,illustration     ,,scientific          
,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #cjc      
,,new ,,york1 ,,october #bb1 #ahha      
,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4
 ,,xii1 ,no4 #cjc4  ,scientific         
,american established #ahde  ,scientific
 ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4      
,scientific ,american and ,supplement1  
#g a year4          99       99       99
       99       99       ,,table ,,of   
,,contents  ,i4   ,,engineering ,,and   
,,mechanics4--,new ,eighty-ton ,steam   
,hammer at the ,saint      ,chamond     
,works1 ,france4--#g                    
figures4--,elevation of                 
hammer4--,profile--      ,transverse    
section4--,profile view of foundation1  
etc4--,plan of      plant4--,general    
plan of the forging mill4--,details of  
truss and      support for the cranes4  
,great ,steamers4--,comparative details 
of the ,servia1 the ,city of ,rome1     
the ,alaska1 and the ,great ,eastern4   
,improved ,road ,locomotive4--#b        
figures4--,side and end views           

,american ,milling ,methods4 ,by        
,,albert ,,hoppin4--,ten years'         
progress4--,low      milling4--,half    
high milling4--,high                    
milling4--,important paper read         
before the ,pennsylvania ,state         
,millers' ,association4       ,machine  
for ,dotting ,tulles and other ,light   
,fabrics4--#c figures4  ,,ii4           
,,technology ,,and ,,chemistry4--,the   
,reproduction and ,multiplication of    
,negatives4 ,by ,,ernest ,,edwards4     
,a ,new ,method of ,making ,gelatine    
,emulsion4 ,by ,w4 ,k4 ,,burton4        
,the ,pottery and ,porcelain ,industries
 of ,japan4       ,crystallization      
,table4       ,the ,principles of ,hop  
,analysis4 ,by ,dr4 ,g4 ,o4 ,,cech4     
,water ,gas4--,a description of         
apparatus for producing cheap gas1 and  
some notes on the economical effects of 
using such gas with gas      motors1    
etc4--,by ,j4 ,,emerson ,,dowson4       
,on the ,fluid ,density of ,certain     
,metals4 ,by ,professors ,,chandler     

,,roberts      and ,t4 ,,wrigleson4     
,,iii4 ,,physics1 ,,electricity1        
,,etc4--,electric ,power4--,the nature  
and uses of                             
electricity4--,electricity vs4 steam4   
,on the ,method of ,obtaining and       
,measuring ,very ,high ,vacua with a    
,modified ,form of ,sprengel ,pump4 ,by 
,prof ,,ogden ,n4 ,,rood4--#d figures4--
      ,apparatus for obtaining vacua of 
one four hundred-millionth of an        
atmosphere--,construction4--,manipulatio
n4--,calculations4--,results  ,,iv4     
,,art1 ,,architecture1 ,,etc4--,old     
,wrought ,iron ,gates1 ,guildhall4      
,worcester1 ,england4 #a figure4        
,the ,french ,crystal ,palace1 ,park of 
,st4 ,cloud1 ,paris4 #a full page       
illustration4       ,suggestions in     
,architecture4 ,a ,castellated ,chateau4
 ,perspective and      plan4 ,chateau in
 the gean ,sea4  ,v4   ,,hygiene ,,and  
,,medicine4--,hydrophobia ,prevented by 
,vaccination4       ,on ,diptera as     
,spreaders of ,disease4 ,by ,j4 ,w4     

,,slater4       ,on the ,relations of   
,minute ,organisms to ,certain ,specific
 ,diseases4  ,,vi4  ,,astronomy--,the   
,centenary of the ,discovery of ,uranus4
 ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,denning4      #b figures4
 ,approximate place of ,uranus among the
 stars at its      discovery1 ,march    
l#c1 #ahga4--,orbits of the ,uranian    
,satellites4  ,,vii4 ,,biology1         
,,etc4--,the ,varying ,susceptibility of
 ,plants and ,animals to      ,poisons  
and ,disease4       ,kind ,treatment of 
,horses4         99       99       99   
99       99     ,,new ,,eighty ,,ton    
,,steam ,,hammer ,,at ,,the ,,saint     
,,chamond ,,works   ,ever since the     
improvements that have been introduced  
into the manufacture of steel1 and      
especially into the erection of works   
for its production1 have made it        
possible to obtain this metal in very   
large masses1 it has necessarily been   
preferred to iron for all pieces of     
large dimensions1 inasmuch as it        
possesses in the highest degree that    

homogeneousness and resistance which are
 so difficult to obtain in the latter   
metal4 ,it has consequently been found  
necessary to construct engines          
sufficiently powerful to effect the     
forging of enormous ingots1 as well as  
special furnaces for heating them and   
apparatus for manipulating and          
transporting them4  ,the greatest       
efforts in this direction have been made
 with a view to supplying the wants of  
heavy artillery and of naval            
constructions2 and to these efforts is  
metallurgy indebted for the creation of 
establishments on a scale that no one   
would have dared a few years ago to     
think of4 ,the forging mill which we are
 about to describe is one of those      
creations which is destined to remain   
for a long time yet very rare2 and one  
which is fully able to respond1 not only
 to all present exigencies1 but also1 as
 far as can be foreseen1 to all those   
that may arise for a long period to     
come4 ,the mill is constructed as a     

portion of the vast works that the      
,compagnie des ,forges et ,aciries de la
 ,marine own at ,saint ,chamond1 and    
which embrace likewise a powerful steel 
works that furnishes1 especially1 large 
ingots exceeding #ajj tons in weight4   
,the mill consists1 altogether1 of three
 hammers1 located in the same room1 and 
being of unequal powers in order to     
respond to different requirements4 ,the 
largest of these hammers is of #hj tons 
weight1 and the other two weigh         
respectively #ce and #bh tons4 ,each of 
them has a corresponding furnace for    
heating by gas1 as well as cranes for   
maneuvering the ingots and the different
 engines4 ,the general plan view in     
,fig4 #d shows the arrangement of the   
hammers1 cranes1 and furnaces in the    
millhouse4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
,a4--,,elevation ,,of ,a ,,hammer4      
,,fig4 ,b4--,,profile ,,view  ,the gas  
generators which supply the gas-furnaces
 are located out of doors1 as are the   
steam-generators4 ,the ingots are       

brought from the steel factory1 and the 
forged pieces are taken away1 by special
 trucks running on a system of rails4   
,we shall now give the most important   
details in regard to the different parts
 of the works4  ,the ,mill-,house--,this
 consists of a central room1 #bfb feet  
long1 #ih feet wide1 and #fh feet in    
height1 with two lean-to annexes of #af 
feet each1 making the total width #ajj  
feet4 ,the structure is wholly of metal1
 and is so arranged as to permit of     
advantage being taken of every foot of  
space under cover4 ,for this purpose the
 system of construction without         
tie-beams1 known as the ,de ,dion type1 
has been adopted4 ,fig4 #a gives a      
general view of one of the trusses1 and 
,fig4 #e shows some further details4    
,the binding-rafters consist of four    
angle-irons connected by cross-bars of  
flat iron4 ,the covering of corrugated  
galvanized iron rests directly upon the 
binding-rafters1 the upper parts of     
which are covered with wood for the     

attachment of the corrugated metal4 ,the
 spacing of these rafters is calculated 
according to the length of the sheets of
 corrugated iron1 thus dispensing with  
the use of ordinary rafters1 and making 
a roof which is at once very light and  
very durable1 and consequently very     
economical4 ,rain falling on the roof   
flows into leaden gutters1 from whence  
it is carried by leaders into a         
subterranean drain4 ,the vertical walls 
of the structure are likewise of        
corrugated iron1 and the general aspect 
of the building is very original and    
very satisfactory4  ,the #hj ,ton       
,hammer--,the three hammers1            
notwithstanding their difference in     
power1 present similar arrangements1 and
 scarcely vary except in dimensions4 ,we
 shall confine ourselves here to a      
description of the #hj ton apparatus4   
,this consists1 in addition to the      
hammer1 properly so called1 of three    
cranes of #abj tons each1 serving to    
maneuver the pieces to be forged1 and of

 a fourth of #ge tons for maneuvering   
the working implements4 ,these four     
cranes are arranged symmetrically around
 the hammer1 and are supported at their 
upper extremity by metallic stays4      
,besides the foregoing there are three  
gas furnaces for heating the ingots4    
,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c show the general  
arrangement of the apparatus4           
,foundations of the ,hammer and         
,composition of the ,anvil-,bed--,to    
obtain a foundation for the hammer an   
excavation was made to a depth of #bf   
feet until a bed of solid rock was      
reached1 and upon this there was then   
spread a thick layer of beton1 and upon 
this again there was placed a bed of    
dressed stones in the part that was to  
receive the anvil-stock and hammer4  ,on
 this base of dressed stones there was  
placed a bed formed of logs of heartwood
 of oak squaring #af inches by #c feet  
in height1 standing upright1 joined     
together very perfectly1 and kept in    
close juxtaposition by a double band of 

iron straps joined by bolts4 ,the object
 of this wooden bed was to deaden1 in a 
great measure1 the effect of the shock  
transmitted by the anvil-stock4  ,,new  
,,eighty-,,ton ,,steam ,,hammer ,,at    
,,the ,,st ,,chamond ,,works4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,transverse 
,,section4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#b4--,,plan4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#c4--,,profile ,,view4  ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #d4--;,,general ,,plan ,,of ,,the
 ,,forging ,,mill4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #e4--;,,details ,,of ,,the       
,,trussand ,,support ,,for ,,the        
,,crane4  ,the ,anvil-,stock4--,the     
anvil-stock1 which is pyramidal in      
shape1 and the total weight of which    
amounts to #ejj tons1 is composed of    
superposed courses1 each formed of one  
or two blocks of cast iron4 ,each course
 and every contact was very carefully   
planed in order to make sure of a       
perfect fitting of the parts2 and all   
the different blocks were connected by  
means of mortises1 by hot bandaging1 and

 by joints with key-pieces1 in such a   
way as to effect a perfect solidity of  
the parts and to make the whole compact 
and impossible to get out of shape4     
,the anvil-stock was afterwards         
surrounded by a filling-in of masonry   
composed of rag-stones and a mortar made
 of cement and hydraulic lime4 ,this    
masonry also forms the foundation for   
the standards of the hammer1 and is     
capped with dressed stone to receive the
 bed-plates4  ,the ,power-,hammer       
7,figs4 ,a and ,b74--,the power-hammer1 
properly so-called1 consists1 in        
addition to the hammer-head1 of two     
standards to whose inner sides are      
bolted guides upon which slides the     
moving mass4 ,the bed-plates of cast    
iron are #bh inches thick1 and are      
independent of the anvil-stock4 ,they   
are set into the bed of dressed stone   
capping the foundation1 and are         
connected together by bars of iron and  
affixed to the masonry by foundation    
bolts4 ,to these bedplates are affixed  

the standards by means of bolts and     
keys4 ,the two standards are connected  
together by iron plates four inches in  
thickness1 which are set into the metal 
and bolted to it so as to secure the    
utmost strength and solidity4 ,the      
platform which connects the upper       
extremities of the standards supports   
the steam cylinder and the apparatus for
 distributing the steam4 ,the latter    
consists of a throttle valve1 twelve    
inches in diameter1 and an eduction     
valve eighteen inches in diameter1 the  
maneuvering of which is done by means of
 rods extending down to a platform upon 
which the engineman stands4 ,this       
platform is so situated that all orders 
can be distinctly heard by the          
engineman1 and so that he shall be      
protected from the heat radiated by the 
steel that is being forged4 ,all the    
maneuvers of the hammers are effected   
with most wonderful facility and with   
the greatest precision4  ,the piston is 
of cast-steel1 and the rod is of iron1  

#ab inches in diameter4 ,the waste steam
 is carried out of the mill by a pipe1  
and1 before being allowed to escape into
 the atmosphere1 is directed into an    
expansion pipe which it penetrates from 
bottom to top4 ,here a portion of the   
water condenses and flows off1 and the  
steam then escapes into the open air    
with a greatly diminished pressure4 ,the
 object of this arrangement is to       
diminish to a considerable extent the   
shocks and disagreeable noise that would
 be produced by the direct escape of the
 steam at quite a high pressure and also
 to avoid the fall of condensed water4  
,the following are a few details        
regarding the construction of the       
hammer3    ,total height of             
foundations44444444444 #bf    ft4       
,from the ground to the platform 444444 
#bh         ,platform                   
444444444444444444444444444444 #c4be    
,height of cylinder44444444444444444444 
#ba                                     
,total height4444444444444444444444     

#gh4be ft4    ,weight of                
anvil-stock4444444444444444 #ejj tons4  
,weight of bed-plates44444444444444444  
#abb     ,weight of                     
standards444444444444444444 #bgj        
,weight of platform and cylinder444444  
#adh     ,piston1 valves1 engineman's   
platform1     hammer1                   
etc444444444444444444444444 #afj        
,total weight4444444444444444444 #a1bjj 
tons4    ,weight of the                 
hammer444444444444444444 #hj tons4      
,maximum fall44444444444444444444444444 
#be4ge ft4   ,distance apart of the     
standards4444444 #ba4f      ,width of   
hammer44444444444444444444444  #f       
,pressure of steam444444444444444444444 
#af lb4   ,effective pressure to lift   
#hj tons4444  #g   ,description of      
,figures4--,a1 the #hj-ton hammer2 ,b1  
,b#a1 ,b#b1 cranes2 ,c1 ,c#a1 ,c#b1     
supports of cranes2 ,d1 ,d#a1 ,d#b1 gas 
furnaces2 ,a#a1 the #ce-ton hammer2     
,a#b1 the #bh-ton hammer2 ,,ee1         
railways2 ,f1 engineman's platform2 ,g1 

lever for maneuvering the throttle      
valve2 ,h1 an ingot being forged4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,,great ,,steamers4   ,the ,brooklyn    
,eagle gives a very interesting         
description of the three new steamships 
now almost completed and shortly to be  
placed in the ,new ,york and ,liverpool 
trade by the ,cunard1 ,inman1 and       
,williams and ,guion lines4 ,the writer 
has prepared a table comparing the three
 vessels with each other and with the   
,great ,eastern1 the only ship of       
greater dimensions ever built4 ,we give 
as much of the article as our space will
 allow1 and regret that we have not the 
room to give it entire3       ,line4    
,cunard4       ,inman4        ,guion4   
,admiralty4     ,vessel4        ,servia 
,city of ,rome4    ,alaska4    ,great#a 
,length        #ecj feet4     #edf feet4
     #ebj feet4     #fgi feet4          
,breadth        #eb feet4      #eb ft4  
#c in4  #ej ft4 #f in4  #hb feet4       
,depth          #dd ft4 #i in4  #cg     

feet4      #ch feet4      #fj feet4     
,gross ton'ge     #h1ejj         #h1cjj 
#h1jjj      #ac1cddb   ,horse pow'r     
#aj1ejj        #aj1jjj        #aa1jjj   
#b1fjj   ,speed          #ag knots4     
#ah knots4     #ah knots4    #ad knots4 
,sal'n pas-                             
#cbj and #eb     sengers4       #dej    
#cjj          #b;d class   ,steerage    
#fjj         #a1ejj         #a1jjj      
,where          ,clydeb'nk     ,barrow  
in      ,clyde1     built4              
,thomson       ,furness       ,elder    
,date of     sailing4     ,october #bb  
,october #ac    ,november #e  ,footnote 
#a3 ,to be sold at auction soon4        
,footnote #b3 ,net register4  ,in #ahgj 
the total tonnage of ,british steam     
shipping was #a1aaa1cge2 the returns for
 the year #ahgf showed an increase to   
#b1aej1cjb tons1 and from that time to  
the present it has been increasing still
 more rapidly4 ,but1 as can be seen from
 the above table1 not only has the total
 tonnage increased to this enormous     

extent1 but an immense advance has been 
made in increasing the size of vessels4 
,the reason for this is1 that it has    
been found that where speed is required1
 along with large cargo and passenger   
accommodation1 a vessel of large        
dimensions is necessary1 and will give  
what is required with the least         
proportionate first cost as well as     
working cost4 ,up to the present time   
the ,inman line possessed1 in the ,city 
of ,berlin1 of #e1dia tons1 the vessel  
of largest tonnage in existence4 ,now1  
however1 the ,berlin is surpassed by the
 ,city of ,rome by nearly #c1jjj tons1  
and the latter is less1 by #bjj tons1   
than the ,servia1 of the ,cunard line4  
,it will be observed1 too1 that while   
there is not much difference between the
 three vessels in point of length1 the  
depth of the ,alaska and the ,city of   
,rome1 respectively1 is only #ch feet   
and #cg feet1 that of the ,servia is    
nearly #de feet as compared with that of
 the ,great ,eastern of #fj feet4 ,this 

makes the ,servia1 proportionately1 the 
deepest ship of all4 ,all three vessels 
are built of steel4 ,this metal was     
chosen not only because of its greater  
strength as against iron1 but also      
because it is more ductile and the      
advantage of less weight is gained1 as  
will be seen when it is mentioned that  
the ,servia1 if built of iron1 would    
have weighed #fbj tons more than she    
does of steel1 and would have entailed  
the drawback of a corresponding increase
 in draught of water4 ,as regards rig1  
the three vessels have each a different 
style4 ,the ,cunard ,company have       
adhered to their special rig--three     
masts1 bark rigged--believing it to be  
more ship shape than the practice of    
fitting up masts according to the length
 of the ship4 ,on these masts there is a
 good spread of canvas to assist in     
propelling the ship4 ,the ,city of ,rome
 is rigged with four masts2 and here the
 handsome full-ship rig of the ,inman   
line has been adhered to1 with the      

addition of the fore and aft rigged     
jigger mast1 rendered necessary by the  
enormous length of the vessel4 ,it will 
be seen that the distinctive type of the
 ,inman line has not been departed from 
in respect to the old fashioned but     
still handsome profile1 with clipper    
bow1 figurehead1 and bowsprit--which    
latter makes the ,rome's length over all
 #fjj feet4 ,for the figurehead has been
 chosen a full length figure of one of  
the ,roman ,csars1 in the imperial      
purple4 ,altogether1 the ,city of ,rome 
is the most imposing and beautiful sight
 that can be seen on the water4 ,the    
,alaska has also four masts1 but only   
two crossed4  ,the length of the ,city  
of ,rome1 as compared with breadth1     
insures long and easy lines for the high
 speed required2 and the depth of hold  
being only #cg feet1 as compared with   
the beam of #eb feet1 insures great     
stability and the consequent comfort of 
the passengers4 ,a point calling for    
special notice is the large number of   

separate compartments formed by water   
tight bulkheads1 each extending to the  
main deck4 ,the largest of these        
compartments is only about #fj feet     
long2 and1 supposing that from collision
 or some other cause1 one of these was  
filled with water1 the trim of the      
vessel would not be materially affected4
 ,with a view to giving still further   
safety in the event of collision or     
stranding1 the boilers are arranged in  
two boiler rooms1 entirely separated    
from each other by means of a water     
tight iron bulkhead4 ,this reduces what1
 in nearly all full-powered steamships1 
is a vast single compartment1 into two  
of moderate size1 #fj feet in length2   
and in the event of either boiler room  
being flooded1 it still leaves the      
vessel with half her boiler power       
available1 giving a speed of from       
thirteen to fourteen knots per hour4    
,the vessel's decks are of iron1 covered
 with teak planking2 while the whole of 
the deck houses1 with turtle decks and  

other erections on the upper deck1 are  
of iron1 to stand the strains of an     
,atlantic winter4 ,steam is supplied by 
eight cylindrical tubular boilers1 fired
 from both ends1 each of the boilers    
being #ai feet long and having #ad feet 
mean diameter4 ,there are in all forty  
eight furnaces4 ,the internal           
arrangements are of the finest          
description4 ,there are two smoking     
rooms1 and in the after deckhouse is a  
deck saloon for ladies1 which is fitted 
up in the most elegant manner1 and will 
prevent the necessity of going below in 
showery weather4 ,at the sides of the   
hurricane deck are carried twelve life  
boats1 one of which is fitted as a steam
 launch4 ,the upper saloon or           
drawing-room is #ajj feet long1 the     
height between decks being #i feet4 ,the
 grand dining-saloon is #eb feet long1  
#eb feet wide1 and #i feet high1 or #ag 
feet in the way of the large opening to 
the drawing-room above4 ,this opening is
 surmounted by a skylight1 and forms a  

very effective and elegant relief to the
 otherwise flat and heavy ceiling4      
,there are three large and fourteen     
small dining tables1 the large tables   
being arranged longitudinally in the    
central part of the saloon1 and the     
small tables at right angles on the     
sides4 ,each diner has his own revolving
 arm chair1 and accommodation is        
provided for #bej persons at once4 ,a   
large ,american organ is fixed at the   
fore end of the room1 and opening off   
through double spring doors at the foot 
of the grand staircase is a handsome    
,american luncheon bar1 with the usual  
fittings4 ,on each side of the vessel1  
from the saloon to the after end of the 
engine room1 are placed staterooms      
providing for #cjj passengers4 ,the     
arrangements for steerage passengers are
 of a superior description4 ,the berths 
are arranged in single tiers or half    
rooms1 not double1 as is usually the    
custom1 each being separated by a       
passage1 and having a large side light1 

thus adding greatly to the light1       
ventilation1 and comfort of the steerage
 passengers1 and necessitating the      
advantage of a smaller number of persons
 in each room4 ,the ,city of ,rome is   
the first of the two due here2 she sails
 from ,liverpool on ,october #ac4  ,in  
the ,servia the machinery consists of   
three cylinder compound surface         
condensing engines1 one cylinder being  
#gb inches1 and two #ajj inches in      
diameter1 with a stroke of piston of #f 
feet #f inches4 ,there are seven boilers
 and thirty-nine furnaces4 ,practically 
the ,servia is a five decker1 as she is 
built with four decks--of steel1 covered
 with yellow pine--and a promenade      
reserved for passengers4 ,there is a    
music room on the upper deck1 which is  
#ej feet by #bb feet1 and which is      
handsomely fitted up with polished wood 
panelings4 ,for the convenience of the  
passengers there are no less than four  
different entrances from the upper deck 
to the cabins4 ,the saloon is #gd feet  

by #di feet1 with sitting accommodations
 for #cej persons1 while the clear      
height under the beams is #h feet #f    
inches4 ,the sides are all in fancy     
woods1 with beautifully polished inlaid 
panels1 and all the upholstery of the   
saloon is of morocco leather4 ,for      
two-thirds of its entire length the     
lower deck is fitted up with first class
 staterooms4 ,the ship is divided into  
nine water-tight bulkheads1 and she is  
built according to the ,admiralty       
requirements for war purposes4 ,there   
are in all twelve boats equipped as     
life-boats4 ,the ,servia possesses a    
peculiarity which will add to her       
safety1 namely1 a double bottom1 or     
inner skin4 ,thus1 were she to ground on
 rocks1 she would be perfectly safe1 so 
long as the inner skin remained intact4 
,steam is used for heating the cabins   
and saloons1 and by this means the      
temperature can be properly adjusted in 
all weathers4 ,in every part of the     
vessel the most advanced scientific     

improvements have been adopted4 ,the    
,servia leaves ,liverpool on ,october   
#bb4  ,the ,alaska1 whose owners1 it is 
understood1 are determined to make her  
beat all afloat in speed1 does not sail 
until ,november #e1 and therefore it is 
premature to say anything about her     
interior equipments4 ,she is the sister 
of the celebrated ,arizona1 and was     
built by the well-known firm of ,elder  
,co41 on the ,clyde4         99       99
       99       99       99             
,,improved ,,road ,,locomotive4         
,several attempts have been made to     
connect the leading wheels of a traction
 engine with the driving wheels1 so as  
to make drivers of all of them1 and thus
 increase the tractive power of the     
engine1 and to afford greater facilities
 for getting along soft ground or out of
 holes4 ,the wheels with continuous     
railway and ,india-rubber tires have    
been employed to gain the required      
adhesion1 but these wheels have been too
 costly1 and the attempts to couple     

driving and leading wheels have failed4 
,the arrangement for making the leading 
wheels into drivers1 illustrated on page
 #dhbe1 has been recently brought out by
 the ,durham and ,north ,yorkshire      
,steam ,cultivation ,company1 ,ripon1   
the design being by ,messrs4 ,johnson   
and ,phillips4 ,the invention consists  
in mounting the leading axle in a ball  
and long socket1 the socket being       
rotated in fixed bearings4 ,the ball    
having but limited range of motion in   
the socket1 is driven round with it1 but
 is free to move in azimuth for         
steering4  ,this engine has now been in 
use more than twelve months in traction 
and thrashing work1 and1 we are         
informed1 with complete success4 ,the   
illustrations represent a #g-;horse     
power1 with a cylinder #h in4 diameter  
by #ab in4 stroke1 and steam jacketed4  
,the shafts and axles are of ,bowling   
iron4 ,the boiler contains #adj ft4 of  
heating surface1 and is made entirely of
 ,bowling iron1 with the longitudinal   

seams welded4 ,the gearing is fitted    
with two speeds arranged to travel at #a
 and #c miles per hour1 and the front or
 hind road wheels can be put out of gear
 when not required4 ,the hind driving   
wheels are #e ft4 #f in4 diameter1 and  
the front wheels #e ft42 weight of      
engine #h tons4--,the ,engineer4        
,illustration3 ,,improved ,,road        
,,locomotive  ,illustration3 ,,improved 
,,road ,,locomotive         99       99 
99       99       99     ,,american     
,,milling ,,methods4  ,footnote #a3 ,a  
paper read before the meeting of the    
,pennsylvania ,state ,millers           
,association at ,pittsburgh1 ,pa41 by   
,albert ,hoppin1 ,editor of the         
,northwestern ,miller4  ,by ,,albert    
,,hoppin4   ,to speak of the wonderful  
strides which the art of milling has    
taken during the past decade has become 
exceedingly trite4 ,this progress1      
patent to the most casual observer1 is a
 marked example of the power inherent in
 man to overcome natural obstacles4 ,had

 the climatic conditions of the         
,northwest allowed the raising of as    
good winter wheat as that raised in     
winter wheat sections generally1 ,i     
doubt if we should hear so much to-day  
of new processes and gradual reduction  
systems4 ,so long as the great bulk of  
our supply of breadstuffs came from the 
winter wheat fields1 progress was very  
slow2 the mills of #ahfj1 and ,i may    
even say of #ahgj1 being but little in  
advance1 so far as processes were       
concerned1 of those built half a century
 earlier4 ,the reason for this lack of  
progress may be found in the ease with  
which winter wheat could be made into   
good1 white1 merchantable flour4 ,that  
this flour was inferior to the flour    
turned out by winter wheat mills now is 
proven by the old recipe for telling    
good flour from that which was bad1     
viz43 ,to throw a handful against the   
side of the barrel1 if it stuck there it
 was good1 the color being of a         
yellowish cast4 ,what good winter wheat 

patent to-day will do this8 ,still the  
old time winter wheat flour was the best
 there was1 and it had no competitor4   
,the settling up of the ,northwest which
 could not produce winter wheat at all1 
but which did produce a most superior   
article of hard spring wheat1 was a new 
factor in the milling problem4 ,the     
first mills built in the spring wheat   
,states tried to make flour on the old  
system and made a most lamentable       
failure of it4 ,i can remember when the 
farmer in ,wisconsin1 who liked a good  
loaf of bread1 thought it necessary to  
raise a little patch of winter wheat for
 his own use4 ,he oftener failed than   
succeeded1 and most frequently gave it  
up as a bad job4 ,spring wheat was hard1
 with a very tender1 brittle bran4 ,if  
ground fine enough to make a good yield 
a good share of the bran went into the  
flour1 making it dark and specky4 ,if   
not so finely ground the flour was      
whiter1 but the large percentage of     
middlings made the yield per bushel     

ruinously small4 ,these middlings       
contained the choicest part of the flour
 producing part of the berry1 but owing 
to the dirt1 germ1 and other impurities 
mixed with them1 it was impossible to   
regrind them except for a low grade     
flour4 ,merchant milling of spring wheat
 was impossible wherever the flour came 
in competition with winter wheat flours4
 ,at ,minneapolis1 where the millers had
 an almost unlimited water power1 and   
wheat at the lowest price1 merchant     
milling was almost given up as          
impracticable4 ,it was certainly        
unprofitable4 ,to the apparently        
insurmountable obstacles in the way of  
milling spring wheat successfully1 we   
may ascribe the progress of modern      
milling4 ,had it been as easy to raise  
good winter wheat in ,wisconsin and     
,minnesota as in ,pennsylvania and      
,ohio1 or as easy to make white flour   
from spring as from winter wheat1 we    
should not have heard of purifiers and  
roller mills for years to come4  ,the   

