,,the ,,sceptics ,,of ,,the ,,old       
,,testament  ,,job 99 ,,koheleth 99     
,,agur  with ,english text translated   
for the first time from the primitive   
,hebrew as restored on the basis of     
recent philological discoveries4  by    
,e4 ,j4 ,dillon  ,late ,professor of    
,comparative ,philology and ,ancient    
,armenian at the ,imperial ,university  
of ,kharkoff2 ,doctor of ,oriental      
,languages of the ,university of        
,louvain2 ,magistrand of the ,oriental  
,faculty of the ,imperial ,university of
 ,st4 ,petersburg2 ,member of the       
,armenian ,academy of ,venice2 ,membre  
de la ,socit ,asiatique de ,paris1 c4 c4
         99       99       99       99  
99  ,to ,,alexander ,,vassilyevitch     
,,paschkoff1 ,m4,a4 ,,the ,,following   
,,pages ,,are ,,affectionately          
,,dedicated         99       99       99
       99       99  ,,dedicatory ,,note 
,my ,dear ,paschkoff1  ,in the          
philosophical problems dealt with by the
 ,sceptics of the ,old ,testament1 you  

will recognise the theme of our numerous
 and pleasant discussions during the    
past sixteen years4 ,three of these are 
indelibly engraven in my memory1 and1 if
 ,i mistake not1 in yours4  ,the first  
took place in ,st4 ,petersburg one soft 
,indian-summer's evening1 in a cosy room
 on the ,gagarine ,quay1 from the       
windows of which we looked out with     
admiration upon the blue expanse of the 
,neva1 as it reflected the burnished    
gold of the spire of the ,fortress      
church4 ,at that time we gazed upon the 
wavelets of the river and the wonders of
 the world from exactly the same angle  
of vision4  ,the second of these        
memorable conversations occurred after  
the lapse of nine years4 ,we had met    
together in the old place1 and          
sauntering out one bitterly cold        
,december evening resumed the           
discussion1 walking to and fro on the   
moonlit bank of the ice-bound river1    
until evening merged into night and the 
moon sank beneath the horizon1 leaving  

us in total darkness1 vainly desirous1  
like ,goethe1 of light1 more light4     
,our last exchange of views took place  
after six further years had sped away1  
and we stood last ,august on the summit 
of the historic ,mnchsberg1 overlooking 
the final resting-place of the great    
,paracelsus4 ,the long and interesting  
discussions which we had on that        
occasion1 just before setting out in    
opposite directions1 you to the ,east   
and ,i to the ,west1 neither of us is   
likely ever to forget4  ,it is in       
commemoration of these pleasant         
conversations1 and more especially of   
the good old times1 now past for ever1  
when we looked out upon the wavelets of 
the ,neva and the wonders of the world  
from the same angle of vision1 that ,i  
ask you to allow me to associate your   
name with this translation of the       
primitive texts of the ,sceptics of the 
,old ,testament4  ,yours affectionately1
  ,e4 ,j4 ,,dillon4  ,,trebizond1       
,january #c1 #ahie4         99       99 

99       99       99  ,,preface  ,a     
careful perusal of this first ,english  
translation of the primitive text of    
,job1 ,koheleth1 and the ,sayings of    
,agur will1 ,i doubt not1 satisfy the   
most orthodox reader that ,i am fully   
warranted in characterising their       
authors as ,sceptics4 ,the epithet1 ,i  
confess1 may prove distasteful to many1 
but the truth1 ,i trust1 will be welcome
 to all4 ,it is not easy to understand  
why any one who firmly believes that    
,providence is continually educing good 
from evil should hesitate to admit that 
it may in like manner allow sound moral 
principles to be enshrined in doubtful  
or even erroneous philosophical         
theories4 ,or1 is trust in ,god to be   
made dependent upon the confirmation or 
rejection by physical science of1 say1  
the ,old ,testament account of the      
origin of the rainbow8 ,agur1 ,job and  
,koheleth had outgrown the intellectual 
husks which a narrow1 inadequate and    
erroneous account of ,god's dealings    

with man had caused to form around the  
minds of their countrymen1 and they had 
the moral courage to put their words    
into harmony with their thoughts4       
,clearly perceiving that1 whatever the  
sacerdotal class might say to the       
contrary1 the political strength of the 
,hebrew people was spent and its        
religious ideals exploded1 they sought  
to shift the centre of gravity from     
speculative theology to practical       
morality4  ,the manner in which they    
adjusted their hopes1 fears1 and        
aspirations to the new conditions1      
strikes the keynote of their respective 
characters4 ,job1 looking down upon the 
world from the tranquil heights of      
genius1 is manful1 calm1 resigned4      
,koheleth1 shuddering at the gloom that 
envelops and the pain that convulses all
 living beings1 prefers death to life1  
and freedom from suffering to positive  
pleasure2 while ,agur1 revealing the    
bitterness bred by dispelled illusions  
and blasted hopes1 administers a severe 

chastisement to those who first called  
them into being4 ,all three#a reject the
 dogma of retribution1 the doctrine of  
eternal life and belief in the coming of
 a ,messiah1 over and above which they  
at times strip the notion of ,god of its
 most essential attributes1 reducing it 
to the shadow of a mere metaphysical    
abstraction4 ,this is why ,i call them  
,sceptics4  ,job and ,koheleth          
emphatically deny that there is any     
proof to be found of the so-called moral
 order in the universe1 and they        
unhesitatingly declare that existence is
 an evil4 ,they would have us therefore 
exchange our hopes for insight1 and warn
 us that even this is very circumscribed
 at best4 ,for not only is happiness a  
mockery1 but knowledge is a             
will-o'-the-wisp4 ,mankind resembles the
 bricklayer and the hodman who help to  
raise an imposing edifice without any   
knowledge of the general plan4 ,and yet 
the structure is the outcome of their   
labour4 ,in like manner this mysterious 

world is the work of man--the mirror of 
his will4 ,as his will is1 so are his   
acts1 and as his acts are1 so is his    
world4 ,or as the ancient ,hindoos put  
it3    ,before the gods we bend our     
necks1 and yet       within the toils of
 ,fate   ,entangled are the gods        
themselves4 ,to ,fate1       then1 be   
all honour given4   ,yet ,fate itself   
can compass nought1 'tis but the        
bringer of the meed   ,for every deed   
that we perform4   ,as then our acts    
shape our rewards1 of what       avail  
are gods or ,fate8   ,let honour        
therefore be decerned to deeds          
alone4  ,but what1 ,i have been         
frequently asked1 will be the effect of 
all this upon theology8 ,are we to      
suppose that the writings of these three
 ,sceptics were admitted into the ,canon
 by mistake1 and if not1 shall we not   
have to widen our definition of         
inspiration until it can be made to     
include contributions which every       
,christian must regard as heterodox8 ,an

 exhaustive reply to this question would
 need a theological dissertation1 for   
which ,i have neither desire nor        
leisure4 ,i may say1 however1 that      
eminent theologians representing various
 ,christian denominations--,roman       
,catholic1 ,greek ,orthodox1 ,anglican  
and ,lutheran--have assured me that they
 could readily reconcile the dogmas of  
their respective ,churches with         
doctrines educible from the primitive   
text of ,job1 ,koheleth1 and ,agur1     
whose ethics they are disposed to       
identify1 in essentials1 with the       
teachings of the ,sermon on the ,mount4 
,with the ways and means by which they  
effect this reconciliation ,i am not now
 concerned4  ,my object was neither to  
attack a religious dogma1 nor to provoke
 a theological controversy1 but merely  
to put the latest results of            
philological science within the reach of
 him who reads as he runs4 ,and ,i feel 
confident that the reader who can       
appreciate the highest forms of poetry1 

or who has anxiously pondered over the  
problems of ,god1 immortality1 the      
origin of evil1 c41 will peruse the     
writings of ,job1 ,koheleth and ,agur   
with a lively interest1 awakened1 and   
sustained not merely by the extrinsic   
value which they possess as historical  
documents1 but by their intrinsic merits
 as precious contributions to the       
literature and philosophy of the world4 
,e4 ,j4 ,,dillon4  ,,constantinople1    
,new ,year's ,day1 #ahie4   ,footnotes3 
#a ,in ,agur's case1 this is but an     
inference from his first saying1 but    
an inference which few would think of   
calling in question4         99       99
       99       99       99  ,,contents 
,,the ,,poem ,,of ,,job   ,,hebrew      
,,philosophy   ,,the ,,problem ,,of     
,,the ,,poem   ,,job',s ,,method ,,of   
,,solving ,,the ,,problem   ,,date ,,of 
,,the ,,composition   ,,the ,,text ,,and
 ,,its ,,reconstruction                 
,,interpolations   ,,job',s             
,,theological ,,and ,,philosophical     

,,conceptions   ,,analysis ,,of ,,the   
,,poem  ,,koheleth   ,,condition ,,of   
,,the ,,text   ,,primitive ,,form ,,of  
,,the ,,book   ,,koheleth',s ,,theory   
,,of ,,life   ,,practical ,,wisdom      
,,koheleth',s ,,philosophy ,,of ,,life  
,,sources ,,of ,,koheleth',s            
,,philosophy  ,,agur ,,the ,,agnostic   
,,agur1 ,,son ,,of ,,yakeh   ,,form     
,,and ,,contents ,,of ,,the ,,sayings   
,,of ,,agur   ,,date ,,of ,,composition 
,,agur',s ,,philosophy  ,,the ,,poem    
,,of ,,job 7,,translation ,,of ,,the    
,,restored ,,text7  ,,the ,,speaker     
7,,translation ,,of ,,the ,,restored    
,,text7  ,,the ,,sayings ,,of ,,agur    
7,,translation ,,of ,,the ,,restored    
,,text7  ,,index     ,,the ,,poem ,,of  
,,job         99       99       99      
99       99  ,,hebrew ,,philosophy      
,according to a theory which was still  
in vogue a few years ago1 the ancient   
races of mankind were distinguished from
 each other no less by their            
intellectual equipment than by their    

physical peculiarities4 ,thus the       
,semites were supposed to be            
characterised1 among other things1 by an
 inborn aptitude for historical         
narrative and an utter lack of the      
mental suppleness1 ingenuity1 and sharp 
incisive vision indispensable for the   
study of the problems of philosophy2    
while their neighbours1 the ,aryans1    
devoid of historical talent1 were held  
to be richly endowed with all the       
essential qualities of mind needed for  
the cultivation of epic poetry and      
abstruse metaphysics4 ,this theory has  
since been abandoned1 and many of the   
alleged facts that once seemed to       
support it have been shown to be        
unwarranted assumptions4 ,thus1 the     
conclusive proof1 supplied by ,biblical 
criticism1 of the untrustworthiness of  
the historical books of the ,old        
,testament1 has removed one alleged     
difference between ,aryans and ,semites1
 while the discoveries which led to the 
reconstruction of the primitive poem of 

,job and of the treatise of ,koheleth   
have undermined the basis of the other4 
,for these two works deal exclusively   
with philosophical problems1 and1       
together with the ,books of ,proverbs   
and ,jesus ,sirach1 are the only remains
 that have come down to us of the       
ethical and metaphysical speculations of
 the ancient ,hebrews whose descendants 
have so materially contributed to       
further this much-maligned branch of    
human knowledge4 ,and if we may judge by
 what we know of these two books1 we    
have ample grounds for regretting that  
numerous other philosophical treatises  
which were written between the fourth   
and the first centuries ,b4,c4 were     
deemed too abstruse1 too irrelevant1 or 
too heterodox to find a place in the    
,jewish ,canon4#b ,for the ,book of ,job
 is an unrivalled masterpiece1 the work 
of one in whom poetry was no mere       
special faculty cultivated apart from   
his other gifts1 but the outcome of the 
harmonious wholeness of healthy human   

nature1 in which upright living1        
untrammelled thought1 deep mental       
vision1 and luxuriant imagination       
combined to form the individual4 ,hence 
the poem is a true reflex of the        
author's mind3 it dissolves and blends  
in harmonious union elements that       
appeared not merely heterogeneous1 but  
wholly incompatible1 and realises1 with 
the concreteness of history1 the        
seemingly unattainable idea which       
,lucretius had the mind to conceive but 
lacked the artistic hand to execute2 in 
a word1 it is the fruit of the intimate 
union of that philosophy which1 reckless
 of results1 dares to clip even angels' 
wings1 and of the art which possesses   
the secret of painting its unfading     
pictures with the delicate tints of the 
rainbow4 ,rich fancy and profound       
thought co-operate to produce a tertium 
quid--a visible proof that the beautiful
 is one with the true--for which neither
 literature nor philosophy possesses a  
name4 ,it is no wonder1 then1 that this 

unique poem1 which gives adequate       
utterance to abstract thought1 truly and
 forcibly states the doubts and         
misgivings which harrow the souls of    
thinking men of all ages and nations1   
and helps them to lift a corner of the  
veil of delusion and get a glimpse of   
the darkness of the everlasting ,night  
beyond1 should appeal to the reader of  
the nineteenth century with much greater
 force than to the ,jews of olden times1
 who were accustomed to gauge the       
sublimity of imaginative poetry and the 
depth of philosophic speculation by the 
standard of orthodoxy and the bias of   
nationality4  ,the ,book of ,job1 from  
which ,pope ,gregory the ,great fancied 
he could piece together the entire      
system of ,catholic theology1 and which 
,thomas of ,aquin regarded as a sober   
history1 is now known to be a regular   
poem1 but1 as ,tennyson truly remarked1 
the greatest poem whether of ancient or 
modern times1 and the diction of which  
even ,luther instinctively felt to be   

magnificent and sublime as no other book
 of ,scripture4 ,and it is exclusively  
in this light1 as one of the            
masterpieces of the world's literature1 
that it will be considered in the       
following pages4 ,whatever religious    
significance it may be supposed to      
possess over and above1 as one of the   
canonical books of the ,hebrew and      
,christian ,scriptures1 will1 it is     
hoped1 remain unaffected by this        
treatment1 which is least of all        
controversial4 ,the flowers that yield  
honey to the bee likewise delight the   
bee-keeper with their perfume and the   
poet with their colours1 and there is no
 adequate reason why the magic verse    
which strikes a responsive chord in the 
soul of lovers of high art1 and starts a
 new train of ideas in the minds of     
serious thinkers1 should thereby lose   
any of the healing virtues it may have  
heretofore possessed for the suffering  
souls of the believing4  ,but viewed    
even as a mere work of art1 it would be 

hopeless to endeavour to press it into  
the frame of any one of the received    
categories of literary composition1 as  
is evident from the fact that authorised
 and unauthorised opinion on the subject
 has touched every extreme1 and still   
continues oscillating to-day4 ,many     
commentators still treat it as a curious
 chapter of old-world history narrated  
with scrupulous fidelity by the hero or 
an eye-witness1 others as a             
philosophical dialogue2 several scholars
 regard it as a genuine drama1 while not
 a few enthusiastically aver that it is 
the only epic poem ever written by a    
,hebrew4 ,in truth1 it partakes of the  
nature of each and every one of these   
categories1 and is yet circumscribed by 
the laws and limits of none of them4 ,in
 form1 it is most nearly akin to the    
drama1 with which we should be disposed 
to identify it if the characters of the 
prologue and epilogue were introduced as
 dramatis personae in action4 ,but their
 doing and enduring are presupposed as  

accomplished facts1 and employed merely 
as a foil to the dialogues1 which alone 
are the work of the author4 ,perhaps the
 least erroneous way succinctly to      
describe what in fact is a unicum would 
be to call it a psychological drama4    
,koheleth1 or the ,preacher1 is likewise
 a literary puzzle which for centuries  
has baffled the efforts of commentators 
and aroused the misgivings of           
theologians4 ,regarded by many as a vade
 mecum of materialists1 by some as an   
eloquent sermon on the fear of ,god1 and
 by others as a summary of sceptical    
philosophy1 it is impossible to analyse 
and classify it without having first    
eliminated all those numerous later-date
 insertions which1 without improving the
 author's theology1 utterly obscure his 
meaning and entirely spoil his work4    
,when1 by the aid of text criticism1 we 
have succeeded in weeding it of the     
parasitic growth of ages1 we have still 
to allow for the changing of places of  
numerous authentic passages either by   

accident or design1 the effects of which
 are oftentimes quite as misleading as  
those of the deliberate interpolations4 
,the work thus restored1 although one1  
coherent and logical1 is still          
susceptible of various interpretations1 
according to the point of view of the   
reader1 none of which1 however1 can     
ignore the significant fact that the    
sceptically ideal basis of ,koheleth's  
metaphysics is identical with that of   
,buddha1 ,kant1 and ,schopenhauer1 and  
admirably harmonises with the ethics of 
,job and the pessimism of the ,new      
,testament4  ,the ,sayings of ,agur1 on 
the contrary1 tell their own interesting
 story1 without need of note or         
commentary1 to him who possesses a fair 
knowledge of ,hebrew grammar1 and an    
average allowance of mother wit4 ,the   
lively versifier1 the keenness of whose 
sense of humour is excelled only by the 
bitterness of his satire1 could ill     
afford to be obscure4 ,a member of the  
literary fraternity which boasts the    

names of ,lucian and ,voltaire1 a firm  
believer in the force of common sense   
and rudimentary logic1 ,agur ridicules  
the theologians of his day with a       
malicious cruelty which is explained1 if
 not warranted1 by the pretensions of   
omniscience and the practice of         
intolerance that provoked it4 ,the      
unanswerable argument which ,jahveh     
considered sufficient to silence his    
servant ,job1 ,agur deems effective     
against the dogmatical doctors of his   
own day3      ,who has ascended into    
heaven and come down again8             
99       99       99       99       99  
,such an one would ,i question about    
,god3 ,what is his name8   ,footnotes3  
#b ,job and ,ecclesiastes were inserted 
in the ,jewish and1 one may add1     the
 ,christian ,canon1 solely on the       
strength of passages which the          
authors of these compositions never even
 saw1 and which flatly     contradict   
the main theses of their works4         
99       99       99       99       99  

,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,the ,,poem       
,purged of all later interpolations and 
restored as far as possible to the form 
it received from the hand of its author1
 the poem of ,job is the most striking  
presentation of the most obscure and    
fascinating problem that ever puzzled   
and tortured the human intellect3 how to
 reconcile the existence of evil1 not   
merely with the fundamental dogmas of   
the ancient ,jewish faith1 but with any 
form of ,theism whatever4 ,stated in the
 terms in which the poet--whom for      
convenience sake we shall identify with 
his hero#c manifestly conceived it1 it  
is this3 ,can ,god be the creator of all
 things and yet not be responsible for  
evil8  ,the ,infinite ,being who laid   
the earth's foundation1 shut in the sea 
with doors1 whose voice is thunder and  
whose creatures are all things that have
 being1 is1 we trust1 moral and good4   
,but it is ,his omnipotence that strikes
 us most forcibly4 ,almighty in theory1 
,he is all active in fact1 and nothing  

that happens in the universe is brought 
about even indirectly by any one but    
,himself4 ,there are no second causes at
 work1 no chance1 no laws of nature1 no 
subordinate agents1 nothing that is not 
the immediate manifestation of ,his free
 will4#d ,this is evident to our senses4
 ,but what is equally obvious is that   
,his acts do not tally with ,his        
attribute of goodness1 and that no facts
 known or imaginable can help us to     
bridge over the abyss between the       
infinite justice ascribed to ,him and   
the crying wrongs that confront us in   
,his universe1 whithersoever we turn4#e 
,his rule is such a congeries of evils  
that even the just man often welcomes   
death as a release1 and ,job himself    
with difficulty overcame the temptation 
to end his sufferings by suicide4 ,all  
the cut-and-dried explanations of ,god's
 conduct offered by ,his human advocates
 merely render the problem more         
complicated4 ,his professional          
apologists are weavers of lies1 and     

contend for ,him with deception1 and1   
worse than all else1 ,he ,himself has   
never revealed to ,his creatures any    
truth more soothing than the fact they  
set out with1 that the problem is for   
ever insoluble4 ,wisdom is hid from the 
eyes of all living1#f and the dead are  
in the land of darkness and of gloom1#g 
whence there is no issue4  ,the         
theological views prevalent in the days 
of the poet1 as expounded by the three  
friends of ,job1 instead of suggesting  
some way out of the difficulty were in  
flagrant contradiction with fact4 ,they 
appealed to the traditional theory and  
insisted on having that accepted as the 
reality4 ,and it was one of the saddest 
theories ever invented4 ,virtue was at  
best a mere matter of business1 one of  
the crudest forms of utilitarianism1 a  
bargain between ,jahveh and ,his        
creatures4 ,as asceticism in ancient    
,india was rewarded with the spiritual  
gift of working miracles1 so upright    
living was followed in ,judea by        

material wealth1 prosperity1 a numerous 
progeny and all the good things that    
seem to make life worth living4 ,such at
 least was the theory1 and those who    
were satisfied with their lot had little
 temptation to find fault with it for   
the sake of those who were not4 ,in     
sober reality1 however1 the obligation  
was very one-sided3 ,jahveh1 who        
occasionally failed to carry out ,his   
threats1 observed or repudiated ,his    
solemn promises as ,he thought fit1     
whereas those among ,his creatures who  
faithfully fulfilled their part of the  
contract were never sure of receiving   
their stipulated wage in the promised   
coin4 ,and at that time none other was  
current3 there was no future life       
looming in the dim distance with        
intensified rewards and punishments     
wherewith to redress the balance of     
this4 ,and it sadly needed redressing4  
,the victims of seeming injustice       
naturally felt that they were being     
hardly dealt with4 ,and as if to make   

confusion worse confounded1 their       
neighbours1 who had ridden roughshod    
over all law1 human and divine1 were    
frequently exempt from misfortune1 lived
 on the fat of the land1 and enjoyed a  
monopoly of the divine blessings4 ,to   
,job1 whose consciousness of his own    
righteousness was clearer and less      
questionable than the justice of his    
,creator1 this theory of retribution    
seemed unworthy of belief4  ,the        
creation of this good ,god1 then1 is    
largely leavened with evil for          
which--all things being the work of ,his
 hands--,he1 and ,he alone1 is          
answerable4 ,there was no devil in those
 olden times upon whose broad shoulders 
the responsibility for sickness1        
suffering1 misery and death could be    
conveniently shifted4 ,the ,satan or    
,adversary is still one of the sons of  
,god who1 like all his brethren1 has    
free access to the council chamber of   
the ,most ,high1 where he is wont to    
take a critical1 somewhat cynical but   

not wholly incorrect view of motives and
 of men4 ,in the government of the world
 he has neither hand nor part1 and his  
interference in the affairs of ,job is  
the result of a special permission      
accorded him by the ,creator4 ,god alone
 is the author of good and of evil1#h   
and the thesis to be demonstrated by    
,his professional apologists consists in
 showing that the former is the outflow 
of ,his mercy1 and the latter the       
necessary effect of ,his justice acting 
upon the depraved will of ,his          
creatures4 ,but the proof was not       
forthcoming4 ,personal suffering might  
reasonably be explained in many cases as
 the meet and inevitable wage for       
wrong-doing2 but assuredly not in all4  
,job himself was a striking instance of 
unmerited punishment4 ,even ,jahveh     
solemnly declares him to be just and    
perfect2 and ,job was admittedly no     
solitary exception2 he was the type of a
 numerous class of righteous1 wronged   
and wretched mortals1 unnamed and       

unknown3    ,omnes illacrymabiles4444   
ignotique longa   ,nocte1 carent quia   
vate sacro4  ,job is ready to admit that
 ,god1 no doubt1 is just and good in    
theory1 but he cannot dissemble the     
obvious fact that ,his works in the     
universe are neither2 indeed1 if we may 
judge the tree by its fruits1 ,his rgime
 is the rule of an oriental and almighty
 despot whose will and pleasure is the  
sole moral law4 ,and that will is too   
often undistinguishable from malice of  
the blackest kind4 ,thus    ,he         
destroyeth the upright and the wicked1  
,when his scourge slayeth at unawares4  
,he scoffeth at the trial of the        
innocent2   ,the earth is given into the
 hand of the wicked4  ,in a word1 the   
poet proclaims that the current theories
 of traditional theology were           
disembodied1 not incarnate in the moral 
order of the world1 had1 in fact1       
nowhere taken root4  ,the two most      
specious arguments with which it was    
sought to prop up this tottering        

theological system consisted in         
maintaining that the wicked are often   
punished and the good recompensed in    
their offspring--a kind of spiritual    
entail in which the tenant for life is  
denied the usufruct for the sake of     
heirs he never knew--and that such      
individual claims as were left          
unadjusted by this curious arrangement  
were merged in those of the community at
 large and should be held to be settled 
in full as long as the weal of the      
nation was assured4 ,in other words1 the
 individual sows and his offspring or   
the nation reaps the harvest4 ,but ,job 
rejects both pleas as illusory and      
immoral1 besides which1 they leave the  
frequent prosperity of the unrighteous  
unexplained4 ,wherefore1 he asks1 do the
 wicked live1 become old1 yea wax mighty
 in strength8 ,the reply that the       
fathers having eaten sour grapes1 the   
children's teeth will be set on edge1   
is1 he contends1 no answer to the       
objection2 it merely intensifies it4    

,for he who sows should reap1 and he who
 sins should suffer4 ,after death the   
most terrible punishment meted out to   
the posterity of criminals is powerless 
to affect their mouldering dust4 ,that1 
surely1 cannot be accepted as a         
vindication of justice1 human or divine4
    ,ye say3 ,god hoards punishment for 
the children4   ,let him rather requite 
the wicked himself that he may feel it6 
,his own eyes should behold his         
downfall1   ,and he himself should drain
 the ,almighty's wrath4   ,if his sons  
are honoured1 he will not know it2      
,and if dishonoured1 he will not        
perceive it4   ,only in his own flesh   
doth he feel pain1   ,and for his own   
soul will he lament4  ,as to the latter 
argument1 that the well-being of the    
nation was a settlement in full of the  
individual's claims to happiness1 it was
 equally irrelevant1 even had the       
principle underlying it been confirmed  
by experience4 ,granting that a certain 
wholesale kind of equity was            

administered1 why must the individual   
suffer for no fault of his own8 ,wherein
 lies the justice of a ,being who1      
credited with omnipotence1 permits that 
by a sweep of the wild hurricane of     
disaster1 green leaves with yellow mixed
 are torn away8  ,but the contention    
that1 viewing the individual merely as a
 unit of the aggregate1 justice would be
 found to be dealt out fairly on the    
whole1 ran counter to experience4 ,the  
facts were dead against it4 ,the ,hebrew
 nation had fared as badly among        
neighbouring states as ,job among his   
friends and countrymen4 ,in this respect
 the sorely tried individual was the    
type of his nation4 ,the destruction of 
the kingdom of ,samaria which had       
occurred nearly two hundred years before
 and the captivity of ,judah1 which was 
not yet at an end1 gave its death-blow  
to the theory4 ,the tents of robbers    
prosper and they that provoke ,shaddai#i
 are secure4  ,in truth1 there was but  
one issue out of the difficulty3 divine 

justice might not be bounded by time or 
space2 the law of compensation might    
have a larger field than our earth for  
its arena2 a future life might afford   
time and opportunity to right the wrongs
 of the present1 and all end well in the
 best of future worlds4 ,this           
explanation would have set doubts at    
rest and settled the question for at    
least two thousand years2 and it seemed 
such a necessary postulate to the       
fathers of the ,church1 who viewed the  
matter in the light of ,christian       
revelation1 that they actually put into 
,job's mouth the words which he would   
have uttered had he lived in their own  
days and been a member of the true fold4
 ,and they effected this with a pious   
recklessness of artistic results and of 
elementary logic that speaks better for 
their intentions than for their         
aesthetic taste4 ,in truth1 ,job knows  
absolutely nothing of a future life1 and
 his friends1 equally unenlightened1 see
 nothing for it but to discourse        

wickedly for ,god1 and utter lies on    
,his behalf4#aj ,there was1 in fact1 no 
third course4 ,indeed1 if the hero or   
his friends had even suspected the      
possibility of a solution based upon a  
life beyond the tomb1 the problem on    
which the book is founded would not have
 existed4 ,to ground1 therefore1 the    
doctrines of the ,resurrection1 the     
,atonement1 c41 upon alleged passages of
 the poem of ,job is tantamount to      
inferring the squareness of a circle    
from its perfect rotundity4 ,in the     
,authorised ,version of the ,bible the  
famous verses1 which have probably      
played a more important part in the     
intellectual history of mankind than all
 the books of the ,old ,testament put   
together1 run thus3 ,for ,i know that my
 redeemer liveth1 and that he shall     
stand at the latter day upon the earth3 
and though after my skin worms destroy  
this body1 yet in my flesh shall ,i see 
,god3 whom ,i shall see for myself1 and 
mine eyes shall behold1 and not another2

 though my reins be consumed within     
me4#aa  ,now this1 it is hardly         
necessary to say1 is not  a translation 
from the poem nor from any known text of
 it1 but the embodiment of the salutary 
beliefs of well-intentioned             
theologians--of ,st4 ,jerome among      
others-- momentarily forgetful of the   
passage3 ,will ye speak wickedly for    
,god8 ,the ,christian conception of a   
,redeemer would1 had he but known it1   
have proved balm to the heart of the    
despairing hero4 ,as a matter of mere   
fact1 his own hope at that critical     
moment was less sublime and very much   
less ,christian3 the coming of an       
avenger who would punish his enemies and
 rehabilitate his name4 ,it was the one 
worldly and vain longing that still     
bound him to the earth4 ,other people   
demanded happiness as their reward for  
virtue1 too often undistinguishable from
 vice2 ,job challenged the express      
approval of the ,deity1 asked only that 
he should not be confounded with vulgar 

sinners4 ,the typical perfect man1      
struck down with a loathsome disease1   
doomed to a horrible death1 alone in his
 misery1 derided by his enemies1 and1   
worse than all1 loathed as a common     
criminal by those near and dear to him1 
gives his friends and enemies1 society  
and theologians1 the lie emphatic--nay1 
he goes the length of affirming that    
,god ,himself has1 failed in ,his duty  
towards him4 ,know1 then1 that ,god hath
 wronged me4#ab ,his conscience1        
however1 tells him that inasmuch as     
there is such a thing as eternal        
justice1 a time will come when the truth
 will be proclaimed and his honour fully
 vindicated2 ,shaddai will then yearn   
for the work of ,his hands1 but it will 
be too late1 ,for now ,i must lay myself
 down in the dust2 and ,thou shalt seek 
me1 but ,i shall not be4 ,and it is to  
this conviction1 not to a belief in     
future retribution1 that the hero gives 
utterance in the memorable passage in   
question3    ,but ,i know that my       

avenger liveth1   ,though it be at the  
end upon my dust2   ,my witness will    
avenge these things1   ,and a curse     
alight upon mine enemies4  ,he knows    
nothing whatever of the subsistence of  
our cumbrous clods of clay after they   
have become the food of worms and       
pismires2 indeed1 he is absolutely      
certain that by the sleep of death      
we end   ,the heartache1 and the        
thousand natural shocks   ,that flesh is
 heir to4  ,and he emphasises his views 
in a way that should have given food for
 wholesome reflection to his            
commentators4    ,there is a future for 
the tree1   ,and hope remaineth to the  
palm2   ,cut down1 it will sprout again1
   ,and its tender branch will not      
cease4    ,though its roots wax old in  
the earth1   ,and its stock lie buried  
in mould1   ,yet through vapour of water
 will it bud1   ,and put forth boughs   
like a plant4    ,but man dieth and     
lieth outstretched2   ,he giveth up the 
ghost1 where is he then8   ,he lieth    

down and riseth not up2   ,till heaven  
be no more he shall not awake4#ac       
,nothing could well be further removed  
from the comforting hope of a future    
life1 the resurrection of the body1 and 
eternal rewards1 than this unshaken     
belief that ,death is our sole redeemer 
from the terrible evils of life4        
,footnotes3  #c ,although the former was
 a ,jew and the latter a ,gentile4  #d  
,cf4 ,translation1 strophe ci43         
,is not the soul of every living thing  
in his hand1       ,and the breath of   
all mankind8      ,strophe civ43        
,with him is strength and wisdom1       
,the erring one and his error are his4  
#e ,strophe cxcii4-cxciii43        ,look
 upon me and tremble1       ,and lay    
your hand upon your mouth6       ,when  
,i remember ,i am dismayed1       ,and  
trembling taketh hold on my flesh4      
,strophe ccxxi43        ,why do the     
times of judgment depend upon the       
,almighty1       ,and yet they who know 
him do not see his days8  #f ,strophe   

ccxxxiv4  #g ,strophe lxxxix4  #h ,the  
erring one and his error are his        
7,god's73 strophe civ4 ,cf4     also    
strophe cvii4  #i ,god4  #aj ,strophe   
cxi4  #aa ,job xix4 #be-bg4 ,the        
,revised ,version gives the passage as  
follows3     ,but ,i know that my       
redeemer liveth1 and that he shall stand
 up at     the last upon the earth3 and 
after my skin hath been thus destroyed1 
yet from my flesh shall ,i see ,god3    
whom ,i shall see for myself1 and       
mine eyes shall behold1 and not another4
  #ab ,strophe clxix4  #ac ,job1        
strophes cxxiv4-cxxvi4 of my ,english   
translation4         99       99        
99       99       99  ,,job',s ,,method 
,,of ,,solving ,,the ,,problem  ,it is  
perhaps hardly necessary to point out   
that the doctrine of eternal pains and  
rewards as laid down by the ,christian  
,church1 unless reinforced by faith1    
neither solves the problem nor          
simplifies it4 ,if the truth must be    
told1 it seems to unenlightened reason  

to entangle it more hopelessly than     
before4 ,in simple terms and in its     
broadest aspect the question may be     
stated as follows3 ,god created man     
under conditions of ,his own choosing   
which necessarily led to the life-long  
misery of countless millions upon earth 
and their never-ending torments in hell4
 ,to the question1 ,did ,he know the    
inevitable effect of ,his creative act1 
the answer is1 ,god is omniscient4 ,to  
the query1 ,could ,he have selected     
other and more humane conditions of     
existence for ,his creature--conditions 
so adjusted that1 either with or without
 probation1 man would have been         
ultimately happy8 the reply is1 ,god is 
almighty4  ,involuntarily1 then1 the    
question forces itself upon us1 ,is ,he 
all-good8 ,can that ,being be deemed    
good who1 moved by no necessity1 free to
 create or to abstain from creating1 at 
liberty to create for happiness or for  
misery1 calls mankind into existence    
under such conditions and surroundings  

that myriads are miserable1 so          
unutterably miserable1 that1 compared   
with their tortures1 the wretch bleeding
 and quivering on the wheel is lolling  
in the lap of enjoyment8 ,why did ,god  
make man under such conditions8 ,or at  
least how are we to reconcile ,his      
having done so with ,his attribute of   
goodness8 ,to this question there are   
many replies but no answer1 the former  
being merely attempts to explain the    
chronic effects of the primordial       
ethical poison commonly called original 
sin4  ,job's main objection to the      
theological theories in vogue among his 
contemporaries1 and1 indeed1 to all     
conceivable explanations of the         
difficulty1 is far more weighty than at 
first sight appears4 ,everything1 he    
tells us--if anything--is the work of   
,god's hands2 and as pain1 suffering1   
evil1 are everywhere predominant1 it is 
not easy to understand in what sense    
,god can be said to be good4 ,the poet  
does not formulate the argument1 of     

which this is the gist1 in very precise 
terms1 nor press it home to its last    
conclusions4 ,but he leaves no doubt    
about his meaning4 ,some men are        
relatively good by nature1 others       
wicked2 but all men were created by ,god
 and act in accordance with the         
disposition they received from ,him4 ,if
 that disposition or character brought  
forth sin and evil1 these then are      
,god's work1 not man's1 and ,he alone is
 responsible therefor4 ,the individual  
who performs an act through an agent is 
rightly deemed to have done it himself4 
,a man1 therefore1 who1 being free to do
 a certain thing or to leave it undone1 
and perfectly aware of the nature of its
 necessary consequences1 performs it1 is
 held to be answerable for the results1 
should they prove mischievous4 ,much    
greater is his responsibility if1       
instead of being restricted to the      
choice between undertaking a work       
certain to prove pernicious and         
abstaining from it1 he was free to      

select a third course and to accomplish 
it in such a way that the result would  
not be evil1 but unmixed good4 ,in this 
case it would hardly seem possible to   
exonerate the doer from a charge of     
wanton malice1 diabolic in degree4 ,and 
such is the position in which many      
theologians seem--to those who view     
things in the light of reason--to have  
placed ,god ,himself4 ,it was open to   
,him1 they maintain1 to create or to    
refrain from creating4 ,having declared 
for the former alternative1 ,he is      
chargeable with the consequences4 ,the  
consequences1 however1 need not have    
been evil2 ,he might1 had ,he so willed 
it1 have endowed ,his creature with such
 qualities and placed him in such       
surroundings that1 without ceasing to be
 man1 he would never have fallen at all4
 ,yet it did not please ,him to adopt   
that course4 ,this admission1           
rationalists urge1 is conclusive as to  
the origin of sin and evil4  ,but the   
arguments are not yet exhausted4 ,even  

then the ,creator might have made       
everything right by an act which it     
seems impossible to distinguish from    
elementary justice4 ,had ,he regarded   
the first man who brought sin into the  
world as a mere individual1 and treated 
him as such--and this1 theologians      
assure us1 ,he could easily have        
done#ad--;,he might have punished him as
 an individual1 and the matter would    
have been at an end4 ,but instead of    
this1 ,he contemplated him as the type  
and representative of the human race1   
and decreed that his sin should1 like a 
subtle spiritual poison1 infect the soul
 of every man coming into the world4 ,in
 other words1 ,god1 who is supposed to  
hate evil so profoundly that ,he damns  
for ever in hell a man guilty of one    
single mortal transgression1 enacted    
that if one sin were committed it should
 be needlessly made to engender myriads 
of other sins1 and that the tiny seed of
 evil which was first thrown upon the   
earth by ,his creature in a moment of   

pardonable weakness1 and might have so  
easily been trampled out1 should take   
root1 sprout up and grow into a vast    
,upas tree whose poisonous branches     
overshadow all creation4 ,this          
proposition1 it is contended1 explicitly
 taxes ,god1 if not with the sole       
authorship of sin and evil1 at least    
with the moral responsibility for       
propagating it4 ,and this is the        
prevailing view among modern apologists4
  ,as to the origin of evil1 it is to be
 sought for1 theologians have           
discovered1 in the free will with which 
,god endowed man4 ,this1 they allege1   
shifts all the responsibility on the    
human creature because1 instead of evil1
 he might have chosen good4             
,unfortunately1 the same argument would 
seem to apply to the ,creator           
,himself4#ae ,he1 too1 being omnipotent1
 might have chosen good instead of evil 
subjects1 and created human beings whose
 acts would have been blameless and     
virtuous1 their will remaining what it  

is4 ,further1 not having done this and  
having needlessly allowed an abyss to be
 made by sin between ,himself and the   
first man1 it was still open to ,him to 
have abstained from widening it until it
 became an impassable gulf between      
,himself and the entire human race4 ,but
 ,he did not abstain2 instead of        
localising1 ,he deliberately  and       
wantonly spread the evil1 and  the ruin 
that overwhelmed all mankind cannot     
therefore be said to have sprung from   
the will of the race1 but from ,his own4
 ,again1 the interposition of a free    
will between ,god and evil1 it is urged1
 affords no real solution of the        
problem1 for the question still remains1
 why were the workings of that free will
 evil and not good8 ,obviously because  
such was its ,god-created nature2 for   
the action of outward circumstances upon
 the will neither builds up nor modifies
 this nature1 but simply discloses it to
 our view4  ,these ideas were adopted1  
developed and defended by a few of the  

most profound ,christian philosophers of
 the early ,church1 and most ably of all
 by ,scotus ,erigena1#af who held that  
the origin of evil which cannot be      
sought for in ,god must not be placed in
 the free will of man1 because the      
latter hypothesis would still leave the 
responsibility with the ,creator1 the   
human will being ,his own handiwork4    
,at the root of this argument lies yet  
another consideration upon which        
unbelieving thinkers rely still more3 it
 is drawn from the alleged              
incompatibility between the conception  
of a created being and free will1 and   
will be noticed presently4 ,it is       
commonly regarded as the principal      
difficulty which ,theists and           
,pantheists are condemned continually to
 encounter without ever being able to   
explain--the rock1 so to say1 upon which
 their optimistic systems strike1 and   
are shattered to pieces--unless         
protected by the armour of supernatural 
faith4  ,but besides the ,christian and 

