,,democracy ,,9 ,,am]ica  ,by ,alexis   
,de ,tocqueville   ,translat$ by ,h5ry  
,reeve      ,book ,two3 ,influ5ce ,(    
,democracy ,on ,progress ,( ,op9ion ,9 !
 ,unit$ ,/ates4      ,de ,tocqueville's 
,preface ,to ,! ,second ,"p  ,!         
,am]icans live 9 a democratic /ate (    
society1 :i* has naturally sugge/$ to !m
 c]ta9 laws & a c]ta9 political "*4 ,?is
 same /ate ( society has1 moreov]1      
eng5d]$ among/ !m a multitude ( feel+s &
 op9ions :i* 7 unkn[n among/ ! eld]     
ari/ocratic communities ( ,europe3 x has
 de/roy$ or modifi$ all ! relations :i* 
be=e exi/$1 & e/abli%$ o!rs ( a novel   
k9d4 ,!--aspect ( civil society has be5 
no less affect$ by ^! *anges ?an t ( !  
political _w4 ,! =m] subject has be5    
treat$ ( 9 ! "w on ! ,democracy (       
,am]ica1 :i* ,i publi%$ five ye>s ago2  
to exam9e ! latt] is ! object ( ! pres5t
 book2 b ^! two p>ts complete ea* o!r1 &
 =m "o & ! same "w4  ,i mu/ at once w>n 
! read] aga9/ an error :i* w\ld be      
extremely prejudicial to me4 ,:5 he f9ds

 t ,i attribute s _m diff]5t consequ5ces
 to ! pr9ciple ( equality1 he may !nce  
inf] t ,i consid] t pr9ciple to be !    
sole cause ( all t takes place 9 !      
pres5t age3 b ?is w\ld be to impute to  
me a v n>r[ view4 ,a multitude (        
op9ions1 feel+s1 & prop5sities are n[ 9 
exi/5ce1 :i* owe _! orig9 to            
circum/ances unconnect$ ) or ev5 contr>y
 to ! pr9ciple ( equality4 ,?us if ,i 7 
to select ! ,unit$ ,/ates z an example1 
,i c\ld easily prove t ! nature ( !     
c\ntry1 ! orig9 ( its inhabitants1 !    
religion ( its f\nd]s1 _! acquir$ k1 &  
_! =m] habits1 h ex]cis$1 & /ill        
ex]cise1 indep5d5tly ( democracy1 a va/ 
influ5ce ^u ! ?\ghts & feel+s ( t p4    
,diff]5t causes1 b no less di/9ct f !   
circum/ance ( ! equality ( conditions1  
might be trac$ 9 ,europe1 & w\ld expla9 
a great portion ( ! occurr5ces tak+     
place among/ u4  ,i ackn[l$ge ! exi/5ce 
( all ^! diff]5t causes1 & _! p[]1 b my 
subject does n lead me to treat ( !m4 ,i
 h n und]tak5 to unfold ! reason ( all  

our incl9ations & all our notions3 my   
only object is to %[ 9 :at respects !   
pr9ciple ( equality has modifi$ bo? !   
=m] & ! latt]4  ,"s read]s may p]haps be
 a/oni%$ t--firmly p]suad$ z ,i am t !  
democratic revolution :i* we are        
witness+ is an irresi/ible fact aga9/   
:i* x w\ld be nei!r desirable nor wise  
to /ruggle--,i %\ld (t5 h _h occasion 9 
?is book to address language ( su*      
sev]ity to ^? democratic communities :i*
 ?is revolution has br\ght into be+4 ,my
 answ] is simply1 t x is because ,i am n
 an adv]s>y ( democracy1 t ,i h s\ght to
 speak ( democracy 9 all s9c]ity4  ,m5 w
 n accept tru? at ! h&s ( _! enemies1 & 
tru? is seldom (f]$ to !m by _! fri5ds3 
= ?is reason ,i h spok5 x4 ,i 0 p]suad$ 
t _m w\ld take ^u !mselves to ann\nce ! 
new bless+s :i* ! pr9ciple ( equality   
promises to mank9d1 b t few w\ld d>e to 
po9t out f af> ! dang]s ) :i* x ?reat5s 
!m4 ,to ^? p]ils !re=e ,i h turn$ my    
*ief att5tion1 & believ+ t ,i _h        
discov]$ !m cle>ly1 ,i h n _h ! c[>dice 

to leave !m untold4  ,i tru/ t my read]s
 w f9d 9 ?is ,second ,"p t imp>tiality  
:i* seems to h be5 rem>k$ 9 ! =m] "w4   
,plac$ z ,i am 9 ! mid/ ( ! conflict+   
op9ions betwe5 :i* we are divid$1 ,i h  
endeavor$ to suppress )9 me = a "t !    
favorable sympa?ies or ! adv]se emotions
 ) :i* ea* ( !m inspires me4 ,if ^? :o  
read ?is book c f9d a s+le s5t5ce int5d$
 to flatt] any ( ! great p>ties :i* h   
agitat$ my c\ntry1 or any ( ^? petty    
factions :i* n[ h>ass & weak5 x1 let su*
 read]s raise _! voices to accuse me4   
,! subject ,i h s\ght to embrace is     
imm5se1 = x includes ! great] "p ( !    
feel+s & op9ions to :i* ! new /ate (    
society has giv5 bir?4 ,su* a subject is
 d\btless above my /r5g?1 & 9 treat+ x  
,i h n succe$$ 9 satisfy+ myself4 ,b1 if
 ,i h n be5 able to rea* ! goal :i* ,i  
_h 9 view1 my read]s w at lea/ d me !   
ju/ice to ackn[l$ge t ,i h conceiv$ &   
foll[$ up my und]tak+ 9 a _s n unwor?y (
 success4  ,a4 ,de ,t4  ,m>*1 #ahdj     
,section ,i3 ,influ5ce ( ,democracy on !

 ,action ( ,intellect 9 ,! ,unit$       
,/ates4     ,*apt] ,i3 ,philosophical   
,me?od ,among ! ,am]icans  ,i ?9k t 9 no
 c\ntry 9 ! civiliz$ _w is less att5tion
 paid to philosophy ?an 9 ! ,unit$      
,/ates4 ,! ,am]icans h no philosophical 
s*ool ( _! own2 & !y c>e b little = all 
! s*ools into :i* ,europe is divid$1 ! v
 names ( :i* are sc>cely kn[n to !m4    
,nev]!less x is easy to p]ceive t almo/ 
all ! inhabitants ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates     
conduct _! und]/&+ 9 ! same mann]1 &    
gov]n x by ! same rules2 t is to say1 t 
)\t ev] hav+ tak5 ! tr\ble to def9e !   
rules ( a philosophical me?od1 !y are 9 
possession ( "o1 common to ! :ole p4 ,to
 evade ! bondage ( sy/em & habit1 (     
family maxims1 class op9ions1 &1 9 "s   
degree1 ( national prejudices2 to accept
 tradition only z a means ( in=mation1 &
 exi/+ facts only z a lesson us$ 9 do+  
o!rwise1 & do+ bett]2 to seek ! reason (
 ?+s = "o's self1 & 9 "o's self alone2  
to t5d to results )\t be+ b\nd to means1
 & to aim at ! sub/ance ?r\gh ! =m2--su*

 are ! pr9cipal *>act]i/ics ( :at ,i    
%all call ! philosophical me?od ( !     
,am]icans4 ,b if ,i g fur!r1 & if ,i    
seek among/ ^! *>act]i/ics t :i*        
pr$om9ates ov] & includes almo/ all !   
re/1 ,i discov] t 9 mo/ ( ! op]ations ( 
! m9d1 ea* ,am]ican appeals to !        
individual ex]cise ( 8 own und]/&+      
alone4 ,am]ica is !re=e "o ( ! c\ntries 
9 ! _w :]e philosophy is lea/ /udi$1 &  
:]e ! precepts ( ,desc>tes are be/      
appli$4 ,nor is ?is surpris+4 ,!        
,am]icans d n read ! works ( ,desc>tes1 
because _! social condition det]s !m f  
speculative /udies2 b !y foll[ 8 maxims 
because ?is v social condition naturally
 disposes _! und]/&+ to adopt !m4 ,9 !  
mid/ ( ! cont9ual movem5t :i* agitates a
 democratic community1 ! tie :i* unites 
"o g5]ation to ano!r is relax$ or brok52
 e man readily loses ! trace ( ! ideas (
 8 =efa!rs or takes no c>e ab\t !m4 ,nor
 c m5 liv+ 9 ?is /ate ( society d]ive _!
 belief f ! op9ions ( ! class to :i* !y 
belong1 =1 s to speak1 !re are no long] 

any classes1 or ^? :i* /ill exi/ are    
compos$ ( su* mobile elem5ts1 t _! body 
c nev] ex]cise a real control ov] its   
memb]s4 ,z to ! influ5ce :i* !          
intellig5ce ( "o man has on t ( ano!r1 x
 mu/ necess>ily be v limit$ 9 a c\ntry  
:]e ! citiz5s1 plac$ on ! foot+ ( a     
g5]al similitude1 are all closely se5 by
 ea* o!r2 & :]e1 z no signs (           
inconte/able greatness or sup]iority are
 p]ceiv$ 9 any "o ( !m1 !y are con/antly
 br\ght back to _! own reason z ! mo/   
obvi\s & proximate s\rce ( tru?4 ,x is n
 only confid5ce 9 ?is or t man :i* is !n
 de/roy$1 b ! ta/e = tru/+ ! ipse dixit 
( any man :atsoev]4 ,ev]yone %uts       
himself up 9 8 own brea/1 & affects f t 
po9t to judge ! _w4  ,! practice :i*    
obta9s among/ ! ,am]icans ( fix+ ! /&>d 
( _! judgm5t 9 !mselves alone1 leads !m 
to o!r habits ( m9d4 ,z !y p]ceive t !y 
succe$ 9 resolv+ )\t assi/ance all !    
little difficulties :i* _! practical    
life pres5ts1 !y readily conclude t     
ev]y?+ 9 ! _w may be expla9$1 & t no?+ 9

 x transc5ds ! limits ( ! und]/&+4 ,?us 
!y fall to d5y+ :at !y _c compreh5d2 :i*
 leaves !m b little fai? = :atev] is    
extraord9>y1 & an almo/ insurm\ntable   
di/a/e = :atev] is sup]natural4 ,z x is 
on _! own te/imony t !y are accu/om$ to 
rely1 !y l to disc]n ! object :i*       
engages _! att5tion ) extreme cle>ness2 
!y !re=e /rip (f z mu* z possible all t 
cov]s x1 !y rid !mselves ( :atev]       
sep>ates !m f x1 !y remove :atev]       
conceals x f sight1 9 ord] to view x m  
closely & 9 ! broad light ( day4 ,?is   
disposition ( ! m9d soon leads !m to    
contemn =ms1 :i* !y reg>d z useless &   
inconv5i5t veils plac$ betwe5 !m & !    
tru?4  ,! ,am]icans !n h n requir$ to   
extract _! philosophical me?od f books2 
!y h f\nd x 9 !mselves4 ,! same ?+ may  
be rem>k$ 9 :at has tak5 place 9        
,europe4 ,?is same me?od has only be5   
e/abli%$ & made popul> 9 ,europe 9      
proportion z ! condition ( society has  
become m equal1 & m5 h gr[n m l ea* o!r4
 ,let u consid] = a mom5t ! connection (

 ! p]iods 9 :i* ?is *ange may be trac$4 
,9 ! sixte5? c5tury ! ,re=m]s subject$  
"s ( ! dogmas ( ! anci5t fai? to !      
scrut9y ( private judgm5t2 b !y /ill    
)held f x ! judgm5t ( all ! re/4 ,9 !   
sev5te5? c5tury1 ,bacon 9 ! natural     
sci5ces1 & ,desc>tes 9 ! /udy (         
philosophy 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! t]m1      
aboli%$ recogniz$ =mulas1 de/roy$ !     
empire ( tradition1 & ov]?rew ! au?ority
 ( ! s*ools4 ,! philosoph]s ( ! eighte5?
 c5tury1 g5]aliz+ at l5g? ! same        
pr9ciple1 und]took to submit to !       
private judgm5t ( ea* man all ! objects 
( 8 belief4  ,:o does n p]ceive t ,lu!r1
 ,desc>tes1 & ,voltaire employ$ ! same  
me?od1 & t !y diff]$ only 9 ! great] or 
less use :i* !y pr(ess$ %\ld be made (  
x8 ,:y did ! ,re=m]s conf9e !mselves s  
closely )9 ! circle ( religi\s ideas8   
,:y did ,desc>tes1 *oos+ only to apply 8
 me?od to c]ta9 matt]s1 ?\gh he _h made 
x fit to be appli$ to all1 decl>e t m5  
might judge = !mselves 9 matt]s         
philosophical b n 9 matt]s political8   

,h[ happ5$ x t 9 ! eighte5? c5tury ^?   
g5]al applications 7 all at once drawn f
 ?is same me?od1 :i* ,desc>tes & 8      
pr$ecessors _h ei!r n p]ceiv$ or _h     
reject$8 ,to :at1 la/ly1 is ! fact to be
 attribut$1 t at ?is p]iod ! me?od we   
are speak+ ( sudd5ly em]g$ f ! s*ools1  
to p5etrate into society & become !     
common /&>d ( intellig5ce2 & t1 aft] x  
_h become popul> among ! ,fr5*1 x has   
be5 o/5sibly adopt$ or secretly foll[$  
by all ! nations ( ,europe8  ,!         
philosophical me?od "h designat$ may h  
be5 eng5d]$ 9 ! sixte5? c5tury--x may h 
be5 m accurately def9$ & m ext5sively   
appli$ 9 ! sev5te5?2 b nei!r 9 ! "o nor 
9 ! o!r c\ld x be commonly adopt$4      
,political laws1 ! condition ( society1 
& ! habits ( m9d :i* are d]iv$ f ^!     
causes1 7 z yet oppos$ to x4 ,x 0       
discov]$ at a "t :5 m5 7 beg9n+ to      
equalize & assimilate _! conditions4 ,x 
c\ld only be g5]ally foll[$ 9 ages :5 ^?
 conditions _h at l5g? become ne>ly     
equal1 & m5 ne>ly alike4  ,!            

philosophical me?od ( ! eighte5? c5tury 
is !n n only ,fr5*1 b x is democratic2 &
 ?is expla9s :y x 0 s readily admitt$   
?r\gh\t ,europe1 :]e x has contribut$ s 
p[]fully to *ange ! face ( society4 ,x  
is n because ! ,fr5* h *ang$ _! =m]     
op9ions1 & alt]$ _! =m] mann]s1 t !y h  
convuls$ ! _w2 b because !y 7 ! fir/ to 
g5]alize & br+ to light a philosophical 
me?od1 by ! assi/ance ( :i* x became    
easy to attack all t 0 old1 & to op5 a  
pa? to all t 0 new4  ,if x be ask$ :y1  
at ! pres5t day1 ?is same me?od is m    
rigor\sly foll[$ & m frequ5tly appli$ by
 ! ,fr5* ?an by ! ,am]icans1 al?\gh !   
pr9ciple ( equality be no less complete1
 & ( m anci5t date1 among/ ! latt] p1 ! 
fact may be attribut$ to two            
circum/ances1 :i* x is ess5tial to h    
cle>ly und]/ood 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,x mu/
 nev] be =gott5 t religion gave bir? to 
,anglo-,am]ican society4 ,9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates religion is !re=e comm+l$ ) all !
 habits ( ! nation & all ! feel+s (     
patriotism2 :5ce x d]ives a peculi> =ce4

 ,to ?is p[]ful reason ano!r ( no less  
int5sity may be add$3 9 ,am]ican        
religion has1 z x 71 laid d[n its own   
limits4 ,religi\s in/itutions h rema9$  
:olly di/9ct f political in/itutions1 s 
t =m] laws h be5 easily *ang$ :il/ =m]  
belief has rema9$ un%ak54 ,*ri/ianity   
has !re=e reta9$ a /rong hold on !      
public m9d 9 ,am]ica2 &1 ,i w\ld m      
p>ticul>ly rem>k1 t its sway is n only t
 ( a philosophical doctr9e :i* has be5  
adopt$ ^u inquiry1 b ( a religion :i* is
 believ$ )\t discussion4 ,9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates ,*ri/ian sects are inf9itely     
div]sifi$ & p]petually modifi$2 b       
,*ri/ianity itself is a fact s          
irresi/ibly e/abli%$1 t no "o und]takes 
ei!r to attack or to def5d x4 ,!        
,am]icans1 hav+ admitt$ ! pr9cipal      
doctr9es ( ! ,*ri/ian religion )\t      
inquiry1 are oblig$ to accept 9 l mann] 
a great numb] ( moral tru?s orig9at+ 9 x
 & connect$ ) x4 ,h5ce ! activity (     
individual analysis is re/ra9$ )9 n>r[  
limits1 & _m ( ! mo/ important ( human  

op9ions are remov$ f ! range ( its      
influ5ce4  ,! second circum/ance to :i* 
,i h allud$ is ! foll[+3 ! social       
condition & ! con/itution ( ! ,am]icans 
are democratic1 b !y h n _h a democratic
 revolution4 ,!y arriv$ ^u ! soil !y    
occupy 9 ne>ly ! condition 9 :i* we see 
!m at ! pres5t day2 & ?is is ( v        
consid]able importance4  ,!re are no    
revolutions :i* d n %ake exi/+ belief1  
en]vate au?ority1 & ?r[ d\bts ov]       
commonly receiv$ ideas4 ,! effect ( all 
revolutions is !re=e1 m or less1 to     
surr5d] m5 to _! own guidance1 & to op5 
to ! m9d ( e man a void & almo/ unlimit$
 range ( speculation4 ,:5 equality (    
conditions succe$s a protract$ conflict 
betwe5 ! diff]5t classes ( :i* ! eld]   
society 0 compos$1 envy1 hatr$1 &       
un*>itabl5ess1 pride1 & exagg]at$       
self-confid5ce are apt to seize ^u !    
human he>t1 & plant _! sway !re = a "t4 
,?is1 indep5d5tly ( equality itself1    
t5ds p[]fully to divide m5--to lead !m  
to mi/ru/ ! judgm5t ( o!rs1 & to seek ! 

light ( tru? n[h]e b 9 _! own und]/&+s4 
,ev]yone !n attempts to be 8 own        
suffici5t guide1 & makes x 8 boa/ to =m 
8 own op9ions on all subjects4 ,m5 are  
no long] b\nd toge!r by ideas1 b by     
int]e/s2 & x w\ld seem z if human       
op9ions 7 r$uc$ to a sort ( intellectual
 du/1 scatt]$ on e side1 unable to      
collect1 unable to coh]e4  ,?us1 t      
indep5d5ce ( m9d :i* equality supposes  
to exi/1 is nev] s great1 nor ev] appe>s
 s excessive1 z at ! "t :5 equality is  
beg9n+ to e/abli% itself1 & 9 ! c\rse ( 
t pa9ful labor by :i* x is e/abli%$4 ,t 
sort ( intellectual fre$om :i* equality 
may give ought1 !re=e1 to be v c>efully 
di/+ui%$ f ! an>*y :i* revolution br+s4 
,ea* ( ^! two ?+s mu/ be sev]ally       
consid]$1 9 ord] n to conceive exagg]at$
 hopes or fe>s ( ! future4  ,i believe t
 ! m5 :o w live "u ! new =ms ( society w
 make frequ5t use ( _! private judgm5t2 
b ,i am f> f ?9k+ t !y w (t5 abuse x4   
,?is is attributable to a cause ( m     
g5]al application to all democratic     

c\ntries1 & :i*1 9 ! long run1 mu/ ne$s 
re/ra9 9 !m ! indep5d5ce ( individual   
speculation )9 fix$1 & sometimes n>r[1  
limits4 ,i %all proce$ to po9t out ?is  
cause 9 ! next *apt]4     ,*apt] ,,ii3  
,( ,! ,pr9cipal ,s\rce ,( ,belief ,among
 ,democratic ,nations  ,at diff]5t      
p]iods dogmatical belief is m or less   
abundant4 ,x arises 9 diff]5t ways1 & x 
may *ange its object or its =m2 b "u no 
circum/ances w dogmatical belief cease  
to exi/1 or1 9 o!r words1 m5 w nev]     
cease to ent]ta9 "s implicit op9ions )\t
 try+ !m by actual discussion4 ,if      
ev]yone und]took to =m 8 own op9ions &  
to seek = tru? by isolat$ pa?s /ruck out
 by himself alone1 x is n to be suppos$ 
t any consid]able numb] ( m5 w\ld ev]   
unite 9 any common belief4 ,b obvi\sly  
)\t su* common belief no society c      
prosp]--say r no society c subsi/2 = )\t
 ideas held 9 common1 !re is no common  
action1 & )\t common action1 !re may    
/ill be m51 b !re is no social body4 ,9 
ord] t society %\ld exi/1 &1 a =tiori1 t

 a society %\ld prosp]1 x is requir$ t  
all ! m9ds ( ! citiz5s %\ld be ralli$ & 
held toge!r by c]ta9 pr$om9ant ideas2 & 
?is _c be ! case1 unless ea* ( !m       
sometimes draws 8 op9ions f ! common    
s\rce1 & cons5ts to accept c]ta9 matt]s 
( belief at ! h&s ( ! community4  ,if ,i
 n[ consid] man 9 8 isolat$ capacity1 ,i
 f9d t dogmatical belief is n less      
indisp5sable to him 9 ord] to live      
alone1 ?an x is to enable him to        
co-op]ate ) 8 fell[-creatures4 ,if man 7
 =c$ to demon/rate to himself all !     
tru?s ( :i* he makes daily use1 8 task  
w\ld nev] end4 ,he w\ld exhau/ 8 /r5g? 9
 prep>atory ex]cises1 )\t advanc+ beyond
 !m4 ,z1 f ! %ortness ( 8 life1 he has n
 ! "t1 nor1 f ! limits ( 8 intellig5ce1 
! capacity1 to accompli% ?is1 he is     
r$uc$ to take ^u tru/ a numb] ( facts & 
op9ions :i* he has n _h ei!r ! "t or !  
p[] to v]ify himself1 b :i* m5 ( great] 
ability h s\ght out1 or :i* ! _w adopts4
 ,on ?is gr\ndwork he raises = himself !
 /ructure ( 8 own ?\ghts2 nor is he l$  

to proce$ 9 ?is mann] by *oice s mu* z  
he is con/ra9$ by ! inflexible law ( 8  
condition4 ,!re is no philosoph] ( su*  
great p>ts 9 ! _w1 b t he believes a    
million ( ?+s on ! fai? ( o!r p1 &      
supposes a great _m m tru?s ?an he      
demon/rates4 ,?is is n only necess>y b  
desirable4 ,a man :o %\ld und]take to   
inquire into ev]y?+ = himself1 c\ld     
devote to ea* ?+ b little "t & att5tion4
 ,8 task w\ld keep 8 m9d 9 p]petual     
unre/1 :i* w\ld prev5t him f p5etrat+ to
 ! dep? ( any tru?1 or ( grappl+ 8 m9d  
indissolubly to any conviction4 ,8      
intellect w\ld be at once indep5d5t &   
p[]less4 ,he mu/ !re=e make 8 *oice f   
among/ ! v>i\s objects ( human belief1 &
 he mu/ adopt _m op9ions )\t discussion1
 9 ord] to se>* ! bett] into t small]   
numb] :i* he sets ap>t = inve/igation4  
,x is true t :oev] receives an op9ion on
 ! ^w ( ano!r1 does s f> enslave 8 m9d2 
b x is a salut>y s]vitude :i* all[s him 
to make a good use ( fre$om4  ,a        
pr9ciple ( au?ority mu/ !n always occur1

 "u all circum/ances1 9 "s "p or o!r ( !
 moral & intellectual _w4 ,its place is 
v>iable1 b a place x necess>ily has4 ,! 
indep5d5ce ( individual m9ds may be     
great]1 or x may be less3 unb\nd$ x _c  
be4 ,?us ! "q is1 n to "k :e!r any      
intellectual au?ority exi/s 9 ! ages (  
democracy1 b simply :]e x resides & by  
:at /&>d x is to be measur$4  ,i h %[n 9
 ! prec$+ *apt] h[ ! equality (         
conditions leads m5 to ent]ta9 a sort ( 
in/9ctive incr$ulity ( ! sup]natural1 & 
a v l(ty & (t5 exagg]at$ op9ion ( !     
human und]/&+4 ,! m5 :o live at a p]iod 
( social equality are n !re=e easily l$ 
to place t intellectual au?ority to :i* 
!y b[ ei!r beyond or above humanity4 ,!y
 commonly seek = ! s\rces ( tru? 9      
!mselves1 or 9 ^? :o are l !mselves4    
,?is w\ld be en\gh to prove t at su*    
p]iods no new religion c\ld be e/abli%$1
 & t all s*emes = su* a purpose w\ld be 
n only impi\s b absurd & irrational4 ,x 
may be =ese5 t a democratic p w n easily
 give cr$5ce to div9e missions2 t !y w  

turn mod]n prophets to a ready je/2 & !y
 t w seek to discov] ! *ief arbit] ( _! 
belief )91 & n beyond1 ! limits ( _!    
k9d4  ,:5 ! ranks ( society are unequal1
 & m5 unlike ea* o!r 9 condition1 !re   
are "s individuals inve/$ ) all ! p[] ( 
sup]ior intellig5ce1 le>n+1 &           
enlight5m5t1 :il/ ! multitude is sunk 9 
ignorance & prejudice4 ,m5 liv+ at ^!   
ari/ocratic p]iods are !re=e naturally  
induc$ to %ape _! op9ions by ! sup]ior  
/&>d ( a p]son or a class ( p]sons1 :il/
 !y are av]se to recognize !            
infallibility ( ! mass ( ! p4  ,!       
contr>y takes place 9 ages ( equality4  
,! ne>] ! citiz5s are drawn to ! common 
level ( an equal & simil> condition1 !  
less prone does ea* man become to place 
implicit fai? 9 a c]ta9 man or a c]ta9  
class ( m54 ,b 8 read9ess to believe !  
multitude increases1 & op9ion is m ?an  
ev] mi/ress ( ! _w4 ,n only is common   
op9ion ! only guide :i* private judgm5t 
reta9s among/ a democratic p1 b among/  
su* a p x possesses a p[] inf9itely     

beyond :at x has else:]e4 ,at p]iods (  
equality m5 h no fai? 9 "o ano!r1 by    
reason ( _! common resemblance2 b ?is v 
resemblance gives !m almo/ unb\nd$      
confid5ce 9 ! judgm5t ( ! public2 = x   
w\ld n seem probable1 z !y are all end[$
 ) equal means ( judg+1 b t ! great]    
tru? %\ld g ) ! great] numb]4  ,:5 !    
inhabitant ( a democratic c\ntry comp>es
 himself individually ) all ^? ab\t him1
 he feels ) pride t he is ! equal ( any 
"o ( !m2 b :5 he comes to survey !      
totality ( 8 fell[s1 & to place himself 
9 contra/ to s huge a body1 he is       
in/antly ov]:elm$ by ! s5se ( 8 own     
insignificance & weakness4 ,! same      
equality :i* r5d]s him indep5d5t ( ea* (
 8 fell[-citiz5s tak5 sev]ally1 exposes 
him alone & unprotect$ to ! influ5ce ( !
 great] numb]4 ,! public has !re=e among
 a democratic p a s+ul> p[]1 ( :i*      
ari/ocratic nations c\ld nev] s mu* z   
conceive an idea2 = x does n p]suade to 
c]ta9 op9ions1 b x en=ces !m1 & infuses 
!m into ! faculties by a sort ( enorm\s 

pressure ( ! m9ds ( all ^u ! reason (   
ea*4  ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! majority     
und]takes to supply a multitude (       
ready-made op9ions = ! use (            
individuals1 :o are ?us reliev$ f !     
necessity ( =m+ op9ions ( _! own4       
,ev]ybody !re adopts great numb]s (     
!ories1 on philosophy1 morals1 &        
politics1 )\t inquiry1 ^u public tru/2 &
 if we look to x v n>r[ly1 x w be       
p]ceiv$ t religion h]self holds h] sway 
!re1 mu* less z a doctr9e ( revelation  
?an z a commonly receiv$ op9ion4 ,! fact
 t ! political laws ( ! ,am]icans are   
su* t ! majority rules ! community )    
sov]eign sway1 mat]ially increases ! p[]
 :i* t majority naturally ex]cises ov] !
 m9d4 ,= no?+ is m cu/om>y 9 man ?an to 
recognize sup]ior wisdom 9 ! p]son ( 8  
oppressor4 ,?is political omnipot5ce ( !
 majority 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates d\btless    
augm5ts ! influ5ce :i* public op9ion    
w\ld obta9 )\t x ov] ! m9d ( ea* memb] (
 ! community2 b ! f\ndations ( t        
influ5ce d n re/ ^u x4 ,!y mu/ be s\ght 

= 9 ! pr9ciple ( equality itself1 n 9 ! 
m or less popul> in/itutions :i* m5 liv+
 "u t condition may give !mselves4 ,!   
intellectual dom9ion ( ! great] numb]   
w\ld probably be less absolute among/ a 
democratic p gov]n$ by a k+ ?an 9 !     
sph]e ( a pure democracy1 b x w always  
be extremely absolute2 & by :atev]      
political laws m5 are gov]n$ 9 ! ages ( 
equality1 x may be =ese5 t fai? 9 public
 op9ion w become a species ( religion   
!re1 & ! majority its m9i/]+ prophet4   
,?us intellectual au?ority w be diff]5t1
 b x w n be dim9i%$2 & f> f ?9k+ t x w  
disappe>1 ,i augur t x may readily      
acquire too mu* prepond]ance1 & conf9e !
 action ( private judgm5t )9 n>r[]      
limits ?an are suit$ ei!r to ! greatness
 or ! happ9ess ( ! human race4 ,9 !     
pr9ciple ( equality ,i v cle>ly disc]n  
two t5d5cies2 ! "o lead+ ! m9d ( e man  
to untri$ ?\ghts1 ! o!r incl9$ to       
prohibit him f ?9k+ at all4 ,& ,i       
p]ceive h[1 "u ! dom9ion ( c]ta9 laws1  
democracy w\ld ext+ui% t lib]ty ( ! m9d 

to :i* a democratic social condition is 
favorable2 s t1 aft] hav+ brok5 all !   
bondage once impos$ on x by ranks or by 
m51 ! human m9d w\ld be closely fett]$  
to ! g5]al w ( ! greate/ numb]4  ,if !  
absolute p[] ( ! majority 7 to be       
sub/itut$ by democratic nations1 = all !
 diff]5t p[]s :i* *eck$ or ret>d$ ov]mu*
 ! en]gy ( individual m9ds1 ! evil w\ld 
only h *ang$ its symptoms4 ,m5 w\ld n h 
f\nd ! means ( indep5d5t life2 !y w\ld  
simply h inv5t$ 7no easy task7 a new    
dress = s]vitude4 ,!re is--& ,i _c      
repeat x too (t5--!re is 9 ?is matt] =  
pr(\nd reflection = ^? :o look on fre$om
 z a holy ?+1 & :o hate n only ! despot1
 b despotism4 ,= myself1 :5 ,i feel ! h&
 ( p[] lie heavy on my br[1 ,i c>e b    
little to "k :o oppresses me2 & ,i am n 
! m dispos$ to pass b5ea? ! yoke1       
because x is held out to me by ! arms ( 
a million ( m54     ,*apt] ,,iii3 ,:y ,!
 ,am]icans ,display ,m ,read9ess ,& ,m  
,ta/e ,= ,g5]al ,ideas ,?an ,_!         
,=efa!rs1 ,! ,engli%4  ,! ,deity does n 

reg>d ! human race collectively4 ,he    
surveys at "o glance & sev]ally all !   
be+s ( :om mank9d is compos$1 & he      
disc]ns 9 ea* man ! resemblances :i*    
assimilate him to all 8 fell[s1 & !     
diff]5ces :i* di/+ui% him f !m4 ,god1   
!re=e1 /&s 9 no ne$ ( g5]al ideas2 t is 
to say1 he is nev] s5sible ( ! necessity
 ( collect+ a consid]able numb] (       
analog\s objects "u ! same =m = great]  
conv5i5ce 9 ?9k+4 ,su* is1 h[ev]1 n !   
case ) man4 ,if ! human m9d 7 to attempt
 to exam9e & pass a judgm5t on all !    
individual cases be=e x1 ! imm5sity (   
detail w\ld soon lead x a/ray & bewild] 
its disc]nm5t3 9 ?is /rait1 man has     
rec\rse to an imp]fect b necess>y       
exp$i5t1 :i* at once assi/s &           
demon/rates 8 weakness4 ,hav+           
sup]ficially consid]$ a c]ta9 numb] (   
objects1 & rem>k$ _! resemblance1 he    
assigns to !m a common "n1 sets !m ap>t1
 & proce$s onw>ds4  ,g5]al ideas are no 
pro( ( ! /r5g?1 b r ( ! insuffici5cy ( !
 human intellect2 = !re are 9 nature no 

be+s exactly alike1 no ?+s precisely    
id5tical1 nor any rules indiscrim9ately 
& alike applicable to sev]al objects at 
once4 ,! *ief m]it ( g5]al ideas is1 t  
!y enable ! human m9d to pass a rapid   
judgm5t on a great _m objects at once2  
b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! notions !y convey are 
nev] o!rwise ?an incomplete1 & !y always
 cause ! m9d to lose z mu* 9 accuracy z 
x ga9s 9 compreh5siv5ess4 ,z social     
bodies advance 9 civilization1 !y       
acquire ! k ( new facts1 & !y daily lay 
hold almo/ unconsci\sly ( "s p>ticul>   
tru?s4 ,! m tru?s ( ?is k9d a man       
appreh5ds1 ! m g5]al ideas is he        
naturally l$ to conceive4 ,a multitude (
 p>ticul> facts _c be se5 sep>ately1 )\t
 at la/ discov]+ ! common tie :i*       
connects !m4 ,sev]al individuals lead to
 ! p]ception ( ! species2 sev]al species
 to t ( ! g5us4 ,h5ce ! habit & ! ta/e =
 g5]al ideas w always be greate/ among/ 
a p ( anci5t cultivation & ext5sive k4  
,b !re are o!r reasons :i* impel m5 to  
g5]alize _! ideas1 or :i* re/ra9 !m f x4

  ,! ,am]icans are mu* m addict$ to !   
use ( g5]al ideas ?an ! ,engli%1 &      
ent]ta9 a mu* great] reli% = !m3 ?is    
appe>s v s+ul> at fir/ sight1 :5 x is   
rememb]$ t ! two nations h ! same orig91
 t !y liv$ = c5turies "u ! same laws1 & 
t !y /ill incessantly int]*ange _!      
op9ions & _! mann]s4 ,?is contra/       
becomes mu* m /rik+ /ill1 if we fix our 
eyes on our own "p ( ! _w1 & comp>e     
toge!r ! two mo/ enlight5$ nations :i*  
inhabit x4 ,x w\ld seem z if ! m9d ( !  
,engli% c\ld only te> itself reluctantly
 & pa9fully away f ! obs]vation (       
p>ticul> facts1 to rise f !m to _!      
causes2 & t x only g5]alizes 9 spite (  
itself4 ,among/ ! ,fr5*1 on ! contr>y1 !
 ta/e = g5]al ideas w\ld seem to h gr[n 
to s ard5t a passion1 t x mu/ be        
satisfi$ on e occasion4 ,i am in=m$1 e  
morn+ :5 ,i wake1 t "s g5]al & et]nal   
law has j be5 discov]$1 :i* ,i nev] he>d
 m5tion$ be=e4 ,!re is n a m$iocre      
scribbl] :o does n try 8 h& at discov]+ 
tru?s applicable to a great k+dom1 & :o 

is v ill pleas$ ) himself if he does n  
succe$ 9 compress+ ! human race into !  
compass ( an article4 ,s great a        
dissimil>ity betwe5 two v enlight5$     
nations surprises me4 ,if ,i aga9 turn  
my att5tion to ,engl&1 & obs]ve ! ev5ts 
:i* h occurr$ !re 9 ! la/ half-c5tury1  
,i ?9k ,i may affirm t a ta/e = g5]al   
ideas increases 9 t c\ntry 9 proportion 
z its anci5t con/itution is weak5$4  ,! 
/ate ( civilization is !re=e insuffici5t
 by itself to expla9 :at sugge/s to !   
human m9d ! love ( g5]al ideas1 or      
div]ts x f !m4 ,:5 ! conditions ( m5 are
 v unequal1 & inequality itself is !    
p]man5t /ate ( society1 individual m5   
gradually become s dissimil> t ea* class
 assumes ! aspect ( a di/9ct race3 only 
"o ( ^! classes is ev] 9 view at ! same 
in/ant2 & los+ sight ( t g5]al tie :i*  
b9ds !m all )9 ! va/ bosom ( mank9d1 !  
obs]vation inv>iably re/s n on man1 b on
 c]ta9 m54 ,^? :o live 9 ?is ari/ocratic
 /ate ( society nev]1 !re=e1 conceive v 
g5]al ideas respect+ !mselves1 & t is   

en\gh to imbue !m ) an habitual di/ru/ (
 su* ideas1 & an in/9ctive av]sion ( !m4
 ,he1 on ! contr>y1 :o inhabits a       
democratic c\ntry1 sees ar\nd him1 "o v 
h&1 m5 diff]+ b little f ea* o!r2 he _c 
turn 8 m9d to any "o portion ( mank9d1  
)\t exp&+ & dilat+ 8 ?\ght till x       
embrace ! :ole4 ,all ! tru?s :i* are    
applicable to himself1 appe> to him     
equally & simil>ly applicable to ea* ( 8
 fell[-citiz5s & fell[-m54 ,hav+        
contract$ ! habit ( g5]aliz+ 8 ideas 9 !
 /udy :i* engages him mo/1 & int]e/s him
 m ?an o!rs1 he transf]s ! same habit to
 all 8 pursuits2 & ?us x is t ! crav+ to
 discov] g5]al laws 9 ev]y?+1 to include
 a great numb] ( objects "u ! same      
=mula1 & to expla9 a mass ( facts by a  
s+le cause1 becomes an ard5t1 &         
sometimes an undisc]n+1 passion 9 !     
human m9d4  ,no?+ %[s ! tru? ( ?is      
proposition m cle>ly ?an ! op9ions ( !  
anci5ts respect+ _! slaves4 ,! mo/      
pr(\nd & capaci\s m9ds ( ,rome & ,greece
 7 nev] able to rea* ! idea1 at once s  

g5]al & s simple1 ( ! common lik5ess (  
m51 & ( ! common bir?right ( ea* to     
fre$om3 !y /rove to prove t slav]y 0 9 !
 ord] ( nature1 & t x w\ld always exi/4 
,nay1 m1 ev]y?+ %[s t ^? ( ! anci5ts :o 
_h pass$ f ! s]vile to ! free condition1
 _m ( :om h left u excell5t writ+s1 did 
!mselves reg>d s]vitude 9 no o!r light4 
,all ! great writ]s ( antiquity belong$ 
to ! ari/ocracy ( ma/]s1 or at lea/ !y  
saw t ari/ocracy e/abli%$ & unconte/$   
be=e _! eyes4 ,_! m9d1 aft] x _h exp&$  
itself 9 sev]al directions1 0 b>r$ f    
fur!r progress 9 ?is "o2 & ! adv5t (    
,jesus ,*ri/ ^u e>? 0 requir$ to tea* t 
all ! memb]s ( ! human race are by      
nature equal & alike4  ,9 ! ages (      
equality all m5 are indep5d5t ( ea* o!r1
 isolat$ & weak4 ,! movem5ts ( !        
multitude are n p]man5tly guid$ by ! w (
 any individuals2 at su* times humanity 
seems always to advance ( itself4 ,9    
ord]1 !re=e1 to expla9 :at is pass+ 9 ! 
_w1 man is driv5 to seek = "s great     
causes1 :i*1 act+ 9 ! same mann] on all 

our fell[-creatures1 ?us impel !m all   
involunt>ily to pursue ! same track4    
,?is aga9 naturally leads ! human m9d to
 conceive g5]al ideas1 & sup]9duces a   
ta/e = !m4  ,i h already %[n 9 :at way !
 equality ( conditions leads e man to   
inve/igate tru?s = himself4 ,x may      
readily be p]ceiv$ t a me?od ( ?is k9d  
mu/ ins5sibly beget a t5d5cy to g5]al   
ideas 9 ! human m9d4 ,:5 ,i repudiate ! 
traditions ( rank1 pr(ession1 & bir?2 :5
 ,i escape f ! au?ority ( example1 to   
seek out1 by ! s+le ef=t ( my reason1 ! 
pa? to be foll[$1 ,i am incl9$ to d]ive 
! motives ( my op9ions f human nature   
itself2 :i* leads me necess>ily1 & almo/
 unconsci\sly1 to adopt a great numb] ( 
v g5]al notions4  ,all t ,i h "h said   
expla9s ! reasons = :i* ! ,engli%       
display mu* less read9ess & ta/e or !   
g5]alization ( ideas ?an _! ,am]ican    
prog5y1 & /ill less aga9 ?an _! ,fr5*   
neighbors2 & likewise ! reason = :i* !  
,engli% ( ! pres5t day display m ( ^!   
qualities ?an _! =efa!rs did4 ,! ,engli%

 h long be5 a v enlight5$ & a v         
ari/ocratic nation2 _! enlight5$        
condition urg$ !m con/antly to g5]alize1
 & _! ari/ocratic habits conf9$ !m to   
p>ticul>ize4 ,h5ce arose t philosophy1  
at once bold & timid1 broad & n>r[1 :i* 
has hi!rto prevail$ 9 ,engl&1 & :i* /ill
 ob/ructs & /agnates 9 s _m m9ds 9 t    
c\ntry4  ,indep5d5tly ( ! causes ,i h   
po9t$ out 9 :at goes be=e1 o!rs may be  
disc]n$ less app>5t1 b no less          
efficaci\s1 :i* eng5d] among/ almo/ e   
democratic p a ta/e1 & frequ5tly a      
passion1 = g5]al ideas4 ,an accurate    
di/9ction mu/ be tak5 betwe5 ideas ( ?is
 k9d4 ,"s are ! result ( sl[1 m9ute1 &  
consci5ti\s labor ( ! m9d1 & ^! ext5d ! 
sph]e ( human k2 o!rs spr+ up at once f 
! fir/ rapid ex]cise ( ! wits1 & beget  
none b v sup]ficial & v unc]ta9 notions4
 ,m5 :o live 9 ages ( equality h a great
 deal ( curiosity & v little leisure2 _!
 life is s practical1 s confus$1 s      
excit$1 s active1 t b little "t rema9s  
to !m = ?\ght4 ,su* m5 are prone to     

g5]al ideas because !y sp>e !m ! tr\ble 
( /udy+ p>ticul>s2 !y conta91 if ,i may 
s speak1 a great deal 9 a little        
compass1 & give1 9 a little "t1 a great 
return4 ,if !n1 ^u a brief & inatt5tive 
inve/igation1 a common relation is ?\ght
 to be detect$ betwe5 c]ta9 obtects1    
inquiry is n pu%$ any fur!r2 & )\t      
exam9+ 9 detail h[ f> ^! diff]5t objects
 diff] or agree1 !y are ha/ily arrang$  
"u "o =mul>y1 9 ord] to pass to ano!r   
subject4  ,"o ( ! di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ics (
 a democratic p]iod is ! ta/e all m5 h  
at su* ties = easy success & pres5t     
enjoym5t4 ,?is occurs 9 ! pursuits ( !  
intellect z well z 9 all o!rs4 ,mo/ ( ^?
 :o live at a "t ( equality are full (  
an ambition at once aspir+ & relax$3 !y 
w\ld fa9 succe$ brilliantly & at once1 b
 !y w\ld be disp5s$ f great ef=ts to    
obta9 success4 ,^! conflict+ t5d5cies   
lead /raight to ! rese>* ( g5]al ideas1 
by aid ( :i* !y flatt] !mselves t !y c  
figure v importantly at a small exp5se1 
& draw ! att5tion ( ! public ) v little 

tr\ble4 ,& ,i "k n :e!r !y be wrong 9   
?9k+ ?us4 ,= _! read]s are z mu* av]se  
to inve/igat+ any?+ to ! bottom z !y c  
be !mselves2 & :at is g5]ally s\ght 9 ! 
productions ( ! m9d is easy pleasure &  
in=mation )\t labor4  ,if ari/ocratic   
nations d n make suffici5t use ( g5]al  
ideas1 & frequ5tly treat !m )           
inconsid]ate disda91 x is true1 on ! o!r
 h&1 t a democratic p is ev] ready to   
c>ry ideas ( ?is k9d to excess1 & to    
esp\se ! ) injudici\s w>m?4     ,*apt]  
,,iv3 ,:y ,! ,am]icans ,h ,nev] ,be5 ,s 
,eag] ,z ,! ,fr5* ,= ,g5]al ,ideas ,9   
,political ,matt]s  ,i obs]v$ 9 ! la/   
*apt]1 t ! ,am]icans %[ a less decid$   
ta/e = g5]al ideas ?an ! ,fr5*2 ?is is m
 especially true 9 political matt]s4    
,al?\gh ! ,am]icans infuse into _!      
legislation inf9itely m g5]al ideas ?an 
! ,engli%1 & al?\gh !y pay mu* m        
att5tion ?an ! latt] p to ! adju/m5t ( !
 practice ( affairs to !ory1 no         
political bodies 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates h ev]
 %[n s w>m an atta*m5t to g5]al ideas z 

! ,con/itu5t ,assembly & ! ,conv5tion 9 
,france4 ,at no "t has ! ,am]ican p laid
 hold on ideas ( ?is k9d ) ! passionate 
en]gy ( ! ,fr5* p 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1  
or display$ ! same bl9d confid5ce 9 !   
value & absolute tru? ( any !ory4 ,?is  
diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,am]icans & ! ,fr5*   
orig9ates 9 sev]al causes1 b pr9cipally 
9 ! foll[+ "o4 ,! ,am]icans =m a        
democratic p1 :i* has always itself     
direct$ public affairs4 ,! ,fr5* are a  
democratic p1 :o1 = a long "t1 c\ld only
 speculate on ! be/ mann] ( conduct+ !m4
 ,! social condition ( ,france l$ t p to
 conceive v g5]al ideas on ! subject (  
gov]nm5t1 :il/ its political con/itution
 prev5t$ x f correct+ ^? ideas by       
exp]im5t1 & f gradually detect+ _!      
insuffici5cy2 :]eas 9 ,am]ica ! two ?+s 
con/antly balance & correct ea* o!r4  ,x
 may seem1 at fir/ sight1 t ?is is v mu*
 oppos$ to :at ,i h said be=e1 t        
democratic nations d]ive _! love ( !ory 
f ! excitem5t ( _! active life4 ,a m    
att5tive exam9ation w %[ t !re is no?+  

contradictory 9 ! proposition4 ,m5 liv+ 
9 democratic c\ntries eag]ly lay hold ( 
g5]al ideas because !y h b little       
leisure1 & because ^! ideas sp>e !m !   
tr\ble ( /udy+ p>ticul>s4 ,?is is true2 
b x is only to be und]/ood to apply to  
^? matt]s :i* are n ! necess>y &        
habitual subjects ( _! ?\ghts4          
,m]cantile m5 w take up v eag]ly1 & )\t 
any v close scrut9y1 all ! g5]al ideas  
on philosophy1 politics1 sci5ce1 or !   
arts1 :i* may be pres5t$ to !m2 b = su* 
z relate to comm]ce1 !y w n receive !m  
)\t inquiry1 or adopt !m )\t res]ve4 ,! 
same ?+ applies to /atesm5 ) reg>d to   
g5]al ideas 9 politics4 ,if1 !n1 !re be 
a subject ^u :i* a democratic p is      
peculi>ly liable to ab&on itself1 bl9dly
 & extravagantly1 to g5]al ideas1 ! be/ 
corrective t c be us$ w be to make t    
subject a "p ( ! daily practical        
occupation ( t p4 ,! p w !n be compell$ 
to ent] ^u its details1 & ! details w   
tea* !m ! weak po9ts ( ! !ory4 ,?is     
rem$y may frequ5tly be a pa9ful "o1 b   

its effect is c]ta94  ,?us x happ5s1 t !
 democratic in/itutions :i* compel e    
citiz5 to take a practical "p 9 !       
gov]nm5t1 mod]ate t excessive ta/e =    
g5]al !ories 9 politics :i* ! pr9ciple (
 equality sugge/s4     ,*apt] ,v3 ,( ,! 
,mann] ,9 ,:i* ,religion ,9 ,! ,unit$   
,/ates ,avails ,itself ,( ,democratic   
,t5d5cies  ,i h laid x d[n 9 a prec$+   
*apt] t m5 _c d )\t dogmatical belief2 &
 ev5 t x is v mu* to be desir$ t su*    
belief %\ld exi/ among/ !m4 ,i n[ add1 t
 ( all ! k9ds ( dogmatical belief ! mo/ 
desirable appe>s to me to be dogmatical 
belief 9 matt]s ( religion2 & ?is is a v
 cle> inf]5ce1 ev5 f no high]           
consid]ation ?an ! int]e/s ( ?is _w4    
,!re is h>dly any human action1 h[ev]   
p>ticul> a "* be assign$ to x1 :i* does 
n orig9ate 9 "s v g5]al idea m5 h       
conceiv$ ( ! ,deity1 ( 8 relation to    
mank9d1 ( ! nature ( _! own s\ls1 & ( _!
 duties to _! fell[-creatures4 ,nor c   
any?+ prev5t ^! ideas f be+ ! common    
spr+ f :i* ev]y?+ else emanates4 ,m5 are

 !re=e immeasurably int]e/$ 9 acquir+   
fix$ ideas ( ,god1 ( ! s\l1 & ( _!      
common duties to _! ,creator & to _!    
fell[-m52 = d\bt on ^! fir/ pr9ciples   
w\ld ab&on all _! actions to ! impulse (
 *ance1 & w\ld condemn !m to live1 to a 
c]ta9 ext5t1 p[]less & undiscipl9$4     
,?is is !n ! subject on :i* x is mo/    
important = ea* ( u to ent]ta9 fix$     
ideas2 & unhappily x is also ! subject  
on :i* x is mo/ difficult = ea* ( u1    
left to himself1 to settle 8 op9ions by 
! sole =ce ( 8 reason4 ,none b m9ds     
s+ul>ly free f ! ord9>y anxieties (     
life--m9ds at once p5etrat+1 subtle1 &  
tra9$ by ?9k+--c ev5 ) ! assi/ance ( mu*
 "t & c>e1 s\nd ! dep? ( ^! mo/ necess>y
 tru?s4 ,&1 inde$1 we see t ^!          
philosoph]s are !mselves almo/ always   
en%r\d$ 9 unc]ta9ties2 t at e /ep !     
natural light :i* illum9ates _! pa? gr[s
 dimm] & less secure2 & t1 9 spite ( all
 _! ef=ts1 !y h z yet only discov]$ a   
small numb] ( conflict+ notions1 on :i* 
! m9d ( man has be5 toss$ ab\t = ?\s&s (

 ye>s1 )\t ei!r lay+ a firm] grasp on   
tru?1 or f9d+ novelty ev5 9 its errors4 
,/udies ( ?is nature are f> above !     
av]age capacity ( m52 & ev5 if !        
majority ( mank9d 7 capable ( su*       
pursuits1 x is evid5t t leisure to      
cultivate !m w\ld /ill be want+4 ,fix$  
ideas ( ,god & human nature are         
indisp5sable to ! daily practice ( m5's 
lives2 b ! practice ( _! lives prev5ts  
!m f acquir+ su* ideas4  ,! difficulty  
appe>s to me to be )\t a p>allel4       
,among/ ! sci5ces !re are "s :i* are    
useful to ! mass ( mank9d1 & :i* are )9 
its rea*2 o!rs c only be approa*$ by !  
few1 & are n cultivat$ by ! _m1 :o      
require no?+ beyond _! m remote         
applications3 b ! daily practice ( !    
sci5ce ,i speak ( is indisp5sable to    
all1 al?\gh ! /udy ( x is inaccessible  
to ! f> great] numb]4  ,g5]al ideas     
respect+ ,god & human nature are !re=e !
 ideas above all o!rs :i* x is mo/      
suitable to )draw f ! habitual action ( 
private judgm5t1 & 9 :i* !re is mo/ to  

ga9 & lea/ to lose by recogniz+ a       
pr9ciple ( au?ority4 ,! fir/ object & "o
 ( ! pr9cipal advantages ( religions1 is
 to furni% to ea* ( ^! fundam5tal       
que/ions a solution :i* is at once cle>1
 precise1 intelligible to ! mass (      
mank9d1 & la/+4 ,!re are religions :i*  
are v false & v absurd2 b x may be      
affirm$1 t any religion :i* rema9s )9 ! 
circle ,i h j trac$1 )\t aspir+ to g    
beyond x 7z _m religions h attempt$ to  
d1 = ! purpose ( enclos+ on e side !    
free progress ( ! human m9d71 imposes a 
salut>y re/ra9t on ! intellect2 & x mu/ 
be admitt$ t1 if x d n save m5 9 ano!r  
_w1 su* religion is at lea/ v conducive 
to _! happ9ess & _! greatness 9 ?is4    
,?is is m especially true ( m5 liv+ 9   
free c\ntries4 ,:5 ! religion ( a p is  
de/roy$1 d\bt gets hold ( ! highe/      
portions ( ! intellect1 & half p>alyzes 
all ! re/ ( its p[]s4 ,e man accu/oms   
himself to ent]ta9 none b confus$ &     
*ang+ notions on ! subjects mo/ int]e/+ 
to 8 fell[-creatures & himself4 ,8      

op9ions are ill-def5d$ & easily ab&on$3 
&1 despair+ ( ev] resolv+ by himself !  
h>de/ problems ( ! de/9y ( man1 he      
ignobly submits to ?9k no m ab\t !m4    
,su* a condition _c b en]vate ! s\l1    
relax ! spr+s ( ! w1 & prep>e a p =     
s]vitude4 ,nor does x only happ51 9 su* 
a case1 t !y all[ _! fre$om to be wre/$ 
f !m2 !y frequ5tly !mselves surr5d] x4  
,:5 !re is no long] any pr9ciple (      
au?ority 9 religion any m ?an 9         
politics1 m5 are spe$ily fright5$ at !  
aspect ( ?is unb\nd$ indep5d5ce4 ,!     
con/ant agitation ( all surr\nd+ ?+s    
al>ms & exhau/s !m4 ,z ev]y?+ is at sea 
9 ! sph]e ( ! intellect1 !y det]m9e at  
lea/ t ! me*anism ( society %\ld be firm
 & fix$2 & z !y _c resume _! anci5t     
belief1 !y assume a ma/]4  ,= my own "p1
 ,i d\bt :e!r man c ev] support at !    
same "t complete religi\s indep5d5ce &  
entire public fre$om4 ,& ,i am incl9$ to
 ?9k1 t if fai? be want+ 9 him1 he mu/  
s]ve2 & if he be free1 he mu/ believe4  
,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ?is great utility (     

religions is /ill m obvi\s among/       
nations :]e equality ( conditions       
prevails ?an among/ o!rs4 ,x mu/ be     
ackn[l$g$ t equality1 :i* br+s great    
b5efits into ! _w1 nev]!less sugge/s to 
m5 7z w be %[n h]eaft]7 "s v dang]\s    
prop5sities4 ,x t5ds to isolate !m f ea*
 o!r1 to conc5trate e man's att5tion ^u 
himself2 & x lays op5 ! s\l to an       
inord9ate love ( mat]ial gratification4 
,! greate/ advantage ( religion is to   
inspire diametrically contr>y pr9ciples4
 ,!re is no religion :i* does n place ! 
object ( man's desires above & beyond ! 
treasures ( e>?1 & :i* does n naturally 
raise 8 s\l to regions f> above ^? ( !  
s5ses4 ,nor is !re any :i* does n impose
 on man "s sort ( duties to 8 k9d1 & ?us
 draws him at times f ! contemplation ( 
himself4 ,?is occurs 9 religions ! mo/  
false & dang]\s4 ,religi\s nations are  
!re=e naturally /rong on ! v po9t on :i*
 democratic nations are weak2 :i* %[s ( 
:at importance x is = m5 to pres]ve _!  
religion z _! conditions become m equal4

  ,i h nei!r ! "r nor ! int5tion (      
exam9+ ! sup]natural means :i* ,god     
employs to infuse religi\s belief into !
 he>t ( man4 ,i am at ?is mom5t consid]+
 religions 9 a purely human po9t ( view3
 my object is to inquire by :at means !y
 may mo/ easily reta9 _! sway 9 !       
democratic ages ^u :i* we are ent]+4 ,x 
has be5 %[n t1 at times ( g5]al         
cultivation & equality1 ! human m9d does
 n cons5t to adopt dogmatical op9ions   
)\t reluctance1 & feels _! necessity    
acutely 9 spiritual matt]s only4 ,?is   
proves1 9 ! fir/ place1 t at su* times  
religions ought1 m cauti\sly ?an at any 
o!r1 to conf9e !mselves )9 _! own       
prec9cts2 = 9 seek+ to ext5d _! p[]     
beyond religi\s matt]s1 !y incur a risk 
( n be+ believ$ at all4 ,! circle )9 :i*
 !y seek to b\nd ! human intellect ought
 !re=e to be c>efully trac$1 & beyond   
its v]ge ! m9d %\ld be left 9 entire    
fre$om to its own guidance4 ,mahomm$    
pr(ess$ to d]ive f ,heav51 & he has     
ins]t$ 9 ! ,koran1 n only a body (      

religi\s doctr9es1 b political maxims1  
civil & crim9al laws1 & !ories ( sci5ce4
 ,! gospel1 on ! contr>y1 only speaks ( 
! g5]al relations ( m5 to ,god & to ea* 
o!r--beyond :i* x inculcates & imposes  
no po9t ( fai?4 ,?is alone1 besides a   
?\s& o!r reasons1 w\ld suffice to prove 
t ! =m] ( ^! religions w nev] long      
pr$om9ate 9 a cultivat$ & democratic    
age1 :il/ ! latt] is de/9$ to reta9 its 
sway at ^! z at all o!r p]iods4  ,b 9   
cont9uation ( ?is bran* ( ! subject1 ,i 
f9d t 9 ord] = religions to ma9ta9 _!   
au?ority1 humanly speak+1 9 democratic  
ages1 !y mu/ n only conf9e !mselves     
/rictly )9 ! circle ( spiritual matt]s3 
_! p[] also dep5ds v mu* on ! nature ( !
 belief !y inculcate1 on ! ext]nal =ms  
!y assume1 & on ! obligations !y impose4
 ,! prec$+ obs]vation1 t equality leads 
m5 to v g5]al & v ext5sive notions1 is  
pr9cipally to be und]/ood z appli$ to ! 
"q ( religion4 ,m5 liv+ 9 a simil> &    
equal condition 9 ! _w readily conceive 
! idea ( ! "o ,god1 gov]n+ e man by !   

same laws1 & grant+ to e man future     
happ9ess on ! same conditions4 ,! idea (
 ! unity ( mank9d con/antly leads !m    
back to ! idea ( ! unity ( ! ,creator2  
:il/1 on ! contr>y1 9 a /ate ( society  
:]e m5 are brok5 up into v unequal      
ranks1 !y are apt to devise z _m deities
 z !re are nations1 ca/es1 classes1 or  
families1 & to trace a ?\s& private     
roads to heav54  ,x _c be d5i$ t        
,*ri/ianity itself has felt1 to a c]ta9 
ext5t1 ! influ5ce :i* social & political
 conditions ex]cise on religi\s op9ions4
 ,at ! epo* at :i* ! ,*ri/ian religion  
appe>$ ^u e>?1 ,provid5ce1 by :om ! _w 0
 d\btless prep>$ = its com+1 _h ga!r$ a 
l>ge portion ( ! human race1 l an imm5se
 flock1 "u ! sceptre ( ! ,caes>s4 ,! m5 
( :om ?is multitude 0 compos$ 7 di/+ui%$
 by num]\s diff]5ces2 b !y _h ?us mu* 9 
common1 t !y all obey$ ! same laws1 & t 
e subject 0 s weak & insignificant 9    
relation to ! imp]ial pot5tate1 t all   
appe>$ equal :5 _! condition 0 contra/$ 
) 84 ,?is novel & peculi> /ate ( mank9d 

necess>ily pr$ispos$ m5 to li/5 to !    
g5]al tru?s :i* ,*ri/ianity tea*es1 &   
may s]ve to expla9 ! facility & rapidity
 ) :i* !y !n p5etrat$ into ! human m9d4 
,! c\nt]p>t ( ?is /ate ( ?+s 0 exhibit$ 
aft] ! de/ruction ( ! empire4 ,! ,roman 
_w be+ !n z x 7 %att]$ into a ?\s&      
fragm5ts1 ea* nation resum$ its pri/9e  
individuality4 ,an inf9ite scale ( ranks
 v soon grew up 9 ! bosom ( ^! nations2 
! diff]5t races 7 m %>ply def9$1 & ea*  
nation 0 divid$ by ca/es into sev]al    
peoples4 ,9 ! mid/ ( ?is common ef=t1   
:i* seem$ to be urg+ human society to ! 
greate/ conceivable am\nt ( volunt>y    
subdivision1 ,*ri/ianity did n lose     
sight ( ! lead+ g5]al ideas :i* x _h    
br\ght into ! _w4 ,b x appe>$1          
nev]!less1 to l5d itself1 z mu* z 0     
possible1 to ^? new t5d5cies to :i* !   
fractional di/ribution ( mank9d _h giv5 
bir?4 ,m5 cont9u$ to wor%ip an only     
,god1 ! ,creator & ,pres]v] ( all ?+s2 b
 e p1 e city1 &1 s to speak1 e man1     
?\ght to obta9 "s di/9ct privilege1 & w9

 ! favor ( an especial patron at ! foot 
( ! ,?rone ( ,grace4 ,unable to         
subdivide ! ,deity1 !y multipli$ &      
improp]ly enhanc$ ! importance ( ! div9e
 ag5ts4 ,! homage due to sa9ts & angels 
became an almo/ idolatr\s wor%ip among/ 
! majority ( ! ,*ri/ian _w2 &           
appreh5sions might be ent]ta9$ = a mom5t
 le/ ! religion ( ,*ri/ %\ld retrograde 
t[>ds ! sup]/itions :i* x _h subdu$4 ,x 
seems evid5t1 t ! m ! b>ri]s are remov$ 
:i* sep>ate nation f nation among/      
mank9d1 & citiz5 f citiz5 among/ a p1 ! 
/rong] is ! b5t ( ! human m9d1 z if by  
its own impulse1 t[>ds ! idea ( an only 
& all-p[]ful ,be+1 disp5s+ equal laws 9 
! same mann] to e man4 ,9 democratic    
ages1 !n1 x is m p>ticul>ly important n 
to all[ ! homage paid to second>y ag5ts 
to be conf\nd$ ) ! wor%ip due to !      
,creator alone4  ,ano!r tru? is no less 
cle>--t religions ought to assume few]  
ext]nal obs]vances 9 democratic p]iods  
?an at any o!rs4 ,9 speak+ (            
philosophical me?od among ! ,am]icans1  

,i h %[n t no?+ is m repugnant to !     
human m9d 9 an age ( equality ?an ! idea
 ( subjection to =ms4 ,m5 liv+ at su*   
times are impati5t ( figures2 to _! eyes
 symbols appe> to be ! pu]ile artifice  
:i* is us$ to conceal or to set (f      
tru?s1 :i* %\ld m naturally be b>$ to ! 
light ( op5 day3 !y are unmov$ by       
c]emonial obs]vances1 & !y are pr$ispos$
 to atta* a second>y importance to !    
details ( public wor%ip4 ,^? ^: c>e x is
 to regulate ! ext]nal =ms ( religion 9 
a democratic age %\ld pay a close       
att5tion to ^! natural prop5sities ( !  
human m9d1 9 ord] n unnecess>ily to run 
c\nt] to !m4 ,i firmly believe 9 !      
necessity ( =ms1 :i* fix ! human m9d 9 !
 contemplation ( ab/ract tru?s1 &       
/imulate its ardor 9 ! pursuit ( !m1    
:il/ !y invigorate its p[]s ( reta9+ !m 
/eadfa/ly4 ,nor d ,i suppose t x is     
possible to ma9ta9 a religion )\t       
ext]nal obs]vances2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 ,i  
am p]suad$ t1 9 ! ages ^u :i* we are    
ent]+1 x w\ld be peculi>ly dang]\s to   

multiply !m beyond measure2 & t !y ought
 r to be limit$ to z mu* z is absolutely
 necess>y to p]petuate ! doctr9e itself1
 :i* is ! sub/ance ( religions ( :i* !  
ritual is only ! =m4 99a ,a religion :i*
 %\ld become m m9ute1 m p]emptory1 & m  
sur*>g$ ) small obs]vances at a "t 9 :i*
 m5 are becom+ m equal1 w\ld soon f9d   
itself r$uc$ to a b& ( fanatical zealots
 9 ! mid/ ( an infidel p4  ,footnote a3 
,9 all religions !re are "s c]emonies   
:i* are inh]5t 9 ! sub/ance ( ! fai?    
itself1 & 9 ^! no?+ %\ld1 on any acc\nt1
 be *ang$4 ,?is is especially ! case )  
,roman ,ca?olicism1 9 :i* ! doctr9e & ! 
=m are frequ5tly s closely unit$ z to =m
 "o po9t ( belief4  ,i anticipate !     
objection1 t z all religions h g5]al &  
et]nal tru?s = _! object1 !y _c ?us %ape
 !mselves to ! %ift+ _s ( e age )\t     
=feit+ _! claim to c]ta9ty 9 ! eyes (   
mank9d4 ,to ?is ,i reply aga91 t !      
pr9cipal op9ions :i* con/itute belief1 &
 :i* !ologians call articles ( fai?1 mu/
 be v c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! accessories 

connect$ ) !m4 ,religions are oblig$ to 
hold fa/ to ! =m]1 :atev] be ! peculi>  
_s ( ! age2 b !y %\ld take good c>e n to
 b9d !mselves 9 ! same mann] to ! latt] 
at a "t :5 ev]y?+ is 9 transition1 & :5 
! m9d1 accu/om$ to ! mov+ pageant (     
human affairs1 reluctantly endures !    
attempt to fix x to any giv5 po9t4 ,!   
fixity ( ext]nal & second>y ?+s c only  
af=d a *ance ( duration :5 civil society
 is itself fix$2 "u any o!r circum/ances
 ,i hold x to be p]il\s4  ,we %all h    
occasion to see t1 ( all ! passions :i* 
orig9ate 91 or are fo/]$ by1 equality1  
!re is "o :i* x r5d]s peculi>ly int5se1 
& :i* x infuses at ! same "t into ! he>t
 ( e man3 ,i mean ! love ( well-be+4 ,! 
ta/e = well-be+ is ! prom95t & indelible
 feature ( democratic ages4 ,x may be   
believ$ t a religion :i* %\ld und]take  
to de/roy s deep seat$ a passion1 w\ld  
meet its own de/ruction !nce 9 ! end2 & 
if x attempt$ to wean m5 entirely f !   
contemplation ( ! good ?+s ( ?is _w1 9  
ord] to devote _! faculties exclusively 

to ! ?\ght ( ano!r1 x may be =ese5 t !  
s\l w\ld at l5g? escape f its grasp1 to 
plunge into ! exclusive enjoym5t (      
pres5t & mat]ial pleasures4 ,! *ief     
conc]n ( religions is to purify1 to     
regulate1 & to re/ra9 ! excessive &     
exclusive ta/e = well-be+ :i* m5 feel at
 p]iods ( equality2 b !y w\ld err 9     
attempt+ to control x completely or to  
eradicate x4 ,!y w n succe$ 9 cur+ m5 ( 
! love ( ri*es3 b !y may /ill p]suade m5
 to enri* !mselves by none b hone/      
means4  ,?is br+s me to a f9al          
consid]ation1 :i* comprises1 z x 71 all 
! o!rs4 ,! m ! conditions ( m5 are      
equaliz$ & assimilat$ to ea* o!r1 ! m   
important is x = religions1 :il/ !y     
c>efully ab/a9 f ! daily turmoil (      
secul> affairs1 n ne$lessly to run c\nt]
 to ! ideas :i* g5]ally prevail1 & !    
p]man5t int]e/s :i* exi/ 9 ! mass ( ! p4
 ,= z public op9ion gr[s to be m & m    
evid5tly ! fir/ & mo/ irresi/ible (     
exi/+ p[]s1 ! religi\s pr9ciple has no  
ext]nal support /rong en\gh to enable x 

long to resi/ its attacks4 ,?is is n    
less true ( a democratic p1 rul$ by a   
despot1 ?an 9 a republic4 ,9 ages (     
equality1 k+s may (t5 comm& ob$i5ce1 b !
 majority always comm&s belief3 to !    
majority1 !re=e1 def]5ce is to be paid 9
 :atsoev] is n contr>y to ! fai?4  ,i   
%[$ 9 my =m] volumes h[ ! ,am]ican cl]gy
 /& alo( f secul> affairs4 ,?is is ! mo/
 obvi\s1 b x is n ! only1 example ( _!  
self-re/ra9t4 ,9 ,am]ica religion is a  
di/9ct sph]e1 9 :i* ! prie/ is sov]eign1
 b out ( :i* he takes c>e nev] to g4 ,)9
 its limits he is ! ma/] ( ! m9d2 beyond
 !m1 he leaves m5 to !mselves1 &        
surr5d]s !m to ! indep5d5ce & in/ability
 :i* belong to _! nature & _! age4 ,i h 
se5 no c\ntry 9 :i* ,*ri/ianity is clo!d
 ) few] =ms1 figures1 & obs]vances ?an 9
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 or :]e x pres5ts m    
di/9ct1 m simple1 or m g5]al notions to 
! m9d4 ,al?\gh ! ,*ri/ians ( ,am]ica are
 divid$ into a multitude ( sects1 !y all
 look ^u _! religion 9 ! same light4    
,?is applies to ,roman ,ca?olicism z    

well z to ! o!r =ms ( belief4 ,!re are  
no ,romi% prie/s :o %[ less ta/e = !    
m9ute individual obs]vances =           
extraord9>y or peculi> means (          
salvation1 or :o cl+ m to ! _s1 & less  
to ! lett] ( ! law1 ?an ! ,roman        
,ca?olic prie/s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4      
,n[h]e is t doctr9e ( ! ,*ur*1 :i*      
prohibits ! wor%ip res]v$ to ,god alone 
f be+ (f]$ to ! sa9ts1 m cle>ly         
inculcat$ or m g5]ally foll[$4 ,yet !   
,roman ,ca?olics ( ,am]ica are v        
submissive & v s9c]e4  ,ano!r rem>k is  
applicable to ! cl]gy ( e communion4 ,! 
,am]ican m9i/]s ( ! gospel d n attempt  
to draw or to fix all ! ?\ghts ( man ^u 
! life to come2 !y are will+ to surr5d] 
a portion ( 8 he>t to ! c>es ( ! pres5t2
 seem+ to consid] ! goods ( ?is _w z    
important1 al?\gh z second>y1 objects4  
,if !y take no "p !mselves 9 productive 
labor1 !y are at lea/ int]e/$ 9 its     
progression1 & ready to applaud its     
results2 & :il/ !y nev] cease to po9t to
 ! o!r _w z ! great object ( ! hopes &  

fe>s ( ! believ]1 !y d n =bid him       
hone/ly to c\rt prosp]ity 9 ?is4 ,f> f  
attempt+ to %[ t ^! ?+s are di/9ct &    
contr>y to "o ano!r1 !y /udy r to f9d   
out on :at po9t !y are mo/ ne>ly &      
closely connect$4  ,all ! ,am]ican cl]gy
 "k & respect ! intellectual supremacy  
ex]cis$ by ! majority2 !y nev] su/a9 any
 b necess>y conflicts ) x4 ,!y take no  
%>e 9 ! alt]cations ( p>ties1 b !y      
readily adopt ! g5]al op9ions ( _!      
c\ntry & _! age2 & !y all[ !mselves to  
be borne away )\t opposition 9 ! curr5t 
( feel+ & op9ion by :i* ev]y?+ ar\nd !m 
is c>ri$ along4 ,!y endeavor to am5d _! 
contempor>ies1 b !y d n quit fell[%ip ) 
!m4 ,public op9ion is !re=e nev] ho/ile 
to !m2 x r supports & protects !m2 & _! 
belief owes its au?ority at ! same "t to
 ! /r5g? :i* is its own1 & to t :i* !y  
borr[ f ! op9ions ( ! majority4 ,?us x  
is t1 by respect+ all democratic        
t5d5cies n absolutely contr>y to h]self1
 & by mak+ use ( sev]al ( !m = h] own   
purposes1 religion su/a9s an advantage\s

 /ruggle ) t _s ( individual indep5d5ce 
:i* is h] mo/ dang]\s antagoni/4        
,*apt] ,,vi3 ,( ,! ,progress ,( ,roman  
,ca?olicism ,9 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates  ,am]ica
 is ! mo/ democratic c\ntry 9 ! _w1 & x 
is at ! same "t 7accord+ to reports     
wor?y ( belief7 ! c\ntry 9 :i* ! ,roman 
,ca?olic religion makes mo/ progress4   
,at fir/ sight ?is is surpris+4 ,two ?+s
 mu/ "h be accurately di/+ui%$3 equality
 incl9es m5 to wi% to =m _! own op9ions2
 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x imbues !m ) ! ta/e & 
! idea ( unity1 simplicity1 &           
imp>tiality 9 ! p[] :i* gov]ns society4 
,m5 liv+ 9 democratic ages are !re=e v  
prone to %ake (f all religi\s au?ority2 
b if !y cons5t to subject !mselves to   
any au?ority ( ?is k9d1 !y *oose at lea/
 t x %\ld be s+le & uni=m4 ,religi\s    
p[]s n radiat+ f a common c5tre are     
naturally repugnant to _! m9ds2 & !y    
almo/ z readily conceive t !re %\ld be  
no religion1 z t !re %\ld be sev]al4 ,at
 ! pres5t "t1 m ?an 9 any prec$+ "o1    
,roman ,ca?olics are se5 to lapse into  

infidelity1 & ,prote/ants to be conv]t$ 
to ,roman ,ca?olicism4 ,if ! ,roman     
,ca?olic fai? be consid]$ )9 ! pale ( ! 
*ur*1 x w\ld seem to be los+ gr\nd2 )\t 
t pale1 to be ga9+ x4 ,nor is ?is       
circum/ance difficult ( explanation4 ,! 
m5 ( our days are naturally dispos$ to  
believe2 b1 z soon z !y h any religion1 
!y imm$iately f9d 9 !mselves a lat5t    
prop5sity :i* urges !m unconsci\sly     
t[>ds ,ca?olicism4 ,_m ( ! doctr9es & ! 
practices ( ! ,romi% ,*ur* a/oni% !m2 b 
!y feel a secret admiration = its       
discipl9e1 & its great unity attracts   
!m4 ,if ,ca?olicism c\ld at l5g? )draw  
itself f ! political animosities to :i* 
x has giv5 rise1 ,i h h>dly any d\bt b t
 ! same _s ( ! age1 :i* appe>s to be s  
oppos$ to x1 w\ld become s favorable z  
to admit ( its great & sudd5 advancem5t4
 ,"o ( ! mo/ ord9>y weaknesses ( ! human
 intellect is to seek to reconcile      
contr>y pr9ciples1 & to pur*ase peace at
 ! exp5se ( logic4 ,?us !re h ev] be51 &
 w ev] be1 m5 :o1 aft] hav+ submitt$ "s 

portion ( _! religi\s belief to !       
pr9ciple ( au?ority1 w seek to exempt   
sev]al o!r p>ts ( _! fai? f its         
influ5ce1 & to keep _! m9ds float+ at   
r&om betwe5 lib]ty & ob$i5ce4 ,b ,i am  
incl9$ to believe t ! numb] ( ^! ?9k]s w
 be less 9 democratic ?an 9 o!r ages2 & 
t our po/]ity w t5d m & m to a s+le     
division into two p>ts--"s rel9qui%+    
,*ri/ianity entirely1 & o!rs return+ to 
! bosom ( ! ,*ur* ( ,rome4     ,*apt]   
,,vii3 ,( ,! ,cause ,( ,a ,lean+ ,to    
,pan!ism ,among/ ,democratic ,nations   
,i %all take occasion h]eaft] to %[ "u  
:at =m ! prepond]at+ ta/e ( a democratic
 p = v g5]al ideas manife/s itself 9    
politics2 b ,i w\ld po9t out1 at !      
pres5t /age ( my "w1 its pr9cipal effect
 on philosophy4 ,x _c be d5i$ t pan!ism 
has made great progress 9 our age4 ,!   
writ+s ( a "p ( ,europe be> visible m>ks
 ( x3 ! ,g]mans introduce x into        
philosophy1 & ! ,fr5* into lit]ature4   
,mo/ ( ! works ( imag9ation publi%$ 9   
,france conta9 "s op9ions or "s t+e     

caught f pan!i/ical doctr9es1 or !y     
disclose "s t5d5cy to su* doctr9es 9 _! 
au?ors4 ,?is appe>s to me n only to     
proce$ f an accid5tal1 b f a p]man5t    
cause4  ,:5 ! conditions ( society are  
becom+ m equal1 & ea* individual man    
becomes m l all ! re/1 m weak & m       
insignificant1 a habit gr[s up ( ceas+  
to notice ! citiz5s to consid] only ! p1
 & ( ov]look+ individuals to ?9k only ( 
_! k9d4 ,at su* times ! human m9d seeks 
to embrace a multitude ( diff]5t objects
 at once2 & x con/antly /rives to succe$
 9 connect+ a v>iety ( consequ5ces ) a  
s+le cause4 ,! idea ( unity s possesses 
itself ( man1 & is s\ght = by him s     
univ]sally1 t if he ?9ks he has f\nd x1 
he readily yields himself up to repose 9
 t belief4 ,nor does he cont5t himself )
 ! discov]y t no?+ is 9 ! _w b a        
creation & a ,creator2 /ill emb>rass$ by
 ?is prim>y division ( ?+s1 he seeks to 
exp& & to simplify 8 conception by      
includ+ ,god & ! univ]se 9 "o great     
:ole4 ,if !re be a philosophical sy/em  

:i* tea*es t all ?+s mat]ial &          
immat]ial1 visible & invisible1 :i* ! _w
 conta9s1 are only to be consid]$ z !   
sev]al p>ts ( an imm5se ,be+1 :i* alone 
rema9s un*ang$ amid/ ! cont9ual *ange & 
ceaseless trans=mation ( all t          
con/itutes x1 we may readily inf] t su* 
a sy/em1 al?\gh x de/roy ! individuality
 ( man--nay1 r because x de/roys t      
individuality--w h secret *>ms = m5 liv+
 9 democracies4 ,all _! habits ( ?\ght  
prep>e !m to conceive x1 & pr$ispose !m 
to adopt x4 ,x naturally attracts &     
fixes _! imag9ation2 x fo/]s ! pride1   
:il/ x soo!s ! indol5ce1 ( _! m9ds4     
,among/ ! diff]5t sy/ems by ^: aid      
philosophy endeavors to expla9 !        
univ]se1 ,i believe pan!ism to be "o (  
^? mo/ fitt$ to s$uce ! human m9d 9     
democratic ages4 ,aga9/ x all :o abide 9
 _! atta*m5t to ! true greatness ( man  
%\ld /ruggle & comb9e4     ,*apt]       
,,viii3 ,! ,pr9ciple ,( ,equality       
,sugge/s ,to ,! ,am]icans ,! ,idea ,( ,!
 ,indef9ite ,p]fectibility ,( ,man      

,equality sugge/s to ! human m9d sev]al 
ideas :i* w\ld n h orig9at$ f any o!r   
s\rce1 & x modifies almo/ all ^?        
previ\sly ent]ta9$4 ,i take z an example
 ! idea ( human p]fectibility1 because x
 is "o ( ! pr9cipal notions t !         
intellect c conceive1 & because x       
con/itutes ( itself a great             
philosophical !ory1 :i* is e in/ant to  
be trac$ by its consequ5ces 9 ! practice
 ( human affairs4 ,al?\gh man has _m    
po9ts ( resemblance ) ! brute creation1 
"o *>act]i/ic is peculi> to himself--he 
improves3 !y are incapable ( improvem5t4
 ,mank9d c\ld n fail to discov] ?is     
diff]5ce f its e>lie/ p]iod4 ,! idea (  
p]fectibility is !re=e z old z ! _w2    
equality did n give bir? to x1 al?\gh x 
has imp>t$ to x a novel "*4  ,:5 !      
citiz5s ( a community are class$ accord+
 to _! rank1 _! pr(ession1 or _! bir?1 &
 :5 all m5 are con/ra9$ to foll[ ! c>e] 
:i* happ5s to op5 be=e !m1 ev]yone ?9ks 
t ! utmo/ limits ( human p[] are to be  
disc]n$ 9 proximity to himself1 & none  

seeks any long] to resi/ ! inevitable   
law ( 8 de/9y4 ,n inde$ t an ari/ocratic
 p absolutely conte/s man's faculty (   
self-improvem5t1 b !y d n hold x to be  
indef9ite2 amelioration !y conceive1 b n
 *ange3 !y imag9e t ! future condition (
 society may be bett]1 b n ess5tially   
diff]5t2 & :il/ !y admit t mank9d has   
made va/ /rides 9 improvem5t1 & may /ill
 h "s to make1 !y assign to x be=eh&    
c]ta9 impassable limits4 ,?us !y d n    
presume t !y h arriv$ at ! supreme good 
or at absolute tru? 7:at p or :at man 0 
ev] wild en\gh to imag9e x87 b !y *]i% a
 p]suasion t !y h pretty ne>ly rea*$ t  
degree ( greatness & k :i* our imp]fect 
nature admits (2 & z no?+ moves ab\t !m 
!y are will+ to fancy t ev]y?+ is 9 its 
fit place4 ,!n x is t ! legislator      
affects to lay d[n et]nal laws2 t k+s & 
nations w raise none b imp]i%able       
monum5ts2 & t ! pres5t g5]ation         
und]takes to sp>e g5]ations to come !   
c>e ( regulat+ _! de/9ies4  ,9          
proportion z ca/es disappe> & ! classes 

( society approximate--z mann]s1 cu/oms1
 & laws v>y1 f ! tumultu\s int]c\rse (  
m5--z new facts arise--z new tru?s are  
br\ght to light--z anci5t op9ions are   
dissipat$1 & o!rs take _! place--! image
 ( an ideal p]fection1 =ev] on ! w+1    
pres5ts itself to ! human m9d4 ,cont9ual
 *anges are !n e in/ant occurr+ "u !    
obs]vation ( e man3 ! position ( "s is  
r5d]$ worse2 & he le>ns b too well1 t no
 p & no individual1 h[ enlight5$ soev]  
!y may be1 c lay claim to               
infallibility2--! condition ( o!rs is   
improv$2 :5ce he inf]s t man is end[$ ) 
an indef9ite faculty ( improvem5t4 ,8   
rev]ses tea* him t none may hope to h   
discov]$ absolute good--8 success       
/imulates him to ! nev]-end+ pursuit (  
x4 ,?us1 =ev] seek+--=ev] fall+1 to rise
 aga9--(t5 disappo9t$1 b n disc\rag$--he
 t5ds unceas+ly t[>ds t unmeasur$       
greatness s indi/9ctly visible at ! end 
( ! long track :i* humanity has yet to  
tread4 ,x c h>dly be believ$ h[ _m facts
 naturally fl[ f ! philosophical !ory ( 

! indef9ite p]fectibility ( man1 or h[  
/rong an influ5ce x ex]cises ev5 on m5  
:o1 liv+ entirely = ! purposes ( action 
& n ( ?\ght1 seem to con=m _! actions to
 x1 )\t kn[+ any?+ ab\t x4 ,i acco/ an  
,am]ican sailor1 & ,i inquire :y ! %ips 
( 8 c\ntry are built s z to la/ b = a   
%ort "t2 he answ]s )\t hesitation t !   
art ( navigation is e day mak+ su* rapid
 progress1 t ! f9e/ vessel w\ld become  
almo/ useless if x la/$ beyond a c]ta9  
numb] ( ye>s4 ,9 ^! words1 :i* fell     
accid5tally & on a p>ticul> subject f a 
man ( rude atta9m5ts1 ,i recognize !    
g5]al & sy/ematic idea ^u :i* a great p 
directs all its conc]ns4  ,ari/ocratic  
nations are naturally too apt to n>r[ ! 
scope ( human p]fectibility2 democratic 
nations to exp& x beyond compass4       
,*apt] ,,ix3 ,! ,example ,( ,! ,am]icans
 ,does ,n ,prove ,t ,a ,democratic ,p ,c
 ,h ,no ,aptitude ,& ,no ,ta/e ,=       
,sci5ce1 ,lit]ature1 ,or ,art  ,x mu/ be
 ackn[l$g$ t among/ few ( ! civiliz$    
nations ( our "t h ! high] sci5ces made 

less progress ?an 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & 9
 few h great arti/s1 f9e poets1 or      
celebrat$ writ]s be5 m r>e4 ,_m         
,europeans1 /ruck by ?is fact1 h look$  
^u x z a natural & inevitable result (  
equality2 & !y h suppos$ t if a         
democratic /ate ( society & democratic  
in/itutions 7 ev] to prevail ov] ! :ole 
e>?1 ! human m9d w\ld gradually f9d its 
beacon-lights gr[ dim1 & m5 w\ld relapse
 into a p]iod ( d>kness4 ,to reason ?us 
is1 ,i ?9k1 to conf\nd sev]al ideas :i* 
x is important to divide & to exam9e    
sep>ately3 x is to m+le1 un9t5tionally1 
:at is democratic ) :at is only         
,am]ican4  ,! religion pr(ess$ by ! fir/
 emigrants1 & bequea!d by !m to _!      
desc5dants1 simple 9 its =m ( wor%ip1   
au/]e & almo/ h>% 9 its pr9ciples1 &    
ho/ile to ext]nal symbols & to c]emonial
 pomp1 is naturally unfavorable to ! f9e
 arts1 & only yields a reluctant        
suff]ance to ! pleasures ( lit]ature4 ,!
 ,am]icans are a v old & a v enlight5$  
p1 :o h fall5 ^u a new & unb\nd$ c\ntry1

 :]e !y may ext5d !mselves at pleasure1 
& :i* !y may f]tilize )\t difficulty4   
,?is /ate ( ?+s is )\t a p>allel 9 !    
hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,9 ,am]ica1 !n1 e "o f9ds
 facilities1 unkn[n else:]e1 = mak+ or  
increas+ 8 =tune4 ,! _s ( ga9 is always 
on ! /ret*1 & ! human m9d1 con/antly    
div]t$ f ! pleasures ( imag9ation & !   
labors ( ! intellect1 is !re sway$ by no
 impulse b ! pursuit ( weal?4 ,n only   
are manufactur+ & comm]cial classes to  
be f\nd 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z !y are 9   
all o!r c\ntries2 b :at nev] occurr$    
else:]e1 ! :ole community is            
simultane\sly engag$ 9 productive       
indu/ry & comm]ce4 ,i am conv9c$ t1 if !
 ,am]icans _h be5 alone 9 ! _w1 ) !     
fre$om & ! k acquir$ by _! =efa!rs1 & ! 
passions :i* are _! own1 !y w\ld n h be5
 sl[ to discov] t progress _c long be   
made 9 ! application ( ! sci5ces )\t    
cultivat+ ! !ory ( !m2 t all ! arts are 
p]fect$ by "o ano!r3 &1 h[ev] absorb$ !y
 might h be5 by ! pursuit ( ! pr9cipal  
object ( _! desires1 !y w\ld spe$ily h  

admitt$1 t x is necess>y to turn aside f
 x occasionally1 9 ord] ! bett] to atta9
 x 9 ! end4  ,! ta/e = ! pleasures ( !  
m9d is moreov] s natural to ! he>t (    
civiliz$ man1 t among/ ! polite nations1
 :i* are lea/ dispos$ to give !mselves  
up to ^! pursuits1 a c]ta9 numb] (      
citiz5s are always to be f\nd :o take "p
 9 !m4 ,?is intellectual crav+1 :5 once 
felt1 w\ld v soon h be5 satisfi$4 ,b at 
! v "t :5 ! ,am]icans 7 naturally incl9$
 to require no?+ ( sci5ce b its special 
applications to ! useful arts & ! means 
( r5d]+ life com=table1 le>n$ & lit]>y  
,europe 0 engag$ 9 explor+ ! common     
s\rces ( tru?1 & 9 improv+ at ! same "t 
all t c m9i/] to ! pleasures or satisfy 
! wants ( man4 ,at ! head ( ! enlight5$ 
nations ( ! ,old ,_w ! inhabitants ( !  
,unit$ ,/ates m p>ticul>ly di/+ui%$ "o1 
to :i* !y 7 closely unit$ by a common   
orig9 & by k9dr$ habits4 ,among/ ?is p  
!y f\nd di/+ui%$ m5 ( sci5ce1 arti/s (  
skill1 writ]s ( em95ce1 & !y 7 enabl$ to
 enjoy ! treasures ( ! intellect )\t    

requir+ to labor 9 amass+ !m4 ,i _c     
cons5t to sep>ate ,am]ica f ,europe1 9  
spite ( ! ocean :i* int]v5es4 ,i consid]
 ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates z t portion ( !  
,engli% p :i* is commission$ to explore 
! wilds ( ! ,new ,_w2 :il/ ! re/ ( !    
nation1 enjoy+ m leisure & less h>ass$  
by ! drudg]y ( life1 may devote its     
en]gies to ?\ght1 & enl>ge 9 all        
directions ! empire ( ! m9d4 ,! position
 ( ! ,am]icans is !re=e q exceptional1 &
 x may be believ$ t no democratic p w   
ev] be plac$ 9 a simil> "o4 ,_! /rictly 
,puritanical orig9--_! exclusively      
comm]cial habits--ev5 ! c\ntry !y       
inhabit1 :i* seems to div]t _! m9ds f ! 
pursuit ( sci5ce1 lit]ature1 & ! arts--!
 proximity ( ,europe1 :i* all[s !m to   
neglect ^! pursuits )\t relaps+ into    
b>b>ism--a ?\s& special causes1 ( :i* ,i
 h only be5 able to po9t out ! mo/      
important--h s+ul>ly concurr$ to fix !  
m9d ( ! ,am]ican ^u purely practical    
objects4 ,8 passions1 8 wants1 8        
education1 & ev]y?+ ab\t him seem to    

unite 9 draw+ ! native ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates
 e>?w>d3 8 religion alone bids him turn1
 f "t to "t1 a transi5t & di/ract$      
glance to heav54 ,let u cease !n to view
 all democratic nations "u ! mask ( !   
,am]ican p1 & let u attempt to survey !m
 at l5g? ) _! own prop] features4  ,x is
 possible to conceive a p n subdivid$   
into any ca/es or scale ( ranks2 9 :i* !
 law1 recogniz+ no privileges1 %\ld     
divide inh]it$ prop]ty into equal %>es2 
b :i*1 at ! same "t1 %\ld be )\t k & )\t
 fre$om4 ,nor is ?is an empty hypo!sis3 
a despot may f9d t x is 8 int]e/ to r5d]
 8 subjects equal & to leave !m         
ignorant1 9 ord] m easily to keep !m    
slaves4 ,n only w\ld a democratic p (   
?is k9d %[ nei!r aptitude nor ta/e =    
sci5ce1 lit]ature1 or art1 b x w\ld     
probably nev] arrive at ! possession (  
!m4 ,! law ( desc5t w\ld ( itself       
provide = ! de/ruction ( =tunes at ea*  
succe$+ g5]ation2 & new =tunes w\ld be  
acquir$ by none4 ,! poor man1 )\t ei!r k
 or fre$om1 w\ld n s mu* z conceive !   

idea ( rais+ himself to weal?2 & ! ri*  
man w\ld all[ himself to be degrad$ to  
pov]ty1 )\t a notion ( self-def5ce4     
,betwe5 ^! two memb]s ( ! community     
complete & inv9cible equality w\ld soon 
be e/abli%$4  ,no "o w\ld !n h "t or    
ta/e to devote himself to ! pursuits or 
pleasures ( ! intellect2 b all m5 w\ld  
rema9 p>alyz$ by a /ate ( common        
ignorance & equal s]vitude4 ,:5 ,i      
conceive a democratic society ( ?is k9d1
 ,i fancy myself 9 "o ( ^? l[1 close1 & 
gloomy abodes1 :]e ! light :i* breaks 9 
f )\t soon fa9ts & fades away4 ,a sudd5 
heav9ess ov]p[]s me1 & ,i grope ?r\gh ! 
surr\nd+ d>kness1 to f9d ! ap]ture :i* w
 re/ore me to daylight & ! air4  ,b all 
?is is n applicable to m5 already       
enlight5$ :o reta9 _! fre$om1 aft] hav+ 
aboli%$ f among/ !m ^? peculi> & h]$it>y
 rights :i* p]petuat$ ! t5ure ( prop]ty 
9 ! h&s ( c]ta9 individuals or c]ta9    
bodies4 ,:5 m5 liv+ 9 a democratic /ate 
( society are enlight5$1 !y readily     
discov] t !y are conf9$ & fix$ )9 no    

limits :i* con/ra9 !m to take up ) _!   
pres5t =tune4 ,!y all !re=e conceive !  
idea ( increas+ x2 if !y are free1 !y   
all attempt x1 b all d n succe$ 9 ! same
 mann]4 ,! legislature1 x is true1 no   
long] grants privileges1 b !y are be/[$ 
by nature4 ,z natural inequality is v   
great1 =tunes become unequal z soon z e 
man ex]ts all 8 faculties to get ri*4 ,!
 law ( desc5t prev5ts ! e/abli%m5t (    
weal?y families2 b x does n prev5t !    
exi/5ce ( weal?y individuals4 ,x        
con/antly br+s back ! memb]s ( !        
community to a common level1 f :i* !y z 
con/antly escape3 & ! inequality (      
=tunes augm5ts 9 proportion z k is      
diffus$ & lib]ty increas$4  ,a sect :i* 
arose 9 our "t1 & 0 celebrat$ = its     
tal5ts & its extravagance1 propos$ to   
conc5trate all prop]ty into ! h&s ( a   
c5tral p[]1 ^: function x %\ld aft]w>ds 
be to p>cel x out to individuals1       
accord+ to _! capacity4 ,?is w\ld h be5 
a me?od ( escap+ f t complete & et]nal  
equality :i* seems to ?reat5 democratic 

society4 ,b x w\ld be a simpl] & less   
dang]\s rem$y to grant no privilege to  
any1 giv+ to all equal cultivation &    
equal indep5d5ce1 & leav+ ev]yone to    
det]m9e 8 own position4 ,natural        
inequality w v soon make way = itself1 &
 weal? w spontane\sly pass into ! h&s ( 
! mo/ capable4  ,free & democratic      
communities1 !n1 w always conta9 a      
consid]able numb] ( p enjoy+ opul5ce or 
compet5cy4 ,! weal?y w n be s closely   
l9k$ to ea* o!r z ! memb]s ( ! =m]      
ari/ocratic class ( society3 _!         
prop5sities w be diff]5t1 & !y w sc>cely
 ev] enjoy leisure z secure or z        
complete3 b !y w be f> m num]\s ?an ^?  
:o belong$ to t class ( society c\ld ev]
 be4 ,^! p]sons w n be /rictly conf9$ to
 ! c>es ( practical life1 & !y w /ill be
 able1 ?\gh 9 diff]5t degrees1 to       
indulge 9 ! pursuits & pleasures ( !    
intellect4 ,9 ^? pleasures !y w indulge2
 = if x be true t ! human m9d leans on  
"o side to ! n>r[1 ! practical1 & !     
useful1 x naturally rises on ! o!r to ! 

inf9ite1 ! spiritual1 & ! beautiful4    
,physical wants conf9e x to ! e>?2 b1 z 
soon z ! tie is loos5$1 x w unb5d itself
 aga94  ,n only w ! numb] ( ^? :o c take
 an int]e/ 9 ! productions ( ! m9d be   
enl>g$1 b ! ta/e = intellectual enjoym5t
 w desc5d1 /ep by /ep1 ev5 to ^? :o1 9  
ari/ocratic societies1 seem to h nei!r  
"t nor ability to 9 indulge 9 !m4 ,:5   
h]$it>y weal?1 ! privileges ( rank1 & ! 
pr]ogatives ( bir? h ceas$ to be1 & :5 e
 man d]ives 8 /r5g? f himself alone1 x  
becomes evid5t t ! *ief cause ( disp>ity
 betwe5 ! =tunes ( m5 is ! m9d4 ,:atev] 
t5ds to invigorate1 to ext5d1 or to     
adorn ! m9d1 in/antly rises to great    
value4 ,! utility ( k becomes s+ul>ly   
conspicu\s ev5 to ! eyes ( ! multitude3 
^? :o h no ta/e = its *>ms set /ore ^u  
its results1 & make "s ef=ts to acquire 
x4 ,9 free & enlight5$ democratic ages1 
!re is no?+ to sep>ate m5 f ea* o!r or  
to reta9 !m 9 _! peculi> sph]e2 !y rise 
or s9k ) extreme rapidity4 ,all classes 
live 9 p]petual int]c\rse f _! great    

proximity to ea* o!r4 ,!y communicate & 
int]m+le e day--!y imitate & envy "o    
o!r3 ?is sugge/s to ! p _m ideas1       
notions1 & desires :i* x w\ld nev] h    
ent]ta9$ if ! di/9ctions ( rank _h be5  
fix$ & society at re/4 ,9 su* nations ! 
s]vant nev] consid]s himself z an entire
 /rang] to ! pleasures & toils ( 8 ma/]1
 nor ! poor man to ^? ( ! ri*2 ! rural  
population assimilates itself to t ( !  
t[ns1 & ! prov9ces to ! capital4 ,no "o 
easily all[s himself to be r$uc$ to !   
m]e mat]ial c>es ( life2 & ! humble/    
artisan ca/s at times an eag] & a       
furtive glance into ! high] regions ( ! 
intellect4 ,p d n read ) ! same notions 
or 9 ! same mann] z !y d 9 an           
ari/ocratic community2 b ! circle (     
read]s is unceas+ly exp&$1 till x       
includes all ! citiz5s4  ,z soon z !    
multitude beg9s to take an int]e/ 9 !   
labors ( ! m9d1 x f9ds out t to excel 9 
"s ( !m is a p[]ful me?od ( acquir+     
fame1 p[]1 or weal?4 ,! re/less ambition
 :i* equality begets in/antly takes ?is 

direction z x does all o!rs4 ,! numb] ( 
^? :o cultivate sci5ce1 lett]s1 & !     
arts1 becomes imm5se4 ,! intellectual _w
 />ts into prodigi\s activity3 ev]yone  
endeavors to op5 = himself a pa? !re1 & 
to draw ! eyes ( ! public aft] him4     
,some?+ analog\s occurs to :at happ5s 9 
society 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 politically  
consid]$4 ,:at is done is (t5 imp]fect1 
b ! attempts are innum]able2 &1 al?\gh !
 results ( individual ef=t are commonly 
v small1 ! total am\nt is always v l>ge4
  ,x is !re=e n true to ass]t t m5 liv+ 
9 democratic ages are naturally         
indiff]5t to sci5ce1 lit]ature1 & !     
arts3 only x mu/ be ackn[l$g$ t !y      
cultivate !m aft] _! own fa%ion1 & br+  
to ! task _! own peculi> qualifications 
& defici5cies4     ,*apt] ,x3 ,:y ,!    
,am]icans ,are ,m ,addict$ ,to          
,practical ,?an ,to ,!oretical ,sci5ce  
,if a democratic /ate ( society &       
democratic in/itutions d n /op ! c>e] ( 
! human m9d1 !y inconte/ably guide x 9  
"o direction 9 pref]5ce to ano!r4 ,_!   

effects1 ?us circumscrib$1 are /ill     
exce$+ly great2 & ,i tru/ ,i may be     
p>don$ if ,i pause = a mom5t to survey  
!m4 ,we _h occasion1 9 speak+ ( !       
philosophical me?od ( ! ,am]ican p1 to  
make sev]al rem>ks :i* mu/ "h be turn$  
to acc\nt4  ,equality begets 9 man !    
desire ( judg+ ( ev]y?+ = himself3 x    
gives him1 9 all ?+s1 a ta/e = !        
tangible & ! real1 a contempt =         
tradition & = =ms4 ,^! g5]al t5d5cies   
are pr9cipally disc]nible 9 ! peculi>   
subject ( ?is *apt]4 ,^? :o cultivate ! 
sci5ces among/ a democratic p are always
 afraid ( los+ _! way 9 vision>y        
speculation4 ,!y mi/ru/ sy/ems2 !y adh]e
 closely to facts & ! /udy ( facts ) _! 
own s5ses4 ,z !y d n easily def] to !   
m]e "n ( any fell[-man1 !y are nev]     
incl9$ to re/ ^u any man's au?ority2 b1 
on ! contr>y1 !y are unremitt+ 9 _!     
ef=ts to po9t out ! weak] po9ts ( _!    
neighbors' op9ions4 ,sci5tific prec$5ts 
h v little weight ) !m2 !y are nev] long
 deta9$ by ! subtilty ( ! s*ools1 nor   

ready to accept big words = /]l+ co92 !y
 p5etrate1 z f> z !y c1 into ! pr9cipal 
p>ts ( ! subject :i* engages !m1 & !y   
exp\nd !m 9 ! v]nacul> tongue4          
,sci5tific pursuits !n foll[ a fre] & a 
saf] c\rse1 b a less l(ty "o4  ,! m9d   
may1 z x appe>s to me1 divide sci5ce    
into ?ree p>ts4 ,! fir/ comprises ! mo/ 
!oretical pr9ciples1 & ^? m ab/ract     
notions ^: application is ei!r unkn[n or
 v remote4 ,! second is compos$ ( ^?    
g5]al tru?s :i* /ill belong to pure     
!ory1 b lead1 nev]!less1 by a /raight & 
%ort road to practical results4 ,me?ods 
( application & means ( execution make  
up ! ?ird4 ,ea* ( ^! diff]5t portions ( 
sci5ce may be sep>ately cultivat$1      
al?\gh reason & exp]i5ce %[ t none ( !m 
c prosp] long1 if x be absolutely cut (f
 f ! two o!rs4  ,9 ,am]ica ! purely     
practical "p ( sci5ce is admirably      
und]/ood1 & c>eful att5tion is paid to !
 !oretical portion :i* is imm$iately    
requisite to application4 ,on ?is head !
 ,am]icans always display a cle>1 free1 

orig9al1 & inv5tive p[] ( m9d4 ,b h>dly 
anyone 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates devotes himself
 to ! ess5tially !oretical & ab/ract    
portion ( human k4 ,9 ?is respect !     
,am]icans c>ry to excess a t5d5cy :i*   
is1 ,i ?9k1 disc]nible1 ?\gh 9 a less   
degree1 among/ all democratic nations4  
,no?+ is m necess>y to ! culture ( !    
high] sci5ces1 or ( ! m elevat$         
dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce1 ?an m$itation2 &    
no?+ is less suit$ to m$itation ?an !   
/ructure ( democratic society4 ,we d n  
f9d !re1 z among/ an ari/ocratic p1 "o  
class :i* cl+s to a /ate ( repose       
because x is well (f2 & ano!r :i* does n
 v5ture to /ir because x despairs (     
improv+ its condition4 ,ev]yone is      
actively 9 motion3 "s 9 que/ ( p[]1 o!rs
 ( ga94 ,9 ! mid/ ( ?is univ]sal        
tumult--?is incessant conflict ( j>r+   
int]e/s--?is cont9ual /ride ( m5 aft]   
=tune--:]e is t calm to be f\nd :i* is  
necess>y = ! deep] comb9ations ( !      
intellect8 ,h[ c ! m9d dwell ^u any s+le
 po9t1 :5 ev]y?+ :irls ar\nd x1 & man   

himself is swept & beat5 onw>ds by !    
heady curr5t :i* rolls all ?+s 9 its    
c\rse8 ,b ! p]man5t agitation :i*       
subsi/s 9 ! bosom ( a peaceable &       
e/abli%$ democracy1 mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ! 
tumultu\s & revolution>y movem5ts :i*   
almo/ always att5d ! bir? & gr[? (      
democratic society4 ,:5 a viol5t        
revolution occurs among/ a highly       
civiliz$ p1 x _c fail to give a sudd5   
impulse to _! feel+s & _! op9ions4 ,?is 
is m p>ticul>ly true ( democratic       
revolutions1 :i* /ir up all ! classes ( 
:i* a p is compos$1 & beget1 at ! same  
"t1 inord9ate ambition 9 ! brea/ ( e    
memb] ( ! community4 ,! ,fr5* made mo/  
surpris+ advances 9 ! exact sci5ces at !
 v "t at :i* !y 7 f9i%+ ! de/ruction ( !
 rema9s ( _! =m] feudal society2 yet ?is
 sudd5 fecundity is n to be attribut$ to
 democracy1 b to ! unexampl$ revolution 
:i* att5d$ its gr[?4 ,:at happ5$ at t   
p]iod 0 a special incid5t1 & x w\ld be  
unwise to reg>d x z ! te/ ( a g5]al     
pr9ciple4 ,great revolutions are n m    

common among/ democratic nations ?an    
among/ o!rs3 ,i am ev5 incl9$ to believe
 t !y are less s4 ,b !re prevails among/
 ^? populations a small di/ress+        
motion--a sort ( incessant jo/l+ (      
m5--:i* annoys & di/urbs ! m9d1 )\t     
excit+ or elevat+ x4 ,m5 :o live 9      
democratic communities n only seldom    
indulge 9 m$itation1 b !y naturally     
ent]ta9 v little e/eem = x4 ,a          
democratic /ate ( society & democratic  
in/itutions plunge ! great] "p ( m5 9   
con/ant active life2 & ! habits ( m9d   
:i* are suit$ to an active life1 are n  
always suit$ to a contemplative "o4 ,!  
man ( action is frequ5tly oblig$ to     
cont5t himself ) ! be/ he c get1 because
 he w\ld nev] accompli% 8 purpose if he 
*ose to c>ry e detail to p]fection4 ,he 
has p]petually occasion to rely on ideas
 :i* he has n _h leisure to se>* to !   
bottom2 = he is mu* m frequ5tly aid$ by 
! opportunity ( an idea ?an by its /rict
 accuracy2 &1 9 ! long run1 he risks    
less 9 mak+ use ( "s false pr9ciples1   

?an 9 sp5d+ 8 "t 9 e/abli%+ all 8       
pr9ciples on ! basis ( tru?4 ,! _w is n 
l$ by long or le>n$ demon/rations2 a    
rapid glance at p>ticul> incid5ts1 !    
daily /udy ( ! fleet+ passions ( !      
multitude1 ! accid5ts ( ! "t1 & ! art ( 
turn+ !m to acc\nt1 decide all its      
affairs4  ,9 ! ages 9 :i* active life is
 ! condition ( almo/ ev]yone1 m5 are    
!re=e g5]ally l$ to atta* an excessive  
value to ! rapid bur/s & sup]ficial     
conceptions ( ! intellect2 &1 on ! o!r  
h&1 to depreciate bel[ _! true /&>d its 
sl[] & deep] labors4 ,?is op9ion ( !    
public influ5ces ! judgm5t ( ! m5 :o    
cultivate ! sci5ces2 !y are p]suad$ t !y
 may succe$ 9 ^? pursuits )\t m$itation1
 or det]r$ f su* pursuits z dem& x4     
,!re are sev]al me?ods ( /udy+ !        
sci5ces4 ,among/ a multitude ( m5 y w   
f9d a selfi%1 m]cantile1 & trad+ ta/e = 
! discov]ies ( ! m9d1 :i* mu/ n be      
conf\nd$ ) t dis9t]e/$ passion :i* is   
k9dl$ 9 ! he>t ( ! few4 ,a desire to    
utilize k is "o ?+2 ! pure desire to "k 

is ano!r4 ,i d n d\bt t 9 a few m9ds &  
f> betwe51 an ard5t1 inexhau/ible love (
 tru? spr+s up1 self-support$1 & liv+ 9 
ceaseless fruition )\t ev] atta9+ !     
satisfaction :i* x seeks4 ,?is ard5t    
love x is--?is pr\d1 dis9t]e/$ love (   
:at is true--:i* raises m5 to ! ab/ract 
s\rces ( tru?1 to draw _! "m-k !nce4 ,if
 ,pascal _h _h no?+ 9 view b "s l>ge    
ga91 or ev5 if he _h be5 /imulat$ by !  
love ( fame alone1 ,i _c conceive t he  
w\ld ev] h be5 able to rally all ! p[]s 
( 8 m9d1 z he did1 = ! bett] discov]y ( 
! mo/ hidd5 ?+s ( ! ,creator4 ,:5 ,i see
 him1 z x 71 te> 8 s\l f ! mid/ ( all ! 
c>es ( life to devote x :olly to ^!     
rese>*es1 &1 prematurely snapp+ ! l9ks  
:i* b9d ! frame to life1 die ( old age  
be=e =ty1 ,i /& amaz$1 & ,i p]ceive t no
 ord9>y cause is at "w to produce ef=ts 
s extra-ord9>y4  ,! future w prove :e!r 
^! passions1 at once s r>e & s          
productive1 come into be+ & into gr[? z 
easily 9 ! mid/ ( democratic z 9        
ari/ocratic communities4 ,= myself1 ,i  

confess t ,i am sl[ to believe x4 ,9    
ari/ocratic society1 ! class :i* gives !
 tone to op9ion1 & has ! supreme        
guidance ( affairs1 be+ p]man5tly &     
h]$it>ily plac$ above ! multitude1      
naturally conceives a l(ty idea ( itself
 & ( man4 ,x loves to inv5t = him noble 
pleasures1 to c>ve out spl5did objects =
 8 ambition4 ,ari/ocracies (t5 commit v 
tyrannical & v inhuman actions2 b !y    
r>ely ent]ta9 grovell+ ?\ghts2 & !y %[ a
 k9d ( haughty contempt ( little        
pleasures1 ev5 :il/ !y indulge 9 !m4 ,! 
effect is greatly to raise ! g5]al pit* 
( society4 ,9 ari/ocratic ages va/ ideas
 are commonly ent]ta9$ ( ! dignity1 !   
p[]1 & ! greatness ( man4 ,^! op9ions   
ex]t _! influ5ce on ^? :o cultivate !   
sci5ces1 z well z on ! re/ ( !          
community4 ,!y facilitate ! natural     
impulse ( ! m9d to ! highe/ regions (   
?\ght1 & !y naturally prep>e x to       
conceive a sublime--nay1 almo/ a        
div9e--love ( tru?4 ,m5 ( sci5ce at su* 
p]iods are consequ5tly c>ri$ away by    

!ory2 & x ev5 happ5s t !y frequ5tly     
conceive an inconsid]ate contempt = !   
practical "p ( le>n+4 ,ar*im$es1 says   
,plut>*1 0 ( s l(ty a _s1 t he nev]     
condesc5d$ to write any treatise on !   
mann] ( con/ruct+ all ^! eng9es ( (f5ce 
& def5ce4 ,& z he held ?is sci5ce (     
inv5t+ & putt+ toge!r eng9es1 & all arts
 g5]ally speak+ :i* t5d$ to any useful  
end 9 practice1 to be vile1 l[1 &       
m]c5>y1 he sp5t 8 tal5ts & 8 /udi\s h\rs
 9 writ+ ( ^? ?+s only ^: beauty &      
subtilty _h 9 !m no admixture (         
necessity4 ,su* is ! ari/ocratic aim (  
sci5ce2 9 democratic nations x _c be !  
same4  ,! great] "p ( ! m5 :o con/itute 
^! nations are extremely eag] 9 !       
pursuit ( actual & physical             
gratification4 ,z !y are always         
dissatisfi$ ) ! position :i* !y occupy1 
& are always free to leave x1 !y ?9k (  
no?+ b ! means ( *ang+ _! =tune1 or (   
increas+ x4 ,to m9ds ?us pr$ispos$1 e   
new me?od :i* leads by a %ort] road to  
weal?1 e ma*9e :i* sp>es labor1 e       

in/rum5t :i* dim9i%es ! co/ (           
production1 e discov]y :i* facilitates  
pleasures or augm5ts !m1 seems to be !  
gr&e/ ef=t ( ! human intellect4 ,x is   
*iefly f ^! motives t a democratic p    
addicts itself to sci5tific pursuits--t 
x und]/&s1 & t x respects !m4 ,9        
ari/ocratic ages1 sci5ce is m p>ticul>ly
 call$ ^u to furni% gratification to !  
m9d2 9 democracies1 to ! body4 ,y may be
 sure t ! m a nation is democratic1     
enlight5$1 & free1 ! great] w be ! numb]
 ( ^! int]e/$ promot]s ( sci5tific      
g5ius1 & ! m w discov]ies imm$iately    
applicable to productive indu/ry conf]  
ga91 fame1 & ev5 p[] on _! au?ors4 ,= 9 
democracies ! work+ class takes a "p 9  
public affairs2 & public honors1 z well 
z pecuni>y remun]ation1 may be aw>d$ to 
^? :o des]ve !m4 ,9 a community ?us     
organiz$ x may easily be conceiv$ t !   
human m9d may be l$ ins5sibly to !      
neglect ( !ory2 & t x is urg$1 on !     
contr>y1 ) unp>allel$ vehem5ce to !     
applications ( sci5ce1 or at lea/ to t  

portion ( !oretical sci5ce :i* is       
necess>y to ^? :o make su* applications4
 ,9 va9 w "s innate prop5sity raise !   
m9d t[>ds ! l(ti] sph]es ( ! intellect2 
int]e/ draws x d[n to ! middle zone4    
,!re x may develop all its en]gy &      
re/less activity1 !re x may eng5d] all  
its wond]s4 ,^! v ,am]icans1 :o h n     
discov]$ "o ( ! g5]al laws ( me*anics1 h
 introduc$ into navigation an eng9e :i* 
*anges ! aspect ( ! _w4  ,assur$ly ,i d 
n cont5t t ! democratic nations ( our "t
 are de/9$ to witness ! ext9ction ( !   
transc5d5t lum9>ies ( man's intellig5ce1
 nor ev5 t no new lights w ev] />t into 
exi/5ce4 ,at ! age at :i* ! _w has n[   
arriv$1 & among/ s _m cultivat$ nations1
 p]petually excit$ by ! fev] (          
productive indu/ry1 ! bonds :i* connect 
! diff]5t p>ts ( sci5ce toge!r _c fail  
to /rike ! obs]vation2 & ! ta/e =       
practical sci5ce itself1 if x be        
enlight5$1 ought to lead m5 n to neglect
 !ory4 ,9 ! mid/ ( su* numb]less        
attempt$ applications ( s _m exp]im5ts1 

repeat$ e day1 x is almo/ impossible t  
g5]al laws %\ld n frequ5tly be br\ght to
 light2 s t great discov]ies w\ld be    
frequ5t1 ?\gh great inv5tors be r>e4 ,i 
believe1 moreov]1 9 ! high call+ (      
sci5tific m9ds4 ,if ! democratic        
pr9ciple does n1 on ! "o h&1 induce m5  
to cultivate sci5ce = its own sake1 on !
 o!r x enorm\sly increases ! numb] ( ^? 
:o d cultivate x4 ,nor is x cr$ible t1 f
 among/ s great a multitude no          
speculative g5ius %\ld f "t to "t arise1
 inflam$ by ! love ( tru? alone4 ,su* a 
"o1 we may be sure1 w\ld dive into !    
deepe/ my/]ies ( nature1 :atev] be ! _s 
( 8 c\ntry or 8 age4 ,he requires no    
assi/ance 9 8 c\rse--en\gh t he be n    
*eck$ 9 x4  ,all t ,i mean to say is    
?is3--p]man5t inequality ( conditions   
leads m5 to conf9e !mselves to !        
arrogant & /]ile rese>* ( ab/ract tru?s2
 :il/ ! social condition & ! in/itutions
 ( democracy prep>e !m to seek !        
imm$iate & useful practical results ( ! 
sci5ces4 ,?is t5d5cy is natural &       

inevitable3 x is curi\s to be acqua9t$ )
 x1 & x may be necess>y to po9t x out4  
,if ^? :o are call$ ^u to guide !       
nations ( our "t cle>ly disc]n$ f af> (f
 ^! new t5d5cies1 :i* w soon be         
irresi/ible1 !y w\ld und]/& t1 possess+ 
education & fre$om1 m5 liv+ 9 democratic
 ages _c fail to improve ! indu/rial "p 
( sci5ce2 & t h5ce=w>d all ! ef=ts ( !  
con/itut$ au?orities ought to be direct$
 to support ! highe/ bran*es ( le>n+1 & 
to fo/] ! nobl] passion = sci5ce itself4
 ,9 ! pres5t age ! human m9d mu/ be     
co]c$ into !oretical /udies2 x runs (   
its own accord to practical             
applications2 &1 in/ead ( p]petually    
ref]r+ x to ! m9ute exam9ation (        
second>y effects1 x is well to div]t x f
 !m sometimes1 9 ord] to raise x up to !
 contemplation ( prim>y causes4 ,because
 ! civilization ( anci5t ,rome p]i%$ 9  
consequ5ce ( ! invasion ( ! b>b>ians1 we
 are p]haps too apt to ?9k t            
civilization _c p]i% 9 any o!r mann]4   
,if ! light by :i* we are guid$ is ev]  

ext+ui%$1 x w dw9dle by degrees1 &      
expire ( itself4 ,by d9t ( close adh]5ce
 to m]e applications1 pr9ciples w\ld be 
lo/ sight (2 & :5 ! pr9ciples 7 :olly   
=gott51 ! me?ods d]iv$ f !m w\ld be     
ill-pursu$4 ,new me?ods c\ld no long] be
 inv5t$1 & m5 w\ld cont9ue to apply1 )\t
 intellig5ce1 & )\t art1 sci5tific      
processes no long] und]/ood4  ,:5       
,europeans fir/ arriv$ 9 ,*9a1 ?ree     
hundr$ ye>s ago1 !y f\nd t almo/ all !  
arts _h rea*$ a c]ta9 degree ( p]fection
 !re2 & !y 7 surpris$ t a p :i* _h      
atta9$ ?is po9t %\ld n h gone beyond x4 
,at a lat] p]iod !y discov]$ "s traces (
 ! high] bran*es ( sci5ce :i* 7 lo/4 ,! 
nation 0 absorb$ 9 productive indu/ry3 !
 great] "p ( its sci5tific processes _h 
be5 pres]v$1 b sci5ce itself no long]   
exi/$ !re4 ,?is s]v$ to expla9 !        
/rangely motionless /ate 9 :i* !y f\nd !
 m9ds ( ?is p4 ,! ,*9ese1 9 foll[+ !    
track ( _! =efa!rs1 _h =gott5 ! reasons 
by :i* ! latt] _h be5 guid$4 ,!y /ill   
us$ ! =mula1 )\t ask+ = its mean+3 !y   

reta9$ ! in/rum5t1 b !y no long]        
possess$ ! art ( alt]+ or r5ew+ x4 ,!   
,*9ese1 !n1 _h lo/ ! p[] ( *ange2 = !m  
to improve 0 impossible4 ,!y 7 compell$1
 at all times & 9 all po9ts1 to imitate 
_! pr$ecessors1 le/ !y %\ld /ray into   
utt] d>kness1 by deviat+ = an in/ant f !
 pa? already laid d[n = !m4 ,! s\rce (  
human k 0 all b dry2 & ?\gh ! /ream /ill
 ran on1 x c\ld nei!r swell its wat]s   
nor alt] its *annel4 ,not)/&+ ?is1 ,*9a 
_h subsi/$ peaceably = c5turies4 ,!     
invad]s :o _h conqu]$ ! c\ntry assum$ ! 
mann]s ( ! inhabitants1 & ord] prevail$ 
!re4 ,a sort ( physical prosp]ity 0     
ev]y:]e disc]nible3 revolutions 7 r>e1 &
 w> 01 s to speak1 unkn[n4  ,x is !n a  
fallacy to flatt] ourselves ) !         
reflection t ! b>b>ians are /ill f> f u2
 = if !re be "s nations :i* all[        
civilization to be torn f _! grasp1 !re 
are o!rs :o trample x !mselves "u _!    
feet4     ,*apt] ,,xi3 ,( ,! ,_s ,9 ,:i*
 ,! ,am]icans ,cultivate ,! ,arts  ,x   
w\ld be to wa/e ! "t ( my read]s & my   

own if ,i /rove to demon/rate h[ ! g5]al
 m$iocrity ( =tunes1 ! abs5ce (         
sup]flu\s weal?1 ! univ]sal desire (    
com=t1 & ! con/ant ef=ts by :i* ev]yone 
attempts to procure x1 make ! ta/e = !  
useful pr$om9ate ov] ! love ( !         
beautiful 9 ! he>t ( man4 ,democratic   
nations1 among/ :i* all ^! ?+s exi/1 w  
!re=e cultivate ! arts :i* s]ve to r5d] 
life easy1 9 pref]5ce to ^? ^: object is
 to adorn x4 ,!y w habitually pref] !   
useful to ! beautiful1 & !y w require t 
! beautiful %\ld be useful4 ,b ,i       
propose to g fur!r2 & aft] hav+ po9t$   
out ?is fir/ feature1 to sket* sev]al   
o!rs4  ,x commonly happ5s t 9 ! ages (  
privilege ! practice ( almo/ all ! arts 
becomes a privilege2 & t e pr(ession is 
a sep>ate walk1 ^u :i* x is n all[able =
 ev]yone to ent]4 ,ev5 :5 productive    
indu/ry is free1 ! fix$ "* :i* belongs  
to ari/ocratic nations gradually        
segregates all ! p]sons :o practise !   
same art1 till !y =m a di/9ct class1    
always compos$ ( ! same families1 ^:    

memb]s are all kn[n to ea* o!r1 & among/
 :om a public op9ion ( _! own & a       
species ( corporate pride soon spr+ up4 
,9 a class or guild ( ?is k9d1 ea*      
artisan has n only 8 =tune to make1 b 8 
reputation to pres]ve4 ,he is n         
exclusively sway$ by 8 own int]e/1 or   
ev5 by t ( 8 cu/om]1 b by t ( ! body to 
:i* he belongs2 & ! int]e/ ( t body is1 
t ea* artisan %\ld produce ! be/        
possible workman%ip4 ,9 ari/ocratic     
ages1 ! object ( ! arts is !re=e to     
manufacture z well z possible--n ) !    
greate/ despat*1 or at ! l[e/ rate4     
,:51 on ! contr>y1 e pr(ession is op5 to
 all--:5 a multitude ( p]sons are       
con/antly embrac+ & ab&on+ x--& :5 its  
sev]al memb]s are /rang]s to ea* o!r1   
indiff]5t1 & f _! numb]s h>dly se5      
among/ !mselves2 ! social tie is        
de/roy$1 & ea* workman1 /&+ alone1      
endeavors simply to ga9 ! greate/       
possible quantity ( money at ! lea/     
possible co/4 ,! w ( ! cu/om] is !n 8   
only limit4 ,b at ! same "t a           

correspond+ revolution takes place 9 !  
cu/om] also4 ,9 c\ntries 9 :i* ri*es z  
well z p[] are conc5trat$ & reta9$ 9 !  
h&s ( ! few1 ! use ( ! great] "p ( ?is  
_w's goods belongs to a small numb] (   
individuals1 :o are always ! same4      
,necessity1 public op9ion1 or mod]ate   
desires exclude all o!rs f ! enjoym5t ( 
!m4 ,z ?is ari/ocratic class rema9s fix$
 at ! p9nacle ( greatness on :i* x /&s1 
)\t dim9ution or increase1 x is always  
act$ ^u by ! same wants & affect$ by !m 
9 ! same mann]4 ,! m5 ( :om x is compos$
 naturally d]ive f _! sup]ior & h]$it>y 
position a ta/e = :at is extremely well 
made & la/+4 ,?is affects ! g5]al way ( 
?9k+ ( ! nation 9 relation to ! arts4 ,x
 (t5 occurs1 among su* a p1 t ev5 !     
peasant w r g )\t ! object he covets1   
?an procure x 9 a /ate ( imp]fection4 ,9
 ari/ocracies1 !n1 ! h&icraftsm5 "w =   
only a limit$ numb] ( v fa/idi\s        
cu/om]s3 ! pr(it !y hope to make dep5ds 
pr9cipally on ! p]fection ( _!          
workman%ip4  ,su* is no long] ! case :51

 all privileges be+ aboli%$1 ranks are  
int]m+l$1 & m5 are =ev] ris+ or s9k+ ^u 
! ladd] ( society4 ,among/ a democratic 
p a numb] ( citiz5s always exi/ ^:      
patrimony is divid$ & decreas+4 ,!y h   
contract$1 "u m prosp]\s circum/ances1  
c]ta9 wants1 :i* rema9 aft] ! means (   
satisfy+ su* wants are gone2 & !y are   
anxi\sly look+ out = "s surreptiti\s    
me?od ( provid+ = !m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re 
are always 9 democracies a l>ge numb] ( 
m5 ^: =tune is ^u ! increase1 b ^:      
desires gr[ mu* fa/] ?an _! =tunes3 & :o
 gloat ^u ! gifts ( weal? 9             
anticipation1 long be=e !y h means to   
comm& !m4 ,su* m5 eag] to f9d "s %ort   
cut to ^! gratifications1 already almo/ 
)9 _! rea*4 ,f ! comb9ation ( ^! causes 
! result is1 t 9 democracies !re are    
always a multitude ( individuals ^:     
wants are above _! means1 & :o are v    
will+ to take up ) imp]fect satisfaction
 r ?an ab&on ! object ( _! desires4  ,! 
artisan readily und]/&s ^! passions1 =  
he himself p>takes 9 !m3 9 an ari/ocracy

 he w\ld seek to sell 8 workman%ip at a 
high price to ! few2 he n[ conceives t !
 m exp$iti\s way ( gett+ ri* is to sell 
!m at a l[ price to all4 ,b !re are only
 two ways ( l[]+ ! price ( commodities4 
,! fir/ is to discov] "s bett]1 %ort]1 &
 m +5i\s me?od ( produc+ !m3 ! second is
 to manufacture a l>g] quantity ( goods1
 ne>ly simil>1 b ( less value4 ,among/ a
 democratic population1 all !           
intellectual faculties ( ! workman are  
direct$ to ^! two objects3 he /rives to 
inv5t me?ods :i* may enable him n only  
to "w bett]1 b quick] & *eap]2 or1 if he
 _c succe$ 9 t1 to dim9i% ! intr9sic    
qualities ( ! ?+ he makes1 )\t r5d]+ x  
:olly unfit = ! use = :i* x is int5d$4  
,:5 none b ! weal?y _h wat*es1 !y 7     
almo/ all v good ones3 few are n[ made  
:i* are wor? mu*1 b ev]ybody has "o 9 8 
pocket4 ,?us ! democratic pr9ciple n    
only t5ds to direct ! human m9d to !    
useful arts1 b x induces ! artisan to   
produce ) great] rapidity a quantity (  
imp]fect commodities1 & ! consum] to    

cont5t himself ) ^! commodities4  ,n t 9
 democracies ! arts are incapable (     
produc+ v comm5dable works1 if su* be   
requir$4 ,?is may occasionally be !     
case1 if cu/om]s appe> :o are ready to  
pay = "t & tr\ble4 ,9 ?is rivalry ( e   
k9d ( indu/ry--9 ! mid/ ( ?is imm5se    
competition & ^! c\ntless exp]im5ts1 "s 
excell5t workm5 are =m$ :o rea* ! utmo/ 
limits ( _! craft4 ,b !y h r>ely an     
opportunity ( display+ :at !y c d2 !y   
are scrupul\sly sp>+ ( _! p[]s2 !y rema9
 9 a /ate ( accompli%$ m$iocrity1 :i*   
condemns itself1 &1 ?\gh x be v well    
able to %oot beyond ! m>k be=e x1 aims  
only at :at x hits4 ,9 ari/ocracies1 on 
! contr>y1 workm5 always d all !y c2 &  
:5 !y /op1 x is because !y h rea*$ !    
limit ( _! atta9m5ts4  ,:5 ,i arrive 9 a
 c\ntry :]e ,i f9d "s ( ! f9e/          
productions ( ! arts1 ,i le>n f ?is fact
 no?+ ( ! social condition or ( !       
political con/itution ( ! c\ntry4 ,b if 
,i p]ceive t ! productions ( ! arts are 
g5]ally ( an inf]ior quality1 v abundant