first step in advance was the           
introduction of a machine to purify     
middlings4 ,it was found that the flour 
made from these purified middlings was  
whiter than the flour from the first    
grinding and brought a better price than
 even winter wheat flours4 ,then the aim
 was to make as many middlings as       
possible4 ,to do this and still clean   
the bran so as to make a reasonable     
yield the dress of the burrs was more   
carefully attended to1 the old fashioned
 cracks were left out1 the faces and    
furrows made smooth1 true1 and uniform1 
self-adjusting drivers introduced1 and  
the driving gear better fitted4 ,spring 
wheat patents rapidly rose to the first 
place in the market1 and winter wheat   
millers waked up to find their vantage  
ground occupied by their hitherto       
contemned rivals4 ,to their credit it   
may be said that they have not been slow
 in taking up the gauntlet1 and through 
the competition of the millers of the   
two climatically divided sections of    

this country with each other and among  
themselves the onward march of milling  
progress has been constantly            
accelerated4 ,where it will end no man  
can tell1 and the chief anxiety of every
 progressive miller1 whether he lives in
 ,pennsylvania or ,minnesota1 is not to 
be left behind in the race4  ,the       
millers of the more ,eastern winter     
wheat ,states have a two-fold question  
to solve4 ,first1 how to make a flour as
 good as can be found in the market1 and
 second1 how to meet ,western           
competition1 which1 through cheap raw   
material and discriminating freight     
rates1 is making serious inroads upon   
the local markets4 ,whether the latter  
trouble can be remedied by legislature1 
either ,state or national1 or not1      
remains to be proven by actual trial4   
,that you can solve the first part of   
the problem satisfactorily to yourselves
 depends upon your readiness to adopt   
new ideas and the means you have at hand
 to carry them out4 ,it is manifestly   

impossible to make as good a flour out  
of soft starchy wheat as out of that    
which is harder and more glutinous4 ,it 
is equally impossible for the small mill
 poorly provided with machinery to cope 
successfully with the large merchant    
mill fully equipped with every appliance
 that ,american ingenuity can suggest   
and money can buy4 ,i believe1 however1 
that a mill of moderate size can make   
flour equally as good as the large mill1
 though1 perhaps1 not as economically in
 regard to yield and cost of            
manufacture4  ,the different methods of 
milling at present in use may be        
generally divided into three distinct   
processes1 which1 for want of any better
 names1 ,i will distinguish as old      
style1 new process1 and gradual         
reduction4 ,perhaps the ,german division
 of low milling1 half high milling1 and 
high milling is better4 ,old style      
milling was that in general use in this 
country up to #ahgj1 and which is still 
followed in the great majority of small 

custom or grist mills4 ,it is very      
simple1 consisting of grinding the wheat
 as fine as possible at the first       
grinding1 and separating the meal into  
flour1 superfine or extra1 middlings1   
shorts1 and bran4 ,given a pair of      
millstones and reel long enough1 and the
 wheat could be made into flour by      
passing through the two4 ,because spring
 wheat was so poorly adapted to this    
crude process1 it had to be improved and
 elaborated1 resulting in the new       
process4  ,at first this merely         
consisted of purifying and regrinding   
the middlings made in the old way4 ,in  
its perfected state it may be said to be
 halfway between the old style and      
gradual reduction1 and is in use now in 
many mills4 ,in it mill stones are used 
to make the reductions which are only   
two in number1 in the first of which the
 aim of the miller is to make as many   
middlings as he can while cleaning the  
bran reasonably well1 and in the second 
to make the purified middlings into     

flour4 ,in the most advanced mills which
 use the new process1 the bran is       
reground and the tailings from the      
coarse middlings1 containing germ and   
large middlings with pieces of bran     
attached1 are crushed between two rolls4
 ,these can hardly be counted as        
reductions1 as they are simply the      
finishing touches1 put on to aid in     
working the stuff up clean and to permit
 of a little higher grinding at first4  
,regarding both old style and new       
process milling1 you are already posted4
 ,gradual reduction is newer1 much more 
extensive1 and merits a much more       
thorough explanation4 ,before entering  
upon this ,i will call your attention to
 one or two points which every miller   
should understand4  ,the two essential  
qualities of a good marketable flour are
 color and strength4 ,it should be      
sharply granular and not feel flat and  
soft to the touch4 ,a wheat which has an
 abundance of starch1 but is poor in    
gluten1 cannot make a strong flour4     

,this is the trouble with all soft      
wheats1 both winter and spring4 ,a wheat
 which is rich in gluten is hard1 and in
 the case of our hard ,minnesota wheat  
has a very tender bran4 ,it is          
comparatively easy to make a strong     
flour1 but it requires very careful     
milling to make a flour of good color   
from it4 ,probably the wheat which      
combines the most desirable qualities   
for flour-making purposes is the red    
,mediterranean1 which has plenty of     
gluten and a tough bran1 though claimed 
by some to have a little too much       
coloring matter1 while the body of the  
berry is white4 ,by poor milling a good 
wheat can be made into flour deficient  
both in strength and color1 and by      
careful milling a wheat naturally       
deficient in strength may be made into  
flour having all the strength there was 
in the wheat originally and of good     
color4 ,good milling is indispensable1  
no matter what the quality of the wheat 
may be4  ,the idea of gradual reduction 

milling was borrowed by our millers from
 the ,hungarian mills4 ,there is1       
however1 this difference between the    
,hungarian system and gradual reduction1
 as applied in this country1 that in the
 former1 when fully carried out1 the    
products of the different breaks are    
kept separate to the end1 and a large   
number of different grades of flour     
made1 while in the system1 as applied in
 this country1 the separations are      
combined at different stages and usually
 only three different grades of flour   
made1 viz43 patent1 baker's1 or as it is
 termed in ,minnesota1 clear flour1 and 
low grade or red dog4 ,in the largest   
mills the patent is often subdivided    
into first and second1 and they may make
 different grades of baker's flour1     
these mills approaching much nearer to  
the ,hungarian system1 though modifying 
it to ,american methods and machinery4  
,in mills of from three to five hundred 
barrels daily capacity1 it is hardly    
possible or profitable to go to this    

subdivision of grades1 owing to the     
excessive amount of machinery necessary 
to handling the stuff in its different  
stages of completion4 ,the ,hungarian   
system has1 therefore1 been greatly     
modified by ,american millers and       
milling engineers to adapt it to the    
requirements of mills of average        
capacity4 ,this modified ,hungarian     
system we call gradual reduction4 ,it   
can be profitably employed in any mill  
large enough to run at all on merchant  
work4 ,so far it has not been found     
practicable to use it in mills of less  
than one hundred and twenty-five to one 
hundred and fifty barrels capacity in   
twenty-four hours1 and it is better to  
have the mill of at least double this   
capacity4  ,gradual reduction1 as its   
name implies1 consists in reducing the  
wheat to flour1 shorts1 and bran1 by    
several successive operations or        
reductions technically called breaks1   
the process going on gradually1 each    
break leaving the material a little     

finer than the preceding one4 ,usually  
five reductions or breaks are made1     
though six or seven may be used4 ,the   
larger the number of breaks the more    
complicated the system becomes1 and it  
is preferable to keep it as simple as   
possible1 for even at its simplest it   
requires a good1 wide-awake thinking    
miller to handle it successfully4 ,when 
it is thoroughly and systematically     
carried out in the mill it is without   
question as much in advance of the new  
process as that is ahead of the old     
style of milling4  ,in order that ,i may
 convey to you as clear an idea of      
gradual milling reduction as possible1  
,i will give as fully as possible the   
programme of a mill of one hundred and  
fifty barrels maximum daily capacity    
designed to work on mixed hard and soft 
spring wheat1 and which probably will   
come much nearer to meeting the         
conditions under which you have to mill 
than any other ,i have found readily    
obtainable4 ,i have chosen a mill of    

this size1 first1 because following out 
the programme of a larger one would     
require too much time and too great a   
repetition of details and not give you  
any clearer idea of the main principles 
involved1 and secondly1 because ,i      
thought it would come nearer meeting the
 average requirements of the members of 
your association4 ,your worthy secretary
 cautioned me that ,i must remember that
 ,i was going to talk to winter wheat   
millers4 ,the main principles and       
methods of gradual reduction are the    
same1 whether applied to spring or      
winter wheat2 the details may have to be
 varied to suit the varying conditions  
under which different mills are         
operated4 ,for this programme ,i am     
indebted to ,mr4 ,james ,pye1 of        
,minneapolis1 who is rapidly gaining an 
enviable and well deserved reputation as
 a milling engineer1 and one who has    
given much study to the practical       
planning and working of gradual         
reduction mills4  ,and right here let me

 say that no miller should undertake to 
build a gradual reduction mill1 or to   
change over his mill to the gradual     
reduction system1 until he has consulted
 with some good milling engineer 7the   
term millwright means very little       
nowadays71 and obtained from him a      
programme which shall fit the size of   
the mill1 the stock upon which it has to
 work1 and the grade of flour which it  
is to make4 ,this programme is to the   
miller what a chart is to the sailor4   
,it shows him the course he must pursue1
 how the stuff must be handled1 and     
where it must go4 ,without it he will be
 going it blind1 or at best only feeling
 his way in the dark4 ,a gradual        
reduction mill1 to be successful1 must  
have a well-defined system1 and to have 
this system1 the miller must have a     
definite plan to work by4 ,but to go on 
with my programme4  ,the wheat is first 
cleaned as thoroughly as possible to    
remove all extraneous impurities4 ,in   
the cleaning operations care should be  

taken to scratch or abrade the bran as  
little as possible1 for this reason3    
,the outer coating of the bran is hard  
and more or less friable4 ,wherever it  
is scratched a portion is liable to     
become finely comminuted in the         
subsequent reductions1 so finely that it
 is impossible to separate it from the  
flour by bolting1 and consequently the  
grade of the latter is lowered4 ,the    
ultimate purpose of the miller being to 
separate the flour portion of the berry 
from dirt1 germ1 and bran it is         
important that he does not at any stage 
of the process get any dirt or fine bran
 speck or dust mixed in with his flour1 
for if he does he cannot get rid of it  
again4 ,so it must be borne in mind that
 at all stages of flouring1 any abrasion
 or comminution of the bran is to be    
avoided as far as possible4  ,after the 
wheat is cleaned1 it is by the first    
break or reduction split or cut open1 in
 order to liberate the germ and crease  
impurities4 ,as whatever of dirt is     

liberated by this break becomes mixed in
 with the flour1 it is desirable to keep
 the amount of the latter as small as   
possible4 ,indeed1 in all the reductions
 the object is to make as little flour  
and as many middlings as possible1 for  
the reason that the latter can be       
purified1 while the former cannot1 at   
least by any means at present in use4   
,after the first break the cracked wheat
 goes to a scalping reel covered with   
,no4 #bb wire cloth4 ,the flour1        
middlings1 etc41 go through the cloth1  
and the cracked wheat goes over the tail
 of the reel to the second machine1     
which breaks it still finer4 ,after this
 break the flour and middlings are      
scalped out on a reel covered with ,no4 
#bb wire cloth4 ,the tailings go to the 
third machine1 and are still further    
reduced1 then through a reel covered    
with ,no4 #bd wire cloth4 ,the tailings 
go to the fourth machine1 which makes   
them still finer1 then through a fourth 
scalping reel the same as the third4    

,the tailings from this reel are mostly 
bran with some middlings adhering1 and  
go to the fifth machine1 which cleans   
the bran4 ,from this break the material 
passes to a reel covered with bolting   
cloth varying in fineness from ,no4 #aj 
at the head to ,no4 #jj at the tail4    
,what goes over the tail of this reel is
 sent to the bran bin1 and that which   
goes through next to the tail of the    
reel1 goes to the shorts bin4 ,the      
middlings from this reel go to a        
middlings purifier1 which ,i will call  
,no4 #a1 or bran middlings purifier4    
,the flour which comes from this reel is
 sent to the chop reel covered at the   
head with say ,no4 #i1 with about ,no4  
#e in the middle and ,no #j at the tail4
 ,you will remember that after each     
reduction the flour and middlings were  
taken out by the scalping reels4 ,this  
chop1 as it is now called1 also goes to 
the same reel ,i have just mentioned4   
,the coarse middlings which go over the 
tail of this reel go to a middlings     

purifier1 which ,i will designate as    
,no4 #b4 ,these go through the ,no4 #j  
cloth at the tail of the reel purifier  
,no4 #c2 those which go through ,no4 #e 
cloth got to purifier ,no4 #d2 while all
 that goes through the ,no4 #i cloth at 
the head of the reel is dropped to a    
second reel clothed with ,nos4 #ac to   
#ae cloth with two feet of ,no4 #aj at  
the tail4 ,the flour from this reel goes
 to the baker's flour packer2 that which
 drops through the ,no4 #aj is sent to  
the middlings stone1 while that which   
goes over the tail of the reel goes to  
purifier ,no4 #d4 ,we have now disposed 
of all the immediate products of the    
first five breaks1 tracing them         
successively to the bran and shorts     
bins1 to the baker's flour packer and to
 the middlings purifiers1 a very small  
portion going to the middlings stone    
without going through the purifiers4    
,the middlings are handled as follows in
 the purifiers4 ,from the ,no4 #a       
machine1 which takes the middlings from 

the fifth break1 the tailings go to the 
shorts bin1 the middlings which are     
sufficiently well purified go to the    
middlings stone1 while those from near  
the tail of the machine which contain a 
little germ and bran specks go to the   
second germ rolls1 these being a pair of
 smooth rolls which flatten out the germ
 and crush the middlings1 loosening     
adhering particles from the bran specks4
 ,from the second germ rolls the        
material goes to a reel1 where it is    
separated into flour which goes into the
 baker's grade1 fine middlings which are
 returned to the second germ rolls at   
once1 some still coarser which go to a  
pair of finely corrugated iron rolls for
 red dog1 and what goes over the tail of
 the reel goes to the shorts bin4 ,the  
,no4 #b purifier takes the coarse       
middlings from the tail of the first or 
chop reel as already stated4 ,the       
tailings from this machine go to the    
shorts bin1 some few middlings from next
 the tail of the machine are returned to

 the head of the same machine1 while the
 remainder are sent to the first germ   
rolls4 ,the reason for returning is more
 to enable the miller to keep a regular 
feed on the purifiers than otherwise4   
,the ,no4 #c purifier takes the         
middlings from the #j cloth on the chop 
reel4 ,from purifier ,no4 #c they drop  
to purifier ,no4 #e4 ,a small portion   
that are not sufficiently well purified 
are returned to the head of ,no4 #c1    
while those from the head of the        
machine1 which are well purified1 are   
sent to the middlings stones4 ,the      
remainder1 which contain a great deal of
 the germ1 are taken to the first germ  
rolls1 in passing which they are crushed
 lightly to flatten the germ without    
making any more flour than necessary4   
,the ,no4 #d purifier takes the         
middlings from ,no4 #b and also from    
,no4 #e cloth on the chop reel and from 
the ,no4 #aj on the tail of the baker's 
reel4 ,the middlings from the head of   
this machine go to the middlings stones1

 and the remainder to purifier ,no4 #f4 
,the tailings from ,nos4 #c1 #d1 #e1 and
 #f go to the red dog rolls4 ,a small   
portion not sufficiently well purified  
are returned from ,no4 #f to the head of
 ,no4 #d1 while the cleaned middlings go
 to the middlings stones4  ,the portions
 of the material which have not been    
traced either to the baker's flour or   
the bran and shorts bins are the        
middlings which have gone to the        
middlings stones1 the germy middlings   
which have gone to the first germ rolls1
 and the tailings from purifiers ,nos4  
#c1 #d1 #e1 and #f1 and some little     
stuff not quite poor enough for shorts  
from the reel following the second germ 
rolls4 ,taking these seriatim3 the      
middlings after passing through the     
middlings stones1 go to the first patent
 reel covered with eleven feet of ,no4  
#ac and four feet of ,no4 #h4 ,the flour
 from the head of the reel goes to the  
patent packer1 that from the remainder  
of the reel is dropped to another reel1 

while the tailings go to the ,no4 #d    
purifier4 ,the lower patent reel is     
clothed with ,no4 #ad and two feet of   
,no4 #aj cloth2 from the head of the    
reel the flour goes to the patent       
packer1 the remainder that passes       
through the ,no4 #aj cloth which will   
not do to go into the patent1 being     
returned to the middlings stones1 while 
the tailings are sent to the ,no4 #d    
purifier4  ,the germ middlings1 after   
being slightly crushed as before stated1
 are sent to a reel covered with five   
feet of ,no4 #ac cloth1 five feet of    
,no4 #ad1 and the balance with cloth    
varying in coarseness from ,no4 #g to   
,no4 #jj4 ,the flour from this reel goes
 into the patent1 the tailings to the   
red dog rolls1 the middlings from next  
the tail of the reel which still contain
 some germ to the second germ rolls1    
while the middlings which are free from 
germ go to the middlings stones4  ,the  
tailings from purifiers #c1 #d1 #e1 and 
#f1 the material from the reel following

 the second germ rolls1 which is too    
good for shorts1 but not good enough to 
be returned into middlings again1 and   
the tailings from the reel following the
 first germ rolls are sent to the red   
dog rolls1 which1 as ,i have stated1 are
 finely corrugated4 ,following these    
rolls is the red dog reel4 ,the flour   
goes to the red dog bin1 the tailings to
 the shorts bin1 while some stuff       
intermediate between the two1 not fine  
enough for the flour but too good for   
shorts1 is returned to the red dog      
rolls4  ,this finishes the programme4 ,i
 have not given it as one which is      
exactly suited to winter wheat milling4 
,however1 as ,i said before1 the general
 principles are the same in either      
winter or wheat gradual reduction mills1
 and the various systems of gradual     
reduction1 although they differ in many 
points1 and although there are probably 
no two engineers who would agree as to  
all the details of a programme1 the main
 ideas are essentially the same4 ,the   

system has been well described as one of
 gradual and continued purification4 ,in
 the programme above given the idea was 
to fit up a mill which should do a      
maximum amount of work of good quality  
with a minimum amount of expenditure and
 machinery4 ,in a larger mill or even in
 a mill of the same capacity where money
 was not an object1 the various         
separations would probably be handled a 
little differently1 the flour and       
middlings from the first and fifth      
breaks being handled together1 and those
 from the second1 third1 and fourth     
breaks being also handled together4 ,the
 reason for this separation being that  
the flour from the first and fifth      
breaks contain1 the first a great deal  
of crease dirt1 and the fifth more bran 
dust than that from the other breaks1   
the result being a lower grade of flour4
 ,the object all along being to keep the
 amount of flour with which dirt can get
 mixed as small as possible1 and not to 
lower the grade of any part of the      

product by mixing it with that which is 
inferior1 always bearing in mind that   
the aim is to make as many middlings as 
possible1 for they can be purified while
 the flour can not1 and that whenever   
any dirt is once eliminated it should be
 kept out afterwards4 ,this leads me to 
say that if a miller thinks the adoption
 of rolls or reduction machines is all  
there is of the system1 he is very much 
mistaken4 ,if anything1 more of the     
success of the mill depends upon the    
careful handling of the stuff after the 
breaks are made1 and here the miller who
 is in earnest to master the gradual    
reduction system will find his greatest 
opportunities for study and improvement4
 ,a few years back it was an axiom of   
the trade that the condition of the     
millstone was the key to successful     
milling4 ,this was true because the     
subsequent process of bolting was       
comparatively simple4 ,now the mere     
making of the breaks is a small matter  
compared with the complex separations   

which come after4 ,in the foregoing     
programme we had five breaks or         
successive reductions4 ,although this is
 better than a smaller number1 ,i will  
here say that it is not absolutely      
essential1 for very good work is done   
with four breaks4 ,the mill for which   
this programme was made1 including the  
building1 cost about #ae1jjj1 and is    
designed to make about sixty per cent4  
of patent1 thirty-five per cent4 of     
baker's1 and five per cent4 of low      
grade1 results which are in advance of  
many larger and more pretentious mills4 
,one difficulty in the way of adapting  
the gradual reduction system to mills of
 very small capacity is that the various
 machines require to be loaded to a     
certain degree in order to work at their
 best4 ,it is only a matter of short    
time when our milling inventors will    
design machinery especially for small   
mills2 in fact they are now doing it1   
and every day brings it more within the 
power of the small miller to improve his

 manner of milling4 ,to show what can be
 done in this direction ,i will briefly 
describe a mill of about ninety barrels 
maximum capacity per twenty-four hours1 
which is as small as can be profitably  
worked4 ,i will premise this description
 by saying it is designed with a view to
 the greatest economy of cost1 the best 
trade of work1 and to reduce the amount 
of machinery and the handling of the    
stuff as much as possible4 ,this latter 
point is of much importance in any mill1
 either large or small1 no matter upon  
what system it is operated1 for it takes
 power to run elevators and conveyors1  
and especially in elevating and         
conveying middlings1 especially those   
made from winter wheat1 their quality is
 inured and a loss incurred1 by the     
unavoidable amount of flour made by the 
friction of the particles against each  
other4 ,so much is this the case that in
 one of our largest mills it is deemed  
preferable to move the middlings from   
one end of the mill to the other by     

means of a hopper bin on a car which    
runs on a track spiked to the floor1    
rather than to employ a conveyor4 ,a    
mill built as ,i am going to describe   
would require from fifty to sixty       
horse-power to run it1 and including    
steam power and building would cost from
 #aj1jjj to #ab1jjj1 according to       
location4 ,i give it as of interest to  
those among your number who own small   
mills and may contemplate improving     
them4  ,the building is four stories    
high1 including basement1 and thirty-two
 feet square4 ,it would be some better  
to have it larger1 but it is made this  
small to show how small a space a mill  
of this size can be made to occupy4 ,no 
story is less than twelve feet high4    
,the machinery ,is very conveniently    
arranged1 and there is plenty of room   
all around4 ,the system is a            
modification of the gradual reduction   
system1 the middlings being worked upon 
millstones4 ,the first break is on one  
pair of #i x #ah inch corrugated iron   

rolls1 eight corrugations to the inch1  
the corrugations running parallel with  
the axis of the rolls4 ,the second break
 on rolls having twelve corrugations to 
the inch1 the third sixteen1 and the    
fourth twenty to the inch1 while the    
fifth break1 where the bran is finally  
cleaned1 has twenty-four corrugations to
 the inch4 ,the basement contains the   
line shaft and pulleys for driving      
rolls1 stones1 cockle machine1 and      
separator4 ,the only other machinery in 
the basement is the cockle machine4 ,the
 line shaft runs directly through the   
center of the basement1 the power being 
from engine or water wheel outside the  
building4 ,the first floor has the      
roller mills in a line nearly over the  
line shaft below1 the middlings stones1 
two in number1 at one side opposite the 
entrance to the mill1 the receiving bin 
at one side of the entrance in the      
corner of the mill1 and the two flour   
packers for the baker's and patent flour
 in the other corner4 ,this arrangement 

leaves over half of the floor area for  
receiving and packing purposes4 ,the    
bolting chests1 one with six reel and   
the other with three reel begin on the  
second floor and reach up into the      
attic4 ,an upright shaft from the line  
shaft in the basement geared to a       
horizontal shaft running through the    
attic parallel with the line shaft      
below1 comprise about all the shafting  
there is in the mill4 ,there is a short 
shaft on the second floor from which the
 two purifiers on this floor and the two
 in the attic are driven1 and another   
short shaft on the first floor to drive 
the packers4 ,there are four purifiers1 
two on the second floor1 and two more   
directly over them in the attic4 ,the   
elevator heads are all directly upon the
 attic line shaft1 and the bolting      
chests are driven by uprights dropped   
from this shaft4 ,the combined smutter  
and brush machine is on the third floor 
at one end of the bolting chests and    
directly over the stock hoppers4 ,this  

comprises all the machinery in the mill4
 ,the programme is about as follows3    
,the break reels are clothed as follows3
 ,first break ,no4 #bj1 wire cloth1     
second break ,no4 #bb1 third break ,no4 
#bd1 and fourth break ,no4 #bd4 ,the    
material passing through these scalping 
reels1 now called chop1 goes to a series
 of reels1 the first clothed with ,nos4 
#f1 #d1 and #j4 ,the material passing   
over the tail is sent to the germ       
purifier1 that passing through ,nos4 #d 
and #j1 to the coarse middlings         
purifier1 and that through the ,no4 #f  
goes to the reel below clothed with     
,nos4 #ab and #ac4 ,some nice granular  
flour is taken off from this reel2 the  
remainder1 which passes over the tail   
and through the cutoffs1 goes to the    
next reel below clothed with ,nos4 #ad1 
#ae1 and #i4 ,some good flour comes from
 the #ad and #ae2 that which passes     
through the #i goes at once to the      
stones without purifying1 while that    
which passes over the tail is sent to   

the fine middlings purifiers4  ,after   
the purification1 the middlings are     
ground on stones and bolted on ,nos4 #ac
 and #ad cloth1 after having been       
scalped on ,no #h4 ,the germ middlings  
are crushed on smooth rolls and bolted  
on ,nos4 #ab and #ac4 ,what is not      
crushed fine enough goes with poor      
tailings to the second germ rolls1 and  
from these to a reel by themselves or to
 the fifth reduction or bran reel4 ,a   
mill of this kind could be made much    
more perfect by an expenditure of two or
 three thousands dollars more4 ,i have  
instanced it to show what can be done   
with gradual reduction in a very small  
way4  ,in mills of from three hundred to
 five hundred barrels capacity and still
 larger1 the programme differs          
considerably from that ,i have sketched1
 the middlings being graded and handled 
with little1 if any1 returning1 and are 
sized down on the smooth rolls1 a much  
larger percentage of the work of        
flouring being done on millstones4 ,for 

a three hundred barrel roller mill1 the 
following plant is requisite3 five      
double corrugated roller mills1 five    
double smooth roller mills1 three pairs 
of four foot burrs sixteen purifiers1   
four wire scalping reels1 six feet long1
 one reel for the fifth break1 one reel 
for low grade flour1 eight chop reels1  
seven reels for flour from smooth rolls1
 three reels for the stone flour1 two   
grading reels1 three flour packers1 and 
necessary cleaning machinery4 ,the reels
 are eighteen feet thirty-two inches4   
,the programme is necessarily more      
complicated4  ,when it comes to the     
machinery to be employed in making the  
reductions or breaks1 the miller has    
several styles from which to choose4    
,which is best comes under the head of  
what ,i don't know1 and moreover1 of    
that which ,i have found no one else who
 does know4 ,each machine has its good  
points1 and the mill owner must make his
 own decision as to which is best suited
 to his purpose4 ,the main principles   

involved are to abrade the bran as      
little as possible while cleaning it    
thoroughly1 and to make as little break 
flour1 and as many middlings as         
possible1 the latter to be made in such 
shape as to be the most easily purified4
 ,regarding the difference between      
spring and winter wheat for gradual     
reduction milling1 it may be stated     
something after this manner3 ,spring    
wheat has a thinner and more tender     
bran1 makes more middlings because it is
 harder1 and for the same reason the    
flour is more inclined to be coarse and 
granular4 ,in milling with winter wheat1
 especially the better varieties1 there 
will be more break flour made1 the      
middlings will be finer with fewer bran 
specks1 and the bran more easily        
cleaned1 because it will stand harsher  
treatment4 ,winter wheat1 moreover1     
requires more careful handling in making
 the breaks1 not because of the bran1   
but to avoid breaking down the          
middlings1 and making too much and too  

fine and soft break flour4 ,in order to 
keep the flour sharp and granular1      
coarser cloths are used in bolting1 and 
because the middlings are finer the     
bolting is not so free and a larger     
bolting surface is required4 ,in milling
 either spring or winter wheat there    
should be ample purifying capacity1 it  
being very unwise to limit the number of
 machines1 so that any of them will be  
overtaxed4 ,the day has gone by when one
 purifier will take care of all the     
middlings in the mill4  ,there is one   
point which is of much interest to mill 
owners who wish to change their mills   
over to the gradual reduction process1  
that is1 how far they can utilize their 
present plan of milling machinery in    
making the change4 ,of course the       
cleaning machinery is the same ,in both 
cases1 so are the elevators1 conveyors1 
bolting chests1 etc4 ,but to use the    
millstone is a debatable question4      
,after carefully considering the matter 
,i have come to the conclusion that it  

