,illustration     ,,scientific          
,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #bge      
,,new ,,york1 ,,april #i1 #ahha         
,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4
 ,,xi1 ,no4 #bge4  ,scientific ,american
 established #ahde  ,scientific         
,american ,supplement1 #e a year4       
,scientific ,american and ,supplement1  
#g a year4         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,table ,,of ,,contents4
  ,i4   ,,engineering ,,and             
,,mechanics4--,the ,various ,modes of   
,transmitting ,power to a ,distance4    
7,continued from ,no4 #bgd47      ,by   
,,arthur ,,archard4 of ,geneva4--,,ii4  
,compressed ,air4--,,iii4               
,transmission by ,pressure              
,water4--,,iv4 ,transmission by         
,electricity4--,general ,results        
,the ,hotchkiss ,revolving ,gun         
,floating ,pontoon ,dock4 #b            
figures4--,improved floating pontoon    
dock  ,,ii4  ,,technology ,,and         
,,chemistry4--,wheat and ,wheat ,bread4 
,by ,h4 ,,mege      ,,mouries4--,color  

in bread4--,anatomical structure and    
chemical      composition of            
wheat4--,embryo and coating of the      
embryo4--      ,cerealine--,phosphate of
 calcium4--#a figure1 section of a grain
      of wheat1 magnified4       ,origin
 of ,new ,process ,milling4--,special   
report to the ,census      ,bureau4 ,by 
,,albert ,,hoppin4--,present status of  
milling structures      and machinery in
 ,minneapolis by ,special ,census ,agent
 ,c4 ,w4      ,,johnson4--,communication
 from ,,george ,t4 ,,smith4       ,tap  
for ,effervescing ,liquids4 #a figure4  
,london ,chemical                       
,society4--,notes4--,pentathionic acid1 
,mr4      ,,vivian                      
,,lewes4--,hydrocarbons from ,rosin     
,spirit4 ,dr4      ,,armstrong4--,on the
 ,determination of the ,relative ,weight
 of ,single      ,molecules4 ,e4        
,,vogel4--,on the ,synthetical          
,production of ,ammonia      by the     
,combination of ,hydrogen and ,nitrogen 
in the ,presence of      ,heated ,spongy

 ,platinum1 ,g4 ,s4 ,,johnson4--,on the 
,oxidation of      ,organic ,matter in  
,water1 ,a4 ,,downs4       ,rose ,oil1  
or ,otto of ,roses4 ,by ,,chas4 ,g4     
,,warnford ,,lock4--,sources      of    
rose oil4--,history--,where rose gardens
 are now cultivated      for            
oil4--,methods of                       
cultivation4--,processes of             
distillation4--,adulterations       ,a  
,new ,method of ,preparing              
,metatoluidine4 ,by ,,oscar ,,widman4   
,,iii4 ,,agriculture1 ,,horticulture1   
,,etc4--,the ,guenon ,milk ,mirror4 #a  
figure4      ,escutcheon of the ,jersey 
,bull ,calf1 ,grand ,mirror4       ,two 
,good ,lawn ,trees       ,cutting ,sods 
for ,lawns       ,horticultural ,notes3 
,new apples1 pears1 grapes1             
etc4--,discussion      on ,grapes4      
,western ,new ,york ,society4--,new     
peaches4--,insects      affecting       
horticulture4--,insect destroyers4      
,observations on the ,salmon of the     
,pacific4 ,by ,,david ,s4 ,,jordan      

and ,,charles ,b4 ,,gilbert4 ,valuable  
census report4  ,,iv4  ,,light1         
,,electricity ,,etc4--,relation between 
,electricity      and ,light4 ,dr4 ,o4  
,t4 ,lodge's lecture before the ,london 
,institute4       ,interesting          
,electrical ,researches by ,dr4 ,warren 
de ,la ,rue and      ,dr4 ,hugo ,miller4
       ,telephony by ,thermic ,currents 
,the ,telectroscope4 ,by ,moxs4         
,,senlecq4 #e figures4 ,a successful    
apparatus for transmitting and          
reproducing camera pictures by          
electricity4  ,v4   ,,hygiene1          
,,medicine1 ,,etc4--,rapid ,breathing as
 a ,pain ,obtunde in      ,minor        
,surgery1 ,obstetrics1 the ,general     
,practice of ,medicine1 and      of     
,dentistry4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,g4 ,a4 ,bonwill's 
paper before the      ,philadelphia     
,county ,medical ,society4 #h figures4  
,sphygmographic      tracings4  ,,vi4   
,,architecture1 ,,art1 ,,etc4--,artist's
 ,homes4 ,no4 #aa4 ,weirleigh4          
,residence of ,harrison ,weir4          

,perspective and plans4         99      
99       99       99       99           
,,wheat ,,and ,,wheat ,,bread4  ,by ,h4 
,m,,ge-,,mouri,s4   ,in consequence of  
the interest that has been recently     
excited on the subject of bread reform1 
we have1 says the ,london ,miller1      
translated the interesting contribution 
of ,h4 ,mge-,mouris to the ,imperial and
 ,central ,society of ,agriculture of   
,france1 and subsequently published in a
 separate form in #ahfj1 on ,wheat and  
,wheat ,bread1 with the illustration    
prepared by the author for the          
contribution4 ,the author says3 ,i      
repeat in this pamphlet the principal   
facts put forth in the notes issued by  
me1 and in the reports furnished by ,mr4
 ,chevreul to the ,academy of ,science1 
from #ahec up to #ahfj4  ,the study of  
the structure of the wheat berry1 its   
chemical composition1 its alimentary    
value1 its preservation1 etc41 is not   
alone of interest to science1           
agriculture1 and industry1 but it is    

worthy of attracting the attention of   
governments1 for this study1 in its     
connection to political economy1 is     
bound up with the fate and the          
prosperity of nations4 ,wheat has been  
cultivated from time immemorial4 ,at    
first it was roughly crushed and        
consumed in the form of a thick soup1 or
 in cakes baked on an ordinary hearth4  
,many centuries before the ,christian   
era the ,egyptians were acquainted with 
the means of making fermented or        
leavened bread2 afterwards this practice
 spread into ,greece1 and it is found in
 esteem at ,rome two centuries ,b4,c42  
from ,rome the new method was introduced
 among the ,gauls1 and it is found      
to-day to exist almost the same as it   
was practiced at that period1 with the  
exception1 of course1 of the            
considerable improvements introduced in 
the baking and grinding4  ,since the    
fortunate idea was formed of            
transforming the wheat into bread1 this 
grain has always produced white bread1  

and dark or brown bread1 from which the 
conclusion was drawn that it must       
necessarily make white bread and brown  
bread2 on the other hand1 the flours1   
mixed with bran1 made a brownish1       
doughy1 and badly risen bread1 and it   
was therefore concluded that the bran1  
by its color1 produced this inferior    
bread4 ,from this error1 accepted as a  
truth1 the most contradictory opinions  
of the most opposite processes have     
arisen1 which are repeated at the       
present day in the art of separating as 
completely as possible all the tissues  
of the wheat1 and of extracting from the
 grain only #gj per cent of flour fit   
for making white bread4 ,it is1 however1
 difficult for the observer to admit    
that a small quantity of the thin yellow
 envelope can1 by a simple mingling with
 the crumb of the loaf1 color it brown1 
and it is still more difficult to admit 
that the actual presence of these       
envelopes can without decomposition     
render bread doughy1 badly raised1      

sticky1 and incapable of swelling in    
water4 ,on the other hand1 although some
 distinguished chemists deny or exalt   
the nutritive properties of bran1       
agriculturists1 taking practical        
observation as proof1 attribute to that 
portion of the grain a physiological    
action which has nothing in common with 
plastic alimentation1 and prove that    
animals weakened by a too long usage of 
dry fodder1 are restored to health by   
the use of bran1 which only seems to act
 by its presence1 since the greater     
portion of it1 as already demonstrated  
by ,mr4 ,poggiale1 is passed through    
with the excrement4  ,with these        
opinions1 apparently so opposed1 it     
evidently results that there is an      
unknown factor at the bottom of the     
question2 it is the nature of this      
factor ,i wish to find out1 and it was  
after the discovery that ,i was able to 
explain the nature of brown bread1 and  
its role in the alimentation of animals4
 ,we have then to examine the causes of 

the production of brown bread1 to state 
why white bread kills animals fed       
exclusively on it1 while bread mixed    
with bran makes them live4 ,we have to  
explain the phenomena of panification1  
the operations of grinding1 and to      
explain the means of preparing a bread  
more economical and more favorable to   
health4 ,to explain this question       
clearly and briefly we must first be    
acquainted with the various substances  
forming the berry1 their nature1 their  
position1 and their properties4 ,this we
 shall do with the aid of the           
illustration given4  ,illustration3     
,,section ,,of ,a ,,grain ,,of ,,wheat  
,,magnified4  ,,explanation ,,of        
,,diagram4  #a4--,superficial ,coating  
of the ,epidermis1 severed at the       
,crease of     the ,kernel4             
#b4--,section of ,epidermis1 ,averages  
of the ,weight of the ,whole ,grain1  4 
#c4--;,epicarp1                 do4     
do4           do4      #a   4           
#d4--;,endocarp1                do4     

do4           do4      #a  4 #e4--,testa
 or ,episperm1       do4            do4 
do4      #b   4 #f4--;,embryo ,membrane 
7with imaginary spaces in white on both 
sides     to make it distinct74 #g4     
_/  ,glutonous ,cells      #h4          
,endosperm     containing               
do4           do4     #ij   4 #i4_/     
,farinaccous ,matter  _/   ,,anatomical 
,,structure ,,and ,,chemical            
,,composition ,,of ,,wheat4  ,the figure
 represents the longitudinal cut of a   
grain of wheat2 it was made by taking1  
with the aid of the microscope and of   
photography1 the drawing of a large     
quantity of fragments1 which1 joined    
together at last1 produced the figure of
 the entire cut4 ,these multiplied      
results were necessary to appreciate the
 insertion of the teguments and their   
nature in every part of the berry2 in   
this long and difficult work ,i have    
been aided by the co-operation of ,mr4  
,bertsch1 who1 as is known1 has         
discovered a means of fixing rapidly by 

photography any image from the          
microscope4 ,i must state1 in the first 
place1 that even in #ahcg ,mr4 ,payen   
studied and published the structure and 
the composition of a fragment of a grain
 of wheat2 that this learned chemist1   
whose authority in such matters is      
known1 perfectly described the envelopes
 or coverings1 and indicated the        
presence of various immediate principles
 7especially of azote1 fatty and mineral
 substances which fill up the range of  
contiguous cells between them and the   
periphery of the perisperm1 to the      
exclusion of the gluten and the starchy 
granules71 as well as to the mode of    
insertion of the granules of starch in  
the gluten contained in the cells1 with 
narrow divisions from the perisperm1 and
 in such a manner that up to the point  
of working indicated by the figure #a   
this study was complete4 ,however1 ,i   
have been obliged to recommence it1 to  
study the special facts bearing on the  
alimentary question1 and ,i must say    

that all the results obtained by ,mr4   
,bertsch1 ,mr4 ,trcul1 and myself agree 
with those given by ,mr4 ,payen4        
,,envelopes ,,of ,,the ,,berry4  ,no4 #a
 represents a superficial side of the   
crease4  ,no4 #b indicates the epidermis
 or cuticle4 ,this covering is extremely
 light1 and offers nothing remarkable2  
#ajj lb4 of wheat contain  lb4 of it4   
,no4 #c indicates the epicarp4 ,this    
envelope is distinguished by a double   
row of long and pointed vessels2 it is1 
like the first one1 very light and      
without action2 #ajj lb4 of wheat       
contain #a lb4 of it4  ,no4 #d          
represents the endocarp1 or last        
tegument of the berry2 the sarcocarp1   
which should be found between the       
numbers #b and #c1 no longer exists1    
having been absorbed4 ,the endocarp is  
remarkable by its row of round and      
regular cells1 which appear in the cut  
like a continuous string of beads2 #ajj 
lb4 of wheat contain #a lb4 of it4      
,these three envelopes are colorless1   

light1 and spongy2 their elementary     
composition is that of straw2 they are  
easily removed besides with the aid of  
damp and friction4 ,this property has   
given rise to an operation called       
decortication1 the results of which we  
shall examine later on from an          
industrial point of view4 ,the whole of 
the envelopes of the berry of wheat     
amount to #c lb4 in #ajj lb4 of wheat4  
,,envelopes ,,and ,,tissues ,,of ,,the  
,,berry ,,proper4  ,no4 #e indicates the
 testa or episperm4 ,this external      
tegument of the berry is closer than the
 preceding ones2 it contains in the very
 small cells two coloring matters1 the  
one of a palish yellow1 the other of an 
orange yellow1 and according as the one 
or the other matter predominates1 the   
wheat is of a more or less intense      
yellow color2 hence come all the        
varieties of wheat known in commerce as 
white1 reddish1 or red wheats4 ,under   
this tegument is found a very thin1     
colorless membrane1 which1 with the     

testa or episperm1 forms two per cent4  
of the weight of the wheat4  ,no4 #f    
indicates the embryous membrane1 which  
is only an expansion of the germ or     
embryo ,no4 #aj4 ,this membrane is seen 
purposely removed from its contiguous   
parts1 so as to render more visible its 
form and insertions4 ,under this tissue 
is found with the ,nos4 #g1 #h1 and #i1 
the endosperm or perisperm1 containing  
the gluten and the starch2 soluble and  
insoluble albuminoids1 that is to say1  
the flour4  ,the endosperm and the      
embryous membrane are the most          
interesting parts of the berry2 the     
first is one of the depots of the       
plastic aliments1 the second contains   
agents capable of dissolving these      
aliments during the germination1 of     
determining their absorption in the     
digestive organs of animals1 and of     
producing in the dough a decomposition  
strong enough to make dark bread4 ,we   
shall proceed to examine separately     
these two parts of the berry4           

,,endosperm ,,or ,,floury ,,portion1    
,,nos4 #g1 #h1 #i4  ,this portion is    
composed of large glutinous cells1 in   
which the granules of starch are found4 
,the composition of these different     
layers offers a particular interest2 the
 center1 ,no4 #i1 is the softest part2  
it contains the least gluten and the    
most starch2 it is the part which first 
pulverizes under the stone1 and gives1  
after the first bolting1 the fine flour4
 ,as this flour is poorest in gluten1 it
 makes a dough with little consistency1 
and incapable of making an open bread1  
well raised4 ,the first layer1 ,no4 #h1 
which surrounds the center1 produces    
small white middlings1 harder and richer
 in gluten than the center2 it bakes    
very well1 and weighs #bj lb4 in #ajj1  
and it is these #bj parts in #ajj which1
 when mixed with the #ej parts in the   
center1 form the finest quality flour1  
used for making white bread4  ,the layer
 ,no4 #g1 which surrounds the preceding 
one1 is still harder and richer in      

gluten2 unfortunately in the reduction  
it becomes mixed with some hundredth    
parts of the bran1 which render it      
unsuitable for making bread of the      
finest quality2 it produces in the      
regrinding lower grade and dark flours1 
together weighing #g per cent4 ,the     
external layer1 naturally adhering to   
the membrane1 ,no4 #f1 becomes mixed in 
the grinding with bran1 to the extent of
 about #bj per cent41 which renders it  
unsuitable even for making brown bread2 
it serves to form the regrindings and   
the offals destined for the nourishment 
of animals2 this layer is1 however1 the 
hardest1 and contains the largest       
quantity of gluten1 and it is by        
consequence the most nutritive4 ,we now 
see the endosperm increasing from the   
center1 formed of floury layers1 which  
augment in richness in gluten1 in       
proportion as they are removed from the 
center4 ,now1 as the flours make more   
bread in proportion to the quantity of  
gluten they contain1 and the gluten     

gives more bread in proportion to its   
being more developed1 or having more    
consistence1 it follows that the flour  
belonging to the parts of the berry     
nearest the envelopes or coverings      
should produce the greatest portion of  
bread1 and this is what takes place in  
effect4 ,the product of the different   
layers of the endosperm is given below1 
and it will be seen that the quantity of
 bread increases in a proportion        
relatively greater than that of the     
gluten1 which proves once more that the 
gluten of the center or last formation  
has less consistence than that of the   
other layers of older formation4  ,the  
following are the results obtained from 
the same wheat3                         
,gluten4           ,bread4 #ajj parts of
 flour in center contain44 #h   and     
produce #abh                     first  
layer  44 #i1b            #acf          
second      44 #aa             #adj     
external    44 #ac             #ade  ,on
 the whole1 it is seen1 according to the

 composition of the floury part of the  
grain1 that the berry contains on an    
average #ij parts in #ajj of flour fit  
for making bread of the first quality1  
and that the inevitable mixing in of a  
small quantity of bran reduces these #ij
 to #gj parts with the ordinary         
processes2 but the loss is not alone    
there1 for the foregoing table shows    
that the best portion of the grain is   
rejected from the food of man that brown
 or dark bread is made of flour of very 
good quality1 and that the first quality
 bread is made from the portion of the  
endosperm containing the gluten in the  
smallest quantity and in the least      
developed form4  ,this is a             
consideration not to be passed over     
lightly2 assuredly the gluten of the    
center contains as much azote as the    
gluten of the circumference1 but it must
 not be admitted in a general way that  
the alimentary power of a body is in    
connection with the amount of azote it  
contains1 and without entering into     

considerations which would carry us too 
wide of the subject1 we shall simply    
state that if the flesh of young        
animals1 as1 for instance1 the calf1 has
 a debilitating action1 while the       
developed flesh of full-grown           
animals--of a heifer1 for example--has  
really nourishing properties1 although  
the flesh of each animal contains the   
same quantity of azote1 we must conclude
 that the proportion of elements is not 
everything1 and that the azotic or      
nitrogenous elements are more nourishing
 in proportion as they are more         
developed4 ,this is why the gluten of   
the layers nearest the bran is of quite 
a special interest from the point of    
view of alimentation and in the         
preparation of bread4   ,,the ,,embryo  
,,and ,,the ,,coating ,,of ,,the        
,,embryo4  ,to be intelligible1 ,i must 
commence by some very brief remarks on  
the tissues of vegetables4 ,there are   
two sorts distinguished among plants2   
some seem of no importance in the       

phenomena of nutrition2 others1 on the  
contrary1 tend to the assimilation of   
the organic or inorganic components     
which should nourish and develop all the
 parts of the plant4 ,the latter have a 
striking analogy with ferments2 their   
composition is almost similar1 and their
 action is increased or diminished by   
the same causes4  ,these tissues1 formed
 in a state of repose in vegetables as  
in grain1 have special properties2 thus 
the berry possesses a pericarp whose    
tissues should remain foreign to the    
phenomena of germination1 and these     
tissues show no particularity worthy of 
remark1 but the coating of the embryo1  
which should play an active part1       
possesses1 on the contrary1 properties  
that may be compared to those of        
ferments4 ,with regard to these         
ferments1 ,i must further remark that ,i
 have not been able1 nor am ,i yet able1
 to express in formula my opinion of the
 nature of these bodies1 but little     
known as yet2 ,i have only made use of  

the language mostly employed1 without   
wishing to touch on questions raised by 
the effects of the presence1 and by the 
more complex effects of living bodies1  
which exercise analogous actions4  ,with
 these reservations ,i shall proceed to 
examine the tissues in the berry which  
help toward the germination4  ,,the     
,,embryo 7#aj1 see woodcut7 is composed 
of the root of the plant1 with which we 
have nothing to do here4 ,this root of  
the plant which is to grow is embedded  
in a mass of cells full of fatty bodies4
 ,these bodies present this remarkable  
particularity1 that they contain among  
their elements sulphur and phosphorus4  
,when you dehydrate by alcohol #ajj     
grammes of the embryo of wheat1 obtained
 by the same means as the membrane 7a   
process indicated later on71 this       
embryo1 treated with ether1 produces #bj
 grammes of oils composed elementarily  
of hydrogen1 oxygen1 carbon1 azote1     
sulphur1 and phosphorus4 ,this analysis1
 made according to the means indicated  

by ,m4 ,fremy1 shows that the fatty     
bodies of the embryo are composed like  
those of the germ of an egg1 like those 
of the brain and of the nervous system  
of animals4 ,it is necessary for us to  
stop an instant at this fact3 in the    
first place1 because it proves that     
vegetables are designed to form the     
phosphoric as well as the nitrogenous   
and ternary aliments1 and finally1      
because it indicates how important it is
 to mix the embryo and its dependents   
with the bread in the most complete     
manner possible1 seeing that a large    
portion of these phosphoric bodies      
always become decomposed during the     
baking4  ,,coating ,,of ,,the           
,,embryo4--,this membrane 7#f71 which is
 only an expansion of the embryo1       
surrounds the endosperm2 it is composed 
of beautiful irregular cubic cells1     
diminishing according as they come      
nearer to the embryo4 ,these cells are  
composed1 first1 of the insoluble       
cellular tissue2 second1 of phosphate of

 chalk and fatty phosphoric bodies2     
third1 of soluble cerealine4 ,in order  
to study the composition and the nature 
of this tissue1 it must be completely   
isolated1 and this result is obtained in
 the following manner4  ,the wheat      
should be damped with water containing  
#aj parts in #ajj of alcoholized caustic
 soda2 at the expiration of one hour the
 envelopes of the pericarp1 and of the  
testa ,nos4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 should be   
separated by friction in a coarse cloth1
 having been reduced by the action of   
the alkali to a pulpy state2 each berry 
should then be opened separately to     
remove the portion of the envelope held 
in the fold of the crease1 and then all 
the berries divided in two are put into 
three parts of water charged with       
one-hundredth of caustic potash4 ,this  
liquid dissolves the gluten1 divides the
 starch1 and at the expiration of       
twenty-four hours the parts of the      
berries are kneaded between the fingers1
 collected in pure water1 and washed    

until the water issues clear2 these     
membranes with their embryos1 which are 
often detached by this operation1 are   
cast into water acidulated with         
one-hundredth of hydrochloric acid1 and 
at the end of several hours they should 
be completely washed4 ,the product      
obtained consists of beautiful white    
membranes1 insoluble in alkalies and    
diluted acids1 which show under the     
microscope beautiful cells joined in a  
tissue following the embryo1 with which 
it has indeed a striking analogy in its 
properties and composition4 ,this       
membrane1 exhausted by the alcohol and  
ether1 gives1 by an elementary analysis1
 hydrogen1 oxygen1 carbon1 and azote4   
,unfortunately1 under the action of the 
tests this membrane has been killed1 and
 it no longer possesses the special     
properties of active tissues4 ,among    
these properties three may be especially
 mentioned3  #ast4 ,its resistance to   
water charged with a mineral salt1 such 
as sea salt for instance  #b;d4 ,its    

action through its presence4  #c;d4 ,its
 action as a ferment4  ,the action of   
saltwater is explained as follows3 ,when
 the berry is plunged into pure water it
 will be observed that the water        
penetrates in the course of a few hours 
to the very center of the endosperm1 but
 if water charged or saturated with sea 
salt be used1 it will be seen that the  
liquid immediately passes through the   
teguments ,nos4 #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e1 and 
stops abruptly before the embryo        
membrane ,no4 #f1 which will remain     
quite dry and brittle for several days1 
the berry remaining all the time in the 
water4 ,should the water penetrate      
further after several days1 it can be   
ascertained that the entrance was gained
 through the part ,no #aj free of this  
tissue1 and this notwithstanding the    
cells are full of fatty bodies4 ,this   
membrane alone produces this action1 for
 if the coatings ,nos4 #b1 #c1 #d1 and  
#e be removed1 the resistance to the    
liquid remains the same1 while if the   

whole1 or a portion of it1 be divided1  
either by friction between two          
millstones or by simple incisions1 the  
liquid penetrates the berry within a few
 hours4 ,this property is analogous to  
that of the radicules of roots1 which   
take up the bodies most suitable for the
 nourishment of the plant4 ,it proves1  
besides1 that this membrane1 like all   
those endowed with life1 does not obey  
more the ordinary laws of permeability  
than those of chemical affinity1 and    
this property can be turned to advantage
 in the preservation of grain in        
decortication and grinding4  ,to        
determine the action of this tissue     
through its presence1 take #ajj grammes 
of wheat1 wash it and remove the first  
coating by decortication2 then immerse  
it for several hours in lukewarm water1 
and dry afterwards in an ordinary       
temperature4 ,it should then be reduced 
in a small coffee mill1 the flour and   
middlings separated by sifting and the  
bran repassed through a machine that    

will crush it without breaking it2 then 
dress it again1 and repeat the operation
 six times at least4 ,the bran now      
obtained is composed of the embryous    
membrane1 a little flour adhering to it1
 and some traces of the teguments ,nos4 
#b1 #c1 #d1 and #e4 ,this coarse        
tissue-weighs about #ad grammes1 and to 
determine its action through its        
presence1 place it in #bjj grammes of   
water at a temperature of #hf2          
afterwards press it4 ,the liquid that   
escapes contains chiefly the flour and  
cerealine4 ,filter this liquid1 and put 
it in a test glass marked ,no4 #a1 which
 will serve to determine the action of  
the cerealine4  ,the bran should now be 
washed until the water issues pure1 and 
until it shows no bluish color when     
iodized water and sulphuric acid are    
added2 when the washing is finished the 
bran swollen by the water is placed     
under a press1 and the liquid extracted 
is placed1 after being filtered1 in a   
test tube4 ,this test tube serves to    

show that all cerealine has been removed
 from the blades of the tissue4         
,finally1 these small blades of bran1   
washed and pressed1 are cast1 with #ej  
grammes of lukewarm water1 into a test  
tube1 marked ,no4 #c2 #ajj grammes of   
diluted starch to one-tenth of dry      
starch are then added in each test tube1
 and they are put into a water bath at a
 temperature of #ajd ,fahrenheit1 being 
stirred lightly every fifteen minutes4  
,at the expiration of an hour1 or at the
 most an hour and a half1 ,no4 #a glass 
no longer contains any starch1 as it has
 been converted into dextrine and       
glucose by the cerealine1 and the       
iodized water only produces a purple    
color4 ,no4 #b glass1 with the same     
addition1 produces a bluish color1 and  
preserves the starch intact1 which      
proves that the bran was well freed from
 the cerealine contained4 ,no4 #c glass1
 like ,no4 #a1 shows a purple coloring1 
and the liquid only contains1 in place  
of the starch1 dextrine and glucose1 i4 

e1 the tissue has had the same action as
 the cerealine deprived of the tissue1  
and the cerealine as the tissue freed   
from cerealine4 ,the same membrane      
rewashed can again transform the diluted
 starch several times4 ,this action is  
due to the presence of the embryous     
membrane1 for after four consecutive    
operations it still preserves its       
original weight4 ,as regards the remains
 of the other segments1 they have no    
influence on this phenomenon1 for the   
coating ,nos4 #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e1       
separated by the water and friction1    
have no action whatever on the diluted  
starch4 ,besides its action through its 
presence1 which is immediate1 the       
embryous membrane may also act as a     
ferment1 active only after a            
development1 varying in duration        
according to the conditions of          
temperature and the presence or absence 
of ferments in acting4  ,i make a       
distinction here as is seen1 between the
 action through being present1 and the  

action of real ferments1 but it is not  
my intention to approve or disapprove of
 the different opinions expressed on    
this subject4 ,i make use of these      
expressions only to explain more clearly
 the phenomena ,i have to speak of1 for 
it is our duty to bear in mind that the 
real ferments only act after a longer or
 shorter period of development1 while1  
on the other hand1 the effects through  
presence are immediate4  ,i now return  
to the embryous membrane4 ,various      
causes increase or decrease the action  
of this tissue1 but it may be said in   
general that all the agents that kill   
the embryous membrane will also kill the
 cerealine4 ,this was the reason why ,i 
at first attributed the production of   
dark bread exclusively to the latter    
ferment1 but it was easy to observe that
 during the baking1 decompositions      
resulted at over #aeh ,fah41 while the  
cerealine was still coagulated1 and that
 bread containing bran1 submitted to    
#bab of heat1 became liquefied in water 

at #ajd4 ,it was now easy to determine  
that dark flours1 from which the        
cerealine had been removed by repeated  
washings1 still produced dark bread4 ,it
 was at this time1 in remembering my    
experiences with organic bodies1 ,i     
determined the properties of the        
insoluble tissue1 deprived of the       
soluble cerealine1 with analogous       
properties1 but distinguished not alone 
by its solid organization and state of  
insolubility1 but also by its resistance
 to heat1 which acts as on yeast4 ,there
 exists1 in reality1 ,i repeat1 a       
resemblance between the embryous        
membrane and the yeast2 they have the   
same immediate composition2 they are    
destroyed by the same poisons1 deadened 
by the same temperatures1 annihilated by
 the same agents1 propagated in an      
analogous manner1 and it might be said  
that the organic tissues endowed with   
life are only an agglomeration of fixed 
cells of ferments4 ,at all events1 when 
the blades of the embryous membrane1    

prepared as already stated1 are exposed 
to a water bath at #bab1 this tissue1 in
 contact with the diluted starch1       
produces the same decomposition2 the    
contact1 however1 should continue two or
 three hours in place of one4 ,if1      
instead of placing these membranes in   
the water bath1 they are enveloped in   
two pounds of dough1 and this dough put 
in the oven1 after the baking the washed
 membranes produce the same results1    
which especially proves that this       
membrane can support a temperature of   
#bab ,fah4 without disorganization4 ,we 
shall refer to this property in speaking
 of the phenomena of panification4      
,,cerealine4--,the cells composing the  
embryous membrane contain1 as already   
stated1 the cerealine1 but after the    
germination they contain cerealine and  
diastase1 that is to say1 a portion of  
the cerealine changed into diastase1    
with which it has the greatest analogy4 
,it is known how difficult it is to     
isolate and study albuminous substances4

 ,the following is the method of        
obtaining and studying cerealine4 ,take 
the raw embryous membrane1 prepared as  
stated1 steep it for an hour in spirits 
of wine diluted with twice its volume of
 water1 and renew this liquid several   
times until the dextrine1 glucose1      
coloring matters1 etc41 have been       
completely removed4 ,the membranes      
should now be pressed and cast into a   
quantity of water sufficient to make a  
fluid paste of them1 squeeze out the    
mixture1 filter the liquid obtained1 and
 this liquid will contain the cerealine 
sufficiently pure to be studied in its  
effects4 ,its principal properties are3 
,the liquid evaporated at a low         
temperature produces an amorphous1 rough
 mass nearly colorless1 and almost      
entirely soluble in distilled water2    
this solution coagulates between #aeh   
and #afg ,fah41 and the coagulum is     
insoluble in acids and weak alkalies2   
the solution is precipitated by all     
diluted acids1 by phosphoric acid at all

 the degrees of hydration1 and even by a
 current of carbonic acid4 ,all these   
precipitates redissolve with an excess  
of acid1 sulphuric acid excepted4       
,concentrated sulphuric acid forms an   
insoluble downy white precipitate1 and  
the concentrated vegetable acids1 with  
the exception of tannic acid1 do not    
determine any precipitate4 ,cerealine   
coagulated by an acid redissolves in an 
excess of the same acid1 but it has     
become dead and has no more action on   
the starch4 ,the alkalies do not form   
any precipitate1 but they kill the      
cerealine as if it had been precipitated
 ,the neutral rennet does not make any  
precipitate in a solution of            
cerealine--#e centigrammes of dry       
cerealine transform in twenty-five      
minutes #aj grammes of starch1 reduced  
to a paste by #ajj grammes of water at  
#aac ,fah4 ,it will be seen that        
cerealine has a grand analogy with      
albumen and legumine1 but it is         
distinguished from them by the action of

 the rennet1 of the heat of acids1      
alcohol1 and above all by its property  
of transforming the starch into glucose 
and dextrine4  ,it may be said that some
 albuminous substances have this        
property1 but it must be borne in mind  
that these bodies1 like gluten1 for     
example1 only possess it after the      
commencement of the decomposition4 ,the 
albuminous matter approaching nearest to
 cerealine is the diastase1 for it is   
only a transformation of the cerealine  
during the germination1 the proof of    
which may be had in analyzing the       
embryous membrane1 which shows more     
diastase and less cerealine in          
proportion to the advancement of the    
germination3 it differs1 however1 from  
the diastase by the action of heat1     
alcohol1 etc4 ,it is seen that in every 
case the cerealine and the embryous     
membrane act together1 and in an        
analogous manner2 we shall shortly      
examine their effects on the digestion  
and in the phenomena of panification4   

,,phosphate ,,of ,,calcium4--,mr4 ,payen
 was the first to make the observation  
that the greatest amount of phosphate of
 chalk is found in the teguments        
adjoining the farinaceous or floury     
mass4 ,this observation is important    
from two points of view2 in the first   
place1 it shows us that this mineral    
aliment1 necessary to the life of       
animals1 is rejected from ordinary      
bread2 and in the next place1 it brings 
a new proof that phosphate of chalk is  
found1 and ought to be found1 in        
everyplace where there are membranes    
susceptible of exercising vital         
functions among animals as well as      
vegetables4  ,phosphate of chalk is not 
in reality 7as ,i wished to prove in    
another work7 a plastic matter suitable 
for forming bones1 for the bones of     
infants are three times more solid than 
those of old men1 which contain three   
times as much of it4 ,the quantity of   
phosphate of chalk necessary to the     
constitution of animals is in proportion

 to the temperature of those animals1   
and often in the inverse ratio of the   
weight of their bones1 for vegetables1  
although they have no bones1 require    
phosphate of chalk4 ,this is because    
this salt is the natural stimulant of   
living membranes1 and the bony tissue is
 only a depot of phosphate of chalk1    
analogous to the adipose tissue1 the fat
 of which is absorbed when the          
alimentation coming from the exterior   
becomes insufficient4 ,now1 as we know  
all the parts constituting the berry of 
wheat1 it will be easy to explain the   
phenomena of panification1 and to       
conclude from the present moment that it
 is not indifferent to reject from the  
bread this embryous membrane where the  
agents of digestion are found1 viz41 the
 phosphoric bodies and the phosphate of 
chalk4         99       99       99     
99       99     ,,the ,,origin ,,of     
,,new ,,process ,,milling4   ,the       
following article was written by ,albert
 ,hoppin1 editor of the ,northwestern   

