,,germany  ,,from ,,the  ,,earliest     
,,period  ,,by  ,,wolfgang ,,menzel     
,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,fourth      
,,german ,,edition  ,by ,,mrs4 ,,george 
,,horrocks  ,,with ,a ,,supplementary   
,,chapter ,,of ,,recent ,,events  ,by   
,,edgar ,,saltus  ,,volume ,,iv    ,,the
 ,,history ,,of ,,germany  ,,part ,,xxi 
,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,prussia             
7,,continued7  ,,ccxliv4 ,art and       
,fashion   ,although art had1 under     
,french influence1 become unnatural1    
bombastical1 in fine1 exactly contrary  
to every rule of good taste1 the courts1
 vain of their collections of works of  
art1 still emulated each other in the   
patronage of the artists of the day1    
whose creations1 tasteless as they were1
 nevertheless afforded a species of     
consolation to the people1 by diverting 
their thoughts from the miseries of     
daily existence4  ,architecture         
degenerated in the greatest degree4 ,its
 sublimity was gradually lost as the    
meaning of the ,gothic style became less

 understood1 and a tasteless imitation  
of the ,roman style1 like that of ,st4  
,peter's at ,rome1 was brought into     
vogue by the ,jesuits and by the court  
architects1 by whom the chateau of      
,versailles was deemed the highest      
chef-d'oeuvre of art4 ,this style of    
architecture was accompanied by a style 
of sculpture equally unmeaning and      
forced2 saints and ,pagan deities in    
theatrical attitudes1 fat genii1 and    
coquettish nymphs peopled the roofs of  
the churches and palaces1 presided over 
bridges1 fountains1 etc4 ,miniature     
turnery-ware and microscopical sculpture
 also came into fashion4 ,such          
curiosities as1 for instance1 a         
cherry-stone1 on which ,pranner1 the    
,carinthian1 had carved upward of a     
hundred faces2 a chessboard1 the        
completion of which had occupied a      
,dutchman for eighteen years2 golden    
carriages drawn by fleas2 toys composed 
of porcelain or ivory in imitation of   
,chinese works of art2 curious pieces of

 mechanism1 musical clocks1 etc41 were  
industriously collected into the        
cabinets of the wealthy and powerful4   
,this taste was1 however1 not utterly   
useless4 ,the predilection for ancient  
gems promoted the study of the remains  
of antiquity1 as ,stosch1 ,lippert1 and 
,winckelmann prove1 and that of natural 
history was greatly facilitated by the  
collections of natural curiosities4     
,the style of painting was1 however1    
still essentially ,german1 although     
deprived by the ,reformation and by     
,french influence of its ancient sacred 
and spiritual character4 ,nature was now
 generally studied in the search after  
the beautiful4 ,among the pupils of     
,rubens1 the great founder of the ,dutch
 school1 ,jordaens was distinguished for
 brilliancy and force of execution1 ,van
 ,dyck1 ,a4,d4 #aeda1 for grace and     
beauty1 although principally a portrait 
painter and incapable of idealizing his 
subjects1 in which ,rembrandt1 ,a4,d4   
#afgd1 who chose more extensive         

historical subjects1 and whose coloring 
is remarkable for depth and effect1 was 
equally deficient4 ,rembrandt's pupil1  
,gerhard ,douw1 introduced domestic     
scenes2 his attention to the minuti of  
his art was such that he is said to have
 worked for three days at a broomstick1 
in order to represent it with perfect   
truth4 ,denner carried accuracy still   
further2 in his portraits of old men    
every hair in the beard is carefully    
imitated4 ,francis and ,william#a       
,mieris discovered far greater talent in
 their treatment of social and domestic 
groups2 ,terbourg and ,netscher1 on the 
other hand1 delighted in the close      
imitation of velvet and satin draperies2
 and ,schalken1 in the effect of shadows
 and lamplight4 ,honthorst#b attempted a
 higher style1 but ,van der ,werf's     
small delicious nudities and ,van       
,loos's luxurious pastoral scenes were  
better adapted to the taste of the      
times4 ,while these painters belonged to
 the higher orders of society1 of which 

their works give evidence1 numerous     
others studied the lower classes with   
still greater success4 ,besides ,van der
 ,meulen and ,rugendas1 the painters of 
battle-pieces1 ,wouvermann chiefly      
excelled in the delineation of horses   
and groups of horsemen1 and ,teniers1   
,ostade1 and ,jan ,steen became famous  
for the surpassing truth of their       
peasants and domestic scenes4 ,to this  
low but happily-treated school also     
belonged the cattle-pieces of ,berchem  
and ,paul de ,potter1 whose ,bull and   
,cows were1 in a certain respect1 as    
much the ideal of the ,dutch as the     
,madonna had formerly been that of the  
,italians or the ,venus di ,medici that 
of the ancients4  ,landscape-painting   
alone gave evidence of a higher style4  
,nature1 whenever undesecrated by the   
vulgarity of man1 is ever sublimely     
simple4 ,the ,dutch1 as may be seen in  
the productions of ,breughel1 called1   
from his dress1 ,velvet ,breughel1 and  
in those of ,elzheimer1 termed1 from his

 attention to minutiae1 the ,denner of  
landscape- painting1 were at first too  
careful and minute2 but ,paul ,brill1   
,a4,d4 #afbf1 was inspired with finer   
conceptions and formed the link between 
preceding artists and the magnificent   
,claude ,lorraine 7so called from the   
place of his birth1 his real name being 
,claude ,gelee71 who resided for a long 
time at ,munich1 and who first attempted
 to idealize nature as the ,italian     
artists had formerly idealized man4     
,everdingen and ,ruysdael1 on the       
contrary1 studied nature in her simple  
northern garb1 and the sombre pines of  
the former1 the cheerful woods of the   
latter1 will ever be attractive1 like   
pictures of a much-loved home1 to the   
,german4 ,bakhuysen's sea-pieces and    
storms are faithful representations of  
the ,baltic4 ,in the commencement of    
last century1 landscape-painting also   
degenerated and became mere ornamental  
flower-painting1 of which the ,dutch    
were so passionately fond that they     

honored and paid the most skilful       
artists in this style like princes4 ,the
 dull prosaic existence of the merchant 
called for relief4 ,huysum was the mosrt
 celebrated of the flower-painters1 with
 ,rachel ,ruysch1 ,william von ,arless1 
and others of lesser note4 ,fruit and   
kitchen pieces were also greatly        
admired4 ,hondekotter was celebrated as 
a painter of birds4  ,painting was1 in  
this manner1 confined to a slavish      
imitation of nature1 for whose lowest   
objects a predilection was evinced until
 the middle of the eighteenth century1  
when a style1 half ,italian1 half       
antique1 was introduced into ,germany by
 the operas1 by travellers1 and more    
particularly by the galleries founded by
 the princes1 and was still further     
promoted by the learned researches of   
connoisseurs1 more especially by those  
of ,winckelmann4 ,mengs1 the ,raphael of
 ,germany1 ,oeser1 ,tischbein1 the      
landscape-painters ,seekatz1 ,hackert1  
,reinhardt1 ,koch1 etc41 formed the     

transition to the modern style4 ,frey1  
,chodowiecki1 etc41 gained great        
celebrity as engravers4  ,architecture  
flourished during the ,middle ,ages1    
painting at the time of the             
,reformation1 and music in modern times4
 ,the same spirit that spoke to the eye 
in the eternal stone now breathed in    
transient melody to the ear4 ,the       
science of music1 transported by ,dutch 
artists into ,italy1 had been there     
assiduously cultivated2 the ,italians   
had speedily surpassed their masters1   
and had occupied themselves with the    
creation of a peculiar church-music and 
of the profane opera1 while the         
,netherlands and the whole of ,germany  
were convulsed by bloody religious wars4
 ,after the peace of ,westphalia1 the   
national music of ,germany1 with the    
exception of the choral music in the    
,protestant churches1 was almost silent1
 and ,italian operas were introduced at 
all the courts1 where ,italian          
chapel-masters1 singers1 and performers 

were patronized in imitation of ,louis  
,,xiv41 who pursued a similar system in 
,france4 ,german talent was reduced to  
imitate the ,italian masters1 and1 in   
#afbh1 ,sagittarius produced at ,dresden
 the first ,german opera in imitation of
 the ,italian1 and ,keyser published no 
fewer than one hundred and sixteen4     
,the ,german musicians were1            
nevertheless1 earlier than the ,german  
poets1 animated with a desire to        
extirpate the foreign and degenerate    
mode fostered by the vanity of the      
,german princes1 and to give free scope 
to their original and native talent4    
,this regeneration was effected by the  
despised and simple organists of the    
,protestant churches4 ,in #agag1        
,schroeder1 a native of ,hohenstein in  
,saxony1 invented the pianoforte and    
improved the organ4 ,sebastian ,bach1 in
 his colossal fugues1 like to a pillared
 dome dissolved in melody1#c raised     
music by his compositions to a height   
unattained by any of his successors4 ,he

 was one of the most extraordinary      
geniuses that ever appeared on earth4   
,handel1 whose glorious melodies        
entranced the senses1 produced the grand
 oratorio of the ,messiah1 which is     
still performed in both ,protestant and 
,catholic cathedrals2 and ,graun1 with  
whom ,frederick the ,great played the   
flute1 brought private singing into     
vogue by his musical compositions4      
,gluck was the first composer who       
introduced the depth and pathos of more 
solemn music into the opera4 ,he gained 
a complete triumph at ,paris over       
,piccini1 the celebrated ,italian       
musician1 in his contest respecting the 
comparative excellencies of the ,german 
and ,italian schools4 ,haydn introduced 
the variety and melody of the opera into
 the oratorio1 of which his ,creation is
 a standing proof4 ,in the latter half  
of the foregoing century1 sacred music  
has gradually yielded to the opera4     
,mozart brought the operatic style to   
perfection in the wonderful compositions

 that eternalize his fame4  ,the ,german
 theatre was1 owing to the ,gallomania  
of the period1 merely a bad imitation of
 the ,french stage4 ,gottsched1#d who   
greatly contributed toward the          
reformation of ,german literature1 still
 retained the stilted ,alexandrine and  
the pseudo-,gallic imitation of the     
ancient dramatists to which ,lessing put
 an end4 ,lessing wrote his ,dramaturgy 
at ,hamburg1 recommended ,shakespeare   
and other ,english authors as models1   
but more particularly nature4 ,the      
celebrated ,eckhof1 the father of the   
,german stage1 who at first travelled   
about with a company of actors and      
finally settled at ,gotha1 was the first
 who followed this innovation4 ,he was  
succeeded by ,schroeder in ,hamburg1 who
 was equally industrious as a poet1 an  
actor1 and a ,freemason4 ,in ,berlin1   
where ,fleck had already paved the way1 
,iffland1 who1 like ,schroeder1 was both
 a poet and an actor1 founded a school1 
which in every respect took nature as a 

guide1 and which raised the ,german     
stage to its well-merited celebrity4    
,at the close of the eighteenth century1
 men of education were seized with an   
enthusiasm for art1 which showed itself 
principally in a love for the stage and 
in visits for the promotion of art to   
,italy4 ,the poet and the painter1 alike
 dissatisfied with reality1 sought to   
still their secret longings for the     
beautiful amid the unreal creations of  
fancy and the records of classical      
antiquity4  ,fashion1 that masker of    
nature1 that creator of deformity1 had1 
in truth1 arrived at an unparalleled    
pitch of ugliness4 ,the ,german costume1
 although sometimes extravagantly       
curious during the ,middle ,ages1 had   
nevertheless always retained a certain  
degree of picturesque beauty1 nor was it
 until the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 of    
,france that dress assumed an unnatural1
 inconvenient1 and monstrous form4      
,enormous allonge perukes and ruffles1  
the fontange 7high headdress71 hoops1   

and high heels1 rendered the human race 
a caricature of itself4 ,in the         
eighteenth century1 powdered wigs of    
extraordinary shape1 hairbags and       
queues1 frocks and frills1 came into    
fashion for the men2 powdered           
headdresses an ell in height1 diminutive
 waists1 and patches for the women4 ,the
 deformity1 unhealthiness1 and absurdity
 of this mode of attire were vainly     
pointed out by ,salzmann1 in a piece    
entitled1 ,charles von ,carlsberg1 or   
,human ,misery4  ,footnote #a3 ,also his
 brother ,john1 who painted with equal  
talent in the same style4--,trans4      
,footnote #b3 ,called also ,gerardo     
dalle ,notti from his subjects1         
principally night-scenes and pieces     
illuminated by torch or candle-light4   
,his most celebrated picture is that of 
,jesus ,christ before the ,tribunal of  
,pilate4--,ibid4  ,footnote #c3 ,gothic 
architecture has been likened to        
petrified music4  ,footnote #d3 ,he was 
assisted in his dramatic writings by his

 wife1 a woman of splendid              
talents4--,trans4    ,,ccxlv4 ,influence
 of the ,belles-,lettres   ,the ,german1
 excluded from all participation in     
public affairs and confined to the      
narrow limits of his family circle and  
profession1 followed his natural bent   
for speculative philosophy and poetical 
reverie2 but while his thoughts became  
more elevated and the loss of his       
activity was1 in a certain degree1      
compensated by the gentle dominion of   
the muses1 the mitigation thus afforded 
merely aggravated the evil by rendering 
him content with his state of inaction4 
,ere long1 as in the most degenerate age
 of ancient ,rome1 the citizen1 amused  
by sophists and singers1 actors and     
jugglers1 lost the remembrance of his   
former power and rights and became      
insensible to his state of moral        
degradation1 to which the foreign       
notions1 the vain and frivolous         
character of most of the poets of the   
day1 had not a little contributed4      

,after the thirty years' war1 the       
,silesian poets became remarkable for   
,gallomania or the slavish imitation of 
those of ,france4 ,unbounded adulation  
of the sovereign1 bombastical carmina on
 occasion of the birth1 wedding1        
accession1 victories1 ftes1 treaties of 
peace1 and burial of potentates1        
love-couplets equally strained1 twisted 
compliments to female beauty1 with      
pedantic1 often indecent1 citations from
 ancient mythology1 chiefly             
characterized this school of poetry4    
,martin ,opitz1 ,a4,d4 #afci1 the       
founder of the first ,silesian school1#a
 notwithstanding the insipidity of the  
taste of the day1 preserved the harmony 
of the ,german ballad4 ,his most        
distinguished followers were ,logau1    
celebrated for his ,epigrams2#b ,paul   
,gerhard1 who1 in his fine hymns1       
revived the force and simplicity of     
,luther2 ,flemming1 a genial and        
thoroughly ,german poet1 the companion  
of ,olearius#c during his visit to      

,persia2 the gentle ,simon ,dach1 whose 
sorrowing notes bewail the miseries of  
the age4 ,he founded a society of       
melancholy poets at ,knigsberg1 in      
,prussia1 the members of which composed 
elegies for each other2 ,tscherning and 
,andrew ,gryphius1 the ,corneille of    
,germany1 a native of ,glogau1 whose    
dramas are worthy of a better age than  
the insipid century in which they were  
produced4 ,the life of this dramatist   
was full of incident4 ,his father was   
poisoned2 his mother died of a broken   
heart4 ,he wandered over ,germany during
 the thirty years' war1 pursued by fire1
 sword1 and pestilence1 to the latter of
 which the whole of his relations fell  
victims4 ,he travelled over the whole of
 ,europe1 spoke eleven languages1 and   
became a professor at ,leyden1 where he 
taught history1 geography1 mathematics1 
physics1 and anatomy4 ,these poets were1
 however1 merely exceptions to the      
general rule4 ,in the poetical          
societies1 the ,order of the ,palm or   

,fructiferous ,society1 founded ,a4,d4  
#afag1 at ,weimar1 by ,caspar von       
,teutleben1 the ,upright ,pine ,society1
 established by ,rempler of ,lwenthal at
 ,strasburg1 that of the ,roses1 founded
 ,a4,d4 #afdc1 by ,philip von ,zesen1 at
 ,hamburg1 the ,order of the            
,pegnitz-shepherds1 founded ,a4,d4      
#afdd1 by ,harsdrfer1 at ,nuremberg1 the
 spirit of the ,italian and ,french     
operas and academies prevailed1 and     
pastoral poetry1 in which the god of    
,love was represented wearing an immense
 allonge peruke1 and the coquettish     
immorality of the courts was glowingly  
described in ,arcadian scenes of        
delight1 was cultivated4 ,the           
fantastical romances of ,spain were also
 imitated1 and the invention of novel   
terms was deemed the highest triumph of 
the poet4 ,every third word was either  
,latin1 ,french1 ,spanish1 ,italian1 or 
,english4 ,francisci of ,lbeck1 who     
described all the discoveries of the    
,new ,world in a colloquial romance     

contained in a thick folio volume1 was  
the most extravagant of these           
scribblers4 ,the romances of ,antony    
,ulric1 duke of ,brunswick1 who embraced
 ,catholicism on the occasion of the    
marriage of his daughter with the       
emperor ,charles ,,vi41 are equally bad4
 ,lauremberg's satires1 written ,a4,d4  
#aefd1 are excellent4 ,he said with     
great truth that the ,french had        
deprived the ,german muse of her nose   
and had patched on another quite        
unsuited to her ,german ears4           
,moscherosch 7,philander von ,sittewald7
 wrote an admirable and cutting satire  
upon the manners of the age1 and        
,greifenson von ,hirschfeld is worthy of
 mention as the author of the first     
historical romance that gives an        
accurate and graphic account of the     
state of ,germany during the thirty     
years' war4  ,this first school was     
succeeded by a second of surpassing     
extravagance4 ,hoffman von              
,hoffmannswaldau1 ,a4,d4 #afgi1 the     

founder of the second ,silesian school1 
was a caricature of ,opitz1 ,lohenstein 
of ,gryphius1 ,besser of ,flemming1     
,talander and ,ziegler of ,zesen1 and   
even ,francisci was outdone by that most
 intolerable of romancers1 ,happel4     
,this school was remarkable for the most
 extravagant license and bombastical    
nonsense1 a sad proof of the moral      
perversion of the age4 ,the ,german     
character1 nevertheless1 betrayed itself
 by a sort of nave pedantry1 a proof1   
were any wanting1 that the ostentatious 
absurdities of the poets of ,germany    
were but bad and paltry imitations4 ,the
 ,french ,alexandrine was also brought  
into vogue by this school1 whose        
immorality was carried to the highest   
pitch by ,gnther1 the lyric poet1 who1  
in the commencement of the eighteenth   
century1 opposed marriage1 attempted the
 emancipation of the female sex1 and1   
with criminal geniality1 recommended his
 follies and crimes1 as highly          
interesting1 to the world4 ,to him the  

poet1 ,schnabel1 the author of an       
admirable romance1 the ,island of       
,felsenburg1 the asylum1 in another     
hemisphere1 of virtue1 exiled from      
,europe1 offers a noble contrast4       
,three ,catholic poets of extreme       
originality appear at the close of the  
seventeenth century1 ,angelus ,silesius 
7,scheffler of ,breslau71 who gave to   
the world his devotional thoughts in    
,german ,alexandrines2 ,father ,abraham 
a ,sancta ,clara 7,megerle of ,swabia71 
a celebrated ,viennese preacher1 who1   
with comical severity1 wrote satires    
abounding with wit and humorous         
observations2 and ,balde1 who wrote some
 fine ,latin poems on ,god and nature4  
,prtorius1 ,a4,d4 #afhj1 the first      
collector of the popular legendary      
ballads concerning ,rbezahl and other   
spirits1 ghosts and witches1 also       
deserves mention4 ,the ,silesian1       
,stranizki1 who1 ,a4,d4 #agjh1 founded  
the ,leopoldstadt theatre at ,vienna1   
which afterward became so celebrated1   

and gave to it the popular comic style  
for which it is famous at the present   
day1 was also a poet of extreme         
originality4 ,gottsched appeared as the 
hero of ,gallomania1 which was at that  
time threatened with gradual extinction 
by the ,spanish and ,hamburg romance and
 by ,viennese wit4 ,assisted by ,neuber1
 the actress1 he extirpated all that was
 not strictly ,french1 solemnly burned  
,harlequin in effigy at ,leipzig1 ,a4,d4
 #agcg1 and laid down a law for ,german 
poetry1 which prescribed obedience to   
the rules of the stilted ,french        
court-poetry1 under pain of the critic's
 lash4 ,he and his learned wife guided  
the literature of ,germany for several  
years4  ,in the midst of these literary 
aberrations1 during the first part of   
the foregoing century1 ,thomson1 the    
,english poet1 ,brokes of ,hamburg1 and 
the ,swiss1 ,albert von ,haller1 gave   
their descriptions of nature to the     
world4 ,brokes1 in his ,earthly         
,pleasures in ,god1 was faithful1 often 

,homeric1 in his descriptions1 while    
,haller depictured his native ,alps with
 unparalleled sublimity4 ,the latter was
 succeeded by a ,swiss school1 which    
imitated the witty and liberal-minded   
criticisms of ,addison and other        
,english writers1 and opposed ,french   
taste and ,gottsched4 ,at its head stood
 ,bodmer and ,breitinger1 who           
recommended nature as a guide1 and      
instead of the study of ,french         
literature1 that of the ancient classics
 and of ,english authors4 ,it was also  
owing to their exertions that ,mller    
published an edition of ,rudiger        
,maness's collection of ,swabian        
,minnelieder1 the connecting link       
between modern and ancient ,german      
poetry4 ,still1 notwithstanding their   
merit as critics1 they were no poets1   
and merely opened to others the road to 
improvement4 ,hagedorn1 although        
frivolous in his ideas1 was graceful and
 easy in his versification2 but the most
 eminent poet of the age was ,gellert of

 ,leipzig1 ,a4,d4 #agfi1 whose tales1   
fables1 and essays brought him into such
 note as to attract the attention of    
,frederick the ,great1 who1             
notwithstanding the contempt in which he
 held the poets of ,germany1 honored him
 with a personal visit4  ,poets and     
critics now rose in every quarter and   
pitilessly assailed ,gottsched1 the     
champion of ,gallomania4 ,they were     
themselves divided into two opposite    
parties1 into ,anglomanists and         
,grcomanists1 according to their        
predilection for modern ,english        
literature or for that of ancient       
,greece and ,rome4 ,england1 grounded1  
as upon a rock1 on her self-gained      
constitution1 produced men of the rarest
 genius in all the higher walks of      
science and literature1 and her         
philosophers1 naturalists1 historians1  
and poets exercised the happiest        
influence over their ,teutonic brethren1
 who sought to regain from them the     
vigor of which they had been deprived by

 ,france4 ,the power and national       
learning of ,germany break forth in     
,klopstock1 whose genius vainly sought a
 natural garb and was compelled to      
assume a borrowed form4 ,he consecrated 
his muse to the service of religion1    
but1 in so doing1 imitated the ,homeric 
hexameters of ,milton2 he sought to     
arouse the national pride of his        
countrymen by recalling the deeds of    
,hermann 7,armin7 and termed himself a  
bard1 but1 in the ,horatian metre of his
 songs1 imitated ,ossian1 the old       
,scottish bard1 and was consequently    
labored and affected in his style4      
,others took the lesser ,english poets  
for their model1 as1 for instance1      
,kleist1 who fell at ,kunersdorf1 copied
 ,thomson in his ,spring2 ,zachari1     
,pope1 in his satirical pieces2 ,hermes1
 in ,the ,travels of ,sophia1 the       
humorous romances of ,richardson2 ,mller
 von ,itzehoe1 in his ,siegfried von    
,lindenberg1 the comic descriptions of  
,smollett4 ,the influence of the        

celebrated ,english poets1 ,shakespeare1
 ,swift1 and ,sterne1 on the tone of    
,german humor and satire1 was still     
greater4 ,swift's first imitator1       
,liscow1 displayed considerable talent1 
and ,rabener1 a great part of whose     
manuscripts was burned during the siege 
of ,dresden in the seven years' war1    
wrote witty1 and at the same time       
instructive1 satires on the manners of  
his age4 ,both were surpassed by        
,lichtenberg1 the little hump-backed    
philosopher of ,gttingen1 whose         
compositions are replete with grace4    
,the witty and amiable ,thmmmel was also
 formed on an ,english model1 and       
,archenholz solely occupied himself with
 transporting the customs and literature
 of ,england into ,germany4 ,if         
,shakespeare has not been without       
influence upon ,goethe and ,schiller1   
,sterne1 in his ,sentimental ,journey1  
touched an echoing chord in the         
,german's heart by blending pathos with 
his jests4 ,hippel was the first who1   

like him1 united wit with pathos1       
mockery with tears4  ,in ,klopstock1    
,anglo and ,graecomania were combined4  
,the latter had1 however1 also its      
particular school1 in which each of the 
,greek and ,roman poets found his       
imitator4 ,voss1 for instance1 took     
,homer for his model1 ,ramler1 ,horace1 
,gleim1 ,anacreon1 ,gessner1            
,theocritus1 ,cramer1 ,pindar1          
,lichtwer1 sop1 etc4 ,the ,germans1 in  
the ridiculous attempt to set themselves
 up as ,greeks1 were1 in truth1         
barbarians4 ,but all was forced1        
unnatural1 and perverted in this aping  
age4 ,wieland alone was deeply sensible 
of this want of nature1 and hence arose 
his predilection for the best poets of  
,greece and ,france4 ,the ,german muse1 
led by his genius1 lost her ancient     
stiffness and acquired a pliant grace1  
to which the sternest critic of his too 
lax morality is not insensible4 ,some   
lyric poets1 connected with the         
,graecomanists by the ,gttingen         

,hainbund1 preserved a noble simplicity1
 more particularly ,salis and ,hlty1 and
 also ,count ,stolberg1 wherever he has 
not been led astray by ,voss's stilted  
manner4 ,matthison is1 on the other     
hand1 most tediously affected4  ,the    
,german1 never more at home than when   
abroad1 boasted of being the cosmopolite
 he had become1 made a virtue of        
necessity1 and termed his want of       
patriotism1 justice to others1 humanity1
 philanthropy4 ,fortunately for him1    
there were1 besides the ,french1 other  
nations on which he could model himself1
 the ancient ,greeks and the ,english1  
from each of whom he gathered something 
until he had converted himself into a   
sort of universal abstract4 ,the great  
poets1 who shortly before and after the 
seven years' war1 put an end to mere    
partial imitations1 were not actuated by
 a reaction of nationality1 but by a    
sentiment of universality4 ,their object
 was1 not to oppose the ,german to the  
foreign1 but simply the human to the    

single national element1 and1 although  
,germany gave them birth1 they regarded 
the whole world equally as their        
country4  ,lessing1 by his triumph over 
the scholastic pedants1 completed what  
,thomasius had begun1 by his            
irresistible criticism drove ,french    
taste from the literary arena1 aided    
,winckelmann to promote the study of the
 ancients and to foster the love of art1
 and raised the ,german theatre to an   
unprecedented height4 ,his native       
language1 in which he always wrote1     
breathes1 even in his most trifling     
works1 a free and lofty spirit1 which1  
fascinating in every age1 was more      
peculiarly so at that emasculated       
period4 ,he is1 however1 totally devoid 
of patriotism4 ,in his ,minna von       
,barnhelm1 he inculcates the finest     
feelings of honor2 his ,nathan is       
replete with the wisdom that cometh from
 above and with calm dignity2 and in    
,emilia ,galotti he has been the first  
to draw the veil1 hitherto respected1   

from scenes in real life4 ,his life was1
 like his mind1 independent4 ,he scorned
 to cringe for favor1 even disdained    
letters of recommendation when visiting 
,italy 7,winckelmann had deviated from  
the truth for the sake of pleasing a    
patron71 contented himself with the     
scanty lot of a librarian at            
,wolfenbttel1 and even preferred losing 
that appointment rather than subject    
himself to the censorship4 ,he was the  
boldest1 freest1 finest spirit of the   
age4  ,herder1 although no less noble1  
was exactly his opposite4 ,of a soft and
 yielding temperament1 unimaginative1   
and gifted with little penetration1 but 
with a keen sense of the beautiful in   
others1 he opened to his fellow         
countrymen with unremitting diligence   
the literary treasures of foreign       
nations1 ancient classical poetry1 that1
 hitherto unknown1 of the ,east1 and    
rescued from obscurity the old popular  
poetry of ,germany4 ,in his ,ideas of a 
,philosophical ,history of ,mankind1 he 

attempted to display in rich and        
manifold variety the moral character of 
every nation and of every age1 and1     
while thus creating and improving the   
taste for poetry and history1 ever1 with
 childlike piety1 sought for and revered
 ,god in all his works4  ,goethe1 with a
 far richer imagination1 possessed the  
elegance but not the independence of    
,lessing1 all the softness1 pathos1 and 
universality of ,herder1 without his    
faith4 ,in the treatment and choice of  
his subjects he is indubitably the      
greatest poet of ,germany1 but he was   
never inspired with enthusiasm except   
for himself4 ,his personal vanity was   
excessive4 ,his works1 like the lights  
in his apartment at ,weimar1 which were 
skilfully disposed so as to present him 
in the most favorable manner to his     
visitors1 but artfully reflect upon     
self4 ,the manner in which he palliated 
the weaknesses of the heart1 the vain   
inclinations1 shared by his             
contemporaries in common with himself1  

rendered him the most amiable and       
popular author of the day4 ,french      
frivolity and license had long been     
practiced1 but they had also been       
rebuked4 ,goethe was the first who      
gravely justified adultery1 rendered the
 sentimental voluptuary an object of    
enthusiastic admiration1 and deified the
 heroes of the stage1 in whose imaginary
 fortunes the ,german forgot sad reality
 and the wretched fate of his country4  
,his fade assumption of dignity1 the art
 with which he threw the veil of mystery
 over his frivolous tendencies and made 
his commonplace ideas pass for something
 incredibly sublime1 naturally met with 
astonishing success in his              
wonder-seeking times4  ,rousseau's      
influence1 the ideas of universal       
reform1 the example of ,england1 proud  
and free1 but still more1 the enthusiasm
 excited by the ,american war of        
independence1 inflamed many heads in    
,germany and raised a poetical          
opposition1 which began with the        

bold-spirited ,schubart1 whose liberal  
opinions threw him into a prison1 but   
whose spirit still breathed in his songs
 and roused that of his great           
countryman1 ,schiller4 ,the first cry of
 the oppressed people was1 by ,schiller1
 repeated with a prophet's voice4 ,in   
him their woes found an eloquent        
advocate4 ,lessing had vainly appealed  
to the understanding1 but ,schiller     
spoke to the heart1 and if the seed1    
sown by him1 fell partially on corrupt  
and barren ground1 it found a fostering 
soil in the warm1 unadulterated hearts  
of the youth of both sexes4 ,he recalled
 his fellow-men1 in those frivolous     
times1 to a sense of self-respect1 he   
restored to innocence the power and     
dignity of which she had been deprived  
by ridicule1 and became the champion of 
liberty1 justice1 and his country1      
things from which the love of pleasure  
and the aristocratic self-complacency1  
exemplified in ,goethe1 had gradually   
and completely ,weaned succeeding poets4

 ,klinger1 at the same time1 coarsely   
portrayed the vices of the church and   
state1 and ,meyern extravagated in his  
romance ,dya-,na-,sore on ,utopian      
happiness4 ,the poems of ,muller1 the   
painter1 are full of latent warmth4     
,burger1 ,pfeffel1 the blind poet1 and  
,claudius1 gave utterance1 in           
,schubart's coarse manner1 to a few     
trite truisms4 ,musus was greatly       
admired for his amusing popular stories4
 ,as for the rest1 it seemed as though  
the spiritless writers of that day had  
found it more convenient to be violent  
and savage in their endless chivalric   
pieces and romances than1 like          
,schiller1 steadily and courageously to 
attack the vices and evils of their age4
 ,their fire but ended in smoke4 ,babo  
and ,ziegler alone1 among the           
dramatists1 have a liberal tendency4    
,the spirit that had been called forth  
also degenerated into mere bacchanalian 
license1 and1 in order to return to     
nature1 the limits set by decency and   

custom were1 as by ,heinse1 for         
instance1 who thus disgraced his genius1
 wantonly overthrown4  ,in              
contradistinction to these wild spirits1
 which1 whether borne aloft by their    
genius or impelled by ambition1 quitted 
the narrow limits of daily existence1 a 
still greater number of poets employed  
their talents in singing the praise of  
common life1 and brought domesticity and
 household sentimentality into vogue4   
,the very prose of life1 so unbearable  
to the former1 was by them converted    
into poetry4 ,although the ancient idyls
 and the family scenes of ,english      
authors were at first imitated1 this    
style of poetry retained an essentially 
,german originality2 the hero of the    
modern idyl1 unlike his ancient model1  
was a fop tricked out with wig and cane1
 and the domestic hero of the tale1     
unlike his ,english counterpart1 was a  
mere political nullity4 ,it is perhaps  
well when domestic comforts replace the 
want of public life1 but these poets    

hugged the chain they had decked with   
flowers1 and forgot the reality4 ,they  
forgot that it is a misfortune and a    
disgrace for a ,german to be without a  
country1 without a great national       
interest1 to be the most unworthy       
descendant of the greatest ancestors1   
the prey and the jest of the foreigner2 
to this they were indifferent1          
insensible2 they laid down the maxim    
that a ,german has nothing more to do   
than to provide for himself and his     
family1 no other enemy to repel than    
domestic trouble1 no other duty than to 
keep his ,german wife in order1 to send 
his sons to the university1 and to marry
 his daughters4 ,these commonplace      
private interests were withal merely    
adorned with a little sentimentality4   
,no noble motive is discoverable in     
,voss's celebrated ,louisa and ,goethe's
 ,hermann and ,dorothea4 ,this style of 
poetry was so easy that hundreds of     
weak-headed men and women made it their 
occupation1 and family scenes and plays 

speedily surpassed the romances of      
chivalry in number4 ,the poet1          
nevertheless1 exercised no less an      
influence1 notwithstanding his voluntary
 renunciation of his privilege to       
elevate the sinking minds of his        
countrymen by the great memories of the 
past or by ideal images1 and his        
degradation of poetry to a mere         
palliation of the weaknesses of         
humanity4   ,footnote #a3 ,he was a     
friend of ,grotius and is styled the    
father of ,german poetry4--,trans4      
,footnote #b3 ,of which an edition1 much
 esteemed1 was published by ,lessing and
 ,ramler4  ,footnote #c3 ,adam          
,elschlager or ,olearius1 an eminent    
traveller and mathematician1 a native of
 ,anhalt4 ,he became secretary to an    
embassy sent to ,russia and ,persia by  
the duke of ,holstein4--,trans4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,,part ,,xxii  ,,the ,,great ,,wars     
,,with ,,france  ,,ccxlvi4 ,the ,french 
,revolution   ,in no other ,european    

state had despotism arrived at such a   
pitch as in ,france2 the people groaned 
beneath the heavy burdens imposed by the
 court1 the nobility1 and the clergy1   
and against these two estates there was 
no appeal1 their tyranny being protected
 by the court1 to which they had        
servilely submitted4 ,the court had     
rendered itself not only unpopular1 but 
contemptible1 by its excessive license1 
which had also spread downward among the
 higher classes2 the government was1    
moreover1 impoverished by extravagance  
and weakened by an incapable            
administration1 the helm of state1      
instead of being guided by a            
master-hand1 having fallen under ,louis 
,,xv4 into that of a woman4  ,in        
,france1 where the ideas of modern      
philosophy emanated from the court1 they
 spread more rapidly than in any other  
country among the tiers-etat1 and the   
spirit of research1 of improvement1 of  
ridicule of all that was old1 naturally 
led the people to inquire into the      

administration1 to discover and to      
ridicule its errors4 ,the natural wit of
 the people1 sharpened by daily         
oppression and emboldened by ,voltaire's
 unsparing ridicule of objects hitherto 
held sacred1 found ample food in the    
policy pursued by the government1 and   
ridicule became the weapon with which   
the tiers-etat revenged the tyranny of  
the higher classes4 ,as learning spread1
 the deeds of other nations1 who had    
happily and gloriously cast off the yoke
 of their oppressors1 became known to   
the people4 ,the names of the patriots  
of ,greece and ,rome passed from mouth  
to mouth1 and their actions became the  
theme of the rising generation2 but more
 powerful than all in effect1 was the   
example of the ,north ,americans1 who1  
,a4,d4 #aghc1 separated themselves from 
their mother-country1 ,england1 and     
founded a republic4 ,france1 intent upon
 weakening her ancient foe1 lent her    
countenance to the new republic1 and    
numbers of her sons fought beneath her  

standard and bore the novel ideas of    
liberty back to their native land1 where
 they speedily produced a fermentation  
among their mercurial countrymen4       
,louis ,,xv41 a voluptuous and          
extravagant monarch1 was succeeded by   
,louis ,,xvi41 a man of refined habits1 
pious and benevolent in disposition1 but
 unpossessed of the moral power         
requisite for the extermination of the  
evils deeply rooted in the government4  
,his queen1 ,marie ,antoinette1 sister  
to ,joseph ,,ii41 little resembled her  
brother or her husband in her tastes1   
was devoted to gaiety1 and1 by her      
example1 countenanced the most lavish   
extravagance4 ,the evil increased to a  
fearful degree4 ,the taxes no longer    
sufficed2 the exchequer was robbed by   
privileged thieves2 an enormous debt    
continued to increase2 and the king1    
almost reduced to the necessity of      
declaring the state bankrupt1 demanded  
aid from the nobility and clergy1 who1  
hitherto free from taxation1 had amassed

 the whole wealth of the empire4  ,the  
aristocracy1 ever blind to their true   
interest1 refused to comply1 and1 by so 
doing1 compelled the king to have       
recourse to the tiers-etat4             
,accordingly1 ,a4,d4 #aghi1 he convoked 
a general assembly1 in which the        
deputies sent by the citizens and       
peasant classes were not only           
numerically equal to those of the       
aristocracy1 but were greatly superior  
to them in talent and energy1 and1 on   
the refusal of the nobility and clergy  
to comply with the just demands of the  
tiers-etat1 or even to hold a common    
sitting with their despised inferiors1  
these deputies declared the national    
assembly to consist of themselves alone1
 and proceeded1 on their own            
responsibility1 to scrutinize the evils 
of the administration and to discuss    
remedial measures4 ,the whole nation    
applauded the manly and courageous      
conduct of its representatives4 ,the    
,parisians1 ever in extremes1 revolted1 

and murdered the unpopular public       
officers2 the soldiers1 instead of      
quelling the rebellion1 fraternized with
 the people4 ,the national assembly1    
emboldened by these first successes1    
undertook a thorough transformation of  
the state1 and1 in order to attain the  
object for which they had been          
assembled1 that of procuring supplies1  
declared the aristocracy subject to     
taxation1 and sold the enormous property
 belonging to the church4 ,they went    
still further4 ,the people was declared 
the only true sovereign1 and the king   
the first servant of the state4 ,all    
distinctions and privileges were        
abolished1 and all ,frenchmen were      
declared equal4  ,the nobility and      
clergy1 infuriated by this dreadful     
humiliation1 embittered the people still
 more against them by their futile      
opposition1 and1 at length convinced of 
the hopelessness of their cause1        
emigrated in crowds and attempted to    
form another ,france on the borders of  

their country in the ,german ,rhenish   
provinces4 ,worms and ,coblentz were    
their chief places of resort4 ,in the   
latter city1 they continued their       
,parisian mode of life at the expense of
 the avaricious elector of ,treves1     
,clement ,wenzel1 a ,saxon prince1 by   
whose powerful minister1 ,dominique1    
they were supported1 and acted with     
unparalleled impudence4 ,they were      
headed by the two brothers of the       
,french king1 who entered into          
negotiation with all the foreign powers1
 and they vowed to defend the cause of  
the sovereigns against the people4      
,louis1 who for some time wavered       
between the national assembly and the   
emigrants1 was at length persuaded by   
the queen to throw himself into the arms
 of the latter1 and secretly fled1 but  
was retaken and subjected to still more 
rigorous treatment4 ,the emigrants1     
instead of saving1 hurried him to       
destruction4  ,the other ,european      
powers at first gave signs of           

indecision4 ,blinded by a policy no     
longer suited to the times1 they merely 
beheld in the ,french ,revolution the   
ruin of a state hitherto inimical to    
them1 and rejoiced at the event4 ,the   
prospect of an easy conquest of the     
distracted country1 however1 ere long   
led to the resolution on their part of  
actively interfering with its affairs4  
,austria was insulted in the person of  
the ,french queen1 and1 as head of the  
empire1 was bound to protect the rights 
of the petty ,rhenish princes and       
nobility1 who possessed property and    
ecclesiastical or feudal rights#a on    
,french territory1 and had been injured 
by the new constitution4 ,prussia1      
habituated to despotism1 came forward as
 its champion in the hope of gaining new
 laurels for her unemployed army4 ,a    
conference took place at ,pilnitz in    
,saxony1 ,a4,d4 #agia1 between ,emperor 
,leopold and ,king ,frederick ,william1 
at which the ,count ,d',artois1 the     
youngest brother of ,louis ,,xvi41 was  

present1 and a league was formed against
 the ,revolution4 ,the old ministers    
strongly opposed it4 ,in ,prussia1      
,herzberg drew upon himself the         
displeasure of his sovereign by         
zealously advising a union with ,france 
against ,austria4 ,in ,austria1 ,kaunitz
 recommended peace1 and said that were  
he allowed to act he would defeat the   
impetuous ,french by his patience2 that1
 instead of attacking ,france1 he would 
calmly watch the event and allow her1   
like a volcano1 to bring destruction    
upon herself4 ,ferdinand of ,brunswick1 
field-marshal of ,prussia1 was equally  
opposed to war4 ,his fame as the        
greatest general of his time had been   
too easily gained1 more by his          
manoeuvres than by his victories1 not to
 induce a fear on his side of being as  
easily deprived of it in a fresh war2   
but the proposal of the revolutionary   
party in ,france--within whose minds the
 memory of ,rossbach was still          
fresh--mistrustful of ,french skill1 to 

nominate him generalissimo of the troops
 of the republic1 conspired with the    
incessant entreaties of the emigrants to
 reanimate his courage2 and he finally  
declared that1 followed by the famous   
troops of the great ,frederick1 he would
 put a speedy termination to the ,french
 ,revolution4  ,leopold ,,ii4 was1 as   
brother to ,marie ,antoinette1 greatly  
embittered against the ,french4 ,the    
disinclination of the ,austrians to the 
reforms of ,joseph ,,ii4 appears to have
 chiefly confirmed him in the conviction
 of finding a sure support in the old   
system4 ,he consequently strictly       
prohibited the slightest innovation and 
placed a power hitherto unknown in the  
hands of the police1 more particularly  
in those of its secret functionaries1   
who listened to every word and consigned
 the suspected to the oblivion of a     
dungeon4 ,this mute terrorism found many
 a victim4 ,this system was1 on the     
death of ,leopold ,,ii41 ,a4,d4 #agib1b 
publicly abolished by his son and       

successor1 ,francis ,,ii41 but was ere  
long again carried on in secret4        
,catherine ,,ii41 with the view of      
seizing the rest of ,poland1 employed   
every art in order to instigate ,austria
 and ,prussia to a war with ,france1 and
 by these means fully to occupy them in 
the ,west4 ,the ,prussian king1 although
 aware of her projects1 deemed the      
,french an easy conquest1 and that in   
case of necessity his armies could      
without difficulty be thrown into       
,poland4 ,he meanwhile secured the      
popular feeling in ,poland in his favor 
by concluding1 ,a4,d4 #agij1 an alliance
 with ,stanislaus and giving his consent
 to the improved constitution           
established in ,poland1 ,a4,d4 #agia4   
,herzberg had even counselled an        
alliance with ,france and ,poland1 the  
latter was to be bribed with a promise  
of the annexation of ,galicia1 against  
,austria and ,russia2 this plan was1    
however1 merely whispered about for the 
purpose of blinding the ,poles and of   

alarming ,russia4  ,the bursting storm  
was anticipated on the part of the      
,french by a declaration of war1 ,a4,d4 
#agib1 and while ,austria still remained
 behind for the purpose of watching     
,russia1 ,poland1 and ,turkey1 and the  
unwieldy empire was engaged in raising  
troops1 ,ferdinand of ,brunswick had    
already led the ,prussians across the   
,rhine4 ,he was joined by the emigrants 
under ,conde1 whose army almost entirely
 consisted of officers4 ,the well-known 
manifesto1 published by the duke of     
,brunswick on his entrance into ,france1
 and in which he declared his intention 
to level ,paris with the ground should  
the ,french refuse to submit to the     
authority of their sovereign1 was       
composed by ,renfner1 the counsellor of 
the embassy at ,berlin4 ,the emperor and
 ,frederick ,william1 persuaded that    
fear would reduce the ,french to        
obedience1 had approved of this         
manifesto1 which was1 on the contrary1  
disapproved of by the duke of           

,brunswick1 on account of its barbarity 
and its ill-accordance with the rules of
 war4#c ,he did not1 however1 withdraw  
his signature on its publication4 ,the  
effect of this manifesto was that the   
,french1 instead of being struck with   
terror1 were maddened with rage1 deposed
 their king1 proclaimed a republic1 and 
flew to arms in order to defend their   
cities against the barbarians           
threatening them with destruction4 ,the 
,orleans party and the ,jacobins1 who   
were in close alliance with the ,german 
,illuminati1 were at that time first    
able to gain the mastery and to supplant
 the noble-spirited constitutionalists4 
,a ,prussian baron1 ,anachasis          
,cloots1#d was even elected in the      
national convention of the ,french      
republic1 where he appeared as the      
advocate of the whole human race4 ,these
 atheistical babblers1 however1 talked  
to little purpose1 but the national     
pride of the troops1 hastily levied and 
sent against the invaders1 effected     

wonders4  ,the delusion of the          
,prussians was so complete that         
,bischofswerder said to the officers1   
,do not purchase too many horses1 the   
affair will soon be over2 and the duke  
of ,brunswick remarked1 ,gentlemen1 not 
too much baggage1 this is merely a      
military trip4  ,the ,prussians1 it is  
true1 wondered that the inhabitants did 
not1 as the emigrants had alleged they  
would1 crowd to meet and greet them as  
their saviors and liberators1 but at    
first they met with no opposition4 ,the 
noble-spirited ,lafayette1 who commanded
 the main body of the ,french army1 had 
at first attempted to march upon ,paris 
for the purpose of saving the king1 but 
the troops were already too much        
republicanized and he was compelled to  
seek refuge in the ,netherlands1 where  
he was1 together with his companions1   
seized by command of the emperor of     
,austria1 and thrown into prison at     
,olmtz1 where he remained during five   
years under the most rigorous treatment 

merely on account of the liberality of  
his opinions1 because he wanted a       
constitutional king1 and notwithstanding
 his having endangered his life and his 
honor in order to save his sovereign4   
,such was the hatred with which         
high-minded men of strict principle were
 at that period viewed1 while at the    
same time a negotiation was carried on  
with ,dumouriez1#e a characterless      
,jacobin intriguant1 who had succeeded  
,lafayette in the command of the ,french
 armies4  ,ferdinand of ,brunswick now  
became the dupe of ,dumouriez1 as he had
 formerly been that of the emigrants4   
,in the hope of a counter- revolution in
 ,paris1 he procrastinated his advance  
and lost his most valuable time in the  
siege of fortresses4 ,verdun fell3 three
 beautiful citizens' daughters1 who had 
presented bouquets to the king of       
,prussia1 were afterward sent to the    
guillotine by the republicans as        
traitoresses to their country4          
,ferdinand1 notwithstanding this        

success1 still delayed his advance in   
the hope of gaining over the wily       
,french commander and of thus securing  
beforehand his triumph in a contest in  
which his ancient fame might otherwise  
be at stake4 ,the impatient king1 who   
had accompanied the army1 spurred him   
on1 but was1 owing to his ignorance of  
military matters1 again pacified by the 
reasons alleged by the cautious duke4   
,dumouriez1 consequently1 gained time to
 collect considerable reinforcements and
 to unite his forces with those under   
,kellermann of ,alsace4 ,the two armies 
came within sight of each other at      
,valmy2 the king gave orders for battle1
 and the ,prussians were in the act of  
advancing against the heights occupied  
by ,kellermann1 when the duke suddenly  
gave orders to halt and drew off the    
troops under a loud vivat from the      
,french1 who beheld this movement with  
astonishment4 ,the king was at first    
greatly enraged1 but was afterward      
persuaded by the duke of the prudence of

 this extraordinary step4 ,negotiations 
were now carried on with increased      
spirit4 ,dumouriez1 who1 like ,kaunitz1 
said that the ,french1 if left to       
themselves1 would inevitably fall a prey
 to intestine convulsions1 also         
contrived to accustom the king to the   
idea of a future alliance with ,france4 
,the result of these intrigues was an   
armistice and the retreat of the        
,prussian army1 which dysentery1 bad    
weather1 and bad roads rendered         
extremely destructive4  ,austria was    
now1 owing to the intrigues of the duke 
of ,brunswick and the credulity of      
,frederick ,william1 left unprotected4  
,as early as ,june1 old ,marshal ,lukner
 invaded ,flanders1 but1 being arrested 
on suspicion1 was replaced by           
,dumouriez1 who continued the war in the
 ,netherlands and defeated the          
stadtholder1 ,albert1 duke of ,saxon-   
,tescheu 7son-in-law to ,maria ,theresa1
 in consideration of which he had been  
endowed with the principality of        

,teschen and the stadtholdership at     
,brussels71 at ,jemappes1 and the whole 
of the ,netherlands fell into the hands 
of the ,jacobins1 who1 on the #adth of  
,november1 entered ,brussels1 where they
 proclaimed liberty and equality4 ,a few
 days later 7#aith of ,november7 the    
national convention at ,paris proclaimed
 liberty and equality to all nations1   
promised their aid to all those who     
asserted their liberty1 and threatened  
to compel those who chose to remain in  
slavery to accept of liberty4 ,as a     
preliminary1 however1 the ,netherlands1 
after being declared free1 were         
ransacked of every description of       
movable property1 of which ,pache1 a    
native of ,freiburg in ,switzerland1 at 
that time the ,french minister of war1  
received a large share4 ,the            
fluctuations of the war1 however1       
speedily recalled the ,jacobins4        
,another ,french army under ,custines1  
which had marched to the ,upper ,rhine1 
gained time to take a firm footing in   

,mayence4   ,footnote #a3 ,to the       
archbishopric of ,cologne belonged the  
bishopric of ,strasburg1 to the         
archbishopric of ,treves1 the bishoprics
 of ,metz1 ,toul1 ,verdun1 ,nancy1 ,st4 
,diez4 ,wrtemberg1 ,baden1 ,darmstadt1  
,nassau1 ,pfalz-,zweibrcken1 ,leiningen1
 ,salm-,salm1 ,hohenlohe-,bartenstein1  
,lwenstein1 ,wertheim1 the ,teutonic    
order1 the knights of ,st4 ,john1 the   
immediate nobility of the empire1 the   
bishop of ,basel1 etc41 had1 moreover1  
feudal rights within the ,french        
territory4 ,the arch- chancellor1       
elector of ,mayence1 made the patriotic 
proposal to the imperial diet that the  
empire should1 now that ,france had1 by 
the violation of the conditions of      
peace1 infringed the old and shameful   
treaties by which ,germany had been     
deprived of her provinces1 seize the    
opportunity also on her part to refuse  
to recognize those treaties1 and to     
regain what she had lost4 ,this sensible
 proposal1 however1 found no one capable

 of carrying it into effect4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,his sons were the emperor ,francis 
,,ii41 ,ferdinand1 grandduke of         
,tuscany1 the archduke ,charles1        
celebrated for his military talents1    
,joseph1 palatine of ,hungary1 ,antony1 
grand-master of the ,teutonic order1 who
 died at ,vienna1 ,a4,d4 #ahce1 ,john1 a
 general 7he lived for many years in    
,styria71 the present imperial          
vicar-general of ,germany1 and ,rayner1 
viceroy of ,milan4--,trans4  ,footnote  
#c3 ,gentz1 who afterward wrote so many 
manifestoes for ,austria1 practically   
remarks that this celebrated manifesto  
was in perfect conformity with the      
intent and that the only fault committed
 was the non-fulfillment of the threats 
therein contained4  ,footnote #d3 ,from 
,cleve4 ,he compared himself with       
,anacharsis the ,scythian1 a barbarian1 
who visited ,greece for the sake of     
learning4 ,he sacrificed the whole of   
his property to the ,revolution4        
,followed by a troop of men dressed in  

the costumes of different nations1 of   
whom they were the pretended            
representatives1 he appeared before the 
convention1 from which he demanded the  
liberation of the whole world from the  
yoke of kings and priests4 ,he became   
president of the great ,jacobin club1   
and it was principally owing to his     
instigations that the ,french1 at first 
merely intent upon defence1 were roused 
to the attack and inspired with the     
desire for conquest4  ,footnote #e3     
,dumouriez proposed as negotiator ,john 
,mller1 who was at that time teaching at
 ,mayence1 and who was in secret        
correspondence with him4 ,vide ,memoirs 
of a ,celebrated ,statesman1 edited by  
,rder4 ,rder remarks that ,john ,mller  
is silent in his autobiography          
concerning his correspondence with the  
,jacobins1 for which he might1 under a  
change of circumstances1 have had good  
reason4    ,,ccxlvii4 ,german ,jacobins 
,in ,lorraine and ,alsace1 the          
,revolution had been hailed with delight

 by the long-oppressed people4 ,on the  
#ajth of ,july1 #aghi1 the peasants     
destroyed the park of the bishop1       
,rohan1 at ,zabern1 and killed immense  
quantities of game4 ,the chateaux and   
monasteries throughout the country were 
afterward reduced to heaps of ruins1    
and1 in ,suntgau1 the peasants took     
especial vengeance on the ,jews1 who    
had1 in that place1 long lived on the   
fat of the land4 ,mulhausen received a  
democratic constitution and a ,jacobin  
club4 ,in ,strasburg1 the town-house was
 assailed by the populace1#a            
notwithstanding which1 order was        
maintained by the mayor1 ,dietrich4 ,the
 unpopular bishop1 ,rohan1 was replaced 
by ,brendel1 against whom the people of 
,colmar revolted1 and even assaulted him
 in the church for having taken the oath
 imposed by the ,french republic1 and   
which was rejected by all good          
,catholics4 ,dietrich1 aided by the     
great majority of the citizens of       
,strasburg1 long succeeded in keeping   

the sans culottes at bay1 but was at    
length overcome1 deprived of his office1
 and guillotined at ,paris1 while       
,eulogius ,schneider1 who had formerly  
been a professor at ,bonn1 then court   
preacher to the ,catholic duke1 ,charles
 of ,wurtemberg1#b became the tyrant of 
,strasburg1 and1 in the character of    
public accuser before the revolutionary 
tribunal1 conducted the executions4 ,the
 national convention at ,paris nominated
 as his colleague ,monet1 a man         
twenty-four years of age1 totally       
ignorant of the ,german language1 and   
who merely made himself remarkable for  
his open rapacity4#c ,this was1 however1
 a mere prelude to far greater horrors4 
,two members of the convention1 ,st4    
,just and ,lebas1 unexpectedly appeared 
at ,strasburg1 declared that nothing had
 as yet been done1 ordered the          
executions to take place on a larger    
scale1 and1 ,a4,d4 #agic1 imposed a fine
 of nine million livres on the already  
plundered city4 ,the ,german costume and

 mode of writing were also prohibited2  
every sign1 written in ,german1 affixed 
to the houses1 was taken down1 and1     
finally1 the whole of the city council  
and all the officers of the national    
guard were arrested and either exiled or
 guillotined1 notwithstanding their     
zealous advocacy of revolutionary       
principles1 on the charge of an         
understanding with ,austria1 without    
proof1 on a mere groundless suspicion1  
without being permitted to defend       
themselves1 for the sole purpose of     
removing them out of the way in order to
 replace them with trueborn ,frenchmen1 
a ,parisian mob1 who established        
themselves in the desolate houses4      
,schneider and ,brendel continued to    
retain their places by means of the     
basest adulation4 ,on the #bast of      
,november1 a great festival was         
solemnized in the ,minster1 which had   
been converted into a temple of ,reason4
 ,the bust of ,marat1 the most loathsome
 of all the monsters engendered by the  

,revolution1 was borne in solemn        
procession to the cathedral1 before     
whose portals an immense fire was fed   
with pictures and images of the saints1 
crucifixes1 priests' garments1 and      
sacred vessels1 among which ,brendel    
hurled his mitre4 ,within the cathedral 
walls1 ,schneider delivered a discourse 
in controversion of the ,christian      
religion1 which he concluded by solemnly
 renouncing2 a number of ,catholic      
ecclesiastics followed his example4 ,all
 the statues and ecclesiastical symbols 
were piled in a rude heap at the foot of
 the great tower1 which it was also     
attempted to pull down for the promotion
 of universal equality1 an attempt which
 the extraordinary strength of the      
building and the short reign of         
revolutionary madness fortunately       
frustrated4 ,all the more wealthy       
citizens had1 meanwhile1 been consigned 
either to the guillotine or to prison1  
and their houses filled with ,french    
bandits1 who revelled in their wealth   

and dishonored their wives and          
daughters4 ,eulogius ,schneider was     
compelled to seek at midnight for a     
wife1 suspicion having already attached 
to him on account of his former         
profession4 ,it was1 however1 too late4 
,on the following morning1 he was seized
 and sent to ,paris1 where he was       
guillotined4 ,all ecclesiastics1 all    
schoolmasters1 even the historian1      
,friese1 were1 without exception1       
declared suspected and dragged to the   
prisons of ,besanon1 where they suffered
 the harshest treatment at the hands of 
the commandant1 ,prince ,charles of     
,hesse4 ,in ,strasburg1 ,neumann1 who   
had succeeded ,schneider as public      
accuser1 raged with redoubled fury4 ,the
 guillotine was ever at work1 was       
illuminated during the night time1 and  
was the scene of the orgies of the      
drunken bandits4 ,on the advance of the 
,french armies to the frontiers1 the    
whole country was pillaged4#d  ,in other
 places1 where the plundering habits of 

the ,french had not cooled the popular  
enthusiasm1 it still rose high1 more    
particularly at ,mayence4 ,this city1   
which had been rendered a seat of the   
,muses by the elector1 ,frederick       
,charles1 was in a state of complete    
demoralization4 ,on the loss of         
,strasburg1 ,mayence1 although the only 
remaining bulwark of ,germany1 was      
entirely overlooked4 ,the war had       
already burst forth2 no imperial army   
had as yet been levied1 and the         
fortifications of ,mayence were in the  
most shameful state of neglect4         
,magazines had been established by the  
imperial troops on the left bank of the 
,rhine1 seemingly for the mere purpose  
of letting them fall into the hands of  
,custine3 but eight hundred ,austrians  
garrisoned ,mayence2 the ,hessians1     
although numerically weak1 were alone   
sincere in their efforts for the defence
 of ,germany4 ,custine's advanced guard 
no sooner came in sight than the elector
 and all the higher functionaries fled  

to ,aschaffenburg4 ,von ,gymnich1 the   
commandant of ,mayence1 called a council
 of war and surrendered the city1 which 
was unanimously declared untenable by   
all present with the exception of       
,eikenmaier1 who1 notwithstanding1 went 
forthwith over to the ,french1 and of   
,andujar1 the commander of the eight    
hundred ,austrians1 with whom he        
instantly evacuated the place4 ,the     
,illuminati1 who were here in great     
number1 triumphantly opened the gates to
 the ,french1 ,a4,d4 #agib4 ,the most   
extraordinary scenes were enacted4 ,a   
society1 the members of which preached  
the doctrines of liberty and equality1  
and at whose head stood the professors  
,blau1 ,wedekind1 ,metternich1          
,hoffmann1 ,forster1 the eminent        
navigator1 the doctors ,bhmer and       
,stamm1 ,dorsch of ,strasburg1 etc41    
chiefly men who had formerly been       
,illuminati1 was formed in imitation of 
the revolutionary ,jacobin club at      
,paris4#e ,these people committed       

unheard-of follies4 ,at first1          
notwithstanding their doctrine of       
equality1 they were distinguished by a  
particular ribbon2 the women1 insensible
 to shame1 wore girdles with long ends1 
on which the word liberty was worked in 
front1 and the word equality behind4    
,women1 girt with sabres1 danced        
franticly around tall trees of liberty1 
in imitation of those of ,france1 and   
fired off pistols4 ,the men wore        
monstrous mustaches in imitation of     
those of ,custine1 whom1 notwithstanding
 their republican notions1 they loaded  
with servile flattery4 ,as a means of   
gaining over the lower orders among the 
citizens1 who with plain good sense     
opposed their apish tricks1 the         
clubbists demolished a large stone1 by  
which the ,archbishop ,adolphus had     
formerly sworn1 ,you1 citizens of       
,mayence1 shall not regain your         
privileges until this stone shall melt4 
,this1 however1 proved as little        
effective as did the production of a    

large book1 in which every citizen1     
desirous of transforming the electorate 
of ,mayence into a republic1 was        
requested to inscribe his name4         
,notwithstanding the threat of being    
treated1 in case of refusal1 as slaves1 
the citizens and peasantry1 plainly     
foreseeing that1 instead of receiving   
the promised boon of liberty1 they would
 but expose themselves to ,custine's    
brutal tyranny1 withheld their          
signatures1 and the clubbists finally   
established a republic under the        
protection of ,france without the       
consent of the people1 removed all the  
old authorities1 and1 at the close of   
#agib1 elected ,dorsch1 a remarkably    
diminutive1 ill-favored man1 who had    
formerly been a priest1 president4  ,the
 manner in which ,custine levied        
contributions in ,frankfort on the      
,maine1#f was still less calculated to  
render the ,french popular in ,germany4 
,cowardly as this general was1 he1      
nevertheless1 told the citizens of      

,frankfort a truth that time has1 up to 
the present period1 confirmed4 ,you have
 beheld the coronation of the emperor of
 ,germany8 ,well6 you will not see      
another4  ,two ,germans1 natives of     
,colmar in ,alsace1 ,rewbel and         
,hausmann1 and a ,frenchman1 ,merlin1   
all three members of the national       
convention1 came to ,mayence for the    
purpose of conducting the defence of    
that city4 ,they burned symbolically all
 the crowns1 mitres1 and escutcheons of 
the ,german empire1 but were unable to  
induce the citizens of ,mayence to      
declare in favor of the republic4       
,rewbel1 infuriated at their opposition1
 exclaimed that he would level the city 
to the ground1 that he should deem      
himself dishonored were he to waste     
another word on such slaves4 ,a number  
of refractory persons were expelled from
 the city1#g and1 on the #agth of       
,march1 #agic1 although three hundred   
and seventy of the citizens alone voted 
in its favor1 a ,teuto-,rhenish national

 convention1 under the presidency of    
,hoffmann1 was opened at ,mayence and   
instantly declared in favor of the union
 of the new republic with ,france4      
,forster1 in other respects a man of    
great elevation of mind1 forgetful1 in  
his enthusiasm1 of all national pride1  
personally carried to ,paris the        
scandalous documents in which the       
,french were humbly entreated to accept 
of a province of the ,german empire4    
,the ,prussians1 who had remained in    
,luxemburg 7without aiding the          
,austrians71 meanwhile advanced to the  
,rhine1 took ,coblentz1 which ,custine  
had neglected to garrison 7a neglect for
 which he afterward lost his head71     
repulsed a ,french force under          
,bournonville1 when on the point of     
forming a junction with ,custine1 at    
,treves1 expelled ,custine from         
,frankfort1#h and closely besieged      
,mayence1 which1 after making a valiant 
defence1 was compelled to capitulate in 
,july4  ,numbers of the clubbists fled1 

or were saved by the ,french1 when      
evacuating the city1 in the disguise of 
soldiers4 ,others were arrested and     
treated with extreme cruelty4 ,every    
clubbist1 or any person suspected of    
being one1 received five and twenty     
lashes in the presence of ,kalkreuth1   
the ,prussian general4 ,metternich was1 
together with numerous others1 carried  
off1 chained fast between the horses of 
the hussars1 and1 whenever he sank from 
weariness1 spurred on at the sabre      
point4 ,blau had his ears boxed by the  
,prussian minister1 ,stein4#i ,a similar
 reaction took place at ,worms1#aj      
,spires1 etc4  ,the ,german ,jacobins   
suffered the punishment amply deserved  
by all those who look for salvation from
 the foreigner4 ,those who had barely   
escaped the vengeance of the ,prussian  
on the ,rhine were beheaded by their    
pretended good friends in ,france4      
,robespierre1 an advocate1 who1 at that 
period1 governed the convention1 sent   
every foreigner who had enrolled himself

 as a member of the ,jacobin club to the
 guillotine1 as a suspicious person1 a  
bloody but instructive lesson to all    
unpatriotic ,german ,gallomanists4#aa   
,the victims who fell on this occasion  
were1 a prince of ,salm-,kyrburg1 who   
had voluntarily republicanized his petty
 territory1 ,anacharsis ,cloots1#ab and 
the venerable ,trenk1 who had so long   
pined in ,frederick's prisons4 ,adam    
,lux1 a friend of ,george ,forster1 was 
also beheaded for expressing his        
admiration of ,charlotte ,corday1 the   
murderess of ,marat4 ,marat was a       
,prussian subject1 being a native of    
,neufchtel4 ,gbel von ,bruntrut1 uncle  
to ,rengger1#ac a celebrated character  
in the subsequent ,swiss revolution1    
vicar-general of ,basel1 a furious      
revolutionist1 who had on that account  
been appointed bishop of ,paris1        
presented himself on the #fth of        
,november1 #agic1 at the bar of the     
convention as an associate of ,cloots1  
,hebert1 ,chaumette1 etc41 cast his     

mitre and other insignia of office to   
the ground1 and placing the bonnet rouge
 on his head1 solemnly renounced the    
,christian faith and proclaimed that of 
liberty and equality4 ,the rest of the  
ecclesiastics were compelled to imitate 
his example2 the ,christian religion was
 formally abolished and the worship of  
,reason was established in its stead4   
,half-naked women were placed upon the  
altars of the desecrated churches and   
worshipped as goddesses of ,reason4     
,gbel's friend1 ,pache1 a native of     
,freiburg1 a creature abject as himself1
 was particularly zealous1 as was also  
,proli1 a natural son of the ,austrian  
minister1 ,kaunitz4 ,prince ,charles of 
,hesse1 known among the ,jacobins as    
,charles ,hesse1 fortunately escaped4   
,schlaberndorf1#ad a ,silesian count1   
who appears to have been a mere         
spectator1 and ,oelsner1 a distinguished
 author1 were equally fortunate4 ,these 
two latter remained in ,paris4          
,reinhard1 a native of ,wurtemberg1     

secretary to the celebrated ,girondin1  
,vergniaud1 whom he is said to have     
aided in the composition of his eloquent
 speeches1 remained in the service of   
,france1 was afterward ennobled and     
raised to the ministry4 ,felix von      
,wimpfen1 whom the faction of the       
,gironde 7the moderates who opposed the 
savage ,jacobins7 elected their general1
 and who1 attempting to lead a small    
force from ,normandy against ,paris1 was
 defeated and compelled to seek safety  
by flight4 ,the venerable ,lukner1 the  
associate of ,lafayette1 who had termed 
the great ,revolution merely a little   
occurrence in ,paris1 was beheaded4 ,the
 unfortunate ,george ,forster perceived 
his error and died of sorrow4#ae ,among 
the other ,rhenish ,germans of          
distinction1 who had at that time formed
 a connection with ,france1 ,joseph     
,grres brought himself1 notwithstanding 
his extreme youth1 into great note at   
,coblentz by his superior talents4 ,he  
went to ,paris as deputy of ,treves and 

speedily became known by his works      
7,rubezahl and the ,red ,leaf74 ,he also
 speedily discovered the immense mistake
 made by the ,germans in resting their  
hopes upon ,france4 ,it was indeed a    
strange delusion to suppose the vain and
 greedy ,frenchman capable of being     
inspired with disinterested love for all
 mankind1 and it was indeed a severe    
irony1 that1 after such repeated and    
cruel experience1 after having for      
centuries seen the ,french ever in the  
guise of robbers and pillagers1 and     
after breathing such loud complaints    
against the princes who had sold        
,germany to ,france1 that the warmest   
friends of the people should on this    
occasion be guilty of similar treachery1
 and1 like selecting the goat for a     
gardener1 entrust the weal of their     
country to the ,french4  ,the people in 
,germany too little understood the real 
motives and object of the ,french       
,revolution1 and were too soon provoked 
by the predatory incursions of the      

,french troops1 to be infected with     
revolutionary principles4 ,these merely 
fermented among the literati2 the       
,utopian idea of universal              
fraternization was spread by            
,freemasonry2 numbers at first cherished
 a hope that the ,revolution would      
preserve a pure moral character1 and    
were not a little astonished on         
beholding the monstrous crimes to which 
it gave birth4 ,others merely rejoiced  
at the fall of the old and insupportable
 system1 and numerous anonymous         
pamphlets in this spirit appeared in the
 ,rhenish provinces4 ,fichte1 the       
philosopher1 also published an anonymous
 work in favor of the ,revolution4      
,others again1 as1 for instance1        
,reichard1 ,girtanner1 ,schirach1 and   
,hoffmann1 set themselves up as         
informers1 and denounced every          
liberal-minded man to the princes as a  
dangerous ,jacobin4 ,a search was made  
for ,crypto-,jacobins1 and every honest 
man was exposed to the calumny of the   

servile newspaper editors4 ,french      
republicanism was denounced as criminal1
 notwithstanding the favor in which the 
,french language and ,french ideas were 
held at all the courts of ,germany4     
,liberal opinions were denounced as     
criminal1 notwithstanding the example   
first set by the courts in ridiculing   
religion1 in mocking all that was       
venerable and sacred4 ,nor was this     
reaction by any means occasioned by a   
burst of ,german patriotism against the 
tyranny of ,france1 for the treaty of   
,basel speedily reconciled the self-same
 newspaper editors with ,france4 ,it was
 mere servility2 and the hatred which1  
it may easily be conceived1 was         
naturally excited against the ,french as
 a nation1 was vented in this mode upon 
the patient ,germans1#af who were1      
unfortunately1 ever doomed1 whenever    
their neighbors were visited with some  
political chronic convulsion1 to taste  
the bitter remedy4 ,but few of the      
writers of the day took a historical    

view of the ,revolution and weighed its 
irremediable results in regard to       
,germany1 besides ,gentz1 ,rehberg1 and 
the ,baron von ,gagern1 who published an
 ,address to his ,countrymen1 in which  
he started the painful question1 ,why   
are we ,germans disunited8 ,the whole of
 these contending opinions of the       
learned were1 however1 equally          
erroneous4 ,it was as little possible to
 preserve the ,revolution from blood and
 immorality1 and to extend the boon of  
liberty to the whole world1 as it was to
 suppress it by force1 and1 as far as   
,germany was concerned1 her affairs were
 too complicated and her interests too  
scattered for any attempt of the kind to
 succeed4 ,a ,doctor ,faust1 at         
,buckeburg1 sent a learned treatise upon
 the origin of trousers to the national 
convention at ,paris1 by which          
,sansculottism had been introduced2 an  
incident alone sufficient to show the   
state of feeling in ,germany at that    
time4  ,the revolutionary principles of 

,france merely infected the people in   
those parts of ,germany where their     
sufferings had ever been the greatest1  
as1 for instance1 in ,saxony1 where the 
peasantry1 oppressed by the game laws   
and the rights of the nobility1 rose1   
after a dry summer by which their misery
 had been greatly increased1 to the     
number of eighteen thousand1 and sent   
one of their class to lay their         
complaints before the elector1 ,a4,d4   
#agij4 ,the unfortunate messenger was   
instantly consigned to a madhouse1 where
 he remained until #ahji1 and the       
peasantry were dispersed by the         
military4 ,a similar revolt of the      
peasantry against the tyrannical nuns of
 ,wormelen1 in ,westphalia1 merely      
deserves mention as being characteristic
 of the times4 ,a revolt of the         
peasantry1 of equal unimportance1 also  
took place in ,buckeburg1 on account of 
the expulsion of three revolutionary    
priests1 ,froriep1 ,meyer1 and          
,rauschenbusch4 ,in ,breslau1 a great   

meute1 which was put down by means of   
artillery1 was occasioned by the        
expulsion of a tailor's apprentice1     
,a4,d4 #agic4  ,in ,austria1 one        
,hebenstreit formed a conspiracy1 which 
brought him to the gallows1 ,a4,d4      
#agic4 ,that formed by ,martinowits1 for
 the establishment of the sovereignty of
 the people in ,hungary and for the     
expulsion of the magnates1 was of a more
 dangerous character4 ,martinowits was  
beheaded1 ,a4,d4 #agic1 with four of his
 associates4#ag ,these attempts so      
greatly excited the apprehensions of the
 government that the reaction1 already  
begun on the death of ,joseph ,,ii41 was
 brought at once to a climax2 ,thugut1  
the minister1 established an extremely  
active secret police and a system of    
surveillance1 which spread terror       
throughout ,austria and was utterly     
uncalled for1 no one1 with the exception
 of a few crack-brained individuals1    
being in the slightest degree infected  
with the revolutionary mania4#ah  ,it   

may be recorded as a matter of curiosity
 that1 during the bloodstained year of  
#agic1 the petty prince of              
,schwarzburg-,rudolstadt held1 as though
 in the most undisturbed time of peace1 
a magnificent tournament1 and the fetes 
customary on such an occasion4          
,footnote #a3 ,oberlin1 the celebrated  
philologist1 an ornament to ,german     
learning1 a professor at ,strasburg1    
rescued1 at the risk of his life1 a     
great portion of the ancient city       
archives1 which had been thrown out of  
the windows1 by re-collecting the       
documents with the aid of the students4 
,on account of this sample of old       
,german pedantry he pined1 until #agic1 
in durance vile at ,metz1 and narrowly  
escaped being guillotined4  ,footnote   
#b3 ,at ,bonn he had the impudence to   
say to the elector1 ,i cannot pay you a 
higher compliment than by asserting you 
to be no ,catholic4--,van ,alpen1       
,history of ,rhenish ,franconia4        
,footnote #c3 ,he mulcted the brewers to

 the amount of #bee1jjj livres1 on      
account of their well-known avarice1 the
 bakers and millers to that of #cad1jjj1
 a publican to that of #dj1jjj1 a baker 
to that of #cj1jjj1 because he was an   
enemy of mankind1 etc4--,vide ,friese's 
,history of ,strasburg4  ,footnote #d3  
,it was asserted that the ,jacobins had 
formed a plan to depopulate the whole of
 ,alsace1 and to partition the country  
among the bravest soldiers belonging to 
the republican armies4  ,footnote #e3   
,john ,mller played a remarkable part4  
,this thoroughly deceptive person had1  
by his commendation of the ancient      
,swiss in his affectedly written        
,history of ,switzerland1 gained the    
favor of the friends of liberty1 and1 at
 the same time1 that of the nobility by 
his encomium on the degenerate ,swiss   
aristocracy4 ,while with sentimental    
phrases and fine words he pretended to  
be one of the noblest of mankind1 he was
 addicted to the lowest and most        
monstrous vices4 ,his immorality brought

 him into trouble in ,switzerland1 and  
the man1 who had been1 apparently1      
solely inspired with the love of        
republican liberty1 now paid court1 for 
the sake of gain1 to foreign princes2   
the adulation that had succeeded so well
 with all the lordlings of ,switzerland 
was poured into the ears of all the     
potentates of ,europe4 ,he even rose to 
great favor at ,rome by his flattery of 
the pope in a work entitled ,the        
,travels of the ,popes4 ,he published   
the most virulent sophisms against the  
beneficial reforms of the emperor       
,joseph1 and cried up the ,league1 for  
which he was well paid4 ,he contrived1  
at the same time1 to creep into favor   
with the ,illuminati4 ,he was employed  
by the elector of ,mayence to carry on  
negotiations with ,dumouriez1 got into  
office under the ,french republic1 and  
afterward revisited ,mayence for the    
express purpose of calling upon the     
citizens1 at that time highly           
dissatisfied with the conduct of the    

,french1 to unite themselves with       
,france4 ,vide ,forster's               
,correspondence4 ,dumouriez shortly     
afterward went over to the ,austrians1  
and ,mller suddenly appeared at ,vienna1
 adorned with a title and in the        
character of an ,aulic councillor4      
,footnote #f3 ,while in his             
proclamations he swore by all that was  
sacred 7what was so to a ,frenchman87 to
 respect the property of the citizens   
and that ,france coveted no extension of
 territory4  ,footnote #g3 ,forster was 
so blinded at that time by his          
enthusiasm that he wrote1 all of those  
among us who refuse the citizenship of  
,france are to be expelled the city1    
even if complete depopulation should be 
the result4 ,he relates3 ,i summoned1 at
 ,grunstadt1 the ,counts von ,leiningen 
to acknowledge themselves citizens of   
,france4 ,they protested against it1    
caballed1 instigated the citizens       
peasantry to revolt2 one of my soldiers 
was attacked and wounded4 ,i demanded a 

reinforcement1 took possession of both  
the castles1 and placed the counts under
 guard4 ,to-day ,i sent them with an    
escort to ,landau4 ,this has been a     
disagreeable duty1 but we must reduce   
every opponent of the good cause to     
obedience4  ,footnote #h3 ,where the    
weak garrison left by the ,french was   
disarmed by the workmen4  ,footnote #i3 
,either the ,prussian minister who      
afterward gained such celebrity or one  
of his relations4  ,footnote #aj3 ,here 
,skekuly forced the ,german clubbists1  
with the lash1 to cut down the tree of  
liberty4  ,footnote #aa3 ,forster wrote 
from ,paris1 ,suspicion hangs over every
 foreigner1 and the essential           
distinctions which ought to be made in  
this respect are of no avail4 ,thus did 
nature1 by whom nations are eternally   
separated1 avenge herself on the fools  
who had dreamed of universal equality4  
,footnote #ab3 ,cloots had incessantly  
preached war1 threatened all the kings  
of the earth with destruction1 and1 in  

his vanity1 had even set a price upon   
the head of the ,prussian monarch4 ,his 
object was the union of the whole of    
mankind1 the abolition of nationality4  
,the ,french were to receive a new name1
 that of ,universel4 ,he preached in the
 convention3 ,i have struggled during   
the whole of my existence against the   
powers of heaven and earth4 ,there is   
but one ,god1 ,nature1 and but one      
sovereign1 mankind1 the people1 united  
by reason in one universal republic4    
,religion is the last obstacle1 but the 
time has arrived for its destruction4   
,j'occupe la tribune de l'univers4 ,je  
le repte1 le genre humain est ,dieu1 le 
,peuple ,dieu4 ,quiconque a la dbilit de
 croire en ,dieu ne sauroit avoir la    
sagacit de connaitre le genre humain1 le
 souverain unique1 etc4--,moniteur of   
#agic1 ,no4 #abj4 ,he also subscribed   
himself the personal enemy of ,jeus of  
,nazareth4  ,footnote #ac3 ,whose       
nephew1 the celebrated traveller1       
,rengger1 was1 with ,bonpland1 so long  

imprisoned in ,paraguay4  ,footnote #ad3
 ,he had been already imprisoned and was
 ordered to the guillotine1 but not     
being able to find his boots quickly    
enough1 his execution was put off until 
the morrow4 ,during the night1          
,robespierre fell1 and his life was     
saved4 ,he continued to reside at       
,paris1 where he never quitted his      
apartment1 cherished his beard1 and     
associated solely with ecclesiastics4   
,footnote #ae3 ,after an interview with 
his wife1 ,theresa 7daughter to the     
great philologist1 ,heyne of            
,grottingen71 on the ,french frontier1  
he returned to ,paris and killed himself
 by drinking aquafortis4 ,vide ,crome's 
,autobiography4 ,theresa entered into   
association with ,huber1 the journalist1
 whom she shortly afterward married4    
,she gained great celebrity by her      
numerous romances4  ,footnote #af3 ,the 
popular work ,huergelmer relates1 among 
other things1 the conduct of the        
,margrave of ,baden toward              

,lauchsenring1 his private physician1   
whom he1 on account of the liberality of
 his opinions1 delivered over to the    
,austrian general1 who sentenced him to 
the bastinado4  ,footnote #ag3          
,schnelter says3 ,the first great       
conspiracy was formed in the vicinity of
 the throne1 ,a4,d4 #agic4 ,the chief   
conspirator was ,hebenstreit1 the       
commandant1 who held1 by his office1 the
 keys to the arsenal1 and had every     
place of importance in his power4 ,his  
fellow conspirators were ,prandsttter1  
the magistrate and poet1 who1 by his    
superior talents1 led the whole of the  
magistracy1 and possessed great         
influence in the metropolis1 ,professor 
,riedl1 who possessed the confidence of 
the court1 which he frequented for the  
purpose of instructing some of the      
principal personages1 and ,hckel1 the   
merchant1 who had the management of its 
pecuniary affairs4 ,the rest of the     
conspirators belonged to every class of 
society and were spread throughout every

 province of the empire4 ,the plan      
consisted in the establishment of a     
democratic constitution1 the first step 
to which appears to have been an attempt
 against the life of the imperial       
family4 ,the signal for insurrection was
 to be given by firing the immense      
wood-yards4 ,the hearts of the people   
were to be gained by the destruction of 
the government accounts4 ,the discovery 
was made through a conspiracy formed in 
,denmark4 ,the chief conspirator was    
seized and sent to the gallows4 ,the    
rest were exiled to ,munkatch1 where    
several of them had succumbed to the    
severity of their treatment and of the  
climate when their release was effected 
by ,bonaparte by the peace of ,campo    
,formio1 which gave rise to the         
supposition that the ,hebenstreit       
conspiracy was connected with the       
,french republicans and ,jacobins4 ,the 
second conspiracy was laid in ,hungary1 
by the bishop and abbot1 ,josephus      
,ignatius ,martinowits1 a man whom the  

emperors ,joseph1 ,leopold1 and ,francis
 had1 on account of his talent and      
energy1 loaded with favors4 ,the plan   
was an actionalis conspiratio1 for the  
purpose of contriving an attempt against
 the sacred person of his ,majesty the  
king1 the destruction of the power of   
the privileged classes in ,hungary1 the 
subversion of the administration1 and   
the establishment of a democracy4 ,the  
means for the execution of this project 
were furnished by two secret societies4 
,huergelmer relates3 ,a certain ,dr4    
,plank somewhat thoughtlessly ridiculed 
the institution of the jubilee2 in order
 to convince him of its utility1 he was 
sent as a recruit to the ,italian army1 
an act that was highly praised by the   
newspapers4 ,on the #bb;d of ,july1     
#agie1 a ,baron von ,riedel was placed  
in the pillory at ,vienna for some      
political crime1 and was afterward      
consigned to the oblivion of a dungeon2 
the same fate1 some days later1 befell  
,brand-,btetter1 ,fellesneck1 ,billeck1 

,ruschitiski 7,ephemeridae of #agif74 ,a
 ,baron ,taufner was hanged at ,vienna  
as a traitor to his country 7,e4 of     
#agif74  ,footnote #ah3 ,the increase of
 crime occasioned by the artifices of   
the police1 who thereby gained their    
livelihood1 rendered an especial        
statute1 prohibitory of such measures1  
necessary in the new legislature4 ,even 
the passing stranger perceived the      
disastrous effect of their intrigues    
upon the open1 honest character and the 
social habits of the ,viennese4 ,the    
police began gradually to be considered 
as a necessary part of the machine of   
government1 a counterbalance to or a    
remedy for the faults committed by other
 branches of the administration4 ,large 
sums1 the want of which was heavily felt
 in the national education and in the   
army1 were expended on this arsenal of  
poisoned weapons4--,hormayr's           
,pocket-,book1 #ahcb4 ,thugut is        
described as a diminutive1 hunchbacked  
old man1 with a face resembling the mask

 of a fawn and with an almost satanic   
expression4    ,,ccxlviii4 ,loss of the 
,left ,bank of the ,rhine   ,the object 
of the ,prussian king was either to     
extend his conquests westward or1 at all
 events1 to prevent the advance of      
,austria4 ,the war with ,france claimed 
his utmost attention1 and1 in order to  
guard his rear1 he again attempted to   
convert ,poland into a bulwark against  
,russia4  ,his ambassador1 ,lucchesini1 
drove ,stackelberg1 the ,russian envoy1 
out of ,warsaw1 and promised mountains  
of gold to the ,poles1 who dissolved the
 perpetual council associated by ,russia
 with the sovereign1 freed themselves   
from the ,russian guarantee2 aided by   
,prussia1 compelled the ,russian troops 
to evacuate the country2 devised a      
constitution1 which they laid before the
 cabinets of ,london and ,berlin2       
concluded an offensive and defensive    
alliance with ,prussia on the #bith of  
,march1 #agij1 and1 on the #c;d of ,may1
 #agia1 carried into effect the new     

constitution ratified by ,england and   
,prussia1 and approved of by the emperor
 ,leopold4 ,during the conference1 held 
at ,pilnitz1 the indivisibility of      
,poland was expressly mentioned4 ,the   
constitution was monarchical4 ,poland   
was1 for the future1 to be a hereditary 
instead of an elective monarchy1 and1 on
 the death of ,poniatowsky1 the crown   
was to fall to ,saxony4 ,the            
modification of the peasants' dues and  
the power conceded to the serf of making
 a private agreement with his lord also 
gave the monarchy a support against the 
aristocracy4  ,catherine of ,russia1    
however1 no sooner beheld ,prussia and  
,austria engaged in a war with ,france1 
than she commenced her operations       
against ,poland1 declared the new       
,polish constitution ,french and        
,jacobinical1 notwithstanding its       
abolition of the liberum veto and its   
extension of the prerogatives of the    
crown1 and1 taking advantage of the     
king's absence from ,prussia1 speedily  

regained possession of the country4     
,what was ,frederick ,william's policy  
in this dilemma8 ,he was strongly       
advised to make peace with ,france1 to  
throw himself at the head of the whole  
of his forces into ,poland1 and to set a
 limit to the insolence of the autocrat2
 but--he feared1 should he abandon the  
,rhine1 the extension of the power of   
,austria in that quarter1 and--         
calculating that ,catherine1 in order to
 retain his friendship1 would cede to   
him a portion of her booty1#a           
unhesitatingly broke the faith he had   
just plighted with the ,poles1 suddenly 
took up ,catherine's tone1 declared the 
constitution he had so lately ratified  
,jacobinical1 and despatched a force    
under ,mollendorf into ,poland in order 
to secure possession of his stipulated  
prey4 ,by the second partition of       
,poland1 which took place as rapidly1 as
 violently1 and1 on account of the      
assurances of the ,prussian monarch1 far
 more unexpectedly than the first1      

,russia received the whole of           
,lithuania1 ,podolia1 and the ,ukraine1 
and ,prussia1 ,thorn and ,dantzig1      
besides ,southern ,prussia 7,posen and  
,calisch74 ,austria1 at that time fully 
occupied with ,france1 had no           
participation in this robbery1 which    
was1 as it were1 committed behind her   
back4  ,affairs had worn a remarkably   
worse aspect since the campaign of      
#agib4 ,the ,french had armed themselves
 with all the terrors of offended       
nationalism and of unbounded1           
intoxicating liberty4 ,all the enemies  
of the ,revolution within the ,french   
territory were mercilessly exterminated1
 and hundreds of thousands were         
sacrificed by the guillotine1 a machine 
invented for the purpose of accelerating
 the mode of execution4 ,the king was   
beheaded in this manner in the ,january 
of #agic1 and the queen shared a similar
 fate in the ensuing ,october4#b ,while 
,robespierre directed the executions1   
,carnot undertook to make preparations  

for war1 and1 in the very midst of this 
immense fermentation1 calmly converted  
,france into an enormous camp1 and more 
than a million ,frenchmen1 as if        
summoned by magic from the clod1 were   
placed under arms4  ,the sovereigns of  
,europe also prepared for war1 and1     
,a4,d4 #agic1 formed the first great    
coalition1 at whose head stood ,england1
 intent upon the destruction of the     
,french navy4 ,the ,english1 aided by a 
large portion of the ,french population 
devoted to the ancient monarchy1        
attacked ,france by sea1 and made a     
simultaneous descent on the northern and
 southern coasts4 ,the ,spanish and     
,portuguese troops crossed the          
,pyrenees2 the ,italian princes invaded 
the ,alpine boundary2 ,austria1         
,prussia1 ,holland1 and the ,german     
empire threatened the ,rhenish frontier1
 while ,sweden and ,russia stood        
frowning in the background4 ,the whole  
of ,christian ,europe took up arms      
against ,france1 and enormous armies    

hovered1 like vultures1 around their    
prey4  ,the duke of ,coburg commanded   
the main body of the ,austrians in the  
,netherlands1 where he was at first     
merely opposed by the old ,french army1 
whose general1 ,dumouriez1 after        
unsuccessfully grasping at the supreme  
power1 entered into a secret agreement  
with the coalition1 allowed himself to  
be defeated at ,aldenhovenl#c and       
,neerwinden1 and finally deserted to the
 ,austrians4 ,at this moment1 when the  
,french army was dispirited by defeat   
and without a leader1 ,coburg1 who had  
been reinforced by the ,english and     
,dutch under the duke of ,york1 might1  
by a hasty advance1 have taken ,paris by
 surprise1 but both the ,english and    
,austrian generals solely owed the      
command1 for which they were totally    
unfit1 to their high birth1 and ,colonel
 ,mack1 the most prominent character    
among the officers of the staff1 was a  
mere theoretician1 who could cleverly   
enough conduct a campaign--upon paper4  

,clairfait1 the ,austrian general1 beat 
the disbanded ,french army under        
,dampiere at ,famars1 but temporized    
instead of following up his victory4    
,coburg1 in the hope of the triumph of  
the moderate party1 the ,girondins1     
published an extremely mild and         
peaceable proclamation1 which1 on the   
fall of the ,gironde1 was instantly     
succeeded by one of a more threatening  
character1 which his want of energy and 
decision in action merely rendered      
ridiculous4 ,no vigorous attack was     
made1 nor was even a vigorous defence   
calculated upon1 not one of the frontier
 forts in the ,netherlands1 demolished  
by ,joseph ,,ii41 having been rebuilt4  
,the coalition foolishly trusted that   
the ,french would be annihilated by     
their inward convulsions1 while they    
were in reality seizing the opportunity 
granted by the tardiness of their foes  
to levy raw recruits and exercise them  
in arms4 ,the principal error1 however1 
lay in the system of conquest pursued by

 both ,austria and ,england4 ,conde1    
,valenciennes1 and all towns within the 
,french territory taken by ,coburg1 were
 compelled to take a formal oath of     
allegiance to ,austria1 and ,england    
made1 as the condition of her aid1 that 
of the ,austrians for the conquest of   
,dunkirk4 ,the siege of this place1     
which was merely of importance to       
,england in a mercantile point of view1 
retained the armies of ,coburg and      
,york1 and the ,french were consequently
 enabled1 in the meantime1 to           
concentrate their scattered forces and  
to act on the offensive4 ,ere long1     
,houchard and ,jourdan pushed forward   
with their wild masses1 which1 at first 
undisciplined and unsteady1 were merely 
able to screen themselves from the rapid
 and sustained fire of the ,british by  
acting as tirailleurs 7a mode of warfare
 successfully practiced by the ,north   
,americans against the serried ranks of 
the ,english71 became gradually bolder1 
and finally1 by their numerical strength

 and republican fury1 gained a complete 
triumph4 ,houchard1 in this manner1     
defeated the ,english at ,hondscoten    
7,september #hth71 and ,jourdan drove   
the ,austrians off the field at         
,wattignies on the #afth of ,october1   
the day on which the ,french queen was  
beheaded4 ,coburg1 although the         
,austrians had maintained their ground  
on every other point1 resolved to       
retreat1 notwithstanding the urgent     
remonstrances of the youthful archduke1 
,charles1 who had greatly distinguished 
himself4 ,during the retreat1 an        
unimportant victory was gained at ,menin
 by ,beaulieu1 the imperial general4#d  
,his colleague1 ,wurmser1 nevertheless  
maintained with extreme difficulty the  
line extending from ,basel to           
,luxemburg1 which formed the ,prussian  
outposts4 ,a ,french troop under        
,delange advanced as far as             
,aix-la-,chapelle1 where they crowned   
the statue of ,charlemagne with a bonnet
 rouge4  ,mayence was1 during the first 

six months of this year1 besieged by the
 main body of the ,prussian army under  
the command of ,ferdinand1 duke of      
,brunswick4 ,the ,austrians1 when on    
their way past ,mayence to ,valenciennes
 with a quantity of heavy artillery     
destined for the reduction of the latter
 place 7which they afterward compelled  
to do homage to the emperor71 refusing  
the request of the king of ,prussia for 
its use en passant for the reduction of 
,mayence1 greatly displeased that       
monarch1 who clearly perceived the      
common intention of ,england and        
,austria to conquer the north of ,france
 to the exclusion of ,prussia1 and      
consequently revenged himself by        
privately partitioning ,poland with     
,russia1 and refusing his assistance to 
,general ,wurmser in the ,vosges        
country4 ,the dissensions between the   
allies again rendered their successes   
null4 ,the ,prussians1 after the        
conquest of ,mayence1 ,a4,d4 #agic1     
advanced and beat the fresh masses led  

against them by ,moreau at ,pirmasens1  
but ,frederick ,william1 disgusted with 
,austria and secretly far from          
disinclined to peace with ,france1      
quitted the army 7which he maintained in
 the field1 merely from motives of      
honor1 but allowed to remain in a state 
of inactivity71 in order to visit his   
newly acquired territory in ,poland4    
,the gallant old ,wurmser was a native  
of ,alsace1 where he had some property1 
and fought meritoriously for the ,german
 cause1 while so many of his countrymen 
at that time ranged themselves on the   
side of the ,french4#e ,his position on 
the celebrated ,weissenburg line was1   
owing to the non-assistance of the      
,prussians1 replete with danger1 and he 
consequently endeavored to supply his   
want of strength by striking his        
opponents with terror4 ,his ,croats1 the
 notorious ,rothmantler1 are charged    
with the commission of fearful deeds of 
cruelty4 ,owing to his system of paying 
a piece of gold for every ,frenchman's  

head1 they would rush1 when no          
legitimate enemy could be encountered1  
into the first large village at hand1   
knock at the windows and strike off the 
heads of the inhabitants as they peeped 
out4 ,the petty principalities on the   
,german side of the ,rhine also         
complained of the treatment they        
received from the ,austrians4 ,but how  
could it be otherwise8 ,the empire      
slothfully cast the whole burden of the 
war upon ,austria4 ,many of the princes 
were terror-stricken by the ,french1    
while others meditated an alliance with 
that power1 like that formerly concluded
 between them and ,louis ,,xiv4 against 
the empire4 ,bavaria alone was1 but with
 great difficulty1 induced to furnish a 
contingent4 ,the weak imperial free     
towns met with most unceremonious       
treatment at the hands of ,austria4     
,they were deprived of their artillery  
and treated with the utmost contempt4   
,it often happened that the aristocratic
 magistracy1 as1 for instance1 at ,ulm1 

sided with the soldiery against the     
citizens4 ,the slothful bishops and     
abbots of the empire were1 on the other 
hand1 treated with the utmost respect by
 the ,catholic soldiery4 ,the           
infringement of the law of nations by   
the arrest of ,semonville1 the ,french  
ambassador to ,constantinople1 and of   
,maret1 the ,french ambassador to       
,naples1 and the seizure of their papers
 on neutral ground1 in the ,valtelline1 
by ,austria1 created a far greater      
sensation4  ,the duke of ,brunswick1 who
 had received no orders to retreat1 was 
compelled1 bongre-malgre1 to hazard     
another engagement with the ,french1 who
 rushed to the attack4 ,he was once more
 victorious1 at ,kaiserslautern1 over   
,hoche1 whose untrained masses were     
unable to withstand the superior        
discipline of the ,prussian troops4     
,wurmser took advantage of the moment   
when success seemed to restore the good 
humor of the allies to coalesce with the
 ,prussians1 dragging the unwilling     

,bavarians in his train4 ,this junction1
 however1 merely had the effect of      
disclosing the jealousy rankling on     
every side4 ,the greatest military      
blunders were committed and each blamed 
the other4 ,landau ought to and might   
have been rescued from the ,french1 but 
this step was procrastinated until the  
convention had charged ,generals ,hoche 
and ,pichegru1 ,landau or death4 ,these 
two generals brought a fresh and        
numerous army into the field1 and1 in   
the very first engagements1 at ,worth   
and ,froschweiler1 the ,bavarians ran   
away and the ,austrians and ,prussians  
were signally defeated4 ,the retreat of 
,wurmser1 in high displeasure1 across   
the ,rhine afforded a welcome pretext to
 the duke of ,brunswick to follow his   
example and even to resign the command  
of the army to ,mollendorf4 ,in this    
shameful manner was the left bank of the
 ,rhine lost to ,germany4  ,in the      
spring of the ensuing year1 #agid1 the  
emperor ,francis ,,ii4 visited the      

,netherlands in person1 with the intent 
of pushing straight upon ,paris4 ,this  
project1 practicable enough during the  
preceding campaign1 was1 however1 now   
utterly out of the question1 the more so
 on account of the retreat of the       
,prussians4 ,the ,french observed on    
this occasion with well-merited scorn3  
,the allies are ever an idea1 a year and
 an army behindhand4 ,the ,austrians1   
nevertheless1 attacked the whole ,french
 line in ,march and were at first       
victorious on every side1 at ,catillon1 
where ,kray and ,wernek distinguished   
themselves1 and at ,landrecis1 where the
 ,archduke ,charles made a brilliant    
charge at the head of the cavalry4      
,landrecis was taken4 ,but this was all4
 ,clairfait1 whose example might have   
animated the inactive duke of ,york1    
being left unsupported by the ,british1 
was attacked singly at ,courtray by     
,pichegru and forced to yield to        
superior numbers4 ,coburg fought an     
extremely bloody but indecisive battle  

at ,doornik 7,tournay71 where ,pichegru 
ever opposed fresh masses to the        
,austrian artillery4 ,twenty thousand   
dead strewed the field4 ,the youthful   
emperor1 discouraged by the coldness    
displayed by the ,dutch1 whom he had    
expected to rise en masse in his cause1 
returned to ,vienna4 ,his departure and 
the inactivity of the ,british commander
 completely dispirited the ,austrian    
troops1 and on the #bfth of ,june1      
#agid1f the duke of ,coburg was defeated
 at ,fleurus by ,jourdan1 the general of
 the republic4 ,this success was        
immediately followed by that of         
,pichegru1 not far from ,breda1 over the
 inefficient ,english general1#g who    
consequently evacuated the ,netherlands1
 which were instantly overrun by the    
pillaging ,french4 ,and thus had the    
,german powers1 notwithstanding their   
well-disciplined armies and their great 
plans1 not only forfeited their military
 honor1 but also drawn the enemy1 and1  
in his train1 anarchy with its          

concomitant horrors1 into the empire4   
,the ,austrians had rendered themselves 
universally unpopular by their arbitrary
 measures1 and each province remained   
stupidly indifferent to the threatened  
pillage of its neighbor by the          
victorious ,french4 ,jourdan but slowly 
tracked the retreating forces of        
,coburg1 whom he again beat at          
,sprimont1 where he drove him from the  
,maese1 and at ,aldenhoven1 where he    
drove him from the ,roer4 ,frederick1   
,landgrave of ,hesse-,cassel1           
capitulated at ,maestricht1 with ten    
thousand men1 to ,kleber2 and the       
,austrians1 with the exception of a     
small corps under the ,count von        
,erbach1 stationed at ,dsseldorf1       
completely abandoned the ,lower ,rhine4 
,the disasters suffered by the          
,austrians seem at that time to have    
flattered the ambition of the           
,prussians1 for ,mollendorf suddenly    
recrossed the ,rhine and gained an      
advantage at ,kaiserslautern1 but was1  

in ,july1 #agid1 again repulsed at      
,trippstadt1 notwithstanding which he   
once more crossed the ,rhine in         
,september1 and a battle was won by the 
,prince von ,hohenlohe-,ingelfingen at  
,fischbach1 but1 on the junction of     
,jourdan with ,hoche1 who had until then
 singly opposed him1 ,mollendorf again1 
and for the last time1 retreated across 
the ,rhine4 ,the whole of the left bank 
of the ,rhine1 ,luxemburg and ,mayence  
alone excepted1 were now in the hands of
 the ,french4 ,resius1 the ,hessian     
general1 abandoned the ,rheinfels with  
the whole garrison1 without striking a  
blow in its defence4 ,he was1 in reward1
 condemned to perpetual imprisonment4#h 
,jourdan converted the fortress into a  
ruined heap4 ,the whole of the          
fortifications on the ,rhine were       
yielded for the sake of saving ,mannheim
 from bombardment4  ,in the ,austrian   
,netherlands1 the old government had    
already been abolished1 and the whole   
country been transformed into a ,belgian

 republic by ,dumouriez4 ,the reform of 
all the ancient evils1 so vainly        
attempted but a few years before by the 
noble-spirited emperor1 ,joseph ,,ii41  
was successfully executed by this       
insolent ,frenchman1 who also abolished 
with them all that was good in the      
ancient system4 ,the city deputies1 it  
is true1 made an energetic but futile   
resistance4#i ,after the flight of      
,dumouriez1 fresh depredations were1    
with every fresh success1 committed by  
the ,french4 ,liege was reduced to the  
most deplorable state of desolation1 the
 cathedral and thirty splendid churches 
were levelled with the ground by the    
ancient enemies of the bishop4 ,treves  
was also mercilessly sacked and         
converted into a ,french fortress4      
,footnote #a3 ,prussia chiefly coveted  
the possession of ,dantzig1 which the   
,poles refused to give or the ,english  
to grant to him1 and which he could only
 seize by the aid of ,russia4  ,footnote
 #b3 ,after having been long retained in

 prison1 ill fed and ill clothed1 after 
supporting1 with unbending dignity1 the 
unmanly insults of the republican mob   
before whose tribunal she was dragged4  
,the young dauphin expired under the    
ill-treatment he received from his      
guardian1 a shoemaker4 ,his sister1 the 
present ,duchess d',angouleme1 was      
spared4  ,footnote #c3 ,where the       
peasantry1 infuriated at the            
depredations of the ,french1 cast the   
wounded and the dead indiscriminately   
into a trench4--,benzenberg's ,letters4 
,footnote #d3 ,the ,hanoverian general1 
,hammerstein1 and his adjutant          
,scharnhorst1 who afterward became so   
noted1 made a gallant defence4 ,when the
 city became no longer tenable1 they    
boldly sallied forth at the head of the 
garrison and escaped4  ,footnote #e3    
,rewbel1 one of the five directors of   
the great ,french republic1 and several 
of the most celebrated ,french generals1
 ,germany's unwearied foes1 were natives
 of ,alsace1 as1 for instance1 the      

gallant ,westermann1 one of the first   
leaders of the republican armies2 the   
intrepid ,kellermann1 the soldiers'     
father2 the immortal ,kleber1           
generalissimo of the ,french forces in  
,egypt1 who fell by the dagger of a     
fanatical ,mussulman2 and the undaunted 
,rapp1 the hero of ,dantzig4 ,the       
lion-hearted ,ney1 justly designated by 
the ,french as the bravest of the brave1
 was a native of ,lorraine4 ,these were1
 one and all1 men of tried metal1 but   
whose ,german names induce the demand1  
,why did they fight for ,france8        
,wurmser belonged to the same old       
,strasburg family which had given birth 
to ,wurmser1 the celebrated             
court-painter of the emperor1 ,charles  
,,iv4   ,footnote #f3 ,the ,austrian    
generals ,beaulieu1 ,quosdanowich1 and  
the ,archduke ,charles1 who1 at that    
period1 laid the foundation to his      
future fame1 had pushed victoriously    
forward and taken ,fleurus1 when the    
ill-tuned orders1 as they are deemed1 of

 the generalissimo ,coburg compelled    
them to retreat4 ,quosdanowich dashed   
his sabre furiously on the ground and   
exclaimed1 ,the army is betrayed1 the   
victory is ours1 and yet we must resign 
it4 ,adieu1 thou glorious land1 thou    
garden of ,europe1 the house of ,austria
 bids thee eternally adieu6 ,the ,french
 had1 before and during the action1 made
 use of a balloon for the purpose of    
watching the movements of the enemy4    
,footnote #g3 ,the worst spirit         
prevailed among the ,british troops2 the
 officers were wealthy young men1 who   
had purchased their posts and were1 in  
the highest degree1 licentious4 ,vide   
,dietfurth's ,hessian ,campaigns4       
,footnote #h3 ,peter ,hammer1 in his    
,description of the ,imperial ,army1    
published1 ,a4,d4 #agif1 at ,cologne1   
graphically depictures the sad state of 
the empire4 ,the imperial troops        
consisted of the dregs of the populace1 
so variously arranged as to justify the 
remark of ,colonel ,sandberg of ,baden  

that the only thing wanting was their   
regular equipment as jack-puddings4 ,a  
monastery furnished two men2 a petty    
barony1 the ensign2 a city1 the captain4
 ,the arms of each man differed in      
calibre4 ,no patriotic spirit animated  
these defenders of the empire4 ,an      
anonymous author remarks3 ,for love of  
one's country to be felt1 there must1   
first of all1 be a country2 but ,germany
 is split into petty useless monarchies1
 chiefly characterized by their         
oppression of their subjects1 by pride1 
slavery1 and unutterable weakness4      
,formerly1 when ,germany was attacked1  
each of her sons made ready for battle1 
her princes were patriotic and brave4   
,now1 may ,heaven have pity on the land2
 the princes1 the counts1 and nobles    
march hence and leave their country to  
its fate4 ,the ,margrave of ,baden--,i  
do not speak of the prince bishop of    
,spires and of other spiritual lords    
whose profession forbids their laying   
hand to sword--the ,landgrave of        

,darmstadt and other nobles fled on the 
mere report of an intended visit from   
the ,french1 by which they plainly      
intimated that they merely held         
sovereign rule for the purpose of being 
fattened by their subjects in time of   
peace4 ,danger no sooner appears than   
the miserable subject is left to his own
 resources4 ,germany is divided into too
 many petty states4 ,how can an elector 
of the ,pfalz1 or indeed any of the     
still lesser nobility1 protect the      
country8 ,unity1 moreover1 is utterly   
wanting4 ,the ,bavarian regards the     
,hessian as a stranger1 not as his      
countryman4 ,each petty territory has a 
different tariff1 administration1 and   
laws4 ,the subject of one petty state   
cannot travel half a mile into a        
neighboring one without leaving behind  
him great part of his property4 ,the    
bishop of ,spires strictly forbids his  
subjects to intermarry with those of any
 other state4 ,and patriotism is        
expected to result from these measures6 

,the subject of a despot1 whose revenues
 exceed those of his neighbors by a few 
thousand florins1 looks down with       
contempt on the slave of a poorer       
prince4 ,hence the boundless hatred     
between the ,german courts and their    
petty brethren1 hence the malicious joy 
caused by the mishaps of a neighboring  
dynasty4 ,hence the wretchedness of the 
troops4 ,with the exception of the      
troops belonging to the circle there    
were none to defend the frontiers of the
 empire4 ,grandes battues1 balls1       
operas1 and mistresses1 swallowed up the
 revenue1 not a farthing remained for   
the erection of fortresses1 the want of 
which was so deeply felt for the defence
 of the frontiers4  ,footnote #i3 ,how  
can ,france1 with her solemn assurances 
of liberty1 arbitrarily interfere with  
the government of a country already     
possessing a representative elected by  
the people8 ,how can she proclaim us as 
a free nation1 and1 at the same moment1 
deprive us of our liberty8 ,will she    

establish a new mythology of nations1   
and divide the different peoples on the 
face of the earth1 according to their   
strength1 into nations and              
demi-nations8--,protest of the          
,provisional ,council of the ,city of   
,brussels4 ,the ,president1 ,theodore   
,dotrenge4 ,every free nation gives to  
itself laws1 does not receive them from 
another4--,protest of the ,city of      
,antwerp1 ,president of the ,council1   
,van ,dun4 ,you confiscate alike public 
and private property4 ,that have even   
our former tyrants never ventured to do 
when declaring us rebels1 and you say   
that you bring to us liberty4--,protest 
of the ,hennegau4 ,the most copious     
account of the revolutionizing of the   
,netherlands is contained in ,rau's     
,history of the ,germans in ,france1 and
 of the ,french in ,germany4 ,frankfort 
on the ,maine1 #agid and #agie4         
,,ccxlix4 ,the ,defection of            
,prussia--,the ,archduke ,charles       
,frederick ,william's advisers1 who     

imagined the violation of every         
principle of justice and truth an       
indubitable proof of instinctive and    
consummate prudence1 unwittingly played 
a high and hazardous game4 ,their       
diplomatic absurdity1 which weighed the 
fate of nations against a dinner1 found 
a confusion of all the solid principles 
on which states rest as stimulating as  
the piquant ragouts of the great ,ude4  
,lucchesini1 under his almost           
intolerable airs of sapience1 as        
artfully veiled his incapacity in the   
cabinet as ,ferdinand of ,brunswick did 
his in the field1 and to this may be    
ascribed the measures which but         
momentarily and seemingly aggrandized   
,prussia and prepared her deeper fall4  
,each petty advantage gained by ,prussia
 but served to raise against her some   
powerful foe1 and finally1 when placed  
by her policy at enmity with every      
sovereign of ,europe1 she was induced to
 trust to the shallow friendship of the 
,french republic4  ,the ,poles1 taken   

unawares by the second partition of     
their country1 speedily recovered from  
their surprise and collected all their  
strength for an energetic opposition4   
,kosciuszko1 who had1 together with     
,lafayette1 fought in ,north ,america in
 the cause of liberty1 armed his        
countrymen with scythes1 put every      
,russian who fell into his hands to     
death1 and attempted the restoration of 
ancient ,poland4 ,how easily might not  
,prussia1 backed by the enthusiasm of   
the patriotic ,poles1 have repelled the 
,russian colossus1 already threatening  
,europe6 ,but the ,berlin diplomatists  
had yet to learn the homely truth1 that 
honesty is the best policy4 ,they aided 
in the aggrandizement of ,russia1 drew  
down a nation's curse upon their heads  
for the sake of an addition to the      
territory of ,prussia1 the maintenance  
of which cost more than its revenue1 and
 violated the ,divine commands during a 
period of storm and convulsion1 when the
 aid of ,heaven was indeed required4    

,the ministers of ,frederick ,william   
,,ii4 were externally religious1 but    
those of ,frederick ,william ,i41 by    
whom the ,polish question had been so   
justly decided1 were so in reality4     
,the king led his troops in person into 
,poland4 ,in ,june1 #agid1 he defeated  
,kosciuszko's scythemen at ,szczekociny1
 but met with such strenuous opposition 
in his attack upon ,warsaw as to be     
compelled to retire in ,september4#a ,on
 the retreat of the ,prussian troops1   
the ,russians1 who had purposely awaited
 their departure in order to secure the 
triumph for themselves1 invaded the     
country in great force under their bold 
general1 ,suwarow1 who defeated         
,kosciuszko1 took him prisoner1 and     
besieged ,warsaw1 which he carried by   
storm4 ,on this occasion1 termed by     
,reichardt a peaceful and merciful entry
 of the clement victor1 eighteen        
thousand of the inhabitants of every age
 and sex were cruelly put to the sword4 
,the result of this success was the     

third partition or utter annihilation of
 ,poland4 ,russia took possession of the
 whole of ,lithuania and ,volhynia1 as  
far as the ,riemen and the ,bug2        
,prussia1 of the whole country west of  
the ,riemen1 including ,warsaw2         
,austria1 of the whole country south of 
the ,bug1 ,a4,d4 #agie4 ,an army of     
,german officials1 who earned for       
themselves not the best of reputations1 
settled in the ,prussian division3 they 
were ignorant of the language of the    
country1 and enriched themselves by     
tyranny and oppression4 ,von            
,treibenfeld1 the counsellor to the     
forest-board1 one of ,bischofswerder's  
friends1 bestowed a number of           
confiscated lands upon his adherents4   
,the ancient ,polish feof of ,courland  
was1 in consequence of the annihilation 
of ,poland1 incorporated with the       
,russian empire1 ,peter1 the last duke1 
the son of ,biron1 being compelled to   
abdicate1 ,a4,d4 #agie4  ,pichegru      
invaded ,holland late in the autumn of  