has its place1 and an important one at  
that1 under the new regime1 viz41 that  
of reducing the finer purified middlings
 to flour4 ,the reason for this lies in 
the peculiar construction of the wheat  
berry4 ,if the interior of the berry    
were one solid mass of flour1 needing   
only to be broken up to the requisite   
fineness1 it could be done as well on   
the rolls4 ,but instead of this1 as is  
well known1 the flour part of the berry 
is made up of a large number of granules
 or cells1 the walls of which are       
cellular tissue1 different from the bran
 in that it is soft and white instead of
 hard and dark colored4 ,it is also     
fibrous to a certain extent1 and when   
the fine middlings are passed between   
the rolls instead of breaking down and  
becoming finer1 it has a tendency to    
cake up and flatten out1 rendering the  
flour soft and flaky4 ,it does not hurt 
the color1 but it does hurt the         
strength4 ,when the millstone is used in
 place of the roll the flour is of      

equally good color1 and more round and  
granular4 ,i know that in this the      
advocates of smooth rolls will differ   
from my conclusions1 but ,i believe that
 the final outcome will be the use of   
millstones on the finer middlings1 and  
in fact on all the middlings that are   
thoroughly freed from the germ4  ,it has
 been said that that which a man gives  
the most freely and receives with the   
worst grace is advice4 ,i will1 however1
 close with a little of the article     
which may not be wholly put of place4   
,if you have a mill do not imagine that 
the addition of a few pairs of rolls1 a 
purifier or two1 and a little           
overhauling of bolting-chests1 is going 
to make it a full-fledged ,hungarian    
roller mill4 ,if you are going to change
 an old mill or build a new one1 do not 
take the counsel or follow the plans of 
every itinerant miller or millwright who
 claims to know all about gradual       
reduction4 ,no matter what kind of a    
mill you want to build1 go to some      

milling engineer who has a reputation   
for good work1 tell him how large a mill
 you want1 show him samples of the wheat
 it must use and the grades of flour it 
must make1 and have him make a programme
 for the mill and plan the machinery to 
fit it4 ,then have the mill built to fit
 the machinery4 ,when it starts follow  
the programme1 whether it agrees with   
your preconceived notions or not1 and   
the mill will1 in ninety-nine cases out 
of one hundred1 do good work4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,,machine ,,for ,,dotting ,,tulles ,,and
 ,,other ,,light ,,fabrics4  ,dotted or 
chenilled tulles are fabrics extensively
 used in the toilet of ladies1 and the  
ornamentation of which has hitherto been
 done by the application to the tissue1 
by hand1 either of chenille or of small 
circles previously cut out of velvet4   
,this work1 which naturally takes       
considerable time1 greatly increases the
 cost price of the article4  ,a few     
trials at doing the work mechanically   

have been made1 but without any         
practical outcome4 ,the workwomen who do
 the dotting are paid at ,lyons at the  
rate of #hj centimes per #ajj dots2 so  
that if we take tulle with dots         
counter-simpled #j4jd of an inch1 which 
is the smallest quincunx used1 and      
suppose that the tissue is #ca inches   
wide and that the daily maximum         
production is one yard1 we find that    
#djj dots at #hj centimes per #ajj  #c  
francs and #bj centimes 7about #fc      
cents71 the cost of dotting per yard4   
,it is true that the workwoman furnishes
 the velvet herself4  ,mr4 ,c4 ,ricanet1
 of ,lyons1 has recently invented a     
machine with which he effects           
mechanically the different operations of
 dotting1 not only on tulles but also   
upon gauzes or any other light tissues  
whatever1 such as those of cotton1 silk1
 wool1 etc4 ,aided by a talented        
mechanic1 ,mr4 ,ricanet has succeeded in
 constructing one of those masterpieces 
of wonderfully accurate mechanism of    

which the textile industry appears to   
have the monopoly--at least it is       
permissible to judge so from the        
remarkable inventions of ,vaucanson1    
,jacquard1 ,philippe de ,girard1        
,heilmann1 and others4  ,the object of  
this new machine1 then1 which has been  
doing its wonderful work for a few days 
only1 is to reproduce artificially      
chenille embroidered on light tissues1  
by mechanically cutting out and gluing  
small circles of velvet upon these      
fabrics4  ,for this purpose all kinds of
 velvet may be employed1 and1 in order  
to facilitate the cutting1 they are     
previously coated on the reverse side   
with any glue or gum whatever1 which    
gives the velvet a stiffness favorable  
to the action of the punch4 ,to effect  
the object desired the apparatus has    
three successive operations to perform3 
first1 cutting the circles2 second1     
moistening2 and third1 fastening down   
the dots upon the tissue according to a 
definite order and spacing4 ,the machine

 may be constructed upon any scale      
whatever1 although at present it is only
 made for operating on pieces #ca inches
 wide1 that being the normal width of   
dotted tulles4 ,the quincuncial         
arrangement of the dots is effected by  
the punching1 moistening1 and fastening 
down of odd and even dots1 combined with
 the forward movement of the tissue to  
be chenilled4  ,the principal part of   
the machine is the cam-shaft1 ,a 7,figs4
 #a1 #b1 and #c71 which revolves in the 
direction of the arrows and passes in   
the center of #hj cam-wheels1 #dj of    
which are odd and #dj even1 alternately 
opposed to each other4 ,this shaft      
actuates1 through its two extremities1  
the different combined motions in view  
of the final object to be attained1 and 
also carries the motive pulleys1 ,,pp'4 
,figs4 #a and #b show the profile of two
 of these opposed cam-wheels--the       
arrangement by means of which two rows  
of dots 7odd and even7 are laid down    
upon the tissue during one revolution of

 the shaft or drum1 ,a4 ,each of the    
wheels carries three cams 7,figs4 #a and
 #c71 the first1 7a71 corresponding to  
the punching2 the second1 7a'71 to the  
moistening1 and the third1 7a''71 to the
 gluing down of the dots4  ,the annexed 
figure1 one-quarter actual size1 shows  
in section the details of the cutting   
mechanism4 ,to each cam-wheel there     
corresponds one punch1 and the eighty   
punches are arranged side by side and   
parallel upon a shaft1 ,b1 a spring1 b1 
holding them constantly against the     
circumference of the cam-wheels4 ,in    
,fig4 #b only one of these details is   
shown4 ,the punching arrangement        
consists of an ordinary punch1 c1 of    
variable diameter1 screwed to the       
extremity of a tube1 d1 which is itself 
suspended from the end of the lever1 p1 
but which can receive from it at the    
desired moment the pressure necessary to
 effect the cutting4 ,the vertical      
position of these multiple tubes is     
insured by a guide1 e1 which is         

thoroughly indispensable4 ,through each 
of the tubes1 d1 there passes a plunger 
designed for expelling from the punch   
the piece that has been cut out of the  
velvet1 and for gluing it down to the   
fabric4 ,the two small springs1 b' and  
b''1 tend continually to lift the tubes 
as well as the plunger4 ,the whole      
mechanism is affixed to solid cast-iron 
frames1 and the machine itself may be   
mounted on wooden supports or a metal   
frame4  ,the punching is effected on a  
bronze straight-edge1 ,c1 which slides  
in a cast-iron channel1 ,d4 ,this       
presents alternately1 in its movement1  
entire and punctured spaces1 the former 
for receiving the blow of the punch and 
the latter for allowing passage at the  
desired moment to the plunger as it goes
 to fasten the dots upon the tulle which
 is passing along underneath the        
channel1 ,d4 ,the punching is done      
primarily and principally by pressure1  
but1 in order to facilitate the complete
 detachment of filaments which might    

retain the punched-out piece1 the punch 
is likewise given at the same time a    
slight rotary motion1 thus imitating    
mechanically what is performed by hand  
in the maneuver of all punches4 ,this   
rotary motion is communicated to the    
punches by means of levers actuated by  
an eccentric1 ,e1 and which move the    
frame1 h1 whose bars engage with the    
horizontal lever1 g1 soldered to the    
tube1 d1 thus causing the latter at the 
very moment the punch descends to       
revolve from right to left4 ,the forty  
punches in operation cause the frame to 
return to its initial position through  
the action of the springs1 b'4 ,we say  
forty1 since the inventor1 in principle1
 has admitted #hj punches1 operating #dj
 as odd and #dj as even2 obtaining in   
this way a dotting in a regular quincunx
 of one yard1 that is to say1 #hj dots  
arranged in two rows on a fabric #ca    
inches wide4 ,but it is evident that a  
much larger quincunx may be had by      
putting in play only a half1 a third1 or

 a fourth of the punches1 and causing   
the tulle and velvet to advance         
proportionally4 ,for this purpose it is 
only necessary to unscrew the punches   
which are not to act1 and to substitute 
for the ratchet wheel which controls the
 unrolling of the ,i tulle1 another     
having a number of teeth proportioned to
 the desired spacing of the dots4  ,the 
punching having been executed1 and the  
drum1 ,a1 continuing to revolve1 the    
punches rise a little owing to the      
conformation of the cam-wheel1 and      
through the action of the springs1 b1   
and allow the moistener to move forward 
to dampen the little circles which      
remain at the orifice of the punches4   
,the moistener or dampener is a sort of 
pad equal in length to the field of     
action of the punches1 and is affixed to
 a cross-bar1 ,f1 which is connected at 
its two extremities with the levers1 ,g1
 that are actuated by the cam-wheels1   
,h4 ,these cam-wheels1 or eccentrics1   
,h1 which are mounted on the shaft of   

the drum1 ,a1 cause the moistener to    
move forward as soon as the punches rise
 after operating1 and1 when it arrives  
beneath the punches1 the larger cams1 a1
 of the cam-wheels1 ,a1 press the latter
 upon the pad and thus effect the       
dampening of the circles of velvet4     
,immediately afterwards1 the same       
eccentrics1 ,h1 acting on a lever1 ,i1  
uncover the holes in the straight-edge1 
,c1 and the channel1 ,d4 ,the large     
cams1 a1 of the wheel1 ,a1 then acting  
very powerfully upon the respective     
punches1 cause these latter to pass     
through the orifices so that the        
extremity of each punch comes within    
about one twenty-fifth of an inch of the
 fabric to be dotted4 ,in this passage  
of the tube1 d1 a small rod1 i1         
connected by a lever with the plunger1  
f1 is made to abut against the guide1 e1
 thus causing the descent of the plunger
 to a sufficient degree to push the     
velvet dot out of the tube and to glue  
it upon the fabric4 ,the manner in which

 these operations are performed being   
now well enough understood1 let us for a
 moment examine the motions of the      
fabrics to be cut and dotted--the first 
being velvet or any other material1 even
 metal 7goldleaf1 for example71 and the 
second1 the tulle4  ,the latter has but 
one motion1 and that is in the direction
 of its length1 while the velvet has1 in
 addition to this same motion1 another  
slight one from right to left in the    
direction of its width in order to      
diminish waste as much as possible4     
,the tulle to be dotted is first wound  
around a roller1 ,r1 from whence it     
passes over the glass guide-roller1 ,r'1
 and between the channel1 ,d1 and the   
table1 ,t1 to the roller1 ,r1 which is  
heated by steam4  ,the hot air which is 
radiated dries the dots1 and from thence
 the fabric is taken up by other rollers
 or by any other method4 ,the steam     
roller1 ,r1 carries at one of its       
extremities a ratchet wheel whose teeth 
vary in number according to the greater 

or less rapidity with which the tulle is
 unrolled4 ,it is actuated by a lever   
which receives its motion from the      
eccentric1 ,k4  ,illustration3          
,,improved ,,machine ,,for ,,dotting    
,,tulland ,,other ,,light ,,fabrics4    
,in the table1 ,t1 there is a           
rectangular receptacle1 t1 containing   
rasped or powdered velvet for the       
purpose of forming a reverse of the dot4
 ,this powder attaches itself to the gum
 and imitates on the wrong side of the  
fabric a dot similar to that on the     
upper or right side4 ,the velvet is     
wound upon the roller1 r1 and from      
thence passes under the guiding roller1 
r'1 the punches1 and the second roller1 
r4 ,these two latter rollers are solidly
 connected by a straight-edge fixed at  
the extremity of the lever1 ,l1 whose   
other end is in continuous correlation  
with the eccentric1 ,m1 which controls  
the lateral displacements2 while the    
eccentric1 ,o1 actuates1 by means of the
 screw1 ,q1 and the ratchet-wheel1 ,s1  

the longitudinal advance of the velvet4 
,the eccentric1 ,m1 is fixed upon an    
axle1 ,a'1 which carries a wheel1 ,u1   
having teeth inclined with respect to   
its axis1 and which derives its motion  
from the ,archimedean screw1 ,n1 fixed  
at one of the extremities of the        
cam-shaft1 ,a4  ,we have stated above   
that the maximum daily hand production  
of tulle dotted in quincunxes of #j4jd  
of an inch is about one yard4 ,at the   
rate of #cj revolutions per minute1 and 
for the same article as that just       
mentioned1 this dotting machine is      
capable of producing1 theoretically1    
#cfj yards per #aj hours2 but           
practically this production is reduced  
to about #bej yards1 which1 however1 is 
sufficiently satisfactory4         99   
99       99       99       99     ,,the 
,,reproduction ,,and ,,multiplication   
,,of ,,negatives4  ,by ,,ernest         
,,edwards1 ,b4,a4   ,a question1        
relative to the subject of reproducing  
negatives1 which was put at a meeting of

 one of your ,new ,york societies1      
prompts me to make a few remarks on the 
subject4  ,among the numerous and widely
 diversified ramifications of our       
business 7the ,heliotype ,printing      
,company7 we have very often to         
reproduce and multiply negatives in both
 a direct and reversed form4 ,various   
methods for doing this have been tried1 
and ,i may here say that ,i am quite    
well aware of all the methods that have 
hitherto been suggested for the purpose1
 but that which ,i am to describe is the
 one to which preference has been given1
 and which is that known as the carbon  
process4  ,a sheet of carbonized paper  
or tissue1 having been sensitized by    
immersion in a bath of bichromate of    
potash1 is dried in the dark and placed 
away for future use1 although it is     
undesirable that it be kept for more    
than four or five days4 ,this is placed 
in a printing frame in contact with the 
negative and exposed for a few minutes1 
after which it is immersed in water1    

squeegeed down upon a glass plate1 and  
developed with warm water in the way so 
well known to carbon printers4 ,the     
result is a transparency which1 owing to
 having received a sufficient exposure1 
should show every detail of the         
negative4 ,the nature of the tissue     
employed for such a purpose must be such
 as to give no strong contrasts1 but    
everything reproduced with soft and fine
 gradation of tone4  ,the transparency  
thus obtained forms the clich by which  
the negatives are subsequently made2 and
 a negative of any size may be obtained 
by the camera on wet or dry plates4 ,the
 transparency must1 of course1 be       
pointed to the sky and the light        
transmitted through it1 no other light  
being allowed to reach the lens except  
that which passes through the carbon    
transparency4 ,care must also be taken  
that the transparency is uniformly      
lighted4 ,if it is not possible to      
obtain a northern light1 which is best1 
a reflector of white paper or card may  

be used which must be sufficiently large
 and placed at an angle of about        
forty-five degrees to the transparency4 
,if the repeated negative is to be of   
the same size as the original it may be 
readily produced by repeating the       
operation of printing on carbon tissue1 
using the transparency in place of the  
negative1 or using a dry plate in place 
of the tissue4 ,but on the whole ,i have
 satisfied myself that the best results 
are to be obtained by the first method4 
,there is a greater softness in the     
latter method1 but a greater character  
and similarity to the original in the   
former method4 ,there is no doubt that  
the use of the carbon transparency      
removes the hardness and riffidness of  
the outlines peculiar to the older      
method of a collodion transparency1     
while with carbon as the medium it is   
difficult for any but the most          
experienced eye to distinguish the copy 
from the original4--,photo ,times4      
99       99       99       99       99  

,a ,,new ,,method ,,of ,,making         
,,gelatine ,,emulsion4   ,since gelatine
 emulsion first came into use one of the
 greatest troubles in connection with   
the manufacture of it has been that of  
washing4 ,according to the first methods
 the time taken for this part of the    
process was1 ,i believe1 about          
twenty-four hours4 ,it was very much    
reduced and the ease of manufacture     
greatly facilitated by the methods now  
most generally used1 and which were1 ,i 
believe1 first communicated by ,messrs4 
,wratten and ,wainright4 ,i refer to    
those of precipitating with alcohol and 
of straining the emulsion1 when set1    
through canvas1 so as to divide it very 
finely4 ,when the latter method is      
resorted to a comparatively short time  
is sufficient to wash it4 ,this method1 
although a great improvement upon the   
older ones1 yet leaves much to be       
desired1 especially for those who are   
not in the habit of making emulsion     
regularly1 but only an occasional batch4

 ,when the weather is at all warm it    
takes a long time for the emulsion to   
set1 unless ice be used1 and when once  
it is set the washing process is an     
exceedingly messy one unless the water  
be cooled with ice2 and the amount of   
water taken up during washing is often  
so great that there is considerable     
difficulty in getting the emulsion to   
set on the plates4 ,in fact1 even in    
cold weather1 it is not an easy process 
to conduct in the necessary near        
approach to total darkness4             
,considerable suspicion has of late been
 thrown upon the thoroughness of the    
alcohol method1 unless the emulsion has1
 previous to precipitation1 been freed  
of the greater part of the soluble salts
 by washing2 that is to say1 it is      
doubtful whether the whole of the       
soluble salts can be eliminated by the  
process1 and1 therefore1 unless in      
exceptionally hot weather1 it would seem
 best not to trust to it1 except as a   
further security against soluble bromide

 and nitrate after washing4 ,besides    
this1 the consumption of alcohol is very
 large4 ,almost three times the amount  
of the emulsion precipitated is         
required1 and this1 even when methylated
 spirit is used1 adds considerably to   
the expense4 ,with a view of doing away 
with the washing altogether1 or1 rather1
 of washing of the silver bromide when  
not incorporated with the gelatine1     
several processes have been invented4   
,by these silver bromide is obtained in 
a very fine state of division1 ready to 
mix with gelatine and water in any      
proportion4  ,the best known of them is 
,captain ,abney's very ingenious        
glycerine method1 which seems to have   
been thoroughly successful in his hands1
 although it has not been in every      
one's4 ,the silver bromide obtained by  
his process is not highly sensitive1 and
 requires boiling with gelatine before  
it is in a fit state to make a rapid    
plate4  ,we have lately had described in
 these columns a method of obtaining    

bromide in a highly-sensitive state by  
means of the use of an acid1 whereby1   
after emulsifying and boiling1 the      
viscosity of the gelatine was destroyed1
 and the bromide in time deposited      
itself4 ,during the late hot weather1   
when washing became almost impossible1  
,i was led to cast about for some method
 of eliminating the soluble salts less  
tedious and sloppy than that of washing1
 more certain and less expensive than   
that of precipitating the whole of      
gelatine with alcohol1 and which would  
take less time than the method of       
obtaining the bromide in a pure form4   
,my first idea was to make up the       
solutions used in emulsifying in a very 
concentrated form1 and1 after           
emulsifying1 boiling1 and allowing to   
cool1 to add to the thin emulsion thus  
obtained gelatine to the amount of      
twenty grains to the ounce1 and to      
precipitate this with alcohol1 the rest 
of the gelatine required to make up the 
bulk being afterwards added1 and the    

whole thoroughly incorporated by warming
 and shaking4 ,i was thus successful in 
reducing the amount of alcohol required 
to one-third of what would be necessary 
if the whole of the emulsion were       
precipitated2 but still ,i found that1  
if a reliable emulsion were required1   
the pellicle as formed had to be washed 
to free it from the last trace of       
soluble salts4  ,it now struck me that  
it might be possible to precipitate the 
bromide of silver direct from a very    
weak solution of gelatine1 and obtain it
 in such a form that it might be        
filtered1 washed1 and in every way      
treated as an ordinary precipitate4 ,i  
tried the following experiment4 ,i      
took--      #a4 ,silver                 
nitrate44444444444444444444444 #bjj     
grains                                  
,water4444444444444444444444444444444   
#a ounce4     #b4 ,ammonia              
bromide4444444444444444444444 #abj      
grains4                                 
,water44444444444444444444444444444444  

#a ounce4                               
,gelatine44444444444444444444444444444  
#ab  grains4  ,i emulsified the two     
together in the usual way1 allowed the  
whole to cool1 and then poured the thin 
emulsion into about ten ounces of       
alcohol1 stirring the while4 ,as ,i had 
anticipated1 a flocculent precipitate   
was formed1 which settled to the bottom 
of the vessel in a few minutes4 ,this   
was1 in fact1 sensitive bromide of      
silver mixed with a very small quantity 
of gelatine 7about five per cent471 and 
could1 ,i found1 be treated in the same 
manner as a bromide precipitate from an 
aqueous solution2 it might be washed1   
either by decantation or by filtration1 
easily dried1 and doubtless could1 when 
dry1 be kept for an indefinite time1 and
 be at any time used by mixing with     
gelatine and water in any proportion    
thought fit4  ,i found that a less      
amount of gelatine than four grains to  
the ounce was sufficient to carry the   
bromide down1 while five grains to the  

ounce carried it down in something which
 ,i considered too near an approach to a
 plastic mass4  ,it will be noticed that
 in the experiments which ,i have       
described the emulsion had not been     
boiled1 so that the sensitiveness of the
 bromide was probably not great4 ,as the
 experiment was done in daylight it was 
of no practical use for making emulsion2
 but ,i have since made several batches 
in this manner and have found them most 
satisfactory4  ,when sensitiveness is   
sought by boiling ,i rind it necessary  
to add a small quantity of gelatine     
after boiling and before precipitating1 
as that which has been kept for some    
time at a high temperature seems to have
 lost the viscosity necessary to carry  
down the silver bromide in such a form  
that it can he easily separated from the
 alcohol and water4  ,the practical     
manner of making an emulsion by this    
method may be as follows4 ,make up the  
following mixtures3    ,i4   ,silver    
nitrate444444444444444444444444444444444

4444444444#djj grains4                  
,water4444444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444444444 #c ounces4    ,,ii4 
,ammonia                                
bromide444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444#bdj grains4                   
,gelatine4444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444444444#bd grains           
,water4444444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444444444 #c ounces4          
,hydrochloric acid enough to slightly   
acidify the solution4    ,,iii4         
,gelatine4444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444444 #bj grains4          
,water4444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444444   ounce4   ,,iv4     
,hard gelatine 7say ,nelson's ,x opaque1
   or ,mr4 ,a4 ,l4                      
,henderson's7444444444444444444444444444
44444#bdj grains4   ,soft gelatine      
7,nelson's                              
,no4#a7444444444444444444444444444 #bdj 
grains4                                 
,water4444444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444444444#bd ounces4  ,nos4   

,,ii41 ,,iii41 and ,,iv4 are allowed to 
stand until the gelatine is softened4   
,no4 ,i is then warmed in a hock bottle 
until the gelatine is just melted1 when 
,no4 ,,ii4 is poured into it1 a little  
at a time1 with vigorous shaking1 until 
the whole is emulsified4 ,it is then    
transferred to an ordinary jelly can1   
which is placed in a saucepan half full 
of water over a ring ,bunsen burner in  
the dark room1 and boiled for half an   
hour4 ,it is then allowed to cool to    
about #ajj ,fahr41 when ,no4 ,,iii4 is  
added4 ,the whole is then allowed to get
 quite cool1 when it is poured1 with    
stirring1 into about one pint of        
methylated spirit4 ,if it be wished the 
precipitate may now be filtered out and 
washed at once like an ordinary         
filtrate1 but ,i prefer to allow it to  
settle1 which it will do in about five  
minutes4 ,the supernatant fluid is then 
gently poured off4  ,this fluid will    
have the appearance of still containing 
a considerable amount of the silver     

bromide2 but if it be kept and filtered 
it will be seen that the quantity is    
really so small that it may be          
disregarded4 ,we all know what an       
alarming quantity of silver seems to be 
going down the sink when we wash vessels
 to which a very small quantity of      
emulsion is adhering4 ,if filtering be  
resorted to the liquid which comes      
through will be quite clear4 ,this was  
somewhat unexpected by me1 as1 if an    
emulsion containing the whole of the    
gelatine be precipitated into alcohol in
 the usual way1 the alcohol becomes     
milky with a substance which could not1 
,i imagine1 be filtered from it4  ,two  
or three ounces of methylated spirit are
 now added to the vessel containing the 
silver bromide1 and the latter well     
mixed with it4 ,this makes the          
precipitate firmer--if such an          
expression be allowable--and this time  
it will sink to the bottom almost       
immediately after the stirring has      
ceased1 and the alcohol may be poured   

off4  ,i consider that the bromide in   
this state is practically free from     
soluble salts1 but it may be washed with
 one or two changes of water if desired4
  ,no4 ,,iv4 is now gently heated till  
the gelatine is melted and the          
precipitate mixed with it4 ,it must be  
kept warm for some time1 and shaken     
vigorously until all granularity has    
disappeared1 ,this is1 of course1       
ascertained by placing a drop of the    
emulsion on a piece of glass1 and       
examining it4 ,if it be wished to keep  
the bromide of silver for future use it 
may be placed on a piece of muslin      
stretched in the drying-box1 when it    
will dry in a very short time2 and1     
although ,i cannot speak from experience
 on this point1 it will1 ,i have no     
doubt1 keep for an indefinite time so   
long as light is kept from it4  ,if it  
be desired the ammonio-nitrate method   
may be used instead of the boiling one1 
although in my hands it does not give   
such sensitiveness4 ,if it be desired to

 use this method1 solution ,nos4 ,i1    
,,ii41 and ,,iv4 are made up exactly as 
for the boiling method1 except that ,no4
 ,,ii4 is not acidified4 ,liquid ammonia
 is then poured with stirring into the  
silver solution1 until it blackens and  
again clears4 ,emulsification is        
performed exactly as described above1   
but instead of boiling1 the emulsion is 
kept at a temperature of about #ajj     
,fahr4 for half an hour1 when it is     
poured into the alcohol1 no addition of 
gelatine being previously made4  ,i     
think ,i may claim for the method which 
,i have just described that it is less  
troublesome and more certain than either
 the ordinary washing method or the     
usual one of precipitating with alcohol1
 while it affords an easy method of     
making sensitive silver bromide in such 
a form that it can be more easily stored
 and afterwards manipulated than if it  
were in the form of pellicle4 ,the whole
 of the soluble salts are eliminated1   
and also any gelatine which may have    

been destroyed in the cooking4 ,the     
amount of alcohol used is comparatively 
small2 in fact1 to prepare silver       
bromide for a pint of emulsion very     
little more than a pint of methylated   
spirit is required4 ,besides this ,i do 
not think that ,i would be wrong in     
saying that the chance of green fog is  
reduced to a minimum4  ,let me take this
 opportunity of thanking ,captain ,abney
 for his prompt reply to my question    
about the connection between the        
proportion of bromide to gelatine in    
emulsions1 and the density of resulting 
images4--,w4 ,k4 ,burton1 in ,british   
,journal of ,photography4         99    
99       99       99       99           
,illustration3 ,old ,wrought ,iron      
,gates1 ,guildhall4         99       99 
99       99       99     ,,the ,,pottery
 ,,and ,,porcelain ,,industries ,,of    
,,japan4   ,japanese chronicles claim   
that the first pottery was made in the  
year #ffj ,b4,c42 it was not1 however1  
until the ,christian era that the art   

made any considerable advances4 ,in the 
year #abbc ,a4,d41 great improvements   
were made in manufacture and decoration 
of the ware4 ,from that date to the     
sixteenth century the great potteries of
 ,owari1 ,hizen1 ,mino1 ,kioto1 ,kaga1  
and ,satsuma were established4 ,the     
,rahn-,yaki1 or crackled ware1 was first
 made at ,kioto1 at the commencement of 
the sixteenth century4 ,the best old    
,hizen ware1 that which is still the    
most admired1 was made at ,arita ,hizen1
 in #aehj to #aehe2 the old ,satsuma    
dates from #aeib4 ,consul-,general ,van 
,buren states that porcelain clays are  
found in nearly all parts of the        
country1 and the different kinds are    
usually found in close proximity1 and   
close to canals and rivers1 which is of 
considerable advantage1 as affording a  
means of transport4 ,in all cases every 
variety of clay used in the manufacture 
of pottery is found in a natural state2 
there is no necessity to manufacture the
 quartzose or fusible clays as is done  

