,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #cfc ,,new ,,york1 ,,december #af1 #ahhb ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 ,no4 #cfc4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,i4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,mechanics4--,the ,new ,york ,canals4-- ,their history1 dimensions1 and commercial influence ,cottrau's ,locomotive for ,ascending ,steep ,grades4--#a figure ,bachmann's ,steam ,drier--#c figures ,h4 ,s4 ,parmelee's ,patent ,automatic sprinkler4--#b figures ,instrument for ,drawing ,converging ,straight ,lines4--#aj figures ,feed ,water ,heater and ,purifier4 ,by ,,geo4 ,s4 ,,strong4--#b figures ,paper ,making ,down ,east4 ,goulier's ,tube ,gauge4--#a figure4-,plan and longitudinal and transverse sections ,soldering ,without an ,iron ,working ,copper ,ores at ,spenceville ,,ii4 ,,technology ,,and ,,chemistry-,new ,method of ,detecting ,dyes on ,yarns and ,tissues4 ,by ,,jules ,,joffre4--,reagents4--,red colors4--,violet colors ,chevalet's ,condenso-purifier for ,gas4--#b figures4--,elevation and plan ,artificial ,ivory ,creosote ,impurities4 ,by ,prof ,p4 ,w4 ,,bedford ,,iii4 ,,electricity4 ,,etc4--,sir ,william ,thomson's ,pile--#b figures ,siemens' ,telemeter4--#a figure4--,siemens electric telemeter ,physics ,without ,apparatus4--,experiment in static electricity4-- #a figure ,the ,cascade ,battery4 ,by ,f4 ,,higgins4--#a figure ,perfectly ,lovely ,philosophy ,,iv4 ,,astronomy1 ,,etc4--,the ,comet as seen from the ,pyramids near ,cairo1 ,egypt4--#a figure ,sunlight and skylight at ,high ,altitudes4--,influence of the atmosphere upon the solar spectrum4--,observations of ,capt4 ,abney and ,professor ,langley4--#b figures ,how to ,establish a ,true ,meridian ,v4 ,,mineralogy4--,the ,mineralogical ,localities in and ,around ,new ,york ,city1 and the ,minerals ,occurring ,therein4 ,by ,,nelson ,h4 ,,dakton4 ,part ,,iii4--,hoboken minerals4--,magnesite4--,dolomite4 --,brucite4--,aragonite4--,serpentine4-- ,chromic iron--,datholite4 --,pectolite4--,feldspar4--,copper mines1 ,arlington1 ,n4,j4-,green malachite4--,red oxide of copper4--,copper glance4--,erubescite ,,vi4 ,,entomology4--,the ,buckeye ,leaf ,stem ,borer ,defoliation of ,oak ,trees by ,dryocampa senatoria in ,perry ,county1 ,pa4 ,efficacy of ,chalcid ,egg ,parasites ,on the ,biology of ,gonatopis ,pilosus1 ,thoms ,species of ,otiorhynchadae ,injurious to ,cultivated ,plants ,,vii4 ,,art1 ,,architecture1 ,,etc4--,monteverde's ,statue of ,architecture4 --,full page illustration1 ,lit ,architectura4 ,by ,,juli ,,monteverde ,design for a ,gardener's ,cottage4--#a figure ,,viii4 ,,hygiene ,,and ,,medicine4--,remedy for ,sick ,headache ,,ix4 ,,ornithology4--,sparrows in the ,united ,states4--,effects of acclimation1 etc4 ,x4 ,,miscellaneous4--,james ,prescott ,joule1 with ,portrait4--,a sketch of the life and investigations of the discoverer of the mechanical equivalent of heat4 ,by ,j4 ,t4 ,,bottomley ,the ,proposed ,dutch ,international ,colonial and ,general ,export ,exhibition4--#a figure4--,plan of the ,amsterdam ,exhibition 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,comet ,,from ,,the ,,pyramids1 ,,cairo ,some centuries ago1 the appearance of so large a comet as is now interesting the astronomical world1 almost contemporaneously with our victory in ,egypt1 would have been looked upon as an omen of great portent1 and it is a curious coincidence that the first glimpse ,sir ,garnet ,wolseley had of this erratic luminary was when standing1 on the eventful morning of ,september #ac1 #ahhb1 watch in hand1 before the intrenchments of ,tel-el-,kebir1 waiting to give the word to advance4 ,as may be seen in our sketch1 the comet is seen in ,egypt in all its magnificence1 and the sight in the early morning from the pyramids 7our sketch was taken at #d ,a4,m47 is described as unusually grand4--,london ,graphic4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,comet ,,as ,,seen ,,from ,,the ,,great ,,pyramids1 ,,near ,,cairo1 ,,egypt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature4 ,,james ,,prescott ,,joule4 ,james ,prescott ,joule was born at ,salford1 on ,christmas ,eve of the year #ahah4 ,his father and his grandfather before him were brewers1 and the business1 in due course1 descended to ,mr4 ,joule and his elder brother1 and by them was carried on with success till it was sold1 in #ahed4 ,mr4 ,joule's grandfather came from ,elton1 in ,derbyshire1 settled near ,manchester1 where he founded the business1 and died at the age of fifty-four1 in #agii4 ,his father1 one of a numerous family1 married a daughter of ,john ,prescott of ,wigan4 ,they had five children1 of whom ,james ,prescott ,joule was the second1 and of whom three were sons--,benjamin1 the eldest1 ,james1 and ,john--and two daughters--,alice and ,mary4 ,mr4 ,joule's mother died in #ahcf at the age of forty-eight2 and his father1 who was an invalid for many years before his death1 died at the age of seventy-four1 in the year #aheh4 ,young ,joule was a delicate child1 and was not sent to school4 ,his early education was commenced by his mother's half sister1 and was carried on at his father's house1 ,broomhill1 ,pendlebury1 by tutors till he was about fifteen years of age4 ,at fifteen he commenced working in the brewery1 which1 as his father's health declined1 fell entirely into the hands of his brother ,benjamin and himself4 ,mr4 ,joule obtained his first instruction in physical science from ,dalton1 to whom his father sent the two brothers to learn chemistry4 ,dalton1 one of the most distinguished chemists of any age or country1 was then ,president of the ,manchester ,literary and ,philosophical ,society1 and lived and received pupils in the rooms of the ,society's house4 ,many of his most important memoirs were communicated to the ,society1 whose ,transactions are likewise enriched by a large number of communications from his distinguished pupil4 ,dalton's instruction to the two young men commenced with arithmetic1 algebra1 and geometry4 ,he then taught them natural philosophy out of ,cavallo's text-book1 and afterward1 but only for a short time before his health gave way1 in #ahcg1 chemistry from his own ,new ,system of ,chemical ,philosophy4 ,profound1 patient1 intuitive1 his teaching must have had great influence on his pupils4 ,we find ,mr4 ,joule early at work on the molecular constitution of gases1 following in the footsteps of his illustrious master1 whose own investigations on the constitution of mixed gases1 and on the behavior of vapors and gases under heat1 were among the most important of his day1 and whose brilliant discovery of the atomic theory revolutionized the science of chemistry and placed him at the head of the philosophical chemists of ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,james ,,prescott ,,joule4 ,under ,dalton1 ,mr4 ,joule first became acquainted with physical apparatus2 and the interest excited in his mind very soon began to produce fruit4 ,almost immediately he commenced experimenting on his own account4 ,obtaining a room in his father's house for the purpose1 he began by constructing a cylinder electric machine in a very primitive way4 ,a glass tube served for the cylinder2 a poker hung up by silk threads1 as in the very oldest forms of electric machine1 was the prime conductor2 and for a ,leyden jar he went back to the old historical jar of ,cunaeus1 and used a bottle half filled with water1 standing in an outer vessel1 which contained water also4 ,enlarging his stock of apparatus1 chiefly by the work of his own hands1 he soon entered the ranks as an investigator1 and original papers followed each other in quick succession4 ,the ,royal ,society list now contains1 the titles of ninety-seven papers due to ,joule1 exclusive of over twenty very important papers detailing researches undertaken by him conjointly with ,thomson1 with ,lyon ,playfair1 and with ,scoresby4 ,mr4 ,joule's first investigations were in the field of magnetism4 ,in #ahch1 at the age of nineteen1 he constructed an electro-magnetic engine1 which he described in ,sturgeon's ,annals of ,electricity for ,january of that year4 ,in the same year1 and in the three years following1 he constructed other electro-magnetic machines and electro-magnets of novel forms2 and experimenting with the new apparatus1 he obtained results of great importance in the theory of electro-magnetism4 ,in #ahdj he discovered and determined the value of the limit to the magnetization communicable to soft iron by the electric current2 showing for the case of an electro-magnet supporting weight1 that when the exciting current is made stronger and stronger1 the sustaining power tends to a certain definite limit1 which1 according to his estimate1 amounts to about #adj lb4 per square inch of either of the attracting surfaces4 ,he investigated the relative values of solid iron cores for the electro-magnetic machine1 as compared with bundles of iron wire2 and1 applying the principles which he had discovered1 he proceeded to the construction of electro-magnets of much greater lifting power than any previously made1 while he studied also the methods of modifying the distribution of the force in the magnetic field4 ,in commencing these investigations he was met at the very outset1 as he tells us1 with the difficulty1 if not impossibility1 of understanding experiments and comparing them with one another1 which arises in general from incomplete descriptions of apparatus1 and from the arbitrary and vague numbers which are used to characterize electric currents4 ,such a practice1 he says1 might be tolerated in the infancy of science2 but in its present state of advancement greater precision and propriety are imperatively demanded4 ,i have therefore determined1 he continues1 for my own part to abandon my old quantity numbers1 and to express my results on the basis of a unit which shall be at once scientific and convenient4 ,the discovery by ,faraday of the law of electro-chemical equivalents had induced him to propose the voltameter as a measurer of electric currents1 but the system proposed had not been used in the researches of any electrician1 not excepting those of ,faraday himself4 ,joule1 realizing for the first time the importance of having a system of electric measurement which would make experimental results obtained at different times and under various circumstances comparable among themselves1 and perceiving at the same time the advantages of a system of electric measurement dependent on1 or at any rate comparable with1 the chemical action producing the electric current1 adopted as unit quantity of electricity the quantity required to decompose nine grains of water1 #i being the atomic weight of water1 according to the chemical nomenclature then in use4 ,he had already made and described very important improvements in the construction of galvanometers1 and he graduated his tangent galvanometer to correspond with the system of electric measurement he had adopted4 ,the electric currents used in his experiments were thenceforth measured on the new system2 and the numbers given in ,joule's papers from #ahdj downward are easily reducible to the modern absolute system of electric measurements1 in the construction and general introduction of which he himself took so prominent a part4 ,it was in #ahdj1 also1 that after experimenting on improvements in voltaic apparatus1 he turned his attention to the heat evolved by metallic conductors of electricity and in the cells of a battery during electrolysis4 ,in this paper1 and those following it in #ahda and #ahdb1 he laid the foundation of a new province in physical science-electric and chemical thermodynamics-then totally unknown1 but now wonderfully familiar1 even to the roughest common sense practical electrician4 ,with regard to the heat evolved by a metallic conductor carrying an electric current1 he established what was already supposed to be the law1 namely1 that the quantity of heat evolved by it in a given time is always proportional to the resistance which it presents1 whatever may be the length1 thickness1 shape1 or kind of the metallic conductor1 while he obtained the law1 then unknown1 that the heat evolved is proportional to the square of the quantity of electricity passing in a given time4 ,corresponding laws were established for the heat evolved by the current passing in the electrolytic cell1 and likewise for the heat developed in the cells of the battery itself4 ,in the year #ahdj he was already speculating on the transformation of chemical energy into heat4 ,in the paper last referred to and in a short abstract in the ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society1 ,december1 #ahdj1 he points out that the heat generated in a wire conveying a current of electricity is a part of the heat of chemical combination of the materials used in the voltaic cell1 and that the remainder1 not the whole heat of combination1 is evolved within the cell in which the chemical action takes place4 ,in papers given in #ahda and #ahdb1 he pushes his investigations further1 and shows that the sum of the heat produced in all parts of the circuit during voltaic action is proportional to the chemical action that goes on in the voltaic pile1 and again1 that the quantities of heat which are evolved by the combustion of equivalents of bodies are proportional to the intensities of their affinities for oxygen4 ,having proceeded thus far1 he carried on the same train of reasoning and experiment till he was able to announce in ,january1 #ahdc1 that the magneto-electric machine enables us to convert mechanical power into heat4 ,most of his spare time in the early part of the year #ahdc was devoted to making experiments necessary for the discovery of the laws of the development of heat by magneto-electricity1 and for the definite determination of the mechanical value of heat4 ,at the meeting of the ,british ,association at ,cork1 on ,august #ba1 #ahdc1 he read his paper ,on the ,calorific ,effects of ,magneto-,electricity1 and on the ,mechanical ,value of ,heat4 ,the paper gives an account of an admirable series of experiments1 proving that heat is generated 7not merely transferred from some source7 by the magneto-electric machine4 ,the investigation was pushed on for the purpose of finding whether a constant ratio exists between the heat generated and the mechanical power used in its production4 ,as the result of one set of magneto-electric experiments1 he finds #hch foot pounds to be the mechanical equivalent of the quantity of heat capable of increasing the temperature of one pound of water by one degree of ,fahrenheit's scale4 ,the paper is dated ,broomhill1 ,july1 #ahdc1 but a postscript1 dated ,august1 #ahdc1 contains the following sentences3 ,we shall be obliged to admit that ,count ,rumford was right in attributing the heat evolved by boring cannon to friction1 and not 7in any considerable degree7 to any change in the capacity of the metal4 ,i have lately proved experimentally that heat is evolved by the passage of water through narrow tubes4 ,my apparatus consisted of a piston perforated by a number of small holes1 working in a cylindrical glass jar containing about #g lb4 of water4 ,i thus obtained one degree of heat per pound of water from a mechanical force capable of raising about #ggj lb4 to the height of one foot1 a result which will be allowed to be very strongly confirmatory of our previous deductions4 ,i shall lose no time in repeating and extending these experiments1 being satisfied that the grand agents of nature are1 by the ,creator's fiat1 indestructible1 and that wherever mechanical force is expended1 an exact equivalent of heat is always obtained4 ,this was the first determination of the dynamical equivalent of heat4 ,other naturalists and experimenters about the same time were attempting to compare the quantity of heat produced under certain circumstances with the quantity of work expended in producing it2 and results and deductions 7some of them very remarkable7 were given by ,sguin 7#ahci71 ,mayer 7#ahdb71 ,colding 7#ahdc71 founded partly on experiment1 and partly on a kind of metaphysical reasoning4 ,it was ,joule1 however1 who first definitely proposed the problem of determining the relation between heat produced and work done in any mechanical action1 and solved the problem directly4 ,it is not to be supposed that ,joule's discovery and the results of his investigation met with immediate attention or with ready acquiescence4 ,the problem occupied him almost continuously for many years2 and in #ahgh he gives in the ,philosophical ,transactions the results of a fresh determination1 according to which the quantity of work required to be expended in order to raise the temperature of one pound of water weighed in vacuum from #fj to #fa ,fahr41 is #ggb4ee foot pounds of work at the sea level and in the latitude of ,greenwich4 ,his results of #ahdi and #ahgh agree in a striking manner with those obtained by ,hirn and with those derived from an elaborate series of experiments carried out by ,prof4 ,rowland1 at the expense of the ,government of the ,united ,states4 ,his experiments subsequent to #ahdc on the dynamical equivalent of heat must be mentioned briefly4 ,in that year his father removed from ,pendlebury to ,oak ,field1 ,whalley ,range1 on the south side of ,manchester1 and built for his son a convenient laboratory near to the house4 ,it was at this time that he felt the pressing need of accurate thermometers2 and while ,regnault was doing the same thing in ,france1 ,mr4 ,joule produced1 with the assistance of ,mr4 ,dancer1 instrument maker1 of ,manchester1 the first ,english thermometers possessing such accuracy as the mercury-in-glass thermometer is capable of4 ,some of them were forwarded to ,prof4 ,graham and to ,prof4 ,lyon ,playfair2 and the production of these instruments was in itself a most important contribution to scientific equipment4 ,as the direct experiment of friction of a fluid is dependent on no hypothesis1 and appears to be wholly unexceptionable1 it was used by ,mr4 ,joule repeatedly in modified forms4 ,the stirring of mercury1 of oil1 and of water with a paddle1 which was turned by a falling weight1 was compared1 and solid friction1 the friction of iron on iron under mercury1 was tried2 but the simple stirring of water seemed preferable to any1 and was employed in all his later determinations4 ,in #ahdg ,mr4 ,joule was married to ,amelia1 daughter of ,mr4 ,john ,grimes1 ,comptroller of ,customs1 ,liverpool4 ,his wife died early 7#ahed71 leaving him one son and one daughter4 ,the meeting of the ,british ,association at ,oxford1 in this year1 proved an interesting and important one4 ,here ,joule read a fresh paper ,on the ,mechanical ,equivalent of ,heat4 ,of this meeting ,sir ,william ,thomson writes as follows to the author of this notice3 ,i made ,joule's acquaintance at the ,oxford meeting1 and it quickly ripened into a lifelong friendship4 ,i heard his paper read in the section1 and felt strongly impelled at first to rise and say that it must be wrong1 because the true mechanical value of heat given1 suppose in warm water1 must1 for small differences of temperature1 be proportional to the square of its quantity4 ,i knew from ,carnot that this must be true 7and it is true2 only now ,i call it 'motivity1' to avoid clashing with ,joule's 'mechanical value'74 ,but as ,i listened on and on1 ,i saw that 7though ,carnot had vitally important truth1 not to be abandoned7 ,joule had certainly a great truth and a great discovery1 and a most important measurement to bring forward4 ,so1 instead of rising1 with my objection1 to the meeting1 ,i waited till it was over1 and said my say to ,joule himself1 at the end of the meeting4 ,this made my first introduction to him4 ,after that ,i had a long talk over the whole matter at one of the conversaziones of the ,association1 and we became fast friends from thenceforward4 ,however1 he did not tell me he was to be married in a week or so2 but about a fortnight later ,i was walking down from ,chamounix to commence the tour of ,mont ,blanc1 and whom should ,i meet walking up but ,joule1 with a long thermometer in his hand1 and a carriage with a lady in it not far off4 ,he told me he had been married since we had parted at ,oxford6 and he was going to try for elevation of temperature in waterfalls4 ,we trysted to meet a few days later at ,martigny1 and look at the ,cascade de ,sallanches1 to see if it might answer4 ,we found it too much broken into spray4 ,his young wife1 as long as she lived1 took complete interest in his scientific work1 and both she and he showed me the greatest kindness during my visits to them in ,manchester for our experiments on the thermal effects of fluid in motion1 which we commenced a few years later ,joule's paper at the ,oxford meeting made a great sensation4 ,faraday was there and was much struck with it1 but did not enter fully into the new views4 ,it was many years after that before any of the scientific chiefs began to give their adhesion4 ,it was not long after1 when ,stokes told me he was inclined to be a ,joulite4 ,miller1 or ,graham1 or both1 were for years quite incredulous as to ,joule's results1 because they all depended on fractions of a degree of temperature--sometimes very small fractions4 ,his boldness in making such large conclusions from such very small observational effects is almost as noteworthy and admirable as his skill in extorting accuracy from them4 ,i remember distinctly at the ,royal ,society1 ,i think it was either ,graham or ,miller1 saying simply he did not believe ,joule1 because he had nothing but hundredths of a degree to prove his case by4 ,the friendship formed between ,joule and ,thomson in #ahdg grew rapidly4 ,a voluminous correspondence was kept up between them1 and several important researches were undertaken by the two friends in common4 ,their first joint research was on the thermal effects experienced by air rushing through small apertures ,the results of this investigation give for the first time an experimental basis for the hypothesis assumed without proof by ,mayer as the foundation for an estimate of the numerical relation between quantities of heat and mechanical work1 and they show that for permanent gases the hypothesis is very approximately true4 ,subsequently1 ,joule and ,thomson undertook more comprehensive investigations on the thermal effects of fluids in motion1 and on the heat acquired by bodies moving rapidly through the air4 ,they found the heat generated by a body moving at one mile per second through the air sufficient to account for its ignition4 ,the phenomena of shooting stars were explained by ,mr4 ,joule in #ahdg by the heat developed by bodies rushing into our atmosphere4 ,it is impossible within the limits to which this sketch is necessarily confined to speak in detail of the many researches undertaken by ,mr4 ,joule on various physical subjects4 ,even of the most interesting of these a very brief notice must suffice for the present4 ,molecular physics1 as ,i have already remarked1 early claimed his attention4 ,various papers on electrolysis of liquids1 and on the constitution of gases1 have been the result4 ,a very interesting paper on ,heat and the ,constitution of ,elastic ,fluids was read before the ,manchester ,literary and ,philosophical ,society in #ahdh4 ,in it he developed ,daniel ,bernoulli's explanation of air pressure by the impact of the molecules of the gas on the sides of the vessel which contains it1 and from very simple considerations he calculated the average velocity of the particles requisite to produce ordinary atmospheric pressure at different temperatures4 ,the average velocity of the particles of hydrogen at #cb ,f4 he found to be #f1jee feet per second1 the velocities at various temperatures being proportional to the square roots of the numbers which express those temperatures on the absolute thermodynamic scale4 ,his contribution to the theory of the velocity of sound in air was likewise of great importance1 and is distinguished alike for the acuteness of his explanations of the existing causes of error in the work of previous experimenters1 and for the accuracy1 so far as was required for the purpose in hand1 of his own experiments4 ,his determination of the specific heat of air1 pressure constant1 and the specific heat of air1 volume constant1 furnished the data necessary for making ,laplace's theoretical velocity agree with the velocity of sound experimentally determined4 ,on the other hand1 he was able to account for most puzzling discrepancies1 which appeared in attempted direct determinations of the differences between the two specific heats by careful experimenters4 ,he pointed out that in experiments in which air was allowed to rush violently or explode into a vacuum1 there was a source of loss of energy that no one had taken account of1 namely1 in the sound produced by the explosion4 ,hence in the most careful experiments1 where the vacuum was made as perfect as possible1 and the explosion correspondingly the more violent1 the results were actually the worst4 ,with his explanations1 the theory of the subject was rendered quite complete4 ,space fails1 or ,i should mention in detail ,mr4 ,joule's experiments on magnetism and electro-magnets1 referred to at the commencement of this sketch4 ,he discovered the now celebrated change of dimensions produced by the magnetization of soft iron by the current4 ,the peculiar noise which accompanies the magnetization of an iron bar by the current1 sometimes called the magnetic tick1 was thus explained4 ,mr4 ,joule's improvements in galvanometers have already been incidentally mentioned1 and the construction by him of accurate thermometers has been referred to4 ,it should never be forgotten that he first used small enough needles in tangent galvanometers to practically annul error from want of uniformity of the magnetic field4 ,of other improvements and additions to philosophical instruments may be mentioned a thermometer1 unaffected by radiation1 for measuring the temperature of the atmosphere1 an improved barometer1 a mercurial vacuum pump1 one of the very first of the species which is now doing such valuable work1 not only in scientific laboratories1 but in the manufacture of incandescent electric lamps1 and an apparatus for determining the earth's horizontal magnetic force in absolute measure4 ,here this imperfect sketch must close4 ,my limits are already passed4 ,mr4 ,joule has never been in any sense a public man2 and1 of those who know his name as that of the discoverer who has given the experimental basis for the grandest generalization in the whole of physical science1 very few have ever seen his face4 ,of his private character this is scarcely the place to speak4 ,mr4 ,joule is still among us4 ,may he long be spared to work for that cause to which he has given his life with heart-whole devotion that has never been excelled4 ,in ,june1 #ahgh1 he received a letter from the ,earl of ,beaconsfield announcing to him that ,her ,majesty the ,queen had been pleased to grant him a pension of #bjj per annum4 ,this recognition of his labors by his country was a subject of much gratification to ,mr4 ,joule4 ,mr4 ,joule received the ,gold ,royal ,medal of the ,royal ,society in #aheb1 the ,copley ,gold ,medal of the ,royal ,society in #ahgj1 and the ,albert ,medal of the ,society of ,arts from the hand of the ,prince of ,wales in #ahhj4 ,j4 ,t4 ,,bottomley4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,canals4 ,the recent adoption of the constitutional amendment abolishing tolls on the canals of ,new ,york ,state has revived interest in these water ways4 ,the overwhelming majority by which the measure was passed shows1 says the ,glassware ,reporter1 that the people are willing to bear the cost of their management by defraying from the public treasury all expenses incident to their operation4 ,that the abolition of the toll system will be a great gain to the ,state seems to be admitted by nearly everybody1 and the measure met with but little opposition except from the railroad corporations and their supporters4 ,at as early a date as the close of the ,revolutionary ,war1 ,mr4 ,morris had suggested the union of the great lakes with the ,hudson ,river1 and in #ahab he again advocated it4 ,de ,witt ,clinton1 of ,new ,york1 one of the most1 valuable men of his day1 took up the idea1 and brought the leading men of his ,state to lend him their support in pushing it4 ,to dig a canal all the way from ,albany to ,lake ,erie was a pretty formidable undertaking2 the ,state of ,new ,york accordingly invited the ,federal government to assist in the enterprise4 ,the canal was as desirable