,miller1 at the request of ,special     
,agent ,chas4 ,w4 ,johnson1 and forms a 
part of his report to the census bureau 
on the manufacturing industries of      
,minneapolis4  ,the development of the  
milling industry in this city has been  
so intimately connected with the growth 
and prosperity of the city itself1 that 
the steps by which the art of milling   
has reached its present high state of   
perfection are worthy of note1          
especially as ,minneapolis may rightly  
claim the honor of having brought the   
improvements1 which have within the last
 decade so thoroughly revolutionized the
 art of making flour1 first into public 
notice1 and of having contributed the   
largest share of capital and inventive  
skill to their full development4 ,so    
much is this the case that the cluster  
of mills around the ,falls of ,st4      
,anthony is to-day looked upon as the   
head-center of the milling industry not 
only of this country1 but of the world4 
,an exception to this broad statement   

may possibly be made in favor of the    
city of ,buda ,pest1 in                 
,austro-,hungary1 from the leading mills
 in which the millers in this country   
have obtained many valuable ideas4 ,to  
the credit of ,american millers and     
millwrights it must1 however1 be said   
that they have in all cases improved    
upon the information they have thus     
obtained4  ,to rightly understand the   
change that has taken place in milling  
methods during the last ten years1 it is
 necessary to compare the old way with  
the new1 and to observe wherein they    
differ4 ,from the days of ,oliver       
,evans1 the first ,american mechanic to 
make any improvement in milling         
machinery1 until #ahgj1 there was1 if we
 may except some grain cleaning or smut 
machines1 no very strongly marked       
advance in milling machinery or in the  
methods of manufacturing flour4 ,it is  
true that the reel covered with         
finely-woven silk bolting cloth had     
taken the place of the muslin or woolen 

covered hand sieve1 and that the old    
granite millstones have given place to  
the ,french burr2 but these did not     
affect the essential parts of the modus 
operandi1 although the quality of the   
product was1 no doubt1 materially       
improved4 ,the processes employed in all
 the mills in the ,united ,states ten   
years ago were identical1 or very nearly
 so1 with those in use in the           
,brandywine ,mills in ,evans's day4     
,they were very simple1 and may be      
divided into two distinct operations4   
,first4 ,grinding 7literally7 the wheat4
  ,second4 ,bolting or separating the   
flour or interior portion of the berry  
from the outer husk1 or bran4 ,it may   
seem to some a rash assertion1 but this 
primitive way of making flour is still  
in vogue in over one-half of the mills  
of the ,united ,states4 ,this does not1 
however1 affect the truth of the        
statement that the greater part of the  
flour now made in this country is made  
on an entirely different and            

vastly-improved system1 which has come  
to be known to the trade as the new     
process4  ,in looking for a reason for  
the sudden activity and spirit of       
progress which had its culmination in   
the new process1 the character of the   
wheat raised in the different sections  
of the ,union must be taken into        
consideration4 ,wheat may be divided    
into two classes1 spring and winter1 the
 latter generally being more starchy and
 easily pulverized1 and at the same time
 having a very tough bran or husk1 which
 does not readily crumble or cut to     
pieces in the process of grinding4 ,it  
was with this wheat that the mills of   
the country had chiefly to do1 and the  
defects of the old system of milling    
were not then so apparent4 ,with the    
settlement of ,minnesota1 and the       
development of its capacities as a      
wheat-growing ,state1 a new factor in   
the milling problem was introduced1     
which for a time bid fair to ruin every 
miller who undertook to solve it4 ,the  

wheat raised in this ,state was1 from   
the climatic conditions1 a spring wheat1
 hard in structure and having a thin1   
tender1 and friable bran4 ,in milling   
this wheat1 if an attempt was made to   
grind it as fine as was then customary  
to grind winter wheat1 the bran was     
ground almost as fine as the flour1 and 
passed as readily through the meshes of 
the bolting reels or sieves1 rendering  
the flour dark1 specky1 and altogether  
unfit to enter the ,eastern markets in  
competition with flour from the winter  
wheat sections4 ,on the other hand1 if  
the grinding was not so fine as to break
 up the bran1 the interior of the berry 
being harder to pulverize1 was not      
rendered sufficiently fine1 and there   
remained after the flour was bolted out 
a large percentage of shorts or         
middlings1 which1 while containing the  
strongest and best flour in the berry1  
were so full of dirt and impurities as  
to render them unfit for any further    
grinding except for the very lowest     

grade of flour1 technically known as    
'red dog4' ,the flour produced from the 
first grinding was also more or less    
specky and discolored1 and1 in          
everything but strength1 inferior to    
that made from winter wheat1 while the  
'yield' was so small1 or1 in other      
words1 the amount of wheat which it took
 to make a barrel of flour was so large1
 that milling in ,minnesota and other   
spring wheat sections was anything but  
profitable4  ,the problem which ten     
years since confronted the millers of   
this city was how to obtain from the    
wheat which they had to grind a white1  
clear flour1 and to so increase the     
yield as to leave some margin for       
profit4 ,the first step in the solution 
of this problem was the invention by ,e4
 ,n4 ,la ,croix of the machine which has
 since been called the purifier1 which  
removed the dirt and light impurities   
from the refuse middlings in the same   
manner that dust and chaff are removed  
from wheat by a fanning mill4 ,the      

middlings thus purified were then       
reground1 and the result was a much     
whiter and cleaner flour than it had    
been possible to obtain under the old   
process of low close grinding4 ,this    
flour was called 'patent' or 'fancy1'   
and at once took a high position in the 
market4 ,the first machine built by ,la 
,croix was immediately improved by      
,george ,t4 ,smith1 and has since then  
been the subject of numberless          
variations1 changes1 and improvements2  
and over the principles embodied in its 
construction there has been fought one  
of the longest and most bitter battles  
recorded in the annals of patent        
litigation in this country4 ,the        
purifier is to-day the most important   
machine in use in the manufacture of    
flour in this country1 and may with     
propriety be called the corner-stone of 
new process milling4 ,the earliest      
experiments in its use in this country  
were made in what was then known as the 
'big mill' in this city1 owned by       

,washburn1 ,stephens  ,co41 and now     
known as the ,washburn ,mill ,b4  ,the  
next step in the development of the new 
process1 also originating in            
,minneapolis1 was the abandonment of the
 old system of cracking the millstone1  
and substituting in its stead the use of
 smooth surfaces on the millstones1 thus
 in a large measure doing away with the 
abrasion of the bran1 and raising the   
quality of the flour produced at the    
first grinding4 ,so far as we know1 ,mr4
 ,e4 ,r4 ,stephens1 a ,minneapolis      
miller1 then employed in the mill owned 
by ,messrs4 ,pillsbury1 ,crocker  ,fish1
 and now a member of the prominent      
milling firm of ,freeman  ,stephens1    
,river ,falls1 ,wisconsin1 was the first
 to venture on this innovation4 ,he also
 first practiced the widening of the    
furrows in the millstones and increasing
 their number1 thus adding largely to   
the amount of middlings made at the     
first grinding1 and raising the         
percentage of patent flour4 ,he was     

warmly supported by ,amasa ,k4          
,ostrander1 since deceased1 the founder 
and for a number of years the editor of 
the ,north-,western ,miller1 a trade    
newspaper4 ,the new ideas were for a    
time vigorously combated by the millers1
 but their worth was so plain that they 
were soon adopted1 not only in          
,minneapolis1 but by progressive millers
 throughout the country4 ,the truth was 
the 'new process' in its entirety1 which
 may be summarized in four steps--first1
 grinding or1 more properly1 granulating
 the berry2 second1 bolting or          
separating the 'chop' or meal into first
 flour1 middlings1 and bran2 third1     
purifying the middlings1 fourth1        
regrinding and rebolting the middlings  
to produce the higher grade1 or 'patent'
 flour4 ,this higher grade flour drove  
the best winter wheat flours out of the 
,eastern markets1 and placed milling in 
,minnesota upon a firm basis4 ,the      
development of the 'new process' cannot 
be claimed by any one man4 ,hundreds of 

millers all over the country have       
contributed to its advance1 but the     
millers of ,minneapolis have always     
taken the lead4  ,within the past two or
 three years what may be distinctively  
called the 'new process' has1 in the    
mills of ,minneapolis and some few other
 leading mills in the country1 been     
giving place to a new system1 or rather1
 a refinement of the processes above    
described4 ,this latest system is known 
to the trade as the 'gradual reduction' 
or high-grinding system1 as the 'new    
process' is the medium high-grinding    
system1 and the old way is the low or   
close grinding system4 ,in using the    
gradual reduction in making flour the   
millstones are abandoned1 except for    
finishing some of the inferior grades of
 flour1 and the work is done by means of
 grooved and plain rollers1 made of     
chilled iron or porcelain4 ,in some     
cases disks of chilled iron1 suitably   
furrowed1 are used1 and in others       
concave mills1 consisting of a cylinder 

running against a concave plate4 ,in    
,minneapolis the chilled iron rolls take
 the precedence of all other means4     
,the system of gradual reduction is much
 more complicated than either of those  
which preceded it2 but the results      
obtained are a marked advance over the  
'new process4' ,the percentage of       
high-grade flour is increased1 several  
grades of different degrees of          
excellence being produced1 and the yield
 is also greater from a given quantity  
of wheat4 ,the system consists in       
reducing the wheat to flour1 not at one 
operation1 as in the old system1 nor in 
two grindings1 as in the 'new process1' 
but in several successive reductions1   
four1 five1 or six1 as the case may be4 
,the wheat is first passed through a    
pair of corrugated chilled iron rollers1
 which merely split it open along the   
crease of the berry1 liberating the dirt
 which lies in the crease so that it can
 be removed by bolting4 ,a very small   
percentage of low-grade flour is also   

made in this reduction4 ,after passing  
through what is technically called a    
'scalping reel' to remove the dirt and  
flour1 the broken wheat is passed       
through a second set of corrugated      
rollers1 by which it is further broken  
up1 and then passes through a second    
separating reel1 which removes the flour
 and middlings4 ,this operation is      
repeated successively until the flour   
portion of the berry is entirely removed
 from the bran1 the necessary separation
 being made after each reduction4 ,the  
middlings from the several reductions   
are passed through the purifiers1 and1  
after being purified1 are reduced to    
flour by successive reductions on smooth
 iron or porcelain rollers4 ,in some    
cases1 as stated above1 iron disks and  
concave mills are substituted for the   
roller mill1 but the operation is       
substantially the same4 ,one of the     
principal objects sought to be attained 
by this high-grinding system is to avoid
 all abrasion of the bran1 another is to

 take out the dirt in the crease of the 
berry at the beginning of the process1  
and still another to thoroughly free the
 bran from flour1 so as to obtain as    
large a yield as possible4 ,incidental  
to the improved methods of milling1 as  
now practiced in this country1 is a     
marked improvement in the cleaning of   
the grain and preparing it for flouring4
 ,the earliest grain-cleaning machine   
was the 'smutter1' the office of which  
was to break the smut balls1 and scour  
the outside of the bran to remove any   
adhering dust1 the scouring machine     
being too harsh in its action1 breaking 
the kernels of wheat1 and so scratching 
and weakening the bran that it broke up 
readily in the grinding4 ,the scouring  
process was therefore lessened1 and was 
followed by brush machines1 which       
brushed the dirt1 loosened up and left  
by the scourer1 from the berry4 ,other  
machines for removing the fuzzy and germ
 ends of the berry have also been       
introduced1 and everything possible is  

done to free the grain from extraneous  
impurities before the process of        
reduction is commenced4 ,in all the     
minor details of the mill there has been
 the same marked change1 until the      
modern merchant mill of to-day no more  
resembles that of twenty-five years ago 
than does the modern cotton mill the    
old-fashioned distaff4 ,the change has  
extended into the winter wheat sections1
 and no mill in the ,united ,states can 
hope to hold its place in the markets   
unless it is provided with the many     
improvements in machinery and processes 
which have resulted from the experiments
 begun in this city only ten years      
since1 and which have made the name of  
,minneapolis and the products of her    
many mills famous throughout the world4 
,the relative merits of the flour made  
by the new process and the old have been
 warmly discussed1 but the general      
verdict of the great body of consumers  
is that the patent or new process flour 
is better in every way for bread making 

purposes1 being clearer1 whiter1 more   
evenly granulated1 and possessing more  
strength4 ,careful chemical analysis has
 confirmed this4 ,as between winter and 
spring wheat flours made by the new     
process and gradual reduction systems1  
it maybe remarked that the former       
contain more starch and are whiter in   
color1 while the latter1 having more    
gluten1 excel in strength4 ,in milling  
all varieties of wheat1 whether winter  
or spring1 the new processes are in     
every way superior to the old1 and1 in  
aiding their inception and development1 
the millers of ,minneapolis have        
conferred a lasting benefit on the      
country4  ,minneapolis1 ,minn41         
,december #a1 #ahhj4   ,,the ,,milling  
,,structures ,,and ,,machinery4   ,mr4  
,johnson added the following1 showing   
the present status of the milling       
industry in ,minneapolis3  ,the         
description of the process of the       
manufacture of flour so well given      
above1 conveys no idea of the extent and

 magnitude of the milling structures1   
machinery1 and buildings employed in the
 business4 ,many of the leading millers 
and millwrights have personally visited 
and studied the best mills in ,england1 
,france1 ,hungary1 and ,germany1 and are
 as familiar with their theory1 methods1
 and construction as of their own1 and  
no expense or labor has been spared in  
introducing the most approved features  
of the improvements in the foreign      
mills4 ,experimenting is constantly     
going on1 and the path behind the       
successful millers is strewn with the   
wrecks of failures4 ,a very large       
proportion of the machinery is imported1
 though the ,american machinists are    
fast outstripping their ,european rivals
 in the quality and efficiency of the   
machinery needed for the new mills      
constantly going up4  ,there are        
twenty-eight of these mills now         
constructed and at work1 operating an   
equivalent of #dab runs of stone1       
consuming over sixteen million bushels  

of wheat1 and manufacturing over three  
million barrels of flour annually4      
,their capacities range from #bej to    
#a1ejj barrels of flour per day4 ,great 
as these capacities are1 there is now   
one in process of construction1 the     
,pillsbury ,a ,mill1 which at the       
beginning of the harvest of #ahha will  
have a capacity of #d1jjj barrels daily4
 ,the ,washburn ,a ,mill1 whose capacity
 is now #a1ejj barrels1 is being        
enlarged to make #h1ejj barrels a day1  
and the ,crown ,roller ,mill1 owned by  
,christian ,bros4  ,co41 is also being  
enlarged to produce #c1jjj barrels a    
day4 ,the largest mill in ,europe has a 
daily capacity of but #b1hjj barrels1   
and no ,european mill is fitted with the
 exquisite perfection of machinery and  
apparatus to be found in the mills of   
this city4  ,the buildings are mainly   
built of blue limestone1 found so       
abundant in the quarries of this city1  
range and line work1 and rest on the    
solid ledge4 ,the earlier built mills   

are severely plain1 but the newer ones  
are greatly improved by the taste of the
 architect1 and are imposing and        
beautiful in appearance4   ,,direct     
,,foreign ,,trade4  ,the flour of       
,minneapolis1 holding so high a rank in 
the markets of the world1 is always in  
active demand1 especially the best      
grades1 and brings from #a4jj to #a4fj  
per barrel more than flour of the best  
qualities of southern1 eastern1 or      
foreign wheat4 ,during the year nearly a
 million barrels were shipped direct to 
,european and other foreign ports1 on   
through bills of lading1 and drawn for  
by banks here having special foreign    
exchange arrangements1 at sight1 on the 
day of shipment4 ,this trade is         
constantly increasing1 and the amount of
 flour handled by eastern commission men
 is decreasing in proportion4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,referring to the foregoing1 the        
following letter from ,mr4 ,geo4 ,t4    
,smith to the editor of the ,london     

,miller is of interest3  ,,sir3 ,i find 
published in the ,north-western ,miller 
of ,december #bd1 #ahhj1 extracts from  
an article on the origin of new process 
milling1 prepared by ,albert ,hoppin1   
,esq41 editor of the above-named        
journal1 for the use of one of the      
statistical divisions of the ,united    
,states census1 which is so at variance1
 in at least one important particular1  
with the facts set forth in the paper   
read by me before the ,british and      
,irish millers1 at their meeting in ,may
 last1 that ,i think ,i ought to take   
notice of its statements1 more          
especially as the ,north-,western       
,miller has quite a circulation on this 
side of the water4  ,as stated in the   
paper read by me above-mentioned1 ,i was
 engaged in ,february1 #ahga1 by ,mr4   
,christian1 who was then operating the  
big1 or ,washburn ,mill at ,minneapolis1
 to take charge of the stones in that   
mill4 ,at this time ,mr4 ,christian was 
very much interested in the improvement 

of the quality of his flour1 which in   
common with the flour of ,minneapolis   
mills1 without exception1 was very poor 
indeed4 ,for some time previous to this 
,i had insisted to him most strenuously 
that the beginning of any improvement   
must be found in smooth1 true1 and well 
balanced stones1 and it was because he  
was at last convinced that my ideas were
 at least worthy of a practical test ,i 
was placed in charge of his mill4       
,nearly two months were consumed in     
truing and smoothing the stone1 as all  
millers in the mill had struck at once  
when they became acquainted with the    
character of the changes ,i proposed to 
make4  ,i remained with ,mr4 ,christian 
until the latter part of #ahga1 in all  
about eight months4 ,during this time   
the flour from the ,washburn ,mill      
attained a celebrity that made it known 
and sought after all over the ,united   
,states4 ,it commanded attention as an  
event of the very greatest importance1  
from the fact that it was justly felt   

that if a mill grinding spring wheat    
exclusively was capable of producing a  
flour infinitely superior in every way  
to the best that could be made from the 
finest varieties of winter wheats1 the  
new ,north ,western territory1 with its 
peculiar adaptation to the growing of   
spring grain1 and its boundless capacity
 for production1 must at once become one
 of the most important sections of the  
country4  ,mr4 ,christian's appreciation
 of the improvements ,i had made in his 
mill was attested by doubly-locked and  
guarded entrances1 and by the stringent 
regulations which were adopted to       
prevent any of his employes carrying    
information with regard to the process  
to his competitors4  ,all this time     
other ,minneapolis mills were doing such
 work and only such as they had done    
previously4 ,ought not the writer of an 
article on the origin of new process    
milling--which article is intended to   
become historical1 and to have its      
authenticity indorsed by the            

government--to have known whether ,mr4  
,christian1 in the ,washburn ,mill1 did 
or did not make a grade of flour which  
has hardly been excelled since for      
months before any other ,minneapolis    
mill approached his product in any      
degree8 ,and should he not be well      
enough acquainted with the milling of   
that period--#ahga-b--to know that such 
results as were obtained in the         
,washburn ,mill could only be secured by
 the use of smooth and true stones8 ,mr4
 ,stephens--whom ,i shall mention again 
presently--did not work in the ,washburn
 ,mill while ,i was in charge of it4    
,in the fall of #ahga ,i entered into a 
contract with ,mr4 ,c4 ,a4 ,pillsbury1  
owner of the ,taylor ,mill and senior   
partner in the firm by whom the         
,minneapolis ,mill was operated1 to put 
both those mills into condition to make 
the same grade of flour as ,mr4         
,christian was making4 ,the             
consideration in the contract was #e1jjj
 dols4 ,at the above mills ,i met to    

some extent the same obstruction in     
regard to millers striking as had       
greeted me at ,mr4 ,christian's mill    
earlier in the year2 but among those who
 did not strike at the ,minneapolis     
,mill ,i saw1 for the first time1 ,mr4  
,stephens--then still in his            
apprenticeship--whom ,mr4 ,hoppin       
declares to have been1 so far as ,i     
know1 the first miller to use smooth    
stones4 ,if ,mr4 ,hoppin is right in his
 assertion1 perhaps he will explain why1
 during the eight months ,i was at the  
,washburn ,mill1 ,mr4 ,stephens did not 
make a corresponding improvement in the 
product of the ,minneapolis ,mill4 ,that
 he did not do this is amply proved by  
the fact of ,mr4 ,pillsbury giving me   
#e1jjj dols4 to introduce improvements  
into his mills1 when1 supposing ,mr4    
,hoppin's statement to be correct1 he   
might have had the same alterations     
carried out under ,mr4 ,stephens'       
direction at a mere nominal cost4 ,as a 
matter of fact1 the stones in both the  

,taylor and ,minneapolis ,mills were as 
rough as any in the ,washburn ,mill when
 ,i took charge of them4  ,thus it      
appears 7#a7 that the flour made by the 
mill in which ,stephens was employed was
 not improved in quality1 while that of 
the ,washburn ,mill1 where he was not   
employed1 became the finest that had    
ever been made in the ,united ,states at
 that time4 ,that 7#b7 the owner of the 
mill in which ,mr4 ,stephens was        
employed1 as he was not making good     
flour1 engaged me at a large cost to    
introduce into his mills the alterations
 by which only1 both ,mr4 ,hoppin and   
myself agree1 could any material        
improvement in the milling of that      
period be effected1 4viz41 smooth1 true1
 and well-balanced stones4--,,geo4 ,t4  
,,smith4         99       99       99   
99       99  ,for breachy animals do not
 use barbed fences4 ,to see the         
lacerations that these fences have      
produced upon the innocent animals      
should be sufficient testimony against  

them4 ,many use pokes and blinders on   
cattle and goats1 but as a rule such    
things fail4 ,the better way is to      
separate breachy animals from the lot1  
as others will imitate their habits     
sooner or later1 and then1 if not       
curable1 sell them4         99       99 
99       99       99     ,,the ,,guenon 
,,milk-,,mirror4   ,the name of the     
simple ,bordeaux peasant is1 and should 
be1 permanently associated with his     
discovery that the milking qualities of 
cows were1 to a considerable extent1    
indicated by certain external marks     
easily observed4 ,we had long known that
 capacious udders and large milk veins1 
combined with good digestive capacity   
and a general preponderance of the      
alimentary over the locomotive system1  
were indications that rarely misled in  
regard to the ability of a cow to give  
much milk2 but to judge of the amount of
 milk a cow would yield1 and the length 
of time she would hold out in her flow1 
two or three years before she could be  

called a cow--this was ,guenon's great  
accomplishment1 and the one for which he
 was awarded a gold medal by the        
,agricultural ,society of his native    
district4 ,this was the first of many   
honors with which he was rewarded1 and  
it is much to say that no committee of  
agriculturists who have ever            
investigated the merits of the system   
have ever spoken disparagingly of it4   
,those who most closely study it1       
especially following ,guenon's original 
system1 which has never been essentially
 improved upon1 are most positive in    
regard to its truth1 enthusiastic in    
regard to its value4  ,the fine1 soft   
hair upon the hinder part of a cow's    
udder for the most part turns upward4   
,this upward-growing hair extends in    
most cases all over that part of the    
udder visible between the hind legs1 but
 is occasionally marked by spots or mere
 lines1 usually slender ovals1 in which 
the hair grows down4 ,this tendency of  
the hair to grow upward is not confined 

to the udder proper2 but extends out    
upon the thighs and upward to the tail4 
,the edges of this space over which the 
hair turns up are usually distinctly    
marked1 and1 as a rule1 the larger the  
area of this space1 which is called the 
mirror or escutcheon1 the more milk the 
cow will give1 and the longer she will  
continue in milk4  ,illustration3       
,,escutcheon ,,of ,,the ,,jersey        
,,bull-,,calf1 ,,grand ,,mirror1 #d1ijd4
  ,that portion of the escutcheon which 
covers the udder and extends out on the 
inside of each thigh1 has been          
designated as the udder or mammary      
mirror2 that which runs upward towards  
the setting on of the tail1 the rising  
or placental mirror4 ,the mammary mirror
 is of the greater value1 yet the rising
 mirror is not to be disregarded4 ,it is
 regarded of especial moment that the   
mirror1 taken as a whole1 be            
symmetrical1 and especially that the    
mammary mirror be so2 yet it often      
occurs that it is far otherwise1 its    

outline being often very                
fantastical--exhibiting deep bays1 so to
 speak1 and islands of downward growing 
hair4 ,there are also certain ovals1    
never very large1 yet distinct1 which do
 not detract from the estimated value of
 an escutcheon2 notably those occurring 
on the lobes of the udder just above the
 hind teats4 ,these are supposed to be  
points of value1 though for what reason 
it would be hard to tell1 yet they do   
occur upon some of the very best milch  
cows1 and those whose mirrors correspond
 most closely to their performances4    
,mr4 ,guenon's discovery enables        
breeders to determine which of their    
calves are most promising1 and in       
purchasing young stock it affords       
indications which rarely fail as to     
their comparative milk yield4 ,these    
indications occasionally prove utterly  
fallacious1 and ,mr4 ,guenon gives rules
 for determining this class1 which he   
calls bastards1 without waiting for them
 to fail in their milk4 ,the signs are1 

however1 rarely so distinct that one    
would be willing to sell a twenty-quart 
cow1 whose yield confirmed the          
prediction of her mirror at first       
calving1 because of the possibility of  
the going dry in two months1 or so1 as  
indicated by her bastardy marks4  ,it is
 an interesting fact that the mirrors of
 bulls 7which are much like those of    
cows1 but less extensive in every       
direction7 are reflected in their       
daughters4 ,this gives rise to the      
dangerous custom of breeding for        
mirrors1 rather than for milk4 ,what the
 results may be after a few years it is 
easy to see4 ,the mirror1 being valued  
for its own sake--that is1 because it   
sells the heifers--will be likely to    
lose its practical significance and     
value as a milk mirror4  ,we have a     
striking photograph of a young ,jersey  
bull1 the property of ,mr4 ,john ,l4    
,hopkins1 of ,atlanta1 ,ga41 and called 
,grand ,mirror4 ,this we have caused to 
be engraved and the mirror is clearly   

shown4 ,a larger mirror is rarely seen  
upon a bull4 ,we hope in a future number
 to exhibit some cows' mirrors of       
different forms and degrees of          
excellence4--,rural ,new ,yorker4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,,two ,,good ,,lawn ,,trees4   ,the     
negundo1 or ash-leaved maple1 as it is  
called in the ,eastern ,states1 better  
known at the ,west as a box elder1 is a 
tree that is not known as extensively as
 it deserves4 ,it is a hard maple1 that 
grows as rapidly as the soft maple2 is  
hardy1 possesses a beautiful foliage of 
black green leaves1 and is symmetrical  
in shape4 ,through eastern ,iowa ,i     
found it growing wild1 and a favorite   
tree with the early settlers1 who wanted
 something that gave shade and          
protection to their homes quickly on    
their prairie farms4 ,brought east1 its 
growth is rapid1 and it loses none of   
the characteristics it possessed in its 
western home4 ,those who have planted it
 are well pleased with it4 ,it is a tree

 that transplants easily1 and ,i know of
 no reason why it should not be more    
popular4  ,for ornamental lawn planting1
 ,i give pre-eminence to the cut-leaf   
weeping birch4 ,possessing all the good 
qualities of the white birch1 it        
combines with them a beauty and delicate
 grace yielded by no other tree4 ,it is 
an upright grower1 with slender1        
drooping branches1 adorned with leaves  
of deep rich green1 each leaf being     
delicately cut1 as with a knife1 into   
semi-skeletons4 ,it holds its foliage   
and color till quite late in the fall4  
,the bark1 with age1 becomes white1     
resembling the white birch1 and the     
beauty of the tree increases with its   
age4 ,it is a free grower1 and requires 
no trimming4 ,nature has given it a     
symmetry which art cannot improve4      
,h4,t4,j4         99       99       99  
99       99     ,,cutting ,,sods ,,for  
,,lawns4   ,i am a very good sod layer1 
and used to lay very large lawns--half  
to three-quarters of an acre4 ,i cut the

 sods as follows3 ,take a board eight to
 nine inches wide1 four1 five1 or six   
feet long1 and cut downward all around  
the board1 then turn the board over and 
cut again alongside the edge of the     
board1 and so on as many sods as needed4
 ,then cut the turf with a sharp spade1 
all the same lengths4 ,begin on one end1
 and roll together4 ,eight inches by    
five feet is about as much as a man can 
handle conveniently4 ,it is very easy to
 load them on a wagon1 cart1 or barrow1 
and they can be quickly laid4 ,after    
laying a good piece1 sprinkle a little  
with a watering pot1 if the sods are    
dry2 then use the back of the spade to  
smooth them a little4 ,if a very fine   
effect is wanted1 throw a shovelful or  
two of good earth over each square yard1
 and smooth it with the back of a steel 
rake4  ,f4,h4         99       99       
99       99       99     ,,country      
,,gentleman4  ,,horticultural ,,notes4  
,the ,western ,new ,york ,society met at
 ,rochester1 ,january #bf4  ,new        

,apples1 ,pears1 ,grapes1 etc4--,wm4 ,c 
,barry1 secretary of the committee on   
native fruits1 read a full report4      
,among the older varieties of the apple1
 he strongly recommended ,button        
,beauty1 which had proved so excellent  
in ,massachusetts1 and which had been   
equally successful at the ,mount ,hope  
,nurseries at ,rochester2 the fine      
growth of the tree and its great        
productiveness being strongly in its    
favor4 ,the ,wagener and ,northern ,spy 
are among the finer sorts4 ,the ,melon  
is one of the best among the older      
sorts2 the fruit being quite tender will
 not bear long shipment1 but it         
possesses great value for home use1 and 
being a poor grower1 it had been thrown 
aside by nurserymen and orchardists4 ,it
 should be top-grafted on more vigorous 
sorts4 ,the ,jonathan is another fine   
sort of slender growth1 which should be 
top-grafted4  ,among new pears1 ,hoosic 
and ,frederic ,clapp were highly        
commended for their excellence4 ,some of

 the older peaches of fine quality had  
of late been neglected1 and among them  
,druid ,hill and ,brevoort4  ,among the 
many new peaches highly recommended for 
their early ripening1 there was great   
resemblance to each other1 and some had 
proved earlier than ,alexander4  ,of the
 new grapes1 ,lady ,washington was the  
most promising4 ,the ,secretary was a   
failure4 ,the ,jefferson was a fine     
sort1 of high promise4  ,among the new  
white grapes1 ,niagara1 ,prentiss1 and  
,duchess stood pre-eminent1 and were    
worthy of the attention of cultivators4 
,the ,vergennes1 from ,vermont1 a light 
amber colored sort1 was also highly     
commended4 ,the ,elvira1 so highly      
valued in ,missouri1 does not succeed   
well here4 ,several facts were stated in
 relation to the ,delaware grape1       
showing its reliability and excellence4 
,several new varieties of the raspberry 
were named1 but few of them were found  
equal to the best old sorts4 ,if        
,brinckle's ,orange were taken as a     

standard for quality1 it would show that
 none had proved its equal in fine      
quality4 ,the ,caroline was like it in  
color1 but inferior in flavor4 ,the ,new
 ,rochelle was of second quality4       
,turner was a good berry1 but too soft  
for distant carriage4  ,of the many new 
strawberries named1 each seemed to have 
some special drawback4 ,the ,bidwell1   
however1 was a new sort of particular   
excellence1 and ,charles ,downing thinks
 it the most promising of the new       
berries4  ,discussion on ,grapes4--,c4  
,w4 ,beadle1 of ,ontario1 in allusion to
 ,moore's ,early grape1 finds it much   
earlier than the ,concord1 and equal to 
it in quality1 ripening even before the 
,hartford4 ,s4 ,d4 ,willard1 of ,geneva1
 thought it inferior to the ,concord1   
and not nearly so good as the ,worden4  
,the last named was both earlier and    
better than the ,concord1 and sold for  
seven cents per pound when the ,concord 
brought only four cents4 ,c4 ,a4 ,green1
 of ,monroe ,county1 said the ,lady     

,washington proved to be a very fine    
grape1 slightly later than ,concord4 ,p4
 ,l4 ,perry1 of ,canandaigua1 said that 
the ,vergennes ripens with ,hartford1   
and possesses remarkable keeping        
qualities1 and is of excellent quality  
and free from pulp4 ,he presented       
specimens which had been kept in good   
condition4 ,he added1 in relation to the
 ,worden grape1 that some years ago it  
brought #ah cents per pound in ,new     
,york when the ,concord sold three days 
later for only #h cents4 ,in such       
comparisons1 however1 it should be borne
 in mind that new varieties usually     
receive more attention and better       
culture1 giving them an additional      
advantage4  ,the ,niagara grape received
 special attention from members4 ,a4 ,c4
 ,younglove1 of ,yates ,county1 thought 
it superior to any other white grape for
 its many good qualities4 ,it was a     
vigorous and healthy grower1 and the    
clusters were full and handsome4 ,w4 ,j4
 ,fowler1 of ,monroe ,county1 saw the   

vine in ,october1 with the leaves still 
hanging well1 a great bearer and the    
grape of fine quality4 ,c4 ,l4 ,hoag1 of
 ,lockport1 said he began to pick the   
,niagara on the #bfth of ,august1 but   
its quality improved by hanging on the  
vine4 ,j4 ,harris1 of ,niagara ,county1 
was well acquainted with the ,niagara1  
and indorsed all the commendation which 
had been uttered in its favor4 ,t4 ,c4  
,maxwell said there was one fault--we   
could not get it1 as it was not in      
market4 ,w4 ,c4 ,barry1 of ,rochester1  
spoke highly of the ,niagara1 and its   
slight foxiness would be no objection to
 those who like that peculiarity4 ,c4   
,l4 ,hoag thought this was the same     
quality that ,col4 ,wilder described as 
a little aromatic4 ,a4 ,c4 ,younglove   
found the ,niagara to ripen with the    
,delaware4 ,inquiry being made relative 
to the ,pockington grape1 ,h4 ,e4       
,hooker said it ripened as early as the 
,concord4 ,c4 ,a4 ,green was surprised  
that it had not attracted more          

attention1 as he regarded it as a very  
promising grape4 ,j4 ,charlton1 of      
,rochester1 said that the fruit had been
 cut for market on the #bith of ,august1
 and on the #fth of ,september it was   
fully ripe2 but he has known it to hang 
as late as ,november4 ,j4 ,s4 ,stone had
 found that when it hung as late as     
,november it became sweet and very rich 
in flavor4  ,new ,peaches4--,a4 ,c4     
,younglove had found such very early    
sorts as ,alexander and ,amsden         
excellent for home use1 but not         
profitable for market4 ,the insects and 
birds made heavy depredations on them4  
,while nearly all very early and        
high-colored sorts suffer largely from  
the birds1 the ,rivers1 a white peach1  
does not attract them1 and hence it may 
be profitable for market if skillfully  
packed2 rough and careless handling will
 spoil the fruit4 ,he added that the    
,wheatland peach sustains its high      
reputation1 and he thought it the best  
of all sorts for market1 ripening with  