in other parts of the world1 and which  
adds considerably to the cost of the    
ware4 ,one of the peculiarities in the  
clay found in ,japan is that it contains
 both the fusible and infusible         
materials in such proportions as to make
 a light1 beautiful1 translucent1 and   
durable porcelain4 ,at ,arita1 in       
,hizen1 there is a clay found which     
contains #ghc_/d per cent1 of silica1   
and l#gc_/d per cent1 of alumina2 from  
this clay is made the delicate1         
translucent eggshell ware1 without the  
addition of any other matter4 ,from an  
adjoining bluff a clay is taken which   
has #ej per cent1 of silica1 and #ch per
 cent1 of alumina2 from this the common 
porcelain is made4  ,potter's clay is   
found in very large quantities in the   
provinces of ,yamashiro1 ,hoki1 ,turoo  
,iyo1 ,hizen1 ,higo1 ,owari1 ,mikaera1  
,idyn1 ,musashi1 and ,mino4 ,in the     
whole of ,japan there are #bhc          
localities where the clay is deposited2 
many of these only furnish inferior     

clays1 but they are all fitted for use  
in some of the various kinds of pottery4
 ,these clays are thoroughly powdered by
 means of what is called balance        
pounders1 worked in some localities by  
water-power1 but the work is often done 
by hand4 ,the powder is then dried1 and 
stored on boards or in flat boxes4 ,this
 dough does not go through the process  
of fermentation4 ,the shaping is almost 
exclusively done on the potter's wheel1 
which is set on a pivot working in a    
porcelain eye4 ,as a rule1 the wheel is 
turned by the potter himself1 but in    
,hizen it is kept in motion by means of 
a band connected with its pivot and     
another wheel turned by a boy4 ,in      
making dishes of other shape than round1
 a crude mould is sometimes used4 ,after
 the clay has been shaped on the wheel1 
it is set away for drying1 and usually  
in two or three days it is considered   
sufficiently dry for smoothing1 which is
 done on the wheel with a sharp curved  
knife4 ,the material is now made into   

bisque1 or biscuit1 by a preliminary    
baking in small ovens1 when it is ready 
for painting1 if it is to be painted on 
the biscuit2 if not1 it is ready for the
 glazing4 ,in either event it will then 
go to the large furnace for the final   
baking4 ,the kilns for this purpose are 
always built on hill sides1 and are     
joined together1 increasing in size from
 the lower to the higher ones1 and in   
number from four to twenty five2 these  
kilns are so constructed that the       
draught is from the lowest one1 in      
addition to which each kiln has its own 
firing place4 ,the result of this       
construction is that the upper ones are 
by far the most heated1 and the ware is 
arranged accordingly2 that which        
requires the least baking1 in the lower 
kiln1 and that which requires the       
greatest heat1 in the upper4 ,these     
connecting kilns have the merit of being
 heat saving1 but they are usually small
 and badly constructed1 and the heat in 
none of them is uniform4  ,the glaze is 

made from the silicious clay and potash 
extracted from wood ashes4 ,this potash 
is not a pure white1 and this accounts  
for the dirty color usually to be       
observed in unpainted ,japanese ware4   
,in different districts the painting    
varies4 ,for instance1 in ,owari1 the   
greater part of the ware is painted a   
cobalt blue--the cobalt ore being found 
in the bluffs near the clay deposits1   
and is used for painting the cheaper    
wares1 and for this purpose ,german     
cobalt is also employed4 ,the painting  
with cobalt is generally done on the    
biscuit before glazing4 ,in several     
districts a very handsome ware is made1 
and painted on the glaze4 ,for this kind
 of painting the colors are mixed with a
 silicate of lead and potash1 and baked 
the third time in a small furnace at a  
low temperature4 ,the coloring oxides in
 use are those of copper1 cobalt1 iron1 
antimony1 manganese1 and gold4 ,japanese
 porcelain painting may be divided into 
two categories1 decorative and graphic2 

the first is used to improve the vessel 
upon which it is placed1 and this class 
includes all the ware except that of the
 province of ,kaga1 which would come    
under the head of graphic1 as it        
delineates all the trades1 occupations1 
sports1 customs1 and costumes of the    
people1 as well as the scenery1 flora1  
and fauna of the country4 ,owari ware is
 made in the province of that name2 it  
is not as translucent1 but stronger and 
more tenacious than some of the ,hizen  
manufacture4  ,the principal potteries  
are at a village called ,sto1 twelve    
miles from the sea2 in this village     
there are more than #bjj kilns4 ,the    
ware is mostly painted a cobalt blue1   
and is merely of a decorative kind1     
consisting of branches of trees1 grass1 
flowers1 birds1 and insects1 all these  
being copied by the artist from nature4 
,all the ,owari ware is true hard       
porcelain1 and is strong and durable4   
,in ,hizen1 a number of wares are       
manufactured1 the best known kind being 

the ,eurari1 which is made at ,arita1   
but painted at ,eurari4 ,the colors in  
use are red1 blue1 green1 and gold2     
these are combined in various           
proportions1 but1 as a rule1 the red    
predominates4 ,generally the surface of 
the vessel is divided into medallions of
 figures1 which alternately have red1   
blue1 or white back-ground1 with figures
 in green or blue and gold4  ,the       
egg-shell porcelain sold at ,nagasaki is
 made in this province from ,arita clay1
 and this is made from clay with no     
admixture of fusible matter except that 
contained by the clay naturally4 ,the   
province of ,satsuma is noted for       
crackled ware4 ,it is only within a very
 few years that large vases have been   
manufactured1 and in earlier days the   
old ware was confined to small vessels4 
,the glaze is a silicate of alumina and 
potash1 and the best ware has a complete
 network of the finest crackles2 the    
painting is of birds and flowers1 and   
noted for its delicate lines of green1  

red1 and gold4  ,in ,kioto1 the ware    
manufactured is very similar to that    
produced in ,satsuma1 but it is lighter 
and more porous2 the decorations are    
also nearly the same1 being of birds and
 flowers4 ,there is a description of    
ware made in ,kioto1 called ,eraku1 the 
whole body of which is covered with a   
red oxide of iron1 and over this        
mythical figures of gold are traced4    
,that produced in ,kagja is faence1 and 
in the style of painting is unlike any  
other in ,japan1 the predominating color
 being a light red1 used with green and 
gold4 ,the designs with which it is     
profusely decorated are trees1 grasses1 
flowers1 birds1 and figures of all      
classes of people1 with their costumes1 
occupations1 and pastimes4 ,the ,banko  
ware is made at the head of the ,owari  
,bay2 it is an unglazed stone-ware1 very
 light and durable1 made on moulds in   
irregular shapes1 and decorated with    
figures in relief4 ,on the island of    
,awadji1 a delicate1 creamy1 crackled1  

soft paste porcelain is made4 ,the      
figures used in decoration are birds and
 flowers1 but outlined by heavy1 dark   
lines4  ,consul ,van ,buren is of       
opinion that1 at no distant day1 ,japan 
will be one of the foremost competitors 
in the pottery markets of the world1 on 
account of the great variety and        
excellence of the clays1 their proximity
 to the sea1 the cheapness of labor1 and
 the beauty and originality of the      
decorations4 ,already this important    
industry has been greatly stimulated by 
the foreign demand1 and by the success  
of ,japanese exhibitors at the          
,exhibitions of ,vienna1 ,philadelphia1 
and ,paris4--,journal of the ,society of
 ,arts4         99       99       99    
99       99  ,professor ,julius ,e4     
,hilgard1 for twenty years assistant in 
charge of the office1 has been placed in
 temporary charge of the ,coast and     
,geodetic ,survey4 ,it is understood    
that he will be appointed superintendent
 to succeed the late ,captain ,carlile  

,p4 ,patterson4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,the ,,french 
,,crystal ,,palace4   ,the first idea of
 the ,french ,crystal ,palace was       
suggested by the ,english structure of  
the same name at ,sydenham1 about eight 
miles from ,london4 ,such a structure1  
as may be readily conceived1 requires a 
site of vast extent1 and one that shall 
be easy of access and possess the most  
agreeable surroundings4 ,to the promoter
 of the project1 those portions of the  
park of ,st4 ,cloud in the vicinage of  
the old chateau appeared to combine     
within themselves all the conditions    
that were desirable1 and he1 therefore1 
on the #aeth of ,december1 #ahgi1       
addressed the ,ministers of ,public     
,works and of ,finances asking for the  
necessary concessions4 ,the extensive   
specifications have been finally        
completed and will probably be shortly  
submitted for the approval of the       
parliament4 ,the moment has arrived then
 for the public press to take cognizance

 of a project which concerns so great   
interests4  ,illustration3 ,,the        
,,french ,,crystal ,,palace--,,park ,,of
 ,,st ,,cloud1 ,,paris4  ,at present we 
shall say a few words  propos of the    
engraving we present herewith4 ,the     
,french ,crystal ,palace will consist of
 one great nave1 two lateral naves1 two 
surrounding galleries1 and a vast       
rotunda behind4 ,the principal entrance1
 located at the head of the avenue      
leading from the present ruins 7which   
will1 ere long1 be transformed into a   
most interesting museum71 will exhibit a
 very striking aspect with its          
monumental fountain and the dome which  
it is proposed to erect over the very   
entrance itself4 ,the whole structure   
will cover about nineteen acres of      
ground1 thus being two and a half times 
the extent of the ,palace of ,industry  
in the ,champs ,elysees4 ,the great nave
 of honor will be nearly #a1fej ft4 in  
length1 #gh ft4 in width1 and #ih ft4 in
 height4 ,the dome will measure exactly 

#cbh ft4 in height1 or #aje ft4 more    
than the towers of ,notre ,dame4 ,the   
structure1 with the exception of        
basement and foundation1 will be of     
glass and iron4  ,the project which we  
publish to-day has been studied and     
gotten up1 according to the general     
plans and dimensions suggested by the   
promoter1 by ,mr4 ,dumoulin1 the        
architect4 ,we are informed that the    
builder is to be ,mr4 ,alfred           
,hunnebelle1 a contractor well known    
from the extensive works that he has    
executed1 and who is president of the   
,syndical ,chamber of ,contractors of   
,paris4  ,among the annexes of this     
palace we may note a ,palace of the     
,republic1 to be built on the ruins and 
designed for illustrious or             
distinguished visitors1 such as the     
,president of the ,republic1 the        
,ministers1 the ,municipal ,council of  
,paris1 foreign delegates1 etc42 a farm 
house for special exhibitions and a     
field for experiments2 galleries1       

cottages1 etc4  ,as for the programme1  
which embraces six divisions and        
numerous subdivisions1 we are unable to 
give it at present for want of space2 we
 need only say that it satisfies        
perfectly all the conditions of so vast 
an undertaking4  ,in the hands of the   
projector1 ,mr4 ,nicole1 who is well    
known from his long experience in such  
matters1 the exhibition will undoubtedly
 prove a success and be instrumental in 
adding prosperity to all ,french        
industries4         99       99       99
       99       99  ,,the ,,great ,,heat
 ,,of ,,the ,,sun4--,prof4 ,s4 ,p4      
,langley has made the following         
calculation3 ,a sunbeam one centimeter  
in section is found in the clear sky of 
the ,alleghany ,mountains to bring to   
the earth in one minute enough heat to  
warm one gramme of water by #a ,c4 ,it  
would1 therefore1 if concentrated upon a
 film of water #a_/ejjth of a millimeter
 thick1 #a millimeter wide1 and #aj     
millimeters long1 raise it #hc #a_/c in 

one second1 provided all the heat could 
be maintained4 ,and since the specific  
heat of platinum is only #j4jjcb a strip
 of platinum of the same dimensions     
would1 on a similar supposition1 be     
warmed in one second to #b1fjc ,c4--a   
temperature sufficient to melt it6      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,chateau ,,in ,,the ,,aegean ,,sea4    
,from the site of this building1        
magnificent views are obtained over the 
island-dotted sea and the mainland of   
,asia ,minor3 but1 though every prospect
 pleases1 it is a land of earthquakes1  
and unfortunately1 the works at the     
chateau have been suspended1 owing to   
the dreadful calamity which has recently
 fallen upon the district4 ,the building
 is intended for the residence of an    
,english lady of exalted rank4 ,it is to
 be built of local white stone1 the     
hall1 staircase1 etc41 being lined and  
paved with marbles4 ,the hall is a large
 apartment about #be ft4 high1 with     
paneled ceiling1 having galleries on two

 sides1 giving access to the rooms      
surrounding it on first floor1 and to   
the turret staircase leading to roofs1  
etc4 ,with the exception of sanitary    
apparatus1 painted windows1 etc4 7which 
will be supplied by ,english firms71 the
 whole of the work will be executed by  
native labor4 ,the architect is ,mr4    
,edwin ,t4 ,hall1 ,london4--,building   
,news4  ,illustration3 ,,suggestions    
,,in ,,architecture--,a ,,castellated   
,,chateau4         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,electric ,,power4     
,just now nothing save electricity is   
talked about in scientific circles4     
,during the meeting of the ,british     
,association the greatest possible      
prominence was given to electrical      
questions and propositions ,the success 
of the electric light1 the introduction 
of the ,faure battery with a great      
flourish of trumpets1 and the           
magnificent display of electrical       
instruments and machinery at ,paris1    
have all operated to the same end4 ,the 

daily press has taken the subject up1   
and journals which were nothing hitherto
 if not political1 now indulge in       
magnificent rhapsodies concerning the   
future of electricity4 ,even eminent    
engineers1 carried away by the          
intoxication of the moment1 have not    
hesitated to say that the steam engine  
is doomed1 and that its place will be   
taken by the electricity engine4 ,in the
 midst of all this noise and clamor and 
blowing of personal trumpets1 it is not 
easy to keep one's head clear1 and      
mistakes may be made which will cause   
disappointment to many and retard the   
progress of electrical science4 ,we     
confidently expect that electricity will
 prove a potent agent by and by in the  
hands of the speculator for extracting  
gold from the pockets of the public1 and
 we write now to warn our readers in    
time1 and to endeavor to clear the air  
of some of the mists with which it is   
obscured4 ,there is1 no doubt1 a great  
future before electricity2 but it is    

equally certain that electricity can    
never do many things which the half     
informed may be readily made to believe 
it will do4 ,we propose here to say     
enough on this point to enlighten our   
readers1 without troubling them with    
perplexing problems and speculations4   
,no one at this moment knows what       
electricity is2 but for our present     
purpose we may regard it as a fluid1    
non-elastic1 and without weight1 and    
universally diffused through the        
universe4 ,to judge by recently         
published statements1 a large section of
 the reading public are taught that this
 fluid is a source of power1 and that it
 may be made to do the work of coal4    
,this is a delusion4 ,so long as        
electricity remains in what we may call 
a normal state of repose1 it is inert4  
,before we can get any work out of      
electricity a somewhat greater amount of
 work must be done upon it4 ,if this    
fundamental and most important truth be 
kept in view it will not be easy to make

 a grave mistake in estimating the value
 of any of the numerous schemes for     
making electricity do work which will   
ere long be brought before the public4  
,to render our meaning clearer1 we may  
explain that in producing the electric  
light1 for instance1 a certain quantity 
of electricity passes in through one    
wire to the lamp1 and precisely the same
 quantity passes out through the other  
wire1 and on to the earth or return wire
 completing the circuit4 ,not only is   
the quantity the same1 the velocity is  
also unchanged4 ,but in going through   
the lamp the current has done something4
 ,it has overcome the resistance of the 
carbons1 heated them to a dazzling white
 heat1 and so performed work4 ,in doing 
this the current of electricity has lost
 something4 ,led from the first lamp to 
a second1 it is found powerless--if the 
first lamp be of sufficient size4 ,what 
is it that the electricity has lost8 ,it
 has parted with what electricians would
 term potential1 or the capacity for    

performing work4 ,what this is          
precisely1 or in what way the presence  
or absence of potential modifies the    
nature of the electric current1 no one  
knows2 but it is known that this        
potential can only be conferred on      
electricity by doing work on the        
electricity in the first instance4 ,the 
analogy between electricity and a liquid
 like water will now be recognized4 ,so 
long as the water is at rest1 it is     
inert4 ,if we pump it up to a height1 we
 confer on it the equivalent of         
potential4 ,we can let the water fall   
into the buckets of an overshot wheel4  
,its velocity leaving the tail race may 
be identical with that at which it left 
the supply trough to descend on the     
wheel4 ,its quantity will be the same4  
,it will be in all respects unchanged1  
just as the current of electricity      
passing through a lamp is unchanged2 but
 it has1 nevertheless1 lost something4  
,it has parted with its                 
potential--capacity for doing work--and 

it becomes once more inert4 ,but the    
duty which it discharged in turning the 
mill wheel was somewhat less than the   
precise equivalent of the work done in  
pumping it up to a level with the top of
 the wheel4 ,in the same way the        
electric current never can do work equal
 in amount to the work done on it in    
endowing it with potential4  ,it will   
thus be seen that electricity can only  
be used as a means of transmitting power
 from one place to another1 or for      
storing power up at one time to be used 
at a subsequent period2 but it cannot be
 used to originate power in the way coal
 can be used4 ,it possesses no inherent 
potential4 ,it is incapable of          
performing work unless something is done
 to it first4 ,we have spoken of it as a
 fluid1 but only for the sake of        
illustration4 ,as we have said1 no one  
knows what it is1 but the theory which  
bids fair for acceptance is that it is a
 mode of motion of the all-pervading    
ether4 ,very curious and instructive    

experiments are now being carried out in
 ,paris by ,dr4 ,bjerkness1 of          
,christiania1 in the ,norwegian section 
of the electrical exhibition4 ,this     
gentleman submerges thin elastic        
diaphragms in water1 and causes them to 
vibrate1 or rather pulsate1 by          
compressed air4 ,he finds that if they  
pulsate synchronously they attract each 
other4 ,if the pulsations are not       
simultaneous1 the disks repel each      
other4 ,from this and other results he  
has obtained1 it may be argued that the 
ether plays the part of the water in    
,dr4 ,bjerkness' tank1 and that when    
special forms of vibration are set up in
 bodies they become competent to attract
 or repel other bodies4 ,this being so1 
it will be seen that the power of       
attraction or repulsion of an electrical
 body depends in the first instance on  
the motion set up in the body attracted 
or repulsed1 and this motion is1 of     
course1 some function of the work       
originally done on the body4 ,we need   

not pursue this argument further4 ,among
 the most scientific investigators of   
the day it is admitted that the         
efficiency of electricity as a doer of  
work1 or a producer of action at a      
distance1 must depend for its value on  
the performance of work in some one way 
or another on the electricity itself in 
the first instance4 ,it may be worth    
while here to dispel a popular delusion4
 ,it is held very generally that        
electricity can be made1 as1 for        
instance1 by the galvanic battery4      
,there is no reason to believe anything 
of the kind2 but whether it is or is not
 true that electricity is actually made 
by the combustion of zinc in a galvanic 
trough1 it is quite certain that this   
electricity1 unless it possesses        
potential1 can do no work1 no matter how
 great its quantity4 ,of course1 it is  
to be understood that all electric      
currents possess potential4 ,if they did
 not1 their presence would be unknown2  
but the potential of a current is in all

 cases the result of work done on       
electricity1 either by the oxidation of 
zinc1 or in some other way4 ,this is a  
broad principle1 but it is strictly     
consistent in every respect with the    
truth4 ,electricity1 then1 is1 as we    
have said1 totally different from coal2 
and it can never become a substitute for
 it alone4 ,water power1 air power1 or  
what we may1 for want of a better       
phrase1 call chemical power1 combined   
with electricity1 can be used as a      
substitute for coal2 but electricity    
cannot of itself be employed to do work4
 ,it is true1 however1 that electricity1
 on which work has already been done1   
may be found in nature4 ,atmospheric    
electricity1 for example1 may perhaps   
yet be utilized4 ,it is by no means     
inconceivable that the electricity      
contained in a thunder cloud might be   
employed to charge a ,faure battery2 but
 up to the present no one has           
contemplated the obtaining of power from
 the clouds1 and whether it is or is not

 practicable to utilize a great natural 
force in this way does not affect our   
statement4 ,the use of electricity must 
be confined to its power of transmitting
 or storing up energy1 and this truth   
being recognized1 it becomes easy to    
estimate the future prospects of        
electricity at something like their     
proper value4  ,it has been proved to a 
certain extent that electricity can be  
used to transmit power to a distance1   
and that it can be used to store it up4 
,thus far the man of pure science4 ,the 
engineer now comes on the stage and     
asks--,can practical difficulties be got
 over8 ,can it be made to pay8 ,in      
trying to answer these questions we     
cannot do better than deal with one or  
two definite proposals which have been  
recently made4 ,that with which we shall
 first concern ourselves is that trains 
should be worked by ,faure batteries    
instead of by steam4 ,it is suggested   
that each carriage of a train should be 
provided with a dynamo motor1 and that  

batteries enough should be carried by   
each to drive the wheels1 and so propel 
the train4 ,let us see how such a scheme
 would comply with working conditions4  
,let us take for example a train of     
fifteen coaches on the ,great ,northern 
,railway1 running without a stop to     
,peterborough in one hour and forty     
minutes4 ,the power required would be   
about #ejj horses indicated4 ,to supply 
this for #ajj minutes1 even on the most 
absurdly favorable hypothesis1 no less  
than #be tons of ,faure batteries would 
be required4 ,adding to these the weight
 of the dynamo motors1 and that         
unavoidably added to the coaches1 it    
will be seen that a weight equal to that
 of an engine would soon be reached4    
,the only possible saving would be some 
#bh to #cj tons of tender4 ,in return   
for this all the passengers would have  
to change coaches at ,peterborough1 as  
the train could not be delayed to       
replace the expended with fresh         
batteries4 ,this is out of the question4

 ,the ,faure batteries must all be      
carried on one vehicle or engine1 which 
could be changed for another1 like a    
locomotive4 ,even then no advantage     
would be gained4 ,as to cost1 it is very
 unlikely that the stationary engines   
which must be provided to drive the     
dynamo machines for charging the        
batteries would be more economical than 
locomotive engines2 and if we allow that
 the dynamo machine only wasted #aj per 
cent4 of the power of the engine1 the   
,faure batteries #aj per cent4 of the   
power of the dynamo machines1 and the   
dynamo motors #aj per cent4 of the power
 of the batteries--all ridiculously     
favorable assumptions--yet the          
stationary engines would be handicapped 
with a difference in net efficiency     
between themselves and the              
locomotive--admitting the original      
efficiency per pound of coal in both to 
be the same--of some #bg per cent41 we  
think we may relegate this scheme to the
 realms of oblivion4 ,another idea is   

that by putting up turbines and dynamo  
machines the steam engine might be      
superseded by water power4 ,now it so   
happens that if all the water power of  
,england were quadrupled it would not   
nearly suffice for our wants4 ,it may be
 found worth while perhaps to construct 
steam engines close to coalpits and send
 out power from these engines by wire2  
but the question will be asked1 ,which  
is the cheaper of the two1 to send the  
coal or to send the power8 ,on the      
answer to this will depend the decision 
of the mill owners4 ,another favorite   
scheme is that embodied in the ,siemens 
electrical railway4 ,we believe that    
there is a great future in store for    
electricity as a worker of tramway      
traffic2 but the traffic on a great line
 like the ,midland or ,great ,northern  
,railway could not be carried on by it4 
,as ,robert ,stephenson said of the     
atmospheric system1 it is not flexible  
enough4 ,the working of points and      
crossings1 and the shunting of trains   

and wagons1 would present unsurmountable
 difficulties4 ,we have cited proposals 
enough1 we think1 to illustrate our     
meaning4 ,sir ,william ,armstrong1 ,sir 
,frederick ,bramwell1 ,dr4 ,siemens1    
,sir ,w4 ,thomson1 and many others may  
be excused if they are a little         
enthusiastic4 ,they are just now        
overjoyed with success attained2 but    
when the time comes for sober reflection
 they will1 no doubt1 see good reason to
 moderate their views4 ,no one can say1 
of course1 what further discoveries may 
bring to light2 but recent speakers and 
writers have found in what is known     
already1 materials for sketching out a  
romance of electricity4 ,it is but      
romancing to assert that the end of the 
steam engine is at hand4 ,wonderful and 
mystical as electricity is1 there are   
some very hard and dry facts about it1  
and these facts are all opposed to the  
theory that it can become man's servant 
of all work4 ,ariel-like1 electricity   
may put a girdle round the earth in     

forty minutes2 but it shows no great    
aptitude for superseding the useful old 
giant steam1 who has toiled for the     
world so long and to such good          
purpose--,the ,engineer4         99     
99       99       99       99     ,,on  
,a ,,method ,,of ,,obtaining ,,and      
,,measuring ,,very ,,high ,,vacua ,,with
 ,a ,,modified ,,form ,,of              
,,sprengel-,,pump4  ,by ,ogden ,n4      
,rood1 ,professor of ,physics in        
,columbia ,college4   ,in the ,july     
number of this ,journal for #ahhj1 ,i   
gave a short account of certain changes 
in the ,sprengel-pump by means of which 
far better vacua could be obtained than 
had been previously possible4 ,for      
example1 the highest vacuum at that time
 known had been reached by ,mr4         
,crookes1 and was about #a_/ag1jjj1jjj1 
while with my arrangement vacua of      
#a_/ajj1jjj1jjj were easily reached4 ,in
 a notice that appeared in ,nature for  
,august1 #ahhj1 p4 #cge1 it was stated  
that my improvements were not new1 but  

had already been made in ,england four  
years previously4 ,i have been unable to
 obtain a printed account of the        
,english improvements1 and am willing to
 assume that they are identical with my 
own2 but on the other hand1 as for four 
years no particular result seems to have
 followed their introduction in         
,england1 ,i am reluctantly forced to   
the conclusion that their inventor and  
his customers1 for that period of time1 
have remained quite in ignorance of the 
proper mode of utilizing them4 ,since   
then ,i have pushed the matter still    
farther1 and have succeeded in obtaining
 with my apparatus vacua as high as     
#a_/cij1jjj1jjj without finding that the
 limit of its action had been reached4  
,the pump is simple in construction1    
inexpensive1 and1 as ,i have proved by a
 large number of experiments1 certain in
 action and easy of use2 stopcocks and  
grease are dispensed with1 and when the 
presence of a stopcock is really        
desirable its place is supplied by a    

movable column of mercury4              
,reservoir4--,an ordinary inverted      
bell-glass with a diameter of #ajj mm4  
and a total height of #bje mm4 forms the
 reservoir2 its mouth is closed by a    
well-fitting cork through which passes  
the glass tube that forms one           
termination of the pump4 ,the cork      
around tube and up to the edge of the   
former is painted with a flexible       
cement4 ,the tube projects #dj mm4 into 
the mercury and passes through a little 
watch-glass-shaped piece of sheet-iron1 
,w1 figure #a1 which prevents the small 
air bubbles that creep upward along the 
tube from reaching its open end2 the    
little cup is firmly cemented in its    
place4 ,the flow of the mercury is      
regulated by the steel rod and cylinder1
 ,,cr1 ,figure #a4 ,the bottom of the   
steel cylinder is filled out with a     
circular piece of pure ,india-rubber1   
properly cemented2 this soon fits itself
 to the use required and answers        
admirably4 ,the pressure of the cylinder

 on the end of the tube is regulated by 
the lever1 ,s1 ,figure #a2 this is      
attached to a circular board which again
 is firmly fastened over the open end of
 the bell-glass4 ,it will be noticed    
that on turning the milled head1 ,s1 the
 motion of the steel cylinder is not    
directly vertical1 but that it tends to 
describe a circle with c as a center2   
the necessary play of the cylinder is1  
however1 so small1 that practically the 
experimenter does not become aware of   
this theoretical defect1 so that the    
arrangement really gives entire         
satisfaction1 and after it has been in  
use for a few days accurately controls  
the flow of the mercury4 ,the glass     
cylinder is held in position1 but not   
supported1 by two wooden adjustable     
clamps1 a a1 ,figure #b4 ,the weight of 
the cylinder and mercury is supported by
 a shelf1 ,s1 ,figure #b1 on which rests
 the cork of the cylinder2 in this way  
all danger of a very disagreeable       
accident is avoided4  ,illustration3    