 & v *eap1 ,i am conv9c$ t1 among/ ! p  
:]e ?is occurs1 privilege is on !       
decl9e1 & t ranks are beg9n+ to         
int]m+le1 & w soon be conf\nd$ toge!r4  
,! h&icraftsm5 ( democratic ages        
endeavor n only to br+ _! useful        
productions )9 ! rea* ( ! :ole          
community1 b !y /rive to give to all _! 
commodities attractive qualities :i* !y 
d n 9 reality possess4 ,9 ! confusion ( 
all ranks ev]yone hopes to appe> :at he 
is n1 & makes great ex]tions to succe$ 9
 ?is object4 ,?is s5tim5t inde$1 :i* is 
b too natural to ! he>t ( man1 does n   
orig9ate 9 ! democratic pr9ciple2 b t   
pr9ciple applies x to mat]ial objects4  
,to mimic virtue is ( e age2 b !        
hypocrisy ( luxury belongs m p>ticul>ly 
to ! ages ( democracy4  ,to satisfy ^!  
new crav+s ( human vanity ! arts h      
rec\rse to e species ( impo/ure3 & ^!   
devices sometimes g s f> z to defeat _! 
own purpose4 ,imitation diamonds are n[ 
made :i* may be easily mi/ak5 = real    
ones2 z soon z ! art ( fabricat+ false  

diamonds %all h rea*$ s high a degree ( 
p]fection t !y _c be di/+ui%$ f real    
ones1 x is probable t bo? "o & ! o!r w  
be ab&on$1 & become m]e pebbles aga94   
,?is leads me to speak ( ^? arts :i* are
 call$ ! f9e arts1 by way ( di/9ction4  
,i d n believe t x is a necess>y effect 
( a democratic social condition & (     
democratic in/itutions to dim9i% ! numb]
 ( m5 :o cultivate ! f9e arts2 b ^!     
causes ex]t a v p[]ful influ5ce on !    
mann] 9 :i* ^! arts are cultivat$4 ,_m (
 ^? :o _h already contract$ a ta/e = !  
f9e arts are impov]i%$3 on ! o!r h&1 _m 
( ^? :o are n yet ri* beg9 to conceive t
 ta/e1 at lea/ by imitation2 & ! numb] (
 consum]s increases1 b opul5t & fa/idi\s
 consum]s become m sc>ce4 ,some?+       
analog\s to :at ,i h already po9t$ out 9
 ! useful arts !n takes place 9 ! f9e   
arts2 ! productions ( arti/s are m      
num]\s1 b ! m]it ( ea* production is    
dim9i%$4 ,no long] able to so> to :at is
 great1 !y cultivate :at is pretty &    
elegant2 & appe>ance is m att5d$ to ?an 

reality4 ,9 ari/ocracies a few great    
pictures are produc$2 9 democratic      
c\ntries1 a va/ numb] ( insignificant   
ones4 ,9 ! =m]1 /atues are rais$ (      
bronze2 9 ! latt]1 !y are modell$ 9     
pla/]4  ,:5 ,i arriv$ = ! fir/ "t at    
,new ,york1 by t "p ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean
 :i* is call$ ! ,n>r[s1 ,i 0 surpris$ to
 p]ceive along ! %ore1 at "s di/ance f !
 city1 a consid]able numb] ( little     
palaces ( :ite m>ble1 sev]al ( :i* 7    
built aft] ! models ( anci5t            
ar*itecture4 ,:5 ,i w5t ! next day to   
inspect m closely ! build+ :i* _h       
p>ticul>ly attract$ my notice1 ,i f\nd t
 its walls 7 ( :itewa%$ brick1 & its    
columns ( pa9t$ wood4 ,all ! edifices   
:i* ,i _h admir$ ! night be=e 7 ( ! same
 k9d4  ,! social condition & !          
in/itutions ( democracy imp>t1 moreov]1 
c]ta9 peculi> t5d5cies to all !         
imitative arts1 :i* x is easy to po9t   
out4 ,!y frequ5tly )draw !m f !         
del9eation ( ! s\l to fix !m exclusively
 on t ( ! body3 & !y sub/itute !        

repres5tation ( motion & s5sation = t ( 
s5tim5t & ?\ght3 9 a ^w1 !y put ! real 9
 ! place ( ! ideal4 ,i d\bt :e!r        
,raphael /udi$ ! m9ute/ intricacies ( ! 
me*anism ( ! human body z ?or\ghly z !  
draughtsm5 ( our own "t4 ,he did n atta*
 ! same importance to rigor\s accuracy  
on ?is po9t z !y d1 because he aspir$ to
 surpass nature4 ,he s\ght to make ( man
 some?+ :i* %\ld be sup]ior to man1 & to
 embelli% beauty's self4 ,david & 8     
s*ol>s 71 on ! contr>y1 z good anatomi/s
 z !y 7 good pa9t]s4 ,!y wond]fully     
depict$ ! models :i* !y _h be=e _! eyes1
 b !y r>ely imag9$ any?+ beyond !m3 !y  
foll[$ nature ) fidelity3 :il/ ,raphael 
s\ght = some?+ bett] ?an nature4 ,!y h  
left u an exact portraiture ( man2 b he 
discloses 9 8 works a glimpse ( !       
,div9ity4 ,?is rem>k z to ! mann] (     
treat+ a subject is no less applicable  
to ! *oice ( x4 ,! pa9t]s ( ! ,middle   
,ages g5]ally s\ght f> above !mselves1 &
 away f _! own "t1 = mighty subjects1   
:i* left to _! imag9ation an unb\nd$    

range4 ,our pa9t]s frequ5tly employ _!  
tal5ts 9 ! exact imitation ( ! details (
 private life1 :i* !y h always be=e _!  
eyes2 & !y are =ev] copy+ trivial       
objects1 ! orig9als ( :i* are only too  
abundant 9 nature4     ,*apt] ,,xii3 ,:y
 ,! ,am]icans ,raise ,"s ,monum5ts ,s   
,insignificant1 ,& ,o!rs ,s ,important  
,i h j obs]v$1 t 9 democratic ages      
monum5ts ( ! arts t5d to become m num]\s
 & less important4 ,i n[ ha/5 to po9t   
out ! exception to ?is rule4 ,9 a       
democratic community individuals are v  
p[]less2 b ! ,/ate :i* repres5ts !m all1
 & conta9s !m all 9 its grasp1 is v     
p[]ful4 ,n[h]e d citiz5s appe> s        
insignificant z 9 a democratic nation2  
n[h]e does ! nation itself appe> great]1
 or does ! m9d m easily take 9 a wide   
g5]al survey ( x4 ,9 democratic         
communities ! imag9ation is compress$ :5
 m5 consid] !mselves2 x exp&s           
indef9itely :5 !y ?9k ( ! ,/ate4 ,h5ce x
 is t ! same m5 :o live on a small scale
 9 n>r[ dwell+s1 frequ5tly aspire to    

gigantic spl5dor 9 ! erection ( _!      
public monum5ts4  ,! ,am]icans trac$ out
 ! circuit ( an imm5se city on ! site   
:i* !y int5d$ to make _! capital1 b :i*1
 up to ! pres5t "t1 is h>dly m d5sely   
peopl$ ?an ,pontoise1 ?\gh1 accord+ to  
!m1 x w "o day conta9 a million (       
inhabitants4 ,!y h already root$ up     
trees = t5 miles r\nd1 le/ !y %\ld      
int]f]e ) ! future citiz5s ( ?is imag9>y
 metropolis4 ,!y h erect$ a magnific5t  
palace = ,congress 9 ! c5tre ( ! city1 &
 h giv5 x ! pomp\s "n ( ! ,capitol4 ,!  
sev]al ,/ates ( ! ,union are e day      
plann+ & erect+ = !mselves prodigi\s    
und]tak+s1 :i* w\ld a/oni% ! eng9e]s ( !
 great ,european nations4 ,?us democracy
 n only leads m5 to a va/ numb] (       
inconsid]able productions2 x also leads 
!m to raise "s monum5ts on ! l>ge/      
scale3 b betwe5 ^! two extremes !re is a
 blank4 ,a few scatt]$ rema9s ( enorm\s 
build+s c !re=e tea* u no?+ ( ! social  
condition & ! in/itutions ( ! p by :om  
!y 7 rais$4 ,i may add1 ?\gh ! rem>k    

leads me to /ep out ( my subject1 t !y d
 n make u bett] acqua9t$ ) its          
greatness1 its civilization1 & its real 
prosp]ity4 ,:5soev] a p[] ( any k9d %all
 be able to make a :ole p co-op]ate 9 a 
s+le und]tak+1 t p[]1 ) a little k & a  
great deal ( "t1 w succe$ 9 obta9+      
some?+ enorm\s f ! co-op]ation ( ef=ts s
 multipli$4 ,b ?is does n lead to !     
conclusion t ! p 0 v happy1 v enlight5$1
 or ev5 v /rong4  ,! ,spani>ds f\nd !   
,city ( ,mexico full ( magnific5t       
temples & va/ palaces2 b t did n prev5t 
,cortes f conqu]+ ! ,mexican ,empire )  
#fjj foot soldi]s & sixte5 horses4 ,if !
 ,romans _h be5 bett] acqua9t$ ) ! laws 
( hydraulics1 !y w\ld n h con/ruct$ all 
! aqu$ucts :i* surr\nd ! ru9s ( _!      
cities--!y w\ld h made a bett] use ( _! 
p[] & _! weal?4 ,if !y _h inv5t$ !      
/eam-eng9e1 p]haps !y w\ld n h ext5d$ to
 ! extremities ( _! empire ^? long      
artificial roads :i* are call$ ,roman   
roads4 ,^! ?+s are at once ! spl5did    
memorials ( _! ignorance & ( _!         

greatness4 ,a p :i* %\ld leave no o!r   
ve/ige ( its track ?an a few lead5 pipes
 9 ! e>? & a few iron rods ^u its       
surface1 might h be5 m ! ma/] ( nature  
?an ! ,romans4     ,*apt] ,,xiii3       
,lit]>y ,*>act]i/ics ,( ,democratic     
,ages  ,:5 a travell] goes into a       
booksell]'s %op 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 &    
exam9es ! ,am]ican books ^u ! %elves1 ! 
numb] ( works appe>s extremely great2   
:il/ t ( kn[n au?ors appe>s1 on !       
contr>y1 to be extremely small4 ,he w   
fir/ meet ) a numb] ( elem5t>y          
treatises1 de/9$ to tea* ! rudim5ts (   
human k4 ,mo/ ( ^! books are writt5 9   
,europe2 ! ,am]icans repr9t !m1 adapt+  
!m to _! own c\ntry4 ,next comes an     
enorm\s quantity ( religi\s works1      
,bibles1 s]mons1 edify+ anecdotes1      
controv]sial div9ity1 & reports (       
*>itable societies2 la/ly1 appe>s ! long
 catalogue ( political pamphlets4 ,9    
,am]ica1 p>ties d n write books to      
combat ea* o!rs' op9ions1 b pamphlets   
:i* are circulat$ = a day ) incr$ible   

rapidity1 & !n expire4 ,9 ! mid/ ( all  
^! obscure productions ( ! human bra9   
are to be f\nd ! m rem>kable works ( t  
small numb] ( au?ors1 ^: names are1 or  
ought to be1 kn[n to ,europeans4        
,al?\gh ,am]ica is p]haps 9 our days !  
civiliz$ c\ntry 9 :i* lit]ature is lea/ 
att5d$ to1 a l>ge numb] ( p]sons are    
nev]!less to be f\nd !re :o take an     
int]e/ 9 ! productions ( ! m9d1 & :o    
make !m1 if n ! /udy ( _! lives1 at lea/
 ! *>m ( _! leisure h\rs4 ,b ,engl&     
supplies ^! read]s ) ! l>g] portion ( ! 
books :i* !y require4 ,almo/ all        
important ,engli% books are republi%$ 9 
! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! lit]>y g5ius (      
,great ,brita9 /ill d>ts its rays into !
 recesses ( ! =e/s ( ! ,new ,_w4 ,!re is
 h>dly a pione]'s hut :i* does n conta9 
a few odd volumes ( ,%akespe>e4 ,i      
rememb] t ,i read ! feudal play ( ,h5ry 
,v = ! fir/ "t 9 a logh\se4  ,n only d !
 ,am]icans con/antly draw ^u ! treasures
 ( ,engli% lit]ature1 b x may be said ) 
tru? t !y f9d ! lit]ature ( ,engl& gr[+ 

on _! own soil4 ,! l>g] "p ( t small    
numb] ( m5 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates :o are     
engag$ 9 ! composition ( lit]>y works   
are ,engli% 9 sub/ance1 & /ill m s 9 =m4
 ,?us !y transport into ! mid/ (        
democracy ! ideas & lit]>y fa%ions :i*  
are curr5t among/ ! ari/ocratic nation  
!y h tak5 = _! model4 ,!y pa9t ) colors 
borr[$ f =eign mann]s2 & z !y h>dly ev] 
repres5t ! c\ntry !y 7 born 9 z x really
 is1 !y are seldom popul> !re4 ,!       
citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are !mselves s
 conv9c$ t x is n = !m t books are      
publi%$1 t be=e !y c make up _! m9ds ^u 
! m]it ( "o ( _! au?ors1 !y g5]ally wait
 till 8 fame has be5 ratifi$ 9 ,engl&1 j
 z 9 pictures ! au?or ( an orig9al is   
held to be entitl$ to judge ( ! m]it ( a
 copy4 ,! inhabitants ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
h !n at pres5t1 prop]ly speak+1 no      
lit]ature4 ,! only au?ors :om ,i        
ackn[l$ge z ,am]ican are ! j\rnali/s4   
,!y inde$ are n great writ]s1 b !y speak
 ! language ( _! c\ntrym51 & make       
!mselves he>d by !m4 ,o!r au?ors are    

ali5s2 !y are to ! ,am]icans :at !      
imitators ( ! ,greeks & ,romans 7 to u  
at ! revival ( le>n+--an object (       
curiosity1 n ( g5]al sympa?y4 ,!y amuse 
! m9d1 b !y d n act ^u ! mann]s ( ! p4  
,i h already said t ?is /ate ( ?+s is v 
f> f orig9at+ 9 democracy alone1 & t !  
causes ( x mu/ be s\ght = 9 sev]al      
peculi> circum/ances indep5d5t ( !      
democratic pr9ciple4 ,if ! ,am]icans1   
reta9+ ! same laws & social condition1  
_h _h a diff]5t orig91 & _h be5         
transport$ into ano!r c\ntry1 ,i d n "q 
t !y w\ld h _h a lit]ature4 ,ev5 z !y n[
 are1 ,i am conv9c$ t !y w ultimately h 
"o2 b its "* w be diff]5t f t :i* m>ks !
 ,am]ican lit]>y productions ( our "t1 &
 t "* w be peculi>ly its own4 ,nor is x 
impossible to trace ?is "* be=eh&4  ,i  
suppose an ari/ocratic p among/ :om     
lett]s are cultivat$2 ! labors ( ! m9d1 
z well z ! affairs ( /ate1 are conduct$ 
by a rul+ class 9 society4 ,! lit]>y z  
well z ! political c>e] is almo/        
entirely conf9$ to ?is class1 or to ^?  

ne>e/ to x 9 rank4 ,^! premises suffice 
to give me a key to all ! re/4 ,:5 a    
small numb] ( ! same m5 are engag$ at ! 
same "t ^u ! same objects1 !y easily    
conc]t ) "o ano!r1 & agree ^u c]ta9     
lead+ rules :i* are to gov]n !m ea* &   
all4 ,if ! object :i* attracts !        
att5tion ( ^! m5 is lit]ature1 !        
productions ( ! m9d w soon be subject$  
by !m to precise canons1 f :i* x w no   
long] be all[able to dep>t4 ,if ^! m5   
occupy a h]$it>y position 9 ! c\ntry1 !y
 w be naturally incl9$1 n only to adopt 
a c]ta9 numb] ( fix$ rules = !mselves1 b
 to foll[ ^? :i* _! =efa!rs laid d[n =  
_! own guidance2 _! code w be at once   
/rict & traditional4 ,z !y are n        
necess>ily engross$ by ! c>es ( daily   
life--z !y h nev] be5 s1 any m ?an _!   
fa!rs 7 be=e !m--!y h le>n$ to take an  
int]e/1 = sev]al g5]ations back1 9 !    
labors ( ! m9d4 ,!y h le>n$ to und]/&   
lit]ature z an art1 to love x 9 ! end = 
its own sake1 & to feel a s*ol>-l       
satisfaction 9 see+ m5 con=m to its     

rules4 ,nor is ?is all3 ! m5 ( :om ,i   
speak began & w end _! lives 9 easy or 9
 afflu5t circum/ances2 h5ce !y h        
naturally conceiv$ a ta/e = *oice       
gratifications1 & a love ( ref9$ &      
delicate pleasures4 ,nay m1 a k9d (     
indol5ce ( m9d & he>t1 :i* !y frequ5tly 
contract 9 ! mid/ ( ?is long & peaceful 
enjoym5t ( s mu* welf>e1 leads !m to put
 aside1 ev5 f _! pleasures1 :atev] might
 be too />tl+ or too acute4 ,!y _h r be 
amus$ ?an int5sely excit$2 !y wi% to be 
int]e/$1 b n to be c>ri$ away4  ,n[ let 
u fancy a great numb] ( lit]>y p]=mances
 execut$ by ! m51 or = ! m51 :om ,i h j 
describ$1 & we %all readily conceive a  
/yle ( lit]ature 9 :i* ev]y?+ w be      
regul> & pre>rang$4 ,! slighte/ "w w be 
c>efully t\*$ 9 its lea/ details2 art & 
labor w be conspicu\s 9 ev]y?+2 ea* k9d 
( writ+ w h rules ( its own1 f :i* x w n
 be all[$ to sw]ve1 & :i* di/+ui% x f   
all o!rs4 ,/yle w be ?\ght ( almo/ z mu*
 importance z ?\ght2 & ! =m w be no less
 consid]$ ?an ! matt]3 ! diction w be   

poli%$1 measur$1 & uni=m4 ,! tone ( !   
m9d w be always dignifi$1 seldom v      
animat$2 & writ]s w c>e m to p]fect :at 
!y produce ?an to multiply _!           
productions4 ,x w sometimes happ5 t !   
memb]s ( ! lit]>y class1 always liv+    
among/ !mselves & writ+ = !mselves      
alone1 w lose sight ( ! re/ ( ! _w1 :i* 
w infect !m ) a false & labor$ /yle2 !y 
w lay d[n m9ute lit]>y rules = _!       
exclusive use1 :i* w ins5sibly lead !m  
to deviate f common-s5se1 & f9ally to   
transgress ! b\nds ( nature4 ,by d9t (  
/riv+ aft] a mode ( p>lance diff]5t f ! 
vulg>1 !y w arrive at a sort (          
ari/ocratic j>gon1 :i* is h>dly less    
remote f pure language ?an is ! co>se   
dialect ( ! p4 ,su* are ! natural p]ils 
( lit]ature among/ ari/ocracies4 ,e     
ari/ocracy :i* keeps itself entirely    
alo( f ! p becomes impot5t--a fact :i*  
is z true 9 lit]ature z x is 9 politics4
 99a  ,footnote a3 ,all ?is is          
especially true ( ! ari/ocratic c\ntries
 :i* h be5 long & peacefully subject to 

a mon>*ical gov]nm5t4 ,:5 lib]ty        
prevails 9 an ari/ocracy1 ! high] ranks 
are con/antly oblig$ to make use ( ! l[]
 classes2 & :5 !y use1 !y approa* !m4   
,?is frequ5tly introduces some?+ ( a    
democratic _s into an ari/ocratic       
community4 ,!re spr+s up1 moreov]1 9 a  
privileg$ body1 gov]n+ ) en]gy & an     
habitually bold policy1 a ta/e = /ir &  
excitem5t :i* mu/ infallibly affect all 
lit]>y p]=mances4  ,let u n[ turn !     
picture & consid] ! o!r side ( x2 let u 
transport ourselves into ! mid/ ( a     
democracy1 n unprep>$ by anci5t         
traditions & pres5t culture to p>take 9 
! pleasures ( ! m9d4 ,ranks are !re     
int]m+l$ & conf\nd$2 k & p[] are bo?    
inf9itely subdivid$1 &1 if ,i may use ! 
expression1 scatt]$ on e side4 ,"h !n is
 a motley multitude1 ^: intellectual    
wants are to be suppli$4 ,^! new vot>ies
 ( ! pleasures ( ! m9d h n all receiv$ !
 same education2 !y d n possess ! same  
degree ( culture z _! fa!rs1 nor any    
resemblance to !m--nay1 !y p]petually   

diff] f !mselves1 = !y live 9 a /ate (  
incessant *ange ( place1 feel+s1 &      
=tunes4 ,! m9d ( ea* memb] ( ! community
 is !re=e unatta*$ to t ( 8             
fell[-citiz5s by tradition or by common 
habits2 & !y h nev] _h ! p[]1 !         
incl9ation1 nor ! "t to conc]t toge!r4  
,x is1 h[ev]1 f ! bosom ( ?is het]og5e\s
 & agitat$ mass t au?ors spr+2 & f !    
same s\rce _! pr(its & _! fame are      
di/ribut$4 ,i c )\t difficulty und]/& t1
 "u ^! circum/ances1 ,i mu/ expect to   
meet 9 ! lit]ature ( su* a p ) b few (  
^? /rict conv5tional rules :i* are      
admitt$ by read]s & by writ]s 9         
ari/ocratic ages4 ,if x %\ld happ5 t !  
m5 ( "s "o p]iod 7 agre$ ^u any su*     
rules1 t w\ld prove no?+ = ! foll[+     
p]iod2 = among/ democratic nations ea*  
new g5]ation is a new p4 ,among/ su*    
nations1 !n1 lit]ature w n easily be    
subject$ to /rict rules1 & x is         
impossible t any su* rules %\ld ev] be  
p]man5t4  ,9 democracies x is by no     
means ! case t all ! m5 :o cultivate    

lit]ature h receiv$ a lit]>y education2 
& mo/ ( ^? :o h "s t+e ( belles-lettres 
are ei!r engag$ 9 politics1 or 9 a      
pr(ession :i* only all[s !m to ta/e     
occasionally & by /eal? ! pleasures ( ! 
m9d4 ,^! pleasures1 !re=e1 d n con/itute
 ! pr9cipal *>m ( _! lives2 b !y are    
consid]$ z a transi5t & necess>y        
recreation amid/ ! s]i\s labors ( life4 
,su* man c nev] acquire a suffici5tly   
intimate k ( ! art ( lit]ature to       
appreciate its m delicate beauties2 & ! 
m9or %ades ( expression mu/ escape !m4  
,z ! "t !y c devote to lett]s is v %ort1
 !y seek to make ! be/ use ( ! :ole ( x4
 ,!y pref] books :i* may be easily      
procur$1 quickly read1 & :i* require no 
le>n$ rese>*es to be und]/ood4 ,!y ask =
 beauties1 self-pr(f]$ & easily enjoy$2 
above all1 !y mu/ h :at is unexpect$ &  
new4 ,accu/om$ to ! /ruggle1 ! crosses1 
& ! monotony ( practical life1 !y       
require rapid emotions1 />tl+           
passages--tru?s or errors brilliant     
en\gh to r\se !m up1 & to plunge !m at  

once1 z if by viol5ce1 into ! mid/ ( a  
subject4  ,:y %\ld ,i say m8 or :o does 
n und]/& :at is ab\t to foll[1 be=e ,i h
 express$ x8 ,tak5 z a :ole1 lit]ature 9
 democratic ages c nev] pres5t1 z x does
 9 ! p]iods ( ari/ocracy1 an aspect (   
ord]1 regul>ity1 sci5ce1 & art2 its =m  
w1 on ! contr>y1 ord9>ily be slight$1   
sometimes despis$4 ,/yle w frequ5tly be 
fanta/ic1 incorrect1 ov]burd5$1 &       
loose--almo/ always vehem5t & bold4     
,au?ors w aim at rapidity ( execution1 m
 ?an at p]fection ( detail4 ,small      
productions w be m common ?an bulky     
books2 !re w be m wit ?an erudition1 m  
imag9ation ?an pr(undity2 & lit]>y      
p]=mances w be> m>ks ( an untutor$ &    
rude vigor ( ?\ght--frequ5tly ( great   
v>iety & s+ul> fecundity4 ,! object (   
au?ors w be to a/oni% r ?an to please1 &
 to /ir ! passions m ?an to *>m ! ta/e4 
,"h & !re1 inde$1 writ]s w d\btless     
occur :o w *oose a diff]5t track1 & :o  
w1 if !y are gift$ ) sup]ior abilities1 
succe$ 9 f9d+ read]s1 9 spite ( _!      

defects or _! bett] qualities2 b ^!     
exceptions w be r>e1 & ev5 ! au?ors :o  
%all s dep>t f ! receiv$ practice 9 !   
ma9 subject ( _! works1 w always relapse
 into x 9 "s less] details4  ,i h j     
depict$ two extreme conditions3 !       
transition by :i* a nation passes f !   
=m] to ! latt] is n sudd5 b gradual1 &  
m>k$ ) %ades ( v v>i\s int5sity4 ,9 !   
passage :i* conducts a lett]$ p f ! "o  
to ! o!r1 !re is almo/ always a mom5t at
 :i* ! lit]>y g5ius ( democratic nations
 has its conflu5ce ) t ( ari/ocracies1 &
 bo? seek to e/abli% _! jo9t sway ov] ! 
human m9d4 ,su* epo*s are transi5t1 b v 
brilliant3 !y are f]tile )\t exub]ance1 
& animat$ )\t confusion4 ,! ,fr5*       
lit]ature ( ! eighte5? c5tury may s]ve z
 an example4  ,i %\ld say m ?an ,i mean 
if ,i 7 to ass]t t ! lit]ature ( a      
nation is always subord9ate to its      
social condition & its political        
con/itution4 ,i am aw>e t1 indep5d5tly (
 ^! causes1 !re are sev]al o!rs :i*     
conf] c]ta9 *>act]i/ics on lit]>y       

productions2 b ^! appe> to me to be !   
*ief4 ,! relations :i* exi/ betwe5 !    
social & political condition ( a p & !  
g5ius ( its au?ors are always v num]\s3 
:oev] kn[s ! "o is nev] completely      
ignorant ( ! o!r4     ,*apt] ,,xiv3 ,!  
,trade ,( ,lit]ature  ,democracy n only 
infuses a ta/e = lett]s among ! trad+   
classes1 b introduces a trad+ _s into   
lit]ature4 ,9 ari/ocracies1 read]s are  
fa/idi\s & few 9 numb]2 9 democracies1  
!y are f> m num]\s & f> less difficult  
to please4 ,! consequ5ce is1 t among    
ari/ocratic nations1 no "o c hope to    
succe$ )\t imm5se ex]tions1 & t ^!      
ex]tions may be/[ a great deal ( fame1 b
 c nev] e>n mu* money2 :il/ among       
democratic nations1 a writ] may flatt]  
himself t he w obta9 at a *eap rate a   
meagre reputation & a l>ge =tune4 ,= ?is
 purpose he ne$ n be admir$2 x is en\gh 
t he is lik$4 ,! ev]-increas+ cr[d (    
read]s1 & _! cont9ual crav+ = some?+    
new1 insure ! sale ( books :i* nobody   
mu* e/eems4  ,9 democratic p]iods !     

public frequ5tly treat au?ors z k+s d _!
 c\rti]s2 !y enri*1 & !y despise !m4    
,:at m is ne$$ by ! v5al s\ls :i* are   
born 9 c\rts1 or :i* are wor?y to live  
!re8 ,democratic lit]ature is always    
infe/$ ) a tribe ( writ]s :o look ^u    
lett]s z a m]e trade3 & = "s few great  
au?ors :o adorn x y may reckon ?\s&s (  
idea-mong]s4     ,*apt] ,,xv3 ,! ,/udy  
,( ,greek ,& ,lat9 ,lit]ature ,peculi>ly
 ,useful ,9 ,democratic ,communities    
,:at 0 call$ ! ,p 9 ! mo/ democratic    
republics ( antiquity1 0 v unlike :at we
 designate by t t]m4 ,9 ,a!ns1 all !    
citiz5s took "p 9 public affairs2 b !re 
7 only #bj1jjj citiz5s to m ?an #cej1jjj
 inhabitants4 ,all ! re/ 7 slaves1 &    
dis*>g$ ! great] "p ( ^? duties :i*     
belong at ! pres5t day to ! l[] or ev5  
to ! middle classes4 ,a!ns1 !n1 ) h]    
univ]sal suffrage1 0 aft] all m]ely an  
ari/ocratic republic 9 :i* all ! nobles 
_h an equal "r to ! gov]nm5t4 ,! /ruggle
 betwe5 ! patricians & plebeians ( ,rome
 mu/ be consid]$ 9 ! same light3 x 0    

simply an inte/9e feud betwe5 ! eld] &  
y\ng] bran*es ( ! same family4 ,all !   
citiz5s belong$1 9 fact1 to !           
ari/ocracy1 & p>took ( its "*4  ,x is   
moreov] to be rem>k$1 t among/ ! anci5ts
 books 7 always sc>ce & de>2 & t v great
 difficulties imp$$ _! publication &    
circulation4 ,^! circum/ances conc5trat$
 lit]>y ta/es & habits among/ a small   
numb] ( m51 :o =m$ a small lit]>y       
ari/ocracy out ( ! *oic] spirits ( !    
great political ari/ocracy4 ,accord+ly  
no?+ goes to prove t lit]ature 0 ev]    
treat$ z a trade among/ ! ,greeks &     
,romans4  ,^! peoples1 :i* n only       
con/itut$ ari/ocracies1 b v poli%$ &    
free nations1 ( c\rse imp>t$ to _!      
lit]>y productions ! defects & ! m]its  
:i* *>act]ize ! lit]ature ( ari/ocratic 
ages4 ,& inde$ a v sup]ficial survey ( !
 lit]>y rema9s ( ! anci5ts w suffice to 
conv9ce u1 t if ^? writ]s 7 sometimes   
defici5t 9 v>iety1 or f]tility 9 _!     
subjects1 or 9 boldness1 vivacity1 or   
p[] ( g5]alization 9 _! ?\ghts1 !y      

always display$ exquisite c>e & skill 9 
_! details4 ,no?+ 9 _! works seems to be
 done ha/ily or at r&om3 e l9e is writt5
 = ! eye ( ! connoisseur1 & is %ap$ aft]
 "s conception ( ideal beauty4 ,no      
lit]ature places ^? f9e qualities1 9 :i*
 ! writ]s ( democracies are naturally   
defici5t1 9 bold] relief ?an t ( !      
anci5ts2 no lit]ature1 !re=e1 ought to  
be m /udi$ 9 democratic ages4 ,?is /udy 
is bett] suit$ ?an any o!r to combat !  
lit]>y defects inh]5t 9 ^? ages2 z = _! 
m praisewor?y lit]>y qualities1 !y w    
spr+ up ( _! own accord1 )\t its be+    
necess>y to le>n to acquire !m4  ,x is  
important t ?is po9t %\ld be cle>ly     
und]/ood4 ,a p>ticul> /udy may be useful
 to ! lit]ature ( a p1 )\t be+          
appropriate to its social & political   
wants4 ,if m5 7 to p]si/ 9 tea*+ no?+ b 
! lit]ature ( ! dead languages 9 a      
community :]e ev]yone is habitually l$  
to make vehem5t ex]tions to augm5t or to
 ma9ta9 8 =tune1 ! result w\ld be a v   
poli%$1 b a v dang]\s1 race ( citiz5s4  

,= z _! social & political condition    
w\ld give !m e day a s5se ( wants :i* _!
 education w\ld nev] tea* !m to supply1 
!y w\ld p]turb ! ,/ate1 9 ! "n ( !      
,greeks & ,romans1 in/ead ( enri*+ x by 
_! productive indu/ry4  ,x is evid5t t 9
 democratic communities ! int]e/ (      
individuals1 z well z ! security ( !    
commonweal?1 dem&s t ! education ( !    
great] numb] %\ld be sci5tific1         
comm]cial1 & indu/rial1 r ?an lit]>y4   
,greek & ,lat9 %\ld n be taught 9 all   
s*ools2 b x is important t ^? :o by _!  
natural disposition or _! =tune are     
de/9$ to cultivate lett]s or prep>$ to  
reli% !m1 %\ld f9d s*ools :]e a complete
 k ( anci5t lit]ature may be acquir$1 & 
:]e ! true s*ol> may be =m$4 ,a few     
excell5t univ]sities w\ld d m t[>ds !   
atta9m5t ( ?is object ?an a va/ numb] ( 
bad gramm> s*ools1 :]e sup]flu\s matt]s1
 badly le>n$1 /& 9 ! way ( s\nd         
in/ruction 9 necess>y /udies4  ,all :o  
aspire to lit]>y excell5ce 9 democratic 
nations1 ought frequ5tly to refre%      

!mselves at ! spr+s ( anci5t lit]ature3 
!re is no m :olesome c\rse = ! m9d4 ,n t
 ,i hold ! lit]>y productions ( !       
anci5ts to be irreproa*able2 b ,i ?9k t 
!y h "s especial m]its1 admirably       
calculat$ to c\nt]balance our peculi>   
defects4 ,!y are a prop on ! side on :i*
 we are 9 mo/ dang] ( fall+4     ,*apt] 
,,xvi3 ,! ,effect ,( ,democracy ,on     
,language  ,if ! read] has rightly      
und]/ood :at ,i h already said on !     
subject ( lit]ature 9 g5]al1 he w h no  
difficulty 9 compreh5d+ t species (     
influ5ce :i* a democratic social        
condition & democratic in/itutions may  
ex]cise ov] language itself1 :i* is !   
*ief in/rum5t ( ?\ght4  ,am]ican au?ors 
may truly be said to live m 9 ,engl& ?an
 9 _! own c\ntry2 s9ce !y con/antly /udy
 ! ,engli% writ]s1 & take !m e day = _! 
models4 ,b su* is n ! case ) ! bulk ( ! 
population1 :i* is m imm$iately subject$
 to ! peculi> causes act+ ^u ! ,unit$   
,/ates4 ,x is n !n to ! writt51 b to !  
spok5 language t att5tion mu/ be paid1  

if we w\ld detect ! modifications :i* ! 
idiom ( an ari/ocratic p may und]go :5 x
 becomes ! language ( a democracy4      
,engli%m5 ( education1 & m compet5t     
judges ?an ,i c be myself ( ! nic] %ades
 ( expression1 h frequ5tly assur$ me t !
 language ( ! educat$ classes 9 ! ,unit$
 ,/ates is notably diff]5t f t ( !      
educat$ classes 9 ,great ,brita94 ,!y   
compla9 n only t ! ,am]icans h br\ght   
into use a numb] ( new words--! diff]5ce
 & ! di/ance betwe5 ! two c\ntries might
 suffice to expla9 t mu*--b t ^! new    
words are m especially tak5 f ! j>gon ( 
p>ties1 ! me*anical arts1 or ! language 
( trade4 ,!y ass]t1 9 addition to ?is1 t
 old ,engli% words are (t5 us$ by !     
,am]icans 9 new acceptations2 & la/ly1 t
 ! inhabitants ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates        
frequ5tly int]m+le _! phraseology 9 !   
/range/ mann]1 & sometimes place words  
toge!r :i* are always kept ap>t 9 !     
language ( ! "m-c\ntry4 ,^! rem>ks1 :i* 
7 made to me at v>i\s times by p]sons :o
 appe>$ to be wor?y ( cr$it1 l$ me to   

reflect ^u ! subject2 & my reflections  
br\ght me1 by !oretical reason+1 to !   
same po9t at :i* my in=mants _h arriv$  
by practical obs]vation4  ,9            
ari/ocracies1 language mu/ naturally    
p>take ( t /ate ( repose 9 :i* ev]y?+   
rema9s4 ,few new words are co9$1 because
 few new ?+s are made2 & ev5 if new ?+s 
7 made1 !y w\ld be designat$ by kn[n    
words1 ^: mean+ has be5 det]m9$ by      
tradition4 ,if x happ5s t ! human m9d   
be/irs itself at l5g?1 or is r\s$ by    
light break+ 9 f )\t1 ! novel           
expressions :i* are introduc$ are       
*>act]iz$ by a degree ( le>n+1          
intellig5ce1 & philosophy1 :i* %[s t !y 
d n orig9ate 9 a democracy4 ,aft] ! fall
 ( ,con/ant9ople _h turn$ ! tide (      
sci5ce & lit]ature t[>ds ! we/1 ! ,fr5* 
language 0 almo/ imm$iately invad$ by a 
multitude ( new words1 :i* _h all ,greek
 or ,lat9 roots4 ,an erudite neologism  
!n sprang up 9 ,france :i* 0 conf9$ to !
 educat$ classes1 & :i* produc$ no      
s5sible effect1 or at lea/ a v gradual  

"o1 ^u ! p4 ,all ! nations ( ,europe    
successively exhibit$ ! same *ange4     
,milton alone introduc$ m ?an six hundr$
 words into ! ,engli% language1 almo/   
all d]iv$ f ! ,lat91 ! ,greek1 or !     
,hebrew4 ,! con/ant agitation :i*       
prevails 9 a democratic community t5ds  
unceas+ly1 on ! contr>y1 to *ange ! "* (
 ! language1 z x does ! aspect (        
affairs4 ,9 ! mid/ ( ?is g5]al /ir &    
competition ( m9ds1 a great numb] ( new 
ideas are =m$1 old ideas are lo/1 or    
reappe>1 or are subdivid$ into an       
inf9ite v>iety ( m9or %ades4 ,!         
consequ5ce is1 t _m words mu/ fall into 
desuetude1 & o!rs mu/ be br\ght into    
use4  ,democratic nations love *ange =  
its own sake2 & ?is is se5 9 _! language
 z mu* z 9 _! politics4 ,ev5 :5 !y d n  
ne$ to *ange words1 !y sometimes feel a 
wi% to trans=m !m4 ,! g5ius ( a         
democratic p is n only %[n by ! great   
numb] ( words !y br+ into use1 b also by
 ! nature ( ! ideas ^! new words        
repres5t4 ,among/ su* a p ! majority    

lays d[n ! law 9 language z well z 9    
ev]y?+ else2 its prevail+ _s is z       
manife/ 9 t z 9 o!r respects4 ,b !      
majority is m engag$ 9 bus9ess ?an 9    
/udy--9 political & comm]cial int]e/s   
?an 9 philosophical speculation or      
lit]>y pursuits4 ,mo/ ( ! words co9$ or 
adopt$ = its use w !re=e be> ! m>k ( ^! 
habits2 !y w ma9ly s]ve to express !    
wants ( bus9ess1 ! passions ( p>ty1 or !
 details ( ! public adm9i/ration4 ,9 ^! 
dep>tm5ts ! language w con/antly spread1
 :il/ on ! o!r h& x w gradually lose    
gr\nd 9 metaphysics & !ology4  ,z to !  
s\rce f :i* democratic nations are wont 
to d]ive _! new expressions1 & ! mann] 9
 :i* !y g to "w to co9 !m1 bo? may      
easily be describ$4 ,m5 liv+ 9          
democratic c\ntries "k b little ( !     
language :i* 0 spok5 at ,a!ns & at      
,rome1 & !y d n c>e to dive into ! lore 
( antiquity to f9d ! expression !y happ5
 to want4 ,if !y h sometimes rec\rse to 
le>n$ etymologies1 vanity w induce !m to
 se>* at ! roots ( ! dead languages2 b  

erudition does n naturally furni% !m )  
its res\rces4 ,! mo/ ignorant1 x        
sometimes happ5s1 w use !m mo/4 ,!      
em95tly democratic desire to get above  
_! own sph]e w (t5 lead !m to seek to   
dignify a vulg> pr(ession by a ,greek or
 ,lat9 "n4 ,! l[] ! call+ is1 & ! m     
remote f le>n+1 ! m pomp\s & erudite is 
its appellation4 ,?us ! ,fr5*           
rope-danc]s h trans=m$ !mselves into    
acrobates & funambules4  ,9 ! abs5ce ( k
 ( ! dead languages1 democratic nations 
are apt to borr[ words f liv+ tongues2 =
 _! mutual int]c\rse becomes p]petual1 &
 ! inhabitants ( diff]5t c\ntries       
imitate ea* o!r ! m readily z !y gr[ m l
 ea* o!r e day4  ,b x is pr9cipally ^u  
_! own languages t democratic nations   
attempt to p]petrate innovations4 ,f "t 
to "t !y resume =gott5 expressions 9 _! 
vocabul>y1 :i* !y re/ore to use2 or !y  
borr[ f "s p>ticul> class ( ! community 
a t]m peculi> to x1 :i* !y introduce ) a
 figurative mean+ into ! language (     
daily life4 ,_m expressions :i*         

orig9ally belong$ to ! te*nical language
 ( a pr(ession or a p>ty1 are ?us drawn 
into g5]al circulation4  ,! mo/ common  
exp$i5t employ$ by democratic nations to
 make an innovation 9 language consi/s 9
 giv+ "s unwont$ mean+ to an expression 
already 9 use4 ,?is me?od is v simple1  
prompt1 & conv5i5t2 no le>n+ is requir$ 
to use x aright1 & ignorance itself r   
facilitates ! practice2 b t practice is 
mo/ dang]\s to ! language4 ,:5 a        
democratic p d\bles ! mean+ ( a ^w 9 ?is
 way1 !y sometimes r5d] ! signification 
:i* x reta9s z ambigu\s z t :i* x       
acquires4 ,an au?or beg9s by a slight   
deflection ( a kn[n expression f its    
primitive mean+1 & he adapts x1 ?us     
modifi$1 z well z he c to 8 subject4 ,a 
second writ] twi/s ! s5se ( ! expression
 9 ano!r way2 a ?ird takes possession ( 
x = ano!r purpose2 & z !re is no common 
appeal to ! s5t5ce ( a p]man5t tribunal 
:i* may def9itely settle ! signification
 ( ! ^w1 x rema9s 9 an ambigu\s         
condition4 ,! consequ5ce is t writ]s    

h>dly ev] appe> to dwell ^u a s+le      
?\ght1 b !y always seem to po9t _! aim  
at a knot ( ideas1 leav+ ! read] to     
judge :i* ( !m has be5 hit4 ,?is is a   
deplorable consequ5ce ( democracy4 ,i _h
 r t ! language %\ld be made hide\s )   
words import$ f ! ,*9ese1 ! ,t>t>s1 or !
 ,hurons1 ?an t ! mean+ ( a ^w 9 our own
 language %\ld become indet]m9ate4      
,h>mony & uni=mity are only second>y    
beauties 9 composition2 _m ( ^! ?+s are 
conv5tional1 &1 /rictly speak+1 x is    
possible to =ego !m2 b )\t cle>         
phraseology !re is no good language4  ,!
 pr9ciple ( equality necess>ily         
introduces sev]al o!r *anges into       
language4 ,9 ari/ocratic ages1 :5 ea*   
nation t5ds to /& alo( f all o!rs &     
likes to h di/9ct *>act]i/ics ( its own1
 x (t5 happ5s t sev]al peoples :i* h a  
common orig9 become nev]!less e/rang$ f 
ea* o!r1 s t1 )\t ceas+ to und]/& ! same
 language1 !y no long] all speak x 9 !  
same mann]4 ,9 ^! ages ea* nation is    
divid$ into a c]ta9 numb] ( classes1 :i*

 see b little ( ea* o!r1 & d n int]m+le4
 ,ea* ( ^! classes contracts1 &         
inv>iably reta9s1 habits ( m9d peculi>  
to itself1 & adopts by *oice c]ta9 words
 & c]ta9 t]ms1 :i* aft]w>ds pass f      
g5]ation to g5]ation1 l _! e/ates4 ,!   
same idiom !n comprises a language ( !  
poor & a language ( ! ri*--a language ( 
! citiz5 & a language ( ! nobility--a   
le>n$ language & a vulg> "o4 ,! deep] ! 
divisions1 & ! m impassable ! b>ri]s (  
society become1 ! m mu/ ?is be ! case4  
,i w\ld lay a wag]1 t among/ ! ca/es (  
,india !re are amaz+ v>iations (        
language1 & t !re is almo/ z mu*        
diff]5ce betwe5 ! language ( ! p>iah & t
 ( ! ,brahm9 z !re is 9 _! dress4 ,:51  
on ! contr>y1 m51 be+ no long] re/ra9$  
by ranks1 meet on t]ms ( con/ant        
int]c\rse--:5 ca/es are de/roy$1 & !    
classes ( society are recruit$ &        
int]mix$ ) ea* o!r1 all ! words ( a     
language are m+l$4 ,^? :i* are          
unsuitable to ! great] numb] p]i%2 !    
rema9d] =m a common /ore1 :5ce ev]yone  

*ooses pretty ne>ly at r&om4 ,almo/ all 
! diff]5t dialects :i* divid$ ! idioms (
 ,european nations are manife/ly decl9+2
 !re is no patois 9 ! ,new ,_w1 & x is  
disappe>+ e day f ! old c\ntries4  ,!   
influ5ce ( ?is revolution 9 social      
conditions is z mu* felt 9 /yle z x is 9
 phraseology4 ,n only does ev]yone use !
 same words1 b a habit spr+s up ( us+ !m
 )\t discrim9ation4 ,! rules :i* /yle _h
 set up are almo/ aboli%$3 ! l9e ceases 
to be drawn betwe5 expressions :i* seem 
by _! v nature vulg>1 & o!r :i* appe> to
 be ref9$4 ,p]sons spr++ f diff]5t ranks
 ( society c>ry ! t]ms & expressions !y 
are accu/om$ to use ) !m1 into :atev]   
circum/ances !y may pass2 ?us ! orig9 ( 
words is lo/ l ! orig9 ( individuals1 & 
!re is z mu* confusion 9 language z !re 
is 9 society4  ,i am aw>e t 9 !         
classification ( words !re are rules :i*
 d n belong to "o =m ( society any m ?an
 to ano!r1 b :i* are d]iv$ f ! nature ( 
?+s4 ,"s expressions & phrases are      
vulg>1 because ! ideas !y are meant to  

express are l[ 9 !mselves2 o!rs are ( a 
high] "*1 because ! objects !y are      
int5d$ to designate are naturally       
elevat$4 ,no int]mixture ( ranks w ev]  
efface ^! diff]5ces4 ,b ! pr9ciple (    
equality _c fail to root out :atev] is  
m]ely conv5tional & arbitr>y 9 ! =ms (  
?\ght4 ,p]haps ! necess>y classification
 :i* ,i po9t$ out 9 ! la/ s5t5ce w      
always be less respect$ by a democratic 
p ?an by any o!r1 because among/ su* a p
 !re are no m5 :o are p]man5tly dispos$ 
by education1 culture1 & leisure to /udy
 ! natural laws ( language1 & :o cause  
^? laws to be respect$ by _! own        
obs]vance ( !m4  ,i %all n quit ?is     
topic )\t t\*+ on a feature ( democratic
 languages1 :i* is p]haps m *>act]i/ic (
 !m ?an any o!r4 ,x has already be5 %[n 
t democratic nations h a ta/e1 &        
sometimes a passion1 = g5]al ideas1 & t 
?is arises f _! peculi> m]its & defects4
 ,?is lik+ = g5]al ideas is display$ 9  
democratic languages by ! cont9ual use (
 g5]ic t]ms or ab/ract expressions1 & by

 ! mann] 9 :i* !y are employ$4 ,?is is !
 great m]it & ! great imp]fection ( ^!  
languages4 ,democratic nations are      
passionately addict$ to g5]ic t]ms or   
ab/ract expressions1 because ^! modes ( 
spee* enl>ge ?\ght1 & assi/ ! op]ations 
( ! m9d by enabl+ x to include sev]al   
objects 9 a small compass4 ,a ,fr5*     
democratic writ] w be apt to say        
capacites 9 ! ab/ract = m5 ( capacity1 &
 )\t p>ticul>iz+ ! objects to :i* _!    
capacity is appli$3 he w talk ab\t      
actualities to designate 9 "o ^w ! ?+s  
pass+ be=e 8 eyes at ! in/ant2 & he w   
compreh5d "u ! t]m ev5tualities :atev]  
may happ5 9 ! univ]se1 dat+ f ! mom5t at
 :i* he speaks4 ,democratic writ]s are  
p]petually co9+ words ( ?is k9d1 9 :i*  
!y sublimate into fur!r ab/raction !    
ab/ract t]ms ( ! language4 ,nay1 m1 to  
r5d] _! mode ( spee* m succ9ct1 !y      
p]sonify ! subject ( ^! ab/ract t]ms1 & 
make x act l a real entity4 ,?us !y w\ld
 say 9 ,fr5*1 ,la =ce des *oses veut que
 les capacites g\v]n5t4  ,i _c bett]    

illu/rate :at ,i mean ?an by my own     
example4 ,i h frequ5tly us$ ! ^w        
equality 9 an absolute s5se--nay1 ,i h  
p]sonifi$ equality 9 sev]al places2 ?us 
,i h said t equality does su* & su* ?+s1
 or refra9s f do+ o!rs4 ,x may be       
affirm$ t ! writ]s ( ! age ( ,l\is ,,xiv
 w\ld n h us$ ^! expressions3 !y w\ld   
nev] h ?\ght ( us+ ! ^w equality )\t    
apply+ x to "s p>ticul> object2 & !y    
w\ld r h r5\nc$ ! t]m altoge!r ?an h    
cons5t$ to make a liv+ p]sonage ( x4    
,^! ab/ract t]ms :i* ab\nd 9 democratic 
languages1 & :i* are us$ on e occasion  
)\t atta*+ !m to any p>ticul> fact1     
enl>ge & obscure ! ?\ghts !y are int5d$ 
to convey2 !y r5d] ! mode ( spee* m     
succ9ct1 & ! idea conta9$ 9 x less cle>4
 ,b ) reg>d to language1 democratic     
nations pref] obscurity to labor4 ,i "k 
n inde$ :e!r ?is loose /yle has n "s    
secret *>m = ^? :o speak & write among/ 
^! nations4 ,z ! m5 :o live !re are     
frequ5tly left to ! ef=ts ( _!          
individual p[]s ( m9d1 !y are almo/     

always a prey to d\bt2 & z _! situation 
9 life is =ev] *ang+1 !y are nev] held  
fa/ to any ( _! op9ions by ! c]ta9 t5ure
 ( _! =tunes4 ,m5 liv+ 9 democratic     
c\ntries are1 !n1 apt to ent]ta9        
unsettl$ ideas1 & !y require loose      
expressions to convey !m4 ,z !y nev] "k 
:e!r ! idea !y express to-day w be      
appropriate to ! new position !y may    
occupy to-morr[1 !y naturally acquire a 
lik+ = ab/ract t]ms4 ,an ab/ract t]m is 
l a box ) a false bottom3 y may put 9 x 
:at ideas y please1 & take !m out aga9  
)\t be+ obs]v$4  ,among/ all nations1   
g5]ic & ab/ract t]ms =m ! basis (       
language4 ,i d n1 !re=e1 affect to expel
 ^! t]ms f democratic languages2 ,i     
simply rem>k t m5 h an especial t5d5cy1 
9 ! ages ( democracy1 to multiply words 
( ?is k9d--to take !m always by !mselves
 9 _! mo/ ab/ract acceptation1 & to use 
!m on all occasions1 ev5 :5 ! nature ( !
 disc\rse does n require !m4     ,*apt] 
,,xvii3 ,( ,"s ,( ,! ,s\rces ,( ,poetry 
,among/ ,democratic ,nations  ,v>i\s    

diff]5t significations h be5 giv5 to !  
^w poetry4 ,x w\ld we>y my read]s if ,i 
7 to lead !m into a discussion z to :i* 
( ^! def9itions ought to be select$3 ,i 
pref] tell+ !m at once t :i* ,i h *os54 
,9 my op9ion1 poetry is ! se>* & !      
del9eation ( ! ideal4 ,! poet is he :o1 
by suppress+ a "p ( :at exi/s1 by add+  
"s imag9>y t\*es to ! picture1 & by     
comb9+ c]ta9 real circum/ances1 b :i* d 
n 9 fact concurr5tly happ51 completes & 
ext5ds ! "w ( nature4 ,?us ! object (   
poetry is n to repres5t :at is true1 b  
to adorn x1 & to pres5t to ! m9d "s     
l(ti] imag]y4 ,v]se1 reg>d$ z ! ideal   
beauty ( language1 may be em95tly       
poetical2 b v]se does n1 ( itself1      
con/itute poetry4  ,i n[ proce$ to      
inquire :e!r1 among/ ! actions1 !       
s5tim5ts1 & ! op9ions ( democratic      
nations1 !re are any :i* lead to a      
conception ( ideal beauty1 & :i* may =  
?is reason be consid]$ z natural s\rces 
( poetry4 ,x mu/ 9 ! fir/ place1 be     
ackn[l$g$ t ! ta/e = ideal beauty1 & !  

pleasure d]iv$ f ! expression ( x1 are  
nev] s int5se or s diffus$ among/ a     
democratic z among/ an ari/ocratic p4 ,9
 ari/ocratic nations x sometimes happ5s 
t ! body goes on to act z x 7           
spontane\sly1 :il/ ! high] faculties are
 b\nd & burd5$ by repose4 ,among/ ^!    
nations ! p w v (t5 display poetic      
ta/es1 & sometimes all[ _! fancy to     
range beyond & above :at surr\nds !m4 ,b
 9 democracies ! love ( physical        
gratification1 ! notion ( bett]+ "o's   
condition1 ! excitem5t ( competition1 ! 
*>m ( anticipat$ success1 are s _m spurs
 to urge m5 onw>ds 9 ! active pr(essions
 !y h embrac$1 )\t all[+ !m to deviate =
 an in/ant f ! track4 ,! ma9 /ress ( !  
faculties is to ?is po9t4 ,! imag9ation 
is n ext9ct2 b its *ief function is to  
devise :at may be useful1 & to repres5t 
:at is real4  ,! pr9ciple ( equality n  
only div]ts m5 f ! description ( ideal  
beauty--x also dim9i%es ! numb] (       
objects to be describ$4 ,ari/ocracy1 by 
ma9ta9+ society 9 a fix$ position1 is   

favorable to ! solidity & duration (    
positive religions1 z well z to !       
/ability ( political in/itutions4 ,x n  
only keeps ! human m9d )9 a c]ta9 sph]e 
( belief1 b x pr$isposes ! m9d to adopt 
"o fai? r ?an ano!r4 ,an ari/ocratic p w
 always be prone to place int]m$iate    
p[]s betwe5 ,god & man4 ,9 ?is respect x
 may be said t ! ari/ocratic elem5t is  
favorable to poetry4 ,:5 ! univ]se is   
peopl$ ) sup]natural creatures1 n       
palpable to ! s5ses b discov]$ by ! m9d1
 ! imag9ation ranges freely1 & poets1   
f9d+ a ?\s& subjects to del9eate1 also  
f9d a c\ntless audi5ce to take an int]e/
 9 _! productions4 ,9 democratic ages x 
sometimes happ5s1 on ! contr>y1 t m5 are
 z mu* afloat 9 matt]s ( belief z !y are
 9 _! laws4 ,scepticism !n draws !      
imag9ation ( poets back to e>?1 &       
conf9es !m to ! real & visible _w4 ,ev5 
:5 ! pr9ciple ( equality does n di/urb  
religi\s belief1 x t5ds to simplify x1 &
 to div]t att5tion f second>y ag5ts1 to 
fix x pr9cipally on ! ,supreme ,p[]4    

,ari/ocracy naturally leads ! human m9d 
to ! contemplation ( ! pa/1 & fixes x   
!re4 ,democracy1 on ! contr>y1 gives m5 
a sort ( in/9ctive di/a/e = :at is      
anci5t4 ,9 ?is respect ari/ocracy is f> 
m favorable to poetry2 = ?+s commonly   
gr[ l>g] & m obscure z !y are m remote2 
& = ?is tw(old reason !y are bett] suit$
 to ! del9eation ( ! ideal4  ,aft] hav+ 
depriv$ poetry ( ! pa/1 ! pr9ciple (    
equality robs x 9 "p ( ! pres5t4 ,among/
 ari/ocratic nations !re are a c]ta9    
numb] ( privileg$ p]sonages1 ^:         
situation is1 z x 71 )\t & above !      
condition ( man2 to ^!1 p[]1 weal?1     
fame1 wit1 ref9em5t1 & di/9ction 9 all  
?+s appe> peculi>ly to belong4 ,! cr[d  
nev] sees !m v closely1 or does n wat*  
!m 9 m9ute details2 & little is ne$$ to 
make ! description ( su* m5 poetical4   
,on ! o!r h&1 among/ ! same p1 y w meet 
) classes s ignorant1 l[1 & enslav$1 t  
!y are no less fit objects = poetry f ! 
excess ( _! rud5ess & wret*$ness1 ?an ! 
=m] are f _! greatness & ref9em5t4      

,besides1 z ! diff]5t classes ( :i* an  
ari/ocratic community is compos$ are    
widely sep>at$1 & imp]fectly acqua9t$ ) 
ea* o!r1 ! imag9ation may always        
repres5t !m ) "s addition to1 or "s     
subtraction f1 :at !y really are4 ,9    
democratic communities1 :]e m5 are all  
insignificant & v mu* alike1 ea* man    
in/antly sees all 8 fell[s :5 he surveys
 himself4 ,! poets ( democratic ages c  
nev]1 !re=e1 take any man 9 p>ticul> z !
 subject ( a piece2 = an object ( sl5d] 
importance1 :i* is di/9ctly se5 on all  
sides1 w nev] l5d itself to an ideal    
conception4 ,?us ! pr9ciple ( equality2 
9 proportion z x has e/abli%$ itself 9 !
 _w1 has dri$ up mo/ ( ! old spr+s (    
poetry4 ,let u n[ attempt to %[ :at new 
ones x may disclose4  ,:5 scepticism _h 
depopulat$ heav51 & ! progress (        
equality _h r$uc$ ea* individual to     
small] & bett] kn[n proportions1 !      
poets1 n yet aw>e ( :at !y c\ld         
sub/itute = ! great !mes :i* 7 dep>t+   
toge!r ) ! ari/ocracy1 turn$ _! eyes to 

inanimate nature4 ,z !y lo/ sight ( gods
 & h]oes1 !y set !mselves to describe   
/reams & m\nta9s4 ,!nce orig9at$ 9 ! la/
 c5tury1 t k9d ( poetry :i* has be5     
call$1 by way ( di/9ction1 !            
descriptive4 ,"s h ?\ght t ?is sort (   
del9eation1 embelli%$ ) all ! physical &
 inanimate objects :i* cov] ! e>?1 0 !  
k9d ( poetry peculi> to democratic ages2
 b ,i believe ?is to be an error1 & t x 
only belongs to a p]iod ( transition4   
,i am p]suad$ t 9 ! end democracy div]ts
 ! imag9ation f all t is ext]nal to man1
 & fixes x on man alone4 ,democratic    
nations may amuse !mselves = a :ile )   
consid]+ ! productions ( nature2 b !y   
are only excit$ 9 reality by a survey ( 
!mselves4 ,"h1 & "h alone1 ! true s\rces
 ( poetry among/ su* nations are to be  
f\nd2 & x may be believ$ t ! poets :o   
%all neglect to draw _! inspirations    
h5ce1 w lose all sway ov] ! m9ds :i* !y 
w\ld en*ant1 & w be left 9 ! end ) none 
b unimpassion$ spectators ( _!          
transports4 ,i h %[n h[ ! ideas (       

progression & ( ! indef9ite             
p]fectibility ( ! human race belong to  
democratic ages4 ,democratic nations c>e
 b little = :at has be51 b !y are haunt$
 by visions ( :at w be2 9 ?is direction 
_! unb\nd$ imag9ation gr[s & dilates    
beyond all measure4 ,"h !n is ! wilde/  
range op5 to ! g5ius ( poets1 :i* all[s 
!m to remove _! p]=mances to a suffici5t
 di/ance f ! eye4 ,democracy %uts ! pa/ 
aga9/ ! poet1 b op5s ! future be=e him4 
,z all ! citiz5s :o compose a democratic
 community are ne>ly equal & alike1 !   
poet _c dwell ^u any "o ( !m2 b ! nation
 itself invites ! ex]cise ( 8 p[]s4 ,!  
g5]al similitude ( individuals1 :i*     
r5d]s any "o ( !m tak5 sep>ately an     
improp] subject ( poetry1 all[s poets to
 include !m all 9 ! same imag]y1 & to   
take a g5]al survey ( ! p itself4       
,democractic nations h a cle>] p]ception
 ?an any o!rs ( _! own aspect2 & an     
aspect s impos+ is admirably fitt$ to ! 
del9eation ( ! ideal4  ,i readily admit 
t ! ,am]icans h no poets2 ,i _c all[ t  

!y h no poetic ideas4 ,9 ,europe p talk 
a great deal ( ! wilds ( ,am]ica1 b !   
,am]icans !mselves nev] ?9k ab\t !m3 !y 
are ins5sible to ! wond]s ( inanimate   
nature1 & !y may be said n to p]ceive ! 
mighty =e/s :i* surr\nd !m till !y fall 
b5ea? ! hat*et4 ,_! eyes are fix$ ^u    
ano!r sight3 ! ,am]ican p views its own 
m>* across ^! wilds--dry+ swamps1 turn+ 
! c\rse ( riv]s1 peopl+ solitudes1 &    
subdu+ nature4 ,?is magnific5t image (  
!mselves does n meet ! gaze ( !         
,am]icans at int]vals only2 x may be    
said to haunt e "o ( !m 9 8 lea/ z well 
z 9 8 mo/ important actions1 & to be    
always flitt+ be=e 8 m9d4 ,no?+         
conceivable is s petty1 s insipid1 s    
cr[d$ ) paltry int]e/s1 9 "o ^w s       
anti-poetic1 z ! life ( a man 9 ! ,unit$
 ,/ates4 ,b among/ ! ?\ghts :i* x       
sugge/s !re is always "o :i* is full (  
poetry1 & t is ! hidd5 n]ve :i* gives   
vigor to ! frame4  ,9 ari/ocratic ages  
ea* p1 z well z ea* individual1 is prone
 to /& sep>ate & alo( f all o!rs4 ,9    

democratic ages1 ! extreme fluctuations 
( m5 & ! impati5ce ( _! desires keep !m 
p]petually on ! move2 s t ! inhabitants 
( diff]5t c\ntries int]m+le1 see1 li/5  
to1 & borr[ f ea* o!r's /ores4 ,x is n  
only !n ! memb]s ( ! same community :o  
gr[ m alike2 communities are !mselves   
assimilat$ to "o ano!r1 & ! :ole        
assemblage pres5ts to ! eye ( !         
spectator "o va/ democracy1 ea* citiz5 (
 :i* is a p4 ,?is displays ! aspect (   
mank9d = ! fir/ "t 9 ! broade/ light4   
,all t belongs to ! exi/5ce ( ! human   
race tak5 z a :ole1 to its vicissitudes 
& to its future1 becomes an abundant m9e
 ( poetry4 ,! poets :o liv$ 9           
ari/ocratic ages h be5 em95tly          
successful 9 _! del9eations ( c]ta9     
incid5ts 9 ! life ( a p or a man2 b none
 ( !m ev] v5tur$ to include )9 8        
p]=mances ! de/9ies ( mank9d--a task :i*
 poets writ+ 9 democratic ages may      
attempt4 ,at t same "t at :i* e man1    
rais+ 8 eyes above 8 c\ntry1 beg9s at   
l5g? to disc]n mank9d at l>ge1 !        

,div9ity is m & m manife/ to ! human m9d
 9 full & entire maje/y4 ,if 9          
democratic ages fai? 9 positive         
religions be (t5 %ak51 & ! belief 9     
int]m$iate ag5ts1 by :atev] "n !y are   
call$1 be ov]ca/2 on ! o!r h& m5 are    
dispos$ to conceive a f> broad] idea (  
,provid5ce itself1 & its int]f]5ce 9    
human affairs assumes a new & m impos+  
appe>ance to _! eyes4 ,look+ at ! human 
race z "o great :ole1 !y easily conceive
 t its de/9ies are regulat$ by ! same   
design2 & 9 ! actions ( e individual !y 
are l$ to ackn[l$ge a trace ( t univ]sal
 & et]nal plan on :i* ,god rules our    
race4 ,?is consid]ation may be tak5 z   
ano!r prolific s\rce ( poetry :i* is    
op5$ 9 democratic ages4 ,democratic     
poets w always appe> trivial & frigid if
 !y seek to inve/ gods1 demons1 or      
angels1 ) corporeal =ms1 & if !y attempt
 to draw !m d[n f heav5 to dispute !    
supremacy ( e>?4 ,b if !y /rive to      
connect ! great ev5ts !y commemorate ) !
 g5]al provid5tial designs :i* gov]n !  

univ]se1 &1 )\t %[+ ! f+] ( ! ,supreme  
,gov]nor1 reveal ! ?\ghts ( ! ,supreme  
,m9d1 _! works w be admir$ & und]/ood1 =
 ! imag9ation ( _! contempor>ies takes  
?is direction ( its own accord4  ,x may 
be =ese5 9 ! l mann] t poets liv+ 9     
democratic ages w pref] ! del9eation (  
passions & ideas to t ( p]sons &        
a*ievem5ts4 ,! language1 ! dress1 & !   
daily actions ( m5 9 democracies are    
repugnant to ideal conceptions4 ,^! ?+s 
are n poetical 9 !mselves2 &1 if x 7    
o!rwise1 !y w\ld cease to be s1 because 
!y are too famili> to all ^? to :om !   
poet w\ld speak ( !m4 ,?is =ces ! poet  
con/antly to se>* bel[ ! ext]nal surface
 :i* is palpable to ! s5ses1 9 ord] to  
read ! inn] s\l3 & no?+ l5ds itself m to
 ! del9eation ( ! ideal ?an ! scrut9y ( 
! hidd5 dep?s 9 ! immat]ial nature (    
man4 ,i ne$ n to ramble ov] e>? & sky to
 discov] a wondr\s object wov5 (        
contra/s1 ( greatness & littl5ess       
inf9ite1 ( int5se gloom & ( amaz+       
brightness--capable at once ( excit+    

pity1 admiration1 t]ror1 contempt4 ,i   
f9d t object 9 myself4 ,man spr+s out ( 
no?+1 crosses "t1 & disappe>s =ev] 9 !  
bosom ( ,god2 he is se5 b = a mom5t1    
/agg]+ on ! v]ge ( ! two abysses1 & !re 
he is lo/4 ,if man 7 :olly ignorant (   
himself1 he w\ld h no poetry 9 him2 = x 
is impossible to describe :at ! m9d does
 n conceive4 ,if man cle>ly disc]n$ 8   
own nature1 8 imag9ation w\ld rema9     
idle1 & w\ld h no?+ to add to ! picture4
 ,b ! nature ( man is suffici5tly       
disclos$ = him to appreh5d some?+ (     
himself2 & suffici5tly obscure = all !  
re/ to be plung$ 9 ?ick d>kness1 9 :i*  
he gropes =ev]--& =ev] 9 va9--to lay    
hold on "s complet] notion ( 8 be+4     
,among/ a democratic p poetry w n be f$ 
) leg5d>y lays or ! memorials ( old     
traditions4 ,! poet w n attempt to p !  
univ]se ) sup]natural be+s 9 :om 8      
read]s & 8 own fancy h ceas$ to believe2
 nor w he pres5t virtues & vices 9 !    
mask ( frigid p]sonification1 :i* are   
bett] receiv$ "u _! own features4 ,all  

^! res\rces fail him2 b ,man rema9s1 & !
 poet ne$s no m4 ,! de/9ies (           
mank9d--man himself1 tak5 alo( f 8 age &
 8 c\ntry1 & /&+ 9 ! pres5ce ( ,nature &
 ( ,god1 ) 8 passions1 8 d\bts1 8 r>e   
prosp]ities1 & inconceivable            
wret*$ness--w become ! *ief1 if n ! sole
 !me ( poetry among/ ^! nations4        
,exp]i5ce may confirm ?is ass]tion1 if  
we consid] ! productions ( ! greate/    
poets :o h appe>$ s9ce ! _w has be5     
turn$ to democracy4 ,! au?ors ( our age 
:o h s admirably del9eat$ ! features (  
,fau/1 ,*ilde ,h>old1 ,r5e1 & ,jocelyn1 
did n seek to record ! actions ( an     
individual1 b to enl>ge & to ?r[ light  
on "s ( ! obscur] recesses ( ! human    
he>t4 ,su* are ! poems ( democracy4 ,!  
pr9ciple ( equality does n !n de/roy all
 ! subjects ( poetry3 x r5d]s !m less   
num]\s1 b m va/4     ,*apt] ,,xviii3 ,( 
,! ,inflat$ ,/yle ,( ,am]ican ,writ]s ,&
 ,orators  ,i h frequ5tly rem>k$ t !    
,am]icans1 :o g5]ally treat ( bus9ess 9 
cle>1 pla9 language1 devoid ( all       

ornam5t1 & s extremely simple z to be   
(t5 co>se1 are apt to become inflat$ z  
soon z !y attempt a m poetical diction4 
,!y !n v5t _! pomposity f "o end ( a    
h>angue to ! o!r2 & to he> !m lavi%     
imag]y on e occasion1 "o might fancy t  
!y nev] spoke ( any?+ ) simplicity4 ,!  
,engli% are m r>ely giv5 to a simil>    
fail+4 ,! cause ( ?is may be po9t$ out  
)\t mu* difficulty4 ,9 democratic       
communities ea* citiz5 is habitually    
engag$ 9 ! contemplation ( a v puny     
object1 namely himself4 ,if he ev]      
raises 8 looks high]1 he !n p]ceives    
no?+ b ! imm5se =m ( society at l>ge1 or
 ! /ill m impos+ aspect ( mank9d4 ,8    
ideas are all ei!r extremely m9ute &    
cle>1 or extremely g5]al & vague3 :at   
lies betwe5 is an op5 void4 ,:5 he has  
be5 drawn out ( 8 own sph]e1 !re=e1 he  
always expects t "s amaz+ object w be   
(f]$ to 8 att5tion2 & x is on ^! t]ms   
alone t he cons5ts to te> himself = an  
in/ant f ! petty complicat$ c>es :i* =m 
! *>m & ! excitem5t ( 8 life4 ,?is      

appe>s to me suffici5tly to expla9 :y m5
 9 democracies1 ^: conc]ns are 9 g5]al s
 paltry1 call ^u _! poets = conceptions 
s va/ & descriptions s unlimit$4  ,!    
au?ors1 on _! "p1 d n fail to obey a    
prop5sity ( :i* !y !mselves p>take2 !y  
p]petually inflate _! imag9ations1 &    
exp&+ !m beyond all b\nds1 !y n         
unfrequ5tly ab&on ! great 9 ord] to rea*
 ! gigantic4 ,by ^! means !y hope to    
attract ! obs]vation ( ! multitude1 & to
 fix x easily ^u !mselves3 nor are _!   
hopes disappo9t$2 = z ! multitude seeks 
= no?+ 9 poetry b subjects ( v va/      
dim5sions1 x has nei!r ! "t to measure )
 accuracy ! proportions ( all ! subjects
 set be=e x1 nor a ta/e suffici5tly     
correct to p]ceive at once 9 :at respect
 !y are out ( proportion4 ,! au?or & !  
public at once vitiate "o ano!r4  ,we h 
j se5 t among/ democratic nations1 !    
s\rces ( poetry are gr&1 b n abundant4  
,!y are soon exhau/$3 & poets1 n f9d+ ! 
elem5ts ( ! ideal 9 :at is real & true1 
ab&on !m entirely & create mon/]s4 ,i d 

n fe> t ! poetry ( democratic nations w 
prove too insipid1 or t x w fly too ne> 
! gr\nd2 ,i r appreh5d t x w be =ev]    
los+ itself 9 ! cl\ds1 & t x w range at 
la/ to purely imag9>y regions4 ,i fe> t 
! productions ( democratic poets may (t5
 be sur*>g$ ) imm5se & incoh]5t imag]y1 
) exagg]at$ descriptions & /range       
creations2 & t ! fanta/ic be+s ( _! bra9
 may sometimes make u regret ! _w (     
reality4     ,*apt] ,,xix3 ,"s          
,obs]vations ,on ,! ,drama ,among/      
,democratic ,nations  ,:5 ! revolution  
:i* subv]ts ! social & political /ate ( 
an ari/ocratic p beg9s to p5etrate into 
lit]ature1 x g5]ally fir/ manife/s      
itself 9 ! drama1 & x always rema9s     
conspicu\s !re4 ,! spectator ( a        
dramatic piece is1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1    
tak5 by surprise by ! impression x      
conveys4 ,he has no "t to ref] to 8     
memory1 or to consult ^? m able to judge
 ?an himself4 ,x does n occur to him to 
resi/ ! new lit]>y t5d5cies :i* beg9 to 
be felt by him2 he yields to !m be=e he 

kn[s :at !y are4 ,au?ors are v prompt 9 
discov]+ :i* way ! ta/e ( ! public is   
?us secretly incl9$4 ,!y %ape _!        
productions accord+ly2 & ! lit]ature ( !
 /age1 aft] hav+ s]v$ to indicate !     
approa*+ lit]>y revolution1 spe$ily     
completes its accompli%m5t4 ,if y w\ld  
judge be=eh& ( ! lit]ature ( a p :i* is 
laps+ into democracy1 /udy its dramatic 
productions4  ,! lit]ature ( ! /age1    
moreov]1 ev5 among/ ari/ocratic nations1
 con/itutes ! mo/ democratic "p ( _!    
lit]ature4 ,no k9d ( lit]>y             
gratification is s mu* )9 ! rea* ( !    
multitude z t :i* is d]iv$ f !atrical   
repres5tations4 ,nei!r prep>ation nor   
/udy is requir$ to enjoy !m3 !y lay hold
 on y 9 ! mid/ ( y\r prejudices & y\r   
ignorance4 ,:5 ! yet untutor$ love ( !  
pleasures ( ! m9d beg9s to affect a     
class ( ! community1 x in/antly draws !m
 to ! /age4 ,! !atres ( ari/ocratic     
nations h always be5 fill$ ) spectators 
n belong+ to ! ari/ocracy4 ,at ! !atre  
alone ! high] ranks mix ) ! middle & !  

l[] classes2 !re alone d ! =m] cons5t to
 li/5 to ! op9ion ( ! latt]1 or at lea/ 
to all[ !m to give an op9ion at all4 ,at
 ! !atre1 m5 ( cultivation & ( lit]>y   
atta9m5ts h always _h m difficulty ?an  
else:]e 9 mak+ _! ta/e prevail ov] t ( !
 p1 & 9 prev5t+ !mselves f be+ c>ri$    
away by ! latt]4 ,! pit has frequ5tly   
made laws = ! boxes4  ,if x be difficult
 = an ari/ocracy to prev5t ! p f gett+ !
 upp] h& 9 ! !atre1 x w readily be      
und]/ood t ! p w be supreme !re :5      
democratic pr9ciples h crept into ! laws
 & mann]s--:5 ranks are int]mix$--:5    
m9ds1 z well z =tunes1 are br\ght m     
ne>ly toge!r--& :5 ! upp] class has lo/1
 ) its h]$it>y weal?1 its p[]1 its      
prec$5ts1 & its leisure4 ,! ta/es &     
prop5sities natural to democratic       
nations1 9 respect to lit]ature1 w !re=e
 fir/ be disc]nible 9 ! drama1 & x may  
be =ese5 t !y w break out !re )         
vehem5ce4 ,9 writt5 productions1 !      
lit]>y canons ( ari/ocracy w be g5tly1  
gradually1 &1 s to speak1 legally       

modifi$2 at ! !atre !y w be riot\sly    
ov]?r[n4 ,! drama br+s out mo/ ( ! good 
qualities1 & almo/ all ! defects1 inh]5t
 9 democratic lit]ature4 ,democratic    
peoples hold erudition v *eap1 & c>e b  
little = :at occurr$ at ,rome & ,a!ns2  
!y want to he> some?+ :i* conc]ns       
!mselves1 & ! del9eation ( ! pres5t age 
is :at !y dem&4  ,:5 ! h]oes & ! mann]s 
( antiquity are frequ5tly br\ght ^u !   
/age1 & dramatic au?ors fai?fully obs]ve
 ! rules ( antiquat$ prec$5t1 t is en\gh
 to w>rant a conclusion t ! democratic  
classes h n yet got ! upp] h& ( !       
!atres4 ,rac9e makes a v humble apology 
9 ! preface to ! ,britannicus = hav+    
dispos$ ( ,junia among/ ! ,ve/als1 :o1  
accord+ to ,aulus ,gellius1 he says1    
admitt$ no "o bel[ six ye>s ( age nor   
above t54 ,we may be sure t he w\ld     
nei!r h accus$ himself ( ! (f5ce1 nor   
def5d$ himself f c5sure1 if he _h writt5
 = our contempor>ies4 ,a fact ( ?is k9d 
n only illu/rates ! /ate ( lit]ature at 
! "t :5 x occurr$1 b also t ( society   

itself4 ,a democratic /age does n prove 
t ! nation is 9 a /ate ( democracy1 =1 z
 we h j se51 ev5 9 ari/ocracies x may   
happ5 t democratic ta/es affect ! drama2
 b :5 ! _s ( ari/ocracy reigns          
exclusively on ! /age1 ! fact           
irrefragably demon/rates t ! :ole (     
society is ari/ocratic2 & x may be      
boldly inf]r$ t ! same lett]$ & le>n$   
class :i* sways ! dramatic writ]s comm&s
 ! p & gov]ns ! c\ntry4  ,! ref9$ ta/es 
& ! arrogant be>+ ( an ari/ocracy w     
r>ely fail to lead x1 :5 x manages !    
/age1 to make a k9d ( selection 9 human 
nature4 ,"s ( ! conditions ( society    
claim its *ief int]e/2 & ! sc5es :i*    
del9eate _! mann]s are pref]r$ ^u !     
/age4 ,c]ta9 virtues1 & ev5 c]ta9 vices1
 are ?\ght m p>ticul>ly to des]ve to    
figure !re2 & !y are applaud$ :il/ all  
o!rs are exclud$4 ,^u ! /age1 z well z  
else:]e1 an ari/ocratic audi5ce w only  
meet p]sonages ( quality1 & %>e !       
emotions ( k+s4 ,! same ?+ applies to   
/yle3 an ari/ocracy is apt to impose ^u 

dramatic au?ors c]ta9 modes ( expression
 :i* give ! key 9 :i* ev]y?+ is to be   
deliv]$4 ,by ^! means ! /age frequ5tly  
comes to del9eate only "o side ( man1 or
 sometimes ev5 to repres5t :at is n to  
be met ) 9 human nature at all--to rise 
above nature & to g beyond x4  ,9       
democratic communities ! spectators h no
 su* p>tialities1 & !y r>ely display any
 su* antipa?ies3 !y l to see ^u ! /age t
 m$ley ( conditions1 ( feel+s1 & (      
op9ions1 :i* occurs be=e _! eyes4 ,!    
drama becomes m /rik+1 m common1 & m    
true4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ^? :o write = !
 /age 9 democracies also transgress !   
b\nds ( human nature--b x is on a       
diff]5t side f _! pr$ecessors4 ,by seek+
 to repres5t 9 m9ute detail ! little    
s+ul>ities ( ! mom5t & ! peculi>        
*>act]i/ics ( c]ta9 p]sonages1 !y =get  
to portray ! g5]al features ( ! race4   
,:5 ! democratic classes rule ! /age1 !y
 introduce z mu* lic5se 9 ! mann] (     
treat+ subjects z 9 ! *oice ( !m4 ,z !  
love ( ! drama is1 ( all lit]>y ta/es1 t

 :i* is mo/ natural to democratic       
nations1 ! numb] ( au?ors & (           
spectators1 z well z ( !atrical         
repres5tations1 is con/antly increas+   
among/ ^! communities4 ,a multitude     
compos$ ( elem5ts s diff]5t1 & scatt]$ 9
 s _m diff]5t places1 _c ackn[l$ge !    
same rules or submit to ! same laws4 ,no
 concurr5ce is possible among/ judges s 
num]\s1 :o "k n :5 !y may meet aga92 &  
!re=e ea* pron\nces 8 own s5t5ce on !   
piece4 ,if ! effect ( democracy is      
g5]ally to "q ! au?ority ( all lit]>y   
rules & conv5tions1 on ! /age x aboli%es
 !m altoge!r1 & puts 9 _! place no?+ b !
 :im ( ea* au?or & ( ea* public4  ,!    
drama also displays 9 an especial mann] 
! tru? ( :at ,i h said be=e 9 speak+ m  
g5]ally ( /yle & art 9 democratic       
lit]ature4 ,9 read+ ! criticisms :i* 7  
occasion$ by ! dramatic productions ( ! 
age ( ,l\is ,,xiv1 "o is surpris$ to    
rem>k ! great /ress :i* ! public laid on
 ! probability ( ! plot1 & ! importance 
:i* 0 atta*$ to ! p]fect consi/5cy ( !  

*>act]s1 & to _! do+ no?+ :i* c\ld n be 
easily expla9$ & und]/ood4 ,! value :i* 
0 set ^u ! =ms ( language at t p]iod1 & 
! paltry /rife ab\t words ) :i* dramatic
 au?ors 7 assail$1 are no less surpris+4
 ,x w\ld seem t ! m5 ( ! age ( ,l\is    
,,xiv atta*$ v exagg]at$ importance to  
^? details1 :i* may be p]ceiv$ 9 ! /udy1
 b :i* escape att5tion on ! /age4 ,=1   
aft] all1 ! pr9cipal object ( a dramatic
 piece is to be p]=m$1 & its *ief m]it  
is to affect ! audi5ce4 ,b ! audi5ce & !
 read]s 9 t age 7 ! same3 on quitt+ !   
!atre !y call$ up ! au?or = judgm5t to  
_! own firesides4 ,9 democracies1       
dramatic pieces are li/5$ to1 b n read4 
,mo/ ( ^? :o frequ5t ! amusem5ts ( !    
/age d n g !re to seek ! pleasures ( !  
m9d1 b ! ke5 emotions ( ! he>t4 ,!y d n 
expect to he> a f9e lit]>y "w1 b to see 
a play2 & provid$ ! au?or writes !      
language ( 8 c\ntry correctly en\gh to  
be und]/ood1 & t 8 *>act]s excite       
curiosity & awak5 sympa?y1 ! audi5ce are
 satisfi$4 ,!y ask no m ( fiction1 &    

imm$iately return to real life4         
,accuracy ( /yle is !re=e less requir$1 
because ! att5tive obs]vance ( its rules
 is less p]ceptible on ! /age4 ,z = !   
probability ( ! plot1 x is incompatible 
) p]petual novelty1 surprise1 & rapidity
 ( inv5tion4 ,x is !re=e neglect$1 & !  
public excuses ! neglect4 ,y may be sure
 t if y succe$ 9 br++ y\r audi5ce into !
 pres5ce ( some?+ t affects !m1 !y w n  
c>e by :at road y br\ght !m !re2 & !y w 
nev] reproa* y = hav+ excit$ _! emotions
 9 spite ( dramatic rules4  ,! ,am]icans
 v broadly display all ! diff]5t        
prop5sities :i* ,i h "h describ$ :5 !y g
 to ! !atres2 b x mu/ be ackn[l$g$ t z  
yet a v small numb] ( !m g to !atres at 
all4 ,al?\gh playgo]s & plays h         
prodigi\sly increas$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9
 ! la/ =ty ye>s1 ! population indulges 9
 ?is k9d ( amusem5t ) ! greate/ res]ve4 
,?is is attributable to peculi> causes1 
:i* ! read] is already acqua9t$ )1 & (  
:i* a few words w suffice to rem9d him4 
,! ,puritans :o f\nd$ ! ,am]ican        

republics 7 n only enemies to amusem5ts1
 b !y pr(ess$ an especial abhorr5ce = ! 
/age4 ,!y consid]$ x z an abom9able     
pa/ime2 & z long z _! pr9ciples prevail$
 ) undivid$ sway1 sc5ic p]=mances 7     
:olly unkn[n among/ !m4 ,^! op9ions ( ! 
fir/ fa!rs ( ! colony h left v deep m>ks
 on ! m9ds ( _! desc5dants4 ,! extreme  
regul>ity ( habits & ! great /rictness (
 mann]s :i* are obs]vable 9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates1 h z yet oppos$ additional       
ob/acles to ! gr[? ( dramatic art4 ,!re 
are no dramatic subjects 9 a c\ntry :i* 
has witness$ no great political         
cata/rophes1 & 9 :i* love inv>iably     
leads by a /raight & easy road to       
matrimony4 ,p :o sp5d e day 9 ! week 9  
mak+ money1 & ! ,sunday 9 go+ to *ur*1 h
 no?+ to invite ! muse ( ,com$y4  ,a    
s+le fact suffices to %[ t ! /age is n v
 popul> 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,am]icans1
 ^: laws all[ ( ! utmo/ fre$om & ev5    
lic5se ( language 9 all o!r respects1 h 
nev]!less subject$ _! dramatic au?ors to
 a sort ( c5sor%ip4 ,!atrical p]=mances 

c only take place by p]mission ( !      
municipal au?orities4 ,?is may s]ve to  
%[ h[ mu* communities are l individuals2
 !y surr5d] !mselves unscrupul\sly to _!
 rul+ passions1 & aft]w>ds take !       
greate/ c>e n to yield too mu* to !     
vehem5ce ( ta/es :i* !y d n possess4    
,no portion ( lit]ature is connect$ by  
clos] or m num]\s ties ) ! pres5t       
condition ( society ?an ! drama4 ,!     
drama ( "o p]iod c nev] be suit$ to !   
foll[+ age1 if 9 ! int]val an important 
revolution has *ang$ ! mann]s & ! laws (
 ! nation4 ,! great au?ors ( a prec$+   
age may be read2 b pieces writt5 = a    
diff]5t public w n be foll[$4 ,!        
dramatic au?ors ( ! pa/ live only 9     
books4 ,! traditional ta/e ( c]ta9      
individuals1 vanity1 fa%ion1 or ! g5ius 
( an actor may su/a9 or resuscitate = a 
"t ! ari/ocratic drama among/ a         
democracy2 b x w spe$ily fall away (    
itself--n ov]?r[n1 b ab&on$4     ,*apt] 
,,xx3 ,*>act]i/ics ,( ,hi/orians ,9     
,democratic ,ages  ,hi/orians :o write 9

 ari/ocratic ages are wont to ref] all  
occurr5ces to ! p>ticul> w or temp] (   
c]ta9 individuals2 & !y are apt to      
attribute ! mo/ important revolutions to
 v slight accid5ts4 ,!y trace out !     
smalle/ causes ) sagacity1 & frequ5tly  
leave ! greate/ unp]ceiv$4 ,hi/orians :o
 live 9 democratic ages exhibit         
precisely opposite *>act]i/ics4 ,mo/ (  
!m attribute h>dly any influ5ce to !    
individual ov] ! de/9y ( ! race1 nor to 
citiz5s ov] ! fate ( a p2 b1 on ! o!r   
h&1 !y assign great g5]al causes to all 
petty incid5ts4 ,^! contr>y t5d5cies    
expla9 ea* o!r4  ,:5 ! hi/orian (       
ari/ocratic ages surveys ! !atre ( ! _w1
 he at once p]ceives a v small numb] (  
prom95t actors1 :o manage ! :ole piece4 
,^! great p]sonages1 :o occupy ! front (
 ! /age1 arre/ ! obs]vation1 & fix x on 
!mselves2 & :il/ ! hi/orian is b5t on   
p5etrat+ ! secret motives :i* make !m   
speak & act1 ! re/ escape 8 memory4 ,!  
importance ( ! ?+s :i* "s m5 are se5 to 
d1 gives him an exagg]at$ e/imate ( !   

influ5ce :i* "o man may possess2 &      
naturally leads him to ?9k1 t 9 ord] to 
expla9 ! impulses ( ! multitude1 x is   
necess>y to ref] !m to ! p>ticul>       
influ5ce ( "s "o individual4  ,:51 on ! 
contr>y1 all ! citiz5s are indep5d5t (  
"o ano!r1 & ea* ( !m is individually    
weak1 no "o is se5 to ex]t a great1 or  
/ill less a la/+ p[]1 ov] ! community4  
,at fir/ sight1 individuals appe> to be 
absolutely devoid ( any influ5ce ov] x2 
& society w\ld seem to advance alone by 
! free & volunt>y concurr5ce ( all ! m5 
:o compose x4 ,?is naturally prompts !  
m9d to se>* = t g5]al reason :i* op]ates
 ^u s _m m5's faculties at ! same "t1 & 
turns !m simultane\sly 9 ! same         
direction4  ,i am v well conv9c$ t ev5  
among/ democratic nations1 ! g5ius1 !   
vices1 or ! virtues ( c]ta9 individuals 
ret>d or accel]ate ! natural curr5t ( a 
p's hi/ory3 b causes ( ?is second>y &   
=tuit\s nature are inf9itely m v>i\s1 m 
conceal$1 m complex1 less p[]ful1 &     
consequ5tly less easy to trace 9 p]iods 

( equality ?an 9 ages ( ari/ocracy1 :5 !
 task ( ! hi/orian is simply to deta* f 
! mass ( g5]al ev5ts ! p>ticul>         
influ5ces ( "o man or ( a few m54 ,9 !  
=m] case ! hi/orian is soon we>i$ by !  
toil2 8 m9d loses itself 9 ?is labyr9?2 
&1 9 8 inability cle>ly to disc]n or    
conspicu\sly to po9t out ! influ5ce (   
individuals1 he d5ies _! exi/5ce4 ,he   
pref]s talk+ ab\t ! *>act]i/ics ( race1 
! physical con=mation ( ! c\ntry1 or !  
g5ius ( civilization1 :i* abridges 8 own
 labors1 & satisfies 8 read] f> bett] at
 less co/4  ,m4 de ,lafayette says      
some:]e 9 8 ,memoirs t ! exagg]at$ sy/em
 ( g5]al causes af=ds surpris+          
consolations to second-rate /atesm54 ,i 
w add1 t its effects are n less         
consolatory to second-rate hi/orians2 x 
c always furni% a few mighty reasons to 
extricate !m f ! mo/ difficult "p ( _!  
"w1 & x indulges ! indol5ce or          
incapacity ( _! m9ds1 :il/ x conf]s ^u  
!m ! honors ( deep ?9k+4  ,= myself1 ,i 
am ( op9ion t at all times "o great     

portion ( ! ev5ts ( ?is _w are          
attributable to g5]al facts1 & ano!r to 
special influ5ces4 ,^! two k9ds ( cause 
are always 9 op]ation3 _! proportion    
only v>ies4 ,g5]al facts s]ve to expla9 
m ?+s 9 democratic ?an 9 ari/ocratic    
ages1 & few] ?+s are !n assignable to   
special influ5ces4 ,at p]iods (         
ari/ocracy ! rev]se takes place3 special
 influ5ces are /rong]1 g5]al causes     
weak]--unless inde$ we consid] z a g5]al
 cause ! fact itself ( ! inequality (   
conditions1 :i* all[s "s individuals to 
baffle ! natural t5d5cies ( all ! re/4  
,! hi/orians :o seek to describe :at    
occurs 9 democratic societies are "r1   
!re=e1 9 assign+ mu* to g5]al causes1 & 
9 devot+ _! *ief att5tion to discov] !m2
 b !y are wrong 9 :olly d5y+ ! special  
influ5ce ( individuals1 because !y _c   
easily trace or foll[ x4  ,! hi/orians  
:o live 9 democratic ages are n only    
prone to assign a great cause to e      
incid5t1 b !y are also giv5 to connect  
incid5ts toge!r1 s z to d$uce a sy/em f 

!m4 ,9 ari/ocratic ages1 z ! att5tion ( 
hi/orians is con/antly drawn to         
individuals1 ! connection ( ev5ts       
escapes !m2 or r1 !y d n believe 9 any  
su* connection4 ,to !m ! clew ( hi/ory  
seems e in/ant cross$ & brok5 by ! /ep (
 man4 ,9 democratic ages1 on ! contr>y1 
z ! hi/orian sees mu* m ( actions ?an ( 
actors1 he may easily e/abli% "s k9d (  
sequ5cy & me?odical ord] among/ ! =m]4  
,anci5t lit]ature1 :i* is s ri* 9 f9e   
hi/orical compositions1 does n conta9 a 
s+le great hi/orical sy/em1 :il/ !      
poore/ ( mod]n lit]atures ab\nd ) !m4 ,x
 w\ld appe> t ! anci5t hi/orians did n  
make suffici5t use ( ^? g5]al !ories :i*
 our hi/orical writ]s are ev] ready to  
c>ry to excess4  ,^? :o write 9         
democratic ages h ano!r m dang]\s       
t5d5cy4 ,:5 ! traces ( individual action
 ^u nations are lo/1 x (t5 happ5s t ! _w
 goes on to move1 ?\gh ! mov+ ag5t is no
 long] discov]able4 ,z x becomes        
extremely difficult to disc]n & to      
analyze ! reasons :i*1 act+ sep>ately on

 ! volition ( ea* memb] ( ! community1  
concur 9 ! end to produce movem5t 9 !   
old mass1 m5 are l$ to believe t ?is    
movem5t is involunt>y1 & t societies    
unconsci\sly obey "s sup]ior =ce rul+   
ov] !m4 ,b ev5 :5 ! g5]al fact :i*      
gov]ns ! private volition ( all         
individuals is suppos$ to be discov]$ ^u
 ! e>?1 ! pr9ciple ( human free-w is n  
secure4 ,a cause suffici5tly ext5sive to
 affect millions ( m5 at once1 &        
suffici5tly /rong to b5d !m all toge!r 9
 ! same direction1 may well seem        
irresi/ible3 hav+ se5 t mank9d d yield  
to x1 ! m9d is close ^u ! inf]5ce t     
mank9d _c resi/ x4  ,hi/orians :o live 9
 democratic ages1 !n1 n only d5y t ! few
 h any p[] ( act+ ^u ! de/9y ( a p1 b !y
 deprive ! p !mselves ( ! p[] ( modify+ 
_! own condition1 & !y subject !m ei!r  
to an inflexible ,provid5ce1 or to "s   
bl9d necessity4 ,accord+ to !m1 ea*     
nation is indissolubly b\nd by its      
position1 its orig91 its prec$5ts1 & its
 "*1 to a c]ta9 lot :i* no ef=ts c ev]  

*ange4 ,!y involve g5]ation 9 g5]ation1 
& ?us1 go+ back f age to age1 & f       
necessity to necessity1 up to ! orig9 ( 
! _w1 !y =ge a close & enorm\s *a91 :i* 
girds & b9ds ! human race4 ,to _! m9ds x
 is n en\gh to %[ :at ev5ts h occurr$3  
!y w\ld fa9 %[ t ev5ts c\ld n h occurr$ 
o!rwise4 ,!y take a nation arriv$ at a  
c]ta9 /age ( its hi/ory1 & !y affirm t x
 c\ld n b foll[ ! track :i* br\ght x    
?i!r4 ,x is easi] to make su* an        
ass]tion ?an to %[ by :at means ! nation
 might h adopt$ a bett] c\rse4  ,9 read+
 ! hi/orians ( ari/ocratic ages1 &      
especially ^? ( antiquity1 x w\ld seem  
t1 to be ma/] ( 8 lot1 & to gov]n 8     
fell[-creatures1 man requires only to be
 ma/] ( himself4 ,9 p]us+ ! hi/orical   
volumes :i* our age has produc$1 x w\ld 
seem t man is utt]ly p[]less ov] himself
 & ov] all ar\nd him4 ,! hi/orians (    
antiquity taught h[ to comm&3 ^? ( our  
"t tea* only h[ to obey2 9 _! writ+s !  
au?or (t5 appe>s great1 b humanity is   
always dim9utive4 ,if ?is doctr9e (     

necessity1 :i* is s attractive to ^? :o 
write hi/ory 9 democratic ages1 passes f
 au?ors to _! read]s1 till x infects !  
:ole mass ( ! community & gets          
possession ( ! public m9d1 x w soon     
p>alyze ! activity ( mod]n society1 &   
r$uce ,*ri/ians to ! level ( ! ,turks4  
,i w\ld moreov] obs]ve1 t su* pr9ciples 
are peculi>ly dang]\s at ! p]iod at :i* 
we are arriv$4 ,our contempor>ies are b 
too prone to d\bt ( ! human free-w1     
because ea* ( !m feels himself conf9$ on
 e side by 8 own weakness2 b !y are /ill
 will+ to ackn[l$ge ! /r5g? & indep5d5ce
 ( m5 unit$ 9 society4 ,let n ?is       
pr9ciple be lo/ sight (2 = ! great      
object 9 our "t is to raise ! faculties 
( m51 n to complete _! pro/ration4      
,*apt] ,,xxi3 ,( ,p>liam5t>y ,eloqu5ce  
,9 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates  ,among/ ari/ocratic
 nations all ! memb]s ( ! community are 
connect$ ) & dep5d5t ^u ea* o!r2 !      
graduat$ scale ( diff]5t ranks acts z a 
tie1 :i* keeps ev]yone 9 8 prop] place &
 ! :ole body 9 subord9ation4 ,some?+ ( !

 same k9d always occurs 9 ! political   
assemblies ( ^! nations4 ,p>ties        
naturally range !mselves "u c]ta9       
lead]s1 :om !y obey by a sort ( in/9ct1 
:i* is only ! result ( habits contract$ 
else:]e4 ,!y c>ry ! mann]s ( g5]al      
society into ! less] assemblage4  ,9    
democratic c\ntries x (t5 happ5s t a    
great numb] ( citiz5s are t5d+ to ! same
 po9t2 b ea* "o only moves ?i!r1 or at  
lea/ flatt]s himself t he moves1 ( 8 own
 accord4 ,accu/om$ to regulate 8 do+s by
 p]sonal impulse alone1 he does n       
will+ly submit to dictation f )\t4 ,?is 
ta/e & habit ( indep5d5ce accompany him 
into ! c\ncils ( ! nation4 ,if he       
cons5ts to connect himself ) o!r m5 9 ! 
prosecution ( ! same purpose1 at lea/ he
 *ooses to rema9 free to contribute to !
 common success aft] 8 own fa%ion4 ,h5ce
 x is t 9 democratic c\ntries p>ties are
 s impati5t ( control1 & are nev]       
manageable except 9 mom5ts ( great      
public dang]4 ,ev5 !n1 ! au?ority (     
lead]s1 :i* "u su* circum/ances may be  

able to make m5 act or speak1 h>dly ev] 
rea*es ! ext5t ( mak+ !m keep sil5ce4   
,among/ ari/ocratic nations ! memb]s (  
political assemblies are at ! same "t   
memb]s ( ! ari/ocracy4 ,ea* ( !m enjoys 
high e/abli%$ rank 9 8 own "r1 & !      
position :i* he occupies 9 ! assembly is
 (t5 less important 9 8 eyes ?an t :i*  
he fills 9 ! c\ntry4 ,?is consoles him =
 play+ no "p 9 ! discussion ( public    
affairs1 & re/ra9s him f too eag]ly     
attempt+ to play an insignificant "o4   
,9 ,am]ica1 x g5]ally happ5s t a        
,repres5tative only becomes somebody f 8
 position 9 ! ,assembly4 ,he is !re=e   
p]petually haunt$ by a crav+ to acquire 
importance !re1 & he feels a petulant   
desire to be con/antly obtrud+ 8 op9ions
 ^u ! ,h\se4 ,8 own vanity is n ! only  
/imulant :i* urges him on 9 ?is c\rse1 b
 t ( 8 con/itu5ts1 & ! cont9ual         
necessity ( propitiat+ !m4 ,among/      
ari/ocratic nations a memb] ( !         
legislature is r>ely 9 /rict dep5d5ce ^u
 8 con/itu5ts3 he is frequ5tly to !m a  

sort ( unavoidable repres5tative2       
sometimes !y are !mselves /rictly       
dep5d5t ^u him2 & if at l5g? !y reject  
him1 he may easily get elect$ else:]e1  
or1 retir+ f public life1 he may /ill   
enjoy ! pleasures ( spl5did idl5ess4 ,9 
a democratic c\ntry l ! ,unit$ ,/ates a 
,repres5tative has h>dly ev] a la/+ hold
 on ! m9ds ( 8 con/itu5ts4 ,h[ev] small 
an electoral body may be1 ! fluctuations
 ( democracy are con/antly *ang+ its    
aspect2 x mu/1 !re=e1 be c\rt$          
unceas+ly4 ,he is nev] sure ( 8         
support]s1 &1 if !y =sake him1 he is    
left )\t a res\rce2 = 8 natural position
 is n suffici5tly elevat$ = him to be   
easily kn[n to ^? n close to him2 &1 ) !
 complete /ate ( indep5d5ce prevail+    
among ! p1 he _c hope t 8 fri5ds or !   
gov]nm5t w s5d him d[n to be return$ by 
an electoral body unacqua9t$ ) him4 ,!  
se$s ( 8 =tune are1 !re=e1 s[n 9 8 own  
neighborhood2 f t nook ( e>? he mu/ />t1
 to raise himself to ! comm& ( a p & to 
influ5ce ! de/9ies ( ! _w4 ,?us x is    

natural t 9 democratic c\ntries ! memb]s
 ( political assemblies ?9k m ( _!      
con/itu5ts ?an ( _! p>ty1 :il/ 9        
ari/ocracies !y ?9k m ( _! p>ty ?an ( _!
 con/itu5ts4  ,b :at ought to be said to
 gratify con/itu5ts is n always :at     
ought to be said 9 ord] to s]ve ! p>ty  
to :i* ,repres5tatives pr(ess to belong4
 ,! g5]al int]e/ ( a p>ty frequ5tly     
dem&s t memb]s belong+ to x %\ld n speak
 on great que/ions :i* !y und]/&        
imp]fectly2 t !y %\ld speak b little on 
^? m9or que/ions :i* imp$e ! great ones2
 la/ly1 & = ! mo/ "p1 t !y %\ld n speak 
at all4 ,to keep sil5ce is ! mo/ useful 
s]vice t an indiff]5t spokesman c r5d]  
to ! commonweal?4 ,con/itu5ts1 h[ev]1 d 
n ?9k s4 ,! population ( a di/rict s5ds 
a repres5tative to take a "p 9 !        
gov]nm5t ( a c\ntry1 because !y ent]ta9 
a v l(ty notion ( 8 m]its4 ,z m5 appe>  
great] 9 proportion to ! littl5ess ( !  
objects by :i* !y are surr\nd$1 x may be
 assum$ t ! op9ion ent]ta9$ ( ! delegate
 w be s mu* ! high] z tal5ts are m r>e  

among 8 con/itu5ts4 ,x w !re=e frequ5tly
 happ5 t ! less con/itu5ts h to expect f
 _! repres5tative1 ! m !y w anticipate f
 him2 &1 h[ev] incompet5t he may be1 !y 
w n fail to call ^u him = signal        
ex]tions1 correspond+ to ! rank !y h    
conf]r$ ^u him4  ,indep5d5tly ( 8       
position z a legislator ( ! ,/ate1      
electors also reg>d _! ,repres5tative z 
! natural patron ( ! con/itu5cy 9 !     
,legislature2 !y almo/ consid] him z !  
proxy ( ea* ( 8 support]s1 & !y flatt]  
!mselves t he w n be less zeal\s 9      
def5se ( _! private int]e/s ?an ( ^? ( !
 c\ntry4 ,?us electors are well assur$  
be=eh& t ! ,repres5tative ( _! *oice w  
be an orator2 t he w speak (t5 if he c1 
& t 9 case he is =c$ to refra91 he w    
/rive at any rate to compress into 8    
less frequ5t orations an inquiry into   
all ! great que/ions ( /ate1 comb9$ ) a 
/atem5t ( all ! petty grievances !y h   
!mselves to compla9 to2 s t1 ?\gh he be 
n able to come =w>d frequ5tly1 he %\ld  
on ea* occasion prove :at he is capable 

( do+2 & t1 in/ead ( p]petually lavi%+ 8
 p[]s1 he %\ld occasionally cond5se !m 9
 a small compass1 s z to furni% a sort (
 complete & brilliant epitome ( 8       
con/itu5ts & ( himself4 ,on ^! t]ms !y w
 vote = him at ! next election4 ,^!     
conditions drive wor?y m5 ( humble      
abilities to despair1 :o1 kn[+ _! own   
p[]s1 w\ld nev] volunt>ily h come =w>d4 
,b ?us urg$ on1 ! ,repres5tative beg9s  
to speak1 to ! great al>m ( 8 fri5ds2 & 
ru%+ imprud5tly into ! mid/ ( ! mo/     
celebrat$ orators1 he p]plexes ! debate 
& we>ies ! ,h\se4  ,all laws :i* t5d to 
make ! ,repres5tative m dep5d5t on !    
elector1 n only affect ! conduct ( !    
legislators1 z ,i h rem>k$ else:]e1 b   
also _! language4 ,!y ex]cise a         
simultane\s influ5ce on affairs         
!mselves1 & on ! mann] 9 :i* affairs are
 discuss$4  ,!re is h>dly a memb] (     
,congress :o c make up 8 m9d to g home  
)\t hav+ despat*$ at lea/ "o spee* to 8 
con/itu5ts2 nor :o w endure any         
int]ruption until he has introduc$ into 

8 h>angue :atev] useful sugge/ions may  
be made t\*+ ! f\r-&-tw5ty ,/ates ( :i* 
! ,union is compos$1 & especially !     
di/rict :i* he repres5ts4 ,he !re=e     
pres5ts to ! m9d ( 8 auditors a         
succession ( great g5]al tru?s 7:i* he  
himself only compreh5ds1 & expresses1   
confus$ly71 & ( petty m9utia1 :i* he is 
b too able to discov] & to po9t out4 ,! 
consequ5ce is t ! debates ( t great     
assembly are frequ5tly vague & p]plex$1 
& t !y seem r to drag _! sl[ l5g? along 
?an to advance t[>ds a di/9ct object4   
,"s su* /ate ( ?+s w1 ,i believe1 always
 arise 9 ! public assemblies (          
democracies4  ,propiti\s circum/ances & 
good laws might succe$ 9 draw+ to !     
legislature ( a democratic p m5 v       
sup]ior to ^? :o are return$ by !       
,am]icans to ,congress2 b no?+ w ev]    
prev5t ! m5 ( sl5d] abilities :o sit !re
 f obtrud+ !mselves ) complac5cy1 & 9   
all ways1 ^u ! public4 ,! evil does n   
appe> to me to be susceptible ( entire  
cure1 because x n only orig9ates 9 !    

tactics ( t assembly1 b 9 its           
con/itution & 9 t ( ! c\ntry4 ,!        
inhabitants ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates seem      
!mselves to consid] ! matt] 9 ?is light2
 & !y %[ _! long exp]i5ce ( p>liam5t>y  
life n by ab/a9+ f mak+ bad spee*es1 b  
by c\rage\sly submitt+ to he> !m made4  
,!y are resign$ to x1 z to an evil :i*  
!y "k to be inevitable4  ,we h %[n !    
petty side ( political debates 9        
democratic assemblies--let u n[ exhibit 
! m impos+ "o4 ,! proce$+s )9 !         
,p>liam5t ( ,engl& = ! la/ "o hundr$ &  
fifty ye>s h nev] occasion$ any great   
s5sation out ( t c\ntry2 ! op9ions &    
feel+s express$ by ! speak]s h nev]     
awak5$ mu* sympa?y1 ev5 among/ ! nations
 plac$ ne>e/ to ! great ar5a ( ,briti%  
lib]ty2 :]eas ,europe 0 excit$ by ! v   
fir/ debates :i* took place 9 ! small   
colonial assemblies ( ,am]ica at ! "t ( 
! ,revolution4 ,?is 0 attributable n    
only to p>ticul> & =tuit\s circum/ances1
 b to g5]al & la/+ causes4 ,i c conceive
 no?+ m admirable or m p[]ful ?an a     

great orator debat+ on great que/ions ( 
/ate 9 a democratic assembly4 ,z no     
p>ticul> class is ev] repres5t$ !re by  
m5 commission$ to def5d its own int]e/s1
 x is always to ! :ole nation1 & 9 ! "n 
( ! :ole nation1 t ! orator speaks4 ,?is
 exp&s 8 ?\ghts1 & height5s 8 p[] (     
language4 ,z prec$5ts h !re b little    
weight-z !re are no long] any privileges
 atta*$ to c]ta9 prop]ty1 nor any rights
 inh]5t 9 c]ta9 bodies or 9 c]ta9       
individuals1 ! m9d mu/ h rec\rse to     
g5]al tru?s d]iv$ f human nature to     
resolve ! p>ticul> "q "u discussion4    
,h5ce ! political debates ( a democratic
 p1 h[ev] small x may be1 h a degree (  
bread? :i* frequ5tly r5d]s !m attractive
 to mank9d4 ,all m5 are int]e/$ by !m1  
because !y treat ( man1 :o is ev]y:]e ! 
same4 ,among/ ! greate/ ari/ocratic     
nations1 on ! contr>y1 ! mo/ g5]al      
que/ions are almo/ always argu$ on "s   
special gr\nds d]iv$ f ! practice ( a   
p>ticul> "t1 or ! rights ( a p>ticul>   
class2 :i* int]e/ t class alone1 or at  

mo/ ! p among/ :om t class happ5s to    
exi/4 ,x is ow+ to ?is1 z mu* z to !    
greatness ( ! ,fr5* p1 & ! favorable    
disposition ( ! nations :o li/5 to !m1 t
 ! great effect :i* ! ,fr5* political   
debates sometimes produce 9 ! _w1 mu/ be
 attribut$4 ,! orators ( ,france        
frequ5tly speak to mank9d1 ev5 :5 !y are
 address+ _! c\ntrym5 only4     ,section
 #b3 ,influ5ce ( ,democracy on ! ,feel+s
 ( ,am]icans     ,*apt] ,i3 ,:y         
,democratic ,nations ,%[ ,a ,m ,ard5t ,&
 ,endur+ ,love ,( ,equality ,?an ,(     
,lib]ty  ,! fir/ & mo/ int5se passion   
:i* is eng5d]$ by ! equality (          
conditions is1 ,i ne$ h>dly say1 ! love 
( t same equality4 ,my read]s w !re=e n 
be surpris$ t ,i speak ( its be=e all   
o!rs4 ,ev]ybody has rem>k$ t 9 our "t1 &
 especially 9 ,france1 ?is passion =    
equality is e day ga9+ gr\nd 9 ! human  
he>t4 ,x has be5 said a hundr$ times t  
our contempor>ies are f> m ard5tly &    
t5aci\sly atta*$ to equality ?an to     
fre$om2 b z ,i d n f9d t ! causes ( !   

fact h be5 suffici5tly analyz$1 ,i %all 
endeavor to po9t !m out4  ,x is possible
 to imag9e an extreme po9t at :i* fre$om
 & equality w\ld meet & be conf\nd$     
toge!r4 ,let u suppose t all ! memb]s ( 
! community take a "p 9 ! gov]nm5t1 & t 
ea* ( !m has an equal "r to take a "p 9 
x4 ,z none is diff]5t f 8 fell[s1 none c
 ex]cise a tyrannical p[]3 m5 w be      
p]fectly free1 because !y w all be      
entirely equal2 & !y w all be p]fectly  
equal1 because !y w be entirely free4   
,to ?is ideal /ate democratic nations   
t5d4 ,su* is ! complete/ =m t equality c
 assume ^u e>?2 b !re are a ?\s& o!rs   
:i*1 )\t be+ equally p]fect1 are n less 
*]i%$ by ^? nations4  ,! pr9ciple (     
equality may be e/abli%$ 9 civil        
society1 )\t prevail+ 9 ! political _w4 
,equal rights may exi/ ( indulg+ 9 !    
same pleasures1 ( ent]+ ! same          
pr(essions1 ( frequ5t+ ! same places--9 
a ^w1 ( liv+ 9 ! same mann] & seek+     
weal? by ! same means1 al?\gh all m5 d n
 take an equal %>e 9 ! gov]nm5t4 ,a k9d 

( equality may ev5 be e/abli%$ 9 !      
political _w1 ?\gh !re %\ld be no       
political fre$om !re4 ,a man may be !   
equal ( all 8 c\ntrym5 save "o1 :o is ! 
ma/] ( all )\t di/9ction1 & :o selects  
equally f among !m all ! ag5ts ( 8 p[]4 
,sev]al o!r comb9ations might be easily 
imag9$1 by :i* v great equality w\ld be 
unit$ to in/itutions m or less free1 or 
ev5 to in/itutions :olly )\t fre$om4    
,al?\gh m5 _c become absolutely equal   
unless !y be entirely free1 &           
consequ5tly equality1 pu%$ to its fur!/ 
ext5t1 may be conf\nd$ ) fre$om1 yet !re
 is good reason = di/+ui%+ ! "o f ! o!r4
 ,! ta/e :i* m5 h = lib]ty1 & t :i* !y  
feel = equality1 are1 9 fact1 two       
diff]5t ?+s2 & ,i am n afraid to add t1 
among/ democratic nations1 !y are two   
unequal ?+s4  ,^u close inspection1 x w 
be se5 t !re is 9 e age "s peculi> &    
prepond]at+ fact ) :i* all o!rs are     
connect$2 ?is fact almo/ always gives   
bir? to "s pregnant idea or "s rul+     
passion1 :i* attracts to itself1 & be>s 

away 9 its c\rse1 all ! feel+s & op9ions
 ( ! "t3 x is l a great /ream1 t[>ds :i*
 ea* ( ! surr\nd+ rivulets seems to fl[4
 ,fre$om has appe>$ 9 ! _w at diff]5t   
times & "u v>i\s =ms2 x has n be5       
exclusively b\nd to any social          
condition1 & x is n conf9$ to           
democracies4 ,fre$om _c1 !re=e1 =m !    
di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ic ( democratic ages4  
,! peculi> & prepond]at+ fact :i* m>ks  
^? ages z its own is ! equality (       
conditions2 ! rul+ passion ( m5 9 ^?    
p]iods is ! love ( ?is equality4 ,ask n 
:at s+ul> *>m ! m5 ( democratic ages f9d
 9 be+ equal1 or :at special reasons !y 
may h = cl++ s t5aci\sly to equality r  
?an to ! o!r advantages :i* society     
holds out to !m3 equality is ! di/+ui%+ 
*>act]i/ic ( ! age !y live 92 t1 (      
itself1 is en\gh to expla9 t !y pref] x 
to all ! re/4  ,b indep5d5tly ( ?is     
reason !re are sev]al o!rs1 :i* w at all
 times habitually lead m5 to pref]      
equality to fre$om4 ,if a p c\ld ev]    
succe$ 9 de/roy+1 or ev5 9 dim9i%+1 !   

equality :i* prevails 9 its own body1   
?is c\ld only be accompli%$ by long &   
labori\s ef=ts4 ,its social condition   
mu/ be modifi$1 its laws aboli%$1 its   
op9ions sup]s$$1 its habits *ang$1 its  
mann]s corrupt$4 ,b political lib]ty is 
m easily lo/2 to neglect to hold x fa/  
is to all[ x to escape4 ,m5 !re=e n only
 cl+ to equality because x is de> to !m2
 !y also adh]e to x because !y ?9k x w  
la/ =ev]4  ,t political fre$om may      
compromise 9 its excesses !             
tranquillity1 ! prop]ty1 ! lives (      
individuals1 is obvi\s to ! n>r[e/ & mo/
 un?9k+ m9ds4 ,b1 on ! contr>y1 none b  
att5tive & cle>-sight$ m5 p]ceive !     
p]ils ) :i* equality ?reat5s u1 & !y    
commonly avoid po9t+ !m out4 ,!y "k t ! 
calamities !y appreh5d are remote1 &    
flatt] !mselves t !y w only fall ^u     
future g5]ations1 = :i* ! pres5t        
g5]ation takes b little ?\ght4 ,! evils 
:i* fre$om sometimes br+s ) x are       
imm$iate2 !y are app>5t to all1 & all   
are m or less affect$ by !m4 ,! evils   

:i* extreme equality may produce are    
sl[ly disclos$2 !y creep gradually into 
! social frame2 !y are only se5 at      
int]vals1 & at ! mom5t at :i* !y become 
mo/ viol5t habit already causes !m to be
 no long] felt4 ,! advantages :i* fre$om
 br+s are only %[n by l5g? ( "t2 & x is 
always easy to mi/ake ! cause 9 :i* !y  
orig9ate4 ,! advantages ( equality are  
in/antane\s1 & !y may con/antly be trac$
 f _! s\rce4 ,political lib]ty be/[s    
exalt$ pleasures1 f "t to "t1 ^u a c]ta9
 numb] ( citiz5s4 ,equality e day conf]s
 a numb] ( small enjoym5ts on e man4 ,! 
*>ms ( equality are e in/ant felt1 & are
 )9 ! rea* ( all2 ! noble/ he>ts are n  
ins5sible to !m1 & ! mo/ vulg> s\ls     
exult 9 !m4 ,! passion :i* equality     
eng5d]s mu/ !re=e be at once /rong &    
g5]al4 ,m5 _c enjoy political lib]ty    
unpur*as$ by "s sacrifices1 & !y nev]   
obta9 x )\t great ex]tions4 ,b !        
pleasures ( equality are self-pr(f]$3   
ea* ( ! petty incid5ts ( life seems to  
occasion !m1 & 9 ord] to ta/e !m no?+ is

 requir$ b to live4  ,democratic nations
 are at all times fond ( equality1 b !re
 are c]ta9 epo*s at :i* ! passion !y    
ent]ta9 = x swells to ! height ( fury4  
,?is occurs at ! mom5t :5 ! old social  
sy/em1 long m5ac$1 completes its own    
de/ruction aft] a la/ inte/9e /ruggle1 &
 :5 ! b>ri]s ( rank are at l5g? ?r[n    
d[n4 ,at su* times m5 p\nce ^u equality 
z _! booty1 & !y cl+ to x z to "s       
preci\s treasure :i* !y fe> to lose4 ,! 
passion = equality p5etrates on e side  
into m5's he>ts1 exp&s !re1 & fills !m  
entirely4 ,tell !m n t by ?is bl9d      
surr5d] ( !mselves to an exclusive      
passion !y risk _! de>e/ int]e/s3 !y are
 deaf4 ,%[ !m n fre$om escap+ f _!      
grasp1 :il/ !y are look+ ano!r way3 !y  
are bl9d--or r1 !y c disc]n b "o sole   
object to be desir$ 9 ! univ]se4  ,:at  
,i h said is applicable to all          
democratic nations3 :at ,i am ab\t to   
say conc]ns ! ,fr5* alone4 ,among/ mo/  
mod]n nations1 & especially among/ all  
^? ( ! ,cont95t ( ,europe1 ! ta/e & !   

