,editorial note3 ,shakspere is the      
spelling used by the author and         
therefore was not changed               
,,shakspere ,,and ,,montaigne  ,an      
,endeavour to ,explain the ,tendency of 
',hamlet' from ,allusions in            
,contemporary ,works  ,,by ,,jacob      
,,feis        ,,contents4  ,i4          
,,introduction  ,,ii4  ,,the            
,,beginnings ,,of ,,the ,,english       
,,drama  ,,the ,,stage ,a ,,medium ,,for
 ,,political ,,and ,,religious          
,,controversies  ,,shakspere',s         
,,political ,,creed  ,,florio',s        
,,translation ,,of ,,montaigne',s       
,,essays  ,,iii4  ,,montaigne  ,,iv4    
,,hamlet  ,v4  ,,the ,,controversy      
,,between ,,ben ,,jonson ,,and ,,dekker 
,,mention ,,of ,a ,,dispute ,,between   
,,ben ,,jonson ,,and ,,shakspere ,,in   
',,the ,,return ,,from ,,parnassus'     
,,characteristic ,,of ,,ben ,,jonson    
,,ben ,,jonson',s ,,hostile ,,attitude  
,,towards ,,shakspere  ,,dramatic       
,,skirmish ,,between ,,ben ,,jonson     

,,and ,,shakspere  ,,ben ,,jonson',s    
',,poetaster'  ,,dekker',s              
',,satiromastix'  ,,vi4  ',,volpone1'   
,,by ,,ben ,,jonson  ',,eastward ,,hoe1'
 ,,by ,,chapman1 ,,ben ,,jonson1 ,,and  
,,marston  ',,the ,,malcontent1' ,,by   
,,john ,,marston    ,i4  ,,introduction4
  ,it has always been a daring venture  
to attempt finding out ,shakspere's     
individuality1 and the range of his     
philosophical and political ideas1 from 
his poetical productions4 ,we come      
nearest to his feelings in his          
',sonnets2' but only a few heavy sighs1 
as it were1 from a time of languish in  
his life can be heard therefrom4 ,all   
the rest of those lyrical effusions1 in 
spite of the zealous exertions of       
commentators full of delicate sentiment 
and of deep thought1 remain an unsolved 
secret4  ,in his historical dramas1 a   
political creed has been pointed out1   
which1 with some degree of certainty1   
may be held to have been his4 ,from his 
other dramas1 the most varied evidence  

has been drawn4 ,a perfect maze of      
contradictions has been read out of     
them2 so much so that1 on this ground1  
we might almost despair of trustworthy  
results from further inquiry4  ,the     
wildest and most incongruous theories   
have been founded upon ',hamlet' --the  
drama richest in philosophical contents4
 ,over and over again men have hoped to 
be able to ascertain1 from this tragedy1
 the great master's ideas about         
religion4 ,it is well-nigh impossible to
 say how often such attempts have been  
made1 but the reward of the exertions   
has always remained unsatisfactory4 ,on 
the feelings which this masterwork of   
dramatic art still excites              
to-day--nearly three hundred years after
 its conception--thousands have based   
the most different conclusions2 every   
one being convinced of the correctness  
of his own impressions4 ,there is a     
special literature1 composed of such    
rendering of personal impressions which 
that most enigmatical of all dramas has 

made upon men of various disposition4   
,every hypothesis finds its adherents   
among a small group1 whilst those who   
feel differently smile at the           
infatuation of their antagonists4       
,nothing that could give true and final 
satisfaction has yet been reached in    
this direction4  ,it is our intention to
 regard ',hamlet' from a new point of   
view1 which seems to promise more       
success than the critical endeavours    
hitherto made4 ,we propose to enter upon
 a close investigation of a series of   
circumstances1 events1 and personal     
relations of the poet1 as well as of    
certain indications contained in other  
dramatic works--all of the period in    
which ',hamlet' was written and brought 
into publicity4 ,this valuable material1
 properly arranged and put in its true  
connection1 will1 we believe1 furnish us
 with such firm and solid               
stepping-stones as to allow us1 on a    
perfectly trustworthy path1 to approach 
the real intentions of this             

philosophical tragedy4 ,it has long ago 
been felt that1 in it1 ,shakspere has   
laid down his religious views4 ,by the  
means alluded to we will now explain    
that credo4  ,we believe we can         
successfully show that the tendency of  
',hamlet' is of a controversial nature4 
,in closely examining the innovations by
 which the augmented second quarto      
edition #a7afjd7 distinguishes itself   
from the first quarto1 published the    
year before 7#afjc71 we find that almost
 every one of these innovations is      
directed against the principles of a new
 philosophical work--,the ,essays of    
,michel ,montaigne--which had appeared  
at that time in ,england1 and which was 
brought out under the high auspices of  
the foremost noblemen and protectors of 
literature in this country4  ,from many 
hints in contemporary dramas1 and from  
some clear passages in ',hamlet' itself1
 it follows at the same time that the   
polemics carried on by ,shakspere in    
',hamlet' are in most intimate          

connection with a controversy in which  
the public took a great interest1 and   
which1 in the first years of the        
seventeenth century1 was fought out with
 much bitterness on the stage4 ,the     
remarkable controversy is known1 in the 
literature of that age1 under the       
designation of the dispute between ,ben 
,jonson and ,dekker4 ,a thorough        
examination of the dramas referring to  
it shows that ,shakspere was even more  
implicated in this theatrical warfare   
than ,dekker himself4  ,the latter wrote
 a satire entitled ',satiromastix1' in  
which he replies to ,ben ,jonson's      
coarse personal invectives with yet     
coarser abuse4 ',hamlet' was            
,shakspere's answer to the nagging      
hostilities of the quarrelsome          
adversary1 ,ben ,jonson1 who belonged to
 the party which had brought the        
philosophical work in question into     
publicity4 ,and the evident tendency of 
the innovations in the second quarto of 
',hamlet1' we make bold to say1         

convinces us that it must have been far 
more ,shakspere's object to oppose1 in  
that masterly production of his1 the    
pernicious influence which the          
philosophy of the work alluded to       
threatened to exercise on the better    
minds of his nation1 than to defend     
himself against the personal attacks of 
,ben ,jonson4  ,the controversy itself  
is mentioned in ',hamlet4' ,it is a     
disclosure of the poet1 which sheds a   
little ray of light into the darkness in
 which his earthly walk is enveloped4   
,the master1 who otherwise is so sparing
 with allusions as to his sphere of     
action1 speaks #b bitter words against  
an 'aery of children' who were then 'in 
fashion1' and were 'most tyrannically   
clapped for it4' ,we are further told   
that these little eyases cry out on the 
top of the question and so berattle the 
common stages 7so they call them71 that 
many1 wearing rapiers1 are afraid of    
goose-quills1 and dare scarce come      
thither4' ,the 'goose-quills' are1 of   

course1 the writers of the dramas played
 by the 'little eyases4' ,we then learn 
'that there was for a while no money bid
 for argument' 7,shakspere1 we see1 was 
not ashamed of honest gain7 'unless the 
poet and the player went to cuffs in the
 question4' ,lastly1 the reproach is    
made to the nation that it 'holds it no 
sin to tarre them 7the children7 to     
controversy4' ,this satire is           
undoubtedly--all commentators agree upon
 this point--directed against the       
performances of the children who at that
 time flourished4 ,the most popular of  
these juvenile actors were the ,children
 of ,paul's1 the ,children of the       
,revels1 the ,children of the ,chapel   
,royal4  ,shakspere's remarks1 directed 
against these forward youngsters1 may   
appear to us to-day as of very secondary
 importance in the great drama4 ,to the 
poet1 no doubt1 it was not so4 ,the     
words by which he alludes to this       
episode in his life come from his very  
heart1 and were written for the purpose 

of reproving the conduct of the public  
in regard to himself4  ',hamlet' was    
composed in the atmosphere of this      
literary feud1 from which we draw       
confirmatory proof that our theory      
stands on the solid ground of historical
 fact4  ,even should our endeavour to   
finally solve the great problem of      
',hamlet' be made in vain1 we believe we
 shall at least have pointed out a way  
on which others might be more           
successful4 ,in contradistinction to the
 manner hitherto in use of drawing      
conclusions from impressions only1 our  
own matter-of-fact attempt will have    
this advantage1 that the time spent in  
it will not be wholly wasted2 for1 in   
looking round on the scene of that      
eventful century1 we shall become more  
intimate with its literature and the    
characters of ,shakspere's              
contemporaries4  ,before entering upon  
the theme itself1 it is necessary to    
cast a rapid glance at the condition of 
the dramatic art of that period4    #a3 

',enlarged to almost as much-againe as  
it was4'   #b3 ,act ii4 sc4 #b4         
,,ii4  ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,the    
,,english ,,drama4  ,,the ,,stage ,a    
,,medium ,,for ,,political ,,and        
,,religious ,,controversies4            
,,shakspere',s ,,political ,,creed4     
,,florio',s ,,translation ,,of          
,,montaigne',s ,,essays4  ,long before  
,shakspere1 perhaps with fardel on his  
back1 travelled to ,london1 the stage1  
not only in the capital1 but in the     
whole country1 had begun to exercise its
 attractive power upon the people's     
imagination4  ,in the year #aehf1 a     
,protestant zealot1 a soldier1 #a       
writes3--',when the belles tole to the  
,lectorer1 the trumpetts sound to the   
,stages1 whareat the wicked faction of  
,rome lawgeth for joy1 while the godly  
weepe for sorrowe4 ,woe is me6 the play 
houses are pestered when the churches   
are naked4 ,at the one it is not        
possible to gett a place2 at the other  
voyde seates are plentie4444 ,yt is a   

wofull sight to see two hundred proude  
players jett in their silks where five  
hundred pore people sterve in the       
streets4'  ,already in the reign of     
,henry ,,viii4 a ',master of the        
,revels' was required1 whose task it was
 to control the public representations  
and amusements4 ,queen ,elizabeth had to
 issue several special ordinances to    
define more closely the functions1 and  
provide with fresh power this office1   
which had been created by her father4   
,like all other great achievements of   
the ,english nation1 the drama1 too1    
developed itself in this country        
unhampered by foreign influence4 ,its   
rapid growth was owing to the free and  
energetic spirit of ,englishmen1 to     
their love for public life4 ,every event
 which in some way attracted public     
attention1 furnished the material for a 
new ballad1 or a new drama4  ,among the 
dramatists of that time1 there was a    
specially active group of               
malcontents--men of culture1 who had    

been at the colleges and universities2  
such as ,peel1 ,greene1 ,marlowe1       
,chapman1 ,marston1 ,ben ,jonson1 and   
others4 ,if we ask ourselves how it came
 about that these disciples of erudition
 turned over to a calling so despised in
 their days 7for the dramatist1 with few
 exceptions1 was then mostly held in as 
low a repute as the player71 the cause  
will be found in the peculiar           
circumstances of that epoch4  ,the      
revival of classical studies1 and the   
art of printing1 were1 in the hands of  
the peace-loving citizen1 fresh means   
for strengthening his position in the   
,state4 ,the handicraftsman or the      
merchant1 who had gained a small        
fortune1 was no longer satisfied with   
the modest prospects which he could     
offer to his talented son in an ordinary
 workshop1 or in his narrow store-rooms4
 ,since ,rome no longer exercised her   
once all-powerful influence in every    
walk of life1 university men1 owing to  
their superior education1 saw before    

them a brighter1 a more hopeful1 future4
  ,in the sixteenth century the number  
of students in colleges and at          
theuniversities increased in an         
astonishing degree1 especially from the 
middle classes4 ,the sons of simple     
burghers entered upon the contests of   
free1 intellectual aspirations with a   
zeal mostly absent in those whose       
position is already secured by birth4   
,at ,court1 no doubt1 the feudal        
aristocracy were yet powerful indeed4   
,they could approach their sovereign    
according to their pleasure2 influence  
him2 and procure1 by artful intrigue1   
positions of dignity and useful         
preferments for themselves and their    
favourites4 ,against these abuses the   
written word1 multiplied a thousandfold1
 was a new weapon4 ,whoever could handle
 it properly1 gained the esteem of his  
fellow-men2 and a means was at his      
disposal for earning a livelihood1      
however scanty4  ,towards the middle and
 the end of the sixteenth century there 

were many students and scholars         
possessing a great deal of erudition1   
but very little means of subsistence4   
,nor were their prospects very          
encouraging4 ,they first went through   
that bitter experience1 which1 since    
then1 so many have made after them--that
 whoever seeks a home in the realm of   
intellect runs the risk of losing the   
solid ground on which the fruits for    
maintaining human life grow4 ,the eye   
directed towards the ,parnassus is not  
the most apt to spy out the small       
tortuous paths of daily gain4 ,to get   
quick returns of interest1 even though  
it be small1 from the capital of        
knowledge and learning1 has always been1
 and still is1 a question of difficult  
solution4  ,these young scholars1 grown 
to manhood in the ,halls of ,wisdom1    
were unable1 and even unwilling1 to     
return to simple industrial pursuits1 or
 to the crafty tactics of commerce4     
,alienated from practical activity1 and 
too shy to take part in the harder      

struggles of life1 many of them rather  
contented themselves with a crust of    
bread1 in order to continue enjoying the
 'dainties of a book4' ,the manlier and 
bolder among them1 dissatisfied with the
 prospect of such poor fare1 looked     
round and saw1 in the hands of          
incapables1 fat livings and lucrative   
emoluments to which they1 on account of 
their superior culture1 believed they   
had a better claim4  ,there were yet    
many ,state institutions which by no    
means corresponded to the ideal gathered
 from ,platon1 ,cicero1 and other       
writers of antiquity4 ,men began        
expressing these feelings of            
dissatisfaction in ballads and          
pamphlets4 ,even as the many home and   
foreign products of industry were       
distributed by commerce1 so it was also 
the case with these new products of the 
intellectual workshop1 which were       
carried to the most distant parts of the
 land4 ,at the side of his other wares1 
the pedlar1 eager for profit1 offered   

the new and much-desired achievements of
 the ,muse to the dwellers in the       
smallest village1 in the loneliest farm4
  ,moreover1 the cunning stationers had 
their own men1 to whom they lent 'a     
dossen groates worth of ballads4' ,if   
these hucksters--as ,henry ,chettle     
relates--proved thrifty1 they were      
advanced to the position of 'prety      
7petty7 chapman1' 'able to spred more   
pamphlets by the ,state forbidden1 then 
all the bookesellers in ,london2 for    
only in this ,citie is straight search1 
abroad smale suspition1 especially of   
such petty pedlars4' #b  ,chettle speaks
 strongly against these 'intruders in   
the printings misserie1 by whome that   
excelent ,art is not smally slandered1  
the government of the ,state not a      
little blemished1 nor ,religion in the  
least measure hindred4'  ,besides the   
profit to be derived from the ,press by 
the malcontent travelling scholars1     
there was yet another way of acquiring  
the means of sustenance and of making   