,pantheistic theories1 there is another 
explanation of the origin of evil       
offered by the religion of more than    
one-third of the human race4 ,it is a   
theory which can readily be labelled and
 libelled by the most unphilosophical   
reader1 but cannot be grasped and       
appreciated without serious study and   
reflection by the most intelligent1 for 
it is based upon the doctrine that time1
 space and causality have no existence  
outside the human mind4#ag ,the world   
which we see and know1 therefore1 and   
everything it contains is such stuff as 
dreams are made of--the woof and warp   
being evolved from1 and interwoven by1  
our own minds4 ,underlying the          
innumerable illusive appearances which  
we call the world is a reality1 a being 
or force which is one4 ,we and          
everything else are but manifestations1 
in time and space1 of this one reality  
with which1 however1 each and every one 
of us is at bottom identical and whose  
sole attribute is unity4 ,this force or 

will manifests itself in myriads of     
facets1 so to say1 in the universe1 and 
these manifestations are not good1      
constitute1 indeed1 a sort of fall4     
,intelligence is not one of the primary 
attributes of this eternal will4 ,it    
attained to clear consciousness and     
knowledge only in man and then for the  
first time perceived that the existence 
for which it yearned is evil and not    
good4 ,man therefore is his own work2   
and existence1 as it constitutes a fall1
 is its own punishment2 for his life is 
a series of inane desires which1 when   
momentarily satiated1 are immediately   
succeeded by others equally vain1       
fruitless and hollow1 and the cessation 
of desire is the beginning of tedium    
which is oftentimes still less          
endurable1 seeing that it leaves little 
room for hope4    ,life which ye prize  
is long-drawn agony2   ,only its pains  
abide1 its pleasures are   ,as birds    
which light and fly4  ,every wish       
springs from want which causes pain1 the

 attainment of the wished-for           
object--commonly called pleasure--is but
 the cessation of that pain3 in other   
words it is a mere negation4 ,man's life
 is a never-ending oscillation between  
pleasure and pain3 the former mere      
illusion1 the latter a dread reality4   
,the origin of this and of all other    
evil is individual existence1 and       
individual existence is the free act of 
the one substance or force which is     
identical with each and all of us4      
,this theory excludes creation4 ,for    
free will is utterly incompatible with  
the state of a created being2#ah because
 operari sequitur esse--i4e41 the       
operation1 the working of every being1  
must be the necessary result of its     
qualities which are themselves known    
only by the acts they bring forth4 ,if  
these acts be praiseworthy1 the         
qualities are good3 if reprehensible1   
they are bad4 ,but if the acts are to be
 free1 they should be neither good nor  
bad4 ,a being therefore to be perfectly 

free should have no qualities at        
all--i4e41 should not be created4 ,for  
it must be borne in mind that it is not 
the motives that impart to the will its 
ethical quality4 ,motives are accidental
 and operate in the same way as the rays
 of the sun falling upon a tree or a    
flower3 they reveal the nature of the   
object but are powerless to change it1  
for better or for worse4#ai ,but if this
 be so1 one may ask1 why do we feel     
sorrow1 shame1 repentance for acts which
 we were not free to perform or abstain 
from performing8 ,because we are        
metaphysically free1 that is to say1 our
 inborn disposition from which they     
necessarily emanate1 is the work of our 
free will1 which specific acts are not4 
,no doubt1 when we do right or wrong1 we
 are conscious that we might have acted 
differently--had we willed it4 ,but this
 proves nothing2 the all-important      
question being1 could we1 under the     
circumstances1 have willed otherwise    
than we did8 ,and to this the reply is  

an emphatic negative4 ,but for our      
personal character1 be it good or evil1 
we are answerable1 and therefore        
likewise for the acts that flow from it 
with the rigorous necessity             
characteristic of all causality4 ,for   
individuality in the human race is      
identical with character1 and as        
individuality is the work of our own    
free will exercised outside the realm of
 time and space1 we are responsible for 
it1 and conscious of the responsibility1
 although not of the manner in which it 
was incurred4  ,our acts1 therefore1 and
 they only1 show us what we really are2 
our sufferings what we deserve4 ,the    
former are the necessary outcome of our 
character which external circumstances1 
in the guise of motives1 call into play2
 just as gravitation is acted upon when 
we shake an apple off the tree4 ,our    
deeds then being the inevitable         
resultant of that self-created character
 acted upon by motives1 must            
consequently follow with the same       

necessity as any other link in the chain
 of cause and effect4 ,the knowledge of 
our character and the foreknowledge of  
these outward events which1 in the      
unbroken chain of cause and effect1 act 
upon it1 would suffice to enable us to  
foresee our future as readily as        
astronomers foresee eclipses of the sun 
and moon4 ,now if the root of all evil  
be individuality1 the essence of all    
morality is self-denial2 and no act     
performed for the purpose of obtaining  
happiness1 temporal or eternal1 is      
moral4 ,the evil and pain1 therefore1   
which befall us upon earth cannot be    
regarded as the retribution for the     
deeds done in this life2 for these are  
necessary and inevitable4 ,they are the 
fruits of our character whence these    
acts emanate2 and it is only our        
character which is our own work4 ,with  
the ethical nature of that character    
each individual gradually grows         
acquainted as well in his own case as in
 that of his neighbour's1 solely from a 

study of his own acts1 which often      
astonish himself quite as much as his   
friends4  ,brahmanism and ,buddhism     
symbolized these notions in the somewhat
 gross but only intelligible form in    
which the mind can readily grasp them1  
viz41 in the dogma of the transmigration
 of souls1 according to which a man's   
good deeds and bad follow him like his  
shadow from one existence to another1   
and in this life he expiates the sins or
 enjoys the fruits of a previous        
existence3#bj                           
,each man's life   ,the outcome of his  
former living is2   ,the bygone wrongs  
bring forth sorrows and woes1   ,the    
bygone right breeds bliss4    ,that     
which ye sow ye reap4 ,see yonder       
fields6   ,the sesamum was sesamum1 the 
corn   ,was corn4 ,the ,silence and the 
,darkness knew6   ,so is man's fate     
born4  ,in the former religion1 ,brahma1
 who is identical with all of us1       
produces the world by a kind of fall    
from his primeval state and remains     

therein until he has redeemed himself4  
,in the latter there is no god2 man     
being his own handiwork and sin and evil
 the result of his blind striving after 
individual existence4 ,it is however in 
his power1 and in his alone1 to right   
the wrong and remedy the evil1 by       
starving out the fatal hunger for life4 
,and in this work1 faith1 supplication  
and sacrifice avail him nothing4        
,pray not6 the ,darkness will not       
brighten6 ,ask   ,nought from the       
,silence1 for it cannot speak6   ,vex   
not your mournful minds with pious      
pains6   ,ah1 brothers1 sisters6 seek   
,naught from the helpless gods by gift  
and hymn1   ,nor bribe with blood1 nor  
feed with fruits and cake2   ,within    
yourself deliverance must be sought3    
,each man his prison makes4  ,the       
ethical bearing of this view is more    
easily discerned than its metaphysical  
basis4 ,individual existence with its   
tantalising mirage of pleasures being   
the root of all evil1 the first step    

towards finding a remedy is to recognise
 this truth1 to obtain insight into the 
heart of things athwart the veil of     
,maya or delusion4 ,the conviction that 
all beings are not merely brothers but  
one and the same essence1 is the death  
of egotistic desire1 of the pernicious  
distinction between me and thee1 and the
 birth of pity1 love and sympathy for   
all men4 ,and this is a very old        
doctrine4 ,in ,india it was taught in   
the ,veda and the ,vedanta under the    
formula tat tvam asi--thou art          
this--i4e41 individual differs not      
essentially from individual1 nor a man  
from the whole human race4 ,he who      
obtains this insight and perceives how  
sorrow is shadow to life1 who weans his 
thirst for existence1 seeks not1 strives
 not1 wrongs not1 starves out his       
passions1 resigns himself wholly to pain
 and suffering as to ills that flow from
 foregone wrongfulness and asks for no  
clue from the ,silence which can utter  
naught1 he is truly blessed and released

 from all misery forever4 ,he glides    
lifeless to nameless quiet1 nameless    
joy1 blessed ,nirvana4  ,it is probable1
 not to say certain1 that it was an     
intuition of this kind that finally     
reconciled ,job with the grey monotony  
of misery and seeming injustice which   
characterises all human existence and   
enabled him to resign himself cheerfully
 to whatever might befall4 ,this at     
least would seem to be the only         
reasonable construction of which        
,jahveh's apparition and discourse are  
susceptible4 ,that they are resorted to 
by the poet solely as an image and      
symbol of the inner illumination of his 
hero's intellect1 is evident to most    
readers4 ,nothing that ,jahveh has to   
disclose to ,job and his three friends  
even remotely resembles a clue to the   
problem that exercised them4 ,the human 
mind would be unable to grasp a solution
 if any existed1 for it possesses no    
forms in which to apprehend it4 ,this   
will soon become apparent even to the   

non-philosophical reader who endeavours 
to reason about a state in which time1  
space1 and causality have no existence4 
,but there is no solution4 ,jahveh      
virtually asks1 as ,buddha had asked    
before3    ,shall any gazer see with    
mortal eyes1   ,or any searcher know    
with mortal mind8   ,veil after veil    
will lift--but there must be   ,veil    
upon veil behind4  ,unless we assume    
some such sudden illumination of the    
mind as ,buddha obtained under the      
shadow of the fig-tree and the author of
 the #gcrd ,psalm among the ruins of the
 kingdom of ,juda1 it is impossible to  
account for ,job's unforeseen and entire
 resignation1 or to bring his former    
defiant utterances into harmony with the
 humble sentiments to which he now gives
 expression4 ,for nothing but his mind  
had meanwhile undergone a change4 ,all  
the elements of the problem remained    
what they were4 ,the evils that had     
fired his indignation were not denied by
 their presumptive author1 nor was any  

explanation of them vouchsafed to him4  
,no remedy was promised in this life1 no
 hope held out of redress in a possible 
world to come4 ,on the contrary1 ,jahveh
 confirms the terrible facts alleged by 
,his servant2 ,he admits that pleasure  
and pain are not the meed of deeds done 
upon earth1 and that the explanation we 
seek1 the light we so wistfully long    
for1 will never come2 for human         
existence is not a dark spot in an ocean
 of dazzling splendour1 but a           
will'-o'-the-wisp that merely           
intensifies the murkiness of everlasting
 ,night4  ,moreover1 ,job was detached  
from the world already4 ,he had overcome
 all his passions and kept even his     
legitimate affections under control4 ,he
 had no word of regret on losing his    
cattle1 his possessions1 his children4  
,during his most exquisite sufferings1  
he declared that he held only to his    
good name4 ,this1 too1 he now gives up  
and demanding nothing1 avers that he is 
satisfied4 ,i resign and console myself4

 ,though it be in dust and ashes4       
,complete detachment from existence1 and
 not for the sake of some other and     
better existence 7for there is none7 is 
the practical outcome of ,job's         
intuition4 ,but in a ,god-created world 
made for the delectation of mankind1 to 
forego its pleasures would be to offend 
the ,creator1 if indeed stark madness   
could kindle ,his ire4 ,but to curb     
one's thirst for life and to spurn its  
joys because one holds them to be the   
tap root of all evil1 is an action at   
once intelligible and wise4 ,and this is
 what ,job evidently does when he       
practises difficult virtues and         
undergoes terrible sufferings without   
the consciousness of past guilt or the  
faintest hope of future recompense4  ,as
 ,buddha taught his followers3 ,when the
 disciple has lost all doubt as to the  
reality of suffering2 when his doubts as
 to the origin of suffering are         
dispelled2 when he is no longer         
uncertain as to the possibility of      

annihilating suffering and when he      
hesitates no more about the way that    
leads to the annihilation of suffering3 
then is he called a holy disciple1 one  
who is in the stream that floweth       
onwards to perfection1 one who is       
delivered from evil1 who is guaranteed1 
who is devoted to the highest truth4#ba 
,footnotes3  #ad ,one of the best       
accredited exponents of this theory1    
which is now     generally accepted by  
,catholic divines1 is ,father 7now      
,cardinal7     ,mazella4  #ae ,and ,job 
more than once applies it4  #af ,cf4    
,editio ,princeps1 ,oxford1 #afha1 p4   
#bhg4  #ag ,many pious ,christians who  
scoff at such emotions1 without         
endeavouring to understand them1 would  
do well to remember that     whatever   
truth there is in the dogma of the      
immorality of the soul1     is dependant
 upon this proposition1 that time1      
space1 and the law of     casuality have
 no real existence whatever1 but are    
merely the     furniture of the human   

mind--the forms in which it apprehends4 
,as     time exists only in our         
consciousness1 and as beginning and end 
can     take place only in time1 they   
can affect only our consciousness1      
which ends in death1 but not our souls1 
which are distinct from mind     and    
consciousness4  #ah ,job1 who rejected  
all secondary causes whatever1 could not
 in logic1     and did not in fact1     
believe in free will as it is commonly  
understood in our days4  #ai ,cf4 ,matt4
 xii4 #cc-ce4  #bj ,even the ,bible is  
not wholly devoid of traces of the same 
symbol     employed to convey the same  
ideas2 cf4 ,matt4 xi4 #ad1 ,john ix4 #b1
     for the ,new ,testament1 and ,ps4  
xc4 #c for the ,old4 ,the apparent inner
     absurdity of the doctrine of the   
transmigration of souls arises          
mainly from our inability to grasp and  
realise the two propositions     which  
it presupposes--viz41 that there is no  
such thing as time     outside of the   
human mind1 and therefore no past or    

future2 and1     secondly1 that soul is 
but individualised will momentarily     
illumined     by the intellect which is 
a function of the brain4 ,metempsychosis
 was     originally no more than a      
symbol4  #ba ,samyuttaka-,nikayo1 vol4  
iii4 chap4 iii4 p4 #bd4 ,cf4 ,dr4 ,k4   
,e4 ,neumann's ,buddhistische           
,anthologie1 ,leiden1 #ahib1 p4 #bjd4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,,date ,,of ,,the ,,composition  ,the   
question which frequently exercised the 
ingenuity of former commentators1       
whether the poem of ,job is the work of 
one or of many authors1 has no longer   
any actuality4 ,it is absolutely certain
 that the book1 as we find it in the    
,authorised ,version1 and even in the   
best ,hebrew manuscripts1 is a mosaic   
put together by a number of writers     
widely differing in their theological   
views and separated from each other by  
whole centuries2 and it is equally      
undoubted that1 restored to its original
 form1 it is a poem round and perfect as

 a star--the masterpiece of one of the  
most gifted artists of his own or any   
age4 ,to the inquiry where he lived and 
wrote1 numerous tentative replies have  
been offered but no final answer4 ,to   
many he is the last of the venerable    
race of patriarchs1 and his verse the   
sweet1 sublime lisping of a childlike   
nature1 disporting itself in the        
glorious morning of the world4#bb       
,this1 however1 is but a pretty fancy1  
which will not stand the ordeal of      
scientific criticism1 nor even the test 
of a careful common-sense examination4  
,the broader problems that interest     
thinking minds of a late and reflective 
age1 the profounder feelings and more   
ambitious aspirations of manhood and    
maturity1 are writ large in every verse 
of the poem4 ,the lyre gives out true1  
full notes1 which there is no mistaking4
 ,the hero is evidently a travelled     
cosmopolitan1 who has outgrown the      
narrow prejudices of petty patriotism   
and national religious creeds to such an

 extent that he studiously eschews the  
use of the revealed name of the ,god of 
his people1 and seems to believe at most
 in a far-away and incomprehensible     
divinity who sometimes merges into      
,fate4 ,in the ,god of theologians he   
had no faith4 ,his comforters1 who from 
the uttermost ends of the earth meet    
together in a most unpatriarchal manner 
to discuss the higher problems of       
philosophy1 allude to the views in vogue
 in the patriarchal age as to traditions
 of bygone days before the influence of 
foreign invaders had tainted the purity 
of the national faith2 and passages like
 xii4 #ag1 xv4 #ai1 seem to point to the
 captivity of the ,hebrew people as an  
accomplished fact4 ,in a word1 the      
strict monotheism of the hero1 which at 
times borders upon half-disguised       
secularism1 has nothing in common with  
the worship of the patriarchs except the
 absence of priests and the lack of     
ceremonies4 ,the language of the poem1  
flavoured by a strong mixture of ,arabic

 and ,aramaic words and phrases1 and the
 frequent use of imagery borrowed from  
,babylonian mythology1 to say nothing of
 a number of other signs and tokens of a
 comparatively late age1 render the     
patriarchal hypothesis absolutely       
untenable4#bc ,this1 at least1 is one of
 the few results of modern research     
about which there is perfect unanimity  
among all competent scholars4  ,if the  
date of the composition of ,job cannot  
be fixed with any approach to accuracy1 
there are at least certain broad limits 
within which it is agreed on all hands  
that it should be placed4 ,this period  
is comprised between the prophetic      
activity of ,jeremiah and the second    
half of the ,babylonian ,exile4 ,the    
considerations upon which this opinion  
is grounded are drawn mainly1 if not    
exclusively1 from authentic passages of 
,job which the author presumably        
borrowed from other books of the ,old   
,testament4 ,thus a comparison of the   
verses in which the hero curses the day 

of his birth#bd with an identical       
malediction in ,jeremiah 7xx4 #ad-ae71  
and of the respective circumstances in  
which each was written1 leads to the    
conviction that the borrower was not the
 prophet whose writings must therefore  
have been familiar to the poet4 ,this   
conclusion is confirmed by a somewhat   
far-fetched but none the less valid     
argument drawn from the circumstance    
that ,ezekiel1#be who would probably    
have known the poem had it existed in   
his day1 obviously never heard of it2   
for this prophet1 broaching the         
question1 apparently for the first time 
among his countrymen1 as to the justice 
of human suffering1 denies point blank  
that any man endures unmerited pain1#bf 
and affirms in emphatic terms that to   
each one shall be meted out reward or   
punishment according to his works4#bg   
,and this he could hardly have done had 
he been aware of the fact that the      
contradictory proposition was vouched   
for by no less an authority than ,jahveh

 ,himself4  ,again1 it is highly        
probable1 although one would hardly be  
justified in stating it as an           
established fact1 that certain striking 
poetic images clothed in the same form  
of words in ,job and in the ,second     
,isaiah1#bh are the coinage of the rich 
imagination of the latter1#bi from whose
 writings they must consequently have   
been taken by the author of ,job4 ,if   
this assumption be correct1 and it is   
considerably strengthened by collateral 
evidence1 we should have no choice but  
to assign to the composition of the poem
 a date later than that of the ,second  
,isaiah who wrote between #edf and #ece 
,b4,c4 ,the ingenious and learned       
,german critic1 ,dr4 ,cornill1 holds it 
to be no less than two or three hundred 
years younger still1 and bases his      
opinion principally upon the last verse 
of the last chapter of the ,book of     
,job1 where the expression 7,job died7  
old and full of days1 is1 in his        
opinion1 borrowed from the ,priests'    

,code4 ,it is1 however1 needless to     
analyse this argument1 seeing that the  
verse in question was wanting in the    
,septuagint#cj version1 and must        
therefore be held to be a later         
addition4  ,another question1 once a    
sure test of orthodoxy1 the discussion  
of which has become equally superfluous 
to-day1 is to what extent the narrative 
is based upon historical facts4 ,the    
second council of ,constantinople       
solemnly condemned ,theodore1 ,bishop of
 ,mopsuestia1 one of the most           
enlightened ,fathers of the ,church1 for
 having advanced the opinion that the   
story of ,job was a pious fiction and   
the doctrine it embodies irreconcileable
 with orthodoxy4 ,it would be rash to   
say what conclusion a council sitting at
 the end of the nineteenth century would
 be likely to arrive at4 ,but it would  
hardly find fault with the majority of  
contemporary critics who hold that the  
prologue and epilogue1 which are in     
prose and contain in outline the popular

 legend of ,job1 were anterior to the   
colloquies between the hero and his     
friends1 bear in fact the same relation 
to the poem that the mediaeval legend of
 ,johan ,faustus does to the masterpiece
 of ,goethe4 ,and it was to the popular 
legend1 not to the poem1 that ,ezekiel  
alluded in the passage in which he      
instances ,job as the type of the just  
man4 ,but one must needs be endowed with
 a strong and child-like faith to       
accept1 in the light of ancient history 
and modern science1 as sober facts the  
familiar conversation between ,jahveh   
and the ,adversary in the               
council-chamber of heaven1 the sudden   
intervention of the latter in the life  
of ,job1 the ease with which he breaks  
through the chain of causality and bends
 even the human will to his purpose1 the
 indecent haste with which he overwhelms
 the just man with a torrent of         
calamities in the course of one short   
day1 the apparition of ,jahveh in a     
storm-cloud1 and many other equally     

improbable details4 ,improbability1     
however1 is the main feature of all     
miracles2 and faith need not be dismayed
 even by the seemingly impossible4 ,in  
any case where it is hopeless to        
convince1 it is needless to discuss1 and
 if there still be readers to whose     
appreciation of the poem belief in its  
historical truth is absolutely          
indispensable1 it would be cruel to seek
 to spoil or even lessen their enjoyment
 of one of the most sublime creations   
known to any literature of the world4   
,footnotes3  #bb ,one of the main       
grounds for this opinion is the absolute
 ignorance     of the ,mosaic law       
manifested by the author of ,job4 ,the  
line of     reasoning is that he must   
have been either a ,jew--and in that    
case     have lived before or           
simultaneously with ,moses--or else an  
,arab1 like     his hero1 and have      
written the work in ,arabic1 ,moses     
himself probably     doing it into      
,hebrew4 ,to a ,hebrew scholar this     

sounds as plausible as     would the    
thesis1 to one well versed in ,greek1   
that the ,iliad is but     a translation
 from the ,sanscrit4 ,the ,talmud makes 
,job now a     contemporary of ,david   
and ,solomon1 now wholly denies his     
existence4     ,jerome1 and some ,roman 
,catholic theologians of to-day1        
identify the     author of the poem with
 ,moses himself1 a view in favour of    
which not     a shred of argument can be
 adduced4 ,cf4 ,loisy1 ,le ,livre de    
,job1     ,paris1 #ahib1 p4 #cg2 ,reuss1
 ,hiob41 ,braunschweig1 #ahhh1 pp4 #h   
ff4  #bc ,the subject of the date and   
place of composition has been treated by
     ,cornill1 ,einleitung in das ,alte 
,testament1 #bce fol41 by ,prof4        
,duhm1 ,the ,book of ,job 7cf4 ,the ,new
 ,world1 ,june1 #ahid71 and     others4 
,but the most lucid1 masterly1 and      
dispassionate discussion of     the     
subject is to be found in ,prof4        
,cheyne's ,job and ,solomon1     chaps4 
viii4-xii4  #bd ,job ,a4,v4 iii4 #c-aj4 

#be #eib-egb ,b4,c4  #bf ,ezek4 xviii4  
#b1 #c4  #bg ,ibid4 #d-i4  #bh ,the     
,second ,isaiah is the name now usually 
given to the unknown     author of one  
of the sublimest books of the ,old      
,testament1 viz41     chaps1 xl4-lxvi4  
of the work commonly attributed to      
,isaiah4 ,it was     composed most      
probably between #edf and #ece ,b4,c4   
#bi ,they may be found by referring to  
the parallel passages given in the      
margin of the ,authorised ,version of   
,job2 for instance1 chap4 xiv4     ,one 
example may suffice3 ,in the ,second    
,isaiah1 xl4 #f-h1 we read     ,the     
,voice said1 ,cry4 ,and he said1 ,what  
shall ,i cry8 ,all flesh is     grass1  
and all the goodliness thereof is as the
 flower of the     field3 the grass     
withereth1 the flower fadeth3 because   
the spirit of     the ,lord bloweth upon
 it3 surely the people is grass4 ,the   
grass     withereth1 the flower fadeth3 
but the word of our ,god shall stand for
     ever4 ,in ,job we find the winged  

word embodied in the verse #b1 chap4    
xiv4 ,a4,v4 7strophe cxxi474        ,man
 that is born of a woman1       ,poor in
 days and rich in trouble2       ,he    
cometh forth as a flower and fadeth1    
,he fleeth like a shadow and abideth    
not4  #cj ,for the value of the         
testimony of the ,septuagint1 cf4       
following chapter4         99       99  
99       99       99  ,,the ,,text ,,and
 ,,its ,,reconstruction  ,our           
,authorised ,version of ,job is based   
upon the text handed down to us in      
existing ,hebrew manuscripts and upon   
,jerome's ,latin translation4 ,none of  
the manuscripts1 the most important of  
which are those of the ,vatican1#ca of  
,alexandria#cb and of ,sinai1#cc go     
further back than the fourth century    
,a4,d4 ,and some of the modifications1  
made by ,jerome in the ,latin           
translation1 particularly in chap4 xxi4 
#be-bg1 into which he introduces the    
,christian idea of the ,resurrection1   
were not based upon the various readings

 of the ,codices1 but inspired by a     
pious desire to render the work more    
edifying4 ,as our ,hebrew manuscripts   
are all derived from a single copy which
 was probably contemporaneous with the  
reign of the ,emperor ,hadrian1#cd the  
words and the corrections of which they 
reproduce with ,chinese scrupulosity1   
the utmost we can expect from them is to
 supply us with the text as it existed  
at that relatively late age4  ,the      
comparative indifference that reigned   
before that time as to the purity of the
 text of the most important books of the
 ,canon1 and the utter carelessness with
 which down to the first century of the 
,christian era the manuscripts of the   
,hagiographa#ce were treated1 render it 
highly probable that long before the    
reign of ,hadrian the poem of ,job had  
undergone many and serious              
modifications4 ,the ease with which     
words written with consonants only1 many
 of which resembled each other1 were    
liable to be interchanged1 strengthens  

this probability2 while a detailed study
 of the various manuscripts and         
translations transforms it into         
certainty4 ,the parallel passages alone 
of almost any of the books of the ,old  
,testament yield a rich harvest of      
divergences4  ,but involuntary errors of
 the copyists are insufficient to       
explain all the bewildering changes     
which disfigure many of the books of the
 ,sacred ,scriptures4 ,the gradual      
evolution of the ,hebrew religion from  
virtual polytheism to the strictest     
monotheism seemed peremptorily to call  
for a corresponding change in the       
writings in which the revelation        
underlying it was enshrined4 ,a later   
stadium of the evolution--which1 of     
course1 was never felt to be such--might
 naturally cause the free and easy views
 and lax practices which once were      
orthodox and universal to assume the    
odious form of heresy and impiety1 and a
 laudable respect for the author of     
revelation was held to impose the sacred

 duty of bringing the documentary       
records of ancient practices into       
harmony with present theories4 ,this was
 especially true of the ,books of ,job  
and ,ecclesiastes1 in which not only was
 the general tone lacking in respect for
 all that the ,jewish community held    
sacred1 but likewise long and eloquent  
passages directly called in question the
 truth of revelation and blasphemously  
criticised the attributes of the ,most  
,high4  ,gauged by the narrow standards 
of the ,jewish community1#cf some of    
,job's most sublime outbursts of poetic 
passion must have seemed as impious to  
his contemporaries as to the theologians
 of our own country the blasphemies     
hurled by ,byron's ,lucifer against the 
,everlasting ,tyrant4 ,there can be no  
doubt that it is to the feeling of holy 
horror which his plain speaking aroused 
in the minds of the strait-laced ,jews  
of #bdjj years ago that we have to      
ascribe the principal and most          
disfiguring changes which the poem      

underwent at the hands of well-meaning  
censors4 ,it is quite possible even now 
to point out1 by the help of a few      
disjointed fragments still preserved1   
the position1 and to divine the sense1  
of certain spiritful and defiant        
passages which1 in the interest of      
religion and morals1 were remorselessly 
suppressed1 to indicate others which    
were split up and transposed1 and to    
distinguish many prolix discourses1     
feeble or powerful word-pictures and    
trite commonplaces which were           
deliberately inserted later on1 for the 
sole purpose of toning down the most    
audacious piece of rationalistic        
philosophy which has ever yet been      
clothed in the music of sublime verse4  
,the disastrous results of these        
corrections which were made at various  
times and by different persons is writ  
large in the present text of ,job as we 
find it in the ,hebrew manuscripts and  
our ,authorised ,version1 which offer us
 in many places a jumble of disjointed  

fragments1 incoherent1 irrelevant or    
self-contradictory4  ,in addition to    
common sense aided by cautious text     
criticism which enables us to recognise 
interpolations1 to correct copyists'    
errors and occasionally even to         
determine the place and the tendency of 
expunged passages1 the means at our     
disposal for the restoration of the poem
 are principally two3 ,the laws of      
,hebrew poetry 7parallelism and metre7  
on the one hand1 and a comparison of the
 ,hebrew text with the ancient ,greek   
translation of the ,septuagint1#cg on   
the other4 ,a judicious use of these    
helps which are recognised as such even 
by the most conservative ,christians1   
who condemn without hearing the tried   
methods and least doubtful conclusions  
of biblical criticism1 enables one to   
accomplish all that is now possible     
towards restoring the poem of ,job to   
its original form4  ,the nature and the 
laws of ,hebrew metre1 the discovery of 
which is indissolubly associated with   

the name of ,prof4 ,bickell1#ch are     
identical with those of ,syriac poetry4 
,the unit is the line1 the syllables of 
which are numbered and accentuated1 the 
line most frequent containing seven     
syllables with iambic rhythm4           
,accentuated syllables alternate        
regularly with unaccentuated1 whereby   
the penultimate has the accent2 and the 
poetic accent always coincides with the 
grammatical1 as in ,syriac poetry and in
 the ,greek verse of early ,christian   
times1 the structure of which was copied
 from the ,syriac4 ,compare for instance
 the following3  ,greek3   ,hae         
parthenos saemeron   ,ton epouranion    
tiktei1   ,kai hae gae to spaelaion     
,to aprosito parechei4  with a strophe  
from ,job3    ,shamti khll rbbot3       
,menchme 'amal kol' khem1   ,hake ledber
 rooch8   ,ma-ymri'kh1 ki thn8  ,the    
second characteristic of ,hebrew poetry1
 which is occasionally to be found even 
in prose1 is that repetition of the same
 thought in a slightly modified form    

which is commonly known as parallelism4 
,thus1 in the poem of ,job the second   
line of the strophe expresses an idea   
very closely resembling that embodied in
 the first2 and the third and fourth run
 parallel in like manner4 ,for instance1
 ,eliphaz1 expounding the traditional   
teaching that the wicked man is punished
 in this life1 says3    ,his offshoot   
shall wither before his time1   ,and his
 branch shall not be green2   ,he shall 
shake off his unripe grape1 like the    
vine1   ,and shall shed his flower1 like
 the olive4  ,the second important aid  
to emendation is a careful comparison of
 the ,hebrew text with the ,greek       
translation known as the ,septuagint    
7,,lxx471 which1 undertaken and         
completed in ,alexandria between the    
beginning of the third and the close of 
the second century ,b4,c41 offers the   
first recorded instance of an entire    
national literature being rendered into 
a foreign tongue4 ,the extrinsic value  
of this work is obvious from the fact   

that it enables us to construct a text  
which is centuries older than that of   
which all our ,hebrew manuscripts are   
servile copies1 and is over a thousand  
years more ancient than the very oldest 
,hebrew codices now extant4#ci ,not     
indeed that the poem of ,job had        
undergone no changes between the time of
 its composition and the second century 
,b4,c4 ,on the contrary1 some of the    
most important interpolations had       
already been inserted#dj and various    
excisions and transpositions made before
 the translator first took the work in  
hand4 ,but at least the ground is       
cleared considerably1 seeing that no    
less than four hundred verses which we  
now read in all our present ,bibles1    
,hebrew and vernacular1 were tacked on  
to the poem at a date subsequent to the 
,greek translation and therefore found  
no place in that version4 ,these        
additions may1 on the faith of the      
,septuagint1 be struck out with all the 
less hesitation that both metre and     

parallelism confirm with their weighty  
testimony the trustworthy evidence of   
the orthodox translation that the       
strophes in question are insertions of a
 later date4  ,but the value of the     
,septuagint depends upon its greater or 
less immunity from those disfiguring    
changes which render the ,hebrew text   
incomprehensible and from which few     
ancient works are wholly free4 ,and     
unfortunately no such immunity can be   
claimed for it4 ,what happened to the   
original text likewise befell the ,greek
 translation4 ,desirous of putting an   
end to the disputes between ,jews and   
,christians as to the respective merits 
of the two1 a proselyte from ,ephesus1  
,theodotion by name1 undertook to do the
 ,bible into ,greek anew somewhere      
between #ahj-aib ,a4,d4 ,the basis of   
his work was the ,septuagint1 of which  
he changed nothing that in his opinion  
could stand2 but at the same time he    
consulted the ,hebrew manuscripts and   
vainly endeavoured to effect a          

compromise between the two4 ,among other
 innovations1 he inserted in his        
translation the four hundred            
interpolated verses which1 having been  
added to the ,hebrew text after it had  
been first rendered into ,greek1 could  
not possibly have formed part of the    
,septuagint version4 ,later on 7#bcb-bed
 ,a4,d47 ,origen1 anxious to throw light
 upon the cause of the divergences      
between existing translations and the   
original text1 and to provide the means 
of judging of the respective merits of  
these1 undertook one of those wearisome 
works of industry1 which later on       
constituted a special feature of the    
activity of the ,benedictine monks4 ,the
 result of his researches was embodied  
in the ,hexapla--a book containing1 in  
six parallel columns1 the original text 
in ,hebrew and in ,greek letters1 the   
,greek translation by ,aquila1 another  
by ,symmachus1 the text of the          
,septuagint edited by himself1 and      
,theodotion's version4 ,now ,origen1    

acting upon the gratuitous assumption   
that the passages wanting in the        
,septuagint had formed part of the      
original ,book of ,job and had been     
omitted by the translators solely       
because they failed to understand their 
meaning1 took them from ,theodotion and 
incorporated them in his edition of the 
,septuagint as it appeared in the       
,hexapla1 merely distinguishing them by 
means of asterisks4 ,unfortunately1 in  
the course of time these distinctive    
marks disappeared partially or wholly1  
thus depriving the old ,greek           
translation of its inestimable value as 
an aid to text criticism2 and there     
remained but five manuscripts in which  
they were to some extent preserved4#da  
,until recently it was generally taken  
for granted by ,biblical scholars that  
there were no codices extant in the     
world but these five1 which contained   
data of a nature to enable us to        
reconstruct the text of the ,septuagint4
 ,and the assistance given by these     

manuscripts was dubious at best1 for    
they included the misleading additions  
incorporated in the text by ,origen1    
merely marking them with asterisks1     
which were not only insufficient in     
number1 but oftentimes wrongly          
distributed4 ,no one ventured to hope   
that there was still extant a version   
from which the spurious verses were     
rigorously excluded4 ,and the discovery 
of such a text by my friend1 ,prof4     
,bickell1 marks a new epoch in the      
history of ,biblical criticism4  ,one   
day that distinguished scholar1 while   
sauntering about ,monte ,pincio with the
 late ,coptic ,bishop1 ,agapios ,bsciai1
 was informed by this dignitary that he 
had found and transcribed a wretched    
codex of the ,saidic#db ,version of ,job
 in the ,library of the ,propaganda4    
,hearing that numerous passages were    
wanting in the newly discovered codex1  
,prof4 ,bickell at once conjectured that
 this defective version might possibly  
prove to be a translation of the        

original ,septuagint text without the   
later additions2 and having studied it  
at the bishop's house saw his surmise   
changed to certainty2 the text was      
indeed that of the original ,septuagint 
without the disfiguring additions       
inserted by ,origen4 ,the late ,prof4   
,lagarde of ,gttingen then applied for1 
and received1 permission to edit this   
precious find2 but owing to the desire  
conceived later on by ,pope ,leo ,,xiii4
 that an undertaking of such importance 
should be carried out by an ecclesiastic
 of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1       
,lagarde's hopes were dashed at the     
eleventh hour1 and ,monsignor ,ciasca1  
to whom the task was confided1          
accomplished all that can reasonably be 
expected from pious zeal and patient    
industry4  ,the ,saidic version1        
therefore1 as embodying a purer and more
 ancient text of the ,book of ,job than 
any we had heretofore possessed1 is one 
of the most serviceable of the          
instruments employed in restoring the   

poem to its primitive form4#dc ,it      
frequently enables us to eliminate      
passages which formerly rendered the    
author's meaning absolutely             
incomprehensible1 and at other times    
replaces obscure with intelligible      
readings which1 while differing from    
those of the ,massoretic manuscripts1   
are obviously the more ancient4         
,footnotes3  #ca ,fourth century ,a4,d4 
#cb ,fifth century ,a4,d4  #cc ,fourth  
century ,a4,d4  #cd ,a4,d4 #aag-ach4    
#ce ,the ,hagiographa--or1 as the       
,hebrews term them1 ,ketubim--include   
,job1 ,proverbs1 the ,psalms1 the       
,canticle of ,canticles1 ,ruth1 the     
,lamentations1 ,koheleth1 ,esther1      
,daniel1 ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 and          
,chronicles4  #cf ,as distinguished from
 the pre-exilian people4 ,before the    
,captivity     the ,israelites lived the
 political life of all independent      
nations4     ,after the ,exile they were
 but a religious community--a ,church4  
,it was     for this ,church that the   

,mosaic legislation of the ,priests'    
,code     was written and the ancient   
historical records retouched4  #cg      
,completed probably in the second       
century ,b4,c4  #ch ,ewald and others   
had conjectured long before that the    
colloquies of     ,job were in verse1   
but their attempts to reduce them to    
strophes     were of a nature to weaken 
rather than confirm the theory4 ,that   
the strophes consisted of four lines is 
a discovery of ,prof4     ,bickell's4   
,at first listened to with scepticism1  
it is now accepted     by some of the   
leading critics of ,germany1 and        
received with favour     by such        
,english scholars as ,prof4 ,cheyne4    
#ci ,st4 ,paul in his quotations from   
the ,old ,testament usually follows     
the ,septuagint4 ,but the poem of ,job  
he quotes from a lost version1     some 
traces of which are to be found in the  
works of ,clement of     ,alexandria4   
#dj ,inserted is the strongest term that
 can be applied to editors who     lived

 in a time when to foist one's own      
elucubrations upon a     deceased genius
 was a work of piety deserving praise4  
,some of the     acts which were virtues
 in ,job's days have assumed a very     
different     aspect in ours2 but good  
intentions are always at a premium1 and 
the     ,jewish interpolators were      
animated by the best4  #da ,two ,greek1 
two ,latin1 and one ,syriac4  #db ,also 
called the ,thebaic ,version4  #dc ,as a
 translation it is a poor performance4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,,interpolations  ,having thus briefly  
sketched the instruments by means of    
which the reconstruction of the poem of 
,job was undertaken1 it may not be amiss
 to illustrate the manner in which they 
are employed in the light of a few      
examples4 ,to begin with the structure  
of the metre4 ,in the ,authorised       
,version we find 7chap4 xii4 #ab7 the   
words3 ,with the ancient is wisdom1 and 
in length of days understanding4 ,this  
in ,hebrew is    ,bishshim chkhma       

,verekh ymim t'bna4  ,the first line    
therefore has five instead of seven     
syllables and is consequently defective2
 something must have fallen out4 ,this  
conclusion1 based upon the laws of the  
metre1 is fully borne out by a study of 
the context2 for it is enough to read   
,job's reply from the beginning to see  
that he could not have set himself to   
prove1 as he is here made to do1 that   
,god is as wise as man2 his contention  
really being that man's knowledge is    
ignorance compared with the wisdom of   
the ,being who governs the universe4    
,for he is arguing against the          
traditionalists who assert that justice 
is the essential characteristic of the  
conduct of the world1 a thesis refuted  
by almost everything we see and hear    
around us4 ,bildad besought his sorely  
tried friend to learn of bygone         
generations and to view things through  
their eyes4 ,shall they not teach thee8 
he asks 7viii4 #aj71 to which ,job's    
reply is an emphatic negative3 ,there is

 no wisdom with the ancient1 nor        
understanding in length of days4 ,to    
agree with his friend would be to throw 
up his case1 and this the ,authorised   
,version makes him do4 ,god alone is    
endowed with wisdom2 but is ,he likewise
 good8 ,to this question ,his government
 of the universe alone can furnish an   
answer4 ,there must evidently then have 
been a negative particle in the text    
which a copyist1 shocked at the         
seemingly rash assertion1 expunged4 ,if 
now we add the words for not the metre  
is in order and the sense perfect3      
,ki n bishshim chkhma   ,verekh ymim    
t'bna4  ,take another instance4 ,the    
first part of v4 #ad1 chap4 xiv4 is     
rendered in our version as follows3 ,if 
a man die shall he live again8 and the  
translation would be faithful enough if 
the ,hebrew word were hayichy1 as our   
,,mss4 testify1 but as an interrogation 
would destroy the parallelism of the    
strophe1 it is evident that the syllable
 ha1 which in ,hebrew consists of one   

and not two letters1 is an              
interpolation1 and the word should be   
yichy and the strophe 7composed of v4   
#ac and #ad;a74    ,oh1 that thou       
wouldst hide me in the grave6   ,that   
thou wouldst secrete me till thy wrath  
be passed6   ,that thou wouldst appoint 
me a set time1 and remember me6   ,if so
 be man could die and yet live on4      
,again starting from the recognised     
principle that the entire poem is       
composed on a regular plan and consists 
exclusively of four-line strophes1 it is
 obvious that all the tristichs in      
chapters xxiv4 and xxx4 must be struck  
out4 ,the circumstances that their      
contents are as irrelevant to the       
context as would be a number of stanzas 
of ,the ,ancient ,mariner if introduced 
into ,paradise ,lost1 that in form they 
are wholly different from the strophes  
of the poem of ,job1 and that there is  
obviously a sudden break in the text of 
the latter just when heterodoxy merges  
into blasphemy1 have forced critics to  

the conclusion--about which there is    
hardly any difference of opinion--that  
these tristichs are extracts from a very
 different work1 which were inserted to 
fill up the void created by orthodox    
theologians of a later date4#dd         
,besides the four hundred verses which  
must be excluded on the ground that they
 are wanting in the ,septuagint         
,version1 and were therefore added to   
the text at a comparatively recent      
period1#de the long-winded discourse of 
,elihu#df must be struck out1 most of   
which was composed before the book was  
first translated into ,greek4 ,common   
sense1 unaided by any critical          
apparatus1 suffices to mark this tedious
 monologue as an interpolation4 ,the    
poet knew nothing of him who is supposed
 to have uttered it4 ,in the prologue in
 prose where all the actors in this     
psychological drama are enumerated and  
described1 ,elihu is not once alluded   
to2 and in the epilogue1 where all the  
debaters are named and censured1 he     

alone is absolutely ignored4 ,nay1 it is
 evident that when ,jahveh's discourse  
was written1 the poet had no suspicion  
of the existence of this fourth friend2 
for at the conclusion of the fourth     
friend's pretentious speech1 composed of
 scraps borrowed from those of the other
 actors in the drama1 ,jahveh addressed 
all present in a form of words which    
implies that not ,elihu but ,job was the
 last speaker1 and had only that instant
 terminated his reply4 ,this fact alone 
should be conclusive4 ,but it is        
confirmed by other weighty              
considerations which leave no place for 
doubt3 ,thus1 ,elihu's style is toto    
coelo different from that of the other  
parts of the poem3 artificial1 vague1   
rambling1 prosaic1 and strongly coloured
 by ,aramaic idioms1 while his doctrinal
 peculiarities1 particularly his mention
 of interceding angels1 while they      
coincide with those of the ,new         
,testament1 are absolutely unknown to   
,job and his friends4 ,moreover1 if     

