direct sunlight to observe the rapid evolution of bubbles of gas1 which1 when collected and analyzed1 yielded from #de to #ee per cent4 of oxygen4 ,both chemical and histological observations showed the abundant presence of starch in the green cells1 and thus these planarians1 and presumably also ,hydra spongilla1 etc41 were proved to be truly vegetating animals4 ,being at ,naples early in the spring of #ahgi1 ,i exposed to sunlight some of the reputedly chlorophyl containing animals to be obtained there1 namely1 ,bonellia viridis and ,idotea viridis1 while ,krukenberg had meanwhile been making the same experiment with ,bonellia and ,anthea at ,trieste4 ,our results were totally negative1 but so far as ,bonellia was concerned this was not to be wondered at since the later spectroscopic investigations of ,sorby and ,schenk had fully confirmed the opinion of ,lacaze-,duthiers as to the complete distinctness of its pigment from chlorophyl4 ,krukenberg1 too1 who follows these investigators in terming it bonellein1 has recently figured the spectra of ,anthea-green1 and this also seems to differ considerably from chlorophyl1 while ,i am strongly of the opinion that the pigment of the green crustaceans is1 if possible1 even more distinct1 having not improbably a merely protective resemblance4 ,it is now necessary to pass to the discussion of a widely distinct subject--the long outstanding enigma of the nature and functions of the yellow cells of ,radiolarians4 ,these bodies were first so called by ,huxley in his description of ,thallassicolla1 and are small bodies of distinctly cellular nature1 with a cell wall1 well defined nucleus1 and protoplasmic contents saturated by a yellow pigment4 ,they multiply rapidly by transverse division1 and are present in almost all ,radiolarians1 but in very variable number4 ,johnnes ,muller at first supposed them to be concerned with reproduction1 but afterward gave up this view4 ,in his famous monograph of the ,radiolarians1 ,haeckel suggests that they are probably secreting cells or digestive glands in the simplest form1 and compares them to the liver-cells of ,amphioxus1 and the liver-cells described by ,vogt in ,velella and ,porpita4 ,later he made the remarkable discovery that starch was present in notable quantity in these yellow cells1 and considered this as confirming his view that these cells were in some way related to the function of nutrition4 ,in #ahga a very remarkable contribution to our knowledge of the ,radiolarians was published by ,cienkowski1 who strongly expressed the opinion that these yellow cells were parasitic alg1 pointing out that our only evidence of their ,radiolarian nature was furnished by their constant occurrence in most members of the group4 ,he showed that they were capable not only of surviving the death of the ,radiolarian1 but even of multipying1 and of passing through an encysted and an amoeboid state1 and urged their mode of development and the great variability of their numbers within the same species as further evidence of his view4 ,the next important work was that of ,richard ,hertwig1 who inclined to think that these cells sometimes developed from the protoplasm of the ,radiolarian1 and failing to verify the observations of ,cienkowski1 maintained the opinion of ,haeckel that the yellow cells fur den ,stoffwechsel der ,radiolarien von ,bedeutung sind4 ,in a later publication 7#ahgi7 he1 however1 hesitates to decide as to the nature of the yellow cells1 but suggests two considerations as favoring the view of their parasitic nature--first1 that yellow cells are to be found in ,radiolarians which possess only a single nucleus1 and secondly1 that they are absent in a good many species altogether4 ,a later investigator1 ,dr4 ,brandt1 of ,berlin1 although failing to confirm ,haeckel's observations as to the presence of starch1 has completely corroborated the main discovery of ,cienkowski1 since he finds the yellow cells to survive for no less than two months after the death of the ,radiolarian1 and even to continue to live in the gelatinous investment from which the protoplasm had long departed in the form of swarm-spores4 ,he sum up the evidence strongly in favor of their parasitic nature4 ,meanwhile similar bodies were being described by the investigators of other groups4 ,haeckel had already compared the yellow cells of ,radiolarians to the so-called liver-cells of ,velella2 but the brothers ,hertwig first recalled attention to the subject in #ahgi by expressing their opinion that the well-known pigment bodies which occur in the endoderm cells of the tentacles of many sea-anemones were also parasitic alg4 ,this opinion was founded on their occasional occurrence outside the body of the anemone1 on their irregular distribution in various species1 and on their resemblance to the yellow cells of ,radiolarians4 ,but they did not succeed in demonstrating the presence of starch1 cellulose1 or chlorophyl4 ,the last of this long series of researches is that of ,hamann 7#ahha71 who investigates the similar structures which occur in the oral region of the ,rhizostome jelly-fishes4 ,while agreeing with ,cienkowski as to the parasitic nature of the yellow cells of ,radiolarians1 he holds strongly that those of anemones and jelly-fishes are unicellular glands4 ,in the hope of clearing up these contradictions1 ,i returned to ,naples in ,october last1 and first convinced myself of the accuracy of the observation of ,cienkowski and ,brandt as to the survival of the yellow cells in the bodies of dead ,radiolarians1 and their assumption of the encysted and the amoeboid states4 ,their mode of division1 too1 is thoroughly algoid4 ,one finds1 not unfrequently1 groups of three and four closely resembling ,protococcus4 ,starch is invariably present2 the wall is true plant-cellulose1 yielding a magnificent blue with iodine and sulphuric acid1 and the yellow coloring matter is identical with that of diatoms1 and yields the same greenish residue after treatment with alcohol4 ,so1 too1 in ,velella1 in sea-anemones1 and in medus2 in all cases the protoplasm and nucleus1 the cellulose1 starch1 and chlorophyl1 can be made out in the most perfectly distinct way4 ,the failure of former observers with these reactions1 in which ,i at first also shared1 has been simply due to neglect of the ordinary botanical precautions4 ,such reactions will not succeed until the animal tissue has been treated with alcohol and macerated for some hours in a weak solution of caustic potash4 ,then1 after neutralizing the alkali by means of dilute acetic acid1 and adding a weak solution of iodine1 followed by strong sulphuric acid1 the presence of starch and cellulose can be successively demonstrated4 ,thus1 then1 the chemical composition1 as well as the structure and mode of division of these yellow cells1 are those of unicellular alg1 and ,i accordingly propose the generic name of ,philozoon1 and distinguish four species1 differing slightly in size1 color1 mode of division1 behavior with reagents1 etc41 for which the name of ,p4 radiolarum1 ,p4 siphonophorum1 ,p4 actiniarum1 and ,p4 medusarum1 according to their habitat1 may be conveniently adopted4 ,it now remains to inquire what is their mode of life1 and what their function4 ,i next exposed a quantity of ,radiolarians 7chiefly ,collozoum7 to sunshine1 and was delighted to find them soon studded with tiny gas-bubbles4 ,though it was not possible to obtain enough for a quantitative analysis1 ,i was able to satisfy myself that the gas was not absorbed by caustic potash1 but was partly taken up by pyrogallic acid1 that is to say1 that little or no carbonic acid was present1 but that a fair amount of oxygen was present1 diluted of course by nitrogen4 ,the exposure of a shoal of the beautiful blue pelagic ,siphonophore1 ,velella1 for a few hours1 enabled me to collect a large quantity of gas1 which yielded from #bd to #be per cent4 of oxygen1 that subsequently squeezed out from the interior of the chambered cartilaginous float1 giving only #e per cent4 ,but the most startling result was obtained by the exposure of the common ,anthea cereus1 which yielded great quantities of gas containing on an average from #cb to #ch per cent4 of oxygen4 ,at first sight it might seem impossible to reconcile this copious evolution of oxygen with the completely negative results obtained from the same animal by so careful an experimenter as ,krukenberg1 yet the difficulty is more apparent than real4 ,after considerable difficulty ,i was able to obtain a large and beautiful specimen of ,anthea cereus1 var4 smaragdina1 which is a far more beautiful green than that with which ,i had been before operating--the dingy brownish-olive variety1 plumosa4 ,the former owes its color to a green pigment diffused chiefly through the ectoderm1 but has comparatively few alg in its endoderm2 while in the latter the pigment is present in much smaller quantity2 but the endoderm cells are crowded by alg4 ,an ordinary specimen of plumosa was also taken1 and the two were placed in similar vessels side by side1 and exposed to full sunshine2 by afternoon the specimen of plumosa had yielded gas enough for an analysis1 while the larger and finer smaragdina had scarcely produced a bubble4 ,two varieties of ,ceriactis aurantiaca1 one with1 the other without1 yellow cells1 were next exposed1 with a precisely similar result4 ,the complete dependence of the evolution of oxygen upon the presence of alg1 and its complete independence of the pigment proper to the animal1 were still further demonstrated by exposing as many as possible of those anemones known to contain yellow cells 7,aiptasia chamleon1 ,helianthus troglodytes1 etc47 side by side with a large number of forms from which these are absent 7,actinia mesembryanthemum1 ,sagastia parasitica1 ,cerianthus1 etc474 ,the former never failed to yield abundant gas rich in oxygen1 while in the latter series not a single bubble ever appeared4 ,thus1 then1 the coloring matter described as chlorophyl by ,lankester has really been mainly derived from that of the endodermal alg of the variety plumosa1 which predominates at ,naples2 while the anthea-green of ,krukenberg must mainly consist of the green pigment of the ectoderm1 since the ,trieste variety evidently does not contain alg in