on national grounds as on any other1 but the proposition met with a rebuff1 and the ,empire ,state then resolved to build the canal herself4 ,surveyors were sent out to locate a line for it1 and on ,july #d1 #ahag1 ground was broken for the canal by ,de ,witt ,clinton1 who was then ,governor of the ,state4 ,the main line1 from ,albany1 on the ,hudson1 to ,buffalo1 on ,lake ,erie1 measures #cfc miles in length1 and cost #g1adc1ghi4 ,the ,champlain1 ,oswego1 ,chemung1 ,cayuga1 and ,crooked ,lake canals1 and some others1 join the main line1 and1 including these branch lines1 it measures #edc miles in length1 and cost upward of #aa1ejj1jjj4 ,this canal was originally #dj feet in breadth at the water line1 #bh feet at the bottom1 and #d feet in depth4 ,its dimensions proved too small for the extensive trade which it had to support1 and the depth of water was increased to #g feet1 and the extreme breadth of the canal to #fj feet4 ,there are #hd locks on the main line4 ,these locks1 originally #ij feet in length and #ae in breadth1 and with an average lift of #h feet #b inches1 have since been much enlarged4 ,the total rise and fall is #fib feet4 ,the towpath is elevated #d feet above the level of the water1 and is #aj feet in breadth4 ,at ,lockport the canal descends #fj feet by means of #e locks excavated in solid rock1 and afterward proceeds on a uniform level for a distance of #fc miles to the ,genesee ,river1 over which it is carried on an aqueduct having #i arches of #ej feet span each4 ,eight and a half miles from this point it passes over the ,cayuga marsh1 on an embankment #b miles in length1 and in some places #gj feet in height4 ,at ,syracuse1 the long level commences1 which extends for a distance of #fi miles to ,frankfort1 without an intervening lock4 ,after leaving ,frankfort1 the canal crosses the river ,mohawk1 first by an aqueduct #gdh feet in length1 supported on #af piers1 elevated #be feet above the surface of the river1 and afterward by another aqueduct #a1ahh feet in length1 and emerges into the ,hudson at ,albany4 ,this great work was finished in #ahbe1 and its completion was the occasion of great public rejoicing4 ,the same year that the ,erie ,canal was begun1 ground was broken for a canal from ,lake ,champlain to the ,hudson1 sixty-three miles in length4 ,this work was completed in #ahbc4 ,the construction of these two water ways was attended with the most interesting consequences4 ,even before they were completed their value had become clearly apparent4 ,boats were placed upon the ,erie ,canal as fast as the different levels were ready for use1 and set to work in active transportation4 ,they were small affairs compared with those of the present day1 being about #ej or #fj tons burden1 the modern canal boat being #ahj or #bjj tons4 ,small as they were1 they reduced the cost of transportation immediately to one-tenth what it had been before4 ,a ton of freight by land from ,buffalo to ,albany cost at that time #ajj4 ,when the canal was open its entire length1 the cost of freight fell from fifteen to twenty-five dollars a ton1 according to the class of article carried2 and the time of transit from #bj to #h days1 ,wheat at that time was worth only #cc a ton in western ,new ,york1 and it did not pay to send it by land to ,new ,york4 ,when sent to market at all1 it was floated down the ,susquehanna to ,baltimore1 as being the cheapest and best market4 ,the canal changed that4 ,it now became possible to send to market a wide variety of agricultural produce--fruit1 grain1 vegetables1 etc4--which1 before the canal was built1 either had no value at all1 or which could be disposed of to no good advantage4 ,it is claimed by the original promoters of the ,erie ,canal1 who lived to see its beneficial effects experienced by the people of the country1 that their work1 costing less than #h4jjj1jjj and paying its whole cost of construction in a very few years1 added #ajj1jjj1jjj to the value of the farms of ,new ,york by opening up good and ready markets for their products4 ,the canal had another result4 ,it made ,new ,york city the commercial metropolis of the country4 ,an old letter1 written by a resident of ,newport1 ,r4 ,i41 in that age1 has lately been discovered1 which speaks of ,new ,york city1 and says3 ,if we do not look out1 ,new ,york will get ahead of us4 ,newport was then one of the principal seaports of the country2 it had once been the first4 ,new ,york city certainly did get ahead of us after the ,erie ,canal was built4 ,it got ahead of every other commercial city on the coast4 ,freight1 which had previously gone overland from ,ohio and the ,west to ,pittsburg1 and thence to ,philadelphia1 costing #abj a ton between the two cities named1 now went to ,new ,york by way of the ,hudson ,river and the ,erie ,canal and the lakes4 ,manufactures and groceries returned to the ,west by the same route1 and ,new ,york became a flourishing and growing emporium immediately4 ,the ,erie ,canal was enlarged in #ahce1 so as to permit the passage of boats of #ajj tons burden1 and the result was a still further reduction of the cost of freighting1 expansion of traffic1 and an increase of the general benefits conferred by the canal4 ,the ,champlain ,canal had an effect upon the farms and towns lying along ,lake ,champlain1 in ,vermont and ,new ,york1 kindred in character to that above described in respect to the ,erie ,canal4 ,it brought into the market lands and produce which before had been worthless1 and was a great blessing to all concerned4 ,there can be no doubt that the building of the ,erie ,canal was the wisest and most far-seeing enterprise of the age4 ,it has left a permanent and indelible mark upon the face of the republic of the ,united ,states in the great communities it has directly assisted to build up at the ,west1 and in the populous metropolis it created at the mouth of the ,hudson ,river4 ,none of the canals which have been built to compete with it have yet succeeded in regaining for their ,states what was lost to them when the ,erie ,canal went into operation4 ,this water route is still the most important artificial one of its class in the country1 and is only equaled by the ,welland ,canal in ,canada1 which is its closest rival4 ,now that it is free1 it will retain its position as the most popular water route to the sea from the great ,west4 ,the ,mississippi ,river will divert from it all the trade flowing to ,south ,america and ,mexico2 but for the northwest it will be the chief water highway to the ocean4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cottrau',s ,,locomotive ,,for ,,ascending ,,steep ,,grades4 ,we borrow1 from our contemporary ,la ,nature1 the annexed figure1 illustrating an ingenious type of locomotive designed for equally efficient use on both level surfaces and heavy grades4 ,illustration3 ,,cottrau',s ,,locomotive ,,for ,,ascending ,,steep ,,grades4 ,as well known1 all the engines employed on level roads are provided with large driving wheels1 which1 although they have a comparatively feeble tractive power1 afford a high speed1 while1 on the contrary1 those that are used for ascending heavy grades have small wheels that move slowly1 but possess1 as an offset1 a tractive power that enables them to overcome the resistances of gravity4 ,m4 ,cottrau's engine possesses the qualities of both these types1 since it is provided with wheels of large and small diameter1 that may be used at will4 ,these two sets of wheels1 as may be seen from the figure1 are arranged on the same driving axle4 ,the large wheels are held apart the width of the ordinary track1 while the small wheels are placed internally1 or as in the case represented in the figure1 externally4 ,these two sets of wheels1 being fixed solidly to the same axle1 revolve together4 ,on level surfaces the engine rests on the large wheels1 which revolve in contact with the rails of the ordinary track1 and it then runs with great speed1 while the auxiliary wheels revolve to no purpose4 ,on reaching an ascent1 on the contrary1 the engine meets with an elevated track external or internal to the ordinary one1 and which engages with the auxiliary wheels4 ,the large wheels are then lifted off the ordinary track and revolve to no purpose4 ,in both cases1 the engine is placed under conditions as advantageous as are those that are built especially for the two types of roads4 ,the idea appears to be a very ingenious one1 and can certainly be carried out without disturbing the working of the locomotive4 ,in fact1 the same number of piston strokes per minute may be preserved in the two modes of running1 so as to reduce the speed in ascending1 in proportion to the diameters of the wheels4 ,there will thus occur the same consumption of steam4 ,on another hand1 there is nothing to prevent the boiler from keeping up the same production of steam1 for it has been ascertained by experience1 on the majority of railways1 that the speed of running has no influence on vaporization1 and that the same figures may be allowed for passenger as for freight locomotives4 ,the difficulties in the way of construction that will be met with in the engine under consideration will be connected with the placing of the double wheels1 which will reduce the already limited space at one's disposal1 and with the necessity that there will be of strengthening all the parts of the mechanism that are to be submitted to strain4 ,the installation of the auxiliary track will also prove a peculiarly delicate matter2 and1 to prevent accidents1 some means will have to be devised that will permit the auxiliary wheels to engage with this track very gradually4 ,still1 these difficulties are perhaps not insurmountable1 and if ,m4 ,cottrau's ingenious arrangement meets with final success in practice1 it will find numerous applications4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bachmann',s ,,steam ,,drier4 ,the apparatus shown in the annexed cuts is capable of effecting a certain amount of saving in the fuel of a generator1 and of securing a normal operation in a steam engine4 ,if occasion does not occur to blow off the motive cylinder frequently1 the water that is carried over mechanically by the steam1 or that is produced through condensation in the pipes1 accumulates therein and leaks through the joints of the cocks and valves4 ,this is one of the causes that diminish the performance of the motor4 ,illustration3 ,,bachmann',s ,,steam ,,drier4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,the steam drier under consideration has been devised by ,mr4 ,bachmann for the purpose of doing away with such inconveniences4 ,when applied to apparatus employed in heating1 for cooking1 for work in a vacuum1 it may be affixed to the pipe at the very place where the steam is utilized1 so as to draw off all the water from the mixture4 ,as shown by the arrows in ,fig #a1 the steam enters through the orifice1 ,d1 along with the water that it carries1 gives up the latter at ,p1 and is completely dried at the exit1 ,r4 ,the partition1 g1 is so arranged as to diminish the section of the steam pipe1 in order to increase the effect of the gravity that brings about the separation of the mixture4 ,the water that falls into the space1 ,p1 is exhausted either by means of a discharge cock 7,fig4 #a71 which gives passage to the liquid only1 or by the aid of an automatic purge-cock 7,figs4 #b and #c71 the locating of which varies with the system employed4 ,this arrangement is preferable to the other1 since it permits of expelling the water deposited in the receptacle1 ,p1 without necessitating any attention on the part of the engine-man4 99 99 99 99 99 ,h4,s4 ,,parmelee',s ,,patent ,,automatic ,,sprinkler4 ,the inventor says3 ,the automatic sprinkler is a device for automatically extinguishing fires through the release of water by means of the heat of the fire1 the water escaping in a shower1 which is thrown in all directions to a distance of from six to eight feet4 ,the sprinkler is a light brass rose1 about #a inches diameter and less than two inches high entire1 the distributer being a revolving head fitted loosely to the body of the fixed portion1 which is made to screw into a half inch tube connection4 ,the revolution of the distributer is effected by the resistance the water meets in escaping through slots cut at an angle in the head4 ,the distribution of water has been found to be the most perfect from this arrangement4 ,now1 this distributing head is covered over with a brass cap1 which is soldered to the base beneath with an alloy which melts at from #aee to #afj degrees4 ,no water can escape until the cap is removed4 ,the heat of an insignificant fire is sufficient to effect this1 and we have the practical prevention of any serious damage or loss through the multiplication of the sprinkler4 ,illustration3 ,,parmelee',s ,,patent ,,automatic ,,sprinkler4 ,,fig4 #a4--,section of ,sprinkler with ,cap on4 ,the annexed engravings represent the sprinkler at exact size for one-half inch connection4 ,fig4 #a shows a section with the cap covering over the sprinkler1 and soldered on to the base4 ,fig4 #b shows the sprinkler with the cap off1 which1 of course1 leaves the water free to run from the holes in fine spray in all directions4 ,fig4 #a shows the base hollowed out so as to allow the heat to circulate in between the pipe and the base of the sprinkler1 thus allowing the heat to operate on the inside as well as on the outside of the sprinkler2 thus1 in case of fire1 it is very quickly heated through sufficiently to melt the fusible solder4 ,these sprinklers are all tested at #ejj lb41 consequently they can never leak1 and cannot possibly be opened1 except by heat1 by any one4 ,as the entire sprinkler is covered by a heavy brass cap1 soldered on1 it cannot by any means be injured1 nor can the openings in the revolving head ever become filled with dust4 ,illustration3 ,,parmelee',s ,,patent ,,automatic ,,sprinkler4 ,,fig4#b--,sprinkler with cap off4 ,it is so simple as to be easily understood by any one4 ,as soon as the sprinkler becomes heated to #aee degrees1 the cap will become unsoldered1 and will then immediately be blown entirely off by the force of the water in the pipes and sprinkler4 ,these caps cannot remain on after the fusible metal melts1 if there is the least force of water4 ,a man's breath is sufficient to blow them off4 ,the arrangement commences with one or more main supply pipes1 either fed from a city water pipe or from a tank1 as the situation will admit4 ,if desired1 the tank need only be of sufficient size to feed a few sprinklers for a short time1 and then dependence must be placed upon a pump for a further supply of water1 if necessary4 ,the tank1 however small1 will insure the automatic and prompt working of the sprinklers and alarm1 and by the time the tank shall become empty the pumps can be got at work4 ,it is most desirable1 however1 in all cases to have an abundant water supply without resorting to pumps1 if it is possible4 ,in the main supply pipe or pipes is placed our patent alarm valve1 which1 as soon as there is any motion of the water in the pipe1 opens1 and moves a lever1 which1 by connecting with a steam whistle valve by means of a wire1 will blow the whistle and will continue to do so until either the steam or the water is stopped4 ,tins constitutes the alarm1 and is positive in its motion4 ,no water can possibly flow from the line of pipes without opening this valve and blowing the whistle4 ,we also put in an automatic alarm bell when desired4 ,from the main pipe other pipes are run1 generally lengthways of the building1 ten feet from each side and twenty feet apart4 ,at every ten feet on these pipes we place five feet of three-quarter inch pipe1 reaching each side1 at the end of which is placed the sprinkler in an elbow pointing toward the ceiling4 ,this arrangement is as we place them in all cotton and woolen mills1 but may be varied to suit different styles of buildings4 ,the sprinkler is made of brass1 and has a revolving head1 with four slots1 from which the water flies in a very fine and dense spray on everything1 and filling the air very completely for a radius of seven or eight feet all around2 thus rendering the existence of any fire in that space perfectly impossible2 and as the sprinklers are only placed ten feet apart1 and a fire cannot start at a greater distance than from five to six feet from one or more of them1 it is assured that all parts of a building are fully protected4 ,over each one of these sprinklers is placed a brass cap1 which fits closely over and passes below the base1 where it is soldered on with a fusible metal that melts as soon as it is heated to #aee degrees4 ,as soon as a fire starts in any part of a building1 heat will be generated and immediately rise toward the ceiling1 and the sprinkler nearest the fire will become heated in a very few moments to the required #aee degrees1 when the cap will become loosened and will be forced off by the power of the water4 ,the water will then be spread in fine spray on the ceiling over the fire1 also directly on the fire and all around for a diameter of from fourteen to eighteen feet4 ,this spray has been fully tried1 and it is found to be entirely sufficient to extinguish any fire within its reach which can be made of any ordinary materials4 ,as soon as the cap on any sprinkler becomes loosened by the heat of a fire and is forced off1 a current of water is produced in the main pipe where the alarm valve is placed1 and as the passage through it is dosed1 the water cannot pass without opening the valve and thus moving the lever to which the steam whistle valve is attached2 by this motion the whistle valve is opened1 and the whistle will blow until it is stopped by some one4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,instrument ,,for ,,drawing ,,converging ,,straight ,,lines4 ,footnote3 ,paper by ,prof4 ,fr4 ,smigaglia1 read at the reunion of the ,engineers and ,architects of ,rome4 #a4 ,,let ,a and ,b be two fixed points and ,a ,c and ,c ,b two straight lines converging at ,c and moving in their plane so as to always remain based on this point 7,fig4 #a74 ,the geometrical place of the positions occupied by ,c is the circumference of the circle which passes through the three points ,a1 ,b1 and ,c4 ,now let ,c ,f be a straight line passing through ,c4 ,on prolonging it1 it will meet the circumference ,a ,c ,b ,i at a point ,i4 ,if the system of three converging--lines takes a new position ,a ,c' ,f ,b1 it is evident ,f' ,b' prolonged will pass through ,i1 because the angles alpha and beta are invariable for any position whatever of the system4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 #b4 ,in the particular case in which alpha beta 7,fig4 #b71 the point ,i is found at the extremity of the diameter1 and1 consequently1 for a given distance ,a ,b1 or for a given length ,c ,d1 such point will be at its maximum distance from ,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 #c4 ,this granted1 it is easy to construct an instrument suitable for drawing converging lines which shall prove useful to all those who have to do with practical perspective4 ,for this purpose it is only necessary to take three rulers united at ,c 7,fig4 #c71 to rest the two ,a ,c and ,c ,b against two points or needles ,a and ,b1 and to draw the lines with the ruler ,c ,f1 in placing the system 7 #a7 in all positions possible4 ,the three rulers may be inclined in any way whatever toward each other1 but 7 #b7 it is preferable to take the case where alpha beta4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 #d4 ,let us suppose that the instrument passes from the position ,i to position ,,iii 7,fig4 #d74 ,then the ruler ,c ,a will come to occupy the position ,b ,a1 from the fact that the instrument1 continuing to move in the same direction1 will roll around the point ,b4 ,it is well1 then1 to manage so that the system shall have another point of support4 ,for that reason ,i prolong ,c ,b1 take ,b ,c' ,b ,c1 draw ,c' ,i1 and describe the circumference--the geometrical place of the points ,c'4 ,i take ,c' ,d ,c' ,b and obtain at ,d the position of the fixed point at which the needle is inserted4 ,in ,fig4 #d are represented different positions of the instrument2 and it may be seen that all the points ,c ,c'1 and the centers ,o ,o'1 are found upon the circumferences that have their center at ,i4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 #e4 ,the manipulation and use of the instrument are of the simplest character4 ,being given any two straight converging lines whatever1 alpha beta and gamma delta 7,fig4 #e71 in order to trace all the others ,i insert a needle at ,a and arrange the instrument as seen at ,s4 ,i draw ,a ,b and ,a ,b'1 and from there carry it to ,s' in such a way that the ruler being on gamma delta1 one of the resting rulers passes through ,a4 ,i draw the line ,c ,b which meets ,a ,b at the point ,b1 the position sought for the second needle4 ,in order to draw the straight lines which are under alpha beta1 it is only necessary to hold the needle ,a in place and to fix one at ,b'1 making ,a ,b' ,a ,b4 ,in this case ,s indicates one of the positions of the instrument4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 #f4 ,the point ,a was chosen arbitrarily1 but it is evident that that of the needles depends on its distance from the point of convergence4 ,thus1 on taking ,a' instead of ,a in the case of ,fig4 #c1 they approach1 while the contrary happens on choosing the point ,a4 ,it is clear that the different positions that a needle ,a may take are found on a straight line which runs to the point of meeting4 #g4 ,if the instrument were jointed or hinged at ,c1 that is to say1 so that we could at will modify the angle of the resting ruler1 we might make the position of the needles depend on such angle1 and conversely4 #h4 ,being given the length ,c ,i 7,fig4 #f71 to establish the position of the needles so that all the lines outside of the sheet shall converge at ,i4 ,to do this1 it is well to determine ,c ,d1 and then to draw the straight line ,a ,d ,b perpendicular to ,c ,i1 so as to have at ,a and ,b the points at which the needles must be placed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,then ,,ad ,,cd ,,cd x ,,di ,,ad4 ,,cd ---- --------- tangalpha1 ,,di ,,ci - ,,cd ,,tex3 ,,cd times ,,di overline,,ad#b4 ,,cd fracoverline,,ad#b;,,di fracoverline,,cd#b;,,ci-,,cd tan#b alpha whence ,,ci ,,cd ------------------ or ,,cd ,,ci cosalpha4 7#a7 ,i tangalpha ,,tex3 ,,cd frac,,ci,i tan#b alpha textor ,,cd ,,ci cos#b alpha4 #i4 ,if the instrument is jointed1 the absolute values being _/ ,,ad _/ ,,cd7,,ci - ,,cd7 1 7#b7 _/ ,,tex3 ,,ad sqrt,,cd7,,ci - ,,cd7 it suffices to take for ,,cd a suitable value and to calculate ,,ad4 ,if1 for example1 the value of ,c ,d is represented by ,c ,d'1 the instrument takes the position ,a' ,c ,b'1 and the needles will be inserted at ,a' and ,b' on the line ,a' ,d' ,b'1 which is perpendicular to ,c ,i4 #aj4 ,if the position of the instrument1 and consequently that of the needles1 has been established1 and we wish to know the distance ,c ,i1 we will have ,,cd ,,ci ------------ 2 7#c7 cosalpha ,,tex3 ,,ci frac,,cdcos#b alpha or1 again1 ,,ac ,,ci ----- 7#d7 ,,cd' ,,tex3 ,,ci fracoverline,,ac#b;,,cd' #aa4 ,in order to avoid all calculation1 we may proceed thus3 ,if ,i wish to arrange the instrument so that ,c ,i represents a given quantity 7 #h71 ,i take 7,fig4 #g7 the length ,ci ,,ci_/n1 where n is any entire number whatever4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,in other terms1 ,ci is the reduction to the scale of ,,ci4 ,i describe the circumference ,c b i a1 and arrange the instrument as seen in the figure1 and measure the length ,c b4 ,it is visible that ,c i #a ,c b ,c d ----- --- ----- ------2 then ,c ,b n4,c b 7#e7 ,c ,i n ,c ,b ,c ,d ,,cd n4,c d2 7#f7 and1 consequently1 the position of the needles which are found at ,a and ,b are determined4 #ab4 ,the question treated in #aj1 then1 is simply solved4 ,in fact1 on describing the circumference ,c b i a with any radius whatever1 ,i shall have ,c ,b n -----2 7#g7 c b and1 consequently1 ,c ,i n4,c i 7#h7 #ac4 ,as may be seen1 the instrument composed of three firmly united rulers is the simplest of all and easy to use4 ,any one can construct it for himself with a piece of cardboard1 and give the angle #b alpha the value that he thinks most suitable for each application4 ,the greater #b alpha is1 the shorter is the distance at which we should put the needles for a given point of meeting4 #ad ,the jointed instrument may be constructed as shown in ,figs #h1 #i1 and #aj4 ,the three pieces1 ,a4 ,b1 and ,c1 united by a pivot1 ,o1 in which there is a small hole1 are of brass or other metal4 ,rulers may be easily procured of any length whatever4 ,the instrument is ,y-shaped4 ,in the particular case in which alpha #ahj it becomes ,t-shaped1 and serves to draw parallel lines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h1 ,fig4 #i1 ,fig4 #aj #ae4 ,the instrument may be used likewise1 as we have seen1 to draw arcs of circles of the diameter ,c ,i or of the radius ,a ,o r1 whose center o falls outside the paper4 ,the pencil will be rested on ,c4 ,we may operate as follows 7,fig4 #b73 ,being given the direction of the radii ,a ,o and ,b ,o1 or1 what amounts to the same thing1 the tangents to the curve at the given points1 ,a and ,b to be united1 we draw the line ,a ,d and raise at its center the perpendicular ,d ,c1 which1 prolonged1 passes necessarily through the center4 ,it is necessary to calculate the length ,c ,d4 ,we shall have ,,cd 7#br - ,,cd7 ,,ad4,,cd - #br4,,cd ,,ad o4 ,,tex3 ,,cd 7#br - ,,cd7 overline,,ad#b4overline,,cd#b - #br4,,cd overline,,ad#b o4 _/ ,,cd r _/ r - ,,ad 4 _/ ,,tex3 ,,cd r sqrtr#b - overline,,ad#b4 ,it is evident that the lower sign alone suits our case1 for d r2 consequently1 _/ ,,cd r - _/ r - ,,ad 4 7#i7 _/ ,,tex3 ,,cd r - sqrtr#b - overline,,ad#b4 ,having obtained ,c1 we put the instrument in the direction ,a ,b ,c4 ,then each point of ,c ,f describes a circumference of the same center o4 #af4 ,if the distance of the points ,a and ,b were too great1 then it would be easy to determine a series of points belonging to the arc of circumference sought 7,fig4 #d74 ,being given ,c1 the direction ,c ,i1 and ,c ,i ,r1 on ,c ,i ,i lay off ,c ,e d1 draw ,a ,e ,b perpendicularly1 and calculate ,c ,a or ,a ,e4 ,i shall have d 7,r - d7 ,,ae2 ,,tex3 d 7,r - d7 overline,,ae#b2 or1 as absolute value1 _/ ,a ,e _/ d 7,r - d7 4 7#aj7 _/ ,,tex3 ,,ae sqrtd 7,r-d7 ,the instrument being arranged according to ,a ,c ,b1 ,i prolong ,c ,b and take ,b ,c' ,b ,c1 when ,c' will be one of the points sought4 ,it will be readily understood how1 by repeating the above operations1 but by varying the value of d1 we obtain the other intermediate points1 and how we may continue the operation to the right of ,c' with the process pointed out4 #ag4 ,if the three rulers were three arcs of a large circle of a sphere1 the instrument might serve for drawing the meridians on such sphere4 #ah4 ,if we imagine1 instead of three axes placed in one plane and converging at one point1 a system of four axes also converging in one point1 but situated in any manner whatever in space1 and if we rest three of them against three fixed points1 we shall be able to solve in space problems analogous to those that have just been solved in a plane4 ,if we had1 for example1 to draw a spherical vault whose center was inaccessible1 we might adopt the same method4--,le ,gnie ,civil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,feed-,,water ,,heater ,,and ,,purifier4 ,footnote3 ,a paper read before the ,franklin ,institute4 ,by ,,george ,s4 ,,strong4 ,in order to properly understand the requirements of an effective feed-water purifier1 it will be necessary to understand something of the character of the impurities of natural waters used for feeding boilers1 and of the manner in which they become troublesome in causing incrustation or scale1 as it is commonly called1 in steam boilers4 ,all natural waters are known to contain more or less mineral matter1 partly held in solution and partly in mechanical suspension4 ,these mineral impurities are derived by contact of the water with the earth's surface1 and by percolation through its soil and rocks4 ,the substances taken up in solution by this process consist chiefly of the carbonates and sulphates of lime and magnesia1 and the chloride of sodium4 ,the materials carried in mechanical suspension are clay1 sand1 and vegetable matter4 ,there are many other saline ingredients in various natural waters1 but they exist in such minute quantities1 and are generally so very