,elihu had indeed formed one of the     
dramatis personae of the original work1 
the rle he would and should have assumed
 is not dubious2 he must be the wise man
 according to the author's own heart4   
,this he is or nothing4 ,and yet1 if he 
were really this1 we should have the    
curious spectacle of the poet developing
 at great length an idea which runs     
directly counter to the fundamental     
conception underlying the entire work4  
,for ,elihu declares ,job's sufferings  
to be a just punishment for his sins2   
whereas the poet and ,jahveh ,himself   
proclaim him to be the type of the just 
man1 and describe his misery as a short1
 unmerited and exceptional probation4   
,evidently then ,elihu is the elaborate 
production of some second-rate writer   
and first-class theologian awkwardly    
wedged into the poem perhaps a century  
or more after it had been composed1 and 
certainly before the work was first     
translated into ,greek4  ,the confusion 
introduced into the text by this        

insertion is bewildering in the extreme2
 and yet the result is but a typical    
specimen of the inextricable tangle     
which was produced by the systematic    
endeavours of later and pious editors to
 reduce the poem to the proper level of 
orthodoxy4 ,another instance is to be   
found in ,job's reply to the third      
discourse of ,bildad3 in two passages of
 this discourse the hero completely and 
deliberately gives away the case which  
he had been theretofore so warmly       
defending1 and accepts--to reject it    
later on as a matter of course--the     
doctrine of retribution4#dg ,now1 on the
 one hand1 if we remove these verses1   
,job's speech becomes perfectly coherent
 and logical1 and the description of    
wisdom falls naturally into its right   
place2 but1 on the other hand1 we have  
no reason whatever to call their        
authenticity in question and to strike  
them out4 ,the solution of this         
difficulty is that ,zophar who1 in our  
versions1 speaks but twice1 really spoke

 three times1 like each of his three    
colleagues1 and that the verses in      
question were uttered by him1 and not by
 ,job4 ,his discourse was intentionally 
split up into two portions1 and         
incorporated in a speech delivered by   
,job1 in order to represent the hero as 
an advocate of the dogma of retribution4
  ,another example of obviously         
intentional transposition occurs in     
chap4 xl4 where two verses are          
introduced as one of ,job's replies to  
,god1 so as to allow of the latter      
delivering a second speech and utilising
 therein a fine description of the      
hippopotamus and the crocodile4 ,lastly1
 it needs little critical acumen to     
perceive that the scraps of dialogue    
attributed to ,jahveh in the ,hebrew    
text and ,authorised ,version are1 in so
 far as they can claim to be regarded as
 authentic1 but fragments of a single   
discourse4 ,it would be preposterous to 
hold a poet or even an average poetaster
 responsible for the muddle made by the 

negligence of copyists and the zeal of  
interpolators who sought thus awkwardly 
to improve the author's theology at the 
cost of his poetry4 ,but it is enough to
 consider the elements of this          
particular question for a moment to     
perceive that there can be but one      
solution4 ,jahveh makes a long and      
crushing reply to ,job1 gradually merges
 into fine descriptive but irrelevant   
poetry1 and then suddenly calls for a   
rejoinder4 ,the hero1 humbled to the    
dust1 exclaims#dh that he is vile and   
conscious of his impotence1 and will lay
 his hand upon his mouth and open his   
lips no more4 ,here the matter should   
end1 for ,job has confessed himself     
vanquished4 ,but no1 ,jahveh1 instead of
 being touched by this meek avowal and  
self-humiliation1 must needs address the
 human worm as if he had turned against 
his ,creator1 and asks such misplaced   
questions as ,hast thou an arm like     
,god8 ,as a matter of fact1 ,jahveh1    
whose apparition is but a poetic symbol 

of the sudden flash of light which      
illumined the mind of the despairing    
hero1 spoke but once4 ,for ,job1 one    
glimpse through the veil was enough1 one
 rapid glance at the realm where all is 
dark1 and deep lies        under deep   
unknown1   ,and height above unknown    
height4   ,footnotes3  #dd ,chap4 xxiv4 
#e-h1 #aj-bd and chap4 xxx4 #c-g take   
the place of ,job's     blasphemous     
complaint about the unjust government of
 the world4  #de ,for the benefit of    
readers who shrink from making any      
alteration in     the ,bible1 and who   
are mostly unaware that innumerable and 
wide-reaching changes were effected in  
it by the negligence or     design of   
scribes1 theologians1 and others1 it may
 be well to point     out that none of  
the changes rendered necessary by the   
reconstruction     of the ,books of ,job
 and ,ecclesiastes in any way affects   
whatever     degree of inspiration they 
feel disposed to attribute to the ,bible
 as     a whole1 or to the              

interpolations in particular4 ,the point
 of view of     the critic1 if by no    
means identical with that of the pious  
worshipper1 need not to clash with it4  
,an interpolation may be--and     as we 
here see very often is--much more       
orthodox than an original     text1 and 
the more recent its origin the greater  
the chances that it     will be so4  #df
 xxxii4-xxxvii4 ,in the ,septuagint     
,version ,elihu's discourse occupies    
but little more than half the number of 
verses to be found in the     ,hebrew   
manuscript and in the ,authorised       
,version4  #dg xxvii4 #h-aj1 #ad-bc4    
#dh xl4 #d-e4         99       99       
99       99       99  ,,job',s          
,,theological ,,and ,,philosophical     
,,conceptions  ,although the main object
 of the poet is to present in a clear1  
comprehensive and palpable form the     
sphinx riddle of human existence1 his   
work abounds nevertheless in a variety  
of interesting data1 which throw        
considerable light upon the             

philosophical and theological theories  
in vogue among the thoughtful spirits of
 the ,jewish community4 ,their natural  
philosophy offers little that is likely 
to interest and nothing of a nature to  
instruct the well-informed reader of    
to-day4 ,but the mythological           
concreteness and palpitating vitality of
 all its elements profoundly impress us1
 less because of the curious standard   
they supply by which to gauge the       
intellectual level of that age than as  
the symbols chosen by the poet to       
express the identity and nothingness of 
all things living and inanimate4 ,before
 ,god1 all creatures think1 reason1     
speak1 like man1 because all are equal  
to him and he is but a breath4 ,the     
stars1 which are relatives of the ,satan
 and of ,god's own children1 wax        
enthusiastic and shout for joy2 the     
lightning hearkens to the voice of its  
,creator and1 flashing athwart the      
heavens1 announces its presence4 ,the   
sun is in continual danger of being     

devoured by a rapacious monster upon    
whom a watch has to be set2 and all     
things live and move in the same way and
 by exactly the same force that dwells  
and acts in man with whom they are one  
in essence2 and he himself is but a     
flower that sprouts1 fades and dies4#di 
,death is the end of man and beast and  
flower and grass alike2 and after death 
comes dismal darkness4 ,there is no     
difference among them4 ,man is no more  
and no less than all the rest4 ,sheol1  
or the realm of the dead1 is a murky1   
silent and dreary abode1 the shadowy    
inmates of which are as if they were    
not1 unconscious as infants which never 
saw the light4  ,this state1 which is   
not perhaps absolutely equivalent to    
complete annihilation1 is yet identical 
with that of an hidden untimely birth4  
,translated into the language of        
philosophy this somewhat vague notion   
might be expressed as follows3 ,all     
things1 past1 present and to come1 which
 flit as unreal shadows on the wall of  

time and space1 are manifestations of   
the one sole force which is everlasting 
and omnipresent4 ,they are not parts of 
a whole which is one and divisible3 all 
that we see and know of them in life is 
nothing2 and after death they are what  
they were before--identical with the    
one4    ,one life through all the       
immense creation runs1   ,one spirit is 
the moon's1 the sea's1 the sun's2   ,all
 forms in the air that fly1 on the earth
 that creep1   ,and the unknown nameless
 creatures of the deep--   ,each        
breathing thing obeys one mind's        
control1   ,and in all substance is a   
single soul4  ,for ,job's theory of the 
universe is dynamic and recognises but  
one force1 which is so vague and        
indefinite that he hesitates to bestow  
upon it the name of the concrete ,god of
 the ,jews4#ej ,there is no             
multiplicity1 no duality1 no other      
substance1 no other cause4 ,the ,one is 
and does alone4 ,all things are shadowy 
delusions2 ,he alone is real4 ,we are   

nothing except in ,him4 ,evil as well as
 good is ,his work4 ,the ,satan who     
tortures ,job is one of the sons of ,god
 to whom special power is exceptionally 
delegated2 but1 as a rule1 ,god ,himself
 punishes the just and showers ,his     
blessings on the wicked4 ,everything    
that happens is the outcome of ,his     
will4 ,there is no nature1 no causation1
 no necessary law in the physical world2
 every event is the embodiment of the   
one will which is absolutely free1 and  
therefore1 neither to be foreseen nor   
explained4  ,like ,koheleth1 ,job seems 
to hold that intelligence is something  
secondary not primordial4 ,man1 who is  
richly endowed with it on earth1 knows  
really nothing1 never can know anything1
 about the origin and reason of things4 
,they are absolutely unknowable4 ,he    
finds abyss yawning under abyss1 height 
towering above height1 and dark         
mysteries encompass him everlastingly4  
,but wisdom--whence shall it come8      
,and where is the place of              

understanding8   ,it is hid from the    
eyes of all living 7cxxxiv474  ,and if  
there be at most but will-o'-the-wisps  
on this side of the shadow of ,night1   
there is nought but absolute darkness   
beyond4  ,these considerations would    
seem to offer a very satisfactory       
explanation of the monotheism of the    
poet which is far in advance of that of 
his contemporaries1 to whatever age we  
may assign him4 ,it is a purely         
philosophical conception which never was
 and never can be enshrined in a        
theological dogma1 and to seek for its  
genesis in the evolution of the ,jewish 
religion is far less reasonable than to 
derive it from the philosophy of the    
,greeks or the ,hindoos4  ,job's theory 
of ethics differs widely from that of   
his friends and contemporaries1 and     
indeed from that of the bulk of mankind 
of all times4 ,the ,jews believed in    
fleeting pleasures and pains in this    
life as the sole recompense for virtue  
and sin2 their modern heirs and         

successors hope for eternal bliss or    
fear everlasting suffering in the next4 
,the motives deducible from both creeds 
are identical1 and philosophy connotes  
them as egotism4 ,whether the meed ,i   
long for or the pain ,i would shun be   
transitory or everlasting1 the moment my
 individual well-being becomes the      
motive of my conduct it is not easy to  
perceive where morality comes in4 ,and  
so universally is egotism to be found at
 the root of what appear to us to be the
 most generous actions1 that the        
,adversary was right enough in refusing1
 without conclusive proof1 to enrol     
,job's name in the short list of        
exceptions4 ,but ,job's ethics were many
 degrees above proof4 ,in no book of the
 ancient ,testament and in no religion  
or philosophy of the old world1 if we   
except ,buddhism1 do we find anything to
 compare with the sublime morality      
inculcated in the poem that bears his   
name4 ,it utterly ignores the convenient
 and profitable virtue known as duty to 

one's self and bases all the other      
virtues on pity for our fellows1 who are
 not merely our brethren but our very   
selves4 ,the truly moral man should be  
able to say with ,job3        ,i        
delivered the poor that cried aloud1    
,and the orphan and him that had none to
 help him2   ,and ,i gladdened the heart
 of the widow 7ccxlvii474    ,i became  
eyes to the blind1   ,and ,i was feet   
unto the lame 7ccxlviii474    ,if ,i saw
 one perish for lack of clothing1   ,or 
any of the poor devoid of covering2     
,then surely did his loins bless me1    
,and he was warmed with the fleece of my
 sheep 7cclxix474    ,i have never made 
gold my hope 7cclxxi474    ,never did ,i
 rejoice at the ruin of my hater1   ,nor
 exult when misery found him out        
7cclxxiii474    ,did not he that made me
 in the womb1 make him8 7cclxvii47      
,did ,i not weep for him that was in    
trouble8 7cclix474  ,and having         
accomplished all this without fear of   
pain1    ,gaze onward without claim to  

hope1   ,nor1 gazing backward1 court    
regret4  ,this is the only system of    
morality deserving that much-abused     
name2 it was preached and to a great    
extent practised in ,india by the       
,jainists and the ,buddhists1 and for   
the first time in the ,old ,testament by
 the author of our poem4  ,all the ills 
and sorrows of life1 merited and        
unmerited alike1 ,job is prepared for4  
,they are the commonplaces of human     
existence and as inseparable from it as 
shadow from light4 ,but what he cannot  
endure is the thought that his good     
name1 the sole comfort left him in his  
misery1 shall be sacrificed to a        
theological theory which runs counter to
 every fact of public history and       
private experience4 ,this is an         
injustice which seems to strike at the  
root of all morality1 and he            
passionately attacks all who uphold it1 
even though ,god ,himself be of the     
number4 ,for he has unshaken faith in   
eternal justice as something independent

 even of the deity4 ,its manifestations 
may be imperceptible and                
incomprehensible to us1 but it governs  
the universe all the same1 and faith in 
this fact was his lodestar when sun and 
moon had gone out and the aimless       
tornado raged around and ghastly horrors
 issued from the womb of ,night4 ,the   
wicked may prosper and the just man die 
on a dunghill1 scorned by all and       
seemingly forsaken by ,god ,himself1 but
 it is none the less true that sin and  
suffering1 virtue and reward are fruits 
of the same tree1 one and indivisible4  
,they are the manna the taste of which  
adapts itself to the eater4 ,job        
expresses the conviction1 which ,st4    
,bernard so aptly formulated when he    
said3 ,nought can harm me but myself2   
and it is this conviction that nerves   
and sustains him in his defiant         
challenge to the ,most ,high and prompts
 his appeal to eternal justice against  
even ,god ,himself3    ,will he plead   
against me with his almighty power8     

,if not1 then not even he would prevail 
against me4   ,for a righteous one would
 dispute with him4 7ccxvi47  ,but after 
the theophany1 when the truth has dawned
 upon the mind of the heroic sufferer1  
he sees that eternal justice needs not  
even this certificate of its existence1 
that it can dispense with the most      
eloquent human advocate1 and he waives  
what he had theretofore held to be his  
indefeasible right and puts the crown on
 his system of ethics by enduring his   
lot in silence4  ,peace grounded on     
knowledge1 therefore1 is the end of     
,job's doubts and misgivings4 ,but it is
 not the knowledge of a reward to come1 
a presentiment of the joys of heaven1 of
 an everlasting feeding-trough where our
 hunger and thirst for existence shall  
be satiated for ever and ever4 ,it is   
that sobering knowledge which is        
increase of sorrow4 ,injustice in the   
world there is none2 if all beings      
living are liable to pain1 and          
everything animate and inanimate is     

subject to decay and death1 the reason  
is that suffering and dissolution are   
the conditions of existence1 which is   
therefore an evil4 ,to desire the one is
 to wish for or accept the other4 ,this 
is the conviction which brings peace to 
the soul of the hero and enables him to 
exclaim3    ,i resign and console       
myself1   ,though in dust and ashes4    
,footnotes3   #di ,strophe cxxi4  #ej   
,lagarde seems to have hit the mark when
 he affirms that the poet's     faith in
 ,god reduces itself to a vague belief  
in the divine4         99       99      
99       99       99  ,,analysis ,,of   
,,the ,,poem  ,the popular legend of    
,job1 which was current among the       
,hebrews and probably among their       
,semitic neighbours for centuries before
 the poem was composed1 is embodied in  
the prologue and epilogue1#ea which are 
written in prose4 ,the data it contains 
are utilised by the author for the      
purpose of clearly stating1 not of      
elucidating1 the main problem1 and it   

would be a grave mistake on the part of 
the reader to attempt to supplement the 
reasoning of ,job's friends by arguments
 drawn from the details narrated in the 
legend4 ,thus1 the conversation between 
,jahveh and the ,satan is obviously     
intended to establish the all-important 
fact that ,job1 although not a member of
 the chosen people1 a believer in their 
priestly dogmas1 nor an observer of     
their religious rites and ceremonies1   
was none the less a truly just man1 the 
perfect type of the righteous of all    
times and countries4 ,on the other hand1
 the circumstances that his sufferings  
were no more than a probation1 and that 
they were followed by fabulous wealth   
and intensified happiness1 are dismissed
 by the poet as wholly irrelevant to the
 question at issue4 ,nor1 considering   
their purely exceptional character1     
would they have tended in any degree to 
solve it4 ,if ,job's misery was an      
ordeal1 all unmerited suffering cannot  
be pressed into the same convenient     

category4 ,his individual privations and
 pains may have been compensated for by 
subsequent plenty and prosperity2 but   
there are other just men who rot on the 
dunghill and die in despair4 ,the       
author1 therefore1 wisely refrained from
 drawing on the legend more extensively 
than was absolutely needful for the     
materials of his poem1 and from thus    
reducing a universal problem to the     
dimensions of an individual case4  ,the 
folk-story of the just man1 ,job1 is    
conceived in the true spirit of ,eastern
 legendary lore4 ,the colours are laid  
on with an ungrudging hand4 ,he was not 
merely well-to-do and contented1 he was 
the happiest mortal who had ever walked 
the earth in his halcyon days1 and the  
most hopelessly wretched during his     
probation4  ,but although wont1 as the  
,preacher recommends1 to fill up his cup
 with the wine of life1 pressing all    
that it yields of mere vintage1 he was  
anything but an egotist4 ,the broad     
stream of his sympathy flowed out       

towards all his fellows1 nay1 to all    
things animate and inanimate4 ,the      
sheep1 the lion1 the eagle1 and the     
oxen1 were his comrades1 the fire and   
the wind his kinsmen4 ,even for his     
worst enemies he had no curse1 nor did  
he ever rejoice in their merited        
misfortunes4 ,so blameless and upright  
was his living and working1 so          
completely had he eschewed even         
heart-sins1 that he might have carried  
windows in his breast that all might see
 what was being done within4  ,now1 in  
accordance with the retribution-theory  
then in fashion--small temporary profits
 and quick returns--he had amply merited
 his good fortune1 and might have       
reasonably expected to enjoy it to the  
close of a long life1 which for him was 
the end of everything4 ,in fact1 he had 
no longer any serious grounds for       
apprehending the gathering of clouds of 
misfortune to darken the sunshine of his
 existence1 seeing that he had already  
attained to a ripe age1 was possessed of

 vast herds of cattle and thousands of  
camels1 was blest with a numerous       
family1 and passed for the greatest of  
all the children of the ,east4 ,but the 
most specious theological theories are  
as powerless to guarantee the just man  
from the blows of adversity as to hinder
 the worm from finding the blushing     
rose's bed of crimson joy2 and whether  
pain and sorrow be labelled probation or
 just punishment1 they will never cease 
to figure among the commonplaces of     
human existence4  ,at one of the social 
gatherings of the courtiers of heaven1  
,jahveh takes occasion to laud the      
virtue of the just man1 ,job1 whereupon 
the ,satan1 who not only understands1   
but sees through the righteousness of   
the bulk of mankind1 expresses his      
conviction that it has its roots in mere
 selfishness4 ,jahveh then empowers the 
,adversary to put it to the test by     
depriving ,job of his possessions and   
his family4 ,on this1 the hero's wealth 
and happiness vanished as suddenly as   

the smile on the face of an infant1 and 
in a twinkling1 so to say1 he was       
changed into a perfect type of human    
wretchedness4  ,by one of those         
extraordinary miracles which are        
characteristic of ,oriental fiction1 in 
the course of a single day ,job's four  
hundred yoke of oxen were seized and    
carried off by the ,sabeans1 his seven  
thousand scattered sheep were sought out
 and consumed by lightning1 his three   
thousand camels were driven away by     
,chaldeans1 and his sons and daughters  
killed by the falling of a house4 ,being
 but human1 ,job's soul is harrowed up  
by grief2 but1 recognising the emptiness
 of all things1 he endures his lot      
manfully and without murmur or          
complaint4  ,when the sons of ,god met  
again in the council chamber of heaven1 
,jahveh triumphantly inquired of the    
,adversary what he now thought of ,job's
 virtue and its taproot4 ,but the ,satan
 still clung tenaciously to his low view
 of the mainspring of the hero's        

conduct4 ,skin for skin1 yea1 all that a
 man hath will he give for his life4    
,but put forth thine hand now1 and touch
 his bone and his flesh1 and he will    
renounce thee to thy face4 ,and the     
,lord said unto the ,adversary3 ,behold 
he is in thine hand2 only spare his     
life4 ,whereupon he was smitten with the
 most loathsome disease known in the    
,east1 which together with the moral    
suffering resulting from utter          
abandonment1 besieged him1 even to the  
gates and inlets of his life4 ,but firm 
and manful1 with strength nurtured by   
the witness of his own conscience1 and  
the conviction that true virtue is      
independent of reward1 he maintains the 
citadel unconquered1 refusing to open   
the portals even to ,jahveh ,himself4   
,nothing can subdue ,job1 not even the  
bitter fruits of the diabolical         
refinement of the ,adversary who1 having
 permission to slay all the hero's kith 
and kin1 spares his spouse1 lest misery 
should harbour any possibilities        

unrealised4  ,at last three of ,job's   
friends come from the uttermost ends of 
the earth to visit and console him4     
,travelling over enormous distances1 and
 setting out from opposite points of the
 compass1 they all contrive to reach the
 sufferer at the same moment2 and at the
 sight of the deformed and loathsome    
figure of their friend are all three    
struck dumb with grief4 ,without any    
previous consultation among themselves1 
they sit silent and sad for seven days  
and seven nights1 gazing with fascinated
 horror on the misshapen figure on the  
dunghill4 ,this curious manifestation of
 friendship unmans the hero whose       
fortitude had been proof against the    
most cruel physical and moral suffering2
 utterly breaking down1 he fills with   
woes the passing wind1 and bitterly     
curses his existence4 ,awe at first     
keeps him from censuring ,god's ways2   
truthfulness from condemning himself4   
,he cannot understand why he suffers1   
whether there be any truth or none in   

the traditional doctrine of unfailing   
retribution upon earth2 for he has      
certainly done everything to merit      
happiness and nought to deserve         
punishment4 ,society1 however1 is there 
in the person of his friends to dispel  
this delusion4 ,they hold a brief for   
the cut-and-dried theology of the day   
which tells them that in ,job there was 
a reservoir of guilt and sin filling up 
from youth to age1 which now1 no longer 
able to hold its loathsome charge1 burst
 and overwhelmed with misery their      
friend and his family4 ,they play their 
parts very skilfully1 at first softly   
stroking1 as it were1 the beloved       
friend1 as if to soothe his pain1 and   
then vigorously rubbing the salt in the 
gaping wounds of the groaning victim4   
,the campaign is opened mildly by       
,eliphaz1 a firm believer in the spooks 
and spectres of borderland1 who1 in     
reply to ,job's complaint1 assures his  
friend that no really innocent human    
being ever died in misery as he now     

seems to be dying1 and gently reminds   
him that affliction shooteth not from   
the dust1 neither doth trouble sprout up
 from the ground2 they need the fertile 
soil of sin1 which ,job must have       
provided1 unknown to his easy-going     
friends who1 taking him at his own      
estimation1 heretofore considered him a 
just man4 ,but even if he were what he  
would have them believe he is1 he has no
 ground for just complaint3 for happy is
 the man whom ,god correcteth4 ,to this 
the hero replies1 accentuating his      
innocence1 and pouring forth his plaint 
in wild words1 for ,god useth me as an  
enemy4 ,he seeks not for mercy1 he      
explains1 but for justice1 nay1 he is   
magnanimous enough to be content with   
even less4 ,he only asks of ,god1       
,that it would please him to destroy me1
   ,that he would let go his hand and   
cut me off2#eb  and this request having 
been refused1 suicide1 the ever open    
door of the ,stoics1 invited him        
temptingly in1 but he withstood the     

temptation1 and comforted himself with  
the knowledge that all things in time   
have an end4        ,my soul would have 
chosen strangling1   ,and death by my   
own resolve4   ,but ,i spurned it2 for  
,i shall not live for ever4#ec  ,the    
arbitrary and incomprehensible will of  
the deity may1 in ultimate analysis1 be 
the changeful basis of right and wrong1 
but1 if so1 divine justice differs from 
human not merely in degree but likewise 
in character1 and not apparently to its 
advantage4 ,the tuneful ,psalmist had   
sung in ecstatic wonder at the mercy of 
,god3 ,what is man1 that thou art       
mindful of him8 and the son of man that 
thou visitest him8 ,for thou hast made  
him a little lower than the angels1 and 
hast crowned him with glory and         
honour4#ed ,job1 having looked upwards  
in the same direction1 not for mercy but
 for simple justice1 and looked in vain1
 parodies with bitter irony those same  
verses of the ,psalm3    ,what is man   
that thou shouldst magnify him8   ,and  

that thou shouldst set thine heart upon 
him8   ,that thou shouldst visit him    
every morning1   ,and try him every     
moment8#ee  ,bildad1 the ,traditionalist
 par excellence1 then addresses a sharp 
reproof to the just man who refused to  
recognise as mercy in ,god the conduct  
which1 were a man responsible for it1 he
 must needs condemn as wickedness4 ,he  
bids him inquire of bygone generations  
what they thought of the goodness of the
 ,creator1 and asks him to be guided by 
the wisdom of his fore-fathers1 who     
lived and throve on the spiritual food  
of retribution which he now rejects with
 loathing4 ,this attack provokes a new  
outburst on the part of ,job1 who       
ironically paraphrases and develops the 
ideas of his comforters1 deriding the   
notion that the deity can change right  
into wrong or that true morality needs  
the divine will as a basis4        ,how 
should man be in the right against ,god8
   ,if he long to contend with him1     
,he cannot answer him one of a          

thousand4#ef    ,lo1 he glideth by me   
and ,i see him not2   ,and he passeth   
on1 but ,i perceive him not4#eg  ,his   
friends had recommended him to pray for 
pardon and repent1 and had promised him 
the return of his happiness as a        
consequence4 ,but ,job scouts the idea4 
,his righteousness1 if he indeed possess
 it1 is his own2 no prayers can add to1 
no punishment can take from1 that4    ,i
 must make supplication unto his        
judgment1   ,who doth not answer me1    
though ,i am righteous6#eh  ,and as for 
a ,god who being almighty is yet unjust1
 prayer would be superfluous1 no        
supplications would avail aught with    
,him2 ,he would cause even incarnate    
holiness to appear wicked in its own    
eyes4    ,though ,i were just1 my own   
mouth would condemn me2   ,though ,i    
were faultless1 he would make me        
crooked4  ,for even the will of a       
created being is in the hands of its    
,creator1 and is not1 cannot be1 free4  
,job feels and knows that he is         

right-minded and good1 and he puts the  
testimony of his own conscience above   
the decrees of any beings1 human or     
divine1 which1 whatever else they may   
achieve1 cannot shake the foundations of
 true justice and morality1 which are   
eternal4    ,faultless ,i am1 ,i set    
life at naught2   ,i spurn my being1    
therefore ,i speak out4#ei  ,and the    
outcome of his outspokenness is a solemn
 charge of injustice against ,god1#fj a 
sigh of profound regret that he was ever
 born into this miserable world1 and a  
wish that his sufferings might come to  
an end before he should return to the   
land of darkness and of gloom whence he 
came4  ,after this1 ,zophar1 the third  
comforter1 opens his lips for coarse    
vituperation rather than sharp rebuke1  
and regrets that ,god ,himself does not 
feel moved to give a practical lesson of
 wisdom to the conceited prattler1 who  
persists in believing in his own        
innocence in spite of the unmistakable  
judgment of his just ,creator and the   

unanimous testimony of his candid       
friends4 ,job's reply to this vigorous  
advocate of ,god is even more powerful  
and indignant than any of the foregoing4
 ,he repeats and emphasises his         
indictment against the ,deity4 ,no      
omnipotent being who was really just and
 good could approve1 or even connive at1
 much less practise1 the scandalous     
injustice which characterises the       
conduct of the universe and the         
so-called moral order1 and of which his 
own particular grievances are a         
specimen4 ,not that the curious         
spectacle that daily meets our eye1     
wherein wickedness and hypocrisy are    
prosperous and triumphant while truth   
and integrity are trampled under foot1  
is necessarily incompatible with        
absolute and eternal justice2 it is     
irreconcileable only with the attributes
 of a personal deity1 an almighty and   
just creator1 who would necessarily be  
responsible for these evils as for all  
things else1 if he existed4 ,if the     

world be the work of an omnipotent      
maker1 its essential moral              
characteristic partakes of the nature of
 his attributes2 and the main moral     
feature of our world is evil1 and not   
good4 ,this is the ever-recurring       
refrain of ,job's discourses4 ,nor does 
he hesitate when occasion offers to     
proclaim his conviction in the plainest 
of plain language1 for he entertains no 
fear of what may further befall him4    
,lo1 let him kill me1 ,i cherish hope no
 more1   ,only ,i will justify my way   
before his face4#fa  ,the three friends 
return a second time to the charge1 each
 one speaking in the same order as      
before1 and each one eliciting a        
separate reply1 in which ,job reaffirms 
his innocence1 reiterates his indictment
 against the ,most ,high1 and reproaches
 his comforters with their off-hand     
condemnation of an attitude resulting   
from sufferings which they are slow to  
realise and from knowledge which they   
are unable to grasp4 ,in his rejoinder  

to ,zophar1 he lays special stress upon 
the prosperity and success of the wicked
 who scoff at the laws of ,god and yet  
while away their days in bliss4 ,if ,god
 will not punish them1 is ,he just8 ,if 
,he cannot1 is ,he almighty8 ,as ,he    
does not1 why speak of the moral order  
of ,his world or of the moral attributes
 of ,himself8  ,ehphaz opens the third  
series of speeches by accusing his      
friend of selfishness1 dishonesty1      
hard-heartedness and avarice1 on no     
better grounds than the assumption that 
,god's justice warrants us in believing 
that where punishment is inflicted there
 also must sin have been committed4     
,job1 instead of condescending to refute
 the charge1 ironically admits it1 and  
then bitterly remarks that he would like
 to know how ,god would justify ,his    
conduct and convict him of sin if only  
they both could argue out the question  
together on terms of equality4 ,but in  
all the universe he looks for ,god in   
vain3    ,behold1 ,i go forward1 but he 

is not there1   ,and backward1 but ,i   
cannot perceive him4#fb  ,bildad then   
proceeds to emphasise the omnipotence of
 the ,creator with whom the human worm1 
the maggot1 dares to enter into         
judgment1 and ,job replies to all three1
 refuting them out of their own mouths4 
,his conscience1 he tells them1 is proof
 sufficient of his right conduct1       
whereas his misery1 by their own        
admission1 proves nothing at all4       
,till ,i die1 ,i will not yield up my   
integrity6   ,my righteousness ,i hold  
fast1 and will not let it go1   ,my     
heart doth not censure any one of my    
days4#fc  ,as for the argument from     
punishment to sin1 all three friends had
 in the course of their speeches laid it
 down that the lines on which the       
universe is governed are known to no    
man4 ,if this be so1 who are they that  
have surprised the secret and found the 
clue to the enigma8 ,who revealed to    
them that retribution is the basis of   
the moral order8 ,man knows nothing1 can

 never hope to know anything1 of the    
inner working of the world1 of the why  
and the wherefore of our miserable being
 and of the existence of all things4    
,the ,godhead alone could fathom these  
mysteries1#fd if ,he existed4  ,job     
takes no notice of the succeeding brief 
remarks of ,zophar in his final and     
longest discourse which1 replete with   
sorrowful reminiscences of his past     
happy life1 is less defiant than any of 
those that preceded4 ,wandering in      
thought through the necropolis of buried
 hopes1 fears and achievements1 he seems
 to inhale an atmosphere of soothing    
melancholy that softens and subdues his 
wild passion4 ,the vibration of past    
efforts and of deeds long since done1   
trembling along his tortured frame1     
causes even saddest thoughts to blend   
with sweet sensations4 ,then turning    
from what once was to what now is1 and  
missing the logical nexus between the   
two states1 he solemnly calls upon ,god 
to produce it1 if ,he can3    ,here is  

my signature2 let the ,almighty answer  
me1   ,and hear the indictment which my 
adversary hath written4#fe  ,scarcely   
has ,job finished speaking when ,jahveh 
appears in a whirlwind and the heart of 
the clouds is cloven by a voice of      
thunder startling the silent air4 ,the  
purpose of ,his coming is to prove men's
 ignorance1 not to enlighten it1 at     
least not beyond the degree involved by 
affixing the highest seal to the        
negative views expressed by the hero4   
,he plies ,job with a number of         
questions on cosmology1 astronomy1      
meteorology1 c41 with a view to show    
that we are ignorant of the ultimate    
reason of even the most familiar objects
 and phenomena1 and practically know    
nothing about anything4 ,the natural    
conclusion is that they are unknowable1 
and that intellect1 knowledge1          
consciousness1 is something secondary1  
accidental1 and as transitory as the    
life it accompanies4 ,to make an        
exception in favour of ,jahveh ,himself1

 would be to lose sight of the important
 fact that ,his apparition was never    
meant by the poet to be taken           
literally4#ff  ,it is neither more nor  
less than a symbol of the insight which 
,job obtains into the nature of things1 
of the light which enables him to see   
that there is naught but darkness now   
and for ever4 ,he perceives by the      
simplest1 clearest1 and most conclusive 
of all mental processes1 a direct       
intuition1 the truth of the ideas to    
some of which he had but coldly assented
 before--viz41 that things are but      
shadows and existence an evil2 that     
underlying every being1 animate and     
inanimate1 there is a force existing    
outside the realm of time and space1 and
 that it is at bottom identical with the
 human will2 that eternal justice lies  
at the root of everything1 is the       
ultimate basis of all existence2 that   
the sufferings of men1 innocent or      
guilty1 and the prevalence of evil are  
incompatible with a personal creator2   

that intellect is secondary1 and barely 
sufficient for the practical needs of   
life1 after which it ceases to be an    
attribute of whatever of man may outlive
 his body2 and1 finally1 that as we can 
know nothing beyond the bare fact that  
there is an absolute law of compensation
 from which there is no exemption1 it   
behoves us to cultivate ethics rather   
than science1 and to resign ourselves   
uncomplainingly to the inevitable4      
,however unpalatable these final        
conclusions may appear to pious readers 
accustomed to seek in the ,book of ,job 
for the most striking proofs of some of 
the principal teachings of the          
,christian dispensation1 it is          
difficult1 not to say impossible1 to    
study the work in its restored form and 
arrive at any other4 ,with ,job1 ,god   
and wisdom are synonymous4 ,and of the  
latter he says3    ,but wisdom--whence  
shall it come8   ,and where is the place
 of understanding8   ,it is hid from the
 eyes of all living1   ,our ears alone  

have heard thereof4#fg  ,these words    
were uttered before he had obtained the 
insight which brought resignation in its
 train4 ,he alludes to them in his last 
brief discourse4    ,i had heard of thee
 by the hearing of the ear1   ,but now  
mine eye hath beheld thee2   ,therefore 
,i resign and console myself1   ,though 
in dust and ashes4#fh  ,professor       
,bickell puts the matter very lucidly in
 his short but comprehensive            
introduction to the poem3 ,as long as   
,job1 solicitous for his understanding1 
demanded an explanation of his          
unutterable suffering1 whereby the      
mysterious1 piteous condition of mankind
 is shadowed forth1 his seeking was     
vain1 and he ran the risk of loosing    
himself in the problems of eternal      
justice1 the worth of upright living1   
and even the existence of ,god2 for an  
unjust1 ruthless1 almighty being is no  
,god4 ,but by means of the              
theophany--which is to be understood    
merely as a process in his own heart1   

and which clearly shows him the         
impotence of feeble man to unravel the  
world-enigmas--he attains to insight2   
not1 indeed1 of a positive kind such as 
a knowledge of the ways of ,god would   
confer1 but negative insight by means of
 that resignation which flows from      
excess of pain4 ,it is thus that his own
 heroic saying is fulfilled about the   
reaction of unmerited suffering upon the
 just man4#fi    ,but the righteous     
holds on his way1   ,and the            
clean-handed waxeth ever stronger4#gj   
,footnotes3  #ea ,the prologue is       
contained in chaps4 i4-ii42 the epilogue
 in chap4     xlii4 #g-ag of our        
,english ,bibles4  #eb ,strophe xxxv4   
#ec ,strophe lii4  #ed ,psa4 viii4 #d1  
#e4  #ee ,strophe liii4  #ef ,strophe   
lxv4  #eg ,strophe lxix4  #eh ,strophe  
lxxi4  #ei ,strophe lxxiii4  #fj        
,strophe lxxiv-lxxviii4  #fa ,strophe   
cxv4 ,cf4 strophe clxix41 where he dares
 his friend to     prove him guilty of  
blasphemy when he is merely giving      

expression     to the truth3        ,if 
indeed ye will glorify yourselves above 
me1       ,and prove me guilty of       
blasphemy2       ,know1 then1 that ,god 
hath wronged me6  #fb ,strophe ccxvii4  
#fc ,strophe ccxxx4  #fd ,as ,professor 
,bickell rightly remarks3 ,at bottom    
what ,job means is1     that ,god alone 
knows the meaning of our sorrowful      
existence1 if1     indeed1 ,he does know
 it 7,das ,buch ,job1 p4 #e74  #fe      
,strophe cclxxvi4  #ff ,the mere        
circumstance that the ,deity is no      
longer called by ,his     usual name    
when ,he appears in the whirlwind is of 
itself an     indication that the poet  
was not alluding to ,god4  #fg ,strophe 
ccxxxiv4  #fh ,strophe cccix4  #fi ,cf4 
,bickell1 op4 cit4 pp4 #h-i4  #gj       
,strophe clvi4     ,,koheleth         99
       99       99       99       99    
,greek3 ,archaen men mae phynai         
epichthonioisin ariston ,maed' eisidein 
augas oxeos aeliou4 ,phynta d'hopos     
okista pylas ,aidao peraesai1 ,kai      

keisthai pollaen gaen epamaesamenon4    
,theognis4         99       99       99 
99       99  ,,condition ,,of ,,the     
,,text  ,of all the books of the ,old   
,testament1 not excepting the ,song of  
,songs1 none offers such rich materials 
to the historian of philosophy or such  
knotty problems to the philological     
critic as ,koheleth#gj or ,ecclesiastes4
 ,this interesting treatise is1 in its  
commonly received shape1 little more    
than a tissue of loose disjointed       
aphorisms and contradictory theses      
concerning the highest problems of      
ethics and metaphysics4 ,the form of the
 work is characterised by an utter lack 
of plan2 the matter by almost           
impenetrable obscurity4 ,so completely  
entangled are the various threads of    
thought1 that few commentators or       
critics possessed the needful degree of 
hope and courage to set about           
unravelling them4 ,one paragraph1 for   
instance1 is saturated with ,buddhistic 
pessimism2 another breathes a spirit of 

religious resignation1 of almost hearty 
hopefulness2 this sentence lays down a  
universal principle which is absolutely 
denied by the next2 the thesis is       
followed by proofs1 in the very midst of
 which lurks the antithesis2 a series of
 profound remarks upon one subject is   
suddenly interrupted by bald statements 
about another1 the irrelevancy of which 
is suggestive of the ravings of a       
delirious fever patient4 ,thus one verse
 begins#ga by recommending men to make  
the most of their youth by following the
 bent of their inclinations and the     
desire of their eyes1 such enjoyment    
being a gift of ,god1#gb and finishes by
 threatening all who act upon the advice
 with condign punishment to be          
ultimately dealt out by ,god ,himself2  
and the very next verse proceeds to draw
 the logical conclusion1 which oddly    
enough1 runs thus3 therefore drive      
sorrow from thy heart1 and put away evil
 from thy flesh4 ,in one place#gc the   
writer solemnly and sadly affirms that  

the destiny of the upright and the      
wicked1 the wise and the foolish is     
wholly alike2 in another#gd he seems to 
proclaim that the unrighteous shall     
suffer for their evil-doing1 while the  
,god-fearing shall be rewarded with long
 life1 which again he stoutly denies    
shortly before and immediately          
afterwards4 ,it is impossible to read   
chap4 ii4 #aa and #ab without coming to 
the conclusion that we either have to do
 with the incoherent ravings of a       
disordered mind1 or else that the leaves
 of the original manuscript were        
dislocated and then put together        
haphazard4#ge ,the for that connects the
 seventh and eighth verses of chapter   
vi4 is forcibly suggestive of the line  
of argument which made ,tenterden       
,steeple the cause of ,goodwin ,sands1  
while the nexus between the sixth and   
seventh verses of chapter xi4 is        
scarcely more obvious than that which is
 to be found between any two of the     
nonsense verses that amuse intelligent  

children in ,alice in ,wonderland4 ,and 
yet this production1 in its present     
chaotic condition1 has been1 and is     
still1 gravely attributed to the pen of 
,king ,solomon in his character as the  
ideal sage of humanity6#gf   ,footnotes3
  #gj ,the most satisfactory translation
 of the word ,koheleth is1 the          
,speaker4 ,preacher conveys a modern and
 incorrect notion4  #ga xi4 #i4  #gb ii4
 #bd4  #gc ix4 #b4  #gd viii4 #ab1 #ac4 
#ge ,the verses in question are3 #aa4   
,then ,i looked on all the works that   
my hands had wrought1 and on the labour 
that ,i had laboured to     do3 and1    
behold1 all was vanity and vexation of  
spirit1 and there     was no profit     
under the sun4 #ab4 ,and ,i turned      
myself to behold     wisdom1 and        
madness1 and folly3 for what can the man
 do that     cometh after the king even 
that which hath been already done4  #gf 
,only1 however1 by the strictest of     
orthodox theologians1 who     admiringly
 attribute to the ,holy ,spirit a       

hopeless confusion of     ideas which   
they would resent as insulting if       
predicated of     themselves4 ,as a     
matter of historic fact1 ,solomon1 so   
far from     meriting his reputation as 
a philosopher1 was a rough-and-ready    
kinglet1 who ruled his subjects with a  
rod of iron and ground     them down    
with intolerable burdens4         99    
99       99       99       99           
,,primitive ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,book    
,the desperate efforts of professional  
theologians to smooth away1 explain1 and
 reconcile all these incoherences and   
contradictions1 constitute one of the   
most marvellous exhibitions of mental   
acrobatics recorded even in the history 
of hermeneutics4 ,many of these exegetes
 set out on the assumption that a       
revelation vouchsafed to ,solomon could 
not possibly embody any statement       
incompatible with the truths of         
,christianity which emanate from the    
same eternal source2 and they all firmly
 held that at the very least it must be 

in harmony with the fundamental dogmas  
common to ,judaism and the teachings of 
,christ4 ,in reality1 what this generous
 hypothesis came to1 whenever there was 
no question of text criticism involved1 
was a substitution of the human ideal   
for the divine execution4 ,the best     
accredited contemporary theologians     
however1 ,catholic and non-,catholic1   
have insight enough to descry the stamp 
of true inspiration in a book which     
enshrines some of the highest truths    
laid down in the ,sermon on the ,mount  
combined with a good deal that obviously
 clashes with theological dogmas        
formulated at a much later date for the 
behoof of a very different social       
organism4 ,in any case the original     
work1 as it appears to have issued from 
the hand of ,koheleth1 was composed in a
 spirit as conducive to true morality as
 the sublime eloquence of ,isaiah or the
 absolute resignation of the author of  
the #gcrd ,psalm4 ,critics who succeeded
 in satisfactorily solving many of the  

philological1 philosophical1 and        
historical problems suggested by        
,koheleth utterly failed to find therein
 any traces of an intelligible plan4 ,it
 was reserved to ,professor ,bickell1 of
 ,vienna1 to point out what seem to be  
the true lines on which alone it is     
possible to arrive at a solution alike  
satisfactory to the reader and          
respectful to the author4 ,his          
theory#gg--;it is1 and it can be no more
 than a theory--which has already       
received the adhesion of some of the    
most authoritative ,bible scholars on   
the ,continent1 may be briefly summed up
 as follows3 ,the present disordered    
condition of the book1 ,koheleth1 is the
 result of the shifting of the sheets of
 the ,hebrew manuscript from their      
original places and of the addition of a
 number of deliberate interpolations4   
,the latter are of two kinds3 those     
which seemed necessary for the purpose  
of supplying the cement required to join
 together the unconnected verses which1 

in consequence of the dislocation1 were 
unexpectedly placed side by side1 and   
the passages composed with the object of
 toning down1 or serving as a           
counterpoise to the very unorthodox     
views of the writer4  ,professor        
,bickell's assumption involves no       
inherent improbability1 runs counter to 
no ascertained facts1 and is therefore  
perfectly tenable4 ,what it supposes to 
have occurred to ,koheleth has1 in fact1
 often happened to other works1         
religious and profane4 ,it can be       
conclusively shown1 for instance1 that  
certain leaves of the ,book of          
,ecclesiasticus dropped1 in like manner1
 from the ,greek ,codex1 whereby three  
chapters were transposed from their     
original places2 for the ,latin and     
,syriac versions1 which were made before
 the accident1 still exhibit the        
original and only intelligible          
arrangement4 ,an old ,syriac manuscript 
of the poems of ,isaac of ,antioch1 now 
in the ,vatican ,library1 suffered      

considerably from a similar mishap1 and 
various other cases in point have come  
under the notice of orientalists and    
archaeologists4#gh ,in the present      
instance1 what is believed to have taken
 place is this4 ,the ,hebrew ,codex1 of 
which no translation had as yet been    
made1 consisted of a series of          
fascicules1 each one of which contained 
four sheets once folded1 or four double 
leaves1 the average number of characters
 on each single leaf amounting to about 
#ebe4gi ,the ,codex1 which most probably
 included other treatises preceding and 
following ,koheleth1 possessed an       
unknown number of fascicules1 ,koheleth 
beginning on the sixth leaf of one and  
ending on the third of the fourth       
following4 ,according to the hypothesis 
we are considering1 the middle          
fascicules becoming loose1 fell out of  
the ,codex1 and were found by some one  
who was utterly unqualified to replace  
them in position4 ,this person took the 
inner half of the second1#hj folded it  

inside out1 and then laid it in the new 
order#ha immediately after the first    
fascicule4 ,next came the inner sheet of
 the third fascicule1#hb followed by the
 outside half of the second1#hc in the  
middle of which the two double leaves1  
#ac1 #ah1 and #ad1 #ag1 had already been
 inserted4#hd ,although the fourth      
fascicule had kept its place1 it was not
 on this account preserved from the     
effects of the confusing changes caused 
by the loosening of the ligature1 for   
between its two first leaves the        
remaining sheet of the third            
fascicule#he found a place4 ,finally1   
leaf #ag becoming separated from its new
 environment1 found a definite          
resting-place between #ai and #ba4hf    
,the result of this dislocation was the 
utter disappearance of all trace of plan
 in the work1 the incoherences of which 
would be still more numerous and        
glaring1 had it not been for the        
transitional words and phrases that were
 soon after interpolated for the purpose

 of welding together passages that were 
never intended to dovetail4#hg  ,such is
 the ingenious theory4 ,the degree of   
probability attaching to it depends     
partly on the weight of corroborative   
evidence to be found in the book itself1
 and partly on the completeness with    
which it explains the many difficulties 
which the traditionalist view could but 
formulate4 ,thoroughly to sift and weigh
 this evidence1 much of which is of a   
purely philological character1 would    
require a book to itself2 but it will   
not be amiss to give one or two         
instances of the nature of the arguments
 relied upon4  ,chap4 x4 #a1 in the     
present text1 is wholly corrupt1 owing  
to the circumstance that several        
interpolations were inserted in it at a 
later date4 ,now a little reflection    
suffices to show that these additions   
consist of words taken from chap4 vii4  
#a4 ,but if the book had been composed  
as it now stands1 such a transposition  
would be practically impossible1 because

 chap4 x4 is separated from chap4 vii4  
by too great an interval4 ,in the       
original sequence1 however1 which ,prof4
 ,bickell's theory supposes and         
restores1 there was no difficulty4      
,there the leaf ix4 #aa-x4 #a was       
followed by two leaves containing vi4   
#h-vii4 #bb1 so that the words precious1
 and wisdom is better than glory1 might 
have been easily shifted to x4 #a from  
the margin of vii4 #a4  ,again1 in the  
primitive sequence viii4 #d was         
immediately followed by x4 #b4 ,after   
the dislocation of the leaves it was    
erroneously placed before viii4 #f1 a   
few words having been previously        
interpolated between the two1 solely in 
the interests of orthodoxy4#hh ,in order
 to bridge over the gap between them1 a 
transitional half verse was strung      
together1 in an absolutely mechanical   
manner1 from words that precede or      
follow4 ,and the words that precede and 
follow are those which we find in the   
primitive arrangement of the manuscript1

 not in the present sequence4 ,thus1 at 
the bottom of the leaf containing viii4 
#d1 the first words1 leb chakham1#hi of 
the following verse 7x4 #b7 were        
inserted1 and then by inadvertence      
repeated on the next leaf4 ,seeing these
 words1 the author of the transition    
made them the subject of his new verse4 
,he selected the grammatical objects of 
the sentence from the verse which       
follows in the new sequence1#ij and took
 the verb from the preceding half verse1
 which is itself an older interpolation4
  ,lastly1 ,koheleth's treatise1 which  
in our ,bibles is utterly devoid of     
order or sequence1 falls naturally1 in  
its restored form1 into two distinct    
halves3 a speculative and a practical1  
distinguished from each other by        
characteristics proper to each1 which   
there is no mistaking4 ,the former1 for 
instance1 contains but few metrical     
passages1 whereas the latter is composed
 of poetry and prose in almost equal    
proportions4 ,the ethical part          

continually addresses the reader himself
 in the second person singular1 while   
the discursive section never does4 ,in a
 word1 internal evidence leaves no doubt
 that1 whether the dislocation of the   
chapters was the result of accident or  
design1 this was the ground plan of the 
original treatise4   ,footnotes3  #gg   
,professor ,cheyne discusses ,bickell's 
theory with the caution                 
characteristic of ,english theology and 
the fairness of unprejudiced            
scholarship 7,job and ,solomon1 p4 #bgc 
fol474  #gh  ,cf4 for instance1         
,cornill1 ,theologisches                
,literaturblatt1     ,sept4 #ai1 #ahhd4 
#gi ,this mean estimate tallies with    
calculations made by the late           
,professor ,lagarde for another book of 
the ,old ,testament4  #hj ,the leaves   
#f1 #g1 #h1 #i4  #ha ,the pages         
following each other thus3 #h1 #i1 #f1  
#g4  #hb ,leaves #ae and #af4  #hc #d1  
#e1 #aj1 #aa4  #hd ,so that the order   
was then3 #d1 #e1 #ac1 #ad1 #ag1 #ah1   