idea ( fre$om only began to exi/ & to   
ext5d !mselves at ! "t :5 social        
conditions 7 t5d+ to equality1 & z a    
consequ5ce ( t v equality4 ,absolute k+s
 7 ! mo/ effici5t levell]s ( ranks      
among/ _! subjects4 ,among/ ^! nations  
equality prec$$ fre$om3 equality 0 !re=e
 a fact ( "s /&+ :5 fre$om 0 /ill a     
novelty3 ! "o _h already creat$ cu/oms1 
op9ions1 & laws belong+ to x1 :5 ! o!r1 
alone & = ! fir/ "t1 came into actual   
exi/5ce4 ,?us ! latt] 0 /ill only an    
affair ( op9ion & ( ta/e1 :il/ ! =m] _h 
already crept into ! habits ( ! p1      
possess$ itself ( _! mann]s1 & giv5 a   
p>ticul> turn to ! smalle/ actions ( _! 
lives4 ,c x be wond]$ t ! m5 ( our own  
"t pref] ! "o to ! o!r8  ,i ?9k t       
democratic communities h a natural ta/e 
= fre$om3 left to !mselves1 !y w seek x1
 *]i% x1 & view any privation ( x )     
regret4 ,b = equality1 _! passion is    
ard5t1 insatiable1 incessant1 inv9cible3
 !y call = equality 9 fre$om2 & if !y _c
 obta9 t1 !y /ill call = equality 9     

slav]y4 ,!y w endure pov]ty1 s]vitude1  
b>b>ism--b !y w n endure ari/ocracy4    
,?is is true at all times1 & especially 
true 9 our own4 ,all m5 & all p[]s seek+
 to cope ) ?is irresi/ible passion1 w be
 ov]?r[n & de/roy$ by x4 ,9 our age1    
fre$om _c be e/abli%$ )\t x1 & despotism
 itself _c reign )\t its support4       
,*apt] ,,ii3 ,( ,individualism ,9       
,democratic ,c\ntries  ,i h %[n h[ x is 
t 9 ages ( equality e man seeks = 8     
op9ions )9 himself3 ,i am n[ ab\t to %[ 
h[ x is t1 9 ! same ages1 all 8 feel+s  
are turn$ t[>ds himself alone4          
,individualism 99a is a novel           
expression1 to :i* a novel idea has giv5
 bir?4 ,our fa!rs 7 only acqua9t$ )     
egotism4 ,egotism is a passionate &     
exagg]at$ love ( self1 :i* leads a man  
to connect ev]y?+ ) 8 own p]son1 & to   
pref] himself to ev]y?+ 9 ! _w4         
,individualism is a mature & calm feel+1
 :i* disposes ea* memb] ( ! community to
 sev] himself f ! mass ( 8              
fell[-creatures2 & to draw ap>t ) 8     

family & 8 fri5ds2 s t1 aft] he has ?us 
=m$ a little circle ( 8 own1 he will+ly 
leaves society at l>ge to itself4       
,egotism orig9ates 9 bl9d in/9ct3       
individualism proce$s f errone\s judgm5t
 m ?an f deprav$ feel+s2 x orig9ates z  
mu* 9 ! defici5cies ( ! m9d z 9 !       
p]v]sity ( ! he>t4 ,egotism blights !   
g]m ( all virtue2 individualism1 at     
fir/1 only saps ! virtues ( public life2
 b1 9 ! long run1 x attacks & de/roys   
all o!rs1 & is at l5g? absorb$ 9        
d[nright egotism4 ,egotism is a vice z  
old z ! _w1 :i* does n belong to "o =m (
 society m ?an to ano!r3 individualism  
is ( democratic orig91 & x ?reat5s to   
spread 9 ! same ratio z ! equality (    
conditions4  ,footnote a3 ,i adopt !    
expression ( ! orig9al1 h[ev] /range x  
may seem to ! ,engli% e>1 p>tly because 
x illu/rates ! rem>k on ! introduction (
 g5]al t]ms into democratic language :i*
 0 made 9 a prec$+ *apt]1 & p>tly       
because ,i "k ( no ,engli% ^w exactly   
equival5t to ! expression4 ,! *apt]     

itself def9es ! mean+ atta*$ to x by !  
au?or4--,translator's ,note4  ,among/   
ari/ocratic nations1 z families rema9 = 
c5turies 9 ! same condition1 (t5 on !   
same spot1 all g5]ations become z x 7   
contemporane\s4 ,a man almo/ always kn[s
 8 =efa!rs1 & respects !m3 he ?9ks he   
already sees 8 remote desc5dants1 & he  
loves !m4 ,he will+ly imposes duties on 
himself t[>ds ! =m] & ! latt]2 & he w   
frequ5tly sacrifice 8 p]sonal           
gratifications to ^? :o w5t be=e & to ^?
 :o w come aft] him4 ,ari/ocratic       
in/itutions h1 moreov]1 ! effect (      
closely b9d+ e man to sev]al ( 8        
fell[-citiz5s4 ,z ! classes ( an        
ari/ocratic p are /rongly m>k$ &        
p]man5t1 ea* ( !m is reg>d$ by its own  
memb]s z a sort ( less] c\ntry1 m       
tangible & m *]i%$ ?an ! c\ntry at l>ge4
 ,z 9 ari/ocratic communities all !     
citiz5s occupy fix$ positions1 "o above 
! o!r1 ! result is t ea* ( !m always    
sees a man above himself ^: patronage is
 necess>y to him1 & bel[ himself ano!r  

man ^: co-op]ation he may claim4 ,m5    
liv+ 9 ari/ocratic ages are !re=e almo/ 
always closely atta*$ to some?+ plac$   
out ( _! own sph]e1 & !y are (t5 dispos$
 to =get !mselves4 ,x is true t 9 ^?    
ages ! notion ( human fell[%ip is fa9t1 
& t m5 seldom ?9k ( sacrific+ !mselves =
 mank9d2 b !y (t5 sacrifice !mselves =  
o!r m54 ,9 democratic ages1 on !        
contr>y1 :5 ! duties ( ea* individual to
 ! race are mu* m cle>1 devot$ s]vice to
 any "o man becomes m r>e2 ! bond (     
human affection is ext5d$1 b x is       
relax$4  ,among/ democratic nations new 
families are con/antly spr++ up1 o!rs   
are con/antly fall+ away1 & all t rema9 
*ange _! condition2 ! wo( ( "t is e     
in/ant brok51 & ! track ( g5]ations     
effac$4 ,^? :o w5t be=e are soon =gott52
 ( ^? :o w come aft] no "o has any idea3
 ! int]e/ ( man is conf9$ to ^? 9 close 
prop9quity to himself4 ,z ea* class     
approximates to o!r classes1 & int]m+les
 ) !m1 its memb]s become indiff]5t & z  
/rang]s to "o ano!r4 ,ari/ocracy _h made

 a *a9 ( all ! memb]s ( ! community1 f !
 peasant to ! k+3 democracy breaks t    
*a91 & sev]s e l9k ( x4 ,z social       
conditions become m equal1 ! numb] (    
p]sons increases :o1 al?\gh !y are nei!r
 ri* en\gh nor p[]ful en\gh to ex]cise  
any great influ5ce ov] _!               
fell[-creatures1 h nev]!less acquir$ or 
reta9$ suffici5t education & =tune to   
satisfy _! own wants4 ,!y owe no?+ to   
any man1 !y expect no?+ f any man2 !y   
acquire ! habit ( always consid]+       
!mselves z /&+ alone1 & !y are apt to   
imag9e t _! :ole de/9y is 9 _! own h&s4 
,?us n only does democracy make e man   
=get 8 ance/ors1 b x hides 8 desc5dants1
 & sep>ates 8 contempor>ies f him2 x    
?r[s him back =ev] ^u himself alone1 &  
?reat5s 9 ! end to conf9e him entirely  
)9 ! solitude ( 8 own he>t4     ,*apt]  
,,iii3 ,individualism ,/rong] ,at ,!    
,close ,( ,a ,democratic ,revolution    
,?an ,at ,o!r ,p]iods  ,! p]iod :5 !    
con/ruction ( democratic society ^u !   
ru9s ( an ari/ocracy has j be5 complet$1

 is especially t at :i* ?is sep>ation ( 
m5 f "o ano!r1 & ! egotism result+ f x1 
mo/ =cibly /rike ! obs]vation4          
,democratic communities n only conta9 a 
l>ge numb] ( indep5d5t citiz5s1 b !y are
 con/antly fill$ ) m5 :o1 hav+ ent]$ b  
ye/]day ^u _! indep5d5t condition1 are  
intoxicat$ ) _! new p[]4 ,!y ent]ta9 a  
presumptu\s confid5ce 9 _! /r5g?1 & z !y
 d n suppose t !y c h5ce=w>d ev] h      
occasion to claim ! assi/ance ( _!      
fell[-creatures1 !y d n scruple to %[ t 
!y c>e = nobody b !mselves4  ,an        
ari/ocracy seldom yields )\t a protract$
 /ruggle1 9 ! c\rse ( :i* implacable    
animosities are k9dl$ betwe5 ! diff]5t  
classes ( society4 ,^! passions survive 
! victory1 & traces ( !m may be obs]v$ 9
 ! mid/ ( ! democratic confusion :i*    
ensues4 ,^? memb]s ( ! community :o 7 at
 ! top ( ! late gradations ( rank _c    
imm$iately =get _! =m] greatness2 !y w  
long reg>d !mselves z ali5s 9 ! mid/ ( !
 newly compos$ society4 ,!y look ^u all 
^? :om ?is /ate ( society has made _!   

equals z oppressors1 ^: de/9y c excite  
no sympa?y2 !y h lo/ sight ( _! =m]     
equals1 & feel no long] b\nd by a common
 int]e/ to _! fate3 ea* ( !m1 /&+ alo(1 
?9ks t he is r$uc$ to c>e = himself     
alone4 ,^?1 on ! contr>y1 :o 7 =m]ly at 
! foot ( ! social scale1 & :o h be5     
br\ght up to ! common level by a sudd5  
revolution1 _c enjoy _! newly acquir$   
indep5d5ce )\t secret uneas9ess2 & if !y
 meet ) "s ( _! =m] sup]iors on ! same  
foot+ z !mselves1 !y /& alo( f !m ) an  
expression ( triumph & ( fe>4 ,x is1 !n1
 commonly at ! outset ( democratic      
society t citiz5s are mo/ dispos$ to    
live ap>t4 ,democracy leads m5 n to draw
 ne> to _! fell[-creatures2 b democratic
 revolutions lead !m to %un ea* o!r1 &  
p]petuate 9 a /ate ( equality !         
animosities :i* ! /ate ( inequality     
eng5d]$4 ,! great advantage ( !         
,am]icans is t !y h arriv$ at a /ate (  
democracy )\t hav+ to endure a          
democratic revolution2 & t !y are born  
equal1 in/ead ( becom+ s4     ,*apt]    

,,iv3 ,t ,! ,am]icans ,combat ,!        
,effects ,( ,individualism ,by ,free    
,in/itutions  ,despotism1 :i* is ( a v  
timor\s nature1 is nev] m secure (      
cont9uance ?an :5 x c keep m5 asund]2 & 
all is influ5ce is commonly ex]t$ = t   
purpose4 ,no vice ( ! human he>t is s   
acceptable to x z egotism3 a despot     
easily =gives 8 subjects = n lov+ him1  
provid$ !y d n love ea* o!r4 ,he does n 
ask !m to assi/ him 9 gov]n+ ! ,/ate2 x 
is en\gh t !y d n aspire to gov]n x     
!mselves4 ,he /igmatizes z turbul5t &   
unruly spirits ^? :o w\ld comb9e _!     
ex]tions to promote ! prosp]ity ( !     
community1 &1 p]v]t+ ! natural mean+ (  
words1 he applauds z good citiz5s ^? :o 
h no sympa?y = any b !mselves4 ,?us !   
vices :i* despotism eng5d]s are         
precisely ^? :i* equality fo/]s4 ,^! two
 ?+s mutually & p]nici\sly complete &   
assi/ ea* o!r4 ,equality places m5 side 
by side1 unconnect$ by any common tie2  
despotism raises b>ri]s to keep !m      
asund]2 ! =m] pr$isposes !m n to consid]

 _! fell[-creatures1 ! latt] makes g5]al
 indiff]5ce a sort ( public virtue4     
,despotism !n1 :i* is at all times      
dang]\s1 is m p>ticul>ly to be fe>$ 9   
democratic ages4 ,x is easy to see t 9  
^? same ages m5 /& mo/ 9 ne$ ( fre$om4  
,:5 ! memb]s ( a community are =c$ to   
att5d to public affairs1 !y are         
necess>ily drawn f ! circle ( _! own    
int]e/s1 & snat*$ at times f            
self-obs]vation4 ,z soon z a man beg9s  
to treat ( public affairs 9 public1 he  
beg9s to p]ceive t he is n s indep5d5t (
 8 fell[-m5 z he _h at fir/ imag9$1 & t1
 9 ord] to obta9 _! support1 he mu/ (t5 
l5d !m 8 co-op]ation4  ,:5 ! public is  
supreme1 !re is no man :o does n feel ! 
value ( public goodwill1 or :o does n   
endeavor to c\rt x by draw+ to himself !
 e/eem & affection ( ^? among/ :om he is
 to live4 ,_m ( ! passions :i* congeal &
 keep asund] human he>ts1 are !n oblig$ 
to retire & hide bel[ ! surface4 ,pride 
mu/ be dissembl$2 disda9 d>es n break   
out2 egotism fe>s its own self4 ,"u a   

free gov]nm5t1 z mo/ public (fices are  
elective1 ! m5 ^: elevat$ m9ds or aspir+
 hopes are too closely circumscrib$ 9   
private life1 con/antly feel t !y _c d  
)\t ! population :i* surr\nds !m4 ,m5   
le>n at su* times to ?9k ( _! fell[-m5 f
 ambiti\s motives2 & !y frequ5tly f9d x1
 9 a mann]1 _! int]e/ to =get !mselves4 
,i may "h be met by an objection d]iv$ f
 electione]+ intrigues1 ! meannesses (  
c&idates1 & ! calumnies ( _! oppon5ts4  
,^! are opportunities = animosity :i*   
occur ! (t5] ! m frequ5t elections      
become4 ,su* evils are d\btless great1 b
 !y are transi5t2 :]eas ! b5efits :i*   
att5d !m rema94 ,! desire ( be+ elect$  
may lead "s m5 = a "t to viol5t         
ho/ility2 b ?is same desire leads all m5
 9 ! long run mutually to support ea*   
o!r2 & if x happ5s t an election        
accid5tally sev]s two fri5ds1 !         
electoral sy/em br+s a multitude (      
citiz5s p]man5tly toge!r1 :o w\ld always
 h rema9$ unkn[n to ea* o!r4 ,fre$om    
eng5d]s private animosities1 b despotism

 gives bir? to g5]al indiff]5ce4  ,!    
,am]icans h combat$ by free in/itutions 
! t5d5cy ( equality to keep m5 asund]1 &
 !y h subdu$ x4 ,! legislators ( ,am]ica
 did n suppose t a g5]al repres5tation (
 ! :ole nation w\ld suffice to w>d (f a 
disord] at once s natural to ! frame (  
democratic society1 & s fatal3 !y also  
?\ght t x w\ld be well to infuse        
political life into ea* portion ( !     
t]ritory1 9 ord] to multiply to an      
inf9ite ext5t opportunities ( act+ 9    
conc]t = all ! memb]s ( ! community1 &  
to make !m con/antly feel _! mutual     
dep5d5ce on ea* o!r4 ,! plan 0 a wise   
"o4 ,! g5]al affairs ( a c\ntry only    
engage ! att5tion ( lead+ politicians1  
:o assemble f "t to "t 9 ! same places2 
& z !y (t5 lose sight ( ea* o!r         
aft]w>ds1 no la/+ ties are e/abli%$     
betwe5 !m4 ,b if ! object be to h !     
local affairs ( a di/rict conduct$ by ! 
m5 :o reside !re1 ! same p]sons are     
always 9 contact1 & !y are1 9 a mann]1  
=c$ to be acqua9t$1 & to adapt !mselves 

to "o ano!r4  ,x is difficult to draw a 
man out ( 8 own circle to int]e/ him 9 !
 de/9y ( ! ,/ate1 because he does n     
cle>ly und]/& :at influ5ce ! de/9y ( !  
,/ate c h ^u 8 own lot4 ,b if x be      
propos$ to make a road cross ! end ( 8  
e/ate1 he w see at a glance t !re is a  
connection betwe5 ?is small public      
affair & 8 greate/ private affairs2 & he
 w discov]1 )\t its be+ %[n to him1 !   
close tie :i* unites private to g5]al   
int]e/4 ,?us1 f> m may be done by       
intru/+ to ! citiz5s ! adm9i/ration (   
m9or affairs ?an by surr5d]+ to !m !    
control ( important ones1 t[>ds int]e/+ 
!m 9 ! public welf>e1 & conv9c+ !m t !y 
con/antly /& 9 ne$ "o ( ! o!r 9 ord] to 
provide = x4 ,a brilliant a*ievem5t may 
w9 = y ! favor ( a p at "o /roke2 b to  
e>n ! love & respect ( ! population :i* 
surr\nds y1 a long succession ( little  
s]vices r5d]$ & ( obscure good de$s--a  
con/ant habit ( k9dness1 & an e/abli%$  
reputation = dis9t]e/$ness--w be        
requir$4 ,local fre$om1 !n1 :i* leads a 

great numb] ( citiz5s to value !        
affection ( _! neighbors & ( _! k9dr$1  
p]petually br+s m5 toge!r1 & =ces !m to 
help "o ano!r1 9 spite ( ! prop5sities  
:i* sev] !m4  ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! m    
opul5t citiz5s take great c>e n to /&   
alo( f ! p2 on ! contr>y1 !y con/antly  
keep on easy t]ms ) ! l[] classes3 !y   
li/5 to !m1 !y speak to !m e day4 ,!y "k
 t ! ri* 9 democracies always /& 9 ne$ (
 ! poor2 & t 9 democratic ages y atta* a
 poor man to y m by y\r mann] ?an by    
b5efits conf]r$4 ,! magnitude ( su*     
b5efits1 :i* sets (f ! diff]5ce (       
conditions1 causes a secret irritation  
to ^? :o reap advantage f !m2 b ! *>m ( 
simplicity ( mann]s is almo/            
irresi/ible3 _! affability c>ries m5    
away1 & ev5 _! want ( poli% is n always 
displeas+4 ,?is tru? does n take root at
 once 9 ! m9ds ( ! ri*4 ,!y g5]ally     
resi/ x z long z ! democratic revolution
 la/s1 & !y d n ackn[l$ge x imm$iately  
aft] t revolution is accompli%$4 ,!y are
 v ready to d good to ! p1 b !y /ill    

*oose to keep !m at arm's l5g?2 !y ?9k t
 is suffici5t1 b !y are mi/ak54 ,!y     
might sp5d =tunes ?us )\t w>m+ ! he>ts (
 ! population ar\nd !m2--t population   
does n ask !m = ! sacrifice ( _! money1 
b ( _! pride4  ,x w\ld seem z if e      
imag9ation 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7 ^u !     
/ret* to inv5t means ( increas+ ! weal? 
& satisfy+ ! wants ( ! public4 ,!       
be/-in=m$ inhabitants ( ea* di/rict     
con/antly use _! in=mation to discov]   
new tru?s :i* may augm5t ! g5]al        
prosp]ity2 & if !y h made any su*       
discov]ies1 !y eag]ly surr5d] !m to !   
mass ( ! p4  ,:5 ! vices & weaknesses1  
frequ5tly exhibit$ by ^? :o gov]n 9     
,am]ica1 are closely exam9$1 ! prosp]ity
 ( ! p occasions--b improp]ly           
occasions--surprise4 ,elect$ magi/rates 
d n make ! ,am]ican democracy fl\ri%2 x 
fl\ri%es because ! magi/rates are       
elective4  ,x w\ld be unju/ to suppose t
 ! patriotism & ! zeal :i* e ,am]ican   
displays = ! welf>e ( 8 fell[-citiz5s   
are :olly ins9c]e4 ,al?\gh private      

int]e/ directs ! great] "p ( human      
actions 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates z well z      
else:]e1 x does n regulate !m all4 ,i   
mu/ say t ,i h (t5 se5 ,am]icans make   
great & real sacrifices to ! public     
welf>e2 & ,i h rem>k$ a hundr$ in/ances 
9 :i* !y h>dly ev] fail$ to l5d fai?ful 
support to ea* o!r4 ,! free in/itutions 
:i* ! inhabitants ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates     
possess1 & ! political rights ( :i* !y  
make s mu* use1 rem9d e citiz51 & 9 a   
?\s& ways1 t he lives 9 society4 ,!y e  
in/ant impress ^u 8 m9d ! notion t x is 
! duty1 z well z ! int]e/ ( m51 to make 
!mselves useful to _! fell[-creatures2 &
 z he sees no p>ticul> gr\nd ( animosity
 to !m1 s9ce he is nev] ei!r _! ma/] or 
_! slave1 8 he>t readily leans to ! side
 ( k9dness4 ,m5 att5d to ! int]e/s ( !  
public1 fir/ by necessity1 aft]w>ds by  
*oice3 :at 0 int5tional becomes an      
in/9ct2 & by d9t ( work+ = ! good ( "o's
 fell[ citiz5s1 ! habit & ! ta/e = s]v+ 
!m is at l5g? acquir$4  ,_m p 9 ,france 
consid] equality ( conditions z "o evil1

 & political fre$om z a second4 ,:5 !y  
are oblig$ to yield to ! =m]1 !y /rive  
at lea/ to escape f ! latt]4 ,b ,i      
cont5d t 9 ord] to combat ! evils :i*   
equality may produce1 !re is only "o    
effectual rem$y--namely1 political      
fre$om4     ,*apt] ,v3 ,( ,! ,use ,:i*  
,! ,am]icans ,make ,( ,public           
,associations ,9 ,civil ,life  ,i d n   
propose to speak ( ^? political         
associations--by ! aid ( :i* m5 endeavor
 to def5d !mselves aga9/ ! despotic     
influ5ce ( a majority--or aga9/ !       
aggressions ( regal p[]4 ,t subject ,i h
 already treat$4 ,if ea* citiz5 did n   
le>n1 9 proportion z he individually    
becomes m feeble1 & consequ5tly m       
incapable ( pres]v+ 8 fre$om s+le-h&$1  
to comb9e ) 8 fell[-citiz5s = ! purpose 
( def5d+ x1 x is cle> t tyranny w\ld    
unavoidably increase toge!r ) equality4 
,^? associations only :i* are =m$ 9     
civil life1 )\t ref]5ce to political    
objects1 are "h adv]t$ to4 ,! political 
associations :i* exi/ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 

are only a s+le feature 9 ! mid/ ( !    
imm5se assemblage ( associations 9 t    
c\ntry4 ,am]icans ( all ages1 all       
conditions1 & all dispositions1         
con/antly =m associations4 ,!y h n only 
comm]cial & manufactur+ companies1 9 :i*
 all take "p1 b associations ( a ?\s&   
o!r k9ds--religi\s1 moral1 s]i\s1       
futile1 ext5sive1 or re/rict$1 enorm\s  
or dim9utive4 ,! ,am]icans make         
associations to give ent]ta9m5ts1 to    
f\nd e/abli%m5ts = education1 to build  
inns1 to con/ruct *ur*es1 to diffuse    
books1 to s5d mission>ies to !          
antipodes2 & 9 ?is mann] !y f\nd        
hospitals1 prisons1 & s*ools4 ,if x be  
propos$ to advance "s tru?1 or to fo/]  
"s feel+ by ! enc\ragem5t ( a great     
example1 !y =m a society4 ,:]ev]1 at !  
head ( "s new und]tak+1 y see ! gov]nm5t
 9 ,france1 or a man ( rank 9 ,engl&1 9 
! ,unit$ ,/ates y w be sure to f9d an   
association4 ,i met ) sev]al k9ds (     
associations 9 ,am]ica1 ( :i* ,i confess
 ,i _h no previ\s notion2 & ,i h (t5    

admir$ ! extreme skill ) :i* !          
inhabitants ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates succe$ 9  
propos+ a common object to ! ex]tions ( 
a great _m m51 & 9 gett+ !m volunt>ily  
to pursue x4 ,i h s9ce travell$ ov]     
,engl&1 :5ce ! ,am]icans h tak5 "s ( _! 
laws & _m ( _! cu/oms2 & x seem$ to me t
 ! pr9ciple ( association 0 by no means 
s con/antly or s adroitly us$ 9 t       
c\ntry4 ,! ,engli% (t5 p]=m great ?+s   
s+ly2 :]eas ! ,am]icans =m associations 
= ! smalle/ und]tak+s4 ,x is evid5t t ! 
=m] p consid] association z a p[]ful    
means ( action1 b ! latt] seem to reg>d 
x z ! only means !y h ( act+4  ,?us !   
mo/ democratic c\ntry on ! face ( ! e>? 
is t 9 :i* m5 h 9 our "t c>ri$ to !     
highe/ p]fection ! art ( pursu+ 9 common
 ! object ( _! common desires1 & h      
appli$ ?is new sci5ce to ! greate/ numb]
 ( purposes4 ,is ?is ! result ( accid5t8
 or is !re 9 reality any necess>y       
connection betwe5 ! pr9ciple (          
association & t ( equality8 ,ari/ocratic
 communities always conta91 among/ a    

multitude ( p]sons :o by !mselves are   
p[]less1 a small numb] ( p[]ful & weal?y
 citiz5s1 ea* ( :om c a*ieve great      
und]tak+s s+le-h&$4 ,9 ari/ocratic      
societies m5 d n ne$ to comb9e 9 ord] to
 act1 because !y are /rongly held       
toge!r4 ,e weal?y & p[]ful citiz5       
con/itutes ! head ( a p]man5t &         
compulsory association1 compos$ ( all ^?
 :o are dep5d5t ^u him1 or :om he makes 
subs]vi5t to ! execution ( 8 designs4   
,among/ democratic nations1 on !        
contr>y1 all ! citiz5s are indep5d5t &  
feeble2 !y c d h>dly any?+ by !mselves1 
& none ( !m c oblige 8 fell[-m5 to l5d  
him _! assi/ance4 ,!y all1 !re=e1 fall  
into a /ate ( incapacity1 if !y d n le>n
 volunt>ily to help ea* o!r4 ,if m5 liv+
 9 democratic c\ntries _h no "r & no    
incl9ation to associate = political     
purposes1 _! indep5d5ce w\ld be 9 great 
jeop>dy2 b !y might long pres]ve _!     
weal? & _! cultivation3 :]eas if !y nev]
 acquir$ ! habit ( =m+ associations 9   
ord9>y life1 civilization itself w\ld be

 endang]$4 ,a p among/ :i* individuals  
%\ld lose ! p[] ( a*iev+ great ?+s      
s+le-h&$1 )\t acquir+ ! means ( produc+ 
!m by unit$ ex]tions1 w\ld soon relapse 
into b>b>ism4  ,unhappily1 ! same social
 condition :i* r5d]s associations s     
necess>y to democratic nations1 r5d]s _!
 =mation m difficult among/ ^? nations  
?an among/ all o!rs4 ,:5 sev]al memb]s (
 an ari/ocracy agree to comb9e1 !y      
easily succe$ 9 do+ s2 z ea* ( !m br+s  
great /r5g? to ! p>tn]%ip1 ! numb] ( its
 memb]s may be v limit$2 & :5 ! memb]s (
 an association are limit$ 9 numb]1 !y  
may easily become mutually acqua9t$1    
und]/& ea* o!r1 & e/abli% fix$          
regulations4 ,! same opportunities d n  
occur among/ democratic nations1 :]e !  
associat$ memb]s mu/ always be v num]\s 
= _! association to h any p[]4  ,i am   
aw>e t _m ( my c\ntrym5 are n 9 ! lea/  
emb>rass$ by ?is difficulty4 ,!y cont5d 
t ! m enfeebl$ & incompet5t ! citiz5s   
become1 ! m able & active ! gov]nm5t    
ought to be r5d]$1 9 ord] t society at  

l>ge may execute :at individuals c no   
long] accompli%4 ,!y believe ?is answ]s 
! :ole difficulty1 b ,i ?9k !y are      
mi/ak54 ,a gov]nm5t might p]=m ! "p ( "s
 ( ! l>ge/ ,am]ican companies2 & sev]al 
,/ates1 memb]s ( ! ,union1 h already    
attempt$ x2 b :at political p[] c\ld ev]
 c>ry on ! va/ multitude ( less]        
und]tak+s :i* ! ,am]ican citiz5s p]=m e 
day1 ) ! assi/ance ( ! pr9ciple (       
association8 ,x is easy to =esee t ! "t 
is draw+ ne> :5 man w be less & less    
able to produce1 ( himself alone1 !     
commone/ necess>ies ( life4 ,! task ( ! 
gov]n+ p[] w !re=e p]petually increase1 
& its v ef=ts w ext5d x e day4 ,! m x   
/&s 9 ! place ( associations1 ! m w     
individuals1 los+ ! notion ( comb9+     
toge!r1 require its assi/ance3 ^! are   
causes & effects :i* unceas+ly eng5d]   
ea* o!r4 ,w ! adm9i/ration ( ! c\ntry   
ultimately assume ! managem5t ( all !   
manufactur]s1 :i* no s+le citiz5 is able
 to c>ry on8 ,& if a "t at l5g? arrives1
 :51 9 consequ5ce ( ! extreme           

subdivision ( l&$ prop]ty1 ! soil is    
split into an inf9ite numb] ( p>cels1 s 
t x c only be cultivat$ by companies (  
husb&m51 w x be necess>y t ! head ( !   
gov]nm5t %\ld leave ! helm ( /ate to    
foll[ ! pl\gh8 ,! morals & ! intellig5ce
 ( a democratic p w\ld be z mu* endang]$
 z its bus9ess & manufactures1 if !     
gov]nm5t ev] :olly usurp$ ! place (     
private companies4  ,feel+s & op9ions   
are recruit$1 ! he>t is enl>g$1 & !     
human m9d is develop$ by no o!r means   
?an by ! reciprocal influ5ce ( m5 ^u ea*
 o!r4 ,i h %[n t ^! influ5ces are almo/ 
null 9 democratic c\ntries2 !y mu/ !re=e
 be artificially creat$1 & ?is c only be
 accompli%$ by associations4  ,:5 !     
memb]s ( an ari/ocratic community adopt 
a new op9ion1 or conceive a new s5tim5t1
 !y give x a /ation1 z x 71 beside      
!mselves1 ^u ! l(ty plat=m :]e !y /&2 & 
op9ions or s5tim5ts s conspicu\s to !   
eyes ( ! multitude are easily introduc$ 
into ! m9ds or he>ts ( all ar\nd4 ,9    
democratic c\ntries ! gov]n+ p[] alone  

is naturally 9 a condition to act 9 ?is 
mann]2 b x is easy to see t its action  
is always inadequate1 & (t5 dang]\s4 ,a 
gov]nm5t c no m be compet5t to keep     
alive & to r5ew ! circulation ( op9ions 
& feel+s among/ a great p1 ?an to manage
 all ! speculations ( productive        
indu/ry4 ,no soon] does a gov]nm5t      
attempt to g beyond its political sph]e 
& to ent] ^u ?is new track1 ?an x       
ex]cises1 ev5 un9t5tionally1 an         
insupportable tyranny2 = a gov]nm5t c   
only dictate /rict rules1 ! op9ions :i* 
x favors are rigidly en=c$1 & x is nev] 
easy to discrim9ate betwe5 its advice & 
its comm&s4 ,worse /ill w be ! case if !
 gov]nm5t really believes itself int]e/$
 9 prev5t+ all circulation ( ideas2 x w 
!n /& motionless1 & oppress$ by !       
heav9ess ( volunt>y torpor4 ,gov]nm5ts  
!re=e %\ld n be ! only active p[]s3     
associations ought1 9 democratic        
nations1 to /& 9 lieu ( ^? p[]ful       
private individuals :om ! equality (    
conditions has swept away4  ,z soon z   

sev]al ( ! inhabitants ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates
 h tak5 up an op9ion or a feel+ :i* !y  
wi% to promote 9 ! _w1 !y look out =    
mutual assi/ance2 & z soon z !y h f\nd  
ea* o!r out1 !y comb9e4 ,f t mom5t !y   
are no long] isolat$ m51 b a p[] se5 f  
af>1 ^: actions s]ve = an example1 & ^: 
language is li/5$ to4 ,! fir/ "t ,i he>d
 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates t #ajj1jjj m5 _h b\nd
 !mselves publicly to ab/a9 f spiritu\s 
liquors1 x appe>$ to me m l a joke ?an a
 s]i\s engagem5t2 & ,i did n at once    
p]ceive :y ^! temp]ate citiz5s c\ld n   
cont5t !mselves ) dr9k+ wat] by _! own  
firesides4 ,i at la/ und]/ood t #cjj1jjj
 ,am]icans1 al>m$ by ! progress (       
drunk5ness ar\nd !m1 _h made up _! m9ds 
to patronize temp]ance4 ,!y act$ j 9 !  
same way z a man ( high rank :o %\ld    
dress v pla9ly1 9 ord] to inspire !     
humbl] ord]s ) a contempt ( luxury4 ,x  
is probable t if ^! #ajj1jjj m5 _h liv$ 
9 ,france1 ea* ( !m w\ld s+ly h         
memorializ$ ! gov]nm5t to wat* !        
public-h\ses all ov] ! k+dom4  ,no?+1 9 

my op9ion1 is m des]v+ ( our att5tion   
?an ! intellectual & moral associations 
( ,am]ica4 ,! political & indu/rial     
associations ( t c\ntry /rike u =cibly2 
b ! o!rs elude our obs]vation1 or if we 
discov] !m1 we und]/& !m imp]fectly1    
because we h h>dly ev] se5 any?+ ( !    
k9d4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be ackn[l$g$ t !y   
are z necess>y to ! ,am]ican p z ! =m]1 
& p]haps m s4 ,9 democratic c\ntries !  
sci5ce ( association is ! "m ( sci5ce2 !
 progress ( all ! re/ dep5ds ^u !       
progress x has made4 ,among/ ! laws :i* 
rule human societies !re is "o :i* seems
 to be m precise & cle> ?an all o!rs4   
,if m5 are to rema9 civiliz$1 or to     
become s1 ! art ( associat+ toge!r mu/  
gr[ & improve 9 ! same ratio 9 :i* !    
equality ( conditions is increas$4      
,*apt] ,,vi3 ,( ,! ,relation ,betwe5    
,public ,associations ,& ,newspap]s  ,:5
 m5 are no long] unit$ among/ !mselves  
by firm & la/+ ties1 x is impossible to 
obta9 ! coop]ation ( any great numb] (  
!m1 unless y c p]suade e man ^:         

concurr5ce y require t ?is private      
int]e/ obliges him volunt>ily to unite 8
 ex]tions to ! ex]tions ( all ! re/4    
,?is c only be habitually & conv5i5tly  
effect$ by means ( a newspap]2 no?+ b a 
newspap] c drop ! same ?\ght into a ?\s&
 m9ds at ! same mom5t4 ,a newspap] is an
 advis] :o does n require to be s\ght1 b
 :o comes ( 8 own accord1 & talks to y  
briefly e day ( ! common weal1 )\t      
di/ract+ y f y\r private affairs4       
,newspap]s !re=e become m necess>y 9    
proportion z m5 become m equal1 &       
individualism m to be fe>$4 ,to suppose 
t !y only s]ve to protect fre$om w\ld be
 to dim9i% _! importance3 !y ma9ta9     
civilization4 ,i %all n d5y t 9         
democratic c\ntries newspap]s frequ5tly 
lead ! citiz5s to laun* toge!r 9 v      
ill-dige/$ s*emes2 b if !re 7 no        
newspap]s !re w\ld be no common         
activity4 ,! evil :i* !y produce is     
!re=e mu* less ?an t :i* !y cure4  ,!   
effect ( a newspap] is n only to sugge/ 
! same purpose to a great numb] (       

p]sons1 b also to furni% means = execut+
 9 common ! designs :i* !y may h s+ly   
conceiv$4 ,! pr9cipal citiz5s :o inhabit
 an ari/ocratic c\ntry disc]n ea* o!r f 
af>2 & if !y wi% to unite _! =ces1 !y   
move t[>ds ea* o!r1 draw+ a multitude ( 
m5 aft] !m4 ,x frequ5tly happ5s1 on !   
contr>y1 9 democratic c\ntries1 t a     
great numb] ( m5 :o wi% or :o want to   
comb9e _c accompli% x1 because z !y are 
v insignificant & lo/ amid/ ! cr[d1 !y  
_c see1 & "k n :]e to f9d1 "o ano!r4 ,a 
newspap] !n takes up ! notion or ! feel+
 :i* _h occurr$ simultane\sly1 b s+ly1  
to ea* ( !m4 ,all are !n imm$iately     
guid$ t[>ds ?is beacon2 & ^! w&]+ m9ds1 
:i* _h long s\ght ea* o!r 9 d>kness1 at 
l5g? meet & unite4  ,! newspap] br\ght  
!m toge!r1 & ! newspap] is /ill necess>y
 to keep !m unit$4 ,9 ord] t an         
association among/ a democratic p %\ld h
 any p[]1 x mu/ be a num]\s body4 ,!    
p]sons ( :om x is compos$ are !re=e     
scatt]$ ov] a wide ext5t1 & ea* ( !m is 
deta9$ 9 ! place ( 8 domicile by !      

n>r[ness ( 8 income1 or by ! small      
unremitt+ ex]tions by :i* he e>ns x4    
,means !n mu/ be f\nd to conv]se e day  
)\t see+ ea* o!r1 & to take /eps 9      
common )\t hav+ met4 ,?us h>dly any     
democratic association c d )\t          
newspap]s4 ,!re is consequ5tly a        
necess>y connection betwe5 public       
associations & newspap]s3 newspap]s make
 associations1 & associations make      
newspap]s2 & if x has be5 correctly     
advanc$ t associations w increase 9     
numb] z ! conditions ( m5 become m      
equal1 x is n less c]ta9 t ! numb] (    
newspap]s increases 9 proportion to t ( 
associations4 ,?us x is 9 ,am]ica t we  
f9d at ! same "t ! greate/ numb] (      
associations & ( newspap]s4  ,?is       
connection betwe5 ! numb] ( newspap]s & 
t ( associations leads u to ! discov]y (
 a fur!r connection betwe5 ! /ate ( !   
p]iodical press & ! =m ( ! adm9i/ration 
9 a c\ntry2 & %[s t ! numb] ( newspap]s 
mu/ dim9i% or increase among/ a         
democratic p1 9 proportion z its        

adm9i/ration is m or less c5traliz$4 ,= 
among/ democratic nations ! ex]cise (   
local p[]s _c be intru/$ to ! pr9cipal  
memb]s ( ! community z 9 ari/ocracies4  
,^? p[]s mu/ ei!r be aboli%$1 or plac$ 9
 ! h&s ( v l>ge numb]s ( m51 :o !n 9    
fact con/itute an association p]man5tly 
e/abli%$ by law = ! purpose ( adm9i/]+ !
 affairs ( a c]ta9 ext5t ( t]ritory2 &  
!y require a j\rnal1 to br+ to !m e day1
 9 ! mid/ ( _! own m9or conc]ns1 "s     
intellig5ce ( ! /ate ( _! public weal4  
,! m num]\s local p[]s are1 ! great] is 
! numb] ( m5 9 :om !y are ve/$ by law2 &
 z ?is want is h\rly felt1 ! m pr(usely 
d newspap]s ab\nd4  ,! extraord9>y      
subdivision ( adm9i/rative p[] has mu* m
 to d ) ! enorm\s numb] ( ,am]ican      
newspap]s ?an ! great political fre$om (
 ! c\ntry & ! absolute lib]ty ( ! press4
 ,if all ! inhabitants ( ! ,union _h !  
suffrage--b a suffrage :i* %\ld only    
ext5d to ! *oice ( _! legislators 9     
,congress--!y w\ld require b few        
newspap]s1 because !y w\ld only h to act

 toge!r on a few v important b v r>e    
occasions4 ,b )9 ! pale ( ! great       
association ( ! nation1 less]           
associations h be5 e/abli%$ by law 9 e  
c\ntry1 e city1 & inde$ 9 e village1 = !
 purposes ( local adm9i/ration4 ,! laws 
( ! c\ntry ?us compel e ,am]ican to     
co-op]ate e day ( 8 life ) "s ( 8       
fell[-citiz5s = a common purpose1 & ea* 
"o ( !m requires a newspap] to in=m him 
:at all ! o!rs are do+4  ,i am ( op9ion 
t a democratic p1 99a )\t any national  
repres5tative assemblies1 b ) a great   
numb] ( small local p[]s1 w\ld h 9 ! end
 m newspap]s ?an ano!r p gov]n$ by a    
c5traliz$ adm9i/ration & an elective    
legislation4 ,:at be/ expla9s to me !   
enorm\s circulation ( ! daily press 9 ! 
,unit$ ,/ates1 is t among/ ! ,am]icans  
,i f9d ! utmo/ national fre$om comb9$ ) 
local fre$om ( e k9d4 ,!re is a prevail+
 op9ion 9 ,france & ,engl& t !          
circulation ( newspap]s w\ld be         
indef9itely increas$ by remov+ ! taxes  
:i* h be5 laid ^u ! press4 ,?is is a v  

exagg]at$ e/imate ( ! effects ( su* a   
re=m4 ,newspap]s increase 9 numb]s1 n   
accord+ to _! *eapness1 b accord+ to ! m
 or less frequ5t want :i* a great numb] 
( m5 may feel = int]communication &     
comb9ation4  ,footnote a3 ,i say a      
democratic p3 ! adm9i/ration ( an       
ari/ocratic p may be ! rev]se (         
c5traliz$1 & yet ! want ( newspap]s be  
little felt1 because local p[]s are !n  
ve/$ 9 ! h&s ( a v small numb] ( m51 :o 
ei!r act ap>t1 or :o "k ea* o!r & c     
easily meet & come to an und]/&+4  ,9 l 
mann] ,i %\ld attribute ! increas+      
influ5ce ( ! daily press to causes m    
g5]al ?an ^? by :i* x is commonly       
expla9$4 ,a newspap] c only subsi/ on ! 
condition ( publi%+ s5tim5ts or         
pr9ciples common to a l>ge numb] ( m54  
,a newspap] !re=e always repres5ts an   
association :i* is compos$ ( its        
habitual read]s4 ,?is association may be
 m or less def9$1 m or less re/rict$1 m 
or less num]\s2 b ! fact t ! newspap]   
keeps alive1 is a pro( t at lea/ ! g]m (

 su* an association exi/s 9 ! m9ds ( its
 read]s4  ,?is leads me to a la/        
reflection1 ) :i* ,i %all conclude ?is  
*apt]4 ,! m equal ! conditions ( m5     
become1 & ! less /rong m5 individually  
are1 ! m easily d !y give way to !      
curr5t ( ! multitude1 & ! m difficult is
 x = !m to adh]e by !mselves to an      
op9ion :i* ! multitude disc>d4 ,a       
newspap] repres5ts an association2 x may
 be said to address ea* ( its read]s 9 !
 "n ( all ! o!rs1 & to ex]t its influ5ce
 ov] !m 9 proportion to _! individual   
weakness4 ,! p[] ( ! newspap] press mu/ 
!re=e increase z ! social conditions (  
m5 become m equal4     ,*apt] ,,vii3    
,connection ,( ,civil ,& ,political     
,associations  ,!re is only "o c\ntry on
 ! face ( ! e>? :]e ! citiz5s enjoy     
unlimit$ fre$om ( association =         
political purposes4 ,?is same c\ntry is 
! only "o 9 ! _w :]e ! cont9ual ex]cise 
( ! "r ( association has be5 introduc$  
into civil life1 & :]e all ! advantages 
:i* civilization c conf] are procur$ by 

means ( x4 ,9 all ! c\ntries :]e        
political associations are prohibit$1   
civil associations are r>e4 ,x is h>dly 
probable t ?is is ! result ( accid5t2 b 
! inf]5ce %\ld r be1 t !re is a natural1
 & p]haps a necess>y1 connection betwe5 
^! two k9ds ( associations4 ,c]ta9 m5   
happ5 to h a common int]e/ 9 "s         
conc]n--ei!r a comm]cial und]tak+ is to 
be manag$1 or "s speculation 9          
manufactures to be tri$2 !y meet1 !y    
comb9e1 & ?us by degrees !y become      
famili> ) ! pr9ciple ( association4 ,!  
great] is ! multiplicity ( small        
affairs1 ! m d m51 ev5 )\t kn[+ x1      
acquire facility 9 prosecut+ great      
und]tak+s 9 common4 ,civil associations1
 !re=e1 facilitate political            
association3 b1 on ! o!r h&1 political  
association s+ul>ly /r5g!ns & improves  
associations = civil purposes4 ,9 civil 
life e man may1 /rictly speak+1 fancy t 
he c provide = 8 own wants2 9 politics1 
he c fancy no su* ?+4 ,:5 a p1 !n1 h any
 k ( public life1 ! notion (            

association1 & ! wi% to coalesce1 pres5t
 !mselves e day to ! m9ds ( ! :ole      
community3 :atev] natural repugnance may
 re/ra9 m5 f act+ 9 conc]t1 !y w always 
be ready to comb9e = ! sake ( a p>ty4   
,?us political life makes ! love &      
practice ( association m g5]al2 x imp>ts
 a desire ( union1 & tea*es ! means (   
comb9ation to numb]s ( m5 :o w\ld h     
always liv$ ap>t4  ,politics n only give
 bir? to num]\s associations1 b to      
associations ( great ext5t4 ,9 civil    
life x seldom happ5s t any "o int]e/    
draws a v l>ge numb] ( m5 to act 9      
conc]t2 mu* skill is requir$ to br+ su* 
an int]e/ into exi/5ce3 b 9 politics    
opportunities pres5t !mselves e day4 ,n[
 x is solely 9 great associations t !   
g5]al value ( ! pr9ciple ( association  
is display$4 ,citiz5s :o are            
individually p[]less1 d n v cle>ly      
anticipate ! /r5g? :i* !y may acquire by
 unit+ toge!r2 x mu/ be %[n to !m 9 ord]
 to be und]/ood4 ,h5ce x is (t5 easi] to
 collect a multitude = a public purpose 

?an a few p]sons2 a ?\s& citiz5s d n see
 :at int]e/ !y h 9 comb9+ toge!r--t5    
?\s& w be p]fectly aw>e ( x4 ,9 politics
 m5 comb9e = great und]tak+s2 & ! use !y
 make ( ! pr9ciple ( association 9      
important affairs practically tea*es !m 
t x is _! int]e/ to help ea* o!r 9 ^? ( 
less mom5t4 ,a political association    
draws a numb] ( individuals at ! same "t
 out ( _! own circle3 h[ev] !y may be   
naturally kept asund] by age1 m9d1 &    
=tune1 x places !m ne>] toge!r & br+s !m
 into contact4 ,once met1 !y c always   
meet aga94  ,m5 c emb>k 9 few civil     
p>tn]%ips )\t risk+ a portion ( _!      
possessions2 ?is is ! case ) all        
manufactur+ & trad+ companies4 ,:5 m5   
are z yet b little v]s$ 9 ! art (       
association1 & are unacqua9t$ ) its     
pr9cipal rules1 !y are afraid1 :5 fir/  
!y comb9e 9 ?is mann]1 ( buy+ _!        
exp]i5ce de>4 ,!y !re=e pref] depriv+   
!mselves ( a p[]ful in/rum5t ( success  
to runn+ ! risks :i* att5d ! use ( x4   
,!y are1 h[ev]1 less reluctant to jo9   

political associations1 :i* appe> to !m 
to be )\t dang]1 because !y adv5ture no 
money 9 !m4 ,b !y _c belong to ^!       
associations = any l5g? ( "t )\t f9d+   
out h[ ord] is ma9ta9$ among/ a l>ge    
numb] ( m51 & by :at contrivance !y are 
made to advance1 h>moni\sly &           
me?odically1 to ! same object4 ,?us !y  
le>n to surr5d] _! own w to t ( all !   
re/1 & to make _! own ex]tions          
subord9ate to ! common impulse--?+s :i* 
x is n less necess>y to "k 9 civil ?an 9
 political associations4 ,political     
associations may !re=e be consid]$ z    
l>ge free s*ools1 :]e all ! memb]s ( !  
community g to le>n ! g5]al !ory (      
association4  ,b ev5 if political       
association did n directly contribute to
 ! progress ( civil association1 to     
de/roy ! =m] w\ld be to impair ! latt]4 
,:5 citiz5s c only meet 9 public = c]ta9
 purposes1 !y reg>d su* meet+s z a      
/range proce$+ ( r>e occurr5ce1 & !y    
r>ely ?9k at all ab\t x4 ,:5 !y are     
all[$ to meet freely = all purposes1 !y 

ultimately look ^u public association z 
! univ]sal1 or 9 a mann] ! sole means1  
:i* m5 c employ to accompli% ! diff]5t  
purposes !y may h 9 view4 ,e new want   
in/antly revives ! notion4 ,! art (     
association !n becomes1 z ,i h said     
be=e1 ! "m ( action1 /udi$ & appli$ by  
all4  ,:5 "s k9ds ( associations are    
prohibit$ & o!rs all[$1 x is difficult  
to di/+ui% ! =m] f ! latt]1 be=eh&4 ,9  
?is /ate ( d\bt m5 ab/a9 f !m altoge!r1 
& a sort ( public op9ion passes curr5t  
:i* t5ds to cause any association       
:atsoev] to be reg>d$ z a bold & almo/  
an illicit ent]prise4 99a  ,footnote a3 
,?is is m especially true :5 ! executive
 gov]nm5t has a discretion>y p[] ( all[+
 or prohibit+ associations4 ,:5 c]ta9   
associations are simply prohibit$ by    
law1 & ! c\rts ( ju/ice h to puni%      
infr+em5ts ( t law1 ! evil is f> less   
consid]able4 ,!n e citiz5 kn[s be=eh&   
pretty ne>ly :at he has to expect4 ,he  
judges himself be=e he is judg$ by !    
law1 &1 ab/a9+ f prohibit$ associations1

 he emb>ks 9 ^? :i* are legally         
sanction$4 ,x is by ^! re/rictions t all
 free nations h always admitt$ t ! "r ( 
association might be limit$4 ,b if !    
legislature %\ld inve/ a man ) a p[] (  
asc]ta9+ be=eh& :i* associations are    
dang]\s & :i* are useful1 & %\ld        
au?orize him to de/roy all associations 
9 ! bud or all[ !m to be =m$1 z nobody  
w\ld be able to =esee 9 :at cases       
associations might be e/abli%$ & 9 :at  
cases !y w\ld be put d[n1 ! _s (        
association w\ld be entirely p>alyz$4 ,!
 =m] ( ^! laws w\ld only assail c]ta9   
associations2 ! latt] w\ld apply to     
society itself1 & inflict an injury ^u  
x4 ,i c conceive t a regul> gov]nm5t may
 h rec\rse to ! =m]1 b ,i d n conc$e t  
any gov]nm5t has ! "r ( enact+ ! latt]4 
,x is !re=e *im]ical to suppose t ! _s (
 association1 :5 x is repress$ on "s "o 
po9t1 w nev]!less display ! same vigor  
on all o!rs2 & t if m5 be all[$ to      
prosecute c]ta9 und]tak+s 9 common1 t is
 q en\gh = !m eag]ly to set ab\t !m4 ,:5

 ! memb]s ( a community are all[$ &     
accu/om$ to comb9e = all purposes1 !y w 
comb9e z readily = ! less] z = ! m      
important ones2 b if !y are only all[$  
to comb9e = small affairs1 !y w be nei!r
 incl9$ nor able to effect x4 ,x is 9   
va9 t y w leave !m entirely free to     
prosecute _! bus9ess on jo9t-/ock       
acc\nt3 !y w h>dly c>e to avail !mselves
 ( ! rights y h grant$ to !m2 &1 aft]   
hav+ exhau/$ y\r /r5g? 9 va9 ef=ts to   
put d[n prohibit$ associations1 y w be  
surpris$ t y _c p]suade m5 to =m !      
associations y enc\rage4  ,i d n say t  
!re c be no civil associations 9 a      
c\ntry :]e political association is     
prohibit$2 = m5 c nev] live 9 society   
)\t emb>k+ 9 "s common und]tak+s3 b ,i  
ma9ta9 t 9 su* a c\ntry civil           
associations w always be few 9 numb]1   
feebly plann$1 unskillfully manag$1 t !y
 w nev] =m any va/ designs1 or t !y w   
fail 9 ! execution ( !m4  ,?is naturally
 leads me to ?9k t fre$om ( association 
9 political matt]s is n s dang]\s to    

public tranquillity z is suppos$2 & t   
possibly1 aft] hav+ agitat$ society = "s
 "t1 x may /r5g!n ! ,/ate 9 ! end4 ,9   
democratic c\ntries political           
associations are1 s to speak1 ! only    
p[]ful p]sons :o aspire to rule ! ,/ate4
 ,accord+ly1 ! gov]nm5ts ( our "t look  
^u associations ( ?is k9d j z sov]eigns 
9 ! ,middle ,ages reg>d$ ! great vassals
 ( ! ,cr[n3 !y ent]ta9 a sort (         
in/9ctive abhorr5ce ( !m1 & !y combat !m
 on all occasions4 ,!y be>1 on !        
contr>y1 a natural goodwill to civil    
associations1 because !y readily discov]
 t1 in/ead ( direct+ ! m9ds ( !         
community to public affairs1 ^!         
in/itutions s]ve to div]t !m f su*      
reflections2 & t1 by engag+ !m m & m 9 !
 pursuit ( objects :i* _c be atta9$ )\t 
public tranquillity1 !y det] !m f       
revolutions4 ,b ^! gov]nm5ts d n att5d  
to ! fact t political associations t5d  
amaz+ly to multiply & facilitate ^? ( a 
civil "*1 & t 9 avoid+ a dang]\s evil !y
 deprive !mselves ( an efficaci\s rem$y4

  ,:5 y see ! ,am]icans freely &        
con/antly =m+ associations = ! purpose (
 promot+ "s political pr9ciple1 ( rais+ 
"o man to ! head ( affairs1 or ( wre/+  
p[] f ano!r1 y h "s difficulty 9 und]/&+
 t m5 s indep5d5t d n con/antly fall    
into ! abuse ( fre$om4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1
 y survey ! inf9ite numb] ( trad+       
companies :i* are 9 op]ation 9 ! ,unit$ 
,/ates1 & p]ceive t ! ,am]icans are on e
 side unceas+ly engag$ 9 ! execution (  
important & difficult plans1 :i* !      
slighte/ revolution w\ld ?r[ into       
confusion1 y w readily compreh5d :y p s 
well employ$ are by no means tempt$ to  
p]turb ! ,/ate1 nor to de/roy t public  
tranquillity by :i* !y all pr(it4  ,is x
 en\gh to obs]ve ^! ?+s sep>ately1 or   
%\ld we n discov] ! hidd5 tie :i*       
connects !m8 ,9 _! political            
associations1 ! ,am]icans ( all         
conditions1 m9ds1 & ages1 daily acquire 
a g5]al ta/e = association1 & gr[       
accu/om$ to ! use ( x4 ,!re !y meet     
toge!r 9 l>ge numb]s1 !y conv]se1 !y    

li/5 to ea* o!r1 & !y are mutually      
/imulat$ to all sorts ( und]tak+s4 ,!y  
aft]w>ds transf] to civil life ! notions
 !y h ?us acquir$1 & make !m subs]vi5t  
to a ?\s& purposes4 ,?us x is by !      
enjoym5t ( a dang]\s fre$om t !         
,am]icans le>n ! art ( r5d]+ ! dang]s ( 
fre$om less =midable4  ,if a c]ta9 mom5t
 9 ! exi/5ce ( a nation be select$1 x is
 easy to prove t political associations 
p]turb ! ,/ate1 & p>alyze productive    
indu/ry2 b take ! :ole life ( a p1 & x  
may p]haps be easy to demon/rate t      
fre$om ( association 9 political matt]s 
is favorable to ! prosp]ity & ev5 to !  
tranquillity ( ! community4  ,i said 9 !
 =m] "p ( ?is "w1 ,! unre/ra9$ lib]ty ( 
political association _c be entirely    
assimilat$ to ! lib]ty ( ! press4 ,! "o 
is at ! same "t less necess>y & m       
dang]\s ?an ! o!r4 ,a nation may conf9e 
x )9 c]ta9 limits )\t ceas+ to be       
mi/ress ( itself2 & x may sometimes be  
oblig$ to d s 9 ord] to ma9ta9 its own  
au?ority4 ,& fur!r on ,i add$3 ,x _c be 

d5i$ t ! unre/ra9$ lib]ty ( association 
= political purposes is ! la/ degree (  
lib]ty :i* a p is fit =4 ,if x does n   
?r[ !m into an>*y1 x p]petually br+s !m1
 z x 71 to ! v]ge ( x4 ,?us ,i d n ?9k t
 a nation is always at lib]ty to inve/  
its citiz5s ) an absolute "r (          
association = political purposes2 & ,i  
d\bt :e!r1 9 any c\ntry or 9 any age1 x 
be wise to set no limits to fre$om (    
association4 ,a c]ta9 nation1 x is said1
 c\ld n ma9ta9 tranquillity 9 !         
community1 cause ! laws to be respect$1 
or e/abli% a la/+ gov]nm5t1 if ! "r (   
association 7 n conf9$ )9 n>r[ limits4  
,^! bless+s are d\btless invaluable1 &  
,i c imag9e t1 to acquire or to pres]ve 
!m1 a nation may impose ^u itself sev]e 
tempor>y re/rictions3 b /ill x is well t
 ! nation %\ld "k at :at price ^!       
bless+s are pur*as$4 ,i c und]/& t x may
 be advisable to cut (f a man's arm 9   
ord] to save 8 life2 b x w\ld be        
ridicul\s to ass]t t he w be z dext]\s z
 he 0 be=e he lo/ x4     ,*apt] ,,viii3 

,! ,am]icans ,combat ,individualism ,by 
,! ,pr9ciple ,( ,int]e/ ,rightly        
,und]/ood  ,:5 ! _w 0 manag$ by a few   
ri* & p[]ful individuals1 ^! p]sons lov$
 to ent]ta9 a l(ty idea ( ! duties (    
man4 ,!y 7 fond ( pr(ess+ t x is        
praisewor?y to =get "o's self1 & t good 
%\ld be done )\t hope ( rew>d1 z x is by
 ! ,deity himself4 ,su* 7 ! /&>d op9ions
 ( t "t 9 morals4 ,i d\bt :e!r m5 7 m   
virtu\s 9 ari/ocratic ages ?an 9 o!rs2 b
 !y 7 incessantly talk+ ( ! beauties (  
virtue1 & its utility 0 only /udi$ 9    
secret4 ,b s9ce ! imag9ation takes less 
l(ty flights & e man's ?\ghts are c5tr$ 
9 himself1 morali/s are al>m$ by ?is    
idea ( self-sacrifice1 & !y no long]    
v5ture to pres5t x to ! human m9d4 ,!y  
!re=e cont5t !mselves ) inquir+ :e!r !  
p]sonal advantage ( ea* memb] ( !       
community does n consi/ 9 work+ = ! good
 ( all2 & :5 !y h hit ^u "s po9t on :i* 
private int]e/ & public int]e/ meet &   
amalgamate1 !y are eag] to br+ x into   
notice4 ,obs]vations ( ?is k9d are      

gradually multipli$3 :at 0 only a s+le  
rem>k becomes a g5]al pr9ciple2 & x is  
held z a tru? t man s]ves himself 9 s]v+
 8 fell[-creatures1 & t 8 private int]e/
 is to d good4  ,i h already %[n1 9     
sev]al p>ts ( ?is "w1 by :at means !    
inhabitants ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates almo/     
always manage to comb9e _! own advantage
 ) t ( _! fell[-citiz5s3 my pres5t      
purpose is to po9t out ! g5]al rule :i* 
enables !m to d s4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates   
h>dly anybody talks ( ! beauty ( virtue2
 b !y ma9ta9 t virtue is useful1 & prove
 x e day4 ,! ,am]ican morali/s d n      
pr(ess t m5 ought to sacrifice !mselves 
= _! fell[-creatures because x is noble 
to make su* sacrifices2 b !y boldly av] 
t su* sacrifices are z necess>y to him  
:o imposes !m ^u himself z to him = ^:  
sake !y are made4 ,!y h f\nd out t 9 _! 
c\ntry & _! age man is br\ght home to   
himself by an irresi/ible =ce2 & los+   
all hope ( /opp+ t =ce1 !y turn all _!  
?\ghts to ! direction ( x4 ,!y !re=e d n
 d5y t e man may foll[ 8 own int]e/2 b  

!y endeavor to prove t x is ! int]e/ ( e
 man to be virtu\s4 ,i %all n "h ent]   
into ! reasons !y allege1 :i* w\ld div]t
 me f my subject3 suffice x to say t !y 
h conv9c$ _! fell[-c\ntrym54  ,montaigne
 said long ago3 ,7 ,i n to foll[ !      
/raight road = its /raightness1 ,i %\ld 
foll[ x = hav+ f\nd by exp]i5ce t 9 !   
end x is commonly ! happie/ & mo/ useful
 track4 ,! doctr9e ( int]e/ rightly     
und]/ood is n1 !n1 new1 b among/ !      
,am]icans ( our "t x f9ds univ]sal      
acceptance3 x has become popul> !re2 y  
may trace x at ! bottom ( all _!        
actions1 y w rem>k x 9 all !y say4 ,x is
 z (t5 to be met ) on ! lips ( ! poor   
man z ( ! ri*4 ,9 ,europe ! pr9ciple (  
int]e/ is mu* gross] ?an x is 9 ,am]ica1
 b at ! same "t x is less common1 &     
especially x is less av[$2 among/ u1 m5 
/ill con/antly feign great abnegation   
:i* !y no long] feel4 ,! ,am]icans1 on !
 contr>y1 are fond ( expla9+ almo/ all !
 actions ( _! lives by ! pr9ciple (     
int]e/ rightly und]/ood2 !y %[ )        

complac5cy h[ an enlight5$ reg>d =      
!mselves con/antly prompts !m to assi/  
ea* o!r1 & incl9es !m will+ly to        
sacrifice a portion ( _! "t & prop]ty to
 ! welf>e ( ! ,/ate4 ,9 ?is respect ,i  
?9k !y frequ5tly fail to d !mselves     
ju/ice2 = 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z well z   
else:]e1 p are sometimes se5 to give way
 to ^? dis9t]e/$ & spontane\s impulses  
:i* are natural to man2 b ! ,am]icans   
seldom all[ t !y yield to emotions ( ?is
 k9d2 !y are m anxi\s to d honor to _!  
philosophy ?an to !mselves4  ,i might "h
 pause1 )\t attempt+ to pass a judgm5t  
on :at ,i h describ$4 ,! extreme        
difficulty ( ! subject w\ld be my       
excuse1 b ,i %all n avail myself ( x2 & 
,i _h r t my read]s1 cle>ly p]ceiv+ my  
object1 %\ld refuse to foll[ me ?an t ,i
 %\ld leave !m 9 susp5se4 ,! pr9ciple ( 
int]e/ rightly und]/ood is n a l(ty "o1 
b x is cle> & sure4 ,x does n aim at    
mighty objects1 b x atta9s )\t excessive
 ex]tion all ^? at :i* x aims4 ,z x lies
 )9 ! rea* ( all capacities1 ev]yone c  

)\t difficulty appreh5d & reta9 x4 ,by  
its admirable con=mity to human         
weaknesses1 x easily obta9s great       
dom9ion2 nor is t dom9ion prec>i\s1 s9ce
 ! pr9ciple *ecks "o p]sonal int]e/ by  
ano!r1 & uses1 to direct ! passions1 ! v
 same in/rum5t :i* excites !m4 ,!       
pr9ciple ( int]e/ rightly und]/ood      
produces no great acts ( self-sacrifice1
 b x sugge/s daily small acts (         
self-d5ial4 ,by itself x _c suffice to  
make a man virtu\s1 b x discipl9es a    
numb] ( citiz5s 9 habits ( regul>ity1   
temp]ance1 mod]ation1 =esight1          
self-comm&2 &1 if x does n lead m5      
/raight to virtue by ! w1 x gradually   
draws !m 9 t direction by _! habits4 ,if
 ! pr9ciple ( int]e/ rightly und]/ood 7 
to sway ! :ole moral _w1 extraord9>y    
virtues w\ld d\btless be m r>e2 b ,i ?9k
 t gross depravity w\ld !n also be less 
common4 ,! pr9ciple ( int]e/ rightly    
und]/ood p]haps prev5ts "s m5 f ris+ f> 
above ! level ( mank9d2 b a great numb] 
( o!r m51 :o 7 fall+ f> bel[ x1 are     

caught & re/ra9$ by x4 ,obs]ve "s few   
individuals1 !y are l[]$ by x2 survey   
mank9d1 x is rais$4 ,i am n afraid to   
say t ! pr9ciple ( int]e/1 rightly      
und]/ood1 appe>s to me ! be/ suit$ ( all
 philosophical !ories to ! wants ( ! m5 
( our "t1 & t ,i reg>d x z _! *ief      
rema9+ security aga9/ !mselves4 ,t[>ds  
x1 !re=e1 ! m9ds ( ! morali/s ( our age 
%\ld turn2 ev5 %\ld !y judge x to be    
incomplete1 x mu/ nev]!less be adopt$ z 
necess>y4  ,i d n ?9k ^u ! :ole t !re is
 m egotism among/ u ?an 9 ,am]ica2 !    
only diff]5ce is1 t !re x is            
enlight5$--"h x is n4 ,e ,am]ican w     
sacrifice a portion ( 8 private int]e/s 
to pres]ve ! re/2 we w\ld fa9 pres]ve ! 
:ole1 & (t5times ! :ole is lo/4         
,ev]ybody ,i see ab\t me seems b5t on   
tea*+ 8 contempor>ies1 by precept &     
example1 t :at is useful is nev] wrong4 
,w nobody und]take to make !m und]/& h[ 
:at is "r may be useful8 ,no p[] ^u e>? 
c prev5t ! increas+ equality (          
conditions f incl9+ ! human m9d to seek 

out :at is useful1 or f lead+ e memb] ( 
! community to be wrapp$ up 9 himself4  
,x mu/ !re=e be expect$ t p]sonal int]e/
 w become m ?an ev] ! pr9cipal1 if n !  
sole1 spr+ ( m5's actions2 b x rema9s to
 be se5 h[ ea* man w und]/& 8 p]sonal   
int]e/4 ,if ! memb]s ( a community1 z !y
 become m equal1 become m ignorant &    
co>se1 x is difficult to =esee to :at   
pit* ( /upid excesses _! egotism may    
lead !m2 & no "o c =etell into :at      
disgrace & wret*$ness !y w\ld plunge    
!mselves1 le/ !y %\ld h to sacrifice    
some?+ ( _! own well-be+ to ! prosp]ity 
( _! fell[-creatures4 ,i d n ?9k t !    
sy/em ( int]e/1 z x is pr(ess$ 9        
,am]ica1 is1 9 all its p>ts1            
self-evid5t2 b x conta9s a great numb] (
 tru?s s evid5t t m51 if !y are b       
educat$1 _c fail to see !m4 ,educate1   
!n1 at any rate2 = ! age ( implicit     
self-sacrifice & in/9ctive virtues is   
already flitt+ f> away f u1 & ! "t is   
fa/ approa*+ :5 fre$om1 public peace1 & 
social ord] itself w n be able to exi/  

)\t education4     ,*apt] ,,ix3 ,t ,!   
,am]icans ,apply ,! ,pr9ciple ,( ,int]e/
 ,rightly ,und]/ood ,to ,religi\s       
,matt]s  ,if ! pr9ciple ( int]e/ rightly
 und]/ood _h no?+ b ! pres5t _w 9 view1 
x w\ld be v insuffici5t2 = !re are _m   
sacrifices :i* c only f9d _! recomp5se 9
 ano!r2 & :atev] +5uity may be put =? to
 demon/rate ! utility ( virtue1 x w nev]
 be an easy task to make t man live     
aright :o has no ?\ghts ( dy+4 ,x is    
!re=e necess>y to asc]ta9 :e!r !        
pr9ciple ( int]e/ rightly und]/ood is   
easily compatible ) religi\s belief4 ,! 
philosoph]s :o inculcate ?is sy/em (    
morals tell m51 t to be happy 9 ?is life
 !y mu/ wat* _! own passions & /eadily  
control _! excess2 t la/+ happ9ess c    
only be secur$ by r5\nc+ a ?\s& transi5t
 gratifications2 & t a man mu/          
p]petually triumph ov] himself1 9 ord]  
to secure 8 own advantage4 ,! f\nd]s (  
almo/ all religions h held ! same       
language4 ,! track !y po9t out to man is
 ! same1 only t ! goal is m remote2     

in/ead ( plac+ 9 ?is _w ! rew>d ( !     
sacrifices !y impose1 !y transport x to 
ano!r4 ,nev]!less ,i _c believe t all ^?
 :o practise virtue f religi\s motives  
are only actuat$ by ! hope ( a          
recomp5se4 ,i h kn[n zeal\s ,*ri/ians :o
 con/antly =got !mselves1 to "w ) great]
 ardor = ! happ9ess ( _! fell[-m52 & ,i 
h he>d !m decl>e t all !y did 0 only to 
e>n ! bless+s ( a future /ate4 ,i _c b  
?9k t !y deceive !mselves2 ,i respect !m
 too mu* to believe !m4  ,*ri/ianity    
inde$ tea*es t a man mu/ pref] 8        
neighbor to himself1 9 ord] to ga9      
et]nal life2 b ,*ri/ianity also tea*es t
 m5 ought to b5efit _! fell[-creatures =
 ! love ( ,god4 ,a sublime expression6  
,man1 se>*+ by 8 intellect into ! div9e 
conception1 & see+ t ord] is ! purpose (
 ,god1 freely comb9es to prosecute !    
great design2 & :il/ he sacrifices 8    
p]sonal int]e/s to ?is consummate ord] (
 all creat$ ?+s1 expects no o!r         
recomp5se ?an ! pleasure ( contemplat+  
x4 ,i d n believe t int]e/ is ! sole    

motive ( religi\s m53 b ,i believe t    
int]e/ is ! pr9cipal means :i* religions
 !mselves employ to gov]n m51 & ,i d n  
"q t ?is way !y /rike into ! multitude &
 become popul>4 ,x is n easy cle>ly to  
p]ceive :y ! pr9ciple ( int]e/ rightly  
und]/ood %\ld keep alo( f religi\s      
op9ions2 & x seems to me m easy to %[ :y
 x %\ld draw m5 to !m4 ,let x be suppos$
 t1 9 ord] to obta9 happ9ess 9 ?is _w1 a
 man combats 8 in/9ct on all occasions &
 delib]ately calculates e action ( 8    
life2 t1 in/ead ( yield+ bl9dly to !    
impetuosity ( fir/ desires1 he has le>n$
 ! art ( resi/+ !m1 & t he has accu/om$ 
himself to sacrifice )\t an ef=t !      
pleasure ( a mom5t to ! la/+ int]e/ ( 8 
:ole life4 ,if su* a man believes 9 !   
religion :i* he pr(esses1 x w co/ him b 
little to submit to ! re/rictions x may 
impose4 ,reason h]self c\nsels him to   
obey1 & habit has prep>$ him to endure  
!m4 ,if he %\ld h conceiv$ any d\bts z  
to ! object ( 8 hopes1 /ill he w n      
easily all[ himself to be /opp$ by !m2 &

 he w decide t x is wise to risk "s ( ! 
advantages ( ?is _w1 9 ord] to pres]ve 8
 rights to ! great inh]itance promis$   
him 9 ano!r4 ,to be mi/ak5 9 believ+ t !
 ,*ri/ian religion is true1 says        
,pascal1 is no great loss to anyone2 b  
h[ dreadful to be mi/ak5 9 believ+ x to 
be false6  ,! ,am]icans d n affect a    
brutal indiff]5ce to a future /ate2 !y  
affect no pu]ile pride 9 despis+ p]ils  
:i* !y hope to escape f4 ,!y !re=e      
pr(ess _! religion )\t %ame & )\t       
weakness2 b !re g5]ally is1 ev5 9 _!    
zeal1 some?+ s indescribably tranquil1  
me?odical1 & delib]ate1 t x w\ld seem z 
if ! head1 f> m ?an ! he>t1 br\ght !m to
 ! foot ( ! alt>4 ,! ,am]icans n only   
foll[ _! religion f int]e/1 b !y (t5    
place 9 ?is _w ! int]e/ :i* makes !m    
foll[ x4 ,9 ! ,middle ,ages ! cl]gy     
spoke ( no?+ b a future /ate2 !y h>dly  
c>$ to prove t a s9c]e ,*ri/ian may be a
 happy man "h bel[4 ,b ! ,am]ican       
prea*]s are con/antly ref]r+ to ! e>?2 &
 x is only ) great difficulty t !y c    

div]t _! att5tion f x4 ,to t\* _!       
congregations1 !y always %[ !m h[       
favorable religi\s op9ions are to fre$om
 & public tranquillity2 & x is (t5      
difficult to asc]ta9 f _! disc\rses :e!r
 ! pr9cipal object ( religion is to     
procure et]nal felicity 9 ! o!r _w1 or  
prosp]ity 9 ?is4     ,*apt] ,x3 ,( ,!   
,ta/e ,= ,physical ,well-,be+ ,9 ,am]ica
  ,9 ,am]ica ! passion = physical       
well-be+ is n always exclusive1 b x is  
g5]al2 & if all d n feel x 9 ! same     
mann]1 yet x is felt by all4 ,c>efully  
to satisfy all1 ev5 ! lea/ wants ( !    
body1 & to provide ! little conv5i5ces (
 life1 is upp]mo/ 9 e m9d4 ,some?+ ( an 
analog\s "* is m & m app>5t 9 ,europe4  
,among/ ! causes :i* produce ^! simil>  
consequ5ces 9 bo? hemisph]es1 sev]al are
 s connect$ ) my subject z to des]ve    
notice4  ,:5 ri*es are h]$it>ily fix$ 9 
families1 !re are a great numb] ( m5 :o 
enjoy ! com=ts ( life )\t feel+ an      
exclusive ta/e = ^? com=ts4 ,! he>t (   
man is n s mu* caught by ! undi/urb$    

possession ( any?+ valuable z by !      
desire1 z yet imp]fectly satisfi$1 (    
possess+ x1 & by ! incessant dread (    
los+ x4 ,9 ari/ocratic communities1 !   
weal?y1 nev] hav+ exp]i5c$ a condition  
diff]5t f _! own1 ent]ta9 no fe> ( *ang+
 x2 ! exi/5ce ( su* conditions h>dly    
occurs to !m4 ,! com=ts ( life are n to 
!m ! end ( life1 b simply a way ( liv+2 
!y reg>d !m z exi/5ce itself--enjoy$1 b 
sc>cely ?\ght (4 ,z ! natural &         
in/9ctive ta/e :i* all m5 feel = be+    
well (f is ?us satisfi$ )\t tr\ble & )\t
 appreh5sion1 _! faculties are turn$    
else:]e1 & cl+ to m ardu\s & m l(ty     
und]tak+s1 :i* excite & engross _! m9ds4
 ,h5ce x is t1 9 ! mid/ ( physical      
gratifications1 ! memb]s ( an ari/ocracy
 (t5 display a haughty contempt ( ^! v  
enjoym5ts1 & exhibit s+ul> p[]s (       
endurance "u ! privation ( !m4 ,all !   
revolutions :i* h ev] %ak5 or de/roy$   
ari/ocracies1 h %[n h[ easily m5        
accu/om$ to sup]flu\s luxuries c d )\t !
 necess>ies ( life2 :]eas m5 :o h toil$ 

to acquire a compet5cy c h>dly live aft]
 !y h lo/ x4  ,if ,i turn my obs]vation 
f ! upp] to ! l[] classes1 ,i f9d       
analog\s effects produc$ by opposite    
causes4 ,among/ a nation :]e ari/ocracy 
pr$om9ates 9 society1 & keeps x         
/ation>y1 ! p 9 ! end get z mu* accu/om$
 to pov]ty z ! ri* to _! opul5ce4 ,!    
latt] be/[ no anxiety on _! physical    
com=ts1 because !y enjoy !m )\t an ef=t2
 ! =m] d n ?9k ( ?+s :i* !y despair (   
obta9+1 & :i* !y h>dly "k en\gh ( to    
desire !m4 ,9 communities ( ?is k9d1 !  
imag9ation ( ! poor is driv5 to seek    
ano!r _w2 ! mis]ies ( real life inclose 
x ar\nd1 b x escapes f _! control1 &    
flies to seek its pleasures f> beyond4  
,:51 on ! contr>y1 ! di/9ctions ( ranks 
are conf\nd$ toge!r & privileges are    
de/roy$--:5 h]$it>y prop]ty is          
subdivid$1 & education & fre$om widely  
diffus$1 ! desire ( acquir+ ! com=ts ( !
 _w haunts ! imag9ation ( ! poor1 & !   
dread ( los+ !m t ( ! ri*4 ,_m scanty   
=tunes spr+ up2 ^? :o possess !m h a    

suffici5t %>e ( physical gratifications 
to conceive a ta/e = ^! pleasures--n    
en\gh to satisfy x4 ,!y nev] procure !m 
)\t ex]tion1 & !y nev] indulge 9 !m )\t 
appreh5sion4 ,!y are !re=e always /ra9+ 
to pursue or to reta9 gratifications s  
delightful1 s imp]fect1 s fugitive4  ,if
 ,i 7 to inquire :at passion is mo/     
natural to m5 :o are /imulat$ &         
circumscrib$ by ! obscurity ( _! bir? or
 ! m$iocrity ( _! =tune1 ,i c\ld discov]
 none m peculi>ly appropriate to _!     
condition ?an ?is love ( physical       
prosp]ity4 ,! passion = physical com=ts 
is ess5tially a passion ( ! middle      
classes3 ) ^? classes x gr[s & spreads1 
) !m x prepond]ates4 ,f !m x m\nts into 
! high] ord]s ( society1 & desc5ds into 
! mass ( ! p4 ,i nev] met 9 ,am]ica )   
any citiz5 s poor z n to ca/ a glance ( 
hope & envy on ! enjoym5ts ( ! ri*1 or  
^: imag9ation did n possess itself by   
anticipation ( ^? good ?+s :i* fate /ill
 ob/9ately )held f him4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,i
 nev] p]ceiv$ among/ ! weal?i]          

inhabitants ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates t pr\d    
contempt ( physical gratifications :i*  
is sometimes to be met ) ev5 9 ! mo/    
opul5t & dissolute ari/ocracies4 ,mo/ ( 
^! weal?y p]sons 7 once poor2 !y h felt 
! /+ ( want2 !y 7 long a prey to adv]se 
=tunes2 & n[ t ! victory is won1 !      
passions :i* accompani$ ! conte/ h      
surviv$ x3 _! m9ds are1 z x 71          
intoxicat$ by ! small enjoym5ts :i* !y h
 pursu$ = =ty ye>s4 ,n b t 9 ! ,unit$   
,/ates1 z else:]e1 !re are a c]ta9 numb]
 ( weal?y p]sons :o1 hav+ come into _!  
prop]ty by inh]itance1 possess1 )\t     
ex]tion1 an opul5ce !y h n e>n$4 ,b ev5 
^! m5 are n less devot$ly atta*$ to !   
pleasures ( mat]ial life4 ,! love (     
well-be+ is n[ become ! pr$om9ant ta/e (
 ! nation2 ! great curr5t ( man's       
passions runs 9 t *annel1 & sweeps      
ev]y?+ along 9 its c\rse4     ,*apt]    
,,xi3 ,peculi> ,effects ,( ,! ,love ,(  
,physical ,gratifications ,9 ,democratic
 ,ages  ,x may be suppos$1 f :at has j  
be5 said1 t ! love ( physical           

gratifications mu/ con/antly urge !     
,am]icans to irregul>ities 9 morals1    
di/urb ! peace ( families1 & ?reat5 !   
security ( society at l>ge4 ,su* is n ! 
case3 ! passion = physical              
gratifications produces 9 democracies   
effects v diff]5t f ^? :i* x occasions 9
 ari/ocratic nations4 ,x sometimes      
happ5s t1 we>i$ ) public affairs & sat$ 
) opul5ce1 amid/ ! ru9 ( religi\s belief
 & ! decl9e ( ! ,/ate1 ! he>t ( an      
ari/ocracy may by degrees be s$uc$ to ! 
pursuit ( s5sual enjoym5ts only4 ,at o!r
 times ! p[] ( ! mon>* or ! weakness ( !
 p1 )\t /ripp+ ! nobility ( _! =tune1   
compels !m to /& alo( f ! adm9i/ration (
 affairs1 & :il/ ! road to mighty       
ent]prise is clos$1 ab&ons !m to !      
inquietude ( _! own desires2 !y !n fall 
back heavily ^u !mselves1 & seek 9 !    
pleasures ( ! body oblivion ( _! =m]    
greatness4 ,:5 ! memb]s ( an ari/ocratic
 body are ?us exclusively devot$ to !   
pursuit ( physical gratifications1 !y   
commonly conc5trate 9 t direction all ! 

en]gy :i* !y d]ive f _! long exp]i5ce ( 
p[]4 ,su* m5 are n satisfi$ ) ! pursuit 
( com=t2 !y require sumptu\s depravity &
 spl5did corruption4 ,! wor%ip !y pay ! 
s5ses is a gorge\s "o2 & !y seem to vie 
) ea* o!r 9 ! art ( degrad+ _! own      
natures4 ,! /rong]1 ! m fam\s1 & ! m    
free an ari/ocracy has be51 ! m deprav$ 
w x !n become2 & h[ev] brilliant may h  
be5 ! lu/re ( its virtues1 ,i d>e pr$ict
 t !y w always be surpass$ by ! spl5dor 
( its vices4  ,! ta/e = physical        
gratifications leads a democratic p into
 no su* excesses4 ,! love ( well-be+ is 
!re display$ z a t5aci\s1 exclusive1    
univ]sal passion2 b its range is conf9$4
 ,to build enorm\s palaces1 to conqu] or
 to mimic nature1 to ransack ! _w 9 ord]
 to gratify ! passions ( a man1 is n    
?\ght (3 b to add a few roods ( l& to   
y\r field1 to plant an or*>d1 to enl>ge 
a dwell+1 to be always mak+ life m      
com=table & conv5i5t1 to avoid tr\ble1 &
 to satisfy ! smalle/ wants )\t ef=t &  
almo/ )\t co/4 ,^! are small objects1 b 

! s\l cl+s to !m2 x dwells ^u !m closely
 & day by day1 till !y at la/ %ut out ! 
re/ ( ! _w1 & sometimes int]v5e betwe5  
itself & heav54  ,?is1 x may be said1 c 
only be applicable to ^? memb]s ( !     
community :o are 9 humble circum/ances2 
weal?i] individuals w display ta/es ak9 
to ^? :i* belong$ to !m 9 ari/ocratic   
ages4 ,i conte/ ! proposition3 9 po9t ( 
physical gratifications1 ! mo/ opul5t   
memb]s ( a democracy w n display ta/es v
 diff]5t f ^? ( ! p2 :e!r x be t1 spr++ 
f ! p1 !y really %>e ^? ta/es1 or t !y  
e/eem x a duty to submit to !m4 ,9      
democratic society ! s5suality ( !      
public has tak5 a mod]ate & tranquil    
c\rse1 to :i* all are b\nd to con=m3 x  
is z difficult to dep>t f ! common rule 
by "o's vices z by "o's virtues4 ,ri* m5
 :o live amid/ democratic nations are   
!re=e m int5t on provid+ = _! smalle/   
wants ?an = _! extraord9>y enjoym5ts2 !y
 gratify a numb] ( petty desires1 )\t   
indulg+ 9 any great irregul>ities (     
passion3 ?us !y are m apt to become     

en]vat$ ?an debau*$4 ,! especial ta/e   
:i* ! m5 ( democratic ages ent]ta9 =    
physical enjoym5ts is n naturally oppos$
 to ! pr9ciples ( public ord]2 nay1 x   
(t5 /&s 9 ne$ ( ord] t x may be         
gratifi$4 ,nor is x adv]se to regul>ity 
( morals1 = good morals contribute to   
public tranquillity & are favorable to  
indu/ry4 ,x may ev5 be frequ5tly comb9$ 
) a species ( religi\s morality3 m5 wi% 
to be z well (f z !y c 9 ?is _w1 )\t    
=ego+ _! *ance ( ano!r4 ,"s physical    
gratifications _c be indulg$ 9 )\t      
crime2 f su* !y /rictly ab/a94 ,!       
enjoym5t ( o!rs is sanction$ by religion
 & morality2 to ^! ! he>t1 ! imag9ation1
 & life itself are unres]v$ly giv5 up2  
till1 9 snat*+ at ^! less] gifts1 m5    
lose sight ( ^? m preci\s possessions   
:i* con/itute ! glory & ! greatness (   
mank9d4 ,! reproa* ,i address to !      
pr9ciple ( equality1 is n t x leads m5  
away 9 ! pursuit ( =bidd5 enjoym5ts1 b t
 x absorbs !m :olly 9 que/ ( ^? :i* are 
all[$4 ,by ^! means1 a k9d ( virtu\s    

mat]ialism may ultimately be e/abli%$ 9 
! _w1 :i* w\ld n corrupt1 b en]vate !   
s\l1 & noiselessly unb5d its spr+s (    
action4     ,*apt] ,,xii3 ,causes ,(    
,fanatical ,en?usiasm ,9 ,"s ,am]icans  
,al?\gh ! desire ( acquir+ ! good ?+s ( 
?is _w is ! prevail+ passion ( !        
,am]ican p1 c]ta9 mom5t>y outbreaks     
occur1 :5 _! s\ls seem sudd5ly to bur/ !
 bonds ( matt] by :i* !y are re/ra9$1 & 
to so> impetu\sly t[>ds heav54 ,9 all ! 
,/ates ( ! ,union1 b especially 9 !     
half-peopl$ c\ntry ( ! ,f> ,we/1 w&]+   
prea*]s may be met ) :o hawk ab\t ! ^w (
 ,god f place to place4 ,:ole           
families--old m51 wom51 & *ildr5--cross 
r\gh passes & untrodd5 wilds1 com+ f a  
great di/ance1 to jo9 a camp-meet+1 :]e 
!y totally =get = sev]al days & nights1 
9 li/5+ to ^! disc\rses1 ! c>es (       
bus9ess & ev5 ! mo/ urg5t wants ( !     
body4 ,"h & !re1 9 ! mid/ ( ,am]ican    
society1 y meet ) m51 full ( a fanatical
 & almo/ wild en?usiasm1 :i* h>dly exi/s
 9 ,europe4 ,f "t to "t /range sects    

arise1 :i* endeavor to /rike out        
extraord9>y pa?s to et]nal happ9ess4    
,religi\s insanity is v common 9 !      
,unit$ ,/ates4  ,nor ought ^! facts to  
surprise u4 ,x 0 n man :o implant$ 9    
himself ! ta/e = :at is inf9ite & ! love
 ( :at is immortal3 ^? l(ty in/9cts are 
n ! (fspr+ ( 8 caprici\s w2 _! /eadfa/  
f\ndation is fix$ 9 human nature1 & !y  
exi/ 9 spite ( 8 ef=ts4 ,he may cross & 
di/ort !m--de/roy !m he _c4 ,! s\l has  
wants :i* mu/ be satisfi$2 & :atev] pa9s
 be tak5 to div]t x f itself1 x soon    
gr[s we>y1 re/less1 & disquiet$ amid/ ! 
enjoym5ts ( s5se4 ,if ev] ! faculties ( 
! great majority ( mank9d 7 exclusively 
b5t ^u ! pursuit ( mat]ial objects1 x   
might be anticipat$ t an amaz+ reaction 
w\ld take place 9 ! s\ls ( "s m54 ,!y   
w\ld drift at l>ge 9 ! _w ( spirits1 =  
fe> ( rema9+ %ackl$ by ! close bondage (
 ! body4  ,x is n !n wond]ful if1 9 !   
mid/ ( a community ^: ?\ghts t5d e>?w>d1
 a small numb] ( individuals are to be  
f\nd :o turn _! looks to heav54 ,i %\ld 

be surpris$ if my/icism did n soon make 
"s advance among/ a p solely engag$ 9   
promot+ its own worldly welf>e4 ,x is   
said t ! des]ts ( ! ,!baid 7 peopl$ by !
 p]secutions ( ! emp]ors & ! massacres (
 ! ,circus2 ,i %\ld r say t x 0 by !    
luxuries ( ,rome & ! ,epicurean         
philosophy ( ,greece4 ,if _! social     
condition1 _! pres5t circum/ances1 & _! 
laws did n conf9e ! m9ds ( ! ,am]icans s
 closely to ! pursuit ( worldly welf>e1 
x is probable t !y w\ld display m res]ve
 & m exp]i5ce :5ev] _! att5tion is turn$
 to ?+s immat]ial1 & t !y w\ld *eck     
!mselves )\t difficulty4 ,b !y feel     
imprison$ )9 b\nds :i* !y w app>5tly    
nev] be all[$ to pass4 ,z soon z !y h   
pass$ ^! b\nds1 _! m9ds "k n :]e to fix 
!mselves1 & !y (t5 ru% unre/ra9$ beyond 
! range ( common-s5se4     ,*apt]       
,,xiii3 ,causes ,( ,! ,re/less ,_s ,(   
,am]icans ,9 ,! ,mid/ ,( ,_! ,prosp]ity 
,9 c]ta9 remote corn]s ( ! ,old ,_w y   
may /ill sometimes /umble ^u a small    
di/rict :i* seems to h be5 =gott5 amid/ 

! g5]al tumult1 & to h rema9$ /ation>y  
:il/ ev]y?+ ar\nd x 0 9 motion4 ,!      
inhabitants are = ! mo/ "p extremely    
ignorant & poor2 !y take no "p 9 !      
bus9ess ( ! c\ntry1 & !y are frequ5tly  
oppress$ by ! gov]nm5t2 yet _!          
c\nt5ances are g5]ally placid1 & _!     
spirits light4 ,9 ,am]ica ,i saw ! free/
 & mo/ enlight5$ m51 plac$ 9 ! happie/  
circum/ances :i* ! _w af=ds3 x seem$ to 
me z if a cl\d habitually hung ^u _!    
br[1 & ,i ?\ght !m s]i\s & almo/ sad ev5
 9 _! pleasures4 ,! *ief reason ( ?is   
contra/ is t ! =m] d n ?9k ( ! ills !y  
endure--! latt] are =ev] brood+ ov]     
advantages !y d n possess4 ,x is /range 
to see ) :at fev]i% ardor ! ,am]icans   
pursue _! own welf>e2 & to wat* ! vague 
dread t con/antly torm5ts !m le/ !y %\ld
 n h *os5 ! %orte/ pa? :i* may lead to  
x4 ,a native ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates cl+s to  
?is _w's goods z if he 7 c]ta9 nev] to  
die2 & he is s ha/y 9 grasp+ at all )9 8
 rea*1 t "o w\ld suppose he 0 con/antly 
afraid ( n liv+ long en\gh to enjoy !m4 

,he clut*es ev]y?+1 he holds no?+ fa/1 b
 soon loos5s 8 grasp to pursue fre%     
gratifications4  ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates a   
man builds a h\se to sp5d 8 latt] ye>s 9
 x1 & he sells x be=e ! ro( is on3 he   
plants a g>d51 & lets x j z ! trees are 
com+ into be>+3 he br+s a field into    
tillage1 & leaves o!r m5 to ga!r !      
crops3 he embraces a pr(ession1 & gives 
x up3 he settles 9 a place1 :i* he soon 
aft]w>ds leaves1 to c>ry 8 *angeable    
long+s else:]e4 ,if 8 private affairs   
leave him any leisure1 he in/antly      
plunges into ! vortex ( politics2 & if  
at ! end ( a ye> ( unremitt+ labor he   
f9ds he has a few days' vacation1 8 eag]
 curiosity :irls him ov] ! va/ ext5t ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates1 & he w travel fifte5    
hundr$ miles 9 a few days1 to %ake (f 8 
happ9ess4 ,dea? at l5g? ov]takes him1 b 
x is be=e he is we>y ( 8 bootless *ase (
 t complete felicity :i* is =ev] on !   
w+4  ,at fir/ sight !re is some?+       
surpris+ 9 ?is /range unre/ ( s _m happy
 m51 re/less 9 ! mid/ ( abundance4 ,!   

spectacle itself is h[ev] z old z ! _w2 
! novelty is to see a :ole p furni% an  
exemplification ( x4 ,_! ta/e = physical
 gratifications mu/ be reg>d$ z !       
orig9al s\rce ( t secret inquietude :i* 
! actions ( ! ,am]icans betray1 & ( t   
incon/ancy ( :i* !y af=d fre% examples e
 day4 ,he :o has set 8 he>t exclusively 
^u ! pursuit ( worldly welf>e is always 
9 a hurry1 = he has b a limit$ "t at 8  
disposal to rea* x1 to grasp x1 & to    
enjoy x4 ,! recollection ( ! brevity (  
life is a con/ant spur to him4 ,besides 
! good ?+s :i* he possesses1 he e in/ant
 fancies a ?\s& o!rs :i* dea? w prev5t  
him f try+ if he does n try !m soon4    
,?is ?\ght fills him ) anxiety1 fe>1 &  
regret1 & keeps 8 m9d 9 ceaseless       
trepidation1 :i* leads him p]petually to
 *ange 8 plans & 8 abode4 ,if 9 addition
 to ! ta/e = physical well-be+ a social 
condition be sup]add$1 9 :i* ! laws &   
cu/oms make no condition p]man5t1 "h is 
a great additional /imulant to ?is      
re/lessness ( temp]4 ,m5 w !n be se5    

cont9ually to *ange _! track1 = fe> (   
miss+ ! %orte/ cut to happ9ess4 ,x may  
readily be conceiv$ t if m51            
passionately b5t ^u physical            
gratifications1 desire eag]ly1 !y are   
also easily disc\rag$3 z _! ultimate    
object is to enjoy1 ! means to rea* t   
object mu/ be prompt & easy1 or ! tr\ble
 ( acquir+ ! gratification w\ld be      
great] ?an ! gratification itself4 ,_!  
prevail+ frame ( m9d !n is at once ard5t
 & relax$1 viol5t & en]vat$4 ,dea? is   
(t5 less dread$ ?an p]sev]ance 9        
cont9u\s ef=ts to "o end4  ,! equality (
 conditions leads by a /ill /raight]    
road to sev]al ( ! effects :i* ,i h "h  
describ$4 ,:5 all ! privileges ( bir? & 
=tune are aboli%$1 :5 all pr(essions are
 accessible to all1 & a man's own       
en]gies may place him at ! top ( any "o 
( !m1 an easy & unb\nd$ c>e] seems op5  
to 8 ambition1 & he w readily p]suade   
himself t he is born to no vulg>        
de/9ies4 ,b ?is is an errone\s notion1  
:i* is correct$ by daily exp]i5ce4 ,!   

same equality :i* all[s e citiz5 to     
conceive ^! l(ty hopes1 r5d]s all !     
citiz5s less able to realize !m3 x      
circumscribes _! p[]s on e side1 :il/ x 
gives fre] scope to _! desires4 ,n only 
are !y !mselves p[]less1 b !y are met at
 e /ep by imm5se ob/acles1 :i* !y did n 
at fir/ p]ceive4 ,!y h swept away !     
privileges ( "s ( _! fell[-creatures :i*
 /ood 9 _! way1 b !y h op5$ ! door to   
univ]sal competition3 ! b>ri] has *ang$ 
its %ape r ?an its position4 ,:5 m5 are 
ne>ly alike1 & all foll[ ! same track1 x
 is v difficult = any "o individual to  
walk quick & cleave a way ?r\gh ! d5se  
?rong :i* surr\nds & presses him4 ,?is  
con/ant /rife betwe5 ! prop5sities spr++
 f ! equality ( conditions & ! means x  
supplies to satisfy !m1 h>asses & we>ies
 ! m9d4  ,x is possible to conceive m5  
arriv$ at a degree ( fre$om :i* %\ld    
completely cont5t !m2 !y w\ld !n enjoy  
_! indep5d5ce )\t anxiety & )\t         
impati5ce4 ,b m5 w nev] e/abli% any     
equality ) :i* !y c be cont5t$4 ,:atev] 

ef=ts a p may make1 !y w nev] succe$ 9  
r$uc+ all ! conditions ( society to a   
p]fect level2 & ev5 if !y unhappily     
atta9$ t absolute & complete depression1
 ! inequality ( m9ds w\ld /ill rema91   
:i*1 com+ directly f ! h& ( ,god1 w =ev]
 escape ! laws ( man4 ,h[ev] democratic 
!n ! social /ate & ! political          
con/itution ( a p may be1 x is c]ta9 t e
 memb] ( ! community w always f9d out   
sev]al po9ts ab\t him :i* comm& 8 own   
position2 & we may =esee t 8 looks w be 
dogg$ly fix$ 9 t direction4 ,:5         
inequality ( conditions is ! common law 
( society1 ! mo/ m>k$ inequalities d n  
/rike ! eye3 :5 ev]y?+ is ne>ly on !    
same level1 ! slighte/ are m>k$ en\gh to
 hurt x4 ,h5ce ! desire ( equality      
always becomes m insatiable 9 proportion
 z equality is m complete4  ,among/     
democratic nations m5 easily atta9 a    
c]ta9 equality ( conditions3 !y c nev]  
atta9 ! equality !y desire4 ,x          
p]petually retires f be=e !m1 yet )\t   
hid+ itself f _! sight1 & 9 retir+ draws

 !m on4 ,at e mom5t !y ?9k !y are ab\t  
to grasp x2 x escapes at e mom5t f _!   
hold4 ,!y are ne> en\gh to see its *>ms1
 b too f> (f to enjoy !m2 & be=e !y h   
fully ta/$ its delights !y die4 ,to ^!  
causes mu/ be attribut$ t /range        
melan*oly :i* (t5times w haunt !        
inhabitants ( democratic c\ntries 9 !   
mid/ ( _! abundance1 & t disgu/ at life 
:i* sometimes seizes ^u !m 9 ! mid/ (   
calm & easy circum/ances4 ,compla9ts are
 made 9 ,france t ! numb] ( suicides    
increases2 9 ,am]ica suicide is r>e1 b  
insanity is said to be m common ?an     
any:]e else4 ,^! are all diff]5t        
symptoms ( ! same disease4 ,! ,am]icans 
d n put an end to _! lives1 h[ev]       
disquiet$ !y may be1 because _! religion
 =bids x2 & among/ !m mat]ialism may be 
said h>dly to exi/1 not)/&+ ! g5]al     
passion = physical gratification4 ,! w  
resi/s--reason frequ5tly gives way4 ,9  
democratic ages enjoym5ts are m int5se  
?an 9 ! ages ( ari/ocracy1 & especially 
! numb] ( ^? :o p>take 9 !m is l>g]3 b1 

on ! o!r h&1 x mu/ be admitt$ t man's   
hopes & 8 desires are (t5] bla/$1 ! s\l 
is m /rick5 & p]turb$1 & c>e itself m   
ke54     ,*apt] ,,xiv3 ,ta/e ,=         
,physical ,gratifications ,unit$ ,9     
,am]ica ,to ,love ,( ,fre$om ,&         
,att5tion ,to ,public ,affairs  ,:5 a   
democratic /ate turns to absolute       
mon>*y1 ! activity :i* 0 be=e direct$ to
 public & to private affairs is all at  
once c5tr$ ^u ! latt]3 ! imm$iate       
consequ5ce is1 = "s "t1 great physical  
prosp]ity2 b ?is impulse soon slack5s1 &
 ! am\nt ( productive indu/ry is *eck$4 
,i "k n if a s+le trad+ or manufactur+ p
 c be cit$1 f ! ,tyrians d[n to !       
,flor5t9es & ! ,engli%1 :o 7 n a free p 
also4 ,!re is !re=e a close bond &      
necess>y relation betwe5 ^! two         
elem5ts--fre$om & productive indu/ry4   
,?is proposition is g5]ally true ( all  
nations1 b especially ( democratic      
nations4 ,i h already %[n t m5 :o live 9
 ages ( equality cont9ually require to  
=m associations 9 ord] to procure ! ?+s 

!y covet2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ,i h %[n h[   
great political fre$om improves &       
diffuses ! art ( association4 ,fre$om1 9
 ^! ages1 is !re=e especially favorable 
to ! production ( weal?2 nor is x       
difficult to p]ceive t despotism is     
especially adv]se to ! same result4 ,!  
nature ( despotic p[] 9 democratic ages 
is n to be fi]ce or cruel1 b m9ute &    
m$dl+4 ,despotism ( ?is k9d1 ?\gh x does
 n trample on humanity1 is directly     
oppos$ to ! g5ius ( comm]ce & ! pursuits
 ( indu/ry4  ,?us ! m5 ( democratic ages
 require to be free 9 ord] m readily to 
procure ^? physical enjoym5ts = :i* !y  
are always long+4 ,x sometimes happ5s1  
h[ev]1 t ! excessive ta/e !y conceive = 
^! same enjoym5ts ab&ons !m to ! fir/   
ma/] :o appe>s4 ,! passion = worldly    
welf>e !n defeats itself1 &1 )\t p]ceiv+
 x1 ?r[s ! object ( _! desires to a     
great] di/ance4  ,!re is1 inde$1 a mo/  
dang]\s passage 9 ! hi/ory ( a          
democratic p4 ,:5 ! ta/e = physical     
gratifications among/ su* a p has gr[n m

 rapidly ?an _! education & _! exp]i5ce 
( free in/itutions1 ! "t w come :5 m5   
are c>ri$ away1 & lose all self-re/ra9t1
 at ! sight ( ! new possessions !y are  
ab\t to lay hold ^u4 ,9 _! int5se &     
exclusive anxiety to make a =tune1 !y   
lose sight ( ! close connection :i*     
exi/s betwe5 ! private =tune ( ea* ( !m 
& ! prosp]ity ( all4 ,x is n necess>y to
 d viol5ce to su* a p 9 ord] to /rip !m 
( ! rights !y enjoy2 !y !mselves will+ly
 loos5 _! hold4 ,! dis*>ge ( political  
duties appe>s to !m to be a tr\blesome  
annoyance1 :i* div]ts !m f _!           
occupations & bus9ess4 ,if !y be requir$
 to elect repres5tatives1 to support !  
,gov]nm5t by p]sonal s]vice1 to meet on 
public bus9ess1 !y h no "t--!y _c wa/e  
_! preci\s "t 9 useless engagem5ts3 su* 
idle amusem5ts are unsuit$ to s]i\s m5  
:o are engag$ ) ! m important int]e/s ( 
life4 ,^! p ?9k !y are foll[+ ! pr9ciple
 ( self-int]e/1 b ! idea !y ent]ta9 ( t 
pr9ciple is a v rude "o2 & ! bett] to   
look aft] :at !y call _! bus9ess1 !y    

neglect _! *ief bus9ess1 :i* is to rema9
 _! own ma/]s4  ,z ! citiz5s :o "w d n  
c>e to att5d to public bus9ess1 & z !   
class :i* might devote its leisure to ^!
 duties has ceas$ to exi/1 ! place ( !  
,gov]nm5t is1 z x 71 unfill$4 ,if at t  
critical mom5t "s able & ambiti\s man   
grasps ! supreme p[]1 he w f9d ! road to
 e k9d ( usurpation op5 be=e him4 ,if he
 does b att5d = "s "t to ! mat]ial      
prosp]ity ( ! c\ntry1 no m w be dem&$ ( 
him4 ,above all he mu/ insure public    
tranquillity3 m5 :o are possess$ by !   
passion ( physical gratification g5]ally
 f9d out t ! turmoil ( fre$om di/urbs _!
 welf>e1 be=e !y discov] h[ fre$om      
itself s]ves to promote x4 ,if !        
slighte/ rumor ( public commotion       
intrudes into ! petty pleasures (       
private life1 !y are ar\s$ & al>m$ by x4
 ,! fe> ( an>*y p]petually haunts !m1 & 
!y are always ready to fl+ away _!      
fre$om at ! fir/ di/urbance4  ,i readily
 admit t public tranquillity is a great 
good2 b at ! same "t ,i _c =get t all   

nations h be5 enslav$ by be+ kept 9 good
 ord]4 ,c]ta9ly x is n to be inf]r$ t   
nations ought to despise public         
tranquillity2 b t /ate ought n to cont5t
 !m4 ,a nation :i* asks no?+ ( its      
gov]nm5t b ! ma9t5ance ( ord] is already
 a slave at he>t--! slave ( its own     
well-be+1 await+ b ! h& t w b9d x4 ,by  
su* a nation ! despotism ( faction is n 
less to be dread$ ?an ! despotism ( an  
individual4 ,:5 ! bulk ( ! community is 
engross$ by private conc]ns1 ! smalle/  
p>ties ne$ n despair ( gett+ ! upp] h& 9
 public affairs4 ,at su* times x is n   
r>e to see ^u ! great /age ( ! _w1 z we 
see at our !atres1 a multitude repres5t$
 by a few play]s1 :o alone speak 9 ! "n 
( an abs5t or inatt5tive cr[d3 !y alone 
are 9 action :il/ all are /ation>y2 !y  
regulate ev]y?+ by _! own caprice2 !y   
*ange ! laws1 & tyrannize at w ov] !    
mann]s ( ! c\ntry2 & !n m5 wond] to see 
into h[ small a numb] ( weak & wor?less 
h&s a great p may fall4  ,hi!rto !      
,am]icans h =tunately escap$ all ! p]ils

 :i* ,i h j po9t$ out2 & 9 ?is respect  
!y are really des]v+ ( admiration4      
,p]haps !re is no c\ntry 9 ! _w :]e few]
 idle m5 are to be met ) ?an 9 ,am]ica1 
or :]e all :o "w are m eag] to promote  
_! own welf>e4 ,b if ! passion ( !      
,am]icans = physical gratifications is  
vehem5t1 at lea/ x is n indiscrim9at+2 &
 reason1 ?\gh unable to re/ra9 x1 /ill  
directs its c\rse4 ,an ,am]ican att5ds  
to 8 private conc]ns z if he 7 alone 9 !
 _w1 & ! next m9ute he gives himself up 
to ! common weal z if he _h =gott5 !m4  
,at "o "t he seems animat$ by ! mo/     
selfi% cupidity1 at ano!r by ! mo/      
lively patriotism4 ,! human he>t _c be  
?us divid$4 ,! inhabitants ( ! ,unit$   
,/ates alt]nately display s /rong & s   
simil> a passion = _! own welf>e & = _! 
fre$om1 t x may be suppos$ t ^! passions
 are unit$ & m+l$ 9 "s "p ( _! "*4 ,&   
inde$ ! ,am]icans believe _! fre$om to  
be ! be/ in/rum5t & sure/ safegu>d ( _! 
welf>e3 !y are atta*$ to ! "o by ! o!r4 
,!y by no means ?9k t !y are n call$ ^u 

to take a "p 9 ! public weal2 !y        
believe1 on ! contr>y1 t _! *ief bus9ess
 is to secure = !mselves a gov]nm5t :i* 
w all[ !m to acquire ! ?+s !y covet1 &  
:i* w n deb> !m f ! peaceful enjoym5t ( 
^? possessions :i* !y h acquir$4        
,*apt] ,,xv3 ,t ,religi\s ,belief       
,sometimes ,turns ,! ,?\ghts ,( ,!      
,am]icans ,to ,immat]ial ,pleasures  ,9 
! ,unit$ ,/ates1 on ! sev5? day ( e     
week1 ! trad+ & work+ life ( ! nation   
seems susp5d$2 all noises cease2 a deep 
tranquillity1 say r ! solemn calm (     
m$itation1 succe$s ! turmoil ( ! week1 &
 ! s\l resumes possession &             
contemplation ( itself4 ,^u ?is day !   
m>ts ( traffic are des]t$2 e memb] ( !  
community1 accompani$ by 8 *ildr51 goes 
to *ur*1 :]e he li/5s to /range language
 :i* w\ld seem unsuit$ to 8 e>4 ,he is  
told ( ! c\ntless evils caus$ by pride &
 covet\sness3 he is rem9d$ ( ! necessity
 ( *eck+ 8 desires1 ( ! f9] pleasures   
:i* belong to virtue alone1 & ( ! true  
happ9ess :i* att5ds x4 ,on 8 return     

home1 he does n turn to ! l$g]s ( 8     
call+1 b he op5s ! book ( ,holy         
,scripture2 !re he meets ) sublime or   
affect+ descriptions ( ! greatness &    
goodness ( ! ,creator1 ( ! inf9ite      
magnific5ce ( ! h&iwork ( ,god1 ( ! l(ty
 de/9ies ( man1 ( 8 duties1 & ( 8       
immortal privileges4 ,?us x is t !      
,am]ican at times /eals an h\r f        
himself2 & lay+ aside = a :ile ! petty  
passions :i* agitate 8 life1 & !        
ephem]al int]e/s :i* engross x1 he /rays
 at once into an ideal _w1 :]e all is   
great1 et]nal1 & pure4  ,i h endeavor$  
to po9t out 9 ano!r "p ( ?is "w ! causes
 to :i* ! ma9t5ance ( ! political       
in/itutions ( ! ,am]icans is            
attributable2 & religion appe>$ to be "o
 ( ! mo/ prom95t among/ !m4 ,i am n[    
treat+ ( ! ,am]icans 9 an individual    
capacity1 & ,i aga9 obs]ve t religion is
 n less useful to ea* citiz5 ?an to !   
:ole ,/ate4 ,! ,am]icans %[1 by _!      
practice1 t !y feel ! high necessity (  
imp>t+ morality to democratic           

communities by means ( religion4 ,:at !y
 ?9k ( !mselves 9 ?is respect is a tru? 
( :i* e democratic nation ought to be   
?or\ghly p]suad$4  ,i d n d\bt t !      
social & political con/itution ( a p    
pr$isposes !m to adopt a c]ta9 belief & 
c]ta9 ta/es1 :i* aft]w>ds fl\ri% )\t    
difficulty among/ !m2 :il/ ! same causes
 may div]t a p f c]ta9 op9ions &        
prop5sities1 )\t any volunt>y ef=t1 &1 z
 x 71 )\t any di/9ct consci\sness1 on _!
 "p4 ,! :ole art ( ! legislator is      
correctly to disc]n be=eh& ^! natural   
incl9ations ( communities ( m51 9 ord]  
to "k :e!r !y %\ld be assi/$1 or :e!r x 
may n be necess>y to *eck !m4 ,= !      
duties incumb5t on ! legislator diff] at
 diff]5t times2 ! goal t[>ds :i* ! human
 race ought ev] to be t5d+ is alone     
/ation>y2 ! means ( rea*+ x are         
p]petually to be v>i$4  ,if ,i _h be5   
born 9 an ari/ocratic age1 9 ! mid/ ( a 
nation :]e ! h]$it>y weal? ( "s1 & !    
irrem$iable p5ury ( o!rs1 %\ld equally  
div]t m5 f ! idea ( bett]+ _! condition1

 & hold ! s\l z x 7 9 a /ate ( torpor   
fix$ on ! contemplation ( ano!r _w1 ,i  
%\ld !n wi% t x 7 possible = me to r\se 
t p to a s5se ( _! wants2 ,i %\ld seek  
to discov] m rapid & m easy means =     
satisfy+ ! fre% desires :i* ,i might h  
awak5$2 &1 direct+ ! mo/ /r5u\s ef=ts ( 
! human m9d to physical pursuits1 ,i    
%\ld endeavor to /imulate x to promote !
 well-be+ ( man4 ,if x happ5$ t "s m5 7 
immod]ately incit$ to ! pursuit ( ri*es1
 & display$ an excessive lik+ = physical
 gratifications1 ,i %\ld n be al>m$2 ^! 
peculi> symptoms w\ld soon be absorb$ 9 
! g5]al aspect ( ! p4  ,! att5tion ( !  
legislators ( democracies is call$ to   
o!r c>es4 ,give democratic nations      
education & fre$om1 & leave !m alone4   
,!y w soon le>n to draw f ?is _w all !  
b5efits :i* x c af=d2 !y w improve ea* (
 ! useful arts1 & w day by day r5d] life
 m com=table1 m conv5i5t1 & m easy4 ,_! 
social condition naturally urges !m 9   
?is direction2 ,i d n fe> t !y w slack5 
_! c\rse4  ,b :il/ man takes delight 9  

?is hone/ & lawful pursuit ( 8 wellbe+1 
x is to be appreh5d$ t he may 9 ! end   
lose ! use ( 8 sublime/ faculties2 & t  
:il/ he is busi$ 9 improv+ all ar\nd    
him1 he may at l5g? degrade himself4    
,"h1 & "h only1 does ! p]il lie4 ,x %\ld
 !re=e be ! unceas+ object ( !          
legislators ( democracies1 & ( all !    
virtu\s & enlight5$ m5 :o live !re1 to  
raise ! s\ls ( _! fell[-citiz5s1 & keep 
!m lift$ up t[>ds heav54 ,x is necess>y 
t all :o feel an int]e/ 9 ! future      
de/9ies ( democratic society %\ld unite1
 & t all %\ld make jo9t & cont9ual ef=ts
 to diffuse ! love ( ! inf9ite1 a s5se (
 greatness1 & a love ( pleasures n (    
e>?4 ,if among/ ! op9ions ( a democratic
 p any ( ^? p]nici\s !ories exi/ :i* t5d
 to inculcate t all p]i%es ) ! body1 let
 m5 by :om su* !ories are pr(ess$ be    
m>k$ z ! natural foes ( su* a p4  ,!    
mat]iali/s are (f5sive to me 9 _m       
respects2 _! doctr9es ,i hold to be     
p]nici\s1 & ,i am disgu/$ at _!         
arrogance4 ,if _! sy/em c\ld be ( any   

utility to man1 x w\ld seem to be by    
giv+ him a mode/ op9ion ( himself4 ,b ^!
 reason]s %[ t x is n s2 & :5 !y ?9k !y 
h said en\gh to e/abli% t !y are brutes1
 !y %[ !mselves z pr\d z if !y _h       
demon/rat$ t !y are gods4 ,mat]ialism   
is1 among/ all nations1 a dang]\s       
disease ( ! human m9d2 b x is m         
especially to be dread$ among/ a        
democratic p1 because x readily         
amalgamates ) t vice :i* is mo/ famili> 
to ! he>t "u su* circum/ances4          
,democracy enc\rages a ta/e = physical  
gratification3 ?is ta/e1 if x become    
excessive1 soon disposes m5 to believe t
 all is matt] only2 & mat]ialism1 9     
turn1 hurries !m back ) mad impati5ce to
 ^! same delights3 su* is ! fatal circle
 )9 :i* democratic nations are driv5    
r\nd4 ,x 7 well t !y %\ld see ! dang] & 
hold back4  ,mo/ religions are only     
g5]al1 simple1 & practical means ( tea*+
 m5 ! doctr9e ( ! immortality ( ! s\l4  
,t is ! greate/ b5efit :i* a democratic 
p d]ives1 f its belief1 & h5ce belief is

 m necess>y to su* a p ?an to all o!rs4 
,:5 !re=e any religion has /ruck its    
roots deep into a democracy1 bew>e le/ y
 di/urb !m2 b r wat* x c>efully1 z ! mo/
 preci\s beque/ ( ari/ocratic ages4     
,seek n to sup]s$e ! old religi\s       
op9ions ( m5 by new ones2 le/ 9 !       
passage f "o fai? to ano!r1 ! s\l be+   
left = a :ile /ripp$ ( all belief1 !    
love ( physical gratifications %\ld gr[ 
^u x & fill x :olly4  ,! doctr9e (      
metempsy*osis is assur$ly n m rational  
?an t ( mat]ialism2 nev]!less if x 7    
absolutely necess>y t a democracy %\ld  
*oose "o ( ! two1 ,i %\ld n hesitate to 
decide t ! community w\ld run less risk 
( be+ brutaliz$ by believ+ t ! s\l ( man
 w pass into ! c>cass ( a hog1 ?an by   
believ+ t ! s\l ( man is no?+ at all4 ,!
 belief 9 a sup]s5sual & immortal       
pr9ciple1 unit$ = a "t to matt]1 is s   
indisp5sable to man's greatness1 t its  
effects are /rik+ ev5 :5 x is n unit$ to
 ! doctr9e ( future rew>d & puni%m5t2 & 
:5 x holds no m ?an t aft] dea? ! div9e 

pr9ciple conta9$ 9 man is absorb$ 9 !   
,deity1 or transf]r$ to animate ! frame 
( "s o!r creature4 ,m5 hold+ s imp]fect 
a belief w /ill consid] ! body z !      
second>y & inf]ior portion ( _! nature1 
& !y w despise x ev5 :il/ !y yield to   
its influ5ce2 :]eas !y h a natural e/eem
 & secret admiration = ! immat]ial "p ( 
man1 ev5 ?\gh !y sometimes refuse to    
submit to its dom9ion4 ,t is en\gh to   
give a l(ty ca/ to _! op9ions & _!      
ta/es1 & to bid !m t5d ) no int]e/$     
motive1 & z x 7 by impulse1 to pure     
feel+s & elevat$ ?\ghts4  ,x is n c]ta9 
t ,socrates & 8 foll[]s _h v fix$       
op9ions z to :at w\ld befall man        
h]eaft]2 b ! sole po9t ( belief on :i*  
!y 7 det]m9$--t ! s\l has no?+ 9 common 
) ! body1 & survives x--0 en\gh to give 
! ,platonic philosophy t sublime        
aspiration by :i* x is di/+ui%$4 ,x is  
cle> f ! works ( ,plato1 t _m           
philosophical writ]s1 8 pr$ecessors or  
contempor>ies1 pr(ess$ mat]ialism4 ,^!  
writ]s h n rea*$ u1 or h rea*$ u 9 m]e  

fragm5ts4 ,! same ?+ has happ5$ 9 almo/ 
all ages2 ! great] "p ( ! mo/ fam\s m9ds
 9 lit]ature adh]e to ! doctr9es ( a    
sup]s5sual philosophy4 ,! in/9ct & !    
ta/e ( ! human race ma9ta9 ^? doctr9es2 
!y save !m (t5times 9 spite ( m5        
!mselves1 & raise ! names ( _! def5d]s  
above ! tide ( "t4 ,x mu/ n !n be       
suppos$ t at any p]iod or "u any        
political condition1 ! passion =        
physical gratifications1 & ! op9ions :i*
 are sup]9duc$ by t passion1 c ev]      
cont5t a :ole p4 ,! he>t ( man is ( a   
l>g] m\ld3 x c at once comprise a ta/e =
 ! possessions ( e>? & ! love ( ^? (    
heav53 at times x may seem to cl+       
devot$ly to ! "o1 b x w nev] be long )\t
 ?9k+ ( ! o!r4  ,if x be easy to see t x
 is m p>ticul>ly important 9 democratic 
ages t spiritual op9ions %\ld prevail1 x
 is n easy to say by :at means ^? :o    
gov]n democratic nations may make !m    
pr$om9ate4 ,i am no believ] 9 !         
prosp]ity1 any m ?an 9 ! durability1 (  
(ficial philosophies2 & z to /ate       

religions1 ,i h always held1 t if !y be 
sometimes ( mom5t>y s]vice to ! int]e/s 
( political p[]1 !y always1 soon] or    
lat]1 become fatal to ! ,*ur*4 ,nor d ,i
 ?9k ) ^? :o ass]t1 t to raise religion 
9 ! eyes ( ! p1 & to make !m d honor to 
h] spiritual doctr9es1 x is desirable   
indirectly to give h] m9i/]s a political
 influ5ce :i* ! laws d5y !m4 ,i am s mu*
 alive to ! almo/ inevitable dang]s :i* 
beset religi\s belief :5ev] ! cl]gy take
 "p 9 public affairs1 & ,i am s conv9c$ 
t ,*ri/ianity mu/ be ma9ta9$ at any co/ 
9 ! bosom ( mod]n democracies1 t ,i _h r
 %ut up ! prie/hood )9 ! sanctu>y ?an   
all[ !m to /ep beyond x4  ,:at means !n 
rema9 9 ! h&s ( con/itut$ au?orities to 
br+ m5 back to spiritual op9ions1 or to 
hold !m fa/ to ! religion by :i* ^?     
op9ions are sugge/$8 ,my answ] w d me   
h>m 9 ! eyes ( politicians4 ,i believe t
 ! sole effectual means :i* gov]nm5ts c 
employ 9 ord] to h ! doctr9e ( !        
immortality ( ! s\l duly respect$1 is   
ev] to act z if !y believ$ 9 x !mselves2

 & ,i ?9k t x is only by scrupul\s      
con=mity to religi\s morality 9 great   
affairs t !y c hope to tea* ! community 
at l>ge to "k1 to love1 & to obs]ve x 9 
! less] conc]ns ( life4     ,*apt]      
,,xvi3 ,t ,excessive ,c>e ,( ,worldly   
,welf>e ,may ,impair ,t ,welf>e  ,!re is
 a clos] tie ?an is commonly suppos$    
betwe5 ! improvem5t ( ! s\l & !         
amelioration ( :at belongs to ! body4   
,man may leave ^! two ?+s ap>t1 &       
consid] ea* ( !m alt]nately2 b he _c    
sev] !m entirely )\t at la/ los+ sight (
 "o & ( ! o!r4 ,! bea/s h ! same s5ses z
 ourselves1 & v ne>ly ! same appetites4 
,we h no s5sual passions :i* are n      
common to our race & !irs1 & :i* are n  
to be f\nd1 at lea/ 9 ! g]m1 9 a dog z  
well z 9 a man4 ,:5ce is x !n t !       
animals c only provide = _! fir/ & l[e/ 
wants1 :]eas we c inf9itely v>y &       
endlessly increase our enjoym5ts8  ,we  
are sup]ior to ! bea/s 9 ?is1 t we use  
our s\ls to f9d out ^? mat]ial b5efits  
to :i* !y are only l$ by in/9ct4 ,9 man1

 ! angel tea*es ! brute ! art ( cont5t+ 
its desires4 ,x is because man is       
capable ( ris+ above ! ?+s ( ! body1 & (
 contemn+ life itself1 ( :i* ! bea/s h n
 ! lea/ notion1 t he c multiply ^! same 
?+s ( ! body to a degree :i* inf]ior    
races are equally unable to conceive4   
,:atev] elevates1 enl>ges1 & exp&s !    
s\l1 r5d]s x m capable ( succe$+ 9 ^? v 
und]tak+s :i* conc]n x n4 ,:atev]1 on ! 
o!r h&1 en]vates or l[]s x1 weak5s x =  
all purposes1 ! *iefe/1 z well z ! lea/1
 & ?reat5s to r5d] x almo/ equally      
impot5t = ! "o & = ! o!r4 ,h5ce ! s\l   
mu/ rema9 great & /rong1 ?\gh x 7 only  
to devote its /r5g? & greatness f "t to 
"t to ! s]vice ( ! body4 ,if m5 7 ev] to
 cont5t !mselves ) mat]ial objects1 x is
 probable t !y w\ld lose by degrees !   
art ( produc+ !m2 & !y w\ld enjoy !m 9 !
 end1 l ! brutes1 )\t disc]nm5t & )\t   
improvem5t4     ,*apt] ,,xvii3 ,t ,9    
,times ,m>k$ ,by ,equality ,(           
,conditions ,& ,sceptical ,op9ions1 ,x  
,is ,important ,to ,remove ,to ,a       

,di/ance ,! ,objects ,( ,human ,actions 
,9 ! ages ( fai? ! f9al end ( life is   
plac$ beyond life4 ,! m5 ( ^? ages !re=e
 naturally1 & 9 a mann] involunt>ily1   
accu/om !mselves to fix _! gaze = a long
 c\rse ( ye>s on "s immovable object1   
t[>ds :i* !y are con/antly t5d+2 & !y   
le>n by ins5sible degrees to repress a  
multitude ( petty pass+ desires1 9 ord] 
to be ! bett] able to cont5t t great &  
la/+ desire :i* possesses !m4 ,:5 ^!    
same m5 engage 9 ! affairs ( ?is _w1 !  
same habits may be trac$ 9 _! conduct4  
,!y are apt to set up "s g5]al & c]ta9  
aim & end to _! actions "h bel[1 t[>ds  
:i* all _! ef=ts are direct$3 !y d n    
turn f day to day to *ase "s novel      
object ( desire1 b !y h settl$ designs  
:i* !y are nev] we>y ( pursu+4 ,?is     
expla9s :y religi\s nations h s (t5     
a*iev$ su* la/+ results3 = :il/ !y 7    
?9k+ only ( ! o!r _w1 !y _h f\nd out !  
great secret ( success 9 ?is4 ,religions
 give m5 a g5]al habit ( conduct+       
!mselves ) a view to futurity3 9 ?is    

respect !y are n less useful to happ9ess
 9 ?is life ?an to felicity h]eaft]2 &  
?is is "o ( _! *ief political           
*>act]i/ics4  ,b 9 proportion z ! light 
( fai? gr[s dim1 ! range ( man's sight  
is circumscrib$1 z if ! end & aim (     
human actions appe>$ e day to be m )9 8 
rea*4 ,:5 m5 h once all[$ !mselves to   
?9k no m ( :at is to befall !m aft]     
life1 !y readily lapse into t complete &
 brutal indiff]5ce to futurity1 :i* is b
 too con=mable to "s prop5sities (      
mank9d4 ,z soon z !y h lo/ ! habit (    
plac+ _! *ief hopes ^u remote ev5ts1 !y 
naturally seek to gratify )\t delay _!  
smalle/ desires2 & no soon] d !y despair
 ( liv+ =ev]1 ?an !y are dispos$ to act 
z if !y 7 to exi/ b = a s+le day4 ,9    
sceptical ages x is always !re=e to be  
fe>$ t m5 may p]petually give way to _! 
daily casual desires2 & t1 :olly r5\nc+ 
:atev] _c be acquir$ )\t protract$ ef=t1
 !y may e/abli% no?+ great1 p]man5t1 &  
calm4  ,if ! social condition ( a p1 "u 
^! circum/ances1 becomes democratic1 !  

