,illu/ration ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t ,,no4 #bhh ,,new ,,york1 ,,july #i1 #ahha ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t4 ,vol4 ,,xi1 ,no4 #bhh4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican e/abli%$ #ahde ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t1 #e a ye>4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican & ,supplem5t1 #g a ye>4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts4 ,i4 ,,eng9e]+ ,,& ,,me*anics--,dry ,air ,refrig]at+ ,ma*9e4 #e figures4 ,plan1 elevation1 & diagrams ( a new ,engli% dry air refrig]ator ,?omas' ,improv$ ,/eam ,:eel4 #a figure ,! ,am]ican ,society ( ,civil ,eng9e]s4 ,address ( ,presid5t ,francis1 at ! ,?irte5? ,annual ,conv5tion1 at ,montreal4 ,! ,wat] ,p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & its ,utilization ,,ii4 ,,te*nology ,,& ,,*emi/ry4--,alcohol 9 ,nature4 ,its pres5ce 9 e>?1 atmosph]e1 & wat]4 #f figures4 ,di/illatory app>atus & 7magnifi$7 iod(orm cry/als f sn[ wat]1 f ra9 wat]1 f vegetable m\ld1 etc4 ,detection ( ,alcohol 9 ,transp>5t ,soaps4 ,by ,h4 ,,jay ,on ! ,calorific ,p[] ( ,fuel1 & on ,?ompson's ,calorimet]4 ,by ,j4,w4 ,,?omas ,explosion z an ,unkn[n ,fire ,haz>d4 ,a sugge/ive review ( ! conditions ( explosions1 ) curi\s examples ,c>bon4 ,symbol ,c4 ,comb9+ weight4 #ab4 ,by ,t4 ,a4 ,,pooley ,second article on elem5t>y *emi/ry writt5 = brew]s ,manufacture ( ,soaps & _! ,production4 ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,,m5zies ,! ,prep>ation ( ,p]fume ,pomades4 #a figure4 ,ens\fflage app>atus = p]fumes ,organic ,matt] 9 ,sea ,wat] ,bact]ia ,life4 ,influ5ce ( heat & v>i\s gases & *emical comp\nds on bact]ia life ,on ! ,composition ( ,elephant's ,milk4 ,by ,dr4 ,,*as4 ,a4 ,,doremus4 ,comp>ison ( elephant's milk ) t ( t5 o!r mammals ,! ,*emical ,composition ( ,rice4 ,maize1 & ,b>ley4 ,by ,j4 ,,/e9] ,petroleum ,oils4 ,"* & prop]ties ( ! v>i\s di/illates ( crude petroleum4 ,fire risks att5d+ ! use ( ! light] petroleum oils ,composition ( ! ,petroleum ( ! ,caucasus4 ,by ,p4 ,,s*ulz5b]g] & ,n4 ,,ton9e ,notes on ,cananga ,oil4 or ,ilang-,ilang ,oil4 ,by ,f4 ,a4 ,,fl,,ckig]4 #a figure4 ,fl[] & leaf ( ,cananga odorata ,*ian ,turp5t9e1 & ! ,tree :i* ,produces ,x4 ,by ,dr4 ,,/iep[i*4 ( ,*ios1 ,turkey ,on ! ,*ange ( ,volume :i* ,accompanies ! ,galvanic ,deposition ( a ,metal4 ,by ,m4 ,e4 ,,b\ty ,analysis ( ! ,rice ,soils ( ,burmah4 ,by ,r4 ,,romanic1 ,*emical ,exam9]1 ,briti% ,burmah ,,iii4 ,,physics ,,& ,,physical ,,app>atus4--,seyff]?'s ,pyromet]4 #g figures4--,pyromet] ) electric indicator4--,me?od ( m\nt+ by means ( a cone on vacuum app>atus4--,m\nt+ by means ( a sleeve4--,m\nt+ by means ( a ?read on a tube4-- ,m\nt+ by means ( a clasp 9 res]voirs4--,! pyromet] m\nt$ on a bone-black furnace4--,m\nt$ on a brick furnace ,delicate ,sci5tific ,in/rum5ts4 ,by ,,edg> ,l4 ,,l>k94 ,an int]e/+ description ( ! m p[]ful & delicate in/rum5ts ( rese>* us$ by mod]n sci5ti/s & _! m>vel\s results ,! ,future ,developm5t ( ,electrical ,appliances4 ,lecture by ,pr(4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,p]ry be=e ! ,london ,society ( ,arts4--,me?ods & units ( electrical measurem5ts ,rese>*es on ! ,radiant ,matt] ( ,crookes & ! ,me*anical ,!ory ( ,electricity4 ,by ,dr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,g9tl ,economy ( ! ,electric ,light4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,preece',s ,exp]im5ts ,inve/igations ,on ! ,space ,protect$ by a ,lightn+ ,conductor4 ,by ,,wm4 ,h4 ,,preece4--#e figures ,photo-,electricity ( ,fluor ,sp> ,cry/als ,! ,aurora ,borealis & ,telegraph ,cables ,! ,photographic ,image3 ,:at ,x ,is4 ,by ,t4 ,h4 ,,morton4 #a figure4--,section ( s5sitive plate aft] exposure & dur+ developm5t ,gelat9e ,transp>5cies = ! ,lant]n ,an ,integrat+ ,ma*9e4 ,by ,c4 ,v4 ,,boys4--#a figure ,^u a ,modification ( ,:eat/one's ,microphone & its ,applicability to ,radiophonic ,rese>*es4 ,by ,,alex4 ,,graham ,,bell1--#b figures ,,iv4 ,,ar*itecture4--,sugge/ions 9 ,ar*itecture1 #a figure4--,a pair ( ,engli% cottages4 ,by ,a4 ,,caw/on 99 99 99 99 99 ,,alcohol ,,9 ,,nature--,,its ,,pres5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,e>?1 ,,wat]1 ,,& ,,atmosph]e4 ,a ,*emi/ ( m]it1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,mntz1 :o has already made himself kn[n by important labors & by analytical rese>*es ( great precision1 has be5 l$ to a v curi\s & totally unexpect$ discov]y1 on ! subject ( :i* he has k9dly giv5 u in=mation 9 detail1 :i* we place be=e our read]s4#a ,mr4 ,mntz has discov]$ t arable soil1 wat]s ( ! ocean & /reams1 & ! atmosph]e conta9 traces ( alcohol2 & t ?is comp\nd1 =m$ by ! f]m5tation ( organic matt]s1 is ev]y:]e di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t nature4 ,we %\ld add t only inf9itesimal quantities are involv$--rea*+ only ! proportion ( million?s--yet ! fact1 = all t1 (f]s a no less p[]ful int]e/4 ,! me?od ( analysis :i* has p]mitt$ ! facts to be %[n is v elegant & scrupul\sly exact1 & is wor?y ( be+ made kn[n4 ,footnote #a3 ,! accompany+ engrav+s h be5 made f draw+s ( ! app>atus 9 ! laboratory ( :i* ,mr4 ,mntz is director1 at ! ,agronomic ,in/itute4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,fir/ ,,di/illatory ,,app>atus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,second ,,di/illatory ,,app>atus4 ,mr4 ,mntz's me?od ( proc$ure is z foll[s3 ,he submits to di/illation ?ree or f\r gallons ( sn[1 ra91 or sea wat] 9 an app>atus su* z %[n 9 ,fig4 #a4 ,! "p :i* s]ves z a boil]1 & :i* holds ! liquid to be di/ill$1 is a milk-c1 ,b4 ,! vapors giv5 (f ?r\gh ! action ( ! heat circulate ?r\gh a lead5 tube "s ?irty-?ree feet 9 l5g?1 & !n trav]se a tube inclos$ )9 a refrig]at+ cyl9d]1 ,t1 :i* is kept con/antly cold by a curr5t ( wat]4 ,!y are f9ally cond5s$ 9 a glass flask1 ,r1 :i* =ms ! receiv]4 ,:5 #ajj or #aej cubic c5timet]s ( cond5s$ liquid 7:i* conta9s all ! alcohol7 are collect$ 9 ! receiv]1 ! op]ations are susp5d$4 ,! liquid ?us obta9$ is di/ill$ anew 9 a second app>atus1 :i* is analog\s to ! prec$+ b mu* small] 7,fig4 #b74 ,! liquid is heat$ 9 ! flask1 ,b1 & its vapor1 aft] trav]s+ a glass worm1 is cond5s$ 9 ! tube1 ,t4 ,! op]ation is susp5d$ z soon z five or six cubic c5timet]s ( ! cond5s$ liquid h be5 collect$ 9 ! te/-tube1 ,r4 ,! latt] is n[ remov$1 & to its liquid cont5ts1 !re is add$ a small quantity ( iod9e & c>bonate ( soda4 ,! mixture is slightly heat$1 & soon !re are se5 =m+1 ?r\gh precipitation1 small cry/als ( iod(orm4 ,"u su* circum/ances1 iod(orm c\ld only h be5 =m$ ?r\gh ! pres5ce ( an alcohol 9 ! liquid4 ,^! analytical op]ations are v]ifi$ by ,mr4 ,mntz z foll[s3 ,he di/ills 9 ! same app>atus ?ree to f\r gallons ( *emically pure di/ill$ wat]1 & asc]ta9s positively t "u ^! conditions iod9e & c>bonate ( soda give absolutely no reaction4 ,f9ally1 to complete ! demon/ration & to asc]ta9 ! approximate quantity ( alcohol conta9$ 9 natural wat]s1 he und]takes ! d\ble fractional di/illation ( a c]ta9 quantity ( pure wat] to :i* he has previ\sly add$ a "o-million? "p ( alcohol4 ,"u ^! circum/ances ! iod9e & c>bonate ( soda give a precipitate ( iod(orm exactly simil> to t obta9$ by treat+ natural wat]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,,iod(orm ,,cry/als ,,obta9$ ,,directly 7greatly magnifi$74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d1--;,,iod(orm ,,cry/als ,,obta9$ ,,) ,,ra9 ,,wat]4 ,9 ! case ( arable soil1 ,mr4 ,mntz /irs up a weigh$ quantity ( ! mat]ial to be analyz$ 9 a c]ta9 proportion ( wat]1 di/ills x 9 ! small] ( ! two app>atus1 & detects ! alcohol by means ( ! same op]ation z be=e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,iod(orm ,,cry/als ,,obta9$ ,,) ,,sn[ ,,wat]4 ,! =mation ( iod(orm by precipitation "u ! action ( iod9e & c>bonate ( soda is a v s5sitive te/ = alcohol4 ,iod(orm has %>ply def9$ *>act]s :i* all[ ( its be+ v easily di/+ui%$4 ,its cry/all9e =m1 especially1 is entirely typical1 its color is pale yell[i%1 &1 :5 x is exam9$ "u ! microscope1 x is se5 to be 9 ! =m ( six-po9t$ />s precisely l ! cry/all9e =m ( sn[4 ,mr4 ,mntz has n be5 cont5t$ to m]ely submit ! iod(orm precipitates obta9$ by him to microscopical exam9ation1 b has pres]v$ ! aspect ( 8 prep>ations by means ( micro-photography4 ,! figures annex$ %[ "s ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! pro(s4 ,fig4 #a %[s cry/als ( iod(orm obta9$ ) pure wat] to :i* "o-million? "p ( alcohol _h be5 add$4 ,fig4 #b exhibits ! =m ( ! cry/als obta9$ ) ra9 wat]2 & ,fig4 #c1 ^? ) wat]4 ,fig4 #d %[s cry/als obta9$ ) arable soil or g>d5 m\ld4 ,! fir/ ( ,mr4 ,mntz's exp]im5ts 7 made ab\t f\r ye>s ago2 b s9ce t "t he has treat$ a great numb] ( ra9 & sn[ wat]s collect$ bo? at ,p>is & 9 ! c\ntry4 ,at e di/illation all ! app>atus 0 cleans$ by prolong$ wa%+ 9 a curr5t ( /eam2 &1 9 ord] to confirm ea* analysis1 a correspond+ exp]im5t 0 made l ! "o be=e m5tion$4 ,m ?an eighty trials gave results :i* 7 exactly id5tical4 ,! quantity ( alcohol conta9$ 9 ra91 sn[1 & sea wat]s may be e/imat$ at f "o to sev]al million?s4 ,cold wat] & melt$ sn[ seem to conta9 l>g] proportions ( x ?an tepid wat]s4 ,9 ! wat]s ( ! ,se9e x is f\nd 9 appreciable quantities1 & 9 sewage wat]s ! proportions increase v p]ceptibly4 ,vegetable m\ld is q ri* 9 x2 inde$ x is q likely t alcohol 9 its natural /ate has its orig9 9 ! soil ?r\gh ! f]m5tation ( ! organic matt]s conta9$ !re94 ,x is aft]w>d dissem9at$ ?r\gh\t ! atmosph]e 9 ! /ate ( vapor & becomes comb9$ ) ! aque\s vapors :5ev] !y become cond5s$4 ,! results :i* we h j record$ are1 z f> z kn[n to u1 absolutely new2 !y con/itute a "w :i* is entirely orig9al1 :i* v happily goes to complete ! hi/ory ( ! composition ( ! soil & atmosph]e1 & :i* does great cr$it to its au?or4--,la ,nature4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,,iod(orm ,,cry/als ,,obta9$ ,,) ,,vegetable ,,m\ld4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,detection ,,( ,,alcohol ,,9 ,,transp>5t ,,soaps4 ,by ,h4 ,,jay4 ,x appe>s t e article manufactur$ ) ! aid ( alcohol is requir$ on its introduction into ,france to pay duty on ! suppos$ quantity ( ?is reag5t :i* has be5 us$ 9 its prep>ation4 ,c]ta9 transp>5t soaps ( ,g]man orig9 are n[ met )1 made1 z is alleg$1 )\t alcohol1 & ! au?or proposes ! foll[+ process = v]ify+ ?is /atem5t by asc]ta9+--! pres5ce or abs5ce ( alcohol 9 ! manufactur$ article3 #ej grms4 ( soap are cut into v small pieces & plac$ 9 a phial ( #bjj c4c4 capacity2 #cj grms4 sulphuric acid are !n add$1 & ! phial is /opp]$ & agitat$ till ! soap is entirely dissolv$4 ,! phial is !n fill$ up ) wat]1 & ! fatty acids are all[$ to collect & solidify4 ,! subnatant liquid is drawn (f1 neutraliz$1 & di/ill$4 ,! fir/ #be c4c4 are collect$1 filt]$1 & mix$1 accord+ to ! process ( ,,mm4 ,ri*e & ,b>dy = ! detection ( alcohol 9 comm]cial me?yl5es1 ) c4c4 sulphuric acid at #ah ,b41 !n ) ! same volume ( p]manganate 7#ae grms4 p] lit]71 & all[$ to /& = "o m9ute4 ,he !n adds #h drops ( sodium hyposulphite at #cc ,b41 & #a c4c4 ( a solution ( mag5ta1 #a decigrm4 p] lit]4 ,if any alcohol is pres5t !re appe>s )9 five m9utes a di/9ct violet t+e4 ,! pres5ce ( ess5tial oils gives rise to a p>tial r$uction ( ! p]manganate )\t affect+ ! conv]sion ( alcohol into aldehyd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,! ,,calorific ,,p[] ,,( ,,fuel1 ,,& ,,on ,,?ompson',s ,,calorimet]4 ,by ,j4,w4 ,,?omas1 ,f4,c4,s41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,a simple exp]im5t1 capable ( yield+ results :i* %all be at lea/ comp>ative1 has long be5 s\ght aft] by l>ge consum]s ( coal & artificial fuel abroad 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! relative calorific p[] possess$ by ea* description1 z x is well kn[n t ! proportion ( m9]al matt] & ! *emical composition ( coal diff] widely4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! a% 9 coal is n a highly sci5tific op]ation2 h5ce x is n surpris+ t =eign m]*ants %\ld h become alive to ! importance ( e/imat+ its quantity4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 ! nature & quantity ( ! a% c be det]m9$ )\t mu* difficulty1 ! det]m9ation ( ! *emical composition ( coal entails consid]able labor & skill2 h5ce a me?od giv+ ! calorific p[] ( any fuel 9 an exact & reliable mann] by a simple exp]im5t is a great desid]atum4 ,?is w become m obvi\s :5 "o takes into consid]ation ! _m qualities & v>iable *>act]s ( ! coals yield$ by ! ,s\? ,wales & ,nor? ( ,engl& coal fields4 ,bitum9\s coals--giv+ "s #fe p] c5t1 ( coke--are pref]r$ = "s manufactur+ purposes & 9 "s m>kets4 ,bitum9\s /eam coals1 yield+ #ge p] c5t1 ( coke1 are highly priz$ 9 o!rs4 ,semi-bitum9\s /eam coals1 yield+ #hj to #hc p] c5t1 ( coke1 are mo/ highly valu$1 & f9d ! readie/ sale abroad2 & an?racite /eam coal 7dry coals71 giv+ f #he to #hh p] c5t1 ( coke 7us+ ! t]m coke z equival5t to ! non-volatile portion ( ! coal7 is also export$ 9 consid]able quantity4 ,n[ ! e/imation ( ! a% ( any ( ^! v>ieties ( coal w\ld af=d no evid5ce z to ! class to :i* t coal belongs1 & !re is no simple te/ t w give ! calorific p[] ( a coal1 & at ! same "t indicate ! degree ( bitum9\s or an?racitic "* :i* x possesses4 ,9 ord] to obta9 su* in=mation x is necess>y t ! p]c5tage ( coke be det]m9$ toge!r ) ! sulphur1 a%1 & wat]1 & ^! =m data :i* at once %[ ! nature ( a fuel & give "s indication ( its value4 ,to asc]ta9 ! quantity ( ! sulphur1 a%1 & wat] ) accuracy involves m skill & aptitude ?an c be be/[$ by ! non-pr(essional public2 ! consequ5ce is t exp]im5ts entail+ less "t & precision1 l ^? devis$ by ,b]?i] & ,?ompson1 h be5 tri$ m or less ext5sively4 ,9 ,france & ,italy1 ,b]?i]'s me?od--slightly modifi$ 9 "s in/ances--has be5 long us$4 ,x is z foll[s3 #gj grammes ( oxide ( lead 7li?>ge7 & #aj grammes ( oxy*loride ( lead are employ$ to af=d oxyg5 = ! combu/ion ( #a gramme ( fuel 9 a crucible4 ,f ! weight ( ! button ( lead1 & tak+ #h1jhj units z ! equival5t ( c>bon1 ! total heat-units ( ! fuel is calculat$4 ,?is exp]im5t is v imp]fect & errone\s ^u sci5tific gr\nds1 s9ce ! hydrog5 ( ! fuel is sc>cely tak5 into acc\nt at all4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 hydrog5 consumes only "o qu>t] z mu* oxyg5 z c>bon1 &1 fur!rmore1 two-n9?s only ( ! heat+ p[] ( hydrog5 is us$ z ! multiply+ numb]1 viz41 #h1jhj1 :ile ! value ( hydrog5 is #cd1dfb4 ,9 o!r words1 "o-eighte5? only ( ! available hydrog5 pres5t 9 ! fuel is %[n 9 ! result obta9$4 ,ap>t f ?is my exp]i5ce ( ! work+ ( ,b]?i]'s me?od has be5 by no means satisfactory4 ,!re is consid]able difficulty 9 obta9+ pure li?>ge1 & x is almo/ impossible to procure a crucible :i* does n ex]t a r$uc+ action ^u ! lead oxide4 ,"s twelve mon?s ago ,i w5t out to ,italy to te/ a l>ge numb] ( c>goes ( coal ) ,?ompson's calorimet]1 & s9ce !n ?is app>atus has sup]s$$ ,b]?i]'s process1 & is likely to come into m g5]al use4 ,l ,b]?i]'s me?od1 ,?ompson's app>atus is n )\t its disadvantages1 & ! purpose ( ?is pap] is to set ^! =?1 z well z to sugge/ a uni=m me?od ( work+ by means ( :i* ! great & irreconcilable diff]5ces 9 ! results obta9$ by "s *emi/s might be ov]come4 ,x has already be5 obs]v$ t a coal ri* 9 hydrog5 %[s a l[ heat+ p[] by ,b]?i]'s me?od1 & x w become evid5t on fur!r reflection t ! high] ! p]c5tage ( c>bon ! great] w be ! indicat$ calorific p[]4 ,9 fact a good sample ( an?racite w give high] results ?an any o!r class ( coal by ,b]?i]'s process4 ,) ,?ompson's calorimet] ! rev]se is ! case1 z ! :ole ( ! heat+ p[] ( ! hydrog5 is tak5 into acc\nt4 ,9 %ort1 ) c>eful work+1 ! m bitum9\s a coal is ! m c]ta9 is x t its full heat+ p[] %all be ex]t$ & record$1 s f> z ! app>atus is capable ( indicat+ x2 = :5 ! result obta9$ is multipli$ by ! equival5t ( ! lat5t heat ( /eam ! product is always bel[ ! !oretical heat units calculat$ f ! *emical composition ( ! coal by ! acid ( ,favre & ,silb]mann's figures = c>bon & hydrog54 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! heat+ p[] ( coal l[ 9 hydrog5 is det]m9$ by ,?ompson's calorimet]1 mu* difficulty is exp]i5c$ 9 burn+ ! c>bon completely2 h5ce a l[ result is obta9$4 ,f a l>ge numb] ( exp]im5ts ,i h f\nd t :5 a coal does n yield m ?an #hf p] c5t1 ( coke1 x gives its full comp>ative heat+ p[]1 b x is v que/ionable if equal results w be work$ out if ! coke exce$s ! above am\nt al?\gh ,i h met ) coals giv+ #hg p] c5t4 ( coke :i* 7 p]fectly manageable1 ?\gh 9 o!r cases ! coal did n burn completely4 ,x w be not$ t ! non-volatile residue ( an?racite is nev] z l[ z #hf p] c5t41 & ?is1 toge!r ) ! v dry /eam coals & ba/>d an?racite 7f\nd ov] a n inext5sive tract ( ! ,s\? ,wales ,coal field71 =m a s]ies ( coals1 alike difficult to burn 9 ,?ompson's calorimet]4 ,consid]able exp]i5ce has %[n t 9 no s+le in/ance 0 ! true comp>ative heat+ p[] ( an?racite or ba/>d an?racite indicat$4 ,) a view to accel]ate ! p]fect combu/ion ( ^! coals1 sug>1 />*1 bitum51 & bitum9\s coals--sub/ances ri* 9 hydrog5--7 employ$1 mix$ 9 v>y+ proportions ) ! an?racitic coal1 b )\t ! anticipat$ effect4 ,coke 0 also treat$ 9 a l mann]4 ,)\t enl>g+ fur!r ^u ^! futile trials--all c>efully & repeat$ly v]ifi$--! results ( my exp]im5ts & exp]i5ce %[ t = coals ( an an?racitic "*1 yield+ m ?an #hg p] c5t4 ( coke1 or = coke itself1 ,?ompson's calorimet] is n suit$ z an indicator ( _! comp>ative calorific p[]1 = ! simple reason t "s ( ! c>bon is s graphitic 9 its nature t x w n burn p]fectly :5 mix$ ) nitrate & *lorate ( pota%4 ,a sample ( v pure an?racite us$ 9 ! exp]im5ts ref]r$ to1 gave #ij4d p] c5t4 ( non-volatile residue1 & only #j4hd p] c5t4 ( a%4 ,?is coal 0 n difficult to exp]im5t )1 z combu/ion />t$ ) comp>ative ease & proce$$ q rapidly en\gh1 b 9 e in/ance a portion ( ! c>bon 0 unconsum$1 & consequ5tly in/ead ( ab\t #ac ( rise 9 temp]ature only #aj 7 record$4 ,s9ce ! calorific p[] ( a coal is det]m9$ by ! numb] ( degrees ,fahr5heit :i* a giv5 quantity ( wat] is rais$ 9 temp]ature by a kn[n weight ( fuel1 x foll[s t e c>e %\ld be tak5 t ! exp]im5t be p]=m$ "u simil> atmosph]ic conditions4 ,! oscillation ( b>ometric pressure does n appe> to affect ! work+1 b ! temp]ature ( ! room 9 :i* ! "w 0 done1 & especially t ( ! wat]1 are mo/ important consid]ations4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ by "s :o h us$ ?is app>atus--& ,i h frequ5tly notic$ x myself--t ! l[] ! temp]ature ( ! wat] is "u :i* ! fuel is burnt ! high] is ! result f\nd4 ,?is has be5 expla9$ on ! assumption t ! cold] ! wat] us$1 ! great] is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! room & t ( ! wat]2 h5ce x w\ld be exp$i5t t 9 all cases :5 su* exp]im5ts are made ! same diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! air 9 ! room & ! wat] employ$ %\ld always exi/4 ,= example1 if ! temp]ature ( ! room 7 #gj1 & ! wat] at #fj1 !n ! same coal w\ld give a l result ) ! wat] at #dj & ! room at #ej4 ,?is has be5 reg>d$ z ! m evid5t1 because ! gases pass+ ?r\gh ! wat] escape "u favorable conditions ( work+ at ! same temp]ature z ! wat]1 & are p]fectly depriv$ ( any heat 9 excess ( t possess$ by ! wat]4 ,"u ^! circum/ances x w\ld seem only reasonable t ?is assumption %\ld be correct4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 f\nd aft] a l>ge numb] ( exp]im5ts ^u ! same sample ( coal t ?is 0 n ! case4 #cj grammes ( coal :i* raises ! temp]ature ( ! wat] #ac4d1 :5 ! wat] at />t+ 0 #fj & ! room at #gj1 gives #ac4g rise ( temp]ature ) ! wat] at #dj & ! room at #ej4 ,conv]sely1 :5 ! wat] is at #gj & ! room at #hj1 a l[] result is obta9$4 ,! explanation appe>s to be ?is3 ,! gas :i* escapes f ! wat] 0 n 9 exi/5ce 9 ! gase\s =m previ\s to ! exp]im5t1 & ! heat communicat$ to ! gas be+ a def9ite quantity x foll[s t ! m ! gas is cool$ ! great] ! proportion ( *emical en]gy 9 ! %ape ( heat w be utiliz$ & record$ z calorific p[]4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to make ! exp]im5t m simple & workable at all temp]atures1 a sample ( coal 0 select$1 :i* %\ld be p]fectly manageable & readily consum$4 ,app5d$ is an analysis ( ! coal employ$ 7f ,ebbw ,vale1 ,monm\?%ire73 ,composition p] c5t4 ,c>bon4444444444444444444444444444444#hh 4cc ,hydrog544444444444444444444444444444 #e4jh ,oxyg54444444444444444444444444444444 #c4bh ,nitrog544444444444444444444444444444 #j4ee ,sulphur444444444444444444444444444444 #j4gj ,a%4444444444444444444444444444444444 #a4bf ,wat] 7moi/ure7444444444444444444444 #j4hj ----- #ajj4jj ,9 ! foll[+ exp]im5ts ! /&>d temp]ature ( ! wat] 0 tak5 z #fj ,f41 & z ! coal gave #ac4d ( rise ( temp]ature1 #fg ,f4 0 select$ z ! /&>d room temp]ature4 ,! reason = ?is room temp]ature is obvi\s1 =1 :atev] heat+ effect ! high] temp]ature ( ! room may h ^u ! wat] 9 ! cyl9d] dur+ ! "t occupi$ by ! fir/ half ( ! exp]im5t1 w\ld be comp5sat$ = by ! loss su/a9$ dur+ ! second half ( ! exp]im5t1 :5 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] exce$$ t ( ! room4 ,! mean ( num]\s trials gave #ac4d ,f4 rise ( temp]ature1 equal to #ad4gd lb4 ( wat] p] lb4 ( coal4 ,:5 ! wat] 0 at #ej & ! room at #eg1 ! mean ( sev]al exp]im5ts gave #ac4e rise ( temp]ature4 ,:5 ! wat] 0 #dj at />t+ & ! room at #dg1 #ac4fe 0 ! av]age rise ( temp]ature4 ,trials 7 made at int]m$iate temp]atures1 & ! results always %[$ t high] figures 7 record$ :5 ! wat] 0 colde/4 ,) a view ( gett+ uni=mity 9 ! results x 0 ?\ght well to make exp]im5ts1 9 ord] to f9d out :at temp]ature ! room %\ld be at1 s t ?is coal might give ! same result ) ! wat] at #ej1 #dj1 or at int]m$iate temp]atures4 ,)\t go+ mu* into detail1 x 0 f\nd t :5 ! temp]ature ( ! room 0 at #dj & t ( ! wat] #dj1 & ! exp]im5t 0 rapidly & c>efully p]=m$1 #ac4d rise ( temp]ature 0 giv52 b ?is result c\ld be obta9$ )\t special ef=t :5 ! room 0 #db & ! wat] #dj at />t+4 ,x is evid5t t ! cool+ effect ( ! air 9 ! room ^u ! wat] cyl9d] is v appreciable :5 ! wat] has rea*$ #ac above t ( ! room4 ,:5 ! wat] 0 at #ej & ! room at #ee1 ! coal gave #ac4d rise ) ease & c]ta9ty1 & x w\ld n be out ( place to rem>k "h t ) ^? coals :i* burn well 9 ,?ompson's calorimet]1 ! results ( sev]al trials are rem>kably uni=m :5 prop]ly p]=m$4 ,) ! wat] at #gj & ! room at #hj1 a l result 0 work$ out4 ,exp]im5ts at int]m$iate temp]atures 7 also c>ri$ out 7see table 9 sequel74 ,x is true t ! :ole diff]5ce ( temp]ature we are deal+ ) 9 mak+ ^! corrections is only #j4be1 b #j4b 9 ! result1 :5 multipli$ by #ecg to br+ x into calories1 z is done by ! au?orities 9 ,italy1 makes m ?an #ajj heat units--a s]i\s diff]5ce :5 #e;d4 p] ton f9e is atta*$ to e #ajj calories l[] ?an ! numb] gu>ante$4 ,tak+ ! lat5t heat ( /eam z #ecg ,c41 & multiply+ ?is numb] by #ad4gd1 ! evaporative p[] ( ! coal us$ 9 ^! exp]im5ts1 its equival5t 9 calories is #g1iae4 ,f ! analysis ( ?is coal1 disreg>d+ ! nitrog5 & d$uct+ an equival5t ( hydrog5 = ! oxyg5 pres5t1 ! total heat units giv5 by ,favre & ,silb]mann's figures = c>bon 7#h1jhj7 & hydrog5 7#cd1dfb7 w be #h1gdf4 ,x w be se51 !re=e1 t ! calorific p[]1 z det]m9$ by ,?ompson's app>atus1 gives a mu* l[] result :5 multipli$ by #ecg ?an ! heat units calculat$ f ! *emical composition ( ! coal4 ,:5 ,i us$ ,?ompson's app>atus 9 ! *emical laboratory at ,tur9 to det]m9e ! evaporative p[] ( v>i\s c>goes ( ,s\? ,wales coal1 x 0 agre$ by mutual cons5t t ! temp]ature ( ! wat] at />t+ %\ld be #ci ,f4 7! temp]ature at :i* ! heat unit 0 det]m9$74 ,! temp]ature ( ! room 0 ab\t #fj1 b ?is v>i$1 z ! wea!r 0 some:at sev]e & *angeable4 ,"u ^! conditions1 ) ! wat] at #ci & room #fj1 ! coal :i* gives #ad4gd lb4 ( wat] p] lb4 ( coal1 w give z high z #ae4hh lb4 ( wat] p] lb4 ( coal4 ,?is result multipli$ by #ecgh1dif calories1 approa*+ mu* m ne>ly to ! !oretic value4 ,?is me?od ( work+ is /ill practic$ abroad1 b exp]i5ce has %[n t v widely diff]+ results foll[ :5 work+ 9 ?is mann]1 especially if ! temp]ature ( ! room is *angeable1 z x naturally is :]e a% det]m9ations & o!r *emical "w is proce$+ simultane\sly4 ,! "t ! exp]im5t la/s1 tak+ ! read+ on a quickly ris+ !rmomet] & o!r consid]ations1 r5d] ! exp]im5ts any?+ b tru/wor?y :5 #j4b ( a degree makes a diff]5ce ( m ?an #ajj calories4 ,9 ! in/ructions suppli$ ) ,?ompson's calorimet] no?+ is said z to ! temp]ature ( ! room 9 :i* ! exp]im5t is p]=m$1 b simply t ! wat] %all be at #fj ,f4 ,if1 ) ! wat] at #fj1 a room 7 at #ej1 z x (t5 is 9 w9t]1 a good coal w\ld give #ad lb4 ( wat] p] lb4 ( coal z ! evaporative p[]2 b if 9 summ]1 ! room 7 at #ge & ! wat] at #fj1 ! same coal w\ld give #ae lb4 ( wat] p] lb4 ( coal4 ,if fur!r evid5ce 7 ne$$ ( ! effect ( temp]ature consid]ation ( ! exp]im5ts already ref]r$ to w %[ h[ necess>y x is t "s g5]al rule %all be adopt$4 ,consid]able /ress is laid 79 ! in/ructions7 ^u ! quantity ( oxyg5 mixture us$ be+ det]m9$ by r\gh exp]im5ts4 ,?is ,i h f\nd leads to errone\s conclusions unless a numb] ( exp]im5ts are tri$ 9 ! calorimet]1 z x (t5 happ5s t ! quantity :i* appe>s to be be/ adapt$ is n t :i* yields a tru/wor?y result4 ,!re are _m samples ( ,s\? ,wales coal1 #cj gra9s ( :i* w require #aj p>ts ( oxyg5 mixture 9 ord] to burn completely1 b s9ce a little oxyg5 is lo/ 9 dry+ & gr9d+1 & few samples ( *lorate are free f *loride1 x is n safe to use less ?an #aa p>ts ( oxyg5 mixture1 b ?is am\nt is suffici5t 9 all cases1 & nev] ne$ be exce$$4 ,i h made num]\s exp]im5ts ) v>i\s coals 7an?racite1 /eam1 semi-bitum9\s1 & bitum9\s1 includ+ a specim5 ( ! t5 y>d coal ( ,d]by%ire71 & f9d t ) #aa p>ts ( *lorate & nitrate ( pota%1 !y are all p]fectly manageable & yield ! be/ results4 ,x is q cle> t ! excess ( *lorate is decompos$ 9 all in/ances1 & ! lat5t heat ( ! oxyg5 evolv$1 b ^? coals :i* are be/ to exp]im5t ) did n yield results t diff]$ :5 ! quantity ( oxyg5 mixture 0 r$uc$ to ne>ly ! limit requir$ = combu/ion ( ! coal4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 !re=e1 ! con/ant use ( #aa p>ts ( oxyg5 mixture--a suitable quantity = all coals export$--w\ld enable op]ators to obta9 simil> figures1 & make ! te/ uni=m 9 diff]5t h&s4 ,! foll[+ is a brief outl9e ( ! me?od ( proc$ure recomm5d$3 ,sample ! coal until an av]age portion passes ?r\gh a sieve hav+ #fd me%es to ! squ>e in*4 ,take ab\t #cjj gra9s 7#bj grammes7 ( ?is & run ?r\gh a brass wire gauze hav+ #d1fjj me%es to ! squ>e in*1 tak+ c>e t ! :ole sample select$ is ?us treat$4 ,"o "p ( nitrate ( pota% & #c p>ts ( *lorate ( pota% 7dry7 are sep>ately gr\nd 9 a mort>1 & repeat$ly sift$ ?r\gh ano!r wire gauze sieve1 hav+ #a1jjj me%es to ! squ>e in*1 9 ord] t ! oxyg5 mixture %all n be gr\nd to an impalpable p[d]1 z ?is is v undesirable4 ,x absorbs moi/ure rapidly1 & int]f]es ) ! regul>ity ( ! combu/ion :5 v f9e4 #ccj gra9s ( ! p[d] are weigh$ out 7aft] dry+71 & intimately incorporat$ ) #cj gra9s ( coal--bett] ) a spatula ?an by rubb+ 9 a mort>--& !n introduc$ into a copp] cyl9d] 7#c in*es long by in* wide1 made f a copp] tube71 & press$ d[n 9 small portions by a te/-tube ) su* firmness z is requir$ by ! nature ( ! coal1 n tapp$ on ! bottom1 s9ce ! r\gh] portions ( ! oxyg5 mixture rise to ! surface4 ,z ! temp]ature ( a room is almo/ inv>iably mu* high] ?an ! wat] supply1 a little hot wat] is add$ to t plac$ 9 ! glass cyl9d]1 until ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! wat] & ! room is ab\t ! m>k indicat$ 9 ! foll[+ table3 ,room at ,! wat] %\ld be #hj ,f4 #gj ,f4 #gb #fd #fg #fj #fj #ed #ee #ej #ej #df #db #dj ,say1 = example1 ! room 0 at #eg & ! wat] plac$ 9 ! cyl9d] 0 at #df3 add a little hot wat] & /ir ) ! !rmomet] until x assumes #eb4 ,by ! "t ! excess ( wat] has be5 remov$ ) a pipette until x is exactly level ) ! m>k1 & all is ready1 ! temp]ature w rise ne>ly #j4e4 ,let ! !rmomet] be imm]s$ 9 ! wat] at lea/ ?ree m9utes be=e read+4 ,! fuse %\ld be plac$ 9 ! mixture1 & ev]y?