,,modified ,,form ,,of ,,sprengel       
,,pump4  ,vacuum-bulb4--,leaving the    
reservoir1 the mercury enters the       
vacuum-bulb1 ,b1 ,figure #b1 where it   
parts with most of its air and moisture2
 this bulb also serves to catch the air 
that creeps into the pump from the      
reservoir1 even when there is no flow of
 mercury2 its diameter is #bg mm4 ,the  
shape and inclination of the tube       
attached to this bulb is by no means a  
matter of indifference2 accordingly     
,figure #c is a separate drawing of it2 
the tube should be so bent that a       
horizontal line drawn from the proper   
level of the mercury in the bulb passes 
through the point1 o1 where the drops of
 mercury break off4 ,the length of the  
tube1 ,,ec1 should be #aej mm41 that of 
the tube1 ,,ed1 #de mm42 the bore of    
this tube is about the same as that of  
the fall-tube4  ,fall-tube and          
bends4--,the bore of the fall-tube in   
the pump now used by me is #a4gh mm42   
its length above the bends 7,u1 ,figure 

#b7 is #caj mm42 below the bends the    
length is #hae mm4 ,the bends constitute
 a fluid valve that prevents the air    
from returning into the pump2 beside    
this1 the play of the mercury in them   
greatly facilitates the passage of the  
air downward4 ,the top of the mercury   
column representing the existing        
barometric pressure should be about #be 
mm4 below the bends when the pump is in 
action4 ,this is easily regulated by an 
adjustable shelf1 which is also employed
 to fill the bends with mercury when a  
measurement is taken or when the pump is
 at rest4 ,on the shelf is a tube1 #afj 
mm4 high and #bj mm4 in diameter1 into  
which the end of the fall-tube dips2 its
 side has a circular perforation into   
which fits a small cork with a little   
tube bent at right angles4 ,with the    
hard end of a file and a few drops of   
turpentine the perforation can be easily
 made and shaped in a few minutes4 ,by  
revolving the little bent tube through  
#ahj the flow of the mercury can be     

temporarily suspended when it is        
desirable to change the vessel that     
catches it4  ,gauge4--,for the purpose  
of measuring the vacua ,i have used an  
arrangement similar to ,mc,leod's gauge1
 ,figure #d2 it has1 however1 some      
peculiarities4 ,the tube destined to    
contain the compressed air has a        
diameter of #a4ce mm4 as ascertained by 
a compound microscope2 it is not fused  
at its upper extremity1 but closed by a 
fine glass rod that fits into it as     
accurately as may be1 the end of the rod
 being ground flat and true4 ,this rod  
is introduced into the tube1 and while  
the latter is gently heated a very small
 portion of the cement described below  
is allowed to enter by capillary        
attraction1 but not to extend beyond the
 end of the rod1 the operation being    
watched by a lens4 ,the rod is used for 
the purpose of obtaining the compressed 
air in the form of a cylinder1 and also 
to allow cleansing of the tube when     
necessary4 ,the capacity of the         

gauge-sphere was obtained by filling it 
with mercury2 its external diameter was 
sixty millimeters2 for measuring very   
high vacua this is somewhat small and   
makes the probable errors rather large2 
,i would advise the use of a            
gauge-sphere of about twice as great    
capacity4 ,the tube1 ,,cb1 ,figure #d1  
has the same bore as the measuring tube 
in order to avoid corrections for       
capillarity4 ,the tube of the gauge1    
,,cd1 is not connected with an          
,india-rubber tube1 as is usual1 but    
dips into mercury contained in a        
cylinder #cdj mm4 high1 #eh mm4 in      
diameter1 which can be raised and       
lowered at pleasure4 ,this is best      
accomplished by the use of a set of     
boxes of various thicknesses1 made for  
the purpose and supplemented by several 
sheets of cardboard and even of         
writing-paper4 ,these have been found to
 answer well and enable the experimenter
 to graduate with a nicety the pressure 
to which the gas is exposed during      

measurement4 ,by employing a cylinder   
filled with mercury instead of the usual
 caoutchouc tubing small bubbles of air 
are prevented from entering the gauge   
along with the mercury4 ,an adjustable  
brace or support is used which prevents 
accident to the cylinder when the pump  
is inclined for the purpose of pumping  
out the vacuum-bulb4 ,the maximum       
pressure that can be employed in the    
gauge used by me is #ajj mm4  ,all the  
tubing of the pump is supported at a    
distance of about #ee mm4 from the      
wood-work2 this is effected by the use  
of simple adjustable supports and       
adjustable clamps2 the latter have      
proved a great convenience4 ,the object 
is to gain the ability to heat with a   
,bunsen burner all parts of the pump    
without burning the wood-work4 ,where   
glass and wood necessarily come in      
contact the wood is protected by metal  
or simply painted with a saturated      
solution of alum4 ,the glass portions of
 the pump ,i have contrived to anneal   

completely by the simple means mentioned
 below4 ,if the glass is not annealed it
 is certain to crack when subjected to  
heat1 thus causing vexation and loss of 
time4 ,the mercury was purified by the  
same method that was used by ,w4        
,siemens 7,pogg4 ,annalen1 vol4 ex41 p4 
#bj71 that is1 by a little strong       
sulphuric acid to which a few drops of  
nitric acid had been added2 it was dried
 by pouring it repeatedly from one hot  
dry vessel to another1 by filtering it  
while quite warm1 the drying being      
completed finally by the action of the  
pump itself4 ,all the measurements were 
made by a fine cathetometer which was   
constructed for me by ,william ,grunow2 
see this ,journal1 ,jan41 #ahgd1 p4 #bc4
 ,it was provided with a well-corrected 
object-glass having a focal length of   
#bjj mm4 and as used by me gave a       
magnifying power of #af diameters4      
,manipulation4--,the necessary          
connections are effected with a cement  
made by melting ,burgundy pitch with    

three or four per cent of gutta percha4 
,it is indispensable that the cement    
when cold should be so hard as          
completely to resist taking any         
impression from the finger nail1        
otherwise it is certain to yield        
gradually and finally to give rise to   
leaks4 ,the connecting tubes are        
selected so as to fit as closely as     
possible1 and after being put into      
position are heated to the proper       
amount1 when the edges are touched with 
a fragment of cold cement which enters  
by capillary attraction and forms a     
transparent joint that can from time to 
time be examined with a lens for the    
colors of thin plates1 which always     
precede a leak4 ,joints of this kind    
have been in use by me for two months at
 a time without showing a trace of      
leakage1 and the evidence gathered in   
another series of unfinished experiments
 goes to show that no appreciable amount
 of vapor is furnished by the resinous  
compound1 which1 ,i may add1 is never   

used until it has been repeatedly       
melted4 ,as drying material ,i prefer   
caustic potash that has been in fusion  
just before its introduction into the   
drying tube2 during the process of      
exhaustion it can from time to time be  
heated nearly to the melting point3 if  
actually fused in the drying tube the   
latter almost invariably cracks4 ,the   
pump in the first instance is to be     
inclined at an angle of about #aj       
degrees1 the tube of the gauge being    
supported by a semicircular piece of    
thick pasteboard fitted with two corks  
into the top of the cylinder4 ,this     
seemingly awkward proceeding has in no  
case been attended with the slightest   
accident1 and owing to the presence of  
the four leveling-screws1 the pump when 
righted returns1 as shown by the        
telescope of the cathetometer1 almost   
exactly to its original place4 ,in the  
inclined position the exhaustion of the 
vacuum bulb is accomplished along with  
that of the rest of the pump4 ,the      

exhaustion of the vacuum-bulb when once 
effected can be preserved to a great    
extent for use in future work1 merely by
 allowing mercury from the reservoir to 
flow in a rapid stream at the time that 
air is allowed to re-enter the pump4    
,during the first process of exhaustion 
the tube of the gauge is kept hot by    
moving to and fro a ,bunsen burner1 and 
is in this way freed from those portions
 of air and moisture that are not too   
firmly attached4 ,after a time the      
vacuum-bulb ceases to deliver bubbles of
 air2 it and the attached tube are now  
to be heated with a moving ,bunsen      
burner1 when it will be found to furnish
 for #ae or #bj minutes a large quantity
 of bubbles mainly of vapor of water4   
,after then production ceases the pump  
is righted and the exhaustion carried   
farther4 ,in spite of a couple of       
careful experiments with the            
cathetometer ,i have not succeeded in   
measuring the vacuum in the vacuum bulb1
 but judge from indications1 that is    

about as high as that obtained in an    
ordinary ,geissler pump4 ,meanwhile the 
various parts of the pump can be heated 
with a moving ,bunsen burner to detach  
air and moisture1 the cement being      
protected by wet lamp-wicking4 ,in one  
experiment ,i measured the amount of air
 that was detached from the walls of the
 pump by heating them for ten minutes   
somewhat above l#jj ,c41 and found that 
it was #a_/a1jjj1jjj of the air         
originally present4 ,i have also noticed
 that a still larger amount of air is   
detached by electric discharges4 ,this  
coincides with an observation of ,e4    
,bessel-,hagen in his interesting       
article on a new form of ,tpler's       
mercury-pump 7,annalen der ,physik und  
,chemie1 #ahha1 vol4 xii474 ,even when  
potash is used a small amount of        
moisture always collects in the bends of
 the fall tube2 this is readily removed 
by a ,bunsen burner2 the tension of the 
vapor being greatly increased1 it passes
 far down the fall-tube in large bubbles

 and is condensed4 ,without this        
precaution ,i have found it impossible  
to obtain a vacuum higher than          
#a_/be1jjj1jjj2 in point of fact the    
bends should always be heated when a    
high exhaustion is undertaken even if   
the pump has been standing well         
exhausted for a week2 the heat should of
 course never be applied at a late stage
 of the exhaustion4 ,conversely1 ,i have
 often by the aid of heat completely and
 quickly removed quite large quantities 
of the vapor of water that had been     
purposely introduced4 ,the exhaustion of
 the vacuum-bulb is of course somewhat  
injured by the act of using the pump and
 also by standing for several days1 so  
that it has been usual with me before   
undertaking a high exhaustion to incline
 the pump and re-exhaust for #bj        
minutes2 ,i have1 however1 obtained very
 high vacua without using this          
precaution4  ,during the process of     
exhaustion not more than one-half of the
 mercury in the reservoir is allowed to 

run out1 other wise when it is returned 
bubbles of air are apt to find their way
 into the vacuum-bulb4 ,in order to     
secure its quiet entrance it is poured  
into a silk bag provided with several   
holes4 ,when the reservoir is first     
filled its walls for a day or two appear
 to furnish air that enters the         
vacuum-bulb2 this action1 however1 soon 
sinks to a minimum and then the leakage 
remains quite constant for months       
together4  ,measurement of the          
vacuum4--,the cylinder into which the   
gauge-tube dips is first elevated by a  
box sufficiently thick merely to close  
the gauge1 afterwards boxes are placed  
under it sufficient to elevate the      
mercury to the base of the measuring    
tube2 when the mercury has reached this 
point1 thin boards and card-boards are  
added till a suitable pressure is       
obtained4 ,the length of the inclosed   
cylinder of air is then measured with   
the cathetometer1 also the height of the
 mercurial meniscus1 and the difference 

of the heights of the mercurial columns 
in ,a and ,b1 figure #d4 ,to obtain a   
second measure an assistant removes some
 of the boxes and the cylinder is       
lowered by hand three or four           
centimeters and then replaced in its    
original position4 ,in measuring really 
high vacua1 it is well to begin with    
this process of lowering and raising the
 cylinder1 and to repeat it five or six 
times before taking readings4 ,it seems 
as though the mercury in the tube1 ,b1  
supplies to the glass a coating of air  
that allows it to move more freely2 at  
all events it is certain that ordinarily
 the readings of ,b become regular1 only
 after the mercury has been allowed to  
play up and down the tube a number of   
times4 ,this applies particularly to    
vacua as high #a_/ej1jjj1jjj and to     
pressures of five millimeters and under4
 ,it is advantageous in making          
measurements to employ large pressures  
and small volumes2 the correct working  
of the gauge can from time to time be   

tested by varying the relations of these
 to each other4 ,this ,i did quite      
elaborately1 and proved that such       
constant errors as exist are small      
compared with inevitable accidental     
errors1 as1 for example1 that there was 
no measurable correction for            
capillarity1 that the calculated volume 
of the meniscus was correct1 etc4 ,it is
 essential in making a measurement that 
the temperature of the room should      
change as little as possible1 and that  
the temperature of the mercury in the   
cylinder should be at least nearly that 
of the air near the gauge-sphere4 ,the  
computation is made as follows    n     
height of the cylinder inclosing the    
air2   c  a factor which1 multiplied by 
n1 converts it into cubic               
millimeters2   ,s  cubic contents of the
 meniscus2   d  difference of level     
between ,a and ,b1 fig4 #d2      the    
pressure the air is under2   ,n  the    
cubic contents of the gauge in          
millimeters2   x  a fraction expressing 

the degree of exhaustion obtained2 then 
x#a_/7,n 7#gfj_/;d7_/nc - ,s7  ,it will 
be noticed that the measurements are    
independent of the actual height of the 
barometer1 and if several readings are  
taken continuously1 the result will not 
be sensibly affected by a simultaneous  
change of the barometer4 ,almost all the
 readings were taken at a temperature of
 about #bj ,c41 and in the present state
 of the work corrections for temperature
 may be considered a superfluous        
refinement4  ,gauge correction4--,it is 
necessary to apply to the results thus  
obtained a correction which becomes very
 important when high vacua are measured4
 ,it was found in an early stage of the 
experiments that the mercury1 in the act
 of entering the highly exhausted gauge1
 gave out invariably a certain amount of
 air which of course was measured along 
with the residuum that properly belonged
 there2 hence to obtain the true vacuum 
it is necessary to subtract the volume  
of this air from nc4 ,by a series of    

experiments ,i ascertained that the     
amount of air introduced by the mercury 
in the acts of entering and leaving the 
gauge was sensibly constant for six of  
these single operations 7or for three of
 these double operations71 when they    
followed each other immediately4 ,the   
correction accordingly is made as       
follows3 the vacuum is first measured as
 described above1 then by withdrawing   
all the boxes except the lowest1 the    
mercury is allowed to fall so as nearly 
to empty the gauge2 it is then made     
again to fill the gauge1 and these      
operations are repeated until they      
amount in all to six2 finally the volume
 and pressure are a second time         
measured4 ,assuming the pressure to     
remain constant1 or that the volumes are
 reduced to the same pressure1    v  the
 original volume2  v'  the final volume2
   ,v'  volume of air introduced by the 
first entry of the mercury2   ,v        
corrected volume2 then    ,v'           
7v'-v7_/#f   ,v  v - 7v'-v7_/#f  ,it    

will be noticed that it is assumed in   
this formula that the same amount of air
 is introduced into the gauge in the    
acts of entry and exit2 in the act of   
entering in point of fact more fresh    
mercury is exposed to the action of the 
vacuum than in the act exit1 which might
 possibly make the true gauge-correction
 rather larger than that given by the   
formula4 ,it has been found that when   
the pump is in constant use the         
gauge-correction gradually diminishes   
from day to day2 in other words1 the air
 is gradually pumped out of the         
gauge-mercury4 ,thus on ,december #ba1  
the amount of air entering with the     
mercury corresponded to an exhaustion of
    #a_/bg1cjh1hje 4444444,dec4 #ba4    
#a_/ch1hjf1fhh 444444 ,dec4 #bi4        
#a_/gh1abe1jjj 4444444,jan4 #ae4        
#a_/hc1ccc1ccc 4444444,jan4 #bc         
#a_/abh1hcd1jfc 444444,feb4 #a4         
#a_/bbf1geg1djj 44444 ,feb4 #i4         
#a_/bcb1hbh1hjj 44444 ,feb4 #ai4        
#a_/chh1bjj1jjj 444444,march #g4  ,that 

this diminution is not due to the air   
being gradually withdrawn from the walls
 of the gauge or from the gauge-tube1 is
 shown by the fact that during its      
progress the pump was several times     
taken to pieces1 and the portions in    
question exposed to the atmosphere      
without affecting the nature or extent  
of the change that was going on4 ,i also
 made one experiment which proves that  
the gauge-correction does not increase  
sensibly1 when the exhausted pump and   
gauge are allowed to stand unused for   
twenty days4  ,rate of the pump's       
work4--,it is quite important to know   
the rate of the pump at different       
degrees of exhaustion1 for the purpose  
of enabling the experimenter to produce 
a definite exhaustion with facility2    
also if its maximum rate is known and   
the minimum rate of leakage1 it becomes 
possible to calculate the highest vacuum
 attainable with the instrument4        
,examples are given in the tables below2
 the total capacity was about #ajj1jjj  

cubic mm4    ,time4         ,exhaustion4
         ,ratio4                        
#a_/gh1eaa   #aj minutes                
44444444 #a3a_/c4ec                     
#a_/bgf1ihj   #aj minutes               
44444444 #a3a_/f4aj                     
#a_/a1fhg1adj   #aj minutes             
44444444 #a3a_/d4ae                     
#a_/g1jjb1jjj  ,upon another occasion   
the following rates and exhaustions were
 obtained3    ,time4                    
,exhaustion4         ,rate4             
#a_/g1hab1ejj   #aj minutes             
44444444 #a3a_/c4ah                     
#a_/bd1hge1fbj   #aj minutes            
44444444 #a3a_/b4fi                     
#a_/fg1jbd1jij   #aj minutes            
44444444 #a3a_/a4bb                     
#a_/ha1gfj1haj   #aj minutes            
44444444 #a3a4fg                        
#a_/acf1ihf1cjj   #aj minutes           
44444444 #a3a4bc                        
#a_/agj1fdh1ejj  ,the irregular         
variations in the rates are due to the  
mode in which the flow of the mercury   

was in each case regulated4             
,leakage4--,we come now to one of the   
most important elements in the          
production of high vacua4 ,after the air
 is detached from the walls of the pump 
the leakage becomes and remains nearly  
constant4 ,i give below a table of      
leakages1 the pump being in each case in
 a condition suitable for the production
 of a very high vacuum3    ,duration of 
the                           ,leakage  
per hour in      experiment             
cubic mm41 press41                      
#gfj mm4        #ah                     
hours4444444444444444444444444444       
#j4jjjhec       #bg                     
hours4444444444444444444444444444       
#j4jjaefe       #bf                     
hours44444444444444444444444444444#j4jjj
gia       #bj                           
hours44444444444444444444444444444#j4jjj
hdb       #ai                           
hours44444444444444444444444444444#j4jjj
iea       #ai                           
hours44444444444444444444444444444#j4jja

heg        #g                           
days444444444444444444444444444444#j4jja
gjj        #g                           
days444444444444444444444444444444#j4jja
egd                                     
,average44444444444444444444 #j4jjabff  
,i endeavored to locate this leakage1   
and proved that one-quarter of it is due
 to air that enters the gauge from the  
top of its column of mercury1 thus3     
,duration of the                        
,gauge-leakage per hour     experiment4 
in cubic mm41 press4                    
#gfj mm4      #ah                       
hours444444444444444444444444444444444#j
4jjjbbii      #g                        
days4444444444444444444444444444444444#j
4jjjdjic      #g                        
days4444444444444444444444444444444444#j
4jjjcdfd                                
,average44444444444444444444444#j4jjjcbh
e  ,this renders it very probable that  
the remaining three quarters are due to 
air given off from the mercury at ,b1   
,fig4 #d1 from that in the bends and at 

the entrance of the fall-tube1 o1 ,fig4 
#c4  ,further on some evidence will be  
given that renders it probable that the 
leakage of the pump when in action is   
about four times as great as the total  
leakage in a state of rest4  ,the gauge1
 when arranged for measurement of       
gauge-leakage1 really constitutes a     
barometer1 and a calculation shows that 
the leakage would amount to #b4hgg cubic
 millimeters per year1 press4 #gfj mm4  
,if this air were contained in a        
cylinder #ij mm4 long and #ae mm4 in    
diameter it would exert a pressure of   
#j4ad mm4 ,to this ,i may add that in   
one experiment ,i allowed the gauge for 
seven days to remain completely filled  
with mercury and then measured the      
leakage into it4 ,this was such as would
 in a year amount to #j4dhh cubic       
millimeter1 press4 #gfj mm41 and in a   
cylinder of the above dimensions would  
exert a pressure of #j4jbcc mm4         
,reliability of the results3 highest    
vacuum4  ,the following are samples of  

the results obtained4 ,in one case      
sixteen readings were taken in groups of
 four with the following result3        
,exhaustion4        #a _/ #gd1bai1aci   
#a _/ #gh1ecc1ded        #a _/          
#gi1jag1bgb        #a _/ #fh1ejc1ahb    
,mean #a _/ #gd1hec1ddi  ,calculating   
the probable error of the mean with     
reference to the above four results it  
is found to be #b4bh per cent of the    
quantity involved4  ,a higher vacuum    
measured in the same way gave the       
following results3    #a _/ #adf1aih1hjj
   #a _/ #age1aca1cjj   #a _/           
#bjd1jha1fjj   #a _/ #bja1bjg1bjj  ,the 
mean is #a _/ #agh1daa1icd1 with a      
probable error of #e4db per cent of the 
quantity involved4 ,i give now an       
extreme case2 only five single readings 
were taken2 these corresponded to the   
following exhaustions3    #a _/         
#cgi1bai1ejj   #a _/ #cga1jeg1bfe   #a  
_/ #bej1ida1jdj   #a _/ #dbd1jhh1bcb    
#a _/ #fia1jhb1edj  ,the mean value is  
#a _/ #cha1ajj1jjj1 with a probable     

error of #aj4cf per cent of the quantity
 involved4 ,upon other occasions ,i have
 obtained exhaustions of #a _/          
#cgc1acd1jjj and #a _/ #chh1bjj1jjj4 ,of
 course in these cases a                
gauge-correction was applied2 the       
highest vacuum that ,i have ever        
obtained irrespective of a              
gauge-correction was #a _/ #aij1cib1aej4
 ,in these cases and in general1 potash 
was employed as the drying material2 ,i 
have found it practical1 however1 to    
attain vacua as high as #a _/           
#ej1jjj1jjj in the total absence of all 
such substances4 ,the vapor of water    
which collects in bends must be removed 
from time to time with a ,bunsen burner 
while the pump is in action4  ,it is    
evident that the final condition of the 
pump is reached when as much air leaks  
in per unit of time as can be removed in
 the same interval4 ,the total average  
leakage per ten minutes in the pump used
 by me1 when at rest1 was #j4jjjbaa     
cubic millimeter at press4 #gfj mm4 ,let

 us assume that the leakage when the    
pump is in action is four times as great
 as when at rest2 then in each ten      
minutes #j4jjjhdd cubic millimeter      
press41 #gfj mm41 would enter2 this     
corresponds in the pump used by me to an
 exhaustion of #a _/ #abd1jjj1jjj2 if   
the rate of the pump is such as to      
remove one-half of the air present in   
ten minutes1 then the highest attainable
 exhaustion would be #a _/ #bdh1jjj1jjj4
 ,in the same way it may be shown that  
if six minutes are required for the     
removal of half the air the highest     
vacuum would be #a _/ #dac1jjj1jjj      
nearly1 and rates even higher than this 
have been observed in my experiments4   
,an arrangement of the vacuum-bulb      
whereby the entering drops of mercury   
would be exposed to the vacuum in an    
isolated condition for a somewhat longer
 time would doubtless enable the        
experimenter to obtain considerably     
higher vacua than those above given4    
,exhaustion obtained with a plain       

,sprengel ,pump4--,i made a series of   
experiments with a plain ,sprengel pump 
without stopcocks1 and arranged1 as far 
as possible1 like the instrument just   
described4 ,the leakage per hour was as 
follows3    ,duration of the            
,leakage per hour in     experiment4    
cubic mm4 at press4                     
#gfj mm4    #bb hours                   
#j4jdefc    #b days                     
#j4jdebj    #b days                     
#j4jibaj    #d days                     
#j4jfdbh                                
-------             ,mean               
#j4jfahj  ,using the same reasoning as  
above we obtain the following table     
,time necessary for removal             
,greatest attainable      of half the   
air4                exhaustion4      #aj
 minutes                     #a _/      
#e1jjj1jjj     #g4e minutes             
#a _/ #g1jjj1jjj     #f4f minutes       
#a _/ #ab1jjj1jjj  ,in point of fact the
 highest exhaustion ,i ever obtained    
with this pump was #a _/ #e1jjj1jjj2    

from which ,i infer that the leakage    
during action is considerably greater   
than four times that of the pump at     
rest4 ,the general run of the           
experiments tends to show that the      
leakage of a plain ,sprengel pump1      
without stopcocks or grease1 is1 when in
 action1 about #hj times as great as in 
the form used by me4  ,note on annealing
 glass tubes4--,it is quite necessary to
 anneal all those parts of the pump that
 are to be exposed to heat1 otherwise   
they soon crack4 ,i found by inclosing  
the glass in heavy iron tubes and       
exposing it for five hours to a         
temperature somewhat above that of      
melting zinc1 and then allowing an hour 
or two for the cooling process1 that the
 strong polarization figure which it    
displays in a polariscope was completely
 removed1 and hence the glass annealed4 
,a common gas-combustion furnace was    
used1 the bends1 etc1 being suitably    
inclosed in heavy metal and heated over 
a common ten-fold ,bunsen burner4 ,thus 

far no accident has happened to the     
annealed glass1 even when cold drops of 
mercury struck in rapid succession on   
portions heated considerably above #ajj 
,c4  ,i wish1 in conclusion1 to express 
my thanks to my assistant1 ,dr4         
,ihlseng1 for the labor he has expended 
in making the large number of           
computations necessarily involved in    
work of this kind4--,amer4 ,jour4 of    
,science4         99       99       99  
99       99     ,,crystallization       
,,table4   ,the following table1        
prepared by ,e4 ,finot and ,arm4        
,bertrand for the ,jour4 de ,ph4 et de  
,chim41 shows the point at which the    
evaporation of certain solutions is to  
be interrupted in order to procure a    
good crop of crystals on cooling4 ,the  
density is according to ,baum's scale1  
the solution warm3    ,aluminum sulphate
       #be  ,nickel acetate             
#cj   ,alum 7amm4 or pot47     #bj      
ammon4 sulphate     #ah   ,ammonium     
acetate        #ad        chloride      

#ej           arsenate        #e        
sulphate            #dj                 
benzoate        #e  ,oxalic acid        
#ab           bichromate     #bh        
,potass4 and sod4 tartrate  #cf         
bromide        #cj  ,potassium arsenate 
#cf           chloride       #ab        
benzoate          #b           nitrate  
#bi           bisulphate       #ce      
oxalate         #e           bromide    
#dj           phosphate      #ce        
chlorate         #bb           sulphate 
#bh           chloride         #be      
sulphocyanide  #ah           chromate   
#ch           tartrate       #be        
citrate          #cf   ,barium          
ethylsulphate    #dc                    
ferrocyanide     #ch         formate    
#cb           iodide           #ag      
hyposulphite     #bd           nitrate  
#bh         nitrate          #ah        
oxalate          #cj         oxide      
#ab           permanganate     #be      
,bismuth nitrate         #gj            
sulphate         #ae   ,boric acid      

#f           sulphite         #be       
,cadmium bromide         #fe            
sulphocyanide    #ce   ,calcium chloride
        #dj           tartrate          
#dh          ethylsulphate   #cf  ,soda 
#bh          lactate          #h        
,sodium acetate             #bb         
nitrate         #ee        ammon4 phosp4
       #ag   ,cobalt chloride           
#da        arsenate            #cf      
nitrate          #ej        borate      
#bd         sulphate         #dj        
bromide             #ee   ,copper       
acetate           #e        chlorate    
#dc         ammon4 sulph4    #ce        
chromate            #de         chloride
         #de        citrate             
#cf         nitrate          #ee        
ethylsulphate       #cg         sulphate
         #cj        hyposulphite        
#bd   ,iron-ammon4 oxalate     #cj      
nitrate             #dj      ammon4     
sulphate     #ca        phosphate       
#bj      sulphate            #ca        
pyrophosphate       #ah      tartrate   