any great quantity4 ,but since the ,naples variety contains a certain amount of ordinary green pigment1 and since the ,trieste variety is tolerably sure to contain some alg1 both spectroscopists have been operating on a mixture of two wholly distinct pigments--diatom-yellow and anthea-green4 ,but what is the physiological relationship of the plants and animal thus so curiously and intimately associated8 ,every one knows that all the colorless cells of a plant share the starch formed by the green cells2 and it seems impossible to doubt that the endoderm cell or the ,radiolarian1 which actually incloses the vegetable cell1 must similarly profit by its labors4 ,in other words1 when the vegetable cell dissolves its own starch1 some must needs pass out by osmose into the surrounding animal cell2 nor must it be forgotten that the latter possesses abundance of amylolytic ferment4 ,then1 too1 the ,philozoon is subservient in another way to the nutritive function of the animal1 for after its short life it dies and is digested2 the yellow bodies supposed by various observers to be developing cells being nothing but dead alg in progress of solution and disappearance4 ,again1 the animal cell is constantly producing carbonic acid and nitrogenous waste1 but these are the first necessities of life to our alga1 which removes them1 so performing an intracellular renal function1 and of course reaping an abundant reward1 as its rapid rate of multiplication shows4 ,nor do the services of the ,philozoon end here2 for during sunlight it is constantly evolving nascent oxygen directly into the surrounding animal protoplasm1 and thus we have actually foreign chlorophyl performing the respiratory function of native hmoglobin6 ,and the resemblance becomes closer when we bear in mind that hmoglobin sometimes lies as a stationary deposit in certain tissues1 like the tongue muscles of certain mollusks1 or the nerve cord of ,aphrodite and ,nemerteans4 ,the importance of this respiratory function is best seen by comparing as specimens the common red and white ,gorgonia1 which are usually considered as being mere varieties of the same species1 ,g4 verrucosa4 ,the red variety is absolutely free from ,philozoon1 which could not exist in such deeply colored light1 while the white variety1 which ,i am inclined to think is usually the larger and better grown of the two1 is perfectly crammed4 ,just as with the anemones above referred to1 the red variety evolves no oxygen in sunlight1 while the white yields an abundance1 and we have thus two widely contrasted physiological varieties1 as ,i may call them1 without the least morphological difference4 ,the white specimen1 placed in spirit1 yields a strong solution of chlorophyl2 the red1 again1 yields a red solution1 which was at once recognized as being tetronerythrin by my friend ,m4 ,merejkowsky1 who was at the same time investigating the distribution and properties of that remarkable pigment1 so widely distributed in the animal kingdom4 ,this substance1 which was first discovered in the red spots which decorate the heads of certain birds1 has recently been shown by ,krukenberg to be one of the most important of the coloring matter of sponges1 while ,merejkowsky now finds it in fishes and in almost all classes of invertebrate animals4 ,it has been strongly suspected to be an oxygen-carrying pigment1 an idea to which the present observation seems to me to yield considerable support4 ,it is moreover readily bleached by light1 another analogy to chlorophyl1 as we know from ,pringsheim's researches4 ,when one exposes an aquarium full of ,anthea to sunlight1 the creatures1 hitherto almost motionless1 begin to wave their arms1 as if pleasantly stimulated by the oxygen which is being developed in their tissues4 ,specimens which ,i kept exposed to direct sunshine for days together in a shallow vessel placed on a white slab1 soon acquired a dark1 unhealthy hue1 as if being oxygenated too rapidly1 although ,i protected them from any undue rise of temperature by keeping up a flow of cold water4 ,so1 too1 ,i found that ,radiolarians were killed by a day's exposure to sunshine1 even in cool water1 and it is to the need for escaping this too rapid oxidation that ,i ascribe their remarkable habit of leaving the surface and sinking into deep water early in the day4 ,it is easy1 too1 to obtain direct proof of this absorption of a great part of the evolved oxygen by the animal tissues through which it has to pass4 ,the gas evolved by a green alga 7,ulva7 in sunlight may contain as much as #gj per cent4 of oxygen1 that evolved by brown algae 7,haliseris7 #de per cent41 that from diatoms about #db per cent42 that1 however1 obtained from the animals containing ,philozoon yielded a very much lower percentage of oxygen1 e4g4 ,velella #bd per cent41 white ,gorgonia #bd per cent41 ,ceriactis #ba per cent41 while ,anthea1 which contains most alg1 gave from #cb to #ch per cent4 ,this difference is naturally to be accounted for by the avidity for oxygen of the animal cells4 ,thus1 then1 for a vegetable cell no more ideal existence can be imagined than that within the body of an animal cell of sufficient active vitality to manure it with carbonic acid and nitrogen waste1 yet of sufficient transparency to allow the free entrance of the necessary light4 ,and conversely1 for an animal cell there can be no more ideal existence than to contain a vegetable cell1 constantly removing its waste products1 supplying it with oxygen and starch1 and being digestible after death4 ,for our present knowledge of the power of intracellular digestion possessed by the endoderm cells of the lower invertebrates removes all difficulties both as to the mode of entrance of the alg1 and its fate when dead4 ,in short1 we have here the relation of the animal and the vegetable world reduced to the simplest and closest conceivable form4 ,it must be by this time sufficiently obvious that this remarkable association of plant and animal is by no means to be termed a case of parasitism4 ,if so1 the animals so infested would be weakened1 whereas their exceptional success in the struggle for existence is evident4 ,anthea cereus1 which contains most alg1 probably far outnumbers all the other species of sea-anemones put together1 and the ,radiolarians which contain yellow cells are far more abundant than those which are destitute of them4 ,so1 too1 the young gonophores of ,velella1 which bud off from the parent colony and start in life with a provision of ,philozoon 7far better than a yolk-sac7 survive a fortnight or more in a small bottle--far longer than the other small pelagic animals4 ,such instances1 which might easily be multiplied1 show that the association is beneficial to the animals concerned4 ,the nearest analogue to this remarkable partnership is to be found in the vegetable kingdom1 where1 as the researches of ,schwendener1 ,bornet1 and ,stahl have shown1 we have certain alg and fungi associating themselves into the colonies we are accustomed to call lichens1 so that we may not unfairly call our agricultural ,radiolarians and anemones animal lichens4 ,and if there be any parasitism in the matter1 it is by no means of the alga upon the animal1 but of the animal1 like the fungus1 upon the alga4 ,such an association is far more complex than that of the fungus and alga in the lichen1 and indeed stands unique in physiology as the highest development1 not of parasitism1 but of the reciprocity between the animal and vegetable kingdoms4 ,thus1 then1 the list of supposed chlorophyl containing animals with which we started1 breaks up into three categories2 first those which do not contain chlorophyl at all1 but green pigments of unknown function 7,bonelia1 ,idotea1 etc472 secondly1 those vegetating by their own intrinsic chlorophyl 7,convoluta1 ,hydra1 ,spongilia72 thirdly1 those vegetating by proxy1 if one may so speak1 rearing copious algae in their own tissues1 and profiting in every way by the vital activities of these4 ,,patrick ,,geddes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,compressed ,,oil ,,gas ,,for ,,lighting ,,cars1 ,,steamboats1 ,,and ,,buoys4 ,we give in the accompanying figures the arrangement of the different apparatus necessary for the manufacture and compression of illuminating gas on the system of ,mr4 ,pintsch1 as well as the arrangements adopted by the inventor for the lighting of railway cars and buoys4 ,this system has been adopted to some extent in both ,germany and ,england1 and is also being introduced into ,france4 ,illustration3 ,,works ,,for ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,oil ,,gas4--,,elevation ,,and ,,plan4 ,the ,pintsch gas is prepared by the distillation of heavy oils in a furnace composed of two superposed retorts4 ,the oil to be volatilized is contained in a vertical reservoir ,b1 which carries a bent pipe that enters the upper retort1 ,a4 ,the flow of the oil is regulated in this conduit by means of a micrometer screw which permits of varying the supply according to the temperature of the retorts4 ,in order to facilitate the vaporization1 the flow of oil starts from a cast-iron trough1 ,c1 and from thence spreads in a thin and uniform layer in the retort4 ,the residua of distillation remain almost entirely in the reservoir1 ,o1 from whence they are easily removed4 ,the vapor from the oil which is disengaged in the vessel1 ,a1 goes to the lower retort1 ,d1 in which the transformation of the matter is thoroughly completed4 ,on leaving the latter1 the gas enters the drum1 ,e1 at the lower part of the furnace4 ,to prevent the choking up of the pipe1 ,r1 the latter is provided with a joint permitting of dilatation4 ,the gas on leaving ,e goes to the condenser1 ,g ,g1 where it is freed from its tar4 ,the latter flows out1 and the gas proceeds to the washer1 ,j1 and the purifiers1 ,i and ,i1 to be purified4 ,the amount of production is registered by the meter1 ,l4 ,when the gas is to be utilized for lighting railway cars or buoys1 it is compressed in the accumulators1 ,t1 which are large cylindrical reservoirs of riveted or welded iron plate4 ,compression is effected by means of a pump1 ,f or ,f'1 which sucks the gas into a desiccating cylinder1 ,m1 connected with the gasometer of the works ,the pump1 ,f1 which is used when the