+ at h& be=e read+ & remov+ ! !rmomet]4 ,aft] ignit+ ! fuse & imm]s+ ! copp] cyl9d] 9 ! wat]1 ! app>atus %\ld be kept 9 ! be/ position = ! gases to be evolv$ all ar\nd ! cyl9d]1 & ! rate ( combu/ion not$4 ,"s coals are v unmanageable )\t practice1 & samples ( pat5t fuel are sometimes met )1 conta9+ unreasonable proportions ( pit*1 :i* require "s caution 9 work+ & v close pack+1 inasmu* z small explosions occur dur+ :i* a little ( ! fuel escapes combu/ion4 ,9 ord] t ! exp]im5t %all succe$ well1 exp]i5ce has %[n t ! nature ( ! fuse employ$ has mu* to d ) x4 ,plait$ or wov5 wick is n adapt$1 & w fail absolutely ) dry coals1 unless x is made v free burn+4 ,9 ?is case n less ?an ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* 9 l5g? is necess>y1 & ! weight ( su* is v appreciable4 ,i always use ,ox=d cotton1 & ?or\ghly soak x 9 a mod]ately /rong solution ( nitrate ( pota%4 ,:5 dry x %\ld burn a little too fa/4 ,! cotton is rubb$ betwe5 two pieces ( clo? until x burns j freely en\gh2 !n f\r cotton /r&s are tak51 twi/$ toge!r1 & cut into l5g?s ( in* & ?or\ghly dri$4 ,op5 out ! fuse at ! l[] end :5 plac+ x 9 ! mixture s z to expose z mu* surface z possible 9 ord] to get a quick />t1 b c>efully avoid press+ ! mat]ial1 & use a wire to fill up close to ! fuse4 ,a sl[ />t (t5 spoils ! exp]im5t1 ?r\gh ! upp] end ( ! cyl9d] becom+ ne>ly fill$ up ) potassic *loride1 etc4 ,by pay+ att5tion to su* details1 & foll[+ ! me?od recomm5d$1 ! app>atus yields v satisfactory results ) bitum9\s & semi-bitum9\s coals4--,*emical ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,explosion ,,z ,,an ,,unkn[n ,,fire ,,haz>d4 ,words pass along ) mean+s :i* are simple conv5tionalities1 m>k+ curr5t op9ions1 k1 fancies1 & misjudgm5ts4 ,!y atta9 to new accretions ( import z k advances or op9ions *ange1 & !y are appli$ n[ to "o set ( ideas1 n[ to ano!r4 ,h5ce !re is no?+ tru] ?an ! say+1 def9itions are nev] complete4 ,! t]m explosion 9 its orig9al introduction d5ot$ ! mak+ ( a noise2 x grew to compreh5d ! idea ( =ce accompani$ ) viol5t outbur/2 x is advanc+ to a /age 9 :i* x implies combu/ion z associat$ ) de/ruction1 yet some:at di/9ct f ! ab/ract idea ( ! resolution ( any =m ( matt] into its elem5t>y con/itu5ts4 ,! t]m1 h[ev]1 z yet takes 9 ! idea ( combu/ion z a decomposition 9 b a v limit$ degree1 & x may be said to be wav]+ at ! l9e betwe5 expansion & dissociation4 ,/rictly1 9 insurance1 fire & explosion are diff]5t ph5om5a4 ,a policy insur+ aga9/ fire-loss does n insure aga9/ loss by explosion4 ,x !reby en=ces a di/9ction :i* exi/s1 or did exi/1 9 ! popul> m9d2 & fire1 9 an insurance s5se1 z di/9ct f explosion1 0 accurately def9$ by ,ju/ice ,mc,ilvaine1 ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ,ohio 7#ahgb71 9 ! case ( ! ,union ,insurance ,company vs4 ,=te1 i4e41 an explosion 0 a remote cause ( loss & n ! proximate cause1 :5 ! fire 0 a burn+ ( a gas jet :i* did n de/roy1 ?\gh ! explosion caus$ by ! burn+ gas-jet did de/roy4 ,e>li] ?an ?is decision1 h[ev] 79 #aheb71 ,ju/ice ,cu%+1 ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ,massa*usetts1 9 ,scripture vs4 ,l[ell ,mutual ,fire ,insurance ,company1 some:at anticipat$ lat] def9ition1 & pron\nc$ = ! liability ( ! und]writ] :]e all damage by ! explosion involves ! ignition & burn+ ( ! ag5t ( explosion4 ,t is1 = example1 ! insur] is liable = damage caus$ by an explosion f gunp[d]1 b n = an explosion f /eam4 ,! ,massa*usetts ,judge did n conceive any di/9ction z to fire-loss betwe5 ! in/antane\s burn+ ( a b>rel ( gunp[d] & ! sl[] burn+ ( a b>rel ( sulphur1 & insurance fire-loss is n to be int]pret$ legally by !rmo-dynamics nor !rmo *emi/ry4 ,:ile ! legal pr9ciples are z yet unsettl$1 ! t5or ( curr5t decisions may be summ$ up z foll[s3 ,if explosion cause fire1 & fire cause loss1 x is a loss by fire z proximate cause2 & if fire cause explosion1 & explosion cause loss1 x is a loss by fire z effici5t cause4 ,smoke1 an imp]fect combu/ion1 damages1 9 an insurance s5se1 z well z flame1 :i* is p]fect combu/ion2 & :]e !re is concurr5ce ( exp&+ air ) exp&+ combu/ion1 ! law settles on ! basis ( a common acc\nt4 ,x's all heat z a mode ( motion4 ,explosions are ! resultants ( elem5tal gases1 vaporization1 comm9ution1 contact ( diff]5t sub/ances1 z well z ( ! specifically nam$ explosives4 ,) new processes 9 manufacture1 involv+ *emical & me*anical trans=mations1 & o!r uses ( new sub/ances & new uses ( old sub/ances1 explosions increase4 ,! fl\r-du/ ( ! mill]1 ! />*-du/ ( ! confection]1 increase 9 f95ess & quantity1 & !y explode2 s does ! hop-du/ ( ! brew]4 ,9 #ahdd1 = ! fir/ "t1 ,pr(essors ,f>aday & ,lyell1 employ$ by ! ,briti% gov]nm5t1 discov]$ t explosion 9 bitum9\s coal m9es 0 ! quick5+ ( ! comp>atively sl[ burn+ ( ! fire-damp by ! almo/ in/antane\s combu/ion ( ! f9e coal-du/ pres5t 9 ! m9es4 ,! fly+s ( ! cotton mill d n explode1 b flame passes ?r\gh !m ) a rapidity almo/ in/antane\s1 yet n suffici5t to ex]t ! pressure :i* explodes2 ! du/ ( ! wood plan] & saw] only z yet makes sudd5 puffs )\t detonat+ =ce4 ,naph?a vapor & b5z9e vapor are gett+ into all places4 ,"o ( ! late/ introductions is naph?a extract+ oil f l9se$1 & !n volatiliz$ by /eam sup]heat$ to #djj ,f4 ,?is comb9ation rem9ds u1 z to effectiv5ess1 ( ! comb9ation at ! rec5t ,kansas ,city fire1 :5 cans ( gunp[d] & b>rels ( coal oil bo? w5t up toge!r4 ,b x is ! unsuspect$ causes ( explosion :i* make ! great tr\ble1 & prom95t among ^! is conflagration z itself ! cause ( explosion1 & su* explosion may develop gases :i* are non-support]s ( combu/ion z well z ^? :i* are inflammable4 ,y ?r[ table salt d[n a blaz+ *imney to set free ! flame-suppress+ hydro*loric acid1 y dis*>ge a load$ gun up a blaz+ *imney to put out ! fire by ano!r ag5cy2 /ill ! salt1 ) c]ta9 comb9ations1 may be explosive1 a res9\s vapor may be combu/ive 9 a hydro*loric atmosph]e1 & gunp[d] isn't h>mless :5 ?r[n ^u a blaze--9 fact1 our common fire-ext+ui%]1 wat]1 has its explosive incid5ces z liquid z well z vapor4 ,gases explosive 9 association may be set free by ! temp]ature ( a burn+ build+ & get toge!r4 ,9 respect to ! old conundrum1 ,w saltpetre explode8 ,mr4 ,a4 ,a4 ,hayes1 ,pr(4 ,silliman1 & ,dr4 ,h>e's views 71 z to ! explosions 9 ! ,new ,york fire ( #ahde1 t 9 a clos$ build+ hav+ nit] 9 "o "p & %ellac or o!r res9\s mat]ial 9 ano!r1 ! gase\s oxyg5 g5]at$ f ! nit] & ! c>buret$ hydrog5 f ! res9s m+l+ by degrees w\ld at l5g? con/itute an explosive mixture4 ,a brief consid]ation ( specific explosives unit+ may s]ve to illu/rate ?is phase ( ! subject4 ,?\gh ! explosion ( gunp[d] is ! result ( a *emical *ange :]eby c>bonic acid gas at high t5sion is evolv$ 7due to ! saltpet] & ! *>coal71 ! effect & rapidity ( action are greatly promot$ by ! addition ( sulphur4 ,on ! contr>y1 dynamite1 n[ s important1 & v>i\s simil> explosives1 are b mixtures ( nitro-glyc]9e ) e>?y sub/ances1 9 ord] to dim9i% & make m manageable ! developm5t ( ! r5d+ =ce ( ! base4 ,! explosive p[] ( any sub/ance is ! pressure x ex]ts on all p>ts ( ! space conta9+ x at ! in/ant ( explosion1 & is measur$ by comp>+ ! heat dis5gag$ ) ! volume ( gas emitt$1 & ) ! rapidity ( *emical action4 ,9 ! case ( gunp[d]1 ! prop] manipulation & division ( ! gra9s is important1 because favor+ rapid deflagration2 b 9 a purely *emical explosion1 ea* sep>ate molecule is an explosive1 & ! reaction passes f ! int]ior ( "o to ! int]ior ( ano!r1 sudd5ly driv+ ! atoms mu* fur!r ap>t ?an _! naturally inf9itesimal vibrations4 ,purely *emical explosives l nitro-glyc]9e1 gun-cotton1 ! picrites1 & ! fulm9ates1 pres5t a t]rible dang] f ! unkn[n mode ( ! new union ( atoms1 & reaction ( ! p>ticles )9 !mselves1 9 spontane\s explosions happ5+ 9 irregul> mann]4 ,"s curi\s circum/ances att5d ! manufacture & use ( gun-cotton1#a nitro-glyc]9e1 & dynamite4 ,b>on von ,l9k1 9 8 sy/em ( ! artill]y use ( gun-cotton1 dim9i%es ! dang] ( sudd5 explosion by twi/+ ! prep>$ cotton into cords or weav+ x into clo?1 !reby secur+ a m uni=m d5sity4 ,mr4 ,abel's mode ( mak+ gun-cotton1 :i* explosive is n[ us$ m ?an any o!r by ! ,briti% gov]nm5t1 includes dry+ ! damp prep>$ cotton ^u hot plates1 freely op5 to ! air4 ,if ignit$ by a flame1 h[ev]1 9 an unconf9$ place1 gun-cotton only burns ) a /rong blaze1 b if conf9$ :]e ! temp]ature rea*es #cdj ,f41 x explodes ) t]rific viol5ce4 ,some:at simil> is ! action ( nitro-glyc]9e & dynamite1 :i* simply burn if ignit$ 9 ! op5 air1 :ile ! same sub/ance w explode ?r\gh a v slight concussion or by ! application ( ! electric sp>k2 a r$-hot iron1 also1 if appli$1 w explode !m :5 a flame w n4 ,) c>e1 nitro-glyc]9e c be kept _m ye>s )\t det]ioration2 & x has be5 heat$ 9 a s&-ba? to #hj ,c4 = a :ole day )\t explosion or alt]ation4 ,"o curi\s exp]im5t is des]v+ ( m5tion3 ,if a broad-head$ nail be p>tly driv5 into p9e wood1 & !n "s pieces ( dynamite plac$ on ! head ( ! nail1 ! latt] may be /ruck h>d bl[s ) a wood5 mallet )\t explod+ ! dynamite s long z ! nail w cont9ue to ent] ! wood4 ,footnote #a3 ,! pure/ gun-cotton may be reg>d$ z a cellulose1 9 :i* ?ree atoms ( hydrog5 are replac$ by ?ree molecules ( p]oxide ( nitrog54 ,tak+ gunp[d] z ! unit1 picrate ( pota% 7picric acid & potassium7 has five times m =ce1 gun-cotton sev5 & a half times1 & nitro-glyc]9e t5 times m =ce4 ,!re are o!rs /ill m p[]ful1 b less kn[n & us$1 & "s explosives are q uncontrollable & useless4 ,b ! p>ticul> object ( ^! rem>ks is to ref] to articles ( m]*&ise non-explosive "u g5]al conditions1 b s 9 p>ticul> circum/ances1 z ! two fire-ext+ui%]s1 wat] & salt1 are explosive "u giv5 conditions4 ,! memorable fire :i*1 9 ,july1 #ahej1 de/roy$ ?ree hundr$ build+s 9 ,philadelphia1 ^u ,delaw>e av5ue1 ,wat]1 ,front1 & ,v9e /reets1 0 l>gely ext5d$ by explosions ( possibly conceal$ or unkn[n mat]ials1 ! pres5ce ( ! g5]ally recogniz$ explosives be+ d5i$ by ! own]s ( ! prop]ties4 ,! g]m ( ! fir/ k ( an explosive 0 probably ! accid5tal discov]y1 ages ago1 ( ! deflagrat+ prop]ty ( ! natural saltpet] :5 9 contact ) inc&esc5t *>coal4#a ,al?\gh mu* manipulation is deem$ necess>y to =m ! close me*anical mixture ( ! mat]ials ( gunp[d]1 x has nev] be5 prov$ t su* intimate previ\s union is necess>y to prec$e ! *emical reaction caus+ explosion2 inde$1 "s explosions 9 p[d] works1 be=e ! mixture ( ! mat]ials1 or j at its comm5cem5t1 seem to po9t to ! contr>y4 ,x is also c]ta9 t 9 ! manufacture ( gunp[d] ! usual nitrate ( potassium 7saltpet]7 c be replac$ by ! nitrates ( soda1 b>yta1 & ammonia1 also by ! *loride ( potassium2 *>coal by sawdu/1 tan1 res91 & />*2 & ?\gh a sub/itute = sulphur is n easily f\nd1 ! latt]1 or a simil> sub/ance1 is n an absolute necessity 9 ! composition ( gunp[d]4#b ,footnote #a3 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 new edition1 viii1 p4 #hjf4 ,footnote #b3 ,vide ,abel's ,exp]im5ts 9 ,gunp[d]1 z detail$ 9 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,eoy4 ,soc1 #ahgd4--,vide also ,bull4 ,soc4 d',enc\ragem5t1 ,nov41 #ahhj1 p4 #fcc1 ,sur les ,explosives4 ,! g5]ally receiv$ !ory ( ! *emical action :i* makes gunp[d] explosive is t x is due to ! sup]ior aff9ity ( ! oxyg5 ( ! nit] 7,,kno#c7 = ! c>bon ( ! *>coal1 & ! production ( c>bonic acid gas 7,,co#b7 & c>bonic oxide 7,,co7 sudd5ly & 9 great volume4 ,! latt] ext+ui%es flame z well z ! =m]1 unless its own flammability is support$ by ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e until ! degree ( oxyg5ation ,,co#b is rea*$4 ,consid]+ t wat] 7,h#b,o7 is compos$ ( two volumes ( hydrog5 & "o ( oxyg51 & t "u an enorm\sly high temp]ature & ! excessive aff9ity ( oxyg5 gas = potassium or sodium 7fre$ f nitrate union71 dissociation ( ! wat] may be possible1 aid$ by its be+ 9 ! =m ( spray & /eam1 we w\ld hesitate to d5y t an explosive union ( suitable crude salts c\ld occur dur+ ! burn+ ( a build+ conta9+ !m :5 wat] = ext+ui%m5t 0 put on4 ,any "o :o has se5 ! brilliance ) :i* potassium & sodium burn ^u wat] c easily imag9e h[ su* /rong aff9ity ( oxyg5 = ^! sub/ances might aid 9 sev]+ its union 9 wat] 9 _! pres5ce & "u extraord9>y heat4 ,x might be safe s say t ! pres5ce ( wat] "u v high temp]ature may be z aidful to =m an explosive among su* salts z h be5 nam$1 z sulphur is = ! rapid combu/ion ( gunp[d]4 ,9 ! review = ,augu/1 #ahfb 7,saltpet] ,deflagrations 9 ,burn+ ,build+s & ,vessels--,wat] z an ,explosive ,ag5cy71 x 0 %[n t ,mr4 ,boyd5's exp]im5ts 9 #ahfa-fb prov$ t explosions w\ld occur :5 wat] 0 put ^u nit] heat$ alone1 & /rong] explosion f nit]1 drywood1 & sulphur2 also explosion :5 melt$ nit] 0 p\r$ on wat]4 ,! foll[+ po9ts we reproduce = comp>ison3 ,if common salt be heat$ sep>ately to a bright heat1 & wat] at #aej ,f4 p\r$ on x1 an explosion w occur4 ,nit] mix$ ) common salt1 plac$ ^u burn+ *>coal1 & wat] add$1 produce a /rong] explosion ?an salt alone4 ,heat+ cau/ic pota% to a :ite heat1 & add+ w>m or hot wat]1 produces explosion4 ,at a ,bo/on fire small explosions 7 obs]v$ ^u wat] t\*+ cul9>y salt highly heat$4 ,an?racite coal & nit] heat$ 9 a crucible explod$ :5 sea wat] 0 p\r$ on !m4 ,! production ( explosion by ! putt+ ( wat] on nitrate ( potassium & *loride ( sodium arises f ! union1 at high temp]ature1 ( ! oxyg5 ( ! wat] ) ! pota% & soda4 ,( ! ?ree lib]at$ gases1 hydrog5 only is inflammable1 & ! o!r two suffocative ( flame2 b toge!r ! nitrog5 & *lor9e are n to be und]valu$1 = *loride ( nitrog5 is rank$ z ! mo/ t]rible & unmanageable ( all explosives4 ,*lor9e is a great wat] sep>ator1 b 9 ! pres5t case its aff9ity = hydrog5 w\ld result 9 hydro*loric acid1 a fire ext+ui%]4 ,:at happ5s 9 *emical exp]im5t may be develop$ on a l>ge scale 9 burn+ groc]y1 drug1 or drysalt]s' /ores1 :5 great quantities ( mat]ials1 su* z j m5tion$1 includ+ common salt1 almo/ always pres5t1 are heat$ mo/ int5sely1 & !n subject$ to ! action ( wat] 9 heavy da%es1 or 9 =m ( spray or /eam4 ,picric acid1 ! nature ( :i* we h sev]al times previ\sly m5tion$1 & :i* explodes at #fjj ,f4 7only #bh above gunp[d]71 may also be an elem5t 9 su* explosions dur+ fires4 ,its salts =m1 9 comb9ations1 v>i\s p[]ful explosives1 mu* exce$+ gunp[d] 9 =ce2 & !y h be5 us$ to a consid]able ext5t 9 ,europe4 ,picric acid1 n[ mu* employ$ by manufactur]s & dy]s = obta9+ a yell[ color1 is always kept 9 /ore l>gely by drysalt]s & druggi/s1 & g5]ally by dy]s1 b 9 small] quantity4 ,9 a v de/ructive fire :i* occurr$ 9 ,liv]pool1 ,eng41 9 ,octob]1 #ahgd1 involv+ ! loss ( sev]al fire-pro( /ores1 repeat$ explosions ( ! vapor ( turp5t9e r5t pond]\s brick ar*$ vaults1 & expos$ to ! flames /ocks ( cotton1 etc41 9 ! /ories above4 ,?is conflagration 0 />t$ by ! c>elessness ( an employee 9 snuff+ a tall[ c&le ) 8 f+]s & ?r[+ ! burn+ snuff into ! op5 bung-hole ( a sample b>rel ( turp5t9e1 ( :i* liquid !re 7 _m hundr$s ( b>rels on /orage 9 ! build+s4 ,turp5t9e vapor unit$ ) *lor9e gas may n produce explosion1 b by spread+ flames almo/ in/antly ?r\gh\t ! burn+ build+s1 su* burn+s h practically equal$1 if n excell$1 explosions1 :i* may sometimes be fire-ext+ui%]s4 ,9 su* cases detonation may be prev5t$ by !re be+ ample space to receive ! sudd5ly ignit$ vapor1 less5+ ! t5sion ( x1 b c>ry+ ! flames mu* m rapidly ?an o!rwise to inflammable mat]ials at great di/ance4 ,if disa/r\s results h aris5 f ! vapor ( turp5t9e z a fire spread] 9 vaults )\t w9d[s1 x is possible t if a quantity ( hot wat] 7 sudd5ly conv]t$ into /eam 9 closely conf9$ spaces1 effects ( pressure might be obs]v$1 less de/ructive p]haps1 b resembl+ ^? :i* o!r explosives might produce4 ,if ! imm5se temp]ature atta9$ 9 "s conflagrations be consid]$--suffici5t to melt iron & vitrify brick--x is possible to conceive ( wat] z be+ in/antly conv]t$ into /eam4 ,ev5 a v small quantity ( wat] ?us exp&$ c\ld produce mo/ disa/r\s results4 ,:ile su* =mation ( /eam1 if x happ5$1 w\ld c]ta9ly ext+ui% mo/ flames 9 direct contact1 ! g5]al ph5om5a %[n w\ld be explosive4 ,a curi\s circum/ance occurr$ at ! ,broad /reet 7,n4,y47 fire 9 #ahde1 previ\sly m5tion$4 ,! fire ext5d$ ?r\gh to ,broadway1 & almo/ to ,b[l+ ,gre54 ,a %ock l a dull explosion 0 he>d1 & by _m ?is 0 attribut$ to ! effects ( gunp[d] & saltpet]4 ,sev]al firem5 71 at ! mom5t ( ! %ock1 on ! ro( ( ! burn+ build+1 :5 ! :ole ro( 0 sudd5ly rais$ & !n let d[n into ! /reet1 c>ry+ ! m5 ) x un9jur$4 ,"o ( ! firem5 describ$ ! s5sation z if ! ro( _h be5 fir/ hoi/$ up & !n squa%$ d[n4 ,qu]y3 ,0 ?is l ! common lift+ & fall+ back ( ! loose lid ( a tea-kettle conta9+ boil+ wat]8 ,0 x f /eam--at a l[ pressure p]haps--seek+ v5t ?r\gh ! ro( 9 l mann] to ! rais+ ( ! kettle-lid8 ,)\t dilat+ on ?is "p ( ! subject1 we m5tion x z a possible cause ( m9or explosions--d\btless to become bett] kn[n 9 future4 ,x may ev5 be t explosions happ5+ f /eam act+ 9 close spaces may h be5 attribut$ to gunp[d]1 or to nit] & o!r salts1 sep>ate1 b sudd5ly caus$ to comb9e 9 *emical reaction4--,am]ican ,ex*ange & ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,c>bon4--,,symbol ,c4--,,comb9+ ,,weight #ab4 ,by ,t4,a4 ,,pooley1 ,b4,sc41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,?is elem5t1 :i* next des]ves our att5tion1 is "o ( great importance & wide di/ribution2 x occurs 9 nature 9 bo? ! free & ! comb9$ /ates1 & ! numb] ( comp\nds :i* x =ms ) o!r elem5ts is v l>ge4 ,unlike ! previ\s elem5t>y bodies we h /udi$1 c>bon is only kn[n to u 9 ! solid =m :5 free1 al?\gh _m ( its comb9ations are gase\s at ! ord9>y temp]ature & pressure4 ,c>bon is kn[n to exi/ 9 sev]al diff]5t physical /ates1 ?us illu/rat+ :at *emi/s call allotropism1 :i* means t sub/ances ( id5tical *emical composition sometimes possess altoge!r diff]5t outw>d & physical appe>ances4 ,?us ! ?ree /ates 9 :i* pure c>bon exi/s1 viz41 diamond1 graphite1 or plumbago1 & *>coal are z diff]5t z possible1 & yet *emically !y are all exactly ! same sub/ance4 ,! diamond is ! pure/ c>bon1 & occurs 9 ! cry/all9e =m kn[n z a regul> octah$ron2 ! diamond is "o ( ! h>de/ sub/ances kn[n1 & is !re=e1 utiliz$ = cutt+ glass2 x has also a v high specific gravity1 namely1 #c4e1 :i* means t x is ?ree & a half times heavi] ?an wat]1 & x is f> heavi] ?an any ( ! o!r allotropic modifications ( c>bon4 ,graphite or plumbago1 ! second =m 9 :i* c>bon occurs1 is widely di/ribut$ 9 nature1 & ! f9] qualities are kn[n z black lead1 al?\gh no lead ent]s into _! composition1 z !y are compos$ ( c>bon almo/ z pure z ! diamond2 ! specific gravity ( graphite is only #b4c4 ,*>coal1 ! ?ird allotropic modification ( c>bon1 is by f> ! mo/ common1 & is =m$ by ! natural or artificial dis9tegration ( organic matt]s by heat2 we ?us h =m$ wood *>coal1 animal *>coal1 lamp-black1 & coke1 all produc$ by artificial means1 & we may also class ) ^! coal1 :i* is a natural product1 & :i* conta9s f #he to #ie p] c5t4 ( pure c>bon4 ,wood *>coal is made by heat+ wood 9 clos$ vessels or 9 l>ge masses1 :5 all ! hydrog51 oxyg51 & nitrog5 are expell$ 9 ! gase\s /ate1 & ! c>bon is left mix$ ) ! m9]al con/itu5ts ( ! wood2 ?is =m ( c>bon is v por\s & light1 & is us$ 9 a numb] ( indu/rial processes4 ,animal *>coal1 z its "n implies1 is ! c>bonace\s residue left on heat+ any animal matt]s 9 a retort2 & conta9s1 9 addition to ! c>bon1 a l>ge proportion ( phosphates & o!r m9]al salts1 :i*1 h[ev]1 c be extract$ by dilute acids4 ,animal *>coal possesses to a rem>kable degree ! prop]ty ( remov+ color f solutions ( animal & vegetable sub/ances1 & x is us$ = ?is purpose to a l>ge ext5t by sug> ref9]s1 :o ?us decolorize _! d>k br[n sirups2 9 ! manufacture ( glucose & sac*>ums = brew]s' use1 ! conc5trat$ solutions h to be filt]$ ?r\gh lay]s ( animal *>coal 9 ord] t ! result+ product may be fre$ f color4 ,! decoloriz+ p[] ( animal *>coal c be easily te/$ by any brew]1 by caus+ a little d>k color$ wort to filt] ?r\gh a lay] ( ?is mat]ial2 aft] pass+ ?r\gh once or twice1 ! color w entirely disappe>1 or at all ev5ts be greatly r$uc$ 9 int5sity4 ,animal *>coal also absorbs gases ) great avidity1 & on ?is acc\nt x is utiliz$ z a p[]ful dis9fectant1 = :5 once putrefactive gases are absorb$ by x1 !y und]go a gradual oxidation1 & are r5d]$ innocu\s1 9 ! same way animal *>coal is a valuable ag5t = purify+ wat]1 = by filt]+ ! mo/ impure wat] ?r\gh a b$ ( animal *>coal ne>ly ! :ole ( ! organic impurities w be completely remov$4 ,lamp-black is ! "n giv5 to ^? v>ieties ( c>bon :i* are deposit$ :5 hydroc>bons are burn$ ) an insuffici5t supply ( oxyg52 ?us ! smoke & soot emitt$ into our atmosph]e f our furnaces & fireplaces are compos$ ( comp>atively pure c>bon4 ,coal is an impure =m ( c>bon d]iv$ f ! gradual oxidation & de/ruction ( vegetable matt]s by natural causes2 ?us wood fir/ *anges into a peaty sub/ance1 & subsequ5tly into a body call$ lignite1 :i* aga9 9 its turn becomes conv]t$ into ! diff]5t v>ieties ( coal2 ^! *anges1 :i* h result$ 9 ! accumulation ( va/ b$s ( coal 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 h be5 go+ on = ages4 ,!re are v _m diff]5t k9ds ( coal2 "s are ri* 9 hydrog51 & are !re=e well adapt$ = mak+ illum9at+ gas1 :ile o!rs1 su* z an?racite1 are v ri* 9 c>bon1 & conta9 b little hydrog52 ! la/ nam$ v>iety ( coal is smokeless1 & is !re=e l>gely us$ = dry+ malt4 ,c>bon occurs 9 nature also 9 a comb9$ /ate2 lime/one1 *alk1 & m>ble conta9 #ab p] c5t4 ( ?is elem5t4 ,x is also pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e 9 ! =m ( c>bonic acid1 & ! same comp\nd ( c>bon is pres5t 9 well & riv] wat]s1 bo? 9 ! free /ate & comb9$ ) lime & magnesia4 ,all animal & vegetable organisms conta9 a l>ge proportion ( c>bon z an ess5tial con/itu5t2 album5 conta9s ab\t #ec p] c5t41 alcohol conta9s #eb p] c5t41 />* #dd p] c5t41 cane sug> #db p] c5t41 & s on4 ,! pres5ce ( c>bon 9 ! l>ge class ( bodies kn[n to *emi/s z c>bohydrates1 ( :i* />* & sug> are prom95t examples1 c be easily demon/rat$4 ,if a little /rong sulphuric acid be add$ to "s p[d]$ cane sug> 9 a glass1 ! mass w soon beg9 to d>k5 9 color & swell up1 & 9 ! c\rse ( a few m9utes a mass ( black por\s c>bon w sep>ate1 :i* c be purifi$ f ! acid by repeat$ wa%+s2 ! sug> is compos$ ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg51 ! two la/-nam$ elem5ts be+ pres5t 9 ! exact proportion necess>y to =m wat]2 ! sulphuric acid hav+ a /rong aff9ity = wat]1 removes ! hydrog5 & oxyg51 & ! c>bon is !n left 9 a free /ate4 ,c>bon =ms two comp\nds ) oxyg5--c>bon monoxide1 commonly call$ c>bonic oxide1 & c>bon dioxide1 commonly call$ c>bonic acid2 & ! la/-nam$1 be+ ( mo/ importance1 w be /udi$ fir/4 ,c>bon ,dioxide1 or ,c>bonic ,acid1 ,symbol ,,co#b4--;,c>bonic acid occurs1 z we h already /at$1 9 l>ge quantities 9 comb9ation ) lime & magnesia1 =m+ imm5se rock =mations ( lime/one1 *alk1 m>ble1 dolomite1 etc42 x also issues 9 a gase\s /ate f volcanoes1 & x is always pres5t 9 small quantities 9 ! atmosph]e2 x is f\nd dissolv$ 9 well & riv] wat]s1 & x is a product ( ! respiration ( animals4 ,brew]s also are well aw>e ( ! exi/5ce ( ?is body1 = x is evolv$ 9 enorm\s quantities dur+ ! alcoholic f]m5tation ( sac*>9e fluids4 ,:5 c>bonace\s sub/ances are burnt ! bulk ( ! c>bon is conv]t$ into c>bonic acid1 & ?us our furnaces & fireplaces are cont9ually emitt+ enorm\s quantities ( c>bonic acid into ! atmosph]e4 ,) ^! diff]5t s\rces ( supply x might reasonably be ?\ght t c>bonic acid w\ld be gradually accumulat+ 9 our atmosph]e2 ! brea?+ ( animals1 ! eruption ( volcanoes1 ! combu/ion ( fuel1 & ! f]m5tation ( sug>1 are ev] go+ on1 & to a fa/-increas+ ext5t ) ! progress ( civilization1 & yet ! proportion ( c>bonic acid 9 our atmosph]e is no great] n[ ?an x 0 at ! e>lie/ "t :5 exact *emical rese>* det]m9$ its pres5ce & quantity4 ,a c\nt]act+ influ5ce is always at "w2 nature has beautifully provid$ = ?is by caus+ plants to absorb c>bonic acid1 hold+ "s ( ! c>bon1 & all[+ ! oxyg5 to escape aga9 into ! atmosph]e to re/ore ! equilibrium ( purity4 ,?is mutual evolution & absorption ( c>bonic acid is cont9ually go+ on2 occasionally !re may be ei!r an excess or a defici5cy 9 a p>ticul> place1 b =tunately any irregul>ity 9 ?is respect is soon ov]come1 & ! air reta9s its orig9al composition1 o!rwise animal life on ! face ( ! globe w\ld be doom$ to gradual b sure ext9ction4 ,c>bonic acid c be prep>$ = exp]im5tal purposes by caus+ dilute hydro*loric acid to act ^u fragm5ts ( m>ble plac$ 9 a bottle ) two necks1 into "o neck ( :i* a funnel pass+ ?r\gh a cork is fix$1 & into ! o!r a b5t tube = convey+ ! gas into any suitable receiv]4 ,! evolution ( c>bonic acid by ?is me?od is rapid1 b easily regulat$1 & ! gas may be purifi$ by caus+ x to pass ?r\gh "s wat] conta9$ 9 ano!r two-neck$ bottle1 simil> to ! g5]ator4 ,! *emical *ange involv$ 9 ?is decomposition is express$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,ca,c,o#c #b;,h,cl ,,co#b ,h#b,o ,ca,cl#b ,calcium ,hydro*loric ,c>bonic ,wat]4 ,calcium ,c>bonate4 ,acid4 ,acid4 ,*loride4 ,by ref]r+ to ! table ( comb9+ weights giv5 9 a previ\s pap]1 x w be se5 t #ajj p>ts ( calcium c>bonate w yield #dd p>ts ( c>bonic acid4 ,in/ead ( hydro*loric acid any o!r acid may be us$1 & 9 ! practical manufacture ( c>bonic acid = a]at$ wat]s sulphuric acid is ! "o usually employ$4 ,c>bonic acid is colorless & inodor\s1 b has a peculi> %>p ta/e2 x is half z heavy aga9 z air1 its exact specific gravity be+ #aebi2 "o hundr$ cubic in*es weigh #dg4bf gra9s4 ,x is un9flammable1 & does n support combu/ion or animal respiration4 ,"u a pressure ( ab\t #ch atmosph]es1 at a temp]ature ( #cb ,f41 c>bonic acid cond5ses into a colorless liquid1 :i* may also be froz5 into a compact mass resembl+ ice1 or into a :ite p[d] l sn[4 ,c>bonic acid is soluble 9 wat]1 & at ! ord9>y pressure & temp]ature "o volume ( wat] w hold 9 solution "o volume ( ! gas2 "u increas$ pressures1 f> l>g] quantities ( ! gas c be held 9 solution1 b ?is is rapidly evolv$ z soon z ! excess ( pressure is remov$4 ,^u ?is prop]ty ! manufacture ( a]at$ wat]s dep5ds4 ,! pres5ce ( free c>bonic acid c be easily detect$ by caus+ ! gas to pass ov] ! surface ( "s cle> lime-wat]4 ,if any be pres5t a :ite film ( c>bonate ( lime w at once be =m$4 ,9 te/+ c>bonic acid 9 a /ate ( comb9ation1 ! gas mu/ fir/ be lib]at$ by act+ ^u ! sub/ance ) a /rong] acid1 & !n apply+ ! lime-wat] te/4 ,! pres5ce ( l>ge quantities ( c>bonic acid 9 a gase\s mixture c be readily detect$ by plung+ into ! vessel a light$ tap]1 :i* w be imm$iately ext+ui%$4 ,?is ought always to be adopt$ 9 a brew]y1 :]e _m fatal accid5ts h happ5$ ?r\gh workm5 go+ d[n into empty f]m5t+ vats & wells )\t fir/ tak+ ?is precaution4 ,! pres5ce ( c>bon 9 ?is colorless gas c be demon/rat$ by caus+ "s ( x to pass ov] a piece ( ! metal potassium plac$ 9 a h>d glass tube1 & heat$ to dull r$ness2 ! potassium !n eag]ly comb9es ) ! oxyg51 =m+ oxide ( potassium1 & ! c>bon is lib]at$ & c be sep>at$ 9 ! =m ( a black p[d] by wa%+ ! tube out ) wat]4 ,c>bon ,monoxide1 or ,c>bonic ,oxide4 ,symbol ,,co4--,?is is =m$ :5 c>bon is burnt ) an insuffici5t supply ( oxyg51 or :5 c>bonic acid gas is pass$ ov] "s c>bon heat$ to r$ness4 ,?is gas is cont9ually be+ =m$ 9 our furnaces & fire-places2 at ! l[] "p ( ! furnace1 :]e ! air ent]s1 ! c>bon is conv]t$ into c>bonic acid1 :i* 9 its turn has to pass ?r\gh "s r$-hot coals1 s t be=e rea*+ ! surface x is aga9 conv]t$ into c>bonic oxide2 ov] ! surface ( ! fire ?is c>bonic oxide meets ) a fre% supply ( oxyg51 & is !n aga9 conv]t$ into c>bonic acid4 ,! peculi> blue lamb5t flame (t5 obs]v$ on ! surface ( our op5 fire-places is due to ! combu/ion ( c>bonic oxide1 :i* has be5 =m$ 9 ! way we h j describ$4 ,c>bonic oxide is a colorless1 ta/eless gas1 :i* diff]s f c>bonic acid by be+ combu/ible1 & by n hav+ any action on lime wat]4--,brew]s' ,gu>dian4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,seyff]?',s ,,pyromet]4 ,! !rmomet]s & pyromet]s usually employ$ are almo/ all bas$ on ! expansion ( "s fluid or o!r1 or ^u t ( diff]5t metals4 ,! fir/ c only be con/ruct$ ) glass tubes1 ?us r5d]+ !m fragile4 ,! second are (t5 want+ 9 exactness1 because ( ! *ange t ! molecules ( a solid body und]go ?r\gh heat1 ?us prev5t+ !m f return+ to exactly _! fir/ position on cool+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4--,pyromet] ) ,electric ,indicator4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! ,seyff]? pyromet] is bas$ on ! fact t ! pressure ( saturat$ vapors1 t is1 vapors :i* rema9 9 communication ) ! liquid :i* has produc$ !m1 pres]ves a con/ant ratio ) ! temp]ature ( su* liquid1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 ! temp]ature ( ! latt] :5 %ut up 9 a vessel w correspond exactly ) t ( ! m$ium into :i* x is introduc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4--,me?od ( ,m\nt+ by means ( a cone on vacuum app>atus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4--,m\nt+ by means ( a sleeve on vacuum app>atus4 ,?is in/rum5t is compos$ ( a metallic vessel or tube :i* conta9s ! liquid to be expos$ to heat1 & ( a spr+ manometric app>atus communicat+ ) ! tube1 & by means ( :i* ! exi/+ temp]ature is %[n4 ,! dial may be provid$ ) index ne$les to %[ m9imum & maximum temp]atures1 z well z be connect$ ) electric bells 7,fig4 #a7 giv+ "o or m signals at maximum & m9imum temp]atures4 ,! vessel to conta9 ! liquid may be ( any =m :atev]1 b x is usually made 9 ! %ape ( a /raight or a b5t tube4 ,! nature ( ! metal ( :i* ! latt] is made is subord9ate1 n only to ! maximum temp]ature to :i* ! app>atus are to be expos$1 b also to ! nature ( ! liquid employ$4 ,x is ( ei!r yell[ metal or iron4 ,to prev5t oxidation ( ! tube1 :5 iron is employ$1 x is inclos$ )9 ano!r iron tube & ! space betwe5 ! two is fill$ 9 ) lead4 ,:5 ! app>atus is expos$ to a high temp]ature ! lead melts & prev5ts ! air f rea*+ ! inn] tube1 s t no oxidation c take place4 ,pyromet]s fill$ ) ,e!r4-,^! are tubul>1 & con/ruct$ ( yell[ metal1 & are graduat$ f #ce ,c4 to #abj4 ,!y are us$ = obta9+ temp]atures 9 vacuum app>atus1 cook+ app>atus1 diffusion app>atus1 saturators1 etc4 ,figs4 #b1 #c1 #d1 & #e1 %[ ! diff]5t modes ( m\nt+ ! app>atus accord+ to ! purpose = :i* x is design$4 ,pyromet]s fill$ ) di/ill$ wat] are us$ = asc]ta9+ temp]atures rang+ f #ajj to #bfe ,c41 #hj to #baj ,r41 or #bab to #eaj ,f4 ,pyromet]s fill$ ) m]cury are con/ruct$ = asc]ta9+ temp]atures f #cfj to #gej ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4--,m\nt+ on horizontal pipes by ?read on ! tube4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4--,m\nt+ by means ( a clasp 9 res]voirs4 ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,pyromet] ,,9 ,,bone ,,black ,,furnaces4 ,! temp]ature necess>y = ! complete c>bonization ( ! organic sub/ances ( animal *>coal is f #dcj to #ejj ,c4 ,9 ord] to transmit ?is temp]ature f ! cyl9d] to ! *>coal x is indisp5sable t ! air surr\nd+ ! cyl9d] be heat$ to #dhj to #eej4 ,if ! heat+ ( ! animal black exce$s #ejj ! product h>d5s1 dim9i%es 9 volume1 & loses its porosity4 ,!re are two me?ods ( asc]ta9+ ! temp]ature ( ! r$-hot bone black by means ( ! pyromet]3 ,fir/1 by ins]t+ ! tube ( ! in/rum5t into ! black4 7,fig4 #f1 a47 ,second1 by f9d+ ! temp]ature ( ! hot gases 9 ! furnaces 7,fig4 #f1 b474 ,9 ! fir/ case1 ! plunge tube %\ld be ( suffici5t l5g? to all[ its extremity to p5etrate to ! v bottom lay] ( ! r$-hot black4 ,?is mode ( direct control ( ! temp]ature ( ! black is only employ$ = asc]ta9+ ! "w accompli%$ by ! furnace1 t is to say1 ! ratio exi/+ betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! hot air surr\nd+ ! cyl9d] & ! black itself4 ,?is calculation be+ effect$1 x is useless to note ! diff]5ces ( temp]ature :i* arise 9 ! spaces betwe5 ! cyl9d]s ( :i* ! furnace is compos$4 ,! position t ! pyromet] %\ld occupy is subord9ate to ! con/ruction ( ! furnace4 ,fig4 #f %[s ! type :i* is mo/ employ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4--,! ,pyromet] m\nt$ on a bone-black furnace4 ,9 a furnace ) lat]al fire-place1 cc are ! heat+ cyl9d]s1 & dd ! cool+ cyl9d]s4 ,c ,d is ! plate on :i* are m\nt$ v]tically ! =m]1 & f :i* are susp5d$ ! latt]1 b %[s ! pyromet]1 ! l5g? ( :i* mu/ be su* t ! manometric app>atus %all /& out "o or two in*es f ! ext]nal surface ( ! wall1 :ile its tube1 trav]s+ ! wall1 %all rea* ! v la/ r[ ( heat+ cyl9d]s4 ,t ! app>atus may =m a p]man5t regulator = ! /ok] x is well to adapt to x an arrangem5t p]mitt+ ( a graphic control ( ! "w accompli%$ & signal+ by means ( an electric bell :5 ! temp]ature ( ! gases 9 ! furnace desc5ds bel[ #dhj ,c4 or rises above #eej ,c4 ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,app>atus ,,to ,,brick ,,furnaces ,,& ,,9 ,,! ,,manufacture ,,( ,,*emical ,,products4 ,! op]ation ( heat+ brick furnaces is g5]ally p]=m$ accord+ to empirical me?ods1 ! temp]ature hav+ to v>y mu* accord+ to ! products t x is desir$ to obta94 ,x is necess>y1 h[ev]1 = a l product to ma9ta9 z uni=m a temp]ature z possible4 ,^! obs]vations are p>ticul>ly applicable to cont9u\s furnaces su* z annul> brick furnaces1 etc41 9 :i* a uni=mity ( temp]ature 9 ! diff]5t *amb]s is ( vital importance to p]fect ! bak+4 ,9 ^! furnaces ! tube ( ! pyromet] is ins]t$ ?r\gh "o ( ! ap]tures at ! top1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #g4 ,! dial is graduat$ up to #gej1 :i* is m ?an suffici5t1 s9ce ! temp]ature ( ! upp] "p ( a comp>tm5t fully expos$ to ! heat r>ely exce$s #fgj to #fhj ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4--,! ,pyromet] m\nt$ on a brick furnace4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,manufactur]s' ,,soaps ,,& ,,_! ,,production4 ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,,m5zies4 ,pota% soaps are g5]ally sup]ior to soda soaps = mo/ purposes1 b m especially 9 wa%+ wool & wool5 goods4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! use ( a pota% & a soda soap = ^! purposes is v m>k$4 ,pota% lubricates ! fib] ( ! wool1 r5d]s x s(t & silky1 & to a c]ta9 ext5t blea*es x2 soda1 on ! o!r h&1 has a t5d5cy to turn wool a yell[ color1 & r5d]s ! fib] h>d & brittle4 ,x _c be too /rongly insi/$ ^u1 !re=e1 t no?+ b a pota% soap 7or "s =m ( pota% 9 pref]5ce to soda if an alkali alone is employ$7 %\ld be us$ 9 wa%+ wool 9 any =m--ei!r manufactur$ or unmanufactur$4 ,?is is fully borne out by nature1 :o inv>iably assimilates ! mo/ appropriate sub/ances4 ,wool :5 gr[+ 9 its natural /ate is lubricat$ & protect$ by a /icky sub/ance call$ grease or su9te2 ?is consi/s to ! ext5t ( ne>ly half its weight ( c>bonate ( pota%1 h>dly a trace ( soda be+ pres5t4 ,x is v evid5t1 !re=e1 t pota% mu/ be m suitable = wa%+ wool ?an soda1 z ! tea*+ ( nature is always correct4 ,!re are c]ta9 prejudices aga9/ ! use ( pota% soap1 :i* h1 to a great ext5t1 prev5t$ its m ext5sive use4 ,_m consum]s ( soap fancy t because a pota% soap is s(t x necess>ily mu/ conta9 m wat] ?an a soda soap2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is q an errone\s notion4 ,a pota% soap is s(t1 because x is ! nature ( all pota% soaps to be s1 j 9 ! same way t on ! o!r h& all soda soaps are h>d4 ,z an actual fact a good pota% soap conta9s less wat] ?an _m q h>d soda soaps t are n[ 9 ! m>ket4 ,ano!r reason is t soapmak]s h _h e int]e/ 9 us+ soda 9 pref]5ce to pota%--p>ticul>ly :5 latt]ly soda has be5 s *eap4 ,pota% n only is a m exp5sive alkali1 b its comb9+ equival5t is greatly aga9/ x z comp>$ ) soda2 t is to say1 t ?irty-"o p>ts ( actual or anhydr\s soda w saponify z mu* tall[ or oil z =ty-sev5 p>ts ( anhydr\s pota%4 ,x w be evid5t1 !re=e1 t ! use ( pota% in/ead ( soda is decid$ly m advantage\s to ! soapboil]1 & m p>ticul>ly 9 ! pres5t age1 :5 ! dem& is = *eap articles1 (t5 q )\t reg>d to ! quality or purpose = :i* !y are to be us$4 ,z f> z consum]s are conc]n$1 ?is has be5 a mi/ake4 ,pota% soap1 ?\gh x may co/ m1 is 9 mo/ cases actually ! mo/ economical4 ,soap is nev] us$ 9 exact *emical equival5ts1 b an excess is always tak54 ,pota% soap is mu* m soluble ?an a soda soap2 x !re=e p5etrates ! fib]1 & consequ5tly removes dirt & grease mu* m quickly4 ,not)/&+1 also1 t its *emical comb9+ equival5t is great] ?an t ( soda1 x is1 nev]!less1 ! /ronge/ base1 & always comb9es ) any sub/ance 9 pref]5ce to soda4 ,= ^! reasons--probably comb9$ also ) ! fact t 9 ! :ole realm ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms1 to :i* all textile fabrics belong1 pota% is m naturally assimilat$ ?an soda--a small] quantity ( pota% soap w d m practical "w ?an a l>g] quantity ( soda soap4 ,!re are o!r reasons :y pota% soaps h n be5 us$2 orig9ally s(t soap 0 made ei!r ) fi% oil or olive oil4 ,fi% oil is objectionable1 z ! /rong smell imp>t$ to ! soap r5d]s x unfit = _m f9i%+ purposes4 ,no?+ c be bett] ?an olive oil soap1 b x is a co/ly article1 & only c be us$ = f9] purposes4 ,!re are n[1 h[ev]1 _m ( ! se$ oils t are mu* *eap]4 ,l9se$1 rape se$1 & cotton se$ all produce a good soap4 ,cotton se$ oil is p>ticul>ly suitable = ! purpose2 ! manufacture ( ?is oil dur+ ! la/ few ye>s has be5 br\ght to great p]fection1 & ! co/ is n[ mu* less ?an t ( tall[ or ( any o!r se$ oil4 ,x is n[ difficult to di/+ui% a well ref9$ cotton se$ oil f olive oil2 x is !re=e 9 e way suitable = mak+ s(t soap4 ,"o ( ! *ief causes1 h[ev]1 :y pota% soap has n be5 m g5]ally made is t a conv5i5t =m ( pota% has be5 unobta9able4 ,= _m ye>s ! only s\rce ( pota% 0 f ! a%es ( burnt trees4 ,^! a%es are collect$1 mix$ ) lime1 lixiviat$1 & ! result+ lye boil$ d[n4 ,! result is a v impure =m ( pota%1 also ( a v v>iable composition1 dep5d+ ^u ! trees us$ = ! purpose4 ,canada has be5 ! pr9cipal s\rce ( supply ( ?is =m ( pota%2 h5ce ! comm]cial "n ( ,montreal pota%es4 ,! classification ( fir/s1 seconds1 & ?irds is f ! inspection at ! w>eh\se !re2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is exce$+ly sup]ficial1 ! a%es be+ simply te/$ = _! alkal9e /r5g?1 ) no discrim9ation betwe5 pota% & soda1 :i* is a difficult & delicate *emical te/4 ,soda be+ n[ f> *eap] ?an pota%1 & also ! alkal9e equival5t1 z previ\sly expla9$1 be+ greatly 9 favor ( soda1 !re has be5 e inducem5t to ent]pris+ produc]s ( a%es to adult]ate !m ) soda1 :i*1 9 _m cases1 has be5 l>gely done4 ,ano!r s\rce ( pota% has be5 beetroot a%es1 v simil> to wood a%es1 & also ,g]man c>bonate ( pota%1 :i* latt] ab\t corresponds to a common soda a%1 z comp>$ ) cau/ic soda2 ) ^! articles1 a t$i\s boil+ process1 v simil> to ! old process = ! production ( h>d soap1 _h to be adopt$1 ! a%es1 or c>bonate ( pota%1 previ\sly be+ dissolv$ & cau/iciz$ ) lime by ! soap mak]4 ,! production ( a fir/-class s(t soap 0 also a v difficult op]ation1 z ! impurities & soda conta9$ v>i$ consid]ably1 (t5 caus+ ! boil to g wrong & give consid]able tr\ble to ! soapboil]4 ,dur+ ! la/ two ye>s1 h[ev]1 cau/ic pota% has be5 introduc$1 t manufactur$ by ! ,gre5bank ,alkali ,co41 ( ,/4 ,hel5s1 be+ v ne>ly pure4 ,) ?is article !re is no difficulty 9 produc+ a pure pota% soap1 ei!r = wool sc\r+1 full+1 or siz+1 by a cold process v simil> to t describ$ = ! production ( h>d soda soap ) pure p[d]$ cau/ic soda4 ,! foll[+ directions w produce an excell5t soap = wool sc\r+3 ,fifty p\nds ( ,gre5bank pure cau/ic pota% are put into eight gallons ( s(t wat]2 ! pota% dissolves imm$iately1 heat+ ! wat]4 ,?is lye is all[$ to cool1 & !n sl[ly add$1 ) cont9ual mix+1 to #bj gallons ( cotton se$ oil1 mix$ ) #bj p\nds ( melt$ tall[1 ! :ole be+ br\ght to a temp]ature ( ab\t #ij ,f4 ,aft] /irr+ = "s m9utes1 s z to completely comb9e ! lye & oil1 ! mixture is left = two days 9 a w>m place1 :5 a sl[ & gradual saponification ( ! mass takes place4 ,if :5 exam9$ ! oil & lye are !n f\nd n completely comb9$1 ! /iff soap is aga9 /irr$ & left two days1 :5 ! saponification w be f\nd complete1 ! result be+ ! =mation ( ab\t #ccj p\nds ( v /iff pota% soap1 ea* p\nd be+ equal to ab\t two p\nds ( ! ord9>y fig soap sold4 ,! requisite quantity is ?r[n into ! sc\r+ vat ) ab\t five p] c5t ( its weight ( ref9$ pe>l a% to increase ! alkali pres5t1 ! weight dep5d+ some:at ^u ! k9d ( wool wa%$ on purpose = :i* ! soap is requir$4 ,if ! wool is v dirty or greasy1 r a /rong] soap is sometimes advisable4 ,?is c easily be atta9$ by r$uc+ ! quantity ( oil us$ to #ah gallons4 ,! advantages to be ga9$ by ! wool sc\r] or o!r consum] mak+ 8 own pota% soap are t a pure1 uni=m article c always be ?us produc$ at a less co/ ?an t at :i* ! soap c be b\ght4 ,pota% soap1 l soda soap n[ sold1 is mu* adult]at$1 9 addition to all ! impurities orig9ally conta9$ 9 ! pota% us$1 & :i*1 unlike soda soap1 _c be sep>at$ by any salt+ process4 ,_m o!r adult]ations are add$ to increase ! weight & *eap5 ! co/4 ,silicate ( pota%1 res91 & potato fl\r are all m or less employ$ = ?is purpose1 to ! ga9 ( ! soap mak] & at ! exp5se ( ! consum]4 ,! production ( pota% soap = full+ & siz+1 & ! mo/ suitable oils & tall[ = ! production ( ! v>i\s qualities requir$ = ^! purposes1 mu/ be res]v$ = ! next issue4--,textile ,manufactur]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,prep>ation ,,( ,,p]fume ,,pomades4 ,we h1 on a previ\s occasion1 describ$ ! process ( mac]ation or enfleurage1 t is1 ! impregnation ( purifi$ fat ) ! aroma ( c]ta9 sc5t$ fl[]s :i* d n yield any ess5tial oil 9 pay+ quantities4 ,at pres5t we wi% to describe an app>atus :i* is us$ 9 sev]al l>ge e/abli%m5ts 9 ,europe = obta9+ su* products on ! l>ge scale & )9 z %ort a "t z possible4 ,! draw+ gives ! idea ( ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! p>ts r ?an ! actual appe>ance ( a work+ app>atus1 = ! latt] w h to v>y accord+ to ! conv5i5ces & int]ior arrangem5ts ( ! factory4#a ,footnote #a3 ,our illu/ration has be5 tak5 f ,c4 ,h(mann1 ,*emis*-te*nis*es ,univ]sal-,receptbu*1 #hvo1 ,b]l91 #ahgi1 p4 #bjg4 ,a s]ies ( frames ) wire-sieve bottoms are *>g$ ) a lay] ( fat 9 =m ( f9e curly ?reads1 obta9$ by press+ or rubb+ ! fat ?r\gh a f9ely-p]=at$ sieve4 ,! frames are !n plac$ "o on top ( ! o!r1 & to make ! connection betwe5 !m air-tight1 press$ toge!r 9 a screw press4 ,a res]voir1 ,e1 is *>g$ ) a suitable quantity ( ! fl[]s1 etc41 & tightly clos$ ) ! cov]1 aft] :i* ! bell[s are set into motion by any p[] mo/ conv5i5t4 ,sc5t$ air is !reby drawn f ! res]voir1 ,e1 ?r\gh ! pipe1 ,g ,b1 t[>d ! /ack ( frames conta9+ ! f9ely divid$ fat1 :i* latt] absorbs ! aroma1 :ile ! ne>ly deodoriz$ air is s5t back to ! res]voir by ! pipe1 ,d1 to be fre%ly *>g$ & aga9 s5t on its circuit4 ,?is app>atus is said to facilitate ! turn+ out ( ne>ly tw5ty times ! am\nt ( pomade = ! same numb] ( frames & ! same "t1 z ! old process ( enfleurage4 ,x might be call$ ! ens\fflage process4--,new ,rem$ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ens\fflage ,,app>atus ,,= ,,p]fumes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,organic ,,matt] ,,9 ,,sea-,,wat]4 ,at a rec5t meet+ ( ! ,london ,*emical ,society1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,jago read a pap] ,on ! ,organic ,matt] 9 ,sea-wat]4 ,on p4 #acc ( ! ,six? ,report ( ! ,riv]s ,commission1 x is /at$ t ! proportion ( organic elem5ts 9 sea-wat] v>ies betwe5 su* wide limits 9 diff]5t samples z to sugge/ t mu* ( ! organic matt] consi/s ( liv+ organisms1 s m9ute & gelat9\s z to pass readily ?r\gh ! be/ filt]s4 ,at ! sugge/ion ( ,dr4 ,frankl&1 ! au?or has inve/igat$ ?is subject4 ,! wat] 0 collect$ 9 mid-*annel betwe5 ,ne:av5 & ,dieppe by ! eng9e]s ( ! ,london1 ,brighton1 & ,s\? ,coa/ ,railway 9 /opp]$ glass c>boys4 ,! au?or has us$ ! combu/ion me?od1 ! album9oid ammonia1 & 9 "s cases ! oxyg5 process ( ,pr(4 ,tidy4 ,to det]m9e h[ ! v>i\s me?ods ( wat]-analysis 7 effect$ by a *ange ( ! organic matt] f organic comp\nds 9 solution to organisms 9 susp5sion1 "s exp]im5ts 7 made ) hay-infusion4 ,! results confirm ^? ( ,k+zett 7,*em4 ,soc4 ,j\rn41 #ahhj1 #ae74 ! oxyg5 requir$ fir/ ris+ & !n dim9i%+4 ,! au?or concludes t ! organic matt] ( sea-wat] is mu* m capable ( resi/+ oxidiz+ ag5ts ?an t pres5t 9 ord9>y fre% wat]s1 & t ! organic matt] 9 sea-wat] is probably organiz$ & alive4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bact]ia ,,life4 ,w4 ,m4 ,hamlet1 9 a pap] be=e ! ,london ,*emical ,society1 said3 ,flasks simil> to ^? ( ,pa/eur 7,etudes sur la ,bi]e1 p4 #ha71 hold+ ab\t lit]1 7 us$4 ,! liquids employ$ 7 ,pa/eur's fluid ) sug>1 beef-tea1 hay infusion1 ur9e1 brew]s' wort1 & extract ( meat4 ,ea* flask 0 ab\t half fill$1 & boil$ = t5 m9utes1 :]eby all previ\sly exi/+ life 0 de/roy$4 ,! flask 0 !n all[$ to cool1 ! ent]+ air be+ filt]$ ?r\gh a plug ( glass wool or asbe/os4 ,! flask 0 !n inoculat$ ) a small quantity ( previ\sly cultivat$ hay solution or ,pa/eur's fluid4 ,hydrog51 oxyg51 c>bonic oxide1 m>%-gas1 nitrog51 & sulphuret$ hydrog51 7 )\t effect on ! bact]ia4 ,*lor9e & hydric p]oxide 7ab\t #g p] c5t1 ( a #e vol4 solution7 7 fatal to bact]ia4 ,! action ( v>i\s salts & organic acids 9 #e p] c5t1 solution 0 tri$4 ,_m1 includ+ pota%1 soda1 potassic bisulphite1 sodic hyposulphite1 potassic *lorate1 potassic p]manganate1 oxalic acid1 acetic acid1 glyc]91 laudanum1 & alcohol1 7 )\t effect on ! bact]ial life4 ,o!rs--! alums1 f]r\s sulphate1 f]ric *loride1 magnesic & alum9ic *lorides1 blea*+ p[d]1 camphor1 salicylic acid1 *lor(orm1 creosote1 & c>bolic acid--decid$ly arre/$ ! developm5t ( bact]ia4 ,! au?or has made a m ext5d$ exam9ation ( ! action ( *lor(orm1 especially z reg>ds ! /atem5t ( ,mntz1 t bact]ia _c exi/ 9 ! pres5ce ( #b p] c5t1 ( *lor(orm1 :i* sub/ance is !re=e useful 9 di/+ui%+ physiological f *emical f]m5ts4 ,! au?or concludes t am\nts ( *lor(orm1 ph5ol1 & creosote1 v>y+ f to #c p] c5t41 d n de/roy bact]ia1 al?\gh _! functional activity is decid$ly arre/$ :ile 9 contact ) ^! reag5ts4 ,to use ! au?or's words1 bact]ia may be pickl$ 9 creosote & c>bolic acid )\t be+ depriv$ ( _! vitality4 ,! au?or concludes t ! sub/ances :i* de/roy bact]ia are ^? :i* are capable ( ex]t+ an imm$iate & p[]ful oxidiz+ action1 & t x is active oxyg51 :e!r f ! action ( *lor9e1 ozone1 or p]oxide ( hydrog51 :i* mu/ be reg>d$ z ! greate/ kn[n enemy to bact]ia4 ,mr4 ,hamlet1 9 reply+ to "s rem>ks ( ,messrs4 ,k+zett & ,williams1 said t 9 all cases ! solution :i* he _h us$ _h be5 completely /]iliz$ by exposure to a temp]ature ( #aje = t5 m9utes4 ,! ,india-rubb] tub+ he _h us$ 0 /eam$4 ,c>bolic acid solution mu/ conta9 at lea/ #e p] c5t1 ( c>bolic acid to be fatal to bact]ia4 ,he 0 q aw>e ( ! importance ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! action ( ! sub/ances on v>i\s k9ds ( bact]ia1 & 0 q prep>$ to admit t a treatm5t :i* w\ld be fatal to "o k9d ( bact]ium might n injure ano!r4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,! ,,composition ,,( ,,elephants' ,,milk4 ,footnote3 ,read be=e ! ,am]ican ,*emical ,society1 ,june #c1ahha4 ,by ,,*as4 ,a4 ,,doremus1 ,m4,d41 ,ph4,d4 ,notic+ ! rec5t adv]tisem5ts 9 ! city reg>d+ ! ,baby ,elephant1 x occurr$ to me t p]haps no analysis ( ! milk ( ?is species ( ! mammalia _h be5 record$4 ,?is ,i f\nd corroborat$1 = ?\gh ! milk ( _m animals _h be5 subject$ to analysis1 no opportunity _h ev] pres5t$ itself to obta9 elephants' milk4 ,?r\gh ! c\rtesy ( ,jas4 ,a4 ,bailey ,i 0 enabl$ to procure samples ( ! milk on sev]al occasions4 ,on ,m>* #aj1 #ahhj1 ! elephant ,hebe gave bir? to ! female calf ,am]ica4 ,hebe is n[ tw5ty eight ye>s old1 & ! fa!r ( ! calf1 ,m&rie1 ?irty-two4 ,s9ce ! bir? ( ! ,baby1 ! "m has be5 9 excell5t heal?1 except dur+ ab\t t5 days1 :5 %e suff]$ f a slight indisposition1 :i* soon left h]4 ,:5 born ! calf weigh$ #bac lbs41 & 9 ,april1 #ahha1 weigh$ #ijj lbs4 ,a v fair ye>'s gr[? on a milk diet4 ,at ! "t ,i procur$ ! samples bo? "m & calf 7 9 f9e heal?4 ,to obta9 ! milk 0 a matt] ( "s difficulty4 ,! calf 0 con/antly suck+1 nurs+ two or ?ree times an h\r1 morn+1 noon1 & night4 ,! milk c\ld be drawn f ei!r ( ! two teats1 b only 9 small quantity4 ,! "m gave ! fluid freely en\gh1 app>5tly1 to h] infant1 b sp>+ly to inquisitive man1 s ! ruse _h to be resort$ to ( milk+ "o teat :ile ! calf 0 at ! o!r4 ,:5 ,i fir/ exam9$ ! specim5s !y seem$ wat]y1 b to my surprise1 on all[+ ! milk to /&1 ,i c\ld n help wond]+ at ! l>ge p]c5tage ( cream4 ,! foll[+ repres5ts approximately ! daily diet ( ! "m3 ,?ree pecks ( oats1 "o bucket bran ma%1 five or six loaves ( bread1 half a bu%el ( roots 7potatoes1 etc471 fifty to sev5ty-five p\nds ( hay1 & =ty gallons ( wat]4 ,elephants eat cont9ually1 little at a "t1 to be sure1 b are con/antly pick+4 ,?is habit is also obs]vable 9 ! way ! calf nurses4 ,! fir/ specim5 ( milk 0 procur$ on ! morn+ ( ,april #e1 ! second on ! #i?1 & ! ?ird on ! #aj?4 ,! la/ exce$$ ! o!rs 9 quantity1 & is !re=e ! faire/ ( ! ?ree4 ,x took sev]al milk+s to get ev5 ^!1 = ! calf w\ld beg9 to nurse1 !n /op1 & :5 %e /opp$ ! fl[ ( milk did also4 ,i 0 assur$ by ,mr4 ,cross & ! keep]1 ,mr4 ,copel&1 t ! milk ,i obta9$ _h all ! appe>ances ( t drawn at v>i\s times s9ce ! bir? ( ! calf4 ,mr4 ,cross1 :5 9 ,bo/on1 comp>$ ! milk ) t f an ,ald]ney c[1 & f\nd ! volume ( cream great]4 ,i endeavor$ to h ! calf kept away f ! "m = "s h\rs1 b c\ld n1 s9ce %e is all[$ h] fre$om1 z %e worries "u re/ra9t1 & besides1 has nev] be5 tak5 f ! "m4 ,! calf pick$ at oats & hay1 b 0 dep5d5t on ! "m = n\ri%m5t4 ,x w\ld h be5 a matt] ( great satisfaction to me _h ,i be5 able to obta9 a l>g] quantity ( ! milk1 or to h ga9$ ev5 an approximate k ( ! daily yield1 b 0 oblig$ to cont5t myself ) :at ,i c\ld get4 ,by comp>+ sev]al samples1 h[ev]1 a j conclusion reg>d+ ! quality 0 f\nd4 ,! analyses ( ! samples gave ! foll[+ results3 ,no4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,april #e1 ,april #i1 ,april #aj1 ,morn+4 ,noon4 ,morn+4 ,quantity1 #ai cc4 #cf cc4 #gb cc4 ,cream1 #eb-d1 vol4 #eh #fb ,reaction1 ,neutral4 ,slightly alkal9e4 ,slightly acid4 ,sp4gr41 ---- ---- #ajbc4g ,9 #ajj p>ts by weight4 ,wat]444444444444#fg4efg #fi4bhf #ff4fig ,solids44444444444#cb4dcc #cj4gad #cc4cjc ,fat44444444444444#ag4edf #ai4jie #bb4jgj ,solids n fat444#ad4hhg #aa4fai #aa4bcc ,case944444444444#ad4bcf #c4fid #c4bab ,sug>444444444444#ad4bcf #g4bfg #g4cib ,a%44444444444444 #j4fea #j4feh #j4fbi ,t5 grammes 7 tak5 = analysis1 & 9 ,no4 ,,iii4 duplicates 7 made4 ,x is evid5t f ^! analyses t ! milk approa*es ! composition ( cream1 yet x did n h ! consi/5cy ( ord9>y cream--z cream ev5 rose ^u x4 ,"u ! microscope ! globules pres5t$ a v p]fect outl9e1 & 7 beautifully ev5 9 size & v transp>5t4 ,! cream rose quickly1 leav+ a lay] ( blui% t+e bel[4 ,! milk 0 pleasant 9 flavor & odor1 & v sup]ior 9 ^! respects to t ( _m animals su* z goats or camels1 & 9 quality equal to t ( c[s4 ,nor did ! milk emit any rank odor on heat+4 ,:5 t5 grammes 7 evaporat$ to dryness1 ! la/ portions ( wat] 7 h>d to remove1 z ! residue fairly float$ ) oil4 ,only by long-cont9u$ application ( heat1 & 9 analysis ,,iii4 ov] sulphuric acid 9 vacuo1 c\ld a con/ant weight be obta9$4 ,i w\ld h us$ s& 9 ! dry+1 or ,baumhau]'s me?od ( fat extraction1 b = ! small quantity ( milk at my disposal & f fe> ( loss ( fat 9 ! latt] case4 ,! fat 9 ,,iii4 0 det]m9$ by extract+ ! dri$ residue & also ) #bj c4 c4 ( milk by add+ alkali & %ak+ ) e!r1 remov+ & evaporat+ ! e!r & weigh+ ! fat4 ,z is %[n 9 ! table ! sp4 gr4 is v l[1 ?\gh ! solids & solids n fat are great4 ,! a%1 case91 & sug> are 9 ab\t ! usual proportion4 ,! weight ( case91 x is true1 is b half t ( ! sug>4 ,! milk inde$ %[s an unusually great prepond]ance ( ! non-nitrog5iz$ elem5ts1 & ?is seems to correspond ) ! wants ( ! animal1 s9ce fatty tissues are greatly develop$ 9 elephants4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,cross1 :o has _h l>ge exp]i5ce ) ^! animals1 !y are fatt] 9 ! wild /ate ?an 9 bondage4 ,^! specim5s mu/ appe> z exceptional2 !y may be consid]$ by "s z /ripp+s2 b z aga9/ su* a view we h ! recurr5ce 9 ea* sample ( ! same *>act]i/ics 9 ! milk & a ne> correspond5ce 9 ! composition4 ,z may be se5 f ! subjo9$ analyses1 giv5 by v4 ,gorup ,besanez1#a ! milk belongs to ! class ( :i* woman's & m>e's milk are memb]s1 especially z reg>ds ! proportion ( ! non-nitrog5iz$ to ! nitrog5iz$ elem5ts4 ,footnote #a3 ,lehrhu* d] ,physiologis*5 ,*emie1 pp4 #dbc & #dbd4 ,con/itu5ts4 ,woman4 ,c[4 ,goat4 ,ewe4 ,ass4 ,m>e4 ,wat]4 #hf4bga #hd4bh #hf4he #hc4cj #hi4ja #ij4de ,solids4 #ac4gbi #ae4gb #ac4eb #af4fj #aj4ii #i4ee ,fat4 #e4cgj #e4dg #d4cd #f4je #a4he #a4ca ,case94 #c4eg #b4ec #b4iej #e4gc #c4eg #b4ec ,album54 _/ #j4gh #a4bf _/ _/ _/ ,milk ,sug>4 #e4acf #d4cd #c4gh #c4if #e4db #e4je ,a%4 #j4bbc #j4fc #j4fe #j4fh _/ #j4bi ,con/itu5ts4 ,buffalo4 ,camel4 ,s[4 ,hippo- ,elephant4 potamus4 ,wat]4 #hj4fdj #hf4cd #ha4hj #ij4dc #ff4fig ,solids4 #ai4cfj #ac4ff #ah4bj #i4eg #cc4cjh ,fat4 #h4dej #b4ij #f4jj #d4ea #bb4jgj ,case94 #d4dj #d4bdg #c4fg #e4cj #c4bab ,album54 _/ _/ _/ _/ ,milk ,sug>4 #d4eah #e4gh #f4jg #a #g4cib ,a%4 #j4hde #j4ff #j4hc #j4aa #j4fbi ,footnote #a3 ,milk ,sug> includ$4 ,x may be rem>k$ t ?\gh approa*+ ! composition ( cream x /ill diff]s en\gh to require x to be consid]$ milk4 ,p]haps if a l>g] quantity ( ! milk c\ld be collect$1 x w\ld h a m wat]y "*1 & approximate m ne>ly to o!r milks 9 t respect4 ,h[ev] ?is may be ! quality ( ! fat des]ves "s att5tion4 ,! fat has a light yell[ color1 resembl+ olive oil1 is v pleasant 9 odor & ta/e1 is liquid at common temp]atures1 b solidifies at #ah ,c4 or #fd ,f4 ,! c[ mu/ yield a consid]able quantity ( milk1 s9ce ! gr[? ( ! calf has be5 con/ant1 & at ! "t ^! samples 7 milk$ ! "m gave z freely to h] babe z %e ev] _h s9ce its bir?4 ,! calf hav+ ga9$ sev5 to eight hundr$ p\nds on a milk diet 9 "o ye>1 x is presumable t x _h no lack ( n\ri%m5t4 ,9 size ! ,baby comp>$ equally ) o!r elephants 9 ! same m5ag]ie1 :o 7 kn[n to be f\r & five ye>s old4 ,f :atev] /&po9t1 !re=e1 we view ! lacteal product ( ^! f\r-foot$ giants1 we are fully w>rant$ 9 ascrib+ to x n only extreme ri*ness1 b also great delicacy ( flavor4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,*emical ,,composition ,,( ,,rice1 ,,maize1 ,,& ,,b>ley4 ,by ,j4 ,,/e9]1 ,f4,c4,s4 ,rice conta9s mu* m />*1 b on ! o!r h&1 mu* less album9\s matt] & a%1 ?an maize & b>ley4 ,! compositions ( diff]5t k9ds ( dri$ rice d n v>y v mu*1 b z ! am\nt ( moi/ure 9 ! raw gra9 ranges f #e to #ae p] c5t41 no brew] ought to buy rice )\t hav+ fir/ ( all inquir$ ) ! assi/ance ( a *emi/ z to ! p]c5tage ( wat] pres5t 9 ! sample4 ,ano!r po9t requir+ att5tion is t ( tak+ notice ( ! acidity1 :i* also v>ies a good deal = diff]5t sorts ( rice4 ,9 comp>+ ! nutritive values ( ! ?ree k9ds ( gra9 be=e u1 ,pillitz obta9$ ! foll[+ numb]s3 ,b>ley4 ,maize4 ,rice4 -------------- ------------- ------------------ ,air ,dri$ at ,air ,dri$ at ,air ,dri$ at ,) ,dry4 #ajj ,c4 ,dry4 #ajj ,c4 ,dry4 #ajj ,c4 ,husk4 ,moi/ure4 #ac4hh --- #ac4hi --- #ab4ea --- #ab4jj ,/>*4 #ed4jg #fb4fe #fb4fi #gc4bg #gd4hh #he4da #gd4ej ,dextr9 & sug>4 #e4ff #f4fg #c4eg #d4ad #a4ab #a4bf --- ,total album5 matt]4 #ad4jj #af4bh #aj4fc #ab4ce #i4ai #aj4dj #g4hj ,m9]al matt]4 #b4cc #b4gj #a4dh #a4ga #j4hd #j4id #b4cj ,fatty matt]4 #b4cj #b4fh #d4cf #e4jc #j4gh #j4hh #j4cj ,cellulose matt]4 #g4gf #i4jb #c4ch #d4ej #j4fh #a4aa #c4aj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,on look+ ov] ?is table1 we notice t rice conta9s by ab\t #bj p] c5t1 m />* ?an b>ley1 & by ab\t #aj to #ab p] c5t1 m ?an maize4 ,b on ! o!r h&1 b>ley & maize are ri*] 9 album9\s matt] & 9 a%4 ,! extractive matt]1 i4 e41 ! "p :i* is soluble 9 cold wat]1 is also mu* great] 9 b>ley & maize ?an 9 rice4 ,! extractive matt] is = b>ley #h4g p] c5t41 = maize #f4c p] c5t41 :ile rice conta9s only #b4a p] c5t41 & x consi/s 9 ea* case ( dextr91 sug>1 ! soluble "p ( ! a%1 & ( "s nitrog5\s matt] 7soluble album574 ,! am\nt ( woody fib] or cellulose is consid]able = rice ) its husk1 b only slight = samples )\t husk4 ,! seat ( ! m9]al matt] ( ! gra9 ( rice is ma9ly 9 ! husk1 & z ?is a% is v valuable z n\ri%m5t = ! yea/ plant1 x is an op5 "q :e!r x w\ld n be pref]able to use = brew+ purposes rice ) its husk4 ,! comp>atively l>ge/ am\nt ( fat is conta9$ 9 maize2 & z su* oil is n desirable = brew+ purposes1 diff]5t recomm5dations h be5 advanc$ = free+ ! gra9 f x4 ,9 ! foll[+ table "s ( ! m9]al con/itu5ts ( ! ?ree k9ds ( gra9 are comp>$ ) ea* o!r4 ,^! data ref] to #ajj p>ts ( a%1 & are tak5 f analysis giv5 by ,dr4 ,emil ,wolf4 #ajj p>ts ( ,pota% ,lime ,magnesia ,phosphoric ,silica gra9 conta9 acid a%4 ,b>ley4 #ba4i #b4e #h4c #cb4h #bg4b #b4ee p4 ct4 ,rice ) husk4 #ah4d #e4a #h4f #dg4b #j4f #g4hd ,rice )\t husk4 #bc4c #b4i #ac4d #ea4j #c4j #j4ci ,maize4 #bg4j #b4g #ad4f #dd4g #b4b #a4db ,! excessive am\nt ( a% 9 rice ) its husk is v rem>kable1 & z ?is m9]al matt] consi/s to a great ext5t ( phosphoric acid & pota%1 ! l>g] "p ( x is soluble 9 wat]4 ,consequ5tly on us+ rice ) its husk = brew+ purposes1 ! yea/ w be provid$ ) a consid]able am\nt ( nutritive sub/ance4 ,9 conclusion x ne$ h>dly be m5tion$ t ! use ( rice ) its husk w\ld also be ( consid]able pecuni>y advantage4 ,!re is v little oil 9 ! husk ( rice1 z %[n above by analysis1 & x is n likely t ! flavor ( ! brew w\ld suff] by x4--,london ,brew]s' ,j\rnal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,petroleum ,,oils4 ,no?