#agid4 ,the duke of ,york had already   
returned to ,england4 ,a line of defence
 was1 nevertheless1 taken up by the     
,british under ,wallmoden1 by the ,dutch
 under their hereditary stadtholder1    
,william ,v4 of ,orange1 and by an      
,austrian corps under ,alvinzi2 the     
,dutch were1 however1 panic-struck1 and 
negotiated a separate treaty with       
,pichegru1#b who1 at that moment1 solely
 aimed at separating the ,dutch from    
their allies2 but when1 in ,december1   
all the rivers and canals were suddenly 
frozen1 and nature no longer threw      
insurmountable obstacles in his path1   
regardless of the negotiations then     
pending in ,paris1 he unexpectedly took 
up arms1 marched across the icebound    
waters1 and carried ,holland by storm4  
,with him marched the anti-,orangemen1  
the exiled ,dutch patriots1 under       
,general ,daendels and ,admiral de      
,winter1 with the pretended view of     
restoring ancient republican liberty to 
,holland and of expelling the tyrannical

 ,orange dynasty4  ,the ,british 7and   
some ,hessian troops7 were defeated at  
,thiel on the ,waal2 ,alvinzi met with a
 similar fate at ,pondern1 and was      
compelled to retreat into ,westphalia4  
,some ,english ships1 which lay frozen  
up in the harbor1 were captured by the  
,french hussars4 ,a most manly          
resistance was made2 but no aid was sent
 from any quarter4 ,prussia1 who so     
shortly before had ranged herself on the
 side of the stadtholder against the    
people1 was now an indifferent          
spectator4 ,william ,v4 was compelled to
 flee to ,england4 ,holland was         
transformed into a ,batavian republic4  
,hahn1 ,hoof1 etc41 were the first      
furious ,jacobins by whom everything was
 there formed upon the ,french model4   
,the ,dutch were compelled to cede      
,maestricht1 ,venloo1 and ,vliessingen2 
to pay a hundred millions to ,france1   
and1 moreover1 to allow their country to
 be plundered1 to be stripped of all the
 splendid works of art1 pictures1 etc4  

7as was also the case in the            
,netherlands and on the ,rhine71 and    
even of the valuable museum of natural  
curiosities collected by them with such 
assiduity in every quarter of the globe4
 ,these depredations were succeeded by a
 more systematic mode of plunder4       
,holland was mercilessly drained of her 
enormous wealth4 ,all the gold and      
silver bullion was first of all         
collected2 this was followed by the     
imposition of an income-tax of six per  
cent1 which was afterward repeated1 and 
was succeeded by an income-tax on a     
sliding scale from three to thirty per  
cent4 ,the ,british1 at the same time1  
destroyed the ,dutch fleet in the ,texel
 commanded by de ,winter1 in order to   
prevent its capture by the ,french1 and 
seized all the ,dutch colonies1 ,java   
alone excepted4 ,the flag of ,holland   
had vanished from the seas4  ,in        
,august1 #agid1 the reign of terror in  
,france reached its close4 ,the moderate
 party which came into power gave hopes 

of a general peace1 and ,frederick      
,william ,,ii without loss of time      
negotiated a separate treaty1 suddenly  
abandoned the monarchical cause which he
 had formerly so zealously upheld1 and  
offered his friendship to the           
revolutionary nation1 against which he  
had so lately hurled a violent          
manifesto4 ,the ,french1 with equal     
inconsistency on their part1 abandoned  
the popular cause1 and1 after having    
murdered their own sovereign and        
threatened every ,european throne with  
destruction1 accepted the alliance of a 
foreign king4 ,both parties1            
notwithstanding the contrariety of their
 principles and their mutual animosity1 
were conciliated by their political     
interest4 ,the ,french1 solely bent upon
 conquest1 cared not for the liberty of 
other nations2 ,prussia1 intent upon    
self- aggrandizement1 was indifferent to
 the fate of her brother sovereigns4    
,peace was concluded between ,france and
 ,prussia at ,basel1 ,april #e1 #agie4  

,by a secret article of this treaty1    
,prussia confirmed the ,french republic 
in the possession of the whole of the   
left bank of the ,rhine1 while ,france  
in return richly indemnified ,prussia at
 the expense of the petty ,german       
states4 ,this peace1 notwithstanding its
 manifest disadvantages1 was also       
acceded to by ,austria1 which1 on this  
occasion1 received the unfortunate      
daughter of ,louis ,,xvi4 in exchange   
for ,semonville and ,maret1 the captive 
ambassadors of the republic1 and the    
members of the ,convention seized by    
,dumouriez4 ,hanover#c and              
,hesse-,cassel participated in the      
treaty and were included within the line
 of demarcation1 which ,france1 on her  
side1 bound herself not to transgress4  
,the countries lying beyond this line of
 demarcation1 the ,netherlands1         
,holland1 and ,pfalz-,juliers1 were now 
abandoned to ,france1 and ,austria1 kept
 in check on the ,upper ,rhine1 was     
powerless in their defence4 ,in this    

manner fell ,luxemburg and ,dsseldorf4  
,all the ,lower ,rhenish provinces were 
systematically plundered by the ,french 
under pretext of establishing liberty   
and equality4#d ,the ,batavian republic 
was permitted to subsist1 but dependent 
upon ,france2 ,belgium was annexed to   
,france1 ,a4,d4 #agie4  ,on the retreat 
of the ,prussians1 ,mannheim was        
surrendered without a blow by the       
electoral minister1 ,oberndorf1 to the  
,french4 ,wurmser arrived too late to   
the relief of the city4 ,quosdanowich1  
his lieutenant-general1 nevertheless1   
succeeded in saving ,heidelberg by      
sheltering himself behind a great abatis
 at ,handschuchsheion1 whence he        
repulsed the enemy1 who were afterward  
almost entirely cut to pieces by        
,general ,klenau1 whom he sent in       
pursuit with the light cavalry4 ,general
 ,boros led another ,austrian corps     
across ,nassau to ,ehrenbreitstein1 at  
that time besieged by the ,french under 
their youthful general1 ,marceau1 who   

instantly retired4 ,wurmser no sooner   
arrived in person than1 attacking the   
,french before ,mannheim1 he completely 
put them to the rout and took ,general  
,oudinot prisoner4 ,clairfait1 at the   
same time1 advanced unperceived upon    
,mayence1 and unexpectedly attacking the
 besieging ,french force1 carried off   
one hundred and thirty-eight pieces of  
heavy artillery4 ,pichegru1 who had been
 called from ,holland to take the       
command on the ,upper ,rhine1 was driven
 back to the ,vosges4 ,jourdan advanced 
to his aid from the ,lower ,rhine1 but  
his vanguard under ,marceau was defeated
 at ,kreuznach and again at             
,meissenheim4 ,mannheim also capitulated
 to the ,austrians4 ,the winter was now 
far advanced2 both sides were weary of  
the campaign1 and an armistice was      
concluded4 ,austria1 notwithstanding her
 late success1 was1 owing to the        
desertion of ,prussia1 in a critical    
position4 ,the imperial troops also     
refused to act4 ,the princes of         

,southern ,germany longed for peace4    
,even ,spain followed the example of    
,prussia and concluded a treaty with the
 ,french republic4  ,the consequent     
dissolution of the coalition between the
 ,german powers had at least the effect 
of preventing the formation of a        
coalition of nations against them by the
 ,french4 ,had the alliance between the 
sovereigns continued1 the ,french would1
 from political motives1 have used their
 utmost endeavors to revolutionize      
,germany2 this project was rendered     
needless by the treaty of ,basel1 which 
broke up the coalition and confirmed    
,france in the undisturbed possession of
 her liberties2 and thus it happened    
that ,prussia unwittingly aided the     
monarchical cause by involuntarily      
preventing the promulgation of the      
revolutionary principles of ,france4    
,austria remained unshaken1 and refused 
either to betray the monarchical cause  
by the recognition of a revolutionary   
democratical government1 or to cede the 

frontiers of the empire to the youthful 
and insolent generals of the republic4  
,conscious of the righteousness of the  
cause she upheld1 she intrepidly stood  
her ground and ventured her single      
strength in the mighty contest1 which   
the campaign of #agif was to decide4    
,the ,austrian forces in ,germany were  
commanded by the emperor's brother1 the 
,archduke ,charles2 those in ,italy1 by 
,beaulieu4 ,the ,french1 on the other   
hand1 sent ,jourdan to the ,lower       
,rhine1 ,moreau to the ,upper ,rhine1   
,bonaparte to ,italy1 and commenced the 
attack on every point with their wonted 
impetuosity4  ,the ,austrians had again 
extended their lines as far as the      
,lower ,rhine4 ,a corps under ,prince   
,ferdinand of ,wrtemberg was stationed  
in the ,bergland1 in the narrow corner  
still left between the ,rhine and the   
,prussian line of demarcation4 ,marceau 
forced him to retire as far as          
,altenkirchen1 but the ,archduke        
,charles hastening to his assistance    

encountered ,jourdan's entire force on  
the ,lahn near ,kloster ,altenberg1 and1
 after a short contest1 compelled it to 
give way4 ,a great part of the ,austrian
 army of the ,rhine under ,wurmser      
having been1 meanwhile1 drawn off and   
sent into ,italy1 the archduke was      
compelled to turn hastily from ,jourdan 
against ,moreau1 who had just despatched
 ,general ,ferino across the ,lake of   
,constance1 while he advanced upon      
,strasburg4 ,a small ,swabian corps     
under ,colonel ,raglowich made an       
extraordinary defence in ,kehl 7the     
first instance of extreme bravery given 
by the imperial troops at that time71   
but was forced to yield to numbers4 ,the
 ,austrian general1 ,sztarray1 was1     
notwithstanding the gallantry displayed 
on the occasion1 also repulsed at       
,sasbach2 the ,wurtemberg battalion was 
also driven from the steep pass of the  
,kniebes1#e across which ,moreau        
penetrated through the ,black ,forest   
into the heart of ,swabia1 and had      

already reached ,freudenstadt1 when the 
,austrian general1 ,latour1 marched up  
the ,murg4 ,he was1 however1 also       
repulsed4 ,the ,archduke ,charles now   
arrived in person in the country around 
,pforzheim 7on the skirts of the ,black 
,forest71 and sent forward his columns  
to attack the ,french in the mountains1 
but in vain2 the ,french were victorious
 at ,rothensol and at ,wildbad4 ,the    
archduke retired behind the ,neckar to  
,cannstadt2 his rearguard was pursued   
through the city of ,stuttgard by the   
vanguard of the ,french4 ,after a short 
cannonade1 the archduke also abandoned  
his position at ,cannstadt4 ,the whole  
of the ,swabian circle submitted to the 
,french4 ,wurtemberg was now compelled  
to make a formal cession of ,mumpelgard1
 which had been for some time garrisoned
 by the ,french1#f and1 moreover1 to pay
 a contribution of four million livres2 
,baden was also mulcted two millions1   
the other states of the ,swabian circle 
twelve millions1 the clergy seven       

millions1 altogether twenty-five million
 livres1 without reckoning the enormous 
requisition of provisions1 horses1      
clothes1 etc4 ,the archduke1 in the     
meantime1 deprived the troops belonging 
to the ,swabian circle of their arms at 
,biberach1 on account of the peace      
concluded by their princes with the     
,french1 and retired behind the ,danube 
by ,donauwoerth4 ,ferino had1 meanwhile1
 also advanced from ,huningen into the  
,breisgau and to the ,lake of           
,constance1 had beaten the small corps  
under ,general ,frhlick at ,herbolsheim 
and the remnant of the ,french emigrants
 under ,oonde at ,mindelheim1#g and     
joined ,moreau in pursuit of the        
archduke4 ,his troops committed great   
havoc wherever they appeared4#h         
,jourdan had also again pushed forward4 
,the archduke had merely been able to   
oppose to him on the ,lower ,rhine      
thirty thousand men under the ,count von
 ,wartensleben1 who1 owing to ,jourdan's
 numerical superiority1 had been        

repulsed across both the ,lahn and      
,maine4 ,jourdan took ,frankfort by     
bombardment and imposed upon that city a
 contribution of six millions4 ,the     
,franconian circle also submitted and   
paid sixteen millions1 without reckoning
 the requisition of natural productions 
and the merciless pillage4#i  ,the      
,archduke ,charles1 too weak singly to  
encounter the armies of ,moreau and     
,jourdan1 had1 meanwhile1 boldly        
resolved to keep his opponents as long  
as possible separate1 and1 on the first 
favorable opportunity1 to attack one    
with the whole of his forces1 while he  
kept the other at bay with a small      
division of his army4 ,in pursuance of  
this plan1 he sent ,wartensleben against
 ,jourdan1 and1 meanwhile1 drew ,moreau 
after him into ,bavaria1 where1 leaving 
,general ,latour with a small corps to  
keep him in check at ,rain on the ,lech1
 he recrossed the ,danube at ,ingolstadt
 with the flower of his army and hastily
 advanced against ,jourdan1 who was thus

 taken unawares4 ,at ,teiningen1 he     
surprised the ,french avant-garde under 
,bernadotte1 which he compelled to      
retire4 ,at ,amberg1 he encountered     
,jourdan1 whom he completely routed1    
,a4,d4 #agif4 ,the ,french retreated    
through the city1 on the other side of  
which they formed an immense square     
against the imperial cavalry under      
,wernek2 it was broken on the third     
charge1 and a terrible slaughter took   
place1 three thousand of the ,french    
being killed and one thousand taken     
prisoner4 ,the peasantry had already    
flown to arms1 and assisted in cutting  
down the fugitives4 ,jourdan again made 
a stand at ,wurzburg1 where ,wernek     
stormed his batteries at the head of his
 grenadiers and a complete rout ensued1 
,september #c4 ,the ,french lost six    
thousand dead and two thousand          
prisoners4 ,the peasantry rose en masse1
 and hunted down the fugitives4#aj ,on  
the ,upper ,rhone1 ,dr4 ,rder placed    
himself at the head of the peasantry1   

but1 encountering a superior ,french    
corps at ,mellrichstadt1 was defeated   
and killed4 ,the ,french suffered most  
in the ,spessart1 called by them1 on    
that account1 ,la petite ,vendee4 ,the  
peasantry were here headed by an aged   
forester named ,philip ,witt1 and1      
protected by their forests1 exterminated
 numbers of the flying foe4 ,the        
imperial troops were also unremitting in
 their pursuit1 again defeated          
,bernadotte at ,aschaffenburg and chased
 ,jourdan through ,nassau across the    
,rhine4 ,marceau1 who had vainly        
besieged ,mayence1 again made stand at  
,allerheim1 where he was defeated and   
killed4#aa  ,moreau1 completely deceived
 by the archduke1 had1 meanwhile1       
remained in ,bavaria4 ,after defeating  
,general ,latour at ,lechhausen1 instead
 of setting off in pursuit of the       
archduke and to ,jourdan's aid1 he was1 
as the archduke had foreseen1 attracted 
by the prospect of gaining a rich booty1
 in an opposite direction1 toward       

,munich4 ,bavaria submitted to the      
,french1 paid ten millions1 and ceded   
twenty of the most valuable pictures    
belonging to the ,dusseldorf and ,munich
 galleries4 ,the news of ,jourdan's     
defeat now compelled ,moreau to beat a  
rapid retreat in order to avoid being   
cut off by the victorious archduke4     
,latour set off vigorously in pursuit1  
came up with him at ,ulm and again at   
,ravensberg1 but was both times         
repulsed1 owing to his numerical        
inferiority4 ,a similar fate awaited the
 still smaller imperial corps led       
against the ,french by ,nauendorf at    
,rothweil and by ,petrosch at           
,villingen1 and ,moreau led the main    
body of his army in safety through the  
deep narrow gorges of the ,hollenthal in
 the ,black ,forest to ,freiburg in the 
,breisgau1 where he came upon the       
archduke1 who1 amid the acclamations of 
the armed peasantry 7by whom the        
retreating ,french#ab were1 as in the   
,spessart1 continually harassed in their

 passage through the ,black ,forest71   
had hurried1 but too late1 to his       
encounter4 ,moreau had already sent two 
divisions of his army1 under ,ferino and
 ,desaix1 across the ,rhine at ,huningen
 and ,breisach1 and covered their       
retreat with the third by taking up a   
strong position at ,schliesgen1 not far 
from ,freiburg1 whence1 after braving a 
first attack1 he escaped during the     
night to ,huningen4 ,this retreat1 in   
which he had saved his army with        
comparatively little loss1 excited      
general admiration1 but in ,italy there 
was a young man who scornfully          
exclaimed1 ,it was1 after all1 merely a 
retreat6   ,footnote #a3 ,the following 
trait proves the complete stagnation of 
chivalric feeling in the army4 ,szekuli1
 colonel of the ,prussian hussars1      
condemned several patriotic ladies1     
belonging to the highest ,polish        
families at ,znawrazlaw1 to be placed   
beneath the gallows1 in momentary       
expectation of death1 until it1 at      

length1 pleased him to grant a reprieve1
 couched in the most offensive and      
indecent terms4  ,footnote #b3 ,a most  
disgraceful treaty4 ,william's enemies1 
the fugitive patriots1 had promised the 
,french1 in return for their aid1 sixty 
million florins of the spoil of their   
country4 ,william1 upon this1 promised  
to pay to ,france a subsidy of eighty   
millions1 in order to guarantee the     
security of his frontier1 but was       
instantly outbid by the base and        
self-denominated patriots1 who offered  
to ,france a hundred million florins in 
order to induce her to invade their     
country4  ,footnote #c3 ,von ,berlepsch1
 the councillor of administration1      
proposed to the ,calemberg diet to      
declare their neutrality in defiance of 
,england1 and1 in case of necessity1 to 
place the ,calemberg ,nation under the  
protection of ,france4--,havemomn4      
,footnote #d3 ,wherever these locusts   
appear1 everything1 men1 cattle1 food1  
property1 etc41 is carried off4 ,these  

thieves seize everything convertible    
into money4 ,nothing is safe from them4 
,at ,cologne1 they filled a church with 
coffee and sugar4 ,at ,aix-la-,chapelle1
 they carried off the finest pictures of
 ,rubens and ,van ,dyck1 the pillars    
from the altar1 and the marble-slab from
 the tomb of ,charlemagne1 all of which 
they sold to some ,dutch                
,jews4--,posselt's ,annals of #agif4 ,at
 ,cologne1 the nuns were instantly      
emancipated from their vows1 and one of 
the youngest and most beautiful         
afterward gained great notoriety as a   
barmaid at an inn4 ,this scandalous     
story is related by ,klebe in his       
,travels on the ,rhine4 ,in ,bonn1      
,gleich1 a man who had formerly been a  
priest1 placed himself at the head of   
the ,french rabble and planted trees of 
liberty4 ,he also gave to the world a   
decade1 as he termed his                
publication4--,mller1 ,history of ,bonn4
 ,the ,french proclaimed war against the
 palaces and peace to the huts1 but no  

hut was too mean to escape the rapacity 
of these birds of prey4 ,the            
first-fruits of liberty was the pillage 
of every corner4-- ,schwaben's ,history 
of ,siegburg4 ,the brothers ,boissere'e 
afterward collected a good many of the  
church pictures1 at that period carried 
away from ,cologne and more particularly
 from the ,lower ,rhine4 ,they now adorn
 ,munich and form the best collection of
 old ,german paintings now existing4    
,footnote #e3 ,had ,wrtemberg possessed 
but six thousand well-organized troops1 
the position on the ,roszbuhl might have
 been maintained1 and the country have  
been saved4 ,the millions since paid by 
,wrtemberg1 and which she may still have
 to pay1 would have been spared4--      
,appendix to the ,history of the        
,campaign of #agif4  ,footnote #f3 ,the 
duke1 ,charles1 had1 in #agia1 visited  
,paris1 donned the national cockade1 and
 bribed ,mirabeau with a large sum of   
money to induce the ,french government  
to purchase ,mmpelgard from him4 ,the   

,french1 however1 were quite as well    
aware as the duke that they would ere   
long possess it gratis4  ,footnote #g3  
,moreau generously allowed all his      
prisoners1 who1 as ex-nobles1 were      
destined to the guillotine1 to escape4  
,footnote #h3 ,armbruster's ,register of
 ,french ,crime contains as follows3    
,here and there1 in the neighboring     
towns1 there were certainly symptoms of 
an extremely favorable disposition      
toward the ,french1 which would ill     
deserve a place in the annals of ,german
 patriotism and of ,german good sense4  
,this disposition was fortunately far   
from general4 ,the appearance of the    
,french in their real character1 and the
 barbarous excesses and heavy           
contributions by which they rendered the
 people sensible of their presence1     
speedily effected their conversion4 ,the
 ,french1 it is true1 neither murdered  
the inhabitants nor burned the villages 
as they had during the previous century 
in the ,pfalz1 but they pillaged the    

country to a greater extent1 shamefully 
abused the women1 and desecrated the    
churches4 ,their license and the art    
with which they extorted the last penny 
from the wretched people surpassed all  
belief4 ,not satisfied with robbing the 
churches1 they especially gloried in    
giving utterance to the most fearful    
blasphemies1 in destroying and profaning
 the altars1 in overthrowing the statues
 of saints1 in treading the host beneath
 their feet or casting it to dogs4--,at 
the village of ,berg in ,weingarten1    
they set up in the holy of holies the   
image of the devil1 which they had taken
 from the representation of the         
temptation of the ,saviour in the       
wilderness4 ,in the village of ,boos1   
they roasted a crucifix before a        
fire4--,vide ,hurter's ,memorabilia1    
concerning the ,french allies in        
,swabia1 who attempted to found an      
,alemannic ,republic4 ,schaffhausen1    
#ahdj4 ,moreau reduced them to silence  
by declaring1 ,i have no need of a      

revolution to the rear of my army4      
,footnote #i3 ,notwithstanding          
,jourdan's proclamation1 promising      
protection to all private property1     
,wrzburg1 ,schweinfurt1 ,bamberg1 etc41 
were completely pillaged4 ,the young    
girls fled in hundreds to the woods4    
,the churches were shamelessly          
desecrated4 ,when mercy in ,god's name  
was demanded1 the plunderers replied1   
,god6 we are ,god6 ,they would dance at 
night-time around a bowl of burning     
brandy1 whose blue flames they called   
their tre suprme4--,the ,french in      
,franconia1 by ,count ,soden4  ,footnote
 #aj3 ,they deemed the assassination of 
a foreigner a meritorious               
work4--,ephemeridae of #agig4 ,the      
peasantry1 roused to fury by the        
disorderly and cruel ,french1 whose     
excesses exceeded all belief1 did not   
even extend mercy to the wounded2 and   
the ,french1 with equal barbarity1 set  
whole villages on fire4--,appendix to   
the ,campaign of #agif4  ,footnote #aa3 

,when scarcely in his twenty-seventh    
year4 ,he was one of the most           
distinguished heroes of the ,revolution1
 and as remarkable for his generosity to
 his weaker foes as for his moral and   
chivalric principles4 ,the ,archduke    
,charles sent his private physicians to 
attend upon him1 and1 on the occasion of
 his burial1 fired a salvo              
simultaneously with that of the ,french 
stationed on the opposite bank of the   
,rhine4--,mussinan4  ,footnote #ab3 ,the
 peasants of the ,artenau and the       
,kinzigthal were commanded by a wealthy 
farmer1 named ,john ,baader4 ,besides   
several ,french generals1 ,hausmann1 the
 commissary of the government1 who      
accompanied ,moreau's army1 was taken   
prisoner4--,mussinan1 ,history of the   
,french ,war of #agif etc4 ,a decree1   
published on the #ahth of ,september by 
,frederick ,eugene1 ,duke of ,wrtemberg1
 in which he prohibited his subjects    
from taking part in the pursuit of the  
,french1 is worthy of remark4   ,,ccl4  

,bonaparte   ,this youth was ,napoleon  
,bonaparte1 the son of a lawyer in the  
island of ,corsica1 a man of military   
genius1 who1 when a mere lieutenant1 had
 raised the siege of ,toulon1 had       
afterward served the ,directory by      
dispersing the old ,jacobins with his   
artillery in the streets of ,paris1 and 
had been intrusted with the command of  
the army in ,italy4 ,talents1 that under
 a monarchy would have been doomed to   
obscurity1 were1 under the ,french      
republic1 called into notice1 and men of
 decided genius could1 amid the general 
competition1 alone attain to power or   
retain the reins of government4         
,bonaparte was the first to take the    
field4 ,in the ,april of #agif1 he      
pushed across the ,alps and attacked the
 ,austrians4 ,beaulieu1 a good general1 
but too old for service 7he was then    
seventy-two1 ,napoleon but              
twenty-seven71 had incautiously extended
 his lines too far1 in order to preserve
 a communication with the ,english fleet

 in the ,mediterranean4 ,bonaparte      
defeated his scattered forces at        
,montenotte and ,millesimo1 between the 
#ajth and #aeth of ,april1 and1 turning 
sharply upon the equally scattered      
,sardinian force1 beat it in several    
engagements1 the principal of which took
 place at ,mondovi1 between the #aith   
and #bb;d of ,april4 ,an armistice was  
concluded with ,sardinia1 and ,beaulieu1
 who vainly attempted to defend the ,po1
 was defeated on the #gth and #hth of   
,may1 at ,fombio4 ,the bridge over the  
,adda at ,lodi1 three hundred paces in  
length1 extremely narrow and to all     
appearance impregnable1 defended by his 
lieutenant ,sebottendorf1 was carried by
 storm1 and1 on the #aeth of ,may1      
,bonaparte entered ,milan4 ,beaulieu    
took up a position behind the ,mincio1  
notwithstanding which1 ,bonaparte       
carried the again ill-defended bridge at
 ,borghetto by storm4 ,while in this    
part of the country1 he narrowly escaped
 being taken prisoner by a party of     

skirmishers1 and was compelled to fly   
half-naked1 with but one foot booted1   
from his night quarters at ,st4         
,georgio4  ,beaulieu now withdrew into  
the ,tyrol4 ,sardinia made peace1 and   
terms were offered by the pope and by   
,naples4 ,leghorn was garrisoned with   
,french troops2 all the ,english goods  
lying in this harbor1 to the value of   
twelve million pounds1 were confiscated4
 ,the strongly fortified city of        
,mantua1 defended by the ,austrians     
under their gallant leader1 ,canto      
d',irles1 was besieged by ,bonaparte4 ,a
 fresh body of ,austrian troops under   
,wurmser crossed the mountains to their 
relief2 but ,wurmser1 instead of        
advancing with his whole force1         
incautiously pressed forward with       
thirty-two thousand men through the     
valley of the ,adige1 while             
,quosdanowich led eighteen thousand     
along the western shore of the ,lake of 
,garda4 ,bonaparte instantly perceived  
his advantage1 and1 attacking the       

latter1 defeated him on the #c;d of     
,august1 at ,lonato4 ,wurmser had       
entered ,mantua unopposed on the #ast1  
but1 setting out in search of the enemy1
 was unexpectedly attacked1 on the #eth 
of ,august1 by the whole of ,bonaparte's
 forces at ,castiglione1 and compelled1 
like ,quosdanowich1 to seek shelter in  
the ,tyrol4 ,this senseless mode of     
attack had been planned by ,weirotter1 a
 colonel belonging to the general staff4
 ,wurmser now received reinforcements1  
and ,laner1 the general of the          
engineers1 was intrusted with the       
projection of a better plan4 ,he again  
weakened the army by dividing his       
forces4 ,in the beginning of ,september1
 ,davidowich penetrated with twenty     
thousand men through the valley of the  
,adige and was defeated at ,roveredo1   
and ,wurmser1 who had1 meanwhile1       
advanced with an army of twenty-six     
thousand men through the valley of the  
,brenta1 met with a similar fate at     
,bassano4 ,he1 nevertheless1 escaped the

 pursuit of the victorious ,french by   
making a circuit1 and threw himself by a
 forced march into ,mantua1 where he    
was1 however1 unable to make a lengthy  
resistance1 the city being              
over-populated and provisions scarce4 ,a
 fresh army of twenty-eight thousand    
men1 under ,alvinzi1 sent to his        
relief#a through the valley of the      
,brenta1 was attacked in a strong       
position at ,arcole1 on the river       
,alpon4 ,two dams protected the bank and
 a narrow bridge1 which was1 on the     
#aeth of ,november1 vainly stormed by   
the ,french1 although ,general ,augereau
 and ,bonaparte1 with the colors in his 
hand1 led the attack4 ,on the following 
day1 ,alvinzi foolishly crossed the     
bridge and took up an exposed position1 
in which he was beaten1 and1 on the     
third day1 he retreated4 ,davidowich1   
meanwhile1 again advanced from the      
,tyrol and gained an advantage at       
,rivoli1 but was also forced to retreat 
before ,bonaparte4 ,wurmser1 when too   

late1 made a sally1 which was1          
consequently1 useless4 ,the campaign    
was1 nevertheless1 for the fifth time1  
renewed4 ,alvinzi collected             
reinforcements and again pushed forward 
into the valley of the ,adige1 but      
speedily lost courage and suffered a    
fearful defeat1 in which twenty thousand
 of his men were taken prisoners1 on the
 #adth and #aeth of ,january1 ,a4,d4    
#agig1 at ,rivoli4 ,provera1 on whom he 
had relied for assistance from ,padua1  
was cut off and taken prisoner with his 
entire corps4 ,wurmser capitulated at   
,mantua with twenty-one thousand men4   
,the spring of #agig had scarcely       
commenced when ,bonaparte was already   
pushing across the ,alps toward ,vienna4
 ,hoche1 at the same time1 again        
attacked the ,lower and ,moreau the     
,upper ,rhine4 ,bonaparte1 the nearest  
and most dangerous foe1 was opposed by  
the archduke1 whose army1 composed of   
the remains of ,alvinzi's disbanded and 
discouraged troops1 called forth the    

observation from ,bonaparte1 ,hitherto  
,i have defeated armies without         
generals1 now ,i am about to attack a   
general without an army6 ,a battle took 
place at ,tarvis1 amid the highest      
mountains1 whence it was afterward known
 as the battle above the clouds4 ,the   
archduke1 with a handful of ,hungarian  
hussars1 valiantly defended the pass    
against sixteen thousand ,french under  
,massena1 nor turned to fly until eight 
only of his men remained4 ,generals     
,bayalich and ,ocskay1 instead of       
supporting him1 had yielded4 ,the       
archduke again collected five thousand  
men around him at ,glogau and opposed   
the advance of the immensely superior   
,french force until two hundred and     
fifty of his men alone remained4 ,the   
conqueror of ,italy rapidly advanced    
through ,styria upon ,vienna4 ,another  
,french corps under ,joubert had        
penetrated into the ,tyrol1 but had been
 so vigorously assailed at ,spinges by  
the brave peasantry#b as to be forced to

 retire upon ,bonaparte's main body1    
with which he came up at ,villach1 after
 losing between six and eight thousand  
men during his retreat through the      
,pusterthal4 ,the rashness with which   
,bonaparte1 leaving the ,alps to his    
rear and regardless of his distance from
 ,france1 penetrated into the enemy's   
country1 had placed him in a position   
affording every facility for the        
,austrians1 by a bold and vigorous      
stroke1 to cut him off and take him     
prisoner4 ,they had garrisoned ,trieste 
and ,fiume on the ,adriatic and formed  
an alliance with the republic of        
,venice1 at that time well supplied with
 men1 arms1 and gold4 ,a great          
insurrection of the peasantry1          
infuriated by the pillage of the ,french
 troops1 had broken out at ,bergamo4    
,the gallant ,tyrolese1 headed by ,count
 ,lehrbach1 and the ,hungarians1 had    
risen en masse4 ,the victorious troops  
of the ,archduke ,charles were en route 
from the ,rhine1 and ,mack had armed the

 ,viennese and the inhabitants of the   
thickly-populated neighborhood of the   
metropolis4 ,bonaparte was lost should  
the archduke's plan of operations meet  
with the approbation of the ,viennese   
cabinet1 and1 perfectly aware of the    
fact1 he made proposals of peace under  
pretence of sparing unnecessary         
bloodshed4 ,the imperial court1         
stupefied by the late discomfiture in   
,italy1 instead of regarding the        
proposals of the wily ,frenchman as a   
confession of embarrassment1 and of     
assailing him with redoubled vigor1     
acceded to them1 and1 on the #ahth of   
,april1 ,count ,cobenzl1 ,thugut's      
successor1 concluded the preliminaries  
of peace at ,leoben1 by which the       
,french1 besides being liberated from   
their dangerous position1 were          
recognized as victors4 ,the negotiations
 of peace were continued at the chateau 
of ,campo ,formio1 where the ,austrians 
somewhat regained courage1 and ,count   
,cobenzl#c even ventured to refuse some 

of the articles proposed4 ,bonaparte1   
irritated by opposition1 dashed a       
valuable cup1 the gift of the ,russian  
empress1 violently to the ground1       
exclaiming1 ,you wish for war8 ,well6   
you shall have it1 and your monarchy    
shall be shattered like that cup4 ,the  
armistice was not interrupted4          
,hostilities were even suspended on the 
,rhine4 ,the archduke had1 before       
quitting that river1 gained the ttes de 
pont of ,strasburg 7,kehl7 and of       
,huningen1 besides completely clearing  
the right bank of the ,rhine of the     
enemy4 ,the whole of these advantages   
were again lost on his recall to take   
the field against ,napoleon4 ,the ,saxon
 troops1 which had1 up to this period1  
steadily sided with ,austria1 were      
recalled by the elector4 ,swabia1       
,franconia1 and ,bavaria were intent    
upon making peace with ,france4 ,baron  
von ,fahnenberg1 the imperial envoy at  
,ratisbon1 bitterly reproached the      
,protestant estates for their evident   

inclination to follow the example of    
,prussia by siding with the ,french and 
betraying their fatherland to their     
common foe1 but1 on applying more       
particularly for aid to the spiritual   
princes1 who were exposed to the        
greatest danger1 he found them equally  
lukewarm4 ,each and all refused to      
furnish troops or to pay a war tax4 ,the
 imperial troops were1 consequently1    
compelled to enforce their maintenance1 
and naturally became the objects of     
popular hatred4 ,in this wretched manner
 was the empire defended6 ,the petty    
imperial corps on the ,rhine were1      
meanwhile1 compelled to retreat before  
an enemy vastly their superior in       
number4 ,wernek1 attempting with merely 
twenty-two thousand men to obstruct the 
advance of an army of sixty-five        
thousand ,french under ,hoche1 was      
defeated at ,neuwied and deprived of his
 command4#d ,sztarray1 who charged seven
 times at the head of his men1 was also 
beaten by ,moreau at ,kehl and          

,diersheim4 ,at this conjuncture1 the   
armistice of ,leoben was published4  ,a 
peace1 based on the terms proposed at   
,leoben1 was formally concluded at      
,campo ,formio1 ,october #ag1 #agig4    
,the triumph of the ,french republic was
 confirmed1 and ancient ,europe received
 a new form4 ,the object for which the  
sovereigns of ,france had for centuries 
vainly striven was won by the           
monarchless nation2 ,france gained the  
preponderance in ,europe4 ,italy and the
 whole of the left bank of the ,rhine   
were abandoned to her arbitrary rule1   
and this fearful loss1 far from acting  
as a warning to ,germany and promoting  
her unity1 merely increased her internal
 dissensions and offered to the ,french 
republic an opportunity for             
intervention1 of which it took advantage
 for purposes of gain and pillage4  ,the
 principal object of the policy of      
,bonaparte and of the ,french           
,directory1 at that period1 was1 by     
rousing the ancient feelings of enmity  

between ,austria and ,prussia1 to       
eternalize the disunion between those   
two monarchies4 ,bonaparte1 after       
effectuating the peace by means of      
terror1 loaded ,austria with flattery4  
,he flattered her religious feelings by 
the moderation of his conduct in ,italy 
toward the pope1 notwithstanding the    
disapprobation manifested by the genuine
 ,french republicans1 and her interests 
by the offer of ,venice in compensation 
for the loss of the ,netherlands1 and1  
making a slight side-movement against   
that once powerful and still wealthy    
republic1 reduced it at the first blow1 
nay1 by mere threats1 to submission2 so 
deeply was the ancient aristocracy here 
also fallen4 ,the cession of ,venice to 
the emperor was displeasing to the      
,french republicans4 ,they were1        
however1 pacified by the delivery of    
,lafayette1 who had been still detained 
a prisoner in ,austria after the treaty 
of ,basel4 ,napoleon said in vindication
 of his policy1 ,i have merely lent     

,venice to the emperor1 he will not keep
 her long4 ,he1 moreover1 gratified     
,austria by the extension of her western
 frontier1 so long the object of her    
ambition1 by the possession of the      
archbishopric of ,salzburg and of a part
 of ,bavaria with the town of           
,wasserburg4#e ,the sole object of these
 concessions was provisionally to       
dispose ,austria in favor of ,france1#f 
and to render ,prussia's ancient        
jealousy of ,austria implacable4#g      
,hence the secret articles of peace by  
which ,france and ,austria bound        
themselves not to grant any compensation
 to ,prussia4 ,prussia was on her part1 
however1 resolved not to be the loser1  
and1 in the summer of #agig1 took       
forcible possession of the imperial free
 town of ,nuremberg1 notwithstanding her
 declaration made just three years      
previously through ,count ,soden to the 
,franconian circle1 that the king had   
never harbored the design of seeking a  
compensation at the expense of the      

empire1 whose constitution had ever been
 sacred in his eyes6 and to the empire1 
,he deemed it beneath his dignity to    
refute the reports concerning ,prussia's
 schemes of aggrandizement1 oppression1 
and secularization4 ,prussia also       
extended her possessions in ,franconia#h
 and ,westphalia1 and ,hesse-,cassel    
imitated her example by the seizure of a
 part of ,schaumburg-,lippe4 ,the diet  
energetically remonstrated1 but in vain4
 ,pamphlets spoke of the ,prussian      
reunion- chambers opened by ,hardenberg 
in ,franconia4 ,an attempt was1 however1
 made to console the circle of          
,franconia by depicturing the far worse 
sufferings of that of ,swabia under the 
imperial contributions4 ,the petty      
,estates of the empire stumbled1 under  
these circumstances1 upon the           
unfortunate idea that the intercession  
of the ,russian court should be         
requested for the maintenance of the    
integrity of the ,german empire and for 
that of her constitution2 the           

intercession of the ,russian court1     
which had so lately annihilated ,poland6
  ,shortly after this1 ,a4,d4 #agig1    
,frederick ,william ,,ii41 who had1 on  
his accession to the throne1 found      
seventy-two millions of dollars in the  
treasury1 expired1 leaving twenty-eight 
millions of debts4 ,his son1 ,frederick 
,william ,,iii41 placed the ,countess   
,lichtenau under arrest1 banished       
,wollner1 and abolished the unpopular   
monopoly in tobacco1 but retained his   
father's ministers and continued the    
alliance1 so pregnant with mischief1    
with ,france4--,this monarch1           
well-meaning and destined to the        
severest trials1 educated by a peevish  
valetudinarian and ignorant of affairs1 
was first taught by bitter experience   
the utter incapacity of the men at that 
time at the head of the government1 and 
after1 as will be seen1 completely      
reforming the court1 the government1 and
 the army1 surrounded himself with men1 
who gloriously delivered ,prussia and   

,germany from all the miseries and      
avenged all the disgrace1 which it is   
the historian's sad office to record4   
,austria1 as ,prussia had already done  
by the treaty of ,basel1 also           
sacrificed1 by the peace of ,campo      
,formio1 the whole of the left bank of  
the ,rhine and abandoned it to ,france1 
the loss thereby suffered by the        
,estates of the empire being indemnified
 by the secularization of the           
ecclesiastical property in the interior 
of ,germany and by the prospect of the  
seizure of the imperial free towns4     
,mayence was ceded without a blow to    
,france4 ,holland was forgotten4 ,the   
,english1 under pretext of opposing     
,france1 destroyed1 ,a4,d4 #agig1 the   
last ,dutch fleet1 in the ,texel1 though
 not without a heroic and determined    
resistance on the part of the admirals  
de ,winter and ,reintjes1 both of whom  
were severely wounded1 and the latter   
died in captivity in ,england4 ,holland 
was formed into a ,batavian1 ,genoa into

 a ,ligurian1 ,milan with the           
,valtelline 7from which the ,grisons was
 severed7 into a ,cisalpine1 republic4  
,intrigues were1 moreover1 set on foot  
for the formation of a ,roman and       
,neapolitan republic in ,italy and of a 
,rhenish and ,swabian one in ,germany1  
all of which were to be subordinate to  
the mother republic in ,france4 ,the    
proclamation of a still-born ,cisrhenish
 republic 7it not having as yet been    
constituted when it was swallowed up in 
the great ,french republic71 in the     
masterless ,lower ,rhenish provinces in 
the territory of ,treves1               
,aix-la-,chapelle1 and ,cologne1 under  
the influence of the ,french ,jacobins  
and soldiery1 was1 however1 all that    
could at first be done openly4  ,the    
hauteur with which ,bonaparte1 backed by
 his devoted soldiery1 had treated the  
republicans1 and the contempt manifested
 by him toward the citizens1 had not    
failed to rouse the jealous suspicions  
of the ,directory1 the envy of the less 

successful generals1 and the hatred of  
the old friends of liberty1 by whom he  
was already designated as a tyrant4 ,the
 republican party was still possessed of
 considerable power1 and the majority of
 the ,french troops under ,moreau1      
,jourdan1 ,bernadotte1 etc41 were still 
ready to shed their blood in the cause  
of liberty4 ,bonaparte1 compelled to    
veil his ambitious projects1 judged it  
more politic1 after sowing the seed of  
discord at ,campo ,formio1 to withdraw a
 while1 in order to await the ripening  
of the plot and to return to reap the   
result4 ,he1 accordingly1 went meantime1
 ,a4,d4 #agih1 with a small but         
well-picked army to ,egypt1 for the     
ostensible purpose of opening a route   
overland to ,india1 the sea-passage     
having been closed against ,france by   
the ,british1 but1 in reality1 for the  
purpose of awaiting there a turn in     
continental affairs1 and1 moreover1 by  
his victories over the ,turks in the    
ancient land of fable to add to the     

wonder it was ever his object to        
inspire4 ,on his way thither he seized  
the island of ,malta and compelled      
,baron ,hompesch1 the grand-master of   
the order of the ,knights of ,malta1 to 
resign his dignity1 the fortress being  
betrayed into his hands by the ,french  
knights4  ,at ,rastadt1 near ,baden1    
where the compensation mentioned in the 
treaty of ,campo ,formio was to be taken
 into consideration1 the terrified      
,estates of the empire assembled for the
 purpose of suing the ,french           
ambassadors for the lenity they had not 
met with at the hands of ,austria and   
,prussia4--,the events that took place  
at ,rastadt are of a description little 
calculated to flatter the patriotic     
feelings of the ,german historian4 ,the 
soul of the congress was ,charles       
,maurice ,talleyrand-,perigord1 at one  
time a bishop1 at the present period    
minister of the ,french republic4 ,his  
colloquy with the ,german ambassadors   
resembled that of the fox with the      

geese1 and he attuned their discords    
with truly diabolical art4 ,while       
holding ,austria and ,prussia apart1    
instigating them one against the other1 
flattering both with the friendship of  
the republic and with the prospect of a 
rich booty by the secularization of the 
ecclesiastical lands1 he encouraged some
 of the petty states with the hope of   
aggrandizement by an alliance with      
,france1#i and1 with cruel contempt1    
allowed others a while to gasp for life 
before consigning them to destruction4  
,the petty princes1 moreover1 who had   
been deprived of their territory on the 
other side of the ,rhine1 demanded lands
 on this side in compensation2 all the  
petty princes on this side consequently 
trembled lest they should be called upon
 to make compensation1 and each         
endeavored1 by bribing the members of   
the congress1 ,talleyrand in particular1
 to render himself an exception4 ,the   
,french minister was bribed not by gold 
alone2 a considerable number of ladies  

gained great notoriety by their liaison 
with the insolent republican1 from whom 
they received nothing1 the object for   
which they sued being sold by him       
sometimes even two or three times4      
,momus1 a satirical production of this  
period1 relates numerous instances of   
crime and folly that are perfectly      
incredible4 ,the avarice manifested by  
the ,french throughout the whole of the 
negotiations was only surpassed by the  
brutality of their language and         
behavior4 ,roberjot1 ,bonnier1 and ,jean
 de ,bry1 the dregs of the ,french      
nation1 treated the whole of the ,german
 empire on this occasion en canaille1   
and1 while picking the pockets of the   
,germans1 were studiously coarse and    
brutal2 still the trifling opposition   
they encountered1 and the total want of 
spirit in the representatives of the    
great ,german empire1 whom it must1 in  
fact1 have struck them as ridiculous to 
see thus humbled at their feet1 forms an
 ample excuse for their demeanor4       

,gustavus ,adolphus ,,iv41 who mounted  
the throne of ,sweden in #agif1         
distinguished himself at that time among
 the ,estates of the empire1 when ,duke 
of ,pomerania and ,prince of ,rugen1 by 
his solemn protest against the          
depredations committed by ,france1 and  
by his summons to every member of the   
,german empire to take the field against
 their common foe4 ,hesse-,cassel was   
also remarkable for the warlike demeanor
 and decidedly anti-,gallic feeling of  
her population2 and ,wurtemberg1 for    
being the first of the ,german states   
that gave the example of making         
concessions more in accordance with the 
spirit of the times4 ,by the abolition  
of ancient abuses alone could the       
princes meet the threats used on every  
occasion by the ,french at ,rastadt to  
revolutionize the people unless their   
demands were fully complied with4 ,in   
,wurtemberg1 the duke1 ,charles1 had    
been succeeded1 ,a4,d4 #agic1 by his    
brother1 ,louis ,eugne1 who banished    

license from his court1 but1 a foe to   
enlightenment1 closed the ,charles      
college1 placed monks around his person1
 was extremely bigoted1 and a zealous   
but impotent friend to ,france4 ,he     
expired1 ,a4,d4 #agie1 and was succeeded
 by the third brother1 ,frederick       
,eugne1 who had been during his youth a 
canon at ,salzburg1 but afterward became
 a general in the ,prussian service1    
married a princess of ,brandenburg1 and 
educated his children in the ,protestant
 faith in order to assimilate the       
religion of the reigning family with    
that of the people4 ,his mild government
 terminated in #agig4 ,frederick1 his   
talented son and successor1 mainly      
frustrated the projected establishment  
of a ,swabian republic1 which was       
strongly supported by the ,french1 by   
his treatment of the provincial         
,estates1 the modification of the rights
 of chase1 etc41 on which occasion he   
took the following oath3 ,i repeat the  
solemn vow1 ever to hold the            

constitution of this country sacred and 
to make the weal of my subjects the aim 
of my life4 ,he nevertheless appears1 by
 the magnificent fetes1 masquerades1 and
 pastoral festivals given by him1 as if 
in a time of the deepest peace1 at      
,hohenheim1 to have trusted more to his 
connection with ,england1 by his        
marriage with the princess royal1       
,matilda1#aj with ,russia1 and with     
,austria 7the emperor ,paul1            
,catherine's successor1 having married  
the princess ,maria of ,wurtemberg1 and 
the emperor ,francis ,,ii41 her sister  
,elisabeth71 than to the constitution1  
which he afterward annihilated4  ,the   
weakness displayed by the empire and the
 increasing disunion between ,austria   
and ,prussia encouraged the ,french to  
further insolence4 ,not satisfied with  
garrisoning every fortification on the  
left bank of the ,rhine1 they boldly    
attacked1 starved to submission1 and    
razed to the ground1 during peace time1 
the once impregnable fortress of        

,ehrenbreitstein1 on the right bank of  
the ,rhine1 opposite ,coblentz4#aa ,not 
content with laying the ,netherlands and
 ,holland completely waste1 they        
compelled the ,hanse towns to grant them
 a loan of eighteen million livres4     
,lubeck refused1 but ,hamburg and       
,bremen1 more nearly threatened and     
hopeless of aid from ,prussia1 were     
constrained to satisfy the demands of   
the ,french brigands4 ,in the           
,netherlands1 the ,german faction once  
more rose in open insurrection2 in      
#agih1 the young men1 infuriated by the 
conscription and by their enrolment into
 ,french regiments1 flew to arms1 and   
torrents of blood were shed in the      
struggle1 in which they were unaided by 
their ,german brethren1 before they were
 again reduced to submission4 ,the      
,english also landed at ,ostend1 but for
 the sole purpose of destroying the     
sluices of the canal at ,bruges4  ,the  
,french divided the beautiful ,rhenish  
provinces1 yielded to them almost       

without a blow by ,germany1 into four   
departments3 ,first1 ,roer1 capital     
,aix-la-,chapelle2 besides ,cologne and 
,cleves4 ,secondly1 ,donnersberg1       
capital ,mayence2 besides ,spires and   
,zweibrucken4 ,thirdly1 ,saar1 capital  
,treves4 ,fourthly1 ,rhine and ,moselle1
 capital ,coblentz2 besides ,bonn4 ,each
 department was subdivided into cantons1
 each canton into communes4 ,the        
department was governed by a perfect1   
the canton by a sub-prefect1 the commune
 by a mayor4 ,all distinction of rank1  
nobility1 and all feudal rights were    
abolished4 ,each individual was a       
citizen1 free and equal4 ,all           
ecclesiastical establishments were      
abandoned to plunder1 the churches alone
 excepted1 they being still granted as  
places of worship to believers1         
notwithstanding the contempt and        
ridicule into which the clergy had      
fallen4 ,the monasteries were closed4   
,the peasantry1 more particularly in    
,treves1 nevertheless1 still manifested 

great attachment to ,popery4 ,guilds and
 corporations were also abolished4 ,the 
introduction of the ancient ,german oral
 law formerly in use throughout the     
empire1 the institution of trial by     
jury1 which1 to the disgrace of         
,germany1 the ,rhenish princes1 after   
the lapse of a thousand years1 learned  
from their ,gallic foe1 was a great and 
signal benefit4  ,liberty1 equality1 and
 justice were1 at that period1 in all   
other respects1 mere fictions4 ,the most
 arbitrary rule in reality existed1 and 
the new provinces were systematically   
drained by taxes of every description1  
as1 for instance1 register1 stamp1      
patent1 window1 door1 and land taxes3   
there was also a tax upon furniture and 
upon luxuries of every sort2 a poll-tax1
 a percentage on the whole assessment1  
etc42 besides extortion1 confiscation1  
and forced sales4 ,and woe to the new   
citizen of the great ,french republic if
 he failed in paying more servile homage
 to its officers1 from the prefect down 

to the lowest underling1 than had ever  
been exacted by the princes6#ab ,such   
was the liberty bestowed by republican  
,france6 ,thus were her promises        
fulfilled6 ,the ,german ,illuminati were
 fearfully undeceived1 particularly on  
perceiving how completely their hopes of
 universally revolutionizing ,germany   
were frustrated by the treaty of ,basel4
 ,the ,french1 who had proclaimed       
liberty to all the nations of the earth1
 now offered it for sale4 ,the ,french  
character was in every respect the same 
as during the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4    
,the only principle to which they       
remained ever faithful was that of      
robbery4--,switzerland was now1 in her  
turn1 attacked1 and vengeance thus      
overtook every province that had severed
 itself from the empire1 and every part 
of the once magnificent empire of       
,germany was miserably punished for its 
want of unity4   ,footnote #a3          
,clausewitz demands1 with great justice1
 why the ,austrians so greatly divided  

their forces on this occasion for the   
sake of saving ,italy1 as they had only 
to follow up their successes vigorously 
on the ,rhine in order to gain1 in that 
quarter1 far more than they could lose  
on the ,po4  ,footnote #b3 ,at ,absom1  
in the valley of the ,inn1 a peasant    
girl had1 at that time1 discovered a    
figure of the ,virgin in one of the     
panes of glass in her chamber window4   
,this appearance being deemed miraculous
 by the simple peasantry1 the           
authorities of the place investigated   
the matter1 had the glass cleaned and   
scraped1 etc41 and at length pronounced 
the indelible figure to be simply the   
outline of an old colored painting4 ,the
 peasantry1 however1 excited by the     
appearance of the infidel ,french1      
persisted in giving credence to the     
miracle and set up the piece of glass in
 a church1 which was afterward annually 
visited by thousands of pilgrims4 ,in   
#adjg1 the celebrated pilgrimage to     
,waldrast1 in the ,tyrol1 had been      

founded in a similar manner by the      
discovery of a portrait of the ,virgin  
which had been grown up in a tree1 by   
two shepherd lads4  ,footnote #c3       
,cobenzl was a favorite of ,kaunitz and 
a thorough courtier4 ,at an earlier     
period1 when ambassador at ,petersburg1 
he wrote ,french comedies1 which were   
performed at the ,hermitage in the      
presence of the empress ,catherine4 ,the
 arrival of an unpleasant despatch being
 ever followed by the production of some
 amusing piece as an antidote to care1  
the empress jestingly observed1 that he 
was no doubt keeping his best piece     
until the news arrived of the ,french   
being in ,vienna4 ,he expired in the    
,february of #ahji1 a year pregnant with
 fate for ,austria4  ,footnote #d3 ,he  
indignantly refused the stipend offered 
to him on this occasion and protested   
against the injustice of his            
condemnation4  ,footnote #e3 ,bavaria   
regarded these forced concessions as a  
bad reward for her fidelity to ,austria4

 ,napoleon appears to have calculated   
upon relighting by this means the flames
 of discord1 whence he well knew how to 
draw an advantage1 between ,bavaria and 
,austria4  ,footnote #f3 ,thus the      
emperor also now abandoned the empire by
 merely bargaining with the enemy to    
quit his territories1 and leaving the   
wretched provinces of the empire a prey 
to war and pillage4 ,and if the         
assurances of friendship1 of confidence1
 and of affection between ,austria and  
,venice are but recalled to mind1 the   
contrast was indeed laughable when the  
emperor was pleased to allow that loyal 
city to be ceded to him4 ,the best      
friend was in this case the cloth from  
which the emperor cut himself an        
equivalent4--,huergelmer4  ,footnote #g3
 ,a curious private memoir of           
,talleyrand says3 ,j'ai la certitude que
 ,berlin est le lieu1 o le trait du #bf 
,vendmiaire 7the reconciliation of      
,austria with ,france at ,campo         
,formio71 aura jett le plus             

d'etonnement1 d'embarras et de orainte4 
,he then explains that1 now that the    
,netherlands no longer belong to        
,austria1 and that ,austria and ,france 
no longer come into collision1 both     
powers would be transformed from natural
 foes into natural friends and would    
have an equal interest in weakening     
,prussia4 ,should ,russia stir1 the     
,poles could be roused to insurrection1 
etc4  ,footnote #h3 ,exactly at this    
period1 when the empire's common foe was
 plundering the ,franconian circle1 when
 deeds of blood and horror1 when misery 
and want had reached a fearful height1  
the troops of the ,elector of           
,brandenburg overran the cities and     
villages4 ,the inhabitants were         
constrained to take the oath of fealty1 
the public officers1 who refused1 were  
dragged away captive1 etc4 ,ellingen1   
,stopfenheim1 ,absperg1 ,eschenbach1    
,nremberg1 ,postbaur1 ,virnsperg1       
,oettingen1 ,dinkelsphl1 ,ritzenhausen1 
,gelchsheim1 were scenes of brutal      

outrage4--,the ,history of the          
,usurpation of ,brandenburg1 ,a4,d4     
#agig1 with the original ,documents1    
published by the ,teutonic ,order4      
,footnote #i3 ,his secret memoirs1 even 
at that period1 designate ,baden1       
,wrtemberg1 and ,darmstadt as states    
securely within the grasp of ,france4   
,footnote #aj3 ,he fled on ,moreau's    
invasion to ,england1 where he formed   
this alliance4 ,there was at one time a 
project of creating him elector of      
,hanover and of partitioning ,wrtemberg 
between ,bavaria and ,baden4  ,footnote 
#aa3 ,the commandant1 ,faber1 defended  
the place for fourteen months with a    
garrison of #b1jjj men4 ,during the     
siege1 the badly-disciplined ,french    
soldiery secretly sold provisions at an 
exorbitant price to the starving        
garrison4  ,footnote #ab3 ,klebe gave an
 extremely detailed account of the      
,french government3 ,it is1 for         
instance1 well known that a pastry cook 
was nominated lord high warden of the   

forest6 over a whole department1 and a  
jeweller was raised to the same office  
in another4--,the documents proving the 
cheating and underselling carried on by 
,pioc1 the lord high warden of the      
forests1 and by his assistant1          
,gauthier1 in all the forests in the    
department of the ,rhine and ,moselle1  
are detailed at full length in          
',rbezahl1' a sort of monthly magazine4 
,it is astonishing to see with what     
boundless impudence these people have   
robbed the country4--,still greater     
rascalities were carried on on the right
 bank of the ,rhine4 ,gauthier robbed   
from ,coblentz down to the ,prussian    
frontiers4 ,these allegations are       
confirmed by ,grres in a pamphlet1      
,results of my ,mission to ,paris1 in   
which he says1 ,the ,directory had      
treated the four departments like so    
many ,paschalics1 which it abandoned to 
its ,janissaries and colonized with its 
favorites4 ,every petition sent by the  
inhabitants was thrown aside with       

revolting contempt2 everything was done 
that could most deeply wound their      
feelings in regard to themselves or to  
their country4 ,the secret history of   
the government of the country between   
the ,rhine and the ,moselle1 sums up as 
follows3 ,all cheated1 all thieved1 all 
robbed4 ,the cheating1 thieving1 and    
robbing were perfectly terrible1 and not
 one of the cheats1 thieves1 or robbers 
seemed to have an idea that this country
 formed1 by the decree of union1 a part 
of ,france4 ,a nave confession6 ,the    
,french1 at all events1 acted as if     
conscious that the land was not theirs4 
,the ,rhenish ,jews1 who1 as early as   
the times of ,louis ,,xiv41 had aided   
the ,french in plundering ,germany1     
again acted as their bloodhounds1 and1  
by accepting bills in exchange for their
 real or supposed loans1 at double the  
amount1 on wealthy proprietors1 speedily
 placed themselves in possession of the 
finest estates4 ,vide ,reichardt's      
,letters from ,paris4    ,,ccli4 ,the   

,pillage of ,switzerland   ,peace had   
reigned throughout ,switzerland since   
the battle of ,villmergen1 ,a4,d4 #agab1
 which had given to ,zurich and ,berne  
the ascendency in the confederation4    
,the popular discontent caused by the   
increasing despotism of the aristocracy 
had merely displayed itself in petty    
conspiracies1 as1 for instance1 that of 
,henzi1 in #agdi1 and in partial        
insurrections4 ,in all the cantons1 even
 in those in which the democratic spirit
 was most prevalent1 the chief authority
 had been seized by the wealthier and   
more ancient families4 ,all the offices 
were in their hands1 the higher posts in
 the ,swiss regiments raised for the    
service of ,france were monopolized by  
the younger sons of the more powerful   
families1 who introduced the social     
vices of ,france into their own country1
 where they formed a strange medley in  
conjunction with the pedantry of the    
ancient oligarchical form of government4
 ,in the great canton of ,berne1 the    

council of two hundred1 which had       
unlimited sway1 was solely composed of  
seventy-six reigning families4 ,in      
,zurich1 the one thousand nine hundred  
townsmen had unlimited power over the   
country4 ,for one hundred and fifty     
years no citizen had been enrolled among
 them1 and no son of a peasant had been 
allowed to study for1 or been nominated 
to1 any office1 even to that of         
preacher4 ,in ,solothurn1 but one-half  
of the eight hundred townsmen were able 
to carry on the government4 ,lucerne was
 governed by a council of one hundred1  
so completely monopolized by the more   
powerful families that boys of twenty   
succeeded their fathers as councillors4 
,basel was governed by a council of two 
hundred and eighty1 which was entirely  
formed out of seventy wealthy mercantile
 families4 ,seventy-one families had    
usurped the authority at ,freiburg3     
similar oligarchical government         
prevailed at ,st4 ,gall and             
,schaffhausen4 ,the ,junker1 in the     

latter place1 rendered themselves       
especially ridiculous by the innumerable
 offices and chambers in which they     
transacted their useless and prolix     
affairs4 ,in all these aristocratic     
cantons1 the peasantry were cruelly     
harassed1 oppressed1 and1 in some parts1
 kept in servitude1 by the provincial   
governors4 ,the wealthy provincial      
governments were monopolized by the     
great aristocratic families4#a ,even in 
the pure democracies1 the provincial    
communes were governed by powerful      
peasant families1 as1 for instance1 in  
,glarus1 and the tyranny exercised by   
these peasants over the territory       
beneath their sway far exceeded that of 
the aristocratic burgesses in their     
provincial governments4 ,the ,italian   
valleys groaned beneath the yoke of the 
original cantons1 particularly under    
that of ,uri1#b the seven provincial    
governments in ,unterwallis under that  
of ,oberwallis1 the countship of        
,werdenberg under that of the ,glarner1 

the ,valtelline under that of the       
,grisons4#c ,the princely abbot of ,st4 
,gall was unlimited sovereign over his  
territory4 ,separate monasteries1 for   
instance1 ,engelberg1 had feudal sway   
over their vassals4  ,enlightenment and 
liberal opinions spread also gradually  
over ,switzerland1 and twenty years     
after ,henzi's melancholy death1 a      
disposition was again shown to oppose   
the tyranny of the oligarchies4 ,in     
#agib1 ,lavater and ,fuszli were        
banished ,zurich for venturing to       
complain of the arbitrary conduct of one
 of the provincial governors2#d in      
#aggi1 a curate named ,waser1 a man of  
talent and a foe to the aristocracy1 was
 beheaded on a false charge of          
falsifying the archives2#e in #agid1 the
 oppressed peasantry of ,lucerne        
revolted against the aristocracy2 in the
 same year1 the peasantry in ,schwyz1   
roused by the insolence of the ,french  
recruiting officers1 revolted1 and1 in  
the public provincial assembly1 enforced

 the recall of all the people of ,schwyz
 in the ,french service1 besides        
imposing a heavy fine upon ,general     
,reding on his return4 ,in #agha1 a     
revolt of the ,freiburg peasantry1      
occasioned by the tyranny of the        
aristocracy1 was quelled with the aid of
 ,berne2 in #aghd1 ,suter1 the          
noble-spirited ,landammann of           
,appenzell1 fell a sacrifice to envy4   
,his mental and moral superiority to the
 rest of his countrymen inspired his    
rival1 ,geiger1 with the most deadly    
hatred1 and he persecuted him with the  
utmost rancor4 ,he was accused of being 
a freethinker2 documents and protocols  
were falsified2 the stupid populace was 
excited against him1 and1 after having  
been exposed on the pillory1 publicly   
whipped1 and tortured on the rack1 he   
was beheaded1 and all intercession on   
his behalf was prohibited under pain of 
death4 ,solothurn1 on the other hand1   
was freed from feudal servitude in      
#aghe4 ,the popular feeling at that time

 prevalent throughout ,switzerland was1 
however1 of far greater import than     
these petty events4 ,the oligarchies had
 everywhere suppressed public opinion2  
the long peace had slackened the martial
 ardor of the people2 the ridiculous    
affectation of ancient heroic language  
brought into vogue by ,john ,muller     
rendered the contrast yet more striking1
 and1 on the outburst of the ,french    
,revolution1 the tyrannized ,swiss      
peasantry naturally threw themselves    
into the arms of the ,french1 the       
aristocracy into those of the           
,austrians4  ,the oppressed peasantry   
revolted as early as #agij against the  
ruling cities1 the vassal against the   
aristocrat1 in ,schaffhausen1 on account
 of the tithes2 in ,lower ,valais1 on   
account of the tyranny of one of the    
provincial governors4 ,these petty      
outbreaks and an attempt made by        
,laharpe to render the ,vaud independent
 of ,berne#f were suppressed1 ,a4,d4    
#agia4 ,the people remained1            

nevertheless1 in a high state of        
fermentation4 ,the new ,french republic 
at first quarrelled with the ancient    
confederation for having1 unmindful of  
their origin1 descended to servility4   
,the ,swiss guard had1 on the #afth of  
,august1 #agib1 courageously defended   
the palace of the unfortunate ,french   
king and been cut to pieces by the      
,parisian mob4 ,at a later period1 the  
,austrians had seized the ambassadors of
 the ,french republic1 ,semonville and  
,maret1 in the ,valtelline1 in the      
territory of the ,grisons4 ,the ,swiss  
patriots1 as they were called1 however1 
gradually fomented an insurrection      
against the aristocrats and called the  
,french to their aid4 ,in #agic1 the    
vassals of the bishop of ,basel at      
,pruntrut had already planted trees of  
liberty and placed the bishopric1 under 
the name of a ,rauracian republic1 under
 the protection of ,france1 chiefly at  
the instigation of ,gobel1 who was1 in  
reward1 appointed bishop of ,paris1 and 

whose nephew1 ,rengger1 shortly         
afterward became a member of the        
revolutionary government in ,berne4 ,in 
,geneva1 during the preceding year1 the 
,french faction had gained the upper    
hand4 ,the fickleness of the war kept   
the rest of the patriots in a state of  
suspense1 but1 on the seizure of the    
left bank of the ,rhine by the ,french1 
the movements in ,switzerland assumed a 
more serious character4 ,the abbot1     
,beda1 of ,st4 ,gall1 #agie1 pacified   
his subjects by concessions1 which his  
successor1 ,pancras1 refusing to        
recognize1 he was1 in consequence1      
expelled4 ,the unrelenting aristocracy  
of ,zurich1 upon this1 took the field   
against the restless peasantry1         
surrounded the patriots in ,stfa1 threw 
the venerable ,bodmer and a number of   
his adherents into prison1 and inflicted
 upon them heavy fines or severe        
corporeal chastisement4  ,the campaign  
of #agif had fully disclosed to         
,bonaparte the advantage of occupying   

,switzerland with his troops1 whose     
passage to ,italy or ,germany would be  
thereby facilitated1 while the line of  
communication would be secured1 and the 
danger to which he and ,moreau had been 
exposed through want of co-operation    
would at once be remedied4 ,he first of 
all took advantage of the dissensions in
 the ,grisons to deprive that republic  
of the beautiful ,valtelline1#g and1    
even at that time1 demanded permission  
from the people of ,valais to build the 
road across the ,simplon1 which he was1 
however1 only able to execute at a later
 period4 ,on his return to ,paris from  
the ,italian expedition1 he passed      
through ,basel1#h where he was met by   
,talleyrand4 ,peter ,ochs1 the chief    
master of the corporation1 was1 on this 
occasion1 as he himself relates in his  
,history of ,basel1 won over1 as the    
acknowledged chief of the patriots1 to  
revolutionize ,switzerland and to enter 
into a close alliance with ,france4 ,the
 base characters1 at that time the tools

 of the ,french ,directory1 merely      
acceded to the political plans of       
,bonaparte and ,talleyrand in the hope  
of reaping a rich harvest by the plunder
 of the federal cantons1 and the ,swiss 
expedition was1 consequently1 determined
 upon4 ,the people of ,valais1 whose    
state of oppression served as a pretext 
for interference1 revolted1 under       
,laharpe1 against ,berne1 #agih1 and    
demanded the intervention of the ,french
 republic1 as heir to the dukes of      
,savoy1 on the strength of an ancient   
treaty1 which had1 for that purpose1    
been raked up from the ashes of the     
past4 ,nothing could exceed the         
miserable conduct of the diet at that   
conjuncture4 ,after having already      
conceded to ,france her demand for the  
expulsion of the emigrants and having   
exposed its weakness by this open       
violation of the rights of hospitality1 
it discussed the number of troops to be 
furnished by each of the cantons1 when  
the enemy was already in this country4  

,even the once haughty ,bernese1 who had
 set an army1 thirty thousand strong1 on
 foot1 withdrew1 under ,general ,wysz1  
from ,valais to their metropolis1 where 
they awaited the attack of the enemy4   
,there was neither plan#i nor order2 the
 patriots rose in every quarter and     
struck terror into the aristocrats1 most
 of whom were now rather inclined to    
yield and impeded by their indecision   
the measures of the more spirited party4
 ,in ,basel1 ,ochs deposed the          
oligarchy2 in ,zurich1 the government   
was induced1 by intimidation1 to restore
 ,bodmer and his fellow-prisoners to    
liberty4 ,in ,freiburg1 ,lucerne1       
,schaffhausen1 and ,st4 ,gall the       
oligarchies resigned their authority2   
,constance asserted its independence4   
,within ,berne itself1 tranquillity was 
with difficulty preserved by ,steiger1  
the venerable mayor1 a man of extreme   
firmness of character4 ,a ,french force 
under ,brune had already overrun ,vaud1 
which1 under pretext of being delivered 

from oppression1 was laid under a heavy 
contribution2 the ancient charnel-house 
at ,murten was also destroyed1 because  
the ,french had formerly been beaten on 
this spot by the ,germans4 ,but few of  
the ,swiss marched to the aid of ,berne2
 two hundred of the people of ,uri1     
arrayed in the armor of their ancestors1
 some of the peasantry of ,glarus1 ,st4 
,gall1 and ,freiburg4#aj ,a second      
,french force under ,schauenburg entered
 ,switzerland by ,basel1 defeated the   
small troops of ,bernese sent to oppose 
it at ,dornach and ,langnau1 and took   
,solothurn1 where it liberated one      
hundred and eighty self-styled patriots 
imprisoned in that place4 ,the patriots1
 at this conjuncture1 also rose in open 
insurrection in ,berne1 threw everything
 into confusion1 deposed the old        
council1 formed a provisional           
government1 and checked all the         
preparations for defence4 ,the brave    
peasantry1 basely betrayed by the       
cities1 were roused to fury4 ,colonels  

,ryhiner1 ,stettler1 ,crusy1 and        
,goumores were murdered by them upon    
mere suspicion 7their innocence was     
afterward proved71 and boldly following 
their leader1 ,grafenried1 against the  
,french1 they defeated and repulsed the 
whole of ,brune's army and captured     
eighteen guns at the bridge of          
,neuenegg4 ,but a smaller ,bernese      
corps1 which1 under ,steiger1 the mayor1
 opposed the army of ,schauenburg in the
 ,grauen ,holz1 was routed after a      
bloody struggle1 and1 before ,erlach1   
the newly- nominated generalissimo1     
could hurry back to ,berne with the     
victors of ,neuenegg1 the patriots1 who 
had long been in the pay of ,france1    
threw wide the gates to ,schauenburg4   
,all was now lost4 ,erlach fled to      
,thun1 in order to place himself at the 
head of the people of the ,oberland1 who
 descended in thick masses from the     
mountains2 but1 on his addressing the   
brave ,senn peasantry in ,french1       
according to the malpractice of the     

,bernese1 they mistook him for a ,french
 spy and struck him dead in his         
carriage4 ,the loss of ,berne greatly   
dispirited them and they desisted from  
further and futile opposition4 ,steiger 
escaped4 ,hotze1 a gallant ,austrian    
general1 who1 mindful of his ,swiss     
origin1 had attempted to place himself  
at the head of his countrymen1 was      
compelled to retrace his steps4 ,in     
,berne1 the ,french meanwhile pillaged  
the treasures of the republic4#aa       
,besides the treasury and the arsenal1  
estimated at twenty-nine million livres1
 they levied a contribution of sixteen  
million4 ,bruno planted a tree of       
liberty1 and ,frisching1 the president  
of the provisional government1 had the  
folly to say1 ,here it stands6 may it   
bear good fruit6 ,amen6  ,further       
bloodshed was prevented by the          
intervention of the patriots4 ,the whole
 of ,switzerland1 ,schwyz1 ,upper       
,valais1 and ,unterwalden alone         
excepted1 submitted1 and1 on the #abth  

of ,april1 the federal diet at ,aarau   
established1 in the stead of the ancient
 federative and oligarchical government1
 a single and indivisible ,helvetian    
republic1 in a strictly democratic form1
 with five directors1 on the ,french    
model4 ,four new cantons1 ,aargau1      
,leman 7,vaud71 the ,bernese ,oberland1 
and ,constance1 were annexed to the     
ancient ones4 ,schwyz1 ,uri1            
,unterwalden1 and ,zug were1 on the     
other hand1 to form but one canton4     
,rapinat1 a bold bad man1 ,rewbel's     
brother-in-law1 who was at that time    
absolute in ,switzerland1 seized        
everything that had escaped the pillage 
of the soldiery in ,berne and ,zurich1  
sacked ,solothurn1 ,lucerne1 ,freiburg1 
etc41 and hunted out the hidden         
treasures of the confederation1 which he
 sent to ,france4 ,the protestations of 
the directors1 ,bay and ,pfyffer1 were  
unheeded2 ,rapinat deposed them by      
virtue of a ,french warrant and         
nominated ,ochs and ,dolder in their    

stead4 ,the patriotic feelings of the   
,swiss revolted at this tyranny2 ,schwyz
 rose in open insurrection2 the         
peasantry1 headed by ,aloys ,reding1    
seized and garrisoned ,lucerne and      
called the whole country to arms against
 the ,french invader4 ,the peasantry of 
the free cantons also marched against   
,aarau1 but were defeated by            
,schauenburg at ,hcklingen2 two hundred 
of their number fell1 among others a    
priest bearing the colors4 ,schauenburg 
then attacked the people of ,schwyz at  
,richtenschwyl1 where1 after a desperate
 combat that lasted a whole day1 he at  
length compelled them to give way4      
,they1 nevertheless1 speedily rallied1  
and two engagements of equal obstinacy  
took place on the ,schindeleggy and on  
the mountain of ,etzel4 ,the flight of  
,herzog1 the pastor of ,einsiedeln1 was 
the sole cause of the discomfiture of   
the ,swiss4 ,reding1 however1           
reassembling his forces at the ,red     
,tower1 in the vicinity of the old      

battlefield of ,morgarten1 the ,french1 
unable to withstand their fury1 were    
repulsed with immense loss4 ,they also  
suffered a second defeat at ,arth1 at   
the foot of the ,rigi4 ,the ,swiss1 on  
their part1 on numbering their forces   
after the battle1 found their strength  
so terribly reduced that1 although      
victors1 they were unable to continue   
the contest1 and voluntarily recognized 
the ,helvetian republic4 ,the rich      
monastery of ,einsiedeln was plundered  
and burned2 the miraculous picture of   
the ,virgin was1 however1 preserved4    
,upper ,valais also submitted1 after    
,sion and the whole of the valley had   
been plundered and laid waste4 ,the     
peasantry defended themselves here for  
several weeks at the precipice of the   
,dala4 ,unterwalden offered the most    
obstinate resistance4 ,the peasantry of 
this canton were headed by ,lssi4 ,the  
,french invaded the country             
simultaneously on different sides1 by   
water1 across the lake of the four      

cantons1 and across the ,brnig from the 
,haslithal2 in the ,kernwald they were  
victorious over the masses of peasantry1
 but a body of three or four thousand   
,french1 which had penetrated further   
down the vale1 was picked off by the    
peasantry concealed in the woods and    
behind the rocks4 ,a rifleman1 stationed
 upon a projecting rock1 shot more than 
a hundred of the enemy one after        
another1 his wife and children1         
meanwhile1 loading his guns4 ,both of   
the ,french corps coalesced at ,stanz1  
but met with such obstinate resistance  
from the old men1 women and girls left  
there1 that1 after butchering four      
hundred of them1 they set the place in  
flames4#ab ,the sturdy mountaineers1    
although numerically weak1 proved       
themselves worthy of their ancient      
fame4--,the four ,waldsttte were thrown 
into one canton1 ,waldsttten2 ,glarus   
and ,toggenburg into another1 ,linth2   
,appenzell and ,st4 ,gall into that of  
,sntis4 ,the old ,italian prefectures1  

with the exception of the ,valtelline1  
were formed into two cantons1 ,lugano   
and ,bellinzona 7afterward the canton of
 ,tessin74 ,the canton of ,vaud also    
finally acceded to this arrangement1 but
 was shortly afterward1 as well as the  
former bishopric of ,basel1             
,pruntrut1#ac and the city and republic 
of ,genoa1 incorporated with ,france4   
,the levy of eighteen thousand men 7the 
,helvetlers1 ,galloschwyzers or eighteen
 batzmen7 for the service of the        
,helvetian republic occasioned fresh    
disturbances in the beginning of #agii4 
,the opposition was so great that the   
recruits were carried in chains to      
,berne4 ,the ,bernese ,oberland1 the    
peasantry of ,basel1 ,solothurn1        
,toggenburg1 ,appenzell1 and ,glarus    
rose in open insurrection1 but were     
again reduced to submission by the      
military4 ,the spirit of the            
mountaineers was1 however1 less easily  
tamed4 ,in ,april1 #agii1 the people of 
,schwyz took four hundred ,french       

prisoners2 those of ,uri1 under their   
leader1 ,vincenz ,schmid1 stormed and   
burned ,altorf1 the seat of the ,french 
and their adherents2 those of ,valais1  
under the youthful ,count ,courten1     
drove the ,french from their valleys1   
and those of the ,grisons surprised and 
cut to pieces a ,french squadron at     
,dissentis4 ,general ,soult took the    
field with a strong force against them  
in ,may and reduced them one after the  
other1 but with great loss on his side1 
to submission4 ,twelve hundred ,french  
fell in ,valais1 which was completely   
laid waste by fire and sword2 in ,uri1  
stones and rocks were hurled upon them  
by the infuriated peasantry as they     
defiled through the narrow gorges2      
,schmid was1 however1 taken and shot2   
,schwyz was also reduced to obedience2  
in the ,grisons1 upward of a thousand   
,french fell in a bloody engagement at  
,coire1 and the magnificent monastery of
 ,dissentis was1 in revenge1 burned to  
the ground4 ,the beautiful ,bergland was

 reduced to an indescribable state of   
misery4 ,the villages lay in ashes2 the 
people1 who had escaped the general     
massacre1 fell victims to famine4 ,in   
this extremity1 ,zschokke1 at that time 
,helvetic governor of the ,waldstatte1  
proposed the complete expulsion of the  
ancient inhabitants and the settlement  
of ,french colonists in the fatherland  
of ,william ,tell4#ad  ,the imperial    
free town of ,muhlhausen in the         
,suntgau1 the ancient ally of           
,switzerland1 fell1 like her1 into the  
hands of the ,french4 ,unable to        
preserve her independence1 she committed
 a singular political suicide4 ,the     
whole of the town property was divided  
among the citizens4 ,a girl1 attired in 
the ancient ,swiss costume1 delivered   
the town keys to the ,french            
commissioner2 the city banner and arms  
were buried with great solemnity4#ae    
,the ,french had also shown as little   
lenity in their treatment of ,italy4    
,rome was entered and garrisoned with   

,french troops2 the handsome and now    
venerable puppet1 ,pope ,pius ,,vi41 was
 seized1 robbed1 and personally         
maltreated 7his ring was even torn from 
his hand71 and dragged a prisoner to    
,france1 where he expired in the ,august
 of #agii4   ,footnote #a3 ,the peasant1
 when summoned into the presence of a   
governor1 lord of the council1 head of a
 guild1 or preacher1 stood there1 not as
 a free ,swiss1 but as a criminal       
trembling before his judge4--,lehmann on
 the imaginary ,freedom of the ,swiss4  
#agii4  ,footnote #b3 ,the important    
office of provincial secretary was1 in  
this manner1 hereditary in the family of
 the ,beroldingen of ,uri4--,lehmann4   
,footnote #c3 ,in the ,grisons1 the     
constitution was extremely complicated4 
,the lordships of ,meyenfeld and        
,aspermont were1 for instance1 subject  
to the three confederated cantons and   
under the control of the provincial     
governors nominated by them2 they were  
at the same time members of the whole   

free state1 and1 as such1 had a right of
 lordship over the subject provinces1   
over which1 they1 in their turn1        
appointed a governor4--,meyer von       
,knonau's ,geography4  ,footnote #d3    
,the best information concerning the    
authority held by the provincial        
governors1 who enjoyed almost unlimited 
sway over their districts1 is to be met 
with in the excellent biography of      
,solomon ,landolt1 the provincial       
governor of ,zurich1 by ,david ,hesz4   
,landolt was the model of an able but   
extremely tyrannical governor 7he ruled 
over ,greisensee and ,eglisau7 and      
gained great note by his salomonic      
judgments and by his quaint humor4 ,he  
founded the ,swiss rifle clubs and      
introduced that national weapon into    
modern warfare4 ,he was also a painter  
and had the whim1 notwithstanding the   
constant triumph of the ,french1 ever to
 represent them in his pictures as the  
vanquished party4  ,footnote #e3 ,hirzel
 wrote at that time1 in his ,glimpses   

into the ,history of the ,confederation1
 that ,captain ,henzl had been deprived 
of his head because he was the only man 
in the country who had one4 ,zimmerman  
says in his ,national ,pride1 ,a foreign
 philosopher visited ,switzerland for   
the purpose of settling in a country    
where thought was free2 he remained ten 
days at ,zurich and then went           
to--,portugal4 ,in #aggd1 the clocks at 
,basel1 which1 since the siege of       
,rudolph of ,habsburg1 had remained one 
hour behindhand1 were1 after immense    
opposition1 regulated like those in the 
rest of the world4 ,two factions sprang 
up on this occasion1 that of the        
,spieszburghers or ,lalleburghers 7the  
ancient one71 and that of the ,francemen
 or new-modellers 7the modern one74     
,footnote #f3 ,laharpe was at the same  
time a demagogue in the ,vaud and tutor 
to the emperor ,alexander at            
,petersburg4  ,footnote #g3 ,valtelline 
with ,chiavenna and ,bormio 7,cleves and
 ,worms7 were ill-treated by the people 

of the ,grisons4 ,offices and justice   
were regularly jobbed and sold to the   
highest bidder4 ,the people of          
,valtelline hastily entered into        
alliance with ,france1 while the        
oppressed peasantry in the ,grisons     
rebelled against the ruling family of   
,salis1 which had long been in the pay  
of the ,french kings1 and had1 since the
 revolution1 sided with ,austria4 ,john 
,mller appeared at ,basel as ,thugut's  
agent for the purpose of inciting the   
confederation against ,france4--,ochs's 
,history of ,basel4  ,footnote #h3      
,while here1 he gave ,fesch1 the        
pastry-cook1 whose brother1 a ,swiss    
lieutenant1 was the second husband of   
,bonaparte's maternal grandmother1 a    
very friendly reception4 ,the offspring 
of this second marriage was the future  
,cardinal ,fesch1 ,letitia's            
half-brother and ,napoleon's uncle1 whom
 ,napoleon attempted to create primate  
of ,germany and to raise to the         
pontifical throne4  ,footnote #i3 ,some 

of the cantons imagined that ,france    
merely aspired to the possession of     
,valais1 and1 jealous of the prosperity 
and power of ,berne1 willingly permitted
 her to suffer this humiliation4-,meyer 
von ,knonau4  ,footnote #aj3 ,two       
,bernese1 condemned to work in the      
trenches at ,yferten1 on being liberated
 by the ,french1 returned voluntarily to
 ,berne1 in order to aid in the defense 
of the city4 ,a rare trait1 in those    
times1 of ancient ,swiss fidelity4      
,footnote #aa3 ,a good deal of it was   
spent by ,bonaparte during his          
expedition into ,egypt1 and1 even at the
 present day1 the ,bernese bear is to be
 seen on coins still in circulation on  
the banks of the ,nile4--,meyer von     
,knonau4  ,footnote #ab3 ,the venerable 
,pestalozzi assembled the orphans and   
founded his celebrated model academy at 
,stanz4 ,seventy-nine women and girls   
were found among the slain4 ,a story is 
told of a girl who1 being attacked1 in a
 lonely house1 by two ,frenchmen1       

knocked their heads together with such  
force that they dropped down dead4      
,footnote #ac3 ,not far from ,pruntrut  
is the hill of ,terri1 said to have been
 formerly occupied by one of ,csar's    
camps4 ,the ,french named it ,mont      
,terrible and created a department du   
,mont ,terrible4 ,vide ,meyer von       
,knonau's ,geography4  ,footnote #ad3   
,in his ,political ,remarks touching the
 ,canton of ,waldstatten1 dated the     
#bc;d of ,june1 #agii1 he says3 ,let us 
imitate the political maxims of the     
conquerors of old1 who drove the        
inhabitants most inimical to them into  
foreign countries and established       
colonies1 composed of families of their 
own kin1 in the heart of the conquered  
provinces4 ,his proposal remaining      
unseconded1 he sought to obliterate the 
bad impression it had made1 by          
publishing a proclamation1 calling upon 
the charitably inclined to raise a      
subscription for the unfortunate        
inhabitants of the ,waldstatte4         

,footnote #ae3 ,vide ,graf's ,history of
 ,muhlhausen4    ,,cclii4 ,the ,second  
,coalition   ,prussia looked calmly on1 
with a view of increasing her power by  
peace while other states ruined         
themselves by war1 and of offering her  
arbitration at a moment when she could  
turn their mutual losses to advantage4  
,austria1 exposed to immediate danger by
 the occupation of ,switzerland by the  
,french1 remained less tranquil and     
hastily formed a fresh coalition with   
,england and ,russia4 ,catherine ,,ii4  
had expired1 #agif4 ,her son1 ,paul ,i41
 cherished the most ambitious views4    
,his election as grand-master of the    
,maltese order dispersed by ,napoleon   
had furnished him with a sort of right  
of interference in the affairs of the   
,levant and of ,italy4 ,on the #ast of  
,march1 #agii1 the ,ionian ,islands1    
,corfu1 etc41 were occupied by ,russian 
troops1 and a ,russian army1 under the  
terrible ,suwarow1 moved1 in conjunction
 with the troops of ,austria1 upon      

,italy4 ,the project of the ,russian    
czar was1 by securing his footing on the
 ,mediterranean and at the same time    
encircling ,turkey1 to attack           
,constantinople on both sides1 on the   
earliest opportunity4 ,austria was      
merely to serve as a blind tool for the 
attainment of his schemes4 ,mack was    
despatched to ,naples for the purpose of
 bringing about a general rising in     
,southern ,italy against the ,french1   
and ,england lavished gold4 ,the absence
 of ,bonaparte probably inspired several
 of the allied generals with greater    
courage1 not the ,french1 but he1 being 
the object of their dread4 ,the conduct 
of the ,french at ,rastadt had revolted 
every ,german and had justly raised     
their most implacable hatred1 which     
burst forth during a popular tumult at  
,vienna1 when the tricolor1 floating    
from the palace of ,general ,bernadotte1
 the ,french ambassador1 was torn down  
and burned4 ,the infamous assassination 
of the ,french ambassadors at ,rastadt  

also took place during this agitated    
period4 ,bonnier1 ,roberjot1 and ,jean  
de ,bry quitted ,rastadt on the breaking
 out of war1 and were attacked and cut  
to pieces by some ,austrian hussars in a
 wood close to the city gate4 ,jean de  
,bry alone escaped1 although dangerously
 wounded1 with his life4 ,this atrocious
 act was generally believed to have been
 committed through private revenge1 or1 
what is far more probable1 for the      
purpose of discovering by the papers of 
the ambassadors the truth of the reports
 at that time in circulation concerning 
the existence of a conspiracy and       
projects for the establishment of       
republics throughout ,germany4 ,the real
 motive was1 however1 not long ago1#a   
unveiled4 ,austria had revived her      
ancient projects against ,bavaria1 and1 
as early as #agih1 had treated with the 
,french ,directory for the possession of
 that electorate in return for her      
toleration of the occupatign of         
,switzerland by the troops of the       

republic4 ,the venerable elector1       
,charles ,theodore1 who had been already
 persuaded to cede ,bavaria and to      
content himself with ,franconia1 dying  
suddenly of apoplexy while at the       
card-table1 was succeeded by his cousin1
 ,maximilian ,joseph of                 
,pfalz-,zweibrucken1 from whom1 on      
account of his numerous family1 no      
voluntary cession was to be expected    
either for the present or future4       
,thugut and ,lehr-bach1 the rulers of   
the ,viennese cabinet1 in the hope of   
compromising and excluding him1 as a    
traitor to the empire1 from the         
,bavarian succession1 by the production 
of proofs of his being the secret ally  
of ,france1 hastily resolved upon the   
assassination of the ,french ambassadors
 at ,rastadt1 on the bare supposition of
 their having in their possession       
documents in the handwriting of the     
elector4 ,none were1 however1           
discovered1 the ,french envoys having   
either taken the precaution of          

destroying them or of committing them to
 the safe-keeping of the ,prussian      
ambassador4 ,this crime was1 as ,hormayr
 observes1 at the same time1 a political
 blunder4 ,this horrible act was        
perpetrated on the #bhth of ,april1     
#agii4  ,the campaign had1 a month      
anterior to this event1 been opened by  
the ,french1 who had attacked the       
,austrians in their still scattered     
positions4 ,disunion prevailed as usual 
in the ,austrian military council4 ,the 
,archduke ,charles proposed the invasion
 of ,france from the side of ,swabia4   
,the occupation of ,switzerland by the  
troops of ,austria was1 nevertheless1   
resolved upon1 and ,general ,auffenberg1
 accordingly1 entered the ,grisons4 ,the
 ,french instantly perceived and        
hastened to anticipate the designs of   
the ,austrian cabinet4 ,auffenberg was  
defeated by ,massena on the ,st4        
,luciensteig and expelled the ,grisons1 
while ,hotze on the ,vorarlberg and     
,bellegarde in the ,tyrol looked calmly 

on at the head of fifteen thousand men4 
,the simultaneous invasion of ,swabia by
 ,jourdan now induced the military      
council at ,vienna to accede to the     
proposal formerly made by the ,archduke 
,charles1 who was despatched with the   
main body of the army to ,swabia1 where1
 on the #beth of ,march1 #agii1 he      
gained a complete victory over ,jourdan 
at ,ostrach and ,stockach4#b ,the       
,grisons were retaken in ,may by ,hotze1
 and1 in ,june1 the archduke joining    
him1 ,massena was defeated at ,zurich1  
and the steep passes of ,mont ,st4      
,gothard were occupied by ,haddik4      
,massena was1 however1 notwithstanding  
the immense numerical superiority of the
 archduke's forces1 which could easily  
have driven him far into ,france1       
allowed to remain undisturbed at        
,bremgarten4 ,the ,french1 under        
,scherer1 in ,italy1 had1 meanwhile1    
been defeated1 in ,april1 by ,kray1 at  
,magnano4 ,this success was followed by 
the arrival of ,melas from ,vienna1 of  

,bellegarde from the ,tyrol1 and lastly1
 by that of the ,russian vanguard under 
,suwarow1 who took the chief command and
 beat the whole of the ,french forces in
 ,italy2 ,moreau1 at ,cassano and       
,marengo1 in ,may2 ,macdonald1 on his   
advance from ,lower ,italy1 on the      
,trebbia1 in ,june2 and finally1        
,joubert1 in the great battle of ,novi1 
in which ,joubert was killed1 ,august   
the #aeth1 #agii4 ,dissensions now broke
 out among the victors4 ,a fourth of the
 forces in ,italy belonged to ,austria1 
merely one-fifth to ,russia2 the        
,austrians1 consequently1 imagined that 
the war was merely carried on on their  
account4 ,the ,austrian forces were1    
against ,suwarow's advice1 divided1 for 
the purpose of reducing ,mantua and     
,alessandria and of occupying ,tuscany4 
,the king of ,sardinia1 whom ,suwarow   
desired to restore to his throne1 was   
forbidden to enter his states by the    
,austrians1 who intended to retain      
possession of them for some time longer4

 ,the whole of ,italy1 as far as ,ancona
 and ,genoa1 was now freed from the     
,french1 whom the ,italians1 embittered 
by their predatory habits1 had aided to 
expel1 and ,suwarow received orders to  
join his forces with those under        
,korsakow1 who was then on the ,upper   
,rhine with thirty thousand men4 ,the   
archduke might1 even without this fresh 
reinforcement1 have already annihilated 
,massena had he not remained during     
three months1 from ,june to ,august1 in 
a state of complete inactivity2 at the  
very moment of ,suwarow's expected      
arrival he allowed the important passes 
of the ,st4 ,gothard to be again carried
 by a coup de main by the ,french under 
,general ,lecourbe1 who drove the       
,austrians from the ,simplon1 the       
,furca1 the ,grimsel1 and the ,devil's  
bridge4 ,the archduke1 after an         
unsuccessful attempt to push across the 
,aar at ,dettingen1 suddenly quitted the
 scene of war and advanced down the     
,rhine for the purpose of supporting the

 ,english expedition under the ,duke of 
,york against ,holland4 ,this unexpected
 turn in affairs proceeded from ,vienna4
 ,the ,viennese cabinet was jealous of  
,russia4 ,suwarow played the master in  
,italy1 favored ,sardinia at the expense
 of the house of ,habsburg1 and deprived
 the ,austrians of the laurels and of   
the advantages they had won4 ,the       
archduke1 accordingly1 received orders  
to remain inactive1 to abandon the      
,russians1 and finally to withdraw to   
the north2 by this movement ,suwarow's  
triumphant progress was checked1 he was 
compelled to cross the ,alps to the aid 
of ,korsakow1 and to involve himself in 
a mountain warfare ill-suited to the    
habits of his soldiery4#c ,korsakow1    
whom ,bavaria had been bribed with      
,russian gold to furnish with a corps   
one thousand strong1 was solely         
supported by ,kray and ,hotze with      
twenty thousand men4 ,massena1 taking   
advantage of the departure of the       
archduke and the non-arrival of         

,suwarow1 crossed the ,limmat at        
,dietikon and shut ,korsakow1 who had   
imprudently stationed himself with his  
whole army in ,zurich1 so closely in1   
that1 after an engagement that lasted   
two days1 from the #aeth to the #agth of
 ,september1 the ,russian general was   
compelled to abandon his artillery and  
to force his way through the enemy4 ,ten
 thousand men were all that escaped4#d  
,hotze1 who had advanced from the       
,grisons to ,schwyz to ,suwarow's       
rencounter1 was1 at the same time1      
defeated and killed at ,schannis4       
,suwarow1 although aware that the road  
across the ,st4 ,gothard was blocked by 
the lake of the four cantons1 on which  
there were no boats1 had the folly to   
attempt the passage4 ,in ,airolo1 he was
 obstinately opposed by the ,french     
under ,lecourbe1 and1 although          
,schweikowski contrived to turn this    
strong position by scaling the pathless 
rocks1 numbers of the men were1 owing to
 ,suwarow's impatience1 sacrificed      

before it4 ,on the #bdth of ,september1 
#agii1 he at length climbed the ,st4    
,gothard1 and a bloody engagement1 in   
which the ,french were worsted1 took    
place on the ,oberalpsee4 ,lecourbe blew
 up the ,devil's bridge1 but1 leaving   
the ,urnerloch open1 the ,russians      
pushed through that rocky gorge1 and1   
dashing through the foaming ,reuss1     
scaled the opposite rocks and drove the 
,french from their position behind the  
,devil's bridge4 ,altorf on the lake was
 reached in safety by the ,russian      
general1 who was compelled1 owing to the
 want of boats1 to seek his way through 
the valleys of ,shachen and ,muotta1    
across the almost impassable rocks1 to  
,schwyz4 ,the heavy rains rendered the  
undertaking still more arduous2 the     
,russians1 owing to the badness of the  
road1 speedily became barefoot2 the     
provisions were also exhausted4 ,in this
 wretched state they reached ,muotta on 
the #bith of ,september and learned the 
discouraging news of ,korsakow's defeat4

 ,massena had already set off in the    
hope of cutting off ,suwarow1 but had   
missed his way4 ,he reached ,altorf1    
where he joined ,lecourbe on the #bith1 
when ,suwarow was already at ,muotta1   
whence ,massena found on his arrival he 
had again retired across the            
,bragelberg1 through the ,klonthal4 ,he 
was opposed on the lake of ,klonthal by 
,molitor1 who was1 however1 forced to   
retire by ,auffenberg1 who had joined   
,suwarow at ,altorf and formed his      
advanced guard1 ,rosen1 at the same     
time1 beating off ,massena with the     
rear-guard1 taking five cannons and one 
thousand of his men prisoners4 ,on the  
#ast of ,october1 ,suwarow entered      
,glarus1 where he rested until the #dth1
 when he crossed the ,panixer mountains 
through snow two feet deep to the valley
 of the ,rhine1 which he reached on the 
#ajth1 after losing the whole of his    
beasts of burden and two hundred of his 
men down the precipices2 and here ended 
his extraordinary march1 which had cost 

him the whole of his artillery1 almost  
all his horses1 and a third of his men4 
,the archduke had1 meanwhile1 tarried on
 the ,rhine1 where he had taken         
,philippsburg and ,mannheim1 but had    
been unable to prevent the defeat of the
 ,english expedition under the ,duke of 
,york by ,general ,brune at ,bergen1 on 
the #aith of ,september4 ,the archduke  
now1 for the first time1 made a         
retrograde movement1 and approached     
,korsakow and ,suwarow4 ,the different  
leaders1 however1 merely reproached each
 other1 and the czar1 perceiving his    
project frustrated1 suddenly recalled   
his troops and the campaign came to a   
close4 ,the archduke's rearguard was    
defeated in a succession of petty       
skirmishes at ,heidelberg and on the    
,neckar by the ,french1 who again       
pressed forward4#e ,these disasters were
 counterbalanced by the splendid victory
 gained by ,melas in ,italy1 at         
,savigliano1 over ,championnet1 who     
attempted to save ,genoa4  ,austria was 

no sooner deprived in ,suwarow of the   
most efficient of her allies than she   
was attacked by her most dangerous foe4 
,bonaparte returned from ,egypt4 ,the   
news of the great disasters of the      
,french in ,italy no sooner arrived1    
than he abandoned his army and hastened1
 completely unattended1 to ,france1     
through the midst of the ,english fleet1
 then stationed in the ,mediterranean4  
,his arrival in ,paris was instantly    
followed by his public nomination as    
generalissimo4 ,he alone had the power  
of restoring victory to the standard of 
the republic4 ,the ill success of his   
rivals had greatly increased his        
popularity2 he had become indispensable 
to his countrymen4 ,his power was alone 
obnoxious to the weak government1 which1
 aided by the soldiery1 he dissolved on 
the #ith of ,november 7the #ahth        
,brumaire1 by the modern ,french        
calendar72 he then bestowed a new       
constitution upon ,france and placed    
himself1 under the title of ,first      

,consul1 at the head of the republic4   
,in the following year1 #ahjj1          
,bonaparte made preparations for a fresh
 campaign against ,austria1 under       
circumstances similar to those of the   
first4 ,but this time he was more rapid 
in his movements and performed more     
astonishing feats4 ,suddenly crossing   
the ,st4 ,bernard1 he fell upon the     
,austrian flank4 ,genoa1 garrisoned by  
,massena1 had just been forced by famine
 to capitulate4 ,ten days afterward1 on 
the #adth of ,june1 ,bonaparte gained   
such a decisive victory over ,melas1 the
 ,austrian general1 at ,marengo1#f that 
he and the remainder of his army        
capitulated on the ensuing day4 ,the    
whole of ,italy fell once more into the 
hands of the ,french4 ,moreau had1 at   
the same time1 invaded ,germany and     
defeated the ,austrians under ,kray in  
several engagements1 principally at     
,stockach and ,moskirch1#g and again at 
,biberach and ,hochstadt1 laid ,swabia  
and ,bavaria under contribution1 and    

taken ,ratisbon1 the seat of the diet4  
,an armistice1 negotiated by ,kray1 was 
not recognized by the emperor1 and he   
was replaced in his command by the      
,archduke ,john 7not ,charles71 who was1
 on the #c;d of ,december1 totally      
routed by ,moreau's manoeuvres during a 
violent snowstorm1 at ,hohenlinden4 ,a  
second ,austrian army1 despatched into  
,italy1 was also defeated by ,brune on  
the ,mincio4 ,these disasters once more 
inclined ,austria to peace1 which was   
concluded at ,luneville1 on the #ith of 
,february1 #ahja4 ,the ,archduke        
,charles seized this opportunity to     
propose the most beneficial reforms in  
the war administration1 but was again   
treated with contempt4 ,in the ensuing  
year1 #ahjb1 ,england also concluded    
peace at ,amiens4  ,the whole of the    
left bank of the ,rhine was1 on this    
occasion1 ceded to the ,french republic4
 ,the petty republics1 formerly         
established by ,france in ,italy1       
,switzerland1 and ,holland1 were also   

renewed and were recognized by the      
allied powers4 ,the ,cisalpine republic 
was enlarged by the possessions of the  
grandduke of ,tuscany and of the duke of
 ,modena1 to whom compensation in       
,germany was guaranteed4 ,suwarow's     
victories had1 in the autumn of #agii1  
rendered a conclave1 on the death of the
 captive pope1 ,pius ,,vi41 in ,france1 
possible1 for the purpose of electing   
his successor1 ,pius ,,vii41 who was    
acknowledged as such by ,bonaparte1     
whose favor he purchased by expressing  
his approbation of the seizure of the   
property of the church during the       
,french ,revolution1 and by declaring   
his readiness to agree to the           
secularization of church property1      
already determined upon1 in ,germany4   
,the ,helvetian ,directory fell1 like   
that of ,france1 and was replaced by an 
administrative council1 composed of     
seven members1 in #ahjj4 ,the upholders 
of ancient cantonal liberty1 now known  
under the denomination of ,federalists1 

gained the upper hand1 and ,aloys       
,reding1 who had1 shortly before1 been  
denounced as a rebel1 became ,landammann
 of ,switzerland4 ,bonaparte even       
invited him to ,paris in order to settle
 with him the future fate of            
,switzerland4 ,reding1 however1 showing 
an unexpected degree of firmness1 and1  
unmoved by either promises or threats1  
obstinately refusing to permit the      
annexation of ,valais to ,france1       
,bonaparte withdrew his support and     
again favored the ,helvetlers4 ,dolder  
and ,savari1 who had long been the      
creatures of ,france1 failing in their  
election1 were seated by ,verninac1 the 
,french ambassador1 in the senate of the
 ,helvetian republic1 and ,reding1 who  
was at that moment absent1 was divested 
of his office as ,landammann4 ,reding   
protested against this arbitrary conduct
 and convoked a federal diet to ,schwyz4
  ,andermatt1 general of the ,helvetian 
republic1 attempted to seize ,zurich1   
which had joined the federalists1 but   

was compelled to withdraw1 covered with 
disgrace4 ,an army of federalists under 
,general ,bachmann repulsed the         
,helvetlers in every direction and drove
 them1 together with the ,french envoys1
 across the frontier4 ,bonaparte1 upon  
this1 sent a body of thirty to forty    
thousand men1 under ,ney1 into          
,switzerland1 which met with no         
opposition1 the federalists being       
desirous of avoiding useless bloodshed  
and being already acquainted with       
,bonaparte's secret projects4 ,he would 
not tolerate opposition on their part1  
like that of ,reding3 he had resolved   
upon getting possession of ,valais at   
any price1 on account of the road across
 the ,simplon1 so important to him as   
affording the nearest communication     
between ,paris and ,milan3 in all other 
points1 he perfectly coincided with the 
federalists and was willing to grant its
 ancient independence to every canton in
 ,switzerland1 where disunion and petty 
feuds placed the country the more       

securely in his hands4 ,with feigned    
commiseration for the ineptitude of the 
,swiss to settle their own disputes1 he 
invited deputies belonging to the       
various factions and cantons to ,paris1 
lectured them like schoolboys1 and      
compelled them by the ,act of           
,mediation1 under his intervention1 to  
give a new constitution to ,switzerland4
 ,valais was annexed to ,france in      
exchange for the ,austrian ,frickthal4  
,nineteen cantons were created4#h ,each 
canton again administered its internal  
affairs4 ,bonaparte was never weary of  
painting the happy lot of petty states  
and the delights of petty citizenship4  
,but ye are too weak1 too helpless1 to  
defend yourselves2 cast yourselves      
therefore into the arms of ,france1     
ready to protect you while1 free from   
taxation1 and from the burdensome       
maintenance of an army1 ye dwell free   
and independent in your native vales4   
,the ,swiss1 although no longer to have 
a national army1 were1 nevertheless1    

compelled to furnish a contingent of    
eighteen thousand men to that of        
,france1 and1 while deluded by the idea 
of their freedom from taxation1 the     
fifteen millions of ,french bons given  
in exchange for the numerous ,swiss     
loans were cashiered by ,bonaparte1     
under pretext of the ,swiss having been 
already sufficiently paid by their      
deliverance from their enemies by the   
,french4#i ,the real ,swiss patriots    
implored the ,german powers to protect  
their country1 the bulwark of ,germany  
against ,france2 but ,austria was too   
much weakened by her own losses1 and    
,prussia handed the letters addressed to
 her from ,switzerland over to the      
,first ,consul4  ,the melancholy        
business1 commenced by the empire at the
 congress of ,rastadt1 and which had    
been broken off by the outbreak of war1 
had now to be recommenced4 ,fresh       
compensations had been rendered         
necessary by the robberies committed    
upon the ,italian princes4 ,the church  

property no longer sufficed to satisfy  
all demands1 and fresh seizures had     
become requisite4 ,a committee of the   
diet was intrusted with the settlement  
of the question of compensation1 which  
was decided on the #beth of ,february1  
#ahjc1 by a decree of the imperial diet4
 ,all the great powers of ,germany had  
not suffered2 all had not1 consequently1
 a right to demand compensation1 but1 in
 order to appease their jealousy1 all   
were to receive a portion of the booty4 
,the three spiritual electorates1       
,mayence1 ,treves1 and ,cologne1 were   
abolished1 their position on the other  
side of the ,rhine including them within
 the ,french territory4 ,the archbishop 
of ,mayence alone retained his dignity1 
and was transferred to ,ratisbon4 ,the  
whole of the imperial free cities were  
moreover deprived of their privileges1  
six alone excepted1 ,lubeck1            
,hamburg1#aj ,bremen1 ,frankfort1       
,augsburg1 and ,nuremberg4 ,the         
unsecularized bishoprics and abbeys were

 abolished4 ,the petty princes1 counts  
and barons1 and the ,teutonic order1    
were still allowed to exist1 in order   
ere long to be included in the general  
ruin4  ,prussia retained the bishoprics 
of ,hildesheim and ,paderborn1 a part of
 ,munster1 numerous abbeys and imperial 
free towns in ,westphalia and           
,thuringia1 more particularly ,erfurt4  
,bavaria had ever suffered on the       
conclusion of peace between ,france and 
,austria2 in #agig1 she had ceded the   
,rhenish ,pfalz to ,france and a        
province on the ,inn to ,austria2 by the
 treaty of ,luneville she had been1     
moreover1 compelled to raze the fortress
 of ,ingolstadt4#aa ,the inclination for
 ,french innovations displayed by the   
reigning duke1 ,maximilian ,joseph1 who 
surrounded himself with the old         
,illuminati1 caused her1 on this        
occasion1 by ,bonaparte's aid1 to be    
richly compensated by the annexation of 
the bishoprics of ,bamberg1 ,wurzburg1  
,augsburg1 and ,freisingen1 with several

 small towns1 etc42 all the monasteries 
were abolished4 ,bavaria had formerly   
supported the institutions of the       
ancient church of ,rome more firmly than
 ,austria1 where reforms had already    
been begun in the church by ,joseph     
,,ii4 ,hanover received ,osnabruck2     
,baden1 the portion of the ,pfalz on    
this side the ,rhine1 the greatest part 
of the bishoprics of ,constance1 ,basel1
 ,strasburg1 and ,spires1 also on this  
side the ,rhine2 ,wurtemberg1 both      
,hesses 7,cassel and ,darmstadt72 and   
,nassau1 all the lands in the vicinity  
formerly belonging to the bishopric of  
,mayence1 to imperial free towns and    
petty lordships4 ,ferdinand1 grandduke  
of ,tuscany1 younger brother to the     
emperor ,francis ,,ii41 was compelled to
 relinquish his hereditary possessions  
in ,italy1#ab and received in exchange  
,salzburg1 ,eichstdt1 and ,passau4      
,ferdinand1 duke of ,modena1 uncle to   
the emperor ,francis ,,ii4 and younger  
brother to the emperors ,leopold ,,ii4  

and ,joseph ,,ii41 also resigned his    
duchy1#ac for which he received the     
,breisgau in exchange4 ,william ,v41    
hereditary stadtholder of ,holland1 who 
had been expelled his states1 also      
received1 on this occasion1 in          
compensation for his son of like name   
7he was himself already far advanced in 
years71 the rich abbey of ,fulda1 which 
was created the principality of         
,orange-,fulda4#ad ,the electoral       
dignity was at the same time bestowed   
upon the ,archduke ,ferdinand1 the      
,landgrave of ,hesse-,cassel1 the duke  
of ,wurtemberg1 and the ,margrave of    
,baden4  ,submission1 although painful1 
produced no opposition4 ,the power of   
the imperial free cities had long passed
 away1#ae and the spiritual princes no  
longer wielded the sword4 ,the manner in
 which the officers of the princes took 
possession1 the insolence with which    
they treated the subject people1 the    
fraud and embezzlement that were openly 
practiced1 are merely excusable on      

account of the fact that ,germany was1  
notwithstanding the peace1 still in a   
state of war4 ,the decree of the        
imperial diet can scarcely be regarded  
as the ignominious close of a good old  
time1 but rather as a violent but       
beneficial incisure in an old and       
rankling sore4 ,with the petty states1 a
 mass of vanity and pedantry disappeared
 on the one side1 pusillanimity and     
servility on the other2 the ideas of the
 subjects of a large state have         
naturally a wider range2 the            
monasteries1 those dens of superstition1
 the petty princely residences1 those   
hotbeds of ,french vice and degeneracy1 
the imperial free towns1 those abodes of
 petty burgher prejudice1 no longer     
existed4 ,the extension of the limits of
 the states rendered the gradual        
introduction of a better administration1
 the laying of roads1 the foundation of 
public institutions of every            
description1 and social improvement1    
possible4 ,the example of ,france1 the  

ever-renewed warfare1 and the           
conscriptions1 created1 moreover1 a     
martial spirit among the people1 which1 
although far removed from patriotism1   
might still1 when compared with the     
spirit formerly pervading the imperial  
army1 be regarded as a first step from  
effeminacy1 cowardice1 and sloth1 toward
 true1 unflinching1 manly courage4      
,footnote #a3 ,scenes during the ,war of
 ,liberation4  ,footnote #b3 ,jourdan   
might easily have been annihilated      
during his retreat by the imperial      
cavalry1 twenty-seven thousand strong1  
had his strength and position been      
better known to his pursuers4  ,footnote
 #c3 ,scenes during the ,war of         
,liberation4  ,footnote #d3 ,the        
celebrated ,lavater was1 on this        
occasion1 mortally wounded by a ,french 
soldier4 ,the people of ,zurich were    
heavily mulcted by ,massena for having  
aided the ,austrians to the utmost in   
their power4 ,zschokke1 who was at that 
time in the pay of ,france1 wrote       

against the ,imperialism of the ,swiss4 
,vide ,haller and ,landolt's ,life by   
,hess4  ,footnote #e3 ,concerning the   
wretched provision for the ,austrian    
army1 the embezzlement of the supplies1 
the bad management of the magazines and 
hospitals1 see ,representation of the   
,causes of the ,disasters suffered by   
the ,austrians1 etc4 #ahjb4  ,footnote  
#f3 ,the contest lasted the whole day3  
the ,french already gave way on every   
side1 when ,desaix led the ,french      
centre with such fury to the charge that
 the ,austrians1 surprised by the       
suddenness of the movement1 were driven 
back and thrown into confusion1 and the 
,french1 rallying at that moment1 made  
another furious onset and tore the      
victory from their grasp4  ,footnote #g3
 ,the impregnable fortress of           
,hohentwiel1 formerly so gallantly      
defended by ,widerhold1 was surrendered 
without a blow by the cowardly          
commandant1 ,bilfinger4 ,rotenburg on   
the ,tauber1 on the contrary1 wiped off 

the disgrace with which she had covered 
herself during the thirty years' war4 ,a
 small ,french skirmishing party        
demanded a contribution from this city2 
the council yielded1 but the citizens   
drove off the enemy with pitchforks4    
,footnote #h3 ,the ancient ones1 ,berne1
 ,zurich1 ,basel1 ,solothurn1 ,freiburg1
 ,lucerne1 ,schaffhausen2 the           
re-established ones1 ,uri1 ,schwyz1     
,unterwalden1 ,zug1 ,glarus1 ,appenzell1
 ,st4 ,gall 7instead of ,waldsttten1    
,linth1 and ,sntis71 ,valais 7instead of
 ,leman71 ,aargau1 ,constance1 ,grisons1
 ,tessin 7instead of ,lugano and        
,bellinzona74 ,the ,bernese ,oberland   
again fell to ,berne4 ,the ambassador1  
attempting to preserve its independence1
 was asked by ,napoleon3 ,where do you  
take your cattle1 your cheese1 etc48    
,berne1 was the reply4 ,whence do you   
get your grain1 cloth1 iron1 etc48 ,de  
,berne4 ,well1 continued ,napoleon1 de  
,berne1  ,berne1 you consequently belong
 to ,berne4--,the ,bernese were highly  

delighted at the restoration of their   
independence1 and the re-erection of the
 ancient arms of ,berne became a joyous 
fte4 ,a gigantic black bear that was    
painted on the broad walls of the castle
 of ,trachselwald was visible far down  
the valley4  ,footnote #i3 ,murald1 in  
his life of ,reinhard1 records an       
instance of shameless fraud1 the attempt
 made during a farewell banquet at      
,paris to cozen the ,swiss deputies out 
of a million4 ,after plying them well   
with wine1 an altered document was      
offered them for signature2 ,reinhard1  
the only one who perceived the fraud1   
frustrated the scheme4  ,footnote #aj3  
,hamburg was1 however1 compelled to pay 
to the ,french #a1gjj1jjj marcs banco1  
and to allow ,rumbold1 the ,english     
agent1 to be arrested by them within the
 city walls4  ,footnote #aa3 ,the       
university had been removed1 in #ahjj1  
to ,landshut4  ,footnote #ab3 ,bonaparte
 transformed them into a kingdom of     
,etruria1 which he bestowed upon a      