use of mental culture2 and in it there  
existed the further advantage of        
independence from grumbling publishers4 
,this was the ,stage4 ,for it no great  
preparations were necessary1 nor was any
 capital required4 ,a few chairs1 some  
boards2 in every barn there was room4   
,wherever one man was found who could   
read1 there were ten eager to listen4   
,a most characteristic drama1 ',the     
,return from ,parnassus1' depicts some  
poor scholars who turn away from        
pitiless ,cambridge1 of which one of    
them says--    ,for had not ,cambridge  
been to me unkind1   ,i had not turn'd  
to gall a milky mind4 #c  ,after having 
long since completed their studies1 they
 go to ,london to seek for the most     
modest livelihood4 ,bitter experience   
had taught these disciples of learning  
that the employment for which they      
waited could only be gained by bribery2 
and bribe they certainly could not1     
owing to their want of means4 ,some of  
them already show a true ,werther-like  

yearning for solitude3--    ,we will be 
gone unto the downs of ,kent4444        
,,studioso4    ,so shall we shun the    
company of men1   ,that grows more      
hateful as the world grows old4   ,we'll
 teach the murm'ring brooks in tears to 
flow1   ,and sleepy rocks to wail our   
passed woe4 #d  ,another utters         
sentiments of grief1 coming near the    
words of despair of ,faust4 ,there is a 
tone in them of what the ,germans call  
,weltschmerz3--    ,curs'd be our       
thoughts1 whene'er they dream of hope1  
,bann'd be those haps that henceforth   
flatter us1   ,when mischief dogs us    
still and still for aye1   ,from our    
first birth until our burying day4 #e   
,in the difficult choice of a calling   
which is to save them from need and     
misery1 these beggar-students also think
 of the stage3--    ,and must the basest
 trade yield us relief8  ,so            
,philomusus1 in a woebegone tone1 asks  
his comrade ,studioso2 and the latter   
looks with the following envious words  

upon the players whose prospects must   
have been brighter and more enticing    
than those of the learned poor          
scholars3--    ,england affords those   
glorious vagabonds1   ,that carried erst
 their fardles on their backs1          
,coursers to ride on through the gazing 
streets1   ,sweeping it in their glaring
 satin suits1   ,and pages to attend    
their masterships3   ,with mouthing     
words that better wits have framed1     
,they purchase lands1 and now esquires  
are made4 #f  ,shakspere1 as well as    
,alleyn1 bought land with the money     
earned by their art4 ,for many1 the     
stage was the port of refuge to which   
they fled from the lonely habitations of
 erudition1 where they--    444 sit now 
immur'd within their private cells1     
,drinking a long lank watching candle's 
smoke1   ,spending the marrow of their  
flow'ring age   ,in fruitless poring on 
some worm-eat leaf4 #g  ,many of these  
beggar students sought a livelihood by  
joining the players4 ,that which the    

poor scholar had read and learnt in     
books old and new2 all that he had heard
 from bold1 adventurous warriors and    
seamen returning from foreign lands or  
recently discovered islands2 in short1  
everything calculated to awaken interest
 and applause among the great mass1 was 
with feverish haste put on the stage1   
and1 in order to render it more         
palatable1 mixed with a goodly dose of  
broad humour4  ,the same irreconcilable 
spirit of the ,reformation1 which would 
not tolerate any saint's image in the   
places of worship1 also destroyed the   
liking for ,miracle ,plays4 ,the        
tendency of the time was to turn away   
from mysteries and abstract notions1 and
 to draw in art and poetry nearer to    
real life4 ,where formerly ',miracles   
and ,moralities' were the delight of    
men1 and ,biblical utterances1 put in   
the mouth of prophets and saints1 served
 to edify the audience1 there the wordy 
warfare and the fisticuffs exchanged    
between the ,mendicant ,friar and the   

,seller of ,indulgences #h or ,pardoner1
 whose profane doings were satirised on 
the stage1 became now the subject of    
popular enjoyment and laughter4 ,every  
question of the day was boldly handled1 
and put in strong language1 easily      
understood by the many1 before a        
grateful public of simple taste4  ,the  
drama1 thus created anew1 soon became   
the most popular amusement in the whole 
country4 ,every other sport was         
forgotten over it4 ,in every market     
town1 in every barn1 a crowd of actors  
met4 ,in those days no philosophical    
hair-splitting was in vogue on the      
boards4 ,everything was drawn from real 
life2 a breath of freedom pervaded all  
this exuberant geniality4 ,that which a 
man felt to-day1 tomorrow he was able to
 communicate to his public4 ,the spoken 
word was freer than the printed one4    
,the latter had to pass a kind of       
censorship2 the author and the publisher
 could be ascertained1 and be made      
responsible4 ,but who would be so severe

 against an extemporised satirical hit1 
uttered perhaps by a clown8 ,who would1 
for that sake1 be the denouncing        
traitor8  ,yet it must not be thought   
that poets and players could do exactly 
as they listed4 ,they1 too1 had their   
enemies4 ,more especially1 the austere  
,puritans were their bitter foes2 they  
never ceased bringing their influence to
 bear upon highly-placed persons1 in    
order to check the daring and forward   
doings of the stage1 whose liberty they 
on every occasion wished to see         
curtailed1 and its excesses visited by  
punishment4 ,the ordinary players1 if   
they did not possess licences from at   
least two justices of the peace1 might  
be prosecuted1 in accordance with an old
 law1 as 'rogues and vagabonds1' and    
subjected to very hard sentences4 ,it   
was not so easy to proceed against the  
better class of actors1 who1 with a view
 of escaping from the chicanery which   
their calling rendered them liable to1  
had placed themselves under the         

protection of the first noblemen1       
calling themselves their 'servants4' ,an
 ordinance of the ,privy ,council was   
required in order to bring actors who   
were thus protected1 before a court of  
justice4  ,nevertheless1 these restless 
people got into incessant conflicts with
 the authorities4 ,actors would not     
allow themselves to be deprived of the  
right of saying a word on matters of the
 ,state and the ,church2 and what did   
occupy men's minds more than the victory
 of the ,reformation8  ,already1 in the 
year #aeej1 ,cardinal ,wolsey felt bound
 to cast an author1 ,roo1 #i and 'a     
fellow-player1 a young gentleman1' into 
prison1 because they had put a piece on 
the stage1 the aim of which was to show 
that ',lord ,governaunce 7,government7  
was ruled by ,dissipation and           
,negligence1 by whose misgovernment and 
evil order ,lady ,public-,weal was put  
from ,governaunce2 which caused         
,rumor-populi1 ,inward ,grudge1 and     
,disdain of ,wanton ,sovereigntie to    

rise with a great multitude to expel    
,negligence and ,dissipation1 and to    
restore ,publike-weal again to her      
estate--which was so done4'  ,the       
reproaches made to the bishops about the
 year #aedd prove1 that the stage had   
already long ago boldly ventured upon   
the territory of religion1 in order to  
imbue the masses with                   
anti-ecclesiastical tendencies4 ,in this
 connection the following words of an   
actor1 addressed to the clerics1 are    
most significant4 ',none1' he says1     
'leave ye unvexed and untroubled2 no1   
not so much as the poor minstrels and   
players of interludes4 ,so long as they 
played lies and sang bawdy songs1       
blaspheming ,god1 and corrupting men's  
consciences1 ye never blamed them1 but  
were very well contented2 but since they
 persuaded the people to worship the    
,lord aright1 according to ,his holy    
laws and not yours1 ye never were       
pleased with them4' #aj  ,the first ,act
 of ,parliament for 'the controul and   

regulation of stages and dramatic       
representations' was passed in the reign
 of ,henry ,,viii4 7#aedc74 ,its title  
is1 ',an ,act for the ,advancement of   
,true ,religion and the ,punishment of  
the ,contrary4'  ,in #aeeb ,edward ,,vi4
 issued a further proclamation both in  
regard to the stage and the sellers of  
prints and books2 this time mainly from 
political reasons4  ,whilst poets and   
players under ,henry ,,viii4 and his    
youthful successor could bring out1     
without hindrance1 that which promoted  
their ideas of 'true religion1' they ran
 great risk1 in the reign of ,queen     
,mary1 with any ,protestant tendencies2 
for1 scarcely had this severe queen been
 a month on the throne than she issued  
an ordinance 7,august #af1 #aeec7       
forbidding such dramas and interludes as
 were calculated to spread the          
principles and doctrines of the         
,reformation4  ,under this sovereign1   
spectacles furthering the ,roman        
,catholic cause were of course favoured4

 ,on the other hand1 it may be assumed  
that1 during the long and popular reign 
of ,queen ,elizabeth1 ,protestant       
tendencies on the stage often passed the
 censorship1 although from the first    
years of her government there is an ,act
 prohibiting any drama in which ,state  
and ,church affairs were treated1 'being
 no meete matters to be written or      
treated upon but by men of authoritie1  
nor to be handled before any audience1  
but of grave and discreete persons4'    
,however1 like all previous ordinances1 
proclamations1 and ,acts of ,parliament1
 this one also remained without effect4 
,the dramatists and the disciples of the
 mimic art continued busying themselves1
 in their customary bold manner1 with   
that which awakened the greatest        
interest among the public at large2 and 
one would think that at a certain time  
they had become a little power in the   
,state1 against which it was no longer  
possible to proceed in arbitrary        
fashion1 but which1 on the contrary1 had

 to be reckoned with4  ,only such       
measures1 it appears1 were afterwards   
passed which were calculated to         
harmonise the religious views uttered on
 the stage with the tenets of the       
,established ,church4 ,this follows from
 a letter of ,lord ,burleigh1 addressed1
 in #aehi1 to the ,archbishop of        
,canterbury1 in which he requests him to
 appoint 'some fytt person well learned 
in divinitie4' ,the latter1 together    
with the ,master of the ,revels and a   
person chosen by the ,lord ,mayor of the
 ,city of ,london1 were to form a kind  
of ,commission1 which had to examine all
 pieces that were to be publicly acted1 
and to give their approval4  ,it would  
be an error to believe that this        
threefold censorship had any greater    
success than the former measures4 ,the  
contrary was the case2 matters rather   
became worse4 ,actors were imprisoned2  
whereupon they drew up beautiful        
petitions to their august protectors who
 brought about their deliverance--that  

is1 until they were once more clapped   
into prison4 ,then they were threatened 
with having their ears and noses cut    
off2 #aa but still they would not hold  
their tongues4 ,we know from a letter of
 the ,french ambassador 7#afjf7--who    
himself had several times to ask at the 
,court of ,james ,i4 for the prohibition
 of pieces in which the ,queen of       
,france and ,mademoiselle ,verneuil1 as 
well as the ,duke of ,biron1 were       
severely handled--that the bold         
expounders of the dramatic art dared to 
bring their own king on the stage4 ,upon
 this there came an ordinance forbidding
 all further theatrical representations 
in ,london4  ,in the words of the       
,french ambassador3--',i caused certain 
players to be forbid from acting the    
history of the ,duke of ,biron4 ,when1  
however1 they saw that the whole ,court 
had left the town1 they persisted in    
acting it2 nay1 they brought upon the   
stage the ,queen of ,france and         
,mademoiselle de ,verneuil4444 ,he 7the 

,king7 has upon this made order that no 
play shall henceforth be acted in       
,london2 for the repeal of which order  
they 7the players7 have offered #ajj1jjj
 livres4 ,perhaps the permission will be
 again granted1 but upon condition that 
they represent no recent history1 nor   
speak of the present time4' #ab  ,from  
this sum--a very large one at that      
time--the importance of the theatre of  
those days may be gathered4  ,the       
,corporation of the ,city of ,london was
 among those most hostile to all        
theatrical representations4 ,it exerted 
itself to the utmost in order to render 
them impossible in the centre of the    
capital2 issuing1 with that object1 the 
most whimsical decrees4 ,trying1 on     
their part1 to escape from the despotic 
restrictions1 the various players'      
companies settled down beyond the       
boundary of the ,lord ,mayor's          
jurisdiction4 ,the citizens of ,london1 
wishing to have their share of an       
amusement which had become a national   

one1 eagerly flocked to ,bankside1 to   
,blackfriars1 to ,shoreditch1 or across 
green fields to the more distant        
,newington ,butts4  ,comparatively      
speaking1 very little has come down to  
us from the hey-day of the ,english     
drama4 ,that which we possess is but an 
exceedingly small portion of the        
productions of that epoch4 ,henslowe's  
',diary' tells us that a single theatre 
7,newington ,butts7 in about two years  
7,june #c1 #aeid1 to ,july #ah1 #aeif7  
brought out not less than forty new     
pieces2 and ,london1 at that time1 had  
already more than a dozen play-houses4  
,the dramas handed down to us are mostly
 purged of those passages which         
threatened to give offence in print4    
,the dramatists did not mean to write   
books4 ,when they went to the press at  
all1 they often excused themselves that 
'scenes invented merely to be spoken1   
should be inforcibly published to be    
read4' ,they were well aware that this  
could not afford to the reader the same 

pleasure he felt 'when it was presented 
with the soule of living action4' #ac   
,the stage was the forum of the people1 
on which everything was expressed that  
created interest amidst a great nation  
rising to new life4 ,the path towards   
political freedom of speech was not yet 
opened in ,parliament2 and of our       
important safety-valve of to-day1 the   
public press1 there was yet only the    
first vestige1 in the shape of pamphlets
 secretly hawked about4 ,the stage as   
rapidly decayed as it had grown1 when   
the chief interest on which it had      
thriven for a while--namely1 the        
representation of affairs of public     
interest--obtained more practical       
expression in other spheres4 ,in the    
meantime1 however1 it remained the      
platform on which everything could be   
subjected to the criticism and          
jurisdiction of public opinion4  ,in    
,chettle's ',kind-,harte's ,dreame'     
7#aeib7 the proprietor of a house of    
evil fame concludes his speech with     

reproaches against actors on account of 
their spoiling his trade2 'for no sooner
 have we a tricke of deceipt1 but they  
make it common1 singing jigs1 and making
 jeasts of us1 that everie boy can point
 out our houses as they passe by4'      
,again1 in ,ben ,jonson's ',poetaster1' 
we read that 'your courtier cannot kiss 
his mistress's slippers in quiet for    
them2 nor your white innocent gallant   
pawn his revelling suit to make his punk
 a supper2' or that 'an honest1 decayed 
commander cannot skelder1 cheat1 nor be 
seen in a bawdy house1 but he shall be  
straight in one of their wormwood       
comedies4' #ad  ,not less boldly than   
social affairs were political matters   
treated2 but in order to avoid a        
prosecution1 these questions had to be  
cautiously approached in parable        
fashion4 ,never was greater cleverness  
shown in this respect than at           
,shakspere's time4 ,every poet1 every   
statesman1 or otherwise highly-placed   
person1 was 'heckled' under an          

allegorical name--a circumstance which  
at present makes it rather difficult for
 us to fully fathom the meaning of      
certain dramatic productions4  ,in order
 to attract the crowd1 the stage-poets  
had to present their dishes with the    
condiments of actual life2 thus studying
 more the taste of the guests than      
showing that of the cook4 ,prologues and
 ,epilogues always appealed more to the 
public at large as the highest judge2   
its verdict alone was held to be the    
decisive one4 ,manuscripts--the property
 of companies whose interest it was not 
to make them generally known in         
print--were continually altered         
according to circumstances4 ,guided by  
the impressions of the public1 authors  
struck out what had been badly received2
 whilst passages that had earned        
applause1 remained as the encouraging   
and deciding factor for the future4  ,at
 one time dramas were written almost    
with the same rapidity as leading       
articles are to-day4 ,even as our       