soluble1 that their presence may safely be ignored in treating of the utility of boiler waters4 ,of the above named salts1 the carbonates of lime and magnesia are soluble only when the water contains free carbonic acid4 ,our ,american rivers contain from #b to #f grains of saline matter to the gallon in solution1 and a varying quantity--generally exceeding #aj grains to the gallon--in mechanical suspension4 ,the waters of wells and springs hold a smaller quantity in suspension1 but generally carry a larger percentage of dissolved salts in solution1 varying from #aj to #fej grains to the gallon4 ,when waters containing the carbonates of lime and magnesia in solution are boiled1 the carbonic acid is driven off1 and the salts1 deprived of their solvent1 are rapidly precipitated in fine crystalline particles1 which adhere tenaciously to whatever surface they fall upon4 ,with respect to the sulphate of lime1 the case is different4 ,it is at best only sparingly soluble in water1 one part 7by weight7 of the salt requiring nearly #ejj parts of water to dissolve it4 ,as the water evaporates in the boiler1 however1 a point is soon reached where supersaturation occurs1 as the water freshly fed into it constantly brings fresh accessions of the salt2 and when this point is reached1 the sulphate of lime is precipitated in the same form and with the same tenaciously adherent quality as the carbonates4 ,there is1 however1 a peculiar property possessed by this salt which facilitates its precipitation1 namely1 that its solubility in water diminishes as the temperature rises4 ,this fact is of special interest1 since1 if properly taken advantage of1 it is possible to effect its almost complete removal from the feed-water of boilers1 ,there is little difference in the solubility of the sulphate of lime until the temperature has risen somewhat above #bab ,fahr41 when it rapidly diminishes1 and finally1 at nearly #cjj1 all of this salt1 held in solution at lower temperatures1 will be precipitated when the temperature has risen to that point4 ,the following table#a represents the solubility of sulphate of lime in sea water at different temperatures3 ,temperature4 ,percentage ,sulph4 ,fahr4 ,lime held in ,solution4 #bag #j4ejj #bai #j4dgg #bba #j4dcb #bbg #j4cie #bcb #j4cee #bcf #j4caj #bdj #j4bfg #bde #j4bbf #bej #j4ahc #bee #j4adj #bfa #j4jig #bff #j4jfj #bga #j4jbc #bij #j4jjj ,footnote #a3 ,vide ,burgh1 ,modern ,marine ,engineering1 page #agf et seq4 ,m4 ,coust1 ,annales des ,mines ,v #fi4 ,recherches sur ,vincrustation des ,chaudires a vapour4 ,mr4 ,hugh ,lee ,pattison1 of ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 at the meeting of the ,institute of ,mechanical ,engineers of ,great ,britain1 in ,august1 #ahhj1 remarked on this subject that ,the solubility of sulphate of lime in water diminishes as the temperature rises4 ,at ordinary temperatures pure water dissolves about #aej grains of sulphate of lime per gallon2 but at a temperature of #bej ,fahr41 at which the pressure of steam is equal to about #b atmospheres1 only about #dj grains per gallon are held in solution4 ,at a pressure of #c atmospheres1 and temperature of #cjb ,fahr41 it is practically insoluble4 ,the point of maximum solubility is about #ie ,fahr4 ,the presence of magnesium chloride1 or of calcium chloride1 in water1 diminishes its power of dissolving sulphate of lime1 while the presence of sodium chloride increases that power4 ,as an instance of the latter fact1 we find a boiler works much cleaner which is fed alternately with fresh water and with brackish water pumped from the ,tyne when the tide is high than one which is fed with fresh water constantly4 ,these figures hold substantially for fresh as well as for sea water1 for the sulphate of lime becomes wholly insoluble in sea water1 or in soft water1 at temperatures comprised between #bhj and #cjj ,fahr4 ,it appears from this that it is simply necessary to heat water up to a temperature of #bej in order to effect the precipitation of four fifths of the sulphate of lime it may have contained1 or to the temperature of #bij in order to precipitate it entirely4 ,the bearing of these facts on the purification of feed-waters will appear further on4 ,the explanation offered to account for the gradually increasing insolubility of sulphate of lime on heating1 is1 that the hydrate1 in which condition it exists in solution1 is partially decomposed1 anhydrous calcic sulphate being formed1 the dehydration becoming more and more complete as the temperature rises4 ,sulphate of magnesia1 chloride of sodium 7common salt71 and all the other more soluble salts contained in natural waters are likewise precipitated by the process of supersaturation1 but owing to their extreme solubility their precipitation will never be effected in boilers2 all mechanically suspended matter tends naturally to subside4 ,where water containing such mineral and suspended matter is fed to a steam boiler1 there results a combined deposit1 of which the carbonate of lime usually forms the greater part1 and which remains more or less firmly adherent to the inner surfaces of the boiler1 undisturbed by the force of the boiling currents4 ,gradually accumulating1 it becomes harder and thicker1 and1 if permitted to accumulate1 may at length attain such thickness as to prevent the proper heating of the water by any fire that may be maintained in the furnace4 ,dr4 ,joseph ,g4 ,rogers1 who has made boiler waters and incrustations a subject of careful study1 declares that the high heats necessary to heat water through thick scale will sometimes actually convert the scale into a species of glass1 by combining the sand1 mechanically separated1 with the alkaline salts4 ,the same authority has carefully estimated the non-conducting properties of such boiler incrustations4 ,on this point he remarks that the evil effects of the scale are due to the fact that it is relatively a nonconductor of heat4 ,as compared with iron1 its conducting power is as #a to #cg1 consequently more fuel is required to heat water in an incrusted boiler than in the same boiler if clean4 ,rogers estimates that a scale #a-afth of an inch thick will require the extra expenditure of #ae per cent4 more fuel1 and this ratio increases as the scale grows thicker4 ,thus1 when it is one-quarter of an inch thick1 #fj per cent4 more fuel is needed2 one-half inch1 #aab per cent4 more fuel1 and so on4 ,rogers very forcibly shows the evil consequences to the boiler from the excessive heating required to raise steam in a badly incrusted boiler1 by the following illustration3 ,to raise steam to a pressure of #ij pounds the water must be heated to about #cbj ,fahr4 ,in a clean boiler of one-quarter inch iron this may be done by heating the external surface of the shell to about #cbe ,fahr4 ,if1 now1 one-half an inch of scale intervenes between the boiler shell and the water1 such is its quality of resisting the passage of heat that it will be necessary to heat the fire surface to about #gjj1 almost to a low red heat1 to effect the same result4 ,now1 the higher the temperature at which iron is kept the more rapidly it oxidizes1 and at any heat above #fjj it very soon becomes granular and brittle1 and is liable to bulge1 crack1 or otherwise give way to the internal pressure4 ,this condition predisposes the boiler to explosion and makes expensive repairs necessary4 ,the presence of such scale1 also1 renders more difficult the raising1 maintaining1 and lowering of steam4 ,the nature of incrustation and the evils resulting therefrom having been stated1 it now remains to consider the methods that have been devised to overcome them4 ,these methods naturally resolve themselves into two kinds1 chemical and mechanical4 ,the chemical method has two modifications2 in one the design is to purify the water in large tanks or reservoirs1 by the addition of certain substances which shall precipitate all the scale-forming ingredients before the water is fed into the boiler2 in the other the chemical agent is fed into the boiler from time to time1 and the object is to effect the precipitation of the saline matter in such a manner that it will not form solid masses of adherent scale4 ,where chemical methods of purification are resorted to1 the latter plan is generally followed as being the least troublesome4 ,of the many substances used for this purpose1 however1 some are measurably successful2 the majority of them are unsatisfactory or objectionable4 ,the mechanical methods are also very various4 ,picking1 scraping1 cleaning1 etc41 are very generally resorted to1 but the scale is so tenacious that this only partially succeeds1 and1 as it necessitates stoppage of work1 it is wasteful4 ,in addition to this plan1 a great variety of mechanical contrivances for heating and purifying the feed-water1 by separating and intercepting the saline matter on its passage through the apparatus1 have been devised4 ,many of these are of great utility and have come into very general use4 ,in the ,western ,states especially1 where the water in most localities is heavily charged with lime1 these mechanical purifiers have become quite indispensable wherever steam users are alive to the necessity of generating steam with economy4 ,most of these appliances1 however1 only partly fulfill their intended purposes4 ,they consist essentially of a chamber through which the feed-water is passed1 and in which it is heated almost to the boiling point by exhaust steam from the engine4 ,according to the temperature to which the water is heated in this chamber1 and the length of time required for its passage through the chamber1 the carbonates are more or less completely precipitated1 as likewise the matter held in mechanical suspension4 ,the precipitated matter subsides on shelves or elsewhere in the chamber1 from which it is removed from time to time4 ,the sulphate of lime1 however1 and the other soluble salts1 and in some cases also a portion of the carbonates that were not precipitated during the brief time of passage through the heater1 are passed on into the boiler4 ,appreciating this insufficiency of existing feed-water purifiers to effectually remove these dangerous saline impurities1 the writer in designing the feed-water heater now to be described paid special attention to the separation of all matters1 soluble and insoluble2 and he has succeeded in passing the water to the boilers quite free from any substance which would cause scaling or coherent deposit4 ,his attention was called more particularly to the necessity of extreme care in this respect1 through the great annoyance suffered by steam users in the ,central and ,western ,states1 where the water is heavily charged with lime4 ,very simple and even primitive boilers are here used2 the most necessary consideration being handiness in cleaning1 and not the highest evaporative efficiency4 ,these boilers are therefore very wasteful1 only evaporating1 when covered with lime scale1 from two to three pounds of water with one pound of the best coal1 and requiring cleansing once a week at the very least4 ,the writer's interest being aroused1 he determined1 if possible1 to remedy these inconveniences1 and accordingly he made a careful study of the subject1 and examined all the heaters then in the market4 ,he found them all1 without exception1 insufficient to free the feed-water from the most dangerous of impurities1 namely1 the sulphate and the carbonate of lime4 ,taking the foregoing facts1 well known to chemists and engineers1 as the basis of his operations1 the writer perceived that all substances likely to give trouble by deposition would be precipitated at a temperature of about #bej ,f4 ,his plan was1 therefore1 to make a feed-water heater in which the water could be raised to that temperature before entering the boiler4 ,now1 by using the heat from the exhaust steam the water may be raised to between #bjh and #bab ,f4 ,it has yet to be raised to #bej ,f42 and for this purpose the writer saw at once the advantage that would be attained by using a coil of live steam from the boiler4 ,this device does not cause any loss of steam1 except the small loss due to radiation1 since the water in any case would have to be heated up to the temperature of the steam on entering the boiler4 ,by adopting this method1 the chemical precipitation1 which would otherwise occur in the boiler1 takes place in the heater2 and it is only necessary now to provide a filter1 which shall prevent anything passing that can possibly cause scale4 ,having explained as briefly as possible the principles on which the system is founded1 the writer will now describe the details of the heater itself4 ,in ,figs4 #a and #b are shown an elevation and a vertical section of the heater4 ,the cast-iron base1 ,a1 is divided into two parts by the diaphragm1 ,b4 ,the exhaust steam enters at ,c1 passes up the larger tubes1 ,d1 which are fastened into the upper shell of the casting1 returns by the smaller tubes1 ,e1 which are inside the others1 and passes away by the passage1 ,f4 ,the inner tube only serves for discharge4 ,it will be seen at once that this arrangement1 while securing great heating surface in a small space1 at the same time leaves freedom for expansion and contraction1 without producing strains4 ,the free area for passage of steam is arranged to be one and a half times that of the exhaust pipe1 so that there is no possible danger of back pressure4 ,the wrought iron shell1 ,g1 connecting the stand1 ,a1 with the dome1 ,h1 is made strong enough to withstand the full boiler pressure4 ,an ordinary casing1 ,j1 of wood or other material prevents loss by radiation of heat4 ,the cold water from the pump passes into the heater through the injector arrangement1 ,k1 and coming in contact with the tubes1 ,d1 is heated2 it then rises to the coil1 ,l1 which is supplied with steam from the boiler1 and thus becomes further heated1 attaining there a temperature of from #bej to #bgj ,f41 according to the pressure in the boiler4 ,this high temperature causes the separation of the dissolved salts2 and on the way to the boiler the water passes through the filter1 ,m1 becoming thereby freed from all precipitated matter before passing away to the boiler at ,n4 ,the purpose of the injector1 ,k1 and the pipe passing from ,o to ,k1 is to cause a continual passage of air or steam from the upper part of the dome to the lower part of the heater1 so that any precipitate carried up in froth may be again returned to the under side of the filter1 in order more effectually to separate it1 before any chance occurs of its passing into the boiler4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,elevation4 ,,fig4 #b4--,vertical ,section ,the filter consists of wood charcoal in the lower half and bone black above firmly held between two perforated plates1 as shown4 ,after the heater has been in use for from three to ten hours1 according to the nature of the water used1 it is necessary to blow out the heater1 in order to clear the filter from deposit4 ,to do this1 the cock at ,r is opened1 and the water is discharged by the pressure from the boiler4 ,the steam is allowed to pass through the heater for some little time1 in order to clear the filter completely4 ,after this operation1 all is ready to commence work again4 ,by this means the filter remains fit for use for months without change of the charcoal4 ,where a jet condenser is used1 either of two plans may be adopted4 ,one plan takes the feed-water from the hot well and passes the exhaust from the feed pumps through the heater1 using at the same time an increased amount of coil for the live steam4 ,by this means a temperature of water is attained high enough to cause deposition1 and at the same time to produce decomposition of the oil brought over from the cylinders4 ,the other plan places the heater in the line of exhaust from the engine to the condenser1 also using a larger amount of coil4 ,both these methods work well4 ,the writer sometimes uses the steam from the coil to work the feed pump2 or1 if the heater stands high enough1 it is only necessary to make a connection with the boiler1 when the water formed by the condensation of the steam runs back to the boiler1 and thus the coil is kept constantly at the necessary temperature4 ,in adapting the heater to locomotives1 we were met with the difficulty of want of space to put a heater sufficiently large to handle the extremely large amount of water evaporated on a locomotive worked up to its full capacity1 being from #a1ejj to #b1ejj gallons per hour1 or from five hundred to one thousand h4p4 ,we designed various forms of heaters and tried them1 but have finally decided on the one shown in the engraving1 ,fig4 #c1 which consists of a lap welded tube1 #ac inches internal diameter1 #ab feet long1 with a cast-iron head which is divided into two compartments or chambers by a diaphragm4 ,into this head are screwed #fj tubes1 one inch outside diameter and #ab feet long1 which are of seamless brass4 ,these are the heating tubes1 within which are internal tubes for circulation only1 which are screwed into the diaphragm and extend to within a very short distance of the end of the heating tube4 ,the exhaust steam for heating is taken equally from both sides of the locomotive by tapping a two-inch nipple with a cup shaped extension on it in such a way as to catch a portion of the exhaust without interfering with the free escape of the steam for the blast1 and without any back pressure1 as it relieves the back pressure as much as it condenses4 ,the pipe from one side of the engine is connected with the chamber into which the heating tubes are screwed1 and is in direct communication with them4 ,the pipe from the other side is connected with the chamber into which the circulating tubes are screwed4 ,the beat of the exhaust1 working1 as it does1 on the quarters1 causes a constant sawing or backward and forward circulation of steam without any discharge1 and only the condensation is carried off4 ,the water is brought from the pump and discharged into the lower side of the heater well forward1 and passes around the heating tubes to the end1 when it is discharged into a pipe that carries it forward1 either direct to the check or into the purifier1 which is located between the frames under the boiler1 and consists of a chamber in which are arranged a live steam coil and a filter above the coil4 ,the water coming in contact with the coil1 its temperature is increased from the temperature of the exhaust1 #baj1 to about #bej ,fahr41 which causes the separation of the lime salts as before described1 and it then passes through the filter and direct to the boiler from above the filter1 which is cleansed by blowing back through it as before described4 ,one of these heaters lately tested showed a saving in coal of #bb per cent1 and an increase of evaporation of #a4ji pounds of water per pound of coal4--,franklin ,journal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,monteverde',s ,,statue ,,of ,,architecture4 ,this precious statue forms the noble figure that adorns the monument erected to the memory of the architect ,carles ,sada1 who died in #ahgc4 ,this remarkable funereal monument is #bj feet high1 the superior portion consisting of a sarcophagus resting upon a level base4 ,upon this sarcophagus is placed the statue of ,la ,architectura1 which we reproduce1 and which well exemplifies the genius of the author and sculptor1 ,juli ,monteverde4--,la ,ilustraci ,catalana4 ,illustration3 ,,la ,,architectura4--,,statue ,,by ,,juli ,,monteverde4 ,,erected ,,in ,,memory ,,of ,,the ,,architect1 ,,carles ,,sada4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,design ,,for ,a ,,gardener',s ,,cottage4 ,the illustration shows a gardener's cottage recently erected at ,downes1 ,devonshire1 the seat of ,colonel ,buller1 ,v4,c41 ,c4,b1 ,c4,m4,g41 from the designs of ,mr4 ,harbottle1 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a41 of ,exeter4 ,it is built of red brick and tile1 the color of which and the outline of the cottage give it a picturesque appearance1 seen through the beautiful old trees in one of the finest parks in ,devonshire4--,the ,architect4 ,illustration3 ,gardener's ,cottage at ,,downes for ,colonel ,buller ,v4,c41 ,c4,b41 ,c4,m4,g41 ,e4,h4 ,harbottle ,architect 99 99 99 99 99 ,,paper ,,making ,,down ,,east4 ,writing from ,gilbertville1 a ,lewiston journal correspondent says3 ,gilbertville1 a manufacturing community in the town of ,canton1 twenty-five miles from ,lewiston1 up the ,androscoggin1 is now a village of over #ejj inhabitants1 where three years ago there was but a single farmhouse4 ,if a town had sprung into existence in a far ,western ,state with so much celerity1 the phenomenon would not be considered remarkable1 perhaps2 but growths of this kind are not indigenous to the ,new ,england of the present era4 ,gilbertville has probably outstripped all ,new ,england villages in the race of the past three years4 ,it is only one of the signs that old ,maine is not dead yet4 ,gilbert ,brothers erected a saw mill here three years ago4 ,a year later1 the ,denison ,paper ,manufacturing ,company1 of ,mechanic ,falls1 erected a big pulp mill1 which1 also1 the town voted to exempt from taxation for ten years4 ,the mills are valuable companions for each other4 ,the pulp mill utilizes all the waste of the saw mill4 ,a settlement was speedily built by the operatives4 ,gilbertville now boasts of a post-office1 a store1 several large boarding houses1 a nice school house1 and over #ejj inhabitants4 ,the pulp mill employs seventy men4 ,it runs night and day4 ,it manufactures monthly #cej cords of poplar and spruce into pulp4 ,it consumes monthly #ejj cords of wood for fuel1 #de casks of soda ash1 valued at #de per cask1 nine car loads of lime1 #bd1jjj pounds to the car4 ,it produces #a1jjj1jjj pounds of wet fiber1 valued at about #ag1jjj1 monthly4 ,the pay roll amounts to #c1ejj per month4 ,the larger part of the stock used by the mill consists of poplar logs floated down the ,androscoggin and its tributaries4 ,one thousand two hundred cords of poplar cut in four-foot lengths are piled about the mill2 and a little further up the river are #e1jjj cords more4 ,the logs are hauled from the river and sawed into lengths by a donkey engine1 which cuts about sixty cords per day1 and pulls out fourteen logs at a time4 ,all the spruce slabs made by the saw mill are used with this poplar4 ,the wood is fed to a wheel armed with many sharp knives4 ,it devours a cord of wood every fifteen minutes4 ,the four-foot sticks are chewed into fine chips as rapidly as they can be thrust into the maw of the chopper4 ,they are carried directly from this machine to the top of the mill by an endless belt with pockets attached4 ,there are hatchways in the attic floor1 which open upon rotary iron boilers4 ,into these boilers the chips are raked1 and a solution of lime and soda ash is poured over them4 ,this bath destroys all the resinous matter in the wood1 and after cooking five hours the chips are reduced to a mass of soft black pulp4 ,each rotary will contain two cords of chips4 ,after the cooking1 the pulp is dumped into iron tanks in the basement1 where it is thoroughly washed with streams of clean cold water4 ,it is then pumped into a machine which rolls it into broad sheets4 ,these sheets are folded1 and condensed by a hydraulic press of #bjj tons pressure4 ,this process reduces its bulk fifty per cent41 and sends profuse jets of water flying out of it4 ,the soda ash1 in which1 mixed with lime and water1 the chips are cooked1 is reclaimed1 and used over and over again4 ,the liquor1 after it has been used1 is pumped into tanks on top of large brick furnaces4 ,as it is heated1 it thickens4 ,it is brought nearer and nearer the fire until it crystallizes1 and finally burns into an ash4 ,eighty per cent4 of the ash used is thus reclaimed4 ,this process is an immense saving to the pulp manufacturers4 ,the work in the pulp mill is severe1 and is slightly tinged with danger4 ,three thousand four hundred pounds of white ash to #b1ajj pounds of lime are the proportions in which the liquor in each vat is mixed4 ,one does not envy the lot of the stout fellows who crawl into the great rotaries to stow away the chips4 ,the hurry of business is so great that they cannot wait for these boilers to cool naturally1 after they have cooked one batch1 before putting in another4 ,so they have a fan pump1 to which is attached a canvas hose1 and with this blow cooling air currents into the boiler1 or rotary1 as they call it4 ,the rotary is subjected to an immense pressure1 and is very stoutly made of thick iron plates1 bolted together4 ,describing the business as carried on at ,mechanic ,falls1 the same paper says3 ,there are six of these mills on the three dams over which the ,little ,androscoggin falls4 ,these are the ,eagle1 the ,star1 the ,diamond1 the ,union1 the pulp1 and the super calendering mills4 ,the ,eagle and the ,star mills run on book papers of various grades4 ,the ,union mill runs on newspaper4 ,the old ,diamond mill now prepares pulp stock4 ,the pulp mill does nothing but bleach the rag pulp and prepare for the machines in the other mills2 while the super-calendering mill gives the paper an extra finish when ordered4 ,there is practically but one series of processes by which the paper is made in the various mills4 ,it is a curious fact that ,america is not ragged enough to produce the requisite amount of stock for its own paper mills4 ,nearly all the rags used by the ,denison ,mills 7and by others in various parts of the country as well7 are imported from the old countries4 ,all the rags first go through the duster4 ,this is a big cylindrical shell of coarse wire netting4 ,it is rapidly revolved1 while a screw running through its center is turned in the opposite direction4 ,air currents are forced through it by a power fan4 ,the rags are continuously fed into one end of this shell1 which is about ten feet long and four feet in diameter4 ,the screw forces them through the whole length of the shell1 while they are kept buzzing around and subjected to breezes which blow thick clouds of dirt and dust out of them4 ,the air of the room is thick with ,european and ,asiatic earth4 ,it is swept up in great rolls on the floor4 ,the man who operates the duster should have leather lungs4 ,overhead is a long room where thirty girls are busily sorting the rags for the various grades of papers4 ,that the dusting machine is no more perfect than a human machine is evinced by the murky atmosphere of this room1 by the particles that lodge in the throat of the visitor1 and by the frequent coughing of the sorters4 ,they protect their hair with turbans of veiling1 occasionally decorated with a bit of bright color4 ,these turbans give the room the appearance of an industrious ,turkish harem4 ,short1 sharp scythe blades1 like ,turkish scimeters1 gleam above all the girls' benches4 ,when a sorter wishes to cut a rag1 she pulls it across the edge of this blade1 and is not obliged to hunt for a pair of shears4 ,curious discoveries are frequently made in the rags4 ,old pockets1 containing small sums of money1 are occasionally found4 ,a foreign coin valued at about #c was found a few days ago4 ,in the paper stock1 quaint and valuable old books or pictures are found often4 ,one of the workmen has a museum composed of curiosities found amid the rags and shreds of paper4 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,bolles1 of ,massachusetts1 makes an annual pilgrimage to ,mechanic ,falls for the sake of the rare old pamphlets1 books1 and engravings that he may dig out4 ,stuffed in hogsheads1 the rags are lowered from this room through a hatchway1 and are given a red hot lime bath4 ,they are placed in ponderous cylinders of boiler iron1 which revolve horizontally in great gears high above the floor4 ,a mixture of lime and water1 which has been prepared in large brick vats1 is poured over them4 ,an iron door1 secured by huge bolts1 is closed on them4 ,the cylinder slowly turns around1 and churns the rags in the lime-juice twelve hours4 ,this process is called bleaching4 ,when the rags come out they are far from white1 however4 ,they are of a uniform dirty brown hue4 ,but the colors have lost their gripe4 ,when the rags shall have been submitted to the grinding and washing in pure water1 as we shall see them presently1 they are easily whitened4 ,the lime bath is the purgatory of the paper stock4 ,before we go any further1 we must see what becomes of those soft and lop-sided bundles which are going into the mills4 ,these contain chemically prepared wood fiber1 a certain percentage of which is used in nearly all the papers made now4 ,it