,spanish prince1 ,louis of ,parma1 who  
shortly afterward died and his kingdom  
was annexed to ,france4  ,footnote #ac3 
,he was son-in-law to ,hercules1 the    
last duke of ,modena1 who still lived1  
but had resigned his claims in his      
favor4 ,this duke expired in #ahje4     
,footnote #ad3 ,which he speedily lost  
by rejoining ,napoleon's adversaries4   
,adalbert von ,harstall1 the last       
princely abbot of ,fulda1 was an        
extremely noble character2 he is almost 
the only one among the princes who      
remained firmly by his subjects when all
 the rest fled and abandoned theirs to  
the ,french4 ,after the edict of        
secularization he remained firmly at his
 post until compelled to resign it by   
the ,prussian soldiery4  ,footnote #ae3 
,the citizens of ,esalingen were shortly
 before at law with their magistrate on 
account of his nepotism and tyranny     
without being able to get a decision    
from the supreme court of judicature4-- 
,quedlinburg had also not long before   

sent envoys to ,vienna with heavy       
complaints of the insolence of the      
magistrate1 and the envoys had been sent
 home without a reply being vouchsafed  
and were threatened with the house of   
correction in case they ventured to     
return4 ,vide ,hess's ,flight through   
,germany1 #agic4--,wimpfen also carried 
on a suit against its magistrate4 ,in   
#aghd1 imperial decrees were issued     
against the aristocracy of ,ulm4 ,in    
#aghf1 the people of ,aix-la-,chapelle  
rose against their magistrate4          
,nuremberg repeatedly demanded the      
production of the public accounts from  
the aristocratic town-council4 ,the     
people of ,hildesheim also revolted     
against their council4 ,vide ,schlzer1  
,state ,archives4    ,,ccliii4 ,fall of 
the ,holy ,roman-,germanic ,empire   ,a 
great change had1 meanwhile1 taken place
 in ,france4 ,the republic existed      
merely in name4 ,the first consul1      
,bonaparte1 already possessed regal     
power4 ,the world beheld with           

astonishment a nation that had so lately
 and so virulently persecuted royalty1  
so dearly bought and so strictly        
enforced its boasted liberty1 suddenly  
forget its triumph and restore monarchy4
 ,liberty had ceased to be in vogue1 and
 had yielded to a general desire for the
 acquisition of fame4 ,the equality     
enforced by liberty was offensive to    
individual vanity1 and the love of gain 
and luxury opposed republican poverty4  
,fame and wealth were alone to be       
procured by war and conquest4 ,france   
was to be enriched by the plunder of her
 neighbors4 ,bonaparte1 moreover1       
promoted the prosperity and dignity of  
the country by the establishment of     
manufactures1 public institutions1 and  
excellent laws4 ,the awe with which he  
inspired his subjects insured their     
obedience2 he was universally feared and
 reverenced4 ,in whatever age this      
extraordinary man had lived1 he must    
have taken the lead and have reduced    
nations to submission4 ,even his        

adversaries1 even those he most deeply  
injured1 owned his influence4 ,his      
presence converted the wisdom of the    
statesman1 the knowledge of the most    
experienced general1 into folly and     
ignorance2 the bravest armies fled      
panic-struck before his eagles2 the     
proudest sovereigns of ,europe bowed    
their crowned heads before the little   
hat of the ,corsican4 ,he was long      
regarded as a new savior1 sent to impart
 happiness to his people1 and1 as though
 by magic1 bent the blind and pliant    
mass to his will4 ,but philanthropy1    
,christian wisdom1 the virtues of the   
,prince of peace1 were not his4 ,if he  
bestowed excellent laws upon his people1
 it was merely with the view of         
increasing the power of the state for   
military purposes4 ,he was ever         
possessed and tormented by the demon of 
war4  ,on the #ahth of ,may1 #ahjd1     
,bonaparte abolished the ,french        
republic and was elected hereditary     
emperor of ,france4 ,on the #b;d of     

,december1 he was solemnly anointed and 
crowned by the pope1 ,pius ,,vii41 who  
visited ,paris for that purpose4 ,the   
ceremonies used at the coronation of    
,charlemagne were revived on this       
occasion4 ,on the #aeth of ,march1      
#ahje1 he abolished the ,ligurian and   
,cisalpine republics1 and set the       
ancient iron crown of ,lombardy on his  
head1 with his own hand1 as king of     
,italy4 ,he made a distinction between  
la ,france and l'empire1 the latter of  
which was1 by conquest1 to be gradually 
extended over the whole of ,europe1 and 
to be raised by him above that of       
,germany1 in the same manner that the   
western ,roman-,germanic empire had     
formerly been raised by ,charlemagne    
above the eastern ,byzantine one4  ,the 
erection of ,france into an empire was  
viewed with distrust by ,austria1 whose 
displeasure had been1 moreover1 roused  
by the arbitrary conduct of ,napoleon in
 ,italy4 ,fresh disputes had also arisen
 between him and ,england2 he had       

occupied the whole of ,hanover1 which   
,wallmoden's#a army had been powerless  
to defend1 with his troops1 and violated
 the ,baden territory by the seizure of 
the unfortunate ,duc d',enghien1 a      
prince of the house of ,bourbon1 who was
 carried into ,france and there shot4   
,prussia offered no interference1 in the
 hope of receiving ,hanover in reward   
for her neutrality4#b ,austria1 on her  
part1 formed a third coalition with     
,england1 ,russia1 and ,sweden4#c       
,austria acted1 undeniably1 on this     
occasion1 with impolitic haste2 she     
ought rather to have waited until       
,prussia and public opinion throughout  
,germany had been ranged on her side1 as
 sooner or later must have been the     
case1 by the brutal encroachments of    
,napoleon4 ,austria1 unaided by         
,prussia1 could scarcely dream of       
success4#d ,but ,england1 at that time  
fearful of ,napoleon's landing on her   
coast1 lavished her all-persuasive gold4
  ,the ,archduke ,ferdinand was placed  

at the head of the ,austrian troops in  
,germany2 the ,archduke ,charles1 of    
those in ,italy4 ,ferdinand commanded   
the main body and was guided by ,mack1  
who1 without awaiting the arrival of the
 ,russians1 advanced as far as ,ulm1    
pushed a corps1 under ,jellachich1      
forward to ,lindau1 and left the whole  
of his right flank exposed4 ,he1        
nevertheless1 looked upon ,napoleon's   
defeat and the invasion of ,france by   
his troops as close at hand4 ,he was in 
ill-health and highly irritable4        
,napoleon1 in order to move with greater
 celerity1 sent a part of his troops by 
carriage through ,strasburg1 declared to
 the ,margrave of ,baden1 the duke of   
,wurtemberg1 and the elector of         
,bavaria1 his intention not to recognize
 them as neutral powers1 that they must 
be either against him or with him1 and  
made them such brilliant promises 7they 
were1 moreover1 actuated by distrust of 
,austria71 that they ranged themselves  
on his side4 ,napoleon instantly sent   

orders to ,general ,bernadotte1 who was 
at that time stationed in ,hanover1 to  
cross the neutral ,prussian territory of
 ,anspach1#e without demanding the      
permission of ,prussia1 to ,mack's rear1
 in order to form a junction with the   
,bavarian troops4 ,other corps were at  
the same time directed by circuitous    
routes upon the flanks of the ,austrian 
army1 which was attacked at ,memmingen  
by ,soult1 and was cut off to the north 
by ,ney1 who carried the bridge of      
,elchingen#f by storm4 ,mack had drawn  
his troops together1 but had1           
notwithstanding the entreaties of his   
generals1 refused to attack the separate
 ,french corps before they could unite  
and surround him4 ,the ,archduke        
,ferdinand alone succeeded in fighting  
his way with a part of the cavalry      
through the enemy4#g ,mack lost his     
senses and capitulated on the #agth of  
,october1 #ahje4 ,with him fell sixty   
thousand ,austrians1 the elite of the   
army1 into the hands of the enemy4      

,napoleon could scarcely spare a        
sufficient number of men to escort this 
enormous crowd of prisoners to ,france4 
,wernek's corps1 which had already been 
cut off1 was also compelled to yield    
itself prisoner at ,trochtelfingen1 not 
far from ,heidenheim4  ,napoleon1 while 
following up his success with his       
customary rapidity and advancing with   
his main body straight upon ,vienna1    
despatched ,ney into the ,tyrol1 where  
the peasantry1 headed by the ,archduke  
,john1 made a heroic defence4 ,the      
advanced guard of the ,french1 composed 
of the ,bavarians under ,deroy1 were    
defeated at the ,strub pass1 but1       
notwithstanding this disaster1 ,ney     
carried the ,schaarnitz by storm and    
reached ,innsbruck4 ,the ,archduke ,john
 was compelled to retire into ,carinthia
 in order to form a junction with his   
brother ,charles1 who1 after beating    
,massena at ,caldiero1 had been         
necessitated by ,mack's defeat to hasten
 from ,italy for the purpose of covering

 ,austria4 ,two corps1 left in the hurry
 of retreat too far westward1 were cut  
off and taken prisoner1 that under      
,prince ,rohan at ,castellfranco1 after 
having found its way from ,meran into   
the ,venetian territory1 and that under 
,jellachich on the ,lake of ,constance2 
,kinsky's and ,wartenleben's cavalry    
threw themselves boldly into ,swabia and
 ,franconia1 seized the couriers and    
convoys to the ,french rear1 and escaped
 unhurt to ,bohemia4  ,davoust had1 in  
the meanwhile1 invaded ,styria and      
defeated a corps under ,meerveldt at    
,mariazell4 ,in ,november1 ,napoleon had
 reached ,vienna1 neither ,linz nor any 
other point having been fortified by the
 ,austrians4 ,the great ,russian army   
under ,kutusow appeared at this         
conjuncture in ,moravia4 ,the czar1     
,alexander ,i41 accompanied it in       
person1 and the emperor1 ,francis ,,ii41
 joined him with his remaining forces4  
,a bloody engagement took place between 
,kutusow and the ,french at ,durrenstein

 on the ,danube1 but1 on the loss of    
,vienna1 the ,russians retired to       
,moravia4 ,the sovereigns of ,austria   
and ,russia loudly called upon ,prussia 
to renounce her alliance with ,france1  
and1 in this decisive moment1 to aid in 
the annihilation of a foe1 for whose    
false friendship she would one day      
dearly pay4 ,the violation of the       
,prussian territory by ,bernadotte had  
furnished the ,prussian king with a     
pretext for suddenly declaring against  
,napoleon4 ,the ,prussian army was also 
in full force4 ,the ,british and the    
,hanoverian legion had landed at ,bremen
 and twenty thousand ,russians on       
,rugen2 ten thousand ,swedes entered    
,hanover2 electoral ,hesse was also     
ready for action4 ,the king of ,prussia1
 nevertheless1 merely confined himself  
to threats1 in the hope of selling his  
neutrality to ,napoleon for ,hanover1   
and deceived the coalition4#h ,the      
emperor ,alexander visited ,berlin in   
person for the purpose of rousing       

,prussia to war1 but had no sooner      
returned to ,austria in order to rejoin 
his army than ,count ,haugwitz1 the     
,prussian minister1 was despatched to   
,napoleon's camp with express           
instructions not to declare war4 ,the   
famous battle1 in which the three       
emperors of ,christendom were present1  
took place1 meanwhile1 at ,austerlitz1  
not far from ,brunn1 on the #b;d of     
,december1 #ahje1 and terminated in one 
of ,napoleon's most glorious            
victories4#i ,this battle decided the   
policy of ,prussia1 and ,haugwitz       
confirmed her alliance with ,france by a
 treaty1 by which ,prussia ceded        
,cleves1 ,anspach1 and ,neufchtel to    
,france in exchange for ,hanover4#aj    
,this treaty was published with a       
precipitation equalling that with which 
it had been concluded1 and seven hundred
 ,prussian vessels1 whose captains were 
ignorant of the event1 were seized by   
the enraged ,english either in ,british 
harbors or on the sea4 ,the peace       

concluded by ,austria1 on the #bfth of  
,december1 at ,presburg1 was purchased  
by her at an enormous sacrifice4        
,napoleon had1 in the opening of the    
campaign1 when pressing onward toward   
,austria1 compelled ,charles ,frederick1
 elector of ,baden1#aa ,frederick1      
elector of ,wurtemberg1 and ,maximilian 
,joseph1 elector of ,bavaria 7in whose  
mind the memory of the assassination of 
the ambassadors at ,rastadt1 the loss of
 ,wasserburg1 the demolition of         
,ingolstadt1 etc41 still rankled71 to   
enter into his alliance2 to which they  
remained zealously true on account of   
the immense private advantages thereby  
gained by them1 and of the dread of     
being deprived by the haughty victor of 
the whole of their possessions on the   
first symptom of opposition on their    
part4 ,napoleon1 with a view of binding 
them still more closely to his interests
 by motives of gratitude1 gave them on  
the present occasion an ample share in  
the booty4 ,bavaria was erected into a  

kingdom1#ab and received1 from ,prussia1
 ,anspach and ,baireuth2 from ,austria1 
the whole of the ,tyrol1 ,vorarlberg and
 ,lindau1 the ,margraviate of ,burgau1  
the dioceses of ,passau1 ,eichstdt1     
,trent1 and ,brixen1 besides several    
petty lordships4 ,wurtemberg was raised 
to a monarchy and enriched with the     
bordering ,austrian lordships in        
,swabia4 ,baden was rewarded with the   
,breisgau1 the ,ortenau1 ,constance1 and
 the title of grandduke4 ,venice was    
included by ,napoleon in his kingdom of 
,italy1 and1 for all these losses1      
,austria was merely indemnified by the  
possession of ,salzburg4 ,ferdinand1    
elector of ,salzburg1 the former        
grandduke of ,tuscany1 was transferred  
to ,wurzburg4 ,ferdinand of ,modena lost
 the whole of his possessions4  ,the    
imperial crown1 so well maintained by   
,napoleon1 now shone with redoubled     
lustre4 ,the petty republics and the    
provinces dependent upon the ,french    
empire were erected into kingdoms and   

principalities and bestowed upon his    
relatives and favorites4 ,his brother   
,joseph was created king of ,naples2 his
 brother ,louis1 king of ,holland2 his  
stepson ,eugene ,beauharnais1 viceroy of
 ,italy2 his brother-in-law ,murat1     
formerly a common horse-soldier1 now his
 best general of cavalry1 grandduke of  
,berg2 his first adjutant1 ,berthier1   
prince of ,neufchtel2 his uncle1        
,cardinal ,fesch1 was nominated         
successor to the elector of ,mayence1   
then resident at ,ratisbon4 ,in order to
 remove the stigma attached to him as a 
parvenu1 ,napoleon also began to form   
matrimonial alliances between his family
 and the most ancient houses of ,europe4
 ,his handsome stepson1 ,eugene1 married
 the ,princess ,augusta1 daughter to the
 king of ,bavaria2 his brother ,jerome1 
,catherine1 daughter to the king of     
,wurtemberg2 and his niece1 ,stephanie1 
,charles1 hereditary prince of ,baden4  
,all the new princes were vassals of the
 emperor ,napoleon1 and1 by a family    

decree1 subject to his supremacy4 ,all  
belonged to the great empire4           
,switzerland was also included1 and but 
one step more was wanting to complete   
the incorporation of half the ,german   
empire with that of ,france4  ,on the   
#abth of ,july1 #ahjf1 sixteen princes  
of ,western ,germany concluded1 under   
,napoleon's direction1 a treaty1        
according to which they separated       
themselves from the ,german empire and  
founded the so-called ,rhenish          
,alliance1 which it was their intention 
to render subject to the supremacy of   
the emperor of the ,french4#ac ,on the  
#ast of ,august1 ,napoleon declared that
 he no longer recognized the empire of  
,germany6 ,no one ventured to oppose his
 omnipotent voice4 ,on the #fth of      
,august1 #ahjf1 the emperor1 ,francis   
,,ii41 abdicated the imperial crown of  
,germany and announced the dissolution  
of the empire in a touching address1    
full of calm dignity and sorrow4 ,the   
last of the ,german emperors had shown  

himself1 throughout the contest1 worthy 
of his great ancestors1 and had1 almost 
alone1 sacrificed all in order to       
preserve the honor of ,germany1 until1  
abandoned by the greater part of the    
,german princes1 he was compelled to    
yield to a power superior to his4 ,the  
fall of the empire that had stood the   
storms of a thousand years1 was1        
however1 not without dignity4 ,a meaner 
hand might have levelled the decayed    
fabric with the dust1 but fate1 that    
seemed to honor even the faded majesty  
of the ancient ,caesars1 selected       
,napoleon as the executioner of her     
decrees4 ,the standard of ,charlemagne1 
the greatest hero of the first          
,christian age1 was to be profaned by no
 hand save that of the greatest hero of 
modern times4  ,ancient names1 long     
venerated1 now disappeared4 ,the holy   
,roman-,german emperor was converted    
into an emperor of ,austria1 the        
electors into kings or granddukes1 all  
of whom enjoyed unlimited sovereign     

power and were free from subjection to  
the supremacy of the emperor4 ,every    
bond of union was dissolved with the    
diet of the empire and with the imperial
 chamber4 ,the barons and counts of the 
empire and the petty princes were       
mediatized2 the princes of ,hohenlohe1  
,oettingen1 ,schwarzenberg1 ,thurn and  
,taxis1 the ,truchsess von ,waldburg1   
,furstenberg1 ,fugger1 ,leiningen1      
,lowenstein1 ,solms1 ,hesse-,homburg1   
,wied-,runkel1 and ,orange-,fulda became
 subject to the neighboring ,rhenish    
confederated princes4 ,of the remaining 
six imperial free cities1 ,augsburg and 
,nuremberg fell to ,bavaria2 ,frankfort1
 under the title of grandduchy1 to the  
ancient elector of ,mayence1 who was    
again transferred thither from          
,ratisbon4 ,the ancient ,hanse towns1   
,hamburg1 ,lubeck and ,bremen1 alone    
retained their freedom4  ,the ,rhenish  
confederation now began its wretched    
existence4 ,it was established on the   
basis of the ,helvetian republic4 ,the  

sixteen confederated princes were to be 
completely independent and to exercise  
sovereign power over the internal       
affairs of their states1 like the ,swiss
 cantons1 but were1 in all foreign      
affairs1 dependent upon ,napoleon as    
their protector4#ad ,the whole ,rhenish 
confederation became a part of the      
,french empire4 ,the federal assembly   
was to sit at ,frankfort1 and ,dalberg1 
the former elector of ,mayence1 now     
grandduke of ,frankfort1 was nominated  
by ,napoleon1 under the title of ,prince
 ,primate1 president4 ,napoleon's uncle1
 and afterward his stepson1 ,eugene     
,beauharnais1 were his destined         
successors1 by which means the control  
was placed entirely in the hands of     
,france4 ,to this confederation there   
belonged two kings1 those of ,bavaria   
and ,wurtemberg1 five granddukes1 those 
of ,frankfort1 ,wurzburg1 ,baden1       
,darmstadt1 and ,berg1 and ten princes1 
two of ,nassau1 two of ,hohenzollern1   
two of ,salm1 besides those of          

,aremberg1 ,isenburg1 ,lichtenstein and 
,leyen4 ,every trace of the ancient free
 constitution of ,germany1 her          
provincial ,estates1 was studiously     
annihilated4 ,the ,wurtemberg ,estates1 
with a spirit worthy of their ancient   
fame1 alone made an energetic protest1  
by which they merely succeeded in saving
 their honor1 the king1 ,frederick1     
dissolving them by force and closing    
their chamber4#ae ,an absolute1 despotic
 form of government1 similar to that    
existing in ,france under ,napoleon1 was
 established in all the confederated    
states4 ,the murder of the unfortunate  
bookseller1 ,palm of ,nuremberg1 who    
was1 on the #beth of ,august1 #ahjf1    
shot by ,napoleon's order1 at ,braunau1 
for nobly refusing to give up the author
 of a patriotic work published by him1  
directed against the rule of ,france1   
and entitled1 ,germany in her deepest   
,degradation1 furnished convincing      
proof1 were any wanting1 of ,napoleon's 
supremacy4   ,footnote #a3 ,he          

capitulated at ,suhlingen on honorable  
terms1 but was deceived by ,mortier1 the
 ,french general1 and ,napoleon took    
advantage of a clause not to recognize  
all the terms of capitulation4 ,the     
,hanoverian troops1 whom it was intended
 to force to an unconditional surrender 
to the ,french1 sailed secretly and in  
separate divisions to ,england1 where   
they were formed into the ,german       
,legion4  ,footnote #b3 ,england offered
 the ,netherlands instead of ,hanover to
 ,prussia2 to this ,russia1 however1    
refused to accede4 ,prussia listened to 
both sides1 and acted with such         
duplicity that ,austria was led1 by the 
false hope of being seconded by her1 to 
a too early declaration of war4--,scenes
 during the ,war of liberation4         
,footnote #c3 ,gustavus ,adolphus ,,iv4 
of ,sweden1 who had wedded a princess of
 ,baden1 was at ,carlsruhe at the very  
moment that the ,duc d',enghien was     
seized as it were before his eyes4 ,this
 circumstance and the ridicule heaped   

upon him by ,napoleon1 who mockingly    
termed him the ,quixote of the ,north1  
roused his bitter hatred4  ,footnote #d3
 ,bulow wrote in his remarkable         
criticism upon this war3 ,the hot       
coalition party--that of the ladies--of 
the empress and the queen of            
,naples--removed ,prince ,charles from  
the army and called ,mack from oblivion 
to daylight2 ,mack1 whose name in the   
books of the prophets in the ,hebrew    
tongue signifies defeat4  ,footnote #e3 
,napoleon gained almost all his         
victories either by skilfully separating
 his opponents and defeating them singly
 with forces vastly superior in number1 
or by creeping round the concentrated   
forces of the enemy and placing them    
between two fires4  ,footnote #f3 ,ney  
was1 for this action1 created ,duke of  
,elchingen4  ,footnote #g3 ,klein1 the  
,french general1 also a ,german1 allowed
 himself to be kept in conversation by  
,prince1 afterward field-marshal        
,schwarzenberg1 who had been sent to    

negotiate terms with him1 until the     
,austrians had reached a place of       
safety4--,prokesch4 ,schwarzeriberg's   
,memorabilia4  ,footnote #h3 ,prussia   
made use of the offers made by ,england 
7and ,russia7 to stipulate terms with   
,france exactly subversive of the object
 of the negotiations of ,england 7and   
,russia74--,the ,manifest of ,england   
against ,prussia4 ,attgemeine ,zeitung1 
,no4 #acb4  ,footnote #i3 ,on the #dth  
of ,december1 ,napoleon met the emperor 
,francis in the open street in the      
village of ,nahedlowitz4 ,that the      
impression made by the former upon the  
latter was far from favorable is proved 
by the emperor's observation1 ,now that 
,i have seen him1 ,i shall never be able
 to endure him6 ,on the #eth of         
,december1 the ,bavarians under ,wrede  
were signally defeated at ,iglau by the 
,archduke ,ferdinand4  ,footnote #aj3   
,after the commission of such numerous  
mistakes1 ,i must nevertheless praise   
the minister1 ,von ,haugwitz1 for       

having1 in the first place1 evaded a war
 unskilfully managed1 and1 in the       
second1 for having annexed ,hanover to  
,prussia1 although its possession1 it   
must be confessed1 is somewhat          
precarious4 ,here1 however1 ,i hear it  
said that the commission of a robbery at
 another's suggestion is1 in the first  
place1 the deepest of degradations1 and1
 in the second place1 unparalleled in   
history4--,von ,bulow1 ,the ,campaign of
 #ahje4 ,it has been asserted that      
,haugwitz had1 prior to the battle of   
,austerlitz1 been instructed to declare 
war against ,napoleon in case the       
intervention of ,prussia should be      
rejected by him4 ,still1 had ,haugwitz  
overstepped instructions of such immense
 importance1 he would not immediately   
afterward1 on the #abth of ,january1    
#ahjf1 have received1 as was actually   
the case1 fresh instructions1 in proof  
that he had in no degree abused the     
confidence of his sovereign4 ,haugwitz1 
by not declaring war1 husbanded the     

strength of ,prussia and gained         
,hanover2 and1 by so doing1 he fulfilled
 his instructions1 which were to gain   
,hanover without making any sacrifice4  
,his success gained for him the applause
 of his sovereign1 who intrusted him1 on
 account of his skill as a diplomatist1 
with the management of other            
negotiations4 ,prussia at that time     
still pursued the system of the treaty  
of ,basel1 was unwilling to break with  
,france1 and was simply bent upon       
selling her neutrality to the best      
advantage4 ,instead1 however1 of being  
able to prescribe terms to ,napoleon1   
she was compelled to accede to his4     
,napoleon said to ,haugwitz1 ,jamais on 
n'obtiendra de moi ce qui pourrait      
blesser ma gloire4 ,haugwitz had been   
instructed through the duke of          
,brunswick3 ,pour le cas que vos soins  
pour rtablir la paix chouent1 pour le   
cas o l'apparition de la ,prusse sur le 
thtre de la guerre soit juge invitable1 
mettez tous vos soins pour conserver  la

 ,prusse l'pe dans le fourreau jusqu'au 
#bb ,dcembre1 et s'il se peut jusqu' un 
terme plus recul encore4--,extract from 
the ,memoirs of the ,count von          
,haugwitz4  ,footnote #aa3 ,he married a
 ,mademoiselle von ,geyer4 ,his children
 had merely the title of ,counts von    
,hochberg1 but came1 in #ahcj1 on the   
extinction of the ,agnati1 to the       
government4  ,footnote #ab3 ,on the #ast
 of ,january1 #ahjf2 the ,bavarian state
 newspaper announced it at ,new ,year   
with the words1 ,long live ,napoleon1   
the restorer of the kingdom of ,bavaria6
 ,bavarian authors1 more particularly   
,pallhausen1 attempted to prove that the
 ,bavarians had originally been a       
,gallic tribe under the ,gallic kings4  
,it was considered a dishonor to belong 
to ,germany4  ,footnote #ac3 ,in #agig1 
the anonymous statesman1 in the         
dedication to the congress of ,rastadt1 
foretold the formation of the ,rhenish  
alliance as a necessary result of the   
treaty of ,basel4 ,the electors of      

,brandenburg1 ,hanover1 ,hesse-,cassel1 
and all the princes1 who defended       
themselves behind the line of           
demarcation against their obligations to
 the empire1 and tranquilly awaited the 
issue of the contest between ,france and
 that part of the empire that had taken 
up arms2 all those princes to whom their
 private interests were dearer than     
those of the empire1 who1 devoid of     
patriotism1 formed a separate party     
against ,austria and ,southern ,germany1
 from which they severed and isolated   
themselves1 could1 none of them1        
arrogate to themselves a voice in the   
matter1 if ,southern ,germany1 abandoned
 by them1 concluded treaties for herself
 as her present and future interests    
demanded4  ,footnote #ad3 ,oldenburg    
affords a glaring proof of the          
insecurity and meanness characteristic  
of the ,rhenish alliance4 ,the relation 
even with ,bavaria was not always the   
purest1 and ,i have sometimes caught a  
near glimpse of the claws4--,gagern's   

,share in ,politics4  ,footnote #ae3 ,no
 diet had1 since #aggj1 been held in    
,wurtemberg1 only the committee had     
continued to treat secretly with the    
duke4 ,in #agig1 ,frederick convoked a  
fresh diet and swore to hold the        
constitution sacred4 ,some modern       
elements appeared in this diet2 the old 
opposition was strengthened by men of   
the ,french school4 ,disputes1          
consequently1 ere long arose between it 
and the duke1 a man of an extremely     
arbitrary disposition4 ,the ,estates    
discovered little zeal for the war with 
,france1 attempted to economize in the  
preparations1 etc41 while the duke made 
great show of patriotism as a prince of 
the ,german empire1 nor gave the        
slightest symptom of his one day        
becoming an enemy to his country1 a     
member of the ,rhenish alliance1 and the
 most zealous partisan of ,france4      
,moreau1 however1 no sooner crossed the 
,rhine than the duke fled1 abandoned his
 states1 and afterward not only refused 

to bear the smallest share of the       
contributions levied upon the country by
 the ,french1 but also seized the       
subsidies furnished by ,england4 ,the   
duke1 shortly after this1 quarrelling   
with his eldest son1 ,william1 the      
,estates sided with the latter and      
supplied him with funds1 at the same    
time refusing to grant any of the sums  
demanded by the duke1 who1 on his part1 
omitted the confirmation of the new     
committee and ordered ,grosz1 the       
councillor1 ,stockmaier1 the secretary  
of the diet1 and several others1 besides
 ,batz1 the agent of the diet at        
,vienna1 to be placed under arrest1     
their papers to be seized1 and a sum of 
money to be raised from the church      
property1 #ahje4 ,not long after this1  
rendered insolent by the protection of  
the great despot of ,france1 he utterly 
annihilated the ancient constitution of 
,wurtemberg4    ,,ccliv4 ,prussia's     
,declaration of ,war and ,defeat        
,prussia1 by a timely declaration of war

 against ,france before the battle of   
,austerlitz1 might have turned the tide 
against ,napoleon1 and earned for       
herself the glory and the gain1 instead 
of being1 by a false policy1 compelled1 
at a later period1 to make that         
declaration under circumstances of      
extreme disadvantage4 ,her maritime     
commerce suffered extreme injury from   
the attacks of the ,english and ,swedes4
 ,war was unavoidable1 either for or    
against ,france4 ,the decision was      
replete with difficulty4 ,prussia1 by   
continuing to side with ,france1 was    
exposed to the attacks of ,england1     
,sweden1 and probably ,russia2 it was1  
moreover1 to be feared that ,napoleon1  
who had more in view the diminution of  
the power of ,prussia than that of      
,austria1 might delay his aid4 ,during  
the late campaign1 the ,prussian        
territory had been violated and the     
fortress of ,wesel seized by ,napoleon1 
who had also promised the restoration of
 ,hanover to ,england as a condition of 

peace4 ,he had invited ,prussia to      
found1 besides the ,rhenish1 a northern 
confederation1 and had1 at the same     
time1 bribed ,saxony with a promise of  
the royal dignity1 and ,hesse with that 
of the annexation of ,fulda1 not to     
enter into alliance with ,prussia4      
,prussia saw herself scorned and        
betrayed by ,france4 ,a declaration of  
war with ,france was1 however1          
surrounded with tenfold danger4 ,the    
power of ,france1 unweakened by         
opposition1 had reached an almost       
irresistible height4 ,austria1 abandoned
 in every former campaign and hurried to
 ruin by ,prussia1 could no longer be   
reckoned on for aid4 ,the whole of      
,germany1 once in favor of ,prussia1 now
 sided with the foe4 ,honor at length   
decided4 ,prussia could no longer endure
 the scorn of the insolent ,frenchman1  
his desecration of the memory of the    
great ,frederick1 or1 with an army      
impatient for action1 tamely submit to  
the insults of both friend and foe4 ,the

 presence of the ,russian czar1         
,alexander1 at ,berlin1 his visit to the
 tomb of ,frederick the ,great1 rendered
 still more popular by an engraving1 had
 a powerful effect upon public opinion4 
,louisa1 the beautiful queen of ,prussia
 and princess of ,mecklenburg1 animated 
the people with her words and roused a  
spirit of chivalry in the army1 which   
still deemed itself invincible4 ,the    
younger officers were not sparing of    
their vaunts1 and ,prince ,louis vented 
his passion by breaking the windows of  
the minister ,haugwitz4 ,john ,muller1  
who1 on the overthrow of ,austria1 had  
quitted ,vienna and had been appointed  
,prussian historiographer at ,berlin1   
called upon the people1 in the preface  
to the ,trumpet of the ,holy ,war1 to   
take up arms against ,france4  ,war was 
indeed declared1 but with too great     
precipitation4 ,instead of awaiting the 
arrival of the troops promised by       
,russia or until ,austria had been      
gained1 instead of manning the          

fortresses and taking precautionary     
measures1 the ,prussian army1 in        
conjunction with that of ,saxony1 which 
lent but compulsory aid1 and with those 
of ,mecklenburg and ,brunswick1 its     
voluntary allies1 took the field without
 any settled plan1 and suddenly remained
 stationary in the ,thuringian forest1  
like ,mack two years earlier at ,ulm1   
waiting for the appearance of ,napoleon1
 #ahjf4 ,the king and the queen         
accompanied the army1 which was         
commanded by ,ferdinand1 duke of        
,brunswick1 a veteran of seventy- two1  
and by his subordinate in command1      
,frederick ,louis1 prince of            
,hohenlohe-,ingelfingen1 who constantly 
opposed his measures4 ,in the general   
staff the chief part was enacted by     
,colonel ,massenbach1 a second ,mack1   
whose counsels were rarely followed4    
,all the higher officers in the army    
were old men1 promotion depending not   
upon merit but upon length of service4  
,the younger officers were radically    

bad1 owing to their airs of nobility and
 licentious garrison life2 their manners
 and principles were equally vulgar4    
,women1 horses1 dogs1 and gambling      
formed the staple of their conversation2
 they despised all solid learning1 and1 
when decorated on parade1 in their      
enormous cocked hats and plumes1        
powdered wigs and queues1 tight leather 
breeches and great boots1 they swore at 
and cudgelled the men1 and strutted     
about with conscious heroism4 ,the arms 
used by the soldiery were heavy and apt 
to hang fire1 their tight uniform was   
inconvenient for action and useless as a
 protection against the weather1 and    
their food1 bad of its kind1 was stinted
 by the avarice of the colonels1 which  
was carried to such an extent that      
soldiers were to be seen1 who1 instead  
of a waistcoat1 had a small bit of cloth
 sewn on to the lower part of the       
uniform where the waistcoat was usually 
visible4 ,worst of all1 however1 was the
 bad spirit that pervaded the army1 the 

enervation consequent upon immorality4  
,even before the opening of the war1    
,lieutenant ,henry von ,bulow1 a retired
 officer1 the greatest military genius  
at that period in ,germany1 and1 on that
 account1 misunderstood1 foretold the   
inevitable defeat of ,prussia1 and1     
although far from being a devotee1      
declared1 ,the cause of the national    
ignorance lies chiefly in the atheism   
and demoralization produced by the      
government of ,frederick ,,ii4 ,the     
enlightenment1 so highly praised in the 
,prussian states1 simply consists in a  
loss of energy and power4  ,the main    
body of the ,prussian army was stationed
 around ,weimar and ,jena1 a small corps
 under ,general ,tauenzien was pushed   
forward to cover the rich magazines at  
,hof1 and a reserve of seventeen        
thousand men under ,eugene1 duke of     
,wurtemberg1 lay to the rear at ,halle4 
,it was remarked that this position1 in 
case of an attack being made by         
,napoleon1 was extremely dangerous1 the 

only alternatives left for the ,prussian
 army being either to advance1 form a   
junction with the gallant ,hessians and 
render the ,rhine the seat of war1 or to
 fall back upon the reserve and hazard a
 decisive battle on the plains of       
,leipzig4 ,that intriguing impostor1    
,lucchesini1 the oracle of the camp1    
however1 purposely declared that he knew
 ,napoleon1 that ,napoleon would most   
certainly not attempt to make an attack4
 ,a few days afterward ,napoleon1       
nevertheless1 appeared1 found the pass  
at ,kosen open1 cut off the ,prussian   
army from the right bank of the ,saal1  
from its magazines at ,hof and          
,naumburg1 which he also seized1 from   
the reserve corps stationed at ,halle1  
and from ,prussia4 ,utterly astounded at
 the negligence of the duke of          
,brunswick1 he exclaimed1 while         
comparing him with ,mack1 ,les          
,prussiens sont encore plus stupides que
 les ,autrichiens6 ,on being informed by
 some prisoners that the ,prussians     

expected him from ,erfurt when he was   
already at ,naumburg1 he said1 ,ils se  
tromperont furieusement1 ces perruques4 
,he would1 nevertheless1 have been on   
his part exposed to great peril had the 
,prussians suddenly attacked him with   
their whole force from ,weimar1 ,jena1  
and ,halle1 or had they instantly       
retired into ,franconia and fallen upon 
his rear2 but the idea never entered the
 heads of the ,prussian generals1 who   
tranquilly waited to be beaten by him   
one after the other4  ,after            
,tauenzien's repulse1 a second corps    
under ,prince ,louis of ,prussia1 which 
had been pushed forward to ,saalfeld1   
imprudently attempting to maintain its  
position in the narrow valley1 was      
surrounded and cut to pieces4 ,the      
prince refused to yield1 and1 after a   
furious defence1 was killed by a ,french
 horse-soldier4 ,the news of this       
disaster speedily reached the main body 
of the ,prussians4 ,the duke of         
,brunswick1 at that time holding a      

military council in the castle of       
,weimar1 so entirely lost his presence  
of mind as to ask in the hearing of     
several young officers1 and with        
embarrassment depicted on his           
countenance1 ,what are we to do8 ,this  
veteran duke would with painful slowness
 write down in the neatest hand the     
names of the villages in which the      
various regiments were to be quartered1 
notwithstanding which1 it sometimes     
happened that1 owing to his             
topographical ignorance1 several        
regiments belonging to different corps  
d'armee were billeted in the same       
village and had to dispute its          
possession4 ,he would hesitate for an   
hour whether he ought to write the name 
of a village ,munchenholzen or          
,munchholzen4  ,the ,prussian army was  
compared to a ship with all sail spread 
lying at anchor4 ,the duke was posted   
with the main body not far from ,weimar1
 the ,saxons at the ,schnecke on the    
road between ,weimar and ,jena1 the     

prince of ,hohenlohe at ,jena4 ,mack had
 isolated and exposed his different     
corps d'armee in an exactly similar     
manner at ,ulm4 ,hohenlohe again        
subdivided his corps and scattered them 
in front of the concentrated forces of  
the enemy4 ,still1 all was not yet lost1
 the ,prussians being advantageously    
posted in the upper valley1 while the   
,french were advancing along the deep   
valleys of the ,saal and its            
tributaries4 ,but1 on the #acth of      
,october1 ,tauenzien retired from the   
vale1 leaving the steeps of ,jena1 which
 a hundred students had been able to    
defend simply by rolling down the stones
 there piled in heaps1 open1 and1 during
 the same night1 ,napoleon sent his     
artillery up and posted himself on the  
,landgrafenberg4 ,there1 nevertheless1  
still remained a chance2 the ,dornberg1 
by which the ,landgrafenberg was        
commanded1 was still occupied by        
,tauenzien1 and the ,windknollen1 a     
still steeper ascent1 whence ,hohenlohe1

 had he not spent the night in          
undisturbed slumbers at ,capellendorf1  
might utterly have annihilated the      
,french army1 remained unoccupied4 ,the 
thunder of the ,french artillery first  
roused ,hohenlohe from his couch1 and1  
while he was still under the hands of   
his barber1 ,tauenzien was driven from  
the ,dornberg4 ,the duties of the toilet
 at length concluded1 ,hohenlohe led his
 troops up the hillside with a view of  
retaking the position he had so         
foolishly lost2 but his serried columns 
were exposed to the destructive fire of 
a body of ,french tirailleurs posted    
above1 and were repulsed with immense   
loss4 ,general ,ruchel arrived1 with his
 corps that had been uselessly detached1
 too late to prevent the flight of the  
,hohenlohe corps1 and1 making a brave   
but senseless attack1 was wounded and   
defeated4 ,a similar fate befell the    
unfortunate ,saxons at the ,schnecke and
 the duke of ,brunswick at ,auerstdt4   
,the latter1 although at the head of the

 strongest division of the ,prussian    
army1 succumbed to the weakest division 
of the ,french army1 that commanded by  
,davoust1 who henceforward bore the     
title of duke of ,auerstdt1 and was so  
suddenly put to the rout that a body of 
twenty thousand ,prussians under        
,kalkreuth never came into action4 ,the 
duke was shot in both eyes4 ,this       
incident was1 by his enemies1 termed    
fortune's revenge1 as he never would see
 when he had his eyes open4#a  ,napoleon
 followed up his victory with consummate
 skill4 ,the junction of the retreating 
corps d'armee and their flight by the   
shortest route into ,prussia were       
equally prevented4 ,the defeated        
,prussian army was in a state of        
indescribable confusion4 ,an immensely  
circuitous march lay before it ere      
,prussia could be re-entered4 ,a number 
of the regiments disbanded1 particularly
 those whose officers had been the first
 to take to flight or had crept for     
shelter behind hedges and walls4 ,an    

immense number of officers' equipages1  
provided with mistresses1 articles      
belonging to the toilet1 and epicurean  
delicacies1 fell into ,napoleon's hands4
 ,wagons laden with poultry1 complete   
kitchens on wheels1 wine casks1 etc41   
had followed this luxurious army4 ,the  
scene presented by the battlefield of   
,jena widely contrasted with that of    
,rossbach1 whose monument was sent by   
,napoleon to ,paris as the most glorious
 part of the booty gained by his present
 easy victory4#b  ,the fortified city of
 ,erfurt was garrisoned with fourteen   
thousand ,prussians under ,mollendorf1  
who1 on the first summons1 capitulated  
to ,murat1 the general of the ,french   
cavalry4 ,the hereditary ,prince of     
,orange was also taken prisoner on this 
occasion4 ,von ,hellwig1 a lieutenant of
 the ,prussian hussars1 boldly charged  
the ,french guard escorting the fourteen
 thousand ,prussian prisoners of war    
from ,erfurt1 at the head of his        
squadron1 at ,eichenrodt in the vicinity

 of ,eisenach1 and succeeded in         
restoring them to liberty4 ,the         
liberated soldiers1 however1 instead of 
joining the main body1 dispersed4       
,eugene1 duke of ,wurtemberg1 was also  
defeated at ,halle1 and1 throwing up his
 command1 withdrew to his states4       
,history has1 nevertheless1 recorded one
 trait of magnanimity1 that of a        
,prussian ensign fifteen years of age1  
who1 being pursued by some ,french      
cavalry not far from ,halle1 sprang with
 the colors into the ,saal and was      
crushed to death by a mill-wheel4       
,kalkreuth's corps1 that had not been   
brought into action and was the only one
 that remained entire1 being placed     
under the command of the prince of      
,hohenlohe1 its gallant commander1      
enraged at the indignity1 quitted the   
army4 ,hohenlohe's demand1 on reaching  
,magdeburg1 for a supply of ammunition  
and forage1 was refused by the          
commandant1 ,von ,kleist1 and he        
hastened helplessly forward in the hope 

of reaching ,berlin1 but the route was  
already blocked by the enemy1 and he was
 compelled to make a fatiguing and      
circuitous march to the west through the
 sandy ,march4 ,magdeburg1 although     
garrisoned with twenty-two thousand     
,prussians1 defended by eight hundred   
pieces of artillery and almost          
impregnable fortifications1 capitulated 
on the #aath of ,november to ,ney1 on   
his appearance beneath the walls with   
merely ten thousand men and a light     
field-battery4 ,kleist1 in exculpation  
of his conduct1 alleged his expectation 
of an insurrection of the citizens in   
case of a bombardment4 ,magdeburg       
contained at that time three thousand   
unarmed citizens4 ,it is not known      
whether ,kleist had been bribed1 or     
whether he was simply infected with the 
cowardice and stupidity by which the    
elder generals of that period were      
distinguished2 it is1 however1 certain  
that among the numerous younger officers
 serving under his command not one      

raised the slightest opposition to this 
disgraceful capitulation4#c  ,the       
,hohenlohe corps1 which consisted almost
 exclusively of infantry1 was           
accompanied in its flight by ,blucher1  
the gallant general of the hussars1 with
 the elite of the remaining cavalry4    
,blucher had1 however1 long borne a     
grudge against his pedantic companion1  
and1 mistrusting his guidance1 soon     
quitted him4 ,being surrounded by a     
greatly superior ,french force under    
,klein1#d he contrived to escape by     
asserting with great earnestness to that
 general that an armistice had just been
 concluded4 ,when afterward urgently    
entreated by ,hohenlohe to join him with
 his troops1 he procrastinated too long1
 it may be owing to his desire to bring 
,hohenlohe1 who1 by eternally           
retreating1 completely disheartened his 
troops1 to a stand1 or owing to the     
impossibility of coming up with greater 
celerity4#e ,he had1 indubitably1 the   
intention to join ,hohenlohe at         

,prenzlow1 but unfortunately arrived a  
day too late1 the prince1 whose         
ammunition and provisions were          
completely spent1 and who1 owing to the 
stupidity of ,massenbach1 who rode up   
and down the ,ucker without being able  
to discover whether he was on the right 
or left bank1 had missed the only route 
by which he could retreat1 having       
already fallen1 with twelve thousand    
men1 into the enemy's hands4 ,this      
disaster was shortly afterward followed 
by the capture of ,general ,hagen with  
six thousand men at ,pasewalk and that  
of ,bila with another small ,prussian   
corps not far from ,stettin4 ,blucher1  
strengthened by the corps of the duke of
 ,weimar and by numerous fugitives1     
still kept the field1 but was at length 
driven back to ,lubeck1 where he was    
defeated1 and1 after a bloody battle in 
the very heart of the terror-stricken   
city1 four thousand of his men were made
 prisoners4 ,he fled with ten thousand  
to ,radkan1 where1 finding no ships to  

transport him across the ,baltic1 he was
 forced to capitulate4  ,the luckless   
duke of ,brunswick was carried on a bier
 from the field of ,jena to his palace  
at ,brunswick1 which he found deserted4 
,all belonging to him had fled4 ,in his 
distress he exclaimed1 ,i am now about  
to quit all and am abandoned by all6    
,his earnest petition to ,napoleon for  
protection for himself and his petty    
territory was sternly refused by the    
implacable victor1 who replied that he  
knew of no reigning duke of ,brunswick1 
but only of a ,prussian general of that 
name1 who had1 in the infamous manifest 
of #agib1 declared his intention to     
destroy ,paris and was undeserving of   
mercy4 ,the blind old man fled to       
,ottensen1 in the ,danish territory1    
where he expired4  ,napoleon1 after     
confiscating sixty millions worth of    
,english goods on his way through       
,leipzig1 entered ,berlin on the #agth  
of ,october1 #ahjf4 ,the defence of the 
city had not been even dreamed of2 nay1 

the great arsenal1 containing five      
hundred pieces of artillery and immense 
stores1 the sword of ,frederick the     
,great1 and the private correspondence  
of the reigning king and queen1 were all
 abandoned to the victor4#f ,although   
the citizens were by no means martially 
disposed1 the authorities deemed it     
necessary to issue proclamations to the 
people1 inculcatory of the axiom1       
,tranquillity is the first duty of the  
citizen4 ,napoleon1 on his entry into   
,berlin1 was received1 not1 as at       
,vienna1 with mute rage1 but with loud  
demonstrations of delight4 ,individuals 
belonging to the highest class stationed
 themselves behind the crowd and        
exclaimed1 ,for ,god's sake1 give a     
hearty hurrah6 ,cry ,vive l'empereur6 or
 we are all lost4 ,on a demand1 couched 
in the politest terms1 for the peaceable
 delivery of the arms of the civic      
guard1 being made by ,hulin1 the new    
,french commandant1 to the magistrate1  
the latter1 on his own accord1 ordered  

the citizens to give up their arms under
 pain of death4 ,numerous individuals   
betrayed the public money and stores1   
that still remained concealed1 to the   
,french4 ,hulin replied to a person who 
had discovered a large store of wood1   
,leave the wood untouched2 your king    
will want a good deal to make gallows   
for traitorous rogues4 ,napoleon's      
reception struck him with such          
astonishment that he declared1 ,i know  
not whether to rejoice or to feel       
ashamed4 ,at the head of his general    
staff1 in full uniform and with bared   
head1 he visited the apartment occupied 
by ,frederick the ,great at ,sans       
,souci1 and his tomb4 ,he took          
possession of ,frederick's sword and    
declared in the army bulletin1 ,i would 
not part with this weapon for twenty    
millions4 ,frederick's tomb afforded him
 an opportunity for giving vent to the  
most unbecoming expressions of contempt 
against his unfortunate descendant4 ,he 
publicly aspersed the fame of the       

beautiful and noble-hearted ,prussian   
queen1 in order to deaden the enthusiasm
 she sought to raise4 ,but he deceived  
himself4 ,calumny but increased the     
esteem and exalted the enthusiasm with  
which the people beheld their queen and 
kindled a feeling of revenge in their   
bosoms4 ,napoleon behaved1 nevertheless1
 with generosity to another lady of     
rank4 ,prince ,hatzfeld1 the civil      
governor of ,berlin1 not having quitted 
that city on the entry of ,napoleon1 had
 been discovered by the spies and been  
condemned to death by a court-martial4  
,his wife1 who was at that time         
enceinte1 threw herself at ,napoleon's  
feet4 ,with a smile1 he handed to her   
the paper containing the proof of her   
husband's guilt1 which she instantly    
burned1 and her husband was restored to 
liberty4 ,john ,muller was among the    
more remarkable of the servants of the  
state who had remained at ,berlin4 ,this
 sentimental parasite1 the most         
despicable of them all1 whose pathos    

sublimely glossed over each fresh       
treason1 was sent for by ,napoleon1 who 
placed him about his person4 ,among     
other things1 he asked him1 ,is it not  
true the ,germans are somewhat          
thick-brained8 to which the fawning     
professor replied with a smile4 ,in     
return for the benefits he had received 
from the royal family of ,prussia1 he   
delivered1 before quitting ,berlin1 an  
academical lecture upon ,frederick the  
,great1 in the presence of the ,french  
general officers1 in which he artfully  
7the lecture was of course delivered in 
the ,french language7 contrived to      
flatter ,napoleon at the expense of that
 monarch4#g ,prince ,charles of         
,isenberg raised1 in the very heart of  
,berlin1 a regiment1 composed of        
,prussian deserters1 for the service of 
,france4#h  ,the ,prussian fortresses   
fell1 meanwhile1 one after the other1   
during the end of autumn and during the 
winter1 some from utter inability1 on   
account of their neglected state1 to    

maintain themselves1 but the greater    
part owing to their being commanded by  
old villains1 treacherous and cowardly  
as the commandant of ,magdeburg4 ,the   
strong fortress of ,hameln was in this  
manner yielded by a ,baron von ,schler1 
,plassenburg by a ,baron von ,becker1   
,nimburg on the ,weser by a ,baron von  
,dresser1 ,spandau by a ,count von      
,benkendorf4 ,the citadel of ,berlin    
capitulated without a blow1 and         
,stettin1 although well provided with   
all the materiel of war1 was delivered  
up by a ,baron von ,romberg4 ,custrin1  
one of the strongest fortified places1  
was commanded by a ,count von           
,ingersleben4 ,the king visited the     
place during his flight and earnestly   
recommended him to defend it to the     
last4 ,this place1 sooner than yield1   
had1 during the seven years' war1       
allowed itself to be reduced to a heap  
of ruins4 ,when standing on one of the  
bastions1 the king inquired its name4   
,the commandant was ignorant of it4     

,scarcely had the king quitted the      
place1 than a body of ,french huzzars   
appeared before the gates1 and          
,ingersleben instantly capitulated4     
,silesia1 although less demoralized than
 ,berlin1 viewed these political changes
 with even greater apathy4 ,this fine   
province had1 during the reign of       
,frederick the ,great1 been placed under
 the government of the minister1 ,count 
,hoym1 whose easy disposition had1 like 
insidious poison1 utterly enervated the 
people4 ,the government officers1 as if 
persuaded of the reality of the         
antiquarian whim which deduced the name 
of ,silesia from ,elysium1 dwelt in     
placid self-content1 unmoved by the     
catastrophes of ,austerlitz or ,jena4   
,no measures were1 consequently1 taken  
for the defence of the country1 and a   
flying corps of ,bavarians1             
,wurtembergers1 and some ,french under  
,vandamme1 speedily overran the whole   
province1 notwithstanding the number of 
its fortresses4 ,at ,glogau1 the        

commandant1 ,von ,reinhardt1            
unhesitatingly declared his readiness to
 capitulate and excluded the gallant    
,major von ,putlitz1 who insisted upon  
making an obstinate defence1 as a       
revolutionist1 from the military        
council4 ,being advised by one of the   
citizens to fire upon the enemy1 he     
rudely replied1 ,sir1 you do not know   
what one shot costs the king4 ,in       
,breslau1 the ,counts von ,thiele and   
,lindner made a terrible fracas1 burned 
down the fine faubourgs1 and blew up the
 powder-magazine1 merely in order to    
veil the disgrace of a hasty            
capitulation1 which enraged the soldiery
 to such a pitch that1 shattering their 
muskets1 they heaped imprecations on    
their dastard commanders1 and1 in       
revenge1 plundered the royal stores4    
,brieg was ceded after a two days'      
siege1 by the ,baron von ,cornerut4 ,the
 defence of the strong fortress of      
,schweidnitz1 of such celebrated        
importance during the seven years' war1 

had been intrusted to ,count von ,haath1
 a man whose countenance even betokened 
imbecility4 ,he yielded the fortress    
without a blow1 and1 on the windows of  
the apartment in which he lodged in the 
neighboring town of ,jauer being broken 
by the patriotic citizens1 he went down 
to the landlord1 to whom he said1 ,my   
good sir1 you must have some enemies6   
,the remaining fortresses made a better 
defence4 ,glatz was taken by surprise1  
the city by storm4 ,the fortress was    
defended by the commandant1 ,count      
,gotzen1 until ammunition sufficient for
 twelve days longer alone remained4     
,neisse capitulated from famine2 ,kosel 
was gallantly defended by the           
commandant1 ,neumann2 and ,silberberg1  
situated on an impregnable rock1 refused
 to surrender4  ,the troops of the      
,rhenish confederation1 encouraged by   
the bad example set by ,vandamme and by 
several of the superior officers1       
committed dreadful havoc1 plundered the 
country1 robbed and barbarously treated 

the inhabitants4 ,it was quite a common 
custom among the officers1 on the       
conclusion of a meal1 to carry away with
 them the whole of their host's         
table-service4 ,the filthy habits of the
 ,french officers were notorious4 ,their
 conduct is said to have been not only  
countenanced but commanded by ,napoleon1
 as a sure means of striking the        
enervated population with the           
profoundest terror2 and the panic in    
fact almost amounted to absurdity1 the  
inhabitants of this thickly-populated   
province nowhere venturing to rise      
against the handful of robbers by whom  
they were so cruelly persecuted4 ,a     
,baron von ,puckler offered an          
individual exception3 his endeavors to  
rouse the inert masses met with no      
success1 and1 rendered desperate by his 
failure1 he blew out his brains4 ,when  
too late a prince of ,anhalt-,pless     
assembled an armed force in ,upper      
,silesia and attempted to relieve       
,breslau1 but ,thiele neglecting to make

 a sally at the decisive moment1 the    
,poles in ,prince of ,pless's small army
 took to flight1 and the whole plan     
miscarried4 ,a small ,prussian corps1   
amounting to about five hundred men1    
commanded by ,losthin1 afterward        
infested ,silesia1 surprised the ,french
 under ,lefebvre at ,kanth and put them 
to the rout1 but were a few days after  
this exploit taken prisoners by a       
superior ,french force4  ,attempts at   
reforms suited to the spirit of the age 
had1 even before the outbreak of war1   
been made in ,prussia by men of higher  
intelligence2 ,menken1 for instance1 had
 labored to effect the emancipation of  
the peasantry1 but had been removed from
 office by the aristocratic party4      
,during the war1 the corruption         
pervading every department of the       
government1 whether civil or military1  
was fully exposed1 and ,frederick       
,william ,,iii4 was taught by bitter    
experience to pursue a better system1 to
 act with decision and patient          

determination4 ,the ,baron von ,stein1 a
 man of undoubted talent1 a native of   
,nassau1 was placed at the head of the  
government2 two of the most able        
commanders of the day1 ,gneisenau and   
,scharnhorst1 undertook the             
reorganization of the army4 ,on the #ast
 of ,december1 #ahjf1 the king cashiered
 every commandant who had neglected to  
defend the fortress intrusted to his    
care and every officer guilty of        
desertion or cowardly flight1 and the   
long list of names gave disgraceful     
proof of the extent to which the        
nobility were compromised4 ,one of the  
first measures taken by the king was1   
consequently1 to throw open every post  
of distinction in the army to the       
citizens4 ,the old inconvenient uniform 
and firearms were at the same time      
improved1 the queue was cut off1 the    
cane abandoned4 ,the royal army was     
indeed scanty in number1 but it         
contained within itself germs of honor  
and patriotism that gave promise of     

future glory4  ,the reform1 however1 but
 slowly progressed4 ,ferdinand von      
,schill1 a ,prussian lieutenant1 who had
 been wounded at ,jena1 formed1 in      
,pomerania1 a guerilla troop of         
disbanded soldiery and young men1 who1  
although indifferently provided with    
arms1 stopped the ,french convoys and   
couriers4 ,his success was so           
extraordinary that he was sometimes     
enabled to send sums of money1 taken    
from the enemy1 to the king4 ,among     
other exploits1 he took prisoner        
,marshal ,victor1 who was exchanged for 
,blucher4 ,blucher assembled a fresh    
body of troops on the island of ,rugen4 
,schill1 being afterward compelled to   
take refuge from the pursuit of the     
,french in the fortress of ,colberg1 the
 commandant1 ,loucadou1 placed him under
 arrest for venturing to criticise the  
bad defence of the place4  ,the king of 
,sweden1 ,gustavus ,adolphus ,,iv41     
might with perfect justice have bitterly
 reproached ,prussia and ,austria for   

the folly with which they had1 by their 
disunion1 contributed to the            
aggrandizement of the power of ,france4 
,he acted nobly by affording a place of 
refuge to the ,prussians at ,stralsund  
and ,rugen4  ,colberg was1 on           
,loucadou's dismissal1 gloriously       
defended by ,gneisenau and by the       
resolute citizens1 among whom           
,nettelbek1 a man seventy years of age1 
chiefly distinguished himself4          
,courbiere acted with equal gallantry at
 ,graudena4 ,on being told by the       
,french that ,prussia was in their hands
 and that no king of ,prussia was any   
longer in existence1 he replied1 ,well1 
be it so6 but ,i am king at ,graudenz4  
,pillau was also successfully defended  
by ,herrmann4#i ,polish ,prussia        
naturally fell off on the advance of the
 ,french4 ,calisch rose in open         
insurrection2 the ,prussian authorities 
were everywhere compelled to save       
themselves by flight from the vengeance 
of the people4 ,poland had been termed  

the ,botany ,bay of ,prussia1 government
 officers in disgrace for bad conduct   
being generally sent there by way of    
punishment4 ,no one voluntarily accepted
 an appointment condemning him to dwell 
amid a population inspired by the most  
ineradicable national hatred1 glowing   
with revenge1 and unable to appreciate  
the benefits bestowed upon them in their
 ignorance and poverty by the wealthier 
and more civilized ,prussians4  ,the    
king had withdrawn with the remainder of
 his troops1 which were commanded by the
 gallant ,l',estoc1 to ,koenigsberg1    
where he formed a junction with the     
,russian army1 which was led by a       
,hanoverian1 the cautious ,bennigsen1   
and accompanied by the emperor          
,alexander in person4 ,napoleon expected
 that an opportunity would be afforded  
for the repetition of his old manoeuvre 
of separating and falling singly upon   
his opponents1 but ,bennigsen kept his  
forces together and offered him battle  
at ,eylau1 in the neighborhood of       

,koenigsberg2 victory still wavered1    
when the ,prussian troops under         
,l',estoc fell furiously upon ,marshal  
,ney's flank1 while that general was    
endeavoring to surround the ,russians1  
and decided the day4 ,it was the #hth of
 ,february1 and the snow-clad ground was
 stained with gore4 ,napoleon1 after    
this catastrophe1 remained inactive1    
awaiting the opening of spring and the  
arrival of reinforcements4 ,dantzig1    
exposed by the desertion of the ,poles1 
fell1 although defended by ,kalkreuth1  
into his hands1 and1 on the #adth of    
,june1 #ahjg1 the anniversary1 so       
pregnant with important events1 of the  
battle of ,marengo1 he gained a         
brilliant victory at ,friedland1 which  
was followed by ,general ,ruchel's      
abandonment of ,koenigsberg with all its
 stores4  ,the road to ,lithuania now   
lay open to the ,french1 and the emperor
 ,alexander deemed it advisable to      
conclude peace4 ,a conference was held  
at ,tilsit on the ,riemen between the   

sovereigns of ,france1 ,russia1 and     
,prussia1 and a peace1 highly           
detrimental to ,germany1 was concluded  
on the #ith of ,july1 #ahjg4 ,prussia   
lost half of her territory1 was         
restricted to the maintenance of an army
 merely amounting to forty-two thousand 
men1 was compelled to pay a contribution
 of one hundred and forty millions of   
francs to ,france1 and to leave her most
 important fortresses as security for   
payment in the hands of the ,french4    
,these grievous terms were merely       
acceded to by ,napoleon out of esteem   
for his ,majesty the emperor of ,russia1
 who1 on his part1 deprived his late    
ally of a piece of ,prussian-,poland    
7,bialystock7 and divided the spoil of  
,prussia with ,napoleon4#aj ,nay1 he    
went1 some months later1 so far in his  
generosity1 as1 on an understanding with
 ,napoleon and without deigning any     
explanation to ,prussia1 arbitrarily to 
cancel an article of the peace of       
,tilsit1 by which ,prussia was          

indemnified for the loss of ,hanover    
with a territory containing four hundred
 thousand souls4  ,the ,prussian        
possessions on the left bank of the     
,elbe1 ,hanover1 ,brunswick1 and        
,hesse-,cassel1#aa were converted by    
,napoleon into the new kingdom of       
,westphalia1 which he bestowed upon his 
brother ,jerome and included in the     
,rhenish confederation4 ,east ,friesland
 was annexed to ,holland4 ,poland was   
not restored1 but a petty grandduchy of 
,warsaw was erected1 which ,frederick   
,augustus1 elector of ,saxony1 received1
 together with the royal dignity4       
,prussia1 already greatly diminished in 
extent1 was to be still further         
encroached upon and watched by these new
 states4 ,the example of electoral      
,saxony was imitated by the petty ,saxon
 princes1 and ,anhalt1 ,lippe1          
,schwarzburg1 ,reuss1 ,mecklenburg and  
,aldenburg joined the ,rhenish          
confederation4 ,dantzig became a nominal
 free town with a ,french garrison4#ab  

,the brave ,hessians resisted this fresh
 act of despotism4 ,the ,hessian troops 
revolted1 but were put down by force1   
and their leader1 a sergeant1 rushed    
frantically into the enemy's fire4 ,the 
,hessian peasantry also rose in several 
places4 ,the ,hanse towns1 on the       
contrary1 meekly allowed themselves to  
be pillaged and to be robbed of their   
stores of ,english goods4  ,gustavus    
,adolphus ,,iv4 of ,sweden1 who had     
neglected to send troops at an earlier  
period to the aid of ,prussia1 now      
offered the sturdiest resistance and    
steadily refused to negotiate terms of  
peace or to recognize ,napoleon as      
emperor4 ,his generals1 ,armfeldt#ac and
 ,essen1 made some successful inroads   
from ,stralsund1 and1 in unison with the
 ,english1 might have effected a strong 
diversion to ,napoleon's rear1 had their
 movements been more rapid and combined4
 ,on the conclusion of the peace of     
,tilsit1 a ,french force under ,mortier 
appeared1 drove the ,swedes back upon   

,stralsund1 and compelled the king1 in  
the ,august of #ahjg1 to abandon that   
city1 which the new system of warfare   
rendered no longer tenable4   ,footnote 
#a3 ,on the #adth of ,october4 ,on this 
unlucky day1 ,frederick the ,great had1 
in #ageh1 been surprised at ,hochkirch1 
and ,mack1 in #ahje1 at ,ulm4 ,on this  
day1 the peace of ,westphalia was1      
,a4,d4 #afdh1 concluded at ,osnabrck1   
and1 in #ahji1 that of ,vienna4 ,it was1
 however1 on this day that the siege of 
,vienna was1 in #aebi1 raised1 and that1
 in #ahac1 ,napoleon was shut up at     
,leipzig4  ,footnote #b3 ,the whole of  
these disasters had been predicted by   
,henry von ,blow1 whose prophecies had  
brought him into a prison4 ,on learning 
the catastrophe of ,jena1 he exclaimed1 
,that is the consequence of throwing    
generals into prison and of placing     
idiots at the head of the army6         
,footnote #c3 ,the young vons1 on the   
contrary1 capitulated with extreme      
readiness1 in order to return to their  

pleasurable habits4 ,several of them set
 a great shield over their doors1 with  
the inscription1 ,herr von ,n4 or ,m41  
prisoner of war on parole4 ,in all the  
capitulations1 the commandants and      
officers merely took care of their own  
persons and equipages and sacrificed the
 soldiery4 ,napoleon1 who was well aware
 of this little weakness1 always offered
 them the most flattering personal      
terms4  ,footnote #d3 ,the same man who 
had been imposed upon by a similar ruse 
at ,ulm by the ,archduke ,ferdinand4    
,napoleon dismissed him the service4    
,footnote #e3 ,massenbach published an  
anonymous charge against ,blcher1 which 
that general publicly refuted4          
,footnote #f3 ,while the unfortunate    
,henry von ,blow1 whose wise counsels   
had been despised1 was torn from his    
prison to be delivered to the ,russians1
 whose behavior at ,austerlitz he had   
blamed4 ,on his route he was maliciously
 represented as a friend to the ,french 
and exposed to the insults of the       

rabble1 who bespattered him with mud1   
and to such brutal treatment from the   
,cossacks that he died of his wounds at 
,riga4 ,never had a prophet a more      
ungrateful country4 ,he was delivered by
 his fellow-citizens to an ignominious  
death for attempting their salvation1   
for pointing out the means by which     
alone their safety could be insured1 and
 for exposing the wretches by whom they 
were betrayed4  ,footnote #g3 ,in the   
,trumpet of the ,holy ,war1 he had      
summoned the nation to take up arms     
against the heathens 7the ,french74 ,he 
breathed war and flames4 ,in his address
 to the king1 he said1 ,the idle parade 
of the ruler during a long peace has    
never maintained a state6 ,he excited   
the hatred of the people against the    
,french1 telling them to harbor such    
hatred against the enemy1 like men who  
knew how to hate6 ,after thus aiding to 
kindle the flames of war1 he went over  
to the ,french and wrote the letter to  
,bignon which that author has inserted  

in his ,history of ,france3 ,like       
,ganymede to the seat of the gods1 have 
,i been borne by the eagle to           
,fontainebleau1 there to serve a god4   
,footnote #h3 ,the conduct of these     
deserters1 how1 decorated with the      
,french cockade1 they treated the       
,german population with unheard-of      
insolence1 is given in detail by ,seume4
  ,footnote #i3 ,courbiere1 ,herrmann1  
and ,neumann of ,cosel were bourgeois3  
the commandants of the other fortresses1
 so disgracefully ceded1 were1 without  
exception1 nobles4  ,footnote #aj3      
,bignon remarks that the queen1 ,louisa1
 who left no means untried in order to  
save as much as possible of ,prussia1   
came somewhat too late1 when ,napoleon  
had already entered into an agreement   
with ,russia4 ,hence ,napoleon's        
inflexibility1 which was the more       
insulting owing to the apparently       
yielding silence with which1 from a     
feeling of politeness1 he sometimes     
received the personal petitions of the  

queen1 to which he would afterward send 
a written refusal4 ,the part played in  
this affair by ,alexander was far from  
honorable1 and ,bignon says with great  
justice1 ,the emperor of ,russia must at
 that time have had but little          
judgement1 if he imagined that taking   
,prussia in such a manner under his     
protection would be honorable to the    
protector4 ,with a view of appeasing    
public opinion in ,germany and          
influencing it in favor of the alliance 
between ,france and ,russia1 ,zschokke1 
who was at that time in ,napoleon's pay1
 published a mean-spirited pamphlet1    
entitled1 ,will the human race gain by  
the present political changes8          
,footnote #aa3 ,the elector1 ,william1  
who had solicited permission to remain  
neutral1 having made great military     
preparations and received the ,prussians
 with open arms1 was1 in ,napoleon's    
twenty-seventh bulletin1 deposed with   
expressions of the deepest contempt4    
,the house of ,hesse-,cassel has for    

many years past sold its subjects to    
,england1 and by this means has the     
elector collected his immense wealth4   
,may this mean and avaricious conduct   
prove the ruin of his house4--,louis1   
,landgrave of ,hesse-,darmstadt1 was    
threatened with similar danger for      
inclining on the side of ,prussia1 but  
perceived his peril in time to save     
himself from destruction4  ,footnote    
#ab3 ,marshal ,lefebvre1 who had taken  
the city1 was created duke of ,dantzig4 
,the city1 however1 did not belong to   
him1 but became a republic2             
notwithstanding which it was at first   
compelled to pay a contribution1        
amounting to twenty million francs1 to  
,napoleon1 to maintain a strong ,french 
garrison at its expense1 and was fleeced
 in every imaginable way4 ,a stop was   
consequently put to trade1 the          
wealthiest merchants became bankrupt1   
and ,napoleon's satraps established     
their harems and celebrated their orgies
 in their magnificent houses and        

gardens1 and1 by their unbridled        
license1 demoralized to an almost       
incredible degree the staid manners of  
the quondam pious ,lutheran citizens4   
,vide ,blech1 ,the ,miseries of         
,dantzig1 #ahae4  ,footnote #ac3 ,one of
 the handsomest men of his time and the 
,adonis of many a princely dame4        
,,cclv4 ,the ,rhenish ,confederation    
,the whole of western ,europe bent in   
lowly submission before the genius of   
,napoleon2 ,russia was bound by the     
silken chains of flattery2 ,england1    
,turkey1 ,sweden1 and ,portugal1 alone  
bade him defiance4 ,england1 whose      
fleets ruled the ,european seas1 who    
lent her aid to his enemies1 and        
instigated their opposition1 was his    
most dangerous foe4 ,by a gigantic      
measure1 known as the continental       
system1 he sought to undermine her      
power4 ,the whole of the continent of   
,europe1 as far as his influence was    
felt1 was1 by an edict1 published at    
,berlin on the #bast of ,november1      

#ahjf1 closed against ,british trade2   
nay1 he went so far as to lay an embargo
 on all ,english goods lying in store   
and to make prisoners of war of all the 
,english at that time on the continent4 
,all intercourse between ,england and   
the rest of ,europe was prohibited4 ,but
 ,napoleon's attempt to ruin the        
commerce of ,england was merely         
productive of injury to himself2 the    
promotion of every branch of industry on
 the continent could not replace the    
loss of its foreign trade2 the products 
of ,europe no longer found their way to 
the more distant parts of the globe1 to 
be exchanged for colonial luxuries1     
which1 with the great majority of the   
people1 more particularly with the      
better classes1 had become necessaries1 
and numbers who had but lately lauded   
,napoleon to the skies regarded him with
 bitter rage on being compelled to      
relinquish their wonted coffee and      
sugar4  ,napoleon1 meanwhile1 undeterred
 by opposition1 enforced his continental

 system4 ,russia1 actuated by jealousy  
of ,england and flattered by the idea1  
with which ,napoleon had1 at ,tilsit1   
inspired the emperor ,alexander1 of     
sharing with him the empire of a world1 
aided his projects4 ,the first step was 
to secure to themselves possession of   
the ,baltic2 the king of ,sweden1       
,napoleon's most implacable foe1 was to 
be dethroned1 and ,sweden to be promised
 to ,frederick1 prince-regent of        
,denmark1 in order to draw him into the 
interests of the allied powers of       
,france and ,russia4 ,the scheme1       
however1 transpired in time to be       
frustrated4 ,an ,english fleet1 with an 
army1 among which was the ,german       
,legion1 composed of ,hanoverian        
refugees1 on board1 attacked1 and1 after
 a fearful bombardment1 took            
,copenhagen1 and either destroyed or    
carried off the whole of the ,danish    
fleet1 ,september1 #ahjg4a ,the ,british
 fleet1 on its triumphant return through
 the ,sound1 was saluted at ,helsingfors

 by the king of ,sweden1 who invited the
 admirals to breakfast4 ,the island of  
,heligoland1 which belonged to ,holstein
 and consequently formed part of the    
possessions of ,denmark1 and which      
carried on a great smuggling trade      
between that country and the continent1 
was at that time also seized by the     
,british4  ,napoleon revenged himself by
 a bold stroke in ,spain4 ,he proposed  
the partition of ,portugal to that      
power1 and1 under that pretext1 sent    
troops across the ,pyrenees4 ,the       
licentious queen of ,spain1 ,maria      
,louisa ,theresa of ,parma1 and her     
paramour1 ,godoy1 who had1 on account of
 the treaty between ,france and ,spain1 
received the title of ,prince of ,peace1
 reigned at that time in the name of the
 imbecile king1 ,charles ,,iv4 ,his son1
 ,ferdinand1 placed himself at the head 
of the democratic faction1 by which     
,godoy was regarded with the most deadly
 hatred4 ,both parties1 however1        
conscious of their want of power1 sought

 aid from ,napoleon1 who flattered each 
in turn1 with a view of rendering the   
one a tool for the destruction of the   
other4 ,the ,prince of ,peace was       
overthrown by a popular tumult2         
,ferdinand ,,vii4 was proclaimed king1  
and his father1 ,charles ,,iv41 was     
compelled to abdicate4 ,these events    
were apparently countenanced by         
,napoleon1 who invited the youthful     
sovereign to an interview2 ,ferdinand1  
accordingly1 went to ,bayonne and       
was--taken prisoner4 ,the ,prince of    
,peace1 on the eve of flying from       
,spain1 where his life was no longer    
safe1 with his treasures and with the   
queen1 persuaded the old king1 ,charles1
 also to go to ,bayonne1 where his      
person was instantly seized4 ,both he   
and his son were compelled to renounce  
their right to the throne of ,spain and 
to abdicate in favor of ,joseph1        
,napoleon's brother1 the #eth of ,may1  
#ahjh4 ,the elevation of ,joseph to the 
,spanish throne was followed by that of 

,murat to the throne of ,naples4 ,the   
haughty ,spaniard1 however1 refused to  
be trampled under foot1 and his proud   
spirit disdained to accept a king       
imposed upon him by such unparalleled   
treachery4 ,napoleon's victorious troops
 were1 for the first time1 routed by    
peasants1 an entire army was taken      
prisoner at ,baylen1 and another1 in    
,portugal1 was compelled to retreat4    
,napoleon's veterans were scattered by  
monks and peasants1 a proof1 to the     
eternal disgrace of every subject       
people1 that the invincibility of a     
nation depends but upon its will4       
,napoleon did not conduct the war in    
,spain in person during the first       
campaign2 the tranquillity of the ,north
 had first to be secured4 ,for this     
purpose1 he held a personal conference1 
in ,october1 #ahjh1 with the emperor    
,alexander at ,erfurt1 whither the      
princes of ,germany hastened to pay     
their devoirs1 humbly as their ancestors
 of yore to conquering ,attila4 ,the    

company of actors brought in ,napoleon's
 train from ,paris boasted of gaining   
the plaudits of a royal parterre1 and a 
,french sentinel happening to call to   
the watch to present arms to one of the 
kings there dancing attendance was      
reproved by his officer with the        
observation1 ,ce n'est qu un roi4#b     
,both emperors1 for the purpose of      
offering a marked insult to ,prussia1   
attended a great harehunt on the        
battlefield of ,jena4 ,it was during    
this conference that ,napoleon and      
,alexander divided between themselves   
the sovereignty of ,europe1 ,russia     
undertaking the subjugation of ,sweden  
and the seizure of ,finland1 ,france the
 conquest of ,spain and ,portugal4  ,the
 period immediately subsequent to the   
fall of the ancient empire forms the    
blackest page in the history of         
,germany4 ,the whole of the left bank of
 the ,rhine was annexed to ,france4 ,the
 people1 notwithstanding the improvement
 that took place in the administration  

under ,bon ,jean ,st4 ,andr1 groaned    
beneath the exorbitant taxes and the    
conscription4 ,the commerce on the      
,rhine had almost entirely              
ceased4#c--,the grandduchy of ,berg was1
 until #ahjh1 governed with great       
mildness by ,avar1 the ,french          
minister4--,holland had1 since #ahja1   
remained under the administration of her
 benevolent governor1 ,schimmelpenninck1
 but had been continually drained by the
 imposition of additional income taxes1 
which1 in #ahjd1 amounted to six per    
cent on the capital in the country4     
,commerce had entirely ceased1 smuggling
 alone excepted4 ,in #ahjf1 the ,dutch  
were commanded to entreat ,napoleon to  
grant them a king in the person of his  
brother ,louis1 who fixed his residence 
in the venerable council-house at       
,amsterdam1 and1 it must be confessed1  
endeavored to promote the real interests
 of his new subjects4#d  ,the ,swiss1   
with characteristic servility1 testified
 the greatest zeal on every occasion for

 the emperor ,napoleon1 celebrated his  
fete-day1 and boasted of his            
protection1#e and of the freedom they   
were still permitted to enjoy4 ,freedom 
of thought was expressly prohibited4    
,sycophants1 in the pay of the foreign  
ruler1 as1 for instance1 ,zschokke1     
alone guided public opinion4 ,in ,zug1  
any person who ventured to speak        
disparagingly of the ,swiss in the      
service of ,france was declared an enemy
 to his country and exposed to severe   
punishment4#f ,the ,swiss shed their    
blood in each and all of ,napoleon's    
campaigns1 and aided him to reduce their
 kindred nations to abject slavery4#g   
,the ,rhenish confederation shared the  
advantages of ,french influence to the  
same degree in which it1 in common with 
the old states on the left bank of the  
,rhine1 was subject to ecclesiastical   
corruption or to the upstart vanity     
incidental to petty states4 ,wherever   
enlightenment and liberty had formerly  
existed1 as in ,protestant and          

constitutional ,wrtemberg1 the violation
 of the ancient rights of the people was
 deeply felt1 and the new aristocracy1  
modelled on that of ,france1 appeared as
 unbearable to the older inhabitants of 
,wrtemberg as did the loss of their     
ancient independence to the mediatized  
princes and lordlings4 ,king ,frederick1
 notwithstanding his refusal to send    
troops into ,spain1 was compelled to    
furnish an enormous contingent for the  
wars in eastern ,europe2 the            
conscription and taxes were heavily     
felt1 and the peasant was vexed by the  
great hunts1 celebrated by ,matthisson1 
the court-poet1 as festivals of         
,diana4#h ,in ,bavaria1 the             
administration of ,maximilian ,joseph   
and of his minister1 ,montgelas1        
although arbitrary in its measures1     
promoted1 like that of ,frederick ,,ii4 
and ,joseph ,,ii41 the advance of       
enlightenment and true liberty4 ,the    
monasteries were closed1 the punishment 
of the rack was abolished1 unity was    

introduced in the administration of the 
state2 the schools1 the police1 and the 
roads were improved1 toleration was     
established2 in a word1 the dreams of   
the ,illuminati1 thirty years before    
this period1 were1 in almost every      
respect1 realized4 ,but1 on the other   
hand1 patriotism was here more unknown  
than in any other part of ,germany4     
,christopher von ,aretin set himself up 
as an apparitor to the ,french police1  
and1 in #ahaj1 published a work against 
the few ,german patriots still          
remaining1 whom he denounced1 in the    
fourteenth number of the ,literary      
,gazette of ,upper ,germany1 as         
,preachers of ,germanism1 criminals and 
traitors1 by whom the ,rhenish          
confederation was polluted4 ,the crown  
prince of ,bavaria1 who deeply lamented 
the rule of ,france and the miseries of 
,germany1 offers a contrary example4 ,a 
constitution1 naturally a mere tool in  
the hand of the ministry1 was bestowed1 
in #ahjh1 upon ,bavaria4  ,the          

government of ,charles von ,dalberg1 the
 prince primate and grandduke of        
,frankfort1 was one of the most         
despicable of those composing the       
,rhenish confederation4 ,equally        
insensible to the duties attached to his
 high name and station1#i he flattered  
the foreign tyrant to an extent         
unsurpassed by any of the other base    
sycophants at that time abounding in the
 empire2 with folded hands would he at  
all times invoke the blessing of the    
,most ,high on the head of the almighty 
ruler of the earth1 and celebrate each  
of his victories with hymns of gratitude
 and joy1 while his ministers misruled  
and tyrannized over the country1#aj     
whose freedom they loudly               
vaunted4#aa--;,in ,wrzburg1 the ,french 
ambassador reigned with the despotism of
 an ,eastern satrap4#ab ,saxe-,coburg#ac
 and ,anhalt-,gotha1#ad where the native
 tyrant was sheltered beneath the wing  
of ,napoleon1 were in the most          
lamentable state4--,in ,saxony1 the     

government remained unaltered4          
,frederick ,augustus1 filled with       
gratitude for the lenity with which he  
had been treated after the war and for  
the grant of the royal dignity1 remained
 steadily faithful to ,napoleon1 but    
introduced no internal innovations into 
the government4 ,the adhesion of        
,saxe-,weimar to the ,rhenish           
confederation was of deplorable         
consequence to ,germany1 the great poets
 assembled there by the deceased        
,duchess ,amalia also scattering incense
 around ,napoleon4  ,the kingdom of     
,westphalia was doomed to taste to the  
dregs the bitter cup of humiliation4    
,the new king1 ,jerome1 who declared1   
,je veux qu'on respecte la dignite de   
l'homme et du citoyen1 bestowed1 it is  
true1 many and great benefits upon his  
subjects2 the system of flogging1 so    
degrading to the soldier1 was abolished1
 the judicature was improved1 the       
administration simplified1 and the      
,german in authority1 notwithstanding   

his traditionary gruffness1 became      
remarkable for urbanity toward the      
citizens and peasants4 ,but ,napoleon's 
despotic rule ever demanded fresh       
sacrifices of men and money and         
increased severity on the part of the   
police1 in order to quell the spirit of 
revolt4 ,jerome1 conscious of being     
merely his brother's representative1    
consoled himself for his want of        
independence in his gay court at        
,cassel4#ae ,he had received but a      
middling education1 and had1 at one     
period1 held a situation in the marine  
at ,baltimore in ,north ,america4 ,while
 still extremely young1 placed          
unexpectedly upon a throne1 more as a   
splendid puppet than as an independent  
sovereign1 he gave way to excesses1     
natural1 and1 under the circumstances1  
almost excusable4 ,it would be          
ungenerous to repeat the sarcasms       
showered upon him on his expulsion4 ,the
 execrations heaped1 at a later period1 
upon his head1 ought with far greater   

justice to have fallen upon those of the
 ,germans themselves1 and more          
particularly upon those of that portion 
of the aristocracy that vied with the   
,french in enriching the chronique      
scandaleuse of ,cassel1 and upon those  
of the citizens who1 under ,bongars1 the
 head of the ,french police1 acted the  
part of spies upon and secret informers 
against their wretched countrymen4--,the
 farcical donation of a free            
constitution to the people put a climax 
to their degradation4 ,on the #b;d of   
,july1 #ahjh1 ,jerome summoned the      
,westphalian ,estates to ,cassel and    
opened the servile assembly1 thus       
arbitrarily convoked1 with extreme pomp4
 ,the unfortunate deputies1 who had1 on 
the conclusion of the lengthy           
ceremonial1 received an invitation      
assister au rpas at the palace and had  
repaired thither1 their imaginations1   
whetted by hunger1 revelling in visions 
of gastronomic delight1 were sorely     
discomfited on discovering that they    

were simply expected to look on while   
the sovereign feasted4 ,the result of   
this assembly was1 naturally1 a         
unanimous tribute of admiration and an  
invocation of blessings on the head of  
the foreign ruler1 the principal part in
 which was played by ,john ,mller1 who  
attempted to convince his fellow        
countrymen that by means of the ,french 
usurpation they had first received the  
boon of true liberty4 ,this             
cheaply-bought apostate said1 in his    
usual hyperbolical style1 ,it is a      
marked peculiarity of the northern      
nations1 more especially of those of    
,german descent1 that1 whenever ,god    
has1 in ,his wisdom1 resolved to bestow 
upon them a new kind or a higher degree 
of civilization1 the impulse has ever   
been given from without4 ,this impulse  
was given to us by ,napoleon1 by him    
before whom the earth is silent1 ,god   
having given the whole world into his   
hand1 nor can ,germany at the present   
period have a wish ungratified1         

,napoleon having reorganized her as the 
nursery of ,european civilization4 ,too 
sublime to condescend to every-day      
polity1 he has given durability to      
,germany6 ,happy nation6 what an        
interminable vista of glory opens to thy
 view6 ,thus spoke ,john ,mller4        
,thousands of ,germans had been         
converted into abject slaves1 but none  
other than he was there ever found1 with
 sentimental phrases to gild the chains 
of his countrymen1 to vaunt servility as
 liberty and dishonor as glory4#af ,john
 ,mller's unprincipled address formed1  
as it were1 the turning-point of ,german
 affairs4 ,self-degradation could go no 
further4 ,the spirit of the sons of     
,germany henceforward rose1 and1 with   
manly courage1 they sought1 by their    
future actions1 to wipe off the deep    
stain of their former guilt and         
dishonor4   ,footnote #a3 ,see accounts 
of this affair in the ,recollections of 
a ,legionary1 ,hanover1 #ahbf1 and in   
,beamisch's ,history of the ,legion4    

,footnote #b3 ,a graphic description of 
these times is to be met with in ,joanna
 ,schopenhauer's ,tour on the ,lower    
,rhine4 ,the kings of ,bavaria1         
,wurtemberg1 ,westphalia1 ,saxony1 the  
prince primate1 the hereditary prince of
 ,baden and of ,mecklenburg-,strelitz1  
the duke of ,weimar1 the princes of     
,hobenzollern1 ,hesse-,rotenburg1 and   
,hesse-,philippsthal1 were present4 ,no 
one belonging to the house of ,austria  
was there3 of that of ,prussia there was
 ,prince ,william1 the king's brother4  
,the ,allgemeine ,zeitung of that day   
wrote3 ,the fact of ,napoleon's sending 
for the privy-councillor1 ,von ,goethe1 
into his cabinet1 and conversing with   
him for upward of an hour1 appears to us
 well worthy of mention4 ,what ,german  
would not rejoice that the great emperor
 should have entered into such deep     
conversation with such a fitting        
representative of our noblest1 and now1 
alas1 sole remaining national           
possession1 our art and learning1 by    

whose preservation alone can our        
nationality be saved from utter         
annihilation4 ,notwithstanding which the
 company of actors belonging to the     
theatre at ,weimar1 which was close at  
hand and had been under ,goethe's       
instruction1 was not once allowed to    
perform on the ,erfurt stage1 which     
,napoleon had supplied with actors from 
,paris4 ,wieland was also compelled to  
remain standing for an hour in          
,napoleon's presence1 and when1 at      
length1 unable1 owing to the weakness of
 old age1 to continue in that position1 
he ventured to ask permission to retire1
 ,napoleon is said to have considered   
the request an unwarrantable liberty4   
,the literary heroes of ,weimar took no 
interest in the country from which they 
had received so deep a tribute of       
admiration4 ,not a patriotic sentiment  
escaped their lips4 ,at the time when   
the deepest wound was inflicted on the  
,tyrol1 ,goethe gave to the world his   
frivolous ,wahlverwandschaften1 which   

was followed by a poem in praise of     
,napoleon1 of whom he says3    ,doubts1 
that have baffled thousands1 he has     
solved2    ,ideas1 o'er which centuries 
have brooded1    ,his giant mind        
intuitively compassed4  ,footnote #c3   
,the great and dangerous robber bands of
 the notorious ,damian ,hessel1 and of  
,schinderhannes1 afford abundant proof  
of the demoralized condition of the     
people4  ,footnote #d3 ,on the #abth of 
,january1 #ahjg1 a ship laden with four 
hundred quintals of gunpowder blew up in
 the middle of the city of ,leyden1 part
 of which was thereby reduced to ruins1 
and one hundred and fifty persons1 among
 others the celebrated professors ,luzac
 and ,kleit1 were killed4  ,footnote #e3
 ,on the opening of the federal diet in 
#ahjf1 the ,landammann lauded the       
omnipotent benevolence of the gracious  
mediator4 ,in earlier times1 the ,swiss 
would1 on the contrary1 have boasted of 
their affording protection to1 not of   
receiving protection from1 ,france4     

,footnote #f3 ,in order to prove of what
 importance they considered the         
benevolent protection of ,napoleon the  
,great4--,attgemeine ,zeitung of #ahaj1 
,no4 #ij4  ,footnote #g3 ,their general1
 ,von der ,wied1 who was taken prisoner 
at ,talavera in ,spain and died shortly 
afterward of a pestilential disease1 had
 done signal service to ,france1 in     
#agih in ,switzerland1 in #agib in      
,italy1 in #ahje in ,austria1 in #ahjf  
in ,prussia1 and finally in             
,spain4--,allgemeine ,zeitung of #ahaa1 
,no4 #df4  ,footnote #h3 ,personal      
freedom was restricted by innumerable   
decrees4 ,freedom of speech1 formerly   
great in ,wrtemberg1 was strictly       
repressed2 all social confidence was    
annihilated4 ,a swarm of informers      
ensnared those whom the secret police   
were unable to entrap4 ,the secrecy of  
letters was violated4 ,trials in        
criminal cases were no longer allowed to
 be public4 ,the sentence passed upon   
the accused was1 particularly in cases  

of the highest import1 not delivered by 
the judge as dictated by the law1 but by
 the despot's caprice4--,the            
conscription was enforced with increased
 severity and tyranny4--,the natural    
right of emigration was abolished4--,the
 people were disarmed1 and not even the 
inhabitants of solitary farms and       
hamlets were allowed to possess arms in 
order to defend themselves against      
wolves and robbers4 ,a man was punished 
for killing a mad dog1 because the gun  
used for that purpose had been illegally
 secreted4 ,pass-tickets were given to  
and returned by all desirous of passing 
the gates of the pettiest town4 ,the    
members of the higher aristocracy were  
compelled1 under pain of being deprived 
of the third of their income1 to spend  
three months in the year at court4--,the
 citizen was oppressed by a variety of  
fresh taxes1 by the newly-created       
monopolies of tobacco1 salt1 etc41 and  
colonial imposts1 by the tenfold rise of
 the excise and custom-house dues1 etc4 

,vide ,zahn in the ,wrtemberg ,annual4  
,zschokke1 meanwhile1 in his pamphlet   
already mentioned1 ,will the human race 
gain1 etc41 advocated republican        
equality and liberty under a monarchical
 constitution4  ,footnote #i3 ,the ,von 
,dalbergs of ,franconia were the first  
hereditary barons of the ,holy ,roman   
,empire1 and one of their race was      
dubbed knight at each imperial          
coronation4 ,hence the demand of the    
imperial herald1 ,is no ,dalberg here8  
,and a ,dalberg it was1 who1 in         
,napoleon's name1 declared to the       
,german emperor that he no longer       
recognized an emperor of ,germany4--,in 
#agig1 ,dalberg had1 at the diet1 and   
again in #ahje1 expressed himself with  
great zeal against ,france2 on the      
present occasion he was ,napoleon's     
first satrap4  ,footnote #aj3 ,they sold
 the demesnes of ,hanau and ,fulda and  
received the sums produced by the sale  
in gift from the grandduke4--,grres's   
,rhenish ,mercury1 ,a4,d4 #ahad1 ,no4   

#afh4  ,footnote #aa3 ,they were        
barefaced enough to bestow a            
constitution1 and1 in #ahaj1 to open a  
diet at ,hanau1 although all the        
newspapers had1 five days previously1   
been suppressed1 and orders had been    
issued that the editor of the only      
newspaper permitted for the future was  
to be appointed by the                  
police4--,allgemeine ,zeitung1 ,no4     
#bid4  ,footnote #ab3 ,count            
,montholon-,semonville sold justice and 
mercy4 ,vide ,brockhaus's ,deutsche     
,bltter1 #ahad1 ,no4 #aja4  ,footnote   
#ac3 ,the duke1 ,francis1 allowed the   
country to be mercilessly drained and   
impoverished by the minister1 ,von      
,kretschmann4 ,he lived on extremely bad
 terms with his uncle1 ,frederick       
,josias1 duke of ,coburg1 the celebrated
 ,austrian general4 ,francis died in    
#ahjf4 ,ernest1 his son and successor1  
delivered the country1 in #ahji1 from   
,kretschmann's tyranny1 and1 in #ahaa1  
bestowed upon it a constitution1 which  

was1 nevertheless1 merely an imitation  
of that of ,westphalia4  ,footnote #ad3 
,the prince1 ,augustus ,christian       
,frederick1 contracted debts to an      
enormous amount1 completely drained his 
petty territory1 and even seized        
bail-money4 ,military amusements1       
drunkenness and other gross excesses1   
the preservation of enormous herds of   
deer which destroyed the fields of the  
peasantry1 formed the pleasures of this 
prince4--,stenzel's ,history of ,anhalt4
  ,footnote #ae3 ,napoleon nicknamed him
 roi de coulisses1 and gave him a       
guardian in his ambassador1 ,reinhard1 a
 person of celebrity during the         
,revolution4 ,jerome's first ministers  
were friends of his youth2 the ,creole1 
,le ,camus1 who was created ,count      
,prstenstein1 and ,malchus1 whose office
 it was to fill a bottomless treasury4  
,vide ,hormayr1 ,archive #e1 #deh1 and  
the ,secret ,history of the ,court of   
,westphalia1 #ahad4  ,footnote #af3     
,vide ,strombeck's ,life and the        

,allgemeine ,zeitung of ,september1     
#ahjh4 ,besides ,john ,mller and        
,aretin1 mention may1 with equal        
justice1 be made of ,orome of ,geissen  
and ,zschokke1 a native of ,magdeburg   
naturalized in ,switzerland1 who1 in    
#ahjg1 ventured to declare in public    
that ,napoleon had done more for ,swiss 
independence than ,william ,tell five   
hundred years ago2 who1 paid by         
,napoleon1 defamed the noble-spirited   
,spaniards and ,tyrolese in #ahae1      
decried the enthusiastic spirit         
animating ,germany1 and afterward       
whitewashed himself by his liberal      
tirades4 ,with these may also be        
associated ,murhard1 the publisher of   
the ,moniteur ,westphalien1 ,k4,j4      
,schtz1 the author of a work upon       
,napoleon1 the ,berlinese ,jew1 ,saul   
,asher1 the author of a scandalous work1
 entitled ,germanomanie1 and of a       
slanderous article in ,zschokke's       
,miscellanies against ,prussia1         
,kosegarten the poet1 who1 in #ahji1    

delivered a speech in eulogy of         
,napoleon1 far surpassing all in bombast
 and mean adulation4 ,benturini1 at that
 time1 also termed ,napoleon the        
emanation of the universal ,spirit1 a   
second incarnation of the ,deity1 a     
second savior of the world4 ,in         
,posselt's ,european ,annals of #ahjg1 a
 work by a certain ,w4 upon the         
political interests of ,germany         
appeared1 and concluded as follows3 ,let
 us raise to him 7,napoleon7 a national 
monument1 worthy of the first and only  
benefactor of the nations of ,germany4  
,let his name be engraved in gigantic   
letters of shining gold on ,germany's   
highest and steepest pinnacle1 whence1  
lighted by the effulgent rays of morn1  
it may be visible far over the plains on
 which he bestowed a happier futurity6  
,this writer also drew a comparison     
between ,napoleon and ,charlemagne1 in  
which he designated the latter a        
barbarous despot and the former the new 
savior of the world4 ,he says1 ,napoleon

 first solved the enigma of equality and
 liberty--his chief aim was the         
prevention of despotism--his chief      
desire1 to eternalize the dominion of   
virtue4 ,in the course of #ahjh1 it was 
said in the essay1 ,on the ,regeneration
 of ,germany1 that the ,germans were    
still children whom it was solely       
possible for the ,french to educate3    
,our language is also not logical like  
,french--if we intend to attain unity1  
we must adhere with heart and soul to   
him who has smoothed the path to it1 to 
him1 our securest support1 to him1 whose
 name outshines that of                 
,charlemagne--foreign princes in ,german
 countries are no proof of subjection1  
they1 on the contrary1 most surely      
warrant our continued existence as a    
nation4 ,in ,france sixty authors       
dedicated their works1 within the space 
of a year1 to the emperor ,napoleon--in 
,germany1 ninety4    ,,cclvi4           
,resuscitation of ,patriotism           
,throughout ,germany--,austria's        

,demonstration   ,the general slavery1  
although most severely felt in ,eastern 
,germany1 bore there a less disgraceful 
character4 ,austria and ,prussia had    
been conquered1 pillaged1 reduced in    
strength and political importance1 while
 the ,rhenish states1 forgetful that it 
is ever less disgraceful to yield to an 
overpowering enemy than voluntarily to  
lend him aid1 had shared in and profited
 by the triumph of the empire's foe4    
,austria and ,prussia suffered to a     
greater extent than the ,rhenish        
confederation1 but they preserved a     
higher degree of independence4 ,prussia1
 although almost annihilated by her late
 disasters1#a still dreamed of future   
liberation4 ,austria had1               
notwithstanding her successive and      
numerous defeats1 retained the greater  
share of independence1 but her          
subjection1 although to a lesser degree1
 was the more disgraceful on account of 
her former military glory and her       
preponderance as a political power in   

,germany4 ,with steady perseverance and 
unfaltering courage she opposed the     
attacks of the foreign tyrant against   
the empire1 and1 ,france's first and    
last antagonist1 the most faithful      
champion of the honor of ,germany1 she  
rose1 with redoubled vigor1 after each  
successive defeat1 to renew the unequal 
struggle4  ,prussia had been overcome1  
because1 instead of uniting with the    
other states of ,germany1 she had first 
abandoned them to be afterward deserted 
by them in her turn1 and because1       
instead of arming her warlike people    
against every foreign foe1 she had      
habituated her citizens to unarmed      
effeminacy and had rested her sole      
support on a mercenary army1 an         
artificial and spiritless automaton1    
separated from and unsympathizing with  
the people4 ,the idea that the salvation
 of ,prussia could now alone be found in
 her reconciliation with the neighboring
 powers of ,germany1 in a general       
confederation1 in the patriotism of her 

armed citizens1 had already arisen4     
,but1 in order to inspire the citizen   
with enthusiasm1 he must first1 by the  
secure and free possession of his rights
 and by his participation in the public 
weal1 be deeply imbued with a           
consciousness of freedom4 ,the slave has
 no country2 the freeman alone will lay 
down his life in its defence4 ,in those 
times of ,germany's deepest degradation 
and suffering1 men for the first time   
again heard speak of a great and common 
fatherland1 of national fame and honor2 
and liberty1 that glorious name1 was    
uttered not only by those who groaned   
beneath the rule of the despotic        
foreigner1 but even by those who        
deplored the loss of the internal       
liberty of their country1 the gradual   
subjection of the proud and             
free-spirited ,german to native tyranny4
 ,the king of ,prussia1 not content with
 morally reorganizing his army1 also    
bestowed wise laws1 which restored the  
citizen and the peasant to their rights1

 to their dignity as men1 of which they 
had for so long been deprived by the    
nobility1 the monopolizers of every     
privilege4 ,the emancipation of the     
peasant essentially consisted in the    
abolition of feudal servitude and forced
 labor2 that of the citizen1 in the     
donation of a free municipal            
constitution1 of self-administration1   
and freedom of election4 ,the nobility  
were1 at the same time1 despoiled of the
 exclusive appointment to the higher    
civil and military posts and of the     
exclusive possession of landed property4
 ,each citizen possessed the right1     
hitherto strictly prohibited1 of        
purchasing baronial estates1 and the    
nobility were1 on their part1 permitted 
to exercise trades1 which a miserable   
prejudice had hitherto deemed           
incompatible with noble birth4 ,these   
new institutions date from #ahjh and are
 due to the energy of the minister1     
,stein4  ,this noble-spirited ,german   
was the founder of a secret society1 the

 ,tugendbund1 by which a general        
insurrection against ,napoleon was      
silently prepared throughout ,germany4  
,among its members were numerous        
statesmen1 officers1 and literati4      
,among the latter1 ,arndt gained great  
note by his popular style1 ,jahn by his 
influence over the rising generation4   
,jahn reintroduced gymnastics1 so long  
neglected1 into education1 as a means of
 heightening moral courage by the       
increase of physical strength4#b        
,scharnhorst1 meanwhile1 although       
restricted to the prescribed number of  
troops1 created a new army by           
continually exchanging trained soldiers 
for raw recruits1 and secretly purchased
 an immense quantity of arms1 so that a 
considerable force could1 in case of    
necessity1 be speedily assembled4 ,he   
also had all the brass battery guns     
secretly converted into field-pieces and
 replaced by iron guns4 ,napoleon's     
spies1 however1 came upon the trace of  
the ,tugendbund4 ,stein1 exposed by an  

intercepted letter1 was outlawed#c by   
,napoleon and compelled to quit         
,prussia4 ,he was succeeded by          
,hardenberg1 by whom the treaty of      
,basel had formerly been concluded and  
whose nomination was publicly approved  
of by ,napoleon4 ,scharnhorst and       
,julius ,gruner1 the head of the ,berlin
 police1 were also deprived of their    
offices4 ,the ,berlin university1       
nevertheless1 continued to give evidence
 of a better spirit4 ,enlightenment and 
learning1 on their decrease at          
,frankfort on the ,oder1 here found     
their headquarters4 ,halle had become   
,westphalian1 and the universities of   
,rinteln and ,helmstdt had1 from a      
similar cause1 been closed4  ,austria   
also felt her humiliation too deeply not
 to be inspired1 like ,prussia1 with an 
instinct of self-preservation4 ,the     
imperial dignity and catholicism were   
here closely associated with the memory 
of the ,middle ,ages1 whose magnificence
 and grandeur were once more disclosed  

to the people in the masterly           
productions of the writers of the day4  
,hence the unison created by ,frederick 
,schlegel between the romantic poets and
 antiquarians of ,germany and ,viennese 
policy4 ,the predilection for ancient   
,german art and poetry had1 in the      
literary world1 been merely produced by 
the reaction of ,german intelligence    
against foreign imitation2 this literary
 reaction1 however1 happened            
coincidently with and aided that in the 
political world4 ,the ,nibelungen1 the  
,minnesingers1 the ancient chronicles1  
became a popular study4 ,the same       
enthusiasm inspired the liberal-spirited
 poets1 ,tieck1 ,arnim1 and ,brentano2  
,fouqu charmed the rising generation and
 the multitude with his extravagant     
descriptions of the age of chivalry2 the
 learned researches of ,grimm1 ,hagen1  
,busching1 ,grter1 etc41 into ,german   
antiquity1 at that time1 excited general
 interest1 but the glowing colors in    
which ,joseph ,gorres1 himself a former 

,jacobin1 and amid the half ,gallicized 
inhabitants of ,coblentz1 revived1 as if
 by magic1 the ,middle ,age on the      
ruin-strewed banks of the ,rhine caused 
the deepest delight4 ,two men1 ,stein1  
now a refugee in ,austria1 and ,count   
,munster1 first of all ,hanoverian      
minister and afterward ,english         
ambassador at ,petersburg1 who kept up a
 constant correspondence with ,stein and
 conducted the secret negotiations in   
the name of ,great ,britain1 were       
unwearied in their endeavors to forge   
arms against ,napoleon4 ,in ,austria1   
,count ,john ,philip von ,stadion1 who  
had1 since the ,december of #ahje1 been 
placed at the head of the ministry1 had 
both the power and the will to repair   
the blunders committed by ,thugut and   
,cobenzl4  ,the ,russo-gallic alliance  
was viewed with terror by ,austria4     
,europe had1 to a certain degree1 been  
partitioned at ,erfurt1 by ,napoleon and
 ,alexander4 ,fresh sacrifices were     
evidently on the eve of being extorted  

from ,germany4 ,russia had resolved at  
any price to gain possession of either  
the whole or a part of ,turkey1 and     
offered to confirm ,napoleon in that of 
,bohemia1 on condition of being         
permitted to seize ,moldavia and        
,wallachia4#d ,the danger was urgent4   
,austria1 sold by ,russia to ,france1   
could alone defend herself against both 
her opponents by an immense exertion of 
the national power of ,germany4 ,the old
 and faulty system had been fearfully   
revenged4 ,the disunion of the ,german  
princes1 the despotism of the           
aristocratic administrations1 the       
estrangement of the people from all     
public affairs1 had all conduced to the 
present degradation of ,germany4        
,necessity now induced an alteration in 
the system of government and an appeal  
to the ,german people1 whose voice had  
hitherto been vainly raised4 ,the       
example set by ,spain was to be         
followed4 ,stein1 who was at that time  
at ,vienna1 kindled the glowing embers  

to a flame4 ,the military reforms begun 
at an earlier period by the ,archduke   
,charles were carried out on a wider    
basis4 ,a completely new institution1   
that of the ,landwehr or armed citizens1
 in contradistinction with the mercenary
 soldiery1 was set on foot4 ,enthusiasm 
and patriotism were not wanting4 ,the   
circumstance of the pope's imprisonment 
in ,rome by ,napoleon sufficed to rouse 
the ,catholics4 ,everything was hoped   
for from a general rising throughout    
,germany against the ,french4           
,precipitation1 however1 ruined all4    
,prussia was still too much weakened1   
her fortresses were still in the hands  
of the ,french1 and ,austria inspired   
but little confidence1 while the        
,rhenish confederation solely aimed at  
aggrandizing itself by fresh wars at the
 expense of that empire1 and1           
notwithstanding the inclination to      
revolt evinced by the people in         
different parts of ,germany1 more       
particularly in ,westphalia1 the terror 

inspired by ,napoleon kept them1 as     
though spellbound1 beneath their galling
 yoke4  ,while ,napoleon was engaged in 
the ,peninsula1 ,austria levied almost  
the whole of her able-bodied men and    
equipped an army1 four hundred thousand 
strong1 at the head of which no longer  
foreign generals1 but the princes of the
 house of ,habsburg1 were placed4 ,the  
,archduke ,charles#e set off1 in #ahji1 
for the ,rhine1 ,john for ,italy1       
,ferdinand for ,poland4 ,the first      
proclamation1 signed by ,prince         
,rosenberg and addressed to the         
,bavarians1 was as follows3 ,you are now
 beginning to perceive that we are      
,germans like yourselves1 that the      
general interest of ,germany touches you
 more nearly than that of a nation of   
robbers1 and that the ,german nation can
 alone be restored to its former glory  
by acting in unison4 ,become once more  
what you once were1 brave ,germans6 ,or 
have you1 ,bavarian peasants and        
citizens1 gained aught by your prince   

being made into a king8 by the extension
 of his authority over a few additional 
square miles8 ,have your taxes been     
thereby decreased8 ,do you enjoy greater
 security in your persons and property8 
,the proclamation of the ,archduke      
,charles to the ,german nation1         
declared3 ,we have taken up arms to     
restore independence and national honor 
to ,germany4 ,our cause is the cause of 
,germany4 ,show yourselves deserving of 
our esteem6 ,the ,german1 forgetful of  
what is due to himself and to his       
country1 is our only foe4 ,an anonymous 
but well-known proclamation also        
declared3 ,austria beheld--a sight that 
drew tears of blood from the heart of   
every true-born ,german--you1 ,o nations
 of ,germany6 so deeply debased as to be
 compelled to submit to the legislation 
of the foreigner and to allow your sons1
 the youth of ,germany1 to be led to war
 against their still unsubdued brethren4
 ,the shameful subjection of millions of
 once free-born ,germans will ere long  

be completed4 ,austria exhorts you to   
raise your humbled necks1 to burst your 
slavish chains6 ,and in another address 
was said3 ,how long shall ,hermann mourn
 over his degenerate children8 ,was it  
for this that the ,cherusci fought in   
the ,teutoburg forest8 ,is every spark  
of ,german courage extinct8 ,does the   
sound of your clanking chains strike    
like music on your ears8 ,germans1      
awake6 shake off your death-like slumber
 in the arms of infamy6 ,germans6 shall 
your name become the derision of after  
ages8  ,the ,austrian army1 instead of  
vigorously attacking and disarming      
,bavaria1 but slowly advanced1 and      
permitted the ,bavarians to withdraw    
unharassed for the purpose of forming a 
junction with the other troops of the   
,rhenish confederation under ,napoleon1 
who had hastened from ,spain on the     
first news of the movements of ,austria4
 ,the hopes of the ,german patriots     
could not have been more fearfully      
disappointed or the ,german name more   

deeply humiliated than by the scorn with
 which ,napoleon1 on this occasion1     
placed himself at the head of the       
nations of western ,germany1 by whose   
arms alone1 for he had but a handful of 
,french with him1 he overcame their     
eastern brethren at a moment in which   
the ,german name and ,german honor were 
more loudly invoked4 ,i have not come   
among you1 said ,napoleon smilingly to  
the ,bavarians1 ,wurtembergers1 etc41 by
 whom he was surrounded1 ,i am not come 
among you as the emperor of ,france1 but
 as the protector of your country and of
 the ,german confederation4 ,no         
,frenchman is among you2 you alone shall
 beat the ,austrians4#f ,the extent of  
the blindness of the ,rhenish           
confederation#g is visible in their     
proclamations4 ,the king of ,saxony even
 called ,heaven to his aid1 and said to 
his soldiers1 ,draw your swords against 
,austria with full trust in the aid of  
,divine providence6#h  ,in the ,april of
 #ahji1 ,napoleon led the ,rhenish      

confederated troops1 among which the    
,bavarians under ,general ,wrede chiefly
 distinguished themselves1 against the  
,austrians1 who had but slowly advanced1
 and defeated them in five battles1 on  
five successive days1 the most glorious 
triumph of his surpassing tactics1 at   
,pfaffenhofen1 ,thann1 ,abensberg1      
,landshut1 ,eckmuhl1 and ,ratisbon4 ,the
 ,archduke ,charles retired into        
,bohemia in order to collect            
reinforcements1 but ,general ,hiller    
was1 on account of the delay in         
repairing the fortifications of ,linz1  
unable to maintain that place1 the      
possession of which was important on    
account of its forming a connecting     
point between ,bohemia and the ,austrian
 ,oberland4 ,hiller1 however1 at least  
saved his honor by pushing forward to   
the ,traun1 and1 in a fearfully bloody  
encounter at ,ebelsberg1 capturing three
 ,french eagles1 one of his colors alone
 falling into the enemy's hands4 ,he    
was1 nevertheless1 compelled to retire  

before the superior forces of the       
,french1 and ,napoleon entered ,vienna  
unopposed4 ,a few balls from the walls  
of the inner city were directed against 
the faubourg in his possession1 but he  
no sooner began to bombard the palace   
than the inner city yielded4 ,the       
,archduke ,charles arrived1 when too    
late1 from ,bohemia4 ,both armies1      
separated by the ,danube1 stood opposed 
to one another in the vicinity of the   
imperial city4 ,napoleon1 in order to   
bring the enemy to a decisive           
engagement1 crossed the river close to  
the great island of ,lobau4 ,he was     
received on the opposite bank near      
,aspern and ,esslingen by the ,archduke 
,charles1 and1 after a dreadful battle1 
that was carried on with unwearied      
animosity for two days1 the #bast and   
#bb;d of ,may1 #ahji1 was for the first 
time completely beaten#i and compelled  
to fly for refuge to the island of      
,lobau4 ,the rising stream had1         
meanwhile1 carried away the bridge1     