journalists do in the press1 so the     
dramatists of that period carried on    
their debates about certain questions of
 the day on the stage4 ,in language the 
most passionate1 authors fell upon each 
other--a practice for which we have to  
thank them1 in so far as we thereby gain
 matter-of-fact points for a correct    
understanding of ',hamlet4'  ,in the    
last but one decennium of the sixteenth 
century1 the first dramatists arose who 
pursued fixed literary tendencies4      
,often their compositions are mere      
exercises of style after ,greek or      
,roman models which never became popular
 on the ,thames4 ,the taste of the      
,english people does not bear with      
strange exotic manners for any length of
 time4 ,it is lost labour to plant      
palm-trees where oaks only can thrive4  
,lily and others endeavoured to gain the
 applause of the mass by words of       
finely-distilled fragrance1 to which no 
coarse grain1 no breath or the native   
atmosphere clung4 ,a fruitless          

beginning1 as little destined to succeed
 as the exertions of those who tried to 
shine by pedantic learning and hollow   
glittering words4  ,marlowe's powerful  
imagination attempts marshalling the    
whole world1 in his booth of theatrical 
boards1 after the rhythm of drumming    
decasyllabon and bragging blank-verse4  
,in his dramas1 great conquerors pass   
the frontiers of kingdoms with the same 
ease with which one steps over the      
border of a carpet4 ,the people's fancy 
willingly follows the bold poet4 ,in the
 short space of three hours he makes his
 ',faust' #ae live through              
four-and-twenty years1 in order 'to     
conquer1 with sweet pleasure1 despair4' 
,the earth becomes too small for this   
dramatist4 ,heaven and ,hell1 ,god and  
the ,devil1 have to respond to his      
inquiries4 ,like some of his colleagues1
 ,marlowe is a sceptic3 he calls ,moses 
a 'conjurer and seducer of the people1' 
and boasts that1 if he were to try1 he  
would succeed in establishing a better  

religion than the one he sees around    
himself4 ,the apostle of these high     
thoughts1 not yet thirty years old1     
breathed his last1 in consequence of a  
duel in a house of evil repute4         
,another hopeful disciple of lyric and  
dramatic poetry and prose-writer1       
,robert ,greene1 once full of similar   
free-thinking ideas1 lay on his deathbed
 at the age of thirty-two1 after a life 
of dissipation4 ,thence he writes to his
 forsaken wife3--  ',all my wrongs      
muster themselves about me2 every evill 
at once plagues me4 ,for my contempt of 
,god1 ,i am contemned of men2 for my    
swearing and forswearing1 no man will   
believe me2 for my gluttony1 ,i suffer  
hunger2 for my drunkenesse1 thirst2 for 
my adulterie1 ulcerous sores4 ,thus ,god
 has cast me downe1 that ,i might be    
humbled2 and punished me1 for examples  
of others' sinne4'  ,greene offers his  
own wretched end to his colleagues as a 
warning example2 admonishing them to    
employ their 'rare wits in more         

profitable courses2' to look repentingly
 on the past2 to leave off profane      
practices1 and not 'to spend their wits 
in making plaies4' ,he especially warns 
them against actors--because these1 it  
seems1 had given him up4 ,his rancorous 
spite against them he expresses in the  
well-known words3--',yes1 trust them    
not3 for there is an upstart ,crow1     
beautified with our feathers1 that with 
his ,tygers heart wrapt in a ,players   
hide1 supposes he is as well able to    
bumbast out a blank verse as the best of
 you2 and being an absolute ,johannes   
,fac-totum1 is in his owne conceit the  
onely ',,shake-,,scene in a countrie4'  
,this satirical point1 directed1 without
 doubt1 against ,shakspere1 is the only 
thing reliable which1 down to the year  
#aeib1 we know of his dramatic activity4
 ,he had then been only about four years
 in ,london4 ,yet he must already have  
wielded considerable authority1 seeing  
that he is publicly1 though with        
sneering arrogance1 called a complete   

,johannes ,fac-totum--a man who has laid
 himself out in every direction4  ,it is
 the divine mission of a genius to bring
 order out of chaos1 to regulate matters
 with the directing force of his        
superior glance4 ,certainly1 ,shakspere1
 from the very beginning of his         
activity1 sought1 with all the energy of
 his power1 to rule out all ignoble1    
anarchical elements from the stage1 and 
thus to obtain for it the sympathies of 
the best of his time4 ,fate so willed   
it1 that one of the greatest minds which
 ,heaven ever gave to mankind1 entered1 
on this occasion1 the modest door of a  
playhouse1 as if ,providence had        
intended showing that a generous        
activity can effect noble results       
everywhere1 and that the most despised  
calling 7such1 still1 was that of the   
actors then7 can produce most excellent 
fruits4  ,shakspere's life is a         
beneficial harmony between will and     
deed2 no attempt to draw down ,heaven to
 ,earth1 or to raise up ,earth to       

,heaven4 ,his are rather the ways and   
manners peculiar to a people which likes
 to adapt itself to given circumstances1
 to make use of the existing practical  
good1 in order to produce from it that  
which is better4  ,it is an ascertained 
fact that ,shakspere1 who had received  
some training at school--but no         
,university education--began1 at the age
 of twenty-four1 to arrange the pieces  
of other writers1 to make modest        
additions to them2 in short1 to render  
them fit and proper for stage purposes4 
,this may have been one of the causes   
why ,greene dubbed him a ',johannes     
,fac-totum4' ,others1 too1 have accused 
him1 during his lifetime1 of            
'application' 7plagiarism71 because he  
took his subjects mostly from other     
authors4 ,among those who so charged    
him1 were1 as we shall show1 more       
especially ,ben ,jonson and ,marston4   
,shakspere never allowed himself to be  
induced by these reproaches to change   
his mode of working4 ,down to his death 

it remained the same4 ,is his merit1 on 
that account1 a lesser one8 ,certainly  
not3 in the ,poetical ,art1 in the      
,realm of ,feeling and ,thought1 there  
are no regular boundary-stones4 ,no     
author has the right to say3 ',thou must
 not step into the circle drawn by me2  
thou hast to do thy work wholly outside 
of it6'  ,an author who so expresses an 
idea1 or so describes a situation as to 
fix it most powerfully in men's         
imagination1 is to be looked upon as the
 true owner or creator of the image3 to 
him belongs the crown4 ,the ,greeks     
reckoned it to be the highest merit of  
the masters of their plastic art when   
they retained the great traits with     
which their predecessors had invested a 
conception2 only endeavouring to better 
those parts in which a lesser success   
had been achieved--until that section of
 the work1 too1 had attained the highest
 degree of perfection4 ,thus arose the  
,jupiter of ,pheidias1 a ,venus of      
,milo1 an ,apollo of ,belvedere4 ,thus  

the noblest ideal of beauty as created1 
and in this wise the ,greek national    
epic became the model of all kindred    
poetry4  ,there is a most characteristic
 fact which shows how greatly the drama 
had risen in universal esteem after     
,shakspere had devoted to it twelve     
years of his life4 ,it is this4 ,the    
,corporation of the ,city of ,london1   
once so hostile to all theatrical       
representations1 and which had used     
every possible chicanery against the    
stage1 had become so friendly to it     
towards the year #afjj1 that1 when it   
was asked from governmental quarters to 
enforce a certain decree which had been 
launched against the theatre1 it refused
 to comply with the request4 ,on the    
contrary1 the ,lord ,mayor1 as well as  
the other magistrates1 held it to be an 
injustice towards the actors that the   
,privy ,council gave a hearing to the   
charges brought forward by the          
,puritans4 ,truly1 the feelings of this 
conservative ,corporation1 as well of a 

large number of those who once looked   
down upon the stage with the greatest   
contempt1 must1 in the meanwhile1 have  
undergone a great change4               
,unquestionably the ,company of the     
,lord ,chamberlain--which in summer gave
 its masterly representations in the    
,globe ,theatre1 beyond the ,thames1 and
 in winter in ,black-,friars--had been  
the chief agency in working that change4
 ,the first noblemen1 the ,queen        
herself1 greatly enjoyed the pieces     
which ,shakspere1 in fact1 wrote for    
that society2 but the public at large   
were not less delighted with them4      
,when1 the day after such a             
representation1 conversation arose in   
the family circle as to the three happy 
hours passed in the theatre1 an         
opportunity was given for discussing the
 most important events of the past and  
the present4 ,the people's history had  
not yet been written then4 ,solitary    
events only had been loosely marked down
 in dry folios4 ,the stage now brought  

telling historical facts in vivid       
colours before the eye4 ,the powerful   
speeches of high and mighty lords1 of   
learned bishops1 and of kings were      
heard--of exalted persons1 all different
 in character1 but all moved1 like other
 mortals1 by various passions1 and      
driven by a series of circumstances to  
definite actions4 ,it was felt that     
they1 too1 were subject to a certain    
spirit of the time1 the tendency of     
which1 if the poet was attentively      
listened to1 could be plainly gathered4 
,in this way conclusions might be drawn 
which shed light even upon the events of
 the present4  ,true1 it was forbidden  
to bring questions of the ,state and of 
religion upon the stage4 ,but has       
,shakspere really avoided treating upon 
them8  ,richard ,simpson has            
successfully shown that ,shakspere1 in  
his historical plays1 carried on a      
political discussion easily understood  
by his contemporaries4 #af ,the maxims  
thus enunciated by the poet have been   

ascertained by that penetrating critic  
in such a manner that the results       
obtained can scarcely be subjected to   
doubt any more4  ,on comparing the older
 plays and chronicles of which the poet 
made use for his historical dramas1 with
 the creations that arose on this basis 
under his powerful hand1 one sees that  
he suppresses certain tendencies of the 
subject-matter before him1 placing      
others in their stead4 ,taking fully    
into account all the artistic           
technicalities calculated to produce a  
strong dramatic effect1 we still find   
that he has evidently made a number of  
changes with the clear and most         
persistent intention of touching upon   
political questions of his time4  ,if1  
for instance1 ,shakspere's ',king ,john'
 is compared with the old play1 ',the   
,troublesome ,raigne1' and with the     
chronicles from which 7but more         
especially from the former piece7 the   
poet has drawn the plan of his dramatic 
action1 it will be seen that very       

definite political tendencies of what he
 had before him were suppressed4 ,new   
ones are put in their place4 ,shakspere 
makes his ',king ,john' go through two  
different1 wholly unhistorical          
struggles3 one against a foe at home1   
who contests the ,king's legitimate     
right2 the other against ,romanists who 
think it a sacred duty to overthrow the 
heretic4 ,these were not the feuds with 
which the ,king ,john of history had to 
contend4  ,but the daughter from the    
unhappy marriage of ,henry ,,viii4 and  
the faithless ,anne ,boleyn--,queen     
,elizabeth--had1 during her whole       
lifetime1 to contend against rebels who 
held ,mary ,stuart to be the legitimate 
successor2 and it was ,queen ,elizabeth 
who had always to remain armed against a
 confederacy of enemies who1 encouraged 
by the ,pope1 made war upon the         
'heretic' on the throne of ,england4    
,thus1 in the ,globe ,theatre1 questions
 of the ,state were discussed2 and      
politics had their distinct place there4

 ,yet who would enforce the rules of    
censorship upon such language as this3--
    ,this ,england never did1 and never 
shall1   ,lie at the proud feet of a    
,conqueror   ,but when it first did help
 to wound itself4   444 ,nought shall   
make us rue   ,if ,england to herself do
 rest but true8  ,such thoughts were not
 taken from any old chronicle1 but came 
from the very soul of the age that had  
gained the great victory over the       
,armada4 ,they emphasized a             
newly-acquired independent position1    
which could only be maintained by united
 strength against a foreign foe4  ,even 
as ',king ,john1' so all the other      
historical plays contain a clearly      
provable political tendency4 ,not       
everything done by the great queen met  
with applause among the people4         
,dissatisfaction was felt at the        
prominence of personal favourites1 who  
made much abuse of commercial monopolies
 granted to them4 ,the burdens of       
taxation had become heavier than in     

former times4 ,in ',richard the ,second'
 a king is produced1 who by his         
misgovernment and by his maintenance of 
selfish favourites loses his crown4     
,shakspere's sympathies are with a      
prince whom ,nature has formed into a   
strong ruler2 and such an aristocrat of 
the intellect is depicted in his ',henry
 the ,fifth4' ,in this ideal of a king1 
all the good national qualities attain  
their apotheosis4 ,this hero combines   
strength of character with justice and  
bravery4 ,with great severity he        
examines his own conscience before      
proceeding to any action1 however small4
 ,war he makes with all possible        
humanity1 and only for the furtherance  
of civilisation4 ,nothing is more hated 
by ,shakspere than a government of weak 
hands4 ,from such an unfortunate cause  
came the ,wars of the ,two ,roses4 ,it  
seems that1 in order to bring this fact 
home to the understanding of the people1
 ,shakspere put the sanguinary struggles
 between the ,houses of ,york and       

,lancaster on the stage4 7,see ,epilogue
 of ',king ,henry the ,fifth4'7  ,more  
strongly even than in his plays         
referring to ,english history1 the deep 
aversion he felt to divided dominion    
pierces through his ,roman tragedies2   
for in ,shakspere the aristocratic vein 
was not less developed than in ,goethe4 
,to him1 too1 the multitude--           
444,this common body1   ,like to a      
vagabond flag upon the stream1   ,goes  
to1 and back1 lackeying the varying tide
   ,to rot itself with motion4 #ag  ,as 
in politics1 so also in the domain of   
religion 7of all things the most        
important to his contemporaries71       
,shakspere has made his profession of   
faith4 ,for its elucidation we believe  
we possess a means not less sure than   
that which ,richard ,simpson has made   
use of for fixing the political maxims  
of the great master4  ',hamlet' first   
appeared in a quarto edition of the year
 #afjc4 ,the little book thus announces 
itself3--  ',the ,tragicall ,historie of