,late ,crawford4 ,it is a great bearer1 
but carries a crop of remarkably uniform
 size1 so that it is not often necessary
 to throw out a bad specimen4 ,this is  
the result of experience with it by ,mr4
 ,rogers at ,wheatland1 in ,monroe      
,county1 and at his own residence in    
,vine ,valley4 ,s4 ,d4 ,willard         
confirmed all that ,mr4 ,younglove had  
said of the excellence of the ,rivers   
peach4 ,he had ripened the ,amsden for  
several years1 and found it about two   
weeks earlier than the ,rivers1 and he  
thought if the ,amsden were properly    
thinned1 it would prevent the common    
trouble of its rotting2 such had been   
his experience4 ,e4 ,a4 ,bronson1 of    
,geneva1 objected to making very early  
peaches prominent for marketing1 as     
purchasers would prefer waiting a few   
days to paying high prices for the      
earliest1 and he would caution people   
against planting the ,amsden too        
largely1 and its free recommendation    
might mislead4 ,may's ,choice was named 

by ,h4 ,e4 ,hooker as a beautiful yellow
 peach1 having no superior in quality1  
but perhaps it may not be found to have 
more general value than ,early and ,late
 ,crawford4 ,it is scarcely             
distinguishable in appearance from fine 
specimens of ,early ,crawford4 ,w4 ,c4  
,barry was called on for the most recent
 experience with the ,waterloo1 but said
 he was not at home when it ripened1 but
 he learned that it had sustained its   
reputation4 ,a4 ,c4 ,younglove said that
 the ,salway is the best late peach1    
ripening eight or ten days after the    
,smock4 ,s4 ,d4 ,willard mentioned an   
orchard near ,geneva1 consisting of #be 
,salway trees1 which for four years had 
ripened their crop and had sold for #d  
per bushel in the ,philadelphia market1 
or for #c at ,geneva--a higher price    
than for any other sort--and the owner  
intends to plant #bjj more trees4 ,w4   
,c4 ,barry said the ,salway will not    
ripen at ,rochester4 ,hill's ,chili was 
named by some members as a good peach   

for canning and drying1 some stating    
that it ripens before and others after  
,late ,crawford4 ,it requires thinning  
on the tree1 or the fruit will be poor4 
,the ,allen was pronounced by ,mr4      
,younglove as an excellent1 intensely   
high-colored late peach4  ,insects      
,affecting ,horticulture4--,mr4         
,zimmerman spoke of the importance of   
all cultivators knowing so much of      
insects and their habits as to          
distinguish their friends from their    
enemies4 ,when unchecked they increase  
in an immense ratio1 and he mentioned as
 an instance that the green fly 7,aphis7
 in five generations may become the     
parent of six thousand million          
descendants4 ,it is necessary1 then1 to 
know what other insects are employed in 
holding them in check1 by feeding on    
them4 ,some of our most formidable      
insects have been accidentally imported 
from ,europe1 such as the codling moth1 
asparagus beetle1 cabbage butterfly1    
currant worm and borer1 elm-tree beetle1

 hessian fly1 etc42 but in nearly every 
instance these have come over without   
bringing their insect enemies with them1
 and in consequence they have spread    
more extensively here than in ,europe4  
,it was therefore urged that the        
,agricultural ,department at ,washington
 be requested to import1 as far as      
practicable1 such parasites as are      
positively known to prey on noxious     
insects4 ,the cabbage fly eluded our    
keen custom-house officials in #ahff1   
and has enjoyed free citizenship ever   
since4 ,by accident1 one of its insect  
enemies 7a small black fly7 was brought 
over with it1 and is now doing excellent
 work by keeping the cabbage fly in     
check4  ,the codling moth1 one of the   
most formidable fruit destroyers1 may be
 reduced in number by the well-known    
paper bands2 but a more efficient remedy
 is to shower them early in the season  
with ,paris green1 mixed in water at the
 rate of only one pound to one hundred  
gallons of water1 with a forcing pump1  

soon after blossoming4 ,after all the   
experiments made and repellents used for
 the plum curculio1 the jarring method  
is found the most efficient and         
reliable1 if properly performed4        
,various remedies for insects sometimes 
have the credit of doing the work1 if   
used in those seasons when the insects  
happen to be few4 ,with some insects1   
the use of oil is advantageous1 as it   
always closes up their breathing holes  
and suffocates them4 ,the oil should be 
mixed with milk1 and then diluted as    
required1 as the oil alone cannot be    
mixed with the water4 ,as a general     
remedy1 ,paris green is the strongest   
that can be applied4 ,a teaspoonful to a
 tablespoonful1 in a barrel of water1 is
 enough4 ,hot water is the best remedy  
for house plants4 ,place one hand over  
the soil1 invert the pot1 and plunge the
 foliage for a second only at a time in 
water heated to from #aej to #bjj;,f1   
according to the plants2 or apply with a
 fine rose4 ,the yeast remedy has not   

proved successful in all cases4  ,among 
beneficial insects1 there are about one 
hundred species of lady bugs1 and1 so   
far as known1 all are beneficial4       
,cultivators should know them4 ,they    
destroy vast quantities of plant lice4  
,the ground beetles are mostly          
cannibals1 and should not be destroyed4 
,the large black beetle1 with coppery   
dots1 makes short work with the         
,colorado potato beetles2 and a bright  
green beetle will climb trees to get a  
meal of canker worms4 ,ichneumon flies  
are among our most useful insects4 ,the 
much-abused dragon flies are perfectly  
harmless to us1 but destroy many        
mosquitoes and flies4  ,among insects   
that attack large fruits is the codling 
moth1 to be destroyed by paper bands1 or
 with ,paris green showered in water4   
,the round-headed apple-tree borer is to
 be cut out1 and the eggs excluded with 
a sheet of tarred paper around the stem1
 and slightly sunk in the earth4 ,for   
the oyster-shell bark louse1 apply      

linseed oil4 ,paris green1 in water1    
will kill the canker worm4 ,tobacco     
water does the work for plant lice4     
,peach-tree borers are excluded with    
tarred or felt paper1 and cut out with a
 knife4 ,jar the grape flea beetle on an
 inverted umbrella early in the morning4
 ,among small-fruit insects1 the        
strawberry worms are readily destroyed  
with hellebore1 an ounce to a gallon of 
warm water4 ,the same remedy destroys   
the imported currant worm4  ,insect     
,destroyers4--,prof4 ,w4 ,saunders1 of  
the ,province of ,ontario1 followed ,mr4
 ,zimmerman with a paper on other       
departments of the same general subject1
 which contained much information and   
many suggestions of great value to      
cultivators4 ,he had found ,paris green 
an efficient remedy for the bud-moth on 
pear and other trees4 ,he also          
recommends ,paris green for the         
grapevine flea beetle4 ,hellebore is    
much better for the pear slug than      
dusting with sand1 as these slugs1 as   

soon as their skin is spoiled by being  
sanded1 cast it off and go on with their
 work of destruction as freely as ever1 
and this they repeat4 ,he remarked that 
it is a common error that all insects   
are pests to the cultivator4 ,there are 
many parasites1 or useful ones1 which   
prey on our insect enemies4 ,out of     
#g1jjj described insects in this        
country1 only about #ej have proved     
destructive to our crops4 ,parasites are
 much more numerous4 ,among             
lepidopterous insects 7butterflies1     
etc471 there are very few noxious       
species2 many active friends are found  
among the ,hymenoptera 7wasps1 etc471   
the ichneumon flies pre-eminently so2   
and in the order ,hemiptera 7bugs       
proper7 are several that destroy our    
enemies4 ,hence the very common error   
that birds which destroy insects are    
beneficial to us1 as they are more      
likely to destroy our insect friends    
than the fewer enemies4 ,those known as 
flycatchers may do neither harm nor     

good2 so far as they eat the wheat-midge
 and ,hessian fly they confer a positive
 benefit2 in other instances they       
destroy both friends and enemies4 ,birds
 that are only partly insectivorous1 and
 which eat grain and fruit1 may need    
further inquiry4 ,prof4 ,s4 had examined
 the stomachs of many such birds1 and   
particularly of the ,american robin1 and
 the only curculio he ever found in any 
of these was a single one in a whole    
cherry which the bird had bolted entire4
 ,robins had proved very destructive to 
his grapes1 but had not assisted at all 
in protecting his cabbages growing      
alongside his fruit garden4 ,these      
vegetables were nearly destroyed by the 
larvae of the cabbage fly1 which would  
have afforded the birds many fine1 rich 
meals4 ,this comparatively feeble insect
 has been allowed by the throngs of     
birds to spread over the whole          
continent4 ,a naturalist in one of the  
,western ,states had examined several   
species of the thrush1 and found they   

had eaten mostly that class of insects  
known as our friends4  ,prof4 ,s4 spoke 
of the remedies for root lice1 among    
which were hot water and bisulphide of  
carbon4 ,hot water will get cold before 
it can reach the smaller roots1 however 
efficient it may be showered on leaves4 
,bisulphide of carbon is very volatile1 
inflammable1 and sometimes explosive1   
and must be handled with great care4 ,it
 permeates the soil1 and if in          
sufficient quantity may be effective in 
destroying the phylloxera2 but its cost 
and dangerous character prevent it from 
being generally recommended4  ,paris    
green is most generally useful for      
destroying insects4 ,as sold to         
purchasers1 it is of various grades of  
purity4 ,the highest in price is        
commonly the purest1 and really the     
cheapest4 ,a difficulty with this       
variable quality is that it cannot be   
properly diluted with water1 and those  
who buy and use a poor article and try  
its efficacy1 will burn or kill their   

plants when they happen to use a        
stronger1 purer1 and more efficient one4
 ,or1 if the reverse is done1 they may  
pronounce it a humbug from the resulting
 failure4 ,one teaspoonful1 if pure1 is 
enough for a large pail of water2 or if 
mixed with flour1 there should be forty 
or fifty times as much4 ,water is best1 
as the operator will not inhale the     
dust4 ,london purple is another form of 
the arsenic1 and has very variable      
qualities of the poison1 being merely   
refuse matter from manufactories4 ,it is
 more soluble than ,paris green1 and    
hence more likely to scorch plants4 ,on 
the whole1 ,paris green is much the best
 and most reliable for common use4  ,at 
the close of ,prof4 ,saunders' remarks  
some objections were made by members    
present to the use of ,paris green on   
fruit soon after blossoming1 and ,prof4 
,s4 sustained the objection1 in that the
 knowledge that the fruit had been      
showered with it would deter purchasers 
from receiving it1 even if no poison    

could remain on it from spring to       
autumn4 ,a man had brought to him       
potatoes to analyze for arsenic1 on     
which ,paris green had been used1 and   
although it was shown to him that the   
poison did not reach the roots beneath  
the soil1 and if it did it was insoluble
 and could not enter them1 he was not   
satisfied until a careful analysis was  
made and no arsenic at all found in     
them4 ,a member said that in mixing with
 plaster there should be #ajj or #aej   
pounds of plaster to one of the ,paris  
green1 and that a smaller quantity1 by  
weight1 of flour would answer1 as that  
is a more bulky article for the same    
weight4         99       99       99    
99       99     ,,observations ,,on     
,,the ,,salmon ,,of ,,the ,,pacific4    
,by ,,david ,s4 ,,jordan and ,,chas4 ,h4
 ,,gilbert4   ,during the most of the   
present year1 the writers have been     
engaged in the study of the fishes of   
the ,pacific coast of the ,united       
,states1 in the interest of the ,u4,s4  

,fish ,commission and the ,u4,s4 ,census
 ,bureau4 ,the following pages contain  
the principal facts ascertained         
concerning the salmon of the ,pacific   
coast4 ,it is condensed from our report 
to the ,u4,s4 ,census ,bureau1 by       
permission of ,professor ,goode1        
assistant in charge of fishery          
investigations4  ,there are five species
 of salmon 7,oncorhynchus7 in the waters
 of the ,north ,pacific4 ,we have at    
present no evidence of the existence of 
any more on either the ,american or the 
,asiatic side4  ,these species may be   
called the quinnat or king salmon1 the  
blue-back salmon or red-fish1 the silver
 salmon1 the dog salmon1 and the        
hump-back salmon1 or ,oncorhynchus      
chouicha1 nerka1 kisutch1 keta1 and     
gorbuscha4 ,all these species are now   
known to occur in the waters of         
,kamtschatka as well as in those of     
,alaska and ,oregon4  ,as vernacular    
names of definite application1 the      
following are on record3  a4            

,quinnat--,chouicha1 king salmon1       
e'quinna1 saw-kwey1 ,chinnook salmon1   
,columbia ,river salmon1 ,sacramento    
salmon1 tyee salmon1 ,monterey salmon1  
deep-water salmon1 spring salmon1       
ek-ul-ba 7ekewan7 7fall run74  b4       
,blue-bock--krasnaya ryba1 ,alaska      
red-fish1 ,idaho red fish1 sukkegh1     
,frazer's ,river salmon1 rascal1        
oo-chooy-ha4  c4 ,silver                
salmon--kisutch1 winter salmon1 hoopid1 
skowitz1 coho1 bielaya ryba1 o-o-wun4   
d4 ,dog salmon--kayko1 lekai1 ktlawhy1  
qualoch1 fall salmon1 o-le-a-rah4 ,the  
males of all the species in the fall are
 usually known as dog salmon1 or fall   
salmon4  e4 ,hump-back--gorbuscha1      
haddo1 hone1 holia1 lost salmon1 ,puget 
,sound salmon1 dog salmon 7of ,alaska74 
,of these species1 the blue-back        
predominates in ,frazer's ,river1 the   
silver salmon in ,puget ,sound1 the     
quinnat in the ,columbia and the        
,sacramento1 and the silver salmon in   
most of the small streams along the     

coast4 ,all the species have been seen  
by us in the ,columbia and in ,frazer's 
,river2 all but the blue-back in the    
,sacramento1 and all but the blue-back  
in waters tributary to ,puget ,sound4   
,only the quinnat has been noticed south
 of ,san ,francisco1 and its range has  
been traced as far as ,ventura ,river1  
which is the southernmost stream in     
,california which is not muddy and      
alkaline at its mouth4  ,of these       
species1 the quinnat and blue-back      
salmon habitually run in the spring1 the
 others in the fall4 ,the usual order of
 running in the rivers is as follows3   
nerka1 chouicha1 kisutch1 gorbuscha1    
keta4  ,the economic value of the spring
 running salmon is far greater than that
 of the other species1 because they can 
be captured in numbers when at their    
best1 while the others are usually taken
 only after deterioration4  ,the habits 
of the salmon in the ocean are not      
easily studied4 ,quinnat and silver     
salmon of every size are taken with the 

seine at almost any season in ,puget    
,sound4 ,the quinnat takes the hook     
freely in ,monterey bay1 both near the  
shore and at a distance of six or eight 
miles out4 ,we have reason to believe   
that these two species do not           
necessarily seek great depths1 but      
probably remain not very far from the   
mouth of the rivers in which they were  
spawned4  ,the blue-back and the dog    
salmon probably seek deeper water1 as   
the former is seldom or never taken with
 the seine in the ocean1 and the latter 
is known to enter the ,straits of ,fuca 
at the spawning season4  ,the great     
majority of the quinnat salmon and      
nearly all blue-back salmon enter the   
rivers in the spring4 ,the run of both  
begins generally the last of ,march2 it 
lasts1 with various modifications and   
interruptions1 until the actual spawning
 season in ,november2 the time of       
running and the proportionate amount of 
each of the subordinate runs1 varying   
with each different river4 ,in general1 

the runs are slack in the summer and    
increase with the first high water of   
autumn4 ,by the last of ,august only    
straggling blue-backs can be found in   
the lower course of any stream1 but both
 in the ,columbia and the ,sacramento   
the quinnat runs in considerable numbers
 till ,october at least4 ,in the        
,sacramento the run is greatest in the  
fall1 and more run in the summer than in
 spring4 ,in the ,sacramento and the    
smaller rivers southward1 there is a    
winter run1 beginning in ,december4     
,the spring salmon ascend only those    
rivers which are fed by the melting     
snows from the mountains1 and which have
 sufficient volume to send their waters 
well out to sea4 ,such rivers are the   
,sacramento1 ,rogue1 ,klamath1          
,columbia1 and ,frazer's rivers4  ,those
 salmon which run in the spring are     
chiefly adults 7supposed to be at least 
three years old74 ,their milt and spawn 
are no more developed than at the same  
time in others of the same species which

 will not enter the rivers until fall4  
,it would appear that the contact with  
cold fresh water1 when in the ocean1 in 
some way caused them to turn toward it  
and to run1 before there is any special 
influence to that end exerted by the    
development of the organs of generation4
  ,high water on any of these rivers in 
the spring is always followed by an     
increased run of salmon4 ,the canners   
think1 and this is probably true1 that  
salmon which would not have run till    
later are brought up by the contact with
 the cold water4 ,the cause of this     
effect of cold fresh water is not       
understood4 ,we may call it an instinct 
of the salmon1 which is another way of  
expressing our ignorance4 ,in general1  
it seems to be true that in those rivers
 and during those years when the spring 
run is greatest1 the fall run is least  
to be depended on4  ,as the season      
advances1 smaller and younger salmon of 
these two species 7quinnat and          
blue-back7 enter the rivers to spawn1   

and in the fall these young specimens   
are very numerous4 ,we have thus far    
failed to notice any gradations in size 
or appearance of these young fish by    
which their ages could be ascertained4  
,it is1 however1 probable that some of  
both sexes reproduce at the age of one  
year4 ,in ,frazer's ,river1 in the fall1
 quinnat male grilse of every size1 from
 eight inches upward1 were running1 the 
milt fully developed1 but usually not   
showing the hooked jaws and dark colors 
of the older males4 ,females less than  
eighteen inches in length were rare4    
,all1 large and small1 then in the      
river1 of either sex1 had the ovaries or
 milt well developed4  ,little          
blue-backs of every size down to six    
inches are also found in the ,upper     
,columbia in the fall1 with their organs
 of generation fully developed4         
,nineteen twentieths of these young fish
 are males1 and some of them have the   
hooked jaws and red color of the old    
males4  ,the average weight of the      

quinnat in the ,columbia in the spring  
is twenty-two pounds2 in the ,sacramento
 about sixteen4 ,individuals weighing   
from forty to sixty pounds are          
frequently found in both rivers1 and    
some as high as eighty pounds are       
reported4 ,it is questioned whether     
these large fishes are3  7a47 ,those    
which1 of the same age1 have grown more 
rapidly2  7b47 ,those which are older   
but have1 for some reason1 failed to    
spawn2 or1  7c47 ,those which have      
survived one or more spawning seasons4  
,all of these origins may be possible in
 individual cases2 we are1 however1 of  
the opinion that the majority of these  
large fish are those which have hitherto
 run in the fall and so may have        
survived the spawning season previous4  
,those fish which enter the rivers in   
the spring continue their ascent until  
death or the spawning season overtakes  
them4 ,probably none of them ever return
 to the ocean1 and a large proportion   
fail to spawn4 ,they are known to ascend

 the ,sacramento as far as the base of  
,mount ,shasta1 or to its extreme       
head-waters1 about four hundred miles4  
,in the ,columbia they are known to     
ascend as far as the ,bitter ,root      
,mountains1 and as far as the ,spokan   
,falls1 and their extreme limit is not  
known4 ,this is a distance of six to    
eight hundred miles4  ,at these great   
distances1 when the fish have reached   
the spawning grounds1 besides the usual 
changes of the breeding season1 their   
bodies are covered with bruises on which
 patches of white fungus develop4 ,the  
fins become mutilated1 their eyes are   
often injured or destroyed2 parasitic   
worms gather in their gills1 they become
 extremely emaciated1 their flesh       
becomes white from the loss of the oil1 
and as soon as the spawning act is      
accomplished1 and sometimes before1 all 
of them die4 ,the ascent of the         
,cascades and the ,dalles probably      
causes the injury or death of a great   
many salmon4  ,when the salmon enter the

 river they refuse bait1 and their      
stomachs are always found empty and     
contracted4 ,in the rivers they do not  
feed1 and when they reach the spawning  
grounds their stomachs1 pyloric coeca   
and all1 are said to be no larger than  
one's finger4 ,they will sometimes take 
the fly1 or a hook baited with salmon   
roe1 in the clear waters of the upper   
tributaries1 but there is no other      
evidence known to us that they feed when
 there4 ,only the quinnat and blue-back 
7then called red-fish7 have been found  
in the fall at any great distance from  
the sea4  ,the spawning season is       
probably about the same for all the     
species4 ,it varies for all in different
 rivers and in different parts of the   
same river1 and doubtless extends from  
,july to ,december4  ,the manner of     
spawning is probably similar for all the
 species1 but we have no data for any   
except the quinnat4 ,in this species the
 fish pair off1 the male1 with tail and 
snout1 excavates a broad shallow nest in

 the gravelly bed of the stream1 in     
rapid water1 at a depth of one to four  
feet2 the female deposits her eggs in   
it1 and after the exclusion of the milt1
 they cover them with stones and gravel4
 ,they then float down the stream tail  
foremost4 ,a great majority of them die4
 ,in the head-waters of the large       
streams all die1 unquestionably4 ,in the
 small streams1 and near the sea1 an    
unknown percentage probably survive4    
,the young hatch in about sixty days1   
and most of them return to the ocean    
during the high water of the spring4    
,the salmon of all kinds in the spring  
are silvery1 spotted or not according to
 the species1 and with the mouth about  
equally symmetrical in both sexes4  ,as 
the spawning season approaches the      
female loses her silvery color1 becomes 
more slimy1 the scales on the back      
partly sink into the skin1 and the flesh
 changes from salmon red and becomes    
variously paler1 from the loss of the   
oil1 the degree of paleness varying much

 with individuals and with inhabitants  
of different rivers4  ,in the lower     
,sacramento the flesh of the quinnat in 
either spring or fall is rarely pale4   
,in the ,columbia1 a few with pale flesh
 are sometimes taken in spring1 and a   
good many in the fall4 ,in ,frazer's    
,river the fall run of the quinnat is   
nearly worthless for canning purposes1  
because so many are white meated4 ,in   
the spring very few are white meated1   
but the number increases towards fall1  
when there is every variation1 some     
having red streaks running through them1
 others being red toward the head and   
pale toward the tail4 ,the red and pale 
ones cannot be distinguished externally1
 and the color is dependent neither on  
age nor sex4 ,there is said to be no    
difference in the taste1 but there is no
 market for canned salmon not of the    
conventional orange color4  ,as the     
season advances1 the differences between
 the males and the females become more  
and more marked1 and keep pace with the 

development of the milt1 as is shown by 
dissection4  ,the males have3 7a47 ,the 
premaxillaries and the tip of the lower 
jaw more and more prolonged2 both of    
them becoming finally strongly and often
 extravagantly hooked1 so that either   
they shut by the side of each other like
 shears1 or else the mouth cannot be    
closed4 7b47 ,the front teeth become    
very long and canine-like1 their growth 
proceeding very rapidly1 until they are 
often half an inch long4 7c47 ,the teeth
 on the vomer and tongue often          
disappear4 7d47 ,the body grows more    
compressed and deeper at the shoulders1 
so that a very distinct hump is formed2 
this is more developed in #j4 gorbuscha1
 but is found in all4 7e47 ,the scales  
disappear1 especially on the back1 by   
the growth of spongy skin4 7f47 ,the    
color changes from silvery to various   
shades of black and red or blotchy1     
according to the species4 ,the blue-back
 turns rosy red1 the dog salmon a dull1 
blotchy red1 and the quiunat generally  

blackish4  ,these distorted males are   
commonly considered worthless1 rejected 
by the canners and salmon-salters1 but  
preserved by the ,indians4 ,these       
changes are due solely to influences    
connected with the growth of the testes4
 ,they are not in any way due to the    
action of fresh water4 ,they take place 
at about the same time in the adult     
males of all species1 whether in the    
ocean or in the rivers4 ,at the time of 
the spring runs all are symmetrical4 ,in
 the fall1 all males of whatever species
 are more or less distorted4 ,among the 
dog salmon1 which run only in the fall1 
the males are hooked-jawed and          
red-blotched when they first enter the  
,straits of ,fuca from the outside4 ,the
 hump-back1 taken in salt water about   
,seattle1 shows the same peculiarities4 
,the male is slab-sided1 hook-billed1   
and distorted1 and is rejected by the   
canners4 ,no hook-jawed females of any  
species have been seen4  ,it is not     
positively known that any hook-jawed    

male survives the reproductive act4 ,if 
any do1 their jaws must resume the      
normal form4  ,on first entering a      
stream the salmon swim about as if      
playing3 they always head toward the    
current1 and this playing may be simply 
due to facing the flood tide4           
,afterwards they enter the deepest parts
 of the stream and swim straight up1    
with few interruptions4 ,their rate of  
travel on the ,sacramento is estimated  
by ,stone at about two miles per day2 on
 the ,columbia at about three miles per 
day4  ,as already stated1 the economic  
value of any species depends in great   
part on its being a spring salmon4 ,it  
is not generally possible to capture    
salmon of any species in large numbers  
until they have entered the rivers1 and 
the spring salmon enter the rivers long 
before the growth of the organs of      
reproduction has reduced the richness of
 the flesh4 ,the fall salmon cannot be  
taken in quantity until their flesh has 
deteriorated3 hence the dog salmon is   

practically almost worthless1 except to 
the ,indians1 and the hump-back salmon  
is little better4 ,the silver salmon1   
with the same breeding habits as the dog
 salmon1 is more valuable1 as it is     
found in ,puget ,sound for a            
considerable time before the fall rains 
cause the fall runs1 and it may be taken
 in large numbers with seines before the
 season for entering the rivers4 ,the   
quinnat salmon1 from its great size and 
abundance1 is more valuable than all    
other fishes on our ,pacific coast      
together4 ,the blue back1 similar in    
flesh but much smaller and less         
abundant1 is worth much more than the   
combined value of the three remaining   
species4  ,the fall salmon of all       
species1 but especially the dog salmon1 
ascend streams but a short distance     
before spawning4 ,they seem to be in    
great anxiety to find fresh water1 and  
many of them work their way up little   
brooks only a few inches deep1 where    
they soon perish miserably1 floundering 

about on the stones4 ,every stream1 of  
whatever kind1 has more or less of these
 fall salmon4  ,it is the prevailing    
impression that the salmon have some    
special instinct which leads them to    
return to spawn in the same spawning    
grounds where they were originally      
hatched4 ,we fail to find any evidence  
of this in the case of the ,pacific     
coast salmon1 and we do not believe it  
to be true4 ,it seems more probable that
 the young salmon1 hatched in any river1
 mostly remain in the ocean within a    
radius of twenty1 thirty1 or forty miles
 of its mouth4 ,these1 in their         
movements about in the ocean1 may come  
into contact with the cold waters of    
their parent rivers1 or perhaps of any  
other river1 at a considerable distance 
from the shore4 ,in the case of the     
quinnat and the blue-back1 their        
instinct leads them to ascend these     
fresh waters1 and in a majority of cases
 these waters will be those in which the
 fishes in question were originally     

spawned4 ,later in the season the growth
 of the reproductive organs leads them  
to approach the shore and to search for 
fresh waters1 and still the chances are 
that they may find the original stream4 
,but undoubtedly many fall salmon       
ascend1 or try to ascend1 streams in    
which no salmon was ever hatched4  ,it  
is said of the ,russian ,river and other
 ,california rivers1 that their mouths  
in the time of low water in summer      
generally become entirely closed by sand
 bars1 and that the salmon1 in their    
eagerness to ascend them1 frequently    
fling themselves entirely out of water  
on the beach4 ,but this does not prove  
that the salmon are guided by a         
marvelous geographical instinct which   
leads them to their parent river4 ,the  
waters of ,russian ,river soak through  
these sand bars1 and the salmon         
instinct1 we think1 leads them merely to
 search for fresh waters4  ,this matter 
is much in need of further              
investigation2 at present1 however1 we  

find no reason to believe that the      
salmon enter the ,rogue ,river simply   
because they were spawned there1 or that
 a salmon hatched in the ,clackamas     
,river is any the more likely on that   
account to return to the ,clackamas than
 to go up the ,cowlitz or the           
,deschutes4  ,at the hatchery on ,rogue 
,river1 the fish are stripped1 marked   
and set free1 and every year since the  
hatchery has been in operation some of  
the marked fish have been re-caught4    
,the young fry are also marked1 but none
 of them have been recaught4  ,this year
 the run of silver salmon in ,frazer's  
,river was very light1 while on ,puget  
,sound the run was said by the ,indians 
to be greater than ever known before4   
,both these cases may be due to the same
 cause1 the dry summer1 low water1 and  
consequent failure of the salmon to find
 the rivers4 ,the run in the ,sound is  
much more irregular than in the large   
rivers4 ,one year they will abound in   
one bay and its tributary stream and    

hardly be seen in another1 while the    
next year the condition will be         
reversed4 ,at ,cape ,flattery the run of
 silver salmon for the present year was 
very small1 which fact was generally    
attributed by the ,indians to the birth 
of twins at ,neah ,bay4  ,in regard to  
the diminution of the number of salmon  
on the coast4 ,in ,puget's ,sound1      
,frazer's ,river1 and the smaller       
streams1 there appears to be little or  
no evidence of this4 ,in the ,columbia  
,river the evidence appears somewhat    
conflicting2 the catch during the       
present year 7#ahhj7 has been           
considerably greater than ever before   
7nearly #edj1jjj cases of #dh lb4 each  
having been packed71 although the       
fishing for three or four years has been
 very extensive4 ,on the other hand1 the
 high water of the present spring has   
undoubtedly caused many fish to become  
spring salmon which would otherwise have
 run in the fall4 ,moreover1 it is urged
 that a few years ago1 when the number  

caught was about half as great as now1  
the amount of netting used was perhaps  
one-eighth as much4 ,with a             
comparatively small outfit the canners  
caught half the fish1 now with nets much
 larger and more numerous1 they catch   
them all1 scarcely any escaping during  
the fishing season 7,april #a to ,august
 #a74 ,whether an actual reduction in   
the number of fish running can be proven
 or not1 there can be no question that  
the present rate of destruction of the  
salmon will deplete the river before    
many years4 ,a considerable number of   
quinnat salmon run in ,august and       
,september1 and some stragglers even    
later2 these now are all which keep up  
the supply of fish in the river4 ,the   
non-molestation of this fall run1       
therefore1 does something to atone for  
the almost total destruction of the     
spring run4  ,this1 however1 is         
insufficient4 ,a well-ordered salmon    
hatchery is the only means by which the 
destruction of the salmon in the river  

can be prevented4 ,this hatchery should 
be under the control of ,oregon and     
,washington1 and should be supported by 
a tax levied on the canned fish4 ,it    
should be placed on a stream where the  
quinnat salmon actually come to spawn4  
,it has been questioned whether the     
present hatchery on the ,clackamas      
,river actually receives the quinnat    
salmon in any numbers4 ,it is asserted1 
in fact1 that the eggs of the silver    
salmon and dog salmon1 with scattering  
quinnat1 are hatched there4 ,we have no 
exact information as to the truth of    
these reports1 but the matter should be 
taken into serious consideration4  ,on  
the ,sacramento there is no doubt of the
 reduction of the number of salmon2 this
 is doubtless mainly attributable to    
over-fishing1 but in part it may be due 
to the destruction of spawning beds by  
mining operations and other causes4  ,as
 to the superiority of the ,columbia    
,river salmon1 there is no doubt that   
the quinnat salmon average larger and   

fatter in the ,columbia than in the     
,sacramento and in ,puget ,sound4 ,the  
difference in the canned fish is1       
however1 probably hardly appreciable4   
,the canned salmon from the ,columbia1  
however1 bring a better price in the    
market than those from elsewhere4 ,the  
canners there generally have had a high 
regard for the reputation of the river1 
and have avoided canning fall fish or   
species other than the quinnat4 ,in the 
,frazer's ,river the blue-back is       
largely canned1 and its flesh being a   
little more watery and perhaps paler1 is
 graded below the quinnat4 ,on ,puget   
,sound various species are canned2 in   
fact1 everything with red flesh4 ,the   
best canners on the ,sacramento         
apparently take equal care with their   
product with those of the ,columbia1 but
 they depend largely on the somewhat    
inferior fall run4 ,there are1 however1 
sometimes salmon canned in ,san         
,francisco1 which have been in the city 
markets1 and for some reason remaining  