production is larger than usual1 has two compressing cylinders of different diameters1 one measuring #agj millimeters and the other #ajj4 ,the piston has a stroke of #cbj millimeters4 ,the two compressing cylinders are double acting1 and communicate with each other by valves so arranged as to prevent injurious spaces4 ,the gas drawn from the gasometer is first compressed in the larger cylinder to a pressure of about #d atmospheres2 then it passes into the second cylinder1 whence it is forced into the accumulators under a pressure varying from #aj to #ab atmospheres4 ,for a not very large production1 the small pump suffices4 ,this has a single compressing cylinder connected directly with the piston rod1 upon which acts the steam coming from the boiler1 ,k4 ,this pump compresses the gas to a pressure of #aj atmospheres1 and is capable of storing seven cubic meters of it per hour4 ,the carburets of hydrogen which separate in a liquid state through the effect of the compression of the gas are retained in a cylindrical receptacle1 ,v1 which is located between the pump and the accumulators1 ,t4 ,besides the necessary safety apparatus1 there is disposed in front of the condensers a special valve1 ,n1 which allows the gas to escape into the air if the retorts or the purifying apparatus get choked up4 ,when the oil gas is not compressed it possesses an illuminating power four times greater than that obtained from coal gas2 and1 while the latter loses the greater part of its luminous power by compression1 the former loses only an eighth4 ,it is this property that renders the oil gas eminently fitted for lighting cars1 and it is for this reason that several large ,european railway companies have adopted it4 ,,application ,,to ,,cars4 ,we show in the accompanying engravings the mode of installation that the inventor has finally adopted for railway purposes4 ,each car is furnished1 perpendicularly to its length1 with a reservoir1 a1 containing the supply of gas under a pressure of #f or #g atmospheres4 ,the gas is introduced into this reservoir by means of a valve1 which is put in communication with the mouths of supply pipes placed along a platform4 ,the pipes are provided with a stopcock and their mouths are closed by a cap4 ,to fill the car reservoir it is only necessary to connect the mouths of the supply pipes with the valves of the cars by means of rubber tubing--an operation which takes about one minute for each car4 ,illustration3 ,,lighting ,,of ,,raiway ,,cars ,when it is necessary to supply cars at certain points where there are no gas works1 there is attached to the train a special car on which are placed two or three accumulators1 which thus transport a supply of the compressed gas to distances that are often very far removed from the source of supply4 ,the reservoir of each car1 containing a certain supply of gas1 communicates with a regulator1 b1 the importance of which we scarcely need point out4 ,this apparatus consists3 7#a7 of a cast-iron cup1 ,a1 closed at the top by a membrane1 ,b1 which is impervious to gas2 7#b7 of a rod1 ,c1 connected at one end with the membrane1 and at the other with a lever1 ,d2 7#c7 of a regulating valve resting on the lever1 and of a spring1 ,e1 which renders the internal mechanism independent of the motions of the car4 ,the lever1 acting for the opening and closing of the valve1 serves to admit gas into the regulator through the aperture1 ,f4 ,this latter is so calculated as to allow the passage of a quantity of gas corresponding to a pressure of #af millimeters4 ,as soon as such a pressure is reached in the regulator1 the membrane rises and acts on the lever1 and the latter closes the valve4 ,when the pressure diminishes1 as a consequence of the consumption of gas1 the spring1 ,e1 carries the lever to its initial position and another admission of gas takes place4 ,communication between the regulator and the lamps is effected by means of a pipe1 z1 of #g millimeters diameter 7provided with a cock1 d1 which permits of extinguishing all the lamps at once1 and by special branches for each lamp4 ,the lamps used differ little in external form from those at present employed4 ,the body is of cast-iron2 the cover1 funnel1 and chimney are of tin2 and the burner is of steatite4 ,the products of combustion are led outside through a flattened chimney1 t1 resting at o on the center of the reflector4 ,the air enters through the cover of the lamp and reaches the interior through a series of apertures in the circumference of the cast-iron bell which supports the reflector4 ,there is no communication whatever between the interior of the lamp and the interior of the car1 and thus there is no danger of passengers being annoyed by the odor of gas4 ,by means of a peculiar apparatus1 f1 the flame may be reduced to a minimum without being extinguished4 ,this arrangement is at the disposition of the conductor or within reach of the passengers4 ,for facilitating cleaning1 the lamps are arranged so as to turn on a hinge-joint1 m2 so that1 on removing the reflector1 o1 it is only necessary to raise the arm that carries the burner1 r in order to clean the base1 s1 without any difficulty4 ,on several railways both the palace and postals cars are also heated by compressed oil gas2 and lately an application has been made of the gas for supplying the headlights of locomotives 7see figure71 and for the signals placed at the rear of trains4 ,but one of the most interesting applications of oil is that of ,,lighting ,,buoys1 in which case it is compressed into large reservoirs placed on a boat4 ,the buoys employed are generally of from #ij to #bhe cubic feet capacity1 affording a lighting for from #ce to #ajj days4 ,to the upper part of the buoy there is affixed a firmly supported tube carrying at its extremity the lantern1 c4 ,the gas compressed to #f or #g atmospheres in the body of the buoy passes1 before reaching the burner1 into a regulator analogous to the one installed on railway cars1 but modified in such a way as to operate with regularity whatever be the inclination of the buoy4 ,in the section showing the details of the lantern on a large scale the direction taken by the air is indicated by arrows1 as is also the direction taken by the products of combustion4 ,these latter escape at m1 through apertures in the cap of the apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,,compressed ,,oil ,,gas ,,for ,,lighting ,,cars ,,steambots1 ,,and ,,buoys4 ,the regulator1 ,b1 in the interior of the lantern1 brings to a uniform pressure the inclosed gas1 whose pressure continues diminishing as a consequence of the consumption4 ,the lantern is protected against wind and waves by very thick convex glasses set into metallic cross-bars1 c4 ,the flame is located in the focus of a ,fresnel lens1 b1 consisting of superposed prismatic rings1 and adjusted at its lower part with a circle1 d1 while a conical ring1 e makes a joint at its other extremity4 ,this ring is held by the top piece of the lantern through the intermedium of six spiral springs1 c' c''4 ,under the focus of the flame there is placed a conical reflector of ,german silver1 t4 ,the buoy is filled through an aperture1 k1 in the side of the upper tube4 ,this aperture is provided with a valve which allows of the buoy being charged by connecting it with the accumulators located on a boat built especially for this service4 ,as soon as the gas reaches #f or #g atmospheres the cocks of the buoy and reservoir are closed1 and the connecting tube is removed4 ,the consumption of gas in the lantern is4 #a1bcj cubic inches per hour4 ,this being known it is very easy to calculate from the capacity of the buoy how often it is necessary to charge it4 ,a large number of buoys on the ,pintsch system are already in use4 ,the oil gas is likewise applicable to the illumination of lighthouses1 and among those that are now being lighted in that way we may cite the one in the port of ,pillau1 near ,knigsberg4 ,several large steamers are likewise being lighted on this plan4 ,in such an application of oil gas the management of the apparatus is very easy1 and the permanence of the illuminating power of the gas gives every facility for the lighting of the boat1 whatever be the duration of the trip4 ,although ,mr4 ,pintsch's process of manufacture has been but recently introduced into ,france1 it has received a number of applications that permits us to foresee the future that is in store for it4 ,the ,railway ,company of the ,west has contracted for the lighting of #bej first-class cars that run within the precincts of the city2 the ,state ,railways have #ef cars lighted in this way running between ,nantes and ,bordeaux and between ,saintes and ,limoges2 and the ,line of the ,east has just applied the system to #hj of its cars4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,delicate ,,test ,,for ,,oxygen4 ,t4 ,w4 ,engelmann proposes1 in the ,botanische ,zeitung1 a new test1 of an extremely delicate nature1 for determining the presence of very minute quantities of oxygen1 namely3 its power of exciting the motility of bacteria4 ,if any of the smaller species1 especially ,bacterium termo1 are brought to rest1 and then introduced into a fluid in which there is the minutest trace of free oxygen1 they will immediately begin to move about freely2 and if the oxygen is gradually introduced1 their motion will be set up only in those parts of the drop which the oxygen reaches4 ,in this way ,engelmann was able to determine the evolution of oxygen by ,euglena and by chlorophyl granules4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,determination ,,of ,,small ,,quantities ,,of ,,arsenic ,,in ,,sulphur4 ,by ,h ,,sch,,ppi4 ,ten grms4 of sulphur1 pulverized as finely as possible1 are covered with hot water and a few drops of nitric acid digested for some time1 filtered1 and washed till the washings have no longer an acid reaction4 ,thus calcium chloride and sulphate are removed1 and calcium sulphide1 if present1 is destroyed4 ,the sulphur thus prepared is covered with water at #gj to #hj1 a few drops of ammonia are added1 and the mixture is digested for a quarter of an hour4 ,all the arsenic present as sulphide is dissolved1 and the ammoniacal liquid is variously treated according to the degree of accuracy required4 ,for perfectly accurate determinations the ammoniacal solution is mixed with silver nitrate1 and all the sulphur present in the state of arsenic sulphide is thrown down as silver sulphide1 acidified with nitric acid1 filtered1 and washed4 ,the precipitate of silver sulphide is dissolved in hot nitric acid and determined as silver chloride4 ,from the weight of the latter the arsenic sulphide is calculated4 ,as a less accurate but more rapid method1 the ammoniacal solution of arsenic sulphide is cautiously neutralized with pure dilute nitric acid and considerably diluted4 ,it is then titrated with decinormal silver nitrate till a drop of the solution is turned brown with neutral chromate4 ,the arsenic is easily calculated from the quantity of silver nitrate consumed4 ,for very rough determinations it is sufficient to treat ten grms4 of finely-ground sulphur with nitric acid1 to extract with ammonia1 and to add silver nitrate4 ,from the intensity of the color1 or the quantity of the precipitate of silver sulphide1 it may be judged if the sulphur is approximately free from arsenic or strongly contaminated4 ,the author states that1 contrary to the general belief1 reddish yellow sulphur is more free from arsenic than such as is of a full yellow color4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,how ,,to ,,plant ,,trees4 ,by ,n4 ,,robertson1 ,government ,grounds1 ,ottawa4 ,a great deal has been written and said about tree planting4 ,some advise one way1 some another4 ,i will give you my method1 with which ,i have been very successful1 and1 as it differs somewhat from the usual mode1 may be interesting to some of your readers4 ,i go into the woods1 select a place where it is thick with strong1 young1 healthy1 rapid growing trees4 ,i commence by making a trench across so as ,i will get as many as ,i want4 ,i may have to destroy some until ,i get a right start4 ,i then undermine1 taking out the trees as ,i advance2 this gives me a chance not to destroy the roots4 ,i care nothing about the top1 because ,i cut them into what is called poles eight or ten feet long4 ,sometimes ,i draw them out by hitching a team when ,i can get them so far excavated that ,i can turn them down enough to hitch above where ,i intend to cut them off2 by this method ,i often get almost the entire root4 ,i have three particular points in this2 good root1 a stem without any blemish1 and a rapid growing tree4 ,this is seldom to be got where most people recommend trees to be taken from--isolated ones on the outside of the woods2 they are generally scraggy and stunted2 and to get their roots you would have to follow along way to get at the fibers on their points1 without which they will have a hard struggle to live4 ,another point recommended is to plant so that the tree will stand in the direction it was before being moved2 that ,i never think about1 but always study to have the longest and most roots on the side where the wind will be strongest1 which is generally the west1 on an open exposure4 ,for years ,i was much against this system of cutting trees into poles1 and fought hard against one of the most successful tree planters in ,canada about this pole business4 ,i have trees planted under the system described that have many strong shoots six and eight feet long--hard maple1 elm1 etc41 under the most unfavorable circumstances4 ,in planting1 be particular to have the hole into which you plant much larger than your roots2 and be sure you draw out all your roots to their length before you put on your soil2 clean away all the black1 leafy soil about them1 for if that is left1 and gets once dry1 you will not easily wet it again4 ,break down the edges of your holes as you progress1 not to leave them as if they were confined in a flower pot2 and when finished1 put around them a good heavy mulch1 ,i do not care what of--sawdust1 manure1 or straw4 ,this last you can keep by throwing a few spadefuls of soil over2 let it pass out over the edges of your holes at least one foot4 ,i have no doubt that the best time to plant is the fall1 as1 if left till spring1 the trees are too far advanced before the frost is put of the ground2 and by fall planting the soil gets settled about the roots1 and they go on with the season4 ,trees cut like poles have another great advantage4 ,for the first season they require no stakes to guard against the wind shaking them1 which is a necessity with a top2 for depend upon it1 if your tree is allowed to sway with the wind1 your roots will take very little hold that season1 and may die1 often the second year1 from this very cause4 ,all who try this system will find out that they will get a much prettier headed tree1 and much sooner see a tree of beauty than by any other1 as1 when your roots have plenty of fibrous roots1 and are in vigorous health1 three years will give you nice trees4--,the ,canadian ,horticulturist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,palms4 ,in a paper 7,russian7 recently read before the ,botanical ,section of the ,st4 ,petersburg ,natural ,history ,society1 ,mr4 ,k4 ,friderich describes in detail the anatomical structures to be met with in the aerial roots of ,acanthorhiza aculeata1 these roots presenting a remarkable example of roots being metamorphosed into spines4 ,supplementing this1 ,e4 ,regel made the following remarks3 ,palm trees1 grown from seed1 thicken their stems for a succession of years1 like bulbs1 only at the base4 ,many palms continue this primary growth 7i4e41 the growth they first started with7 for fifty to sixty years before they form their trunk4 ,during this time new roots are always being developed at the base of the stem1 in whorls1 and these always above the old roots4 ,this even takes place in old specimens1 especially in those planted in the open ground which have already formed a trunk1 ,in such cases the cortex layer1 where the roots break through1 is sprung off4 ,in conservatories1 under the influence of the damp air1 this root formation1 on which indeed the further normal growth of the palm depends1 takes place without any special assistance4 ,when the palm is grown in a sitting room1 one must surround the base of the trunk with moss1 which is to be kept damp1 in order to favor the development of the roots4 ,when the base of the palm trunk has almost reached its normal thickness1 then begins the upward development of the trunk1 which takes place more slowly in those species whose leaves grow close together than in those whose leaves are further apart4 ,in specimens of many species of ,cocos and ,syagrus1 whose leaves are particularly far apart1 the stems grow so quickly when planted in the open ground that they increase by five to six feet in height per annum4 ,the stem of those palms which develop a terminal inflorescence have ended their apical growth by doing so1 and wither gradually1 ,in addition to this 7withering7 in the case1 e4g4 of ,arenga saccharifera1 new inflorescences are developed from the original axils 7,blattachseln7 from above downward1 so that one sees at last the already leafless trunk still developing inflorescences in the direction toward the base of the trunk4 ,almost all palms with this latter kind of growth develop offshoots in their youth at the base of their trunks1 which shoot up again into trunks after the death of the primary trunk1 if they are not taken off before4 ,as to the structure of the palm trunks out of unconnected wood bundles1 the assertion has been made that the palm stem does not grow thicker in the course of time1 and that this is the explanation of the columnar almost evenly thick trunk4 ,but careful measurements that were made for years have led ,regel to the conclusion that a thickening of the trunk actually takes place1 which probably amounts to an increase of about a third over the original circumference of the trunk4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,silk ,,culture ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,report by ,,consul ,,peixotto1 of ,lyons4 ,in my dispatch1 ,no4 #adj1 dated ,september #a1 #ahhj1 ,i referred to the fact that new machinery for reeling silk had been invented1 which1 in my opinion1 was destined to be of great importance1 and to make this industry extremely valuable and profitable in our country4 ,i beg now to submit some additional observations upon this subject1 and for the purpose of being definite1 to entitle them ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,silk ,,culture ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,silk reeling is at present accomplished by the use of appliances which differ only in detail from those in use many centuries ago1 and which can scarcely be called machines1 being rather of the nature of apparatus depending entirely upon the skill and knowledge of the operative for the results produced4 ,in fact1 even the most perfect of ,french and ,italian reels bear about the same relation to automatic machinery that an old-fashioned spinning wheel does to our modern spinning machines4 ,since the date of my previous dispatch upon this subject1 the new reeling machine of ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,serrell1 jr41 of ,new ,york 7who still continues in ,lyons71 has been undergoing improvement and development1 and it is with the hope of facilitating the introduction and culture of silk1 and of enabling our people to adopt the best means to that end1 and to avoid errors which have been disastrous in the past and are likely to be extremely expensive in the near future1 that ,i now communicate with the department1 which is equally interested in securing new sources of industry and wealth for our people at home as for the promotion and extension of their commerce abroad4 ,it will be recollected that from about #ahcd to #ahci there raged a great speculation in mulberry trees of a certain species 7,morus multicaulis7 destined for feeding silk worms4 ,this speculation led to a total loss of all the time and money devoted to it1 partly because of its wild and utterly unsound character1 and partly because the little silk which was actually produced could not be reeled to advantage4 ,as a result1 silk culture fell into utter disrepute and for nearly a generation was scarcely thought of as a practical thing in the ,united ,states4 ,time1 however1 