#dj        sulphate            #cj      
,lead acetate            #db            
tungstate           #de      nitrate    
#ej  ,stroutium bromide          #ej    
,magnesium chloride      #ce            
chlorate         #fe            lactate 
#f           chloride         #cd       
nitrate       #de  ,tin choride         
7stannous7     #ge            sulphate  
#dj    ,manganese chloride      #dg     
,zinc acetate               #bj         
lactate        #h      ammon4 chloride  
#dc            sulphate      #dd        
nitrate               #ee   ,mercury    
cyanide         #bj      sulphate       
#de         99       99       99        
99       99     ,,the ,,principles ,,of 
,,hop-,,analysis4  ,by ,dr4 ,g4 ,o4     
,,cech  ,footnote3 ',zeitschrift fur    
,analyt4 ,chemie1' #ahha4   ,hop flowers
 contain a great variety of different   
substances susceptible of extraction    
with ether1 alcohol1 and water1 and     
distinguishable from one another by     
tests of a more or less complex         

character4 ,the substances are3         
,ethereal oil1 chlorophyl1 hop tannin1  
phlobaphen1 a wax-like substance1 the   
sulphate1 ammoniate1 phosphate1 citrate 
and malates of potash1 arabine1 a       
crystallized white and an amorphous     
brown resin1 and a bitter principle4    
,that the characteristic action of the  
hops is due to such of these            
constituents only as are of an organic  
nature is easy to understand2 but up to 
the present we are in ignorance whether 
it is upon the oil1 the wax1 the resin1 
the tannin1 the phlobaphen1 or the      
bitter principle individually1 or upon  
them all collectively1 that the effect  
of the hops in brewing depends4  ,it is 
the rule to judge the strength and      
goodness of hops by the amount of       
farina--the so-called lupuline2 and as  
this contains the major portion of the  
active constituents of the hop1 there is
 no doubt that approximately the amount 
of lupuline is a useful quantitative    
test4 ,but here we are confronted by the

 question whether the lupuline is to be 
regarded as containing all that is of   
any value in the hops and the leaves1   
the organic principles in which pass    
undetected under such a test1 as        
supererogatory for brewers' purposes8   
,practical experience negatives any such
 conclusion4 ,consequently1 we are      
justified in assuming that the          
concurrent development and the presence 
of the several organic principles--the  
oil1 the wax1 the bitter1 the tannin1   
the phlobaphen1 in the choicer          
sorts--are subject1 within certain      
limits1 to variations depending on      
skilled culture and careful drying1 and 
that the aggregate of these principles  
has a certain attainable maximum in the 
finer sorts1 under the most favorable   
conditions of culture1 and another1     
lower maximum in less perfectly         
cultivated and wild sorts4 ,the         
difference in the proportion of active  
organic substance in each sort must be  
determined by analysis4 ,there then     

remains to be discovered which of the   
aforesaid substances plays the leading  
role in brewing1 and also whether the   
presence of chlorophyl and inorganic    
salts in the hop extract influences or  
alters the results4  ,that in brewing   
hops cannot be replaced by lupuline     
alone1 even when the latter is employed 
in relatively large quantities is well  
known1 as also that a considerable      
portion of the bitter principle of the  
hop is found in the floral leaves4      
,neither can the lupuline be regarded as
 the only active beer agent1 as both the
 hop-tannin and the hop-resin serve to  
precipitate the albuminous matter1 and  
clarify and preserve the beer4  ,both   
chemists and brewers would gladly       
welcome some method of testing hops1    
which should be expeditious1 and afford 
reliable results in practical hands4 ,to
 accomplish this account must be taken  
of all the active organic constituents  
of the hops1 which can be extracted     
either with ether1 alcohol1 or water    

containing soda 7for the conversion of  
the hop tannin in phlobaphen74#a ,it    
should further be ascertained whether   
the chlorophyl percentage in the hop    
bells1 new and old1 is or is not the    
same in cultivated and in wild hops1 and
 whether the aggregate percentages of   
organic and constituent observe the same
 limits4  ,footnote #a3 ,see ,c4 ,etti1 
in ,dingler's ,polytech4 ,journ41 #ahgh1
 p4 #ced4  ,as wild hops nowadays are   
frequently introduced in brewing1 the   
proportion of chlorophyl and organic and
 inorganic constituents in them should  
be compared with those of cultivated    
sorts1 taking the best ,bavarian or     
,bohemian hops as the standard of       
measurement4 ,the chlorophyl is of minor
 importance1 as it has little effect on 
the general results4  ,by a series of   
comparative analysis of cultivated and  
wild hops1 in which ,i would lay        
especial stress on parity of conditions 
in regard of age and vegetation1 the    
extreme limits of variation of which    

their active organic principles are     
susceptible could be determined4  ,there
 is every reason to suppose that the    
chlorophyl and inorganic constituents do
 not differ materially in the most      
widely different sorts of hops4 ,the    
more important differences lie in the   
proportions of hop resin and tannin4    
,when this is decided1 the proportion of
 tannin or phlobaphen in the hop extract
 or the beer can be determined by       
analysis in the ordinary way4 ,but      
whenever some quick and sure hop test   
shall have been found1 appearance and   
aroma will still be most important      
factors in any estimate of the value of 
hops4 ,here a question arises as to     
whether hops from a warm or even a      
steppe climate1 like that of ,south     
,russia1 contain the same proportion of 
ethereal oil--that is1 of aroma--as     
those from a cooler climate1 like       
,bavaria and ,bohemia1 or like certain  
other fruit species of southern growth1 
they are early in maturing1 prolific1   

large in size1 and abounding in farina1 
but deficient in aroma4  ,the bearings  
of certain experimental data on this    
point ,i reserve for consideration upon 
a future occasion4--,the ,analyst4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,water ,,gas4  ,a ,,description ,,of   
,,apparatus ,,for ,,producing ,,cheap   
,,gas1 ,,and ,,some ,,notes ,,on ,,the  
,,economical ,,effect ,,of ,,using      
,,such ,,gas ,,with ,,gas ,,motors1     
,,etc4  ,footnote3 ,abstract of paper   
read in ,section ,g4 ,british           
,association1 ,york  ,by ,,mr4 ,j4      
,,emerson ,,dowson1 ,c4,e41 of ,london4 
,in many countries and for many years   
past1 inventors have sought some cheap  
and easy means of decomposing steam in  
the presence of incandescent carbon in  
order to produce a cheap heating gas2   
and working with the same object the    
writer has devised an apparatus which   
has been fitted up in the garden of the 
,industrial ,exhibition1 and is there   
making gas for a #c horse power         

7nominal7 ,otto gas engine4 ,the retort 
or generator consists of a vertical     
cylindrical iron casing which incloses a
 thick lining of ganister to prevent    
loss of heat and oxidation of the metal1
 and at the bottom of this cylinder is a
 grate on which a fire is built up4     
,under the grate is a closed chamber1   
and a jet of superheated steam plays    
into this and carries with it by        
induction a continuous current of air4  
,the pressure of the steam forces the   
mixture of steam and air upward through 
the fire1 so that the combustion of the 
fuel is maintained while a continuous   
current of steam is decomposed1 and in  
this way the working of the generator is
 constant1 and the gas is produced      
without fluctuations in quality4 ,the   
well-known reactions occur1 the steam is
 decomposed1 and the oxygen from the    
steam and air combines with the carbon  
of the fuel to form carbon dioxide      
7,,co#b71 which is reduced to the       
monoxide 7,,co7 on ascending the fuel   

column4 ,in this way the resulting gases
 form a mixture of hydrogen1 carbon1    
monoxide1 and nitrogen1 with a small    
percentage of carbon dioxide which      
usually escapes without reduction4 ,the 
steam should have a pressure of #a to #b
 atmospheres1 and is produced and       
superheated in a zigzag coil fed with   
water from a neighboring boiler4 ,the   
quantity of water required is very      
small1 being only about #g pints for    
each #a1jjj cubic feet of gas1 and1     
except on the first occasion when the   
apparatus is started1 the coil is heated
 by some of the gas drawn from the      
holder1 so that after the gas is lighted
 under the coil the superheater requires
 no attention4  ,for boiler and furnace 
work the gas can be used direct from the
 generator2 but where uniformity of     
pressure is essential1 as for gas       
engines1 gas burners1 etc41 the gas     
should pass into a holder4 ,the latter  
somewhat retards the production1 but the
 steam injector causes gas to be made so

 rapidly that a holder is easily filled 
against a back pressure of #a in4 to #a 
in4 of water1 and at this pressure the  
generator can pass gas continuously into
 the holder1 while at the same time it  
is being drawn off for consumption4     
,the nature of the fuel required depends
 on the purpose for which the gas is    
used4 ,if for heating boilers1 furnaces1
 etc1 coke or any kind of coal maybe    
used2 but for gas engines or any        
application of the gas requiring great  
cleanliness and freedom from sulphur and
 ammonia it is best to use anthracite1  
as this does not yield condensable      
vapors1 and is very free from           
impurities4 ,good qualities of this fuel
 contain over #ij per cent of carbon and
 so little sulphur that1 for some       
purposes1 purification is not necessary4
 ,for gas engines1 etc41 it is1 however1
 better to pass the gas through some    
hydrated oxide of iron to remove the    
sulphureted hydrogen4 ,the oxide can be 
used over and over again after exposure 

to the air1 and the purifying is thus   
effected without smell or appreciable   
expense4 ,gas made by this process and  
with anthracite coal has no tar and no  
ammonia1 and the small percentage of    
carbon dioxide present does not sensibly
 affect the heating power4 ,a further   
advantage of this gas is that it cannot 
burn with a smoky flame1 and there is no
 deposition of soot even when the object
 to be heated is placed over or in the  
flame1 and this is of importance for the
 cylinder and valves of a gas engine4   
,to produce #a1jjj cubic feet only #ab  
lb4 of anthracite are required1 allowing
 #h to #aj per cent1 for impurities and 
waste2 thus a generator ,a size1 which  
produces #a1jjj cubic feet per hour1    
needs only #ab lb4 in that time1 and    
this can be added once an hour or at    
longer intervals4 ,no skilled labor is  
necessary1 and in practice it is usual  
to employ a man who has other work to   
attend to near the generator1 and to pay
 him a small addition to his usual      

wages4  ,the comparative explosive force
 of coal gas and the ,dowson gas        
calculated in the usual way is as       
#c4d3a1 i4 e41 coal gas has #c4d times  
more energy than the writer's gas4      
,messrs4 ,crossley1 of ,manchester1 the 
makers of the ,otto gas engines1 have   
made several careful trials of this gas 
with some of their #c horse power       
7nominal7 engines1 and in one trial they
 took diagrams every half-hour for nine 
consecutive days4 ,these practical      
trials have shown that without altering 
the cylinder of the engine it is        
possible to admit enough of the ,dowson 
gas to give the same power as with      
ordinary coal gas4 ,it has been seen    
that the comparative explosive force of 
the two gases is as #c4d3a1 but as it is
 well known the combustion of carbon    
monoxide proceeds at a comparatively    
slow rate1 and for this reason1 and     
because of the diluents present in the  
cylinder which affect the weaker gas    
more than coal gas1 experience has shown

 that it is best to allow five volumes  
of the ,dowson gas for one volume of    
coal gas1 and then the same uniform     
power is obtained as with the latter4   
,this gives very important economical   
results2 for if the cost of the ,dowson 
gas given in the tables as #d;d41       
#c-a_/c;d41 and #b;d4 per #a1jjj cubic  
feet1 be multiplied by #e there will be 
#as4 #i;d41 #as4 #d;d41 and #as4 #b;d41 
or a mean of #as4 #e;d4 for the         
equivalent of #a1jjj cubic feet of coal 
gas1 which usually costs from #cs4 to   
#ds41 and this represents an actual     
saving of about #ej to #fj per cent1 in 
working cost4 ,another practical        
consideration is that coal gas requires 
#bbd lb4 to #bej lb4 of coal per #a1jjj 
cubic feet of gas1 but the writer       
requires only #ab lb4 per #a1jjj cubic  
feet1 and multiplying this by #e to give
 the equivalent of #a1jjj cubic feet of 
coal gas1 for engine work1 there are #fj
 lb4 instead of #bbd lb4 to #bej lb4    
,this is only #bd to #bg per cent1 of   

the weight of the coal required for coal
 gas1 and in many outlying districts    
this will effect an appreciable saving  
in the cost of transport4   ,,appendix4 
,,table ,i4    ,generator ,a ,size      
7producing #a1jjj cubic feet per hour73 
,anthracite to make gas at the rate of  
#a1jjj   s4  d4       cubic feet per    
hourl#b lb x #i working       hoursl#jh 
lb41 or say1 #a cwt4 at #bjs4 a         
ton444444444444444444444444444444444444 
#a   #j     ,allowance for wages of     
attendant444444444     #a   #j          
,repairs and depreciation of generator1 
gasholder1 etc4 7#e per cent4 on l#be7  
per working day444444444444444444444444 
#j   #e     ,interest on capital outlay1
 ditto44444444     #j   #e              
,total444444444444444444444444444     #b
  #aj                                   
cub4 ft4      ,gas                      
produced44444444444444444444444444444   
#i4jjj     ,less gas used for generating
 and        superheating                
steam444444444444444444444    #a1jjj    

,total effective gas for #bs4 #aj;d4    
#h1jjj    ,net cost #d d4 per #a1jjj    
cubic feet4    ,,table ,,ii4            
,generator ,b ,size 7producing #a1ejj   
cubic feet per hour7     ,anthracite to 
make gas at the rate of #a1ejj   s4  d4 
cubic feet per hour#ah lb4 x #i working 
hours#afb lb41 or1 say1 #a cwt4 #bjs4   
a ton4444444444444444444444444444444444 
#a    #f     ,allowance for wages of    
attendant444444444     #a    #j         
,repairs and depreciation of generator1 
gasholder1 etc4 7#e per cent1 on #adj7  
per working day44444444444444444444444  
#j    #e     ,interest on capital       
outlay1 ditto44444444     #j    #e      
,total444444444444444444444444444     #c
    #e                                  
cub4 ft4     ,gas                       
produced44444444444444444444444444444   
#ac1ejj     ,less gas used for          
generating and       superheating       
steam444444444444444444444     #a1bjj   
,total effective gas for #cs4 #e;d44    
#ab1cjj    ,net cost #c #a_/c;d4 per    

#a1jjj cubic feet4    ,,table ,,iii4    
,generator ,c ,size 7producing #b1ejj   
cubic feet per hour73     ,anthracite to
 make gas at the rate of #b1ejj      s4 
d4     cubic feet per hour#cj lb4 x #i  
working     hours#bgj lb4 at #bjs4 a    
ton444444444444          #b  #d         
,allowance for wages of attendant4444444
          #a  #f     ,repairs and       
depreciation of generator1              
gasholder1 etc4 7#e per cent1 on #afj7  
per working day4444444444444444444444   
#j  #f     ,interest on capital outlay1 
ditto444444          #j  #f             
,total4444444444444444444444444         
#d #aa                                  
cub4 ft4     ,gas                       
produced444444444444444444444444444     
#bb1ejj     ,less gas used for          
generating and       superheating       
steam4444444444444444444         #a1ejj 
,total effective gas for #ds4 #aa;d     
#ba1jjj    ,net cost1 say1 #b d4 per    
#a1jjj cubic feet4         99       99  
99       99       99     ,,on ,,the     

,,fluid ,,density ,,of ,,certain        
,,metals4  ,footnote3 ,abstract of paper
 read before ,section ,c 7,chemical     
,science71 ,british ,association        
meeting1 ,york4  ,by ,,professor ,w4    
,,chandler ,,roberts1 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,t4
 ,,wrightson4   ,the authors described  
their experiments on the fluid density  
of metals made in continuation of those 
submitted to ,section ,b at the ,swansea
 meeting of the ,association4 ,some time
 since one of the authors gave an       
account of the results of experiments   
made to determine the density of        
metallic silver1 and of certain alloys  
of silver and copper when in a molten   
state4 ,the method adopted was that     
devised by ,mr4 ,r4 ,mallet1 and the    
details were as follows3 ,a conical     
vessel of best thin ,lowmoor plate 7#a  
millimeter thick71 about #af centimeters
 in height1 and having an internal      
volume of about #edj cubic centimeters1 
was weighed1 first empty1 and           
subsequently when filled with distilled 

water at a known temperature4 ,the      
necessary data were thus afforded for   
accurately determining its capacity at  
the temperature of the air4 ,molten     
silver was then poured into it1 the     
temperature at the time of pouring being
 ascertained by the calorimetric method4
 ,the precautions1 as regards filling1  
pointed out by ,mr4 ,mallet1 were       
adopted2 and as soon as the metal was   
quite cold1 the cone with its contents  
was again weighed4 ,experiments were    
also made on the density of fluid       
bismuth2 and two distinctive            
determinations gave the following       
results3    #aj4jje 7          7 mean   
#aj4jci4   #aj4jgb 7  ,the invention of 
the oncosimeter1 which was described by 
one of the authors in the ,journal of   
the ,iron and ,steel ,institute 7,no4   
,,ii41 #ahgi1 p4 #dah71 appeared to     
afford an opportunity for resuming the  
investigation on a new basis1 more      
especially as the delicacy of the       
instrument had already been proved by   

experiments on a considerable scale for 
determining the density of fluid cast   
iron4 ,the following is the principle on
 which this instrument acts3  ,if a     
spherical ball of any metal be plunged  
below the surface of a molten bath of   
the same or another metal1 the cold ball
 will displace its own volume of molten 
metal4 ,if the densities of the cold and
 molten metal be the same1 there will be
 equilibrium1 and no floating or sinking
 effect will be exhibited4 ,if the      
density of the cold be greater than that
 of the molten metal1 there will be a   
sinking effect1 and if less a floating  
effect when first immersed4 ,as the     
temperature of the submerged ball rises1
 the volume of the displaced liquid will
 increase or decrease according as the  
ball expands or contracts4 ,in order to 
register these changes the ball is hung 
on a spiral spring1 and the slightest   
change in buoyancy causes an elongation 
or contraction of this spring which can 
be read off on a scale of ounces1 and is

 recorded by a pencil on a revolving    
drum4 ,a diagram is thus traced out1 the
 ordinates of which represent increments
 of volume1 or1 in other words1 of      
weight of fluid displaced--the zero     
line1 or line corresponding to a ball in
 a liquid of equal density1 being       
previously traced out by revolving the  
drum without attaching the ball of metal
 itself to the spring1 but with all     
other auxiliary attachments4 ,by means  
of a simple adjustment the ball is kept 
constantly depressed to the same extent 
below the surface of the liquid2 and the
 ordinate of this pencil line1 measuring
 from the line of equilibrium1 thus     
gives an exact measure of the floating  
or sinking effect at every stage of     
temperature1 from the cold solid to the 
state when the ball begins to melt4  ,if
 the weight and specific gravity of the 
ball be taken when cold1 there are      
obtained1 with the ordinate on the      
diagram at the moment of immersion1     
sufficient data for determining the     

density of the fluid metal2 for  ,w _/  
,w#a  ,d _/ ,d#a  the volumes being     
equal4 ,and remembering that  ,w 7weight
 of liquid7  ,w#a 7weight of ball7  x   
7where x is always measured as ve or -ve
 floating effect71 there is obtained the
 equation3         ,d#a  x 7 ,w#a  x7   
,d   --------------- 4             ,w#a 
,,tex3 ,d  frac,d#a times 7,w#a x7,w#a  
,the results obtained with metallic     
silver are perhaps the most interesting1
 mainly from the fact that the metal    
melts at a higher temperature1 which was
 determined with great care by the      
illustrious physicist and metallurgist1 
the late ,henri ,st4 ,claire ,deville1  
whose latest experiments led him to fix 
the melting point at #idj ,cent4 ,the   
authors of the paper showed that the    
density of the fluid metal was #i4ea as 
compared with #aj4eg1 the density of the
 solid metal4 ,taking their results     
generally1 it is found that the change  
of volume of the following metals in    
passing from the solid to the liquid    

state may be thus stated3               
,specific       ,specific    ,metal4    
,gravity1      ,gravity1                
,percentage of                  ,solid4 
,liquid4         ,change4    ,bismuth   
#i4hb         #aj4jee     ,decrease of  
volume  #b4c   ,copper          #h4h    
#h4bag     ,increase           #g4a     
,lead           #aa4d          #aj4cg   
#i4ic   ,tin4            #g4e           
#g4jbe                       #f4gf      
,zinc            #g4b           #f4dh   
#aa4aj   ,silver         #aj4eg         
#i4ea                       #aa4bj      
,iron            #f4ie          #f4hh   
#a4jb         99       99       99      
99       99     ,,hydrophobia           
,,prevented ,,by ,,vaccination4   ,m4   
,pasteur and other ,french savants have 
lately been devoting special attention  
to hydrophobia4 ,the great authority on 
germs has1 in fact1 definitely announced
 that he does not intend to rest until  
he has made known the exact nature and  
life-history of this terrible disease1  

and discovered a means of preventing or 
curing it4 ,the most curious result yet 
attained in this direction1 however1 has
 been announced by ,professor ,v4       
,galtier1 of the ,lyons ,veterinary     
,school4 ,this inquirer has found1 in   
the first place1 that if the virus of   
rabies be injected into the veins of a  
sheep1 the animal does not subsequently 
exhibit any symptoms of hydrophobia4    
,this in itself would be a sufficiently 
curious result to justify attention1    
though its importance1 except as        
confirmatory testimony1 becomes less    
striking when it is remembered that ,m4 
,pasteur has lately shown that the      
special nidus of the disease appears to 
be the nervous tissue1 and particularly 
the ganglionic centers4 ,but there is   
this further curious consequence3 sheep 
who have thus been treated through the  
blood1 and who are afterwards inoculated
 in the ordinary way through the        
cellular tissue1 as if by a bite1 are   
proof against the disease4 ,it is as    

though the injection into the veins     
acted as a vaccine4 ,twenty sheep were  
experimented upon2 ten only were treated
 to the venous injection1 and then all  
were inoculated through the cellular    
tissue4 ,the ten which had been first   
vaccinated continue alive and well2 they
 have not even shown any adverse        
symptoms4 ,the other ten have all died  
of rabies4 ,it remains to say why ,m4   
,galtier experimented upon sheep1 and   
not upon dogs and cats1 which usually   
communicate the disease4 ,the incubation
 of the disease is much more rapid and  
less capricious in the sheep than in the
 dog or in man1 and hence ,m4 ,galtier  
was able to get his results more        
certainly within a short period4 ,having
 succeeded so far1 he is now justified  
in undertaking the more protracted      
series of observations which experiments
 upon the canine species will involve2  
and this he proposes to do4 ,experiments
 of this nature are not without a       
serious risk1 and admiration is almost  

equally due to the courage and the      
intelligence of the experimentalist4    
,but what will the anti-vaccinator      
say8--,pall ,mall ,gazette4         99  
99       99       99       99     ,,on  
,,diptera ,,as ,,spreaders ,,of         
,,disease4  ,by ,j4,w4 ,,slater4   ,the 
two-winged flies1 in their behavior to  
man1 stand in a marked contrast to all  
the other orders of insects4 ,the       
,lepidoptera1 the ,coleoptera1 the      
,neuroptera1 the ,hymenoptera no doubt  
occasion1 in some of their forms at     
least1 much damage to our crops4 ,but   
none of them are parasitic in or upon   
our bodies2 none of them persistently   
intrude into our dwellings1 hover around
 us in our walks1 and harass us with    
noise and constant attempts to bite1 or 
at least to crawl upon us4 ,even the    
ants1 except in a few tropical          
districts1 rarely act upon the          
offensive4 ,the ,hemiptera contain one  
semi-parasitic species which has        
attained a world-wide circulation1 and  

one degraded1 purely parasitic group4   
,but the ,diptera1 among which the fleas
 are now generally included as a        
degenerated type1 comprise more forms   
personally annoying to man than all the 
remaining insect orders put together4   
,these hostile species are1 further1    
incalculably numerous1 and occur in     
every part of the globe4 ,mosquitoes    
swarm not merely in the swampy forests  
of the ,orinoco or the ,irrawaddy1 but  
in the ,tundras of ,siberia1 en the     
storm-beaten rocks of the ,loffodens1   
and are even encountered by voyagers in 
quest of the ,north ,pole4 ,the common  
house fly was probably at one time      
peculiar to the ,eastern ,continent1 but
 it followed the footsteps of the       
,pilgrim ,fathers1 and is now as great a
 nuisance in the ,united ,slates and the
 ,dominion as in any part of ,europe4   
,it is curious1 but distressing1 to note
 the tendency of evils to become        
international4 ,we have communicated to 
,america the house-fly and the ,hessian 

fly1 the cabbage-white1 the small pox1  
and the cholera4 ,she1 in return1 has   
given us the ,phylloxera1 a few         
visitations of yellow fever1 the ,blatta
 gigantea1 and1 climate allowing1 may   
perhaps throw in the ,colorado beetle as
 a make-weight4 ,in this department1 at 
least1 free trade reigns undisputed4 ,it
 is a singular thing that no beautiful1 
useful1 or even harmless species of bird
 or insect seems capable of             
acclimatizing itself as do those        
characterized by ugliness and           
noisomeness4  ,but1 returning from this 
digression1 we find in the ,diptera the 
habit of obtrusion and intrusion1 of    
coming in actual contact with our food  
and our persons1 combined with another  
propensity--that of feeding upon        
carrion1 excrement1 blood1 pus1 and     
morbid matter of all kinds4 ,this is a  
combination far more serious than is    
generally imagined4 ,if the fly--which  
may at any moment settle upon our lips1 
our eyes1 or upon an abraded part of our

 skin--were cleanly in its habits1 we   
need feel little annoyance at its       
visits4 ,or if it were the most eager   
carrion devourer1 but did not1 after    
having dined1 think it necessary to seek
 our company1 we might hold it1 as is   
done too hastily by some naturalists1 a 
valuable scavenger4 ,i fear1 however1   
that ,i have already made too great a   
concession4 ,so long as very many       
persons are suffering from disease--so  
long as many diseases are capable of    
being transmitted from the sick to the  
healthy--so long must any creature which
 is in the habit of flying about1 and   
touching first one person and then      
another1 be a possible medium of        
infection and death4  ,let us take the  
following case1 by no means imaginary1  
but a generalization from occurrences   
far too frequent3 ,a healthy man1       
sitting in his house or walking in the  
fields1 especially in countries where   
the insectivorous birds have been shot  
down1 suddenly feels a sharp prick on   

his neck or his cheek4 ,putting his hand
 to the place he perhaps crushes1       
perhaps merely brushes away1 a fly which
 has bitten him so as to draw blood4    
,the man thinks little of so trifling a 
hurt1 but the next morning he finds the 
puncture exceedingly painful4 ,an       
inflamed pimple forms1 which quickly    
gets worse1 while constitutional        
symptoms of a feverish kind come on4 ,in
 alarm he seeks medical advice4 ,the    
doctor tells him that it is a malignant 
pustule1 and takes at once the most     
active measures4 ,in spite of all       
possible skill and care the patient too 
often succumbs to the bite of a mouche  
charbonneuse1 or carbuncle-fly4 ,but has
 any kind of fly the property of        
producing malignant pustule by some     
specific inherent power of its own8     
,surely not4 ,the antecedent            
circumstances are these3 ,a sheep or    
heifer is attacked with the disease     
known in ,france as charbon1 in ,germany
 as milz-brand1 and in ,england as      

splenic fever4 ,its blood on examination
 would be found plentifully peopled with
 bacteria4 ,if a lancet were plunged    
into the body of the animal1 and were   
then used to slightly scratch or cut the
 skin of a man1 he would be inoculated  
with charbon4 ,the bite of the fly is   
precisely similar in its action4 ,its   
rostrum has been smeared with the       
poisoned blood1 an infinitesimal        
particle of which is sufficient to      
inclose several of the disease germs1   
and these are then transferred to the   
blood of the next man or animal which   
the fly happens to bite4 ,the disease is
 reproduced as simply and certainly as  
the spores of some species of fern give 
rise to their like if scattered upon    
soil suitable for their growth4 ,but    
flies which do not bite may transfer    
infection4 ,every one must know that if 
blood be spilt upon the ground a crowd  
of flies will settle upon and eagerly   
absorb it4 ,animals suffering from      
splenic fever in the later stages of the

 disease sometimes emit bloody urine4   
,often they are shot or slaughtered by  
way of stamping out the plague1 and     
their carcasses are buried deep in the  
ground4 ,but some loss of blood is sure 
to happen1 and this will mostly be left 
to soak into the ground4 ,here again the
 flies will come1 and their feet and    
mouth will become charged with the      
contagion4 ,such a fly1 settling upon   
another animal or a man1 and            
selecting--as it will do by preference1 
if such exist--a wound1 or a place where
 the skin is broken1 will convey the    
disease4  ,again1 ,m4 ,pasteur has      
thoughtfully pointed out that if an     
animal has died of splenic fever1 and   
has been carefully buried1 the          
earth-worms may bring up portions of    
infectious matter to the surface1 so    
that sheep grazing1 or merely being     
folded over the spot in question1 may   
take the plague and die4 ,hence be      
wisely counsels that the bodies of such 
animals should be buried in sandy or    