+ is 9 m g5]al use ?an petroleum1 & b few ?+s are kn[n less ab\t by ! majority ( p]sons4 ,x is hydra-head$4 ,x appe>s 9 _m =ms & "u _m names4 ,burn+ fluid is a popul> "n ) _m unscrupul\s deal]s 9 ! *eap & na/y4 ,burn+ fluid is usually ano!r "n = naph?a1 or some?+ worse4 ,gasol9e1 naph?a1 b5z9e1 k]os5e1 p>aff9e1 & _m o!r dang]\s fluids :i* make ! fireman's vocation necess>y are all ! product ( petroleum4 ,^! oils are produc$ by ! di/illation or ref9+ ( crude petroleum1 & inasmu* z ! public1 especially firem51 are daily br\ght into contact ) !m x is prop] t !y %\ld "k some?+ ( _! prop]ties4 ,ref9+ z commonly practic$ involves ?ree successive op]ations4 ,! app>atus employ$ consi/s ( an iron /ill connect$ ) a coil or worm ( wr\ght-iron pipe1 :i* is subm]g$ 9 a tank ( wat] = ! purpose ( cool+ x4 ,! end ( ?is pipe is fix$ ) a movable sp\t1 :i* c be transf]r$ or swit*$ f "o to ano!r ( half a doz5 pipes :i* come ar\nd close to x1 b :i* lead into diff]5t tanks conta9+ diff]5t grades ( ! di/illate4 ,:5 ! /ill has be5 fill$ ) crude oil ! fire is light$ b5ea? x1 & soon ! oil beg9s to boil4 ,! fir/ products ( di/illation are gases :i*1 at ord9>y temp]atures1 pass ?r\gh ! coil )\t be+ cond5s$1 & escape4 ,:5 ! vapors beg9 to cond5se 9 ! worm ! oil trickles f ! end ( ! coil into ! pipe lead+ to ! appropriate receiv+ tank4 ,! fir/ oil obta9$ is kn[n z gasol9e1 us$ 9 portable gas ma*9es = mak+ illum9at+ gas4 ,!n1 9 turn1 come naph?as ( a great] or less gravity1 b5z9e1 high te/ wat] :ite burn+ oil1 su* z ,pratt's ,a/ral common burn+ oil or k]os5e1 & p>aff9e oils4 ,:5 ! oil has be5 di/ill$ x is by no means fit = use1 hav+ a dirty color & mo/ (f5sive smell2 x is !n ref9$4 ,= ?is purpose x is pump$ into a l>ge vat or agitator1 :i* holds f two hundr$ & fifty to "o ?\s& b>rels4 ,!re is !n add$ to ! oil ab\t two p] c5t1 ( its volume ( ! /ronge/ sulphuric acid4 ,! :ole mixture is !n agitat$ by means ( air pumps1 :i* br+ z mu* z possible e p>ticle ( oil 9 contact ) ! acid4 ,! acid has no aff9ity = ! oil1 b x has = ! t>ry sub/ance 9 x :i* discolors x1 &1 aft] ! agitation1 ! acid ) ! t> settles to ! bottom ( ! agitator1 & ! mixture is drawn (f into a lead-l9$ tank4 ,aft] ! removal ( ! acid & t>1 ! cle> oil is agitat$ ) ei!r cau/ic soda or ammonia & wat]4 ,! alkali neutralizes ! acid rema9+ 9 ! oil1 & ! wat] removes ! alkali1 :5 ! process ( ref9+ is f9i%$4 ,a few ref9]s improve ! quality ( _! ref9$ oil by r$i/ill+ x aft] treat+ x ) acid & alkali4 ,all di/illates ( petroleum h to be treat$ ) acid & alkali to ref9e !m4 ,!re is "o ?+ peculi> ab\t ! di/illates ( petroleum1 & t is t ! run :i* foll[s naph?a1 :i* is call$ ! middle run oil1 is ! highe/ te/ oil t is made1 runn+ z high z #aej & #afj degrees fla%1 :ile ! common oil :i* foll[s1 viz41 f #de d[n to #cc degrees ,baume1 w range at only ab\t #ajj fla%1 or #aae & #abj degrees burn+ le/4 ,an oil t w /& #ajj fla% w /& #aaj burn+ te/ e "t4 ,k]os5e oil1 at ord9>y temp]ature1 %\ld ext+ui% a mat* z readily z wat]4 ,:5 heat$ x %\ld n evolve an inflammable vapor bel[ #aaj degrees1 or1 bett]1 #abj degrees ,fahr5heit1 & %\ld n take fire bel[ #abe to #adj degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,z ! temp]ature 9 a burn+ lamp r>ely exce$s #ajj degrees ,fahr5heit1 su* an oil w\ld be safe4 ,x w\ld produce no vapors to mix ) ! air 9 ! lamp & make an explosive mixture2 &1 if ! lamp %\ld be ov]turn$1 or brok51 ! oil w\ld n be liable to take fire4 ,! crude naph?a sells at f ?ree to five c5ts p] gallon1 :ile ! ref9$ petroleum or k]os5e sells at f fifte5 to tw5ty c5ts4 ,z great competition exi/s among ! ref9]s1 !re is a /rong inducem5t to turn ! heavi] portions ( ! naph?a into ! k]os5e tank1 s z to get = x ! price ( k]os5e4 ,9 ?is way ! inflammable naph?a or b5z9e is sometimes mix$ ) ! k]os5e1 r5d]+ ! :ole highly dang]\s4 ,dr4 ,d4 ,b4 ,:ite1 ,presid5t ( ! ,bo>d ( ,heal? ( ,new ,orleans1 f\nd t exp]im5t+ on oil :i* fla%$ at #aac degrees ,fahr5heit1 an addition ( "o p] c5t4 ( naph?a caus$ x to fla% at #ajc degrees2 two p] c5t4 br\ght ! fla%+ po9t d[n to #ib degrees1 five p] c5t4 to #hc degrees1 t5 p] c5t4 to #ei degrees1 & tw5ty p] c5t4 ( naph?a add$ br\ght ! fla%+ po9t d[n to #dj degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,aft] ! addition ( tw5ty p] c5t4 ( naph?a ! oil burn$ at #ej degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,!re are two di/9ct te/s = oil1 ! fla%+ te/ & ! burn+ te/4 ,! fla%+ te/ det]m9es ! fla%+ po9t ( ! oil1 or ! l[e/ temp]ature at :i* x gives (f an inflammable vapor4 ,?is is ! mo/ important te/1 z x is ! inflammable vapor1 evolv$ at atmosph]ic temp]atures1 t causes mo/ accid5ts4 ,moreov]1 an oil :i* has a high fla%+ te/ is sure to h a high burn+ te/1 :ile ! rev]se is n true4 ,! burn+ te/ fixes ! burn+ po9t ( ! oil1 or ! l[e/ temp]ature at :i* x takes fire4 ,! burn+ po9t ( an oil is f t5 to fifty degrees ,fahr5heit high] ?an ! fla%+ po9t4 ,! two po9ts are q indep5d5t ( ea* o!r2 ! fla%+ po9t dep5ds ^u ! am\nt ( ! mo/ volatile con/itu5ts pres5t1 su* z naph?a1 etc41 :ile ! burn+ po9t dep5ds ^u ! g5]al "* ( ! :ole oil4 ,"o p] c5t4 ( naph?a w l[] ! fla%+ po9t ( an oil t5 degrees )\t mat]ially affect+ ! burn+ te/4 ,! burn+ te/ does n det]m9e ! real safety ( ! oil1 t is1 ! abs5ce ( naph?a4 ,! fla%+ te/ %\ld1 !re=e1 be ! only te/1 & ! high] ! fla%+ po9t ! saf] ! oil4 ,9 reg>d to ! dang] ( us+ ! light] petroleum oils1 ! foll[+1 "u ! head ( ,naph?a & ,b5z9e "u ,false ,names1 is tak5 f ,pr(4 ,c4 ,f4 ,*&l]'s article on ,petroleum 9 ,johnson's ,cyclop$ia4 ,he says3 ,processes h be5 pat5t$1 & v5d]s h sold rights ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry1 = pat5t$ & secret processes = r5d]+ gasol9e1 naph?a1 & b5z9e non-explosive4 ,?us treat$1 ^! explosive oils1 j z explosive z be=e ! treatm5t1 are sold ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry "u trade names4 ,^! processes are n only totally ineffective1 b !y are ridicul\s4 ,roots1 gums1 b>ks1 & salts are turn$ indiscrim9ately into ! b5z9e1 to leave x j z explosive z be=e4 ,no wond] we h k]os5e accid5ts1 ) ag5ts scatt]$ ?r\gh ! c\ntry sell+ c\nty rights & tea*+ retail deal]s h[ to make ^! murd]\s 'non-explosive' oils4 ,! exp]im5ts ^! v5d]s make to deceive _! dupes are v conv9c+4 ,none ( ! petroleum products are explosive p] se1 nor are _! vapors explosive "u all circum/ances :5 mix$ ) air4 ,a c]ta9 ratio ( air to vapor is necess>y to make an explosive mixture4 ,equal volumes ( vapor & air w n explode2 ?ree p>ts ( air & "o ( vapor gives a vigor\s puff :5 ignit$ 9 a vessel2 five volumes ( air to "o ( vapor gives a l\d report4 ,! maximum degree ( viol5ce results f ! explosion ( eight or n9e p>ts ( air mix$ ) vapor4 ,x requires consid]able skill to make at w an explosive mixture ) air & naph?a1 & x is consequ5tly v easy = ! v5d] n to make "o4 ,9 mo/ cases ! proportion ( vapor is too great1 & on br++ a flame 9 contact ) ! mixture x burns quietly4 ,! v5d]1 to make 8 oil appe> non-explosive1 unscrews ! wick-tube & applies a mat*1 :5 ! vapor 9 ! lamp quietly takes fire & burns )\t explosion4 ,or he p\rs "s ( ! 'safety oil' into a sauc] & lights x4 ,!re is no explosion1 & ignorant p]sons1 bias$ by ! sav+ ( a few c5ts p] gallon1 pur*ase ! mo/ dang]\s oils 9 ! m>ket4 ,x is n possible to make gasol9e1 naph?a1 or b5z9e safe by any addition t c be made to x4 ,nor is any oil safe t c be set on fire at ! ord9>y temp]ature ( ! air4 ,no?+ b ! mo/ /r+5t laws1 mak+ x a ,/ate prison (f5se to mix naph?a & illum9at+ oil1 or to sell any product ( petroleum z an illum9at+ oil or fluid to be us$ 9 lamps1 or to be burn$1 except 9 air gas ma*9es1 t w evolve an inflammable vapor bel[ #ajj degrees1 or bett]1 #abj degrees ,fahr5heit1 w be effectual 9 rem$y+ ! evil4 ,9 case ( an accid5t f ! sale ( oil bel[ ! /&>d1 ! sell] %\ld be compell$ to pay all damages to prop]ty1 &1 if a life is sacrific$1 %\ld be puni%$ = manslaught]4 ,x %\ld be made extremely haz>d\s to sell su* oils4 ,pr( ,*&l] is pr(essor ( analytical *emi/ry1 ,s*ool ( ,m9es1 ,columbia ,college4 ,!re is no sub/ance on e>?1 or "u ! e>?1 :i* w *emically comb9e ) naph?a1 or t w de/roy its peculi> volatile & explosive prop]ties4 ,! manufactur]s ( petroleum products h exhau/$ ! :ole res\rces ( *emi/ry to make ?is product available z a safe burn+ oil1 & _! inability to d s proclaims ! fact t x _c be done4 ,*emi/ry has %[n t naph?a1 &1 9 fact1 ! o!r products ( petroleum1 w n "p ) _! hydrog5 or *ange ! nature ( _! comp\nds1 except by decomposition f a union ) oxyg51 t is1 by combu/ion4 ,^! humbugs1 :o deceive p = _! own ga9s1 may put camphor1 salt1 alum1 potatoes1 etc41 into naph?a1 & call x by :atev] fancy "n !y please4 ,! camphor is dissolv$1 ! salt p>tially2 potatoes h no effect :atev]4 ,! camphor may disguise ! smell ( ! naph?a1 & sometimes myrhane or burnt almonds may be us$ = ! same purpose4 ,b1 no matt] :at is us$1 ! liability to explosion is n less5$ 9 any degree4 ,! /uff is always dang]\s & always w be4 ,!re is n mu* dang] 9 ! use ( k]os5e1 if x is ( ! /&>d requir$ by law 9 sev]al ( ! ,/ates4 ,at ! same "t petroleum is dang]\s "u c]ta9 conditions4 ,:]e oil is heat$ x is m or less inflammable1 &1 9 fact1 inflammability is only a "q ( temp]ature ( ! oil1 aft] all4 ,burn+ oils %\ld be kept 9 a mod]ately cool place1 & always ) c>e4 ,( c\rse1 if a light$ lamp is dropp$ & brok51 ! oil is liable to take fire1 ?\gh ! lamp may be put out 9 ! fall1 or ! light dr[n$ by ! oil1 or ! oil n take fire at all4 ,?is w be ! effect if ! oil is cool & ( high fla% te/4 ,:5 a lamp is light$1 & rema9s burn+ = "s "t1 x %\ld nev] be turn$ d[n & set aside4 ,! !ory is1 t :ile light+1 a c]ta9 supply ( gas is creat$ f ! oil1 & t :5 ! wick is turn$ d[n t supply /ill cont9ues to fl[ out1 & n be+ consum$1 =ms an inflammable gas 9 ! *imney1 :i* w explode :5 a suffici5t quantity ( air is mix$ ) x 9 ! pres5ce ( light1 :i* may happ5 if a p]son bl[s d[n ! *imney2 b a lamp %\ld nev] be ext+ui%$ 9 t way4 ,a good1 high te/ k]os5e oil c be made ) ord9>y c>e z safe z sp]m oil1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 x is n s safe z a matt] ( fact4 ,we are sure to he> ( x :5 an accid5t happ5s1 b we nev] he> ( ! reckless use ( k]os5e :]e an accid5t does n occur1 & yet !re are few ?+s s g5]ally c>elessly h&l$ z burn+ oils4--,fireman's ,j\rnal 99 99 99 99 99 ,,composition ,,( ,,! ,,petroleum ,,( ,,! ,,caucasus4 ,by ,,mm4 ,p ,,s*utz5b]g] & ,n4 ,,ton9e4 ,all portions ( ?is petroleum conta9 saturat$ c>bides ( ! =mula ,cn,h#bn1 :i* ! au?ors "n p>aff5es4 ,at a bright r$ heat !y yield b5z9ic c>bides1 ,cn,h#bn-#f1 naph?al9 & a little an?rac54 ,at dull r$ness ! products are along ) unalt]$ p>aff5es1 products :i* unite en]getically ) brom9e1 & :i* are conv]t$ into res9\s polym]s ( ord9>y sulphuric acid4 ,x is difficult to isolate1 by means ( fractional di/illation1 def9ite products ) con/ant boil+ po9ts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,notes ,,on ,,cananga ,,oil ,,or ,,ilang-,,ilang ,,oil4 ,footnote3 ,f ! ,ar*iv d] ,ph>macie4 ,by ,f4 ,a4 ,,fl,,ckig]4 ,?is oil1 on acc\nt ( its fragrance1 :i* is describ$ by mo/ obs]v]s z extremely pleasant1 has atta9$ to "s importance1 s t x appe>s to me n sup]flu\s to submit ! foll[+ rem>ks ^u x & ! plant f :i* x is d]iv$4 ,! tree1 ( :i* ! fl[]s yield ! oil kn[n "u ! "n ,ilang-ilang or ,alanguilan1 is ! ,cananga odorata1 ,hook4 fil4 et ,?omp41#a ( ! ord] ,unonace1 = :i* reason x is call$ also 9 _m price li/s ,oleum ,anon1 or ,oleum ,unon ,x is n kn[n to me :e!r ! tree c be id5tifi$ 9 ! old ,indian & ,*9ese lit]ature4#b ,9 ! we/ x 0 fir/ nam$ by ,ray z ,arbor ,saguisan1 ! "n by :i* x 0 call$ at t "t at ,luon#c ,rump#d gave a detail$ description ( ! ,bonga ,cananga1 z ! ,malays designate ! tree 7,tsjampa among ! ,javanese72 ,rumph's figure1 h[ev] is defective4 ,fur!r1 ,lam>ck#e has %ort notices ( x "u ,canang odorant1 ,uv>ia odorata4 ,accord+ to ,roxburgh1#f ! plant 0 9 #agig br\ght f ,sumatra to ! ,botanical ,g>d5s 9 ,calcutta4 ,dunal devot$ to ! ,uc>ia odorata1 or1 prop]ly1 ,unona odorata1 z he himself correct$ x1 a some:at m ?or\gh description 9 8 ,monographic de la ,famille des ,anonacees1#g :i* pr9cipally repeats ,rumph's /atem5ts4 ,footnote #a3 ,flora ,indica1 i 7#ahee71 #acj4 ,footnote #b3 ,no m5tion ( any plant or fl[]s1 :i* might be id5tifi$ ) ,cananga1 c be trac$ 9 any ,sanskrit works4--,dr4 ,*>les ,rice1 ,new ,rem$ies1 ,april1 #ahha1 page #ih4 ,footnote #c3 ,ray4 ,hi/oria ,plant>um1 ,supplem5tum1 tomi i et ii ,hi/4 ,/irpium ,insul ,luzon5sis et ,philipp9>um a ,georgio ,josepho ,canello2 ,london1 #agjd1 #hc ,footnote #d3 ,h]b>ium ,ambo95se1 ,ambo9s* ,kruidboek1 ii4 7,am/]dam1 #agej71 cap4 xix1 fol4 #aie & tab4 #fe4 ,footnote #e3 ,encyclopdie m?odique4 ,botanique1 i 7#aghc71 #eie4 ,footnote #f3 ,flora ,indica1 ii4 7,s]ampore1 #ahcb71 #ffa4 ,footnote #g3 ,p>is1 #ahag1 p4 #ajh1 #aje4 ,la/ly1 we owe a v h&some figure ( ! ,cananga odorata to ! magnific5t ,flora ,jav1 ( ,blume2#a a copy ( ?is1 :i* 9 ! orig9al is beautifully color$1 is app5d$ to ! pres5t notice4 ,t ?is figure is correct ,i v5ture to assume aft] hav+ se5 num]\s specim5s 9 ,g5eva1 ) ,de ,c&olle1 z well z 9 ! ,deless]t h]b>ium4 ,! unju/ifiable "n ,unona odoratissima1 :i* incorrectly en\gh has pass$ into _m writ+s1 orig9at$ ) ,blanco1#b :o 9 8 description ( ! p[]ful fragrance ( ! fl[]s1 :i* 9 a clos$ sleep+ room produces heada*e1 0 induc$ to use ! sup]lative odoratissima4 ,baillon#c designat$ z ,canangium ! section ( ! g5us ,uv>ia1 f :i* he w\ld n sep>ate ! ,ilang-ilang tree4 ,footnote #a3 ,vol4 i4 7,brussels1 #ahbi71 fol4 #bi1 tab ix et xiv4 ,b4 ,footnote #b3 ,flora de ,filip9as1 ,manila1 #ahde1 #cbe4 ,unona odoratissima1 ,alang-ilan4 ,! latt] "n1 accord+ to ,sonn]at1 is /at$ by ! ,lam>ck to be ( ,*9ese orig92 ,h]r ,reymann d]ives x f ! ,tagal language4 ,footnote #c3 ,dictionnaire de ,botanique4 ,illu/ration3 ,,canaga ,,odorata ,! notice ( ,maxim[icz1#a ,ueb] d5 ,ursprung des ,p>fums ,ylang-,ylang1 conta9s only a confirmation ( ! d]ivation ( ! p]fume f ,cananga4 ,footnote #a3 ,j's ,botanis*] ,jahresb]i*t1 #ahge1 #igc4 ,cananga odorata is a tree atta9+ to a height ( #fj feet1 ) few b abundantly ramifi$ bran*es4 ,! %ortly petiol$ long acum9ate leaves1 arrang$ 9 two r[s1 atta9 a l5g? ( #ah c5timet]s & a bread? ( #g c5timet]s2 ! leaf is r coriace\s1 & slightly d[ny only along ! n]ves on ! "u side4 ,! h&some & impos+ look+ fl[]s ( ! ,cananga odorata occur to ! numb] ( f\r on %ort p$uncles4 ,! lobes ( ! trip>tite lea!ry calyx are f9ally b5t back4 ,! six lanceolate petals spread out v ne>ly flat1 & gr[ to a l5g? ( #g c5timet]s & a bread? ( ab\t #ab millimet]s2 !y are longitud9ally ve9$1 ( a gre5i% color1 & d>k br[n :5 dri$4 ,! some:at bell-%ap$ elegantly droop+ fl[]s imp>t q a h&some appe>ance1 al?\gh ! floral beauty ( o!r closely alli$ plants is f> m /rik+4 ,! filam5ts ( ! ,cananga are v num]\s2 ! some:at elevat$ receptacle has a %all[ depression at ! summit4 ,! gre5 b]ry-l fruit is =m$ ( f fifte5 to tw5ty tol]ably long /alk$ sep>ate c>pels :i* inclose ?ree to eight se$s arrang$ 9 two r[s4 ,! umbel-l p$uncles are situat$ 9 ! axils ( ! leaves or spr+ f ! nodes ( leafless bran*es4 ,! fle% ( ! fruit is sweeti% & aromatic4 ,! fl[]s possess a mo/ exquisite p]fume1 frequ5tly comp>$ ) hyac9?1 n>cissus1 & cloves4 ,cananga odorata1 accord+ to ,hook] & ,?omson or ,b5?am & ,hook]1#a is ! only species ( ?is g5us2 ! plants =m]ly class$ toge!r ) x "u ! names ,unona or ,uv>ia1 among :i* "s equally possess odor\s fl[]s1 are n[ di/ribut$ betwe5 ^? two g5]a1 :i* are tol]ably ri* 9 species4 ,f ,uv>ia ! ,cananga diff]s 9 its valvate petals1 & f ,unona 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! se$s 9 two r[s4 ,footnote #a3 ,g5]a ,plant>um1 i1 7#ahfd71 #bd4 ,cananga odorata is di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t all ,s\!rn ,asia1 mo/ly1 h[ev]1 z a cultivat$ plant4 ,9 ! primitive =e/ ! tree is mu* high]1 b ! fl[]s are1 accord+ to ,blume1 almo/ odorless4 ,9 habit ! ,cananga resembles ! ,mi*elia *ampaca1 ,l41#a ( ! family ,magnoliace1 an ,indian tree extraord9>ily priz$ on acc\nt ( ! v pleasant p]fume ( its yell[ fl[]s1 & :i* 0 already highly celebrat$ 9 anci5t times 9 ,india4 ,among ! admir$ fragrant fl[]s :i* are ! mo/ priz$ by ! 9 ?is respect pamp]$ ,javanese1 ! ,tjempaka 7,mi*elia *ampaca7 & ! ,k5angga wangi 7,cananga odorata7#b /& 9 ! fir/ rank4 ,footnote #a3 ,a beautiful figure ( ?is also is giv5 9 ,blume's ,flora ,jav1 iii41 ,magnoliace1 tab4 ,i4 ,footnote #b3 ,junghuhn1 ,java1 ,leipsic1 #aheb1 #aff4 ,x is n kn[n to me :e!r ! oil ( cananga 0 prep>$ 9 =m] times4 ,x appe>s to h fir/ rea*$ ,europe ab\t #ahfd2 9 ,p>is & ,london its *oice p]fume f\nd full recognition4#a ,! quantities1 evid5tly only v small1 t 7 fir/ import$ f ! ,indian ,ar*ipelago 7 foll[$ imm$iately by some:at l>g] consignm5ts f ,manila1 :]e ,g]man ph>maci/s occupi$ !mselves ) ! di/illation ( ! oil4#b ,footnote #a3 ,jahresb]i*t d4 ,ph>macie1 by ,wigg]s & ,husemann1 #ahfg1 #dbb4 ,footnote #b3 ,jahresb]i*t1 #ahfh1 #aff4 ,osc> ,reymann & ,adolf ,rons*1 ( ,manila1 exhibit$ ! ilang-ilang oil 9 ,p>is 9 #ahgh2 ! =m] also %[$ ! ,cananga fl[]s4 ,! oil ( ! fl[]s ( ! be=e-m5tion$ ,mi*elia *ampaca1 :i* /ood next to x1 competes ) ! cananga oil1 or ilang-ilang oil1 9 respect to fragrance4#a ,h[ f> ! latt] has f\nd acceptance is difficult to det]m9e2 a l[]+ ( ! price :i* x has und]gone indicates probably a some:at l>g] dem&4 ,at pres5t x may be obta9$ 9 ,g]many = ab\t #fjj m>ks 7#cj7 ! kilogramme4#b ,s9ce ! ,cananga tree c be s v easily cultivat$ 9 all w>m c\ntries1 & probably ev]y:]e be>s fl[]s end[$ ) ! same pleasant p]fume1 x mu/ be possible = ! oil to be produc$ f> m *eaply1 not)/&+ t ! yield is always small4#c ,x may be que/ion$ :e!r ! tree might n1 = in/ance1 succe$ 9 ,alg]ia1 :]e already s _m exotic p]fum]y plants are f\nd4 ,footnote #a3 ,ar*iv d] ,ph>macie1 ccxiv4 7#ahgi71 #ah4 ,footnote #b3 ,accord+ to in=mation k9dly suppli$ by ,h]r ,reymann1 9 ,p>is1 ,nice1 & ,grasse1 annually ab\t #bjj kilogrammes are us$2 9 ,london ab\t #ej kilogrammes1 & equally z mu* 9 ,g]many 7,leipsic1 ,b]l91 ,frank=t74 ,footnote #c3 #be grammes ( oil f #e kilogrammes ( fl[]s1 accord+ to ,reymann4 ,accord+ to ,guib\rt1#a ! macass> oil1 mu* priz$ 9 ,europe = at lea/ "s decades z a hair oil1 is a cocoa nut oil dige/$ ) ! fl[]s ( ,cananga odorata & ,mi*elia *ampaca1 & color$ yell[ by means ( turm]ic4 ,9 ,india ungu5ts ( ?is k9d h always be5 9 use4 ,footnote #a3 ,hi/oire ,naturelle des ,drogues ,simples1 iii4 7#ahej71 #fge4 ,! "n ,cananga is met ) 9 ,g]many z occurr+ 9 =m] times4 ,an ,oleum de/illatum ,canang is m5tion$ by ! ,leipsic apo!c>y1 ,joh4 ,he9r4 ,l9ck#a among "s new exotics 9 ! ,sammlung von ,naturund ,m$ic9- wie1 au* hi]zu gehorig5 ,kun/- und ,lit]atur ,ges*i*t51 s si* ,anno #agai 9 ,s*lesi5 und &]n ,lnd]n begeb5 7,leipsic und ,budiss91 #agai74 ,z1 h[ev]1 ! fruit ( ! same tree s5t toge!r ) ?is cananga oil is describ$ by ,l9ck z uncommonly bitt]1 he _c probably "h ref] to ! pres5t ,cananga odorata1 ! fruit-pulp ( :i* is expressly describ$ by ,humph & by ,blume z sweeti%4 ,fur!r an ,oleum ,canang1 ,camel-/raw oil1 occurs 9 #agfe 9 ! tax ( ,brem5 & ,v]d54#b ,x may rema9 undet]m9$ :e!r ?is oil actually came f camel-/raw1 ! beautiful grass ,&ropogon lanig]4 ,footnote #a3 ,comp>e ,flckig]1 ,ph>makognosic1 #b;d edit1 #ahha1 p4 #aeb4 ,footnote #b3 ,flckig]1 ,docum5te zur ,ges*i*te d] ,ph>macie1 ,halle 7#ahgf71 p #ic4 ,f a *emical po9t ( view cananga oil has become int]e/+ because ( ! in=mation giv5 by ,gal1#a t x conta9s b5zoic acid1 no d\bt 9 ! =m ( a comp\nd e!r4 ,s f> z ,i1 at ! mom5t1 rememb] ! lit]ature ( ! ess5tial oils1 ?is occurr5ce ( b5zoic acid 9 plants /&s alone1#b al?\gh 9 itself x is n surpris+1 & probably ! same comp\nd w yet be frequ5tly detect$ 9 ! vegetable k+dom4 ,z x 0 conv5i5t to te/ ! above /atem5t by an exam9ation ,i induc$ ,h]r ,adolf ,conv]t1 a ph>maceutical /ud5t f ,frank=t-,on-,ma91 to und]take an inve/igation ( ilang-ilang oil 9 t direction4 ,! oil did n *ange litmus pap] moi/5$ ) alcohol4 ,a small portion di/ill$ at #agj ,c42 b ! !rmomet] rose gradually to #bij1 & at a /ill high] temp]ature decomposition comm5c$4 ,t ! portions pass+ ov] bel[ #bij _h a /rong acid reaction already indicat$ ! pres5ce ( e!rs4 ,h]r ,conv]t boil$ #aj grammes ( ! oil ) #bj grammes ( alcohol & #a gramme ( pota% dur+ "o day 9 a retort provid$ ) a return cond5s]4 ,f9ally ! alcohol 0 sep>at$ by di/illation1 ! residue sup]saturat$ ) dilute sulphuric acid1 & toge!r ) mu* wat] submitt$ to di/illation until ! di/illate _h sc>cely an acid reaction4 ,! liquid t _h pass$ ov] 0 neutraliz$ ) b>ium c>bonate1 & ! filtrate conc5trat$1 :5 x yield$ cry/als1 :i* 7 recogniz$ z ne>ly pure acetate4 ,! acid residue1 :i* conta9$ ! potassium sulphate1 0 %ak5 ) e!r2 aft] ! evaporation ( ! e!r !re rema9$ a cry/all9e mass hav+ an acid reaction :i* 0 color$ violet ) f]ric *loride4 ,?is reaction1 :i* probably may be ascrib$ to ! acc\nt ( a ph5ol1 0 abs5t aft] ! recry/allization ( ! cry/all9e mass f boil+ wat]4 ,! aque\s solution ( ! purifi$ cry/all9e scales !n gave ) f]ric *loride only a small fle%-color$ precipitate4 ,! cry/als melt$ at #abj ,c4 ,9 ord] to demon/rate ! pres5ce ( b5zoic acid ,h]r ,conv]t boil$ ! cry/als ) wat] & silv] oxide & dri$ ! scales t sep>at$ f ! cool+ filtrate ov] sulphuric acid4 #j4jcab gramme gave ^u combu/ion #j4jadg gramme ( silv]1 or #dg4a p] c5t4 ,! b5zoate ( silv] conta9s #df4f p] c5t1 ( metal2 ! cry/als prep>$ f ! acid ( ilang-ilang oil 71 !re=e1 b5zoate ( silv]4 ,= ! sep>ation ( ! alcoholic con/itu5t1 :i* is pres5t 9 ! =m ( an app>5tly n v consid]able quantity ( b5zoic e!r1 f> m ilang-ilang oil w\ld be requir$ ?an 0 at comm&4 ,footnote #a3 ,comptes ,r5dus1 lxxvi4 7#ahgc71 #adbh1 & ab/ract$ 9 ! ,ph>maceutical ,j\rnal #c1 iv41 p4 #bh2 also 9 ,jahresb]i*t1 #ahgc1 p4 #dca4 ,footnote #b3 ,ov]look+ ,p]u balsam & ,tolu balsam4 ,besides ! b5zoic e!r &1 probably1 a ph5ol1 m5tion$ above1 !re may be recogniz$ 9 ilang-ilang oil an aldehyde or ketone1 inasmu* z ^u %ak+ x ) bisulphite ( sodium ,i obs]v$ ! =mation ( a v small quantity ( cry/als4 ,t ,gal did n obta9 ! l result mu/ at pres5t rema9 unexpla9$4 ,l ! b5zoic acid ! acetic acid is1 no d\bt1 pres5t 9 cananga oil 9 ! =m ( e!r4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,*ian ,,turp5t9e4 ,! foll[+ lett] has be5 receiv$ by ! editors ( ! ,rep]toire de ,ph>macie3 ,= "s mon?s pa/1 a good deal has be5 he>d ab\t a product ( our isl& t _h q fall5 into disuse1 & :i* no "o c>$ to ga!r1 s mu* _h ! dem& fall5 (f because a sub/itute = x _h be5 f\nd 9 ,europe2 ,i mean ,*ian turp5t9e4 ,z ?is product is de/9$ to take a c]ta9 "p 9 ! treatm5t ( canc]1 accord+ to "s ,engli% physicians1 p]mit me1 sir1 to give y\r read]s a few int]e/+ details1 obta9$ on ! spot1 conc]n+ ! turp5t9e tree & its product4 ,! turp5t9e tree 7,pi/acia t]eb9?us ,l47 has exi/$ 9 our isl& = _m c5turies1 judg+ f ! enorm\s dim5sions ( "s ( ^! trees1 comp>$1 too1 ) _! sl[ rate ( gr[?4 ,! trunks ( "s measure f #d to #e met]s 9 circumf]5ce1 & _! heights v>y f #ae to #bj met]s4 ,on my own l& !re is an enorm\s tree1 by f> ! l>ge/ on ! isl&1 ! circumf]5ce ( its trunk be+ #f met]s4 ,_m ( ^! great trees h be5 us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( mills1 presses1 etc41 on acc\nt ( ! h>dness ( _! wood4 ,x is 9 ! vic9ity ( ! t[n & 9 ?ree or f\r neighbor+ villages t ^! trees are f\nd4 ,to-day1 at a c>eful e/imate1 !re may be #a1ejj trees capable ( yield+ #b1jjj kilos ( turp5t9e1 mix$ ) at lea/ #cj p] c5t ( =eign matt]4 ,!re are no appliances = ref9+ ! product "h1 except ! sieves ?r\gh :i* x is pass$ to remove ! pebbles & bits ( wood :i* are f\nd 9 x4 ,x is ga!r$ f incisions made 9 ! tree 9 ,june4 ,axes are us$ = ?is purpose1 & ! incision mu/ be ?r\gh ! :ole ?ickness ( ! b>k4 ,?r\gh ^! outlets ! turp5t9e falls to ! foot ( ! tree1 & mixes ) ! e>? !re4 ,on its fir/ appe>ance ! turp5t9e is ( a sirupy consi/5ce1 & is q transp>5t2 gradually x becomes m opaque1 & ( a yell[i%-:ite color4 ,x is at ?is p]iod also t x gives (f its *>act]i/ic odor mo/ abundantly4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n ! product turp5t9e t is mo/ e/eem$ by ! natives1 b ! fruit ( ! tree1 a k9d ( drupe dispos$ 9 clu/]s4 ,! fruit is improv$ by ! incisions made 9 ! tree = ! escape ( ! turp5t9e1 o!rwise ! res91 hav+ no o!r outlet1 w\ld impregnate ! =m]1 h9d] its complete developm5t1 & r5d] x useless = ! purposes = :i* x is cultivat$4 ,"o circum/ance wor? not+ is t1 z soon z ! fruit comm5ces to rip51 ! fl[ ( turp5t9e completely ceases4 ,?is is t[>d ,augu/2 ! fruit is !n gre52 x is ga!r$1 dri$ 9 ! sun1 bruis$1 & a f9e yell[i%-gre5 oil is drawn f x1 :i* is soluble 9 e!r4 ,?is oil is us$ = alim5t>y purposes1 b r>ely = illum9ation s9ce ! introduction ( petroleum4 ,x is mo/ly us$ 9 mak+ sweet cakes1 & (t5 z a sub/itute = butt]1 9 all cases :]e ! latt] is employ$4 ,i use x daily myself )\t p]ceiv+ any diff]5ce4 ,i may "h be p]mitt$ to correct a slight mi/ake t has crept into sev]al /&>d botanical works4 ,x is !re9 /at$ t ! inhabitants ( ?is c\ntry extract f ! fruit ( ! l5tisc 7,pi/acia l5tiscus ,l41 a well-kn[n %rub gr[+ on ?is isl&1 f :i* ,*ian ma/ic is obta9$71 an alim5t>y & illum9at+ oil4 ,?is fruit has nev] be5 ga!r$ = its oil )9 ! memory ( man4 ,! l5tisc has probably be5 ?us mi/ak5 = ! turp5t9e tree4 ,= ! la/ tw5ty ye>s ! ga!r+ ( turp5t9e has be5 almo/ ab&on$1 al?\gh ! incisions 9 ! trees h be5 regul>ly made1 b ! value 0 s small t proprietors did n c>e to collect x1 & left x to run to wa/e4 ,!re 7 b a few ph>maci/s ( ,smyrna & ! neighbor+ isl&s :o took a small quantity = mak+ m$ic9al pla/]s4 ,an utt]ly insignificant quantity f\nd its way into ,europe4 ,h[ is x !n t1 aft] s _m ye>s1 x 0 f\nd 9 ,europe8 ,! problem is easily expla9$--! great] "p came f ,v5ice4 ,?is is indubitable1 &1 lately1 an ,engli% *emi/1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,m>t9dale1 9 a communication to ! ,*emical ,society ( ,london1 express$ d\bts z to ! au!nticity ( ! turp5t9e us$ 9 ! treatm5t ( canc]4 ,if turp5t9e c really some:at relieve ?is disease1 & if ?is treatm5t is g5]ally accept$ 9 ,europe1 ,i mu* fe> y w only obta9 sub/itutions ( v inf]ior quality to ! turp5t9e produc$ 9 our isl&4 ,?is ye> ! ,*ians h be5 surpris$ by an ext5sive dem& = ?is product1 f ,london 9 ! fir/ place1 & secondly f ,vi5na1 & ! proprietors1 al?\gh b poorly provid$ at ! mom5t1 s5t away ne>ly #fjj kilos ,p>is has n yet made any dem&4 ,y\rs1 etc41 ,,dr4 ,,/iep[i*4 ,*io1 ,turkey4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,! ,,*ange ,,( ,,volume ,,:i* ,,accompanies ,,! ,,galvanic ,,deposition ,,( ,a ,,metal4 ,by ,m4 ,e4 ,,b\ty4 ,9 previ\s notes ,i h e/abli%$1 fir/1 t ! galvanic depositions exp]i5ce a *ange ( volume1 f :i* !re results a pressure ex]cis$ on ! m\ld :i* receives !m2 second1 t ! ,pelti] ph5om5on is produc$ at ! surface ( contact ( an electrode & ( an electrolyte4 ,fre% obs]vations h caus$ me to believe t ! two ph5om5a are connect$1 & t ! fir/ is a consequ5ce ( ! second4 ,! ,pelti] effect c cle>ly be prov$ :5 ! electrolysis is n int]f]$ ) by en]getic second>y actions1 & p>ticul>ly ) ! sulphate & nitrate ( copp]1 ! sulphate & *loride ( z9c1 & ! sulphate & *loride ( cadmium4 ,= any "o ( ^! salts x is possible to det]m9e a value1 ,i1 ( ! int5sity ( ! curr5t :i* produces ! metallic deposit su* t1 = all ! high] int5sities ! electrode becomes heat$1 & su* t x becomes cold = less int5sities4 ,i w designate ?is int5sity1 ,i1 "u ! "n ( neutral po9t ( temp]atures4 ,! new fact :i* ,i h obs]v$ is1 t 9 ! electrolysis ( ! same salts x is always possible to l[] ! int5sity ( ! curr5t bel[ a limit1 ,i'1 su* t ! compression produc$ by ! deposit *anges its direction1 t is to say1 in/ead ( contract+ ! metal dilates 9 solidify+4 ,?is *ange1 al?