 ,hamlet ,prince of ,denmarke1 ,by      
,william ,shakespeare4 ,as it hath been 
diverse times acted by his ,highnesse   
servants in the ,cittie of ,london3 as  
also in the two ,vniversities of        
,cambridge  ,oxford1 and elsewhere4'    
,this drama is different1 in most       
essential traits1 from the piece we now 
possess1 which came out a year later    
7#afjd71 also in quarto edition4 ,the   
title of the latter is3--  ',the        
,tragicall ,historie of ,hamlet1 ,prince
 of ,denmark4 ,by ,william ,shakespeare1
 ,newly imprinted and enlarged to almost
 as much-againe as it was1 according to 
the true  perfect coppie4'  ,the most   
diverse hypotheses have been started as 
to the relation between the older       
',hamlet' and the later  one4 #ah ,we   
share the view of those who maintain    
that the first quarto edition was a     
rough-draught1 advanced to a certain    
degree1 and for which the poet1 as is   
the case with so many of his other      
plays1 had used an older play as a kind 

of model4 ,a 'rough-draught advanced to 
a certain degree' may be explained as a 
piece already produced on the stage4    
,the public1 always eager to see        
novelties1 allowed the dramatists little
 time for fully working out their       
conceptions4 ,the plays matured1 as it  
were1 on the stage itself2 there they   
received their final shape and          
completion4 ,as mentioned before1 that  
which had displeased was struck out1    
whilst the passages that had obtained   
applause were often augmented1 in order 
to confer upon the play the attraction  
of novelty4 ',enlarged to almost as     
much-againe as it was' is an expression 
which shows that ',hamlet' had drawn    
from the very beginning4 ,the poet1     
thereby encouraged1 then worked out this
 drama into the powerful1 comprehensive 
tragedy which we now possess4  ,now1 in 
closely examining the changes and       
additions made in the second ',hamlet1' 
we find that most of the freshly added  
philosophical thoughts1 and many        

characteristic peculiarities1 have clear
 reference to the philosophy of a       
certain book and the character of its   
author--namely1 to ,michel ,montaigne   
and his ',essais4' ,this work first     
appeared in an ,english translation in  
#afjc1 after it had already been entered
 at ,stationers' ,hall for publication  
in #aeii4 ,the cause which may have     
induced ,shakspere to confer upon his   
',hamlet' the thoughts and the          
peculiarities of ,montaigne1 and to give
 that play the shape in which we now    
have it1 will become apparent when we   
have to explain the controversy between 
,jonson and ,dekker4 ,we have thus the  
advantage over ,simpson's method1 that  
our theory will be confirmed from other 
sources4  ,montaigne's ',essais' were a 
work which made a strong mark1 and      
created a deep sensation1 in his own    
country4 ,there1 it had already gone    
through twelve editions before it was   
introduced in ,england--eleven years    
after the death of its author--by means 

of a translation4 ,here it found its    
first admirers among the highest        
aristocracy and the patrons of          
literature and art4 ,under such august  
auspices it penetrated into the ,english
 public at large4 ,the translator was a 
well-known teacher of the ,italian      
language1 ,john ,florio4  ,from the     
preface of the first book of the        
',essais' we learn that1 at the request 
of ,sir ,edward ,wotton1 ,florio had    
first ,englished one chapter1 doing it  
in the house of ,lady ,bedford1 a great 
lover of art4 ,in that preface1 ,florio1
 in most extravagant and euphuistic     
style1 describes how this noblewoman1   
after having 'dayned to read it 7the    
first chapter7 without pitty of my      
fasting1 my fainting1 my laboring1 my   
langishing1 my gasping for some breath  
444 yet commaunded me on'--namely1 to   
turn the whole work into ,english4 ,it  
was a heavy task for the poor           
schoolmaster4 ,he says3--',i sweat1 ,i  
wept1 and ,i went on sea-tosst1         

weather-beaten 444 shippe-wrackt--almost
 drowned4' ',i say not1' the polite     
maestro adds1 'you took pleasure at     
shore' 7as those in this author1 iii4   
#a74 ,no2 my lady was 'unmercifull1 but 
not so cruell2' she ever and anon upheld
 his courage1 bringing 'to my succour   
the forces of two deare friends4' ,one  
of them was ,theodore ,diodati1 tutor of
 ,lady ,bedford's brother1 the eldest   
son of ,lady ,harrington whose husband  
also was a poet4  ,the grateful ,florio 
calls this worthy colleague1 ',diodati  
as in name1 so indeed ,god's gift to    
me1' and a 'guide-fish' who in this     
'rockie-rough ocean' helped him to      
capture the ',whale'--that is1          
,montaigne4 ,he also compares him to a  
'bonus genius sent to me1 as the good   
angel to ,raimond in ,tasso1 for my     
assistant to combat this great          
,argante4'  ,the other welcome          
fellow-worker was ',maister ,doctor     
,guinne2' according to ,florio1 'in this
 perilous1 crook't passage a            

monster-quelling ,theseus or ,herkules2'
 aye1 in his eyes the best orator1 poet1
 philosopher1 and medical man 7non so se
 meglior oratore e poeta1 o philosopho e
 medico71 and well versed in ,greek1    
,latin1 ,italian1 and ,french poetry4   
,it was he who succeeded in tracing the 
many passages from classic and modern   
writers which are strewn all over       
,montaigne's ,essays to the divers      
authors1 and the several places where   
they occur1 so as to properly classify  
them4  ,samuel ,daniel1 a well-known and
 much respected poet of that time1 and a
 brother-in-law of ,florio1 also made   
his contribution4 ,he opens this        
powerful1 highly important work with a  
eulogistic poem4 ,florio1 in his        
bombastic style1 says3--',i1 in this1   
serve but as ,vulcan to hatchet this    
,minerva from that ,jupiter's bigge     
braine4' ,he calls himself 'a fondling  
foster-father1 having transported it    
from ,france to ,england1 put it in     
,english clothes1 taught it to talke our

 tongue1 though many times with a jerke 
of ,french jargon4'  ,the ',essais'     
consist of three different books4 ,each 
of them is dedicated to two noblewomen1 
the foremost of this country4 ,the first
 book isdedicated to ,lucy1 ,countess of
 ,bedford1 and her mother1 ,lady ,anne  
,harrington4 ,the second to ,elizabeth1 
,countess of ,rutland1 daughter of the  
famous poet ,sir ,philip ,sidney1       
therefore a near relation of            
,shakspere's youthful friend1 ,william  
,herbert1 the later ,earl of ,pembroke  
7'the only begetter' of the ',sonnets'71
 whose mother also was a daughter of    
that much-admired poet4  ,the second    
book is dedicated to the renowned as    
well as evilly notorious ,lady ,penelope
 ,rich1 sister of the unfortunate ,earl 
of ,essex4 ,she shone by her            
extraordinary beauty as well as by her  
intellectual gifts4 ,of her ,sir ,philip
 ,sidney was madly enamoured1 but she   
married a ,croesus1 ,lord ,rich4 ,this  
union was a most unhappy one4 ,her      

husband1 a man far below her in strength
 of mind1 did not know how to value the 
jewel that had come into his possession4
 ,a crowd of admirers flocked around    
her1 among whom was ,william ,herbert1  
much younger in years than herself4 ,it 
is suspected that ,shakspere's last     
sonnets 7#abg-aeb7 touch upon this      
connection1 with the object of warning  
the friend against the true character of
 that sinful woman4  ,the last book is  
dedicated to ,lady ,elizabeth ,grey1 the
 wife of ,henry ,grey1 daughter of the  
,earl of ,shrewsbury1 and to ,lady ,mary
 ,nevill1 the latter being the daughter 
of the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer1   
and wife of ,sir ,henry ,nevill of      
,abergavenny4  ,each of the noblewomen  
mentioned is praised in a sonnet4 ,no   
book of that period had such a number of
 aristocratic sponsors4 ,yet it was of  
foreign origin1 and for the first time a
 ,french philosopher had appeared in an 
,english version on this side of the    
,channel4 ,his easy1 chatty tone must   

have created no small sensation4 ,the   
welcome given to him by a great number  
of men is proved by the fact of the     
',essais' soon reaching their third     
edition1 a rare occurrence with a book  
so expensive as this4 #ai  ,we will     
endeavour to sketch the character of    
,michel ,montaigne and his writings4    
,his individuality1 owing to the minute 
descriptions he gives of his own self in
 the ,essays1 comes out with rare       
distinctness from the dark environs of  
his time--more clearly so than the      
personality of any other author1 even of
 that seventeenth century which is so   
much nearer to us4  ,this ,french       
nobleman devoted the last thirty years  
of his life to philosophical            
speculations1 if that expression is     
allowable2 for fanciful inclination and 
changing sentiment1 far more than strict
 logic and sound common sense1 decided  
the direction of his thoughts4 ,the book
 in which he tries to render his ideas  
is meant to be the flesh and blood of   

his own self4 ,the work and the         
author--so he says--are to be one4 ',he 
who touches one of them1 attacks both4' 
,in the words of ,florio's translation1 
he observes3--',authors communicate     
themselves unto the world by some       
speciall and strange marke1 ,i the first
 by my generall disposition as ,michael 
,montaigne2 not as a ,grammarian1 or a  
,poet1 or a ,lawyer4'  ,few writers have
 been considered from such different    
points of view as ,montaigne4 ,the most 
passionate controversies have arisen    
about him4 ,theologians have endeavoured
 to make him one of their own2 but the  
more far seeing ones soon perceived that
 there was too much scepticism in his   
work4 ,some sceptics would fain attach  
him to their own ranks2 but the more    
consistent among them declined the      
companionship of one who was too bigoted
 for them4 ,the great mass of men1 as   
usual1 plucked1 according to each one's 
taste and fancy1 some blossom or leaf   
from his 'nosegay of strange flowers1'  

#bj and then classified him from that   
casual selection4  ,montaigne1 a friend 
of truth1 admonishes posterity1 if it   
would judge him1 to do so truthfully and
 justly4 ,with gladsome heart1 he says1 
he would come back from the other world 
in order to give the lie to those who   
describe him different from what he is1 
'even if it were done to his honour4'   
,we shall strive to comply with his wish
 by drawing the picture of this most    
interesting1 and in his intellectual    
features thoroughly modern1 man1 from   
the contours furnished by his own hand4 
,we shall exert ourselves to lay stress 
on those characteristics by which he    
must have created most surprise among   
his logically more consistent           
contemporaries on the other side of the 
,channel4  ,in taking up ,montaigne's   
',essais' for perusal we are presently  
under the spell of a feeling as though  
we were listening to the words of a most
 versatile man of the world1 in whom we 
become more and more interested4 ,we    

find in him not only an amiable         
representative of the upper classes1 but
 also a man who has deeply entered into 
the spirit of classic antiquity4 ,soon  
he convinces us that he is honestly     
searching after truth2 that he pursues  
the noble aim of placing himself in     
harmony with ,god and the world4 ,does  
he succeed in this8 ,does he arrive at a
 clear conclusion8 ,what are the fruits 
of his thoughts8 what his teachings8 ,in
 what relation did he stand to his      
century8  ,as in no other epoch1 men    
had1 especially those who came out into 
the fierce light of publicity1 to take  
sides in party warfare during the       
much-agitated time of the ,reformation4 
,to which party did ,montaigne belong8  
,was he one of the ,humanists1 who1     
averse to all antiquated dogmas1        
preached a new doctrine1 which was to   
bring mankind once more into unison with
 the long despised laws of ,nature8  ,we
 hope to show successfully that         
,shakspere wrote his ',hamlet' for the  

great and noble object of warning his   
contemporaries against the disturbing   
inconsistencies of the philosophy of    
,montaigne who preached the rights of   
,nature1 whilst yet clinging to dogmatic
 tenets which cannot be reconciled with 
those rights4  ,we hope to prove that   
,shakspere who made it his task 'to hold
 the mirror up to ,nature1' and who1    
like none before him1 caught up her     
innermost secrets1 rendering them with  
the chastest expression2 that           
,shakspere1 who denied in few but       
impressive words the vitality of any art
 or culture which uses means not        
consistent with the intentions of       
,nature3    ,yet ,nature is made better 
by no mean1   ,but ,nature makes that   
mean2 so o'er that art   ,which1 you    
say1 adds to ,nature1 is an art   ,that 
,nature makes2 #ba--  we hope to prove  
successfully that ,shakspere1 this true 
apostle of ,nature1 held it to be       
sufficient1 ay1 most godly1 to be a     
champion of 'natural things2' that he   

advocated a true and simple obedience to
 her laws1 and a renunciation of all    
transcendental dogmas1 miscalled 'holy  
and reverent1' which domineer over human
 nature1 and hinder the free development
 of its nobler faculties4  ,let us then 
impartially examine the character and   
the work of ,montaigne4 ,if we discover 
contradictions in both1 we shall not    
endeavour to argue them away1 but       
present them with matter-of-fact        
fidelity2 for it is on those very       
contradictions that the enigmatic1 as   
yet unexplained1 character of ,hamlet   
reposes4    #a3 ,collier's ,drama1 i4   
#bfe4   #b3 ,kind-hartes ,dreame1 #aeib4
   #c3 ,act v4 sc4 #d4   #d3 ,act v sc4 
#d4   #e3 ,act iii sc4 #e4   #f3 ,the   
,return from ,parnassus1 act v4 sc4 ,i4 
#g3 ,ibid41 act iv4 sc4 #c4   #h3 ,the  
,pardoner and the ,friar3 #aecc4   #i3  
,collier's ,drama1 i4 #ajd4  #aj3 ,the  
,political ,use of the ,stage in        
,shakspere's ,time4   ,new ,shakspere   
,society3 #ahgd1 ii4 p4 #cga4     ,henry

 ,stalbrydge1 ,epistle ,exhortatory1 c43
 #aedd4  #aa3 ,this threat was uttered  
against ,chapman1 ,ben ,jonson1 and     
,marston   on account of ,eastward ,hoe4
  #ab3 ,von ,raumer1 ii4 p4 #bai4  #ac3 
,marston's ,malcontent3 ,dedication4    
#ad3 ,act i4 sc4 ,i4  #ae3 ,it is very  
characteristic that1 in this serious    
piece also1 low   humour was still      
largely employed4 ,in printing--the     
publisher   remarks--the passages in    
question were left out1 as derogatory   
'to   so honourable and stately a       
history4'  #af3 ,the ,politics of       
,shakspere's ,historical ,plays4 ,new   
,shakspere ,society1 ii4 #ahgd4  #ag3   
,antonius and ,cleopatra1 act i4 sc4 #d4
  #ah3 ,we mean the usually received    
text1 seeing that the folio edition   of
 #afbc contains some passages which are 
wanting in the quarto   edition1 and    
vice vers4  #ai3 ,montaigne's ,essays1  
which were published in folio1 may have 
had the same price as ,shakspere's folio
 of #afbc4 ,the latter was only         

re-issued in #afcb and #affd1 whilst the
 former came out in new   editions in   
#afac and #afcb4  #bj3 ',icy un amas de 
fleur estrangieres1 n'y ayant fourny du 
mien   que le filet  les lier' 7iii4    
#ab74  #ba3 ,winter's ,tale1 act iv4 sc4
 #c4     ,,iii4  ,,montaigne4  ,michel  
,montaigne was favoured by birth as few 
writers have been4 ,he was the son of a 
worthy nobleman who gave him1 from early
 childhood1 a most carefully conducted  
education4 ,he never tires in praising  
the good qualities of his father1 who   
had followed ,francis ,i4 to his        
,italian campaigns1 and1 like that      
monarch1 had conceived a preference for 
those classical studies which were then 
again reviving4 ,even as his king1 he1  
too1 wished to promote the new          
knowledge1 and was bent upon so         
initiating young ,michel into it as to  
make him in the fullest manner          
conversant with the conquests of ,greece
 and ,rome in the realm of intellect4   
,in this1 as a practical man who felt   

the greatest respect for erudition      
without personally possessing a proper  
share of it1 he allowed himself to be   
thoroughly guided by 'men of learning   
and judgment4' ,he had been told that   
the only reason why we do not 'attain to
 the greatness of soul and intellect of 
the ancient ,greeks and ,romans was the 
length of time we give to learning these
 languages which cost them nothing4' ,in
 bringing up the boy1 to whom the best  
masters were given1 the procedures      
chosen were therefore such that young   
,michel1 in his sixth year1 spoke ,latin
 thoroughly before he was able to       
converse in his own mother-tongue4      
,montaigne relates #a that he was much  
more at home on the banks of the ,tiber 
than on the ,seine4 ,before he knew the 
,louvre1 his mind's eye rested on the   
,forum and the ,capitol4 ,he boasts of  
having always been more occupied with   
the life and the qualities of ,lucullus1
 of ,metellus1 and ,scipio1 than with   
the fate of any of his own countrymen4  