gives the paper a greater body1 although its fiber is not so strong as that made of rags4 ,the pulp comes down from ,canton in soft brown sheets4 ,these are at once bleached4 ,the brown fiber is placed in a bath of cold water and chlorate of lime4 ,there it quietly rests till a sediment settles at the bottom of the tank4 ,at an opportune moment the workman pours in a copious libation of boiling water4 ,this causes the escape of the chlorine gas1 which destroys all the color in the pulp4 ,in half an hour it comes out1 a mass of smoking fibers as white as a snow heap4 ,the drainers into which it goes are large pens with perforated tile floors4 ,the pulp remains in the drainers till it so dry it is handled with a pitchfork4 ,we are now ready to look at the beating machines1 which have to perform a very important part in paper making4 ,these are large iron tanks with powerful grinders revolving in them4 ,barrow loads of the brown rags are dumped into them1 and clear cold water is poured in4 ,the grinders are then started4 ,they chew the rags into fine bits4 ,they keep the mass of rags and water circulating incessantly in the tanks4 ,clean water constantly flows in and dirty water as constantly flows out4 ,in the course of six hours the rags are reduced to a perfectly white pulpy mass4 ,there is one mill1 as we have said1 devoted exclusively to the reduction of rags to this white pulp4 ,it is dried in drainers such as we saw a few moments ago filled with the wood fiber4 ,there are other beating machines just like these1 which perform a slightly different service4 ,their function may be compared to that of an apothecary's mortar or a cook's mixing dish4 ,the white rag stock and the white wood fiber are mixed in these1 in the required proportions4 ,at this stage1 the pulp is adulterated with ,china clay1 to give it substance and weight2 here the sizing 7composed of resin and sal soda7 is put in2 oil of vitriol1 bluing1 yellow ocher1 and other chemicals are added1 to whiten or to tint the paper4 ,these beaters are much like so many soup kettles4 ,upon the kind1 number1 and proportion of the ingredients depends the nature of the product4 ,the percentages of rag pulp1 wood pulp1 clay1 coloring1 etc41 used1 depend upon the quality of paper ordered4 ,after the final beating1 the mixture descends into a large reservoir called the stuff chest1 whence it is pumped to the paper machine4 ,the pulp is of the consistency of milk when it pours from the spout of the pumps on the paper machine4 ,the latter is a complicated series of rollers1 belts1 sieves1 blankets1 pumps1 and gears1 one hundred feet long4 ,to describe it or to understand a description of it would require the vocabulary and the knowledge of a scientist4 ,the milky pulp first passes over a belt of fine wire cloth1 through which the water partly drains4 ,it is ingeniously made to glide over two perforated iron plates1 under which pumps are constantly sucking4 ,you can plainly see the broad sheet of pulp lose its water and gain thickness as it goes over these plates4 ,broad1 blanket-like belts of felt take it and carry it over and between large rolling cylinders filled with hot steam4 ,these dry and harden it into a sheet which will support itself2 and without the aid of blankets it winds among iron rolls1 called calenders1 which squeeze it and give it surface4 ,it is wound upon revolving reels at the end of the machine4 ,if a better surface or gloss is required1 it is carried to the super calendering mill1 where it is steamed and subjected to a long and circuitous journey up and down tall stands of calenders upon calenders4 ,the paper is cut by machines having long1 winding knives which revolve slowly and cut1 on the scissors principle--no two points of the blade bearing on the paper with equal pressure at once4 ,girls pack the sheets on the tables as they fall from the cutters1 and throw out the damaged or dirtied sheets4 ,a small black spot or hole or imperfection of any sort is sufficient to reject a sheet4 ,in some orders fifty per cent4 of the sheets are thrown out4 ,there is no waste1 as the damaged paper is ground into pulp again4 ,having been cut1 the paper must be counted and folded4 ,then it is packed into bundles for shipment4 ,the young lady who does the counting and folding is the wonder of the mill4 ,giving the sheets a twist with one hand so as to spread open the edges1 she gallops the fingers of the other hand among them2 and as quickly as you or ,i could count three1 she counts twenty-four and folds the quire4 ,she takes four sheets with a finger and goes her whole hand and one finger more2 thus she gets twenty-four sheets4 ,long practice is required to do the counting rapidly and accurately4 ,twenty-four sheets1 no more and no less1 are always found in her quires4 ,papers of different grades are made of different stock1 but by the same process4 ,some paper stock is used4 ,this must be bleached in lime and soda ash4 ,there are powerful steam engines in the mills for use when the water is low4 ,there are large furnaces and boilers which supply the steam used in the processes4 ,the ,messrs4 ,denison employ #age hands at ,mechanic ,falls4 ,their pay roll amounts to about #e1jjj per month4 ,the mills produce #cej1jjj pounds of paper per month and they ship several car-loads of prepared wood-pulp1 in excess of that required for their own use1 weekly4 ,the annual value of their product is not far from #cjj1jjj4 ,they use1 for sundries1 each month1 #cjj tons of coal1 #ajj casks of common lime1 #bej gallons of burning-oil1 #bh1jjj pounds of chlorate of lime1 #c1gjj pounds of soda ash4 #aj1jjj pounds of resin4 #bd1jjj pounds of sal soda1 #bb1jjj pounds of oil of vitriol1 #bb1jjj pounds of ,china clay1 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,wheat-,,meal ,,bread ,,as ,a ,,means ,,of ,,diminishing ,,tubercular ,,disease4 ,by ,m4 ,,yates1 ,hon4 ,sec4 ,bread ,reform ,league1 ,london4 ,it is well recognized that defective mineral nutrition is an important factor in the production of rickets and bad teeth1 but as its influence in predisposing toward tuberculous disease is not so clearly ascertained1 will you kindly allow public attention to be directed to a statement which was discussed at the ,social ,science and ,sanitary ,congresses and which1 if confirmed by further scientific research1 indicates a simple means of diminishing consumption1 which1 as ,dr4 ,william ,fair1 ,f4,r4,s41 says1 is the greatest1 the most constant1 and the most dreadful of all the diseases that affect mankind4 ,in ,phosphates in ,nutrition1 by ,mr4 ,m4,f4 ,anderson1 it is stated that although the external appearances and general condition of a body when death has occurred from starvation are very similar to those presented in tuberculous disease1 in starvation1 from wasting of the tissues1 caused by the combustion of their organic matter1 there would be an apparent increase in the percentage proportion of mineral matter2 on the other hand1 in tubercular disease1 there would be a material decrease in the mineral matter as compared with the general wasting4 ,analyses1 made by ,mr4 ,anderson1 of the vascular tissues of patients who have died of consumption1 scrofula1 and allied diseases1 show a very marked deficiency in the quantity of inorganic matter entering into their composition2 this deficiency is not confined to the organs or tissues which are apparently the seat of the disease1 but in a greater or lesser degree pervades the whole capillary system4 ,the observations of ,dr4 ,marcet1 ,f4,r4,s41 show that in phthisis there is a considerable reduction of the normal amount of phosphoric acid in the pulmonary tissues2 and it is very probable that there is a general drain of phosphoric acid from the system4 ,this loss may be caused by the expectoration and night-sweats1 or it may also be produced by defective mineral nutrition1 either from deficient supply in the food1 or from non assimilation4 ,but1 whatever causes this deficiency1 it is universally acknowledged that it is essential the food should contain a proper supply of the mineral elements4 ,if the body is well nourished1 the resisting force of the system is raised4 ,professor ,koch and others1 who accept the germ theory of disease to its fullest extent1 state that the minute organisms of tubercular disease do not occur in the tissues of healthy bodies1 and that when introduced into a living body their propagation and increase are greatly favored by a low state of the general health4 ,dr4 ,pavy1 ,f4,r4,s41 showed in his address on the ,dietetics of ,bread that in white flour1 instead of obtaining the #bc parts of mineral matter to #ajj parts of nitrogenous matter--which is the accepted ratio of a standard diet--we should only get #d4bj parts of mineral matter4 ,professor ,church states that #a lb4 of white flour has only #di grains of mineral matter1 while #a lb4 of whole wheat meal has #aai grains4 ,whole wheat meal1 besides containing other essential mineral elements1 has double the amount of lime1 and nearly three times the amount of phosphoric acid2 so that if defective mineral nutrition in any way predisposes to consumption1 the adoption of wheat meal prepared in a digestible and palatable form is of primary importance for those who are unable to obtain the phosphates from high-priced animal foods4 ,wheat meal has also great advantages for those who are able to afford animal food1 for1 as ,dr4 ,pavy stated1 ,it acts as a greater stimulant to the digestive organs4 ,it is probably due to this stimulating property of wheat meal that people who have adopted it find they can digest animal fat much better than previously4 ,if this is corroborated by general experience1 it may be of great benefit in aiding the system to resist tendencies toward consumption and scrofula1 for these diseases are generally accompanied by loss of the power of assimilating fat4 ,it is believed that a deficiency of oleaginous matter is a predisposing cause of tuberculous disease4 ,an important prophylactic1 therefore1 against such maladies1 would be a general increase in the use of butter and other fatty foods4 ,there is such good reason to believe that a low state of nutrition favors the development of tuberculous disease1 that parents cannot be too strongly urged to provide their children with a proper supply of healthy1 nourishing1 and pure food 7under which term must1 of course1 be included pure air and pure water71 for by so doing they may often arrest consumptive tendencies1 and thus would be diminished the ravages of that fatal disease which1 when once established1 is the despair of the physician1 and the terror of the public4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,fish ,,commission ,,ponds ,,at ,,caledonia4 ,the capacity of the ,new ,york ,state fish farm at ,caledonia is #f1jjj1jjj fry a year4 ,the recently issued report of the fish commissioners says that this year the ponds will be worked to their full capacity4 ,the supply of spawn has been greater than could be hatched there1 and supplies were sent to responsible persons in every ,state in the ,union to be experimented with4 ,at the date of issuing the report the supply of stock fish at the hatchery embraced1 it was estimated1 a thousand salmon trout1 of weights ranging from four to twelve pounds2 ten thousand brook trout1 from half a pound to two pounds in weight2 thirty thousand ,california mountain trout1 weighing from a quarter of a pound to three pounds2 forty-seven hundred rainbow trout1 of from a quarter of a pound to two pounds' weight2 and a large number of hybrids produced by crossing and interbreeding of different members of the salmon tribe4 ,in this connection reference is made to the interesting fact that hybrids of the fish family are not barren4 ,spawners produced by crossing the male brook trout with the female salmon trout cast #gb1jjj eggs last fall1 which hatched as readily as the spawn of their progenitors4 ,the value of the stock of breeding fish at the hatchery is estimated at #bj1jjj4 ,the hatch of salmon trout this season was not far from #a1bjj1jjj1 and these will be distributed chiefly in the large lakes of the interior4 ,about a million little brook trout were produced4 ,the commission doubts whether much benefit has resulted from attempting to stock small streams that have once been good trout waters1 but the temperature of which has been changed by cutting away the forest trees that overhung them4 ,the best results have been attained where the waters are of considerable extent1 especially those in and bordering on the wilderness in the northern part of the ,state4 ,the experiments with ,california trout1 have been very successful1 and it is found that the streams most suitable for them1 are the ,hudson1 ,genesee1 ,mohawk1 ,moose1 ,black1 and ,beaver rivers1 and the ,east and ,west ,canada creeks4 ,the commission hopes to hatch #f1jjj1jjj or #h1jjj1jjj shad this season at a cost of about #a1jjj4 ,concerning ,german carp1 the commissioners find that the water at ,caledonia is too cold for this fish1 but think that carp would do well in waters further south4 ,the commission awaits a more liberal appropriation of money before beginning the work of hatching at the new ,state fish farm at ,cold ,spring1 on the north side of ,long ,island1 thirty miles out from ,brooklyn4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,miocene ,,man4 ,grant ,allen1 an ,english evolutionist1 gives this imaginary picture of our supposed ancestor3 ,we may not unjustifiably picture him to ourselves as a tall and hairy creature1 more or less erect1 but with a slouching gait1 black faced and whiskered1 with prominent1 prognathous muzza1 and large1 pointed canine teeth1 those of each jaw fitted into an interspace in the opposite row4 ,these teeth1 as ,mr4 ,darwin suggests1 were used in the combats of the males4 ,his forehead was no doubt low and retreating1 with bony bosses underlying the shaggy eyebrows1 which gave him a fierce expression1 something like that of the gorilla4 ,but already1 in all likelihood1 he had learned to walk habitually erect1 and had begun to develop a human pelvis1 as well as to carry his head more straight on his shoulders4 ,that some such animal must have existed seems to me an inevitable corollary from the general principles of evolution and a natural inference from the analogy of other living genera4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,goulier',s ,,tube-,,gauge4 ,as well known1 the method by which glass barometer tubes are made gives them variable calibers4 ,not only do the different tubes vary in size1 but even the same tube is apt to have different diameters throughout its length1 and its sections are not always circular4 ,manufacturers of barometers often have need to know exactly the dimensions of the sections of these tubes1 and to ascertain whether they are equal throughout a certain length of tube1 and this is especially necessary in those instruments in which the surfaces of the sections of the reservoir and tube must bear a definite ratio to one another4 ,having ascertained that no apparatus existed for measuring the caliber of these and anolagous tubes1 and that manufacturers had been accustomed to make the measurements by roundabout methods1 ,colonel ,goulier has been led to devise a small apparatus for the purpose1 and which is shown in the accompanying cuts4 ,illustration3 ,,goulier',s ,,tube ,,gauge4 7,plan and longitudinal and tranverse sections47 ,the extremity of a brass tube1 ,t1 #j4e to #j4f of a meter in length and smaller in diameter than the tube to be gauged1 is cut into four narrow strips a few centimeters in length4 ,the extremity of each of these strips is bent toward the axis of the tube4 ,two of them1 m and m'1 opposite each other are made very flexible1 and carry1 riveted to their extremities1 two steel buttons1 the heads of which1 placed in the interior1 have the form of an obtuse quoin with rounded edge directed perpendicular to the tube's axis4 ,the other extremities of these buttons are spherical and polished and serve as caliper points in the operation of measuring4 ,these buttons are given a thickness such that when the edges of their heads are in contact1 the external diameter of the tube exceeds the distance apart of the two calibrating points by more than one millimeter4 ,but such distance apart is increased within certain limits by inserting between the buttons a ,german silver wedge1 ,l1 carried by a rod1 t1 which traverses the entire tube1 and which is maneuvered by a head1 ,b1 fixed to its extremity4 ,this rod carries a small screw1 v1 whose head slides in a groove1 r1 in the tube1 so as to limit the travel of the wedge and prevent its rotation4 ,beneath the head1 ,b1 the rod is filed so as to give it a plane surface for the reception of a divided scale4 ,a corresponding slit in the top of the tube carries the index1 ,i1 of the scale4 ,the principal divisions of the scale have been obtained experimentally1 and traced opposite the index when the calibrating points were exactly #g1 #h1 #i etc41 millimeters apart4 ,as the angle of the wedge is about one tenth1 the intervals between these divisions are about one centimeter4 ,these intervals are divided into ten parts1 each of which corresponds to a variation in distance of one tenth of a millimeter4 ,to calibrate a glass tube with this instrument1 the tube is laid upon the table1 the gauge is inserted1 and the buttons are introduced into the section desired4 ,the flat side of the head1 ,b1 being laid on the table1 arranges1 as shown in the figure1 the buttons perpendicular to it4 ,then the measuring wedge is introduced until a stoppage occurs through the contact of the buttons with the sides of the tube4 ,finally1 their distance apart is read on the scale4 ,such distance apart will be the measure of a diameter or a chord of the tube's section1 according as the buttons have been kept in the diametral plane or moved out of it4 ,in order that the operator shall not be obliged to watch the position of the line of calibrating buttons in obtaining the diameter1 the following arrangement has been devised3 ,the sides of the measuring wedge are filed off to a certain angle1 and the ends of the corresponding strips1 d and d'1 are bent inward in the form of hooks1 whose extremities always rest on the faces of the directing wedges4 ,the length of these hooks and the angle of the wedge are such that the distance apart of the rounded backs of the directing strips is everywhere less1 by about one-thirtieth1 than that of the calibrating buttons4 ,from this it will be seen that if the wedge be drawn back1 and inserted again after the tube has been turned1 we shall measure the diameter that is actually vertical4 ,it becomes possible1 then1 to determine the greatest and smallest diameters in a few minutes2 and1 supposing the section elliptical1 its area will be obtained by multiplying the product of these two diameters by pi_/#d4 ,from the description here given it will be seen that ,colonel ,goulier's apparatus is not only convenient to use1 but also permits of obtaining as accurate results as are necessary4 ,two sizes of the instrument are made1 one for diameters of from #g to #aj4e mm41 and the other for those of from #aj to #ae4e mm4 ,it is the former of these that is shown1 of actual size1 in the cuts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,soldering ,,without ,,an ,,iron4 ,the following method for soldering without the use of a soldering iron is given in the ,techniker3 ,the parts to be joined are made to fit accurately1 either by filing or on a lathe4 ,the surfaces are moistened with the soldering fluid1 a smooth piece of tin foil laid on1 and the pieces pressed together and tightly wired4 ,the article is then heated over the fire or by means of a lamp until the tin foil melts4 ,in this way two pieces of brass can be soldered together so nicely that the joint can scarcely be found4 ,with good soft solder1 nearly all kinds of soldering can be done over a lamp without the use of a copper4 ,if several piaces have to be soldered on the same piece1 it is well to use solder of unlike fusibility4 ,if the first piece is soldered with fine solder composed of #b parts of lead1 #a of tin1 and #b of bismuth1 there is no danger of its melting when another place near it is soldered with bismuth solder1 made of #d parts of lead1 #d of tin1 and #a of bismuth1 for their melting points differ so much that the former will not melt when the latter does4 ,many solders do not form any malleable compounds4 ,in soldering together brass1 copper1 or iron1 hard solder must be employed2 for example1 a solder made of equal parts of brass and silver 7674 ,for iron1 copper1 or brass of high melting point1 a good solder is obtained by rolling a silver coin out thin1 for it furnishes a tenacious compound1 and one that is not too expensive1 since silver stretches out well4 ,borax is the best flux for hard soldering4 ,it dissolves the oxides which form on the surface of the metal1 and protects it from further oxidation1 so that the solder comes into actual contact with the surfaces of the metal4 ,for soft soldering1 the well-known fluid1 made by saturating equal parts of water and hydrochloric acid with zinc1 is to be used4 ,in using common solder rosin is the cheapest and best flux4 ,it also has this advantage1 that it does not rust the article that it is used on4--,deutsche ,industrie ,zeitung4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,working ,,copper ,,ores ,,at ,,spenceville4 ,from a letter in the ,grass ,valley ,tidings we make the following extracts3 ,the ,spenceville ,copper ,mining ,company have #dc acres of copper-bearing ground and #ajj acres of adjoining land1 which was bought for the timber4 ,there are a hoisting works1 mill1 roasting sheds1 and leaching vats on the ground1 and they cover several acres4 ,on going around with ,mr4 ,ellis1 the first place we came to was the mine proper1 which is simply an immense opening in the ground covering about one half of an acre1 and about #hj feet deep4 ,it has an incline running down into it1 by which the ore is hoisted to the surface4 ,standing on the brink of this opening and looking down1 we could see the men at work1 some drilling1 others filling and running the cars to the incline to be hoisted to the surface4 ,the ore is found in a sort of chloritic slate and iron pyrites which follow the ledge all around4 ,the ore itself is a fine-grained pyrite1 with a grayish color1 and it is well suited by its sulphur and low copper contents1 as well as by its properties for heap roasting4 ,in heap roasting1 the ore is hand-broken by ,chinamen into small lumps before being hoisted to the surface4 ,from the landing on the surface it is run out on long tracks under sheds1 dumped around a loose brick flue and on a few sticks of wood formed in the shape of a ,v1 which runs to the flues to give a draught4 ,layers of brush are put on at intervals through the pile4 ,the smaller lumps are placed in the core of the heap1 the larger lumps thrown upon them1 and #dj tons of tank residues thrown over all to exclude excess of air2 #ejj lb4 of salt is then distributed through the pile1 and it is then set afire4 ,after well alight the draught-holes are closed up1 and the pile is left to burn1 which it does for six months4 ,at the expiration of that time the pile is broken into and sorted1 the imperfectly roasted ore is returned to a fresh roast-heap1 and the rest trammed to the ,,leach-,,vats4 ,these are #ej in number1 #aj having been recently added4 ,the first #dj are four feet by six feet and four feet deep1 the remaining #aj twice as large4 ,about two tons of burnt ore is put in the small vats 7twice as much in the larger ones71 half the vats being tilled at one time1 and then enough cold water is turned in to cover the ore4 ,steam is then injected beneath the ore1 thus boiling the water4 ,after boiling for some time1 the steam is turned off and the water allowed to go cold4 ,the water1 which after the boiling process turns to a dark red color1 is then drawn off4 ,this water carries the copper in a state of solution4 ,the ore is then boiled a second time1 after which the tank residues are thrown out and water kept sprinkling over them4 ,this water collects the copper still left in the residues1 and is then run into a reservoir1 and from the reservoirs still further on into settling tanks1 previous to ,,precipitation1 and is then conducted through a system of boxes filled with scrap iron1 thus precipitating the copper4 ,the richer copper liquors which have been drawn from the tanks fire not allowed to run in with that which comes from the dump heaps4 ,this liquor is also run into settling tanks1 and from them pumped into four large barrels1 mounted horizontally on friction rollers1 to which a very slow motion is given4 ,these barrels are #ah feet long and six feet six inches deep outside measure4 ,they are built very strongly1 and are water-tight4 ,ten tons of scrap iron are always kept in each of these barrels1 which are refilled six times daily1 complete precipitation being effected in less than four hours4 ,each barrel is provided with two safety valves1 inserted in the heads1 which open automatically to allow the escape of gas and steam4 ,the precipitation of the copper in the barrels forms copper cement4 ,this cement is discharged from the barrels on to screens which hold any lumps of scrap iron which may be discharged with the cement4 ,it is then dried by steam1 after which it is conveyed into another tank1 left to cool1 and then placed in bags ready for shipment1 as copper cement4 ,the building in which the liquor is treated is the mill part of the property1 from which they send out #db tons monthly of an average of #he per cent1 of copper cement1 this being the average yield of the mine4 ,there are #bc white men and #dj ,chinamen employed at the mine and the mill4 ,there are also several wood choppers1 etc41 on the company's pay-roll4 ,eight months' supply of ore is always kept on hand1 there now being #ab1jjj tons roasting4 ,the mine is now paying regular monthly dividends1 and everything argues well for the continuance of the same4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sir ,,william ,,thomson',s ,,pile4 ,the ,thomson pile1 which is employed with success for putting in action the siphon recorder1 and which is utilized in a certain number of cases in which an energetic and constant current is needed1 is made in two forms4 ,we shall describe first the one used for demonstration4 ,each element of this 7,fig4 #a7 consists of a disk of copper placed at the bottom of a cylindrical glass vessel1 and of a piece of zinc in the form of a grating placed at the upper part1 near the surface of the solution4 ,a glass tube is placed vertically in the solution1 its lower extremity resting on the copper4 ,into this tube are thrown some crystals of sulphate of copper1 which dissolve in the liquid1 and form a solution of a greater density than that of the zinc alone1 and which1 consequently1 cannot reach the zinc by diffusion4 ,in order to retard the phenomenon of diffusion1 a glass siphon containing a cotton wick is placed with one of its extremities midway between the copper and zinc1 and the other in a vessel outside the element1 so that the liquid is sucked up slowly nearly to its center4 ,the liquid is replaced by adding from the top either water or a weak solution of sulphate of zinc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,the ,,thomson ,,pile47,type for demonstration47 ,the greater part of the sulphate of copper that rises through the liquid by diffusion is carried off by the siphon before reaching the zinc1 the latter being thus surrounded with an almost pure solution of sulphate of copper having a slow motion from top to bottom4 ,this renewal of the liquid is so much the more necessary in that the saturated solution of sulphate of copper has a density of #a4aff1 and the sulphate of zinc one of #a4dde1 ,there would occur1 then1 a mixture through inversion of densities if the solution were allowed to reach a too great amount of saturation1 did not the siphon prevent such a phenomenon by sucking up the liquid into the part where the mixture tends to take place4 ,the chemical action that produces the current is identical with that of the ,daniell element4 ,in its application1 this pile is considerably modified in form and arrangement4 ,each element 7,fig #b7 consists of a flat wooden hopper-shaped trough1 about fifty centimeters square1 lined with sheet lead to make it impervious4 ,the bottom is covered with a sheet of copper and above this there is a zinc grate formed of closely set bars that allow the liquid to