\gh unque/ionable1 is suffici5tly difficult to produce ) sulphate ( copp]4 ,x is necess>y to employ z a negative electrode a !rmomet] s5sitive to #a_/bjj ( a degree1 & to take mo/ c>eful precautions to avoid accid5tal de=mations ( ! deposit2 b ! ph5om5on c be obs]v$ v easily ) nitrate ( copp]1 ! sulphate ( z9c1 & ! *loride ( cadmium4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 a neutral po9t ( compression 9 ! same cases :]e !re is a neutral po9t ( temp]atures4 ,) ! salts ( iron1 nickel1 etc41 = :i* ! neutral po9t ( temp]atures _c be arriv$ at1 !re is also no neutral po9t ( compression2 & ! negative electrode always becomes heat$1 & ! deposit obta9$ is always a compress+ deposit4 ,i h det]m9$1 by ! help ( obs]vations made ) t5 diff]5t curr5t /r5g?s1 ! con/ants ( ! =mul :i* ,i h expla9$ else:]e1 & :i* gives ! app>5t excess1 y1 ( ! !rmomet] electrode compress$ by ! metallic deposit 9 t]ms ( ! "t1 t1 dur+ :i* ! metal 0 deposit+3 ,a t 7#a7 y ------- ,b t ,! con/ant1 ,a1 is proportional to ! v>iation ( volume ( ! unit ( volume ( ! metal4 ,! values ( ,a1 )\t be+ exactly regul>1 are suffici5tly well repres5t$ )9 practical limits by ! =mula3 7#b7 ,a - a'i b'i1 ( ! same =m z ! expression ,e3 ,e - ai bi1 ( ! heat+ ( ! !rmomet] electrode4 ,fur!r1 e cause :i* affects ! coeffici5ts1 a or b1 also affects 9 ! same way a' & b'3 su* causes be+ ! great] or less dilution ( ! solution1 ! nature ( ! salt1 etc4 ,x is1 !re=e1 impossible n to be /ruck by ! direct relation ( ! !rmic & me*anical ph5om5a ( :i* ! negative electrode is ! orig94 ,! foll[+ is ! explanation :i* ,i (f]3 ,! !rmomet] indicates ! mean temp]ature ( ! liquid j outside x2 ?is temp]ature is n necess>ily t ( ! metal :i* incloses x4 ,! curr5t1 propagat$ almo/ exclusively by ! molecules ( ! decompos$ salt1 does n act directly to cause a v>iation 9 ! temp]ature ( ! dissolv+ molecules2 ^! *ange heat ) ! molecules ( ! electrolyte1 :i* %\ld be 9 g5]al hott] ?an ^? :5 a heat+ is notic$ & cold] :5 a cool+ is obs]v$4 ,suppose x is f\nd1 9 ! fir/ case1 t ! metal1 at ! mom5t :5 x is deposit$1 is hott] ?an ! liquid1 &1 consequ5tly1 ?an ! !rmomet]2 x becomes cold] imm$iately aft] ! deposit1 & consequ5tly contracts2 ! deposit is compress$4 ,! rev]se is ! case :5 ! metal is cold] ?an ! liquid2 ! deposit !n dilates4 ,if ?is hypo!sis is correct1 ! excess1 ,t1 ( ! temp]ature ( ! metal ov] ! liquid :i* surr\nds ! !rmomet] %\ld be proportional to ! contraction1 ,a1 repres5t$ by ! =mula 7#b71 & ! neutral po9t1 ,i'1 ( ! contraction corresponds to ! case :]e ! temp]ature ( ! metal is precisely equal to t ( ! liquid4 ,x might be expect$1 p]haps1 f ! =ego+1 t ,i' ,i2 ?is w\ld take place if ! excess ( temp]ature ( ! metal1 measur$ by ! contraction1 7 rigor\sly proportional to ! heat+ ( ! liquid1 = !n ! two quantities w\ld be null at ! same "t4 ,c>eful exp]im5t proves t ?is is n ! case4 ,! sulphate ( copp] gives compress+ deposits on a !rmomet] :i* is und\bt$ly cool+2 *loride ( z9c ( a d5sity #bjj c give exp&+ deposits on a !rmomet] :i* is heat+4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no proportionality2 b x mu/ be rem>k$ t ! temp]ature ( ! metal :i* is deposit$ does n dep5d only on ! quantities ( heat dis5gag$ 9 an int]val ( molecul> ?ickness :i* is inf9itely small comp>$ ) ! ?ickness ( ! lay]1 ( :i* ! v>iations ( temp]ature are regi/]$ by ! !rmomet]4 ,!re is no?+ surpris+1 !re=e1 t ! two v>iations ( temp]ature1 accord+ exactly ) "o ano!r1 d n foll[ id5tically ! same laws4--,comptes ,r5dus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,analyses ,,( ,,rice ,,soils ,,f ,,burmah4 ,by ,r4 ,,romanis1 ,d4,sc41 ,*emical ,exam9]1 ,briti% ,burmah4 ,! analyses ( rice soils 0 und]tak5 at ! in/ance ( ! ,rev5ue ,settlem5t ,survey1 :o want$ to "k if ! *emical composition ( ! soil correspond$ 9 any way to ! valuation z fix$ f o!r evid5ce4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! am\nt ( phosphoric acid 9 ! soil 9 any "o di/rict correspond$ pretty well ) ! ,settlem5t ,(fic]s' valuation1 b on comp>+ two di/ricts x 0 f\nd t ! di/rict :i* 0 poor] 9 phosphoric acid gave crops equal to ! ri*] "o4 ,on inquiry x 0 f\nd t 9 ! =m] ! rice is gr[n 9 nurs]ies & !n plant$ out by h&1 :]eas 9 ! latt]1 :]e ! hold+s are mu* l>g]1 ! gra9 is s[n broadca/4 ,! practice ( plant+ out ! "y crops enables ! cultivator to get a h>ve/ #bj p] c5t4 bett] ?an he w\ld o!rwise d1 & h5ce ! poor] l& equals ! ri*]4 ,! d$uctions drawn f ?is inve/igation are1 fir/1 t1 climate & situation be+ equal1 ! value ( soil dep5ds on ! phosphoric acid 9 x2 &1 second1 t ! plant+-out sy/em is f> sup]ior to ! broadca/ sy/em ( cultivation = rice4 ,results ( two analyses ( soils f ,syriam1 ne> ,rangoon1 are app5d$3 ,soluble 9 ,hydro*loric ,acid4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,virg9 ,soil4 ,organic matt] #d4eij #h4e8h ,oxide ( iron & alum9a #h4ici #g4agi ,magnesia #j4dfi #j4fgg ,lime trace4 #j4aca ,pota% #j4ach #j4ahg ,soda #j4acf #j4ccg ,phosphoric acid #j4ajj #j4ajh ,sulphuric acid #j4jbe #j4aag ,silica ---- #j4jje -------- --------- #ad4cig #ag4bdi ,soluble 9 ,sulphuric ,acid4 ,alum9a #ag4dfj #ae4fhd ,magnesia #j4dei #j4ddf ,lime #j4bhf trace4 ,pota% #j4faf #a4bej ,soda #j4cag #j4bhe --------- --------- #ai4ach #ag4ffe ,residue4 ,silica1 soluble #aa4fge #fi4edf insoluble #di4dgg _/ ,alum9a #c4jfb #d4agh ,lime #j4gjj #j4acd ,magnesia #j4bab trace4 ,pota% #j4bgf #a4ahj ,soda #j4ejc #a4jdh -------- --------- #ajj4jjj #ajj4jjj ,^! are alluvial soils f ! ,delta ( ! ,irrawaddy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dry ,,air ,,refrig]at+ ,,ma*9e4 ,a l>ge numb] ( sci5tific & o!r g5tlem5 int]e/$ 9 me*anical refrig]ation lately visit$ ! works ( ,messrs4 ,j4 ,e4 ,hall1 ( ,d>t=d1 to inspect ! work+ ( "o ( _! improv$ horizontal dry air refrig]ators6 ,! ma*9e1 :i* is illu/rat$ bel[1 is design$ to deliv] ab\t #aj1jjj cubic feet ( cold air p] h\r1 :5 runn+ at ! rate ( #ajj revolutions p] m9ute1 & is capable ( r$uc+ ! temp]ature ( ! air f #ij deg4 above1 to ab\t #ej deg4 bel[ z]o1 ,fah41 ) an initial temp]ature ( cool+ wat] ( #ij deg4 to #ie deg4 ,fah4 ,x c1 h[ev]1 be run at z high a spe$ z #adj revolutions p] m9ute4 ,! air is compress$ 9 a wat]-jacket$1 d\ble-act+ compression cyl9d]1 to ab\t #ee lb4 p] squ>e in* --m or less accord+ to ! temp]ature ( ! cool+ wat]--! inlet valve be+ work$ f a cam on ! crank %aft1 to insure a full cyl9d] ( air at ea* /roke1 & ! outlet valves be+ self act+1 specially con/ruct$ to avoid noise 9 work+ & breakages1 :i* h giv5 rise to s mu* annoyance 9 o!r cold air ma*9es4 ,! compress$ air1 /ill at a high temp]ature1 is !n pass$ ?r\gh a s]ies ( tubul> cool]s1 :]e x p>ts ) a great deal ( its heat1 & is r$uc$ to )9 #d deg4 or #e deg4 ( ! initial temp]ature ( ! cool+ wat]4 ,"h also a consid]able portion ( ! moi/ure1 :i*1 :5 fre% air is be+ us$1 mu/ ( necessity ent] ! compression cyl9d]1 is cond5s$ & deposit$ z wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,compression ,,cyl9d]4 ,,scale #a_/fj ,aft] be+ cool$1 ! compress$ air is !n admitt$ to ! expansion cyl9d]1 b z x /ill conta9s a l>ge quantity ( wat] 9 solution1 :i*1 if expansion 0 c>ri$ imm$iately to atmosph]ic pressure1 w\ld1 f ! extreme cold1 be conv]t$ into sn[ & ice1 ) a positive c]ta9ty ( caus+ great tr\ble 9 ! valves & passages4 ,x is got rid ( by a process inv5t$ by ,mr4 ,lightfoot1 :i* is at ! same "t extremely simple & beautiful 9 action1 & effici5t4 ,in/ead ( r$uc+ ! compress$ air at once to atmosph]ic pressure1 x is at fir/ only p>tially exp&$ to su* an ext5t t ! temp]ature is l[]$ to ab\t #ce deg4 to #dj deg4 ,fah41 ) ! result t v ne>ly ! :ole ( ! conta9$ aque\s vapor is cond5s$ into wat]4 ,! p>tially exp&$ air :i* n[ conta9s ! wat] z a ?ick mi/ is !n admitt$ into a vessel conta9+ a numb] ( grids1 ?r\gh :i* x passes1 p>t+ all ! :ile ) its moi/ure1 :i* gradually collects at ! bottom & is bl[n (f4 ,! surface area ( ! grids is s arrang$ t by ! "t ! air has pass$ ?r\gh !m x is q free f moi/ure1 ) ! exception ( ! v trifl+ am\nt :i* x c hold 9 solution at ab\t #ce deg4 ,fah41 & #cj lb4 pressure4 ,! expansion is !n cont9u$ to atmosph]ic pressure & ! cool$ air conta9+ only a trace ( sn[ is !n dis*>g$ ready = use into a meat *amb] or else:]e4 ,9 small ma*9es ! d\ble expansion is c>ri$ out 9 "o cyl9d] conta9+ a pi/on ) a trunk1 ! annulus =m+ ! fir/ expansion & ! :ole pi/on area ! second1 b 9 l>g] ma*9es two cyl9d]s ( diff]5t sizes are us$1 j z 9 an ord9>y comp\nd eng9e4 ,to comp5sate = ! v>y+ temp]ature ( ! cool+ wat] ! cut-(f valve to ! fir/ or prim>y expansion is made adju/able2 & ?is c ei!r be regulat$ z occasion requires by h&1 or else automatically4 ,! temp]ature 9 ! depositors be+ kept con/ant "u all v>iations 9 cool+ wat]1 !re is ! same ab/raction ( moi/ure 9 ! tropics z 9 cold] climates1 & ! cold air f9ally dis*>g$ f ! ma*9e is also kept at a uni=m temp]ature4 ,illu/ration3 ,expansion ,cyl9d]4 ,scale #a_/fj4ib ,f4 temp]ature ( ent]+ air4 ,cool+ wat] ent]+ 9 at #hf ,f4 ,illu/ration3 ,expansion ,cyl9d]4 ,scale #a_/fj4 #fh ,f4 temp]ature ( ent]+ air4 ,cool+ wat] ent]+ 9 at #fe ,f4 #abe revs4 p] m9ute1 or #cab ft4 p] m9ute p] pi/on spe$4 ,! diagrams are r$uc$ f ! orig9als1 tak5 f ! compression cyl9d] :5 runn+ at ! spe$ ( #abe revolutions p] m9ute1 & also f ! expansion cyl9d]1 ! fir/ :5 ! cool+ wat] 0 ent]+ ! cool]s at #hf deg4 ,fah41 & ! latt] :5 ?is temp]ature 0 r$uc$ to #fe deg4 ,fah4 ,9 all cases ! compress$ air is cool$ d[n to )9 f #c deg4 to #e deg4 ( ! initial temp]ature ( ! cool+ wat]1 ?us %[+ ! great effici5cy ( ! cool+ app>atus4 ,! ma*9e has be5 run exp]im5tally at ,d>t=d1 "u conditions p]haps m try+ ?an c possibly occur1 ev5 9 ! tropics1 ! air ent]+ ! compression cyl9d] be+ artificially heat$ up to #he deg4 & be+ sup]saturat$ at t temp]ature by a jet ( /eam laid on = ! purpose4 ,9 ?is case no m sn[ 0 =m$ ?an :5 deal+ ) airconta9+ a v mu* less proportion ( moi/ure4 ,! vapor 0 cond5s$ previ\s to f9al expansion & ab/ract$ z wat] 9 ! dry+ app>atus4 ,! ma*9e 0 exhibit$ at "w 9 connection ) a cold *amb] :i* 0 kept at a temp]ature ( ab\t #aj deg4 ,fah41 besides :i* sev]al hundr$weight ( ice 7 made 9 ! few days dur+ :i* ! exp]im5ts la/$4 ,?is ma*9e is 9 all respects an improvem5t on ! ma*9e :i* we h already illu/rat$4 ,9 t ma*9e ,messrs4 ,hall 7 trammel$ by be+ compell$ to "w to ! plans ( o!rs4 ,9 ! pres5t case ! ma*9e has be5 design$ by ,mr4 ,lightfoot1 & appe>s to leave little to be desir$4 ,x is a new ?+ t a cold air ma*9e may be run at any spe$ f #cb to #abj revolutions p] m9ute4 ,9 its action x is p]fectly /eady1 & ! cold air *amb] is kept entirely cle> ( sn[4 ,! dim5sions ( ! ma*9e are also em95tly favorable to its use on bo>d %ip4-,! ,eng9e]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,dry ,,air ,,refrig]at+ ,,ma*9e 99 99 99 99 99 ,,?omas',s ,,improv$ ,,/eam ,,:eel4 ,! rot>y or /eam :eel1 ! inv5tion ( ,j4,e4 ,?omas1 ( ,c>l9ville1 ,ill41 %[n 9 ! annex$ figure1 consi/s ( a :eel ) an iron rim inclos$ )9 a cas+ or jacket f :i* no?+ protrudes except ! axle :i* c>ries ! driv+ pulley1 & ! groov$ di/ribut+ disk4 ,)9 ?is jacket1 :i* ne$ n necess>ily be /eam-tight1 !re is a movable piece1 ,k1 :i*1 press+ aga9/ ! rim1 r5d]s /eam-tight ! *annel 9 :i* ! pi/ons move :5 driv5 by ! /eam4 ,at ! extremities ( ?is *annel !re are plates :i* are kept press$ aga9/ ! :eel by means ( spiral spr+s1 ?us r5d]+ ! *annel p]fectly tight4 ,! /eam ent]s ! clos$ space 7:i* =ms "o-f\r? ( ! circumf]5ce7 ?r\gh ! slide-valve1 ,s1 presses aga9/ ! pi/ons1 d1 & causes ! :eel to revolve 9 ! direction ( ! arr[s4 ,! slide-valve is clos$ by ! action ( ! ext]nal di/ribut+ me*anism1 ! pi/on passes beyond ! /eam-outlet1 ,a1 & a new pi/on !n comes 9 play4 ,altoge!r1 !re are six ( ^! pi/ons1 ea* "o work+ 9 an ap]ture 9 ! rim1 & kept press$ outw>dly by means ( a spiral spr+4 ,! /eam acts con/antly on ! same lev] arm & meets ) no c\nt]-pressure4 ,! o!r defects1 likewise1 ( ! ord9>y /eam eng9es 9 use are obviat$ to su* an ext5t t ! effective p[] ( ! /eam-:eel is #ej p] c5t1 great] ?an t ( o!r & m complicat$ ma*9es--at lea/ ?is is ! exp]i5ce ( ! inv5tor4 ,illu/ration3 ,,improv$ ,,/eam-,,:eel4 ,to ! inn] ends ( ! pi/ons !re are atta*$ rods :i* pass ?r\gh ! rim ( ! :eel 7:]e !y are provid$ ) /uff+-boxes7 & abut aga9/ spiral spr+s4 ,^! rods are1 9 addition1 connect$ ) lev]s1 h1 :i* are pivot$ on ! spokes ( ! :eel1 & ^: o!r extremities c>ry rods1 #b4 ,^! latt] run ?r\gh guides on ! ext]nal face ( ! rim ( ! :eel & engage by means ( friction-roll]s1 9 an undulat+ groove =m$ 9 ! inn] surface ( ! jacket4 ,:5 a pi/on arrives 9 front ( ! upp] extremity ( ! /eam *annel1 ! friction roll] at t mom5t ent]s "o ( ! depressions 9 ! groove1 & ?us lifts up ! pi/on & all[s x to pass freely beyond ! plate :i* closes ! *annel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,am]ican ,,society ,,( ,,civil ,,eng9e]s4 ,,address ,,( ,,! ,,presid5t1 ,,james ,,bi*5o ,,francis1 ,,at ,,! ,,?irte5? ,,annual ,,conv5tion ,,( ,,! ,,society ,,at ,,montreal1 ,,june #ae1 #ahha4 ,y h assembl$ 9 conv5tion = ! fir/ "t outside ! limits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ,i congratulate y on ! selection ( ?is beautiful city1 9 :i* & its imm$iate neighborhood !re are s _m int]e/+ eng9e]+ works1 con/ruct$ ) ! skill & solidity *>act]i/ic ( ! ,briti% s*ool ( eng9e]+4 ,n9e ( our memb]s are ,canadian eng9e]s1 :i* mu/ be ! excuse ( ! o!r memb]s = invad+ =eign t]ritory4 ,! society 0 organiz$ ,novemb] #c1 #aheb1 & actively ma9ta9$ up to ,m>* #b1 #ahee4 ,elev5 only ( ! pres5t memb]s date f ?is p]iod4 ,octob] #b1 #ahfg1 ! society 0 reorganiz$ on a wid] basis1 & f t "t to ! pres5t x has be5 con/antly increas+ 9 int]e/ & usefulness4 ,! memb]%ip ( ! society is n[ z foll[s3 ,honor>y memb]s44444444 #aa ,correspond+ memb]s444 #c ,memb]s44444444444444444 #dia ,associates44444444444444 #ba ,juniors44444444444444444 #eg ,fell[s44444444444444444 #ec ---- ,total4444444444444444444 #fcf ,dur+ ! la/ ye> we h lo/ six memb]s by dea? & five by resignation1 & fifty-six new memb]s h be5 elect$ & qualifi$4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ ev5t to ! society s9ce ! la/ conv5tion has be5 ! pur*ase ( a h\se 9 ! ,city ( ,new ,york1 z a p]man5t home1 at a co/ ( #cj1jjj4 ,?is has be5 accompli%$1 s f>1 )\t tax+ ! res\rces ( ! society1 ! requir$ paym5ts hav+ be5 met by subscription4 ,! sum ( #aa1ijj _h be5 subscrib$ to ! build+ fund up to ! #be? ult41 by sev5ty memb]s & tw5ty-n9e fri5ds ( ! society :o are n memb]s4 ,! subscription is /ill op51 & x is expect$ t l>ge additions w be made to x by memb]s & _! fri5ds to enable ! society to make ! rema9+ paym5ts )\t emb>rassm5t4 ,meet+s ( ! society are held twice 9 ea* mon? dur+ t5 mon?s 9 ! ye>1 = ! read+ & discussion ( pap]s & o!r purposes4 ,! new h\se af=ds mu* bett] accommodations = ^! purposes ?an we h ev] _h be=e1 & also = ! libr>y1 :i* n[ conta9s #h1hej books & pamphlets1 & is con/antly increas+4 ,a catalogue ( ! libr>y is be+ prep>$4 ,"p ,i41 embrac+ railroads & ! transactions ( sci5tific societies1 has be5 pr9t$ & furni%$ to memb]s4 ,,wat] ,,p[]4 ,wat] p[] 9 _m ( ! ,/ates is abundant & contributes l>gely to _! prosp]ity4 ,its prop] developm5t calls = ! s]vices ( ! civil eng9e]1 & z x is ! bran* ( ! pr(ession ) :i* ,i am mo/ famili>1 ,i propose to (f] a few rem>ks on ! subject4 ,! e>lie/ applications 7 to gri/ & saw mills2 c>d+ & full+ mills soon foll[$2 ^! 7 ess5tial to ! com=t ( ! e>ly settl]s :o reli$ on home indu/ries = %elt]1 food1 & clo?+1 b ) ! progress ( ! c\ntry came o!r requirem5ts4 ,! e>lie/ application ( wat] p[] to g5]al manufactur+ purposes appe>s to h be5 at ,pat]son1 ,new ,j]sey1 :]e ,! ,society = ,e/abli%+ ,useful ,manufactures 0 =m$ 9 ! ye> #agia4 ,! ,passaic ,riv] at ?is po9t furni%es1 :5 at a m9imum1 ab\t elev5 hundr$ horse p[] cont9u\sly night & day4 ,! wat] p[] at ,l[ell1 ,massa*usetts1 0 begun to be improv$ = g5]al manufactur+ purposes 9 #ahbb4 ,! ,m]rimack ,riv] at ?is po9t has a fall ( ?irty-five feet1 & furni%es1 at a m9imum1 ab\t t5 ?\s& horse p[] dur+ ! usual work+ h\rs4 ,at ,cohoes1 9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 ! ,mohawk ,riv] has a fall ( ab\t "o hundr$ & five feet1 :i* 0 br\ght into use sy/ematically v soon aft] t at ,l[ell1 & c\ld furni% ab\t f\rte5 ?\s& horse p[] dur+ ! usual work+ h\rs1 b ! works are s arrang$ t "p ( ! p[] is n available at pres5t4 ,at ,man*e/]1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ! pres5t works 7 comm5c$ 9 #ahce4 ,! ,m]rimack ,riv] at ?is po9t has a fall ( ab\t fifty-two feet1 & furni%es1 at a m9imum1 ab\t t5 ?\s& horse p[] dur+ ! usual work+ h\rs4 ,at ,lawr5ce1 ,massa*usetts1 ! ,essex ,co4 built a dam across ! ,m]rimack ,riv]1 comm5c+ 9 #ahde1 & mak+ a fall ( ab\t tw5ty-eight feet1 & a m9imum p[]1 dur+ ! usual work+ h\rs1 ( ab\t t5 ?\s& horse p[]4 ,at ,holyoke1 ,massa*usetts1 ! ,hadley ,falls ,co4 comm5c$ _! works ab\t #ahde1 = develop+ ! p[] ( ! ,connecticut ,riv] at t po9t1 :]e !re is a fall ( ab\t fifty feet1 & at a m9imum1 ab\t sev5te5 ?\s& horse p[] dur+ ! usual work+ h\rs4 ,at ,lewi/on1 ,ma9e1 ! fall 9 ! ,&roscogg9 ,riv] is ab\t fifty feet2 its sy/ematic developm5t 0 comm5c$ ab\t #ahde1 & ) ! improvem5t ( ! l>ge natural res]voirs at ! head wat]s ( ! riv]1 n[ 9 progress1 x is expect$ t a m9imum p[]1 dur+ ! usual work+ h\rs1 ( ab\t elev5 ?\s& horse p[] w be obta9$4 ,at ,birm+ham1 ,connecticut1 ! ,h\satonic ,wat] ,co4 h develop$ ! wat] p[] ( ! ,h\satonic ,riv] by a dam1 giv+ tw5ty-two feet fall1 furni%+ at a m9imum ab\t "o ?\s& horse p[] dur+ ! usual work+ h\rs4 ,! ,dundee ,wat] & ,l& ,co41 ab\t #aheh1 develop$ ! p[] ( ! ,passaic ,riv]1 at ,passaic1 ,new ,j]sey1 :]e !re is a fall ( ab\t tw5ty-two feet1 giv+ a m9imum p[]1 dur+ ! usual work+ h\rs1 ( ab\t n9e hundr$ horse p[]4 ,! ,turn]s ,falls ,co41 9 #ahff1 comm5c$ ! developm5t ( ! p[] ( ! ,connecticut ,riv] at ,turn]s ,falls1 ,massa*usetts1 by build+ a dam on ! middle fall1 :i* is ab\t ?irty-five feet1 & furni%es a m9imum p[]1 dur+ ! usual work+ h\rs1 ( ab\t t5 ?\s& horse p[]4 ,i h nam$ ! above wat] p[]s z be+ develop$ 9 a sy/ematic mann] f _! inception1 & ( :i* ,i h be5 able to obta9 "s data4 ,9 ! usual process ( develop+ a l>ge wat] p[]1 a company is =m$1 :o acquire ! title to ! prop]ty1 embrac+ ! l& necess>y = ! site ( ! t[n1 to accommodate ! population :i* is sure to ga!r ar\nd an improv$ wat] p[]4 ,! dam & canals or races are con/ruct$1 & mill sites1 ) accompany+ rights to ! use ( ! wat]1 are grant$1 usually by p]petual leases subject to annual r5ts4 ,?is me?od ( develop+ wat] p[] is di/9ctly an ,am]ican idea1 & ! only in/ance :]e x has be5 attempt$ abroad1 t ,i "k (1 is at ,belleg>de 9 ,france1 :]e !re is a fall 9 ! ,rhone ( ab\t ?irty-?ree feet4 ,)9 ! la/ few ye>s works h be5 con/ruct$ = its developm5t1 furni%+ a l>ge am\nt ( p[]1 b f ! great outlay incurr$ 9 acquir+ ! titles to ! prop]ty1 & o!r difficulties1 x has n be5 a f9ancial success4 ,! wat] p[]s ,i h nam$ are b a small fraction ( ! :ole am\nt exi/+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ! adjo9+ ,dom9ion ( ,canada4 ,!re is ,niag>a1 ) its two or ?ree millions ( horse p[]2 ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 ) its succession ( falls f ,lake ,ont>io to ,montreal2 ! ,falls ( ,/4 ,antony1 at ,m9neapolis2 & _m o!r falls1 ) l>ge volumes ( wat]1 on ! upp] ,mississippi & its bran*es4 ,x w\ld be a long /ory to "n ev5 ! l>ge wat] p[]s1 & ! small] ones are almo/ innum]able4 ,9 ! ,/ate ( ,ma9e a survey ( ! wat] p[] has rec5tly be5 made1 ! result1 z /at$ 9 ! (ficial report1 be+ betwe5 "o & two millions ( horse p[]1 "p ( :i* w probably n be available4 ,!re is an elevat$ region 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,s\? ,atlantic ,/ates1 exce$+ 9 area "o hundr$ ?\s& squ>e miles1 9 :i* !re is a va/ am\nt ( wat] p[]1 & be+ ne> ! cotton fields1 ) a f9e climate1 free f mal>ia1 its only ne$s are railways1 capital1 & population1 to become a great manufactur+ section4 ,! design & con/ruction ( ! works = develop+ a l>ge wat] p[]1 toge!r ) ! necess>y arrangem5ts = utiliz+ x & provid+ = its subdivision among ! p>ties entitl$ to x accord+ to _! respective rights1 af=ds an ext5sive field = civil eng9e]s2 & 9 view ( ! va/ am\nt ( x yet undevelop$1 b :i*1 ) ! increase ( population & ! con/antly increas+ dem& = me*anical p[] z a sub/itute = h& labor1 mu/ come into use1 ! field mu/ cont9ue to enl>ge = a long "t to come4 ,!re are _m cases 9 :i* ! p[] ( a wat]fall c be made available by means ( compress$ air m conv5i5tly ?an by ! ord9>y motors4 ,! fall may be too small to be utiliz$ by ! ord9>y motors2 ! site :]e ! p[] is want$ may be too di/ant f ! wat]fall2 or x may be desir$ to di/ribute ! p[] 9 small am\nts at di/ant po9ts4#a ,a me?od ( compress+ air by means ( a fall ( wat] has be5 devis$ by ,mr4 ,joseph ,p4 ,frizell1 ,c4,e41 ( ,/4 ,paul1 ,m9nesota1 :i*1 f ! extreme simplicity ( ! app>atus1 promises to f9d useful applications4 ,! pr9ciple on :i* x op]ates is1 by c>ry+ ! air 9 small bubbles 9 a curr5t ( wat] d[n a v]tical %aft1 to ! dep? giv+ ! desir$ compression1 !n ?r\gh a horizontal passage 9 :i* ! bubbles rise into a res]voir ne> ! top ( ?is passage1 ! wat] pass+ on & ris+ 9 ano!r v]tical or incl9$ passage1 at ! top ( :i* x is dis*>g$1 ( c\rse1 at a l[] level ?an x ent]$ ! fir/ %aft4 ,footnote #a3 ,j\rnal ( ! ,frankl9 ,in/itute = ,septemb]1 #ahgg4 ,! =mation at wat]falls is usually rock1 :i* w\ld enable ! passages & ! res]voir = collect+ ! compress$ air to be =m$ by simple excavations1 ) no o!r app>atus ?an t requir$ to *>ge ! desc5d+ column ( wat] ) ! bubbles ( air1 :i* c be done by ?r[+ ! wat] into viol5t commotion at its entrance1 & a pipe & valve = ! deliv]y ( ! air f ! res]voir4 ,! transf] ( p[] by electricity is "o ( ! problems n[ engag+ ! att5tion ( electricians1 & x is n[ done 9 ,europe 9 a small way4 ,sir ,william ,?omson /at$ 9 evid5ce be=e an ,engli% p>liam5t>y committee1 two ye>s ago1 t he look$ =w>d to ! ,falls ( ,niag>a be+ ext5sively us$ = ! production ( light & me*anical p[] ov] a l>ge area ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & t a copp] wire half an in* 9 diamet] w\ld transmit tw5ty-"o ?\s& horse p[] f ,niag>a to ,montreal1 ,bo/on1 ,new ,york1 or ,philadelphia4 ,8 /atem5ts appe> to h be5 bas$ on !oretical consid]ations2 b !re is no long] any d\bt z to ! possibility ( transf]r+ p[] 9 ?is mann]--its practicability = indu/rial purposes mu/ be det]m9$ by trial4 ,dr4 ,paget ,higgs1 a di/+ui%$ ,engli% electrician1 is n[ exp]im5t+ on x 9 ! ,city ( ,new ,york4 ,great improvem5ts 9 reaction wat] :eels h be5 made 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates )9 ! la/ =ty ye>s4 ,9 ! ye> #ahdd1 ! late ,uriah ,a!rton ,boyd51 a civil eng9e] ( ,massa*usetts1 comm5c$ ! design & con/ruction ( ,f\rneyron turb9es1 9 :i* he introduc$ v>i\s improvem5ts & a g5]al p]fection ( =m & workman%ip1 :i* enabl$ a l>g] p]c5tage ( ! !oretical p[] ( ! wat] to be utiliz$ ?an _h be5 previ\sly atta9$4 ,! great results obta9$ by ,boyd5 ) wat] :eels made 9 8 p]fect mann]1 &1 9 "s in/ances1 almo/ reg>dless ( co/1 und\bt$ly /imulat$ o!rs to attempt to approximate to ^! results at less co/2 & !re are n[ _m =ms ( :eel ( l[ co/ giv+ fully d\ble ! p[]1 ) ! same consumption ( wat]1 t 0 obta9$ f mo/ ( ! old] =ms ( :eels ( ! same class4 ,,an*or ,,ice4 ,a frequ5t inconv5i5ce 9 ! use ( wat] p[] 9 cold climates is t peculi> =m ( ice call$ an*or or gr\nd ice4 ,x adh]es to /ones1 gravel1 wood1 & o!r sub/ances =m+ ! b$s ( /reams1 ! *annels ( conduits1 & orifices ?r\gh :i* wat] is drawn1 sometimes rais+ ! level ( wat] c\rses _m feet by its accumulation on ! b$1 & entirely clos+ small orifices ?r\gh :i* wat] is drawn = indu/rial purposes4 ,i h be5 = _m ye>s 9 a position to obs]ve its effects & ! conditions "u :i* x is =m$4 ,! ess5tial conditions are1 t ! temp]ature ( ! wat] is at its freez+ po9t1 & t ( ! air bel[ t po9t2 ! surface ( ! wat] mu/ be expos$ to ! air1 & !re mu/ be a curr5t 9 ! wat]4 ,! ice is =m$ 9 small ne$les on ! surface1 :i* w\ld rema9 !re & =m a %eet if ! surface 0 n too mu* agitat$1 except = a curr5t or movem5t 9 ! body ( wat] suffici5t to ma9ta9 x 9 a con/ant /ate ( int]mixture4 ,ev5 :5 fl[+ 9 a regul> *annel !re is a cont9u$ int]*ange ( position ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( a /ream2 ! ret>dation ( ! b$ causes v>iations 9 ! velocity1 :i* produce :irls & eddies & a g5]al in/ability 9 ! movem5t ( ! wat] 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! section--! result be+ t ! wat] at ! bottom soon f9ds its way to ! surface1 & ! rev]se4 ,i f\nd by exp]im5ts on /raight canals 9 e>? & masonry t color$ wat] dis*>g$ at ! bottom rea*$ ! surface at di/ances v>y+ f t5 to ?irty times ! dep?4#a ,9 natural wat] c\rses1 9 :i* ! b$s are always m or less irregul>1 ! di/urbance w\ld be mu* great]4 ,! result is t ! wat] at ! surface ( a runn+ /ream does n rema9 !re1 & :5 x leaves ! surface x c>ries ) x ! ne$les ( ice1 ! specific gravity ( :i* diff]s b little f t ( ! wat]1 :i*1 comb9$ ) _! small size1 all[s !m to be c>ri$ by ! curr5ts ( wat] 9 any direction4 ,! conv]se effect takes place 9 muddy /reams4 ,! mud is app>5tly held 9 susp5sion1 b is only prev5t$ f subsid+ by ! con/ant int]mixture ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! /ream2 :5 ! curr5t ceases ! mud s9ks to ! bottom1 ! e>?y p>ticles compos+ x1 be+ heavi] ?an wat]1 w\ld s9k 9 /ill wat] 9 times inv]sely proportional to _! size & specific gravity4 ,?is1 ,i ?9k1 is a satisfactory explanation ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! ice =m$ at ! surface f9ds its way to ! bottom2 its adh]5ce to ! bottom1 ,i ?9k1 is expla9$ by ! ph5om5on ( regelation1 fir/ obs]v$ by ,f>aday2 he f\nd t :5 ! wett$ surfaces ( two pieces ( ice 7 press$ toge!r !y froze toge!r1 & t ?is took place "u wat] ev5 :5 above ! freez+ po9t4 ,pr(essor ,james ,d4 ,=bes f\nd t ! same ?+ occurr$ by m]e contact )\t pressure1 & t ice w\ld become atta*$ to o!r sub/ances 9 a simil> mann]4 ,regelation 0 obs]v$ by ^! philosoph]s 9 c>efully arrang$ exp]im5ts ) prep>$ surfaces fitt+ toge!r accurately1 & kept 9 contact suffici5tly long to all[ ! freez+ toge!r to take place4 ,9 nature ^! favorable conditions w\ld seldom occur 9 ! masses ( ice commonly obs]v$1 b we mu/ admit1 on ! evid5ce ( ! record$ exp]im5ts1 t1 "u p>ticul> circum/ances1 pieces ( ice w freeze toge!r or adh]e to o!r sub/ances 9 situations :]e !re c be no ab/raction ( heat4 ,footnote #a3 ,pap] clx41 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,society1 #ahgh1 vol4 vii41 pages #aji-afh4 ,:5 a piece ( ice ( consid]able size comes 9 contact "u wat] ) ice or o!r sub/ance1 x w\ld usually t\* 9 an area v small 9 proportion to its mass1 & o!r =ces act+ ^u x1 & t5d+ to move x1 w\ld usually exce$ ! freez+ =ce1 & regelation w\ld n take place4 ,9 ! m9ute ne$les =m$ at ! surface ( ! wat] ! t5d5cy to adh]e w\ld be mu* ! same z 9 l>g] masses t\*+ at po9ts only1 :ile ! ext]nal =ces act+ ^u !m w\ld be extremely small 9 proportion1 & regelation w\ld (t5 occur1 & ( ! imm5se numb] ( ! ne$les ( ice =m$ at ! surface en\gh w\ld adh]e to produce ! effect :i* we obs]ve & call an*or ice4 ,! adh]5ce ( ! ice to ! b$ ( ! /ream or o!r objects is always d[n/ream f ! place :]e !y are =m$2 9 l>ge /reams x is frequ5tly _m miles bel[2 a l>ge "p ( !m d n become fix$1 b z !y come 9 contact ) ea* o!r1 regelate & =m spongy masses1 (t5 ( consid]able size1 :i* drift along ) ! curr5t1 & are (t5 tr\blesome imp$im5ts to ! use ( wat] p[]4 ,wat] p[]s suppli$ directly f ponds or riv]s1 or canals froz5 ov] = along di/ance imm$iately above ! places f :i* ! wat] is drawn1 are n usually tr\bl$ ) an*or ice1 :i*1 z ,i h /at$1 requires op5 wat]1 up/ream1 = its =mation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,pair ,,( ,,cottages4 ,?is draw+ has be5 admitt$ into ! ,exhibition ( ! ,royal ,academy ?is ye>4 ,! cottages are ( r$ brick1 til$ ro(1 :ite woodwork1 z usual1 r\gh-ca/ 9 ! gables2 b !y are n built yet4 ,design ( ,ar?ur ,caw/on4--,build+ ,news4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sugge/ions ,,9 ,,ar*itecture4--,a ,,pair ,,( ,,engli% ,,cottages4--,,by ,a4 ,,caw/on4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,delicate ,,sci5tific ,,in/rum5ts4 ,by ,,edg> ,l4 ,,l>k91 ,new ,w9dsor ,obs]vatory1 ,new ,w9dsor1 ,ill9ois4 ,)9 ! pa/ five ye>s1 sci5tific m5 h surpass$ previ\s ef=ts 9 close measurem5t & ref9$ analysis4 ,by means ( in/rum5ts ( exce$+ delicacy1 processes 9 nature hi!rto unkn[n1 are made palpable to s5se4 ,heat is f\nd 9 ice1 light 9 seem+ d>kness1 & s\nd 9 app>5t sil5ce4 ,x seems t physici/s & *emi/s h almo/ if n q rea*$ ! ultimate atoms ( matt]4 ,! me*anism mu/ be s5sitive1 z su* prop]ties ( matt] z heat1 light1 electricity1 magnetism1 & act9ism1 are to be h&l$1 caus$ to vani% & reappe>1 analyz$ & measur$4 ,) su* in/rum5ts nature is scrut9iz$1 reveal+ new prop]ties1 /range motions1 vibrations1 & undulations4 ,?r\gh\t ! visible univ]se1 ! fa9te/ pulsations ( atoms are detect$1 & c\ntless millions ( inf9itely small waves1 be>+ light1 heat1 & s\nd1 are discov]$ & _! l5g?s det]m9$4 ,ref9$ spectroscopic analysis ( light is n[ made s t :5 any mat]ial burns1 no matt] :at its di/ance1 its spectrum tells :at sub/ance is burn+4 ,:5 any lum9\s body appe>s1 x c be told :e!r x is approa*+ or rec$+1 or :e!r x %9es by its own or reflect$ light2 :5ce x is se5 t rays fall+ on e>? f a flight ( a hundr$ ye>s1 are z s\nd+ l9es dropp$ 9 ! appall+ dep?s ( space4 ,we wi% to describe a few ( ^! intricate in/rum5ts1 & m5tion sev]al f>-rea*+ discov]ies made by _! use2 beg9n+ ) me*anism = ! manipulation ( light4 ,optics is bas$ on ! accid5tal discov]y t a piece ( glass ( c]ta9 %ape w draw light to a focus1 =m+ an image ( any object at t po9t4 ,! next /ep 0 9 le>n+ t ?is image c be view$ ) a microscope1 & magnifi$2 ?us came ! telescope reveal+ unhe>d ( suns & galaxies4 ,! fir/ telescopes color$ ev]y?