dang] :i* ,i "h po9t out is !reby       
increas$4 ,:5 ev]yone is con/antly /riv+
 to *ange 8 position--:5 an imm5se field
 = competition is ?r[n op5 to all--:5   
weal? is amass$ or dissipat$ 9 ! %orte/ 
possible space ( "t amid/ ! turmoil (   
democracy1 visions ( sudd5 & easy       
=tunes--( great possessions easily won &
 lo/--( *ance1 "u all its =ms--haunt !  
m9d4 ,! in/ability ( society itself     
fo/]s ! natural in/ability ( man's      
desires4 ,9 ! mid/ ( ^! p]petual        
fluctuations ( 8 lot1 ! pres5t gr[s ^u 8
 m9d1 until x conceals futurity f 8     
sight1 & 8 looks g no fur!r ?an ! morr[4
  ,9 ^? c\ntries 9 :i* unhappily        
irreligion & democracy coexi/1 ! mo/    
important duty ( philosoph]s & ( ^? 9   
p[] is to be always /riv+ to place !    
objects ( human actions f> beyond man's 
imm$iate range4 ,circumscrib$ by ! "* ( 
8 c\ntry & 8 age1 ! morali/ mu/ le>n to 
v9dicate 8 pr9ciples 9 t position4 ,he  
mu/ con/antly endeavor to %[ 8          
contempor>ies1 t1 ev5 9 ! mid/ ( !      

p]petual commotion ar\nd !m1 x is easi] 
?an !y ?9k to conceive & to execute     
protract$ und]tak+s4 ,he mu/ tea* !m t1 
al?\gh ! aspect ( mank9d may h *ang$1 ! 
me?ods by :i* m5 may provide = _!       
prosp]ity 9 ?is _w are /ill ! same2 & t 
among/ democratic nations1 z well z     
else:]e1 x is only by resi/+ a ?\s&     
petty selfi% passions ( ! h\r t ! g5]al 
& unqu5*able passion = happ9ess c be    
satisfi$4  ,! task ( ^? 9 p[] is n less 
cle>ly m>k$ out4 ,at all times x is     
important t ^? :o gov]n nations %\ld act
 ) a view to ! future3 b ?is is ev5 m   
necess>y 9 democratic & sceptical ages  
?an 9 any o!rs4 ,by act+ ?us1 ! lead+ m5
 ( democracies n only make public       
affairs prosp]\s1 b !y also tea* private
 individuals1 by _! example1 ! art (    
manag+ private conc]ns4 ,above all !y   
mu/ /rive z mu* z possible to bani%     
*ance f ! sph]e ( politics4 ,! sudd5 &  
undes]v$ promotion ( a c\rti] produces  
only a transi5t impression 9 an         
ari/ocratic c\ntry1 because ! aggregate 

in/itutions & op9ions ( ! nation        
habitually compel m5 to advance sl[ly 9 
tracks :i* !y _c get out (4 ,b no?+ is m
 p]nici\s ?an simil> in/ances ( favor   
exhibit$ to ! eyes ( a democratic p3 !y 
give ! la/ impulse to ! public m9d 9 a  
direction :]e ev]y?+ hurries x onw>ds4  
,at times ( scepticism & equality m     
especially1 ! favor ( ! p or ( ! pr9ce1 
:i* *ance may conf] or *ance )hold1     
ought nev] to /& 9 lieu ( atta9m5ts or  
s]vices4 ,x is desirable t e advancem5t 
%\ld !re appe> to be ! result ( "s ef=t2
 s t no greatness %\ld be ( too easy    
acquirem5t1 & t ambition %\ld be oblig$ 
to fix its gaze long ^u an object be=e x
 is gratifi$4 ,gov]nm5ts mu/ apply      
!mselves to re/ore to m5 t love ( !     
future ) :i* religion & ! /ate ( society
 no long] inspire !m2 &1 )\t say+ s1 !y 
mu/ practically tea* ! community day by 
day t weal?1 fame1 & p[] are ! rew>ds ( 
labor--t great success /&s at ! utmo/   
range ( long desires1 & t no?+ la/+ is  
obta9$ b :at is obta9$ by toil4 ,:5 m5 h

 accu/om$ !mselves to =esee f af> :at is
 likely to befall 9 ! _w & to fe$ ^u    
hopes1 !y c h>dly conf9e _! m9ds )9 !   
precise circumf]5ce ( life1 & !y are    
ready to break ! b\nd>y & ca/ _! looks  
beyond4 ,i d n d\bt t1 by tra9+ ! memb]s
 ( a community to ?9k ( _! future       
condition 9 ?is _w1 !y w\ld be gradually
 & unconsci\sly br\ght ne>] to religi\s 
convictions4 ,?us ! means :i* all[ m51  
up to a c]ta9 po9t1 to g )\t religion1  
are p]haps aft] all ! only means we /ill
 possess = br++ mank9d back by a long & 
r\ndab\t pa? to a /ate ( fai?4          
,*apt] ,,xviii3 ,t ,among/ ,! ,am]icans 
,all ,hone/ ,call+s ,are ,honorable     
,among/ a democratic p1 :]e !re is no   
h]$it>y weal?1 e man works to e>n a     
liv+1 or has work$1 or is born ( p>5ts  
:o h work$4 ,! notion ( labor is !re=e  
pres5t$ to ! m9d on e side z ! necess>y1
 natural1 & hone/ condition ( human     
exi/5ce4 ,n only is labor n di%onorable 
among/ su* a p1 b x is held 9 honor3 !  
prejudice is n aga9/ x1 b 9 its favor4  

,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates a weal?y man ?9ks t  
he owes x to public op9ion to devote 8  
leisure to "s k9d ( indu/rial or        
comm]cial pursuit1 or to public bus9ess4
 ,he w\ld ?9k himself 9 bad repute if he
 employ$ 8 life solely 9 liv+4 ,x is = !
 purpose ( escap+ ?is obligation to "w1 
t s _m ri* ,am]icans come to ,europe1   
:]e !y f9d "s scatt]$ rema9s (          
ari/ocratic society1 among/ :i* idl5ess 
is /ill held 9 honor4  ,equality (      
conditions n only ennobles ! notion (   
labor 9 m5's e/imation1 b x raises !    
notion ( labor z a s\rce ( pr(it4 ,9    
ari/ocracies x is n exactly labor t is  
despis$1 b labor ) a view to pr(it4     
,labor is honorific 9 itself1 :5 x is   
und]tak5 at ! sole bidd+ ( ambition or (
 virtue4 ,yet 9 ari/ocratic society x   
con/antly happ5s t he :o works = honor  
is n ins5sible to ! attractions ( pr(it4
 ,b ^! two desires only int]m+le 9 !    
inn]mo/ dep?s ( 8 s\l3 he c>efully hides
 f e eye ! po9t at :i* !y jo92 he w\ld  
fa9 conceal x f himself4 ,9 ari/ocratic 

c\ntries !re are few public (fic]s :o d 
n affect to s]ve _! c\ntry )\t int]e/$  
motives4 ,_! sal>y is an incid5t ( :i*  
!y ?9k b little1 & ( :i* !y always      
affect n to ?9k at all4 ,?us ! notion ( 
pr(it is kept di/9ct f t ( labor2 h[ev] 
!y may be unit$ 9 po9t ( fact1 !y are n 
?\ght ( toge!r4  ,9 democratic          
communities ^! two notions are1 on !    
contr>y1 always palpably unit$4 ,z !    
desire ( well-be+ is univ]sal--z =tunes 
are sl5d] or fluctuat+--z ev]yone wants 
ei!r to increase 8 own res\rces1 or to  
provide fre% ones = 8 prog5y1 m5 cle>ly 
see t x is pr(it :i*1 if n :olly1 at    
lea/ p>tially1 leads !m to "w4 ,ev5 ^?  
:o are pr9cipally actuat$ by ! love (   
fame are necess>ily made famili> ) !    
?\ght t !y are n exclusively actuat$ by 
t motive2 & !y discov] t ! desire (     
gett+ a liv+ is m+l$ 9 _! m9ds ) !      
desire ( mak+ life illu/ri\s4  ,z soon  
z1 on ! "o h&1 labor is held by ! :ole  
community to be an honorable necessity (
 man's condition1 &1 on ! o!r1 z soon z 

labor is always o/5sibly p]=m$1 :olly or
 9 "p1 = ! purpose ( e>n+ remun]ation1 !
 imm5se int]val :i* sep>at$ diff]5t     
call+s 9 ari/ocratic societies          
disappe>s4 ,if all are n alike1 all at  
lea/ h "o feature 9 common4 ,no         
pr(ession exi/s 9 :i* m5 d n "w = money2
 & ! remun]ation :i* is common to !m all
 gives !m all an air ( resemblance4 ,?is
 s]ves to expla9 ! op9ions :i* !        
,am]icans ent]ta9 ) respect to diff]5t  
call+s4 ,9 ,am]ica no "o is degrad$     
because he works1 = ev]yone ab\t him    
works also2 nor is anyone humiliat$ by !
 notion ( receiv+ pay1 = ! ,presid5t ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates also works = pay4 ,he is 
paid = comm&+1 o!r m5 = obey+ ord]s4 ,9 
! ,unit$ ,/ates pr(essions are m or less
 labori\s1 m or less pr(itable2 b !y are
 nev] ei!r high or l[3 e hone/ call+ is 
honorable4     ,*apt] ,,xix3 ,t ,almo/  
,all ,! ,am]icans ,foll[ ,indu/rial     
,call+s  ,agriculture is1 p]haps1 ( all 
! useful arts t :i* improves mo/ sl[ly  
among/ democratic nations4 ,frequ5tly1  

inde$1 x w\ld seem to be /ation>y1      
because o!r arts are mak+ rapid /rides  
t[>ds p]fection4 ,on ! o!r h&1 almo/ all
 ! ta/es & habits :i* ! equality (      
condition eng5d]s naturally lead m5 to  
comm]cial & indu/rial occupations4      
,suppose an active1 enlight5$1 & free   
man1 enjoy+ a compet5cy1 b full (       
desires3 he is too poor to live 9       
idl5ess2 he is ri* en\gh to feel himself
 protect$ f ! imm$iate fe> ( want1 & he 
?9ks h[ he c bett] 8 condition4 ,?is man
 has conceiv$ a ta/e = physical         
gratifications1 :i* ?\s&s ( 8 fell[-m5  
indulge 9 ar\nd him2 he has himself     
begun to enjoy ^! pleasures1 & he is    
eag] to increase 8 means ( satisfy+ ^!  
ta/es m completely4 ,b life is slipp+   
away1 "t is urg5t--to :at is he to turn8
 ,! cultivation ( ! gr\nd promises an   
almo/ c]ta9 result to 8 ex]tions1 b a   
sl[ "o2 m5 are n enri*$ by x )\t pati5ce
 & toil4 ,agriculture is !re=e only     
suit$ to ^? :o h already l>ge1 sup]flu\s
 weal?1 or to ^? ^: p5ury bids !m only  

seek a b>e subsi/5ce4 ,! *oice ( su* a  
man z we h suppos$ is soon made2 he     
sells 8 plot ( gr\nd1 leaves 8 dwell+1 &
 emb>ks 9 "s haz>d\s b lucrative call+4 
,democratic communities ab\nd 9 m5 ( ?is
 k9d2 & 9 proportion z ! equality (     
conditions becomes great]1 _! multitude 
increases4 ,?us democracy n only swells 
! numb] ( work+m51 b x leads m5 to pref]
 "o k9d ( labor to ano!r2 & :il/ x      
div]ts !m f agriculture1 x enc\rages _! 
ta/e = comm]ce & manufactures4 99a      
,footnote a3 ,x has (t5 be5 rem>k$ t    
manufactur]s & m]cantile m5 are         
inord9ately addict$ to physical         
gratifications1 & ?is has be5 attribut$ 
to comm]ce & manufactures2 b t is1 ,i   
appreh5d1 to take ! effect = ! cause4 ,!
 ta/e = physical gratifications is n    
imp>t$ to m5 by comm]ce or manufactures1
 b x is r ?is ta/e :i* leads m5 to emb>k
 9 comm]ce & manufactures1 z a means by 
:i* !y hope to satisfy !mselves m       
promptly & m completely4 ,if comm]ce &  
manufactures increase ! desire (        

well-be+1 x is because e passion ga!rs  
/r5g? 9 proportion z x is cultivat$1 &  
is increas$ by all ! ef=ts made to      
satiate x4 ,all ! causes :i* make ! love
 ( worldly welf>e pr$om9ate 9 ! he>t (  
man are favorable to ! gr[? ( comm]ce & 
manufactures4 ,equality ( conditions is 
"o ( ^? causes2 x enc\rages trade1 n    
directly by giv+ m5 a ta/e = bus9ess1 b 
indirectly by /r5g!n+ & exp&+ 9 _! m9ds 
a ta/e = prosp]ity4  ,?is _s may be     
obs]v$ ev5 among/ ! ri*e/ memb]s ( !    
community4 ,9 democratic c\ntries1 h[ev]
 opul5t a man is suppos$ to be1 he is   
almo/ always discont5t$ ) 8 =tune1      
because he f9ds t he is less ri* ?an 8  
fa!r 01 & he fe>s t 8 sons w be less ri*
 ?an himself4 ,mo/ ri* m5 9 democracies 
are !re=e con/antly haunt$ by ! desire (
 obta9+ weal?1 & !y naturally turn _!   
att5tion to trade & manufactures1 :i*   
appe> to (f] ! readie/ & mo/ p[]ful     
means ( success4 ,9 ?is respect !y %>e !
 in/9cts ( ! poor1 )\t feel+ ! same     
necessities2 say r1 !y feel ! mo/       

imp]i\s ( all necessities1 t ( n s9k+ 9 
! _w4  ,9 ari/ocracies ! ri* are at !   
same "t ^? :o gov]n4 ,! att5tion :i* !y 
unceas+ly devote to important public    
affairs div]ts !m f ! less] c>es :i*    
trade & manufactures dem&4 ,if ! w ( an 
individual happ5s1 nev]!less1 to turn 8 
att5tion to bus9ess1 ! w ( ! body to :i*
 he belongs w imm$iately deb> him f     
pursu+ x2 = h[ev] m5 may declaim aga9/ !
 rule ( numb]s1 !y _c :olly escape _!   
sway2 & ev5 among/ ^? ari/ocratic bodies
 :i* mo/ ob/9ately refuse to ackn[l$ge !
 rights ( ! majority ( ! nation1 a      
private majority is =m$ :i* gov]ns !    
re/4 99b  ,footnote b3 ,"s ari/ocracies1
 h[ev]1 h devot$ !mselves eag]ly to     
comm]ce1 & h cultivat$ manufactures )   
success4 ,! hi/ory ( ! _w might furni%  
sev]al conspicu\s examples4 ,b1 g5]ally 
speak+1 x may be affirm$ t ! ari/ocratic
 pr9ciple is n favorable to ! gr[? (    
trade & manufactures4 ,money$           
ari/ocracies are ! only exception to !  
rule4 ,among/ su* ari/ocracies !re are  

h>dly any desires :i* d n require weal? 
to satisfy !m2 ! love ( ri*es becomes1 s
 to speak1 ! high road ( human passions1
 :i* is cross$ by or connect$ ) all     
less] tracks4 ,! love ( money & ! ?ir/ =
 t di/9ction :i* atta*es to p[]1 are !n 
s closely int]mix$ 9 ! same s\ls1 t x   
becomes difficult to discov] :e!r m5 gr[
 covet\s f ambition1 or :e!r !y are     
ambiti\s f covet\sness4 ,?is is ! case 9
 ,engl&1 :]e m5 seek to get ri* 9 ord]  
to arrive at di/9ction1 & seek          
di/9ctions z a manife/ation ( _! weal?4 
,! m9d is !n seiz$ by bo? ends1 & hurri$
 into trade & manufactures1 :i* are !   
%orte/ roads t lead to opul5ce4  ,?is1  
h[ev]1 /rikes me z an exceptional &     
transitory circum/ance4 ,:5 weal? is    
become ! only symbol ( ari/ocracy1 x is 
v difficult = ! weal?y to ma9ta9 sole   
possession ( political p[]1 to !        
exclusion ( all o!r m54 ,! ari/ocracy ( 
bir? & pure democracy are at ! two      
extremes ( ! social & political /ate (  
nations3 betwe5 !m money$ ari/ocracy    

f9ds its place4 ,! latt] approximates to
 ! ari/ocracy ( bir? by conf]r+ great   
privileges on a small numb] ( p]sons2 x 
s f> belongs to ! democratic elem5t1 t  
^! privileges may be successively       
acquir$ by all4 ,x frequ5tly =ms a      
natural transition betwe5 ^! two        
conditions ( society1 & x is difficult  
to say :e!r x closes ! reign (          
ari/ocratic in/itutions1 or :e!r x      
already op5s ! new era ( democracy4  ,9 
democratic c\ntries1 :]e money does n   
lead ^? :o possess x to political p[]1 b
 (t5 removes !m f x1 ! ri* d n "k h[ to 
sp5d _! leisure4 ,!y are driv5 into     
active life by ! inquietude & !         
greatness ( _! desires1 by ! ext5t ( _! 
res\rces1 & by ! ta/e = :at is          
extraord9>y1 :i* is almo/ always felt by
 ^? :o rise1 by :atsoev] means1 above ! 
cr[d4 ,trade is ! only road op5 to !m4  
,9 democracies no?+ is m great or m     
brilliant ?an comm]ce3 x attracts !     
att5tion ( ! public1 & fills !          
imag9ation ( ! multitude2 all en]getic  

passions are direct$ t[>ds x4 ,nei!r _! 
own prejudices1 nor ^? ( anybody else1 c
 prev5t ! ri* f devot+ !mselves to x4 ,!
 weal?y memb]s ( democracies nev] =m a  
body :i* has mann]s & regulations ( its 
own2 ! op9ions peculi> to _! class d n  
re/ra9 !m1 & ! common op9ions ( _!      
c\ntry urge !m on4 ,moreov]1 z all !    
l>ge =tunes :i* are to be met ) 9 a     
democratic community are ( comm]cial    
gr[?1 _m g5]ations mu/ succe$ ea* o!r   
be=e _! possessors c h entirely laid    
aside _! habits ( bus9ess4              
,circumscrib$ )9 ! n>r[ space :i*       
politics leave !m1 ri* m5 9 democracies 
eag]ly emb>k 9 comm]cial ent]prise3 !re 
!y c ext5d & employ _! natural          
advantages2 & inde$ x is ev5 by !       
boldness & ! magnitude ( _! indu/rial   
speculations t we may measure ! slight  
e/eem 9 :i* productive indu/ry w\ld h   
be5 held by !m1 if !y _h be5 born amid/ 
an ari/ocracy4  ,a simil> obs]vation is 
likewise applicable to all m5 liv+ 9    
democracies1 :e!r !y be poor or ri*4 ,^?

 :o live 9 ! mid/ ( democratic          
fluctuations h always be=e _! eyes !    
phantom ( *ance2 & !y end by lik+ all   
und]tak+s 9 :i* *ance plays a "p4 ,!y   
are !re=e all l$ to engage 9 comm]ce1 n 
only = ! sake ( ! pr(it x holds out to  
!m1 b = ! love ( ! con/ant excitem5t    
occasion$ by t pursuit4  ,! ,unit$      
,/ates ( ,am]ica h only be5 emancipat$ =
 half a c5tury 9 #ahdj f ! /ate (       
colonial dep5d5ce 9 :i* !y /ood to      
,great ,brita92 ! numb] ( l>ge =tunes   
!re is small1 & capital is /ill sc>ce4  
,yet no p 9 ! _w has made su* rapid     
progress 9 trade & manufactures z !     
,am]icans3 !y con/itute at ! pres5t day 
! second m>itime nation 9 ! _w2 & al?\gh
 _! manufactures h to /ruggle ) almo/   
insurm\ntable natural imp$im5ts1 !y are 
n prev5t$ f mak+ great & daily advances4
 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! greate/ und]tak+s 
& speculations are execut$ )\t          
difficulty1 because ! :ole population is
 engag$ 9 productive indu/ry1 & because 
! poore/ z well z ! mo/ opul5t memb]s ( 

! commonweal? are ready to comb9e _!    
ef=ts = ^! purposes4 ,! consequ5ce is1 t
 a /rang] is con/antly amaz$ by ! imm5se
 public works execut$ by a nation :i*   
conta9s1 s to speak1 no ri* m54 ,!      
,am]icans arriv$ b z ye/]day on !       
t]ritory :i* !y inhabit1 & !y h already 
*ang$ ! :ole ord] ( nature = _! own     
advantage4 ,!y h jo9$ ! ,hudson to !    
,mississippi1 & made ! ,atlantic ,ocean 
communicate ) ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 across 
a cont95t ( m ?an five hundr$ leagues 9 
ext5t :i* sep>ates ! two seas4 ,! longe/
 railroads :i* h be5 con/ruct$ up to !  
pres5t "t are 9 ,am]ica4 ,b :at mo/     
a/oni%es me 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is n s   
mu* ! m>vell\s gr&eur ( "s und]tak+s1 z 
! innum]able multitude ( small ones4    
,almo/ all ! f>m]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates    
comb9e "s trade ) agriculture2 mo/ ( !m 
make agriculture itself a trade4 ,x     
seldom happ5s t an ,am]ican f>m] settles
 = good ^u ! l& :i* he occupies3        
especially 9 ! di/ricts ( ! ,f> ,we/ he 
br+s l& into tillage 9 ord] to sell x   

aga91 & n to f>m x3 he builds a f>mh\se 
on ! speculation t1 z ! /ate ( ! c\ntry 
w soon be *ang$ by ! increase (         
population1 a good price w be gott5 = x4
 ,e ye> a sw>m ( ! inhabitants ( ! ,nor?
 arrive 9 ! ,s\!rn ,/ates1 & settle 9 ! 
p>ts :]e ! cotton plant & ! sug>-cane   
gr[4 ,^! m5 cultivate ! soil 9 ord] to  
make x produce 9 a few ye>s en\gh to    
enri* !m2 & !y already look =w>d to ! "t
 :5 !y may return home to enjoy !       
compet5cy ?us acquir$4 ,?us ! ,am]icans 
c>ry _! bus9ess-l qualities into        
agriculture2 & _! trad+ passions are    
display$ 9 t z 9 _! o!r pursuits4  ,!   
,am]icans make imm5se progress 9        
productive indu/ry1 because !y all      
devote !mselves to x at once2 & = ?is   
same reason !y are expos$ to v unexpect$
 & =midable emb>rassm5ts4 ,z !y are all 
engag$ 9 comm]ce1 _! comm]cial affairs  
are affect$ by su* v>i\s & complex      
causes t x is impossible to =esee :at   
difficulties may arise4 ,z !y are all m 
or less engag$ 9 productive indu/ry1 at 

! lea/ %ock giv5 to bus9ess all private 
=tunes are put 9 jeop>dy at ! same "t1 &
 ! ,/ate is %ak54 ,i believe t ! return 
( ^! comm]cial panics is an endemic     
disease ( ! democratic nations ( our    
age4 ,x may be r5d]$ less dang]\s1 b x  
_c be cur$2 because x does n orig9ate 9 
accid5tal circum/ances1 b 9 ! temp]am5t 
( ^! nations4     ,*apt] ,,xx3 ,t       
,ari/ocracy ,may ,be ,eng5d]$ ,by       
,manufactures  ,i h %[n t democracy is  
favorable to ! gr[? ( manufactures1 & t 
x increases )\t limit ! numb]s ( !      
manufactur+ classes3 we %all n[ see by  
:at side road manufactur]s may possibly 
9 _! turn br+ m5 back to ari/ocracy4 ,x 
is ackn[l$g$ t :5 a workman is engag$ e 
day ^u ! same detail1 ! :ole commodity  
is produc$ ) great] ease1 promptitude1 &
 economy4 ,x is likewise ackn[l$g$ t !  
co/ ( ! production ( manufactur$ goods  
is dim9i%$ by ! ext5t ( ! e/abli%m5t 9  
:i* !y are made1 & by ! am\nt ( capital 
employ$ or ( cr$it4 ,^! tru?s _h long   
be5 imp]fectly disc]n$1 b 9 our "t !y h 

be5 demon/rat$4 ,!y h be5 already appli$
 to _m v important k9ds ( manufactures1 
& ! humble/ w gradually be gov]n$ by !m4
 ,i "k ( no?+ 9 politics :i* des]ves to 
fix ! att5tion ( ! legislator m closely 
?an ^! two new axioms ( ! sci5ce (      
manufactures4  ,:5 a workman is         
unceas+ly & exclusively engag$ 9 !      
fabrication ( "o ?+1 he ultimately does 
8 "w ) s+ul> dext]ity2 b at ! same "t he
 loses ! g5]al faculty ( apply+ 8 m9d to
 ! direction ( ! "w4 ,he e day becomes m
 adroit & less indu/ri\s2 s t x may be  
said ( him1 t 9 proportion z ! workman  
improves ! man is degrad$4 ,:at c be    
expect$ ( a man :o has sp5t tw5ty ye>s (
 8 life 9 mak+ heads = p9s8 & to :at c t
 mighty human intellig5ce1 :i* has s (t5
 /irr$ ! _w1 be appli$ 9 him1 except x  
be to inve/igate ! be/ me?od ( mak+ p9s'
 heads8 ,:5 a workman has sp5t a        
consid]able portion ( 8 exi/5ce 9 ?is   
mann]1 8 ?\ghts are =ev] set ^u ! object
 ( 8 daily toil2 8 body has contract$   
c]ta9 fix$ habits1 :i* x c nev] %ake (f3

 9 a ^w1 he no long] belongs to himself1
 b to ! call+ :i* he has *os54 ,x is 9  
va9 t laws & mann]s h be5 at ! pa9s to  
level all b>ri]s r\nd su* a man1 & to   
op5 to him on e side a ?\s& diff]5t pa?s
 to =tune2 a !ory ( manufactures m      
p[]ful ?an mann]s & laws b9ds him to a  
craft1 & frequ5tly to a spot1 :i* he _c 
leave3 x assigns to him a c]ta9 place 9 
society1 beyond :i* he _c g3 9 ! mid/ ( 
univ]sal movem5t x has r5d]$ him        
/ation>y4  ,9 proportion z ! pr9ciple ( 
! division ( labor is m ext5sively      
appli$1 ! workman becomes m weak1 m     
n>r[-m9d$1 & m dep5d5t4 ,! art advances1
 ! artisan rec$es4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9      
proportion z x becomes m manife/ t !    
productions ( manufactures are by s mu* 
! *eap] & bett] z ! manufacture is l>g] 
& ! am\nt ( capital employ$ m           
consid]able1 weal?y & educat$ m5 come   
=w>d to emb>k 9 manufactures :i* 7      
h]et(ore ab&on$ to poor or ignorant     
h&icraftsm54 ,! magnitude ( ! ef=ts     
requir$1 & ! importance ( ! results to  

be obta9$1 attract !m4 ,?us at ! v "t at
 :i* ! sci5ce ( manufactures l[]s !     
class ( workm51 x raises ! class (      
ma/]s4  ,:]eas ! workman conc5trates 8  
faculties m & m ^u ! /udy ( a s+le      
detail1 ! ma/] surveys a m ext5sive     
:ole1 & ! m9d ( ! latt] is enl>g$ 9     
proportion z t ( ! =m] is n>r[$4 ,9 a   
%ort "t ! "o w require no?+ b physical  
/r5g? )\t intellig5ce2 ! o!r /&s 9 ne$ (
 sci5ce1 & almo/ ( g5ius1 to insure     
success4 ,?is man resembles m & m !     
adm9i/rator ( a va/ empire--t man1 a    
brute4 ,! ma/] & ! workman h !n "h no   
simil>ity1 & _! diff]5ces increase e    
day4 ,!y are only connect$ z ! two r+s  
at ! extremities ( a long *a94 ,ea* ( !m
 fills ! /ation :i* is made = him1 & out
 ( :i* he does n get3 ! "o is           
cont9ually1 closely1 & necess>ily       
dep5d5t ^u ! o!r1 & seems z mu* born to 
obey z t o!r is to comm&4 ,:at is ?is b 
ari/ocracy8  ,z ! conditions ( m5       
con/itut+ ! nation become m & m equal1 !
 dem& = manufactur$ commodities becomes 

m g5]al & m ext5sive2 & ! *eapness :i*  
places ^! objects )9 ! rea* ( sl5d]     
=tunes becomes a great elem5t ( success4
 ,h5ce !re are e day m m5 ( great       
opul5ce & education :o devote _! weal? &
 k to manufactures2 & :o seek1 by op5+  
l>ge e/abli%m5ts1 & by a /rict division 
( labor1 to meet ! fre% dem&s :i* are   
made on all sides4 ,?us1 9 proportion z 
! mass ( ! nation turns to democracy1 t 
p>ticul> class :i* is engag$ 9          
manufactures becomes m ari/ocratic4 ,m5 
gr[ m alike 9 ! "o--m diff]5t 9 ! o!r2 &
 inequality increases 9 ! less num]\s   
class 9 ! same ratio 9 :i* x decreases 9
 ! community4 ,h5ce x w\ld appe>1 on    
se>*+ to ! bottom1 t ari/ocracy %\ld    
naturally spr+ out ( ! bosom (          
democracy4  ,b ?is k9d ( ari/ocracy by  
no means resembles ^? k9ds :i* prec$$ x4
 ,x w be obs]v$ at once1 t z x applies  
exclusively to manufactures & to "s     
manufactur+ call+s1 x is a mon/r\s      
exception 9 ! g5]al aspect ( society4 ,!
 small ari/ocratic societies :i* are =m$

 by "s manufactur]s 9 ! mid/ ( ! imm5se 
democracy ( our age1 conta91 l ! great  
ari/ocratic societies ( =m] ages1 "s m5 
:o are v opul5t1 & a multitude :o are   
wret*$ly poor4 ,! poor h few means (    
escap+ f _! condition & becom+ ri*2 b ! 
ri* are con/antly becom+ poor1 or !y    
give up bus9ess :5 !y h realiz$ a =tune4
 ,?us ! elem5ts ( :i* ! class ( ! poor  
is compos$ are fix$2 b ! elem5ts ( :i* !
 class ( ! ri* is compos$ are n s4 ,to  
say ! tru?1 ?\gh !re are ri* m51 ! class
 ( ri* m5 does n exi/2 = ^! ri*         
individuals h no feel+s or purposes 9   
common1 no mutual traditions or mutual  
hopes2 !re are !re=e memb]s1 b no body4 
,n only are ! ri* n compactly unit$     
among/ !mselves1 b !re is no real bond  
betwe5 !m & ! poor4 ,_! relative        
position is n a p]man5t "o2 !y are      
con/antly drawn toge!r or sep>at$ by _! 
int]e/s4 ,! workman is g5]ally dep5d5t  
on ! ma/]1 b n on any p>ticul> ma/]2 ^! 
two m5 meet 9 ! factory1 b "k n ea* o!r 
else:]e2 & :il/ !y come into contact on 

"o po9t1 !y /& v wide ap>t on all o!rs4 
,! manufactur] asks no?+ ( ! workman b 8
 labor2 ! workman expects no?+ f him b 8
 wages4 ,! "o contracts no obligation to
 protect1 nor ! o!r to def5d2 & !y are n
 p]man5tly connect$ ei!r by habit or by 
duty4 ,! ari/ocracy creat$ by bus9ess   
r>ely settles 9 ! mid/ ( ! manufactur+  
population :i* x directs2 ! object is n 
to gov]n t population1 b to use x4 ,an  
ari/ocracy ?us con/itut$ c h no great   
hold ^u ^? :om x employs2 & ev5 if x    
succe$ 9 reta9+ !m at "o mom5t1 !y      
escape ! next2 x kn[s n h[ to w1 & x _c 
act4 ,! t]ritorial ari/ocracy ( =m] ages
 0 ei!r b\nd by law1 or ?\ght itself    
b\nd by usage1 to come to ! relief ( its
 s]v+-m51 & to succor _! di/resses4 ,b !
 manufactur+ ari/ocracy ( our age fir/  
impov]i%es & debases ! m5 :o s]ve x1 &  
!n ab&ons !m to be support$ by ! *>ity (
 ! public4 ,?is is a natural consequ5ce 
( :at has be5 said be=e4 ,betwe5 !      
workm5 & ! ma/] !re are frequ5t         
relations1 b no real p>tn]%ip4  ,i am ( 

op9ion1 ^u ! :ole1 t ! manufactur+      
ari/ocracy :i* is gr[+ up "u our eyes is
 "o ( ! h>%e/ :i* ev] exi/$ 9 ! _w2 b at
 ! same "t x is "o ( ! mo/ conf9$ & lea/
 dang]\s4 ,nev]!less ! fri5ds (         
democracy %\ld keep _! eyes anxi\sly    
fix$ 9 ?is direction2 = if ev] a p]man5t
 inequality ( conditions & ari/ocracy   
aga9 p5etrate into ! _w1 x may be       
pr$ict$ t ?is is ! *annel by :i* !y w   
ent]4     ,book ,?ree3 ,influ5ce ,(     
,democracy ,on ,mann]s1 ,prop]ly ,s     
,call$     ,*apt] ,i3 ,t ,mann]s ,are   
,s(t5$ ,z ,social ,conditions ,become ,m
 ,equal  ,we p]ceive t = sev]al ages    
social conditions h t5d$ to equality1 & 
we discov] t 9 ! c\rse ( ! same p]iod ! 
mann]s ( society h be5 s(t5$4 ,are ^!   
two ?+s m]ely contemporane\s1 or does   
any secret l9k exi/ betwe5 !m1 s t ! "o 
_c g on )\t mak+ ! o!r advance8 ,sev]al 
causes may concur to r5d] ! mann]s ( a p
 less rude2 b1 ( all ^! causes1 ! mo/   
p[]ful appe>s to me to be ! equality (  
conditions4 ,equality ( conditions &    

gr[+ civility 9 mann]s are1 !n1 9 my    
eyes1 n only contemporane\s occurr5ces1 
b correlative facts4 ,:5 ! fabuli/s seek
 to int]e/ u 9 ! actions ( bea/s1 !y    
inve/ !m ) human notions & passions2 !  
poets :o s+ ( spirits & angels d ! same2
 !re is no wret*$ness s deep1 nor any   
happ9ess s pure1 z to fill ! human m9d &
 t\* ! he>t1 unless we are ourselves    
held up to our own eyes "u o!r features4
  ,?is is /rictly applicable to !       
subject ^u :i* we are at pres5t engag$4 
,:5 all m5 are irrevocably m>%all$ 9 an 
ari/ocratic community1 accord+ to _!    
pr(essions1 _! prop]ty1 & _! bir?1 !    
memb]s ( ea* class1 consid]+ !mselves z 
*ildr5 ( ! same family1 *]i% a con/ant &
 lively sympa?y t[>ds ea* o!r1 :i* c    
nev] be felt 9 an equal degree by !     
citiz5s ( a democracy4 ,b ! same feel+  
does n exi/ betwe5 ! sev]al classes     
t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,among/ an ari/ocratic p 
ea* ca/e has its own op9ions1 feel+s1   
rights1 mann]s1 & modes ( liv+4 ,?us !  
m5 ( :om ea* ca/e is compos$ d n        

resemble ! mass ( _! fell[-citiz5s2 !y d
 n ?9k or feel 9 ! same mann]1 & !y     
sc>cely believe t !y belong to ! same   
human race4 ,!y _c1 !re=e1 ?or\ghly     
und]/& :at o!rs feel1 nor judge ( o!rs  
by !mselves4 ,yet !y are sometimes eag] 
to l5d ea* o!r mutual aid2 b ?is is n   
contr>y to my previ\s obs]vation4 ,^!   
ari/ocratic in/itutions1 :i* made ! be+s
 ( "o & ! same race s diff]5t1 nev]!less
 b\nd !m to ea* o!r by close political  
ties4 ,al?\gh ! s]f _h no natural int]e/
 9 ! fate ( nobles1 he did n ! less ?9k 
himself oblig$ to devote 8 p]son to !   
s]vice ( t noble :o happ5$ to be 8 "l2 &
 al?\gh ! noble held himself to be ( a  
diff]5t nature f t ( 8 s]fs1 he         
nev]!less held t 8 duty & 8 honor       
con/ra9$ him to def5d1 at ! risk ( 8 own
 life1 ^? :o dwelt ^u 8 doma9s4  ,x is  
evid5t t ^! mutual obligations did n    
orig9ate 9 ! law ( nature1 b 9 ! law (  
society2 & t ! claim ( social duty 0 m  
/r+5t ?an t ( m]e humanity4 ,^! s]vices 
7 n suppos$ to be due f man to man1 b to

 ! vassal or to ! "l4 ,feudal           
in/itutions awak5$ a lively sympa?y = ! 
suff]+s ( c]ta9 m51 b none at all = !   
mis]ies ( mank9d4 ,!y infus$ g5]osity r 
?an mildness into ! mann]s ( ! "t1 &    
al?\gh !y prompt$ m5 to great acts (    
self-devotion1 !y eng5d]$ no real       
sympa?ies2 = real sympa?ies c only exi/ 
betwe5 ^? :o are alike2 & 9 ari/ocratic 
ages m5 ackn[l$ge none b ! memb]s ( _!  
own ca/e to be l !mselves4  ,:5 !       
*ronicl]s ( ! ,middle ,ages1 :o all     
belong$ to ! ari/ocracy by bir? or      
education1 relate ! tragical end ( a    
noble1 _! grief fl[s apace2 :]eas !y    
tell y at a brea?1 & )\t w9c+1 (        
massacres & tortures inflict$ on !      
common sort ( p4 ,n t ^! writ]s felt    
habitual hatr$ or sy/ematic disda9 = !  
p2 w> betwe5 ! sev]al classes ( !       
community 0 n yet decl>$4 ,!y 7 impell$ 
by an in/9ct r ?an by a passion2 z !y _h
 =m$ no cle> notion ( a poor man's      
suff]+s1 !y c>$ b little = 8 fate4 ,!   
same feel+s animat$ ! l[] ord]s :5ev] ! 

feudal tie 0 brok54 ,! same ages :i*    
witness$ s _m h]oic acts ( self-devotion
 on ! "p ( vassals = _! lords1 7 /a9$ ) 
atroci\s b>b>ities1 ex]cis$ f "t to "t  
by ! l[] classes on ! high]4 ,x mu/ n be
 suppos$ t ?is mutual ins5sibility arose
 solely f ! abs5ce ( public ord] &      
education2 = traces ( x are to be f\nd 9
 ! foll[+ c5turies1 :i* became tranquil 
& enlight5$ :il/ !y rema9$ ari/ocratic4 
,9 #afge ! l[] classes 9 ,brittany      
revolt$ at ! imposition ( a new tax4 ,^!
 di/urbances 7 put d[n ) unexampl$      
atrocity4 ,obs]ve ! language 9 :i*      
,madame de ,sevigne1 a witness ( ^!     
horrors1 relates !m to h] daught]3--    
,aux ,ro*]s1 #cj ,octobre1 #afge4  ,mon 
,dieu1 ma fille1 que votre lettre d',aix
 e/ plaisante6 ,au mo9s relisez vos     
lettres avant que de les envoy]2        
laissez-v\s surp5dre a leur agrem5t1 et 
consolez-v\s p> ce plaisir de la pe9e   
que v\s avez d'en tant ecrire4 ,v\s avez
 donc baise t\te la ,prov5ce8 il n'y    
aurait pas satisfaction a bais] t\te la 

,bretagne1 a mo9s qu'on n'aimat a s5tir 
le v94 4 4 4 ,v\lez-v\s savoir des      
n\velles de ,r5nes8 ,on a fait une taxe 
de c5t mille ecus sur le b\rgeois2 et si
 on ne tr\ve po9t cette somme dans      
v+t-quatre heures1 elle s]a d\blee et   
exigible p> les soldats4 ,on a *asse et 
banni t\te une gr& rue1 et def5du de les
 recueillir s\s pe9e de la vie2 de sorte
 qu'on voyait t\s ces mis]ables1        
veill>ds1 femmes acc\*ees1 enfans1 err] 
en pleurs au sortir de cette ville sans 
savoir ou all]4 ,on r\a avant-hi] un    
violon1 qui avait comm5ce la danse et la
 pill]ie du papi] timbre2 il a ete      
ec>tele apres sa mort1 et ses quatre    
qu>ti]s exposes aux quatre co9s de la   
ville4 ,on a pris soixante b\rgeois1 et 
on comm5ce dema9 les punitions4 ,cette  
prov9ce e/ un bel exemple p\r les       
autres1 et surt\t de respect] les       
g\v]neurs et les g\v]nantes1 et de ne   
po9t jet] de pi]res dans leur j>d94 99a 
,footnote a3 ,to feel ! po9t ( ?is joke 
! read] %\ld recollect t ,madame de     

,grignan 0 ,g\v]nante de ,prov5ce4      
,madame de ,t>5te etait hi] dans ces    
bois p> un temps en*ante3 il n'e/ "q ni 
de *ambre ni de collation2 elle entre p>
 la b>ri]e et s'en ret\rne de meme4 4 4 
4  ,9 ano!r lett] %e adds3--  ,v\s me   
p>lez bi5 plaisamm5t de nos mis]es2 n\s 
ne sommes plus si r\es2 un en huit j\rs1
 p\r entret5ir la ju/ice4 ,il e/ vrai   
que la p5d]ie me p>ait ma9t5ant un      
refrai*issem5t4 ,j'ai une t\t autre idee
 de la ju/ice1 depuis que je suis en ce 
pays4 ,vos gal]i5s me p>aiss5t une      
societe d'honnetes g5s qui se sont      
retires du monde p\r m5] une vie d\ce4  
,x w\ld be a mi/ake to suppose t ,madame
 de ,sevigne1 :o wrote ^! l9es1 0 a     
selfi% or cruel p]son2 %e 0 passionately
 atta*$ to h] *ildr51 & v ready to      
sympa?ize 9 ! sorr[s ( h] fri5ds2 nay1  
h] lett]s %[ t %e treat$ h] vassals &   
s]vants ) k9dness & indulg5ce4 ,b       
,madame de ,sevigne _h no cle> notion ( 
suff]+ 9 anyone :o 0 n a p]son (        
quality4  ,9 our "t ! h>%e/ man writ+ to

 ! mo/ ins5sible p]son ( 8 acqua9tance  
w\ld n v5ture wantonly to indulge 9 !   
cruel jocul>ity :i* ,i h quot$2 & ev5 if
 8 own mann]s all[$ him to d s1 ! mann]s
 ( society at l>ge w\ld =bid x4 ,:5ce   
does ?is arise8 ,h we m s5sibility ?an  
our =efa!rs8 ,i "k n t we h2 b ,i am    
sure t our ins5sibility is ext5d$ to a  
f> great] range ( objects4 ,:5 all !    
ranks ( a community are ne>ly equal1 z  
all m5 ?9k & feel 9 ne>ly ! same mann]1 
ea* ( !m may judge 9 a mom5t ( !        
s5sations ( all ! o!rs2 he ca/s a rapid 
glance ^u himself1 & t is en\gh4 ,!re is
 no wret*$ness into :i* he _c readily   
ent]1 & a secret in/9ct reveals to him  
its ext5t4 ,x signifies n t /rang]s or  
foes be ! suff]]s2 imag9ation puts him 9
 _! place2 some?+ l a p]sonal feel+ is  
m+l$ ) 8 pity1 & makes himself suff]    
:il/ ! body ( 8 fell[-creature is 9     
torture4 ,9 democratic ages m5 r>ely    
sacrifice !mselves = "o ano!r2 b !y     
display g5]al compassion = ! memb]s ( ! 
human race4 ,!y inflict no useless ills2

 & !y are happy to relieve ! griefs (   
o!rs1 :5 !y c d s )\t mu* hurt+         
!mselves2 !y are n dis9t]e/$1 b !y are  
humane4  ,al?\gh ! ,am]icans h1 9 a     
mann]1 r$uc$ egotism to a social &      
philosophical !ory1 !y are nev]!less    
extremely op5 to compassion4 ,9 no      
c\ntry is crim9al ju/ice adm9i/]$ ) m   
mildness ?an 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,:il/ ! 
,engli% seem dispos$ c>efully to reta9 !
 bloody traces ( ! d>k ages 9 _! p5al   
legislation1 ! ,am]icans h almo/ expung$
 capital puni%m5t f _! codes4 ,nor?     
,am]ica is1 ,i ?9k1 ! only "o c\ntry ^u 
e>? 9 :i* ! life ( no "o citiz5 has be5 
tak5 = a political (f5ce 9 ! c\rse ( !  
la/ fifty ye>s4 ,! circum/ance :i*      
conclusively %[s t ?is s+ul> mildness ( 
! ,am]icans arises *iefly f _! social   
condition1 is ! mann] 9 :i* !y treat _! 
slaves4 ,p]haps !re is n1 ^u ! :ole1 a  
s+le ,european colony 9 ! ,new ,_w 9 :i*
 ! physical condition ( ! blacks is less
 sev]e ?an 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 yet !     
slaves /ill endure horrid suff]+s !re1 &

 are con/antly expos$ to b>b>\s         
puni%m5ts4 ,x is easy to p]ceive t ! lot
 ( ^! unhappy be+s inspires _! ma/]s ) b
 little compassion1 & t !y look ^u      
slav]y1 n only z an in/itution :i* is   
pr(itable to !m1 b z an evil :i* does n 
affect !m4 ,?us ! same man :o is full ( 
humanity t[>ds 8 fell[-creatures :5 !y  
are at ! same "t 8 equals1 becomes      
ins5sible to _! afflictions z soon z t  
equality ceases4 ,8 mildness %\ld !re=e 
be attribut$ to ! equality ( conditions1
 r ?an to civilization & education4     
,:at ,i h "h rem>k$ ( individuals is1 to
 a c]ta9 ext5t1 applicable to nations4  
,:5 ea* nation has its di/9ct op9ions1  
belief1 laws1 & cu/oms1 x looks ^u      
itself z ! :ole ( mank9d1 & is mov$ by  
no sorr[s b its own4 ,%\ld w> break out 
betwe5 two nations animat$ by ?is feel+1
 x is sure to be wag$ ) great cruelty4  
,at ! "t ( _! highe/ culture1 ! ,romans 
slaught]$ ! g5]als ( _! enemies1 aft]   
hav+ dragg$ !m 9 triumph beh9d a c>2 &  
!y flung _! prison]s to ! bea/s ( !     

,circus = ! amusem5t ( ! p4 ,cic]o1 :o  
declaim$ s vehem5tly at ! notion (      
crucify+ a ,roman citiz51 _h n a ^w to  
say aga9/ ^! horrible abuses ( victory4 
,x is evid5t t 9 8 eyes a b>b>ian did n 
belong to ! same human race z a ,roman4 
,on ! contr>y1 9 proportion z nations   
become m l ea* o!r1 !y become           
reciprocally m compassionate1 & ! law ( 
nations is mitigat$4     ,*apt] ,,ii3 ,t
 ,democracy ,r5d]s ,! ,habitual         
,int]c\rse ,( ,! ,am]icans ,simple ,&   
,easy  ,democracy does n atta* m5       
/rongly to ea* o!r2 b x places _!       
habitual int]c\rse ^u an easi] foot+4   
,if two ,engli%m5 *ance to meet at !    
,antipodes1 :]e !y are surr\nd$ by      
/rang]s ^: language & mann]s are almo/  
unkn[n to !m1 !y w fir/ />e at ea* o!r )
 mu* curiosity & a k9d ( secret         
uneas9ess2 !y w !n turn away1 or1 if "o 
acco/s ! o!r1 !y w take c>e only to     
conv]se ) a con/ra9$ & abs5t air ^u v   
unimportant subjects4 ,yet !re is no    
enmity betwe5 ^! m52 !y h nev] se5 ea*  

o!r be=e1 & ea* believes ! o!r to be a  
respectable p]son4 ,:y !n %\ld !y /& s  
cauti\sly ap>t8 ,we mu/ g back to ,engl&
 to le>n ! reason4  ,:5 x is bir? alone1
 indep5d5t ( weal?1 :i* classes m5 9    
society1 ev]yone kn[s exactly :at 8 own 
position is ^u ! social scale2 he does n
 seek to rise1 he does n fe> to s9k4 ,9 
a community ?us organiz$1 m5 ( diff]5t  
ca/es communicate v little ) ea* o!r2 b 
if accid5t br+s !m toge!r1 !y are ready 
to conv]se )\t hop+ or fe>+ to lose _!  
own position4 ,_! int]c\rse is n ^u a   
foot+ ( equality1 b x is n con/ra9$4 ,:5
 money$ ari/ocracy succe$s to ari/ocracy
 ( bir?1 ! case is alt]$4 ,! privileges 
( "s are /ill extremely great1 b !      
possibility ( acquir+ ^? privileges is  
op5 to all3 :5ce x foll[s t ^? :o       
possess !m are con/antly haunt$ by !    
appreh5sion ( los+ !m1 or ( o!r m5's %>+
 !m2 ^? :o d n yet enjoy !m long to     
possess !m at any co/1 or1 if !y fail to
 appe> at lea/ to possess !m--:i* is n  
impossible4 ,z ! social importance ( m5 

is no long] o/5sibly & p]man5tly fix$ by
 blood1 & is inf9itely v>i$ by weal?1   
ranks /ill exi/1 b x is n easy cle>ly to
 di/+ui% at a glance ^? :o respectively 
belong to !m4 ,secret ho/ilities !n     
arise 9 ! community2 "o set ( m5        
endeavor by innum]able artifices to     
p5etrate1 or to appe> to p5etrate1      
among/ ^? :o are above !m2 ano!r set are
 con/antly 9 arms aga9/ ^! usurp]s ( _! 
rights2 or r ! same individual does bo? 
at once1 & :il/ he seeks to raise       
himself into a high] circle1 he is      
always on ! def5sive aga9/ ! intrusion (
 ^? bel[ him4  ,su* is ! condition (    
,engl& at ! pres5t "t2 & ,i am ( op9ion 
t ! peculi>ity be=e adv]t$ to is        
pr9cipally to be attribut$ to ?is cause4
 ,z ari/ocratic pride is /ill extremely 
great among/ ! ,engli%1 & z ! limits (  
ari/ocracy are ill-def9$1 ev]ybody lives
 9 con/ant dread le/ advantage %\ld be  
tak5 ( 8 famili>ity4 ,unable to judge at
 once ( ! social position ( ^? he meets1
 an ,engli%man prud5tly avoids all      

contact ) !m4 ,m5 are afraid le/ "s     
slight s]vice r5d]$ %\ld draw !m into an
 unsuitable acqua9tance2 !y dread       
civilities1 & !y avoid ! obtrusive      
gratitude ( a /rang] q z mu* z 8 hatr$4 
,_m p attribute ^! s+ul> anti-social    
prop5sities1 & ! res]v$ & taciturn be>+ 
( ! ,engli%1 to purely physical causes4 
,i may admit t !re is some?+ ( x 9 _!   
race1 b mu* m ( x is attributable to _! 
social condition1 z is prov$ by !       
contra/ ( ! ,am]icans4  ,9 ,am]ica1 :]e 
! privileges ( bir? nev] exi/$1 & :]e   
ri*es conf] no peculi> rights on _!     
possessors1 m5 unacqua9t$ ) ea* o!r are 
v ready to frequ5t ! same places1 & f9d 
nei!r p]il nor advantage 9 ! free       
int]*ange ( _! ?\ghts4 ,if !y meet by   
accid5t1 !y nei!r seek nor avoid        
int]c\rse2 _! mann] is !re=e natural1   
frank1 & op53 x is easy to see t !y     
h>dly expect or appreh5d any?+ f ea*    
o!r1 & t !y d n c>e to display1 any m   
?an to conceal1 _! position 9 ! _w4 ,if 
_! demeanor is (t5 cold & s]i\s1 x is   

nev] haughty or con/ra9$2 & if !y d n   
conv]se1 x is because !y are n 9 a humor
 to talk1 n because !y ?9k x _! int]e/  
to be sil5t4 ,9 a =eign c\ntry two      
,am]icans are at once fri5ds1 simply    
because !y are ,am]icans4 ,!y are       
repuls$ by no prejudice2 !y are attract$
 by _! common c\ntry4 ,= two ,engli%m5 !
 same blood is n en\gh2 !y mu/ be br\ght
 toge!r by ! same rank4 ,! ,am]icans    
rem>k ?is unsociable mood ( ! ,engli% z 
mu* z ! ,fr5* d1 & !y are n less a/oni%$
 by x4 ,yet ! ,am]icans are connect$ )  
,engl& by _! orig91 _! religion1 _!     
language1 & p>tially by _! mann]s2 !y   
only diff] 9 _! social condition4 ,x may
 !re=e be inf]r$ t ! res]ve ( ! ,engli% 
proce$s f ! con/itution ( _! c\ntry mu* 
m ?an f t ( its inhabitants4     ,*apt] 
,,iii3 ,:y ,! ,am]icans ,%[ ,s ,little  
,s5sitiv5ess ,9 ,_! ,own ,c\ntry1 ,&    
,are ,s ,s5sitive ,9 ,europe  ,! temp] (
 ! ,am]icans is v9dictive1 l t ( all    
s]i\s & reflect+ nations4 ,!y h>dly ev] 
=get an (f5ce1 b x is n easy to (f5d !m2

 & _! res5tm5t is z sl[ to k9dle z x is 
to abate4 ,9 ari/ocratic communities :]e
 a small numb] ( p]sons manage ev]y?+1 !
 outw>d int]c\rse ( m5 is subject to    
settl$ conv5tional rules4 ,ev]yone !n   
?9ks he kn[s exactly :at m>ks ( respect 
or ( condesc5sion he ought to display1 &
 none are presum$ to be ignorant ( !    
sci5ce ( etiquette4 ,^! usages ( ! fir/ 
class 9 society aft]w>ds s]ve z a model 
to all ! o!rs2 besides :i* ea* ( ! latt]
 lays d[n a code ( its own1 to :i* all  
its memb]s are b\nd to con=m4 ,?us !    
rules ( polit5ess =m a complex sy/em (  
legislation1 :i* x is difficult to be   
p]fectly ma/] (1 b f :i* x is dang]\s = 
anyone to deviate2 s t m5 are con/antly 
expos$ involunt>ily to inflict or to    
receive bitt] affronts4 ,b z !          
di/9ctions ( rank are oblit]at$1 z m5   
diff]+ 9 education & 9 bir? meet & m+le 
9 ! same places ( resort1 x is almo/    
impossible to agree ^u ! rules ( good   
bre$+4 ,z its laws are unc]ta91 to      
disobey !m is n a crime1 ev5 9 ! eyes ( 

^? :o "k :at !y are2 m5 atta* m         
importance to int5tions ?an to =ms1 & !y
 gr[ less civil1 b at ! same "t less    
qu>relsome4 ,!re are _m little att5tions
 :i* an ,am]ican does n c>e ab\t2 he    
?9ks !y are n due to him1 or he presumes
 t !y are n kn[n to be due3 he !re=e    
ei!r does n p]ceive a rud5ess or he     
=gives x2 8 mann]s become less c\rte\s1 
& 8 "* m pla9 & mascul9e4  ,! mutual    
indulg5ce :i* ! ,am]icans display1 & !  
manly confid5ce ) :i* !y treat ea* o!r1 
also result f ano!r deep] & m g5]al     
cause1 :i* ,i h already adv]t$ to 9 !   
prec$+ *apt]4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates !      
di/9ctions ( rank 9 civil society are   
slight1 9 political society !y are null2
 an ,am]ican1 !re=e1 does n ?9k himself 
b\nd to pay p>ticul> att5tions to any ( 
8 fell[-citiz5s1 nor does he require su*
 att5tions f !m t[>ds himself4 ,z he    
does n see t x is 8 int]e/ eag]ly to    
seek ! company ( any ( 8 c\ntrym51 he is
 sl[ to fancy t 8 own company is decl9$3
 despis+ no "o on acc\nt ( 8 /ation1 he 

does n imag9e t anyone c despise him = t
 cause2 & until he has cle>ly p]ceiv$ an
 insult1 he does n suppose t an affront 
0 int5d$4 ,! social condition ( !       
,am]icans naturally accu/oms !m n to    
take (f5ce 9 small matt]s2 &1 on ! o!r  
h&1 ! democratic fre$om :i* !y enjoy    
transfuses ?is same mildness ( temp]    
into ! "* ( ! nation4 ,! political      
in/itutions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates con/antly 
br+ citiz5s ( all ranks into contact1 & 
compel !m to pursue great und]tak+s 9   
conc]t4 ,p ?us engag$ h sc>cely "t to   
att5d to ! details ( etiquette1 & !y are
 besides too /rongly int]e/$ 9 liv+     
h>moni\sly = !m to /ick at su* ?+s4 ,!y 
!re=e soon acquire a habit ( consid]+ ! 
feel+s & op9ions ( ^? :om !y meet m ?an 
_! mann]s1 & !y d n all[ !mselves to be 
annoy$ by trifles4  ,i h (t5 rem>k$ 9 ! 
,unit$ ,/ates t x is n easy to make a   
man und]/& t 8 pres5ce may be disp5s$ )2
 h9ts w n always suffice to %ake him (f4
 ,i contradict an ,am]ican at e ^w he   
says1 to %[ him t 8 conv]sation bores   

me2 he in/antly labors ) fre% p]t9acity 
to conv9ce me2 ,i pres]ve a dogg$       
sil5ce1 & he ?9ks ,i am m$itat+ deeply  
on ! tru?s :i* he is utt]+2 at la/ ,i   
ru% f 8 company1 & he supposes t "s     
urg5t bus9ess hurries me else:]e4 ,?is  
man w nev] und]/& t he we>ies me to     
ext9ction unless ,i tell him s3 & ! only
 way to get rid ( him is to make him my 
enemy = life4  ,x appe>s surpris+ at    
fir/ sight t ! same man transport$ to   
,europe sudd5ly becomes s s5sitive &    
capti\s1 t ,i (t5 f9d x z difficult to  
avoid (f5d+ him "h z x 0 to put him out 
( c\nt5ance4 ,^! two opposite effects   
proce$ f ! same cause4 ,democratic      
in/itutions g5]ally give m5 a l(ty      
notion ( _! c\ntry & ( !mselves4 ,an    
,am]ican leaves 8 c\ntry ) a he>t swoll5
 ) pride2 on arriv+ 9 ,europe he at once
 f9ds out t we are n s engross$ by !    
,unit$ ,/ates & ! great p :i* inhabits  
!m z he _h suppos$1 & ?is beg9s to annoy
 him4 ,he has be5 in=m$ t ! conditions (
 society are n equal 9 our "p ( ! globe1

 & he obs]ves t among ! nations (       
,europe ! traces ( rank are n :olly     
oblit]at$2 t weal? & bir? /ill reta9 "s 
indet]m9ate privileges1 :i* =ce !mselves
 ^u 8 notice :il/ !y elude def9ition4   
,he is !re=e pr(\ndly ignorant ( ! place
 :i* he ought to occupy 9 ?is half-ru9$ 
scale ( classes1 :i* are suffici5tly    
di/9ct to hate & despise ea* o!r1 yet   
suffici5tly alike = him to be always    
conf\nd+ !m4 ,he is afraid ( rang+      
himself too high--/ill m is he afraid ( 
be+ rang$ too l[2 ?is tw(old p]il keeps 
8 m9d con/antly on ! /ret*1 & emb>rasses
 all he says & does4 ,he le>ns f        
tradition t 9 ,europe c]emonial         
obs]vances 7 inf9itely v>i$ accord+ to  
diff]5t ranks2 ?is recollection ( =m]   
times completes 8 p]plexity1 & he is ! m
 afraid ( n obta9+ ^? m>ks ( respect :i*
 are due to him1 z he does n exactly "k 
9 :at !y consi/4 ,he is l a man surr\nd$
 by traps3 society is n a recreation =  
him1 b a s]i\s toil3 he weighs y\r lea/ 
actions1 int]rogates y\r looks1 &       

scrut9izes all y say1 le/ !re %\ld be "s
 hidd5 allusion to affront him4 ,i d\bt 
:e!r !re 0 ev] a prov9cial man ( quality
 s punctili\s 9 bre$+ z he is3 he       
endeavors to att5d to ! slighte/ rules (
 etiquette1 & does n all[ "o ( !m to be 
waiv$ t[>ds himself3 he is full (       
scruples & at ! same "t ( pret5sions2 he
 wi%es to d en\gh1 b fe>s to d too mu*2 
& z he does n v well "k ! limits ( ! "o 
or ( ! o!r1 he keeps up a haughty &     
emb>rass$ air ( res]ve4  ,b ?is is n    
all3 "h is yet ano!r d\ble ( ! human    
he>t4 ,an ,am]ican is =ev] talk+ ( !    
admirable equality :i* prevails 9 !     
,unit$ ,/ates2 al\d he makes x ! boa/ ( 
8 c\ntry1 b 9 secret he deplores x =    
himself2 & he aspires to %[ t1 = 8 "p1  
he is an exception to ! g5]al /ate ( ?+s
 :i* he vaunts4 ,!re is h>dly an        
,am]ican to be met ) :o does n claim "s 
remote k9dr$ ) ! fir/ f\nd]s ( !        
colonies2 & z = ! scions ( ! noble      
families ( ,engl&1 ,am]ica seem$ to me  
to be cov]$ ) !m4 ,:5 an opul5t ,am]ican

 arrives 9 ,europe1 8 fir/ c>e is to    
surr\nd himself ) all ! luxuries (      
weal?3 he is s afraid ( be+ tak5 = !    
pla9 citiz5 ( a democracy1 t he adopts a
 hundr$ di/ort$ ways ( br++ "s new      
in/ance ( 8 weal? be=e y e day4 ,8 h\se 
w be 9 ! mo/ fa%ionable "p ( ! t[n3 he w
 always be surr\nd$ by a ho/ ( s]vants4 
,i h he>d an ,am]ican compla91 t 9 ! be/
 h\ses ( ,p>is ! society 0 r mix$2 !    
ta/e :i* prevails !re 0 n pure en\gh =  
him2 & he v5tur$ to h9t t1 9 8 op9ion1  
!re 0 a want ( elegance ( mann]2 he c\ld
 n accu/om himself to see wit conceal$  
"u su* unpret5d+ =ms4  ,^! contra/s     
ought n to surprise u4 ,if ! ve/iges (  
=m] ari/ocratic di/9ctions 7 n s        
completely effac$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 !  
,am]icans w\ld be less simple & less    
tol]ant 9 _! own c\ntry--!y w\ld require
 less1 & be less fond ( borr[$ mann]s 9 
ours4     ,*apt] ,,iv3 ,consequ5ces ,(  
,! ,?ree ,prec$+ ,*apt]s  ,:5 m5 feel a 
natural compassion = _! mutual          
suff]+s--:5 !y are br\ght toge!r by easy

 & frequ5t int]c\rse1 & no s5sitive     
feel+s keep !m asund]--x may readily be 
suppos$ t !y w l5d assi/ance to "o ano!r
 :5ev] x is ne$$4 ,:5 an ,am]ican asks =
 ! co-op]ation ( 8 fell[-citiz5s x is   
seldom refus$1 & ,i h (t5 se5 x af=d$   
spontane\sly & ) great goodwill4 ,if an 
accid5t happ5s on ! highway1 ev]ybody   
ha/5s to help ! suff]]2 if "s great &   
sudd5 calamity befalls a family1 !      
purses ( a ?\s& /rang]s are at once     
will+ly op5$1 & small b num]\s donations
 p\r 9 to relieve _! di/ress4 ,x (t5    
happ5s among/ ! mo/ civiliz$ nations ( !
 globe1 t a poor wret* is z fri5dless 9 
! mid/ ( a cr[d z ! savage 9 8 wilds3   
?is is h>dly ev] ! case 9 ! ,unit$      
,/ates4 ,! ,am]icans1 :o are always cold
 & (t5 co>se 9 _! mann]s1 seldom %[     
ins5sibility2 & if !y d n pr(f] s]vices 
eag]ly1 yet !y d n refuse to r5d] !m4   
,all ?is is n 9 contradiction to :at ,i 
h said be=e on ! subject (              
individualism4 ,! two ?+s are s f> f    
combat+ ea* o!r1 t ,i c see h[ !y agree4

 ,equality ( conditions1 :il/ x makes m5
 feel _! indep5d5ce1 %[s !m _! own      
weakness3 !y are free1 b expos$ to a    
?\s& accid5ts2 & exp]i5ce soon tea*es !m
 t1 al?\gh !y d n habitually require !  
assi/ance ( o!rs1 a "t almo/ always     
comes :5 !y _c d )\t x4 ,we con/antly   
see 9 ,europe t m5 ( ! same pr(ession   
are ev] ready to assi/ ea* o!r2 !y are  
all expos$ to ! same ills1 & t is en\gh 
to tea* !m to seek mutual pres]vatives1 
h[ev] h>d-he>t$ & selfi% !y may o!rwise 
be4 ,:5 "o ( !m falls into dang]1 f :i* 
! o!rs may save him by a slight transi5t
 sacrifice or a sudd5 ef=t1 !y d n fail 
to make ! attempt4 ,n t !y are deeply   
int]e/$ 9 8 fate2 = if1 by *ance1 _!    
ex]tions are unavail+1 !y imm$iately    
=get ! object ( !m1 & return to _! own  
bus9ess2 b a sort ( tacit & almo/       
involunt>y agreem5t has be5 pass$ betwe5
 !m1 by :i* ea* "o owes to ! o!rs a     
tempor>y support :i* he may claim =     
himself 9 turn4 ,ext5d to a p ! rem>k "h
 appli$ to a class1 & y w und]/& my     

mean+4 ,a simil> cov5ant exi/s 9 fact   
betwe5 all ! citiz5s ( a democracy3 !y  
all feel !mselves subject to ! same     
weakness & ! same dang]s2 & _! int]e/1 z
 well z _! sympa?y1 makes x a rule ) !m 
to l5d ea* o!r mutual assi/ance :5      
requir$4 ,! m equal social conditions   
become1 ! m d m5 display ?is reciprocal 
disposition to oblige ea* o!r4 ,9       
democracies no great b5efits are        
conf]r$1 b good (fices are con/antly    
r5d]$3 a man seldom displays            
self-devotion1 b all m5 are ready to be 
( s]vice to "o ano!r4     ,*apt] ,v3 ,h[
 ,democracy ,affects ! ,relation ,(     
,ma/]s ,& ,s]vants  ,an ,am]ican :o _h  
travell$ = a long "t 9 ,europe once said
 to me1 ,! ,engli% treat _! s]vants ) a 
/iffness & imp]i\sness ( mann] :i*      
surprise u2 b on ! o!r h& ! ,fr5*       
sometimes treat _! att5dants ) a degree 
( famili>ity or ( polit5ess :i* we _c   
conceive4 ,x looks z if !y 7 afraid to  
give ord]s3 ! po/ure ( ! sup]ior & !    
inf]ior is ill-ma9ta9$4 ,! rem>k 0 a j  

"o1 & ,i h (t5 made x myself4 ,i h      
always consid]$ ,engl& z ! c\ntry 9 ! _w
 :]e1 9 our "t1 ! bond ( dome/ic s]vice 
is drawn mo/ tightly1 & ,france z !     
c\ntry :]e x is mo/ relax$4 ,n[h]e h ,i 
se5 ma/]s /& s high or s l[ z 9 ^! two  
c\ntries4 ,betwe5 ^! two extremes !     
,am]icans are to be plac$4 ,su* is !    
fact z x appe>s ^u ! surface ( ?+s3 to  
discov] ! causes ( t fact1 x is necess>y
 to se>* ! matt] ?or\ghly4  ,no         
communities h ev] yet exi/$ 9 :i* social
 conditions h be5 s equal t !re 7 nei!r 
ri* nor poor1 & consequ5tly nei!r ma/]s 
nor s]vants4 ,democracy does n prev5t ! 
exi/5ce ( ^! two classes1 b x *anges _! 
dispositions & modifies _! mutual       
relations4 ,among/ ari/ocratic nations  
s]vants =m a di/9ct class1 n m v>i\sly  
compos$ ?an t ( ma/]s4 ,a settl$ ord] is
 soon e/abli%$2 9 ! =m] z well z 9 !    
latt] class a scale is =m$1 ) num]\s    
di/9ctions or m>k$ gradations ( rank1 & 
g5]ations succe$ ea* o!r ?us )\t any    
*ange ( position4 ,^! two communities   

are sup]pos$ "o above ! o!r1 always     
di/9ct1 b regulat$ by analog\s          
pr9ciples4 ,?is ari/ocratic con/itution 
does n ex]t a less p[]ful influ5ce on ! 
notions & mann]s ( s]vants ?an on ^? (  
ma/]s2 &1 al?\gh ! effects are diff]5t1 
! same cause may easily be trac$4 ,bo?  
classes con/itute small communities 9 ! 
he>t ( ! nation1 & c]ta9 p]man5t notions
 ( "r & wrong are ultimately eng5d]$    
among/ !m4 ,! diff]5t acts ( human life 
are view$ by "o p>ticul> & un*ang+      
light4 ,9 ! society ( s]vants1 z 9 t (  
ma/]s1 m5 ex]cise a great influ5ce ov]  
ea* o!r3 !y ackn[l$ge settl$ rules1 & 9 
! abs5ce ( law !y are guid$ by a sort ( 
public op9ion3 _! habits are settl$1 &  
_! conduct is plac$ "u a c]ta9 control4 
,^! m51 ^: de/9y is to obey1 c]ta9ly d n
 und]/& fame1 virtue1 hone/y1 & honor 9 
! same mann] z _! ma/]s2 b !y h a pride1
 a virtue1 & an hone/y p]ta9+ to _!     
condition2 & !y h a notion1 if ,i may   
use ! expression1 ( a sort ( s]vile     
honor4 99a ,because a class is mean1 x  

mu/ n be suppos$ t all :o belong to x   
are mean-he>t$2 to ?9k s w\ld be a great
 mi/ake4 ,h[ev] l[ly x may be1 he :o is 
=emo/ !re1 & :o has no notion ( quitt+  
x1 occupies an ari/ocratic position :i* 
inspires him ) l(ty feel+s1 pride1 &    
self-respect1 t fit him = ! high]       
virtues & actions above ! common4       
,among/ ari/ocratic nations x 0 by no   
means r>e to f9d m5 ( noble & vigor\s   
m9ds 9 ! s]vice ( ! great1 :o felt n !  
s]vitude !y bore1 & :o submitt$ to ! w (
 _! ma/]s )\t any fe> ( _! displeasure4 
,b ?is 0 h>dly ev] ! case among/ !      
inf]ior ranks ( dome/ic s]vants4 ,x may 
be imag9$ t he :o occupies ! l[e/ /age (
 ! ord] ( m5ials /&s v l[ inde$4 ,!     
,fr5* creat$ a ^w on purpose to         
designate ! s]vants ( ! ari/ocracy--!y  
call$ !m lackeys4 ,?is ^w lackey s]v$ z 
! /ronge/ expression1 :5 all o!rs 7     
exhau/$1 to designate human meanness4   
,"u ! old ,fr5* mon>*y1 to d5ote by a   
s+le expression a l[-spirit$            
contemptible fell[1 x 0 usual to say t  

he _h ! s\l ( a lackey2 ! t]m 0 en\gh to
 convey all t 0 int5d$4 ,footnote a3 ,if
 ! pr9cipal op9ions by :i* m5 are guid$ 
are exam9$ closely & 9 detail1 ! analogy
 appe>s /ill m /rik+1 & "o is surpris$  
to f9d among/ !m1 j z mu* z among/ !    
haughtie/ scions ( a feudal race1 pride 
( bir?1 respect = _! ance/ry & _!       
desc5dants1 disda9 ( _! inf]iors1 a     
dread ( contact1 a ta/e = etiquette1    
prec$5ts1 & antiquity4  ,! p]man5t      
inequality ( conditions n only gives    
s]vants c]ta9 peculi> virtues & vices1 b
 x places !m 9 a peculi> relation )     
respect to _! ma/]s4 ,among/ ari/ocratic
 nations ! poor man is famili>iz$ f 8   
*ildhood ) ! notion ( be+ comm&$3 to    
:i*ev] side he turns 8 eyes ! graduat$  
/ructure ( society & ! aspect ( ob$i5ce 
meet 8 view4 ,h5ce 9 ^? c\ntries ! ma/] 
readily obta9s prompt1 complete1        
respectful1 & easy ob$i5ce f 8 s]vants1 
because !y rev]e 9 him n only _! ma/] b 
! class ( ma/]s4 ,he weighs d[n _! w by 
! :ole weight ( ! ari/ocracy4 ,he ord]s 

_! actions--to a c]ta9 ext5t he ev5     
directs _! ?\ghts4 ,9 ari/ocracies !    
ma/] (t5 ex]cises1 ev5 )\t be+ aw>e ( x1
 an amaz+ sway ov] ! op9ions1 ! habits1 
& ! mann]s ( ^? :o obey him1 & 8        
influ5ce ext5ds ev5 fur!r ?an 8         
au?ority4  ,9 ari/ocratic communities   
!re are n only h]$it>y families (       
s]vants z well z ( ma/]s1 b ! same      
families ( s]vants adh]e = sev]al       
g5]ations to ! same families ( ma/]s 7l 
two p>allel l9es :i* nei!r meet nor     
sep>ate72 & ?is consid]ably modifies !  
mutual relations ( ^! two classes (     
p]sons4 ,?us1 al?\gh 9 ari/ocratic      
society ! ma/] & s]vant h no natural    
resemblance--al?\gh1 on ! contr>y1 !y   
are plac$ at an imm5se di/ance on !     
scale ( human be+s by _! =tune1         
education1 & op9ions--yet "t ultimately 
b9ds !m toge!r4 ,!y are connect$ by a   
long s]ies ( common rem9isc5ces1 & h[ev]
 diff]5t !y may be1 !y gr[ alike2 :il/ 9
 democracies1 :]e !y are naturally almo/
 alike1 !y always rema9 /rang]s to ea*  

o!r4 ,among/ an ari/ocratic p ! ma/]    
gets to look ^u 8 s]vants z an inf]ior &
 second>y "p ( himself1 & he (t5 takes  
an int]e/ 9 _! lot by a la/ /ret* (     
egotism4  ,s]vants1 on _! "p1 are n     
av]se to reg>d !mselves 9 ! same light2 
& !y sometimes id5tify !mselves ) !     
p]son ( ! ma/]1 s t !y become an        
app5dage to him 9 _! own eyes z well z 9
 84 ,9 ari/ocracies a s]vant fills a    
subord9ate position :i* he _c get out (2
 above him is ano!r man1 hold+ a sup]ior
 rank :i* he _c lose4 ,on "o side are   
obscurity1 pov]ty1 ob$i5ce = life2 on ! 
o!r1 & also = life1 fame1 weal?1 &      
comm&4 ,! two conditions are always     
di/9ct & always 9 prop9quity2 ! tie t   
connects !m is z la/+ z !y are !mselves4
 ,9 ?is pr$icam5t ! s]vant ultimately   
deta*es 8 notion ( int]e/ f 8 own p]son2
 he des]ts himself1 z x 71 or r he      
transports himself into ! "* ( 8 ma/]1 &
 ?us assumes an imag9>y p]sonality4 ,he 
complac5tly inve/s himself ) ! weal? (  
^? :o comm& him2 he %>es _! fame1 exalts

 himself by _! rank1 & fe$s 8 m9d )     
borr[$ greatness1 to :i* he atta*es m   
importance ?an ^? :o fully & really     
possess x4 ,!re is some?+ t\*+1 & at !  
same "t ridicul\s1 9 ?is /range         
confusion ( two diff]5t /ates ( be+4 ,^!
 passions ( ma/]s1 :5 !y pass into !    
s\ls ( m5ials1 assume ! natural         
dim5sions ( ! place !y occupy--!y are   
contract$ & l[]$4 ,:at 0 pride 9 ! =m]  
becomes pu]ile vanity & paltry o/5tation
 9 ! latt]4 ,! s]vants ( a great man are
 commonly mo/ punctili\s z to ! m>ks (  
respect due to him1 & !y atta* m        
importance to 8 slighte/ privileges ?an 
he does himself4 ,9 ,france a few ( ^!  
old s]vants ( ! ari/ocracy are /ill to  
be met ) "h & !re2 !y h surviv$ _! race1
 :i* w soon disappe> ) !m altoge!r4 ,9 !
 ,unit$ ,/ates ,i nev] saw anyone at all
 l !m4 ,! ,am]icans are n only          
unacqua9t$ ) ! k9d ( man1 b x is h>dly  
possible to make !m und]/& t su* ev]    
exi/$4 ,x is sc>cely less difficult = !m
 to conceive x1 ?an = u to =m a correct 

notion ( :at a slave 0 among/ ! ,romans1
 or a s]f 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,all ^! m5 
7 9 fact1 ?\gh 9 diff]5t degrees1       
results ( ! same cause3 !y are all      
retir+ f our sight1 & disappe>+ 9 !     
obscurity ( ! pa/1 toge!r ) ! social    
condition to :i* !y ow$ _! orig94       
,equality ( conditions turns s]vants &  
ma/]s into new be+s1 & places !m 9 new  
relative positions4 ,:5 social          
conditions are ne>ly equal1 m5 are      
con/antly *ang+ _! situations 9 life3   
!re is /ill a class ( m5ials & a class (
 ma/]s1 b ^! classes are n always       
compos$ ( ! same individuals1 /ill less 
( ! same families2 & ^? :o comm& are n m
 secure ( p]petuity ?an ^? :o obey4 ,z  
s]vants d n =m a sep>ate p1 !y h no     
habits1 prejudices1 or mann]s peculi> to
 !mselves2 !y are n rem>kable = any     
p>ticul> turn ( m9d or moods ( feel+4   
,!y "k no vices or virtues ( _!         
condition1 b !y p>take ( ! education1 ! 
op9ions1 ! feel+s1 ! virtues1 & ! vices 
( _! contempor>ies2 & !y are hone/ m5 or

 sc\ndrels 9 ! same way z _! ma/]s are4 
,! conditions ( s]vants are n less equal
 ?an ^? ( ma/]s4 ,z no m>k$ ranks or    
fix$ subord9ation are to be f\nd among/ 
!m1 !y w n display ei!r ! meanness or ! 
greatness :i* *>act]izes ! ari/ocracy ( 
m5ials z well z all o!r ari/ocracies4 ,i
 nev] saw a man 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates :o    
rem9d$ me ( t class ( confid5tial       
s]vants ( :i* we /ill reta9 a rem9isc5ce
 9 ,europe1 nei!r did ,i ev] meet ) su* 
a ?+ z a lackey3 all traces ( ! "o & ( !
 o!r h disappe>$4  ,9 democracies       
s]vants are n only equal among/         
!mselves1 b x may be said t !y are 9 "s 
sort ! equals ( _! ma/]s4 ,?is requires 
explanation 9 ord] to be rightly        
und]/ood4 ,at any mom5t a s]vant may    
become a ma/]1 & he aspires to rise to t
 condition3 ! s]vant is !re=e n a       
diff]5t man f ! ma/]4 ,:y !n has ! =m] a
 "r to comm&1 & :at compels ! latt] to  
obey8--! free & tempor>y cons5t ( bo? _!
 wills4 ,nei!r ( !m is by nature inf]ior
 to ! o!r2 !y only become s = a "t by   

cov5ant4 ,)9 ! t]ms ( ?is cov5ant1 ! "o 
is a s]vant1 ! o!r a ma/]2 beyond x !y  
are two citiz5s ( ! commonweal?--two m54
 ,i beg ! read] p>ticul>ly to obs]ve t  
?is is n only ! notion :i* s]vants      
!mselves ent]ta9 ( _! own condition2    
dome/ic s]vice is look$ ^u by ma/]s 9 ! 
same light2 & ! precise limits (        
au?ority & ob$i5ce are z cle>ly settl$ 9
 ! m9d ( ! "o z 9 t ( ! o!r4  ,:5 !     
great] "p ( ! community h long atta9$ a 
condition ne>ly alike1 & :5 equality is 
an old & ackn[l$g$ fact1 ! public m9d1  
:i* is nev] affect$ by exceptions1      
assigns c]ta9 g5]al limits to ! value ( 
man1 above or bel[ :i* no man c long    
rema9 plac$4 ,x is 9 va9 t weal? &      
pov]ty1 au?ority & ob$i5ce1 accid5tally 
int]pose great di/ances betwe5 two m52  
public op9ion1 f\nd$ ^u ! usual ord] (  
?+s1 draws !m to a common level1 &      
creates a species ( imag9>y equality    
betwe5 !m1 9 spite ( ! real inequality (
 _! conditions4 ,?is all-p[]ful op9ion  
p5etrates at l5g? ev5 into ! he>ts ( ^? 

^: int]e/ might arm !m to resi/ x2 x    
affects _! judgm5t :il/ x subdues _! w4 
,9 _! inmo/ convictions ! ma/] & !      
s]vant no long] p]ceive any deep-seat$  
diff]5ce betwe5 !m1 & !y nei!r hope nor 
fe> to meet ) any su* at any "t4 ,!y are
 !re=e nei!r subject to disda9 nor to   
ang]1 & !y disc]n 9 ea* o!r nei!r       
humility nor pride4 ,! ma/] holds !     
contract ( s]vice to be ! only s\rce ( 8
 p[]1 & ! s]vant reg>ds x z ! only cause
 ( 8 ob$i5ce4 ,!y d n qu>rel ab\t _!    
reciprocal situations1 b ea* kn[s 8 own 
& keeps x4  ,9 ! ,fr5* army ! common    
soldi] is tak5 f ne>ly ! same classes z 
! (fic]1 & may hold ! same commissions2 
out ( ! ranks he consid]s himself       
entirely equal to 8 milit>y sup]iors1 & 
9 po9t ( fact he is s2 b :5 "u arms he  
does n hesitate to obey1 & 8 ob$i5ce is 
n ! less prompt1 precise1 & ready1 = be+
 volunt>y & def9$4 ,?is example may give
 a notion ( :at takes place betwe5 ma/]s
 & s]vants 9 democratic communities4  ,x
 w\ld be prepo/]\s to suppose t ^? w>m &

 deep-seat$ affections1 :i* are         
sometimes k9dl$ 9 ! dome/ic s]vice (    
ari/ocracy1 w ev] spr+ up betwe5 ^! two 
m51 or t !y w exhibit /rong in/ances (  
self-sacrifice4 ,9 ari/ocracies ma/]s & 
s]vants live ap>t1 & frequ5tly _! only  
int]c\rse is ?r\gh a ?ird p]son2 yet !y 
commonly /& firmly by "o ano!r4 ,9      
democratic c\ntries ! ma/] & ! s]vant   
are close toge!r2 !y are 9 daily p]sonal
 contact1 b _! m9ds d n int]m+le2 !y h  
common occupations1 h>dly ev] common    
int]e/s4 ,among/ su* a p ! s]vant always
 consid]s himself z a soj\rn] 9 ! dwell+
 ( 8 ma/]s4 ,he knew no?+ ( _!          
=efa!rs--he w see no?+ ( _!             
desc5dants--he has no?+ la/+ to expect f
 _! h&4 ,:y !n %\ld he conf\nd 8 life ) 
!irs1 & :5ce %\ld s /range a surr5d] (  
himself proce$8 ,! reciprocal position (
 ! two m5 is *ang$--_! mutual relations 
mu/ be s too4  ,i w\ld fa9 illu/rate all
 ^! reflections by ! example ( !        
,am]icans2 b = ?is purpose ! di/9ctions 
( p]sons & places mu/ be accurately     

trac$4 ,9 ! ,s\? ( ! ,union1 slav]y     
exi/s2 all t ,i h j said is consequ5tly 
inapplicable !re4 ,9 ! ,nor?1 ! majority
 ( s]vants are ei!r fre$m5 or ! *ildr5 (
 fre$m52 ^! p]sons occupy a conte/$     
position 9 ! public e/imation2 by ! laws
 !y are br\ght up to ! level ( _!       
ma/]s--by ! mann]s ( ! c\ntry !y are    
ob/9ately detrud$ f x4 ,!y d n !mselves 
cle>ly "k _! prop] place1 & !y are almo/
 always ei!r insol5t or crav54 ,b 9 !   
,nor!rn ,/ates1 especially 9 ,new       
,engl&1 !re are a c]ta9 numb] ( :ites1  
:o agree1 = wages1 to yield a tempor>y  
ob$i5ce to ! w ( _! fell[-citiz5s4 ,i h 
he>d t ^! s]vants commonly p]=m ! duties
 ( _! situation ) punctuality &         
intellig5ce2 & t )\t ?9k+ !mselves      
naturally inf]ior to ! p]son :o ord]s   
!m1 !y submit )\t reluctance to obey    
him4 ,!y appe> to me to c>ry into s]vice
 "s ( ^? manly habits :i* indep5d5ce &  
equality eng5d]4 ,hav+ once select$ a   
h>d way ( life1 !y d n seek to escape f 
x by indirect means2 & !y h suffici5t   

respect = !mselves1 n to refuse to _!   
ma/] t ob$i5ce :i* !y h freely promis$4 
,on _! "p1 ma/]s require no?+ ( _!      
s]vants b ! fai?ful & rigor\s p]=mance (
 ! cov5ant3 !y d n ask = m>ks ( respect1
 !y d n claim _! love or devot$         
atta*m5t2 x is en\gh t1 z s]vants1 !y   
are exact & hone/4 ,x w\ld n !n be true 
to ass]t t1 9 democratic society1 !     
relation ( s]vants & ma/]s is           
disorganiz$3 x is organiz$ on ano!r     
foot+2 ! rule is diff]5t1 b !re is a    
rule4  ,x is n my purpose to inquire    
:e!r ! new /ate ( ?+s :i* ,i h j        
describ$ is inf]ior to t :i* prec$$ x1  
or simply diff]5t4 ,en\gh = me t x is   
fix$ & det]m9$3 = :at is mo/ important  
to meet ) among m5 is n any giv5 ord]+1 
b ord]4 ,b :at %all ,i say ( ^? sad &   
tr\bl$ times at :i* equality is e/abli%$
 9 ! mid/ ( ! tumult ( revolution--:5   
democracy1 aft] hav+ be5 introduc$ into 
! /ate ( society1 /ill /ruggles )       
difficulty aga9/ ! prejudices & mann]s (
 ! c\ntry8 ,! laws1 & p>tially public   

op9ion1 already decl>e t no natural or  
p]man5t inf]iority exi/s betwe5 ! s]vant
 & ! ma/]4 ,b ?is new belief has n yet  
rea*$ ! inn]mo/ convictions ( ! latt]1  
or r 8 he>t rejects x2 9 ! secret       
p]suasion ( 8 m9d ! ma/] ?9ks t he      
belongs to a peculi> & sup]ior race2 he 
d>es n say s1 b he %udd]s :il/ he all[s 
himself to be dragg$ to ! same level4 ,8
 au?ority ov] 8 s]vants becomes timid & 
at ! same "t h>%3 he has already ceas$  
to ent]ta9 = !m ! feel+s ( patroniz+    
k9dness :i* long unconte/$ p[] always   
eng5d]s1 & he is surpris$ t1 be+ *ang$  
himself1 8 s]vant *anges also4 ,he wants
 8 att5dants to =m regul> & p]man5t     
habits1 9 a condition ( dome/ic s]vice  
:i* is only tempor>y3 he requires t !y  
%\ld appe> cont5t$ ) & pr\d ( a s]vile  
condition1 :i* !y w "o day %ake (f--t !y
 %\ld sacrifice !mselves to a man :o c  
nei!r protect nor ru9 !m--& 9 %ort t !y 
%\ld contract an indissoluble engagem5t 
to a be+ l !mselves1 & "o :o w la/ no   
long] ?an !y w4  ,among/ ari/ocratic    

nations x (t5 happ5s t ! condition (    
dome/ic s]vice does n degrade ! "* ( ^? 
:o ent] ^u x1 because !y nei!r "k nor   
imag9e any o!r2 & ! amaz+ inequality :i*
 is manife/ betwe5 !m & _! ma/] appe>s  
to be ! necess>y & unavoidable          
consequ5ce ( "s hidd5 law ( ,provid5ce4 
,9 democracies ! condition ( dome/ic    
s]vice does n degrade ! "* ( ^? :o ent] 
^u x1 because x is freely *os51 & adopt$
 = a "t only2 because x is n /igmatiz$  
by public op9ion1 & creates no p]man5t  
inequality betwe5 ! s]vant & ! ma/]4 ,b 
:il/ ! transition f "o social condition 
to ano!r is go+ on1 !re is almo/ always 
a "t :5 m5's m9ds fluctuate betwe5 !    
ari/ocratic notion ( subjection & !     
democratic notion ( ob$i5ce4 ,ob$i5ce !n
 loses its moral importance 9 ! eyes (  
him :o obeys2 he no long] consid]s x z a
 species ( div9e obligation1 & he does n
 yet view x "u its purely human aspect2 
x has to him no "* ( sanctity or (      
ju/ice1 & he submits to x z to a degrad+
 b pr(itable condition4 ,at t mom5t a   

confus$ & imp]fect phantom ( equality   
haunts ! m9ds ( s]vants2 !y d n at once 
p]ceive :e!r ! equality to :i* !y are   
entitl$ is to be f\nd )9 or )\t ! pale (
 dome/ic s]vice2 & !y rebel 9 _! he>ts  
aga9/ a subord9ation to :i* !y h        
subject$ !mselves1 & f :i* !y d]ive     
actual pr(it4 ,!y cons5t to s]ve1 & !y  
blu% to obey2 !y l ! advantages (       
s]vice1 b n ! ma/]2 or r1 !y are n sure 
t !y ought n !mselves to be ma/]s1 & !y 
are incl9$ to consid] him :o ord]s !m z 
an unju/ usurp] ( _! own rights4 ,!n x  
is t ! dwell+ ( e citiz5 (f]s a         
spectacle some:at analog\s to ! gloomy  
aspect ( political society4 ,a secret & 
inte/9e w>f>e is go+ on !re betwe5 p[]s1
 ev] rivals & suspici\s ( "o ano!r3 !   
ma/] is ill-natur$ & weak1 ! s]vant     
ill-natur$ & intractable2 ! "o con/antly
 attempts to evade by unfair re/rictions
 8 obligation to protect & to           
remun]ate--! o!r 8 obligation to obey4  
,! re9s ( dome/ic gov]nm5t dangle betwe5
 !m1 to be snat*$ at by "o or ! o!r4 ,! 

l9es :i* divide au?ority f oppression1  
lib]ty f lic5se1 & "r f might1 are to _!
 eyes s jumbl$ toge!r & confus$1 t no "o
 kn[s exactly :at he is1 or :at he may  
be1 or :at he ought to be4 ,su* a       
condition is n democracy1 b revolution4 
,*apt] ,,vi3 ,t ,democratic ,in/itutions
 ,& ,mann]s ,t5d ,to ,raise ,r5ts ,&    
,%ort5 ,! ,t]ms ,( ,leases  ,:at has be5
 said ( s]vants & ma/]s is applicable1  
to a c]ta9 ext5t1 to l&[n]s & f>m+      
t5ants2 b ?is subject des]ves to be     
consid]$ by itself4 ,9 ,am]ica !re are1 
prop]ly speak+1 no t5ant f>m]s2 e man   
owns ! gr\nd he tills4 ,x mu/ be admitt$
 t democratic laws t5d greatly to       
increase ! numb] ( l&[n]s1 & to dim9i% t
 ( f>m+ t5ants4 ,yet :at takes place 9 !
 ,unit$ ,/ates is mu* less attributable 
to ! in/itutions ( ! c\ntry ?an to !    
c\ntry itself4 ,9 ,am]ica l& is *eap1 & 
anyone may easily become a l&[n]2 its   
returns are small1 & its produce _c well
 be divid$ betwe5 a l&[n] & a f>m]4     
,am]ica !re=e /&s alone 9 ?is z well z 9

 _m o!r respects1 & x w\ld be a mi/ake  
to take x z an example4  ,i believe t 9 
democratic z well z 9 ari/ocratic       
c\ntries !re w be l&[n]s & t5ants1 b !  
connection exi/+ betwe5 !m w be ( a     
diff]5t k9d4 ,9 ari/ocracies ! hire ( a 
f>m is paid to ! l&lord1 n only 9 r5t1 b
 9 respect1 reg>d1 & duty2 9 democracies
 ! :ole is paid 9 ca%4 ,:5 e/ates are   
divid$ & pass$ f h& to h&1 & ! p]man5t  
connection :i* exi/$ betwe5 families & !
 soil is dissolv$1 ! l&[n] & ! t5ant are
 only casually br\ght into contact4 ,!y 
meet = a mom5t to settle ! conditions ( 
! agreem5t1 & !n lose sight ( ea* o!r2  
!y are two /rang]s br\ght toge!r by a   
common int]e/1 & :o ke5ly talk ov] a    
matt] ( bus9ess1 ! sole object ( :i* is 
to make money4  ,9 proportion z prop]ty 
is subdivid$ & weal? di/ribut$ ov] !    
c\ntry1 ! community is fill$ ) p ^: =m] 
opul5ce is decl9+1 & ) o!rs ^: =tunes   
are ( rec5t gr[? & ^: wants increase m  
rapidly ?an _! res\rces4 ,= all su*     
p]sons ! smalle/ pecuni>y pr(it is a    

matt] ( importance1 & none ( !m feel    
dispos$ to waive any ( _! claims1 or to 
lose any portion ( _! income4 ,z ranks  
are int]m+l$1 & z v l>ge z well z v     
scanty =tunes become m r>e1 e day br+s !
 social condition ( ! l&[n] ne>] to t ( 
! f>m]2 ! "o has n naturally any        
unconte/$ sup]iority ov] ! o!r2 betwe5  
two m5 :o are equal1 & n at ease 9 _!   
circum/ances1 ! contract ( hire is      
exclusively an affair ( money4 ,a man ^:
 e/ate ext5ds ov] a :ole di/rict1 & :o  
owns a hundr$ f>ms1 is well aw>e ( !    
importance ( ga9+ at ! same "t !        
affections ( "s ?\s&s ( m52 ?is object  
appe>s to call = 8 ex]tions1 & to atta9 
x he w readily make consid]able         
sacrifices4 ,b he :o owns a hundr$ acres
 is ins5sible to simil> consid]ations1 &
 he c>es b little to w9 ! private reg>d 
( 8 t5ant4  ,an ari/ocracy does n expire
 l a man 9 a s+le day2 ! ari/ocratic    
pr9ciple is sl[ly und]m9$ 9 m5's op9ion1
 be=e x is attack$ 9 _! laws4 ,long be=e
 op5 w> is decl>$ aga9/ x1 ! tie :i* _h 

hi!rto unit$ ! high] classes to ! l[]   
may be se5 to be gradually relax$4      
,indiff]5ce & contempt are betray$ by "o
 class1 jeal\sy & hatr$ by ! o!rs2 !    
int]c\rse betwe5 ri* & poor becomes less
 frequ5t & less k9d1 & r5ts are rais$4  
,?is is n ! consequ5ce ( a democratic   
revolution1 b its c]ta9 h>b+]2 = an     
ari/ocracy :i* has lo/ ! affections ( ! 
p1 once & =ev]1 is l a tree dead at !   
root1 :i* is ! m easily torn up by !    
w9ds ! high] its bran*es h spread4  ,9 !
 c\rse ( ! la/ fifty ye>s ! r5ts ( f>ms 
h amaz+ly increas$1 n only 9 ,france b  
?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( ,europe4 ,!       
rem>kable improvem5ts :i* h tak5 place 9
 agriculture & manufactures )9 ! same   
p]iod d n suffice 9 my op9ion to expla9 
?is fact2 rec\rse mu/ be _h to ano!r    
cause m p[]ful & m conceal$4 ,i believe 
t cause is to be f\nd 9 ! democratic    
in/itutions :i* sev]al ,european nations
 h adopt$1 & 9 ! democratic passions :i*
 m or less agitate all ! re/4 ,i h      
frequ5tly he>d great ,engli% l&[n]s     

congratulate !mselves t1 at ! pres5t    
day1 !y d]ive a mu* l>g] income f _!    
e/ates ?an _! fa!rs did4 ,!y h p]haps   
good reasons to be glad2 b mo/ assur$ly 
!y "k n :at !y are glad (4 ,!y ?9k !y   
are mak+ a cle> ga91 :5 x is 9 reality  
only an ex*ange2 _! influ5ce is :at !y  
are p>t+ ) = ca%2 & :at !y ga9 9 money w
 ere long be lo/ 9 p[]4  ,!re is yet    
ano!r sign by :i* x is easy to "k t a   
great democratic revolution is go+ on or
 approa*+4 ,9 ! ,middle ,ages almo/ all 
l&s 7 leas$ = lives1 or = v long t]ms2 !
 dome/ic economy ( t p]iod %[s t leases 
= n9ety-n9e ye>s 7 m frequ5t !n ?an     
leases = twelve ye>s are n[4 ,m5 !n     
believ$ t families 7 immortal2 m5's     
conditions seem$ settl$ =ev]1 & ! :ole (
 society appe>$ to be s fix$1 t x 0 n   
suppos$ t any?+ w\ld ev] be /irr$ or    
%ak5 9 its /ructure4 ,9 ages ( equality1
 ! human m9d takes a diff]5t b5t2 !     
prevail+ notion is t no?+ abides1 & man 
is haunt$ by ! ?\ght ( mutability4 ,"u  
?is impression ! l&[n] & ! t5ant himself

 are in/9ctively av]se to protract$ t]ms
 ( obligation2 !y are afraid ( be+ ti$  
up to-morr[ by ! contract :i* b5efits !m
 today4 ,!y h vague anticipations ( "s  
sudd5 & un=ese5 *ange 9 _! conditions2  
!y mi/ru/ !mselves2 !y fe> le/ _! ta/e  
%\ld *ange1 & le/ !y %\ld lam5t t !y _c 
rid !mselves ( :at !y covet$2 nor are   
su* fe>s unf\nd$1 = 9 democratic ages t 
:i* is mo/ fluctuat+ amid/ ! fluctuation
 ( all ar\nd is ! he>t ( man4     ,*apt]
 ,,vii3 ,influ5ce ,( ,democracy ,on     
,wages  ,mo/ ( ! rem>ks :i* ,i h already
 made 9 speak+ ( s]vants & ma/]s1 may be
 appli$ to ma/]s & workm54 ,z !         
gradations ( ! social scale come to be  
less obs]v$1 :il/ ! great s9k ! humble  
rise1 & z pov]ty z well z opul5ce ceases
 to be h]$it>y1 ! di/ance bo? 9 reality 
& 9 op9ion1 :i* h]et(ore sep>at$ !      
workman f ! ma/]1 is less5$ e day4 ,!   
workman conceives a m l(ty op9ion ( 8   
rights1 ( 8 future1 ( himself2 he is    
fill$ ) new ambition & ) new desires1 he
 is h>ass$ by new wants4 ,e in/ant he   

views ) long+ eyes ! pr(its ( 8 employ]2
 & 9 ord] to %>e !m1 he /rives to       
dispose ( 8 labor at a high] rate1 & he 
g5]ally succe$s at l5g? 9 ! attempt4 ,9 
democratic c\ntries1 z well z else:]e1  
mo/ ( ! bran*es ( productive indu/ry are
 c>ri$ on at a small co/1 by m5 little  
remov$ by _! weal? or education above ! 
level ( ^? :om !y employ4 ,^!           
manufactur+ speculators are extremely   
num]\s2 _! int]e/s diff]2 !y _c !re=e   
easily conc]t or comb9e _! ex]tions4 ,on
 ! o!r h& ! workm5 h almo/ always "s    
sure res\rces1 :i* enable !m to refuse  
to "w :5 !y _c get :at !y conceive to be
 ! fair price ( _! labor4 ,9 ! con/ant  
/ruggle = wages :i* is go+ on betwe5 ^! 
two classes1 _! /r5g? is divid$1 &      
success alt]nates f "o to ! o!r4 ,x is  
ev5 probable t 9 ! end ! int]e/ ( !     
work+ class mu/ prevail2 = ! high wages 
:i* !y h already obta9$ make !m e day   
less dep5d5t on _! ma/]s2 & z !y gr[ m  
indep5d5t1 !y h great] facilities =     
obta9+ a fur!r increase ( wages4  ,i    

%all take = example t bran* ( productive
 indu/ry :i* is /ill at ! pres5t day !  
mo/ g5]ally foll[$ 9 ,france1 & 9 almo/ 
all ! c\ntries ( ! _w--,i mean !        
cultivation ( ! soil4 ,9 ,france mo/ (  
^? :o labor = hire 9 agriculture1 are   
!mselves own]s ( c]ta9 plots ( gr\nd1   
:i* j enable !m to subsi/ )\t work+ =   
anyone else4 ,:5 ^! labor]s come to (f] 
_! s]vices to a neighbor+ l&[n] or f>m]1
 if he refuses !m a c]ta9 rate ( wages1 
!y retire to _! own small prop]ty &     
await ano!r opportunity4  ,i ?9k t1 ^u !
 :ole1 x may be ass]t$ t a sl[ & gradual
 rise ( wages is "o ( ! g5]al laws (    
democratic communities4 ,9 proportion z 
social conditions become m equal1 wages 
rise2 & z wages are high]1 social       
conditions become m equal4 ,b a great & 
gloomy exception occurs 9 our own "t4 ,i
 h %[n 9 a prec$+ *apt] t ari/ocracy1   
expell$ f political society1 has tak5   
refuge 9 c]ta9 dep>tm5ts ( productive   
indu/ry1 & has e/abli%$ its sway !re "u 
ano!r =m2 ?is p[]fully affects ! rate ( 

wages4 ,z a l>ge capital is requir$ to  
emb>k 9 ! great manufactur+ speculations
 to :i* ,i allude1 ! numb] ( p]sons :o  
ent] ^u !m is exce$+ly limit$3 z _!     
numb] is small1 !y c easily conc]t      
toge!r1 & fix ! rate ( wages z !y       
please4 ,_! workm5 on ! contr>y are     
exce$+ly num]\s1 & ! numb] ( !m is      
always increas+2 =1 f "t to "t1 an      
extraord9>y run ( bus9ess takes place1  
dur+ :i* wages are inord9ately high1 &  
!y attract ! surr\nd+ population to !   
factories4 ,b1 :5 once m5 h embrac$ t   
l9e ( life1 we h already se5 t !y _c    
quit x aga91 because !y soon contract   
habits ( body & m9d :i* unfit !m = any  
o!r sort ( toil4 ,^! m5 h g5]ally b     
little education & indu/ry1 ) b few     
res\rces2 !y /& !re=e almo/ at ! m]cy ( 
! ma/]4 ,:5 competition1 or o!r =tuit\s 
circum/ances1 less5 8 pr(its1 he c r$uce
 ! wages ( 8 workm5 almo/ at pleasure1 &
 make f !m :at he loses by ! *ances (   
bus9ess4 ,%\ld ! workm5 /rike1 ! ma/]1  
:o is a ri* man1 c v well wait )\t be+  

ru9$ until necessity br+s !m back to    
him2 b !y mu/ "w day by day or !y die1 =
 _! only prop]ty is 9 _! h&s4 ,!y h long
 be5 impov]i%$ by oppression1 & ! poor] 
!y become ! m easily may !y be oppress$3
 !y c nev] escape f ?is fatal circle (  
cause & consequ5ce4 ,x is n !n surpris+ 
t wages1 aft] hav+ sometimes sudd5ly    
ris51 are p]man5tly l[]$ 9 ?is bran* (  
indu/ry2 :]eas 9 o!r call+s ! price (   
labor1 :i* g5]ally increases b little1  
is nev]!less con/antly augm5t$4  ,?is   
/ate ( dep5d5ce & wret*$ness1 9 :i* a "p
 ( ! manufactur+ population ( our "t    
lives1 =ms an exception to ! g5]al rule1
 contr>y to ! /ate ( all ! re/ ( !      
community2 b1 = ?is v reason1 no        
circum/ance is m important or m des]v+ (
 ! especial consid]ation ( ! legislator2
 = :5 ! :ole ( society is 9 motion1 x is
 difficult to keep any "o class         
/ation>y2 & :5 ! great] numb] ( m5 are  
op5+ new pa?s to =tune1 x is no less    
difficult to make ! few support 9 peace 
_! wants & _! desires4     ,*apt]       

,,viii3 ,influ5ce ,( ,democracy ,on     
,k9dr$  ,i h j exam9$ ! *anges :i* !    
equality ( conditions produces 9 !      
mutual relations ( ! sev]al memb]s ( !  
community among/ democratic nations1 &  
among/ ! ,am]icans 9 p>ticul>4 ,i w\ld  
n[ g deep]1 & inquire into ! clos] ties 
( k9dr$3 my object "h is n to seek = new
 tru?s1 b to %[ 9 :at mann] facts       
already kn[n are connect$ ) my subject4 
,x has be5 univ]sally rem>k$1 t 9 our "t
 ! sev]al memb]s ( a family /& ^u an    
entirely new foot+ t[>ds ea* o!r2 t !   
di/ance :i* =m]ly sep>at$ a fa!r f 8    
sons has be5 less5$2 & t pat]nal        
au?ority1 if n de/roy$1 is at lea/      
impair$4 ,some?+ analog\s to ?is1 b ev5 
m /rik+1 may be obs]v$ 9 ! ,unit$       
,/ates4 ,9 ,am]ica ! family1 9 ! ,roman 
& ari/ocratic signification ( ! ^w1 does
 n exi/4 ,all t rema9s ( x are a few    
ve/iges 9 ! fir/ ye>s ( *ildhood1 :5 !  
fa!r ex]cises1 )\t opposition1 t        
absolute dome/ic au?ority1 :i* !        
feebl5ess ( 8 *ildr5 r5d]s necess>y1 &  

:i* _! int]e/1 z well z 8 own           
inconte/able sup]iority1 w>rants4 ,b z  
soon z ! "y ,am]ican approa*es manhood1 
! ties ( filial ob$i5ce are relax$ day  
by day3 ma/] ( 8 ?\ghts1 he is soon ma/]
 ( 8 conduct4 ,9 ,am]ica !re is1 /rictly
 speak+1 no adolesc5ce3 at ! close (    
boyhood ! man appe>s1 & beg9s to trace  
out 8 own pa?4 ,x w\ld be an error to   
suppose t ?is is prec$$ by a dome/ic    
/ruggle1 9 :i* ! son has obta9$ by a    
sort ( moral viol5ce ! lib]ty t 8 fa!r  
refus$ him4 ,! same habits1 ! same      
pr9ciples :i* impel ! "o to ass]t 8     
indep5d5ce1 pr$ispose ! o!r to consid] !
 use ( t indep5d5ce z an inconte/able   
"r4 ,! =m] does n exhibit any ( ^?      
rancor\s or irregul> passions :i* di/urb
 m5 long aft] !y h %ak5 (f an e/abli%$  
au?ority2 ! latt] feels none ( t bitt] &
 angry regret :i* is apt to survive a   
bygone p[]4 ,! fa!r =esees ! limits ( 8 
au?ority long be=eh&1 & :5 ! "t arrives 
he surr5d]s x )\t a /ruggle3 ! son looks
 =w>d to ! exact p]iod at :i* he w be 8 

own ma/]2 & he ent]s ^u 8 fre$om )\t    
precipitation & )\t ef=t1 z a possession
 :i* is 8 own & :i* no "o seeks to wre/ 
f him4 99a  ,footnote a3 ,! ,am]icans1  
h[ev]1 h n yet ?\ght fit to /rip ! p>5t1
 z has be5 done 9 ,france1 ( "o ( ! *ief
 elem5ts ( p>5tal au?ority1 by depriv+  
him ( ! p[] ( dispos+ ( 8 prop]ty at 8  
dea?4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates !re are no     
re/rictions on ! p[]s ( a te/ator4 ,9   
?is respect1 z 9 almo/ all o!rs1 x is   
easy to p]ceive1 t if ! political       
legislation ( ! ,am]icans is mu* m      
democratic ?an t ( ! ,fr5*1 ! civil     
legislation ( ! latt] is inf9itely m    
democratic ?an t ( ! =m]4 ,?is may      
easily be acc\nt$ =4 ,! civil           
legislation ( ,france 0 ! "w ( a man :o 
saw t x 0 8 int]e/ to satisfy !         
democratic passions ( 8 contempor>ies 9 
all t 0 n directly & imm$iately ho/ile  
to 8 own p[]4 ,he 0 will+ to all[ "s    
popul> pr9ciples to regulate !          
di/ribution ( prop]ty & ! gov]nm5t (    
families1 provid$ !y 7 n to be introduc$

 into ! adm9i/ration ( public affairs4  
,:il/ ! torr5t ( democracy ov]:elm$ !   
civil laws ( ! c\ntry1 he hop$ to f9d an
 easy %elt] beh9d its political         
in/itutions4 ,?is policy 0 at once bo?  
adroit & selfi%2 b a compromise ( ?is   
k9d c\ld n la/2 = 9 ! end political     
in/itutions nev] fail to become ! image 
& expression ( civil society2 & 9 ?is   
s5se x may be said t no?+ is m political
 9 a nation ?an its civil legislation4  
,x may p]haps n be )\t utility to %[ h[ 
^! *anges :i* take place 9 family       
relations1 are closely connect$ ) !     
social & political revolution :i* is    
approa*+ its consummation "u our own    
obs]vation4 ,!re are c]ta9 great social 
pr9ciples1 :i* a p ei!r introduces      
ev]y:]e1 or tol]ates n[h]e4 ,9 c\ntries 
:i* are ari/ocratically con/itut$ ) all 
! gradations ( rank1 ! gov]nm5t nev]    
makes a direct appeal to ! mass ( !     
gov]n$3 z m5 are unit$ toge!r1 x is     
en\gh to lead ! =emo/1 ! re/ w foll[4   
,?is is equally applicable to ! family1 

z to all ari/ocracies :i* h a head4     
,among/ ari/ocratic nations1 social     
in/itutions recognize1 9 tru?1 no "o 9 !
 family b ! fa!r2 *ildr5 are receiv$ by 
society at 8 h&s2 society gov]ns him1 he
 gov]ns !m4 ,?us ! p>5t has n only a    
natural "r1 b he acquires a political   
"r1 to comm& !m3 he is ! au?or & !      
support ( 8 family2 b he is also its    
con/itut$ rul]4 ,9 democracies1 :]e !   
gov]nm5t picks out e individual s+ly f !
 mass1 to make him subs]vi5t to ! g5]al 
laws ( ! community1 no su* int]m$iate   
p]son is requir$3 a fa!r is !re1 9 ! eye
 ( ! law1 only a memb] ( ! community1   
old] & ri*] ?an 8 sons4  ,:5 mo/ ( !    
conditions ( life are extremely unequal1
 & ! inequality ( ^! conditions is      
p]man5t1 ! notion ( a sup]ior gr[s ^u ! 
imag9ations ( m53 if ! law inve/$ him ) 
no privileges1 cu/om & public op9ion    
w\ld conc$e !m4 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 m5   
diff] b little f ea* o!r1 & d n always  
rema9 9 dissimil> conditions ( life1 !  
g5]al notion ( a sup]ior becomes weak] &

 less di/9ct3 x is va9 = legislation to 
/rive to place him :o obeys v mu* b5ea? 
him :o comm&s2 ! mann]s ( ! "t br+ ! two
 m5 ne>] to "o ano!r1 & draw !m daily   
t[>ds ! same level4 ,al?\gh !           
legislation ( an ari/ocratic p %\ld     
grant no peculi> privileges to ! heads (
 families2 ,i %all n be ! less conv9c$ t
 _! p[] is m respect$ & m ext5sive ?an 9
 a democracy2 = ,i "k t1 :atsoev] ! laws
 may be1 sup]iors always appe> high] &  
inf]iors l[] 9 ari/ocracies ?an among/  
democratic nations4   ,:5 m5 live m = ! 
remembrance ( :at has be5 ?an = ! c>e ( 
:at is1 & :5 !y are m giv5 to att5d to  
:at _! ance/ors ?\ght ?an to ?9k        
!mselves1 ! fa!r is ! natural & necess>y
 tie betwe5 ! pa/ & ! pres5t--! l9k by  
:i* ! ends ( ^! two *a9s are connect$4  
,9 ari/ocracies1 !n1 ! fa!r is n only ! 
civil head ( ! family1 b ! oracle ( its 
traditions1 ! exp\nd] ( its cu/oms1 !   
arbit] ( its mann]s4 ,he is li/5$ to )  
def]5ce1 he is address$ ) respect1 & !  
love :i* is felt = him is always temp]$ 

) fe>4 ,:5 ! condition ( society becomes
 democratic1 & m5 adopt z _! g5]al      
pr9ciple t x is good & lawful to judge (
 all ?+s = "o's self1 us+ =m] po9ts (   
belief n z a rule ( fai? b simply z a   
means ( in=mation1 ! p[] :i* ! op9ions (
 a fa!r ex]cise ov] ^? ( 8 sons dim9i%es
 z well z 8 legal p[]4  ,p]haps !       
subdivision ( e/ates :i* democracy br+s 
) x contributes m ?an any?+ else to     
*ange ! relations exi/+ betwe5 a fa!r & 
8 *ildr54 ,:5 ! prop]ty ( ! fa!r ( a    
family is scanty1 8 son & himself       
con/antly live 9 ! same place1 & %>e !  
same occupations3 habit & necessity br+ 
!m toge!r1 & =ce !m to hold con/ant     
communication3 ! inevitable consequ5ce  
is a sort ( famili> intimacy1 :i* r5d]s 
au?ority less absolute1 & :i* c ill be  
reconcil$ ) ! ext]nal =ms ( respect4 ,n[
 9 democratic c\ntries ! class ( ^? :o  
are possess$ ( small =tunes is precisely
 t :i* gives /r5g? to ! notions1 & a    
p>ticul> direction to ! mann]s1 ( !     
community4 ,t class makes its op9ions   

prepond]ate z univ]sally z its w1 & ev5 
^? :o are mo/ incl9$ to resi/ its comm&s
 are c>ri$ away 9 ! end by its example4 
,i h kn[n eag] oppon5ts ( democracy :o  
all[$ _! *ildr5 to address !m ) p]fect  
colloquial equality4  ,?us1 at ! same "t
 t ! p[] ( ari/ocracy is decl9+1 !      
au/]e1 ! conv5tional1 & ! legal "p (    
p>5tal au?ority vani%es1 & a species (  
equality prevails ar\nd ! dome/ic he>?4 
,i "k n1 ^u ! :ole1 :e!r society loses  
by ! *ange1 b ,i am incl9$ to believe t 
man individually is a ga9] by x4 ,i ?9k 
t1 9 proportion z mann]s & laws become m
 democratic1 ! relation ( fa!r & son    
becomes m intimate & m affectionate2    
rules & au?ority are less talk$ (2      
confid5ce & t5d]ness are (t5times       
increas$1 & x w\ld seem t ! natural bond
 is drawn clos] 9 proportion z ! social 
bond is loos5$4 ,9 a democratic family !
 fa!r ex]cises no o!r p[] ?an t ) :i* m5
 love to inve/ ! affection & ! exp]i5ce 
( age2 8 ord]s w\ld p]haps be disobey$1 
b 8 advice is = ! mo/ "p au?oritative4  

,?\gh he be n h$g$ 9 ) c]emonial        
respect1 8 sons at lea/ acco/ him )     
confid5ce2 no settl$ =m ( spee* is      
appropriat$ to ! mode ( address+ him1 b 
!y speak to him con/antly1 & are ready  
to consult him day by day2 ! ma/] & !   
con/itut$ rul] h vani%$--! fa!r rema9s4 
,no?+ m is ne$$1 9 ord] to judge ( !    
diff]5ce betwe5 ! two /ates ( society 9 
?is respect1 ?an to p]use ! family      
correspond5ce ( ari/ocratic ages4 ,!    
/yle is always correct1 c]emoni\s1 /iff1
 & s cold t ! natural w>m? ( ! he>t c   
h>dly be felt 9 ! language4 ,! language1
 on ! contr>y1 address$ by a son to 8   
fa!r 9 democratic c\ntries is always    
m>k$ by m+l$ fre$om1 famili>ity &       
affection1 :i* at once %[ t new         
relations h sprung up 9 ! bosom ( !     
family4  ,a simil> revolution takes     
place 9 ! mutual relations ( *ildr54 ,9 
ari/ocratic families1 z well z 9        
ari/ocratic society1 e place is m>k$ out
 be=eh&4 ,n only does ! fa!r occupy a   
sep>ate rank1 9 :i* he enjoys ext5sive  

privileges1 b ev5 ! *ildr5 are n equal  
among/ !mselves4 ,! age & sex ( ea*     
irrevocably det]m9e 8 rank1 & secure to 
him c]ta9 privileges3 mo/ ( ^!          
di/9ctions are aboli%$ or dim9i%$ by    
democracy4 ,9 ari/ocratic families !    
elde/ son1 inh]it+ ! great] "p ( !      
prop]ty1 & almo/ all ! rights ( !       
family1 becomes ! *ief1 &1 to a c]ta9   
ext5t1 ! ma/]1 ( 8 bro!rs4 ,greatness & 
p[] are = him--= !m1 m$iocrity &        
dep5d5ce4 ,nev]!less x w\ld be wrong to 
suppose t1 among/ ari/ocratic nations1 !
 privileges ( ! elde/ son are           
advantage\s to himself alone1 or t !y   
excite no?+ b envy & hatr$ 9 ^? ar\nd   
him4 ,! elde/ son commonly endeavors to 
procure weal? & p[] = 8 bro!rs1 because 
! g5]al spl5dor ( ! h\se is reflect$    
back on him :o repres5ts x2 ! y\ng] sons
 seek to back ! eld] bro!r 9 all 8      
und]tak+s1 because ! greatness & p[] ( !
 head ( ! family bett] enable him to    
provide = all its bran*es4 ,! diff]5t   
memb]s ( an ari/ocratic family are !re=e

 v closely b\nd toge!r2 _! int]e/s are  
connect$1 _! m9ds agree1 b _! he>ts are 
seldom 9 h>mony4  ,democracy also b9ds  
bro!rs to ea* o!r1 b by v diff]5t means4
 ,"u democratic laws all ! *ildr5 are   
p]fectly equal1 & consequ5tly indep5d5t2
 no?+ br+s !m =cibly toge!r1 b no?+     
keeps !m ap>t2 & z !y h ! same orig91 z 
!y are tra9$ "u ! same ro(1 z !y are    
treat$ ) ! same c>e1 & z no peculi>     
privilege di/+ui%es or divides !m1 !    
affectionate & y\?ful intimacy ( e>ly   
ye>s easily spr+s up betwe5 !m4 ,sc>cely
 any opportunities occur to break ! tie 
?us =m$ at ! outset ( life2 = _!        
bro!rhood br+s !m daily toge!r1 )\t     
emb>rass+ !m4 ,x is n1 !n1 by int]e/1 b 
by common associations & by ! free      
sympa?y ( op9ion & ( ta/e1 t democracy  
unites bro!rs to ea* o!r4 ,x divides _! 
inh]itance1 b x all[s _! he>ts & m9ds to
 m+le toge!r4 ,su* is ! *>m ( ^!        
democratic mann]s1 t ev5 ! p>tisans (   
ari/ocracy are caught by x2 & aft] hav+ 
exp]i5c$ x = "s "t1 !y are by no means  

tempt$ to rev]t to ! respectful & frigid
 obs]vance ( ari/ocratic families4 ,!y  
w\ld be glad to reta9 ! dome/ic habits (
 democracy1 if !y might ?r[ (f its      
social conditions & its laws2 b ^!      
elem5ts are indissolubly unit$1 & x is  
impossible to enjoy ! =m] )\t endur+ !  
latt]4 ,! rem>ks ,i h made on filial    
love & frat]nal affection are applicable
 to all ! passions :i* emanate          
spontane\sly f human nature itself4 ,if 
a c]ta9 mode ( ?\ght or feel+ is !      
result ( "s peculi> condition ( life1 :5
 t condition is alt]$ no?+ :atev] rema9s
 ( ! ?\ght or feel+4 ,?us a law may b9d 
two memb]s ( ! community v closely to "o
 ano!r2 b t law be+ aboli%$1 !y /&      
asund]4 ,no?+ 0 m /rict ?an ! tie :i*   
unit$ ! vassal to ! "l "u ! feudal      
sy/em2 at ! pres5t day ! two m5 "k n ea*
 o!r2 ! fe>1 ! gratitude1 & ! affection 
:i* =m]ly connect$ !m h vani%$1 & n a   
ve/ige ( ! tie rema9s4 ,su*1 h[ev]1 is n
 ! case ) ^? feel+s :i* are natural to  
mank9d4 ,:5ev] a law attempts to tutor  

^! feel+s 9 any p>ticul> mann]1 x seldom
 fails to weak5 !m2 by attempt+ to add  
to _! int5sity1 x robs !m ( "s ( _!     
elem5ts1 = !y are nev] /rong] ?an :5    
left to !mselves4  ,democracy1 :i*      
de/roys or obscures almo/ all ! old     
conv5tional rules ( society1 & :i*      
prev5ts m5 f readily ass5t+ to new ones1
 entirely effaces mo/ ( ! feel+s to :i* 
^! conv5tional rules h giv5 rise2 b x   
only modifies "s o!rs1 & frequ5tly      
imp>ts to !m a degree ( en]gy &         
sweetness unkn[n be=e4 ,p]haps x is n   
impossible to cond5se into a s+le       
proposition ! :ole mean+ ( ?is *apt]1 & 
( sev]al o!rs t prec$$ x4 ,democracy    
loos5s social ties1 b x draws ! ties (  
nature m tight2 x br+s k9dr$ m closely  
toge!r1 :il/ x places ! v>i\s memb]s ( !
 community m widely ap>t4     ,*apt]    
,,ix3 ,education ,( ,"y ,wom5 ,9 ,!     
,unit$ ,/ates  ,no free communities ev] 
exi/$ )\t morals2 &1 z ,i obs]v$ 9 ! =m]
 "p ( ?is "w1 morals are ! "w ( woman4  
,consequ5tly1 :atev] affects ! condition

 ( wom51 _! habits & _! op9ions1 has    
great political importance 9 my eyes4   
,among/ almo/ all ,prote/ant nations "y 
wom5 are f> m ! mi/resses ( _! own      
actions ?an !y are 9 ,ca?olic c\ntries4 
,?is indep5d5ce is /ill great] 9        
,prote/ant c\ntries1 l ,engl&1 :i* h    
reta9$ or acquir$ ! "r ( self-gov]nm5t2 
! _s ( fre$om is !n infus$ into !       
dome/ic circle by political habits & by 
religi\s op9ions4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates !  
doctr9es ( ,prote/antism are comb9$ )   
great political fre$om & a mo/          
democratic /ate ( society2 & n[h]e are  
"y wom5 surr5d]$ s e>ly or s completely 
to _! own guidance4 ,long be=e an       
,am]ican girl arrives at ! age (        
m>riage1 h] emancipation f mat]nal      
control beg9s2 %e has sc>cely ceas$ to  
be a *ild :5 %e already ?9ks = h]self1  
speaks ) fre$om1 & acts on h] own       
impulse4 ,! great sc5e ( ! _w is        
con/antly op5 to h] view2 f> f seek+    
concealm5t1 x is e day disclos$ to h] m 
completely1 & %e is taught to survey x )

 a firm & calm gaze4 ,?us ! vices &     
dang]s ( society are e>ly reveal$ to h]2
 z %e sees !m cle>ly1 %e views !m )\t   
illusions1 & braves !m )\t fe>2 = %e is 
full ( reliance on h] own /r5g?1 & h]   
reliance seems to be %>$ by all :o are  
ab\t h]4 ,an ,am]ican girl sc>cely ev]  
displays t virg9al bloom 9 ! mid/ ( "y  
desires1 or t innoc5t & +5u\s grace :i* 
usually att5ds ! ,european woman 9 !    
transition f girlhood to y\?4 ,x is     
r>ely t an ,am]ican woman at any age    
displays *ildi% timidity or ignorance4  
,l ! "y wom5 ( ,europe1 %e seeks to     
please1 b %e kn[s precisely ! co/ (     
pleas+4 ,if %e does n ab&on h]self to   
evil1 at lea/ %e kn[s t x exi/s2 & %e is
 rem>kable r = purity ( mann]s ?an =    
*a/ity ( m9d4 ,i h be5 frequ5tly        
surpris$1 & almo/ fright5$1 at ! s+ul>  
address & happy boldness ) :i* "y wom5 9
 ,am]ica contrive to manage _! ?\ghts & 
_! language amid/ all ! difficulties (  
/imulat+ conv]sation2 a philosoph] w\ld 
h /umbl$ at e /ep along ! n>r[ pa? :i*  