unsold1 have been sent to the canners2  
such salmon are unfit for food1 and     
canning them should be prohibited4  ,the
 fact that the hump-back salmon runs    
only on alternate years in ,puget ,sound
 7#ahge1 #ahgg1 #ahgi1 etc47 is well    
attested and at present unexplained4    
,stray individuals only are taken in    
other years4 ,this species has a        
distinct run1 in the ,united ,states1   
only in ,puget ,sound1 although         
individuals 7called lost salmon7 are    
occasionally taken in the ,columbia and 
in the ,sacramento4--,american          
,naturalist4         99       99        
99       99       99     ,,the          
,,relation ,,between ,,electricity ,,and
 ,,light4  ,footnote3 ,a lecture by ,dr4
 ,o4 ,j4 ,lodge1 delivered at the       
,london ,institution on ,december #af1  
#ahhj4   ,ever since the subject on     
which ,i have the honor to speak to you 
to-night was arranged1 ,i have been     
astonished at my own audacity in        
proposing to deal in the course of sixty

 minutes with a subject so gigantic and 
so profound that a course of sixty      
lectures would be quite inadequate for  
its thorough and exhaustive treatment4  
,i must indeed confine myself carefully 
to some few of the typical and most     
salient points in the relation between  
electricity and light1 and ,i must      
economize time by plunging at once into 
the middle of the matter without further
 preliminaries4  ,now1 when a person is 
setting off to discuss the relation     
between electricity and light1 it is    
very natural and very proper to pull him
 up short with the two questions3 ,what 
do you mean by electricity8 and ,what do
 you mean by light8 ,these two questions
 ,i intend to try briefly to answer4    
,and here let me observe that in        
answering these fundamental questions1  
,i do not necessarily assume a          
fundamental ignorance on your part of   
these two agents1 but rather the        
contrary2 and must beg you to remember  
that if ,i repeat well-known and simple 

experiments before you1 it is for the   
purpose of directing attention to their 
real meaning and significance1 not to   
their obvious and superficial           
characteristics2 in the same way that ,i
 might repeat the exceedingly familiar  
experiment of dropping a stone to the   
earth if we were going to define what we
 meant by gravitation4  ,now1 then1 we  
will ask first1 ,what is electricity8   
and the simple answer must be1 ,we don't
 know4 ,well1 but this need not         
necessarily be depressing4 ,if the same 
question were asked about matter1 or    
about energy1 we should have likewise to
 reply1 ,no one knows4  ,but then the   
term ,matter is a very general one1 and 
so is the term ,energy4 ,they are heads1
 in fact1 under which we classify more  
special phenomena4  ,thus1 if we were   
asked1 ,what is sulphur8 or what is     
selenium8 we should at least be able to 
reply1 ,a form of matter2 and then      
proceed to describe its properties1 i4  
e41 how it affected our bodies and other

 bodies4  ,again1 to the question1 ,what
 is heat8 we can reply1 ,a form of      
energy2 and proceed to describe the     
peculiarities which distinguish it from 
other forms of energy4  ,but to the     
question4 ,what is electricity8 we have 
no answer pat like this4 ,we can not    
assert that it is a form of matter1     
neither can we deny it2 on the other    
hand1 we certainly can not assert that  
it is a form of energy1 and ,i should be
 disposed to deny it4 ,it may be that   
electricity is an entity per se1 just as
 matter is an entity per se4            
,nevertheless1 ,i can tell you what ,i  
mean by electricity by appealing to its 
known behavior4  ,here is a battery1    
that is1 an electricity pump2 it will   
drive electricity along4 ,prof4 ,ayrtou 
is going1 ,i am afraid1 to tell you1 on 
the #bjth of ,january next1 that it     
produces electricity2 but if he does1 ,i
 hope you will remember that that is    
exactly what neither it nor anything    
else can do4 ,it is as impossible to    

generate electricity in the sense ,i am 
trying to give the word1 as it is to    
produce matter4 ,of course ,i need      
hardly say that ,prof4 ,ayrton knows    
this perfectly well2 it is merely a     
question of words1 i4 e41 of what you   
understand by the word electricity4  ,i 
want you1 then1 to regard this battery  
and all electrical machines and         
batteries as kinds of electricity pumps1
 which drive the electricity along      
through the wire very much as a         
water-pump can drive water along pipes4 
,while this is going on the wire        
manifests a whole series of properties1 
which are called the properties of the  
current4  ,here were shown an ignited   
platinum wire1 the electric arc between 
two carbons1 an electric machine spark1 
an induction coil spark1 and a vacuum   
tube glow4 ,also a large nail was       
magnetized by being wrapped in the      
current1 and two helices were suspended 
and seen to direct and attract each     
other4  ,to make a magnet1 then1 we only

 need a current of electricity flowing  
round and round in a whirl4 ,a vortex or
 whirlpool of electricity is in fact a  
magnet2 and vice versa4 ,and these      
whirls have the power of directing and  
attracting other previously existing    
whirls according to certain laws1 called
 the laws of magnetism4 ,and1 moreover1 
they have the power of exciting fresh   
whirls in neighboring conductors1 and of
 repelling them according to the laws of
 diamagnetism4 ,the theory of the       
actions is known1 though the nature of  
the whirls1 as of the simple stream of  
electricity1 is at present unknown4     
,here was shown a large electro-magnet  
and an induction-coil vacuum discharge  
spinning round and round when placed in 
its field4  ,so much for what happens   
when electricity is made to travel along
 conductors1 i4 e41 when it travels     
along like a stream of water in a pipe1 
or spins round and round like a         
whirlpool4  ,but there is another set of
 phenomena1 usually regarded as distinct

 and of another order1 but which are not
 so distinct as they appear1 which      
manifest themselves when you join the   
pump to a piece of glass1 or any        
non-conductor1 and try to force the     
electricity through that4 ,you succeed  
in driving some through1 but the flow is
 no longer like that of water in an open
 pipe2 it is as if the pipe were        
completely obstructed by a number of    
elastic partitions or diaphragms4 ,the  
water can not move without straining and
 bending these diaphragms1 and if you   
allow it1 these strained partitions will
 recover themselves1 and drive the water
 back again4 ,here was explained the    
process of charging a ,leyden jar4 ,the 
essential thing to remember is that we  
may have electrical energy in two forms1
 the static and the kinetic2 and it is1 
therefore1 also possible to have the    
rapid alternation from one of these     
forms to the other1 called vibration4   
,now we will pass to the second         
question3 ,what do you mean by light8   

,and the first and obvious answer is1   
,everybody knows4 ,and everybody that is
 not blind does know to a certain       
extent4 ,we have a special sense organ  
for appreciating light1 whereas we have 
none for electricity4 ,nevertheless1 we 
must admit that we really know very     
little about the intimate nature of     
light--very little more than about      
electricity4 ,but we do know this1 that 
light is a form of energy1 and1         
moreover1 that it is energy rapidly     
alternating between the static and the  
kinetic forms--that it is1 in fact1 a   
special kind of energy of vibration4 ,we
 are absolutely certain that light is a 
periodic disturbance in some medium1    
periodic both in space and time2 that is
 to say1 the same appearances regularly 
recur at certain equal intervals of     
distance at the same time1 and also     
present themselves at equal intervals of
 time at the same place2 that in fact it
 belongs to the class of motions called 
by mathematicians undulatory or wave    

motions4 ,the wave motion in this model 
7,powell's wave apparatus7 results from 
the simple up and down motion popularly 
associated with the term wave4 ,but when
 a mathematician calls a thing a wave he
 means that the disturbance is          
represented by a certain general type of
 formula1 not that it is an up-and-down 
motion1 or that it looks at all like    
those things on the top of the sea4 ,the
 motion of the surface of the sea falls 
within that formula1 and hence is a     
special variety of wave motion1 and the 
term wave has acquired in popular use   
this signification and nothing else4 ,so
 that when one speaks ordinarily of a   
wave or undulatory motion1 one          
immediately thinks of something heaving 
up and down1 or even perhaps of         
something breaking on the shore4 ,but   
when we assert that the form of energy  
called light is undulatory1 we by no    
means intend to assert that anything    
whatever is moving up and down1 or that 
the motion1 if we could see it1 would be

 anything at all like what we are       
accustomed to in the ocean4 ,the kind of
 motion is unknown2 we are not even sure
 that there is anything like motion in  
the ordinary sense of the word at all4  
,now1 how much connection between       
electricity and light have we perceived 
in this glance into their natures8 ,not 
much1 truly4 ,it amounts to about this3 
,that on the one hand electrical energy 
may exist in either of two forms--the   
static form1 when insulators are        
electrically strained by having had     
electricity driven partially through    
them 7as in the ,leyden jar71 which     
strain is a form of energy because of   
the tendency to discharge and do work2  
and the kinetic form1 where electricity 
is moving bodily along through          
conductors or whirling round and round  
inside them1 which motion of electricity
 is a form of energy1 because the       
conductors and whirls can attract or    
repel each other and thereby do work4   
,and1 on the other hand1 that light is  

the rapid alternation of energy from one
 of these forms to the other--the static
 form where the medium is strained1 to  
the kinetic form when it moves4 ,it is  
just conceivable1 then1 that the static 
form of the energy of light is electro  
static1 that is1 that the medium is     
electrically strained1 and that the     
kinetic form of the energy of light is  
electro-kinetic1 that is1 that the      
motion is not ordinary motion1 but      
electrical motion--in fact1 that light  
is an electrical vibration1 not a       
material one4  ,on ,november #e1 last   
year1 there died at ,cambridge a man in 
the full vigor of his faculties--such   
faculties as do not appear many times in
 a century--whose chief work has been   
the establishment of this very fact1 the
 discovery of the link connecting light 
and electricity2 and the proof--for ,i  
believe it amounts to a proof--that they
 are different manifestations of one and
 the same class of phenomena--that light
 is1 in fact1 an electro-magnetic       

disturbance4 ,the premature death of    
,james ,clerk-,maxwell is a loss to     
science which appears at present utterly
 irreparable1 for he was engaged in     
researches that no other man can hope as
 yet adequately to grasp and follow out2
 but fortunately it did not occur till  
he had published his book on            
,electricity and ,magnetism1 one of     
those immortal productions which exalt  
one's idea of the mind of man1 and which
 has been mentioned by competent critics
 in the same breath as the ,principia   
itself4  ,but it is not perfect like the
 ,principia2 much of it is rough-hewn1  
and requires to be thoroughly worked    
out4 ,it contains numerous misprints and
 errata1 and part of the second volume  
is so difficult as to be almost         
unintelligible4 ,some1 in fact1 consists
 of notes written for private use and   
not intended for publication4 ,it seems 
next to impossible now to mature a work 
silently for twenty or thirty years1 as 
was done by ,newton two and a half      

centuries ago4 ,but a second edition was
 preparing1 and much might have been    
improved in form if life had been spared
 to the illustrious author4  ,the main  
proof of the electro-magnetic theory of 
light is this3 ,the rate at which light 
travels has been measured many times1   
and is pretty well known4 ,the rate at  
which an electro-magnetic wave          
disturbance would travel if such could  
be generated 7and ,mr4 ,fitzgerald1 of  
,dublin1 thinks he has proved that it   
can not be generated directly by any    
known electrical means7 can be also     
determined by calculation from          
electrical measurements4 ,the two       
velocities agree exactly4 ,this is the  
great physical constant known as the    
ratio ,v1 which so many physicists have 
been measuring1 and are likely to be    
measuring for some time to come4  ,many 
and brilliant as were ,maxwell's        
discoveries1 not only in electricity1   
but also in the theory of the nature of 
gases1 and in molecular science         

generally1 ,i can not help thinking that
 if one of them is more striking and    
more full of future significance than   
the rest1 it is the one ,i have just    
mentioned--the theory that light is an  
electrical phenomenon4  ,the first      
glimpse of this splendid generalization 
was caught in #ahde1 five and thirty    
years ago1 by that prince of pure       
experimentalists1 ,michael ,faraday4    
,his reasons for suspecting some        
connection between electricity and light
 are not clear to us--in fact1 they     
could not have been clear to him2 but he
 seems to have felt a conviction that if
 he only tried long enough and sent all 
kinds of rays of light in all possible  
directions across electric and magnetic 
fields in all sorts of media1 he must   
ultimately hit upon something4 ,well1   
this is very nearly what he did4 ,with a
 sublime patience and perseverance which
 remind one of the way ,kepler hunted   
down guess after guess in a different   
field of research1 ,faraday combined    

electricity1 or magnetism1 and light in 
all manner of ways1 and at last he was  
rewarded with a result4 ,and a most     
out-of-the-way result it seemed4 ,first1
 you have to get a most powerful magnet 
and very strongly excite it2 then you   
have to pierce its two poles with holes1
 in order that a beam of light may      
travel from one to the other along the  
lines of force2 then1 as ordinary light 
is no good1 you must get a beam of plane
 polarized light1 and send it between   
the poles4 ,but still no result is      
obtained until1 finally1 you interpose a
 piece of a rare and out-of-the-way     
material1 which ,faraday had himself    
discovered and made--a kind of glass    
which contains borate of lead1 and which
 is very heavy1 or dense1 and which must
 be perfectly annealed4  ,and now1 when 
all these arrangements are completed1   
what is seen is simply this1 that if an 
analyzer is arranged to stop the light  
and make the field quite dark before the
 magnet is excited1 then directly the   

battery is connected and the magnet     
called into action1 a faint and barely  
perceptible brightening of the field    
occurs1 which will disappear if the     
analyzer be slightly rotated4 ,the      
experiment was then shown4 ,now1 no     
wonder that no one understood this      
result4 ,faraday himself did not        
understand it at all4 ,he seems to have 
thought that the magnetic lines of force
 were rendered luminous1 or that the    
light was magnetized2 in fact1 he was in
 a fog1 and had no idea of its real     
significance4 ,nor had any one4         
,continental philosophers experienced   
some difficulty and several failures    
before they were able to repeat the     
experiment4 ,it was1 in fact1 discovered
 too soon1 and before the scientific    
world was ready to receive it1 and it   
was reserved for ,sir ,william ,thomson 
briefly1 but very clearly1 to point out1
 and for ,clerk-,maxwell more fully to  
develop1 its most important             
consequences4 ,the principle of the     

experiment was then illustrated by the  
aid of a mechanical model4  ,this is the
 fundamental experiment on which        
,clerk-,maxwell's theory of light is    
based2 but of late years many fresh     
facts and relations between electricity 
and light have been discovered1 and at  
the present time they are tumbling in in
 great numbers4  ,it was found by       
,faraday that many other transparent    
media besides heavy glass would show the
 phenomenon if placed between the poles1
 only in a less degree2 and the very    
important observation that air itself   
exhibits the same phenomenon1 though to 
an exceedingly small extent1 has just   
been made by ,kundt and ,rontgen in     
,germany4  ,dr4 ,kerr1 of ,glasgow1 has 
extended the result to opaque bodies1   
and has shown that if light be passed   
through magnetized iron its plane is    
rotated4 ,the film of iron must be      
exceedingly thin1 because of its        
opacity1 and hence1 though the intrinsic
 rotating power of iron is undoubtedly  

very great1 the observed rotation is    
exceedingly small and difficult to      
observe2 and it is only by a very       
remarkable patience and care and        
ingenuity that ,dr4 ,kerr has obtained  
his result4 ,mr4 ,fitzgerald1 of        
,dublin1 has examined the question      
mathematically1 and has shown that      
,maxwell's theory would have enabled    
,dr4 ,kerr's result to be predicted4    
,another requirement of the theory is   
that bodies which are transparent to    
light must be insulators or             
non-conductors of electricity1 and that 
conductors of electricity are           
necessarily opaque to light4 ,simple    
observation amply confirms this2 metals 
are the best conductors1 and are the    
most opaque bodies known4 ,insulators   
such as glass and crystals are          
transparent whenever they are           
sufficiently homogeneous1 and the very  
remarkable researches of ,prof4 ,graham 
,bell in the last few months have shown 
that even ebonite1 one of the most      

opaque insulators to ordinary vision1 is
 certainly transparent to some kinds of 
radiation1 and transparent to no small  
degree4  ,the reason why transparent    
bodies must insulate1 and why conductors
 must be opaque1 was here illustrated by
 mechanical models4  ,a further         
consequence of the theory is that the   
velocity of light in a transparent      
medium will be affected by its          
electrical strain constant2 in other    
words1 that its refractive index will   
bear some close but not yet quite       
ascertained relation to its specific    
inductive capacity4 ,experiment has     
partially confirmed this1 but the       
confirmation is as yet very incomplete4 
,but there are a number of results not  
predicted by theory1 and whose          
connection with the theory is not       
clearly made out4 ,we have the fact that
 light falling on the platinum electrode
 of a voltameter generates a current1   
first observed1 ,i think1 by ,sir ,w4   
,r4 ,grove--at any rate1 it is mentioned

 in his ,correlation of                 
,forces--extended by ,becquerel and     
,robert ,sabine to other substances1 and
 now being extended to fluorescent and  
other bodies by ,prof4 ,minchin4 ,and   
finally--for ,i must be brief--we have  
the remarkable action of light on       
selenium4 ,this fact was discovered     
accidentally by an assistant in the     
laboratory of ,mr4 ,willoughby ,smith1  
who noticed that a piece of selenium    
conducted electricity very much better  
when light was falling upon it than when
 it was in the dark4 ,the light of a    
candle is sufficient1 and               
instantaneously brings down the         
resistance to something like one-fifth  
of its original value4  ,i could show   
you these effects1 but there is not much
 to see2 it is an intensely interesting 
phenomenon1 but its external            
manifestation is not striking--any more 
than ,faraday's heavy glass experiment  
was4  ,this is the phenomenon which1 as 
you know1 has been utilized by ,prof4   

,graham ,bell in that most ingenious and
 striking invention1 the photophone4 ,by
 the kindness of ,prof4 ,silvanus       
,thompson1 ,i have a few slides to show 
the principle of the invention1 and ,mr4
 ,shelford ,bidwell has been kind enough
 to lend me his home-made photophone1   
which answers exceedingly well for short
 distances4  ,i have now trespassed long
 enough upon your patience1 but ,i must 
just allude to what may very likely be  
the next striking popular discovery2 and
 that is the transmission of light by   
electricity2 ,i mean the transmission of
 such things as views and pictures by   
means of the electric wire4 ,it has not 
yet been done1 but it seems already     
theoretically possible1 and it may very 
soon be practically accomplished4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,,interesting ,,electrical ,,researches4
   ,during the last six years ,dr4      
,warren de la ,rue has been             
investigating1 in conjunction with ,dr4 
,hugo ,muller1 the various and highly   

interesting phenomena which accompany   
the electric discharge4 ,from time to   
time the results of their researches    
were communicated to the ,royal         
,society1 and appeared in its           
,proceedings4 ,early last year ,dr4 ,de 
la ,rue being requested to bring the    
subject before the members of the ,royal
 ,institution1 acceded to the pressing  
invitation of his colleagues and        
scientific friends4 ,the discourse1     
which was necessarily long postponed on 
account of the preparations that had to 
be made1 was finally given on ,friday1  
the #bast of ,january1 and was one of   
the most remarkable1 from the elaborate 
nature of the experiments1 ever         
delivered in the theater of that        
deservedly famous institution4  ,owing  
to the great inconvenience of removing  
the battery from his laboratory1 ,dr4 de
 la ,rue1 despite the great expenditure1
 directed ,mr4 ,s4 ,tisley to prepare1  
expressly for the lecture1 a second     
series of #ad1djj cells1 and fit it up  

in the basement of the ,royal           
,institution4 ,the construction of this 
new battery occupied ,mr4 ,tisley a     
whole year1 while the charging of it    
extended over a fortnight4  ,the de la  
,rue cell1 if we may so call one of     
these elements1 consists of a zinc rod1 
the lower portion of which is embedded  
in a solid electrolyte1 viz41 chloride  
of silver1 with which are connected two 
flattened silver wires to serve as      
electrodes4 ,when these are united and  
the silver chloride moistened1 chemical 
action begins1 and a weak but constant  
current is generated4  ,the             
electromotive force of such a cell is   
#a4jc volts1 and a current equivalent to
 one volt passing through a resistance  
of one ohm was found to decompose       
#j4jjadf grain of water in one second4  
,the battery is divided into cabinets1  
which hold from #a1bjj to #b1afj small  
elements each4 ,this facilitates        
removal1 and also the detection of any  
fault that may occur4  ,it will be      

remembered that in #ahjh ,sir ,humphry  
,davy constructed his battery of #b1jjj 
cells1 and thus succeeded in exalting   
the tiny spark obtained in closing the  
circuit into the luminous sheaf of the  
voltaic arc4 ,he also observed that the 
spark passed even when the poles were   
separated by a distance varying from    
#a_/dj to #a_/cj of an inch4 ,this      
appears to have been subsequently       
forgotten1 as we find later physicists  
questioning the possibility of the spark
 leaping over any interpolar distance4  
,mr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,gassiot1 of ,clapham1     
demonstrated the inaccuracy of this     
opinion by constructing a battery of    
#c1jjj ,leclanch cells1 which gave a    
spark of #j4jbe inch2 a similar number  
of de la ,rue cells gives an #j4jefd    
inch spark4 ,this considerable increase 
in potential is chiefly due to better   
insulation4  ,the great energy of this  
battery was illustrated by a variety of 
experiments4 ,thus1 a large condenser1  
specially constructed by ,messrs4       

,varley1 and having a capacity equal to 
that of #f1dhe large ,leyden jars1 was  
almost immediately charged by the       
current from #aj1jjj cells4 ,wires of   
various kinds1 and from #i inches to #bi
 inches in length1 were instantly       
volatilized by the passage of the       
electricity thus stored up4 ,the current
 induced in the secondary wire of a coil
 by the discharge of the condenser      
through the primary1 was also           
sufficiently intense to deflagrate wires
 of considerable length and thickness4  
,it was with such power at his command  
that ,dr4 ,de la ,rue proceeded to      
investigate several important electrical
 laws4 ,he has found1 for example1 that 
the positive discharge is more          
intermittent than the negative1 that the
 arc is always preceded by a            
streamer-like discharge1 that its       
temperature is about #af1jjj deg41 and  
its length at the ordinary pressure of  
the atmosphere1 when taken between two  
points1 varies as the square of the     

number of cells4 ,thus1 with a battery  
of #a1jjj cells1 the arc was #j4jjea    
inch1 with #aa1jjj cells it increased to
 #j4fb inch4 ,the same law was found to 
hold when the discharge took place      
between a point and a disk2 it failed   
entirely1 however1 when the terminals   
were two disks4  ,it was also shown that
 the voltaic arc is not a phenomenon of 
conduction1 but is essentially a        
disruptive discharge1 the intervals     
between the passage of two successive   
static sparks being the time required   
for the battery to collect sufficient   
power to leap over the interposed       
resistance4 ,this was further confirmed 
by the introduction of a condenser1 when
 the intervals were perceptibly larger4 
,faraday proved that the quantity of    
electricity necessary to produce a      
strong flash of lightning would result  
from the decomposition of a single grain
 of water1 and ,dr4 de la ,rue's        
experiments confirm this extraordinary  
statement4 ,he has calculated that this 

quantity of electricity would be #e1jjj 
times as great as the charge of his     
large condenser1 and that a lightning   
flash a mile long would require the     
potential of #c1ejj1jjj cells1 that is  
to say1 of #bdc of his powerful         
batteries4  ,in experimenting with      
vacuum tubes1 he has found that the     
discharge is also invariably disruptive4
 ,this is an important point1 as many   
physicists speak and write of the       
phenomenon as one of conduction4 ,air1  
in every degree of tenuity1 refuses to  
act as a conductor of electricity4      
,these experiments show that the        
resistance of gaseous media diminishes  
with the pressure only up to a certain  
point1 beyond which it rapidly          
increases4 ,thus1 in the case of        
hydrogen1 it diminishes up to #j4fdb    
mm41 #hde millionths2 it then rises as  
the exhaustion proceeds1 and at #j4jjjfe
 mm41 #h4f millionths1 it requires as   
high a potential as at #ba4g mm41       
#bh4eec millionths4 ,at #j4jjacg mm41   

#a4h millionth1 the current from #aa1jjj
 cells would not pass through a tube for
 which #dcj cells sufficed at the       
pressure of minimum resistance4 ,at a   
pressure of #j4jjee mm41 #j4jff         
millionth1 the highest exhaust obtained 
in any of the experiments1 even a       
one-inch spark from an induction coil   
refused to pass4 ,it was also           
ascertained that there is neither       
condensacian nor dilatation of the gas  
in contact with the terminals prior to  
the passage of the discharge4  ,these   
researches naturally led to some        
speculation about the conditions under  
which auroral phenomena may occur4      
,observers have variously stated the    
height at which the aurora borealis     
attains its greatest brilliancy as      
ranging between #abd and #bha miles4    
,dr4 de la ,rue's conclusions fix the   
upper limit at #abd miles1 and that of  
maximum display at #cg miles1 admitting 
also that the aurora may sometimes occur
 at an altitude of a few thousand feet4 

,the aurora was beautifully illustrated 
by a very large tube1 in which the      
theoretical pressure was carefully      
maintained1 the characteristic roseate  
tinge being readily produced and        
maintained4  ,in studying the           
stratifications observed in vacuum      
tubes1 ,dr4 de la ,rue finds that they  
originate at the positive pole1 and that
 their steadiness may be regulated by   
the resistance in circuit1 and that even
 when the least tremor cannot be        
detected by the eye1 they are still     
produced by rapid pulsations which may  
be as frequent as ten millions per      
second4  ,dr4 de la ,rue concluded his  
interesting discourse by exhibiting some
 of the finest tubes of his numerous and
 unsurpassed collection4--,engineering  
99       99       99       99       99  
,,measuring ,,electromotive ,,force4    
,coulomb's torsion balance has been     
adapted by ,m4 ,baille to the           
measurement of low electromotive forces 
in a very successful manner1 and has    

been found preferable by him to the     
delicate electrometers of ,sir ,w4      
,thomson4 ,it is necessary to guard it  
from disturbances due to extraneous     
electric influences and the trembling of
 the ground4 ,these can be eliminated   
completely by encircling the instrument 
in a metal case connected to earth1 and 
mounting it on solid pillars in a still 
place4 ,heat also has a disturbing      
effect1 and makes itself felt in the    
torsion of the fiber and the cage       
surrounding the lever4 ,these effects   
are warded off by inclosing the         
instrument in a non-conducting jacket of
 wood shavings4  ,the apparatus of ,m4  
,baille consists of an annealed silver  
torsion wire of #b4gj meters long1 and a
 lever #j4ej meter long1 carrying at    
each extremity a ball of copper1 gilded1
 and three centimeters in diameter4     
,similar balls are fixed at the corners 
of a square #bj4e meters in the side1   
and connected in diagonal pairs by fine 
wire4 ,the lever placed at equal        

distances from the fixed balls          
communicates1 by the medium of the      
torsion wire1 with the positive pole of 
a battery1 ,p1 the other pole being to  
earth4  ,owing to some unaccountable    
variations in the change of the lever or
 needle1 ,m4 ,baille was obliged to     
measure the change at each observation4 
,this was done by joining the  pole of  
the battery to the needle1 and one pair 
of the fixed balls1 and observing the   
deflection2 then the deflection produced
 by the other balls was observed4 ,this 
operation was repeated several times4   
,the battery1 ,x1 to be measured        
consisted of ten similar elements1 and  
one pole of it was connected to the     
fixed balls1 while the other pole was   
connected to the earth4 ,the needle1 of 
course1 remained in contact with the    
pole of the charging battery1 ,p4  ,the 
deflections were read from a clear glass
 scale1 placed at a distance of #c4cj   
meters from the needle1 and the results 
worked out from ,coulomb's static       

formula1  ,c a  7#d m m'7_/d1 with      
_/ sum77p_/g7 r7   ,o    _/             
-------------       _/        ,c  ,,tex3
 ,o  sqrtfracsum fracpg r#b;,c  ,in ,m4 
,baillie's experiments1 ,o  #dcg1 and   
sum7pr7 #cbaga4f 7centimeter grammes71  
the needle having been constructed of a 
geometrical form4  ,the following       
numbers represent the potential of an   
element of the battery--that is to say1 
the quantity of electricity that the    
pole of that battery spreads upon a     
sphere of one centimeter radius4 ,they  
are expressed in units of electricity1  
the unit being the quantity of          
electricity which1 acting upon a similar
 unit at a distance of one centimeter1  
produces a repulsion equal to one       
gramme3  ,volta pile                    
#j4jcdae open circuit4 ,zinc1 sulphate  
of copper1 copper                       
#j4jbiig      ,zinc1 acidulated water1  
copper1 sulphate of copper #j4jcgji     
,zinc1 salt water1 carbon peroxide of   
manganese     #j4jebhb      ,zinc1 salt 

water1 platinum1 chloride of platinum   
#j4jejbg      ,zinc1 acidulated water1  
carbon nitric acid         #j4jfbhe     
,these results were obtained just upon  
charging the batteries1 and are1        
therefore1 slightly higher than the     
potentials given after the batteries    
became older4 ,the sulphate of copper   
cells kept about their maximum value    
longest1 but they showed variations of  
about #aj per cent4         99       99 
99       99       99     ,,telephony    
,,by ,,thermic ,,currents4   ,while in  
telephonic arrangements1 based upon the 
principle of magnetic induction1 a      
relatively considerable expenditure of  
force is required in order to set the   
tightly stretched membrane in vibration1
 in the so-called carbon telephones only
 a very feeble impulse is required to   
produce the differences in the current  
necessary for the transmission of       
sounds4 ,in order to produce relatively 
strong currents1 even in case of        
sound-action of a minimum strength1     

,franz ,krttlinger1 of ,vienna1 has made
 an interesting experiment to use thermo
 electric currents for the transmission 
of sound to a distance4 ,the apparatus  
which he has constructed is exceedingly 
simple4 ,a current of hot air flowing   
from below upward is deflected more or  
less from its direction by the human    
voice4 ,by its action an adjacent       
thermo-battery is excited1 whose current
 passes through the spiral of an        
ordinary telephone1 which serves as the 
receiving instrument4 ,as a source of   
heat the inventor uses a common stearine
 candle1 the flame of which is kept at  
one and the same level by means of a    
spring similar to those used in carriage
 lamps4 ,on one side of the candle is a 
sheet metal voice funnel fixed upon a   
support1 its mouth being covered with a 
movable sliding disk1 fitted with a     
suitable number of small apertures4 ,on 
the other side a similar support holds a
 funnel-shaped thermo-battery4 ,the     
single bars of metal forming this       

battery are very thin1 and of such a    
shape that they may cool as quickly as  
possible4 ,both the speaking-funnel and 
the battery can be made to approach1 at 
will1 to the stream of warm air rising  
up from the flame4 ,the entire apparatus
 is inclosed in a tin case in such a    
manner that only the aperture of the    
voice-funnel and the polar clamps for   
securing the conducting wires appear on 
the outside4 ,the inside of the case is 
suitably stayed to prevent vibration4   
,on speaking into the mouth-piece of the
 funnel1 the sound-waves occasion       
undulations in the column of hot air    
which are communicated to the           
thermo-battery1 and in this manner      
corresponding differences are produced  
in the currents in the wires leading to 
the receiving                           
instrument4--,oesterreichische-,ungarisc
he ,post4         99       99       99  
99       99     ,,the ,,telectroscope4  
,by ,,mons4 ,,senlecq1 of ,ardres4      
,this apparatus1 which is intended to   

transmit to a distance through a        
telegraphic wire pictures taken on the  
plate of a camera1 was invented in the  
early part of #ahgg by ,m4 ,senlecq1 of 
,ardres4 ,a description of the first    
specification submitted by ,m4 ,senlecq 
to ,m4 du ,moncel1 member of the ,paris 
,academy of ,sciences1 appeared in all  
the continental and ,american scientific
 journals4 ,since then the apparatus has
 everywhere occupied the attention of   
prominent electricians1 who have striven
 to improve on it4 ,among these we may  
mention ,,mm4 ,ayrton1 ,perry1 ,sawyer  
7of ,new ,york71 ,sargent 7of           
,philadelphia71 ,brown 7of ,london71    
,carey 7of ,boston71 ,tighe 7of         
,pittsburg71 and ,graham ,bell himself4 
,some experimenters have used many      
wires1 bound together cable-wise1 others
 one wire only4 ,the result has been1 on
 the one hand1 confusion of conductors  
beyond a certain distance1 with the     
absolute impossibility of obtaining     
perfect insulation2 and1 on the other   

hand1 an utter want of synchronism4 ,the
 unequal and slow sensitiveness of the  
selenium likewise obstructed the proper 
working of the apparatus4 ,now1 without 
a relative simplicity in the arrangement
 of the conducting wires intended to    
convey to a distance the electric       
current with its variations of          
intensity1 without a perfect and rapid  
synchronism acting concurrently with the
 luminous impressions1 so as to insure  
the simultaneous action of transmitter  
and receiver1 without1 in fine1 an      
increased sensitiveness in the selenium1
 the idea of the telectroscope could not
 be realized4 ,m4 ,senlecq has          
fortunately surmounted most of these    
main obstacles1 and we give to-day a    
description of the latest apparatus he  
has contrived4   ,,transmitter4  ,a     
brass plate1 ,a1 whereon the rays of    
light impinge inside a camera1 in their 
various forms and colors1 from the      
external objects placed before the lens1
 the said plate being coated with       

selenium on the side intended to face   
the dark portion of the camera ,this    
brass plate has its entire surface      
perforated with small holes as near to  
one another as practicable4 ,these holes
 are filled with selenium1 heated1 and  
then cooled very slowly1 so as to obtain
 the maximum sensitiveness4 ,a small    
brass wire passes through the selenium  
in each hole1 without1 however1 touching
 the plate1 on to the rectangular and   
vertical ebonite plate1 ,b1 ,fig4 #a1   
from under this plate at point1 ,c4     
,thus1 every wire passing through plate1
 ,a1 has its point of contact above the 
plate1 ,b1 lengthwise4 ,with this view  
the wires are clustered together when   
leaving the camera1 and thence stretch  
to their corresponding points of contact
 on plate1 ,b1 along line1 ,c ,c4 ,the  
surface of brass1 ,a1 is in permanent   
contact with the positive pole of the   
battery 7selenium74 ,on each side of    
plate1 ,b1 are let in two brass rails1  
,d and ,e1 whereon the slide hereinafter

 described works4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#a  ,rail1 ,e1 communicates with the    
line wire intended to conduct the       
various light and shade vibrations4     
,rail1 ,d1 is connected with the battery
 wire4 ,along ,f are a number of points 
of contact corresponding with those     
along ,c ,c4 ,these contacts help to    
work the apparatus1 and to insure the   
perfect isochronism of the transmitter  
and receiver4 ,these points of contact1 
though insulated one from the other on  
the surface of the plate1 are all       
connected underneath with a wire coming 
from the positive pole of a special     
battery4 ,this apparatus requires two   
batteries1 as1 in fact1 do all          
autographic telegraphs--one for sending 
the current through the selenium1 and   
one for working the receiver1 etc4 ,the 
different features of this important    
plate may1 therefore1 be summed up thus3
  ,,figure #a4  ,d4 ,brass rail1 grooved
 and connected with the line wire       
working the receiver4  ,f4 ,contacts    

connected underneath with a wire        
permanently connected with battery4  ,c4
 ,contacts connected to insulated wires 
from selenium4  ,e4 ,brass rail1        
grooved1 etc41 like ,d4   ,,receiver4   
,a small slide1 ,fig4 #b1 having at one 
of its angles a very narrow piece of    
brass1 separated in the middle by an    
insulating surface1 used for setting the
 apparatus in rapid motion4 ,this small 
slide has at the points1 ,d ,d1 a small 
groove fitting into the brass rails of  
plate1 ,b1 ,fig4 #a1 whereby it can keep
 parallel on the two brass rails1 ,d and
 ,e4 ,its insulator1 ,b1 ,fig4 #b1      
corresponds to the insulating interval  
between ,f and ,c1 ,fig4 #a4  ,a1 ,fig4 
#c1 circular disk1 suspended vertically 
7made of ebonite or other insulating    
material74 ,this disk is fixed4 ,all    
round the inside of its circumference   
are contacts1 connected underneath with 
the corresponding wires of the receiving
 apparatus4 ,the wires coming from the  
seleniumized plate correspond           

symmetrically1 one after the other1 with
 the contacts of transmitter4 ,they are 
connected in the like order with those  
of disk1 ,a1 and with those of receiver1
 so that the wire bearing the ,no4 #e   
from the selenium will correspond       
identically with like contact ,no4 #e of
 receiver4  ,d1 ,fig4 #d1 gutta percha  
or vulcanite insulating plate1 through  
which pass numerous very fine platinum  
wires1 each corresponding at its point  
of contact with those on the circular   
disk1 ,a4  ,the receptive plate must be 
smaller than the plate whereon the light
 impinges4 ,the design being thus       
reduced will be the more perfect from   
the dots formed by the passing currents 
being closer together4  ,b1 zinc or iron
 or brass plate connected to earth4 ,it 
comes in contact with chemically        
prepared paper1 ,c1 where the impression
 is to take place4 ,it contributes to   
the impression by its contact with the  
chemically prepared paper4  ,in ,e1     
,fig4 #c1 at the center of the above    

described fixed plate is a metallic axis
 with small handle4 ,on this axis       
revolves brass wheel1 ,f1 ,fig4 #e4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b  ,on handle1   
,e1 presses continuously the spring1 ,h1
 ,fig4 #c1 bringing the current coming  
from the selenium line4 ,the cogged     
wheel in ,fig4 #e has at a certain point
 of its circumference the sliding       
spring1 ,o1 ,fig4 #e1 intended to slide 
as the wheel revolves over the different
 contacts of disk1 ,a1 ,fig4 #c4  ,this 
cogged wheel1 ,fig4 #e1 is turned1 as in
 the dial telegraphs1 by a rod working  
in and out under the successive         
movements of the electro-magnet1 ,h1 and
 of the counter spring4 ,by means of    
this rod 7which must be of a            
non-metallic material1 so as not to     
divert the motive current71 and of an   
elbow lever1 this alternating movement  
is transmitted to a catch1 ,g1 which    
works up and down between the cogs1 and 
answers the same purpose as the ordinary
 clock anchor4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c