+ look$ at1 b by a hundr$ ye>s ( ma!matical rese>*1 ! prop] curvature ( objectives =m$ ( two glasses 0 discov]$1 s t n[ we h p]fect in/rum5ts4 ,great results foll[$2 "o c n[ pe] into ! pr(\nd solitudes ( space1 br++ to view millions ( />s1 requir+ light #e1jjj ye>s to trav]se _! awful di/ance1 & behold suns :eel+ ar\nd suns1 & ?\s&s ( nebul1 or agglom]ations ( />s s di/ant z to s5d u confus$ light1 appe>+ l fa9t gauze l /ructures 9 measureless voids4 ,! mod]n telescope has a/oni%+ p[]1 ?us3 ,:5 ,mr4 ,cl>k f9i%$ ! great tw5ty-six-in* equatorial1 n[ at ,wa%+ton1 he te/$ its see+ prop]ties4 ,a photographic calligraph1 ^: lett]s 7 s f9e z to require a microscope to see !m1 0 plac$ at a di/ance ( ?ree hundr$ feet4 ,mr4 ,cl>k turn$ ! great eye ^u ! invisible ?+ & read ! writ+ ) ease4 ,b a great] feat ?an ?is 0 accompli%$ by ! same in/rum5t-- ! discov]y ( ! two little moons ( ,m>s1 by ,pr(4 ,asaph ,hall1 9 #ahgg4 ,!y are s small z to be incapable ( measurem5t by ord9>y means1 b ) an +5i\s photomet] devis$ by ,pr(4 ,pick]+ ( ,h>v>d ,college1 he det]m9$ ! out] satellite to be six & ! inn] sev5 miles 9 diamet]4 ,! discov]y ( ^! m9ute bodies seems pa/ belief1 & w appe> m s1 :5 x is told t ! task is equal to t ( view+ a lum9\s ball two in*es 9 diamet] susp5d$ above ,bo/on1 by ! telescope situat$ 9 ! city ( ,new ,york4 7,newcomb & ,hold5's ,a/ronomy1 p4 #cch47 ,phobos1 ! ne>e/ moon1 is only #d1jjj miles f ! surface ( ,m>s1 & is oblig$ to move ) su* great velocity to prev5t fall+1 t x actually makes a circuit ab\t its prim>y 9 only sev5 h\rs & ?irty-eight m9utes4 ,b ,m>s turns on its axis 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs & ?irty-sev5 m9utes1 s ! moon goes r\nd ?ree times1 :ile ,m>s does once1 h5ce x rises 9 ! we/ & sets 9 ! ea/1 mak+ "o day ( ,m>s equal ?ree ( its mon?s4 ,?is moon *anges e two h\rs1 pass+ all phases 9 a s+le m>tial night2 is anomal\s 9 ! sol> sy/em1 & t5ds to subv]t t !ory ( cosmic evolution :]e9 a rotat+ gase\s sun ca/ (f conc5tric r+s1 aft]w>d becom+ planets4 ,a/ronom]s 7 n satisfi$ ) ! telescope2 true1 !y beheld ! ph5om5a ( ! sol> sy/em2 planets rotat+ on axes1 & satellites revolv+ ab\t !m4 ,!y saw sunspots1 facul1 & sol> upheaval2 wat*$ eclipses1 transits1 & ! alt]nations ( summ] & w9t] on ,m>s1 & detect$ ! laws ( gravity & motion 9 ! sy/em to :i* ! e>? belongs4 ,!y !n devis$ ! micromet]4 ,?is is a complex me*anism plac$ 9 ! focus ( a telescope1 & by its use any object1 provid+ x %[s a disk1 no matt] :at its di/ance1 c be measur$4 ,x consi/s ( spid] webs set )9 a graduat$ metallic circle1 ! webs movable by screws1 & ! :ole in/rum5t capable ( rotat+ ab\t ! collimation axis ( ! telescope4 ,! screw head is a circle rul$ to degrees & m9utes1 & turns 9 front ( a fix$ v]ni] 9 ! field ( a read+ microscope4 ,"o turn ( ! screw moves ! web a c]ta9 numb] ( seconds2 !n z !re are #cfj 9 a circle1 "o-?ree-hundr$-&-sixtie? ( a turn moves ! web "o-?ree-hundr$ &-sixtie? ( ! am\nt1 & s on4 ,?us1 :5 two />s are se5 9 ! field1 "o web is mov$ by ! screw until ! fix$ l9e & ! movable "o are p>allel1 ea* bisect+ a />4 ,by read+ ) ! microscope ! numb] ( degrees turn$1 ! di/ance ap>t ( ! />s becomes kn[n2 ! di/ance be+ le>n$1 position is !n s\ght2 ! obs]vance ( :i* l$ to "o ( ! greate/ discov]ies ev] made by man4 ,! p]man5t l9e ( ! micromet] is plac$ 9 ! l9e jo9+ ! nor? & s\? poles ( ! heav5s1 & br\ght across "o ( ! />s2 ! movable web is !n rotat$ until x bisects ! o!r1 & !n ! angle betwe5 ! webs is record$4 ,d\ble />s are ?us measur$1 fir/ 9 di/ance1 & second1 _! position4 ,aft] ?is1 if any movem5t ( ! />s takes place1 ! tell tale micromet] at once detects x4 ,9 #aghj1 ,sir ,wm4 ,h]s*el measur$ d\ble />s & made catalogues ) di/ances & positions4 ,)9 tw5ty ye>s1 he />tl$ intellectual man ) ! /atem5t t _m ( ! fix$ />s actually move--"o great sun revolv+ ar\nd ano!r1 & bo? rotat+ ab\t _! common c5t] ( gravity4 ,if we look at a d\ble /> ) a small telescope1 x looks j l any o!r2 us+ a little l>g] glass1 x *anges appe>ance & looks elongat$2 ) a /ill bett] telescope1 !y become di/9ctly sep>at$ & appe> z two beautiful />s ^: elem5ts are measur$ & c>efully record$1 9 ord] to see if !y move4 ,h]s*el detect$ ! motion ( fifty ( ^! sy/ems1 & revolutioniz$ mod]n a/ronomy4 ,a/ronom]s so>$ away f ! little sol> sy/em1 & began a m9ute se>* ?r\gh\t ! :ole sid]eal heav5s4 ,h]s*el's catalogue conta9$ f\r hundr$ d\ble suns1 only fifty ( :i* 7 kn[n to be 9 revolution4 ,s9ce !n1 enorm\s advance has be5 made4 ,! micromet] has be5 improv$ into an in/rum5t ( great delicacy1 & ! numb] ( d\bles has swell$ to t5 ?\s&2 six hundr$ & fifty ( !m be+ kn[n to be b9>y1 or revolv+ on orbits--,pr(4 ,s4 ,w4 ,burnham1 ! di/+ui%$ "y a/ronom] ( ! ,de>born ,obs]vatory1 ,*icago1 hav+ discov]$ eight hundr$ )9 ! la/ eight ye>s4 ,?is discov]y implies /up5d\s motion2 e fix$ /> is a sun l our own1 & we c imag9e ^! :eel+ orbs to be surr\nd$ by cool planets1 ! abode ( life1 z well z ours4 ,if ! orbit ( a b9>y sy/em lies edgewise t[>d u1 !n "o /> w hide ! o!r ea* revolution1 mov+ across x & appe>+ on ! o!r side4 ,sev]al in/ances ( ?is motion are kn[n2 ! di/ant suns hav+ made m ?an a complete circuit s9ce discov]y1 ! %orte/ p]iodic "t kn[n be+ tw5ty-five ye>s4 ,wond]ful z 0 ?is a*ievem5t ( ! micromet]1 "o n less surpris+ await$ its delicate measurem5t4 ,if "o walks 9 a long /reet light$ ) gas1 ! lights ahead w appe> to sep>ate1 & ^? 9 ! re> approa*4 ,! little spid] l9es h detect$ j su* a movem5t 9 ! heav5s4 ,! />s 9 ,h]cules are all ! "t gr[+ wid] ap>t1 :ile ^? 9 ,argus1 9 exactly ! opposite "p ( ! ,univ]se1 are /eadily draw+ ne>] toge!r4 ,?is demon/rates t our sun ) 8 /ately ret9ue ( planets1 satellites1 comets1 & meteorites1 all move 9 gr& m>* t[>d ! con/ellation ,h]cules4 ,! entire univ]se is 9 motion4 ,b ^! revelations ( ! micromet] are tame comp>$ ) its f9al a*ievem5t1 ! discov]y ( p>allax4 ,?is means diff]5ce ( direction1 & ! p>allax ( a /> is ! diff]5ce ( its direction :5 view$ at int]vals ( six mon?s4 ,a/ronom]s obs]ve a /> to-day ) a p[]ful telescope & micromet]2 & 9 six mon?s aga9 measure ! same />4 ,b mean:ile ! e>? has mov$ #ahc1jjj1jjj miles to ! ea/1 s t if ! /> has *ang$ place1 ?is enorm\s j\rney caus$ x1 & ! *ange equals a l9e #ia1djj1jjj miles long z view$ f ! />4 ,= ye>s _m su* obs]vations 7 made2 b behold ! /> 0 always 9 ! same place2 ! :ole di/ance ( ! sun hav+ dw9dl$ d[n to ! diamet] ( a p9 po9t 9 comp>ison ) ! awful *asm sep>at+ u f ! />s4 ,f9ally micromet]s 7 made t measur$ l9es requir+ #ajj1jjj to make an in*2 & a new s]ies ( obs]vations begun1 cr[n+ ! labors ( a c5tury ) success4 ,f9ite man actually told ! di/ance ( ! />ry ho/s & gaug$ ! univ]se4 ,:5 ! p>allax ( any object is f\nd1 its di/ance is at once kn[n1 = ! p>allax is an arc ( a circle ^: radius is ! di/ance4 ,by an important !orem 9 geometry x is le>n$1 t :5 any?+ subt5ds an angle ( "o second its di/ance is #bjf1bfe times its own diamet]4 ,! greate/ p>allax ( any /> is t ( ,alpha ,c5tauri--n9e-t5?s ( a second2 h5ce x is m ?an #bjf1bfe times #ia1djj1jjj miles--! di/ance ( ! sun--away1 or tw5ty ?\s& billions ( miles4 ,?is is ! di/ance ( ! ne>e/ fix$ />1 & is us$ z a /&>d ( ref]5ce 9 describ+ great] dep?s ( space4 ,?is is n all ! micromet] enables man to "k1 ,:5 ! di/ance sep>at+ ! e>? f two cele/ial bodies t revolve is le>n$1 ! di/ance betwe5 ! two orbs becomes kn[n4 ,!n ! p]iod ( revolution is le>n$ f obs]vation1 & hav+ ! di/ance & "t1 !n _! velocity c be det]m9$4 ,! di/ance & velocity be+ giv51 !n ! comb9$ weights ( bo? suns c be calculat$1 s9ce by ! laws ( gravity & motion x is kn[n h[ mu* weight is requir$ to produce s mu* motion 9 s mu* "t1 at s mu* di/ance1 & ?us man weighs ! />s4 ,if ! d5sity ( ^! bodies c\ld be asc]ta9$1 _! diamet]s & volumes w\ld be kn[n1 & ! size ( ! fix$ />s w\ld h be5 measur$4 ,d5sity c nev] be exactly le>n$2 b /range to say1 photomet]s measure ! quantity ( light t any bright body emits2 h5ce ! />s _c h specific gravity v f> diff]5t f t ( ! sun1 s9ce !y s5d simil> light1 & 9 quantity obey+ ! law :]e9 light v>ies inv]sely z ! squ>es ( di/ance4 ,!re=e1 kn[+ ! weight & hav+ close approximation to d5sity1 ! sizes ( ! />s are ne>ly calculat$4 ,! conclusion is n[ made t all suns )9 ! visible univ]se are nei!r v _m times l>g] nor small] ?an our own4 7,newcomb & ,hold5's ,a/ronomy1 p4 #ded47 ,ano!r result foll[$ ! use ( ! micromet]3 ! detection ( ! prop] motion ( ! />s4 ,= sev]al ?\s& ye>s ! />s h be5 call$ fix$1 b ! f9e rul+s ( ! fil> micromet] tell a diff]5t /ory4 ,!re are catalogues ( sev]al hundr$ mov+ />s1 ^: motion is f "o-half second to eight seconds annually4 ,! b9>y />1 ,sixty-"o ,cygni1 ! ne>e/ nor? ( ! equator1 moves eight seconds e ye>1 a displacem5t equal 9 ?ree hundr$ & sixty ye>s to ! app>5t diamet] ( ! moon4 ,! fix$ />s h no g5]al motion t[>d any po9t1 b move 9 all directions4 ,?us ! micromet] reveal$ to man ! magnitude & g5]al /ructure1 toge!r ) ! motions & revolutions ( ! sid]eal heav5s4 ,above all1 x demon/rat$ t gravity ext5ds ?r\gh\t ! univ]se4 ,/ill ! long+s ( m5 7 n appeas$2 !y br\ght to view invisible suns sunk 9 space1 & told _! weight1 yet ! ?ir/ = k 0 n qu5*$4 ,m5 wi%$ to "k :at all ! suns are made (1 :e!r ( sub/ances l ^? compos+ ! e>?1 or ( k9ds ( matt] entirely diff]5t4 ,!n 0 devis$ ! spectroscope1 & ) x m5 audaci\sly que/ion$ nature 9 h] mo/ seclud$ recesses4 ,! basis ( spectroscopy is ! prism1 :i* sep>ates sunlight into sev5 colors & projects a b& ( light call$ a spectrum4 ,?is 0 kn[n = ?ree hundr$ ye>s1 & n mu* ?\ght ( x until ,fraunh(] view$ x ) a telescope1 & 0 surpris$ to f9d x fill$ ) hundr$s ( black l9es invisible to ! unaid$ eye4 ,c\ld x be possible t !re are portions ( ! sol> surface t fail to s5d out light8 ,su* is ! fact1 & !n began a tw5ty ye>s' se>* to le>n ! cause4 ,! l9es 9 ! sol> spectrum 7 unexpla9$ until f9ally metals 7 vaporiz$ 9 ! int5se heat ( ! electric arc & ! light pass$ ?r\gh a spectroscope1 :5 behold ! spectra ( metals 7 fill$ ) bright l9es 9 ! same places z 7 ! d>k l9es 9 ! spectrum ( ! sun4 ,ano!r /ep3 if :5 metals are volatiliz$ 9 ! arc1 rays ( light f ! sun are pass$ ?r\gh ! vapor & all[$ to ent] ! spectroscope1 a great *ange is wr\ght2 a rev]sal takes place1 & ! orig9al black b&s reappe>4 ,a new law ( nature 0 discov]$1 ?us3 ,vapors ( all elem5ts absorb ! same rays ( light :i* !y emit :5 inc&esc5t4 ,e elem5t makes a diff]5t spectrum ) l9es 9 diff]5t places & ( diff]5t wid?s4 ,^! h be5 memoriz$ by *emi/s1 s t :5 an exp]t hav+ a spectroscope sees any?+ burn he c tell :at x is z well z read a pr9t$ page4 ,m5 h le>n$ ! alphabet ( ! univ]se1 & c read 9 all ?+s radiat+ light1 ! con/itu5t elem5ts4 ,! black l9es 9 ! sol> spectrum are !re because 9 ! atmosph]e ( ! sun exi/ vapors ( metals1 & ! light f ! liquid metals bel[ is unable to pass ?r\gh & rea* ! e>?1 be+ absorb$ k9d = k9d4 ,gase\s iron sifts out all rays emitt$ f melt$ iron1 & s d ! vapors ( all o!r elem5ts 9 ! sun1 radiat+ light 9 unison ) _! own4 ,sodium1 iron1 calcium1 hydrog51 magnesium1 & _m o!r sub/ances are n[ kn[n to be inc&esc5t 9 ! sun & />s2 & ! results ( ! developm5ts ( ! spectroscope may be summ$ up 9 ! g5]alization t all bodies 9 ! univ]se are compos$ ( ! same sub/ance ! e>? is4 ,! sun is subject to t]rific hurricanes & cyclones1 z well z explosions1 ca/+ up jets to ! height ( #bjj1jjj miles4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( spectroscopy ^! protub]ances c\ld only be se5 at a "t ( a total sol> ellipse1 & a/ronom]s made long j\rneys to di/ant p>ts ( ! e>? to be 9 l9e ( totality4 ,n[ all is *ang$4 ,images ( ! sun are ?r[n into ! obs]vatory by an +5i\s in/rum5t run by clockwork1 & call$ a helio/at4 ,?is is set on ! sun at su* an angle z to ?r[ ! sol> image into ! objective ( ! telescope plac$ horizontally 9 a d>k5$ obs]vatory1 & ! p5dulum ball set 9 motion1 :5 x w foll[ ! sun )\t mov+ its image1 all day if desir$4 ,at ! eye end ( ! telescope is atta*$ ! spectroscope & ! micromet]1 & ! :ole set ( in/rum5ts s adju/$ t j ! edge ( ! sun is se51 mak+ a half spectrum4 ,! o!r half ( ! spectroscope projects above ! sol> limb1 & is d>k1 s if an explosion ?r[s up liquid jets1 or flames ( hydrog51 ! a/ronom] at once sees !m & ) ! micromet] measures _! height be=e !y h "t to fall4 ,& ! spectrum at once tells :at ! jets are compos$ (1 :e!r hydrog51 gase\s iron1 calcium1 or any?+ else4 ,pr(4 ,c4 ,a4 ,"y saw a jet ( hydrog5 asc5d a di/ance ( #bjj1jjj miles1 measur$ its height1 not$ its spectrum & tim$ its asc5t by a *ronomet] all at once1 & 0 a/oni%$ to f9d ! velocity "o hundr$ & sixty miles p] second--eight times fa/] ?an ! e>? flies on its orbit4 ,by ^! improvem5ts sol> hurricanes1 :irlpools1 & explosions c be se5 f any physical obs]vatory on cle> days4 ,! slit ( ! spectroscope c be mov$ any:]e on ! disk ( ! sun2 s t if ! obs]v] sees a tornado beg91 he moves ! slit along ) x1 measures ! l5g? ( its tract & velocity4 ,) ! telescope1 micromet]1 helio/at1 & spectroscope came desire = m complex in/rum5ts1 result+ 9 ! inv5tion ( ! photoheliograph1 invok+ ! aid ( photography to make p]man5t ! results ( ^! excit+ rese>*es4 ,?is me*anism consi/s ( an excessively s5sitive plate1 adju/$ 9 ! sol> focus ( ! telespectroscope4 ,9 front ( ! plate 9 ! cam]a is a scre5 atta*$ to a spr+1 & held clos$ by a cord4 ,! eye is appli$ to ! spectroscopic end ( ! complex arrangem5t to wat* ! developm5t ( sol> hurricanes4 ,f9ally an appall+ outbur/ occurs2 ! flames leap high] & high]1 torn into a ?\s& %r$s1 pres5t+ a sc5e t language is p[]less to describe4 ,:5 ! display is at ! height ( its magnific5ce1 ! a/ronom] cuts ! cord2 ! slide makes an exposure ( "o-?ree ?\s&? "p ( a second1 & an accurate photograph is tak54 ,! /orm all 9 rapid motion is petrifi$ on ! plate2 ev]y?+ is di/9ct1 all ! surg+ bill[s ( fire1 boil+s1 & turbul5ce are r5d]$ motionless ) ! velocity ( lightn+4 ,at ,meudon1 9 ,france1 ,m4 ,janss5 takes ^! in/antane\s photographs ( ! sun1 ?irty in*es 9 diamet]1 & aft]w>d enl>ges !m to t5 feet2 %[+ sc5es ( fi]y desolation t appalls ! human imag9ation4 7,see address ( ,vice ,presid5t ,langley1 ,a4 ,a4 ,a4 ,s41 ,proce$+s ,s>atoga ,meet+1 p4 #ef47 ,?is huge photograph c be view$ 9 detail ) a small telescope & micromet]1 & ! cre/s ( sol> waves measur$4 ,_m ( ^! bill[s ( fire are 9 dim5sions e way equal 9 size to ! ,/ate ( ,ill9ois4 ,b9>y />s are photograph$ s t 9 "t to come !y c be retak51 :5 if !y h mov$1 ! precise am\nt c be measur$4 ,ano!r in/rum5t is ! telepol>iscope1 to be atta*$ to a telescope4 ,x tells :e!r any lum9\s body s5ds u its own1 or reflect$ light4 ,only "o comet bright en\gh to be exam9$ has appe>$ s9ce its p]fection4 ,?is 0 ,coggia's1 & 0 f\nd to reflect sol> f ! tail1 & to radiate its own light f ! nucleus4 ,/ill ano!r intricate in/rum5t is 9 use1 ! !rmograph1 t utilizes ! heat rays f ! sun1 in/ead ( ! light4 ,x takes pictures by heat2 9 o!r words1 x sees 9 ! d>k2 br+s invisible ?+s to ! eye ( man1 & is us$ 9 a/ronomical & physical rese>*es :]e9 undulations & radiations are conc]n$4 ,& n[ comes ! magnetomet]1 to measure ! am\nt ( magnetism t rea*es ! e>? f ! sun4 ,x po9ts to z]o :5 ! magnetic =ces ( ! e>? are 9 equilibrium1 b let a magnetic /orm occur any:]e 9 ! _w & ! po9t] w move by invisible p[]4 ,x detects a close relation betwe5 ! magnetism ( ! e>? & sun4 ,! ne$le is deflect$ e "t a sol> di/urbance takes place4 ,at ,kew1 ,engl&1 an a/ronom] 0 view+ ! sun ) a telescope & obs]v$ a tongue ( flame d>t across a spot ^: diamet] 0 ?irty-?ree ?\s& sev5 hundr$ miles4 ,! magnetomet] 0 viol5tly agitat$ at once1 %[+ t :atev] magnetism may be1 its influ5ce trav]s$ ! di/ance ( ! sun ) a velocity great] ?an t ( light4 ,n less rem>kable is ! new in/rum5t1 ! !rmal balance1 devis$ by ,pr(4 ,s4 ,p4 ,langley1 ,pittsburgh4 ,x w measure ! "o-fifty-?\s&? "p ( a degree ( heat1 & consi/s ( /rips ( plat9um "o-?irty-second ( an in* wide & "o-f\r? ( an in* long2 & s ?9 t x requires fifty to equal ! ?ickness ( tissue pap]1 plac$ 9 ! circuit ( electricity runn+ to a galvanomet]4 ,:5 m\nt$ 9 a reflect$ telescope x w record ! heat f ! body ( a man or o!r animal 9 an adjo9+ field1 & c d s at great di/ances4 ,x w d ?is equally well at night1 & may be said1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 to give ! p[] ( see+ 9 ! d>k4 7,sci5ce1 issue ( ,jan4 #h1ahha1 p4 #ab47 ,x is expect$ to reveal great facts conc]n+ ! heat ( ! />s4 ,inde$1 ! !rmopile 9 ! h&s ( ,locky] has already made palpable ! heat ( ! fix$ />s4 ,he plac$ ! little detective 9 ! focus ( a telescope & turn$ x on ,arcturus4 ,! result 0 ?is1 t ! heat receiv$ f ,arcturus1 :5 at an altitude ( #ee1 0 f\nd to be j equal to t receiv$ f a cube ( boil+ wat]1 ?ree in*es across ea* side1 at ! di/ance ( f\r hundr$ y>ds2 & ! heat f ,vega is equal to t f ! same cube at six hundr$ y>ds4 7,locky]'s ,/> ,gaz+1 p4 #che47 ,?us t inscrutable mode ( =ce heat trav]ses ! dep?s ( space1 rea*es ! e>?1 & turns ! delicate balance ( ! !rmopile4 ,ano!r discov]y 0 made ) ! spectroscope2 ?us1 if a boat moves up a riv]1 x w meet m waves ?an w /rike x if go+ d[n /ream4 ,light is ! undulation ( waves2 h5ce if ! spectroscope is set on a /> t is approa*+ ! e>?1 m waves w ent] ?an if set on a rec$+ />1 :i* fact is kn[n by displacem5t ( l9es 9 ! spectroscope f normal positions4 ,x is f\nd t _m fix$ />s are approa*+1 :ile o!rs are mov+ away f ! sol> sy/em4 ,we _c note ! rese>*es ( ,edison1 ,locky]1 or ,tyndall1 nor ( ,crookes1 :o has seem+ly rea*$ ! molecules :5ce ! univ]se is compos$4 ,! mod]n obs]vatory is a labyr9? ( s5sitive in/rum5ts2 & :5 any di/urbance takes place 9 nature1 9 heat1 light1 magnetism1 or l modes ( =ce1 ! app>atus note & record !m4 ,m5 are by no means satisfi$4 ,insatiable ?ir/ to "k m is develop+ into a fev] ( unre/2 !y are w&]+ beyond ! limits ( ! kn[n1 e day a little f>!r4 ,!y survey space1 & int]rogate ! inf9ite2 measure ! atom ( hydrog5 & weigh suns4 ,man takes no re/1 & nei!r w he until he %all h f\nd 8 own place 9 ! *a9 ( nature4--,kansas ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,future ,,developm5t ,,( ,,electrical ,,appliances4 ,pr(4 ,j4 ,p]ry lately deliv]$ a lecture on ?is subject at ! ,society ( ,arts1 ,london1 :i* conta9s 9 an epitomiz$ =m ! sali5t po9ts ( ! hopes & fe>s ( ! m sangu9e spirits ( ! electrical _w4 ,pr(4 ,p]ry is "o ( ! two pr(essors :o h be5 dubb$ ! ,japanese ,tw9s1 & ^: insatiate love ( "w induc$ "o ( our mo/ celebrat$ m5 ( sci5ce to say t !y caus$ ! c5t] ( exp]im5tal rese>* to t5d t[>d ,tokyo in/ead ( ,london4 ,pr(essors ,ayrton & ,p]ry h = "s "t be5 aga9 resid5t 9 ,engl&1 b x is evid5t t !y did n leave any ( _! en]gy 9 ,japan1 = ^? :o "k !m intimately1 "k t !y are pursu+ num]\s orig9al inve/igations1 & t s soon z "o is f9i%$1 ano!r is comm5c$4 ,x w\ld h be5 difficult !n to h f\nd an abl] expon5t ( ! future ( electricity4 ,pr(4 ,p]ry1 aft] ref]r+ to :at might h be5 said ( ! great ?+s physical sci5ce has done = humanity1 plung$ into 8 subject4 ,! "w to be done 0 va/1 & ! work]s altoge!r out ( proportion to ! task4 ,! me?ods ( measurem5t ( electricity are n g5]ally und]/ood4 ,p]haps :5 electricity is suppli$ to e h\se 9 ! city at a c]ta9 price p] horse p[]1 & is us$ by private individuals = _m diff]5t purposes1 ?is ignorance w disappe>4 ,electrical en]gy is obta9$ 9 v>i\s ways1 b ! g5]ators get heat$2 & "o great object ( inv5tors is to obta9 f ma*9es z mu* z possible electrical en]gy ( ! en]gy 9 ! fir/ place suppli$ to su* ma*9e4 ,! lectur] call$ p>ticul> att5tion to ! diff]5ce betwe5 electricity & electrical en]gy1 & attempt$ to drive home ! fundam5tal conceptions ( electrical sci5ce by ! analogies d]ivable f hydraulics4 ,a mill] speaks n only ( quantity ( wat]1 b also ( head ( wat]4 ,! /atem5t !n ( quantity ( electricity is insuffici5t1 except we "k ! electrical prop]ty analog\s to head ( wat]1 & :i* is t]m$ electrical pot5tial4 ,a small quantity ( electricity ( high pot5tial is simil> to a small quantity ( wat] at high level4 ,! analogies betwe5 wat] & electricity 7 collect$ 9 ! =m ( a table %[n on a wall %eet z foll[s3 ,we ,want to ,use ,wat]4 ,we ,want to ,use ,electricity4 #a4 ,/eam pump burns coal1 #a4 ,g5]ator burns z9c1 or & lifts wat] to a high] uses me*anical p[]1 & level4 lifts electricity to a high] level or pot5tial4 #b4 ,en]gy available is #b4 ,en]gy available is am\nt ( wat] lift$ x am\nt ( electricity x diff]5ce diff]5ce ( level4 ( pot5tial4 #c4 ,if we let all ! wat] #c4 ,if we let all ! electricity fl[ away ?r\gh *annel fl[ ?r\gh a wire f "o to l[] level )\t do+ screw ( our g5]ator to ! "w1 its en]gy is all o!r )\t do+ "w1 all conv]t$ into heat because ! electrical en]gy is ( frictional resi/ance ( conv]t$ into heat because ( pipe or *annel4 resi/ance ( wire4 #d4 ,if we let wat] "w a #d4 ,if we let our electricity hoi/ z well z fl[ ?r\gh "w a ma*9e z well z *annels1 less wat] fl[s fl[ ?r\gh wires1 less fl[s ?an be=e1 less p[] is ?an be=e1 less p[] is wa/$ 9 friction4 wa/$ ?r\gh ! resi/ance ( ! wire4 #e4 ,h[ev] long & n>r[ #e4 ,h[ev] long & ?9 may be ! *annels1 ! wires may be1 electricity wat] maybe br\ght f may be br\ght f any di/ance di/ance1 h[ev] great1 h[ev] great1 to give to give out almo/ all its out almo/ all its orig9al orig9al en]gy to a hoi/4 en]gy to a ma*9e4 ,?is requires ,?is requires a great head a great diff]5ce ( & small quantity ( wat]4 pot5tials & a small curr5t4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 pot5tial & electro-motive =ce 0 expla9$ ?us3 diff]5ce ( pot5tial is analog\s ) diff]5ce ( pressure or head ( wat]1 h[soev] produc$2 :]eas electromotive =ce is analog\s ) ! diff]5ce ( pressure be=e & beh9d a sl[ly mov+ pi/on ( ! pump employ$ by an un=tunate mill] to produce 8 wat] supply4 ,electricians h v def9ite ideas ^u ! subject !y are work+ at1 & especial att5tion is paid to ! measurem5ts on :i* _! "w dep5ds4 ,examples ( ^! measurem5ts 7 %[n by ! foll[+ tables on wall %eets3 ,,electrical ,,magnitudes 7,,"s ,,r ,,approximate74 ,resi/ance ( ,"o y>d ( copp] wire1 "o-eigh? ( an in* diamet]4444444444444444444444444444444#j 4jjb ohms4 ,"o mile ord9>y iron telegraph wire1 444444444#aj to #bj ,"s ( our sel5ium cells 4444444444444 #dj to #a1jjj1jjj ,a good telegraph insulator 44444444444 #d1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj ,electro-motive =ce ( ,a pair ( copp]-iron junctions at a diff]5ce ( temp]ature ( #a deg4 ,fah444444444 #j4jjjj volt4 ,contact ( z9c & copp] 444444444444444444444 #j4ge ,"o ,daniell's cell 44444444444444444444444444444 #a4a ,mr4 ,latim] ,cl>k's /&>d cell 44444444444444 #a4de ,"o ( ,dr4 ,de la ,hue's batt]ies 444444 #aa1jjj ,lightn+ fla%es probably _m millions ( volts4 ,curr5t measur$ by u 9 "s exp]im5ts3 ,us+ electromet]4444444 almo/ inf9itely small curr5ts4 ,us+ delicate galvanomet] #j4jj1jjj1jjj1jdj web]4 ,curr5t receiv$ f ,atlantic cable1 :5 #be words p] m9ute are be+ s5t 4444444444444444 #j4jjj1jja web] ,curr5t 9 ord9>y l& telegraph l9es 4444444444444444444444444 #j4jjc web] ,curr5t f dynamo ma*9e4444 #e to #ajj web] ,9 any circuit1 curr5t 9 web]s electro-motive =ce 9 volts _/ resi/ance 9 ohms4 ,,rate ,,( ,,production ,,( ,,heat1 ,,calculat$ ,,9 ,,! ,,%ape ,,( ,,horse-,,p[]4 ,9 ! :ole ( a circuitcurr5t 9 web]s x electro-motive =ce 9 volts _/ #gdf4 ,9 any "p ( circuitcurr5t 9 web]s x diff]5ce ( pot5tial at ! two ends ( ! "p ( ! circuit 9 "q _/ #gdf4 ,or1 squ>e ( curr5t 9 web]s x resi/ance ( ! "p 9 ohms _/ #gdf4 ,if !re are a numb] ( g5]ators ( electricity 9 a circuit1 ^: electromotive =ces 9 volts are ,e#a1 ,e#b1 etc41 & if !re are also oppos+ electro-motive =ces4 ,f#a1 ,f#b1 etc41 volts1 & if ,c is ! curr5t 9 web]s1 ,r ! :ole resi/ance ( ! curr5t 9 ohms1 ,p ! total horse-p[] tak5 at ! g5]ators1 ,q ! total horse-p[] conv]t$ into "s o!r =m ( en]gy1 & giv5 out at ! places :]e !re are oppos+ electro-motive =ces1 ,h ! total horse-p[] wa/$ 9 heat1 because ( resi/ance1 !n3 7,e#a;,e#b;etc47-7,f#a;,f#b;etc47 ,c ----------------------------- ,r ,,tex3 ,c frac7,e#a;,e#btextetc47-7,f#a;,f#btextet c47,r ,c ,c ,p ---77,e#a;,e#b;etc472 ,q ---7,f#a;,f#b;etc47 #gdf #gdf ,,tex3 frac,c#gdf7;,e#a;,e#btextetc472 ,q frac,c#gdf7;,f#a;,f#btextetc47 ,c ,r ,h ----- 4 #gdf ,,tex3 ,h frac,c#b ,r#gdf4 ,! lift+ p[] ( an electro-magnet ( giv5 volume is proportional to ! heat g5]at$ aga9/ resi/ance 9 ! wire ( ! magnet4 ,! future ( _m electrical appliances dep5ds on h[ g5]al is ! public compreh5sion ( ! lessons taught by ^! wall %eets4 ,if a few capitali/s 9 ,london w\ld only sp5d a few days 9 le>n+ ?or\ghly :at ^! mean1 electrical appliances ( a v di/ant future w\ld date f a few mon?s h5ce4 ,a numb] ( exp]im5ts 7 %[n1 9 "s ( :i* electrical en]gy 0 conv]t$ into heat1 9 o!rs into s\nd1 9 o!rs into "w4 ,at ?is "p ( ! lecture ref]5ce 0 made to ! "w ( ,pr(4 ,ayrton & 8 pupils at ,c[p] /reet 7,city & ,guilds ( ,london ,in/itute ,classes74 ,!y measure 7#a7 ! gas consum$ by ! eng9e1 7#b7 ! horse-p[] giv5 to ! dynamo ma*9e1 7#c7 ! curr5t 9 ! circuit 9 web]s1 & 7#d7 ! resi/ance ( ! circuit4 ,?us exact calculations c n[ be made z to ! horse p[] exp5d$ 9 any "p ( ! circuit1 & ! light giv5 out 9 any giv5 p]iod by an electric lamp4 ,! dynamomet]s us$ 9 ^! measurem5ts 7 describ$1 b at pres5t1 9 "s cases1 ! description giv5 is = v>i\s reasons incomplete1 s t we %all take a future opportunity ( writ+ ( ^! in/rum5ts4 ,to measure ! light a photomet]1 con/ruct$ by ,pr(s4 ,ayrton & ,p]ry1 is us$1 :i* obviates ! necessity ( l>ge rooms1 & enables ! op]ator to give ! int5sity 9 a v %ort p]iod ( "t4 ,a numb] ( measurem5ts ( ! illum9at+ p[] ( an electric lamp 7 rapidly made dur+ ! lecture ) ?is photomet]4 ,by means ( a small dynamo ma*9e1 driv5 by an electric curr5t g5]at$ 9 ! ,adelphi ar*es1 a v5tilator1 a sew+ ma*9e1 a la!1 etc41 7 driv52 9 ! latt] a piece ( wood 0 turn$4 ,:at1 said ! lectur]1 d ^! examples %[ y8 ,!y %[ t if ,i h a /eam-eng9e 9 my back y>d ,i c transmit p[] to v>i\s ma*9es 9 my h\se1 b if y measur$ ! p[] giv5 to ^! ma*9es y w\ld f9d x to be less ?an half ( :at ! eng9e driv+ ! outside electrical ma*9e gives out4 ,fur!r1 :5 we want$ to ?9k ( heat+ ( build+s & ! boil+ ( wat]1 x 0 all v well to speak ( ! conv]sion ( electrical en]gy into heat1 b n[ we f9d t n only d ! two electrical ma*9es get heat$ & give out heat1 b heat is giv5 out by our connect+ wires4 ,we h !n to consid] our mo/ important "q4 ,electrical en]gy c be transmitt$ to a di/ance1 & ev5 to _m ?