,napoleon's sole chance of escape to the
 opposite bank4 ,for two days he        
remained on the island with his defeated
 troops1 without provisions1 and in     
hourly expectation of being cut to      
pieces2 the ,austrians1 however1        
neglected to turn the opportunity to    
advantage and allowed the ,french       
leisure to rebuild the bridge1 a work of
 extreme difficulty4 ,during six weeks  
afterward the two armies continued to   
occupy their former positions under the 
walls of ,vienna on the right and left  
banks of the ,danube1 narrowly watching 
each other's movements and preparing for
 a final struggle4  ,the ,archduke ,john
 had successfully penetrated into       
,italy1 where he had defeated the       
viceroy1 ,eugene1 at ,salice and        
,fontana fredda4 ,favored by the        
simultaneous revolt of the ,tyrolese1   
his success appeared certain1 when the  
news of his brother's disaster compelled
 him to retreat4 ,he withdrew into      
,hungary1#aj whither he was pursued by  

,eugene1 by whom he was1 on the #adth of
 ,june1 defeated at ,raab4 ,the         
,archduke ,ferdinand1 who had advanced  
as far as ,warsaw1 had been driven back 
by the ,poles under ,poniatowski and by 
a ,russian force sent by the emperor    
,alexander to their aid1 which1 on this 
success1 invaded ,galicia4 ,napoleon    
rewarded the ,poles for their aid by    
allowing ,russia to seize ,wallachia and
 ,moldavia4  ,the fate of ,austria now  
depended on the issue of the struggle   
about to take place on the ,danube4 ,the
 archduke's troops were still elated    
with recent victory1 but ,napoleon had  
been strongly reinforced and again began
 the attack at ,wagram1 not far from the
 battleground of ,aspern4 ,the contest  
lasted two days1 the #eth and #fth of   
,july4 ,the ,austrians fought with great
 personal gallantry1 lost one of their  
colors1 but captured twelve golden      
eagles and standards of the enemy2 but  
the reserve body1 intended to protect   
their left wing1 failing to make its    

appearance on the field1 they were      
outflanked by ,napoleon and driven back 
upon ,moravia4 ,every means of          
conveyance in ,vienna was put into      
requisition for the transport of the    
forty-five thousand men1 wounded on this
 occasion1 to the hospitals1 and this   
heartrending scene indubitably          
contributed to strengthen the general   
desire for peace4 ,an armistice was1 on 
the #abth of ,july1 concluded at ,znaym1
 and1 after long negotiation1 was       
followed1 on the #ajth of ,october1 by  
the treaty of ,vienna4 ,austria was     
compelled to cede ,carniola1 ,trieste1  
,croatia and ,dalmatia to ,napoleon1    
,salzburg1 ,berchtoldsgaden1 the        
,innviertel1 and the ,hausruckviertel to
 ,bavaria1 a part of ,galicia to ,warsaw
 and another part to ,russia4 ,count    
,stadion lost office and was succeeded  
by ,clement1 ,count von                 
,metternich4--,frederick ,stabs1 the son
 of a preacher of ,nuamburg on the      
,saal1 formed a resolution to poniard   

,napoleon at ,schnbrunn1 the imperial   
palace in the neighborhood of ,vienna4  
,rapp's suspicions became roused1 and   
the young man was arrested before his   
purpose could be effected4 ,he candidly 
avowed his intention4 ,and if ,i grant  
you your life8 asked ,napoleon4 ,i would
 merely make use of the gift to rob you1
 on the first opportunity1 of yours1 was
 the undaunted reply4 ,four-and-twenty  
hours afterward the young man was       
shot4#aa ,the ancient ,german race of   
,gotscheer in ,carniola and the people  
of ,istria rose in open insurrection    
against the ,french and were only put   
down by force4  ,although ,prussia had  
left ,austria unsuccored during this    
war1 many of her subjects were animated 
with a desire to aid their ,austrian    
brethren4 ,schill1 unable to restrain   
his impetuosity1 quitted ,berlin on the 
#bhth of ,april1 for that purpose1 with 
his regiment of hussars4 ,his conduct1  
although condemned by a sentence of the 
court-martial1 was universally          

applauded4 ,dornberg1 an officer of     
,jerome's guard1 revolted simultaneously
 in ,hesse1 but was betrayed by a false 
friend at the moment in which ,jerome's 
person was to have been seized1 and was 
compelled to fly for his life4 ,schill  
merely advanced as far as ,wittenberg   
and ,halberstadt1 was again driven      
northward to ,wismar1 and finally to    
,stralsund1 by the superior forces of   
,westphalia and ,holland4 ,in a bloody  
street-fight at ,stralsund he split     
,general ,carteret's1 the ,dutch        
general's head1 and was himself killed  
by a cannon-ball4 ,thus fell this young 
hero1 true to his motto1 ,better a      
terrible end than endless terror4 ,the  
,dutch cut off his head1 preserved it in
 spirits of wine1 and placed it publicly
 in the ,leyden library1 where it       
remained until #ahcg1 when it was buried
 at ,brunswick in the grave of his      
faithful followers4 ,five hundred of his
 men1 under ,lieutenant ,brunow1 escaped
 by forcing their way through the enemy4

 ,of the prisoners taken on this        
occasion1 eleven officers were1 by      
,napoleon's command1 shot at ,wesel1    
fourteen subalterns and soldiers at     
,brunswick1 the rest1 about six hundred 
in number1 were sent in chains to       
,toulon and condemned to the galleys4#ab
 ,drnberg fled to ,england4 ,katt1      
another patriot1 assembled a number of  
veterans at ,stendal and advanced as far
 as ,magdeburg1 but was compelled to    
flee to the ,brunswickers in ,bohemia4  
,what might not have been the result had
 the plan of the ,archduke ,charles to  
march rapidly through ,franconia been   
followed on the opening of the campaign8
  ,william1 duke of ,brunswick1 the son 
of the hapless ,duke ,ferdinand1 had    
quitted ,oels1 his sole possession1 for 
,bohemia1 where he had collected a force
 two thousand strong1 known as the black
 ,brunswickers on account of the color  
of their uniform and the death's head on
 their helmets1 with which he resolved  
to avenge his father's death4           

,victorious in petty engagements over   
the ,saxons at ,zittau and over the     
,french under ,junot at ,berneck1 he    
refused to recognize the armistice      
between ,austria and ,france1 and1      
fighting his way through the enemy1     
surprised ,leipzig by night and there   
provided himself with ammunition and    
stores4 ,he was awaited at ,halberstadt 
by the ,westphalians under              
,wellingerode1 whom1 notwithstanding    
their numerical superiority1 he         
completely defeated during the night of 
the #cjth of ,july4 ,two days later he  
was attacked in ,brunswick1 in his      
father's home1 by an enemy three times  
his superior1 by the ,westphalians under
 ,rewbel1 who advanced from ,celle while
 the ,saxons and ,dutch pursued him from
 ,erfurt4 ,aided by his brave citizens1 
many of whom followed his fortunes1 he  
was again victorious and was enabled by 
a speedy retreat1 in which he broke down
 all the bridges to his rear1 to escape 
to ,elsfleth1 whence he sailed to       

,england4  ,in ,august1 an ,english     
army1 forty thousand strong1 landed on  
the island of ,walcheren and attempted  
to create a diversion in ,holland1 but  
its ranks were speedily thinned by      
disease1 it did not venture up the      
country and finally returned to         
,england4 ,the ,english1 nevertheless1  
displayed henceforward immense activity 
in the ,peninsula1 where1 aided by the  
brave and high-spirited population1#ac  
they did great detriment to the ,french4
 ,in the ,english army in the ,peninsula
 were several thousand ,germans1        
principally ,hanoverian refugees4 ,there
 were also numerous deserters from the  
,rhenish confederated troops1 sent by   
,napoleon into ,spain4  ,during the war 
in ,june1 the king of ,wurtemberg took  
possession of ,mergentheim1 the chief   
seat of the ,teutonic order1 which had1 
up to the present period1 remained      
unsecularized4 ,the surprised           
inhabitants received the new ,protestant
 authorities with demonstrations of rage

 and revolted4 ,they were the last and  
the only ones among all the secularized 
or mediatized estates of the ,empire    
that boldly attempted opposition4 ,they 
were naturally overpowered without much 
difficulty and were cruelly punished4   
,about thirty of them were shot by the  
soldiery2 six were executed2 several    
wealthy burgesses and peasants were     
condemned as criminals to work in chains
 in the new royal gardens at ,stuttgard4
 ,thus miserably terminated the         
celebrated ,teutonic order4   ,footnote 
#a3 ,the whole of the revenues of       
,prussia were confiscated by the ,french
 until #ahjh4 ,the contribution of one  
hundred and forty millions was1         
nevertheless1 to be paid1 and the       
,french garrisons in the ,prussian      
fortresses of ,glogau1 ,kstrin1 and     
,stettin were to be maintained at the   
expense of ,prussia4 ,the suppression of
 the monasteries in ,silesia was far    
from lucrative1 the commissioners1 who  
were irresponsible1 carrying on a system

 of pillage1 and landed property having 
greatly fallen in value4 ,the most      
extraordinary imposts of every          
description were resorted to for the    
purpose of raising a revenue1 among     
other means1 a third of all the gold and
 silver in the country was called in4 ,a
 coinage1 still more debased1 was       
issued1 and one more inferior still was 
smuggled into the country by ,english   
coiners4 ,in #ahjh1 silver money fell   
two-thirds of its current value and was 
even refused acceptance at that         
price4--,the ,french1 moreover1 lorded  
over the country with redoubled         
insolence1 broke every treaty1 increased
 their garrisons1 and occasionally laid 
the most inopportune commands1 in the   
form of a request1 upon the king2 as1   
for instance1 to lay under embargo and  
deliver up to them a number of ,english 
merchantmen that had been driven into   
the ,prussian harbors by a dreadful     
storm4 ,blcher1 at that time governor of
 ,pomerania1 restrained his fiery nature

 and patiently endured their insolence1 
while silently brooding over deep and   
implacable revenge4  ,footnote #b3 ,when
 marching with his pupils out of        
,berlin1 he would ask the fresh ones as 
he passed beneath the ,bradenburg gate1 
,what are you thinking of now8 ,if the  
boy did not know what to answer1 he     
would give him a box on the ear1 saying 
as he did so1 ,you should think of this1
 how you can bring back the four fine   
statues of horses that once stood over  
this gate and were carried by the       
,french to ,paris4  ,footnote #c3       
,decree of #afth ,december1 #ahjh3 ,a   
certain ,stein1 who is attempting to    
create disturbances1 is herewith        
declared the enemy of ,france2 his      
property shall be placed under          
sequestration1 and his person shall be  
secured4 ,the ,allgemeine ,zeitung      
warns1 at the same time1 in its #ccjth  
number1 all ,german savants not to give 
way to patriotic enthusiasm and to      
follow in ,john ,mller's footsteps4     

,footnote #d3 ,bignon's ,history of     
,france4  ,footnote #e3 ,he undertook   
the chief command with extreme          
unwillingness and had long advised      
against the war1 the time not having yet
 arrived1 ,prussia being still adverse1 
,germany not as yet restored to her     
senses1 and experience having already   
proved to him how little he could act as
 his judgment directed4 ,how often had  
he not been made use of and then        
suddenly neglected1 been restrained1 in 
the midst of his operations1 by secret  
orders1 been permitted to conduct the   
first or only the second part of a      
campaign1 been placed in a subaltern    
position when the chief command was     
rightfully his1 or been forced to accept
 of it when all was irremediably lost4  
,even on this occasion the first measure
 advised by him1 that of pushing rapidly
 through ,bohemia and ,franconia1 met   
with opposition4 ,on the ,maine and on  
the ,weser alone was there a hope of    
inspiring the people with enthusiasm1   

not in ,bavaria1 where the hatred of the
 ,austrians was irradicably rooted4 ,it1
 nevertheless1 pleased the military     
advisers of the emperor at ,vienna to   
order the army to advance slowly through
 ,bavaria4  ,footnote #f3 ,none of my   
soldiers accompany me4 ,you will know   
how to value this mark of               
confidence4--,napoleon's ,address to the
 ,bavarians4 ,blderndorf's ,bavarian    
,campaigns4 ,i am alone among you and   
have not a ,frenchman around my person4 
,this is an unparalleled honor paid by  
me to you4--,napoleon's ,address to the 
,wrtemberg troops4 ,arndt wrote at that 
time3    ,by idle words and dastard     
wiles      ,hath he the mastery gained2 
,he holds our sacred fatherland      ,in
 slavery enchained4    ,fear hath       
rendered truth discreet1    ,and ,honor 
croucheth at his feet4     ,is this his 
work8 ah no6 'tis thine6      ,this thou
 alone hast done4    ,for him thy banner
 waved1 for him      ,thy sword the     
battle won     ,by thy disputes he      

gaineth strength1      ,by thy disgrace 
full honor1    ,and 'neath the ,german  
hero's arm      ,his weakness doth he   
cover3    ,glittering erewhile in       
borrowed show1    ,the ,gallic cock doth
 proudly crow4  ,footnote #g3 ,the      
states of ,wrtemberg imparted1 among    
other things1 the following piece of    
information to the house of ,habsburg3  
,that the heads of a democratical       
government should spread principles     
destructive to order among its neighbors
 was easily explicable1 but that        
,austria should take advantage of the   
war to derange the internal mechanism of
 neighboring states was                 
inexcusable4--,allgemeine ,zeitung1 ,no4
 #aac4 ,the ,bavarian proclamation      
7,allgemeine ,zeitung1 ,no4 #ace7 says1 
,princes of the blood royal unblushingly
 subscribed to proclamations placing    
them on an equality with the men of the 
,revolution of #agic4 ,the ,moniteur1   
,napoleon's ,parisian organ1 said in    
,august1 #ahji1 after the conclusion of 

the war1 ,the mighty hand of ,napoleon  
has snatched ,germany from the          
revolutionary abyss about to engulf her4
  ,footnote #h3 ,posselt's ,political   
,annals at that time contained an essay1
 in which the attempt made by the       
,austrian cabinet to call the ,germans  
to arms was designated as a crime       
against the sovereigns among whom       
,germany was at that period partitioned1
 and in whose hearing it was both       
foolish and dangerous to speak of       
,germany4 ,derision has seldom been     
carried to such a pitch4  ,footnote #i3 
,the finest feat of arms was that       
performed by the ,austrian infantry1 who
 repulsed twelve ,french regiments of   
cuirassiers4 ,this picked body of       
cavalry was mounted on the best and     
strongest horses of ,holstein and       
,mecklenburg 7for ,napoleon overcame    
,germany principally by means of        
,germany71 and bore an extremely        
imposing appearance4 ,the ,austrian     
infantry coolly stood their charge and  

allowed them to come close upon them    
before firing a shot1 when1 taking      
deliberate aim at the horses1 they and  
their riders were rolled in confused    
heaps on the ground4 ,three thousand    
cuirasses were picked up by the victors 
after the battle4  ,footnote #aj3       
,napoleon proclaimed independence to the
 ,hungarians1 but was unable to gain a  
single adherent among them4  ,footnote  
#aa3 ,aretin about this time published a
 ,representation of the ,patriots of    
,austria to ,napoleon the ,great1 in    
which that great sovereign was entreated
 to bestow a new government upon        
,austria and to make that country1 like 
the new kingdom of ,westphalia1 a member
 of his family of states4 ,a fitting    
pendant to ,john ,mller's state speech1 
and so much the more uncalled-for as it 
was exactly the ,austrians who1 during  
this disastrous period1 had1 less than  
any of the other races of ,germany1 lost
 their national pride4  ,footnote #ab3  
,they were afterward condemned to hard  

labor in the ,hieres ,isles1 nor was it 
until #ahad that the survivors1 one     
hundred and twenty in number1 were      
restored to their homes4--,allgemeine   
,zeitung1 #ahad4 ,appendix #ia4         
,footnote #ac3 ,vide ,napier's          
,peninsular ,war for an account of the  
military achievements of the            
,spaniards4--,trans4    ,,cclvii4       
,revolt of the ,tyrolese   ,the ,alps of
 the ,tyrol had for centuries been the  
asylum of liberty4 ,the ancient ,german 
communal system had there continued to  
exist even in feudal times4 ,exactly at 
the time when the house of ,habsburg    
lost its most valuable possessions in   
,switzerland1 at the time of the council
 of ,constance1 ,duke ,frederick1       
surnamed ,friedel with the empty purse1 
was compelled by necessity and for the  
sake of retaining the affection of the  
,tyrolese1 to confirm them by oath in   
the possession of great privileges1     
which his successors1 owing to a        
wholesome dread of exciting the anger of

 the sturdy mountaineers1 prudently     
refrained from violating4 ,the ,tyrol   
was externally independent and was      
governed by her own diet4 ,no recruits  
were levied in that country by the      
emperor1 excepting those for the rifle  
corps1 which elected its own commanders 
and wore the ,tyrolean garb4 ,the       
imposts were few and trifling in amount1
 the administration was simple4 ,the    
free-born peasant enjoyed his rights in 
common with the patriarchal nobility and
 clergy1 who dwelt in harmony with the  
people2 in several of the valleys the   
public affairs were administered by     
simple peasants2 each commune had its   
peculiar laws and customs4  ,the first  
invasion of the ,tyrol1 in #agjc1 by the
 ,bavarians1 was successfully resisted4 
,the ,bavarians were driven1 with great 
loss on their side1 out of the country4 
,a somewhat similar spirit animated the 
,tyrolese in #ahje1 and their anger was 
solely appeased by the express          
remonstrances of the ,archduke ,john1   

whom the inhabitants of the ,austrian   
,tyrol treated with the veneration due  
to a father4 ,they now fell under the   
dominion of ,bavaria1 whose benevolent  
sovereign1 ,maximilian ,joseph1         
promised1 under the act dated the #adth 
of ,january1 #ahjf1 not only strongly to
 uphold the constitution of the country 
and the well-earned rights and          
privileges of the people1 but also to   
promote their welfare3 but1 led astray  
by his1 certainly noble1 enthusiasm for 
the rescue of his ,bavarian subjects    
from ,jesuit obscurantism1 he imagined  
that similar measures might also be     
advantageously taken in the ,tyrol1     
where the mountaineers1 true to their   
ancient simplicity1 were revolted by the
 severity of the cure1 attempted too by 
a physician of whose intentions they    
were mistrustful4 ,bavaria was overrun  
with rich monasteries2 the ,tyrol1 less 
fertile1 possessed merely a patriarchal 
clergy1 less numerous1 more moral and   
active4 ,there was no motive for        

interference4 ,the conscription that1 by
 converting the idle youth of ,bavaria  
into disciplined soldiery1 was a        
blessing to the martial-spirited and    
improvident population1 was             
impracticable amid the well-trained     
,tyrolese1 and1 although the control    
exercised by a well-regulated           
bureaucracy might be beneficial when    
viewed in contradistinction with the    
ancient complicated system of government
 and administration of justice during   
the existence of the division into petty
 states and the manifold contradictory  
privileges1 it was utterly uncalled for 
in the simple administration of the     
,tyrol4 ,for what purpose were mere     
presumptive ameliorations to be imposed 
upon a people thoroughly contented with 
the laws and customs bequeathed by their
 ancestors8 ,the attempt was            
nevertheless made1 and ancient ,bavarian
 official insolence leagued with ,french
 frivolity of the school of ,montgelas  
to vex the ,tyrolese and to violate     

their most sacred privileges4 ,the      
numerous chapels erected for devotional 
purposes were thrown down amid marks of 
ridicule and scorn2 the ignorance and   
superstition of the old church was at   
one blow to yield to modern             
enlightenment4#a ,the people            
shudderingly beheld the crucifixes and  
images of saints1 so long the objects of
 their deepest veneration1 sold to      
,jews4 ,notwithstanding the late        
assurances of the ,bavarian king1 the   
,tyrolean diet was1 moreover1 not only  
dissolved1 but the country was deprived 
of its ancient name and designated      
,southern ,bavaria1 and the castle of   
the ,tyrol1 that had defied the storms  
of ages1 and whose possessor1 according 
to a sacred popular legend1 had alone a 
right to claim the homage of the        
country1 was sold by auction4 ,the      
national pride of the ,tyrolese was     
deeply and bitterly wounded1 their      
ancient rights and customs were         
arbitrarily infringed1 and1 instead of  

the great benefits so recently promised1
 eight new taxes were levied1 and the   
tax-gatherers not infrequently rendered 
themselves still more obnoxious by their
 brutality4 ,colonel ,dittfurt1 who1    
during the winter of #ahji1 acted with  
extreme inhumanity in the ,fleimserthal1
 where the conscription had excited     
great opposition1 and who publicly      
boasted that with his regiment alone he 
would keep the whole of the beggarly    
mountaineers in subjection1 drew upon   
himself the greatest share of the       
popular animosity4  ,austria1 when      
preparing for war in #ahji1 could       
therefore confidently reckon upon a     
general rising in the ,tyrol4 ,andrew   
,hofer1 the host of the ,sand at        
,passeyr 7the ,sandwirth71 went to      
,vienna1 where the revolt was           
concerted4#b ,a conspiracy was entered  
into by the whole of the ,tyrolese      
peasantry4 ,sixty thousand men1 on a    
moderate calculation1 were intrusted    
with the secret1 which was sacredly     

kept1 not a single townsman being       
allowed to participate in it4 ,kinkel1  
the ,bavarian general1 who was stationed
 at ,innsbruck and narrowly watched the 
,tyrol1 remained perfectly unconscious  
of the mine beneath his feet4 ,colonel  
,wrede1 his inferior in command1 had    
been directed to blow up the important  
bridges in the ,pusterthal at ,st4      
,lorenzo1 in order to check the advance 
of the ,austrians1 in case of an        
invasion4 ,several thousand ,french were
 expected to pass through the ,tyrol on 
their route from ,italy to join the army
 under ,napoleon4 ,no suspicion of the  
approach of a popular outbreak existed4 
,on the #ith of ,april1 the signal was  
suddenly given2 planks bearing little   
red flags floated down the ,inn2 on the 
#ajth1 the storm burst4 ,several of the 
,bavarian sappers sent at daybreak to   
blow up the bridges of ,st4 ,lorenzo    
being killed by the bullets of an       
invisible foe1 the rest took to flight4 
,wrede1 enraged at the incident1        

hastened to the spot at the head of two 
battalions1 supported by a body of      
cavalry and some field-pieces4 ,the     
whole of the ,pusterthal had1 however1  
already risen at the summons of ,peter  
,kemnater1 the host of ,schabs1#c in    
defence of the bridges4 ,wrede's        
artillery was captured by the enraged   
peasantry and cast1 together with the   
artillerymen1 into the river4 ,wrede1   
after suffering a terrible loss1 owing  
to the skill of the ,tyrolean riflemen1 
who never missed their aim1 was         
completely put to rout1 and1 although he
 fell in with a body of three thousand  
,french under ,brisson on their route   
from ,italy1 resolved1 instead of       
returning to the ,pusterthal1 to        
withdraw with the ,french to ,innsbruck4
 ,the passage through the valley of the 
,eisack had1 however1 been already      
closed against them by the host of      
,lechner1 and the fine old ,roman bridge
 at ,laditsch been blown up4 ,in the    
pass of the ,brixen1 where the valley   

closes1 the ,french and ,bavarians      
suffered immense loss2 rocks and trees  
were rolled on the heads of the appalled
 soldiery1 numbers of whom were also    
picked off by the unerring rifles of the
 unseen peasantry4 ,favored by the open 
ground at the bridge of ,laditsch1 they 
constructed a temporary bridge1 across  
which they succeeded in forcing their   
way on the #aath of ,april4 ,hofer had1 
meanwhile1 placed himself1 early on the 
#ajth1 at the head of the brave         
peasantry of ,passeyr1 ,algund1 and     
,meran1 and had thrown himself on the   
same road1 somewhat to the north1 near  
,sterzing1 where a ,bavarian battalion  
was stationed under the command of      
,colonel ,brnklau1 who1 on being        
attacked by him1 on the #aath1 retreated
 to the ,sterzinger ,moos1 a piece of   
tableland1 where1 drawn up in square1 he
 successfully repulsed every attempt    
made to dislodge him until ,hofer       
ordered a wagon1 loaded with hay and    
guided by a girl1#d to be pushed forward

 as a screen1 behind which the ,tyrolese
 advancing1 the square was speedily     
broken and the whole of ,brnklau's troop
 was either killed or taken prisoner4   
,the whole of the lower valley of the   
,inn had1 on the self-same day1 been    
raised by ,joseph ,speckbacher1 a       
wealthy peasant of ,rinn1 the greatest  
hero called into existence by this      
fearful peasant war4 ,the alarm-bell    
pealed from every church tower          
throughout the country4 ,a ,bavarian    
troop1 at that time engaged in levying  
contributions at ,axoms as a punishment 
for disobedience1 hastily fled4 ,the    
city of ,hall was1 on the ensuing night1
 taken by ,speckbacher1 who1 after      
lighting about a hundred watch-fires in 
a certain quarter1 as if about to make  
an attack on that side1 crept1 under    
cover of the darkness1 to the gate on   
the opposite side1 where1 as a common   
passenger1 he demanded permission to    
enter1 took possession of the opened    
gate1 and seized the four hundred       

,bavarians stationed in the city4 ,on   
the #abth1 he appeared before           
,innsbruck4 ,kinkel was astounded at the
 audacity of the peasants1 whom         
,dittfurt glowed with impatience to     
punish4 ,but the people1 shouting ,vivat
 ,franzl6 ,down with the ,bavarians6    
again rushed upon the guns and turned   
them upon the ,bavarians1 who were1     
moreover1 exposed to a murderous fire   
poured upon them from the windows and   
towers by the citizens1 who had risen in
 favor of the peasantry4 ,the people of 
the upper valley of the ,inn1 headed by 
,major ,teimer1 also poured to the scene
 of carnage4 ,dittfurt performed        
prodigies of valor1 but every effort was
 vain4 ,scornfully refusing to yield to 
the canaille1 he continued1 although    
struck by two bullets1 to fight with    
undaunted courage1 when a third         
stretched him on the ground2 again he   
started up and furiously defended       
himself until a fourth struck him in the
 head4 ,he died four days afterward in a

 state of wild delirium1 cursing and    
swearing4 ,kinkel and the whole of the  
,bavarian infantry yielded themselves   
prisoners4 ,the cavalry attempted to    
escape1 but were dismounted with        
pitchforks by the peasantry1 and the    
remainder were taken prisoners before   
,hall4  ,wrede and ,brisson1 meanwhile1 
crossed the ,brenner4 ,at ,sterzing1    
every trace of the recent conflict had  
been carefully obliterated1 and ,wrede  
vainly inquired the fate of ,brnklau4   
,he entered the narrow pass1 and        
,hofer's riflemen spread death and      
confusion among his ranks4 ,the strength
 of the allied column1 nevertheless1    
enabled it to force its way through1 and
 it reached ,innsbruck1 where1          
completely surrounded by the ,tyrolese1 
it1 in a few minutes1 lost several      
hundred men1 and1 in order to escape    
utter destruction1 laid down its arms4  
,the ,tyrolese entered ,innsbruck in    
triumph1 preceded by the military band  
belonging to the enemy1 which was       

compelled to play1 followed by ,teimer  
and ,brisson in an open carriage1 and   
with the rest of their prisoners guarded
 between their ranks4 ,their captives   
consisted of two generals1 ten          
staff-officers1 above a hundred other   
officers1 eight thousand infantry1 and a
 thousand cavalry4 ,throughout the      
,tyrol1 the arms of ,bavaria were cast  
to the ground and all the ,bavarian     
authorities were removed from office4   
,the prisoners were1 nevertheless1      
treated with the greatest humanity1 the 
only instance to the contrary being that
 of a tax-gatherer1 who1 having once    
boasted that he would grind the         
,tyrolese down until they gladly ate    
hay1 was1 in revenge1 compelled to      
swallow a bushel of hay for his dinner4 
,it was not until after these brilliant 
achievements on the part of the         
,tyrolese that ,lieutenant              
,field-,marshal von ,chasteler1 a       
,dutchman1 and the ,baron von ,hormayr1 
the imperial civil intendant1 entered   

,innsbruck with several thousand        
,austrians1 and that ,hormayr assumed   
the reins of government4 ,two thousand  
,french1 under ,general ,lemoine1       
attempted to make an inroad from ,trent1
 but were repulsed by ,hofer and his    
ally1 ,colonel ,count ,leiningen1 who   
had been sent to his aid by ,chasteler4 
,the advance of a still stronger force  
of the enemy under ,baraguay d',hilliers
 a second time against ,botzen called   
,chasteler in person into the field1 and
 the ,french1 after a smart engagement  
near ,volano1 where the ,herculean      
,passeyrers carried the artillery on    
their shoulders1 were forced to retreat4
 ,it was on this occasion that          
,leiningen1 who had hastily pushed too  
far forward1 was rescued from captivity 
by ,hofer4#e ,the ,vorarlberg had1      
meanwhile1 also been raised by ,teimer4 
,a ,dr4 ,schneider placed himself at the
 head of the insurgents1 whose forces   
already extended in this direction as   
far as ,lindau1 ,kempten1 and           

,memmingen4  ,napoleon's success1 at    
this conjuncture1 at ,ratisbon1 enabled 
him to despatch a division of his army  
into the ,tyrol to quell the            
insurrection that had broken out to his 
rear4 ,wrede1 who had been quickly      
exchanged and set at liberty1 speedily  
found himself at the head of a small    
,bavarian force1 and succeeded in       
driving the ,austrians under            
,jellachich1 after an obstinate and     
bloody resistance1 out of ,salzburg1 on 
the #bith of ,april4 ,jellachich        
withdrew to the pass of ,lueg for the   
purpose of placing himself in           
communication with the ,archduke ,john1 
who was on his way from ,italy4 ,an     
attack made upon this position by the   
,bavarians being repulsed1 ,napoleon    
despatched ,marshal ,lefebvre1 duke of  
,dantzig1 from ,salzburg with a         
considerable force to their assistance4 
,lefebvre spoke ,german1 was a rough    
soldier1 treated the peasants as robbers
 instead of legitimate foes1 shot every 

leader who fell into his hands1 and gave
 his soldiery license to commit every   
description of outrage on the villagers4
 ,the greater part of the ,tyrolese     
occupying the pass of ,strub having     
quitted their post on ,ascension ,day in
 order to attend divine service1 the    
rest were1 after a gallant resistance1  
overpowered and mercilessly butchered4  
,chasteler1 anxious to repair his late  
negligence1 advanced against the        
,bavarians in the open valley of the    
,inn and was overwhelmed by superior    
numbers at ,wrgl4 ,speckbacher1 followed
 by his peasantry1 again made head      
against the enemy1 whom1 notwithstanding
 the destruction caused in his ranks by 
their rapid and well-directed fire1 he  
twice drove out of ,schwatz4 ,the       
,bavarians1 nevertheless1 succeeded in  
forcing an entrance into the town1 which
 they set on fire after butchering all  
the inhabitants1 hundreds of whom were  
hanged to the trees or had their hands  
nailed to their heads4 ,these cruelties 

were not1 even in a single instance1    
imitated by the ,tyrolese4 ,the proposal
 to send their numerous ,bavarian       
prisoners home maimed of one ear1 as a  
mode of recognition in case they should 
again serve against the ,tyrol1 was     
rejected by ,hofer4 ,the unrelenting    
rage of the ,bavarians was solely roused
 by the unsparing ridicule of the       
,tyrolese1 by whom they were nicknamed1 
on account of the general burliness of  
their figures and their fondness for    
beer1 ,bavarian hogs1 and who1 the      
moment they came within hearing1 would  
call out to them1 as to a herd of pigs1 
,tschu1 ,tschu1 ,tschu--,natsch1        
,natsch4 ,the ,bavarians1 intoxicated   
with success1 advanced further up the   
country1 surrounded the village of      
,vomp1 set it on fire amid the sound of 
kettledrums and hautboys1 and shot the  
inhabitants as they attempted to escape 
from the burning houses4 ,chasteler and 
,hormayr were1 during this              
robber-campaign1 as it was termed by the

 ,french1 proscribed as chefs de        
brigands by ,napoleon4 ,count           
,tannenberg1 the descendant of the      
oldest of the baronial families in the  
,tyrol1 a blind and venerable man1 who  
was also taken prisoner en route1       
replied with dignity to the censure     
heaped upon him by ,wrede1 and at       
,munich defended his country's cause    
before the king4#f ,the officers1 whom  
he had treated with extreme politeness1 
rose from his hospitable board to set   
fire to his castle over his head4 ,the  
,scharnitz was yielded1 and the         
,bavarians under ,arco penetrated also  
on that side into the                   
country4--,jellachich1 upon this1       
retired upon ,carinthia1 and was        
followed through the ,pusterthal by     
,chasteler1 who dreaded being cut off4  
,the peasants1 incredulous of their     
abandonment by ,austria1 implored1      
entreated him to remain1 to which1 for  
the sake of freeing himself from their  
importunities1 he at length consented1  

but they had no sooner dispersed in     
order to summon the people again to the 
conflict than he retired4 ,hofer1 on    
returning to the spot1 merely finding a 
small body of troops under the command  
of ,general ,buol1 who had received     
orders to bring up the rear1 threw      
himself in despair on a bed4            
,eisenstecken1 his companion and        
adjutant1 however1 instantly declared   
that the departure of the soldiers must1
 at all hazards1 be prevented4 ,the     
officers signed a paper by which they   
bound themselves1 even though contrary  
to the express orders of the general1 to
 remain4 ,buol1 upon this1 yielded and  
remained1 but1 during the fearful battle
 that ensued1 remained in the post-house
 on the ,brenner1 inactively watching   
the conflict1 which terminated in the   
triumph of the peasantry4 ,hormayr      
completely absconded and attempted to   
escape into ,switzerland4  ,innsbruck   
was surrendered by ,teimer to the       
,french1 on the #aith of ,may4          

,napoleon's defeat1 about this time1 at 
,aspern having however compelled        
,lefebvre to return hastily to the      
,danube1 leaving merely a part of the   
,bavarians with ,general ,deroy in      
,innsbruck1 the ,tyrolese instantly     
seized the opportunity1 and ,hofer1     
,eisenstecken1 and the gallant          
,speckbacher boldly assembled the whole 
of the peasantry on the mountain of     
,isel4 ,peter ,thalguter led the brave  
and gigantic men of ,algund4 ,haspinger1
 the ,capuchin1 nicknamed ,redbeard1    
appeared on this occasion for the first 
time in the guise of a commander and    
displayed considerable military talent4 
,an incessant struggle was carried on   
from the #beth to the #bith of ,may4#g  
,deroy1 repulsed from the mountain of   
,isel with a loss of almost three       
thousand men1 simulated an intention to 
capitulate1 and withdrew unheard during 
the night by muffling the horses' hoofs 
and the wheels of the artillery         
carriages and enjoining silence under   

pain of death4 ,speckbacher attempted to
 impede his retreat at ,hall1 but       
arrived too late4#h ,teimer was accused 
of having been remiss in his duty       
through jealousy of the common peasant  
leaders4 ,arco escaped by an artifice   
similar to that of ,deroy and abandoned 
the ,scharnitz4 ,the ,vorarlbergers     
again spread as far as ,kempten4        
,hormayr also returned1 retook the reins
 of government1 imposed taxes1 flooded  
the country with useless law-scribbling1
 and1 at the same time1 refused to grant
 the popular demand for the convocation 
of the ,tyrolean diet4 ,after the       
victory of ,aspern1 the emperor         
declared1 ,my faithful county of ,tyrol 
shall henceforward ever remain          
incorporated with the ,austrian empire1 
and ,i will agree to no treaty of peace 
save one indissolubly uniting the ,tyrol
 with my monarchy4 ,during this happy   
interval1 ,speckbacher besieged the     
fortress of ,cuffstein1 where he        
performed many signal acts of valor4#i  

,the disaster of ,wagram followed1 and1 
in the ensuing armistice1 the ,emperor  
,francis was compelled to agree to the  
withdrawal of the whole of his troops   
from the ,tyrol4 ,the ,archduke ,john is
 said to have given a hint to ,general  
,buol to remain in the ,tyrol as if     
retained there by force by the          
peasantry1 instead of which both ,buol  
and ,hormayr hurried their retreat1     
after issuing a miserable proclamation1 
in which they recommended the ,tyrolese 
to the care of the duke of ,dantzig4    
,lefebvre actually again advanced at the
 head of thirty to forty thousand       
,french1 ,bavarians and ,saxons4 ,the   
courage of the unfortunate peasantry    
naturally sank4 ,hofer alone remained   
unshaken1 and said1 on bidding ,hormayr 
farewell1 ,well1 then1 ,i will undertake
 the government1 and1 as long as ,god   
wills1 name myself ,andrew ,hofer1 host 
of the ,sand at ,passeyr1 ,count of the 
,tyrol4 ,hormayr laughed4--,a general   
dispersion took place4 ,hofer alone     

remained4 ,when1 resolute in his        
determination not to abandon his native 
soil1 he was on his way back to his     
dwelling1 he encountered ,speckbacher   
hurrying away in a carriage in the      
company of some ,austrian officers4     
,wilt thou also desert thy country8 was 
,hofer's sad demand4 ,buol1 in order to 
cover his retreat1 sent back eleven guns
 and nine hundred ,bavarian prisoners to
 ,general ,rusca1 who continued to      
threaten the ,pusterthal4  ,in the      
mountains all was tranquil1 and the     
advance of the ,french columns was      
totally unopposed4 ,hofer1 concealed in 
a cavern amid the steep rocks           
overhanging his native vale1 besought   
,heaven for aid1 and1 by his            
enthusiastic entreaties1 succeeded in   
persuading the brave ,capuchin1 ,joachim
 ,haspinger1 once more to quit the      
monastery of ,seeben1 whither he had    
retired4 ,a conference was held at      
,brixen between ,haspinger1 ,martin     
,schenk1 the host of the ,krug1 a jovial

 man of powerful frame1 ,kemnater1 and a
 third person of similar calling1 ,peter
 ,mayer1 host of the ,mare1 who bound   
themselves again to take up arms in the 
,eastern ,tyrol1 while ,hofer1 in       
person1 raised the ,western ,tyrol4     
,speckbacher1 to the delight of the     
three confederates1 unexpectedly made   
his appearance at this conjuncture4     
,deeply wounded by the reproach         
contained in the few words addressed to 
him by ,hofer1 he had1 notwithstanding  
the urgent entreaties of his companions1
 quitted them on arriving at the nearest
 station and hastened to retake his post
 in defence of his country4  ,lefebvre  
had already entered ,innsbruck1 and1    
according to his brutal custom1 had     
plundered the villages and reduced them 
to ashes2 he had also published a       
proscription-list#aj instead of the     
amnesty4 ,a desperate resistance now    
commenced4 ,the whole of the ,tyrol     
again flew to arms2 the young men placed
 in their green hats the bunch of       

rosemary gathered by the girl of their  
heart1 the more aged a peacock's plume1 
the symbol of the house of ,habsburg1   
all carried the rifle1 so murderous in  
their hands2 they made cannons of       
larch-wood1 bound with iron rings1 which
 did good service2 they raised abatis1  
blew up rooks1 piled immense masses of  
stone on the extreme edges of the       
precipitous rocks commanding the narrow 
vales1 in order to hurl them upon the   
advancing foe1 and directed the         
timber-slides in the forest-grown       
mountains1 or those formed of logs by   
means of which the timber for building  
was usually run into the valleys1 in    
such a manner upon the most important   
passes and bridges1 as to enable them to
 shoot enormous trees down upon them    
with tremendous velocity4  ,lefebvre    
resolved to advance with the main body  
of his forces across the ,brenner to    
,botzen1 whither another corps under    
,burscheidt also directed its way       
through the upper valley of the ,inn1   

the ,finstermunz1 and ,meran1 while a   
third under ,rusca came from ,carinthia 
through the ,pusterthal1 and a fourth   
under ,peyry was on the march from      
,verona through the vale of the ,adige4 
,these various corps d'arme1 by which   
the ,tyrol was thus attacked            
simultaneously on every point1 were to  
concentrate in the heart of the country4
 ,lefebvre found the ,brenner open4 ,the
 ,tyrolese1 headed by ,haspinger1 had   
burned the bridges on the ,oberau and   
awaited the approach of the enemy on the
 heights commanding the narrow valley of
 ,eisach4 ,the ,saxons under ,rouyer    
were sent in advance by ,lefebvre to    
shed their blood for a foreign despot4  
,rocks and trees hurled by the ,tyrolese
 into the valley crushed numbers of them
 to death4 ,rouyer1 after being slightly
 hurt by a rolling mass of rock1        
retreated after leaving orders to the   
,saxon regiment1 composed of contingents
 from ,weimar1 ,gotha1 ,coburg1         
,hildburghausen1 ,altenburg1 and        

,meiningen1 commanded by ,colonel       
,egloffstein1 to retain its position in 
the ,oberau4 ,this action took place on 
the #dth of ,august4 ,the ,saxons1 worn 
out by the fatigue and danger to which  
they were exposed1 were compelled1 on   
the ensuing day1 to make head in the    
narrow vale against overwhelming numbers
 of the ,tyrolese1 whose incessant      
attacks rendered a moment's repose      
impossible4 ,although faint with hunger 
and with the intensity of the heat1 a   
part of the troops under ,colonel       
,egloffstein succeeded in forcing their 
way through1 though at an immense       
sacrifice of life1#aa and fell back upon
 ,rouyer1 who had taken up a position at
 ,sterzing without fighting a stroke in 
their aid1 and who expressed his        
astonishment at their escape4 ,the rest 
of the ,saxon troops were taken         
prisoners1 after a desperate resistance1
 in the dwelling-houses of ,oberau4#ab  
,they had lost nearly a thousand men4   
,the other corps d'arme met with no     

better fate4 ,burscheidt merely advanced
 up the valley of the ,inn as far as the
 bridges of ,pruz1 whence1 being        
repulsed by the ,tyrolese and dreading  
destruction1 he retreated during the    
dark night of the #hth of ,august4 ,his 
infantry crept1 silent and unheard1     
across the bridge of ,pontlaz1 of such  
fatal celebrity in #agjc1 which was     
strictly watched by the ,tyrolese4 ,the 
cavalry cautiously followed1 but were   
betrayed by the sound of one of the     
horses' feet4 ,rocks and trees were in  
an instant hurled upon the bridge1      
crushing men and horses and blocking up 
the way4 ,the darkness that veiled the  
scene but added to its horrors4 ,the    
whole of the troops shut up beyond the  
bridge were either killed or taken      
prisoner4 ,burscheidt reached ,innsbruck
 with merely a handful of men1          
completely worn out by the incessant    
pursuit4 ,rusca was also repulsed1      
between the #fth and the #aath of       
,august 7particularly at the bridge of  

,lienz71 in the ,pusterthal1 by brave   
,antony ,steger4 ,rusca had set two     
hundred farms on fire4 ,twelve hundred  
of his men were killed1 and his retreat 
was accelerated by ,steger's threat to  
roast him1 in case he fell into his     
hands1 like a scorpion1 within a fiery  
circle4 ,peyry did not venture into the 
country4  ,lefebvre1 who had followed to
 the rear of the ,saxon troops from     
,innsbruck1 bitterly reproached them    
with their defeat1 but1 although he     
placed himself in advance1 did not      
succeed in penetrating as far as they   
had up the country4 ,at ,mauls1 his     
cavalry were torn from their saddles and
 killed with clubs1 and he escaped1 with
 great difficulty1 after losing his     
cocked hat4 ,his corps1 notwithstanding 
its numerical strength1 was unable to   
advance a step further4 ,the ,capuchin  
harassed his advanced guard from ,mauls 
and was seconded by ,speckbacher from   
,stilfs1 while ,count ,arco was attacked
 to his rear at ,schonberg by multitudes

 of ,tyrolese4 ,the contest was carried 
on without intermission from the #eth to
 the #ajth of ,august4 ,lefebvre was    
finally compelled to retreat with his   
thinned and weary troops4#ac ,on the    
#aath1 ,deroy posted himself with the   
rearguard on the mountain of ,isel4 ,the
 ,capuchin1 after reading mass under the
 open sky to his followers1 again       
attacked him on the #acth4 ,a horrible  
slaughter ensued4 ,four hundred         
,bavarians1 who had fallen beneath the  
clubs of their infuriated antagonists1  
lay in a confused heap4 ,the enemy      
evacuated ,innsbruck and the whole of   
the ,tyrol4#ad ,count ,arco was one of  
the last victims of this bloody         
campaign4  ,the ,sandwirth1 placed      
himself at the head of the government at
 ,innsbruck4 ,although a simple peasant 
and ever faithful to the habits of his  
station1#ae he laid down some admirable 
rules1 convoked a national assembly1 and
 raised the confidence of the people of 
,carinthia1 to whom he addressed a      

proclamation remarkable for dignity4 ,he
 hoped1 at that time1 by summoning the  
whole of the mountain tribes to arms and
 leading them to ,vienna1 to compel the 
enemy to accede to more favorable terms 
of peace4 ,speckbacher penetrated into  
the district of ,salzburg1 defeated the 
,bavarians at ,lofers and ,unken1 took  
one thousand seven hundred prisoners1   
and advanced as far as ,reichenhall and 
,melek4 ,the ,capuchin proposed1 in his 
zeal1 to storm ,salzburg and invade     
,carinthia1 but was withheld by         
,speckbacher1 who saw the hazard        
attached to the project1 as well as the 
peril that would attend the departure of
 the ,tyrolese from their country4 ,his 
plan merely consisted in covering the   
eastern frontier4 ,his son1 ,anderle1   
who had escaped from his secluded ,alp1 
unexpectedly joined him and fought at   
his side4 ,speckbacher was stationed at 
,melek1 where he drove ,major ,rummele  
with his ,bavarian battalion into the   
,salzach1 but was shortly afterward     

surprised by treachery4 ,he had already 
been deprived of his arms1 thrown to the
 ground1 and seriously injured with     
blows dealt with a club1 when1 furiously
 springing to his feet1 he struck his   
opponents to the earth and escaped with 
a hundred of his men across a wall of   
rock unscalable save by the foot of the 
expert and hardy mountaineer4 ,his young
 son was torn from his side and taken   
captive4 ,the king1 ,maximilian ,joseph1
 touched by his courage and beauty1 sent
 for him and had him well               
educated4--,the ,capuchin1 who had      
reached ,muhrau in ,styria1 was also    
compelled to retire4  ,the peace of     
,vienna1 in which the ,tyrolese were not
 even mentioned1 was meanwhile          
concluded4 ,the restoration of the      
,tyrol to ,bavaria was tacitly          
understood1 and1 in order to reduce the 
country to obedience1 three fresh armies
 again approached the frontiers1 the    
,italian1 ,peyry1 from the south through
 the valley of the ,adige1 and ,baraguay

 d',hilliers from the west through the  
,pusterthal2 the former suffered a      
disastrous defeat above ,trent1 but was 
rescued from utter destruction by       
,general ,vial1 who had followed to his 
rear1 and who1 as well as ,baraguay1    
advanced as far as ,brixen4#af ,drouet  
d',erlon1 with the main body of the     
,bavarians1 came from the north across  
the ,strub and the ,loferpass1 and      
gained forcible possession of the       
,engpass4 ,hofer had been persuaded by  
the priest1 ,donay1 to relinquish the   
anterior passes into the country and    
,innsbruck1 and to take up a strong     
position on the fortified mountain of   
,isel4 ,speckbacher arrived too late to 
defend ,innsbruck1 and1 enraged at the  
ill-laid plan of defence1 threw a body  
of his men into the ,zillerthal in order
 to prevent the ,bavarians from falling 
upon ,hofer's rear4 ,he was again twice 
wounded at the storming of the          
,kemmberg1 which had already been       
fortified by the ,bavarians4 ,on the    

#beth of ,october1 the ,bavarians       
entered ,innsbruck and summoned ,hofer  
to capitulate4 ,during the night of the 
#cjth1 ,baron ,lichtenthurm appeared in 
the ,tyrolese camp1 announced the       
conclusion of peace1 and delivered a    
letter from the ,archduke ,john1 in     
which the ,tyrolese were commanded      
peaceably to disperse and no longer to  
offer their lives a useless sacrifice4  
,there was no warrant for the future1   
not a memory of an earlier pledge4 ,the 
commands of their beloved master were   
obeyed by the ,tyrolese with feelings of
 bitter regret1 and a complete          
dispersion took place4 ,speckbacher     
alone maintained his ground1 and        
repulsed the enemy on the #b;d and #c;d 
of ,november1 but1 being told1 in a     
letter1 by ,hofer1 ,i announce to you   
that ,austria has made peace with       
,france and has forgotten the ,tyrol1 he
 gave up all further opposition1 and    
,mayer and ,kemnater1 who had gallantly 
made head against ,general ,rusca at the

 ,muhlbacher ,klause1 followed his      
example4  ,the tragedy drew to a close4 
,hofer returned to his native vale1     
where the people of ,passeyr and        
,algund1 resolved at all hazards not to 
submit to the depredations of the       
,italian brigands under ,rusca1 flocked 
around him and compelled him to place   
himself at their head for a last and    
desperate struggle4 ,above ,meran1 the  
,french were thrown in such numbers from
 the ,franzosenbuhl1 which still retains
 its name1 that they fell like a shower 
of autumnal leaves into the city4 ,the  
horses belonging to a division of       
cavalry intended to surround the        
insurgent peasantry were all that       
returned2 their riders had been shot to 
a man4 ,rusca lost five hundred dead and
 one thousand seven hundred prisoners4  
,the ,capuchin was also present1 and    
generously saved the captive ,major     
,doreille1 whose men had formerly set   
fire to a village1 from the hands of the
 infuriated peasantry4 ,but a traitor   

guided the enemy to the rear of the     
brave band of patriots2 ,peter          
,thalguter fell1 and ,hofer took refuge 
amid the highest ,alps4--,kolb1 who was 
by some supposed to be an ,english      
agent1 but who was simply an enthusiast1
 again summoned the peasantry around    
,brixen to arms4 ,the peasantry still   
retained such a degree of courage1 as to
 set up an enormous barn-door as a      
target for the ,french artillery1 and at
 every shot up jumped a ludicrous       
figure4 ,resistance had1 however1 ceased
 to be general2 the ,french pressed in  
ever-increasing numbers through the     
valleys1 disarmed the people1 the       
majority of whom1 obedient to ,hofer's  
first mandate1 no longer attempted      
opposition1 and took their leaders      
captive4 ,peter ,mayer was shot at      
,botzen4 ,his life was offered to him on
 condition of his denying all           
participation in the patriotic struggles
 of his countrymen1 but he disdained a  
lie and boldly faced death4 ,those among

 the peasantry most distinguished for   
gallantry were either shot or hanged4   
,baur1 a ,bavarian author1 who had      
fought against the ,tyrolese1 and is    
consequently a trusty witness1 remarks  
that all the ,tyroleso patriots1 without
 exception1 evinced the greatest        
contempt of death4 ,the struggle        
recommenced in the winter1 but was      
merely confined to the ,pusterthal4 ,a  
,french division under ,broussier was   
cut off on the snowed-up roads and shot 
to a man by the peasantry4  ,hofer at   
first took refuge with his wife and     
child in a narrow rocky hollow in the   
,kellerlager1 afterward in the highest  
,alpine hut1 near the ,oetzthaler       
,firner in the wintry desert4 ,vainly   
was he implored to quit the country2 his
 resolution to live or to die on his    
native soil was unchangeable4 ,a peasant
 named ,raffel1 unfortunately descrying 
the smoke from the distant hut1         
discovered his place of concealment1 and
 boasted in different places of his     

possession of the secret of his         
hiding-place4 ,this came to the ears of 
,father ,donay1 a traitor in the pay of 
,france2#ag ,raffel was arrested1 and1  
in the night of the #bgth of ,january1  
#ahaj1 guided one thousand six hundred  
,french and ,italian troops to the      
mountain1 while two thousand ,french    
were quartered in the circumjacent      
country4 ,hofer yielded himself prisoner
 with calm dignity4 ,the ,italians      
abused him personally1 tore out his     
beard1 and dragged him pinioned1 half   
naked and barefoot1 in his night-dress1 
over ice and snow to the valley4 ,he was
 then put into a carriage and carried   
into ,italy to the fortress of ,mantua4 
,no one interceded in his behalf4       
,napoleon sent orders by the ,paris     
telegraph to shoot him within           
four-and-twenty hours4 ,he prepared     
cheerfully for death4#ah ,on being led  
past the other ,tyrolese prisoners1 they
 embraced his knees1 weeping4 ,he gave  
them his blessing4 ,his executioners    

halted not far from the ,porta ,chiesa1 
where1 placing himself opposite the     
twelve riflemen selected for the        
dreadful office1 he refused either to   
allow himself to be blindfolded or to   
kneel4 ,i stand before my ,creator1 he  
exclaimed with a firm voice1 and        
standing will ,i restore to ,him the    
spirit ,he gave6 ,he gave the signal to 
fire1 but the men1 it may be1 too deeply
 moved by the scene1 missed their aim4  
,the first fire brought him on his      
knees1 the second stretched him on the  
ground1 and a corporal1 advancing1      
terminated his misery by shooting him   
through the head1 ,february #bi1        
#ahaj4--;,at a later period1 when       
,mantua again became ,austrian1 the     
,tyrolese bore his remains back to his  
native ,alps4 ,a handsome monument of   
white marble was erected to his memory  
in the church at ,innsbruck2 his family 
was ennobled4 ,count ,alexander of      
,wurtemberg has poetically described the
 restoration of his remains to the      

,tyrol1 for which he so nobly fought and
 died4    ,how was the gallant hunter's 
breast     ,with mingled feelings torn1 
,as slowly winding 'mid the ,alps1      
,his hero's corpse was borne6    ,the   
ancient ,gletcher1 glowing red1         
,though cold their wonted mien1         
,bright radiance shed o'er ,hofer's     
head1     ,loud thundered the lavine6   
,haspinger1 the brave ,capuchin1 escaped
 unhurt to ,vienna1 in which ,joseph    
,speckbacher1 the greatest hero of this 
war1 also succeeded1 after unheard-of   
suffering and peril4--,the ,bavarians in
 pursuit of him searched the mountains  
in troops1 and vowed to cut his skin    
into boot-straps1 if they caught him4   
,speckbacher attempted to escape into   
,austria1 but was unable to go beyond   
,dux1 the roads being blocked up with   
snow4 ,at ,dux1 the ,bavarians came upon
 his trace1 and attacking the house in  
which he had taken refuge1 he escaped by
 leaping through the roof1 but again    
wounded himself4 ,during the ensuing    

twenty-seven days1 he wandered about the
 snow-clad forests1 exposed to the      
bitter cold and in danger of starvation4
 ,during four consecutive days he did   
not taste food4 ,he at length found an  
asylum in a hut in a high and exposed   
situation at ,bolderberg1 where he by   
chance fell in with his wife and        
children1 who had also taken refuge     
there4 ,the watchful ,bavarians pursued 
him even here1 and he merely owed his   
escape to the presence of mind with     
which1 taking a sledge upon his         
shoulders1 he advanced toward them as if
 he had been the servant of the house4  
,no longer safe in this retreat1 he hid 
himself in a cave on the ,gemshaken1    
whence he was1 in the beginning of      
spring1 carried by a snow-ravine a mile 
and a half into the valley4 ,he         
contrived to disengage himself from the 
snow1 but one of his legs had been      
dislocated and rendered it impossible   
for him to regain his cave4 ,suffering  
unspeakable anguish1 he crept to the    

nearest hut1 where he found two men1 who
 carried him to his own house at ,rinn1 
whither his wife had returned4 ,but     
,bavarians were quartered in the house1 
and his only place of refuge was the    
cow-shed1 where ,zoppel1 his faithful   
servant1 dug for him a hole beneath the 
bed of one of the cows1 and daily       
brought him food4 ,the danger of        
discovery was so great that his wife was
 not made acquainted with his arrival4  
,he remained in this half-buried state  
for seven weeks1 until rest had so far  
invigorated his frame as to enable him  
to escape across the high mountain      
passes1 now freed by the ,may sun from  
the snow4 ,he accordingly rose from his 
grave and bade adieu to his sorrowing   
wife4 ,he reached ,vienna without       
encountering further mishap1 but gained 
no thanks for his heroism4 ,he was      
compelled to give up a small estate that
 he had purchased with the remains of   
his property1 the purchase-money proving
 insufficient1 and he must have been    

consigned to beggary1 had not ,hofer's  
son1 who had received a fine estate from
 the emperor1 engaged him as his        
steward4   ,footnote #a3 ,without any   
attempt being made on the part of the   
government to prepare the minds of the  
people by proper instruction1 the       
children were taken away by force in    
order to be inoculated for the smallpox4
 ,the mothers1 under an idea that their 
infants were being bewitched or         
poisoned1 trembled with rage and fear1  
while the ,bavarian authorities and     
their servants mocked their dismay4     
,footnote #b3 ,hofer was1 in #agij1 as  
the deputy of the ,passeyrthal1 a member
 of the diet at ,innsbruck which so     
zealously opposed the reforms attempted 
by ,joseph ,,ii42 he had fought1 as     
captain of a rifle corps1 against the   
,french in #agif1 and1 in #ahje1 when   
bidding farewell to the ,archduke ,john 
on the enforced cession of the ,tyrol by
 ,austria to ,bavaria1 had received a   
significant shake of the hand with an   

expressed hope of seeing him again in   
better times4 ,hofer traded in wine1    
corn and horses1 was well known and     
highly esteemed as far as the ,italian  
frontier4 ,he had a ,herculean form and 
was remarkably good-looking4 ,he wore a 
low-crowned1 broad-brimmed black        
,tyrolean hat1 ornamented with green    
ribbons and the feathers of the         
capercalzie4 ,his broad chest was       
covered with a red waistcoat1 across    
which green braces1 a hand in breadth1  
were fastened to black chamois-leather  
knee-breeches4 ,his knees were bare1 but
 his well-developed calves were covered 
with red stockings4 ,a broad black      
leathern girdle clasped his muscular    
form4 ,over all was thrown a short green
 coat without buttons4 ,his long        
dark-brown beard1 that fell in rich     
curls upon his chest1 added dignity to  
his appearance4 ,his full1 broad        
countenance was expressive of good-humor
 and honesty4 ,his small1 penetrating   
eyes sparkled with vivacity4  ,footnote 

#c3 ,a youth of two-and-twenty1 slight  
in person and extremely handsome1 at    
that time a bridegroom1 and inspired by 
the deepest hatred of the ,bavarians1 by
 whose officers he had been personally  
insulted4  ,footnote #d3 ,the daughter  
of a tailor1 named ,camper4 ,as the     
balls flew around her1 she shouted1 ,on 
with ye6 who cares for ,bavarian        
dumplings6  ,footnote #e3 ,the ,austrian
 general1 ,marschall1 who had been sent 
to guard the ,southern ,tyrol1 was      
removed for declaring that he deemed it 
an insult for the military to make      
common cause with peasants and for      
complaining of his being compelled to   
sit down to table with ,hofer4          
,footnote #f3 ,proclamation of the      
emperor ,francis to the ,tyrolese3      
,willingly do ,i anticipate your wish to
 be regarded as the most faithful       
subjects of the ,austrian empire4 ,never
 again shall the sad fate of being torn 
from my heart befall you4  ,footnote #g3
 ,the ,count von ,stachelburg from      

,meran1 who fought as a volunteer among 
the peasantry1 fell at that time4 ,he   
was the last of his race4  ,footnote #h3
 ,he was joined here by his son ,anderl1
 a child ten years of age1 who collected
 the enemy's balls in his hat1 and so   
obstinately refused to quit the field of
 battle that his father was compelled to
 have him carried by force to a distant 
alp4  ,footnote #i3 ,he paid a visit1 in
 disguise1 to the commandant within the 
fortress1 extinguished a grenade with   
his hat1 crept undiscovered into the    
fortress and spoiled the fire-engines1  
cut loose the ships moored beneath the  
walls1 etc4 ,joseph ,speckbacher of the 
,innthal was an open-hearted1           
fine-spirited fellow1 endowed with a    
giant's strength1 and the best marksman 
in the country4 ,his clear bright eye   
could1 at the distance of half a mile1  
distinguish the bells on the necks of   
the cattle4 ,in his youth1 he was       
addicted to poaching1 and being1 on one 
occasion1 when in the act of roasting a 

chamois1 surprised by four ,bavarian    
,jger1 he unhesitatingly dashed the     
melted fat of the animal into their     
faces1 and1 quick as lightning1 dealt   
each of them a deathblow with the       
butt-end of his rifle4  ,footnote #aj3  
,he cited the following names immortal  
in the ,tyrol3 ,a4 ,hofer1 ,straub of   
,hall1 ,reider of ,botzen1 ,bombardi1   
postmaster of ,salurn1 ,morandel of     
,kaltern1 ,resz of ,fleims1 ,tschll of  
,meran1 ,frischmann of ,schlanders1     
,senn1 sheriff of ,nauders1 ,fischer1   
actuary of ,landek1 ,strehle1           
burgomaster of ,imbst1 ,plawen1 governor
 of ,reutti1 ,major ,dietrich of        
,lermos1 ,aschenbacher1 governor of the 
,achenthal1 ,sieberer of ,cuffstein1    
,wintersteller of ,kisbchl1 ,kolb of    
,lienz1 ,count ,sarntheim1 ,peer1       
counsellor to the court of appeal4      
,count ,sarntheim was taken prisoner and
 carried into ,bavaria1 together with   
the heroic ,baroness of ,sternbach1 who1
 mounted on horseback and armed with    

pistols1 accompanied the patriot force  
and aided in the command4 ,she was      
seized in her castle of ,mhlan1         
imprisoned in a house of correction at  
,munich1 and afterward carried to       
,strasburg1 was deprived of the whole of
 her property1 ignominiously treated1   
and threatened with death1 but never    
lost courage4--,beda1 ,water's ,tyrol4  
,wintersteller was a descendant of the  
brave host of the same name who1 in     
#agjc1 adorned his house1 which was     
afterward occupied by ,wintersteller1   
with the trophies won from the          
,bavarians4  ,footnote #aa3 ,when       
incessantly pursued and ready to drop   
with fatigue1 they found a cask of wine1
 and a drummer1 knocking off its head1  
stooped down to drink1 when he was      
pierced with a bullet1 and his blood    
mingled with the liquor1 which was1     
nevertheless1 greedily swallowed by the 
famishing soldiery4--,jacob's ,campaign 
of the ,gotha-,altenburgers4  ,footnote 
#ab3 ,the ,tyrolese aimed at the windows

 and shot every one who looked out4 ,as 
soon as the houses were1 by this means1 
filled with the dead and wounded1 they  
stormed them and took the survivors     
prisoner4 ,two hundred and thirty men of
 ,weimar and ,coburg1 commanded by      
,major ,germar1 defended themselves to  
the last2 the house in which they were  
being at length completely surrounded   
and set on fire by the ,tyrolese1 they  
surrendered4 ,this spot was afterward   
known as the ,sachsenklemme4 ,seven     
hundred ,saxon prisoners escaped from   
their guards and took refuge on the     
,krimmer ,tauern1 where they were       
recaptured by the armed women and girls4
  ,footnote #ac3 ,bartholdy relates that
 ,lefebvre1 disguised as a common       
soldier1 mingled with the cavalry in    
order to escape the balls of the        
,tyrolese sharpshooters4 ,a man of      
,passeyr is said to have captured a     
three-pounder and to have carried it on 
his shoulders across the mountain4 ,the 
,tyrolese would even carry their wounded

 enemies carefully on their shoulders to
 their villages4 ,a ,count ,mohr greatly
 distinguished himself among the people 
of ,vintschgau4 ,the spirit shown by an 
old man above eighty years of age1 who1 
after shooting a number of the enemy    
from a rock on which he had posted      
himself1 threw himself1 exclaiming      
,juhhe6 in ,god's name6 down the        
precipice1 with a ,saxon soldier1 by    
whom he had been seized1 is worthy of   
record4  ,footnote #ad3 ,von ,seebach1  
in his ,history of the ,ducal ,saxon    
,regiment1 graphically describes the    
flight4 ,during the night time1 all the 
mountains around the beautiful valley of
 ,innsbruck were lighted up with        
watch-fires4 ,lefebvre ordered his to be
 kept brightly burning while his troops 
silently withdrew4  ,footnote #ae3 ,he  
did not set himself above his equals and
 followed his former simple mode of     
life4 ,the emperor of ,austria sent him 
a golden chain and three thousand       
ducats1 the first money received by the 

,tyrol from ,austria2 but ,hofer's pride
 was not raised by this mark of favor1  
and the naivete of his reply on this    
occasion has often been a subject of    
ridicule3 ,sirs1 ,i thank you4 ,i have  
no news for you to-day4 ,i have1 it is  
true1 three couriers on the road1 the   
,watscher-,hiesele1 the                 
,sixten-,seppele1 and the               
,memmele-,franz1 and the ,schwanz ought 
long to have been here2 ,i expect the   
rascal every hour4 ,the honest fellow   
permitted no pillage1 no disorderly     
conduct2 he even guarded the public     
morals with such strictness as to       
publish the following orders against the
 half-naked mode1 imported by the       
,french1 at that time followed by the   
women3 ,many of my good fellow-soldiers 
and defenders of their country have     
complained that the women of all ranks  
cover their bosoms and arms too little1 
or with transparent dresses1 and by     
these means raise sinful desires highly 
displeasing to ,god and to all          

piously-disposed persons4 ,it is hoped  
that they will1 by better behavior1     
preserve themselves from the punishment 
of ,god1 and1 in case of the contrary1  
must solely blame themselves should they
 find themselves disagreeably covered4  
,andre ,hofer1 chief in command in the  
,tyrol4  ,footnote #af3 ,during the     
pillage of the monastery of ,seeben by  
the ,french1 a nun1 in order to escape  
from their hands1 cast herself from the 
summit of the rock into the valley4     
,footnote #ag3 ,donay had devoted       
himself to the service of the church1   
but having committed a theft1 had been  
refused ordination4 ,napoleon rewarded  
him for his treachery with ordination   
and the appointment of chaplain in the  
,santa ,casa at ,loretto4  ,footnote    
#ah3 ,four hours before his execution he
 wrote to his brother-in-law1 ,phler1   
,my beloved1 the hostess1 is to have    
mass read for my soul at ,st4 ,marin by 
the rosy-colored blood4 ,she is to have 
prayers read in both parishes1 and is to

 let the sub-landlord give my friends   
soup1 meat1 and half a bottle of wine   
each4 ,the money ,i had with me ,i have 
distributed to the poor2 as for the     
rest1 settle my accounts with the people
 as justly as you can4 ,all in the world
 adieu1 until we all meet in heaven     
eternally to praise ,god4 ,death appears
 to me so easy that my eyes have not    
once been wet on that account4 ,written 
at five o'clock in the morning1 and at  
nine o'clock ,i set off with the aid of 
all the saints on my journey to ,god4   
,,cclviii4 ,napoleon's ,supremacy       
,napoleon had1 during the great war in  
,austria1 during the intermediate time  
between the battles of ,aspern and      
,wagram1 caused the person of the pope1 
,pius ,,vii41 to be seized1 and had     
incorporated the state of the church    
with his ,italian kingdom4 ,the         
venerable pope1 whose energies were     
called forth by misfortune1 astonished  
,christendom by his bold opposition to  
the ruler over the destinies of ,europe1

 before whom he had formerly bent in    
humble submission1 and for whose        
coronation he had condescended to visit 
,paris in person4 ,the reestablishment  
of ,catholicism in ,france by ,napoleon 
had rendered the pope deeply his debtor1
 but ,napoleon's attempt to deprive him 
of all temporal power1 and to render    
him1 as the first bishop of his realm1  
subordinate to himself1 called forth a  
sturdy opposition4 ,napoleon no sooner  
spoke the language of ,charlemagne than 
the pope responded in the words of      
,gregory ,,vii4 and of ,innocent ,,iv43 
,time has produced no change in the     
authority of the pope2 now as ever does 
the pope reign supreme over the emperors
 and kings of the earth4 ,the diplomatic
 dispute was carried on for some time1  
owing to ,napoleon's expectation of the 
final compliance of the pope4#a ,but on 
his continued refusal to submit1 the    
peril with which ,napoleon's ,italian   
possessions were threatened by the      
landing of a ,british force in ,italy   

and by the war with ,austria1 induced   
him1 first of all1 to throw a garrison  
into ,ancona1 and afterward to take     
possession of ,rome1 and1 as the pope   
still continued obstinate1 finally to   
seize his person1 to carry him off to   
,france1 and to annex the ,roman        
territory to his great empire4 ,the     
anathema hurled by the pope upon        
,napoleon's head had at least the effect
 of creating a warmer interest in behalf
 of the pontiff in the hearts of the    
,catholic population and of increasing  
their secret antipathy toward his       
antagonist4  ,in #ahaj1 ,napoleon       
annexed ,holland and ,east ,friesland as
 alluvial lands to ,france4 ,his brother
 ,louis1 who had vainly labored for the 
welfare of ,holland1 selected a foreign 
residence and scornfully refused to     
accept the pension settled upon him by  
,napoleon4 ,the first act of the new    
sovereign of ,holland was the imposition
 of an income tax of fifty per cent4    
,instruction in the ,french language was

 enforced in all the schools1 and all   
public proclamations and documents were 
drawn up in both ,dutch and ,french4#b  
,holland was formed into two            
departments1 which were vexed by two    
prefects1 the ,conte de ,celles and     
,baron ,staffart1 ,belgian renegades and
 blind tools of the ,french despot1 and 
was1 moreover1 harassed by the          
tyrannical and cruel espionage1 under   
,duvillieres1 ,duterrage1 and ,marivaux1
 which1 in #ahab1 occasioned several    
ineffectual attempts to throw off the   
yoke4#c ,in #ahaa1 ,holland was also    
deprived of ,batavia1 her sole remaining
 colony1 by the ,british4  ,lower       
,saxony1 as far as the ,baltic1 the     
principalities of ,oldenburg1 ,salm1 and
 ,aremberg1 the ,hanse towns1 ,hamburg1 
,bremen1 and ,lubeck1 were1 together    
with a portion of the kingdom of        
,westphalia1 at the same time also      
incorporated by ,napoleon with ,france1 
under pretext of putting a stop to the  
contraband trade carried on on those    

coasts1 more particularly from the      
island of ,heligoland4 ,he openly aimed 
at converting the ,germans1 and they    
certainly discovered little             
disinclination to the metamorphosis1    
into ,french4 ,he pursued the same      
policy toward the ,italians1 and1 had he
 continued to reign1 would have followed
 a similar system toward the ,poles4    
,the subjection of the whole of ,italy1 
,germany1 and ,poland lay within his    
power1 but1 to the nations inhabiting   
those countries he must1 notwithstanding
 their incorporation with his universal 
empire1 have guaranteed the maintenance 
of their integrity1 a point he had      
resolved at all hazards not to concede4 
,he1 consequently1 preferred dividing   
these nations and allowing one-half to  
be governed by princes inimical to him1 
but whose power he despised4 ,his sole  
dread was patriotism1 the popular love  
of liberty4 ,had he placed himself1 as  
was possible in #ahji1 on the imperial  
throne of ,germany1 the consequent unity

 of that empire must1 even under foreign
 sway1 have endangered the ruler3 he    
preferred gradually to gallicize        
,germany as she had been formerly       
romanized by her ancient conquerors4    
,his intention to sever the ,rhenish    
provinces and ,lower ,saxony entirely   
from ,germany was clear as day4 ,they   
received ,french laws1 ,french          
governors1 no ,german book was allowed  
to cross their frontiers without        
previous permission from the police1 and
 in each department but one newspaper1  
and that subject to the revision of the 
prefect1 was allowed to be              
published4--,in ,hamburg1 one ,baumhauer
 was arrested for an anti-gallic        
expression and thrown into the          
subterranean dungeons of ,magdeburg1    
where he pined to death4 ,the same      
tyranny was exercised even on the       
,german territory belonging to the      
,rhenish confederation4 ,becker1        
privy-councillor of the duke of ,gotha1 
was transported beyond the seas for     

having published a pamphlet against     
,france4 ,several authors were compelled
 to retire into ,sweden and ,russia2    
several booksellers were arrested1      
numerous books were confiscated4 ,not   
the most trifling publication was       
permitted within the ,rhenish           
confederated states that even remotely  
opposed the interests of ,france4 ,the  
whole of the princes of the ,rhenish    
confederation were1 consequently1 under 
the surveillance of ,french censors and 
of the literary spies of ,germany in the
 pay of ,france4 ,hormayr's ,archives   
contain a pamphlet well worthy of       
perusal1 in which an account is given of
 all the arrests and persecutions that  
took place on account of matters        
connected with the press4--,madame de   
,stal was exiled for having spoken      
favorably of the ,german character in   
her work de l',allemagne1 and the work  
itself was suppressed2 ,napoleon1 on    
giving these orders1 merely said1 ,ce   
livre n'est pas ,franais1  ,his         

treatment of ,switzerland was equally   
unindulgent4 ,the ,valais1 which1       
although not forming part of            
,switzerland1 still retained a sort of  
nominal independence1 was formally      
incorporated with ,france2 the canton of
 ,tessin was1 as arbitrarily1 occupied  
by ,french troops1 an immense quantity  
of ,british goods was confiscated1 the  
press was placed under the strictest    
censorship1 the ,erzhler of ,muller-    
,friedeberg1 the only remaining ,swiss  
newspaper of liberal tendency1 was      
suppressed1 while ,zschokke unweariedly 
lauded ,napoleon to the skies as the    
regenerator of the liberties of         
,switzerland and as the savior of the   
world4 ,a humble entreaty of the ,swiss 
for mercy was scornfully refused by     
,napoleon4 ,instead of listening to     
their complaints1 he reproached their   
envoys1 who were headed by ,reinhard of 
,zurich1 in the most violent terms1     
charged the ,swiss with conspiracy1 and 
said that a certain ,sydler had ventured

 to speak against him in the federal    
diet1 etc42 nor could his assumed anger 
be pacified save by the instant         
dissolution of the federal diet1 by the 
extension of the levy of ,swiss recruits
 for the service of ,france1 and by the 
threat of a terrible punishment to all  
,swiss who ventured to enter the service
 of ,england and ,spain4 ,the ,swiss    
merely bound their chains still closer  
without receiving the slightest         
alleviation to their sufferings4        
,reinhard wrote in #ahaa1 the time of   
this ill-successful attempt on the part 
of the ,swiss1 a petty nation possesses 
no means of procuring justice4 ,why then
 did the great ,german nation sever     
itself into so many petty tribes8  ,the 
marriage of ,napoleon on the #b;d of    
,april1 #ahaj1 with ,maria ,louisa1 the 
daughter of the emperor of ,austria1    
surrounded his throne with additional   
splendor4 ,this marriage had a double   
object2 that of raising an heir to his  
broad empire1 his first wife1 ,josephine

 ,beauharnais1 whom he divorced1 having 
brought him no children1 and that of    
legitimating his authority and of       
obliterating the stain of low birth by  
intermingling his blood with that of the
 ancient race of ,habsburg4 ,strange as 
it must appear for the child of         
revolution to deny the very principles  
to which he owed his being and to       
embrace the aristocratic ideas of a     
bygone age1 for the proud conqueror of  
all the sovereigns of ,europe anxiously 
to solicit their recognition of him as  
their equal in birth1 these apparent    
contradictions are easily explained by  
the fact that men of liberal ideas were 
the objects of ,napoleon's greatest     
dread and hatred1 and that he was       
consequently driven to favor the ancient
 aristocracy1 as he had formerly favored
 the ancient church1 and to use them as 
his tools4 ,young and rising nations1   
not the ancient families of ,europe1    
threatened his power1 and he therefore  
sought to confirm it by an alliance     

against the former with the ancient     
dynasties4#d ,the nuptials were         
solemnized with extraordinary pomp at   
,paris4 ,the conflagration of the       
,austrian ambassador's1 ,prince von     
,schwarzenberg's1 house during a        
splendid fete given by him to the       
newly-wedded pair1 and which caused the 
death of several persons1 among others1 
of the ,princess ,pauline               
,schwarzenberg1 the ambassador's        
sister-in-law1 who rushed into the      
flaming building to her daughter's      
rescue1 clouded the festivities with    
ominous gloom4 ,in the ensuing year1    
#ahaa1 the youthful empress gave birth  
to a prince1 ,napoleon ,francis1 who was
 laid in a silver cradle1 and           
provisionally entitled ,king of ,rome1  
in notification of his future destiny to
 succeed his father on the throne of the
 ,roman empire4#e  ,austria offered a   
melancholy contrast to the magnificence 
of ,france4 ,exhausted by her continual 
exertions for the maintenance of the    

war1 the state could no longer meet its 
obligations1 and1 on the #aeth of       
,march1 #ahaa1 ,count ,wallis1 the      
minister of finance1 lowered the value  
of one thousand and sixty millions of   
bank paper to two hundred and twelve    
millions1 and the interest upon the     
whole of the state debts to half the new
 paper issue4 ,this fearful state       
bankruptcy was accompanied by the fall  
of innumerable private firms2 trade was 
completely at a standstill1 and the     
contributions demanded by ,napoleon     
amounted to a sum almost impossible to  
realize4 ,prussia1 especially1 suffered 
from the drain upon her resources4 ,the 
beautiful and high-souled queen1        
,louisa1 destined not to see the day of 
vengeance and of victory1 died1 in      
#ahaj1 of a broken heart4#f  ,while     
,germany lay thus exhausted and bleeding
 in her chains1 ,napoleon and ,alexander
 put the plans1 agreed to between them  
at ,erfurt1 into execution4 ,napoleon   
threw himself with redoubled violence on

 luckless ,spain1 and the ,russians     
invaded ,sweden4  ,the ,germans acted a 
prominent part in the bloody wars in the
 ,peninsula4 ,four ,swiss regiments1    
that had at an earlier period been in   
the ,spanish service1 and the ,german   
,legion1 composed of ,hanoverian        
refugees to ,england1 upheld the        
,spanish cause1 while all sorts of      
troops of the ,rhenish confederation1   
those of ,bavaria and ,wurtemberg       
excepted1 several ,dutch and four ,swiss
 regiments1 fought for ,napoleon4  ,the 
troops of the ,rhenish confederation    
formed two corps4 ,the fate of one of   
them has been described by ,captain     
,rigel of ,baden4 ,the ,baden regiment  
was1 in #ahjh1 sent to ,biscay and      
united under ,lefebvre with other       
contingents of the ,rhenish             
confederation1 for instance1 with the   
,nassauers under the gallant ,von       
,schfer1 the ,dutch under ,general      
,chasse1 the ,hessians1 the ,primates   
7,frankforters71 and ,poles4 ,as early  

as ,october1 they fought against the    
,spaniards at ,zornoza1 and at the      
pillage of ,portugalete first became    
acquainted with the barbarous customs of
 this terrible civil war4 ,the most     
implacable hatred1 merciless rage1 the  
assassination of prisoners1 plunder1    
destruction1 and incendiarism1 equally  
distinguished both sides4 ,the ,germans 
garrisoned ,bilboa1 gained some         
successes at ,molinar and ,valmaseda1   
were afterward placed under the command 
of ,general ,victor1 who arrived with a 
fresh army1 were again victorious at    
,espinosa and ,burgos1 formed a junction
 with ,soult and finally with ,napoleon1
 and1 in ,december1 #ahjh1 entered      
,madrid in triumph4--,in ,january1      
#ahji1 the ,german troops under ,victor 
again advanced upon the ,tagus1 and1    
after a desperate conflict1 took the    
celebrated bridge of ,almaraz by storm4 
,this was followed by the horrid sacking
 of the little town of ,arenas1 during  
which a ,nassauer named ,hornung1 not   

only1 like a second ,scipio1 generously 
released a beautiful girl who had fallen
 into his hands1 but sword in hand      
defended her from his fellow-soldiers4  
,in the following ,march1 the ,germans  
were again brought into action1 at ,mesa
 de ,ibor1 where ,schfer's ,nassauers   
drove the enemy from their position1    
under a fearful fire1 which cut down    
three hundred of their number2 and at   
,medelin1 where they were again         
victorious and massacred numbers of the 
armed ,spanish peasantry4 ,four hundred 
prisoners were1 after the battle1 shot  
by order of ,marshal ,victor4 ,among the
 wounded on the field of battle there   
lay1 side by side1 ,preusser1 the       
,nassauer1 and a ,spanish corporal1 both
 of whom had severely suffered4 ,a      
dispute arose between them1 in the midst
 of which they discovered that they were
 brothers4 ,one had entered the ,french1
 the other the ,spanish service4--,a    
,dutch battalion under ,storm de ,grave1
 abandoned at ,merida to the vengeance  

of the enraged people1 was furiously    
assailed1 but made a gallant defence and
 fought its way through the enemy4  ,in 
the commencement of #ahji1 ,napoleon had
 again quitted ,spain in order to       
conduct the war on the ,danube in       
person4 ,his marshals1 left by him in   
different parts of the ,peninsula1 took 
,saragossa1 drove the ,british under    
,sir ,john ,moore out of the country1   
and penetrated into ,portugal1 but were 
ere long again attacked by a fresh      
,english army under the ,duke of        
,wellington4 ,this rendered the junction
 of the ,german troops with the main    
body of the ,french army necessary1 and 
they consequently shared in the defeats 
of ,talavera and ,almoncid4 ,their      
losses1 more particularly in the latter 
engagement1 were very considerable1     
amounting in all to two thousand six    
hundred men2 among others1 ,general     
,porbeck of ,baden1 an officer of noted 
talent1 fell3 five hundred of their     
wounded were butchered after the battle 

by the infuriated ,spaniards4 ,but      
,wellington suddenly stopped short in   
his victorious career4 ,it was in       
,december1 #ahji1 when the news of the  
fresh peace concluded by ,napoleon with 
,austria arrived4 ,on the ,spaniards    
hazarding a fresh engagement1           
,wellington left them totally           
unassisted1 and1 on the #aith of        
,november1 they suffered a dreadful     
defeat at ,ocasia1 where they lost      
twenty-five thousand men4 ,the ,rhenish 
confederated troops were1 in reward for 
the gallantry displayed by them on this 
occasion1 charged with the transport of 
the prisoners into ,france1 and were    
exposed to the whole rigor of the       
climate and to every sort of deprivation
 while the ,french withdrew into winter 
quarters4 ,the fatigues of this service 
greatly thinned their ranks4 ,the other 
,german regiments were sent into the    
,sierra ,morena1 where they were kept   
ever on the alert guarding that key to  
,spain1 while the ,french under ,soult  

advanced as far as ,cadiz1 those under  
,massena into ,portugal2 but ,soult     
being unable to take ,cadiz1 and        
,massena being forced by the ,duke of   
,wellington to retire1 the ,german      
troops were also driven from their      
position1 and1 in #ahab1 withdrew to    
,valencia1 but1 in the ,october of the  
same year1 again advanced with ,soult   
upon ,madrid4  ,the second corps of the 
,rhenish confederated troops was        
stationed in ,catalonia1 where they were
 fully occupied4 ,their fate has been   
described by two ,saxon officers1       
,jacobs and ,von ,seebach4 ,in the      
commencement of #ahji1 ,reding the      
,swiss1 who had1 in #ahjh1 chiefly      
contributed to the capture of the       
,french army at ,baylen1 commanded the  
whole of the ,spanish forces in         
,catalonia1 consisting of forty thousand
 ,spaniards and several thousand ,swiss2
 but these guerilla troops1 almost      
invincible in petty warfare1 were       
totally unable to stand in open battle  

against the veterans of the ,french     
emperor1 and ,reding was completely     
routed by ,st4 ,cyr at ,taragona4 ,in   
,st4 ,cyr's army were eight thousand    
,westphalians under ,general ,morio1    
three thousand ,berglanders1 fifteen    
hundred ,wurzburgers1 from eight to nine
 hundred men of ,schwarzburg1 ,lippe1   
,waldeck1 and ,reuss1 all of whom were  
employed in the wearisome siege of      
,gerona1 which was defended by ,don     
,alvarez1 one of ,spain's greatest      
heroes4 ,the popular enthusiasm was so  
intense that even the women took up arms
 7in the company of ,st4 ,barbara7 and  
aided in the defence of the walls4 ,the 
,germans1 ever destined to head the     
assault1 suffered immense losses on each
 attempt to carry the place by storm4   
,in one attack alone1 on the #c;d of    
,july1 in which they met with a severe  
repulse1 they lost two thousand of their
 men4 ,their demand of a truce for the  
purpose of carrying their wounded off   
the field of battle was answered by a   

,spaniard1 ,colonel ,blas das ,furnas1  
,a quarter of an hour hence not one of  
them will be alive6 and the whole of the
 wounded men were1 in fact1 murdered in 
cold blood by the ,spaniards4 ,during a 
second assault on the #aith of          
,september1 sixteen hundred of their    
number and the gallant ,colonel ,neuff1 
an ,alsatian1 who had served in ,egypt1 
fell4 ,gerona was finally driven by     
famine to capitulate1 after a sacrifice 
of twelve thousand men1 principally     
,germans1 before her walls4 ,of the     
eight thousand ,westphalians but one    
battalion remained4 ,st4 ,cyr was1 in   
#ahaj1 replaced by ,marshal ,augereau1  
but the troops were few in number and   
worn out with fatigue2 a large convoy   
was lost in an unlucky engagement1 in   
which numbers of the ,germans deserted  
to the ,spanish1 and ,augereau retired  
to ,barcelona1 the metropolis of        
,catalonia1 in order to await the       
arrival of reinforcements1 among which  
was a ,nassau regiment1 one of ,anhalt1 

and the identical ,saxon corps that had 
so dreadfully suffered in the ,tyrol4#g 
,the ,saxon and ,nassau troops1 two     
thousand two hundred strong1 under the  
command of ,general ,schwarz1 an        
,alsatian1 advanced from ,barcelona     
toward the celebrated mountain of       
,montserrat1 whose hermitages1 piled up 
one above another en amphitheatre1      
excite the traveller's wonder4 ,close in
 its vicinity lay the city of ,manresa1 
the focus of the ,catalonian            
insurrection4 ,the ,german troops       
advanced in close column1 although      
surrounded by infuriated multitudes1 by 
whom every straggler was mercilessly    
butchered4 ,the two regiments1          
nevertheless1 succeeded in making       
themselves masters of ,manresa1 where   
they were instantly shut in1 furiously  
assailed1 and threatened with momentary 
destruction4 ,the ,anhalt troops and a  
,french corps1 despatched by ,augereau  
to their relief1 were repulsed with     
considerable loss4 ,schwarz now boldly  

sallied forth1 fought his way through   
the ,spaniards1 and1 after losing a     
thousand men1 succeeded in reaching     
,barcelona1 but was shortly afterward1  
after assisting at the taking of        
,hostalrich1 surprised at ,la ,bisbal   
and taken prisoner with almost all the  
,saxon troops4 ,the few that remained   
fell victims to disease4#h ,the fate of 
the prisoners was indeed melancholy4    
,several thousand of them died on the   
,balearic ,islands1 chiefly on the      
island of ,cabrera1 where1 naked and    
houseless1 they dug for themselves holes
 in the sand and died in great numbers  
of starvation4 ,they often also fell    
victims to the fury of the inhabitants4 
,the ,swiss engaged in the ,spanish     
service1 sometimes saved their lives at 
the hazard of their own4  ,opposed to   
them was the ,german ,legion1 composed  
of the brave ,hanoverians1 who had      
preferred exile in ,britain to          
submission to ,jerome1 and had been sent
 in ,british men-of-war to ,portugal1   

whence they had1 in conjunction with the
 troops of ,england and ,spain1         
penetrated1 in #ahjh1 into the interior 
of ,spain4#i ,at ,benavente1 they made a
 furious charge upon the ,french and    
took their long-delayed revenge4        
,linsingen's cavalry cut down all before
 them2 arms were severed at a blow1     
heads were split in two2 one head was   
found cut in two across from one ear to 
the other4 ,a young ,hanoverian soldier 
took ,general ,lefebvre prisoner1 but   
allowed himself to be deprived of his   
valuable captive by an                  
,englishman4--,the ,hanoverians served  
first under ,sir ,john ,moore4 ,on the  
death of that commander at ,corunna1 the
 troops under his command returned to   
,england3 a ship of the line1 with two  
,hanoverian battalions on board1 was    
lost during the passage4 ,the ,german   
,legion afterward served under the ,duke
 of ,wellington1 and shared the dangers 
and the glory of the war in the         
,peninsula4 ,the admirable accuracy and 

rapidity of the ,german artillery under 
,major ,hartmann greatly contributed to 
the victory of ,talavera1 and received  
the personal encomiums of the ,duke4    
,langwerth's brigade gained equal glory4
 ,the ,german ,legion was1 however1     
never in full force in ,spain4 ,a       
division was1 in #ahji1 sent to the     
island of ,walcheren1 but shared the    
ill-success attending all the attempts  
made in the ,north ,sea during          
,napoleon's reign4 ,the conquest and    
demolition of ,vliessingen in ,august   
was the only result4 ,a pestilence broke
 out among the troops1 and1 on          
,napoleon's successes in ,austria1 it   
was compelled to return to ,england4 ,a 
third division1 consisting of several   
,hanoverian regiments1 was sent to      
,sicily1 accompanied the expedition to  
,naples in #ahji1 and afterward guarded 
the rocks of ,sicily4 ,the ,hanoverians 
in ,spain were also separated into      
various divisions1 each of which gained 
great distinction1 more particularly so1

 the corps of ,general ,alten in the    
storming of ,ciudad-,rodrigo4 ,in #ahab1
 the ,hanoverian cavalry broke three    
,french squares at ,garcia ,hernandez4  
,the ,russians had1 meanwhile1 invaded  
,sweden4 ,gustavus ,adolphus1 hitherto  
,russia's firmest ally1 was suddenly and
 treacherously attacked4 ,general       
,buxhovden overran ,finland1 inciting   
the people1 as he advanced1 to revolt   
against their lawful sovereign4 ,but the
 brave ,finlanders stoutly resisted the 
attempted imposition of the yoke of the 
barbarous ,russ1 and1 although          
ill-supported by ,sweden1 performed     
prodigies of valor4 ,gustavus ,adolphus 
was devoid of military knowledge1 and   
watched1 as if sunk in torpor1 the      
ill-planned operations of his generals4 
,while the flower of the ,swedish troops
 was uselessly employed against ,denmark
 and ,norway1 ,finland was allowed to   
fall into the grasp of ,russia4#aj ,the 
,russians were already expected to land 
in ,sweden1 when a conspiracy broke out 

among the nobility and officers of the  
army1 which terminated in the seizure of
 the king's person and his deposition1  
,march1 #ahji4 ,his son1 ,gustavus      
,vasa1 the present ex-king of ,sweden1  
was excluded from the succession1 and   
his uncle ,charles1 the imbecile and    
unworthy duke of ,sudermania1#aa was    
proclaimed king under the title of      
,charles ,,xiii4 ,he was put up as a    
scarecrow by the conspirators4 ,gustavus
 ,adolphus ,,iv4 had1 at all events1    
shown himself incapable of saving       
,sweden4 ,but the conspirators were no  
patriots1 nor was their object the      
preservation of their country2 they were
 merely bribed traitors1 weak and       
incapable as the monarch they had       
dethroned4 ,they were composed of a     
party among the ancient nobility1       
impatient of the restrictions of a      
monarchy1 and of the younger officers in
 the army1 who were filled with         
enthusiasm for ,napoleon4 ,the          
rejoicings on the occasion of the       

abdication of ,gustavus ,adolphus were  
heightened by the news of the victory   
gained by ,napoleon at ,ratisbon1 which1
 at the same time1 reached ,stockholm4  
,the new and wretched ,swedish          
government instantly deferred everything
 to ,napoleon and humbly solicited his  
favor2 but ,napoleon1 to whom the       
friendship of ,russia was1 at that time1
 of higher importance than the          
submission of a handful of intriguants  
in ,sweden1 received their homage with  
marked coldness4 ,finland1 shamefully   
abandoned in her hour of need1 was      
immediately ceded to ,russia1 in        
consideration of which1 ,napoleon       
graciously restored ,rugen and          
,swedish-,pomerania to ,sweden4 ,charles
 ,,xiii4 adopted1 as his son and        
successor1 ,christian ,augustus1 prince 
of ,holstein-,augustenburg1 who1 falling
 dead off his horse at a review1#ab the 
aged and childless monarch was compelled
 to make a second choice1 which fell    
upon the ,french general1 ,bernadotte1  

who had1 at one time1 been a furious    
,jacobin and had afterward acted as     
,napoleon's general and commandant in   
,swedish-,pomerania1 where he had1 by   
his mildness1 gained great popularity4  
,the majority in ,sweden deemed him     
merely a creature of ,napoleon1 whose   
favor they hoped to gain by this        
flattering choice2 others1 it may be1   
already beheld in him ,napoleon's future
 foe1 and knew the value of the sagacity
 and wisdom with which he was endowed1  
and of which the want was so deeply felt
 in ,sweden at a period when intrigue   
and cunning had succeeded to violence4  
,the ,freemasons1 with whom he had      
placed himself in close communication1  
appear to have greatly influenced his   
election4#ac ,the unfortunate king1     
,gustavus ,adolphus1 after being long   
kept a close prisoner in the castle of  
,gripsholm1 where his strong religious  
bias had been strengthened by           
apparitions1#ad was permitted to retire 
into ,germany2 he disdainfully refused  

to accept of a pension1 separated       
himself from his consort1 a princess of 
,baden1 and lived in proud poverty1     
under the name of ,colonel ,gustavson1  
in ,switzerland4-- ,bernadotte1 the     
newly adopted prince1 took the title of 
,charles ,john1 crown prince of ,sweden4
 ,napoleon1 who was in ignorance of this
 intrigue1 was taken by surprise1 but1  
in the hope of ,bernadotte's continued  
fidelity1 presented him with a million  
en cadeau2 ,bernadotte had1 however1    
been long jealous of ,napoleon's        
fortune1 and1 solely intent upon gaining
 the hearts of his future subjects1     
deceived him and secretly permitted the 
,british to trade with ,sweden1 although
 publicly a party in the continental    
system4  ,this system was at this period
 enforced with exaggerated severity by  
,napoleon4 ,he not only prohibited the  
importation of all ,british goods1 but  
seized all already sent to the continent
 and condemned them to be publicly      
burned4 ,millions evaporated in smoke1  

principally at ,amsterdam1 ,hamburg1    
,frankfort1 and ,leipzig4 ,the          
wealthiest mercantile establishments    
were made bankrupt4  ,in addition to the
 other blows at that time zealously     
bestowed upon the dead ,german lion1 the
 king of ,denmark attempted to extirpate
 the ,german language in ,schleswig1 but
 the edict to that effect1 published on 
the #aith of ,january1 #ahaa1 was       
frustrated by the courage of the clergy1
 schoolmasters1 and peasantry1 who      
obstinately refused to learn ,danish4#ae
   ,footnote #a3 ,the pope1 among other 
things1 long refused his consent to the 
second marriage of the king of          
,westphalia1 although that prince's     
first wife was merely a ,protestant and 
an ,american citizen4  ,footnote #b3    
,bilderdyk1 whom the ,dutch consider as 
their greatest poet1 was1 nevertheless1 
at that time1 ,napoleon's basest        
flatterer1 and ever expressed a         
hypochondriacal and senseless antipathy 
to ,germany4  ,footnote #c3 ,at         

,amsterdam1 in #ahaa2 in the district   
around ,leyden1 in #ahab4 ,insurrections
 of a similar character were suppressed 
in ,april1 #ahaa1 in the country around 
,liege2 in ,december1 #ahab1 at ,aix-la-
 ,chapelle2 the ,east ,frieslanders also
 rebelled against the conscription4     
,footnote #d3 ,it was during this year  
that ,napoleon caused the seamless coat 
of the ,saviour1 which had1 during the  
,revolution1 taken refuge at ,augsburg1 
to be borne in a magnificent procession 
to ,treves and to be exposed for        
eighteen days to public view4 ,the      
pilgrims amounted to two hundred and    
fifty thousand4--,hormayr1 who had1     
during the foregoing year1 summoned the 
,tyrolese to arms against ,napoleon1    
said in his ,annual for #ahaa1 ,by the  
marriage of the emperor ,napoleon with  
,maria ,louisa1 the ,revolution may be  
considered as completely terminated and 
peace durably settled throughout        
,europe4  ,footnote #e3 ,his birth was  
celebrated by numerous ,german poets and

 by general public rejoicings1 but with 
the basest adulation in ,switzerland4   
,meyer of ,knonau relates1 in his       
,history of ,switzerland1 that the king 
of ,rome was at one of the festivals    
termed the blessed infant4 ,goethe's    
poem in praise of ,napoleon appeared at 
this time4 ,the clergy also emulated    
each other in servility4  ,footnote #f3 
,at that time the noble-hearted poet1   
,seume1 who had formerly been a victim  
of native tyranny1 died of sorrow and   
disgust at the rule of the foreigner in 
,germany1 at ,toeplitz1 #ahaj4          
,footnote #g3 ,this regiment was merely 
rewarded by ,napoleon for its gallantry 
with #ae gros 7#as4 #f-a_/d;d47 per man1
 in order to drink to his health on his 
birthday4--,von ,seebach4  ,footnote #h3
 ,what the feeling among the ,germans   
was is plainly shown by the charge      
against ,general ,beurmann for general  
ill-treatment of his countrymen1 whom he
 was accused of having allowed to perish
 in the hospitals1 in order to save the 

expense of their return home4 ,out of   
seventy officers and two thousand four  
hundred and twenty-three privates       
belonging to the ,saxon regiment1 but   
thirty-nine officers and three hundred  
and nineteen privates returned to their 
native country4 ,vide ,jacob's          
,campaigns of the ,gotha-,altenburgers  
and ,von ,seebach's ,history of the     
,campaigns of the ,saxony ,infantry4    
,von ,seebach1 who was taken prisoner on
 his return from ,manresa1 has given a  
particularly detailed and graphic       
account of the campaign4  ,footnote #i3 
,beamish has recounted their exploits in
 detail4 ,the ,recollections of a       
,legionary1 ,hanover1 #ahbf1 is also    
worthy of perusal4  ,footnote #aj3 ,the 
gallant acts of the ,finlanders and the 
brutality of the ,russians are brought  
forward in ,arndt's ,swedish ,histories4
  ,footnote #aa3 ,when regent1 on the   
death of ,gustavus ,,iii41 he had spared
 his murderers and released those       
criminated in the conspiracy4 ,on the   

present occasion1 he yielded in         
everything to the aristocracy1 and voted
 for the dethronement of his own house1 
which1 as he had no children1 infallibly
 ensued on the exclusion of the youthful
 ,gustavus4  ,footnote #ab3 ,an         
extremely suspicious accident1 which    
gave rise to many reports4  ,footnote   
#ac3 ,vide ,posselt's ,sixth ,annual4   
,footnote #ad3 ,this castle was haunted 
by the ghost of ,king ,eric ,,xiv41 who 
had long pined here in close            
imprisonment1 and who had once before1  
during a sumptuous entertainment given  
by ,gustavus ,adolphus ,,iv4 to his     
brother-in-law1 the ,margrave of ,baden1
 struck the whole court with terror by  
his shrieks and groans4  ,footnote #ae3 
,wimpfen1 ,history of ,schleswig4       
,,cclix4 ,the ,russian ,campaign   ,an  
enormous comet that1 during the whole of
 the hot summer of #ahaa1 hung          
threatening in the heavens1 appeared as 
the harbinger of great and important    
vicissitudes to the enslaved inhabitants

 of the earth1 and it was in truth by an
 act of ,divine providence that a       
dispute arose between the two giant     
powers intent upon the partition of     
,europe4  ,napoleon was over-reached by 
,russia1 whose avarice1 far from being  
glutted by the possession of ,finland1  
great part of ,prussian and ,austrian   
,poland1 ,moldavia1 and ,wallachia1     
still craved for more1 and who built her
 hopes of ,napoleon's compliance with   
her demands on his value for her        
friendship4 ,belgrade was seized1       
,servia demanded1 and the whole of      
,turkey in ,europe openly grasped at4   
,napoleon was1 however1 little inclined 
to cede the ,mediterranean to his       
,russian ally1 to whose empire he gave  
the ,danube as a boundary4 ,russia next 
demanded possession of the duchy of     
,warsaw1 which was refused by ,napoleon4
 ,the ,austrian marriage was meanwhile  
concluded4 ,napoleon1 prior to his      
demand for the hand of the archduchess  
,maria ,louisa1 had sued for that of the

 grandduchess ,anna1 sister to the      
emperor ,alexander1 who was then in her 
sixteenth year1 but1 being refused by   
her mother1 the empress ,maria1 a       
princess of ,wurtemberg1 and ,alexander 
delaying a decisive answer1 he formed an
 alliance with the ,habsburg4 ,this     
event naturally led ,russia to conclude 
that she would no longer be permitted to
 aggrandize herself at the expense of   
,austria1 and ,alexander consequently   
assumed a threatening posture and       
condescended to listen to the           
complaints1 hitherto condemned to       
silence1 of the agricultural and        
mercantile classes4 ,no ,russian vessel 
durst venture out to sea1 and a ,russian
 fleet had been seized by the ,british  
in the harbors of ,lisbon4 ,at ,riga lay
 immense stores of grain in want of a   
foreign market4 ,on the #cast of        
,december1 #ahaj1 ,alexander published a
 fresh tariff permitting the importation
 of colonial products under a neutral   
flag 7several hundred ,english ships    

arrived under the ,american flag71 and  
prohibiting the importation of ,french  
manufactured goods4 ,not many weeks     
previously1 on the #acth of ,december1  
,napoleon had annexed ,oldenburg to     
,france4 ,the duke1 ,peter1 was nearly  
related to the emperor of ,russia1 and  
,napoleon1 notwithstanding his declared 
readiness to grant a compensation1      
refused to allow it to consist of the   
grandduchy of ,warsaw1 and proposed a   
duchy of ,erfurt1 as yet uncreated1     
which ,russia scornfully rejected4  ,the
 alliance between ,russia1 ,sweden1 and 
,england was now speedily concluded4    
,sweden1 who had vainly demanded from   
,napoleon the possession of ,norway and 
a large supply of money1 assumed a tone 
of indignation1 threw open her harbors  
to the ,british merchantmen1 and so     
openly carried on a contraband trade in 
,pomerania that ,napoleon1 in order to  
maintain the continental system1 was    
constrained to garrison                 
,swedish-,pomerania and ,rugen1 and to  

disarm the ,swedish inhabitants4        
,bernadotte1 upon this1 ranged himself  
entirely on the side of his opponents1  
without1 however1 coming to an open     
rupture1 for which he awaited a         
declaration on the part of ,russia4 ,the
 expressions made use of by ,napoleon on
 the birth of the king of ,rome at      
length filled up the measure of         
provocation4 ,intoxicated with success1 
he boasted1 in an address to the        
mercantile classes1 that he would in    
despite of ,russia maintain the         
continental system1 for he was lord over
 the whole of continental ,europe2 that 
if ,alexander had not concluded a treaty
 with him at ,tilsit he would have      
compelled him to do so at               
,petersburg4--,the pride of the haughty 
,russian was deeply wounded1 and a      
rupture was nigh at hand4  ,two secret  
systems were at this period undermining 
each other in ,prussia1 that of the     
,tugendbund founded by ,stein and       
,scharnhorst1 whose object being the    

liberation of ,germany at all hazards   
from the yoke of ,napoleon1             
consequently1 favored ,russia1 and that 
of ,hardenberg1 which aimed at a close  
union with ,france4 ,hardenberg1 whose  
position as chancellor of state gave him
 the upper hand1 had compromised        
,prussia by the servility with which he 
sued for an alliance long scornfully    
refused and at length conceded on the   
most humiliating terms by ,napoleon4#a  
,russia had1 meanwhile1 made            
preparations for a war unanticipated by 
,napoleon4 ,as early as #ahaa1 a great  
,russian army stood ready for the       
invasion of ,poland1 and might1 as there
 were at that time but few ,french      
troops in ,germany1 easily have advanced
 as far as the ,elbe4 ,it remained1     
nevertheless1 in a state of             
inactivity4#b ,napoleon instantly       
prepared for war and fortified ,dantzig4
 ,his continual proposals of peace1 ever
 unsatisfactory to the ambition of the  
czar1 remaining at length unanswered1 he

 declared war4 ,the ,rhenish            
confederation followed as usual in his  
train1 and ,austria1 from an interested 
motive1 the hope of regaining in the    
,east by ,napoleon's assistance all she 
had lost by opposing him in the ,west1  
or that of regaining her station as the 
third ,european power when the resources
 of the two ruling powers1 whose        
coalition had threatened her existence1 
had been exhausted by war4 ,prussia also
 followed the eagles of ,napoleon3 the  
,hardenberg party1 with a view of       
conciliating him1 and1 like the ,rhenish
 confederation1 from motives of gain3   
the ,tugendbund1 which predominated in  
the army1 with silent but implacable    
hate4  ,in the spring of #ahab1         
,napoleon1 after leaving a sufficient   
force to prosecute the war with activity
 in ,spain and to guard ,france1 ,italy1
 and ,germany1#c led half a million men 
to the ,russian frontiers4 ,before      
taking the field1 he convoked all the   
princes of ,germany to ,dresden1 where  

he treated them with such extreme       
insolence as even to revolt his most    
favored and warmest partisans4 ,tears   
were seen to start in ladies' eyes1     
while men bit their lips with rage at   
the petty humiliations and affronts     
heaped on them by their powerful but    
momentary lord4 ,the empress of         
,austria#d and the king of ,prussia#e   
appear1 on this occasion1 to have felt  
this most acutely4  ,for the first      
time--an event unknown in the history of
 the world--the whole of ,germany was   
reduced to submission4 ,napoleon1       
greater than conquering ,attila1 who    
took the field at the head of one-half  
of ,germany against the other1 dragged  
the whole of ,germany in his train4 ,the
 army led by him to the steppes of      
,russia was principally composed of     
,german troops1 who were so skilfully   
mixed up with the ,french as not to be  
themselves aware of their numerical     
superiority4 ,the right wing1 composed  
of thirty thousand ,austrians under     

,schwarzenberg1 was destined for the    
invasion of ,volhynia2 while the left   
wing1 consisting of twenty thousand     
,prussians under ,york and several      
thousand ,french1 under the command of  
,marshal ,macdonald1 was ordered to     
advance upon the coasts of the ,baltic  
and without loss of time to besiege     
,riga4 ,the centre or main body         
consisted of the troops of the ,rhenish 
confederation1 more or less mixed up    
with ,french2 of thirty-eight thousand  
,bavarians under ,wrede and commanded by
 ,st4 ,cyr2 of sixteen thousand         
,wurtembergers under ,scheeler1 over    
whom ,marshal ,ney was allotted the     
chief command2 single regiments1        
principally cavalry1 were drawn off in  
order more thoroughly to intermix the   
,germans with the ,french2 of seventeen 
thousand ,saxons under ,reynier2 of     
eighteen thousand ,westphalians under   
,vandamme2 also of ,hessians1 ,badeners1
 ,frankforters1 ,wurzburgers1           
,nassauers1 in short1 of contingents    

furnished by each of the confederated   
states4 ,the ,swiss were mostly         
concentrated under ,oudinot4 ,the       
,dutch1 ,hanseatic1 ,flemish1 in fine1  
all the ,germans on the left bank of the
 ,rhine1 were at that time crammed among
 the ,french troops4 ,upward of two     
hundred thousand ,germans1 at the lowest
 computation1 marched against ,russia1 a
 number far superior to that of the     
,french in the army1 the remainder of   
which was made up by several thousand   
,italians1 ,portuguese1 and ,spaniards1 
who had been pressed into the service4#f
  ,the ,prussians found themselves in   
the most degraded position4 ,their army1
 weak as it was in numbers1 was placed  
under the command of a ,french general4 
,the ,prussian fortresses1 with the     
exception of ,colberg1 ,graudenz1       
,schweidnitz1 ,neisse1 and ,glatz1 were 
already garrisoned with ,french troops1 
or1 like ,pillau near ,koenigsberg1     
newly occupied by them4 ,in ,berlin1 the
 ,french had unlimited sway4 ,marshal   

,augereau was stationed with sixty      
thousand men in ,northern ,germany for  
the purpose of keeping that part of the 
country1 and more particularly ,prussia1
 in check to ,napoleon's rear2 the      
,danish forces also stood in readiness  
to support him in case of necessity4    
,napoleon's entire army moreover marched
 through ,prussia and completely drained
 that country of its last resources4    
,napoleon deemed it unnecessary to take 
measures equal in severity toward       
,austria1 where the favor of the court  
seemed to be secured by his marriage1   
and the allegiance of the army by the   
presence of ,schwarzenberg1 who neither 
rejected nor returned his confidence4 ,a
 rich compensation was1 by a secret     
compact1 secured to ,austria in case the
 cession of ,galicia should be          
necessitated by the expected restoration
 of the kingdom of ,poland1 with which  
,napoleon had long flattered the ,poles1
 who1 misled by his promises1 served him
 with the greatest enthusiasm4 ,but1    

notwithstanding the removal of the only 
obstacle1 the jealousy of ,austria in   
regard to ,galicia1 by this secret      
compact1 his promises remained          
unfulfilled1 and he took possession of  
the whole of ,poland without restoring  
her ancient independence4 ,the petitions
 addressed to him on this subject by the
 ,poles received dubious replies1 and he
 pursued toward his unfortunate dupes   
his ancient system of dismembering and  
intermingling nations1 of tolerating no 
national unity4 ,napoleon's principal   
motive1 however1 was his expectation of 
compelling the emperor by a well-aimed  
blow to conclude peace1 and of forming  
with him an alliance upon still more    
favorable terms against the rest of the 
,european powers4 ,the friendship of    
,russia was of far more import to him   
than all the enthusiasm of the ,poles4  
,the deep conviction harbored by        
,napoleon of his irresistible power led 
him to repay every service and to regard
 every antagonist with contempt4        