showed clearly where the great obstacle lay1 and although many may have imagined that other difficulties led to its abandonment in #ahci-dj1 those who have studied the matter are unanimously of the opinion that the want of reeling machinery has alone prevented the success of sericulture in those parts of the ,union which are suitable for it4 ,believing this obstacle to be removed1 it remains to set forth in a brief manner some of the points upon which1 it appears to me1 the successful introduction of silk raising will depend4 ,for the success of silk culture in our country two things are now requisite--the acquisition on the part of those about to engage in it of sound knowledge of its processes and requirements1 and proper organization4 ,the details of the work of silk culture are of such a nature that they may be readily understood1 and ,i apprehend that there will be little difficulty found by those who engage in it in mastering them1 after some little experience4 ,the point at which it seems to me that there is the most danger is at the very beginning4 ,in order to avoid delays and losses1 the person who begins silk culture should have a pretty clear idea of the scale of operations which are likely to be most profitable2 of the trees1 or rather shrubs1 which must be obtained2 of the apparatus and fixtures necessary1 and of the results which may be reasonably expected from the labor and expense required4 ,all of these items will be found to vary in different parts of the country1 and ,i fear that general rules1 broad deductions1 and such information as would apply under all circumstances and in all places would be extremely difficult to formulate1 and too vague for practical use at any given point4 ,in fact1 as far as information which may be considered perfectly general is concerned1 ,i have1 for the time being1 only one point to put forward in addition to what has already been published in the ,united ,states1 which is to repeat and show as emphatically as possible that the use of the reels at present employed for the filature of silk is entirely impracticable in our country1 and that the raiser must sell his cocoons4 ,this has been so often said and so clearly shown that ,i should consider it unnecessary to repeat it had not my attention been called to the fact that the success of several people and associations in the ,united ,states in raising cocoons has again made it a temptation to endeavor to reel silk1 and during the past year ,i have received applications from people in different ,states for information as to the kind of silk reel employed here which would be most suitable for use by them4 ,i am aware1 also1 that estimates have been made and published by some eminent authorities tending to show that this work could be done on a paying basis in some places in ,america4 ,so far as ,i have seen them1 however1 these estimates are fatally defective in that they do not allow for differences in quality of silk reeled by competent or incompetent people1 and under circumstances favorable or otherwise1 but seem to assume that any silk reeled in our country would be a first rate article1 and paid for accordingly4 ,while this might be true in isolated cases1 it could not be true in general1 as with present appliances the art of reeling good silk is only to be acquired and retained by years of apprenticeship and constant practice joined to a natural talent for the work4 ,so true is this1 that even in districts where the work has been largely carried on for many generations1 quite a large proportion of women who try for years find it impossible to become good reelers4 ,now1 there is a considerable difference in price between well reeled and poorly reeled silk--a difference so great that silk not well reeled in every way is not worth as much as the cocoons from which it is derived4 ,it is1 therefore1 quite a hopeless task to reel silk unless the reeler is skilled4 ,even if it could be done to advantage--which ,i do not think it could--there exists in ,america no means of training reelers4 ,in ,europe they are taught by degrees in the filatures1 working first at the easier stages of the operations1 and afterward being helped forward under the eyes and guidance of experienced operatives4 ,another grave defect in the estimates alluded to is that all the profit is assumed to be paid to the reeler4 ,this can evidently only be the case when each reeler runs her own reel1 owns and cares for her own cocoons1 sells her own silk1 and furnishes her own capital4 ,now1 even supposing that persons so fortunately placed as to be able to fulfill all these conditions should wish to engage in silk reeling1 which is in the highest degree improbable1 there exists an almost insuperable obstacle to the production of good silk except by an establishment large enough to use the cocoons of many producers4 ,nearly every silk crop as raised by the individual growers contains three or four grades of cocoons1 and to produce good and uniform silk1 these must be separated and each sort reeled by itself1 producing several grades of silk4 ,without going into detail1 it is enough to say that this is not practical for those who attempt to reel their own cocoons1 and that for this reason1 and many others1 hand reels and single basins have been nearly abandoned even in ,italy2 the women finding so much difficulty that they prefer to sell their cocoons and work in large establishments where the work is done to more advantage4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that1 from the estimates made1 there should be a considerable deduction for poor workmanship1 and another for use of capital1 organization1 selling expenses1 superintendence1 insurance1 repairs1 deterioration1 etc4 ,in fact1 ,i do not see in what way the reeling of silk in the ,united ,states1 by the ordinary method1 could be made to bear a much higher charge for labor than that borne by ,european filatures1 which barely pay with labor at one franc per diem of thirteen hours4 ,to be able1 then1 to reel silk by the ordinary reels1 it would first be necessary to find a sufficiency of highly skilled operatives willing to labor in a factory thirteen hours per day for twenty cents each4 ,i sincerely believe and hope that this can never be done4 ,i have enlarged somewhat upon this difficulty for the purpose of showing that the growers1 or at any rate individual growers of cocoons1 should not attempt to do the reeling1 but by no means with an idea of discouraging the raising of silk worms1 which is and should be an entirely separate matter4 ,to use a rough comparison1 ,i should esteem it as wasteful1 even if possible1 for each grower to attempt to reel his own cocoons as for each farmer to grind his own wheat upon his farm and endeavor to sell the flour4 ,it is1 therefore1 clear that the object of the sericulturist should be to raise and market as good a crop of cocoons as possible to the best advantage1 and with the least possible expense and risk4 ,after what has been said1 it may be very properly asked1 if1 seeing that the hopes which have been entertained of reeling by the usual method have proved fallacious1 and as no radically new system of raising silk worms is under consideration1 it is not very possible that all hopes of profit from rearing the worm may prove fallacious also4 ,in fact1 not only has the question been asked1 but an argument of great apparent strength and much plausibility has been formulated and extensively circulated1 tending to show that the difficulty of cheap labor1 which it has been shown stood in the way of reeling without improved machinery1 will make the raising of cocoons also a hopelessly unprofitable task4 ,briefly summarized1 this argument may be stated as follows3 ,first4 ,to raise silk worms to advantage much time and attention are required4 ,second4 ,time and attention are more costly in the ,united ,states than in other countries4 ,third4 ,consequently1 cocoons can be more cheaply raised in other countries than in the ,united ,states4 ,fourth4 ,the ,united ,states possess no special advantages as a market for cocoons1 and therefore they must be sold as cheaply as elsewhere1 and the labor costing more1 there is less profit4 ,fifth4 ,the profits made by raisers in ,europe are not very great1 and as they would be less in the ,united ,states1 it is not worth while to try to raise cocoons in that country4 ,it must be acknowledged that upon the surface this all appears to be very sound and almost unanswerable1 but ,i hope to be able to show that there is in reality not the slightest real foundation for the conclusion to which this argument points4 ,taking the points cited in order1 ,i would say1 as regards the first and second1 that although labor and time are required to raise cocoons1 ,i am convinced that the labor and time of the kind necessary will not be found more expensive in our country than in ,europe1 for the following reasons3 ,the work is a home industry4 ,it can be carried on without severe manual labor except for a few days1 at the end of the season1 when large crops are raised4 ,now1 nothing is better known than that there exists in many of our ,states an enormous number of wives and daughters of country people of a class entirely different from any to be found elsewhere1 except1 perhaps1 to a limited extent1 in ,england4 ,i refer to the well-to-do but not wealthy agricultural and manufacturing classes in small villages4 ,one or two generations ago the farmers' and mechanics' wives and daughters found plenty of work in spinning1 weaving1 dyeing1 cutting1 and making the linen and clothes of the family4 ,this has entirely ceased as a domestic industry with the exception of the sewing of the women's clothes and men's underwear4 ,as a consequence1 the women of the family are condemned to idleness1 or to the drudgery of the whole household work4 ,upon a proper occasion ,i think that much might be said of the evils and dangers which are likely within a short time to arise from the fact that perhaps a large majority of ,american women find themselves1 because of the present organization of society and industry1 almost unable to contribute to the family income except by going away from home1 or in doing the most menial and severe labor as household workers from one end