\s&s ( miles1 b c x be trans=m$ at ! di/ant place into me*anical or any o!r requir$ =m ( en]gy1 ne>ly equal 9 am\nt to :at 0 suppli$8 ,un=tunately1 ,i mu/ say t hi!rto ! practical answ] made to u by exi/+ ma*9es is1 ',no2' !re is always a great wa/e due to ! heat spok5 ( above4 ,b1 =tunately1 we h fai? 9 ! measurem5ts1 ( :i* ,i h already spok51 9 ! facts giv5 u by ,j\le's exp]im5ts & =mulat$ 9 ways we c und]/&4 ,& ^! facts tell u t 9 electric ma*9es ( ! future1 & 9 _! connect+ wires1 !re w be little heat+1 & !re=e little loss4 ,we %all1 ,i believe1 at no di/ant date1 h great c5tral /ations1 possibly situat$ at ! bottom ( coal-pits :]e enorm\s /eam eng9es w drive enorm\s electric ma*9es4 ,we %all h wires laid along e /reet1 tapp$ into e h\se1 z gas-pipes are at pres5t2 we %all h ! quantity ( electricity us$ 9 ea* h\se regi/]$1 z gas is at pres5t1 & x w be pass$ ?r\gh little electric ma*9es to drive ma*9]y1 to produce v5tilation1 to replace /oves & fires1 to "w apple-p>]s & mangles & b>b]s' bru%es1 among o!r ?+s1 z well z to give ev]ybody an electric light4 ,x is possible1 z ,pr(4 ,ayrton fir/ %[$ 9 8 ,%effield lecture1 t electrical en]gy c be transmitt$ ?r\gh long di/ances by means ( small wires1 & t ! op9ion t wires ( enorm\s ?ickness w\ld be requir$ is errone\s4 ,! desid]atum requir$ 0 good insulation4 ,he also %[$ t1 in/ead ( a limit+ effici5cy ( #ej p] c5t41 ! only ?+ prev5t+ our receiv+ ! :ole ( our p[] 0 ! me*anical friction :i* occurs 9 ! ma*9es4 ,he %[$1 9 fact1 h[ to get rid ( electrical friction4 ,a ma*9e at ,niag>a receives me*anical p[]1 & g5]ates electricity4 ,call ?is ! g5]ator4 ,let !re be ,wires to ano!r electric ma*9e 9 ,new ,york1 :i* w receive electricity1 & give out me*anical "w4 ,n[ ?is ma*9e1 :i* may be call$ ! motor1 produces a back electromotive =ce1 & ! me*anical p[] giv5 out is proportional to ! back electromotive =ce multipli$ into ! curr5t4 ,! curr5t1 :i* is1 ( c\rse1 ! same at ,niag>a z at ,new ,york1 is proportional to ! diff]5ce ( ! two electromotive =ces1 & ! heat wa/$ is proportional to ! squ>e ( ! curr5t4 ,y see1 f ! la/ table1 t we h ! simple proportion3 p[] utiliz$ is to p[] wa/$1 z ! back electromotive =ce ( ! motor is to ! diff]5ce betwe5 electromotive =ces ( g5]ator & motor4 ,?is reason is v %ortly & yet v exactly giv5 z foll[s3 ,let electromotive =ce ( g5]ator be ,e2 ( motor ,f4 ,let total resi/ance ( circuit be ,r4 ,!n if we call ,p ! horse-p[] receiv$ by ! g5]ator at ,niag>a1 ,q1 ! horse-p[] giv5 out by motor at ,new ,york1 t is1 utiliz$2 ,h1 ! horse-p[] wa/$ z heat 9 ma*9es & circuit2 ,c1 ! curr5t fl[+ ?r\gh ! circuit3 ,c7,e-,f7 _/ ,r ,p,e7,e-,f7 _/ 7#gdf ,r7 ,q,f7,e-,f7 _/ 7#gdf ,r7 ,h7,e-,f7#b _/ 7#gdf ,r7 ,q3,h33,f3,e-,f ,! wat] analogy 0 aga9 call$ into play 9 ! %ape ( a model = ! bett] demon/ration ( ! problem4 ,! defects 9 exi/+ electric ma*9es & ! means ( increas+ ! ,e4,m4,f4 7 discuss$1 ! conclusions po9t+ to ! future use ( v l>ge ma*9es & v high velocities4 ,! future ( telephonic communication receiv$ a pass+ rem>k1 & att5tion call$ to ! future ( electric railways4 ,! small exp]im5ts ( ,siem5s h det]m9$ ! ultimate success ( ?is k9d ( railway4 ,_! introduction is m]ely a "q ( "t & capital4 ,! fir/ co/ ( electric railways w\ld be small] ?an t ( /eam railways2 ! work+ exp5ses w\ld also be r$uc$4 ,! rails w\ld be light]1 ! roll+ /ock light]1 ! bridges & viaducts less co/ly1 & 9 ! und]gr\nd railways ! atmosph]e w\ld n be vitiat$4 ,ab\t two ye>s ago1 x /ruck ,pr(essor ,ayrton & myself1 :5 ?9k+ h[ v fa9t musical s\nds are he>d di/9ctly f ! telephone1 9 spite ( l\d noises 9 ! neighborhood1 t !re 0 an application ( ?is pr9ciple ( recurr5t effects ( f> m practical importance ?an any o!r1 namely1 9 ! use ( musical notes = coa/ w>n+s 9 ?ick wea!r4 ,y w say t fog bells & horns are an old /ory1 & t !y h n be5 p>ticul>ly successful1 s9ce 9 "s /ates ( ! wea!r !y are audible1 9 o!rs n4 ,n[1 x seems to be =gott5 by ev]ybody t !re is a m$ium ( communicat+ ) a di/ant %ip1 namely1 ! wat]1 :i* is n at all influ5c$ by *anges 9 ! wea!r4 ,at "s tw5ty or ?irty feet bel[ ! surface !re is exce$+ly little di/urbance ( ! wat]1 al?\gh !re may be l>ge waves at ! surface4 ,suppose a l>ge wat]-sir5 l ?is--exp]im5t %[n--is work+ at z great a dep? z is available1 (f a dang]\s coa/1 ! s\nd x gives out is transmitt$ s z to be he>d at exce$+ly great di/ances by an e> press$ aga9/ a /rip ( wood or metal dipp+ into ! wat]4 ,if ! /rip is connect$ ) a mu* l>g] wood5 or metallic surface 9 ! wat] ! s\nd is he>d mu* m di/9ctly4 ,n[1 ! sides ( a %ip =m a v l>ge collect+ surface1 & at ! di/ance ( sev]al miles f su* a wat] sir5 z might be con/ruct$1 we feel q sure t1 above ! noise ( eng9es & flapp+ sails1 above ! f> m tr\blesome noise ( waves /rik+ ! %ip's side1 ! musical note ( ! di/ant sir5 w\ld be he>d1 giv+ w>n+ ( a dang]\s neighborhood4 ,9 consid]+ ?is problem1 y mu/ rememb] t ,messrs4 ,colladon & ,/urn he>d di/9ctly ! s\nd ( a bell /ruck und]wat] at ! di/ance ( ne>ly n9e miles1 ! s\nd be+ communicat$ by ! wat] ( ,lake ,g5eva4 ,! next portion ( ! lecture discuss$ ! great value ( a rapid recurr5ce ( effects1 ! obta9+ ( s\nd by means ( a rapid int]mission ( light rays on sel5ium jo9$ up 9 an electric circuit be+ in/anc$ z an example4 ,!n rec5t exp]im5ts on ! refractive p[] ( ebonite 7 detail$--! r\gh results t5d+ to give great] weight to ,cl]k-,maxwell's electro-magnetic !ory ( light4 ,! index ( refraction ( ebonite 0 f\nd by ,pr(s4 ,ayrton & ,p]ry to be r\ghly #a4g4 ,cl]k-,maxwell's !ory requires t ! squ>e ( ?is numb] %\ld be equal to ! electric specific inductive capacity ( ! sub/ance4 ,= ebonite ?is electric con/ant v>ies f #b4b to #c4e = diff]5t specim5s1 ! mean ( :i* is almo/ exactly equal to ! squ>e ( #a4g4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,rese>*es ,,on ,,! ,,radiant ,,matt] ,,( ,,crookes ,,& ,,! ,,me*anical ,,!ory ,,( ,,electricity4 ,by ,,dr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,g9tl1 ab/ract$ by ,,dr4 ,,von ,,g]i*t54 ,! au?or discusses ! "q :e!r1 accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,crookes1 ! assumption ( an especial f\r? /ate ( aggregation is necess>y1 or :e!r ! facts may be satisfactorily expla9$ )\t su* hypo!sis8 ,he %[s t ! latt] alt]native is possible ) ! aid ( a me*anical !ory ( electricity4 ,if ! radiant matt] produc$ 9 ! vacuum is a ph5om5on sui g5]is1 produc$ by ! action ( electricity & heat ^u ! molecules ( gas rema9+ 9 ! receiv]1 x is1 9 ! fir/ place1 d\btful to apply to x ! conception ( an aggregate condition4 ,! au?or consid]s x impossible to =m a cle> und]/&+ ( ! ph5om5a 9 accordance ) ! !ory ( ,crookes1 or to f9d 9 ! facts any evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( radiant matt]4 ,an explanation ( ! latt] ph5om5on is ?us giv53 ,p>ticles become sep>at$ f ! surface ( ! sub/ance ( ! negative pole1 !y are repell$1 & !y move away f ! pole ) a spe$ result+ f ! antagoni/ic =ces 9 a p>allel & rectil9e> direction1 pres]v+ _! spe$ & _! initial pa? s long z !y d n meet ) ob/acles :i* influ5ce _! movem5t4 ,at a c]ta9 d5sity ( ! gases pres5t 9 ! exhau/$ space1 ^! p>ticles1 9 consequ5ce ( ! impact ( gase\s molecules m or less oppos$ to _! direction ( movem5t1 lose _! velocity aft] travel+ a %ort di/ance & soon come to re/4 ,! m dilute ! gas ! small] is ! numb] ( ! impacts ( ! gase\s molecules enc\nt]+ ! molecules ( ! poles1 & at a c]ta9 degree ( dilution ! repell$ pol> p>ticles w be able to trav]se ! space op5 to !m )\t any ess5tial alt]ation 9 _! spe$1 ! small numb] ( ! exi/+ gase\s molecules be+ no long] able to ret>d ! molecules ( ! pol> no _! j\rney ?r\gh ! app>atus4 ,! lum9\s ph5om5a ( ! ,geissl] tubes ! au?or supposes to be produc$ by ! int5se bl[s :i* ! gase\s molecules receive f ! pol> molecules fly+ rapidly ?r\gh ! app>atus4 ,! int5sity ( ! lum9\s ph5om5a w naturally decrease ) ! numb] ( ! photophor\s p>ticles occupy+ ! space4 ,accord+ly 9 ! exp]im5ts ( ,crookes1 on cont9u$ r>efaction ( ! gas1 a condition 0 rea*$ :]e a display ( light is no long] p]ceptible1 or c be made visible m]ely by ! aid ( fluoresc5t bodies4 ,a condition may also appe>1 z is %[n by ,crookes' exp]im5t1 ) ! metallic plate int]calat$ z negative pole 9 ! middle (4 a ,geissl] tube1 ) ! positive poles at ! ends4 ,9 ?is case ! gase\s molecules are1 s to speak1 driv5 away by ! pol> p>ticles end[$ ) an equal initial velocity1 till at a c]ta9 di/ance f ! pole ! mass ( ! gase\s molecules & _! spe$ become s great t a lum9\s display beg9s4 ,9 an analog\s mann] ! au?or expla9s ! ph5om5a ( phosphoresc5ce :i* ,crookes' elicits by ! action ( 8 radiant matt]4 ,9 l mann] ! !rmic & ! me*anical effects are mo/ simply expla9$1 accord+ to ! expression select$ by ,crookes himself1 z ! results ( a cont9u$ molecul> bomb>dm5t4 ,! attraction ( ! s call$ radiant matt]1 reg>d$ z a /ream ( metallic p>ticles by ! magnet1 w n appe> surpris+4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,economy ,,( ,,! ,,electric ,,light4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,preece writes to ! ,j\rnal ( ,arts z foll[s3 ,at ! ,s\? ,k5s+ton ,museum1 v c>eful obs]vations h be5 made on ! relative co/ ( ! two sy/ems1 i4 e41 gas & electricity4 ,! c\rt light$ is t kn[n z ! ,"l ,presid5t's 7or ! ,loan7 ,c\rt4 ,x is #ach feet long by #aad feet wide1 & has an av]age height ( ab\t #db feet4 ,x is divid$ d[n ! middle l5g?wise by a c5tral gall]y4 ,!re are cloi/]s all ar\nd x on ! gr\nd floor1 & ! walls above are decorat$ 9 su* a way t !y d n assi/ 9 ! reflection or diffusion ( ! light4 ,! abs5ce ( a ceil+--! c\rt be+ sky-light$--is to "s ext5t comp5sat$ = by draw+ ! bl9ds "u ! sky-lights4 ,! exp]im5ts comm5c$ ab\t twelve mon?s ago1 ) eight lamps only on "o side ( ! c\rt4 ,! sy/em 0 t ( ,bru%4 ,! dynamo ma*9e 0 driv5 by an eight horse-p[] ,otto gas eng9e1 suppli$ by ,messrs4 ,crossley4 ,! comp>ison ) ! gas 0 s mu* 9 favor ( electricity1 & ! success ( ! exp]im5t s enc\rag+1 t x 0 det]m9$ to light up ! :ole c\rt4 ,! gas eng9e1 :i* 0 n p[]ful en\gh1 0 replac$ by a #ad-;horse p[] semi-portable /eam eng9e1 by ,ransomes ,co41 ( ,ipswi*--an eng9e ( suffici5t p[] to drive d\ble ! requir$ numb] ( lights4 ,! dynamo ma*9e is a ,no4 #g ,bru%4 ,!re are sixte5 lamps 9 all--eight on ea* side ( ! c\rt4 ,! ma*9e has giv5 no tr\ble :atev]1 & x has1 z yet1 %[n no signs ( we>4 ,! lamps 7 n all good1 & x 0 f\nd t !y requir$ c>eful adju/m5t1 b :5 once !y 7 got to g "r !y cont9u$ to d s1 & h1 up to ! pres5t1 %[n no signs ( det]ioration1 al?\gh ! "t dur+ :i* !y h be5 9 op]ation is n9e mon?s4 ,! fir/ outlay has be5 z foll[s3 ,eng9e & fix+1 includ+ %aft+ & belt+44444444444444444444444444444444 #dbj ,dynamo ma*9e4444444444444444444444444 #djj ,lamps1 app>atus1 & conduct+ wire 4 #chd ------ #a1bjd ,! co/ ( work+ has be51 f ,june #bb1 to ,decemb] #ca1 dur+ :i* p]iod ! lights 7 go+ on #hg nights = a total "t ( #cei h\rs3 s4 d4 ,c>bons4444444444444444444444444444444 #ah #i #j ,oil1 etc444444444444444444444444444444 #d #aa #f ,coal4444444444444444444444444444444444 #aa #ad #j ,wages444444444444444444444444444444444 #cd #g #f ---------- #fi #b #j be+ at ! rate ( #cs4 #aj;d4 p] h\r ( light4 ,n[1 ! consumption ( gas 9 ! c\rt w\ld h be5 #d1hjj cubic feet p] h\r1 :i*1 at #cs4 #d;d4 p] #a1jjj cubic feet1 w\ld am\nt to #afs4 p] h\r1 ?us %[+ a sav+ ( work+ exp5ses ( #abs4 #b;d4 p] h\r1 or1 s9ce ! museum is lit up = #gjj h\rs e ye>1 a total sav+ at ! rate ( #dbf p] annum4 ,9 e/imat+ ! co/ z appli$ to ?is c\rt1 only half ! co/ ( ! eng9e %\ld be tak51 = a second dynamo ma*9e has lately be5 add$ to light up "s ( ! picture gall]ies1 & ! ,life room ( ! ,art ,s*ool4 ,! capital outlay %\ld1 !re=e1 be #iid4 ,9 mak+ a fair e/imate ( ! annual co/1 we %\ld also all[ some?+ = p]c5tage on capital1 & some?+ = we> & te>4 ,take-- s4 #e p] c5t1 on ! capital44444444444444444444444444444 #di #aj #e p] c5t1 = we> & te> ( electrical app>atus44 #ci #j #e p] c5t1 = depreciation ( eng9es1 etc44444444444 #ba #j ------- ,total4444444444 #aji #aj leav+ a h&some balance to ! good ( #caf #ajs4 z aga9/ gas4 ,! results ( ! work+1 bo? practically & f9ancially1 h prov$ to be1 at ,s\? ,k5s+ton1 a decid$ success4 ,i am indebt$ to ,colonel ,fe/+1 ,r4,e41 :o has *>ge ( ! light+1 = ^! details4 ,! same comp>ison _c be made at ! ,briti% ,museum1 = no gas 0 us$ 9 ! read+-room be=e ! introduction ( ! electric light1 b ! co/ ( light+ has prov$ to be #es4 #f;d4 p] h\r--at lea/ "o-?ird ( t :i* w\ld be requir$ = gas4 ,! sy/em 9 use at ! ,museum is ,siem5s'1 ! eng9e be+ by ,wallis & ,/eev5s1 ( ,bas+/oke4 ,an excell5t example ( economic electric light+1 is t ( ,messrs4 ,h5ry ,tate ,sons1 sug> ref9]y1 ,silv]t[n4 ,a small ,tangye eng9e1 plac$ "u ! sup]vision ( ! driv] ( a l>ge eng9e ( ! works1 drives an ',a' size ',gramme' ma*9e1 :i* fe$s a ',crompton' ',e' lamp4 ,?is is hung at a height ( ab\t #ab feet f ! gr\nd 9 a s+le /ory %$1 ab\t #hj feet long1 & #ej feet wide1 & hav+ an op5 truss$ ro(4 ,! light1 plac$ ab\t midway1 l5g?ways1 has a flat canvas frame1 =m+ a sort ( ceil+ directly ov] x1 to help to diffuse ! illum9ation4 ,! :ole ( ! %$ is well lit2 & a l>ge quantity ( light also p5etrates into an adjo9+ "o ( simil> dim5sions1 & sep>at$ by a r[ ( columns4 ,! light is us$ regul>ly all ?r\gh ! night1 & has be5 s all ?r\gh ! w9t]4 ,messrs4 ,tate speak highly ( its effici5cy4 ,to asc]ta9 ! exact co/ ( ! light1 z well z ( ! gas illum9ation :i* x replac$1 a gas-met] 0 plac$ to measure ! consumption ( ! gas ?r\gh ! jets affect$2 & also ! c>bons consum$ by ! electric illum9ation 7 not$4 ,a s]ies ( c>eful exp]im5ts %[$ t dur+ a w9t]'s night ( #ad h\rs' duration ! illum9ation by electricity co/ #as4 #i;d41 :ile t by gas 0 #cs4 #f;d41 or #a;d4 p] h\r aga9/ #c;d4 p] h\r4 ,to ?is mu/ be add$ ! greatly increas$ illum9ation1 f\r to five times1 giv5 by ! electric light1 to ! b5efit ( ! "w2 :ile ?is la/ illum9ant also all[$1 dur+ ! process ( manufacture ( ! sug>1 ! delicate gradations ( t9t to be detect$2 & s to avoid ^? mi/akes1 sometimes co/ly ones1 liable to arise ?r\gh ! yell[ t+e ( gas illum9ation4 ,?is alone w\ld add mu* to ! above-nam$ economy1 aris+ f ! use ( electric illum9ation 9 sug> works4 ,i am indebt$ = ^! facts to ,mr4 ,j4 ,n4 ,%oolbr$1 "u ^: sup]vision ! arrangem5ts 7 made4 ,"s excell5t exp]i5ce has be5 ga9$ at ! %ipbuild+ docks 9 ,b>r[-9-,furness1 :]e ! ,bru% sy/em has be5 appli$ to illum9ate sev]al l>ge %$s cov]+ ! pun*+ & %e>+ ma*9]y1 b5d+ blocks1 furnaces1 & o!r bran*es ( ?is gigantic bus9ess4 ,9 "o %$1 :i* 0 =m]ly light$ by l>ge bla/-lamps1 9 :i* tor* oil 0 burnt1 co/+ ab\t #e;d4 p] gallon1 & involv+ an exp5diture ( #h #is4 p] week1 ! electric light has be5 adopt$ at an exp5diture ( #d #ads4 p] week4 ,! erect+ %op1 #dej feet by #aej feet1 =m]ly dimly lit by gas at a co/ ( #bb p] week1 is n[ effici5tly lit by electricity at half ! co/4 ,i am indebt$ = ^! facts to ,mr4 ,humphreys1 ! manag] ( ! works4 ,! ,po/ (fice au?orities h contract$ ) ,mr4 ,m4 ,e4 ,crompton1 to light up ! ,po/-(fice at ,glasg[ = ! same price z !y h hi!rto paid = gas1 & !re is no d\bt t 9 _m in/ances ?is arrangem5t w leave a h&some pr(it to ! ,electric ,light ,company4 ,!y are ab\t to try ! ,brockie sy/em 9 ! telegraph gall]ies1 & ! ,bru% sy/em 9 ! newspap] sort+ rooms ( ! ,g5]al ,po/-(fice 9 ,/4 ,m>t9's-le-,gr&4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,! ,,space ,,protect$ ,,by ,a ,,lightn+-,,conductor4 ,by ,,william ,,h5ry ,,preece4 ,footnote3 ,f ! ,philosophical ,magaz9e = ,decemb]1 #ahhj4 ,any portion ( non-conduct+ space di/urb$ by electricity is call$ an electric field4 ,at e po9t ( ?is field1 if a small electrifi$ body 7 plac$ !re1 !re w\ld be a c]ta9 resultant =ce exp]i5c$ by x dep5d5t ^u ! di/ribution ( electricity produc+ ! field4 ,:5 we "k ! /r5g? & direction ( ?is resultant =ce1 we "k all ! prop]ties ( ! field1 & we c express !m num]ically or del9eate !m graphically1 ,f>aday 7,exp4 ,res41 #cabb et seq47 %[$ h[ ! di/ribution ( ! =ces 9 any electric field c be graphically depict$ by draw+ l9es 7:i* he call$ l9es ( =ce7 ^: direction at e po9t co9cides ) ! direction ( ! resultant =ce at t po9t2 & ,cl]k-,maxwell 7,camb4 ,phil4 ,trans41 #aheg7 %[$ h[ ! magnitude ( ! =ces c be indicat$ by ! way 9 :i* ! l9es ( =ce are drawn4 ,! magnitude ( ! resultant =ce at any po9t ( ! field is a function ( ! pot5tial at t po9t2 & ?is pot5tial is measur$ by ! "w done 9 produc+ ! field4 ,! pot5tial at any po9t is1 9 fact1 measur$ by ! "w done 9 mov+ a unit ( electricity f ! po9t to an inf9ite di/ance4 ,inde$ ! resultant =ce at any po9t is directly proportional to ! rate ( fall ( pot5tial p] unit l5g? along ! l9e ( =ce pass+ ?r\gh t po9t4 ,if !re be no fall ( pot5tial !re c be no resultant =ce2 h5ce if we take any surface 9 ! field su* t ! pot5tial is ! same at e po9t ( ! surface1 we h :at is call$ an equipot5tial surface4 ,! diff]5ce ( pot5tial betwe5 any two po9ts is call$ an electromotive =ce4 ,! l9es ( =ce are necess>ily p]p5dicul> to ! surface4 ,:5 ! l9es ( =ce & ! equipot5tial surfaces are /raight1 p>allel1 & equidi/ant1 we h a uni=m field4 ,! int5sity ( ! field is %[n by ! numb] ( l9es pass+ ?r\gh unit area1 & ! rate ( v>iation ( pot5tial by ! numb] ( equipot5tial surfaces cutt+ unit l5g? ( ea* l9e ( =ce4 ,h5ce ! di/ances sep>at+ ! equipot5tial surfaces are a measure ( ! electromotive =ce pres5t4 ,?us an electric field c be mapp$ or plott$ out s t its prop]ties c be indicat$ graphically4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a ,! air 9 an electric field is 9 a /ate ( t5sion or /ra92 & ?is /ra9 increases along ! l9es ( =ce ) ! electromotive =ce produc+ x until a limit is rea*$1 :5 a r5t or split occurs 9 ! air along ! l9e ( lea/ resi/ance--:i* is disruptive dis*>ge1 or lightn+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b ,s9ce ! resi/ance :i* ! air or any o!r dielectric opposes to ?is break+ /ra9 is ?us limit$1 !re mu/ be a c]ta9 rate ( fall ( pot5tial p] unit l5g? :i* corresponds to ?is resi/ance4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t ! numb] ( equipot5tial surfaces p] unit l5g? c repres5t ?is limit1 or r ! /ress :i* leads to disruptive dis*>ge4 ,h5ce we c repres5t ?is limit by a l5g?4 ,we c produce disruptive dis*>ge ei!r by approa*+ ! electrifi$ surfaces produc+ ! electric field ne> to ea* o!r1 or by increas+ ! quantity ( electricity pres5t ^u !m2 = 9 ea* case we %\ld increase ! electromotive =ce & close up1 z x 71 ! equipot5tial surfaces beyond ! limit ( resi/ance4 ,( c\rse ?is limit ( resi/ance v>ies ) e dielectric2 b we are n[ deal+ only ) air at ord9>y pressures4 ,x appe>s f ! exp]im5ts ( ,drs4 ,w>r5 ,de ,la ,rue & ,hugo ,mull] t ! electromotive =ce det]m9+ disruptive dis*>ge 9 air is ab\t #dj1jjj volts p] c5timet]1 except = v ?9 lay]s ( air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c ,if we take into consid]ation a flat portion ( ! e>?'s surface1 ,a ,b 7fig4 #a71 & assume a highly *>g$ ?und]-cl\d1 ,c ,d1 float+ at "s f9ite di/ance above x1 !y w\ld1 toge!r ) ! air1 =m an electrifi$ sy/em4 ,!re w\ld be an electric field2 & if we take a small portion ( ?is sy/em1 x w\ld be uni=m4 ,! l9es1 a b1 a' b'444w\ld be l9es ( =ce2 & cd1 c' d'1 c d' 444w\ld be equipot5tial planes4 ,if ! cl\d gradually approa*$ ! e>?'s surface 7,fig4 #b71 ! field w\ld become m int5se1 ! equipot5tial surfaces w\ld gradually close up1 ! t5sion ( ! air w\ld increase until at la/ ! limit ( resi/ance ( ! air1 e f1 w\ld be rea*$2 disruptive dis*>ge w\ld take place1 ) its att5dant ?und] & lightn+4 ,we c let ! l9e1 e f1 repres5t ! limit ( resi/ance ( ! air if ! field be drawn to scale2 & we c ?us trace ! conditions t det]m9e disruptive dis*>ge4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d ,if ! e>?-surface be n flat1 b h a hill or a build+1 z ,h or ,l1 ^u x1 !n ! l9es ( =ce & ! equipot5tial planes w be di/ort$1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #c4 ,if ! hill or build+ be s high z to make ! di/ance ,h h or ,l l equal to e f 7,fig4 #b71 !n we %all aga9 h disruptive dis*>ge4 ,if in/ead ( a hill or build+ we erect a solid rod ( metal1 ,g ,h1 !n ! field w be di/ort$ z %[n 9 ,fig4 #d4 ,n[1 x is q evid5t t :atev] be ! relative di/ance ( ! cl\d & e>?1 or :atev] be ! motion ( ! cl\d1 !re mu/ be a space1 g g'1 along :i* ! l9es ( =ce mu/ be long] ?an a' a or ,h ,h'2 & h5ce !re mu/ be a circle describ$ ar\nd ,g z a c5t] :i* is less subject to disruptive dis*>ge ?an ! space outside ! circle2 & h5ce ?is area may be said to be protect$ by ! rod1 ,g ,h4 ,! same reason+ applies to ea* equipot5tial plane2 & z ea* circle dim9i%es 9 radius z we asc5d1 x foll[s t ! rod virtually protects a cone ( space ^: height is ! rod1 & ^: base is ! circle describ$ by ! radius1 ,g a4 ,x is important to f9d out :at ?is radius is4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e ,let u assume t a ?und]-cl\d is approa*+ ! rod1 ,a ,b 7,fig4 #e71 f above1 & t x has rea*$ a po9t1 ,d'1 :]e ! di/ance4 ,d' ,b1 is equal to ! p]p5dicul> height1 ,d' ,c'4 ,x is evid5t t1 if ! pot5tial at ,d be increas$ until ! /rik+-di/ance be atta9$1 ! l9e ( dis*>ge w be along ,d' ,c or ,d' ,b1 & t ! l5g?1 ,a ,c'1 is "u protection4 ,n[ ! ne>] ! po9t ,d' is to ,d ! %ort] w be ! l5g? ,a ,c' "u protection2 b ! m9imum l5g? w be ,a ,c1 s9ce ! cl\d w\ld nev] desc5d l[] ?an ! p]p5dicul> di/ance ,d ,c4 ,suppos+1 h[ev]1 t ! cl\d _h actually desc5d$ to ,d :5 ! dis*>ge took place4 ,!n ! latt] w\ld /rike to ! ne>e/ po9t2 & any po9t )9 ! circumf]5ce ( ! portion ( ! circle1 ,b ,c 7^: radius is ,d ,b71 w\ld be at a less di/ance f ,d ?an ei!r ! po9t ,b or ! po9t ,c4 ,h5ce a lightn+-rod protects a conic space ^: height is ! l5g? ( ! rod1 ^: base is a circle hav+ its radius equal to ! height ( ! rod1 & ^: side is ! quadrant ( a circle ^: radius is equal to ! height ( ! rod4 ,i h c>efully exam9$ e record ( accid5t t 0 available1 & ,i h n yet f\nd "o case :]e damage 0 inflict$ inside ?is cone :5 ! build+ 0 prop]ly protect$4 ,!re are _m cases :]e ! p9nacles ( ! same turret ( a *ur* h be5 /ruck :]e "o has _h a rod atta*$ to x2 b x is cle> t ! o!r p9nacles 7 outside ! cone2 & !re=e1 = protection1 ea* p9nacle %\ld h _h its own rod4 ,x is evid5t also t e prom95t po9t ( a build+ %\ld h its rod1 & t ! high] ! rod ! great] is ! space protect$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,photo-,,electricity ,,( ,,fluor-,,sp> ,,cry/als4 ,hantzel has communicat$ to ! ,saxon ,royal ,society ( ,sci5ce "s int]e/+ obs]vations on ! production ( electricity by light 9 color$ fluor-sp>4 ,! c5t]s ( ! fluor-sp> cubes become negatively electric by ! action ( light4 ,! electric t5sion dim9i%es t[>d ! edges & angles1 & frequ5tly positive pol>ity is produc$ !re4 ,) v s5sitive cry/als a %ort exposure to daylight is suffici5t2 by a long exposure to light ! electric curr5t increases4 ,! direct rays ( ! sun act mu* m p[]fully ?an diffus$ daylight1 & ! electric c>bon light is m p[]ful ev5 ?an sunlight4 ,! photo-electric action ( light belongs pr9cipally to ! *emically active rays2 ?is is %[n by ! fact t ! production ( electricity is extremely small beh9d a glass color$ ) cupr\s oxide1 & beh9d a film ( a solution ( qu99e sulphate2 :ile x is n appreciably dim9i%$ by a film ( a solution ( alum4 ,! photo-electric excitability ( fluor-sp> cry/als is increas$ by a mod]ate heat 7#hj to #ajj ,c474 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,aurora ,,borealis ,,& ,,telegraph ,,cables4 ,! ,janu>y & ,febru>y numb]s ( ! ,elektrote*nis*e ,zeits*rift conta9 a numb] ( articles on ?is int]e/+ subject by sev]al em95t electricians4 ,pr(essor ,fo]/]1 director ( ! obs]vatory 9 ,b]l91 po9ts out ! great importance ( ! c>eful /udy ( e>? curr5ts1 fir/ obs]v$ at ,gre5wi*1 & n[ be+ inve/igat$ by a committee appo9t$ by ! ,g]man ,gov]nm5t4 ,he fur!r po9ts out1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,wyk&]1 ( ,lund1 9 ,sw$51 t a close connection exi/s betwe5 e>? curr5ts1 ! protub]ances ( ! sun1 & ! aurora borealis1 & t ! ne>ly regul> p]iodical reappe>ance ( protub]ances 9 int]vals ( elev5 ye>s co9cides ) simil> p]iods ( excessive magnetic e>? curr5ts & ! appe>ance ( ! aurora borealis4 ,! rem>kable di/urb+ influ5ces on telegraph wires & cables ( ! aurora borealis obs]v$ f ! #aa? to #ad? ( ,augu/1 #ahhj1 h be5 c>efully record$ by ,h]r ,geh4 ,po/na? ,ludwig 9 ,b]l91 & a map ( ,europe compil$1 %[+ ! places affect$1 ) ! ext5t to :i* telegraph wires & cables 7 influ5c$ & di/urb$4 ,al?\gh ! aurora 0 b fa9tly visible 9 ,engl& & ,g]many1 & 9 ,russia only z f> z #ce nor?1 di/urb+ influ5ces 7 report$ f all p>ts ( ,europe1 ! ,m$it]ranean1 & ,africa1 & ev5 ,japan & ! ea/ coa/ ( ,asia4 ,z f> s\? z ,zanzib>1 ,mozambique1 & ,natal di/urbances 7 also notic$4 ,!y 7 9 ,europe mo/ int5se on ! morn+ ( ,augu/ #ab1 :5 !y la/$ ! :ole day1 & increas$ aga9 9 int5sity t[>d eight o'clock 9 ! ev5+1 :ile !y sudd5ly ceas$ ev]y:]e almo/ simultane\sly4 ,sci5tific & c>eful obs]vations 7 only tak5 at a few places1 b ! exi/5ce ( e>? curr5ts 9 frequ5tly *ang+ direction & v>y+ int5sity1 0 notic$ ev]y:]e4 ,long l9es ( wires 7 m affect$ ?an %ort ones1 & al?\gh "s l9es--= in/ance ! ,b]l9-,hamburg 9 an ea/-we/ direction--7 n at all influ5c$1 no g5]al law 0 notic$ accord+ to :i* c]ta9 directions 7 fre$ f ! di/urb+ influ5ce4 ,:ile1 = in/ance1 ! ,r$ ,sea cable 0 n noticeably affect$1 ! l& l9e to ,bombay1 =m+ a cont9uation ( ?is cable1 0 mat]ially di/urb$4 ,! ,m>seilles-,algi]s cable1 s s]i\sly influ5c$ 9 #ahga1 %[$ no signs at all1 b z may be expect$1 ! nor? ( ,europe suff]$ m ?an ! s\?1 & 9 ,ny/ad1 ,f9l&1 ! galvanomet] indicat$ an int5sity ( curr5t equal to t ( #bjj ,leclan* cells4 ,s9ce ?und]/orms are g5]ally local1 x is only natural t _! effect ^u telegraph cables %\ld also be conf9$ to "o locality4 ,num]\s c>eful obs]vations1 c>ri$ out ov] consid]able p]iods ( "t1 %[ t ! di/urb+ influ5ces ( ?und]/orms on telegraph l9es are ( less duration & m v>y+ 9 direction & int5sity ?an ^? ( ! aurora borealis4 ,long l9es suff] less ?an %ort l9es2 telegraph wires above gr\nd are m easily & m int5sely affect$ ?an und]gr\nd cables4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 possible1 t ?is is ma9ly due to ! fact t 9 ! di/ricts :]e /rict records 7 kept1 9 ! ,g]man ,empire1 mo/ ( ! long l9es are und]gr\nd cables1 :ile mo/ ( ! %ort local l9es are ov]gr\nd wires4 ,! results ( ! di/urbances v>i$2 9 ,hughes's app>atus ! armatures 7 ?r[n (f1 l9es 9 op]ation indicat$ wrong signs1 dots became da%es1 & ! spaces 7 ei!r multipli$ 9 size or numb]1 accord+ to ! direction ( ! e>? curr5ts induc$ by ! ?und]/orms4 ,s9ce ^! obs]vations ext5d$ ov] ne>ly #b1jjj cases1 "s conclusions might fairly be drawn f !m4 ,= ! purpose ( a m complete k on ?is subject1 ,dr4 ,wyk&] recomm5ds a s]ies ( regul> obs]vations on e>? curr5ts to be c>ri$ out at diff]5t /ations1 well di/ribut$ ov] ! :ole surface ( ! globe1 ^! obs]vations to be made betwe5 six & eight ,a4,m41 & at ! same "t 9 ! ev5+4 ,special arrangem5ts to be made at v>i\s /ations to record exceptionally int5se di/urbances dur+ ! ph5om5a ( ! aurora borealis1 notice to be tak5 ( "t1 direction1 int5sity1 & all fur!r p>ticul>s4 ,s9ce ?is "q appe>s to be> a consid]able am\nt ( influ5ce on und]gr\nd cables1 x is "o t des]ves s]i\s att5tion be=e e>? cables are m g5]ally introduc$2 !re c1 h[ev]1 be little d\bt t !y are n ne>ly s mu* expos$ z ov]head wires to di/urb+ influ5ces ( o!r k9ds1 su* z sn[1 ra91 w9d1 etc41 :ile !y c]ta9ly d suff]1 ?\gh p]haps 9 a less degree1 by electrical di/urbances4--,eng9e]+4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,photographic ,,image3 ,,:at ,,x ,,is4 ,footnote3 ,a communication to ! ,%effield ,photographic ,society 9 ! ,briti% ,j\rnal ( ,photography4 ,x is q possible t 9 ! rem>ks ,i propose mak+ ?is ev5+ 9 connection ) ! photographic art ,i may m5tion topics & "s details :i* are famili> to _m pres5t2 b z *emi/ry & optical & physical ph5om5a ent] l>gely into ! !ory & practice ( photography1 ! field is s ext5sive !re is always some?+ int]e/+ & sugge/ive ev5 9 ! rudim5ts1 especially to ^? :o are comm5c+ _! /udies4 ,al?