,of the hey-day of classic ,rome he1 who
 otherwise uses such measured terms1    
speaks with a glowing enthusiasm4 ,he   
often avers that he belongs to no       
special school of thought2 that he      
advocates no theory2 that he is not the 
adherent of any party or sect4 ,to      
him--so he asserts--an unprejudiced     
examination of all knowledge is         
sufficient4 ,his endeavour was1 to prove
 the devise of his escutcheon3 ',que    
sais-je8'  ,have the humanistic studies 
not given to him1 as to so many of his  
contemporaries1 a distinctive mental    
bent8 ,have ,greek and ,roman philosophy
 and poetry remained without any        
influence upon him8 ,has his character  
not been formed by them8 ,does he not   
once reckon himself among 'nous autres  
naturalistes8' #b  ,once only1 it is    
true1 he does this2 but even if he who  
would not belong to any special school  
of thought1 and who would rather be 'a  
good equerry than a logician1' #c had   
not ascribed to himself this            

designation1 a hundred passages of his  
work would bear witness to the fact of  
his having been one of the ,humanists1  
on whose banner ',nature' was written as
 the parole4 ,ever and anon he says 7,i 
here direct attention more specially to 
his last ,essays7 that we ought         
willingly to follow her prescriptions2  
and incessantly he asserts that1 in     
doing so1 we cannot err4 ,he designates 
her as a guide as mild as she is just1  
whose footprints1 blurred over as they  
are by artificial ones1 we ought        
everywhere to trace anew4 ',is it not   
folly1' he asks with ,seneca1 #d 'to    
bend the body this way1 and the mind    
that way1 and thus to stand distorted   
between two movements utterly at        
variance with each other8'  ,to bring up
 and to guide man in accordance with his
 capacities1 is with him a supreme law4 
',le glorieux chef-d'oeuvre de l'homme1 
c'est de vivre a propos4' ,he1 the sage1
 is already so much in advance of his   
century that he yearns for laws and     

religions which are not arbitrarily     
founded1 but drawn from the roots and   
the buds of a universal ,reason1        
contained in every person not degenerate
 or divorced from nature desnature4 ,a  
mass of passages in the ,essays         
strengthen the opinion that ,montaigne  
was an upright1 noble-minded ,humanist1 
a disciple of free thought1 who wished  
to fathom human nature1 and was anxious 
to help in delivering mankind from the  
fetters of manifold superstitions4 ,read
 his ,essay on ,education2 and the      
conviction will force itself upon you   
that in many things he was far in       
advance of his time4  ,but now to the   
reverse of the medal--to ,montaigne as  
the adherent of ,romanist dogmas6  ',the
 bond1' he says--and here we quote      
,florio's translation1 #e only slightly 
changed into modern orthography--'which 
should bind our judgment1 tie our will1 
enforce and join our souls to our       
,creator1 should be a bond taking his   
doublings and forces1 not from our      

considerations1 reasons1 and passions1  
but from a divine and supernatural      
compulsion1 having but one form2 one    
countenance1 and one grace2 which is the
 authority and grace of ,god4' ,the     
latter1 be it well understood1 are to   
,montaigne identical with the ,church of
 ,rome1 to which he thinks it best      
blindly to submit4  ,men--he            
observes--who make bold to sit in       
judgment upon their judges1 are never   
faithful and obedient to them4 ,as a    
warning example he points to ,england1  
which1 since his birth1 had already     
three or four times changed its laws1   
not only in matters political1 in which 
constancy is not insisted upon1 but in  
the most important matter               
imaginable--namely1 in religion4 ,he    
declares himself all the more ashamed   
of1 and vexed by1 this1 as his own      
family were allied by close private ties
 with the ,english nation4  ,an attempt 
has been made to show #f that in        
,montaigne's ',apologie de ,raymond     

,sebond1' in which he expounds his      
theological opinions in the most        
explicit manner1 a hidden attack is     
contained upon the ,church4 ,but it     
bespeaks an utter misconception of the  
character of this writer to hold him    
capable of such perfidious craftiness2  
for he calls it 'a cowardly and servile 
humour if a man disguises and hides his 
thoughts under a mask1 not daring to let
 himself be seen under his true aspect4'
 #g  ,we know of not a few1 especially  
,italian1 ,humanists who publicly made a
 deep bow before the altar1 whilst      
behind it they cynically laughed1 in    
company with their friends2 making sport
 of the silly crowd that knelt down in  
profound reverence4 ,montaigne was no   
such double-dealer4 ,we can fully       
believe him when he states that it is to
 him no small satisfaction and pleasure 
to 'have been preserved from the        
contagion of so corrupt an age2 to have 
never brought affliction and ruin upon  
any person2 not to have felt a desire   

for vengeance1 or any envy2 nor to have 
become a defaulter to his word4' #h     
,his word1 his honour1 were to him the  
most sacred treasure4 ,he never would   
have descended so low as to fling them  
to the winds4 ,let us1 therefore1 not   
endeavour to deny any logical           
inconsistencies in his                  
writings--inconsistencies which many    
other men since his time have equally   
shown4 ,let us rather institute a strict
 and close inquiry into these two modes 
of thought of his1 which1 contradictory 
as they are1 yet make up his very       
character and individuality4  ,we can   
fully believe in ,montaigne's sincerity 
when elsewhere he asserts that we must  
not travel away from the paths marked   
down by the ,roman ,catholic ,church1   
lest we should be driven about          
helplessly and aimlessly on the         
unbounded sea of human opinions4 ,he    
tells us #i that 'he1 too1 had neglected
 the observance of certain ceremonies of
 the ,church1 which seemed to him       

somewhat vain and strange2 but that1    
when he communicated on that subject    
with learned men1 he found that these   
things had a very massive and solid     
foundation1 and that it is only         
silliness and ignorance which make us   
receive them with less reverence than   
the other doctrines of religion4' ,hence
 he concludes that we must put ourselves
 wholly under the protection of         
ecclesiastical authority1 or completely 
break with it4  ,he never made a single 
step to withdraw himself from that      
authority4 ,he rather prides himself on 
having never allowed himself1 by any    
philosophy1 to be turned away from his  
first and natural sic opinions1 and from
 the condition in which ,god had placed 
him2 being well aware of his own        
variability volubilit4 ',thus ,i have1  
by the grace of ,god1 remained wholly   
attached1 without internal agitation and
 troubles of conscience1 to the ancient 
beliefs of our religion1 during the     
conflict of so many sects and party     

divisions which our century has         
produced4' #aj  ,receiving the holy     
,host1 he breathed his last4  ,in the   
',apologie de ,raymond ,sebond1'        
,montaigne defends the ',theologia      
,naturalis' of the latter--a book in    
which the author1 who was a medical man1
 a philosopher1 and a theologian1       
endeavours to prove that the ,roman     
,catholic dogmas are in harmony with the
 laws of nature4 ,that which is to be   
received in full faith1 ,sebond exerts  
himself to make comprehensible by       
arguments of the reason4 ,this book--so 
,montaigne relates--had been given to   
his father1 at the time when ,luther's  
new doctrines began to be popular1 by a 
man of great reputation for learning1   
,pierre ,bunel1 who 'well foresaw1 by   
his penetration1 #aa that this budding  
disease would easily degenerate into an 
execrable atheism4' ,old ,pierre        
,montaigne1 a very pious man1 esteemed  
this work very highly2 and a few days   
before his death1 having fortunately    

found it among a lot of neglected       
papers1 commanded his son to translate  
it from 'that kind of ,spanish jargon   
with ,latin endings1' in which it was   
written4  ,michel1 with filial piety1   
fulfilled his task4 ,he translated the  
work1 and in the above-mentioned        
,essay--the largest of the series--he   
advocates its philosophy4 ,the essence  
of this panegyric of the ,church 7for   
logic would in vain be sought for in    
that ,essay7 is3 that knowledge and     
curiosity are simply plagues of mankind1
 and that the ,roman ,catholic religion1
 therefore1 with great wisdom1          
recommends ignorance4 ,man would be most
 likely to attain happiness if1 like the
 animal1 he were to allow himself to be 
guided by his simple instinct4 ,all     
philosophising is declared to be of no  
use4 ,faith only is said to afford      
security to the weakest of all beings1  
to man1 who more than any other creature
 is exposed to the most manifold        
dangers4 ,no elephant1 no whale1 or     

crocodile1 was required to overcome him 
who proudly calls himself the 'lord of  
creation4' ',little lice are sufficient 
to make ,sylla give up his dictatorship4
 ,the heart and the life of a mighty and
 triumphant emperor form but the        
breakfast of a little worm4' #ab        
7,compare ',hamlet1' iv4 #c74           
,montaigne1 who1 in his thirty-eighth   
year1 'long weary of the bondage of     
,court and of public employment1 while  
yet in the vigour of life1 hath         
withdrawn himself into the bosom of the 
,learned ,virgins 7,doctarum            
,virginum71' #ac so as to be able to    
spend the rest of his days in his       
ancestral home1 in peaceful1 undisturbed
 devotion to ennobling studies1 and to  
present the world with a new book1 in   
which he means to give expression to his
 innermost thoughts--,montaigne1 in his 
,essay ',on ,prayers1' calls his        
writings 'rhapsodies1' which he submits 
to the judgment of the ,church1 so that 
it may deal with anything he1 'either   

ignorantly or unadvisedly1 may have set 
down contrary to the sacred decrees1 and
 repugnant to the holy prescriptions of 
the ,catholic1 ,apostolic1 and ,roman   
,church1 wherein ,i die1 and in which ,i
 was born4'  ,let us not dwell too long 
on the contradictions of a man who      
professes to think independently1 and   
who yet is content with having a        
mind-cramping dogmatic creed imposed    
upon him4 ,let us look at a few other1  
not less irreconcilable1 inconsistencies
 of his logic4  ,montaigne1 the         
,humanist1 advocates toleration4        
,justice1 he says1 is to be done to     
every party1 to every opinion4 ',men are
 different in feeling and in strength2  
they must be directed to their good1    
according to themselves1 and by diverse 
ways4' #ad ,he bears no grudge to anyone
 of heterodox faith2 he feels no        
indignation against those who differ    
from him in ideas4 ,the ties of         
universal humanity he values more than  
those of national connection4 ,he has   

some good words for the ,mexicans1 so   
cruelly persecuted by the ,spaniards4   
',i hold all men to be my compatriots2  
,i feel the same love for a ,pole as for
 a ,frenchman4' #ae  ,but when we read  
what the ,roman ,catholic ,montaigne    
writes1 there is a different tone3--    
',now that which1 methinks1 brings so   
much disorder into our                  
consciences--namely1 in these troubles  
of religion in which we are--is the easy
 way with which ,catholics treat their  
faith4 ,they suppose they show          
themselves properly moderate and skilful
 when they yield to their adversaries   
some of the articles that are under     
debate4 ,but--besides that they do not  
see what an advantage it is to your     
antagonist if you once begin making a   
concession1 thus encouraging him to     
follow up his point--it may further be  
said that the articles which they choose
 as apparently the lightest1 are        
sometimes most important indeed4' #af   
,again1 the humane nobleman who looks   

with pity and kindliness upon 'the poor1
 toiling with heads bent1 in their hard 
work2' he who calls the application of  
the torture 'a trial of patience rather 
than of truth'--he maintains that 'the  
public weal requires that one should    
commit treachery1 use falsehoods1 and   
perform massacres4' #ag ,personally1 he 
shrinks from such a mission4 ,his softer
 heart is not strong enough for these   
deeds4 ,he relates #ah that he 'never   
could see without displeasure an        
innocent and defenceless beast pursued  
and killed1 from which we have received 
no offence at all4' ,he is moved by the 
aspect of 'the hart when it is embossed 
and out of breath1 and1 finding its     
strength gone1 has no other resource    
left but to yield itself up to us who   
pursue it1 asking for mercy from us by  
its tears4 ,he calls this 'a deplorable 
spectacle4'  ,yet1 this sentimental     
nobleman advocates the commission of    
treachery and cruelty1 in the interest  
of the ,state1 by certain more          

energetic1 less timorous men4 ,nor does 
he define their functions so as to raise
 a bar against a second ,st4            
,bartholomew massacre4 ,a deed of this  
kind he would submissively take to be an
 act of ,heaven1 shirking all           
responsibility for1 or discussion of1   
anything that 'begins to molest him4'   
,he merely says3--',like those ancients 
who sacrificed their lives for the      
welfare of their country1 so they 7the  
guardians of the ,state7 must be ready  
to sacrifice their honour and their     
conscience4 ,we who are weaker1 take    
easier1 less risky parts4' #ai  ,in     
,montaigne1 the ,humanist1 we read that 
beautiful passage 7in his last ,essay   
#bj7 where he says that 'those who would
 go beyond human nature1 trying to      
transform themselves into angels1 only  
make beasts of themselves4' #ba ,yet1   
elsewhere #bb he writes that he shall be
 exalted1 who1 renouncing his own       
natural means1 allows himself to be     
guided by means purely celestial--by    

which he clearly understands the dogmas 
of ,roman ,catholicism4  ,as a          
humanistic thinker1 ,montaigne fears    
nothing more than any strivings after   
transcendentalism4 ,such yearnings      
terrify him like inaccessible heights4  
,in the life of ,sokrates1 of that sage 
for whom he felt a special preference1  
the 'ecstasies and daimons' greatly     
repel him4 ,nevertheless1 ,montaigne1   
the mystic1 attributes a great magic    
power to such daimons2 for he says3 ',i1
 too1 have sometimes felt within myself 
an image of such internal agitations1 as
 weak in the light of reason as they    
were violent in instinctive persuasion  
or dissuasion 7a state of mind more     
ordinary to ,sokrates71 by which ,i have
 so profitably1 and so happily1 suffered
 myself to be drawn on1 that these      
mental agitations might perhaps be      
thought to contain something of divine  
inspiration4' #bc  ,montaigne1 the      
admirer of classic antiquity1 says that 
serving the ,commonwealth is the most   

honourable calling4 #bd ,acts without   
some splendour of freedom have1 in his  
eyes1 neither grace1 nor do they merit  
being honoured4 #be ,but elsewhere #bf  
we come upon his other view1 less imbued
 with the spirit of antiquity--namely1  
that 'man alone1 without other help1    
armed only with his own weapons1 and    
unprovided with the grace and knowledge 
of ,god1 in which all his honour1 his   
strength1 and the whole ground of his   
being are contained1' is a sorry        
specimen of force indeed4 ,his own      
reason gives him no advantage over other
 creatures2 the ,church alone confers   
this privilege upon him6  ,during       
several years1 ,montaigne was ,mayor of 
,bordeaux4 ,with great modesty1 he      
relates #bg that in his mere passive    
conduct lay whatever little merit he may
 have had in serving his town4 ,this    
fully harmonises with the view expressed
 in his last but one ,essay1 in which he
 declares that we are to be blamed for  
not sufficiently trusting in ,heaven2   