#aj1 #aa4  #he #ab1 #ai4  #hf ,the      
sequence of the leaves was then2 #a1 #b1
 #c1 #h1 #i1 #f1 #g1 #ae1 #af1 #d1      
#e1 #ac1 #ad1 #ah1 #aj1 #aa1 #bj1 #ab1  
#ai1 #ag1 #ba1 #bb4  #hg ,the most      
practical and simple way of realising   
,professor ,bickell's     theory is to  
make a little book of four fascicules of
 four double     leaves each4 ,on these 
leaves write the contents of the        
original     manuscript leaves in       
chapter and verse numbers4 ,on each of  
the three     last leaves of the first  
fascicule 7counting1 as in ,hebrew1 from
     right to left7 write i4 #a-;ii4    
#aa4 ,on the first two leaves of the    
second fascicule write v4 #i-vi4 #g     
7this must be written on each of     the
 leaves1 as it is not quite certain how 
they were divided74 ,on     third and   
fourth leaves of the second fascicule   
write iii4 #i-;iv4 #h2     on each of   
the fifth and sixth leaves1 ii4         
#ab-;iii4 #h4 ,on the seventh     and   
eighth leaves1 viii4 #f-;ix4 #c4 ,then  

comes the third fascicule4 ,on     the  
first leaf1 write ix4 #aa-x4 #a2 on the 
second and third leaves1     vi4 #h-vii4
 #bb on the fourth and fifth leaves1 iv4
 #i-v4 #h2 on the     sixth leaf1 x4    
#af-xi4 #f2 on the seventh leaf1 vii4   
#bc-viii4 #e2 on the     eighth leaf1 x4
 #b-ae4 ,lastly comes the fourth        
fascicule4 ,on the first     leaf1 ix4  
#c-aj1 on the second and third leaves1  
xi4 #g-xii4 #h4  #hh ,the first half of 
viii4 #e3 ,whoso keepeth the commandment
 shall feel     no evil thing4 ,this    
interpolation is older than the accident
 to     the ,,ms4  #hi ,the heart of the
 wise4  #ij viii4 #f4         99        
99       99       99       99           
,,kohelet',s ,,theory ,,of ,,life  ,read
 in its primitive shape1 the book is a  
systematic disquisition on the          
questions1 ,what positive boon has life 
in store for us8 to which the emphatic  
answer is ,none2 and ,how had we best   
occupy the vain days of our wretched    
existence8 which the author solves by   

recommending moderate sensuous enjoyment
 combined with healthy activity4 ,he    
begins his gloomy meditations with a    
general survey of the wearisome working 
of the machinery of the world1 wherein  
is neither rest nor profit4 ,everything 
is vanity1 and the pursuit of wind4#ia  
,existence in all its myriad forms is an
 aimless1 endless1 hopeless endeavour4  
,the very clod of earth manifests its   
striving1 in gravitation1 for the       
attainment of a central point without   
dimensions1 which1 if realised1 would   
entail its own annihilation2 the solids 
tend to become liquids1 the liquids to  
resolve themselves in vapour4 ,the plant
 grows from germ through stem and leaf  
to blossom and fruit1 which last is but 
the beginning of a new germ that again  
develops through flower to fruit1 and so
 on for ever and ever4 ,in animals1 life
 is the same restless1 aimless1         
unsatisfied striving1 in the first place
 after reproduction1 followed by the    
death of the individual and the         

appearance of a new one which in turn   
runs through all the stadia of the old4 
,the very matter of all organisms is    
ever changing4 ,as for man1 his whole   
life is but one long series of yearnings
 after objects1 each one of which       
presents itself to his will as the one  
great goal until attained1 whereupon it 
is cast aside to make way for another4  
,we know what we long for to-day1 we    
shall know what we shall seek to-morrow2
 but what the human race supremely      
desires1 its ultimate aim and end1 no   
man can say4 ,existence is a futile     
beating of the air1 a clutching of the  
wind4 ,the living make way for the      
unborn1 the dead nourish the living2 no 
one possesses ought that was not torn   
from some other being2 strife and hate1 
evil and pain are the commonplaces of   
existence2 life and death follow each   
other everlastingly4 ,all striving is   
want and therefore suffering1 until it  
is satisfied1 when it assumes the form  
of disappointment2 for no satisfaction  

is lasting4 ,in a word1 the universe is 
a wheel that revolves on its axis for   
ever--and there is no ultimate aim or   
end in it all4#ib ,knowledge1 wisdom1   
and enjoyment1 each of which ,koheleth  
characterises by a distich1 are likewise
 vain1 or worse4 ,what1 then1 is the    
secret of happiness8 ,surely not wealth1
 which the ,preacher himself having     
possessed and applied to useful and good
 purposes1 proved emptiness in the      
end4#ic ,wealth1 indeed1 is nothing if  
not a means to happiness1 yet experience
 tells us that the pains endured in     
striving for it1 and the anxiety        
suffered in preserving it1 effectually  
destroy our capacity for enjoying the   
bliss which it is supposed to insure1   
long before misfortune or death snatches
 it from our grasp4#id  ,vain as        
pleasure is1 in a world of positive     
evils it is at least a negative good1 in
 that it helps to make us forget the    
vanity of the days of our life4#ie ,for 
this reason1 no doubt1 it is well-nigh  

unattainable1 the many being deprived of
 the means1 the few of the capacity1 of 
enjoyment4#if  ,passing on to the       
consideration of wisdom1 the ,hebrew    
philosopher finds it equally empty and  
vain1 because subject to the same       
limitations and characterised by the    
same drawbacks4 ,it is caviare to the   
million1 and a fresh source of sorrow to
 the few4 ,man is tortured with a thirst
 for knowledge1 and yet all the springs 
at which it might have been allayed are 
sealed up4 ,unreal shadows are the      
objects of human intuition1 we are      
denied a glimpse of the underlying      
reality4 ,for it is unknowable4  ,even  
the little we can know is not           
inspiriting4 ,take our fellow-men1 their
 ways and works1 for instance1 and what 
do we behold8 ,their own evil-doing1    
injustice1 and violence1 drag them down 
to the level of the brute2 and that this
 is their natural level is obvious1 if  
we bear in mind that the end of men is  
that of the beasts of the fields1#ig and

 that the ruling power within them1 the 
mechanism1 so to say1 of these living   
and feeling automata is love of life4   
,consider men at their best--when       
cultivating such relative virtues as    
industry1 zeal1 diligence in their      
crafts and callings1 and we find these  
good actions tainted at the very source3
 love of self and jealousy of others    
being the determining motives4#ih ,in   
any case we see that work is no help to 
happiness1 for it is too evident that   
toil and moil--even that of the writer  
himself1 who knows full well that he is 
labouring for a stranger--is but the    
price we pay1 not for real pleasure1 but
 for carking care and poignant grief4#ii
 ,such being the bitter fruits of       
knowledge1 the tree on which they       
flourish is scarcely worth cultivating4 
,wisdom in its ethical aspect1 as a rule
 of right conduct1 is unavailing as a   
weapon to combat the ,fate that fights  
against man4 ,nay1 it is not even a     
guarantee that we shall be remembered by

 those who come after us1 and whose lot 
we have striven to render less          
unbearable than our own4 ,the memory of 
the dead is buried in their graves1#ajj 
and the wheels of the vast machine      
revolve as if they had never lived4 ,for
 a man's moral worth goes for nothing in
 the scale against ,fate1 whose laws    
operate with crushing regularity1       
unmodified by his virtues or his        
crimes4#aja ,indeed1 if there be any    
perceptible difference between the lot  
of the upright and that of the wicked1  
it is often to the advantage of the     
latter1 who are furthered by their      
fierce recklessness and borne onwards by
 ambition4#ajb ,the knowledge of this   
curious state of things serves but to   
encourage evil-doers4#ajc ,the obvious  
conclusion is that instead of fighting  
against ,fate which is unalterable--,i  
discovered that whatever ,god doeth is  
forever#ajd--we should resign ourselves 
to our lot and draw the practical       
inference from the fact that life is an 

evil4  ,wisdom in its practical aspect  
is equally unpromising4 ,in no walk of  
life is success the meed of merit or    
victory the unfailing guerdon of        
heroism4#aje ,such wisdom as is within  
man's reach is often a positive         
disadvantage in life1 owing to the      
modesty it inspires as pitted against   
the self-confidence of noisy fools4     
,besides1 should it contrive to build up
 a stately structure1 a small dose of   
folly1 with which all human wisdom is   
largely alloyed1 is capable1 in an      
instant1 of undoing the work of         
years4#ajf ,in a word1 the wise man is  
often worse off than the fool2 and in   
any case1 no degree of wisdom can       
influence the laws of the universe2 what
 happens is foredoomed2 a man's         
life-journey is mapped out beforehand1  
and it is hopeless to struggle with the 
,will which is mightier than his own4   
,as we know not what is pre-arranged1 we
 can never find out what will dovetail  
with our true interests or is really    

good for man4#ajg   ,footnotes3  #ia i4 
#b-aa  #ib ,cf4 ,schopenhauer1 vol4 i4  
#dja-djb1 and passim4  #ic ii4 #c-aa4   
#id v4 #i-af4  #ie ,pain1 then1 for     
,koheleth1 as for a greater than        
,koheleth1 is     something positive2   
pleasure1 on the contrary1 negative4 ,we
 feel     pain1 but not painlessness2 we
 feel care1 but not exemption from      
it2 fear1 but not safety4444 ,only pain 
and privation are perceived as          
positive and announce themselves2       
well-being1 on the contrary1 is         
merely negative4 ,hence it is that we   
are never conscious of the three        
greatest boons of life--health1 youth1  
and freedom as such1 so long     as we  
possess them1 but only when we have lost
 them3 for they too are                 
negations4444 ,the hours fly the quicker
 the pleasanter they are2 they     drag 
themselves on the slowlier the more     
painfully they are passed1     because  
pain1 not enjoyment1 is the something   
positive whose presence     makes itself

 felt4--,schopenhauer1 ed4 ,grisebach1  
ii4 #fgf1 #fgg4  #if v4 #ag-vi4 #g2 iii4
 #i1 #ab-ac4  #ig iii4 #ai-;iv4 #c4  #ih
 iv4 #d-f4  #ii iv4 #g1 #h2 ii4 #ah-bc4 
#ajj ii4 #ac-af4  #aja iii4 #a-h1 viii4 
#f-h4  #ajb viii4 #i-ad4  #ajc viii4    
#ad1 ix4 #c4  #ajd iii4 #ad4  #aje ix4  
#aa-ab4  #ajf ix4 #ac-ah1 x4 #a4  #ajg  
vi4 #h1 #aj-ab4         99       99     
99       99       99  ,,practical       
,,wisdom  ,having thus cleared the      
ground in the first part of the         
treatise1 ,koheleth proceeds to erect   
his own modest system in the second4 ,as
 life offers us no positive good1 those 
who1 in spite of this obvious fact1     
desire it1 must make the best of such   
negative advantages as are within their 
grasp4 ,although so far from being a    
boon1 it is an evil1 yet it may1 he     
points out1 be rendered less irksome by 
following certain practical rules2 and  
warming to his subject1 he winds up with
 an exhortation to snatch such pleasures
 as are within reach1 for when all      

accounts have been finally cast up and  
everything has been said and done1 all  
things will prove vanity1 and a grasping
 of wind4  ,the ethics open with six    
metrical strophes composed1 so to say1  
in the minor key1 which harmonises with 
the disheartening conclusions of the    
foregoing4 ,the theme is the ,horatian  
,levius fit patientia quicquid corrigere
 est nefas4 ,death is better than life1 
grief more becoming than mirth1         
contemplation preferable to desire1     
deliberation more serviceable than      
haste4#ajh ,the fleeting joys and the   
abiding evils of existence1 are to be   
taken as we find them1 seeing that it is
 beyond our power to alter the          
proportions in which they are mixed1    
even by the practice of virtue and the  
application of knowledge4 ,hence even in
 the cultivation of righteousness the   
rule1 ,ne quid nimis1 is to be          
implicitly followed3 ,be not righteous  
overmuch1 neither make thyself          
overwise4#aji ,on the other hand1 wisdom

 is not to be despised1 for it hardens  
us against the strokes of ,fate1 and    
renders us insensible to the insults of 
our fellows4#aaj ,it also teaches us the
 drawbacks of isolation1 the benefits of
 co-operation1 and the advantage of     
being open to counsel4#aaa ,the basis of
 all practical wisdom being resignation 
to the inevitable1 obedience to ,god is 
better than sacrifices destined to      
influence ,his action4 ,what ,he does1  
is done for ever1 and our efforts are   
powerless to alter it1 or to induce ,him
 to change it4#aab ,god is far off1     
unknowable1 inaccessible1 and man is    
here upon earth1 and such prayers as we 
feel disposed to offer1 had best be     
short and few2 vows too1 although to be 
carried out if once made1 serve no good 
purpose1 and are to be avoided4 ,in a   
word1 wild speculations and many words  
in matters of religion and theology are 
vain and pernicious4#aac ,that work and 
enterprise are beneficial in public and 
private life is obvious from a study of 

the results engendered by their         
opposites4#aad ,simple individuals1 no  
less than rulers1 may benefit by        
enterprise and initiative1 provided that
 prudence1 by multiplying the           
possibilities of profit1 leaves as      
little as possible to the vagaries of   
chance4#aae ,but prudence is especially 
needed in order to avoid the seductive  
wiles of woman1 against whom one must be
 ever on one's guard4#aaf ,it also      
enjoins upon us submission to the       
political ruler of the day1 who         
possesses the power to enforce his will1
 and is therefore a living embodiment of
 the inevitable4#aag ,in a word1 this   
practical wisdom assumes the form of a  
careful adjustment of means to the end  
in all the ups and downs of             
existence4#aah  ,after this follows the 
recommendation of the negative good3 the
 sensuous joys within our reach4 ,seeing
 that no man knows what evil is before  
him1 nor what things will happen after  
him1 he cannot go far astray1 supposing 

him to be actuated by a desire to make  
the best of life1 if he tastes in       
moderation of the pleasures that lie on 
his path1 including those of labour4#aai
 ,the young generation should1 in an    
especial manner1 take this to heart and 
pluck the rosebuds while it may1 for old
 age and death are hurriedly approaching
 to prove by their presence that all is 
vanity and a grasping of wind4#abj      
,footnotes3  #ajh vii4 #a-f1 vi4 #i1    
vii4 #g-i4  #aji vii4 #aj1 #ac-ad1      
#ae-ah4  #aaj vii4 #ba-bb4  #aaa iv4    
#i-af4  #aab iii4 #ad4  #aac v4 #a-g4   
#aad v4 #g-h1 x4 #af-bj4  #aae x4 #a-c1 
#f1 #d1 #e4  #aaf vii4 #bf-bi4  #aag    
viii4 #a-d1 x4 #b-g4  #aah x4 #h-ad;a1  
#ae4  #aai x4 #ad;b1 ix4 #c-aj1 xi4     
#g-aj4  #abj xi4 #i1 xii4 #h4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,,koheleth',s ,,philosophy ,,of ,,life  
,koheleth1 who agrees with ,job in so   
many other essential points1 is likewise
 at one with him in his views on human  
knowledge1 or1 as he terms it1 wisdom1  

which is the source of the highest good 
within the reach of man4 ,the only light
 which we have to guide us through the  
murky mazes of existence1 is at best but
 a miserable taper which serves only to 
render the eternal darkness painfully   
visible4 ,i set my heart to learn wisdom
 and understanding4 ,and my heart       
discerned much wisdom and knowledge4444 
,i realised that this also is but a     
grasping of wind4#aba ,the scenes it    
reveals in the moral as well as the     
material order are of a nature to make  
us hate existence4 ,then ,i loathed     
life4#abb ,indeed1 the so-called moral  
order which1 were it1 in theory1 what it
 is asserted to be in truth1 might      
reconcile us to our lot and kindle a    
spark of hope in the human breast1 is   
but the embodiment of rank immorality4  
,all things come alike to all           
indiscriminately2 the one fate          
overtaketh the upright man and the      
miscreant1 the clean and the unclean1   
him who sacrifices and him who          

sacrifices not1 the just and the        
sinner4#abc ,what then is life8  ,to    
this question the answer is1 in effect1 
,the shadow of a thing which is not4    
,the sights and sounds of the universe  
are the only materials upon which the   
human intellect can work2 and they are  
all alike empty1 shadowy1 unreal4 ,they 
are the creation of the mind itself1 the
 web it weaves from its own gossamer    
substance2 and beyond this are nothing4 
,space and time1 or1 as ,koheleth       
expresses it1 the universe and eternity1
 were placed in our consciousness from  
the very first1 and are as deceptive as 
the mirage of the desert4#abd ,kant     
would define them to be functions of the
 brain4 ,a projection of the organ of   
human thought1 the world is woven of    
three threads--space1 time1 and         
causality--which1 being identical with  
the mind1 appear and vanish with it4    
,the one underlying reality1 whether we 
term it ,god1 ,nature1 or ,will1 is     
absolutely unknowable1#abe and          

everything else is ,maya or illusion4   
,strange as this doctrine may sound in  
orthodox ears1 it contains1 so far1     
nothing incompatible with ,christianity1
 which teaches that time and space will 
disappear along with this transitory    
existence1 and that the one eternal and 
incomprehensible ,will is outside the   
sphere of both and exempt from the      
operation of the law of cause and       
effect4 ,the only difference between the
 two is that ,christianity admits the   
existence of many beings outside the    
realm of space and time1 whereas without
 space and time multiplicity is         
inconceivable1 impossible4  ,we cannot  
hope to know the one reality which is   
and acts underneath the appearances of  
which our world is made up1 because     
knowledge is for ever formed1 coloured  
and bounded by time1 space1 and         
causation1 and all three are unreal4    
,they alone constitute succession and   
multiplicity1 which are therefore only  
apparent1 not existent4 ,we can conceive

 nothing but what is1 was1 or will be   
7and therefore in time71 nothing outside
 ourselves but what is in space1 and    
absolutely nought that is not a cause or
 an effect4 ,far off is that which is1  
and deep1 deep1 who can fathom it8#abf  
,but we possess insight and             
understanding enough to enable us to    
perceive that life is a positive evil1  
as1 indeed1 all evil1 pain1 and         
suffering are positive2 that pleasures  
are few1 and being negative by their    
nature1 merely serve to make us less    
sensible of the evils of existence2 that
 happiness is a chimaera1 birth a curse1
 death a boon1#abg and absolute         
nothingness 7,nirvana7 the only real    
good4 ,the hope of improvement1         
progress1 evolution1 is a cruel mockery2
 for the present is but a rehearsal of  
the past2 the future will be a          
repetition of both2#abh everything that 
is and will be1 was2 what came into     
being had been long before1 and what    
will be was long ago4#abi ,in a word1   

what we term progress is but the        
movement of a vast wheel revolving on   
its axis everlastingly4  ,but may we not
 hope for some better and higher state  
in the future life beyond the tomb where
 vice will be punished and virtue       
rewarded8 ,to this query ,koheleth's    
reply1 like that given by ,job1 is an   
emphatic negative2 and yet the doctrines
 of the immortality of the soul and of  
the resurrection were rapidly making    
headway among the writer's              
contemporaries4 ,but he descries nothing
 in the material or moral order of the  
world to warrant any such belief4 ,what 
is there in material man that he should 
be immortal8 ,men are an accident1 and  
the beasts are an accident1 and the same
 accident befalleth them all2 as these  
die even so die those1 and the selfsame 
breath have they all1 nor is there any  
preeminence of man above beast2 for all 
is nothingness4#acj ,nor can any such   
flattering hope be grounded upon the    
moral order1 because there are no signs 

of morality in the conduct of the world4
 ,to righteous men that happeneth which 
should befall wrong-doers1 and that     
betideth criminals which should fall to 
the lot of the upright4#aca ,nay1 there 
are just men who perish through their   
righteousness1 and there are wicked men 
who prolong their lives by means of     
their iniquity4#acb ,of divine promises 
and revelations ,koheleth--who can      
hardly claim to be considered a theist1 
and whose ,god is ,fate1 ,nature1       
eternal ,will--knows nothing4 ,the most 
favourable judgment he can pass upon    
such theological speculations is far    
from encouraging3 in the multitude of   
fancies and prattle there likewise      
lurketh much vanity4#acc ,in eternal    
justice1 however1 he professes a strong 
belief1 and1 like ,job1 he formulates   
his faith in the words3 ,fear thou      
,god4#acd  ,to accuse ,koheleth of      
,epicureanism is to take a one-sided    
view of his philosophy4 ,his conception 
of life1 its pleasures and pains1 is as 

clearly and emphatically expressed as   
that of the ,buddha or of ,schopenhauer4
 ,he is an uncompromising pessimist1 who
 sees the world as it is4 ,everything   
that seems pleasant or profitable is    
vanity and a grasping of wind2 there is 
nothing positive but pain1 nothing real 
but the eternal ,will1 which is         
certainly unknowable and probably       
unconscious4 ,these truths1 however1 are
 not grasped by every one2 they are the 
bitter fruits of that rare knowledge1   
increase of which is increase of sorrow4
 ,the few who taste thereof cling too   
tenaciously to life1 though life be     
wedded to sorrow and misery1 to renounce
 such deceitful pleasures as are within 
their reach2 and the bulk of mankind    
revel in the empty joys of living4 ,to  
all such1 ,koheleth offers some         
practical rules of conduct to enable    
them to make the best of what is to be  
had2 but the gist of his discourse is   
identical with those of ,jesus1 of the  
,buddha1 of ,schopenhauer--renunciation4

  ,human pleasures1 whatever their      
origin1 are limited in degree by man's  
capacity for enjoyment2 and this is an  
inborn gift1 varying in different       
individuals but unchanging in each4     
,some dispositions1 cheerful and        
sanguine by nature1 tinge even the      
blackest clouds of misfortune with the  
rainbow hues of hope2 others impart a   
sombre colour to the most auspicious    
event1 and descry cause for dread in the
 most complete success1 just as the bee 
sucks honey from the flower which yields
 only poison to the adder4 ,all joys1   
although produced by the chemistry of   
our consciousness1 are drawn either from
 within its inner sphere or from        
without4 ,the former1 known as          
intellectual pleasures1 are relatively  
lasting because they emanate from what  
man is2 the latter are fleeting because 
their source is either what he has or   
what he seems4 ,these are never free    
from alloy2 preceded by the pain of     
desire1 they are accompanied by that of 

disenchantment and followed by tedium1  
the worst pain of all2 those are exempt 
from all three1 because instead of      
gratifying passing whims they free the  
intellect from drudging for the will and
 afford it momentary glimpses of truth4 
,wisdom therefore1 for ,koheleth as for 
,job1 is the greatest boon that can fall
 to man's lot4#ace ,and yet the law of  
compensation1 operating here as in all  
other spheres1 sensibility to pain is   
always proportionate to capacity for    
intellectual enjoyment4  ,with regard to
 the pleasures of possession1 seeing    
that they are often difficult of        
attainment and always precarious1 we    
must be moderate in their pursuit and   
make the most of such as fall to our    
lot4 ,contentment here is everything1   
and contentment is the result of an even
 balance between desire and fulfilment1 
the former being always in our power and
 the latter generally beyond our        
control4 ,to such happiness as          
possession can bestow1 it is immaterial 

whether our demands are lowered or our  
prosperity increased1 just as in        
arithmetic it matters not whether we    
divide the denominator of a fraction or 
multiply its numerator by the same      
number4 ,therefore1 ,better look with   
the eyes than wander with desire4#acf   
,the golden rule is to keep our wishes  
within the bounds of moderation1 and to 
adjust them to unfavourable             
circumstances4 ,the rich man who wants  
nothing and covets a mere trifle which  
is beyond his grasp1 is supremely       
wretched1 while the poor man who needs  
much but longs for nothing1 is cheerful 
and contented4 ,but even if wealth were 
as easily obtained as it is difficult1  
the law of compensation should deter us 
from seeking it4 ,sweet is the sleep of 
the toiler1 but his wealth suffereth not
 the rich man to slumber4#acg ,the only 
enjoyments common to all men are those  
which consist in the satisfaction of    
natural wants2 the pleasures which      
wealth can purchase over and above these

 are trifling1 and more than outweighed 
by the pain of carking care which it    
brings in its train4 ,he who labours for
 this is1 therefore1 cutting a stick for
 his own back3 all his days are sorrows 
and his work grief4#ach ,there is no    
good for man1 then--for the common run  
of mankind who1 debarred from           
intellectual enjoyment1 yet cling       
tenaciously to life--save that he should
 eat and drink1 and make glad his soul  
in his labour4#aci ,health being the    
condition of all enjoyment1 and one of  
the greatest of earthly boons1 care     
should be taken to preserve it by       
eating1 drinking1 labour1 and rest1 and 
by moderation in all things4 ,for       
painlessness1 which is positive1 is     
always to be preferred to pleasure1     
which is negative4 ,it matters little to
 the strong man that he is otherwise    
hale and thriving1 if he suffer from an 
excruciating toothache or lumbago4 ,he  
forgets everything else and thinks only 
of his misery4 ,the world1 then1 being a

 terrestrial hell1 they who love it as a
 dwelling-place cannot do better than   
try to construct a fireproof abode      
therein4 ,to hunt for pleasures while   
exposing oneself to the risk of pain is 
folly2 to escape suffering even at the  
sacrifice of enjoyments is worldly      
wisdom4 ,as ,aristotle put it1 ,greek3  
ho phronimos to alupon diokei1 ou to    
haedu4 ,but when all has been said and  
done1 the highest worldly wisdom is but 
a less harmful species of folly4        
,existence is an evil1 and the sole     
effective remedy renunciation4          
,footnotes3  #aba i4 #ag1 #af;b4  #abb  
ii4 #ag4  #abc ix4 #b4  #abd iii4 #aa4  
#abe vii4 #bd1 cf4 also v4 #a4  #abf    
vii4 #bd1 cf4 also viii4 #af1 #ag4  #abg
 ,i appraised the dead who died long    
since1 as happier than the     quick who
 are yet alive2 but luckier than both   
him who is still     unborn1 who hath   
not yet witnessed the evil doings under 
the     sun1 iv4 #b1 #c4  #abh ,in      
truth1 time existing only in the        

intellect as one of the forms     of    
intuition1 there can be neither past nor
 future1 but an     everlasting now4    
#abi iii4 #ae4  #acj iii4 #ai4  #aca    
viii4 #ad4  #acb vii4 #ae4  #acc v4 #g4 
#acd ,ibid4  #ace vii4 #aa1 #ab4  #acf  
vi4 #i4  #acg v4 #ab4  #ach ii4 #bc4    
#aci ii4 #bd4         99       99       
99       99       99  ,,the ,,sources   
,,of ,,koheleth',s ,,philosophy  ,to    
what extent are these pessimistic       
doctrines the fruits of ,koheleth's own 
meditations1 and how far may they be    
supposed to reflect the views of the    
nation which admitted his treatise into 
its sacred canon8 ,the latter half of   
this question is answered by the        
desperate efforts made from the very    
beginning to correct or dilute his      
pessimism1 and by the grave suspicion   
with which ,jewish doctors continued to 
regard it1 long after the poison had    
been provided with a suitable antidote4 
,thus the book known as the ,wisdom of  
,solomon1 which is accepted as canonical

 by the ,roman ,catholic ,church1       
contains a flat contradiction and       
emphatic condemnation of certain of the 
propositions laid down by ,koheleth1 as1
 for instance1 in ch4 ii4 #a-i1 which is
 obviously a studied refutation of      
,koheleth's principal thesis1 couched   
mainly in the identical words used by   
the ,preacher himself3      ,for they   
have said1 reasoning with themselves1   
but not     right3 the time of our life 
is short and tedious1 and in the end    
of a man there is no remedy1 and no man 
hath been known to     have returned    
from hell4      ,for we are born of     
nothing1 and after this we shall be as  
if we had not been3 for the breath in   
our nostrils is smoke2     and speech a 
spark to move our hearts4      ,which   
being put out1 our body shall be ashes1 
and our     spirit shall be poured      
abroad as soft air1 and our life shall  
pass     away as the trace of a cloud1  
and shall be dispersed as a mist1       
which is driven away by the beams of the

 sun1 and overpowered     with the heat 
thereof4      ,and our name in time     
shall be forgotten1 and no man shall    
have any remembrance of our works4      
,for our time is as the passing of a    
shadow1 and there is     no going back  
of our end3 for it is fast sealed1 and  
no man     returneth4      ,come1       
therefore1 and let us enjoy the good    
things that are     present1 and let us 
speedily use the creatures as in youth4 
,let us fill ourselves with costly wine1
 and ointments2 and     let not the     
flower of the time pass by us4      ,let
 us crown ourselves with roses before   
they be withered2     let no meadow     
escape our riot4      ,let none of us go
 without his part in luxury3 let us     
everywhere     leave tokens of joy3 for 
this is our portion1 and this     our   
lot4  ,although the book was accepted as
 canonical by generations of ,hebrew    
teachers and was quoted as such by men  
like ,gamaliel1 there was always a      
strong orthodox party among the ,jews   

opposed to its teachings and            
apprehensive of its influence2#adj nor  
was it until the year #aah ,a4,d4 that  
the protracted dispute on the subject   
was at last definitely settled at the   
,synod which admitted ,koheleth into the
 ,canon4 ,it was natural enough that    
,hebrew theologians should have         
hesitated to stamp with the seal of     
orthodoxy a book which the poet ,heine  
calls the ,canticles of ,scepticism and 
in which every unbiassed reader will    
recognise a powerful solvent of the     
bases of theism2 and the only surprising
 thing about their attitude is that they
 should have ever allowed themselves to 
be persuaded to abandon it4  ,for       
,koheleth's pessimistic theory1 which   
has its roots in ,secularism1 is utterly
 incompatible with the spirit of        
,judaism1 whichever of its historical   
phases we may select for comparison4 ,it
 is grounded upon the rejection of the  
,messianic expectations and absolute    
disbelief in the solemn promises of     

,jahveh ,himself4 ,koheleth cherishes no
 hope for the individual1 his nation1 or
 the human race4 ,the thing that hath   
been is the same that shall be1 and what
 befell is the same that shall come to  
pass1 and there is no new thing under   
the sun4444#ada ,i surveyed all the     
works that are wrought under the sun1   
and behold all was vanity and the       
grasping of wind4#adb ,persians had     
succeeded ,chaldeans2 ,cyrus1 the       
,anointed of ,jahveh1 had come and gone2
 ,greeks had wrested the hegemony of the
 ,east from ,persians1 but no change had
 brought surcease of sorrow to the      
,jews4 ,they were even worse off now    
than ever before4 ,jahveh1 like ,baal of
 old1 was become deaf to ,his           
worshippers1 many of whom turned away   
from ,him in despair1 exclaiming1 ,it is
 vain to serve ,god1 and what profit is 
it that we have kept ,his ordinance8#adc
 ,koheleth1 like ,job1 never once       
mentions ,jahveh's name1 but always     
alludes to the ,eternal ,will1 which    

alone is real and unknowable1 under the 
colourless name of ,elohim4 ,to say that
 he believed in a personal ,god in any  
sense in which a personal ,god is       
essential to a revealed religion1 is to 
misunderstand ideas or to play with     
words4#add ,and ,koheleth was a type of 
a class4 ,literary men of his day having
 mockingly asked for the name of the    
,creator1#ade ,koheleth answers that ,he
 is inaccessible to men1 and that prayer
 to ,him is fruitless4#adf ,the ,jewish 
aristocracy of his day1 desirous of     
embodying these views in a practical    
form1 sought to abolish once for all the
 national religion1 as a body of belief 
and practices that had been weighed in  
the balances and found wanting2 while   
the party that still remained faithful  
to the law was composed mainly of       
narrow-minded fanatics1 whose wild      
speculations1 long-winded prayers and   
frequent vows1 ,koheleth considers      
deserving objects of derision4 ,he      
himself held aloof from either camp4 ,he

 took his stand outside the circle of   
both1 surveying life from the angle of  
vision of the philosophical citizen of  
the world4 ,but it would be idle to deny
 that he had far more in common with the
 impious than with the orthodox4  ,thus 
he scornfully rejects the old doctrine  
of retribution1 and he is never tired of
 affirming premisses from which the     
obvious and indeed only conclusion is   
that the popular conception of a deity  
who spontaneously created the universe  
and vigilantly watches over the ,hebrew 
nation1 is erroneous1 incredible1       
inconceivable4 ,the ,jahveh of olden    
times1 with ,his grand human passions   
and petty ,jewish prejudices1 he simply 
ignores4 ,he naturally rejects the      
immortality of the soul--a tenet or     
theory which was then for the first time
 beginning to gain ground and to be     
relied upon as the only means of        
ultimately righting the wrongs of       
existence4 ,the fact is that he had no  
belief in a soul as we understand it4   

,modern theology regards the            
indestructible part of man as           
essentially intelligent1 while admitting
 the fact that intellect is indissolubly
 associated with the brain1 partaking of
 its vicissitudes during life and       
vanishing with it apparently for ever at
 death4 ,job1 ,koheleth1 and many other 
writers of the ,old ,testament hold that
 if anything of the man persists after  
the death of the individual1 it is      
unconscious4 ,the living know at least  
that they shall die1 whereas the dead   
know not anything at all4#adg ,in a     
word1 no other philosopher1 poet1 or    
proverb-writer of the ,old ,testament is
 less orthodox in his beliefs or less   
,jewish in his sentiments--and ,agur    
alone is more aggressive in his         
scepticism--than ,koheleth4  ,much has  
been written about the sources from     
which this writer may and even must have
 drawn his peculiar mixture of pessimism
 and ,epicureanism1 and considerable    
stress has been laid upon the profound  

influence which ,greek culture is       
supposed to have exerted upon ,jewish   
thinkers towards the second century     
,b4,c41 when the moral atmosphere was   
choked with the baleful dust of systems 
and of creeds4 ,the ,epicureanism of the
 man who said3 ,better is sorrow than   
laughter1 the heart of the wise is in   
the mourning house1#adh hardly needs the
 hypothesis of a ,greek origin to       
explain it4 ,my own view of the matter1 
which ,i put forward with all due       
diffidence1 differs considerably from   
those which have been heretofore        
expressed on the subject4 ,i cannot     
divest myself of the notion that        
,koheleth was acquainted1 and to some   
extent imbued1 with the doctrines of    
,gautama ,buddha1 which must have been  
pretty widely diffused in the civilised 
world towards the year #bje ,b4,c41 when
 the present treatise was most probably 
composed4#adi  ,buddhism1 the only one  
of the world-religions which1 springing 
from an abstruse system of metaphysics1 

brought forth such practical fruits as  
truthfulness1 honesty1 loving-kindness  
and universal pity1 spread with         
extraordinary rapidity not only         
throughout the ,indian continent but    
over the entire civilised world4 ,its   
apostles#aej visited foreign countries1 
touching and converting by their example
 the hearts and minds of those who were 
incapable of weighing their arguments1  
or unwilling to listen to their         
exhortations4 ,they introduced a mild1  
tolerant1 humane spirit whithersoever   
they went1 preaching entire equality1   
practising perfect toleration1 founding 
houses for meditation1 erecting         
hospitals and dispensaries for sick men 
and beasts1 cultivating useful plants   
and trees1 gently suppressing cruelty to
 animals under any pretext1#aea and     
generally sowing seeds of sympathy and  
brotherly love of which history has     
noticed and described but the final     
fruits4 ,from the earliest recorded     
period ,indian culture manifested a     

natural tendency to expand1 which was   
intensified at various times by the     
comparatively low ebb of civilisation in
 the adjoining countries4 ,one can      
readily conceive1 therefore1 the effects
 of the strenuous and persevering       
efforts of one of the most powerful     
,indian monarchs1 ,aoka ,piyadassi1#aeb 
king of ,magadha1 to propagate that     
aspect of his country's civilisation    
which is indissolubly bound up with the 
doctrines of the ,buddha4  ,aoka1       
grandson of the great king              
,tshandragupta1 was the first monarch   
who openly accepted the tenets and      
conscientiously practised the precepts  
of the profoundest religious teacher    
ever born of woman2 and no more eloquent
 testimony could well be offered to the 
sincerity of the royal convert than the 
well-nigh miraculous self-restraint with
 which he forebore to cajole or coerce  
those of his subjects whom his arguments
 failed to convince4 ,satisfied with the
 progress of the new religion in his    

native place1 he despatched his son1    
,mahindo1 to introduce it into ,ceylon2 
and so successful were the young        
prince's missionary efforts that that   
island became and remains the chief seat
 of ,buddhism to this day4 ,aoka next   
turned his attention to foreign         
countries1 in which traders1 travellers1
 emigrants and others had already       
sparsely sown the seeds of the new      
faith1 and making political power and   
prestige subservient to zeal for truth  
and pity for suffering humanity1 he     
induced his allies and their vassals to 
purchase his friendship by seconding his
 endeavours to inculcate the philosophic
 doctrines and engraft the humane       
practices of ,buddhism on their         
respective subjects4 ,the results he    
obtained are recorded in his famous     
inscriptions composed in various ,indian
 dialects and engraven upon rocks all   
over the continent1 from ,cabul in the  
,west to ,orissa in the ,east2 and among
 the monarchs whom he there enumerates  

as having co-operated with him in his   
apostolic labours1 are ,antiochus1#aec  
,turamaya1#aed ,alexander1 ,magas#aee   
and ,antigenes2#aef into whose          
hospitable dominions he despatched      
zealous ,buddhist missionaries1         
empowered to found monasteries1 to open 
dispensaries and hospitals1 at his      
expense1 and to preach the saving word  
to all who cared to hear4  ,the         
following literal translation of one of 
,aoka's inscriptions#aeg will help to   
convey an idea of the nature of his     
activity as the royal apostle of        
,buddhism1 the ,constantine of ,india3  
,all over the realms of the god-favoured
 king1 ,priyadarsin1 and 7the realms of 
those7 who 7are7 his neighbours1 such as
 the ,codas1 ,pandyas1 the ,prince of   
the ,stiyas1#aeh the ,prince of the     
,keralas1 ,tamraparn1 the ,king of the  
,javanas1 ,antiochus1 and 7among the7   
others who 7are7 vassals of the said    
,king ,antiochus1 everywhere the        
god-beloved1 king1 ,priyadarsin1 caused 

two kinds of hospitals to be erected3   
hospitals for men and likewise hospitals
 for animals4#aei ,wherever there were  
no herbs beneficial to men or animals1  
he everywhere gave orders that they     
should be procured or planted4 ,in like 
manner1 where there were no             
health-giving roots and fruits1 he      
everywhere commanded that they should be
 procured or planted4 ,and on the       
highways he had trees put down and wells
 dug for the behoof of men and          
beasts4#afj  ,history confirms ,aoka's  
testimony and declares him to have been 
no less successful in sowing the seeds  
of medicinal plants than those of the   
saving doctrine4 ,buddhism enrolled     
numerous converts and zealous apostles  
all over the civilised world1 and in    
,ceylon1 ,egypt1 ,bactria1 and ,persia1 
the yellow flag floated aloft from the  
roofs of the monasteries of             
,bhikshus4#afa ,but its influence1 in   
other ways equally powerful while       
considerably more subtle1 has oftentimes

 escaped the vigilance of the historian4
 ,none of the great religions of ancient
 or modern times succeeded in escaping  
its contact1 or failed to be improved by
 its spirit4 ,in the second century     
,b4,c4 there were flourishing ,buddhist 
communities in inhospitable ,bactria1   
where they maintained a firm footing for
 nearly a thousand years4 ,a ,greek1#afb
 who wrote about the year #hj ,b4,c41   
and a ,chinese pilgrim1#afc who passed  
through the land in the beginning of the
 seventh century ,a4,d41 allude to them 
as important elements of the population 
of the country in their respective ages1
 and the ,buddhist monastery founded in 
,balkh1 the capital of ,bactria1 in the 
second century ,b4,c41 was become a     
famous pilgrimage in the days of ,hiuen 
,thsang4 ,the ,zoroastrian priests of   
,ern hated and feared the followers of  
the strange creed while silently        
adopting and unconsciously propagating  
many of its institutions4 ,several of   
the ,eranian kings incurred the censure 

involved in the nickname of idolaters in
 consequence of the favour they extended
 to the preachers of ,nirvana4#afd ,no  
religion of antiquity was less          
favourable to a life of passive         
contemplation than ,zoroastrianism1     
which defined life as a continuous      
struggle1 and considered virtue as a    
successful battle with the powers of    
darkness2 and yet little by little      
,zoroastrian monasteries sprang up by   
the side of the ,fire ,temples1 and     
offered a quiet refuge from the turmoil 
of the world to the pious worshippers of
 ,ahura ,mazda4#afe  ,so saturated were 
the ,eranian populations with the spirit
 of ,buddha--antagonistic though it was 
to their own--that the two great        
,eranian sects1#aff one of which bade   
fair to become a universal religion1#afg
 were little else than adaptations of   
the creed of the ,buddha to the needs of
 a different time and people4 ,mn1 for  
instance1 prohibited marriage1 which was
 one of the principal duties and holiest

 acts of a true servant of ,ahura       
,mazda2 forbade the killing of animals  
which1 in the case of ants1 serpents1   
gnats1 c41 was enjoined by the priests  
of ,zoroaster1 and discouraged          
agriculture lest plants should be       
destroyed in the process4 ,and the two  
classes of perfect and imperfect        
disciples in ,mn's community were copied
 from those of ,buddhism1 which divides 
all believers into two categories3 those
 who sincerely and fervently seek to    
attain to ,nirvana and are termed       
,bhikshus1 and the ,upasakas or laymen  
who1 while holding on to life1 practise 
such virtues as are compatible with this
 unholy desire4  ,the ,jewish religion1 
in certain of its phases1 reveals in    
like manner unmistakable traces of the  
influence of the religion of the        
,buddha4 ,to take but one instance1 the 
,essenians in ,judaea1 near the ,dead   
,sea and the ,therapeutes in ,egypt1    
practised continence1 eschewed all      
bloody sacrifices1 encouraged celibacy1 

and extreme abstemiousness in eating and
 drinking4 ,they formed themselves into 
communities1 and lived1 after the manner
 of ,buddhist ,bhikshus1 in monasteries4
 ,during the life of ,jesus1 the        
,essenians1 who lived mostly in         
cloistered retirement on the shores of  
the ,dead ,sea1 played no historic role2
 but after the destruction of           
,jerusalem1 they embraced ,christianity 
in a body1 and originated the ascetic   
movement of the ,ebionites1 which did   
not finally subside until it had        
deposited the germs of monasticism in   
the ,church of ,christ4  ,koheleth1 who 
lived either in ,jerusalem or in        
,alexandria--more probably in the latter
 city--about the year #bje ,b4,c41 had  
exceptional opportunities for becoming  
acquainted with the tenets and precepts 
of the religion of ,buddha4 ,he was     
evidently a man of an inquiring mind1   
with a pronounced taste for             
philosophical speculation2 and the      
social and political conditions of his  

day were such that a person even of a   
very incurious disposition would be     
likely to be brought face to face with  
the sensational doctrine which was      
responsible for such amazing innovations
 as hospitals for men and for animals4  
,alexandria1 the museum and library of  
which had already been founded1 was one 
of the principal strongholds of         
non-,indian ,buddhists4 ,it is mentioned
 in the ,milindapanho1 a ,pali work     
which deals with events that took place 
in the second century ,b4,c42#afh it is 
expressly included by ,aoka in the list 
of cities into which he introduced a    
knowledge of the path of duty1 and so   
devoted were its inhabitants to the     
creed of ,sakhya ,mouni1#afi that thirty
 years after ,augustine had died at     
,hippo1 thirty thousand ,bhikshus set   
out from ,alasadda#agj to annex new     
countries to the realm of truth4        
,footnotes3  #adj ,cf4 the epilogue     
7xii4 #i-ad71 for example1 which is one 
of the     most timid and shuffling     

apologies ever penned4  #ada i4 #i4     
#adb i4 #ad4  #adc ,malachi iii4 #ad4   
#add ,professor ,cheyne remarks3 ,to me1
 ,koheleth is not a theist in any       
vital sense in his philosophic          
meditations4--,job and ,solomon1     p4 
#bej4  #ade ,cf4 ,proverbs xxx4 #d4     
#adf iii4 #ad1 v4 #b4  #adg ,eccles4 ix4
 #e4  #adh vii4 #c1 #d4  #adi ,the view 
of several of the most authoritative    
scholars--in which ,i     entirely      
concur--is that ,koheleth was written in
 ,alexandria during     the reign of    
,ptolemy ,v4 7,epiphanes71 who came to  
the throne as a boy     under the       
guardianship of tutors and was alluded  
to in the verse3     ,woe1 land1 to thee
 whose king is a child4  #aej ,some of  
them were foreigners resident in ,india 
who1 after their     conversion1        
preached the new doctrine to their      
fellow-countrymen4     ,thus1 one of the
 earliest and most successful           
missionaries was a     ,greek1 whose    
,indian name was ,dharmarakshita4  #aea 