\gh ?is pap] may be consid]$ an introductory "o1 ,i d n wi% to load x ) any hi/orical acc\nt1 or describe ! e>ly me?ods ( produc+ a light picture1 b %all at once take = my subject1 ,! ,photographic ,image3 ,:at ,x ,is1 & "u ?is head+ ,i mu/ re/rict myself to ! collodion & silv] or wet process1 leav+ gelat9e dry plates1 collodio-*loride1 plat9um1 c>bontype1 & ! num]\s o!r types :i* are spr++ up 9 all directions = future consid]ation4 ,n[1 9 an ord9>y p5cil1 p5 & ink1 or sepia sket* we h a deposit ( a d>k1 non-reflect+ sub/ance1 :i* gives ! outl9e ( a figure on a light] backgr\nd4 ,! diff]5t gradations ( %ade are acquir$ by a m or less deposit ( lead1 ink1 or sepia4 ,9 photography--at lea/ 9 ! ord9>y silv] process--! image is =m$ by a deposition ( metallic silv] or organic oxide 9 a m9ute /ate ( division1 ei!r on glass1 pap]1 or o!r suitable mat]ial4 ,?is is br\ght ab\t by ! action ( light & c]ta9 reag5ts4 ,light has long be5 recogniz$ z a motive p[] comp>able ) heat or electricity4 ,its action ^u ! sk91 fad+ ( colors1 & effect on ! gr[? ( vegetable & animal organisms are well kn[n2 &1 al?\gh ! exact molecul> *ange 9 _m in/ances is n cle>ly und]/ood1 yet c]ta9 salts ( silv]1 iron1 ! alkal9e bi*romates1 & "s organic mat]ials--z bitum5 & gelat9e--h be5 pretty well work$ out4 ,x is a rem>kable & well-kn[n fact t ! *loride1 iodide1 & bromide ( silv]--call$ s5sitive salts 9 photography--are n susceptible 7at lea/ only sl[ly7 to *ange :5 expos$ to ! yell[1 orange1 & r$ rays4 ,! long] wave l5g?s ( ! spectrum1 z y "k1 =m1 ) violet1 indigo1 blue1 & gre51 :ite light4 ,! diagram on ! wall %[s ?is disp]sion & sep>ation ( ! primitive colors4 ,^!--! yell[1 orange1 & r$-- are call$ te*nically non act9ic rays1 & ! o!rs 9 _! ord] become m act9ic until ! ultra violet is rea*$4 ,! action ( :ite light1 or rays1 exclud+ yell[1 orange1 & r$1 has ! effect ( conv]t+ silv] *loride into a sub-*loride2 x drives (f "o equival5t ( *lor9e4 ,?us1 silv] *loride1 ,ag#b;,cl#b;,ag#b;,cl,cl4 ,:5 wat] is pres5t ! wat] is decompos$4 ,hydro*loric acid1 ,h,cl1 hypo*lor\s acid1 ,h,cl,o is =m$4 ,! iodide ( silv] 9 l mann] is *ang$ into a sub-iodide2 b ) wat] hydriodic acid is =m$ unless an iod9e absorb5t be pres5t--!n into hypoiodic acid4 ,! silv] bromide und]goes a simil> *ange4 ,:5 ) light alone1 a sub-bromide1 ,ag#b;,br#b;,ag#b;,br,br1 & ) wat] hypobrom\s acid4 ,x is important to be> ?is 9 m9d1 z "o or o!r1 & frequ5tly bo? iodide & bromide ( silv]1 is ! s5sitive salt requisite or us$ 9 produc+ ! invisible image4 ,! !ory reg>d+ ^! s5sitive salts ( silv] is t1 be+ v un/able1 i4 e41 ready to und]go a molecul> *ange1 ! undulations produc$ 9 ! e!r1 :i* p]vades all space1 & ! pot5tial action or mov+ p[] ( light is suffici5t to di/urb _! normal *emical composition2 x lib]ates "s ( ! *lor9e1 iod9e1 or brom9e1 z ! case may be4 ,?is action1 ( c\rse1 applies to light f any s\rce--! sun1 electricity1 or ! bright] hydroc>bons1 also flame f gas or c&le1 :e!r x comes direct z rays ( :ite light or is reflect$ f an object & conduct$ ?r\gh a l5s z a di/9ct image ^u ! scre5 ( a cam]a4 ,i h no "t to speak on ! subject ( l5ses1 only j to m5tion t !y are1 or ought to be1 a*romatic1 s z to transmit :ite light & ( p]fect def9ition1 & ! am\nt ( light pass$ ?r\gh %\ld be z mu* z possible consi/5t ) a %>p image--at lea/ :5 rapid exposure is attempt$4 ,i %all t\* v lightly on ! manipulative "p ( photography1 z t w\ld be unnecess>y2 b a brief acc\nt ( ! *emicals 9 use is ess5tial to a "r appreciation ( ! !ory ( develop+ ! image4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 our object is to get a film ( "s suitable mat]ial coat$ ) a ?9 lay] ( a s5sitive salt ( silv]--say a bromo-iodide4 ,by mix+ c]ta9 proportions ( ammonium iodide & cadmium bromide1 or an iodide & bromide ( cadmium ) collodion--:i* is pyroxyl9e1 a k9d ( gun-cotton dissolv$ 9 e!r & alcohol--a plate ( glass is coat$1 & be=e be+ p]fectly dry is imm]s$ 9 ! nitrate ( silv] ba?4 ,! silv] nitrate solution1 adh]+ & ent]+ to a slight ext5t ! surface ( ! collodion1 becomes conv]t$ by an ord9>y *emical action ( aff9ity into silv] iodide & bromide4 ,! ammonium & cadmium play a second>y "p 9 ! process1 & are n absolutely necess>y 9 =m+ ! image4 ,! plate is n[ extremely s5sitive to light4 ,:5 we h ent]$ x into ! d>k slide & cam]a1 & !n expos$ to light1 ! *ange ,i m5tion$ has tak5 place4 ,! film is trans=m$ into diff]5t quantities ( sub-iodide & sub-bromide ( silv]1 accord+ to brilliancy ( light4 ,9 addition1 !re is on ! plate an am\nt ( un*ang$ silv] nitrate :i* becomes useful 9 ! second /age1 or developm5t4 ,! image is n se5 z yet1 be+ lat5t1 & requir+ ! well-kn[n develop+ solution ( sulphate ( iron1 acetic acid1 alcohol1 & wat]4 ,practically we all recognize ! effect ( a nicely-balanc$ wave ( develop] work$ r\nd a plate4 ,! high lights are fir/ to appe> z a d>k] color1 till ! details ( %ad[ come out2 :5 ?is is rea*$ ! develop] is wa%$ (f4 ,! *emical action is briefly ?us1 & x c be %[n by solutions )\t a photographic plate1 z 9 a te/ tube3 ,p\r into ?is glass a solution ( silv] nitrate1 ,ag,n,o1 & add a solution ( f]r\s sulphate1 ,fe,s,o#d4 ,! f]r\s sulphate comb9es ) ! nitric acid1 =m+ two new salts--f]ric nitrate & f]ric sulphate4 ,! silv] is deposit$4 ,any o!r sub/ance :i* w remove oxyg5 f silv] nitrate )\t comb9+ ) ! silv] w\ld d ! same1 & metallic silv] w\ld be ?r[n d[n4 ,! =mula1 z %[n on ! diagram1 expla9s ! int]*ange4 ,:5 ! develop] is p\r$ ov] ! plate x attacks fir/ ! free silv] nitrate1 & causes x to deposit extremely f9e p>ticles ( metallic silv]4 ,! "q arises3 ,h[ is x ^! p>ticles arrange !mselves to =m an image8 ,?is is expla9$ by ! physical movem5t kn[n z molecul> attraction or aff9ity4 ,^! p>ticles are attract$ fir/ to ! portions ( ! plate :]e !re is mo/ sub-iodide & sub-bromide4 ,9 ! %ady p>ts less silv] is deposit$4 ,:5 ! image is once />t$ x foll[s t p>ticles ( silv] produc$ by ! iron develop] w cause m to fall d[n on ! face ( ^? already pres5t1 & ! image is1 ( c\rse1 built up if ! silv] nitrate be all consum$ on ! plate4 ,! develop] !n becomes useless or injuri\s4 ,! pres5ce ( acetic acid *ecks ! r$uction ( ! silv]1 & ! alcohol facilitates ! fl[ :5 ! ba? becomes *>g$ ) e!r & _s4 ,! molecul> attraction j m5tion$ is made pla9] by ref]5ce to ! simple lead tree exp]im5t4 ,we h "h 9 ?is bottle a piece ( z9c rod introduc$ into a solution ( acetate ( lead4 ,a *emical *ange has tak5 place4 ,! z9c has ab/ract$ ! acetic acid & ! lead is deposit$ on ! z9c1 & w cont9ue to be s until ! solution is exhau/$4 ,! irregul>ities ( surface & arboresc5t appe>ance are well %[n4 ,if ! *ange 7 rapidly conduct$ ! lead p>ticles w\ld f _! weight s9k directly to ! bottom in/ead ( aggregat+ toge!r l ord9>y cry/als4 ,i h con/ruct$ a diagram ( color$ c>d1 :i* w p]haps m cle>ly demon/rate ! relation ( ! diff]5t con/itu5ts4 ,! l[] portion 7,fig4 a7 repres5ts a section ( ! glass plate or support1 ! collodion film 7,fig4 b7 hav+ ^u its surface a ?9 lay] ( bromo-iod9e silv] 7,fig4 c71 :i*1 :5 expos$ to a well-light$ image1 z 9 a cam]a1 *anges into diff]5t gradations ( sub-bromide & sub-iodide1 z indicat$ by irregul>1 d>k masses 9 ! film4 ,! dott$ m>ks imm$iately above ^! are int5d$ = ! silv] deposit 7,fig4 d7--clu/]s ( granules1 m abundant 9 ! well light$ & less 9 ! %ad$ p>ts ( ! picture1 correspond+ to ! am\nt ( sub-bromide & iodide b5ea?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,section ,,( ,,s5sitive ,,plate ,,aft] ,,exposure ,,& ,,dur+ ,,developm5t4 d ,silv] deposit--,image1 c ,sub-bromide & sub-*loride 7gradations (71 b ,collodion film--,sub/ratum1 a ,section ( glass plate--,support4 ,! next po9t to consid] is t ( int5sification--a process seldom requir$ 9 positive pictures1 & w\ld n be ne$$ s (t5 9 negatives if !re 0 en\gh free silv] nitrate on ! plate dur+ developm5t4 ,! object1 z we all "k1 9 a wet-plate negative is to get good pr9t+ d5sity )\t de/ruction ( half-tone4 ,x is a rule1 ,i believe1 9 an ov]-expos$ picture to int5sify aft] fix+ ! image1 & 9 an "u-expos$ picture to int5sify be=e fix+4 ,:i*ev] is done ! int5tion is simil>1 namely1 to int]cept 9 a great] degree ! light pass+ ?r\gh a negative1 s z to make a :it] & clean] pr9t4 ,! usual int5sifi]--&1 ,i suppose1 !re is no bett]--is pyrogallic acid1 citric acid1 wat]1 & a few drops ( silv] nitrate solution4 ,pyrogallic is ! mo/ active ag5t1 & might be us$ alone ) wat]2 b = special reasons x is n desirable4 ,z a *emical x has a great aff9ity = oxyg51 & w precipitate silv] f a solution conta9+1 = in/ance1 nitrate ( silv]4 ,x also comb9es ) ! metal1 =m+ a pyrogallate--a d>k br[n1 v non-act9ic mat]ial4 ,! use ( a few drops ( ,ag,n,o#c solution is v evid5t4 ,a deposit is add$ to ! image already =m$4 ,citric acid is ! ret>d] 9 ?is case4 ,alcohol is unnecess>y1 z ! film is well wa%$ ) wat] be=e ! int5sifi] is us$1 consequ5tly x fl[s readily ov] ! plate4 ,z reg>ds fix+1 or1 m prop]ly1 cle>+ ! image3 x is ! simple act ( dissolv+ out or f ! film all free nitrate1 *loride1 iodide1 or bromide4 ,cyanide ( potassium does n attack ! metallic deposit unless v /rong4 ,x has !n a t5d5cy to r$uce ! detail 9 ! %ad[s4 ,,?omas ,h4 ,,morton1 ,m4,d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gelat9e ,,transp>5cies ,,= ,,! ,,lant]n4 ,footnote3 ,a communication to ! ,photographic ,society ( ,irel&4 ,few ( ^? :o "w ) gelat9e dry plates seem to be aw>e ( ! great beauty ( ! transp>5cies = lant]n or o!r uses :i* c be made f !m by f]r\s oxalate developm5t ) ! greate/ ease & c]ta9ty4 ,i ?9k ?is a v great pity1 = ,i hold ! op9ion t ! lant]n furni%es ! mo/ enjoyable &1 9 "s cases1 ! mo/ p]fect ( all means ( %[+ good photographic pictures4 ,_m pr9ts f excell5t negatives :i* may be pass$ ov] 9 an album )\t provok+ a rem>k w1 if pr9t$ z transp>5cies & ?r[n on ! scre51 call =? expressions ( ! w>me/ admiration2 & ju/ly s1 = no pap] pr9t c d t full ju/ice to a really good negative :i* a transp>5cy does4 ,?is diff]5ce is m conspicu\s 9 ^! days ( dry gelat9e plates & h&y photographic app>atus1 :5 _m ( our mo/ int]e/+ negatives are tak5 on qu>t] or #e x #d plates ! small size ( :i* frequ5tly involves a cr[d+ ( detail1 mu* ( :i* w be invisible 9 a pap] pr9t1 b :i*1 :5 unravel$ or op5$ out1 z x 71 by means ( ! lant]n1 enhances ! beauty ( ! pictures imm5sely4 ,:5 ,i la/ _h ! pleasure ( br++ ?is subject be=e ! memb]s ( our society1 x may be rememb]$ t ,i demon/rat$ ! ease & simplicity ) :i* ^? beautiful results maybe obta9$1 by pr9t+ 9 an ord9>y pr9t+ frame by ! light ( my petroleum develop+ lamp1 rais+ "o ( its panes ( ruby glass = ! purpose = five seconds1 & !n develop+ by f]r\s oxalate until ,i got ! am\nt ( int5sity requisite4 ,on t ev5+1 9 ! c\rse ( a v j criticism by "o ( our memb]s1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,v4 ,rob9son1 he po9t$ out :at 0 und\bt$ly a defect1 viz41 a slightly opalesc5t veil+ ( ! high lights1 :i* %\ld range f absolutely b>e glass 9 ! highe/ po9ts4 ,he %[$ t1 9 consequ5ce ( ?is veil+1 ! light 0 s5sibly dim9i%$ all ov] ! picture4 ,?is veil+ ( ! high lights 0 a s]i\s disadvantage 9 ano!r important p>ticul>1 inasmu* z x less5$ ! contra/ betwe5 ! lights & %ad[s ( ! picture1 !reby robb+ x ( "s ( its *>m & det]iorat+ its quality4 ,s9ce t ev5+ ,i h endeavor$1 by a s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 to f9d out "s means by :i* ?is opalesc5ce might be got rid ( 9 ! mo/ conv5i5t mann]4 ,cem5t+ ! transp>5cy to a piece ( pla91 cle> glass ) ,canada balsam1 z sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,woodwor?1 ,i f\nd 9 practice to be op5 to two =midable objections4 ,"o ( ^! 0 t ,canada balsam us$ 9 ?is mann] is a /icky1 unpleasant sub/ance to m$dle )1 & takes a long "t--ne>ly a mon?--to h>d5 :5 conf9$ betwe5 plates 9 ?is mann]4 ,! o!r objection 0 ( extreme importance1 namely1 t1 9 consequ5ce ( comm]cial gelat9e plates n be+ prep>$ on p]fectly flat glasses 9 all cases1 ,i f\nd t1 aft] squeez+ out ! sup]flu\s balsam & ! air bubbles t might h =m$ f betwe5 ! two plates1 !y are liable to sep>ate at ! places :]e ! transp>5cy is n flat1 caus+ air bubbles to creep 9 f ! edges1 z y may see f ^! examples4 ,i1 !re=e1 h disc>d$ ?is me?od1 al?\gh x _h ! effect desir$ :5 successfully done4 ,i h hit1 h[ev]1 ^u ano!r way ( utiliz+ ,canada balsam1 :i*1 :ile reta9+ all ! good qualities ( ! =m] me?od1 is n subject to any ( its disadvantages4 ,?is consi/s 9 dilut+ ! balsam ) an equal bulk ( turp5t9e1 & us+ x z a v>ni%1 p\r+ x on l collodion1 fl[+ x t[>d ea* corn]1 & p\r+ x (f into ! bottle f ! la/ corn]1 avoid+ crapy l9es by sl[ly tilt+ ! plate1 z 9 v>ni%+4 ,if ! plate be w>m$ previ\sly1 ! v>ni% fl[s m freely & leaves a ?9n] coat+ ( balsam beh9d on ! transp>5cy4 ,:5 ! plate has ceas$ to drip1 place x 9 a plate dra9]1 ) ! corn] y p\r$ f l[e/1 & leave x :]e du/ _c get at x = f\r or five days1 :5 x w be f\nd suffici5tly h>d to be put into a plate box4 ,! transp>5cy may be f9i%$ at any "t aft]w>d by putt+ a clean glass ( ! same size along ) x1 plac+ "o ( ! blank pap] masks sold = ! purpose--ei!r circul> or cu%ion-%ap$ to suit ! subject--betwe5 ! plates1 & pa/+ n>r[ /rips ( ?9 black pap] ov] ! edges to b9d !m toge!r4 ,?is me?od is v successful1 z y may see f ! examples4 ,x r5d]s ! high lights p]fectly cle>1 & leaves a film l glass ov] all ! p>ts ( ! transp>5cy :]e ! v>ni% has fl[$4 ,9 ord] to avoid ! risk ( du/ involv$ 9 ?is process1 ,i tri$ o!r means ( arriv+ at simil> results & ) success1 = ! plates ,i n[ submit to y h be5 simply rubb$ or poli%$1 z ,i may say1 ) a mixture ( "o "p ( ,canada balsam to ?ree p>ts ( turp5t9e1 us+ ei!r a small tuft ( ,fr5* wadd+ or a small piece ( s(t rag = ! purpose1 cont9u+ ! rubb+ until ! plate is poli%$ ne>ly dry4 ,?is me?od is p>ticul>ly successful1 r5d]+ ! cle> p>ts ( ! sky l b>e glass4 ,i h "h a plate :i* is heavily veil$--almo/ fogg$1 9 fact--"o half ( :i* ,i h treat$ 9 ?is way1 %[+ t ! half s treat$ is beautifully cle>1 :ile ! o!r half is s veil$ z to be app>5tly useless4 ,i h tri$ to /ill fur!r simplify ?is necess>y cle>+ ( ^? plates1 & f9d t soak+ tor twelve h\rs 9 a saturat$ solution ( alum1 aft] wa%+ ! hypo out ( ! plate1 is successful 9 a l>ge numb] ( cases2 & :]e x is successful !re is no fur!r tr\ble ) ! transp>5cy1 except to m\nt x aft] x becomes dry4 ,:]e x is n entirely successful ,i put ! plate into a solution ( citric acid1 f\r ounces to a p9t ( wat]1 = ab\t "o m9ute1 & h 9 ne>ly all cases succe$$ 9 gett+ a beautifully-cle> plate4 ,! picture mu/ n be left long 9 ! citric acid solution1 or x w float (f2 nei!r d ,i l us+ citric acid until aft] try+ ! alum1 = a simil> reason4 ,i may m5tion t ,i recomm5d a %ort exposure 9 ! pr9t+-frame & sl[ developm5t1 9 ord] to get suffici5t int5sity4 ,( c\rse ! exposure is always made to a gas or petroleum light4 ,i also /ill pref] ! old me?od ( mak+ ! f]r\s oxalate solution1 p\r+ x back into ! bottle ea* "t aft] us+1 & us+ x = two or ?ree mon?s1 keep+ ! bottle full f a /ock bottle1 & occasionally putt+ a little dry f]r\s oxalate into ! bottle & %ak+ x up1 all[+ x to settle be=e us+ next "t4 ,by treat+ x 9 ?is way x reta9s its p[] fairly well = a long "t2 & z x becomes less active ,i give a little long] exposure1 balanc+ "o aga9/ ! o!r4 ,mak+ ! f]r\s oxalate solution f two saturat$ solutions ( iron sulphate & potassium oxalate has n succe$$ s well ) me = transp>5cies4 ,! tone ( ! picture is n s black z :5 develop$ by ! old me?od2 & ,i d n l gray transp>5cies = ! lant]n4 ,i also recomm5d v sl[ gelat9e plates1 ab\t twice z s5sitive z wet collodion--n m1 if ,i c help x4 ,i h demon/rat$1 ,i hope to y\r satisfaction1 ! possibility ( produc+ lant]n slides f comm]cial gelat9e plates ( a mo/ beautiful quality--rang+ f cle> glass to deep black1 & giv+ *>m+ gradation ( tones1 %[+ on ! scre5 a film z /ructureless z album5 slides1 )\t ! great tr\ble involv$ 9 mak+ !m4 ,y mu/ n accept ! slides put be=e y ?is ev5+ z ! be/ t c be done ) gelat9e4 ,f> f x2 !y are only ! "w ( an amateur ) v little leisure n[ to devote to _! manufacture1 & are m]ely ! result ( a s]ies ( exp]im5ts :i*1 s f> z !y h gone1 ,i n[ place be=e y4--,?omas ,mayne1 ,t4 ,c41 9 ,briti% ,j\rnal ( ,photography4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,integrat+ ,,ma*9e4 ,footnote3 ,read at a meet+ ( ! ,physical ,society1 ,feb4 #bf4 ,by ,c4,v4 ,,boys4 ,all ! integrat+ ma*9es hi!rto made1 ( :i* ,i c f9d any record1 may be class$ "u two heads1 "o ( :i*1 ,a9slee's ma*9e1 is ! sole repres5tative1 dep5d+ on ! revolution ( a disk :i* p>tly rolls & p>tly slides on ! pap]1 & ! o!r compris+ all ! rema9+ ma*9es dep5d+ on ! v>y+ diamet]s ( ! p>ts ( a roll+ sy/em4 ,n[1 none ( ^! ma*9es d _! "w by ! me?od ( ! ma!matician1 b 9 _! own way4 ,my ma*9e1 h[ev]1 is an exact me*anical translation ( ! ma!matical me?od ( integrat+ y dx1 & ?us =ms a ?ird type ( in/rum5t4 ,! ma!matical rule may be describ$ 9 words z foll[s3 ,requir$ ! area betwe5 a curve1 ! axis ( x & two ord9ates2 x is necess>y to draw a new curve1 su* t its /eepness1 z measur$ by ! tang5t ( ! incl9ation1 may be proportional to ! ord9ate ( ! giv5 curve = ! same value ( x1 !n ! asc5t made by ! new curve 9 pass+ f "o ord9ate to ! o!r is a measure ( ! area requir$4 ,! figure %[s a plan & side elevation ( a model ( ! in/rum5t1 made m]ely to te/ ! idea1 & ! arrangem5t ( ! details is n altoge!r conv5i5t4 ,! frame-"w is a k9d ( ,t squ>e1 c>ry+ a fix$ c5t]1 ,b1 :i* moves along ! axis ( x ( ! giv5 curve1 a rod pass+ always ?r\gh ,b c>ries a po9t]1 ,a1 :i* is con/ra9$ to move 9 ! v]tical l9e1 ee1 ( ! ,t squ>e1 ,a !n may be made to foll[ any giv5 curve4 ,! di/ance ( ,b f ! edge1 ee1 is con/ant2 call x ,k1 !re=e1 ! incl9ation ( ! rod1 ,,ab1 is su* t its tang5t is equal to ! ord9ate ( ! giv5 curve divid$ by ,k2 t is1 ! tang5t ( ! incl9ation is proportional to ! ord9ate2 !re=e1 z ! in/rum5t is mov$ ov] ! pap]1 ,,ab has always ! incl9ation ( ! desir$ curve4 ,! "p ( ! in/rum5t t draws ! curve is a ?ree-:eel$ c>t ( lead1 ^: front :eel1 ,f1 is m\nt$1 n z a ca/]1 b l ! /e]+ :eel ( a bicycle4 ,:5 su* a c>t is mov$1 ! front :eel1 ,f1 c only move 9 ! direction ( its own plane1 :atev] be ! position ( ! c>t2 if1 !re=e1 ! c>t is s mov$ t ,f is 9 ! l9e1 ee1 & at ! same "t has its plane p>allel to ! rod1 ,,ab1 !n ,f mu/ necess>ily describe ! requir$ curve1 & if x is made to pass ov] a %eet ( black trac+ pap]1 ! requir$ curve w be drawn4 ,! upp] end ( ! ,t squ>e is rais$ above ! pap]1 & =ms a bridge1 "u :i* ! c>t travels4 ,!re is a longitud9al slot 9 ?is bridge 9 :i* lies a horizontal :eel1 c>ri$ by t "p ( ! c>t correspond+ to ! head ( a bicycle4 ,by ?is means ! horizontal motion communicat$ to ! front :eel ( ! c>t by ! bridge1 is equal to t ( ! po9t]1 ,a2 at ! same "t ! c>t is free to move v]tically4 ,! me*anism employ$ to keep ! plane ( ! front :eel ( ! c>t p>allel to ,,ab is made cle> by ! figure4 ,?ree equal :eels at ! ends ( two jo9t$ arms are connect$ by an op5 b&1 z %[n4 ,n[1 9 an arrangem5t ( ?is k9d1 h[ev] ! arms or ! :eels are turn$1 l9es on ! :eels1 if ev] p>allel1 w always be s4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! :eel at "o end is s support$ t its rotation is equal to t ( ,,ab1 :ile ! :eel at ! o!r end is c>ri$ by ! =k :i* supports ,f1 !n ! plane ( ,f1 if ev] p>allel to ,,ab1 w always be s4 ,!re=e1 :5 ,a is made to trace any giv5 curve1 ,f w draw a curve ^: asc5t is 7#a_/,k7 f y dx1 & ?is1 multipli$ by ,k1 is ! area requir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,an ,,integrat+ ,,ma*9e4 ,n only does ! ma*9e integrate y dx1 b if ! plane ( ! front :eel ( ! c>t is set at "r angles in/ead ( p>allel to ,,ab1 !n ! c>t f9ds ! integral ( dx _/ y1 & ?us solves problems1 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! "t occupi$ by a body 9 mov+ along a pa? :5 ! law ( ! velocity is kn[n4 ,"s modifications ( ! ma*9e already describ$ w enable x to integrate squ>es1 cubes1 or products ( functions1 or ! reciprocals ( any ( ^!4 ,( ! v>i\s curves exhibit$ :i* h be5 drawn by ! ma*9e1 ! foll[+ are ( special physical int]e/4 ,giv5 ! incl9$ /raight l9e y cx1 ! ma*9e draws ! p>abola y cx _/ #b4 ,?is is ! pa? ( a projectile1 z ! space fall5 is z ! area ( ! triangle betwe5 ! incl9$ l9e1 ! axis ( x1 & ! travel+ ord9ate4 ,giv5 ! curve repres5t+ attraction y #a _/ x ! ma*9e draws ! hyp]bola y #a _/ x ! curve repres5t+ pot5tial1 z ! "w done 9 br++ a unit f an inf9ite di/ance to a po9t is measur$ by ! area betwe5 ! curve ( attraction1 ! axis ( x1 & ! ord9ate at t po9t4 ,giv5 ! log>i?mic curve y ex1 ! ma*9e draws an id5tical curve4 ,! v]tical di/ance betwe5 ^! two curves1 !re=e1 is con/ant2 if1 !n1 ! head ( ! c>t & ! po9t]1 ,a1 are connect$ by a l9k1 ?is is ! only curve !y c draw4 ,?is motion is v int]e/+1 = ! c>t pulls ! po9t] & ! po9t] directs ! c>t1 & betwe5 !y calculate a table ( ,nap]ian log>i?ms4 ,giv5 a wave-l9e1 ! ma*9e draws ano!r wave-l9e a qu>t] ( a wave-l5g? beh9d ! fir/ 9 po9t ( "t4 ,if ! fir/ l9e repres5ts ! v>y+ /r5g?s ( an induc$ electrical curr5t1 ! second %[s ! nature ( ! prim>y t w\ld produce su* a curr5t4 ,giv5 any clos$ curve1 ! ma*9e w f9d its area4 ,x ?us answ]s ! same purpose z ,a9slee's pol> planimet]1 & ?\gh n s h&y1 is free f ! defect due to ! slid+ ( ! integrat+ :eel on ! pap]4 ,! rules connect$ ) maxima & m9ima & po9ts ( inflexion are illu/rat$ by ! ma*9e1 = ! c>t _c be made to describe a maximum or a m9imum unless ! po9t]1 ,a1 crosses ! axis ( x1 or a po9t ( inflexion unless ,a passes a maximum or m9imum4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,^u ,a ,,modification ,,( ,,:eat/one',s ,,microphone ,,& ,,its ,,applicability ,,to ,,radiophonic ,,rese>*es4 ,footnote3 ,a pap] read be=e ! ,philosophical ,society ( ,wa%+ton4 ,d4 ,c41 ,june #aa1 #ahha4 ,by ,,alex&] ,,graham ,,bell4 ,9 ,augu/1 #ahhj1 ,i direct$ att5tion to ! fact t ?9 disks or diaphragms ( v>i\s mat]ials become sonor\s :5 expos$ to ! action ( an int]mitt5t beam ( sunlight1 & ,i /at$ my belief t ! s\nds 7 due to molecul> di/urbances produc$ 9 ! sub/ance compos+ ! diaphragm4#a ,%ortly aft]w>ds ,"l ,raleigh und]took a ma!matical inve/igation ( ! subject & came to ! conclusion t ! audible effects 7 caus$ by ! b5d+ ( ! plates "u unequal heat+4#b ,?is explanation has rec5tly be5 call$ 9 "q by ,mr4 ,preece1#c :o has express$ ! op9ion t al?\gh vibrations may be produc$ 9 ! disks by ! action ( ! int]mitt5t beam1 su* vibrations are n ! cause ( ! sonor\s effects obs]v$4 ,accord+ to him ! a]ial di/urbances t produce ! s\nd arise spontane\sly 9 ! air itself by sudd5 expansion due to heat communicat$ f ! diaphragm--e increase ( heat giv+ rise to a fre% pulse ( air4 ,mr4 ,preece 0 l$ to disc>d ! !oretical explanation ( ,"l ,raleigh on acc\nt ( ! failure ( exp]im5ts und]tak5 to te/ ! !ory4 ,footnote #a3 ,am]4 ,asso4 = ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce1 ,augu/ #bg1 #ahhj4 ,footnote #b3 ,nature1 vol4 xxiii41 p4 #bgd4 ,footnote #c3 ,roy4 ,soc41 ,m>4 #aj1 #ahha4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,a ,b1 ,c>bon ,supports4 ,c1 ,diaphragm4 ,he 0 ?us =c$1 by ! suppos$ insuffici5cy ( ! explanation1 to seek 9 "s o!r direction ! cause ( ! ph5om5on obs]v$1 & z a consequ5ce he adopt$ ! +5i\s hypo!sis allud$ to above4 ,b ! exp]im5ts :i* _h prov$ unsuccessful 9 ! h&s ( ,mr4 ,preece 7 p]fectly successful :5 repeat$ 9 ,am]ica "u bett] conditions ( exp]im5t1 & ! suppos$ necessity = ano!r hypo!sis at once vani%$4 ,i h %[n 9 a rec5t pap] read be=e ! ,national ,academy ( ,sci5ce1#a t audible s\nds result f ! expansion & contraction ( ! mat]ial expos$ to ! beam1 & t a real to-&-fro vibration ( ! diaphragm occurs capable ( produc+ sonor\s effects4 ,x has occurr$ to me t ,mr4 ,preece's failure to detect1 ) a delicate microphone1 ! sonor\s vibrations t 7 s easily obs]v$ 9 our exp]im5ts1 might be expla9$ ^u ! supposition t he _h employ$ ! ord9>y =m ( ,hughes's microphone %[n 9 ,fig4 #a1 & t ! vibrat+ area 0 conf9$ to ! c5tral portion ( ! disk4 ,"u su* circum/ances x might easily happ5 t bo? ! supports 7a b7 ( ! microphone might t\* portions ( ! diaphragm :i* 7 practically at re/4 ,x w\ld ( c\rse be int]e/+ to asc]ta9 :e!r any su* localization ( ! vibration z t suppos$ really occurr$1 & ,i h great pleasure 9 %[+ to y tonight ! app>atus by means ( :i* ?is po9t has be5 inve/igat$ 7see ,fig4 #b74 ,footnote #a3 ,april #ba1 #ahha4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,a1 ,/iff wire4 ,b1 ,diaphragm4 ,c1 ,he>+ tube4 ,d1 ,p]=at$ h&le4 ,! in/rum5t is a modification ( ! =m ( microphone devis$ 9 #ahgb by ! late ,sir ,*>les ,:eat/one1 & x consi/s ess5tially ( a /iff wire1 ,a1 "o end ( :i* is rigidly atta*$ to ! c5t] ( a metallic diaphragm1 ,b4 ,9 ,:eat/one's orig9al arrangem5t ! diaphragm 0 plac$ directly aga9/ ! e>1 & ! free extremity ( ! wire 0 re/$ aga9/ "s s\nd+ body--l a wat*4 ,9 ! pres5t arrangem5t ! diaphragm is clamp$ at ! circumf]5ce l a telephone diaphragm1 & ! s\nds are convey$ to ! e> ?r\gh a rubb] he>+ tube1 c4 ,! wire passes ?r\gh ! p]=at$ h&le1 ,d1 & is expos$ only at ! extremity4 ,:5 ! po9t1 ,a1 0 re/$ aga9/ ! c5t] ( a diaphragm ^u :i* 0 focus$ an int]mitt5t beam ( sunlight1 a cle> musical tone 0 p]ceiv$ by apply+ ! e> to ! he>+ tube1 c4 ,! surface ( ! diaphragm 0 !n explor$ ) ! po9t ( ! microphone1 & s\nds 7 obta9$ 9 all p>ts ( ! illum9at$ area & 9 ! correspond+ area on ! o!r side ( ! diaphragm4 ,outside ( ?is area on bo? sides ( ! diaphragm ! s\nds became weak] & weak]1 until1 at a c]ta9 di/ance f ! c5t]1 !y c\ld no long] be p]ceiv$4 ,at ! po9t :]e we w\ld naturally place ! supports ( a ,hughes microphone 7see ,fig4 #a7 no s\nd 0 obs]v$4 ,we 7 also unable to detect any audible effects :5 !po9t ( ! microphone 0 re/$ aga9/ ! support to :i* ! diaphragm 0 atta*$4 ,! negative results obta9$ 9 ,europe by ,mr4 ,preece may1 !re=e1 be reconcil$ ) ! positive results obta9$ 9 ,am]ica by ,mr4 ,ta9t] & myself4 ,a /ill m curi\s demon/ration ( localization ( vibration occurr$ 9 ! case ( a l>ge metallic mass4 ,an int]mitt5t beam ( sunlight 0 focus$ ^u a brass weight 7#a kilogramme71 & ! surface ( ! weight 0 !n explor$ ) ! microphone %[n 9 ,fig4 #b4 ,a feeble b di/9ct s\nd 0 he>d ^u t\*+ ! surface )9 ! illum9at$ area & = a %ort di/ance outside1 b n 9 o!r p>ts4 ,9 ?is exp]im5t1 z 9 ! case ( ! ?9 diaphragm1 absolute contact betwe5 ! po9t ( ! microphone & ! surface explor$ 0 necess>y 9 ord] to obta9 audible effects4 ,n[ ,i d n mean to d5y t s\nd waves may be orig9at$ 9 ! mann] sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,preece1 b ,i ?9k t our exp]im5ts h demon/rat$ t ! k9d ( action describ$ by ,"l ,raleigh actually occurs1 & t x is suffici5t to acc\nt = ! audible effects obs]v$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 conta9+ brief notices ( _m important sci5tific pap]s h]et(ore publi%$ 9 ! ,,supplem5t1 may be _h gratis at ?is (fice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t4 ,,publi%$ ,,weekly4 ,,t]ms ,,( ,,subscription1 #e ,a ,,ye>4 ,s5t by mail1 po/age prepaid1 to subscrib]s 9 any "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates or ,canada4 ,six doll>s a ye>1 s5t1 prepaid1 to any =eign c\ntry4 ,all ! back numb]s ( ,,! ,,supplem5t1 f ! comm5cem5t1 ,janu>y #a1 #ahgf1 c be _h4 ,price1 #aj c5ts ea*4 ,all ! back volumes ( ,,! ,,supplem5t c likewise be suppli$4 ,two volumes are issu$ ye>ly4 ,price ( ea* volume1 #b4ej1 /it*$ 9 pap]1 or #c4ej1 b\nd 9 /iff cov]s4 ,,comb9$ ,,rates--,"o copy ( ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican & "o copy ( ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t1 "o ye>1 po/paid1 #g4jj4 ,a lib]al disc\nt to booksell]s1 news ag5ts1 & canvass]s4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publi%]s1 #cg ,,p>k ,,r[1 ,,new ,,york1 ,n4 ,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pat5ts4 ,9 connection ) ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,co4 are ,solicitors ( ,am]ican & ,=eign ,pat5ts1 h _h #ce ye>s' exp]i5ce1 & n[ h ! l>ge/ e/abli%m5t 9 ! _w4 ,pat5ts are obta9$ on ! be/ t]ms4 ,a special notice is made 9 ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ( all ,inv5tions pat5t$ ?r\gh ?is ,ag5cy1 ) ! "n & resid5ce ( ! ,pat5tee4 ,by ! imm5se circulation ?us giv51 public att5tion is direct$ to ! m]its ( ! new pat5t1 & sales or introduction (t5 easily effect$4 ,any p]son :o has made a new discov]y or inv5tion c asc]ta91 free ( *>ge1 :e!r a pat5t c probably be obta9$1 by writ+ to ,,munn ,co4 ,we also s5d free our ,h& ,book ab\t ! ,pat5t ,laws1 ,pat5ts1 ,caveats4 ,trade ,m>ks1 _! co/s1 & h[ procur$1 ) h9ts = procur+ advances on inv5tions4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cg ,,p>k ,,r[1 ,,new ,,york4 ,bran* ,(fice1 cor4 ,f & #g? ,/s41 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c4