!y trod )\t accid5ts & )\t ef=t4 ,x is  
easy inde$ to p]ceive t1 ev5 amid/ !    
indep5d5ce ( e>ly y\?1 an ,am]ican woman
 is always mi/ress ( h]self2 %e indulges
 9 all p]mitt$ pleasures1 )\t yield+    
h]self up to any ( !m2 & h] reason nev] 
all[s ! re9s ( self-guidance to drop1   
?\gh x (t5 seems to hold !m loosely4  ,9
 ,france1 :]e remnants ( e age are /ill 
s /rangely m+l$ 9 ! op9ions & ta/es ( ! 
p1 wom5 commonly receive a res]v$1      
retir$1 & almo/ cloi/ral education1 z !y
 did 9 ari/ocratic times2 & !n !y are   
sudd5ly ab&on$1 )\t a guide & )\t       
assi/ance1 9 ! mid/ ( all !             
irregul>ities insep>able f democratic   
society4 ,! ,am]icans are m consi/5t4   
,!y h f\nd out t 9 a democracy !        
indep5d5ce ( individuals _c fail to be v
 great1 y\? premature1 ta/es            
ill-re/ra9$1 cu/oms fleet+1 public      
op9ion (t5 unsettl$ & p[]less1 pat]nal  
au?ority weak1 & m>ital au?ority        
conte/$4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 believ+ t 
!y _h little *ance ( repress+ 9 woman ! 

mo/ vehem5t passions ( ! human he>t1 !y 
held t ! sur] way 0 to tea* h] ! art (  
combat+ ^? passions = h]self4 ,z !y c\ld
 n prev5t h] virtue f be+ expos$ to     
frequ5t dang]1 !y det]m9$ t %e %\ld "k  
h[ be/ to def5d x2 & m reliance 0 plac$ 
on ! free vigor ( h] w ?an on safegu>ds 
:i* h be5 %ak5 or ov]?r[n4 ,in/ead1 !n1 
( inculcat+ mi/ru/ ( h]self1 !y         
con/antly seek to enhance _! confid5ce 9
 h] own /r5g? ( "*4 ,z x is nei!r       
possible nor desirable to keep a "y     
woman 9 p]petual or complete ignorance1 
!y ha/5 to give h] a precoci\s k on all 
subjects4 ,f> f hid+ ! corruptions ( !  
_w f h]1 !y pref] t %e %\ld see !m at   
once & tra9 h]self to %un !m2 & !y hold 
x ( m importance to protect h] conduct  
?an to be ov]-scrupul\s ( h] innoc5ce4  
,al?\gh ! ,am]icans are a v religi\s p1 
!y d n rely on religion alone to def5d !
 virtue ( woman2 !y seek to arm h]      
reason also4 ,9 ?is !y h foll[$ ! same  
me?od z 9 sev]al o!r respects2 !y fir/  
make ! mo/ vigor\s ef=ts to br+         

individual indep5d5ce to ex]cise a prop]
 control ov] itself1 & !y d n call 9 !  
aid ( religion until !y h rea*$ ! utmo/ 
limits ( human /r5g?4 ,i am aw>e t an   
education ( ?is k9d is n )\t dang]2 ,i  
am s5sible t x t5ds to invigorate !     
judgm5t at ! exp5se ( ! imag9ation1 & to
 make cold & virtu\s wom5 in/ead (      
affectionate wives & agreeable          
companions to man4 ,society may be m    
tranquil & bett] regulat$1 b dome/ic    
life has (t5 few] *>ms4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are 
second>y evils1 :i* may be brav$ = !    
sake ( high] int]e/s4 ,at ! /age at :i* 
we are n[ arriv$ ! "t = *oos+ is no     
long] )9 our control2 a democratic      
education is indisp5sable to protect    
wom5 f ! dang]s ) :i* democratic        
in/itutions & mann]s surr\nd !m4        
,*apt] ,x3 ,! ,"y ,woman ,9 ,! ,"* ,( ,a
 ,wife  ,9 ,am]ica ! indep5d5ce ( woman 
is irrevocably lo/ 9 ! bonds (          
matrimony3 if an unm>ri$ woman is less  
con/ra9$ !re ?an else:]e1 a wife is     
subject$ to /rict] obligations4 ,! =m]  

makes h] fa!r's h\se an abode ( fre$om &
 ( pleasure2 ! latt] lives 9 ! home ( h]
 husb& z if x 7 a cloi/]4 ,yet ^! two   
diff]5t conditions ( life are p]haps n s
 contr>y z may be suppos$1 & x is       
natural t ! ,am]ican wom5 %\ld pass     
?r\gh ! "o to arrive at ! o!r4          
,religi\s peoples & trad+ nations       
ent]ta9 peculi>ly s]i\s notions (       
m>riage3 ! =m] consid] ! regul>ity (    
woman's life z ! be/ pl$ge & mo/ c]ta9  
sign ( ! purity ( h] morals2 ! latt]    
reg>d x z ! highe/ security = ! ord] &  
prosp]ity ( ! h\sehold4 ,! ,am]icans are
 at ! same "t a puritanical p & a       
comm]cial nation3 _! religi\s op9ions1 z
 well z _! trad+ habits1 consequ5tly    
lead !m to require mu* abnegation on !  
"p ( woman1 & a con/ant sacrifice ( h]  
pleasures to h] duties :i* is seldom    
dem&$ ( h] 9 ,europe4 ,?us 9 ! ,unit$   
,/ates ! inexorable op9ion ( ! public   
c>efully circumscribes woman )9 ! n>r[  
circle ( dome/ic int]e/ & duties1 &     
=bids h] to /ep beyond x4  ,^u h]       

entrance into ! _w a "y ,am]ican woman  
f9ds ^! notions firmly e/abli%$2 %e sees
 ! rules :i* are d]iv$ f !m2 %e is n sl[
 to p]ceive t %e _c dep>t = an in/ant f 
! e/abli%$ usages ( h] contempor>ies1   
)\t putt+ 9 jeop>dy h] peace ( m9d1 h]  
honor1 nay ev5 h] social exi/5ce2 & %e  
f9ds ! en]gy requir$ = su* an act (     
submission 9 ! firmness ( h] und]/&+ & 9
 ! virile habits :i* h] education has   
giv5 h]4 ,x may be said t %e has le>n$  
by ! use ( h] indep5d5ce to surr5d] x   
)\t a /ruggle & )\t a murmur :5 ! "t    
comes = mak+ ! sacrifice4 ,b no ,am]ican
 woman falls into ! toils ( matrimony z 
into a sn>e held out to h] simplicity & 
ignorance4 ,%e has be5 taught be=eh& :at
 is expect$ ( h]1 & volunt>ily & freely 
does %e ent] ^u ?is engagem5t4 ,%e      
supports h] new condition ) c\rage1     
because %e *ose x4 ,z 9 ,am]ica pat]nal 
discipl9e is v relax$ & ! conjugal tie v
 /rict1 a "y woman does n contract !    
latt] )\t consid]able circumspection &  
appreh5sion4 ,precoci\s m>riages are    

r>e4 ,?us ,am]ican wom5 d n m>ry until  
_! und]/&+s are ex]cis$ & rip5$2 :]eas 9
 o!r c\ntries mo/ wom5 g5]ally only beg9
 to ex]cise & to rip5 _! und]/&+s aft]  
m>riage4  ,i by no means suppose1 h[ev]1
 t ! great *ange :i* takes place 9 all !
 habits ( wom5 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 z soon
 z !y are m>ri$1 ought solely to be     
attribut$ to ! con/ra9t ( public op9ion3
 x is frequ5tly impos$ ^u !mselves by ! 
sole ef=t ( _! own w4 ,:5 ! "t = *oos+ a
 husb& is arriv$1 t cold & /]n reason+  
p[] :i* has be5 educat$ & invigorat$ by 
! free obs]vation ( ! _w1 tea*es an     
,am]ican woman t a _s ( levity &        
indep5d5ce 9 ! bonds ( m>riage is a     
con/ant subject ( annoyance1 n (        
pleasure2 x tells h] t ! amusem5ts ( !  
girl _c become ! recreations ( ! wife1 &
 t ! s\rces ( a m>ri$ woman's happ9ess  
are 9 ! home ( h] husb&4 ,z %e cle>ly   
disc]ns be=eh& ! only road :i* c lead to
 dome/ic happ9ess1 %e ent]s ^u x at     
once1 & foll[s x to ! end )\t seek+ to  
turn back4  ,! same /r5g? ( purpose :i* 

! "y wives ( ,am]ica display1 9 b5d+    
!mselves at once & )\t rep9+ to ! au/]e 
duties ( _! new condition1 is no less   
manife/ 9 all ! great trials ( _! lives4
 ,9 no c\ntry 9 ! _w are private =tunes 
m prec>i\s ?an 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x is 
n uncommon = ! same man1 9 ! c\rse ( 8  
life1 to rise & s9k aga9 ?r\gh all !    
grades :i* lead f opul5ce to pov]ty4    
,am]ican wom5 support ^! vicissitudes ) 
calm & unqu5*able en]gy3 x w\ld seem t  
_! desires contract1 z easily z !y exp&1
 ) _! =tunes4 99a  ,footnote a3 ,see    
,app5dix ,s4  ,! great] "p ( ! adv5tur]s
 :o migrate e ye> to p ! we/]n wilds1   
belong1 z ,i obs]v$ 9 ! =m] "p ( ?is "w1
 to ! old ,anglo-,am]ican race ( !      
,nor!rn ,/ates4 ,_m ( ^! m51 :o ru% s   
boldly onw>ds 9 pursuit ( weal?1 7      
already 9 ! enjoym5t ( a compet5cy 9 _! 
own "p ( ! c\ntry4 ,!y take _! wives    
along ) !m1 & make !m %>e ! c\ntless    
p]ils & privations :i* always att5d !   
comm5cem5t ( ^! exp$itions4 ,i h (t5    
met1 ev5 on ! v]ge ( ! wild]ness1 ) "y  

wom51 :o aft] hav+ be5 br\ght up amid/  
all ! com=ts ( ! l>ge t[ns ( ,new       
,engl&1 _h pass$1 almo/ )\t any         
int]m$iate /age1 f ! weal?y abode ( _!  
p>5ts to a com=tless hovel 9 a =e/4     
,fev]1 solitude1 & a t$i\s life _h n    
brok5 ! spr+s ( _! c\rage4 ,_! features 
7 impair$ & fad$1 b _! looks 7 firm3 !y 
appe>$ to be at once sad & resolute4 ,i 
d n d\bt t ^! "y ,am]ican wom5 _h       
amass$1 9 ! education ( _! e>ly ye>s1 t 
inw>d /r5g? :i* !y display$ "u ^!       
circum/ances4 ,! e>ly culture ( ! girl  
may /ill !re=e be trac$1 9 ! ,unit$     
,/ates1 "u ! aspect ( m>riage3 h] "p is 
*ang$1 h] habits are diff]5t1 b h] "* is
 ! same4     ,*apt] ,,xi3 ,t ,!         
,equality ,( ,conditions ,contributes   
,to ,! ,ma9t5ance ,( ,good ,morals ,9   
,am]ica  ,"s philosoph]s & hi/orians h  
said1 or h h9t$1 t ! /rictness ( female 
morality 0 increas$ or dim9i%$ simply by
 ! di/ance ( a c\ntry f ! equator4 ,?is 
solution ( ! difficulty 0 an easy "o2 & 
no?+ 0 requir$ b a globe & a pair (     

compasses to settle 9 an in/ant "o ( !  
mo/ difficult problems 9 ! condition (  
mank9d4 ,b ,i am n aw>e t ?is pr9ciple (
 ! mat]iali/s is support$ by facts4 ,!  
same nations h be5 *a/e or dissolute at 
diff]5t p]iods ( _! hi/ory2 ! /rictness 
or ! laxity ( _! morals dep5d$ !re=e on 
"s v>iable cause1 n only on ! natural   
qualities ( _! c\ntry1 :i* 7 inv>iable4 
,i d n d5y t 9 c]ta9 climates ! passions
 :i* are occasion$ by ! mutual          
attraction ( ! sexes are peculi>ly      
int5se2 b ,i am ( op9ion t ?is natural  
int5sity may always be excit$ or re/ra9$
 by ! condition ( society & by political
 in/itutions4  ,al?\gh ! travell]s :o h 
visit$ ,nor? ,am]ica diff] on a great   
numb] ( po9ts1 !y all agree 9 rem>k+ t  
morals are f> m /rict !re ?an else:]e4  
,x is evid5t t on ?is po9t ! ,am]icans  
are v sup]ior to _! prog5itors !        
,engli%4 ,a sup]ficial glance at ! two  
nations w e/abli% ! fact4 ,9 ,engl&1 z 9
 all o!r c\ntries ( ,europe1 public     
malice is con/antly attack+ ! frailties 

( wom54 ,philosoph]s & /atesm5 are he>d 
to deplore t morals are n suffici5tly   
/rict1 & ! lit]>y productions ( ! c\ntry
 con/antly lead "o to suppose s4 ,9     
,am]ica all books1 novels n except$1    
suppose wom5 to be *a/e1 & no "o ?9ks ( 
relat+ affairs ( gallantry4 ,no d\bt ?is
 great regul>ity ( ,am]ican morals      
orig9ates p>tly 9 ! c\ntry1 9 ! race ( !
 p1 & 9 _! religion3 b all ^! causes1   
:i* op]ate else:]e1 d n suffice to      
acc\nt = x2 rec\rse mu/ be _h to "s     
special reason4 ,?is reason appe>s to me
 to be ! pr9ciple ( equality & !        
in/itutions d]iv$ f x4 ,equality (      
conditions does n ( itself eng5d]       
regul>ity ( morals1 b x unque/ionably   
facilitates & increases x4 99a ,footnote
 a3 ,see ,app5dix ,t4  ,among/          
ari/ocratic nations bir? & =tune        
frequ5tly make two su* diff]5t be+s (   
man & woman1 t !y c nev] be unit$ to ea*
 o!r4 ,_! passions draw !m toge!r1 b !  
condition ( society1 & ! notions sugge/$
 by x1 prev5t !m f contract+ a p]man5t &

 o/5sible tie4 ,! necess>y consequ5ce is
 a great numb] ( transi5t & cl&e/9e     
connections4 ,nature secretly av5ges    
h]self = ! con/ra9t impos$ ^u h] by !   
laws ( man4 ,?is is n s mu* ! case :5 ! 
equality ( conditions has swept away all
 ! imag9>y1 or ! real1 b>ri]s :i*       
sep>at$ man f woman4 ,no girl !n        
believes t %e _c become ! wife ( ! man  
:o loves h]2 & ?is r5d]s all brea*es (  
morality be=e m>riage v uncommon3 =1    
:atev] be ! cr$ulity ( ! passions1 a    
woman w h>dly be able to p]suade h]self 
t %e is belov$1 :5 h] lov] is p]fectly  
free to m>ry h] & does n4  ,! same cause
 op]ates1 ?\gh m indirectly1 on m>ri$   
life4 ,no?+ bett] s]ves to ju/ify an    
illicit passion1 ei!r to ! m9ds ( ^? :o 
h conceiv$ x or to ! _w :i* looks on1   
?an compulsory or accid5tal m>riages4   
99b ,9 a c\ntry 9 :i* a woman is always 
free to ex]cise h] p[] ( *oos+1 & 9 :i* 
education has prep>$ h] to *oose        
rightly1 public op9ion is inexorable to 
h] faults4 ,! rigor ( ! ,am]icans arises

 9 "p f ?is cause4 ,!y consid] m>riages 
z a cov5ant :i* is (t5 on]\s1 b e       
condition ( :i* ! p>ties are /rictly    
b\nd to fulfil1 because !y knew all ^?  
conditions be=eh&1 & 7 p]fectly free n  
to h contract$ !m4  ,footnote b3 ,!     
lit]ature ( ,europe suffici5tly         
corroborates ?is rem>k4 ,:5 a ,european 
au?or wi%es to depict 9 a "w (          
imag9ation any ( ^! great cata/rophes 9 
matrimony :i* s frequ5tly occur among/  
u1 he takes c>e to bespeak ! compassion 
( ! read] by br++ be=e him ill-assort$  
or compulsory m>riages4 ,al?\gh habitual
 tol]ance has long s9ce relax$ our      
morals1 an au?or c\ld h>dly succe$ 9    
int]e/+ u 9 ! mis=tunes ( 8 *>act]s1 if 
he did n fir/ palliate _! faults4 ,?is  
artifice seldom fails3 ! daily sc5es we 
witness prep>e u long be=eh& to be      
indulg5t4 ,b ,am]ican writ]s c\ld nev]  
r5d] ^! palliations probable to _!      
read]s2 _! cu/oms & laws are oppos$ to  
x2 & z !y despair ( r5d]+ levity (      
conduct pleas+1 !y cease to depict x4   

,?is is "o ( ! causes to :i* mu/ be     
attribut$ ! small numb] ( novels publi%$
 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4  ,! v circum/ances  
:i* r5d] matrimonial fidelity m         
obligatory also r5d] x m easy4 ,9       
ari/ocratic c\ntries ! object ( m>riage 
is r to unite prop]ty ?an p]sons2 h5ce !
 husb& is sometimes at s*ool & ! wife at
 nurse :5 !y are betro!d4 ,x _c be      
wond]$ at if ! conjugal tie :i* holds ! 
=tunes ( ! pair unit$ all[s _! he>ts to 
rove2 ?is is ! natural result ( ! nature
 ( ! contract4 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 a man 
always *ooses a wife = himself1 )\t any 
ext]nal co]cion or ev5 guidance1 x is   
g5]ally a con=mity ( ta/es & op9ions :i*
 br+s a man & a woman toge!r1 & ?is same
 con=mity keeps & fixes !m 9 close      
habits ( intimacy4  ,our =efa!rs _h     
conceiv$ a v /range notion on ! subject 
( m>riage3 z !y _h rem>k$ t ! small     
numb] ( love-mat*es :i* occurr$ 9 _! "t 
almo/ always turn$ out ill1 !y          
resolutely inf]r$ t x 0 exce$+ly dang]\s
 to li/5 to ! dictates ( ! he>t on !    

subject4 ,accid5t appe>$ to !m to be a  
bett] guide ?an *oice4 ,yet x 0 n v     
difficult to p]ceive t ! examples :i* !y
 witness$ did 9 fact prove no?+ at all4 
,= 9 ! fir/ place1 if democratic nations
 leave a woman at lib]ty to *oose h]    
husb&1 !y take c>e to give h] m9d       
suffici5t k1 & h] w suffici5t /r5g?1 to 
make s important a *oice3 :]eas ! "y    
wom5 :o1 among/ ari/ocratic nations1    
furtively elope f ! au?ority ( _! p>5ts 
to ?r[ !mselves ( _! own accord into !  
arms ( m5 :om !y h _h nei!r "t to "k1   
nor ability to judge (1 are totally )\t 
^? securities4 ,x is n surpris+ t !y    
make a bad use ( _! fre$om ( action !   
fir/ "t !y avail !mselves ( x2 nor t !y 
fall into su* cruel mi/akes1 :51 n hav+ 
receiv$ a democratic education1 !y *oose
 to m>ry 9 con=mity to democratic       
cu/oms4 ,b ?is is n all4 ,:5 a man &    
woman are b5t ^u m>riage 9 spite ( !    
diff]5ces ( an ari/ocratic /ate (       
society1 ! difficulties to be ov]come   
are enorm\s4 ,hav+ brok5 or relax$ !    

bonds ( filial ob$i5ce1 !y h !n to      
emancipate !mselves by a f9al ef=t f !  
sway ( cu/om & ! tyranny ( op9ion2 & :5 
at l5g? !y h succe$$ 9 ?is ardu\s task1 
!y /& e/rang$ f _! natural fri5ds &     
k9sm53 ! prejudice !y h cross$ sep>ates 
!m f all1 & places !m 9 a situation :i* 
soon breaks _! c\rage & s\rs _! he>ts4  
,if1 !n1 a c\ple m>ri$ 9 ?is mann] are  
fir/ unhappy & aft]w>ds crim9al1 x ought
 n to be attribut$ to ! fre$om ( _!     
*oice1 b r to _! liv+ 9 a community 9   
:i* ?is fre$om ( *oice is n admitt$4    
,moreov] x %\ld n be =gott5 t ! same    
ef=t :i* makes a man viol5tly %ake (f a 
prevail+ error1 commonly impels him     
beyond ! b\nds ( reason2 t1 to d>e to   
decl>e w>1 9 h[ev] j a cause1 aga9/ !   
op9ion ( "o's age & c\ntry1 a viol5t &  
adv5tur\s _s is requir$1 & t m5 ( ?is "*
 seldom arrive at happ9ess or virtue1   
:atev] be ! pa? !y foll[4 ,& ?is1 x may 
be obs]v$ by ! way1 is ! reason :y 9 !  
mo/ necess>y & righte\s revolutions1 x  
is s r>e to meet ) virtu\s or mod]ate   

revolution>y *>act]s4 ,!re is !n no j   
gr\nd = surprise if a man1 :o 9 an age (
 ari/ocracy *ooses to consult no?+ b 8  
own op9ion & 8 own ta/e 9 ! *oice ( a   
wife1 soon f9ds t infractions ( morality
 & dome/ic wret*$ness invade 8 h\sehold3
 b :5 ?is same l9e ( action is 9 !      
natural & ord9>y c\rse ( ?+s1 :5 x is   
sanction$ by p>5tal au?ority & back$ by 
public op9ion1 x _c be d\bt$ t ! int]nal
 peace ( families w be increas$ by x1 & 
conjugal fidelity m rigidly obs]v$4     
,almo/ all m5 9 democracies are engag$ 9
 public or pr(essional life2 & on ! o!r 
h& ! limit$ ext5t ( common incomes      
obliges a wife to conf9e h]self to !    
h\se1 9 ord] to wat* 9 p]son & v closely
 ov] ! details ( dome/ic economy4 ,all  
^! di/9ct & compulsory occupations are s
 _m natural b>ri]s1 :i*1 by keep+ ! two 
sexes asund]1 r5d] ! solicitations ( !  
"o less frequ5t & less ard5t--!         
resi/ance ( ! o!r m easy4  ,n inde$ t ! 
equality ( conditions c ev] succe$ 9    
mak+ m5 *a/e1 b x may imp>t a less      

dang]\s "* to _! brea*es ( morality4 ,z 
no "o has !n ei!r suffici5t "t or       
opportunity to assail a virtue arm$ 9   
self-def5ce1 !re w be at ! same "t a    
great numb] ( c\rtesans & a great numb] 
( virtu\s wom54 ,?is /ate ( ?+s causes  
lam5table cases ( individual h>d%ip1 b x
 does n prev5t ! body ( society f be+   
/rong & al]t3 x does n de/roy family    
ties1 or en]vate ! morals ( ! nation4   
,society is endang]$ n by ! great       
pr(ligacy ( a few1 b by laxity ( morals 
among/ all4 ,9 ! eyes ( a legislator1   
pro/itution is less to be dread$ ?an    
intrigue4  ,! tumultu\s & con/antly     
h>ass$ life :i* equality makes m5 lead1 
n only di/racts !m f ! passion ( love1  
by d5y+ !m "t to indulge 9 x1 b x div]ts
 !m f x by ano!r m secret b m c]ta9     
road4 ,all m5 :o live 9 democratic ages 
m or less contract ! ways ( ?9k+ ( !    
manufactur+ & trad+ classes2 _! m9ds    
take a s]i\s1 delib]ate1 & positive     
turn2 !y are apt to rel9qui% ! ideal1 9 
ord] to pursue "s visible & proximate   

object1 :i* appe>s to be ! natural &    
necess>y aim ( _! desires4 ,?us !       
pr9ciple ( equality does n de/roy !     
imag9ation1 b l[]s its flight to ! level
 ( ! e>?4 ,no m5 are less addict$ to    
rev]ie ?an ! citiz5s ( a democracy2 &   
few ( !m are ev] kn[n to give way to ^? 
idle & solit>y m$itations :i* commonly  
prec$e & produce ! great emotions ( !   
he>t4 ,x is true !y atta* great         
importance to procur+ = !mselves t sort 
( deep1 regul>1 & quiet affection :i*   
con/itutes ! *>m & safegu>d ( life1 b !y
 are n apt to run aft] ^? viol5t &      
caprici\s s\rces ( excitem5t :i* di/urb 
& abridge x4  ,i am aw>e t all ?is is   
only applicable 9 its full ext5t to     
,am]ica1 & _c at pres5t be ext5d$ to    
,europe4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ half-c5tury1
 :il/ laws & cu/oms h impell$ sev]al    
,european nations ) unexampl$ =ce t[>ds 
democracy1 we h n _h occasion to obs]ve 
t ! relations ( man & woman h become m  
ord]ly or m *a/e4 ,9 "s places ! v      
rev]se may be detect$3 "s classes are m 

/rict--! g5]al morality ( ! p appe>s to 
be m lax4 ,i d n hesitate to make !     
rem>k1 = ,i am z little dispos$ to      
flatt] my contempor>ies z to malign !m4 
,?is fact mu/ di/ress1 b x ought n to   
surprise u4 ,! propiti\s influ5ce :i* a 
democratic /ate ( society may ex]cise ^u
 ord]ly habits1 is "o ( ^? t5d5cies :i* 
c only be discov]$ aft] a "t4 ,if !     
equality ( conditions is favorable to   
purity ( morals1 ! social commotion by  
:i* conditions are r5d]$ equal is adv]se
 to x4 ,9 ! la/ fifty ye>s1 dur+ :i*    
,france has be5 und]go+ ?is             
trans=mation1 t c\ntry has r>ely _h     
fre$om1 always di/urbance4 ,amid/ ?is   
univ]sal confusion ( notions & ?is g5]al
 /ir ( op9ions--amid/ ?is incoh]5t      
mixture ( ! j & unju/1 ( tru? &         
falsehood1 ( "r & might--public virtue  
has become d\btful1 & private morality  
wav]+4 ,b all revolutions1 :atev] may h 
be5 _! object or _! ag5ts1 h at fir/    
produc$ simil> consequ5ces2 ev5 ^? :i* h
 9 ! end drawn ! bonds ( morality m     

tightly began by loos5+ !m4 ,!          
violations ( morality :i* ! ,fr5*       
frequ5tly witness d n appe> to me to h a
 p]man5t "*2 & ?is is already betok5$ by
 "s curi\s signs ( ! times4  ,no?+ is m 
wret*$ly corrupt ?an an ari/ocracy :i*  
reta9s its weal? :5 x has lo/ its p[]1 &
 :i* /ill enjoys a va/ deal ( leisure   
aft] x is r$uc$ to m]e vulg> pa/imes4 ,!
 en]getic passions & great conceptions  
:i* animat$ x h]et(ore1 leave x !n2 &   
no?+ rema9s to x b a ho/ ( petty consum+
 vices1 :i* cl+ ab\t x l worms ^u a     
c>cass4 ,no "o d5ies t ! ,fr5*          
ari/ocracy ( ! la/ c5tury 0 extremely   
dissolute2 :]eas e/abli%$ habits &      
anci5t belief /ill pres]v$ "s respect = 
morality among/ ! o!r classes ( society4
 ,nor w x be conte/$ t at ! pres5t day !
 remnants ( t same ari/ocracy exhibit a 
c]ta9 sev]ity ( morals2 :il/ laxity (   
morals appe>s to h spread among/ !      
middle & l[] ranks4 ,s t ! same families
 :i* 7 mo/ pr(ligate fifty ye>s ago are 
n[adays ! mo/ exempl>y1 & democracy     

seems only to h /r5g!n$ ! morality ( !  
ari/ocratic classes4 ,! ,fr5*           
,revolution1 by divid+ ! =tunes ( !     
nobility1 by =c+ !m to att5d assidu\sly 
to _! affairs & to _! families1 by mak+ 
!m live "u ! same ro( ) _! *ildr51 & 9  
%ort by giv+ a m rational & s]i\s turn  
to _! m9ds1 has imp>t$ to !m1 almo/ )\t 
_! be+ aw>e ( x1 a rev]5ce = religi\s   
belief1 a love ( ord]1 ( tranquil       
pleasures1 ( dome/ic ende>m5ts1 & (     
com=t2 :]eas ! re/ ( ! nation1 :i* _h   
naturally ^! same ta/es1 0 c>ri$ away   
into excesses by ! ef=t :i* 0 requir$ to
 ov]?r[ ! laws & political habits ( !   
c\ntry4 ,! old ,fr5* ari/ocracy has     
und]gone ! consequ5ces ( ! ,revolution1 
b x nei!r felt ! revolution>y passions  
nor %>$ 9 ! an>*ical excitem5t :i*      
produc$ t crisis2 x may easily be       
conceiv$ t ?is ari/ocracy feels !       
salut>y influ5ce ( ! ,revolution 9 its  
mann]s1 be=e ^? :o a*ieve x4 ,x may     
!re=e be said1 ?\gh at fir/ x seems     
p>adoxical1 t1 at ! pres5t day1 ! mo/   

anti-democratic classes ( ! nation      
pr9cipally exhibit ! k9d ( morality :i* 
may reasonably be anticipat$ f          
democracy4 ,i _c b ?9k t :5 we %all h   
obta9$ all ! effects ( ?is democratic   
,revolution1 aft] hav+ got rid ( !      
tumult x has caus$1 ! obs]vations :i*   
are n[ only applicable to ! few w       
gradually become true ( ! :ole          
community4     ,*apt] ,,xii3 ,h[ ,!     
,am]icans ,und]/& ,! ,equality ,( ,!    
,sexes  ,i ,h %[n h[ democracy de/roys  
or modifies ! diff]5t inequalities :i*  
orig9ate 9 society2 b is ?is all8 or    
does x n ultimately affect t great      
inequality ( man & woman :i* has seem$1 
up to ! pres5t day1 to be et]nally bas$ 
9 human nature8 ,i believe t ! social   
*anges :i* br+ ne>] to ! same level !   
fa!r & son1 ! ma/] & s]vant1 & sup]iors 
& inf]iors g5]ally speak+1 w raise woman
 & make h] m & m ! equal ( man4 ,b "h1 m
 ?an ev]1 ,i feel ! necessity ( mak+    
myself cle>ly und]/ood2 = !re is no     
subject on :i* ! co>se & lawless fancies

 ( our age h tak5 a fre] range4  ,!re   
are p 9 ,europe :o1 conf\nd+ toge!r !   
diff]5t *>act]i/ics ( ! sexes1 w\ld make
 ( man & woman be+s n only equal b      
alike4 ,!y w\ld give to bo? ! same      
functions1 impose on bo? ! same duties1 
& grant to bo? ! same rights2 !y w\ld   
mix !m 9 all ?+s--_! occupations1 _!    
pleasures1 _! bus9ess4 ,x may readily be
 conceiv$1 t by ?us attempt+ to make "o 
sex equal to ! o!r1 bo? are degrad$2 & f
 s prepo/]\s a m$ley ( ! works ( nature 
no?+ c\ld ev] result b weak m5 &        
disord]ly wom54 ,x is n ?us t !         
,am]icans und]/& t species ( democratic 
equality :i* may be e/abli%$ betwe5 !   
sexes4 ,!y admit1 t z nature has appo9t$
 su* wide diff]5ces betwe5 ! physical & 
moral con/itution ( man & woman1 h]     
manife/ design 0 to give a di/9ct       
employm5t to _! v>i\s faculties2 & !y   
hold t improvem5t does n consi/ 9 mak+  
be+s s dissimil> d pretty ne>ly ! same  
?+s1 b 9 gett+ ea* ( !m to fulfil _!    
respective tasks 9 ! be/ possible mann]4

 ,! ,am]icans h appli$ to ! sexes !     
great pr9ciple ( political economy :i*  
gov]ns ! manufactures ( our age1 by     
c>efully divid+ ! duties ( man f ^? (   
woman1 9 ord] t ! great "w ( society may
 be ! bett] c>ri$ on4  ,9 no c\ntry has 
su* con/ant c>e be5 tak5 z 9 ,am]ica to 
trace two cle>ly di/9ct l9es ( action = 
! two sexes1 & to make !m keep pace "o )
 ! o!r1 b 9 two pa?ways :i* are always  
diff]5t4 ,am]ican wom5 nev] manage !    
outw>d conc]ns ( ! family1 or conduct a 
bus9ess1 or take a "p 9 political life2 
nor are !y1 on ! o!r h&1 ev] compell$ to
 p]=m ! r\gh labor ( ! fields1 or to    
make any ( ^? labori\s ex]tions :i* dem&
 ! ex]tion ( physical /r5g?4 ,no        
families are s poor z to =m an exception
 to ?is rule4 ,if on ! "o h& an ,am]ican
 woman _c escape f ! quiet circle (     
dome/ic employm5ts1 on ! o!r h& %e is   
nev] =c$ to g beyond x4 ,h5ce x is t !  
wom5 ( ,am]ica1 :o (t5 exhibit a        
mascul9e /r5g? ( und]/&+ & a manly      
en]gy1 g5]ally pres]ve great delicacy ( 

p]sonal appe>ance & always reta9 !      
mann]s ( wom51 al?\gh !y sometimes %[ t 
!y h ! he>ts & m9ds ( m54  ,nor h !     
,am]icans ev] suppos$ t "o consequ5ce ( 
democratic pr9ciples is ! subv]sion (   
m>ital p[]1 ( ! confusion ( ! natural   
au?orities 9 families4 ,!y hold t e     
association mu/ h a head 9 ord] to      
accompli% its object1 & t ! natural head
 ( ! conjugal association is man4 ,!y d 
n !re=e d5y him ! "r ( direct+ 8 p>tn]2 
& !y ma9ta91 t 9 ! small] association ( 
husb& & wife1 z well z 9 ! great social 
community1 ! object ( democracy is to   
regulate & legalize ! p[]s :i* are      
necess>y1 n to subv]t all p[]4 ,?is     
op9ion is n peculi> to "o sex1 & conte/$
 by ! o!r3 ,i nev] obs]v$ t ! wom5 (    
,am]ica consid] conjugal au?ority z a   
=tunate usurpation ( _! rights1 nor t !y
 ?\ght !mselves degrad$ by submitt+ to  
x4 ,x appe>$ to me1 on ! contr>y1 t !y  
atta* a sort ( pride to ! volunt>y      
surr5d] ( _! own w1 & make x _! boa/ to 
b5d !mselves to ! yoke1 n to %ake x (f4 

,su* at lea/ is ! feel+ express$ by !   
mo/ virtu\s ( _! sex2 ! o!rs are sil5t2 
& 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates x is n ! practice = 
a guilty wife to clamor = ! rights (    
wom51 :il/ %e is trampl+ on h] holie/   
duties4  ,x has (t5 be5 rem>k$ t 9      
,europe a c]ta9 degree ( contempt lurks 
ev5 9 ! flatt]y :i* m5 lavi% ^u wom53   
al?\gh a ,european frequ5tly affects to 
be ! slave ( woman1 x may be se5 t he   
nev] s9c]ely ?9ks h] 8 equal4 ,9 !      
,unit$ ,/ates m5 seldom complim5t wom51 
b !y daily %[ h[ mu* !y e/eem !m4 ,!y   
con/antly display an entire confid5ce 9 
! und]/&+ ( a wife1 & a pr(\nd respect =
 h] fre$om2 !y h decid$ t h] m9d is j z 
fitt$ z t ( a man to discov] ! pla9     
tru?1 & h] he>t z firm to embrace x2 &  
!y h nev] s\ght to place h] virtue1 any 
m ?an 81 "u ! %elt] ( prejudice1        
ignorance1 & fe>4 ,x w\ld seem t 9      
,europe1 :]e man s easily submits to !  
despotic sway ( wom51 !y are nev]!less  
curtail$ ( "s ( ! greate/ qualities ( ! 
human species1 & consid]$ z s$uctive b  

imp]fect be+s2 & 7:at may well provoke  
a/oni%m5t7 wom5 ultimately look ^u      
!mselves 9 ! same light1 & almo/ consid]
 x z a privilege t !y are entitl$ to %[ 
!mselves futile1 feeble1 & timid4 ,!    
wom5 ( ,am]ica claim no su* privileges4 
,aga91 x may be said t 9 our morals we h
 res]v$ /range immunities to man2 s t   
!re is1 z x 71 "o virtue = 8 use1 &     
ano!r = ! guidance ( 8 p>tn]2 & t1      
accord+ to ! op9ion ( ! public1 ! v same
 act may be puni%$ alt]nately z a crime 
or only z a fault4 ,! ,am]icans "k n ?is
 iniquit\s division ( duties & rights2  
among/ !m ! s$uc] is z mu* di%onor$ z 8 
victim4 ,x is true t ! ,am]icans r>ely  
lavi% ^u wom5 ^? eag] att5tions :i* are 
commonly paid !m 9 ,europe2 b _! conduct
 to wom5 always implies t !y suppose !m 
to be virtu\s & ref9$2 & su* is !       
respect ent]ta9$ = ! moral fre$om ( !   
sex1 t 9 ! pres5ce ( a woman ! mo/ gu>d$
 language is us$1 le/ h] e> %\ld be     
(f5d$ by an expression4 ,9 ,am]ica a "y 
unm>ri$ woman may1 alone & )\t fe>1     

und]take a long j\rney4  ,! legislators 
( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :o h mitigat$ almo/  
all ! p5alties ( crim9al law1 /ill make 
rape a capital (f5ce1 & no crime is     
visit$ ) m inexorable sev]ity by public 
op9ion4 ,?is may be acc\nt$ =2 z !      
,am]icans c conceive no?+ m preci\s ?an 
a woman's honor1 & no?+ :i* ought s mu* 
to be respect$ z h] indep5d5ce1 !y hold 
t no puni%m5t is too sev]e = ! man :o   
deprives h] ( !m aga9/ h] w4 ,9 ,france1
 :]e ! same (f5ce is visit$ ) f> mild]  
p5alties1 x is frequ5tly difficult to   
get a v]dict f a jury aga9/ ! prison]4  
,is ?is a consequ5ce ( contempt ( dec5cy
 or contempt ( wom58 ,i _c b believe t x
 is a contempt ( "o & ( ! o!r4  ,?us !  
,am]icans d n ?9k t man & woman h ei!r !
 duty or ! "r to p]=m ! same (fices1 b  
!y %[ an equal reg>d = bo? _! respective
 p>ts2 & ?\gh _! lot is diff]5t1 !y     
consid] bo? ( !m z be+s ( equal value4  
,!y d n give to ! c\rage ( woman ! same 
=m or ! same direction z to t ( man2 b  
!y nev] d\bt h] c\rage3 & if !y hold t  

man & 8 p>tn] ought n always to ex]cise 
_! intellect & und]/&+ 9 ! same mann]1  
!y at lea/ believe ! und]/&+ ( ! "o to  
be z s\nd z t ( ! o!r1 & h] intellect to
 be z cle>4 ,?us1 !n1 :il/ !y h all[$ ! 
social inf]iority ( woman to subsi/1 !y 
h done all !y c\ld to raise h] morally &
 intellectually to ! level ( man2 & 9   
?is respect !y appe> to me to h         
excell5tly und]/ood ! true pr9ciple (   
democratic improvem5t4 ,z = myself1 ,i d
 n hesitate to av[ t1 al?\gh ! wom5 ( ! 
,unit$ ,/ates are conf9$ )9 ! n>r[      
circle ( dome/ic life1 & _! situation is
 9 "s respects "o ( extreme dep5d5ce1 ,i
 h n[h]e se5 woman occupy+ a l(ti]      
position2 & if ,i 7 ask$1 n[ t ,i am    
draw+ to ! close ( ?is "w1 9 :i* ,i h   
spok5 ( s _m important ?+s done by !    
,am]icans1 to :at ! s+ul> prosp]ity &   
gr[+ /r5g? ( t p ought ma9ly to be      
attribut$1 ,i %\ld reply--to !          
sup]iority ( _! wom54     ,*apt] ,,xiii3
 ,t ,! ,pr9ciple ,( ,equality ,naturally
 ,divides ,! ,am]icans ,into ,a ,numb]  

,( ,small ,private ,circles  ,x may     
probably be suppos$ t ! f9al consequ5ce 
& necess>y effect ( democratic          
in/itutions is to conf\nd toge!r all !  
memb]s ( ! community 9 private z well z 
9 public life1 & to compel !m all to    
live 9 common2 b ?is w\ld be to ascribe 
a v co>se & oppressive =m to ! equality 
:i* orig9ates 9 democracy4 ,no /ate (   
society or laws c r5d] m5 s mu* alike1 b
 t education1 =tune1 & ta/es w int]pose 
"s diff]5ces betwe5 !m2 &1 ?\gh diff]5t 
m5 may sometimes f9d x _! int]e/ to     
comb9e = ! same purposes1 !y w nev] make
 x _! pleasure4 ,!y w !re=e always t5d  
to evade ! provisions ( legislation1    
:atev] !y may be2 & dep>t+ 9 "s "o      
respect f ! circle )9 :i* !y 7 to be    
b\nd$1 !y w set up1 close by ! great    
political community1 small private      
circles1 unit$ toge!r by ! similitude ( 
_! conditions1 habits1 & mann]s4  ,9 !  
,unit$ ,/ates ! citiz5s h no sort (     
pre-em95ce ov] ea* o!r2 !y owe ea* o!r  
no mutual ob$i5ce or respect2 !y all    

meet = ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 = !     
gov]nm5t ( ! ,/ate1 & 9 g5]al to treat (
 ! affairs :i* conc]n _! common welf>e2 
b ,i nev] he>d t attempts h be5 made to 
br+ !m all to foll[ ! same div]sions1 or
 to amuse !mselves promiscu\sly 9 ! same
 places ( recreation4 ,! ,am]icans1 :o  
m+le s readily 9 _! political assemblies
 & c\rts ( ju/ice1 are wont on ! contr>y
 c>efully to sep>ate into small di/9ct  
circles1 9 ord] to indulge by !mselves 9
 ! enjoym5ts ( private life4 ,ea* ( !m  
is will+ to ackn[l$ge all 8             
fell[-citiz5s z 8 equals1 b he w only   
receive a v limit$ numb] ( !m among/ 8  
fri5ds or 8 gue/s4 ,?is appe>s to me to 
be v natural4 ,9 proportion z ! circle (
 public society is ext5d$1 x may be     
anticipat$ t ! sph]e ( private int]c\rse
 w be contract$2 f> f suppos+ t ! memb]s
 ( mod]n society w ultimately live 9    
common1 ,i am afraid t !y may end by =m+
 no?+ b small cot]ies4  ,among/         
ari/ocratic nations ! diff]5t classes   
are l va/ *amb]s1 out ( :i* x is        

impossible to get1 into :i* x is        
impossible to ent]4 ,^! classes h no    
communication ) ea* o!r1 b )9 _! pale m5
 necess>ily live 9 daily contact2 ev5   
?\gh !y w\ld n naturally suit1 ! g5]al  
con=mity ( a simil> condition br+s !m   
ne>] toge!r4 ,b :5 nei!r law nor cu/om  
pr(esses to e/abli% frequ5t & habitual  
relations betwe5 c]ta9 m51 _! int]c\rse 
orig9ates 9 ! accid5tal analogy (       
op9ions & ta/es2 h5ce private society is
 inf9itely v>i$4 ,9 democracies1 :]e !  
memb]s ( ! community nev] diff] mu* f   
ea* o!r1 & naturally /& 9 su* prop9quity
 t !y may all at any "t be conf\nd$ 9 "o
 g5]al mass1 num]\s artificial &        
arbitr>y di/9ctions spr+ up1 by means ( 
:i* e man hopes to keep himself alo(1   
le/ he %\ld be c>ri$ away 9 ! cr[d aga9/
 8 w4 ,?is c nev] fail to be ! case2 =  
human in/itutions may be *ang$1 b n man3
 :atev] may be ! g5]al endeavor ( a     
community to r5d] its memb]s equal &    
alike1 ! p]sonal pride ( individuals w  
always seek to rise above ! l9e1 & to =m

 some:]e an inequality to _! own        
advantage4  ,9 ari/ocracies m5 are      
sep>at$ f ea* o!r by l(ty /ation>y      
b>ri]s2 9 democracies !y are divid$ by a
 numb] ( small & almo/ invisible ?reads1
 :i* are con/antly brok5 or mov$ f place
 to place4 ,?us1 :atev] may be !        
progress ( equality1 9 democratic       
nations a great numb] ( small private   
communities w always be =m$ )9 ! g5]al  
pale ( political society2 b none ( !m w 
be> any resemblance 9 its mann]s to !   
highe/ class 9 ari/ocracies4     ,*apt] 
,,xiv3 ,"s ,reflections ,on ,am]ican    
,mann]s  ,no?+ seems at fir/ sight less 
important ?an ! outw>d =m ( human       
actions1 yet !re is no?+ ^u :i* m5 set m
 /ore3 !y gr[ us$ to ev]y?+ except to   
liv+ 9 a society :i* has n _! own       
mann]s4 ,! influ5ce ( ! social &        
political /ate ( a c\ntry ^u mann]s is  
!re=e des]v+ ( s]i\s exam9ation4 ,mann]s
 are1 g5]ally1 ! product ( ! v basis ( !
 "* ( a p1 b !y are also sometimes !    
result ( an arbitr>y conv5tion betwe5   

c]ta9 m52 ?us !y are at once natural &  
acquir$4 ,:5 c]ta9 m5 p]ceive t !y are !
 =emo/ p]sons 9 society1 )\t conte/ation
 & )\t ef=t--:5 !y are con/antly engag$ 
on l>ge objects1 leav+ ! m m9ute details
 to o!rs--& :5 !y live 9 ! enjoym5t (   
weal? :i* !y did n amass & :i* !y d n   
fe> to lose1 x may be suppos$ t !y feel 
a k9d ( haughty disda9 ( ! petty int]e/s
 & practical c>es ( life1 & t _! ?\ghts 
assume a natural greatness1 :i* _!      
language & _! mann]s d5ote4 ,9          
democratic c\ntries mann]s are g5]ally  
devoid ( dignity1 because private life  
is !re extremely petty 9 its "*2 & !y   
are frequ5tly l[1 because ! m9d has few 
opportunities ( ris+ above ! engross+   
c>es ( dome/ic int]e/s4 ,true dignity 9 
mann]s consi/s 9 always tak+ "o's prop] 
/ation1 nei!r too high nor too l[2 & ?is
 is z mu* )9 ! rea* ( a peasant z ( a   
pr9ce4 ,9 democracies all /ations appe> 
d\btful2 h5ce x is t ! mann]s (         
democracies1 ?\gh (t5 full ( arrogance1 
are commonly want+ 9 dignity1 &1        

moreov]1 !y are nev] ei!r well discipl9$
 or accompli%$4  ,! m5 :o live 9        
democracies are too fluctuat+ = a c]ta9 
numb] ( !m ev] to succe$ 9 lay+ d[n a   
code ( good bre$+1 & 9 =c+ p to foll[ x4
 ,e man !re=e behaves aft] 8 own fa%ion1
 & !re is always a c]ta9 incoh]5ce 9 !  
mann]s ( su* times1 because !y are m\ld$
 ^u ! feel+s & notions ( ea* individual1
 r ?an ^u an ideal model propos$ = g5]al
 imitation4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is mu* m       
p]ceptible at ! "t :5 an ari/ocracy has 
j be5 ov]?r[n ?an aft] x has long be5   
de/roy$4 ,new political in/itutions &   
new social elem5ts !n br+ to ! same     
places ( resort1 & frequ5tly compel to  
live 9 common1 m5 ^: education & habits 
are /ill amaz+ly dissimil>1 & ?is r5d]s 
! motley composition ( society peculi>ly
 visible4 ,! exi/5ce ( a =m] /rict code 
( good bre$+ is /ill rememb]$1 b :at x  
conta9$ or :]e x is to be f\nd is       
already =gott54 ,m5 h lo/ ! common law (
 mann]s1 & !y h n yet made up _! m9ds to
 d )\t x2 b ev]yone endeavors to make to

 himself "s sort ( arbitr>y & v>iable   
rule1 f ! remnant ( =m] usages2 s t     
mann]s h nei!r ! regul>ity & ! dignity  
:i* !y (t5 display among/ ari/ocratic   
nations1 nor ! simplicity & fre$om :i*  
!y sometimes assume 9 democracies2 !y   
are at once con/ra9$ & )\t con/ra9t4    
,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! normal /ate ( ?+s4  
,:5 ! equality ( conditions is long     
e/abli%$ & complete1 z all m5 ent]ta9   
ne>ly ! same notions & d ne>ly ! same   
?+s1 !y d n require to agree or to copy 
f "o ano!r 9 ord] to speak or act 9 !   
same mann]3 _! mann]s are con/antly     
*>act]iz$ by a numb] ( less] div]sities1
 b n by any great diff]5ces4 ,!y are    
nev] p]fectly alike1 because !y d n copy
 f ! same patt]n2 !y are nev] v unlike1 
because _! social condition is ! same4  
,at fir/ sight a travell] w\ld obs]ve t 
! mann]s ( all ! ,am]icans are exactly  
simil>2 x is only ^u close exam9ation t 
! peculi>ities 9 :i* !y diff] may be    
detect$4  ,! ,engli% make game ( !      
mann]s ( ! ,am]icans2 b x is s+ul> t mo/

 ( ! writ]s :o h drawn ^! ludicr\s      
del9eations belong$ !mselves to ! middle
 classes 9 ,engl&1 to :om ! same        
del9eations are exce$+ly applicable3 s t
 ^! pitiless c5sors = ! mo/ "p furni% an
 example ( ! v ?+ !y blame 9 ! ,unit$   
,/ates2 !y d n p]ceive t !y are d]id+   
!mselves1 to ! great amusem5t ( !       
ari/ocracy ( _! own c\ntry4  ,no?+ is m 
prejudicial to democracy ?an its outw>d 
=ms ( behavior3 _m m5 w\ld will+ly      
endure its vices1 :o _c support its     
mann]s4 ,i _c1 h[ev]1 admit t !re is    
no?+ comm5dable 9 ! mann]s ( a          
democratic p4 ,among/ ari/ocratic       
nations1 all :o live )9 rea* ( ! fir/   
class 9 society commonly /ra9 to be l x1
 :i* gives rise to ridicul\s & insipid  
imitations4 ,z a democratic p does n    
possess any models ( high bre$+1 at lea/
 x escapes ! daily necessity ( see+     
wret*$ copies ( !m4 ,9 democracies      
mann]s are nev] s ref9$ z among/        
ari/ocratic nations1 b on ! o!r h& !y   
are nev] s co>se4 ,nei!r ! co>se oa?s ( 

! populace1 nor ! elegant & *oice       
expressions ( ! nobility are to be he>d 
!re3 ! mann]s ( su* a p are (t5 vulg>1 b
 !y are nei!r brutal nor mean4 ,i h     
already obs]v$ t 9 democracies no su* ?+
 z a regul> code ( good bre$+ c be laid 
d[n2 ?is has "s inconv5i5ces & "s       
advantages4 ,9 ari/ocracies ! rules (   
propriety impose ! same demeanor on     
ev]yone2 !y make all ! memb]s ( ! same  
class appe> alike1 9 spite ( _! private 
incl9ations2 !y adorn & !y conceal !    
natural man4 ,among/ a democratic p     
mann]s are nei!r s tutor$ nor s uni=m1 b
 !y are frequ5tly m s9c]e4 ,!y =m1 z x  
71 a light & loosely wov5 veil1 ?r\gh   
:i* ! real feel+s & private op9ions (   
ea* individual are easily disc]nible4 ,!
 =m & ! sub/ance ( human actions (t51   
!re=e1 /& 9 clos] relation2 & if ! great
 picture ( human life be less embelli%$1
 x is m true4 ,?us x may be said1 9 "o  
s5se1 t ! effect ( democracy is n       
exactly to give m5 any p>ticul> mann]s1 
b to prev5t !m f hav+ mann]s at all4  ,!

 feel+s1 ! passions1 ! virtues1 & !     
vices ( an ari/ocracy may sometimes     
reappe> 9 a democracy1 b n its mann]s2  
!y are lo/1 & vani% =ev]1 z soon z !    
democratic revolution is complet$4 ,x   
w\ld seem t no?+ is m la/+ ?an ! mann]s 
( an ari/ocratic class1 = !y are pres]v$
 by t class = "s "t aft] x has lo/ its  
weal? & its p[]--nor s fleet+1 = no     
soon] h !y disappe>$ ?an n a trace ( !m 
is to be f\nd2 & x is sc>cely possible  
to say :at !y h be5 z soon z !y h ceas$ 
to be4 ,a *ange 9 ! /ate ( society works
 ?is miracle1 & a few g5]ations suffice 
to consummate x4 ,! pr9cipal *>act]i/ics
 ( ari/ocracy are h&$ d[n by hi/ory aft]
 an ari/ocracy is de/roy$1 b ! light &  
exquisite t\*es ( mann]s are effac$ f   
m5's memories almo/ imm$iately aft] its 
fall4 ,m5 c no long] conceive :at ^!    
mann]s 7 :5 !y h ceas$ to witness !m2 !y
 are gone1 & _! dep>ture 0 unse51       
unfelt2 = 9 ord] to feel t ref9$        
enjoym5t :i* is d]iv$ f *oice & di/+ui%$
 mann]s1 habit & education mu/ h prep>$ 

! he>t1 & ! ta/e = !m is lo/ almo/ z    
easily z ! practice ( !m4 ,?us n only a 
democratic p _c h ari/ocratic mann]s1 b 
!y nei!r compreh5d nor desire !m2 & z !y
 nev] h ?\ght ( !m1 x is to _! m9ds z if
 su* ?+s _h nev] be54 ,too mu*          
importance %\ld n be atta*$ to ?is loss1
 b x may well be regrett$4  ,i am aw>e t
 x has n unfrequ5tly happ5$ t ! same m5 
h _h v high-br$ mann]s & v l[-born      
feel+s3 ! int]ior ( c\rts has           
suffici5tly %[n :at impos+ ext]nals may 
conceal ! meane/ he>ts4 ,b ?\gh ! mann]s
 ( ari/ocracy did n con/itute virtue1 !y
 sometimes embelli% virtue itself4 ,x 0 
no ord9>y sight to see a num]\s & p[]ful
 class ( m51 ^: e outw>d action seem$   
con/antly to be dictat$ by a natural    
elevation ( ?\ght & feel+1 by delicacy &
 regul>ity ( ta/e1 & by urbanity (      
mann]s4 ,^? mann]s ?rew a pleas+        
illusory *>m ov] human nature2 & ?\gh ! 
picture 0 (t5 a false "o1 x c\ld n be   
view$ )\t a noble satisfaction4         
,*apt] ,,xv3 ,( ,! ,gravity ,( ,!       

,am]icans1 ,& ,:y ,x ,does ,n ,prev5t   
,!m ,f ,(t5 ,committ+ ,inconsid]ate     
,actions  ,m5 :o live 9 democratic      
c\ntries d n value ! simple1 turbul5t1  
or co>se div]sions 9 :i* ! p indulge 9  
ari/ocratic communities3 su* div]sions  
are ?\ght by !m to be pu]ile or insipid4
 ,nor h !y a great] incl9ation = !      
intellectual & ref9$ amusem5ts ( !      
ari/ocratic classes4 ,!y want some?+    
productive & sub/antial 9 _! pleasures2 
!y want to mix actual fruition ) _! joy4
 ,9 ari/ocratic communities ! p readily 
give !mselves up to bur/s ( tumultu\s & 
boi/]\s gayety1 :i* %ake (f at once !   
recollection ( _! privations3 ! natives 
( democracies are n fond ( be+ ?us      
viol5tly brok5 9 ^u1 & !y nev] lose     
sight ( _! own selves )\t regret4 ,!y   
pref] to ^! frivol\s delights ^? m s]i\s
 & sil5t amusem5ts :i* are l bus9ess1 & 
:i* d n drive bus9ess :olly f _! m9ds4  
,an ,am]ican1 in/ead ( go+ 9 a leisure  
h\r to dance m]rily at "s place ( public
 resort1 z ! fell[s ( 8 call+ cont9ue to

 d ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( ,europe1 %uts  
himself up at home to dr9k4 ,he ?us     
enjoys two pleasures2 he c g on ?9k+ ( 8
 bus9ess1 & he c get drunk dec5tly by 8 
own fireside4  ,i ?\ght t ! ,engli%     
con/itut$ ! mo/ s]i\s nation on ! face (
 ! e>?1 b ,i h s9ce se5 ! ,am]icans & h 
*ang$ my op9ion4 ,i d n mean to say t   
temp]am5t has n a great deal to d ) ! "*
 ( ! inhabitants ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b ,i
 ?9k t _! political in/itutions are a   
/ill m influ5tial cause4 ,i believe !   
s]i\sness ( ! ,am]icans arises p>tly f  
_! pride4 ,9 democratic c\ntries ev5    
poor m5 ent]ta9 a l(ty notion ( _!      
p]sonal importance3 !y look ^u !mselves 
) complac5cy1 & are apt to suppose t    
o!rs are look+ at !m1 too4 ,) ?is       
disposition !y wat* _! language & _!    
actions ) c>e1 & d n lay !mselves op5 s 
z to betray _! defici5cies2 to pres]ve  
_! dignity !y ?9k x necess>y to reta9 _!
 gravity4  ,b ,i detect ano!r m         
deep-seat$ & p[]ful cause :i*           
in/9ctively produces among/ ! ,am]icans 

?is a/oni%+ gravity4 ,"u a despotism    
communities give way at times to bur/s (
 vehem5t joy2 b !y are g5]ally gloomy & 
moody1 because !y are afraid4 ,"u       
absolute mon>*ies temp]$ by ! cu/oms &  
mann]s ( ! c\ntry1 _! spirits are (t5   
*e]ful & ev51 because z !y h "s fre$om &
 a good deal ( security1 !y are exempt$ 
f ! mo/ important c>es ( life2 b all    
free peoples are s]i\s1 because _! m9ds 
are habitually absorb$ by !             
contemplation ( "s dang]\s or difficult 
purpose4 ,?is is m especially ! case    
among/ ^? free nations :i* =m democratic
 communities4 ,!n !re are 9 all classes 
a v l>ge numb] ( m5 con/antly occupi$ ) 
! s]i\s affairs ( ! gov]nm5t2 & ^? ^:   
?\ghts are n engag$ 9 ! direction ( !   
commonweal? are :olly engross$ by !     
acquisition ( a private =tune4 ,among/  
su* a p a s]i\s demeanor ceases to be   
peculi> to c]ta9 m51 & becomes a habit (
 ! nation4  ,we are told ( small        
democracies 9 ! days ( antiquity1 9 :i* 
! citiz5s met ^u ! public places ) g>l&s

 ( roses1 & sp5t almo/ all _! "t 9 danc+
 & !atrical amusem5ts4 ,i d n believe 9 
su* republics any m ?an 9 t ( ,plato2   
or1 if ! ?+s we read ( really happ5$1 ,i
 d n hesitate to affirm t ^! suppos$    
democracies 7 compos$ ( v diff]5t       
elem5ts f ours1 & t !y _h no?+ 9 common 
) ! latt] except _! "n4 ,b x mu/ n be   
suppos$ t1 9 ! mid/ ( all _! toils1 ! p 
:o live 9 democracies ?9k !mselves to be
 piti$2 ! contr>y is rem>k$ to be !     
case4 ,no m5 are fond] ( _! own         
condition4 ,life w\ld h no reli% = !m if
 !y 7 deliv]$ f ! anxieties :i* h>ass   
!m1 & !y %[ m atta*m5t to _! c>es ?an   
ari/ocratic nations to _! pleasures4  ,i
 am next l$ to inquire h[ x is t ^! same
 democratic nations1 :i* are s s]i\s1   
sometimes act 9 s inconsid]ate a mann]4 
,! ,am]icans1 :o almo/ always pres]ve a 
/aid demeanor & a frigid air1 nev]!less 
frequ5tly all[ !mselves to be borne     
away1 f> beyond ! b\nd ( reason1 by a   
sudd5 passion or a ha/y op9ion1 & !y    
sometimes gravely commit /range         

absurdities4 ,?is contra/ ought n to    
surprise u4 ,!re is "o sort ( ignorance 
:i* orig9ates 9 extreme publicity4 ,9   
despotic ,/ates m5 "k n h[ to act1      
because !y are told no?+2 9 democratic  
nations !y (t5 act at r&om1 because no?+
 is to be left untold4 ,! =m] d n "k--! 
latt] =get2 & ! *ief features ( ea*     
picture are lo/ to !m 9 a bewild]m5t (  
details4  ,x is a/oni%+ :at imprud5t    
language a public man may sometimes use 
9 free c\ntries1 & especially 9         
democratic ,/ates1 )\t be+ compromis$2  
:]eas 9 absolute mon>*ies a few words   
dropp$ by accid5t are en\gh to unmask   
him =ev]1 & ru9 him )\t hope (          
r$emption4 ,?is is expla9$ by :at goes  
be=e4 ,:5 a man speaks 9 ! mid/ ( a     
great cr[d1 _m ( 8 words are n he>d1 or 
are =?) oblit]at$ f ! memories ( ^? :o  
he> !m2 b amid/ ! sil5ce ( a mute &     
motionless ?rong ! slighte/ :isp] /rikes
 ! e>4  ,9 democracies m5 are nev]      
/ation>y2 a ?\s& *ances waft !m to &    
fro1 & _! life is always ! sport (      

un=ese5 or 7s to speak7 extemporane\s   
circum/ances4 ,?us !y are (t5 oblig$ to 
d ?+s :i* !y h imp]fectly le>n$1 to say 
?+s !y imp]fectly und]/&1 & to devote   
!mselves to "w = :i* !y are unprep>$ by 
long appr5tice%ip4 ,9 ari/ocracies e man
 has "o sole object :i* he unceas+ly    
pursues1 b among/ democratic nations !  
exi/5ce ( man is m complex2 ! same m9d w
 almo/ always embrace sev]al objects at 
! same "t1 & ^! objects are frequ5tly   
:olly =eign to ea* o!r3 z x _c "k !m all
 well1 ! m9d is readily satisfi$ )      
imp]fect notions ( ea*4  ,:5 !          
inhabitant ( democracies is n urg$ by 8 
wants1 he is s at lea/ by 8 desires2 = (
 all ! possessions :i* he sees ar\nd    
him1 none are :olly beyond 8 rea*4 ,he  
!re=e does ev]y?+ 9 a hurry1 he is      
always satisfi$ ) pretty well1 & nev]   
pauses m ?an an in/ant to consid] :at he
 has be5 do+4 ,8 curiosity is at once   
insatiable & *eaply satisfi$2 = he c>es 
m to "k a great deal quickly ?an to "k  
any?+ well3 he has no "t & b little ta/e

 to se>* ?+s to ! bottom4 ,?us !n       
democratic peoples are grave1 because _!
 social & political condition con/antly 
leads !m to engage 9 s]i\s occupations2 
& !y act inconsid]ately1 because !y give
 b little "t & att5tion to ea* ( ^!     
occupations4 ,! habit ( inatt5tion mu/  
be consid]$ z ! greate/ bane ( !        
democratic "*4     ,*apt] ,,xvi3 ,:y ,! 
,national ,vanity ,( ,! ,am]icans ,is ,m
 ,re/less ,& ,capti\s ,?an ,t ,( ,!     
,engli%  ,all free nations are          
va+lori\s1 b national pride is n        
display$ by all 9 ! same mann]4 ,!      
,am]icans 9 _! int]c\rse ) /rang]s appe>
 impati5t ( ! smalle/ c5sure &          
insatiable ( praise4 ,! mo/ sl5d]       
eulogium is acceptable to !m2 ! mo/     
exalt$ seldom cont5ts !m2 !y unceas+ly  
h>ass y to extort praise1 & if y resi/  
_! entreaties !y fall to prais+         
!mselves4 ,x w\ld seem z if1 d\bt+ _!   
own m]it1 !y wi%$ to h x con/antly      
exhibit$ be=e _! eyes4 ,_! vanity is n  
only gre$y1 b re/less & jeal\s2 x w     

grant no?+1 :il/ x dem&s ev]y?+1 b is   
ready to beg & to qu>rel at ! same "t4  
,if ,i say to an ,am]ican t ! c\ntry he 
lives 9 is a f9e "o1 ,ay1 he replies1   
!re is n its fell[ 9 ! _w4 ,if ,i       
applaud ! fre$om :i* its inhabitants    
enjoy1 he answ]s1 ,fre$om is a f9e ?+1 b
 few nations are wor?y to enjoy x4 ,if  
,i rem>k ! purity ( morals :i* di/+ui%es
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,i c imag9e1 says he1 
t a /rang]1 :o has be5 /ruck by !       
corruption ( all o!r nations1 is a/oni%$
 at ! diff]5ce4 ,at l5g? ,i leave him to
 ! contemplation ( himself2 b he returns
 to ! *>ge1 & does n desi/ till he has  
got me to repeat all ,i _h j be5 say+4  
,x is impossible to conceive a m        
tr\blesome or m g>rul\s patriotism2 x   
we>ies ev5 ^? :o are dispos$ to respect 
x4 99a  ,footnote a3 ,see ,app5dix ,u4  
,su* is n ! case ) ! ,engli%4 ,an       
,engli%man calmly enjoys ! real or      
imag9>y advantages :i* 9 8 op9ion 8     
c\ntry possesses4 ,if he grants no?+ to 
o!r nations1 nei!r does he solicit any?+

 = 8 own4 ,! c5sure ( =eign]s does n    
affect him1 & _! praise h>dly flatt]s   
him2 8 position ) reg>d to ! re/ ( ! _w 
is "o ( disda9ful & ignorant res]ve3 8  
pride requires no su/5ance1 x n\ri%es   
itself4 ,x is rem>kable t two nations1 s
 rec5tly sprung f ! same /ock1 %\ld be s
 opposite to "o ano!r 9 _! mann] ( feel+
 & conv]s+4  ,9 ari/ocratic c\ntries !  
great possess imm5se privileges1 ^u :i* 
_! pride re/s1 )\t seek+ to rely ^u !   
less] advantages :i* accrue to !m4 ,z ^!
 privileges came to !m by inh]itance1 !y
 reg>d !m 9 "s sort z a portion (       
!mselves1 or at lea/ z a natural "r     
inh]5t 9 _! own p]sons4 ,!y !re=e       
ent]ta9 a calm s5se ( _! sup]iority2 !y 
d n dream ( vaunt+ privileges :i*       
ev]yone p]ceives & no "o conte/s1 & ^!  
?+s are n suffici5tly new to !m to be   
made topics ( conv]sation4 ,!y /& unmov$
 9 _! solit>y greatness1 well assur$ t  
!y are se5 ( all ! _w )\t any ef=t to %[
 !mselves (f1 & t no "o w attempt to    
drive !m f t position4 ,:5 an ari/ocracy

 c>ries on ! public affairs1 its        
national pride naturally assumes ?is    
res]v$1 indiff]5t1 & haughty =m1 :i* is 
imitat$ by all ! o!r classes ( ! nation4
  ,:51 on ! contr>y1 social conditions  
diff] b little1 ! slighte/ privileges   
are ( "s importance2 z e man sees ar\nd 
himself a million ( p enjoy+ precisely  
simil> or analog\s advantages1 8 pride  
becomes crav+ & jeal\s1 he cl+s to m]e  
trifles1 & dogg$ly def5ds !m4 ,9        
democracies1 z ! conditions ( life are v
 fluctuat+1 m5 h almo/ always rec5tly   
acquir$ ! advantages :i* !y possess2 !  
consequ5ce is t !y feel extreme pleasure
 9 exhibit+ !m1 to %[ o!rs & conv9ce    
!mselves t !y really enjoy !m4 ,z at any
 in/ant ^! same advantages may be lo/1  
_! possessors are con/antly on ! al]t1 &
 make a po9t ( %[+ t !y /ill reta9 !m4  
,m5 liv+ 9 democracies love _! c\ntry j 
z !y love !mselves1 & !y transf] !      
habits ( _! private vanity to _! vanity 
z a nation4 ,! re/less & insatiable     
vanity ( a democratic p orig9ates s     

entirely 9 ! equality & prec>i\sness (  
social conditions1 t ! memb]s ( !       
haughtie/ nobility display ! v same     
passion 9 ^? less] portions ( _! exi/5ce
 9 :i* !re is any?+ fluctuat+ or        
conte/$4 ,an ari/ocratic class always   
diff]s greatly f ! o!r classes ( !      
nation1 by ! ext5t & p]petuity ( its    
privileges2 b x (t5 happ5s t ! only     
diff]5ces betwe5 ! memb]s :o belong to x
 consi/ 9 small transi5t advantages1 :i*
 may any day be lo/ or acquir$4 ,!      
memb]s ( a p[]ful ari/ocracy1 collect$ 9
 a capital or a c\rt1 h be5 kn[n to     
conte/ ) virul5ce ^? frivol\s privileges
 :i* dep5d on ! caprice ( fa%ion or ! w 
( _! ma/]4 ,^! p]sons !n display$ t[>ds 
ea* o!r precisely ! same pu]ile         
jeal\sies :i* animate ! m5 (            
democracies1 ! same eag]ness to snat* ! 
smalle/ advantages :i* _! equals        
conte/$1 & ! same desire to p>ade       
o/5tati\sly ^? ( :i* !y 7 9 possession4 
,if national pride ev] ent]$ into ! m9ds
 ( c\rti]s1 ,i d n "q t !y w\ld display 

x 9 ! same mann] z ! memb]s ( a         
democratic community4     ,*apt] ,,xvii3
 ,t ,! ,aspect ,( ,society ,9 ,! ,unit$ 
,/ates ,is ,at ,once ,excit$ ,&         
,monoton\s  ,x w\ld seem t no?+ c be m  
adapt$ to /imulate & to fe$ curiosity   
?an ! aspect ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,=tunes1
 op9ions1 & laws are !re 9 ceaseless    
v>iation3 x is z if immutable nature    
h]self 7 mutable1 su* are ! *anges work$
 ^u h] by ! h& ( man4 ,yet 9 ! end !    
sight ( ?is excit$ community becomes    
monoton\s1 & aft] hav+ wat*$ ! mov+     
pageant = a "t ! spectator is tir$ ( x4 
,among/ ari/ocratic nations e man is    
pretty ne>ly /ation>y 9 8 own sph]e2 b  
m5 are a/oni%+ly unlike ea* o!r--_!     
passions1 _! notions1 _! habits1 & _!   
ta/es are ess5tially diff]5t3 no?+      
*angey1 b ev]y?+ diff]s4 ,9 democracies1
 on ! contr>y1 all m5 are alike & d ?+s 
pretty ne>ly alike4 ,x is true t !y are 
subject to great & frequ5t vicissitudes2
 b z ! same ev5ts ( good or adv]se =tune
 are cont9ually recurr+1 ! "n ( ! actors

 only is *ang$1 ! piece is always !     
same4 ,! aspect ( ,am]ican society is   
animat$1 because m5 & ?+s are always    
*ang+2 b x is monoton\s1 because all ^! 
*anges are alike4  ,m5 liv+ 9 democratic
 ages h _m passions1 b mo/ ( _! passions
 ei!r end 9 ! love ( ri*es or proce$ f  
x4 ,! cause ( ?is is1 n t _! s\ls are   
n>r[]1 b t ! importance ( money is      
really great] at su* times4 ,:5 all !   
memb]s ( a community are indep5d5t ( or 
indiff]5t to ea* o!r1 ! co-op]ation (   
ea* ( !m c only be obta9$ by pay+ = x3  
?is inf9itely multiplies ! purposes to  
:i* weal? may be appli$1 & increases its
 value4 ,:5 ! rev]5ce :i* belong$ to :at
 is old has vani%$1 bir?1 condition1 &  
pr(ession no long] di/+ui% m51 or       
sc>cely di/+ui% !m at all3 h>dly any?+ b
 money rema9s to create /rongly m>k$    
diff]5ces betwe5 !m1 & to raise "s ( !m 
above ! common level4 ,! di/9ction      
orig9at+ 9 weal? is increas$ by !       
disappe>ance & dim9ution ( all o!r      
di/9ctions4 ,among/ ari/ocratic nations 

money only rea*es to a few po9ts on !   
va/ circle ( man's desires--9           
democracies x seems to lead to all4 ,!  
love ( weal? is !re=e to be trac$1 ei!r 
z a pr9cipal or an accessory motive1 at 
! bottom ( all t ! ,am]icans d3 ?is     
gives to all _! passions a sort ( family
 lik5ess1 & soon r5d]s ! survey ( !m    
exce$+ly we>isome4 ,?is p]petual        
recurr5ce ( ! same passion is monoton\s2
 ! peculi> me?ods by :i* ?is passion    
seeks its own gratification are no less 
s4  ,9 an ord]ly & con/itut$ democracy l
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e m5 _c enri*       
!mselves by w>1 by public (fice1 or by  
political confiscation1 ! love ( weal?  
ma9ly drives !m into bus9ess &          
manufactures4 ,al?\gh ^! pursuits (t5   
br+ ab\t great commotions & disa/]s1 !y 
_c prosp] )\t /rictly regul> habits & a 
long r\t9e ( petty uni=m acts4 ,! /rong]
 ! passion is1 ! m regul> are ^! habits1
 & ! m uni=m are ^! acts4 ,x may be said
 t x is ! vehem5ce ( _! desires :i*     
makes ! ,am]icans s me?odical2 x p]turbs

 _! m9ds1 b x discipl9es _! lives4  ,!  
rem>k ,i "h apply to ,am]ica may inde$  
be address$ to almo/ all our            
contempor>ies4 ,v>iety is disappe>+ f ! 
human race2 ! same ways ( act+1 ?9k+1 & 
feel+ are to be met ) all ov] ! _w4 ,?is
 is n only because nations "w m ^u ea*  
o!r1 & are m fai?ful 9 _! mutual        
imitation2 b z ! m5 ( ea* c\ntry        
rel9qui% m & m ! peculi> op9ions &      
feel+s ( a ca/e1 a pr(ession1 or a      
family1 !y simultane\sly arrive at      
some?+ ne>] to ! con/itution ( man1 :i* 
is ev]y:]e ! same4 ,?us !y become m     
alike1 ev5 )\t hav+ imitat$ ea* o!r4 ,l 
travell]s scatt]$ ab\t "s l>ge wood1 :i*
 is int]sect$ by pa?s conv]g+ to "o     
po9t1 if all ( !m keep1 _! eyes fix$ ^u 
t po9t & advance t[>ds x1 !y ins5sibly  
draw ne>] toge!r--?\gh !y seek n1 ?\gh  
!y see n1 ?\gh !y "k n ea* o!r2 & !y w  
be surpris$ at l5g? to f9d !mselves all 
collect$ on ! same spot4 ,all ! nations 
:i* take1 n any p>ticul> man1 b man     
himself1 z ! object ( _! rese>*es & _!  

imitations1 are t5d+ 9 ! end to a simil>
 /ate ( society1 l ^! travell]s conv]g+ 
to ! c5tral plot ( ! =e/4     ,*apt]    
,,xviii3 ,( ,honor ,9 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates  
,& ,9 ,democratic ,communities  ,x w\ld 
seem t m5 employ two v di/9ct me?ods 9 !
 public e/imation 99a ( ! actions ( _!  
fell[m52 at "o "t !y judge !m by ^?     
simple notions ( "r & wrong :i* are     
diffus$ all ov] ! _w2 at ano!r !y ref]  
_! decision to a few v special notions  
:i* belong exclusively to "s p>ticul>   
age & c\ntry4 ,x (t5 happ5s t ^! two    
rules diff]2 !y sometimes conflict3 b !y
 are nev] ei!r entirely id5tifi$ or     
entirely annull$ by "o ano!r4 ,honor1 at
 ! p]iods ( its greate/ p[]1 sways ! w m
 ?an ! belief ( m52 & ev5 :il/ !y yield 
)\t hesitation & )\t a murmur to its    
dictates1 !y feel not)/&+1 by a dim b   
mighty in/9ct1 ! exi/5ce ( a m g5]al1 m 
anci5t1 & m holy law1 :i* !y sometimes  
disobey al?\gh !y cease n to ackn[l$ge  
x4 ,"s actions h be5 held to be at !    
same "t virtu\s & di%onorable--a refusal

 to fight a duel is a case 9 po9t4      
,footnote a3 ,! ^w honor is n always us$
 9 ! same s5se ei!r 9 ,fr5* or ,engli%4 
,i4 ,x fir/ signifies ! dignity1 glory1 
or rev]5ce :i* a man receives f 8 k9d2 &
 9 ?is s5se a man is said to acquire    
honor4 #b4 ,honor signifies ! aggregate 
( ^? rules by ! assi/ance ( :i* ?is     
dignity1 glory1 or rev]5ce is obta9$4   
,?us we say t a man has always /rictly  
obey$ ! laws ( honor2 or a man has      
violat$ 8 honor4 ,9 ?is *apt] ! ^w is   
always us$ 9 ! latt] s5se4  ,i ?9k ^!   
peculi>ities may be o!rwise expla9$ ?an 
by ! m]e caprices ( c]ta9 individuals & 
nations1 z has hi!rto be5 ! cu/om>y mode
 ( reason+ on ! subject4 ,mank9d is     
subject to g5]al & la/+ wants t h       
eng5d]$ moral laws1 to ! neglect ( :i*  
m5 h ev] & 9 all places atta*$ ! notion 
( c5sure & %ame3 to infr+e !m 0 to d    
ill--to d well 0 to con=m to !m4 ,)9 !  
bosom ( ?is va/ association ( ! human   
race1 less] associations h be5 =m$ :i*  
are call$ nations2 & amid/ ^! nations   

fur!r subdivisions h assum$ ! names (   
classes or ca/es4 ,ea* ( ^! associations
 =ms1 z x 71 a sep>ate species ( ! human
 race2 & ?\gh x has no ess5tial diff]5ce
 f ! mass ( mank9d1 to a c]ta9 ext5t x  
/&s ap>t & has c]ta9 wants peculi> to   
itself4 ,to ^! special wants mu/ be     
attribut$ ! modifications :i* affect 9  
v>i\s degrees & 9 diff]5t c\ntries !    
mode ( consid]+ human actions1 & !      
e/imate :i* ought to be =m$ ( !m4 ,x is 
! g5]al & p]man5t int]e/ ( mank9d t m5  
%\ld n kill ea* o!r3 b x may happ5 to be
 ! peculi> & tempor>y int]e/ ( a p or a 
class to ju/ify1 or ev5 to honor1       
homicide4  ,honor is simply t peculi>   
rule1 f\nd$ ^u a peculi> /ate ( society1
 by ! application ( :i* a p or a class  
allot praise or blame4 ,no?+ is m       
unproductive to ! m9d ?an an ab/ract    
idea2 ,i !re=e ha/5 to call 9 ! aid (   
facts & examples to illu/rate my mean+4 
,i select ! mo/ extraord9>y k9d ( honor 
:i* 0 ev] kn[n 9 ! _w1 & t :i* we are   
be/ acqua9t$ )1 viz41 ari/ocratic honor 

spr++ out ( feudal society4 ,i %all     
expla9 x by means ( ! pr9ciple already  
laid d[n1 & ,i %all expla9 ! pr9ciple by
 means ( ! illu/ration4 ,i am n "h l$ to
 inquire :5 & h[ ! ari/ocracy ( !       
,middle ,ages came into exi/5ce1 :y x 0 
s deeply sev]$ f ! rema9d] ( ! nation1  
or :at f\nd$ & consolidat$ its p[]4 ,i  
take its exi/5ce z an e/abli%$ fact1 &  
,i am endeavor+ to acc\nt = ! peculi>   
view :i* x took ( ! great] "p ( human   
actions4 ,! fir/ ?+ t /rikes me is1 t 9 
! feudal _w actions 7 n always prais$ or
 blam$ ) ref]5ce to _! intr9sic wor?1 b 
t !y 7 sometimes appreciat$ exclusively 
) ref]5ce to ! p]son :o 0 ! actor or !  
object ( !m1 :i* is repugnant to ! g5]al
 consci5ce ( mank9d4 ,?us "s ( ! actions
 :i* 7 indiff]5t on ! "p ( a man 9      
humble life1 di%onor$ a noble2 o!rs     
*ang$ _! :ole "* accord+ z ! p]son      
aggriev$ by !m belong$ or did n belong  
to ! ari/ocracy4 ,:5 ^! diff]5t notions 
fir/ arose1 ! nobility =m$ a di/9ct body
 amid/ ! p1 :i* x comm&$ f !            

inaccessible heights :]e x 0 ensconc$4  
,to ma9ta9 ?is peculi> position1 :i*    
con/itut$ its /r5g?1 x n only requir$   
political privileges1 b x requir$ a /&>d
 ( "r & wrong = its own especial use4 ,t
 "s p>ticul> virtue or vice belong$ to !
 nobility r ?an to ! humble classes--t  
c]ta9 actions 7 guiltless :5 !y affect$ 
! villa91 :i* 7 crim9al :5 !y t\*$ !    
noble--^! 7 (t5 arbitr>y matt]s2 b t    
honor or %ame %\ld be atta*$ to a man's 
actions accord+ to 8 condition1 0 a     
result ( ! int]nal con/itution ( an     
ari/ocratic community4 ,?is has be5     
actually ! case 9 all ! c\ntries :i* h  
_h an ari/ocracy2 z long z a trace ( !  
pr9ciple rema9s1 ^! peculi>ities w /ill 
exi/2 to debau* a woman ( color sc>cely 
injures ! reputation ( an ,am]ican--to  
m>ry h] di%onors him4  ,9 "s cases      
feudal honor enjo9$ rev5ge1 & /igmatiz$ 
! =giv5ess ( insults2 9 o!rs x imp]i\sly
 comm&$ m5 to conqu] _! own passions1 & 
impos$ =getfulness ( self4 ,x did n make
 humanity or k9dness its law1 b x       

extoll$ g5]osity2 x set m /ore on       
lib]ality ?an on b5evol5ce2 x all[$ m5  
to enri* !mselves by gambl+ or by w>1 b 
n by labor2 x pref]r$ great crimes to   
small e>n+s2 cupidity 0 less di/a/eful  
to x ?an av>ice2 viol5ce x (t5          
sanction$1 b cunn+ & trea*]y x inv>iably
 reprobat$ z contemptible4 ,^!          
fanta/ical notions did n proce$         
exclusively f ! caprices ( ^? :o        
ent]ta9$ !m4 ,a class :i* has succe$$ 9 
plac+ itself at ! head ( & above all    
o!rs1 & :i* makes p]petual ex]tions to  
ma9ta9 ?is l(ty position1 mu/ especially
 honor ^? virtues :i* are conspicu\s =  
_! dignity & spl5dor1 & :i* may be      
easily comb9$ ) pride & ! love ( p[]4   
,su* m5 w\ld n hesitate to inv]t !      
natural ord] ( ! consci5ce 9 ord] to    
give ^? virtues prec$5ce be=e all o!rs4 
,x may ev5 be conceiv$ t "s ( ! m bold &
 brilliant vices w\ld readily be set    
above ! quiet1 unpret5d+ virtues4 ,! v  
exi/5ce ( su* a class 9 society r5d]s ^!
 ?+s unavoidable4  ,! nobles ( ! ,middle

 ,ages plac$ milit>y c\rage =emo/ among/
 virtues1 & 9 lieu ( _m ( !m4 ,?is 0    
aga9 a peculi> op9ion :i* arose         
necess>ily f ! peculi>ity ( ! /ate (    
society4 ,feudal ari/ocracy exi/$ by w> 
& = w>2 its p[] _h be5 f\nd$ by arms1 & 
by arms t p[] 0 ma9ta9$2 x !re=e requir$
 no?+ m ?an milit>y c\rage1 & t quality 
0 naturally exalt$ above all o!rs2      
:atev] d5ot$ x1 ev5 at ! exp5se ( reason
 & humanity1 0 !re=e approv$ & frequ5tly
 enjo9$ by ! mann]s ( ! "t4 ,su* 0 ! ma9
 pr9ciple2 ! caprice ( man 0 only to be 
trac$ 9 m9ut] details4 ,t a man %\ld    
reg>d a tap on ! *eek z an unbe>able    
insult1 & %\ld be oblig$ to kill 9 s+le 
combat ! p]son :o /ruck him ?us lightly1
 is an arbitr>y rule2 b t a noble c\ld n
 tranquilly receive an insult1 & 0      
di%onor$ if he all[$ himself to take a  
bl[ )\t fight+1 7 direct consequ5ces ( !
 fundam5tal pr9ciples & ! wants (       
milit>y ari/ocracy4  ,?us x 0 true to a 
c]ta9 ext5t to ass]t t ! laws ( honor 7 
caprici\s2 b ^! caprices ( honor 7      

always conf9$ )9 c]ta9 necess>y limits4 
,! peculi> rule1 :i* 0 call$ honor by   
our =efa!rs1 is s f> f be+ an arbitr>y  
law 9 my eyes1 t ,i w\ld readily engage 
to ascribe its mo/ incoh]5t & fanta/ical
 injunctions to a small numb] ( fix$ &  
inv>iable wants inh]5t 9 feudal society4
  ,if ,i 7 to trace ! notion ( feudal   
honor into ! doma9 ( politics1 ,i %\ld n
 f9d x m difficult to expla9 its        
dictates4 ,! /ate ( society & !         
political in/itutions ( ! ,middle ,ages 
7 su*1 t ! supreme p[] ( ! nation nev]  
gov]n$ ! community directly4 ,t p[] did 
n exi/ 9 ! eyes ( ! p3 e man look$ up to
 a c]ta9 individual :om he 0 b\nd to    
obey2 by t int]m$iate p]sonage he 0     
connect$ ) all ! o!rs4 ,?us 9 feudal    
society ! :ole sy/em ( ! commonweal?    
re/$ ^u ! s5tim5t ( fidelity to ! p]son 
( ! "l3 to de/roy t s5tim5t 0 to op5 !  
sluices ( an>*y4 ,fidelity to a         
political sup]ior 01 moreov]1 a s5tim5t 
( :i* all ! memb]s ( ! ari/ocracy _h    
con/ant opportunities ( e/imat+ !       

importance2 = e "o ( !m 0 a vassal z    
well z a "l1 & _h to comm& z well z to  
obey4 ,to rema9 fai?ful to ! "l1 to     
sacrifice "o's self = him if call$ ^u1  
to %>e 8 good or evil =tunes1 to /& by  
him 9 8 und]tak+s :atev] !y might       
be--su* 7 ! fir/ injunctions ( feudal   
honor 9 relation to ! political         
in/itutions ( ^? times4 ,! trea*]y ( a  
vassal 0 br&$ ) extraord9>y sev]ity by  
public op9ion1 & a "n ( peculi> infamy 0
 inv5t$ = ! (f5ce :i* 0 call$ felony4   
,on ! contr>y1 few traces are to be f\nd
 9 ! ,middle ,ages ( ! passion :i*      
con/itut$ ! life ( ! nations (          
antiquity--,i mean patriotism2 ! ^w     
itself is n ( v anci5t date 9 !         
language4 99b ,feudal in/itutions       
conceal$ ! c\ntry at l>ge f m5's sight1 
& r5d]$ ! love ( x less necess>y4 ,!    
nation 0 =gott5 9 ! passions :i* atta*$ 
m5 to p]sons4 ,h5ce x 0 no "p ( ! /rict 
law ( feudal honor to rema9 fai?ful to  
"o's c\ntry4 ,n inde$ t ! love ( _!     
c\ntry did n exi/ 9 ! he>ts ( our       

=efa!rs2 b x con/itut$ a dim & feeble   
in/9ct1 :i* has gr[n m cle> & /rong 9   
proportion z ari/ocratic classes h be5  
aboli%$1 & ! supreme p[] ( ! nation     
c5traliz$4 ,?is may be cle>ly se5 f !   
contr>y judgm5ts :i* ,european nations h
 pass$ ^u ! v>i\s ev5ts ( _! hi/ories1  
accord+ to ! g5]ations by :i* su*       
judgm5ts h be5 =m$4 ,! circum/ance :i*  
mo/ di%onor$ ! ,con/able de ,b\rbon 9 ! 
eyes ( 8 contempor>ies 0 t he bore arms 
aga9/ 8 k+3 t :i* mo/ di%onors him 9 our
 eyes1 is t he made w> aga9/ 8 c\ntry2  
we br& him z deeply z our =efa!rs did1 b
 = diff]5t reasons4  ,footnote b3 ,ev5 !
 ^w patrie 0 n us$ by ! ,fr5* writ]s    
until ! sixte5? c5tury4  ,i h *os5 !    
honor ( feudal times by way (           
illu/ration ( my mean+1 because its     
*>act]i/ics are m di/9ctly m>k$ & m     
famili> to u ?an ^? ( any o!r p]iod2 b  
,i might h tak5 an example else:]e1 & ,i
 %\ld h rea*$ ! same conclusion by a    
diff]5t road4 ,al?\gh we are less       
p]fectly acqua9t$ ) ! ,romans ?an ) our 

own ance/ors1 yet we "k t c]ta9 peculi> 
notions ( glory & disgrace obta9$ among/
 !m1 :i* 7 n solely d]iv$ f ! g5]al     
pr9ciples ( "r & wrong4 ,_m human       
actions 7 judg$ diff]5tly1 accord+ z !y 
affect$ a ,roman citiz5 or a /rang]1 a  
freeman or a slave2 c]ta9 vices 7       
blazon$ abroad1 c]ta9 virtues 7 extoll$ 
above all o!rs4 ,9 t age1 says ,plut>* 9
 ! life ( ,coriolanus1 m>tial pr[ess 0 m
 honor$ & priz$ 9 ,rome ?an all ! o!r   
virtues1 insomu* t x 0 call$ virtus1 !  
"n ( virtue itself1 by apply+ ! "n ( !  
k9d to ?is p>ticul> species2 s t virtue 
9 ,lat9 0 z mu* z to say valor4 ,c      
anyone fail to recognize ! peculi> want 
( t s+ul> community :i* 0 =m$ = !       
conque/ ( ! _w8  ,any nation w\ld furni%
 u ) simil> gr\nds ( obs]vation2 =1 z ,i
 h already rem>k$1 :5ev] m5 collect     
toge!r z a di/9ct community1 ! notion ( 
honor in/antly gr[s up among/ !m2 t is  
to say1 a sy/em ( op9ions peculi> to    
!mselves z to :at is blamable or        
comm5dable2 & ^! peculi> rules always   

orig9ate 9 ! special habits & special   
int]e/s ( ! community4 ,?is is          
applicable to a c]ta9 ext5t to          
democratic communities z well z to o!rs1
 z we %all n[ proce$ to prove by !      
example ( ! ,am]icans4 99c ,"s loose    
notions ( ! old ari/ocratic honor (     
,europe are /ill to be f\nd scatt]$     
among/ ! op9ions ( ! ,am]icans2 b ^!    
traditional op9ions are few 9 numb]1 !y 
h b little root 9 ! c\ntry1 & b little  
p[]4 ,!y are l a religion :i* has /ill  
"s temples left /&+1 ?\gh m5 h ceas$ to 
believe 9 x4 ,b amid/ ^! half-oblit]at$ 
notions ( exotic honor1 "s new op9ions h
 sprung up1 :i* con/itute :at may be    
t]m$ 9 our days ,am]ican honor4 ,i h %[n
 h[ ! ,am]icans are con/antly driv5 to  
engage 9 comm]ce & indu/ry4 ,_! orig91  
_! social condition1 _! political       
in/itutions1 & ev5 ! spot !y inhabit1   
urge !m irresi/ibly 9 ?is direction4 ,_!
 pres5t condition is !n t ( an almo/    
exclusively manufactur+ & comm]cial     
association1 plac$ 9 ! mid/ ( a new &   

b\ndless c\ntry1 :i* _! pr9cipal object 
is to explore = purposes ( pr(it4 ,?is  
is ! *>act]i/ic :i* mo/ peculi>ly       
di/+ui%es ! ,am]ican p f all o!rs at !  
pres5t "t4 ,all ^? quiet virtues :i* t5d
 to give a regul> movem5t to !          
community1 & to enc\rage bus9ess1 w     
!re=e be held 9 peculi> honor by t p1 & 
to neglect ^? virtues w be to incur     
public contempt4 ,all ! m turbul5t      
virtues1 :i* (t5 dazzle1 b m frequ5tly  
di/urb society1 w on ! contr>y occupy a 
subord9ate rank 9 ! e/imation ( ?is same
 p3 !y may be neglect$ )\t =feit+ !     
e/eem ( ! community--to acquire !m w\ld 
p]haps be to run a risk ( los+ x4       
,footnote c3 ,i speak "h ( ! ,am]icans  
inhabit+ ^? ,/ates :]e slav]y does n    
exi/2 !y alone c be said to pres5t a    
complete picture ( democratic society4  
,! ,am]icans make a no less arbitr>y    
classification ( m5's vices4 ,!re are   
c]ta9 prop5sities :i* appe> c5surable to
 ! g5]al reason & ! univ]sal consci5ce (
 mank9d1 b :i* happ5 to agree ) !       

peculi> & tempor>y wants ( ! ,am]ican   
community3 ^! prop5sities are lightly   
reprov$1 sometimes ev5 enc\rag$2 =      
in/ance1 ! love ( weal? & ! second>y    
prop5sities connect$ ) x may be m       
p>ticul>ly cit$4 ,to cle>1 to till1 & to
 trans=m ! va/ un9habit$ cont95t :i* is 
8 doma91 ! ,am]ican requires ! daily    
support ( an en]getic passion2 t passion
 c only be ! love ( weal?2 ! passion =  
weal? is !re=e n reprobat$ 9 ,am]ica1 & 
provid$ x does n g beyond ! b\nds       
assign$ to x = public security1 x is    
held 9 honor4 ,! ,am]ican lauds z a     
noble & praisewor?y ambition :at our own
 =efa!rs 9 ! ,middle ,ages /igmatiz$ z  
s]vile cupidity1 j z he treats z a bl9d 
& b>b>\s fr5zy t ardor ( conque/ &      
m>tial temp] :i* bore !m to battle4 ,9 !
 ,unit$ ,/ates =tunes are lo/ & rega9$  
)\t difficulty2 ! c\ntry is b\ndless1 & 
its res\rces inexhau/ible4 ,! p h all ! 
wants & crav+s ( a gr[+ creature2 &     
:atev] be _! ef=ts1 !y are always       
surr\nd$ by m ?an !y c appropriate4 ,x  

is n ! ru9 ( a few individuals :i* may  
be soon repair$1 b ! inactivity & slo? (
 ! community at l>ge :i* w\ld be fatal  
to su* a p4 ,boldness ( ent]prise is !  
=emo/ cause ( its rapid progress1 its   
/r5g?1 & its greatness4 ,comm]cial      
bus9ess is !re l a va/ lott]y1 by :i* a 
small numb] ( m5 cont9ually lose1 b !   
,/ate is always a ga9]2 su* a p ought   
!re=e to enc\rage & d honor to boldness 
9 comm]cial speculations4 ,b any bold   
speculation risks ! =tune ( ! speculator
 & ( all ^? :o put _! tru/ 9 him4 ,!    
,am]icans1 :o make a virtue ( comm]cial 
tem]ity1 h no "r 9 any case to br& )    
disgrace ^? :o practise x4 ,h5ce arises 
! /range indulg5ce :i* is %[n to        
bankrupts 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 _! honor   
does n suff] by su* an accid5t4 ,9 ?is  
respect ! ,am]icans diff]1 n only f !   
nations ( ,europe1 b f all ! comm]cial  
nations ( our "t1 & accord+ly !y        
resemble none ( !m 9 _! position or _!  
wants4  ,9 ,am]ica all ^? vices :i* t5d 
to impair ! purity ( morals1 & to de/roy

 ! conjugal tie1 are treat$ ) a degree (
 sev]ity :i* is unkn[n 9 ! re/ ( ! _w4  
,at fir/ sight ?is seems /rangely at    
v>iance ) ! tol]ance %[n !re on o!r     
subjects1 & "o is surpris$ to meet ) a  
morality s relax$ & s au/]e among/ !    
selfsame p4 ,b ^! ?+s are less incoh]5t 
?an !y seem to be4 ,public op9ion 9 !   
,unit$ ,/ates v g5tly represses t love (
 weal? :i* promotes ! comm]cial         
greatness & ! prosp]ity ( ! nation1 & x 
especially condemns t laxity ( morals   
:i* div]ts ! human m9d f ! pursuit (    
well-be+1 & di/urbs ! int]nal ord] (    
dome/ic life :i* is s necess>y to       
success 9 bus9ess4 ,to e>n ! e/eem ( _! 
c\ntrym51 ! ,am]icans are !re=e con/ra9$
 to adapt !mselves to ord]ly habits--& x
 may be said 9 ?is s5se t !y make x a   
matt] ( honor to live *a/ely4  ,on "o   
po9t ,am]ican honor accords ) ! notions 
( honor ackn[l$g$ 9 ,europe2 x places   
c\rage z ! highe/ virtue1 & treats x z !
 greate/ ( ! moral necessities ( man2 b 
! notion ( c\rage itself assumes a      

diff]5t aspect4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates      
m>tial valor is b little priz$2 ! c\rage
 :i* is be/ kn[n & mo/ e/eem$ is t :i*  
embold5s m5 to brave ! dang]s ( ! ocean1
 9 ord] to arrive e>li] 9 port--to      
support ! privations ( ! wild]ness )\t  
compla9t1 & solitude m cruel ?an        
privations--! c\rage :i* r5d]s !m almo/ 
ins5sible to ! loss ( a =tune labori\sly
 acquir$1 & in/antly prompts to fre%    
ex]tions to make ano!r4 ,c\rage ( ?is   
k9d is peculi>ly necess>y to ! ma9t5ance
 & prosp]ity ( ! ,am]ican communities1 &
 x is held by !m 9 peculi> honor &      
e/imation2 to betray a want ( x is to   
incur c]ta9 disgrace4  ,i h yet ano!r   
*>act]i/ic po9t :i* may s]ve to place ! 
idea ( ?is *apt] 9 /rong] relief4 ,9 a  
democratic society l t ( ! ,unit$       
,/ates1 :]e =tunes are scanty &         
insecure1 ev]ybody works1 & "w op5s a   
way to ev]y?+3 ?is has *ang$ ! po9t (   
honor q r\nd1 & has turn$ x aga9/       
idl5ess4 ,i h sometimes met 9 ,am]ica ) 
"y m5 ( weal?1 p]sonally dis9cl9$ to all

 labori\s ex]tion1 b :o _h be5 compell$ 
to embrace a pr(ession4 ,_! disposition 
& _! =tune all[$ !m to rema9 )\t        
employm5t2 public op9ion =bade x1 too   
imp]i\sly to be disobey$4 ,9 ! ,european
 c\ntries1 on ! contr>y1 :]e ari/ocracy 
is /ill /ruggl+ ) ! flood :i* ov]:elms  
x1 ,i h (t5 se5 m51 con/antly spurr$ on 
by _! wants & desires1 rema9 9 idl5ess1 
9 ord] n to lose ! e/eem ( _! equals2 & 
,i h kn[n !m submit to ennui &          
privations r ?an to "w4 ,no "o c fail to
 p]ceive t ^! opposite obligations are  
two diff]5t rules ( conduct1 bo?        
nev]!less orig9at+ 9 ! notion ( honor4  
,:at our =efa!rs designat$ z honor      
absolutely 0 9 reality only "o ( its    
=ms2 !y gave a g5]ic "n to :at 0 only a 
species4 ,honor !re=e is to be f\nd 9   
democratic z well z 9 ari/ocratic ages1 
b x w n be difficult to %[ t x assumes a
 diff]5t aspect 9 ! =m]4 ,n only are its
 injunctions diff]5t1 b we %all %ortly  
see t !y are less num]\s1 less precise1 
& t its dictates are less rigor\sly     

obey$4 ,! position ( a ca/e is always   
mu* m peculi> ?an t ( a p4 ,no?+ is s   
mu* out ( ! way ( ! _w z a small        
community inv>iably compos$ ( ! same    
families 7z 0 = in/ance ! ari/ocracy ( !
 ,middle ,ages71 ^: object is to        
conc5trate & to reta91 exclusively &    
h]$it>ily1 education1 weal?1 & p[]      
among/ its own memb]s4 ,b ! m out ( !   
way ! position ( a community happ5s to  
be1 ! m num]\s are its special wants1 & 
! m ext5sive are its notions ( honor    
correspond+ to ^? wants4 ,! rules (     
honor w !re=e always be less num]\s     
among/ a p n divid$ into ca/es ?an      
among/ any o!r4 ,if ev] any nations are 
con/itut$ 9 :i* x may ev5 be difficult  
to f9d any peculi> classes ( society1 ! 
notion ( honor w be conf9$ to a small   
numb] ( precepts1 :i* w be m & m 9      
accordance ) ! moral laws adopt$ by !   
mass ( mank9d4 ,?us ! laws ( honor w be 
less peculi> & less multif>i\s among/ a 
democratic p ?an 9 an ari/ocracy4 ,!y w 
also be m obscure2 & ?is is a necess>y  

consequ5ce ( :at goes be=e2 = z !       
di/+ui%+ m>ks ( honor are less num]\s & 
less peculi>1 x mu/ (t5 be difficult to 
di/+ui% !m4 ,to ?is1 o!r reasons may be 
add$4 ,among/ ! ari/ocratic nations ( ! 
,middle ,ages1 g5]ation succe$$ g5]ation
 9 va92 ea* family 0 l a nev]-dy+1      
ev]-/ation>y man1 & ! /ate ( op9ions 0  
h>dly m *angeable ?an t ( conditions4   
,ev]yone !n _h always ! same objects    
be=e 8 eyes1 :i* he contemplat$ f ! same
 po9t2 8 eyes gradually detect$ !       
smalle/ details1 & 8 disc]nm5t c\ld n   
fail to become 9 ! end cle> & accurate4 
,?us n only _h ! m5 ( feudal times v    
extraord9>y op9ions 9 matt]s ( honor1 b 
ea* ( ^? op9ions 0 pres5t to _! m9ds "u 
a cle> & precise =m4  ,?is c nev] be !  
case 9 ,am]ica1 :]e all m5 are 9 con/ant
 motion2 & :]e society1 trans=m$ daily  
by its own op]ations1 *anges its op9ions
 toge!r ) its wants4 ,9 su* a c\ntry m5 
h glimpses ( ! rules ( honor1 b !y h    
seldom "t to fix att5tion ^u !m4  ,b ev5
 if society 7 motionless1 x w\ld /ill be

 difficult to det]m9e ! mean+ :i* ought 
to be atta*$ to ! ^w honor4 ,9 ! ,middle
 ,ages1 z ea* class _h its own honor1 ! 
same op9ion 0 nev] receiv$ at ! same "t 
by a l>ge numb] ( m52 & ?is r5d]$ x     
possible to give x a det]m9$ & accurate 
=m1 :i* 0 ! m easy1 z all ^? by :om x 0 
receiv$1 hav+ a p]fectly id5tical & mo/ 
peculi> position1 7 naturally dispos$ to
 agree ^u ! po9ts ( a law :i* 0 made =  
!mselves alone4 ,?us ! code ( honor     
became a complete & detail$ sy/em1 9 :i*
 ev]y?+ 0 anticipat$ & provid$ = be=eh&1
 & a fix$ & always palpable /&>d 0      
appli$ to human actions4 ,among/ a      
democratic nation1 l ! ,am]icans1 9 :i* 
ranks are id5tifi$1 & ! :ole ( society  
=ms "o s+le mass1 compos$ ( elem5ts :i* 
are all analog\s ?\gh n entirely simil>1
 x is impossible ev] to agree be=eh& on 
:at %all or %all n be all[$ by ! laws ( 
honor4 ,among/ t p1 inde$1 "s national  
wants d exi/ :i* give rise to op9ions   
common to ! :ole nation on po9ts (      
honor2 b ^! op9ions nev] occur at ! same

 "t1 9 ! same mann]1 or ) ! same        
int5sity to ! m9ds ( ! :ole community2 !
 law ( honor exi/s1 b x has no organs to
 promulgate x4  ,! confusion is f>      
great] /ill 9 a democratic c\ntry l     
,france1 :]e ! diff]5t classes ( :i* !  
=m] fabric ( society 0 compos$1 be+     
br\ght toge!r b n yet m+l$1 import day  
by day into ea* o!r's circles v>i\s &   
sometimes conflict+ notions ( honor--:]e
 e man1 at 8 own w & pleasure1 =sakes "o
 portion ( 8 =efa!rs' cre$1 & reta9s    
ano!r2 s t1 amid/ s _m arbitr>y         
measures1 no common rule c ev] be       
e/abli%$1 & x is almo/ impossible to    
pr$ict :i* actions w be held 9 honor &  
:i* w be ?\ght disgraceful4 ,su* times  
are wret*$1 b !y are ( %ort duration4   
,z honor1 among/ democratic nations1 is 
imp]fectly def9$1 its influ5ce is (     
c\rse less p[]ful2 = x is difficult to  
apply ) c]ta9ty & firmness a law :i* is 
n di/9ctly kn[n4 ,public op9ion1 !      
natural & supreme int]pret] ( ! laws (  
honor1 n cle>ly disc]n+ to :i* side     

c5sure or approval ought to lean1 c only
 pron\nce a hesitat+ judgm5t4 ,sometimes
 ! op9ion ( ! public may contradict     
itself2 m frequ5tly x does n act1 & lets
 ?+s pass4  ,! weakness ( ! s5se ( honor
 9 democracies also arises f sev]al o!r 
causes4 ,9 ari/ocratic c\ntries1 ! same 
notions ( honor are always ent]ta9$ by  
only a few p]sons1 always limit$ 9      
numb]1 (t5 sep>at$ f ! re/ ( _!         
fell[-citiz5s4 ,honor is easily m+l$ &  
id5tifi$ 9 _! m9ds ) ! idea ( all t     
di/+ui%es _! own position2 x appe>s to  
!m z ! *ief *>act]i/ic ( _! own rank2 !y
 apply its diff]5t rules ) all ! w>m? ( 
p]sonal int]e/1 & !y feel 7if ,i may use
 ! expression7 a passion = comply+ ) its
 dictates4 ,?is tru? is extremely obvi\s
 9 ! old black-lett] lawbooks on !      
subject ( trial by battel4 ,! nobles1 9 
_! disputes1 7 b\nd to use ! lance &    
sword2 :]eas ! villa9s us$ only /icks   
among/ !mselves1 inasmu* z1 to use !    
words ( ! old books1 villa9s h no honor4
 ,?is did n mean1 z x may be imag9$ at !

 pres5t day1 t ^! p 7 contemptible2 b   
simply t _! actions 7 n to be judg$ by !
 same rules :i* 7 appli$ to ! actions ( 
! ari/ocracy4  ,x is surpris+1 at fir/  
sight1 t :5 ! s5se ( honor is mo/       
pr$om9ant1 its injunctions are usually  
mo/ /range2 s t ! fur!r x is remov$ f   
common reason ! bett] x is obey$2 :5ce x
 has sometimes be5 inf]r$ t ! laws (    
honor 7 /r5g!n$ by _! own extravagance4 
,! two ?+s inde$ orig9ate f ! same      
s\rce1 b ! "o is n d]iv$ f ! o!r4 ,honor
 becomes fanta/ical 9 proportion to !   
peculi>ity ( ! wants :i* x d5otes1 & !  
paucity ( ! m5 by :om ^? wants are felt2
 & x is because x d5otes wants ( ?is k9d
 t its influ5ce is great4 ,?us ! notion 
( honor is n ! /rong] = be+ fanta/ical1 
b x is fanta/ical & /rong f ! selfsame  
cause4  ,fur!r1 among/ ari/ocratic      
nations ea* rank is diff]5t1 b all ranks
 are fix$2 e man occupies a place 9 8   
own sph]e :i* he _c rel9qui%1 & he lives
 !re amid/ o!r m5 :o are b\nd by ! same 
ties4 ,among/ ^! nations no man c ei!r  

hope or fe> to escape be+ se52 no man is
 plac$ s l[ b t he has a /age ( 8 own1 &
 none c avoid c5sure or applause by 8   
obscurity4 ,9 democratic ,/ates on !    
contr>y1 :]e all ! memb]s ( ! community 
are m+l$ 9 ! same cr[d & 9 con/ant      
agitation1 public op9ion has no hold on 
m52 !y disappe> at e in/ant1 & elude its
 p[]4 ,consequ5tly ! dictates ( honor w 
be !re less imp]i\s & less /r+5t2 =     
honor acts solely = ! public eye--diff]+
 9 ?is respect f m]e virtue1 :i* lives  
^u itself cont5t$ ) its own approval4   
,if ! read] has di/9ctly appreh5d$ all t
 goes be=e1 he w und]/& t !re is a close
 & necess>y relation betwe5 ! inequality
 ( social conditions & :at has "h be5   
/yl$ honor--a relation :i*1 if ,i am n  
mi/ak51 _h n be=e be5 cle>ly po9t$ out4 
,i %all !re=e make "o m attempt to      
illu/rate x satisfactorily4 ,suppose a  
nation /&s ap>t f ! re/ ( mank9d3       
indep5d5tly ( c]ta9 g5]al wants inh]5t 9
 ! human race1 x w also h wants &       
int]e/s peculi> to itself3 c]ta9 op9ions

 ( c5sure or approbation =?) arise 9 !  
community1 :i* are peculi> to itself1 & 
:i* are /yl$ honor by ! memb]s ( t      
community4 ,n[ suppose t 9 ?is same     
nation a ca/e arises1 :i*1 9 its turn1  
/&s ap>t f all ! o!r classes1 &         
contracts c]ta9 peculi> wants1 :i* give 
rise 9 _! turn to special op9ions4 ,!   
honor ( ?is ca/e1 compos$ ( a m$ley ( ! 
peculi> notions ( ! nation1 & ! /ill m  
peculi> notions ( ! ca/e1 w be z remote 
z x is possible to conceive f ! simple &
 g5]al op9ions ( m54  ,hav+ rea*$ ?is   
extreme po9t ( ! argum5t1 ,i n[ return4 
,:5 ranks are comm+l$ & privileges      
aboli%$1 ! m5 ( :om a nation is compos$ 
be+ once m equal & alike1 _! int]e/s &  
wants become id5tical1 & all ! peculi>  
notions :i* ea* ca/e /yl$ honor         
successively disappe>3 ! notion ( honor 
no long] proce$s f any o!r s\rce ?an !  
wants peculi> to ! nation at l>ge1 & x  
d5otes ! individual "* ( t nation to !  
_w4 ,la/ly1 if x be all[able to suppose 
t all ! races ( mank9d %\ld be comm+l$1 

& t all ! peoples ( e>? %\ld ultimately 
come to h ! same int]e/s1 ! same wants1 
undi/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by any *>act]i/ic  
peculi>ities1 no conv5tional value      
:atev] w\ld !n be atta*$ to m5's        
actions2 !y w\ld all be reg>d$ by all 9 
! same light2 ! g5]al necessities (     
mank9d1 reveal$ by consci5ce to e man1  
w\ld become ! common /&>d4 ,! simple &  
g5]al notions ( "r & wrong only w\ld !n 
be recogniz$ 9 ! _w1 to :i*1 by a       
natural & necess>y tie1 ! idea ( c5sure 
or approbation w\ld be atta*$4 ,?us1 to 
comprise all my mean+ 9 a s+le          
proposition1 ! dissimil>ities &         
inequalities ( m5 gave rise to ! notion 
( honor2 t notion is weak5$ 9 proportion
 z ^! diff]5ces are oblit]at$1 & ) !m x 
w\ld disappe>4     ,*apt] ,,xix3 ,:y ,s 
,_m ,ambiti\s ,m5 ,& ,s ,little ,l(ty   
,ambition ,are ,to ,be ,f\nd ,9 ,!      
,unit$ ,/ates  ,! fir/ ?+ :i* /rikes a  
travell] 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is !         
innum]able multitude ( ^? :o seek to ?r[
 (f _! orig9al condition2 & ! second is 

! r>ity ( l(ty ambition to be obs]v$ 9 !
 mid/ ( ! univ]sally ambiti\s /ir (     
society4 ,no ,am]icans are devoid ( a   
ye>n+ desire to rise2 b h>dly any appe> 
to ent]ta9 hopes ( great magnitude1 or  
to drive at v l(ty aims4 ,all are       
con/antly seek+ to acquire prop]ty1 p[]1
 & reputation--few contemplate ^! ?+s ^u
 a great scale2 & ?is is ! m surpris+1 z
 no?+ is to be disc]n$ 9 ! mann]s or    
laws ( ,am]ica to limit desire1 or to   
prev5t x f spread+ its impulses 9 e     
direction4 ,x seems difficult to        
attribute ?is s+ul> /ate ( ?+s to !     
equality ( social conditions2 = at !    
in/ant :5 t same equality 0 e/abli%$ 9  
,france1 ! flight ( ambition became     
unb\nd$4 ,nev]!less1 ,i ?9k t ! pr9cipal
 cause :i* may be assign$ to ?is fact is
 to be f\nd 9 ! social condition &      
democratic mann]s ( ! ,am]icans4  ,all  
revolutions enl>ge ! ambition ( m53 ?is 
proposition is m peculi>ly true ( ^?    
revolutions :i* ov]?r[ an ari/ocracy4   
,:5 ! =m] b>ri]s :i* kept back !        

multitude f fame & p[] are sudd5ly ?r[n 
d[n1 a viol5t & univ]sal rise takes     
place t[>ds t em95ce s long covet$ & at 
l5g? to be enjoy$4 ,9 ?is fir/ bur/ (   
triumph no?+ seems impossible to anyone3
 n only are desires b\ndless1 b ! p[] ( 
satisfy+ !m seems almo/ b\ndless1 too4  
,amid/ ! g5]al & sudd5 r5ewal ( laws &  
cu/oms1 9 ?is va/ confusion ( all m5 &  
all ord9ances1 ! v>i\s memb]s ( !       
community rise & s9k aga9 ) excessive   
rapidity2 & p[] passes s quickly f h& to
 h& t none ne$ despair ( cat*+ x 9 turn4
 ,x mu/ be recollect$1 moreov]1 t ! p :o
 de/roy an ari/ocracy h liv$ "u its     
laws2 !y h witness$ its spl5dor1 & !y h 
unconsci\sly imbib$ ! feel+s & notions  
:i* x ent]ta9$4 ,?us at ! mom5t :5 an   
ari/ocracy is dissolv$1 its _s /ill     
p]vades ! mass ( ! community1 & its     
t5d5cies are reta9$ long aft] x has be5 
defeat$4 ,ambition is !re=e always      
extremely great z long z a democratic   
revolution la/s1 & x w rema9 s = "s "t  
aft] ! revolution is consummat$4 ,!     

rem9isc5ce ( ! extraord9>y ev5ts :i* m5 
h witness$ is n oblit]at$ f _! memory 9 
a day4 ,! passions :i* a revolution has 
r\s$ d n disappe> at its close4 ,a s5se 
( in/ability rema9s 9 ! mid/ (          
re-e/abli%$ ord]3 a notion ( easy       
success survives ! /range vicissitudes  
:i* gave x bir?2 desires /ill rema9     
extremely enl>g$1 :5 ! means ( satisfy+ 
!m are dim9i%$ day by day4 ,! ta/e =    
l>ge =tunes subsi/s1 ?\gh l>ge =tunes   
are r>e3 & on e side we trace ! ravages 
( inord9ate & hapless ambition k9dl$ 9  
he>ts :i* !y consume 9 secret & 9 va94  
,at l5g?1 h[ev]1 ! la/ ve/iges ( !      
/ruggle are effac$2 ! rema9s (          
ari/ocracy completely disappe>2 ! great 
ev5ts by :i* its fall 0 att5d$ are      
=gott52 peace succe$s to w>1 & ! sway ( 
ord] is re/or$ 9 ! new realm2 desires   
are aga9 adapt$ to ! means by :i* !y may
 be fulfill$2 ! wants1 ! op9ions1 & !   
feel+s ( m5 coh]e once m2 ! level ( !   
community is p]man5tly det]m9$1 &       
democratic society e/abli%$4 ,a         

democratic nation1 arriv$ at ?is p]man5t
 & regul> /ate ( ?+s1 w pres5t a v      
diff]5t spectacle f t :i* we h j        
describ$2 & we may readily conclude t1  
if ambition becomes great :il/ !        
conditions ( society are gr[+ equal1 x  
loses t quality :5 !y h gr[n s4 ,z weal?
 is subdivid$ & k diffus$1 no "o is     
entirely de/itute ( education or (      
prop]ty2 ! privileges &                 
disqualifications ( ca/e be+ aboli%$1 & 
m5 hav+ %att]$ ! bonds :i* held !m fix$1
 ! notion ( advancem5t sugge/s itself to
 e m9d1 ! desire to rise swells 9 e     
he>t1 & all m5 want to m\nt above _!    
/ation3 ambition is ! univ]sal feel+4   
,b if ! equality ( conditions gives "s  
res\rces to all ! memb]s ( ! community1 
x also prev5ts any ( !m f hav+ res\rces 
( great ext5t1 :i* necess>ily           
circumscribes _! desires )9 some:at n>r[
 limits4 ,?us among/ democratic nations 
ambition is ard5t & cont9ual1 b its aim 
is n habitually l(ty2 & life is g5]ally 
sp5t 9 eag]ly covet+ small objects :i*  

are )9 rea*4 ,:at *iefly div]ts ! m5 (  
democracies f l(ty ambition is n !      
scant9ess ( _! =tunes1 b ! vehem5ce ( ! 
ex]tions !y daily make to improve !m4   
,!y /ra9 _! faculties to ! utmo/ to     
a*ieve paltry results1 & ?is _c fail    
spe$ily to limit _! disc]nm5t & to      
circumscribe _! p[]s4 ,!y might be mu*  
poor] & /ill be great]4 ,! small numb] (
 opul5t citiz5s :o are to be f\nd amid/ 
a democracy d n con/itute an exception  
to ?is rule4 ,a man :o raises himself by
 degrees to weal? & p[]1 contracts1 9 ! 
c\rse ( ?is protract$ labor1 habits (   
prud5ce & re/ra9t :i* he _c aft]w>ds    
%ake (f4 ,a man _c enl>ge 8 m9d z he    
w\ld 8 h\se4 ,! same obs]vation is      
applicable to ! sons ( su* a man2 !y are
 born1 x is true1 9 a l(ty position1 b  
_! p>5ts 7 humble2 !y h gr[n up amid/   
feel+s & notions :i* !y _c aft]w>ds     
easily get rid (2 & x may be presum$ t  
!y w inh]it ! prop5sities ( _! fa!r z   
well z 8 weal?4 ,x may happ51 on !      
contr>y1 t ! poore/ scion ( a p[]ful    

ari/ocracy may display va/ ambition1    
because ! traditional op9ions ( 8 race &
 ! g5]al _s ( 8 ord] /ill buoy him up = 
"s "t above 8 =tune4 ,ano!r ?+ :i*      
prev5ts ! m5 ( democratic p]iods f      
easily indulg+ 9 ! pursuit ( l(ty       
objects1 is ! lapse ( "t :i* !y =esee   
mu/ take place be=e !y c be ready to    
approa* !m4 ,x is a great advantage1    
says ,pascal1 to be a man ( quality1    
s9ce x br+s "o man z =w>d at eighte5 or 
tw5ty z ano!r man w\ld be at fifty1 :i* 
is a cle> ga9 ( ?irty ye>s4 ,^? ?irty   
ye>s are commonly want+ to ! ambiti\s   
*>act]s ( democracies4 ,! pr9ciple (    
equality1 :i* all[s e man to arrive at  
ev]y?+1 prev5ts all m5 f rapid          
advancem5t4  ,9 a democratic society1 z 
well z else:]e1 !re are only a c]ta9    
numb] ( great =tunes to be made2 & z !  
pa?s :i* lead to !m are indiscrim9ately 
op5 to all1 ! progress ( all mu/        
necess>ily be slack5$4 ,z ! c&idates    
appe> to be ne>ly alike1 & z x is       
difficult to make a selection )\t infr++

 ! pr9ciple ( equality1 :i* is ! supreme
 law ( democratic societies1 ! fir/ idea
 :i* sugge/s itself is to make !m all   
advance at ! same rate & submit to !    
same probation4 ,?us 9 proportion z m5  
become m alike1 & ! pr9ciple ( equality 
is m peaceably & deeply infus$ into !   
in/itutions & mann]s ( ! c\ntry1 ! rules
 ( advancem5t become m inflexible1      
advancem5t itself sl[]1 ! difficulty (  
arriv+ quickly at a c]ta9 height f>     
great]4 ,f hatr$ ( privilege & f !      
emb>rassm5t ( *oos+1 all m5 are at la/  
con/ra9$1 :atev] may be _! /&>d1 to pass
 ! same ordeal2 all are indiscrim9ately 
subject$ to a multitude ( petty         
prelim9>y ex]cises1 9 :i* _! y\? is wa/$
 & _! imag9ation qu5*$1 s t !y despair (
 ev] fully atta9+ :at is held out to !m2
 & :5 at l5g? !y are 9 a condition to   
p]=m any extraord9>y acts1 ! ta/e = su* 
?+s has =sak5 !m4  ,9 ,*9a1 :]e !       
equality ( conditions is exce$+ly great 
& v anci5t1 no man passes f "o public   
(fice to ano!r )\t und]go+ a probation>y

 trial4 ,?is probation occurs afre% at e
 /age ( 8 c>e]2 & ! notion is n[ s root$
 9 ! mann]s ( ! p t ,i rememb] to h read
 a ,*9ese novel1 9 :i* ! h]o1 aft]      
numb]less crosses1 succe$s at l5g? 9    
t\*+ ! he>t ( 8 mi/ress by tak+ honors4 
,a l(ty ambition brea!s ) difficulty 9  
su* an atmosph]e4  ,! rem>k ,i apply to 
politics ext5ds to ev]y?+2 equality     
ev]y:]e produces ! same effects2 :]e !  
laws ( a c\ntry d n regulate & ret>d !  
advancem5t ( m5 by positive enactm5t1   
competition atta9s ! same end4 ,9 a     
well-e/abli%$ democratic community great
 & rapid elevation is !re=e r>e2 x =ms  
an exception to ! common rule2 & x is ! 
s+ul>ity ( su* occurr5ces t makes m5    
=get h[ r>ely !y happ54 ,m5 liv+ 9      
democracies ultimately discov] ^! ?+s2  
!y f9d out at la/ t ! laws ( _! c\ntry  
op5 a b\ndless field ( action be=e !m1 b
 t no "o c hope to ha/5 across x4       
,betwe5 !m & ! f9al object ( _! desires1
 !y p]ceive a multitude ( small         
int]m$iate imp$im5ts1 :i* mu/ be sl[ly  

surm\nt$3 ?is prospect we>ies &         
disc\rages _! ambition at once4 ,!y     
!re=e give up hopes s d\btful & remote1 
to se>* ne>] to !mselves = less l(ty & m
 easy enjoym5ts4 ,_! horizon is n b\nd$ 
by ! laws b n>r[$ by !mselves4  ,i h    
rem>k$ t l(ty ambitions are m r>e 9 !   
ages ( democracy ?an 9 times (          
ari/ocracy3 ,i may add t :51 9 spite (  
^! natural ob/acles1 !y d spr+ into     
exi/5ce1 _! "* is diff]5t4 ,9           
ari/ocracies ! c>e] ( ambition is (t5   
wide1 b its b\nd>ies are det]m9$4 ,9    
democracies ambition commonly ranges 9 a
 n>r[] field1 b if once x gets beyond t1
 h>dly any limits c be assign$ to x4 ,z 
m5 are individually weak--z !y live     
asund]1 & 9 con/ant motion--z prec$5ts  
are ( little au?ority & laws b ( %ort   
duration1 resi/ance to novelty is       
languid1 & ! fabric ( society nev]      
appe>s p]fectly erect or firmly         
consolidat$4 ,s t1 :5 once an ambiti\s  
man has ! p[] 9 8 grasp1 !re is no?+ he 
may not$ are2 & :5 x is gone f him1 he  

m$itates ! ov]?r[ ( ! ,/ate to rega9 x4 
,?is gives to great political ambition a
 "* ( revolution>y viol5ce1 :i* x seldom
 exhibits to an equal degree 9          
ari/ocratic communities4 ,! common      
aspect ( democratic nations w pres5t a  
great numb] ( small & v rational objects
 ( ambition1 f among/ :i* a few         
ill-controll$ desires ( a l>g] gr[? w at
 int]vals break out3 b no su* a ?+ z    
ambition conceiv$ & contriv$ on a va/   
scale is to be met ) !re4  ,i h %[n     
else:]e by :at secret influ5ce !        
pr9ciple ( equality makes ! passion =   
physical gratifications & ! exclusive   
love ( ! pres5t pr$om9ate 9 ! human     
he>t3 ^! diff]5t prop5sities m+le ) !   
s5tim5t ( ambition1 & t+e x1 z x 71 ) _!
 hues4 ,i believe t ambiti\s m5 9       
democracies are less engross$ ?an any   
o!rs ) ! int]e/s & ! judgm5t ( po/]ity2 
! pres5t mom5t alone engages & absorbs  
!m4 ,!y are m apt to complete a numb] ( 
und]tak+s ) rapidity ?an to raise la/+  
monum5ts ( _! a*ievem5ts2 & !y c>e mu* m