  ,this cogged wheel is worked by       
clockwork inclosed between two disks1   
and would rotate continuously were it   
not for the catch1 ,g1 working in and   
out of the cogs4 ,through this catch1   
,g1 the wheel is dependent on the       
movement of electro-magnet4 ,this cogged
 wheel is a double one1 consisting of   
two wheels coupled together1 exactly    
similar one with the other1 and so fixed
 that the cogs of the one correspond    
with the void between the cogs of the   
others4 ,as the catch1 ,g1 moves down it
 frees a cog in first wheel1 and both   
wheels begin to turn1 but the second    
wheel is immediately checked by catch1  
,g1 and the movement ceases4 ,a catch   
again works the two wheels1 turn half a 
cog1 and so on4 ,each wheel contains as 
many cogs as there are contacts on      
transmitter disk1 consequently as many  
as on circular disk1 ,a1 ,fig4 #c1 and  
on brass disk within camera4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #e  ,having now described the   

several parts of the apparatus1 let us  
see how it works4 ,all the contacts     
correspond one with the other1 both on  
the side of selenium current and that of
 the motive current4 ,let us suppose    
that the slide of transmitter is on     
contact ,no4 #aj for instance2 the      
selenium current starting from ,no4 #aj 
reaches contact #aj of rectangular      
transmitter1 half the slide bearing on  
this point1 as also on the parallel     
rail1 communicates the current to said  
rail1 thence to line1 from the line to  
axis of cogged wheel1 from axis to      
contact #aj of circular fixed disk1 and 
thence to contact #aj of receiver4 ,at  
each selenium contact of the rectangular
 disk there is a corresponding contact  
to the battery and electro-magnet4 ,now1
 on reaching contact #aj the            
intermission of the current has turned  
the wheel #aj cogs1 and so brought the  
small contact1 ,o1 ,fig4 #e1 on ,no4 #aj
 of the fixed circular disk4  ,as may be
 seen1 the synchronism of the apparatus 

could not be obtained in a more simple  
and complete mode--the rectangular      
transmitter being placed vertically1 and
 the slide being of a certain weight to 
its fall from the first point of contact
 sufficient to carry it rapidly over the
 whole length of this transmitter4  ,the
 picture is1 therefore1 reproduced      
almost instantaneously2 indeed1 by using
 platinum wires on the receiver         
connected with the negative pole1 by the
 incandescence of these wires according 
to the different degrees of electricity 
we can obtain a picture1 of a fugitive  
kind1 it is true1 but yet so vivid that 
the impression on the retina does not   
fade during the relatively very brief   
space of time the slide occupies in     
traveling over all the contacts4 ,a     
,ruhmkorff coil may also be employed for
 obtaining sparks in proportion to the  
current emitted4 ,the apparatus is      
regulated in precisely the same way as  
dial telegraphs1 starting always from   
first contact4 ,the slide should1       

therefore1 never be removed from the    
rectangular disk1 whereon it is held by 
the grooves in the brass rails1 into    
which it fits with but slight friction1 
without communicating any current to the
 line wires when not placed on points of
 contact4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,continued from            
,,supplement ,no4 #bgd1 page #dcfh4     
,,the ,,various ,,modes ,,of            
,,transmitting ,,power ,,to ,a          
,,distance4  ,footnote3 ,a paper lately 
read before the ,institution of         
,mechanical ,engineers4  ,by ,,arthur   
,,achard1 of ,geneva4   ,but allowing   
that the figure of #bb ,h4 ,p41 assumed 
for this power 7the result in           
calculating the work with compressed air
 being #ai ,h4 ,p47 may be somewhat     
incorrect1 it is unlikely that this     
error can be so large that its          
correction could reduce the efficiency  
below #hj per cent4 ,messrs4 ,sautter   
and ,lemonnier1 who construct a number  
of compressors1 on being consulted by   

the author1 have written to say that    
they always confined themselves in      
estimating the power stored in the      
compressed air1 and had never measured  
the gross power expended4 ,compressed   
air in passing along the pipe1 assumed  
to be horizontal1 which conveys it from 
the place of production to the place    
where it is to be used1 experiences by  
friction a diminution of pressure1 which
 represents a reduction in the          
mechanical power stored up1 and         
consequently a loss of efficiency4  ,the
 loss of pressure in question can only  
be calculated conveniently on the       
hypothesis that it is very small1 and   
the general formula1    p#a - p     #d,l
   -------  ---- f7u71   ,delta    ,d   
,,tex3 fracp#a - p,delta  frac#d,l,df7u7
  is employed for the purpose1 where ,d 
is the diameter of the pipe1 assumed to 
be uniform1 ,l the length of the pipe1  
p#a the pressure at the entrance1 p the 
pressure at the farther end1 u the      
velocity at which the compressed air    

travels1 ,delta its specific weight1 and
 f7u7 the friction per unit of length4  
,in proportion as the air loses pressure
 its speed increases1 while its specific
 weight diminishes2 but the variations  
in pressure are assumed to be so small  
that u and ,delta may be considered     
constant4 ,as regards the quantity f7u71
 or the friction per unit of length1 the
 natural law which regulates it is not  
known1 audit can only be expressed by   
some empirical formula1 which1 while    
according sufficiently nearly with the  
facts1 is suited for calculation4 ,for  
this purpose the binomial formula1 au   
bu1 or the simple formula1 b#a u1 is    
generally adopted2 a b and b#a being    
coefficients deduced from experiment4   
,the values1 however1 which are to be   
given to these coefficients are not     
constant1 for they vary with the        
diameter of the pipe1 and in particular1
 contrary to formerly received ideas1   
they vary according to its internal     
surface4 ,the uncertainty in this       

respect is so great that it is not worth
 while1 with a view to accuracy1 to     
relinquish the great convenience which  
the simple formula1 b#a u1 offers4 ,it  
would be better from this point of view 
to endeavor1 as has been suggested1 to  
render this formula more exact by the   
substitution of a fractional power in   
the place of the square1 rather than to 
go through the long calculations        
necessitated by the use of the binomial 
au  bu4 ,accordingly1 making use of the 
formula b#a u1 the above equation       
becomes1    p#a - p     #d,l   -------  
---- b#a u2   ,delta    ,d  ,,tex3      
fracp#a - p,delta  frac#d,l,d b#a u#b   
or1 introducing the discharge per       
second1 ,q1 which is the usual figure   
supplied1 and which is connected with   
the velocity by the relation1 ,q  7pi ,d
 u7_/#d1 we have    p#a - p      #fd b#a
   -------  --------- ,l ,q4   ,delta   
pi ,d#e  ,,tex3 fracp#a - p,delta       
frac#fd b#api#b ,d#e ,l ,q#b  ,generally
 the pressure1 p#a1 at the entrance is  

known1 and the pressure1 p1 has to be   
found2 it is then from p#a that the     
values of ,q and ,delta are calculated4 
,in experiments where p#a and p are     
measured directly1 in order to arrive at
 the value of the coefficient b#a1 ,q   
and ,delta would be calculated for the  
mean pressure 7p#a  p74 ,the values     
given to the coefficient b#a vary       
considerably1 because1 as stated above1 
it varies with the diameter1 and also   
with the nature of the material of the  
pipe4 ,it is generally admitted that it 
is independent of the pressure1 and it  
is probable that within certain limits  
of pressure this hypothesis is in       
accordance with the truth4              
,d',aubuisson gives for this case1 in   
his ,trait d',hydraulique1 a rather     
complicated formula1 containing a       
constant deduced from experiment1 whose 
value1 according to a calculation made  
by the author1 is approximately b#a     
#j4jjjc4 ,this constant was determined  
by taking the mean of experiments made  

with tin tubes of #j4jbce meter 7#ae_/af
 in471 #j4je meter 7#b in471 and #j4aj  
meter 7#d in47 diameter2 and it was     
erroneously assumed that it was correct 
for all diameters and all substances4   
,m4 ,arson1 engineer to the ,paris ,gas 
,company1 published in #ahfg1 in the    
,mmoires de la ,socit des ,ingnieurs    
,civils de ,france1 the results of some 
experiments on the loss of pressure in  
gas when passing through pipes4 ,he     
employed cast-iron pipes of the ordinary
 type4 ,he has represented the results  
of his experiments by the binomial      
formula1 au  bu1 and gives values for   
the coefficients a and b1 which diminish
 with an increase in diameter1 but would
 indicate greater losses of pressure    
than ,d',aubuisson's formula4 ,m4       
,deviller1 in his ,rapport sur les      
travaux de percement du tunnel sous les 
,alpes1 states that the losses of       
pressure observed in the air pipe at the
 ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel confirm the       
correctness of ,d',aubuisson's formula2 

but his reasoning applies to too        
complicated a formula to be absolutely  
convincing4  ,quite recently ,m4 ,e4    
,stockalper1 engineer-in-chief at the   
northern end of the ,st4 ,gothard       
,tunnel1 has made some experiments on   
the air conduit of this tunnel1 the     
results of which he has kindly furnished
 to the author4 ,these lead to values   
for the coefficient b#a appreciably less
 than that which is contained implicitly
 in ,d',aubuisson's formula4 ,as he     
experimented on a rising pipe1 it is    
necessary to introduce into the formula 
the difference of level1 h1 between the 
two ends2 it then becomes    p#a - p    
#fd b#a   -------  --------- ,l ,q  h4  
,delta   pi ,d#e  ,,tex3 fracp#a -      
p,delta  frac#fd b#api#b ,d#e ,l ,q#b  h
  ,the following are the details of the 
experiments3 ,first series of           
experiments3 ,conduit consisting of cast
 or wrought iron pipes1 joined by means 
of flanges1 bolts1 and gutta percha     
rings4 ,d  #j4bj m4 7#h in472 ,l  #d1fjj

 m4 7#ae1ajj ft172 h #bf4gg m4 7#hg ft4 
#aj in474 #ast experiment3 ,q  #j4ahfj  
cubic meter 7#f4eg cubic feet71 at a    
pressure of 7p#a  p71 and a temperature 
of #bb ,cent4 7#gb ,fahr472 p#a  #e4fj  
atm41 p #e4bd atm4 ,hence p#a - p  #j4cf
 atm4 #j4cf x #aj1ccd kilogrammes per   
square meter 7#b4aaf lb4 per square     
foot71 whence we obtain b#aj4jjjafig4   
,d',aubuisson's formula would have given
 p#a - p  #j4fbf atm42 and ,m4 ,arson's 
would have given p#a - p  #j4icaf atm4  
#b;d experiment3 ,q  #j4aeff cubic meter
 7#e4ec cubic feet71 at a pressure of   
7p#a  p71 and a temperature of #bb      
,cent4 7#gb ,fahr472 p#a  #d4ce atm41 p 
#d4ac atm4 ,hence p#a - p  #j4bb atm4   
#j4bb ,x #aj1ccd kilogrammes per square 
meter 7#b1aaf lb4 per square foot72     
whence we obtain b#a  #j4jjjahaf4       
,d',aubuisson's formula would have given
 p#a - p  #j4cdg atm2 and ,m4 ,arson's  
would have given p#a - p  #j4echb atm4  
#c;d experiment3 ,q  #j4adie cubic meter
 7#e4bh cubic feet7 at a pressure of    

7p#a  p7 and a temperature #bb ,cent4   
7#gb ,fahr472 p#a  #c4hd atm41 p  #c4fe 
atm4 ,hence p#a - p  #j4ai atm4  #j4ai  
,x #aj1ccd kilogrammes per square meter 
7#b4aaf lb4 per square foot72 whence we 
obtain ,b#a  #j4jjjaiff4 ,d',aubuisson's
 formula would have given p#a - p       
#j4bhd atm41 and ,m4 ,arson's would have
 given p#a - p  #j4dcbi atm4 ,second    
series of experiments3 ,conduit composed
 of wrought-iron pipes1 with joints as  
in the first experiments4 ,d  #j4ae     
meter 7#f in471 ,l - #j4ebb meters      
7#a1gab ft471 h  #c4jd meters 7#aj ft47 
#ast experiments3 ,q  #j4bjje cubic     
meter 7#g4jh cubic feet71 at a pressure 
of 7p#a  p71 and a temperature of #bf4e 
,cent4 7#hj ,fahr472 p#a  #e4bd atm41 p 
#e4jj atm4 ,hence p#a - p  #j4bd atm4   
#j4bd x #aj1ccd kilogrammes per square  
meter 7#b1aaf lb4 per square foot72     
whence we obtain b#a  #j4cjjbbge4 #bnd  
experiment3 ,q  #j4aehf cubic meter     
7#e4f cubic feet71 at a pressure of 7p#a
  p71 and a temperature of #bf4e ,cent4 

7#hj ,fahr472 p#a  #c4fej atm41 p       
#c4ede atm4 ,hence p#a - p  #j4aje atm4 
#j4aje x #aj1ccd kilogrammes per square 
meter 7#b1aaf lb4 per square foot72     
whence we obtain b#a  #j4jjjbbee4 ,it is
 clear that these experiments give very 
small values for the coefficient4 ,the  
divergence from the results which       
,d',aubuisson's formula would give is   
due to the fact that his formula was    
determined with very small pipes4 ,it is
 probable that the coefficients         
corresponding to diameters of #j4ae     
meter 7#f in47 and #j4bj meter 7#h in47 
for a substance as smooth as tin1 would 
be still smaller respectively than the  
figures obtained above4  ,the divergence
 from the results obtained by ,m4       
,arson's formula does not arise from a  
difference in size1 as this is taken    
into account4 ,the author considers that
 it may be attributed to the fact that  
the pipes for the ,st4 ,gothard ,tunnel 
were cast with much greater care than   
ordinary pipes1 which rendered their    

surface smoother1 and also to the fact  
that flanged joints produce much less   
irregularity in the internal surface    
than the ordinary spigot and faucet     
joints4  ,lastly1 the difference in the 
methods of observation and the errors   
which belong to them1 must be taken into
 account4 ,m4 ,stockalper1 who          
experimented on great pressures1 used   
metallic gauges1 which are instruments  
on whose sensibility and correctness    
complete reliance cannot be placed2 and 
moreover the standard manometer with    
which they were compared was one of the 
same kind4 ,the author is not of opinion
 that the divergence is owing to the    
fact that ,m4 ,stockalper made his      
observations on an air conduit1 where   
the pressure was much higher than in gas
 pipes4 ,indeed1 it may be assumed that 
gases and liquids act in the same       
manner2 and1 as will be #a explained    
later on1 there is reason to believe    
that with the latter a rise of pressure 
increases the losses of pressure instead

 of diminishing them4  ,transcribers    
note #a3 corrected from 'as will we     
explained'  ,all the pipes for supplying
 compressed air in tunnels and in       
headings of mines are left uncovered1   
and have flanged joints2 which are      
advantages not merely as regards        
prevention of leakage1 but also for     
facility of laying and of inspection4   
,if a compressed air pipe had to be     
buried in the ground the flanged joint  
would lose a part of its advantages2    
but1 nevertheless1 the author considers 
that it would still be preferable to the
 ordinary joint4  ,it only remains to   
refer to the motors fed with the        
compressed air4 ,this subject is still  
in its infancy from a practical point of
 view4 ,in proportion as the air becomes
 hot by compression1 so it cools by     
expansion1 if the vessel containing it  
is impermeable to heat4 ,under these    
conditions it gives out in expanding a  
power appreciably less than if it       
retained its original temperature2      

besides which the fall of temperature   
may impede the working of the machine by
 freezing the vapor of water contained  
in the air4  ,if it is desired to       
utilize to the utmost the force stored  
up in the compressed air it is necessary
 to endeavor to supply heat to the air  
during expansion so as to keep its      
temperature constant4 ,it would be      
possible to attain this object by the   
same means which prevent heating from   
compression1 namely1 by the circulation 
and injection of water4 ,it would       
perhaps be necessary to employ a little 
larger quantity of water for injection1 
as the water1 instead of acting by      
virtue both of its heat of vaporization 
and of its specific heat1 can in this   
case act only by virtue of the latter4  
,these methods might be employed without
 difficulty for air machines of some    
size4 ,it would be more difficult to    
apply them to small household machines1 
in which simplicity is an essential     
element2 and we must rest satisfied with

 imperfect methods1 such as proximity to
 a stove1 or the immersion of the       
cylinder in a tank of water4            
,consequently loss of power by cooling  
and by incomplete expansion cannot be   
avoided4 ,the only way to diminish the  
relative amount of this loss is to      
employ compressed air at a pressure not 
exceeding three or four atmospheres4    
,the only real practical advance made in
 this matter is ,m4 ,mkarski's          
compressed air engine for tramways4 ,in 
this engine the air is made to pass     
through a small boiler containing water 
at a temperature of about #abj ,cent4   
7#bdh ,fahr471 before entering the      
cylinder of the engine4 ,it must be     
observed that in order to reduce the    
size of the reservoirs1 which are       
carried on the locomotive1 the air      
inside them must be very highly         
compressed2 and that in going from the  
reservoir into the cylinder it passes   
through a reducing valve or expander1   
which keeps the pressure of admission at

 a definite figure1 so that the         
locomotive can continue working so long 
as the supply of air contained in the   
reservoir has not come down to this     
limiting pressure4 ,the air does not    
pass the expander until after it has    
gone through the boiler already         
mentioned4 ,therefore1 if the           
temperature which it assumes in the     
boiler is #ajj ,cent4 7#bab ,fahr471 and
 if the limiting pressure is #e atm41   
the gas which enters the engine will be 
a mixture of air and water vapor at #ajj
 ,cent42 and of its total pressure the  
vapor of water will contribute ,i atm4  
and the air #d atm4 ,thus this          
contrivance1 by a small expenditure of  
fuel1 enables the air to act expansively
 without injurious cooling1 and even    
reduces the consumption of compressed   
air to an extent which compensates for  
part of the loss of power arising from  
the preliminary expansion which the air 
experiences before its admission into   
the engine4 ,it is clear that this same 

contrivance1 or what amounts to the same
 thing1 a direct injection of steam1 at 
a sufficient pressure1 for the purpose  
of maintaining the expanding air at a   
constant temperature1 might be tried in 
a fixed engine worked by compressed air 
with some chance of success4  ,whatever 
method is adopted it would be           
advantageous that the losses of pressure
 in the pipes connecting the compressors
 with the motors should be reduced as   
much as possible1 for in this case that 
loss would represent a loss of          
efficiency4 ,if1 on the other hand1     
owing to defective means of reheating1  
it is necessary to remain satisfied with
 a small amount of expansion1 the loss  
of pressure in the pipe is unimportant1 
and has only the effect of transferring 
the limited expansion to a point a      
little lower on the scale of pressures4 
,if ,w is the net disposable force on   
the shaft of the engine which works the 
compressor1 v#a the volume of air at the
 compressor1 p#a4 given by the          

compressor1 and at the temperature of   
the surrounding air1 and p#j the        
atmospheric pressure1 the efficiency of 
the compressor1 assuming the air to     
expand according to ,boyle's law1 is    
given by the well-known formula--    p#a
 v#a log 7p#a _/ p#j7                   
-------------------4           ,w       
,,tex3 fracp#a v#a log fracp#ap#j,w     
,let p#b be the value to which the      
pressure is reduced by the loss of      
pressure at the end of the conduit1 and 
v#b the volume which the air occupies at
 this pressure and at the same          
temperature2 the force stored up in the 
air at the end of its course through the
 conduit is p#b v#b log7p#b_/p#j72      
consequently1 the efficiency of the     
conduit is    p#b v#b log7p#b_/p#j7     
----------------   p#a v#a log7p#a_/p#j7
  ,,tex3 fracp#b v#b logfracp#bp#jp#b   
v#b logfracp#bp#j  a fraction that may  
be reduced to the simple form           
log7p#b_/p#j7   ----------1             
log7p#a_/p#j7  ,,tex3                   

fraclogfracp#bp#jlogfracp#bp#j  if there
 is no leakage during the passage of the
 air1 because in that cause p#b v#b  p#a
 v#a4 ,lastly1 if ,w#a is the net       
disposable force on the shaft of the    
compressed air motor1 the efficiency of 
this engine will be1          ,w#a      
----------------   p#b v#b log7p#b_/p#j7
  ,,tex3 frac,w#ap#b v#b log fracp#bp#j 
and the product of these three partial  
efficiencies is equal to ,w#a_/,w1 the  
general efficiency of the transmission4 
,,iii4 ,transmission by ,pressure       
,water4--,as transmission of power by   
compressed air has been specially       
applied to the driving of tunnels1 so   
transmission by pressure water has been 
specially resorted to for lifting heavy 
loads1 or for work of a similar nature1 
such as the operations connected with   
the manufacture of ,bessemer steel or of
 cast-iron pipes4 ,the author does not  
propose to treat of transmissions       
established for this special purpose1   
and depending on the use of accumulators

 at high pressure1 as he has no fresh   
matter to impart on this subject1 and as
 he believes that the remarkable        
invention of ,sir ,william ,armstrong   
was described for the first time1 in the
 ,proceedings of the ,institution of    
,mechanical ,engineers4 ,his object is  
to refer to transmissions applicable to 
general purposes4  ,the transmission of 
power by water may occur in another     
form4 ,the motive force to be           
transmitted may be employed for working 
pumps which raise the water1 not to a   
fictitious height in an accumulator1 but
 to a real height in a reservoir1 with a
 channel from this reservoir to         
distribute the water so raised among    
several motors arranged for utilizing   
the pressure4 ,the author is not aware  
that works have been carried out for    
this purpose4 ,however1 in many towns a 
part of the water from the public mains 
serves to supply small                  
motors--consequently1 if the water1     
instead of being brought by a natural   

fall1 has been previously lifted        
artificially1 it might be said that a   
transmission of power is here grafted on
 to the ordinary distribution of water4 
,unless a positive or negative force of 
gravity is introduced into the problem1 
independently of the force to be        
transmitted1 the receivers of the water 
pressure must be assumed to be at the   
same level as the forcing pumps1 or more
 correctly1 the water discharged from   
the receivers to be at the same level as
 the surface of the water from which the
 pumps draw their supply4 ,in this case 
the general efficiency of transmission  
is the product of three partial         
efficiencies1 which correspond exactly  
to those mentioned with regard to       
compressed air4 ,the height of lift1    
contained in the numerator of the       
fraction which expresses the efficiency 
of the pumps1 is not to be taken as the 
difference in level between the surface 
of the water in the reservoir and the   
surface of the water whence the pumps   

draw their supply2 but as this          
difference in level1 plus the loss of   
pressure in the suction pipe1 which is  
usually very short1 and plus the loss in
 the channel to the reservoir1 which may
 be very long4 ,a similar loss of       
initial pressure affects the efficiency 
of the discharge channel4 ,the          
reservoir1 if of sufficient capacity1   
may become an important store of power1 
while the compressed air reservoir can  
only do so to a very limited extent4    
,omitting the subject of the pumps1 and 
passing on at once to the discharge     
main1 the author may first point out    
that the distinction between the        
ascending and descending mains of the   
system is of no importance1 for two     
reasons3 first1 that nothing prevents   
the motors being supplied direct from   
the first alone2 and second1 that the   
one is not always distinct from the     
other4 ,in fact1 the reservoir may be   
connected by a single branch pipe with  
the system which goes from the pumps to 

the motors2 it may even be placed at the
 extreme end of this system beyond the  
motors1 provided always that the supply 
pipe is taken into it at the bottom4    
,the same formula may be adopted for the
 loss of initial pressure in water pipes
 as for compressed air pipes1 viz41     
p#a - p      #fd b#a   -------          
--------- ,l ,q  h2   ,delta   pi ,d#e  
,,tex3 fracp#a - p,delta  frac#fd       
b#api#b ,d#e ,l ,q#b pm h  h being the  
difference of level between the two ends
 of the portion of conduit of length1   
,l1 and the sign  or - being used       
according as the conduit rises or falls4
 ,the specific weight1 delta1 is        
constant1 and the quotients1 p#a_/;delta
 and p_/delta1 represent the heights1 z 
and z#a1 to which the water could rise  
above the pipes1 in vertical tubes      
branching from it1 at the beginning and 
end of the transit4 ,the values assigned
 to the coefficient b#a in ,france1 are 
those determined by ,d',arcy4 ,for new  
cast-iron pipes he gives b#a -          

#j4jjjbece  #a_/;,d #j4jjjjjjfdg2 and   
recommends that this value should be    
doubled1 to allow for the rust and      
incrustation which more or less form    
inside the pipes during use4 ,the       
determination of this coefficient has   
been made from experiments where the    
pressure has not exceeded four          
atmospheres2 within these limits the    
value of the coefficient1 as is         
generally admitted1 is independent of   
the pressure4 ,the experiments made by  
,m4 ,barret1 on the pressure pipes of   
the accumulator at the ,marseilles      
docks1 seem to indicate that the loss of
 pressure would be greater for high     
pressures1 everything else being equal4 
,this pipe1 having a diameter of #j4abg 
m4 7#e in471 was subjected to an initial
 pressure of #eb atmospheres4 ,the      
author gives below the results obtained 
for a straight length #cbj m4 7#ajej ft7
 long2 and has placed beside them the   
results which ,d',arcy's formula would  
give4                ,loss of head1 in  

meters or ft4 respectively              
per #ajj meters or ft4 run of pipes4    
------------------------------------    
,calculated loss4                       
----------------------                  
,velocity of flow  ,actual loss    per  
second4     observed4    ,old pipes4    
,new pipes4 ,meters4   ,feet4   ,met4 or
 ,ft4   ,met4 or ,ft4   ,met4 or ,ft4   
#j4be      #j4hb        #a4e            
#j4ab         #j4jf #j4ej      #a4fd    
#b4e           #j4dh         #j4bd #j4ge
      #b4df        #c4g           #a4jh 
#j4ed #a4jj      #c4bh        #e4e      
#a4ib         #j4if #a4be      #d4aj    
#f4a           #c4jj         #a4ej #a4ej
      #d4ib        #g4c           #d4cb 
#b4af #a4ge      #e4gd        #h4j      
#e4hh         #b4id #b4jj      #f4ef    
#aj4b           #g4fh         #c4hd     
#b4be      #g4ch       #aa4g            
#i4gb         #d4hf #b4ej      #h4bj    
#ad4j          #ab4jj         #f4jj     
,moreover1 these results would appear to
 indicate a different law from that     

which is expressed by the formula b#a u1
 as is easy to see by representing them 
graphically4 ,it would be very desirable
 that fresh experiments should be made  
on water pipes at high pressure1 and of 
various diameters4 ,of machines worked  
by water pressure the author proposes to
 refer only to two which appear to him  
in every respect the most practical and 
advantageous4 ,one is the piston machine
 of ,m4 ,albert ,schmid1 engineer at    
,zurich4 ,the cylinder is oscillating1  
and the distribution is effected1       
without an eccentric1 by the relative   
motion of two spherical surfaces fitted 
one against the other1 and having the   
axis of oscillation for a common axis4  
,the convex surface1 which is movable   
and forms part of the cylinder1 serves  
as a port face1 and has two ports in it 
communicating with the two ends of the  
cylinder4 ,the concave surface1 which is
 fixed and plays the part of a slide    
valve1 contains three openings1 the two 
outer ones serving to admit the pressure

 water1 and the middle one to discharge 
the water after it has exerted its      
pressure4 ,the piston has no packing4   
,its surface of contact has two         
circumferential grooves1 which produce a
 sort of water packing acting by        
adhesion4 ,a small air chamber is       
connected with the inlet pipe1 and      
serves to deaden the shocks4 ,this      
engine is often made with two cylinders1
 having their cranks at right angles4   
,the other engine1 which is much less   
used1 is a turbine on ,girard's system1 
with a horizontal axis and partial      
admission1 exactly resembling in        
miniature those which work in the       
hydraulic factory of ,st4 ,maur1 near   
,paris4 ,the water is introduced by     
means of a distributer1 which is fitted 
in the interior of the turbine chamber1 
and occupies a certain portion of its   
circumference4 ,this turbine has a lower
 efficiency than ,schmid's machine1 and 
is less suitable for high pressures2 but
 it possesses this advantage over it1   

that by regulating the amount of opening
 of the distributer1 and consequently   
the quantity of water admitted1 the     
force can be altered without altering   
the velocity of rotation4 ,as it admits 
of great speeds1 it could be usefully   
employed direct1 without the            
interposition of spur wheels or belts   
for driving magneto-electric machines   
employed for the production of light1   
for electrotyping1 etc4  ,in compressed 
air machines the losses of pressure due 
to incomplete expansion1 cooling1 and   
waste spaces1 play an important part4   
,in water pressure machines loss does   
not occur from these causes1 on account 
of the incompressibility of the liquid1 
but the frictions of the parts are the  
principal causes of loss of power4 ,it  
would be advisable to ascertain whether1
 as regards this point1 high or low     
pressures are the most advantageous4    
,theoretical considerations would lead  
the author to imagine that for a piston 
machine low pressures are preferable4   

,in conclusion1 the following table     
gives the efficiencies of a ,girard     
turbine1 constructed by ,messrs4 ,escher
 ,wyss  ,co41 of ,zurich1 and of a      
,schmid machine1 as measured by         
,professor ,fliegnor1 in #ahga3         
,,escher ,,wyss  ,,co',s ,,turbine4     
,effective ,head of ,water4             
,revolutions   ,efficiency4             
per minute4 ,meters4     ,feet4         
,revs4       ,per cent4  #bj4g          
#fg4i              #fbh          #fh4e  
#bj4g       #fg4i              #hdg     
#dg4d  #bd4a       #gi4j                
#fde          #fh4e  #bg4f       #ij4e  
#fab          #fe4g  #bg4f       #ij4e  
#gef          #fh4j  #ca4j      #aja4g  
#ice          #ef4i  #ca4j      #aja4g  
#a1acj          #ce4a                   
,,schmid ,,motor4    #h4c       #bg4b   
#bbf          #cg4d  #aa4d       #cg4d  
#ahb          #fg4d  #ad4e       #dg4f  
#bed          #ec4d  #ag4i       #eh4g  
#aeg          #hf4b  #bj4g       #fg4i  
#aff          #hi4f  #bj4g       #fg4i  