,confident of victory1 he deviated from 
the strict military discipline he had at
 one time enforced and of which he had  
given an example in his own person1     
dragged in his train a multitude of     
useless attendants fitted but for pomp  
and luxury1 permitted his marshals and  
generals to do the same1 and an         
incredible number of private carriages1 
servants1 women1 etc41 to follow in the 
rear of the army1 to hamper its         
movements1 create confusion1 and aid in 
consuming the army stores1 which being1 
moreover1 merely provided for a short   
campaign1 speedily became insufficient  
for the maintenance of the enormous     
mass4 ,even in ,eastern ,prussia1       
numbers of the soldiery were constrained
 by want to plunder the villages4--,on  
the #bdth of ,june1 #ahab1 ,napoleon    
crossed the ,niemen1 the ,russian       
frontier1 not far from ,kowno4 ,the     
season was already too far advanced4 ,it
 may be that1 deceived by the mildness  
of the winter of #ahjf to #ahjg1 he     

imagined it possible to protract the    
campaign without peril to himself until 
the winter months4 ,no enemy appeared to
 oppose his progress4 ,barclay de       
,tolly1#g the ,russian                  
commander-in-chief1 pursued the system  
followed by the ,scythians against      
,darius1 and1 perpetually retiring      
before the enemy1 gradually drew him    
deep into the dreary and deserted       
steppes4 ,this plan originated with     
,scharnhorst1 by whom ,general ,lieven  
was advised not to hazard an engagement 
until the winter1 and to turn a deaf ear
 to every proposal of peace4#h ,general 
,lieven1 on reaching ,barclay's         
headquarters1 took ,colonel ,toll1 a    
,german1 ,barclay's right hand1 and     
,lieutenant-,colonel ,clausewitz1 also a
 ,german1 afterward noted for his       
strategical works1 into his confidence4 
,general ,pfull1 another ,german1 at    
that time high in the emperor's         
confidence1 and almost all the ,russian 
generals opposed ,scharnhorst's plan and

 continued to advance with a view of    
giving battle2 but1 on ,napoleon's      
appearance at the head of an army       
greatly their superior in number before 
the ,russians had been able to          
concentrate their forces1 they were     
naturally compelled to retire before    
him1 and1 on the prevention1 for some   
weeks1 of the junction of a newly-levied
 ,russian army under ,prince ,bragation 
with the forces under ,barclay1 owing to
 the rapidity of ,napoleon's advance1   
,scharnhorst's plan was adopted as the  
only one feasible4  ,napoleon1 in the   
hope of overtaking the ,russians and of 
compelling them to give battle1 pushed  
onward by forced marches2 the supplies  
were unable to follow1 and numbers of   
the men and horses sank from exhaustion 
owing to over-fatigue1 heat1 and        
hunger4#i ,on the arrival of ,napoleon  
in ,witebst1 of ,schwarzenberg in       
,volhynia1 of the ,prussians before     
,riga1 the army might have halted1      
reconquered ,poland have been organized1

 the men put into winter quarters1 the  
army have again taken the field early in
 the spring1 and the conquest of ,russia
 have been slowly but surely completed4 
,but ,napoleon had resolved upon        
terminating the war in one rapid        
campaign1 upon defeating the ,russians1 
seizing their metropolis1 and dictating 
terms of peace1 and incessantly pursued 
his retreating opponent1 whose footsteps
 were marked by the flames of the cities
 and villages and by the devastated     
country to their rear4 ,the first       
serious opposition was made at          
,smolensko1#aj whence the ,russians1    
however1 speedily retreated after       
setting the city on fire4 ,on the same  
day1 the ,bavarians1 who had diverged to
 one side during their advance1 had a   
furious encounter--in which ,general    
,deroy1 formerly distinguished for his  
services in the ,tyrol1 was killed--at  
,poloczk with a body of ,russian troops 
under ,wittgenstein4 ,the ,bavarians    
remained stationary in this part of the 

country for the purpose of watching the 
movements of that general1 while        
,napoleon1 careless of the peril with   
which he was threatened by the approach 
of winter and by the multitude of       
enemies gathering to his rear1 advanced 
with the main body of the grand army    
from ,smolensko across the wasted       
country upon ,moscow1 the ancient       
metropolis of the ,russian empire4      
,russia1 at that time engaged in a war  
with ,turkey1 whose frontiers were      
watched by an immense army under        
,kutusow1 used her utmost efforts1 in   
which she was aided by ,england1 to     
conciliate the ,porte in order to turn  
the whole of her forces against         
,napoleon4 ,by a master-stroke of       
political intrigue1#aa the ,porte1      
besides concluding peace at ,bucharest  
on the #bhth of ,may1 ceded the province
 of ,bessarabia 7not ,moldavia and      
,wallachia7 to ,russia4 ,a ,russian army
 under ,tschitschakow was now enabled to
 drive the ,austrians out of ,volhynia1 

while a considerable force under        
,kutusow joined ,barclay4 ,had the      
,russians at this time hazarded an      
engagement1 their defeat was certain4   
,moscow could not have been saved4      
,barclay consequently resolved not to   
come to an engagement1 but to husband   
his forces and to attack the ,french    
during the winter4 ,the intended        
surrender of ,moscow without a blow was1
 nevertheless1 deeply resented as a     
national disgrace2 the army and the     
people#ab raised a clamor1 the venerable
 ,kutusow was nominated                 
commander-in-chief1 and1 taking up a    
position on the little river ,moskwa    
near ,borodino1 about two days' journey 
from ,moscow1 a bloody engagement took  
place there on the #gth of ,september1  
in which ,napoleon1 in order to spare   
his guards1 neglected to follow up his  
advantage with his usual energy and     
allowed the defeated ,russians1 whom he 
might have totally annihilated1 to      
escape4 ,napoleon triumphed2 but at what

 a price6 ,after a fearful struggle1 in 
which he lost forty thousand men in     
killed and wounded1#ac the latter of    
whom perished almost to a man1 owing to 
want and neglect4#ad  ,moscow was now   
both defenceless and void of            
inhabitants4 ,napoleon traversed this   
enormous city1 containing two hundred   
and ninety-five churches and fifteen    
hundred palaces rising from amid a sea  
of inferior dwellings1 and took         
possession of the residence of the      
czars1 the #adth of ,november1 #ahab4   
,the whole city was1 however1 deserted1 
and scarcely had the ,french army taken 
up its quarters in it than flames burst 
from the empty and closely shut-up      
houses1 and1 ere long1 the whole of the 
immense city became a sea of fire and   
was reduced1 before ,napoleon's eyes1 to
 ashes4 ,every attempt to extinguish the
 flames proved unavailing4 ,rostopchin1 
the commandant of ,moscow1 had1         
previously to his retreat1 put          
combustible materials1 which were       

ignited on the entrance of the ,french  
by men secreted for that purpose1 into  
the houses4#ae ,a violent wind aided the
 work of destruction4 ,the patriotic    
sacrifice was performed1 nor failed in  
its object4 ,napoleon1 instead of peace 
and plenty1 merely found ashes in       
,moscow4  ,instead of pursuing the      
defeated ,russians to ,kaluga1 where1 in
 pursuance of ,toll's first laid-down   
plan1 they took up a position close upon
 the flank of the ,french and threatened
 to impede their retreat2 instead of    
taking up his winter quarters in the    
fertile ,south or of quickly turning and
 fixing himself in ,lithuania in order  
to collect reinforcements for the       
ensuing year1 ,napoleon remained in a   
state of inaction at ,moscow until the  
#aith of ,october1 in expectation of    
proposals of peace from ,alexander4 ,the
 terms of peace offered by him on his   
part to the ,russians did not even      
elicit a reply4 ,his cavalry1 already   
reduced to a great state of exhaustion1 

were1 in the beginning of ,october1     
surprised before the city of ,tarutino  
and repulsed with considerable loss4    
,this at length decided ,napoleon upon  
marching upon ,kaluga1 but the moment   
for success had already passed4 ,the    
reinforced and inspirited ,russians made
 such a desperate resistance at         
,malo-,jaroslawez that he resolved to   
retire by the nearest route1 that by    
which he had penetrated up the country1 
marked by ashes and pestilential        
corpses1 into ,lithuania4 ,winter had   
not yet set in1 and his ranks were      
already thinned by famine4#af ,kutusow1 
with the main body of the ,russian army1
 pursued the retreating ,french and     
again overtook them at ,wiazma1 the #c;d
 ,november4 ,napoleon's hopes now rested
 on the separate corps d'arme left to   
his rear on his advance upon ,moscow1   
but they were1 notwithstanding the      
defeat of ,wittgenstein's corps by the  
,bavarians under ,wrede1 kept in check  
by fresh ,russian armies and exposed to 

all the horrors of winter4#ag ,in       
,volhynia1 ,schwarzenberg had zealously 
endeavored to spare his troops1#ah and  
had1 by his retreat toward the          
grandduchy of ,warsaw1 left             
,tschitschakow at liberty to turn his   
arms against ,napoleon1 against whom    
,wittgenstein also advanced in the      
design of blocking up his route1 while  
,kutusow incessantly assailed his flank 
and rear4 ,on the #fth of ,november1 the
 frost suddenly set in4 ,the horses died
 by thousands in a single night2 the    
greater part of the cavalry was         
consequently dismounted1 and it was     
found necessary to abandon part of the  
booty and artillery4 ,a deep snow       
shortly afterward fell and obstructed   
the path of the fugitive army4 ,the     
frost became more and more rigorous2 but
 few of the men had sufficient strength 
left to continue to carry their arms and
 to cover the flight of the rest4 ,most 
of the soldiers threw away their arms   
and merely endeavored to preserve life4 

,napoleon's grand army was scattered    
over the boundless snow-covered steppes1
 whose dreary monotony was solely broken
 by some desolate half-burned village4  
,gaunt forms of famine1 wan1            
hollow-eyed1 wrapped in strange garments
 of misery1 skins1 women's clothes1     
etc41 and with long-grown beards1       
dragged their faint and weary limbs     
along1 fought for a dead horse whose    
flesh was greedily torn from the        
carcass1 murdered each other for a      
morsel of bread1 and fell one after the 
other in the deep snow1 never again to  
rise4 ,bones of frozen corpses lay each 
morn around the dead ashes of the night 
fires4#ai ,numbers were seen to spring1 
with a horrid cry of mad exultation1    
into the flaming houses4 ,numbers fell  
into the hands of the ,russian boors1   
who stripped them naked and chased them 
through the snow4 ,smolensko was at     
length reached1 but the loss of the     
greater part of the cannon1 the want of 
ammunition and provisions1 rendered     

their stay in that deserted and         
half-consumed city impossible4 ,the     
flight was continued1 the ,russians     
incessantly pursuing and harassing the  
worn-out troops1 whose retreat was      
covered by ,ney with all the men still  
under arms4 ,cut off at ,smolensko1 he  
escaped almost by miracle1 by creeping  
during the night along the banks of the 
,dnieper and successively repulsing the 
several ,russian corps that threw       
themselves in his way4#bj ,a thaw now   
took place1 and the ,beresina1 which it 
was necessary to cross1 was full of     
drift-ice1 its banks were slippery and  
impassable1 and moreover commanded by   
,tschitschakow's artillery1 while the   
roar of cannon to the rear announced    
,wittgenstein's approach4 ,kutusow had  
this time failed to advance with        
sufficient rapidity1 and ,napoleon1 the 
river to his front and enclosed between 
the ,russian armies1 owed his escape to 
the most extraordinary good luck4 ,the  
corps d'arme under ,oudinot and ,victor1

 that had been left behind on his       
advance upon ,moscow1 came at the moment
 of need with fresh troops to his aid4  
,tschitschakow quitted the bank at the  
spot where ,napoleon intended to make   
the passage of the ,beresina under an   
idea of the attempt being made at       
another point4 ,napoleon instantly threw
 two bridges across the stream1 and all 
the able-bodied men crossed in safety4  
,at the moment when the bridges1 that   
had several times given way1 were choked
 up by the countless throng bringing up 
the rear1 ,wittgenstein appeared and    
directed his heavy artillery upon the   
motionless and unarmed crowd4 ,some     
regiments1 forming the rearguard1 fell1 
together with all still remaining on the
 other side of the river1 into the hands
 of the ,russians4  ,the fugitive army  
was1 after this fearful day1 relieved1  
but the temperature again fell to       
twenty-seven degrees below zero1 and the
 stoutest hearts and frames sank4 ,on   
the #eth of ,december1 ,napoleon1       

placing himself in a sledge1 hurried in 
advance of his army1 nay1 preceded the  
news of his disaster1 in order at all   
events to insure his personal safety and
 to pass through ,germany before        
measures could be taken for his         
capture4#ba ,his fugitive army shortly  
afterward reached ,wilna1 but was too   
exhausted to maintain that position4    
,enormous magazines1 several prisoners1 
and the rest of the booty1 besides six  
million francs in silver money1 fell    
here into the hands of the ,russians4   
,part of the fugitives escaped to       
,dantzig1 but few crossed the ,oder2 the
 ,saxons under ,reynier were routed and 
dispersed in a last engagement at       
,calisch2 ,poniatowsky and the ,poles   
retired to ,cracow on the ,austrian     
frontier1 as it were1 protected by      
,schwarzenberg1 who remained unassailed 
by the ,russians1 and whose neutrality  
was1 not long afterward1 formally       
recognized4  ,the ,prussians1 who had   
been1 meanwhile1 occupied with the      

unsuccessful siege of ,riga1 and who1   
like the ,austrians1 had comparatively  
husbanded their strength1#bb were now   
the only hope of the fugitive ,french4  
,the troops under ,macdonald1           
accordingly1 received orders to cover   
the retreat of the grand army1 but      
,york1 instead of obeying1 concluded a  
neutral treaty with the ,russians       
commanded by ,diebitsch of ,silesia and 
remained stationary in ,eastern         
,prussia4 ,the king of ,prussia1 at that
 time still at ,berlin and in the power 
of the ,french1 publicly#bc disapproved 
of the step taken by his general1#bd who
 was1 on the evacuation of ,berlin by   
the ,french1 as publicly rewarded4  ,the
 immense army of the conqueror of the   
world was totally annihilated4 ,of those
 who entered ,moscow scarcely twenty    
thousand1 of the half million of men who
 crossed the ,russian frontier but      
eighty thousand1 returned4   ,footnote  
#a3 ,vide ,bignon4  ,footnote #b3 ,from 
a letter of ,count ,minister in         

,hormayr's ,sketches of ,life1 it       
appears that ,russia still cherished the
 hope of great concessions being made by
 ,napoleon in order to avoid war and was
 therefore still reserved in her        
relations with ,england and the         
,prussian patriots4  ,footnote #c3      
,french troops garrisoned ,german       
fortresses and perpetually passed along 
the principal roads1 which were for that
 purpose essentially improved by        
,napoleon4 ,in #ahaj1 a great part of   
the town of ,eisenach was destroyed by  
the bursting of some ,french            
powder-carts that were carelessly       
brought through1 and by which great     
numbers of people were killed4          
,footnote #d3 ,who was far surpassed in 
splendor by her stepdaughter of ,france4
  ,footnote #e3 ,segur relates that he  
was received politely but with distant  
coolness by ,napoleon4 ,there is said to
 have been question between them        
concerning the marriage of the crown    
prince of ,prussia with one of          

,napoleon's nieces1 and of an           
incorporation of the still unconquered  
,russian provinces on the ,baltic1      
,livonia1 ,courland1 and ,esthonia1 with
 ,prussia4 ,all was1 however1 empty     
show4 ,napoleon hoped by the rapidity of
 his successes to constrain the emperor 
of ,russia to conclude not only peace1  
but a still closer alliance with        
,france1 in which case it was as far    
from his intention to concede the       
above-mentioned provinces to ,prussia as
 to emancipate the ,poles4  ,footnote   
#f3 ,napoleon said at that time to a    
,russian1 ,si vous perdez cinq ,russes1 
ne perds qu un ,francais et quatre      
cochons4  ,footnote #g3 ,this general1  
on the opening of the war1 published a  
proclamation to the ,germans1 summoning 
them to throw off the yoke of           
,napoleon4--,allgemeine ,zeitung1 ,no4  
#cbg4 ,napoleon replied with1 ,whom are 
you addressing8 ,there are no ,germans1 
there are only ,austrians1 ,prussians1  
,bavarians1 etc4--,all4 ,zeitung1 ,no4  

#bbh4  ,footnote #h3 ,vide ,clausewitz's
 ,works4  ,footnote #i3 ,at each        
encampment the men were left in such    
numbers in hastily erected hospitals    
that1 of thirty-eight thousand          
,bavarians1 for instance1 but ten       
thousand1 of sixteen thousand           
,wrtembergers1 but thirteen hundred1    
reached ,smolensko4  ,footnote #aj3 ,the
 ,wrtembergers distinguished themselves 
here by storming the faubourgs and the  
bridges across the ,dnieper4  ,footnote 
#aa3 ,the ,greek prince1 ,moruzi1 who at
 that time conducted ,turkish diplomacy1
 accepted a bribe1 and concluded peace  
in the expectation of becoming ,prince  
of ,moldavia and ,wallachia4 ,sultan    
,mahmud refusing to ratify this         
disgraceful treaty1 gold was showered   
upon the ,turkish army1 which suddenly  
dispersed1 and the deserted sultan was  
compelled to yield4 ,moruzi was deprived
 of his head1 but the ,russians had     
gained their object4 ,it must1 moreover1
 be considered that ,napoleon was       

regarded with distrust by the ,porte1   
against which he had fought in ,egypt1  
which he had afterward enticed into a   
war with ,russia1 and had1 by the       
alliance formed at ,erfurt with that    
power1 abandoned4  ,footnote #ab3       
,colonel ,toll was insulted during the  
discussion by ,prince ,bragation for the
 firmness with which he upheld          
,scharnhorst's plan1 and avoided        
hazarding a useless engagement4 ,prince 
,bragation was killed in the battle4    
,footnote #ac3 ,a ,russian redoubt1 the 
key of the field of battle1 was taken   
and again lost4 ,a ,wrtemberg regiment  
instantly pushed through the fugitive   
,french1 retook the redoubt and retained
 possession of it4 ,it also1 on this    
occasion1 saved the life of the king of 
,naples and delivered him out of the    
hands of the ,russians1 who had already 
taken him prisoner4--,ten ,campaigns of 
the ,wurtembergers4  ,footnote #ad3     
,everything was wanting1 lint1 linen1   
even necessary food4 ,the wounded men   

lay for days and weeks under the open   
sky and fed upon the carcasses of       
horses4  ,footnote #ae3 ,this           
combustible matter had been prepared by 
,schmid1 the ,dutchman1 under pretext of
 preparing an enormous balloon from     
which fire was to be scattered upon the 
,french army4  ,footnote #af3 ,as early 
as the #b;d of ,november the remainder  
of the ,wrtembergers tore off their     
colors and concealed them in their      
knapsacks4--,roos's ,memorabilia of     
#ahab4  ,footnote #ag3 ,on the #ahth of 
,october1 the ,bavarians1 who were      
intermixed with ,swiss1 performed       
prodigies of valor1 but were so reduced 
by sufferings of every description as to
 be unable to maintain ,poloczk4 ,segur 
says in his ,history of the ,war that   
,st4 ,cyr left ,wrede's gallant conduct 
unmentioned in the military despatches1 
and that when1 on ,st4 ,cyr's being     
disabled by his wounds1 ,wrede applied  
for the chief command1 which naturally  
reverted to him1 the army being almost  

entirely composed of ,bavarians1        
,napoleon refused his request4          
,vlderndorf says in his ,bavarian       
,campaigns that ,st4 ,cyr faithlessly   
abandoned the ,bavarians in their utmost
 extremity1 and when all peril was over 
returned to ,poland in order to retake  
the command4 ,during the retreat from   
,poloczk he had ordered the bridges to  
be pulled down1 leaving on the other    
side a ,bavarian park of artillery with 
the army chest and two-and-twenty       
ensigns1 which for better security had  
been packed upon a carriage4 ,the whole 
of these trophies fell1 owing to ,st4   
,cyr's negligence or ill-will1 into the 
hands of the ,russians4 ,the ,bavarians 
with difficulty concealed their         
antipathy toward the ,french4 ,on ,st4  
,cyr's flight1 ,wrede kept the remainder
 of the ,bavarians together1 covered    
,napoleon's retreat1 and1 in conjunction
 with the ,westphalians and ,hessians1  
stood another encounter with the        
,russians at ,wilna4 ,misery and want at

 length scattered his forces2 he1       
nevertheless1 reassembled them in       
,poland and was able to place four      
thousand men1 on ,st4 ,cyr's return1    
under his command4 ,he returned home to 
,bavaria sick4 ,of these four thousand  
,bavarians but one thousand and fifty   
were led by ,count ,rechberg back to    
their native soil4 ,a great number of   
,bavarians1 however1 remained under     
,general ,zoller to garrison ,thorn1 and
 about fifteen hundred of them returned 
home4--,at the passage of the ,beresina1
 the ,wrtembergers had still about      
eighty men under arms1 and in ,poland   
about three hundred assembled1 the only 
ones who returned free4 ,some were      
afterward liberated from imprisonment in
 ,russia4  ,footnote #ah3 ,this was     
,austria's natural policy4 ,in the      
,french despatches1 ,schwarzenberg was  
charged with having allowed             
,tschitschakow to escape in order to    
pursue the inconsiderable force under   
,sacken4  ,footnote #ai3 ,the following 

anecdote is related of the ,hessians    
commanded by ,prince ,emilius of        
,darmstadt4 ,the prince had fallen      
asleep in the snow1 and four ,hessian   
dragoons1 in order to screen him from   
the north wind1 held their cloaks as a  
wall around him and were found next     
morning in the same position--frozen to 
death4 ,dead bodies were seen frozen    
into the most extraordinary positions1  
gnawing their own hands1 gnawing the    
torn corpses of their comrades4 ,the    
dead were often covered with snow1 and  
the number of little heaps lying around 
alone told that of the victims of a     
single night4  ,footnote #bj3 ,napoleon 
said1 ,there are two hundred millions   
lying in the cellars of the ,tuileries2 
how willingly would ,i give them to save
 ,ney6  ,footnote #ba3 ,he passed with  
extreme rapidity1 incognito1 through    
,germany4 ,in ,dresden he had a short   
interview with the king of ,saxony1 who1
 had he shut him up in ,knigstein1 would
 have saved ,europe a good deal of      

trouble4--,napoleon no sooner reached   
,paris in safety than1 in his           
twenty-ninth bulletin1 he1 for the first
 time1 acquainted the astonished world1 
hitherto deceived by his false accounts 
of victory1 with the disastrous         
termination of the campaign4 ,this      
bulletin was also replete with falsehood
 and insolence4 ,in his contempt of     
humanity he even said1 ,merely the      
cowards in the army were depressed in   
spirit and dreamed of misfortune1 the   
brave were ever cheerful4 ,thus wrote   
the man who had both seen and caused all
 this immeasurable misery6 ,the bulletin
 concluded with1 ,his ,imperial ,majesty
 never enjoyed better health4  ,footnote
 #bb3 ,in the ,french despatches1       
,general ,hnerbein was accused of not   
having pursued the ,russians under      
,general ,lewis4  ,footnote #bc3 ,the   
secret history of those days is still   
not sufficiently brought to light4      
,bagnon speaks of fresh treaties between
 ,hardenberg and ,napoleon1 in which he 

is corroborated by ,fain4 ,these two    
,frenchmen1 the former of whom was a    
diplomatist1 the other one of           
,napoleon's private secretaries1 admit  
that ,prussia's object at that time was 
to take advantage of ,napoleon's        
embarrassment and to offer him aid on   
certain important considerations4       
,prussian historians are silent in this 
matter4 ,in ,von ,rauschnik's           
biographical account of ,blcher1 the    
great internal schism at that time      
caused in ,prussia by the ,hardenberg   
party and that of the ,tugendbund is    
merely slightly hinted at2 the former   
still managed diplomatic affairs1 while 
,york1 a member of the latter1 had      
already acted on his own responsibility4
 ,shortly afterward affairs took a      
different aspect1 as if ,hardenberg's   
diplomacy had merely been a mask1 and he
 placed himself at the head of the      
movement against ,france4 ,in a memorial
 of #ahaa1 given by ,hormayr in the     
,sketches from the ,war of ,liberation1 

,hardenberg declared decisively in favor
 of the alliance with ,russia against   
,france4  ,footnote #bd3 ,hans ,louis   
,david von ,york1 a native of           
,pomerania1 having ventured1 when a     
lieutenant in the ,prussian service1    
indignantly to blame the base conduct of
 one of his superiors in command1 became
 implicated in a duel1 was confined in a
 fortress1 abandoned his country1       
entered the ,dutch service1 visited the 
,cape and ,ceylon1 fought against the   
,mahrattas1 was wounded1 returned home  
and re-entered the ,prussian service in 
#agid4    ,,cclx4 ,the ,spring of #ahac 
,the king of ,prussia had suddenly      
abandoned ,berlin1 which was still in   
the hands of the ,french1 for ,breslau1 
whence he declared war against ,france4 
,a conference also took place between   
him and the emperor ,alexander at       
,calisch1 and1 on the #bhth of          
,february1 #ahac1 an offensive and      
defensive alliance was concluded between
 them4 ,the hour for vengeance had at   

length arrived4 ,the whole ,prussian    
nation1 eager to throw off the hated    
yoke of the foreigner1 to obliterate    
their disgrace in #ahjf1 to regain their
 ancient name1 cheerfully hastened to   
place their lives and property at the   
service of the impoverished government4 
,the whole of the able-bodied population
 was put under arms4 ,the standing army 
was increased3 to each regiment were    
appended troops of volunteers1 ,joegers1
 composed of young men belonging to the 
higher classes1 who furnished their own 
equipments3 a numerous ,landwehr1 a sort
 of militia1 was1 as in ,austria1 raised
 besides the standing army1 and measures
 were even taken to call out1 in case of
 necessity1 the heads of families and   
elderly men remaining at home1 under the
 name of the ,landsturm4#a ,the         
enthusiastic people1 besides furnishing 
the customary supplies and paying the   
taxes1 contributed to the full extent of
 their means toward defraying the       
immense expense of this general arming4 

,every heart throbbed high with pride   
and hope4 ,who would not wish to have   
lived at such a period1 when man's      
noblest and highest energies were thus  
called forth6 ,more loudly than even in 
#ahji in ,austria was the ,german cause 
now discussed1 the great name of the    
,german empire now invoked in ,prussia1 
for in that name alone could all the    
races of ,germany be united against     
their hereditary foe4 ,the following    
celebrated proclamation1 promising      
external and internal liberty to        
,germany1 was1 with this view1 published
 at ,calisch1 by ,prussia and ,russia1  
on the #beth of ,march1 #ahac4 ,it was  
signed by ,prince ,kutusow and drawn up 
by ,baron ,rehdiger of ,silesia4  ,the  
victorious troops of ,russia1 together  
with those of his ,majesty the king of  
,prussia1 having set foot on ,german    
soil1 the emperor of ,russia and his    
,majesty the king of ,prussia announce  
simultaneously the return of liberty and
 independence to the princes and nations

 of ,germany4 ,they come with the sole  
and sacred purpose of aiding them to    
regain the hereditary and inalienable   
national rights of which they have been 
deprived1 to afford potent protection   
and to secure durability to a           
newly-restored empire4 ,this great      
object1 free from every interested      
motive and therefore alone worthy of    
their ,majesties1 has solely induced the
 advance and solely guides the movements
 of their armies4--,these armies1 led by
 generals under the eyes of both        
monarchs1 trust in an omnipotent1 just  
,god1 and hope to free the whole world  
and ,germany irrevocably from the       
disgraceful yoke they have so gloriously
 thrown off4 ,they press forward        
animated by enthusiasm4 ,their watchword
 is ',honor and ,liberty4' ,may every   
,german1 desirous of proving himself    
worthy of the name1 speedily and        
spiritedly join their ranks4 ,may every 
individual1 whether prince1 noble1 or   
citizen1 aid the plans of liberation1   

formed by ,russia and ,prussia1 with    
heart and soul1 with person and         
property1 to the last drop of his       
blood6--,the expectation cherished by   
their ,majesties of meeting with these  
sentiments1 this zeal1 in every ,german 
heart1 they deem warranted by the spirit
 so clearly betokened by the victories  
gained by ,russia over the enslaver of  
the world4--,they therefore demand      
faithful cooperation1 more especially   
from every ,german prince1 and willingly
 presuppose that none among them will be
 found1 who1 by being and remaining     
apostate to the ,german cause1 will     
prove himself deserving of annihilation 
by the power of public opinion and of   
just arms4 ,the ,rhenish alliance1 that 
deceitful chain lately cast by the      
breeder of universal discord around     
ruined ,germany to the destruction of   
her ancient name1 can1 as the effect of 
foreign tyranny and the tool of foreign 
influence1 be no longer tolerated4      
,their ,majesties believe that the      

declaration of the dissolution of this  
alliance being their fixed intention    
will meet the long-harbored and         
universal desire with difficulty        
retained within the sorrowing hearts of 
the people4--,the relation in which it  
is the intention of his ,majesty1 the   
emperor of all the ,russias1 to stand   
toward ,germany and toward her          
constitution is1 at the same time1 here 
declared4 ,from his desire to see the   
influence of the foreigner destroyed1 it
 can be no other than that of placing a 
protecting hand on a work whose form is 
committed to the free1 unbiased will of 
the princes and people of ,germany4 ,the
 more closely this work1 in principle1  
features and outline1 coincides with the
 once distinct character of the ,german 
nation1 the more surely will united     
,germany retake her place with renovated
 and redoubled vigor among the empires  
of ,europe4--,his ,majesty and his ally1
 between whom there reigns a perfect    
accordance in the sentiments and views  

hereby explained1 are at all times ready
 to exert their utmost power in         
pursuance of their sacred aim1 the      
liberation of ,germany from a foreign   
yoke4--,may ,france1 strong and         
beauteous in herself1 henceforward seek 
to consolidate her internal prosperity6 
,no external power will disturb her     
internal peace1 no enemy will encroach  
upon her rightful frontiers4--,but may  
,france also learn that the other powers
 of ,europe aspire to the attainment of 
durable repose for their subjects1 and  
will not lay down their arms until the  
independence of every state in ,europe  
shall have been firmly secured4  ,nor   
was the appeal vain4 ,it found an echo  
in every ,german heart1 and such plain  
demonstrations of the state of the      
popular feeling on this side the ,rhine 
were made that ,davoust sent serious    
warning to ,napoleon1 who contemptuously
 replied1 ,pah6 ,germans never can      
become ,spaniards6 ,with his customary  
rapidity1 he levied in ,france a fresh  

army three hundred thousand strong1 with
 which he so completely awed the        
,rhenish confederation as to compel it  
once more to take the field with        
thousands of ,germans against their     
brother ,germans4 ,the troops1 however1 
reluctantly obeyed1 and even the        
traitors were but lukewarm1 for they    
doubted of success4 ,mecklenburg alone  
sided with ,prussia4 ,austria remained  
neutral4  ,a ,russian corps under       
,general ,tettenborn had preceded the   
rest of the troops and reached the      
coasts of the ,baltic4 ,as early as the 
#bdth of ,march1 #ahac1 it appeared in  
,hamburg and expelled the ,french       
authorities from the city4 ,the heavily 
oppressed people of ,hamburg1#b whose   
commerce had been totally annihilated by
 the continental system1 gave way to the
 utmost demonstrations of delight1      
received their deliverers with open     
arms1 revived their ancient rights1 and 
immediately raised a ,hanseatic corps1  
destined to take the field against      

,napoleon4 ,dornberg1 the ancient foe to
 ,france1 with another flying squadron  
took the ,french division under ,morand 
prisoner1 and the ,prussian1 ,major     
,hellwig 7the same who1 in #ahjf1       
liberated the garrison of ,erfurt71     
dispersed1 with merely one hundred and  
twenty hussars1 a ,bavarian regiment one
 thousand three hundred strong and      
captured five pieces of artillery4 ,in  
,january1 the peasantry of the upper    
country had already revolted against the
 conscription1#c and1 in ,february1     
patriotic proclamations had been        
disseminated throughout ,westphalia     
under the signature of the ,baron von   
,stein4 ,in this month1 also1 ,captain  
,maas and two other patriots1 who had   
attempted to raise a rebellion1 were    
executed4 ,as the army advanced1 ,stein 
was nominated chief of the provisional  
government of the still unconquered     
provinces of ,western ,germany4  ,the   
first ,russian army1 seventeen thousand 
strong1 under ,wittgenstein1 pushed     

forward to ,magdeburg1 and1 at ,mokern1 
repulsed forty thousand ,french1 who    
were advancing upon ,berlin4 ,the       
,prussians1 under their veteran general1
 ,blucher1 entered ,saxony and          
garrisoned ,dresden1 on the #bgth of    
,march1 #ahac2 an arch of the fine      
bridge across the ,elbe having been     
uselessly blown up by the ,french4      
,blucher1 whose gallantry in the former 
wars had gained for him the general     
esteem1 and whose kind and generous     
disposition had won the affection of the
 soldiery1 was nominated generalissimo  
of the ,prussian forces1 but subordinate
 in command to ,wittgenstein1 who       
replaced ,kutusow#d as generalissimo of 
the united forces of ,russia and        
,prussia4 ,the emperor of ,russia and   
the king of ,prussia accompanied the    
army and were received with loud        
acclamations by the people of ,dresden  
and ,leipzig4 ,the allied army was      
merely seventy thousand strong1 and     
,blucher had not formed a junction with 

,wittgenstein when ,napoleon invaded the
 country by ,erfurt and ,merseburg at   
the head of one hundred and sixty       
thousand men4 ,ney attacked1 with forty 
thousand men1 the ,russian vanguard     
under ,winzingerode1 which1 after       
gallantly defending a defile near       
,weissenfels1 made an orderly retreat   
before forces far their superior in     
number4 ,the ,french1 on this occasion1 
lost ,marshal ,bessieres4 ,napoleon1    
incredulous of attack1 marched in long  
columns upon ,leipzig1 and              
,wittgenstein1 falling upon his right   
flank1 committed great havoc among the  
forty thousand men under ,ney1 which he 
had first of all encountered1 at        
,gross-,gorschen4 ,this place was       
alternately lost and regained owing to  
his ill-judged plan of attack by single 
brigades1 instead of breaking           
,napoleon's lines by charging them at   
once with the whole of his forces4 ,the 
young ,prussian volunteers here measured
 their strength in a murderous conflict1

 hand to hand1 with the young ,french   
conscripts1 and excited by their martial
 spirit the astonishment of the         
veterans4 ,wittgenstein's delay and     
,blucher's too late arrival on the      
field#e gave ,napoleon time to wheel his
 long lines round and to encircle the   
allied forces1 which immediately        
retired4 ,on the eve of the bloody      
engagement of the #b;d of ,may1 the     
allied cavalry attempted a general      
attack in the dark1 which was also      
unsuccessful on account of the          
superiority of the enemy's forces4 ,the 
allies had1 nevertheless1 captured some 
cannons1 the ,french1 none4 ,the most   
painful loss was that of the noble      
,scharnhorst1 who was mortally wounded4 
,bulow had1 on the same day1 stormed    
,halle with a ,prussian corps1 but was  
now compelled to resolve upon a retreat1
 which was conducted in the most orderly
 manner by the allies4 ,at ,koldiz1 the 
,prussian rearguard repulsed the ,french
 van in a bloody engagement on the #eth 

of ,may4 ,the allies marched through    
,dresden#f and took up a firm position  
in and about ,bautzen1 after being      
joined by a reinforcement of eighty     
thousand ,bavarians4 ,napoleon was also 
reinforced by a number of ,french1      
,bavarian1 ,wurtemberg1 and ,saxon      
troops1#g and despatched ,lauriston and 
,ney toward ,berlin2 but the former     
encountering the ,russians under        
,barclay de ,tolly at ,konigswartha1 and
 the latter the ,prussians under ,york  
at ,weissig1 both were constrained to   
retreat4 ,napoleon attacked the position
 at ,bautzen from the #aith to the #bast
 of ,may1 but was gloriously repulsed by
 the ,prussians under ,kleist1 while    
,blcher1 who was in danger of being     
completely surrounded1 undauntedly      
defended himself on three sides4 ,the   
allies lost not a cannon1 not a single  
prisoner1 although again compelled to   
retire before the superior forces of the
 enemy4 ,the ,french had suffered an    
immense loss2 eighteen thousand of their

 wounded were sent to ,dresden4         
,napoleon's favorite1 ,marshal ,duroc1  
and ,general ,kirchner1 a native of     
,alsace1 were killed1 close to his side1
 by a cannon ball4 ,the allied troops1  
forced to retire after an obstinate     
encounter1 neither fled nor dispersed1  
but withdrew in close column and        
repelling each successive attack4#h ,the
 ,french avant-garde under ,maison was1 
when in close pursuit of the allied     
force1 almost entirely cut to pieces by 
the ,prussian cavalry1 which            
unexpectedly fell upon it at ,heinau4   
,the main body of the ,russo-,prussian  
army1 on entering ,silesia1 took a      
slanting direction toward the           
,riesengebirge and retired behind the   
fortress of ,schweidnitz4 ,in this      
strong position they were at once       
partially secure from attack1 and1 by   
their vicinity to the ,bohemian         
frontier1 enabled to keep up a          
communication1 and1 if necessary1 to    
form a junction with the ,austrian      

forces4 ,the whole of the lowlands of   
,silesia lay open to the ,french1 who   
entered ,breslau on the #ast of ,june4#i
 ,berlin was also merely covered by a   
comparatively weak army under ,general  
,bulow1#aj who1 notwithstanding the     
check given by him to ,marshal ,oudinot 
in the battles of ,hoyerswerda and      
,luckau1 was not in sufficient force to 
offer assistance to the main body of the
 ,french in case ,napoleon chose to pass
 through ,berlin on his way to ,poland4 
,napoleon1 however1 did not as yet      
venture to make use of his advantage4   
,by the seizure of ,prussia and ,poland1
 both of which lay open to him1 the main
 body of the allied army and the        
,austrians1 who had not yet declared    
themselves1 would have been left to the 
rear of his right flank and could easily
 have cut off his retreat4 ,his troops1 
principally young conscripts1 were      
moreover worn out with fatigue1 nor had 
the whole of his reinforcements arrived4
 ,to his rear was a multitude of bold   

partisans1 ,tettenborn1 the ,hanseatic  
legion1 ,czernitscheff1 who1 at         
,halberstadt1 captured ,general ,ochs   
together with the whole of the          
,westphalian corps and fourteen pieces  
of artillery1 ,colomb1 the ,herculean   
captain of horse1 who took a convoy and 
twenty-four guns at ,zwickau1 and the   
,black ,prussian squadron under ,lutzow4
 ,napoleon consequently remained        
stationary1 and1 with a view of         
completing his preparations and of      
awaiting the decision of ,austria1      
demanded an armistice1 to which the     
allies1 whose force was still incomplete
 and to whom the decision of ,austria   
was of equal importance1 gladly         
assented4  ,on this celebrated          
armistice1 concluded on the #dth of     
,june1 #ahac1 at the village of         
,pleisswitz1 the fate of ,europe was to 
depend4 ,to the side that could raise   
the most powerful force1 that on which  
,austria ranged herself1 numerical      
superiority insured success4 ,napoleon's

 power was still terrible2 fresh victory
 had obliterated the disgrace of his    
flight from ,russia2 he stood once more 
an invincible leader on ,german soil4   
,the ,french were animated by success   
and blindly devoted to their emperor4   
,italy and ,denmark were prostrate at   
his feet4 ,the ,rhenish confederation   
was also faithful to his standard4      
,councillor ,crome published at         
,giessen1 in obedience to ,napoleon's   
mandate and with the knowledge of the   
government at ,darmstadt1 a pamphlet    
entitled ,germany's ,crisis and         
,salvation1 in which he declared that   
,germany was saved by the fresh         
victories of ,napoleon1 and promised    
mountains of gold to the ,germans if    
they remained true to him4#aa ,crome was
 at that time graciously thanked in     
autograph letters by the sovereigns of  
,bavaria and ,wurtemberg4 ,lutzow's     
volunteer corps was1 during the         
armistice1 surprised at ,kitzen by a    
superior corps of ,wurtembergers under  

,normann and cut to pieces4 ,germans at 
that period opposed ,germans without any
 feeling for their common fatherland4#ab
 ,the king of ,saxony1 who had already  
repaired to ,prague under the protection
 of ,austria1 also returned thence1 was 
received at ,dresden with extreme       
magnificence by ,napoleon1 and1 in fresh
 token of amity1 ceded the fortress of  
,torgau to the ,french4#ac ,these       
occurrences caused the ,saxon minister1 
,senfft von ,pilsach1 and the ,saxon    
general1 ,thielmann1 who had already    
devoted themselves to the ,german cause1
 to resign office4 ,the ,polish army    
under ,prince ,poniatowsky 7vassal to   
the king of ,saxony1 who was also       
grandduke of ,warsaw7 received          
permission 7it had at an earlier period 
fallen back upon ,schwarzenberg7 to     
march1 unarmed1 through the ,austrian   
territory to ,dresden1 in order to join 
the main body of the ,french under      
,napoleon4 ,the declaration of the      
emperor of ,austria in favor of his     

son-in-law1 who1 moreover1 was lavish of
 his promises1 and1 among other things1 
offered to restore ,silesia1 was1       
consequently1 at the opening of the     
armistice1 deemed certain4  ,the        
armistice was1 meanwhile1 still more    
beneficial to the allies4 ,the ,russians
 had time to concentrate their scattered
 troops1 the ,prussians completed the   
equipment of their numerous ,landwehren1
 and the ,swedes also took the field4   
,bernadotte landed on the #ahth of ,may 
in ,pomerania1 and advanced with his    
troops into ,brandenburg for the        
purpose1 in conjunction with ,bulow1 of 
covering ,berlin4 ,a ,german auxiliary  
corps1 in the pay of ,england1 was also 
formed1 under ,wallmoden1 on the        
,baltic4 ,the defence of ,hamburg was   
extremely easy2 but the base intrigues  
of foreigners1 who1 as during the time  
of the thirty years' war1 paid          
themselves for their aid by the seizure 
of ,german provinces and towns1         
delivered that splendid city into the   

hands of the ,french4 ,bernadotte had   
sold himself to ,russia for the price of
 ,norway1 which ,denmark refused to cede
 unless ,hamburg and ,lubeck were given 
in exchange4 ,this agreement had already
 been made by ,prince ,dolgorucki in the
 name of the emperor ,alexander1 and    
,tettenborn yielded ,hamburg to the     
,danes1 who marched in under pretext of 
protecting the city and were received   
with delight by the unsuspecting        
citizens4 ,the non-advance of the       
,swedes proceeded from the same cause4  
,the increase of the ,danish marine by  
means of the ,hanse towns1 however1     
proved displeasing to ,england2 the     
whole of the commerce was broken up1 and
 the ,danes1 hastily resolving to       
maintain faith with ,napoleon1 delivered
 luckless ,hamburg to the ,french1 who  
instantly took a most terrible revenge4 
,davoust1 as he himself boasted1 merely 
sent twelve ,german patriots to         
execution1#ad but expelled twenty-five  
thousand of the inhabitants from the    

city1 while he pulled down their houses 
and converted them into fortifications1 
at which the principal citizens were    
compelled to work in person4            
,dissatisfied1 moreover1 with a         
contribution of eighteen millions1 he   
robbed the great ,hamburg bank1 treading
 underfoot every private and national   
right1 all1 as he1 miserable slave as he
 was1#ae declared1 in obedience to the  
mandate of his lord4  ,austria1 at      
first1 instead of aiding the allies1    
allowed the ,poles#af to range          
themselves beneath the standard of      
,napoleon1 whom she overwhelmed with    
protestations of friendship1 which      
served to mask her real intentions1 and 
meanwhile gave her time to arm herself  
to the teeth and to make the allies     
sensible of the fact of their utter     
impotency against ,napoleon unless aided
 by her4 ,the interests of ,austria     
favored her alliance with ,france1 but  
,napoleon1 instead of confidence1       
inspired mistrust4 ,austria1            

notwithstanding the marriage between him
 and ,maria ,louisa1 was1 as had been   
shown at the congress of ,dresden1      
merely treated as a tributary to        
,france1 and ,napoleon's ambition       
offered no guarantee to the ancient     
imperial dynasty4 ,there was no security
 that the provinces bestowed in         
momentary reward for her alliance must  
not1 on the first occasion1 be restored4
 ,nor was public opinion entirely       
without weight4#ag ,napoleon's star was 
on the wane1 whole nations stood like to
 a dark and ominous cloud threatening on
 the horizon1 and ,count ,metternich    
prudently chose rather to attempt to    
guide the storm ere it burst than trust 
to a falling star4 ,austria had1 as     
early as the #bgth of ,june1 #ahac1     
signed a treaty1 at ,reichenbach in     
,silesia1 with ,russia and ,prussia1 by 
which she bound herself to declare war  
against ,france1 in case ,napoleon had  
not1 before the #bjth of ,july1 accepted
 the terms of peace about to be proposed

 to him4 ,already had the sovereigns and
 generals of ,russia and ,prussia       
sketched1 during a conference held with 
the crown prince of ,sweden1 the #aath  
,july1 at ,trachenberg1 the plan for the
 approaching campaign1 and1 with the    
permission of ,austria1 assigned to her 
the part she was to take as one of the  
allies against ,napoleon1 when          
,metternich again visited ,dresden in   
person for the purpose of repeating his 
assurances of amity1 for the armistice  
had but just commenced1 to ,napoleon4   
,the ,french emperor had an indistinct  
idea of the transactions then passing1  
and bluntly said to the ,count1 ,as you 
wish to mediate1 you are no longer on my
 side4 ,he hoped partly to win ,austria 
over by redoubling his promises1 partly 
to terrify her by the dread of the      
future ascendency of ,russia1 but1      
perceiving how ,metternich evaded him by
 his artful diplomacy1 he suddenly asked
 him1 ,well1 ,metternich1 how much has  
,england given you in order to engage   

you to play this part toward me8 ,this  
trait of insolence toward an antagonist 
of whose superiority he felt conscious1 
and of the most deadly hatred masked by 
contempt1 was peculiarly characteristic 
of the ,corsican1 who1 besides the      
qualities of the lion1 fully possessed  
those of the cat4 ,napoleon let his hat 
drop in order to see whether ,metternich
 would raise it4 ,he did not1 and war   
was resolved upon4 ,a pretended congress
 for the conclusion of peace was again  
arranged by both sides2 by ,napoleon1 in
 order to elude the reproach cast upon  
him of an insurmountable and eternal    
desire for war1 and by the allies1 in   
order to prove to the whole world their 
desire for peace4 ,each side was1       
however1 fully aware that the palm of   
peace was alone to be found on the other
 side of the battle-field4 ,napoleon was
 generous in his concessions1 but       
delayed granting full powers to his     
envoy1 an opportune circumstance for the
 allies1 who were by this means able to 

charge him with the whole blame of      
procrastination4 ,napoleon1 in all his  
concessions1 merely included ,russia and
 ,austria to the exclusion of           
,prussia4#ah ,but neither ,russia nor   
,austria trusted to his promises1 and   
the negotiations were broken off on the 
termination of the armistice1 when      
,napoleon sent full powers to his       
plenipotentiary4 ,now1 was it said1 it  
is too late4 ,the art with which        
,metternich passed from the alliance    
with ,napoleon to neutrality1 to        
mediation1 and finally to the coalition 
against him1 will1 in every age1 be     
acknowledged a master-piece of          
diplomacy4 ,austria1 while coalescing   
with ,russia and ,prussia1 in a certain 
degree assumed a rank conventionally    
superior to both4 ,the whole of the     
allied armies was placed under the      
command of an ,austrian general1 ,prince
 von ,schwarzenberg1 and if the         
proclamation published at ,calisch had  
merely summoned the people of ,germany  

to assert their independence1 the       
manifesto of ,count ,metternich spoke   
already in the tone of the future       
regulator of the affairs of ,europe4#ai 
,austria declared herself on the #abth  
of ,august1 #ahac1 two days after the   
termination of the armistice4           
,footnote #a3 ,literally1 the general   
levy of the people4--,trans4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,the exasperation of the people had 
risen to the utmost pitch4 ,the ,french 
rascals in office1 especially the       
custom-house officers1 set no bounds to 
their tyranny and license4 ,no woman of 
whatever rank was allowed to pass the   
gates without being subjected to the    
most indecent inquisition4 ,goods that  
had long been redeemed were continually 
taken from the tradesmen's shops and    
confiscated4 ,the arbitrary enrolment of
 a number of young men as conscripts at 
length produced an insurrection1 in     
which the guard-houses1 etc41 were      
destroyed4 ,it was1 however1 quelled by 
,general ,st4 ,cyr1 and six of the      

citizens were executed4 ,on the approach
 of the ,russians1 ,st4 ,cyr fled with  
the whole of his troops4 ,the bookseller
 ,perthes1 ,prell1 and von ,hess1 formed
 a civic guard4--,von ,hess's ,agonies4 
,footnote #c3 ,the people rose en masse 
at ,ronsdorf1 ,solingen1 and ,barmen1   
and marched tumultuously to ,elberfeld1 
the great manufacturing town1 but were  
dispersed by the ,french troops4 ,the   
,french authorities afterward declared  
that the sole object of the revolt was  
to smuggle in ,english goods1 and1 under
 this pretext1 seized all the foreign   
goods in ,elberfeld4  ,footnote #d3     
,kutusow had1 just at that conjuncture1 
expired at ,bautzen4  ,footnote #e3 ,the
 nature of the ground rendered a night  
march impossible4 ,the ,russian1        
,michaelofski ,danilefski1 however1     
throws the blame upon an officer in     
,blucher's headquarters1 who laid the   
important orders committed to his charge
 under his pillow and overslept himself4
  ,footnote #f3 ,it may here be         

mentioned as a remarkable characteristic
 of those times that ,goethe1 ,ernest   
,maurice ,arndt1 and ,theodore ,krner at
 that period met at ,dresden4 ,the      
youthful ,krner1 a volunteer ,jger1 was 
the ,tyrtus of those days3 his military 
songs were universally sung3 his father 
also expressed great enthusiasm4 ,goethe
 said almost angrily1 ,well1 well1 shake
 your chains1 the man 7,napoleon7 is too
 strong for you1 you will not break     
them6--,e4 ,m4 ,arndt's ,reminiscences4 
,footnote #g3 ,unfortunately there were 
,german princes who1 even this time1    
again sent their troops to swell the    
ranks of the oppressor2 ,austria had1   
unfortunately1 not yet concluded her    
preparations2 consequently1 it was only 
possible to clog the advance of the     
conqueror by a gallant                  
resistance4--,clausewitz4 ,the          
,bavarians stood under ,raglowich1 the  
,wrtembergers under ,franquemont1 the   
,saxons under ,reynier4 ,there was also 
a contingent of ,westphalians and       

,badeners4  ,footnote #h3 ,blcher       
exclaimed on this occasion3 ,he's a     
rascally fellow that dares to say we    
fly4 ,even ,fain1 the ,frenchman1       
confesses in his manuscript of #ahac1 in
 which he certainly does not favor the  
,germans3 ,the best ,marshals1 as it    
were1 killed by spent balls4 ,great     
victories without trophies4 ,all the    
villages on our route in flames which   
obstructed our advance4 ',what a war6   
,we shall all fall victims to it6' are  
the disgraceful expressions uttered by  
many1 for the iron hearts of the        
warriors of ,france are rust-grown4     
,napoleon exclaimed after the battle1   
,how6 no result after such a massacre8  
,no prisoners8 ,they leave me not even a
 nail6 ,duroc's death added to the      
catastrophe4 ,napoleon was so struck    
that for the first time in his life he  
could give no orders1 but deferred      
everything until the morrow4  ,footnote 
#i3 ,but they merely encamped in the    
streets1 showed themselves more anxious 

than threatening1 and were seized with a
 terrible panic on a sudden             
conflagration breaking out during the   
night1 which they mistook for a signal  
to bring the ,landsturm upon them4 ,and 
yet there were thirty thousand ,french  
in the city4 ,how different to their    
spirit in #ahjg6  ,footnote #aj3        
,brother to the unfortunate ,henry von  
,bulow4  ,footnote #aa3 ,crome was      
afterward barefaced enough to boast of  
this work in his ,autobiography1        
published in #ahcc4 ,napoleon dictated  
the fundamental ideas of this work to   
him from his headquarters4 ,his object  
was to pacify the ,germans4 ,he promised
 them henceforward to desist from       
enforcing his continental system1 to    
restore liberty to commerce1 no longer  
to force the laws and language of       
,france upon ,germany4 ,l'empereur se   
fera aimer des ,allemands4 ,the ,germans
 were1 on the other hand1 warned that   
the allies had no intention to render   
,germany free and independent1 they     

being much more interested in retaining 
,germany in a state of division and     
subjection4 ,the unity of ,germany1 it  
was also declared1 was alone possible   
under ,napoleon1 etc4  ,footnote #ab3   
,this arose from hatred to the party    
that dared to uphold the ,german cause  
instead of a ,prussian1 ,saxon1 etc41   
one1 and by no means by chance1 but1 as 
,manso remarks1 intentionally1 through  
low cunning and injustice4  ,footnote   
#ac3 ,the king of ,saxony was1 in       
return1 insulted by ,napoleon1 in an    
address to the ministers was termed une 
veille hte1 and compelled to countenance
 immoral theatrical performances by his 
presence1 a sin for which he each       
evening received absolution from his    
confessor4 ,vide ,stein's ,letter to    
,mnster in the ,sketches of the ,war of 
,liberation4  ,footnote #ad3 ,he also   
said1 like his master1 ,i know of no    
,germans1 ,i only know of ,bavarians1   
,wrtembergers1 ,westphalians1 etc4      
,footnote #ae3 ,his written defence1 in 

which he so lyingly1 so humbly and      
mournfully exculpates himself that one  
really compassionates the devil1 is a   
sort of satisfaction for the ,germans4  
,footnote #af3 ,poniatowsky's dismissal 
with the ,polish army from ,poland was  
apparently a service rendered to        
,napoleon1 but was in reality done with 
a view of disarming ,poland4            
,poniatowsky might have organized an    
insurrection to the rear of the allies1 
and would in that case have been far    
more dangerous to them than when ranged 
beneath the standard of ,napoleon4      
,footnote #ag3 ,the people in ,austria  
fully sympathized with passing events4  
,how could those be apathetic who had   
such a burden of disgrace to redeem1    
such deep revenge to satisfy8 ,an       
extremely popular song contained the    
following lines3    ,awake1 ,franciscus6
 ,hark6 thy people call6   ,awake6      
acknowledge the avenger's hand6   ,still
 groans beneath the foreign courser's   
hoof   ,the soil of ,germany1 our       

fatherland4    ,to arms6 so long as     
sacred ,germany   ,feels but a finger of
 ,napoleon4   ,franciscus6 up6 ,cast off
 each private tie6   ,the patriot has no
 kindred1 has no son4  ,all the         
able-bodied men1 as in ,prussia1 crowded
 beneath the imperial standard and the  
whole empire made the most patriotic    
sacrifices4 ,hungary summoned the whole 
of her male population1 the             
insurrection1 as it was termed1 to the  
field4  ,footnote #ah3 ,russia was to   
receive the whole of ,poland1 the       
grandduchy of ,warsaw was to be         
annihilated4 ,such was ,napoleon's      
gratitude toward the ,poles6--,illyria  
was to be restored to ,austria4         
,prussia1 however1 was not only to be   
excluded from all participation in the  
spoil1 but the ,rhenish confederation   
was to be extended as far as the ,oder4 
,prussia would have been compelled to   
pay the expenses of the alliance between
 ,france1 ,russia1 and ,austria4        
,footnote #ai3 ,everywhere1 said this   

manifesto1 do the impatient wishes of   
the people anticipate the regular       
proceedings of the government4 ,on all  
sides1 the desire for independence under
 separate laws1 the feeling of insulted 
nationality1 rage against the heavy     
abuses inflicted by a foreign tyrant1   
burst simultaneously forth4 ,his        
,majesty the emperor1 too clear-sighted 
not to view this turn in affairs as the 
natural and necessary result of a       
preceding and violent state of          
exaggeration1 and too just to view it   
with displeasure1 had rendered it his   
principal object to turn it to the      
general advantage1 and1 by well-weighed 
and well-combined measures1 to promote  
the true and lasting interests of the   
whole commonwealth of ,europe4          
,,cclxi4 ,the ,battle of ,leipzig       
,immediately after this--for all had    
been previously arranged--the monarchs  
of ,russia and ,prussia passed the      
,riesengebirge with a division of their 
forces into ,bohemia1 and joined the    

emperor ,francis and the great ,austrian
 army at ,prague4 ,the celebrated       
general1 ,moreau1 who had returned from 
,america1 where he had hitherto dwelt   
incognito1 in order to take up arms     
against ,napoleon1 was in the train of  
the czar4 ,his example1 it was hoped1   
would induce many of his countrymen to  
abandon ,napoleon4 ,the plan of the     
allies was to advance1 with their main  
body under ,schwarzenberg1 consisting of
 one hundred and twenty thousand        
,austrians and seventy thousand         
,russians and ,prussians1 through the   
,erzgebirge to ,napoleon's rear4 ,a     
lesser ,prussian force1 principally     
,silesian ,landwehr1 under ,blucher1    
eighty thousand strong1 besides a small 
,russian corps1 was1 meanwhile1 to cover
 ,silesia1 or1 in case of an attack by  
,napoleon's main body1 to retire before 
it and draw it further eastward4 ,a     
third division1 under the crown prince  
of ,sweden1 principally ,swedes1 with   
some ,prussian troops1 mostly           

,pomeranian and ,brandenburg ,landwehr  
under ,bulow1 and some ,russians1 in all
 ninety thousand men1 was destined to   
cover ,berlin1 and in case of a victory 
to form a junction to ,napoleon's rear  
with the main body of the allied army4  
,a still lesser and equally mixed       
division under ,wallmoden1 thirty       
thousand strong1 was destined to watch  
,davoust in ,hamburg1 while an ,austrian
 corps of twenty-five thousand men under
 ,prince ,reuss watched the movements of
 the ,bavarians1 and another ,austrian  
force of forty thousand1 under ,hiller1 
those of the viceroy ,eugene in ,italy4 
,napoleon had concentrated his main     
body1 that still consisted of two       
hundred and fifty thousand men1 in and  
around ,dresden4 ,davoust received      
orders to advance with thirty thousand  
men from ,hamburg upon ,berlin2 in      
,bavaria1 there were thirty thousand men
 under ,wrede2 in ,italy1 forty thousand
 under ,eugene4 ,the ,german fortresses 
were1 moreover1 strongly garrisoned with

 ,french troops4 ,napoleon had it in his
 power to throw himself with his main   
body1 which neither ,blucher nor the    
,swedes could have withstood1 into      
,poland1 to levy the people en masse and
 render that country the theatre of war1
 but the dread of the defection of the  
,rhenish confederation and of a part of 
the ,french themselves1 were the country
 to his rear to be left open to the     
allies and to ,moreau1 coupled with his 
disinclination to declare the           
independence of ,poland1 owing to a     
lingering hope of being still able to   
bring about a reconciliation with       
,russia and ,austria by the sacrifice of
 that country and of ,prussia1 caused   
that idea to be renounced1 and he       
accordingly took up a defensive position
 with his main body at ,dresden1 whence 
he could watch the proceedings and take 
advantage of any indiscretion on the    
part of his opponents4 ,a body of ninety
 thousand men under ,oudinot meantime   
acted on the offensive1 being directed  

to advance1 simultaneously with ,davoust
 from ,hamburg and with ,girard from    
,magdeburg1 upon ,berlin1 and to take   
possession of that metropolis4 ,napoleon
 hoped1 when master of the ancient      
,prussian provinces1 to be able to      
suppress ,german enthusiasm at its      
source and to induce ,russia and        
,austria to conclude a separate peace at
 the expense of ,prussia4  ,in ,august1 
#ahac1 the tempest of war broke loose on
 every side1 and all ,europe prepared   
for a decisive struggle4 ,about this    
time1 the whole of ,northern ,germany   
was visited for some weeks1 as was the  
case on the defeat of ,varus in the     
,teutoburg forest1 with heavy rains and 
violent storms4 ,the elements seemed to 
combine1 as in ,russia1 their efforts   
with those of man against ,napoleon4    
,there his soldiers fell victims to     
frost and snow1 here they sank into the 
boggy soil and were carried away by the 
swollen rivers4 ,in the midst of the    
uproar of the elements1 bloody          

engagements continually took place1 in  
which the bayonet and the butt-end of   
the firelock were almost alone used1 the
 muskets being rendered unserviceable by
 the wet4 ,the first engagement of      
importance was that of the #bast of     
,august between ,wallmoden and ,davoust 
at ,vellahn4 ,a few days afterward1     
,theodore ,korner1 the youthful poet and
 hero1 fell in a skirmish between the   
,french and ,wallmoden's outpost at     
,gadebusch4--,oudinot advanced close    
upon ,berlin1 which was protected by the
 crown prince of ,sweden4 ,a murderous  
conflict took place1 on the #bc;d of    
,august1 at ,gross-,beeren between the  
,prussian division under ,general von   
,bulow and the ,french4 ,the ,swedes1 a 
troop of horse artillery alone excepted1
 were not brought into action1 and the  
,prussians1 unaided1 repulsed the       
greatly superior forces of the ,french4 
,the almost untrained peasantry         
comprising the ,landwehr of the ,mark   
and of ,pomerania rushed upon the enemy1

 and1 unhabituated to the use of the    
bayonet and firelock1 beat down entire  
battalions of the ,french with the      
butt-end of their muskets4 ,after a     
frightful massacre1 the ,french were    
utterly routed and fled in wild         
disorder1 but the gallant ,prussians    
vainly expected the ,swedes to aid in   
the pursuit4 ,the crown prince1 partly  
from a desire to spare his troops and   
partly from a feeling of shame--he was  
also a ,frenchman--remained motionless4 
,oudinot1 nevertheless1 lost two        
thousand four hundred prisoners4        
,davoust1 from this disaster1 returned  
once more to ,hamburg4 ,girard1 who had 
advanced with eight thousand men from   
,magdeburg1 was1 on the #bgth1 put to   
flight by the ,prussian ,landwehr under 
,general ,hirschfeld4  ,napoleon's plan 
of attack against ,prussia had          
completely failed1 and his sole         
alternative was to act on the defensive4
 ,but on perceiving that the main body  
of the allied forces under              

,schwarzenberg was advancing to his     
rear1 while ,blucher was stationed with 
merely a weak division in ,silesia1 he  
took the field with immensely superior  
forces against the latter1 under an idea
 of being able easily to vanquish his   
weak antagonist and to fall back again  
in time upon ,dresden4 ,blucher         
cautiously retired1 but1 unable to      
restrain the martial spirit of the      
soldiery1 who obstinately defended every
 position whence they were driven1 lost 
two thousand of his men on the #bast of 
,august4 ,the news of ,napoleon's       
advance upon ,silesia and of the        
numerical weakness of the garrison left 
at ,dresden reached ,schwarzenberg just 
as he had crossed the ,erzgebirge1 and  
induced him and the allied sovereigns   
assembled within his camp to change     
their plan of operations and to march   
straight upon the ,saxon capital4       
,napoleon1 who had pursued ,blucher as  
far as the ,katzbach near ,goldberg1    
instantly returned and boldly resolved  

to cross the ,elbe above ,dresden1 to   
seize the passes of the ,bohemian       
mountains1 and to fall upon the rear of 
the main body of the allied army4       
,vandamme's corps d'armee had already   
set forward with this design1 when      
,napoleon learned that ,dresden could no
 longer hold out unless he returned     
thither with a division of his army1    
and1 in order to preserve that city and 
the centre of his position1 he hastily  
returned thither in the hope of         
defeating the allied army and of        
bringing it between two fires1 as       
,vandamme must meanwhile have occupied  
the narrow outlets of the ,erzgebirge   
with thirty thousand men and by that    
means have cut off the retreat of the   
allied army4 ,the plan was on a grand   
scale1 and1 as far as related to        
,napoleon in person1 was executed1 to   
the extreme discomfiture of the allies1 
with his usual success4 ,schwarzenberg  
had1 with true ,austrian                
procrastination1 allowed the #beth of   

,august1 when1 as the ,french themselves
 confess1 ,dresden1 in her then         
ill-defended state1 might have been     
taken almost without a stroke1 to pass  
in inaction1 and1 when he attempted to  
storm the city on the #bfth1 ,napoleon1 
who had meanwhile arrived1 calmly       
awaited the onset of the thick masses of
 the enemy in order to open a murderous 
discharge of grape upon them on every   
side4 ,they were repulsed after         
suffering a frightful loss4 ,on the     
following day1 destined to end in still 
more terrible bloodshed1 ,napoleon      
assumed the offensive1 separated the    
retiring allied army by well-combined   
sallies1 cut off its left wing1 and made
 an immense number of prisoners1 chiefly
 ,austrians4 ,the unfortunate ,moreau   
had both his legs shot off in the very  
first encounter4 ,his death was an act  
of justice1 for he had taken up arms    
against his fellow- countrymen1 and was 
moreover a gain for the ,germans1 the   
,russians merely making use of him in   

order to obscure the fame of the ,german
 leaders1 and1 it may be1 with a view of
 placing the future destinies of ,france
 in his hands4 ,the main body of the    
allied army retreated on every side2    
part of the troops disbanded1 the rest  
were exposed to extreme hardship owing  
to the torrents of rain that fell       
without intermission and the scarcity of
 provisions4 ,their annihilation must   
have inevitably followed had ,vandamme  
executed ,napoleon's commands and       
blocked up the mountain passes1 in which
 he was unsuccessful1 owing to the      
gallantry with which he was held in     
check at ,culm by eight thousand        
,russian guards1 headed by ,ostermann1#a
 who1 although merely amounting in      
number to a fourth of his army1 fought  
during a whole day without receding a   
step1 though almost the whole of them   
were cut to pieces and ,ostermann was   
deprived of an arm1 until the first     
corps of the main body1 in full retreat1
 reached the mountains4 ,vandamme was   

now in turn overwhelmed by superior     
numbers4 ,one way of escape1 a still    
unoccupied height1 on which he hastened 
to post himself1 alone remained1 but    
,kleist's corps1 also in full retreat1  
unexpectedly but opportunely appeared   
above his head and took him and the     
whole of his corps prisoners1 the #bith 
of ,august1 #ahac4b  ,at the same time1 
the #bfth of ,august1 a most glorious   
victory was gained by ,blucher in       
,silesia4 ,after having drawn ,macdonald
 across the ,katzbach and the foaming   
,neisse1 he drove him1 after a desperate
 and bloody engagement1 into those      
rivers1 which were greatly swollen by   
the incessant rains4 ,the muskets of the
 soldiery had been rendered             
unserviceable by the wet1 and ,blucher1 
drawing his sabre from beneath his      
cloak1 dashed forward exclaiming1       
,forward6 ,several thousand of the      
,french were drowned or fell by the     
bayonet1 or beneath the heavy blows     
dealt by the ,landwehr with the butt-end

 of their firelocks4 ,it was on this    
battlefield that the ,silesians had     
formerly opposed the ,tartars1 and the  
monastery of ,wahlstatt1 erected in     
memory of that heroic day1#c was still  
standing4 ,blucher was rewarded with the
 title of ,prince von der ,wahlstatt1   
but his soldiers surnamed him ,marshal  
,vorwarts4 ,on the decline of the       
floods1 the banks of the rivers were    
strewn with corpses sticking in horrid  
distortion out of the mud4 ,a part of   
the ,french fled for a couple of days in
 terrible disorder along the right bank 
and were then taken prisoner together   
with their general1 ,puthod4#d ,the     
,french lost one hundred and three guns1
 eighteen thousand prisoners1 and a     
still greater number in killed2 the loss
 on the side of the ,prussians merely   
amounted to one thousand men4 ,macdonald
 returned almost totally unattended to  
,dresden and brought the melancholy     
intelligence to ,napoleon1 ,votre arm du
 ,bobre n'existe plus4  ,the crown      

prince of ,sweden and ,bulow had        
meanwhile pursued ,oudinot's retreating 
corps in the direction of the ,elbe4    
,napoleon despatched ,ney against them1 
but he met with the fate of his         
predecessor1 at ,dennewitz1 on the #fth 
of ,september4 ,the ,prussians1 on this 
occasion1 again triumphed1 unaided by   
their confederates4#e ,bulow and        
,tauenzien1 with twenty thousand men1   
defeated the ,french army1 seventy      
thousand strong4 ,the crown prince of   
,sweden not only remained to the rear   
with the whole of his troops1 but gave  
perfectly useless orders to the         
advancing ,prussian squadron under      
,general ,borstel1 who1 without         
attending to them1 hurried on to        
,bulow's assistance1 and the ,french    
were1 notwithstanding their numerical   
superiority1 completely driven off the  
field1 which the crown prince reached   
just in time to witness the dispersion  
of his countrymen4 ,the ,french lost    
eighteen thousand men and eighty guns4  

,the rout was complete4 ,the rearguard1 
consisting of the ,wurtembergers under  
,franquemont1 was again overtaken at the
 head of the bridge at ,zwettau1 and1   
after a frightful carnage1 driven in    
wild confusion across the dam to        
,torgau4 ,the ,bavarians under          
,raglowich1 who1 probably owing to      
secret orders1 had remained1 during the 
battle1 almost in a state of inactivity1
 withdrew in another direction and      
escaped4#f ,davoust also again retired  
upon ,hamburg1 and his rearguard under  
,pecheux was attacked by ,wallmoden1 on 
the #afth of ,september1 on the ,gorde1 
and suffered a trifling loss4 ,on the   
#bith of ,september1 eight thousand     
,french were also defeated by ,platow1  
the ,hetman of the ,cossacks1 at ,zeitz3
 on the #cjth1 ,czernitscheff penetrated
 into ,cassel and expelled ,jerome4     
,thielemann1 the ,saxon general1 also   
infested the country to ,napoleon's     
rear1 intercepted his convoys at        
,leipzig1 and at ,weissenfels took one  

thousand two hundred1 at ,merseburg two 
thousand1 ,french prisoners2 he was1    
however1 deprived of his booty by a     
strong force under                      
,lefebvre-,desnouettes1 by whom he was  
incessantly harassed until ,platow's    
arrival with the ,cossacks1 who1 in     
conjunction with ,thielemann1 repulsed  
,lefebvre with great slaughter at       
,altenburg4 ,on this occasion1 a ,baden 
battalion1 that had been drawn up apart 
from the ,french1 turned their fire upon
 their unnatural confederates and aided 
in their dispersion4#g  ,napoleon's     
generals had been thrown back in every  
quarter1 with immense loss1 upon        
,dresden1 toward which the allies now   
advanced1 threatening to enclose it on  
every side4 ,napoleon manoeuvred until  
the beginning of ,october with the view 
of executing a coup de main against     
,schwarzenberg and ,blucher2 the allies 
were1 however1 on their guard1 and he   
was constantly reduced to the necessity 
of recalling his troops1 sent for that  

purpose into the field1 to ,dresden4    
,the danger in which he now stood of    
being completely surrounded and cut off 
from the ,rhine at length rendered      
retreat his sole alternative4 ,blucher  
had already crossed the ,elbe on the    
#eth of ,october1 and1 in conjunction   
with the crown prince of ,sweden1 had   
approached the head of the main body of 
the allied army under ,schwarzenberg1   
which was advancing from the            
,erzgebirge4 ,on the #gth of ,october1  
,napoleon quitted ,dresden1 leaving a   
garrison of thirty thousand ,french     
under ,st4 ,cyr1 and removed his        
headquarters to ,duben1 on the road     
leading from ,leipzig to ,berlin1 in the
 hope of drawing ,blucher and the       
,swedes once more on the right side of  
the ,elbe1 in which case he intended to 
turn unexpectedly upon the ,austrians2  
,blucher1 however1 eluded him1 without  
quitting the left bank4 ,napoleon's plan
 was to take advantage of the absence of
 ,blucher and of the ,swedes from       

,berlin in order to hasten across the   
defenceless country1 for the purpose of 
inflicting punishment upon ,prussia1 of 
raising ,poland1 etc4 ,but his plan met 
with opposition in his own military     
council4 ,his ill success had caused    
those who had hitherto followed his     
fortunes to waver4 ,the king of ,bavaria
 declared against him on the #hth of    
,october1#h and the ,bavarian army under
 ,wrede united with instead of opposing 
the ,austrian army and was sent to the  
,maine in order to cut off ,napoleon's  
retreat4 ,the news of this defection    
speedily reached the ,french camp and   
caused the rest of the troops of the    
,rhenish confederation to waver in their
 allegiance2 while the ,french1 wearied 
with useless manoeuvres1 beaten in every
 quarter1 opposed by an enemy greatly   
their superior in number and glowing    
with revenge1 despaired of the event and
 sighed for peace and their quiet homes4
 ,all refused to march upon ,berlin1    
nay1 the very idea of removing further  

from ,paris almost produced a mutiny in 
the camp4#i ,four days1 from the #aath  
to the #adth of ,october1 were passed by
 ,napoleon in a state of melancholy     
irresolution1 when he appeared as if    
suddenly inspired by the idea of there  
still being time to execute a coup de   
main upon the main body of the allied   
army under ,schwarzenberg before its    
junction with ,blucher and the ,swedes4 
,schwarzenberg was slowly advancing from
 ,bohemia and had already allowed       
himself to be defeated before ,dresden4 
,napoleon intended to fall upon him on  
his arrival in the vicinity of ,leipzig1
 but it was already too late4--,blucher 
was at hand4 ,on the #adth of           
,october1#aj the flower of the ,french  
cavalry1 headed by the king of ,naples1 
encountered ,blucher's and              
,wittgenstein's cavalry at ,wachau1 not 
far from ,leipzig4 ,the contest was     
broken off1 both sides being desirous of
 husbanding their strength1 but         
terminated to the disadvantage of the   

,french1 notwithstanding their numerical
 superiority1 besides proving the       
vicinity of the ,prussians4 ,this was   
the most important cavalry fight that   
took place during this war4  ,on the    
#afth of ,october1 while ,napoleon was  
merely awaiting the arrival of          
,macdonald's corps1 that had remained   
behind1 before proceeding to attack     
,schwarzenberg's ,bohemian army1 he was 
unexpectedly attacked on the right bank 
of the ,pleisse1 at ,liebert-wolkwitz1  
by the ,austrians1 who were1 however1   
compelled to retire before a superior   
force4 ,the ,french cavalry under       
,latour-,maubourg pressed so closely    
upon the emperor of ,russia and the king
 of ,prussia that they merely owed their
 escape to the gallantry of the         
,russian1 ,orlow ,denisow1 and to       
,latour's fall4 ,napoleon had already   
ordered all the bells in ,leipzig to be 
rung1 had sent the news of his victory  
to ,paris1 and seems to have expected a 
complete triumph when joyfully          

exclaiming1 ,le monde tourne pour nous6 
,but his victory had been only partial1 
and he had been unable to follow up his 
advantage1 another division of the      
,austrian army1 under ,general          
,meerveldt1 having simultaneously       
occupied him and compelled him to cross 
the ,pleisse at ,dolnitz2 and1 although 
,meerveldt had been in his turn repulsed
 with severe loss and been himself taken
 prisoner1 the diversion proved of      
service to the ,austrians by keeping    
,napoleon in check until the arrival of 
,blcher1 who threw himself upon the     
division of the ,french army opposed to 
him at ,mckern by ,marshal ,marmont4    
,napoleon1 while thus occupied with the 
,austrians1 was unable to meet the      
attack of the ,prussians with sufficient
 force4 ,marmont1 after a massacre of   
some hours' duration in and around      
,mckern1 was compelled to retire with a 
loss of forty guns4 ,the second         
,prussian brigade lost1 either in killed
 or wounded1 all its officers except    

one4  ,the battle had1 on the #afth of  
,october1 raged around ,leipzig2        
,napoleon had triumphed over the        
,austrians1 whom he had solely intended 
to attack1 but had1 at the same time1   
been attacked and defeated by the       
,prussians1 and now found himself       
opposed and almost surrounded--one road 
for retreat alone remaining open--by the
 whole allied force4 ,he instantly gave 
orders to ,general ,bertrand to occupy  
,weissenfels during the night1 in order 
to secure his retreat through           
,thuringia2 but1 during the following   
day1 the #agth of ,october1 neither     
seized that opportunity in order to     
effect a retreat or to make a last and  
energetic attack upon the allies1 whose 
forces were not yet completely          
concentrated1 ere the circle had been   
fully drawn around him4 ,the ,swedes1   
the ,russians under ,bennigsen1 and a   
large ,austrian division under          
,colloredo1 had not yet arrived4        
,napoleon might with advantage have     

again attacked the defeated ,austrians  
under ,schwarzenberg or have thrown     
himself with the whole of his forces    
upon ,blcher4 ,he had still an          
opportunity of making an orderly retreat
 without any great exposure to danger4  
,but he did neither4 ,he remained       
motionless during the whole day1 which  
was also passed in tranquillity by the  
allies1 who thus gained time to receive 
fresh reinforcements4 ,napoleon's       
inactivity was caused by his having sent
 his prisoner1 ,general ,meerveldt1 to  
the emperor of ,austria1 whom he still  
hoped to induce1 by means of great      
assurances1 to secede from the coalition
 and to make peace4 ,not even a reply   
was vouchsafed4 ,on the very day1 thus  
futilely lost by ,napoleon1 the allied  
army was reintegrated by the arrival of 
the masses commanded by the crown       
prince1 by ,bennigsen and ,colloredo1   
and was consequently raised to double   
the strength of that of ,france1 which  
now merely amounted to one hundred and  

fifty thousand men4 ,on the #ahth1 a    
murderous conflict began on both sides4 
,napoleon long and skilfully opposed the
 fierce onset of the allied troops1 but 
was at length driven off the field by   
their superior weight and persevering   
efforts4 ,the ,austrians1 stationed on  
the left wing of the allied army1 were  
opposed by ,oudinot1 ,augereau1 and     
,poniatowsky2 the ,prussians1 stationed 
on the right wing1 by ,marmont and ,ney2
 the ,russians and ,swedes in the       
centre1 by ,murat and ,regnier4 ,in the 
hottest of the battle1 two ,saxon       
cavalry regiments went over to ,blcher1 
and ,general ,normann1 when about to be 
charged at ,taucha by the ,prussian     
cavalry under ,billow1 also deserted to 
him with two ,wrtemberg cavalry         
regiments1 in order to avoid an         
unpleasant reminiscence of the          
treacherous ill-treatment of ,ltzow's   
corps4 ,the whole of the ,saxon         
infantry1 commanded by ,regnier1 shortly
 afterward went1 with thirty-eight guns1

 over to the ,swedes1 five hundred men  
and ,general ,zeschau alone remaining   
true to ,napoleon4 ,the ,saxons         
stationed themselves behind the lines of
 the allies1 but their guns were        
instantly turned upon the enemy4#aa  ,in
 the evening of this terrible day1 the  
,french were driven back close upon the 
walls of ,leipzig4#ab ,on the certainty 
of victory being announced by           
,schwarzenberg to the three monarchs1   
who had watched the progress of the     
battle1 they knelt on the open field and
 returned thanks to ,god4 ,napoleon1    
before nightfall1 gave orders for full  
retreat2 but1 on the morning of the     
#aith1 recommenced the battle and       
sacrificed some of his corps d'armee in 
order to save the remainder4 ,he had1   
however1 foolishly left but one bridge  
across the ,elster open1 and the retreat
 was consequently retarded4 ,leipzig was
 stormed by the ,prussians1 and1 while  
the ,french rearguard was still battling
 on that side of the bridge1 ,napoleon  

fled1 and had no sooner crossed the     
bridge than it was blown up with a      
tremendous explosion1 owing to the      
inadvertence of a subaltern1 who is said
 to have fired the train too hastily4   
,the troops engaged on the opposite bank
 were irremediably lost4 ,prince        
,poniatowsky plunged on horseback into  
the ,elster in order to swim across1 but
 sank in the deep mud4 ,the king of     
,saxony1 who to the last had remained   
true to ,napoleon1 was among the        
prisoners4 ,the loss during this battle1
 which raged for four days1 and in which
 almost every nation in ,europe stood   
opposed to each other1 was immense on   
both sides4 ,the total loss in dead was 
computed at eighty thousand4 ,the       
,french lost1 moreover1 three hundred   
guns and a multitude of prisoners2 in   
the city of ,leipzig alone twenty-three 
thousand sick1 without reckoning the    
innumerable wounded4 ,numbers of these  
unfortunates lay bleeding and starving  
to death during the cold ,october nights

 on the field of battle1 it being found 
impossible to erect a sufficient number 
of lazaretti for their accommodation4   
,napoleon made a hasty and disorderly   
retreat with the remainder of his       
troops1 but was overtaken at ,freiburg  
on the ,unstrutt1 where the bridge      
broke1 and a repetition of the          
disastrous passage of the ,beresina     
occurred4 ,the fugitives collected into 
a dense mass1 upon which the ,prussian  
artillery played with murderous effect4 
,the ,french lost forty of their guns4  
,at ,hanau1 ,wrede1 ,napoleon's former  
favorite1 after taking ,wrzburg1 watched
 the movements of his ancient patron1   
and1 had he occupied the pass at        
,gelnhausen1 might have annihilated him4
 ,napoleon1 however1 furiously charged  
his flank1 and1 on the #bjth of         
,october1 succeeded in forcing a passage
 and in sending seventy thousand men    
across the ,rhine4 ,wrede was           
dangerously wounded4#ac ,on the #ith of 
,november1 the last ,french corps was   

defeated at ,hochheim and driven back   
upon ,mayence4  ,in the ,november of    
this ever memorable year1 #ahac1        
,germany1 as far as the ,rhine1 was     
completely freed from the ,french4#ad   
,above a hundred thousand ,french       
troops1 still shut up in the fortresses 
and cut off from all communication with 
,france1 gradually surrendered4 ,in     
,october1 the allies took ,bremen2 in   
,november1 ,stettin1 ,zamosk1 ,modlin1  
and those two important points1 ,dresden
 and ,dantzig4 ,in ,dresden1 ,gouvion   
,st4 ,cyr capitulated to ,count ,klenau1
 who granted him free egress on         
condition of the delivery of the whole  
of the army stores4 ,st4 ,cyr1 however1 
infringed the terms of capitulation by  
destroying several of the guns and      
sinking the gunpowder in the ,elbe2     
consequently1 on the non-recognition of 
the capitulation by the generalissimo1  
,schwarzenberg1 he found himself without
 means of defence and was compelled to  
surrender at discretion with a garrison 

thirty-five thousand strong4 ,rapp1 the 
,alsatian1 commanded in ,dantzig4 ,this 
city had already fearfully suffered from
 the commercial interdiction1 from the  
exactions and the scandalous license of 
its ,french protectors1 whom the ravages
 of famine and pestilence finally       
compelled to yield4#ae ,lubeck and      
,torgau fell in ,december2 the typhus1  
which had never ceased to accompany the 
armies1 raged there in the crowded      
hospitals1 carrying off thousands1 and  
greater numbers fell victims to this    
pestilential disease than to the war1   
not only among the troops1 but in every 
part of the country through which they  
passed4 ,wittenberg1 whose inhabitants  
had been shamefully abused by the       
,french under ,lapoype1 ,custrin1       
,glogau1 ,wesel1 ,erfurt1 fell in the   
beginning of #ahad2 ,magdeburg and      
,bremen1 after the conclusion of the    
war4  ,the ,rhenish confederation was   
dissolved1 each of the princes securing 
his hereditary possessions by a timely  

secession4 ,the kings of ,westphalia and
 ,saxony1 ,dalberg1 grand-duke of       
,frankfort1 and the princes of ,isenburg
 and von der ,leyen1 who had too heavily
 sinned against ,germany1 were alone    
excluded from pardon4 ,the king of      
,saxony was at first carried prisoner to
 ,berlin1 and afterward1 under the      
protection of ,austria1 to ,prague4     
,denmark also concluded peace at ,kiel  
and ceded ,norway to ,sweden1 upon which
 the ,swedes1 quasi re bene gesta1      
returned home4#af   ,footnote #a3 ,this 
general belonged to a ,german family    
long naturalized in ,russia4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,he was led through ,silesia1 which 
he had once so shamefully plundered1    
and1 although no physical punishment was
 inflicted upon him1 he was often       
compelled to hear the voice of public   
opinion1 and was exposed to the view of 
the people to whom he had once said1    
,nothing shall be left to you except    
your eyes1 that you may be able to weep 
over your wretchedness4--,manso's       

,history of ,prussia4  ,footnote #c3 ,an
 ancient battle-axe of serpentine stone 
was found on the site fixed upon for the
 erection of a fresh monument in honor  
of the present victory4--,allgemenie    
,zeitung1 #ahag4  ,footnote #d3 ,this   
piece of good fortune befell ,langeron1 
the ,russian general1 who belonged to   
the diplomatic party at that time       
attempting to spare the forces of       
,russia1 ,austria1 and ,sweden at the   
expense of ,prussia1 and1 at the same   
time1 to deprive ,prussia of her        
well-won laurels4 ,langeron had not     
obeyed ,blucher's orders1 had remained  
behind on his own responsibility1 and   
the scattered ,french troops fell into  
his hands4  ,footnote #e3 ,the proud    
armies of ,russia and ,sweden 7forty-six
 battalions1 forty squadrons1 and one   
hundred and fifty guns7 followed to the 
rear of the ,prussians without firing a 
shot and remained inactive spectators of
 the action4--,plotho4  ,footnote #f3   
,in order to avoid being carried along  

by the fugitive ,french1 they fired upon
 them whenever their confused masses    
came too close upon them4--,blderndorf4 
,footnote #g3 ,vide ,wagner's ,chronicle
 of ,altenburg4  ,footnote #h3          
,maximilian ,joseph declared in an open 
manifesto2 ,bavaria was compelled to    
furnish thirty-eight thousand men for   
the ,russian campaign1 and1 on her      
expressing a hope that such an immense  
sacrifice would not be requested1       
,france instantly declared the princes  
of the ,rhenish confederation her       
vassals1 who were commanded under       
punishment of felony unconditionally to 
obey each of ,napoleon's demands4 ,the  
allies would1 on the contrary1 have     
acceded to all the desires of ,bavaria  
and have guaranteed that kingdom4 ,even 
the ,austrian troops1 that stood opposed
 to ,bavaria1 were placed under ,wrede's
 command4--,raglowich received          
permission from ,napoleon1 before the   
battle of ,leipzig1 to return to        
,bavaria2 but his corps was retained in 

the vicinity of ,leipzig without taking 
part in the action1 and retired1 in the 
general confusion1 under the command of 
,general ,maillot1 upon ,torgau1 whence 
it returned home4--,bolderndorf4 ,in the
 ,tyrol1 the brave mountaineers were on 
the eve of revolt4 ,as early as         
,september1 ,speckbacher1 sick and      
wasted from his wounds1 but endued with 
all his former fire and energy1         
reappeared in the ,tyrol1 where he was  
commissioned by ,austria to organize a  
revolt4 ,an unexpected reconciliation1  
however1 taking place between ,bavaria  
and ,austria1 counter orders arrived1   
and ,speckbacher furiously dashed his   
bullet- worn hat to the                 
ground4--,brockhaus1 #ahad4 ,the        
restoration of the ,tyrol to ,austria   
being delayed1 a multitude of ,tyrolese 
forced their way into ,innsbruck and    
deposed the ,bavarian authorities2 their
 leader1 ,kluibenspedel1 was1 however1  
persuaded by ,austria to submit4        
,speckbacher was1 in #ahaf1 raised by   

the emperor ,francis to the rank of     
major2 he died in #ahbj1 and was buried 
at ,hall by the south wall of the parish
 church4 ,his son1 ,andre1 who grew up a
 fine1 handsome man1 died in #ahce1 at  
,jenbach 7not ,zenbach1 as ,mercy has it
 in his attacks upon the ,tyrol71 in the
 ,tyrol1 where he was employed as       
superintendent of the mines4 ,mercy's   
,travels and his account of ,speckbacher
 in the ,milan ,revista ,buropea1 #ahch1
 are replete with falsehood4  ,footnote 
#i3 ,according to ,fain and             
,coulaincourt4  ,footnote #aj3 ,on the  
evening of the #adth of ,october 7the   
anniversary of the battle of ,jena71 a  
hurricane raged in the neighborhood of  
,leipzig1 where the ,french lay1 carried
 away roofs and uprooted trees1 while1  
during the whole night1 the rain fell in
 violent floods4  ,footnote #aa3 ,not so
 the ,badeners and ,hessians4 ,the      
,baden corps was captured almost to a   
man2 among others1 ,prince ,emilius of  
,darmstadt4 ,baden had been governed1   

since the death of the popular          
grandduke1 ,charles ,frederick1 in      
#ahaa1 by his grandson1                 
,charles4--,franquemont1 with the       
,wrtemberg infantry1 eight to nine      
thousand strong1 acted independently of 
,normann's cavalry4 ,but one thousand of
 their number remained after the battle 
of ,leipzig1 and1 without going over to 
the allies1 returned to ,wrtemberg4     
,normann was punished by his sovereign4 
,footnote #ab3 ,the city was in a state 
of utter confusion4 ,the noise caused by
 the passage of the cavalry1 carriages1 
etc41 by the cries of the fugitives     
through the streets1 exceeded that of   
the most terrific storm4 ,the earth     
shook1 the windows clattered with the   
thunder of artillery1 etc4--,the        
,terrors of ,leipzig1 #ahac4  ,footnote 
#ac3 ,the king of ,wrtemberg1 who had   
fifteen hundred men close at hand1 did  
not send them to the aid of the         
,bavarians1 nor did he go over to the   
allies until the #b;d of ,november4     

,footnote #ad3 ,in ,november1 one       
hundred and forty thousand ,french      
prisoners and seven hundred and         
ninety-one guns were in the hands of the
 allies4  ,footnote #ae3 ,dantzig had   
formerly sixty thousand inhabitants1 the
 population was now reduced to thirteen 
thousand4 ,numbers died of hunger1 ,rapp
 having merely stored the magazines for 
his troops4 ,fifteen thousand of the    
,french garrison died1 and yet fourteen 
generals1 upward of a thousand officers1
 and about as many comptrollers         
belonging to the grand army1 who had    
taken refuge in that city1 were1 on the 
capitulation of the fortress1 made      
prisoners of war4  ,footnote #af3 ,the  
injustice thus favored by the first     
peace was loudly complained of4--,manso4
    ,,cclxii4 ,napoleon's ,fall         
,napoleon was no sooner driven across   
the ,rhine1 than the defection of the   
whole of the ,rhenish confederation1 of 
,holland1 ,switzerland1 and ,italy      
ensued4 ,the whole of the confederated  

,german princes followed the example of 
,bavaria and united their troops with   
those of the allies4 ,jerome had fled2  
the kingdom of ,westphalia had ceased to
 exist1 and the exiled princes of       
,hesse1 ,brunswick1 and ,oldenburg      
returned to their respective            
territories4 ,the ,rhenish provinces    
were instantly occupied by ,prussian    
troops and placed under the patriotic   
administration of ,justus ,gruner1 who  
was joined by ,grres of ,coblentz1 whose
 ,rhenish ,mercury so powerfully        
influenced public opinion that ,napoleon
 termed him the fifth great ,european   
power4#a ,the ,dutch revolted and took  
the few ,french still remaining in the  
country prisoner4 ,hogendorp was placed 
at the head of a provisional government 
in the name of ,william of ,orange4#b   
,the ,prussians under ,bulow entered the
 country and were received with great   
acclamation4 ,the whole of the ,dutch   
fortresses surrendered1 the ,french     
garrisons flying panic-stricken4  ,the  

,swiss remained faithful to ,napoleon   
until the arrival of ,schwarzenberg with
 the allied army on their frontiers4#c  
,napoleon would gladly have beheld the  
,swiss sacrifice themselves for him for 
the purpose of keeping the allies in    
check1 but ,reinhard of ,zurich1 who was
 at that time ,landammnann1 prudently   
resolved not to persevere in the demand 
for neutrality1 to lay aside every      
manifestation of opposition1 and to     
permit1 it being impossible to prevent1 
the entrance of the troops into the     
country1 by which he1 moreover1         
ingratiated himself with the allies4    
,the majority of his countrymen thanked 
,heaven for their deliverance from      
,french oppression1 and if1 in their    
ancient spirit of egotism1 they         
neglected to aid the great popular      
movement throughout ,germany1 they1 at  
all events1 sympathized in the general  
hatred toward ,france4#d ,the ancient   
aristocrats now naturally reappeared and
 attempted to re-establish the          

oligarchical governments of the         
foregoing century4 ,a ,count ,senfft von
 ,pilsach1 a pretended ,austrian envoy1 
who was speedily disavowed1 assumed the 
authority at ,berne with so much        
assurance as to succeed in deposing the 
existing government and reinstating the 
ancient oligarchy4 ,in ,zurich1 the     
constitution was also revised and the   
citizens reassumed their authority over 
the peasantry4 ,the whole of            
,switzerland was in a state of ferment4 
,ancient claims of the most varied      
description were asserted4 ,the people  
of the ,grisons took up arms and invaded
 the ,valtelline in order to retake     
their ancient possession4 ,pancratius1  
abbot of ,st4 ,gall1 demanded the       
restoration of his princely             
abbey4--,italy1 also1 deserted          
,napoleon4 ,murat1 king of ,naples1 in  
order not to lose his crown1 joined the 
allies4 ,eugene ,beauharnais1 viceroy of
 ,italy1 alone remained true to his     
imperial stepfather and gallantly       

opposed the ,austrians under ,hiller1   
who1 nevertheless1 rapidly reduced the  
whole of ,upper ,italy to submission4   
,the allies1 when on the point of       
entering the ,french territory1 solemnly
 declared that their enmity was directed
 not against the ,french nation1 but    
solely against ,napoleon4 ,by this      
generosity they hoped at once to prove  
the beneficence of their intentions to  
every nation of ,europe and to prejudice
 the ,french1 more particularly1 against
 their tyrant2 but that people1         
notwithstanding their immense           
misfortunes1 still remained true to     
,napoleon nor hesitated to sacrifice    
themselves for the man who had raised   
them to the highest rank among the      
nations of the earth1 and thousands     
flocked anew beneath the imperial eagle 
for the defence of their native soil4   
,the allies invaded ,france             
simultaneously on four sides1 ,bulow    
from ,holland1 ,blucher1 on ,new ,year's
 eve1 #ahad1 from ,coblentz1 and the    

main body of the allied army under      
,schwarzenberg1 which was also          
accompanied by the allied sovereigns4 ,a
 fourth army1 consisting of ,english and
 ,spaniards1 had already crossed the    
,pyrenees and marched up the country4   
,the great wars in ,russia and ,germany 
having compelled ,napoleon to draw off a
 considerable number of his forces from 
,spain1 ,soult had been consequently    
unable to keep the field against        
,wellington1 whose army had been        
gradually increased4 ,king ,joseph fled 
from ,madrid4 ,the ,french hazarded a   
last engagement at ,vittoria1 in ,june1 
#ahac1 but suffered a terrible defeat4  
,one of the two ,nassau regiments under 
,colonel ,kruse and the ,frankfort      
battalion deserted with their arms and  
baggage to the ,english4 ,the other     
,nassau regiment and that of ,baden were
 disarmed by the ,french and dragged in 
chains to ,france in reward for their   
long and severe service4#e ,the         
,hanoverians in ,wellington's army 7the 

,german ,legion71 particularly the corps
 of ,victor von ,alten 7,charles's      
brother71 brilliantly distinguished     
themselves at ,vittoria and again at    
,bayonne1 but were forgotten in the     
despatches1 an omission that was loudly 
complained of by their general1         
,hinuber4 ,other divisions of           
,hanoverians1 up to this period         
stationed in ,sicily1 had been sent to  
garrison ,leghorn and ,genoa4#f--,the   
crown prince of ,sweden followed the    
,prussian northern army1 but merely went
 as far as ,liege1 whence he turned back
 in order to devote his whole attention 
to the conquest of ,norway4  ,in the    
midst of the contest a fresh congress   
was assembled at ,chatillon1 for the    
purpose of devising measures for the    
conclusion of the war without further   
bloodshed4 ,the whole of ancient ,france
 was offered to ,napoleon on condition  
of his restraining his ambition within  
her limits and of keeping peace1 but he 
refused to cede a foot of land1 and     

resolved to lose all or nothing4 ,this  
congress was in so far disadvantageous  
on account of the rapid movements of the
 armies being checked by its fluctuating
 diplomacy4 ,schwarzenberg1 for         
instance1 pursued a system of           
procrastination1 separated his corps    
d'armee at long intervals1 advanced with
 extreme slowness1 or remained entirely 
stationary4 ,napoleon took advantage of 
this dilatoriness on the part of his    
opponents to make an unexpected attack  
on ,blucher's corps at ,brienne on the  
#bith of ,january1 in which ,blucher    
narrowly escaped being made prisoner4   
,the flames of the city1 in which       
,napoleon had received his first        
military lessons1 facilitated ,blucher's
 retreat4 ,napoleon1 however1 neglecting
 to pursue him on the #cjth of ,january1
 ,blucher1 reinforced by the crown      
prince of ,wurtemberg and by ,wrede1    
attacked him at ,la ,rothire with such  
superior forces as to put him completely
 to the rout4 ,the ,french left         

seventy-three guns sticking in the mud4 
,schwarzenberg1 nevertheless1 instead of
 pursuing the retreating enemy with the 
whole of his forces1 again delayed his  
advance and divided the troops4         
,blucher1 who had meanwhile rapidly     
pushed forward upon ,paris1 was again   
unexpectedly attacked by the main body  
of the ,french army1 and the whole of   
his corps were1 as they separately      
advanced1 repulsed with considerable    
loss1 the ,russians under ,olsufief at  
,champeaubert1 those under ,sacken at   
,montmirail1 the ,prussians under ,york 
at ,chteau-,thierry1 and1 finally1      
,blucher himself at ,beaux-champ1       
between the #ajth and #adth of          
,february4 ,with characteristic         
rapidity1 ,napoleon instantly fell upon 
the scattered corps of the allied army  
and inflicted a severe punishment upon  
,schwarzenberg1 for the folly of his    
system4 ,he successively repulsed the   
,russians under ,pahlen at ,mormant1    
,wrede at ,villeneuve le ,comte1 the    

crown prince of ,wurtemberg1 who offered
 the most obstinate resistance1 at      
,montereau1 on the #agth and #ahth of   
,february4#g ,augereau had meantime1    
with an army levied in the south of     
,france1 driven the ,austrians1 under   
,bubna1 into ,switzerland2 and1 although
 the decisive moment had arrived1 and   
,schwarzenberg had simply to form a     
junction with ,blucher in order to bring
 an overwhelming force against          
,napoleon1 the allied sovereigns and    
,schwarzenberg resolved1 in a council of
 war held at ,troyes1 upon a general    
retreat4  ,blucher1 upon this1          
magnanimously resolved to obviate at all
 hazards the disastrous consequences of 
the retreat of the allied army1 and1 in 
defiance of all commands1 pushed forward
 alone4#h ,this movement1 far from being
 rash1 was coolly calculated1 ,blucher  
being sufficiently reinforced on the    
,marne by ,winzingerode and ,bulow1 by  
whose aid he1 on the #ith ,march1       
defeated the emperor ,napoleon at ,laon4

 ,the victory was still undecided at    
fall of night4 ,napoleon allowed his    
troops to rest1 but ,blucher remained   
under arms and sent ,york to surprise   
him during the night4 ,the ,french were 
completely dispersed and lost forty-six 
guns4 ,napoleon1 after this miserable   
defeat1 again tried his fortune against 
,schwarzenberg 7who1 put to shame by    
,blucher's brilliant success1 had again 
halted71 and1 on the #bjth of ,march1   
maintained his position at ,arcis sur   
,aube1 although the crown prince of     
,wurtemberg gallantly led his troops    
five times to the assault4 ,neither side
 was victorious4  ,napoleon now resorted
 to a bold ruse de guerre4 ,the         
peasantry1 more particularly in         
,lorraine1 exasperated by the           
devastation unavoidable during war time1
 and by the vengeance here and there    
taken by the foreign soldiery1 had risen
 to the rear of the allied army4        
,unfortunately1 no one had dreamed of   
treating the ,german ,alsatians and     

,lothringians as brother ,germans4 ,they
 were treated as ,french4 ,long         
unaccustomed to invasion and to the     
calamities incidental to war1 they made 
a spirited but ineffectual resistance to
 the rapine of the soldiery4 ,whole     
villages were burned down4 ,the         
peasantry gathered into troops and      
massacred the foreign soldiery when not 
in sufficient numbers to keep them in   
check4 ,napoleon confidently expected   
that his diminished armies would be     
supported by a general rising en masse1 
and that ,augereau1 who was at that time
 guarding ,lyons1 would form a junction 
with him2 and1 in this expectation1     
threw himself to the rear of the allied 
forces and took up a position at ,troyes
 with a view of cutting them off1       
perhaps of surrounding them by means of 
the general rising1 or1 at all events1  
of drawing them back to the ,rhine4     
,but1 on the self-same day1 the #aith of
 ,march1 ,lyons had fallen and ,augereau
 had retreated southward4 ,the people   

did not rise en masse1 and the allies   
took advantage of ,napoleon's absence to
 form a grand junction1 and1 with flying
 banners1 to march unopposed upon       
,paris1 convinced that the possession of
 the capital of the ,french empire must 
inevitably bring the war to a favorable 
conclusion4 ,in ,paris1 there were      
numerous individuals who already        
regarded ,napoleon's fall as un fait    
accompli1 and who1 ambitious of         
influencing the future prospects of     
,france1 were ready to offer their      
services to the victors4 ,both parties  
speedily came to an understanding4 ,the 
corps d'armee under ,marshals ,mortier  
and ,marmont1 which were encountered    
midway1 were repulsed1 and that under   
,generals ,pacthod and ,amey captured1  
together with seventy pieces of         
artillery1 at ,la ,fre ,ohampenoise4 ,on
 the #bith of ,march1 the dark columns  
of the allied army defiled within sight 
of ,paris4 ,on the #cjth1 they met with 
a spirited resistance on the heights of 

,belleville and ,montmartre2 but the    
city1 in order to escape bombardment1   
capitulated during the night1 and1 on   
the #cast1 the allied sovereigns made a 
peaceful entry4 ,the empress1           
accompanied by the king of ,rome1 by    
,joseph1 ex-king of ,spain1 and by      
innumerable wagons1 laden with the spoil
 of ,europe1 had already fled to the    
south of ,france4  ,napoleon1 completely
 deceived by ,winzingerode and          
,tettenborn1 who had remained behind    
with merely a weak rearguard1 first     
learned the advance of the main body    
upon ,paris when too late to overtake   
it4 ,after almost annihilating his weak 
opponents at ,st4 ,dizier1 he reached   
,fontainebleau1 where he learned the    
capitulation of ,paris1 and1 giving way 
to the whole fury of his ,corsican      
temperament1 offered to yield the city  
for two days to the license of his      
soldiery would they but follow him to   
the assault4 ,but his own marshals1 even
 his hero1 ,ney1 deserted him1 and1 on  

the #ajth of ,april1 he was compelled to
 resign the imperial crown of ,france   
and to withdraw to the island of ,elba  
on the coast of ,italy1 which was placed
 beneath his sovereignty and assigned to
 him as a residence4 ,the kingdom of    
,france was re-established on its former
 footing2 and1 on the #dth of ,may1     
,louis ,,xviii4 entered ,paris and      
mounted the throne of his ancestors4    
,davoust was the last to offer          
resistance4 ,the ,russians under        
,bennigsen besieged him in ,hamburg1    
and1 on his final surrender1 treated him
 with the greatest moderation4#i  ,on   
the #cjth of ,may1 #ahad1 peace was     
concluded at ,paris4#aj ,france was     
reduced to her limits as in #agib1 and  
consequently retained the provinces of  
,alsace and ,lorraine1 of which she had1
 at an earlier period1 deprived         
,germany4 ,not a farthing was paid by   
way of compensation for the ravages     
suffered by ,germany1 nay1 the ,french  
prisoners of war were1 on their release1

 maintained on their way home at the    
expense of the ,german population4 ,none
 of the chefs-d'oeuvres of which ,europe
 had been plundered were restored1 with 
the sole exception of the group of      
horses1 taken by ,napoleon from the     
,brandenburg gate at ,berlin4 ,the      
allied troops instantly evacuated the   
country4 ,france was allowed to regulate
 her internal affairs without the       
interference of any of the foreign      
powers1 while paragraphs concerning the 
internal economy of ,germany were not   
only admitted into the treaty of ,paris1
 and ,france was on that account not    
only called upon to guarantee and to    
participate in the internal affairs of  
,germany1 but also afterward sent to the
 great ,congress of ,vienna an          
ambassador destined to play an important
 part in the definitive settlement of   
the affairs of ,europe1 and1 more       
particularly1 of those of ,germany4     
,the patriots1 of whom the governments  
had made use both before and after the  

war1 unable to comprehend that the      
result of such immense exertions and of 
such a complete triumph should be to    
bring greater profit and glory to       
,france than to ,germany1 and that their
 patriotism was1 on the conclusion of   
the war1 to be renounced1 were loud in  
their complaints4#aa ,but the revival of
 the ,german empire1 with which the     
individual interests of so many princely
 houses were plainly incompatible1 was  
far from entering into the plans of the 
allied powers4 ,an attempt made by any  
one among the princes to place himself  
at the head of the whole of ,germany    
would have been frustrated by the rest4 
,the policy of the foreign allies was   
moreover antipathetic to such a scheme4 
,england opposed and sought to hinder   
unity in ,germany1 not only for the sake
 of retaining possession of ,hanover and
 of exercising an influence over the    
disunited ,german princes similar to    
that exercised by her over the princes  
of ,india1 but more particularly for    

that of ruling the commerce of ,germany4
 ,russia reverted to her ,erfurt policy4
 ,her interests1 like those of ,france1 
led her to promote disunion among the   
,german powers1 whose weakness1 the     
result of want of combination1 placed   
them at the mercy of ,france1 and left  
,poland1 ,sweden1 and the ,east open to 
the ambition of ,russia4 ,a close       
alliance was in consequence instantly   
formed between the emperor ,alexander   
and ,louis ,,xviii41 the former         
negotiating1 as the first condition of  
peace1 the continuance of ,lorraine and 
,alsace beneath the sovereignty of      
,france4  ,austria assented on condition
 of ,italy being placed exclusively     
beneath her control4 ,austria united too
 many and too diverse nations beneath   
her sceptre to be able to pursue a      
policy pre-eminently ,german1 and found 
it more convenient to round off her     
territories by the annexation of ,upper 
,italy than by that of distant          
,lorraine1 at all times a possession    

difficult to maintain4 ,prussia was too 
closely connected with ,russia1 and     
,hardenberg1 unlike ,blucher at the head
 of the ,prussian army1 was powerless at
 the head of ,prussian diplomacy4 ,the  
lesser states also exercised no         
influence upon ,germany as a whole1 and 
were merely intent upon preserving their
 individual integrity or upon gaining   
some petty advantage4 ,the ,germans1    
some few discontented patriots alone    
excepted1 were more than ever devoted to
 their ancient princes1 both to those   
who had retained their station and to   
those who returned to their respective  
territories on the fall of ,napoleon2   
and the victorious soldiery1 adorned    
with ribbons1 medals1 and orders 7the   
,prussians1 for instance1 with the iron 
cross71 evinced the same unreserved     
attachment to their prince and zeal for 
his individual interest4 ,this          
complication of circumstances can alone 
explain the fact of ,germany1 although  
triumphant1 having made greater         

concessions to ,france by the treaty of 
,paris than1 when humbled1 by that of   
,westphalia4   ,footnote #a3 ,his       
principal thesis consisted of ,we are   
not ,prussians1 ,westphalians1 ,saxons1 
etc41 but ,germans4  ,footnote #b3 ,this
 prince took the title not of           
stadtholder1 but of king1 to which he   
had no claim1 but in which he was       
supported by ,england and ,russia1 who  
unwillingly beheld ,prussia aggrandized 
by the possession of ,holland4          
,footnote #c3 ,even in the ,may of      
#ahac1 an ode given in ,no4 #bgj of the 
,allgemeine ,zeitung1 appeared in       
,switzerland1 in which it was said1 ,the
 brave warriors of ,switzerland hasten  
to reap fresh laurels4 ,with their      
heroic blood have they dyed the distant 
shores of barbarous ,haiti1 the waters  
of the ,ister and ,tagus1 etc4 ,the     
deserts of ,sarmatia have witnessed the 
martial glories of the ,helvetic legion4
  ,footnote #d3 ,shortly before this1 a 
report had been spread of the nomination

 of ,marshal ,berthier1 prince of       
,neufchatel1 as perpetual ,landammann of
 ,switzerland4--,muralt's ,reinhard4    
,footnote #e3 ,out of two thousand six  
hundred and fifty-four ,badeners but    
five hundred and six returned from      
,spain4  ,footnote #f3 ,beamisch1       
,history of the ,legion4  ,footnote #g3 
,several regiments sacrificed themselves
 in order to cover the retreat of the   
rest4 ,napoleon ordered a twelve-pounder
 to be loaded and twice directed the gun
 with his own hand upon the crown       
prince4--,campaigns of the              
,wrterribergers4  ,footnote #h3         
,blcher's conduct simply proceeded from 
his impatience to obtain by force of    
arms the most honorable terms of peace  
for ,prussia1 while the other allied    
powers1 who were far more indulgently   
disposed toward ,france and who began to
 view the victories gained by ,prussia  
with an apprehension which was further  
strengthened by the increasing          
popularity of that power throughout     

,germany1 were more inclined to         
diplomatize than to fight4 ,blcher was  
well aware of these reasons for         
diplomacy and more than once cut the    
negotiations short with his sabre4 ,a   
well-known diplomatist attempting on one
 occasion to prove to him that ,napoleon
 must1 even without the war being       
continued1 descend from his throne1 a   
league having been formed within ,france
 herself for the restoration of the     
,bourbons--he answered him to his face1 
,the rascality of the ,french is no     
revenge for us4 ,it is we who must pull 
him down--we4 ,you will no doubt do     
wonders in your wisdom6--,patience6 ,you
 will be led as usual by the nose1 and  
will still go on fawning and            
diplomatizing until we have the nation  
again upon us1 and the storm bursts over
 our heads4 ,he went so far as to set   
the diplomatists actually at defiance4  
,on being1 to ,napoleon's extreme       
delight1 ordered to retreat1 he treated 
the order with contempt and instantly   

advanced4--,rauschnick's ,life of       
,blcher4 ,this second disjunction on    
,blcher's part1 observes ,clausewitz1   
the ,prussian general1 the best         
commentator on this war1 was of infinite
 consequence1 for it checked and gave a 
fresh turn to the whole course of       
political affairs4  ,footnote #i3 ,grres
 said in the ,rhenish ,mercury1 ,it is  
easy to see how all are inclined to     
conceal beneath the wide mantle of love 
the horrors there perpetrated4 ,the     
,germans have from time immemorial been 
subjected to this sort of treatment1    
because ever ready to forgive and forget
 the past4 ,davoust was arrested merely 
for form's sake and then honorably      
released4 ,he was allowed to retain the 
booty he had seized4 ,the citizens of   
,hamburg vainly implored the            
re-establishment of their bank4         
,footnote #aj3 ,blcher took no part in  
these affairs4 ,i have1 said he to the  
diplomatists1 done my duty1 now do      
yours6 ,you will be responsible both to 