 = success ?an = fame4 ,:at !y mo/ ask (
 m5 is ob$i5ce--:at !y mo/ covet is     
empire4 ,_! mann]s h 9 almo/ all cases  
rema9$ bel[ ! height ( _! /ation2 !     
consequ5ce is t !y frequ5tly c>ry v l[  
ta/es into _! extraord9>y =tunes1 & t !y
 seem to h acquir$ ! supreme p[] only to
 m9i/] to _! co>se or paltry pleasures4 
,i ?9k t 9 our "t x is v necess>y to    
cleanse1 to regulate1 & to adapt ! feel+
 ( ambition1 b t x w\ld be extremely    
dang]\s to seek to impov]i% & to repress
 x ov]-mu*4 ,we %\ld attempt to lay d[n 
c]ta9 extreme limits1 :i* x %\ld nev] be
 all[$ to out/ep2 b its range )9 ^?     
e/abli%$ limits %\ld n be too mu* *eck$4
 ,i confess t ,i appreh5d mu* less =    
democratic society f ! boldness ?an f ! 
m$iocrity ( desires4 ,:at appe>s to me  
mo/ to be dread$ is t1 9 ! mid/ ( !     
small incessant occupations ( private   
life1 ambition %\ld lose its vigor & its
 greatness--t ! passions ( man %\ld     
abate1 b at ! same "t be l[]$1 s t ! m>*
 ( society %\ld e day become m tranquil 

& less aspir+4 ,i ?9k !n t ! lead]s (   
mod]n society w\ld be wrong to seek to  
lull ! community by a /ate ( too uni=m &
 too peaceful happ9ess2 & t x is well to
 expose x f "t to "t to matt]s (        
difficulty & dang]1 9 ord] to raise     
ambition & to give x a field ( action4  
,morali/s are con/antly compla9+ t !    
rul+ vice ( ! pres5t "t is pride4 ,?is  
is true 9 "o s5se1 = inde$ no "o ?9ks t 
he is n bett] ?an 8 neighbor1 or cons5ts
 to obey 8 sup]ior3 b x is extremely    
false 9 ano!r2 = ! same man :o _c endure
 subord9ation or equality1 has s        
contemptible an op9ion ( himself t he   
?9ks he is only born to indulge 9 vulg> 
pleasures4 ,he will+ly takes up ) l[    
desires1 )\t d>+ to emb>k 9 l(ty        
ent]prises1 ( :i* he sc>cely dreams4    
,?us1 f> f ?9k+ t humility ought to be  
prea*$ to our contempor>ies1 ,i w\ld h  
endeavors made to give !m a m enl>g$    
idea ( !mselves & ( _! k9d4 ,humility is
 un:olesome to !m2 :at !y mo/ want is1 9
 my op9ion1 pride4 ,i w\ld will+ly      

ex*ange sev]al ( our small virtues = ?is
 "o vice4     ,*apt] ,,xx3 ,! ,trade ,( 
,place-,hunt+ ,9 ,c]ta9 ,democratic     
,c\ntries  ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates z soon z a
 man has acquir$ "s education & pecuni>y
 res\rces1 he ei!r endeavors to get ri* 
by comm]ce or indu/ry1 or he buys l& 9 !
 bu% & turns pione]4 ,all t he asks ( ! 
,/ate is n to be di/urb$ 9 8 toil1 & to 
be secure ( 8 e>n+s4 ,among/ ! great] "p
 ( ,european nations1 :5 a man beg9s to 
feel 8 /r5g? & to ext5d 8 desires1 !    
fir/ ?+ t occurs to him is to get "s    
public employm5t4 ,^! opposite effects1 
orig9at+ 9 ! same cause1 des]ve our     
pass+ notice4  ,:5 public employm5ts are
 few 9 numb]1 ill-paid & prec>i\s1 :il/ 
! diff]5t l9es ( bus9ess are num]\s &   
lucrative1 x is to bus9ess1 & n to      
(ficial duties1 t ! new & eag] desires  
eng5d]$ by ! pr9ciple ( equality turn f 
e side4 ,b if1 :il/ ! ranks ( society   
are becom+ m equal1 ! education ( ! p   
rema9s incomplete1 or _! _s ! rev]se (  
bold--if comm]ce & indu/ry1 *eck$ 9 _!  

gr[?1 af=d only sl[ & ardu\s means (    
mak+ a =tune--! v>i\s memb]s ( !        
community1 despair+ ( ameliorat+ _! own 
condition1 ru% to ! head ( ! ,/ate &    
dem& its assi/ance4 ,to relieve _! own  
necessities at ! co/ ( ! public         
treasury1 appe>s to !m to be ! easie/ & 
mo/ op51 if n ! only1 way !y h to rise  
above a condition :i* no long] cont5ts  
!m2 place-hunt+ becomes ! mo/ g5]ally   
foll[$ ( all trades4 ,?is mu/ especially
 be ! case1 9 ^? great c5traliz$        
mon>*ies 9 :i* ! numb] ( paid (fices is 
imm5se1 & ! t5ure ( !m tol]ably secure1 
s t no "o despairs ( obta9+ a place1 & (
 enjoy+ x z undi/urb$ly z a h]$it>y     
=tune4  ,i %all n rem>k t ! univ]sal &  
inord9ate desire = place is a great     
social evil2 t x de/roys ! _s (         
indep5d5ce 9 ! citiz51 & diffuses a v5al
 & s]vile humor ?r\gh\t ! frame (       
society2 t x /ifles ! manli] virtues3   
nor %all ,i be at ! pa9s to demon/rate t
 ?is k9d ( traffic only creates an      
unproductive activity1 :i* agitates !   

c\ntry )\t add+ to its res\rces3 all ^! 
?+s are obvi\s4 ,b ,i w\ld obs]ve1 t a  
gov]nm5t :i* enc\rages ?is t5d5cy risks 
its own tranquillity1 & places its v    
exi/5ce 9 great jeop>dy4 ,i am aw>e t at
 a "t l our own1 :5 ! love & respect :i*
 =m]ly clung to au?ority are se5        
gradually to decl9e1 x may appe>        
necess>y to ^? 9 p[] to lay a clos] hold
 on e man by 8 own int]e/1 & x may seem 
conv5i5t to use 8 own passions to keep  
him 9 ord] & 9 sil5ce2 b ?is _c be s    
long1 & :at may appe> to be a s\rce (   
/r5g? = a c]ta9 "t w assur$ly become 9 !
 end a great cause ( emb>rassm5t &      
weakness4  ,among/ democratic nations1 z
 well z else:]e1 ! numb] ( (ficial      
appo9tm5ts has 9 ! end "s limits2 b     
among/ ^? nations1 ! numb] ( aspirants  
is unlimit$2 x p]petually increases1 ) a
 gradual & irresi/ible rise 9 proportion
 z social conditions become m equal1 &  
is only *eck$ by ! limits ( !           
population4 ,?us1 :5 public employm5ts  
af=d ! only outlet = ambition1 !        

gov]nm5t necess>ily meets ) a p]man5t   
opposition at la/2 = x is task$ to      
satisfy ) limit$ means unlimit$ desires4
 ,x is v c]ta9 t ( all p 9 ! _w ! mo/   
difficult to re/ra9 & to manage are a p 
( solicitants4 ,:atev] endeavors are    
made by rul]s1 su* a p c nev] be        
cont5t$2 & x is always to be appreh5d$ t
 !y w ultimately ov]turn ! con/itution (
 ! c\ntry1 & *ange ! aspect ( ! ,/ate1 =
 ! sole purpose ( mak+ a cle>ance (     
places4 ,! sov]eigns ( ! pres5t age1 :o 
/rive to fix ^u !mselves alone all ^?   
novel desires :i* are ar\s$ by equality1
 & to satisfy !m1 w rep5t 9 ! end1 if ,i
 am n mi/ak51 t !y ev] emb>k$ 9 ?is     
policy3 !y w "o day discov] t !y h      
haz>d$ _! own p[]1 by mak+ x s necess>y2
 & t ! m safe & hone/ c\rse w\ld h be5  
to tea* _! subjects ! art ( provid+ =   
!mselves4 99a  ,footnote a3 ,z a matt] (
 fact1 m rec5t exp]i5ce has %[n t       
place-hunt+ is q z int5se 9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates z 9 any c\ntry 9 ,europe4 ,x is  
reg>d$ by ! ,am]icans !mselves z "o ( ! 

great evils ( _! social condition1 & x  
p[]fully affects _! political           
in/itutions4 ,b ! ,am]ican :o seeks a   
place seeks n s mu* a means ( subsi/5ce 
z ! di/9ction :i* (fice & public        
employm5t conf]4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( any true 
ari/ocracy1 ! public s]vice creates a   
spuri\s "o1 :i* is z mu* an object (    
ambition z ! di/9ctions ( rank 9        
ari/ocratic c\ntries4--,translator's    
,note4     ,*apt] ,,xxi3 ,:y ,great     
,revolutions ,w ,become ,m ,r>e  ,a p   
:i* has exi/$ = c5turies "u a sy/em (   
ca/es & classes c only arrive at a      
democratic /ate ( society by pass+ ?r\gh
 a long s]ies ( m or less critical      
trans=mations1 accompli%$ by viol5t     
ef=ts1 & aft] num]\s vicissitudes2 9 !  
c\rse ( :i*1 prop]ty1 op9ions1 & p[] are
 rapidly transf]r$ f "o h& to ano!r4    
,ev5 aft] ?is great revolution is       
consummat$1 ! revolution>y habits       
eng5d]$ by x may long be trac$1 & x w be
 foll[$ by deep commotion4 ,z all ?is   
takes place at ! v "t at :i* social     

conditions are becom+ m equal1 x is     
inf]r$ t "s conceal$ relation & secret  
tie exi/ betwe5 ! pr9ciple ( equality   
itself & revolution1 insomu* t ! "o _c  
exi/ )\t giv+ rise to ! o!r4  ,on ?is   
po9t reason+ may seem to lead to ! same 
result z exp]i5ce4 ,among/ a p ^: ranks 
are ne>ly equal1 no o/5sible bond       
connects m5 toge!r1 or keeps !m settl$ 9
 _! /ation4 ,none ( !m h ei!r a p]man5t 
"r or p[] to comm&--none are =c$ by _!  
condition to obey2 b e man1 f9d+ himself
 possess$ ( "s education & "s res\rces1 
may *oose 8 won pa? & proce$ ap>t f all 
8 fell[-m54 ,! same causes :i* make !   
memb]s ( ! community indep5d5t ( ea*    
o!r1 cont9ually impel !m to new &       
re/less desires1 & con/antly spur !m    
onw>ds4 ,x !re=e seems natural t1 9 a   
democratic community1 m51 ?+s1 & op9ions
 %\ld be =ev] *ang+ _! =m & place1 & t  
democratic ages %\ld be times ( rapid & 
incessant trans=mation4  ,b is ?is      
really ! case8 does ! equality ( social 
conditions habitually & p]man5tly lead  

m5 to revolution8 does t /ate ( society 
conta9 "s p]turb+ pr9ciple :i* prev5ts !
 community f ev] subsid+ into calm1 &   
disposes ! citiz5s to alt] incessantly  
_! laws1 _! pr9ciples1 & _! mann]s8 ,i d
 n believe x2 & z ! subject is          
important1 ,i beg = ! read]'s close     
att5tion4 ,almo/ all ! revolutions :i* h
 *ang$ ! aspect ( nations h be5 made to 
consolidate or to de/roy social         
inequality4 ,remove ! second>y causes   
:i* h produc$ ! great convulsions ( !   
_w1 & y w almo/ always f9d ! pr9ciple ( 
inequality at ! bottom4 ,ei!r ! poor h  
attempt$ to plund] ! ri*1 or ! ri* to   
enslave ! poor4 ,if !n a /ate ( society 
c ev] be f\nd$ 9 :i* e man %all h some?+
 to keep1 & little to take f o!rs1 mu* w
 h be5 done = ! peace ( ! _w4 ,i am aw>e
 t among/ a great democratic p !re w    
always be "s memb]s ( ! community 9     
great pov]ty1 & o!rs 9 great opul5ce2 b 
! poor1 in/ead ( =m+ ! imm5se majority (
 ! nation1 z is always ! case 9         
ari/ocratic communities1 are            

comp>atively few 9 numb]1 & ! laws d n  
b9d !m toge!r by ! ties ( irrem$iable & 
h]$it>y p5ury4 ,! weal?y1 on _! side1   
are sc>ce & p[]less2 !y h no privileges 
:i* attract public obs]vation2 ev5 _!   
weal?1 z x is no long] incorporat$ &    
b\nd up ) ! soil1 is impalpable1 & z x 7
 invisible4 ,z !re is no long] a race ( 
poor m51 s !re is no long] a race ( ri* 
m52 ! latt] spr+ up daily f ! multitude1
 & relapse into x aga94 ,h5ce !y d n =m 
a di/9ct class1 :i* may be easily m>k$  
out & plund]$2 &1 moreov]1 z !y are     
connect$ ) ! mass ( _! fell[-citiz5s by 
a ?\s& secret ties1 ! p _c assail !m )\t
 inflict+ an injury ^u itself4 ,betwe5  
^! two extremes ( democratic communities
 /& an innum]able multitude ( m5 almo/  
alike1 :o1 )\t be+ exactly ei!r ri* or  
poor1 are possess$ ( suffici5t prop]ty  
to desire ! ma9t5ance ( ord]1 yet n     
en\gh to excite envy4 ,su* m5 are !     
natural enemies ( viol5t commotions3 _! 
/illness keeps all b5ea? !m & above !m  
/ill1 & secures ! balance ( ! fabric (  

society4 ,n inde$ t ev5 ^! m5 are       
cont5t$ ) :at !y h gott51 or t !y feel a
 natural abhorr5ce = a revolution 9 :i* 
!y might %>e ! spoil )\t %>+ ! calamity2
 on ! contr>y1 !y desire1 ) unexampl$   
ardor1 to get ri*1 b ! difficulty is to 
"k f :om ri*es c be tak54 ,! same /ate (
 society :i* con/antly prompts desires1 
re/ra9s ^! desires )9 necess>y limits3 x
 gives m5 m lib]ty ( *ang+ & less int]e/
 9 *ange4  ,n only are ! m5 (           
democracies n naturally desir\s (       
revolutions1 b !y are afraid ( !m4 ,all 
revolutions m or less ?reat5 ! t5ure (  
prop]ty3 b mo/ ( ^? :o live 9 democratic
 c\ntries are possess$ ( prop]ty--n only
 are !y possess$ ( prop]ty1 b !y live 9 
! condition ( m5 :o set ! greate/ /ore  
^u _! prop]ty4 ,if we att5tively consid]
 ea* ( ! classes ( :i* society is       
compos$1 x is easy to see t ! passions  
eng5d]$ by prop]ty are ke5e/ & mo/      
t5aci\s among/ ! middle classes4 ,! poor
 (t5 c>e b little = :at !y possess1     
because !y suff] mu* m f ! want ( :at !y

 h n1 ?an !y enjoy ! little !y h4 ,! ri*
 h _m o!r passions besides t ( ri*es to 
satisfy2 &1 besides1 ! long & ardu\s    
enjoym5t ( a great =tune sometimes makes
 !m 9 ! end ins5sible to its *>ms4 ,b ! 
m5 :o h a compet5cy1 alike remov$ f     
opul5ce & f p5ury1 atta* an enorm\s     
value to _! possessions4 ,z !y are /ill 
almo/ )9 ! rea* ( pov]ty1 !y see its    
privations ne> at h&1 & dread !m2 betwe5
 pov]ty & !mselves !re is no?+ b a      
scanty =tune1 ^u :i* !y imm$iately fix  
_! appreh5sions & _! hopes4 ,e day      
increases ! int]e/ !y take 9 x1 by !    
con/ant c>es :i* x occasions2 & !y are !
 m atta*$ to x by _! cont9ual ex]tions  
to increase ! am\nt4 ,! notion (        
surr5d]+ ! smalle/ "p ( x is            
insupportable to !m1 & !y consid] its   
total loss z ! wor/ ( mis=tunes4 ,n[ ^! 
eag] & appreh5sive m5 ( small prop]ty   
con/itute ! class :i* is con/antly      
increas$ by ! equality ( conditions4    
,h5ce1 9 democratic communities1 !      
majority ( ! p d n cle>ly see :at !y h  

to ga9 by a revolution1 b !y cont9ually 
& 9 a ?\s& ways feel t !y might lose by 
"o4  ,i h %[n 9 ano!r "p ( ?is "w t !   
equality ( conditions naturally urges m5
 to emb>k 9 comm]cial & indu/rial       
pursuits1 & t x t5ds to increase & to   
di/ribute real prop]ty3 ,i h also po9t$ 
out ! means by :i* x inspires e man ) an
 eag] & con/ant desire to increase 8    
welf>e4 ,no?+ is m oppos$ to            
revolution>y passions ?an ^! ?+s4 ,x may
 happ5 t ! f9al result ( a revolution is
 favorable to comm]ce & manufactures2 b 
its fir/ consequ5ce w almo/ always be ! 
ru9 ( manufactures & m]cantile m51      
because x mu/ always *ange at once !    
g5]al pr9ciples ( consumption1 &        
tempor>ily upset ! exi/+ proportion     
betwe5 supply & dem&4 ,i "k ( no?+ m    
opposite to revolution>y mann]s ?an     
comm]cial mann]s4 ,comm]ce is naturally 
adv]se to all ! viol5t passions2 x loves
 to temporize1 takes delight 9          
compromise1 & /udi\sly avoids           
irritation4 ,x is pati5t1 ins9uat+1     

flexible1 & nev] has rec\rse to extreme 
measures until oblig$ by ! mo/ absolute 
necessity4 ,comm]ce r5d]s m5 indep5d5t (
 ea* o!r1 gives !m a l(ty notion ( _!   
p]sonal importance1 leads !m to seek to 
conduct _! own affairs1 & tea*es h[ to  
conduct !m well2 x !re=e prep>es m5 =   
fre$om1 b pres]ves !m f revolutions4 ,9 
a revolution ! own]s ( p]sonal prop]ty h
 m to fe> ?an all o!rs2 = on ! "o h& _! 
prop]ty is (t5 easy to seize1 & on ! o!r
 x may totally disappe> at any mom5t--a 
subject ( al>m to :i* ! own]s ( real    
prop]ty are less expos$1 s9ce1 al?\gh !y
 may lose ! income ( _! e/ates1 !y may  
hope to pres]ve ! l& itself ?r\gh !     
greate/ vicissitudes4 ,h5ce ! =m] are   
mu* m al>m$ at ! symptoms ( revolution>y
 commotion ?an ! latt]4 ,?us nations are
 less dispos$ to make revolutions 9     
proportion z p]sonal prop]ty is augm5t$ 
& di/ribut$ among/ !m1 & z ! numb] ( ^? 
possess+ x increases4 ,moreov]1 :atev]  
pr(ession m5 may embrace1 & :atev]      
species ( prop]ty !y may possess1 "o    

*>act]i/ic is common to !m all4 ,no "o  
is fully cont5t$ ) 8 pres5t =tune--all  
are p]petually /riv+ 9 a ?\s& ways to   
improve x4 ,consid] any "o ( !m at any  
p]iod ( 8 life1 & he w be f\nd engag$ ) 
"s new project = ! purpose ( increas+   
:at he has2 talk n to him ( ! int]e/s & 
! rights ( mank9d3 ?is small dome/ic    
conc]n absorbs = ! "t all 8 ?\ghts1 &   
incl9es him to def] political excitem5t 
to "s o!r season4 ,?is n only prev5ts m5
 f mak+ revolutions1 b det]s m5 f desir+
 !m4 ,viol5t political passions h b     
little hold on ^? :o h devot$ all _!    
faculties to ! pursuit ( _! well-be+4 ,!
 ardor :i* !y display 9 small matt]s    
calms _! zeal = mom5t\s und]tak+s4  ,f  
"t to "t inde$1 ent]pris+ & ambiti\s m5 
w arise 9 democratic communities1 ^:    
unb\nd$ aspirations _c be cont5t$ by    
foll[+ ! beat5 track4 ,su* m5 l         
revolutions & hail _! approa*2 b !y h   
great difficulty 9 br++ !m ab\t1 unless 
unwont$ ev5ts come to _! assi/ance4 ,no 
man c /ruggle ) advantage aga9/ ! _s ( 8

 age & c\ntry2 &1 h[ev] p[]ful he may be
 suppos$ to be1 he w f9d x difficult to 
make 8 contempor>ies %>e 9 feel+s &     
op9ions :i* are repugnant to t all _!   
feel+s & desires4  ,x is a mi/ake to    
believe t1 :5 once ! equality (         
conditions has become ! old & unconte/$ 
/ate ( society1 & has imp>t$ its        
*>act]i/ics to ! mann]s ( a nation1 m5 w
 easily all[ !mselves to be ?ru/ into   
p]il\s risks by an imprud5t lead] or a  
bold innovator4 ,n inde$ t !y w resi/   
him op5ly1 by well-contriv$ s*emes1 or  
ev5 by a prem$itat$ plan ( resi/ance4   
,!y w n /ruggle en]getically aga9/ him1 
sometimes !y w ev5 applaud him--b !y d n
 foll[ him4 ,to 8 vehem5ce !y secretly  
oppose _! in]tia2 to 8 revolution>y     
t5d5cies _! cons]vative int]e/s2 _!     
homely ta/es to 8 adv5tur\s passions2 _!
 good s5se to ! flights ( 8 g5ius2 to 8 
poetry _! prose4 ,) imm5se ex]tion he   
raises !m = an in/ant1 b !y spe$ily     
escape f him1 & fall back1 z x 71 by _! 
own weight4 ,he /ra9s himself to r\se ! 

indiff]5t & di/ract$ multitude1 & f9ds  
at la/ t he is r$uc$ to impot5ce1 n     
because he is conqu]$1 b because he is  
alone4  ,i d n ass]t t m5 liv+ 9        
democratic communities are naturally    
/ation>y2 ,i ?9k1 on ! contr>y1 t a     
p]petual /ir prevails 9 ! bosom ( ^?    
societies1 & t re/ is unkn[n !re2 b ,i  
?9k t m5 be/ir !mselves )9 c]ta9 limits 
beyond :i* !y h>dly ev] g4 ,!y are =ev] 
v>y+1 alt]+1 & re/or+ second>y matt]s2 b
 !y c>efully ab/a9 f t\*+ :at is        
fundam5tal4 ,!y love *ange1 b !y dread  
revolutions4 ,al?\gh ! ,am]icans are    
con/antly modify+ or abrogat+ "s ( _!   
laws1 !y by no means display            
revolution>y passions4 ,x may be easily 
se51 f ! promptitude ) :i* !y *eck &    
calm !mselves :5 public excitem5t beg9s 
to gr[ al>m+1 & at ! v mom5t :5 passions
 seem mo/ r\s$1 t !y dread a revolution 
z ! wor/ ( mis=tunes1 & t e "o ( !m is  
inw>dly resolv$ to make great sacrifices
 to avoid su* a cata/rophe4 ,9 no c\ntry
 9 ! _w is ! love ( prop]ty m active & m

 anxi\s ?an 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 n[h]e    
does ! majority display less incl9ation 
= ^? pr9ciples :i* ?reat5 to alt]1 9    
:atev] mann]1 ! laws ( prop]ty4 ,i h (t5
 rem>k$ t !ories :i* are ( a            
revolution>y nature1 s9ce !y _c be put 9
 practice )\t a complete & sometimes a  
sudd5 *ange 9 ! /ate ( prop]ty & p]sons1
 are mu* less favorably view$ 9 ! ,unit$
 ,/ates ?an 9 ! great mon>*ical c\ntries
 ( ,europe3 if "s m5 pr(ess !m1 ! bulk (
 ! p reject !m ) in/9ctive abhorr5ce4 ,i
 d n hesitate to say t mo/ ( ! maxims   
commonly call$ democratic 9 ,france w\ld
 be proscrib$ by ! democracy ( ! ,unit$ 
,/ates4 ,?is may easily be und]/ood3 9  
,am]ica m5 h ! op9ions & passions (     
democracy1 9 ,europe we h /ill !        
passions & op9ions ( revolution4 ,if ev]
 ,am]ica und]goes great revolutions1 !y 
w be br\ght ab\t by ! pres5ce ( ! black 
race on ! soil ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates--t is  
to say1 !y w owe _! orig91 n to !       
equality1 b to ! inequality1 (          
conditions4  ,:5 social conditions are  

equal1 e man is apt to live ap>t1 c5tr$ 
9 himself & =getful ( ! public4 ,if !   
rul]s ( democratic nations 7 ei!r to    
neglect to correct ?is fatal t5d5cy1 or 
to enc\rage x f a notion t x weans m5 f 
political passions & ?us w>ds (f        
revolutions1 !y might ev5tually produce 
! evil !y seek to avoid1 & a "t might   
come :5 ! inord9ate passions ( a few m51
 aid$ by ! un9tellig5t selfi%ness or !  
pusillanimity ( ! great] numb]1 w\ld    
ultimately compel society to pass ?r\gh 
/range vicissitudes4 ,9 democratic      
communities revolutions are seldom      
desir$ except by a m9ority2 b a m9ority 
may sometimes effect !m4 ,i d n ass]t t 
democratic nations are secure f         
revolutions2 ,i m]ely say t ! /ate (    
society 9 ^? nations does n lead to     
revolutions1 b r w>ds !m (f4 ,a         
democratic p left to itself w n easily  
emb>k 9 great haz>ds2 x is only l$ to   
revolutions unaw>es2 x may sometimes    
und]go !m1 b x does n make !m2 & ,i w   
add t1 :5 su* a p has be5 all[$ to      

acquire suffici5t k & exp]i5ce1 x w n   
suff] !m to be made4 ,i am well aw>e t x
 ?is respect public in/itutions may     
!mselves d mu*2 !y may enc\rage or      
repress ! t5d5cies :i* orig9ate 9 ! /ate
 ( society4 ,i !re=e d n ma9ta91 ,i     
repeat1 t a p is secure f revolutions   
simply because conditions are equal 9 ! 
community2 b ,i ?9k t1 :atev] !         
in/itutions ( su* a p may be1 great     
revolutions w always be f> less viol5t &
 less frequ5t ?an is suppos$2 & ,i c    
easily disc]n a /ate ( polity1 :i*1 :5  
comb9$ ) ! pr9ciple ( equality1 w\ld    
r5d] society m /ation>y ?an x has ev]   
be5 9 our we/]n ap>t ( ! _w4  ,!        
obs]vations ,i h "h made on ev5ts may   
also be appli$ 9 "p to op9ions4 ,two ?+s
 are surpris+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates--!      
mutability ( ! great] "p ( human        
actions1 & ! s+ul> /ability ( c]ta9     
pr9ciples4 ,m5 are 9 con/ant motion2 !  
m9d ( man appe>s almo/ unmov$4 ,:5 once 
an op9ion has spread ov] ! c\ntry &     
/ruck root !re1 x w\ld seem t no p[] on 

e>? is /rong en\gh to eradicate x4 ,9 ! 
,unit$ ,/ates1 g5]al pr9ciples 9        
religion1 philosophy1 morality1 & ev5   
politics1 d n v>y1 or at lea/ are only  
modifi$ by a hidd5 & (t5 an imp]ceptible
 process3 ev5 ! grosse/ prejudices are  
oblit]at$ ) incr$ible sl[ness1 amid/ !  
cont9ual friction ( m5 & ?+s4 ,i he> x  
said t x is 9 ! nature & ! habits (     
democracies to be con/antly *ang+ _!    
op9ions & feel+s4 ,?is may be true (    
small democratic nations1 l ^? ( !      
anci5t _w1 9 :i* ! :ole community c\ld  
be assembl$ 9 a public place & !n excit$
 at w by an orator4 ,b ,i saw no?+ ( !  
k9d among/ ! great democratic p :i*     
dwells ^u ! opposite %ores ( ! ,atlantic
 ,ocean4 ,:at /ruck me 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates
 0 ! difficulty 9 %ak+ ! majority 9 an  
op9ion once conceiv$1 or ( draw+ x (f f 
a lead] once adopt$4 ,nei!r speak+ nor  
writ+ c accompli% x2 no?+ b exp]i5ce w  
avail1 & ev5 exp]i5ce mu/ be repeat$4   
,?is is surpris+ at fir/ sight1 b a m   
att5tive inve/igation expla9s ! fact4 ,i

 d n ?9k t x is z easy z is suppos$ to  
uproot ! prejudices ( a democratic p--to
 *ange its belief--to sup]s$e pr9ciples 
once e/abli%$1 by new pr9ciples 9       
religion1 politics1 & morals--9 a ^w1 to
 make great & frequ5t *anges 9 m5's     
m9ds4 ,n t ! human m9d is !re at re/--x 
is 9 con/ant agitation2 b x is engag$ 9 
inf9itely v>y+ ! consequ5ces ( kn[n     
pr9ciples1 & 9 seek+ = new consequ5ces1 
r ?an 9 seek+ = new pr9ciples4 ,its     
motion is "o ( rapid circumvolution1 r  
?an ( /raight=w>d impulse by rapid &    
direct ef=t2 x ext5ds its orbit by small
 cont9ual & ha/y movem5ts1 b x does n   
sudd5ly alt] its position4  ,m5 :o are  
equal 9 rights1 9 education1 9 =tune1   
or1 to comprise all 9 "o ^w1 9 _! social
 condition1 h necess>ily wants1 habits1 
& ta/es :i* are h>dly dissimil>4 ,z !y  
look at objects "u ! same aspect1 _!    
m9ds naturally t5d to analog\s          
conclusions2 &1 ?\gh ea* ( !m may       
deviate f 8 contempor>ies & f op9ions ( 
8 own1 !y w involunt>ily & unconsci\sly 

concur 9 a c]ta9 numb] ( receiv$        
op9ions4 ,! m att5tively ,i consid] !   
effects ( equality ^u ! m9d1 ! m am ,i  
p]suad$ t ! intellectual an>*y :i* we   
witness ab\t u is n1 z _m m5 suppose1 ! 
natural /ate ( democratic nations4 ,i   
?9k x is r to be reg>d$ z an accid5t    
peculi> to _! y\?1 & t x only breaks out
 at t p]iod ( transition :5 m5 h already
 snapp$ ! =m] ties :i* b\nd !m toge!r1 b
 are /ill amaz+ly diff]5t 9 orig91      
education1 & mann]s2 s t1 hav+ reta9$   
op9ions1 prop5sities & ta/es ( great    
div]sity1 no?+ any long] prev5ts m5 f   
av[+ !m op5ly4 ,! lead+ op9ions ( m5    
become simil> 9 proportion z _!         
conditions assimilate2 su* appe>s to me 
to be ! g5]al & p]man5t law--! re/ is   
casual & transi5t4  ,i believe t x w    
r>ely happ5 to any man among/ a         
democratic community1 sudd5ly to frame a
 sy/em ( notions v remote f t :i* 8     
contempor>ies h adopt$2 & if "s su*     
innovator appe>$1 ,i appreh5d t he w\ld 
h great difficulty 9 f9d+ li/5]s1 /ill m

 9 f9d+ believ]s4 ,:5 ! conditions ( m5 
are almo/ equal1 !y d n easily all[     
!mselves to be p]suad$ by ea* o!r4 ,z !y
 all live 9 close int]c\rse1 z !y h     
le>n$ ! same ?+s toge!r1 & z !y lead !  
same life1 !y are n naturally dispos$ to
 take "o ( !mselves = a guide1 & to     
foll[ him implicitly4 ,m5 seldom take ! 
op9ion ( _! equal1 or ( a man l         
!mselves1 ^u tru/4 ,n only is confid5ce 
9 ! sup]ior atta9m5ts ( c]ta9           
individuals weak5$ among/ democratic    
nations1 z ,i h else:]e rem>k$1 b !     
g5]al notion ( ! intellectual sup]iority
 :i* any man :atsoev] may acquire 9     
relation to ! re/ ( ! community is soon 
ov]%ad[$4 ,z m5 gr[ m l ea* o!r1 !      
doctr9e ( ! equality ( ! intellect      
gradually infuses itself into _!        
op9ions2 & x becomes m difficult = any  
innovator to acquire or to ex]t mu*     
influ5ce ov] ! m9ds ( a p4 ,9 su*       
communities sudd5 intellectual          
revolutions w !re=e be r>e2 =1 if we    
read aright ! hi/ory ( ! _w1 we %all f9d

 t great & rapid *anges 9 human op9ions 
h be5 produc$ f> less by ! =ce ( reason+
 ?an by ! au?ority ( a "n4 ,obs]ve1 too1
 t z ! m5 :o live 9 democratic societies
 are n connect$ ) ea* o!r by any tie1   
ea* ( !m mu/ be conv9c$ individually2   
:il/ 9 ari/ocratic society x is en\gh to
 conv9ce a few--! re/ foll[4 ,if ,lu!r  
_h liv$ 9 an age ( equality1 & _h n _h  
pr9ces & pot5tates = 8 audi5ce1 he w\ld 
p]haps h f\nd x m difficult to *ange !  
aspect ( ,europe4 ,n inde$ t ! m5 (     
democracies are naturally /rongly       
p]suad$ ( ! c]ta9ty ( _! op9ions1 or are
 unwav]+ 9 belief2 !y frequ5tly ent]ta9 
d\bts :i* no "o1 9 _! eyes1 c remove4 ,x
 sometimes happ5s at su* times t ! human
 m9d w\ld will+ly *ange its position2 b 
z no?+ urges or guides x =w>ds1 x       
oscillates to & fro )\t progressive     
motion4 99a  ,footnote a3 ,if ,i inquire
 :at /ate ( society is mo/ favorable to 
! great revolutions ( ! m9d1 ,i f9d t x 
occurs some:]e betwe5 ! complete        
equality ( ! :ole community & ! absolute

 sep>ation ( ranks4 ,"u a sy/em ( ca/es 
g5]ations succe$ ea* o!r )\t alt]+ m5's 
positions2 "s h no?+ m1 o!rs no?+ bett]1
 to hope =4 ,! imag9ation slumb]s amid/ 
?is univ]sal sil5ce & /illness1 & ! v   
idea ( *ange fades f ! human m9d4 ,:5   
ranks h be5 aboli%$ & social conditions 
are almo/ equaliz$1 all m5 are 9        
ceaseless excitem5t1 b ea* ( !m /&s     
alone1 indep5d5t & weak4 ,?is latt] /ate
 ( ?+s is excessively diff]5t f ! =m]   
"o2 yet x has "o po9t ( analogy--great  
revolutions ( ! human m9d seldom occur 9
 x4 ,b betwe5 ^! two extremes ( ! hi/ory
 ( nations is an int]m$iate p]iod--a    
p]iod z glori\s z x is agitat$--:5 !    
conditions ( m5 are n suffici5tly settl$
 = ! m9d to be lull$ 9 torpor1 :5 !y are
 suffici5tly unequal = m5 to ex]cise a  
va/ p[] on ! m9ds ( "o ano!r1 & :5 "s   
few may modify ! convictions ( all4 ,x  
is at su* times t great re=m]s />t up1 &
 new op9ions sudd5ly *ange ! face ( !   
_w4  ,ev5 :5 ! reliance ( a democratic p
 has be5 won1 x is /ill no easy matt] to

 ga9 _! att5tion4 ,x is extremely       
difficult to obta9 a he>+ f m5 liv+ 9   
democracies1 unless x be to speak to !m 
( !mselves4 ,!y d n att5d to ! ?+s said 
to !m1 because !y are always fully      
engross$ ) ! ?+s !y are do+4 ,= inde$   
few m5 are idle 9 democratic nations2   
life is pass$ 9 ! mid/ ( noise &        
excitem5t1 & m5 are s engag$ 9 act+ t   
little rema9s to !m = ?9k+4 ,i w\ld     
especially rem>k t !y are n only        
employ$1 b t !y are passionately devot$ 
to _! employm5ts4 ,!y are always 9      
action1 & ea* ( _! actions absorbs _!   
faculties3 ! zeal :i* !y display 9      
bus9ess puts out ! en?usiasm !y might   
o!rwise ent]ta9 = idea4 ,i ?9k t x is   
extremely difficult to excite !         
en?usiasm ( a democratic p = any !ory   
:i* has n a palpable1 direct1 & imm$iate
 connection ) ! daily occupations (     
life3 !re=e !y w n easily =sake _! old  
op9ions2 = x is en?usiasm :i* fl+s !    
m9ds ( m5 out ( ! beat5 track1 & effects
 ! great revolutions ( ! intellect z    

well z ! great revolutions ( ! political
 _w4 ,?us democratic nations h nei!r "t 
nor ta/e to g 9 se>* ( novel op9ions4   
,ev5 :5 ^? !y possess become d\btful1 !y
 /ill reta9 !m1 because x w\ld take too 
mu* "t & inquiry to *ange !m--!y reta9  
!m1 n z c]ta91 b z e/abli%$4  ,!re are  
yet o!r & m cog5t reasons :i* prev5t any
 great *ange f be+ easily effect$ 9 !   
pr9ciples ( a democratic p4 ,i h already
 adv]t$ to !m at ! comm5cem5t ( ?is "p (
 my "w4 ,if ! influ5ce ( individuals is 
weak & h>dly p]ceptible among/ su* a p1 
! p[] ex]cis$ by ! mass ^u ! m9d ( ea*  
individual is extremely great--,i h     
already %[n = :at reasons4 ,i w\ld n[   
obs]ve t x is wrong to suppose t ?is    
dep5ds solely ^u ! =m ( gov]nm5t1 & t ! 
majority w\ld lose its intellectual     
supremacy if x 7 to lose its political  
p[]4 ,9 ari/ocracies m5 h (t5 mu*       
greatness & /r5g? ( _! own3 :5 !y f9d   
!mselves at v>iance ) ! great] numb] (  
_! fell[-c\ntrym51 !y )draw to _! own   
circle1 :]e !y support & console        

!mselves4 ,su* is n ! case 9 a          
democratic c\ntry2 !re public favor     
seems z necess>y z ! air we brea!1 & to 
live at v>iance ) ! multitude is1 z x 71
 n to live4 ,! multitude requires no    
laws to co]ce ^? :o ?9k n l itself3     
public disapprobation is en\gh2 a s5se (
 _! lonel9ess & impot5ce ov]takes !m &  
drives !m to despair4  ,:5ev] social    
conditions are equal1 public op9ion     
presses ) enorm\s weight ^u ! m9d ( ea* 
individual2 x surr\nds1 directs1 &      
oppresses him2 & ?is arises f ! v       
con/itution ( society1 mu* m ?an f its  
political laws4 ,z m5 gr[ m alike1 ea*  
man feels himself weak] 9 reg>d to all !
 re/2 z he disc]ns no?+ by :i* he is    
consid]ably rais$ above !m1 or di/+ui%$ 
f !m1 he mi/ru/s himself z soon z !y    
assail him4 ,n only does he mi/ru/ 8    
/r5g?1 b he ev5 d\bts ( 8 "r2 & he is v 
ne> ackn[l$g+ t he is 9 ! wrong1 :5 !   
great] numb] ( 8 c\ntrym5 ass]t t he is 
s4 ,! majority d n ne$ to con/ra9       
him--!y conv9ce him4 ,9 :atev] way !n ! 

p[]s ( a democratic community may be    
organiz$ & balanc$1 x w always be       
extremely difficult to believe :at !    
bulk ( ! p reject1 or to pr(ess :at !y  
condemn4  ,?is circum/ance is           
extraord9>ily favorable to ! /ability ( 
op9ions4 ,:5 an op9ion has tak5 root    
among/ a democratic p1 & e/abli%$ itself
 9 ! m9ds ( ! bulk ( ! community1 x     
aft]w>ds subsi/s by itself & is ma9ta9$ 
)\t ef=t1 because no "o attacks x4 ,^?  
:o at fir/ reject$ x z false1 ultimately
 receive x z ! g5]al impression2 & ^? :o
 /ill dispute x 9 _! he>ts1 conceal _!  
diss5t2 !y are c>eful n to engage 9 a   
dang]\s & useless conflict4 ,x is true1 
t :5 ! majority ( a democratic p *ange  
_! op9ions1 !y may sudd5ly & arbitr>ily 
effect /range revolutions 9 m5's m9ds2 b
 _! op9ions d n *ange )\t mu*           
difficulty1 & x is almo/ z difficult to 
%[ t !y are *ang$4  ,"t1 ev5ts1 or !    
unaid$ individual action ( ! m9d1 w     
sometimes und]m9e or de/roy an op9ion1  
)\t any outw>d sign ( ! *ange4 ,x has n 

be5 op5ly assail$1 no conspiracy has be5
 =m$ to make w> on x1 b its foll[]s "o  
by "o noiselessly sec$e--day by day a   
few ( !m ab&on x1 until la/ x is only   
pr(ess$ by a m9ority4 ,9 ?is /ate x w   
/ill cont9ue to prevail4 ,z its enemies 
rema9 mute1 or only int]*ange _! ?\ghts 
by /eal?1 !y are !mselves unaw>e = a    
long p]iod t a great revolution has     
actually be5 effect$2 & 9 ?is /ate (    
unc]ta9ly !y take no /eps--!y obs]ve ea*
 o!r & are sil5t4 ,! majority h ceas$ to
 believe :at !y believ$ be=e2 b !y /ill 
affect to believe1 & ?is empty phantom (
 public op9ion 9 /rong en\gh to *ill    
innovators1 & to keep !m sil5t & at     
respectful di/ance4 ,we live at a "t :i*
 has witness$ ! mo/ rapid *anges (      
op9ion 9 ! m9ds ( m52 nev]!less x may be
 t ! lead+ op9ions ( society w ere long 
be m settl$ ?an !y h be5 = sev]al       
c5turies 9 our hi/ory3 t "t is n yet    
come1 b x may p]haps be approa*+4 ,z ,i 
exam9e m closely ! natural wants &      
t5d5cies ( democratic nations1 ,i gr[   

p]suad$ t if ev] social equality is     
g5]ally & p]man5tly e/abli%$ 9 ! _w1    
great intellectual & political          
revolutions w become m difficult & less 
frequ5t ?an is suppos$4 ,because ! m5 ( 
democracies appe> always excit$1        
unc]ta91 eag]1 *angeable 9 _! wills & 9 
_! positions1 x is imag9$ t !y are      
sudd5ly to abrogate _! laws1 to adopt   
new op9ions1 & to assume new mann]s4 ,b 
if ! pr9ciple ( equality pr$isposes m5  
to *ange1 x also sugge/s to !m c]ta9    
int]e/s & ta/es :i* _c be satisfi$ )\t a
 settl$ ord] ( ?+s2 equality urges !m   
on1 b at ! same "t x holds !m back2 x   
spurs !m1 b fa/5s !m to e>?2--x k9dles  
_! desires1 b limits _! p[]s4 ,?is1     
h[ev]1 is n p]ceiv$ at fir/2 ! passions 
:i* t5d to sev] ! citiz5s ( a democracy 
are obvi\s en\gh2 b ! hidd5 =ce :i*     
re/ra9s & unites !m is n disc]nible at a
 glance4  ,amid/ ! ru9s :i* surr\nd me1 
%all ,i d>e to say t revolutions are n  
:at ,i mo/ fe> com+ g5]ations8 ,if m5   
cont9ue to %ut !mselves m closely )9 !  

n>r[ circle ( dome/ic int]e/s & to live 
^u t k9d ( excitem5t1 x is to be        
appreh5d$ t !y may ultimately become    
inaccessible to ^? great & p[]ful public
 emotions :i* p]turb nations--b :i*     
enl>ge !m & recruit !m4 ,:5 prop]ty     
becomes s fluctuat+1 & ! love ( prop]ty 
s re/less & s ard5t1 ,i _c b fe> t m5   
may arrive at su* a /ate z to reg>d e   
new !ory z a p]il1 e innovation z an    
irksome toil1 e social improvem5t z a   
/epp+-/one to revolution1 & s refuse to 
move altoge!r = fe> ( be+ mov$ too f>4  
,i dread1 & ,i confess x1 le/ !y %\ld at
 la/ s entirely give way to a c[>dly    
love ( pres5t enjoym5t1 z to lose sight 
( ! int]e/s ( _! future selves & ( ^? ( 
_! desc5dants2 & to pref] to glide along
 ! easy curr5t ( life1 r ?an to make1 :5
 x is necess>y1 a /rong & sudd5 ef=t to 
a high] purpose4 ,x is believ$ by "s t  
mod]n society w be ev] *ang+ its aspect2
 = myself1 ,i fe> t x w ultimately be   
too inv>iably fix$ 9 ! same in/itutions1
 ! same prejudices1 ! same mann]s1 s t  

mank9d w be /opp$ & circumscrib$2 t !   
m9d w sw+ backw>ds & =w>ds =ev]1 )\t    
begett+ fre% ideas2 t man w wa/e 8 /r5g?
 9 bootless & solit>y trifl+2 &1 ?\gh 9 
cont9ual motion1 t humanity w cease to  
advance4     ,*apt] ,,xxii3 ,:y         
,democratic ,nations ,are ,naturally    
,desir\s ,( ,peace1 ,& ,democratic      
,armies ,( ,w>  ,! same int]e/s1 ! same 
fe>s1 ! same passions :i* det]          
democratic nations f revolutions1 det]  
!m also f w>2 ! _s ( milit>y glory & !  
_s ( revolution are weak5$ at ! same "t 
& by ! same causes4 ,! ev]-increas+     
numb]s ( m5 ( prop]ty--lov]s ( peace1 ! 
gr[? ( p]sonal weal? :i* w> s rapidly   
consumes1 ! mildness ( mann]s1 !        
g5tl5ess ( he>t1 ^? t5d5cies to pity :i*
 are eng5d]$ by ! equality ( conditions1
 t coolness ( und]/&+ :i* r5d]s m5      
comp>atively ins5sible to ! viol5t &    
poetical excitem5t ( arms--all ^! causes
 concur to qu5* ! milit>y _s4 ,i ?9k x  
may be admitt$ z a g5]al & con/ant rule1
 t1 among/ civiliz$ nations1 ! w>like   

passions w become m r>e & less int5se 9 
proportion z social conditions %all be m
 equal4 ,w> is nev]!less an occurr5ce to
 :i* all nations are subject1 democratic
 nations z well z o!rs4 ,:atev] ta/e !y 
may h = peace1 !y mu/ hold !mselves 9   
read9ess to repel aggression1 or 9 o!r  
words !y mu/ h an army4  ,=tune1 :i* has
 conf]r$ s _m peculi> b5efits ^u !      
inhabitants ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 has plac$
 !m 9 ! mid/ ( a wild]ness1 :]e !y h1 s 
to speak1 no neighbors3 a few ?\s&      
soldi]s are suffici5t = _! wants2 b ?is 
is peculi> to ,am]ica1 n to democracy4  
,! equality ( conditions1 & ! mann]s z  
well z ! in/itutions result+ f x1 d n   
exempt a democratic p f ! necessity (   
/&+ armies1 & _! armies always ex]cise a
 p[]ful influ5ce ov] _! fate4 ,x is     
!re=e ( s+ul> importance to inquire :at 
are ! natural prop5sities ( ! m5 ( :om  
^! armies are compos$4  ,among/         
ari/ocratic nations1 especially among/  
^? 9 :i* bir? is ! only s\rce ( rank1 ! 
same inequality exi/s 9 ! army z 9 !    

nation2 ! (fic] is noble1 ! soldi] is a 
s]f2 ! "o is naturally call$ ^u to      
comm&1 ! o!r to obey4 ,9 ari/ocratic    
armies1 ! private soldi]'s ambition is  
!re=e circumscrib$ )9 v n>r[ limits4    
,nor has ! ambition ( ! (fic] an        
unlimit$ range4 ,an ari/ocratic body n  
only =ms a "p ( ! scale ( ranks 9 !     
nation1 b x conta9s a scale ( ranks )9  
itself3 ! memb]s ( :om x is compos$ are 
plac$ "o above ano!r1 9 a p>ticul> &    
unv>y+ mann]4 ,?us "o man is born to !  
comm& ( a regim5t1 ano!r to t ( a       
company2 :5 once !y h rea*$ ! utmo/     
object ( _! hopes1 !y /op ( _! own      
accord1 & rema9 cont5t$ ) _! lot4 ,!re  
is1 besides1 a /rong cause1 :i*1 9      
ari/ocracies1 weak5s ! (fic]'s desire ( 
promotion4 ,among/ ari/ocratic nations1 
an (fic]1 indep5d5tly ( 8 rank 9 ! army1
 also occupies an elevat$ rank 9        
society2 ! =m] is almo/ always 9 8 eyes 
only an app5dage to ! latt]4 ,a nobleman
 :o embraces ! pr(ession ( arms foll[s x
 less f motives ( ambition ?an f a s5se 

( ! duties impos$ on him by 8 bir?4 ,he 
ent]s ! army 9 ord] to f9d an honorable 
employm5t = ! idle ye>s ( 8 y\?1 & to be
 able to br+ back to 8 home & 8 pe]s "s 
honorable recollections ( milit>y life2 
b 8 pr9cipal object is n to obta9 by t  
pr(ession ei!r prop]ty1 di/9ction1 or   
p[]1 = he possesses ^! advantages 9 8   
own "r1 & enjoys !m )\t leav+ 8 home4   
,9 democratic armies all ! soldi]s may  
become (fic]s1 :i* makes ! desire (     
promotion g5]al1 & immeasurably ext5ds !
 b\nds ( milit>y ambition4 ,! (fic]1 on 
8 "p1 sees no?+ :i* naturally &         
necess>ily /ops him at "o grade m ?an at
 ano!r2 & ea* grade has imm5se          
importance 9 8 eyes1 because 8 rank 9   
society almo/ always dep5ds on 8 rank 9 
! army4 ,among/ democratic nations x (t5
 happ5s t an (fic] has no prop]ty b 8   
pay1 & no di/9ction b t ( milit>y       
honors3 consequ5tly z (t5 z 8 duties    
*ange1 8 =tune *anges1 & he becomes1 z x
 71 a new man4 ,:at 0 only an app5dage  
to 8 position 9 ari/ocratic armies1 has 

?us become ! ma9 po9t1 ! basis ( 8 :ole 
condition4 ,"u ! old ,fr5* mon>*y (fic]s
 7 always call$ by _! titles ( nobility2
 !y are n[ always call$ by ! title ( _! 
milit>y rank4 ,?is little *ange 9 ! =ms 
( language suffices to %[ t a great     
revolution has tak5 place 9 !           
con/itution ( society & 9 t ( ! army4 ,9
 democratic armies ! desire ( advancem5t
 is almo/ univ]sal3 x is ard5t1 t5aci\s1
 p]petual2 x is /r5g!n$ by all o!r      
desires1 & only ext+ui%$ ) life itself4 
,b x is easy to see1 t ( all armies 9 ! 
_w1 ^? 9 :i* advancem5t mu/ be sl[e/ 9  
"t ( peace are ! armies ( democratic    
c\ntries4 ,z ! numb] ( commissions is   
naturally limit$1 :il/ ! numb] (        
competitors is almo/ unlimit$1 & z !    
/rict law ( equality is ov] all alike1  
none c make rapid progress--_m c make no
 progress at all4 ,?us ! desire (       
advancem5t is great]1 & ! opportunities 
( advancem5t few]1 !re ?an else:]e4 ,all
 ! ambiti\s spirits ( a democratic army 
are consequ5tly ard5tly desir\s ( w>1   

because w> makes vacancies1 & w>rants ! 
violation ( t law ( s5iority :i* is !   
sole privilege natural to democracy4    
,we ?us arrive at ?is s+ul> consequ5ce1 
t ( all armies ^? mo/ ard5tly desir\s ( 
w> are democratic armies1 & ( all       
nations ^? mo/ fond ( peace are         
democratic nations3 &1 :at makes ^!     
facts /ill m extraord9>y1 is t ^!       
contr>y effects are produc$ at ! same "t
 by ! pr9ciple ( equality4  ,all !      
memb]s ( ! community1 be+ alike1        
con/antly h>bor ! wi%1 & discov] !      
possibility1 ( *ang+ _! condition &     
improv+ _! welf>e3 ?is makes !m fond (  
peace1 :i* is favorable to indu/ry1 &   
all[s e man to pursue 8 own little      
und]tak+s to _! completion4 ,on ! o!r   
h&1 ?is same equality makes soldi]s     
dream ( fields ( battle1 by increas+ !  
value ( milit>y honors 9 ! eyes ( ^? :o 
foll[ ! pr(ession ( arms1 & by r5d]+ ^? 
honors accessible to all4 ,9 ei!r case !
 inquietude ( ! he>t is ! same1 ! ta/e =
 enjoym5t z insatiable1 ! ambition (    

success z great--! means ( gratify+ x   
are alone diff]5t4  ,^! opposite        
t5d5cies ( ! nation & ! army expose     
democratic communities to great dang]s4 
,:5 a milit>y _s =sakes a p1 ! pr(ession
 ( arms imm$iately ceases to be held 9  
honor1 & milit>y m5 fall to ! l[e/ rank 
( ! public s]vants3 !y are little       
e/eem$1 & no long] und]/ood4 ,! rev]se (
 :at takes place 9 ari/ocratic ages !n  
occurs2 ! m5 :o ent] ! army are no long]
 ^? ( ! highe/1 b ( ! l[e/ rank4        
,milit>y ambition is only indulg$ 9 :5  
no o!r is possible4 ,h5ce arises a      
circle ( cause & consequ5ce f :i* x is  
difficult to escape3 ! be/ "p ( ! nation
 %uns ! milit>y pr(ession because t     
pr(ession is n honor$1 & ! pr(ession is 
n honor$ because ! be/ "p ( ! nation has
 ceas$ to foll[ x4 ,x is !n no matt] (  
surprise t democratic armies are (t5    
re/less1 ill-temp]$1 & dissatisfi$ ) _! 
lot1 al?\gh _! physical condition is    
commonly f> bett]1 & _! discipl9e less  
/rict ?an 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,! soldi]     

feels t he occupies an inf]ior position1
 & 8 w\nd$ pride ei!r /imulates 8 ta/e =
 ho/ilities :i* w\ld r5d] 8 s]vices     
necess>y1 or gives him a turn =         
revolutions1 dur+ :i* he may hope to w9 
by =ce ( arms ! political influ5ce &    
p]sonal importance n[ d5i$ him4 ,!      
composition ( democratic armies makes   
?is la/-m5tion$ dang] mu* to be fe>$4 ,9
 democratic communities almo/ e man has 
"s prop]ty to pres]ve2 b democratic     
armies are g5]ally l$ by m5 )\t prop]ty1
 mo/ ( :om h little to lose 9 civil     
broils4 ,! bulk ( ! nation is naturally 
mu* m afraid ( revolutions ?an 9 ! ages 
( ari/ocracy1 b ! lead]s ( ! army mu*   
less s4  ,moreov]1 z among/ democratic  
nations 7to repeat :at ,i h j rem>k$7 ! 
weal?ie/1 ! be/ educat$1 & ! mo/ able m5
 seldom adopt ! milit>y pr(ession1 !    
army1 tak5 collectively1 ev5tually =ms a
 small nation by itself1 :]e ! m9d is   
less enl>g$1 & habits are m rude ?an 9 !
 nation at l>ge4 ,n[1 ?is small         
unciviliz$ nation has arms 9 its        

possession1 & alone kn[s h[ to use !m3  
=1 inde$1 ! pacific temp] ( ! community 
increases ! dang] to :i* a democratic p 
is expos$ f ! milit>y & turbul5t _s ( ! 
army4 ,no?+ is s dang]\s z an army amid/
 an unw>like nation2 ! excessive love ( 
! :ole community = quiet cont9ually puts
 its con/itution at ! m]cy ( ! soldi]y4 
,x may !re=e be ass]t$1 g5]ally speak+1 
t if democratic nations are naturally   
prone to peace f _! int]e/s & _!        
prop5sities1 !y are con/antly drawn to  
w> & revolutions by _! armies4 ,milit>y 
revolutions1 :i* are sc>cely ev] to be  
appreh5d$ 9 ari/ocracies1 are always to 
be dread$ among/ democratic nations4 ,^!
 p]ils mu/ be reckon$ among/ ! mo/      
=midable :i* beset _! future fate1 & !  
att5tion ( /atesm5 %\ld be s$ul\sly     
appli$ to f9d a rem$y = ! evil4  ,:5 a  
nation p]ceives t x is inw>dly affect$  
by ! re/less ambition ( its army1 ! fir/
 ?\ght :i* occurs is to give ?is        
inconv5i5t ambition an object by go+ to 
w>4 ,i speak no ill ( w>3 w> almo/      

always enl>ges ! m9d ( a p1 & raises _! 
"*4 ,9 "s cases x is ! only *eck to !   
excessive gr[? ( c]ta9 prop5sities :i*  
naturally spr+ out ( ! equality (       
conditions1 & x mu/ be consid]$ z a     
necess>y corrective to c]ta9 invet]ate  
diseases to :i* democratic communities  
are liable4 ,w> has great advantages1 b 
we mu/ n flatt] ourselves t x c dim9i% !
 dang] ,i h j po9t$ out4 ,t p]il is only
 susp5d$ by x1 to return m fi]cely :5 ! 
w> is ov]2 = armies are mu* m impati5t (
 peace aft] hav+ ta/$ milit>y exploits4 
,w> c\ld only be a rem$y = a p :i* %\ld 
always be a?ir/ = milit>y glory4 ,i     
=esee t all ! milit>y rul]s :o may rise 
up 9 great democratic nations1 w f9d x  
easi] to conqu] ) _! armies1 ?an to make
 _! armies live at peace aft] conque/4  
,!re are two ?+s :i* a democratic p w   
always f9d v difficult--to beg9 a w>1 & 
to end x4  ,aga91 if w> has "s peculi>  
advantages = democratic nations1 on !   
o!r h& x exposes !m to c]ta9 dang]s :i* 
ari/ocracies h no cause to dread to an  

equal ext5t4 ,i %all only po9t out two (
 ^!4 ,al?\gh w> gratifies ! army1 x     
emb>rasses & (t5 exasp]ates t c\ntless  
multitude ( m5 ^: m9or passions e day   
require peace 9 ord] to be satisfi$4    
,?us !re is "s risk ( its caus+1 "u     
ano!r =m1 ! di/urbance x is int5d$ to   
prev5t4 ,no protract$ w> c fail to      
endang] ! fre$om ( a democratic c\ntry4 
,n inde$ t aft] e victory x is to be    
appreh5d$ t ! victori\s g5]als w possess
 !mselves by =ce ( ! supreme p[]1 aft] !
 mann] ( ,sylla & ,caes>3 ! dang] is (  
ano!r k9d4 ,w> does n always give ov]   
democratic communities to milit>y       
gov]nm5t1 b x mu/ inv>iably &           
immeasurably increase ! p[]s ( civil    
gov]nm5t2 x mu/ almo/ compulsorily      
conc5trate ! direction ( all m5 & !     
managem5t ( all ?+s 9 ! h&s ( !         
adm9i/ration4 ,if x lead n to despotism 
by sudd5 viol5ce1 x prep>es m5 = x m    
g5tly by _! habits4 ,all ^? :o seek to  
de/roy ! lib]ties ( a democratic nation 
ought to "k t w> is ! sure/ & ! %orte/  

means to accompli% x4 ,?is is ! fir/    
axiom ( ! sci5ce4  ,"o rem$y1 :i* appe>s
 to be obvi\s :5 ! ambition ( soldi]s & 
(fic]s becomes ! subject ( al>m1 is to  
augm5t ! numb] ( commissions to be      
di/ribut$ by increas+ ! army4 ,?is af=ds
 tempor>y relief1 b x plunges ! c\ntry  
into deep] difficulties at "s future    
p]iod4 ,to increase ! army may produce a
 la/+ effect 9 an ari/ocratic community1
 because milit>y ambition is !re conf9$ 
to "o class ( m51 & ! ambition ( ea*    
individual /ops1 z x 71 at a c]ta9      
limit2 s t x may be possible to satisfy 
all :o feel its influ5ce4 ,b no?+ is    
ga9$ by increas+ ! army among/ a        
democratic p1 because ! numb] (         
aspirants always rises 9 exactly ! same 
ratio z ! army itself4 ,^? ^: claims h  
be5 satisfi$ by ! creation ( new        
commissions are in/antly succe$$ by a   
fre% multitude beyond all p[] (         
satisfaction2 & ev5 ^? :o 7 b n[        
satisfi$ soon beg9 to crave m           
advancem5t2 = ! same excitem5t prevails 

9 ! ranks ( ! army z 9 ! civil classes (
 democratic society1 & :at m5 want is n 
to rea* a c]ta9 grade1 b to h con/ant   
promotion4 ,?\gh ^! wants may n be v    
va/1 !y are p]petually recurr+4 ,?us a  
democratic nation1 by augm5t+ its army1 
only allays = a "t ! ambition ( !       
milit>y pr(ession1 :i* soon becomes ev5 
m =midable1 because ! numb] ( ^? :o feel
 x is increas$4 ,i am ( op9ion t a      
re/less & turbul5t _s is an evil inh]5t 
9 ! v con/itution ( democratic armies1 &
 beyond hope ( cure4 ,! legislators (   
democracies mu/ n expect to devise any  
milit>y organization capable by its     
influ5ce ( calm+ & re/ra9+ ! milit>y    
pr(ession3 _! ef=ts w\ld exhau/ _! p[]s1
 be=e ! object is atta9$4  ,! rem$y = ! 
vices ( ! army is n to be f\nd 9 ! army 
itself1 b 9 ! c\ntry4 ,democratic       
nations are naturally afraid (          
di/urbance & ( despotism2 ! object is to
 turn ^! natural in/9cts into           
well-dige/$1 delib]ate1 & la/+ ta/es4   
,:5 m5 h at la/ le>n$ to make a peaceful

 & pr(itable use ( fre$om1 & h felt its 
bless+s--:5 !y h conceiv$ a manly love (
 ord]1 & h freely submitt$ !mselves to  
discipl9e--^! same m51 if !y foll[ !    
pr(ession ( arms1 br+ into x1           
unconsci\sly & almo/ aga9/ _! w1 ^! same
 habits & mann]s4 ,! g5]al _s ( ! nation
 be+ infus$ into ! _s peculi> to ! army1
 temp]s ! op9ions & desires eng5d]$ by  
milit>y life1 or represses !m by !      
mighty =ce ( public op9ion4 ,tea* b !   
citiz5s to be educat$1 ord]ly1 firm1 &  
free1 ! soldi]s w be discipl9$ & ob$i5t4
 ,any law :i*1 9 repress+ ! turbul5t _s 
( ! army1 %\ld t5d to dim9i% ! _s (     
fre$om 9 ! nation1 & to ov]%ad[ ! notion
 ( law & "r1 w\ld defeat its object3 x  
w\ld d mu* m to favor1 ?an to defeat1 ! 
e/abli%m5t ( milit>y tyranny4  ,aft]    
all1 & 9 spite ( all precautions1 a l>ge
 army amid/ a democratic p w always be a
 s\rce ( great dang]2 ! mo/ effectual   
means ( dim9i%+ t dang] w\ld be to r$uce
 ! army1 b ?is is a rem$y :i* all       
nations h x n 9 _! p[] to use4          

,*apt] ,,xxiii3 ,:i* ,is ,! ,mo/ ,w>like
 ,& ,mo/ ,revolution>y ,class ,9        
,democratic ,armies8  ,x is a "p ( !    
ess5ce ( a democratic army to be v      
num]\s 9 proportion to ! p to :i* x     
belongs1 z ,i %all h]eaft] %[4 ,on ! o!r
 h&1 m5 liv+ 9 democratic times seldom  
*oose a milit>y life4 ,democratic       
nations are !re=e soon l$ to give up !  
sy/em ( volunt>y recruit+ = t (         
compulsory enli/m5t4 ,! necessity ( _!  
social condition compels !m to resort to
 ! latt] means1 & x may easily be =ese5 
t !y w all ev5tually adopt x4 ,:5       
milit>y s]vice is compulsory1 ! burd5 is
 indiscrim9ately & equally borne by !   
:ole community4 ,?is is ano!r necess>y  
consequ5ce ( ! social condition ( ^!    
nations1 & ( _! notions4 ,! gov]nm5t may
 d almo/ :atev] x pleases1 provid$ x    
appeals to ! :ole community at once3 x  
is ! unequal di/ribution ( ! weight1 n !
 weight itself1 :i* commonly occasions  
resi/ance4 ,b z milit>y s]vice is common
 to all ! citiz5s1 ! evid5t consequ5ce  

is t ea* ( !m rema9s b = a few ye>s on  
active duty4 ,?us x is 9 ! nature ( ?+s 
t ! soldi] 9 democracies only passes    
?r\gh ! army1 :il/ among mo/ ari/ocratic
 nations ! milit>y pr(ession is "o :i* !
 soldi] adopts1 or :i* is impos$ ^u him1
 = life4  ,?is has important            
consequ5ces4 ,among/ ! soldi]s ( a      
democratic army1 "s acquire a ta/e =    
milit>y life1 b ! majority1 be+ enli/$  
aga9/ _! w1 & ev] ready to g back to _! 
homes1 d n consid] !mselves z s]i\sly   
engag$ 9 ! milit>y pr(ession1 & are     
always ?9k+ ( quitt+ x4 ,su* m5 d n     
contract ! wants1 & only half p>take 9 !
 passions1 :i* t mode ( life eng5d]s4   
,!y adapt !mselves to _! milit>y duties1
 b _! m9ds are /ill atta*$ to ! int]e/s 
& ! duties :i* engag$ !m 9 civil life4  
,!y d n !re=e imbibe ! _s ( ! army--or  
r1 !y infuse ! _s ( ! community at l>ge 
into ! army1 & reta9 x !re4 ,among/     
democratic nations ! private soldi]s    
rema9 mo/ l civilians3 ^u !m ! habits ( 
! nation h ! firme/ hold1 & public      

op9ion mo/ influ5ce4 ,x is by !         
in/rum5tality ( ! private soldi]s       
especially t x may be possible to infuse
 into a democratic army ! love ( fre$om 
& ! respect ( rights1 if ^! pr9ciples h 
once be5 successfully inculcat$ on ! p  
at l>ge4 ,! rev]se happ5s among/        
ari/ocratic nations1 :]e ! soldi]y h    
ev5tually no?+ 9 common ) _!            
fell[-citiz5s1 & :]e !y live among/ !m z
 /rang]s1 & (t5 z enemies4 ,9           
ari/ocratic armies ! (fic]s are !       
cons]vative elem5t1 because ! (fic]s    
alone h reta9$ a /rict connection )     
civil society1 & nev] =ego _! purpose ( 
resum+ _! place 9 x soon] or lat]3 9    
democratic armies ! private soldi]s /& 9
 ?is position1 & f ! same cause4  ,x (t5
 happ5s1 on ! contr>y1 t 9 ^! same      
democratic armies ! (fic]s contract     
ta/es & wants :olly di/9ct f ^? ( !     
nation--a fact :i* may be ?us acc\nt$ =4
 ,among/ democratic nations1 ! man :o   
becomes an (fic] sev]s all ! ties :i*   
b\nd him to civil life2 he leaves x     

=ev]2 he has no int]e/ to resume x4 ,8  
true c\ntry is ! army1 s9ce he owes all 
he has to ! rank he has atta9$ 9 x2 he  
!re=e foll[s ! =tunes ( ! army1 rises or
 s9ks ) x1 & h5ce=w>d directs all 8     
hopes to t qu>t] only4 ,z ! wants ( an  
(fic] are di/9ct f ^? ( ! c\ntry1 he may
 p]haps ard5tly desire w>1 or labor to  
br+ ab\t a revolution at ! v mom5t :5 ! 
nation is mo/ desir\s ( /ability &      
peace4 ,!re are1 nev]!less1 "s causes   
:i* allay ?is re/less & w>like _s4 ,?\gh
 ambition is univ]sal & cont9ual among/ 
democratic nations1 we h se5 t x is     
seldom great4 ,a man :o1 be+ born 9 !   
l[] classes ( ! community1 has ris5 f ! 
ranks to be an (fic]1 has already tak5 a
 prodigi\s /ep4 ,he has ga9$ a foot+ 9 a
 sph]e above t :i* he fill$ 9 civil     
life1 & he has acquir$ rights :i* mo/   
democratic nations w ev] consid] z      
inali5able4 99a ,he is will+ to pause   
aft] s great an ef=t1 & to enjoy :at he 
has won4 ,! fe> ( risk+ :at he has      
already obta9$ damps ! desire ( acquir+ 

:at he has n got4 ,hav+ conqu]$ ! fir/ &
 greate/ imp$im5t :i* oppos$ 8          
advancem5t1 he resigns himself ) less   
impati5ce to ! sl[ness ( 8 progress4 ,8 
ambition w be m & m cool$ 9 proportion z
 ! increas+ di/9ction ( 8 rank tea*es   
him t he has m to put 9 jeop>dy4 ,if ,i 
am n mi/ak51 ! lea/ w>like1 & also !    
lea/ revolution>y "p1 ( a democratic    
army1 w always be its *ief comm&]s4     
,footnote a3 ,! position ( (fic]s is    
inde$ mu* m secure among/ democratic    
nations ?an else:]e2 ! l[] ! p]sonal /&+
 ( ! man1 ! great] is ! comp>ative      
importance ( 8 milit>y grade1 & ! m j & 
necess>y is x t ! enjoym5t ( t rank %\ld
 be secur$ by ! laws4  ,b ! rem>ks ,i h 
j made on (fic]s & soldi]s are n        
applicable to a num]\s class :i* 9 all  
armies fills ! int]m$iate space betwe5  
!m--,i mean ! class ( non-commission$   
(fic]s4 ,?is class ( non-commission$    
(fic]s :i* h nev] act$ a "p 9 hi/ory    
until ! pres5t c5tury1 is h5ce=w>d      
de/9$1 ,i ?9k1 to play "o ( "s          

importance4 ,l ! (fic]s1 non-commission$
 (fic]s h brok51 9 _! m9ds1 all ! ties  
:i* b\nd !m to civil life2 l ! =m]1 !y  
devote !mselves p]man5tly to ! s]vice1 &
 p]haps make x ev5 m exclusively !      
object ( all _! desires3 b              
non-commission$ (fic]s are m5 :o h n yet
 rea*$ a firm & l(ty po/ at :i* !y may  
pause & brea! m freely1 ere !y c atta9  
fur!r promotion4 ,by ! v nature ( 8     
duties1 :i* is inv>iable1 a             
non-commission$ (fic] is doom$ to lead  
an obscure1 conf9$1 com=tless1 &        
prec>i\s exi/5ce2 z yet he sees no?+ (  
milit>y life b its dang]s2 he kn[s no?+ 
b its privations & its discipl9e--m     
difficult to support ?an dang]s3 he     
suff]s ! m f 8 pres5t mis]ies1 f kn[+ t 
! con/itution ( society & ( ! army all[ 
him to rise above !m2 he may1 inde$1 at 
any "t obta9 8 commission1 & ent] at    
once ^u comm&1 honors1 indep5d5ce1      
rights1 & enjoym5ts4 ,n only does ?is   
object ( 8 hopes appe> to him ( imm5se  
importance1 b he is nev] sure ( rea*+ x 

till x is actually 8 own2 ! grade he    
fills is by no means irrevocable2 he is 
always entirely ab&on$ to ! arbitr>y    
pleasure ( 8 comm&+ (fic]1 = ?is is     
imp]i\sly requir$ by ! necessity (      
discipl9e3 a slight fault1 a :im1 may   
always deprive him 9 an in/ant ( !      
fruits ( _m ye>s ( toil & endeavor2     
until he has rea*$ ! grade to :i* he    
aspires he has accompli%$ no?+2 n till  
he rea*es t grade does 8 c>e] seem to   
beg94 ,a desp]ate ambition _c fail to be
 k9dl$ 9 a man ?us incessantly goad$ on 
by 8 y\?1 8 wants1 8 passions1 ! _s ( 8 
age1 8 hopes1 & 8 age1 8 hopes1 & 8     
fe>s4 ,non-commission$ (fic]s are !re=e 
b5t on w>--on w> always1 & at any co/2 b
 if w> be d5i$ !m1 !n !y desire         
revolutions to susp5d ! au?ority (      
e/abli%$ regulations1 & to enable !m1   
aid$ by ! g5]al confusion & ! political 
passions ( ! "t1 to get rid ( _! sup]ior
 (fic]s & to take _! places4 ,nor is x  
impossible = !m to br+ ab\t su* a       
crisis1 because _! common orig9 & habits

 give !m mu* influ5ce ov] ! soldi]s1    
h[ev] diff]5t may be _! passions & _!   
desires4  ,x w\ld be an error to suppose
 t ^! v>i\s *>act]i/ics ( (fic]s1       
non-commission$ (fic]s1 & m51 belong to 
any p>ticul> "t or c\ntry2 !y w always  
occur at all times1 & among/ all        
democratic nations4 ,9 e democratic army
 ! non-commission$ (fic]s w be ! wor/   
repres5tatives ( ! pacific & ord]ly _s (
 ! c\ntry1 & ! private soldi]s w be !   
be/4 ,! latt] w c>ry ) !m into milit>y  
life ! /r5g? or weakness ( ! mann]s ( ! 
nation2 !y w display a fai?ful          
reflection ( ! community3 if t community
 is ignorant & weak1 !y w all[ !mselves 
to be drawn by _! lead]s into           
di/urbances1 ei!r unconsci\sly or aga9/ 
_! w2 if x is enlight5$ & en]getic1 !   
community w itself keep !m )9 ! b\nds ( 
ord]4     ,*apt] ,,xxiv3 ,causes ,:i*   
,r5d] ,democratic ,armies ,weak] ,?an   
,o!r ,armies ,at ,! ,outset ,( ,a       
,campaign1 ,& ,m ,=midable ,9 ,protract$
 ,w>f>e  ,any army is 9 dang] ( be+     

conqu]$ at ! outset ( a campaign1 aft] a
 long peace2 any army :i* has long be5  
engag$ 9 w>f>e has /rong *ances (       
victory3 ?is tru? is peculi>ly          
applicable to democratic armies4 ,9     
ari/ocracies ! milit>y pr(ession1 be+ a 
privileg$ c>e]1 is held 9 honor ev5 9 "t
 ( peace4 ,m5 ( great tal5ts1 great     
atta9m5ts1 & great ambition embrace x2 !
 army is 9 all respects on a level ) !  
nation1 & frequ5tly above x4 ,we h se51 
on ! contr>y1 t among/ a democratic p ! 
*oic] m9ds ( ! nation are gradually     
drawn away f ! milit>y pr(ession1 to    
seek by o!r pa?s1 di/9ction1 p[]1 &     
especially weal?4 ,aft] a long peace--& 
9 democratic ages ! p]iods ( peace are  
long--! army is always inf]ior to !     
c\ntry itself4 ,9 ?is /ate x is call$   
into active s]vice2 & until w> has alt]$
 x1 !re is dang] = ! c\ntry z well z = !
 army4  ,i h %[n t 9 democratic armies1 
& 9 "t ( peace1 ! rule ( s5iority is !  
supreme & inflexible law ( advancem5t4  
,?is is n only a consequ5ce1 z ,i h be=e

 obs]v$1 ( ! con/itution ( ^! armies1 b 
( ! con/itution ( ! p1 & x w always     
occur4 ,aga91 z among/ ^! nations !     
(fic] d]ives 8 position 9 ! c\ntry      
solely f 8 position 9 ! army1 & z he    
draws all ! di/9ction & ! compet5cy he  
enjoys f ! same s\rce1 he does n retire 
f 8 pr(ession1 or is n sup]-annuat$1    
till t[>ds ! extreme close ( life4 ,!   
consequ5ce ( ^! two causes is1 t :5 a   
democratic p goes to w> aft] a long     
int]val ( peace all ! lead+ (fic]s ( !  
army are old m54 ,i speak n only ( !    
g5]als1 b ( ! non-commission$ (fic]s1 :o
 h mo/ ( !m be5 /ation>y1 or h only     
advanc$ /ep by /ep4 ,x may be rem>k$ )  
surprise1 t 9 a democratic army aft] a  
long peace all ! soldi]s are m]e boys1 &
 all ! sup]ior (fic]s 9 decl9+ ye>s2 s t
 ! =m] are want+ 9 exp]i5ce1 ! latt] 9  
vigor4 ,?is is a /rong elem5t ( defeat1 
= ! fir/ condition ( successful g5]al%ip
 is y\?3 ,i %\ld n h v5tur$ to say s if 
! greate/ capta9 ( mod]n times _h n made
 ! obs]vation4 ,^! two causes d n act 9 

! same mann] ^u ari/ocratic armies3 z m5
 are promot$ 9 !m by "r ( bir? mu* m ?an
 by "r ( s5iority1 !re are 9 all ranks a
 c]ta9 numb] ( "y m51 :o br+ to _!      
pr(ession all ! e>ly vigor ( body & m9d4
 ,aga91 z ! m5 :o seek = milit>y honors 
among/ an ari/ocratic p1 enjoy a settl$ 
position 9 civil society1 !y seldom     
cont9ue 9 ! army until old age ov]takes 
!m4 ,aft] hav+ devot$ ! mo/ vigor\s ye>s
 ( y\? to ! c>e] ( arms1 !y volunt>ily  
retire1 & sp5d at home ! rema9d] ( _!   
matur] ye>s4  ,a long peace n only fills
 democratic armies ) eld]ly (fic]s1 b x 
also gives to all ! (fic]s habits bo? ( 
body & m9d :i* r5d] !m unfit = actual   
s]vice4 ,! man :o has long liv$ amid/ ! 
calm & lukew>m atmosph]e ( democratic   
mann]s c at fir/ ill adapt himself to ! 
h>d] toils & /]n] duties ( w>f>e2 & if  
he has n absolutely lo/ ! ta/e = arms1  
at lea/ he has assum$ a mode ( life :i* 
unfits him = conque/4  ,among/          
ari/ocratic nations1 ! ease ( civil life
 ex]cises less influ5ce on ! mann]s ( ! 

army1 because among/ ^? nations !       
ari/ocracy comm&s ! army3 & an          
ari/ocracy1 h[ev] plung$ 9 luxuri\s     
pleasures1 has always _m o!r passions   
besides t ( its own well-be+1 & to      
satisfy ^? passions m ?or\ghly its      
well-be+ w be readily sacrific$4 99a    
,footnote a3 ,see ,app5dix ,v4  ,i h %[n
 t 9 democratic armies1 9 "t ( peace1   
promotion is extremely sl[4 ,! (fic]s at
 fir/ support ?is /ate ( ?+s )          
impati5ce1 !y gr[ excit$1 re/less1      
exasp]at$1 b 9 ! end mo/ ( !m make up _!
 m9ds to x4 ,^? :o h ! l>ge/ %>e (      
ambition & ( res\rces quit ! army2 o!rs1
 adapt+ _! ta/es & _! desires to _!     
scanty =tunes1 ultimately look ^u !     
milit>y pr(ession 9 a civil po9t ( view4
 ,! quality !y value mo/ 9 x is !       
compet5cy & security :i* att5d x3 _!    
:ole notion ( ! future re/s ^u ! c]ta9ty
 ( ?is little provision1 & all !y       
require is peaceably to enjoy x4 ,?us n 
only does a long peace fill an army )   
old m51 b x is frequ5tly imp>ts ! views 

( old m5 to ^? :o are /ill 9 ! prime (  
life4  ,i h also %[n t among/ democratic
 nations 9 "t ( peace ! milit>y         
pr(ession is held 9 little honor &      
indiff]5tly foll[$4 ,?is want ( public  
favor is a heavy disc\ragem5t to ! army2
 x weighs d[n ! m9ds ( ! troops1 & :5 w>
 breaks out at la/1 !y _c imm$iately    
resume _! spr+ & vigor4 ,no simil> cause
 ( moral weakness occurs 9 ari/ocratic  
armies3 !re ! (fic]s are nev] l[]$ ei!r 
9 _! own eyes or 9 ^? ( _! c\ntrym51    
because1 indep5d5tly ( _! milit>y       
greatness1 !y are p]sonally great4 ,b   
ev5 if ! influ5ce ( peace op]at$ on !   
two k9ds ( armies 9 ! same mann]1 !     
results w\ld /ill be diff]5t4 ,:5 !     
(fic]s ( an ari/ocratic army h lo/ _!   
w>like _s & ! desire ( rais+ !mselves by
 s]vice1 !y /ill reta9 a c]ta9 respect =
 ! honor ( _! class1 & an old habit (   
be+ =emo/ to set an example4 ,b :5 !    
(fic]s ( a democratic army h no long] ! 
love ( w> & ! ambition ( arms1 no?+     
:atev] rema9s to !m4  ,i am !re=e (     

op9ion t1 :5 a democratic p engages 9 a 
w> aft] a long peace1 x incurs mu* m    
risk ( defeat ?an any o!r nation2 b x   
ought n easily to be ca/ d[n by its     
rev]ses1 = ! *ances ( success = su* an  
army are increas$ by ! duration ( ! w>4 
,:5 a w> has at l5g?1 by its long       
cont9uance1 r\s$ ! :ole community f _!  
peaceful occupations & ru9$ _! m9or     
und]tak+s1 ! same passions :i* made !m  
atta* s mu* importance to ! ma9t5ance ( 
peace w be turn$ to arms4 ,w>1 aft] x   
has de/roy$ all modes ( speculation1    
becomes itself ! great & sole           
speculation1 to :i* all ! ard5t &       
ambiti\s desires :i* equality eng5d]s   
are exclusively direct$4 ,h5ce x is t ! 
selfsame democratic nations :i* are s   
reluctant to engage 9 ho/ilities1       
sometimes p]=m prodigi\s a*ievem5ts :5  
once !y h tak5 ! field4 ,z ! w> attracts
 m & m ( public att5tion1 & is se5 to   
create high reputations & great =tunes 9
 a %ort space ( "t1 ! *oice/ spirits ( !
 nation ent] ! milit>y pr(ession3 all ! 

ent]pris+1 pr\d1 & m>tial m9ds1 no long]
 ( ! ari/ocracy solely1 b ( ! :ole      
c\ntry1 are drawn 9 ?is direction4 ,z ! 
numb] ( competitors = milit>y honors is 
imm5se1 & w> drives e man to 8 prop]    
level1 great g5]als are always sure to  
spr+ up4 ,a long w> produces ^u a       
democratic army ! same effects t a      
revolution produces ^u a p2 x breaks    
?r\gh regulations1 & all[s extraord9>y  
m5 to rise above ! common level4 ,^?    
(fic]s ^: bodies & m9ds h gr[n old 9    
peace1 are remov$1 or sup]annuat$1 or !y
 die4 ,9 _! /ead a ho/ ( "y m5 are      
press+ on1 ^: frames are already h>d5$1 
^: desires are ext5d$ & inflam$ by      
active s]vice4 ,!y are b5t on advancem5t
 at all haz>ds1 & p]petual advancem5t2  
!y are foll[$ by o!rs ) ! same passions 
& desires1 & aft] ^! are o!rs yet       
unlimit$ by aught b ! size ( ! army4 ,! 
pr9ciple ( equality op5s ! door (       
ambition to all1 & dea? provides *ances 
= ambition4 ,dea? is con/antly ?9n+ !   
ranks1 mak+ vacancies1 clos+ & op5+ !   

c>e] ( arms4  ,!re is moreov] a secret  
connection betwe5 ! milit>y "* & ! "* ( 
democracies1 :i* w> br+s to light4 ,! m5
 ( democracies are naturally            
passionately eag] to acquire :at !y     
covet1 & to enjoy x on easy conditions4 
,!y = ! mo/ "p wor%ip *ance1 & are mu*  
less afraid ( dea? ?an ( difficulty4    
,?is is ! _s :i* !y br+ to comm]ce &    
manufactures2 & ?is same _s1 c>ri$ ) !m 
to ! field ( battle1 induces !m will+ly 
to expose _! lives 9 ord] to secure 9 a 
mom5t ! rew>ds ( victory4 ,no k9d (     
greatness is m pleas+ to ! imag9ation ( 
a democratic p ?an milit>y greatness--a 
greatness ( vivid & sudd5 lu/re1 obta9$ 
)\t toil1 by no?+ b ! risk ( life4 ,?us1
 :il/ ! int]e/s & ! ta/es ( ! memb]s ( a
 democratic community div]t !m f w>1 _! 
habits ( m9d fit !m = c>ry+ on w> well2 
!y soon make good soldi]s1 :5 !y are    
r\s$ f _! bus9ess & _! enjoym5ts4 ,if   
peace is peculi>ly hurtful to democratic
 armies1 w> secures to !m advantages :i*
 no o!r armies ev] possess2 & ^!        

advantages1 h[ev] little felt at fir/1  
_c fail 9 ! end to give !m ! victory4   
,an ari/ocratic nation1 :i* 9 a conte/ )
 a democratic p does n succe$ 9 ru9+ !  
latt] at ! outset ( ! w>1 always runs a 
great risk ( be+ conqu]$ by x4          
,*apt] ,,xxv3 ,( ,discipl9e ,9          
,democratic ,armies  ,x is a v g5]al    
op9ion1 especially 9 ari/ocratic        
c\ntries1 t ! great social equality :i* 
prevails 9 democracies ultimately r5d]s 
! private soldi] indep5d5t ( ! (fic]1 & 
?us de/roys ! bond ( discipl9e4 ,?is is 
a mi/ake1 = !re are two k9ds (          
discipl9e1 :i* x is important n to      
conf\nd4 ,:5 ! (fic] is noble & ! soldi]
 a s]f--"o ri*1 ! o!r poor--! =m]       
educat$ & /rong1 ! latt] ignorant &     
weak--! /ricte/ bond ( ob$i5ce may      
easily be e/abli%$ betwe5 ! two m54 ,!  
soldi] is brok5 9 to milit>y discipl9e1 
z x 71 be=e he ent]s ! army2 or r1      
milit>y discipl9e is no?+ b an          
enhancem5t ( social s]vitude4 ,9        
ari/ocratic armies ! soldi] w soon      

become ins5sible to ev]y?+ b ! ord]s ( 8
 sup]ior (fic]s2 he acts )\t reflection1
 triumphs )\t en?usiasm1 & dies )\t     
compla9t3 9 ?is /ate he is no long] a   
man1 b he is /ill a mo/ =midable animal 
tra9$ = w>4  ,a democratic p mu/ despair
 ( ev] obta9+ f soldi]s t bl9d1 m9ute1  
submissive1 & inv>iable ob$i5ce :i* an  
ari/ocratic p may impose on !m )\t      
difficulty4 ,! /ate ( society does n    
prep>e !m = x1 & ! nation might be 9    
dang] ( los+ its natural advantages if x
 s\ght artificially to acquire          
advantages ( ?is p>ticul> k9d4 ,among/  
democratic communities1 milit>y         
discipl9e ought n to attempt to         
annihilate ! free spr+ ( ! faculties2   
all t c be done by discipl9e is to      
direct x2 ! ob$i5ce ?us inculcat$ is    
less exact1 b x is m eag] & m           
intellig5t4 ,x has its root 9 ! w ( him 
:o obeys3 x re/s n only on 8 in/9ct1 b  
on 8 reason2 & consequ5tly x w (t5      
spontane\sly become m /rict z dang]     
requires x4 ,! discipl9e ( an           

ari/ocratic army is apt to be relax$ 9  
w>1 because t discipl9e is f\nd$ ^u     
habits1 & w> di/urbs ^? habits4 ,!      
discipl9e ( a democratic army on !      
contr>y is /r5g!n$ 9 sight ( ! enemy1   
because e soldi] !n cle>ly p]ceives t he
 mu/ be sil5t & ob$i5t 9 ord] to conqu]4
  ,! nations :i* h p]=m$ ! greate/      
w>like a*ievem5ts knew no o!r discipl9e 
?an t :i* ,i speak (4 ,among/ ! anci5ts 
none 7 admitt$ into ! armies b freem5 & 
citiz5s1 :o diff]$ b little f "o ano!r1 
& 7 accu/om$ to treat ea* o!r z equals4 
,9 ?is respect x may be said t ! armies 
( antiquity 7 democratic1 al?\gh !y came
 out ( ! bosom ( ari/ocracy2 !          
consequ5ce 0 t 9 ^? armies a sort (     
frat]nal famili>ity prevail$ betwe5 !   
(fic]s & ! m54 ,plut>*'s lives ( great  
comm&]s furni% conv9c+ in/ances ( !     
fact3 ! soldi]s 7 9 ! con/ant habit (   
freely address+ _! g5]al1 & ! g5]al     
li/5$ to & answ]$ :atev] ! soldi]s _h to
 say3 !y 7 kept 9 ord] by language & by 
example1 f> m ?an by con/ra9t or        

puni%m5t2 ! g5]al 0 z mu* _! companion z
 _! *ief4 ,i "k n :e!r ! soldi]s (      
,greece & ,rome ev] c>ri$ ! m9utiae (   
milit>y discipl9e to ! same degree (    
p]fection z ! ,russians h done2 b ?is   
did n prev5t ,alex&] f conqu]+ ,asia--& 
,rome1 ! _w4     ,*apt] ,,xxvi3 ,"s     
,consid]ations ,on ,w> ,9 ,democratic   
,communities  ,:5 ! pr9ciple ( equality 
is 9 gr[?1 n only among/ a s+le nation1 
b among/ sev]al neighbor+ nations at !  
same "t1 z is n[ ! case 9 ,europe1 !    
inhabitants ( ^! diff]5t c\ntries1      
not)/&+ ! dissimil>ity ( language1 (    
cu/oms1 & ( laws1 nev]!less resemble ea*
 o!r 9 _! equal dread ( w> & _! common  
love ( peace4 99a ,x is 9 va9 t ambition
 or ang] puts arms 9 ! h&s ( pr9ces2 !y 
are appeas$ 9 spite ( !mselves by a     
species ( g5]al apa?y & goodwill1 :i*   
makes ! sword drop f _! grasp1 & w>s    
become m r>e4 ,z ! spread ( equality1   
tak+ place 9 sev]al c\ntries at once1   
simultane\sly impels _! v>i\s           
inhabitants to foll[ manufactures &     

comm]ce1 n only d _! ta/es gr[ alike1 b 
_! int]e/s are s mix$ & entangl$ ) "o   
ano!r t no nation c inflict evils on o!r
 nations )\t ^? evils fall+ back ^u     
itself2 & all nations ultimately reg>d  
w> z a calamity1 almo/ z sev]e to !     
conqu]or z to ! conqu]$4 ,?us1 on ! "o  
h&1 x is extremely difficult 9          
democratic ages to draw nations into    
ho/ilities2 b on ! o!r h&1 x is almo/   
impossible t any two ( !m %\ld g to w>  
)\t embroil+ ! re/4 ,! int]e/s ( all are
 s int]lac$1 _! op9ions & _! wants s mu*
 alike1 t none c rema9 quiet :5 ! o!rs  
/ir4 ,w>s !re=e become m r>e1 b :5 !y   
break out !y spread ov] a l>g] field4   
,neighbor+ democratic nations n only    
become alike 9 "s respects1 b !y        
ev5tually gr[ to resemble ea* o!r 9     
almo/ all4 99b ,?is similitude ( nations
 has consequ5ces ( great importance 9   
relation to w>4  ,footnote a3 ,x is     
sc>cely necess>y = me to obs]ve t !     
dread ( w> display$ by ! nations (      
,europe is n solely attributable to !   

progress made by ! pr9ciple ( equality  
among/ !m2 indep5d5tly ( ?is p]man5t    
cause sev]al o!r accid5tal causes (     
great weight might be po9t$ out1 & ,i   
may m5tion be=e all ! re/ ! extreme     
lassitude :i* ! w>s ( ! ,revolution & ! 
,empire h left beh9d !m4  ,footnote b3  
,?is is n only because ^! nations h !   
same social condition1 b x arises f ! v 
nature ( t social condition :i* leads m5
 to imitate & id5tify !mselves ) ea*    
o!r4 ,:5 ! memb]s ( a community are     
divid$ into ca/es & classes1 !y n only  
diff] f "o ano!r1 b !y h no ta/e & no   
desire to be alike2 on ! contr>y1       
ev]yone endeavors1 m & m1 to keep 8 own 
op9ions undi/urb$1 to reta9 8 own       
peculi> habits1 & to rema9 himself4 ,!  
*>act]i/ics ( individuals are v /rongly 
m>k$4 ,:5 ! /ate ( society among/ a p is
 democratic--t is to say1 :5 !re are no 
long] any ca/es or classes 9 !          
community1 & all its memb]s are ne>ly   
equal 9 education & 9 prop]ty--! human  
m9d foll[s ! opposite direction4 ,m5 are

 mu* alike1 & !y are annoy$1 z x 71 by  
any deviation f t lik5ess3 f> f seek+ to
 pres]ve _! own di/+ui%+ s+ul>ities1 !y 
endeavor to %ake !m (f1 9 ord] to       
id5tify !mselves ) ! g5]al mass ( ! p1  
:i* is ! sole repres5tative ( "r & (    
might to _! eyes4 ,! *>act]i/ics (      
individuals are ne>ly oblit]at$4 ,9 !   
ages ( ari/ocracy ev5 ^? :o are         
naturally alike /rive to create imag9>y 
diff]5ces betwe5 !mselves3 9 ! ages (   
democracy ev5 ^? :o are n alike seek    
only to become s1 & to copy ea* o!r--s  
/rongly is ! m9d ( e man always c>ri$   
away by ! g5]al impulse ( mank9d4       
,some?+ ( ! same k9d may be obs]v$      
betwe5 nations3 two nations hav+ ! same 
ari/ocratic social condition1 might     
rema9 ?or\ghly di/9ct & extremely       
diff]5t1 because ! _s ( ari/ocracy is to
 reta9 /rong individual *>act]i/ics2 b  
if two neighbor+ nations h ! same       
democratic social condition1 !y _c fail 
to adopt simil> op9ions & mann]s1       
because ! _s ( democracy t5ds to        

assimilate m5 to ea* o!r4  ,if ,i       
inquire :y x is t ! ,helvetic ,conf$]acy
 made ! greate/ & mo/ p[]ful nations (  
,europe tremble 9 ! fifte5? c5tury1 :il/
 at ! pres5t day ! p[] ( t c\ntry is    
exactly proportion$ to its population1  
,i p]ceive t ! ,swiss are become l all !
 surr\nd+ communities1 & ^? surr\nd+    
communities l ! ,swiss3 s t z num]ical  
/r5g? n[ =ms ! only diff]5ce betwe5 !m1 
victory necess>ily att5ds ! l>ge/ army4 
,?us "o ( ! consequ5ces ( ! democratic  
revolution :i* is go+ on 9 ,europe is to
 make num]ical /r5g? prepond]ate on all 
fields ( battle1 & to con/ra9 all small 
nations to incorporate !mselves ) l>ge  
,/ates1 or at lea/ to adopt ! policy ( !
 latt]4 ,z numb]s are ! det]m9+ cause ( 
victory1 ea* p ought ( c\rse to /rive by
 all ! means 9 its p[] to br+ ! greate/ 
possible numb] ( m5 into ! field4 ,:5 x 
0 possible to enli/ a k9d ( troops      
sup]ior to all o!rs1 su* z ! ,swiss     
infantry or ! ,fr5* horse ( ! sixte5?   
c5tury1 x 0 n ?\ght necess>y to raise v 

l>ge armies2 b ! case is alt]$ :5 "o    
soldi] is z effici5t z ano!r4  ,! same  
cause :i* begets ?is new want also      
supplies means ( satisfy+ x2 =1 z ,i h  
already obs]v$1 :5 m5 are all alike1 !y 
are all weak1 & ! supreme p[] ( ! ,/ate 
is naturally mu* /rong] among/          
democratic nations ?an else:]e4 ,h5ce1  
:il/ ^! nations are desir\s ( enroll+ ! 
:ole male population 9 ! ranks ( ! army1
 !y h ! p[] ( effect+ ?is object3 !     
consequ5ce is1 t 9 democratic ages      
armies seem to gr[ l>g] 9 proportion z !
 love ( w> decl9es4 ,9 ! same ages1 too1
 ! mann] ( c>ry+ on w> is likewise alt]$
 by ! same causes4 ,ma*iavelli obs]ves 9
 ,! ,pr9ce1 t x is mu* m difficult to   
subdue a p :i* has a pr9ce & 8 b>ons =  
its lead]s1 ?an a nation :i* is comm&$  
by a pr9ce & 8 slaves4 ,to avoid (f5ce1 
let u read public function>ies = slaves1
 & ?is important tru? w be /rictly      
applicable to our own "t4  ,a great     
ari/ocratic p _c ei!r conqu] its        
neighbors1 or be conqu]$ by !m1 )\t     

great difficulty4 ,x _c conqu] !m1      
because all its =ces c nev] be collect$ 
& held toge!r = a consid]able p]iod3 x  
_c be conqu]$1 because an enemy meets at
 e /ep small c5tres ( resi/ance by :i*  
invasion is arre/$4 ,w> aga9/ an        
ari/ocracy may be comp>$ to w> 9 a      
m\nta9\s c\ntry2 ! defeat$ p>ty has     
con/ant opportunities ( rally+ its =ces 
to make a /& 9 a new position4 ,exactly 
! rev]se occurs among/ democratic       
nations3 !y easily br+ _! :ole          
disposable =ce into ! field1 & :5 !     
nation is weal?y & popul\s x soon       
becomes victori\s2 b if ev] x is        
conqu]$1 & its t]ritory invad$1 x has   
few res\rces at comm&2 & if ! enemy     
takes ! capital1 ! nation is lo/4 ,?is  
may v well be expla9$3 z ea* memb] ( !  
community is individually isolat$ &     
extremely p[]less1 no "o ( ! :ole body c
 ei!r def5d himself or pres5t a rally+  
po9t to o!rs4 ,no?+ is /rong 9 a        
democratic c\ntry except ! ,/ate2 z !   
milit>y /r5g? ( ! ,/ate is de/roy$ by ! 

de/ruction ( ! army1 & its civil p[]    
p>alyz$ by ! capture ( ! *ief city1 all 
t rema9s is only a multitude )\t /r5g?  
or gov]nm5t1 unable to resi/ ! organiz$ 
p[] by :i* x is assail$4 ,i am aw>e t   
?is dang] may be less5$ by ! creation ( 
prov9cial lib]ties1 & consequ5tly (     
prov9cial p[]s1 b ?is rem$y w always be 
insuffici5t4 ,= aft] su* a cata/rophe1 n
 only is ! population unable to c>ry on 
ho/ilities1 b x may be appreh5d$ t !y w 
n be incl9$ to attempt x4 ,9 accordance 
) ! law ( nations adopt$ 9 civiliz$     
c\ntries1 ! object ( w>s is n to seize !
 prop]ty ( private individuals1 b simply
 to get possession ( political p[]4 ,!  
de/ruction ( private prop]ty is only    
occasionally resort$ to = ! purpose (   
atta9+ ! latt] object4 ,:5 an           
ari/ocratic c\ntry is invad$ aft] !     
defeat ( its army1 ! nobles1 al?\gh !y  
are at ! same "t ! weal?ie/ memb]s ( !  
community1 w cont9ue to def5d !mselves  
individually r ?an submit2 = if !       
conqu]or rema9$ ma/] ( ! c\ntry1 he w\ld

 deprive !m ( _! political p[]1 to :i*  
!y cl+ ev5 m closely ?an to _! prop]ty4 
,!y !re=e pref] fight+ to subjection1   
:i* is to !m ! greate/ ( all mis=tunes2 
& !y readily c>ry ! p along ) !m because
 ! p has long be5 us$ to foll[ & obey   
!m1 & besides has b little to risk 9 !  
w>4 ,among/ a nation 9 :i* equality (   
conditions prevails1 ea* citiz51 on !   
contr>y1 has b sl5d] %>e ( political    
p[]1 & (t5 has no %>e at all2 on ! o!r  
h&1 all are indep5d5t1 & all h some?+ to
 lose2 s t !y are mu* less afraid ( be+ 
conqu]$1 & mu* m afraid ( w>1 ?an an    
ari/ocratic p4 ,x w always be extremely 
difficult to decide a democratic        
population to take up arms1 :5          
ho/ilities h rea*$ its own t]ritory4    
,h5ce ! necessity ( giv+ to su* a p !   
rights & ! political "* :i* may imp>t to
 e citiz5 "s ( ^? int]e/s t cause !     
nobles to act = ! public welf>e 9       
ari/ocratic c\ntries4  ,x %\ld nev] be  
=gott5 by ! pr9ces & o!r lead]s (       
democratic nations1 t no?+ b ! passion &

 ! habit ( fre$om c ma9ta9 an           
advantage\s conte/ ) ! passion & ! habit
 ( physical well-be+4 ,i c conceive no?+
 bett] prep>$ = subjection1 9 case (    
defeat1 ?an a democratic p )\t free     
in/itutions4  ,=m]ly x 0 cu/om>y to take
 ! field ) a small body ( troops1 to    
fight 9 small engagem5ts1 & to make     
long1 regul> sieges3 mod]n tactics      
consi/ 9 fight+ decisive battles1 &1 z  
soon z a l9e ( m>* is op5 be=e ! army1 9
 ru%+ ^u ! capital city1 9 ord] to      
t]m9ate ! w> at a s+le bl[4 ,napoleon1 x
 is said1 0 ! inv5tor ( ?is new sy/em2 b
 ! inv5tion ( su* a sy/em did n dep5d on
 any individual man1 :oev] he might be4 
,! mode 9 :i* ,napoleon c>ri$ on w> 0   
sugge/$ to him by ! /ate ( society 9 8  
"t2 t mode 0 successful1 because x 0    
em95tly adapt$ to t /ate ( society1 &   
because he 0 ! fir/ to employ x4        
,napoleon 0 ! fir/ comm&] :o m>*$ at !  
head ( an army f capital to capital1 b !
 road 0 op5$ = him by ! ru9 ( feudal    
society4 ,x may fairly be believ$ t1 if 

t extraord9>y man _h be5 born ?ree      
hundr$ ye>s ago1 he w\ld n h d]iv$ !    
same results f 8 me?od ( w>f>e1 or1 r1 t
 he w\ld h _h a diff]5t me?od4  ,i %all 
add b a few words on civil w>s1 = fe> ( 
exhau/+ ! pati5ce ( ! read]4 ,mo/ ( !   
rem>ks :i* ,i h made respect+ =eign w>s 
are applicable a =tiori to civil w>s4   
,m5 liv+ 9 democracies are n naturally  
prone to ! milit>y "*2 !y sometimes     
assume x1 :5 !y h be5 dragg$ by         
compulsion to ! field2 b to rise 9 a    
body & volunt>ily to expose !mselves to 
! horrors ( w>1 & especially ( civil w>1
 is a c\rse :i* ! m5 ( democracies are n
 apt to adopt4 ,none b ! mo/ adv5tur\s  
memb]s ( ! community cons5t to run into 
su* risks2 ! bulk ( ! population rema9s 
motionless4 ,b ev5 if ! population 7    
incl9$ to act1 consid]able ob/acles w\ld
 /& 9 _! way2 = !y c resort to no old & 
well-e/abli%$ influ5ce :i* !y are will+ 
to obey--no well-kn[n lead]s to rally ! 
discont5t$1 z well z to discipl9e & to  
lead !m--no political p[]s subord9ate to

 ! supreme p[] ( ! nation1 :i* af=d an  
effectual support to ! resi/ance direct$
 aga9/ ! gov]nm5t4 ,9 democratic        
c\ntries ! moral p[] ( ! majority is    
imm5se1 & ! physical res\rces :i* x has 
at its comm& are out ( all proportion to
 ! physical res\rces :i* may be comb9$  
aga9/ x4 ,!re=e ! p>ty :i* occupies !   
seat ( ! majority1 :i* speaks 9 its "n &
 wields its p[]1 triumphs in/antane\sly 
& irresi/ibly ov] all private resi/ance2
 x does n ev5 give su* opposition "t to 
exi/1 b nips x 9 ! bud4 ,^? :o 9 su*    
nations seek to effect a revolution by  
=ce ( arms h no o!r res\rce ?an sudd5ly 
to seize ^u ! :ole eng9e ( gov]nm5t z x 
/&s1 :i* c bett] be done by a s+le bl[  
?an by a w>2 = z soon z !re is a regul> 
w>1 ! p>ty :i* repres5ts ! ,/ate is     
always c]ta9 to conqu]4 ,! only case 9  
:i* a civil w> c\ld arise is1 if ! army 
%\ld divide itself into two factions1 ! 
"o rais+ ! /&>d ( rebellion1 ! o!r      
rema9+ true to its allegiance4 ,an army 
con/itutes a small community1 v closely 

unit$ toge!r1 end[$ ) great p[]s (      
vitality1 & able to supply its own wants
 = "s "t4 ,su* a w> might be bloody1 b x
 c\ld n be long2 = ei!r ! rebelli\s army
 w\ld ga9 ov] ! gov]nm5t by ! sole      
display ( its res\rces1 or by its fir/  
victory1 & !n ! w> w\ld be ov]2 or !    
/ruggle w\ld take place1 & !n t portion 
( ! army :i* %\ld n be support$ by !    
organiz$ p[]s ( ! ,/ate w\ld spe$ily    
ei!r disb& itself or be de/roy$4 ,x may 
!re=e be admitt$ z a g5]al tru?1 t 9    
ages ( equality civil w>s w become mu*  
less frequ5t & less protract$4 99c      
,footnote c3 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ,i
 speak "h ( sov]eign & indep5d5t        
democratic nations1 n ( conf$]ate       
democracies2 9 conf$]acies1 z !         
prepond]at+ p[] always resides1 9 spite 
( all political fictions1 9 ! /ate      
gov]nm5ts1 & n 9 ! f$]al gov]nm5t1 civil
 w>s are 9 fact no?+ b =eign w>s 9      
disguise4     ,book ,f\r3 ,influ5ce ,(  
,democratic ,op9ions ,on ,political     
,society     ,*apt] ,i3 ,t ,equality    

,naturally ,gives ,m5 ,a ,ta/e ,= ,free 
,in/itutions  ,i %\ld imp]fectly fulfil 
! purpose ( ?is book1 if1 aft] hav+ %[n 
:at op9ions & s5tim5ts are sugge/$ by ! 
pr9ciple ( equality1 ,i did n po9t out1 
ere ,i conclude1 ! g5]al influ5ce :i* ^!
 same op9ions & s5tim5ts may ex]cise ^u 
! gov]nm5t ( human societies4 ,to succe$
 9 ?is object ,i %all frequ5tly h to    
retrace my /eps2 b ,i tru/ ! read] w n  
refuse to foll[ me ?r\gh pa?s already   
kn[n to him1 :i* may lead to "s new     
tru?4  ,! pr9ciple ( equality1 :i* makes
 m5 indep5d5t ( ea* o!r1 gives !m a     
habit & a ta/e = foll[+1 9 _! private   
actions1 no o!r guide b _! own w4 ,?is  
complete indep5d5ce1 :i* !y con/antly   
enjoy t[>ds _! equals & 9 ! int]c\rse ( 
private life1 t5ds to make !m look ^u   
all au?ority ) a jeal\s eye1 & spe$ily  
sugge/s to !m ! notion & ! love (       
political fre$om4 ,m5 liv+ at su* times 
h a natural bias to free in/itutions4   
,take any "o ( !m at a v5ture1 & se>* if
 y c 8 mo/ deep-seat$ in/9cts2 y w f9d t

 ( all gov]nm5ts he w soone/ conceive & 
mo/ highly value t gov]nm5t1 ^: head he 
has himself elect$1 & ^: adm9i/ration he
 may control4 ,( all ! political effects
 produc$ by ! equality ( conditions1 ?is
 love ( indep5d5ce is ! fir/ to /rike ! 
obs]v+1 & to al>m ! timid2 nor c x be   
said t _! al>m is :olly misplac$1 =     
an>*y has a m =midable aspect 9         
democratic c\ntries ?an else:]e4 ,z !   
citiz5s h no direct influ5ce on ea* o!r1
 z soon z ! supreme p[] ( ! nation      
fails1 :i* kept !m all 9 _! sev]al      
/ations1 x w\ld seem t disord] mu/      
in/antly rea* its utmo/ pit*1 & t1 e man
 draw+ aside 9 a diff]5t direction1 !   
fabric ( society mu/ at once crumble    
away4  ,i am1 h[ev]1 p]suad$ t an>*y is 
n ! pr9cipal evil :i* democratic ages h 
to fe>1 b ! lea/4 ,= ! pr9ciple (       
equality begets two t5d5cies2 ! "o leads
 m5 /raight to indep5d5ce1 & may sudd5ly
 drive !m into an>*y2 ! o!r conducts !m 
by a long]1 m secret1 b m c]ta9 road1 to
 s]vitude4 ,nations readily disc]n ! =m]

 t5d5cy1 & are prep>$ to resi/ x2 !y are
 l$ away by ! latt]1 )\t p]ceiv+ its    
drift2 h5ce x is peculi>ly important to 
po9t x out4 ,= myself1 ,i am s f> f urg+
 z a reproa* to ! pr9ciple ( equality t 
x r5d]s m5 untractable1 t ?is v         
circum/ance pr9cipally calls =? my      
approbation4 ,i admire to see h[ x      
deposits 9 ! m9d & he>t ( man ! dim     
conception & in/9ctive love ( political 
indep5d5ce1 ?us prep>+ ! rem$y = ! evil 
:i* x eng5d]s2 x is on ?is v acc\nt t ,i
 am atta*$ to x4     ,*apt] ,,ii3 ,t ,! 
,notions ,( ,democratic ,nations ,on    
,gov]nm5t ,are ,naturally ,favorable ,to
 ,! ,conc5tration ,( ,p[]  ,! notion (  
second>y p[]s1 plac$ betwe5 ! sov]eign &
 8 subjects1 occurr$ naturally to !     
imag9ation ( ari/ocratic nations1       
because ^? communities conta9$          
individuals or families rais$ above !   
common level1 & app>5tly de/9$ to comm& 
by _! bir?1 _! education1 & _! weal?4   
,?is same notion is naturally want+ 9 ! 
m9ds ( m5 9 democratic ages1 = conv]se  

reasons3 x c only be introduc$          
artificially1 x c only be kept !re )    
difficulty2 :]eas !y conceive1 z x 71   
)\t ?9k+ ^u ! subject1 ! notion ( a sole
 & c5tral p[] :i* gov]ns ! :ole         
community by its direct influ5ce4       
,moreov] 9 politics1 z well z 9         
philosophy & 9 religion1 ! intellect (  
democratic nations is peculi>ly op5 to  
simple & g5]al notions4 ,complicat$     
sy/ems are repugnant to x1 & its        
favorite conception is t ( a great      
nation compos$ ( citiz5s all resembl+ ! 
same patt]n1 & all gov]n$ by a s+le p[]4
  ,! v next notion to t ( a sole &      
c5tral p[]1 :i* pres5ts itself to ! m9ds
 ( m5 9 ! ages ( equality1 is ! notion (
 uni=mity ( legislation4 ,z e man sees t
 he diff]s b little f ^? ab\t him1 he _c
 und]/& :y a rule :i* is applicable to  
"o man %\ld n be equally applicable to  
all o!rs4 ,h5ce ! slighte/ privileges   
are repugnant to 8 reason2 ! fa9te/     
dissimil>ities 9 ! political in/itutions
 ( ! same p (f5d him1 & uni=mity (      

legislation appe>s to him to be ! fir/  
condition ( good gov]nm5t4 ,i f9d1 on ! 
contr>y1 t ?is same notion ( a uni=m    
rule1 equally b9d+ on all ! memb]s ( !  
community1 0 almo/ unkn[n to ! human m9d
 9 ari/ocratic ages2 x 0 ei!r nev]      
ent]ta9$1 or x 0 reject$4 ,^! contr>y   
t5d5cies ( op9ion ultimately turn on    
ei!r side to su* bl9d in/9cts & su*     
ungov]nable habits t !y /ill direct !   
actions ( m51 9 spite ( p>ticul>        
exceptions4 ,not)/&+ ! imm5se v>iety (  
conditions 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 a c]ta9   
numb] ( p]sons exi/$ at t p]iod 9       
precisely simil> circum/ances2 b ?is did
 n prev5t ! laws !n 9 =ce f assign+ to  
ea* ( !m di/9ct duties & diff]5t rights4
 ,on ! contr>y1 at ! pres5t "t all !    
p[]s ( gov]nm5t are ex]t$ to impose !   
same cu/oms & ! same laws on populations
 :i* h z yet b few po9ts ( resemblance4 
,z ! conditions ( m5 become equal among/
 a p1 individuals seem ( less           
importance1 & society ( great]          
dim5sions2 or r1 e citiz51 be+          

assimilat$ to all ! re/1 is lo/ 9 !     
cr[d1 & no?+ /&s conspicu\s b ! great & 
impos+ image ( ! p at l>ge4 ,?is        
naturally gives ! m5 ( democratic p]iods
 a l(ty op9ion ( ! privileges ( society1
 & a v humble notion ( ! rights (       
individuals2 !y are ready to admit t !  
int]e/s ( ! =m] are ev]y?+1 & ^? ( !    
latt] no?+4 ,!y are will+ to ackn[l$ge t
 ! p[] :i* repres5ts ! community has f> 
m in=mation & wisdom ?an any ( ! memb]s 
( t community2 & t x is ! duty1 z well z
 ! "r1 ( t p[] to guide z well z gov]n  
ea* private citiz54  ,if we closely     
scrut9ize our contempor>ies1 & p5etrate 
to ! root ( _! political op9ions1 we    
%all detect "s ( ! notions :i* ,i h j   
po9t$ out1 & we %all p]haps be surpris$ 
to f9d s mu* accordance betwe5 m5 :o are
 s (t5 at v>iance4 ,! ,am]icans hold1 t 
9 e ,/ate ! supreme p[] ought to emanate
 f ! p2 b :5 once t p[] is con/itut$1 !y
 c conceive1 z x 71 no limits to x1 & !y
 are ready to admit t x has ! "r to d   
:atev] x pleases4 ,!y h n ! slighte/    

notion ( peculi> privileges grant$ to   
cities1 families1 or p]sons3 _! m9ds    
appe> nev] to h =ese5 t x might be      
possible n to apply ) /rict uni=mity !  
same laws to e "p1 & to all !           
inhabitants4 ,^! same op9ions are m & m 
diffus$ 9 ,europe2 !y ev5 ins9uate      
!mselves among/ ^? nations :i* mo/      
vehem5tly reject ! pr9ciple ( !         
sov]eignty ( ! p4 ,su* nations assign a 
diff]5t orig9 to ! supreme p[]1 b !y    
ascribe to t p[] ! same *>act]i/ics4    
,among/ !m all1 ! idea ( int]m$iate p[]s
 is weak5$ & oblit]at$3 ! idea ( rights 
inh]5t 9 c]ta9 individuals is rapidly   
disappe>+ f ! m9ds ( m52 ! idea ( !     
omnipot5ce & sole au?ority ( society at 
l>ge rises to fill its place4 ,^! ideas 
take root & spread 9 proportion z social
 conditions become m equal1 & m5 m      
alike2 !y are eng5d]$ by equality1 & 9  
turn !y ha/5 ! progress ( equality4  ,9 
,france1 :]e ! revolution ( :i* ,i am   
speak+ has gone fur!r ?an 9 any o!r     
,european c\ntry1 ^! op9ions h got      

complete hold ( ! public m9d4 ,if we    
li/5 att5tively to ! language ( ! v>i\s 
p>ties 9 ,france1 we %all f9d t !re is n
 "o :i* has n adopt$ !m4 ,mo/ ( ^!      
p>ties c5sure ! conduct ( ! gov]nm5t1 b 
!y all hold t ! gov]nm5t ought          
p]petually to act & int]f]e 9 ev]y?+ t  
is done4 ,ev5 ^? :i* are mo/ at v>iance 
are nev]!less agre$ ^u ?is head4 ,!     
unity1 ! ubiquity1 ! omnipot5ce ( !     
supreme p[]1 & ! uni=mity ( its rules1  
con/itute ! pr9cipal *>act]i/ics ( all !
 political sy/ems :i* h be5 put =w>d 9  
our age4 ,!y recur ev5 9 ! wilde/       
visions ( political reg5]ation3 ! human 
m9d pursues !m 9 its dreams4 ,if ^!     
notions spontane\sly arise 9 ! m9ds (   
private individuals1 !y sugge/ !mselves 
/ill m =cibly to ! m9ds ( pr9ces4 ,:il/ 
! anci5t fabric ( ,european society is  
alt]$ & dissolv$1 sov]eigns acquire new 
conceptions ( _! opportunities & _!     
duties2 !y le>n = ! fir/ "t t ! c5tral  
p[] :i* !y repres5t may & ought to      
adm9i/] by its own ag5cy1 & on a uni=m  

plan1 all ! conc]ns ( ! :ole community4 
,?is op9ion1 :i*1 ,i w v5ture to say1 0 
nev] conceiv$ be=e our "t by ! mon>*s ( 
,europe1 n[ s9ks deeply into ! m9ds (   
k+s1 & abides !re amid/ all ! agitation 
( m unsettl$ ?\ghts4  ,our contempor>ies
 are !re=e mu* less divid$ ?an is       
commonly suppos$2 !y are con/antly      
disput+ z to ! h&s 9 :i* supremacy is to
 be ve/$1 b !y readily agree ^u ! duties
 & ! rights ( t supremacy4 ,! notion !y 
all =m ( gov]nm5t is t ( a sole1 simple1
 provid5tial1 & creative p[]4 ,all      
second>y op9ions 9 politics are         
unsettl$2 ?is "o rema9s fix$1 inv>iable1
 & consi/5t4 ,x is adopt$ by /atesm5 &  
political philosoph]s2 x is eag]ly laid 
hold ( by ! multitude2 ^? :o gov]n & ^? 
:o are gov]n$ agree to pursue x ) equal 
ardor3 x is ! =emo/ notion ( _! m9ds1 x 
seems inborn4 ,x orig9ates !re=e 9 no   
caprice ( ! human intellect1 b x is a   
necess>y condition ( ! pres5t /ate (    
mank9d4     ,*apt] ,,iii3 ,t ,!         
,s5tim5ts ,( ,democratic ,nations       

,accord ,) ,_! ,op9ions ,9 ,lead+ ,!m   
,to ,conc5trate ,political ,p[]  ,if x  
be true t1 9 ages ( equality1 m5 readily
 adopt ! notion ( a great c5tral p[]1 x 
_c be d\bt$ on ! o!r h& t _! habits &   
s5tim5ts pr$ispose !m to recognize su* a
 p[] & to give x _! support4 ,?is may be
 demon/rat$ 9 a few words1 z ! great] "p
 ( ! reasons1 to :i* ! fact may be      
attribut$1 h be5 previ\sly /at$4 99a ,z 
! m5 :o inhabit democratic c\ntries h no
 sup]iors1 no inf]iors1 & no habitual or
 necess>y p>tn]s 9 _! und]tak+s1 !y     
readily fall back ^u !mselves & consid] 
!mselves z be+s ap>t4 ,i _h occasion to 
po9t ?is out at consid]able l5g? 9      
treat+ ( individualism4 ,h5ce su* m5 c  
nev]1 )\t an ef=t1 te> !mselves f _!    
private affairs to engage 9 public      
bus9ess2 _! natural bias leads !m to    
ab&on ! latt] to ! sole visible &       
p]man5t repres5tative ( ! int]e/s ( !   
community1 t is to say1 to ! ,/ate4 ,n  
only are !y naturally want+ 9 a ta/e =  
public bus9ess1 b !y h frequ5tly no "t  

to att5d to x4 ,private life is s busy 9
 democratic p]iods1 s excit$1 s full (  
wi%es & ( "w1 t h>dly any en]gy or      
leisure rema9s to ea* individual =      
public life4 ,i am ! la/ man to cont5d t
 ^! prop5sities are unconqu]able1 s9ce  
my *ief object 9 writ+ ?is book has be5 
to combat !m4 ,i only ma9ta9 t at !     
pres5t day a secret p[] is fo/]+ !m 9 ! 
human he>t1 & t if !y are n *eck$ !y w  
:olly ov]gr[ x4  ,footnote a3 ,see      
,app5dix ,w4  ,i h also _h occasion to  
%[ h[ ! increas+ love ( well-be+1 & !   
fluctuat+ "* ( prop]ty1 cause democratic
 nations to dread all viol5t di/urbance4
 ,! love ( public tranquillity is       
frequ5tly ! only passion :i* ^! nations 
reta91 & x becomes m active & p[]ful    
among/ !m 9 proportion z all o!r        
passions droop & die4 ,?is naturally    
disposes ! memb]s ( ! community         
con/antly to give or to surr5d]         
additional rights to ! c5tral p[]1 :i*  
alone seems to be int]e/$ 9 def5d+ !m by
 ! same means t x uses to def5d itself4 

,z 9 ages ( equality no man is compell$ 
to l5d 8 assi/ance to 8 fell[-m51 & none
 has any "r to expect mu* support f !m1 
ev]yone is at once indep5d5t & p[]less4 
,^! two conditions1 :i* mu/ nev] be ei!r
 sep>ately consid]$ or conf\nd$ toge!r1 
inspire ! citiz5 ( a democratic c\ntry )
 v contr>y prop5sities4 ,8 indep5d5ce   
fills him ) self-reliance & pride among/
 8 equals2 8 debility makes him feel f  
"t to "t ! want ( "s outw>d assi/ance1  
:i* he _c expect f any ( !m1 because !y 
are all impot5t & unsympa?iz+4 ,9 ?is   
pr$icam5t he naturally turns 8 eyes to t
 impos+ p[] :i* alone rises above !     
level ( univ]sal depression4 ,( t p[] 8 
wants & especially 8 desires cont9ually 
rem9d him1 until he ultimately views x z
 ! sole & necess>y support ( 8 own      
weakness4 99b ,?is may m completely     
expla9 :at frequ5tly takes place 9      
democratic c\ntries1 :]e ! v m5 :o are s
 impati5t ( sup]iors pati5tly submit to 
a ma/]1 exhibit+ at once _! pride & _!  
s]vility4  ,footnote b3 ,9 democratic   

communities no?+ b ! c5tral p[] has any 
/ability 9 its position or any p]man5ce 
9 its und]tak+s4 ,all ! memb]s ( society
 are 9 ceaseless /ir & trans=mation4 ,n[
 x is 9 ! nature ( all gov]nm5ts to seek
 con/antly to enl>ge _! sph]e ( action2 
h5ce x is almo/ impossible t su* a      
gov]nm5t %\ld n ultimately succe$1      
because x acts ) a fix$ pr9ciple & a    
con/ant w1 ^u m51 ^: position1 ^:       
notions1 & ^: desires are 9 cont9ual    
vacillation4 ,x frequ5tly happ5s t !    
memb]s ( ! community promote ! influ5ce 
( ! c5tral p[] )\t int5d+ x4 ,democratic
 ages are p]iods ( exp]im5t1 innovation1
 & adv5ture4 ,at su* times !re are      
always a multitude ( m5 engag$ 9        
difficult or novel und]tak+s1 :i* !y    
foll[ alone1 )\t c>+ = _! fell[m54 ,su* 
p]sons may be ready to admit1 z a g5]al 
pr9ciple1 t ! public au?ority ought n to
 int]f]e 9 private conc]ns2 b1 by an    
exception to t rule1 ea* ( !m craves =  
its assi/ance 9 ! p>ticul> conc]n on :i*
 he is engag$1 & seeks to draw ^u !     