calcareous soils where earth-worms are  
not numerous4 ,but it is perfectly      
legitimate to go a step farther4 ,if    
such worm-borings retain the slightest  
savor of animal matter1 flies will      
settle upon them and will convey the    
infectious dust to the most unexpected  
places1 giving wings to the plague4     
,now it is very true that no one has    
seen a fly feasting upon the blood of a 
heifer or sheep dying or just dead of   
splenic fever1 has then watched it      
settle upon and bite some person1 and   
has traced the following stages of the  
disease4 ,but it is positively known    
that a person has been bitten by a fly1 
and has then exhibited all the symptoms 
of charbon1 the place of the bite being 
the primary seat of the infection4 ,we  
know also1 beyond all doubt1 the        
eagerness with which flies will suck up 
blood1 and we likewise know the strange 
persistence of the disease germs4       
,again1 the avidity of flies for        
purulent matter is not a thing of mere  

possibility4 ,in ,egypt1 where          
ophthalmia is common1 and where the     
plague of flies seems never to have been
 removed1 it is reported as almost      
impossible to keep these insects away   
from the eyes of the sufferers4 ,the    
infection which they thus take up they  
convey to the eyes of persons still     
healthy1 and thus the scourge is        
continually multiplied4  ,a third case  
which seems established beyond question 
is the agency of mosquitoes in spreading
 elephantiasis4 ,these so-called        
sanitary agents suck from the blood of  
one person the ,filariae1 the direct    
cause of the disease1 and transfer them 
to another4 ,the manner in which this   
process is effected will appear simple  
enough if we reflect that the mosquito  
begins operations by injecting a few    
drops of fluid into its victim1 so as to
 dilute the blood and make it easier to 
be sucked4  ,so much being established  
it becomes in the highest degree        
probable that every infectious disease  

may be1 and actually is1 at times       
propagated by the agency of flies4      
,attention turned to this much neglected
 quarter will very probably go far to   
explain obscure phenomena connected with
 the distribution of epidemics and their
 sudden outbreaks in unexpected         
quarters4 ,i have seen it stated that in
 former outbreaks of pestilence flies   
were remarkably numerous1 and although  
mediaeval observations on ,entomology   
are not to be taken without a grain of  
salt1 the tradition is suggestive4      
,perhaps the ,diptera have their seasons
 of unusual multiplication and          
emigration4 ,a wave of the common flea  
appears to have passed over ,maidstone  
in ,august1 #ahhj4  ,we now see the way 
to some practical conclusions not       
without importance4 ,recognizing a very 
considerable part of the order of       
,diptera1 or two-winged flies1 as agents
 in spreading disease1 it surely follows
 that man should wage war against them  
in a much more systematic and consistent

 manner than at present4 ,the           
destruction of the common house-fly by  
papier ,moure1 by decoctions of quassia1
 by various traps1 and by the so-called 
catch 'em alive1 is tried here and      
there1 now and then1 by some grocer1    
confectioner1 or housewife angry at the 
spoliation and defilement caused by     
these little marauders4 ,but there is no
 concerted continuous action--which     
after all would be neither difficult nor
 expensive--and consequently no marked  
success4 ,experiments with a view of    
finding out new modes of fly-killing are
 few and far between4  ,every one must  
occasionally have seen1 in autumn1 flies
 as if cemented to the window-pane1 and 
surrounded with a whitish halo4 ,that in
 some seasons numbers of flies thus     
perish--that the phenomenon is due to a 
kind of fungus1 the spores of which     
readily transfer the disease from one   
fly to another--we know4 ,but here our  
knowledge is at fault4 ,we have not     
learnt why this fly-epidemic is more    

rife in some seasons than others4 ,we   
are ignorant concerning the methods of  
multiplying this fungus at will1 and of 
launching it against our enemies4 ,we   
cannot tell whether it is capable of    
destroying ,stomoxys calcitram1 the     
blowflies1 gadflies1 gnats1 mosquitoes1 
etc4 ,experiment on these points is     
rendered difficult by the circumstance  
that the fungus is rarely procurable    
except in autumn1 when some of the      
species we most need to destroy are not 
to be found4 ,another question is       
whether the fungus1 if largely          
multiplied and widely spread1 might not 
prove fatal to other than ,dipterous    
insects1 especially to the ,hymenoptera1
 so many of which1 in their character of
 plant-fertilizers1 are highly useful1  
or rather essential to man4  ,another   
fungus1 the so-called green muscardine  
7,isaria destructor71 has been found so 
deadly to insects that ,prof4           
,metschnikoff1 who is experimenting upon
 it1 hopes to extirpate the ,phylloxera1

 the ,colorado beetle1 etc41 by its     
agency4  ,coming to better known and    
still undervalued fly-destroyers1 we    
have interfered most unwisely with the  
balance of nature4 ,the substitution of 
wire and railings for live fences in so 
many fields has greatly lessened the    
cover both for insectivorous birds and  
for spiders4 ,the war waged against the 
latter in our houses is plainly carried 
too far4 ,whatever may be the case at   
the ,cape1 in ,australia1 or even in    
,southern ,europe1 no ,british species  
is venomous enough to cause danger to   
human beings4 ,though cobwebs are not   
ornamental1 save to the eye of the      
naturalist1 there are parts of our      
houses where they might be judiciously  
tolerated3 their scarcity in large      
towns1 even where their prey abounds1 is
 somewhat remarkable4  ,but perhaps the 
most effectual phase of man's war       
against the flies will be negative      
rather than positive1 turning not so    
much on putting to death the mature     

individuals as in destroying the matter 
in which the larvae are nourished4 ,or  
if1 from other considerations1 we cannot
 destroy all organic refuse1 we may and 
should render it unfit for the          
multiplication of these vermin4 ,we     
have1 indeed1 in most of our large towns
 and in their suburbs1 abolished        
cesspools1 which are admirable          
breeding-places for many kinds of       
,diptera1 and which sometimes presented 
one wriggling mass of larvae4 ,we have  
drained many marshes1 ditches1 and      
unclean pools1 rich in decomposing      
vegetable matter1 and have thus notably 
checked the propagation of gnats and    
midges4 ,i know an instance of a country
 mansion1 situate in one of the best    
wooded parts of the home counties1 which
 twenty years ago was almost            
uninhabitable1 owing to the swarms of   
gnats which penetrated into every room4 
,but the present proprietor1 being the  
reverse of pachydermatous1 has          
substituted covered drains for stagnant 

ditches1 filled up a number of slimy    
ponds as neither useful nor ornamental1 
and now in most seasons the gnats no    
longer occasion any annoyance4  ,but if 
we have to some extent done away with   
cesspools and ditches1 and have reaped  
very distinct benefit by so doing1 there
 is still a grievous amount of organic  
matter allowed to putrefy in the very   
heart of our cities4 ,the dust bins--a  
necessary accompaniment of the          
water-carriage system of disposing of   
sewage--are theoretically supposed to be
 receptacles mainly for organic refuse1 
such as coal-ashes1 broken crockery1 and
 at worst the sweepings from the floors4
 ,in sober fact they are largely mixed  
with the rinds1 shells1 etc41 of fruits 
and vegetables1 the bones and heads of  
fish1 egg-shells1 the sweepings out of  
dog-kennels and henhouses1 forming thus1
 in short1 a mixture of evil odor1 and  
well adapted for the breeding-place of  
not a few ,diptera4  ,the uses to which 
this dust is put when ultimately fetched

 away are surprising3 without being     
freed from its organic refuse it is used
 to fill up hollows in building-ground1 
and even for the repair of roads4 ,a few
 weeks ago ,i passed along a road which 
was being treated according to the      
iniquity of ,macadam4 ,over the broken  
stones had been shot1 to consolidate    
them1 a complex of ashes1               
cabbage-leaves1 egg and periwinkle      
shells1 straw1 potato-parings1 a dead   
kitten 7over which a few carrion-flies  
were hovering71 and other promiscuous   
nuisances4 ,the road in question1 be it 
remarked1 is highly respectable1 if not 
actually fashionable4 ,the houses facing
 upon it are severely rated1 and are    
inhabited chiefly by carriage people4   
,what1 then1 may not be expected in     
lower districts8  ,much attention has   
lately been drawn to the fish trade of  
,london4 ,it has not1 however1 come out 
in evidence that the fish retailers1 if 
they find a quantity of their perishable
 wares entering into decomposition1 send

 out late in the evening a messenger1   
who1 watching his opportunity1 throws   
his burden down in some plot of building
 land1 or over a fence4 ,when ,i say    
that ,i have seen in one place1 close   
alongside a public thoroughfare1 a heap 
of about fifty herrings1 in most active 
putrefaction and buzzing with flies1 and
 some days afterward1 in another place1 
some twenty soles1 it will be understood
 that such nuisances can only be        
occasioned by dealers4 ,to get rid of1  
or at least greatly diminish1           
carrion-flies1 house-flies1 and the     
whole class of winged travelers in      
disease1 it will be1 before all things1 
essential to abolish such loathsome     
malpractices4 ,the dustbins must cease  
being made the receptacle for putrescent
 and putrescible matter1 the destruction
 of which by fire should be insisted    
upon4  ,the banishment of               
slaughter-houses to some truly rural    
situation1 where the blood and offal    
could be at once utilized1 would be     

another step toward depriving flies of  
their pabulum in the larva state4 ,an   
equally important movement would be the 
substitution of steam or electricity for
 horsepower in propelling tram-cars and 
other passenger carriages1 with a view  
to minimize the number of horses kept   
within greater ,london4 ,every large    
stable is a focus of flies--,journal of 
,science4         99       99       99  
99       99     ,,on ,,the ,,relations  
,,of ,,minute ,,organisms ,,to ,,certain
 ,,specific ,,diseases4   ,at the recent
 ,medical ,congress in ,london1         
,professor ,klebs undertook to answer   
the question3 ,are there specific       
organized causes of disease8  ,a short  
historical review of the various        
opinions of mankind as to the origin of 
disease led1 the speaker thought1 to the
 presumption that these causes were     
specific and organized4  ,if we now1 he 
said1 consider the present state of this
 question1 the three following points of
 view present themselves as those from  

which the subject may be regarded3      
,i4--,we have to inquire whether the    
lower organisms1 which are found in the 
diseased body1 may arise there          
spontaneously2 or whether even they may 
be regarded as regular constituents of  
the body4  ,,ii4--,the morphological    
relations of these organisms have to be 
investigated1 and their specific nature 
in the different morbid processes has to
 be determined4  ,,iii4--,we have to    
inquire into their biological relations1
 their development inside and outside   
the body1 and the conditions under which
 they are able to penetrate into the    
body1 and there to set up disease4      
,first4--,with regard to the first      
question1 that of the possibility of    
spontaneous generation1 the speaker gave
 a decided negative4  ,second and       
third4--,there is in microscopic        
organisms a difference of form          
corresponding1 as a rule1 to difference 
of function4 ,the facts regarding these 
various lower forms are briefly         

reviewed4  ,three groups of             
hyphomycetae1 algae1 and schizomycetae1 
have been demonstrated to occur in the  
animal and human organism in infective  
diseases4 ,their significance increases 
with the increase of their capacity for 
development in the animal body4 ,this   
depends partly upon their natural or    
ordinary conditions of life1 but partly 
also1 and that in a very high degree1   
upon their power of adaptation1 which1  
as ,darwin has shown1 is a property of  
all living things1 and causes the       
production of new species with new      
active functions4  #a4 ,the             
hyphomycetae1 on account of their       
needing an abundant supply of oxygen1   
give rise to but few morbid processes1  
and these run their course on the       
surface of the body1 and are hence      
relatively of less importance4 ,it will 
be sufficient here to refer to the      
forms1 achorion1 trichophyton1 odium1   
aspergillus1 and the diseases produced  
by them1 favus1 ringworm1 and thrush1 to

 show this peculiarity4 ,nevertheless1  
we see that these organisms also 7as was
 proved by the older observations of    
,hannover and ,zenker7 may1 under       
certain circumstances1 penetrate into   
the interior of the organs4 ,grawitz1   
moreover1 has recently shown that their 
faculty of penetrating into the interior
 of the organism1 and there undergoing  
further development1 depends on their   
becoming accustomed to nitrogenous food4
  #b4 ,only one of the algae1 viz41     
leptothrix1 has as yet acquired any     
importance as a producer of disease4 ,it
 gives rise to the formation of         
concretions1 and that not only in the   
mouth1 but also1 as ,i have shown1 in   
the salivary ducts and urinary bladder4 
,another alga1 the sarcina of ,goodsir1 
may indeed pass through the organism1   
without1 however1 producing in its      
passage either direct or indirect       
disturbances4 ,it seems more worthy of  
note that many schizomycetae1 and       
especially the group of bacilli1 are    

evidently nearly allied to the algae in 
their morphological and vegetative      
relations--so as to be assigned to this 
class by several authors1 and especially
 by ,cienkowski4  ,the schizomycetae    
furnish1 without doubt1 by far the most 
numerous group of infective diseases4   
,we distinguish within this group two   
widely different series of forms1 which 
we will speak of as bacilli and         
cocco-bacteria respectively4 ,the       
former1 which was first exhaustively    
described by ,ferdinand ,cohn1 and the  
pathological importance of which1       
especially in relation to the splenic   
disease of cattle1 was first shown by   
,koch1 consist of threads1 in the       
interior of which permanent or          
resting-spores are developed4 ,these    
spores becoming free1 are able1 under   
suitable conditions of life1 again to   
develop into threads4 ,the whole        
development of these organisms1 and     
especially the formation of spores1 is  
completed on the surface of the fluids1 

and under the influence of an abundant  
supply of oxygen4  ,the number of       
affections in which these organisms have
 been found1 and which may be to a      
certain extent produced artificially by 
the introduction of these organisms into
 healthy animal bodies1 has been largely
 increased since the discovery of ,koch1
 that the bacteria of splenic fever     
7anthrax7 belong to this group4 ,under  
this head must be placed the bacillus   
malarise 7,klebs and                    
,tommassi-,crudeli71 the bacillus typhi 
abdominalis 7,klebs1 ,ebert71 the       
bacillus typhi exanthematici 7,klebs1   
observations not yet published71 the    
bacillus of hog-cholera 7,klein71 and1  
finally the bacillus leprosus           
7,neisser74 ,it would exceed the time   
appointed were ,i to attempt to describe
 these forms more minutely4 ,this may1  
perhaps1 be better reserved for         
discussion and demonstration4           
,alongside of these general infective   
diseases produced by bacilli1 local     

affections also occur1 which indicate   
the presence of these organisms at the  
point where disease begins4 ,as an      
example of these processes1 which       
probably occur in various organs1 ,i    
would mention gastritis bacillaris1 of  
which ,i shall show you preparations4   
,in this1 we can trace the entrance of  
the bacilli into the peptic glands1 as  
well as their further distribution in   
the walls of the stomach1 and in the    
vascular system4  ,the second group of  
the pathogenetic schizomycetae ,i       
propose to call1 with ,billroth1        
cocco-bacteria1 because they consist of 
collections of micrococci1 which are    
capable of transforming themselves into 
short rods4 ,the former usually form    
groups united by zogloea2 by            
prolongation of the cocci rods are      
formed1 which sprout out1 break up by   
division into chains1 and further lead  
again to the formation of resting masses
 of cocci4 ,i distinguish1 further1 in  
this group1 two genera--the microsporina

 and the monadina2 in the former of     
which the micrococci are collected into 
spherical lumps1 in the latter into     
layers4 ,the one class is developed in  
artificial cultivation fluid1 the other 
on the surface4 ,the former requires a  
medium poor in oxygen1 the latter a     
medium rich in oxygen1 for their        
development4  ,among the affections     
produced by microsporina1 ,i reckon     
especially the septic processes1 and    
also true diphtheria4 ,on the other     
hand1 to the processes produced by      
monadina belong especially a large      
series of diseases1 which according to  
their clinical and anatomical features1 
may be characterized as inflammatory    
processes1 acute exanthemata1 and       
infective tumors1 or leucocytoses4 ,of  
inflammatory processes1 those belong    
here which do not generally lead to     
suppuration1 such as rheumatic          
affections1 including the heart1 kidney1
 and liver affections1 which accompany  
this process1 sequelae which1 as is well

 known1 lead more especially to         
formation of connective tissue1 and not 
to suppuration4 ,here1 also1 belong     
croupous pneumonia1 the allied disease  
erysipelas1 certain puerperal processes1
 and finally1 parotitis epidemica1 or   
mumps4  ,among the acute exanthemata1   
the following may1 up to the present    
time1 be placed in this group2          
variola-vaccina1 scarlatina1 and        
measles4  ,the group of infective tumors
 is represented by tuberculosis1        
syphilis1 and glanders4 ,throughout the 
whole group of cocco-bacteria the       
demonstration of organisms in the       
diseased parts encounters difficulties  
which vary considerably in the different
 kinds4  ,the speaker concluded by      
describing the methods 7now well known7 
by which the powers of the different    
organisms are tested4  ,he also referred
 to ,pasteur's1 ,chauveau's1 and        
,toussaint's recent experiments4  ,his  
conclusion was that the specific        
communicable diseases are produced by   

specific organisms4         99       99 
99       99       99     ,,the          
,,centenary ,,of ,,the ,,discovery ,,of 
,,uranus4  ,by ,w4 ,f4 ,,denning1       
,f4,r4,a4,s4   ,the year #agha was      
signalized by an astronomical discovery 
of great importance1 and one which      
marked the epoch as memorable in the    
annals of science4 ,a musician at ,bath1
 ,william ,herschel by name1 who had    
been constructing some excellent        
telescopes and making a systematic      
survey of the heavens1 observed an      
object on the night of ,march #ac of    
that year1 which ultimately proved to be
 a large planet revolving in an orbit   
exterior to that of ,saturn4 ,the       
discovery was as unique as it was       
significant4 ,only five planets1 in     
addition to the ,earth1 had hitherto    
been known2 they were observed by the   
ancients1 and by each succeeding        
generation1 but now a new light burst   
upon men4 ,the genius of ,herschel had  
singled out from the host of stars which

 his telescope revealed an object the   
true character of which had evaded human
 perception for thousands of years6     
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#a4--;,,approximate ,,place ,,of        
,,uranus ,,amongst ,,the ,,stars ,,at   
,,its ,,discovery ,,on ,,march #ac1     
#agha  ,the centenary of this remarkable
 advance in knowledge naturally recalls 
to mind the circumstances of the        
discovery1 and makes us inquisitive to  
know what new facts have been gleaned of
 ,herschel's planet1 now that a hundred 
years have passed away1 and we are      
enabled to look back and review the vast
 amount of labor which has been         
accomplished in this wide and attractive
 field of astronomical research4 ,we may
 learn what new features have been      
discerned of the new body1 and what     
additional discoveries in connection    
with other planets unknown in           
,herschel's day1 have been effected by  
aid of the powerful telescopes which    
have been devoted to the work4 ,we do   

not1 however1 intend dealing with the   
general question of planetary discovery1
 for at a glance we are impressed with  
its magnitude4 ,while a century ago five
 planets only were known1 we now have   
some two hundred and thirty of these    
bodies1 and the stream of discovery     
flows on without abatement through each 
succeeding year4 ,the detection of      
,uranus seems1 indeed1 to have been the 
prelude to many similar discoveries1 and
 to have offered the incentive to       
greater diligence and energy on the part
 of observers in various parts of the   
world4  ,illustration3 ,fig4            
#b4--,,orbits ,,of ,,the ,,uranian      
,,satellites4  ,many great discoveries  
have resulted from accident2 and the    
leading facts attending that of ,uranus 
prove that1 in a large measure1 the     
result was brought about in a similar   
way4 ,herschel1 as he unwearyingly swept
 the heavens night after night1 was in  
quest of sidereal wonders--such as      
double stars and nebulae--and he        

happened to alight upon the new planet  
in a purely chance way4 ,he had no      
expectation of finding such a remarkable
 object1 and indeed1 when he had found  
it1 wholly mistook its character4 ,there
 could be no doubt that it was a body   
wholly dissimilar to the fixed stars1   
and it was equally certain that it could
 not be a nebula4 ,it had a perceptible 
disk1 for when it had first come under  
the critical eye of its discoverer he   
had noticed immediately that its        
appearance differed widely from the     
multitude of objects which crossed the  
field of his telescope4 ,he had been    
accustomed to see hosts of stars pass in
 review1 and their aspect was in one    
respect similar1 namely1 they were      
invariably presented as points of light 
incapable of being sensibly magnified1  
even with the highest powers4 ,true1    
there was a great variety of apparent   
brightness in these objects and a       
singular diversity of configuration1 but
 there was no exception to the          

invariable feature referred to4 ,the    
point of light was constant1 and no     
striking exception was anticipated until
 one night--,march #ac1                 
#agha--;,herschel being intently engaged
 in the examination of some small stars 
in the region of ,gemini1 brought an    
object under the range of1 his          
telescope1 which his eye at once        
selected as one of anomalous character4 
,applying a higher power1 he noticed    
that it exhibited a planetary disk1 but 
his instrument failed to define it with 
sufficient distinctness1 and hence he   
became doubtful as to its real nature4  
,the object was found to be in motion1  
and subsequent observations led him to  
the assumption that it must be a comet  
of rather exceptional type4 ,this       
appeared to be the best explanation of  
the strange body1 for history contained 
many records of curious comets1 some of 
which were observed as nearly circular  
patches of nebulous light1 and probably 
of similar aspect to the object then    

visible2 and apart from this it must be 
remembered that the idea of a large     
planet exterior to ,saturn was a fact of
 such momentous import that ,herschel1  
with a due regard to that modesty which 
accompanies true genius1 refrained from 
attaching such an interpretation to his 
observations4 ,he was content to direct 
the notice of astronomers to it as a    
phenomenon requiring close attention1   
and suggested that it might be a comet  
in consequence of its motion and the    
faint and somewhat ill-defined character
 of its appearance4  ,from the earliest 
ages five planets only were known1 and  
the discovery of another large planet   
beyond the sphere of ,saturn must at    
once revolutionize existing ideas as to 
the range of the solar system1 and      
immediately take rank as a scientific   
event of equal interest to the discovery
 of the moons of ,jupiter or the rings  
of ,saturn1 which each in their day     
impressed men with new ideas of the     
celestial mechanism4 ,but the truth     

could not long be delayed4 ,the new body
 being watched and its orbit rigorously 
computed from a series of observed      
positions revealed its true character1  
and ,herschel was awarded the honor due 
to the author of a discovery of such    
importance4 ,his diligence and          
pertinacity alone had enabled him to    
search out from among the multitude of  
stars thickly strewn over the firmament 
this unknown and well-nigh invisible    
planet which1 during all the preceding  
years of the world's history1 had eluded
 human perception4 ,men had been all    
unconscious of its existence as it had  
been slowly completing its circuits     
around the sun1 obedient to the same    
laws as the other planets of the solar  
system1 and awaiting the hour when the  
unfailing eve of ,herschel should       
introduce it as the faint and far-off   
planet girding our system within its    
expansive folds4  ,as soon as the       
existence of the new orb was confirmed  
and the fact rendered indisputable1 the 

question naturally arose whether it had 
ever been seen in former years by the   
authors of star catalogues1 who could   
hardly have overlooked an object like   
this though its planetary nature had    
manifestly escaped detection4 ,it was   
just perceptible to the naked eye1      
shining like a star of the sixth        
magnitude1 and ought to have been       
distinguished by those who had reviewed 
the heavens with the purpose of         
determining and mapping the positions of
 the stars4 ,reference was1 therefore1  
made to the chief catalogues1 when it   
was found at once that the planet had   
been unquestionably observed by ,tobias 
,mayer1 ,le ,monnier1 ,bradley1 and     
,flamsteed4 ,it was several times noted 
by these observers3 by ,le ,monnier no  
less than twelve times1 and by          
,flamsteed on six occasions2 and it is  
remarkable that in every instance its   
true character escaped detection4       
,neither its special appearance nor its 
motion attracted attention1 so that it  

was merely catalogued as an ordinary    
fixed star4 ,thus ,herschel was not     
anticipated in his discovery4 ,it       
remained for him1 in #agha1 to note its 
exceptional aspect1 and to specify it as
 an object requiring critical           
investigation4 ,but the early           
observations above alluded to served a  
useful purpose in testing the accuracy  
of the computed orbit1 for without      
waiting many years to compare the       
theoretical and observed positions1     
astronomers had in these old records a  
reliable series of points through which 
the previous course of the planet could 
be traced4  ,the calculations showed    
that its mean distance from the sun was 
some #a1gej1jjj1jjj miles1 and that a   
revolution was completed in about       
eighty-four years4 ,it was also found to
 be a very large planet1 greatly        
exceeding either ,mercury1 ,venus1 the  
,earth1 or ,mars1 though considerably   
inferior to either ,jupiter or ,saturn4 
,here1 then1 was a discovery of the     

utmost importance1 and one of the most  
salient additions to our knowledge which
 the telescope had ever achieved4 ,the  
new planet was now definitely assigned  
its proper place in the solar system1   
and was regarded as of equal            
significance with the old planets4      
,true1 the new planet of ,herschel could
 not be compared as regards its visible 
aspect with the other previously known  
members of our system1 but it was       
nevertheless an object of equal weight4 
,its vast distance alone rendered it    
faint4 ,it formed one of the constituent
 parts of the solar system1 which1      
though separated by immense intervals of
 space1 are yet coherent by the         
far-reaching effects of gravitation4    
,there is1 indeed1 a bond of harmony    
between the series of planetary orbits1 
which exhibit a marked degree of        
regularity in their successive distances
 from the sun2 and though they are not  
connected by any visible links1 they are
 firmly held together by unseen         

influences1 and their motions are       
subject to certain laws which have been 
revealed by centuries of observation4   
,the question of suitably naming the new
 planet soon came to the fore4 ,herschel
 himself proposed to designate it the   
,georgium ,sidus1 in honor of his       
patron1 ,george ,,iii41 just as ,galileo
 had called the satellites of ,jupiter  
the ,medicean stars1 after ,cosmo de'   
,medici4 ,but ,la ,place proposed that  
the planet should be named after its    
discoverer2 and thus it was frequently  
referred to as ,herschel1 and sometimes 
as ,the ,herschelian planet4            
,astronomers on the continent objected  
to this system of personal nomenclature1
 and argued that the new body should    
receive an appellative in accordance    
with those adopted for the old planets1 
which had been selected from the heathen
 mythology4 ,several names were         
suggested as suitable 7on the basis of  
this principle71 and ultimately the one 
advanced by ,bode received the most     

favor1 and the planet thereafter was    
called ,uranus4  ,the varying positions 
of the new body as observed on          
successive nights were determined by    
comparisons with a group of six small   
stars1 termed by ,herschel ,greek3      
alpha1 beta1 gamma1 delta1 epsilon and  
afterwards formed into a constellation  
under the designation of ,britannia1    
though it does not appear that this     
little asterism is acknowledged as one  
of our constellations4 ,its position is 
about midway between ,taurus and        
,gemini1 and the following are the      
principal stars computed for #ahha4j1 as
 given by ,mr4 ,marth3    ,star4        
,magnitude4  ,right ,ascension4         
,declination4                       h4  
m4   s4   alpha     #i4j       #e  #db  
#f4jf        #bc #ce'  #f4g ,n4   eta   
#h4g       #e  #dc #ag4hb        #bc    
#bf'  #g4b  ,n4   theta     #h4h        
#e  #dd  #j4ii        #bc  #ec' #cj4h   
,n4   epsilon   #h4h       #e  #de      
#dj4fh        #bc  #cd' #df4h  ,n4  ,the

 stars are therefore merely telescopic1 
and are confined to a small area of     
space1 so that the propriety of adopting
 the group as a distinct constellation  
is very questionable4 ,their positions  
close to ,uranus at the time of its     
discovery1 and the fact that the        
planet's motion was detected by means of
 comparisons with them1 has given to    
these stars an historical interest which
 in future years must often attract the 
student to their reobservation4 ,but it 
would be unwise1 as forming a bad       
precedent1 to accept a group of stars of
 this inferior type as meriting to rank 
among the old constellations1 when we   
have numbers of richer groups1 situated 
on their confines1 which first deserve  
such a distinction4 ,however special or 
unique the circumstances connected with 
certain telescopic stars may be1 and    
however necessary it may appear to      
signalize them by a specific title1 we  
are inclined to question the adoption of
 such means as likely to exercise a     