,god and man should your work be done in
 vain and have to be done over again4 ,i
 have nothing further to do with the    
business6--,experience had1 however1    
taught him not to expect much good from 
quill-drivers4  ,footnote #aa3 ,the     
,rhenish ,mercury more than all4 ,it was
 opposed by the ,messenger of the       
,tyrol1 which declared that the victory 
was gained1 not by the people1 as they  
were termed1 but by the princes and     
their armies4--,july1 #ahad4            
,,cclxiii4 ,the ,congress of            
,vienna--,napoleon's ,return and ,end   
,from ,paris the sovereigns of          
,prussia#a and ,russia and the          
victorious field-marshals proceeded1 in 
,june1 to ,london1 where they1 ,blucher 
most particularly1 were received with   
every demonstration of delight and      
respect by the ,english1 their oldest   
and most faithful allies4#b ,toward     
autumn1 a great ,european congress1 to  
which the settlement of every point in  
dispute and the restoration of order    

throughout ,europe were to be committed1
 was convoked at ,vienna4 ,at this      
congress1 which1 in the ,november of    
#ahad1 was opened at ,vienna1 the       
emperors of ,austria and ,russia1 the   
kings of ,prussia1 ,denmark1 ,bavaria1  
,wurtemberg1 and the greater part of the
 petty princes of ,germany1 were present
 in person2 the other powers were       
represented by ambassadors              
extraordinary4 ,the greatest statesmen  
of that period were here assembled2     
among others1 ,metternich1 the ,austrian
 minister1 ,hardenberg and ,humboldt1   
the ,prussian ministers1 ,castlereagh1  
the ,english plenipotentiary1           
,nesselrode1 the ,russian envoy1        
,talleyrand and ,dalberg1 ,gagern1      
,bernstorff1 and ,wrede1 the ambassadors
 of ,france1 ,holland1 ,denmark1 and    
,bavaria1 etc4 ,the negotiations were of
 the utmost importance1 for1 although   
one of the most difficult points1 the   
new regulation of affairs in ,france1   
was already settled1 many extremely     

difficult questions still remained to be
 solved4 ,talleyrand1 who had served    
under every government1 under the       
republic1 under the usurper1 ,napoleon2 
who had retaken office under the        
,bourbons and the ,jesuits who had      
returned in their train1 and who1 on    
this occasion1 was the representative of
 the criminal and humbled ,french       
nation1 ventured1 nevertheless1 to offer
 his perfidious advice to the victors1  
and1 with diabolical art1 to sow the    
seed of discord among them4 ,this       
conduct was the more striking on account
 of its glaring incongruity with the    
proclamation of ,calisch1 which         
expressly declared that the internal    
affairs of ,germany were wholly and     
solely to be arranged by the princes and
 nations of ,germany1 without foreign1  
and naturally1 least of all1 without    
,french interference4#c ,talleyrand's   
first object was to suppress the popular
 spirit of liberty throughout ,germany1 
and to rouse against it the jealous     

apprehensions of the princes4 ,he       
therefore said1 ,you wish for           
constitutions2 guard against them4 ,in  
,france1 desire for a constitution      
produced a revolution1 and the same will
 happen to you4 ,he it was who gave to  
the congress that catchword1 legitimacy4
 ,the object of the past struggle was   
not the restoration of the liberties of 
the people but that of the ancient      
legitimate dynasties and their absolute 
sovereignty4 ,the war had been directed1
 not against ,napoleon1 but against the 
,revolution1 against the usurpation of  
the people4 ,by means of this legitimacy
 the king of ,saxony was to be          
re-established on his throne1 and       
,prussia was on no account to be        
permitted to incorporate ,saxony with   
her dominions4 ,prussia appealed to her 
services toward ,germany1 to her        
enormous sacrifices1 to the support     
given to her by public opinion2 but the 
power of public opinion was itself      
questioned4 ,the seeds of discord       

quickly sprang up1 and1 on the #c;d of  
,january1 #ahae1 a secret league against
 ,prussia was already formed for the    
purpose of again humbling the state that
 had sacrificed all for the honor of    
,germany1 of frustrating her schemes of 
aggrandizement1 and of quenching the    
patriotic spirit of ,german idealists   
and enthusiasts4#d  ,the want of        
unanimity amid the members of the       
congress had at the same time a bad     
effect upon the ancient ,rhenish        
confederated states4 ,in ,nassau1 the   
,landwehr was1 on its return home after 
the campaign1 received with marks of    
dissatisfaction4 ,in ,baden and ,hesse1 
many of the officers belonging to the   
army openly espoused ,napoleon's cause4 
,in ,baden1 the volunteer corps was     
deprived of its horses and sent home on 
foot4#e ,in ,wurtemberg1 ,king          
,frederick refused to allow the foreign 
troops and convoys a passage along the  
highroad through ,cannstadt and         
,ludwigsburg1 and forbade the attendance

 of civil surgeons upon the wounded     
belonging to the allied army4 ,in       
,wurtemberg and ,bavaria1 the ,rhenish  
,mercury was suppressed on account of   
its patriotic and ,german tendency4 ,at 
,stuttgard1 the festival in             
commemoration of the battle of ,leipzig 
was disallowed2 and in ,frankfort on the
 ,maine1 the editor of a ,french journal
 ventured1 unreprimanded1 to turn this  
festival into ridicule4  ,switzerland   
was in a high state of ferment4 ,the    
people of the ,grisons1 who had taken   
possession of the ,valtelline1 and the  
people of ,uri1 who had seized the      
,livinenthal1 had been respectively     
driven out of those territories by the  
,austrians4 ,the ,valais1 ,geneva1      
,neufchatel1 and ,pruntrut were1 on the 
other hand1 desirous of joining the     
confederation4 ,the democratic peasantry
 were almost everywhere at war with the 
aristocratic burghers4 ,berne revived   
her claim upon ,vaud and ,aargau1 which 
armed in self-defence4#f ,reinhard of   

,zurich1 the ,swiss ,landammann1 went1  
meanwhile1 at the head of an embassy to 
,vienna1 for the purpose of settling in 
the congress the future destinies of    
,switzerland by means of the            
intervention of the great powers4       
,talleyrand1 with unparalleled          
impudence1 also interfered in this      
affair1 threatened to refuse his        
recognition to every measure passed     
without his concurrence1 and compelled  
the ,swiss to entreat him to honor the  
deliberations with his presence4 ,on    
,austria's demanding a right of         
conscription in the ,grisons alone1     
,france having enjoyed that right       
throughout the whole of ,switzerland at 
an earlier period1 ,talleyrand advised  
the ,swiss to make a most violent       
opposition against an attempt that      
placed their independence at stake4 ,cry
 out1 he exclaimed1 cry out1 as loud as 
you can6#g  ,the disputes in the        
congress raised ,napoleon's hopes4 ,in  
,france1 his party was still powerful1  

almost the whole of the population being
 blindly devoted to him1 and an         
extensive conspiracy for his restoration
 to the imperial throne was secretly set
 on foot4 ,several thousands of his     
veteran soldiery had been released from 
foreign durance2 the whole of the       
military stores1 the spoil of ,europe1  
still remained in the possession of     
,france2 the fortresses were solely     
garrisoned with ,french troops2 ,elba   
was close at hand1 and the emperor was  
guarded with criminal negligence4       
,heavy1 indeed1 is the responsibility of
 those who1 by thus neglecting their    
charge1 once more let loose this scourge
 upon the earth6#h ,napoleon quitted his
 island1 and1 on the #ast of ,march1    
#ahae1 again set foot on the coast of   
,france4 ,he was merely accompanied by  
one thousand five hundred men1 but the  
whole of the troops sent against him by 
,louis ,,xviii4 ranged themselves       
beneath his eagle4 ,he passed1 as if in 
triumph1 through his former empire4 ,the

 whole nation received him with         
acclamations of delight4 ,not a single  
,frenchman shed a drop of blood for the 
,bourbon1 who fled hastily to ,ghent2   
and1 on the #bjth of ,march1 ,napoleon  
entered ,paris unopposed4 ,his          
brother-in-law1 ,murat1 at the same time
 revolted at ,naples and advanced into  
,upper ,italy against the ,austrians4   
,but all the rest of ,napoleon's ancient
 allies1 persuaded that he must again   
fall1 either remained tranquil or formed
 a close alliance with the combined     
powers4 ,the ,swiss1 in particular1     
showed excessive zeal on this occasion1 
and took up arms against ,france1 in the
 hope of rendering the allied sovereigns
 favorable to their new constitution1   
,the ,swiss regiments1 which had passed 
from ,napoleon's service to that of     
,louis ,,xviii41 also remained unmoved  
by ,napoleon's blandishments1 were      
deprived of their arms and returned     
separately to ,switzerland4  ,the allied
 sovereigns were still assembled at     

,vienna1 and at once allowed every      
dispute to drop in order to form a fresh
 and closer coalition4 ,they declared   
,napoleon an outlaw1 a robber1          
proscribed by all ,europe1 and bound    
themselves to bring a force more than a 
million strong into the field against   
him4 ,all ,napoleon's cunning attempts  
to bribe and set them at variance were  
treated with scorn1 and the combined    
powers speedily came to an understanding
 on the points hitherto so strongly     
contested4 ,saxony was partitioned      
between her ancient sovereign and       
,prussia1 and a revolt that broke out in
 ,liege among the ,saxon troops1 who    
were by command of ,prussia to be       
divided before they had been released   
from their oath of allegiance to their  
king1 is easily explained by the hurry  
and pressure of the times1 which caused 
all minor considerations to be          
forgotten4#i ,napoleon exclusively      
occupied the mind of every diplomatist1 
and all agreed in the necessity1 at all 

hazards1 of his utter annihilation4 ,the
 lion1 thus driven at bay1 turned upon  
his pursuers for a last and desperate   
struggle4 ,the ,french were still       
faithful to ,napoleon1 who1 with a view 
of reinspiring them with the            
enthusiastic spirit that had rendered   
them invincible in the first days of the
 republic1 again called forth the old   
republicans1 nominated them to the      
highest appointments1 re-established    
several republican institutions1 and1 on
 the #ast of ,june1 presented to his    
dazzled subjects the magnificent        
spectacle of a field of ,may1 as in the 
times of ,charlemagne and in the        
commencement of the ,revolution1 and    
then led a numerous and spirited army to
 the ,dutch frontiers against the enemy4
  ,here stood a ,prussian army under    
,blucher1 and an ,anglo-,german one     
under ,wellington1 comprehending the    
,dutch under the ,prince of ,orange1 the
 ,brunswickers under their duke1 the    
recruited ,hanoverian ,legion under     

,wallmoden4 ,these corps d'arme most    
imminently threatened ,paris4 ,the main 
body of the allied army1 under          
,schwarzenberg1 then advancing from the 
south1 was still distant4 ,napoleon     
consequently directed his first attack  
against the two former4 ,his army had   
gained immensely in strength and spirit 
by the return of his veteran troops from
 foreign imprisonment4 ,wellington1     
ignorant at what point ,napoleon might  
cross the frontier1 had followed the old
 and ill-judged plan of dividing his    
forces2 an incredible error1 the allies 
having simply to unite their forces and 
to take up a firm position in order to  
draw ,napoleon to any given spot4       
,wellington1 moreover1 never imagined   
that ,napoleon was so near at hand1 and 
was amusing himself at a ball at        
,brussels1 when ,blucher1 who was       
stationed in and around ,namur1 was     
attacked on the #adth of ,june1 #ahae4aj
 ,napoleon afterward observed in his    
memoirs that he had attacked ,blucher   

first because he well knew that ,blucher
 would not be supported by the          
over-prudent and egotistical ,english   
commander1 but that ,wellington1 had he 
been first attacked1 would have received
 every aid from his high-spirited and   
faithful ally4 ,wellington1 after being 
repeatedly urged by ,blucher1 collected 
his scattered corps1 but neither        
completely nor with sufficient rapidity2
 and on ,blucher's announcement of      
,napoleon's arrival1 exerted himself on 
the following morning so far as to make 
a reconnaissance4 ,the duke of          
,brunswick1 with impatience equalling   
that of ,blucher1 was the only one who  
had quitted the ball during the night   
and had hurried forward against the     
enemy4 ,napoleon1 owing to ,wellington's
 negligence1 gained time to throw       
himself between him and ,blucher and to 
prevent their junction2 for he knew the 
spirit of his opponents4 ,he            
consequently opposed merely a small     
division of his army under ,ney to the  

,english and turned with the whole of   
his main body against the ,prussians4   
,the veteran ,blucher perceived his     
intentions#aa and in consequence        
urgently demanded aid from the ,duke of 
,wellington1 who promised to send him a 
reinforcement of twenty thousand men by 
four o'clock on the #afth4 ,but this aid
 never arrived1 ,wellington1 although   
,ney was too weak to obstruct the       
movement1 making no attempt to perform  
his promise4 ,wellington retired with   
superior forces before ,ney at ,quatre  
,bras1 and allowed the gallant and      
unfortunate ,duke ,william of ,brunswick
 to fall a futile sacrifice4 ,blucher   
meanwhile yielded to the overwhelming   
force brought against him by ,napoleon  
at ,ligny1 also on the #afth of ,june4  
,vainly did the ,prussians rush to the  
attack beneath the murderous fire of the
 ,french1 vainly did ,blucher in person 
head the assault and for five hours     
continue the combat hand to hand in the 
village of ,ligny4 ,numbers prevailed1  

and ,wellington sent no relief4 ,the    
infantry being at length driven back1   
,blucher led the cavalry once more to   
the charge1 but was repulsed and fell   
senseless beneath his horse1 which was  
shot dead4 ,his adjutant1 ,count        
,nostitz1 alone remained at his side4   
,the ,french cavalry passed close by    
without perceiving them1 twilight and a 
misty rain having begun to fall4 ,the   
,prussians fortunately missed their     
leader1 repulsed the ,french cavalry1   
which again galloped past him as he lay 
on the ground1 and he was at length     
drawn from beneath his horse4 ,he still 
lived1 but only to behold the complete  
defeat of his army4  ,blucher1 although 
a veteran of seventy-three1 and wounded 
and shattered by his fall1 was not for a
 moment discouraged4#ab ,ever vigilant1 
he assembled his scattered troops with  
wonderful rapidity1 inspirited them by  
his cheerful words1 and had the         
generosity to promise aid1 by the       
afternoon of the #ahth of ,june1 to     

,wellington1 who was now in his turn    
attacked by the main body of the ,french
 under ,napoleon4 ,what ,wellington on  
the #afth1 with a fresh army1 could not 
perform1 ,blucher now effected with     
troops dejected by defeat1 and put the  
,english leader to the deepest shame    
by--keeping his word4#ac ,he            
consequently fell back upon ,wavre in   
order to remain as close as possible in 
,wellington's vicinity1 and also sent   
orders to ,bulow's corps1 that was then 
on the advance1 to join the ,english    
army1 while ,napoleon1 in the idea that 
,blucher was falling back upon the      
,meuse1 sent ,grouchy in pursuit with a 
body of thirty-five thousand men4#ad    
,napoleon1 far from imagining that the  
,prussians1 after having been1 as he    
supposed1 completely annihilated or     
panic-stricken by ,grouchy1 could aid   
the ,british1 wasted the precious       
moments1 and1 instead of hastily        
attacking ,wellington1 spent the whole  
of the morning of the #ahth in uselessly

 parading his troops1 possibly with a   
view of intimidating his opponents and  
of inducing them to retreat without     
hazarding an engagement4 ,his           
well-dressed lines glittered in the     
sunbeams2 the infantry raised their     
tschakos on their bayonet points1 the   
cavalry their helmets on their sabres1  
and gave a general cheer for their      
emperor4 ,the ,english1 however1        
preserved an undaunted aspect4 ,at      
length1 about midday1 ,napoleon gave    
orders for the attack1 and1 furiously   
charging the ,british left wing1 drove  
it from the village of ,hougumont4 ,he  
then sent orders to ,ney to charge the  
,british centre4 ,at that moment a dark 
spot was seen in the direction of ,st4  
,lambert4 ,was it ,grouchy8 ,a          
reconnoitring party was despatched and  
returned with the news of its being the 
,prussians under ,bulow4 ,the attack    
upon the ,british centre was            
consequently remanded1 and ,ney was     
despatched with a considerable portion  

of his troops against ,bulow4           
,wellington now ventured to charge the  
enemy with his right wing1 but was      
repulsed and lost the farm of ,la ,haye 
,sainte1 which commanded his position on
 this side as ,hougumont did on his     
right4 ,his centre1 however1 remained   
unattacked1 the ,french exerting their  
utmost strength to keep ,bulow's gallant
 troops back at the village of          
,planchenoit1 where the battle raged    
with the greatest fury1 and a dreadful  
conflict of some hours' duration ensued 
hand to hand4 ,but about five o'clock1  
the left wing of the ,british being     
completely thrown into confusion by a   
fresh attack on the enemy's side1 the   
whole of the ,french cavalry1 twelve    
thousand strong1 made a furious charge  
upon the ,british centre1 bore down all 
before them1 and took a great number of 
guns4 ,the ,prince of ,orange was       
wounded4 ,the road to ,brussels was     
already thronged with the fugitive      
,english troops1 and ,wellington1       

scarcely able to keep his weakened lines
 together1#ae was apparently on the     
brink of destruction1 when the thunder  
of artillery was suddenly heard in the  
direction of ,wavre4 ,it is ,grouchy6   
joyfully exclaimed ,napoleon1 who had   
repeatedly sent orders to that general  
to push forward with all possible speed4
 ,but it was not ,grouchy1 it was       
,blucher4  ,the faithful troops of the  
veteran marshal 7the old ,silesian army7
 were completely worn out by the battle1
 by their retreat in the heavy rain over
 deep roads1 and by the want of food4   
,the distance from ,wavre1 whence they  
had been driven1 to ,waterloo1 where    
,wellington was then in action1 was not 
great1 but was rendered arduous owing to
 these circumstances4 ,the men sometimes
 fell down from extreme weariness1 and  
the guns stuck fast in the deep mud4    
,but ,blucher was everywhere present1   
and notwithstanding his bodily pain ever
 cheered his men forward1 with          
indescribable pathos1 saying to his     

disheartened soldiers1 ,my children1 we 
must advance2 ,i have promised it1 do   
not cause me to break my word6 ,while   
still distant from the scene of action1 
he ordered the guns to be fired in order
 to keep up the courage of the ,english1
 and at length1 between six and seven in
 the evening1 the first ,prussian corps 
in advance1 that of ,ziethen1 fell      
furiously upon the enemy3 ,bravo6 cried 
,blucher1 ,i know you1 my ,silesians2   
to-day we shall see the backs of these  
,french rascals6 ,ziethen filled up the 
space still intervening between         
,wellington and ,bulow4 ,exactly at that
 moment1 ,napoleon had sent his old     
guard forward in four massive squares in
 order to make a last attempt to break  
the ,british lines1 when ,ziethen fell  
upon their flank and dealt fearful havoc
 among their close masses with his      
artillery4 ,bulow's troops1 inspirited  
by this success1 now pressed gallantly  
forward and finally regained the        
long-contested village of ,planchenoit  

from the enemy4 ,the whole of the       
,prussian army1 advancing at the double 
and with drums beating1 had already     
driven back the right wing of the       
,french1 when the ,english1 regaining   
courage1 advanced1 ,napoleon was        
surrounded on two sides1 and the whole  
of his troops1 the old guard under      
,general ,cambronne alone excepted1 were
 totally dispersed and fled in complete 
disorder4 ,the old guard1 surrounded by 
,bulow's cavalry1 nobly replied1 when   
challenged to surrender1 ,la garde ne se
 rend pas2 and in a few minutes the     
veteran conquerors of ,europe fell      
beneath the righteous and avenging blows
 of their antagonists4 ,at the farm of  
,la ,belle ,alliance1 ,blucher offered  
his hand to ,wellington4 ,i will sleep  
to-night in ,bonaparte's last night's   
quarters1 said ,wellington4 ,and ,i will
 drive him out of his present ones6     
replied ,blucher4 ,the ,prussians1 fired
 by enthusiasm1 forgot the fatigue they 
had for four days endured1 and1 favored 

by a moonlight night1 so zealously      
pursued the ,french that an immense     
number of prisoners and a vast amount of
 booty fell into their hands and        
,napoleon narrowly escaped being taken  
prisoner4 ,at ,genappe1 where the bridge
 was blocked by fugitives1 the pursuit  
was so close that he was compelled to   
abandon his carriage leaving his sword  
and hat behind him4 ,blucher1 who       
reached the spot a moment afterward1    
took possession of the booty1 sent      
,napoleon's hat1 sword1 and star to the 
king of ,prussia1 retained his cloak1   
telescope1 and carriage for his own use1
 and gave up everything else1 including 
a quantity of the most valuable jewelry1
 gold1 and money1 to his brave soldiery4
 ,the whole of the army stores1 two     
hundred and forty guns1 and an          
innumerable quantity of arms thrown away
 by the fugitives1 fell into his hands4 
,the ,prussian general1 ,thielemann1    
who1 with a few troops1 had remained    
behind at ,wavre in order1 at great     

hazard1 to deceive ,grouchy into the    
belief that he was still opposed by     
,blucher's entire force1 acted a lesser1
 but equally honorable part on this     
great day4 ,he fulfilled his commission 
with great skill1 and so completely     
deceived ,grouchy as to hinder his      
making a single attempt to throw himself
 in the way of the ,prussians on the    
,paris road4  ,blucher pushed forward   
without a moment's delay1 and1 on the   
#bith of ,june1 stood before ,paris4    
,napoleon had1 meanwhile1 a second time 
abdicated1 and had fled from ,paris in  
the hope of escaping across the seas4   
,davoust1 the ancient instrument of his 
tyranny1 who commanded in ,paris1       
attempting to make terms of capitulation
 with ,blucher1 was sharply answered1   
,you want to make a defence8 ,take care 
what you do4 ,you well know what license
 the irritated soldiery will take if    
your city must be taken by storm4 ,do   
you wish to add the sack of ,paris to   
that of ,hamburg1 already loading your  

conscience8#af ,paris surrendered after 
a severe engagement at ,issy1 and       
,muffling1 the ,prussian general1 was   
placed in command of the city1 ,july the
 #gth1 #ahae4 ,it was on the occasion of
 a grand banquet given by ,wellington   
shortly after the occupation of ,paris  
by the allied troops that ,blucher gave 
the celebrated toast1 ,may the pens of  
diplomatists not again spoil all that   
the swords of our gallant armies have so
 nobly won6  ,schwarzenberg had in the  
interim also penetrated into ,france1   
and the crown prince of ,wurtemberg had 
defeated ,general ,rapp at ,strasburg   
and had surrounded that fortress4 ,the  
,swiss1 under ,general ,bachmann1 who   
had1 although fully equipped for the    
field1 hitherto prudently watched the   
turn of events1 invaded ,france         
immediately after the battle of         
,waterloo1 pillaged ,burgundy1 besieged 
and took the fortress of ,huningen1     
which1 with the permission of the       
allies1 they justly razed to the ground1

 the insolent ,french having thence     
fired upon the bridges of ,basel which  
lay close in its vicinity4 ,a fresh     
,austrian army under ,frimont advanced  
from ,italy as far as ,lyons4 ,on the   
#agth of ,july1 ,napoleon surrendered   
himself in the bay of ,rochefort to the 
,english1 whose ships prevented his     
escape2 he moreover preferred falling   
into their hands than into those of the 
,prussians4 ,the whole of ,france       
submitted to the triumphant allies1 and 
,louis ,,xviii4 was reinstated on his   
throne4 ,murat had also been            
simultaneously defeated at ,tolentino in
 ,italy by the ,austrians under         
,bianchi1 and ,ferdinand ,,iv4 had been 
restored to the throne of ,naples4      
,murat fled to ,corsica1 but his retreat
 to ,france was prevented by the success
 of the allies1 and in his despair he1  
with native rashness1 yielded to the    
advice of secret intriguants and        
returned to ,italy with a design of     
raising a popular insurrection1 but was 

seized on landing and shot on the #acth 
of ,october4#ag  ,blucher was greatly   
inclined to give full vent to his justly
 roused rage against ,paris4 ,the bridge
 of ,jena1 one of the numerous bridges  
across the ,seine1 the principal object 
of his displeasure1 was1 curiously      
enough1 saved from destruction 7he had  
already attempted to blow it up7 by the 
arrival of the king of ,prussia4#ah ,his
 proposal to punish ,france by          
partitioning the country and thus       
placing it on a par with ,germany1 was  
far more practical in its tendency4     
,this honest veteran had in fact a      
deeper insight into affairs than the    
most wary diplomatists4#ai ,in #ahae1   
the same persons1 as in #ahad1 met in   
,paris1 and similar interests were      
agitated4 ,foreign jealousy again       
effected the conclusion of this peace at
 the expense of ,germany and in favor of
 ,france4 ,blucher's influence at first 
reigned supreme4 ,the king of ,prussia1 
who1 together with the emperors of      

,russia and ,austria1 revisited ,paris1 
took ,stein and ,gruner into his        
council4 ,the crown prince of           
,wurtemberg also zealously exerted      
himself in favor of the reunion of      
,lorraine and ,alsace with ,germany4#bj 
,but ,russia and ,england beholding the 
reintegration of ,germany with          
displeasure1 ,austria1#ba and finally   
,prussia1 against whose patriots all    
were in league1 yielded4#bb ,the future 
destinies of ,europe were settled on the
 side of ,england by ,wellington and    
,castlereagh2 on that of ,russia by     
,prince ,john ,razumowsky1 ,nesselrode1 
and ,capo d',istria2 on that of ,austria
 by ,metternich and ,wessenberg2 on that
 of ,prussia by ,hardenberg and ,william
 von ,humboldt4 ,the ,german patriots   
were excluded from the discussion1#bc   
and a result extremely unfavorable to   
,germany naturally followed3#bd ,alsace 
and ,lorraine remained annexed to       
,france4 ,by the second treaty of       
,paris1 which was definitively concluded

 on the #bjth of ,november1 #ahae1      
,france was merely compelled to give up 
the fortresses of ,philippeville1       
,marienburg1 ,sarlouis1 and ,landau1 to 
demolish ,huningen1 and to allow        
eighteen other fortresses on the ,german
 frontier to be occupied by the allies  
until the new government had taken firm 
footing in ,france4 ,until then1 one    
hundred and fifty thousand of the allied
 troops were also to remain within the  
,french territory and to be maintained  
at the expense of the people4 ,france   
was1 moreover1 condemned to pay seven   
hundred millions of francs toward the   
expenses of the war and to restore the  
chef d'oeuvres of which she had deprived
 every capital in ,europe4 ,the sword of
 ,frederick the ,great was not refound3 
,marshal ,serrurier declared that he had
 burned it4#be ,on the other hand1      
however1 almost all the famous old      
,german manuscripts1 which had formerly 
been carried from ,heidelberg to ,rome1 
and thence by ,napoleon to ,paris1 were 

sent back to ,heidelberg4 ,one of the   
most valuable1 the ,manessian ,code of  
the ,swabian ,minnesingers1 was left in 
,paris1 where it had been concealed4    
,blucher expired1 in #ahai1 on his      
estate in ,silesia4#bf  ,the ,french    
were now sufficiently humbled to remain 
in tranquillity1 and designedly         
displayed such submission that the      
allied sovereigns resolved1 at a        
congress held at ,aix-la-,chapelle1 in  
the autumn of #ahah1 to withdraw their  
troops4 ,napoleon was1 with the         
concurrence of the assembled powers1    
taken to the island of ,st4 ,helena1    
where1 surrounded by the dreary ocean1  
several hundred miles from any inhabited
 spot1 and guarded with petty severity  
by the ,english1 he was at length       
deprived of every means of disturbing   
the peace of ,europe4 ,inactivity and   
the unhealthiness of the climate        
speedily dissolved the earthly abode of 
this giant spirit4 ,he expired on the   
#eth of ,may1 #ahba4 ,his consort1      

,maria ,louisa1 was created ,duchess of 
,parma2 and his son lived1 under the    
title of ,duke of ,reichstadt1 with his 
imperial grandfather at ,vienna1 until  
his death in #ahcb4 ,napoleon's stepson1
 ,eugene ,beauharnais1 the former       
viceroy of ,italy1 the son-in-law to the
 king of ,bavaria1 received the         
newly-created mediatized principality of
 ,eichstadt1 which was dependent upon   
,bavaria1 and the title of ,duke of     
,leuchtenberg4 ,jerome1 the former king 
of ,westphalia1 became ,count de        
,montfort2#bg ,louis1 ex-king of        
,holland1 ,count de ,st4 ,leu4          
,footnote #a3 ,from ,london1 ,frederick 
,william went to ,switzerland and took  
possession of his ancient hereditary    
territory1 ,wlsch-,neuenburg or         
,neufchtel1 visited the beautiful       
,bernese ,oberland1 and then returned to
 ,berlin1 where1 on the #gth of ,august1
 he passed in triumph through the       
,brandenburg gate1 which was again      
adorned with the car of victory and the 

fine group of horses1 and rode through  
the lime trees to an altar1 around which
 the clergy belonging to every religious
 sect were assembled4 ,here public      
thanks were given and the whole of the  
citizens present fell upon their        
knees4--,allgemeine ,zeitung1 #bfb4 ,on 
the #agth of ,september1 the preparation
 of a new liturgy was announced in a    
ministerial proclamation1 by which the  
solemnity of the church service was to  
be increased1 the present one being too 
little calculated to excite or strike   
the imagination4  ,footnote #b3 ,oxford 
conferred a doctor's degree upon        
,blcher1 who1 upon receiving this       
strange honor1 said1 ,make ,gneisenau   
apothecary1 for he it was who prepared  
my pills4 ,on his first reception at    
,carlton ,house1 the populace pushed    
their way through the guards and doors  
as far as the apartments of the         
prince-regent1 who1 taking his          
gray-headed guest by the hand1 presented
 him to them1 and publicly hung his     

portrait set in brilliants around his   
neck4 ,on his passing through the       
streets1 the horses were taken from his 
carriage1 and he was drawn in triumph by
 the shouting crowd4 ,one fte succeeded 
another4 ,during the great races at     
,ascot1 the crowd breaking through the  
barriers and insisting upon ,blcher's   
showing himself1 the prince-regent came 
forward1 and1 politely telling them that
 he had not yet arrived1 led forward the
 emperor ,alexander1 who was loudly     
cheered1 but ,blcher's arrival was      
greeted with thunders of applause far   
surpassing those bestowed upon the      
sovereigns1 a circumstance that was     
afterward blamed by the ,english papers4
 ,in the ,freemasons' ,lodge1 ,blcher   
was received by numbers of ladies1 on   
each of whom he bestowed a salute4 ,at  
,portsmouth1 he drank to the health of  
the ,english in the presence of an      
immense concourse of people assembled   
beneath his windows4--,the general      
rejoicing was solely clouded by the     

domestic circumstances of the royal     
family1 by the insanity of the aged and 
blind king and by the disunion reigning 
between the prince-regent and his       
thoughtless consort1 ,caroline of       
,brunswick4--,although the whole of the 
allied sovereigns1 some of whom were    
unable to speak ,english1 understood    
,german1 ,french was adopted as the     
medium of conversation4-- ,allgemeine   
,zeitung1 #agd4  ,footnote #c3 ,there   
are moments in the life of nations on   
which the whole of their future destiny 
depends4 ,the children are destined to  
expiate their fathers' errors with their
 blood4 ,germany has everything to fear 
from the foreigner1 and yet she cannot  
arrange her own affairs without calling 
the foreigner to her aid4--,who1 in the 
congress1 chiefly oppose every well-laid
 plan8 ,who1 with the dagger's point    
pick out and reopen all our wounds1 and 
rub them with salt and poison8 ,who     
promote confusion1 provoke1 insinuate1  
and attempt to creep into every         

committee1 to interfere in every        
discussion8 who but those sent thither  
by ,france8--,the ,rhenish ,mercury4    
,footnote #d3 ,fate willed that ,stein  
should not be called upon to act with   
firmness1 but ,hardenberg to make       
concessions4 ,stein disappeared from the
 theatre of events and was degraded to a
 lower sphere4 ,hardenberg was created  
prince4  ,footnote #e3 ,napoleon had    
such good friends among the ,rhenish    
confederated princes that ,augustus1    
duke of ,gotha1 for instance1 even after
 the second occupation of ,paris1 on the
 return of his troops in the ,november  
of #ahae1 prohibited any demonstrations 
of triumph and even deprived the        
,landwehr of their uniforms1 so that the
 poor fellows had to return in their    
shirt-sleeves to their native villages  
during the hard winter4--,jacob's       
,campaigns4  ,footnote #f3 ,an attack   
upon ,berne had already been concerted4 
,colonel ,br marched with the people of 
,aargau in the night time upon ,aarburg1

 but his confederates failing to make   
their appearance1 he caused the nearest 
,bernese governor to be alarmed and     
hastily retraced his steps4 ,the        
,bernese instantly sent an armed force  
to the frontier1 where1 finding all     
tranquil1 the charge of aggression was  
thrown upon their shoulders4  ,footnote 
#g3 ,vide ,muralt's ,life of ,reinhard4 
,footnote #h3 ,blcher was at ,berlin at 
the moment when the news of ,napoleon's 
escape arrived4 ,he instantly roused the
 ,english ambassador from his sleep by  
shouting in his ear1 ,have the ,english 
a fleet in the ,mediterranean8          
,footnote #i3 ,the blame was entirely   
upon the ,prussian side4 ,the ,saxons1  
as good soldiers1 naturally revolted at 
the idea that they would at once be     
faithless to their oath and mutinied4   
,general ,mffling was insulted for      
having spoken of ,saxon hounds4 ,blcher 
even was compelled secretly to take his 
departure4 ,the ,saxon troops were1     
however1 reduced to obedience by        

superior numbers of ,prussians1 and     
their colors were burned4 ,the whole    
corps was about to be decimated1 when   
,colonel ,romer came forward and        
demanded that the sentence of death     
should be first executed on him4 ,milder
 measures were in consequence reverted  
to1 and a few of the men were condemned 
to death by drawing lots4 ,kanitz1 the  
drummer1 a youth of sixteen1 however1   
threw away the dice1 exclaiming1 ,it is 
,i who beat the summons for revolt1 and 
,i will be the first to die4 ,he and six
 others were shot4 ,borstel1 the        
,prussian general1 the hero of          
,dennewitz1 who had steadily refused to 
burn the ,saxon colors1 was compelled to
 quit the service4  ,footnote #aj3 ,for 
a refutation of ,menzel's absurdly      
perverted relation of these great       
events1 the reader is referred not only 
to the ,duke of ,wellington's despatches
 and to ,colonel ,siborne's             
well-established account of the battles 
of ,ligny1 ,wavre1 ,quatre ,bras1 and   

,waterloo1 but also to those of his     
countrymen1 ,muffling1 the ,prussian    
general1 and ,wagner4--,trans4          
,footnote #aa3 ,shortly before the      
battle1 ,bourmont1 the ,french general1 
set up the white cockade 7the symbol of 
,bourbon7 and deserted to ,blucher1 who 
merely said1 ,it is all one what symbol 
the fellows set up1 rascals are ever    
rascals6  ,footnote #ab3 ,the surgeon1  
when about to rub him with some liquid1 
was asked by him what it was1 and being 
told that it was spirits1 ,ah1 said he1 
the thing is of no use externally6 and  
snatching the glass from the hand of his
 attendant1 he drank it off4  ,footnote 
#ac3 ,against all expectation to aid an 
ally who on the previous day had against
 all expectation been unable to give him
 aid1 evinced at once magnanimity1      
sense1 and good feeling4--,clausewitz4  
,footnote #ad3 ,a ,prussian battery1    
that on its way from ,namur turned back 
on receiving news of this disaster and  
was taken by the ,french1 is said to    

have chiefly led to the commission of   
this immense blunder by ,napoleon4      
,footnote #ae3 ,the ,hanoverian legion  
again covered itself with glory by the  
steadiness with which it opposed the    
enemy4 ,it lost three thousand five     
hundred men1 the ,dutch eight thousand2 
the ,german troops consequently lost    
collectively as many as the ,english1   
whose loss was computed at eleven or    
twelve thousand men4 ,the ,prussians1   
whose loss at ,ligny and ,waterloo      
exceeded that of their allies1 behaved  
with even greater gallantry4  ,footnote 
#af3 ,the ,french were extremely        
affronted on account of this            
communication being made in ,german     
instead of ,french1 and even at the     
present day ,german historians are      
generally struck with deeper            
astonishment at this sample of ,blcher's
 bold spirit than at any other4         
,footnote #ag3 ,ney1 the bravest of the 
brave1 who dishonored his bravery by the
 basest treachery1 met with an equally  

melancholy fate4 ,immediately after     
having1 for instance1 kissed the gouty  
fingers of ,louis ,,xviii4 and boasting 
that he would imprison ,napoleon within 
an iron cage1 he went over to the       
latter4 ,he was sentenced to death and  
shot1 after vainly imploring the allied 
monarchs and personally petitioning     
,wellington for mercy4--,alexander      
,berthier1 prince of ,neufchatel1       
,napoleon's chief confidant1 had1 even  
before the outbreak of war1 thrown      
himself out of a window in a fit of     
hypochondriasis and been killed4        
,footnote #ah3 ,talleyrand begged ,count
 von der ,goltz to use his influence for
 its preservation with ,blcher1 who     
replied to his entreaties1 ,i will blow 
up the bridge1 and should very much like
 to have ,talleyrand sitting upon it at 
the time6 ,an attempt to blow it up was 
actually made1 but failed4  ,footnote   
#ai3 ,many of whom were in fact wilfully
 blind4 ,hardenberg1 by whom the        
noble-spirited ,stein was so ill        

replaced1 and who1 with all possible    
decency1 ever succeeded in losing in the
 cabinet the advantages gained by       
,blcher in the field1 the diplomatic    
bird of ill omen by whom the peace of   
,basel had formerly been concluded1 was 
thus addressed by ,blcher3 ,i should    
like you gentlemen of the quill to be   
for once in a way exposed to a smart    
platoon fire1 just to teach you what    
perils we soldiers have to run in order 
to repair the blunders you so           
thoughtlessly commit4 ,an instructive   
commentary upon these events is to be   
met with in ,stein's letters to ,gagern4
 ,the light in which ,stein viewed the  
,saxons may be gathered from the        
following passages in his letters3 ,my  
desire for the aggrandizement of        
,prussia proceeded not from a blind     
partiality to that state1 but from the  
conviction that ,germany is weakened by 
a system of partition ruinous alike to  
her national learning and national      
feelings4--,it is not for ,prussia but  

for ,germany that ,i desire a closer1 a 
firmer internal combination1 a wish that
 will accompany me to the grave3 the    
division of our national strength may be
 gratifying to others1 it never can be  
so to me4 ,this truly ,german policy    
mainly distinguished ,stein from        
,hardenberg1 who1 thoroughly ,prussian  
in his ideas1 was incapable of          
perceiving that ,prussia's              
best-understood policy ever will be to  
identify herself with ,germany4         
,footnote #bj3 ,allgemeine ,zeitung1    
,no4 #bhe4  ,footnote #ba3 ,it was      
proposed that ,lorraine and ,alsace     
should be bestowed upon the ,archduke   
,charles1 who at that period wedded the 
,princess ,henrietta of ,nassau4 ,the   
proposition1 however1 quickly fell to   
the ground4  ,footnote #bb3 ,even in    
,july1 their organ1 ,grres's ,rhenish   
,mercury1 was placed beneath the censor4
 ,in ,august1 it was said that the men1 
desirous of giving a constitution to    
,prussia1 had fallen into               

disgrace4--,allgemeine ,zeitung1 ,no4   
#bdi4 ,in ,september1 ,schmalz1 in      
,berlin1 unveiled the presumed          
revolutionary intrigues of the          
,tugendbund and declared the unity of   
,germany is something to which the      
spirit of every nation in ,germany has  
ever been antipathetic4 ,he received a  
,prussian and a ,wurtemberg order1      
besides an extremely gracious autograph 
letter from the king of ,prussia1       
although his base calumnies against the 
friends of his country were thrown back 
upon him by the historians ,niebuhr and 
,runs1 who were then in a high position1
 by ,schleiermacher1 the theologian1 and
 by others4 ,the nobility also began to 
stir1 attempted to regain their ancient 
privileges in ,prussia1 and intrigued   
against the men who1 during the time of 
need1 had made concessions to the       
citizens4--,allgemeine ,zeitung1 ,no4   
#bgf4  ,footnote #bc3 ,the ,allgemeine  
,zeitung1 ,no4 #cdi1 laughs at the      
report of their having withdrawn from   

the discussion1 and says that they were 
no longer invited to take part in it4   
,footnote #bd3 ,on the loud complaints  
of the ,rhenish ,mercury1 of the        
gazettes of ,bremen and ,hanau1 and even
 of the ,allgemeine ,zeitung1 the       
,austrian ,observer1 edited by ,gentz1  
declared that to demand a better peace  
would be to demand the ruin of          
,france4--,allgemeine ,zeitung1 ,nos4   
#cde1 #cfe4 ,on ,grres's repeated demand
 for the reannexation of ,alsace and    
,lorraine1 of which ,germany had been so
 unwarrantably deprived1 the ,austrian  
,observer declared in the beginning of  
#ahaf1 who would believe that ,grres    
would lend his pen to such miserable    
arguments4 ,alsace and ,lorraine are    
guaranteed to ,france4 ,to demand their 
restoration would be contrary to every  
notion of honor and justice4 ,in this   
manner was ,germany a second time robbed
 of these provinces4 ,washington ,paine 
denominated ,strasburg1 a melancholy    
sentry1 of which unwary ,germany has    

allowed herself to be deprived1 and     
which now1 accoutred in an incongruous  
uniform1 does duty against his own      
country4  ,footnote #be3 ,the ,invalids 
had in the same spirit cast the         
triumphal monument of the field of      
,rossbach into the ,seine1 in order to  
prevent its restoration4 ,the alarum    
formerly belonging to ,frederick the    
,great was also missing4 ,napoleon had  
it on his person during his flight and  
made use of it at ,st4 ,helena1 where it
 struck his death-hour4  ,footnote #bf3 
,he was descended from a noble race1    
which at a very early period enjoyed    
high repute in ,mecklenburg and         
,pomerania4 ,in #abga1 an ,ulric von    
,blcher was bishop of ,batzeburg4 ,a    
legend relates that1 during a time of   
dearth1 an empty barn was1 on his       
petitioning ,heaven1 instantly filled   
with corn4 ,in #acef1 ,wipertus von     
,blcher also became bishop of           
,ratzeburg1 and1 on the pope's refusal  
to confirm him in his diocese on account

 of his youth1 his hair turned gray in  
one night4 ,vide ,klwer's ,description  
of ,mecklenburg1 #agbh4  ,footnote #bg3 
,his wife1 ,catherine of ,wrtemberg1 was
 in #ahad1 attacked during her flight1  
on her way through ,france and robbed of
 her jewels4--,allgemeine ,zettung1 ,no4
 #acj4          99       99       99    
99       99  ,,part ,,xxiii  ,,the      
,,latest ,,times  ,,cclxiv4 ,the ,german
 ,confederation   ,thus terminated the  
terrible storms that1 not without       
benefit1 had convulsed ,europe4 ,every  
description of political crime had been 
fearfully avenged and presumption had   
been chastised by the unerring hand of  
,providence4 ,at that solemn period1 the
 sovereigns of ,russia1 ,austria1 and   
,prussia concluded a treaty by which    
they bound themselves to follow1 not the
 ruinous policy they had hitherto       
pursued1 but the undoubted will of the  
,king of kings1 and1 as the viceroys of 
,god upon the earth1 to maintain peace1 
to uphold virtue and justice4 ,this     

,holy ,alliance was concluded on the    
#bfth of ,september1 #ahae4 ,all the    
,european powers took part in it2       
,england1 who excused herself1 the pope1
 and the sultan1 whose accession was not
 demanded1 alone excepted4  ,the new    
partition of ,europe1 nevertheless1     
retained almost all the unnatural       
conditions introduced by the more       
ancient and godless policy of ,louis    
,,xiv4 and of ,catherine ,,ii4 ,germany1
 ,poland1 and ,italy remained           
partitioned among rulers partly foreign4
 ,everywhere were countries exchanged or
 freshly partitioned and rendered       
subject to foreign rule4 ,england       
retained possession of ,hanover1 which  
was elevated into a ,german kingdom1 of 
the ,ionian islands1 and of ,malta in   
the ,mediterranean4 ,russia received the
 grandduchy of ,warsaw1 which was raised
 to a kingdom of ,poland1 but was not   
united with ,lithuania1 ,volhynia1      
,podolia1 and the ,ukraine1 the ancient 
provinces of ,poland standing beneath   

the sovereignty of ,russia1 and         
,finland1 for which ,sweden received in 
exchange ,norway1 of which ,denmark was 
forcibly dispossessed4 ,holland was     
annexed to the old ,austrian            
,netherlands and elevated to a kingdom  
under ,william of ,orange4#a            
,switzerland remained a confederation of
 twenty-two cantons1#b externally       
independent and neutral1 internally     
somewhat aristocratic in tendency1 the  
ancient oligarchy everywhere regaining  
their power4 ,the ,jesuits were         
reinstated by the pope4 ,in ,spain1     
,portugal1 and ,naples1 the form of     
government prior to the ,revolution was 
reestablished by the ancient sovereigns 
on their restoration to their thrones4  
,alsace and ,lorraine1 ,switzerland and 
the new kingdom of the ,netherlands1 the
 provinces of ,luxemburg excepted1 were 
no longer regarded as forming part of   
,germany4 ,austria received ,milan and  
,venice under the title of a            
,lombardo-,venetian kingdom1 the        

,illyrian provinces also as a kingdom1  
,venetian ,dalmatia1 the ,tyrol1#c      
,vorarlberg1 ,salzburg1 the ,inn1 and   
,hausruckviertel1 and the part of       
,galicia ceded by her at an earlier     
period4 ,the grandduchy of ,tuscany and 
the duchies of ,modena1 ,parma1 and     
,placentia were1 moreover1 restored to  
the collateral branches of the house of 
,habsburg4#d--,prussia received half of 
,saxony1 the grand-duchy of ,posen1     
,swedish-,pomerania1#e a great portion  
of ,westphalia1 and almost the whole of 
the ,lower ,rhine from ,mayence as far  
as ,aix-la-,chapelle4#f ,since this     
period ,prussia is that one which1 among
 all the states of ,germany1 possesses  
the greatest number of ,german subjects1
 ,austria1 although more considerable in
 extent1 containing a population of     
which by far the greater proportion is  
not ,german4 ,bavaria1 in exchange for  
the provinces again ceded by her to     
,austria1 received the province of      
,wurzburg together with ,aschaffenburg  

and the ,upper ,rhenish ,pfalz under the
 title of ,rhenish-,bavaria4 ,hanover   
received ,east ,friesland1 which had    
hitherto been dependent upon ,prussia4  
,out of this important province1 which  
opened the ,north ,sea to ,prussia1 was 
,hardenberg cajoled by the wily         
,english4 ,the electorates of ,hesse1   
,brunswick1 and ,oldenburg were         
restored4 ,everything else was allowed  
to subsist as at the time of the        
,rhenish confederation4 ,all the petty  
princes and counts1 then mediatized1    
continued to be so4  ,the ancient       
empire1 instead of being re-established1
 was1 on the #hth of ,june1 #ahae1      
replaced by a ,german confederation1    
composed of the thirty-nine ,german     
states that had escaped the general     
ruin2 ,austria1 ,prussia1 ,bavaria1     
,saxony1 ,hanover1 ,wurtemberg1 ,baden1 
electoral ,hesse1 ,darmstadt1 ,denmark  
on account of ,holstein1#g the          
,netherlands on account of ,luxemburg1  
,brunswick1 ,mecklenburg-,schwerin1     

,nassau1 ,saxe-,weimar1 ,saxe-,gotha    
7where the reigning dynasty became      
extinct1 and the duchy was partitioned  
among the other ,saxon houses of the    
,ernestine line71 ,saxe-,coburg1        
,saxe-,meiningen1 ,saxe-,hildburghausen1
 ,mecklenburg-,strelitz1                
,holstein-,oldenburg1 ,anhalt-,dessau1  
,anhalt- ,bernburg1 ,anhalt-,kothen1    
,schwarzburg-,sondershausen1            
,schwarzburg- ,rudolstadt1              
,hohenzollern-,hechingen1 ,lichtenstein1
 ,hohenzollern- ,sigmaringen1 ,waldeck1 
,reuss the elder1 and ,reuss the younger
 branch1#h ,schaumburg-,lippe1          
,lippe-,detmold1 ,hesse-,homburg3       
finally1 the free towns1 ,lubeck1       
,frankfort on the ,maine1 ,bremen1 and  
,hamburg4#i ,at ,frankfort on the ,maine
 a permanent diet1 consisting of        
plenipotentiaries from the thirty-nine  
states1 was to hold its session4 ,the   
votes were1 however1 so regulated that  
the eleven states of first rank alone   
held a full vote1 the secondary states  

merely holding a half or a fourth part  
of a vote1 as1 for instance1 all the    
,saxon duchies collectively1 one vote2  
,brunswick and ,nassau1 one2 the two    
,mecklenburgs1 one2 ,oldenburg1 ,anhalt1
 and ,schwarzburg1 one2 the petty       
princes of ,hohenzollern1 ,lichtenstein1
 ,reuss1 ,lippe1 and ,waldeck1 one2 all 
the free towns1 one2 forming altogether 
in the diet seventeen votes4 ,in        
constitutional questions relating to    
regulations of the confederation the    
plenum was to be allowed1 that is1 the  
six states of the highest rank were to  
have each four votes1 the next five     
states each three1 ,brunswick1          
,schwerin1 and ,nassau1 each two1 and   
all the remaining princes without       
distinction1 each one                   
vote4#aj--;,austria held the permanent  
presidency4 ,in all resolutions relating
 to the fundamental laws1 the organic   
regulations of the confederation1 the   
jura singulorum and matters of religion1
 unanimity was required4 ,all the       

members of the confederation bound      
themselves neither to enter into war nor
 into any foreign alliance against the  
confederation or any of its members4    
,the thirteenth article declared1 ,each 
of the confederated states will grant a 
constitution to the people4 ,the        
sixteenth placed all ,christian sects   
throughout the ,german confederation on 
an equality4 ,the eighteenth granted    
freedom of settlement within the limits 
of the confederation1 and promised      
uniformity of regulation concerning the 
liberty of the press4 ,the fortresses of
 ,luxemburg1 ,mayence1 and ,landau were 
declared the common property of the     
confederation and occupied in common by 
their troops4 ,a fourth fortress was to 
have been raised on the ,upper ,rhine   
with twenty millions of the ,french     
contribution money4 ,it has not yet been
 erected4  ,this was the new            
constitution given to ,germany4         
,according to the treaty of ,paris it   
could not be otherwise modelled1 and it 

is explained by the foreign influence   
that then prevailed4 ,the diet assembled
 at ,frankfort on the ,maine1 and was   
opened by ,count ,buol-,schauenstein    
with a solemn address1 which excited no 
enthusiasm4 ,an orator in the ,american 
assembly at that time observed1 ,the    
non-development of the seed contained in
 ,germany appears to be the common aim  
of a resolute policy4  ,all now united  
for the complete suppression of the     
,german patriotic party4 ,in the former 
,rhenish confederated states1 it had    
been treated with open contempt#aa ever 
since ,gentz had given the signal for   
persecution in ,austria4 ,prussia1      
however1 also drove all those who had   
most faithfully served her in her hour  
of need from her bosom4 ,stein was      
compelled to withdraw to ,kappenberg1   
his country estate4 ,gruner was removed 
from office and sent as ambassador to   
,switzerland1 where he died4 ,the       
,rhenish ,mercury1 that had performed   
such great services to ,prussia1 was    

prohibited1 and ,gorres was threatened  
with the house of correction4#ab ,all   
other papers of a patriotic tendency    
were also suppressed4 ,in ,jena1 ,oken  
and ,luden1 in ,weimar1 ,wieland the    
younger1 alone ventured for some time to
 give utterance to their liberal        
opinions1 which were finally also       
reduced to silence4  ,patriotic         
enthusiasm was1 however1 not so speedily
 suppressed amid the youthful students  
in the academies and universities4      
,jahn's gymnastic schools               
7,turnschulen71 the members of which    
were distinguished by the ,german       
costume1 a short black frock coat1 a    
black cap1 linen trousers1 a bare neck  
with turned-over shirt-collar1 extended 
far and wide and were in close          
connection with the ,burschenschaften of
 the universities4 ,the prescribed      
object of these ,turnschulen was the    
promotion of ,christian1 moral1 ,german 
manners1 the universal fraternization of
 all ,german students1 the complete     

eradication of the provincialism and    
license inherent in the various         
associations formed at the universities4
 ,they wore ,jahn's ,german costume and 
always acted publicly1 until their      
suppression1 when the remaining members 
formed secret associations4 ,on the     
#ahth of ,october1 #ahag1 the students  
of ,jena1 ,halle1 and ,leipzig1 and     
those of some of the more distant       
universities1 assembled in order to     
solemnize the jubilee on the three      
hundredth anniversary of the            
,reformation1 on the ,wartburg1 where1  
in imitation of ,luther1 they committed 
a number of servile works1 inimical to  
the ,german cause1 to the flames1 as    
,grres at that time said1 filled with   
anger that the same reformation required
 of the church by ,luther should be     
sanctioned1 but at the same time        
refused1 by the state4 ,the black1 red1 
and yellow tricolor was hoisted for the 
first time on this occasion4 ,these were
 in reality the ancient colors of the   

empire and were regarded as such by the 
patriotic students1 but were purposely  
looked upon by the ,french and their    
adherents in ,germany as an imitation of
 the tricolored flag of the ,french     
republic4 ,the festival solemnized on   
the ,wartburg was speedily succeeded by 
others4 ,the ,turner1 more particularly 
at ,berlin and ,breslau1 rendered       
themselves conspicuous not only by their
 dress but by their insolence1 boys even
 of the tenderest years putting         
themselves forward as reformers of the  
government and of society1 and singing  
the most bloodthirsty songs of liberty4 
,the ,prussian government interfered1   
and the gymnastic exercises1 so well    
suited to the subjects of a warlike     
state1 were once more prohibited4  ,at  
the congress of ,aix-la-,chapelle1      
,stourdza1 the ,russian councillor of   
state1 a ,wallachian by birth1 presented
 a memorial in which the spirit of the  
,german universities was described as   
revolutionary4 ,the ,burschenschaft of  

,jena sent him a challenge4 ,kotzebue1  
the ,russian councillor of state and    
celebrated dramatist1 at length         
published a weekly paper in which he    
turned every indication of ,german      
patriotism to ridicule1 and exercised   
his wit upon the individual             
eccentricities of the students affecting
 the old ,german costume1 of precocious 
boys and doting professors4 ,the rage of
 the galled universities rose to a still
 higher pitch on the discovery1 made and
 incontestably proved by ,luden1 that   
,kotzebue sent secret bulletins1 filled 
with invective and suspicion1 to ,st4   
,petersburg4 ,to execrate ,kotzebue had 
become so habitual at the universities  
that a young man1 ,sand from ,wunsiedel1
 a theological student of ,jena1 noted  
for piety and industry1 took the        
fanatical resolution to free1 or at     
least to wipe off a blot from his       
country1 by the assassination of an     
enemy whose importance he1 in the       
delusion of hatred1 vastly overrated2   

and he accordingly went1 in #ahai1 to   
,mannheim1 plunged his dagger into      
,kotzebue's heart1 and then attempted   
his own life1 but only succeeded in     
inflicting a slight wound4 ,he was      
beheaded in the ensuing year4 ,loning1  
the apothecary1 probably excited by     
,sand's example1 also attempted the life
 of the president of ,nassau1 ,ibell1   
who1 however1 seized him1 and he        
committed suicide in prison4 ,these     
events occasioned a congress at         
,carlsbad in #ahai1 which took the state
 of ,germany into deliberation1 placed  
each of the universities under the      
supervision of a government officer1    
suppressed the ,burschenschaft1         
prohibited their colors1 and fixed a    
central board of scrutiny at            
,mayence1#ac which acted on the         
presupposition of the existence of a    
secret and general conspiracy for the   
purposes of assassination and           
revolution1 and of ,sand's having acted 
not from personal fanaticism and        

religious aberration1 but as the agent  
of some unknown superiors in some new   
and mysterious tribunal4 ,this          
inquisition was carried on for years and
 a crowd of students peopled the        
prisons2 conspiracies perilous to the   
state were1 however1 nowhere discovered1
 but simply a great deal of ideal       
enthusiasm4 ,the elder men in the       
universities1 who1 either in their      
capacity as tutors or authors1 had fed  
the enthusiasm of the youthful students1
 were also removed from their           
situations4 ,jahn was arrested1 ,arndt  
was suspended at ,bonn and ,fries at    
,jena2 ,gorres1 who had perseveringly   
published the most violent pamphlets1   
was compelled to take refuge in         
,switzerland1 which also offered an     
asylum to ,dewette1 the ,berlin         
professor of theology1 who had been     
deprived of his chair on account of a   
letter addressed by him to ,sand's      
mother4 ,oken1 the great naturalist1 who
 refused to give up ,isis1 a periodical 

publication1 also withdrew to           
,switzerland4 ,numbers of the younger   
professors went to ,america4#ad ,the    
solemnization of the ,october festival  
was also prohibited1 and the triumphal  
monument on the field of ,leipzig was   
demolished4   ,footnote #a3 ,william    
,v41 the expelled hereditary            
stadtholder1 died in obscurity at       
,brunswick in #ahjf4 ,his son1 ,william1
 had1 in #ahjb1 received ,fulda in      
compensation1 but afterward served      
,prussia1 was1 in #ahjf1 taken prisoner 
with ,mllendorf at ,erfurt and afterward
 set at liberty1 served again1 in #ahji1
 under ,austria1 and then retired to    
,england1 whence he returned on the     
expulsion of the ,french to receive a   
crown1 which he accepted with a good    
deal of assurance1 complaining1 at the  
same time1 of the loss of his former    
possession1 ,fulda1 a circumstance      
strongly commented upon by ,stein in his
 letters to ,gagern4 ,william1 in return
 for his elevation to a throne by the   

arms of ,germany1 closed the mouths of  
the ,rhine against her4  ,footnote #b3  
,zurich1 ,berne1 ,lucerne1 ,uri1        
,schwyz1 ,unterwalden1 ,glarus1 ,zug1   
,freiburg1 ,solothurn1 ,basel1          
,schaffhausen1 ,appenzell1 ,st4 ,gall1  
the ,grisons1 ,aargau1 ,constance1      
,tessin1 the ,vaud1 ,valais1 ,neuenburg 
7,neufchatel71 ,geneva4 ,the nineteen   
cantons of #ahje remained in statu quo1 
only those of ,valais1 ,neufchatel1 and 
,geneva were confederated with them1 and
 ,pruntrut with the ancient bishopric of
 ,basel were restored to ,berne4        
,footnote #c3 ,the deed of possession of
 the #bfth ,june1 #ahad1 runs as        
follows3 ,not by an arbitrary1 despotic 
encroachment upon the order of things1  
but by the hands of the ,providence that
 blessed the arms of your emperor and of
 the allied princes and by a holy       
alliance are you restored to the house  
of ,austria4  ,footnote #d3 ,tuscany    
fell to ,ferdinand1 the former grandduke
 of ,wurzburg2 ,modena to ,francis1 son 

of the deceased duke1 ,ferdinand2 ,parms
 and ,placantia to ,maria ,louisa1 the  
wife and widow of ,napoleon4  ,footnote 
#e3 ,not long before1 in the treaty of  
,kiel1 there had been question of       
bestowing ,swedish-,pomerania upon      
,denmark2 to this ,prussia refused to   
accede and ,denmark agreed to take      
#b1fjj1jjj dollars in compensation4     
,prussia was also compelled to pay      
#c1ejj1ejj dollars to ,sweden4          
,footnote #f3 ,rehfues1 the director of 
the circle1 a ,wurtemberg ,protestant1  
published a circular at ,bonn1 in which 
he promised full religious security to  
the ,catholic inhabitants1 whom he      
reminded of ,prussia's having been the  
last supporter of the order of          
,jesus4--,allgemeine ,zeitung of #ahad1 
,no4 #bcd4  ,footnote #g3 ,holstein     
alone1 not ,schleswig1 was enumerated as
 belonging to the ,german confederation1
 although both duchies were long ago    
closely united by the nexus socialis1   
more particularly in the representation 

at the diet4  ,footnote #h3 ,the        
,reusses1 formerly imperial governors of
 ,plauen1 diverged into so many branches
 that1 as early as #affd1 they agreed to
 distinguish themselves by numbers1     
which at first amounted to thirty1 but  
at a later period to a hundred1         
afterward recommencing at number one4   
,the family took the name of ,reuss from
 the ,russian wife of its founder1 in   
the beginning of the fourteenth century4
  ,footnote #i3 ,hamburg had vainly     
petitioned for the restitution of her   
bank1 of which she had been deprived by 
,davoust4 ,she received merely a small  
portion of the general war tax levied   
upon ,france4  ,footnote #aj3 ,austria  
and ,prussia contain forty-two million  
inhabitants2 the rest of ,germany merely
 twelve million2 the power of the two   
former stands consequently in proportion
 to that of the rest of ,germany as     
forty-two to twelve or seven to two1    
while their votes in the diet stood not 
contrariwise1 as two to seven1 but as   

two to seventeen in the plenary         
assembly1 and as two to fifteen in the  
lesser one4  ,footnote #aa3 ,aretin1    
who1 at the time of the ,rhenish        
confederation1 insolently mocked and had
 denounced every indication of ,german  
patriotism1 ventured to say in his      
,alemannia1 in the beginning of #ahag1  
',the patriotic colors1' 'the voice of  
the people1' 'nationality1' 'the        
extirpation of foreign influence1' are  
words now forgotten1 magic sounds that  
have lost their power4  ,footnote #ab3  
,by ,sack1 the government commissary1   
who even confiscated the ,rhenish       
,mercury1 an earlier and unprohibited   
paper1 and arrested the printer1 against
 which ,grres violently protested in a  
letter addressed to ,sack4 ,grres made a
 triumphant defence before the tribunal 
at ,treves1 and observed1 ,strange that 
the most violent enemy to ,france should
 seek the protection of ,french courts6 
,footnote #ac3 ,the names of these      
inquisitors were ,schwarz1 ,grano1      

,hrmann1 ,bar1 ,pfister1 ,preusschen1   
,moussel4  ,footnote #ad3 ,charles      
,follen1 brother to the poet ,louis     
,adolphus ,follen1 private teacher of   
law at ,jena1 a young man of great      
spirit and talent1 who at that period   
exercised great influence over the youth
 of ,germany1 was wrecked1 in #ahdj1 in 
a steamer in ,north ,america and        
drowned4    ,,cclxv4 ,the ,new          
,constitutions   ,germany had1          
notwithstanding her triumph1 regained   
neither her ancient unity nor her former
 power1 but still continued to be merely
 a confederation of states1 bound       
together by no firm tie and regarded    
with contempt by their more powerful    
neighbors4 ,the ,german confederation   
did not even include the whole of the   
provinces whose population was          
distinguished as ,german by the use of  
the ,german language4 ,several of the   
provinces of ,germany were still beneath
 a foreign sceptre2 ,switzerland and the
 ,netherlands had declared themselves   

distinct from the rest of ,germany1     
which1 hitherto submissive to ,france1  
was in danger of falling beneath the    
influence of ,russia1 who ceaselessly   
sought to entangle her by diplomatic    
wiles4  ,there were still1 however1 men 
existing in ,germany who hoped to       
compensate the loss of the external     
power of their country by the internal  
freedom that had been so lavishly       
promised to the people on the general   
summons to the field4 ,the proclamation 
of ,calisch and the ,german federative  
act guaranteed the grant of             
constitutions4 ,the former ,rhenish     
confederated princes1 nevertheless1     
alone found it to their interest to     
carry this promise into effect1 and1 in 
a manner1 formed a second alliance with 
,france by their imitation of the newly 
introduced ,french code and by the      
establishment1 in their own territories1
 of two chambers1 one of peers1 the     
other of deputies1 similar to those of  
,france2 measures by which1 at that     

period of popular excitement1 they also 
regained the popularity deservedly lost 
by them at an earlier period throughout 
the rest of ,germany1 the more so1 the  
less the inclination manifested by      
,austria and ,prussia to grant the      
promised constitutions4 ,enslaved       
,illuminatism characterizes this new    
zeal in favor of internal liberty and   
constitutional governments1 to denote   
which the novel term of ,liberalism was 
borrowed from ,france4 ,liberty was ever
 on the tongues--of the most devoted    
servants of the state4 ,the ancient     
church and the nobility were attacked   
with incredible mettle--in order to suit
 the purposes of ministerial caprice4   
,prussia and ,austria were loudly blamed
 for not keeping pace with the          
times--with the intent of favorably     
contrasting the ancient policy of the   
,rhenish confederation4 ,none1 at that  
period1 surpassed the ministers         
belonging to the old school of          
,illuminatism and ,napoleonism in       

liberalism1 but no sooner did the       
deputies of the people attempt to       
realize their liberal ideas than they   
started back in dismay4  ,the first     
example of this kind was given by       
,frederick ,augustus1 duke of ,nassau1  
as early as the ,september of #ahad4    
,ibell1 the president1 who reigned with 
unlimited power over ,nassau1 drew up a 
constitution which has been termed a    
model of despotism under a              
constitutional form4 ,the whole of the  
property of the state still continuing  
to be the private property of the duke1 
and his right arbitrarily to increase   
the number of members belonging to the  
first chamber1 and by their votes to    
annul every resolution passed by the    
second chamber1 rendered the whole      
constitution illusory4 ,trombetta1 one  
of the deputies1 voluntarily renounced  
his seat1 an example that was followed  
by several others4--,the second         
constitution granted was that bestowed  
upon the ,netherlands in #ahae1 by ,king

 ,william1 who established such an      
unequal representation in the chambers  
between the ,belgians and ,dutch as to  
create great dissatisfaction among the  
former1 who1 in revenge1 again affected 
the ,french party4 ,this was succeeded1 
in #ahaf1 by the petty constitutions of 
,waldeck1 ,weimar1 and ,frankfort on the
 ,maine4-- ,maximilian1 king of         
,bavaria1 seemed1 in #ahag1 to announce 
another system by the dismissal of his  
minister1 ,montgelas1 and1 in #ahah1    
bestowed a new constitution upon        
,bavaria2 but the old abuses in the     
administration remained uneradicated2 a 
civil and military state unproportioned 
to the revenue1 the petty despotism of  
government officers and heavy imposts1  
still weighed upon the people1 and the  
constitution itself was quickly proved  
illusory1 the veto of the first chamber 
annulling the first resolution passed by
 the second chamber4 ,professor ,behr of
 ,wurzburg1 upon this1 energetically    
protested against the first chamber1    

and1 on the refusal of the second       
chamber to vote for the maintenance of  
the army on so high a footing1 unless   
the soldiery were obliged to take the   
oath on the constitution1 it was        
speedily dissolved4--,in ,baden1 the    
,grandduke ,charles expired1 in #ahah1  
after having caused a constitution to be
 drawn up1 which ,louis1 his uncle and  
successor1 carried into effect4 ,louis  
having1 however1 previously1 and without
 the consent of the people1 entered into
 a stipulation with the nobility1 to    
whom he had granted an edict extremely  
favorable to their interests1 ,winter1  
the ,heidelberg bookseller1 a member of 
the second chamber1 demanded its        
abrogation4 ,the answer was1 the        
dissolution of the chamber1 personal    
inquisition and intimidation1 and the   
publication of an extremely severe edict
 of censure1 against which1 in #ahbj1   
,professor von ,rotteck of ,freiburg1   
supported by the poet ,hebel and by the 
,freiherr von ,wessenberg1 administrator

 of the bishopric of ,constance1        
protested1 but in vain4--,at the same   
time1 that is1 in #ahah1                
,hildburghausen1 and even the petty     
principality of ,lichtenstein1 which    
merely contains two square miles and a  
population amounting to five thousand   
souls1 also received a constitution1    
which not a little contributed to turn  
the whole affair into ridicule4--,to    
these succeeded1 in #ahai1 the          
constitutions of ,hanover and           
,lippe-,detmold1 the former as          
aristocratic as possible1 completely in 
the spirit of olden times1 solely       
dictated and carried into effect by the 
nobility and government officers4 ,the  
sittings of the chambers1 consequently1 
continued to be held in secret4--,the   
dukes of ,mecklenburg abolished feudal  
servitude1 which existed in no other    
part of ,germany1 in #ahbj4--;,in       
,darmstadt1 the constitution was granted
 by the good-natured1 venerable         
,grandduke ,louis 7whose attention was  

chiefly devoted to the opera71 after the
 impatient advocates1 who had collected 
subscriptions in the ,odenwald to       
petitions praying for the speedy        
bestowal of the promised constitution1  
had been arrested1 and an insurrection  
that consequently ensued among the      
peasantry had been quelled by           
force4--,petty constitutions were1      
moreover1 granted1 in #ahba1 to ,coburg1
 and1 in #ahbi1 to ,meiningen4 ,the     
,gotha-,altenburg branch of the ducal   
house of ,saxony became extinct in #ahbe
 in the person of ,frederick1 the last  
duke1 the brother of ,duke ,augustus    
,emilius1 a great patron of the arts and
 sciences1 deceased #ahbb4 ,gotha1      
consequently1 lapsed to ,coburg1        
,altenburg to ,hildburghausen1 and      
,hildburghausen to ,meiningen4  ,in     
,wurtemberg1 the dissatisfaction        
produced by the ancient despotism of the
 government was also to be speedily     
appeased by the grant of a              
constitutional charter4 ,the king1      

,frederick1 convoked the ,estates1 to   
whom he1 on the #aeth of ,march1 #ahae1 
solemnly delivered the newly enacted    
constitution4 ,but here1 as elsewhere1  
was the government inclined to grant a  
mere illusory boon4 ,the ,estates       
rejected the constitution1 without      
reference to its contents1 simply owing 
to the formal reason of its being       
bestowed by the prince and being        
consequently binding on one side alone1 
instead of being a stipulation between  
the prince and the people1 and moreover 
because the ancient constitution of     
,wurtemberg1 which had been abrogated by
 force and in direct opposition to the  
will of the ,estates1 was still in legal
 force4 ,the old ,wurtemberg party alone
 could naturally take their footing upon
 their ancient rights1 but the new      
,wurtemberg party1 the mediatized       
princes of the empire1 the counts and   
barons of the empire1 and the imperial  
free towns1 nay1 even the ,agnati of the
 reigning house1#a all of whom had      

suffered more or less under ,napoleon's 
iron rule1 ranged themselves on their   
side4 ,the deputy1 ,zahn of ,calw1 drew 
a masterly picture of the state of      
affairs at that period1 in which he     
pitilessly disclosed every reigning     
abuse4 ,the king1 thus vigorously and   
unanimously opposed1 was constrained to 
yield1 and the most prolix negotiations1
 in which the citizen deputies1 headed  
by the advocate1 ,weisshaar1 were       
supported by the nobility against the   
government1 commenced4  ,the affair was1
 it may be designedly1 dragged on ad    
infinitum until the death of the king in
 #ahaf1 when his son and successor1     
,william1 who had gained a high         
reputation as a military commander and  
had rendered himself extremely popular1 
zealously began the work of             
conciliation4 ,he not only instantly    
abolished the abuses of the former      
government1 as1 for instance1 in the    
game law1#b but1 in #ahag1 delivered a  
new constitution to the ,estates4       

,article #ccg was somewhat artfully     
drawn up1 but in every point the        
constitution was as liberal as a        
constitutional charter could possibly   
be4 ,but the ,estates refused to accept 
of liberty as a boon1 and rejected this 
constitution on the same formal grounds 
upon which they had rejected the        
preceding one4 ,the ,estates were again 
upheld by a grateful public1 and the few
 deputies1 more particularly ,cotta and 
,griesinger1 who had defended the new   
constitution on account of its          
liberality and who regarded form as     
immaterial1 became the objects of public
 animadversion4 ,the populace broke the 
windows of the house inhabited by the   
liberal-minded minister1 von            
,wangenheim4 ,the poet ,uhland greatly  
distinguished himself as a warm upholder
 of the ancient rights of the people4#c 
,the king instantly dissolved the       
,estates1 but at the same time declared 
his intention to guarantee to the       
people1 without a constitution1 the     

rights he had intended constitutionally 
to confer upon them2 to establish an    
equal system of taxation1 and to        
eradicate bureaucracy1 that curse upon  
the country4 ,the good-will displayed on
 both sides led to fresh negotiations1  
and a third constitution was at length  
drawn up by a committee1 composed partly
 of members of the government1 partly of
 members belonging to the ,estates1 and1
 in #ahai1 was taken into deliberation  
and passed by the reassembled ,estates4 
,this constitution1 nevertheless1 fell  
far below the mark to which it had been 
raised by public expectation1 partly on 
account of the retention1 owing to      
ancient prejudice1 of the permanent     
committee and its oligarchical          
influence1 party on account of the too  
great and permanent concessions made to 
the nobility in return for their        
momentary aid1#d partly on account of   
the extreme haste that marked the       
concluding deliberations of the         
,estates1 occasioned by their partly    

unfounded dread of interference on the  
part of the congress then assembled at  
,carlsbad4  ,in ,wurtemberg1 however1 as
 elsewhere1 the policy of the government
 was deeply imbued with the general     
characteristics of the time4            
,notwithstanding the constitution1      
notwithstanding the guarantee given by  
the federative act1 liberty of the press
 did not exist4 ,list1 the deputy from  
,reutlingen1 was1 for having ventured to
 collect subscriptions to petitions1    
brought before the criminal court1      
expelled the chamber by his intimidated 
brother deputies1 took refuge in        
,switzerland1 whence he returned to be  
imprisoned for some time in the fortress
 of ,asberg1 and was finally permitted  
to emigrate to ,north ,america1 whence  
he returned at a later period1 #ahbe1 in
 the capacity of consul4 ,liesching1 the
 editor of the ,german ,guardian1 whose 
liberty of speech was silenced by       
command of the ,german confederation1   
also became an inmate of the fortress of

 ,asberg4  ,in ,hesse and ,brunswick1   
all the old abuses practiced in the     
petty courts in the eighteenth century  
were revived4 ,william of ,hesse-,cassel
 returned1 on the fall of ,napoleon1 to 
his domains4 ,true to his whimsical     
saying1 ,i have slept during the last   
seven years1 he insisted upon replacing 
everything in ,hesse exactly on its     
former footing4 ,in one particular alone
 was his vanity inconsistent3           
notwithstanding his hatred toward       
,napoleon1 he retained the title of     
,prince ,elector1 bestowed upon him by  
,napoleon's favor1 although it had lost 
all significance1 there being no longer 
any emperor to elect4#e ,he turned the  
hand of time back seven years1 degraded 
the councillors raised to that dignity  
by ,jerome to their former station as   
clerks1 captains to lieutenants1 etc41  
all1 in fact1 to the station they had   
formerly occupied1 even reintroduced    
into the army the fashion of wearing    
powder and queues1 prohibited all those 

not bearing an official title to be     
addressed as ,herr1 and re-established  
the socage dues abolished by ,jerome4   
,this attachment to old abuses was      
associated with the most insatiable     
avarice4 ,he reduced the government     
bonds to one-third1 retook possession of
 the lands sold during ,jerome's reign1 
without granting any compensation to the
 holders1 compelled the country to pay  
his son's debts to the amount of two    
hundred thousand rix-dollars1 lowered   
the amount of pay to such a degree that 
a lieutenant received but five          
rix-dollars per mensem1 and offered to  
sell a new constitution to the ,estates 
at the low price of four million        
rix-dollars1 which he afterward lowered 
to two millions and a tax for ten years 
upon liquors4 ,this shameful bargain    
being rejected by the ,estates1 the     
constitution fell to the ground1 and the
 prince elector practiced the most      
unlimited despotism4 ,discontent was    
stifled by imprisonment4 ,two officers1 

,huth and ,rotsmann1 who had got up a   
petition in favor of their class1 and   
the ,herr von ,gohr1 who by chance gave 
a private fete while the prince was     
suffering from a sudden attack of       
illness1 were among the victims4 ,the   
purchasers of the crown lands vainly    
appealed to the federative assembly for 
redress1 for the prince elector refused 
the mediation of the federative assembly
 until it had been authorized by an     
organic law drawn up with the           
co-operation of the prince elector      
himself4--,this prince expired in #ahba1
 and was succeeded by his son1 ,william 
,,ii41 who abolished the use of         
hair-powder and queues1 but none of the 
existing abuses1 and demonstrated no    
inclination to grant a constitution4 ,he
 was1 moreover1 the slave of his        
mistress1 ,countess ,reichenbach1 and on
 ill terms with his consort1 a sister of
 the king of ,prussia1 and with his son4
 ,anonymous and threatening letters     
being addressed to this prince with a   

view of inducing him to favor the       
designs of the writer1 he had recourse  
to the severest measures for the        
discovery of the guilty party2 numbers  
of persons were arrested1 and travellers
 instinctively avoided ,cassel4 ,it was 
at length discovered that ,manger1 the  
head of the police1 a court favorite1   
was the author of the letters4  ,similar
 abuses were revived by the house of    
,brunswick4 ,it is unhappily impossible 
to leave unmentioned the conduct of     
,caroline1 princess of ,brunswick1      
consort to the ,prince of ,wales1       
afterward ,george ,,iv41 king of        
,england4 ,although this ,german        
princess had the good fortune to be     
protected by the ,whig party and by the 
people against the king and the ,tory   
ministry1 she proved a disgrace to her  
supporters by the scandalous familiarity
 in which she lived in ,italy with her  
chamberlain1 the ,italian1 ,pergami4    
,the sympathy with which she was treated
 at the time of the congress was        

designedly exaggerated by the ,whigs for
 the purpose of giving the greatest     
possible publicity to the errors of the 
monarch4 ,caroline of ,brunswick was    
declared innocent and expired shortly   
after her trial1 in #ahba4  ,charles1   
the hereditary duke of ,brunswick1 son  
to the duke who had so gallantly fallen 
at ,quatrebras1 was under the           
guardianship of the king of ,england4 ,a
 constitution was bestowed in #ahbj upon
 this petty territory1 which was        
governed by the minister1 ,von          
,schmidt-,phiseldek4 ,the youthful duke 
took the reins of government in his     
nineteenth year4 ,of a rash and violent 
disposition and misled by evil          
associates1 he imagined that he had been
 too long restricted from assuming the  
government1 accused his well-deserving  
minister of having attempted to prolong 
his minority1 posted handbills for his  
apprehension as a common delinquent1    
denied all his good offices1 and        
subverted the constitution4 ,he was     

surrounded by base intriguers in the    
person of ,bosse1 the councillor of     
state1 formerly the servile tool of     
,napoleon's despotism1 of ,frike1 the   
,aulic councillor1 whose pliant quill   
was equal to any task when injustice had
 to be glossed over1 of the adventurer1 
,klindworth1 and of ,bitter1 the head of
 the chancery1 who conducted the        
financial speculations4 ,frike1 in      
contempt of justice1 tore up the        
judgment passed by the court of justice 
in favor of the venerable ,herr von     
,sierstorff1 whom he had accused of high
 treason4 ,herr von ,cramm1 by whom     
,frike was1 in the name of the ,estates1
 accused of this misdemeanor before the 
federative assembly1 was banished1 a    
surgeon1 who attended him1 was put upon 
his defence1 and an accoucheur1 named   
,grimm1 who had basely refused to attend
 upon ,cramm's wife1 was presented with 
a hundred dollars4 ,hberlin1 the        
novelist1 who had been justly condemned 
to twenty years' imprisonment with hard 

labor for his civil misdemeanors1 was1  
on the other hand1 liberated for        
publishing something in the duke's      
favor4 ,bitter conducted himself with   
the most open profligacy1 sold all the  
demesnes1 appropriated the sum destined 
for the redemption of the public debt1  
and at the same time levied the heavy   
imposts with unrelenting severity4 ,the 
federative assembly passed judgment     
against the duke solely in reference to 
his attacks upon the king of ,england4  
,footnote #a3 ,the king bitterly        
reproached his brother ,henry1 to whom  
he said1 ,you have accused me to my     
peasantry4--,pfister ,history of the    
,constitution of ,wrtemberg4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,pfister mentions in his ,history of
 the ,constitution of ,wurtemberg that  
merely in the superior bailiwick of     
,heidenheim the game duties amounted1 in
 #ahad1 to twenty thousand florins1 and 
five thousand two hundred and           
ninety-three acres of taxed ground lay  
uncultivated on account of the damage   

done by the game1 and that in ,march1   
#ahae1 one bailiwick was obliged to     
furnish twenty-one thousand five hundred
 and eighty-four men and three thousand 
two hundred and thirty-seven horses for 
a single hunt4  ,footnote #c3 ,colonel  
von ,massenbach1 of the ,prussian       
service1 who has so miserably described 
the battle of ,jena and the surrender of
 ,prentzlow in which he acted so        
miserable a part1 and who had in his    
native ,wrtemberg embraced the          
aristocratic party1 was delivered by the
 free town of ,frankfort1 within whose  
walls he resided1 up to the ,prussian   
government1 which he threatened to      
compromise by the publication of some   
letters4 ,he died within the fortress of
 ,cstrin4  ,footnote #d3 ,the mediatized
 princes and counts of the empire sat in
 the first chamber1 the barons of the   
empire in the second4 ,the prelates1    
once so powerful1 lost1 on the other    
hand1 together with the church property1
 in the possession of which they were   

not reinstated1 also most of their      
influence4 ,instead of the fourteen     
aristocratic and independent prelates1  
six only were appointed by the monarch  
to seats in the second chamber4         
,government officers were also eligible 
in this chamber1 which ere long fell    
entirely under their influence4         
,footnote #e3 ,he endeavored1 but in    
vain1 to persuade the allied powers to  
bestow upon him the royal dignity4      
,,cclxvi4 ,the ,european ,congress--,the
 ,german ,customs' ,union   ,the great  
political drama enacting in ,europe     
excited at this time the deepest        
attention throughout ,germany4 ,in      
almost every country a struggle         
commenced between liberalism and the    
measures introduced on the fall of      
,napoleon4 ,in ,france more particularly
 it systematically and gradually        
undermined the government of the        
,bourbons1 and the cry of liberty that  
resounded throughout ,france once more  
found an echo in ,germany4  ,the        

terrible war was forgotten4 ,the ,french
 again became the objects of the        
admiration and sympathy of the radical  
party in ,germany1 and the spirit of    
opposition1 here and there demonstrated 
in the ,german chambers1 gave rise1     
notwithstanding its impotence1 to       
precautionary measures on the part of   
the federative governments4 ,in the     
winter of #ahai1 a ,german federative   
congress1 of which ,prince ,metternich  
was the grand motor1 assembled at       
,vienna for the purpose1 after the utter
 annihilation of the patriots1 of       
finally checking the future movements of
 the liberals1 principally in the       
provincial diets4 ,the ,viennese ,act of
 #ahbj contains closer definitions of   
the ,federative ,act1 of which the more 
essential object was the exclusion of   
the various provincial diets from all   
positive interference in the general    
affairs of ,germany1 and the increase of
 the power of the different princes     
vis--vis to their provincial diets by a 

guarantee of aid on the part of the     
confederates4  ,during the sitting of   
this congress1 on ,new ,year's ,day1    
#ahbj1 the liberal party in ,spain      
revolted against their ungrateful       
sovereign1 ,ferdinand ,,vii41 who       
exercised the most fearful tyranny over 
the nation that had so unhesitatingly   
shed its blood in defence of his throne4
 ,this example was shortly afterward    
followed by the ,neapolitans1 who were  
also dissatisfied with the conduct of   
their sovereign4 ,prince ,metternich    
instantly brought about a congress at   
,troppau4 ,the czar1 ,alexander1 who had
 views upon the ,east and was no        
stranger to the heterarchical party     
which1 under the guidance of ,prince    
,ypsilanti1 prepared a revolution in    
,greece 7which actually broke out7      
against the ,turks1 was at first        
unwilling to give his assent            
unconditionally to the interference of  
,austria1 but on being1 in #ahba1 to his
 great surprise1 informed by ,prince    

,metternich of the existence of a       
revolutionary spirit in one of the      
regiments of the ,russian guard1 freely 
assented to all the measures proposed by
 that minister4#a ,the new congress held
 at ,laibach1 in #ahba1 was followed by 
the entrance of the ,austrians under    
,frimont into ,italy4 ,the cowardly     
,neapolitans fled without firing a shot1
 and the ,piedmontese1 who unexpectedly 
revolted to ,frimont's rear1 were1 after
 a short encounter with the ,austrians  
under ,bubna at ,novara1 defeated and   
reduced to submission4 ,the ,greeks1    
whom ,russia now no longer ventured     
openly to uphold1 had1 in the meantime1 
also risen in open insurrection4 ,the   
affairs of ,spain were still in an      
unsettled state4 ,the new congress held 
at ,verona1 in #ahbb1 however1 decided  
the fate of both these countries4       
,prince ,hardenberg1 the ,prussian      
minister1 expired at ,genoa on his      
return home1 and ,lord ,castlereagh1 the
 ,english ambassador1 cut his throat    

with his penknife1 in a fit of frenzy1  
supposed to have been induced by the    
sense of his heavy responsibility4 ,at  
this congress the principle of          
legitimacy was maintained with such     
strictness that even the revolt of the  
,greeks against the long and cruel      
tyranny of the ,turks was1              
notwithstanding the ,christian spirit of
 the ,holy ,alliance and the political  
advantage secured to ,russia and        
,austria by the subversion of the       
,turkish empire1 treated as rebellion   
against the legitimate authority of the 
,porte and strongly discouraged4 ,a     
,french army was1 on the same grounds1  
despatched with the consent of the      
,bourbon into ,spain1 and ,ferdinand was
 reinstated in his legitimate tyranny in
 #ahbc4 ,russia1 in a note addressed to 
the whole of the confederated states of 
,germany1 demanded at the same time a   
declaration on their parts to the effect
 that the late proceedings of the great 
,european powers at ,verona were in     

accordance with the well-understood     
interests of the people4 ,every member  
of the federative assembly at ,frankfort
 gave his assent1 with the exception of 
the ,freiherr von ,wangenheim1 the envoy
 from ,wurtemberg1 who declaring that   
his instructions did not warrant his    
voting upon the question1 the           
ambassadors from the two ,hesses made a 
similar declaration4 ,this occasioned   
the dismissal of the ,freiherr von      
,wangenheim2 and the illegal publication
 of a ,wurtemberg despatch1 in which the
 non-participation of the ,german       
confederation in the resolutions passed 
by the congresses1 to which their assent
 was afterward demanded1 was treated of1
 occasioned a second dismissal1 that of 
,count ,winzingerode1 the ,wurtemberg   
minister4 ,in the ,july of #ahbd1 the   
federal diet resolved to give its       
support to the monarchical principle in 
the constitutional states1 and to       
maintain the ,carlsbad resolutions      
referring to censorship and to the      

universities4 ,the ,mayence committee   
remained sitting until #ahbh4  ,on the  
sudden decease of ,alexander1 the czar  
of all the ,russias1 amid the southern  
steppes1 a revolution induced by the    
nobility broke out at ,petersburg1 but  
was suppressed by ,alexander's brother  
and successor1 the emperor ,nicholas ,i4
 ,nicholas had wedded ,charlotte1 the   
eldest daughter of the king of ,prussia4
 ,this energetic sovereign instantly    
invaded ,persia and rendered that       
country dependent upon his empire       
without any attempt being made by the   
,tory party in ,england and ,austria to 
hinder the aggrandizement of ,russia1   
every attack directed against her being 
regarded as an encouragement to         
liberalism4 ,russia consequently seized 
this opportunity to turn her arms       
against ,turkey1 and1 in the ensuing    
year1 a ,russian force under ,count     
,diebitsch1 a ,silesian1 crossed the    
,balkan 7,haemus7 and penetrated as far 
as ,adrianople2 while another corps     

d'arme under ,count ,paskiewicz1        
advanced from the ,caucasus into ,asia  
,minor and took ,erzerum4 ,the fall of  
,constantinople seemed near at hand1    
when ,austria and ,england for the first
 time intervened and declared that1     
notwithstanding their sympathy with the 
absolute principles on which ,russia    
rested1 they would not permit the       
seizure of ,constantinople4 ,france     
expressed her readiness to unite with   
,russia and to fall upon the ,austrian  
rear in case troops were sent against   
the ,russians4#b ,prussia1 however1     
intervened1 and ,general ,muffling was  
dispatched to ,adrianople1 where1 in    
#ahbi1 a treaty was concluded1 by which 
,russia1 although for the time compelled
 to restore the booty already           
accumulated1 gained several considerable
 advantages1 being granted possession of
 the most important mountain strongholds
 and passes of ,asia ,minor1 a right to 
occupy and fortify the mouths of the    
,danube so important to ,austria1 and to

 extend her aegis over ,moldavia and    
,wallachia4  ,in the midst of this      
wretched period1 which brought fame to  
,russia and deep dishonor upon ,germany1
 there still gleamed one ray of hope2   
the ,customs' ,union was proposed by    
some of the ,german princes for the more
 intimate union of ,german interests4   
,maximilian of ,bavaria1 a prince whose 
amiable manners and character rendered  
him universally beloved1 expired in     
#ahbe4 ,his son1 ,louis1 the foe to     
,french despotism1 a ,german patriot and
 a zealous patron of the arts1 declared 
himself1 on his coronation1 the warm and
 sincere upholder of the constitutional 
principle and excited general           
enthusiasm4 ,his first measures on      
assuming the government were the        
reduction of the royal household and of 
the army with a view to the relief of   
the country from the heavy imposts1 the 
removal of the university of ,landshut  
to ,munich1 and the enrichment on an    
extensive scale of the institutions of  

art4 ,the union of the galleries of     
,dsseldorf and ,mannheim with that of   
,munich1 the collection of valuable     
antiques and pictures1 for instance1    
that of the old ,german paintings       
collected by the brothers ,boissere in  
,cologne during the ,french usurpation1 
the academy of painting under the       
direction of the celebrated ,cornelius1 
the new public buildings raised by      
,klenze1 among which the ,glyptothek1   
the ,pinakothek1 the great ,knigsbau or 
royal residence1 the ,ludwigschurch1 the
 ,auerchurch1 the ,arcades1 etc41 may be
 more particularly designated1 rendered 
,munich the centre of ,german art4 ,this
 sovereign also founded at ,ratisbon the
 ,walhalla1 a building destined for the 
reception of the busts of all the       
celebrated men to whom ,germany has     
given birth4 ,the predilection of this  
royal amateur for classic antiquity     
excited within his bosom the warmest    
sympathy with the fate of the modern    
,greeks1 then in open insurrection      

against their ,turkish oppressors1 and  
whom he alone1 among all the princes of 
,germany1 aided in the hour of their    
extremest need4--,with the same spirit  
that dictated his poems1 in which he so 
repeatedly lamented the want of unity in
 ,germany1 he was the first to propose  
the union of her material interests4    
,germany unhappily resembled1 and indeed
 immediately after the war of           
liberation1 as ,de ,pradt1 the ,french  
writer1 maliciously observed1 even in a 
mercantile point of view1 a menagerie   
whose inhabitants watched each other    
through a grating4 ,vainly had the      
commercial class of ,frankfort on the   
,maine presented a petition1 in #ahai1  
to the confederation1 praying for free  
trade1 for the fulfilment of the        
nineteenth article of the federal act4  
,their well-grounded complaint remained 
unheard4 ,the non-fulfilment of the     
treaty relating to the free navigation  
of the ,rhine to the sea was most deeply
 felt4 ,in the first treaty concluded at

 ,paris1 the royal dignity and the      
extension of the ,dutch territory had   
been generously granted to the king of  
the ,netherlands under the express      
proviso of the free navigation of the   
,rhine to the sea4 ,the papers relating 
to this transaction had been drawn up in
 ,french1 and the ungrateful ,dutch     
perfidiously gave the words jusqu'  la  
mer their most literal construction1    
merely as far as the sea1 and as the    
,french1 moreover1 possessed a voice in 
the matter on account of the ,upper     
,rhine1 and the ,german federal states  
were unable to give a unanimous verdict1
 innumerable committees were held and   
acts were drawn up without producing any
 result favorable to the trade of       
,germany4  ,affairs stood thus1 when1   
shortly after ,louis's accession to the 
throne of ,bavaria1 negotiations having 
for object the settlement of a          
commercial treaty took place between him
 and ,william1 king of ,wurtemberg4     
,this example was imitated by ,prussia1 

which at first merely formed a union    
with ,darmstadt2 afterward by ,hesse1   
,hanover1 ,saxony1 etc41 by which a     
central ,german union was projected4    
,this union was1 however1 unable to     
stand between that of ,wurtemberg and   
,bavaria1 and that of ,prussia and      
,darmstadt4 ,the ,german ,customs'      
,union was carried into effect in #ahhh4
 ,an annual meeting of ,german          
naturalists had at that time been       
arranged under the auspices of ,oken1   
the great naturalist1 and at the meeting
 held at ,berlin1 in #ahhh1 the         
,freiherr von ,cotta1 by whom the moral 
and material interests of ,germany have 
been greatly promoted1 drew up the first
 plan for a junction of the commercial  
union of ,southern ,germany with that of
 the ,north1 as the first step to the   
future liberation of ,germany from all  
internal commercial restrictions4 ,the  
zeal with which he carried this great   
plan into effect gained the confidence  
of the different governments1 and he not

 only succeeded in combining the two    
older unions1 but also in gradually     
embodying with them the rest of the     
,german states4  ,the attachment of     
,king ,louis to ancient ,catholicism was
 extremely remarkable4 ,he began to     
restore some of the monasteries1 and    
several professors inclined to          
,ultramontanism and to ,catholic        
mysticism1 the most distinguished among 
whom was ,grres1 the ,prussian exile1   
assembled at the new university at      
,munich4 ,here and there appeared a     
pious enthusiast4 ,shortly after the    
restoration1 a peasant from the ,pfalz  
named ,adam ,mller began to prophesy1   
and ,madame von ,krudener1 a            
,hanoverian1 to preach the necessity of 
public penance2 both these persons      
gained the ear of exalted personages1   
and ,madame von ,krudener more          
particularly is said not a little to    
have conduced to the piety displayed by 
the emperor ,alexander during the latter
 years of his life4 ,at ,bamberg1       

,prince ,alexander von ,hohenlohe1 then 
a young man1 had the folly to attempt   
the performance of miracles1 until the  
police interfered1 and he received a    
high ecclesiastical office in ,hungary4 
,in ,austria1 the ,ligorians1 followers 
in the footsteps of the ,jesuits1       
haunted the vicinity of the throne4 ,the
 conversion of ,count ,stolberg and of  
the ,swiss1 ,von ,haller1 to the        
,catholic church1 created the greatest  
sensation4 ,the former1 a celebrated    
poet1 simple and amiable1 in no way     
merited the shameless outbursts of rage 
of his old friend1 ,voss2 ,haller1 on   
the other hand1 brought forward in his  
,restoration of ,political ,science such
 a decided theory in favor of secession 
as to inspire a sentiment of dread at   
his consistency4 ,the conversion of     
,ferdinand1 prince of ,anhalt-,kthen1 to
 the ,catholic church1 in #ahbe1 excited
 far less attention4  ,in ,france1 where
 the ,bourbons were completely guided by
 the ,jesuits1 by whose aid they could  

alone hope to suppress the revolutionary
 spirit of their subjects1 the reaction 
in favor of ,catholicism had assumed a  
more decided character than in ,germany4
 ,louis ,,xviii4 was succeeded by his   
brother1 the ,count d',artois1 under the
 name of ,charles ,x41 a venerable man  
seventy years of age1 who1              
notwithstanding his great reverses1 had 
neither learned nor forgotten anything4 
,polignac1 his incapable and imperious  
minister1 the tool of the ,jesuits1 had1
 since #ahbi1 impugned every national   
right1 and1 at length1 ventured by the  
ordinances of the #beth ,july1 #ahcj1 to
 subvert the constitution4 ,during three
 days1 from the #bgth to the #cjth of   
,july1 the greatest confusion reigned in
 ,paris2 the people rose in thousands2  
murderous conflicts took place in the   
streets between them and the royal      
troops1 who were driven from every      
quarter1 and the king was expelled4 ,the
 chambers met1 declared the elder branch
 of the house of ,bourbon 7,charles ,x41

 his son1 the ,dauphin1 ,duke           
d',angouleme1 and his grandson1 the     
youthful ,duke de ,bordeaux1 the son of 
the murdered ,duke de ,berri7 to have   
forfeited the throne1 but at the same   
time allowed them unopposed to seek an  
asylum in ,england1 and elected ,louis  
,philippe1 ,duke of ,orleans1 the son of
 the notorious ,jacobin1 the head of the
 younger line of the house of ,bourbon  
and the grand-master of the society of  
,freemasons1 king of the ,french4 ,the  
rights of the chambers and of the people
 were also extended by an appendix to   
the charta signed by ,louis ,,xviii4    
,the revolution of ,july was the signal 
for all discontented subjects throughout
 ,europe to gain1 either by force or by 
legal opposition1 their lost or         
sighed-for rights4 ,in ,october1 the    
constitutional party in ,spain attempted
 to overturn the despotic rule of       
,ferdinand ,,vii4 ,in ,november1 the    
prime minister of ,england1 the renowned
 ,duke of ,wellington1 was compelled by 

the people to yield his seat to ,earl   
,grey1 a man of more liberal principles1
 who commenced the great work of reform 
in the constitution and administration  
of ,great ,britain4 ,during this month1 
a general insurrection took place in    
,poland3 the grandduke1 ,constantine1   
was driven out of ,warsaw1 and ,poland  
declared herself independent4 ,a great  
part of ,germany was also convulsed3 and
 a part of the ill-raised fabric1       
erected by the statesmen of #ahae1 fell 
tottering to the ground4   ,footnote #a3
 ,vide ,binder's ,prince ,metternich4   
,footnote #b3 ,official report of the   
,russian ambassador1 ,count ,pozzo di   
,borgo1 from ,paris1 of the #adth of    
,december1 #ahbh4    ,,cclxvii4 ,the    
,belgian ,revolution   ,a nation's      
self-forgetfulness is ever productive of
 national disgrace4 ,the ,netherlands   
were torn from the empire and placed    
partly beneath the tyranny of ,spain1   
partly beneath the aegis of ,france2 the
 dominion of ,austria1 at a later       

period1 merely served to rouse their    
provincial spirit1 and1 during their    
subsequent annexation to ,france1 the   
,french element decidedly gained the    
ascendency among the population4 ,when1 
in #ahae1 these provinces fell under the
 rule of ,holland1 it was hoped that the
 ,german element would again rise4 ,but 
,holland is not ,germany4 ,estranged    
provinces are alone to be regained by   
means of their incorporation with an    
empire imbued with one distinct national
 spirit2 the subordination of one       
province to another but increases       
national antipathy and estrangement4    
,holland1 by an ungrateful1 inimical    
policy1 unfortunately strove to separate
 herself from ,germany4#a ,and yet      
,holland owes her whole prosperity to   
,germany4 ,there is her market2 thence  
does she draw her immense wealth2 the   
loss of that market for her colonial    
productions would prove her irredeemable
 ruin4 ,her sovereign1 driven into      
distant exile1 was restored to her by   

the arms of ,germany and generously     
endowed with royalty4 ,holland1 in      
return for all these benefits1          
deceitfully deprived ,germany of the    
free navigation of the ,rhine to the sea
 guaranteed to her by the federal act   
and assumed the right of fixing the     
price of all goods1 whether imported to 
or exported from ,germany4 ,the whole of
 ,germany was1 in this unprecedented    
manner1 rendered doubly tributary to the
 petty state of ,holland4  ,belgium1    
annexed to this secondary state instead 
of being incorporated with great and    
liberal ,germany1 necessarily remained a
 stranger to any influence calculated to
 excite her sympathy with the general   
interests of ,germany4 ,cut off1 as     
heretofore1 from ,german influence1 she 
retained1 in opposition to the ,dutch1 a
 preponderance of the old ,spanish and  
modern ,french element in her           
population4 ,priests and liberals1      
belonging to the ,french school1 formed 
an opposition party against the king1   

who1 on his side1 rested his sole       
support upon the ,dutch1 whom he favored
 in every respect4 ,count ,broglio1     
archbishop of ,ghent1 first began the   
contest by refusing to take the oath on 
the constitution4 ,violence was resorted
 to and he fled the country4 ,the       
impolicy of the government in affixing  
his name to the pillory merely served to
 increase the exasperation of the       
,catholics4 ,hence their acquiescence   
with the designs of the ,jesuits1 their 
opposition to the foundation of a       
philosophical academy1 independent of   
the clergy1 at ,louvain4 ,the fact of   
the population of ,belgium being to that
 of ,holland as three to two and the    
number of its representatives in the    
states-general being as four to seven1  
of few1 if any1 ,belgians being allowed 
to enter the service of the state1 the  
army1 or the navy1 still further added  
to the popular discontent4 ,the gross   
manners of the minister1 ,van ,maanen1  
also increased the evil4 ,as early as   

,january1 #ahcj1 eight liberal ,belgian 
deputies were deprived of their offices1
 and ,de ,potter1 with some others1 who 
had ventured to defend them by means of 
the press1 were banished the kingdom    
under a charge of high treason4  ,the   
,dutch majority in the states-general1  
notwithstanding its devotion to the     
king1 rejected the ten years' budget on 
the ground of its affording too long a  
respite to ministerial responsibility1  
and protested against the levy of ,swiss
 troops4 ,slave-trade in the colonies   
was also abolished in #ahah4  ,the      
position of the ,netherlands1 which1    
,luxemburg excepted1 did not appertain  
to the ,german confederation1           
continually exposed her1 on account of  
,belgium1 to be attacked on the land    
side by ,france1 on that of the sea by  
her ancient commercial foe1 ,england1   
and had induced the king to form a close
 alliance with ,russia4 ,his son1       
,william of ,orange1 married a sister of
 the emperor ,alexander4  ,the colonies 

did not regain their former prosperity4 
,the ,dutch settlement at ,batavia with 
difficulty defended itself against the  
rebellious natives of ,sumatra and      
,java4  ,the revolution in ,paris had an
 electric effect upon the irritated     
,belgians4 ,on the #beth of ,august1    
#ahcj1 ,auber's opera1 ,the ,dumb ,girl 
of ,portici1 the revolt of ,masaniello  
in ,naples1 was performed at the        
,brussels theatre and inflamed the      
passions of the audience to such a      
degree1 that1 on quitting the theatre1  
they proceeded to the house of ,libry1  
the servile newspaper editor1 and       
entirely destroyed it3 the palace of the
 minister1 ,van ,maanen1 shared the same
 fate4 ,the citizens placed themselves  
under arms1 and sent a deputation to    
,the ,hague to lay their grievances     
before the king4 ,the entire population 
meanwhile rose in open insurrection1 and
 the whole of the fortresses1           
,maestricht and the citadel of ,antwerp 
alone excepted1 fell into their hands4  

,william of ,orange1 the crown prince1  
ventured unattended among the insurgents
 at ,brussels and proposed1 as a medium 
of peace1 the separation of ,belgium    
from ,holland in a legislative and      
administrative sense4 ,the king also    
made an apparent concession to the      
wishes of the people by the dismissal of
 ,van ,maanen1 but shortly afterward    
declared his intention not to yield1    
disavowed the step taken by his son1 and
 allowed some ,belgian deputies to be   
insulted at ,the ,hague4 ,a fanatical   
commotion instantly took place at       
,brussels2 the moderate party in the    
civic guard was disarmed1 and the       
populace made preparations for desperate
 resistance4 ,on the #beth of           
,september1 ,prince ,frederick1 second  
son to the king of ,holland1 entered    
,brussels with a large body of troops1  
but encountered barricades and a heavy  
fire in the ,park1 the ,place ,royal1   
and along the ,boulevards4 ,an immense  
crowd1 chiefly composed of the people of

 ,liege and of peasants dressed in the  
blue smock of the country1 had assembled
 for the purpose of aiding in the       
defence of the city4 ,the contest1      
accompanied by destruction of the       
dwelling-houses and by pillage1 lasted  
five days4 ,the ,dutch were accused of  
practicing the most horrid cruelties    
upon the defenceless inhabitants and of 
thereby heightening the popular         
exasperation4 ,at length1 on the #bgth  
of ,september1 the prince was compelled 
to abandon the city4 ,on the #eth of    
,october1 ,belgium declared herself     
independent4 ,de ,potter returned and   
placed himself at the head of the       
provisional government4 ,the ,prince of 
,orange recognized the absolute         
separation of ,belgium from ,holland in 
a proclamation published at ,antwerp1   
but was1 nevertheless1 constrained to   
quit the country4 ,antwerp fell into the
 hands of the insurgents2 the citadel1  
however1 refused to surrender1 and      
,chass1 the ,dutch commandant1 caused   

the magnificent city to be bombarded1   
and the well-stored entrepot1 the       
arsenal1 and about sixty or seventy     
houses1 to be set on fire1 during the   
night of the #bgth of ,october1 #ahcj4b 
,the cruelties perpetrated by the ,dutch
 were bitterly retaliated upon them by  
the ,belgian populace4 ,on the #ajth of 
,november1 however1 a national ,belgian 
congress met1 in which the moderate     
party gained the upper hand1 principally
 owing to the influence of the clergy4  
,de ,potter's plan for the formation of 
a ,belgian commonwealth fell to the     
ground4 ,the congress decided in favor  
of the maintenance of the kingdom1 drew 
up a new constitution1 and offered the  
crown to the ,prince de ,nemours1 second
 son of the king of the ,french4 ,it    
was1 however1 refused by ,louis         
,philippe in the name of his son1 in    
order to avoid war with the other great 
,european powers4 ,surlet de ,chokier1  
the leader of the liberal party1        
hereupon undertook the provisional      

government of the country1 and          
negotiations were entered into with     
,prince ,leopold of ,coburg4  ,on the   
#dth of ,november1 a congress1 composed 
of the ministers of ,england1 ,russia1  
,austria1 and ,prussia1 met at ,london  
for the purpose of settling the ,belgian
 question without disturbing the peace  
of ,europe1 and it was decided that     
,prince ,leopold of ,coburg1 the widower
 of the princess royal of ,england1 a   
man entirely under ,british influence1  
and who had refused the throne of       
,greece1 should accept that of ,belgium4
 ,eighteen articles favorable to        
,belgium were granted to him by the     
,london congress4 ,scarcely1 however1   
had he reached ,brussels1 on the #cast  
,july1 #ahca1 than the fetes given upon 
that occasion were disturbed by the     
unexpected invasion of ,belgium by a    
numerous and powerful ,dutch force4 ,at 
,hasselt1 the ,prince of ,orange        
defeated the ,belgians under ,general   
,daine1 and1 immediately advancing      

against ,leopold1 utterly routed him at 
,tirlemont1 on the #abth ,august4 ,the  
threats of ,france and ,england1 and the
 appearance of a ,french army in        
,belgium1 saved ,brussels and compelled 
the ,dutch to withdraw4 ,the eighteen   
articles in favor of ,belgium were1 on  
the other hand1 replaced by twenty-four 
others1 more favorable to the ,dutch1   
which ,leopold was compelled to accept4 
,the king of ,holland1 however1 refusing
 to accept these twenty-four articles1  
with which1 notwithstanding the         
concessions therein contained1 he was   
dissatisfied1 the ,belgian government   
took advantage of the undecided state of
 the question not to undertake1 for the 
time being1 half of the public debt of  
,holland1 which1 by the twenty-four     
articles1 was laid upon ,belgium4       
,negotiations dragged on their weary    
length1 and protocol after protocol     
followed in endless succession from     
,london4 ,in #ahcb1 ,leopold espoused   
,louisa1 one of the daughters of the    

king of the ,french1 and was not only   
finally recognized by the northern      
powers1 but1 by means of the            
intervention of ,england1 being backed  
by a fleet1 and by means of that of     
,france1 being backed by an army1       
compelled ,holland to accept of terms of
 peace4 ,the ,french troops under       
,gerard1 unassisted by the ,belgians and
 watched by a ,prussian army stationed  
on the ,meuse1 regularly besieged and   
took the citadel of ,antwerp1 on        
,christmas eve1 #ahcb1 gave it up to the
 ,belgians as pertaining to their       
territory1 and evacuated the country4   
,king ,william1 however1 again rejecting
 the twenty-four articles1 all the other
 points1 the division of the public     
debt1 the navigation of the ,scheldt1   
and1 more than all1 the future destiny  
of the province of ,luxemburg1 which    
formed part of the confederated states  
of ,germany1 had been declared          
hereditary in the house of              
,nassau-,orange1 and which1 by its      

geographical position and the character 
of its inhabitants1 was more nearly     
connected with ,belgium1 remained for   
the present unsettled4 ,in #ahci1       
,holland was induced by a fresh         
demonstration on the part of the great  
powers to accept the twenty-four        
articles1 against which ,belgium in her 
turn protested on the ground of the     
procrastination on the part of ,holland 
having rendered her earlier accession to
 these terms null and void4 ,belgium    
was1 however1 also compelled to yield4  
,by this fresh agreement it was settled 
that the western part of ,luxemburg1    
which had in the interim fallen away    
from the ,german confederation1 should  
be annexed to ,belgium1 and that        
,holland 7and the ,german confederation7
 should receive the eastern part of     
,limburg in indemnity2 and that         
,belgium1 instead of taking upon herself
 one-half of the public debt of the     
,netherlands1 should annually pay the   
sum of five million ,dutch guldens      

toward defraying the interest of that   
debt4  ,the period of the independence  
of ,belgium1 brief as it was1 was made  
use of1 particularly under the ,nothomb 
ministry1 for the development of great  
industrial activity1 and1 more          
especially1 for the creation of a system
 of railroads1 until now without its    
parallel on the continent4              
,unfortunately but little was done in   
favor of the interests of ,germany4 ,the
 ,french language had already become so 
prevalent throughout ,belgium that1 in  
#ahdj1 the provincial councillors of    
,ghent were constrained to pass a       
resolution to the effect that the       
offices dependent upon them should1 at  
all events1 solely be intrusted to      
persons acquainted with the ,flemish    
dialect1 and that their rescripts should
 be drawn up in that language4--,holland
 immensely increased her public debt in 
consequence of her extraordinary        
exertions4 ,in #ahda1 the king1 ,william
 ,i41 voluntarily abdicated the throne  

and retired into private life1 in the   
enjoyment of an enormous revenue1 with a
 ,catholic countess whom he had wedded4 
,he was succeeded by his son1 ,william  
,,ii4   ,footnote #a3 ,the ,netherlands 
formed1 nevertheless1 but a weak bulwark
 to ,germany4 ,internal disunion1       
superfluous fortresses1 a weak army4 ,on
 the one side1 a witless1 wealthy1      
haughty aristocracy1 an influential and 
ignorant clergy2 on the other1 civic    
pride1 capelocratic pettiness1          
,calvinistic brusquerie4 ,the policy    
pursued by the king was inimical to     
,germany4--,stein's ,letters4  ,footnote
 #b3 ,so bitter was the enmity existing 
between the ,belgians and the ,dutch    
that the ,dutch lieutenant1 ,van ,speyk1
 when driven by a storm before ,antwerp1
 blew up his gunboat in the middle of   
the ,scheldt rather than allow it to    
fall into the hands of the ,belgians4   
,,cclxviii4 ,the ,swiss ,revolution     
,the restoration of #ahad had replaced  
the ancient aristocracy more or less on 

their former footing throughout         
,switzerland4 ,in this country the      
greatest tranquillity prevailed2 the    
oppression of the aristocracy was felt1 
but not so heavily as to be             
insupportable4 ,many benefits1 as1 for  
instance1 the draining of the swampy    
,linththal by ,escher of ,zurich1 were1 
moreover1 conferred upon the country4   
,mercenaries were also continually      
furnished to the king of ,france1 to the
 pope1 and1 for some time1 to the king  
of the ,netherlands4 ,france1           
nevertheless1 imposed such heavy        
commercial duties that several of the   
cantons leagued together for the purpose
 of taking reprisals4 ,this             
misunderstanding between ,switzerland   
and ,france unfortunately did not teach 
wisdom to the states belonging to the   
,german confederation1 and the ,rhine   
was also barricaded with custom-houses1 
those graves of commerce4 ,the ,jesuits 
settled at ,freiburg in the ,uechtland1 
where they founded a large seminary and 

whence they finally succeeded in        
expelling ,peter ,girard1 a man of high 
merit1 noted for the liberality of his  
views on education4#a  ,the ,paris      
revolution of ,july also gave rise to a 
democratic reaction throughout          
,switzerland4 ,berne1 by a circular1    
published ,september #bb1 #ahcj1 called 
upon the other ,swiss governments to    
suppress the revolutionary spirit by    
force1 and1 by so doing1 fired the      
train4 ,the government of ,zurich wisely
 opposed the circular and made a        
voluntary reform4 ,in all the other     
cantons popular societies sprang up1    
and1 either by violence or by threats1  
subverted the ancient governments4 ,new 
constitutions were everywhere granted4  
,the immense majority of the people was 
in favor of reform1 and the aristocracy 
offered but faint resistance4 ,little   
towns or villages became the centre of  
the movements against the capitals4     
,fischer1 an innkeeper from             
,merischwanden1 seized the city of      