influ5ce ( ! gov]nm5t = 8 own b5efit1   
?\gh he w\ld re/rict x on all o!r       
occasions4 ,if a l>ge numb] ( m5 apply  
?is p>ticul> exception to a great v>iety
 ( diff]5t purposes1 ! sph]e ( ! c5tral 
p[] ext5ds ins5sibly 9 all directions1  
al?\gh ea* ( !m wi%es x to be           
circumscrib$4 ,?us a democratic gov]nm5t
 increases its p[] simply by ! fact (   
its p]man5ce4 ,"t is on its side2 e     
incid5t befri5ds x2 ! passions (        
individuals unconsci\sly promote x2 & x 
may be ass]t$1 t ! old] a democratic    
community is1 ! m c5traliz$ w its       
gov]nm5t become4  ,! hatr$ :i* m5 be> to
 privilege increases 9 proportion z     
privileges become m sc>ce & less        
consid]able1 s t democratic passions    
w\ld seem to burn mo/ fi]cely at ! v "t 
:5 !y h lea/ fuel4 ,i h already giv5 !  
reason ( ?is ph5om5on4 ,:5 all          
conditions are unequal1 no inequality is
 s great z to (f5d ! eye2 :]eas !       
slighte/ dissimil>ity is odi\s 9 ! mid/ 
( g5]al uni=mity3 ! m complete is ?is   

uni=mity1 ! m insupportable does ! sight
 ( su* a diff]5ce become4 ,h5ce x is    
natural t ! love ( equality %\ld        
con/antly increase toge!r ) equality    
itself1 & t x %\ld gr[ by :at x fe$s ^u4
 ,?is nev]-dy+1 ev]-k9dl+ hatr$1 :i*    
sets a democratic p aga9/ ! smalle/     
privileges1 is peculi>ly favorable to ! 
gradual conc5tration ( all political    
rights 9 ! h&s ( ! repres5tative ( !    
,/ate alone4 ,! sov]eign1 be+ necess>ily
 & inconte/ably above all ! citiz5s1    
excites n _! envy1 & ea* ( !m ?9ks t he 
/rips 8 equals ( ! pr]ogative :i* he    
conc$es to ! cr[n4 ,! man ( a democratic
 age is extremely reluctant to obey 8   
neighbor :o is 8 equal2 he refuses to   
ackn[l$ge 9 su* a p]son ability sup]ior 
to 8 own2 he mi/ru/s 8 ju/ice1 & is     
jeal\s ( 8 p[]2 he fe>s & he contemns   
him2 & he loves cont9ually to rem9d him 
( ! common dep5d5ce 9 :i* bo? ( !m /& to
 ! same ma/]4 ,e c5tral p[] :i* foll[s  
its natural t5d5cies c\rts & enc\rages !
 pr9ciple ( equality2 = equality s+ul>ly

 facilitates1 ext5ds1 & secures !       
influ5ce ( a c5tral p[]4  ,9 l mann] x  
may be said t e c5tral gov]nm5t wor%ips 
uni=mity3 uni=mity relieves x f inquiry 
into an inf9ite numb] ( small details   
:i* mu/ be att5d$ to if rules 7 to be   
adapt$ to m51 in/ead ( indiscrim9ately  
subject+ m5 to rules3 ?us ! gov]nm5t    
likes :at ! citiz5s l1 & naturally hates
 :at !y hate4 ,^! common s5tim5ts1 :i*1 
9 democratic nations1 con/antly unite ! 
sov]eign & e memb] ( ! community 9 "o & 
! same conviction1 e/abli% a secret &   
la/+ sympa?y betwe5 !m4 ,! faults ( !   
gov]nm5t are p>don$ = ! sake ( its      
ta/es2 public confid5ce is only         
reluctantly )drawn 9 ! mid/ ev5 ( its   
excesses & its errors1 & x is re/or$ at 
! fir/ call4 ,democratic nations (t5    
hate ^? 9 ^: h&s ! c5tral p[] is ve/$2 b
 !y always love t p[] itself4  ,?us1 by 
two sep>ate pa?s1 ,i h rea*$ ! same     
conclusion4 ,i h %[n t ! pr9ciple (     
equality sugge/s to m5 ! notion ( a     
sole1 uni=m1 & /rong gov]nm5t3 ,i h n[  

%[n t ! pr9ciple ( equality imp>ts to !m
 a ta/e = x4 ,to gov]nm5ts ( ?is k9d !  
nations ( our age are !re=e t5d+4 ,!y   
are drawn ?i!r by ! natural incl9ation (
 m9d & he>t2 & 9 ord] to rea* t result1 
x is en\gh t !y d n *eck !mselves 9 _!  
c\rse4 ,i am ( op9ion1 t1 9 ! democratic
 ages :i* are op5+ ^u u1 individual     
indep5d5ce & local lib]ties w ev] be !  
produce ( artificial contrivance2 t     
c5tralization w be ! natural =m (       
gov]nm5t4 99c  ,footnote c3 ,see        
,app5dix ,x4     ,*apt] ,,iv3 ,( ,c]ta9 
,peculi> ,& ,accid5tal ,causes ,:i*     
,ei!r ,lead ,a ,p ,to ,complete         
,c5tralization ,( ,gov]nm5t1 ,or ,:i*   
,div]t ,!m ,f ,x  ,if all democratic    
nations are in/9ctively l$ to !         
c5tralization ( gov]nm5t1 !y t5d to ?is 
result 9 an unequal mann]4 ,?is dep5ds  
on ! p>ticul> circum/ances :i* may      
promote or prev5t ! natural consequ5ces 
( t /ate ( society--circum/ances :i* are
 exce$+ly num]\s2 b ,i %all only adv]t  
to a few ( !m4 ,among/ m5 :o h liv$ free

 long be=e !y became equal1 ! t5d5cies  
d]iv$ f free in/itutions combat1 to a   
c]ta9 ext5t1 ! prop5sities sup]9duc$ by 
! pr9ciple ( equality2 & al?\gh ! c5tral
 p[] may increase its privileges among/ 
su* a p1 ! private memb]s ( su* a       
community w nev] entirely =feit _!      
indep5d5ce4 ,b :5 ! equality (          
conditions gr[s up among/ a p :i* has   
nev] kn[n1 or has long ceas$ to "k1 :at 
fre$om is 7& su* is ! case ^u ! ,cont95t
 ( ,europe71 z ! =m] habits ( ! nation  
are sudd5ly comb9$1 by "s sort ( natural
 attraction1 ) ! novel habits &         
pr9ciples eng5d]$ by ! /ate ( society1  
all p[]s seem spontane\sly to ru% to !  
c5tre4 ,^! p[]s accumulate !re ) a/oni%+
 rapidity1 & ! ,/ate in/antly atta9s !  
utmo/ limits ( its /r5g?1 :il/ private  
p]sons all[ !mselves to s9k z sudd5ly to
 ! l[e/ degree ( weakness4  ,! ,engli%  
:o emigrat$ ?ree hundr$ ye>s ago to f\nd
 a democratic commonweal? on ! %ores ( !
 ,new ,_w1 _h all le>n$ to take a "p 9  
public affairs 9 _! "m-c\ntry2 !y 7     

conv]sant ) trial by jury2 !y 7 accu/om$
 to lib]ty ( spee* & ( ! press--to      
p]sonal fre$om1 to ! notion ( rights & !
 practice ( ass]t+ !m4 ,!y c>ri$ ) !m to
 ,am]ica ^! free in/itutions & manly    
cu/oms1 & ^! in/itutions pres]v$ !m     
aga9/ ! encroa*m5ts ( ! ,/ate4 ,?us     
among/ ! ,am]icans x is fre$om :i* is   
old--equality is ( comp>atively mod]n   
date4 ,! rev]se is occurr+ 9 ,europe1   
:]e equality1 introduc$ by absolute p[] 
& "u ! rule ( k+s1 0 already infus$ into
 ! habits ( nations long be=e fre$om _h 
ent]$ into _! conceptions4  ,i h said t 
among/ democratic nations ! notion (    
gov]nm5t naturally pres5ts itself to !  
m9d "u ! =m ( a sole & c5tral p[]1 & t !
 notion ( int]m$iate p[]s is n famili>  
to !m4 ,?is is peculi>ly applicable to !
 democratic nations :i* h witness$ !    
triumph ( ! pr9ciple ( equality by means
 ( a viol5t revolution4 ,z ! classes :i*
 manag$ local affairs h be5 sudd5ly     
swept away by ! /orm1 & z ! confus$ mass
 :i* rema9s has z yet nei!r !           

organization nor ! habits :i* fit x to  
assume ! adm9i/ration ( ^! same affairs1
 ! ,/ate alone seems capable ( tak+ ^u  
itself all ! details ( gov]nm5t1 &      
c5tralization becomes1 z x 71 !         
unavoidable /ate ( ! c\ntry4 ,napoleon  
des]ves nei!r praise nor c5sure = hav+  
c5tr$ 9 8 own h&s almo/ all !           
adm9i/rative p[] ( ,france2 =1 aft] !   
abrupt disappe>ance ( ! nobility & !    
high] rank ( ! middle classes1 ^! p[]s  
devolv$ on him ( c\rse3 x w\ld h be5    
almo/ z difficult = him to reject z to  
assume !m4 ,b no necessity ( ?is k9d has
 ev] be5 felt by ! ,am]icans1 :o1 hav+  
pass$ ?r\gh no revolution1 & hav+ gov]n$
 !mselves f ! fir/1 nev] _h to call ^u !
 ,/ate to act = a "t z _! gu>dian4 ,?us 
! progress ( c5tralization among/ a     
democratic p dep5ds n only on ! progress
 ( equality1 b on ! mann] 9 :i* ?is     
equality has be5 e/abli%$4  ,at !       
comm5cem5t ( a great democratic         
revolution1 :5 ho/ilities h b j brok5   
out betwe5 ! diff]5t classes ( society1 

! p endeavors to c5tralize ! public     
adm9i/ration 9 ! h&s ( ! gov]nm5t1 9    
ord] to wre/ ! managem5t ( local affairs
 f ! ari/ocracy4 ,t[>ds ! close ( su* a 
revolution1 on ! contr>y1 x is usually !
 conqu]$ ari/ocracy t endeavors to make 
ov] ! managem5t ( all affairs to !      
,/ate1 because su* an ari/ocracy dreads 
! tyranny ( a p :i* has become its      
equal1 & n unfrequ5tly its ma/]4 ,?us x 
is n always ! same class ( ! community  
:i* /rives to increase ! pr]ogative ( ! 
gov]nm5t2 b z long z ! democratic       
revolution la/s !re is always "o class 9
 ! nation1 p[]ful 9 numb]s or 9 weal?1  
:i* is induc$1 by peculi> passions or   
int]e/s1 to c5tralize ! public          
adm9i/ration1 indep5d5tly ( t hatr$ (   
be+ gov]n$ by "o's neighbor1 :i* is a   
g5]al & p]man5t feel+ among/ democratic 
nations4 ,x may be rem>k$1 t at ! pres5t
 day ! l[] ord]s 9 ,engl& are /riv+ )   
all _! might to de/roy local indep5d5ce1
 & to transf] ! adm9i/ration f all po9ts
 ( ! circumf]5ce to ! c5tre2 :]eas !    

high] classes are endeavor+ to reta9 ?is
 adm9i/ration )9 its anci5t b\nd>ies4 ,i
 v5ture to pr$ict t a "t w come :5 ! v  
rev]se w happ54  ,^! obs]vations expla9 
:y ! supreme p[] is always /rong]1 &    
private individuals weak]1 among/ a     
democratic p :i* has pass$ ?r\gh a long 
& ardu\s /ruggle to rea* a /ate (       
equality ?an among/ a democratic        
community 9 :i* ! citiz5s h be5 equal f 
! fir/4 ,! example ( ! ,am]icans        
completely demon/rates ! fact4 ,!       
inhabitants ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7 nev]    
divid$ by any privileges2 !y h nev] kn[n
 ! mutual relation ( ma/] & inf]ior1 & z
 !y nei!r dread nor hate ea* o!r1 !y h  
nev] kn[n ! necessity ( call+ 9 !       
supreme p[] to manage _! affairs4 ,! lot
 ( ! ,am]icans is s+ul>3 !y h d]iv$ f ! 
ari/ocracy ( ,engl& ! notion ( private  
rights & ! ta/e = local fre$om2 & !y h  
be5 able to reta9 bo? ! "o & ! o!r1     
because !y h _h no ari/ocracy to combat4
  ,if at all times education enables m5 
to def5d _! indep5d5ce1 ?is is mo/      

especially true 9 democratic ages4 ,:5  
all m5 are alike1 x is easy to f\nd a   
sole & all-p[]ful gov]nm5t1 by ! aid (  
m]e in/9ct4 ,b m5 require mu*           
intellig5ce1 k1 & art to organize & to  
ma9ta9 second>y p[]s "u simil>          
circum/ances1 & to create amid/ !       
indep5d5ce & individual weakness ( !    
citiz5s su* free associations z may be 9
 a condition to /ruggle aga9/ tyranny   
)\t de/roy+ public ord]4  ,h5ce !       
conc5tration ( p[] & ! subjection (     
individuals w increase among/ democratic
 nations1 n only 9 ! same proportion z  
_! equality1 b 9 ! same proportion z _! 
ignorance4 ,x is true1 t 9 ages (       
imp]fect civilization ! gov]nm5t is     
frequ5tly z want+ 9 ! k requir$ to      
impose a despotism ^u ! p z ! p are     
want+ 9 ! k requir$ to %ake x (f2 b !   
effect is n ! same on bo? sides4 ,h[ev] 
rude a democratic p may be1 ! c5tral p[]
 :i* rules x is nev] completely devoid (
 cultivation1 because x readily draws to
 its own uses :at little cultivation is 

to be f\nd 9 ! c\ntry1 &1 if necess>y1  
may seek assi/ance else:]e4 ,h5ce1      
among/ a nation :i* is ignorant z well z
 democratic1 an amaz+ diff]5ce _c fail  
spe$ily to arise betwe5 ! intellectual  
capacity ( ! rul] & t ( ea* ( 8         
subjects4 ,?is completes ! easy         
conc5tration ( all p[] 9 8 h&s3 !       
adm9i/rative function ( ! ,/ate is      
p]petually ext5d$1 because ! ,/ate alone
 is compet5t to adm9i/] ! affairs ( !   
c\ntry4 ,ari/ocratic nations1 h[ev]     
un5light5$ !y may be1 nev] af=d ! same  
spectacle1 because 9 !m in/ruction is   
ne>ly equally diffus$ betwe5 ! mon>* & !
 lead+ memb]s ( ! community4  ,! pa*a :o
 n[ rules 9 ,egypt f\nd ! population ( t
 c\ntry compos$ ( m5 exce$+ly ignorant &
 equal1 & he has borr[$ ! sci5ce &      
ability ( ,europe to gov]n t p4 ,z !    
p]sonal atta9m5ts ( ! sov]eign are ?us  
comb9$ ) ! ignorance & democratic       
weakness ( 8 subjects1 ! utmo/          
c5tralization has be5 e/abli%$ )\t      
imp$im5t1 & ! pa*a has made ! c\ntry 8  

manufactory1 & ! inhabitants 8 workm54  
,i ?9k t extreme c5tralization (        
gov]nm5t ultimately en]vates society1 & 
?us aft] a l5g? ( "t weak5s ! gov]nm5t  
itself2 b ,i d n d5y t a c5traliz$      
social p[] may be able to execute great 
und]tak+s ) facility 9 a giv5 "t & on a 
p>ticul> po9t4 ,?is is m especially true
 ( w>1 9 :i* success dep5ds mu* m on !  
means ( transf]r+ all ! res\rces ( a    
nation to "o s+le po9t1 ?an on ! ext5t (
 ^? res\rces4 ,h5ce x is *iefly 9 w> t  
nations desire & frequ5tly require to   
increase ! p[]s ( ! c5tral gov]nm5t4    
,all m5 ( milit>y g5ius are fond (      
c5tralization1 :i* increases _! /r5g?2 &
 all m5 ( c5traliz+ g5ius are fond ( w>1
 :i* compels nations to comb9e all _!   
p[]s 9 ! h&s ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,?us !       
democratic t5d5cy :i* leads m5 unceas+ly
 to multiply ! privileges ( ! ,/ate1 &  
to circumscribe ! rights ( private      
p]sons1 is mu* m rapid & con/ant among/ 
^? democratic nations :i* are expos$ by 
_! position to great & frequ5t w>s1 ?an 

among/ all o!rs4  ,i h %[n h[ ! dread ( 
di/urbance & ! love ( well-be+ ins5sibly
 lead democratic nations to increase !  
functions ( c5tral gov]nm5t1 z ! only   
p[] :i* appe>s to be intr9sically       
suffici5tly /rong1 enlight5$1 & secure1 
to protect !m f an>*y4 ,i w\ld n[ add1 t
 all ! p>ticul> circum/ances :i* t5d to 
make ! /ate ( a democratic community    
agitat$ & prec>i\s1 enhance ?is g5]al   
prop5sity1 & lead private p]sons m & m  
to sacrifice _! rights to _!            
tranquility4 ,a p is !re=e nev] s       
dispos$ to increase ! functions ( c5tral
 gov]nm5t z at ! close ( a long & bloody
 revolution1 :i*1 aft] hav+ wre/$       
prop]ty f ! h&s ( its =m] possessors1   
has %ak5 all belief1 & fill$ ! nation ) 
fi]ce hatr$s1 conflict+ int]e/s1 &      
cont5d+ factions4 ,! love ( public      
tranquillity becomes at su* times an    
indiscrim9at+ passion1 & ! memb]s ( !   
community are apt to conceive a mo/     
inord9ate devotion to ord]4  ,i h       
already exam9$ sev]al ( ! incid5ts :i*  

may concur to promote ! c5tralization ( 
p[]1 b ! pr9cipal cause /ill rema9s to  
be notic$4 ,! =emo/ ( ! incid5tal causes
 :i* may draw ! managem5t ( all affairs 
into ! h&s ( ! rul] 9 democratic        
c\ntries1 is ! orig9 ( t rul] himself1 &
 8 own prop5sities4 ,m5 :o live 9 ! ages
 ( equality are naturally fond ( c5tral 
p[]1 & are will+ to ext5d its           
privileges2 b if x happ5s t ?is same p[]
 fai?fully repres5ts _! own int]e/s1 &  
exactly copies _! own incl9ations1 !    
confid5ce !y place 9 x kn[s no b\nds1 & 
!y ?9k t :atev] !y be/[ ^u x is be/[$ ^u
 !mselves4  ,! attraction ( adm9i/rative
 p[]s to ! c5tre w always be less easy &
 less rapid "u ! reign ( k+s :o are /ill
 9 "s way connect$ ) ! old ari/ocratic  
ord]1 ?an "u new pr9ces1 ! *ildr5 ( _!  
own a*ievem5ts1 ^: bir?1 prejudices1    
prop5sities1 & habits appe> to b9d !m   
indissolubly to ! cause ( equality4 ,i d
 n mean t pr9ces ( ari/ocratic orig9 :o 
live 9 democratic ages d n attempt to   
c5tralize2 ,i believe !y apply !mselves 

to t object z dilig5tly z any o!rs4 ,=  
!m1 ! sole advantages ( equality lie 9 t
 direction2 b _! opportunities are less 
great1 because ! community1 in/ead (    
volunte]+ compliance ) _! desires1      
frequ5tly obeys !m ) reluctance4 ,9     
democratic communities ! rule is t      
c5tralization mu/ increase 9 proportion 
z ! sov]eign is less ari/ocratic4 ,:5 an
 anci5t race ( k+s /&s at ! head ( an   
ari/ocracy1 z ! natural prejudices ( !  
sov]eign p]fectly accord ) ! natural    
prejudices ( ! nobility1 ! vices inh]5t 
9 ari/ocratic communities h a free      
c\rse1 & meet ) no corrective4 ,! rev]se
 is ! case :5 ! scion ( a feudal /ock is
 plac$ at ! head ( a democratic p4 ,!   
sov]eign is con/antly l$1 by 8          
education1 8 habits1 & 8 associations1  
to adopt s5tim5ts sugge/$ by !          
inequality ( conditions1 & ! p t5d z    
con/antly1 by _! social condition1 to ^?
 mann]s :i* are eng5d]$ by equality4 ,at
 su* times x (t5 happ5s t ! citiz5s seek
 to control ! c5tral p[] f> less z a    

tyrannical ?an z an ari/ocratical p[]1 &
 t !y p]si/ 9 ! firm def5ce ( _!        
indep5d5ce1 n only because !y w\ld rema9
 free1 b especially because !y are      
det]m9$ to rema9 equal4 ,a revolution   
:i* ov]?r[s an anci5t regal family1 9   
ord] to place m5 ( m rec5t gr[? at !    
head ( a democratic p1 may tempor>ily   
weak5 ! c5tral p[]2 b h[ev] an>*ical su*
 a revolution may appe> at fir/1 we ne$ 
n hesitate to pr$ict t its f9al & c]ta9 
consequ5ce w be to ext5d & to secure !  
pr]ogatives ( t p[]4 ,! =emo/ or inde$ !
 sole condition :i* is requir$ 9 ord] to
 succe$ 9 c5traliz+ ! supreme p[] 9 a   
democratic community1 is to love        
equality1 or to get m5 to believe y love
 x4 ,?us ! sci5ce ( despotism1 :i* 0    
once s complex1 is simplifi$1 & r$uc$ z 
x 7 to a s+le pr9ciple4     ,*apt] ,v3  
,t ,among/ ,! ,european ,nations ,( ,our
 ,"t ,! ,p[] ,( ,gov]nm5ts ,is          
,increas+1 ,al?\gh ,! ,p]sons ,:o ,gov]n
 ,are ,less ,/able  ,on reflect+ ^u :at 
has already be5 said1 ! read] w be />tl$

 & al>m$ to f9d t 9 ,europe ev]y?+ seems
 to conduce to ! indef9ite ext5sion ( ! 
pr]ogatives ( gov]nm5t1 & to r5d] all t 
enjoy$ ! rights ( private indep5d5ce m  
weak1 m subord9ate1 & m prec>i\s4 ,!    
democratic nations ( ,europe h all !    
g5]al & p]man5t t5d5cies :i* urge !     
,am]icans to ! c5tralization ( gov]nm5t1
 & !y are moreov] expos$ to a numb] (   
second>y & incid5tal causes ) :i* !     
,am]icans are unacqua9t$4 ,x w\ld seem z
 if e /ep !y make t[>ds equality br+s !m
 ne>] to despotism4 ,& inde$ if we d b  
ca/ our looks ar\nd1 we %all be conv9c$ 
t su* is ! fact4 ,dur+ ! ari/ocratic    
ages :i* prec$$ ! pres5t "t1 ! sov]eigns
 ( ,europe _h be5 depriv$ (1 or _h      
rel9qui%$1 _m ( ! rights inh]5t 9 _!    
p[]4 ,n a hundr$ ye>s ago1 among/ !     
great] "p ( ,european nations1 num]\s   
private p]sons & corporations 7         
suffici5tly indep5d5t to adm9i/] ju/ice1
 to raise & ma9ta9 troops1 to levy      
taxes1 & frequ5tly ev5 to make or       
int]pret ! law4 ,! ,/ate has ev]y:]e    

resum$ to itself alone ^! natural       
attributes ( sov]eign p[]2 9 all matt]s 
( gov]nm5t ! ,/ate tol]ates no          
int]m$iate ag5t betwe5 itself & ! p1 & 9
 g5]al bus9ess x directs ! p by its own 
imm$iate influ5ce4 ,i am f> f blam+ ?is 
conc5tration ( p[]1 ,i simply po9t x    
out4  ,at ! same p]iod a great numb] (  
second>y p[]s exi/$ 9 ,europe1 :i*      
repres5t$ local int]e/s & adm9i/]$ local
 affairs4 ,mo/ ( ^! local au?orities h  
already disappe>$2 all are spe$ily t5d+ 
to disappe>1 or to fall into ! mo/      
complete dep5d5ce4 ,f "o end ( ,europe  
to ! o!r ! privileges ( ! nobility1 !   
lib]ties ( cities1 & ! p[]s ( prov9cial 
bodies1 are ei!r de/roy$ or ^u ! v]ge ( 
de/ruction4 ,europe has endur$1 9 !     
c\rse ( ! la/ half-c5tury1 _m           
revolutions & c\nt]-revolutions :i* h   
agitat$ x 9 opposite directions3 b all  
^! p]turbations resemble ea* o!r 9 "o   
respect--!y h all %ak5 or de/roy$ !     
second>y p[]s ( gov]nm5t4 ,! local      
privileges :i* ! ,fr5* did n aboli% 9 ! 

c\ntries !y conqu]$1 h f9ally succumb$  
to ! policy ( ! pr9ces :o conqu]$ !     
,fr5*4 ,^? pr9ces reject$ all !         
innovations ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution except
 c5tralization3 t is ! only pr9ciple !y 
cons5t$ to receive f su* a s\rce4 ,my   
object is to rem>k1 t all ^! v>i\s      
rights1 :i* h be5 successively wre/$1 9 
our "t1 f classes1 corporations1 &      
individuals1 h n s]v$ to raise new      
second>y p[]s on a m democratic basis1 b
 h uni=mly be5 conc5trat$ 9 ! h&s ( !   
sov]eign4 ,ev]y:]e ! ,/ate acquires m & 
m direct control ov] ! humble/ memb]s ( 
! community1 & a m exclusive p[] (      
gov]n+ ea* ( !m 9 8 smalle/ conc]ns4 99a
 ,almo/ all ! *>itable e/abli%m5ts (    
,europe 7 =m]ly 9 ! h&s ( private p]sons
 or ( corporations2 !y are n[ almo/ all 
dep5d5t on ! supreme gov]nm5t1 & 9 _m   
c\ntries are actually adm9i/]$ by t p[]4
 ,! ,/ate almo/ exclusively und]takes to
 supply bread to ! hungry1 assi/ance &  
%elt] to ! sick1 "w to ! idle1 & to act 
z ! sole reliev] ( all k9ds ( mis]y4    

,education1 z well z *>ity1 is become 9 
mo/ c\ntries at ! pres5t day a national 
conc]n4 ,! ,/ate receives1 & (t5 takes1 
! *ild f ! arms ( ! "m1 to h& x ov] to  
(ficial ag5ts3 ! ,/ate und]takes to tra9
 ! he>t & to in/ruct ! m9d ( ea*        
g5]ation4 ,uni=mity prevails 9 ! c\rses 
( public in/ruction z 9 ev]y?+ else2    
div]sity1 z well z fre$om1 is disappe>+ 
day by day4 ,nor d ,i hesitate to       
affirm1 t among/ almo/ all ! ,*ri/ian   
nations ( our days1 ,ca?olic z well z   
,prote/ant1 religion is 9 dang] ( fall+ 
into ! h&s ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,n t rul]s are 
ov]-jeal\s ( ! "r ( settl+ po9ts (      
doctr9e1 b !y get m & m hold ^u ! w ( ^?
 by :om doctr9es are exp\nd$2 !y deprive
 ! cl]gy ( _! prop]ty1 & pay !m by      
sal>ies2 !y div]t to _! own use !       
influ5ce ( ! prie/hood1 !y make !m _!   
own m9i/]s--(t5 _! own s]vants--& by ?is
 alliance ) religion !y rea* ! inn]     
dep?s ( ! s\l ( man4 99b  ,footnote a3  
,?is gradual weak5+ ( individuals 9     
relation to society at l>ge may be trac$

 9 a ?\s& ways4 ,i %all select f among/ 
^! examples "o d]iv$ f ! law ( wills4 ,9
 ari/ocracies x is common to pr(ess !   
greate/ rev]5ce = ! la/ te/am5t>y       
dispositions ( a man2 ?is feel+         
sometimes ev5 became sup]/iti\s among/ !
 old] nations ( ,europe3 ! p[] ( !      
,/ate1 f> f int]f]+ ) ! caprices ( a dy+
 man1 gave full =ce to ! v lea/ ( !m1 & 
insur$ to him a p]petual p[]4 ,:5 all   
liv+ m5 are enfeebl$1 ! w ( ! dead is   
less respect$3 x is circumscrib$ )9 a   
n>r[ range1 beyond :i* x is annull$ or  
*eck$ by ! supreme p[] ( ! laws4 ,9 !   
,middle ,ages1 te/am5t>y p[] _h1 s to   
speak1 no limits3 among/ ! ,fr5* at !   
pres5t day1 a man _c di/ribute 8 =tune  
among/ 8 *ildr5 )\t ! int]f]5ce ( !     
,/ate2 aft] hav+ dom9e]$ ov] a :ole     
life1 ! law insi/s ^u regulat+ ! v la/  
act ( x4  ,footnote b3 ,9 proportion z !
 duties ( ! c5tral p[] are augm5t$1 !   
numb] ( public (fic]s by :om t p[] is   
repres5t$ mu/ increase also4 ,!y =m a   
nation 9 ea* nation2 & z !y %>e !       

/ability ( ! gov]nm5t1 !y m & m fill up 
! place ( an ari/ocracy4  ,9 almo/ e "p 
( ,europe ! gov]nm5t rules 9 two ways2 x
 rules "o portion ( ! community by ! fe>
 :i* !y ent]ta9 ( its ag5ts1 & ! o!r by 
! hope !y h ( becom+ its ag5ts4  ,b ?is 
is z yet only "o side ( ! picture4 ,!   
au?ority ( gov]nm5t has n only spread1 z
 we h j se51 ?r\gh\t ! sph]e ( all exi/+
 p[]s1 till t sph]e c no long] conta9 x1
 b x goes fur!r1 & invades ! doma9      
h]et(ore res]v$ to private indep5d5ce4  
,a multitude ( actions1 :i* 7 =m]ly     
entirely beyond ! control ( ! public    
adm9i/ration1 h be5 subject$ to t       
control 9 our "t1 & ! numb] ( !m is     
con/antly increas+4 ,among/ ari/ocratic 
nations ! supreme gov]nm5t usually      
cont5t$ itself ) manag+ & sup]9t5d+ !   
community 9 :atev] directly & o/5sibly  
conc]n$ ! national honor2 b 9 all o!r   
respects ! p 7 left to "w out _! own    
free w4 ,among/ ^! nations ! gov]nm5t   
(t5 seem$ to =get t !re is a po9t at :i*
 ! faults & ! suff]+s ( private p]sons  

involve ! g5]al prosp]ity1 & t to prev5t
 ! ru9 ( a private individual mu/       
sometimes be a matt] ( public           
importance4 ,! democratic nations ( our 
"t lean to ! opposite extreme4 ,x is    
evid5t t mo/ ( our rul]s w n cont5t     
!mselves ) gov]n+ ! p collectively3 x   
w\ld seem z if !y ?\ght !mselves        
responsible = ! actions & private       
condition ( _! subjects--z if !y _h     
und]tak5 to guide & to in/ruct ea* ( !m 
9 ! v>i\s incid5ts ( life1 & to secure  
_! happ9ess q indep5d5tly ( _! own      
cons5t4 ,on ! o!r h& private individuals
 gr[ m & m apt to look ^u ! supreme p[] 
9 ! same light2 !y invoke its assi/ance 
9 all _! necessities1 & !y fix _! eyes  
^u ! adm9i/ration z _! m5tor or _!      
guide4  ,i ass]t t !re is no c\ntry 9   
,europe 9 :i* ! public adm9i/ration has 
n become1 n only m c5traliz$1 b m       
inquisitive & m m9ute x ev]y:]e int]f]es
 9 private conc]ns m ?an x did2 x       
regulates m und]tak+s1 & und]tak+s ( a  
less] k9d2 & x ga9s a firm] foot+ e day 

ab\t1 above1 & ar\nd all private p]sons1
 to assi/1 to advise1 & to co]ce !m4    
,=m]ly a sov]eign liv$ ^u ! income ( 8  
l&s1 or ! rev5ue ( 8 taxes2 ?is is no   
long] ! case n[ t 8 wants h increas$ z  
well z 8 p[]4 ,"u ! same circum/ances   
:i* =m]ly compell$ a pr9ce to put on a  
new tax1 he n[ has rec\rse to a loan4   
,?us ! ,/ate gradually becomes ! debtor 
( mo/ ( ! weal?i] memb]s ( ! community1 
& c5tralizes ! l>ge/ am\nts ( capital 9 
its own h&s4 ,small capital is drawn    
into its keep+ by ano!r me?od4 ,z m5 are
 int]m+l$ & conditions become m equal1 !
 poor h m res\rces1 m education1 & m    
desires2 !y conceive ! notion ( bett]+  
_! condition1 & ?is tea*es !m to save4  
,^! sav+s are daily produc+ an inf9ite  
numb] ( small capitals1 ! sl[ & gradual 
produce ( labor1 :i* are always         
increas+4 ,b ! great] "p ( ?is money    
w\ld be unproductive if x rema9$ scatt]$
 9 ! h&s ( its own]s4 ,?is circum/ance  
has giv5 rise to a philan?ropic         
in/itution1 :i* w soon become1 if ,i am 

n mi/ak51 "o ( our mo/ important        
political in/itutions4 ,"s *>itable     
p]sons conceiv$ ! notion ( collect+ !   
sav+s ( ! poor & plac+ !m out at int]e/4
 ,9 "s c\ntries ^! b5evol5t associations
 are /ill completely di/9ct f ! ,/ate2 b
 9 almo/ all !y manife/ly t5d to id5tify
 !mselves ) ! gov]nm5t2 & 9 "s ( !m !   
gov]nm5t has sup]s$$ !m1 tak+ ^u itself 
! enorm\s task ( c5traliz+ 9 "o place1 &
 putt+ out at int]e/ on its own         
responsibility1 ! daily sav+s ( _m      
millions ( ! work+ classes4 ,?us ! ,/ate
 draws to itself ! weal? ( ! ri* by     
loans1 & has ! poor man's mite at its   
disposal 9 ! sav+s banks4 ,! weal? ( !  
c\ntry is p]petually fl[+ ar\nd !       
gov]nm5t & pass+ ?r\gh its h&s2 !       
accumulation increases 9 ! same         
proportion z ! equality ( conditions2 = 
9 a democratic c\ntry ! ,/ate alone     
inspires private individuals )          
confid5ce1 because ! ,/ate alone appe>s 
to be end[$ ) /r5g? & durability4 99c   
,?us ! sov]eign does n conf9e himself to

 ! managem5t ( ! public treasury2 he    
int]f]es 9 private money matt]s2 he is !
 sup]ior1 & (t5 ! ma/]1 ( all ! memb]s (
 ! community2 &1 9 addition to ?is1 he  
assumes ! "p ( _! /ew>d & payma/]4      
,footnote c3 ,on ! "o h& ! ta/e =       
worldly welf>e is p]petually increas+1 &
 on ! o!r ! gov]nm5t gets m & m complete
 possession ( ! s\rces ( t welf>e4 ,?us 
m5 are foll[+ two sep>ate roads to      
s]vitude3 ! ta/e = _! own welf>e )holds 
!m f tak+ a "p 9 ! gov]nm5t1 & _! love (
 t welf>e places !m 9 clos] dep5d5ce ^u 
^? :o gov]n4  ,! c5tral p[] n only      
fulfils ( itself ! :ole ( ! duties =m]ly
 dis*>g$ by v>i\s au?orities--ext5d+ ^? 
duties1 & surpass+ ^? au?orities--b x   
p]=ms !m ) m al]tness1 /r5g?1 &         
indep5d5ce ?an x display$ be=e4 ,all !  
gov]nm5ts ( ,europe h 9 our "t s+ul>ly  
improv$ ! sci5ce ( adm9i/ration3 !y d m 
?+s1 & !y d ev]y?+ ) m ord]1 m cel]ity1 
& at less exp5se2 !y seem to be         
con/antly enri*$ by all ! exp]i5ce ( :i*
 !y h /ripp$ private p]sons4 ,f day to  

day ! pr9ces ( ,europe hold _!          
subord9ate (fic]s "u /rict] control1 &  
!y inv5t new me?ods = guid+ !m m        
closely1 & inspect+ !m ) less tr\ble4 ,n
 cont5t ) manag+ ev]y?+ by _! ag5ts1 !y 
und]take to manage ! conduct ( _! ag5ts 
9 ev]y?+2 s t ! public adm9i/ration n   
only dep5ds ^u "o & ! same p[]1 b x is m
 & m conf9$ to "o spot & conc5trat$ 9 ! 
same h&s4 ,! gov]nm5t c5tralizes its    
ag5cy :il/ x increases its              
pr]ogative--h5ce a tw(old increase (    
/r5g?4  ,9 exam9+ ! anci5t con/itution (
 ! judicial p[]1 among/ mo/ ,european   
nations1 two ?+s /rike ! m9d--!         
indep5d5ce ( t p[]1 & ! ext5t ( its     
functions4 ,n only did ! c\rts ( ju/ice 
decide almo/ all diff]5ces betwe5       
private p]sons1 b 9 v _m cases !y act$ z
 arbit]s betwe5 private p]sons & !      
,/ate4 ,i d n "h allude to ! political &
 adm9i/rative (fices :i* c\rts (        
judicature _h 9 "s c\ntries usurp$1 b ! 
judicial (fice common to !m all4 ,9 mo/ 
( ! c\ntries ( ,europe1 !re 71 & !re    

/ill are1 _m private rights1 connect$ = 
! mo/ "p ) ! g5]al "r ( prop]ty1 :i*    
/ood "u ! protection ( ! c\rts ( ju/ice1
 & :i* ! ,/ate c\ld n violate )\t _!    
sanction4 ,x 0 ?is semi-political p[]   
:i* ma9ly di/+ui%$ ! ,european c\rts (  
judicature f all o!rs2 = all nations h  
_h judges1 b all h n inve/$ _! judges ) 
! same privileges4 ,^u exam9+ :at is n[ 
occurr+ among/ ! democratic nations (   
,europe :i* are call$ free1 z well z    
among/ ! o!rs1 x w be obs]v$ t new & m  
dep5d5t c\rts are ev]y:]e spr++ up by ! 
side ( ! old ones1 = ! express purpose (
 decid+1 by an extraord9>y jurisdiction1
 su* litigat$ matt]s z may arise betwe5 
! gov]nm5t & private p]sons4 ,! eld]    
judicial p[] reta9s its indep5d5ce1 b   
its jurisdiction is n>r[$2 & !re is a   
gr[+ t5d5cy to r$uce x to be exclusively
 ! arbit] betwe5 private int]e/s4 ,!    
numb] ( ^! special c\rts ( ju/ice is    
cont9ually increas+1 & _! functions     
increase likewise4 ,?us ! gov]nm5t is m 
& m absolv$ f ! necessity ( subject+ its

 policy & its rights to ! sanction (    
ano!r p[]4 ,z judges _c be disp5s$ )1 at
 lea/ ! ,/ate is to select !m1 & always 
to hold !m "u its control2 s t1 betwe5 !
 gov]nm5t & private individuals1 !y     
place ! effigy ( ju/ice r ?an ju/ice    
itself4 ,! ,/ate is n satisfi$ ) draw+  
all conc]ns to itself1 b x acquires an  
ev]-increas+ p[] ( decid+ on !m all )\t 
re/riction & )\t appeal4 99d  ,footnote 
d3 ,a /range sophism has be5 made on ?is
 head 9 ,france4 ,:5 a suit arises      
betwe5 ! gov]nm5t & a private p]son1 x  
is n to be tri$ be=e an ord9>y judge--9 
ord]1 !y say1 n to mix ! adm9i/rative & 
! judicial p[]s2 z if x 7 n to mix ^?   
p[]s1 & to mix !m 9 ! mo/ dang]\s &     
oppressive mann]1 to inve/ ! gov]nm5t ) 
! (fice ( judg+ & adm9i/]+ at ! same "t4
  ,!re exi/s among/ ! mod]n nations (   
,europe "o great cause1 indep5d5t ( all 
^? :i* h already be5 po9t$ out1 :i*     
p]petually contributes to ext5d ! ag5cy 
or to /r5g!n ! pr]ogative ( ! supreme   
p[]1 ?\gh x has n be5 suffici5tly att5d$

 to3 ,i mean ! gr[? ( manufactures1 :i* 
is fo/]$ by ! progress ( social         
equality4 ,manufactures g5]ally collect 
a multitude ( m5 ( ! same spot1 among/  
:om new & complex relations spr+ up4 ,^!
 m5 are expos$ by _! call+ to great &   
sudd5 alt]nations ( pl5ty & want1 dur+  
:i* public tranquillity is endang]$4 ,x 
may also happ5 t ^! employm5ts sacrifice
 ! heal?1 & ev5 ! life1 ( ^? :o ga9 by  
!m1 or ( ^? :o live by !m4 ,?us !       
manufactur+ classes require m           
regulation1 sup]9t5d5ce1 & re/ra9t ?an !
 o!r classes ( society1 & x is natural t
 ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t %\ld increase 9 !    
same proportion z ^? classes4  ,?is is a
 tru? ( g5]al application2 :at foll[s m 
especially conc]ns ! nations ( ,europe4 
,9 ! c5turies :i* prec$$ t 9 :i* we     
live1 ! ari/ocracy 0 9 possession ( !   
soil1 & 0 compet5t to def5d x3 l&$      
prop]ty 0 !re=e surr\nd$ by ample       
securities1 & its possessors enjoy$     
great indep5d5ce4 ,?is gave rise to laws
 & cu/oms :i* h be5 p]petuat$1 not)/&+ !

 subdivision ( l&s & ! ru9 ( ! nobility2
 &1 at ! pres5t "t1 l&[n]s &            
agriculturi/s are /ill ^? among/ !      
community :o mu/ easily escape f !      
control ( ! supreme p[]4 ,9 ^! same     
ari/ocratic ages1 9 :i* all ! s\rces (  
our hi/ory are to be trac$1 p]sonal     
prop]ty 0 ( small importance1 & ^? :o   
possess$ x 7 despis$ & weak3 !          
manufactur+ class =m$ an exception 9 !  
mid/ ( ^? ari/ocratic communities2 z x  
_h no c]ta9 patronage1 x 0 n outw>dly   
protect$1 & 0 (t5 unable to protect     
itself4  ,h5ce a habit sprung up (      
consid]+ manufactur+ prop]ty z some?+ ( 
a peculi> nature1 n entitl$ to ! same   
def]5ce1 & n wor?y ( ! same securities z
 prop]ty 9 g5]al2 & manufactur]s 7 look$
 ^u z a small class 9 ! bulk ( ! p1 ^:  
indep5d5ce 0 ( small importance1 & :o   
might ) propriety be ab&on$ to !        
discipl9>y passions ( pr9ces4 ,on glanc+
 ov] ! codes ( ! middle ages1 "o is     
surpris$ to see1 9 ^? p]iods ( p]sonal  
indep5d5ce1 ) :at incessant royal       

regulations manufactures 7 hamp]$1 ev5 9
 _! smalle/ details3 on ?is po9t        
c5tralization 0 z active & z m9ute z x c
 ev] be4 ,s9ce t "t a great revolution  
has tak5 place 9 ! _w2 manufactur+      
prop]ty1 :i* 0 !n only 9 ! g]m1 has     
spread till x cov]s ,europe3 !          
manufactur+ class has be5 multipli$ &   
enri*$ by ! remnants ( all o!r ranks2 x 
has gr[n & is /ill p]petually gr[+ 9    
numb]1 9 importance1 9 weal?4 ,almo/ all
 ^? :o d n belong to x are connect$ ) x 
at lea/ on "s "o po9t2 aft] hav+ be5 an 
exception 9 society1 x ?reat5s to become
 ! *ief1 if n ! only1 class2 nev]!less !
 notions & political prec$5ts eng5d]$ by
 x ( old /ill cl+ ab\t x4 ,^! notions & 
^! prec$5ts rema9 un*ang$1 because !y   
are old1 & also because !y happ5 to be 9
 p]fect accordance ) ! new notions &    
g5]al habits ( our contempor>ies4       
,manufactur+ prop]ty !n does n ext5d its
 rights 9 ! same ratio z its importance4
 ,! manufactur+ classes d n become less 
dep5d5t1 :il/ !y become m num]\s2 b1 on 

! contr>y1 x w\ld seem z if despotism   
lurk$ )9 !m1 & naturally grew ) _! gr[?4
 99e ,z a nation becomes m engag$ 9     
manufactures1 ! want ( roads1 canals1   
h>bors1 & o!r works ( a semi-public     
nature1 :i* facilitate ! acquisition (  
weal?1 is m /rongly felt2 & z a nation  
becomes m democratic1 private           
individuals are less able1 & ! ,/ate m  
able1 to execute works ( su* magnitude4 
,i d n hesitate to ass]t t ! manife/    
t5d5cy ( all gov]nm5ts at ! pres5t "t is
 to take ^u !mselves alone ! execution (
 ^! und]tak+s2 by :i* means !y daily    
hold 9 clos] dep5d5ce ! population :i*  
!y gov]n4  ,footnote e3 ,i %all quote a 
few facts 9 corroboration ( ?is rem>k4  
,m9es are ! natural s\rces ( manufactur+
 weal?3 z manufactures h gr[n up 9      
,europe1 z ! produce ( m9es has become (
 m g5]al importance1 & good m9+ m       
difficult f ! subdivision ( prop]ty :i* 
is a consequ5ce ( ! equality (          
conditions1 mo/ gov]nm5ts h ass]t$ a "r 
( own+ ! soil 9 :i* ! m9es lie1 & (     

inspect+ ! works2 :i* has nev] be5 !    
case ) any o!r k9d ( prop]ty4 ,?us m9es1
 :i* 7 private prop]ty1 liable to ! same
 obligations & %elt]$ by ! same         
gu>antees z all o!r l&$ prop]ty1 h fall5
 "u ! control ( ! ,/ate4 ,! ,/ate ei!r  
works !m or f>ms !m2 ! own]s ( !m are   
m]e t5ants1 d]iv+ _! rights f ! ,/ate2  
&1 moreov]1 ! ,/ate almo/ ev]y:]e claims
 ! p[] ( direct+ _! op]ations3 x lays   
d[n rules1 en=ces ! adoption ( p>ticul> 
me?ods1 subjects ! m9+ adv5tur]s to     
con/ant sup]9t5d5ce1 &1 if refractory1  
!y are ou/$ by a gov]nm5t c\rt ( ju/ice1
 & ! gov]nm5t transf]s _! contract to   
o!r h&s2 s t ! gov]nm5t n only possesses
 ! m9es1 b has all ! adv5tur]s 9 its    
p[]4 ,nev]!less1 z manufactures         
increase1 ! work+ ( old m9es increases  
also2 new ones are op5$1 ! m9+          
population ext5ds & gr[s up2 day by day 
gov]nm5ts augm5t _! subt]ranean         
dom9ions1 & p !m ) _! ag5ts4  ,on ! o!r 
h&1 9 proportion z ! p[] ( a ,/ate      
increases1 & its necessities are        

augm5t$1 ! ,/ate consumption (          
manufactur$ produce is always gr[+ l>g]1
 & ^! commodities are g5]ally made 9 !  
ars5als or e/abli%m5ts ( ! gov]nm5t4    
,?us1 9 e k+dom1 ! rul] becomes !       
pr9cipal manufactur]2 he collects &     
reta9s 9 8 s]vice a va/ numb] ( eng9e]s1
 ar*itects1 me*anics1 & h&icraftsm54 ,n 
only is he ! pr9cipal manufactur]1 b he 
t5ds m & m to become ! *ief1 or r ! ma/]
 ( all o!r manufactur]s4 ,z private     
p]sons become m p[]less by becom+ m     
equal1 !y c effect no?+ 9 manufactures  
)\t comb9ation2 b ! gov]nm5t naturally  
seeks to place ^! comb9ations "u its own
 control4  ,x mu/ be admitt$ t ^!       
collective be+s1 :i* are call$          
comb9ations1 are /rong] & m =midable ?an
 a private individual c ev] be1 & t !y h
 less ( ! responsibility ( _! own       
actions2 :5ce x seems reasonable t !y   
%\ld n be all[$ to reta9 s great an     
indep5d5ce ( ! supreme gov]nm5t z might 
be conc$$ to a private individual4      
,rul]s are ! m apt to foll[ ?is l9e (   

policy1 z _! own incl9ations invite !m  
to x4 ,among/ democratic nations x is   
only by association t ! resi/ance ( ! p 
to ! gov]nm5t c ev] display itself3 h5ce
 ! latt] always looks ) ill-favor on ^? 
associations :i* are n 9 its own p[]2 & 
x is well wor?y ( rem>k1 t among/       
democratic nations1 ! p !mselves (t5    
ent]ta9 a secret feel+ ( fe> & jeal\sy  
aga9/ ^! v associations1 :i* prev5ts !  
citiz5s f def5d+ ! in/itutions ( :i* !y 
/& s mu* 9 ne$4 ,! p[] & ! duration ( ^!
 small private bodies1 9 ! mid/ ( !     
weakness & in/ability ( ! :ole          
community1 a/oni% & al>m ! p2 & ! free  
use :i* ea* association makes ( its     
natural p[]s is almo/ reg>d$ z a dang]\s
 privilege4 ,all ! associations :i* spr+
 up 9 our age are1 moreov]1 new         
corporate p[]s1 ^: rights h n be5       
sanction$ by "t2 !y come into exi/5ce at
 a "t :5 ! notion ( private rights is   
weak1 & :5 ! p[] ( gov]nm5t is unb\nd$2 
h5ce x is n surpris+ t !y lose _! fre$om
 at _! bir?4 ,among/ all ,european      

nations !re are "s k9ds ( associations  
:i* _c be =m$ until ! ,/ate has exam9$  
_! by-laws1 & au?oriz$ _! exi/5ce4 ,9   
sev]al o!rs1 attempts are made to ext5d 
?is rule to all associations2 !         
consequ5ces ( su* a policy1 if x 7      
successful1 may easily be =ese54 ,if    
once ! sov]eign _h a g5]al "r ( au?oriz+
 associations ( all k9ds ^u c]ta9       
conditions1 he w\ld n be long )\t claim+
 ! "r ( sup]9t5d+ & manag+ !m1 9 ord] to
 prev5t !m f dep>t+ f ! rules laid d[n  
by himself4 ,9 ?is mann]1 ! ,/ate1 aft] 
hav+ r$uc$ all :o are desir\s ( =m+     
associations into dep5d5ce1 w\ld proce$ 
to r$uce into ! same condition all :o   
belong to associations already =m$--t is
 to say1 almo/ all ! m5 :o are n[ 9     
exi/5ce4 ,gov]nm5ts ?us appropriate to  
!mselves1 & conv]t to _! own purposes1 !
 great] "p ( ?is new p[] :i* manufactur+
 int]e/s h 9 our "t br\ght into ! _w4   
,manufactur]s gov]n u--!y gov]n         
manufactures4  ,i atta* s mu* importance
 to all t ,i h j be5 say+1 t ,i am      

torm5t$ by ! fe> ( hav+ impair$ my mean+
 9 seek+ to r5d] x m cle>4 ,if ! read]  
?9ks t ! examples ,i h adduc$ to support
 my obs]vations are insuffici5t or      
ill-*os5--if he imag9es t ,i h any:]e   
exagg]at$ ! encroa*m5ts ( ! supreme p[]1
 &1 on ! o!r h&1 t ,i h und]rat$ ! ext5t
 ( ! sph]e :i* /ill rema9s op5 to !     
ex]tions ( individual indep5d5ce1 ,i    
entreat him to lay d[n ! book = a mom5t1
 & to turn 8 m9d to reflect = himself ^u
 ! subjects ,i h attempt$ to expla94    
,let him att5tively exam9e :at is tak+  
place 9 ,france & 9 o!r c\ntries--let   
him inquire ( ^? ab\t him--let him se>* 
himself1 & ,i am mu* mi/ak5 if he does n
 arrive1 )\t my guidance1 & by o!r pa?s1
 at ! po9t to :i* ,i h s\ght to lead    
him4 ,he w p]ceive t = ! la/            
half-c5tury1 c5tralization has ev]y:]e  
be5 gr[+ up 9 a ?\s& diff]5t ways4 ,w>s1
 revolutions1 conque/s1 h s]v$ to       
promote x3 all m5 h labor$ to increase  
x4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! same p]iod1 dur+ :i*  
m5 h succe$$ ea* o!r ) s+ul> rapidity at

 ! head ( affairs1 _! notions1 int]e/s1 
& passions h be5 inf9itely div]sifi$2 b 
all h by "s means or o!r s\ght to       
c5tralize4 ,?is in/9ctive c5tralization 
has be5 ! only settl$ po9t amid/ !      
extreme mutability ( _! lives & ( _!    
?\ghts4  ,if ! read]1 aft] hav+         
inve/igat$ ^! details ( human affairs1 w
 seek to survey ! wide prospect z a     
:ole1 he w be /ruck by ! result4 ,on !  
"o h& ! mo/ settl$ dyna/ies %ak5 or     
ov]?r[n--! p ev]y:]e escap+ by viol5ce f
 ! sway ( _! laws--aboli%+ or limit+ !  
au?ority ( _! rul]s or _! pr9ces--!     
nations1 :i* are n 9 op5 revolution1    
re/less at lea/1 & excit$--all ( !m     
animat$ by ! same _s ( revolt3 & on !   
o!r h&1 at ?is v p]iod ( an>*y1 & among/
 ^! untractable nations1 ! incessant    
increase ( ! pr]ogative ( ! supreme     
gov]nm5t1 becom+ m c5traliz$1 m         
adv5tur\s1 m absolute1 m ext5sive--! p  
p]petually fall+ "u ! control ( ! public
 adm9i/ration--l$ ins5sibly to surr5d]  
to x "s fur!r portion ( _! individual   

indep5d5ce1 till ! v m51 :o f "t to "t  
upset a ?rone & trample on a race ( k+s1
 b5d m & m obsequi\sly to ! slighte/    
dictate ( a cl]k4 ,?us two contr>y      
revolutions appe> 9 our days to be go+  
on2 ! "o cont9ually weak5+ ! supreme    
p[]1 ! o!r z cont9ually /r5g!n+ x3 at no
 o!r p]iod 9 our hi/ory has x appe>$ s  
weak or s /rong4 ,b ^u a m att5tive     
exam9ation ( ! /ate ( ! _w1 x appe>s t  
^! two revolutions are intimately       
connect$ toge!r1 t !y orig9ate 9 ! same 
s\rce1 & t aft] hav+ foll[$ a sep>ate   
c\rse1 !y lead m5 at la/ to ! same      
result4 ,i may v5ture once m to repeat  
:at ,i h already said or impli$ 9 sev]al
 p>ts ( ?is book3 great c>e mu/ be tak5 
n to conf\nd ! pr9ciple ( equality      
itself ) ! revolution :i* f9ally        
e/abli%es t pr9ciple 9 ! social         
condition & ! laws ( a nation3 "h lies !
 reason ( almo/ all ! ph5om5a :i*       
occasion our a/oni%m5t4 ,all ! old      
political p[]s ( ,europe1 ! greate/ z   
well z ! lea/1 7 f\nd$ 9 ages (         

ari/ocracy1 & !y m or less repres5t$ or 
def5d$ ! pr9ciples ( inequality & (     
privilege4 ,to make ! novel wants &     
int]e/s1 :i* ! gr[+ pr9ciple ( equality 
introduc$1 prepond]ate 9 gov]nm5t1 our  
contempor>ies _h to ov]turn or to co]ce 
! e/abli%$ p[]s4 ,?is l$ !m to make     
revolutions1 & brea!d into _m ( !m1 t   
fi]ce love ( di/urbance & indep5d5ce1   
:i* all revolutions1 :atev] be _!       
object1 always eng5d]4 ,i d n believe t 
!re is a s+le c\ntry 9 ,europe 9 :i* !  
progress ( equality has n be5 prec$$ or 
foll[$ by "s viol5t *anges 9 ! /ate (   
prop]ty & p]sons2 & almo/ all ^! *anges 
h be5 att5d$ ) mu* an>*y & lic5se1      
because !y h be5 made by ! lea/ civiliz$
 portion ( ! nation aga9/ t :i* is mo/  
civiliz$4 ,h5ce proce$$ ! two-fold      
contr>y t5d5cies :i* ,i h j po9t$ out4  
,z long z ! democratic revolution 0 gl[+
 ) heat1 ! m5 :o 7 b5t ^u ! de/ruction (
 old ari/ocratic p[]s ho/ile to t       
revolution1 display$ a /rong _s (       
indep5d5ce2 b z ! victory or ! pr9ciple 

( equality became m complete1 !y        
gradually surr5d]$ !mselves to !        
prop5sities natural to t condition (    
equality1 & !y /r5g!n$ & c5traliz$ _!   
gov]nm5ts4 ,!y _h s\ght to be free 9    
ord] to make !mselves equal2 b 9        
proportion z equality 0 m e/abli%$ by ! 
aid ( fre$om1 fre$om itself 0 !reby     
r5d]$ ( m difficult atta9m5t4  ,^! two  
/ates ( a nation h sometimes be5        
contemporane\s3 ! la/ g5]ation 9 ,france
 %[$ h[ a p might organize a /up5d\s    
tyranny 9 ! community1 at ! v "t :5 !y 7
 baffl+ ! au?ority ( ! nobility & brav+ 
! p[] ( all k+s--at once tea*+ ! _w !   
way to w9 fre$om1 & ! way to lose x4 ,9 
our days m5 see t con/itut$ p[]s are    
dilapidat$ on e side--!y see all anci5t 
au?ority gasp+ away1 all anci5t b>ri]s  
tott]+ to _! fall1 & ! judgm5t ( ! wise/
 is tr\bl$ at ! sight3 !y att5d only to 
! amaz+ revolution :i* is tak+ place    
be=e _! eyes1 & !y imag9e t mank9d is   
ab\t to fall into p]petual an>*y3 if !y 
look$ to ! f9al consequ5ces ( ?is       

revolution1 _! fe>s w\ld p]haps assume a
 diff]5t %ape4 ,= myself1 ,i confess t  
,i put no tru/ 9 ! _s ( fre$om :i*      
appe>s to animate my contempor>ies4 ,i  
see well en\gh t ! nations ( ?is age are
 turbul5t1 b ,i d n cle>ly p]ceive t !y 
are lib]al2 & ,i fe> le/1 at ! close (  
^? p]turbations :i* rock ! base (       
?rones1 ! dom9ation ( sov]eigns may     
prove m p[]ful ?an x ev] 0 be=e4        
,*apt] ,,vi3 ,:at ,sort ,( ,despotism   
,democratic ,nations ,h ,to ,fe>  ,i _h 
rem>k$ dur+ my /ay 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 t 
a democratic /ate ( society1 simil> to t
 ( ! ,am]icans1 might (f] s+ul>         
facilities = ! e/abli%m5t ( despotism2 &
 ,i p]ceiv$1 ^u my return to ,europe1 h[
 mu* use _h already be5 made by mo/ (   
our rul]s1 ( ! notions1 ! s5tim5ts1 & ! 
wants eng5d]$ by ?is same social        
condition1 = ! purpose ( ext5d+ ! circle
 ( _! p[]4 ,?is l$ me to ?9k t ! nations
 ( ,*ri/5dom w\ld p]haps ev5tually      
und]go "s sort ( oppression l t :i* hung
 ov] sev]al ( ! nations ( ! anci5t _w4  

,a m accurate exam9ation ( ! subject1 & 
five ye>s ( fur!r m$itations1 h n       
dim9i%$ my appreh5sions1 b !y h *ang$ ! 
object ( !m4 ,no sov]eign ev] liv$ 9 =m]
 ages s absolute or s p[]ful z to       
und]take to adm9i/] by 8 own ag5cy1 &   
)\t ! assi/ance ( int]m$iate p[]s1 all !
 p>ts ( a great empire3 none ev]        
attempt$ to subject all 8 subjects      
indiscrim9ately to /rict uni=mity (     
regulation1 & p]sonally to tutor &      
direct e memb] ( ! community4 ,! notion 
( su* an und]tak+ nev] occurr$ to !     
human m9d2 & if any man _h conceiv$ x1 !
 want ( in=mation1 ! imp]fection ( !    
adm9i/rative sy/em1 & above all1 !      
natural ob/acles caus$ by ! inequality (
 conditions1 w\ld spe$ily h *eck$ !     
execution ( s va/ a design4 ,:5 ! ,roman
 emp]ors 7 at ! height ( _! p[]1 !      
diff]5t nations ( ! empire /ill pres]v$ 
mann]s & cu/oms ( great div]sity2 al?\gh
 !y 7 subject to ! same mon>*1 mo/ ( !  
prov9ces 7 sep>ately adm9i/]$2 !y ab\nd$
 9 p[]ful & active municipalities2 &    

al?\gh ! :ole gov]nm5t ( ! empire 0     
c5tr$ 9 ! h&s ( ! emp]or alone1 & he    
always rema9$1 ^u occasions1 ! supreme  
arbit] 9 all matt]s1 yet ! details (    
social life & private occupations lay = 
! mo/ "p beyond 8 control4 ,! emp]ors   
possess$1 x is true1 an imm5se & un*eck$
 p[]1 :i* all[$ !m to gratify all _!    
:imsical ta/es1 & to employ = t purpose 
! :ole /r5g? ( ! ,/ate4 ,!y frequ5tly   
abus$ t p[] arbitr>ily to deprive _!    
subjects ( prop]ty or ( life3 _! tyranny
 0 extremely on]\s to ! few1 b x did n  
rea* ! great] numb]2 x 0 fix$ to "s few 
ma9 objects1 & neglect$ ! re/2 x 0      
viol5t1 b its range 0 limit$4  ,b x w\ld
 seem t if despotism 7 to be e/abli%$   
among/ ! democratic nations ( our days1 
x might assume a diff]5t "*2 x w\ld be m
 ext5sive & m mild2 x w\ld degrade m5   
)\t torm5t+ !m4 ,i d n "q1 t 9 an age ( 
in/ruction & equality l our own1        
sov]eigns might m easily succe$ 9       
collect+ all political p[] into _! own  
h&s1 & might int]f]e m habitually &     

decid$ly )9 ! circle ( private int]e/s1 
?an any sov]eign ( antiquity c\ld ev] d4
 ,b ?is same pr9ciple ( equality :i*    
facilitates despotism1 temp]s its rigor4
 ,we h se5 h[ ! mann]s ( society become 
m humane & g5tle 9 proportion z m5      
become m equal & alike4 ,:5 no memb] ( !
 community has mu* p[] or mu* weal?1    
tyranny is1 z x 71 )\t opportunities & a
 field ( action4 ,z all =tunes are      
scanty1 ! passions ( m5 are naturally   
circumscrib$--_! imag9ation limit$1 _!  
pleasures simple4 ,?is univ]sal         
mod]ation mod]ates ! sov]eign himself1 &
 *ecks )9 c]ta9 limits ! inord9ate ext5t
 ( 8 desires4  ,indep5d5tly ( ^! reasons
 drawn f ! nature ( ! /ate ( society    
itself1 ,i might add _m o!rs aris+ f    
causes beyond my subject2 b ,i %all keep
 )9 ! limits ,i h laid d[n to myself4   
,democratic gov]nm5ts may become viol5t 
& ev5 cruel at c]ta9 p]iods ( extreme   
eff]vesc5ce or ( great dang]3 b ^!      
crises w be r>e & brief4 ,:5 ,i consid] 
! petty passions ( our contempor>ies1 ! 

mildness ( _! mann]s1 ! ext5t ( _!      
education1 ! purity ( _! religion1 !    
g5tl5ess ( _! morality1 _! regul> &     
indu/ri\s habits1 & ! re/ra9t :i* !y    
almo/ all obs]ve 9 _! vices no less ?an 
9 _! virtues1 ,i h no fe> t !y w meet ) 
tyrants 9 _! rul]s1 b r gu>dians4 99a ,i
 ?9k !n t ! species ( oppression by :i* 
democratic nations are m5ac$ is unlike  
any?+ :i* ev] be=e exi/$ 9 ! _w3 our    
contempor>ies w f9d no prototype ( x 9  
_! memories4 ,i am try+ myself to *oose 
an expression :i* w accurately convey ! 
:ole ( ! idea ,i h =m$ ( x1 b 9 va92 !  
old words despotism & tyranny are       
inappropriate3 ! ?+ itself is new2 &    
s9ce ,i _c "n x1 ,i mu/ attempt to def9e
 x4  ,footnote a3 ,see ,app5dix ,y4  ,i 
seek to trace ! novel features "u :i*   
despotism may appe> 9 ! _w4 ,! fir/ ?+ t
 /rikes ! obs]vation is an innum]able   
multitude ( m5 all equal & alike1       
incessantly endeavor+ to procure ! petty
 & paltry pleasures ) :i* !y glut _!    
lives4 ,ea* ( !m1 liv+ ap>t1 is z a     

/rang] to ! fate ( all ! re/--8 *ildr5 &
 8 private fri5ds con/itute to him !    
:ole ( mank9d2 z = ! re/ ( 8            
fell[-citiz5s1 he is close to !m1 b he  
sees !m n--he t\*es !m1 b he feels !m n2
 he exi/s b 9 himself & = himself alone2
 & if 8 k9dr$ /ill rema9 to him1 he may 
be said at any rate to h lo/ 8 c\ntry4  
,above ?is race ( m5 /&s an imm5se &    
tutel>y p[]1 :i* takes ^u itself alone  
to secure _! gratifications1 & to wat*  
ov] _! fate4 ,t p[] is absolute1 m9ute1 
regul>1 provid5t1 & mild4 ,x w\ld be l !
 au?ority ( a p>5t1 if1 l t au?ority1   
its object 0 to prep>e m5 = manhood2 b x
 seeks on ! contr>y to keep !m 9        
p]petual *ildhood3 x is well cont5t t ! 
p %\ld rejoice1 provid$ !y ?9k ( no?+ b 
rejoic+4 ,= _! happ9ess su* a gov]nm5t  
will+ly labors1 b x *ooses to be ! sole 
ag5t & ! only arbit] ( t happ9ess3 x    
provides = _! security1 =esees &        
supplies _! necessities1 facilitates _! 
pleasures1 manages _! pr9cipal conc]ns1 
directs _! indu/ry1 regulates ! desc5t (

 prop]ty1 & subdivides _!               
inh]itances--:at rema9s1 b to sp>e !m   
all ! c>e ( ?9k+ & all ! tr\ble ( liv+8 
,?us x e day r5d]s ! ex]cise ( ! free   
ag5cy ( man less useful & less frequ5t2 
x circumscribes ! w )9 a n>r[] range1 & 
gradually robs a man ( all ! uses (     
himself4 ,! pr9ciple ( equality has     
prep>$ m5 = ^! ?+s3 x has pr$ispos$ m5  
to endure !m1 & (t5times to look on !m z
 b5efits4  ,aft] hav+ ?us successively  
tak5 ea* memb] ( ! community 9 its      
p[]ful grasp1 & fa%ion$ !m at w1 !      
supreme p[] !n ext5ds its arm ov] ! :ole
 community4 ,x cov]s ! surface ( society
 ) a net-"w ( small complicat$ rules1   
m9ute & uni=m1 ?r\gh :i* ! mo/ orig9al  
m9ds & ! mo/ en]getic *>act]s _c        
p5etrate1 to rise above ! cr[d4 ,! w (  
man is n %att]$1 b s(t5$1 b5t1 & guid$3 
m5 are seldom =c$ by x to act1 b !y are 
con/antly re/ra9$ f act+3 su* a p[] does
 n de/roy1 b x prev5ts exi/5ce2 x does n
 tyrannize1 b x compresses1 en]vates1   
ext+ui%es1 & /upefies a p1 till ea*     

nation is r$uc$ to be no?+ bett] ?an a  
flock ( timid & indu/ri\s animals1 ( :i*
 ! gov]nm5t is ! %eph]d4 ,i h always    
?\ght t s]vitude ( ! regul>1 quiet1 &   
g5tle k9d :i* ,i h j describ$1 might be 
comb9$ m easily ?an is commonly believ$ 
) "s ( ! outw>d =ms ( fre$om2 & t x     
might ev5 e/abli% itself "u ! w+ ( !    
sov]eignty ( ! p4 ,our contempor>ies are
 con/antly excit$ by two conflict+      
passions2 !y want to be l$1 & !y wi% to 
rema9 free3 z !y _c de/roy ei!r "o or ! 
o!r ( ^! contr>y prop5sities1 !y /rive  
to satisfy !m bo? at once4 ,!y devise a 
sole1 tutel>y1 & all-p[]ful =m (        
gov]nm5t1 b elect$ by ! p4 ,!y comb9e ! 
pr9ciple ( c5tralization & t ( popul>   
sov]eignty2 ?is gives !m a respite2 !y  
console !mselves = be+ 9 tutelage by !  
reflection t !y h *os5 _! own gu>dians4 
,e man all[s himself to be put 9        
lead+-/r+s1 because he sees t x is n a  
p]son or a class ( p]sons1 b ! p at l>ge
 t holds ! end ( 8 *a94 ,by ?is sy/em ! 
p %ake (f _! /ate ( dep5d5ce j long     

en\gh to select _! ma/]1 & !n relapse   
into x aga94 ,a great _m p]sons at !    
pres5t day are q cont5t$ ) ?is sort (   
compromise betwe5 adm9i/rative despotism
 & ! sov]eignty ( ! p2 & !y ?9k !y h    
done en\gh = ! protection ( individual  
fre$om :5 !y h surr5d]$ x to ! p[] ( !  
nation at l>ge4 ,?is does n satisfy me3 
! nature ( him ,i am to obey signifies  
less to me ?an ! fact ( extort$ ob$i5ce4
  ,i d n h[ev] d5y t a con/itution ( ?is
 k9d appe>s to me to be inf9itely       
pref]able to "o1 :i*1 aft] hav+         
conc5trat$ all ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t1 %\ld  
ve/ !m 9 ! h&s ( an irresponsible p]son 
or body ( p]sons4 ,( all ! =ms :i*      
democratic despotism c\ld assume1 !     
latt] w\ld assur$ly be ! wor/4 ,:5 !    
sov]eign is elective1 or n>r[ly wat*$ by
 a legislature :i* is really elective & 
indep5d5t1 ! oppression :i* he ex]cises 
ov] individuals is sometimes great]1 b x
 is always less degrad+2 because e man1 
:5 he is oppress$ & dis>m$1 may /ill    
imag9e1 t :il/ he yields ob$i5ce x is to

 himself he yields x1 & t x is to "o ( 8
 own incl9ations t all ! re/ give way4  
,9 l mann] ,i c und]/& t :5 ! sov]eign  
repres5ts ! nation1 & is dep5d5t ^u ! p1
 ! rights & ! p[] ( :i* e citiz5 is     
depriv$1 n only s]ve ! head ( ! ,/ate1 b
 ! ,/ate itself2 & t private p]sons     
d]ive "s return f ! sacrifice ( _!      
indep5d5ce :i* !y h made to ! public4   
,to create a repres5tation ( ! p 9 e    
c5traliz$ c\ntry1 is !re=e1 to dim9i% ! 
evil :i* extreme c5tralization may      
produce1 b n to get rid ( x4 ,i admit t 
by ?is means room is left = ! int]v5tion
 ( individuals 9 ! m important affairs2 
b x is n ! less suppress$ 9 ! small] & m
 private ones4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t x is
 especially dang]\s to enslave m5 9 !   
m9or details ( life4 ,= my own "p1 ,i   
%\ld be incl9$ to ?9k fre$om less       
necess>y 9 great ?+s ?an 9 little ones1 
if x 7 possible to be secure ( ! "o )\t 
possess+ ! o!r4 ,subjection 9 m9or      
affairs breaks out e day1 & is felt by !
 :ole community indiscrim9ately4 ,x does

 n drive m5 to resi/ance1 b x crosses !m
 at e turn1 till !y are l$ to surr5d] ! 
ex]cise ( _! w4 ,?us _! _s is gradually 
brok5 & _! "* en]vat$2 :]eas t ob$i5ce1 
:i* is exact$ on a few important b r>e  
occasions1 only exhibits s]vitude at    
c]ta9 int]vals1 & ?r[s ! burd5 ( x ^u a 
small numb] ( m54 ,x is 9 va9 to summon 
a p1 :i* has be5 r5d]$ s dep5d5t on !   
c5tral p[]1 to *oose f "t to "t !       
repres5tatives ( t p[]2 ?is r>e & brief 
ex]cise ( _! free *oice1 h[ev] important
 x may be1 w n prev5t !m f gradually    
los+ ! faculties ( ?9k+1 feel+1 & act+ =
 !mselves1 & ?us gradually fall+ bel[ ! 
level ( humanity4 99b ,i add t !y w soon
 become incapable ( ex]cis+ ! great &   
only privilege :i* rema9s to !m4 ,!     
democratic nations :i* h introduc$      
fre$om into _! political con/itution1 at
 ! v "t :5 !y 7 augm5t+ ! despotism ( _!
 adm9i/rative con/itution1 h be5 l$ into
 /range p>adoxes4 ,to manage ^? m9or    
affairs 9 :i* good s5se is all t is     
want$--! p are held to be unequal to !  

task1 b :5 ! gov]nm5t ( ! c\ntry is at  
/ake1 ! p are inve/$ ) imm5se p[]s2 !y  
are alt]nately made ! play?+s ( _! rul]1
 & 8 ma/]s--m ?an k+s1 & less ?an m54   
,aft] hav+ exhau/$ all ! diff]5t modes (
 election1 )\t f9d+ "o to suit _!       
purpose1 !y are /ill amaz$1 & /ill b5t  
on seek+ fur!r2 z if ! evil !y rem>k did
 n orig9ate 9 ! con/itution ( ! c\ntry  
f> m ?an 9 t ( ! electoral body4 ,x is1 
inde$1 difficult to conceive h[ m5 :o h 
entirely giv5 up ! habit ( self-gov]nm5t
 %\ld succe$ 9 mak+ a prop] *oice ( ^?  
by :om !y are to be gov]n$2 & no "o w   
ev] believe t a lib]al1 wise1 & en]getic
 gov]nm5t c spr+ f ! suffrages ( a      
subs]vi5t p4 ,a con/itution1 :i* %\ld be
 republican 9 its head & ultra-mon>*ical
 9 all its o!r p>ts1 has ev] appe>$ to  
me to be a %ort-liv$ mon/]4 ,! vices (  
rul]s & ! ineptitude ( ! p w\ld spe$ily 
br+ ab\t its ru92 & ! nation1 we>y ( its
 repres5tatives & ( itself1 w\ld create 
fre] in/itutions1 or soon return to     
/ret* itself at ! feet ( a s+le ma/]4   

,footnote b3 ,see ,app5dix ,z4          
,*apt] ,,vii3 ,cont9uation ,( ,! ,prec$+
 ,*apt]s  ,i believe t x is easi] to    
e/abli% an absolute & despotic gov]nm5t 
among/ a p 9 :i* ! conditions ( society 
are equal1 ?an among/ any o!r2 & ,i ?9k 
t if su* a gov]nm5t 7 once e/abli%$     
among/ su* a p1 x w\ld n only oppress   
m51 b w\ld ev5tually /rip ea* ( !m (    
sev]al ( ! highe/ qualities ( humanity4 
,despotism !re=e appe>s to me peculi>ly 
to be dread$ 9 democratic ages4 ,i %\ld 
h lov$ fre$om1 ,i believe1 at all times1
 b 9 ! "t 9 :i* we live ,i am ready to  
wor%ip x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,i am p]suad$ t 
all :o %all attempt1 9 ! ages ^u :i* we 
are ent]+1 to base fre$om ^u ari/ocratic
 privilege1 w fail--t all :o %all       
attempt to draw & to reta9 au?ority )9 a
 s+le class1 w fail4 ,at ! pres5t day no
 rul] is skilful or /rong en\gh to f\nd 
a despotism1 by re-e/abli%+ p]man5t     
di/9ctions ( rank among/ 8 subjects3 no 
legislator is wise or p[]ful en\gh to   
pres]ve free in/itutions1 if he does n  

take equality = 8 fir/ pr9ciple & 8     
wat*word4 ,all ^? ( our contempor>ies :o
 w\ld e/abli% or secure ! indep5d5ce & !
 dignity ( _! fell[-m51 mu/ %[ !mselves 
! fri5ds ( equality2 & ! only wor?y     
means ( %[+ !mselves z su*1 is to be s3 
^u ?is dep5ds ! success ( _! holy       
ent]prise4 ,?us ! "q is n h[ to         
recon/ruct ari/ocratic society1 b h[ to 
make lib]ty proce$ out ( t democratic   
/ate ( society 9 :i* ,god has plac$ u4  
,^! two tru?s appe> to me simple1 cle>1 
& f]tile 9 consequ5ces2 & !y naturally  
lead me to consid] :at k9d ( free       
gov]nm5t c be e/abli%$ among/ a p 9 :i* 
social conditions are equal4 ,x results 
f ! v con/itution ( democratic nations &
 f _! necessities1 t ! p[] ( gov]nm5t   
among/ !m mu/ be m uni=m1 m c5traliz$1 m
 ext5sive1 m se>*+1 & m effici5t ?an 9  
o!r c\ntries4 ,society at l>ge is       
naturally /rong] & m active1 individuals
 m subord9ate & weak2 ! =m] does m1 !   
latt] less2 & ?is is inevitably ! case4 
,x is n !re=e to be expect$ t ! range ( 

private indep5d5ce w ev] be z ext5sive 9
 democratic z 9 ari/ocratic             
c\ntries--nor is ?is to be desir$2 =1   
among/ ari/ocratic nations1 ! mass is   
(t5 sacrific$ to ! individual1 & !      
prosp]ity ( ! great] numb] to !         
greatness ( ! few4 ,x is bo? necess>y & 
desirable t ! gov]nm5t ( a democratic p 
%\ld be active & p[]ful3 & our object   
%\ld n be to r5d] x weak or indol5t1 b  
solely to prev5t x f abus+ its aptitude 
& its /r5g?4  ,! circum/ance :i* mo/    
contribut$ to secure ! indep5d5ce (     
private p]sons 9 ari/ocratic ages1 01 t 
! supreme p[] did n affect to take ^u   
itself alone ! gov]nm5t & adm9i/ration (
 ! community2 ^? functions 7 necess>ily 
p>tially left to ! memb]s ( !           
ari/ocracy3 s t z ! supreme p[] 0 always
 divid$1 x nev] weigh$ ) its :ole weight
 & 9 ! same mann] on ea* individual4 ,n 
only did ! gov]nm5t n p]=m ev]y?+ by its
 imm$iate ag5cy2 b z mo/ ( ! ag5ts :o   
dis*>g$ its duties d]iv$ _! p[] n f !   
,/ate1 b f ! circum/ance ( _! bir?1 !y 7

 n p]petually "u its control4 ,!        
gov]nm5t c\ld n make or unmake !m 9 an  
in/ant1 at pleasure1 nor b5d !m 9 /rict 
uni=mity to its slighte/ caprice--?is 0 
an additional gu>antee ( private        
indep5d5ce4 ,i readily admit t rec\rse  
_c be _h to ! same means at ! pres5t "t3
 b ,i discov] c]ta9 democratic exp$i5ts 
:i* may be sub/itut$ = !m4 ,in/ead (    
ve/+ 9 ! gov]nm5t alone all !           
adm9i/rative p[]s ( :i* corporations &  
nobles h be5 depriv$1 a portion ( !m may
 be entru/$ to second>y public bodies1  
tempor>ily compos$ ( private citiz5s3   
?us ! lib]ty ( private p]sons w be m    
secure1 & _! equality w n be dim9i%$4   
,! ,am]icans1 :o c>e less = words ?an ! 
,fr5*1 /ill designate by ! "n ( c\nty ! 
l>ge/ ( _! adm9i/rative di/ricts3 b !   
duties ( ! c\nt or "l-lieut5ant are 9 "p
 p]=m$ by a prov9cial assembly4 ,at a   
p]iod ( equality l our own x w\ld be    
unju/ & unreasonable to in/itute h]$it>y
 (fic]s2 b !re is no?+ to prev5t u f    
sub/itut+ elective public (fic]s to a   

c]ta9 ext5t4 ,election is a democratic  
exp$i5t :i* insures ! indep5d5ce ( !    
public (fic] 9 relation to ! gov]nm5t1 z
 mu* & ev5 m ?an h]$it>y rank c insure x
 among/ ari/ocratic nations4            
,ari/ocratic c\ntries ab\nd 9 weal?y &  
influ5tial p]sons :o are compet5t to    
provide = !mselves1 & :o _c be easily or
 secretly oppress$3 su* p]sons re/ra9 a 
gov]nm5t )9 g5]al habits ( mod]ation &  
res]ve4 ,i am v well aw>e t democratic  
c\ntries conta9 no su* p]sons naturally2
 b some?+ analog\s to !m may be creat$  
by artificial means4 ,i firmly believe t
 an ari/ocracy _c aga9 be f\nd$ 9 ! _w2 
b ,i ?9k t private citiz5s1 by comb9+   
toge!r1 may con/itute bodies ( great    
weal?1 influ5ce1 & /r5g?1 correspond+ to
 ! p]sons ( an ari/ocracy4 ,by ?is means
 _m ( ! greate/ political advantages (  
ari/ocracy w\ld be obta9$ )\t its       
inju/ice or its dang]s4 ,an association 
= political1 comm]cial1 or manufactur+  
purposes1 or ev5 = ^? ( sci5ce &        
lit]ature1 is a p[]ful & enlight5$ memb]

 ( ! community1 :i* _c be dispos$ ( at  
pleasure1 or oppress$ )\t remon/rance2 &
 :i*1 by def5d+ its own rights aga9/ !  
encroa*m5ts ( ! gov]nm5t1 saves ! common
 lib]ties ( ! c\ntry4  ,9 p]iods (      
ari/ocracy e man is always b\nd s       
closely to _m ( 8 fell[-citiz5s1 t he _c
 be assail$ )\t _! com+ to 8 assi/ance4 
,9 ages ( equality e man naturally /&s  
alone2 he has no h]$it>y fri5ds ^:      
co-op]ation he may dem&--no class ^u ^: 
sympa?y he may rely3 he is easily got   
rid (1 & he is trampl$ on ) impunity4   
,at ! pres5t "t1 an oppress$ memb] ( !  
community has !re=e only "o me?od (     
self-def5ce--he may appeal to ! :ole    
nation2 & if ! :ole nation is deaf to 8 
compla9t1 he may appeal to mank9d3 !    
only means he has ( mak+ ?is appeal is  
by ! press4 ,?us ! lib]ty ( ! press is  
inf9itely m valuable among/ democratic  
nations ?an among/ all o!rs2 x is ! only
 cure = ! evils :i* equality may        
produce4 ,equality sets m5 ap>t & weak5s
 !m2 b ! press places a p[]ful weapon )9

 e man's rea*1 :i* ! weake/ & lonelie/ (
 !m all may use4 ,equality deprives a   
man ( ! support ( 8 connections2 b !    
press enables him to summon all 8       
fell[-c\ntrym5 & all 8 fell[-m5 to 8    
assi/ance4 ,pr9t+ has accel]at$ !       
progress ( equality1 & x is also "o (   
its be/ correctives4  ,i ?9k t m5 liv+ 9
 ari/ocracies may1 /rictly speak+1 d )\t
 ! lib]ty ( ! press3 b su* is n ! case )
 ^? :o live 9 democratic c\ntries4 ,to  
protect _! p]sonal indep5d5ce ,i tru/ n 
to great political assemblies1 to       
p>liam5t>y privilege1 or to ! ass]tion (
 popul> sov]eignty4 ,all ^! ?+s may1 to 
a c]ta9 ext5t1 be reconcil$ ) p]sonal   
s]vitude--b t s]vitude _c be complete if
 ! press is free3 ! press is ! *iefe/   
democratic in/rum5t ( fre$om4  ,some?+  
analog\s may be said ( ! judicial p[]4  
,x is a "p ( ! ess5ce ( judicial p[] to 
att5d to private int]e/s1 & to fix      
itself ) pr$ilection on m9ute objects   
submitt$ to its obs]vation2 ano!r       
ess5tial quality ( judicial p[] is nev] 

to volunte] its assi/ance to ! oppress$1
 b always to be at ! disposal ( !       
humble/ ( ^? :o solicit x2 _! compla9t1 
h[ev] feeble !y may !mselves be1 w =ce  
itself ^u ! e> ( ju/ice & claim r$ress1 
= ?is is inh]5t 9 ! v con/itution ( !   
c\rts ( ju/ice4 ,a p[] ( ?is k9d is     
!re=e peculi>ly adapt$ to ! wants (     
fre$om1 at a "t :5 ! eye & f+] ( !      
gov]nm5t are con/antly intrud+ into !   
m9ute/ details ( human actions1 & :5    
private p]sons are at once too weak to  
protect !mselves1 & too mu* isolat$ = !m
 to reckon ^u ! assi/ance ( _! fell[s4  
,! /r5g? ( ! c\rts ( law has ev] be5 !  
greate/ security :i* c be (f]$ to       
p]sonal indep5d5ce2 b ?is is m          
especially ! case 9 democratic ages3    
private rights & int]e/s are 9 con/ant  
dang]1 if ! judicial p[] does n gr[ m   
ext5sive & m /rong to keep pace ) ! gr[+
 equality ( conditions4  ,equality      
awak5s 9 m5 sev]al prop5sities extremely
 dang]\s to fre$om1 to :i* ! att5tion ( 
! legislator ought con/antly to be      

direct$4 ,i %all only rem9d ! read] ( ! 
mo/ important among/ !m4 ,m5 liv+ 9     
democratic ages d n readily compreh5d ! 
utility ( =ms3 !y feel an in/9ctive     
contempt = !m--,i h else:]e %[n = :at   
reasons4 ,=ms excite _! contempt & (t5  
_! hatr$2 z !y commonly aspire to none b
 easy & pres5t gratifications1 !y ru%   
onw>ds to ! object ( _! desires1 & !    
slighte/ delay exasp]ates !m4 ,?is same 
temp]1 c>ri$ ) !m into political life1  
r5d]s !m ho/ile to =ms1 :i* p]petually  
ret>d or arre/ !m 9 "s ( _! projects4   
,yet ?is objection :i* ! m5 (           
democracies make to =ms is ! v ?+ :i*   
r5d]s =ms s useful to fre$om2 = _! *ief 
m]it is to s]ve z a b>ri] betwe5 ! /rong
 & ! weak1 ! rul] & ! p1 to ret>d ! "o1 
& give ! o!r "t to look ab\t him4 ,=ms  
become m necess>y 9 proportion z !      
gov]nm5t becomes m active & m p[]ful1   
:il/ private p]sons are becom+ m indol5t
 & m feeble4 ,?us democratic nations    
naturally /& m 9 ne$ ( =ms ?an o!r      
nations1 & !y naturally respect !m less4

 ,?is des]ves mo/ s]i\s att5tion4 ,no?+ 
is m pitiful ?an ! arrogant disda9 ( mo/
 ( our contempor>ies = que/ions ( =m2 = 
! smalle/ que/ions ( =m h acquir$ 9 our 
"t an importance :i* !y nev] _h be=e3 _m
 ( ! greate/ int]e/s ( mank9d dep5d ^u  
!m4 ,i ?9k t if ! /atesm5 ( ari/ocratic 
ages c\ld sometimes contemn =ms )       
impunity1 & frequ5tly rise above !m1 !  
/atesm5 to :om ! gov]nm5t ( nations is  
n[ confid$ ought to treat ! v lea/ among
 !m ) respect1 & n neglect !m )\t       
imp]i\s necessity4 ,9 ari/ocracies !    
obs]vance ( =ms 0 sup]/iti\s2 among/ u  
!y ought to be kept ) a delib]ate &     
enlight5$ def]5ce4  ,ano!r t5d5cy1 :i*  
is extremely natural to democratic      
nations & extremely dang]\s1 is t :i*   
leads !m ta despise & und]value ! rights
 ( private p]sons4 ,! atta*m5t :i* m5   
feel to a "r1 & ! respect :i* !y display
 = x1 is g5]ally proportion$ to its     
importance1 or to ! l5g? ( "t dur+ :i*  
!y h enjoy$ x4 ,! rights ( private      
p]sons among/ democratic nations are    

commonly ( small importance1 ( rec5t    
gr[?1 & extremely prec>i\s--! consequ5ce
 is t !y are (t5 sacrific$ )\t regret1 &
 almo/ always violat$ )\t remorse4 ,b x 
happ5s t at ! same p]iod & among/ ! same
 nations 9 :i* m5 conceive a natural    
contempt = ! rights ( private p]sons1 ! 
rights ( society at l>ge are naturally  
ext5d$ & consolidat$3 9 o!r words1 m5   
become less atta*$ to private rights at 
! v "t at :i* x w\ld be mo/ necess>y to 
reta9 & to def5d :at little rema9s ( !m4
 ,x is !re=e mo/ especially 9 ! pres5t  
democratic ages1 t ! true fri5ds ( !    
lib]ty & ! greatness ( man ought        
con/antly to be on ! al]t to prev5t !   
p[] ( gov]nm5t f lightly sacrific+ !    
private rights ( individuals to ! g5]al 
execution ( its designs4 ,at su* times  
no citiz5 is s obscure t x is n v       
dang]\s to all[ him to be oppress$--no  
private rights are s unimportant t !y c 
be surr5d]$ ) impunity to ! caprices ( a
 gov]nm5t4 ,! reason is pla93--if !     
private "r ( an individual is violat$ at

 a "t :5 ! human m9d is fully impress$ )
 ! importance & ! sanctity ( su* rights1
 ! injury done is conf9$ to ! individual
 ^: "r is infr+$2 b to violate su* a "r1
 at ! pres5t day1 is deeply to corrupt !
 mann]s ( ! nation & to put ! :ole      
community 9 jeop>dy1 because ! v notion 
( ?is k9d ( "r con/antly t5ds among/ u  
to be impair$ & lo/4  ,!re are c]ta9    
habits1 c]ta9 notions1 & c]ta9 vices :i*
 are peculi> to a /ate ( revolution1 &  
:i* a protract$ revolution _c fail to   
eng5d] & to propagate1 :atev] be1 9 o!r 
respects1 its "*1 its purpose1 & ! sc5e 
on :i* x takes place4 ,:5 any nation    
has1 )9 a %ort space ( "t1 repeat$ly    
v>i$ its rul]s1 its op9ions1 & its laws1
 ! m5 ( :om x is compos$ ev5tually      
contract a ta/e = *ange1 & gr[ accu/om$ 
to see all *anges effect$ by sudd5      
viol5ce4 ,?us !y naturally conceive a   
contempt = =ms :i* daily prove          
ineffectual2 & !y d n support )\t       
impati5ce ! dom9ion ( rules :i* !y h s  
(t5 se5 infr+$4 ,z ! ord9>y notions (   

equity & morality no long] suffice to   
expla9 & ju/ify all ! innovations daily 
begott5 by a revolution1 ! pr9ciple (   
public utility is call$ 91 ! doctr9e (  
political necessity is conjur$ up1 & m5 
accu/om !mselves to sacrifice private   
int]e/s )\t scruple1 & to trample on !  
rights ( individuals 9 ord] m spe$ily to
 accompli% any public purpose4  ,^!     
habits & notions1 :i* ,i %all call      
revolution>y1 because all revolutions   
produce !m1 occur 9 ari/ocracies j z mu*
 z among/ democratic nations2 b among/ !
 =m] !y are (t5 less p[]ful & always    
less la/+1 because !re !y meet ) habits1
 notions1 defects1 & imp$im5ts1 :i*     
c\nt]act !m3 !y consequ5tly disappe> z  
soon z ! revolution is t]m9at$1 & !     
nation rev]ts to its =m] political      
c\rses4 ,?is is n always ! case 9       
democratic c\ntries1 9 :i* x is ev] to  
be fe>$ t revolution>y t5d5cies1 becom+ 
m g5tle & m regul>1 )\t entirely        
disappe>+ f society1 w be gradually     
trans=m$ into habits ( subjection to !  

adm9i/rative au?ority ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,i  
"k ( no c\ntries 9 :i* revolutions re m 
dang]\s ?an 9 democratic c\ntries2      
because1 indep5d5tly ( ! accid5tal &    
transi5t evils :i* mu/ always att5d !m1 
!y may always create "s evils :i* are   
p]man5t & un5d+4 ,i believe t !re are   
su* ?+s z ju/ifiable resi/ance &        
legitimate rebellion3 ,i d n !re=e      
ass]t1 z an absolute proposition1 t ! m5
 ( democratic ages ought nev] to make   
revolutions2 b ,i ?9k t !y h especial   
reason to hesitate be=e !y emb>k 9 !m1 &
 t x is f> bett] to endure _m grievances
 9 _! pres5t condition ?an to h rec\rse 
to s p]il\s a rem$y4  ,i %all conclude  
by "o g5]al idea1 :i* comprises n only  
all ! p>ticul> ideas :i* h be5 express$ 
9 ! pres5t *apt]1 b also mo/ ( ^? :i* x 
is ! object ( ?is book to treat (4 ,9 ! 
ages ( ari/ocracy :i* prec$$ our own1   
!re 7 private p]sons ( great p[]1 & a   
social au?ority ( extreme weakness4 ,!  
outl9e ( society itself 0 n easily      
disc]nible1 & con/antly conf\nd$ ) !    

diff]5t p[]s by :i* ! community 0 rul$4 
,! pr9cipal ef=ts ( ! m5 ( ^? times 7   
requir$ to /r5g!n1 aggr&ize1 & secure ! 
supreme p[]2 & on ! o!r h&1 to          
circumscribe individual indep5d5ce )9   
n>r[] limits1 & to subject private      
int]e/s to ! int]e/s ( ! public4 ,o!r   
p]ils & o!r c>es await ! m5 ( our age4  
,among/ ! great] "p ( mod]n nations1 !  
gov]nm5t1 :atev] may be its orig91 its  
con/itution1 or its "n1 has become almo/
 omnipot5t1 & private p]sons are fall+1 
m & m1 into ! l[e/ /age ( weakness &    
dep5d5ce4 ,9 old5 society ev]y?+ 0      
diff]5t2 unity & uni=mity 7 n[h]e to be 
met )4 ,9 mod]n society ev]y?+ ?reat5s  
to become s mu* alike1 t ! peculi>      
*>act]i/ics ( ea* individual w soon be  
entirely lo/ 9 ! g5]al aspect ( ! _w4   
,our =efa!rs 7 ev] prone to make an     
improp] use ( ! notion1 t private rights
 ought to be respect$2 & we are         
naturally prone on ! o!r h& to exagg]ate
 ! idea t ! int]e/ ( a private          
individual ought always to b5d to !     

int]e/ ( ! _m4 ,! political _w is       
metamorphos$3 new rem$ies mu/ h5ce=? be 
s\ght = new disord]s4 ,to lay d[n       
ext5sive1 b di/9ct & settl$ limits1 to !
 action ( ! gov]nm5t2 to conf] c]ta9    
rights on private p]sons1 & to secure to
 !m ! undisput$ enjoym5t ( ^? rights2 to
 enable individual man to ma9ta9 :atev] 
indep5d5ce1 /r5g?1 & orig9al p[] he /ill
 possesses2 to raise him by ! side (    
society at l>ge1 & uphold him 9 t       
position--^! appe> to me ! ma9 objects (
 legislators 9 ! ages ^u :i* we are n[  
ent]+4 ,x w\ld seem z if ! rul]s ( our  
"t s\ght only to use m5 9 ord] to make  
?+s great2 ,i wi% t !y w\ld try a little
 m to make great m52 t !y w\ld set less 
value on ! "w1 & m ^u ! workman2 t !y   
w\ld nev] =get t a nation _c long rema9 
/rong :5 e man belong+ to x is          
individually weak1 & t no =m or         
comb9ation ( social polity has yet be5  
devis$1 to make an en]getic p out ( a   
community ( pusillanim\s & enfeebl$     
citiz5s4  ,i trace among/ our           

contempor>ies two contr>y notions :i*   
are equally injuri\s4 ,"o set ( m5 c    
p]ceive no?+ 9 ! pr9ciple ( equality b !
 an>*ical t5d5cies :i* x eng5d]s3 !y    
dread _! own free ag5cy--!y fe>         
!mselves4 ,o!r ?9k]s1 less num]\s b m   
enlight5$1 take a diff]5t view3 besides 
t track :i* />ts f ! pr9ciple ( equality
 to t]m9ate 9 an>*y1 !y h at la/        
discov]$ ! road :i* seems to lead m5 to 
inevitable s]vitude4 ,!y %ape _! s\ls   
be=eh& to ?is necess>y condition2 &1    
despair+ ( rema9+ free1 !y already d    
obeisance 9 _! he>ts to ! ma/] :o is    
soon to appe>4 ,! =m] ab&on fre$om1     
because !y ?9k x dang]\s2 ! latt]1      
because !y hold x to be impossible4 ,if 
,i _h ent]ta9$ ! latt] conviction1 ,i   
%\ld n h writt5 ?is book1 b ,i %\ld h   
conf9$ myself to deplor+ 9 secret !     
de/9y ( mank9d4 ,i h s\ght to po9t out !
 dang]s to :i* ! pr9ciple ( equality    
exposes ! indep5d5ce ( man1 because ,i  
firmly believe t ^! dang]s are ! mo/    
=midable1 z well z ! lea/ =ese51 ( all  

^? :i* futurity holds 9 /ore3 b ,i d n  
?9k t !y are insurm\ntable4 ,! m5 :o    
live 9 ! democratic ages ^u :i* we are  
ent]+ h naturally a ta/e = indep5d5ce3  
!y are naturally impati5t ( regulation1 
& !y are we>i$ by ! p]man5ce ev5 ( !    
condition !y !mselves pref]4 ,!y are    
fond ( p[]2 b !y are prone to despise & 
hate ^? :o wield x1 & !y easily elude   
its grasp by _! own mobility &          
insignificance4 ,^! prop5sities w always
 manife/ !mselves1 because !y orig9ate 9
 ! gr\ndwork ( society1 :i* w und]go no 
*ange3 = a long "t !y w prev5t !        
e/abli%m5t ( any despotism1 & !y w      
furni% fre% weapons to ea* succe$+      
g5]ation :i* %all /ruggle 9 favor ( !   
lib]ty ( mank9d4 ,let u !n look =w>d to 
! future ) t salut>y fe> :i* makes m5   
keep wat* & w>d = fre$om1 n ) t fa9t &  
idle t]ror :i* depresses & en]vates !   
he>t4     ,*apt] ,,viii3 ,g5]al ,survey 
,( ,! ,subject  ,be=e ,i close =ev] !   
!me t has deta9$ me s long1 ,i w\ld fa9 
take a p>t+ survey ( all ! v>i\s        

*>act]i/ics ( mod]n society1 &          
appreciate at la/ ! g5]al influ5ce to be
 ex]cis$ by ! pr9ciple ( equality ^u !  
fate ( mank9d2 b ,i am /opp$ by !       
difficulty ( ! task1 & 9 pres5ce ( s    
great an object my sight is tr\bl$1 & my
 reason fails4 ,! society ( ! mod]n _w  
:i* ,i h s\ght to del9eate1 & :i* ,i    
seek to judge1 has b j come into        
exi/5ce4 ,"t has n yet %ap$ x into      
p]fect =m3 ! great revolution by :i* x  
has be5 creat$ is n yet ov]3 & amid/ !  
occurr5ces ( our "t1 x is almo/         
impossible to disc]n :at w pass away ) !
 revolution itself1 & :at w survive its 
close4 ,! _w :i* is ris+ into exi/5ce is
 /ill half encumb]$ by ! rema9s ( ! _w  
:i* is wan+ into decay2 & amid/ ! va/   
p]plexity ( human affairs1 none c say h[
 mu* ( anci5t in/itutions & =m] mann]s w
 rema91 or h[ mu* w completely disappe>4
 ,al?\gh ! revolution :i* is tak+ place 
9 ! social condition1 ! laws1 ! op9ions1
 & ! feel+s ( m51 is /ill v f> f be+    
t]m9at$1 yet its results already admit (

 no comp>ison ) any?+ t ! _w has ev]    
be=e witness$4 ,i g back f age to age up
 to ! remote/ antiquity2 b ,i f9d no    
p>allel to :at is occurr+ be=e my eyes3 
z ! pa/ has ceas$ to ?r[ its light ^u ! 
future1 ! m9d ( man w&]s 9 obscurity4   
,nev]!less1 9 ! mid/ ( a prospect s     
wide1 s novel & s confus$1 "s ( ! m     
prom95t *>act]i/ics may already be      
disc]n$ & po9t$ out4 ,! good ?+s & !    
evils ( life are m equally di/ribut$ 9 !
 _w3 great weal? t5ds to disappe>1 !    
numb] ( small =tunes to increase2       
desires & gratifications are multipli$1 
b extraord9>y prosp]ity & irrem$iable   
p5ury are alike unkn[n4 ,! s5tim5t (    
ambition is univ]sal1 b ! scope (       
ambition is seldom va/4 ,ea* individual 
/&s ap>t 9 solit>y weakness2 b society  
at l>ge is active1 provid5t1 & p[]ful3 !
 p]=mances ( private p]sons are         
insignificant1 ^? ( ! ,/ate imm5se4 ,!re
 is little en]gy ( "*2 b mann]s are     
mild1 & laws humane4 ,if !re be few     
in/ances ( exalt$ h]oism or ( virtues ( 

! highe/1 brighte/1 & pure/ temp]1 m5's 
habits are regul>1 viol5ce is r>e1 &    
cruelty almo/ unkn[n4 ,human exi/5ce    
becomes long]1 & prop]ty m secure3 life 
is n adorn$ ) brilliant trophies1 b x is
 extremely easy & tranquil4 ,few        
pleasures are ei!r v ref9$ or v co>se2 &
 highly poli%$ mann]s are z uncommon z  
great brutality ( ta/es4 ,nei!r m5 (    
great le>n+1 nor extremely ignorant     
communities1 are to be met )2 g5ius     
becomes m r>e1 in=mation m diffus$4 ,!  
human m9d is impell$ by ! small ef=ts ( 
all mank9d comb9$ toge!r1 n by ! /r5u\s 
activity ( c]ta9 m54 ,!re is less       
p]fection1 b m abundance1 9 all !       
productions ( ! arts4 ,! ties ( race1 ( 
rank1 & ( c\ntry are relax$2 ! great    
bond ( humanity is /r5g!n$4 ,if ,i      
endeavor to f9d out ! mo/ g5]al & ! mo/ 
prom95t ( all ^! diff]5t *>act]i/ics1 ,i
 %all h occasion to p]ceive1 t :at is   
tak+ place 9 m5's =tunes manife/s itself
 "u a ?\s& o!r =ms4 ,almo/ all extremes 
are s(t5$ or blunt$3 all t 0 mo/ prom95t

 is sup]s$$ by "s mean t]m1 at once less
 l(ty & less l[1 less brilliant & less  
obscure1 ?an :at be=e exi/$ 9 ! _w4  ,:5
 ,i survey ?is c\ntless multitude (     
be+s1 %ap$ 9 ea* o!r's lik5ess1 amid/   
:om no?+ rises & no?+ falls1 ! sight (  
su* univ]sal uni=mity sadd5s & *ills me1
 & ,i am tempt$ to regret t /ate (      
society :i* has ceas$ to be4 ,:5 ! _w 0 
full ( m5 ( great importance & extreme  
insignificance1 ( great weal? & extreme 
pov]ty1 ( great le>n+ & extreme         
ignorance1 ,i turn$ aside f ! latt] to  
fix my obs]vation on ! =m] alone1 :o    
gratifi$ my sympa?ies4 ,b ,i admit t ?is
 gratification arose f my own weakness3 
x is because ,i am unable to see at once
 all t is ar\nd me1 t ,i am all[$ ?us to
 select & sep>ate ! objects ( my        
pr$ilection f among s _m o!rs4 ,su* is n
 ! case ) t almighty & et]nal ,be+ ^:   
gaze necess>ily includes ! :ole ( creat$
 ?+s1 & :o surveys di/9ctly1 ?\gh at    
once1 mank9d & man4 ,we may naturally   
believe t x is n ! s+ul> prosp]ity ( !  

few1 b ! great] well-be+ ( all1 :i* is  
mo/ pleas+ 9 ! sight ( ! ,creator &     
,pres]v] ( m54 ,:at appe>s to me to be  
man's decl9e1 is to ,8 eye advancem5t2  
:at afflicts me is acceptable to ,him4  
,a /ate ( equality is p]haps less       
elevat$1 b x is m j2 & its ju/ice       
con/itutes its greatness & its beauty4  
,i w\ld /rive !n to raise myself to ?is 
po9t ( ! div9e contemplation1 & !nce to 
view & to judge ! conc]ns ( m54  ,no    
man1 ^u ! e>?1 c z yet affirm absolutely
 & g5]ally1 t ! new /ate ( ! _w is bett]
 ?an its =m] "o2 b x is already easy to 
p]ceive t ?is /ate is diff]5t4 ,"s vices
 & "s virtues 7 s inh]5t 9 ! con/itution
 ( an ari/ocratic nation1 & are s       
opposite to ! "* ( a mod]n p1 t !y c    
nev] be infus$ into x2 "s good t5d5cies 
& "s bad prop5sities :i* 7 unkn[n to !  
=m]1 are natural to ! latt]2 "s ideas   
sugge/ !mselves spontane\sly to !       
imag9ation ( ! "o1 :i* are utt]ly       
repugnant to ! m9d ( ! o!r4 ,!y are l   
two di/9ct ord]s ( human be+s1 ea* ( :i*

 has its own m]its & defects1 its own   
advantages & its own evils4 ,c>e mu/    
!re=e be tak5 n to judge ! /ate (       
society1 :i* is n[ com+ into exi/5ce1 by
 notions d]iv$ f a /ate ( society :i* no
 long] exi/s2 = z ^! /ates ( society are
 exce$+ly diff]5t 9 _! /ructure1 !y _c  
be submitt$ to a j or fair comp>ison4 ,x
 w\ld be sc>cely m reasonable to require
 ( our own contempor>ies ! peculi>      
virtues :i* orig9at$ 9 ! social         
condition ( _! =efa!rs1 s9ce t social   
condition is itself fall51 & has drawn  
into "o promiscu\s ru9 ! good & evil :i*
 belong$ to x4  ,b z yet ^! ?+s are     
imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,i f9d t a great   
numb] ( my contempor>ies und]take to    
make a c]ta9 selection f among/ !       
in/itutions1 ! op9ions1 & ! ideas :i*   
orig9at$ 9 ! ari/ocratic con/itution (  
society z x 03 a portion ( ^! elem5ts !y
 w\ld will+ly rel9qui%1 b !y w\ld keep !
 rema9d] & transplant !m into _! new _w4
 ,i appreh5d t su* m5 are wa/+ _! "t &  
_! /r5g? 9 virtu\s b unpr(itable ef=ts4 

,! object is n to reta9 ! peculi>       
advantages :i* ! inequality ( conditions
 be/[s ^u mank9d1 b to secure ! new     
b5efits :i* equality may supply4 ,we h n
 to seek to make ourselves l our        
prog5itors1 b to /rive to "w out t      
species ( greatness & happ9ess :i* is   
our own4 ,= myself1 :o n[ look back f   
?is extreme limit ( my task1 & discov] f
 af>1 b at once1 ! v>i\s objects :i* h  
attract$ my m att5tive inve/igation ^u  
my way1 ,i am full ( appreh5sions & (   
hopes4 ,i p]ceive mighty dang]s :i* x is
 possible to w>d (f--mighty evils :i*   
may be avoid$ or alleviat$2 & ,i cl+ ) a
 firm] hold to ! belief1 t = democratic 
nations to be virtu\s & prosp]\s !y     
require b to w x4 ,i am aw>e t _m ( my  
contempor>ies ma9ta9 t nations are nev] 
_! own ma/]s "h bel[1 & t !y necess>ily 
obey "s insurm\ntable & un9tellig5t p[]1
 aris+ f ant]ior ev5ts1 f _! race1 or f 
! soil & climate ( _! c\ntry4 ,su*      
pr9ciples are false & c[>dly2 su*       
pr9ciples c nev] produce aught b feeble 

m5 & pusillanim\s nations4 ,provid5ce   
has n creat$ mank9d entirely indep5d5t  
or entirely free4 ,x is true t ar\nd e  
man a fatal circle is trac$1 beyond :i* 
he _c pass2 b )9 ! wide v]ge ( t circle 
he is p[]ful & free3 z x is ) man1 s )  
communities4 ,! nations ( our "t _c     
prev5t ! conditions ( m5 f becom+ equal2
 b x dep5ds ^u !mselves :e!r ! pr9ciple 
( equality is to lead !m to s]vitude or 
fre$om1 to k or b>b>ism1 to prosp]ity or
 to wret*$ness4     ,"p ,i4     ,app5dix
 ,a  ,= in=mation conc]n+ all ! c\ntries
 ( ! ,we/ :i* h n be5 visit$ by         
,europeans1 consult ! acc\nt ( two      
exp$itions und]tak5 at ! exp5se (       
,congress by ,major ,long4 ,?is travell]
 p>ticul>ly m5tions1 on ! subject ( !   
great ,am]ican des]t1 t a l9e may be    
drawn ne>ly p>allel to ! #bj? degree (  
longitude 99a 7m]idian ( ,wa%+ton71     
beg9n+ f ! ,r$ ,riv] & end+ at ! ,riv]  
,platte4 ,f ?is imag9>y l9e to ! ,rocky 
,m\nta9s1 :i* b\nd ! valley ( !         
,mississippi on ! we/1 lie imm5se pla9s1

 :i* are almo/ entirely cov]$ ) s&1     
incapable ( cultivation1 or scatt]$ ov] 
) masses ( granite4 ,9 summ]1 ^! pla9s  
are q de/itute ( wat]1 & no?+ is to be  
se5 on !m b h]ds ( buffaloes & wild     
horses4 ,"s hordes ( ,indians are also  
f\nd !re1 b 9 no great numb]s4 ,major   
,long 0 told t 9 travell+ nor?w>ds f !  
,riv] ,platte y f9d ! same des]t ly+    
con/antly on ! left2 b he 0 unable to   
asc]ta9 ! tru? ( ?is report4 ,h[ev]     
wor?y ( confid5ce may be ! n>rative (   
,major ,long1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t he    
only pass$ ?r\gh ! c\ntry ( :i* he      
speaks1 )\t deviat+ widely f ! l9e :i*  
he _h trac$ out = 8 j\rney4  ,footnote  
a3 ,! #bj? degree ( longitude1 accord+  
to ! m]idian ( ,wa%+ton1 agrees v ne>ly 
) ! #ig? degree on ! m]idian ( ,gre5wi*4
     ,app5dix ,b  ,s\? ,am]ica1 9 !     
region betwe5 ! tropics1 produces an    
incr$ible pr(usion ( climb+ plants1 (   
:i* ! flora ( ! ,antilles alone pres5ts 
u ) =ty diff]5t species4 ,among ! mo/   
graceful ( ^! %rubs is ! passion-fl[]1  

:i*1 accord+ to ,desc\rtiz1 gr[s ) su*  
luxuriance 9 ! ,antilles1 z to climb    
trees by means ( ! t5drils ) :i* x is   
provid$1 & =m mov+ b[]s ( ri* & elegant 
fe/oons1 decorat$ ) blue & purple fl[]s1
 & fragrant ) p]fume4 ,! ,mimosa sc&5s  
7,acacia a gr&es g\sses7 is a creep] (  
enorm\s & rapid gr[?1 :i* climbs f tree 
to tree1 & sometimes cov]s m ?an half a 
league4     ,app5dix ,c  ,! languages   
:i* are spok5 by ! ,indians ( ,am]ica1 f
 ! ,pole to ,cape ,horn1 are said to be 
all =m$ ^u ! same model1 & subject to ! 
same grammatical rules2 :5ce x may      
fairly be conclud$ t all ! ,indian      
nations sprang f ! same /ock4 ,ea* tribe
 ( ! ,am]ican cont95t speaks a diff]5t  
dialect2 b ! numb] ( languages1 prop]ly 
s call$1 is v small1 a fact :i* t5ds to 
prove t ! nations ( ! ,new ,_w _h n a v 
remote orig94 ,moreov]1 ! languages (   
,am]ica h a great degree ( regul>ity1 f 
:i* x seems probable t ! tribes :i*     
employ !m _h n und]gone any great       
revolutions1 or be5 incorporat$         

volunt>ily or by con/ra9t1 ) =eign      
nations4 ,= x is g5]ally ! union (      
sev]al languages into "o :i* produces   
grammatical irregul>ities4 ,x is n long 
s9ce ! ,am]ican languages1 especially ^?
 ( ! ,nor?1 fir/ attract$ ! s]i\s       
att5tion ( philologi/s1 :5 ! discov]y 0 
made t ?is idiom ( a b>b>\s p 0 !       
product ( a complicat$ sy/em ( ideas & v
 le>n$ comb9ations4 ,^! languages 7 f\nd
 to be v ri*1 & great pa9s _h be5 tak5  
at _! =mation to r5d] !m agreeable to ! 
e>4 ,! grammatical sy/em ( ! ,am]icans  
diff]s f all o!rs 9 sev]al po9ts1 b     
especially 9 ! foll[+3--,"s nations (   
,europe1 among/ o!rs ! ,g]mans1 h ! p[] 
( comb9+ at pleasure diff]5t            
expressions1 & ?us giv+ a complex s5se  
to c]ta9 words4 ,! ,indians h giv5 a mo/
 surpris+ ext5sion to ?is p[]1 s z to   
arrive at ! means ( connect+ a great    
numb] ( ideas ) a s+le t]m4 ,?is w be   
easily und]/ood ) ! help ( an example   
quot$ by ,mr4 ,duponceau1 9 ! ,memoirs (
 ! ,philosophical ,society ( ,am]ica3 ,a

 ,delaw>e woman play+ ) a cat or a "y   
dog1 says ?is writ]1 is he>d to pron\nce
 ! ^w kuligats*is1 :i* is ?us compos$3 k
 is ! sign ( ! second p]son1 & signifies
 ?\ or ?y2 uli is a "p ( ! ^w wulit1 :i*
 signifies beautiful1 pretty2 gat is    
ano!r fragm5t1 ( ! ^w wi*gat1 :i* means 
paw2 &1 la/ly1 s*is is a dim9utive giv+ 
! idea ( smallness4 ,?us 9 "o ^w !      
,indian woman has express$ ,?y pretty   
little paw4 ,take ano!r example ( !     
felicity ) :i* ! savages ( ,am]ica h    
compos$ _! words4 ,a "y man ( ,delaw>e  
is call$ pilape4 ,?is ^w is =m$ f       
pilsit1 *a/e1 innoc5t2 & l5ape1 man2    
viz41 man 9 8 purity & innoc5ce4 ,?is   
facility ( comb9+ words is mo/ rem>kable
 9 ! /range =mation ( _! v]bs4 ,! mo/   
complex action is (t5 express$ by a s+le
 v]b1 :i* s]ves to convey all ! %ades ( 
an idea by ! modification ( its         
con/ruction4 ,^? :o may wi% to exam9e m 
9 detail ?is subject1 :i* ,i h only     
glanc$ at sup]ficially1 %\ld read3--    
#a4 ,! correspond5ce ( ,mr4 ,duponceau &

 ! ,rev4 ,mr4 ,hecweld] relative to !   
,indian languages1 :i* is to be f\nd 9 !
 fir/ volume ( ! ,memoirs ( !           
,philosophical ,society ( ,am]ica1      
publi%$ at ,philadelphia1 #ahai1 by     
,abraham ,small2 vol4 i4 p4 #cef-dfd4   
#b4 ,! ,gramm> ( ! ,delaw>e or ! ,l5ape 
,language1 by ,geib]g]1 & ! preface (   
,mr4 ,duponceau4 ,all ^! are 9 ! same   
collection1 vol4 iii4  #c4 ,an excell5t 
acc\nt ( ^! works1 :i* is at ! end ( !  
six? volume ( ! ,am]ican ,encyclopa$ia4 
,app5dix ,d  ,see 9 ,*>levoix1 vol4 i4  
p4 #bce1 ! hi/ory ( ! fir/ w> :i* !     
,fr5* inhabitants ( ,canada c>ri$ on1 9 
#afaj1 aga9/ ! ,iroquois4 ,! latt]1 arm$
 ) b[s & arr[s1 (f]$ a desp]ate         
resi/ance to ! ,fr5* & _! allies4       
,*>levoix is n a great pa9t]1 yet he    
exhibits cle>ly en\gh1 9 ?is n>rative1 !
 contra/ betwe5 ! ,european mann]s & ^? 
( savages1 z well z ! diff]5t way 9 :i* 
! two races ( m5 und]/ood ! s5se (      
honor4 ,:5 ! ,fr5*1 says he1 seiz$ ^u ! 
beav]-sk9s :i* cov]$ ! ,indians :o _h   

fall51 ! ,hurons1 _! allies1 7 greatly  
(f5d$ at ?is proce$+2 b )\t hesitation  
!y set to "w 9 _! usual mann]1 inflict+ 
horrid cruelties ^u ! prison]s1 & dev\r+
 "o ( ^? :o _h be5 kill$1 :i* made !    
,fr5*m5 %udd]4 ,! b>b>ians prid$        
!mselves ^u a scrupul\sness :i* !y 7    
surpris$ at n f9d+ 9 our nation1 & c\ld 
n und]/& t !re 0 less to repreh5d 9 !   
/ripp+ ( dead bodies ?an 9 ! dev\r+ ( _!
 fle% l wild bea/s4 ,*>levoix1 9 ano!r  
place 7vol4 i4 p4 #bcj71 ?us describes !
 fir/ torture ( :i* ,*ampla9 0 an       
eyewitness1 & ! return ( ! ,hurons into 
_! own village4 ,hav+ proce$$ ab\t eight
 leagues1 says he1 our allies halt$2 &  
hav+ s+l$ out "o ( _! captives1 !y      
reproa*$ him ) all ! cruelties :i* he _h
 practis$ ^u ! w>riors ( _! nation :o _h
 fall5 into 8 h&s1 & told him t he might
 expect to be treat$ 9 l mann]2 add+1 t 
if he _h any _s he w\ld prove x by s++4 
,he imm$iately *ant$ =? 8 dea?-song1 &  
!n 8 w>-song1 & all ! songs he knew1 b 9
 a v m\rnful /ra91 says ,*ampla91 :o 0 n

 !n aw>e t all savage music has a       
melan*oly "*4 ,! tortures :i* succe$$1  
accompani$ by all ! horrors :i* we %all 
m5tion h]eaft]1 t]rifi$ ! ,fr5*1 :o made
 e ef=t to put a /op to !m1 b 9 va94 ,! 
foll[+ night1 "o ( ! ,hurons hav+ dreamt
 t !y 7 pursu$1 ! retreat 0 *ang$ to a  
real flight1 & ! savages nev] /opp$     
until !y 7 out ( ! rea* ( dang]4 ,!     
mom5t !y p]ceiv$ ! cab9s ( _! own       
village1 !y cut !mselves long /icks1 to 
:i* !y fa/5$ ! scalps :i* _h fall5 to _!
 %>e1 & c>ri$ !m 9 triumph4 ,at ?is     
sight1 ! wom5 swam to ! canoes1 :]e !y  
receiv$ ! bloody scalps f ! h&s ( _!    
husb&s1 & ti$ !m r\nd _! necks4 ,!      
w>riors (f]$ "o ( ^! horrible trophies  
to ,*ampla92 !y also pres5t$ him ) "s   
b[s & arr[s--! only spoils ( ! ,iroquois
 :i* !y _h v5tur$ to seize--entreat+ him
 to %[ !m to ! ,k+ ( ,france4 ,*ampla9  
liv$ a :ole w9t] q alone among ^!       
b>b>ians1 )\t be+ "u any al>m = 8 p]son 
or prop]ty4     ,app5dix ,e  ,al?\gh !  
,puritanical /rictness :i* presid$ ov] !

 e/abli%m5t ( ! ,engli% colonies 9      
,am]ica is n[ mu* relax$1 rem>kable     
traces ( x are /ill f\nd 9 _! habits &  
_! laws4 ,9 #agib1 at ! v "t :5 !       
anti-,*ri/ian republic ( ,france began  
its ephem]al exi/5ce1 ! legislative body
 ( ,massa*usetts promulgat$ ! foll[+    
law1 to compel ! citiz5s to obs]ve !    
,sabba?4 ,we give ! preamble & !        
pr9cipal articles ( ?is law1 :i* is     
wor?y ( ! read]'s att5tion3 ,:]eas1 says
 ! legislator1 ! obs]vation ( ! ,sunday 
is an affair ( public int]e/2 inasmu* z 
x produces a necess>y susp5sion ( labor1
 leads m5 to reflect ^u ! duties ( life1
 & ! errors to :i* human nature is      
liable1 & provides = ! public & private 
wor%ip ( ,god1 ! creator & gov]nor ( !  
univ]se1 & = ! p]=mance ( su* acts (    
*>ity z are ! ornam5t & com=t ( ,*ri/ian
 societies3--,:]eas irreligi\s or       
light-m9d$ p]sons1 =gett+ ! duties :i* !
 ,sabba? imposes1 & ! b5efits :i* ^!    
duties conf] on society1 are kn[n to    
pr(ane its sanctity1 by foll[+ _!       