wrong influence1 inasmuch as it may     
hereafter originate further innovations 
of a similar character1 and ultimate    
complications will be certain to arise4 
,soon after the discovery of ,uranus it 
was suspected that the planet was       
encircled1 like ,saturn1 by a luminous  
ring1 but on subsequent observation this
 was not confirmed1 and no such         
appendage has ever been revealed in the 
more perfected instruments of our own   
times4 ,indeed1 if ,uranus displays a   
peculiarity of constitution in any way  
analogous to the ring system of ,saturn1
 it must be of the most minute character
 so as to have thus evaded telescopic   
scrutiny during a hundred years4  ,the  
discovery soon attracted the notice of  
royalty1 and the reigning sovereign1    
,george ,,iii41 anxious to practically  
express his appreciation of the valuable
 labors of ,herschel1 awarded him a     
pension of #bjj a year and furnished him
 with a residence at ,slough1 near      
,windsor1 and the means to erect a      

gigantic telescope with which he might  
be enabled to continue his important    
researches4 ,this instrument consisted  
of a reflector on the ,front-view       
construction1 with a speculum #d feet in
 diameter and of #dj feet focal length4 
,upon its completion1 ,herschel         
immediately began to observe the region 
of the new planet with the idea of      
discovering any satellites which might  
belong to it1 for analogy suggested that
 it was surrounded by a numerous retinue
 of such bodies4 ,he was soon           
successful1 for1 on the night of        
,january #aa1 #aghg4 he saw two minute  
objects near the planet1 which renewed  
observations revealed to be satellites2 
and he detected two additional ones in  
#agij1 and two others in #agid1 making  
six in all4 ,but the observations were  
of extreme difficulty4 ,the path of the 
planet frequently passed near minute    
stars1 and it became hard to distinguish
 between them and the suspected         
satellites4 ,herschel1 however1         

considered he had obtained conclusive   
evidence of the existence of six        
satellites with sidereal periods ranging
 from #e;d4 #ba;h4 #bem4 to #ajg;d4     
#af;h4 #cim41 and his means of          
observation being much superior to those
 possessed by any of his contemporaries 
it was impossible to have corroborative 
testimony4  ,the matter was thus allowed
 to rest until the middle of the present
 century1 when ,lassell1 in the pure sky
 at ,malta1 endeavored to reobserve the 
satellites with a two-foot reflector4   
,this instrument was considered superior
 to ,herschel's telescope2 and the      
atmosphere at this station being        
decidedly more suitable for such        
delicate observations than in ,england1 
it was removed there for the express    
purpose of dealing successfully with    
objects of extreme difficulty4 ,the     
results were very important4 ,mr4       
,lassell became convinced that ,uranus  
had only four satellites1 and that if   
any others existed they remained to be  

discovered4 ,two of these were found to 
be identical with those seen by         
,herschel in #aghg1 and now called      
,titania and ,oberon4 ,the other two1   
,ariel and ,umbriel1 could not be       
identified with any of those alleged to 
have been previously detected by        
,herschel1 so that the inference was    
that they were new bodies1 and that the 
priority of discovery was due to ,mr4   
,lassell2 whence it also followed that  
the older observations were erroneous1  
and that in fact ,herschel had been     
entirely mistaken with regard to the    
four satellites he believed he had      
detected subsequently to #aghg4  ,in    
,november1 #ahgc1 a fine twenty-six-inch
 object glass1 by ,alvan ,clark1 was    
mounted at the ,u4 ,s4 ,naval           
,observatory at ,washington1 and it was 
soon employed upon the difficult task of
 solving the problem as to the exact    
periods of the ,uranian satellites4     
,this was very satisfactorily effected1 
and with distinct and conclusive favor  

to ,mr4 ,lassell1 whose observations    
were fully corroborated4 ,only four     
satellites could be distinguished by the
 ,american observers1 and their periods1
 as computed from a valuable series of  
measures1 agreed with those previously  
derived at ,malta4 ,in ,appendix ,i4 to 
the ,washington ,observations for #ahgc1
 ,prof4 ,newcomb gave a valuable summary
 of results--the first obtained1 be it  
noted1 with that splendid instrument    
which soon afterward1 in #ahgg1 revealed
 the satellites of ,mars--which included
 the elements of the satellites of      
,uranus as follows3    ,mean ,longitude4
        ,satellite4      ,epoch #ahga4  
,radius of        ,period of            
,dec4 #ca1 ,w4,m4,t4     ,orbit4        
,revolution in days4     ,i4            
,ariel44444444       #ba4hc       #ac4gh
          #b4ebjch    ,,ii4             
,umbriel44444        #ac4eb             
#ai4bj           #d4addah   ,,iii4      
,titania44444       #bbi4ic             
#ca4dh           #g4gjeij    ,,iv4      

,oberon444444       #aed4hc             
#db4aj          #ac4dccbg  ,speaking of 
the comparative brightness of the       
satellites1 ,prof4 ,newcomb says3  ,the 
greater proximity of the inner          
satellites to the planet makes it       
difficult to compare them               
photometrically with the outer ones1 as 
actual feebleness of light cannot be    
distinguished from difficulty of seeing 
arising from the proximity of the       
planet4 ,however1 that ,umbriel is      
intrinsically fainter than ,titania is  
evinced by the fact that1 although the  
least distance of the latter is somewhat
 less than the greatest distance of the 
former1 there is never any difficulty in
 seeing it in that position4 ,from their
 relative aspects in these respective   
positions ,i judge ,umbriel to be about 
half as bright as ,titania4 ,ariel must 
be brighter than ,umbriel1 because ,i   
have never seen the latter unless it was
 farther from the planet than the former
 at its maximum distance4444 ,i think ,i

 may say with considerable certainty    
that there is no satellite within #b' of
 the planet1 and outside of ,oberon1    
having one-third the brilliancy of the  
latter1 and therefore that none of ,sir 
,william ,herschel's supposed outer     
satellites can have any real existence4 
,the distances of the four known        
satellites increase in so regular a way 
that it can hardly be supposed that any 
others exist between them4 ,of what may 
be inside of ,ariel it is impossible to 
speak with certainty1 since in the state
 of atmosphere which prevails during our
 winter all the satellites named        
disappear at #aj from the planet4       
,prof4 ,newcomb mentions that no        
systematic search for new satellites was
 undertaken because it must have        
interfered with the fullness and        
accuracy of the micrometer measures of  
the old satellites1 which constituted   
the main purpose of the observations4   
,some faint objects were occasionally   
glimpsed near the planet1 and their     

relative places determined1 but they    
were never found to accompany ,uranus4  
,the fact1 therefore1 that no additional
 satellites were discovered is not to be
 regarded as a strong point in favor of 
the theory of their non-existence1      
because the great power and excellence  
of the telescope was expressly directed 
to the attainment of other ends2 and    
moreover the season in which the planet 
came to opposition was distinctly       
unfavorable for the prosecution of a    
rigorous search for new satellites4     
,there can1 however1 be no doubt that   
the analogies of the planetary systems  
interior to ,uranus plainly suggest that
 this planet is attended by several     
satellites which the power of our       
greatest telescopes has hitherto failed 
to reveal2 and that it is in this       
direction and that of ,neptune we may   
anticipate further discoveries in future
 years when the conditions are more     
auspicious and the work is entered upon 
with special energy1 aided by           

instruments of even greater capacity    
than those which have already so far    
conduced to our knowledge of the        
heavenly bodies4  ,notwithstanding the  
extreme difficulty with which the       
,uranian satellites are observed1 the   
two brighter ones1 ,titania and ,oberon1
 discovered by ,william ,herschel in    
#aghg1 have been occasionally detected  
in telescopes of moderate power1 and    
identified by means of an ephemeris     
which has shown that the computed       
positions approximately agree with those
 observed4 ,during the last few years   
,mr4 ,marth has published ephemerides of
 the satellites of both ,saturn and     
,uranus1 and many amateurs have to      
acknowledge the valuable aid rendered by
 these tables1 which supply a ready     
means of identifying the satellites1 and
 thus act as an incentive to observers  
who are induced to pursue such work for 
the sake of the interesting comparisons 
to be made afterward4 ,in one           
exceptional instance the two outer      

satellites of ,uranus appear to have    
been glimpsed with an object glass of   
only #dc inches aperture1 and the facts 
are given in detail in the ,monthly     
,notices of the ,r4,a4,s41 ,april #ahgf1
 pp4 #bid-f4 ,the observations were made
 in ,january1 ,february1 and ,march1    
#ahgf1 by ,mr4 ,j4,w4 ,ward1 of         
,belfast2 and the positions of the      
satellites1 as he estimated them on     
several nights1 are compared with those 
computed1 the two sets presenting       
tolerably good agreement4 ,indeed the   
corroborations are such as to almost    
wholly negative any skepticism1 though  
such extraordinary feats should always  
be received with caution4  ,in this     
particular case the chances of being    
misled are manifold2 even ,herschel     
himself fell into error in taking minute
 stars to be satellites and actually    
calculating their periods2 so that when 
we remember the difficulties of the     
question our doubts are not altogether  
dispelled4 ,extreme acuteness of vision 

will1 in individual instances1 lead to  
success of abnormal character1 and      
certainly in ,mr4 ,ward's case the      
remarkable accordances in the observed  
and calculated positions appear to be   
conclusive evidence that he was not     
mistaken4  ,it will be readily inferred 
that the great distance and consequent  
feebleness of ,uranus must render any   
markings upon the disk of the planet    
beyond the reach of our best telescopes2
 and indeed this appears to have been a 
matter of common experience4 ,though the
 surface has been often scanned for     
traces of spots1 we seldom find mention 
that any have been distinguished4       
,consequently the period of rotation has
 yet to be determined4 ,it is true that 
an approximate value was assigned by    
,mr4 ,t4,h4 ,buffham from observations  
with a nine-inch reflector in #ahgj and 
#ahgb4 but the materials on which the   
computation was based were slender and  
necessarily somewhat uncertain1 so that 
his period of about twelve hours stands 

greatly in need of confirmation4 ,the   
bright spots and zones seen on the disk 
in the years mentioned appear to have   
entirely eluded other observers1 though 
they are probably phenomena of permanent
 character and within reach of          
instruments of moderate size4 ,mr4      
,buffham #a thus describes them3        
,footnote #a3 ,monthly ,notices ,k4 ,a4 
,s41 ,january1 #ahgc4  #ahgj1 ,jan4 #be1
 #aa;h4 to #ab;h4 in clear and tolerably
 steady air2 power #acb showed that the 
disk was not uniform4 ,with powers #bjb 
and #c4j1 two round1 bright spots were  
perceived1 not quite crossing the center
 but a little nearer to the eastern side
 of the planet1 the position angle of a 
line passing through their centers being
 about #bj and #bjj--;ellipticity of    
,uranus seemed obvious1 the major axis  
lying parallel to the line of the spots4
  ,jan4 #bg1 #aj;h4 to #aj;h42 some fog1
 and definition not good1 but the       
appearance of the spots was almost      
exactly the same as on the #beth4  ,on  

,march #ai glimpses were obtained of a  
light streak and two spots4 ,on ,april  
#a1 #d1 #f1 and #h1 a luminous zone was 
seen on the disk1 and in ,february and  
,march1 #ahgb1 when observations were   
resumed1 certain regions were noted     
brighter than others1 and underwent     
changes indicating the rotation of the  
planet in a similar direction to that   
derived from the results obtained in    
#ahgj4 ,mr4 ,buffham points out that1 if
 this is admitted1 then the plane of the
 planet's equator is not coincident with
 the plane of the orbits of the         
satellites4 ,nor need we be surprised at
 this departure from the general rule1  
where such an anomalous inclination     
exists4 ,in singular confirmation of    
this is ,mr4 ,lassell's observation of  
#ahfb1 ,jan4 #bi1 where he says3 ,i     
received an impression which ,i am      
unable to render certain of an          
equatorial dark belt1 and of an         
ellipticity of form4  ,some observations
 made in #ahgb-c with the great six-foot

 reflector of ,lord ,rosse may here be  
briefly referred to4 ,a number of       
measures1 both of position and distance1
 of ,oberon and ,titania1 were made1 #a 
and a few of ,umbriel and ,ariel1 but   
the shortness of the time available 7#dj
 minutes7 each night for the observation
 of the planet with the six-foot        
instrument1 the atmospheric disturbance1
 so often a source of annoyance in using
 so large an aperture1 and other        
unfavorable circumstances1 tended to    
affect the value of the observations1   
and to make the two inner satellites    
rarely within detection4  ,footnote #a3 
,monthly ,notices ,r4 ,a4 ,s41 ,march1  
#ahge4  ,on ,feb4 #aj1 #ahgb1 ,lord     
,rosse notes that all four satellites   
were seen on the same side of the       
planet4 ,on ,jan4 #af1 #ahgc1 when      
definition was good1 no traces of any   
markings were seen4 ,diameter of ,uranus
  #e4bi4 ,power #dad was usually        
employed1 though at times the inner     
satellites could be more satisfactorily 

seen with #fbe4  ,it may be mentioned as
 an interesting point that1 some fifty  
years after the first discovery of      
,uranus by ,herschel1 it was            
accidentally rediscovered by his son1   
,sir ,john ,herschel1 who recognized it 
by its disk1 and had no idea as to the  
identity of the object until an         
ephemeris was referred to4 ,sir ,john   
mentions the fact as follows1 in a      
letter to ,admiral ,smyth1 written in   
#ahcj1 ,august #h3  ,i have just        
completed two twenty-foot reflectors1   
and have got some interesting           
observations of the satellites of       
,uranus4 ,the first sweep ,i made with  
my new mirror ,i re-discovered this     
planet by its disk1 having blundered    
upon it by the merest accident for #ai  
,capricorni4  ,in commenting upon the   
centenary of an important scientific    
discovery we are naturally attracted to 
inquire what progress has been made in  
the same field during the comparatively 
short interval of one hundred years     

which has elapsed since it occurred4 ,we
 have called it a short interval1       
because it cannot be considered         
otherwise from an astronomical or       
geological point of view1 though1 as far
 as human life is concerned1 it can only
 be regarded as a very lengthy period1  
including several generations within its
 limits4  ,since ,herschel1 in #agha1   
discovered ,uranus1 astronomy has       
progressed with great rapidity1 so that 
it would be impossible to enumerate in a
 brief memoir the many additional       
discoveries which have resulted from    
assiduous observation4 ,a century ago   
only five planets were known 7excluding 
the ,earth71 now we are acquainted with 
about two hundred and thirty of these   
bodies2 and one of these1 found in      
#ahdf1 is a large planet whose orbit    
lies exterior to that of ,uranus4 ,in   
fact1 the state of astronomical         
knowledge a century ago has undergone   
wonderful changes4 ,it has been rendered
 far more complete and comprehensive by 

the diligence of its adherents and by   
the unwearying energy with which both in
 theory and practice it has been        
pursued4 ,a zone of small planets has   
been discovered between ,mars and       
,jupiter just where the analogies of the
 planetary distances indicated the      
probable existence of a large planet4   
,the far-off ,neptune was revealed in   
#ahdf by a process of analytical        
reasoning as unique as it was           
triumphant1 and which proved how well   
the theory of planetary perturbations   
was understood4 ,the planet was         
discovered by calculation1 its position 
in the heavens assigned1 and the        
telescope was then employed merely as   
the instrument of its detection4 ,the   
number of satellites which a century ago
 numbered only ten has now reached      
twenty1 and the discovery in #ahgg of   
two moons accompanying ,mars shows that 
the work is being continued with marked 
success4  ,in other departments we also 
find similar evidence of increasing     

knowledge4 ,the periodicity of the sun  
spots1 the existence of systems of      
binary stars1 meteor showers1 and their 
affinity with cometary orbits may be    
mentioned as among the more important1  
while a host of new comets1 chiefly     
telescopic1 have been detected4 ,large  
numbers of nebul and double stars have  
been catalogued1 and we have evidence   
every year of the activity with which   
these several branches are being        
followed up4  ,in fine1 it matters      
little to what particular department of 
astronomical investigation we look for  
traces of advancement during the past   
hundred years1 for it is evident        
throughout them all1 and sufficiently   
proves that the interest formerly taken 
in the science has not only been well   
sustained but has become more general   
and popular1 and is extending its       
attractive features to all classes of   
the community4  ,in ,herschel's day     
large telescopes were rare4 ,a man      
devoting himself to the study of the    

heavenly bodies as a means of           
intellectual recreation was considered a
 phenomenon1 and indeed that appellation
 might be fittingly applied to the few  
isolated individuals who really occupied
 themselves in such work4 ,how different
 is the case now that the pleasant ways 
of science have called so many to her   
side and so far perfected her means of  
research as to make them accessible to  
all who care to see and investigate for 
themselves the unique and wonderful     
truths so easily within reach6 ,large   
telescopes have become common enough1   
and there is no lack of hands and eyes  
to utilize them1 nor of understanding1  
ever ready to appreciate1 in sincerity  
and humbleness1 those objects which     
display in an eminent degree the        
all-wise conceptions of a great         
,creator6 ,it is1 therefore1 a most     
gratifying sign to notice this rapid    
development of astronomy1 and to see    
year by year the increasing number of   
its advocates and the record of many new

 facts gleaned by vigorous observation4 
,the character of recent discoveries    
distinctly intimates that1 in future    
years1 some departments of the science  
will become very complicated1 owing to  
the necessity of dealing with a large   
number of minute bodies1 for the        
tendency of modern researches has been  
to reveal objects which by their        
faintness had hitherto eluded detection4
 ,and when we consider that these bodies
 are rapidly increasing year by year1   
the idea is obviously suggested that1   
inasmuch as their numbers are           
comparatively illimitable1 and there is 
likely to be no immediate abatement in  
the enthusiasm of observers1            
difficulties will arise in identifying  
them apart and forming them into        
catalogues with their orbital elements  
attached1 so that the individual members
 may be redetected at any time4  ,in    
this connection we allude particularly  
to minor planets1 to telescopic comets1 
and to meteoric streams1 which severally

 form a very numerous group of bodies of
 which the known members are            
accumulating to a great extent4 ,as     
complications arise1 some remedies must 
be applied to their solution1 and one   
probable effect will be that astronomers
 will be induced each one to have a     
specialty or branch to which his        
energies are mainly directed4 ,the      
science will become so wide in its      
application and so intricate in its     
details that it will become more than   
ever necessary for observers to select  
or single out definite lines of         
investigation and pursue them closely1  
for success is far more likely to attend
 such exertions than those which are not
 devoted to any special end1 but        
employed rather in a general survey of  
phenomena4  ,we have already before us  
some excellent instances in which       
individual energies have been aptly     
utilized in the prosecution of original 
work in some specific branch of         
astronomy1 and we are strongly disposed 

to recommend such exclusive labors to   
those who have the means and the desire 
to achieve something useful4 ,observers 
who find one subject monotonous and then
 take up another for the sake of        
variation are not likely to get far     
advanced in either4 ,in the case of     
amateurs who use a telescope merely for 
amusement1 and indiscriminately apply it
 to nearly every conspicuous object in  
the firmament without any particular    
purpose other than to satisfy their     
curiosity1 the matter is somewhat       
different1 and our remarks are not      
applicable to them4 ,we refer more      
pointedly to those who have a regard for
 the interests of the science and whose 
enthusiasm enables them to work         
habitually and with some pertinacity4   
,history tells us that the ,great       
,alexander wept when he found he had no 
other worlds to conquer1 and we fear    
that some astronomers will lament that  
they have little prospect of discovering
 anything fresh in a sphere to which our

 giant telescopes have been so often    
directed1 but this is founded on a      
palpable misconception4 ,certain        
objects1 such as comets for example1 do 
not require great power1 and the        
revelation of new meteor showers is     
entirely a question for the naked eye4  
,in fact1 it may be confidently asserted
 that observations undertaken with      
energy and persistency will1 if rightly 
directed1 more than compensate for      
defects of instrumental power4  ,it is  
true1 however1 that in certain quarters 
we must look to large instruments alone 
for new discoveries4 ,it would be       
useless searching for an                
ultra-,neptunian planet1 or for         
additional satellites to ,uranus or     
,neptune1 or for the materials to       
determine the rotation periods of these 
planets with a small telescope4 ,every  
observer will find objects suited to the
 capacity of his instrument1 and he may 
not only employ it usefully but possibly
 make a discovery of nearly equal import

 with that which rendered the name of   
,herschel famous a century              
ago4--,popular ,science ,review4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,varying ,,susceptibility ,,of   
,,plants ,,and ,,animals ,,to ,,poisons 
,,and ,,diseases4   ,much attention is  
being devoted to the causes which       
determine the aptitude or immunity with 
animals for maladies4 ,this is in a     
general sense called medical geography1 
as a physician who has prescribed for   
patients in various parts of the world1 
and belonging to different races--the   
white1 yellow1 and black--has been able 
to note the diversities in the same     
disease1 and the contradictions in the  
remedies employed4  ,the true social    
peril1 hardly discovered before we      
became aware how to conjure it1 lies in 
those legions of animalcules or microbes
 that surround us and in the middle of  
which we live4 ,m4 ,pasteur has revealed
 them to us as the factors in infectious
 diseases4 ,claude ,bernard has         

demonstrated the community which exists 
between animals and                     
vegetables--phenomena of movement1 of   
sensibility1 of production of heat1 of  
respiration1 of digestion even1 for     
there are the ,drosera and kindred      
carnivorous plants4 ,iron cures         
chlorosis in vegetables as well as in   
animals1 and chloroform and ether render
 both insensible4 ,there resemblances   
are more striking still between animals4
 ,after ,baudrimont1 insects are1 in    
presence of alcohols1 chloroform1 and   
irrespirable gases1 similarly affected  
as man4 ,many maladies1 too1 are common 
to man and several species of animals2  
and this organic identity is best       
illustrated in the relationship between 
epidemics and epizootias1 cancer1       
asthma1 phthisis1 smallpox1 rabies1     
glanders1 charbon1 etc41 afflict alike  
man and many species of animals4  ,the  
differences between races are not less  
remarkable--odor and taste1 for example4
 ,according to anthropophagy1 negroes   

are best1 and white people most         
detestable4 ,broca remarked1 that1 in   
the dissecting room1 the muscles of the 
negro putrefied less rapidly than those 
of whites4 ,it is perhaps to these      
anatomical differences that the diverse 
action of the same poison1 in the case  
of races or species1 may be attributed4 
,on certain rodentia belladonna         
exercises no influence2 morphine for a  
horse is a violent stimulant2 a snail   
remains insensible to digitalis2 goats  
eat tobacco with impunity2 and in the   
,tarentin the inhabitants rear only     
black sheep1 because a plant abounds    
which is noxious for white sheep4  ,the 
nature of these conditions is a mystery 
for science4 ,the ,solan tribe of plants
 furnish a principle which1 as its name 
implies1 produces consolation or        
forgetfulness1 by acting on the tissues 
of the brain where resides the organ of 
thought2 now1 on the authority of       
,professor ,bouchardat1 these opiates   
have the less of effect in proportion as

 the animals possess the less of        
intelligence4  ,to the same anatomical  
peculiarities must be ascribed the      
choice that disease makes in such or    
such a race4 ,glanders1 for instance1 so
 virulent with the horse1 the ass1 and  
man1 produce in the case of the dog only
 a local accident2 peripneumonia1 so    
contagious among horned cattle1 is more 
benign in its action on ,dutch than     
other breeds of stock2 the cattle plague
 that decimates so many farms is        
communicated by cattle to each other    
from the slightest contact1 while the   
closest and most constant association is
 necessary to communicate the disease to
 sheep1 and even when they are affected 
its action is not severe4 ,further1 that
 plague only attacks ruminant           
animals--oxen1 goats1 sheep1 zebras1    
gazelles1 etc4 ,ten years ago this      
plague broke out in the ,jardin         
d',acclimatation2 not a ruminant        
escaped1 and also one animal not of that
 class1 a little tenant nearly related  

to the pig--the peccari4  ,now1 ,dr4    
,condereau has demonstrated recently    
that the stomach of the pig has a       
rudimentary organization recalling that 
of the ruminants4 ,clearly1 the stomach 
of the peccari1 and perhaps that of the 
pig1 present a favorable medium for the 
parasitical microbe peculiar to the     
rinderpest4 ,in the potato disease1     
again1 all the varieties are not        
affected with the same degree of        
violence2 it is more marked in its      
action on the round yellows than the    
reds1 and on the latter rather than the 
pink4 ,but the symptoms even of the same
 malady differ1 the parasite's attacks  
on the tissues being dissimilar4 ,oak   
galls are produced from the prickings of
 insects2 now around the same larva     
often four varieties of galls are       
recognized4 ,in the case of consumption 
in cattle1 the disease marches slowly2  
in that of pigs it takes the galloping  
form1 as with man4  ,each people or     
nation has its peculiar pathology and   

also its peculiar cures4 ,a negro can   
take a dose of tartar ten times more    
excessive than a white2 the same dose of
 brandy given to a black1 a yellow1 and 
a white1 will not produce on the three  
men either drunkenness at the same      
moment1 or intoxication at all4         
,mulattoes can sustain more drastic     
aperients than other races2 the negro   
does not suffer from yellow fever1 but  
he readily falls to phthisis2 he will   
catch the cholera more quickly than a   
white4 ,human races1 where they may     
catch the same intermittent fever at the
 identical moment and in the same swamp1
 will not the less display different    
types of fever4 ,dr4 ,crevaux has shown 
that a certain insect with the ,north   
,american ,indian is not the same as    
with the negro or the maroon1 and both  
differ from that peculiar to ,europeans4
  ,m4 ,pasteur's beautiful experiments  
have conclusively demonstrated that     
fowls do not catch the charbon2 now the 
vital warmth of birds is from seven to  

nine degrees higher than in the case of 
mammiferous animals2 he imagined that if
 the fowl was cooled down by baths to   
the lower temperature1 it would be      
liable equally to become affected2 he   
tried1 and the result proved he was     
correct4  ,the absence1 then1 of a      
certain temperature would be the reason 
why birds are exempt4 ,the microbes are 
the agents of infectious disease2 when  
these swarm in the blood of an          
individual they seem to leave there     
something pernicious for parasites      
resembling themselves1 or to bring away 
with them something necessary to the    
life of their successors4 ,a glass of   
sugar and water1 where leaven has       
already fermented and yielded alcohol1  
is incapable of producing a second crop 
of leaven2 similarly the blood of an    
individual1 once contaminated1 becomes  
uninhabitable afterward for like        
microbes4 ,the individual has acquired  
immunity4 ,such is the principle of     
vaccination4--,paris ,correspondent of  

the ,kansas ,city ,review4         99   
99       99       99       99     ,,kind
 ,,treatment ,,of ,,horses4   ,it has   
been observed by experienced horse      
trainers that naturally vicious horses  
are rare1 and that among those that are 
properly trained and kindly treated when
 colts they are the exception4  ,it is  
superfluous to say that a gentle and    
docile horse is always the more         
valuable1 other qualities being equal1  
and it is almost obvious that gentle    
treatment tends to develop this         
admirable quality in the horse as well  
as in the human species1 while harsh    
treatment has the contrary tendency4    
,horses have been trained so as to be   
entirely governed by the words of his   
driver1 and they will obey and perform  
their simple but important duties with  
as much alacrity as the child obeys the 
direction of the parent4  ,it is true   
that all horses are not equally         
intelligent and tractable1 but it is    
probable that there is less difference  

among them in this regard than there is 
among his human masters1 since there are
 many incitements and ambitions among   
men that do not affect animals4  ,the   
horse learns to know and to have        
confidence in a gentle driver1 and soon 
discovers how to secure for himself that
 which he desires1 and to understand his
 surroundings and his duties4 ,the tone1
 volume1 and inflection of his master's 
voice indicate much1 perhaps more than  
the words that are spoken4 ,soothing    
tones rather than words calm him if     
excited by fear or anger1 and angry and 
excited tones tend to excite or anger   
him4 ,in short1 bad masters make bad    
horses4         99       99       99    
99       99  ,a catalogue1 containing   
brief notices of many important         
scientific papers heretofore published  
in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis  
at this office4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,the          
,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4   
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