#bbe          #gd4f  #bd4a       #gi4j  
#bch          #gf4g  #bd4a       #gi4j  
#chi          #fd4j  #bg4f       #ij4e  
#bjg          #hc4i  ,it will be        
observed that these experiments relate  
to low pressures2 it would be desirable 
to extend them to higher pressures4     
,,iv4 ,transmission by                  
,electricity4--,however high the        
efficiency of an electric motor may be1 
in relation to the chemical work of the 
electric battery which feeds it1 force  
generated by an electric battery is too 
expensive1 on account of the nature of  
the materials consumed1 for a machine of
 this kind ever to be employed for      
industrial purposes4 ,if1 however1 the  
electric current1 instead of being      
developed by chemical work in a battery1
 is produced by ordinary mechanical     
power in a magneto-electric or          
dynamo-electric machine1 the case is    
different2 and the double               
transformation1 first of the mechanical 
force into an electric current1 and then

 of that current into mechanical force1 
furnishes a means for effecting the     
conveyance of the power to a distance4  
,it is this last method of transmission 
which remains to be discussed4 ,the     
author1 however1 feels himself obliged  
to restrict himself in this matter to a 
mere summary2 and1 indeed1 it is        
,english physicists and engineers who   
have taken the technology of electricity
 out of the region of empiricism and    
have placed it on a scientific and      
rational basis4 ,moreover1 they are also
 taking the lead in the progress which  
is being accomplished in this branch of 
knowledge1 and are best qualified to    
determine its true bearings4 ,when an   
electric current1 with an intensity1 i1 
is produced1 either by chemical or      
mechanical work1 in a circuit having a  
total resistance1 ,r1 a quantity of heat
 is developed in the circuit1 and this  
heat is the exact equivalent of the     
force expended1 so long as the current  
is not made use of for doing any        

external work4 ,the expression for this 
quantity of heat1 per unit of time1 is  
,ai,r2 ,a being the thermal equivalent  
of the unit of power corresponding to   
the units of current and resistance1 in 
which i and ,r are respectively         
expressed4 ,the product1 i,r1 is a      
certain quantity of power1 which the    
author proposes to call power           
transformed into electricity4 ,when     
mechanical power is employed for        
producing a current by means of a       
magneto-electric or dynamo-electric     
machine--or1 to use a better expression1
 by means of a mechanical generator of  
electricity--it is necessary in reality 
to expend a greater quantity of power   
than i,r in order to make up for losses 
which result either from ordinary       
friction or from certain electro        
magnetic reactions which occur4 ,the    
ratio of the quantity1 i,r1 to the      
power1 ,w1 actually expended per unit of
 time is called the efficiency of the   
generator4 ,designating it by ,k1 we    

obtain1 ,w  i,r_/,k4 ,it is very        
important to ascertain the value of this
 efficiency1 considering that it        
necessarily enters as a factor into the 
evaluation of all the effects to be     
produced by help of the generator in    
question4 ,the following table gives the
 results of certain experiments made    
early in #ahgi1 with a ,gramme machine1 
by an able physicist1 ,m ,hagenbach1    
,professor at the ,university at ,basle1
 and kindly furnished by him to the     
author3  ,revolutions per minute        
#ice  #iai4e  #ijj4e    #hic  ,total    
resistance in ,siemens' units           
#b4ee   #c4hb   #d4id   #f4jf  ,total   
resistance in absolute units            
#b4dce  #c4fdh  #d4gah  #e4ghg          
x#aji  x#aji  x#aji  x#aji  ,intensity  
in chemical units              #ag4fg   
#aj4ii   #h4ji   #f4bh  ,intensity in   
absolute units              #b4hbh      
#a4gei  #a4bie  #a4jje  ,work done i,r  
in absolute units         #aidh4f       
#aabi4b  #gia4c  #ehd4i                 

x#ajg  x#ajg  x#ajg  x#ajg  ,work done  
i,r in kilogrammes             #aih4f   
#aae4a  #hj4ff  #ei4fb  ,power expended 
in kilogrammes            #cja4e  #ada4j
  #hf4be  #hc4be  ,efficiency1 per cent4
                     #fe4i   #ha4f      
#ic4e   #ga4f  ,m4 ,hagenbach's         
dynamometric measurements were made by  
the aid of a brake4 ,after each         
experiment on the electric machine1 he  
applied the brake to the engine which he
 employed1 taking care to make it run at
 precisely the same speed1 with the same
 pressure of steam1 and with the same   
expansion as during experiment4 ,it     
would certainly be better to measure the
 force expended during and not after the
 experiment1 by means of a registering  
dynamometer4 ,moreover1 ,m4 ,hagenbach  
writes that his measurements by means of
 the brake were very much prejudiced by 
external circumstances2 doubtless this  
is the reason of the divergences between
 the results obtained4  ,about the same 
time ,dr4 ,hopkinson communicated to    

this institution the results of some    
very careful experiments made on a      
,siemens machine4 ,he measured the force
 expended by means of a registering     
dynamometer1 and obtained very high     
coefficients of efficiency1 amounting to
 nearly #ij per cent4 ,m4 ,hagenbach    
also obtained from one machine a result 
only a little less than unity4          
,mechanical generators of electricity   
are certainly capable of being improved 
in several respects1 especially as      
regards their adaptation to certain     
definite classes of work4 ,but there    
appears to remain hardly any margin for 
further progress as regards efficiency4 
,force transformed into electricity in a
 generator may be expressed by i omega  
,m ,c2 omega being the angular velocity 
of rotation2 ,m the magnetism of one of 
the poles1 inducing or induced1 which   
intervenes2 and ,c a constant specially 
belonging to each apparatus1 and which  
is independent of the units adopted4    
,this constant could not be determined  

except by an integration practically    
impossible2 and the product1 ,m ,c1 must
 be considered indivisible4 ,even in a  
magneto-electric machine 7with permanent
 inducing magnets71 and much more in a  
dynamo-electric machine 7inducing by    
means of electro-magnets excited by the 
very current produced7 the product1 ,m  
,c1 is a function of the intensity4     
,from the identity of the expressions1  
i,r and i omega ,m ,c we obtain the     
relation ,m ,c  ,,ir_/omega which       
indicates the course to be pursued to   
determine experimentally the law which  
connects the variations of ,m ,c with   
those of i4 ,some experiments made in   
#ahgf1 by ,m4 ,hagenbach1 on a ,gramme  
dynamo-electric machine1 appear to      
indicate that the magnetism1 ,m ,c1 does
 not increase indefinitely with the     
intensity1 but that there is some       
maximum value for this quantity4 ,if1   
instead of working a generator by an    
external motive force1 a current is     
passed through its circuit in a certain 

given direction1 the movable part of the
 machine will begin to turn in an       
opposite direction to that in which it  
would have been necessary to turn it in 
order to obtain a current in the        
aforesaid direction4 ,in virtue of this 
motion the electro-magnetic forces which
 are generated may be used to overcome a
 resisting force4 ,the machine will then
 work as a motor or receiver4 ,let i be 
the intensity of the external current   
which works the motor1 when the motor is
 kept at rest4 ,if it is now allowed to 
move1 its motion produces1 in virtue of 
the laws of induction1 a current in the 
circuit of intensity1 i#a1 in the       
opposite direction to the external      
current2 the effective intensity of the 
current traversing the circuit is thus  
reduced to i - i#a4 ,the intensity of   
the counter current is given1 like that 
of the generating current1 by the       
equation1 i#a,r  i#a omega#a ,m#a ,c#a1 
or i#a,r  omega#a ,m#a ,c#a1 the index1 
#a1 denoting the quantities relating to 

the motor4 ,here ,m#a ,c#a is a function
 of i - i#a1 not of i4 ,as in a         
generator the force transformed into    
electricity has a value1 i omega ,m ,c1 
so in a motor the force developed by    
electricity is 7i - i#a7 omega#a ,m#a   
,c#a4 ,on account1 however1 of the      
losses which occur1 the effective power1
 that is the disposable power on the    
shaft of the motor1 will have a smaller 
value1 and in order to arrive at it a   
coefficient of efficiency1 ,k#a1 must be
 added4 ,we shall then have ,w#a  ,k#a  
7i-i#a7 omega#a ,m#a ,c#a4 ,the author  
has no knowledge of any experiments     
having been made for obtaining this     
efficiency1 ,k#a4 ,next let us suppose  
that the current feeding the motor is   
furnished by a generator1 so that actual
 transmission by electricity is taking  
place4 ,the circuit1 whose resistance is
 ,r1 comprises the coils1 both fixed and
 movable1 of the generator and motor1   
and of the conductors which connect     
them4 ,the intensity of the current     

which traverses the circuit had the     
value1 i1 when the motor was at rest2 by
 the working of the motor it is reduced 
to i - i#a4 ,the power applied to the   
generator is itself reduced to          
,w-7i-i#a7omega ,m ,c_/,k4 ,the prime   
mover is relieved by the action of the  
counter current1 precisely as the       
consumption of zinc in the battery would
 be reduced by the same cause1 if the   
battery was the source of the current4  
,the efficiency of the transmission is  
,w#a_/,w4 ,calculation shows that it is 
expressed by the following              
equations3,w#a_/,w  ,k ,k#a 7omega#aa   
,m#a ,c#a7_/7omega#a ,m ,c71 or  ,k ,k#a
 7omega#aa ,m#a ,c7_/7omega#aa ,m#a ,c#a
  7i-i#a7 ,r72 expressions in which it  
must be remembered ,m ,c and ,m#a ,c#a  
are really functions of 7i-i#a74 ,this  
efficiency is1 then1 the product of     
three distinct factors1 each evidently  
less than unity1 namely1 the efficiency 
belonging to the generator1 the         
efficiency belonging to the motor1 and a

 third factor depending on the rate of  
rotation of the motor and the resistance
 of the circuit4 ,the influence which   
these elements exert on the value of the
 third factor cannot be estimated1      
unless the law is first known according 
to which the magnetisms1 ,m ,c1 ,m#a ,c 
,c#a1 vary with the intensity of the    
current4   ,,general ,,results4         
,casting a retrospective glance at the  
four methods of transmission of power   
which have been examined1 it would      
appear that transmission by ropes forms 
a class by itself1 while the three other
 methods combine into a natural group1  
because they possess a character in     
common of the greatest importance4 ,it  
may be said that all three involve a    
temporary transformation of the         
mechanical power to be utilized into    
potential energy4 ,also in each of these
 methods the efficiency of transmission 
is the product of three factors or      
partial efficiencies1 which correspond  
exactly--namely1 first1 the efficiency  

of the instrument which converts the    
actual energy of the prime mover into   
potential energy2 second1 the efficiency
 of the instrument which reconverts this
 potential energy into actual energy1   
that is1 into motion1 and delivers it up
 in this shape for the actual operations
 which accomplish industrial work2      
third1 the efficiency of the            
intermediate agency which serves for the
 conveyance of potential energy from the
 first instrument to the second4  ,this 
last factor has just been given for     
transmission by electricity4 ,it is the 
exact correlative of the efficiency of  
the pipe in the case of compressed air  
or of pressure water4 ,it is as useful  
in the case of electric transmission1 as
 of any other method1 to be able1 in    
studying the system1 to estimate        
beforehand what results it is able to   
furnish1 and for this purpose it is     
necessary to calculate exactly the      
factors which compose the efficiency4   
,in order to obtain this desirable      

knowledge1 the author considers that the
 three following points should form the 
aim of experimentalists3 ,first1 the    
determination of the efficiency1 ,k1 of 
the principal kinds of magneto-electric1
 or dynamo-electric machines working as 
generators2 second1 the determination of
 the efficiency1 ,k#a1 of the same      
machines working as motors2 third1 the  
determination of the law according to   
which the magnetism of the cores of     
these machines varies with the intensity
 of the current4 ,the author is of      
opinion that experiments made with these
 objects in view would be more useful   
than those conducted for determining the
 general efficiency of transmission1 for
 the latter give results only available 
under precisely similar conditions4     
,however1 it is clear that they have    
their value and must not be neglected4  
,there are1 moreover1 many other        
questions requiring to be elucidated by 
experiment1 especially as regards the   
arrangement of the conducting wires3 but

 it is needless to dwell further upon   
this subject1 which has been ably       
treated by many ,english men of         
science--for instance1 ,dr4 ,siemens and
 ,professor ,ayrton4 ,nevertheless1 for 
further information the author would    
refer to the able articles published at 
,paris1 by ,m4 ,mascart1 in the ,journal
 de ,physique1 in #ahgg and #ahgh4 ,the 
author would gladly have concluded this 
paper with a comparison of the          
efficiencies of the four systems which  
have been examined1 or what amounts to  
the same thing--with a comparison of the
 losses of power which they occasion4   
,unfortunately1 such a comparison has   
never been made experimentally1 because 
hitherto the opportunity of doing it in 
a demonstrative manner has been wanting1
 for the transmission of power to a     
distance belongs rather to the future   
than to the present time4 ,transmission 
by electricity is still in its infancy2 
it has only been applied on a small     
scale and experimentally4  ,of the three

 other systems1 transmission by means of
 ropes is the only one that has been    
employed for general industrial         
purposes1 while compressed air and water
 under pressure have been applied only  
to special purposes1 and their use has  
been due much more to their special     
suitableness for these purposes than    
from any considerations relative to loss
 of power4 ,thus the effective work of  
the compressed air used in driving the  
tunnels through the ,alps1 assuming its 
determination to be possible1 was       
undoubtedly very low2 nevertheless1 in  
the present state of our appliances it  
is the only process by which such       
operations can be accomplished4 ,the    
author believes that transmission by    
ropes furnishes the highest proportion  
of useful work1 but that as regards a   
wide distribution of the transmitted    
power the other two methods1 by air and 
water1 might merit a preference4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,hotchkiss ,,revolving ,,gun4    

,the ,hotchkiss revolving gun1 already  
adopted in the ,french navy and by other
 leading ,european nations1 has been    
ordered for use in the ,german navy by  
the following decree of the ,german     
,emperor1 dated ,january #aa last3 ,on  
the report made to me1 ,i approve the   
adoption of the ,hotchkiss revolving    
cannon as a part of the artillery of my 
navy2 and each of my ships1 according to
 their classification1 shall in general 
be armed with this weapon in such a     
manner that every point surrounding the 
vessel may be protected by the fire of  
at least two guns at a minimum range of 
#bjj meters4         99       99        
99       99       99     ,,thallium     
,,papers ,,as ,,ozonometers4   ,schoene 
has given the results of an extended    
series of experiments on the use of     
thallium paper for estimating           
approximately the oxidizing material in 
the atmosphere1 whether it be hydrogen  
peroxide alone1 or mixed with ozone1 or 
perhaps also with other constituents    

hitherto unknown4 ,the objection to     
,schnbein's ozonometer 7potassium iodide
 on starch paper7 and to ,houzeau's     
ozonometer 7potassium iodide on red     
litmus paper7 lies in the fact that     
their materials are hygroscopic1 and    
their indications vary widely with the  
moisture of the air4 ,since dry ozone   
does not act on these papers1 they must 
be moistened2 and then the amount of    
moisture varies the result quite as much
 as the amount of ozone4 ,indeed1       
attention has been called to the larger 
amount of ozone near salt works and     
waterfalls1 and the erroneous opinion   
advanced that ozone is formed when water
 is finely divided4 ,and ,bttger has    
stated that ozone is formed when ether  
is atomized2 the fact being that the    
reaction he observed was due to the     
,h#b,o#b always present in ether4       
,direct experiments with the ,schnbein  
ozonometer and the psychrometer gave    
parallel curves2 whence the author      
regards the former as only a crude      

hygrometer4 ,these objections do not lie
 against the thallium paper1 the        
oxidation to brown oxide by either ozone
 or hydrogen peroxide not requiring the 
presence of moisture1 and the color1    
therefore1 being independent of the     
hygrometric state of the air4 ,moreover1
 when well cared for1 the papers undergo
 no farther change of color and may be  
preserved indefinitely4 ,the author     
prepares the thallium paper a few days  
before use1 by dipping strips of        
,swedish filtering paper in a solution  
of thallous hydrate1 and drying4 ,the   
solution is prepared by pouring a       
solution of thallous sulphate into a    
boiling solution of barium hydrate1     
equivalent quantities being taken1 the  
resulting solution of thallous hydrate  
being concentrated in vacuo until #ajj  
c4c4 contains #aj grammes ,tl7,,oh74    
,for use the strips are hung in the free
 air in a close vessel1 preferably over 
caustic lime1 for twelve hours4 ,other  
papers are used1 made with a two per    

cent4 solution4 ,these are exposed for  
thirty-six hours4 ,the coloration is    
determined by comparison with a scale   
having eleven degrees of intensity upon 
it4 ,compared with ,schnbein's          
ozonometer1 the results are in general  
directly opposite4 ,the thallium papers 
show that the greatest effect is in the 
daytime1 the iodide papers that it is at
 night4 ,yearly curves show that the    
former generally indicate a rise when   
the latter give a fall4 ,the iodide     
curve follows closely that of relative  
humidity1 clouds1 and rain2 the thallium
 curve stands in no relation to it4 ,a  
table of results for the year #ahgi is  
given in monthly means1 of the two      
thallium papers1 the ozonometer1 the    
relative humidity1 cloudiness1 rain1 and
 velocity of wind4--,g4 ,f4 ,b41 in     
,ber4 ,berl4 ,chem4 ,ces4         99    
99       99       99       99     ,,the 
,,audiphone ,,in ,,england4   ,the      
audiphone has been recently tried in the
 ,board ,school for ,deaf and ,dumb at  

,turin street1 ,bethnal ,green1 with    
very satisfactory results--so           
satisfactory that the report will       
recommend its adoption in the four      
schools which the ,london ,board have   
erected for the education of the deaf   
and dumb4 ,some #bj per cent4 of the    
pupils in deaf and dumb schools have    
sufficient power of hearing when        
assisted by the audiphone to enable them
 to take their places in the classes of 
the ordinary schools4         99        
99       99       99       99           
,,conductivity ,,of ,,moist ,,air4      
,many physical treatises still assert   
that moist air conducts electricity1    
though ,silberman and others have proved
 the contrary4 ,an interesting          
experiment bearing on this has been     
described lately by ,prof4 ,marangoni4  
,over a flame is heated some water in a 
glass jar1 through the stopper of which 
passes a bent tube to bell-jar 7held    
obliquely71 which thus gets filled with 
aqueous vapor4 ,the upper half of a thin

 ,leyden jar charged is brought into the
 bell-jar1 and held there four or five  
seconds2 it is then found entirely      
discharged4 ,that the real cause of     
this1 however1 is condensation of the   
vapor on the part of the glass that is  
not coated with tin foil 7the liquid    
layer acting by conduction7 can be      
proved2 for if that part of the jar be  
passed several times rapidly through the
 flame1 so as to heat it to near #ajj   
,c41 before inserting in the bell-jar1 a
 different effect will be had2 the      
,leyden jar will give out long sparks   
after withdrawal4 ,this is because the  
glass being heated no longer condenses  
the vapor on its surface1 and there is  
no superficial conduction1 as in the    
previous case4         99       99      
99       99       99     ,,floating     
,,pontoon ,,dock4   ,considerable       
attention has been given for some years 
past to the subject of floating pontoon 
docks by ,mr4 ,robert ,turnbull1 naval  
architect1 of ,south ,shields1 ,eng41   

who has devised the ingenious           
arrangement which forms the subject of  
the annexed illustration4 ,the end aimed
 at and now achieved by ,mr4 ,turnbull  
was so to construct floating docks or   
pontoons that they may rise and fall in 
a berth1 and be swung round at one end  
upon a center post or                   
cylinder--nautically known as a         
dolphin--projecting from the ground at a
 slight distance from the berth4 ,the   
cylinder is in deep water1 and1 when the
 pontoon is swung and sunk to the       
desired depth by letting in the         
necessary amount of water1 a vessel can 
be floated in and then secured4 ,the    
pontoon1 with the vessel on it1 is then 
raised by pumping out the contained     
water until she is a little above the   
level of the berth4 ,the whole is then  
swung round over the berth1 the vessel  
then being high and dry to enable       
repairs or other operations to be       
conducted4 ,for this purpose1 one end of
 the pontoon is so formed as to enable  

it to fit around the cylinder1 and to be
 held to it as to a center or fulcrum1  
about which the pontoon can be swung4   
,the pontoon is of special construction1
 and has air-chambers at the sides      
placed near the center1 so as to balance
 it4 ,it also has chambers at the ends1 
which are divided horizontally in order 
that the operation of submerging within 
a berth or in shallow water may be      
conducted without risk1 the upper       
chambers being afterwards supplied with 
water to sink the pontoon to the full   
depth before a vessel is hauled in4     
,when the ship is in place1 the pontoon 
with her is then lifted above the level 
of the berth in which it has to be      
placed1 and then swung round into the   
berth4 ,in some cases1 the pontoon is   
provided with a cradle1 so that1 when in
 berth1 the vessel on the cradle can be 
hauled up a slip with rails arranged as 
a continuation of the cradle-rails of   
the pontoon1 which can be then furnished
 with another cradle1 and another vessel

 lifted4  ,it is this latter arrangement
 which forms the subject of our         
illustration1 the vessel represented    
being of the following dimensions3      
,length between perpendiculars1 #cej    
feet2 breadth1 moulded1 #dj feet2 depth1
 moulded1 #cb feet2 tons1 ,b4 ,m41      
#b1fjj2 tons net1 #b1jjj4 ,at ,a1 in    
fig4 #a1 is shown in dotted lines a     
portion of the vessel and pontoon1 the  
ship having just been hauled in and     
centered over the keel blocks4 ,at ,b1  
is shown the pontoon with the ship      
raised and swung round on to a low level
 quay4 ,going a step further in the     
operation1 we see at ,c1 the vessel     
hauled on to the slipways on the        
high-level quay4 ,in this case the      
cylinder is arranged so that the vessel 
may be delivered on to the rails or     
slips1 which are arranged radially1     
taking the cylinder as the center4      
,there may be any number of slips so    
arranged1 and one pontoon may be made   
available for several cylinders at the  

deep water parts of neighboring         
repairing or building yards1 in which   
case the recessed portion of the        
pontoon1 when arranged around the       
cylinder1 has stays or retaining bars   
fitted to prevent it leaving the        
cylinder when the swinging is taking    
place1 such as might happen in a        
tideway4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4      
,,improved ,,floating ,,pontoon ,,dry   
,,dock4  ,the arrangements for          
delivering vessels on radial slips is   
seen in plan at fig4 #b1 where ,a       
represents the river or deep water2 ,b  
is the pontoon with the vessel2 ,c being
 the cylinder or turning center2 ,d is  
the low-level quay on to which the      
pontoon carrying the ship is first      
swung2 ,e is the high-level quay with   
the slip-ways2 ,f is an engine running  
on rails around the radial slips for    
drawing the vessels with the cradle off 
the pontoon1 and hauling them up on to  
the high-level quay2 and ,g shows the   
repairing shops1 stores1 and sheds4 ,a  

pontoon attached to a cylinder may be   
fitted with an ordinary wet dock2 and   
then the pontoon1 before or after the   
vessel is upon it1 can be slewed round  
to suit the slips up which the vessel   
has to be moved1 supposing the slips are
 arranged radially4 ,in this case1 the  
pivot end of the pontoon would be a     
fixture1 so to speak1 to the cylinder4  
,the pontoon may also be made available 
for lifting heavy weights1 by fitting a 
pair of compound levers or other        
apparatus at one end1 the lifting power 
being in the pontoon itself4 ,in some   
cases1 in order to lengthen the pontoon1
 twenty-five or fifty foot lengths are  
added at the after end4 ,when not thus  
engaged1 those lengths form short       
pontoons suitable for small             
vessels4--,iron4         99       99    
99       99       99     ,,weirleigh1   
,,brenchley1 ,,kent4   ,some few years  
since1 ,mr4 ,harrison ,weir 7whose      
drawings of natural history are known   
probably to a wider circle of the       

general public than the works of most   
artists71 wishing to pursue his favorite
 study of animals and horticulture1     
erected on the steep hillside of the    
road leading from ,paddock ,wood to     
,brenchley1 a small cottage orne with   
detached studio4 ,afterward desiring    
more accommodation1 he carried out the  
buildings shown in our illustrations4   
,advantage has been taken of the slope  
of the hill on one side1 and the rising 
ground in the rear on the other1 to     
increase the effect of the buildings and
 meet the difficulty of the levels4 ,the
 two portions--old1 etched1 and new1    
shown as black--are connected together  
by a handsome staircase1 which is       
carried up in the tower1 and affords    
access to the various levels4 ,the      
materials are red brick1 with ,bathstone
 dressings1 and weather-tiling on the   
upper floors4 ,black walnut1 pitch pine1
 and sequoias have been used in the     
staircase1 and joiner's work to the     
principal rooms4 ,the principal stoves  

are of ,godstone stone only1 no iron or 
metal work being used4 ,the architects  
are ,messrs4 ,wadmore  ,baker1 of #ce   
,great ,st4 ,helens1 ,e4,c42 the        
builders1 ,messrs4 ,penn ,brothers1 of  
,pembury1 ,kent4--,building ,news4      
,illustration3 ,,artists ,,homes ,,no   
#aa ,,weirleigh ,,brenchley1 ,,kent4    
,,the ,,residence ,,of ,,harrison ,,weir
 ,,esq',,re ,,wadmore  ,,baker          
,,architects         99       99        
99       99       99     ,,rapid        
,,breathing ,,as ,a ,,pain ,,obtunder   
,,in ,,minor ,,surgery1 ,,obstetrics1   
,,the ,,general ,,practice ,,of         
,,medicine ,,and ,,of ,,dentistry4      
,footnote3 ,read before the             
,philadelphia ,county ,medical ,society1
 ,may #ab1 #ahhj1 by ,w4 ,g4 ,a4        
,bonwill1 ,m4,d41 ,d4,d4,s41            
,philadelphia4   ,through the kind      
invitation of your directors1 ,i am     
present to give you the history of rapid
 breathing as an analgesic agent1 as    
well as my experience therein since ,i  

first discovered it4 ,it is with no     
little feeling of modesty that ,i appear
 before such a learned and honorable    
body of physicians and surgeons1 and ,i 
accept the privilege as a high          
compliment4 ,i trust the same liberal   
spirit which prompted you to call this  
subject to the light of investigation   
will not forsake you when you have heard
 all ,i have to say and you sit in      
judgment thereon4 ,sufficient time has  
now elapsed since the first promulgation
 of the subject for the shafts of       
ridicule to be well nigh spent 7which is
 the common logic used to crush out all 
new ideas71 and it is to be expected    
that gentlemen will look upon it with   
all the charity of a learned body1 and  
not be too hasty to condemn what they   
have had but little chance to           
investigate2 and1 of course1 have not   
practiced with that success which can   
only come from an intelligent           
understanding of its application and    
modus operandi4  ,knowing the history of

 past discoveries1 ,i was well prepared 
for the crucible4 ,i could not hope to  
be an exception4 ,but1 so far1 the      
medical profession have extended me more
 favor than ,i have received at the     
hands of the dental profession4  ,my    
first conception of the analgesic       
property of a pain obtunder in          
contradistinction to its anaesthetic    
effect1 which finally led to the        
discovery of the inhalation of common   
air by rapid breathing1 was in #ahee or 
#ahef1 while performing upon my own     
teeth certain operations which gave me  
intense pain 7and ,i could not afford to
 hurt myself7 without a resort to ether 
and chloroform4 ,these agents had been  
known so short a time that no one was   
specially familiar with their action4   
,without knowing whether ,i could take  
chloroform administered by myself1 and  
at the same time perform with skill the 
excavation of extremely sensitive       
dentine or tooth-bone1 as if no         
anaesthetic had been taken1 and not be  

conscious of pain1 was more than the    
experience of medical men at that time  
could assure me4 ,but1 having a love for
 investigation of the unknown1 ,i       
prepared myself for the ordeal4 ,by     
degrees ,i took the chloroform until ,i 
began to feel very plainly its primary  
effects1 and knowing that ,i must soon  
be unconscious1 ,i applied the excavator
 to the carious tooth1 and1 to my       
surprise1 found no pain whatever1 but   
the sense of touch and hearing were     
marvelously intensified4 ,the small     
cavity seemed as large as a half bushel2
 the excavator more the size of an ax2  
and the sound was equally magnified4    
,that ,i might not be mistaken1 ,i      
repeated the operation until ,i was     
confident that anaesthetics possessed a 
power not hitherto known--that of       
analgesia4 ,to be doubly certain1 ,i    
gave it in my practice1 in many cases   
with the same happy results1 which saved
 me from the risks incident to the      
secondary effects of anaesthetics1 and  

which answered for all the purposes of  
extracting from one to four teeth4 ,not 
satisfied with any advance longer than  
,i could find a better plan1 ,i         
experimented with the galvanic current  
7to and fro7 by so applying the poles   
that ,i substituted a stronger          
impression by electricity from the nerve
 centers or ganglia to the peripheries  
than was made from the periphery to the 
brain4 ,this was so much of a success   
that ,i threw aside chloroform and ether
 in removing the living nerve of a tooth
 with instruments instead of using      
arsenic2 and for excavating sensitive   
caries in teeth1 preparatory to filling1
 as well as many teeth extracted by it4 
,but this was short-lived1 for it led to
 another step4 ,sometimes ,i would      
inflict severe pain in cases of         
congested pulps or from its hasty       
application1 or pushing it to do too    
much1 when my patient invariably would  
draw or inhale the breath very forcibly 
and rapidly4 ,i was struck with the     

repeated coincidence1 and was led to    
exclaim3 ,nature's anaesthetic4 ,this   
then reminded me of boyhood's bruises4  
,the involuntary action of every one who
 has a finger hurt is to place it to the
 mouth and draw violently in the air and
 hold it for an instant1 and again      
repeat it until the pain is subdued4    
,the same action of the lungs occurs1   
except more powerfully1 in young        
children who take to crying when hurt4  
,it will be noticed they breathe very   
rapidly while furiously crying1 which   
soon allays the irritation1 and sleep   
comes as the sequel4 ,witness also when 
one is suddenly startled1 how violently 
the breath is taken1 which gives relief4
 ,the same thing occurs in the lower    
animals when pain is being inflicted at 
the hand of man4  ,this was advance ,no4
 #c1 and so sure was ,i of this new     
discovery1 that ,i at once made an      
application while removing decay from an
 extremely sensitive tooth4 ,to be      
successful1 ,i found ,i must make the   

patient take the start1 and ,i would    
follow with a thrust from the excavator1
 which move would be accomplished before
 the lungs could be inflated4 ,this was 
repeated for at least a minute1 until   
the operation was completed1 ,i always  
following immediately or synchronously  
with the inhalation4  ,this led to step 
,no4 #d1 which resulted in its          
application to the extracting of teeth  
and other operations in minor surgery4  
,up to this time ,i had believed the    
sole effect of the rapid inhalation was 
due to mere diversion of the will1 and  
this was the only way nature could so   
violently exert herself--that of        
controlling the involuntary action of   
the lungs to her uses by the safety     
valve1 or the voluntary movement4  ,the 
constant breathing of the patient for   
thirty seconds to a minute left him in a
 condition of body and mind resembling  
the effects of ether and chloroform in  
their primary stages4 ,i could but argue
 that the prolonged breathing each time 

had done it2 and1 if so1 then there must
 be some specific effect over and above 
the mere diversion by the will4 ,to what
 could it be due8 ,to the air alone1    
which went in excess into the lungs in  
the course of a minute6 ,why did ,i not 
then immediately grasp the idea of its  
broader application as now claimed for  
it8 ,it was too much1 gentlemen1 for    
that hour4 ,enough had been done in this
 fourth step of conception to rest in   
the womb of time1 until by evolution a  
higher step could be made at the        
maturity of the child4 ,being           
self-satisfied with my own baby1 ,i     
watched and caressed it until it could  
take care of itself1 and my mind was    
again free for another conception4  ,the
 births at first seemed to come at very 
short intervals2 but see how long it was
 between the fourth and the fifth birth4
 ,it was soon after that my mind became 
involved in inventions--a hereditary    
outgrowth--and the electric mallet and  
then the dental engine1 the parent of   

your surgical engine1 to be found in the
 principal hospitals of this city1 took 
such possession of my whole soul1 that  
my air analgesic was left slumbering4   
,it was not until ,august1              
#ahge--nineteen years after--that it    
again came up in full force1 without any
 previous warning4  ,this time it was no
 law of association that revived it2 but
 it seemed the whispering of some one in
 the air--some ethereal spirit1 if you  
please--which instituted it1 and        
advanced the following problem3 ,nitrous
 oxide gas is composed of the same      
elements as ordinary air1 with a larger 
equivalent of oxygen1 except it is a    
chemical compound1 not a mechanical     
mixture1 and its anaesthetic effects are
 said to be due to the excess of oxygen4
 ,if this be a fact1 then why can you   
not produce a similar effect by rapid   
breathing for a minute1 more or less1 by
 which a larger quantity of oxygen is   
presented in the lungs for absorption by
 the blood8  ,this query was soon       

answered by asking myself another3 ,if  
the rapid inhalation of air into the    
lungs does not increase the heart's     
action and cause it to drive the blood  
in exact ratio to the inhalations1 then 
,i can produce partial anaesthesia from 
this excess of oxygen brought about by  
the voluntary movements over their      
ordinary involuntary action of the      
lungs4 ,the next question was3 ,will my 
heart be affected by this excess of air 
in the lungs to such an extent that     
there will be a full reciprocity between
 them8 ,without making any trial of it1 
,i argued that1 while there is no other 
muscular movement than that of the chest
 as under the control of the will1 and  
as nature has given to the will the     
perfect control over the lungs to supply
 more or less air1 as is demanded by the
 pneumogastric nerve for the immediate  
wants of the economy1 when the          
involuntary action is not sufficient2   
and the heart not being under the       
control of the will1 and its action     