,plants1 too1 were included in their    
care and profited by their              
protection4  #aeb ,aoka is a ,sanskrit  
word1 which means free from care2 and   
,piyadassi a dialectic form of the      
,sanskrit word ,priyadarsin1 which      
means lovable1 amiable4 ,it was applied 
as an epithet to ,king ,aoka1     who   
reigned from #bei-bbb ,b4,c4  #aec      
,antiochus ,,ii41 called ,theos1 who was
 poisoned by his divorced wife          
,laodike in #bdg ,b4,c4 ,i am aware that
 some scholars identify the             
,antiochus here mentioned with          
,antiochus the ,great4 ,although both   
views make equally for my contention1 ,i
 fail to see how ,aoka1     who died in 
all probability in the year #bbb ,b4,c41
 could have     carried on important    
negotiations with ,antiochus the ,great1
 who     came to the throne of ,syria   
two years later4  #aed ,ptolemy of      
,egypt1 probably ,ptolemy ,philadelphos1
 who founded the     ,museum and        
,library of ,alexandria1 and his        

successor ,ptolemy     ,euergetes       
7#bdg-bba ,b4,c474  #aee ,magas1 king of
 ,cyrene4  #aef ,the identity of this   
monarch is uncertain4  #aeg ,the second 
,edict of ,girnar1 ,khalsi version4     
#aeh ,a ,south ,indian people4  #aei    
,usually a dispensary was opened for the
 distribution of simples1     and a     
hospital hard by for those who could not
 move about4 ,the     ,buddhists were   
almost as anxious to relieve the        
physical pain and     illness of animals
 as of human beings4  #afj ,cf4 ,bhler1 
,zeitschrift der deutschen              
morgenlndischen     ,gesellschaft1 ,band
 xxxvii4 folg4 p4 #ih4  #afa ,the monks 
or real disciples of ,buddha who        
endeavour to attain     ,nibbana or     
,nirvana4 ,the bulk of the population   
contents itself with     almsgiving and 
the practice of elementary morality1 the
 reward for     which will be a less    
unhappy existence after death2 but not  
,nirvana1     to which only the perfect 
can hope to attain4  #afb ,alexander    

,polyhistor1 quoted by ,cyrillus 7contra
 ,julianum72     cf4 also ,clemens      
,alexandrinus1 ,stromata ,i41 p4 #cci4  
#afc ,hiuen ,thsang4  #afd ,their names 
and deeds are preserved in the ,persian 
epic known as     the ,book of ,kings   
7,firdoosi1 ,shah-,nameh1 cf4 #ajcc1 v4 
#d1 #aafj1     v4 #b1 c474  #afe        
,ormuzd4 ,an instructive instance of the
 way in which foreign     institutions  
become nationalised in ,bactria is      
afforded by the     ,buddhist monastery 
in ,balkh1 which was at first known by  
its     ,indian name1 nava vihra1 a term
 that was gradually changed to          
naubehar1 which in ,persian means new   
spring4  #aff ,mn and ,mazdak4  #afg    
,the religion of ,mn4  #afh ,ed4        
,trenckner1 p4 #cbg4  #afi ,buddha4     
#agj ,alexandria4     ,,agur1 ,,the     
,,agnostic         99       99       99 
99       99  ,,agur1 ,,son ,,of ,,yakeh 
,embedded in the collection of the ,book
 of ,proverbs#aga is an interesting     
fragment of the philosophy of a certain 

,agur1 son of ,yakeh1 the poet1 which   
for scathing criticism of the theology  
of his day and sweeping scepticism as to
 every form of revealed religion1 is    
unmatched by the bitterest irony of ,job
 and the most dogmatic agnosticism of   
,koheleth4 ,unfortunately it is no more 
than a mere fragment1 the verses of     
which are thoughtfully separated from   
each other by strictures1 protests1 and 
refutations of the baldest and most     
orthodox kind4 ,indeed1 it is in all    
probability precisely to the presence of
 the infallible antidote that we owe the
 preservation of the deadly poison2 and 
if we may found a conjecture as to the  
character of the whole work on a        
comparison of the fragments with what we
 know generally of the sceptical schools
 of philosophy prevalent among the ,jews
 of post-,exilian days1 we shall feel   
disposed to hold the seven strophes     
preserved in our ,bibles as that portion
 of the poem which the compiler         
considered to be the most innocent      

because the least startling and         
revolutionary4  ,to the thinking of the 
critics of former times the ,proverbs   
displayed unmistakable traces of the    
unique and highly finished workmanship  
of the great and wise king ,solomon4 ,at
 the present day no serious student of  
the ,bible1 be he ,christian or         
,rationalist1 would raise his voice on  
behalf of this ,jewish tradition which1 
running counter to well-established     
facts1 is devoid even of the doubtful   
recommendation of moderate antiquity4 ,a
 more accurate knowledge of history and 
a more thorough study of philology have 
long since made it manifest to all who  
can lay claim to either1 that however   
weighty may have been ,solomon's titles 
to immortality1 they included neither   
depth of philosophic thought nor finish 
of literary achievement4 ,and an average
 supply of plain common-sense enables us
 to see that even had that extraordinary
 monarch been a profound thinker or a   
classic writer1 he would hardly have    

treated future events as accomplished   
facts without being endowed with further
 gifts and marked by graver defects     
which would involve a curious           
combination of prophecy and folly4  ,the
 ,proverbs themselves1 when properly    
interrogated1 tell a good deal of their 
own story2 sacred and profane history   
supply the rest4 ,in their present form 
they were collected and edited by the   
author of the first six verses of the   
first chapter1 who drew his materials   
from different sources4 ,the first and  
most important of these was the         
so-called ,praise of ,wisdom which1     
until a comparatively recent period1 was
 erroneously held to be a rounded1      
homogeneous poem4 ,professor ,bickell   
conclusively showed that it consists of 
ten different songs composed in the same
 metre as the ,poem of ,job1 each       
chapter being coextensive with one song1
 except the first chapter1 which        
contains two4#agb ,the fifth collection1
 containing the proverbs copied by the  

men of ,hezekiah1 is characterised by   
the strong national spirit of the       
writers4 ,most of the others make       
frequent mention of ,god1 give a        
prominent place to religion1 and adapt  
themselves for use as texts for sermons2
 these1 on the contrary1 never once     
mention ,his name1 reflect religion as  
it was--viz41 as only one of the many   
sides of national existence1 and deal   
mainly with the concrete problems of the
 everyday life of the struggling people4
 ,the other sayings may be aptly        
described as the pious maxims of a sect2
 these as the thoughts of a nation4 ,the
 seventh part of the ,book of ,proverbs 
contains the remarkable sayings of      
,agur1#agc which were quite as          
frequently misunderstood by the ,jews of
 old as by ,christians of more recent   
times1 the former heightening the       
impiety of the author and the latter    
generously identifying him with the     
pious and fanatical writer to whose     
well-meant refutations and protests we  

owe the preservation of this interesting
 fragment of ancient ,hebrew            
agnosticism4   ,footnotes3  #aga ,the   
,book of ,proverbs begins with ten songs
 on wisdom1 which     constitute the    
first part of the work4 ,the second part
 is made up     of distichs1 each one of
 which1 complete in itself1 embodies a  
proverbial saying 7x4 i-xxii4 #af74 ,the
 third section is composed of     the   
sayings of the wise men1 which are      
enshrined in tetrastichs or     strophes
 of four lines1 among which we find an  
occasional     interpolation by the     
editor1 recognisable by the paternal    
tone1 the     words ,my son1 and the    
substitution of distichs for            
tetrastichs4     ,then comes the        
appendix containing other proverbial    
dicta 7chap4     xxiv4 #bc-cd4 chap4 vi4
 #i-ai1 chap4 xxv4 #b-aj71 followed by  
the     proverbs of ,solomon1 which the 
men of ,hezekiah copied out     7xxv4   
#aa-xxvii4 #bb71 and wound up with a    
little poem in praise of     rural      

economy4 ,chaps4 xxviii4 and xxix4      
constitute another collection     of    
proverbs of a more strictly religious   
character1 and then come the     sayings
 of ,agur1 written in strophes of six   
lines1 the rules for a     king and the 
praise of a good housewife4  #agb ,prov4
 i4 #g-ai and i4 #bj-cc4  #agc ,chap4   
xxx4         99       99       99       
99       99  ,,form ,,and ,,contents    
,,of ,,the ,,sayings ,,of ,,agur  ,it is
 needless to discuss the condition and  
the contents of the entire ,book of     
,proverbs1 seeing that each one of its  
component parts has an independent1 if  
somewhat obscure1 history of its own4   
,the final compiler and editor1 to whom 
we are indebted for the collection in   
its present form1 undoubtedly found the 
sweeping scepticism of the poet ,agur   
and the pious protestations of his      
anonymous adversary1 the thesis and the 
antithesis1 inextricably interwoven in  
the section now known as the thirtieth  
chapter4 ,he himself apparently         

identified the two antagonists--the     
scoffing doubter and the believing ,jew2
 most modern theologians have cheerfully
 followed his example4 ,the fact would  
seem to be that the orthodox member of  
the ,jewish community1 who thus         
emphatically objected to aggressive     
agnosticism1 was a man who strictly     
observed the ,mosaic ,law1 and          
sympathised with the people in their    
hatred of their heathen masters and     
their hopes of speedy deliverance by the
 ,messiah2 in a word1 an individual of  
the party which later on played an      
important role in ,palestine under the  
name of the ,pharisees4 ,possessing a   
copy of ,agur's popular philosophical   
treatise1 this zealous champion         
undertook to refute the theory before he
 had ascertained the drift of the       
sayings in which it was enshrined1 or   
grasped their primary meaning4 ,thus1 in
 one passage#agd he fancies that the    
taunts which ,agur levelled against     
omniscient theologians who are well up  

in the history of everything that is    
done or left undone in heaven1 while    
amazingly ignorant of the ascertainable 
facts of earthly science1 are really    
aimed at ,god2 and he seeks to parry the
 attack accordingly4 ,his numerous and  
amusing errors are such as characterise 
the fanaticism that would refute a      
theory before hearing it unfolded1 not  
those which accompany and betray pious  
imbecility4 ,hence it would be unfair to
 tax him with the utter incoherency of  
the prayer which our ,bibles make him   
offer up1 when warding off the supposed 
attack upon ,god3 7#h7 ,feed me with    
food convenient for me1 7#i7 ,lest ,i be
 full and deny thee1 and say1 ,who is   
the ,lord8 or lest ,i be poor and steal1
 and take the name of my ,god in vain4  
,the mistake is the result of the       
erroneous punctuation of the ,hebrew    
words1#age which may be literally       
rendered into ,english as follows3      
,feed me with food suitable for me1     
,lest ,i be sated and deny thee1   ,and 

say1 ,who is the ,lord8   ,or lest ,i be
 poor and yield to seduction1   ,and sin
 against the name of my ,god4'  ,in the 
ensuing verse the controversialist1 full
 of his own ,pharisaic#agf views of     
politics1 and fancying he detects in    
certain of ,agur's words1#agg an apology
 for the heathen rulers and contempt for
 the orthodox people of ,god1 inveighs  
against the traitor who would denounce  
his fellow-subjects to their common     
master1#agh and holds him up to         
universal odium4  ,one or two other     
false constructions put upon ,agur's    
sayings by the champion of the ,law of  
,jahveh1 are likewise worthy of         
attention4 ,in the second sentence1     
which can be traced back to the         
proverbial philosophy of the ,hindoos1  
,agur1 enumerating the four things that 
are never satisfied1 lays special stress
 upon two which are1 so to say1 the     
beginning and end of all things1 the    
alpha and omega of human                
philosophy--viz41 the grave and the     

womb2#agi the latter the bait as well as
 the portal of life1 the former the     
bugbear and the goal of all things      
living4 ,the idea1 no less than the     
form1 is manifestly ,indian4 ,birth and 
death constitute the axis of existence2 
the womb is the symbol of the allurement
 that tempts men to forget their        
sorrows1 to keep the ,juggernaut wheel  
revolving and to supply it with fresh   
victims to be mangled and crushed into  
the grave4 ,the lure and the            
deterrent--love of sensuous pleasure and
 fear of dissolution--are as deceitful  
as all the other causes of pain and     
pleasure in this world of appearance4   
,schopenhauer puts it tersely thus3 ,as 
we are decoyed into life by the utterly 
illusory impulse to voluptuousness1 even
 so are we held fast therein by the fear
 of death1 which is certainly illusory  
in an equal degree4 ,both have their    
immediate source in the ,will1 which in 
itself is unconscious4#ahj  ,the only   
reward which life offers to those who   

crave it1 is suffering and death4 ,the  
desire of life--the ,indian tanha or    
thirst of existence--,agur represents in
 the form of the beautiful but terrible 
,ghoul of the desert who has two        
daughters3 birth and death4 ,by means of
 her fascinating charms she entices the 
wanderer to her arms1 but instead of    
satiating his soul with the promised    
joys1 she ruthlessly flings him to her  
two daughters who tear him to pieces and
 devour him on the spot4 ,desire is the 
source of life which in turn is the     
taproot of all evil and pain2 insight   
into this truth--the knowledge or wisdom
 lauded by ,job and prized by           
,koheleth--affords the only means of    
breaking the unholy spell1 and escaping 
from the magic circle4  ,this ingenious 
and profound philosophical image was    
wholly misunderstood by ,agur's orthodox
 adversary1 who founds upon the         
deprecatory allusion to the womb a      
general accusation of lack of reverence 
for maternity and a specific charge of  

disrespect for ,agur's own mother4#aha  
,agur's third saying has been likewise  
sadly misconstrued by the ancient       
,pharisaic controversialist and by his  
faithful modern successors4 ,he         
enumerates therein four things which to 
him seem wholly incomprehensible1 the   
fourth and last being the darkest       
mystery of all3 the flying of an eagle  
in the air1 the movement of a           
serpent--which is devoid of special     
organs of locomotion--along a rock1 the 
sailing of a ship on the ocean1 and the 
way of a man with a maid4#ahb ,it is    
very hard to believe what is            
nevertheless an undeniable fact1 that   
the bulk of serious commentators        
classify these as the trackless things1 
whereby1 strangely enough1 they         
understand the last of the four in a    
moral instead of a metaphysical sense4  
,the error is an old one3 it was on the 
strength of this arbitrary and vulgar   
interpretation that ,agur was accused by
 his ,jewish antagonist of a criminal   

lack of filial piety towards his own    
father1#ahc and threatened with condign 
punishment1 to be inflicted by the      
eagles that fly so wonderfully in the   
air2#ahd while another scribe1 unaware  
that the mystery of generation could be 
chosen as the text for a treatise on    
metaphysics1 and firmly convinced that  
the philosopher was condemning          
unhallowed relations between the sexes1 
penned a gloss to make things           
sufficiently clear which was afterwards 
removed from the margin to the text     
where it now figures as the twentieth   
verse4  ,in truth1 ,agur gives utterance
 to a natural sentiment of awe and      
wonder at the greatest and darkest of   
all mysteries whose roots lie buried in 
the depths of the two worlds we conceive
 of4 ,what could be more awe-inspiring  
than the instantaneous metamorphosis of 
pure immaterial will into concrete flesh
 and blood1 throbbing with life         
hastening to decay1 the incarnation in  
the sphere of appearances of an act of  

the one being which is not an appearance
 only1 but the denizen of the world of  
reality8 ,will is primary1 real1        
enduring2 intellect secondary1          
accidental1 fleeting2 the one1 abiding  
for ever1 is identical in all things2   
the latter varies in different beings1  
nay in the same individuals at various  
times1 and perishes with the brain1 of  
which it is a function4 ,will is devoid 
of intellect1 as intellect is deprived  
of velleity4 ,we know will through our  
inner consciousness which has to do     
exclusively with it and its manifold    
manifestations2 all other things--the   
world of appearances--we know through   
what may be termed our outer            
consciousness4  ,now in our             
self-consciousness we apprehend the     
fierce1 blind1 headstrong sexual impulse
 as the most powerful motion of         
concentrated will4 ,the act is marked by
 the spontaneity1 impetuosity1 and lack 
of reflection which characterises the   
agent1 will being by nature             

unenlightened and unconditioned4 ,and   
yet that which in our inner             
consciousness is a blind1 vehement      
impulse1 appears in our outer           
consciousness in the form of the most   
complex living organism we know4        
,generation1 then1 is manifestly the    
point at which the real and the seeming 
intersect each other4  ,birth and       
death--the inevitable lot of each and   
every one--would seem to affect the     
individual only1 the race living on     
without change or decay4 ,this1 however1
 is but the appearance4 ,in reality the 
individual and the race are one4 ,the   
blind striving to live1 the will that   
craves existence at all costs1 is       
absolutely the same in both1 as complete
 in the former as in the latter1 and the
 perpetuity of the race is1 so to say1  
but the symbol of the indestructibility 
of the individual--i4e41 of will4  ,now 
this all-important fact is exemplified  
quite as clearly by the phenomenon of   
generation as by the process of decay   

and death4 ,in both we behold the       
opposition between the appearance and   
the essence of the being1 between the   
world as it exists in our intellect as  
representation1 and the world as it     
really is1 as will4 ,the act of         
generation is known to us through two   
different media3 that of the inner      
consciousness which is taken up with our
 will and all its movements1 and that of
 our outer consciousness which has to do
 with impressions received through the  
senses4 ,seen through the former medium1
 the act is the most complete and       
immediate satisfaction of the           
will--sensual lust2 viewed in the light 
supplied by the outer consciousness1 it 
appears as the woof of the most         
intricate texture1 the basis of the most
 complex of living organisms4 ,from this
 angle of vision1 the result is a work  
of amazing skill1 designed with the     
greatest ingenuity and forethought1 and 
carried out with patient industry and   
scrupulous care2 from that point of view

 it is the direct outcome of an act     
which is the negation of plan1          
forethought1 skill1 and ingenuity1 a    
blind unreasoning impulse4 ,this        
contrast or rather opposition between   
the seeming and the real1 this new view 
of birth and death1 this sudden flash of
 light athwart the impenetrable         
darkness1 is what provokes the wonder of
 this scoffing sceptic4#ahe  ,in the    
fourth saying1 ,agur mentions1 among the
 persons whom the earth cannot endure1 a
 low-bred fellow who is set to rule over
 others1 and a fool when he acquires a  
competency and becomes independent4 ,the
 anonymous ,pharisee1 who keeps a       
vigilant watch for doctrinal slips and  
political backslidings and frequently   
finds them where they are not1 descries 
in the first of the four unbearable     
things a proof that ,agur was a         
,sadducee and an aristocrat who would   
rather obey a monarch who is every inch 
a king--even though he be a             
heathen--than a native clodhopper who   

should climb up to the throne on the    
backs of a poor deluded people and grind
 them down in the sacred name of liberty
 and independence4 ,agur is therefore   
duly reprimanded and classed with the   
shameless oppressors of the multitude   
and the devourers of the substance of   
the poor1#ahf as the ,sadducees         
generally were by their ,pharisaic      
opponents4  ,the sentence that follows1 
enumerating the things which are little 
upon the earth1#ahg is not from the pen 
of our philosopher1 but a harmless      
passage inserted subsequently as a      
pendant to the four things which are    
comely in going4 ,the main              
considerations that point to this       
conclusion and warrant us in ascribing  
the verses to a different author are    
these3 all the other numerical sayings  
which are admittedly the work of ,agur1 
contain first of all the number three   
and in the parallel verse four1#ahh     
whereas this sentence speaks of four    
only4 ,again1 all ,agur's proverbs are  

in the form of strophes of six lines    
each2 but this passage consists of five 
distichs4 ,lastly1 it is a manifest     
digression1 leads nowhither1 and1 what  
is still more important1 has no point1  
as all ,agur's sayings have4#ahi  ,the  
final sentence of this interesting      
fragment needs no elaborate explanation3
 it contains the pith of ,agur's        
practical philosophy in the form of an  
exhortation to renounce honour1 glory1  
the esteem of men1 c41 if we possess    
legitimate claims to such1 and still    
more if we have none2 the acquisition of
 peace and quiet is cheap at the price  
of obscurity2 freedom from care and     
worry and from the evils they bring in  
their train1 being of infinitely greater
 value than the chance and even the     
certainty of so-called positive         
enjoyments4   ,footnotes3  #agd ,prov4  
xxx4 #d4  #age ,the ,hebrew text        
consists of vowelless words4 ,the       
correct vowels     must be ascertained  
before the meaning of a word or sentence

 can     be definitely established4 ,the
 vowel points of our ,hebrew ,bibles    
are not older than the seventh century  
,a4,d41 and are frequently              
erroneous4 ,in the present case the word
 stealing does not occur     in the     
text1 but only the being stolen--viz41  
seduction1 temptation4  #agf ,i employ  
the word in its natural1 not in its     
conventional1 sense4  #agg ,prov4 xxx4  
#ba1 #bb4  #agh ,ibid xxx4 #aj4  #agi   
,the word barren added in our ,bibles   
7,hebrew 'ozer1     barrenness7 is not  
only excluded by the metre1 but is also 
wanting in the ,septuagint              
version--conclusive proofs that it is a 
later interpolation4  #ahj ,cf4         
,schopenhauer1 ,die ,welt als ,wille und
 ,vorstellung1 herausg4     v4 ,e4      
,grisebach1 ii4 p4 #ehe4 ,grisebach's is
 the only correct edition     of        
,schopenhauer's works4  #aha ,prov4 xxx4
 #aa4  #ahb ,ib4 xxx4 #ah1 #ai4  #ahc   
,ib4 xxx4 #aa4  #ahd ,ib4 xxx4 #ag4     
#ahe ,cf4 ,schopenhauer1 ,die ,welt als 

,wille und ,vorstellung1 vol4 ii4     p4
 #ehc fol42 also vol4 i4 pp4 #dbd-dbf2  
and ,bickell1 ,wiener     ,zeitschrift  
fr ,kunde des ,morgenlandes1 #ahia4     
#ahf ,prov4 xxx4 #ai4  #ahg ,ib4 xxx4   
#bd-bh4  #ahh ,for example1 ,prov4 xxx4 
#ae3        ,there are three things that
 are never satisfied1       ,yea1 four  
things say not1 ',it is enough6'  #ahi  
,cf4 ,bickell1 ,wiener ,zeitschrift fr  
,kunde des     ,morgenlandes1 #ahia4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,,date ,,of ,,composition  ,the sayings 
of ,agur cannot possibly be assigned to 
a date later than the close of third    
century ,b4,c4 ,the ground for this     
statement is contained in the           
circumstance that ,jesus ,sirach found  
the ,book of ,proverbs in existence1    
with all its component parts and in its 
present shape1 about the year #bjj      
,b4,c4 ,he mentions a collection of     
proverbial sayings when alluding to     
,solomon and his proverbs4 ,jesus       
,sirach's canon--if we can apply this   

technical term to the series of         
scriptures in vogue in his              
day--comprised the books contained in   
our ,bibles from ,genesis to ,kings1    
further ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 ,ezechiel1  
the twelve ,minor ,prophets1 ,psalms1   
,proverbs1 and ,job4 ,moreover1 it is no
 longer open to doubt that the          
arrangement of the various parts of the 
,book of ,proverbs which he read was    
identical with that of ours4 ,for the   
last part of this ,book contains an     
alphabetical poem in praise of a good   
housewife1#aij and ,jesus ,sirach       
concluded his own work with a similar   
poem upon wisdom1 in which he imitated  
this alphabetical order4 ,it is obvious1
 therefore1 that ,proverbs in their     
present form could not have been        
compiled later than the date of ,jesus  
,sirach's work 7about #bjj ,b4,c474     
,this conclusion is borne out by the    
circumstance that the final editor of   
,proverbs in his introduction1#aia      
mentions the ,words of the ,wise1 which 

occur in chapters xxii4 #ag-xxiv41 and  
their dark sayings1 or riddles1 by which
 he obviously means the sentences of    
,agur4 ,for ,proverbs and for ,agur's   
fragment1 therefore1 the latest date is 
the beginning of the second century     
,b4,c4 ,chapter xxx41 in which1 on the  
one hand1 ,agur develops very advanced  
philosophical views1 some of them of    
,indian origin1 and1 on the other1 his  
anonymous antagonist breathes the       
narrow1 fanatic spirit so thoroughly    
characteristic of the later ,mosaic     
,law1 is among the very latest portions 
of ,proverbs4 ,for it is in the highest 
degree probable that the sayings of     
,agur are of a much later date even than
 the promulgation of the ,priests'      
,code2#aib and the circumstance that the
 anonymous stickler for strict orthodoxy
 already begins to accentuate the       
political and religious opposition      
between the two great parties known as  
,pharisees and ,sadducees1 as well as   
other grounds of a different order1     

disposes me to assign the fragment of   
,agur to the third century ,b4,c4 ,this 
conclusion would be borne out by the    
influence upon ,agur's scepticism of    
comparatively recent foreign            
speculation4 ,some of his sayings have  
an unmistakable ,indian ring about them4
 ,a few are even directly traceable to  
the philosophical sentences of the      
,hindoos4 ,the enumeration of the four  
insatiable things1 for instance1 is but 
a slight modification of the ,indian    
proverb in the ,hitopadea which runs3   
,fire is not satiated with fuel2 nor the
 sea with streams2 nor death with all   
beings2 nor a fair-eyed woman with      
men4#aic ,still more striking and       
suggestive is the correspondence between
 the desire of life1 personified in     
,agur's fragment by the beautiful       
,ghoul1 and the thirst of existence     
denoted by the ,buddha and his          
countrymen as tanha--the root of all    
evil and suffering4 ,through thirst for 
existence 7tanha71 the ,buddha is       

reported to have said to his disciples1 
arises a craving for life2 through this1
 being2 through being1 birth2 through   
birth are produced age and death1 care  
and misery1 suffering1 wretchedness and 
despair4 ,such is the origin of the     
world4444 ,by means of the total        
annihilation of this thirst for         
existence 7tanha7 the destruction of the
 craving for life is compassed2 through 
the destruction of the craving for life1
 the uprooting of being is effected2    
through the uprooting of being1 the     
annihilation of birth is brought about2 
by means of the annihilation of birth   
the abolition of age and death1 of care 
and misery1 of suffering1 wretchedness  
and despair is accomplished4 ,in this   
wise takes place the annihilation of    
this sum of suffering4#aid ,the same    
doctrine is laid down by the last       
accredited of the ,buddha's disciples1  
,sariputto3 ,what1 brethren1 is the     
source of suffering8 he is reported to  
have said4 ,it is that desire 7tanha7   

which leads from new birth to new birth1
 which is accompanied by joy and        
passion1 which delights now here1 now   
there2 it is the sexual instinct1 the   
impulse towards existence1 the craving  
for development4 ,that1 brethren1 is    
what is termed the source of            
suffering4#aie   ,footnotes3  #aij      
,prov4 xxxi4 #aj-ca4  #aia ,prov4 i4 #f4
  #aib #ddd ,b4,c4  #aic ,cf4           
,hitopadea1 book ii4 fable vi42 ed4 ,max
 ,mller1 vol4 ii4     p4 #ch4  #aid     
,samyuttaka-,nikayo1 vol4 ii4 chap4     
xliv4 p4 #ab2 cf4 ,neumann              
,buddhistiche ,anthologie1 ,leiden1     
#ahib1 pp4 #afa-afb4  #aie              
,majjhima-,nikayo2 cf4 ,neumann1 op4    
sit41 p4#be4         99       99        
99       99       99  ,,agur',s         
,,philosophy  ,of the three ,hebrew     
thinkers of the ,old ,testament who     
ventured to sift and weigh the evidence 
on which the religious beliefs of their 
contemporaries were based1 ,agur was    
probably the most daring and dangerous4 

,he appealed directly to the people1 and
 set up a simple standard of criticism  
which could be effectively employed by  
all4 ,hence1 no doubt1 the paucity of   
the fragments of his writings which have
 come down to us and the consequent     
difficulty of constructing therewith a  
complete and coherent system of         
philosophy4 ,to what extent he assented 
to the theories and approved the        
practices which constitute the positive 
elements of the ,buddha's religion1 is  
open to discussion2 but that he was a   
confirmed sceptic as regards the        
fundamental doctrines of ,jewish        
theology1 and that his speculations     
received their impulse and direction    
from ,indian philosophy1 are facts which
 can no longer be called in question4   
,to the theologians of his day he shows 
no mercy2 for their dogmas of           
retribution1 ,messianism1 c41 he evinces
 no respect2 nay1 he denies all divine  
revelation and strips the deity itself  
of every vestige of an attribute4 ,proud

 of their precise and exhaustive        
knowledge of the mysteries of ,god's    
nature1 the doctors of the ,jewish      
community had drawn up comprehensive    
formulas for all ,his methods of dealing
 with mankind1 and anathematised those  
who ventured to cast doubts upon their  
accuracy4    ,whatever sceptic could    
inquire for1   ,for every why they had a
 wherefore1  the unanswerable tone of   
which lay necessarily and exclusively in
 the implicit and tenacious faith of the
 hearer4 ,now1 faith may be governed by 
conditions widely different from those  
that regulate scientific knowledge1 but 
if its object be something that lies    
beyond the ken of the human intellect it
 must be based either upon a            
supernatural intuition accorded to the  
individual or upon a divine revelation  
vouchsafed to all4 ,in the former case  
it cannot be embodied in a religious    
dogma2 in the latter it cannot--or      
should not--be accepted without thorough
 discussion and due verification of the 

alleged historical fact of the divine   
message4  ,this is the gist of ,agur's  
reasoning against the allwise           
theologians of the ,jewish ,church4     
,these sapient specialists1 whose       
intellects were nurtured upon the       
highest and most abstruse speculations  
and who could readily account for all   
the movements of the ,deity with a      
wealth of detail surpassing that of a   
,french police dossier1 were utterly and
 notoriously ignorant of the rudimentary
 laws of science which every inquisitive
 mind might learn and every educated man
 could verify4 ,now1 as truth is one1   
,agur reasoned1 how comes it that the   
persons who thus lay claim to a thorough
 knowledge of the more difficult1 are   
absolutely ignorant of the more simple8 
,whence1 in a word1 did they obtain     
their perfect acquaintance with the     
mysteries of the divine nature and the  
mechanism of the universe1 the          
elementary laws of which are yet unknown
 to them8 ,surely not from any source   

accessible to all2 for ,agur1 possessing
 equally favourable opportunities for   
observation and quite as keen an        
interest in the subject1 not only failed
 to make any similar discoveries1 but   
even to find any confirmation of theirs4
 ,for this he sarcastically accounts by 
admitting that he must be considerably  
more stupid than the common run of      
mankind1 in fact1 that he is wholly     
devoid of human understanding--a        
confession which he evidently expects   
every reasonable man to repeat after him
 to those who assert that crass         
ignorance of fundamental facts is an aid
 to the highest kind of knowledge4    ,i
 have worried myself about ,god1 and    
succeeded not1   ,for ,i am more stupid 
than other men1   ,and in me there is no
 human understanding3   ,neither have ,i
 learned wisdom1   ,so that ,i might    
comprehend the science of sacred things4
  ,still he is a very docile disciple1  
and1 having failed to make any          
discoveries of his own1 would gladly    

accept those of a qualified master--of  
one who endeavours to know before       
setting out to teach and who prefaces   
his account of the wonders of the unseen
 world by pointing out the bridge over  
which he passed thither1 from this4 ,but
 does such a genuine teacher exist8     
,who has ascended into heaven and come  
down again8   ,who can gather the wind  
in his fists8   ,who can bind the waters
 in a garment8   ,who can grasp all the 
ends of the earth8   ,such an one would 
,i question about ,god3 ',what is his   
name8   ,and what the name of his sons1 
if thou knowest it8'  ,and if even      
specialists do not fulfil these         
conditions1 are we not forced to        
conclude that their so-called knowledge 
is a fraud and its subject-matter       
unknowable8  ,agur's views of right     
conduct--if we may judge by the general 
tenour of his fragmentary sayings and by
 the principle embodied in his sixth and
 last sentence1 in which he rejects as a
 motive for action a high hope for a low

 heaven--are marked by the essential    
characteristics of true morality4 ,an   
action performed for the sake of any    
recompense1 human or divine1 transitory 
or eternal1 is egotistic by its nature1 
and therefore not moral2 and the        
difference between the man who1 in his  
unregenerate days1 cut his neighbours'  
throats in order to enjoy their         
property1 and after his conversion gave 
all his goods to feed the poor1 in order
 to enjoy eternal happiness in heaven1  
is more interesting to the legislator   
than to the moralist4 ,but1 were it     
otherwise1 ,agur holds that1 even from a
 purely practical point of view1 all the
 honours and rewards which mankind can  
bestow upon their greatest benefactor   
would be too dearly purchased by a      
ruffled temper2 in other words1 mere    
freedom from positive pain is a greater 
boon than the highest pleasure purchased
 at the price of a little suffering4    
,agur's politics gave as much offence to
 the priests as his theology4 ,like most

 original thinkers1 he is a believer in 
the aristocracy of talent1 and he makes 
no secret of his preference of a        
hereditary nobility to those upstarts   
from the ranks of the people who possess
 no intellectual gifts to recommend     
them4 ,for the former have at least     
training and heredity to guide them1    
whereas the latter are devoid even of   
these recommendations4 ,these views     
furnished the grounds for the charge of 
,sadduceeism preferred against him by   
his adversary4  ,to what extent ,indian 
thought1 and in particular the          
metaphysics and ethics of ,buddhism1    
influenced ,agur's religious            
speculations1 it is impossible to do    
more than conjecture4 ,personally ,i am 
disposed to think that he was well      
acquainted and indeed thoroughly imbued 
with the teachings of the ,indian       
reformer4 ,in the third century ,b4,c41 
as already pointed out1 the spread of   
the new religion through ,bactria1      
,persia1 ,egypt1 and ,asia ,minor was   

rapid4 ,moreover1 the turn taken by the 
speculations of cultured ,hebrews of    
that epoch was precisely such as we     
should expect to find1 if it stood to   
,buddhistic preaching in the relation of
 effect to cause4 ,the scepticism of the
 philosophers of the ,old ,testament1   
not excepting that of ,agur who may     
aptly be termed the ,hebrew ,voltaire1  
was not wholly destructive4 ,its        
sweeping negations in the spheres of    
metaphysics and theology were amply     
compensated for--if one can speak of    
compensation in such a connection--by   
the positive1 humane1 and wise maxims it
 lays down in the domain of ethics4 ,and
 the cornerstone of the morality of all 
three--,job1 ,koheleth1 and ,agur--would
 seem to be virtually identical with    
that formulated in the ,indian aphorism3
    ,alone the doer doth the deed2 alone
 he tastes the fruit it brings2   ,alone
 he wanders through life's maze2 alone  
redeems himself from                    
being4  ,buddhistic influence in the    

case of ,agur1 therefore1 is all the    
more probable that it admirably         
dovetails with all the circumstances of 
time and place known to us1 even on the 
supposition1 which ,i am myself inclined
 to favour1 that ,agur lived and wrote  
in ,palestine4 ,this probability is     
greatly enhanced by the striking        
affinity between the ,buddhist          
conception of revealed religions1 of    
professional priests and of practical   
wisdom1 and that enshrined in the few   
verses of ,agur which we possess4 ,it is
 raised to a degree akin to certainty by
 the actual occurrence of ,indian       
images1 similes1 and even concrete      
aphorisms in the short fragment of seven
 strophes preserved to us in the ,book  
of ,proverbs4         99       99       
99       99       99  ,,the ,,poem ,,of 
,,job  ,,translation ,,of ,,the         
,,restored ,,text         99       99   
99       99       99  ,,prologue        
,,chap4 ,i4 ,a4,v4  #a ,there was a man 
in the land of ,uz1 whose name was ,job2

 and that man was perfect and upright1  
and one that feared ,god1 and eschewed  
evil4  #b ,and there were born unto him 
seven sons and three daughters4  #c ,his
 substance also was seven thousand      
sheep1 and three thousand camels1 and   
five hundred yoke of oxen1 and five     
hundred she asses1 and a very great     
household2 so that this man was the     
greatest of all the men of the east4  #d
 ,and his sons went and feasted in their
 houses1 every one his day2 and sent and
 called for their three sisters to eat  
and to drink with them4  #e ,and it was 
so1 when the days of their feasting were
 gone about1 that ,job sent and         
sanctified them1 and rose up early in   
the morning1 and offered burnt offerings
 according to the number of them all3   
for ,job said1 ,it may be that my sons  
have sinned1 and cursed ,god in their   
hearts4 ,thus did ,job continually4  #f 
,now there was a day when the sons of   
,god came to present themselves before  
the ,lord1 and ,satan came also among   

them4  #g ,and the ,lord said unto      
,satan1 ,whence comest thou8 ,then      
,satan answered the ,lord1 and said1    
,from going to and fro in the earth and 
from walking up and down in it4  #h ,and
 the ,lord said unto ,satan1 ,hast thou 
considered my servant ,job1 that there  
is none like him in the earth1 a perfect
 and an upright man1 one that feareth   
,god1 and escheweth evil8  #i ,then     
,satan answered the ,lord1 and said1    
,doth ,job fear ,god for nought8  #aj   
,hast not thou made an hedge about him1 
and about his house1 and about all that 
he hath on every side8 thou hast blessed
 the work of his hands1 and his         
substance is increased in the land4  #aa
 ,but put forth thine hand now1 and     
touch all that he hath1 and he will     
curse thee to thy face4  #ab ,and the   
,lord said unto ,satan1 ,behold1 all    
that he hath is in thy power2 only upon 
himself put not forth thine hand4 ,so   
,satan went forth from the presence of  
the ,lord4  #ac ,and there was a day    

when his sons and his daughters were    
eating and drinking wine in their eldest
 brother's house3  #ad ,and there came a
 messenger unto ,job1 and said1 ,the    
oxen were plowing1 and the asses were   
feeding beside them3  #ae ,and the      
,sabeans fell upon them1 and took them  
away2 yea1 they have slain the servants 
with the edge of the sword2 and ,i only 
am escaped alone to tell thee4  #af     
,while he was yet speaking1 there came  
also another1 and said1 ,the fire of    
,god is fallen from heaven1 and hath    
burned up the sheep1 and the servants1  
and consumed them2 and ,i only am       
escaped alone to tell thee4  #ag ,while 
he was yet speaking1 there came also    
another1 and said1 ,the ,chaldeans made 
out three bands1 and fell upon the      
camels1 and have carried them away1 yea1
 and slain the servants with the edge of
 the sword2 and ,i only am escaped alone
 to tell thee4  #ah ,while he was yet   
speaking1 there came also another1 and  
said1 ,thy sons and thy daughters were  

eating and drinking wine in their eldest
 brother's house3  #ai ,and1 behold1    
there came a great wind from the        
wilderness1 and smote the four corners  
of the house1 and it fell upon the young
 men1 and they are dead2 and ,i only am 
escaped alone to tell thee4  #bj ,then  
,job arose1 and rent his mantle1 and    
shaved his head1 and fell down upon the 
ground and worshipped1  #ba ,and said1  
,naked came ,i out of my mother's womb1 
and naked shall ,i return thither3 the  
,lord gave1 and the ,lord hath taken    
away2 blessed be the name of the ,lord4 
#bb ,in all this ,job sinned not1 nor   
charged ,god foolishly4   ,,chap4 ,,ii4 
,a4,v4  #a ,again there was a day when  
the sons of ,god came to present        
themselves before the ,lord1 and ,satan 
came also among them to present himself 
before the ,lord4  #b ,and the ,lord    
said unto ,satan1 ,from whence comest   
thou8 ,and ,satan answered the ,lord1   
and said1 ,from going to and fro in the 
earth1 and from walking up and down in  

it4  #c ,and the ,lord said unto ,satan1
 ,hast thou considered my servant ,job1 
that there is none like him in the      
earth1 a perfect and an upright man1 one
 that feareth ,god1 and escheweth evil8 
and still he holdeth fast his integrity1
 although thou movedst me against him1  
to destroy him without cause4  #d ,and  
,satan answered the ,lord1 and said1    
,skin for skin1 yea1 all that a man hath
 will he give for his life4  #e ,but put
 forth thine hand now1 and touch his    
bone and his flesh1 and he will curse   
thee to thy face4  #f ,and the ,lord    
said unto ,satan1 ,behold he is in thine
 hand2 but save his life4  #g ,so went  
,satan forth from the presence of the   
,lord1 and smote ,job with sore boils   
from the sole of his foot unto his      
crown4  #h ,and he took him a potsherd  
to scrape himself withal2 and he sat    
down among the ashes4  #i ,then said his
 wife unto him1 ,dost thou still retain 
thine integrity8 curse ,god1 and die4   
#aj ,but he said unto her1 ,thou        

speakest as one of the foolish women    
speaketh4 ,what6 shall we receive good  
at the hand of ,god1 and shall we not   
receive evil8 ,in all this did not ,job 
sin with his lips4  #aa ,now when ,job's
 three friends heard of all this evil   
that was come upon him1 they came every 
one from his own place2 ,eliphaz the    
,temanite1 and ,bildad the ,shuhite1 and
 ,zophar the ,naamathite3 for they had  
made an appointment together to come to 
mourn with him and to comfort him4  #ab 
,and when they lifted up their eyes afar
 off1 and knew him not1 they lifted up  
their voice1 and wept2 and they rent    
every one his mantle1 and sprinkled dust
 upon their heads toward heaven4  #ac   
,so they sat down with him upon the     
ground seven days and seven nights1 and 
none spake a word unto him3 for they saw
 that his grief was very great4         
,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,a4,v4  #a ,after this   
opened ,job his mouth1 and cursed his   
day4  #b ,and ,job spake1 and said3  ,i 
,,job3    ,would the day had perished   

wherein ,i was born1   ,and the night   
which said3 behold1 a man child6        
,would that ,god on high had not called 
for it1   ,and that light had not shone 
upon it6  ,,ii    ,would that darkness  
and gloom had claimed it for their own2 
,would that clouds had hovered over it2 
,would it never had been joined to the  
days of the year1   ,nor entered into   
the number of the months6  ,,iii        
,would that that night had been barren1 
,and that rejoicing had not come        
therein2   ,that they had cursed it who 
curse the days1#aif   ,that the stars of
 its twilight had waxed dim6  ,,iv      
,would it had yearned for light but     
found none1   ,nor beheld the eye-lids  
of the morning dawn6   ,for it closed   
not the door of my mother's womb1   ,nor
 hid sorrow from mine eyes4  ,v    ,why 
died ,i not straight from the womb8     
,why1 having come out of the belly1 did 
,i not expire8   ,why did the knees meet
 me8   ,and why the breasts1 that ,i    
might suck8  ,,vi    ,for then should ,i

 have lain still and been quiet1   ,i   
should have slept and now had been at   
rest1   ,with the kings and counsellors 
of the earth1   ,who built desolate     
places for themselves4  ,,vii    ,or    
with princes1 once rich in gold1   ,who 
filled their houses with silver1   ,i   
should be as being not1 as an hidden    
untimely birth1   ,like infants which   
never saw the light6  ,,viii    ,there  
the wicked cease from troubling1   ,and 
there the weary be at rest2   ,there the
 prisoners repose together1   ,nor hear 
the taskmaster's voice4  ,,ix    ,why   
gives he light to the afflicted1   ,and 
life unto the bitter in soul1   ,who    
yearn for death1 but it cometh not1     
,and dig for it more than for buried    
treasures8  ,x    ,hail to the man who  
hath found a grave6   ,then only hath   
,god hedged him in4#aig   ,for sighing  
is become my bread1   ,and my crying is 
unto me as water4  ,,xi    ,for the     
thing ,i dreaded cometh upon me1   ,and 
that ,i trembled at befalleth me4   ,i  

am not in safety1 neither have ,i rest2 
,nor quiet1 but trouble cometh alway4   
,,xii  ,,eliphaz3    ,lo1 thou hast     
instructed many1   ,thy words have      
upholden him that was stumbling4   ,now 
hath thine own turn come1   ,and thou   
thyself art worried and troubled4       
,,xiii    ,was not the fear of ,god thy 
confidence8   ,and the uprightness of   
thy ways thy hope8   ,bethink1 ,i pray  
thee1 who ever perished guiltless8   ,or
 where were the righteous cut off8      
,,xiv    ,i saw them punished that      
plough iniquity1   ,and them that sow   
sorrow reap the same2   ,by the blast of
 ,god they perish1   ,and by the breath 
of his nostrils are they consumed4#aih  
,,xv    ,now a word was wafted unto me  
by stealth1#aii   ,and mine ear received
 the whisper thereof2   ,in thoughts    
from the visions of the night1   ,when  
deep sleep falleth upon man4  ,,xvi     
,fear came upon me and trembling1       
,which made all my bones to shake4      
,then a spectre sped before my face2    