expecting from ourselves more than      
behoves us3 ',therefore do our designs  
so often miscarry4 ,heaven is envious of
 the large extent which we attribute to 
the rights of human wisdom1 to the      
prejudice of its own rights2 and it     
curtails ours all the more that we      
endeavour to enlarge them4' #bh         
,montaigne by no means ignores the      
troublous character of the times in     
which he lived4 ,he often alludes to it4
 ,he thinks astrologers cannot have any 
great difficulty in presaging changes   
and revolutions near at hand3--',their  
prophetic indications are practically in
 our very midst1 and most palpable2 one 
need not search the ,heavens for that4' 
',cast we our eyes about us' 7here again
 we follow ,florio's translation71 'and 
in a generall survay consider all the   
world3 all is tottring2 all is out of   
frame4 ,take a perfect view of all great
 states1 both in ,christendome and where
 ever else we have knowledge of1 and in 
all places you shall finde a most       

evident threatning of change and ruine  
444 ,astrologers may spout themselves1  
with warning us1 as they doe of iminent 
alterations and succeeding revolutions3 
their divinations are present and       
palpable1 we need not prie into the     
heavens to find them out4' #bi  ,but    
,montaigne1 always resigned to the will 
of ,god1 inactively stands by4 ,not even
 a manly counsel comes from his lips4   
,he believes he has fulfilled his       
,christian duty by trusting in ,heaven  
for the conduct of human affairs1 and   
trying to comfort his fellow-men by the 
hollow words that he 'sees no cause for 
despair4 ,perchance we have not yet     
arrived at the last stage4 ,the         
maintenance of states is most probably  
something that goes beyond our powers of
 understanding4' #cj  ,montaigne1 the   
,humanist1 says that 'it is an absolute 
perfection1 and1 as it were1 a divine   
accomplishment for a man to know how to 
loyally enjoy his existence4' ,the most 
commendable life for him is 'that which 

adapts itself1 in an orderly way1 to a  
common human model1 without miracle1 and
 without extravagance4' #ca  ,but       
,montaigne1 the ,christian1 relates that
 he has 'never occupied himself with    
anything more than with ideas of death1 
even at the most licentious time of his 
youth4' ,with touching ingenuousness he 
confesses his weaknesses and his        
vanities1 of which he scarcely dares to 
think any longer4 ,the descriptions he  
often gives of himself--such as1 'a     
dreamer' 7songe-creux71 'soft' 7molle71 
'heavy' 7poisante71 'pensive1' and so   
forth #cb--prove that he cannot have    
arrived at a pure enjoyment of life4 ,he
 questions the happiness of being a     
husband and father4 ,we shall touch upon
 his views as regards woman1 and many   
other peculiarities of his1 in the      
passages of ',hamlet' referring to them4
  ,in nothing does ,montaigne arrive at 
any clear conclusion within himself4    
,though he knows how to speak much and  
well about everything1 it is all mere   

bel esprit1 a display of glittering     
words1 hollow verbiage1 which only lands
 us in a labyrinth of contradictions1   
from which we seek an issue as vainly as
 the author himself4 ,striving1 through 
all his life1 to arrive at a knowledge  
of himself1 he at last lays down his    
arms1 considering the attempt a         
fruitless and impossible task1 and1 in  
his last ,essay1 #cc he makes this      
avowal3--  ',that which in ,perseus1 the
 ,king of ,macedon1 was remarked as a   
rare thing--viz4 that his mind1 not     
settling down into any kind of          
condition1 went wandering through every 
manner of life1 thus showing such       
flighty and erratic conduct that neither
 he nor others knew what sort of man he 
was3 this seems to me to apply nearly to
 the whole world1 and more especially to
 one of that ilk whom this description  
would eminently fit4 ,this1 indeed1 is  
what ,i believe of him 7he speaks of    
himself73--,no average attitude2 being  
always driven from one extreme to the   

other by indivinable chances2 no manner 
of course without cross-runnings and    
marvellous controversies2 no clear and  
plain faculty1 so that the likeliest    
idea that could one day be put forth    
about him will be this3 that he affected
 and laboured to make himself known by  
the impossibility of really knowing him 
7'qu'il affectoit et estudioit de se    
rendre cogneu par estre                 
mecognoissable'74' ,this is ,montaigne  
all over4  ,in the ,british ,museum     
there is a copy of the ,essays of       
,montaigne1 in ,florio's translation1   
with ,shakspere's name1 it is alleged1  
written in it by his own hand1 and with 
notes which possibly may in part have   
been jotted down by him4 ,sir ,frederick
 ,madden1 one of the greatest           
authorities in autographs1 has          
recognised ,shakspere's autograph as    
genuine4 #cd ,whatever disputes may be  
carried on on this particular point1 we 
think we shall be able to prove that    
,shakspere about the year #afjj must    

have been well acquainted with          
,montaigne4 ,we shall show that in the  
first text of ',hamlet1' which1 it is   
assumed1 was represented on the stage   
between #afja and #afjb1 there are      
already to be found some allusions to   
,montaigne1 especially as far as the    
middle of the second and towards the end
 of the fifth act4 ,in all likelihood1  
,shakspere knew the ',essais' even in   
the original ,french text or perhaps    
from the manuscript of the translation  
which1 as above stated1 had been begun  
towards the year #aeii2 for ,shakspere1 
it is to be supposed1 had access to the 
houses of1 at least1 two of the noble   
ladies to whom the ,italian teacher     
dedicated his translation4  ,in the     
',tempest1' assumed to be of later date 
than ',hamlet1' there is a passage      
unmistakably taken from ,florio's       
version of ,montaigne4 #ce  ,ben        
,jonson1 the most quarrelsome and the   
chief adversary of ,shakspere1 was an   
intimate friend of ,florio4 ,when       

,montaigne1 in ',hamlet'--as ,jonson    
says--became the target of 'railing     
rhetoric1' the latter took sides with   
,florio and his colleagues2 launching   
out against ,shakspere in his comedy1   
',volpone4' ,this play1 as well as an   
,introduction in which it is dedicated  
to the two ,universities1 gives us a    
clue to a great many things otherwise   
difficult to understand4  ,a new book1  
especially a philosophical work like    
that of ,michel ,montaigne1 was then    
still a remarkable event4 #cf ,to       
counteract the pernicious influence     
which the frivolous1 foreign talker     
threatened to exercise1 in large        
circles1 through an ,english            
translation--this1 in our opinion1 was  
the object which ,shakspere had when    
touching upon ground interdicted1 as a  
rule1 to the stage--namely1 upon        
questions of religion4 ,we shall find   
that it was not through any preference  
for ghost and murder scenes that1 a year
 after the second quarto1 in #afje1     

',hamlet' was reprinted--a circumstance 
occurring with but one other drama of   
,shakspere2 which testifies that this   
particular play attained great          
popularity from its first appearance4   
#cg  ,a very instructive insight into   
the intellectual movement of the great  
,reformation epoch here opens itself to 
us4 ,in this case1 also1 we shall gain  
the conviction that a true genius takes 
the liveliest interest in the fate of   
his own nation1 and does not occupy     
himself with distant1 abstruse problems 
7such as fussy metaphysicians would fain
 philosophise into ',hamlet'71 whilst   
the times are going out of joint4 ,the  
greatest ,englishman remained1 in the   
most powerful drama of his1 within the  
sphere of the questions that agitated   
his time4 ,in ',hamlet' he identifies   
,montaigne's philosophy with madness2   
branding it as a pernicious one1 as     
contrary to the intellectual conquests  
his own ,english nation has made1 when  
breaking with the ,romanist dogmas4     

,what sense of duty do ,montaigne's     
,essays promote8 ,what noble deed can   
ripen in the light of the disordered and
 discordant ideas they contain8 ,all    
they can do is1 to disturb the mind1 not
 to clear it2 to give rise to doubts1   
not to solve them2 to nip the buds from 
which great actions may spring1 not to  
develop them4 ,instead of furthering the
 love for mankind1 they can only produce
 despair as to all higher aims and      
ideals4  ,in ',hamlet1' ,shakspere      
personified many qualities of the       
complex character of ,montaigne4 ,before
 all1 he meant to draw this conclusion3 
that whoever approaches a high task of  
life with such wavering thoughts and    
such logical inconsistencies1 must needs
 suffer shipwreck4 ,hamlet's character  
has only remained an enigma to us for so
 long a time because he is flesh of our 
flesh1 blood of our blood2 'but1 to knew
 a man well1 were to know himself4'     
#a3 ,essay ,,iii4 #i4   #b3 ,essay      
,,iii4 #ab1 #bce4   #c3 ,ibid4 #i4   #d3

 ,essay ,,iii4 #ac 7,edition ,variorum1 
par ,charles ,louandre1    ,paris2 which
 we always refer to74   #e3 ,the        
,essayes1 or ,morall1 ,politike1 and    
,millitarie ,discourses    of ,lo4      
,michaell de ,montaigne1 ,london1 #afjc1
 p4 #bef4   #f3 ,sainte-,beuve4   #g3   
,essay ,,ii4 #ag1 p4 #ga4   #h3 ,,iii4  
#b1 #ccj4   #i3 ,essay ,i4 #bf1 #beg4   
#aj3 ,,ii4 #ab1 #dhg-h4  #aa3           
,montaigne1 ,discours de ,raison        
7,discourse of ,reason74 ,florio1       
#beb4  #ab3 ,essay ,,ii4 #ab1 #big4     
,florio1 #bff4  #ac3 ,part of an        
inscription still legible in            
,montaigne's castle4  #ad3 ,essay ,,ii4 
#ab4  #ae3 ,,iii4 #i4  #af3 ,i4 #bf4    
#ag3 ,essay ,,iii4 #a  #ah3 ,,ii4 #aa4  
#ai3 ,,iii4 #a4  #bj3 ,,iii4 #ac4  #ba3 
,essay ,,iii4 #ac4  #bb3 ,,ii4 #ab4     
#bc3 ,i4 #aa4  #bd3 ,,iii4 #i4  #be3    
,ibid4  #bf3 ,,ii4 #ab4  #bg3 ,essay    
,,iii4 #aj4  #bh3 ,ibid4 #ab4  #bi4     
,florio1 #ege4  #cj3 ,essay ,,iii4 #i4  
#ca3 ,,iii4 #ac4  #cb3 ,essay ,,ii4 #ab4

  #cc3 ,,iii4 #ac4  #cd3 ,observations  
on an ,autograph of ,shakspere4 ,london1
 #ahch4  #ce3 ,this is the passage1     
which occurs in the ,tempest1 act ii4   
sc4 ,i3        ',gonzalo4--,i' the      
commonwealth ,i would by contraries     
,execute all things3 for no kind of     
traffic       ,would ,i admit2 no name  
of magistrate3       ,letters should not
 be known2 riches1 poverty1       ,and  
use of service1 none2 contract1         
succession1       ,bourn1 bound of land1
 tilth1 vineyard1 none2       ,no use of
 metal1 corn1 or wine1 or oil2       ,no
 occupation3 all men idle1 all2         
,and women too4'     ,this passage is   
almost literally taken from ,essay ,i4  
#cj1 ',on    ,cannibals4' ,we shall     
later on show ,shakspere's reason for   
giving    us this fanciful description  
of such an ,utopian commonwealth4  #cf3 
,florio1 after enumerating the          
difficulties he encountered in the      
translation of the ,essays1 concludes   
his preface to the    courteous reader  

with the following words3--     ',in    
summe1 if any think he could do better1 
let him trie1 then    will he better    
think of what is done4 ,seven or eight  
of great wit    and worth have assayed1 
but found those ,essais no attempt for  
,french apprentises or ,littletonians4  
,if thus done it may please    you1 as  
,i wish it may and ,i hope it shall1 and
 ,i with you shall be    pleased3 though
 not1 yet still ,i am4'     ,we learn1  
from this remark1 of what great         
importance the ,essais    must have been
 considered in literary circles1 and it 
is not    improbable that a few attempts
 'of the seven or eight of great wit    
and worth' may have appeared in print   
long before ,florio's    translation4   
,we may well ask3 ,is it likely that the
 greatest    literary genius of his age 
should have been unaware of the         
existence of a work which was considered
 of such importance that    'seven or   
eight of great wit and worth' thought it
 worth while to    attempt to translate 

it8 ,shakspere1 who in ,king ,henry the 
,fifth    7#aeii7 wrote some scenes in  
,french1 must surely have had sufficient
    knowledge of this language to read  
it4  #cg3 ,besides the quartos of #afjc 
and #afjd1 thee were reprints of the    
latter in #afje and #afaa2 also another 
edition without date4    ,,iv4          
,,hamlet4  ,in the foregoing sketch of  
,montaigne our especial object was to   
point out the inconsistency of the      
,french writer in advising us to follow 
,nature as our guide1 yet at the same   
time maintaining a strict adherence to  
tenets and dogmas which qualify the     
impulses and inclinations of nature as  
sinful1 and which even declare war      
against them4  ,let us see how          
,shakspere incarnates these contrasts in
 the character of ,hamlet4  ,he makes   
the ,danish ,prince come back from the  
,university of ,wittenberg4 ,there1 we  
certainly may assume1 he has become     
imbued with the new spirit that then    
shook the world4 ,we refrain from       

mentioning it by name1 because the      
designation we now confer upon it has   
become a lifeless word1 comprising no   
longer those free thoughts of the       
,humanist1 for which ,shakspere1 in this
 powerful tragedy1 boldly enters the    
lists4  ,hamlet longs to be back to     
,wittenberg4 ,this desire represents his
 inclination towards free1 humanistic   
studies4 ,on the other hand1 his        
adherence to old dogmatic views can be  
deduced from the fact of his being so   
terribly impressed by the circumstance  
of his father having had to die         
,unhousel'd1 disappointed1 unaneled2  a 
fact recorded with a threefold outcry3--
    ,oh1 horrible6 ,oh1 horrible6 most  
horrible6  ,again1 we must direct the   
reader's attention to this very         
noteworthy point1 that the first quarto 
edition of ',hamlet' was already worked 
out tolerably well as far as the middle 
of the second act4 ,for the completion  
of this part1 only a few details were   
necessary4 ,from them1 we must all the  

more be enabled to gather ,shakspere's  
intention4  ,in the speech of the ,ghost
 in the second quarto--otherwise of     
well-nigh identical contents with the   
one in the first edition--there is only 
one new line1 but one which deserves the
 closest consideration4 ,it is that     
which we have quoted--    ,unhousel'd1  
disappointed1 unaneled4  ,the effect    
this statement has on the course of the 
dramatic action we shall explain later  
on4 ,in act iii4 sc4 #c1 where ,hamlet's
 energy is paralysed by this disclosure 
of the ,ghost1 we afterwards again come 
upon a short innovation1 and a most     
characteristic one1 though but          
consisting of two lines4  ,in the first 
quarto we see ,hamlet1 in the beginning 
of the play1 seized with an unmanly     
grief which makes him wish that heaven  
and earth would change back into chaos4 
,but a new addition to this weariness of
 life is the contempt of all earthly    
aspirations3 the aversion to ,nature as 
the begetter of sin4 ,the following     