never accelerated or diminished except  
by a specific poison1 or from the       
general activity of the person in       
violent running or working1 the blood is
 forced into the heart faster and must  
get rid of it1 when a larger supply of  
oxygen is demanded and rapid breathing  
must occur1 or asphyxia result4 ,i was  
not long in deciding that the heart     
would not be accelerated but a          
trifle--say a tenth--and1 under the     
circumstances1 ,i said3 ,the air is an  
anaesthetic4  ,from this rapid course of
 argument1 ,i was so profoundly         
convinced of its truth1 that without    
having first tried it upon my own       
person1 ,i would have sat where ,i was1 
upon the curbstone1 and had a tooth     
removed with the perfect expectation of 
absence of pain and of still being      
conscious of touch4 ,while yet walking  
with my children1 ,i commenced to       
breathe as rapidly as possible1 and1 as 
anticipated1 found my steps growing     
shorter and shorter1 until ,i came to a 

stand1 showing to my mind clearly that  
my argument in advance was right1 so far
 as locomotion was concerned2 and1 upon 
referring to my pulse1 ,i found but     
little acceleration4  ,to what other    
conclusion could ,i arrive from this    
argument1 with the foundation laid      
nineteen years before1 when ,i          
established on my own person by         
experiment the fact of analgesia as     
induced from chloroform1 with the many  
experiments in rapid respiration on     
tooth bone8  ,from this moment until its
 first application to the extraction of 
a tooth you can well imagine my         
suspense4 ,that ,i might not fail in the
 very first attempt1 ,i compelled myself
 and others in my household to breathe  
rapidly to investigate the phenomenon4  
,this gave me some idea as to the proper
 method of proceeding in its            
administering4  ,the first case soon    
appeared1 and was a perfect success1    
going far beyond my anticipations1 for  
the effect was such as to produce a     

partial paralysis of the hands and arms 
to the elbow4 ,again and again ,i tried 
it in every case of extraction and many 
other experiments1 doubting my own      
senses for a long time at a result so   
anomalous and paradoxical4 ,i was       
reminded just here of a phenomenon which
 gave me additional proof--that of      
blowing a dull fire to revive it4 ,for a
 minute or so one blows and blows in    
rapid succession until1 rising from the 
effort1 a sense of giddiness for a few  
moments so overcomes that the upright   
position is with difficulty maintained4 
,in this condition you are fitted for   
having a tooth extracted or an abscess  
lanced4  ,believing that ,i had         
something new to offer which might be of
 use to suffering humanity1 ,i read the 
first article upon it ,nov4 #ag1 #ahge1 
before the ,franklin ,institute4        
,shortly after ,i was invited before the
 ,northern ,medical ,society of this    
city to address them thereon4 ,a number 
of medical gentlemen have been using it 

in their practice1 while the bulk of    
them have spurned it as negative and    
preposterous1 without an effort at      
trying it1 which ,i can now very well   
understand4  ,unless one is aware of the
 fact that in the use of any agent which
 has the power to suspend the volition1 
it can be taken to that point where he  
is still conscious of touch and hearing1
 and at the same time not cognizant of  
pain inflicted1 the action of rapid     
breathing could not be understood4 ,and 
,i regret to say that of three-fourths  
of the medical men ,i have talked with  
on the subject they had not been aware  
of such a possibility from ether and    
chloroform4 ,until this analgesic state 
could be established in their minds it  
was impossible to convince them that the
 excess of oxygen1 as obtained by rapid 
breathing1 could be made to produce a   
similar effect4 ,i should have been as  
reluctant as any one to believe it1 had 
,i not personally experienced the effect
 while performing an operation which    

would otherwise have been very painful4 
,such a result could not well be reached
 by any course of reasoning4  ,has it   
proven in my practice what has been     
claimed for it--a substitute for the    
powerful anaesthetics in minor          
operations in surgery8 ,most            
emphatically1 yes6 ,so completely has it
 fulfilled its humble mission in my     
office1 that ,i can safely assert there 
has not been more than five per cent4 of
 failures4 ,i have given it under all   
circumstances of diseased organs1 and   
have seen no other than the happiest    
results in its after effects4 ,it may   
well be asked just here3 ,why has it not
 been more generally and widely used by 
the dental profession as well as the    
medical1 if it is really what is claimed
 for it8 ,the most satisfactory and     
charitable answer to be given is1 the   
failure upon their part to comprehend   
the fact as existing in chloroform and  
ether that there is such a state as     
analgesia2 or1 in other words1 that the 

animal economy is so organized1 while   
the sense of touch is not destroyed1 but
 rather increased1 the mind of the      
subject fails to perceive a sense of    
pain when anaesthetics are given1 and   
the effects are manifested in the       
primary stage4 ,as ,i before intimated1 
such is the knowledge possessed by most 
of those who administer ether and       
chloroform4 ,this was enough to cause   
nearly every one to look upon it as a   
bubble or air castle4 ,many gentlemen   
told me they tried it upon themselves1  
and1 while it affected them very        
seriously by giddiness1 they still      
retained consciousness2 and1 such being 
the case1 no effect could be produced   
for obtunding pain4 ,others told me they
 were afraid to continue the breathing  
alarmed at the vertigo induced4 ,and the
 practitioner who has adopted it more   
effectively than any other laughed at me
 when ,i first told him of the          
discovery2 but his intimate association 
with me changed his views after much    

explanation and argument between us4    
,it was hardly to be expected that      
without this knowledge of analgesia1 and
 without any explanation from me as to  
the modus operandi of rapid breathing1  
other than a few suggestions or         
directions as to how the effect was     
induced1 even the most liberal of       
medical men should be able to make it   
effective1 or have the least disposition
 to give it a preliminary trial upon    
themselves1 and1 of course1 would not   
attempt it upon a patient4              
,notwithstanding1 it found a few        
adherents1 but only among my personal   
medical friends1 with whom ,i had an    
opportunity to explain what ,i believed 
its physiological action1 and the cases 
of success in my own practice4 ,to this 
,i have submitted as among the          
inevitable in the calendar of           
discoveries of all grades4  ,my own     
profession have attempted to ridicule it
 out of its birthright and possible     
existence1 which style of argument is   

not resorted to by true logicians4  ,to 
all this ,i can truly say ,i have not   
for one moment faltered4 ,i could afford
 to wait4 ,the liberality of this       
society alone fully compensates for the 
seeming indisposition of the past1      
believing that it is proper that every  
advance should be confronted1 and1 if in
 time found worthy1 give it ,god speed4 
,from its first conception ,i have      
diligently labored to solve its modus   
operandi1 and the doubt in my own mind  
as to whether ,i could be mistaken in my
 observations4 ,i asked the opinion of  
our best chemical teachers if air could 
have such effect4 ,one attributed it to 
oxygen stimulation1 and the other to    
nitrogen4 ,another gentleman told me the
 medical profession had come to the     
conclusion that it was possible for me  
to thus extract teeth1 but it was due   
solely to my strong personal magnetism  
7which power ,i was not before aware ,i 
possessed74  ,now1 from what ,i have    
related of the successive and natural   

steps which finally culminated in this  
process or plan of analgesia induced by 
an excess of ordinary air taken forcibly
 into the lungs above what is necessary 
for life1 and from what ,i shall state  
as to the apparently anomalous or       
paradoxical effects1 with its           
physiological action1 and the simple    
tests made upon each of my patients1 ,i 
shall trust to so convince you of its   
plausibility and possibility that it    
will be made use of in hundreds of minor
 operations where ether and chloroform  
are now used4  ,aside from my assertion 
and that of its friends1 that the       
effects can be produced by air alone1   
you must have some light shed upon the  
causes of its physiological action1     
which will appeal to your medical       
reason4  ,to assign an action to any    
drug is difficult1 and in the cases of  
ether and the other anaesthetics a      
quarter of a century still finds many   
conflicting opinions4 ,this being true1 
you will deal leniently with me for the 

opinion ,i hold as to their analgesic   
action4 ,of course it will be objected  
to1 for the unseen is1 to a great       
extent1 unknowable4 ,enough for my      
argument1 however2 it seems to suit the 
case very well without looking for      
another2 and while it was based on the  
phenomenon resulting from many trials1  
and not the trials upon it as a previous
 theory1 ,i shall be content with it    
until a better one can be found4  ,what 
is it ,i claim as a new discovery1 and  
the facts and its philosophy8  ,i have  
asserted that ,i can produce1 from      
rapidly breathing common air at the rate
 of a hundred respirations a minute1 a  
similar effect to that from ether1      
chloroform1 and nitrous oxide gas1 in   
their primary stages2 and ,i can in this
 way render patients sufficiently       
insensible to acute pain from any       
operation where the time consumed is not
 over twenty to thirty seconds4 ,while  
the special senses are in partial       
action1 the sense of pain is obtunded1  

and in many cases completely annulled1  
consciousness and general sensibility   
being preserved4  ,to accomplish this1  
each patient must be instructed how to  
act and what to expect4 ,as simple as it
 may seem1 there is a proper and        
consistent plan to enable you to reach  
full success4 ,before the patient       
commences to inhale he is informed of   
the fact that1 while he will be         
unconscious of pain1 he will know full1 
or partially well1 every touch upon the 
person2 that the inhalation must be     
vigorously kept up during the whole     
operation without for an instant        
stopping2 that the more energetically   
and steadily he breathes1 the more      
perfect the effect1 and that if he cease
 breathing during the operation1 pain   
will be felt4 ,fully impress them with  
this idea1 for the very good reason that
 they may stop when in the midst of an  
operation1 and the fullest effects be   
lost4 ,it is obligatory to do so on     
account of its evanescent effects1 which

 demand that the patient be pushed by   
the operator's own energetic appeals to 
go on4 ,it is very difficult for any    
person to respire more than one hundred 
times to the minute1 as he will become  
by that time so exhausted as not to be  
able to breathe at all1 as is evidenced 
by all who have thus followed my        
directions4 ,for the next minute        
following the completion of the         
operation the subject will not breathe  
more than once or twice4 ,very few have 
force enough left to raise hand or foot4
 ,the voluntary muscles have nearly all 
been subjugated and overcome by the     
undue effort at forced inhalation of one
 hundred over seventeen1 the normal     
standard4 ,it will be more fully        
understood further on in my argument why
 ,i force patients1 and am constantly   
speaking to them to go on4  ,i further  
claim that for the past four years1 so  
satisfactory has been the result of this
 system in the extracting of teeth and  
deadening extremely sensitive dentine1  

there was no longer any necessity for   
chloroform1 ether1 or nitrous oxide in  
the dental office4 ,that such teeth as  
cannot be extracted by its aid can well 
be preserved and made useful1 except in 
a very few cases1 who will not be forced
 to breathe4  ,the anaesthetics1 when   
used in major operations1 where time is 
needed for the operation1 can be made   
more effective by a lesser quantity when
 given in conjunction with rapid        
breathing4 ,drs4 ,garrettson and ,hews1 
who have thus tried it1 tell me it takes
 one-half to three-fourths less1 and the
 after effects are far less nauseating  
and unpleasant4  ,as an agent in labor  
where an anaesthetic is indicated1 it is
 claimed by one who has employed it     
7,dr4 ,hews7 in nearly every case for   
three years1 he has used rapid breathing
 solely1 and to the exclusion of        
chloroform and ether4 ,for this ,i have 
his assertion1 and have no doubt of it  
whatever1 for if any agent could break  
down the action of the voluntary muscles

 of the parts involved1 which prevent   
the involuntary muscles of the uterus   
from having their fullest effect1 it is 
this4 ,the very act of rapid breathing  
so affects the muscles of the abdomen as
 to force the contents of the uterus    
downward or outward1 while the specific 
effect of the air at the end of a       
minute's breathing leaves the subject in
 a semi-prostrate condition1 giving the 
uterus full chance to act in the        
interim1 because free of the will to    
make any attempt at withholding the     
involuntary muscles of the uterus from  
doing their natural work4 ,it is self   
evident2 and in this agent we claim here
 a boon of inestimable value4 ,and not  
least in such cases is1 there is no     
danger of hemorrhage1 since the cause of
 the effect is soon removed4  ,in       
attestation of many cases where it has  
been tried1 ,i have asked the mother1   
and1 in some cases1 the attendants1     
whether anything else had been given1   
and whether the time was very materially

 lessened1 there has been but one       
response1 and that in its favor4        
,gentlemen1 if we are not mistaken in   
this1 you will agree with me in saying  
that it is no mean thing1 and should be 
investigated by intelligent men and     
reported upon4 ,from my own knowledge of
 its effects in my practice1 ,i am bound
 to believe this gentleman's record4  ,i
 further claim for it a special         
application in dislocations4 ,it has    
certainly peculiar merits here1 as the  
will is so nearly subjugated by it as to
 render the patient quite powerless to  
resist your effort at replacing1 and at 
the same time the pain is subdued4  ,it 
is not necessary ,i should further      
continue special applications2 when its 
modus operandi is understood1 its       
adaptation to many contingencies will of
 a sequence follow4  ,it is well just   
here1 before passing to the next point  
of consideration1 to answer a query     
which may arise at this juncture3  ,what
 are the successive stages of effects   

upon the economy from its commencement  
until the full effect is observed1 and  
what proof have ,i that it was due to   
the amount of air inhaled8  ,the heart's
 action is not increased more than from 
seventy 7the average7 to eighty and     
sometimes ninety1 but is much enfeebled1
 or throwing a lesser quantity of blood4
 ,the face becomes suffused1 as in      
blowing a fire or in stooping1 which    
continues until the breathing is        
suspended1 when the face becomes paler4 
7,have not noticed any purple as from   
asphyxia by a deprivation of oxygen47   
,the vision becomes darkened1 and a     
giddiness soon appears4 ,the voluntary  
muscles furthest from the heart seem    
first to be affected1 and the feet and  
hands1 particularly the latter1 have a  
numbness at their ends1 which increases1
 until in many cases there is partial   
paralysis as far as the elbow1 while the
 limbs become fixed4 ,the hands are so  
thoroughly affected that1 when open1 the
 patient is powerless to close them and 

vice versa4 ,there is a vacant gaze from
 the eyes and looking into space without
 blinking of the eyelids for a half     
minute or more4 ,the head seems         
incapable of being held erect1 and there
 is no movement of the arms or legs as  
is usual when in great pain4 ,there is  
no disposition on the part of the       
patient to take hold of the operator's  
hand or interfere with the operation4   
,many go on breathing mechanically after
 the tooth is removed1 as if nothing had
 occurred4 ,some are aware that the     
tooth has been extracted1 and say they  
felt it2 others could not tell what had 
been accomplished4 ,the majority of     
cases have an idea of what is being     
done1 but are powerless to resist4      
,with the very intelligent1 or those who
 stop to reason1 ,i have to teach them  
the peculiarities of being sensible of  
touch and not of pain4  ,one very       
interesting case ,i will state4 ,in     
extracting seven teeth for a lady who   
was very unwilling to believe my        

statement as to touch and no pain1 ,i   
first removed three teeth after having  
inhaled for one minute1 and when fully  
herself1 she stated that she could not  
understand why there was no pain while  
she was conscious of each one extracted2
 it was preposterous to believe such an 
effect could be possible1 as her reason 
told her that there is connected with   
tooth extracting pain in the part1 and  
of severe character1 admitting1 though1 
she felt no pain4 ,she allowed one to be
 removed without anything1 and she could
 easily distinguish the change1 and     
exclaimed1 ,it is all the difference    
imaginable6 ,when the other three were  
extracted1 there was perfect success    
again as with the first three4  ,one of 
the most marked proofs of the effects of
 rapid breathing was that of a boy of   
eleven years of age for whom ,i had to  
extract the upper and lower first       
permanent molars on each side4 ,he      
breathed for nearly a minute1 when ,i   
removed in about twenty seconds all four

 of the teeth1 without a moment's       
intermission or the stopping the        
vigorous breathing2 and not a murmur1   
sigh1 or tear afterward4  ,he declared  
there was no pain1 and we needed no such
 assertion1 for there was not the first 
manifestation from him that he was      
undergoing such a severe operation4     
,another case1 the same day1 when ,i had
 to extract the superior wisdom teeth on
 both sides for an intelligent young    
lady of eighteen years1 where ,i had to 
use two pairs of forceps on each tooth  
7equivalent to extraction of four       
teeth71 and she was so profoundly       
affected afterward that she could2 not  
tell me what had been done other than   
that ,i had touched her four times4 ,she
 was overcome from its effects for at   
least a minute afterward4 ,she was      
delighted4  ,with such severe tests ,i  
fear very little the result in any case 
,i can have them do as ,i bid4  ,there  
can be no mistake that there is a       
specific action from something4 ,it     

cannot be personal magnetism or mesmeric
 influence exerted by me1 for such cases
 are rare1 averaging about #aj per cent1
 only of all classes4 ,besides1 in      
mesmeric influence the time has nothing 
to do with it2 whereas1 in my cases1 it 
cannot last over a half minute or minute
 at most4 ,it cannot be fear1 as such   
cases are generally more apt to get hurt
 the worse4 ,it is not diversion of mind
 alone1 as we have an effect above it4  
,there is no better way of testing      
whether pain has been felt than by      
taking the lacerated or contused gums of
 the patient between the index finger   
and thumb and making a gentle pressure  
to collapse the alveolar borders2       
invariably1 they will cry out lustily1  
that is pain6 ,this gives undoubted     
proof of a specific agent4 ,there is no 
attempt upon my own part to exert any   
influence over my patients in any way   
other than that they shall believe what 
,i say in regard to giving them no pain 
and in the following of my orders4 ,any 

one who knows how persons become        
mesmerized can attest that it was not   
the operator who forces them under it   
against their will1 but it is a peculiar
 state into which any one who has within
 themselves this temperament can place  
themselves where any one who knows how  
can have control4 ,it is not the will of
 the operator4 ,i therefore dismiss this
 as unworthy of consideration in        
connection with rapid breathing4  ,then 
you may now ask1 ,to what do ,i         
attribute this very singular phenomenon8
  ,any one who followed1 in the earlier 
part of this paper1 the course of the   
argument in my soliloquy1 after twenty  
years had elapsed from my observation   
upon myself of the analgesic effects of 
chloroform1 can almost give something of
 an answer4  ,that you may the more     
easily grasp what ,i shall say1 ,i will 
ask you1 ,if it be possible for any     
human being to make one hundred         
inhalations in a minute and the heart's 
action is not increased more than ten or

 twenty pulsations over the normal1 what
 should be the effect upon the brain and
 nerve centers8  ,if the function of    
oxygen in common air is to set free in  
the blood1 either in the capillaries    
alone1 or throughout the whole of the   
arterial circulation1 carbonic acid gas2
 and that it cannot escape from the     
system unless it do so in the lungs as  
it passes in the general current--except
 a trace that is removed by the skin and
 kidneys--and that the quantity of      
carbonic acid gas set free is in exact  
relation to the amount of oxygen taken  
into the blood1 what effect must be     
manifested where one hundred            
respirations in one minute are          
made--five or six times the normal      
number--while the heart is only         
propelling the blood a very little      
faster through the lungs1 and more      
feebly--say #ij pulsations at most1 when
 to be in proportion it should be #djj  
to #ajj respirations to sustain life any
 length of time8  ,you cannot deny the  

fact that a definite amount of oxygen   
can be absorbed and is absorbed as fast 
as it is carried into the lungs1 even if
 there be one hundred respirations to   
the minute1 while the pulsations of the 
heart are only ninety6 ,nature has made 
it possible to breathe so rapidly to    
meet any emergency2 and we can well see 
its beautiful application in the normal 
action of both the heart and lungs while
 one is violently running4  ,what would 
result1 and that very speedily1 were the
 act of respiration to remain at the    
standard--say #ah or #bj--when the heart
 is in violent action from this running8
 ,asphyxia would surely end the matter6 
,and why8 ,the excessive exercise of the
 whole body is setting free from the    
tissues such an amount of excretive     
matter1 and carbon more largely than all
 the others1 that1 without a relative   
action of the lungs to admit the air    
that oxygen may be absorbed1 carbonic   
acid gas cannot be liberated through the
 lungs as fast as the waste carbon of   

the overworked tissues is being made by 
disassimilation from this excess of     
respiration4  ,you are already aware how
 small a quantity of carbonic acid in   
excess in the air will seriously affect 
life4 ,even #b to #c per cent1 in a     
short time will prove fatal4 ,in        
ordinary respiration of #bj to the      
minute the average of carbonic acid     
exhaled is #d4ce4  ,from experiments    
long ago made by ,vierordt--see         
,carpenter1 p4 #ebd--you will see the   
relative per cent1 of carbonic acid     
exhaled from a given number of          
respirations4 ,when he was breathing six
 times per minute1 #e4e per cent of the 
exhaled air was carbonic acid2 twelve   
times1 #d4b2 twenty-four times1 #c4c2   
forty-eight times1 #c2 ninety-six times1
 #b4f4  ,remember this is based upon the
 whole number of respirations in the    
minute and not each exhalation--which   
latter could not be measured by the most
 minute method4  ,let us deduct the     
minimum amount1 #b4f per cent1 of       

carbonic acid when breathing ninety-six 
times per minute1 from the average1 at  
twenty per minute1 or the normal        
standard1 which is recorded in          
,carpenter1 p4 #ebd1 as #d4ce per       
minute1 and we have retained in the     
circulation nearly #b per cent4 of      
carbonic acid2 that1 at the average1    
would have passed off through the lungs 
without any obstruction1 and life       
equalized2 but it not having been thrown
 off as fast as it should have been1    
must1 of necessity1 be left to prey upon
 the brain and nerve centers2 and as #b 
to #c per cent41 we are told1 will so   
poison the blood1 life is imperiled and 
that speedily4  ,it is not necessary we 
should argue the point as to whether    
oxygen displaces carbonic acid in the   
tissues proper or the capillaries4 ,the 
theory of ,lavoisier on this point has  
been accepted4  ,we know furthermore1 as
 more positive1 that tissues placed in  
an atmosphere of oxygen will set free   
carbonic acid1 and that carbonic acid   

has a paralyzing effect upon the human  
hand held in it for a short time4 ,the  
direct and speedy effects of this acid  
upon the delicate nervous element of the
 brain is so well known that it must be 
accepted as law4 ,one of the most marked
 effects is the suspension of locomotion
 of the legs and arms1 and the direct   
loss of will power which must supervene 
before voluntary muscular inactivity1   
which amounts to partial paralysis in   
the hands or feet1 or peripheral        
extremities of the same4  ,now that we  
have sufficient evidence from the       
authorities that carbonic acid can be   
retained in the blood by excessive      
breathing1 and enough to seriously      
affect the brain1 and what its effects  
are when taken directly into the lungs  
in excess1 we can enter upon what ,i    
have held as the most reasonable theory 
of the phenomenon produced by rapid     
breathing for analgesic purposes2 which 
theory was not first conceived and the  
process made to yield to it1 but the    

phenomenon was long observed1 and from  
the repetition of the effects and their 
close relationship to that of carbonic  
acid on the economy1 with the many      
experiments performed upon myself1 ,i am
 convinced that what ,i shall now state 
will be found to substantiate my        
discovery4 ,should it not be found to   
coincide with what some may say is      
physiological truth1 it will not        
invalidate the discovery itself2 for of 
that ,i am far more positive than       
,harvey was of the discovery of the     
circulation of the blood2 or of ,galileo
 of the spherical shape of the earth4   
,and ,i ask that it shall not be judged 
by my theory1 but from the practice4    
,it should have as much chance for      
investigation as the theory of ,julius  
,robert ,mayer1 upon which he founded1  
or which gave rise to the establishment 
of one of the most important scientific 
truths--the conservation of energy1 and 
finally the correlation of forces1 which
 theory ,i am not quite sure was        

correct1 although it was accepted1 and  
as yet1 ,i have not seen it questioned4 
,in all due respect to him ,i quote it  
from the sketch of that remarkable man1 
as given in the ,popular ,science       
,monthly1 as specially bearing on my    
discovery3  ,mayer observed while living
 in ,java1 that the venous blood of some
 of his patients had a singularly bright
 red color4 ,the observation riveted his
 attention2 he reasoned upon it1 and    
came to the conclusion that the         
brightness of the color was due to the  
fact that a less amount of oxidation was
 sufficient to keep up the temperature  
of the body in a hot climate than a cold
 one4 ,the darkness of the venous blood 
he regarded as the visible sign of the  
energy of the oxidation4  ,my           
observation leads me to the contrary1   
that the higher the temperature the more
 rapid the breathing to get clear of the
 excess of carbon1 and hence more       
oxygenation of the blood which will     
arterialize the venous blood1 unless    

there is a large amount of carbonized   
matter from the tissues to be taken up4 
,nor must it be denied because of the   
reasoning as presented to my mind by    
some outside influence in my soliloquy  
when ,i first exclaimed1 ,nature's      
anaesthetic1 where the argument as to   
the effects of nitrous oxide gas being  
due to an excess of oxygen was urged1   
and that common air breathed in excess  
would do the same thing4  ,i am not sure
 that it was correct1 for the effects of
 nitrous oxide is1 perhaps1 due to a    
deprivation of mechanically mixed air4  
,knowing what ,i do of theory and       
practice1 ,i can say with assurance that
 there is not a medical practitioner who
 would long ponder in any urgent case as
 to the thousand and one theories of the
 action of remedies2 but would resort to
 the practical experience of others and 
his own finally4 7,what surgeon ever    
stops to ask how narcotics effect their 
influence87 ,after nearly thirty years  
of association with ether and           

chloroform1 who can positively answer as
 to their modus operandi8 ,it is thus   
with nearly the whole domain of         
medicine4 ,it is not yet1 by far1 among 
the sciences1 with immutable laws1 such 
as we have in chemistry4                
,experimentation is giving us more      
specific knowledge1 and practice alone  
has tended to make perfect4 7,then1     
gentlemen will not set at naught my     
assertion and practical results4 ,when  
,i have stated my case in full it is for
 you to disprove both the theory and    
practice annunciated4 ,so far as ,i am  
concerned ,i am responsible for both47  
,you will please bear with me for a few 
minutes in my attempt at theory4  ,the  
annulling of pain1 and1 in some cases1  
its complete annihilation1 can be       
accomplished in many ways4 ,narcotics1  
anaesthetics--local and internal--direct
 action of cold1 and mesmeric or        
physiological influence1 have all their 
advocates1 and each will surely do its  
work4 ,there is one thing about which1  

,i think1 we can all agree1 as to these 
agencies2 unless the will is partially  
and in some cases completely subjugated 
there can be no primary or secondary    
effect4 ,the voluntary muscles must     
become wholly or partially paralyzed for
 the time4 ,telegraphic communication   
must be cut off from the brain1 that    
there be no reflex action4 ,it is not   
necessary there should be separate      
nerves to convey pleasure and pain any  
more than there should be two           
telegraphic wires to convey two         
messages4  ,if1 then1 we are certain of 
this1 it matters little as to whether it
 was done by corpuscular poisoning and  
anaemia as from chloroform or hyperaemia
 from ether4  ,i think we are now       
prepared to show clearly the causes     
which effect the phenomena in rapid     
breathing4  ,the first thing enlisted is
 the diversion of the will force in the 
act of forced respiration at a moment   
when the heart and lungs have been in   
normal reciprocal action 7#bj           

respirations to #hj pulsations71 which  
act could not be made and carried up to 
#ajj respirations per minute without    
such concentrated effort that ordinary  
pain could make no impression upon the  
brain while this abstraction is kept up4
  ,second4 ,there is a specific effect  
resulting from enforced respiration of  
#ajj to the minute1 due to the excess of
 carbonic acid gas set free from the    
tissues1 generated by this enforced     
normal act of throwing into the lungs   
five times the normal amount of oxygen  
in one minute demanded1 when the heart  
has not been aroused to exalted action1 
which comes from violent exercise in    
running or where one is suddenly        
startled1 which excess of carbonic acid 
cannot escape in the same ratio from the
 lungs1 since the heart does not respond
 to the proportionate overaction of the 
lungs4  ,third4--,hyperaemia is the last
 in this chain of effects1 which is due 
to the excessive amount of air passing  
into the lungs preventing but little    

more than the normal quantity of blood  
from passing from the heart into the    
arterial circulation1 but draws it up in
 the brain with its excess of carbonic  
acid gas to act also directly upon the  
brain as well as throughout the         
capillary and venous system1 and as well
 upon the heart1 the same as if it were 
suspended in that gas outside the body4 
,these are evident to the senses of any 
liberal observer who can witness a      
subject rapidly breathing4  ,some ask   
why is not this same thing produced when
 one has been running rapidly for a few 
minutes8 ,for a very good reason3 in    
this case the rapid inhalations are     
preceded by the violent throes of the   
heart to propel the carbonized blood    
from the overworked tissues and have    
them set free at the lungs where the air
 is rushing in at the normal ratio of   
four to one4 ,this is not an abnormal   
action1 but is of necessity1 or asphyxia
 would instantly result and the runner  
would drop4 ,such sometimes occurs where

 the runner exerts himself too violently
 at the very outset2 and to do so he is 
compelled to hold his breath for this   
undue effort1 and the heart cannot carry
 the blood fast enough4 ,in this        
instance there is an approach to        
analgesia as from rapid breathing4  ,let
 me take up the first factor--diversion 
of will--and show that nature invariably
 resorts to a sudden inhalation to      
prevent severe infliction of pain being 
felt4 ,it is the panacea to childhood's 
frequent bruises and cuts1 and every one
 will remember how when a finger has    
been hurt it is thrust into the mouth   
and a violent number of efforts at rapid
 inhalation is effected until ease      
comes4 ,by others it is subdued by a fit
 of crying1 which if you will but       
imitate the sobs1 will find how         
frequently the respirations are made4   
,one is startled1 and the heart would   
seem to jump out of the chest2 in quick 
obedience to nature the person is found 
making a number of quick inhalations1   

which subdue the heart and pacify the   
will by diversion from the cause4  ,the 
same thing is observed in the lower     
animals4 ,i will relate a case3  ,an    
elephant had been operated upon for a   
diseased eye which gave him great pain1 
for which he was unprepared1 and he was 
wrathy at the keeper and surgeon4 ,it   
soon passed off1 and the result of the  
application was so beneficial to the    
animal that when brought out in a few   
days after1 to have another touch of    
caustic to the part1 he was prepared for
 them2 and1 just before the touch1 he   
inflated the lungs to their fullest     
extent1 which occupied more time than   
the effect of the caustic1 when he made 
no effort at resistance and showed no   
manifestation of having been pained4    
,in many cases of extraction of the     
temporary teeth of children1 ,i make    
them at the instant ,i grasp the tooth  
take one very violent inhalation1 which 
is sufficient4 ,mesmeric anaesthesia can
 well be classified under diversion or  

subjugation of the will1 but can be     
effected in but a small percentage of   
the cases4 ,to rely upon this first or  
primary effect1 except in instantaneous 
cases1 would be failure4  ,the second   
factor is the one upon which ,i can rely
 in such of the cases as come into my   
care1 save when ,i cannot induce them to
 make such a number of respirations as  
is absolutely necessary4 ,the whole     
secret of success lies in the greatest  
number of respirations that can be      
effected in from #fj to #ij seconds1 and
 that without any intermission4 ,if the 
heart1 by the alow method of            
respiration1 is pulsating in ratio of   
four to one respiration1 no effect can  
be induced4  ,when the respirations are1
 say1 #ajj to the minute1 and made with 
all the energy the patient can muster1  
and are kept up while the operation is  
going on1 there can hardly be a failure 
in the minor operations4  ,it is upon   
this point many of you may question the 
facts4 ,before ,i tried it for the first

 time upon my own person1 ,i arrived at 
the same conclusion from a course of    
argument1 that rapid breathing would    
control the heart's action and pacify   
it1 and even reduce it below the normal 
standard under my urgent respirations4  
,in view of the many applications made  
,i feel quite sure in my belief that1   
inasmuch as the heart's action is but   
slightly accelerated1 though with less  
force from rapid breathing at the rate  
of #ajj to the minute1 there is such an 
excess of carbonic acid gas set free and
 crowding upon the heart and capillaries
 of the brain1 without a chance to      
escape by the lungs1 that it is the same
 to all intents as were carbonic acid   
breathed through the lungs in common    
air4 ,look at the result after this has 
been kept up for a minute or more8      
,during the next minute the respirations
 are not more than one or two1 and the  
heart has fallen really below1 in some  
cases1 the standard beat1 showing most  
conclusively that once oxygenation has  

taken place and that the free carbonic  
acid gas has been so completely         
consumed1 that there is no involuntary  
call through the pneumogastric nerve for
 a supply of oxygen4  ,if any           
physiological facts can be proven at    
all1 then ,i feel quite sure of your    
verdict upon my side4  ,there is no one 
thing that goes so far to prove the     
theory of ,lavoisier regarding the      
action of oxygen in the tissues and     
capillaries for converting carbon into  
carbonic acid gas instead of the lungs1 
as held prior to that time1 and still   
held by many who are not posted in late 
experiments4 ,at the time ,i commenced  
this practice ,i must confess ,i knew   
nothing of it4 ,the study of my cases   
soon led me to the same theory of       
,lavoisier1 as ,i could not make the    
phenomena agree with the old theory of  
carbonic acid generated only in the     
lungs4  ,when ,vierordt was performing  
his experiments upon himself in rapid   
breathing from six times per minute to  

ninety-six1 ,i cannot understand why he 
failed to observe and record what did   
certainly result--an extreme giddiness  
with muscular prostration and numbness  
in the peripheries of the hands and     
feet1 with suffusion of the face1 and   
such a loss of locomotion as to prevent 
standing erect without desiring support4
 ,besides1 the very great difference he 
found in the amount of carbonic acid    
retained in the circulation1 the very   
cause of the phenomena just spoken of4  
,one thing comes in just here to account
 for the lack of respiration the minute 
after the violent effort4 ,the residual 
air1 which in a normal state is largely 
charged with carbonic acid1 has been so 
completely exhausted that some moments  
are consumed before there is sufficient 
again to call upon the will for its     
discharge4  ,as to hyperaemia you will  
also assent1 now that my second factor  
is explained2 but it is so nearly allied
 to the direct effect of excessive      
respiration that we can well permit it  