circulate4 ,this grate is provided with a rim which serves to support a second similar element1 and the latter a third1 and soon until there are ten of the elements superposed to form series mounted for tension4 ,the weight of the elements is sufficient to secure a proper contact between the zinc and copper of the elements placed beneath them1 such contact being established by means of a band of copper cut out of the sheet itself1 and bent over the trough4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,the ,,thomson ,,pile4 7,siphon ,recorder ,type47 ,on account of the large dimensions of the elements1 and the proximity of the two metals1 a pile is obtained whose internal resistance is very feeble1 it being always less than a tenth of an ohm when the pile is in a good state1 and the electromotive force being that of the ,daniell element--about #a #jh volts4 ,sometimes the zinc is covered with a sheet of parchment which more thoroughly prevents a mixture of the liquids and a deposit of copper on the zinc4 ,but such a precaution is not indispensable1 if care be taken to keep up the pile by taking out some of the solution of sulphate of zinc every day1 and adding sulphate of copper in crystals4 ,if the pile is to remain idle for some time1 it is better to put it on a short circuit in order to use up all the sulphate of copper1 the disappearance of which will be ascertained by the loss of blue color in the liquid4 ,in current service1 on the contrary1 a disappearance of the blue color will indicate an insufficiency of the sulphate1 and will be followed by a considerable reduction in the effects produced by the pile4 ,the great power of this pile1 and its constancy1 when it is properly kept up1 constitute features that are indispensable for the proper working of the siphon recorder--the application for which it was more especially designed4 ,this apparatus has been also employed under some circumstances for producing an electric light and charging accumulators2 but such applications are without economic interest1 seeing the enormous consumption of sulphate of copper during the operation of the pile4 ,the use of the apparatus is only truly effective in cases where it is necessary to have1 before everything else1 an energetic and exceedingly constant current4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,siemens' ,,telemeter ,the accompanying cut illustrates a telemeter which was exhibited at the ,paris ,exhibition of ,electricity1 and which is particularly interesting from the fact that it is the first apparatus of this kind4 ,it will be remembered that the object of a telemeter is to make known at any moment whatever the distance of a movable object1 and that1 too1 by a direct reading and without any calculation4 ,in ,mr4 ,siemens' apparatus the problem is solved in the following manner3 ,the movable object 7very often a vessel7 is sighted from two different stations--two points of the coast1 for example--by two different observers4 ,the sighting is done with two telescopes1 ,a#a and ,a#b1 which the observers revolve around a vertical axis by means of two winches1 ,k#a and ,k#b1 that gear with two trains of clockwork4 ,there is thus constantly formed a large triangle1 having for its apices the movable point sighted and the vertical axes1 ,a#a and ,a#b1 of the two telescopes4 ,on another hand1 at a point situated between the two telescopes1 there is a table1 ,t ,t1 that carries two alidades1 a#av#a1 and a#bv#b1 movable around their vertical axes1 a#a and a#b4 ,the line1 a#a a#b1 that joins these axes is parallel with that which joins the axes of the two telescopes2 and the alidades are connected electrically with the telescopes by a system such that each alidade always moves parallel with the telescope that corresponds to it4 ,it follows from this that the small triangle that has for apices1 a#a a#b1 and the crossing point of the two alidades will always be like the large triangle formed by the line that joins the telescopes and the two lines of vision4 ,if1 then1 we know the ratio of a#a1 a#b to ,a#a ,a#b1 it will suffice to measure on one of the alidades the distance from its axis to the point of crossing in order to know the distance from the movable object to the axis of the corresponding telescope4 ,if the table1 ,t ,t1 be covered with a chart giving the space over which the ship is moving1 so that a#a and a#b shall coincide with the points which ,a#a and ,a#b represent1 the crossing of the threads of the alidades will permit of following on the chart all the ship's movements4 ,in this way there maybe had a powerful auxiliary in coast defence2 for all the points at which torpedoes have been sunk may be marked on the chart1 and1 as soon as the operator at the table finds1 by the motion of the alidades1 that the ship under observation is directly over a torpedo1 he will be able to fire the latter and blow the enemy up4 ,during this time the two observers at ,a#a and ,a#b have only to keep their telescopes directed upon the vessel that it has been agreed upon to watch4 ,illustration3 ,,siemens' ,,electric ,,telemeter ,in order to obtain a parallelism between the motion of the alidades and that of the corresponding telescopes1 the winch of each of the latter1 while putting its instrument in motion1 also sets in motion a ,siemens double-,t armature electromagnetic machine4 ,one of the wires of the armature of this machine1 connected to the frame1 is always in communication with the ground at ,e#a 7if we consider1 for example1 the telescope to the left71 and the other ends in a spring that alternately touches two contacts4 ,one of these contacts communicates with the wire1 ,l#a and the other with the wire1 ,l#c1 so that1 when the machine is revolving1 the currents are sent alternately into ,l#a and ,l#c4 ,these two latter wires end in a system of electro magnets1 ,m#a1 provided with a polarized armature4 ,the motions of the latter act1 through an anchor escapement1 upon a system of wheels4 ,an axle1 set in motion by the latter1 revolves one way or the other1 according to the direction of the telescope's motions4 ,this axle is provided with an endless screw that gears with a toothed sector1 and the latter controls the rotatory axis of the alidade4 ,the elements of the toothed wheels and the number of revolutions of the armature for a given displacement of the telescope being properly calculated1 it will be seen that the alidade will be able to follow all the movements of the latter4 ,when it is desired to place one of the telescopes in a given position 7its position of zero1 for example71 without acting on the alidade1 it may be done by acting directly on the telescope itself without the intermedium of the winch4 ,for such purpose it is necessary to interrupt communication with the mechanism by pressing on the button1 q4 ,if the telescope be turned to one side or the other of its normal position1 in making it describe an angle of #ij1 it will abut against stops1 and these two positions will permit of determining the direction of the base4 ,the alidades themselves are provided with a button which disengages the toothed sector from the endless screw1 and permits of their being turned to a mark made on the table4 ,a regulating screw permits of this operation being performed very accurately4 ,in what precedes1 we have supposed a case in which the movable point is viewed by two observers1 and in which the table1 ,t ,t1 is stationed at a place distant from them4 ,in certain cases only two stations are employed4 ,one of the telescopes is then placed over its alidade and moves with it2 and the apparatus thus comprehends only a system of synchronous movements4 ,this telemeter was one of the first that was tried in our military ports1 and gave therein most satisfactory results4 ,the maneuver of the winch1 however1 requires a certain amount of stress1 and in order that the sending of the currents shall be regular1 the operator must turn it very uniformly4 ,this is a slight difficulty that has led to the use of piles1 instead of the magneto-electric machine1 in the apparatus employed in ,france4 ,with such substitution there is need of nothing more than a movable contact that requires no exertion1 and that may be guided by the telescope itself4--,la ,lumire ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,physics ,,without ,,apparatus4 ,experiment in ,static ,electricity4--,take a pipe--a common clay one costing one cent--and balance it carefully on the edge of a goblet1 so that it will oscillate freely at the least touch1 like the beam of a scales4 ,this being done1 say to your audience3 ,here is a pipe placed on the edge of a goblet2 now the question is to make it fall without touching it1 without blowing against it1 without touching the glass1 without agitating the air with a fan1 and without moving the supporting table ,illustration3 ,,clay ,,pipe ,,attracted ,,by ,,an ,,electrified ,,goblet4 ,the problem thus proposed may be solved by means of electricity4 ,take a goblet like the one that supports the pipe1 and rub it briskly against your coat sleeve1 so as to electrify the glass through friction4 ,having done this1 bring the goblet to within about a centimeter of the pipe stem4 ,the latter will then be seen to be strongly attracted1 and will follow the glass around and finally fall from its support4 ,this curious experiment is a pretty variation of the electric pendulum2 and it shows that pipe-clay--a very bad conductor of electricity--favors very well the attraction of an electrified body4 ,tumblers or goblets are to be found in every house1 and a clay pipe is easily procured anywhere4 ,so it would be difficult to produce manifestations of electricity more easily and at less expense than by the means here described4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,cascade ,,battery4 ,footnote3 ,lately read before the ,society of ,telegraph ,engineers and ,electricians4 ,by ,f4 ,,higgins4 ,the battery which ,i have brought here to-night to introduce to your notice is of the circulating kind1 in which the alimentary fluid employed passes from cell to cell by gravitation1 and maintains the action of the battery as long as it continues to flow4 ,it cannot1 of course1 compare with such abundant sources of electricity as dynamo-electric machines driven by steam power1 but for purposes in which a current of somewhat greater volume and constancy than that furnished by the ordinary voltaic batteries is required1 it will1 ,i believe1 be found in some cases useful4 ,a single fluid is employed1 and each cell is provided with an overflow spout4 ,the cells are arranged upon steps1 in order that the liquid may flow from the cell on the topmost step through each successive cell by gravitation specimen cells were on the table before the audience to the reservoir at the bottom4 ,the top and the bottom reservoirs are of equal capacity1 and are fitted with taps4 ,the topmost tap is used to regulate the flow of the solution1 and the bottom one to draw it off4 ,in each cell two carbon plates are suspended above a quantity of fragments of amalgamated zinc4 ,the following is a sectional drawing of the arrangement of the cell3 ,illustration ,a copper wire passes down to the bottom of the cell and makes connection with the mercury2 this wire is covered with gutta-percha1 except where immersed in the mercury4 ,the pores of the carbon plates are filled with paraffin wax4 ,this battery was first employed for the purpose of utilizing waste solution from bichromate batteries1 a great quantity of which is thrown away before having been completely exhausted4 ,this waste is unavoidable1 in consequence of the impossibility of permitting such batteries1 when employed for telegraphic purposes1 to run until complete exhaustion or reduction of the solutions has been effected2 therefore some valuable chemicals have to be sacrificed to insure constancy in working4 ,the fragments of zinc in this cell were also the remains of amalgamated zinc plates from the bichromate batteries1 and the mercury which is employed for securing good metallic connection is soon augmented by that remaining after the dissolution of the zinc4 ,it will therefore be seen that not only the solution1 but also the zinc and mercury remnants of bichromate batteries are utilized1 and at the same time a considerable quantity of electricity is generated4 ,the cells are seven inches deep and six inches wide1 outside1 and contain about a quart of solution in addition to the plates4 ,the battery which ,i employ regularly1 consisting of #ah cells1 is at present working nine permanent current ,morse circuits1 which previously required #bej telegraphic ,daniell cells to produce the same effect1 and is capable of working at least ten times the number of circuits which ,i have mentioned2 but as we do not happen to have any more of such permanent current ,morse circuits1 we are unable to make all the use possible of the capabilities of the battery4 ,the potential of one cell is from #a4i to #b volts with strong solution1 and the internal resistance varies from #j4ajh to #j4agj of an ohm with cells of the size described4 ,in order to test the constancy of the battery1 a red heat was maintained in a platinum-iridium wire by the current for six weeks1 both day and night4 ,the absence or exhaustion of the zinc in any one cell in a battery is indicated by the appearance of a red insoluble chromic salt of mercury1 in a finely divided state1 floating in the faulty cell4 ,it is then necessary to drop in some pieces of zinc4 ,the state of the zinc supply may also be ascertained at any time by feeling about in the cells with a stick4 ,when not required1 the battery may be washed by simply charging the top reservoir with water1 and leaving it to circulate in the usual manner1 or the solution may be withdrawn from each cell by a siphon4 ,a very small flow of the solution is sufficient to maintain the required current for telegraphic working1 but if the flow be stopped altogether for a few hours1 no difference is observed in the current1 although when the current is required to be maintained in a conductor of a few ohms resistance1 as in heating a platinum wire1 it is necessary that the circulation be maintained heating a piece of platinum ribbon4 ,the battery furnishing the current for producing the effect you now see is of five cells1 and as that number is reduced down to two1 you see a glow still appears in the platinum4 ,the platinum strip employed was #e inches long and #a_/h inch wide1 its resistance being #j4db ohm1 cold4 ,that gives an idea of the volume of current flowing4 ,i have twelve electro magnets in printing instruments joined up on the table1 and joining up the battery you see that the two cells are sufficient to work them4 ,the twelve electro-magnets are being worked 7by the two cells7 in multiple arc at the same time4 ,the current from the cells which heated the platinum wire is amply sufficient to magnetize a ,thomson recorder4 ,i have maintained five inches of platinum ribbon in a red hot state for two hours1 in order to make sure that the battery ,i was about to bring before you was in good order4 ,the cost of working such a battery when waste solution cannot be obtained1 and it is necessary to use specially prepared bichromate solution1 is about #b;d4 per cell per day1 with a current constantly active in a ,thomson recorder circuit1 or a resistance of #a ohms per cell2 but if only occasionally used1 the same quantity of solution will last several weeks4 ,a comparison of this with another form of constant battery1 the ,daniell1 as used in telegraphy1 shows that six of these cells1 with a total electromotive force of #ab volts and an internal resistance of #j4hd of an ohm1 cannot be replaced by less than #ga batteries of #aj cells each1 connected in multiple arc1 or for quantity4 ,this result1 however large it may appear1 is considerably below that which may be obtained when working telegraphic lines4 ,a current of #j4jb weber1 or ampere1 will work an ordinary sounder or direct writing ,morse circuit2 the cascade battery is capable of working #ajj such circuits at the same time1 while the combined resistance of that number of lines would not be below that in which it is found that the battery is constant in action4 ,objection may be made to the arrangement of the battery on the score of waste of zinc by local action1 because of the electro positive metal being exposed to the chromic liquid2 but if the battery be out of action and the circulation stopped1 the zinc amalgam is protected by the immobility of the liquid and the formation of a dense layer of sulphate of zinc on its surface4 ,when in action1 that effect is neutralized from the fact that carbon in chromic acid is more highly electro-negative than the chromate of mercury formed upon the zinc amalgam1 and which appears to be the cause of the dissolution of the zinc even when amalgamated in the presence of chromic acid4 ,the solution may be repeatedly passed through the battery until the absence of the characteristic warmth of color of chromic acid indicates its complete exhaustion4 ,during a description before the ,society of thermo-electric batteries some time ago1 ,mr4 ,preece mentioned that five of the thermopiles which were being tried at the ,post-,office were doing the work of #b1ece of the battery cells previously employed4 ,thirty of the cascade cells would have about the same potential as five such thermopiles1 but would supply three and a half times the current1 and be capable of doing the work of #h1hgb cells if employed upon the universal battery system in the same manner as the thermo batteries referred to4 ,although this battery will do all that is required for a ,thomson recorder or a similar instrument much more cheaply in this country than the tray battery1 and with half the number of cells1 ,i do not think it would be the case in distant countries1 on account of the difficulty and cost of transport4 ,a solid compound of chromic and sulphuric acids could be manufactured which would overcome this difficulty1 if permanent magnetic fields for submarine telegraphic instruments continue to be produced by electric vortices4 ,in conclusion1 and to enable comparisons to be made1 ,i may mention that the work this battery is capable of performing is #gcb1dhb foot pounds1 at a total cost of #as4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,from ,,the ,,school ,,journal4 ,,perfectly ,,lovely ,,philosophy4 ,,characters3 ,laura and ,isabel1 dressed very stylishly1 both with hats on4 ,enter hand in hand4 ,laura4 ,my dear ,isabel1 ,i was so afraid you would not come4 ,i waited at that horrid station a full half hour for you4 ,i went there early on purpose1 so as to be sure not to miss you4 ,isabel4 ,oh1 you sweet girl6 ,l4 ,now1 sit right down2 you must be tired4 ,just lay your hat there on the table1 and we'll begin to visit right off4 7,both lay their hats on the table and stand near by47 ,i4 ,and how have you been all the ages since we were together at ,boston8 ,l4 ,oh1 well1 dear2 those were sweet old school days1 weren't they4 ,how are you enjoying yourself now8 ,you wrote that you were taking lessons in philosophy4 ,tell me how you like it4 ,is it real sweet8 ,i ,oh1 those ,i took in the winter were perfectly lovely6 ,it was about science1 you know1 and all of us just doled on science4 ,l4 ,it must have been nice4 ,what was it about8 ,i4 ,it was about molecules as much as anything else1 and molecules are just too awfully nice for anything4 ,if there's anything ,i really enjoy1 it's molecules4 ,l4 ,oh1 tell me about them1 dear4 ,what are molecules8 ,i4 ,they are little wee things1 and it takes ever so many of them1 you know4 ,they are so sweet6 ,do you know1 there isn't anything but that's got a molecule in it4 ,and the professors are so lovely6 ,they explained everything so beautifully4 ,l4 ,oh1 how ,i'd like to have been there6 ,i4 ,you'd have enjoyed it ever so much4 ,they teach protoplasm1 too1 and if there's one thing that is too sweetly divine1 it's protoplasm4 ,i really don't know which ,i like best1 protoplasm or molecules4 ,l4 ,tell me about protoplasm4 ,i know ,i should adore it6 ,i4 ',deed you would4 ,it's just too sweet to live4 ,you know it's about how things get started1 or something of that kind4 ,you ought to have heard the professors tell about it4 ,oh4 dear6 7,wipes her eyes with handkerchief7 ,the first time he explained about protoplasm there wasn't a dry eye in the room4 ,we all named our hats after the professors4 ,this is a ,darwinian hat4 ,you see the ribbon is drawn over the crown this way 7takes hat and illustrates71 and caught with a buckle and bunch of flowers4 ,then you turn up the side with a spray of forget me-nots4 ,l4 ,oh1 how utterly sweet6 ,do tell me some more of science4 ,i adore it already4 ,i4 ,do you1 dear8 ,well1 ,i almost forgot about differentiation4 ,i am really and truly positively in love with differentiation4 ,it's different from molecules and protoplasms1 but it's every bit as nice4 ,and our professor6 ,you should hear him enthuse about it2 he's perfectly bound up in it4 ,this is a differentiation scarf--they've just come out4 ,all the girls wear them--just on account of the interest we take in differentiation4 ,l4 ,what is it1 anyway8 ,i4 ,mull trimmed with ,languedoc lace1 but-- ,l4 ,i don't mean that--the other4 ,i4 ,oh1 differentiation6 ,that's just sweet4 ,it's got something to do with species4 ,and we learn all about ascidians1 too4 ,they are the divinest things6 ,if ,i only had an ascidian of my own6 ,i wouldn't ask anything else in the world4 ,l4 ,what do they look like1 dear8 ,did you ever see one8 ,i4 ,oh1 no2 nobody ever did but the poor dear professors2 but they're something like an oyster with a reticule hung on its belt4 ,i think they are just too lovely for anything4 ,l4 ,did you learn anything else besides8 ,i4 ,oh1 yes4 ,we studied common philosophy1 and logic1 and metaphysics1 and a lot of those ordinary things1 but the girls didn't care anything about those4 ,we were just in ecstasies over differentiations1 and molecules1 and the professor1 and protoplasms1 and ascidians4 ,i don't see why they put in those common branches2 we couldn't hardly endure them4 ,l4 7,sighs47 ,do you believe they'll have a course like that next year8 ,i4 ,i think may be they will4 ,l4 ,dear me6 ,there's the bell to dress for dinner4 ,how ,i wish ,i could study those lovely things6 ,i4 ,you must ask your father if you can't spend the winter in ,boston with me4 ,i'm sure there'll be another course of ,parlor ,philosophy next winter4 ,but how dreadful that we must stop talking about it now to dress for dinner6 ,you are going to have company1 you said2 what shall you wear1 dear8 ,l4 ,oh1 almost anything4 ,what shall you8 7,exeunt arm in arm47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,proposed ,,dutch ,,international ,,colonial ,,and ,,general ,,export ,,exhibition4 ,the ,amsterdam ,international ,exhibition1 the opening of which has been fixed for ,may #a1 #ahhc1 is now in way of realization4 ,this exhibition will present a special interest to all nations1 and particularly to their export trade4 ,holland1 which is one of the great colonial powers1 proposes by means of this affair to organize a competition between the various colonizing nations1 and to contribute thus to a knowledge of the resources of foreign countries whose richness of soil is their fundamental power4 ,the executive committee includes the names of some of the most prominent persons of the ,netherlands3 ,m4 ,cordes1 president2 ,m4 de ,clercq1 delegate2 ,m4 ,kappeyne van di ,coppello1 secretary2 and ,m4 ,agostini1 commissary general4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,dutch ,,international ,,exhibition4 #a4 ,exhibition ,palace4 #b4 ,netherlands ,colonial ,exhibition4 #c4 ,fine ,arts4 #d4 ,annexes for ,agricultural ,machines1 etc4 #e4 ,machines1 ,materials1 etc4 #f4 ,concert ,theater4 #g4 ,panorama4 #h4 ,jury ,pavilion4 #i4 ,royal ,pavilion4 #aj4 ,committee ,pavilion4 #aa4 ,international ,society's ,pavilion4 #ab4 ,restaurant and ,caf4 #ac4 ,music ,kiosque and ,electric ,pharos4 #ad4 ,german ,restaurant4 #ae4 ,dutch ,restaurant4 #af4 ,english ,restaurant4 #ag4 ,french ,restaurant4 #ah4 ,aquarium and ,rockwork4 ,the exhibition will consist of five great divisions1 to wit3 #a4 ,a ,colonial exhibition4 #b4 ,a ,general ,export exhibition4 #c4 ,a ,retrospective exhibition of ,fine ,arts and of ,arts applied to the ,industries4 #d4 ,special exhibitions4 #e4 ,lectures and ,scientific ,reunions4 ,the colonial part forms the base of the exhibition1 and will be devoted to a comparative study of the different systems of colonization and colonial agriculture1 as well as of the manners and customs of ultramarine peoples4 ,in giving an exact idea of what has been done1 it will indicate what remains to be done from the standpoint of a general development of commerce and manufactures4 ,such is the programme of the first division4 ,the second division will include everything that relates to the export trade4 ,the third division will be reserved for works of art dating back from the most remote ages4 ,the fourth division will be devoted to temporary exhibitions1 such as those of horticultural and agricultural products1 etc4 ,the fifth division will constitute the intellectual part1 so to speak1 of the exhibition4 ,it will be devoted to lectures1 and to scientific meetings for the discussion of questions relating to teaching1 to the arts1 to the sciences1 to hygiene1 to international jurisprudence1 and to political economy4 ,questions of colonial economy will naturally occupy the first rank4 ,as will be seen1 the programme of this grand scheme organized by the ,netherlands government is a broad one2 and1 owing the experience acquired in recent universal exhibitions1 especially that of ,paris in #ahgh1 very happy results may be expected from it4 ,at present1 we give an illustration showing the general plan of the exhibition4 ,in future1 in measure as the work proceeds1 we shall be able to give further details4--,le ,genie ,civil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,method ,,of ,,detecting ,,dyes ,,on ,,yarns ,,and ,,tissues4 ,by ,,jules ,,joffre4 ,the reagents employed are a solution of caustic potassa in ten parts of water2 hydrochloric acid diluted with an equal bulk of water1 or occasionally concentrated2 nitric acid1 ammonia1 ferric sulphate1 and a concentrated solution of tin crystals4 ,the most convenient method of operating is to steep small portions of the cloth under examination in a little of the reagent placed at the bottom of a porcelain capsule4 ,the bits are then laid on the edge of the capsule1 when the changes of color which they have undergone may be conveniently observed4 ,it is useful to submit to the same reagents simultaneously portions of cloth dyed in a known manner with the wares which are suspected of having been used in dyeing the goods under examination4 ,,red ,,colors4 ,by the action of caustic potassa1 the reds are divided into four groups3 #a1 those which turn to a violet or blue2 #b1 those which turn brown2 #c1 those which are changed to a light yellow or gray2 #d1 those which undergo little or no change4 ,the first group comprises madder1 cochineal1 orchil1 alkanet1 and murexide4 ,madder reds are turned to an orange by hydrochloric acid1 while the three next are not notably affected4 ,cochineal is turned by the potassa to a violet-red1 orchil to a violet-blue1 and alkanet to a decided blue4 ,lac-dye presents the same reactions as cochineal1 but has less brightness4 ,ammoniacal cochineal and carmine may likewise be distinguished by the tone of the reds obtained4 ,a characteristic of madder reds is that1 after having been turned yellow by hydrochloric acid1 they are rendered violet on treatment with milk of lime4 ,a boiling soap-lye restores the original red1 though somewhat paler4 ,artificial alizarine gives the same reaction4 ,turkey-reds1 however1 are quite unaffected by acid4 ,garancine and garanceux reds1 if treated first with hydrochloric acid and then with milk of lime1 turn to a dull blue4 ,madder dyes are sometimes slow in being turned to a violet by potassa1 and this shade when produced is often brownish4 ,they might thus be confounded with the dyes of the fourth group1 i4e41 rosolic acid1 coralline1 eosine1 and coccine4 ,none of these colors gives the characteristic reaction with milk of lime and boiling soap-lye4 ,if plunged in milk of lime1 they resume their rose or orange shades1 while the madder colors become violet4 ,murexide is turned1 by potassa1 gray in its light shades and violet in its dark ones4 ,it might1 then1 be confounded with orchil1 but