pleasures or _! affairs2 ?is way ( act+ 
be+ contr>y to _! own int]e/ z          
,*ri/ians1 & calculat$ to annoy ^? :o d 
n foll[ _! example2 be+ also ( great    
injury to society at l>ge1 by spread+ a 
ta/e = dissipation & dissolute mann]s2  
,be x enact$ & orda9$ by ! ,gov]nor1    
,c\ncil1 & ,repres5tatives conv5$ 9     
,g5]al ,c\rt ( ,assembly1 t all & e     
p]son & p]sons %all on t day c>efully   
apply !mselves to ! duties ( religion & 
piety1 t no tradesman or lab\r] %all    
ex]cise 8 ord9>y call+1 & t no game or  
recreation %all be us$ on ! ,"l's ,day1 
^u pa9 ( =feit+ t5 %ill+s4  ,t no "o    
%all travel on t day1 or any "p !re(1 "u
 pa9 ( =feit+ tw5ty %ill+s2 t no vessel 
%all leave a h>b\r ( ! colony2 t no     
p]sons %all keep outside ! meet+-h\se   
dur+ ! "t ( public wor%ip1 or pr(ane !  
"t by play+ or talk+1 on p5alty ( five  
%ill+s4  ,public-h\ses %all n ent]ta9   
any o!r ?an /rang]s or lodg]s1 "u p5alty
 ( five %ill+s = e p]son f\nd dr9k+ &   
abid+ !re94  ,any p]son 9 heal?1 :o1 )\t

 suffici5t reason1 %all omit to wor%ip  
,god 9 public dur+ ?ree mon?s1 %all be  
condemn$ to a f9e ( t5 %ill+s4  ,any    
p]son guilty ( misbehavi\r 9 a place (  
public wor%ip1 %all be f9$ f five to =ty
 %ill+s4  ,^! laws are to be en=c$ by ! 
ty?+-m5 ( ea* t[n%ip1 :o h au?ority to  
visit public-h\ses on ! ,sunday4 ,!     
innkeep] :o %all refuse !m admittance1  
%all be f9$ =ty %ill+s = su* (f5ce4  ,! 
ty?+-m5 are to /op travell]s1 & require 
( !m _! reason = be+ on ! road on       
,sunday2 anyone refus+ to answ]1 %all be
 s5t5c$ to pay a f9e n exce$+ five p\nds
 /]l+4 ,if ! reason giv5 by ! travell]  
be n deem$ by ! ty?+-man suffici5t1 he  
may br+ ! travell] be=e ! ju/ice ( !    
peace ( ! di/rict4 7,law ( ,m>* #h1     
#agib2 ,g5]al ,laws ( ,massa*usetts1    
vol4 i4 p4 #daj47  ,on ,m>* #aa1 #agig1 
a new law increas$ ! am\nt ( f9es1 half 
( :i* 0 to be giv5 to ! in=m]4 7,same   
collection1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ebe47 ,on      
,febru>y #af1 #ahaf1 a new law confirm$ 
^! same measures4 7,same collection1    

vol4 ii4 p4 #dje47 ,simil> enactm5ts    
exi/ 9 ! laws ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1   
revis$ 9 #ahbg & #ahbh4 7,see ,revis$   
,/atutes1 ,"p ,i4 *apt] #bj1 p4 #fge47  
,9 ^! x is decl>$ t no "o is all[$ on ! 
,sabba? to sport1 to fi%1 to play at    
games1 or to frequ5t h\ses :]e liquor is
 sold4 ,no "o c travel1 except 9 case ( 
necessity4 ,& ?is is n ! only trace :i* 
! religi\s /rictness & au/]e mann]s ( ! 
fir/ emigrants h left beh9d !m 9 !      
,am]ican laws4 ,9 ! ,revis$ ,/atutes ( !
 ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 vol4 i4 p4 #ffb1 is
 ! foll[+ clause3--  ,:oev] %all w9 or  
lose 9 ! space ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 by gam+
 or bett+1 ! sum ( tw5ty-five doll>s1   
%all be f\nd guilty ( a misdemean\r1 &  
^u conviction %all be condemn$ to pay a 
f9e equal to at lea/ five times ! value 
( ! sum lo/ or won2 :i* %all be paid to 
! inspector ( ! poor ( ! t[n%ip4 ,he t  
loses tw5ty-five doll>s or m may br+ an 
action to recov] !m2 & if he neglects to
 d s ! inspector ( ! poor may prosecute 
! w9n]1 & oblige him to pay into !      

poor's box bo? ! sum he has ga9$ & ?ree 
times z mu* besides4  ,! laws we quote f
 are ( rec5t date2 b !y are             
un9telligible )\t go+ back to ! v orig9 
( ! colonies4 ,i h no d\bt t 9 our days 
! p5al "p ( ^! laws is v r>ely appli$4  
,laws pres]ve _! inflexibility1 long    
aft] ! mann]s ( a nation h yield$ to !  
influ5ce ( "t4 ,x is /ill true1 h[ev]1 t
 no?+ /rikes a =eign] on 8 arrival 9    
,am]ica m =cibly ?an ! reg>d paid to !  
,sabba?4 ,!re is "o1 9 p>ticul>1 ( !    
l>ge ,am]ican cities1 9 :i* all social  
movem5ts beg9 to be susp5d$ ev5 on      
,saturday ev5+4 ,y trav]se its /reets at
 ! h\r at :i* y expect m5 9 ! middle (  
life to be engag$ 9 bus9ess1 & "y p 9   
pleasure2 & y meet ) solitude & sil5ce4 
,n only h all ceas$ to "w1 b !y appe> to
 h ceas$ to exi/4 ,nei!r ! movem5ts (   
indu/ry are he>d1 nor ! acc5ts ( joy1   
nor ev5 ! confus$ murmur :i* arises f ! 
mid/ ( a great city4 ,*a9s are hung     
across ! /reets 9 ! neighborhood ( !    
*ur*es2 ! half-clos$ %utt]s ( ! h\ses   

sc>cely admit a ray ( sun into ! dwell+s
 ( ! citiz5s4 ,n[ & !n y p]ceive a      
solit>y individual :o glides sil5tly    
along ! des]t$ /reets & lanes4 ,next    
day1 at e>ly dawn1 ! roll+ ( c>riages1 !
 noise ( hamm]s1 ! cries ( ! population1
 beg9 to make !mselves he>d aga94 ,!    
city is awake4 ,an eag] cr[d ha/5s t[>ds
 ! resort ( comm]ce & indu/ry2 ev]y?+   
ar\nd y bespeaks motion1 bu/le1 hurry4  
,a fev]i% activity succe$s to ! le?>gic 
/upor ( ye/]day2 y might almo/ suppose t
 !y _h b "o day to acquire weal? & to   
enjoy x4     ,app5dix ,f  ,x is         
unnecess>y = me to say1 t 9 ! *apt] :i* 
has j be5 read1 ,i h n _h ! int5tion (  
giv+ a hi/ory ( ,am]ica4 ,my only object
 0 to enable ! read] to appreciate !    
influ5ce :i* ! op9ions & mann]s ( ! fir/
 emigrants _h ex]cis$ ^u ! fate ( !     
diff]5t colonies1 & ( ! ,union 9 g5]al4 
,i h !re=e conf9$ myself to ! quotation 
( a few deta*$ fragm5ts4 ,i d n "k :e!r 
,i am deceiv$1 b x appe>s to me t1 by   
pursu+ ! pa? :i* ,i h m]ely po9t$ out1 x

 w\ld be easy to pres5t su* pictures ( !
 ,am]ican republics z w\ld n be unwor?y 
! att5tion ( ! public1 & c\ld n fail to 
sugge/ to ! /atesman matt] = reflection4
 ,n be+ able to devote myself to ?is    
labor1 ,i am anxi\s to r5d] x easy to   
o!rs2 &1 = ?is purpose1 ,i subjo9 a %ort
 catalogue & analysis ( ! works :i* seem
 to me ! mo/ important to consult4  ,at 
! head ( ! g5]al docum5ts :i* x w\ld be 
advantage\s to exam9e ,i place ! "w     
entitl$ ,an ,hi/orical ,collection (    
,/ate ,pap]s1 & o!r au!ntic ,docum5ts1  
int5d$ z ,mat]ials = a ,hi/ory ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 by ,eb5ez]     
,has>d4 ,! fir/ volume ( ?is            
compilation1 :i* 0 pr9t$ at             
,philadelphia 9 #agib1 conta9s a lit]al 
copy ( all ! *>t]s grant$ by ! ,cr[n (  
,engl& to ! emigrants1 z well z !       
pr9cipal acts ( ! colonial gov]nm5ts1   
dur+ ! comm5cem5t ( _! exi/5ce4 ,among/ 
o!r au!ntic docum5ts1 we "h f9d a great 
_m relat+ to ! affairs ( ,new ,engl& &  
,virg9ia dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,! second      

volume is almo/ entirely devot$ to !    
acts ( ! ,conf$]ation ( #afdc4 ,?is     
f$]al compact1 :i* 0 ent]$ into by !    
colonies ( ,new ,engl& ) ! view ( resi/+
 ! ,indians1 0 ! fir/ in/ance ( union   
af=d$ by ! ,anglo-,am]icans4 ,!re 7     
besides _m o!r conf$]ations ( ! same    
nature1 be=e ! fam\s "o ( #aggf1 :i*    
br\ght ab\t ! indep5d5ce ( ! colonies4  
,ea* colony has1 besides1 its own       
hi/oric monum5ts1 "s ( :i* are extremely
 curi\s2 beg9n+ ) ,virg9ia1 ! ,/ate :i* 
0 fir/ peopl$4 ,! e>lie/ hi/orian (     
,virg9ia 0 its f\nd]1 ,capta9 ,john     
,smi?4 ,capta9 ,smi? has left u an      
octavo volume1 entitl$ ,! g5]all        
,hi/orie ( ,virg9ia & ,new ,engl&1 by   
,capta9 ,john ,smi?1 sometymes ,gov]nor 
9 ^? ,c\ntryes1 & ,admirall ( ,new      
,engl&2 pr9t$ at ,london 9 #afbg4 ,! "w 
is adorn$ ) curi\s maps & engrav+s ( !  
"t :5 x appe>$2 ! n>rative ext5ds f !   
ye> #aehd to #afbf4 ,smi?'s "w is highly
 & des]v$ly e/eem$4 ,! au?or 0 "o ( !   
mo/ celebrat$ adv5tur]s ( a p]iod (     

rem>kable adv5ture2 8 book brea!s t     
ardor = discov]y1 t _s ( ent]prise1 :i* 
*>act]iz$ ! m5 ( 8 "t1 :5 ! mann]s (    
*ivalry 7 unit$ to zeal = comm]ce1 &    
made subs]vi5t to ! acquisition ( weal?4
 ,b ,capta9 ,smi? is mo/ rem>kable =    
unit+ to ! virtues :i* *>act]iz$ 8      
contempor>ies sev]al qualities to :i* !y
 7 g5]ally /rang]s2 8 /yle is simple &  
concise1 8 n>ratives be> ! /amp ( tru?1 
& 8 descriptions are free f false       
ornam5t4 ,?is au?or ?r[s mo/ valuable   
light ^u ! /ate & condition ( ! ,indians
 at ! "t :5 ,nor? ,am]ica 0 fir/        
discov]$4  ,! second hi/orian to consult
 is ,bev]ley1 :o comm5ces 8 n>rative ) !
 ye> #aehe1 & ends x ) #agjj4 ,! fir/ "p
 ( 8 book conta9s hi/orical docum5ts1   
prop]ly s call$1 relative to ! infancy (
 ! colony4 ,! second af=ds a mo/ curi\s 
picture ( ! /ate ( ! ,indians at ?is    
remote p]iod4 ,! ?ird conveys v cle>    
ideas conc]n+ ! mann]s1 social          
conditions1 laws1 & political cu/oms ( !
 ,virg9ians 9 ! au?or's lifetime4       

,bev]ley 0 a native ( ,virg9ia1 :i*     
occasions him to say at ! beg9n+ ( 8    
book1 t he entreats 8 read]s n to       
ex]cise _! critical sev]ity ^u x1 s9ce1 
hav+ be5 born 9 ! ,indies1 he does n    
aspire to purity ( language4 ,not)/&+   
?is colonial mode/y1 ! au?or %[s ?r\gh\t
 8 book ! impati5ce ) :i* he endures !  
supremacy ( ! "m-c\ntry4 ,9 ?is "w (    
,bev]ley are also f\nd num]\s traces ( t
 _s ( civil lib]ty :i* animat$ ! ,engli%
 colonies ( ,am]ica at ! "t :5 he wrote4
 ,he also %[s ! diss5sions :i* exi/$    
among !m1 & ret>d$ _! indep5d5ce4       
,bev]ley dete/s 8 ,ca?olic neighbors (  
,m>yl& ev5 m ?an he hates ! ,engli%     
gov]nm5t3 8 /yle is simple1 8 n>rative  
int]e/+1 & app>5tly tru/wor?y4  ,i saw 9
 ,am]ica ano!r "w :i* ought to be       
consult$1 entitl$ ,! ,hi/ory ( ,virg9ia1
 by ,william ,/i?4 ,?is book af=ds "s   
curi\s details1 b ,i ?\ght x long &     
diffuse4 ,! mo/ anci5t z well z ! be/   
docum5t to be consult$ on ! hi/ory (    
,c>ol9a1 is a "w 9 small qu>to1 entitl$ 

,! ,hi/ory ( ,c>ol9a1 by ,john ,lawson1 
pr9t$ at ,london 9 #agah4 ,?is "w       
conta9s1 9 ! fir/ "p1 a j\rney (        
discov]y 9 ! we/ ( ,c>ol9a2 ! acc\nt (  
:i*1 giv5 9 ! =m ( a j\rnal1 is 9 g5]al 
confus$ & sup]ficial2 b x conta9s a v   
/rik+ description ( ! mortality caus$   
among ! savages ( t "t bo? by ! smallpox
 & ! immod]ate use ( br&y2 ) a curi\s   
picture ( ! corruption ( mann]s preval5t
 among/ !m1 :i* 0 increas$ by ! pres5ce 
( ,europeans4 ,! second "p ( ,lawson's  
book is tak5 up ) a description ( !     
physical condition ( ,c>ol9a1 & its     
productions4 ,9 ! ?ird "p1 ! au?or gives
 an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ! mann]s1 cu/oms1 &
 gov]nm5t ( ! ,indians at t p]iod4 ,!re 
is a good deal ( tal5t & orig9ality 9   
?is "p ( ! "w4 ,lawson concludes 8      
hi/ory ) a copy ( ! *>t] grant$ to !    
,c>ol9as 9 ! reign ( ,*>les ,,ii4 ,!    
g5]al tone ( ?is "w is light1 & (t5     
lic5ti\s1 =m+ a p]fect contra/ to !     
solemn /yle ( ! works publi%$ at ! same 
p]iod 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,lawson's hi/ory is

 extremely sc>ce 9 ,am]ica1 & _c be     
procur$ 9 ,europe4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a    
copy ( x 9 ! ,royal ,libr>y at ,p>is4   
,f ! s\!rn extremity ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 
,i pass at once to ! nor!rn limit2 z !  
int]m$iate space 0 n peopl$ till a lat] 
p]iod4 ,i mu/ fir/ po9t out a v curi\s  
compilation1 entitl$ ,collection ( !    
,massa*usetts ,hi/orical ,society1 pr9t$
 = ! fir/ "t at ,bo/on 9 #agib1 &       
repr9t$ 9 #ahjf4 ,! collection ( :i* ,i 
speak1 & :i* is cont9u$ to ! pres5t day1
 conta9s a great numb] ( v valuable     
docum5ts relat+ to ! hi/ory ( ! diff]5t 
,/ates 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,among !m are     
lett]s :i* h nev] be5 publi%$1 & au!ntic
 pieces :i* _h be5 buri$ 9 prov9cial    
ar*ives4 ,! :ole "w ( ,gook91 conc]n+ ! 
,indians1 is ins]t$ !re4  ,i h m5tion$  
sev]al times 9 ! *apt] to :i* ?is note  
relates1 ! "w ( ,na?aniel ,norton       
entitl$ ,new ,engl&'s ,memorial2        
suffici5tly1 p]haps1 to prove t x       
des]ves ! att5tion ( ^? :o w\ld be      
conv]sant ) ! hi/ory ( ,new ,engl&4 ,?is

 book is 9 octavo1 & 0 repr9t$ at ,bo/on
 9 #ahbf4  ,! mo/ valuable & important  
au?ority :i* exi/s ^u ! hi/ory ( ,new   
,engl&1 is ! "w ( ! ,rev4 ,cotton ,ma!r1
 entitl$ ,magnalia ,*ri/i ,am]icana1 or 
! ,ecclesia/ical ,hi/ory ( ,new ,engl&1 
#afbj-afih1 #b vols4 #hvo1 repr9t$ at   
,h>t=d1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 #ahbj4 99b ,!  
au?or divid$ 8 "w into sev5 books4 ,!   
fir/ pres5ts ! hi/ory ( ! ev5ts :i*     
prep>$ & br\ght ab\t ! e/abli%m5t ( ,new
 ,engl&4 ,! second conta9s ! lives ( !  
fir/ gov]nors & *ief magi/rates :o      
presid$ ov] ! c\ntry4 ,! ?ird is devot$ 
to ! lives & labors ( ! evangelical     
m9i/]s :o1 dur+ ! same p]iod1 _h ! c>e (
 s\ls4 ,9 ! f\r? ! au?or relates !      
in/itution & progress ( ! ,univ]sity (  
,cambridge 7,massa*usetts74 ,9 ! fif? he
 describes ! pr9ciples & ! discipl9e ( !
 ,*ur* ( ,new ,engl&4 ,! six? is tak5 up
 9 retrac+ c]ta9 facts1 :i*1 9 ! op9ion 
( ,ma!r1 prove ! m]ciful int]position ( 
,provid5ce 9 behalf ( ! inhabitants (   
,new ,engl&4 ,la/ly1 9 ! sev5?1 ! au?or 

gives an acc\nt ( ! h]esies & ! tr\bles 
to :i* ! ,*ur* ( ,new ,engl& 0 expos$4  
,cotton ,ma!r 0 an evangelical m9i/] :o 
0 born at ,bo/on1 & pass$ 8 life !re4 ,8
 n>ratives are di/+ui%$ by ! same ardor 
& religi\s zeal :i* l$ to ! f\ndation ( 
! colonies ( ,new ,engl&4 ,traces ( bad 
ta/e sometimes occur 9 8 mann] ( writ+2 
b he int]e/s1 because he is full (      
en?usiasm4 ,he is (t5 intol]ant1 /ill   
(t5] cr$ul\s1 b he nev] betrays an      
int5tion to deceive4 ,sometimes 8 book  
conta9s f9e passages1 & true & pr(\nd   
reflections1 su* z ! foll[+3--  ,be=e ! 
arrival ( ! ,puritans1 says he 7vol4 i4 
*ap4 iv471 !re 7 m ?an a few attempts ( 
! ,engli% to p & improve ! p>ts ( ,new  
,engl& :i* 7 to ! nor?w>d ( ,new        
,plym\?2 b ! designs ( ^? attempts be+  
aim$ no high] ?an ! advancem5t ( "s     
worldly int]e/s1 a con/ant s]ies (      
disa/]s has conf\nd$ !m1 until !re 0 a  
plantation erect$ ^u ! nobl] designs (  
,*ri/ianity3 & t plantation ?\gh x has  
_h m adv]s>ies ?an p]haps any "o ^u e>?1

 yet1 hav+ obta9$ help f ,god1 x        
cont9ues to ?is day4 ,ma!r occasionally 
relieves ! au/]ity ( 8 descriptions )   
images full ( t5d] feel+3 aft] hav+     
spok5 ( an ,engli% lady ^: religi\s     
ardor _h br\ght h] to ,am]ica ) h]      
husb&1 & :o soon aft] sank "u ! fatigues
 & privations ( exile1 he adds1 ,z = h] 
virtu\s husb&1 ,isaac ,johnson1         
,he try$      ,to live )\t h]1 lik$ x n1
 & dy$4  ,footnote b3 ,a folio edition (
 ?is "w 0 publi%$ 9 ,london 9 #agjb4    
,ma!r's "w gives an admirable picture ( 
! "t & c\ntry :i* he describes4 ,9 8    
acc\nt ( ! motives :i* l$ ! ,puritans to
 seek an asylum beyond seas1 he         
says3--,! ,god ( ,heav5 s]v$1 z x 71 a  
summons ^u ! spirits ( 8 p 9 ! ,engli%  
nation1 /irr+ up ! spirits ( ?\s&s :i*  
nev] saw ! faces ( ea* o!r1 ) a mo/     
unanim\s incl9ation to leave all !      
pleasant accommodations ( _! native     
c\ntry1 & g ov] a t]rible ocean1 into a 
m t]rible des]t1 = ! pure enjoym5t ( all
 8 ord9ances4 ,x is n[ reasonable t1    

be=e we pass any fur!r1 ! reasons ( 8   
und]tak+ %\ld be m exactly made kn[n    
unto po/]ity1 especially unto ! po/]ity 
( ^? t 7 ! und]tak]s1 le/ !y come at    
l5g? to =get & neglect ! true int]e/ (  
,new ,engl&4 ,:]e=e ,i %all n[          
transcribe "s ( !m f a manuscript1 :]e9 
!y 7 !n t5d]$ unto consid]ation3  ,g5]al
 ,consid]ations = ! ,plantation ( ,new  
,engl&  ,fir/1 ,x w be a s]vice unto !  
,*ur* ( great consequ5ce1 to c>ry !     
,gospel unto ^? p>ts ( ! _w1 & raise a  
bulw>k aga9/ ! k+dom ( ,anti*ri/1 :i* ! 
,jesuits lab\r to re> up 9 all p>ts ( ! 
_w4  ,secondly1 ,all o!r ,*ur*es (      
,europe h be5 br\ght "u desolations2 & x
 may be fe>$ t ! l judgm5ts are com+ ^u 
u2 & :o kn[s b ,god ha? provid$ ?is     
place to be a refuge = _m :om he means  
to save out ( ! g5]al de/ruction8       
,?irdly1 ,! l& gr[s we>y ( h]           
inhabitants1 insomu* t man1 :i* is ! mo/
 preci\s ( all creatures1 is "h m vile &
 base ?an ! e>? he treads ^u2 *ildr51   
neighb\rs1 & fri5ds1 especially ! poor1 

are c\nt$ ! greate/ burd5s1 :i*1 if ?+s 
7 "r1 w\ld be ! *iefe/ ( e>?ly bless+s4 
,f\r?ly1 ,we are gr[n to t intemp]ance 9
 all excess ( riot1 z no mean e/ate     
almo/ w suffice a man to keep sail ) 8  
equals1 & he t fails 9 x mu/ live 9     
scorn & contempt3 h5ce x comes to pass1 
t all arts & trades are c>ri$ 9 t       
deceitful mann] & unrighte\s c\rse1 z x 
is almo/ impossible = a good upright man
 to ma9ta9 8 con/ant *>ge & live        
com=tably 9 !m4  ,fif?ly1 ,! s*ools (   
le>n+ & religion are s corrupt$1 z      
7besides ! unsupportable *>ge (         
education7 mo/ *ildr51 ev5 ! be/1       
wittie/1 & ( ! faire/ hopes1 are p]v]t$1
 corrupt$1 & utt]ly ov]?r[n by !        
multitude ( evil examples & lic5ti\s    
behavi\rs 9 ^! sem9>ies4  ,six?ly1 ,!   
:ole e>? is ! ,"l's g>d51 & he ha? giv5 
x to ! sons ( ,adam1 to be till$ &      
improv$ by !m3 :y1 !n1 %\ld we /& />v+  
"h = places ( habitation1 & 9 ! meantime
 suff] :ole c\ntries1 z pr(itable = !   
use ( man1 to lie wa/e )\t any          

improvem5t8  ,sev5?ly1 ,:at c be a bett]
 or nobl] "w1 & m wor?y ( a ,*ri/ian1   
?an to erect & support a re=m$ p>ticul> 
,*ur* 9 its infancy1 & unite our =ces ) 
su* a company ( fai?ful p1 z by timely  
assi/ance may gr[ /rong] & prosp]2 b =  
want ( x1 may be put to great haz>ds1 if
 n be :olly ru9$8  ,eigh?ly1 ,if any su*
 z are kn[n to be godly1 & live 9 weal? 
& prosp]ity "h1 %all =sake all ?is to   
jo9 ) ?is re=m$ ,*ur*1 & ) x run ! haz>d
 ( an h>d & mean condition1 x w be an   
example ( great use1 bo? = ! remov+ (   
sc&al & to give m life unto ! fai? (    
,god's p 9 _! pray]s = ! plantation1 &  
also to enc\rage o!rs to jo9 ! m will+ly
 9 x4  ,fur!r on1 :5 he decl>es !       
pr9ciples ( ! ,*ur* ( ,new ,engl& )     
respect to morals1 ,ma!r inveighs )     
viol5ce aga9/ ! cu/om ( dr9k+ heal?s at 
table1 :i* he d5\nces z a pagan &       
abom9able practice4 ,he proscribes ) !  
same rigor all ornam5ts = ! hair us$ by 
! female sex1 z well z _! cu/om ( hav+ !
 arms & neck uncov]$4 ,9 ano!r "p ( 8 "w

 he relates sev]al in/ances ( wit*craft 
:i* _h al>m$ ,new ,engl&4 ,x is pla9 t !
 visible action ( ! devil 9 ! affairs ( 
?is _w appe>$ to him an inconte/able &  
evid5t fact4  ,?is "w ( ,cotton ,ma!r   
displays1 9 _m places1 ! _s ( civil     
lib]ty & political indep5d5ce :i*       
*>act]iz$ ! times 9 :i* he liv$4 ,_!    
pr9ciples respect+ gov]nm5t are         
discov]able at e page4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 
! inhabitants ( ,massa*usetts1 9 ! ye>  
#afcj1 t5 ye>s aft] ! f\ndation (       
,plym\?1 are f\nd to h devot$ ,p\nd #djj
 /]l+ to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,univ]sity (  
,cambridge4 ,9 pass+ f ! g5]al docum5ts 
relative to ! hi/ory ( ,new ,engl& to ^?
 :i* describe ! sev]al ,/ates compris$  
)9 its limits1 ,i ought fir/ to notice  
,! ,hi/ory ( ! ,colony ( ,massa*usetts1 
by ,hut*9son1 ,lieut5ant-,gov]nor ( !   
,massa*usetts ,prov9ce1 #b vols4 #hvo4  
,! hi/ory ( ,hut*9son1 :i* ,i h sev]al  
times quot$ 9 ! *apt] to :i* ?is note   
relates1 comm5ces 9 ! ye> #afbh1 & ends 
9 #agej4 ,?r\gh\t ! "w !re is a /rik+   

air ( tru? & ! greate/ simplicity (     
/yle3 x is full ( m9ute details4 ,! be/ 
hi/ory to consult conc]n+ ,connecticut  
is t ( ,b5jam9 ,trumbull1 entitl$ ,a    
,complete ,hi/ory ( ,connecticut1 ,civil
 & ,ecclesia/ical1 #afcj-agfd1 #b vols4 
#hvo1 pr9t$ 9 #ahah at ,new ,hav54 ,?is 
hi/ory conta9s a cle> & calm acc\nt (   
all ! ev5ts :i* happ5$ 9 ,connecticut   
dur+ ! p]iod giv5 9 ! title4 ,! au?or   
drew f ! be/ s\rces1 & 8 n>rative be>s !
 /amp ( tru?4 ,all t he says ( ! e>ly   
days ( ,connecticut is extremely curi\s4
 ,see especially ! ,con/itution ( #afci1
 vol4 i4 *4 vi4 p4 #ajj2 & also ! ,p5al 
,laws ( ,connecticut1 vol4 i4 *4 vii4 p4
 #abc4  ,! ,hi/ory ( ,new ,hamp%ire1 by 
,j]emy ,belknap1 is a "w held 9 m]it$   
e/imation4 ,x 0 pr9t$ at ,bo/on 9 #agib1
 9 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,! ?ird *apt] ( ! fir/
 volume is p>ticul>ly wor?y ( att5tion =
 ! valuable details x af=ds on !        
political & religi\s pr9ciples ( !      
,puritans1 on ! causes ( _! emigration1 
& on _! laws4 ,! foll[+ curi\s quotation

 is giv5 f a s]mon deliv]$ 9 #affc3--;,x
 conc]ne? ,new ,engl& always to rememb] 
t !y are a plantation religi\s1 n a     
plantation ( trade4 ,! pr(ession ( !    
purity ( doctr9e1 wor%ip1 & discipl9e1  
is writt5 ^u h] =ehead4 ,let m]*ants1 & 
su* z are increas+ c5t4 p] c5t41 rememb]
 ?is1 t worldly ga9 0 n ! end & design (
 ! p ( ,new ,engl&1 b religion4 ,& if   
any man among u make religion z twelve1 
& ! _w z ?irte51 su* an "o ha? n ! _s ( 
a true ,new ,engli%man4 ,! read] (      
,belknap w f9d 9 8 "w m g5]al ideas1 & m
 /r5g? ( ?\ght1 ?an are to be met ) 9 ! 
,am]ican hi/orians ev5 to ! pres5t day4 
,among ! ,c5tral ,/ates :i* des]ve our  
att5tion = _! remote orig91 ,new ,york &
 ,p5nsylvania are ! =emo/4 ,! be/ hi/ory
 we h ( ! =m] is entitl$ ,a ,hi/ory (   
,new ,york1 by ,william ,smi?1 pr9t$ at 
,london 9 #ageg4 ,smi? gives u important
 details ( ! w>s betwe5 ! ,fr5* &       
,engli% 9 ,am]ica4 ,8 is ! be/ acc\nt ( 
! fam\s conf$]ation ( ! ,iroquois4  ,)  
respect to ,p5nsylvania1 ,i _c d bett]  

?an po9t out ! "w ( ,pr\d1 entitl$ ,!   
,hi/ory ( ,p5nsylvania1 f ! orig9al     
,in/itution & ,settlem5t ( t ,prov9ce1  
"u ! fir/ ,proprietor & ,gov]nor1       
,william ,p5n1 9 #afha1 till aft] ! ye> 
#agdb1 by ,rob]t ,pr\d1 #b vols4 #hvo1  
pr9t$ at ,philadelphia 9 #agig4 ,?is "w 
is des]v+ ( ! especial att5tion ( !     
read]2 x conta9s a mass ( curi\s        
docum5ts conc]n+ ,p5n1 ! doctr9e ( !    
,quak]s1 & ! "*1 mann]s1 & cu/oms ( !   
fir/ inhabitants ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,i ne$ 
n add t among ! mo/ important docum5ts  
relat+ to ?is ,/ate are ! works ( ,p5n  
himself1 & ^? ( ,frankl94     ,"p ,,ii4 
,app5dix ,g  ,we read 9 ,jeff]son's     
,memoirs z foll[s3--  ,at ! "t ( ! fir/ 
settlem5t ( ! ,engli% 9 ,virg9ia1 :5 l& 
0 to be _h = little or no?+1 "s provid5t
 p]sons hav+ obta9$ l>ge grants ( x1 &  
be+ desir\s ( ma9ta9+ ! spl5dor ( _!    
families1 entail$ _! prop]ty ^u _!      
desc5dants4 ,! transmission ( ^! e/ates 
f g5]ation to g5]ation1 to m5 :o bore ! 
same "n1 _h ! effect ( rais+ up a di/9ct

 class ( families1 :o1 possess+ by law !
 privilege ( p]petuat+ _! weal?1 =m$ by 
^! means a sort ( patrician ord]1       
di/+ui%$ by ! gr&eur & luxury ( _!      
e/abli%m5ts4 ,f ?is ord] x 0 t ! ,k+    
usually *ose 8 c\ncillors ( /ate4 99c   
,footnote c3 ,?is passage is extract$ & 
translat$ f ,m4 ,conseil's "w ^u ! life 
( ,jeff]son1 entitl$ ,melanges          
,politiques et ,philosophiques de       
,jeff]son4  ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 !       
pr9cipal clauses ( ! ,engli% law        
respect+ desc5t h be5 univ]sally        
reject$4 ,! fir/ rule t we foll[1 says  
,mr4 ,k5t1 t\*+ inh]itance1 is !        
foll[+3--,if a man dies inte/ate1 8     
prop]ty goes to 8 heirs 9 a direct l9e4 
,if he has b "o heir or heiress1 he or  
%e succe$s to ! :ole4 ,if !re are sev]al
 heirs ( ! same degree1 !y divide !     
inh]itance equally among/ !m1 )\t       
di/9ction ( sex4 ,?is rule 0 prescrib$ =
 ! fir/ "t 9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york by a  
/atute ( ,febru>y #bc1 #aghf4 7,see     
,revis$ ,/atutes1 vol4 iii4 ,app5dix1 p4

 #dh47 ,x has s9ce !n be5 adopt$ 9 !    
,revis$ ,/atutes ( ! same ,/ate4 ,at !  
pres5t day ?is law holds good ?r\gh\t ! 
:ole ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) ! exception ( 
! ,/ate ( ,v]mont1 :]e ! male heir      
inh]its a d\ble portion4 7,k5t's        
,comm5t>ies1 vol4 iv4 p4 #cgj47 ,mr4    
,k5t1 9 ! same "w1 vol4 iv4 p4 #a-bb1   
gives a hi/orical acc\nt ( ,am]ican     
legislation on ! subject ( entail3 by   
?is we le>n t1 previ\s to ! ,revolution1
 ! colonies foll[$ ! ,engli% law (      
entail4 ,e/ates tail 7 aboli%$ 9        
,virg9ia 9 #aggf1 on a motion ( ,mr4    
,jeff]son4 ,!y 7 suppress$ 9 ,new ,york 
9 #aghf1 & h s9ce be5 aboli%$ 9 ,nor?   
,c>ol9a1 ,k5tucky1 ,t5nessee1 ,georgia1 
& ,miss\ri4 ,9 ,v]mont1 ,indiana1       
,ill9ois1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 & ,l\isiana1    
entail 0 nev] introduc$4 ,^? ,/ates :i* 
?\ght prop] to pres]ve ! ,engli% law (  
entail1 modifi$ x 9 su* a way z to      
deprive x ( its mo/ ari/ocratic         
t5d5cies4 ,our g5]al pr9ciples on !     
subject ( gov]nm5t1 says ,mr4 ,k5t1 t5d 

to favor ! free circulation ( prop]ty4  
,x _c fail to /rike ! ,fr5* read] :o    
/udies ! law ( inh]itance1 t on ^!      
que/ions ! ,fr5* legislation is         
inf9itely m democratic ev5 ?an !        
,am]ican4 ,! ,am]ican law makes an equal
 division ( ! fa!r's prop]ty1 b only 9 !
 case ( 8 w n be+ kn[n2 = e man1 says ! 
law1 9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york 7,revis$    
,/atutes1 vol4 iii4 ,app5dix1 p4 #ea71  
has entire lib]ty1 p[]1 & au?ority1 to  
dispose ( 8 prop]ty by w1 to leave x    
entire1 or divid$ 9 favor ( any p]sons  
he *ooses z 8 heirs1 provid$ he d n     
leave x to a political body or any      
corporation4 ,! ,fr5* law obliges !     
te/ator to divide 8 prop]ty equally1 or 
ne>ly s1 among 8 heirs4 ,mo/ ( !        
,am]ican republics /ill admit ( entails1
 "u c]ta9 re/rictions2 b ! ,fr5* law    
prohibits entail 9 all cases4 ,if !     
social condition ( ! ,am]icans is m     
democratic ?an t ( ! ,fr5*1 ! laws ( !  
latt] are ! mo/ democratic ( ! two4 ,?is
 may be expla9$ m easily ?an at fir/    

appe>s to be ! case4 ,9 ,france1        
democracy is /ill occupi$ 9 ! "w (      
de/ruction2 9 ,am]ica1 x reigns quietly 
ov] ! ru9s x has made4     ,app5dix ,h  
,summ>y ,( ,! ,qualifications ,( ,vot]s 
,9 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,z ,!y ,exi/$ ,9    
#ahcb  ,all ! ,/ates agree 9 grant+ ! "r
 ( vot+ at ! age ( tw5ty-"o4 ,9 all ( !m
 x is necess>y to h resid$ = a c]ta9 "t 
9 ! di/rict :]e ! vote is giv54 ,?is    
p]iod v>ies f ?ree mon?s to two ye>s4   
,z to ! qualification3 9 ! ,/ate (      
,massa*usetts x is necess>y to h an     
income ( ,p\nd #c or a capital ( ,p\nd  
#fj4 ,9 ,rhode ,isl&1 a man mu/ possess 
l&$ prop]ty to ! am\nt ( #acc4  ,9      
,connecticut1 he mu/ h a prop]ty :i*    
gives an income ( #ag4 ,a ye> ( s]vice 9
 ! militia also gives ! elective        
privilege4  ,9 ,new ,j]sey1 an elector  
mu/ h a prop]ty ( ,p\nd #ej a ye>4  ,9  
,s\? ,c>ol9a & ,m>yl&1 ! elector mu/    
possess fifty acres ( l&4  ,9 ,t5nessee1
 he mu/ possess "s prop]ty4  ,9 ! ,/ates
 ( ,mississippi1 ,ohio1 ,georgia1       

,virg9ia1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,delaw>e1 ,new  
,york1 ! only necess>y qualification =  
vot+ is t ( pay+ ! taxes2 & 9 mo/ ( !   
,/ates1 to s]ve 9 ! militia is equival5t
 to ! paym5t ( taxes4 ,9 ,ma9e & ,new   
,hamp%ire any man c vote :o is n on !   
paup] li/4  ,la/ly1 9 ! ,/ates (        
,miss\ri1 ,alabama1 ,ill9ois1 ,l\isiana1
 ,indiana1 ,k5tucky1 & ,v]mont1 !       
conditions ( vot+ h no ref]5ce to !     
prop]ty ( ! elector4  ,i believe !re is 
no o!r ,/ate besides t ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a 9
 :i* diff]5t conditions are appli$ to ! 
vot+ = ! ,s5ate & ! elect+ ! ,h\se (    
,repres5tatives4 ,! electors ( ! =m]1 9 
?is case1 %\ld possess 9 prop]ty fifty  
acres ( l&2 to vote = ! latt]1 no?+ m is
 requir$ ?an to pay taxes4     ,app5dix 
,i  ,! small numb] ( cu/om-h\se (fic]s  
employ$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 comp>$ ) !   
ext5t ( ! coa/1 r5d]s smuggl+ v easy2   
not)/&+ :i*1 x is less practis$ ?an     
else:]e1 because ev]ybody endeavors to  
repress x4 ,9 ,am]ica !re is no police =
 ! prev5tion ( fires1 & su* accid5ts are

 m frequ5t ?an 9 ,europe2 b 9 g5]al !y  
are m spe$ily ext+ui%$1 because !       
surr\nd+ population is prompt 9 l5d+    
assi/ance4     ,app5dix ,k  ,x is       
incorrect to ass]t t c5tralization 0    
produc$ by ! ,fr5* ,revolution2 !       
revolution br\ght x to p]fection1 b did 
n create x4 ,! mania = c5tralization &  
gov]nm5t regulations dates f ! "t :5    
juri/s began to take a %>e 9 ! gov]nm5t1
 9 ! "t ( ,philippele-,bel2 ev] s9ce :i*
 p]iod !y h be5 on ! increase4 ,9 ! ye> 
#agge1 ,m4 de ,male%]bes1 speak+ 9 ! "n 
( ! ,c\r des ,aides1 said to ,l\is      
,,xiv3-- 99d  ,footnote d3 ,see         
,memoires p\r s]vir a l',hi/oire du     
,droit ,public de la ,france en mati]e  
d'impots1 p4 #fed1 pr9t$ at ,brussels 9 
#aggi4  4 4 4 ,e corporation & e        
community ( citiz5s reta9$ ! "r (       
adm9i/]+ its own affairs2 a "r :i* n    
only =ms "p ( ! primitive con/itution ( 
! k+dom1 b has a /ill high] orig92 = x  
is ! "r ( nature1 & ( reason4           
,nev]!less1 y\r subjects1 ,sire1 h be5  

depriv$ ( x2 & we _c refra9 f say+ t 9  
?is respect y\r gov]nm5t has fall5 into 
pu]ile extremes4 ,f ! "t :5 p[]ful      
m9i/]s made x a political pr9ciple to   
prev5t ! convocation ( a national       
assembly1 "o consequ5ce has succe$$     
ano!r1 until ! delib]ations ( !         
inhabitants ( a village are decl>$ null 
:5 !y h n be5 au?oriz$ by ! ,int5dant4  
,( c\rse1 if ! community has an exp5sive
 und]tak+ to c>ry ?r\gh1 x mu/ rema9 "u 
! control ( ! sub-delegate ( !          
,int5dant1 &1 consequ5tly1 foll[ ! plan 
he proposes1 employ 8 favorite workm51  
pay !m accord+ to 8 pleasure2 & if an   
action at law is deem$ necess>y1 !      
,int5dant's p]mission mu/ be obta9$4 ,! 
cause mu/ be plead$ be=e ?is fir/       
tribunal1 previ\s to its be+ c>ri$ into 
a public c\rt2 & if ! op9ion ( !        
,int5dant is oppos$ to t ( !            
inhabitants1 or if _! adv]s>y enjoys 8  
favor1 ! community is depriv$ ( ! p[] ( 
def5d+ its rights4 ,su* are ! means1    
,sire1 :i* h be5 ex]t$ to ext+ui% !     

municipal _s 9 ,france2 & to /ifle1 if  
possible1 ! op9ions ( ! citiz5s4 ,!     
nation may be said to lie "u an         
int]dict1 & to be 9 w>d%ip "u gu>dians4 
,:at c\ld be said m to ! purpose at !   
pres5t day1 :5 ! ,revolution has a*iev$ 
:at are call$ its victories 9           
c5tralization8  ,9 #aghi1 ,jeff]son     
wrote f ,p>is to "o ( 8 fri5ds3--,!re is
 no c\ntry :]e ! mania = ov]-gov]n+ has 
tak5 deep] root ?an 9 ,france1 or be5 ! 
s\rce ( great] mis*ief4 7,lett] to      
,madison1 ,augu/ #bh1 #aghi47 ,! fact   
is1 t = sev]al c5turies pa/ ! c5tral p[]
 ( ,france has done ev]y?+ x c\ld to    
ext5d c5tral adm9i/ration2 x has        
ackn[l$g$ no o!r limits ?an its own     
/r5g?4 ,! c5tral p[] to :i* !           
,revolution gave bir? made m rapid      
advances ?an any ( its pr$ecessors1     
because x 0 /rong] & wis] ?an !y _h be52
 ,l\is ,,xiv committ$ ! welf>e ( su*    
communities to ! caprice ( an int5dant2 
,napoleon left !m to t ( ! ,m9i/]4 ,!   
same pr9ciple gov]n$ bo?1 ?\gh its      

consequ5ces 7 m or less remote4         
,app5dix ,l  ,! immutability ( !        
con/itution ( ,france is a necess>y     
consequ5ce ( ! laws ( t c\ntry4 ,to beg9
 ) ! mo/ important ( all ! laws1 t :i*  
decides ! ord] ( succession to ! ?rone2 
:at c be m immutable 9 its pr9ciple ?an 
a political ord] f\nd$ ^u ! natural     
succession ( fa!r to son8 ,9 #ahad1     
,l\is ,,xviii _h e/abli%$ ! p]petual law
 ( h]$it>y succession 9 favor ( 8 own   
family4 ,! individuals :o regulat$ !    
consequ5ces ( ! ,revolution ( #ahcj     
foll[$ 8 example2 !y m]ely e/abli%$ !   
p]petuity ( ! law 9 favor ( ano!r       
family4 ,9 ?is respect !y imitat$ !     
,*ancellor ,meaup\1 :o1 :5 he erect$ !  
new ,p>liam5t ^u ! ru9s ( ! old1 took   
c>e to decl>e 9 ! same ord9ance t !     
rights ( ! new magi/rates %\ld be z     
inali5able z ^? ( _! pr$ecessors _h be54
 ,! laws ( #ahcj1 l ^? ( #ahad1 po9t out
 no way ( *ang+ ! con/itution3 & x is   
evid5t t ! ord9>y means ( legislation   
are insuffici5t = ?is purpose4 ,z ! ,k+1

 ! ,pe]s1 & ! ,deputies1 all d]ive _!   
au?ority f ! con/itution1 ^! ?ree p[]s  
unit$ _c alt] a law by virtue ( :i*     
alone !y gov]n4 ,out ( ! pale ( !       
con/itution !y are no?+3 :]e1 :51 c\ld  
!y take _! /& to effect a *ange 9 its   
provisions8 ,! alt]native is cle>3 ei!r 
_! ef=ts are p[]less aga9/ ! *>t]1 :i*  
cont9ues to exi/ 9 spite ( !m1 9 :i*    
case !y only reign 9 ! "n ( ! *>t]2 or  
!y succe$ 9 *ang+ ! *>t]1 & !n1 ! law by
 :i* !y exi/$ be+ annull$1 !y !mselves  
cease to exi/4 ,by de/roy+ ! *>t]1 !y   
de/roy !mselves4 ,?is is mu* m evid5t 9 
! laws ( #ahcj ?an 9 ^? ( #ahad4 ,9     
#ahad1 ! royal pr]ogative took its /&   
above & beyond ! con/itution2 b 9 #ahcj1
 x 0 av[$ly creat$ by1 & dep5d5t on1 !  
con/itution4 ,a "p1 !re=e1 ( ! ,fr5*    
con/itution is immutable1 because x is  
unit$ to ! de/9y ( a family2 & ! body ( 
! con/itution is equally immutable1     
because !re appe> to be no legal means (
 *ang+ x4 ,^! rem>ks are n applicable to
 ,engl&4 ,t c\ntry hav+ no writt5       

con/itution1 :o c ass]t :5 its          
con/itution is *ang$8     ,app5dix ,m   
,! mo/ e/eem$ au?ors :o h writt5 ^u !   
,engli% ,con/itution agree ) ea* o!r 9  
e/abli%+ ! omnipot5ce ( ! ,p>liam5t4    
,delolme says3 ,x is a fundam5tal       
pr9ciple ) ! ,engli% lawy]s1 t ,p>liam5t
 c d ev]y?+ except mak+ a woman a man1  
or a man a woman4 ,black/one expresses  
himself m 9 detail1 if n m en]getically1
 ?an ,delolme1 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3--,! p[] 
& jurisdiction ( ,p>liam5t1 says ,sir   
,edw>d ,coke 7#d ,in/4 #cf71 'is s      
transc5d5t & absolute t x _c be conf9$1 
ei!r = causes or p]sons1 )9 any b\nds4' 
,& ( ?is ,high ,c\rt1 he adds1 may be   
truly said1 ',si antiquitatem spectes1  
e/ vetu/issima2 si dignitatem1 e/       
honoratissima2 si jurisdictionem1 e/    
capacissima4' ,x ha? sov]eign &         
uncontrollable au?ority 9 ! mak+1       
confirm+1 enl>g+1 re/ra9+1 abrogat+1    
repeal+1 reviv+1 & exp\nd+ ( laws1      
conc]n+ matt]s ( all possible           
d5om9ations2 ecclesia/ical or temporal2 

civil1 milit>y1 m>itime1 or crim9al2 ?is
 be+ ! place :]e t absolute despotic p[]
 :i* mu/1 9 all gov]nm5ts1 reside       
some:]e1 is intru/$ by ! con/itution (  
^! k+doms4 ,all mis*iefs & grievances1  
op]ations & rem$ies1 t transc5d ! ord9>y
 c\rse ( ! laws1 are )9 ! rea* ( ?is    
extraord9>y tribunal4 ,x c regulate or  
new-model ! succession to ! ,cr[n2 z 0  
done 9 ! reign ( ,h5ry ,,viii & ,william
 ,,iii4 ,x c alt] ! e/abli%$ religion ( 
! l&2 z 0 done 9 a v>iety ( in/ances 9 !
 reigns ( ,k+ ,h5ry ,,viii & 8 ?ree     
*ildr54 ,x c *ange & create afre% ev5 ! 
con/itution ( ! k+dom1 & ( p>liam5ts    
!mselves2 z 0 done by ! ,act ( ,union & 
! sev]al /atutes = tri5nial & sept5nial 
elections4 ,x c1 9 %ort1 d ev]y?+ t is n
 naturally impossible to be done2 &1    
!re=e "s h n scrupl$ to call its p[]1 by
 a figure r too bold1 ! omnipot5ce (    
,p>liam5t4     ,app5dix ,n  ,!re is no  
"q ^u :i* ! ,am]ican con/itutions agree 
m fully ?an ^u t ( political            
jurisdiction4 ,all ! con/itutions :i*   

take cognizance ( ?is matt]1 give to !  
,h\se ( ,delegates ! exclusive "r (     
impea*m5t2 except+ only ! con/itution ( 
,nor? ,c>ol9a1 :i* grants ! same        
privilege to gr& juries4 7,article #bc47
 ,almo/ all ! con/itutions give !       
exclusive "r ( pron\nc+ s5t5ce to !     
,s5ate1 or to ! ,assembly :i* occupies  
its place4  ,! only puni%m5ts :i* !     
political tribunals c inflict are       
removal1 or ! int]diction ( public      
functions = ! future4 ,!re is no o!r    
con/itution b t ( ,virg9ia 7p4 #aeb71   
:i* enables !m to inflict e k9d (       
puni%m5t4 ,! crimes :i* are subject to  
political jurisdiction are1 9 ! f$]al   
con/itution 7,section #d1 ,art4 #a72 9 t
 ( ,indiana 7,art4 #c1 p>agraphs #bc &  
#bd72 ( ,new ,york 7,art4 #e72 (        
,delaw>e 7,art4 #e71 high treason1      
brib]y1 & o!r high crimes or (f5ces4 ,9 
! ,con/itution ( ,massa*usetts 7,*ap4   
,i1 ,section #b72 t ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a     
7,art4 #bc72 ( ,virg9ia 7p4 #beb71      
misconduct & maladm9i/ration4 ,9 !      

con/itution ( ,new ,hamp%ire 7p4 #aje71 
corruption1 intrigue1 & maladm9i/ration4
 ,9 ,v]mont 7,*ap4 #b1 ,art4 #bd71      
maladm9i/ration4 ,9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a 7,art4 
#e72 ,k5tucky 7,art4 #e72 ,t5nessee     
7,art4 #d72 ,ohio 7,art4 #a1 #bc1 #bd72 
,l\isiana 7,art4 #e72 ,mississippi      
7,art4 #e72 ,alabama 7,art4 #f72        
,p5nsylvania 7,art4 #d71 crimes committ$
 9 ! non-p]=mance ( (ficial duties4 ,9 !
 ,/ates ( ,ill9ois1 ,georgia1 ,ma9e1 &  
,connecticut1 no p>ticul> (f5ces are    
specifi$4     ,app5dix ,o  ,x is true t 
! p[]s ( ,europe may c>ry on m>itime w>s
 ) ! ,union2 b !re is always great]     
facility & less dang] 9 support+ a      
m>itime ?an a cont95tal w>4 ,m>itime    
w>f>e only requires "o species ( ef=t4  
,a comm]cial p :i* cons5ts to furni% its
 gov]nm5t ) ! necess>y funds1 is sure to
 possess a fleet4 ,& x is f> easi] to   
induce a nation to "p ) its money1 almo/
 unconsci\sly1 ?an to reconcile x to    
sacrifices ( m5 & p]sonal ef=ts4        
,moreov]1 defeat by sea r>ely           

compromises ! exi/5ce or indep5d5ce ( ! 
p :i* endures x4 ,z = cont95tal w>s1 x  
is evid5t t ! nations ( ,europe _c be   
=midable 9 ?is way to ! ,am]ican ,union4
 ,x w\ld be v difficult to transport &  
ma9ta9 9 ,am]ica m ?an #be1jjj soldi]s2 
an army :i* may be consid]$ to repres5t 
a nation ( ab\t #b1jjj1jjj ( m54 ,! mo/ 
popul\s nation ( ,europe cont5d+ 9 ?is  
way aga9/ ! ,union1 is 9 ! position ( a 
nation ( #b1jjj1jjj ( inhabitants at w> 
) "o ( #ab1jjj1jjj4 ,add to ?is1 t      
,am]ica has all its res\rces )9 rea*1   
:il/ ! ,european is at #d1jjj miles     
di/ance f 82 & t ! imm5sity ( ! ,am]ican
 cont95t w\ld ( itself pres5t an        
insurm\ntable ob/acle to its conque/4   
,app5dix ,p  ,! fir/ ,am]ican j\rnal    
appe>$ 9 ,april1 #agjd1 & 0 publi%$ at  
,bo/on4 ,see ,collection ( ! ,hi/orical 
,society ( ,massa*usetts1 vol4 vi4 p4   
#ff4 ,x w\ld be a mi/ake to suppose t ! 
p]iodical press has always be5 entirely 
free 9 ! ,am]ican colonies3 an attempt 0
 made to e/abli% some?+ analog\s to a   

c5sor%ip & prelim9>y security4 ,consult 
! ,legislative ,docum5ts ( ,massa*usetts
 ( ,janu>y #ad1 #agbb4 ,! ,committee    
appo9t$ by ! ,g5]al ,assembly 7!        
legislative body ( ! prov9ce7 = !       
purpose ( exam9+ into circum/ances      
connect$ ) a pap] entitl$ ,! ,new ,engl&
 ,c\ri]1 expresses its op9ion t ! t5d5cy
 ( ! said j\rnal is to turn religion    
into d]ision & br+ x into contempt2 t x 
m5tions ! sacr$ writ]s 9 a pr(ane &     
irreligi\s mann]2 t x puts malici\s     
int]pretations ^u ! conduct ( ! m9i/]s (
 ! ,gospel2 & t ! ,gov]nm5t ( 8 ,maje/y 
is insult$1 & ! peace & tranquillity ( !
 prov9ce di/urb$ by ! said j\rnal4 ,!   
,committee is consequ5tly ( op9ion t !  
pr9t] & publi%]1 ,james ,frankl91 %\ld  
be =bidd5 to pr9t & publi% ! said j\rnal
 or any o!r "w 9 future1 )\t hav+       
previ\sly submitt$ x to ! ,secret>y ( ! 
prov9ce2 & t ! ju/ices ( ! peace = !    
c\nty ( ,suffolk %\ld be commission$ to 
require bail ( ! said ,james ,frankl9 = 
8 good conduct dur+ ! ensu+ ye>4 ,!     

sugge/ion ( ! ,committee 0 adopt$ &     
pass$ into a law1 b ! effect ( x 0 null1
 = ! j\rnal elud$ ! prohibition by putt+
 ! "n ( ,b5jam9 ,frankl9 in/ead ( ,james
 ,frankl9 at ! bottom ( its columns1 &  
?is manoeuvre 0 support$ by public      
op9ion4     ,app5dix ,q  ,! ,f$]al      
,con/itution has introduc$ ! jury into !
 tribunals ( ! ,union 9 ! same way z !  
,/ates _h introduc$ x into _! own sev]al
 c\rts2 b z x has n e/abli%$ any fix$   
rules = ! *oice ( jurors1 ! f$]al c\rts 
select !m f ! ord9>y jury li/ :i* ea*   
,/ate makes = itself4 ,! laws ( ! ,/ates
 mu/ !re=e be exam9$ = ! !ory ( !       
=mation ( juries4 ,see ,/ory's          
,comm5t>ies on ! ,con/itution1 ,b4 iii4 
*ap4 #ch1 p4 #fed-fei2 ,s]geant's       
,con/itutional ,law1 p4 #afe4 ,see also 
! ,f$]al ,laws ( ! ye>s #aghi1 #ahjj1 & 
#ahjb1 ^u ! subject4 ,= ! purpose (     
?or\ghly und]/&+ ! ,am]ican pr9ciples ) 
respect to ! =mation ( juries1 ,i exam9$
 ! laws ( ,/ates at a di/ance f "o      
ano!r1 & ! foll[+ obs]vations 7 ! result

 ( my inquiries4 ,9 ,am]ica1 all !      
citiz5s :o ex]cise ! elective fran*ise h
 ! "r ( s]v+ ^u a jury4 ,! great ,/ate (
 ,new ,york1 h[ev]1 has made a slight   
diff]5ce betwe5 ! two privileges1 b 9 a 
_s q contr>y to t ( ! laws ( ,france2 = 
9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york !re are few]     
p]sons eligible z jurym5 ?an !re are    
electors4 ,x may be said 9 g5]al t ! "r 
( =m+ "p ( a jury1 l ! "r ( elect+      
repres5tatives1 is op5 to all ! citiz5s3
 ! ex]cise ( ?is "r1 h[ev]1 is n put    
indiscrim9ately into any h&s4 ,e ye> a  
body ( municipal or c\nty               
magi/rates--call$ selectm5 9 ,new       
,engl&1 sup]visors 9 ,new ,york1 tru/ees
 9 ,ohio1 & %]iffs ( ! p>i% 9           
,l\isiana--*oose = ea* c\nty a c]ta9    
numb] ( citiz5s :o h ! "r ( s]v+ z      
jurym51 & :o are suppos$ to be capable (
 ex]cis+ _! functions4 ,^! magi/rates1  
be+ !mselves elective1 excite no di/ru/2
 _! p[]s1 l ^? ( mo/ republican         
magi/rates1 are v ext5sive & v arbitr>y1
 & !y frequ5tly make use ( !m to remove 

unwor?y or incompet5t jurym54 ,! names (
 ! jurym5 ?us *os5 are transmitt$ to !  
,c\nty ,c\rt2 & ! jury :o h to decide   
any affair are drawn by lot f ! :ole li/
 ( names4 ,! ,am]icans h contriv$ 9 e   
way to make ! common p eligible to !    
jury1 & to r5d] ! s]vice z little on]\s 
z possible4 ,! sessions are held 9 !    
*ief t[n ( e c\nty1 & ! jury are        
indemnifi$ = _! att5dance ei!r by !     
,/ate or ! p>ties conc]n$4 ,!y receive 9
 g5]al a doll> p] day1 besides _!       
travell+ exp5ses4 ,9 ,am]ica1 ! be+     
plac$ ^u ! jury is look$ ^u z a burd51 b
 x is a burd5 :i* is v supportable4 ,see
 ,brev>d's ,dige/ ( ! ,public ,/atute   
,law ( ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ddf & 
#ded1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bah & #cch2 ,!      
,g5]al ,laws ( ,massa*usetts1 revis$ &  
publi%$ by au?ority ( ! ,legislature1   
vol4 ii4 pp4 #ahg & #cca2 ,! ,revis$    
,/atutes ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 vol4   
ii4 pp4 #daa1 #fdc1 #gag1 #gbj2 ,!      
,/atute ,law ( ! ,/ate ( ,t5nessee1 vol4
 i4 p4 #bji2 ,acts ( ! ,/ate ( ,ohio1   

pp4 #ie & #baj2 & ,dige/e g5]al des     
,actes de la ,legislature de la         
,l\isiane4     ,app5dix ,r  ,if we      
att5tively exam9e ! con/itution ( ! jury
 z introduc$ into civil proce$+s 9      
,engl&1 we %all readily p]ceive t !     
jurors are "u ! imm$iate control ( !    
judge4 ,x is true t ! v]dict ( ! jury1 9
 civil z well z 9 crim9al cases1        
comprises ! "q ( fact & ! "q ( "r 9 !   
same reply2 ?us--a h\se is claim$ by    
,pet] z hav+ be5 pur*as$ by him3 ?is is 
! fact to be decid$4 ,! def5dant puts 9 
a plea ( incompet5cy on ! "p ( ! v5dor3 
?is is ! legal "q to be resolv$4 ,b !   
jury d n enjoy ! same "* ( infallibility
 9 civil cases1 accord+ to ! practice ( 
! ,engli% c\rts1 z !y d 9 crim9al cases4
 ,! judge may refuse to receive !       
v]dict2 & ev5 aft] ! fir/ trial has tak5
 place1 a second or new trial may be    
aw>d$ by ! ,c\rt4 ,see ,black/one's     
,comm5t>ies1 book iii4 *4 #bd4          
,app5dix ,s  ,i f9d 9 my travell+ j\rnal
 a passage :i* may s]ve to convey a m   

complete notion ( ! trials to :i* ! wom5
 ( ,am]ica1 :o cons5t to foll[ _! husb&s
 into ! wilds1 are (t5 subject$4 ,?is   
description has no?+ to recomm5d x to ! 
read] b its /rict accuracy3  4 4 4 ,f "t
 to "t we come to fre% cle>+s2 all ^!   
places are alike2 ,i %all describe ! "o 
at :i* we h halt$ to-night1 = x w s]ve  
to rem9d me ( all ! o!rs4  ,! bell :i* !
 pione]s hang r\nd ! necks ( _! cattle1 
9 ord] to f9d !m aga9 9 ! woods1 ann\nc$
 our approa* to a cle>+1 :5 we 7 yet a  
long way (f2 & we soon aft]w>ds he>d !  
/roke ( ! hat*et1 hew+ d[n ! trees ( !  
=e/4 ,z we came ne>]1 traces (          
de/ruction m>k$ ! pres5ce ( civiliz$    
man2 ! road 0 /rewn ) %att]$ b\ghs2     
trunks ( trees1 half consum$ by fire1 or
 cleft by ! w$ge1 7 /ill /&+ 9 ! track  
we 7 foll[+4 ,we cont9u$ to proce$ till 
we rea*$ a wood 9 :i* all ! trees seem$ 
to h be5 sudd5ly /ruck dead2 9 ! height 
( summ] _! b\ghs 7 z leafless z 9 w9t]2 
& ^u clos] exam9ation we f\nd t a deep  
circle _h be5 cut r\nd ! b>k1 :i*1 by   

/opp+ ! circulation ( ! sap1 soon kills 
! tree4 ,we 7 in=m$ t ?is is commonly ! 
fir/ ?+ a pione] does2 z he _c 9 ! fir/ 
ye> cut d[n all ! trees :i* cov] 8 new  
p>cel ( l&1 he s[s ,indian corn "u _!   
bran*es1 & puts ! trees to dea? 9 ord]  
to prev5t !m f injur+ 8 crop4 ,beyond   
?is field1 at pres5t imp]fectly trac$   
out1 we sudd5ly came ^u ! cab9 ( its    
own]1 situat$ 9 ! c5tre ( a plot ( gr\nd
 m c>efully cultivat$ ?an ! re/1 b :]e  
man 0 /ill wag+ unequal w>f>e ) ! =e/2  
!re ! trees 7 cut d[n1 b _! roots 7 n   
remov$1 & ! trunks /ill encumb]$ ! gr\nd
 :i* !y s rec5tly %ad$4 ,ar\nd ^! dry   
blocks1 :eat1 suck]s ( trees1 & plants (
 e k9d1 gr[ & int]tw9e 9 all !          
luxuriance ( wild1 untutor$ nature4     
,amid/ ?is vigor\s & v>i\s vegetation   
/&s ! h\se ( ! pione]1 or1 z !y call x1 
! log h\se4 ,l ! gr\nd ab\t x1 ?is ru/ic
 dwell+ bore m>ks ( rec5t & ha/y labor2 
its l5g? seem$ n to exce$ ?irty feet1   
its height fifte52 ! walls z well z !   
ro( 7 =m$ ( r\gh trunks ( trees1 betwe5 

:i* a little moss & clay _h be5 ins]t$  
to keep out ! cold & ra94  ,z night 0   
com+ on1 we det]m9$ to ask ! ma/] ( !   
log h\se = a lodg+4 ,at ! s\nd ( our    
foot/eps1 ! *ildr5 :o 7 play+ among/ !  
scatt]$ bran*es sprang up & ran t[>ds ! 
h\se1 z if !y 7 fright5$ at ! sight (   
man2 :il/ two l>ge dogs1 almo/ wild1 )  
e>s erect & out/ret*$ nose1 came gr[l+  
out ( _! hut1 to cov] ! retreat ( _! "y 
ma/]s4 ,! pione] himself made 8         
appe>ance at ! door ( 8 dwell+2 he look$
 at u ) a rapid & inquisitive glance1   
made a sign to ! dogs to g into ! h\se1 
& set !m ! example1 )\t betray+ ei!r    
curiosity or appreh5sion at our arrival4
  ,we ent]$ ! log h\se3 ! inside is q   
unlike t ( ! cottages ( ! peasantry (   
,europe3 x conta9s m ?an is sup]flu\s1  
less ?an is necess>y4 ,a s+le w9d[ ) a  
musl9 bl9d2 on a he>? ( trodd5 clay an  
imm5se fire1 :i* lights ! :ole /ructure2
 above ! he>? a good rifle1 a de]'s sk91
 & plumes ( eagles' fea!rs2 on ! "r h& (
 ! *imney a map ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 rais$

 & %ak5 by ! w9d ?r\gh ! crannies 9 !   
wall2 ne> ! map1 ^u a %elf =m$ ( a      
r\ghly hewn plank1 a few volumes (      
books--a ,bible1 ! six fir/ books (     
,milton1 & two ( ,%akespe>e's plays2    
along ! wall1 trunks in/ead ( closets2 9
 ! c5tre ( ! room a rude table1 ) legs (
 gre5 wood1 & ) ! b>k /ill ^u !m1 look+ 
z if !y grew out ( ! gr\nd on :i* !y    
/ood2 b on ?is table a tea-pot ( ,briti%
 w>e1 silv] spoons1 crack$ tea-cups1 &  
"s newspap]s4  ,! ma/] ( ?is dwell+ has 
! /rong angul> features & lank limbs    
peculi> to ! native ( ,new ,engl&4 ,x is
 evid5t t ?is man 0 n born 9 ! solitude 
9 :i* we h met ) him3 8 physical        
con/itution suffices to %[ t 8 e>li]    
ye>s 7 sp5t 9 ! mid/ ( civiliz$ society1
 & t he belongs to t re/less1 calculat+1
 & adv5tur\s race ( m51 :o d ) ! utmo/  
coolness ?+s only to be acc\nt$ = by !  
ardor ( ! passions1 & :o endure ! life (
 savages = a "t1 9 ord] to conqu] &     
civilize ! backwoods4  ,:5 ! pione]     
p]ceiv$ t we 7 cross+ 8 ?re%old1 he came

 to meet u & %ake h&s1 z is _! cu/om2 b 
8 face 0 q unmov$2 he op5$ ! conv]sation
 by inquir+ :at 0 go+ on 9 ! _w2 & :5 8 
curiosity 0 satisfi$1 he held 8 peace1 z
 if he 7 tir$ by ! noise & importunity (
 mank9d4 ,:5 we que/ion$ him 9 our turn1
 he gave u all ! in=mation we requir$2  
he !n att5d$ s$ul\sly1 b )\t eag]ness1  
to our p]sonal wants4 ,:il/ he 0 engag$ 
9 provid+ ?us k9dly = u1 h[ came x t 9  
spit ( ourselves we felt our gratitude  
die ^u our lips8 ,x is t our ho/ :il/ he
 p]=ms ! duties ( hospitality1 seems to 
be obey+ an irksome necessity ( 8       
condition3 he treats x z a duty impos$  
^u him by 8 situation1 n z a pleasure4  
,by ! side ( ! he>? sits a woman ) a    
baby on h] lap3 %e nods to u )\t di/urb+
 h]self4 ,l ! pione]1 ?is woman is 9 !  
prime ( life2 h] appe>ance w\ld seem    
sup]ior to h] condition1 & h] app>el ev5
 betrays a l+]+ ta/e = dress2 b h]      
delicate limbs appe> %runk51 h] features
 are drawn 91 h] eye is mild &          
melan*oly2 h] :ole physiognomy be>s m>ks

 ( a degree ( religi\s resignation1 a   
deep quiet ( all passions1 & "s sort (  
natural & tranquil firmness1 ready to   
meet all ! ills ( life1 )\t fe>+ & )\t  
brav+ !m4 ,h] *ildr5 clu/] ab\t h]1 full
 ( heal?1 turbul5ce1 & en]gy3 !y are    
true *ildr5 ( ! wild]ness2 _! "m wat*es 
!m f "t to "t ) m+l$ melan*oly & joy3 to
 look at _! /r5g? & h] languor1 "o might
 imag9e t ! life %e has giv5 !m has     
exhau/$ h] own1 & /ill %e regrets n :at 
!y h co/ h]4 ,! h\se inhabit$ by ^!     
emigrants has no int]nal p>tition or    
l(t4 ,9 ! "o *amb] ( :i* x consi/s1 !   
:ole family is ga!r$ = ! night4 ,!      
dwell+ is itself a little _w--an ark (  
civilization amid/ an ocean ( foliage3 a
 hundr$ /eps beyond x ! primeval =e/    
spreads its %ades1 & solitude resumes   
its sway4     ,app5dix ,t  ,x is n !    
equality ( conditions :i* makes m5      
immoral & irreligi\s2 b :5 m51 be+      
equal1 are at ! same "t immoral &       
irreligi\s1 ! effects ( immorality &    
irreligion easily manife/ !mselves      

outw>dly1 because m5 h b little influ5ce
 ^u ea* o!r1 & no class exi/s :i* c     
und]take to keep society 9 ord]4        
,equality ( conditions nev] eng5d]s     
pr(ligacy ( morals1 b x sometimes all[s 
t pr(ligacy to %[ itself4     ,app5dix  
,u  ,sett+ aside all ^? :o d n ?9k at   
all1 & ^? :o d>e n say :at !y ?9k1 !    
imm5se majority ( ! ,am]icans w /ill be 
f\nd to appe> satisfi$ ) ! political    
in/itutions by :i* !y are gov]n$2 &1 ,i 
believe1 really to be s4 ,i look ^u ?is 
/ate ( public op9ion z an indication1 b 
n z a demon/ration1 ( ! absolute        
excell5ce ( ,am]ican laws4 ,! pride ( a 
nation1 ! gratification ( c]ta9 rul+    
passions by ! law1 a conc\rse (         
circum/ances1 defects :i* escape notice1
 & m ?an all ! re/1 ! influ5ce ( a      
majority :i* %uts ! m\? ( all cavill]s1 
may long p]petuate ! delusions ( a p z  
well z ^? ( a man4 ,look at ,engl&      
?r\gh\t ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,no nation 0 
ev] m prodigal ( self-applause1 no p 0  
ev] m self-satisfi$2 !n e "p ( its      

con/itution 0 "r--ev]y?+1 ev5 to its mo/
 obvi\s defects1 0 irreproa*able3 at !  
pres5t day a va/ numb] ( ,engli%m5 seem 
to h no?+ bett] to d ?an to prove t ?is 
con/itution 0 faulty 9 _m respects4 ,:i*
 0 "r8--! ,engli% p ( ! la/ c5tury1 or !
 ,engli% p ( ! pres5t day8  ,! same ?+  
has occurr$ 9 ,france4 ,x is c]ta9 t    
dur+ ! reign ( ,l\is ,,xiv ! great bulk 
( ! nation 0 devot$ly atta*$ to ! =m (  
gov]nm5t :i*1 at t "t1 gov]n$ !         
community4 ,b x is a va/ error to       
suppose t !re 0 any?+ degrad$ 9 ! "* ( !
 ,fr5* ( t age4 ,!re might be "s sort ( 
s]vitude 9 ,france at t "t1 b assur$ly  
!re 0 no s]vile _s among ! p4 ,! writ]s 
( t age felt a species ( g5u9e en?usiasm
 9 extoll+ ! p[] ( _! k+2 & !re 0 no    
peasant s obscure 9 8 hovel z n to take 
a pride 9 ! glory ( 8 sov]eign1 & to die
 *e]fully ) ! cry ,vive le ,roi6 ^u 8   
lips4 ,^! v same =ms ( loyalty are n[   
odi\s to ! ,fr5* p4 ,:i* are wrong8--!  
,fr5* ( ! age ( ,l\is ,,xiv1 or _!      
desc5dants ( ! pres5t day8  ,our judgm5t

 ( ! laws ( a p mu/ n !n be f\nd$       
,future ,condition ,( ,?ree ,races ,9 ,!
 ,unit$ ,/ates exclusively ^u its       
incl9ations1 s9ce ^? incl9ations *ange f
 age to age2 b ^u m elevat$ pr9ciples & 
a m g5]al exp]i5ce4 ,! love :i* a p may 
%[ = its law proves only ?is3--t we %\ld
 n be 9 too great a hurry to *ange !m4  
,app5dix ,v  ,9 ! *apt] to :i* ?is note 
relates ,i h po9t$ out "o s\rce ( dang]3
 ,i am n[ ab\t to po9t out ano!r k9d (  
p]il1 m r>e inde$1 b f> m =midable if x 
7 ev] to make its appe>ance4 ,if ! love 
( physical gratification & ! ta/e =     
well-be+1 :i* are naturally sugge/$ to  
m5 by a /ate ( equality1 7 to get entire
 possession ( ! m9d ( a democratic p1 & 
to fill x completely1 ! mann]s ( !      
nation w\ld become s totally oppos$ to  
milit>y ta/es1 t p]haps ev5 ! army w\ld 
ev5tually acquire a love ( peace1 9     
spite ( ! peculi> int]e/ :i* leads x to 
desire w>4 ,liv+ 9 ! mid/ ( a /ate (    
g5]al relaxation1 ! troops w\ld         
ultimately ?9k x bett] to rise )\t      

ef=ts1 by ! sl[ b commodi\s advancem5t (
 a peace e/abli%m5t1 ?an to pur*ase m   
rapid promotion at ! co/ ( all ! toils &
 privations ( ! field4 ,) ^! feel+s1 !y 
w\ld take up arms )\t en?usiasm1 & use  
!m )\t en]gy2 !y w\ld all[ !mselves to  
be l$ to meet ! foe1 in/ead ( m>*+ to   
attack him4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t ?is   
pacific /ate ( ! army w\ld r5d] x adv]se
 to revolutions2 = revolutions1 &       
especially milit>y revolutions1 :i* are 
g5]ally v rapid1 are att5d$ inde$ )     
great dang]s1 b n ) protract$ toil2 !y  
gratify ambition at less co/ ?an w>2    
life only is at /ake1 & ! m5 (          
democracies c>e less = _! lives ?an = _!
 com=ts4 ,no?+ is m dang]\s = ! fre$om &
 ! tranquillity ( a p ?an an army afraid
 ( w>1 because1 z su* an army no long]  
seeks to ma9ta9 its importance & its    
influ5ce on ! field ( battle1 x seeks to
 ass]t !m else:]e4 ,?us x might happ5 t 
! m5 ( :om a democratic army consi/s    
%\ld lose ! int]e/s ( citiz5s )\t       
acquir+ ! virtues ( soldi]s2 & t ! army 

%\ld cease to be fit = w> )\t ceas+ to  
be turbul5t4 ,i %all "h repeat :at ,i h 
said 9 ! text3 ! rem$y = ^! dang]s is n 
to be f\nd 9 ! army1 b 9 ! c\ntry3 a    
democratic p :i* has pres]v$ ! manl9ess 
( its "* w nev] be at a loss = milit>y  
pr[ess 9 its soldi]s4     ,app5dix ,w   
,m5 connect ! greatness ( _! idea (     
unity ) means1 ,god ) ends3 h5ce ?is    
idea ( greatness1 z m5 conceive x1 leads
 u into inf9ite littl5ess4 ,to compel   
all m5 to foll[ ! same c\rse t[>ds !    
same object is a human notion2--to      
introduce inf9ite v>iety ( action1 b s  
comb9$ t all ^! acts lead by a multitude
 ( diff]5t c\rses to ! accompli%m5t ( "o
 great design1 is a conception ( !      
,deity4 ,! human idea ( unity is almo/  
always b>r52 ! div9e idea pregnant )    
abundant results4 ,m5 ?9k !y manife/ _! 
greatness by simplify+ ! means !y use2 b
 x is ! purpose ( ,god :i* is simple--8 
means are inf9itely v>i$4     ,app5dix  
,x  ,a democratic p is n only l$ by its 
own ta/es to c5tralize its gov]nm5t1 b !

 passions ( all ! m5 by :om x is gov]n$ 
con/antly urge x 9 ! same direction4 ,x 
may easily be =ese5 t almo/ all ! able &
 ambiti\s memb]s ( a democratic         
community w labor )\t #b ceas+ to ext5d 
! p[]s ( gov]nm5t1 because !y all hope  
at "s "t or o!r to wield ^? p[]s4 ,x is 
a wa/e ( "t to attempt to prove to !m t 
extreme c5tralization may be injuri\s to
 ! ,/ate1 s9ce !y are c5traliz+ = _! own
 b5efit4 ,among/ ! public m5 (          
democracies !re are h>dly any b m5 (    
great dis9t]e/$ness or extreme m$iocrity
 :o seek to oppose ! c5tralization (    
gov]nm5t3 ! =m] are sc>ce1 ! latt]      
p[]less4     ,app5dix ,y  ,i h (t5 ask$ 
myself :at w\ld happ5 if1 amid/ !       
relaxation ( democratic mann]s1 & z a   
consequ5ce ( ! re/less _s ( ! army1 a   
milit>y gov]nm5t 7 ev] to be f\nd$      
among/ any ( ! nations ( ! pres5t age4  
,i ?9k t ev5 su* a gov]nm5t w\ld n diff]
 v mu* f ! outl9e ,i h drawn 9 ! *apt]  
to :i* ?is note belongs1 & t x w\ld     
reta9 none ( ! fi]ce *>act]i/ics ( a    

milit>y olig>*y4 ,i am p]suad$ t1 9 su* 
a case1 a sort ( fusion w\ld take place 
betwe5 ! habits ( (ficial m5 & ^? ( !   
milit>y s]vice4 ,! adm9i/ration w\ld    
assume some?+ ( a milit>y "*1 & ! army  
"s ( ! usages ( ! civil adm9i/ration4 ,!
 result w\ld be a regul>1 cle>1 exact1 &
 absolute sy/em ( gov]nm5t2 ! p w\ld    
become ! reflection ( ! army1 & !       
community be drill$ l a g>rison4        
,app5dix ,z  ,x _c be absolutely or     
g5]ally affirm$ t ! greate/ dang] ( !   
pres5t age is lic5se or tyranny1 an>*y  
or despotism4 ,bo? are equally to be    
fe>$2 & ! "o may z easily proce$ z ! o!r
 f ! selfsame cause1 namely1 t g5]al    
apa?y1 :i* is ! consequ5ce ( :at ,i h   
t]m$ individualism3 x is because ?is    
apa?y exi/s1 t ! executive gov]nm5t1    
hav+ mu/]$ a few troops1 is able to     
commit acts ( oppression "o day1 & !    
next day a p>ty1 :i* has mu/]$ "s ?irty 
m5 9 its ranks1 c also commit acts (    
oppression4 ,nei!r "o nor ! o!r c f\nd  
any?+ to la/2 & ! causes :i* enable !m  

to succe$ easily1 prev5t !m f succe$+   
long3 !y rise because no?+ opposes !m1 &
 !y s9k because no?+ supports !m4 ,!    
prop] object !re=e ( our mo/ /r5u\s     
resi/ance1 is f> less ei!r an>*y or     
despotism ?an ! apa?y :i* may almo/     
indiff]5tly beget ei!r ! "o or ! o!r4   
,con/itution ,( ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,(     
,am]ica  ,we ,! ,p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 
,ord] to =m a m p]fect ,union1 e/abli%  
,ju/ice1 insure dome/ic ,tranquillity1  
provide = ! common def5ce1 promote !    
g5]al welf>e1 & secure ! bless+s (      
,lib]ty to ourselves & our ,po/]ity1 d  
orda9 & e/abli% ?is ,con/itution = !    
,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica3     ,article ,i
  ,section #a4 ,all legislative ,p[]s   
h]e9 grant$ %all be ve/$ 9 a ,congress (
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* %all consi/ ( a   
,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4       
,section #b4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives 
%all be compos$ ( ,memb]s ( *os5 e      
second ,ye> by ! ,p ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 &
 ! ,electors 9 ea* ,/ates %all h !      
,qualifications requisite = ,electors ( 

! mo/ num]\s ,bran* ( ! ,/ate           
,legislature4  ,no ,p]son %all be a     
,repres5tative :o %all n h atta9$ to !  
,age ( tw5ty-five ,ye>s1 & be5 sev5     
,ye>s a ,citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :o 
%all n1 :5 elect$1 be an ,inhabitant ( t
 ,/ate 9 :i* he %all be *os54           
,repres5tatives & direct ,taxes %all be 
apportion$ among ! sev]al ,/ates :i* may
 be includ$ )9 ?is ,union1 accord+ to _!
 respective ,numb]s1 :i* %all be det]m9$
 by add+ to ! :ole ,numb] ( free        
,p]sons1 includ+ ^? b\nd to s]vice = a  
,t]m ( ,ye>s1 & exclud+ ,indians n tax$1
 ?ree-fif?s ( all o!r ,p]sons4 ,! actual
 ,enum]ation %all be made )9 ?ree ,ye>s 
aft] ! fir/ ,meet+ ( ! ,congress ( !    
,unit$ ,/ates1 & )9 e subsequ5t ,t]m (  
t5 ,ye>s1 9 su* ,mann] z !y %all by ,law
 direct4 ,! ,numb] ( ,repres5tatives    
%all n exce$ "o = e ?irty ,?\s&1 b ea*  
,/ate %all h at ,lea/ "o ,repres5tative2
 & until su* enum]ation %all be made1 ! 
,/ate ( ,new ,hamp%ire %all be entitl$  
to *oose ?ree1 ,massa*usetts1 eight1    

,rhode-,isl& & ,provid5ce ,plantations  
"o1 ,connecticut five1 ,new ,york six1  
,new ,j]sey f\r1 ,p5nsylvania eight1    
,delaw>e "o1 ,m>yl& six1 ,virg9ia t51   
,nor? ,c>ol9a five1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a five1 &
 ,georgia ?ree4  ,:5 vacancies happ5 9 !
 ,repres5tation f any ,/ate1 !          
,executive ,au?ority !re( %all issue    
,writs ( ,election to fill su*          
,vacancies4  ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives 
%all *oose _! ,speak] & o!r ,(fic]s2 &  
%all h ! sole ,p[] ( ,impea*m5t4        
,section #c4 ,! ,s5ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates
 %all be compos$ ( two ,s5ators f ea*   
,/ate1 *os5 by ! ,legislature !re(1 =   
six ,ye>s2 & ea* ,s5ator %all h "o      
,vote4  ,imm$iately aft] !y %all be     
assembl$ 9 ,consequ5ce ( ! fir/         
,election1 !y %all be divid$ z equally z
 may be into ?ree ,classes4 ,! ,seats ( 
! ,s5ators ( ! fir/ ,class %all be      
vacat$ at ! ,expiration ( ! second ,ye>1
 ( ! second ,class at ! expiration ( !  
f\r? ,ye>1 & ( ! ?ird ,class at !       
expiration ( ! six? ,ye>1 s t "o-?ird   

may be *os5 e second ,ye>2 & if         
,vacancies happ5 by ,resignation1 or    
o!rwise1 dur+ ! ,recess ( ! ,legislature
 ( any ,/ate1 ! ,executive !re( may make
 tempor>y ,appo9tm5ts until ! next      
,meet+ ( ! ,legislature1 :i* %all !n    
fill su* ,vacancies4  ,no p]son %all be 
a ,s5ator :o %all n h atta9$ to ! ,age (
 ?irty ,ye>s1 & be5 n9e ,ye>s a ,citiz5 
( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :o %all n1 :5      
elect$1 be an ,inhabitant ( t ,/ate =   
:i* he %all be *os54  ,! ,vice-,presid5t
 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be ,presid5t ( !
 ,s5ate1 b %all h no ,vote1 unless !y be
 equally divid$4 ,! ,s5ate %all *oose _!
 o!r ,(fic]s1 & also a ,presid5t pro    
tempore1 9 ! ,abs5ce ( !                
,vice-,presid5t1 or :5 he %all ex]cise !
 ,(fice ( ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4  
,! ,s5ate %all h ! sole p[] to try all  
,impea*m5ts4 ,:5 sitt+ = t ,purpose1 !y 
%all be on ,oa? or ,affirmation4 ,:5 !  
,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is tri$1 !  
,*ief ,ju/ice %all preside3 ,& no ,p]son
 %all be convict$ )\t ! ,concurr5ce (   

two-?irds ( ! ,memb]s pres5t4 ,judgm5t 9
 cases ( ,impea*m5t %all n ext5d fur!r  
?an to removal f ,(fice1 &              
disqualification to hold & enjoy any    
,(fice ( ,honor1 ,tru/1 or ,pr(it "u !  
,unit$ ,/ates3 b ! ,p>ty convict$ %all  
nev]!less be liable & subject to        
,indictm5t1 ,trial1 ,judgm5t1 &         
,puni%m5t accord+ to ,law4  ,section #d4
 ,! ,times1 ,places & ,mann] ( hold+    
,elections = ,s5ators & ,repres5tatives1
 %all be prescrib$ 9 ea* ,/ate by !     
,legislature !re(2 b ! ,congress may at 
any "t by ,law make or alt] su*         
,regulations1 except z to ! ,places (   
*oos+ ,s5ators4  ,! ,congress %all      
assemble at lea/ once 9 e ,ye>1 & su*   
,meet+ %all be on ! fir/ ,monday 9      
,decemb]1 unless !y %all by ,law appo9t 
a diff]5t ,day4  ,section #e4 ,ea* ,h\se
 %all be ! ,judge ( ! ,elections1       
,returns & ,qualifications ( its own    
,memb]s1 & a ,majority ( ea* %all       
con/itute a ,quorum to d ,bus9ess2 b a  
small] ,numb] may adj\rn f day to day1 &

 may be au?oriz$ to compel ! ,att5dance 
( ,abs5t ,memb]s1 9 su* ,mann]1 & "u su*
 ,p5alties z ea* ,h\se may provide4     
,ea* ,h\se may det]m9e ! ,rules ( its   
,proce$+s1 puni% its ,memb]s = disord]ly
 ,behavi\r1 &1 ) a ,concurr5ce (        
two-?irds1 expel a ,memb]4  ,ea* ,h\se  
%all keep a ,j\rnal ( its ,proce$+s1 & f
 "t to "t publi% ! same1 except+ su*    
,p>ts z may 9 _! ,judgm5t require       
,secrecy2 & ! ,yeas & ,nays ( ! ,memb]s 
( ei!r ,h\se on any "q %all1 at !       
,desire ( "o-fif? ( ^? pres5t1 be ent]$ 
on ! ,j\rnal4  ,nei!r ,h\se1 dur+ !     
,session ( ,congress1 %all1 )\t !       
,cons5t ( ! o!r1 adj\rn = m ?an ?ree    
days1 nor to any o!r ,place ?an t 9 :i* 
! two ,h\ses %all be sitt+4  ,section   
#f4 ,! ,s5ators & ,repres5tatives %all  
receive a ,comp5sation = _! ,s]vices1 to
 be asc]ta9$ by ,law1 & paid out ( !    
,treasury ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!y %all 9 
all ,cases1 except ,treason1 ,felony1 & 
,brea* ( ! ,peace1 be privileg$ f ,arre/
 dur+ _! att5dance at ! ,session ( _!   

respective ,h\ses1 & 9 go+ to & return+ 
f ! same2 & = any ,spee* or ,debate 9   
ei!r ,h\se1 !y %all n be que/ion$ 9 any 
o!r ,place4  ,no ,s5ator or             
,repres5tative %all1 dur+ ! ,"t = :i* he
 0 elect$1 be appo9t$ to any civil      
,(fice "u ! ,au?ority ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1
 :i* %all h be5 creat$1 or ! ,emolum5ts 
:]e( %all h be5 increas$ dur+ su* "t2 & 
no ,p]son hold+ any ,(fice "u ! ,unit$  
,/ates1 %all be a ,memb] ( ei!r ,h\se   
dur+ 8 ,cont9uance 9 ,(fice4  ,section  
#g4 ,all ,bills = ,rais+ ,rev5ue %all   
orig9ate 9 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives2 b 
! ,s5ate may propose or concur )        
,am5dm5ts z on o!r ,bills4  ,e ,bill :i*
 %all h pass$ ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives 
& ! ,s5ate1 %all1 be=e x become a ,law1 
be pres5t$ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$    
,/ates2 if he approve he %all sign x1 b 
if n he %all return x1 ) 8 ,objections1 
to t ,h\se 9 :i* x %all h orig9at$1 :o  
%all ent] ! ,objections at l>ge on _!   
,j\rnal1 & proce$ to reconsid] x4 ,if   
aft] su* ,reconsid]ation two-?irds ( t  

,h\se %all agree to pass ! ,bill1 x %all
 be s5t1 toge!r ) ! ,objections1 to !   
o!r ,h\se1 by :i* x %all likewise be    
reconsid]$1 & if approv$ by two-?irds ( 
t ,h\se1 x %all become a ,law4 ,b 9 all 
su* ,cases ! ,votes ( bo? ,h\ses %all be
 det]m9$ by ,yeas & ,nays1 & ! ,names ( 
! ,p]sons vot+ = & aga9/ ! ,bill %all be
 ent]$ on ! ,j\rnal ( ea* ,h\se         
respectively4 ,if any ,bill %all n be   
return$ by ! ,presid5t )9 t5 days       
7,sundays except$7 aft] x %all h be5    
pres5t$ to him1 ! ,same %all be a ,law1 
9 l mann] z if he _h sign$ x1 unless !  
,congress by _! ,adj\rnm5t prev5t its   
,return1 9 :i* ,case x %all n be a ,law4
  ,e ,ord]1 ,resolution1 or ,vote to :i*
 ! ,concurr5ce ( ! ,s5ate & ,h\se (     
,repres5tatives may be necess>y 7except 
on a "q ( ,adj\rnm5t7 %all be pres5t$ to
 ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & be=e !
 ,same %all take ,effect1 %all be       
approv$ by him1 or be+ disapprov$ by    
him1 %all be repass$ by two-?irds ( !   
,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1       

accord+ to ! ,rules & ,limitations      
prescrib$ 9 ! case ( a ,bill4  ,section 
#h4 ,! ,congress %all h ,p[] to lay &   
collect ,taxes1 ,duties1 ,impo/s1 &     
,excises1 to pay ! ,debts & provide = ! 
common ,def5ce & g5]al ,welf>e ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates2 b all ,duties1 ,impo/s & 
,excises %all be uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ 
,/ates2  ,to borr[ ,money on ! cr$it ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates2  ,to regulate ,comm]ce )
 =eign ,nations1 & among ! sev]al       
,/ates1 & ) ! ,indian ,tribes2  ,to     
e/abli% an ,uni=m ,rule (               
,naturalization1 & uni=m ,laws on !     
subject ( ,bankruptcies ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$
 ,/ates2 ,to co9 ,money1 regulate !     
,value !re(1 & ( =eign ,co91 & fix !    
,/&>d ( ,weights & ,measures2  ,to      
provide = ! ,puni%m5t ( c\nt]feit+ !    
,securities & curr5t ,co9 ( ! ,unit$    
,/ates2  ,to e/abli% ,po/ ,(fices & ,po/
 ,roads2  ,to promote ! ,progress (     
,sci5ce & useful ,arts1 by secur+ =     
limit$ ,times to ,au?ors & ,inv5tors !  
exclusive ,"r to _! respective ,writ+s &

 ,discov]ies2  ,to con/itute ,tribunals 
inf]ior to ! ,supreme ,c\rt2 ,to def9e &
 puni% ,piracies & ,felonies committ$ on
 ! high ,seas1 & ,(f5ces aga9/ ! ,law ( 
,nations2  ,to decl>e ,w>1 grant ,lett]s
 ( ,m>que & ,reprisal1 & make ,rules    
conc]n+ ,captures on ,l& & ,wat]2  ,to  
raise & support ,armies1 b no           
,appropriation ( ,money to t ,use %all  
be = a long] ,t]m ?an two ye>s2  ,to    
provide & ma9ta9 a ,navy2  ,to make     
,rules = ! ,gov]nm5t & ,regulation ( !  
l& & naval ,=ces4  ,to provide = call+  
=? ! ,militia to execute ! ,laws ( !    
,union1 suppress ,insurrections & repel 
,invasions4  ,to provide = organiz+1    
arm+1 & discipl9+1 ! ,militia1 & =      
gov]n+ su* ,"p ( !m z may be employ$ 9 !
 ,s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 res]v+ to ! 
,/ates respectively1 ! ,appo9tm5t ( !   
,(fic]s1 & ! ,au?ority ( tra9+ !        
,militia accord+ to ! discipl9e         
prescrib$ by ,congress2  ,to ex]cise    
exclusive ,legislation 9 all ,cases     
:atsoev]1 ov] su* ,di/rict 7n exce$+ t5 

,miles squ>e7 z may1 by ,cession (      
p>ticul> ,/ates1 & ! ,acceptance (      
,congress become ! ,seat ( ! ,gov]nm5t (
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & to ex]cise l        
,au?ority ov] all ,places pur*as$ by !  
,cons5t ( ! ,legislature ( ! ,/ate 9 :i*
 ! ,same %all be1 = ! ,erection ( ,=ts1 
,magaz9es1 ,ars5als1 ,dock-,y>ds1 & o!r 
ne$ful ,build+s2--,& ,to make all ,laws 
:i* %all be necess>y & prop] = c>ry+    
into ,execution ! =ego+ ,p[]s1 & all o!r
 ,p[]s ve/$ by ?is ,con/itution 9 !     
,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or 9 any   
,dep>tm5t or ,(fic] !re(4  ,section #i4 
,! ,migration or ,importation ( su*     
,p]sons z any ( ! ,/ates n[ exi/+ %all  
?9k prop] to admit1 %all n be prohibit$ 
by ! ,congress prior to ! ye> "o ?\s&   
eight hundr$ & eight1 b a tax or duty   
may be impos$ on su* ,importation1 n    
exce$+ t5 doll>s = ea* ,p]son4  ,!      
,privilege ( ! ,writ ( ,habeas ,corpus  
%all n be susp5d$1 unless :5 9 ,cases ( 
,rebellion or ,invasion ! public ,safety
 may require x4  ,no ,bill ( ,atta9d] or

 ex po/ facto ,law %all be pass$4 ,no   
,capitation1 or o!r direct ,tax %all be 
laid1 unless 9 ,proportion to ! ,c5sus  
or ,enum]ation h]e9 be=e direct$ to be  
tak54  ,no ,tax or ,duty %all be laid on
 ,articles export$ f any ,/ate4  ,no    
pref]5ce %all be giv5 by any ,regulation
 ( ,comm]ce or ,rev5ue to ! ,ports ( "o 
,/ate ov] ^? ( ano!r3 nor %all ,vessels 
b\nd to1 or f1 "o ,/ate1 be oblig$ to   
ent]1 cle>1 or pay ,duties 9 ano!r4  ,no
 ,money %all be drawn f ! ,treasury1 b 9
 consequ5ce ( ,appropriations made by   
,law2 & a regul> ,/atem5t & ,acc\nt ( ! 
,receipts & ,exp5ditures ( all public   
,money %all be publi%$ f "t to "t4  ,no 
,title ( ,nobility %all be grant$ by !  
,unit$ ,/ates3 ,& no ,p]son hold+ any   
,(fice ( ,pr(it or ,tru/ "u !m1 %all1   
)\t ! ,cons5t ( ! ,congress1 accept (   
any pres5t1 ,emolum5t1 ,(fice1 or ,title
 ( any k9d :atev]1 f any ,k+1 ,pr9ce1 or
 =eign ,/ate4  ,section #aj4 ,no ,/ate  
%all ent] into any ,treaty1 ,alliance1  
or ,conf$]ation2 grant ,lett]s ( ,m>que 

or ,reprisal2 co9 ,money2 emit ,bills ( 
,cr$it2 make any ,?+ b gold & silv] ,co9
 a ,t5d] 9 ,paym5t ( ,debts2 pass any   
,bill ( ,atta9d]1 ex po/ facto ,law1 or 
,law impair+ ! ,obligation ( ,contracts1
 or grant any ,title ( ,nobility4  ,no  
,/ate %all1 )\t ! ,cons5t ( ! ,congress1
 lay any ,impo/s or ,duties on ,imports 
or ,exports1 except :at may be          
absolutely necess>y = execut+ its       
inspection ,laws3 & ! net ,produce ( all
 ,duties & ,impo/s1 laid by any ,/ate on
 ,imports or ,exports %all be = ! ,use (
 ! ,treasury ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & all   
su* laws %all be subject to ! ,revision 
& ,control ( ! ,congress4  ,no ,/ate    
%all1 )\t ! ,cons5t ( ,congress1 lay any
 ,duty ( ,tonnage1 keep ,troops1 or     
,%ips ( ,w> 9 "t ( ,peace1 ent] into any
 ,agreem5t or ,compact ) ano!r ,/ate1 or
 ) a =eign ,p[]1 or engage 9 ,w>1 unless
 actually invad$1 or 9 su* imm95t ,dang]
 z w n admit ( delay4     ,article ,,ii 
,section #a4 ,! ,executive ,p[] %all be 
ve/$ 9 a ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates (  

,am]ica4 ,he %all hold 8 ,(fice dur+ !  
,t]m ( f\r ,ye>s1 &1 toge!r ) !         
,vice-,presid5t1 *os5 = ! same ,t]m1 be 
elect$ z foll[s3  ,ea* ,/ate %all       
appo9t1 9 su* ,mann] z ! ,legislature   
!re( may direct1 a ,numb] ( ,electors1  
equal to ! :ole ,numb] ( ,s5ators &     
,repres5tatives to :i* ! ,/ate may be   
entitl$ 9 ! ,congress3 b no ,s5ator or  
,repres5tative1 or ,p]son hold+ an      
,(fice ( ,tru/ or ,pr(it "u ! ,unit$    
,/ates1 %all be appo9t$ an ,elector4  ,!
 ,electors %all meet 9 _! respective    
,/ates1 & vote by ,ballot = two p]sons1 
( :om "o at lea/ %all n be an inhabitant
 ( ! same ,/ate ) !mselves4 ,& !y %all  
make a ,li/ ( all ! ,p]sons vot$ =1 & ( 
! ,numb] ( ,votes = ea*2 :i* ,li/ !y    
%all sign & c]tify1 & transmit seal$ to 
! ,seat ( ! ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1
 direct$ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate4 ,!  
,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate %all1 9 ! ,pres5ce 
( ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1   
op5 all ! ,c]tificates1 & ! ,votes %all 
!n be c\nt$4 ,! ,p]son hav+ ! greate/   

,numb] ( ,votes %all be ! ,presid5t1 if 
su* ,numb] be a ,majority ( ! :ole      
,numb] ( ,electors appo9t$2 & if !re be 
m ?an "o :o h su* ,majority1 & h an     
equal numb] ( ,votes1 !n ! ,h\se (      
,repres5tatives %all imm$iately *oose by
 ,ballot "o ( !m = ,presid5t2 & if no   
,p]son h a ,majority1 !n f ! five highe/
 on ! ,li/ ! said ,h\se %all 9 l ,mann] 
*oose ! ,presid5t4 ,b 9 *oos+ !         
,presid5t1 ! ,votes %all be tak5 by     
,/ates1 ! ,repres5tation f ea* ,/ate    
hav+ "o ,vote2 ,a quorum = ?is ,purpose 
%all consi/ ( a ,memb] or ,memb]s f     
two-?irds ( ! ,/ates1 & a ,majority (   
all ! ,/ates %all be necess>y to a      
,*oice4 ,9 e ,case1 aft] ! ,*oice ( !   
,presid5t1 ! ,p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb]
 ( ,votes ( ! ,electors %all be !       
,vice-,presid5t4 ,b if !re %\ld rema9   
two or m :o h equal ,votes1 ! ,s5ate    
%all *oose f !m by ,ballot !            
,vice-,presid5t499d  ,footnote 99d3 ,?is
 clause is sup]s$$ by ,article ,,xii1   
,am5dm5ts4 ,see page #cif4  ,! ,congress

 may det]m9e ! ,"t ( *oos+ ! ,electors1 
& ! ,day on :i* !y %all give _! ,votes2 
:i* ,day %all be ! same ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$
 ,/ates4  ,no ,p]son except a natural   
born ,citiz51 or a ,citiz5 ( ! ,unit$   
,/ates1 at ! "t ( ! ,adoption ( ?is     
,con/itution1 %all be eligible to !     
,(fice ( ,presid5t2 nei!r %all any p]son
 be eligible to t ,(fice :o %all n h    
atta9$ to ! ,age ( ?irty-five ,ye>s1 &  
be5 f\rte5 ,ye>s a ,resid5t )9 ! ,unit$ 
,/ates4  ,9 case ( ! ,removal ( !       
,presid5t f ,(fice1 or ( 8 ,dea?1       
,resignation or ,inability to dis*>ge ! 
,p[]s & ,duties ( ! said ,(fice1 ! same 
%all devolve on ! ,vice-presid5t1 & !   
,congress may by ,law provide = ! ,case 
( ,removal1 ,dea?1 ,resignation or      
,inability1 bo? ( ! ,presid5t &         
,vice-,presid5t1 decl>+ :at ,(fic] %all 
!n act z ,presid5t1 & su* ,(fic] %all   
act accord+ly1 until ! ,disability be   
remov$1 or a ,presid5t %all be elect$4  
,! ,presid5t %all1 at /at$ ,times1      
receive = 8 ,s]vices1 a ,comp5sation1   

:i* %all nei!r be increas$ nor dim9i%$  
dur+ ! ,p]iod = :i* he %all h be5       
elect$1 & he %all n receive )9 t p]iod  
any o!r ,emolum5t f ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or 
any ( !m4  ,be=e he ent] on ! ,execution
 ( 8 ,(fice1 he %all take ! foll[+ ,oa? 
or ,affirmation3--,i d solemnly swe> 7or
 affirm7 t ,i w fai?fully execute !     
,(fice ( ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & 
w to ! be/ ( my ,ability1 pres]ve1      
protect1 & def5d ! ,con/itution ( !     
,unit$ ,/ates4  ,section #b4 ,!         
,presid5t %all be ,comm&] 9 ,*ief ( !   
,army & ,navy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ( !  
,militia ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 :5 call$    
into ! actual ,s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2
 he may require ! ,op9ion1 9 writ+1 ( ! 
pr9cipal ,(fic] 9 ea* ( ! executive     
,dep>tm5ts1 ^u any ,subject relat+ to ! 
,duties ( _! respective ,(fices1 & he   
%all h ,p[] to grant ,reprieves &       
,p>dons = ,(f5ces aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1
 except 9 ,cases ( ,impea*m5t4  ,he %all
 h ,p[]1 by & ) ! ,advice & ,cons5t ( ! 
,s5ate1 to make ,treaties1 provid$      

two-?irds ( ! ,s5ators pres5t concur2 & 
he %all nom9ate1 & by & ) ! ,advice &   
,cons5t ( ! ,s5ate1 %all appo9t         
,ambassadors1 o!r public ,m9i/]s &      
,consuls1 ,judges ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 & 
all o!r ,(fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ^:   
,appo9tm5ts are n h]e9 o!rwise provid$  
=1 & :i* %all be e/abli%$ by ,law3 b !  
,congress may by ,law ve/ ! ,appo9tm5t (
 su* inf]ior ,(fic]s1 z !y ?9k prop]1 9 
! ,presid5t alone1 9 ! ,c\rts ( ,law1 or
 9 ! ,heads ( ,dep>tm5ts4  ,! ,presid5t 
%all h ,p[] to fill up all vacancies t  
may happ5 dur+ ! recess ( ! ,s5ate1 by  
grant+ ,commissions :i* %all expire at !
 ,end ( _! next ,session4  ,section #c4 
,he %all f "t to "t give to ! ,congress 
,in=mation ( ! /ate ( ! ,union1 &       
recomm5d to _! ,consid]ation su*        
,measures z he %all judge necess>y &    
exp$i5t2 he may1 on extraord9>y         
,occasions1 conv5e bo? ,h\ses1 or ei!r (
 !m1 & 9 ,case ( ,disagreem5t betwe5 !m1
 ) ,respect to ! ,"t ( ,adj\rnm5t1 he   
may adj\rn !m to su* ,"t z he %all ?9k  

prop]2 he %all receive ,ambassadors &   
o!r ,public ,m9i/]s2 he %all take ,c>e t
 ! ,laws be fai?fully execut$1 & %all   
,commission all ! ,(fic]s ( ! ,unit$    
,/ates4  ,section #d4 ,! ,presid5t1     
,vice-,presid5t & all civil ,(fic]s ( ! 
,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be remov$ f ,(fice  
on ,impea*m5t =1 & ,conviction (1       
,treason1 ,brib]y1 or o!r ,high ,crimes 
& ,misdemeanors4     ,article ,,iii     
,section #a4 ,! judicial ,p[] ( ! ,unit$
 ,/ates %all be ve/$ 9 "o supreme ,c\rt1
 & 9 su* inf]ior ,c\rts z ! ,congress   
may f "t to "t orda9 & e/abli%4 ,!      
,judges1 bo? ( ! ,supreme & inf]ior     
,c\rts1 %all hold _! ,(fices dur+ good  
,behavi\r1 & %all1 at /at$ ,times1      
receive = _! ,s]vices1 a ,comp5sation1  
:i* %all n be dim9i%$ dur+ _!           
,cont9uance 9 ,(fice4  ,section #b4 ,!  
judicial ,p[] %all ext5d to all cases1 9
 ,law & ,equity1 aris+ "u ?is           
,con/itution1 ! ,laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1
 & ,treaties made1 or :i* %all be made1 
"u _! ,au?ority2--to all ,cases affect+ 

,ambassadors1 o!r public ,m9i/]s &      
,consuls2--to all cases ( ,admiralty &  
m>itime ,jurisdiction2 to ,controv]sies 
to :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be a        
,p>ty2--to ,controv]sies betwe5 two or m
 ,/ates2--betwe5 a ,/ate & ,citiz5s (   
ano!r ,/ate2 betwe5 ,citiz5s ( diff]5t  
,/ates1--betwe5 ,citiz5s ( ! same ,/ate 
claim+ ,l&s "u ,grants ( diff]5t ,/ates1
 & betwe5 a ,/ate1 or ! ,citiz5s !re(1 &
 =eign ,/ates1 ,citiz5s or ,subjects4   
,9 all ,cases affect+ ,ambassadors1 o!r 
public ,m9i/]s & ,consuls1 & ^? 9 :i* a 
,/ate %all be ,p>ty1 ! ,supreme ,c\rt   
%all h orig9al ,jurisdiction4 ,9 all !  
o!r ,cases be=e m5tion$1 ! ,supreme     
,c\rt %all h appellate ,jurisdiction1   
bo? z to ,law & ,fact1 ) su* ,exceptions
 & "u su* ,regulations z ! ,congress    
%all make4  ,! ,trial ( all ,crimes1    
except 9 ,cases ( ,impea*m5t1 %all be by
 ,jury2 & su* ,trial %all be held 9 !   
,/ate :]e ! said ,crimes %all h be5     
committ$2 b :5 n committ$ )9 any ,/ate1 
! ,trial %all be at su* ,place or       

,places z ! ,congress may by ,law h     
direct$4  ,section #c4 ,treason aga9/ ! 
,unit$ ,/ates %all consi/ only 9 levy+  
,w> aga9/ !m1 or 9 adh]+ to _! ,enemies1
 giv+ !m ,aid & ,com=t4 ,no p]son %all  
be convict$ ( ,treason unless on !      
,te/imony ( two ,witnesses to ! same    
ov]t ,act1 or on ,confession 9 op5      
,c\rt4  ,! ,congress %all h p[] to      
decl>e ! ,puni%m5t ( ,treason1 b no     
,atta9d] ( ,treason %all "w ,corruption 
( ,blood or ,=feiture except dur+ ! life
 ( ! p]son atta9t$4     ,article ,,iv   
,section #a4 ,full ,fai? & ,cr$it %all  
be giv5 9 ea* ,/ate to ! ,public ,acts1 
,records1 & judicial ,proce$+s ( e o!r  
,/ate4 ,& ! ,congress may by g5]al ,laws
 prescribe ! ,mann] 9 :i* su* ,acts1    
,records & ,proce$+s %all be prov$1 & ! 
,effect !re(4  ,section #b4 ,! ,citiz5s 
( ea* ,/ate %all be entitl$ to all      
,privileges & ,immunities ( ,citiz5s 9 !
 sev]al ,/ates4 ,a p]son *>g$ 9 any     
,/ate ) ,treason1 ,felony1 or o!r       
,crime1 :o %all flee f ,ju/ice1 & be    

f\nd 9 ano!r ,/ate1 %all on ,dem& ( !   
executive ,au?ority ( ! ,/ate f :i* he  
fl$1 be deliv]$ up1 to be remov$ to !   
,/ate hav+ ,jurisdiction ( ! ,crime4    
,no ,p]son held to ,s]vice or ,lab\r 9  
"o ,/ate1 "u ! ,laws !re(1 escap+ into  
ano!r1 %all1 9 consequ5ce ( any ,law or 
,regulation !re91 be dis*>g$ f su*      
,s]vice or ,lab\r1 b %all be deliv]$ up 
on ,claim ( ! ,p>ty to :om su* ,s]vice  
or ,lab\r may be due4  ,section #c4 ,new
 ,/ates may be admitt$ by ! ,congress   
into ?is ,union2 b no new ,/ate %all be 
=m$ or erect$ )9 ! ,jurisdiction ( any  
o!r ,/ate2 nor any ,/ate be =m$ by !    
,junction ( two or m ,/ates1 or ,p>ts ( 
,/ates1 )\t ! ,cons5t ( ! ,legislatures 
( ! ,/ates conc]n$ z well z ( !         
,congress4  ,! ,congress %all h ,p[] to 
dispose ( & make all ne$ful ,rules &    
,regulations respect+ ! ,t]ritory or o!r
 ,prop]ty belong+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & 
no?+ 9 ?is ,con/itution %all be s       
con/ru$ z to ,prejudice any ,claims ( ! 
,unit$ ,/ates1 or ( any p>ticul> ,/ate4 

,section #d4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates %all      
gu>antee to e ,/ate 9 ?is ,union a      
,republican ,=m ( ,gov]nm5t1 & %all     
protect ea* ( !m aga9/ ,invasion2 & on  
,application ( ! ,legislature1 or ( !   
,executive 7:5 ! ,legislature _c be     
conv5$7 aga9/ dome/ic ,viol5ce4         
,article ,v  ,! ,congress1 :5ev]        
two-?irds ( bo? ,h\ses %all deem x      
necess>y1 %all propose ,am5dm5ts to ?is 
,con/itution1 or1 on ! ,application ( ! 
,legislatures ( two-?irds ( ! sev]al    
,/ates1 %all call a ,conv5tion = propos+
 ,am5dm5ts1 :i*1 9 ei!r ,case1 %all be  
valid to all ,int5ts & ,purposes1 z ,"p 
( ?is ,con/itution1 :5 ratifi$ by !     
,legislatures ( ?ree-f\r?s ( ! sev]al   
,/ates1 or by ,conv5tions 9 ?ree-f\r?s  
!re(1 z ! "o or ! o!r ,mode (           
,ratification may be propos$ by !       
,congress2 ,provid$ t no ,am5dm5t :i*   
may be made prior to ! ,ye> ,"o ?\s&    
eight hundr$ & eight %all 9 any ,mann]  
affect ! fir/ & f\r? ,clauses 9 ! ,n9?  
,section ( ! fir/ ,article2 & t no      

,/ate1 )\t its ,cons5t1 %all be depriv$ 
( its equal ,suffrage 9 ! ,s5ate4       
,article ,,vi  ,all ,debts contract$ &  
,engagem5ts ent]$ into1 be=e ! ,adoption
 ( ?is ,con/itution1 %all be z valid    
aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates "u ?is            
,con/itution1 z "u ! ,conf$]ation4  ,?is
 ,con/itution1 & ! ,laws ( ! ,unit$     
,/ates :i* %all be made 9 ,pursuance    
!re(2 & all ,treaties made1 or :i* %all 
be made1 "u ! ,au?ority ( ! ,unit$      
,/ates1 %all be ! supreme ,law ( ! ,l&2 
& ! ,judges 9 e ,/ate %all be b\nd      
!reby1 any ,?+ 9 ! ,con/itution or ,laws
 ( any ,/ate to ! contr>y not)/&+4  ,!  
,s5ators & ,repres5tatives be=e m5tion$1
 & ! ,memb]s ( ! sev]al ,/ate           
,legislatures1 & all executive &        
judicial ,(fic]s1 bo? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
& ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 %all be b\nd by    
,oa? or ,affirmation to support ?is     
,con/itution2 b no religi\s te/ %all ev]
 be requir$ z a ,qualification to any   
,(fice or public ,tru/ "u ! ,unit$      
,/ates4     ,article ,,vii  ,!          

,ratification ( ! ,conv5tions ( n9e     
,/ates %all be suffici5t = ! ,e/abli%m5t
 ( ?is ,con/itution betwe5 ! ,/ates s   
ratify+ ! ,same4  ,done 9 ,conv5tion by 
! ,unanim\s ,cons5t ( ! ,/ates pres5t ! 
,sev5te5? ,day ( ,septemb] 9 ! ,ye> (   
,our ,"l ,"o ?\s& sev5 hundr$ &         
eighty-sev5 & ( ! ,indep5d5ce ( ! ,unit$
 ,/ates ( ,am]ica ! ,twelf?4 ,9 witness 
:]e( ,we h h]eunto subscrib$ our ,names1
       ,geo4 ,wa%+ton      ,presidt4 &  
deputy f ,virg9ia4       ,new ,hamp%ire 
,john ,langdon      ,ni*olas ,gilman    
,massa*usetts      ,na?aniel ,gorham    
,rufus ,k+       ,connecticut      ,wm4 
,saml4 ,johnson      ,rog] ,%]man       
,new ,york      ,alex&] ,hamilton       
,new ,j]sey      ,wil4 ,liv+/on4        
,david ,bre>ley4      ,wm4 ,pat]son4    
,jona4 ,dayton       ,p5nsylvania       
,b ,frankl9      ,?omas ,miffl9         
,robt4 ,morris4      ,geo4 ,clym]       
,?os4 ,fitzsimons      ,j>$ ,+]soll     
,james ,wilson      ,g\v4 ,morris       
,delaw>e      ,geo4 ,read      ,gunn+   

,b$=d ,jun      ,john ,dick9son         
,ri*>d ,bassett      ,jaco4 ,broom      
,m>yl&      ,james ,mc,henry      ,dan (
 ,/ ,?os4 ,j5if]      ,danl4 ,c>roll    
,virg9ia      ,john ,blair--      ,james
 ,madison ,jr4       ,nor? ,c>ol9a      
,wm4 ,bl\nt      ,ri*d4 ,dobbs ,spaight 
,hu4 ,williamson       ,s\? ,c>ol9a     
,j4 ,rutl$ge      ,*>les ,coteswor?     
,p9ckney      ,*>les ,p9ckney           
,peirce ,butl]4       ,georgia          
,william ,few      ,abr4 ,baldw9        
,atte/4 ,william ,jackson1 ,secret>y  ,!
 ,^w '!1' be+ int]l9$ betwe5 ! sev5? &  
eigh? ,l9es ( ! fir/ ,page1 ,! ^w       
',?irty' be+ p>tly writt5 on an ,erasure
 9 ! fifte5? ,l9e ( ! fir/ ,page1 ,!    
,words 'is tri$' be+ int]l9$ betwe5 !   
?irty-second & ?irty-?ird ,l9es ( ! fir/
 ,page1 & ! ,^w '!' be+ int]l9$ betwe5 !
 =ty-?ird & =ty-f\r? ,l9es ( ! second   
page4  ,note by ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,/ate4--,!
 =ego+ explanation 9 ! orig9al in/rum5t 
is plac$ on ! left ( ! p>agraph beg9n+ )
 ! words1 ',done 9 ,conv5tion1' & !re=e 

prec$es ! signatures4 ,! int]l9$ &      
rewritt5 words1 m5tion$ 9 x1 are 9 ?is  
edition pr9t$ 9 _! prop] places 9 !     
text4     ,bill ,( ,rights  ,9 addition 
to1 & am5dm5t (1 ! ,con/itution ( !     
,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 propos$ by     
,congress & ratifi$ by ! ,legislatures (
 ! sev]al ,/ates1 pursuant to ! ,fif?   
,article ( ! orig9al ,con/itution       
,article ,i  ,congress %all make no law 
respect+ an e/abli%m5t ( religion1 or   
prohibit+ ! free ex]cise !re(2 or       
abridg+ ! fre$om ( spee*1 or ( ! press2 
or ! "r ( ! p peaceably to assemble1 &  
to petition ! ,gov]nm5t = a r$ress (    
grievances4  ,article ,,ii  ,a well     
regulat$ ,militia be+ necess>y to !     
security ( a free ,/ate1 ! "r ( ! p to  
keep & be> ,arms %all n be infr+$4      
,article ,,iii  ,no ,soldi] %all 9 "t ( 
peace be qu>t]$ 9 any h\se )\t ! cons5t 
( ! ,own]1 nor 9 "t ( w>1 b 9 a mann] to
 be prescrib$ by law4  ,article ,,iv  ,!
 "r ( ! p to be secure 9 _! p]sons1     
h\ses1 pap]s1 & effects1 aga9/          

unreasonable se>*es & seizures1 %all n  
be violat$1 & no w>rants %all issue1 b  
^u probable cause1 support$ by ,oa? or  
,affirmation1 & p>ticul>ly describ+ !   
place to be se>*$1 & ! p]sons or ?+s to 
be seiz$4  ,article ,v  ,no p]son %all  
be held to answ] = a capital1 or o!rwise
 infam\s crime1 unless on a pres5tm5t or
 indictm5t ( a ,gr& ,jury1 except 9     
cases aris+ 9 ! l& or naval =ces1 or 9 !
 ,militia1 :5 9 actual s]vice 9 "t ( ,w>
 or public dang]2 nor %all any p]son be 
subject = ! same (f5ce to be twice put 9
 jeop>dy ( life or limb2 nor %all be    
compell$ 9 any ,crim9al ,case to be a   
witness aga9/ himself1 nor be depriv$ ( 
life1 lib]ty1 or prop]ty1 )\t due       
process ( law2 nor %all private prop]ty 
be tak5 = public use1 )\t j comp5sation4
  ,article ,,vi  ,9 all crim9al         
prosecutions1 ! accus$ %all enjoy ! "r  
to a spe$y & public trial1 by an        
imp>tial jury ( ! ,/ate & di/rict :]e9 !
 crime %all h be5 committ$1 :i* di/rict 
%all h be5 previ\sly asc]ta9$ by law1 & 

to be in=m$ ( ! nature & cause ( !      
accusation2 to be confront$ ) !         
witnesses aga9/ him2 to h compulsory    
process = obta9+ witnesses 9 8 fav\r1 & 
to h ! ,assi/ance ( ,c\nsel = 8 def5ce4 
,article ,,vii  ,9 suits at common law1 
:]e ! value 9 controv]sy %all exce$     
tw5ty doll>s1 ! "r ( trial by jury %all 
be pres]v$1 & no fact tri$ by a jury    
%all be o!rwise re-exam9$ 9 any ,c\rt ( 
! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?an accord+ to ! rules 
( ! common law4  ,article ,,viii        
,excessive bail %all n be requir$1 nor  
excessive f9es impos$1 nor cruel &      
unusual puni%m5ts inflict$4  ,article   
,,ix  ,! enum]ation 9 ! ,con/itution1 ( 
c]ta9 rights1 %all n be con/ru$ to d5y  
or disp>age o!rs reta9$ by ! p4         
,article ,x  ,! p[]s n delegat$ to !    
,unit$ ,/ates by ! ,con/itution1 nor    
prohibit$ by x to ! ,/ates1 are res]v$  
to ! ,/ates respectively1 or to ! p4    
,article ,,xi  ,! ,judicial p[] ( !     
,unit$ ,/ates %all n be con/ru$ to ext5d
 to any suit 9 law or equity1 comm5c$ or

 prosecut$ aga9/ "o ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates by
 ,citiz5s ( ano!r ,/ate1 or by ,citiz5s 
or ,subjects ( any ,=eign ,/ate4        
,article ,,xii  ,! electors %all meet 9 
_! respective ,/ates1 & vote by ballot =
 ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t1 "o ( :om1 
at lea/1 %all n be an inhabitant ( !    
same ,/ate ) !mselves2 !y %all "n 9 _!  
ballots ! p]son vot$ = z ,presid5t2 & 9 
di/9ct ballots ! p]son vot$ = z         
,vice-,presid5t2 & !y %all make di/9ct  
li/s ( all p]sons vot$ = z ,presid5t1 & 
( all p]sons vot$ = z ,vice ,presid5t1 &
 ( ! numb] ( votes = ea*1 :i* li/s !y   
%all sign & c]tify1 & transmit seal$ to 
! seat ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1  
direct$ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate2--,!  
,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate %all1 9 ! pres5ce (
 ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 op5
 all ! c]tificates & ! votes %all !n be 
c\nt$2--,! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( 
votes = ,presid5t1 %all be ! ,presid5t1 
if su* numb] be a majority ( ! :ole     
numb] ( ,electors appo9t$2 & if no p]son
 h su* majority1 !n f ! p]sons hav+ !   

highe/ numb]s n exce$+ ?ree on ! li/ (  
^? vot$ = z ,presid5t1 ! ,h\se (        
,repres5tatives %all *oose imm$iately1  
by ballot1 ! ,presid5t4 ,b 9 *oos+ !    
,presid5t1 ! votes %all be tak5 by      
,/ates1 ! repres5tation f ea* ,/ate hav+
 "o vote2 a quorum = ?is purpose %all   
consi/ ( a memb] or memb]s f two-?irds (
 ! ,/ates1 & a majority ( all ! ,/ates  
%all be necess>y to a *oice4 ,& if !    
,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all n *oose a  
,presid5t :5ev] ! "r ( *oice %all       
devolve ^u !m1 be=e ! f\r? day ( ,m>*   
next foll[+1 !n ! ,vice-,presid5t %all  
act z ,presid5t1 z 9 ! case ( ! dea? or 
o!r con/itutional disability ( !        
,presid5t4 ,! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb]
 ( votes z ,vice-,presid5t1 %all be !   
,vice-,presid5t1 if su* a numb] be a    
majority ( ! :ole numb] ( ,electors     
appo9t$1 & if no p]son h a majority1 !n 
f ! two highe/ numb]s on ! li/1 ! ,s5ate
 %all *oose ! ,vice-,presid5t2 a quorum 
= ! purpose %all consi/ ( two-?irds ( ! 
:ole numb] ( ,s5ators1 & a majority ( ! 

:ole numb] %all be necess>y to a *oice4 
,b no p]son con/itutionally ineligible  
to ! (fice ( ,presid5t %all be eligible 
to t ( ,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,unit$       
,/ates4  ,article ,,xiii  ,section #a4  
,nei!r slav]y nor involunt>y s]vitude1  
except z a puni%m5t = crime :]e( ! p>ty 
%all h be5 duly convict$1 %all exi/ )9 !
 ,unit$ ,/ates1 or any place subject to 
_! jurisdiction4  ,section #b4 ,congress
 %all h p[] to en=ce ?is article by     
appropriate legislation4  ,article ,,xiv
  ,section #a4 ,all p]sons born or      
naturaliz$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & subject 
to ! jurisdiction !re(1 are citiz5s ( ! 
,unit$ ,/ates & ( ! ,/ate :]e9 !y       
reside4 ,no ,/ate %all make or en=ce any
 law :i* %all abridge ! privileges or   
immunities ( citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 
nor %all any ,/ate deprive any p]son (  
life1 lib]ty1 or prop]ty1 )\t due       
process ( law2 nor d5y to any p]son )9  
its jurisdiction ! equal protection ( ! 
laws4  ,section #b4 ,repres5tatives %all
 be apportion$ among ! sev]al ,/ates    

accord+ to _! respective numb]s1 c\nt+ !
 :ole numb] ( p]sons 9 ea* ,/ate1       
exclud+ ,indians n tax$4 ,b :5 ! "r to  
vote at any election = ! *oice (        
electors = ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t (
 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,repres5tatives 9     
,congress1 ! ,executive & ,judicial     
(fic]s ( a ,/ate1 or ! memb]s ( !       
,legislature !re(1 is d5i$ to any ( !   
male inhabitants ( su* ,/ate1 be+       
tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age1 & citiz5s ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates1 or 9 any way abridg$1    
except = p>ticipation 9 rebellion1 or   
o!r crime1 ! basis ( repres5tation !re9 
%all be r$uc$ 9 ! proportion :i* ! numb]
 ( su* male citiz5s %all be> to ! :ole  
numb] ( male citiz5s tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age
 9 su* ,/ate4  ,section #c4 ,no p]son   
%all be a ,s5ator or ,repres5tative 9   
,congress1 or elector ( ,presid5t &     
,vice-,presid5t1 or hold any (fice1     
civil or milit>y1 "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or
 "u any ,/ate1 :o1 hav+ previ\sly tak5  
an oa?1 z a memb] ( ,congress1 or z an  
(fic] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or z a memb] ( 

any ,/ate legislature1 or z an executive
 or judicial (fic] ( any ,/ate1 to      
support ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$       
,/ates1 %all h engag$ 9 insurrection or 
rebellion aga9/ ! same1 or giv5 aid or  
com=t to ! enemies !re(4 ,b ,congress   
may by a vote ( two-?irds ( ea* ,h\se1  
remove su* disability4  ,section #d4 ,! 
validity ( ! public debt ( ! ,unit$     
,/ates1 au?oriz$ by law1 includ+ debts  
incurr$ = paym5t ( p5sions & b\nties =  
s]vices 9 suppress+ insurrection or     
rebellion1 %all n be que/ion$4 ,b nei!r 
! ,unit$ ,/ates nor any ,/ate %all      
assume or pay any debt or obligation    
incurr$ 9 aid ( insurrection or         
rebellion aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or any 
claim = ! loss or emancipation ( any    
slave2 b all su* debts1 obligations &   
claims %all be held illegal & void4     
,section #e4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to 
en=ce1 by appropriate legislation1 !    
provisions ( ?is article4  ,article ,,xv
  ,section #a4 ,! "r ( citiz5s ( !      
,unit$ ,/ates to vote %all n be d5i$ or 

abridg$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates or by any    
,/ate on acc\nt ( race1 col\r1 or       
previ\s condition ( s]vitude4  ,section 
#b4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to en=ce ?is
 article by appropriate legislation4