,the hair of my flesh bristled up4      
,,xvii    ,it stood1 but ,i could not   
discern its form4   ,i heard a gentle   
voice3--   ,shall a mortal be more just 
than ,god8   ,shall a man be more pure  
than his maker8  ,,xviii    ,behold1 in 
his servants he puts no trust1--   ,nay1
 his angels#bjj he chargeth with        
folly2--   ,how much less in the        
dwellers in houses of clay1   ,whose    
foundations are down in the dust4  ,,xix
    ,between dawn and evening they are  
destroyed3   ,they perish and no man    
recketh4   ,is not their tent-pole torn 
up8#bja   ,and bereft of wisdom1 they   
die4  ,,xx    ,call now1 if so be any   
will answer thee2   ,and to which of the
 angels wilt thou turn8   ,for his own  
wrath killeth the foolish man1   ,and   
envy slayeth the silly one4  ,,xxi      
,his children are far from safety2      
,they are crushed1 and there is none to 
save them4   ,the hungry eateth up their
 harvest1   ,and the thirsty swilleth   
their milk4  ,,xxii    ,for affliction  

springeth not out of the dust1   ,nor   
doth sorrow sprout up from the ground2--
   ,for man is born unto trouble1       
,even as the sparks fly upward4  ,,xxiii
    ,but ,i would seek unto ,god1   ,and
 unto ,god would ,i commit my cause1    
,who doth great things and unfathomable1
   ,marvellous things without number4   
,,xxiv    ,he giveth rain unto the      
earth1   ,and sendeth waters upon the   
fields2   ,to set up on high those that 
be low1   ,that they who mourn may be   
helped to victory4  ,,xxv    ,he        
catcheth the wise in their own          
craftiness1   ,and the counsel of the   
cunning is thwarted2   ,wherefore they  
encounter darkness in the daytime1      
,and at noonday grope as in the night4  
,,xxvi    ,the poor he delivereth from  
the sword of their mouth1   ,and the    
needy out of the hand of the mighty2    
,thus the miserable man obtaineth hope1 
,and iniquity stoppeth her mouth4       
,,xxvii    ,happy is the man whom ,god  
correcteth2   ,therefore spurn not thou 

the chastening of the ,almighty3   ,for 
he maketh sore and bindeth up2   ,he    
smiteth1 and his hands make whole4      
,,xxviii    ,he shall deliver thee in   
six troubles1   ,yea in seven there     
shall no evil touch thee3--   ,in famine
 he shall redeem thee from death1   ,and
 in war from the power of the sword4    
,,xxix    ,thou shall be hid from the   
scourge of the tongue1#bjb   ,neither   
shalt thou fear misfortune when it      
cometh2   ,at destruction and famine    
thou shalt laugh1   ,nor shalt dread the
 beasts of the earth4  ,,xxx    ,for thy
 tent shall abide in peace1   ,and thou 
shalt visit thy dwelling and miss nought
 therein2   ,thou shalt likewise know   
that thy seed will be great1   ,and     
thine offspring as the grass of the     
earth4  ,,xxxi    ,thou shalt go down to
 thy grave in the fulness of thy days1  
,ripe as a shock of corn brought home in
 its season4   ,lo1 this have we found  
out1 so it is6   ,this we have heard1   
and take it thou to heart4  ,,xxxii     

,,job3    ,oh that my wrath were        
thoroughly weighed1   ,and my woe laid  
against it in the balances6   ,for it   
would prove heavier than the sands of   
the sea2   ,therefore are my words wild4
  ,,xxxiii    ,for the arrows of the    
,almighty are within me2   ,my spirit   
drinketh in the venom thereof4   ,the   
terrors of ,god move against me1   ,he  
useth me like to an enemy4  ,,xxxiv     
,doth the wild ass bray when he hath    
grass8   ,or loweth the ox over his     
fodder8   ,would one eat things insipid 
without salt8   ,is there taste in the  
white of raw eggs8  ,,xxxv    ,oh that  
,i might have my request1   ,and that   
,god would grant me the thing ,i long   
for6   ,even that it would please him to
 destroy me1   ,that he would let go his
 hand and cut me off6  ,,xxxvi    ,then 
should ,i yet have comfort1   ,yea1 ,i  
would exult in my relentless pain4      
,for that1 at least1 would be my due    
from ,god1   ,since ,i have never       
withstood the words of the ,holy ,one4  

,,xxxvii    ,what is my strength that ,i
 should hope8   ,and what mine end that 
,i should be patient8   ,is my strength 
the strength of stones8   ,or is my     
flesh of brass8  ,,xxxviii    ,am ,i not
 utterly bereft of help8   ,and is not  
rescue driven wholly away from me8   ,is
 not pity the duty of the friend1       
,who1 else1 turneth away from the fear  
of ,god8  ,,xxxix    ,my brethren have  
disappointed me as a torrent1   ,they   
pass away as a stream of brooks1        
,which were blackish by reason of the   
ice1   ,wherein the snow hideth itself4 
,,xl    ,the caravans of ,tema sought   
for them1   ,the companies of ,sheba    
hoped for them4   ,but when the sun     
warmed them they vanished2   ,when it   
waxed hot they were consumed from their 
place4  ,,xli    ,did ,i say3 ,bestow   
aught upon me8   ,or give a bribe for me
 of your substance8   ,or deliver me    
from the enemy's hand8   ,or redeem me  
from the hand of the mighty8  ,,xlii    
,teach me and ,i will hold my tongue2   

,and cause me to discern wherein ,i have
 erred4   ,how cutting are your         
righteous words6   ,but what doth your  
arguing reprove8  ,,xliii    ,do ye     
imagine to rebuke words8   ,but the     
words of the desperate are spoken to the
 wind4   ,will ye even assail me1 the   
blameless one8   ,and harrow up your    
friend8  ,,xliv    ,but now vouchsafe to
 turn unto me1   ,for surely ,i will not
 lie to your face4   ,i pray you1       
return2 let no wrong be done4   ,return1
 for justice abideth still within me4   
,,xlv    ,is there iniquity in my       
tongue8   ,cannot my palate discern     
misfortunes8   ,hath not man warfare    
upon earth8   ,and are not his days like
 to those of an hireling8  ,,xlvi    ,as
 a slave panting for the shade1 and     
finding it not1   ,as an hireling       
awaiting the wage for his work1   ,so to
 me months of sorrow are allotted1      
,and wearisome nights are appointed to  
me4  ,,xlvii    ,lying down ,i exclaim3 
,when shall ,i arise8   ,and ,i toss    

from side to side till the dawning of   
the day2#bjc   ,my flesh is clothed with
 worms and clods of dust1   ,my skin    
grows rigid and breaks up again4        
,,xlviii    ,my days are swifter than a 
weaver's shuttle1   ,and have come to an
 end without hope2#bjd   ,remember1 ,i  
pray1 that my life is wind1   ,that mine
 eye shall see good no more4  ,,xlix    
,as the cloud is dispelled and vanisheth
 away1   ,so he that goes down to the   
grave shall not come up again2   ,he    
shall never return to his house1        
,neither shall his place know him any   
more4  ,l    ,i too will not restrain my
 mouth1   ,i will speak out in the      
bitterness of my soul4   ,am ,i a sea or
 a sea-monster1#bje   ,that thou settest
 a watch over me8  ,,li    ,when ,i say3
 ,my bed shall comfort me1   ,my couch  
shall ease my complaint2   ,then thou   
scarest me with dreams1   ,and          
terrifiest me with visions4  ,,lii      
,then my soul would have chosen         
strangling1   ,and death by my own      

resolve3   ,but ,i spurned it1 for ,i   
shall not live for ever2   ,let me be1  
for my days are a breath4  ,,liii       
,what is man that thou shouldst magnify 
him8   ,and that thou shouldst set thine
 heart upon him8   ,that thou shouldst  
visit him every morning1   ,and try him 
every moment8#bjf  ,,liv    ,why wilt   
thou not look away from me8   ,nor leave
 me in peace while there is breath in my
 throat8   ,why hast thou set me up as a
 butt1   ,so that ,i am become a target 
for thee8  ,,lv    ,why dost thou not   
rather pardon my misdeed1   ,and take   
away mine iniquity8   ,for now ,i must  
lay myself down in the dust1   ,and thou
 shalt seek me1 but ,i shall not be4    
,,lvi  ,,bildad3    ,how long wilt thou 
utter these things1   ,and shall the    
words of thy mouth be like a storm wind8
   ,doth ,god pervert judgment8   ,or   
doth the ,almighty corrupt justice8     
,,lvii    ,if thou wouldst seek unto    
,god1   ,and make thy supplication to   
the ,almighty1   ,he would hear thy     

prayer1   ,and restore the house of thy 
blamelessness4  ,,lviii    ,for inquire1
 ,i pray thee1 of the bygone age1   ,and
 give heed to the search of the         
forefathers2   ,shall they not teach    
thee1   ,and utter words out of their   
heart8  ,,lix    ,can the papyrus grow  
without marsh8   ,can the ,nile-reed    
shoot up without water8   ,whilst still 
in its greenness uncut1   ,it withereth 
before any herb4  ,,lx    ,such is the  
end of all that forget ,god1   ,and even
 thus shall the hope of the impious     
perish1   ,whose hope is as gossamer    
threads1   ,and whose trust is as a     
spider's web4  ,,lxi    ,for he leans   
upon his house1   ,and has a firm       
footing to which he cleaves2   ,he is   
green in the glow of the sun1   ,and his
 branch shooteth forth in his garden4   
,,lxii    ,but his roots are entangled  
in a heap of stones1   ,and rocky soil  
keeps hold upon him2   ,it destroyeth   
him from his place1   ,then that denying
 him saith3 ,i have not seen thee4      

,,lxiii    ,behold1 this is the joy of  
his lot1   ,and out of the dust shall   
others grow4   ,lo6 ,god will not cast  
out a perfect man1   ,neither will he   
take evil-doers by the hand4  ,,lxiv    
,he will yet fill thy mouth with        
laughing   ,and thy lips with rejoicing4
   ,they that hate thee shall be clothed
 with shame1   ,and the tent of the     
wicked shall disappear4  ,,lxv  ,,job3  
,i know it is so of a truth2   ,for how 
should man be in the right against ,god8
   ,if he long to contend with him1     
,he cannot answer him one of a thousand4
  ,,lxvi    ,wise is he in heart and    
mighty in strength3   ,who could venture
 against him and remain safe8--         
,against him who moveth mountains and   
knoweth not   ,that he hath overturned  
them in his anger4  ,,lxvii    ,he      
shaketh the earth out of her place1     
,and the inhabitants thereof quake with 
fear2   ,he commandeth the sun and it   
riseth not1   ,and he sealeth up the    
stars4#bjg  ,,lxviii    ,he alone       

spreadeth out the heavens1   ,and       
treadeth upon the heights of the sea2   
,he doth great things past finding out1 
,yea1 and wonders without number4#bjh   
,,lxix    ,lo1 he glideth by me and ,i  
see him not2   ,and he passeth on1 but  
,i perceive him not4   ,behold1 he      
taketh away1 and who can hinder him8    
,who will say unto him3 ,what dost thou8
  ,,lxx    ,god will not withdraw his   
anger2   ,the very helpers of the       
sea-dragon#bji crouch under him4   ,how 
much less shall ,i answer him1   ,and   
choose out my words to argue with him8  
,,lxxi    ,i must make supplication unto
 his judgment1   ,who doth not answer   
me1 though ,i am righteous1   ,who would
 sweep me away with a tempest1   ,and   
multiply my wounds without cause6       
,,lxxii    ,he will not suffer me to    
take my breath1   ,but filleth me with  
bitterness4   ,if strength be aught1 lo1
 he is strong1   ,and if judgment1 who  
shall arraign him8  ,,lxxiii    ,though 
,i were just1 my own mouth would condemn

 me3   ,though ,i were faultless1 he    
would make me crooked4   ,faultless ,i  
am1 ,i set life at naught2   ,i spurn my
 being1 therefore ,i speak out4  ,,lxxiv
    ,he destroyeth the upright and the  
wicked1   ,when his scourge slayeth at  
unawares4   ,he scoffeth at the trial of
 the innocent3   ,the earth is given    
into the hand of the wicked4  ,,lxxv    
,my days are swifter than a runner3     
,they flee away1 they have seen no good2
   ,they glide along like papyrus-boats1
   ,like the eagle swooping upon its    
prey4  ,,lxxvi    ,if ,i say3 ,i will   
forget my complaint1   ,i will gladden  
my face and be cheerful2   ,then ,i     
shudder at all my sorrows3   ,i know    
thou wilt not hold me guiltless4        
,,lxxvii    ,if ,i washed myself with   
snow1   ,and cleansed my hands with lye1
   ,thou wouldst plunge me in the ditch1
   ,so that mine own garments would     
loathe me4  ,,lxxviii    ,would he were 
like unto myself1 that ,i might answer  
him1   ,that we might come together in  

judgment6   ,would there were an umpire 
between us1   ,who might lay his hand   
upon us both6  ,,lxxix    ,let him but  
withdraw from me his rod1   ,and let not
 dread of him terrify me2   ,then would 
,i speak and not fear him1   ,for before
 myself ,i am not so4#baj  ,,lxxx    ,my
 soul is aweary of life1   ,i will let  
loose my complaint against ,god2   ,i   
will say unto ,god3 ,hold me not guilty2
   ,show me wherefore thou contendest   
with me4  ,,lxxxi    ,is it meet that   
thou shouldst oppress1   ,shouldst      
thrust aside the work of thine hands8   
,seest thou as man seeth8   ,are thy    
days as the days of mortals8  ,,lxxxii  
,for thou inquirest after mine iniquity1
   ,and searchest after my sin1         
,though thou knowest that ,i am not     
wicked1   ,and that there is none who   
can deliver out of thine hand4          
,,lxxxiii    ,thine hand hath made and  
fashioned me1   ,and now hast thou      
turned to destroy me2   ,remember1 ,i   
pray thee1 that thou hast formed me as  

clay2   ,and now wilt thou grind me to  
dust again8  ,,lxxxiv    ,didst thou not
 pour me out as milk1   ,and curdle me  
like cheese8   ,hast thou not clothed me
 with skin and flesh8   ,and knitted me 
with bones and sinews8  ,,lxxxv    ,thou
 enduedst me with life and grace2   ,and
 thy care hath cherished my spirit4     
,and yet these things hadst thou hid in 
thy heart6   ,i know that this was in   
thee6  ,,lxxxvi    ,had ,i sinned1 thou 
wouldst have watched me1   ,nor wouldst 
have acquitted me of my wrongdoing4     
,had ,i been wicked1 woe unto me6   ,and
 though righteous1 ,i dare not to lift  
up my head4  ,,lxxxvii    ,as a lion    
thou huntest me1 who am soaked in       
misery1   ,and ever showest thyself     
marvellous#baa against me6   ,while ,i  
live1 thou smitest me ever anew1   ,and 
lettest thy wrath wax great against me4 
,,lxxxviii    ,wherefore1 then1 didst   
thou bring me out of the womb8   ,would 
,i had then given up the ghost1 and no  
eye had seen me6   ,i should now be as  

though ,i had never been2   ,i had been 
borne from the womb to the grave4       
,,lxxxix    ,are not the days of my life
 but few1   ,so that he might let me be1
 while ,i take heart a little   ,before 
,i depart whence ,i shall not return1   
,to the land of darkness and of gloom8  
,,xc  ,,zophar3    ,shall the multitude 
of words be left unanswered8   ,and     
shall the prattler#bab be deemed in the 
right8   ,should men hold their peace at
 thy babbling8   ,and when thou jeerest1
 shall none make thee ashamed8  ,,xci   
,but oh that ,god would speak1   ,and   
open his lips against thee1   ,and that 
he would show thee the secrets of wisdom
   ,that they are as marvels to the     
understanding6  ,,xcii    ,it#bac is    
high as heaven2 what canst thou do8     
,deeper than hell2 what canst thou know8
   ,the measure thereof is longer than  
the earth1   ,and broader than the      
ocean4  ,,xciii    ,for he knoweth men  
of deceit2   ,he seeth wickedness and   
needeth not to gauge it4   ,thus#bad the

 empty man gets understanding1   ,and   
the wild-ass' colt is born anew as man4 
,,xciv    ,if thou make ready thine     
heart1   ,and stretch out thine hands   
towards him1   ,then shalt thou lift up 
thy face1   ,and in time of affliction  
be fearless4  ,,xcv    ,for then shalt  
thou forget thy misery1   ,and remember 
it as waters that have passed away2     
,the darkness shall be as morning1      
,and thine age shall be brighter than   
the noonday4  ,,xcvi    ,thou shalt be  
secure because there is hope1   ,thou   
shalt look around and take thy rest in  
safety2   ,thou shalt lie down and none 
shall startle thee1   ,yea1 many shall  
make suit unto thee4  ,,xcvii    ,but   
the eyes of the wicked shall fail1      
,and refuge shall vanish from before    
them2   ,their hope shall be the giving 
up of the ghost2   ,for with him is     
wisdom and might4  ,,xcviii  ,,job3     
,no doubt but ye are clever people1     
,and wisdom shall die with you2   ,i too
 have understanding as well as ye2      

,just1 upright is my way4  ,,xcix    ,he
 that is at ease1 scorneth the judgments
 of ,shaddai4#bae   ,his foot stands    
firm in the time of trial4   ,the tents 
of robbers prosper1   ,and they that    
provoke ,god are secure4  ,c    ,but    
ask1 ,i beseech you1 the beasts1   ,and 
the fowls of the air1 and they shall    
tell thee2   ,or speak to the earth and 
it shall teach thee1   ,and the fishes  
of the sea shall declare unto thee4     
,,ci    ,is not the soul of every living
 thing in his hand1   ,and the breath of
 all mankind8   ,doth not the ear try   
words   ,as the mouth tasteth its meat8 
,,cii    ,for there is no wisdom with   
the aged1#baf   ,nor understanding in   
length of days2   ,with him is wisdom   
and strength2   ,he hath counsel and    
understanding4  ,,ciii    ,behold he    
breaketh down and it cannot be builded  
anew3   ,he shutteth up a man1 and who  
can open to him8   ,lo1 he withholdeth  
the waters and they dry up1   ,he       
letteth them loose and they overwhelm   

the earth4  ,,civ    ,with him is       
strength and wisdom1   ,the erring one  
and his error are his1   ,who leadeth   
away counsellors barefoot1   ,and       
rendereth the judges fools4  ,,cv    ,he
 bringeth back kings into their         
mausoleums1   ,and overthroweth the     
nobles2   ,he withdraweth the speech of 
the trusty1   ,and taketh away the      
understanding of the aged4  ,,cvi    ,he
 poureth scorn upon princes1   ,and     
looseth the girdle of the strong2   ,he 
discovereth deep things out of darkness1
   ,and bringeth gloom unto light4      
,,cvii    ,he stealeth the heart of the 
chiefs of the earth1   ,and maketh them 
wander in a pathless wilderness   ,so   
that they grope in the dark without     
light1   ,and stagger to and fro like a 
drunken man4  ,,cviii    ,lo1 mine eye  
hath seen all this1   ,mine ear hath    
heard and understood it4   ,what ye     
know1 the same do ,i know also2   ,i am 
nowise inferior to you4  ,,cix    ,but  
now ,i would speak to the ,almighty1    

,and ,i long to argue with ,god2   ,for 
ye are weavers of lies1   ,ye all are   
patchers of inanities4  ,,cx    ,oh that
 ye would all of you hold your peace1   
,and that should stand you in wisdom's  
stead6   ,hear1 ,i beseech you1 the     
reasoning of my mouth1   ,and hearken to
 the pleadings of my lips6  ,,cxi       
,will ye discourse wickedly for ,god8   
,and utter lies on his behalf8#bag      
,will ye accept his person by dint of   
trickery8   ,will ye contend for ,god   
with deception8  ,,cxii    ,were it well
 for you should he search you out8      
,can ye dupe him as ye dupe men8   ,will
 he not surely rebuke you1   ,if ye     
secretly#bah accept his person8  ,,cxiii
    ,shall not his majesty1 then1 make  
you afraid8   ,and his dread seize hold 
of you8   ,will not your adages become  
as ashes1   ,your arguments even as     
bulwarks of clay8  ,,cxiv    ,hold your 
peace that ,i may speak1   ,and let come
 upon me what will6   ,i shall take my  
life in my teeth1   ,and put my soul in 

mine hand4  ,,cxv    ,lo1 let him kill  
me1 ,i cherish hope no more1   ,only ,i 
will justify my way before his face4    
,this too will aid my triumph1   ,that  
no wicked one dares appear in his sight4
  ,,cxvi    ,behold now1 ,i have ordered
 my cause2   ,i know that ,i shall be   
justified4   ,who is he that will plead 
with me8   ,only do not two things unto 
me6  ,,cxvii    ,withdraw thine hand    
from me1   ,and let not dread of thee   
make me afraid4   ,then call thou and ,i
 will answer1   ,or let me speak and    
answer thou unto me4  ,,cxviii    ,how  
many are mine iniquities8   ,make me to 
know my misdeeds4   ,wherefore hidest   
thou thy face1   ,and holdest me for    
thine enemy8  ,,cxix    ,wilt thou scare
 a leaf driven to and fro8   ,and wilt  
thou pursue the dry stubble8   ,that    
thou writest down bitter things against 
me1   ,and imputest to me the errors of 
my youth4  ,,cxx    ,thou observest all 
my paths1   ,and puttest my feet into   
the stocks1   ,thy chain weigheth heavy 

upon me1   ,and cutteth into my         
feet4#bai  ,,cxxi    ,man that is born  
of a woman1   ,poor in days and rich in 
trouble2   ,he cometh forth like a      
flower and fadeth1   ,he fleeth as a    
shadow and abideth not4  ,,cxxii    ,and
 upon such an one dost thou open thine  
eyes6   ,and him thou bringest into     
judgment with thee6   ,though he is     
gnawed as a rotten thing1   ,as a       
garment that is moth-eaten4  ,,cxxiii   
,if his days are determined upon earth1 
,if the number of his months are with   
thee2   ,look then away from him that he
 may rest1   ,till he shall accomplish  
his day1 as an hireling4  ,,cxxiv       
,for there is a future for the tree1    
,and hope remaineth to the palm3   ,cut 
down1 it will sprout again1   ,and its  
tender branch will not cease4  ,,cxxv   
,though its roots wax old in the earth  
,and its stock lie buried in mould1     
,yet through vapour of water will it    
bud1   ,and bring forth boughs like a   
plant4  ,,cxxvi    ,but man dieth1 and  

lieth outstretched2   ,he giveth up the 
ghost1 where is he then8   ,he lieth    
down and riseth not up2   ,till heaven  
be no more he shall not awake4  ,,cxxvii
    ,oh that thou wouldst hide me in the
 grave6   ,that thou wouldst secrete me 
till thy wrath be passed6   ,that thou  
wouldst appoint me a set time and       
remember me6   ,if so be man could die  
and yet live on6  ,,cxxviii    ,all the 
days of my warfare ,i then would wait1  
,till my relief should come2   ,thou    
wouldst call and ,i would answer thee1  
,thou wouldst yearn after the work of   
thine hands4  ,,cxxix    ,but now thou  
renumberest my steps1   ,thou dost not  
forgive my failing2   ,thou sealest my  
transgressions in a bag1   ,and thou    
still keepest adding to my guilt4       
,,cxxx  ,,eliphaz3    ,should a wise man
 utter empty knowledge1   ,and fill his 
belly with the east wind8   ,should he  
reason with bootless prattle8   ,or with
 speeches that profit him nothing8      
,,cxxxi    ,yea1 thou makest void the   

fear of ,god1   ,and weakenest respect  
before him2   ,for thine own iniquity   
instructeth thy mouth1   ,and thou      
choosest the tongue of the crafty4      
,,cxxxii    ,art thou the first man     
born8   ,or wast thou made before the   
hills8   ,wast thou heard in the council
 of ,god8   ,and hast thou drawn wisdom 
unto thyself8  ,,cxxxiii    ,what       
knowest thou that we know not8   ,what  
understandest thou which is not in us8  
,doth the solace of ,god not suffice    
unto thee1   ,and a word to thee        
whispered softly8  ,,cxxxiv    ,why doth
 thine heart carry thee away1   ,and    
what do thine eyes wink at1   ,that thou
 turnest thy spirit against ,god1   ,and
 lettest go such words from thy mouth8  
,,cxxxv    ,behold he putteth no trust  
in his saints2   ,yea1 the heavens are  
not clean in his sight2   ,how much less
 the foul and corrupt one1--   ,man1 who
 lappeth up wickedness like water4      
,,cxxxvi    ,what the wise announce unto
 us1   ,their fathers did not withhold  

it from them2   ,unto them alone the    
land was given1   ,and no stranger      
passed among them4#bbj  ,,cxxxvii       
,the wicked man travaileth all his days 
with pain1   ,and few are the years     
appointed to the oppressor3   ,a sound  
of dread is in his ears3   ,in          
prosperity the destroyer shall overtake 
him4  ,,cxxxviii    ,he has no hope of  
return out of darkness1   ,and he is    
waited for by the sword4   ,the day of  
gloom shall terrify him1   ,distress and
 anguish shall fasten upon him4         
,,cxxxix    ,for he stretched out his   
arm against ,god1   ,and girded himself 
against the ,almighty3   ,rushing upon  
him with a stiff neck1   ,guarded by the
 thick bosses of his buckler4  ,,cxl    
,the glow shall dry up his branches1    
,and his blossom shall be snapped by the
 storm-wind4   ,let him not trust in    
vanity--he is deluded1   ,for his       
barter#bba shall prove worthless4       
,,cxli    ,his offshoot shall wither    
before his time1   ,and his branch shall

 not be green2   ,he shall shake off his
 unripe grape1 like the vine1   ,and    
shall shed his flower like the olive4   
,,cxlii    ,for the tribe of the wicked 
shall be barren1   ,and fire shall      
consume the tents of bribery3   ,they   
conceive mischief1 and bring forth      
disaster1   ,and their belly breeds     
abortion4  ,,cxliii  ,,job3    ,many    
such things have ,i heard before4       
,stinging comforters are ye all6        
,shall idle words have an end8   ,what  
pricks thee that thou answerest8        
,,cxliv    ,i1 too1 could discourse as  
ye do1   ,if your souls were in my      
soul's stead4   ,i would inspirit you   
with my mouth1   ,nor would ,i grudge   
the moving of my lips4  ,,cxlv    ,but  
he hath so jaded me that ,i am benumbed2
   ,his whole host#bbb hath seized me4  
,his wrath hackles me and pursues me1   
,he gnashes upon me with his teeth4     
,,cxlvi    ,the arrows of his myriads   
have stricken me1   ,he whets his sword1
 fixing his eyes upon me4   ,they smite 

me on the cheek outrageously1   ,they   
mass themselves together against me4    
,,cxlvii    ,god hath turned me over to 
the ungodly1   ,and delivered me into   
the hands of the wicked4   ,i was at    
ease1 but he clove me asunder1   ,he    
throttled me and shook me to pieces4    
,,cxlviii    ,he sets me up for his     
target2   ,his archers compass me round 
about2   ,he rives my reins asunder1 and
 spareth not1   ,he poureth out my gall 
upon the ground4  ,,cxlix    ,with      
breach upon breach he breaketh me1   ,he
 rusheth upon me like a warrior2        
,sackcloth and ashes cover me1   ,and my
 horn has been laid in the dust4  ,,cl  
,my face is aglow with weeping   ,and   
darkness abides on my eyelids2   ,though
 on my hands there is no evil1   ,and my
 prayer is pure6  ,,cli    ,oh earth6   
cover not thou my blood6   ,and let my  
cry find no resting-place6   ,even now  
behold my witness is in heaven1   ,and  
my voucher is on high4  ,,clii    ,my   
friends laugh me wantonly to scorn2     

,mine eye poureth tears unto ,god4      
,let him adjudge between man and ,god1  
,and between man and his fellow4        
,,cliii    ,soon will the wailing-women 
come1   ,and ,i go the way ,i shall not 
return4   ,my spirit is spent1 the grave
 is ready for me   ,truly ,i am scoffed 
at4  ,,cliv    ,hold still my pledge in 
thy keeping1   ,who then will be my     
voucher8#bbc   ,he yielded his friends  
as a prey1   ,and the eyes of his       
children must shrivel up4  ,,clv    ,he 
hath made me a by-word of the peoples1  
,and they spit into my face4   ,my eye  
is dim by dint of sorrow1   ,and all my 
members are as a shadow4  ,,clvi    ,at 
this the upright are appalled1   ,and   
the just bridles up against the impious4
   ,but the righteous holds on his way1 
,and the clean-handed waxeth ever       
stronger4  ,,clvii    ,but as for you   
all--do ye return1   ,for ,i discern not
 one wise man among you4   ,my days1 my 
thoughts have passed away2   ,my heart's
 desires are cut asunder4  ,,clviii     

,if ,i still hope1 it is for my         
house--the tomb4   ,i have made my bed  
in the darkness4   ,i have said unto the
 grave1 ,my ,mother1   ,and to the      
maggot1 ,sister mine4  ,,clix    ,and my
 hope--where is it now8   ,my bliss--who
 shall behold it8#bbd   ,they go down to
 the bars of the pit1   ,when our rest  
together is in the dust4  ,,clx         
,,bildad3    ,when wilt thou make an end
 of words8   ,reflect1 and then let us  
speak6   ,wherefore are we counted as   
beasts8   ,deemed silenced in thy sight8
  ,,clxi    ,shall the earth be deserted
 for thy sake8   ,and shall the rock be 
removed from its place8   ,still the    
light of the wicked shall be douted1    
,and the spark of his fire shall not    
twinkle4  ,,clxii    ,the light in his  
tent shall be dark2   ,and his taper    
above him shall be put out4   ,the steps
 of his strength shall be straitened1   
,and his own design shall ruin him4     
,,clxiii    ,for he is tangled in the   
net by his own feet1   ,and he walketh  

upon a snare4   ,the slings shall catch 
him2   ,many terrors rage menacingly    
round him4  ,,clxiv    ,hunger shall dog
 his footsteps2   ,misery and ruin stand
 ready by his side3   ,the limbs of his 
body#bbe shall be gnawed1   ,devoured by
 the firstborn of death4#bbf  ,,clxv    
,he shall be dragged out from his       
stronghold1   ,and he shall be brought  
to the king of terrors2#bbg   ,the      
memory of him shall vanish from the     
earth1   ,he shall be driven from light 
into darkness4  ,,clxvi    ,he shall    
have nor son nor offspring among his    
people1   ,and he shall have no name    
above the ground2   ,none shall survive 
in his dwellings2   ,strangers shall    
dwell in his tent4  ,,clxvii    ,they of
 the west are astonied at him1   ,and   
those of the east stand aghast3   ,such 
are the dwellings of the wicked1   ,and 
this his place who knoweth not ,god4    
,,clxviii  ,,job3    ,how long will ye  
harrow my soul1   ,and crush me with    
words8   ,already ten times have ye     

insulted me1   ,ever incensing me anew4 
,,clxix    ,if indeed ye will glorify   
yourselves above me1   ,and prove me    
guilty of blasphemy2   ,know1 then1 that
 ,god hath wronged me1   ,and hath      
compassed me round with his net6  ,,clxx
    ,lo1 ,i cry out against violence1   
but ,i am not heard2   ,i cry aloud1 but
 there is no judgment4   ,he hath fenced
 up my way that ,i cannot pass2   ,and  
he hath set darkness in my paths4       
,,clxxi    ,he hath stripped me of my   
glory1   ,and taken the crown from my   
head4   ,on all sides hath he ruined me1
 and ,i am undone2   ,and mine hope hath
 he felled like a tree4  ,,clxxii    ,he
 hath kindled against me his wrath1     
,and looketh on me as one of his foes4  
,his troops throng together on my way1  
,and encamp round about my tent4        
,,clxxiii    ,he hath put my brethren   
far from me1   ,and mine acquaintance   
are estranged from me2   ,my kinsfolk   
stay away from me1   ,and my bosom      
friends have forgotten me4  ,,clxxiv    

,they that dwell in my house1 and my    
maids1   ,as an alien am ,i in their    
eyes4   ,i call my servant1 and he      
giveth me no answer1   ,i must          
supplicate unto him with my mouth4      
,,clxxv    ,my breath is irksome to my  
wife1   ,and my entreaty to the children
 of my body4#bbh   ,yea1 mere lads      
despise me3   ,when ,i arise1 they talk 
about me4  ,,clxxvi    ,all my cherished
 friends abhor me1   ,and they whom ,i  
loved are turned against me2   ,my skin 
cleaveth to my bones1   ,and my teeth   
are falling out4  ,,clxxvii    ,have    
pity1 have pity on me1 ,o my friends6   
,for the hand of ,god hath smitten me4  
,why do ye persecute me like ,god1      
,and are not satiated with my flesh8    
,,clxxviii    ,oh would but that my     
words1   ,oh would that they were       
written down6   ,consigned to writing   
for ever1   ,or engraven upon a rock6   
,,clxxix    ,but ,i know that my avenger
 liveth1   ,though it be at the#bbi end 
upon my dust2   ,my witness will avenge 

these things1   ,and a curse alight upon
 mine enemies4  ,,clxxx    ,my reins    
within me are consumed1   ,because you  
say3 ,how we shall persecute him6       
,fear1 for yourselves1 the sword1   ,for
 wrath overtaketh iniquities4  ,,clxxxi 
,,zophar3    ,it is not thus that my    
thoughts inspire me1   ,nor is this the 
eternal law that ,i have known4#bcj     
,no2 the triumph of the wicked is       
shortlived1   ,and the joy of the       
ungodly is but for a twinkling4         
,,clxxxii    ,though his height tower   
aloft to the heavens1   ,and his head   
reach up to the clouds1   ,yet shall he 
perish for ever like dung1   ,they who  
have seen him shall ask3 ,where is he8  
,,clxxxiii    ,he flitteth like a dream 
and shall not be found1   ,yea1 he shall
 be chased away as a vision of the      
night2   ,his hands having crushed the  
needy1   ,must restore the substance1   
and he cannot help it4  ,,clxxxiv    ,he
 hath swallowed down riches and shall   
disgorge them anew2   ,they shall be    

driven out of his belly4   ,he hath     
sucked in the poison of asps1   ,the    
viper's tongue shall slay him4  ,,clxxxv
    ,he shall not gaze upon the rivers1 
,the brooks of honey and milk2   ,he    
must restore the gain and shall not     
swallow it1   ,his lucre shall be as    
sand which he cannot chew4  ,,clxxxvi   
,for the poor he had crushed and        
forsaken2   ,had robbed an house but    
shall not build it up4   ,nought had    
escaped from his greed1   ,therefore    
shall his wealth not endure4  ,,clxxxvii
    ,in the fulness of his abundance he 
shall be in straits1   ,every hand of   
the wretched shall come upon him3       
,he#bca shall cast the fury of his wrath
 upon him1   ,and shall rain down upon  
him terrors4  ,,clxxxviii    ,when he   
fleeth from the iron weapon1   ,then the
 arrow of steel shall transfix him2     
,he draweth1 and it cometh out of his   
back1   ,and the glittering steel out of
 his gall4  ,,clxxxix    ,terrors will  
trample upon him1   ,all darkness is hid

 in store for him2   ,a fire not        
kindled#bcb shall consume him1   ,what  
remaineth in his tent shall be devoured 
thereby4  ,,cxc    ,the heavens reveal  
his iniquity1   ,and the earth riseth up
 against him3   ,this is the wicked     
man's portion from ,god1   ,and the     
heritage appointed him by ,elohim4      
,,cxci  ,,job3    ,hearken diligently to
 my speech1   ,and let that stand me in 
your comfort's stead6   ,suffer me that 
,i may speak2   ,and after that ,i have 
spoken1 mock on6  ,,cxcii    ,as for me1
 is my complaint to men8   ,and how     
should not my spirit be impatient8      
,look upon me1 and tremble1   ,and lay  
your hand upon your mouth6#bcc  ,,cxciii
    ,even when ,i remember1 ,i am       
dismayed1   ,and trembling taketh hold  
on my flesh4   ,wherefore do the wicked 
live8   ,become old1 yea1 wax mighty in 
strength8  ,,cxciv    ,their houses are 
safe from fear1   ,neither is the rod of
 ,god upon them2   ,their bull genders  
and faileth not1   ,their cow casteth   

not her calf4  ,,cxcv    ,their seed is 
established in their sight1   ,and their
 offspring before their eyes2   ,they   
send forth their little ones like a     
flock1   ,and their children skip about4
  ,,cxcvi    ,they take down the timbrel
 and the harp1   ,and delight in the    
sound of the bagpipe2   ,they while away
 their days in bliss1   ,and in a       
twinkling go down to the grave4#bcd     
,,cxcvii    ,and yet they say unto ,god3
 ,depart from us1   ,we desire not the  
knowledge of thy ways4   ,yet hold they 
not happiness in their own hands8   ,is 
he not heedless of the counsel of the   
wicked8  ,,cxcviii    ,how oft is the   
lamp of evil-doers put out8   ,and how  
often doth ruin overwhelm them8   ,how  
oft are they as stubble before the wind1
   ,and as chaff that the storm carries 
away8  ,,cxcix    ,ye say1 ,god hoards  
punishment for the#bce children4   ,let 
him rather requite the wicked himself   
that he may feel it6   ,his own eyes    
should behold his downfall   ,and he    

himself should drain the ,almighty's    
wrath6  ,,cc    ,if his sons are        
honoured1#bcf he will not know it1      
,and if dishonoured1 he will not        
perceive it4   ,only in his own flesh   
doth he feel pain1   ,and for his own   
soul will he lament4  ,,cci    ,is the  
wicked taught understanding by ,god8    
,and does he judge the man of blood8    
,nay1 he#bcg filleth his milk vessels   
with milk1   ,and supplieth his bones   
with marrow4  ,,ccii    ,but the        
guiltless dies with embittered soul1    
,and hath never enjoyed a pleasure2     
,then they alike lie down in the dust1  
,and the worms shall cover them both4   
,,cciii    ,behold ,i know your         
thoughts1   ,and the plots which ye     
wrongfully weave against me4   ,and how 
will ye comfort me in vain1   ,since of 
your answers nought but falsehood       
remains8  ,,cciv  ,,eliphaz3    ,can a  
man be profitable unto ,god8   ,only    
unto himself is the wise man            
serviceable4   ,is it a boon to the     