it is decolorized by hydrochloric acid1 which leaves orchil a red4 ,moreover1 it is turned greenish by stannous chloride4 ,a special character of this dye 7murexide7 is the presence of mercury1 the salts of which serve as mordants for fixing it1 and may be detected by the ordinary reagents4 ,the second group comprises merely sandal wood or sanders red1 which turns to a brown4 ,on boiling it with copperas it becomes violet1 while on boiling with potassium dichromate it changes to a yellowish brown4 ,the third group includes safflower1 magenta1 and murexide 7light shades74 ,if the action of the potassa is prolonged the 7soft7 red woods enter into this group4 ,safflower turns yellow by the action of potassa1 and the original rose shade is not restored by washing with water4 ,hydrochloric acid turns it immediately yellow4 ,citric acid has no action4 ,magenta is completely decolorized by potassa1 but a prolonged washing in water reproduces the original shade4 ,this reaction is common to many aniline colors4 ,these decolorations and recolorations are easily produced in dark shades1 while in very light shades they are less easily observed1 because there is always a certain loss of color4 ,stannous chloride turns magenta reds to a violet4 ,hydrochloric acid renders them yellowish brown 7afterward greenish874 ,water restores the purple red shade4 ,the fourth group comprises saffranine1 azo-dinaphthyldiamine1 rosolic acid1 coralline1 pure eosine and cosine modified by a salt of lead1 coccina1 artificial ponceau1 and red-wood4 ,saffranine is detected by the action of hydrochloric acid1 which turns it to a beautiful blue2 the red color is restored by washing in water4 ,azo-dinaphthyl diamine is recognized by its peculiar orange cast1 and is turned by hydrochloric acid to a dull1 dirty violet4 ,rosolic acid and coralline1 as well as eosine1 are turned by hydrochloric acid to an orange-yellow3 the two former are distinguished from eosine by their shade1 which inclines to a yellow4 ,potassa turns rosolic acid and coralline from an orange-red to a bright red1 while it produces no change in eosine4 ,if the action of potassa is prolonged1 modified eosine is blackened in consequence of the decomposition of the wool1 the sulphur of which forms lead sulphide4 ,coccine becomes of a light lemon-yellow on treatment with hydrochloric acid4 ,washing with water restores the original shade4 ,it affords the same reactions as eosine1 but its tone is more inclined to an orange4 ,artificial ponceau does not undergo any change on treatment with hydrochloric acid1 and resists potash4 ,red wood shades are turned toward a gooseberry-red by hydrochloric acid1 especially if strong4 ,this last reaction not being very distinct1 red-wood shades might be mistaken for those of artificial ponceau but for the superior brightness of the latter4 ,if the action of potassa is prolonged1 the red-wood shades are decolorized1 and a washing with water then bleaches the tissue4 ,rocelline affords the same reactions as artificial ponceau1 but if steeped in a concentrated solution of stannous chloride it is in time completely discharged1 which is not the case with artificial ponceau4 ,,violet ,,colors4 ,violets are divided into two groups3 those affected by potassa1 and those upon which it has no action4 ,the first group embraces logwood1 orchil1 alkanet1 and aniline violets1 including under the latter term ,perkin's violet1 7probably the original mauve71 dahlia1 ,parme or magenta violet1 methyl1 and ,hofmann's violets4 ,the action of potassa gives indications for each of these violets4 ,logwood violet is browned2 that of orchil1 if slightly reddish1 is turned to a blue-violet2 that of alkanet is modified to a fine blue4 ,lastly1 ,perkin's mauve1 dahlia1 and methyl violet become of a grayish brown1 which may be re-converted into a fine violet by washing in abundance of water4 ,when the shades are very heavy1 this grayish brown is almost of a violet-brown1 so that the violets might seem to be unaltered4 ,the action of hydrochloric acid distinguishes these colors better still if the aid of ammonia is called in for two cases4 ,the acid turns logwood violet to a fine red1 and equally reddens orchil violet4 ,but the two colors cannot be confounded1 first1 because the two violet shades are very distinct1 that of orchil being much the brighter2 and secondly1 because ammonia has no action on logwood violet1 while it turns orchil violet1 if at all reddish1 to a blue shade4 ,hydrochloric acid1 whether dilute or concentrated1 is without action on alkanet violet4 ,if the acid is dilute1 it is equally without action on ,perkin's violet and dahlia4 ,if it is strong1 it turns them blue1 and even green if in excess4 ,hofmann's violet turns green even with dilute acid1 but prolonged washing restores the original violet shade4 ,dahlia gives a more blue shade than ,perkin's mauve4 ,the action of acid is equally characteristic for methyl violet4 ,it becomes green1 then yellow4 ,washing in water re-converts it first to a green1 and then to a violet4 ,the second group includes madder violet1 cochineal violet1 and the compound violet of cochineal and extract of indigo4 ,these three dyes are thus distinguished3 ,hydrochloric acid turns the madder violet-orange1 slightly brownish1 or a light brown1 and it affords the characteristic reaction of the madder colors described above under reds4 ,cochineal violets are reddened4 ,sometimes they are decolorized1 and become finally yellow1 but do not pass through a brown stage4 ,the compound violet of cochineal and extract of indigo presents this characteristic reaction1 that if boiled with very weak solution of sodium carbonate the liquid becomes blue1 rather greenish1 while the cloth becomes a vinous-red--,moniteur ,scientifique4--,chem4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chevalet',s ,,condenso-,,purifier ,,for ,,gas4 ,the condenso-purifier shown in the accompanying cut operates as follows3 ,water is caused to flow over a metallic plate perforated with innumerable holes of from one to three millimeters in diameter1 and then1 under this disk1 which is exactly horizontal1 a current of gas is introduced4 ,under these circumstances the liquid does not traverse the holes in the plate1 but is supported by the gas coming in an opposite direction4 ,provided that the gas has sufficient pressure1 it bubbles up through the water and becomes so much the more divided in proportion as the holes are smaller and more numerous4 ,the gas is washed by traversing the liquid1 and freed from the tar and coal-dust carried along with it2 while1 at the same time1 the ammonia that it contains dissolves in the water1 and this1 too1 so much the better the colder the latter is4 ,this apparatus1 then1 permits of obtaining two results3 a mechanical one1 consisting in the stoppage of the solid matters1 and a chemical one1 consisting in the stoppage of the soluble portions1 such as ammonia1 sulphureted hydrogen1 and carbonic acid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,condenso-,,purifier ,,for ,,gas4 7,elevation47 ,the condenso-purifier consists of three perforated diaphragms1 placed one over the other in rectilinear cast-iron boxes4 ,these diaphragms are movable1 and slide on projections running round the interior of the boxes4 ,in each of the latter there is an overflow pipe1 g1 that runs to the box or compartment below1 and an unperforated plate1 f1 that slides over the diaphragm so as to cover or uncover as many of the holes as may be necessary4 ,a stream of common water runs in through the funnel1 e1 over the upper diaphragm1 while the gas enters the apparatus through the pipe1 a1 and afterward takes the direction shown by the arrows4 ,reaching the level of the overflow1 the water escapes1 fills the lower compartment1 covers the middle diaphragm1 then passes through the second overflow-pipe to cover the lower diaphragm1 next runs through the overflow-pipe of the third diaphragm on to the bottom of the purifier1 and lastly makes its exit1 through a siphon4 ,a pressure gauge1 having an inlet for the gas above and below1 serves for regulating the pressure absorbed for each diaphragm1 and which should vary between #j4ja and #j4jab of a meter4 ,the effect of this purifier is visible when the operation is performed with an apparatus made externally of glass4 ,the gas is observed to enter in the form of smoke under the first diaphragm1 and the water to become discolored and tarry4 ,when the gas traverses the second diaphragm1 it is observed to issue from the water entirely colorless1 while the latter becomes slightly discolored1 and finally1 when it traverses the third diaphragm1 the water is left perfectly limpid4 ,two diaphragms have been found sufficient to completely remove the solid particles carried along by the gas1 the third producing only a chemical effect4 ,this apparatus may replace two of the systems employed in gas works3 7#a7 mechanical condensers1 such as the systems of ,pelouze ,audouin1 and of ,servier2 and 7#b7 scrubbers of different kinds and coke columns4 ,nevertheless1 it is well to retain the last named1 if the gas works have them1 but to modify their work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,plan ,,view ,,with ,,by-,,pass4 ,this purifier should always be placed directly after the condensers1 and is to be supplied with a stream of pure water at the rate of #ej liters of water per #a1jjj cubic meters of gas4 ,such water passes only once into the purifier1 and issues therefrom sufficiently rich in ammonia to be treated4 ,if there are coke columns in the works1 they are placed after the purifier1 filled with wood shavings or well washed gravel1 and then supplied with pure cold water in the proportion stated above4 ,the water that flows from the columns passes afterward into the condenso-purifier1 where it becomes charged with ammonia1 and removes from the gas the tar that the latter has carried along1 and then makes its exit and goes to the decanting cistern4 ,in operating thus1 all the remaining ammonia that might have escaped the condenso-purifier is removed1 and the result is obtained without pumps or motor1 with apparatus that costs but little and does not occupy much space4 ,the advantages that are derived from this1 as regards sulphate of ammonia1 are important2 for1 on treating ammoniacal waters with condensers1 scarcely more than four to five kilogrammes of the sulphate are obtained per ton of coal distilled1 while by washing the gas perfectly with the small quantity of water indicated1 four to five kilogrammes more can be got per #a1jjj kilogrammes of coal1 or a total of eight to ten kilogrammes per ton4 ,when the gas is not washed sufficiently1 almost all of the ammonia condenses in the purifying material4 ,the pressure absorbed by the condenso purifier is from ten to twelve millimeters per washing-diaphragm4 ,in works that are not provided with an extractor1 two diaphragms1 or even a single one1 are employed when it is desired simply to catch the tar4 ,the apparatus under consideration was employed in the ,st4 ,quentin gas works during the winter of #ahha-ahhb1 without giving rise to any obstruction2 and1 besides1 it was found that by its use there might be avoided all choking up of the pipes at the works and the city mains through naphthaline4 ,in cases of obstruction1 it is very easy to take out the perforated diaphragms2 this being done by removing the bolts from the piece that holds the register1 f1 and then removing the diaphragm and putting in another4 ,this operation takes about ten minutes4 ,the advantages of such a mounting of the diaphragms is that it allows the gas manufacturer to employ 7and easily change7 the number of perforations that he finds best suited to his needs4 ,these apparatus are constructed for productions of from #a1jjj to #ajj1jjj cubic meters of gas per twenty four hours4 ,they have been applied advantageously in the washing of smoke from potassa furnaces1 in order to collect the ammonia that escapes from the chimneys4 ,in one of such applications1 the quantity of gas and steam washed reached a million cubic meters per twenty-four hours4--,revue ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,artificial ,,ivory4 ,it is said that artificial ivory of a pure white color and very durable has been manufactured by dissolving shellac in ammonia1 mixing the solution with oxide of zinc1 driving off ammonia by heating1 powdering1 and strongly compressing in moulds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,creosote ,,impurities4 ,footnote3 ,read at the meeting of the ,american ,pharmaceutical ,association held at ,niagara ,falls4 #ahhb4 ,by ,prof4 ,p4 ,w4 ,,bedford4 ,the object of this query can be but one1 namely1 to inquire whether the wood creosote offered for sale is a pure article1 or not2 and if not1 what is the impurity present8 ,the relative commercial value of the articles sold as coal tar creosote and wood creosote disposes of the question as to the latter being present in the former article1 and we are quite certain that the cheap variety is nothing more or less than a phenol or carbolic acid4 ,wood creosote1 it has been frequently stated1 is adulterated with coal tar creosote1 or phenol4 ,the object of my experiments has been to prove the identity of wood creosote and its freedom from phenol4 ,the following tests are laid down in various works as conclusive evidence of its purity1 and each has been fully tried with the several samples of wood creosote to prove their identity and purity1 and also with phenol1 sold as commercial creosote or coal tar creosote1 and for comparison with mixtures of the two1 that even small percentages of admixture might be identified1 should such exist in the wood creosote of the market4 ,the following tests were used3 #a4 ,equal volumes of anhydrous glycerine and wood creosote make a turbid mixture1 separating on standing4 ,phenol dissolves4 ,if three volumes of water be added1 the separation of the wood creosote is immediate4 ,phenol remains in permanent solution4 #b4 ,one volume of wood creosote added to two volumes of glycerine2 the former is not dissolved1 but separates on standing4 ,phenol dissolves4 #c4 ,three parts of a mixture containing #ge per cent1 of glycerine and #be of water to #a part of wood creosote show no increase of volume of glycerine1 and wood creosote separates4 ,phenol dissolves1 and forms a clear mixture4 ,were any phenol present in the wood creosote1 the increase in the volume of the glycerine solution1 if in a graduated tube1 would distinctly indicate the percentage of phenol present4 #d4 ,solubility in benzine4 ,wood creosote entirely soluble4 ,phenol is insoluble4 #e4 ,a #a per cent1 solution of wood creosote4 ,take of this #aj cubic centimeters1 add #a drop of a test solution of ferric chloride2 an evanescent blue color is formed1 passing quickly into a red color4 ,phenol gives a permanent blue color4 #f4 ,collodion or albumen with an equal bulk of wood creosote makes a perfect mixture without coagulation4 ,phenol at once coagulates into a more or less firm mass or clot4 #g4 ,bromine solution with wood creosote gives a reddish brown precipitate4 ,phenol gives a white precipitate4 ,all tests enumerated above were repeatedly tried with four samples of wood creosote sold as such2 one a sample of ,morson's1 one of ,merck's1 one evidently of ,german origin1 but bearing the label and capsule of an ,american manufacturer1 and one of unknown origin1 but sold as beech-wood creosote 7,german71 and each proved to be pure wood creosote4 ,two samples of commercial creosote which1 from the low cost1 were known to be of coal tar origin gave the negative tests1 showing that they were phenol4 ,corroborative experiments were made by mixing #aj to #bj per cent1 of phenol with samples of the beechwood creosote1 but in every case each of the tests named showed the presence of the phenol4 ,the writer on other occasions applied single tests 7the collodion test7 to samples of beechwood creosote that he had an opportunity of procuring small specimens of1 and satisfied himself that they were pure4 ,the conclusion is that the wood creosote of the market of the present time is in abundant supply1 is of unexceptionable quality1 and reasonable in price1 so that there is no excuse for the substitution of the phenol commonly sold for it4 ,when it is directed for use for internal administration 7the medicinal effect being entirely dissimilar71 wood creosote only should be dispensed4 ,the general sales of creosote by the pharmacist are in small quantities as a toothache remedy1 and phenol has the power of coagulating albumen1 which effectually relieves the suffering4 ,wood creosote does not coagulate albumen1 and is1 therefore1 not as serviceable4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the reason that it has become1 in a great measure1 supplanted in general sale by the coal tar creosote1 to say nothing of the argument of a lower cost4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,remedy ,,for ,,sick ,,headache4 ,surgeon ,major ,roehring1 of ,amberg1 reports1 in ,no4 #cb of the ,allg4 ,med4 ,centr4 ,zeit41 ,april #bb1 #ahhb1 a case of headache of long standing1 which he cured by salicylate of sodium1 which confirms the observations of ,dr4 ,oehlschlager1 of ,dantzig1 who first contended that we possessed in salicylic acid one of the most reliable remedies for neuralgia4 ,this cannot astonish us if we remember that the action of salicylic acid is1 in more than one respect1 and especially in its influence on the nervous centers1 analogous to quinine4 ,while out with the troops on maneuver1 ,dr4 ,roehring was called to visit the sixteen-year old son of a poor peasant family in a neighboring village4 ,the boy1 who gave all evidences of living under bad hygienic surroundings1 but who had shown himself very diligent at school1 had been suffering1 from his sixth year1 several days every week from the most intense headache1 which had not been relieved by any of the many remedies tried for this purpose4 ,a careful examination did not reveal any organic lesion or any cause for the pain1 which seemed to be neuralgic in character1 a purely nervous headache4 ,roehring had just been reading the observations of ,oehlschlager1 and knowing1 from the names of the physicians who had been already attending the poor boy1 that all the common remedies for neuralgia had been given a fair trial1 thought this a good opportunity to test the virtue of salicylate of sodium4 ,he gave the boy1 who1 in consequence of the severity of the pain1 was not able to leave his bed1 ten grains of the remedy every three hours1 and was surprised to see the patient next day in his tent and with smiling face4 ,the boy admitted that he for years had not been feeling so well as he did then4 ,the remedy was continued1 but in less frequent doses1 for a few days longer2 the headache did not return4 ,several months later ,dr4 ,roehring wrote to the school-teacher of the boy1 and was informed that the latter had1 during all this time1 been totally free of his former pain1 that he was much brighter than formerly1 and evidently enjoying the best of health4 ,it may be worth while to give the remedy a more extensive trial1 and the more so as we are only too often at a loss what to do in stubborn cases of so-called nervous headache4--,the ,medical and ,surgical ,reporter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sunlight ,,and ,,skylight ,,at ,,high ,,altitudes4 ,at the ,southampton meeting of the ,british ,association1 ,captain ,abney read a paper in which he called attention to the fact that photographs taken at high altitudes show skies that are nearly black by comparison with bright objects projected against them1 and he went on to show that the higher above the sea level the observer went1 the darker the sky really is and the fainter the spectrum4 ,in fact1 the latter shows but little more than a band in the violet and ultraviolet at a height of #h1ejj feet1 while at sea-level it shows nearly the whole photographic spectrum4 ,the only reason of this must be particles of some reflecting matter from which sunlight is reflected4 ,the author refers this to watery stuff1 of which nine-tenths is left behind at the altitude at which be worked4 ,he then showed that the brightness of the ultra-violet of direct sunlight increased enormously the higher the observer went1 but only to a certain point1 for the spectrum suddenly terminated about #b1idj wave-length4 ,this abrupt absorption was due to extra-atmospheric causes and perhaps to space4 ,the increase in brightness of the ultra-violet was such that the usually invisible rays1 ,l1 ,m1 ,n1 could be distinctly seen1 showing that the visibility of these rays depended on the intensity of the radiation4 ,the red and ultra-red part of the spectrum was also considered4 ,he showed that the absorption lines were present in undiminished force and number at this high altitude1 thus placing their origin to extra-atmospheric causes4 ,the absorption from atmospheric causes of radiant enemy in these parts he showed was due to water-stuff1 which he hesitated to call aqueous vapor1 since the banded spectrum of water was present1 and not lines4 ,the ,b and ,a line he also stated could not be claimed as telluric lines1 much less as due to aqueous vapor1 but must originate between the sun and our atmosphere4 ,the author finally confirmed the presence of benzine and ethyl in the same region4 ,he had found their presence indicated in the spectrum at sea-level1 and found their absorption lines with undiminished intensity at #h1ejj feet4 ,thus1 without much doubt1 hydrocarbons must exist between our atmosphere and the sun1 and1 it may be1 in space4 ,prof4 ,langley1 following ,capt4 ,abney1 observed3 ,the very remarkable paper just read by ,captain ,abney has already brought information upon some points which the one ,i am about1 by the courtesy of the ,association1 to present1 leaves in doubt4 ,it will be understood then that the references here are to his published memoirs only1 and not to what we have just heard4 ,the solar spectrum is so commonly composed to have been mapped with completeness1 that the statement that much more than one-half its extent is not only unmapped but nearly unknown1 may excite surprise4 ,this statement is1 however1 ,i think1 quite within the truth1 as to that almost unexplored region discovered by the elder ,herschel1 which1 lying below the red and invisible to the eye1 is so compressed by the prism that1 though its aggregate heat effects have been studied through the thermopile1 it is only by the recent researches of ,capt4 ,abney that we have any certain knowledge of the lines of absorption there1 even in part4 ,though the last-named investigator has extended our knowledge of it to a point much beyond the lowest visible ray1 there yet remains a still remoter region1 more extensive than the whole visible spectrum1 the study of which has been entered on at ,alleghany1 by means of the linear bolometer4 ,the whole spectrum1 visible and invisible1 is powerfully affected by the selective absorption of our atmosphere and that of the sun2 and we must first observe that could we get outside our earth's atmospheric shell1 we should see a second and very different spectrum1 and could we afterward remove the solar atmosphere also1 we should have yet a third1 different from either4 ,the charts exhibited show3 #ast4 ,the distribution of the solar energy as we receive it1 at the earth's surface1 throughout the entire invisible as well as visible portion1 both on the prismatic and normal scales4 ,this is what ,i have principally to speak of now1 but this whole first research is but incidental to others upon the spectra before any absorption1 which though incomplete1 ,i wish to briefly allude to later4 ,the other curves then indicate3 #b;d4 ,the distribution of energy before absorption by our own atmosphere4 #c;d4 ,this distribution at the photosphere of the sun4 ,the extent of the field1 newly studied1 is shown by this drawing chart exhibited4 ,between ,h in the extreme violet1 and ,a in the furthest red1 lies the visible spectrum1 with which we are familiar1 its length being about #d1jjj of ,angstrom's units4 ,if1 then1 #d1jjj represent the length of the visible spectrum1 the chart shows that the region below extends through #bd1jjj more1 and so much of this as lies below wave-length #ab1jjj1 ,i think1 is now mapped for the first time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,prismatic ,,spectrum4 ,we have to pi #ab1jjj relatively complete photographs1 published by ,capt4 ,abney1 but1 except some very slight indications by ,lamansky1 ,desains1 and ,mouton1 no further guide4 ,deviations being proportionate to abscissae1 and measured solar energies to ordinates1 we have here 7#a7 the distribution of energy in the prismatic1 and 7#b7 its distribution in the normal spectrum4 ,the total energy is in each case proportionate to the area of the curve 7the two very dissimilar curves inclosing the same area71 and on each1 if the total energy be roughly divided into four parts1 one of these will correspond to the visible1 and three to the invisible or ultra-red part4 ,the total energy at the ultra violet end is so small1 then1 as to be here altogether negligible4 ,we observe that 7owing to the distortion introduced by the prism7 the maximum ordinate representing the heat in the prismatic spectrum is1 as observed by ,tyndall1 below the red1 while upon the normal scale this maximum ordinate is found in the orange4 ,i would next ask your attention to the fact that in either spectrum1 below pi #ab1jjj are most extraordinary depressions and interruptions of the energy1 to which1 as will be seen1 the visible spectrum offers no parallel4 ,as to the agent producing these great gaps1 which so strikingly interrupt the continuity of the curve1 and1 as you see1 in one place1 cut it completely into two1 ,i have as yet obtained no conclusive evidence4 ,knowing the great absorption of water vapor in this lowest region1 as we already do1 from the observations of ,tyndall1 it would1 a priori1 seem not unreasonable to look to it as the cause4 ,on the other hand1 when ,i have continued observations from noon to sunset1 making successive measures of each ordinate1 as the sinking sun sent its rays through greater depths of absorbing atmosphere1 ,i have not found these gaps increasing as much as they apparently should1 if due to a terrestrial cause1 and so far as this evidence goes1 they might be rather thought to be solar4 ,but my own means of investigation are not so well adapted to decide this important point as those of photography1 to which we may yet be indebted for our final conclusion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,normal ,,spectrum4 7,at sea level47 ,i am led1 from a study of ,capt4 ,abney's photographs of the region between pi #h1jjj and pi #ab1jjj1 to think that these gaps are produced by the aggregation of finer lines1 which can best be discriminated by the camera1 an instrument which1 where it can be used at all1 is far more sensitive than the bolometer2 while the latter1 ,i think1 has on the other hand some advantage in affording direct and trustworthy measures of the amount of energy inhering in each ray4 ,one reason why the extent of this great region has been so singularly underestimated1 is the deceptively small space into which it appears to be compressed by the distortion of the prism4 ,to discriminate between these crowded rays1 ,i have been driven to the invention of a special instrument4 ,the bolometer1 which ,i have here1 is an instrument depending upon principles which ,i need not explain at length1 since all present may be presumed to be familiar with the success which has before attended their application in another field in the hands of the ,president of this ,association4 ,i may remark1 however1 that this special construction has involved very considerable difficulties and long labor4 ,for the instrument here shown1 platinum has been rolled by ,messrs4 ,tiffany1 of ,new ,york1 into sheets1 which1 as determined by the kindness of ,professor ,rood1 reach the surprising tenuity of less than one twenty-five-thousandth of an ,english inch 7,i have also iron rolled to one fifteen-thousandth inch71 and from this platinum a strip is cut one one-hundred-and-twenty-fifth of an inch wide4 ,this minute strip1 forming one arm of a ,wheatstone's bridge1 and thus perfectly shielded from air currents1 is accurately centered by means of a compound microscope in this truly turned cylinder1 and the cylinder itself is exactly directed by the arms of this ,y4 ,the attached galvanometer responds readily to changes of temperature1 