to pass without argument4 ,if hyperaemia
 is present1 we have a more certain and 
rather more lasting effect4  ,in        
conclusion1 ,i will attempt to          
prognosticate the application of this   
principle to the cure of many diseases  
of chronic nature1 and especially       
tuberculosis2 where from a diminished   
amount of air going into the lungs for  
want of capacity1 and particularly for  
want of energy and inclination to       
breathe in full or excess1 the tissues  
cannot get clear of their               
excrementitious material1 and           
particularly the carbon1 which must go  
to the lungs1 this voluntary effort can 
be made frequently during the day to    
free the tissues and enable them to take
 nutritious material for their          
restoration to their standard of health4
  ,air will be found of far more value  
than ever before as one of the greatest 
of factors in nutrition1 and which is as
 necessary as proper food1 and without  
which every organization must become    

diseased1 and no true assimilation can  
take place without a due amount of      
oxygen is hourly and daily supplied by  
this extra aid of volition which has    
been so long overlooked4  ,the pure     
oxygen treatment has certainly performed
 many cures2 yet1 when compared to the  
mechanical mixture and under the direct 
control of the will1 at all times and   
seasons1 there is no danger from        
excessive oxygenation as while oxygen is
 given4 ,when every patient can be      
taught to rely upon this great safety   
valve of nature1 there will be less need
 for medication1 and the longevity of   
our race be increased with but little   
dread by mankind for that terrible      
monster consumption1 which seems to have
 now unbounded control4  ,when this     
theory ,i have here given you to-night  
is fully comprehended by the medical    
world and taught the public1 together   
with the kind of foods necessary for    
every one in their respective           
occupation1 location1 and climate1 we   

may expect a vast change in their       
physical condition and a hope for the   
future which will brighten as time      
advances4  ,i herewith attach the       
sphygmographic tracings made upon myself
 by another1 showing the state of the   
pulse as compared with the progress of  
the respiration4   ,,addenda4           
,sphygmographic tracings of the pulse of
 the essayist4 ,normal pulse #fj to the 
minute4 ,ten seconds necessary for the  
slip to pass under the instrument4      
,illustration  ,a1 ,a1 normal pulse4    
,b1 pulse taken after breathing rapidly 
for #ae seconds when #bj respirations   
had been taken4  ,c1 rapid breathing for
 #cj seconds1 #dc respirations4  ,d1    
#de         #gf   ,e1                   
#fj         #if  ,f1 pulse taken after  
rapid breathing for one minute1 as in   
,e1 where no respiration had as yet been
 taken after the essayist had kept it up
 for that one minute4 ,this was after   
#aj seconds had intervened4  ,g1 the    
same taken #ej seconds after1 and still 

no respiration had been taken1 the      
subject having no disposition to inhale1
 the blood having been over oxygenated4 
,the pulse in ,e shows after #if        
respirations but #ad1 or #hd per minute1
 and the force nearly as in the normal  
at ,a1 ,a#a4  ,the record in ,b shows   
the force more markedly1 but still      
normal in number4  ,f and ,g show very  
marked diminution in the force1 but the 
number of pulsations not over #gb per   
minute2 ,g particularly so1 the heart   
needing the stimulus of the oxygen for  
full power4  ,the following incident    
which has but very recently been made   
known1 gives most conclusive evidence of
 the truth of the theory and practice of
 rapid breathing4  ,a ,mexican went into
 the office of a dentist in one of the  
,mexican cities to have a tooth         
extracted by nitrous oxide gas4  ,the   
dentist was not in1 and the assistant   
was about to permit the patient to leave
 without removing the tooth1 when the   
wife of the proprietor exclaimed that   

she had often assisted her husband in   
giving the gas1 and that she would do so
 in this instance if the assistant would
 agree to extract the tooth4 ,it was    
agreed4 ,all being in readiness1 the    
lady turned on as she supposed the gas1 
and the ,mexican patient was ordered to 
breathe as fast as possible to make sure
 of the full effect and no doubt of the 
final success4 ,the assistant was about 
to extract1 but the wife insisted on his
 breathing more rapidly1 whereupon the  
patient was observed to become very dark
 or purple in the face1 which satisfied 
the lady that the full effect was       
manifested1 and the tooth was extracted1
 to the great satisfaction of all       
concerned4 ,while the gas was being     
taken by the ,mexican the gasometer was 
noticed to rise higher and higher as the
 patient breathed faster1 and not to    
sink as was usual when the gas had been 
previously administered4 ,this led to an
 investigation of the reason of such an 
anomalous result1 when to their utter   

surprise they found the valve was so    
turned by the wife that the ,mexican had
 been breathing nothing but common air1 
and instead of exhaling into the        
surrounding air he violently forced it  
into the gasometer with the nitrous     
oxide gas1 causing it to rise and not   
sink1 which it should have done had the 
valve been properly turned by the       
passage of gas into the lungs of the    
patient4  ,no more beautiful and        
positive trial could happen1 and might  
not again by accident or inadvertence   
happen again in a lifetime4         99  
99       99       99       99     ,,tap 
,,for ,,effervescing ,,liquids4   ,when 
a bottle of any liquor charged with     
carbonic acid under strong pressure1    
such as champagne1 sparkling cider1     
seltzer water1 etc41 is uncorked1 the   
contents often escape with considerable 
force1 flow out1 and are nearly all     
lost4 ,besides this1 the noise made by  
the popping of the cork is not agreeable
 to most persons4 ,to remedy these      

inconveniences there has been devised   
the simple apparatus which we represent 
in the accompanying cut1 taken from ,la 
,nature4 ,the device consists of a      
hollow1 sharp-pointed tube1 having one  
or two apertures in its upper extremity 
which are kept closed by a hollow piston
 fitting in the interior of the tube4   
,this tube1 or tap1 as it may be called1
 is supported on a firm base to which is
 attached a draught tube1 and a small   
lever for actuating the piston4 ,after  
the tap has been thrust through the cork
 of the bottle of liquor the contents   
may be drawn in any quantity and as     
often as wanted by simply pressing down 
the lever with the finger2 this         
operation raises the piston so that its 
apertures correspond with those in the  
sides of the top1 and the liquid thus   
finds access to the draught tube through
 the interior of the piston4 ,by        
removing the pressure the piston        
descends and thus closes the vents4 ,by 
means of this apparatus1 then1 the      

contents of any bottle of effervescing  
liquids may be as easily drawn off as   
are those contained in the ordinary     
siphon bottles in use4  ,illustration3  
,,tap ,,for ,,effervescing ,,liquids4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,,chemical ,,society1 ,,london1 ,,jan4  
#bj1 #ahha4  ,,prof4 ,h4,e4 ,,roscoe1   
,president1 in the ,chair4   ,mr4       
,vivian ,lewes read a paper on          
,pentathionic ,acid4 ,in ,march last the
 author1 at the suggestion of ,dr4      
,debus1 undertook an investigation of   
pentathionic acid1 the existence of     
which has been denied4 ,the analyses of 
the liquid obtained by ,wackenroder and 
others1 by passing sulphureted hydrogen 
and sulphur dioxide through water1 are  
based on the assumption that only one   
acid is present in the solution1 and    
consequently do not establish the       
existence of pentathionic acid2 as1 for 
example1 a mixture of one molecule of   
,h#b,s#d,o#f and one molecule of        
,h#b,s#f,o#f would give the same        

analytical results as ,h#b,s#e,o#f4     
,moreover1 no salt of pentathionic acid 
has been prepared in a pure state4 ,the 
author has succeeded in preparing barium
 pentathionate thus3 ,a ,wackenroder    
solution was about half neutralized with
 barium hydrate1 filtered1 and the clear
 solution evaporated in vacuo over      
sulphuric acid4 ,after eighteen days    
crystals1 which proved to be barium     
pentathionate  #c molecules of water1   
formed4 ,these crystals were separated1 
and the liquid further evaporated1 when 
a second crop was obtained intermediate 
in composition between the tetra and    
pentathionate4 ,these were separated1   
and the mother-liquor on standing       
deposited some oblong rectangular       
crystals4 ,these on analysis proved to  
consist of baric pentathionate with     
three molecules of water4 ,this salt    
dissolves readily in cold water2 the    
solution is decomposed by strong        
potassic hydrate1 baric sulphite1       
hyposulphites1 and sulphur being formed4

 ,by a similar method of procedure the  
author obtained potassium pentathionate1
 anhydrous1 and with one or two         
molecules of water4 ,the author promises
 some further results with some other   
salts of the higher thionates4  ,the    
president said that the society had to  
thank the author for a very complete    
research on the subject of pentathionic 
acid4 ,he1 however1 begged to differ    
from him as to his statements concerning
 the researches of ,messrs4 ,takamatsu  
and ,smith2 in his opinion these authors
 had proved the existence of            
pentathionic acid4 ,he hoped that the   
crystals 7which were very fine7 would be
 measured4  ,dr4 ,debus said that no one
 had previously been able to make the   
salts of pentathionic acid1 and         
expressed his sense of the great merit  
due to the author for his perseverance  
and success4 ,the paper opened up some  
highly interesting theoretical          
speculations as to the existence of     
hexathionic acid4 ,if potassium         

tetrathionate was dissolved in water it 
could be re-crystallized1 but potassium 
pentathionate under similar             
circumstances splits into sulphur and   
tetrathionate2 but a mixture of         
tetrathionate and pentathionate can be  
re-crystallized4 ,it seemed as if the   
sulphur when eliminated from the        
pentathionate combined with the         
tetrathionate4  ,dr4 ,dupr asked ,dr4   
,debus how it was that a molecule of    
pentathionate could be re-crystallized1 
whereas two molecules of pentathionate1 
which should1 when half decomposed1     
furnish a molecule of tetra and a       
molecule of pentathionate1 could not4   
,dr4 ,armstrong then read a ,preliminary
 ,note on some ,hydrocarbons from ,rosin
 ,spirit4 ,after giving an account of   
our knowledge of rosin spirit1 the      
author described the result of the      
examination of the mixture of           
hydrocarbons remaining after heating it 
with sulphuric acid and diluting with   
half its volume of water and steam      

distilling4 ,thus treated rosin spirit  
furnishes about one-fourth of its volume
 of a colorless mobile liquid1 which    
after long-continued fractional         
distillation is resolved into a variety 
of fractions boiling at temperatures    
from #ie to over #ahj4 ,each of the     
fractions was treated with concentrated 
sulphuric acid1 and the undissolved     
portions were then re-fractionated4 ,the
 hydrocarbons dissolved by the acid were
 recovered by heating under pressure    
with hydrochloric acid4 ,besides a      
cymene and a toluene1 which have already
 been shown to exist in rosin spirit1   
metaxylene was found to be present4 ,the
 hydrocarbons insoluble in sulphuric    
acid are1 apparently1 all members of the
 ,cn,h#bn series2 they are not1 however1
 true homologues of ethylene1 but       
hexhydrides of hydrocarbons of the      
benzene series4 ,hexhydro-toluene and   
probably hex-hydrometaxylene are present
 besides the hydrocarbon1 ,c#aj;,h#bj1  
but it is doubtful if an intermediate   

term is also present4 ,it is by no means
 improbable1 however1 that these        
hydrocarbons are1 at least in part1     
products of the action of the sulphuric 
acid4 ,cahours and ,kraemer's and       
,godzki's observations on the higher    
fractions of crude wood spirit1 in fact1
 furnish a precedent for this view4     
,referring to the results obtained by   
,anderson1 ,tilden1 and ,renard1 the    
author suggests that rosin spirit       
perhaps contains hydrides intermediate  
in composition between those of the     
,cn,h#bn-#f and ,cn,h#bn series1 also   
derived like the latter from            
hydrocarbons of the benzene series4     
,finally1 ,dr ,armstrong mentioned that 
the volatile portion of the distillate  
from the non-volatile product of the    
oxidation of oil of turpentine in moist 
air furnishes ordinary cymene when      
treated in the manner above described4  
,the fact that rosin spirit yields a    
different cymene is1 he considers1 an   
argument against the view which has more

 than once been put forward1 that rosin 
is directly derived from terpene4       
,probably resin and turpentine1 though  
genetically related1 are products of    
distinct processes4  ,the next paper was
 ,on the ,determination of the ,relative
 ,weight of ,single ,molecules1 by ,e4  
,vogel1 of ,san ,francisco4 ,this paper1
 which was taken as read1 consists of a 
lengthy theoretical disquisition1 in    
which the author maintains the following
 propositions3 ,that the combining      
weights of all elements are one third of
 their present values2 the assumption   
that equal volumes of gases contain     
equal numbers of molecules does not hold
 good2 that the present theory of       
valency is not supported by chemical    
facts1 and that its elimination would be
 no small gain for chemistry in freeing 
it of an element full of mystery1       
uncertainty1 and complication2 that the 
distinction between atoms and molecules 
will no longer be necessary2 that the   
facts of specific heat do not lend any  

support to the theory of valency4 ,the  
paper concludes as follows3 ,the cause  
of chemical action is undoubtedly       
atmospheric pressure1 which under       
ordinary conditions is equal to the     
weight of #gf cubic centimeters of      
mercury1 one of which equals #f4ade     
mercury molecules1 so that the whole    
pressure equals #dfg mercury molecules4 
,this force--which with regard to its   
chemical effect on molecules can be     
multiplied by means of heat--is amply   
sufficient to bring about the highest   
degree of molecular specific gravity by 
the reduction of the molecular volumes4 
,to it all molecules are exposed and    
subjected unalterably1 and if not       
accepted as the cause of chemical       
action1 its influence has to be         
eliminated to allow the introduction and
 display of other forces4  ,the next    
communication was ,on the ,synthetical  
,production of ,ammonia1 by the         
,combination of ,hydrogen and ,nitrogen 
in ,presence of ,heated ,spongy         

,platinum 7,preliminary ,notice71 by ,g4
 ,s4 ,johnson4 ,some experiments1 in    
which pure nitrogen was passed over     
heated copper containing occluded       
hydrogen1 suggested to the author the   
possibility of the formation of ammonia2
 only minute traces were formed4 ,on    
passing1 however1 a mixture of pure     
nitrogen 7from ammonium nitrite7 and    
hydrogen over spongy platinum at a low  
red heat1 abundant evidence was obtained
 of the synthesis of ammonia4 ,the gases
 were passed1 before entering the tube  
containing the platinum1 through a      
potash bulb containing ,nessler reagent1
 which remained colorless4 ,on the      
contrary1 the gas issuing from the      
platinum rapidly turned ,nessler reagent
 brown1 and in a few minutes turned     
faintly acid litmus solution blue2 the  
odor of ,,nh#c was also perceptible4 ,in
 one experiment #j4jadd gramme of       
ammonia was formed in two hours and a   
half4 ,the author promises further      
experiment as to the effect of          

temperature1 rate of the gaseous        
current1 and substitution of palladium  
for platinum4 ,the author synthesized   
some ammonia before the ,society with   
complete success4  ,the ,president      
referred to the synthesis of ammonia    
from its elements recently effected by  
,donkin1 and remarked that apparently   
the ammonia was formed in much larger   
quantities by the process proposed by   
the author of the present paper4  ,mr4  
,warington suggested that some ,h,cl gas
 should be simultaneously passed with   
the nitrogen and hydrogen1 and that the 
temperature of the spongy platinum      
should be kept just below the           
temperature at which ,,nh#c dissociates1
 in order to improve the yield of       
,,nh#c4  ,on the ,oxidation of ,organic 
,matter in ,water by ,a4 ,downes4 ,the  
author considers that the mere presence 
of oxygen in contact with the organic   
matter has but little oxidizing action  
unless lowly organisms1 as bacteria1    
etc4 be simultaneously present4         

,sunlight has apparently considerable   
effect in promoting the oxidation of    
organic matter4 ,the author quotes the  
following experiment3 ,a sample of river
 water was filtered through paper4 ,it  
required per #aj1jjj parts #j4bcf oxygen
 as permanganate4 ,a second portion was 
placed in a flask plugged with cotton   
wool1 and exposed to sunlight for a     
week2 it then required #j4bjj4 ,a third 
portion after a week1 but excluded from 
light1 required #j4bca4 ,a fourth was   
boiled for five minutes1 plugged1 and   
then exposed to sunlight for a week2    
required #j4aih4 ,in a second experiment
 with well water a similar result was   
obtained2 more organic matter was       
oxidized when the organisms had been    
killed by the addition of sulphuric acid
 than when the original water was       
allowed to stand for an equal length of 
time4 ,the author also discusses the    
statement made by ,dr4 ,frankland that  
there is less ground for assuming that  
the organized and living matter of      

sewage is oxidized in a flow of twelve  
miles of a river than for assuming that 
dead organic matter is oxidized in a    
similar flow4--,chem4 ,news4         99 
99       99       99       99     ,,rose
 ,,oil1 ,,or ,,otto ,,of ,,roses4  ,by  
,,charles ,g4 ,,warnford ,,lock4   ,this
 celebrated perfume is the volatile     
essential oil distilled from the flowers
 of some varieties of rose4 ,the botany 
of roses appears to be in a transition  
and somewhat unsatisfactory state4 ,thus
 the otto-yielding rose is variously    
styled ,rosa damascena1 ,r4             
sempervirens1 ,r4 moschata1 ,r4 gallica1
 ,r4 centifolia1 ,r4 provincialis4 ,it  
is pretty generally agreed that the kind
 grown for its otto in ,bulgaria in the 
damask rose 7,r4 damascena71 a variety  
induced by long cultivation1 as it is   
not to be found wild4 ,it forms a bush1 
usually three to four feet1 but         
sometimes six feet high2 its flowers are
 of moderate size1 semi-double1 and     
arranged several on a branch1 though not

 in clusters or bunches4 ,in color1 they
 are mostly light-red2 some few are     
white1 and said to be less productive of
 otto4  ,the utilization of the         
delicious perfume of the rose was       
attempted1 with more or less success1   
long prior to the comparatively modern  
process of distilling its essential oil4
 ,the early methods chiefly in vogue    
were the distillation of rose-water1 and
 the infusion of roses in olive oil1 the
 latter flourishing in ,europe generally
 down to the last century1 and surviving
 at the present day in the ,south of    
,france4 ,the butyraceous oil produced  
by the distillation of roses for making 
rose-water in this country is valueless 
as a perfume2 and the real otto was     
scarcely known in ,british commerce     
before the present century4  ,the       
profitable cultivation of roses for the 
preparation of otto is limited chiefly  
by climatic conditions4 ,the odoriferous
 constitutent of the otto is a liquid   
containing oxygen1 the solid hydrocarbon

 or stearoptene1 with which it is       
combined1 being absolutely devoid of    
perfume4 ,the proportion which this     
inodorous solid constituents bears to   
the liquid perfume increases with the   
unsuitability of the climate1 varying   
from about #ah per cent4 in ,bulgarian  
oil1 to #ce and even #fh per cent4 in   
rose oils distilled in ,france and      
,england4 ,this increase in the         
proportion of stearoptene is also shown 
by the progressively heightened         
fusing-point of rose oils from different
 sources3 thus1 while ,bulgarian oil    
fuses at about #fa to #fd ,fahr41 an    
,indian sample required #fh ,fahr42 one 
from the ,south of ,france1 #gj to #gc  
,fahr42 one from ,paris1 #hd ,fahr42 and
 one obtained in making rose-water in   
,london1 #hf to #hi ,fahr4 ,even in the 
,bulgarian oil1 a notable difference is 
observed between that produced on the   
hills and that from the lowlands4  ,it  
is1 therefore1 not surprising that the  
culture of roses1 and extraction of     

their perfume1 should have originated in
 the ,east4 ,persia produced rose-water 
at an early date1 and the town of       
,nisibin1 north-west of ,mosul1 was     
famous for it in the #adth century4     
,shiraz1 in the #agth century1 prepared 
both rose water and otto1 for export to 
other parts of ,persia1 as well as all  
over ,india4 ,the ,perso-,indian trade  
in rose oil1 which continued to possess 
considerable importance in the third    
quarter of the #ahth century1 is        
declining1 and has nearly disappeared2  
but the shipments of rose-water still   
maintain a respectable figure4 ,the     
value1 in rupees1 of the exports of     
rose-water from ,bushire in #ahgi1      
were--#d1jjj to ,india1 #a1ejj to ,java1
 #bjj to ,aden and the ,red ,sea1 #a1jjj
 to ,muscat and dependencies1 #bjj to   
,arab coast of ,persian ,gulf and       
,bahrein1 #bjj to ,persian coast and    
,mekran1 and #a1jjj to ,zanzibar4       
,similar statistics relating to ,lingah1
 in the same year1 show--,otto3 #djj to 

,arab coast of ,persian ,gulf1 and      
,bahrein2 and #bej to ,persian coast and
 ,mekran4 ,and ,bahrein--,persian ,otto3
 #b1bjj to ,koweit1 ,busrah1 and        
,bagdad4 ,rose-water3 #bjj to ,arab     
coast of ,persian ,gulf1 and #a1jjj to  
,koweit1 ,busrah1 and ,bagdad4  ,india  
itself has a considerable area devoted  
to rose-gardens1 as at ,ghazipur1       
,lahore1 ,amritzur1 and other places1   
the kind of rose being ,r4 damascena1   
according to ,brandis4 ,both rose-water 
and otto are produced4 ,the flowers are 
distilled with double their weight of   
water in clay stills2 the rose-water    
7goolabi pani7 thus obtained is placed  
in shallow vessels1 covered with moist  
muslin to keep out dust and flies1 and  
exposed all night to the cool air1 or   
fanned4 ,in the morning1 the film of    
oil1 which has collected on the top1 is 
skimmed off by a feather1 and           
transferred to a small phial4 ,this is  
repeated for several nights1 till almost
 the whole of the oil has separated4    

,the quantity of the product varies     
much1 and three different authorities   
give the following figures3 7a7 #bj1jjj 
roses to make #a rupee's weight 7#agf   
gr47 of otto2 7b7 #bjj1jjj to make the  
same weight2 7c7 #a1jjj roses afford    
less than #b gr4 of otto4 ,the color    
ranges from green to bright-amber1 and  
reddish4 ,the oil 7otto7 is the most    
carefully bottled2 the receptacles are  
hermetically sealed with wax1 and       
exposed to the full glare of the sun for
 several days4 ,rose water deprived of  
otto is esteemed much inferior to that  
which has not been so treated4 ,when    
bottled1 it is also exposed to the sun  
for a fortnight at least4  ,the         
,mediterranean countries of ,africa     
enter but feebly into this industry1 and
 it is a little remarkable that the     
,french have not cultivated it in       
,algeria4 ,egypt's demand for rose-water
 and rose-vinegar is supplied from      
,medinet ,fayum1 south-west of ,cairo4  
,tunis has also some local reputation   

for similar products4 ,von ,maltzan says
 that the rose there grown for otto is  
the dog-rose 7,r4 canina71 and that it  
is extremely fragrant1 #bj lb4 of the   
flower yielding about #a dr4 of otto4   
,genoa occasionally imports a little of 
this product1 which is of excellent     
quality4 ,in the south of ,france rose  
gardens occupy a large share of         
attention1 about ,grasse1 ,cannes1 and  
,nice2 they chiefly produce rose-water1 
much of which is exported to ,england4  
,the essence 7otto7 obtained by the     
distillation of the ,provence rose 7,r4 
provincialis7 has a characteristic      
perfume1 arising1 it is believed1 from  
the bees transporting the pollen of the 
orange flowers into the petals of the   
roses4 ,the ,french otto is richer in   
stearoptene than the ,turkish1 nine     
grammes crystallizing in a liter 7#a    
pint7 of alcohol at the same temperature
 as #ah grammes of the ,turkish4 ,the   
best preparations are made at ,cannes   
and ,grasse4 ,the flowers are not there 

treated for the otto1 but are submitted 
to a process of maceration in fat or    
oil1 ten kilos4 of roses being required 
to impregnate one kilo4 of fat4 ,the    
price of the roses varies from #ej;c4 to
 #a fr4 #be;c4 per kilo4  ,but the one  
commercially important source of otto of
 roses is a circumscribed patch of      
ancient ,thrace or modern ,bulgaria1    
stretching along the southern slopes of 
the central ,balkans1 and approximately 
included between the #beth and #bfth    
degrees of east longitude1 and the #db;d
 and #dc;d of north latitude4 ,the chief
 rose-growing districts are             
,philippopoli1 ,chirpan1 ,giopcu1       
,karadshah-,dagh1 ,kojun-,tepe1         
,eski-,sara1 ,jeni-,sara1 ,bazardshik1  
and the center and headquarters of the  
industry1 ,kazanlik 7,kisanlik71        
situated in a beautiful undulating      
plain1 in the valley of the ,tunja4 ,the
 productiveness of the last-mentioned   
district may be judged from the fact    
that1 of the #abc ,thracian localities  

carrying on the preparation of otto in  
#ahgg--they numbered #adj in #ahei--db  
belong to it4 ,the only place affording 
otto on the northern side of the        
,balkans is ,travina4 ,the geological   
formation throughout is syenite1 the    
decomposition of which has provided a   
soil so fertile as to need but little   
manuring4 ,the vegetation1 according to 
,baur1 indicates a climate differing but
 slightly from that of the ,black       
,forest1 the average summer temperatures
 being stated at #hb ,fahr4 at noon1 and
 #fh ,fahr4 in the evening4 ,the        
rose-bushes nourish best and live       
longest on sandy1 sun-exposed 7south and
 south-east aspect7 slopes4 ,the flowers
 produced by those growing on inclined  
ground are dearer and more esteemed than
 any raised on level land1 being #ej per
 cent4 richer in oil1 and that of a     
stronger quality4 ,this proves the      
advantage of thorough drainage4 ,on the 
other hand1 plantations at high         
altitudes yield less oil1 which is of a 

character that readily congeals1 from an
 insufficiency of summer heat4 ,the     
districts lying adjacent to and in the  
mountains are sometimes visited by hard 
frosts1 which destroy or greatly reduce 
the crop4 ,floods also occasionally do  
considerable damage4 ,the bushes are    
attacked at intervals and in patches by 
a blight similar to that which injures  
the vines of the country4  ,the bushes  
are planted in hedge-like rows in       
gardens and fields1 at convenient       
distances apart1 for the gathering of   
the crop4 ,they are seldom manured4 ,the
 planting takes place in spring and     
autumn2 the flowers attain perfection in
 ,april and ,may1 and the harvest lasts 
from ,may till the beginning of ,june4  
,the expanded flowers are gathered      
before sunrise1 often with the calyx    
attached2 such as are not required for  
immediate distillation are spread out in
 cellars1 but all are treated within the
 day on which they are plucked4 ,baur   
states that1 if the buds develop slowly1

 by reason of cool damp weather1 and are
 not much exposed to sun-heat1 when     
about to be collected1 a rich yield of  
otto1 having a low solidifying point1 is
 the result1 whereas1 should the sky be 
clear and the temperature high at or    
shortly before the time of gathering1   
the product is diminished and is more   
easily congealable4 ,hanbury1 on the    
contrary1 when distilling roses in      
,london1 noticed that when they had been
 collected on fine dry days the         
rose-water had most volatile oil        
floating upon it1 and that1 when        
gathered in cool rainy weather1 little  
or no volatile oil separated4  ,the     
flowers are not salted1 nor subjected to
 any other treatment1 before being      
conveyed in baskets1 on the heads of men
 and women and backs of animals1 to the 
distilling apparatus4 ,this consists of 
a tinned-copper still1 erected on a     
semicircle of bricks1 and heated by a   
wood fire2 from the top passes a        
straight tin pipe1 which obliquely      

traverses a tub kept constantly filled  
with cold water1 by a spout1 from some  
convenient rivulet1 and constitutes the 
condenser4 ,several such stills are     
usually placed together1 often beneath  
the shade of a large tree4 ,the still is
 charged with #be to #ej lb4 of roses1  
not previously deprived of their        
calyces1 and double the volume of spring
 water4 ,the distillation is carried on 
for about l hours1 the result being     
simply a very oily rose-water 7ghyul    
suyu74 ,the exhausted flowers are       
removed from the still1 and the         
decoction is used for the next          
distillation1 instead of fresh water4   
,the first distillates from each        
apparatus are mixed and distilled by    
themselves1 one-sixth being drawn off2  
the residue replaces spring water for   
subsequent operations4 ,the distillate  
is received in long-necked bottles1     
holding about #a gallon4 ,it is kept in 
them for a day or two1 at a temperature 
exceeding #ei ,fahr41 by which time most

 of the oil1 fluid and bright1 will have
 reached the surface4 ,it is skimmed off
 by a small1 long-handled1 fine-orificed
 tin funnel1 and is then ready for sale4
 ,the last-run rose-water is extremely  
fragrant1 and is much prized locally for
 culinary and medicinal purposes4 ,the  
quantity and quality of the otto are    
much influenced by the character of the 
water used in distilling4 ,when hard    
spring water is employed1 the otto is   
rich in stearoptene1 but less           
transparent and fragrant4 ,the average  
quantity of the product is estimated by 
,baur at #j4jcg to #j4jdj per cent42    
another authority says that #c1bjj      
kilos4 of roses give #a kilo4 of oil4   
,pure otto1 carefully distilled1 is at  
first colorless1 but speedily becomes   
yellowish2 its specific gravity is #j4hg
 at #gb4e ,fahr42 its boiling-point is  
#ddd ,fahr42 it solidifies at #ea4h to  
#fj4h ,fahr41 or still higher2 it is    
soluble in absolute alcohol1 and in     
acetic acid4 ,the most usual and        

reliable tests of the quality of an otto
 are 7#a7 its odor1 7#b7 its congealing 
point1 7#c7 its crystallization4 ,the   
odor can be judged only after long      
experience4 ,a good oil should congeal  
well in five minutes at a temperature of
 #ed4e ,fahr42 fraudulent additions     
lower the congealing point4 ,the        
crystals of rose-stearoptene are light1 
feathery1 shining plates1 filling the   
whole liquid4 ,almost the only material 
used for artificially heightening the   
apparent proportion of stearoptene is   
said to be spermaceti1 which is easily  
recognizable from its liability to      
settle down in a solid cake1 and from   
its melting at #abb ,fahr41 whereas     
stearoptene fuses at #ia4d ,fahr4       
,possibly paraffin wax would more easily
 escape detection4  ,the adulterations  
by means of other essential oils are    
much more difficult of discovery1 and   
much more general2 in fact1 it is said  
that none of the ,bulgarian otto is     
completely free from this kind of       

sophistication4 ,the oils employed for  
the purpose are certain of the grass    
oils 7,andropogon and ,cymbopogon spp47 
notably that afforded by ,andropogon1   
,schoenanthus called idris-yaghi by the 
,turks1 and commonly known to ,europeans
 as geranium oil1 though quite distinct 
from true geranium oil4 ,the addition is
 generally made by sprinkling it upon   
the rose-leaves before distilling4 ,it  
is largely produced in the neighborhood 
of ,delhi1 and exported to ,turkey by   
way of ,arabia4 ,it is sold by ,arabs in
 ,constantinople in large bladder-shaped
 tinned-copper vessels1 holding about   
#abj lb4 ,as it is usually itself       
adulterated with some fatty oil1 it     
needs to undergo purification before    
use4 ,this is effected in the following 
manner3 ,the crude oil is repeatedly    
shaken up with water acidulated with    
lemon-juice1 from which it is poured off
 after standing for a day4 ,the washed  
oil is placed in shallow saucers1 well  
exposed to sun and air1 by which it     

gradually loses its objectionable odor4 
,spring and early summer are the best   
seasons for the operation1 which        
occupies two to four weeks1 according to
 the state of the weather and the       
quality of the oil4 ,the general        
characters of this oil are so similar to
 those of otto of roses--even the odor  
bearing a distant resemblance--that     
their discrimination when mixed is a    
matter of practical impossibility4 ,the 
ratio of the adulteration varies from a 
small figure up to #hj or #ij per cent4 
,the only safeguard against deception is
 to pay a fair price1 and to deal with  
firms of good repute1 such as ,messrs4  
,papasoglu1 ,manoglu  ,son1 ,ihmsen     
,co41 and ,holstein  ,co4 in            
,constantinople4  ,the otto is put up in
 squat-shaped flasks of tinned copper1  
called kunkumas1 holding from #a to #aj 
lb41 and sewn up in white woolen cloths4
 ,usually their contents are transferred
 at ,constantinople into small gilded   
bottles of ,german manufacture for      

export4 ,the ,bulgarian otto harvest1   
during the five years #ahfg-ga1 was     
reckoned to average somewhat below      
#djj1jjj meticals1 miskals1 or midkals  
7of about #c dwt4 troy71 or #d1bbf lb4  
av42 that of #ahgc1 which was good1 was 
estimated at #ejj1jjj1 value about      
#gjj1jjj4 ,the harvest of #ahhj realized
 more than #a1jjj1jjj1 though the roses 
themselves were not so valuable as in   
#ahgf4 ,about #cjj1jjj meticals of otto1
 valued at #icb1jgg1 were exported in   
#ahgf from ,philippopolis1 chiefly to   
,france1 ,australia1 ,america1 and      
,germany4  --,jour4 ,soc4 of ,arts4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,a ,,new ,,method ,,of ,,preparing      
,,metatoluidine4  ,by ,,oskar ,,widman4 
,the author adds in small portions five 
parts metanitro-benzaldehyd to nine     
parts of phosphorus pentachloride1      
avoiding a great rise of temperature4   
,when the reaction is over1 the whole is
 poured into excess of cold water1      
quickly washed a few times with cold    

water1 and dissolved in alcohol4 ,after 
the first crystallization the compound  
melts at #fe1 and is perfectly pure4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,a catalogue1 containing brief notices  
of many important scientific papers     
heretofore published in the             
,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this 
office4         99       99       99    
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