,almighty that thou art righteous8   ,or
 is it gain to him that thou makest thy 
way perfect8  ,,ccv    ,will he reprove 
thee for thy fear of him8   ,will he    
enter with thee into judgment for that8 
,is not rather thy wickedness great8    
,are not thine iniquities numberless8   
,,ccvi    ,for thou hast taken a pledge 
from thy brother for nought1   ,and     
stripped the naked of their clothing2   
,thou hast not given water to the weary 
to drink1   ,and hast withholden bread  
from the hungry4  ,,ccvii    ,but as for
 the mighty man1 he held the land1      
,and the honoured man dwelt in it4      
,thou hast sent widows away empty1      
,and the arms of the fatherless have    
been broken4  ,,ccviii    ,therefore    
snares are round about thee1   ,and     
sudden fear troubleth thee2   ,thy light
 hath become darkness1 thou canst not   
see1   ,and a flood of waters covereth  
thee4  ,,ccix    ,doth not ,god look    
down from the height of heaven1   ,and  
crush the mighty for that they are grown

 haughty1   ,which say unto ,god3       
,depart from us1   ,and ,what can the   
,almighty do against us8  ,,ccx    ,and 
he forsooth shall fill their houses with
 goods1   ,and be heedless of the       
counsel of the wicked3   ,no2 the       
righteous shall look on and be glad1    
,and the innocent shall laugh them to   
scorn4  ,,ccxi    ,befriend now thyself 
with him1 and thou shalt be safe1       
,thereby shall good come unto thee4     
,receive1 ,i pray thee1 instruction from
 his mouth1   ,and treasure up his words
 in thine heart4  ,,ccxii    ,if thou   
turnest to ,god and humblest thyself1   
,if thou remove iniquity from thy tent1 
,then shalt thou have delight in the    
,almighty1   ,and shalt lift up thy face
 unto ,god4  ,,ccxiii    ,thou shalt    
pray unto him and he shall hear thee1   
,and thou shalt pay thy vows2   ,if thou
 purpose a thing1 it shall prosper unto 
thee1   ,and a light shall shine upon   
thy ways4  ,,ccxiv  ,,job3    ,oh1 ,i   
know it already3 ,i myself am to blame  

for my misery1#bch   ,and his hand is   
heavy upon me by reason of my groaning6 
,oh that ,i knew where ,i might find    
him1   ,that ,i might come even unto his
 seat6  ,,ccxv    ,i would plead my     
cause before him1   ,and fill my mouth  
with arguments2   ,i would fain know the
 words which he could answer me1   ,and 
learn what he would say unto me4        
,,ccxvi    ,will he plead against me    
with his almighty power8   ,if not1 then
 not even he would prevail against me4  
,for a righteous one would dispute with 
him2   ,so should ,i be delivered for   
ever from my judge4  ,,ccxvii    ,behold
 ,i go forward1 but he is not there1    
,and backward1 but ,i cannot perceive   
him4   ,for he knoweth the way that ,i  
have chosen3   ,if he would try me1 ,i  
should come forth as gold4  ,,ccxviii   
,my foot has held his steps1   ,his way 
have ,i kept and swerved not2   ,i have 
not gone back from the precept of his   
lips1   ,i have hid the words of his    
mouth in my bosom4  ,,ccxix    ,but he  

is bent upon one thing and who can turn 
him away8   ,and what his soul desireth 
even that he doeth4   ,therefore am ,i  
troubled before his face2   ,when ,i    
consider1 ,i am afraid of him4  ,,ccxx  
,god hath crushed my heart1   ,and the  
,almighty hath terrified me4   ,for ,i  
am annihilated because of the darkness1 
,and gloom enwrappeth my face4  ,,ccxxi 
,why do the times of judgment depend    
upon the ,almighty1   ,and yet they who 
know him do not see his days8#bci   ,the
 wicked remove the landmarks2   ,they   
rob flocks and lead them to pasture4    
,,ccxxii    ,they drive away the ass of 
the fatherless1   ,the widow's ox they  
seize for a pledge2   ,they turn the    
needy out of the way1   ,all the poor of
 the earth have to hide themselves4#bdj 
,,ccxxiii    ,lo1 these things mine ear 
hath heard1   ,mine eye hath seen them1 
and so it is4#bda   ,and if it be not so
 now1 who will make me a liar1   ,and   
render my speech meaningless8  ,,ccxxiv 
,,bildad3    ,dominion and fear are with

 him1   ,who maketh peace in his high   
places4   ,is there any number to his   
armies8   ,and upon whom doth his light 
not arise8  ,,ccxxv    ,by his power the
 sea groweth calm1   ,and by his        
understanding he smiteth the sea-dragon4
   ,by his breath the heavens become    
splendour2   ,his hand hath pierced the 
bolt-serpent4  ,,ccxxvi    ,but the     
thunder of his power1   ,who understands
 its working8   ,and how can man be     
deemed just before ,god1   ,and how can 
he be clean who is born of a woman8     
,,ccxxvii    ,behold1 even the moon     
shineth not1   ,yea1 the stars are not  
pure in his sight2   ,how much less man1
 the worm2   ,and the son of man1 the   
maggot6  ,,ccxxviii  ,,job3    ,how hast
 thou helped him that is without power8 
,how upholdest thou the arm that hath no
 strength8   ,to whom hast thou uttered 
words8   ,and whose spirit went out from
 thee8  ,,ccxxix    ,as ,god liveth who 
hath taken away my right1   ,and the    
,almighty who hath made my soul bitter1 

,never shall my lips confess untruth1   
,nor my tongue give utterance to        
falsehood6  ,,ccxxx    ,far be it from  
me to agree with you6   ,till ,i die ,i 
will not yield up my integrity6   ,my   
righteousness ,i hold fast and will not 
let it go1   ,my heart doth not censure 
any one of my days4  ,,ccxxxi    ,i will
 teach you about the hand of ,god1      
,the counsel of the ,almighty will ,i   
not conceal4   ,behold1 all ye          
yourselves have seen it4#bdb   ,why then
 do ye utter such empty things8         
,,ccxxxii    ,for there is a mine for   
silver1   ,and a place for gold where   
they fine it2   ,iron is taken out of   
the dust1   ,and copper is smolten out  
of the stone4  ,,ccxxxiii    ,he that   
hovers far from man hath made an end to 
gloom1#bdc   ,he turneth the mountains  
upside down4   ,he cutteth out stulms   
among the rocks1   ,and the thing that  
is hid he bringeth forth to light4      
,,ccxxxiv    ,but wisdom--whence shall  
it come8   ,and where is the place of   

understanding8   ,it is hid from the    
eyes of all living1   ,our ears alone   
have heard thereof4#bdd  ,,ccxxxv       
,god understandeth its way1   ,and he   
knoweth its dwelling-place2   ,for he   
looketh to the ends of the earth1   ,and
 seeth under the entire heaven4         
,,ccxxxvi    ,when he made the weight   
for the winds1   ,and weighed the waters
 by measure1   ,then did he see and     
declare it1   ,he prepared it1 yea1 and 
searched it out4  ,,ccxxxvii    ,then he
 said unto man1 ,desist6   ,worry not   
about things too high for thee4         
,behold1 fear of me1 that is wisdom1    
,and to depart from evil1 that is       
understanding4  ,,ccxxxviii  ,,zophar3  
,may the lot of the wicked befall mine  
enemy1   ,and that of the ungodly him   
who riseth up against me6   ,for what   
can be the hope of the iniquitous1      
,when ,god cutteth his soul away8       
,,ccxxxix    ,will ,god hear his cry1   
,when trouble overtaketh him8   ,will he
 delight himself in the ,almighty8      

,will he always call upon ,god8  ,,ccxl 
,if his children be multiplied1 it is   
for the sword1   ,and his offspring     
shall not be sated with bread2   ,they  
that survive him shall be buried in     
death1   ,and their widows shall not    
weep4  ,,ccxli    ,though he heap up    
silver as the dust   ,and store up      
raiment as the clay1   ,he may indeed   
prepare it1 but the just shall put it   
on1   ,and the guiltless shall divide   
the silver4  ,,ccxlii    ,he buildeth   
his house as a spider2   ,rich shall he 
lie down1 but rich he shall not remain4 
,terrors take hold on him like waters2  
,a tempest sweepeth him away in the     
night4  ,,ccxliii  ,,job3    ,oh that ,i
 were as in months gone by1   ,as in the
 days when ,god preserved me2   ,when   
his lamp shined upon my head1   ,and    
when ,i walked by his light through     
darkness6  ,,ccxliv    ,for then ,i     
moved in sunshine1   ,while ,god was    
familiar with my tent2   ,while ,i      
washed my steps in cream1   ,and the    

rock poured me out rivers of oil4       
,,ccxlv    ,when ,i went to the gate at 
the city1#bde   ,when ,i prepared my    
seat on the public place1   ,then the   
young men1 seeing me1 hid themselves1   
,and the aged arose and remained        
standing4  ,,ccxlvi    ,princes desisted
 from talking1   ,and laid their hands  
upon their mouths2   ,for the ear heard 
me and blessed1   ,the eye saw me and   
bore me witness4  ,,ccxlvii    ,for ,i  
delivered the poor that cried aloud1    
,and the orphan and him that had none to
 help him2   ,the blessing of him that  
was perishing came upon me1   ,and ,i   
gladdened the heart of the widow4       
,,ccxlviii    ,i put on righteousness   
and it clothed me2   ,my judgment was as
 a robe and a diadem4   ,i became eyes  
to the blind1   ,and ,i was feet unto   
the lame4  ,,ccxlix    ,i was a father  
to the poor1   ,and the cause which ,i  
knew not ,i searched out2   ,and ,i     
brake the grinders of the wicked4   ,and
 plucked the spoil out of his teeth4    

,,ccl    ,unto me men gave ear and      
waited1   ,and kept silence at my       
counsel4   ,after my words they spake   
not again1   ,and my speech fell upon   
them as a shower4  ,,ccli    ,but now   
they laugh me to scorn1   ,shepherd boys
 approach me with insolence1   ,whose   
fathers ,i would not have deigned   ,to 
set with the dogs of my flock4  ,,cclii 
,yea1 what booted me the strength of    
their hands8   ,pity upon them was      
thrown away4   ,they were children of   
fools1 yea1 men of no name1   ,they were
 driven forth from the land4  ,,ccliii  
,and now ,i am become the song of these6
   ,yea1 ,i am become their byword6     
,they loathe me1 they flee far from me1 
,and withhold not spittle from my face4 
,,ccliv    ,for he hath dissolved my    
dignity and humbled me1   ,and he hath  
taken away my renown4   ,he hath opened 
a way to my miseries2   ,they enter and 
no one helpeth me4  ,,cclv    ,with     
rumbling and booming they bounded along2
   ,terrors are turned upon me2   ,thou 

scatterest my dignity1 as with a wind1  
,and my welfare passeth as a cloud4     
,,cclvi    ,the night gnaws away my     
bones1   ,and my devourers need no      
repose2   ,by swellings is my garment   
misshapen1   ,and ,i am grown like unto 
dust and ashes4  ,,cclvii    ,i cry and 
thou hearest me not1   ,thou art become 
ruthless towards me2   ,with the        
strength of thy hand thou assailest me1 
,and thou meltest my salvation away4    
,,cclviii    ,for ,i know that thou wilt
 bring me to death1   ,and to the house 
appointed for all living4   ,but shall  
not a drowning man stretch out his hand8
   ,shall he not cry out in his         
destruction8  ,,cclix    ,did ,i not    
weep for him that was in trouble8   ,was
 not my soul grieved for the needy8   ,i
 looked for good and waited for light2  
,behold days of sorrowing are come upon 
me4  ,,cclx    ,i go mourning without   
sun2   ,i stand up in the assembly and  
cry aloud2   ,i am become a brother unto
 jackals1   ,and a comrade unto         

ostriches4  ,,cclxi    ,my skin hath    
grown black upon me   ,and my bones are 
scorched with heat2   ,my harp is turned
 to mourning1   ,and my bagpipe into the
 wail of the weeping4#bdf  ,,cclxii     
,if ,i have walked with men of          
wickedness1   ,or if my feet have       
hastened to deceit1   ,let him weigh me 
in balances of justice1   ,that ,god may
 know mine integrity6  ,,cclxiii    ,if 
my steps have swerved from the way1     
,and mine heart followed in the wake of 
mine eyes1   ,let me now sow and another
 eat1   ,yea1 let my garden be rooted   
out6  ,,cclxiv    ,if mine heart have   
been deceived by a woman1   ,or if ,i   
have lain in wait at my neighbour's     
door1   ,then let my wife turn the mill 
unto another   ,and let others bow down 
upon her6  ,,cclxv    ,for adultery is a
 grievous crime1   ,yea1 a crime to be  
punished by the judges3   ,it is a fire 
that consumeth to utter destruction1    
,and would root out all mine increase4  
,,cclxvi    ,had ,i despised the right  

of my man-servant   ,or of my           
maidservant1 when they contended with   
me1   ,what could ,i do1 when ,god rose 
up8   ,and when he visiteth1 what could 
,i answer him8  ,,cclxvii    ,for       
perdition from ,god was a terror to me1 
,and for his highness' sake ,i could not
 do such things4   ,did not he that made
 me in the womb1 make him8#bdg   ,and   
did he not fashion us in one belly8     
,,cclxviii    ,never have ,i withheld   
the poor from their desire1   ,nor      
caused the widow's eyes to fail2   ,nor 
have ,i eaten my morsel alone1   ,unless
 the fatherless had partaken thereof4   
,,cclxix    ,if ,i saw one perish for   
lack of clothing1   ,or any of the poor 
devoid of covering2   ,then surely did  
his loins bless me1   ,and he was warmed
 with the fleece of my sheep4  ,,cclxx  
,if ,i lifted up my hand against the    
fatherless1   ,when ,i saw my backers in
 the gate1#bdh   ,then let my shoulder  
fall from its setting1   ,and mine arm  
from its channel bone6  ,,cclxxi    ,i  

have never made gold my hope1   ,nor    
said to the fine gold3 ,thou art my     
trust2   ,never did ,i rejoice that my  
wealth was great1   ,and because mine   
hand had found much4  ,,cclxxii         
,never did ,i gaze upon the sun1 because
 it shone brightly1   ,nor upon the moon
 floating in glory1   ,so that my heart 
was secretly enticed1   ,and ,i wafted  
kisses to them1 putting my hand to my   
mouth4#bdi  ,,cclxxiii    ,never did ,i 
rejoice at the ruin of my hater1   ,nor 
exult when misery found him out2        
,neither have ,i suffered my throat to  
sin1   ,by wreaking a curse upon his    
soul4  ,,cclxxiv    ,never had the      
guests of my tent to say3   ,oh1 that we
 had our fill of his meat6   ,i suffered
 not the stranger to lodge out of doors1
   ,but ,i opened my gates to the       
traveller4  ,,cclxxv    ,i covered not  
my failings after the manner of men1    
,by locking mine iniquity in my bosom1  
,as if ,i feared the vast multitude1    
,or because the scorn of families#bej   

appalled me4  ,,cclxxvi    ,and ,i1     
forsooth1 should keep silence1 should   
not come forward6   ,oh1 that one would 
hear me6   ,here is my signature2 let   
the ,almighty answer me1   ,and hear the
 indictment which my adversary hath     
written6#bea  ,,cclxxvii    ,surely ,i  
would hoist it upon my shoulder1   ,and 
weave it as a crown unto myself2   ,i   
would account to him for the number of  
my steps2   ,as a prince would ,i draw  
near unto him4  ,,cclxxviii  ,,jahveh3  
,who is this that darkeneth my counsel1 
,with words devoid of knowledge8   ,now 
gird up thy loins like a man1   ,for ,i 
shall ask of thee1 and do thou teach me6
  ,,cclxxix    ,when ,i laid the earth's
 foundation where wast thou8   ,declare1
 if thou hast understanding6   ,who hath
 laid the measures thereof1 if thou     
knowest1   ,or who hath stretched the   
line upon it8  ,,cclxxx    ,where are   
its sockets sunk down1   ,or who laid   
the corner-stone thereof8   ,when the   
morning stars exulted together1   ,and  

all the sons of ,god shouted for joy4   
,,cclxxxi    ,who shut in the sea with  
doors1   ,when it brake forth as issuing
 from the womb8   ,when ,i made the     
clouds its garment1   ,and thick        
darkness for its swaddling-band4        
,,cclxxxii    ,then ,i brake up for it  
its appointed place1   ,and set it bars 
and portals1   ,and said3 ,hitherto     
shalt thou come1   ,and here shall thy  
haughty waves be stayed6  ,,cclxxxiii   
,was it at thy prompting that ,i        
commanded the morning1   ,and caused the
 dawn to know its place8   ,that it     
might seize hold of the ends of the     
earth1   ,that the wicked might be      
shaken out8#beb  ,,cclxxxiv    ,then the
 earth changes as clay under the seal1  
,and all things appear therein as an    
embroidery2#bec   ,but from the wicked  
is withholden their hiding-place1   ,and
 the raised arm shall be shattered4     
,,cclxxxv    ,hast thou entered into the
 springs of the sea8   ,or hast thou    
walked in search of the abysses8   ,have

 the gates of death been opened unto    
thee1   ,or hast thou seen the doors of 
darkness8  ,,cclxxxvi    ,hast thou     
surveyed the breadth of the earth8      
,declare1 if thou knowest1 its measure6 
,thou must needs know it1 for then wast 
thou already born1   ,and great is the  
number of thy days6  ,,cclxxxvii        
,which way leadeth to the dwelling of   
light8   ,and of darkness1 where is the 
abode8   ,that thou shouldst take it to 
its bounds1   ,and that thou shouldst   
know the paths to its house8            
,,cclxxxviii    ,hast thou entered into 
the granaries of the snow1   ,or hast   
thou seen the arsenals of the hail1     
,which ,i have laid up for the time of  
trouble1   ,against the day of battle   
and of war8  ,,cclxxxix    ,by what way 
is the mist parted8   ,and the east wind
 scattered upon the earth8   ,who hath  
divided its course for the rain-storm8  
,and its path for the lightning of      
thunder8  ,,ccxc    ,out of whose womb  
issued the ice8   ,and who gendered the 

hoar-frost of heaven8   ,the waters are 
as stone1   ,and the face of the deep   
condensed like clots together4  ,,ccxci 
,canst thou bind the knots of the       
,pleiads1   ,or loose the fetters of    
,orion8   ,canst thou send lightnings   
that they may speed1   ,and say unto    
thee3 ,here we are8  ,,ccxcii    ,who in
 his wisdom can number the clouds1   ,or
 who can pour out the bottles of heaven1
   ,that the dust may thicken into mire1
   ,and the clods cleave close together8
  ,,ccxcii    ,canst thou hunt its prey 
for the lion1   ,or sate the appetite of
 the young lions1   ,when they couch in 
their dens1   ,and abide in the covert  
to lie in wait8  ,,ccxciv    ,who       
provideth his food for the raven1       
,when his young ones cry unto ,god8     
,it hovereth around nor groweth weary1  
,seeking food for its nestlings4        
,,ccxcv    ,canst thou mark when the    
hinds do calve8   ,canst thou number the
 months when they bring forth8   ,they  
cast out their burdens1   ,their little 

ones grow up out of doors4  ,,ccxcvi    
,who hath sent out the wild ass free1   
,whose dwelling ,i have made the        
wilderness1   ,who scorneth the noise of
 the city1   ,nor heedeth the driver's  
cry8  ,,ccxcvii    ,will the wild ox be 
willing to serve thee1   ,or abide by   
thy grip8   ,wilt thou trust him because
 his strength is great1   ,or wilt thou 
leave thy labour to him8  ,,ccxcviii    
,dost thou bestow might upon the horse8 
,dost thou clothe his neck with a waving
 mane8   ,dost thou make him to bound   
like a locust1   ,in the pride of his   
terrible snort8  ,,ccxcix    ,he paws in
 the vale and rejoices2   ,goes with    
strength to encounter the weapons2   ,he
 mocks at fear1 and is not dismayed1    
,and recoileth not from the sword4      
,,ccc    ,the quiver clangs upon him1   
,the flashing lance and the javelin2    
,furiously bounding1 he swallows the    
ground1   ,and cannot be reined in at   
the trumpet-blast4  ,,ccci    ,when the 
clarion soundeth he crieth1 ,aha6   ,and

 sniffs the dust raised by the hosts    
from afar2   ,he dasheth into the thick 
of the fray1   ,into the captains'      
shouting and the roar of battle4        
,,cccii    ,doth the hawk fly by thy    
wisdom1   ,and spread her pinions       
towards the south8   ,she builds her    
nest on high1 dwelling on the rock1     
,and abideth there1 seeking prey4       
,,ccciii    ,will the caviller still    
contend with the ,almighty8   ,he that  
reproves ,god1 let him answer6   ,wilt  
thou even disannul my judgment8   ,wilt 
thou condemn me that thou mayst be in   
the right8  ,,ccciv    ,if thou hast an 
arm like ,god1   ,if thou canst thunder 
with a voice like his1   ,deck thyself  
now with majesty and grandeur   ,and    
array thyself in glory and splendour6   
,,cccv    ,scatter abroad the rage of   
thy wrath1   ,and hurl down all that is 
exalted6   ,the haughty bring low by a  
glance1   ,and trample down the wicked  
in their place6  ,,cccvi    ,hide them  
together in the dust1   ,and bind their 

faces in secret6   ,then will ,i1 too1  
confess unto thee   ,that thine own     
right hand can save thee6  ,,cccvii     
,,job3    ,behold ,i am vile1 what shall
 ,i answer thee8   ,i will lay mine hand
 upon my mouth4   ,once have ,i spoken1 
but ,i will do so no more1   ,yea1      
twice1 but ,i will proceed no further4  
,,cccviii    ,i know that thou canst do 
everything1   ,and that nothing is      
beyond thy reach2   ,hence ,i say3 ,i   
have uttered that ,i understand not1    
,things too wonderful for me1 which ,i  
know not4  ,,cccix    ,i have heard of  
thee by the hearing of the ear1   ,but  
now mine eye hath beheld thee2          
,therefore ,i resign and console myself1
   ,though in dust and ashes4           
,,epilogue  ,,chap4 ,,xlii4 ,a4,v4  #g  
,and if was so1 that after the ,lord had
 spoken these words unto ,job1 the ,lord
 said to ,eliphaz the ,temanite1 ,my    
wrath is kindled against thee1 and      
against thy two friends3 for ye have not
 spoken of me the thing that is right1  

as my servant ,job hath4  #h ,therefore 
take unto you now seven bullocks and    
seven rams1 and go to my servant ,job1  
and offer up for yourselves a burnt     
offering2 and my servant ,job shall pray
 for you3 for him will ,i accept3 lest  
,i deal with you after your folly1 in   
that ye have not spoken of me the thing 
which is right1 like my servant ,job4   
#i ,so ,eliphaz the ,temanite and       
,bildad the ,shuhite and ,zophar the    
,naamathite went1 and did according as  
the ,lord commanded them3 the ,lord also
 accepted ,job4  #aj ,and the ,lord     
turned the captivity of ,job1 when he   
prayed for his friends3 also the ,lord  
gave ,job twice as much as he had       
before4  #aa ,then came there unto him  
all his brethren1 and all his sisters1  
and all they that had been of his       
acquaintance before1 and did eat bread  
with him in his house3 and they bemoaned
 him1 and comforted him over all the    
evil that the ,lord had brought upon    
him3 every man also gave him a piece of 

money1 and every one an earring of gold4
  #ab ,so the ,lord blessed the latter  
end of ,job more than his beginning3 for
 he had fourteen thousand sheep1 and six
 thousand camels1 and a thousand yoke of
 oxen1 and a thousand she asses4  #ac   
,he had also seven sons and three       
daughters4  #ad ,and he called the name 
of the first1 ,jemima2 and the name of  
the second1 ,kezia2 and the name of the 
third1 ,kerenhappuch4  #ae ,and in all  
the land were no women found so fair as 
the daughters of ,job3 and their father 
gave them inheritance among their       
brethren4  #af ,after this lived ,job an
 hundred and forty years1 and saw his   
sons1 and his sons' sons1 even four     
generations4  #ag ,so ,job died1 being  
old and full of days4   ,footnotes3     
#aif ,i4e41 the magicians by means of   
incantations4  #aig ,allusion to the    
,satan's remark in the ,prologue1 chap4 
i4 to3 ,hast     not thou made an hedge 
about him1 and about his house1 and     
about all     that he hath on every     

side8  #aih ,the strophe which follows  
in ,prof4 ,bickell's text ,i consider a 
later insertion1 and have therefore     
struck it out4 ,it runs thus3           
,the roaring of the lion1 and the voice 
of the fierce lion1       ,and the teeth
 of the young lions are broken2         
,the old lion perisheth for lack of     
prey1       ,and the stout lion's whelps
 are scattered abroad4  #aii ,the       
prophetic vision which ,eliphaz now     
describes is relied upon by     him as  
the sanction for his whole discourse4   
,to his seeming1 it is a     direct     
revelation from ,god4  #bjj ,the sons of
 ,god1 sons of the ,elohim4 ,cf4        
,genesis vi4 #d4 ,there is     no       
analogy between these sons of ,god and  
the angels or saints of                 
,christianity4 ,cf4 also ,prof4 ,cheyne1
 ,job and ,solomon1 p4 #ha3             
,baudissin1 ,studien1 ,,ii4  #bja ,the  
human body is likened to a tent of which
 the tent-pole is the     breath of     
life2 this gone1 all that remains is the

 natural prey     of the elements4  #bjb
 ,calumny4  #bjc ,allusion to his       
sufferings at night from elephantiasis4 
,this     terrible malady1 which was    
first described by ,rhazes1 in the ninth
     century1 under the name d-l-fl     
7disease of the elephant71 was     for a
 long time erroneously believed to be   
confined to ,arabia4 ,as a     matter of
 fact1 it is found in an endemic state  
in all warm     countries1 and          
sporadically even in ,europe4 ,in       
tropical and     sub-tropical lands it  
progresses with alarming rapidity4      
,every new     crisis is preceded by a  
shivering sensation and violent fever1  
frequently accompanied with headache1   
delirium1 and nervous and     gastric   
suffering4 ,a violent attack of this    
kind may last seven or     eight days4  
,the seat of the disease is generally   
the foot or the     reproductive organs4
 ,in the former case the foot swells to 
a     monstrous size1 instep1 toes and  
heel and ankle all merging in one       

dense mass that reminds one of the foot 
of an elephant4  #bjd ,job feels that   
death is nigh4  #bje ,allusion to an    
ocean myth4 ,a watch had to be set upon 
the movements     of the monsters of the
 sea and the firmament4  #bjf ,the irony
 of these words addressed by ,job to    
,jehovah would be     deemed blasphemous
 in a poet like ,byron or ,shelley4 ,as 
a matter of     fact1 they constitute a 
parody of ,psalm viii4 #e4 as ,prof4    
,cheyne has     already pointed out     
7,job and ,solomon74  #bjg ,the         
firmament1 being a solid mass1 has paths
 cut out along which     the stars move 
in their courses1 just as there are     
channels made     for the clouds and    
rain4  #bjh ,this entire speech is      
ironical4  #bji ,allusion to a myth4    
#baj ,in the light of my own conscience 
,i am not an evil-doer4  #baa ,ironical4
  #bab ,lit41 the man of lips4  #bac    
,wisdom4  #bad ,i4e41 ,god's wisdom     
enables him to discern the deceit of    
those who     appear just1 and the      

punishment which he deals out to them   
makes the     result of his knowledge   
visible to the dullest comprehension4   
#bae ,a name for ,god4  #baf ,the       
current versions of the ,bible make ,job
 say the contrary3 ,with     the ancient
 is wisdom2 and in length of days       
understanding 7,job     xii4 #ab1       
,authorised ,version74 ,cf4 ante1       
,interpolations4  #bag ,i4e41 ,will ye  
persist in maintaining that ,god rewards
 the good     and punishes the wicked   
7as ,zophar has just done1 strophe      
xcvii47 in     spite of the fact that ye
 know it is untrue8  #bah ,i4e41 not on 
grounds obvious to all1 but because your
 own     particular lot is satisfactory4
  #bai ,compare this with the           
extraordinary verse in our ,authorised  
,version3 ,thou settest a print upon the
 heels of my feet6 7,job     ii4 #bg74  
#bbj ,this is one of the very few       
passages in the ,poem which throw light 
upon the date of its composition4  #bba 
,i4e41 the object for which he bartered 

righteousness4  #bbb ,host of evils     
which has attacked me from all sides4   
#bbc ,ironical4  #bbd ,an allusion to   
the promises made by the friends on the 
part of ,god     that ,job would1 if he 
repented and asked for pardon1 recover  
his     former prosperity4  #bbe ,lit41 
the pieces of his skin4  #bbf ,probably 
an allusion to elephantiasis4  #bbg ,the
 personification of death4  #bbh ,either
 the sons of the womb which has borne   
me1 as in iii4 #aj1 or     else my own  
children1 the poet forgetting that in   
the prologue     they are described as  
having been killed4  #bbi ,i4e41 when it
 is too late4  #bcj ,zophar discerns    
perfect moral order in the world4  #bca 
,god4  #bcb ,i4e41 by man4  #bcc ,i4e41 
be silent4  #bcd ,job's ideal of a happy
 death was identical with that of       
,julius     ,caesar--the most sudden and
 least foreseen4  #bce ,literally1 his4 
#bcf ,i4e41 after his death4  #bcg      
,i4e41 ,god4  #bch ,ironical4  #bci ,if 
there be a ,god who rules the world1    

punishes evil1 and rewards     good1 how
 comes it that we descry no signs of    
such just retribution8  #bdj ,about     
seven strophes in the same quasi-impious
 strain1     characterising the real    
reign of ,jehovah upon earth as         
distinguished from the optimistic       
delineations of ,job's friends1     are 
lost4 ,the verses that have taken their 
place in our     manuscripts are        
portions of a different work1 which has 
no     relation whatever to our poem4   
,they are not even in the same     metre
 as ,job1 but contain strophes of three 
lines only4  #bda ,conjecture of        
,professor ,bickell2 these two lines are
 not found in     the ,,mss4  #bdb ,i   
will judge ye out of your own mouths4   
,ye maintained1 all of you1     that the
 principles on which the world is       
governed are absolutely                 
unintelligible4 ,how then can ye reason 
as if the moral order were     based    
upon retribution1 and from my sufferings
 infer my sins8  #bdc ,the miner who    

descends into the abyss of the earth1   
and carries a     lamp4  #bdd ,wisdom is
 here identified with ,god1 of whom we  
know nothing and     have only vaguely  
heard from those who knew less1 i4e41   
former     generations1 for whom ,job   
has scant respect4  #bde ,to mete out   
justice4  #bdf ,two strophes are wanting
 here1 in which ,job presumably says    
that     this great change of fortune is
 not the result of his conduct4     ,the
 ,,lxx offers nothing here in lieu of   
the lost verses2 but the     ,massoretic
 text has the strophes which occur in   
the ,authorised     ,version 7xxxi4     
#a-d71 and which would seem to have been
     substituted for the original       
verses4 ,the present ,hebrew text is    
useless here4 ,if the four ,massoretic  
verses which it offers had     stood in 
the original1 so important are they that
 they would     never have been omitted 
by the ,greek translators1 who evidently
     did not possess them in their      
texts4 ,they remind one to some         

extent of certain passages of the       
,sermon on the ,mount1 and are          
manifestly of late origin4  #bdg ,i4e41 
my servant4  #bdh ,the concourse of     
people and partisans at the gate where  
justice was     administered4  #bdi     
,i4e41 ,i never adored them as gods4    
#bej ,of the nobles4  #bea ,this is the 
passage become famous in the imaginary  
form3 ,that mine     adversary had      
written a book6 7xxxi4 #ce74  #beb      
,daylight is hostile to criminals1 and  
the manner in which it     operates is  
here compared to a tossing of them off  
the outspread     carpet of the earth4  
#bec ,on a carpet1 to which the earth is
 still compared4         99       99    
99       99       99  ,,the ,,speaker   
,,translation ,,of ,,the ,,restored     
,,text         99       99       99     
99       99  ,,the  ,,speaker  ,,part   
,i  ,i4 ,,thesis3 ,vanity of the        
so-called ,absolute ,joys of ,living4   
,i #a4bed ,the words of the ,speaker1   
the son of ,david1 king in ,jerusalem4  

#b4 ,vanity of vanities1 saith the      
,speaker1 vanity of vanities3 all is    
vanity4  #c4 ,what profit hath man of   
all his toil wherewith he wearies       
himself under the sun8  #d4 ,one        
generation passeth away and another     
cometh2 the earth alone abideth for     
ever4  #e4 ,the sun riseth and the sun  
goeth down and panting hasteneth back to
 his place where he rose4  #f4 ,the wind
 sweepeth towards the south and veereth 
round to the north1 whirling about      
everlastingly2 and back to his circuits 
returneth the wind4  #g4 ,all rivers    
flow into the sea2 yet the sea is not   
full2 whence the rivers take their      
source1 thither they return again4      
#h4 ,the all is in a never-ceasing      
whirl1          ,no man can utter it in 
words2          ,rest is not vouchsafed 
to the eye from seeing1          ,nor   
unto the ear from hearing4#bee  #i4 ,the
 thing that hath been is the same that  
shall be1 and what befell is the same   
that shall come to pass1 and there is no

 new thing under the sun4 #aj4 ,if aught
 there be whereof one would say1 ,lo1   
this is new6--it was erstwhile in the   
eternities that were before us4#bef     
#aa4 ,there is no memory of those that  
were2 neither shall there be any        
remembrance of them that are to come1   
among their posterity4  #ab4 ,i1 the    
,speaker1 was king over ,israel in      
,jerusalem1 #ac4 and ,i set my heart to 
seek out and probe with wisdom all      
things that are done under heaven4 #ad4 
,i surveyed all the works that are      
wrought under the sun1 and behold all   
was vanity and the grasping of wind4    
#ae4 ,that which is crooked cannot be   
straight1          ,nor can loss be     
reckoned as gain4  #af;a4 ,i communed   
with my heart1 saying3 ,lo1 ,i have     
gathered great and ever-increasing      
wisdom1 more than all that were before  
me in ,jerusalem4 #ag4 ,then ,i set my  
heart to learn wisdom and understanding4
 #af;b4 ,and my heart discerned much    
wisdom and knowledge1 #ag4 madness and  

folly4 ,i realised that this also is but
 a grasping of wind4 #ah4 ,for    ,in   
much wisdom is much grief2   ,who       
increaseth knowledge1 increaseth sorrow4
     ,,ii4#a4 ,i said in my heart3 ,go  
to1 now1 ,i will try mirth          and 
taste pleasure6 ,but behold1 this too   
was          vanity4        #b4 ,unto   
laughter ,i said3 ,it is mad4           
,unto mirth3 ,what cometh of it8        
,,proofs ,,of ,,the ,,vanity ,,of       
,,possession ,,and ,,enjoyment  7a7     
,because ,enjoyment is ,marred by       
,possession  ,,ii4 #c4 ,i cast about me1
 how ,i might confer pleasure upon my   
body--my reason continuing to guide with
 wisdom the while--and how ,i might take
 to folly till ,i should discern what is
 good for the sons of men that they     
should do under heaven during the brief 
days of their existence4 #d4 ,i         
undertook huge works1 ,i builded me     
houses1 cultivated vineyards1 #e4 laid  
out gardens and orchards wherein ,i     
planted trees with all kinds of fruits2 

#f4 ,i dug out reservoirs of water      
wherewith to water the tree-bearing     
wood4 #g4 ,i got me men slaves and      
female slaves and had servants born in  
my house2 ,i likewise owned horned and  
small cattle1 above all that were in    
,jerusalem before me4 #h4 ,i also piled 
up silver and gold1 the treasures of    
kings and provinces1 ,i got me men      
singers and women singers1 and the      
delight of the sons of men1 wife and    
wives4  #i4 ,and ,i waxed great and     
increased more than all that had been   
before me in ,jerusalem2 also my wisdom 
abode with me4  #aj4 ,and what thing so 
ever mine eyes coveted1 ,i kept not from
 them4 ,i withheld not my heart from any
 joy2 but my heart took pleasure in all 
my labour1 for this only was my portion 
of all my toil4  ,,ii4 ,then ,i turned  
to all my works that my hands had       
wrought and to the worry wherewith ,i   
had wearied myself1 and behold1 all was 
vanity and a grasping of wind2 and there
 is no profit under the sun4     ,v4#aj4

 ,whoso loveth silver shall not have joy
 of silver2#beg          ,and he who    
sets his heart on riches reaps nought   
therefrom4  ,this too is vanity4  #aa4  
,when goods increase1 they also are     
multiplied that devour them1 and what   
profit hath the owner thereof save the  
gazing thereon with his eyes8  #ab4     
,sweet is the sleep of the toiler2 but  
his wealth suffered not the rich man to 
slumber4#beh  7b7 ,because ,possession  
is at best but ,fleeting  ,v4 #ac4      
,there is a sore evil which ,i have     
witnessed under the sun2 riches hoarded 
up by the owner thereof to his own      
undoing4#bei ,for such an one treasures 
them1 spending thereby all his days in  
worry1 vexation1 grief1 and carking care
 without gladdening his soul2 #ad4 then 
the riches perish by evil mishap1 and if
 that man have begotten a son1 there is 
nothing in his hand4  #af;a4 ,but this  
likewise is a sore evil3 exactly as he  
came1 even so shall he go2 #ae4 naked1  
as he issued from his mother's womb1    

must he depart again1 nor for all his   
labour shall he carry away aught that   
might go with him in his hand4 #af;b4   
,what profit hath he then for having    
toiled for the wind1 #ag4 and likewise  
passed all his days in darkness1        
mourning and much grief1 suffering and  
wrath8  7c7 ,because the ,capacity for  
,pleasure is hedged round with          
,conditions  ,v4 #ah4 ,behold what ,i   
have found to be good and beautiful3    
that a man eat1 drink and make merry    
amid all his labour whereat he striveth 
under the sun during the brief days of  
his life which ,god hath allotted to    
him2 for such is his portion4 #ai4 ,but 
that ,god should enable every man on    
whom he has bestowed riches and         
treasures1 to enjoy these1 and taking   
his share1 to have pleasure in his      
labour1 this is itself a gift of        
,god4#bfj #bj4 ,for then he shall not   
ponder overmuch on the days of his life1
 since ,god approveth the joy of his    
heart4  ,,vi4 #a4 ,but there is an evil 

which ,i have seen under the sun1 and it
 weighs heavy upon men3 #b4 that ,god   
bestows upon one riches1 wealth and     
honour1 grudging him nought for which   
his soul yearns1 yet permitteth him not 
to taste thereof1 but a stranger        
enjoyeth it4 ,this is vanity and a sore 
evil4 #c4 ,if such an one should beget  
even a hundred sons and live many years1
 but his soul could not revel in bliss  
then ,i say1 an untimely birth is better
 off than he4 #d4 ,for it came into     
nothingness1 and departed in gloom and  
its name is shrouded in darkness2 #c4   
not even a sepulchre fell to its lot2   
#e4 moreover1 it had not gazed upon1 nor
 known the sun2 this latter hath more   
rest than the former4 #f4 ,yea1 though  
one lived a thousand years twice told1  
yet had not tasted happiness1 must not  
all wander into one place8#bfa          
#g4 ,all man's toil is for his mouth2   
,and yet the soul#bfb          gets not 
its fill4  ,,iii4 #i4 ,what profit hath 
the toiler from that whereat he labours8