of much less than one-ten-thousandth degree ,f4 ,since it is one and the same solar energy whose manifestations we call light or heat1 according to the medium which interprets them1 what is light to the eye is heat to the bolometer1 and what is seen as a dark line by the eye is felt as a cold line by the sentient instrument4 ,accordingly1 if lines analogous to the dark ,fraunhofer lines exist in this invisible region1 they will appear 7if ,i may so speak7 to the bolometer as cold bands1 and this hair-like strip of platina is moved along in the invisible part of the spectrum till the galvanometer indicates the all but infinitesimal change of temperature caused by its contact with such a cold band4 ,the whole work1 it will be seen1 is necessarily very slow2 it is in fact a long groping in the dark1 and it demands extreme patience4 ,a portion of its results are now before you4 ,the most tedious part of the whole process has been the determination of the wave-lengths4 ,it will be remembered that we have 7except through the work of ,capt4 ,abney already cited1 and perhaps of ,m4 ,mouton7 no direct knowledge of the wave-lengths in the infra-red prismatic spectrum1 but have hitherto inferred them from formulas like the well-known one of ,cauchy's1 all which known to me appear to be here found erroneous by the test of direct experiment1 at least in the case of the prism actually employed4 ,i have been greatly aided in this part of the work by the remarkable concave gratings lately constructed by ,prof4 ,rowland1 of ,baltimore1 one of which ,i have the pleasure of showing you4 ,instrument exhibited4 ,the spectra formed by this fall upon a screen in which is a fine slit1 only permitting nearly homogeneous rays to pass1 and these1 which may contain the rays of as many as four overlapping spectra1 are next passed through a rock-salt or glass prism placed with its refracting edge parallel to the grating lines4 ,this sorts out the different narrow spectral images1 without danger of overlapping1 and after their passage through the prism we find them again1 and fix their position by means of the bolometer1 which for this purpose is attached to a special kind of spectrometer1 where its platinum thread replaces the reticule of the ordinary telescope4 ,this is very difficult work1 especially in the lowermost spectrum1 where ,i have spent over two weeks of consecutive labor in fixing a single wave-length4 ,the final result is1 ,i think1 worth1 the trouble1 however1 for1 as you see here1 we are now able to fix with approximate precision and by direct experiment1 the wave-length of every prismatic spectral ray4 ,the terminal ray of the solar spectrum1 whose presence has been certainly felt by the bolometer1 has a wave-length of about #bh1jjj 7or is nearly two octaves below the great ,a of ,fraunhofer74 ,so far1 it appears only that we have been measuring heat1 but ,i have called the curve that of solar energy1 because by a series of independent investigations1 not here given1 the selective absorption of the silver1 the speculum-metal1 the glass1 and the lamp-black 7the latter used on the bolometer-strip71 forming the agents of investigation1 has been separately allowed for4 ,my study of lamp-black absorption1 ,i should add in qualification1 is not quite complete4 ,i have found it quite transparent to certain infra-red rays1 and it is very possible that there may be some faint radiations yet to be discovered even below those here indicated4 ,in view of the increased attention that is doubtless soon to be given to this most interesting but strangely neglected region1 and which by photography and other methods is certain to be fully mapped hereafter1 ,i can but consider this present work less as a survey than as a sketch of this great new field1 and it is as such only that ,i here present it4 ,all that has preceded is subordinate to the main research1 on which ,i have occupied the past two years at ,alleghany1 in comparing the spectra of the sun at high and low altitudes1 but which ,i must here touch upon briefly4 ,by the generosity of a friend of the ,alleghany ,observatory1 and by the aid of ,gen4 ,hazen1 ,chief ,signal ,officer of the ,u ,s4 ,army1 ,i was enabled last year to organize an expedition to ,mount ,whitney in ,south ,california1 where the most important of these latter observations were repeated at an altitude of #ac1jjj feet4 ,upon my return ,i made a special investigation upon the selective absorption of the sun's atmosphere1 with results which ,i can now only allude to4 ,by such observations1 but by methods too elaborate for present description1 we can pass from the curve of energy actually observed to that which would be seen if the observer were stationed wholly above the earth's atmosphere1 and freed from the effect of its absorption4 ,the salient and remarkable result is the growth of the blue end of the spectrum1 and ,i would remark that1 while it has been long known from the researches of ,lockyer1 ,crova1 and others that certain rays of short wave-length were more absorbed than those of long1 these charts show how much separate each ray of the spectrum has grown1 and bring1 what seems to me1 conclusive evidence of the shifting of the point of maximum energy without the atmosphere toward the blue4 ,contrary to the accepted belief1 it appears here also that the absorption on the whole grows less and less1 to the extreme infra-red extremity2 and on the other hand1 that the energy before absorption was so enormously greater in the blue and violet1 that the sun must have a decidedly bluish tint to the naked eye1 if we could rise above the earth's atmosphere to view it4 ,but even were we placed outside the earth's atmosphere1 that surrounding the sun itself would still remain1 and exert absorption4 ,by special methods1 not here detailed1 we have at ,alleghany compared the absorption1 at various depths1 of the sun's own atmosphere for each spectral ray1 and are hence enabled to show1 with approximate truth1 ,i think for the first time1 the original distribution of energy throughout the visible and invisible spectrum at the fount of that energy1 in the sun itself4 ,there is a surprising similarity1 you will notice1 in the character of the solar and telluric absorptions1 and one which we could hardly have anticipated a priori4 ,here1 too1 violet has been absorbed enormously more than the green1 and the green than the red1 and so on1 the difference being so great1 that if we were to calculate the thickness of the solar atmosphere on the hypothesis of a uniform transmission1 we should obtain a very thick atmosphere from the rate of absorption in the infra-red alone1 and a very thin one from that in the violet alone4 ,but the main result seems to be still this1 that as we have seen in the earth's atmosphere1 so we see in the sun's1 an enormous and progressive increase of the energy toward the shorter wave-lengths4 ,this conclusion1 which1 ,i may be permitted to remark1 ,i anticipated in a communication published in the ,comptes ,rendus of the ,institute of ,france as long since as #ahge1 is now fully confirmed1 and ,i may mention that it is so also by direct photometric methods1 not here given4 ,if1 then1 we ask how the solar photosphere would appear to the eye1 could we see it without absorption1 these figures appear to show conclusively that it would be blue4 ,not to rely on any assumption1 however1 we have1 by various methods at ,allegheny1 reproduced this color4 ,thus 7to indicate roughly the principle used71 taking three ,maxwell's disks1 a red1 green1 and blue1 so as to reproduce white1 we note the three corresponding ordinates at the earth's surface spectrum1 and1 comparing these with the same ordinates in the curve giving the energy at the solar surface1 we rearrange the disks1 so as to give the proportion of red1 green1 and blue which would be seen there1 and obtain by their revolution a tint which must approximately represent that at the photosphere1 and which is most similar to that of a blue near ,fraunhofer's ,f4 ,the conclusion1 then1 is that1 while all radiations emanate from the solar surface1 including red and infra-red1 in greater degree than we receive them1 the blue end is so enormously greater in proportion that the proper color of the sun1 as seen at the photosphere is blue--not only bluish1 but positively and distinctly blue2 a statement which ,i have not ventured to make from any conjecture1 or on any less cause than on the sole ground of long continued experiments1 which1 commenced some seven years since1 have within the past two years irresistibly tended to the present conclusion4 ,the mass of observations on which it rests must be reserved for more detailed publication elsewhere4 ,at present1 ,i can only thank the association for the courtesy which has given me the much prized opportunity of laying before them this indication of methods and results4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,mineralogical ,,localities ,,in ,,and ,,around ,,new ,,york ,,city1 ,,and ,,the ,,minerals ,,occurring ,,therein4 ,footnote3 ,continued from ,,supplements #bdd and #bdf4 ,by ,,nelson ,h4 ,,dabton4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,hoboken4--,the locality represented here is where the same serpentine that we met on ,staten ,island crops out1 and is known as ,castle ,hill4 ,it is a prominent object in view when on the ,hudson ,river1 lying on ,castle ,point just above the ,stevens ,institute and about a mile north of the ferry from ,barclay or ,christopher ,street1 ,new ,york city4 ,upon it is the ,stevens estate1 etc41 which is ordinarily inaccessible1 but below this and along the river walk1 commencing at ,fifth ,street and to ,twelfth1 there is an almost uninterrupted outcrop from two to thirty feet in thickness and plentifully interspersed with the veins of the minerals of the locality1 which are very similar to those of ,staten ,island2 the serpentine1 however1 presenting quite a different appearance1 being of a denser and more homogeneous structure and color1 and not so brittle or light colored as that of ,staten ,island1 but of a pure green color4 ,the veins of minerals are about a half an inch to--in the case of druses of magnesite1 which penetrate the rock in all proportions and directions--even six inches in thickness4 ,they lie generally in a perpendicular position1 but are frequently bent and contorted in every direction4 ,they are the more abundant where the rock is soft1 as veins1 but included minerals are more plentiful in the harder rock4 ,there is hardly any one point on the outcrop that may be said to be favored in abundance1 but the veins of the brucites1 dolomite1 and magnesites are scattered at regular and short intervals1 except perhaps the last1 which is most plentiful at the north end of the walk4 ,magnesite4--,this mineral1 of which we obtained some fine specimens on ,staten ,island1 occurs extremely plentifully here1 constituting five or six per cent4 of a large proportion of the rock1 and in every imaginable condition1 from a smooth1 even1 dark colored mass apparently devoid of crystalline form1 to druses of very small but beautiful crystals1 which are obtained by selecting a vein with an opening say from a quarter to a half-inch between it and one or1 if possible1 both points of its contact with the inclosing rock1 and cutting away the massive magnesite and rock around it1 when fine druses and masses or geodes may be generally found and carefully cut out4 ,the crystals are generally less than a quarter of an inch long1 and the selection of a cabinet specimen should be based more upon their form of aggregation that the size of the crystals4 ,nearly all the veins hold more or less of these masses through their total extent1 but many have been removed1 and consequently a careful search over the veins for the above indications1 of which there are still plenty undeveloped or but partly so1 would well repay an hour or more of cutting into1 by the specimens obtained4 ,patience is an excellent and very necessary virtue in searching for pockets of minerals1 and is even more necessary here among the multitudinous barren veins4 ,one hint ,i might add1 which is of final importance1 and the ignorance of which has so far preserved this old locality from exhaustion1 is that every specimen of this kind in the serpentine1 of any great uniqueness1 is to be found within five feet from the upper or surface end of the vein1 which in this locality is inaccessible in the more favored parts without a ladder or similar arrangement upon which one may work to reach them4 ,here the veins will be found to be very far disintegrated and cavernous1 thus possessing the requisite conditions of occurrence 7this is also true of ,staten ,island1 but there more or less inaccessible7 for this mineral and similar ones that occur in geodes or drused incrustations1 while it is just vice versa for those occurring in closely packed veins1 as brucite1 soapstone1 asbestos1 etc41 where they occur in finer specimens1 where they are the more compact1 which is deep underground4 ,this is also partly true of the zeolites and granular limestone species with included minerals4 ,i do not think there is any rule1 at least ,i have not observed it in an extended mineralogical experience2 but if they favor any part1 it is undoubtedly the top1 as in the granular limestone and granite2 however1 they generally fall subordinate to the first principle1 as they more frequently1 in this formation1 with the exception of chromic iron1 occur not in the serpentine but in the veins therein contained2 for instance1 crystals of dolomite are found deeper in the rock as they occur in the denser soapstone1 which becomes so at a more or less considerable depth1 with spinel1 zircon1 etc41 of the granular limestone4 ,they occur generally in pockets within five feat from the surface1 but they can hardly be called included minerals1 as they are rather1 as their mention suggests1 pockets1 and adjacent or in contact with the intruded granite or metamorphosed rock joining the formation at this point4 ,this is seemingly at variance when we consider datholite1 but when we do find it in pockets a hundred and fifty feet below the surface1 in the ,weehawken tunnel1 it is not in the trap1 but on the surface of what was a cleft or empty vein1 since filled up with chlorite extending from the surface down1 while natrolite1 etc41 by the trap having clefts of such variable and often great depth1 allowed the solution of the portion thus contributed that infiltered from the surface easy access to the beds in which they lie1 the mode of access being since filled with densely packed calcite1 which was present in over-abundance4 ,this is not applicable to serpentine1 as the clefts are never of any great depth1 and the five feet before mentioned are a proportionately great depth from the surface4 ,as ,i mentioned in commencing this paper 7,part ,i71 every part of the success of a trip lies in knowing where to find the minerals sought2 and by close observation of these relations much more direction may be obtained than by my trying to describe the exact point in a locality where ,i have obtained them or seen them4 ,there is much more satisfaction in finding rich pockets independently of direction1 and by close observance of indications rather than chance1 or by having them pointed out2 for the one that reads this1 and goes ahead of you to the spot1 and either destroys the remainder by promiscuous cuttings1 or carries them off in bulk1 as there are many who go to a locality1 and what they cannot carry off they destroy1 give you a disappointment in finding nothing2 consequently1 ,i have considered that this digression from our subject in detail was pardonable1 that one may be independent of the stated parts of the locality1 and not too confidently rely on them1 as ,i am sometimes disappointed myself in localities and pockets that ,i discover in spare time by finding that some one has been there between times1 and carried off the remainder4 ,the characteristics of magnesite ,i have detailed under that head under ,pavilion ,hill1 ,staten ,island2 but it may be well to repeat them briefly here4 ,form as above described1 from a white to darker dirty color4 ,specific gravity1 #b4h-c2 hardness1 about #c4e4 ,before the blowpipe it is infusible1 and not reduced to quicklime1 which distinguishes it from dolomite1 which it frequently resembles in the latter's massive form1 common here in veins4 ,it dissolves in acid readily with but little effervescence1 which little1 however1 distinguishes it from brucite1 which it sometimes resembles and which has a much lower-specific gravity when pure4 ,dolomite4--,this mineral has been very common in this locality4 ,it differs1 perhaps1 as ,i have before explained1 from magnesite in containing lime besides magnesia1 and from calc spar by the vice versa4 ,much of the magnesite in this serpentine contains more or less lime1 and is consequently in places almost pure dolomite1 although crystals are seldom to be found in this outcrop1 it all occurring as veins about a half-inch thick and resembling somewhat the gurhofite of ,staten ,island1 only that it is softer and less homogeneous in appearance4 ,its color is slightly tinged green1 and specimens of it are not peculiarly unique1 but perhaps worth removing4 ,its characteristics are3 first1 its burning to quicklime before the blowpipe1 distinguishing it from pure magnesite2 second1 its slow effervescence in acids4 ,besides these1 its specific gravity is #b4h1 hardness1 #h4e2 from calcspar it cannot be distinguished except by chemical analysis1 as the two species blend almost completely with every intermediate stage of composition into either calc spar1 or1 what occurs in this locality1 aragonite1 similar in composition to it1 or dolomite4 ,the color of the last1 however1 is generally darker1 and it cleaves less readily into its crystalline form1 which is similar to calc spar1 and of which it is harder1 #c4e to #c of calc spar4 ,aragonite4--,this mineral1 identical in composition with calc spar1 but whose crystalline form is entirely different1 occurs in this locality in veins hardly recognizable from the magnesite or dolomite1 and running into dolomite4 ,it is not abundant1 and the veins are limited in extent2 the only distinguishment it has from the dolomite1 practically1 is its fibrous structure1 the fibers being brittle and very coarse4 ,if examined with a powerful glass1 they will be seen to be made up of modified long prisms4 ,the specific gravity is over #b4i1 hardness about #d1 unless much weathered1 when it becomes apparently less4 ,there are some small veins at the north end of the walk1 and in them excellent forms may be found by cutting into the veins4 ,brucite4--,this mineral occurs here in fair abundance1 it being one of the principal localities for it in the ,united ,states1 and where formerly extremely unique specimens were to be obtained4 ,it has been pretty well exhausted1 however1 and the fine specimens are only to be obtained by digging into the veins of it in the rock1 which are quite abundant on the south end of the walk1 and1 as ,i before noted1 as deep as possible from the top of the veins1 as it is a closely packed mineral not occurring in geodes1 druses1 etc4 ,two forms of it occur2 the one1 nemalite1 is in fibers of a white to brown color resembling asbestos1 but the fibers are brittle1 and hardly as fine as a typical asbestos4 ,it is packed in masses resembling the brucite1 from which it only differs in breaking into fibers instead of plates1 as ,i have explained in my description of that species 7see ,part ,,ii74 ,they are both readily soluble in acids1 with effervescence1 and infusible but crumble to powder before the blowpipe1 or at least become brittle2 when rubbed in mass with a piece of iron1 they phosphoresce with a yellow light2 specific gravity1 #b4d1 hardness1 #a4e to #b4 ,its ready solubility in acids without effervescence at once distinguishes it from any mineral that it may resemble4 ,the specimens of nemalite may be more readily obtained than the brucite but fine specimens of both may be obtained after finding a vein of it1 by cutting away the rock1 which is not hard to do1 as it is in layers and masses packed together1 and which maybe wedged out in large masses at a time with the cold chisel and hammer1 perhaps at the rate of three or four cubic feet an hour for the first hour1 and in rapidly decreasing rate as progress is made toward the unweathered rock and untouched brucite1 etc4 ,serpentine4--,fair specimens of this may be obtained of a dark oil green color1 but not translucent or peculiarly perfect forms4 ,the variety known as marmolite1 which splits into thin leaves1 is plentiful and often well worth removing4 ,chromic ,iron4--,crystals of this are included in the denser rock in great abundance2 they are very small1 seldom over a few lines in diameter1 of an iron black color1 of a regular octahedral form2 sometimes large crystals may be found in place or in the disintegrated loose rock4 ,i have seen them a half inch in diameter1 and a half dozen in a small mass1 thus forming an excellent cabinet specimen4 ,by finding out by observation where they are the thickest in the rock1 and cutting in at this point1 more or less fine crystals may be obtained4 ,this is readily found where they are so very abundant1 near the equidistant points of the walk1 that no difficulty should be encountered in so doing4 ,these characteristics are interesting1 and if large specimens cannot be obtained1 any quantity of the small crystals may be split out1 and1 as a group1 used for a representative at least4 ,before the blowpipe it is infusible1 but if powdered1 it slowly dissolves in the molten borax bead and yields a beautiful green globule4 ,the specific gravity1 which is generally unattainable1 is about #d4e1 and hardness #e to #f4 ,its powder or small fragments are attracted by the magnet4 ,a few small veins of this mineral are also to be found horizontally in the rock1 and small masses may be obtained4 ,they are very rare1 however4 ,i have seen numerous agates from this locality1 but have not found them there myself4 ,they may be looked for in the loose earth over the outcrop1 or along the wall of the river4 ,our next locality is ,paterson1 ,n4 ,j41 or rather in a trip first to ,west ,paterson by the ,d4,l4 ,w4 ,railroad1 ,boonton branch1 then back to ,paterson proper1 which is but a short distance1 and then home by the ,erie road1 or1 if an excursion ticket has been bought1 on the ,d4,l4 ,w1 back from ,west ,paterson4 ,garret ,rock holds the minerals of ,paterson1 and although they are few in number1 are very unique4 ,the first is phrenite4 ,this beautiful mineral occurs in geodes1 or veins of them1 near the surface of the basalt1 which is the characteristic formation here1 and lies on the red sandstone4 ,these veins are but two or three feet from the surface1 and the ones from which the fine specimens are to be and have been obtained are exposed by the railroad cutting about a thousand feet north of the station at ,west ,paterson1 and on the west side of the rails4 ,near or below the beds is a small pile of debris1 prominent by being the only one in the vicinity near the rails4 ,in this loose rock and the veins which are by this description readily found and identified1 they are about three inches in thickness1 and in some places widen out into pockets even a foot in diameter ,they look like seams of a dark earth1 with blotches of white or green matter where they are weathered1 but are fresher in appearance inside4 ,the rock1 in the immediate vicinity of the veins1 is soft1 and may be readily broken out with the hammer of1 if possible1 a pick bar1 and thus some of these geode cavities broken into1 and much finer specimens obtained than in the vein proper4 ,considerable occurs scattered about in the before-mentioned pile of loose rock and debris1 and if one does not prize it sufficiently to cut into the rock1 taking the chances of lucky find1 plenty may be obtained thus2 but as it has been pretty thoroughly picked over where loose1 it is much more satisfactory to obtain the fine specimens in place in the rock4 ,when the bed for the railroad was being cut here1 many fine specimens were obtained by those in the vicinity1 and the natives of the place have it in abundance1 and it may be obtained from many of them for a trifle1 if one is not inclined to work it out4 ,the mineral itself occurs in masses in the vein of a white1 greenish white1 or more or less dark green color4 ,sometimes yellowish crystals of it occur plentifully in short thick prisms1 but the common form is that of round coralloid bunches1 having a radiated structure within4 ,sometimes it is in masses made up of a structure resembling the leaves of a book slightly opened1 and in nearly every shape and size4 ,crystals of the various forms may be well secured1 and also the different colors from the deep green to the blue white1 always remembering that true1 perfect crystals are of more value than masses or attempted forms4 ,the specific gravity is #b4h to #b4i1 hardness nearly #g before the blowpipe2 it readily fuses after intumescing2 it dissolves in hot acid without gelatinizing1 leaving a flaky residue4 ,datholite4--,this mineral is very abundant as inferior specimens1 and frequently very fine ones may be obtained4 ,they occur all around ,garret ,rock at the juncture of the basalt and red sandstone1 in pockets1 and as heavy druses4 ,they are most abundant near the rock cuttings between ,west ,paterson and ,paterson1 and may be cut out by patient labor4 ,this is a long known and somewhat noted locality for datholite1 and no difficulty need be experienced in obtaining plenty of fair specimens4 ,near them is the red sandstone1 lying under the basalt1 and baked to a scoriaceous cinder4 ,upon this is a layer of datholite in the form of a crystalline plate1 and over or above this1 either in the basalt or hanging down into cavities in the sandstone1 are the crystals or geodes of datholite4 ,old spots are generally exhausted1 and consequently every new comer has to hunt up new pockets1 but as this is readily done1 ,i will not expend further comment on the matter4 ,the datholite1 as in other localities1 consists of groups of small colorless crystals4 ,hardness1 about #e2 specific gravity1 #c4 ,before the blowpipe it intumesces and melts to a glassy globule coloring the flame green1 and forms a jelly when boiled with the acids4 ,pectolite--,this mineral is also quite abundant in places1 the greater part occurring with or near the phrenite before mentioned1 in small masses generally more or less weathered1 but in very fair specimens1 which are about an inch in thickness4 ,it is readily recognized by its peculiar appearance1 which1 ,i may again repeat1 is in fibrous masses1 these fibers being set together in radiated forms1 and are quite tough and flexible1 of a white color1 and readily fused to a globule before the blowpipe4 ,feldspar4--,this mineral occurs strewn over the hill from place to place1 and is peculiarly characterized by its lively flesh red color1 quite different from the dull yellowish gray of that from ,staten ,island or ,bergen ,hill4 ,fine crystals of it are rather rare1 but beautiful specimens of broken groups may be obtained in loose debris around the hill and in its center4 ,i have not been able to locate the vein or veins from which it has come1 but persistent search will probably reveal it1 or it may be stumbled upon by accident4 ,some of the residents of the vicinity have some fine specimens1 and it is possible that they can direct to a plentiful locality4 ,however1 some specimens are well worth a thorough search1 and possess considerable value as mineralogieal specimens4 ,the specific gravity of the mineral is #b4f1 and it has a hardness of #f before the blowpipe4 ,it is with difficulty fused to a globule1 more or less transparent4 ,it occurs undoubtedly in veins in the basalt and near the surface of the outcrop ,as this locality has never before been mentioned as affording this species1 it is fresh to the amateur and other mineralogists1 and there need be no difficulty in obtaining some fine specimens4 ,its brilliant color distinguishes it from other minerals of the locality4 ,it is possible that some of the other zeolites as mentioned under ,bergen ,hill occur here1 but ,i have not been able to find them4 ,the reason may be that the rock is but little cut into1 and consequently no new unaltered veins are exposed4 ,,copper ,,mines1 ,,arlington1 ,n4 ,j4--,a short distance north of this station1 on the ,new ,york and ,greenwood ,lake ,railroad1 and about nine miles from ,jersey ,city1 is one of