,aarau2 the village of ,burgdorf        
revolutionized the canton of ,berne1 the
 village of ,murten the canton of       
,freiburg1 the village of ,weinfelden   
the canton of ,constance2 this example  
was followed by the peasantry of        
,solothurn and ,vaud2 the government of 
,st4 ,gall imitated that of ,zurich4    
,basel was also attempted to be         
revolutionized by ,liestal1 but the     
wealthy and haughty citizens1           
principally at the instigation of the   
family of ,wieland1 made head against   
the peasantry1 who were led by one      
,gutzwyler4 ,the contest that had taken 
place in ,belgium was here reacted on a 
smaller scale4 ,a dispute concerning    
privileges commencing between the       
citizens and the peasantry1 bloody      
excesses ensued and a complete          
separation was the result4 ,the         
peasantry1 superior in number1 asserted 
their right to send a greater number of 
deputies to the great council than the  
cities1 and the latter1 dreading the    

danger to which their civic interests   
would be thereby exposed1 obstinately   
refused to comply4 ,party rage ran high2
 the ,baselese insulted some of the     
deputies sent by the peasantry1 and the 
latter1 in retaliation1 began to        
blockade the town4 ,colonel ,wieland    
made some sallies2 the federal diet     
interfered1 and the peasantry1 being    
dispersed by the federal troops1        
revenged themselves during their retreat
 by plundering the vale of              
,reigoldswyler1 which had remained true 
to ,basel4 ,in ,schwyz1 the             
,old-,schwyzers and the inhabitants of  
the outer circles1 who1 although for    
centuries in possession of the rights of
 citizenship1 were still regarded by the
 former as their vassals1 also fell at  
variance1 and the latter demanded equal 
rights or complete separation4 ,in      
,neufchatel1 ,bourguin attempted a      
revolution against the ,prussian party  
and took the city1 but succumbed to the 
vigorous measures adopted by ,general   

,pfuel1 #ahca4  ,the conduct of the     
federal diet1 which followed in the     
footsteps of ,european policy1 and      
which1 by winking at the opposing party 
and checking that in favor of           
progression1 sought to preserve the     
balance1 but served to increase party   
spirit4 ,in ,september1 #ahca1 the      
,radicals founded at ,langenthal1 the   
,schutzverein or protective union1 which
 embraced all the liberal clubs         
throughout ,switzerland and was intended
 to counteract the impending            
aristocratic counterrevolution4 ,men    
like ,schnell of ,berne1 ,troxler the   
philosopher1 etc41 stood at its head4   
,they demanded the abolition of the     
constitution of #ahae as too            
aristocratic and federal1 and the       
foundation of a new one in a democratic 
and independent sense for the increase  
of the external power and unity of      
,switzerland1 and for her internal      
security from petty aristocratic and    
local views and intrigues4 ,in ,march1  

#ahcb1 ,lucerne1 ,zurich1 ,berne1       
,solothurn1 ,st4 ,gall1 ,aargau1 and    
,constance formed a ,concordat for the  
mutual maintenance of their democratic  
constitutions until the completion of   
the revisal of the confederation4 ,the  
aristocratic party1 ,schwyz1 ,uri1      
,unterwalden 7actuated by ancient pride 
and led by the clergy71 ,basel1 and     
,neufchatel meanwhile formed the ,sarner
 confederation4 ,in ,august1 the deposed
 ,bernese aristocracy1 headed by ,major 
,fischer1 made a futile attempt to      
produce a counter-revolution4 ,in the   
federal diet1 the envoys of the         
,concordat and the threatening language 
of the clubs compelled the members to   
bring a new federal constitution under  
deliberation1 but opinions were too     
divided1 and the constitution projected 
in #ahcc fell to the ground for want of 
sufficient support4 ,at the moment of   
this defeat of the liberal party1       
,alt-,schwyz1 led by ,abyberg1 took up  
arms1 took possession of ,kssnacht1 and 

threatened the ,concordat1 the ,baselese
 at the same time taking the field with 
one thousand two hundred men and        
fourteen pieces of ordnance4 ,the people
 were1 however1 inimical to their cause2
 ,abyberg fled2 the ,baselese were      
encountered by the peasantry in the     
,hartwald and repulsed with considerable
 loss4 ,the federal diet demonstrated   
the greatest energy in order to prevent 
the ,concordat and the ,schutzverein    
from acting in its stead4 ,schwyz and   
,basel were occupied with soldiery2 the 
former was compelled to accept a new    
constitution drawn up with a view of    
pacifying both parties1 the latter to   
accede to a complete separation between 
the town and country4 ,the ,sarner      
confederation was dissolved1 and all    
discontented cantons were compelled1    
under pain of the infliction of martial 
law1 to send envoys to the federal diet4
 ,intrigues1 having for object the      
alienation of the city of ,basel1 of    
,neufchatel1 and ,valais from the       

confederation1 were discovered and      
frustrated by the diet1 not without the 
approbation of ,france1 the ,valais and 
the road over the ,simplon being thereby
 prevented from falling beneath the     
influence of ,austria4  ,in #ahcc1 five 
hundred ,polish refugees1 suspected of  
supporting the ,frankfort attempt in    
,germany1 quitted ,france for           
,switzerland1 and soon afterward        
unsuccessfully invaded ,savoy in        
conjunction with some ,italian refugees4
 ,crowds of refugees from every quarter 
joined them and formed a central        
association1 ,young ,europe1 whence     
branched others1 ,young ,france1 ,young 
,poland1 ,young ,germany1 and ,young    
,italy4 ,the principal object of this   
association was to draw the ,german     
journeymen apprentices                  
7,handwerks-bursche7 into its interests1
 and for this purpose a banquet was     
given by it to these apprentices in the 
,steinbrlzle near ,berne4 ,these        
intrigues produced serious threats on   

the side of the great powers1 and       
,switzerland yielded4 ,the greater part 
of the refugees were compelled to       
emigrate through ,france to ,england and
 ,america4 ,napoleon's nephew was1 at a 
later period1 also expelled             
,switzerland4 ,his mother1 ,queen       
,hortense1 consort to ,louis1 ex-king of
 ,holland1 daughter to ,josephine       
,beauharnais1 consequently both         
stepdaughter and sister-in-law to       
,napoleon1 possessed the beautiful      
estate of ,arenenberg on the ,lake of   
,constance4 ,on her death it was        
inherited by her son1 ,louis1 who1      
during his residence there1 occupied    
himself with intrigues directed against 
the throne of ,louis ,philippe4 ,in     
concert with a couple of military       
madmen1 he introduced himself into      
,strasburg1 where1 with a little hat1 in
 imitation of that worn by ,napoleon1 on
 his head1 he proclaimed himself emperor
 in the open streets4 ,he was easily    
arrested4 ,this act was generously      

viewed by ,louis ,philippe as that of a 
senseless boy1 and he was restored to   
liberty upon condition of emigrating to 
,america4 ,no sooner1 however1 was he   
once more free1 than1 returning to      
,switzerland1 he set fresh intrigues on 
foot4 ,louis ,philippe1 upon this1      
demanded his expulsion4 ,constance would
 willingly have extended to him the     
protection due to one of her citizens1  
but how were the claims of a ,swiss     
citizen to be rendered compatible with  
those of a pretender to the throne of   
,france8 ,french troops already         
threatened the frontiers of             
,switzerland1 where1 as in #agic1 the   
people1 instead of making preparations  
for defence1 were at strife among       
themselves4 ,louis at length voluntarily
 abandoned the country in #ahch4  ,in   
the beginning of #ahci1 ,dr4 ,strauss1  
who1 in #ahce1 had1 in his work entitled
 ,the ,life of ,jesus1 declared the     
,gospels a cleverly devised fable1 and  
had1 at great pains1 sought to refute   

the historical proofs of the truth of   
,christianity1 was1 on that account1    
appointed1 by the council of education  
and of government at ,zurich1 professor 
of divinity to the new ,zurich academy4 
,burgomaster ,hirzel 7nicknamed the tree
 of liberty on account of his uncommon  
height7 stood at the head of the        
enthusiastic government party by which  
this extraordinary appointment had been 
effected2 the people1 however1 rose en  
masse1 the great council was compelled  
to meet1 and the anti-,christian party  
suffered a most disgraceful defeat4     
,strauss1 who had not ventured to appear
 in person on the scene of action1 was  
offered and accepted a pension4 ,the    
,christian party1 concentrated into a   
committee of faith1 under the presidency
 of ,hurliman1 behaved with extreme     
moderation1 although greatly superior in
 number to their opponents4 ,the radical
 government1 ashamed and perplexed1     
committed blunder after blunder1 and at 
length threatened violence4 ,upon this1 

,hirzel1 the youthful priest of         
,pfffikon1 rang the alarm from his      
parish church1 and1 on the #fth of      
,september1 #ahci1 led his parishioners 
into the city of ,zurich4 ,this example 
was imitated by another crowd of        
peasantry1 headed by a physician named  
,rahn4 ,the government troops attacked  
the people and killed nine men4 ,on the 
fall of the tenth1 ,hegetschwiler1 the  
councillor of state1 a distinguished    
savant and physician1 while attempting  
to restore harmony between the          
contending parties1 the civic guard     
turned against the troops and dispersed 
them4 ,the radical government and the   
,strauss faction also fled4 ,immense    
masses of peasantry from around the lake
 entered the city4 ,a provisional       
government1 headed by ,hiesz and        
,muralt1 and a fresh election1 insured  
tranquillity4  ,in the canton of        
,schwyz1 a lengthy dispute1 similar to  
that between the ,vettkoper and         
,schieringer in ,friesland1 was carried 

on between the ,horn and ,hoof-men 7the 
wealthy in possession of cattle and the 
poor who only possessed a cow or two7   
concerning their privileges4 ,in #ahci1 
a violent opposition1 similar in nature1
 was made by the people of ,vaud against
 the oligarchical power assumed by a few
 families4  ,the closing of the         
monasteries in the ,aargau in #ahdj gave
 rise to a dispute of such importance as
 to disturb the whole of the            
confederation4 ,in the ,aargau the      
church and state had long and           
strenuously battled1 when the monastery 
of ,muri was suddenly invested as the   
seat of a conspiracy1 and1 on symptoms  
of uneasiness becoming perceptible among
 the ,catholic population1 the whole    
country was flooded with twenty thousand
 militia raised on the spur of the      
moment1 and the closing of the monastery
 of ,muri and of all the monasteries in 
the ,aargau was proclaimed and carried  
into execution4 ,the rest of the        
,catholic cantons and ,rome vehemently  

protested against this measure1 and even
 some of the ,reformed cantons1 for the 
sake of peace1 voted at the diet for the
 maintenance of the monasteries3 the    
,aargau1 nevertheless1 steadily refused 
compliance4   ,footnote #a3 ,in         
,lucerne1 the disorderly trial of a     
numerous band of robbers1 which had been
 headed by an extremely beautiful and   
talented girl1 named ,clara ,wendel1    
made the more noise on account of its   
bringing the bandit-like murder of      
,keller1 the aged mayor1 and intrigues1 
in which the name of the nuncio was     
mixed up1 before the public4 #ahbe4     
,,cclxix4 ,the ,revolution in           
,brunswick1 ,saxony1 ,hesse1 ,etc4      
,the ,belgian revolution spread into    
,germany4 ,liege infected her neighbor1 
,aix-la-,chapelle1 where1 on the #cjth  
of ,august1 #ahcj1 the workmen belonging
 to the manufactories raised a senseless
 tumult which was a few days afterward  
repeated by their fellow-workmen at     
,elberfeld1 ,wetzlar1 and even by the   

populace of ,berlin and ,breslau1 but   
which solely took a serious character in
 ,brunswick1 ,saxony1 ,hanover1 and     
,hesse4  ,charles1 duke of ,brunswick1  
was at ,paris1 squandering the revenue  
derived from his territories1 on the    
outburst of the ,july revolution1 which 
drove him back to his native country1   
where he behaved with increased         
insolence4 ,his obstinate refusal to    
abolish the heavy taxes1 to refrain from
 disgraceful sales1 to recommence the   
erection of public buildings1 and to    
recognize the provincial ,estates1 added
 to his threat to fire upon the people  
and his boast that he knew how to defend
 his throne better than ,charles ,x4 of 
,france1 so maddened the excitable blood
 of his subjects that1 after throwing   
stones at the duke's carriage and at an 
actress on whom he publicly bestowed his
 favors1 they stormed his palace and set
 fire to it over his head1 ,september   
#g1 #ahcj4 ,charles escaped through the 
garden4 ,his brother1 ,william1         

supported by ,hanover and ,prussia1     
replaced him1 recognized the provincial 
,estates1 granted a new constitution1   
built a new palace1 and re-established  
tranquillity4 ,the conduct of the       
expelled duke1 who1 from his asylum in  
the ,harzgebirge1 made a futile attempt 
to regain possession of ,brunswick by   
means of popular agitation and by the   
proclamation of democratical opinions1  
added to the contempt with which he     
treated the admonitions of his          
superiors1 induced the federal diet to  
recognize his brother's authority4 ,the 
ex-duke has1 since this period1 wandered
 over ,england1 ,france1 and ,spain1    
sometimes engaged in intrigues with     
,carlists1 at others with republicans4  
,in #ahcf1 he accompanied a celebrated  
female aeronaut in one of her excursions
 from ,london4 ,the balloon accidentally
 upset and the duke and his companion   
fell to the ground4 ,he was1 however1 as
 in his other adventures1 more          
frightened than hurt4  ,in ,saxony1 the 

progress of enlightenment had long      
rendered the people sensible of the     
errors committed by the old and         
etiquettish aristocracy of the court and
 diet4 ,as early as #ahbi1 all the      
grievances had been recapitulated in an 
anonymous printed address1 and1 in the  
beginning of #ahcj1 on the venerable    
king1 ,antony 7brother to ,frederick    
,augustus1 deceased #ahbg71 declaring   
invalid the settlement of his affairs by
 the ,estates1 which evinced a more     
liberal spirit than they had hitherto   
done1 and on the prohibition of the     
festivities on the #beth of ,june1 the  
anniversary of the ,augsburg            
,confession1 by the town council of     
,dresden and by the government          
commissioner of the university of       
,leipzig from devotion to the ,catholic 
court1 a popular tumult ensued in both  
cities1 which was quelled but to be1 a  
few weeks later1 after the revolution of
 ,july1 more disastrously renewed4 ,the 
tumult commenced at ,leipzig on the #b;d

 of ,september and lasted several days1 
and1 during the night of the #ith1      
,dresden was stormed from without by two
 immense crowds of populace1 by whom the
 police buildings and the town-house    
were ransacked and set on fire4         
,disturbances of a similar nature broke 
out at ,chemnitz and ,bautzen4 ,the     
king1 upon this1 nominated his nephew1  
,prince ,frederick1 who was greatly     
beloved by the people1 co-regent2 the   
civic guard restored tranquillity1 the  
most crying abuses1 particularly those  
in the city administration1 were        
abolished1 and the constitution was     
revised4 ,the popular minister1         
,lindenan1 replaced ,einsiedel1 who had 
excited universal detestation4  ,in the 
electorate of ,hesse1 the period of     
terror occasioned by the threatening    
letters addressed to the elector was    
succeeded by the agitation              
characteristic of the times4 ,on the    
#fth of ,september1 #ahcj1 a tumultuous 
rising took place at ,cassel2 on the    

#bdth1 the people of ,hanau destroyed   
every custom-house stationed on the     
frontier4 ,the public was so unanimous  
and decided in opinion that the elector 
not only agreed to abolish the abuses1  
to convoke the ,estates1 and to grant a 
new constitution1 but even placed the   
reins of government provisionally in the
 hands of his son1 ,prince ,william1 in 
order to follow the ,countess           
,reichenbach1 who had been driven from  
,cassel by the insults of the populace4 
,prince ,william was1 however1 as little
 as his father inclined to make         
concessions2 and violent collisions     
speedily ensued4 ,he wedded ,madame     
,lehmann1 the wife of a ,prussian       
officer1 under the name of the ,countess
 von ,schaumburg1 and closed the theatre
 against his mother1 the electress1 for 
refusing to place herself at her side in
 public4 ,the citizens sided with the   
electress1 and when1 after some time had
 elapsed1 she again ventured to visit   
the theatre1 the doors were no longer   

closed against her1 and1 on her         
entrance1 she found the house completely
 filled4 ,on the close of the evening's 
entertainment1 however1 while the       
audience were peaceably dispersing1 they
 were charged by a troop of cavalry1 who
 cut down the defenceless multitude     
without distinction of age or sex1      
,december #g1 #ahcj4 ,the ,estates1     
headed by ,professor ,jordan1 vainly    
demanded redress2 ,giesler1 the head of 
the police1 was alone designated as the 
criminal2 the scrutiny was drawn to an  
interminable length and produced no     
other result than ,giesler's decoration 
with an order by the prince4  ,in       
,hesse-,darmstadt1 where the poll-tax   
amounted to #f;fls4 #abkrs4 7#ajs4      
#d;d47 a head1 the ,estates ventured1   
even prior to the revolution of ,july1  
to refuse to vote #b1jjj1jjj;fls4       
7#aff1fff #acs4 #d;d47 to the new       
grandduke1 ,louis ,,ii4 7who had just   
succeeded his aged father1 the patron of
 the arts71 for the defrayment of debts 

contracted by him before his accession  
to the ducal chair4 ,in ,september1 the 
peasantry of ,upper ,hesse rose en masse
 on account of the imposition of the sum
 of #ajj1jjj;fls4 7#h1ccc #fs4 #h;d47   
upon the poverty-stricken communes in   
order to meet the outlay occasioned by  
the festivities given in the grandduke's
 honor on his route through the country2
 the burdens laid upon the peasantry in 
the mediatized principalities1 more     
particularly in that of ,ysenburg1 had  
also become unbearable4 ,the insurgents 
took ,budingen by storm and were guilty 
of some excesses toward the public      
officers and the foresters1 but deprived
 no one of life4 ,ere long convinced of 
their utter impotence1 they dispersed   
before the arrival of ,prince ,emilius  
at the head of a body of military1 who1 
blinded by rage1 unfortunately killed a 
number of persons in the village of     
,sdel1 whom they mistook for insurgents 
owing to the circumstance of their being
 armed1 but who had in reality been     

assembled by a forester for the purpose 
of keeping the insurgents in check4  ,in
 this month1 ,september1 #ahcj1 popular 
disturbances1 but of minor import1 broke
 out also at ,jena and ,kahla1          
,altenburg1 and ,gera4  ,in ,hanover1   
the first symptoms of revolution        
appeared in ,january1 #ahca4 ,dr4 ,knig 
was at that time at the head of the     
university of ,osterode1 ,dr4           
,rauschenplatt of that of ,gttingen4#a  
,the abolition of the glaring ancient   
abuses and the removal of the minister1 
,count ,munster1 the sole object of     
whose policy appeared to be the         
eternalization of every administrative  
and juridical antiquity in the state1   
were demanded4 ,the petty insurrections 
were quelled by the military4 ,knig was 
taken prisoner2 most of the other       
demagogues escaped to ,france4 ,the     
,duke of ,cambridge1 the king's brother1
 mediated4 ,count ,munster was          
dismissed1 and ,hanover received a new  
and more liberal constitution4  ,while  

these events were passing in ,germany1  
the ,poles carried on a contest against 
the whole power of ,russia as glorious  
and as unfortunate as their former one  
under their leader1 ,kosciuszko4 ,louis 
,philippe1 king of the ,french1 in the  
hope of gaining favor with the northern 
powers by the abandonment of the ,polish
 cause1 dealt not a stroke in their aid4
 ,austria1 notwithstanding her natural  
rivalry to ,russia1 beheld the ,polish  
revolution merely through the veil of   
legitimacy and refused her aid to       
rebels4 ,a ,hungarian address in favor  
of ,poland produced no result4 ,prussia 
was closely united by family ties to    
,russia4 ,the ,poles were consequently  
left without external aid1 and their    
spirit was internally damped by         
diplomatic arts4 ,aid was promised by   
,france1 if they would wait4 ,they      
accordingly waited3 and in the interim1 
after the failure of ,diebitsch's       
attempt upon ,warsaw and his sudden     
death1 ,paskewitch1 the ,russian        

general1 unexpectedly crossed the       
,vistula close to the ,prussian fortress
 of ,thorn and seized the city of       
,warsaw while each party was still in a 
state of indecision4 ,immense masses of 
fugitive ,polish soldiery sought shelter
 in ,austria and ,prussia4 ,the officers
 and a few thousand private soldiers    
were permitted to pass onward to        
,france3 they found a warm welcome in   
,southern ,germany1 whence they had     
during the campaign been supplied with  
surgeons and every necessary for the    
supply of the hospitals4 ,the rest were 
compelled to return to ,russia4  ,the   
,russian troops drawn from the distant  
provinces1 the same that had been       
employed in the war with ,persia1       
overran ,poland as far as the ,prussian 
frontier1 bringing with them a fearful  
pestilence1 ,asiatic cholera4 ,this dire
 malady1 which had1 since #ahag1 crept  
steadily onward from the banks of the   
,ganges1 reached ,russia in #ahcj1 and1 
in the autumn of #ahca1 spread across   

the frontiers of ,germany4 ,it chiefly  
visited populous cities and generally   
spared districts less densely populated1
 passing from one great city to another 
whither infection could not have been   
communicated4 ,cordons de sant and      
quarantine regulations were of no avail4
 ,the pestilence appeared to spread like
 miasma through the air and to kindle   
like gas wherever the assemblage of     
numbers disposed the atmosphere to its  
reception4 ,the patients were seized    
with vomiting and diarrhoea1 accompanied
 with violent convulsions1 and often    
expired instantaneously or after an     
agony of a few hours' duration4         
,medicinal art was powerless against    
this disease1 and1 as in the #adth      
century1 the ignorant populace ascribed 
its prevalence to poison4 ,suspicion    
fell this time upon the physicians and  
the public authorities and spread in the
 most incredible manner from ,st4       
,petersburg to ,paris4 ,the idea that   
the physicians had been charged to      

poison the people en masse occasioned   
dreadful tumults1 in which numbers of   
physicians fell victims and every drug  
used in medicine was destroyed as       
poisonous4 ,similar scenes occurred in  
,russia and in ,hungary4 ,in the latter 
country a great insurrection of the     
peasants took place1 in ,august1 #ahca1 
in which not only the physicians1 but   
also numbers of the nobility and public 
officers who had provided themselves    
with drugs fell victims1 and the most   
inhuman atrocities were perpetrated4 ,in
 ,vienna1 where the cholera raged with  
extreme virulence1 the people behaved   
more reasonably4  ,in ,prussia1 the     
cholera occasioned several disturbances 
at ,koenigsberg1 ,stettin1 and ,breslau4
 ,at ,koenigsberg the movement was not  
occasioned by the disease being         
attributed to poison4 ,the strict       
quarantine regulations enforced by the  
government had produced a complete      
commercial stagnation1 notwithstanding  
which permission had been given to the  

,russian troops1 when hard pushed by the
 insurgent ,poles1 to provide themselves
 with provisions and ammunition from    
,prussia1 so that not only ,russian     
agents and commissaries1 but whole      
convoys from ,russia crossed the        
,prussian frontier4 ,the appearance of  
cholera was ascribed to this            
circumstance1 and the public discontent 
was evinced both by a popular outbreak  
and in an address from the chief        
magistrate of ,koenigsberg to the       
throne4 ,the ,prussian army1 under the  
command of ,field-,marshal ,gneisenau1  
stationed in ,posen for the purpose of  
watching the movements of the ,poles1   
was also attacked by the cholera1 to    
which the field-marshal fell victim4 ,it
 speedily reached ,berlin1 spread       
through the north of ,germany to        
,france1 ,england1 and ,north ,america1 
returned thence to the south of ,europe1
 and1 in #ahcf1 crept steadily on from  
,italy through the ,tyrol to ,bavaria4  
,the veil had been torn from many an old

 and deep-rooted evil by the            
disturbances of #ahcj4 ,the press now   
emulated the provincial diets and some  
of the governments that sought to meet  
the demands of the age in exposing to   
public view all the political wants of  
,germany4 ,party spirit1 however1 still 
ran too high1 and the moderate          
constitutionalists1 who aimed at the    
gradual introduction of reforms by legal
 means1 found themselves ere long       
outflanked by two extreme parties4      
,while ,gentz at ,vienna1 ,jarcke at    
,berlin1 etc41 refused to make the      
slightest concession and in that spirit 
conducted the press1 ,rotteck's petty   
constitutional reforms in ,baden were   
treated with contempt by ,wirth and     
,siebenpfeiffer1 by whom a ,german      
republic was with tolerable publicity   
proclaimed in ,rhenish ,bavaria4 ,nor   
were attempts at mediation wanting4 ,in 
,darmstadt1 ,schulz proposed the        
retention of the present distribution of
 the states of ,germany and the         

association of a second chamber1        
composed of deputies elected by the     
people from every part of the ,german   
confederation1 with the federal assembly
 at ,frankfort4  ,the ,tribune1 edited  
by ,dr4 ,wirth1 and the ,westboten1     
edited by ,dr4 ,siebenpfeiffer1 were    
prohibited by the federal diet1 ,march  
#b1 #ahcb4 ,schuler1 ,savoie1 and ,geib 
opposed this measure by the foundation  
of a club in ,rhenish ,bavaria for the  
promotion of liberty of the press1      
ramifications of which were intended by 
the founders to be extended throughout  
,germany4 ,the approaching celebration  
of the festival in commemoration of the 
,bavarian constitution afforded the     
malcontents a long-wished-for           
opportunity for the convocation of a    
monster meeting at the ancient castle of
 ,hambach1 on the #bgth of ,may4        
,although the black1 red and gold flag  
waved on this occasion high above the   
rest1 the tendency to ,french liberalism
 predominated over that to ,german      

patriotism4 ,numbers of ,french being   
also present1 ,dr4 ,wirth deemed himself
 called upon to observe that the        
festival they had met to celebrate was  
intrinsically ,german1 that he despised 
liberty as a ,french boon1 and that the 
patriot's first thoughts were for his   
country1 his second for liberty4 ,these 
observations greatly displeased the     
numerous advocates for ,french          
republicanism among his audience1 and   
one ,rey1 a ,strasburg citizen1 read him
 a severe lecture in the ,mayence style 
of #agic4b ,there were also a number of 
,poles present1 toward whom no          
demonstrations of jealousy were evinced4
 ,this meeting peaceably dissolved1 but 
no means were for the future neglected  
for the purpose of crushing the spirit  
manifested by it4 ,marshal ,wrede       
occupied ,spires1 ,landau1 ,neustadt1   
etc41 with ,bavarian troops2 the clubs  
for the promotion of liberty of the     
press were strictly prohibited1 their   
original founders1 as well as the       

orators of ,hambach and the boldest of  
the newspaper editors1 were either      
arrested or compelled to quit the       
country4 ,siebenpfeiffer took refuge in 
,switzerland2 ,wirth might have effected
 his escape1 but refused4 ,some         
provocations in ,neustadt1 on the       
anniversary of the ,hambach festival in 
#ahcc1 were brought by the military to a
 tragical close4 ,some newspaper        
editors1 printers1 etc41 were also      
arrested at ,munich1 ,wurzburg1         
,augsburg1 etc4 ,the most celebrated    
among the accused was ,professor ,behr1 
court-councillor of ,wurzburg1 the      
burgomaster and former deputy of that   
city1 who at the time of the meeting at 
,hambach made a public speech at        
,gaibach4 ,on account of the            
revolutionary tendency manifested in it 
he was arrested1 and1 in #ahhf1         
sentenced to ask pardon on his knees    
before the king's portrait and to       
imprisonment1 a punishment to which the 
greater part of the political offenders 

were condemned4  ,the federal diet had  
for some time been occupied with        
measures for the internal tranquillity  
of ,germany4 ,the ,hambach festival both
 brought them to a conclusion and       
increased their severity4 ,under the    
date of the #bhth of ,june1 #ahcb1 the  
resolutions of the federal assembly1 by 
which first of all the provincial       
,estates1 then the popular clubs1 and   
finally the press1 were to be deprived  
of every means of opposing in any the   
slightest degree the joint will of the  
princes1 were published4 ,the           
governments were bound not to tolerate  
within their jurisdiction aught contrary
 to the resolutions passed by the       
federal assembly1 and to call the whole 
power of the confederation to their aid 
if unable to enforce obedience2 nay1 in 
cases of urgency1 the confederation     
reserved to itself the right of armed   
intervention1 undemanded by the         
governments4 ,taxes1 to meet the        
expenses of the confederation1 were to  

be voted submissively by the provincial 
,estates4 ,finally1 all popular         
associations and assemblies were also   
prohibited1 and all newspapers1 still   
remaining1 of a liberal tendency1 were  
suppressed4  ,the youthful              
revolutionists1 principally students1   
assembled secretly at ,frankfort on the 
,maine1 during the night of the #c;d of 
,april1 #ahcc1 attacked the town-watch  
for the purpose of liberating some      
political prisoners1 and possibly       
intended to have carried the federal    
assembly by a coup-de-main had they not 
been dispersed4 ,these excesses had     
merely the effect of increasing the     
severity of the scrutiny and of crowding
 the prisons with suspected persons4    
,footnote #a3 ,also the unfortunate ,dr4
 ,plath1 to whom science is indebted for
 an excellent historical work upon      
,china4 ,he became implicated in this   
affair and remained in confinement until
 #ahcf1 when he was sentenced to fifteen
 years' further imprisonment4  ,footnote

 #b3 ,all national distinctions must    
cease and be fused in universal liberty 
and equality2 this was the sole aim of  
the noble ,french people1 and for this  
cause should we meet them with a        
fraternal embrace1 etc4 ,paul ,pfizer   
well observed in a pamphlet on ,german  
liberalism1 published at that period1   
,what epithet would the majority of the 
,french people bestow upon a liberty    
which a part of their nation would      
purchase by placing themselves beneath  
the protection of a foreign and superior
 power1 called to their aid against     
their fellow-citizens8 ,if the cause of 
,german liberalism is to remain pure and
 unspotted1 we must not1 like           
,coriolanus1 arm the foreign foe against
 our country4 ,the egotistical tendency 
of the age is1 unhappily1 too much      
inclined 7by a coalition with ,france7  
to prefer personal liberty and          
independence to the liberty and         
independence 7thereby infallibly        
forfeited7 of the whole community4 ,the 

supposed fellowship with ,france would  
be subjection to her4 ,france will      
support the ,german liberals as         
,richelien did the ,german ,protestants4
    ,,cclxx4 ,the ,struggles of the     
,provincial ,diets   ,the ,estates of   
the different constitutional states     
sought for constitutional reform by     
legal means and separated themselves    
from the revolutionists4 ,but1 during   
periods of great political agitation1 it
 is difficult to draw a distinctive     
line1 and any opposition1 however       
moderate1 appears as dangerous as the   
most intemperate rebellion4 ,it was1    
consequently1 impossible for the        
governments and the ,estates to come to 
an understanding during these stormy    
times4 ,the result of the deliberations1
 whenever the opposition was in the     
majority1 was protestations on both     
sides in defence of right2 and1 whenever
 the opposition was or fell in the      
minority1 the chambers were the mere    
echo of the minister4  ,in ,bavaria1 in 

#ahca1 the second chamber raised a      
violent storm against the minister1 von 
,schenk1 principally on account of the  
restoration of some monasteries and of  
the enormous expense attending the      
erection of the splendid public         
buildings at ,munich4 ,a law of         
censorship had1 moreover1 been          
published1 and a number of civil        
officers elected by the people been     
refused permission to take their seats  
in the chamber4 ,schwindel1 von ,closen1
 ,cullmann1 ,seyffert1 etc41 were the   
leaders of the opposition4 ,schenk      
resigned office2 the law of censorship  
was repealed1 and the ,estates struck   
two millions from the civil list4 ,the  
first chamber1 however1 refused its     
assent to these resolutions1 the law of 
censorship was retained1 and the saving 
in the expenditure of the crown was     
reduced to an extremely insignificant   
amount4 ,in the autumn of #ahcb1 ,prince
 ,otto1 the king's second son1 was1 with
 the consent of the sultan1 elected king

 of ,greece by the great maritime powers
 intrusted with the decision of the     
,greek question1 and ,count ,armansperg1
 formerly minister of ,bavaria1 was     
placed at the head of the regency during
 the minority of the youthful monarch4  
,steps having to be taken for the levy  
of troops for the ,greek service1 some  
regiments were sent into ,greece in     
order to carry the new regulations into 
effect4 ,the ,bavarian chambers were at 
a later period almost entirely purged   
from the opposition and granted every   
demand made by the government4 ,the     
appearance of the ,bavarians in ancient 
,greece forms one of the most           
interesting episodes in modern history4 
,the jealousy of the great powers       
explains the election of a sovereign    
independent of them all3 the noble      
sympathy displayed for the ,grecian     
cause by ,king ,louis1 who1 shortly     
after the congress of ,verona1 sent     
considerable sums of money and ,colonel 
von ,heideck to the aid of the ,greeks1 

and1 it may be1 also the wish to bring  
the first among the second-rate powers  
of ,germany into closer connection with 
the common interests of the first-rate  
powers1 more particularly explains that 
of the youthful ,otto4#a ,the task of   
organizing a nation1 noble1 indeed1 but 
debased by long slavery and still       
reeking with the blood of late          
rebellion1 under the influence of a     
powerful and mutually jealous diplomacy1
 on a ,european and ,german footing1    
was1 however1 extremely difficult4      
,hence the opposite views entertained by
 the regency1 the resignation of the    
councillors of state1 von ,maurer and   
von ,abel1 who were more inclined to    
administrate1 and the retention of      
office by ,count ,armansperg1 who was   
more inclined to diplomatize4 ,hence the
 ceaseless intrigues of party1 the daily
 increasing contumacy1 and the revolts1 
sometimes quenched in blood1 of the wild
 mountain tribes and ancient            
robber-chiefs1 to whom ,european        

institutions were still an insupportable
 yoke4 ,king ,otto received1 on his     
accession to the throne1 in #ahce1 a    
visit from his royal parent2 and1 in the
 ensuing year1 conducted the ,princess  
of ,oldenburg to ,athens as his bride4  
,in ,wurtemberg1 the chambers first met 
in #ahcc1 and were1 two months later1   
again dissolved on account of the       
refusal of the second chamber to reject 
with indignation ,pfizer's protestation 
against the resolutions of the          
confederation4 ,in the newly-elected    
second chamber1 the opposition1 at whose
 head stood the celebrated poet1        
,uhland1 brought forward numerous       
propositions for reform1 but remained in
 the minority1 and it was not until the 
new diet1 held in #ahcf1 that the       
aristocratic first chamber was induced  
to diminish socage service and other    
feudal dues twenty-two and one-half per 
cent in amount4 ,the literary piracy    
that had hitherto continued to exist    
solely in ,wurtemberg was also          

provisionally abolished1 the system of  
national education was improved1 and    
several other useful projects were      
carried into execution or prepared4 ,a  
new criminal code1 published in #ahch1  
again bore traces of political caution4 
,the old opposition lost power4  ,in    
,baden1 the venerable grandduke1 ,louis1
 expired in #ahcj1 and was succeeded by 
,leopold1 a descendant of the collateral
 branch of the counts of ,hochberg4     
,bavaria had1 at an earlier period1     
stipulated1 in case of the extinction of
 the elder and legitimate line1 for the 
restoration of the ,pfalz 7,heidelberg  
and ,mannheim71 which had1 in #ahaf1    
been secured to her by a treaty with    
,austria4 ,the grandduke1 ,louis1 had   
protested against this measure and had1 
in #ahag1 declared ,baden indivisible4  
,bavaria finally relinquished her claims
 on the payment of two million florins  
7#aff1fff #acs4 #d;d47 and the cession  
of the bailiwick of ,steinfeld1 to which
 ,austria moreover added the county of  

,geroldseck4 ,the new grandduke1 who was
 surnamed the citizen's friend1 behaved 
with extreme liberality and consequently
 went hand in hand with the first       
chamber1 of which ,wessenberg and       
,prince von ,furstenberg were active    
members1 and with the second1 at the    
head of which stood ,professors         
,rotteck1 ,welcker1 and von ,itzstein4  
,rotteck proposed and carried through   
the abolition of capital punishment as  
alone worthy of feudal times1 and1 on   
,welcker's motion1 censorship was       
abolished and a law for the press was   
passed4 ,the federal assembly1 however1 
speedily checked these reforms4 ,the    
grandduke was compelled to repeal the   
law for the press1 the ,freiburg        
university was for some time closed1    
,professors ,rotteck and ,welcker were  
suspended1 and their newspaper1 the     
,freisinnige or liberal1 was suppressed 
in #ahcb4 ,rotteck was1 notwithstanding1
 at feud with the ,hambachers1 and had  
raised the ,baden flag above that of    

,germany at a national fete at          
,badenweiler4 ,this extremely popular   
deputy1 who had been presented with     
thirteen silver cups in testimony of the
 affection with which he was regarded by
 the people1 afterward protested against
 the resolutions of the confederation1  
but his motion was violently suppressed 
by the minister1 ,winter4 ,the ,baden   
chamber1 nevertheless1 still retained a 
good deal of energy1 and1 after the     
death of ,rotteck1 in #ahda1 a violent  
contest was carried on concerning the   
rights of election4  ,in                
,hesse-,darmstadt1 the ,estates again   
met in #ahcb2 the liberal majority in   
the second chamber1 led by von ,gagern1 
,e4 ,e4 ,hoffmann1 ,hallwachs1 etc41    
protested against the resolutions of the
 confederation1 and the chamber was     
dissolved4 ,a fresh election took place1
 notwithstanding which the chamber was  
again dissolved in #ahcd1 on account of 
the government being charged with party 
spirit by von ,gagern and the refusal of

 the chamber to call him to order4 ,the 
people afterward elected a majority of  
submissive members4  ,in ,hesse-,cassel 
the popular demonstrations were         
instantly followed by the convocation of
 the ,estates and the proposal of a new 
and stipulated constitution1 which      
received the sanction of the chambers as
 early as ,january1 #ahca2 but1 amid the
 continual disturbances1 and on account 
of the disinclination of the prince     
co-regent to the liberal reforms1 the   
chamber1 of which the talented          
professor1 ,jordan of ,marburg1 was the 
most distinguished member1 yielded1     
notwithstanding its perseverance1 after 
two rapidly successive dissolutions1 in 
#ahcb and #ahcc1 to the influence of the
 7once liberal7 minister1 ,hassenpflug1 
and ,jordan quitted the scene of        
contest4 ,hassenpflug's tyrannical      
behavior and the lapse of               
,hesse-,rotenburg 7the mediatized       
collateral line1 which became extinct   
with the ,landgrave ,victor in #ahcd71  

the revenues of which were appropriated 
as personal property by the prince      
elector instead of being declared state 
property1 fed the opposition in the     
chambers1 which was1 notwithstanding the
 menaces of the prince elector1 carried 
on until #ahch4 ,hassenpflug threw up   
office4  ,in ,nassau1 the duke1         
,william1 fell into a violent dispute   
with the ,estates4 ,the second chamber1 
after vainly soliciting the restitution 
of the rich demesnes1 appropriated by   
the duke as private property1 on the    
ground of their being state property1   
and the application of their revenue to 
the payment of the state debts1 refused1
 in the autumn of #ahca1 to vote the    
taxes4 ,the first chamber1 in which the 
duke had the power of raising at will a 
majority in his favor by the creation of
 fresh members1 protested against the   
conduct of the second1 which in return  
protested against that of the first and 
suspended its proceedings until their   
constitutional rights should have       

received full recognition2 five of the  
deputies1 however1 again protested      
against the suspension of the           
proceedings of the chamber and voted the
 taxes during the absence of the        
majority4 ,the majority again protested1
 but became entangled in a political    
lawsuit1 and ,herber1 the gray-headed   
president1 was confined in the fortress 
of ,marxburg4  ,in ,brunswick1 a good   
understanding prevailed between ,william
 the new duke1 and the ,estates1 which  
were1 however1 accused of having an     
aristocratic tendency by the democratic 
party4 ,their sittings continued to be  
held in secret4  ,in ,saxony1 the       
long-wished-for reforms1 above all1 the 
grant of a new constitution1 were       
realized1 owing to the influence of the 
popular co-regent1 added to that of     
,lindenau1 the highly-esteemed minister1
 and of the newly-elected ,estates1 in  
#ahca4 ,the law of censorship1          
nevertheless1 continued to be enforced  
with extreme severity1 which also marked

 the treatment of the political         
prisoners4 ,count ,hohenthal and ,baron 
,watzdorf1 who seized every opportunity 
to put in protestations1 even against   
the resolutions of the confederation1   
evinced the most liberal spirit4 ,on the
 demise of the aged king1 ,antony1 in   
#ahce1 and the accession of the         
co-regent1 ,frederick1 to the throne1   
the political movements totally ceased4 
,holstein and ,schleswig had also1 as   
early as #ahbc1 solicited the           
restitution of their ancient            
constitutional rights1 which the king1  
,frederick ,,iv41 delayed to grant4     
,lornsen1 the councillor of chancery1   
was arrested in #ahcj1 for attempting to
 agitate the people4 ,separate          
provincial diets were1 notwithstanding1 
decreed1 in #ahca1 for ,holstein and    
,schleswig1 although both provinces     
urgently demanded their union4          
,frederick ,,iv4 expired in #ahci and   
was succeeded by his cousin1 ,christian4
  ,immediately after the revolution of  

,july1 the princes of ,oldenburg1       
,altenburg1 ,coburg1 ,meiningen1 and    
,schwarzburg-,sondershausen made a      
public appeal to the confidence of their
 subjects1 whom they called upon to lay 
before them their grievances1 etc4      
,augustus1 duke of ,oldenburg1 who had  
assumed the title of grandduke1         
proclaimed a constitution1 but shortly  
afterward withdrew his promise and      
strictly forbade his subjects to annoy  
him by recalling it to his remembrance4 
,the prince von ,sondershausen also     
refused the hoped-for constitution4 ,in 
,sigmaringen1 ,altenburg1 and ,meiningen
 the constitutional movement was1 on the
 contrary1 countenanced and encouraged  
by the princes4 ,pauline1 the           
liberal-minded princess of              
,lippe-,detmold1 had already drawn up a 
constitution for her petty territory    
with her own hand1 when the nobility    
rose against it1 and1 aided by the      
federal assembly1 compelled her to      
withdraw it4  ,in the autumn of #ahcc1  

the emperor of ,russia held a conference
 with the king of ,prussia at           
,munchen-,gratz1 whither the emperor of 
,austria also repaired4 ,a ,german      
ministerial congress assembled          
immediately afterward at ,vienna1 and   
the first of its resolutions was made   
public late in the autumn of #ahcd4 ,it 
announced the establishment of a court  
of arbitration1 empowered1 as the       
highest court of appeal1 to decide all  
disputes between the governments and    
their provincial ,estates4 ,the whole of
 the members of this court were to be   
nominated by the governments1 but the   
disputing parties were free to select   
their arbitrators from among the number4
  ,a fresh and violent constitutional   
battle was1 notwithstanding these       
precautions1 fought in ,hanover1 where  
,adolphus ,frederick1 duke of           
,cambridge1 had1 in the name of his     
brother1 ,william ,,iv41 king of        
,england1 established a new             
constitution1 which had received many   

ameliorations notwithstanding the       
inefficiency of the liberals1           
,christiani1 ,luntzel1 etc41 to         
counteract the overpowering influence of
 the monarchical and aristocratic party4
 ,william ,,iv41 king of ,england and   
,hanover1 expired in #ahcg1 and was     
succeeded on the throne of ,great       
,britain by ,victoria ,alexandrina1 the 
daughter of his younger and deceased    
brother1 ,edward1 duke of ,kent1 and of 
the ,princess ,victoria of              
,saxe-,coburg2 and on that of ,hanover1 
which was solely heritable in the male  
line1 by his second brother1 ,ernest1   
duke of ,cumberland1 the leader of the  
,tory party in ,england4 ,no sooner had 
this new sovereign set his foot on      
,german soil#b than he repealed the     
constitution granted to ,hanover in     
#ahcc and ordained the restoration of   
the former one of #ahai1 drawn up in a  
less liberal but more monarchical and   
aristocratic spirit4 ,among the         
protestations made against this coup    

d'tat1 that of the seven ,gttingen      
professors1 the two brothers1 ,grimm1 to
 whom the ,german language and          
antiquarian research are so deeply      
indebted1 ,dahlmann1 ,gervinus1 ,ewald1 
,weber1 and ,albrecht1 is most worthy of
 record4 ,their instant dismission      
produced an insurrection among the      
students1 which was1 after a good deal  
of bloodshed1 quelled by the military4  
,in the beginning of #ahch1 the ,estates
 were convoked according to the articles
 of the constitution of #ahai for the   
purpose of taking a constitution1 drawn 
up under the dictation of the king1     
under deliberation4 ,many of the towns  
refused to elect deputies1 and some of  
those elected were not permitted to take
 their seats4 ,the city of ,osnabruck   
protested in the federal assembly4      
,notwithstanding this1 the ,estates     
meanwhile assembled1 but declared       
themselves incompetent1 regarding       
themselves simply in the light of an    
arbitrative committee1 and1 as such1    

threw out the constitution presented by 
the king1 ,june1 #ahch4 ,the federal    
assembly remained passive4#c ,in #ahci1 
,schele1 the minister1 finally          
succeeded1 by means of menaces and      
bribery1 and by arbitrarily calling into
 the chamber the ministerial candidates 
who had received the minority of votes  
during the elections1 in collecting so  
many deputies devoted to his party as   
were requisite in order to form the     
chamber and to pass resolutions4 ,the   
city of ,hanover hereupon brought before
 the federal assembly a petition for    
redress and a list of grievances in     
which ,schele's chamber was described as
 unworthy of the name of a              
constitutional representative assembly1 
void of confidence1 unpossessed of the  
public esteem1 and unrecognized by the  
country4 ,the king instantly divested   
,rumann1 the city director1 of his      
office1 but so far yielded to the       
magistrate1 to whom he gave audience in 
the palace and who was followed by      

crowds of the populace1 as to revoke the
 nomination1 already declared illegal1  
of ,rumann's successor1 and to promise  
that the matter at issue should be      
brought before the common tribunal      
instead of the council of state1 ,july  
#agth4 ,numerous other cities1          
corporations of landed proprietors1     
etc41 also followed the example set by  
,hanover and laid their complaints      
before the federal assembly1 which      
hereupon declared that1 according to the
 laws of the confederation1 it found no 
cause for interference1 but at the same 
time advised the king to come to an     
understanding consistent with the rights
 of the crown and of the ,estates1 with 
the present ,estates 7unrecognized by   
the democratic party71 concerning the   
form of the constitution4 ,in the       
federal assembly1 ,wurtemberg and       
,bavaria1 most particularly1 voted in   
favor of the ,hanoverians4 ,professor   
,ewald was appointed to the university  
of ,tubingen2 ,albrecht1 at a later     

period1 to that of ,leipzig2 the        
brothers ,grimm1 to that of ,berlin2    
,dahlmann1 to that of ,bonn4 ,among the 
assembled ,estates1 those of ,baden1    
,wurtemberg1 and ,saxony most warmly    
espoused the cause of the people of     
,hanover1 but1 as was natural1 without  
result4#d  ,in #ahdj1 the king convoked 
a fresh diet4 ,the people refused to    
elect members1 and it was solely by     
means of intrigue that a small number of
 deputies 7not half the number fixed by 
law7 were assembled1 creatures of the   
minister1 ,schele1 who were disowned by 
the people in addresses couched in the  
most energetic terms 7the address       
presented by the citizens of ,osnabruck 
was the most remarkable7 and their      
proceedings were protested against4     
,this petty assembly1 nevertheless1 took
 under deliberation and passed a new    
constitution1 against which the cities  
and the country again protested4 ,the   
king also declared his only son1        
,george1 who was afflicted with         

blindness1 capable of governing and of  
succeeding to the throne4   ,footnote   
#a3 ,thiersch1 the ,bavarian            
court-councillor1 one of the most       
distinguished connoisseurs of ,grecian  
antiquity1 who visited ,greece shortly  
after ,heideck and before the arrival of
 the king1 was received by the modern   
,greeks with touching demonstrations of 
delight4 ,no nation has so deeply       
studied1 so deeply become imbued with   
,grecian lore1 as that of ,germany1 and 
the close connection formed1 on the     
accession of the ,bavarian ,otto to the 
throne of ,greece1 between her sons and 
the children of that classic land1      
justifies the proudest expectations4    
,footnote #b3 ,he did not restore the   
whole of the crown property that had1 at
 an earlier period1 been carried away to
 ,england4 ,a considerable portion of   
the crown jewels had been taken away by 
,george ,i41 and when1 in #ahjb1 the    
,french occupied ,hanover1 the whole of 
the movable crown property1 even the    

great stud1 was sent to ,england4 ,on   
the demise of ,george ,,iii41 the crown 
jewels were divided among the princes of
 the ,english house4--,copied from the  
,courier of ,august1 #ahch4  ,footnote  
#c3 ,the ,darmstadt government declared 
to the second chamber1 on its bringing  
forward a motion for the intercession of
 ,darmstadt with the federal assembly in
 favor of the legality of the ancient   
constitution then in force in ,hanover1 
that the grandduke would never tolerate 
any cooperation on the part of the      
,estates with his vote in the federal   
assembly4  ,footnote #d3 ,this defeat   
is1 however1 not to be lamented3 the    
battle for the separate constitutions   
has not been fought in vain if ,german  
nationality spring from the wreck of    
,german separatism1 if we are taught    
that without a liberal federal          
constitution liberal provincial         
constitutions are impossible in         
,germany4--,pfizer4    ,,cclxxi4        
,austria and ,prince ,mettenich         

,austria might1 on the fall of          
,napoleon1 have maintained ,alsace1     
,lorraine1 the ,breisgau1 and the whole 
of the territory of the ,upper ,rhine in
 the same manner in which ,prussia had  
maintained that of the ,lower ,rhine1   
had she not preferred the preservation  
of her rule in ,italy and rendered her  
position in ,germany subordinate to her 
station as a ,european power4 ,this     
policy is explained by the peculiar     
circumstances of the ,austrian state1   
which had for centuries comprised within
 itself nations of the most distinct    
character1 and the population of whose  
provinces were by far the greater part  
,slavonian1 ,hungarian1 and ,italian1   
the great minority ,german4 ,by this    
policy she lost1 as the ,prussian       
,customs' ,union has also again proved1 
much of her influence over ,germany1    
while1 on the other hand1 she secured it
 the more firmly in ,southern and       
,eastern ,europe4 ,austria has long made
 a gradual and almost unperceived       

advance from the northwest in a         
southeasterly direction4 ,in ,germany   
she has continually lost ground4        
,switzerland1 the ,netherlands1 ,alsace1
 ,lorraine1 the ,swabian counties1      
,lusatia1 ,silesia1 have one by one been
 severed from her1 while her non-,german
 possessions have as continually been   
increased1 by the addition of ,hungary1 
,transylvania1 ,galicia1 ,dalmatia1 and 
,upper ,italy4  ,the contest carried on 
between ,austria1 the ,french           
,revolution1 and ,napoleon1 has at all  
events left deep and still visible      
traces2 the characters of the emperor   
,francis and of his chancellor of state1
 ,prince ,metternich1 that perfect      
representative of the aristocracy of    
,europe1 sympathize also as closely with
 the ,austrian system as the character  
of the emperor ,joseph was              
antipathetical to it4 ,this system      
dates1 however1 earlier than those      
revolutionary struggles1 and has already
 outlived at least one of its           

supporters4  ,austria is the only great 
state in ,europe that comprises so many 
diverse but well-poised nationalities   
within its bosom2 in all the other great
 states1 one nation bears the           
preponderance4 ,to this circumstance may
 be ascribed her peaceful policy1 every 
great war threatening her with the      
revolt of some one of the foreign       
nations subordinate to her sceptre4 ,to 
this may1 moreover1 be ascribed the     
tenacity with which she upholds the     
principle of legitimacy4 ,the historical
 hereditary right of the reigning       
dynasty forms the sole but ideal tie by 
which the diverse and naturally inimical
 nations beneath her rule are linked    
together4 ,for the same reason1 the     
concentration of talent in the          
government contrasts1 in ,austria1 more 
violently with the obscurantism of the  
provinces than in any other state4 ,not 
only does the overpowering intelligence 
of the chancery of state awe the nations
 beneath its rule1 but the proverbial   

good nature and patriarchal cordiality  
of the imperial family win every heart4 
,the army is a mere machine in the hands
 of the government2 a standing army1 in 
which the soldier serves for life or for
 the period of twenty years1 during     
which he necessarily loses all sympathy 
with his fellow-citizens1 and which is  
solely reintegrated from militia whom   
this privilege renders still more       
devoted to the government4 ,the         
pretorian spirit usually prevalent in   
standing armies has been guarded against
 in ,austria by there being no guards1  
and all sympathy between the military   
and the citizens of the various         
provinces whence they were drawn is at  
once prevented by the ,hungarian troops 
being sent into ,italy1 the ,italian    
troops into ,galicia1 etc41 etc4 ,the   
nationality of the private soldier is   
checked by the ,germanism of the        
subalterns and by the ,austrianism of   
the staff4 ,besides the power thus      
everywhere visible1 there exists another

 partially invisible1 that of the       
police1 in connection with a censorship 
of the severest description1 which keeps
 a guard over the inadvertencies of the 
tongue as well as over those of the     
press4 ,the people are1 on the other    
hand1 closely bound up with the         
government and interested in the        
maintenance of the existing state of    
affairs by the paper currency1 on the   
value of which the welfare of every     
subject in the state depends4  ,to a    
government thus strong in concentrated  
power and intelligence stands opposed   
the mass of nations subject to the      
,austrian sceptre whose natural         
antipathies have been artfully fostered 
and strengthened4 ,in ,austria the      
distinctions of class1 characteristic of
 the ,middle ,ages1 are still preserved4
 ,the aristocracy and the clergy possess
 an influence almost unknown in         
,germany1 but solely over the people1   
not over the government4 ,as corporative
 bodies they still are1 as in the days  

of ,charles ,,vi41 convoked for the     
purpose of holding postulate diets1     
whose power1 with the exception of that 
of the ,hungarian diet1 is merely       
nominal4 ,the nobility1 even in         
,hungary1 as everywhere else throughout 
the ,austrian states 7more particularly 
since the ,spanish system adopted by    
,ferdinand ,,ii471 is split into two    
inimical classes1 those of the higher   
and lower aristocracy4 ,even in         
,galicia1 where the ,polish nobility    
formed1 at an earlier period and        
according to earlier usage1 but one     
body1 the distinction of a higher and   
lower class has been introduced since   
the occupation of that country by       
,austria4 ,the high aristocracy are     
either bound by favors1 coincident with 
their origin1 to the court1 the great   
majority among them consisting of       
families on whom nobility was conferred 
by ,ferdinand ,,ii41 or they are1 if    
families belonging to the more powerful 
and more ancient national aristocracy1  

as1 for instance1 that of ,esterhazy in 
,hungary1 brought by the bestowal of    
fresh favors into closer affinity with  
the court and drawn within its sphere4  
,the greater proportion of the          
aristocracy consequently reside at      
,vienna4 ,the lower nobility make their 
way chiefly by talent and perseverance  
in the army and the civil offices1 and  
are therefore naturally devoted to the  
government1 on which all their hopes in 
life depend4 ,the clergy1 although      
permitted to retain the whole of their  
ancient pomp and their influence over   
the minds of the people1 have been      
rendered dependent upon the government1 
a point easily gained1 the pope being   
principally protected by ,austria4  ,the
 care of the government for the material
 welfare of the people cannot be denied2
 it is1 however1 frustrated by two      
obstacles raised by its own system4 ,the
 maintenance of the high aristocracy is1
 for instance1 antipathetic to the      
welfare of the subject1 and1 although   

comfort and plenty abound in the        
immediate vicinity of ,vienna1 the      
population on the enormous estates of   
the magnates in the provinces often     
present a lamentable contrast4 ,the     
,austrian government moreover prohibits 
all free intercourse with foreign parts1
 and the old- fashioned system of       
taxation1 senseless as many other       
existing regulations1 entirely puts a   
stop to all free trade between ,hungary 
and ,austria4 ,consequently1 the new and
 grand modes of communication1 the      
,franzen ,canal1 that unites the ,danube
 and the ,thiess1 the ,louisenstrasse1  
between ,carlstadt and ,fiume1 the      
magnificent road to ,trieste1 the       
admirable road across the rocks of the  
,stilfser ,jock1 and1 more than all1 the
 steam navigation as far as the mouths  
of the ,danube and the railroads1 will  
be unavailing to scatter the blessings  
of commerce and industry so long as     
these wretched prohibitions continue to 
be enforced4  ,austria has1 in regard to

 her foreign policy1 left the increasing
 influence of ,russia in ,poland1       
,persia1 and ,turkey unopposed1 and even
 allowed the mouths of the ,danube to be
 guarded by ,russian fortresses1 while  
she has1 on the other hand1             
energetically repelled the interference 
of ,france in the affairs of ,italy4    
,the ,july revolution induced a popular 
insurrection in the dominions of the    
,church1 and the ,french threw a        
garrison into the citadel of ,ancona2   
the ,austrians1 however1 instantly      
entered the country and enforced the    
restoration of the anien rgime4 ,in     
,lombardy1 many ameliorations were      
introduced and the prosperity of the    
country promoted by the ,austrian       
administration1 notwithstanding the     
national jealousy of the inhabitants4   
,venice1 with her choked-up harbor1     
could1 it is true1 no longer compete    
with ,trieste4 ,the ,german element has 
gained ground in ,galicia by means of   
the public authorities and the          

immigration of agriculturists and       
artificers4 ,the ,hungarians endeavored 
to render their language the common     
medium throughout ,hungary1 and to expel
 the ,german element1 but their         
apprehension of the numerous ,slavonian 
population of ,hungary1 whom religious  
sympathy renders subject to ,russian    
influence1 has speedily reconciled them 
with the ,germans4 ,slavonism has1 on   
the other hand1 also gained ground in   
,bohemia4  ,the emperor1 ,francis ,i41  
expired in #ahce1 and was succeeded by  
his son1 ,ferdinand ,i41 without a      
change taking place in the system of the
 government1 of which ,prince           
,metternich continued to be the         
directing principle4  ,the decease of   
some of the heads of foreign royal      
families and the marriages of their     
successors again placed several ,german 
princes on foreign thrones4 ,the last of
 the ,guelphs on the throne of ,great   
,britain expired with ,william ,,iv41   
whose niece and successor1 ,victoria    

,alexandrina1 wedded1 #ahdj1 ,albert of 
,saxe-,coburg1 second son of ,ernest1   
the reigning duke4 ,that the descendant 
of the steadfast elector should1 after  
such adverse fortune1 be thus destined  
to occupy the highest position in the   
reformed world1 is of itself remarkable4
 ,one of this prince's uncles1 ,leopold1
 is seated on the throne of ,belgium1   
and one of his cousins1 ,ferdinand1 on  
that of ,portugal1 in right of his      
consort1 ,donna ,maria da ,gloria1 the  
daughter of ,dom ,pedro1 king of        
,portugal and emperor of the ,brazils1  
to whom1 on the expulsion of the        
usurper1 ,dom ,miguel1 he was wedded in 
#ahce4 ,these princes of ,coburg are    
remarkable for manly beauty4  ,the      
antipathy with which the new dynasty on 
the throne of ,france was generally     
viewed rendered ,ferdinand1 ,duke of    
,orleans1 ,louis ,philippe's eldest son1
 for some time an unsuccessful suitor   
for the hand of a ,german princess2 he  
at length conducted ,helena1 princess of

 ,mecklenburg-,schwerin1 although       
against the consent of her stepfather1  
,paul ,frederick1 the reigning duke1 to 
,paris in #ahcg1 as future queen of the 
,french4 ,he was killed in #ahdb1 by a  
fall from his carriage1 and left two    
infant sons1 the ,count of ,paris and   
the ,duke of ,chartres4 ,the ,czarowitz1
 ,alexander1 espoused ,maria1 ,princess 
of ,darmstadt4  ,the ,french chambers   
and journals have reassumed toward      
,germany the tone formerly affected by  
,napoleon1 and1 with incessant cries for
 war1 in which1 in #ahdj1 the voice of  
the prime minister ,thiers joined1      
demand the restoration of the left bank 
of the ,rhine4 ,thiers was1 however1    
compelled to resign office1 and the     
close alliance between ,austria1        
,prussia1 and the whole of the          
confederated princes1 as well as the    
feeling universally displayed throughout
 ,germany1 demonstrated the energy with 
which an attack on the side of ,france  
would be repelled4 ,the erection of the 

long-forgotten federal fortresses on the
 ,upper ,rhine was also taken at length 
under consideration1 and it was resolved
 to fortify both ,rastadt and ,ulm      
without further delay4  ,nor have the   
statesmen of ,france failed to threaten 
,germany with a ,russo-,gallic alliance 
in the spirit of the ,erfurt congress of
 #ahjh2 while ,russia perseveres in the 
prohibitory system so prejudicial to    
,german commerce1 attempts to suppress  
every spark of ,german nationality in   
,livonia1 ,courland1 and ,esthonia1 and 
fosters ,panslavism1 or the union of all
 the ,slavonic nations for the          
subjection of the world1 among the      
,slavonian subjects of ,austria in      
,hungaria and ,bohemia4 ,the extension  
of the ,greek church is also connected  
with this idea4 ,the ,european          
,pentarchy1 a work that attracted much  
attention in #ahci1 insolently boasts   
how ,russia1 in defiance of ,austria1   
has seized the mouths of the ,danube1   
has wedged herself1 as it were1 by means

 of ,poland1 between ,austria and       
,prussia1 in a position equally         
threatening to both1 recommends the     
minor states of ,germany to seek the    
protection of ,russia1 and darkly hints 
at the alliance between that power and  
,france4  ,nor are the prospects of     
,germany alone threatened by ,france and
 ,russia2 disturbances1 like a fantastic
 renewal of the horrors of the ,middle  
,age1 are ready to burst forth on the   
other side of the ,alps1 as though1     
according to the ancient saga of        
,germany1 the dead were about to rise in
 order to mingle in the last great      
contest between the gods and mankind4   
,,cclxxii4 ,prussia and ,rome   ,while  
,austria remains stationary1 ,prussia   
progresses4 ,while ,austria relies for  
support upon the aristocracy of the     
,estates1 ,prussia relies for hers upon 
the people1 that is to say1 upon the    
public officers taken from the mass of  
the population1 upon the citizens       
emancipated by the city regulation1 upon

 the peasantry emancipated by the       
abolition of servitude1 of all the other
 agricultural imposts1 and by the       
division of property1 and upon the      
enrolment of both classes in the        
,landwehr4 ,while ,austria1 in fine1    
renders her ,german policy subordinate  
to her ,european diplomacy1 the         
influence exercised by ,prussia upon    
,europe depends1 on the contrary1 solely
 upon that possessed by her in ,germany4
  ,prussia's leading principle appears  
to be1 ,all for the people1 nothing     
through the people6 ,hence the greatest 
solicitude for the instruction of the   
people1 whether in the meanest schools  
or the universities1 but under strict   
political control1 under the severest   
censorship2 hence the emancipation of   
the peasantry1 civic self-              
administration1 freedom of trade1 the   
general arming of the people1 and1 with 
all these1 mere nameless provincial     
diets1 the most complete popular liberty
 on the widest basis without a          

representation worthy of the name2      
hence1 finally1 the greatest solicitude 
for the promotion of trade on a grand   
scale1 for the revival of the commerce  
of ,germany1 which has lain prostrate   
since the great wars of the             
,reformation1 for the mercantile unity  
of ,germany1 while it is exactly in     
,prussia that political ,unitarians are 
the most severely punished4  ,the great 
measures were commenced in ,prussia     
immediately after the disaster of #ahjf3
 first1 the reorganization of the army  
and the abolition of the privileges of  
the aristocracy in respect to           
appointments and the possession of      
landed property2 these were1 in #ahjh1  
succeeded by the celebrated civic       
regulation which placed the civic       
administration in the hands of the city 
deputies freely elected by the citizens2
 in #ahaj1 by freedom of trade and by   
the foundation of the new universities  
of ,berlin 7instead of ,halle71 of      
,breslau 7instead of ,frankfort on the  

,oder71 and1 in #ahai1 of ,bonn1 by     
which means the libraries1 museums1 and 
scientific institutions of every        
description were centralized2 in #ahad1 
by the common duty imposed upon every   
individual of every class1 without      
exception1 to bear arms and to do       
service in the ,landwehr up to his      
thirty-ninth year2 in #ahba1 by the     
regulation for the division of communes2
 and1 in #ahbb1 by the extra post4  ,in 
respect to the popular representation   
guaranteed by the federal act1 ,prussia 
announced1 on the #bb;d of ,may1 #ahae1 
her intention to form provincial diets1 
from among whose members the general    
representation or imperial diet1 which  
was to be held at ,berlin1 was to be    
elected4 ,when the ,rhenish provinces   
urged the fulfilment of this promise in 
the ,coblentz address of #ahag1 the     
reply was1 ,those who admonish the king 
are guilty of doubting the inviolability
 of his word4 ,prussia afterward        
declared that the new regulations would 

be in readiness by the ,february of     
#ahai4 ,on the #bjth of ,january1 #ahbj1
 an edict was published by the          
government1 the first paragraph of which
 fixed the public debt at #ahj1jia1gbj1a
 and the second one rendered the        
contraction of every fresh debt         
dependent upon the will of the future   
imperial diet4#b ,the definitive        
regulations in respect to the provincial
 ,estates were finally published on the 
#eth of ,june1 #ahbc1 but the           
convocation of a general diet was passed
 over in silence4  ,the prosperity of   
the nations of ,germany1 wrecked by the 
great wars of the ,reformation1 must and
 will gradually return4 ,prussia has    
inherited all the claims upon1 and      
consequently all the duties owing to    
,germany4 ,still the general position of
 ,germany is not sufficiently favorable 
to render the renovation of her ancient 
,hanseatic commerce possible4#c ,it is  
to be deplored that the attachment of   
the ,prussian cabinet to ,russian policy

 has not at all events modified the     
commercial restrictions along the whole 
of the eastern frontier of ,prussia1#d  
and that ,prussia has not been able to  
effect more with ,holland in regard to  
the question concerning the free        
navigation of the ,rhine4#e ,prussia    
has1 on the other hand1 deserved the    
gratitude of ,germany for the zeal with 
which she promoted the settlement of the
 ,customs' ,union1 which has1 at least  
in the interior of ,germany1 removed the
 greater part of the restrictions upon  
commercial intercourse1 and has a       
tendency to spread still further4       
,throughout the last transactions1      
partly of the ,customs' ,union1 partly  
of ,prussia alone1 with ,england and    
,holland1 a vain struggle against those 
maritime powers is perceptible4 ,england
 trades with ,germany from every harbor 
and in every kind of commodity1 while   
,german vessels are restricted to home  
produce and are only free to trade with 
,england from their own ports4 ,holland 

finds a market for her colonial wares in
 ,germany1 and1 instead of taking       
,german manufactured goods in exchange1 
provides herself from ,england1 throws  
,english goods into ,germany1 and1 in   
lieu of being1 as she ought to be1 the  
great emporium of ,germany1 is content  
to remain a mere huge ,english factory4 
,the ,hanse towns have also been        
converted into mercantile depots for    
,english goods on ,german soil4  ,the   
misery consequent on the great wars1 and
 the powerful reaction against          
,gallicism throughout ,germany1 once    
more caused despised religion to be     
reverenced in the age of philosophy4    
,prussia deemed herself called upon1 as 
the inheritor of the ,reformation       
brought about by ,luther1 as the        
principal ,protestant power of ,germany1
 to assume a prominent position in the  
religious movement of the time4         
,frederick ,william ,,iii41 a sovereign 
distinguished for piety1 appears1       
immediately after the great wars1 to    

have deemed the conciliation of the     
various sects of ,christians within his 
kingdom feasible4 ,he1 nevertheless1    
merely succeeded in effecting a union   
between the ,lutherans and ,calvinists4 
,he also bestowed a new liturgy upon    
this united church1 which was censured  
as partial1 as proceeding too directly  
from the cabinet without being          
sanctioned by the concurrence of the    
assembled clergy and of the people4     
,some ,lutherans1 who refused           
compliance1 were treated with extreme   
severity and compelled to emigrate2 the 
utility of a union which1 two centuries 
earlier1 would have saved ,germany from 
ruin1 was1 however1 generally           
acknowledged4 ,it nevertheless was not  
productive of unity in the ,protestant  
world4 ,in the universities and among   
the clergy1 two parties1 the            
,rationalists and the ,supernaturalists1
 stood opposed to one another4 ,the     
former1 the disciples of the old        
,neologians1 still followed the         

philosophy of ,kant1 merely regarded    
,christianity as a code of moral        
philosophy1 denominated ,christ a wise  
teacher1 and explained away his miracles
 by means of physics4 ,the latter1 the  
followers of the old orthodox           
,lutherans1 sought to confirm the truths
 of the gospel also by philosophical    
means1 and were denominated             
,supernaturalists1 as believers in a    
mystery surpassing the reasoning powers 
of man4 ,the celebrated ,schleiermacher 
of ,berlin mediated for some time       
between both parties4 ,but it was in    
,prussia more particularly that both    
parties stood more rigidly opposed to   
one another and fell into the greatest  
extremes4  ,the ,rationalists were      
supplanted by the ,pantheists1 the      
disciples of ,hegel1 the ,berlin        
philosopher1 who at length formally     
declared war against ,christianity2 the 
,supernaturalists were here and there   
outdone by the ,pietists1 whose         
enthusiasm degenerated into             

licentiousness4#f ,the king had1        
notwithstanding his piety1 been led to  
believe that ,hegel merely taught the   
students unconditional obedience to the 
state1 and that ,pantheist was          
consequently permitted to spread1 under 
the protection of ,prussia1 his         
senseless doctrine of deified humanity1 
the same formerly proclaimed by         
,anacharsis ,cloote in the ,french      
,convention4 ,when too late1 the gross  
deception practiced by this sophist was 
perceived3 his disciples threw off their
 troublesome mask1 with ,dr4 ,strauss1  
who had been implicated in the ,zurich  
disturbances1 at their head1 openly     
renounced ,christianity1 and1 at ,halle1
 led by ,ruge1 the journalist1 embraced 
the social revolutionary ideas of ,young
 ,france1 to which almost the whole of  
the younger journalists of literary     
,young ,germany acceded2 nor was this   
,gallic reaction1 this retrogression    
toward the philosophical ideas of the   
foregoing century1 without its cause1   

,german patriotism1 which1 from #ahae to
 #ahai1 had predominated in every       
university throughout ,prussia1 having  
been forcibly suppressed4 ,hegel1 on his
 appearance in ,berlin1 was generally   
regarded as the man on whom the task of 
diverting the enthusiasm of the rising  
generation for ,germany into another    
channel devolved4#g ,everything ,german 
had been treated with ridicule4#h       
,french fashions and ,french ideas had  
once more come into vogue4  ,while      
,protestant ,germany was thus torn1     
weakened1 and degraded by schism1 the   
religious movement throughout ,catholic 
,germany insensibly increased in        
strength and unity4 ,the adverse fate of
 the pope had1 on his deliverance from  
the hands of ,napoleon1 excited a       
feeling of sympathy and reverence so    
universal as to be participated in by   
even the ,protestant powers of ,europe4 
,he had1 as early as #ahad1 reinstated  
the ,jesuits without a remonstrance on  
the part of the sovereigns by whom they 

had formerly been condemned4 ,the       
ancient spirit of the ,romish church had
 revived4 ,a new edifice was to be      
raised on the thick-strewn ruins of the 
past4 ,in #ahag1 ,bavaria concluded a   
concordat with the pope for the         
foundation of the archbishopric of      
,munich with the three bishoprics of    
,augsburg1 ,passau1 and ,ratisbon1 and  
of the archbishopric of ,bamberg with   
the three bishoprics of ,wurzburg1      
,eichstadt1 and ,spires4 ,the king      
retained the right of presentation4 ,in 
#ahba1 ,prussia concluded a treaty by   
which the archbishopric of ,cologne with
 the three bishoprics of ,treves1       
,munster1 and ,paderborn1 the           
archbishopric of ,posen with ,culm1 and 
two independent bishoprics in ,breslau  
and ,ermeland were established4 ,the    
bishoprics of ,hildesheim and ,osnabruck
 were re-established in #ahbd by the    
concordat with ,hanover4 ,in            
southwestern ,germany1 the archbishopric
 of ,freiburg in the ,breisgau with the 

bishoprics of ,rotenburg on the ,neckar1
 ,limburg on the ,lahn1 ,mayence1 and   
,fulda arose4 ,in ,switzerland there    
remained four bishoprics1 ,freiburg in  
the ,uechtland1 ,solothurn1 ,coire1 and 
,st4 ,gall2 in ,alsace1 ,strasburg and  
,colmar4 ,in the ,netherlands1 the      
archbishopric of ,malines with the      
bishoprics of ,ghent1 ,liege1 and       
,namur4 ,in ,holland1 three ,jansenist  
bishoprics1 ,utrecht1 ,deventer1 and    
,haarlem1 are remarkable for having     
retained their independence of ,rome4   
,the renovated body of the church was   
inspired with fresh energy4 ,on the fall
 of the ,jesuits1 the other extreme1    
,illuminatism1 had raised its head1 but 
had been compelled to yield before a    
higher power and before the moral force 
of ,germany4 ,the majority of the       
,german ,catholics now clung to the idea
 that the regeneration of the abused and
 despised church was best to be attained
 by the practice of evangelical         
simplicity and morality1 that ,jesuitism

 and ,illuminatism were1 consequently1  
to be equally avoided1 and the better   
disposed among the ,protestants to be   
imitated4 ,sailer1 the great teacher of 
the ,german clergy1 and ,wessenberg1    
whom ,rome on this account refused to   
raise to the bishopric of ,constance1   
acted upon this idea4 ,in ,silesia1 a   
number of youthful priests1 headed by   
,theimer1 impatient for the realization 
of the union1 apparently approaching1 of
 this moderate party with the equally   
moderately disposed party among the     
,protestants into one great ,german     
church1 took1 in #ahbe1 the bold step of
 renouncing celibacy4 ,this party was   
however instantly suppressed by force by
 the king of ,prussia4 ,theimer1 in     
revenge1 turned ,jesuit and wrote       
against ,prussia4 ,professors inclined  
to ,ultramontanism were1 meanwhile1     
installed in the universities1 more     
particularly at ,bonn1 ,munster and     
,tubingen1 by the ,protestant as well as
 the ,catholic governments2 by them the 

clerical students were industriously    
taught that they were not ,germans but  
subjects of ,rome1 and were flattered   
with the hope of one day participating  
in the supremacy about to be regained by
 the pontiff4 ,every priest inspired    
with patriotic sentiments1 or evincing  
any degree of tolerance toward his      
,protestant fellow citizens1 was        
regarded as guilty of betraying the     
interests of the church to the state and
 the tenets of the only true church to  
heretics4 ,gorres1 once ,germany's most 
spirited champion against ,france1 now  
appeared as the champion of ,rome in    
,germany4 ,the scandalous schisms in the
 ,protestant church and the no less     
scandalous controversies carried on in  
the ,protestant literary world rendered 
both contemptible1 and1 as in the       
commencement of the seventeenth century1
 appeared to offer a favorable          
opportunity for an attack on the part of
 the ,catholics4  ,a long-forgotten     
point in dispute was suddenly revived4  

,marriages between ,catholics and       
,protestants had hitherto been          
unhesitatingly sanctioned by the        
,catholic priesthood4 ,the ,prussian    
ordinance of #ahjc1 by which the father 
was empowered to decide the faith in    
which the children were to be brought   
up1 had1 on account of its conformity   
with nature and reason1 never been      
disputed4 ,numberless mixed marriages   
had taken place among all classes from  
the highest to the lowest without the   
slightest suspicion of wrong attaching  
thereto4 ,a papal brief of #ahcj now    
called to mind that the church          
tolerated1 it was true1 although she    
disapproved of mixed marriages1 which   
she permitted to take place solely on   
condition of the children being brought 
up in the ,catholic faith4 ,prussia had 
acted with little foresight4 ,instead   
of1 in #ahad1 on taking possession of   
the ,rhenish provinces and of           
,westphalia1 concluding a treaty with   
the then newly-restored pope1           

,hardenberg had1 as late as #ahbj1      
during a visit to ,borne1 merely entered
 upon a transient agreement1 by which   
,rome was bound to no concessions4 ,the 
war openly declared by ,rome was now    
attempted to be turned aside by means of
 petty and secret artifices4 ,several   
bishops1 in imitation of the precedent  
given by ,count von ,spiegel1 the       
peace-loving archbishop of ,cologne1    
secretly bound themselves to interpret  
the brief in the sense of the government
 and to adhere to the ordinance of      
#ahjc4 ,on ,spiegel's decease in #ahce1 
his successor1 the ,baron ,clement      
,augustus ,droste1 promised at          
,vischering1 prior to his presentation1 
strictly to adhere to this secret       
compact2 but1 scarcely had he mounted   
the archiepiscopal seat1 than his       
conscience forbade the fulfilment of his
 oath2 ,god was to be obeyed rather than
 man6 ,he prohibited the solemnization  
of mixed marriages within his diocese   
without the primary assurance of the    

education of the children in the        
,catholic faith1 compelled his clergy   
strictly to obey the commands of ,rome  
in points under dispute1 and suppressed 
the ,hermesian doctrine in the          
university of ,bonn4 ,the warnings      
secretly given by the government proved 
unavailing1 and he was1 in consequence1 
unexpectedly deprived of his office in  
the ,november of #ahcg1 arrested1 and   
imprisoned in the fortress of ,minden4  
,this arbitrary measure caused great    
excitement among the ,catholic          
population2 and the ancient dislike of  
the ,rhenish provinces to the rule of   
,prussia1 and the discontent of the     
,westphalian nobility on account of the 
emancipation of the peasantry1 again    
broke forth on this occasion4 ,gorres1  
in ,munich1 industriously fed the flame 
by means of his pamphlet1 ,athanasius4  
,dunin1 archbishop of ,gnesen and bishop
 of ,thorn1 followed the example of his 
brother of ,cologne1 was openly upheld  
by ,prussian ,poland1 was cited to      

,berlin1 fled thence1 was recaptured and
 detained for some time within the      
fortress of ,colberg1 in #ahci4--,the   
pope1 ,gregory ,,xvi41 solemnly declared
 his approbation of the conduct of these
 archbishops and rejected every offer of
 negotiation until their reinstallation 
in their dioceses4 ,a crowd of hastily  
established journals1 more especially in
 ,bavaria1 maintained their cause1 and  
were opposed by numberless ,protestant  
publications1 which generally proved    
injurious to the cause they strove to   
uphold1 being chiefly remarkable for    
base servility1 frivolity1 and          
infidelity4  ,on the demise of          
,frederick ,william ,,iii41 on the #gth 
of ,june1 #ahdj1 and the succession of  
his son1 ,frederick ,william ,,iv41 the 
church question was momentarily cast    
into the shade by that relating to the  
constitution4 ,constitutional ,germany  
demanded from the new sovereign the     
convocation of the imperial diet        
promised by his father4 ,the ,catholic  

party1 however1 conscious that it would 
merely form the minority in the diet1   
did not participate in the demand4#i    
,the constitution was solely demanded by
 ,protestant ,eastern ,prussia2 but the 
king declared1 during the ceremony of   
fealty at ,koenigsberg1 that he would   
never do homage to the idea of a general
 popular representation and would pursue
 a course based upon historical         
progression1 suitable to ,german        
nationality4 ,the provincial ,estates   
were shortly afterward instituted1 and  
separate diets were opened in each of   
the provinces4 ,this attracted little   
attention1 and the dispute with the     
church once more became the sole subject
 of interest4 ,it terminated in the     
complete triumph of the ,catholic party4
 ,in consequence of an agreement with   
the pope1 the brief of #ahbj remained in
 force1 ,dunin was reinstated1 ,droste  
received personal satisfaction by a     
public royal letter and a representative
 in ,cologne in von ,geissel1 hitherto  

bishop of ,spires4 ,the disputed        
election of the bishop of ,treves was   
also decided in favor of ,arnoldi1 the  
ultramontane candidate4  ,late in the   
autumn of #ahdb1 the king of ,prussia   
for the first time convoked the deputies
 selected from the provincial diets to  
,berlin4 ,he had1 but a short time      
before1 laid the foundation-stone to the
 completion of the ,cologne cathedral1  
and on that occasion1 moreover1 spoken  
words of deep import to the people1     
admonitory of unity to the whole of     
,germany4   ,footnote #a3 #bf1bfc1cge   
#afs4 #h;d4  ,footnote #b3 ,the         
,maritime ,commercial ,company1         
meanwhile1 entered into a contract4     
,footnote #c3 ,we have long since lost  
all our maritime power4 ,the only guns  
now fired by us at sea are as signals of
 distress4 ,who now remembers that it   
was the ,german ,hansa that first made  
use of cannons at sea1 that it was from 
,germans that the ,english learned to   
build men-of-war8--,john's ,nationality4

  ,footnote #d3 ,prussia1 of late1      
greatly contributed toward the          
aggrandizement of the power of ,russia  
by solemnly declaring in #ahbh1 when    
,russia extended her influence over     
,turkey1 that she would not on that     
account prevent ,russia from asserting  
her just claims1 a declaration that     
elicited bitter complaints from the     
,british government2 and again in #ahca1
 by countenancing the entry of the      
,russians into ,poland1 at that time in 
a state of insurrection4  ,footnote #e3 
,the reason of the backwardness         
displayed from the commencement by      
,prussia to act as the bulwark of       
,germany on the ,lower ,rhine is        
explained by ,stein in his letters3     
,hanoverian jealousy1 by which the      
narrow-minded ,castlereagh was guided1  
and1 generally speaking1 jealousy of the
 ,german ministerial clauses1 as if the 
existence of a ,mecklenburg were of     
greater importance to ,germany than that
 of a powerful warlike population1 alike

 famous in time of peace or war1        
presided over the settlement of the     
relation in which ,belgium was to stand 
to ,prussia4  ,footnote #f3 ,at         
,knigsberg1 in ,prussia1 a secret       
society was discovered which was partly 
composed of people of rank1 who1 under  
pretence of meeting for the exercise of 
religious duties1 gave way to the most  
wanton license4  ,footnote #g3 ,the     
police1 while attempting to lead        
science1 was unwittingly led by it4 ,the
 students were driven in crowds into    
,hegel's colleges1 his pupils were      
preferred to all appointments1 etc41 and
 every measure was taken to render that 
otherwise almost unnoted sophist as     
dangerous as possible4  ,footnote #h3   
,in this the ,jews essentially aided3   
,borne more in an anti-,german1 ,heine  
more in an anti-,christian1 spirit1 and 
were highly applauded by the simple and 
infatuated ,german youth4  ,footnote #i3
 ,grres even advised against it1        
although1 in #ahag1 he had acted the    

principal part on the presentation of   
the ,cologne address4    ,,cclxxiii4    
,the ,progress of ,science1 ,art1 and   
,practical ,knowledge in ,germany   ,in 
the midst of the misery entailed by war 
and amid the passions roused by party   
strife the sciences had attained to a   
height hitherto unknown4 ,the schools   
had never been neglected1 and immense   
improvements1 equally affecting the     
lowest of the popular schools and the   
colleges1 had been constantly           
introduced4 ,pestalozzi chiefly         
encouraged the proper education of the  
lower classes and improved the method of
 instruction4 ,the humanism of the      
learned academies 7the study of the dead
 languages7 went hand in hand with the  
realism of the professional             
institutions4 ,the universities1        
although often subjected to an overrigid
 system of surveillance and compelled to
 adopt a partial1 servile bias1 were1   
nevertheless1 generally free from a     
political tendency and incredibly       

promoted the study of all the sciences4 
,the mass of celebrated savants and of  
their works is too great to permit of   
more than a sketch of the principal     
features of modern ,german science4     
,the study of the classics1 predominant 
since the time of the ,reformation1 has 
been cast into the shade by the ,german 
studies1 by the deeper investigation of 
the language1 the law1 the history of   
our forefathers and of the romantic     
,middle ,age1 by the great ,catholic    
reaction1 and1 at the same time1 by the 
immense advance made in natural history1
 geography1 and universal history4 ,the 
human mind1 hitherto enclosed within a  
narrow sphere1 has burst its trammels to
 revel in immeasurable space4 ,the      
philosophy and empty speculations of the
 foregoing century have also disappeared
 before the mass of practical knowledge1
 and arrogant man1 convinced by science1
 once more bends his reasoning faculties
 in humble adoration of their ,creator4 
,the aristocracy of talent and learned  

professional pride have been            
overbalanced by a democratic press4 ,the
 whole nation writes1 and the individual
 writer is either swallowed up in the   
mass or gains but ephemeral fame4 ,every
 writer1 almost without exception1      
affects a popular style4 ,but1 in this  
rich literary field1 all springs up     
freely without connection or guidance4  
,no party is concentrated or represented
 by any reigning journal1 but each      
individual writes for himself1 and the  
immense number of journals published    
destroy each other's efficiency4 ,many  
questions of paramount importance are   
consequently lost in heaps of paper1 and
 the interest they at first excited     
speedily becomes weakened by endless    
recurrence4  ,theology shared in the    
movement above mentioned in the church4 
,the ,rationalists were most profuse in 
their publications1 ,paulus at          
,heidelberg1 and1 more particularly1 the
 ,saxon authors1 ,tschirner1            
,bretschneider1 etc4 ,ancient ,lutheran 

vigor degenerated to shallow subtleties 
and a sort of coquettish tattling upon  
morality1 in which ,zschokke's ,hours of
 ,devotion carried away the palm4       
,neander1 ,gieseler1 ,gfrrer and others 
greatly promoted the study of the       
history of the church4 ,the propounders 
of the ,gospels1 however1 snatched them1
 after a lamentable fashion1 out of each
 other's hands1 now doubting the        
authenticity of the whole1 now that of  
most or of some of the chapters1 and    
were unable to agree upon the number    
that ought to be retained4 ,they1 at the
 same time1 outvied one another in      
political servility1 while the          
,lutherans who1 true to their ancient   
faith1 protested against the ,prussian  
liturgy1 were too few in number for     
remark4 ,this frivolous class of        
theologians at length entirely rejected 
the ,gospels1 embraced the doctrine of  
,hegel and ,judaism1 and renounced      
,christianity4 ,still1 although the     
,supernaturalists1 the orthodox party1  

and the ,pietists triumphantly repelled 
these attacks1 and the majority of the  
elder ,rationalists timidly seceded from
 the anti-christian party1 the          
,protestant literary world was reduced  
to a state of enervation and confusion1 
affording but too good occasion for an  
energetic demonstration on the part of  
the ,catholics4  ,philosophy also       
assumed the character of the age4       
,fichte of ,berlin still upheld1 in     
#ahad1 the passion for liberty and right
 in their nobler sense that had been    
roused by the ,french ,revolution1 but1 
as he went yet further than ,kant in    
setting limits to the sources of        
perception and denied the existence of  
conscience1 his system proved merely of 
short duration4 ,to him succeeded       
,schelling1 with whom the return of     
philosophy to religion and that of      
abstract studies to nature and history  
commenced1 and in whom the renovated    
spirit of the nineteenth century became 
manifest4 ,his pupils were partly       

natural philosophers1 who1 like ,oken1  
sought to comprehend all nature1 her    
breathing unity1 her hidden mysteries1  
in religion2 partly mystics1 who1 like  
,eschenmaier1 ,schubert1 ,steffens1 in a
 ,protestant spirit1 or1 like ,gorres   
and ,baader1 in a ,catholic one1 sought 
also to comprehend everything bearing   
reference to both nature and history in 
religion4 ,it was a revival of the      
ancient mysticism of ,hugo de ,st4      
,victoire1 of ,honorius1 and of ,rupert 
in another and a scientific age2 nor was
 it unopposed3 in the place of the      
foreign scholasticism formerly so       
repugnant to its doctrines1 those of    
,schelling were opposed by a reaction of
 the superficial mock-enlightenment and 
sophistical scepticism predominant in   
the foregoing century1 more particularly
 of the sympathy with ,france1 which had
 been rendered more than ever powerful  
in ,germany by the forcible suppression 
of patriotism4 ,abstract philosophy1    
despising nature and history1 mocking   

,christianity1 once more revived and set
 itself up as an absolute principle in  
,hegel4 ,none of the other philosophers 
attained the notoriety gained by        
,schelling and ,hegel1 the              
representatives of the antitheses of the
 age4  ,an incredible advance1 of which 
we shall merely record the most         
important facts1 took place in the study
 of the physical sciences4 ,three new   
planets were discovered1 ,pallas1 in    
#ahjb1 and ,vesta1 in #ahjg1 by ,gibers2
 ,juno1 in #ahbd1 by ,harding4 ,enke and
 ,biela first fixed the regular return  
and brief revolution of the two comets  
named after them4 ,schrter and ,mdler   
minutely examined the moon and planets2 
,struve1 the fixed stars4 ,fraunhofer   
improved the telescope4 ,chladni first  
investigated the nature of fiery meteors
 and brought the study of acoustics to  
perfection4 ,alexander von ,humboldt    
immensely promoted the observation of   
the changes of the atmosphere and the   
general knowledge of the nature of the  

earth4 ,werner and ,leopold von ,buch   
also distinguished themselves among the 
investigators of the construction of the
 earth and mountains4 ,scheele1 ,gmelin1
 ,liebig1 etc41 were noted chemists4    
,oken1 upon the whole1 chiefly promoted 
the study of natural history1 and       
numberless researches were made         
separately in mineralogy1 the study of  
fossils1 botany1 and zoology by the most
 celebrated scientific men of the day4  
,while travellers visited every quarter 
of the globe in search of plants and    
animals as yet unknown and regulated    
them by classes1 other men of science   
were engaged at home in the             
investigation of their internal         
construction1 their uses and habits1 in 
which they were greatly assisted by the 
improved microscope1 by means of which  
,ehrenberg discovered a completely new  
class of animalculae4 ,the discoveries  
of science were also zealously applied  
for practical uses4 ,agriculture1       
cattle-breeding1 manufactures received a

 fresh impulse and immense improvements 
as knowledge advanced4 ,commerce by     
water and by land experienced a thorough
 revolution on the discovery of the     
properties of steam1 by the use of      
steamers and railroads4 ,medical science
 also progressed1 notwithstanding the   
number of contradictory and extravagant 
theories4 ,the medical practitioners of 
,germany took precedence throughout     
,europe4 ,animal magnetism was practiced
 by ,eschenmaier1 ,kieser1 and ,justin  
,kerner1 by means of whose female seer1 
von ,prevorst1 the seeing of visions and
 the belief in ghosts were once more    
brought forward4 ,hahnemann excited the 
greatest opposition by his system of    
homoeopathy1 which cured diseases by the
 administration of homogeneous          
substances in the minutest doses4 ,he   
was superseded by the cold-water cure4  
,during the last twenty years the       
naturalists and medical men of ,germany 
have held an annual meeting in one or   
other of their native cities4  ,the     

philologists and savants have for some  
years past also been in the habit of    
holding a similar meeting4 ,the classics
 no longer form the predominant study   
among philologists4 ,even literati1     
whose tastes1 like that of ,creuzer1 are
 decidedly classic1 have acknowledged   
that the knowledge of the ,oriental     
tongues is requisite for the attainment 
of a thorough acquaintance with classic 
antiquity4 ,a great school for the study
 of the ,eastern languages has been     
especially established under the        
precedence of the brothers ,schlegel1   
,bopp1 and others4 ,the study of the    
ancient language of ,germany and of her 
venerable monuments has1 finally1 been  
promoted by ,jacob ,grimm and by his    
widely diffused school4  ,the study of  
history became more profound and was    
extended over a wider field4 ,a mass of 
archives hitherto secret were rendered  
public and spread new light on many of  
the remarkable characters and events in 
the history of ,germany4 ,historians    

also learned to compile with less party 
spirit and on more solid grounds4       
,history1 at first compiled in a        
,protestant spirit1 afterward inclined  
as partially to ,catholicism1 and the   
majority of the higher order of         
historical writers were consequently    
rendered the more careful in their      
search after truth4 ,among the universal
 historians1 ,rotteck gained the        
greatest popularity on account of the   
extreme liberality of his opinions1 and 
,heeren and ,schlosser acquired great   
note for depth of learning4 ,von        
,hammer1 who rendered us acquainted with
 the history of the ,mahometan ,east1   
takes precedence among the historical   
writers upon foreign nations4 ,niebuhr's
 ,roman ,history1 ,wilken's ,history of 
the ,crusades1 ,leo's ,history of       
,italy1 ,ranke's ,history of the ,popes1
 etc41 have attained well-merited       
fame4--,the history of ,germany as a    
whole1 which ,germany neither was nor   
is1 was little studied1 but an immense  

mass of facts connected with or         
referring to ,germany was furnished by  
the numberless and excellent single     
histories and biographies that poured   
through the press4 ,all the more ancient
 collections of script4 rerum were1     
according to the plan of ,stein1 the    
celebrated ,prussian minister1 to be    
surpassed by a critical work on the     
sources of ,german history1 conducted by
 ,pertz1 which could1 however1 be but   
slowly carried out4 ,grimm1 ,mone1 and  
,barth threw immense light upon ,german 
heathen antiquity1 ,zeusz upon the      
genealogy of nations4 ,the best account 
of the ,ostrogoths was written by       
,manso1 of the ,visigoths by ,aschbach1 
of the ,anglo-,saxons by ,lappenberg1 of
 the more ancient ,franks by ,mannert1  
,pertz1 and ,lbell1 of ,charlemagne by  
,diebold and ,ideler1 of ,louis the     
,pious by ,funk1 of the ,saxon emperors 
by ,ranke and his friends1 ,wachter and 
,leutsch1 of the ,salic emperors by     
,stenzel1 of the ,german popes of those 

times by ,hfler1 of the ,hohenstaufen by
 ,raumer1 ,kortum1 and ,hurter1 of the  
emperor ,richard by ,gebauer1 of ,henry 
,,vii4 of ,luxemburg by ,barthold1 of   
,king ,john by ,lenz1 of ,charles ,,iv4 
by ,pelzel and ,schottky1 of ,wenzel by 
,pelzel1 of ,sigismund by ,aschbach1 of 
the ,habsburgs by ,kurz1 ,prince        
,lichnowsky1 and ,hormayr1 of ,louis the
 ,bavarian by ,mannert1 of ,ferdinand   
,i4 by ,buchholz1 of the ,reformation by
 ,c4 ,a4 ,menzel and ,ranke1 of the     
,peasant ,war by ,sartorius1 ,oechsle1  
and ,bensen1 of the ,thirty ,years' ,war
 by ,barthold1 of ,gustavus ,adolphus by
 ,gfrrer1 of ,wallenstein by ,frster1 of
 ,bernhard of ,weimar by ,rse1 of       
,george of ,lneburg by von der ,decken4 
,of the ensuing period by ,frster and   
,guhrauer1 of the ,eighteenth ,century  
by ,schlosser1 of the ,wars with ,france
 by ,clausewitz1 of ,modern ,times by   
,hormayr4  ,coxe1 ,schneller1 ,mailth1  
,chmel1 and ,gervay also wrote histories
 of ,austria1 ,schottky and ,palacky of 

,bohemia1 ,beda1 ,weber1 and ,hormayr of
 the ,tyrol1 ,voigt of the ,teutonic    
,order1 ,manso1 ,stenzel1 ,frster1      
,dolum1 ,massenbach1 ,clln1 ,preusz1    
etc41 of the ,kingdom of ,prussia1      
,stenzel of ,anhalt1 ,kobbe of          
,lauenburg1 ,ltzow of ,mecklenburg1     
,barthold of ,pomerania1 ,kobbe of      
,holstein1 ,wimpfen of ,schleswig1      
,sartorius and ,lappenberg of the       
,hansa1 ,hanssen of the ,ditmarses1     
,spittler1 ,havemann1 and ,strombeck of 
,brunswick and ,hanover1 van ,kampen of 
,holland1 ,warnknig of ,flanders1       
,rommel of ,hesse1 ,lang of ,eastern    
,franconia1 ,wachter and ,langenn of    
,thuringia and ,saxony1 ,lang1 ,wolf1   
,mannert1 ,zschokke1 ,vlderndorf of     
,bavaria1 ,pfister1 ,pfaff1 and ,stlin  
of ,swabia1 ,glutz-,blotzheim1          
,hottinger1 ,meyer von ,knonau1         
,zschokke1 ,haller1 ,schuler1 etc41 of  
,switzerland4 ,the most remarkable among
 the histories of celebrated cities are 
those of ,st4 ,gall by ,arx1 of ,vienna 

by ,mailath1 of ,frankfort on the ,maine
 by ,kirchner1 of ,ulm and ,heilbronn by
 ,jger1 of ,rotenburg on the ,tauber by 
,bensen1 etc4  ,ritter1 and1 next to    
him1 ,berghaus1 greatly extended the    
knowledge of geography4 ,maps were drawn
 out on a greatly improved scale4       
,alexander von ,humboldt1 who ruled the 
world with his scientific as ,napoleon  
with his eagle glance1 attained the     
highest repute among travellers of every
 nation4 ,krusenstern1 ,langsdorf1 and  
,kotzebue1 ,germans in the service of   
,russia1 circumnavigated the globe4     
,meyen1 the noted botanist1 did the same
 in a ,prussian ship4 ,baron von ,hgel  
explored ,india4 ,gtzlaff acted as a    
missionary in ,china4 ,ermann and       
,ledebur explored ,siberia2 ,klaproth1  
,kupfer1 ,parrot1 and ,eichwald1 the    
,caucasian provinces2 ,burckhardt1      
,rppell1 ,ehrenberg1 and ,russegger1    
,syria and ,egypt2 the ,prince von      
,neuwied and ,paul ,william1 duke of    
,wrtemberg1 ,north ,america2 ,becher1   

,mexico2 ,schomburg1 ,guiana2 the       
,prince von ,neuwied and ,martius1 the  
,brazils2 ,pppig1 the banks of the      
,amazon2 ,rengger1 ,paraguay4 ,the      
,missionary ,society for the conversion 
of the heathen in distant parts and that
 for the propagation of the gospel1     
founded at ,basel1 #ahaf1 have gained   
well-merited repute4  ,at the           
commencement of the present century1    
amid the storms of war1 ,german taste   
took a fresh bias4 ,french frivolity had
 increased immorality to a degree       
hitherto unknown4 ,licentiousness       
reigned unrestrained on the stage and   
pervaded the lighter productions of the 
day4 ,if ,iffland had1 not              
unsuccessfully1 represented the honest  
citizens and peasantry of ,germany      
struggling against the unnatural customs
 of modern public life1 ,augustus von   
,kotzebue1 who1 after him1 ruled the    
,german stage1 sought1 on the contrary1 
to render honor despicable and to       
encourage the license of the day4 ,in   

the numerous romances1 a tone of lewd   
sentimentality took the place of the    
strict propriety for which they had     
formerly been remarkable1 and the       
general diffusion of these immoral      
productions1 among which the romances of
 ,lafontaine may be more particularly   
mentioned1 contributed in no slight     
degree to the moral perversion of the   
age4  ,jean ,paul ,friedrich ,richter   
stands completely alone4 ,he shared the 
weaknesses of his times1 which1 like    
,goethe and ,kotzebue1 he both admired  
and ridiculed1 passing with             
extraordinary versatility1 almost in the
 same breath1 from the most moving      
pathos to the bitterest satire4 ,his    
clever but too deeply metaphysical      
romances are not only full of domestic  
sentimentality and domestic scenes1 but 
they also imitate the over-refinement   
and effeminacy of ,goethe1 and yet his  
sound understanding and warm patriotic  
feelings led him to condemn all the     
artificial follies of fashion1 all that 

was unnatural as well as all that was   
unjust4  ,modern philosophy had no      
sooner triumphed over ancient religion  
and ,france over ,germany than an       
extraordinary reaction1 inaptly termed  
the romantic1 took place in poetry4     
,although ,ultramontanism might be      
traced even in ,friedrich ,schlegel1    
this school of poetry nevertheless      
solely owes its immense importance to   
its resuscitation of the older poetry of
 ,germany1 and to the success with which
 it opposed ,germanism to ,gallicism4   
,ludwig ,tieck exclusively devoted      
himself to the ,german and romantic     
,middle ,ages1 to the ,minnesingers1 to 
,shakespeare1 ,cervantes1 and ,calderon1
 and modelled his own on their immortal 
works4 ,the eyes of his contemporaries  
were by him first completely opened to  
the long-misunderstood beauties of the  
,middle ,ages4 ,his kindred spirit1     
,novalis 7,hardenberg71 destined to a   
too brief career1 gave proofs of signal 
talent4 ,heinrich von ,kleist1 who      

committed suicide1 left the             
finest-spirited and most delightful     
dramas4 ,ludwig ,achim von ,arnim1 like 
,tieck1 cultivated the older ,german    
,saga2 his only fault was that1 led away
 by the richness of his imagination1 he 
overcolored his descriptions4 ,aided by 
,brentano1 he collected the finest of   
the popular ballads of ,germany in des  
,enaben ,wunderhorn4 ,at ,berlin1       
,fouque1 with true old ,german taste1   
revived the romances of chivalry and1   
shortly before #ahac1 met the military  
spirit once more rising in ,prussia with
 a number of romances in which figured  
battle-steeds and coats of mail1 ,german
 faith and bravery1 valiant knights and 
chaste dames1 intermixed1 it must be    
confessed1 with a good deal of          
affectation4 ,on the discovery being    
made that many of the ancient ,german   
ballads were still preserved among the  
lower classes1 chiefly among the        
mountaineers1 they were also sought for1
 and some poets tuned their lyres on the

 naive popular tone1 etc41 first1       
,hebel1 in the partly extremely natural1
 partly extremely affected1 ,alemannic  
songs1 which have found frequent        
imitators4 ,zacharia ,werner and        
,hoffiman1 on the other hand1           
exclusively devoted themselves to the   
darker side of days of yore1 to their   
magic and superstition1 and filled the  
world1 already terror-stricken by the   
war1 with supernatural stories4 ,still1 
throughout one and all of these         
productions1 curiously as they          
contrasted1 the same inclination to     
return to and to revive a purely ,german
 style was evident4 ,at that moment the 
great crisis suddenly took place4       
,before even the poets could predict the
 event1 ,germany cast off the yoke of   
,napoleon1 and the ,german ,sturm and   
,freiheitslieder of ,theodor ,krner1    
,arndt1 ,schenkendorf1 etc41 chimed in  
like a fearfully beautiful ,allegro with
 the ,adagio of their predecessors4     
,this was in a manner also the finale of

 the ,german notes that so strangely    
resounded in that ,gallic time2 the     
restoration suppressed every further    
outburst of patriotism1 and the         
patriotic spirit that had begun to      
breathe forth in verse once more gave   
place to cosmopolitism and ,gallicism4  
,the lyric school1 founded by ,ludwig   
,uhland1 alone preserved a ,german      
spirit and a connection with the ancient
 ,minnelieder of ,swabia4  ,the new     
cosmopolitic tendency of the poetry of  
these times is chiefly due to the       
influence exercised by ,goethe4 ,the    
quick comprehension and ready adoption  
of every novelty is a faculty of1 not a 
fault in1 the ,german character1 and    
alone becomes reprehensible when the    
,german1 forgetful of himself and of his
 own peculiar characteristics1 adopts a 
medley of foreign incongruities and     
falsifies whatever ought to be preserved
 special and true4 ,goethe and his      
school1 however1 not content with       
imitating singly the style of every     

nation and of every period1 have        
interwoven the most diverse strains1    
antique and romantic1 old ,german and   
modern ,french1 ,grecian and ,chinese1  
in one and the same poem4 ,this         
unnatural style1 itself destructive of  
the very peculiarity at which it aims1  
has infected both modern poetry and     
modern art2 the architect intermixes the
 ,grecian and the ,gothic in his        
creations1 while the painter seeks to   
unite the styles of the ,flemish and    
,italian schools in his productions1 and
 the poet those of ,persia1             
,scandinavia1 and ,spain1 in his        
strains4--,those are indeed deserving of
 gratitude who have comprehended and    
preserved the character peculiar to the 
productions of foreign art1 in which the
 brothers ,friedrich and ,august        
,wilhelm ,schlegel have been so         
eminently successful4 ,hammer and1 after
 him1 ,ruckert have also opened the     
,eastern world to our view4 ,count      
,platen1 on the other hand1 hung        

fluctuating between the antique ,persian
 and ,german4--,cosmopolitism was       
greatly strengthened by the historical  
romances in vogue in ,england1          
descriptive of olden time1 and which    
found innumerable imitators in ,germany4
 ,they were1 at all events1 thus far    
beneficial2 they led us from the parlor 
into the world4  ,but no sooner was     
genuine ,german taste neglected for that
 of foreign nations than ,gallomania    
revived2 all were compelled to pay      
homage to the spirit and the tone       
prevalent throughout ,europe4 ,the witty
 aristocratic mdisance and grim spirit  
of rebellion emulating each other in    
,france1 were1 in ,germany1 represented 
by ,prince ,piichler1 the most spirituel
 drawing-room satirist1 and by the ,jew1
 ,brne1 the most spirited ,jacobin of   
the day4 ,the open infidelity again     
demonstrated in ,france1 also led to its
 introduction into ,germany by the ,jew1
 ,heine1 while the immoral romances with
 which that country was deluged speedily

 became known to us through the medium  
of the translations and imitations of   
,young ,germany1 and were incredibly    
increased by our literary industry2 all 
the lying memoirs1 in which the ,french 
falsify history1 view ,napoleon as a    
demigod1 and treat the enthusiasm with  
which the ,germans were animated in     
#ahac with derision1 were also          
diligently translated4 ,this tendency to
 view everything ,german with ,french   
eyes and to ridicule ,german honor and  
,german manners was especially promoted 
by the light literature1 and numerous   
journals of the day1 and was1 in the    
universities1 in close connection with  
the anti-christian tendency of the      
school of ,hegel4--,the late ,catholic  
reaction1 too exclusively political1 has
 as yet exercised no influence over the 
literary world1 and would scarcely      
succeed in gaining any1 being less      
,german than ,roman4  ,while ,german    
poetry follows so false a course1 it    
naturally follows that art also must be 

deprived of its natural character4      
,architecture has1 it is true1 abandoned
 the periwig style of ,france1 but the  
purer antique or ,byzantine taste to    
which it has returned is generally      
insipidly simple1 while the attempts at 
,gothic and ,moorish are truly          
miserable4 ,a more elevated feeling than
 the present generation 7which1 in      
,goethe's manner1 delights in trifling  
alternately with every style1 or is     
completely enslaved by the modes imposed
 by ,france7 is fitted to comprehend1 is
 requisite for the revival of ,german or
 ,gothic architecture4 ,still it may be1
 as is hoped1 that the intention to     
complete the building of the ,cologne   
cathedral will not be entirely without a
 beneficial influence4  ,the art of     
painting aspires far more energetically 
toward national emancipation4 ,in the   
present century1 the modern ,french     
style affecting the antique presented a 
complete contrast with the ,german      
romantic school1 which1 in harmony with 

the simultaneous romantic reaction in   
the poetical world1 returned to the     
sacred simplicity of the ancient ,german
 and ,italian masters4 ,overbeck was in 
this our greatest master4 ,since this   
period1 the two great schools at ,munich
 and ,dusseldorf1 founded by ,peter     
,cornelius1 and whose greatest masters  
are ,peter ,hesz1 ,bendemann1 ,lessing1 
,kaulbach1 etc41 have sought a middle   
path1 and with earnest zeal well and    
skilfully opposed the too narrow        
imitation of1 and the medley of style   
produced by the study of1 the numerous  
old masters on the one hand1 and1 on the
 other1 the search for effect1 that     
,gallic innovation so generally in      
vogue4 ,were the church again to require
 pictures1 or the state to employ the   
pencil of the patriot artist in         
recording the great deeds of past or    
present times or in the adornment of    
public edifices1 painting would be      
elevated to its proper sphere4--,germany
 has also produced many celebrated      

engravers1 among whom ,muller holds     
precedence4 ,lithography1 now an art of 
so much importance1 was invented by the 
,bavarian1 ,senefelder4 ,the art of     
painting on glass has also been revived4
  ,in music1 the ,germans have retained 
their ancient fame4 ,after ,mozart1     
,beethoven1 ,weber1 etc41 have gained   
immense celebrity as composers4 ,still1 
much that is unnatural1 affected1       
bizarre and licentious has crept into   
the compositions of the ,german masters1
 more particularly in the operas1 owing 
to the imitation of the modern ,italian 
and ,french composers4 ,a popular       
reaction has1 however1 again taken      
place1 and1 as before1 in choral music1 
by means of the singing clubs1 which    
become more and more general among the  
people4  ,the stage has most deeply     
degenerated4 ,at the commencement of the
 present century1 its mimic scenes      
afforded a species of consolation for   
the sad realities of life1 and formed   
the ,lethe in whose waters oblivion was 

gladly sought4 ,the public afterward    
became so practical in its tastes1 so   
sober in its desires1 that neither the  
spirit of the actor nor the coquetry of 
the actress had power to attract an     
audience4 ,the taste and love for art   
were superseded by criticism and low    
intrigues1 the theatre became a mere    
political engine1 intended to divert the
 thoughts of the population1 of the     
great cities from the discussion of     
topics dangerous to the state by the    
all-engrossing charms of actresses and  
ballet-dancers4  ,the ,germans1 although
 much more practical in the present than
 in the past century1 are still far from
 having freed themselves from the       
unjust1 unfitting1 and inconvenient     
situation into which they have fallen as
 time and events rolled on4  ,a mutual  
understanding in regard to the external 
position of the ,german in reference to 
the ,slavonian nation has scarcely begun
 to dawn upon us4 ,scarcely have we     
become sensible to the ignominious      

restrictions imposed upon ,german       
commerce by the prohibitory regulations 
of ,russia1 by the customs levied in the
 ,sound1 on the ,elbe1 and ,rhine4      
,scarcely has the policy that made such 
immense concessions to ,russian         
diplomacy1 and scarcely has the party   
spirit that looked for salvation for    
,germany from ,france1 yielded to a more
 elevated feeling of self-respect4 ,and 
yet1 whoever should say to the people of
 ,alsace1 ,switzerland1 and ,holland1   
,ye are ,germans1 would reap but        
derision and insult4 ,germany is on the 
point of being once more divided into   
,catholic and ,protestant ,germany1 and 
no one can explain how the ,german      
,customs' ,union is to extend to the    
,german ,ocean1 on account of the       
restrictions mutually imposed by the    
,germans4 ,could we but view ourselves  
as the great nation we in reality are1  
attain to a consciousness of the        
immeasurable strength we in reality     
possess1 and make use of it in order to 

satisfy our wants1 the ,germans would be
 thoroughly a practical nation1 instead 
of lying like a dead lion among the     
nations of ,europe1 and unresistingly   
suffering them to mock1 tread underfoot1
 nay1 deprive him of his limbs1 as      
though he were a miserable1 helpless    
worm4  ,more1 far more has been done for
 the better regulation of the internal  
economy of ,germany than for her        
external protection and power4 ,the     
reforms suited to the age1 commenced by 
the philosophical princes and ministers 
of the past century1 have been carried  
on by ,prussia in her hour of need1 by  
constitutional ,germany by              
constitutional means4 ,everywhere have  
the public administration been better   
regulated1 despotism been restrained by 
laws1 financial affairs been settled    
even under the heavy pressure of the    
national debts4 ,commerce1 manufactural 
industry1 and agriculture have been     
greatly promoted by the ,customs'       
,union1 by government aid and model     

institutions1 by the improvements in the
 post-offices1 by the laying of roads   
and railways4 ,the public burdens and   
public debts1 nevertheless1 still remain
 disproportionately heavy on account of 
the enormous military force which the   
great states are compelled to maintain  
for the preservation of their authority1
 and on account of the polyarchical     
state of ,germany1 which renders the    
maintenance of an enormous number of    
courts1 governments1 general staffs and 
chambers necessary4  ,the popular sense 
of justice and legality1 never entirely 
suppressed throughout ,germany1 also    
gave fresh proof of its existence under 
the new state of affairs1 partly in the 
endlessly drawn-out proceedings in the  
chambers1 partly in the incredible      
number of new laws and regulations in   
the different states4 ,still1           
industriously as these laws have been   
compiled1 no real1 essential1 ,german   
law1 neither public nor private1 has    
been discovered4 ,the ,roman and ,french

 codes battled with each other and left 
no room for the establishment of a code 
fundamentally and thoroughly ,german4   
,the most distinguished champions of the
 common rights of the people against    
cabinet-justice1 the tyranny of the     
police and of the censor1 were          
principally advocates and savants4 ,the 
,estates1 as corporations1 were scarcely
 any longer represented4 ,the majority  
of governments1 ruled by the principle  
of absolute monarchy and the chambers1  
ruled by that of democracy1 had1 since  
the age of philosophy1 been unanimous in
 setting the ancient ,estates aside4    
,the nobility alone preserved certain   
privileges1 and the ,catholic clergy    
alone regained some of those they had   
formerly enjoyed2 all the ,estates were1
 in every other respect1 placed on a    
level4 ,the ancient and national legal  
rights of the people were consequently  
widely trenched upon4  ,the emancipation
 of the peasant from the oppressive     
feudal dues1 and the abolition of the   

restraint imposed by the laws of the    
city corporations1 which had so         
flagrantly been abused1 were indubitably
 well intended1 but1 instead of stopping
 there1 good old customs1 that ought    
only to have been freed from the weeds  
with which they had been overgrown1 were
 totally eradicated4 ,the peasant       
received a freehold1 but was1 by means  
of his enfranchisement1 generally laden 
with debts1 and1 while pride whispered  
in his ear that he was now a lord of the
 soil and might assume the costume of   
his superiors1 the land1 whence he had  
to derive his sustenance1 was gradually 
diminished in extent by the systematic  
division of property4 ,his pretensions  
increased exactly in the ratio in which 
the means for satisfying them decreased2
 and the necessity of raising money     
placed him in the hands of ,jews4 ,the  
smaller the property by reason of       
subdivision1 the more frequently is land
 put up for sale1 the deeper is the     
misery of the homeless outcast4 ,the    

restoration of the inalienable1         
indivisible allod and of the federal    
rights of the peasant1 as in olden      
times1 would have been far more to the  
purpose4--,professional liberty and the 
introduction of mechanism and           
manufactural industry have annihilated  
every warrant formerly afforded by the  
artificer as master and member of a city
 corporation1 and1 at the same time1    
every warrant afforded to him by the    
community of his being able to subsist  
by means of his industry4 ,manufactures 
on an extensive scale that export their 
produce must at all events be left      
unrestricted1 but the small trades      
carried on within a petty community1    
their only market1 excite1 when free1 a 
degree of competition which is          
necessarily productive both of bad      
workmanship and poverty1 and the        
superfluous artificers1 unaided by their
 professional freedom1 fall bankrupt and
 become slaves in the establishments of 
their wealthier#a competitors4 ,the     

restoration of the city guilds under    
restrictions suitable to the times would
 have been far more judicious4  ,the    
maintenance of a healthy1 contented     
class of citizens and peasants ought to 
be one of the principal aims of every   
,german statesman4 ,the fusion of these 
ancient and powerful classes into one   
common mass whence but a few wealthy    
individuals rise to eminence would be   
fatal to progression in ,germany4 ,by   
far the greater part of the people have 
already lost the means of subsistence   
formerly secured to all1 nay1 even to   
the serf1 by the privileges of his      
class4 ,the insecure possession1 the    
endless division and alienation of      
property1 an anxious dread of loss1 and 
a rapacious love of gain1 have become   
universal4 ,care for the means of daily 
existence1 like creeping poison1        
unnerves the population4 ,the anxious   
solicitude to which this gives rise has 
a deeply demoralizing effect4 ,even     
offices under government are less sought

 for from motives of ambition than as a 
means of subsistence2 the arts and      
sciences have been degraded to mere     
sources of profit1 envious trade decides
 questions of the highest importance1   
the torch of ,hymen is lit by ,plutus1  
not at the shrine of ,love2 and in the  
bosom of the careworn father of a       
family1 whose scanty subsistence depends
 upon a patron's smile1 the words       
fatherland and glory find no responsive 
echo4  ,among the educated classes this 
state of poverty is allied with the most
 inconsistent luxury4 ,each and all1    
however poor1 are anxious to preserve an
 appearance of wealth or to raise credit
 by that means4 ,all1 however needy1    
must be fashionable4 ,the petty         
tradesman and the peasant ape their     
superiors in rank1 and the old-fashioned
 but comfortable and picturesque        
national costume is being gradually     
thrown aside for the ever-varying modes 
prescribed by ,paris to the world4 ,the 
inordinate love of amusements in which  

the lower classes and the proletariat1  
ever increasing in number1 seek more    
particularly to drown the sense of      
misery1 is another and a still greater  
source of public demoralization4 ,the   
general habit of indulging in the use of
 spirituous liquors has been rightfully 
designated the brandy pest1 owing to its
 lamentable moral and physical effect   
upon the population4 ,this pest was     
encouraged not alone by private         
individuals1 who gain their livelihood  
by disseminating it among the people1   
but also by governments1 which raised a 
large revenue by its means2 and the     
temperance societies1 lately founded1   
but slightly stem the evil4  ,the public
 authorities throughout ,germany have1  
it must be confessed1 displayed         
extraordinary solicitude for the poor by
 the foundation of charitable           
institutions of every description1 but  
they have contented themselves with     
merely alleviating misery instead of    
removing its causes2 and the benevolence

 that raised houses of correction1      
poor-houses1 and hospitals1 is rendered 
null by the laxity of the legislation4  
,no measures are taken by the           
governments to provide means for        
emigration1 to secure to the peasant his
 freehold1 to the artificer the         
guarantee he ought to receive and to    
give1 and the maintenance of the public 
morals4 ,the punishment awarded for     
immorality and theft is so mild as to   
deprive them of the character of crime1 
pamphlets and works of the most immoral 
description are dispersed by means of   
the circulating libraries among all     
classes1 and the bold infidelity        
preached even from the universities is  
left unchecked4 ,but--is not the thief  
taught morality in the house of         
correction8 and are not diseases1 the   
result of license1 cured in the         
hospitals with unheard-of humanity8     
,private morality1 so long preserved    
free from contamination1 although all   
has for so long conspired against the   

liberty and unity of ,germany1 is       
greatly endangered4 ,much may1 however1 
be hoped for from the sound national    
sense4 ,the memory of the strength      
displayed by ,germany in #ahac has been 
eradicated neither by the contempt of   
,france or ,russia1 by any reactionary  
measure within ,germany herself1 by     
social and literary corruption1 nor by  
the late contest between church and     
state4 ,the ,customs' ,union has1       
notwithstanding the difference in       
political principle1 brought despotic   
,prussia and constitutional ,germany one
 step nearer4 ,the influence of ,russia 
on the one hand1 of that of ,france on  
the other1 has sensibly decreased4 ,the 
irreligious and immoral tendencies now  
visible will1 as has ever been the case 
in ,germany1 produce a reaction1 and1   
when the necessity is more urgently     
felt1 fitting measures will be adopted  
for the prevention of pauperism4 ,the   
dangers with which ,germany is          
externally threatened will also compel  

governments1 however egotistical and    
indifferent1 to seek their safety in    
unity1 and even should the long neglect 
of this truth be productive of fresh    
calamity and draw upon ,germany a fresh 
attack from abroad1 that very           
circumstance will but strengthen our    
union and accelerate the regeneration of
 our great fatherland1 already          
anticipated by the people on the fall of
 the ,hohenstaufen4   ,footnote #a3     
,because more skilful4--,trans4         
,,cclxxiv4 ,german ,emigrants   ,the    
overplus population of ,germany has ever
 emigrated2 in ancient times1 for the   
purpose of conquering foreign powers2 in
 modern times1 for that of serving under
 them4 ,in the days of ,german heroism1 
our conquering hordes spread toward the 
west and south1 over ,italy1 ,gaul1     
,spain1 ,africa1 ,england1 and ,iceland2
 during the ,middle ,ages1 our mail-clad
 warriors took an easterly direction and
 overran the ,slavonian countries1      
besides ,prussia1 ,transylvania1 and    