passages are not to be found in the     
first quarto3--    ,or that the         
,everlasting had not fix'd   ,his canon 
'gainst self-slaughter6 ,o ,god6 ,god6  
,how weary1 stale1 flat1 and            
unprofitable   ,seem to me all the uses 
of this world6   ,fie on't6 ,ah fie6 't 
is an unweeded garden1   ,that grows to 
seed2 things rank and gross in nature   
,possess it merely4  ,the scene between 
,hamlet and ,horatio 7act i4 sc4 #d71   
which in both texts is about the same1  
contains an innovation in which the     
,prince's mistrust of nature is even    
more sharply expressed4 ,these lines are
 new3--    ,this heavy-headed revel east
 and west   ,makes us traduced and tax'd
 of other nations--  as far as--    444 
,the dram of eale 7evil7   ,doth        
7drawth7 all the substance of a doubt   
,to his own scandal4  ,the contents of  
this interpolated speech may concisely  
be thus given3 that the virtues of man1 
however pure and numerous they may be1  
are often infected by 'some vicious mole

 of ,nature1' wherein he himself is     
guiltless2 and that from such a fault in
 the chance of birth a stamp of defect  
is impressed upon his character1 and    
thus contaminates the whole4  ,these    
innovations are evidently introduced for
 the purpose of making us understand why
 ,hamlet does not trust to the          
excitements of his own reason and his   
own blood1 in order to find out by      
natural means whether it be true what   
his 'prophetic soul'                    
anticipates--namely1 that his uncle may 
'smile and smile1 and yet be a villain4'
  ,man1 says ,montaigne1 has no         
hold-fast1 no firm and fixed point1     
within himself1 in spite of his         
apparently splendid outfit4 #a  ,man can
 do nothing with his own weapons alone  
without help from outside4 ,in the      
,essay ',on the ,folly of ,referring the
 ,true and the ,false to the            
,trustworthiness of our ,judgment1' #b  
he maintains that 'it is a silly        
presumption to go about despising and   

condemning as false that which does not 
seem probable to us2 which is a common  
fault of those who think they have more 
self-sufficiency than the vulgar4 ,so   
was ,i formerly minded2 and if ,i heard 
anybody speak either of ghosts coming   
back1 or of the prophecy of coming      
things1 of spells1 of witchcraft1 or of 
any other tale ,i could not digest--    
,somnia1 terrores magicos1 miracula1    
sagas1   ,nocturnos lemures1 portentaque
 ,thessala--  ,i felt a kind of         
compassion for the poor people who were 
made the victims of such follies4 ,and  
now ,i find that ,i was1 at least1 to be
 as much pitied myself4444 ,reason has  
taught me that1 so resolutely to condemn
 a thing as false and impossible1 is to 
boldly assume that we have in our head  
the bounds and limits of the will of    
,god and of our common mother1 ,nature2 
and ,i now see that there is no more    
notable folly in the world than to      
reduce them to the measure of our       
capacity and of our self-sufficient     

judgment4' #c  ,not less weak than      
,montaigne's trust in human reason is   
that of ,hamlet when he fears 'the pales
 and forts of reason' may be broken     
down--    by the o'ergrowth of some     
complexion4  ,with such a mode of       
thought it is not to be wondered at that
 he should welcome the first occasion   
when the task of his life may be        
revealed to him by a heavenly messenger4
 ,hoping that 'the questionable shape'  
would not let him 'burst in ignorance1' 
but tell him why 'we fools of ,nature so
 horridly shake our disposition with    
thoughts beyond the reaches of our      
souls1' he follows the spectral         
apparition4 ,good ,horatio does his best
 to restrain his friend1 who has waxed  
'desperate with imagination1' from      
approaching the 'removed ground1' that  
might deprive him of the 'sovereignity  
of reason1' and whither the ,ghost      
beckons him4  ,here there are several   
new lines3--    ,or to the dreadful     
summit of the cliff4444   ,the very     

place puts toys of desperation1         
,without more motive1 into every brain  
,that looks so many fathoms to the sea1 
,and hears it roar beneath4  ,here we   
have one of those incipient ecstasies of
 which ,montaigne says that 'such       
transcending humours affright me as much
 as steep1 high1 and inaccessible       
places4' #d  ,in the following scene    
between ,hamlet and the ,ghost the      
introduction is new3--    ,ghost4 ,my   
hour is almost come1   ,when ,i to      
sulphurous and tormenting flames   ,must
 render up myself4   ,hamlet4 ,alas1    
poor ghost6   ,ghost4 ,pity me not1 but 
lend thy serious hearing   ,to what ,i  
shall unfold4   ,hamlet4 ,speak2 ,i am  
bound to hear4   ,ghost4 ,so art thou to
 revenge1 when thou shall hear4  ,this  
picturing of the torments of hell--how  
very characteristic6 ,it is forbidden to
 the ,ghost to communicate to 'ears of  
flesh and blood' the secrets of its     
fiery prison-house4 ,yet it knows how to
 tell enough of the horrors of that     

gruesome place to make the hair of a    
stronger mortal than ,hamlet is1 stand  
on end1 'like quills upon the fretful   
porcupine4'  ,with masterly hand1 the   
poet depicts the distance which         
henceforth separates ,hamlet's course of
 thought from that of his friends who   
have remained on the firm ground of     
human reason4 ,hamlet cannot say more   
than--    that there's ne'er a villain  
dwelling in all ,denmark   ,but he's an 
arrant knave4  ,when ,horatio answers   
that 'there needs no ghost1 my lord1    
come from the grave to tell us this1' #e
 ,hamlet asks his friends to shake hands
 with him and part1 giving them to      
understand that every man has his own   
business and desire1 and that--    for  
my own poor part1   ,look you1 ,i'll go 
pray4  ,horatio calls this 'wild and    
whirling words4' ,the ,prince who at    
this moment1 no doubt1 expresses his own
 true inclination1 says3--',i am sorry  
they offend you--heartily2 yes1 'faith1 
heartily4' ,it is difficult for him to  

justify his own procedure4 ,he feels    
unable to explain his thoughts and      
sentiments to the clear1 unwarped reason
 of a ,horatio1 to whom the ,ghost did  
not reply1 and to whom no ghost would4  
,hamlet assures his friend1 for whose   
sympathy he greatly cares1 that the     
apparition is a true one1 an honest     
ghost4 ,he advises ,horatio to give the 
'wondrous strange' a welcome even as to 
'a stranger2' and1 lest he might        
endeavour to test the apparition by     
human reason1 he speaks the beautiful   
words3--    ,there are more things in   
heaven and earth1 ,horatio1   ,than are 
dreamt of in your philosophy  ,hamlet   
tells his friends that in future he will
 put on 'an antic disposition4' ,towards
 them he has1 in fact1 already done so4 
,his desire for a threefold oath2 his   
repeated shifting of ground2 his        
swearing by the sword on which the hands
 are laid 7a custom referable to the    
time of the ,crusades1 and considered   
tantamount to swearing by the cross1 but

 which1 at the same time1 is an older   
,germanic1 and hence ,danish1 custom72  
his use of a ,latin formula1 ,hic et    
ubique--all these procedures have the   
evident object of throwing his comrades 
into a mystic frame of mind1 and to make
 them keep silence 7'so help you        
mercy6'7 as to what they have seen4     
,these are the mysterious means which   
those have to use that would make       
themselves the medium of a message      
supernaturally revealed4 #e  ,a perusal 
of the fifty-sixth chapter of the first 
,essay of ,montaigne will show with what
 great reverence he treated ceremonial  
customs and hollow formulas2 for        
instance1 the sign of the cross1 of     
which he 'continually made use1 even if 
he be but yawning' 7sic74 ,it is not a  
mere coincidence1 but a well-calculated 
trait in the character of ,hamlet1 that 
in his speech he goes through a scale of
 exclamations and asseverations such as 
,shakspere employs in no other of his   
poetical creations4 ,hamlet incessantly 

mentions ,god1 ,heaven1 ,hell1 and the  
,devil1 the ,heavenly ,hosts1 and the   
,saints4 ,he claims protection from the 
latter at the appearance of the ,ghost4 
,he swears 'by ,st4 ,patrick1' by his   
faith1 by ,god's wounds1 by ,his blood1 
by ,his body1 by the ,cross1 and so     
forth4 #f  ,stubbs1 in his ',anatomy of 
,abuses' 7#aehc71 #g lays stress1 among 
other characteristics of the ,papists1  
upon their terrible inclination to      
swearing3 'in so muche1 as if they      
speake but three or fower words1 yet    
must thei needes be interlaced with a   
bloudie othe or two1 to the great       
dishonour of ,god and offence of the    
hearers4'  ,an overwhelming grief and   
mistrust in his own nature filled       
,hamlet's bold imagination with the     
desire of receiving a complete mandate  
for his mission from the hands of       
superior powers4 ,so he enters the realm
 of mysticism1 where mind wields no     
authority1 and where no sound fruit of  
human reason can ripen4  ,between the   

first and the second act there is an    
interval of a few months4 ,the poet     
gives us no other clue to the condition 
and the doings of his hero than that1 in
 the words of ,polonius1 #h he 'fell    
into sadness2 then into a fast2 thence  
to a watch2 thence into a weakness1' and
 so forth4 ,we may therefore assume that
 he has followed his inclination to go  
to pray2 that he tries by fasting1      
watching1 and chastising1 as so many    
before him1 to find his way in the      
dreamland which he has entered following
 the ,ghost2 sincerely striving to      
remain true to his resolution to 'wipe  
from the table of his memory all        
pressures past4'  ,a new passage in the 
monologue of ,hamlet1 after the ,ghost  
has left him1 is this3--    ,and thy    
commandment all alone shall live        
,within the book and volume of my brain1
   ,unmix'd with baser matter2 yes1 by  
,heaven6   ,o most pernicious woman6    
,we next hear about the ,prince from    
,ophelia after the interval which1 as   

mentioned above1 lies between the first 
and the second act4 #i ,in the old play 
she relates that1 when 'walking in the  
gallery all alone1' he1 the lover1 came 
towards her1 altogether 'bereft of his  
wits4' ,in the scene of the later play  
he comes to her closet with a purpose1  
appearing before her in a state of      
mental struggle4 ,no doubt1 he then     
approaches her with the intention1 which
 afterwards he carries out1 of          
renouncing woman1 the begetter of all   
evil in the world1 which makes such     
monsters of wise men4 ,the sight of his 
true love has shaken him4 ,he stands    
before her3 #aj    444 with a look so   
piteous in purport   ,as if he had been 
loosed out of hell   ,to speak of       
horrors444   ,and thrice his head thus  
waving up and down1   ,he raised a sigh 
so piteous and profound   ,as it did    
seem to shatter all his bulk   ,and end 
his being4  ,thus he leaves her1 not    
daring to speak the word which is to    
separate him from her4  ,in the         

following scene between ,hamlet and     
,polonius 7act ii4 sc4 #b #aa7 there is 
again a new passage which equally proves
 that ,hamlet's thoughts only dwell upon
 one theme2 that is1 the sinfulness of  
our human nature3--      ,hamlet4 ,for  
if the sun breed maggots in a dead dog1 
being a     god1 kissing carrion--,have 
you a daughter8     ,polonius4 ,i have1 
my lord4     ,hamlet4 ,let her not walk 
i' the sun4 ,conception is a blessing2  
but not as your daughter may            
conceive3--friend1 look to't4  ,hamlet  
said before1 that ',to be honest1 is to 
be one man picked out of ten thousand4' 
,there is method in ,hamlet's madness4  
,with correct logic he draws from dogmas
 which pronounce ,nature to be sinful1  
the conclusion that we need not wonder  
at the abounding of evil in this world1 
seeing that a ,god himself assists in   
creating it4 ,he1 therefore1 warns      
,polonius against his daughter1 too1    
becoming 'a breeder of sinners4'        
,before we follow ,hamlet now to the    

scene with ,ophelia1 where1 'in an      
ecstasy of divine inspiration1 equally  
weak in reason1 and violent in          
persuasion and dissuasion1' #ab he calls
 upon her to go to a nunnery1 we must   
direct attention to the concluding part 
of an ,essay #ac of ,montaigne4 ,it is  
only surprising that nobody should as   
yet have pointed out how unmistakeably1 
in that famous scene1 the               
inconsistencies of the whimsical ,french
 writer are scourged4 ,in that ,essay   
the following thought occurs1 which one 
would gladly accept as a correct one3   
',falsely do we judge the honesty and   
the beauty of an action from its        
usefulness4 ,equally wrong it is to     
conclude that everyone is bound to do   
the same1 and that it is an honest      
action for everybody1 if it be a useful 
one4'  ,now1 ,montaigne endeavours to   
apply this thought to the institution of
 marriage2 and he descends1 in doing so1
 to the following irrational            
argument3--',let us select the most     

necessary and most useful institution of
 human society3 it is marriage4 ,yet the
 counsel of the saints deems the        
contrary side to be more honest2 thus   
excluding the most venerable vocation of
 men4'  ,the satire of that famous scene
 in ',hamlet' is here apparent4 ,it will
 now be understood why the ,danish      
,prince comes with a warning to his     
beloved1 'not to admit honesty in       
discourse with beauty1' and why his     
resolution is that 'we will have no more
 marriage4' ,those words of ,hamlet1    
too1 'this was sometime a paradox1 but  
now the time gives it proof1' are easy  
of explanation4 ,it was not yet so long 
ago that celibacy had been abolished in 
,england4 ,the 'time' now confirms      
celibacy once more in this ,french book4
  ,most characteristic is the following 
passage3 in this scene the only new one4
 ,it goes far to show the intention with
 which the poet partly re-wrought the   
play4 ,i mean the words in which ,hamlet
 confesses to ,ophelia that he has      

deceived her4 ,the repentant sinner     
says3 ',you should not have believed me3
 for virtue cannot so inoculate our old 
stock but we shall relish of it4'  ,can 
a poet who will not convert the stage   
into a theological ,hall of             
,controversy1 make the soul-struggle of 
his hero more comprehensible8 ,hamlet   
has honestly tried 7we have seen with   
what means7 to inoculate and improve the
 sinful 'old stock4' ,but how far away  
he still feels himself from his aim6 ,he
 calls himself 'proud1 revengeful1      
ambitious4' ,these are the three sins of
 which he must accuse himself1 when     
listening to the voice of ,nature which 
admonishes him to fulfil the duty of his
 life--the deed of blood--that inner    
voice of his nobler nature which impels 
him to seize the crown in order to guide
 the destinies of his country2 given    
over1 as the latter is1 to the          
mischievous whims of a villain4  ,yet he
 cries out against ,ophelia1 ',we are   
arrant knaves all2 believe none of us6' 