of the year to the other4 ,i shall at present1 however1 only point out that in hundreds of thousands of homes in the country an opportunity of gaining a very moderate sum in addition to the present income by the expenditure of some weeks of care and light work would be hailed as a ,godsend1 and that1 too1 in families where the feeling of self-respect and the desire to keep the family together are far too strong to permit the women to go away from home in any way to earn money4 ,let any one who doubts this consider the dairy work and similar industries1 and try to calculate how much per diem the women thus occupied at home gain in money4 ,it may be said with entire accuracy that1 as a rule1 anything in which the women can engage at home1 by which something may be earned1 will in general be regarded as net profit through out many sections of the land4 ,in the silk districts of ,europe1 agricultural machinery is very much less employed than with us1 and in general every woman who can possibly be spared from other work is a field laborer and valuable as such4 ,so that time taken for raising silk must be deducted from her other productive work and charged to the cost of the silk crop4 ,i think that there can be no doubt that this one fact is quite sufficient to make the question of the cost of caring for the worms really as much in favor of the ,united ,states as at first glance it appears to be the other way2 it being the case that in our country many who would be glad to do the work have spare time to give to it1 whereas in ,europe every hour that is given to silk worms would otherwise be spent in the field4 ,in the ,south there are very large masses of inhabitants who are unable to work in the fields1 both men and women1 and who would also find in a yearly crop of silk worms a very comfortable addition to their yearly gains1 and one which could be derived from time not otherwise convertible into money4 ,land is very much dearer1 and taxes are higher in the ,european silk districts than with us1 and every little crop of cocoons has to pay its share1 which adds a considerable percentage to its cost4 ,the buildings possessed by peasants and used for the raising of silk worms are1 in general1 small1 close1 and miserable4 ,throughout ,america the roomy barns which are empty at the cocoon season1 will1 with little preparation1 be much preferable1 and enable the raisers to work to very much better advantage4 ,in ,europe diseases of several kinds have become more or less prevalent1 and in some cases have diminished the production of whole districts4 ,notwithstanding the fact that many experiments have been made in ,america1 and in ,georgia particularly1 and silk has been raised continuously for over a century1 these diseases 7maladies des vers a soile7 have never made their appearance4 ,the people of our country are1 as a rule1 much better educated than those in ,southern ,france and ,italy1 and will undoubtedly use their intelligence in such a way as to derive a benefit from it1 and economize their labor by proper appliances1 etc4 ,taking all these facts into consideration1 ,i am convinced that that there will be no difficulty in raising cocoons for the same cost in labor in the ,united ,states as in ,europe1 and ,i am inclined to think that the work can be much more cheaply done4 ,it is true that the ,united ,states is not an especially good market for cocoons2 in fact up to this time there has been scarcely any market at all for them2 but with the organization of the industry and the introduction of reeling machinery1 the market will be at least as good there as elsewhere4 ,as to whether it will be worth while for our people to raise silk worms1 ,i would say that though the amount of money to be paid by any one family is certainly not very large1 it is nearly all clear profit1 and under the circumstances which ,i have above pointed out1 and which exist so generally1 ,i am sure that the sum to be realized will be regarded as very important by a vast number of people4 ,as in other points1 it is extremely difficult to make any exact estimates on such a subject which would be generally applicable to a country so large and so various in climate1 soil1 and social habit as ours4 ,i am inclined to think1 however1 that were the members of an average family1 under average circumstances1 to raise a crop of cocoons1 the amount which could be advantageously reared should produce1 according to circumstances1 from seventy-five to two hundred dollars4 ,scarcely any paying result can be hoped for1 however1 without more or less organization of the work1 as sericulture is an industry which is very sensitive to the evils of a want of proper co-operation among those who carry on its various processes4 ,after some reflection1 ,i am of the opinion that individual growers will have great difficulty in selling cocoons if they are isolated from others1 and ,i therefore doubt the wisdom of encouraging sporadic and ill-directed efforts1 which1 however well meant and earnestly pursued1 are much more apt to end in disappointment1 discouragement1 and discredit to the newly developing industry than in anything else4 ,it seems to me to be neither wise nor fair to furnish estimates of returns1 which presuppose an organization of the industry1 without mentioning the difficulties which must be encountered where the organization is lacking4 ,the great difficulty is in selling the cocoons after they are raised1 and this can only be practically overcome by such a development of the culture as will result in the production1 within the limits of a given neighborhood1 of sufficient quantities of cocoons to make it practicable to prepare and forward them to market4 ,it is as well known as any other fact in trade1 that small transactions are much more costly in proportion than large ones1 and this general rule is especially applicable to the cocoon market4 ,the product of two or three isolated families in the interior of our country could not be marketed to advantage4 ,whereas1 were several hundreds engaged on the work in the same vicinity the charge of marketing their joint crop would be only a small percentage of its value4 ,silk raising is the work of an organized people1 and before it can become successful in our country must possess proper channels for its trade1 just as much as wool1 or cotton1 or wheat4 ,the machinery of this organization1 however1 need not be either complicated or expensive4 ,what is required is a system of nuclei in towns or large villages1 which may serve as centers of information and as gathering receptacles for the crops of surrounding producers4 ,the details of organization must be left1 and ,i think may safely be left to the good sense of the people of different sections1 who will work out the problem in different ways1 according to their different circumstances4 ,even were the need of organization not made evident to those undertaking sericulture in the beginning1 it would soon become so1 as it has1 in fact1 in several parts of the country4 ,i have therefore deemed it proper to call attention to this matter1 on the principle that a stitch in time saves nine4 ,i am informed that there exist already in the ,united ,states several associations devoted to acquiring and disseminating knowledge of the art of sericulture4 ,this is a very great step in the right direction1 and cannot be too heartily commended4 ,if conducted with prudence and wisdom these societies will be of great service1 and ,i would respectfully suggest that any encouragement which the government may think proper to afford would in all probability be extremely useful and profitable to the country in the future4 ,provided1 always1 that such societies are really devoted to the dissemination of information and the careful organization of the industry1 and are not merely visionary and impractical cultivators of misapplied enthusiasm4 ,it would1 ,i think1 be of importance so far as possible1 to direct the attention of county and ,state agricultural societies1 village improvement clubs1 and in general the intelligent and careful portion of our rural population to this matter4 ,it is beyond doubt that the time when sericulture can be begun and carried on profitably in our country has arrived4 ,its successful introduction would result in a very important yearly revenue and increase in the public wealth1 for ,i think that within a comparatively few years it could be made to be worth at least fifty or sixty millions of dollars per annum1 and perhaps much more4 ,this1 however1 is a less advantage than the fact that by supplying a new home industry it would do much toward conserving home ties and interests1 and thereby help to strengthen and perpetuate good morals and home living among our people4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,hibernation ,,of ,,animals4 ,don't black bears sleep through the winter8 questioned the writer of an attendant who was dealing out mid-day rations of bread and milk at the park4 ,that's the general impression1 was the rejoinder1 but we have never noticed any attempts at hibernation here4 ,bears are unusually lively during the cold months1 and demand their food as regularly as do the lions and other feline animals4 ,i don't know that any observations of value on this question have ever been made on animals in confinement4 ,i have had some experience with outside animals1 and a great many go through what is called a winter's sleep2 and in warm countries there is what might be called a summer sleep4 ,bears begin in the fall to look out for a soft nest2 and if it's possible for them to eat more at one time than another they do it then1 and when the cold weather sets in they are fat and in prime condition4 ,according to some authorities1 the fat produces the carbon that in some way tends to induce somnolency4 ,the stomach of a bear at this time becomes empty1 and naturally shrivels or draws into a very small space1 and is rendered totally useless by a substance called 'tappen' that clogs it and the intestines2 this is formed of pine leaves and other material that the animal takes from ants' nest and the trunks of trees in its search after honey4 ,they lie asleep in this condition for about six months1 generally snowed in2 but you can tell the place1 as the heat of the