,palestine2 in modern times1 our        
religious and political refugees have   
emigrated in scarcely less considerable 
numbers to countries far more distant1  
but in the humble garb of artificers and
 beggars1 the ,pariahs of the world4    
,our ancient warriors gained undying    
fame and long maintained the influence  
and the rule of ,germany in foreign     
lands4 ,our modern emigrants have1      
unnoted1 quitted their native country1  
and1 as early as the second generation1 
intermixed with the people among whom   
they settled4 ,hundreds of thousands of 
,germans have in this manner aided to   
aggrandize the ,british colonies1 and   
,germany has derived no benefit from the
 emigration of her sons4  ,the first    
great mass of religious refugees threw  
itself into ,holland and into the ,dutch
 colonies1 the greater part of which    
have since passed into the hands of the 
,british4 ,the illiberality of the      
,dutch caused the second great mass to  
bend its steps to ,british ,north       

,america1 within whose wilds every sect 
found an asylum4 ,william ,penn1 the    
celebrated ,quaker1 visited ,germany1   
and1 in #afhc1 gave permission to some  
,germans to settle in the province      
named1 after him1 ,pennsylvania1 where  
they founded the city of ,german town4#a
 ,these fortunate emigrants were        
annually followed by thousands of exiled
 ,protestants1 principally from ,alsace 
and the ,palatinate4 ,the industry and  
honesty for which the ,german workmen   
were remarkable caused some ,englishmen 
to enter into a speculation to procure  
their services as white slaves4 ,the    
greatest encouragement was accordingly  
given by them to emigration from        
,germany1 but the promises so richly    
lavished were withdrawn on the          
unexpected emigration of thirty-three   
thousand of the inhabitants of the      
,palatinate1 comprising entire communes 
headed by their preachers1 evidently an 
unlooked and unwished for multitude4    
,these emigrants reached ,london        

abandoned by their patrons and disavowed
 by the government4 ,a fearful fate     
awaited them4 ,after losing considerable
 numbers from starvation in ,england1   
the greater part of the survivors were  
compelled to work like slaves in the    
mines and in the cultivation of         
uninhabited islands2 three thousand six 
hundred of them were sent over to       
,ireland1 where they swelled the number 
of beggars2 numbers were lost at sea1   
and seven thousand of them returned in  
despair1 in a state of utter            
destitution1 to their native country4 ,a
 small number of them1 however1 actually
 sailed for ,new ,york1 where they were 
allotted portions of the primitive      
forests1 which they cleared and         
cultivated2 but they had no sooner      
raised flourishing villages in the midst
 of rich cornfields and gardens1 than   
they were informed that the ground      
belonged to the state and were driven   
from the home they had so lately found4 
,pennsylvania opened a place of refuge  

to the wanderers4#b  ,the religious     
persecution and the increasing despotism
 of the governments in ,germany         
meanwhile incessantly drove fresh       
emigrants to ,america1 where1 as they   
were generally sent to the extreme verge
 of the provinces in order to clear the 
ground and drive away the aborigines1   
numbers of them were murdered by the    
,indians4 ,switzerland also sent forth  
many emigrants1 who settled principally 
in ,north ,carolina4 ,the people of     
,salzburg1 whose expulsion has been     
detailed above1 colonized ,georgia in   
#agcb4 ,in #agdb1 there were no fewer   
than a hundred thousand ,germans in     
,north ,america1 and1 since that period1
 their number has been continually on   
the increase4 ,thousands annually       
arrived2 for instance1 in the years     
#agdi and #agej1 seven thousand2 in     
#aged1 as many as twenty-two thousand2  
in #agig1 six thousand ,swabians4 ,the  
famine of #aggj1 the participation of   
,german mercenaries in the wars of the  

,british in ,north ,america1 at first   
against the ,french colonies1 afterward 
against the ,english colonists 7the     
,german prisoners generally settled in  
the country71 induced the ,germans to   
emigrate in such great numbers that1    
from #aggj to #agia1 twenty-four        
emigrant ships on an average arrived    
annually at ,philadelphia1 without      
reckoning those that landed in the other
 harbors4#c  ,the passage by sea to the 
west being continually closed during the
 great wars with ,france1 the stream of 
emigration took an easterly direction   
overland4 ,russia had extended her      
conquests toward ,persia and ,turkey4   
,the necessity of fixing colonies in the
 broad steppes as in the primitive      
forests of ,america1 to serve as a      
barrier against the wild frontier       
tribes1 was plainly perceived by the    
,russian government1 and ,germans were  
once more made use of for this purpose4 
,extensive colonies1 which at the       
present date contain hundreds of        

thousands of ,german inhabitants1 but   
whose history is as yet unknown1 were   
accordingly formed northward of the     
,black and ,caspian ,seas4 ,swabian     
villages were also built on the most    
southern frontier of ,russia toward     
,persia1 and in #ahbf suffered severely 
from an inroad of the ,persians4  ,the  
fall of ,napoleon had no sooner reopened
 the passage by sea than the tide of    
emigration again turned toward ,north   
,america4 ,these emigrants1 the majority
 of whom consisted of political         
malcontents1 preferred the land of      
liberty to the steppes of ,russia1      
whither sectarians and those whom the   
demoralization and irreligion of the    
,gallomanic period had filled with      
disgust had chiefly resorted4 ,the      
,russo-,teuto colonies are proverbial   
for purity and strictness of morals4    
,one ,wurtemberg sectarian alone1 the   
celebrated ,rapp1 succeeded during the  
period of the triumph of ,france in     
emigrating to ,pennsylvania1 where he   

founded the ,harmony1 a petty religious 
community4 ,an inconsiderable number of 
,swiss1 dissatisfied with ,napoleon's   
supremacy1 also emigrated in #ahje and  
built ,new ,vevay4 ,but it was not until
 after the wars1 more particularly      
during the famine in #ahaf and #ahag1   
that emigration across the sea was again
 carried on to a considerable extent4   
,in #ahag1 thirty thousand ,swiss1      
,wurtembergers1 ,hessians1 and          
inhabitants of the ,palatinate          
emigrated1 and about an equal number    
were compelled to retrace their steps   
from the seacoast in a state of extreme 
destitution on account of their         
inability to pay their passage and of   
the complete want of interest in their  
behalf displayed by the governments4    
,political discontent increased in #ahah
 and #ahai1 and each succeeding spring  
thirty thousand ,germans sailed down the
 ,rhine to the land of liberty in the   
far west4 ,in #ahbj1 a society was set  
on foot at ,berne for the protection of 

the ,swiss emigrants from the frauds    
practiced upon the unwary4 ,the union of
 the ,archduchess ,leopoldine1 daughter 
to the emperor ,francis1 with ,dom      
,pedro1 the emperor of the ,brazils1    
had1 since #ahag1 attracted public      
attention to ,south ,america4 ,dom      
,pedro took ,german mercenaries into his
 service for the purpose of keeping his 
wild subjects within bounds1 and the    
fruitful land offered infinite          
advantages to the ,german agriculturist2
 but colonization was rendered          
impracticable by the revolutionary      
disorders and by the ill-will of the    
natives toward the settlers1 and the    
,germans who had been induced to        
emigrate either enlisted as soldiers or 
perished4 ,several among them1 who have 
published their adventures in the       
,brazils1 bitterly complained of the    
conduct of ,major ,schfer1 who had been 
engaged in collecting recruits at       
,hamburg for the ,brazils4 ,they even   
accused him of having allowed numbers of

 their fellow-countrymen to starve to   
death from motives of gain1 so much a   
head being paid to him on his arrival in
 the ,brazils for the men shipped from  
,europe whether they arrived dead or    
alive4 ,the publication of these        
circumstances completely checked the    
emigration to the ,brazils1 and ,north  
,america was again annually1            
particularly in #ahbg and after the     
,july revolution1 overrun with ,germans1
 and they have even begun to take part  
in the polity of the ,united ,states4   
,the peasants1 who have been settled for
 a considerable period1 and who have    
insensibly acquired great wealth and    
have retained the language and customs  
of their native country1 form the flower
 of the ,german colonists in the        
,west4#d  ,in the ,cape colonies1 the   
,dutch peasants1 the boors1 feeling     
themselves oppressed by the ,english    
government1 emigrated en masse1 in      
#ahcg1 to the north1 where they settled 
with the ,caffres1 and1 under their     

captain1 ,prtorius1 founded an          
independent society1 in #ahci1 at ,port 
,natal1 where they again suffered a     
violent aggression on the part of the   
,british4  ,thus are ,germans           
fruitlessly scattered far and wide over 
the face of the globe1 while on the very
 frontiers of ,germany nature has       
designated the ,danube as the near and  
broad path for emigration and           
colonization to her overplus population1
 which1 by settling in her vicinity1    
would at once increase her external     
strength and extend her influence4      
,footnote #a3 ,the abolition of negro   
slavery was first mooted by ,germans in 
#afhh1 at the great ,quaker meeting in  
,north ,america4  ,footnote #b3 ,account
 of the ,united ,states by ,eggerling4  
,footnote #c3 ,one of the most          
distinguished ,germans in ,america was a
 person named ,john ,jacob ,astor1 the  
son of a bailiff at ,walldorf near      
,heidelberg1 who was brought up as a    
furrier1 emigrated to ,america1 where he

 gradually became the wealthiest of all 
furriers1 founded at his own expense the
 colony of ,astoria1 on the northwestern
 coast of ,north ,america1 so           
interestingly described by ,washington  
,irving1 and the ,astor fund1 intended  
as a protection to ,german emigrants to 
,america from the frauds practiced on   
the unwary4 ,he resided at ,new ,york4  
,he possessed an immense fortune and was
 highly and deservedly esteemed for his 
extraordinary philanthropy4  ,footnote  
#d3 ,the ,allgemeine ,zeitung of        
,september1 #ahcg1 reports that there   
were at that time one hundred and       
fifty-seven thousand ,germans in ,north 
,america who were still unnaturalized1  
consequently had emigrated thither      
within the last two or three years4 ,in 
,philadelphia alone there were          
seventy-five thousand ,germans4 ,grund  
says in his work1 ,the ,americans in    
#ahcg1 ,the peaceable disposition of the
 ,germans prevents their interfering    
with politics1 although their number is 

already considerable enough for the     
formation of a powerful party4 ,they    
possess1 notwithstanding1 great weight  
in the government of ,pennsylvania1 in  
which ,state the governors have since   
the revolution always been ,germans4    
,this is in fact so well understood on  
all sides that even during the last     
election1 when two democrats and a ,whig
 candidate contended for the dignity of 
governor1 they were all three ,germans  
by birth and no other would have had the
 slightest chance of success4 ,in the   
,state of ,ohio there are at the present
 date1 although that province was first 
colonized by ,new-,english1 no fewer    
than forty-five thousand ,germans       
possessed of the right of voting4 ,the  
,state of ,new ,york1 although          
originally colonized by ,dutch1 contains
 a numerous ,german population in       
several of its provinces1 particularly  
in that of ,columbia1 the birthplace of 
,martin ,van ,buren1 the present        
,vice-,president and future ,president  

of the republic4 ,the ,state of         
,maryland numbers twenty-five thousand  
,germans possessed of votes2 almost     
one-third of the population of ,illinois
 is ,german1 and thousands of fresh     
emigrants are settling in the valley of 
the ,mississippi4 ,i believe that the   
number of ,german voters or of voters of
 ,german descent may1 without           
exaggeration1 be reckoned on an average 
annually at four hundred thousand1 and  
certainly in less than twenty years     
hence at a million4 ,in the city of ,new
 ,york1 the ,germans greatly influence  
the election of the burgomaster and     
other city authorities by holding no    
fewer than three thousand five hundred  
votes4 ,these circumstances naturally   
render the ,german vote an object of    
zealous contention for politicians of   
every party1 and there is accordingly no
 dearth of ,german newspapers in any of 
the ,german settlements4 ,in            
,pennsylvania1 upward of thirty ,german 
7principally weekly7 papers are in      

circulation1 and about an equal number  
are printed and published in the ,state 
of ,ohio4 ,a scarcely lower number are  
also in circulation in ,maryland4       
,supplementary ,chapter  ,from ,the     
,fall of ,napoleon to the ,present ,day 
,the ,confederation of the ,rhine1      
wounded to the death by the campaign of 
#ahab1 was killed by the fall of        
,napoleon4 ,from that event to the      
present time the accompanying pages must
 be restricted to a consideration of    
those matters which have been of capital
 importance to the ,german people4      
,these matters may be summarized as     
consisting in the formation of the      
,german ,confederation1 the ,danish war1
 the ,austro-,prussian war1 the         
,franco-,prussian war1 and the          
refounding of the empire4  ,as the fall 
of ,sennacherib was sung by the         
,hebrews1 so was the fall of ,napoleon  
sung by the ,germans4 ,they had been at 
his mercy4 ,he had deposed their        
sovereigns1 dismembered their states1   

crippled their trade1 and exhausted     
their resources4 ,yet in #ahad1 by the  
,peace of ,paris1 they had restored to  
them all they had possessed in #agib1   
but as a reconstruction of the former   
empire was impracticable1 those states  
which still maintained their sovereignty
 coalesced4  ,this was in #ahae4 ,at the
 time there remained of the three       
hundred states into which the empire had
 originally been divided but            
thirty-nine1 a number afterward reduced1
 through the extinction of four minor   
dynasties1 to thirty-five4 ,a diet1     
recognized as the legislative and       
executive organ of the ,confederation1  
was instituted at ,frankfort4 ,instead1 
however1 of satisfying the expectations 
of the nation1 it degenerated into a    
political tool1 which princes           
manipulated1 which they made subservient
 to their inherent conservatism1 and    
with which they oppressed their         
subjects4 ,the ,french revolution of    
#ahcj influenced to a certain extent    

their attitude1 and a few of them were  
induced to accord constitutions to their
 people1 but the effect was transient4  
,reforms which had been stipulated they 
managed to ignore4 ,it took the         
insurrectionary movements of #ahdh to   
shake them on their thrones4 ,forced    
then to admit the inefficiency of the   
diet1 and attempting by hasty           
concessions to check the progress of    
republican principles1 they consented to
 the convocation of a national assembly4
 ,over this body the ,archduke ,john of 
,austria was elected to preside4 ,the   
choice was not happy4 ,measures which he
 failed to facilitate he succeeded in   
frustrating4 ,as a consequence1 matters 
went from bad to worse1 until1 after the
 refusal of the king of ,prussia to     
accept the imperial crown which was     
offered to him in #ahdi and the election
 of a provisional regency which ensued1 
the assembly lapsed into a condition of 
impotence which terminated in its       
dissolution4  ,meanwhile republican     

demonstrations having been forcibly     
suppressed1 there arose between ,prussia
 and ,austria a feeling of jealousy1 if 
not of ill-will1 which more than once   
indicated war1 and which1 though        
resulting in the restoration of the diet
 and temporarily diverted by a joint    
attack on ,denmark1 culminated in the   
battle of ,sadowa4  ,into the details of
 this attack it is unnecessary to enter4
 ,the casus belli was apparently an     
entirely virtuous endeavor to settle the
 respective claims of the king of       
,denmark and the duke of ,augustenburg  
to the sovereignty of                   
,schleswig-,holstein4 ,the fashion in   
which the claims were settled consisted 
in wiping them out4 ,the direction not  
merely of ,schleswig-,holstein but of   
,lauenberg was assumed by ,austria and  
,prussia1 who1 by virtue of a treaty    
signed ,october #cj1 #ahfd1 took upon   
themselves their civil and military     
administration4  ,the administration    
which then ensued was announced as being

 but a temporary trusteeship1 and       
throughout ,europe was generally so     
regarded4 ,but ,prussia had other views4
 ,in the chambers ,bismarck declared    
that the crown had no intention of      
resigning the booty1 that1 come what    
might1 never would it give up ,kiel4    
,bismarck was seldom wrong4 ,in this    
instance he was right4 ,in the month of 
,august following the treaty the        
,emperor ,francis of ,austria and ,king 
,william of ,prussia met at ,gastein and
 concluded a convention by which it was 
agreed that ,schleswig should belong to 
,prussia1 ,holstein to ,austria1 with   
,kiel as a free port under ,prussian    
rule4  ,these proceedings1 as might have
 been expected1 created the greatest    
indignation in ,england1 ,france1 and   
among the minor states4 ,earl ,russell  
declared that all rights1 old and new1  
had been trodden under by the ,gastein  
,convention1 and that violence and force
 had been the only bases on which this  
convention had been established1 while  

utter disregard of all public laws had  
been shown throughout all these         
transactions4 ,on the part of ,france1  
her minister said that the ,austrian and
 ,prussian governments were guilty in   
the eyes of ,europe of dividing between 
themselves territories they were bound  
to give up to the claimants who seemed  
to have the best title1 and that modern 
,europe was not accustomed to deeds fit 
only for the dark ages2 such principles1
 he added1 can only overthrow the past  
without building up anything new4 ,the  
,frankfort ,diet declared the two powers
 to have violated all principles of     
right1 especially that of the duchies to
 direct their own affairs as they       
pleased1 provided they did not interfere
 with the general interests of the      
,german nation4 ,nevertheless1 a        
,prussian governor was appointed over   
,schleswig1 and an ,austrian over       
,holstein1 both assuming these duchies  
to be parts of their respective empires4
  ,early in #ahff1 it was evident that  

no real friendship could long continue  
between ,prussia and ,austria1 and that 
these two great robbers would surely    
fall out over the division of the       
plunder2 making it the ostensible cause 
for dispute1 which was in reality their 
rivalry for the leadership in ,germany4 
,in ,june1 the ,prussians crossed the   
,eyder1 and took possession of          
,holstein1 appointed a supreme president
 over the two duchies which passed under
 ,prussian rule1 and settled1 after a   
summary fashion1 the vexed question4    
,there were also other causes which     
tended to war4 ,the weak side of        
,austria1 weaker far than ,hungary1 was 
her ,italian province of ,venetia1 one1 
indeed1 that few can say she had any    
real or natural right to hold1 beyond   
having acquired it by the treaty of     
#ahac4 ,to recover this from ,german    
rule had been the incessant desire of   
,italy1 and grievous was her            
disappointment when the emperor of the  
,french thought fit to stop immediately 

after the battle of ,magenta and        
,solferino1 instead of pushing on1 as it
 was hoped he would have done1 to the   
conquest of ,venetia4  ,in the spring of
 #ahff1 ,italy was making active        
preparations for war1 and ,austria1 on  
the other hand1 increased largely the   
number of her troops1 ,prussia choosing1
 in defiance of all fair dealing1 to    
assume that all these armaments were    
directed against herself2 and1 on this  
supposition1 sent a circular to the     
minor states to tell them they must     
decide which side to take in the        
impending struggle4 ,a secret treaty was
 made between ,prussia and ,italy3 that 
,italy should be ready to take up arms  
the moment ,prussia gave the signal1 and
 that ,prussia should go on with the war
 until ,venetia was ceded to ,italy4    
,angry discussions took place in the    
diet between ,austria and ,prussia1     
which ended in ,prussia declaring the   
,germanic ,confederation to be broken   
up1 and both sides preparing for war4   

,austria began early to arm1 for she    
required longer time to mobilize her    
army4 ,prussia1 on the contrary1 was in 
readiness for action4 ,every ,prussian  
who is twenty years old1 without        
distinction of rank1 has to serve in the
 army1 three years with the colors1 five
 more in the reserve1 after which he is 
placed for eleven years in the          
,landwehr1 and liable to be called out  
when occasion requires4 ,in peace       
everything is kept ready for the        
mobilization of its army4 ,in a         
wonderfully short time the organization 
was complete1 and #bfj1jjj men brought  
into the field in ,bohemia4 ,in arms1   
they had the advantage of the           
needle-gun4 ,the ,prussian forces were  
in three divisions1 the ,first ,army    
under the command of ,prince ,frederick 
,charles2 the ,second ,army under that  
of the crown prince2 and the ,army of   
the ,elbe1 under ,general ,herwarth4    
,the supreme command of the ,austrian   
army of the north was given to          

,feldzeugmeister von ,benedek1 that of  
the south to the ,archduke ,albert4  ,on
 ,june #ad1 ,prussia sent a telegraphic 
summons to ,hanover1 ,hesse-,cassel1 and
 ,saxony1 demanding them to reduce their
 armies to the peace establishment1 and 
to concur with ,prussia respecting the  
,germanic confederation2 and that if    
they did not send their consent within  
twelve hours1 war would be declared4    
,the states did not reply1 ,prussia     
declared war1 and on the #afth invaded  
their territories4 ,the occupation and  
disarmament of ,hanover and ,hesse were 
necessary to ,prussia for a free        
communication with her ,rhenish         
provinces1 and she effected her purpose 
by means of well-planned combinations1  
so that in the course of a few days     
these states were overrun by ,prussian  
troops1 and their sovereigns expelled4  
,the rapid progress of events1 and the  
,prussian declaration of war1 had taken 
,hanover by surprise4 ,her army was not 
yet mobilized2 ,austria had evacuated   

,holstein1 or she could have looked to  
her for support4 ,to attempt to defend  
the capital was hopeless2 so ,king      
,george1 suffering from blindness1 moved
 with his army to ,gottingen1 with a    
view of joining the ,bavarians4 ,prussia
 entered by the north1 and1 assisted by 
her navy on the ,elbe1 was by the #bb;d 
in possession of the whole of ,hanover4 
,closed round on all sides by the       
,prussians1 unassisted by ,prince       
,charles of ,bavaria1 ,gotha having     
declared for ,prussia1 the king of      
,hanover1 with his little army1 crossed 
the frontier of his kingdom1 and at     
,langensalza1 fifteen miles north of    
,gotha1 encountered the ,prussians1 and 
remained master of the battlefield4 ,but
 victory was of little avail2 surrounded
 by #dj1jjj ,prussians1 the king was    
forced to capitulate4 ,the arms and     
military stores were handed over to the 
enemy1 and the king and his soldiers    
allowed to depart4 ,thus1 through the   
supineness of ,prince ,charles of       

,bavaria1 a whole army was made captive1
 and ,hanover erased from the roll of   
independent states4  ,more fortunate    
than his neighbor1 the elector of       
,hesse-,cassel saved his army1 though   
not his territory1 from the invader4    
,his troops retired toward the ,maine1  
where they secured a communication with 
the federal army at ,frankfort4 ,the    
elector remained in ,hesse1 and was sent
 a state prisoner to the ,prussian      
fortress of ,stettin1 on the ,oder4 ,the
 ,prussians overran his territory1      
declaring they were not at war against  
peoples1 but against governments4  ,two 
bodies of ,prussian troops entered      
,saxony--the ,first ,army and the ,army 
of the ,elbe--and the ,saxon army       
retired into ,bohemia to effect a       
junction with the ,austrians4 ,on the   
#bjth1 ,leipzig was seized1 and the     
whole of ,saxony was in undisturbed     
possession of the ,prussians2 ,prince   
,frederick ,charles issuing a most      
stringent order that private property   

should be respected1 and every regard   
shown to the comfort of the inhabitants4
 ,his order was strictly observed1 and  
every measure taken to prevent the      
miseries attendant on the occupation of 
a country by a foreign army4  ,the      
invasion of ,saxony brought immediately 
open war between ,prussia and ,austria1 
and on the #bc;d the ,prussian army     
crossed the ,bohemian frontier--only a  
week since it had entered ,saxony4 ,it  
is needless here to detail the battles  
which immediately followed2 suffice it  
to say1 the ,prussians were victorious  
in all--at ,podoll1 where the needle-gun
 did such terrible work2 ,munchengratz1 
which gave them the whole line of the   
,iser2 ,trautenan1 ,gitschen1 and       
others4 ,on the #ast of ,july1 the king 
of ,prussia arrived from ,berlin and    
took the supreme command of the army4   
,the following day brought news from the
 crown prince that he was hastening from
 ,silesia with the ,second ,army1       
whereby the whole of the ,prussian      

forces would be concentrated4 ,on the   
#c;d of ,july was fought the decisive   
battle of ,koniggratz1 or ,sadowa1 as it
 is sometimes called1 from the village  
of that name1 a cluster of pine-wood    
cottages1 enclosed by orchards1 with a  
wood-crowned hill at the back1 which was
 fiercely disputed by the contending    
parties4  ,on that day1 ,general von    
,benedek had taken his position with the
 ,austrian army in front of the frontier
 fortress of ,koniggratz1 on the right  
bank of the ,elbe1 about fifty-five     
miles east of ,prague1 to oppose the    
passage of the crown prince from        
,silesia4 ,in his front lay the marshy  
stream of ,bistritz1 upon which ,sadowa 
and a few other villages are situated4  
,at half-past seven in the morning the  
battle began1 and continued with great  
slaughter without any marked advantage  
on either side till the arrival of the  
crown prince decided1 like the advance  
of ,blcher at ,waterloo1 the fortune of 
the day4 ,the ,austrians were completely

 routed1 and fled across the ,elbe to   
save the capital4 ,they lost #dj1jjj men
 in this sanguinary conflict1 the       
,prussians #aj1jjj4 ,the forces in the  
field were #bjj1jjj ,austrians and      
,saxons1 and #bfj1jjj ,prussians4       
,immediately after her crushing defeat1 
,austria surrendered ,venetia to        
,france1 and the ,emperor ,napoleon at  
once accepted the gift and gave it over 
to ,victor ,emmanuel4  ,on ,july #bf1   
preliminaries of peace were signed at   
,nikolsburg1 and peace was finally      
concluded at ,prague1 ,august #bc1      
between ,prussia and ,austria1 and about
 the same time with the ,south ,german  
states4 ,the ,prussian ,house of        
,deputies voted the annexation of the   
conquered states1 and in ,october peace 
was concluded with ,saxony4 ,by these   
arrangements1 ,hanover1 ,hesse-,cassel1 
and ,frankfort became provinces of      
,prussia1 as well as the long-disputed  
duchies of ,denmark4 ,all the ,german   
states north of the ,maine concluded a  

treaty1 offensive and defensive1 for the
 maintenance of the security of their   
states4 ,prussia increased her territory
 by #cb1jjj square miles and her        
population #d1jjj1jjj2 and in ,october1 
#ahff1 the whole of northern ,germany   
was united into a ,confederation4  ,this
 ,confederation1 known as the ,north    
,german1 possessed a common parliament  
elected by universal suffrage1 in which 
each state was represented according to 
its population4 ,the first or           
constituent parliament met early in     
#ahfg1 and adopted1 with a few          
modifications1 the constitution proposed
 by ,count ,bismarck4 ,the new elections
 then took place1 and the first regular 
,north ,german parliament met in        
,september1 #ahfg4 ,according to this   
constitution1 there was to be a common  
army and fleet1 under the sole command  
of ,prussia2 a common diplomatic        
representation abroad1 of necessity     
little else than ,prussian2 and to      
,prussia also was intrusted the         

management of the posts and telegraphs  
in the ,confederation4  ,the ,southern  
,german states which up to this point   
had not joined the ,bund1 were ,bavaria1
 ,baden1 ,wurtemberg1 ,hesse-,darmstadt1
 and ,lichtenstein1 with a joint area of
 #dc1iij square miles1 and a total      
population 7#ahff7 of #h1ebd1dfj4 ,but1 
though these states were not formally   
members of the ,bund1 they were so      
practically1 for they were bound to     
,prussia by treaties of alliance        
offensive and defensive1 so that in the 
event of a war the king of ,prussia     
would have at his disposal an armed     
force of upward of #a1ajj1jjj men4      
,during the next few years the ,north   
,german ,confederation was employed in  
consolidating and strengthening itself1 
and in trying to induce the southern    
states to join the league4 ,the         
,zollverein was remodelled and extended1
 until by the year #ahfh every part of  
,germany was a member of it1 with the   
exception of the cities of ,hamburg and 

,bremen1 and a small part of ,baden4    
,this paved the way for the formal      
entrance of the southern states into the
 confederation2 but they still hung     
back1 though the ideal of a united      
,germany was gradually growing in force 
and favor4  ,meanwhile the terms of the 
treaty of ,prague1 together with the    
complete removal of alien powers from   
,italy1 had wrought a radical change in 
the political relations of the ,european
 ,states4 ,excluded from ,germany1 the  
dominions of ,austria still extended to 
the verge of ,venetia and the ,lombard  
plains1 but her future lay eastward and 
her centre of gravity had been removed  
to ,buda-,pesth4 ,in the ,south ,german 
courts1 no doubt1 there was a bias      
toward ,vienna1 and a dislike of        
,prussia2 yet both the leaning and the  
repugnance were counterbalanced by a    
deeper dread of ,france rooted in the   
people by the vivid memories of repeated
 and cruel invasions4 ,russia1 somewhat 
alarmed by the rapid success of ,king   

,william1 had been soothed by diplomatic
 reassurances1 the tenor of which is not
 positively known1 although a series of 
subsequent events more than justified   
the inference made at that time1 that   
promises1 bearing on the czar's ,eastern
 designs1 were tendered and accepted as 
a valuable consideration for the coveted
 boon of benevolent neutrality1 if not  
something more substantial4 ,like       
,russia1 ,france had lost nothing by the
 campaign of #ahff2 her territories were
 intact2 her ruler had mediated between 
,austria and ,prussia2 and he had the   
honor of protecting the pope1 who1 as a 
spiritual and temporal prince1 was still
 in possession of ,rome and restricted  
territorial domains4 ,but the           
,napoleonic court1 and many who looked  
upon its head as a usurper1 experienced1
 on the morrow of ,sadowa1 and in a     
greater degree after the preface to a   
peace had been signed at ,nikolsburg1 a 
sensation of diminished magnitude1 a    
consciousness of lessened prestige1 and 

a painful impression that their         
political1 perhaps even their military  
place in ,europe1 as the heirs of       
,richelieu1 ,louis ,,xiv41 and          
,napoleon1 had been suddenly occupied by
 a power which they had taught          
themselves to contemn as an inferior4   
,until the summer of #ahff the emperor  
,napoleon fancied that he was strong    
enough to play with ,bismarck a game of 
diplomatic chess4  ,in that he erred    
profoundly4 ,as early as the first week 
in ,august1 #ahff1 ,m4 ,benedetti1 the  
,french ambassador to the court of      
,berlin1 was instructed to claim the    
left bank of the ,rhine as far as and   
including ,mainz4 ,bismarck replied that
 the true interest of ,france is not to 
obtain an insignificant increase of     
territory1 but to aid ,germany in       
constituting herself after a fashion    
which will be most favorable to all     
concerned4 ,delphos could not have been 
more oracular4 ,but ,napoleon ,,iii4    
could not or would not heed4 ,a week    

later ,benedetti was instructed to      
submit a regular scale of               
concessions--the frontiers of #ahad and 
the annexation of ,belgium1 or          
,luxemburg and ,belgium1 ,benedetti     
received the most courteous attention   
and nothing more4 ,this was irritating4 
,the ,french had been accustomed for    
more than two hundred years to meddle   
directly in ,germany and find there     
allies1 either against ,austria1        
,prussia1 or ,england2 and the habit of 
centuries had been more than confirmed  
by the colossal raids1 victories1 and   
annexations of ,napoleon ,i4 ,a ,germany
 which should escape from ,french       
control and reverse1 by its own         
energetic action1 the policy of ,henry  
,,iv41 ,richelieu1 ,louis ,,xiv41 his   
degenerate grandson1 ,louis ,,xv41 and  
of the great ,napoleon himself1 was an  
affront to ,french pride1 and could not 
be patiently endured4 ,the opposing     
forces which had grown up were so strong
 that the wit of man was unable to keep 

them asunder2 and all the control over  
the issue left to kings and statesmen   
was restricted to the fabrication of    
means wherewith to deliver or sustain   
the shock1 and the choice of the hour1  
if such choice were allowed4  ,then     
presently the opportunity occurred4 ,on 
,july #d1 #ahgj1 the throne of ,spain   
was offered to ,prince ,leopold of      
,hohenzollern4 ,the fact created the    
greatest excitement in ,france4         
,threatening speeches were made4 ,on    
,july #ah ,prince ,leopold declined the 
offer4 ,on the morrow ,benedetti was    
instructed to demand a guarantee that   
any future offer of the kind would be   
refused4 ,the king of ,prussia would not
 listen to the proposition4 ,the ,french
 minister1 through whom the demand had  
been transmitted1 then asked for his    
passports4 ,war was imminent4  ,at the  
prospect ,paris grew mad with           
enthusiasm4 ,crowds assembled in the    
streets1 shouting ,down with ,prussia6  
,long live ,france6 ,to the ,rhine6 ,to 

,berlin6 ,the papers abounded with      
inflammatory appeals1 and1 after the    
impulsive ,french fashion1 glorified    
beforehand the easy triumphs that were  
to be won over the ,prussians4 ,men told
 one another that they would be across  
the ,rhine in a week1 and at ,berlin in 
a fortnight4 ,the excitement in ,prussia
 was not less than that in ,france4 ,the
 people1 with scarcely an exception1    
declared their readiness for war1 and   
seemed to find a pleasure in the        
opportunity now presented for settling  
old quarrels4 ,like the people of       
,paris1 the ,prussians shouted ,to the  
,rhine6 ,the ,french cry of ,to ,berlin6
 had its counterpart in the ,german     
ejaculation of ,to ,paris6  ,perhaps a  
sentence spoken by ,m4 ,guyot           
,montpayroux best illustrates the       
predominant feeling4 ,prussia1 he said1 
has forgotten the ,france of ,jena1 and 
the fact must be recalled to her memory4
 ,thus was war declared on the night of 
,july #ae4 ,thiers1 who desired a war   

with ,prussia at the proper time1 has   
left on record his judgment that the    
hour then selected was detestably       
ill-chosen4 ,yet even he and ,gambetta  
were both anxious that satisfaction     
should be obtained for ,sadowa2 while   
the thought which animated the court is 
admirably expressed in the phrase       
imputed to the empress who1 pointing to 
the prince imperial1 said1 ,this child  
will never reign unless we repair the   
misfortunes of ,sadowa4 ,such was the   
ceaseless refrain4 ,the word haunted    
,french imaginations incessantly1 and it
 was the pivot on which the imperial    
policy revolved2 it exercised a spell   
scarcely less powerful and disastrous   
upon monarchists like ,thiers and       
republicans like ,gambetta4 ,long       
foreseen1 the dread shock1 like all     
grave calamities1 came nevertheless as a
 surprise1 even upon reflective minds4  
,statesmen and soldiers who looked on1  
while they shared in the natural        
feelings aroused by so tremendous a     

drama1 were also the privileged         
witnesses of two instructive experiments
 on a grand scale--the processes whereby
 mighty armies are brought into the     
field1 and the methods by means of which
 they are conducted to defeat or        
victory4  ,the ,french field army1      
called at the outset the ,army of the   
,rhine1 consisted nominally of #ccf1jjj 
men with #ibd guns4 ,it was considered  
that of these1 #cjj1jjj would be        
available for the initial operations4   
,the infantry of the army was provided  
with a breech-loading weapon1 called    
after its inventor the ,chassepot4 ,the 
,chassepot was a weapon in all respects 
superior to the famous needle-gun1 which
 was still the weapon of the ,prussian  
army4 ,attached likewise to the         
divisional artillery was a machine gun  
called the ,mitrailleuse1 from which    
great things were expected4 ,but this   
gun had been manufactured with a secrecy
 which1 while it prevented foreign      
inspection1 had withheld also the       

knowledge of its mechanism from the     
soldiers who were to work it4 ,in the   
field1 therefore1 it proved a failure4  
,since the ,crimean and ,austrian wars1 
while the armies of the other ,european 
states had advanced in efficiency1 the  
,french army had deteriorated4 ,the     
reason was that favoritism rather than  
merit had been made the road to court   
favor4 ,the officers who had pointed to 
the training of the ,prussian soldiers1 
as indicating the necessity for the     
adoption of similar modes for the       
,french army1 had been laughed at and   
left in the cold4 ,the consequence was1 
that for ten years prior to the war of  
#ahgj1 the ,french army had received    
instruction only of the most superficial
 character4 ,it had been considered     
sufficient if the soldiers were brought 
to the point of making a good show on   
the parade ground4 ,little more had been
 required of them4 ,field training and  
musketry training had been alike        
neglected4 ,the officers had ceased to  

study1 and the government had taken no  
pains to instruct them4 ,what was more  
vicious still1 the alienation between   
officers and men1 which had been noticed
 even in the war of #ahei1 had widened4 
,the officers generally had ceased to   
take the smallest interest in the       
comfort of the men in camp or in        
quarters4 ,these matters were left to   
the non-commissioned officers4 ,needless
 to add1 they were not always properly  
attended to4 ,it may be added that the  
system of drill was so devised as to    
give no play to the reasoning powers of 
the officer4 ,he was a machine and      
nothing more4  ,of the artillery of the 
,french army it has to be said1 that it 
was far inferior to that of the         
,germans1 and known to be so by the     
,french war department4 ,in the matter  
of reserves1 ,france had comparatively  
nothing4  ,far different were the       
composition and the state of preparation
 of the ,prussian army2 far different1  
also1 those of her ,german allies2 far  

higher the qualities of their general   
officers2 far superior the discipline   
and morale of their troops2 far more    
ready1 in every single particular1 to   
begin a war2 far more thoroughly        
provided to carry that war to a         
successful issue4  ,the ,german infantry
 had been thoroughly organized on a     
system which gave to every officer the  
necessity of exercising independent     
action1 and to the men the faculty of   
understanding the object of the         
manoeuvre directed4 ,its cavalry had    
been specially instructed in duties of  
reconnoissance1 of insuring repose for  
the infantry1 of collecting             
intelligence1 of concealing the march of
 armies1 of acting as a completer of    
victory1 or as a shield in case of      
defeat4 ,it had profited greatly by the 
lessons it had learned in the war of    
#ahff4  ,the ,german artillery had      
likewise been greatly improved in       
efficiency of manoeuvre since #ahff4 ,it
 was in all respects superior to that of

 the ,french4  ,of the ,prussian and    
,south ,german leaders1 ,i will only say
 that we shall meet again the men from  
whom we parted on the conclusion of the 
armistice of ,nikolsburg4 ,what was     
their task and how they executed it will
 be described in the pages that follow4 
,in mere numbers1 the king of ,prussia  
had a great advantage over his enemy4   
,for1 while without any assistance from 
,south ,germany1 and after allowing for 
three army corps which might be         
necessary to watch ,austria and         
,denmark1 he could begin the campaign   
with a force of #cej1jjj men1 he was    
certain of the assistance of ,southern  
,germany1 and confident that1 unless the
 ,french should obtain considerable     
successes at the outset1 neither        
,austria nor ,denmark would stir a hand 
to aid them4  ,to counterbalance this   
superiority of numbers the ,french      
emperor had cherished a vague hope that1
 in a war against ,prussia1 he might    
possibly count upon the ancient         

friendship for ,france of ,bavaria and  
,saxony1 and to a still greater extent  
upon ,austria and ,italy4 ,with regard  
to ,bavaria and ,saxony he was speedily 
undeceived4 ,moreover1 contrary to      
expectation1 other ,german states       
decided to support ,prussia and placed  
their armies1 which were eventually     
commanded by the crown prince1 at the   
disposal of ,king ,william4 ,with regard
 to ,austria and ,italy1 ,colonel       
,malleson in a work on this subject1#a  
to which we are much indebted1 states   
that their co-operation was made        
dependent on the initial successes of   
the ,french troops4 ,colonel ,malleson  
adds3  ,it was not only understood1 but 
was actually drafted in a treaty--the   
signing of which1 however1 was prevented
 by the rapid course of the war--that   
if1 on the #aeth of ,september1 ,france 
should be holding her own in ,southern  
,germany1 then ,austria and ,italy would
 jointly declare war against ,prussia4  
,these conditions made it clear that    

ultimate success in the struggle about  
to commence would accrue to the power   
which should obtain the first           
advantages4  ,that ,germany--for it was 
,germany and not ,prussia only which    
entered upon this great struggle--would 
obtain these initial advantages seemed  
almost certain4 ,count ,moltke had for  
some time previous been engaged in      
planning for a war with ,france4 ,so far
 back as #ahfh all his arrangements for 
the formation of the armies to be       
employed1 the points to be occupied1 the
 nature of the transport1 had been      
clearly laid down4 ,these instructions  
had been carefully studied by the       
several corps commanders and their      
staff4 ,not one matter1 however         
apparently trivial1 had been neglected4 
,when1 then1 on the #afth of ,july1 the 
king of ,prussia gave the order for     
mobilization1 it required only to insert
 the day and the hour on which each body
 of troops should march4 ,with respect  
to the armies of the states of ,southern

 ,germany1 ,moltke1 anticipating that   
the ,french emperor would throw his main
 army as rapidly as possible into       
,southern ,germany1 had recommended that
 the contingents from that part of the  
country should march northward to join  
those of ,prussia on the middle ,rhine1 
to assume there a position which should 
menace the flank and rear of the        
invading army4 ,this position would be  
the more practical1 as in the event of  
the ,french not invading ,southern      
,germany1 the combined force1 stretching
 from ,saarbrucken to ,landau1 would be 
ready to invade ,france1 and sever the  
communications with ,paris of the       
,french armies on the frontier4 ,count  
,moltke had calculated that the ,german 
troops intended to cross the ,french    
frontier would be in a position to make 
their forward movement by the #dth of   
,august4 ,pending the development of the
 ,french strategy with respect to       
,southern ,germany1 therefore1 he       
thought it prudent to delay the march of

 the southern contingents1 in order that
 no part of the army might be suddenly  
overwhelmed by a superior force4 ,on the
 actual frontier he placed1 then1 only a
 few light troops1 for the purposes of  
reconnoitring1 and for checking the     
first advance of the enemy until        
supports should arrive4  ,the ,french   
emperor had1 indeed1 been keenly alive  
to the advantages which would accrue to 
himself from a prompt invasion of       
,southern ,germany4 ,he designed to     
concentrate one hundred and fifty       
thousand men at ,metz2 one hundred      
thousand at ,strasburg2 to cross into   
,baden with these armies2 while a third1
 assembling at ,chalons1 should protect 
the frontier against the ,german forces4
 ,the plan itself was an excellent one  
had he only been able to execute it1    
for1 as we have seen1 early success in  
,southern ,germany would have meant the 
armed assistance of ,austria and ,italy4
 ,but the ,french army was in a         
condition more unready1 one might truly 

say1 of greater demoralization1 thus    
early1 than its severest critics had    
imagined4 ,considerable forces were     
indeed massed about ,metz and           
,strasburg4 ,but the commissariat and   
transport departments were in a state of
 the most hopeless confusion4 ,the army 
could not move4 ,to remedy these evils  
time was wanted1 and time was the       
commodity the generals could not        
command4 ,every day which evoked some   
little order out of chaos brought the   
,germans nearer to positions1 the       
occupation of which would render        
impossible the contemplated invasion4   
,the emperor had quitted ,paris for     
,metz1 accompanied by the prince        
imperial1 on the #bhth of ,july1 and had
 arrived there and taken the supreme    
command the same day4 ,the day following
 he met his generals at ,st4 ,avoid1 and
 unfolded to them his plans4 ,since war 
had been declared he had lost many      
illusions4 ,it had become clear to him  
that he was warring against the         

concentrated might of ,germany2 that he 
could not make the inroad into ,southern
 ,germany originally contemplated       
without exposing ,paris to an attack    
from forces already occupying the       
country between ,treves and ,mannheim3  
that he was bound to hold that line4    
,anxious1 however1 to assume the        
offensive1 he dictated the following    
plan to his marshals4 ,bazaine1 with the
 ,second1 ,third1 and ,fifth ,army      
,corps1 should cross the ,saar at       
,saarbrcken1 covered on his left by the 
,fourth ,corps1 which should make a show
 of advancing against ,saarlouis1 while 
,mac,mahon1 pushing forward from his    
position near ,strasburg1 should cover  
his right4 ,the emperor had some reason 
to believe that the ,saar was weakly    
held4  ,but his own generals showed him 
that his plan was impossible4 ,they     
represented to him that instead of the  
three hundred thousand men whom1 in the 
delirium of the ,paris enthusiasm1 he   
believed he would find available for his

 purposes1 he had at the utmost one     
hundred and eighty-six thousand2 that in
 every requirement for moving the army  
was deficient2 that there was scarcely a
 department which was not disorganized4 
,he was compelled1 therefore1 to        
renounce his plan for decisive offensive
 action4 ,he came to that resolve most  
unwillingly1 for ,paris was behind him1 
ready to rise unless he should make some
 show of advancing4 ,it was to reassure 
the excited spirits of the capital1     
rather than to effect any military      
result1 that on the #b;d of ,august1 he 
moved with sixty thousand men in the    
direction of ,saarbrcken4 ,the garrison 
of that place consisted of something    
less than four thousand men with six    
guns4 ,the emperor attacked it with the 
corps of ,frossard1 eighteen battalions 
and four batteries4 ,these compelled the
 slender ,german garrison to evacuate   
the place1 but ,frossard1 though the    
bridges across the ,saar were not       
defended1 made no attempt to cross that 

river4 ,the soldierly manner in which   
the ,germans had covered their retreat  
had left on his mind the impression that
 they were more numerous than they were1
 and that there was a larger force      
behind them4  ,still1 for the only time 
in the war1 the emperor was able to send
 a reassuring telegram to ,paris4 ,the  
young prince1 upon whom the hopes of the
 nation would1 he hoped1 rest1 had      
undergone the baptism of fire4 ,french  
troops had made the first step in       
advance4  ,soon1 however1 it became     
clear to him that the enemy had         
concentrated along the line of the      
frontier1 and were about to make their  
spring4 ,moltke1 in fact1 from his      
headquarters at ,mayence1 was1 by means 
of solitary horsemen employed in        
profusion1 keeping himself thoroughly   
well acquainted not only with the       
movements of the ,french1 but with their
 vacillation1 their irresolution1 their 
want of plan4 ,the sudden appearance    
from unexpected quarters of these       

horsemen conveyed a marked feeling of   
insecurity to the minds of the ,french  
soldiers1 and these feelings were soon  
shared by their chiefs4 ,it was very    
clear to them that an attack might at   
any moment come1 though from what       
quarter and in what force they were     
absolutely ignorant4 ,this ignorance    
increased their vacillations1 their     
uncertainties4 ,orders and              
counter-orders followed each other with 
startling rapidity4 ,the soldiers1      
harassed1 began to lose confidence2 the 
leaders became more and more incapable  
of adopting a plan4  ,suddenly1 in the  
midst of their vacillations1 of their   
marchings and counter-marchings1 the    
true report reached them1 on the evening
 of the #c;d of ,august1 that a ,french 
division1 the outpost of ,mac,mahon's   
army1 had been surprised and defeated at
 ,weissenburg by a far superior force4  
,napoleon at once ordered the ,fifth    
,corps to concentrate at ,bitsche1 and  
despatched a division of the ,third to  

,saarguemnd4 ,these orders were followed
 by others4 ,those of the #eth of       
,august divided the army of the ,rhine  
into two portions1 the troops in ,alsace
 being placed under ,mac,mahon1 those in
 ,lorraine under ,bazaine1 the emperor  
retaining the ,guard4 ,those of the #gth
 directed the ,second ,corps to proceed 
to ,bitsche1 the ,third to ,saarguemnd1 
the ,fourth to ,haut-,homburg1 the      
,guard to ,st4 ,avoid4 ,these           
instructions plainly signified the      
making of a flank movement in front of a
 superior enemy4 ,with such an army as  
the emperor had1 inferior in numbers1   
many of the regiments as yet incomplete1
 all his resources behind him1 and these
 becoming daily more unavailable1 his   
one chance was to concentrate in a      
position commanding the roads behind it1
 and yet adapted for attack if attack   
should be necessary4 ,as it was1 without
 certain information as to the movements
 of the ,germans1 anxious to move1 yet  
dreading to do so1 until his regiments  

should be completed1 the ,french emperor
 was confused and helpless4 ,he forgot  
even to transmit to the generals on one 
flank the general directions he had     
issued to those on the other4 ,bazaine1 
for instance1 was left on the #eth in   
ignorance of the emperor's intentions   
with respect to ,mac,mahon2 on the #fth 
none of the subordinate generals knew   
that the flank march was contemplated4  
,frossard1 who had fallen back to       
,spicheren1 considered his position so  
insecure that he suggested to ,leboeuf  
that he should be allowed to retire from
 the ,saarbrcken ridge4 ,he was ordered 
in reply to fall back on ,forbach1 but  
no instructions were given him as to the
 course he should pursue in the event of
 his being attacked1 nor were the       
contemplated movements of the emperor   
communicated to him4 ,in every order    
that was issued there was apparent the  
confused mind of the issuer4  ,turn we  
now to ,mac,mahon and the movements of  
himself and his generals4 ,when the war 

broke out ,mac,mahon was in the vicinity
 of ,strasburg with forty-five thousand 
men2 ,general ,douay with twelve        
thousand men at ,weissenburg4 ,the same 
confusion prevailed here as at ,metz4   
,the orders given to ,mac,mahon were of 
the vaguest description3 ,douay had no  
instructions at all4 ,yet1 in front of  
him1 the ,german hosts had been         
gathering4 ,the commander of the left   
wing of the ,german army1 the crown     
prince of ,prussia1 had1 in obedience to
 the instructions he had received1      
crossed the frontier river1 the ,lauter1
 on the #dth of ,august1 with an army   
composed of the ,second ,bavarian and   
,fifth ,prussian army1 numbering about  
forty thousand men1 and marched on      
,weissenburg4 ,as his advanced guard    
approached the town1 it was met by a    
heavy fire from the ,french garrison4   
,the crown prince resolved at once to   
storm the place4 ,douay had placed his  
troops in a strong position1 a portion  
of his men occupying the town defended  

by a simple wall2 the bulk1 formed on   
the ,gaisberg1 a hill two miles to the  
south of it4 ,against this position the 
crown prince directed his chief attack4 
,the contest which ensued was most      
severe1 the assailants and the defenders
 vying with one another in determination
 and courage4 ,but the odds in favor of 
the former were too great to permit     
,douay to hope for ultimate success4    
,after a resistance of five hours'      
duration the ,germans carried the       
,gaisberg4 ,douay himself was killed2   
but his surviving troops1 though beaten1
 were not discouraged4 ,they            
successfully foiled an attempt made by  
the ,germans to cut off their retreat1  
and fell back on the corps of           
,mac,mahon1 which lay about ten miles to
 the south of ,weissenburg4  ,the same  
day on which the crown prince had       
attacked and carried ,weissenburg1      
another ,german army corps1 that of     
,baden-,wrtemberg1 a part of the ,third 
,army1 under the command of the crown   

prince1 had advanced on and occupied    
,lauterburg4 ,that evening the entire   
,third ,army1 consisting of one hundred 
and thirty thousand men1 bivouacked on  
,french ground4 ,meanwhile ,mac,mahon1  
on hearing of ,douay's defeat1 had      
marched to ,reichshofen1 received there 
the shattered remnants of ,douay's      
division1 and1 with the emperor's orders
 under no circumstances to decline a    
battle1 took up a position on the hills 
of which ,worth1 ,frschweiler and       
,elsasshausen form the central points4  
,he had with him forty-seven thousand   
men1 but the ,fifth ,corps1 commanded by
 ,de ,failly1 was at ,bitsche1 seventeen
 miles from ,reichshofen1 and ,mac,mahon
 had despatched the most pressing       
instructions to that officer to join    
him4 ,these orders1 however1 ,de ,failly
 did not obey4  ,the ground on which    
,mac,mahon had retired offered many     
capabilities for defence4 ,the central  
point was the village of ,worth on the  
rivulet ,sauerbach1 which covered the   

entire front of the position4 ,to the   
right rear of ,worth1 on the road from  
,gundershofen1 was the village of       
,elsasshausen1 covered on its right by  
the ,niederwald1 having the village of  
,eberbach on its further side1 and the  
extreme right of the position1 the      
village of ,morsbronn1 to its southeast4
 ,behind ,wrth1 again1 distant a little 
more than two miles on the road to      
,reichshofen1 was the key to the        
position1 the village of ,frschweiler4  
,from this point the ,french left was   
thrown back to a mound1 covered by a    
wood1 in front of ,reichshofen4  ,on the
 #eth of ,august the crown prince had   
set his army in motion1 and had rested  
for the night at ,sulz4 ,there          
information reached him regarding the   
position taken by ,mac,mahon4 ,he       
immediately issued orders for the       
concentration of his army1 and for its  
march the following morning toward the  
,french position1 the village of        
,preuschdorf1 on the direct road to     

,wrth1 to be the central point of the   
movement4 ,but the previous evening     
,general von ,walther1 with the ,fifth  
,prussian ,corps1 had reached ,grsdorf1 
a point whence it was easy for him to   
cross the ,sauerbach1 and take ,worth in
 flank4 ,marching at four o'clock in the
 morning ,walther tried this manoeuvre1 
and at seven o'clock succeeded in       
driving the ,french from ,wrth4         
,mac,mahon then changed his front1      
recovered ,wrth1 and repulsed likewise  
an attack which had in the meanwhile    
been directed against ,frschweiler by   
the ,eleventh ,prussian and ,fifth      
,bavarian ,corps4  ,for a moment it     
seemed as though he might hold his      
position4 ,but between eleven and twelve
 the enemy renewed his attack4 ,while   
one corps again attacked and carried    
,wrth1 the ,eleventh ,prussian ,corps1  
aided by sixty guns placed upon the     
heights of ,gunstett1 assailed his      
right4 ,they met here a most stubborn   
resistance1 the ,french cuirassiers     

charging the advancing infantry with the
 greatest resolution4 ,so thoroughly did
 they devote themselves that they left  
three-fourths of their number dead or   
dying on the field4 ,but all was in     
vain4 ,the ,prussians steadily advanced1
 forced their way through the           
,niederwald1 and threatened             
,elsasshausen4 ,while the ,french were  
thus progressing badly on their right1  
they were faring still worse in the     
centre4  ,the ,germans1 having seized   
,wrth1 stormed the hilly slopes between 
that place and ,froschweiler1 and made a
 furious assault upon the latter1 now   
more than ever the key of the ,french   
position4 ,for while ,froschweiler was  
their objective centre1 their right was 
thrown back toward ,elsasshausen and the
 ,niederwald1 their left to             
,reichshofen4 ,while the ,eleventh      
,prussians were penetrating the         
,niederwald1 preparatory to attacking   
,elsasshausen on the further side of it1
 the ,fifth ,prussian ,corps with the   

,second ,bavarians were moving against  
,froschweiler4 ,it was clear then to    
,mac,mahon that further resistance was  
impossible4 ,still holding              
,froschweiler1 he evacuated             
,elsasshausen1 and drew back his right  
to ,reichshofen4 ,the safety of his army
 depended now upon the tenacity with    
which ,froschweiler might be held4 ,it  
must be admitted1 in justice to the     
,french1 that they held it with a       
stubborn valor not surpassed during the 
war4 ,attacked by overwhelming numbers1 
they defended the place1 house by house4
 ,at length1 however1 they were         
overpowered4 ,then1 for the first time1 
the bonds of discipline loosened1 and   
the ,french1 struck by panic1 fled1 in  
wild disorder1 in the direction of      
,saverne4 ,they reached that place by a 
march across the hills the following    
evening4 ,on their way they fell in with
 one of the divisions of the corps of de
 ,failly1 and this served to cover the  
retreat4  ,though their defeat1         

considering the enormous superiority of 
their assailants1 might be glorious1 it 
was doubly disastrous1 inasmuch that it 
followed those perturbations of spirit  
alluded to in a previous page1 which had
 done so much to discourage the ,french 
soldier4 ,a victory at ,worth might have
 done much to redeem past mistakes4 ,a  
defeat emphasized them enormously4 ,it  
was calculated that1 inclusive of the   
nine thousand prisoners taken by the    
,germans1 the ,french lost twenty-four  
thousand men4 ,the loss of the victors  
amounted to ten thousand4 ,they captured
 thirty-three guns1 two eagles1 and six 
mitrailleuses4  ,the emperor was deeply 
pained by the result of the battle4 ,to 
keep up1 if possible1 the spirits of his
 partisans1 he wired on the evening of  
the #gth to ,paris1 with the news of the
 defeat1 the words1 tout se peut        
retablir4 ,he was mistaken4 ,while the  
crown prince was crushing ,mac,mahon at 
,wrth1 the imperial troops were being   
beaten at ,spicheren as well4           

,thereafter the ,german advance was     
hardly checked for a moment1 though the 
losses on both sides were heavy4 ,on the
 #ahth of ,august was fought the battle 
of ,gravelotte1 in which ,king ,william 
commanded in person1 and though his     
troops suffered immense loss1 they were 
again victorious1 and forced ,bazaine to
 shut himself up in ,metz1 which he     
subsequently surrendered4 ,in this      
battle1 one of the most decisive of the 
war1 it is worth noting that the        
,germans outnumbered the ,french by more
 than two to one4 ,the exact figures are
 uncertain1 but we shall probably be    
correct in accepting #bcj1jjj as the    
strength of the ,germans1 and in        
estimating the ,french outside of ,metz 
at #aaj1jjj4  ,we now come to ,sedan4   
,with the army of ,bazaine beleaguered1 
there remained1 in the opinion of the   
,german chiefs--an opinion not justified
 by events--only the army of ,mac,mahon4
 ,to remove that army from the path     
which led to ,paris was the task        

intrusted to the crown prince4          
,mac,mahon1 meanwhile1 after his defeat 
at ,wrth1 had fallen back with the      
disordered remnants of his army on      
,chalons1 there to reorganize and       
strengthen it4 ,much progress had been  
made in both respects1 when1 after the  
result of the battle of ,gravelotte had 
been known in ,paris1 he received       
instructions from the ,count of ,palikao
 to march with the four army corps at   
his disposal northward toward the       
,meuse1 and to give a hand to the       
beleaguered ,bazaine4  ,mac,mahon       
prepared to obey4 ,but circumstances    
ordered otherwise4 ,on the night of     
,august #cast1 accompanied by the       
emperor--who1 having transferred his    
authority to the ,empress ,eugenie and  
his command to ,bazaine1 followed the   
army as mere spectator--,mac,mahon      
reached ,sedan1 and there ranged his    
troops so as to meet an attack which he 
foresaw inevitable1 and fatal too4      
,placing his strongest force to the     

east1 his right wing was at ,bazeilles  
and the left at ,illy4 ,the ground in   
front of his main defence was naturally 
strong1 the entire front being covered  
by the ,givonne rivulet1 and the slopes 
to that rivulet1 on the ,french side of 
it4  ,the possibility that the ,french  
marshal would accept battle at ,sedan   
had been considered at the ,german      
headquarters on the night of the #cast1 
and arrangements had been made to meet  
his wishes4 ,the army of the crown      
prince of ,saxony 7the ,fourth ,army7   
occupied the right of the ,german       
forces1 the ,bavarian ,corps formed the 
centre1 and the ,prussians the left     
wing4 ,the advanced troops of the army  
were ranged in the following order4 ,on 
the right stood the ,twelfth ,corps1    
then the ,fourth ,prussian ,corps1 the  
,prussian ,guards1 and finally the      
,fourth ,cavalry ,division1 their backs 
to ,remilly4 ,from this point they were 
linked to the ,first and ,second        
,bavarian ,corps1 opposite ,bazeilles2  

they1 in turn1 to the ,eleventh and     
,fifth ,corps2 and they1 at             
,dom-le-,mesnil1 to the ,wrtembergers4  
,the ,sixth ,prussian ,corps was placed 
in reserve between ,attigny and ,le     
,chene4  ,a word now as to the nature of
 the ground on which the impending      
battle was to be fought4 ,sedan lies in 
the most beautiful part of the valley of
 the ,meuse1 amid terraced heights1     
covered with trees1 and1 within close   
distance1 the villages of ,donchery1    
,iges1 ,villette1 ,glaire1 ,daigny1     
,bazeilles1 and others4 ,along the      
,meuse1 on the left bank1 ran the main  
road from ,donchery through ,frenois1   
crossing the river at the suburb ,torcy1
 and there traversing ,sedan4 ,the      
character of the locality may best be   
described as a ground covered with fruit
 gardens and vineyards1 narrow streets  
shut in by stone walls1 the roads       
overhung by forests1 the egress from    
which was in many places steep and      
abrupt4 ,such was the ground4 ,one word 

now as to the troops4  ,the ,german army
 before ,sedan counted1 all told1       
#bdj1jjj men2 the ,french #ahj1jjj4 ,but
 the disparity in numbers was the least 
of the differences between the two      
armies4 ,the one was flushed with       
victory1 the other dispirited by defeat4
 ,the one had absolute confidence in    
their generals and their officers1 the  
other had the most supreme contempt for 
theirs4 ,the one had marched from ,metz 
on a settled plan1 to be modified       
according to circumstances1 the drift of
 which was apparent to the meanest      
soldier2 the other had been marched     
hither and thither1 now toward          
,montmedy1 now toward ,paris1 then again
 back toward ,montmedy1 losing much     
time2 the men eager for a pitched       
battle1 then suddenly surprised through 
the carelessness of their commanders1   
and compelled at last to take refuge in 
a town from which there was no issue4   
,there was hardly an officer of rank who
 knew aught about the country in which  

he found himself4 ,the men were longing 
to fight to the death1 but they1 one and
 all1 distrusted their leaders4 ,it did 
not tend1 moreover1 to the encouragement
 of the army to see the now phantom     
emperor1 without authority to command   
even a corporal's guard1 dragged about  
the country1 more as a pageant than a   
sovereign4 ,he1 poor man1 was much to be
 pitied4 ,he keenly felt his position1  
and longed for the day when he might1 in
 a great battle1 meet the glorious death
 which ,france might accept as an       
atonement for his misfortunes4  ,the    
battle began at daybreak on the morning 
of the #ast of ,september4 ,under cover 
of a brisk artillery fire1 the          
,bavarians advanced1 and opened1 at six 
o'clock1 a very heavy musketry fire on  
,bazeilles4 ,the masonry buildings of   
this village were all armed and         
occupied1 and they were defended very   
valiantly4 ,the defenders drove back the
 enemy as they advanced and kept them at
 bay for two hours4 ,then the ,saxons   

came up to the aid of the ,bavarians1   
and forced the first position4 ,still   
the defence continued1 and the clocks   
were striking ten when the ,bavarians   
succeeded in entering the place4 ,even  
then a house-to-house defence prolonged 
the battle1 and it was not until every  
house but one#b had been either stormed 
or burned that the ,germans could call  
the village1 or the ruins which remained
 of it1 their own4 ,meanwhile1 on the   
other points of their defensive         
position2 at ,floing1 ,st4 ,menges1     
,fleigneux1 ,illy1 and1 on the extreme  
left1 at ,iges1 where a sharp bend of   
the ,meuse forms a peninsula of the     
ground round which it slowly rolls2 the 
,french had been making a gallant       
struggle4 ,in their ranks1 even in      
advance of them1 attended finally by a  
single aide-de-camp1 all the others     
having been killed1 was the emperor1    
cool1 calm1 and full of sorrow1         
earnestly longing for the shell or the  
bullet which should give a soldier's    

finish to his career4 ,mac,mahon1 too1  
was there1 doing all that a general     
could do to encourage his men4 ,the     
enemy were1 however1 gradually but      
surely making way4 ,to hedge the ,french
 within the narrowest compass1 the      
,fifth and ,eleventh ,corps of the      
,third ,army had crossed the ,meuse to  
the left of ,sedan1 and were marching   
now to roll up the ,french left4 ,but   
before their attack had been felt1 an   
event had occurred full of significance 
for the ,french army4  ,early in the    
day1 while yet the ,bavarians were      
fighting to get possession of           
,bazeilles1 ,marshal ,mac,mahon was so  
severely wounded that he had to be      
carried from the field into ,sedan4 ,he 
made over the command of the army to    
,general ,ducrot4 ,that general had even
 before recognized the impossibility of 
maintaining the position before ,sedan  
against the superior numbers of the     
,german army1 and had seen that the one 
chance of saving his army was to fall   

back on ,mezieres4 ,he at once1 then1 on
 assuming command1 issued orders to that
 effect4 ,but it was already too late4  
,the march by the defile of ,st4 ,albert
 had been indeed possible at any time   
during the night or in the very early   
morning4 ,but it was now no longer so4  
,the ,german troops swarmed in the      
plains of ,donchery1 and the route by   
,carignan could only be gained by       
passing over the bodies of a more       
numerous and still living foe4 ,still   
,ducrot had given the order1 and the    
staff officers did their utmost to cause
 it to be obeyed4 ,the crowded streets  
of ,sedan were being vacated1 when      
suddenly the orders were countermanded4 
,general ,wimpffen had arrived from     
,paris the previous day to replace the  
incapable ,de ,failly in command of the 
,fifth ,corps1 carrying in his pocket an
 order from the ,minister of ,war to    
assume the command-in-chief in the event
 of any accident to ,mac,mahon4 ,the    
emperor had no voice in the matter1 for1

 while the regency of the empress       
existed1 he no longer represented the   
government4 ,the two generals met1 and1 
after a somewhat lively discussion1     
,ducrot was forced to acknowledge the   
authority of the minister4 ,wimpffen    
then assumed command4 ,his first act was
 to countermand the order to retreat on 
,mezieres1 and to direct the troops to  
reassume the positions they had occupied
 when ,mac,mahon had been wounded4 ,this
 order was carried out as far as was    
possible4  ,meanwhile the ,germans were 
pressing more and more those positions4 
,about midday the ,guards1 having made  
their way step by step1 each one bravely
 contested1 gave their hand to the left 
wing of the ,third ,army4 ,then ,illy   
and ,floing1 which had been defended    
with extraordinary tenacity1 as the keys
 of the advanced ,french position1 were 
stormed4 ,the conquest of those heights 
completed the investment of ,sedan4     
,there was now no possible egress for   
the ,french4 ,their soldiers retreated  

into the town and the suburbs1 while    
five hundred ,german guns hurled their  
missiles1 their round shot and their    
shells1 against the walls and the       
crowded masses behind them4  ,vainly    
then did ,wimpffen direct an assembly in
 mass of his men to break through the   
serried columns of the enemy4 ,in the   
disordered state of the ,french army the
 thing was impossible4 ,the emperor1 who
 had courted death in vain1 recognized  
the truth1 and1 desirous to spare the   
sacrifice of life produced by the       
continued cannonade1 ordered1 on his own
 responsibility1 the hoisting of a white
 flag on the highest point of the       
defences1 as a signal of surrender4 ,but
 the firing still continued1 and        
,wimpffen1 still bent on breaking       
through1 would not hear of surrender4   
,then ,napoleon despatched his chief    
aide-de-camp1 ,general ,keille1 with a  
letter to the king of ,prussia4  ,king  
,william early that day had taken his   
stand on an eminence which commanded an 

extensive view and which rises a little 
south of ,frenois4 ,there1 his staff    
about him1 he watched the progress of   
the fight4 ,toward this eminence ,reille
 rode4 ,walking his horse up the steep1 
he dismounted1 and raising his cap      
presented the letter4 ,king ,william1   
breaking the imperial seal1 read these  
phrases1 which1 if somewhat dramatic1   
are striking in their brevity3#c        
,,monsieur ,,mon ,,fr,,re--,n'ayant pu  
mourir au milieu de mes troupes1 il ne  
me reste qu'  remettre mon epe entre les
 mains de ,votre ,majeste4  ,je suis de 
,votre ,majeste1 le bon ,frere1         
,,napol,,on4  ,sdan1 le #a;er           
,septembre1 #ahgj4  ,only one half hour 
earlier1 writes ,mr4 ,george ,hooper in 
his ,campaign of ,sedan1 had the        
information been brought that the       
emperor was in ,sedan4 ,mr4 ,hooper     
adds3  ,the king conferred with his son1
 who had been hastily summoned1 and with
 others of his trusty servants1 all     
deeply moved by complex emotions at the 

grandeur of their victory4 ,what should 
be done8 ,the emperor spoke for himself 
only1 and his surrender would not settle
 the great issue4 ,it was necessary to  
obtain something definite1 and the      
result of a short conference was that   
,count ,hatzfeldt1 instructed by the    
chancellor1 retired to draft a reply4   
',after some minutes he brought it1'    
writes ,dr4 ,busch1 'and the king wrote 
it out1 sitting on one chair1 while the 
seat of a second was held up by ,major  
von ,alten1 who knelt on one knee and   
supported the chair on the other4' ,the 
king's letter1 brief and business-like1 
began and ended with the customary royal
 forms1 and ran as follows3             
',regretting the circumstances in which 
we meet1 ,i accept your ,majesty's      
sword1 and beg that you will be good    
enough to name an officer furnished with
 full powers to treat for the           
capitulation of the army which has      
fought so bravely under your orders4 ,on
 my side ,i have designated ,general von

 ,moltke for that purpose4'  ,general   
,reille returned to his master1 and as  
he rode down the hill the astounding    
purport of his visit flew from lip to   
lip through the exulting army which now 
hoped that1 after this colossal success1
 the days of ceaseless marching and     
fighting would soon end4 ,as a contrast 
to this natural outburst of joy and hope
 we may note the provident ,moltke1 who 
was always resolved to 'mak siker4' ,his
 general order1 issued at once1         
suspending hostilities during the night1
 declared that they would begin again in
 the morning should the negotiations    
produce no result4 ,in that case1 he    
said1 the signal for battle would be the
 reopening of fire by the batteries on  
the heights east of ,frenois4  ,the     
signal was not given4 ,late on the      
evening of ,september #ast a momentous  
session was held in ,donchery1 the      
little town which commands a bridge over
 the ,meuse below ,sedan4 ,on one side  
of a square table covered with red baize

 sat ,general von ,moltke1 having on his
 right hand the quartermaster-general   
,von ,podbielski1 according to one      
account1 and ,von ,blumenthal according 
to another1 and behind them several     
officers1 while ,count von ,nostitz     
stood near the hearth to take notes4    
,opposite to ,von ,moltke sat ,de       
,wimpffen alone2 while in rear1 'almost 
in the shade1' were ,general ,faure1    
,count ,castelnau1 and other ,frenchmen1
 among whom was a cuirassier1 ,captain  
d',orcet1 who had observant eyes and a  
retentive memory4 ,then there ensued a  
brief silence1 for ,von ,moltke looked  
straight before him and said nothing1   
while ,de ,wimpffen1 oppressed by the   
number present1 hesitated to engage in a
 debate 'with the two men admitted to be
 the most capable of our age1 each in   
his kind4' ,but he soon plucked up      
courage1 and frankly accepted the       
conditions of the combat4 ,what terms1  
he asked1 would the king of ,prussia    
grant to a valiant army which1 could he 

have had his will1 would have continued 
to fight8 ',they are very simple1'      
answered ,von ,moltke4 ',the entire     
army1 with arms and baggage1 must       
surrender as prisoners of war4' ',very  
hard1' replied the ,frenchman4 ',we     
merit better treatment4 ,could you not  
be satisfied with the fortress and the  
artillery1 and allow the army to retire 
with arms1 flags and baggage1 on        
condition of serving no more against    
,germany during the war8' ,no4          
',moltke1' said ,bismarck1 recounting   
the interview1 'coldly persisted in his 
demand1' or as the attentive d',orcet   
puts it1 ',von ,moltke was pitiless4'   
,then ,de ,wimpffen tried to soften his 
grim adversary by painting his own      
position4 ,he had just come from the    
depths of the ,african desert2 he had an
 irreproachable military reputation2 he 
had taken command in the midst of a     
battle1 and found himself obliged to set
 his name to a disastrous capitulation4 
',can you not1' he said1 'sympathize    

with an officer in such a plight1 and   
soften1 for me1 the bitterness of my    
situation by granting more honorable    
conditions8' ,he painted in moving terms
 his own sad case1 and described what he
 might have done2 but seeing that his   
personal pleadings were unheeded1 he    
took a tone of defiance1 less likely to 
prevail4 ',if you will not give better  
terms1' he went on1 ',i shall appeal to 
the honor of the army1 and break out1   
or1 at least1 defend ,sedan4' ,then the 
,german general struck in with emphasis1
 ',i regret that ,i cannot do what you  
ask1' he said2 'but as to making a      
sortie1 that is just as impossible as   
the defence of ,sedan4 ,you have some   
excellent troops1 but the greater part  
of your infantry is demoralized4        
,to-day1 during the battle1 we captured 
more than twenty thousand unwounded     
prisoners4 ,you have only eighty        
thousand men left4 ,my troops and guns  
around the town would smash yours before
 they could make a movement2 and as to  

defending ,sedan1 you have not          
provisions for eight-and-forty hours1   
nor ammunition which would suffice for  
that period4' ,then1 says ,de ,wimpffen1
 he entered into details respecting our 
situation1 which1 'unfortunately1 were  
too true1' and he offered to permit an  
officer to verify his statements1 an    
offer which the ,frenchman did not then 
accept4  ,beaten off the military       
ground1 ,de ,wimpffen sought refuge in  
politics4 ',it is your interest1 from a 
political standpoint1 to grant us       
honorable conditions1' he said4 ',france
 is generous and chivalric1 responsive  
to generosity1 and grateful for         
consideration4 ,a peace1 based on       
conditions which would flatter the      
amour-propre of the army1 and diminish  
the bitterness of defeat1 would be      
durable2 whereas rigorous measures would
 awaken bad passions1 and1 perhaps1     
bring on an endless war between ,france 
and ,prussia4' ,the new ground broken   
called up ,bismarck1 'because the matter

 seemed to belong to my province1' he   
observed when telling the story2 and he 
was very outspoken as usual4 ',i said to
 him that we might build on the         
gratitude of a prince1 but certainly not
 on the gratitude of a people--least of 
all on the gratitude of the ,french4    
,that in ,france neither institutions   
nor circumstances were enduring2 that   
governments and dynasties were          
constantly changing1 and the one need   
not carry out what the other had bound  
itself to do4 ,that if the emperor had  
been firm on his throne1 his gratitude  
for our granting good conditions might  
have been counted upon2 but as things   
stood it would be folly if we did not   
make full use of our success4 ,that the 
,french were a nation full of envy and  
jealousy1 that they had been much       
mortified by our success at ,koniggratz1
 and could not forgive it1 though it in 
nowise damaged them4 ,how1 then1 should 
any magnanimity on our side move them   
not to bear us a grudge for ,sedan4'    

,this ,wimpffen would not admit4        
',france1' he said1 'had much changed   
latterly2 it had learned under the      
empire to think more of the interests of
 peace than of the glory of war4 ,france
 was ready to proclaim the fraternity of
 nations2' and more of the same kind4   
,captain d',orcet reports that1 in      
addition1 ,bismarck denied that ,france 
had changed1 and that to curb her mania 
for glory1 to punish her pride1 her     
aggressive and ambitious character1 it  
was imperative that there should be a   
glacis between ,france and ,germany4    
',we must have territory1 fortresses and
 frontiers which will shelter us forever
 from an attack on her part4' ,further  
remonstrances from ,de ,wimpffen only   
drew down fresh showers of rough speech 
very trying to bear1 and when ,bismarck 
said1 ',we cannot change our            
conditions1' ,de ,wimpffen exclaimed1   
',very well2 it is equally impossible   
for me to sign such a capitulation1 and 
we shall renew the battle4'  ,here      

,count ,castelnau interposed meekly to  
say1 on behalf of the emperor1 that he  
had surrendered1 personally1 in the hope
 that his self-sacrifice would induce   
the king to grant the army honorable    
terms4 ',is that all8' ,bismarck        
inquired4 ',yes1' said the ,frenchman4  
',but what is the sword surrendered1'   
asked the chancellor2 'is it his own    
sword1 or the sword of ,france8' ',it is
 only the sword of the emperor1' was    
,castelnau's reply4 ',well1 there is no 
use talking about other conditions1'    
said ,von ,moltke1 sharply1 while a look
 of contentment and gratification passed
 over his face1 according to ,bismarck2 
one 'almost joyful1' writes the keen    
,captain d',orcet4 ',after the last     
words of ,von ,moltke1' he continues1   
',de ,wimpffen exclaimed1 ,we shall     
renew the battle4 ,the truce1 retorted  
the ,german general1 expires to-morrow  
morning at four o'clock4 ,at four1      
precisely1 ,i shall open fire4 ,we were 
all standing4 ,after ,von ,moltke's     

words no one spoke a syllable4 ,the     
silence was icy4' ,but then ,bismarck   
intervened to soothe excited feelings1  
and called on his soldier- comrade to   
show1 once more1 how impossible         
resistance had become4 ,the group sat   
down again at the red baize-covered     
table1 and ,von ,moltke began his       
demonstration afresh4 ',ah1' said ,de   
,wimpffen1 'your positions are not so   
strong as you would have us believe them
 to be4' ',you do not know the          
topography of the country about ,sedan1'
 was ,von ,moltke's true and crushing   
answer4 ',here is a bizarre detail which
 illustrates the presumptuous and       
inconsequent character of your people1' 
he went on1 now thoroughly aroused4     
',when the war began you supplied your  
officers with maps of ,germany at a time
 when they could not study the geography
 of their own country for want of       
,french maps4 ,i tell you that our      
positions are not only very strong1 they
 are inexpugnable4' ,it was then that   

,de ,wimpffen1 unable to reply1 wished  
to accept the offer made but not        
accepted at an earlier period1 and to   
send an officer to verify these         
assertions4 ',you will send nobody1'    
exclaimed the iron general4 ',it is     
useless1 and you can believe my word4   
,besides1 you have not long to reflect4 
,it is now midnight2 the truce ends at  
four o'clock1 and ,i will grant no      
delay4' ,driven to his last ditch1 ,de  
,wimpffen pleaded that he must consult  
his fellow- generals1 and he could not  
obtain their opinions by four o'clock4  
,once more the diplomatic peacemaker    
intervened1 and ,von ,moltke agreed to  
fix the final limit at nine4 ',he gave  
way at last1' says ,bismarck1 'when ,i  
showed him that it could do no harm4'   
,the conference so dramatic broke up1   
and each one went his way2 but1 says the
 ,german official narrative1 'as it was 
not doubtful that the hostile army1     
completely beaten and nearly surrounded1
 would be obliged to submit to the      

clauses already indicated1 the great    
headquarter staff was occupied1 that    
very night1 in drawing up the text of   
the capitulation1' a significant and    
practical comment1 showing what stuff   
there was behind the severe language    
which1 at the midnight meeting1 fell    
from the ,chief of that able and        
sleepless body of chosen men4  ,from    
this conference ,general de ,wimpffen   
went straight to the wearied emperor1   
who had gone to bed4 ,but he received   
his visitor1 who told him that the      
proposed conditions were hard1 and that 
the sole chance of mitigation lay in the
 efforts of his ,majesty4 ',general1'   
said the emperor1 ',i shall start at    
five o'clock for the ,german            
headquarters1 and ,i shall see whether  
the king will be more favorable2' for he
 seems to have become possessed of an   
idea that ,king ,william would          
personally treat with him4 ,the emperor 
kept his word4 ,believing that he would 
be permitted to return to ,sedan1 he    

drove forth without bidding farewell to 
any of his troops2 but1 as the          
drawbridge of ,torcy was lowered and he 
passed over1 the ,zouaves on duty       
shouted ',vive l',empereur6' ,this cry  
was 'the last adieu which fell on his   
ears' as we read in the narrative given 
to the world on his behalf4 ,he drove in
 a droshki toward ,donchery1 preceded by
 ,general ,reille1 who1 before six      
o'clock1 awoke ,bismarck from his       
slumbers1 and warned him that the       
emperor desired to speak with him4 ',i  
went with him directly1' said ,bismarck1
 in a conversation reported by ,busch2  
'and got on my horse1 all dusty and     
dirty as ,i was1 in an old cap and my   
great waterproof boots1 to ride to      
,sedan1 where ,i supposed him to be4'   
,but he met him on the highroad near    
,frenois1 'sitting in a two-horse       
carriage4' ,beside him was the ,prince  
de la ,moskowa1 and on horseback        
,castelnau and ,reille4 ',i gave the    
military salute1' says ,bismarck4 ',he  

took his cap off and the officers did   
the same2 whereupon ,i took off mine1   
although it was contrary to rule4 ,he   
said1 ,couvrez-vous1 done4 ,i behaved to
 him just as if in ,st4 ,cloud1 and     
asked his commands4' ,naturally1 he     
wanted to see the king1 but that could  
not be allowed4 ,then ,bismarck placed  
his quarters in ,donchery at the        
emperor's disposal1 but he declined the 
courtesy1 and preferred to rest in a    
house by the wayside4 ,the cottage of a 
,belgian weaver unexpectedly became     
famous2 a one-storied house1 painted    
yellow1 with white shutters and         
,venetian blinds4 ,he and the chancellor
 entered the house1 and went up to the  
first floor where there was 'a little   
room with one window4 ,it was the best  
in the house1 but had only one deal     
table and two rush-bottomed chairs4' ,in
 that lowly abode they talked together  
of many things for three- quarters of an
 hour1 among others about the origin of 
the war--which1 it seems1 neither       

desired--the emperor asserting1         
,bismarck reports1 that 'he had been    
driven into it by the pressure of public
 opinion1' a very inadequate            
representation of the curious incidents 
which preceded the fatal decision4 ,but 
when the emperor began to ask for more  
favorable terms1 he was told that1 on a 
military question1 ,von ,moltke alone   
could speak4 ,on the other hand1        
,bismarck's request to know who now had 
authority to make peace was met by a    
reference to 'the ,government in        
,paris'2 so that no progress was made4  
,then 'we must stand to our demands with
 regard to the ,army of ,sedan1' said   
,bismarck4 ,general von ,moltke was     
summoned1 and ',napoleon ,,iii4 demanded
 that nothing should be decided before  
he had seen the king1 for he hoped to   
obtain from his ,majesty some favorable 
concessions for the army4' ,the ,german 
official narrative of the war states    
that the emperor expressed a wish that  
the army might be permitted to enter    

,belgium1 but that1 of course1 the chief
 of the staff could not accept the      
proposal4 ,general von ,moltke forthwith
 set out for ,vendresse1 where the king 
was1 to report progress4 ,he met his    
,majesty on the road1 and there 'the    
king fully approved the proposed        
conditions of capitulation1 and declared
 that he would not see the emperor until
 the terms prescribed had been          
accepted'2 a decision which gratified   
the chancellor as well as the chief of  
the staff4 ',i did not wish them to come
 together1' observed the count1 'until  
we had settled the matter of the        
capitulation'2 sparing the feelings of  
both and leaving the business to the    
hard military men4  ,the emperor        
lingered about in the garden of the     
weaver's cottage2 he seems to have      
desired fresh air after his unpleasant  
talk with the chancellor4 ,dr4 ,moritz  
,busch1 who had hurried to the spot1 has
 left a characteristic description of   
the emperor4 ,he saw there 'a little    

thick-set man1' wearing jauntily a red  
cap with a gold border1 a black palett  
lined with red1 red trousers1 and white 
kid gloves4 ',the look in his light gray
 eyes was somewhat soft and dreamy1 like
 that of people who have lived hard4    
,his whole appearance1' says the        
irreverent ,busch1 'was a little        
unsoldierlike4 ,the man looked too soft1
 ,i might say too shabby1 for the       
uniform he wore4' ,while one scene in   
the stupendous drama was performed at   
the weaver's cottage1 another was acted 
or endured in ,sedan1 where ,de         
,wimpffen had summoned the generals to  
consider the terms of capitulation4 ,he 
has given his own account of the        
incident2 but the fullest report is     
supplied by ,lebrun4 ,there were present
 at this council of war more than thirty
 generals4 ,with tearful eyes and a     
voice broken by sobs1 the unhappy and   
most ill-starred ,de ,wimpffen described
 his interview and conflict with ,von   
,moltke and ,bismarck1 and its dire     

result--the army to surrender as        
prisoners of war1 the officers alone to 
retain their arms1 and by way of        
mitigating the rigor of these           
conditions1 full permission to return   
home would be given to any officer1     
provided he would engage in writing and 
on honor not to serve again during the  
war4 ,the generals1 save one or two1 and
 these finally acquiesced1 felt that the
 conditions could not be refused2 but   
they were indignant at the clause       
suggesting that the officers might      
escape the captivity which would befall 
their soldiers1 provided they would     
engage to become mere spectators of the 
invasion of their country4 ,in the midst
 of these mournful deliberations        
,captain von ,zingler1 a messenger from 
,von ,moltke1 entered1 and the scene    
became still more exciting4 ',i am      
instructed1' he said1 'to remind you how
 urgent it is that you should come to a 
decision4 ,at ten o'clock1 precisely1 if
 you have not come to a resolution1 the 

,german batteries will fire on ,sedan4  
,it is now nine1 and ,i shall have      
barely time to carry your answer to     
headquarters4' ,to this sharp summons   
,de ,wimpffen answered that he could not
 decide until he knew the result of the 
interview between the emperor and the   
king4' ',that interview1' said the stern
 captain1 'will not in any way affect   
the military operations1 which can only 
he determined by the generals who have  
full power to resume or stop the        
strife4' ,it was1 indeed1 as ,lebrun    
remarked1 useless to argue with a       
captain charged to state a fact2 and at 
the general's suggestion ,de ,wimpffen  
agreed to accompany ,captain von        
,zingler to the ,german headquarters4   
,these were1 for the occasion1 the      
,chteau de ,bellevue1 where the emperor 
himself had been induced to take up his 
abode1 and about eleven o'clock1 in a   
room under the imperial chamber1 ,de    
,wimpffen put his name at the foot of   
the document drawn up1 during the night1

 by the ,german staff4 ,then he sought  
out the emperor1 and1 greatly moved1    
told him that 'all was finished4' ,his  
majesty1 he writes1 'with tears in his  
eyes1 approached me1 pressed my hand1   
and embraced me1' and 'my sad and       
painful duty having been accomplished1  
,i remounted my horse and road back to  
,sedan1 'la mort dans l'me4'  ,so soon  
as the convention was signed1 the king  
arrived1 accompanied by the crown       
prince4 ,three years before1 as the     
emperor reminds us in the writing       
attributed to him1 the king had been his
 guest in ,paris1 where all the         
sovereigns of ,europe had come to behold
 the marvels of the famous ,exhibition4 
',now1' so runs the lamentation1        
'betrayed by fortune1 ,napoleon ,,iii4  
had lost all1 and had placed in the     
hands of his conqueror the sole thing   
left him--his liberty4' ,and he goes on 
to say1 in general terms1 that the king 
deeply sympathized with his misfortunes1
 but nevertheless could not grant better

 conditions to the army4 ',he told the  
emperor that the castle of ,wilhelmshohe
 had been selected as his residence2 the
 crown prince then entered and cordially
 shook hands with ,napoleon2 and at the 
end of a quarter of an hour the king    
withdrew4 ,the emperor was permitted to 
send a telegram in cipher to the        
empress1 to tell her what had happened1 
and urge her to negotiate a peace4'     
,such is the bald record of this        
impressive event4 ,the telegram1 which  
reached the empress at four o'clock on  
the afternoon of the #c;d1 was in these 
words3 ',the army is defeated and       
captive2 ,i myself am a prisoner4'  ,for
 one day more the fallen sovereign      
rested at ,bellevue to meditate on the  
caprices of fortune or the decrees of   
fate4 ,but that day1 at the head of a   
splendid company of princes and         
generals1 ,king ,william1 crossing the  
bridge of ,donchery1 rode throughout the
 whole vast extent of the ,german lines1
 to greet his hardy warriors and be     

greeted by them on the very scene of    
their victories4 ,and well they deserved
 regal gratitude1 for together with     
their comrades who surrounded ,metz1 by 
dint of long swift marches and steadfast
 valor1 they had overcome two great     
armies in thirty days4  ,during the     
battle of ,sedan1 the ,germans lost in  
killed and wounded #h1ibd officers and  
men4 ,on the other hand1 the ,french    
lost #c1jjj killed1 #ad1jjj wounded1 and
 #ba1jjj captured in the battle4 ,the   
number of prisoners by capitulation was 
#hc1jjj1 while #c1jjj were disarmed in  
,belgium1 and a few hundreds1 more or   
less1 made their way by devious routes  
near and over the frontier1 to ,mezires1
 ,rocroi1 and other places in ,france4  
,in addition1 were taken one eagle and  
two flags1 #dai field guns and          
mitrailleuses1 #aci garrison guns1 many 
wagons1 muskets1 and horses4 ,on the day
 after the surrender1 the ,french       
soldiers1 having stacked their arms in  
,sedan1 marched into the peninsula      

formed by the deep loop of the          
,meuse--'le ,camp de ,misre' as they    
called it--and were sent thence in      
successive batches1 numbered by         
thousands1 to ,germany4 ,such was the   
astonishing end of the ,army of         
,chalons1 which had been impelled to its
 woful doom by the ,comte de ,palikao   
and the ,paris politicians4  ,here      
closes the first and most dramatic phase
 of the war4 ,thereafter the enemy was  
smitten hip and thigh4 ,at once hurry   
orders were given to open the line which
 led from ,nancy to ,paris4 ,what       
followed must be briefly told4  ,on the 
#eth of ,september the king of ,prussia 
entered ,rheims4 ,on the #hth ,laon     
surrendered4 ,on the #aeth advanced     
troops halted within three hours of the 
capital of ,france1 making a half circle
 round its defences4 ,this investment   
,ducrot--who had escaped from ,sedan--  
attempted to prevent4 ,his resources    
consisted in the ,thirteenth ,corps     
under ,general ,vinoy1 and the          

,fourteenth under ,general ,renault1 and
 #ah1jjj marines1 excellent soldiers1 a 
total of #hh1jjj regular troops4 ,he had
 also in the camps of ,vincennes and    
,st4 ,maur #ajj1jjj ,garde-,mobiles1    
only very imperfectly disciplined2      
#aj1jjj volunteers from the provinces1  
resolute men1 prepared to give their    
lives for their country2 the ,national  
,guard1 composed of sixty old and a     
hundred and ninety-four new battalions  
which1 with other miscellaneous         
volunteers of ,paris1 numbered perhaps  
#bjj1jjj men1 not1 however1 thoroughly  
to be depended upon4 ,altogether the    
defenders numbered about #djj1jjj1 but  
of these only the #hh1jjj regular troops
 and the #aj1jjj volunteers from the    
provinces could be reckoned as          
trustworthy4  ,nevertheless1 the ,third 
,german ,army had no difficulty in      
establishing itself in a position       
embracing the southern and southeastern 
front of the city1 from ,svres to the   
,marne2 the ,fourth ,army faced the     

northeast and northern front1 the       
cavalry the west front1 so far as the   
windings of the ,seine would permit it4 
,on the #eth of ,october the crown      
prince took up his headquarters at      
,versailles1 those of the king being at 
,ferrires1 the seat of the ,paris       
,rothschilds4 ,here took place1 on the  
#aith ,october1 the famous interview    
between the ,french foreign minister1   
,jules ,favre1 and ,bismarck1 in which  
the former made his declaration that    
,france would surrender neither one inch
 of her territories nor one stone of her
 fortresses4 ,the interview remained    
without result4  ,meanwhile the fortress
 of ,toul had surrendered4 ,strasburg1  
after a siege of six weeks1 also        
surrendered1 and1 on ,october #bg1      
,bazaine handed over ,metz and an army  
consisting of three marshals of ,france1
 #f1jjj officers1 and #agc1jjj          
soldiers--an act for which after the    
conclusion of the war he was            
court-martialled1 declared guilty of    

treason1 and sentenced to death and     
degradation4 ,the then president of the 
republic1 ,marshal ,mac,mahon1 commuted 
the death sentence into one of          
imprisonment for twenty years4 ,confined
 in the fort of the island ,st4         
,marguerite1 near ,cannes1 ,bazaine     
escaped1 and lived in ,spain till his   
death4  ,bazaine's surrender made the   
,germans masters of one of the strongest
 fortresses in ,europe1 with #hjj heavy 
guns1 #ajb mitrailleuses1 #cjj1jjj      
,chassepots1 and placed at the disposal 
of the king an entire blockading army4  
,it was at this juncture that ,gambetta 
astonished the world4 ,reaching ,tours  
in a balloon from ,paris1 and there     
assuming the ministry of war1 he became 
practically dictator of ,france4 ,thence
 he issued a proclamation to the people 
of ,france1 urging them to continue     
their resistance to the bitter end1 and 
directed that all men1 capable of       
bearing arms1 should lend their hands to
 the work1 and should join the troops of

 the line at ,tours4 ,in this way he    
formed an ,army of the ,north1 and an   
,army of the ,loire1 and1 later1 an     
,army of the ,east4 ,in all respects he 
displayed a fertility of resource which 
astounded4 ,he obtained arms1 uniforms1 
munitions1 and other necessaries from   
foreign countries1 especially from      
,england4 ,he bestowed the greatest     
pains in selecting as generals of the   
new levies men who should be real       
soldiers4 ,under his inspiring influence
 the war in the provinces assumed a very
 serious complexion4 ,france had        
responded nobly to the call he had made 
upon her people4 ,early reverses gave   
vigor to the new levies1 and they fought
 with energy against the ,bavarians     
under ,von der ,than at ,arthenay and   
,orleans1 and against the division of   
,wittich at ,chteaudun and ,chartres4   
,but they were fighting against         
increasing odds4 ,every day brought     
reinforcements to the ,germans4  ,with  
the exception of a momentary gleam of   

success on the ,loire1 ,france met with 
nothing but disaster4 ,in ,paris matters
 were critical4 ,every one of the       
different sorties made by her defenders 
had been repulsed2 the hope by which the
 spirits of her defenders had been      
buoyed was vanishing fast3 famine was   
approaching with giant strides2 the     
strong places outside the circle of her 
defences were falling one after another2
 the fire of the enemy was1 by the      
nearer approach of their troops1        
becoming more concentrated and more     
severe4 ,peace must be had4 ,on ,january
 #bhth1 then1 there was concluded at    
,versailles an armistice for three      
weeks4 ,then a national assembly was    
summoned to ,bordeaux to consider how   
peace might be restored4 ,in that       
assembly ,thiers received full          
administrative powers1 including the    
power of nominating his own ministers4  
,he himself1 with ,jules ,favre1        
undertook the negotiations with         
,bismarck4 ,to insure the success of    

those negotiations the armistice was    
twice prolonged4 ,this was done at the  
instance of ,thiers1 for the conditions 
insisted upon by ,bismarck were hard1   
and the ,french statesman struggled with
 all his energies to induce him to abate
 his demands4 ,especially did he strive 
to save ,metz1 or1 at least1 to receive 
,luxemburg in compensation4  ,but his   
endeavors were fruitless4 ,the utmost   
that ,bismarck would do was not to      
insist upon securing the still          
unconquered ,belfort4 ,despairing of    
moving him further1 ,thiers and ,favre  
gave way on the #bdth of ,february1 and 
signed the preliminaries of peace4 ,they
 were1 first1 the transfer to ,germany  
of the northeast portion of ,lorraine1  
with ,metz and ,diedenhofen1 and of     
,alsace1 ,belfort excepted2 second1 the 
payment to ,germany by ,france of one   
milliard of francs in #ahga1 and four   
milliards in the three years following2 
third1 the ,germans to begin to evacuate
 ,french territory immediately after the

 ratification of the treaty2 ,paris and 
its forts on the left bank of the ,seine
 and certain departments at once2 the   
forts on the right bank after the       
ratification and the payment of the     
first half milliard4 ,after the payment 
of two milliards the ,german occupation 
of the departments ,marne1 ,ardennes1   
,upper ,marne1 ,meuae1 the ,vosges1 and 
,meurthe1 and the fortress of ,belfort  
should cease4 ,interest at five per cent
 to be charged on the milliards         
remaining unpaid from the date of       
ratification2 fourth1 the ,german troops
 remaining in ,france to make no        
requisitions on the departments in which
 they were located1 but to be fed at the
 cost of ,france2 fifth1 the inhabitants
 of the sequestered provinces to be     
allowed a certain fixed time in which to
 make their choice between the two      
countries2 sixth1 all prisoners to be at
 once restored2 seventh1 a treaty       
embodying all these terms to be settled 
at ,brussels4 ,it was further arranged  

that the ,german army should not occupy 
,paris1 but should content itself with  
marching through the city4  ,meanwhile1 
negotiations between the statesmen and  
governments of ,germany resulted in a   
proposal to ,king ,william that1 as head
 of the confederation1 he should assume 
the title of ,german emperor4 ,a        
resolution to that effect was passed by 
the ,north ,german ,reichstag on the    
#ith of ,december1 and a deputation     
proceeded to the royal headquarters at  
,versailles1 where1 on the #ahth of     
,december1 the imperial crown was       
offered to the brother of the king who  
had once refused it4 ,deeply touched1   
,king ,william accepted1 and in the     
palace of ,louis ,,xiv41 surrounded by a
 brilliant assembly of princes1         
officers1 and ministers of state1 the   
venerable monarch was proclaimed        
,deutscher ,kaiser4  ,then at last was  
the dream of centuries realized4 ,at    
last was the empire restored4 ,not the  
,holy ,roman ,empire1 not the empire of 

the ,middle ,ages1 but the empire as a  
national state4  ,under the leadership  
of ,bismarck1 to whom the restoration of
 the empire was directly due1 the new   
,reich began its organization as a      
united federation4 ,among its earliest  
difficulties was an ecclesiastical      
contest with the ,church of ,rome4      
,known as the ,kulturkampf1 this        
struggle was an effort to vindicate the 
right of the state to interfere in the  
affairs of all ,german religious        
societies4 ,another difficulty which    
demanded government interference was the
 ,judenhetze1 or persecution of the     
,jews1 which reached a climax in #ahha4 
,a further difficulty was encountered in
 the quick growth of socialism4 ,two    
attempts on the life of the kaiser were 
attributed to it1 and a plot being      
discovered1 which had for object the    
elimination of the emperor and other    
,german rulers1 repressive measures     
resulted4 ,meanwhile an alliance        
offensive and defensive between ,germany

 and ,austria had been formed1 into     
which ,italy subsequently entered4  ,on 
,march #i1 #ahhh1 the ,emperor ,william 
,i4 died4 ,his son1 ,frederick1 at that 
time suffering from a cancerous         
affection of the throat1 became kaiser4 
,three months later he also died1 and   
,william ,,ii4 succeeded him4  ,the     
latter's first step of any importance   
was to get in front of half a million   
bayonets4 ,coincidently he declared that
 those bayonets and he--or rather he and
 those bayonets--were born for one      
another4 ,incidentally he announced that
 he was a monarch1 specially conceived1 
specially created1 specially ordained by
 the ,almighty4  ,the step and the      
remarks were tantamount to a call to    
quarters4 ,it would be dramatic to state
 that the circumjacent territories      
trembled1 but it is exact to affirm that
 there was a war scare at once1 one     
which by no means diminished when a     
little later he showed ,bismarck the    
door4  ,as already noted1 the refounding

 of the empire was ,bismarck's work4 ,to
 achieve his purpose he had--to again   
quote ,colonel ,malleson--defied        
parliaments and people4 ,he had led his 
master and his country over abysses1 in 
the traversing of which one false step  
would have been fatal4 ,aided a great   
deal by the wretched diplomacy of       
,austria1 by the deterioration of the   
powers of the ,french emperor1 and by   
his sublime audacity1 he had compelled  
to his will all the moral difficulties  
of the undertaking4 ,von ,boon and      
,moltke had done the rest4 ,no longer1  
however1 was he allowed to put forth his
 hand to sustain the work which he had  
created4 ,for him it had been better to 
die1 like ,von ,boon1 like ,moltke1     
keeping to the end the confidence of his
 sovereign1 than to feel himself        
impelled1 dismissed from office1 to pour
 out his grievances to every passing    
listener1 to speak in terms not far     
removed from treason of the sovereign   
who had declined to be his pupil4 ,was  

it for this1 he must have muttered1 that
 ,i forced on the war which gave        
,prussia ,schleswig and ,holstein in    
#ahfd2 that ,i compelled unwilling      
,austria to declare war in #ahff2 that1 
by the freest circulation of exaggerated
 statements1 ,i roused a bitter feeling 
in ,germany against ,france1 and excited
 the statesmen1 and1 above all1 the mob1
 of ,paris in #ahgj8--;for this1 that1  
the work accomplished1 an empire given  
to the ,hohenzollerns1 ,i might be cast 
aside like a squeezed-out orange8 ,well 
might these be his thoughts1 for it was 
he who made possible the task of ,german
 unity1 though in a manner which will   
commend itself only to those who argue  
that the end justifies the means4  ,a   
journalist wrote a pamphlet on the      
subject4 ,in it he compared the kaiser  
to ,caligula4 ,for his pains he was sent
 to jail4 ,he might better have been    
sent to school4 ,caligula was a poet in 
love with the moon4 ,the kaiser is a    
poseur in love with himself4 ,one of    

,caligula's many diversions was killing 
his people4 ,such slaughter as the      
kaiser has effected consists in         
twenty-five thousand head of game4 ,the 
career of ,caligula is horrible1 yet in 
the horrible is sometimes the sublime4  
,the career of the kaiser has been      
theatrical1 and in the theatrical is    
always the absurd4 ,the single parallel 
between the two lies in the fact that   
all young emperors stand on a peak so   
lofty that1 do they look below1 vertigo 
rises1 while from above delirium comes4 
,there is nothing astonishing in that4  
,it would be astonishing were it        
otherwise4 ,what does astonish is the   
equilibrium which the kaiser1 in spite  
of his words1 his threats and actions1  
has managed to maintain4 ,regarded as a 
firebrand and a menace to the peace of  
,europe1 with the exception of two big  
blunders--an invitation to ,king        
,humbert to promenade with him through  
,strasburg1 and the message which he    
sent to ,president ,kruger of the       

,transvaal after the failure of the     
,jameson raid--with these exceptions he 
has exhibited a regard for international
 etiquette entirely immaculate1 and not 
always returned4  ,in recompense for    
overtures to ,france he has been        
snubbed4 ,in recompense for others to   
,russia he has been ignored4 ,neither   
,austria nor ,italy love him4 ,he has   
weakened the ,triple ,alliance1         
alienated ,england1 and lost his place4 
,when he ascended the throne ,germany's 
position on the continent was           
preponderant4 ,that position is         
,russia's to-day4  ,had he had the      
power--which he has always denied--to   
return to ,france the keys of ,metz and 
,strasburg1 and had he had the          
ability--which others have denied for   
him--to coalesce with ,france and       
,russia he would have been warlord      
indeed4 ,as it is1 failing in an effort 
to realize the dream of ,napoleon ,i41  
he has at present writing subsided into 
a martinet4  ,what the future holds for 

,germany and for him the future will    
tell4 ,but into the future it is not    
given to any one1 even to an emperor1 to
 look4  ,footnote #a3 ,g4 ,b4 ,malleson3
 ,the ,refounding of the ,german        
,empire4  ,footnote #b3 ,the house is   
called ,a la derniere ,cartouche1 and is
 the subject of ,de ,neuville's splendid
 painting4  ,footnote #c3 ,not having   
been able to die in the midst of my     
troops1 nothing remains for me but to   
place my sword in the hands of your     
,majesty4  ,,the ,,end