the cuttings into the deposits of copper which permeate many portions of the red sandstone of this and the allied districts in ,connecticut and ,massachusetts1 and which have been so extensively worked further south at ,somerville and ,new ,brunswick1 etc4 ,there are quite a variety of copper minerals occurring in these mines1 and as they differ but little in anything but abundance1 ,i will describe this1 the one nearest to ,new ,york ,city1 as ,i promised in commencing these papers4 ,the locality of this mine may be readily found1 as it is near the old turnpike from ,jersey ,city1 along which the water-pipes or aqueduct1 are laid4 ,by taking the road directly opposite to the station at ,arlington1 walking north to its end1 which is a short distance1 then turning to the left along the road1 there crossing and turning north up the next road joining this1 until the turnpike is reached2 this is then followed east for about a quarter-mile1 passing occasional heaps in the road of green earth1 until the head of a descent is reached1 when we turn off into the field to the left1 and there find the mine near the heaps of greenish rocks and ore scattered about1 a distance from the station of about a mile and a half through a pleasing country4 ,the entrance to the mine is to the right of the bank of white earth on the edge of1 and in the east side of the hill2 it is a tunnel more or less caved in1 running in under the heaps of rock for some distance4 ,it will not be necessary1 even if it were safe1 to venture into the mine1 but all the specimens mentioned below may be obtained from the heaps of ore and rock outside1 and in the outcrops in the east side of the hill1 a little north of the mouth of the tunnel to the mine4 ,the hammer and cold chisel will be necessary1 and about three hours should be allowed to stay1 taking the noon train from ,new ,york there1 and the #e4ji ,p4,m4 train in return1 or the #f4cj ,a4,m4 train from the city1 and the #a4eg ,p4,m4 in return4 ,this will give ample opportunity for the selection of specimens1 and1 if time is left1 to visit the water works1 etc4 ,green ,malachite4--,this is the prominent mineral of the locality1 and is conspicuous by its rich green color on all the rocks and in the outcrops4 ,fine specimens of it form excellent cabinet specimens4 ,it should be in masses of good size1 with a silky1 divergent1 fibrous structure1 quite hard1 and of a pure oil green color1 for this purpose4 ,drused crystals of it are also very beautiful and abundant1 but very minute4 ,as the greater part of it is but a sixteenth or eighth of an inch in thickness1 it may require some searching to secure large masses a quarter to a half-inch in thickness1 but there was considerable1 both in the rock1 debris1 and outcrop1 remaining the last visit ,i made to the place a few months ago4 ,the mineral is so characterized by its color and solubility in acid that a detailed description of it is unnecessary to serve to distinguish it4 ,its specific gravity is #d1 and hardness about #d4 ,it decrepitates before the blowpipe1 but when fused with some borax in a small hollow on a piece of wood charcoal1 gives a globule of copper4 ,it readily dissolves in acids1 with effervescence1 as it is a carbonate of copper4 ,red ,oxide of ,copper--,this rather rare mineral is found in small quantities in this mine1 or near it1 in the debris or outcrop4 ,perfect crystals1 which are of a dodecahedral or octahedral form1 are fairly abundant4 ,they are difficult to distinguish1 as they are generally coated1 or soiled at least1 with malachite4 ,the color proper is of a brownish red1 and the hardness about #d1 although sometimes1 it is earthy1 with an apparent hardness not over #b4 ,the crystals are generally about a quarter of an inch to a half of an inch in diameter1 and found inside the masses of malachite4 ,when these are broken open1 the red copper oxide is readily distinguished1 and may be separated or brought into relief by carefully trimming away the malachite surrounding it as its gravity 7#f7 is much greater than malachite4 ,when a piece of the last is found which has a high gravity1 it may be suspected and broken into1 as this species is much more valuable and rarer than the malachite which is so abundant4 ,it dissolves in acids like malachite1 but without effervescence1 if it be freed from that mineral1 and acts the same before the blowpipe4 ,sometimes it may be found as an earthy substance1 but is difficult to distinguish from the red sandstone accompanyit1 which both varieties resemble1 but which1 not being soluble in the acids1 find having the blowpipe reactions1 is thus characterized4 ,this red oxide of copper does not form a particularly showy cabinet specimen1 but its rarity and value fully compensate for a search after it4 ,i have found considerable of it here1 and seen some little of it in place remaining4 ,chrysorolla4--,this mineral1 very abundant in this locality1 resembles malachite1 but has a much bluer1 lighter color1 without the fibrous structure so often present in malachite1 and seldom in masses1 it only occurring as light druses and incrustations1 some of which are very beautiful1 and make very fine cabinet specimens4 ,its hardness is less than that of the other species1 being under #c1 and a specific gravity of only #b1 but as it frequently occurs mixed with them1 is difficult to distinguish4 ,it does not dissolve in nitric acid1 although that takes the characteristic green color of a solution of nitrate of copper1 as from malachite or red oxide4 ,this species is found all over this locality1 and a fine drused mass of it will form an excellent memento of the trip4 ,copper ,glance4--,this mineral is quite abundant in places here1 but fine crystals1 even small1 as it all is1 are rare4 ,that which ,i have seen has been embedded in the loose rock above the mine1 about a quarter inch in diameter1 and more or less disguised by a green coating of chrysocolla4 ,the color of the mineral itself is a glistening grayish lead color1 resembling chromite somewhat in appearance1 but the crystals of an entirely different shape1 being highly modified or indistinct rhombic prisms4 ,the specific gravity is over #e1 and the hardness #d4 ,before the blowpipe on a piece of wood charcoal it gives off fumes of sulphur1 fuses1 boils1 and finally leaves a globule of copper4 ,in nitric acid it dissolves1 but the sulphur in combination with it separates as a white powder4 ,a steel knife blade placed in this solution receives a coating of copper known by its red color4 ,erubescite--,this mineral occurs massive in the rock here with the other copper minerals1 and is of a yellowish red color1 more or less tarnished to a light brown on its surface1 ,before the blowpipe on charcoal it fuses1 burns1 and affords a globule of copper and iron1 which is attracted by the magnet4 ,its specific gravity is #e1 hardness #c4 ,it resembles somewhat the red oxide1 but the low gravity1 inferior hardness1 lighter color1 and blowpipe reaction distinguish it4 ,these are the only copper minerals likely to be found at this mine1 and the following table and note will show their characteristics3 ,name4 ,speci- ,hardness ,action of ,action of ,color4 ,form4 fic ,blowpipe ,heat4 ,hot ,nitric ,gravity4 ,acid4 ,mala- ,from #d ,from #c ,decrepitates1 ,dissolves ,pure ,oil ,fibrous1 chite to #d4e to #d but fuses with with ,green4 massive1 borax to a effer- or in- green bead4 vescence crusting4 ,red #f ,from #c4e ,on charcoal ,dissolves ,a deep ,modified ,oxide to #d yields a without brownish crystals4 globule of effer- red4 copper4 vescence ,chryso- ,from #b ,from #b ,infusible4 ,partly ,bright ,incrus- colla to #b4c to #c soluble bluish tations4 green4 ,copper #e ,from #b4e ,fumes of ,copper ,grayish ,modified ,glance to #c sulphur and a soluble1 ,lead4 rhombic globule of sulphur prisms4 copper deposits ,erube- #e ,from #c ,fumes of ,partly ,yellowish ,massive4 scite to #c4e sulphur and soluble red or magnetic tarnished4 globule4 ,malachite is characterized by its color from ,copper ,glance and ,red ,oxide and ,erubescite1 and from ,chrysocolla by the action of the acid1 the fibrous structure and blowpipe reaction1 gravity1 and hardness4 ,red ,oxide is distinguished from ,erubescite1 which it alone resembles1 by its darker color1 higher specific gravity1 and yielding a globule of pure copper4 ,chrysocolla is characterized by its low specific gravity1 light color1 lack of fibrous structure1 blowpipe reactions1 and the acid4 ,copper ,glance is distinguished by its color1 fumes of sulphur1 and globule of copper4 ,erubescite is distinguished from ,red ,oxide1 which it alone resembles1 by its lighter color1 great solubility when pure1 and yielding a magnetic globule before the blowpipe in the hollow of a piece of wood charcoal1 which is used instead of platinum wire in this investigation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,entomology4 ,footnote3 ,from the ,american ,naturalist1 ,november1 #ahhb4 ,,the ,,buckeye ,,leaf ,,stem ,,borer4--,in our account of the proceedings of the entomological sub-section of the ,a4,a4,a4,s41 at the #ahha meeting 7see ,american ,naturalist1 #ahha1 p4 #ajji71 we gave a short abstract of ,mr4 ,e4,w4 ,claypole's paper on the above insect1 accepting the determination of the species as ,sericoris instrutana1 and mentioning the fact that the work of ,proteoteras sculana ,riley upon maple and buckeye was very similar4 ,a letter recently received from ,mr4 ,claypole1 prior to sending his article to press1 and some specimens which be had kindly submitted to us1 permit of some corrections and definite statements4 ,we have a single specimen in our collection1 bred from a larva found feeding1 in #ahgc1 on the blossoms of buckeye1 and identical with ,mr4 ,claypole's specimens1 which are in too poor condition for description or positive determination4 ,with this material and with ,mr ,claypole's observations and our own notes1 the following facts are established3 #ast4 ,we have ,proteoteras sculana boring in the terminal green twigs of both maple and buckeye1 in ,missouri1 and often producing a swelling or pseudo-gall4 ,exceptionally it works in the leaf-stalk4 ,it also feeds on the samara of maple1 as we reared the moth in ,june1 #ahha1 from larv infesting these winged seeds that had been collected by ,mr4 ,a4,j4 ,wethersby1 of ,cincinnati1 ,o4 #b;d4 ,we have an allied species1 boring in the leaf-stalk of buckeye1 in ,ohio1 as observed by ,mr4 ,claypole4 ,it bears some resemblance to ,proteoteras sculana1 but differs from it in the following particulars1 so far as can be ascertained from the poor material examined3 ,the primaries are shorter and more acuminate at apex4 ,their general color is paler1 with the dark markings less distinctly separated4 ,no distinct tufts of scales or knobs appear1 and the ocellated region is traversed by four or five dark longitudinal lines4 ,it would be difficult to distinguish it from a rubbed and faded specimen of sculana1 were it not for the form of the wing1 on which1 however1 one dare not count too confidently4 ,it probably belongs to the same genus1 and we would propose for it the name of claypoleana4 ,the larva is distinguished from that of sculana by having the minute granulations of the skin smooth1 whereas in the latter each granule has a minute sharp point4 #c;d4 ,sericoris instrutana is a totally different insect4 ,hence our previous remarks as to the diversity of food-habit in this species have no force--,c4,v4,r4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,defoliation ,,of ,,oak ,,trees ,,by ,,dryocampa ,,senatoria ,,in ,,perry ,,county1 ,,pa4--,during the present autumn the woods and road-sides in this neighborhood 7,new ,bloomfield7 present a singular appearance in consequence of the ravages of the black and yellow larva of the above species4 ,it is more abundant1 so ,i am informed1 than it has ever been before4 ,in some places hardly any trees of the two species to which its attack is here limited have escaped4 ,these are the black or yellow oak 7,q4 tinctoria7 with its variety 7coccinea71 the scarlet oak and1 the scrub oak 7,q4 ilicifolia74 ,these trees appear brown on the hill-sides from a distance1 in consequence of being altogether stripped of their leaves4 ,the sound of the falling frass from the thousands of caterpillars resembles a shower of rain4 ,they crawl in thousands over the ground1 ten or twelve being sometimes seen on a square yard4 ,the springs and pools are crowded with drowned specimens4 ,they are equally abundant in all parts of the county which ,i have visited during the past week or two--the central and southeastern4--,e4 ,w4 ,olaypole1 ,new ,bloomfield1 ,pa4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,efficacy ,,of ,,chalcid ,,egg-,,parasites4--,egg-parasites are among the most efficient destroyers of insects injurious to vegetation1 since they kill their victim before it has begun to do any damage2 but few persons are aware of the vast numbers in which these tiny parasites occasionally appear4 ,owing to the abundance of one of them 7,trichogramma pretiosa ,riley71 we have known the last brood of the cotton-worm to be annihilated1 and ,mr4 ,h4,g4 ,hubbard reported the same experience at ,centerville1 ,fla4 ,miss ,mary ,e4 ,murtfeldt has recently communicated to us a similar experience with a species of the ,proctotrupid genus ,telenomus1 infesting the eggs of the notorious squash-bug 7,coreus tristis74 ,she writes3 ,the eggs of the ,coreus have been very abundant on our squash and melon vines1 but fully ninety per cent4 of them thus far ,august #b have been parasitized--the only thing that has saved the plants from utter destruction4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,biology ,,of ,,gonatopus ,,pilosus ,thoms--,professor ,josef ,mik1 in the ,september number of the ,wiener ,entomologische ,zeitung 7pp4 #bae-bba1 pl4 iii71 gives a most interesting account of the life history of the curious ,proctotrupid1 ,gonatopus pilosus ,thoms41 which has not before been thoroughly understood4 ,ferris1 in his ,nouvelles excursions dans les grandes ,landes1 tells how1 from cocoons of parasitic larvae on ,athysanus maritima 7a ,cicadellid7 he bred ,gonatopus pedestris1 but this he considered a secondary parasite1 from the fact that it issued from an inner cocoon4 ,it appears from the observations of ,mik1 however1 that it was in all probability a primary parasite1 as with the species studied by the latter 7,g4 pilosus7 the larva spins both an outer and an inner cocoon4 ,the larva of ,gonatopus pilosus is an external parasite upon the ,cicadellid ,deltocephalus xanthoneurus ,fieb4 ,the eggs are laid in ,june or ,july1 and the larvae1 attaching themselves at the junction of two abdominal segments1 feed upon the juices of their host4 ,but one parasite is found upon a single ,cicadellid1 and it occasionally shifts its position from one part of the abdomen to another4 ,leaving its host in ,september1 it spins a delicate double cocoon in which it remains all winter in the larva state1 transforming to pupa in ,may1 and issuing as an imago in ,june4 ,it will be remembered that the female in the genus ,gonatopus is furnished with a very remarkable modification of the claws of the front tarsi1 which are very strongly developed1 and differ somewhat in shape in the different species4 ,it has usually been supposed that these claws were for the purpose of grasping prey1 but ,professor ,mik offers the more satisfactory explanation that they are for the purpose of grasping the ,cicadellids1 and holding them during the act of oviposition4 ,it is interesting to note that there is in the collection of the ,department of ,agriculture a specimen of ,amphiscepa bivittata ,say1 which bears1 in the position described above1 a parasitic larva similar to that described by ,mik4 ,it left its victim and spun a white cocoon1 but we failed to rear the imago4 ,it is probably the larva of a ,gonatopus1 and possibly that of the only described ,american species of the genus1 ,gonatopus contortulus ,patton 7,can4 ,ent41 xi p4 #fd74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,species ,,of ,,otiorhynchidae ,,injurious ,,to ,,cultivated ,,plants--,of our numerous species of this family1 we know the development and earlier stages of only one species1 viz1 ,fuller's rosebeetle 7,aramigus ,fulleri#a74 ,a few other species have attracted attention by the injury caused by them as perfect insects4 ,they are as follows3 ,epicoerus imbricatus1 a very general feeder2 ,pachnoeus opalus and ,artipus floridanus1 both injurious to the orange tree4 ,of a few other species we know the food-plants3 thus ,neoptochus adspersus feeds on oak2 ,pachnoeus distans on oak and pine2 ,brachystylus acutus is only found on persimmon2 ,aphrastus toeniatus lives on pawpaw 7but not exclusively72 ,eudiagogus pulcher and rosenschoeldi defoliate the coffee-weeds 7,cassia occidentalis and other species of the same genus74 ,two very common species1 ,pandeleteius hilaris and ,tanymecus confertus1 appear to be polyphagous1 without preference for any particular plant4 ,very recently the habits of another species1 ,anametis grisea ,horn1 were brought to our knowledge by ,mr4 ,george ,p4 ,peffer1 of ,pewaukee1 ,wis41 who sent us specimens of the beetle accompanied by the following communication3 ,the larger curculio ,i send you is working around the roots of apple and pear trees1 near the surface of the ground or around the union where grafts are set4 ,i found fifteen of the larvae on a small tree one and a half inches in diameter4 ,the beetle seems to lay its eggs just where the bark commences to be soft1 near or partly under the ground4 ,the larvae eat the bark only1 but they are so numerous as to girdle the tree entirely in a short time4--,c4 ,v4 ,riley4 ,footnote #a3 ,vide ,annual ,report ,department of ,agriculture1 #ahgh1 p4 #beg4 ,,bombyliid ,,larvae ,,destroying ,,locust ,,eggs ,,in ,,asia ,,minor4--,the eggs of locusts in ,cyprus and the ,dardanelles1 as we learn from the ,proceedings of the ,london ,entomological ,society1 are much infested with the parasitic larvae of ,bombyltidae1 though these were previously not known to occur on the island4 ,this fact shows that the habit which we discovered among some of our ,n4 ,a4 ,bombyliids recurs in other parts of the world1 and we have little doubt that careful search among locust eggs will also reveal the larval habits of some of the ,melodae in ,europe and elsewhere4 ,indeed1 notwithstanding the closest experiments of ,jules ,lichtenstein1 which show that the larva of the ,spanish blister-beetle of commerce will feed on honey1 we imagine that its more natural food will be found in future to be locust eggs4 ,the particular ,bombyliid observed by ,mr4 ,frank ,calvert destroying locusts in the ,dardanelles is ,callostoma fascipennis ,macq41 and its larva and pupa very closely resemble those of ,triodites mus4 which we have studied and figured 7see ,vol4 ,,xv41 pl4 vi474 ,we quote some of ,mr4 ,calvert's observations3 ,on the #bdth of ,april ,i examined the larvae in the ground2 the only change was a semi-transparent appearance which allowed of a movable black spot to be seen in the body4 ,on the #hth ,june about fifty per cent4 of the larvae had cast a skin and assumed the pupal state in their little cells3 the color yellowish-brown1 darkening to gray in the more advanced insect4 ,about one per cent4 of the cells1 in which were two skins and an aperture to the surface1 showed the perfect insect to have already come out of them4 ,a gray pupa ,i was holding in my hand suddenly burst its envelope1 and in halt a minute on its legs stood a fly1 thus identifying the perfect insect4444 ,i found the fly1 now identified1 sucking the nectar of flowers1 especially of the pink scabious and thistle1 plants common in the ,troad4 7,later on ,i counted as many as sixteen flies on a thistle-head47 ,the number of flies rapidly increased daily until the #acth1 when the ground appeared pitted all over with small holes from whence the parasite had issued4 ,a few pupae were then still to be found--a larva the rare exception4 ,the pupal state thus seems to be of short duration4 ,it was very interesting to watch the flies appearing above ground2 first the head was pushed out2 then1 with repeated efforts1 the body followed2 the whole operation was over in two or three minutes2 the wings were expanded1 but the colors did not brighten until some time after4 ,occasionally a pupa could not cast off its envelope1 and came wriggling out of the ground1 when it was immediately captured by ants4 ,unfortunate flies that could not detach the covering membrane adhering to the abdomen1 also fell a prey1 as indeed many of the flies that could not get on their legs in time4 ,the flies for the first time #acth ,june1 were seen to pair1 but this rarely4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sparrows ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4--,,effect ,,of ,,acclimation1 ,,etc4 ,the house sparrows were first brought to ,new ,york city in #ahfb4 ,they might have been introduced in consideration of the scientific usefulness of the experiment2 but the importation was made solely in view of the benefit to result from their immense consumption of larvae4 ,i have long observed peculiarities in their acclimation which are hardly known at all1 and which must have a scientific importance4 ,the subject might also be worthy of general interest1 so numerous and familiar have the sparrows become all over our country4 ,walking on ,fifth avenue1 or in the parks of the city1 during the breeding season1 one's attention is repeatedly attracted by the pitiful shrill call of a sparrow fallen on the pavement upon its first attempt at flight1 or by the stronger note of a mother sparrow1 sharply bewailing the fate of a little one1 killed by the fall1 or dispatched alive by the cat4 ,should we take and examine these little weaklings1 we should find generally that they are at a period when they normally should have the strength for flight1 and we should also find that they are almost always of a lightish tint1 some with head white1 others with streaks and spots of white on the tail or back1 and occasionally one is found entirely white1 with red eyes--a complete albino4 ,it is an accepted fact that the city-sparrow is everywhere of a lighter color than that of the country4 ,but here the greater lightness exists in so many cases1 to such a degree1 and particularly in female sparrows1 that it should be discussed1 at least in part1 under the head of albinism4 ,that so many which lack the muscular strength in their wings should be so generally affected with albinism1 is a significant fact to those interested in this phenomenon4 ,many hold1 with ,darwin1 that this extraordinary want of coloring matter1 occasionally met with in all animals1 is not to be regarded as an index denoting an unhealthful condition of the animal4 ,that it is so often united in the young sparrow with physical inability1 argues favorably for those who bold a different view4 ,in my observations1 what has struck me as a most curious fact1 and what ,i have found to be generally ignored1 is that this wide-spread albinism and general weakness of our acclimated house-sparrow are not found among its progenitors4 ,throughout several sojourns that ,i made in ,europe4 ,i searched for a token of the remarkable characteristics existing here1 but ,i never succeeded in finding one in ,england1 ,france1 or in ,germany1 nor have ,i met an observer that has4 ,this albinism and weakness1 existing simultaneously to such an extent in our young house-sparrows1 are evidently the result of their acclimation4 ,the hypothesis that our now numerous sparrows1 being descended from a few ,european birds1 and that1 probably1 continual and close reproduction among individuals of the same stock1 as in the case of our original few sparrows1 has encouraged weakness in the race1 can hardly serve as an explanation of this phenomenon1 because the sparrow is so prolific that1 after a few years1 so many families had been formed that the relation between them became very distant4 ,the reason for the greater proportion of albinism found in the young is obvious2 the young sparrows affected with albinism1 lacking usually the physical strength to battle their way in life1 meet death prematurely1 and thus a very small proportion of the number is permitted to reach maturity1 while those that do owe it to some favoring circumstance4 ,many are picked up and cared for by the public2 and among those to whom these sparrows generally owe such prolongation of life are the policemen in our public parks1 who often bring these little waifs to their homes1 keeping some1 and sending others out into the world1 after caring for them until they have acquired the sufficient strength4 ,however1 almost all of these albino-sparrows are picked up by the cat1 and immediately disposed of to the feline's physical benefit4 ,they form such a prominent diet among the cats near ,washington ,park1 where ,i live1 that1 upon the removal of some of our neighbors to the upper part of the city1 it was noticed that their cat became dissatisfied and lean1 as sparrow-meat is not to be found so extensively there1 but it finally became resigned1 finding it possible to procure about three sparrows daily4 ,and here attention should be called to the method employed by our cats to catch not only the weak1 but fine1 healthy sparrows as well2 it ought perhaps to be looked upon as a mark of intellectual improvement1 for originally their attempts consisted chiefly in a very unsuccessful giving chase to the flying bird1 whereas the cats of to-day are skilled in a hundred adroit devices4 ,it has often been a source of enjoyment to watch their well-laid schemes and delicate maneuverings4 ,what wonder then1 with such dainty fare at his disposal1 that the cat is often found to have become indifferent to rats1 and even to mice8 ,there are several notable changes1 no more desirable than the foregoing1 which have been caused by the introduction of the house-sparrow4 ,the only positive benefit which occurs to me is that the measuring worm1 which formerly infested all our vegetation1 is now very nearly extinct through the instrumentality of the sparrows4 ,a pair of these1 during the breeding-season1 destroys four thousand larvae weekly4 ,in some places1 complaints are made that their untidy nests mar the appearance of trees and walls4 ,the amount of havoc in our wheatfields created yearly by them is enormous4 ,their forwardness and activity have driven all other birds from where they have settled1 so that the hairy caterpillars1 which sparrows do not eat and which used to be extensively consumed by other birds1 are now greatly on the increase1 probably the only creatures1 at present1 enjoying the domestication of the sparrow in this country4444 ,i have also to remark that the sparrows here betray much less pugnacity than in ,europe4--,e4,m41 ,m4,d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is stated in the ,chemical ,review that recent analyses of the water from the ,holy ,well at ,mecca1 which is so eagerly drunk by pilgrims1 show this water to be sewage1 about ten times stronger than average ,london sewage4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,how ,,to ,,establish ,a ,,true ,,meridian4 ,in looking over the excellent article of ,professor ,s4 ,m4 ,haupt1 in the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 ,no4 #cfj1 on the subject of finding the meridian1 ,i discovered that one important step is not given1 which1 might prove an embarrassment to a new beginner4 ,in the fourth paragraph1 in the third column of page #e1gdh1 he says3 ,having now found the altitude1 correct it for refraction1 444 and the result will be the latitude4 ,it will be observed that this result is only the true altitude of the star4 ,the latitude is found by further increasing or diminishing this altitude by the polar distance of the star4 ,this paper will be of great value to engineers and surveyors1 for the elementary works on surveying have not treated the subject clearly4 ,h4 ,c4 ,,pearsons1 ,c4,e4 ,ferrysburg1 ,mich4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,,terms ,,of ,,subscription1 #e ,a ,,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any foreign country4 ,all the back numbers of ,,the ,,supplement1 from the commencement1 ,january #a1 #ahgf1 can be had4 ,price1 #aj cents each4 ,all the back volumes of ,,the ,,supplement can likewise be supplied4 ,two volumes are issued yearly4 ,price of each volume1 #b4ej1 stitched in paper1 or #c4ej1 bound in stiff covers4 ,,combined 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