bear1 what there is left1 keeps an air hole up through the snow4 ,the bear seems to live on its fat1 the tappen preventing its too rapid consumption2 and if you run across them during this time--even along in ,march just before they wake up--they are about as fat as when they went in4 ,i have taken a slice of fat from a black bear six inches thick--regular blubber4 ,i remember1 continued the man1 one winter ,i was 'log hauling' in the western part of this ,state4 ,we had our eyes on a big tree1 and one morning when it was about ten degrees below zero ,i tackled it to warm up4 ,i hammered away for about five hours at it and finally started her1 and over she came--slowly at first1 and then as if she was going right through4 ,the snow was nearly three feet deep1 and as the tree struck it flew up for about twenty feet and half blinded me1 and when ,i came to there was the biggest black bear ,i ever saw standing along side of me1 looking about as mixed as ,i did4 ,i had lost my ax1 and the first move ,i made she started1 and on taking a look ,i found that she had a nest in the trunk and had probably turned in for the winter4 ,it was about twenty feet from the ground1 and was built with moss1 leaves1 and all kinds of truck1 and as warm and as snug as you please--a good place to spend a winter in4 ,the brown and polar bears have the same habit of lying up for the winter4 ,an ,esquimau informed ,captain ,lyon that in the first of the winter the pregnant bears are always fat and solitary4 ,when a heavy fall of snow sets in the animal seeks some hollow place in which she can lie down1 and remains quiet while the snow covers her4 ,sometimes she will wait until a quantity of snow has fallen and then digs herself a cave2 at all events it seems necessary that she should be covered up by the snow4 ,she now goes to sleep and does not wake until the spring sun is pretty high1 when she brings forth two cubs4 ,the cave by this time has become much larger by the effect of the animal's warmth and breath1 so that the cubs have room enough to move1 and they acquire considerable strength by continually sucking4 ,the dam at length becomes so thin and weak that it is with great difficulty she extricates herself1 which she does when the sun is powerful enough to throw a strong glare through the snow which roofs the den4 ,then the family comes out1 and will take anything that comes along in the way of food4 ,during the long sleep the temperature of the bear's blood is reduced to almost that of the surrounding air4 ,the power of will over the muscles seems to be suspended1 respiration is hardly noticeable1 and most of the vital functions are at a complete standstill--the entire body sleeping1 as it were4 ,the male grizzly bear never hibernates4 ,the young and the females1 however1 build nests1 one of which measured ten feet high1 five feet long1 and six feet wide4 ,bats are great winter sleepers1 and in most of the known caves they can be found during the cold months clinging to the walls and to each other4 ,during hibernation their respiration ceases almost entirely1 and only the most careful use of a stethoscope can reveal it4 ,the air that has surrounded numbers of them has been carefully examined and not the slightest evidence found of its having been breathed2 and1 stranger yet1 they can exist in this condition in gas1 that1 were they awake1 would prove instantly fatal4 ,a machine has been invented to examine these and other animals while in this condition4 ,a delicate index records the slightest pulsation1 while a thermometer shows the rise and fall of the temperature at every moment during the period2 and by an arrangement of the wing1 the circulation of the blood is recorded4 ,a more delicate experiment can hardly be imagined1 as a strong breath1 a sneeze1 or a footfall will cause the subject of the experiment to recover enough to respire several times2 and the effect of this on the machine can be imagined when it is known that though1 while in this condition1 they produce no effect upon the oxygen of the air about them1 they consume when respiring more than four cubic inches of oxygen an hour4 ,the common marmot is a great underground sleeper4 ,they build large storehouses1 sometimes eight feet in diameter1 and from the latter part of ,september to ,april they lie in them1 and1 like the bears1 give birth to their young during this period4 ,the dormouse is a remarkable sleeper4 ,even in their ordinary sleep they can be taken from the nest and handled without waking them4 ,toward winter they acquire a great deal of fat1 and stow away a vast amount of provision around about their nest1 and then go to sleep within2 but they rarely awake to use this food unless a very warm period comes around before the regular breaking up of cold weather4 ,the hedgehog is a sound winter sleeper1 and has been the subject of an infinite number of experiments while in this condition4 ,one experimentalist1 believing that cold was the cause of their curious condition1 surrounded one with a freezing mixture1 and froze it to death4 ,by increasing the cold about another that was already hibernating1 it was made to wake up2 and walked off4 ,if an animal is suddenly decapitated while in this hibernating condition1 the action of the heart is not affected for some time1 a second life seeming to outlive the one taken4 ,an experiment has been made in which the brain of the sleeper was removed1 then the entire spinal cord1 but for two hours hardly any change was noticeable upon the action of the heart2 and a day after that organ contracted when touched by the operator4 ,the writer has the winter nest of a family of ants4 ,a piece of fence rail was found beneath an old pile of boards and brought into a warm room for the sake of a rich fungus growing upon it1 and several hours after the table and chairs were found to be covered with ants4 ,where they came from was a mystery1 until the old rail was accidentally jarred and a number fell from it4 ,a section was cut down through it1 and the winter home of the tribe destroyed--probably the work of weeks1 perhaps months4 ,the interior of the wood was completely riddled by tunnels and passages1 some being large and holding several hundred ants1 while others contained only a few4 ,in some of the interior passages the ants had not been affected by the heat1 and were packed in great masses and evidently fast asleep2 they soon recovered1 however1 and walked off slowly in different directions1 as if wondering if an earthquake or spring had come4 ,a great number of insects go through a period of hibernation1 especially spiders4 ,the young of the latter are often covered by the parent2 first1 by coarse strings of silk1 as if to hold them in place1 and then by a white1 silvery web worked over them1 which forms probably a sure protection from wind and weather4 ,the writer has a cherry-stone in which is coiled up an insect1 best known as the sowbug4 ,a squirrel had probably eaten out the meat and opened the way1 and in this snug retreat we found the little hibernater snugly rolled up1 as is also its habit when alarmed4 ,the mouth of the hole was stopped by black soil1 but whether from accident or by the animal itself we could not tell4 ,some fishes and reptiles are hibernaters4 ,frogs and toads sleep out the winter at the bottom of ponds or in holes in the ground4 ,tree toads1 if kept in a cage in the winter and provided with soil1 will endeavor to cover themselves with it1 showing how strong the instinct or habit is4 ,some fishes are so insensible to heat or cold that when in this condition they can be frozen and carried for a number of days and then be brought back to an active condition4 ,the pond snail passes into a winter sleep as soon as the temperature of the water is below #ad ,cent41 that is1 they will not digest food or grow until the temperature of the water is at least up to #ae ,cent4 ,those who have watched the ,harlem ,river from ,mc,comb's ,dam ,bridge cannot have failed to notice the curious appearance of the muddy shores of the river and creeks at low tide4 ,if the sun shines brightly1 the dismal beach seems to quiver and scintillate in a most beautiful manner1 reflecting the light like so many diamonds4 ,if we draw nearer1 this shore is seen to be entirely covered in places with little snails1 that1 left by the tide1 are forging through the mud to regain the water1 and the sunlight striking on them is reflected by the glass-like secretion with which they are covered1 producing the curious effect noticed4 ,this could be seen in the warm months1 but now1 not a snail of the countless millions can be seen4 ,they have gone down in search of hard-pan1 there to hibernate until next ,april4 ,the land snail 7,helix pomatia7 sleeps four months during the year1 and does not throw off the calcareous lid that protects it during this time until the day temperature has reached #ab ,cent4 ,prairie dogs feel the effect of temperature as low as this4 ,in ,cuba reptiles hibernate between #g and #bd ,cent41 according to the species4 ,in warmer countries1 snakes1 lizards1 frogs1 etc41 fall into a state called chill coma that precisely resembles winter sleep1 but their temperature is far above that at which hibernating animals of the north are still active4 ,the state of hibernation is not the direct result of an extreme of heat or cold1 but rather is caused by a departure from the optimum4 ,in the snail its normal temperature is about the same as the water1 and being a poor heat producer it is not surprising that when the water grows colder the animal is forced to succumb2 but it is a remarkable fact that warm-blooded animals like many of the above-mentioned1 whose bodies are maintained by internal processes at a high temperature of #bf to #ch1 are incapable of resisting the lowering influence of cold4 ,the fall in temperature in some is wonderful2 as an example1 the high body temperature of warm-blooded animals may be said to oscillate between #cf and #dc ,cent4 7this includes man74 ,experiments made with the zizel show that during hibernation this animal's temperature is only #b ,cent41 the lowest known2 and a thermometer introduced into the animal indicated the same1 showing that warm-blooded animals in hibernating become truly cold blooded animals4 ,if a rabbit's