 #ab4 ,i perceived that for him there is
 no good other than to eat1 drink1 and  
make merry in his life2 #ac4 but even   
this same that any one may eat1 drink1  
and enjoy himself during all his toil1  
is for him a gift of ,god4#bfc          
,,proofs ,,of ,,the ,,vanity ,,of       
,,knowledge  7a7 ,because of its        
,limitation  ,,iii4 #aj4 ,i considered  
the working of the world which ,god gave
 unto man as a subject of meditation4   
#aa4 ,unto their perception he made over
 the universe and likewise all eternity2
 yet so that they are unable to discern 
the work that he worketh from the       
beginning unto the end4#bfd  7#f7 ,from 
its ,depressing ,effects as ,applied to 
the ,order of the ,world  ,,iii4 #ad4 ,i
 discovered that whatever ,god doeth is 
for ever2 nothing can be superadded to  
it1 neither can aught be taken away2 and
 ,god hath so contrived it that man must
 fear him4  #ae4 ,what came into being  
had been already long before1 and what  
will be was long ago2 and ,god          

quickeneth the past4  7c7 ,because of   
its ,depressing ,effects as ,applied to 
,human ,life and ,conduct  ,,iii4 #af4  
,moreover1 ,i saw1 under the sun1 in the
 place of equity iniquity1 and in lieu  
of justice crime4 #ah4 ,i said in mine  
heart3 ,it is for men's sake that ,god  
should try them and show that they are  
beasts1 they unto themselves4 #ai4 ,for 
men are an accident1 and the beasts are 
an accident1 and the same accident      
befalleth them all3 as these die even so
 die those1 and the selfsame breath have
 they all1 nor is there any pre-eminence
 of man above beast2#bfe for all is     
nothingness4 #bj4 ,all drift into one   
place2 all sprang from the dust1 and all
 turn to dust again4 #ba4 ,who knoweth  
whether the breath of man riseth upwards
 or whether the breath of the beast     
sinketh downwards to the earth8  #bb4   
,and ,i perceived that other good there 
is none1 save only that man should enjoy
 himself in his work2 for that is his   
portion4 ,for who can show him what     

shall become of him after his death8    
,,iv4 ,i4 ,and again ,i saw all the     
oppressive deeds that are wrought under 
the sun2 and behold the downtrodden     
weep1 and none comforteth them2 and they
 endure violence from their tyrants1 and
 none consoleth them4 #b4 ,then ,i      
appraised the dead who died long since1 
as happier than the quick who are yet   
alive2 #c4 but luckier than both1 him   
who is still unborn1 who hath not yet   
witnessed the evil doings under the sun4
  #d4 ,and ,i saw that all striving and 
all painstaking in the working of men is
 but the jealousy of one with another2  
this too is vanity and the grasping of  
wind4 #e4 ,true1    ,the fool foldeth   
his hands1   ,and eateth up his own     
flesh4  #f4 ,and yet better is a handful
 of quietness than both fists filled    
with drudgery and the grasping of wind4 
#g4 ,and again ,i beheld a vain thing   
under the sun3 #h4 one who toileth      
restlessly without enjoying his riches4 
,for whom do ,i wear myself out and     

bereave my soul of pleasure8 ,this too  
is vanity and irksome drudgery4  ,,ii4  
#ab4 ,for what manner of man will he be 
who shall come after me8 #ah4 ,then ,i  
loathed all my toil1 wherewith ,i had   
wearied myself under the sun1 in order  
that ,i should leave it to one who shall
 come after me4 #ai4 ,and who knoweth   
whether he be a wise man or a fool8 ,yet
 shall he have sway over all the fruits 
of my labour which ,i have gained by    
toil and wisdom under the sun2 this     
likewise is vanity4 #bj4 ,and ,i turned 
away to let my heart abandon itself to  
despair because of the pains wherewith  
,i laboured under the sun4 #ba4 ,for    
here is a man who hath performed his    
work with wisdom1 knowledge and         
painstaking1 and to one who hath not    
laboured thereat he must leave it1 as   
his portion4 ,this also is vanity and a 
sore evil4  #bb4 ,for what hath man of  
all his striving and of the worry of his
 heart wherewith he labours under the   
sun8 #bc4 ,for all his days are sorrows 

and his work grief2 yea1 even at night  
his heart taketh no rest2 this too is   
vanity4  #bd4 ,there is no good for man1
 save that he should eat and drink and  
make glad his soul in his labour4 ,yet  
,i saw that even this lieth in the hand 
of ,god4#bff #be4 ,for who can eat and  
who can enjoy except through him8 #bf4  
,for on the man who findeth favour in   
his sight he bestoweth wisdom1          
knowledge1 and joy2 but to him who is   
not pleasing in his sight#bfg he giveth 
drudgery1 to gather and to heap up in   
order to make it over to him in whom he 
is well pleased4 ,this also is vanity   
and a grasping of wind4   ,,proofs ,,of 
,,the ,,vanity ,,of ,,wisdom ,,in ,,its 
,,religious ,,and ,,moral ,,aspects#bfh 
7a7 ,because in the ,chances of ,life   
and ,death the ,just are ,nowise        
,favoured  ,,ii4 #ab;a4 ,then ,i turned 
to behold wisdom1 madness and folly1    
#ac4 and ,i saw that wisdom excelleth   
folly as much as light surpasseth       
darkness3       #ad4 ,the wise man hath 

eyes in his head2          ,but the fool
 walketh in obscurity4  ,but ,i         
perceived that the same fate overtaketh 
them all4 #ae4 ,then ,i said in mine    
heart3 ,as it happeneth to the fool1 so 
shall it happen also unto me2 and why   
then have ,i been so very wise8         
,whereupon ,i said in my heart that this
 too is vanity4 #af4 ,for there is no   
more remembrance of the wise man than of
 the fool for ever2 because in the days 
to come all shall have been long since  
forgotten1 and how the wise man         
perisheth like the fool6  #ag4 ,then ,i 
loathed life2 because the turmoil under 
the sun weighed upon me as a calamity1  
for all is vanity and a grasping of     
wind4 ,,iii4 #a4 ,to everything there is
 a season and each thing under heaven   
hath its hour4#bfi #b4 ,there is a time 
to be born and a time to die2 a time to 
plant and a time to pluck up that which 
is planted2 #c4 a time to kill and a    
time to heal2 a time to break down and a
 time to build up2 #d4 a time to weep   

and a time to laugh2 a time to mourn and
 a time to dance2 #e4 a time to cast    
away stones and a time to gather stones 
together2 a time to embrace and a time  
to refrain from embracing2 #f4 a time to
 seek and a time to throw away2 a time  
to keep and a time to destroy2 #g4 a    
time to rend and a time to repair2 a    
time to be silent and a time to speak2  
#h4 a time to love and a time to hate2 a
 time of war and a time of peace4       
,,viii4 #f4 ,for every thing hath its   
season and its destiny1#bgj for the bane
 of man presses heavily upon him4 #g4   
,because he knoweth not what shall be2  
for who can tell him how it will come to
 pass8        #h4 ,no man swayeth the   
storm-wind1          ,none controlleth  
the day of his death2          ,there is
 no discharge in war1          ,nor can 
riches rescue their possessor4  7b7     
,because the ,just are very often       
,treated worse than the ,wicked  ,,viii4
 #i4 ,all this have ,i seen1 and ,i have
 applied my heart unto every event that 

happens under the sun1 at the time when 
one man ruleth over another to his      
undoing4 #aj4 ,and so ,i beheld the     
evil-doer honoured1 even in the holy    
place1 while they who had done uprightly
 must go away and were forgotten in the 
city4 ,this also is vanity4  #aa4       
,because sentence against misdeeds is   
not executed forthwith1 therefore the   
heart of the sons of man is fully set to
 work evil4 #ab4 ,for ,i know that many 
a miscreant hath committed bad deeds for
 a protracted time past1 and yet lives  
long1 #ac4 while the ,god-fearing       
prolongeth not his shadow-like days4    
#ad4 ,there is a vanity which is done   
upon earth3 to righteous men that       
happeneth which should befall           
wrong-doers2 and that betideth criminals
 which should fall to the lot of the    
upright4 ,i said3 ,this too is vain4    
#af;a4 ,when ,i applied my heart to know
 wisdom and to consider the goings on   
upon earth1 #ag;a4 then ,i perceived    
that no man can find out the whole work 

of ,god that is carried on beneath the  
sun4#bga  ,how much soever he may labour
 in seeking1 he will not discover it2   
#af;b4 even though by day and by night  
he should keep his eyes from seeing     
sleep2 #ag;b4 yea1 though a wise man set
 himself to fathom it1 yet shall he not 
find it out4#bgb  ,,ix4 #a4 ,for all    
this ,i laid to heart1 and my heart     
beheld it all2 that the righteous and   
the wise and their doings are in the    
hand of ,god2 neither love nor hatred   
doth a man know in advance2#bgc         
everything lies before him4  #b4 ,all   
things come alike to all                
indiscriminately2#bgd the one fate      
overtaketh the upright man and the      
miscreant1 the clean and the unclean1   
him who sacrifices and him who          
sacrifices not1 the just and the sinner1
 him who swears as him who dreads an    
oath4 #c4 ,this is an evil amongst all  
things that are done under the sun1 that
 one chance betideth all2 therefore the 
sons of men pluck up courage for evil1  

and madness abideth in their heart4     
,,viii4 #ae4 ,then ,i commended mirth1  
because for man there is no good under  
the sun save only to eat1 drink1 and    
make merry1 and that abideth with him in
 his toil during the days of his life   
which ,god hath given him under the sun4
   ,,proofs ,,of ,,the ,,vanity ,,of    
,,wisdom ,,in ,,its ,,aspect ,,as       
,,prudence ,,and ,,practical ,,aptitude 
7a7 ,because ,success is ,contingent    
upon ,circumstances beyond the ,control 
of ,man  ,,ix4 #aa4 ,again ,i saw under 
the sun that the race is not to the     
swift1 nor the battle to the strong1 nor
 bread to the wise1 nor riches to men of
 understanding1 nor favour to men of    
skill2 but time and chance overtake them
 all4 #ab4 ,for man knoweth not even his
 own time2 like the fishes that are     
taken in the evil net1 and like the     
birds that are caught in the snare1 so  
are the sons of men entrapped in the    
season of misfortune1 when it breaks in 
upon them unawares4#bge  7b7 ,because of

 the ,difficulty of obtaining           
recognition for it1 and of the ,ease    
with which it may be ,thwarted by ,folly
  ,,ix4 #ac4 ,this also have ,i seen    
under the sun1 as wisdom1 and it        
appeared great unto me4 #ad4 ,there was 
a little city and few soldiers therein1 
and there came a mighty king against it1
 and besieged it1 and built great       
bulwarks against it4 #ae4 ,now he found 
in it a poor wise man who1 by his       
wisdom1 delivered the city2 but no one  
remembered this poor man afterwards4    
#af4 ,thereupon ,i said3    ,wisdom is  
better than strength2   ,yet the poor   
man's wisdom is despised4       #ag4    
,the words of the wise are gently       
uttered2          ,but the clamour of   
fools is deafening4#bgf      #ah4       
,wisdom is better than war weapons2     
,yet a single oversight bringeth ruin4  
,x4 #a4 ,a dead fly causes balsam to    
putrefy2         ,so a little folly     
destroys much happiness4  ,,vi4 #h4 ,for
 what hath the wise more than the fool8 

,what1 the poor who knoweth how to walk 
before the living8 #aj4 ,that which is  
happening was long ago named1 and it is 
known beforehand what a man shall be2   
neither can he join issue with him who  
is mightier than he4 #aa4 ,for there is 
much prattle that only augmenteth       
vanity4 ,of what avail is it to man8    
#ab4 ,for who knoweth what is helpful to
 man in life during the brief vain days 
of his existence which he spendeth as a 
shadow8 ,for who can tell a man what    
shall come to pass after him under the  
sun8   ,,part ,,ii  ,,recommendation    
,,of ,,the ,,relative ,,good2 ,,and ,,in
 ,,the ,,first ,,place ,,of ,,wisdom1   
,,as ,,renunciation  7a7 ,of ,claims to 
,happiness    ,,vii4#a;a4 ,better is a  
good name than choice unguents1         
,x4#a4 ,but better wisdom than glory2   
,better not being than existence1#bgg   
,,vii4#a;b4 ,and the death-day than the 
birthday4        #b4 ,better to enter   
the house of mourning          ,than to 
go into the tavern2          ,because   

there is the end of every man1          
,and he who survives will lay it to     
heart4        #c4 ,better is sorrow than
 laughter2          ,for a cheerless    
face makes a blithesome heart4       #d4
 ,the heart of the wise is in the       
mourning-house2          ,the heart of  
fools in the house of mirth4        #e4 
,better to hearken to the rebuke of the 
wise1          ,than to listen to the   
song of the foolish4       #f4 ,as the  
crackling of thorns under a pot1#bgh    
,is the inane laughter of the fool4     
,,vi4#i4 ,better look with the eyes than
 wander with desire2          ,this too 
is vanity and a grasping of wind4       
,,vii4#g4 ,for extortion maketh the wise
 man foolish1           ,and bribery    
robs understanding4        #h4 ,better  
the end of a thing than the beginning   
thereof2          ,better is patience   
than haughtiness4       #i4 ,let not thy
 spirit be hurried into anger1          
,for anger lurketh in the bosom of      
fools4  #aj4 ,say not3 ,why were old    

times better than these8 ,for it is not 
from wisdom that thou askest thus4  #ac4
 ,contemplate the work of ,god6 ,who can
 straighten what he hath made crooked8  
#ad4 ,in the day of prosperity be of    
good cheer1 and in the evil day bethink 
thee3 the latter ,god hath made even as 
the former1 to the end that man at his  
death shall have left nothing           
unaccomplished4  7b7 ,as ,renunciation  
of ,reputation for ,perfect ,justice and
 ,wisdom  ,,vii4 #ae4 ,all things have  
,i witnessed in my vain days2 there are 
just men who perish through their       
righteousness1 and there are wicked men 
who prolong their lives by means of     
their iniquity4#bgi #af4 ,be not        
righteous overmuch1 neither make thyself
 overwise2 why wouldst thou ruin        
thyself8 #ag4 ,do not allow thyself too 
much liberty1 and be not a fool3 why    
wouldst thou die before thy time8 #ah4  
,it is well that thou shouldst hold fast
 to the one and also not withdraw thy   
hand from the other1 for he who feareth 

,god compasseth all this4  #ai4 ,wisdom 
is a stronger guard for the wise man    
than ten mighty men who are in the city4
       #aa4 ,wisdom is good with an     
inheritance1          ,yea1 better yet1 
to them that see the sun2#bhj      #ab4 
,for wisdom and wealth afford shade1    
,and wisdom1 besides1 keeps its         
possessors alive4  7c7 ,as ,renunciation
 of ,one's ,claims to the ,respect and  
,consideration of ,others  ,,vii4 #ba4  
,likewise1 take not all the gossip of   
people to heart1 lest thou hear that thy
 friend hath reviled thee6 #bb4 ,for thy
 heart is conscious that thou thyself   
hast often-times made little of others4 
#bj4 ,for3    ,there is no just man upon
 the earth   ,who worketh good and never
 faileth4  7d7 ,of ,one's ,claims to    
,act ,independently of their ,counsel   
and ,aid  ,,iv4 #i4 ,two are better off 
than one2 #aj4 for should one of them   
fall1 the other lifts him up again4 ,woe
 to him that is alone1 if he fall1 and  
there be not another to raise him up4   

#aa4 ,likewise1 if two lie down         
together1 they become warm2 but how can 
one grow warm alone8 #ab4 ,moreover1 if 
a man would overpower the single one1   
two can keep him at bay1 and a threefold
 cord will not easily give way4  #ac4   
,better is the youth1 needy and wise1   
than the king old and foolish1 who can  
no longer take a warning to heart4 #ad4 
,for the former went forth from prison  
to govern1 though born poor in the realm
 of the king4 #ae4 ,i saw all the living
 who walk under the sun1 in attendance  
on the youth who was to take his place4 
#af4 ,there was no end to the           
multitude4444#bha who were before them2 
nor did those who lived afterwards glory
 in him4 ,for this likewise is vanity   
and a grasping of wind4                 
,,recommendation ,,of ,,wisdom ,,as     
,,rational ,,piety#bhb  ,a ,warning3 7a7
 ,against ,outward and ,sacrificial     
,worship  ,v4 #a4 ,keep thy foot when   
thou goest to the house of ,god6 ,and to
 draw near him1 in order to obey1 is    

better than the offering of sacrifices  
by fools3 for they know not4444#bhc to  
work evil4  7b7 ,against ,mechanical    
,prayer  ,v4 #b4 ,be not rash with thy  
mouth1 nor let thy heart be hasty to    
utter words before ,god6 ,for ,god is in
 heaven1 and thou art upon earth2       
therefore let thy words be few6 #c4 ,for
    ,dreams proceed from much brooding1 
,and the prattle of fools from a        
multitude of words4  7c7 ,against ,rash 
,vows  ,v4 #d4 ,if thou makest a vow    
unto ,god1 fail not to fulfil it1 for   
fools are displeasing4 ,carry out that  
which thou hast promised4 #e4 ,it is    
better thou shouldst not vow at all than
 vow and not perform4 #f4 ,suffer not   
thy mouth to render thy body punishable1
 neither utter thou the plea before the 
messenger3#bhd it was rashness4 ,why    
cause ,god to be wroth at thy voice and 
destroy the work of thy hands8  7d7     
,against ,arbitrary ,religious          
,speculations  ,v4 #g4444bhe ,for in the
 multitude of fancies and prattle there 

likewise lurketh much vanity4 ,rather   
fear thou ,god6   ,,recommendation ,,of 
,,wisdom ,,as ,,activity  7a7 ,in       
,public ,life  ,v4 #h4 ,when thou       
witnessest oppression of the poor and   
the swerving from right and equity in   
the land1 marvel not thereat4 ,for a    
higher one watcheth over the high1 and  
still higher ones over both4#bhf #i4    
,but a gain to the country is only a    
king--for tilled land4     ,x4#af4 ,wo1 
land1 to thee whose king is a child1    
,and whose princes feast in the early   
morning6      #ag4 ,hail to thee1 land1 
whose king is noble1          ,and whose
 princes eat in due season6       #ah4  
,through sloth the rafters give way2    
,through idleness the roof lets in the  
rain4      #ai4 ,they misuse food and   
drink for feasting3          ,and gold  
putteth all things in their grasp4      
#bj4 ,even in thy privacy curse not the 
king1          ,nor in thy bed-chamber  
the wealthy2          ,the birds of     
heaven might divulge it1          ,and  

the feathered ones might report the     
word4  7b7 ,in ,private ,life  ,,xi4 #a4
 ,send forth thy bread over the surface 
of the waters1 for after many days thou 
shall find it again4 #b4 ,divide thy    
possessions into seven1 yea1 into eight 
portions6 ,for thou knowest not what    
evil may befall the land4 #c4 ,if the   
clouds fill themselves with rain1 they  
discharge it upon the earth2 and whether
 the tree falleth towards the south or  
towards the north1 in the place where it
 falleth1 there shall it abide4         
#f4 ,in the morning sow thy seed1       
,and until evening let not thy hand     
repose4#bhg  ,for thou knowest not which
 one shall thrive1 this or that1 or     
whether they shall both prosper alike4  
#d4 ,he that observeth the wind shall   
not sow2          ,he that watcheth the 
clouds shall not reap4  #e4 ,as thou    
knowest not the way of the wind1 nor the
 growth of the bones in the womb of the 
mother1 even so1 thou canst not fathom  
the work of ,god who compasseth         

everything4   ,,recommendation ,,of     
,,wisdom ,,as ,,circumspection  7a7 ,in 
our ,dealings with ,women  ,,vii4 #bc4  
,all this have ,i tried with            
understanding2 ,i was minded to acquire 
wisdom1 but it remained far from me4    
#bd4 ,far off is that which is1#bhh and 
deep1 deep2 who can fathom it8  #be4 ,i 
turned away1 and my heart was bent upon 
understanding1 sifting1 and seeking the 
outgrowth of wisdom and knowledge1      
madness1 and folly4 #bf4 ,whereupon ,i  
found that more bitter than death is    
woman--that snare whose heart is a net1 
whose arms are fetters3 the             
,god-favoured shall escape her1 but the 
sinner shall be entangled by her4  #bg4 
,lo1 this have ,i found1 saith the      
,speaker1 piecing one thing with another
 in order to discover a result3 #bh4    
,what my soul hath ever sought for1 yet 
never fallen upon1 is this3 ,i have     
discovered one man1 among thousands2 and
 of all these there was not one single  
woman4 #bi4 ,behold1 this only have ,i  

found3 that ,god made men upright1 but  
they go in search of many wiles4  7b7   
,in our ,relations to the ,monarch      
,,viii4#a4 ,a man's wisdom brightens up 
his countenance4           ,and         
transforms the coarse rancour of his    
face4       #b4 ,the wise man hearkens  
to the king's command1          ,by     
reason of the oath to ,god4        #c4  
,steer clear of evil causes6#bhi        
,for he#bij doeth even what he listeth4 
#d4 ,mighty is the word of the monarch2 
,who dares ask him3 ,what dost thou8#bia
      ,x4#b4 ,the wise man's heart      
straineth to the right1          ,the   
heart of the fool to the left4       #c4
 ,even out of doors he lacketh sense1   
,saying unto every one3 ,i am a         
fool4#bib  #d4 ,though the wrath of the 
ruler should swell against thee1 yet    
forsake not thy post4 ,for composure    
avoids grave mistakes4  #e4 ,there is an
 evil which ,i beheld under the sun1    
like unto a blunder1 proceeding from the
 ruler6        #f4 ,folly is set in high

 places1          ,the great ones must  
sit low down2       #g4 ,slaves have ,i 
beheld on horseback1          ,and      
princes trudging on foot4  7c7 ,in the  
,conditions of ,everyday ,life  ,x4 #h4 
,he that diggeth a pit may fall into it2
 him who breaketh down walls a serpent  
may sting4 #i4 ,whoso removeth stones   
may be hurt therewith2 he who cleaveth  
wood may be endangered thereby4         
#aj4 ,if the axe be blunt it demands    
more strength3#bic          ,only       
through intelligence doth exertion      
avail4      #aa4 ,if the serpent bites  
before the spell1          ,then        
bootless is the charmer's art4          
#ab4 ,speech from the wise man's mouth  
is grace1          ,the lips of a fool  
swallow him up2      #ac4 ,the first    
words of his mouth are folly4           
,and the end of his talk rank madness4  
,,ii4#ae4 ,for in self-conceit babbles  
the fool1#bid    ,x4#ad;a4 ,the silly   
man multiplieth his words2      #ae4    
,the fussiness of the fool jadeth him4  

,who knows not yet the way              
citywards4#bie  ,exhortation to enjoy   
,life  ,x4 #ad;b4 ,man knoweth not what 
shall come to pass1 and who can tell him
 ,,ix4 #c4 during his life1 what shall  
befall after his death8 ,afterwards they
 go down to the#bif dead1 and there none
 can tell him aught nor can he apprehend
 anything4 ,even could he take it in1 it
 would avail him nothing1 for in ,sheol 
there is no participation in life4 #d4  
,for whosoever may enrol himself in the 
company of all the living1 can rest     
content1 seeing that a living dog is    
better than a dead lion4 #e4 ,for the   
living know at least that they shall    
die1 whereas the dead know not anything 
at all1 neither have they any more a    
reward1 for the memory of them is       
forgotten4 #f4 ,as well their love as   
their hatred and jealousy has long since
 passed away1 neither have they any more
 a portion for ever in anything that is 
done under the sun4        #g4 ,go1 eat 
thy bread with joy1          ,and quaff 

thy wine with merry heart4  ,for ,god   
hath countenanced beforehand this thy   
doing4 #h4 ,let thy garments be always  
white and let thy head lack not         
ointment4 #i4 ,see life with a woman    
whom thou lovest throughout all the days
 of thy empty existence which he hath   
given thee under the sun1 during all thy
 vain days6 ,for that is thy portion in 
life#big and in thy labour which thou   
takest under the sun4 #aj4 ,whatsoever  
thy hand findeth to do1 do that with thy
 might4 ,for there is no work1 nor      
cogitation1 nor knowledge1 nor wisdom in
 the ,sheol#bih whither thou goest4     
,,xi4 #g4 ,but sweet is the light and   
pleasant it is for the eyes to gaze upon
 the sun4 #h4 ,for how many years soever
 a man may live1 he should enjoy himself
 during them all1 and bear in mind the  
days of darkness that they shall be     
many4 ,everything that is to come1 is   
vain4        #i4 ,rejoice1 young man1 in
 thy youth6#bii          ,and let thy   
heart make thee glad6          ,and walk

 in the ways of thine heart1            
,and according to the seeing of thine   
eyes6    #aj;a4 ,drive sorrow from thy  
heart2          ,and put away care from 
thy flesh6   ,,xii4#a;a4 ,and bethink   
thee of thy fountain1#cjj          ,in  
the days of thy youth6  ,,xi4 #aj;b4    
,for youth and dawn are fleeting4       
,,xii4#a;b4 ,dreary days are drawing    
near1          ,and years approach      
devoid of joy4       #b4 ,then darkened 
shall be sun and moon1          ,and    
clouds come after rain alway4        #c4
 ,the keepers of the house#cja shall    
quake1          ,the sturdy ones#cjb    
shall bend themselves2                  
,darksome shall the windows#cjc be1     
#d4 ,and closed shall be the            
portals4#cjd           ,the roar of the 
mill#cje shall be as the sparrows       
twitter1          ,the daughters of     
song#cjf shall bow low2       #e4       
,likewise of heights shall they be      
afraid1          ,for dread shall lie in
 wait4        #c4 ,the grinding         

maids#cjg shall leave off work1         
#e4 ,the almond-tree#cjh shall shed its 
blooms2          ,the grasshopper#cji   
shall be burdened1          ,and the    
caperberry#caj unavailing4  ,for man    
goeth to his everlasting home and the   
mourners are in readiness in the street4
        #f4 ,asunder snaps the silver   
chain2          ,shivered is the golden 
lamp2          ,the pitcher shattered at
 the brook2          ,the scoopwheel    
falls into the well4  #h4 ,o ,vanity of 
,vanities1 saith the ,speaker2 all is   
vanity6#caa   ,footnotes3  #bed ,for the
 convenience of the reader ,i give the  
chapters and verses as     they are in  
the ordinary ,hebrew ,bible1 so that    
they can be found     at once in the    
,authorised ,version4 ,the letter a     
after the     verse number indicates the
 first half of that verse1 the letter   
b the second half4  #bee ,the meaning is
 almost the opposite of that of the     
,authorised     ,version4 ,eye and ear  
are wearied and bewildered by the       

incessant     whirl of the vast         
machinery of the universe4 ,cf4         
,schopenhauer1 ed4 ,grisebach1 vol4 v4  
p4 #bie1  #add4 ,the metre of     the   
strophe is identical with that of the   
,poem of ,job4  #bef ,it is interesting 
and instructive to compare this with the
     identical doctrine of ,buddha1 as  
set forth in the canonical book1        
,samyuttaka-,nikayo1 vol4 i4 vii41 #b   
,p1 #b ,suttam4 ,it is     accessible to
 most readers in the admirable ,german  
translation of     ,dr4 ,k4 ,e4         
,neumann1 ,leiden1 #ahib4 ,pp4 #aef1    
#aeg4  #beg ,the ,authorised ,version   
has shall not be satisfied with silver4 
,the meaning is that he who loves silver
 shall not enjoy the good     things it 
can purchase4  #beh ,i4e41 ,the care and
 anxiety which accompany the possession 
of     wealth4 ,the ,authorised ,version
 has3 ,the sleep of a labouring man     
is sweet1 whether he eat little or much3
 but the abundance of the     rich will 
not suffer him to sleep4 ,the ,hebrew   

word saba'     can signify both wealth  
and repletion4 ,here it manifestly means
     the former2 but some               
well-intentioned person whose ideas of  
physiology were defective1 having taken 
it to mean repletion1     confirmed his 
view by interpolating the words3 whether
 he eat     little or much4  #bei ,here 
a portion of the original text has been 
lost1 as is evident     from the passage
 beginning ,what profit1 two sentences  
lower     down1 which sums up the       
troubles of the rich man and makes them 
consist not merely in the loss of what  
he actually possessed1 but     likewise 
in the hardships and privations which he
 endured in     order to produce his    
wealth4 ,i give in brackets the words   
which     ,professor ,bickell           
conjecturally supplies in lieu of the   
lost     passage4  #bfj ,and therefore  
extremely doubtful4 ,when ,koheleth     
wishes to express     the idea of       
inexorable law1 or ,fate1 he has        
recourse to the     notion of ,god4     

#bfa ,it is only on earth that one can  
hope for some approximation to          
happiness4 ,if we fail to obtain it     
here--and the odds are very     much    
against us--there is no hereafter to    
look forward to2 for we     all--the    
miserable as well as the fortunate--are 
drifting     steadily into one          
place--the dreary ,sheol1 where there is
     no pleasure1 no striving1 no life4 
#bfb ,i4e41 not merely1 as commentators 
generally suppose1 that     desire is   
not satiated2 but that the enjoyment for
 the sake of     which alone we desire  
life1 and toil to sustain it1 is never  
attained4 ,the aim of labour is         
enjoyment1 without which existence      
is a burden2 but the real result of it  
all is the mere support of     life     
without its redeeming pleasures4 ,cf4   
,schopenhauer1     vol4 v4 pp4 #cjj1    
#cja4  #bfc ,that is to say1 is a very  
uncertain outlook4  #bfd ,this is a     
remarkable sentence1 which1 if it could 
be supposed to be     the fruit of the  

writer's own speculations1 would entitle
 him to     a high place in the         
,pantheon of speculative philosophers4  
,this     proposition1 which underlies  
all ,buddhistic doctrines1 would be     
formulated by ,kant or ,schopenhauer    
somewhat as follows3 ,time1     space1  
and causality are given to man as the a 
priori     conditions of all thought2   
they are the stuff his mind is made     
of4 ,as they are likewise the three     
ingredients of which the     universe is
 composed1 it follows that the world is 
the web of his     own intellect1 and1  
in so far as it is knowable1 exists for 
the     intellect alone4 ,that which    
underlies all the shadows of            
existence1 the one eternal force or     
will1 he never beholds4  #bfe           
,schopenhauer would express it thus3    
,our sources of knowledge--inner     and
 outer observation--are identical with  
those of animals1 the     difference    
consisting in that faculty of imparting 
to our     intuitions the form of       

abstract ideas4  #bff ,that is to say1  
is highly uncertain2 for1 as we learn in
 the     following lines1 happiness and 
misery depend upon chance or luck4      
,god gives his favourites an agreeable  
life1 leaving the drudgery     to all   
the rest4 ,and his choice is not        
determined by any ethical     acts of   
man4  #bfg ,sinner is not the correct   
translation of the ,hebrew word     khte
 here2 otherwise the author could not   
say that this     too 7i4e41 the        
punishment of the sinner7 is vanity4    
#bfh ,the ,jews frequently give to piety
 and morality the name of wisdom4  #bfi 
,the sense of this passage1 which has   
become proverbial1 is     generally     
misunderstood4 ,what it means is that   
man's work1 be he     never so skilful1 
be it never so easy1 is absolutely      
dependent     for success upon          
conditions which are wholly beyond his  
control1     and that undertaken under  
any other conditions is inevitably      
doomed to failure4  #bgj ,here          

,professor ,bickell supplies the words3 
,against this no man can     strive4    
#bga ,the utmost that physical science  
can teach us is the where1 the     when 
and the why of the appearance of the    
forces of nature4 ,the     what remains 
for ever a mystery4  #bgb ,wisdom here  
is taken to mean the one eternal reality
 which     underlies the shadowy        
appearances that we see and know4 ,the  
same     use of the word and exactly the
 same thesis occur in ,job4     7,cf4   
,a4,v4 ,job xxviii4 #ba1 #bb47  #bgc ,he
 cannot answer even for his own         
sentiments1 completely though     they  
may seem to be under his sway4  #bgd    
,i4e41 without ethical distinctions     
between the good and the     bad4  #bge 
,it is curious to note that a comparison
 strikingly similar to this     occurs  
in the ancient ,indian collection of    
fables entitled     ,pantschatantra4    
7,ed4 ,kosegarten1 p4 #aje47  #bgf      
,literally3 tyrannical4  #bgg ,this line
 is no longer found in the ,hebrew or   

,greek texts4 ,it is     required1      
however1 by the sense and metre1 and is 
inserted by     ,professor ,bickell4    
#bgh ,here the ,hebrew text contains a  
play of words which cannot be           
reproduced in ,english4  #bgi ,some rise
 by sin1 and some by virtue fall4       
7,measure for     ,measure47  #bhj      
,i4e41 for mankind4  #bha ,here a       
portion of the text is evidently lost4  
,professor ,bickell     suggests that it
 ran somewhat as follows3 ,who received 
him with     applause and reviled the   
old king4 ,for inasmuch as he had       
spurned     the counsel of the wise1 in 
order to misgovern and grind down the   
people1 therefore they hated him as     
those had hated him who were     before 
them4  #bhb ,as an antidote to the      
so-called piety founded upon the        
scrupulous     observance of the law1   
which had become a very ,upas tree of   
self-complacency4 ,mankind is already   
encompassed by so many and     such     
terrible evils1 that it would be sheer  

madness to turn     religion into a     
means of multiplying them4  #bhc        
,another passage is wanting here1 which 
most probably was to the     effect that
 they know not that ,god asks no        
sacrifices at their     hands but only  
works of justice2 and that therefore    
they take     courage to work evil4     
#bhd ,various commentators have offered 
various explanations of this     obscure
 passage4 ,as none of them is           
convincing1 ,i prefer to leave     them 
unnoticed4 ,it is not impossible that it
 may contain an     allusion to some    
popular tale or fable1 analogous to that
 of the     man who called upon death in
 his despair1 and when the grim         
visitor made his appearance1 asked him  
merely to help him to     carry his     
burden4  #bhe ,professor ,bickell       
supposes that here some words have      
fallen out1     such as3 ,brood not over
 that which is too marvellous and too   
lofty for thee1 neither say of the      
dreams of thy heart and the     babbling

 of thy lips1 ',i have found the        
knowledge of the ,holy     ,one4'  #bhf 
,this passage is a bitterly ironical    
onslaught on bureaucracy4  #bhg ,this   
distich is rhymed in ,hebrew4  #bhh     
,what ,kant would call das ,ding an     
sich4 ,everything we see and     know is
 but appearance4 ,the underlying        
substance1 that which     is1 is        
unknowable4  #bhi ,political plots4     
#bij ,i4e41 the king4  #bia ,ironical4  
#bib ,by his unconsidered acts4  #bic   
,literally1 it must be the more lustily 
wielded4  #bid ,this line is found only 
in the ,septuagint4  #bie ,probably a   
proverbial way of saying that a man     
knows nothing4  #bif ,the words in      
brackets are supplied conjecturally by  
,professor     ,bickell4  #big ,the     
,authorised ,version has in this life4  
,but it deviates from the     ,hebrew   
original4  #bih ,the nether world where 
the dead are but shadows4  #bii ,this   
and the following quatrain are rhymed in
 the original2 as is     also the       

preceding distich4  #cjj ,thy wife4     
#cja ,the arms4  #cjb ,the legs4  #cjc  
,the eyes4  #cjd ,the ears4  #cje ,the  
voice4  #cjf ,the tones4  #cjg ,the     
teeth4  #cjh ,the white hair4  #cji     
,fascinum4  #caj ,greek3 ,kreis4  #caa  
,the epilogue forms no part of the      
original text4         99       99      
99       99       99  ,,the ,,sayings   
,,of ,,agur  ,,translation ,,of ,,the   
,,restored ,,text         99       99   
99       99       99  ,,the ,,sayings   
,,of ,,agur  ,,first ,,saying  ,on ,god 
,i    ,sentence of the man who has      
worried himself about ,god3   ,i have   
worried myself about ,god and succeeded 
not2   ,for ,i am more stupid than other
 men1   ,and in me there is no human    
understanding4   ,neither have ,i       
learned wisdom1   ,so that ,i might     
comprehend the science of sacred things4
  ,,ii    ,who has ascended into heaven 
and come down again8   ,who can gather  
the wind in his fists8   ,who can bind  
the waters in a garment8   ,who can     

grasp all the ends of the earth8   ,such
 an one would ,i question about ,god3   
,what is his name8   ,and what is the   
name of his sons1 if thou knowest       
it8#cab   ,,second ,,saying  ,on ,four  
,insatiable ,things    ,there be three  
things which are never satisfied1       
,yea1 four exclaim3 ,it is not enough6  
,the ,ghoul hath two daughters3   ,give1
 give6--the grave and the womb4#cac     
,the earth is not filled with water1    
,and the fire sayeth not1 ,it is enough6
  ,,third ,,saying ,,of ,,agur  ,on     
,four ,inscrutable ,things    ,there be 
three things too wonderful for me1      
,yea1 four which ,i fathom not3   ,the  
way of the eagle in the air1   ,the way 
of the serpent upon a rock1   ,the way  
of a ship amidst the ocean1   ,and the  
way of a man with a maid4#cad  ,,fourth 
,,saying  ,four ,insupportable ,things  
,under three things the earth quakes1   
,and under four it cannot stand4        
,under a slave when he seeks to reign1  
,and under a fool when he is filled with

 meat2   ,under an odious woman when she
 gets a husband1   ,and under a handmaid
 who is heir to her mistress4#cae       
,,fifth ,,saying  ,four who stride      
majestically    ,there be three things  
which go well1   ,yea1 four are comely  
in going3   ,a lion--the hero among     
beasts1   ,who turneth not aside for any
 one2   ,a greyhound and a bell-goat1   
,and a king who riseth up for his       
people's sake4   ,,sixth ,,sentence     
,exhortation to denounce ambition       
,whether thou hast acted foolishly in   
exalting thyself1   ,or whether thou    
hast done wisely1 lay thy hand upon thy 
lips6#caf   ,for pressure of milk       
produces butter1   ,and pressure of     
vanity produces anger2   ,pressure of   
the nose#cag produces blood1   ,and     
pressure of wrath produces strife4      
,footnotes3  #cab ,to this and the      
following ,sayings1 ,agur's orthodox    
opponent replies     thus3        ,every
 word of ,god is purified3       ,he is 
a shield to them that put their trust in

 him4        ,add thou not unto his     
words1       ,lest he reprove thee1 and 
thou be found a liar4        ,two things
 have ,i demanded of thee1 ,o ,jahveh1  
,deny me them not before ,i die3        
,frivolity and blasphemous words        
,and negation remove far from me4       
,give me neither poverty nor riches2    
,feed me with food suitable for me4     
,lest ,i be sated and deny thee1        
,and say1 ,who is the ,lord8        ,or 
lest ,i be poor and yield to seduction  
,and offend against the name of my ,god4
        ,accuse not a servant to his    
master1#cab;a       ,lest he curse thee 
and thou be found guilty4        ,there 
is a bad generation that curses its     
father       ,and doth not bless its    
mother1#cab;b        ,a bad generation  
which is pure in its own eyes1          
,and yet is not washed from its         
filthiness4        ,a bad generation1   
how lofty are its eyes6       ,and how  
uplifted its eyelids6        ,a bad     
generation whose teeth are as swords1   

,and whose jaw-teeth are as knives      
,to devour the poor from off the earth1 
,and the needy from among men4#cab;c    
#cab;a ,as if ,agur were an aristocrat  
from blind unreasoning sympathy for     
the heathen aristocracy4 ,allusion to   
,agur's #dth ,saying4  #cab;b ,against  
,agur's #bnd and #crd ,sayings4  #cab;c 
,against ,agur's #dth ,saying4  #cac    
,i4e41 birth and death4 7,cf4 ,agur1 the
 ,agnostic1 pp4     #aci1 #adj47 ,the   
champion of orthodoxy evidently took the
 passage     literally and consequently 
condemned ,agur as guilty of a lack of  
filial respect for his mother1 venting  
his feelings in the     following lines3
        ,the eye that scoffeth at the   
grey hair of the father       ,and that 
despiseth the old age of the mother1    
,the ravens of the valley shall pick it 
out       ,and the young eagles shall   
devour it4  #cad ,verse #bj ,a4,v4 is an
 addition inserted by a later writer who
 having     misunderstood the last line 
of the fourth sentence1 deemed it his   

duty to give it a moral turn4  #cae ,the
 ,sentence following 7vv4 #bd-bd ,a4,v47
 dealing with ,four ,cunning     ,ones  
is probably not from ,agur's pen2 for   
not only has it five     distichs1 but  
it lacks the point which characterises  
his ,sayings1     besides which it does 
not begin1 as his numerical ,sentences  
do1     with three before proceeding to 
four4  #caf ,keep silence4  #cag ,in    
,hebrew the same word signifies nose and
 strife4         99       99       99   
99       99  ,,index         99       99
       99       99       99  ,,index    
,adversary1 the1 a son of ,god ,agur1   
the ,sayings of--     their literary    
place     character of     their        
position in ,proverbs     their present 
form     ,agur and his orthodox opponent
     blunders of the latter             
,oriental influence traceable in the    
,sayings     the mystery of generation  
date of composition     ,agur shows  no 
respect  for the  doctrine  of          
retribution1 for       ,messianism1     

revelation1 c42 no belief in a personal 
,god     his antagonism to ,jewish      
theologians     his views of right      
conduct ,angels ,animals1 the tenderness
 of ,buddhism towards ,aryans and       
,semites1 contrast of mental            
characteristics ,asterisks1 ,origen's1  
in the ,hexapla ,authorship of ,job     
,bickell1 ,professor1 and the laws of   
,hebrew metre     discovery of the      
,saidic version of ,job     on the      
theophany in ,job     theory as to the  
chaotic state of ,koheleth     and the  
,praise of ,wisdom     textual          
conjectures ,book1 ,that mine adversary 
had written a ,book of ,job 7see ,job7  
,buddhism and the theology of ,job      
and ,job's moral system     influence   
of1 on ,koheleth ,buddhism1 spread of1  
into ,syria1 ,egypt1 c4     influence   
of1 on ,agur     and the doctrine of    
,renunciation     its tenderness towards
 animals and plants ,byron's ,cain and  
,job  ,cain 7,byron's7 and ,job         
,canticles of ,scepticism1 ,heine's     

description of ,koheleth ,cheyne1       
,prof41 and the date of ,job     and the
 laws of ,hebrew metre     and ,prof4   
,bickell's theory of the plan of        
,koheleth     on the theism of ,koheleth
     ,job1 strophe liii4 and ,ps4 viii4 
#e compared4 ,christ and the doctrine of
 ,renunciation ,christianity not        
incompatible with ,koheleth's scepticism
 ,clement of ,alexandria and a lost     
version of ,job ,cornill1 ,dr41 and the 
date of ,job ,council of ,constantinople
 and the historical truth of ,job       
,critical apparatus applied to text of  
,job  ,date of ,job     of earliest     
extant ,,ms4 of ,job     of ,koheleth   
of the ,sayings of ,agur  ,ecclesiastes 
7see ,koheleth7 ,ecclesiasticus1 dropped
 leaves causing transposition of        
chapters in ,elephantiasis ,eternal     
justice1 ,job's belief in               
,koheleth's belief in ,evil 7see ,good  
and ,evil7 ,ewald and the laws of       
,hebrew metre  ,firmament1 the          
,free-will and the origin of evil       

,future life1 ,job knows nothing of     
,koheleth knows nothing of  ,ghoul1 the 
7,tanha7 ,good and ,evil1 problem of    
free-will and the origin of evil     the
 ,oriental theory of ,gregory the ,great
 and the ,book of ,job  ,hebrew metre1  
,prof4 ,bickell and the laws of ,heine  
and the ,canticles of ,scepticism       
,hitopadea1 the1 and the ,sayings of    
,agur  ,inspiration of ,job not affected
 by reconstructive changes              
,interpolations in ,job1 examples of    
,isaac of ,antioch1 transpositions in   
poems caused by dropped leaves  ,jesus  
,sirach and the ,book of ,proverbs ,job1
 the ,poem of--     compared with       
,lucretius1 ,de ,nat4 ,rerum     its    
inclusion in the ,canon     its appeal  
to all ages     opinion  of ,gregory the
  ,great1 ,thomas ,aquinas1 ,tennyson1  
,luther     its place in literature     
the problem of     traditional theology 
the mystery of good and evil     no     
conception of a future life     nor of  
the ,resurrection or ,atonement     the 

poet's view of the problem     free-will
 and the origin of evil     the         
,oriental theory of these               
,brahmanism and ,buddhism     ,job's    
illumination the same as ,buddha's      
authorship of     date of     the       
question of historicity     date of     
earliest extant ,,ms4 of     a lost     
version of     various causes for       
changes in text     the chief cause1 a  
horror of blasphemy     apparatus for   
detecting these changes     laws of     
,hebrew metre     parallelism           
evidence of the ,septuagint             
,theodotion's version of the ,old       
,testament     the ,hexapla     the     
,saidic or ,thebaic version of ,job     
examples of interpolations              
reconstructive changes do not affect    
inspiration     ,job's natural          
philosophy     his dynamic theory of the
 ,universe     his monotheism not       
,jewish     his moral system1 based on  
pity1 found in ,buddhism1 and here      
first preached in the ,old ,testament   

belief in eternal justice     the secret
 of ,job's resignation      the ancient 
legend of ,job1 use of it by the poet   
analysis of the ,poem     the appearance
 of ,jehovah not literal     but        
symbolical of ,job's illumination       
,judaism1 the influence of ,buddhism on 
,kant and ,koheleth ,koheleth--     its 
inclusion in the ,canon     the literary
 problem of     its metaphysical basis  
the same as that of the philosophy of   
,buddha1 ,kant1 and ,schopenhauer       
chaotic and conflicting character of    
text     ,prof4 ,bickell's theory as to 
the confusion of the book     instances 
of similar confusion in other works     
the proposed re-arrangement             
illustrations in support of ,prof4      
,bickell's theory      ,koheleth's      
theory of life     source of happiness  
not wealth         nor wisdom           
nor virtue     ,koheleth's system       
relation of ,god to man     the         
practical moral     the view of moral   
order     the world all ,maya1 illusion 

,koheleth's theory not inconsistent with
 ,christianity     the reach of our     
knowledge2 happiness the only true good 
,koheleth knows nothing of future life  
or of divine promises or                
revelations      his belief in eternal  
justice     renunciation1 the great     
doctrine     wisdom the great boon      
content and moderation the golden rule  
the sources of his philosophy           
opposition of ,jewish orthodoxy to the  
book     admission of the book to the   
,canon     its incompatibility with     
,messianic hopes of ,israel             
disbelief in a personal ,god         in 
retribution and immortality     ,greek  
influences questioned2 probable         
influence of ,buddhism     date and     
locality of ,koheleth  ,life to come    
7see ,future ,life7 ,lucretius compared 
with ,job ,luther and the ,book of ,job 
,magicians mentioned in ,job ,maya1     
illusion1 the teaching of ,koheleth     
,metre in ,hebrew1 laws of  ,nirvana1   
,koheleth's only real good     view of  

,old ,testament1 untrustworthiness of   
historical books ,origen and the        
,hexapla  ,parallelism in ,hebrew poetry
 ,paul1 ,st41 and a lost version of ,job
 ,praise of ,wisdom1 its place in       
,proverbs1 ,prof4 ,bickell's discovery  
,priests' ,code1 the ,proverbs1 analysis
 of     not written by ,solomon         
their history     date of ,plants1      
tenderness of ,buddhism towards         
,renunciation1 the teaching of          
,koheleth1 ,buddha1 ,christ1 etc4       
,resurrection1 the 7in ,job7 ,redeemer  
liveth1 ,i know that my  ,saidic or     
,thebaic version of ,job ,sariputto1 and
 the desire for life 7tanha7 ,satan1 a  
son of ,god ,scotus ,erigena and        
free-will ,schopenhauer and ,koheleth   
and ,renunciation     and the four      
things insatiable ,semites1 remains of  
ancient speculation among     and       
,aryans1 contrast of mental             
characteristics ,septuagint1 the value  
of1 in regard to text of ,job  ,tanha1  
the terrible ,ghoul ,tennyson's opinion 

of ,job ,thebaic or ,saidic version of  
,job ,theodore of ,mopsuestia condemned 
for declaring ,job to be fiction        
,theodotion's version of the ,old       
,testament ,thomas ,aquinas on ,job     
,transmigration of souls  ,veda1 the    
,vedanta1 the ,vowel points in ,hebrew  
,wisdom1 ,praise of1 its place in       
,proverbs1 ,prof4 ,bickell's discovery  
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