temperature reaches #ae ,cent41 it will die4 ,the germs of bryozoa or of the fresh water sponges resist any amount of cold1 but the full grown forms die at the first cold turn4 ,insects are destroyed1 but their eggs live1 though of the greatest possible delicacy4 ,salmon eggs have been carried from this ,state to ,australia1 and there hatched4 ,in fact1 some animals live in the ice1 as the glacier flea and several others4 ,as it is not the direct result of extremes of heat or cold that produces sleep1 neither is the awakening from hibernation directly caused by a rise of temperature4 ,in experiments made upon weasels1 which are sometimes caught asleep1 one came to life in about three hours1 during which the temperature of the room remained the same as it had been during the entire hibernation1 viz41 #aj ,cent4 ,in another weasel1 during the awakening1 the body temperature rose very rapidly--and more so in the second part of the period than in the first4 ,in the first hour and fifty-five minutes of the awakening the body temperature rose #f4f ,cent1 and in the following fifty minutes it rose #ag ,cent4 ,this remarkable increase took place without any vigorous movements on the part of the weasel4 ,even its breathing showed no increase in proportion to the rise4 ,these cases show that though1 at certain seasons1 animals relax as it were and lie dormant1 and recover1 seemingly at the will of the weather1 yet1 in point of fact1 the rise and fall of temperature has no direct effect upon them4 ,the cause is an internal one1 awaiting discovery4--,c4 ,f4 ,,holder1 in ,forest and ,stream4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what is described as the largest steel sailing ship afloat was lately launched at ,belfast1 ,ireland4 ,it registers #b1bbj tons1 and has been named the ,garfield4 ,it will be employed in the ,australian and ,california trade4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,tides4 ,london ,nature1 in a recent issue1 says3 ,from a scientific point of view1 the work done by the tides is of unspeakable importance4 ,whence is this energy derived with which the tides do their work8 ,if the tides are caused by the moon1 the energy they possess must also be derived from the moon4 ,this looks plain enough1 but unfortunately it is not true4 ,would it be true to assert that the finger of the rifleman which pulls the trigger supplies the energy with which the rifle bullet is animated8 ,of course it would not4 ,the energy is derived from the explosion of gunpowder1 and the pulling of the trigger is merely the means by which that energy is liberated4 ,in somewhat similar manner the tidal wave produced by the moon is the means whereby a part of the energy stored in the earth is compelled to expend itself in work4 ,let me illustrate this by a comparison between the earth rotating on its axis and the fly-wheel of an engine3 ,the fly wheel is a sort of reservoir1 into which the engine pours its power at each stroke of the piston4 ,the various machines in the mill merely draw off the power from the store accumulated in the fly-wheel4 ,the earth is like a gigantic fly-wheel detached from the engine1 though still connected with the machines in the mill4 ,in that mighty fly-wheel a stupendous quantity of energy is stored up1 and a stupendous quantity of energy would be given out before that fly-wheel would come to rest4 ,the earth's rotation is a reservoir from whence the tides draw the energy they require for doing work4 ,hence it is that though the tides are caused by the moon1 yet whenever they require energy they draw on the supply ready to hand in the rotation of the earth4 ,the earth differs from the fly-wheel of an engine in a very important point4 ,as the energy is withdrawn from the fly-wheel by the machines in the mill1 so it is restored thereto by the power of the steam engine1 and the fly runs uniformly4 ,but the earth is merely the fly-wheel without the engine4 ,when the work by the tides withdraws energy from the earth1 that energy is never restored4 ,it1 therefore1 follows that the earth's rotation must be decreasing4 ,this leads to a consequence of the most wonderful importance4 ,it tells us that the speed with which the earth rotates on its axis is diminishing4 ,we can state the result in a manner which has the merits of simplicity and brevity4 ,the tides are increasing the length of the day4 ,at present1 no doubt1 the effect of the tides in changing the length of the day is very small4 ,a day now is not appreciably longer than a day a hundred years ago4 ,even in a thousand years the change in the length of the day is only a fraction of a second4 ,but the importance arises from the fact that the change1 slow though it is1 lies always in one direction4 ,the day is continually increasing4 ,in millions of years the accumulated effect becomes not only appreciable1 but even of startling magnitude4 ,the change in the length of the day must involve a corresponding change in the motion of the moon4 ,if the moon acts on the earth and retards the rotation of the earth1 so1 conversely1 does the earth react upon the moon4 ,the earth is tormented by the moon1 so it strives to drive away its persecutor4 ,at present the moon revolves around the earth at a distance of about #bdj1jjj miles4 ,the reaction of the earth tends to increase this distance1 and to force the moon to revolve in an orbit which is continually growing larger and larger4 ,as thousands of years roll on1 the length of the day increases second by second1 and the distance of the moon increases mile by mile4 ,a million years ago the day1 probably1 contained some minutes less than our present day of twenty-four hours4 ,our retrospect does not halt here2 we at once project our view back to an incredibly remote epoch which was a crisis in the history of our system4 ,it must have been at least #ej1jjj1jjj years ago4 ,it may have been very much earlier4 ,this crisis was the interesting occasion when the moon was born4 ,the length of the day was only a very few hours4 ,if we call it three hours we shall not be far from the truth4 ,purhaps you may think that if we looked back to a still earlier epoch1 the day would become still less1 and finally disappear altogether4 ,this is1 however1 not the case4 ,the day can never have been much less than three hours in the present order of things4 ,everybody knows that the earth is not a sphere1 but there is a protuberance at the equator1 so that1 as our school books tell us1 the earth is shaped like an orange4 ,it is well known that this protuberance is due to the rotation of the earth on its axis1 by which the equatorial parts bulge out by centrifugal force4 ,the quicker the earth rotates the greater is the protuberance4 ,if1 however1 the rate of rotation exceeds a certain limit1 the equatorial portion of the earth could no longer cling together4 ,the attraction which unites them would be overcome by centrifugal force1 and a general break up would occur4 ,it can be shown that the rotation of the earth1 when on the point of rupture1 corresponds to a length of the day somewhere about the critical value of three hours1 which we have already adopted4 ,it is1 therefore1 impossible for us to suppose a day much shorter than three hours4 ,let us leave the earth for a few minutes and examine the past history of the moon4 ,we have seen the moon revolve around the earth in an ever-widening orbit1 and consequently the moon must1 in ancient times1 have been nearer the earth than it is now4 ,no doubt the change is slow4 ,there is not much difference between the orbit of the moon a thousand years ago and the orbit in which the moon is now moving4 ,but when we rise to millions of years1 the difference becomes very appreciable4 ,thirty or forty millions of years ago the moon was much closer to the earth than it is at present2 very possibly the moon was then only half its present distance4 ,we must1 however1 look still earlier1 to a certain epoch not less than fifty million of years ago4 ,at that epoch the moon must have been so close to the earth that the two bodies were almost touching4 ,everybody knows that the moon revolves now around the earth in a period of twenty-seven days4 ,the period depends upon the distance between the earth and the moon4 ,in earlier times the month must have been shorter than our present month4 ,some millions of years ago the moon completed its journey in a week instead of taking twenty-eight days as at present4 ,looking back earlier still1 we find the month has dwindled down to a day1 then down to a few hours1 until at that wondrous epoch when the moon was almost touching the earth1 the moon spun around the earth once every three hours4 ,in those ancient times ,i see our earth to be a noble globe1 as it is as present4 ,yet it is not partly covered with oceans and partly clothed with verdure4 ,the primeval earth seems rather a fiery and half-molten mass1 where no organic life can dwell4 ,instead of the atmosphere which we now have1 ,i see a dense mass of vapors in which perhaps1 all the oceans of the earth are suspended as clouds4 ,i see that the sun still rises and sets to give the succession of day and of night1 but the day and the night together only amounted to three hours1 instead of twenty-four4 ,almost touching the chaotic mass of the earth is another much smaller and equally chaotic body4 ,around the earth ,i see this small body rapidly rotating1 the two revolving together1 as if they were bound by invisible bands4 ,the smaller body is the moon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,drilling ,,glass4 ,the ,revue ,industrielle gives the following method of drilling holes in glass3 ,first1 prepare a saturated solution of gum camphor in oil of turpentine4 ,then take a lance-shaped drill1 heat it to a white heat1 and dip it into a bath of mercury1 which will render it extremely hard4 ,when sharpened and dipped into the above-named camphor solution1 the tool will enter the glass as if the latter were as soft as wood4 ,if care be taken to keep the spot being drilled constantly wet with the solution1 the operation will proceed rapidly1 and there will rarely be any need of sharpening the tool4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,,terms ,,of 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