,he reproaches this daughter of ,eve    
with her own weaknesses and the great   
number of her sins in words reminding us
 of ,isaiah1 #ad where the wantonness of
 the daughters of ,zion is reproved4    
,he1 the ascetic1 calls out to his      
mistress3 ',go thy ways to a nunnery6444
 ,why wouldst thou be a breeder of      
sinners8'  ,let us hear what his        
mistress says about him4 ,this passage  
also1 explaining ,hamlet's madness1 is  
new3--    ,now see that noble and most  
sovereign reason1   ,like sweet bells   
jangled1 out of tune and harsh2   ,that 
unmatched form and feature of blown     
youth1   ,blasted with ecstasy4 #ae     
,with what other word can ,hamlet's     
passionate utterances be designated than
 that of religious ecstasy8  ,from the  
first moment when he sees ,ophelia1 and 
prays her to remember his sins in her   
'orisons1' down to the last moment when 
he leaves her1 bidding her to go to a   
nunnery1 there is method in his         
madness--the method of those dogmas     

which brand nature and humanity as      
sinful1 whose impulses they do not      
endeavour to lead to higher aims1 but   
which1 by certain mysteries and         
formulas1 they pretend to be able to    
overcome4 ,the soul-struggle of ,hamlet 
arises from his divided mind2 an inner  
voice of ,nature calling1 on the one    
hand3--    ,let not the royal bed of    
,denmark be   ,a couch for luxury and   
damned incest2  whilst another voice    
calls out that1 howsoever he pursues his
 act1 he should not 'taint his mind4'   
,in the ,english translation of the     
',hystorie of ,hamblet1' from which     
,shakspere took his subject1 the art of 
dissembling is extolled1 in most naive  
language1 as one specially useful       
towards great personages not easily     
accessible to revenge4 ,he who would    
exercise the arts of dissembling 7it is 
said there7 must be able to 'kisse his  
hand whome in hearte hee could wishe an 
hundredfoot depth under the earth1 so   
hee mighte never see him more1 if it    

were not a thing wholly to bee disliked 
in a ,christian1 who by no meanes ought 
to have a bitter gall1 or desires       
infected with revenge4'  ,we shall find 
later on that ,hamlet's gall also claims
 its rights2 all the more so as he      
endeavours1 by an unnatural and         
superstitious use of dogmatism1 to      
suppress and to drive away the          
'excitements of the reason and of the   
blood4' ,we have heard from ,polonius   
that the ,prince1 after his 'sadness1'  
fell into a 'fast4' ,and everything he  
says to his schoolfellows ,rosencrantz  
and ,guildenstern #af about his frame of
 mind1 confirms us in the belief that he
 has remained faithful to the intention 
declared in the first act--',look you1  
,i will go pray'--so as to prepare      
himself1 like many others1 to           
contemplate passively a world sinful    
from its very nature1 and therefore not 
to be changed and bettered4  ,this scene
 is1 in the first quarto1 a mere hasty  
sketch1 but faintly indicated4 ,in the  

second quarto it is1 so to say1 a new   
one2 and a comparison between the two   
need1 therefore1 not be instituted4     
,before his friends ,rosencrantz and    
,guildenstern1 ,hamlet1 for a few       
moments1 gives up his brain-racking     
thoughts of penitence2 he even          
endeavours to philosophise1 as he may   
have done at the ,university of         
,wittenberg before he allowed himself to
 be lured into dreamland4 ,he utters a  
thought--',there is nothing either good 
or bad1 but thinking makes it so'--which
 occurs in an ,essay of ,montaigne1 and 
is thus given by ,florio 7#abg73--  ',if
 that what we call evil and torment be  
neither torment nor evil1 but that our  
fancy only gives it that quality1 is it 
in us to change it8' #ag  ,hamlet then  
pictures his mental condition in words  
of deepest sincerity4 ,in order to fully
 understand this description1 we have   
once more to refer to an ,essay of      
,montaigne1 #ah in which he asserts that
 man is not furthered by his reason1 his

 speculations1 his passions2 that they  
give him no advantage over other        
creatures4 ,a divinely appointed        
authority--the ,church--confers upon him
 'those great advantages and odds he    
supposes to have over other creatures4' 
,it is she that seals to him the patent 
and privilege which authorises him to   
'keep account both of the receipts and  
layings-out of the world4' ,ay1 it is   
she who convinces him that 'this        
admirable swinging-round of the heavenly
 vaults1 the eternal light of those     
constellations rolling so nobly over our
 heads1 the terrible commotions of this 
infinite ocean1 were established1 and   
have continued for so many ages1 for his
 advantage and his service4' ,to her    
authority he must wholly surrender      
himself2 by her he must allow himself to
 be guided4 ,and in doing so1 it is     
'better for us to have a weak judgment  
than a strong one2 better to be smitten 
with blindness than to have one's eyes  
open and clear-sighted4'  ,striving to  

live up to similar views1 ,hamlet 'lost 
all his mirth4' ,this is the cause of   
his heavy disposition2 of his having    
'foregone all custom of exercise'--so   
'that this goodly frame1 the earth1'    
seems to him 'a sterile promontory1' a  
mere place of preparation for gaining   
the next world through penance and      
prayer4 ,verily1 'this brave o'erhanging
 firmament1 this majestical roof fretted
 with golden fire1' appears to him no   
better 'than a foul and pestilent       
congregation of vapours4' ,quite in     
accordance with such tenets which we    
need not qualify by name1 ,man1 to him1 
is but a 'quintessence of dust4'  ,both 
man1 and still more sinful woman1       
displease ,hamlet4 ,yet he has not      
succeeded in so wholly subjugating      
,nature within himself as to be fully   
secured against her importunate claims4 
,now we would point out here that       
,montaigne #ai mentions a tyrant of     
antiquity who 'could not bear seeing    
tragedies acted in the theatre1 from    

fear that his subjects should see him   
sob at the misfortunes of ,hecuba and   
,andromache--him who1 without pity1     
caused daily so many people to be       
cruelly killed4' ,again1 ,montaigne #bj 
speaks of actors1 mentioned by          
,quinctilian1 who were 'so deeply       
engaged in a sorrowful part that they   
wept even after having returned to their
 lodgings2' whilst ,quinctilian reports 
of himself that1 'having undertaken to  
move a certain passion in others1 he had
 entered so far into his part as to find
 himself surprised1 not only with the   
shedding of tears1 but also with a      
paleness of countenance and the         
behaviour of a man truly weighed down   
with grief4'  ,hamlet has listened to   
the player4 ,in the concluding monologue
 of the second act--which is twice as   
long in the new quarto--we are told of  
the effect produced upon his mind when  
seeing that an actor1 who merely holds a
 mirror up to ,nature--    444 but in a 
fiction1 in a dream of passion1   ,could

 force his soul so to his own conceit   
,that from her working all his visage   
wann'd4444   444 ,and all for           
nothing6--,for ,hecuba8  whilst he      
7,hamlet71 'a dull and muddy-mettled    
rascal1' #ba like ,john-a-dreams1 in    
spite of his strong 'motive and the cue 
for passion1' mistrusts them and is     
afraid of being guided by them4  ,all at
 once1 ,hamlet feels the weight and     
pressure of a mode of thought which     
declares war against the impulses of    
,nature1 calling man a born sinner4     
,who calls me villain8 444   444 ,gives 
me the lie i' the throat1   ,as deep as 
to the lungs8 ,who does me this8   ,ha6 
',s wounds1#a ,i should take it3 for it 
cannot be4   ,but ,i am pigeon-liver'd1 
and lack gall   ,to make oppression     
bitter2 or ere this   ,i should have    
fatted all the region kites   ,with this
 slave's offal4 #bb  ,the feelings of   
,hamlet1 until then forcibly kept down1 
now get the mastery over him4 ,he gives 
vent to them in oaths of which he is    

himself at last ashamed1 when he        
compares himself to 'a very drab1 a     
scullion1' who 'must fall a-cursing4'   
,he now will set to work and get more   
natural evidence of the ,king's guilt4  
,he begins to entertain doubts as to    
those mystic views by which he meant to 
be guided4 ,he mistrusts the apparition 
which he had called an honest ghost     
7'true-penny'73--    ,the spirit that ,i
 have seen   ,may be the ,devil3 and the
 ,devil hath power   ,to assume a       
pleasing shape4 ,yea1 perhaps   ,out of 
my weakness and my melancholy1   ,as he 
is very potent with such spirits1       
,abuses me to damn me3 ,i'll have       
grounds   ,more relative than this4 #bc 
,over weakness the ,devil is potent2 all
 flesh is weak4 ,what mode of thought is
 this8 ,what philosophy taught this     
doctrine8 ,hamlet's weakness1 if we may 
believe ,polonius1 #bd has been brought 
on by fasting and watching4  ,over      
melancholy1 too1 the ,devil is powerful4
 ,are we not here in the sombre         

atmosphere of those who turn away their 
reason from ideal aspirations2 who      
denounce the impulses of nature as      
sinful excitements2 who would fain look 
upon the earth as 'a sterile            
promontory'--having dark death more     
before their mind's eye than beautiful  
life8 ,are such thoughts not the        
forerunners of melancholy8  ,hamlet's   
incessant thoughts of death are the same
 as those of his model1 ,montaigne4 ,in 
an ,essay1 #be entitled ',that to       
,philosophise is to ,learn how to ,die1'
 the latter explains that the ,christian
 religion has no surer basis than the   
contempt for the present life1 and that 
we are in this world only to prepare    
ourselves for death4 ,his imagination1  
he says1 has occupied itself with these 
thoughts of death more than with        
anything else4 ,referring to a saying of
 ,lykurgos1 he approves of graveyards   
being laid out close to churches and in 
the most frequented places of a city1 so
 as to accustom the common people1      

women1 and children not to be scared at 
the sight of a dead person1 and to      
forewarn everyone1 by this continual    
spectacle of bones1 tombs1 and funerals1
 as to our real condition4  ,montaigne  
also1 like ,hamlet1 ponders over        
suicide4 ,he devotes a whole ,essay #bf 
to it4 ,life1 he observes1 would be a   
tyranny if the liberty to die were      
wanting4 ,for this liberty1 he thinks1  
we have to thank ,nature1 as for the    
most favourable gift which1 indeed1     
deprives us of all right to complain of 
our condition4 ,if--as ,boiocal1 the    
,german chieftain1 #bg said--earth is   
wanting to us whereon to live1 earth is 
never wanting to us for death4 #bh      
,that is the wisdom of ,montaigne1 the  
admirer of antiquity4 ,but ,montaigne1  
the modern man1 introduces the ,essay in
 which he dares to utter such bold      
thoughts with the following             
restriction3--  ',if1 as it is said1 to 
philosophise be to doubt1 with much more
 reason to play pranks 7niaiser7 and to 

rave1 as ,i do1 must be to doubt4 ,for1 
to inquire and to discuss1 behoves the  
disciples4 ,the decision belongs to the 
chairman 7cathdrant74 ,my chairman is   
the authority of the divine will which  
regulates us without contradiction1 and 
which occupies its rank above those     
human and vain disputes4' ,this         
chairman1 as often observed1 by which   
,montaigne's thoughts are to be guided1 
is an ecclesiastic authority4  ,in      
',hamlet1' also1 it is a 'canon' #bi    
fixed against self-slaughter1 which     
restrains him from leaving1 out of his  
own impulse1 this whilom paradise1 this 
'unweeded garden' of life4  ,montaigne1 
whose philosophy aims at making us      
conversant with death as with a friend1 
is yet terrified by it4 ,altogether1 he 
says1 he would fain pass his life at his
 ease2 and if he could escape from      
blows1 even by taking refuge under a    
calf's skin1 #cj he would not be the man
 who would shrink from it4  ,in a few   
graphic words ,shakspere brands this    

cowardly clinging to life4 ,in the scene
 where ,hamlet gives to ,polonius       
nothing more willingly than his leave1  
the new quarto 7in every other respect  
the conclusion of this scene is         
identical in both editions7 contains    
these additional words3--',except my    
life1 except my life1 except my life4'  
,of the 'calf's skin' we hear in the    
first scene of act v41 where those are  
called sheep and calves1 who seek out   
assurance in parchments which are made  
of sheep-skins and of calves-skins too4 
,montaigne1 who does not cease pondering
 over the pale fellow1 ,death1 looks for
 consolation from the ancients4 ,he     
takes ,sokrates as the model of all     
great qualities2 and he reproduces1 in  
his own manner1 the speech this sage1   
who was fearless of death1 made before  
his judges4 ,first of all1 he makes him 
say that the qualities of death are     
unknown to him1 as he has never seen    
anybody who could instruct him in them4 
',those who fear death1 presuppose that 

they know it4444 ,perhaps death may be  
an indifferent thing2 perhaps a         
desirable one4 ,however1 one may believe
 that1 if it be a transmigration from   
one place to another1 it will be an     
amelioration 444 and free us from having
 any more to do with wicked and corrupt 
judges4 ,if it be a consummation        
7anantissement7 #ca of our being1 it is 
also an amelioration to enter into a    
long and quiet night4 ,we find nothing  
so sweet in life as a quiet rest--a     
tranquil and profound sleep without     
dreams4'  ,now compare the monologue1   
',to be or not to be1' of the first     
quarto with the one contained in the    
second4 ,it will then be seen that those
 ,sokratic ideas1 rendered by ,montaigne
 in his own manner1 have been worked    
into the first quarto4 ,in the latter we
 hear nothing at all about the end of   
our being 7a complete destruction or    
consummation7 producing an amelioration4
 #cb ,shakspere expresses this thought  
by the words that if we could say that1 

by a sleep1 we 'end the heartache and   
the thousand natural shocks that flesh  
is heir to--'tis a consummation devoutly
 to be wished4' #cc  ,keen commentators 
have pointed out the contradiction in   
,hamlet's monologue1 where he speaks    
of--    ,the undiscovered country from  
whose bourn   ,no traveller returns1    
whilst he saw such a traveller in his   
father's ghost4 ,certainly there were   
then1 even as there are now1 besides the
 logical thinkers1 also a considerable  
number of inconsistent persons who      
believed in supernaturally revealed     
messages1 and who1 nevertheless1 now and
 then1 felt contradictory thoughts      
rising within themselves4 ,why should   
the great master1 who exhausted in his  
dramatic personages almost all types of 
human nature1 not have put such a       
character also on the stage8  ,to the   
poet1 whose object it was to show 'to   
the very age and body of time his form  
and pressure' 7this passage is wanting  
in the first quarto71 the presentation  

of such a psychological problem of      
contradictory thoughts must have been of
 far greater attraction than an         
anticipatory description of a           
metaphysician aching under the heavy    
burden of his philosophic speculations4 
,the latter is the character attributed1
 by some1 to ,hamlet4 ,but we think that
 such an utterly strange modern creature
 would have been altogether             
incomprehensible to the energetic       
,english mind of this period4  ,in the  
course of the drama1 ,shakspere makes it
 sufficiently clear that the thoughts by
 which ,hamlet's 'native hue of         
resolution is sicklied o'er1' have come 
from the narrow cells of a superstitious
 ,christianity1 not from the free use of
 his reason4 ,according to ,montaigne1  
however1 we ought to 'use our reason    
only for strengthening our belief4'     
,hamlet1 with ,purgatory and ,hell1 into
 which he has cast a glance1 before his 
eyes1 would fain fly1 like ,montaigne1  
from them4 ,in his ,essay ,i4 #ai #cd   

the latter says that our soul must be   
steeled against the powers of death2    
'for1 as long as ,death frightens us1   
how is it possible to make a single step
 without feverish agitation8'  ,hamlet  
as little attains this condition of     
quiet equanimity as the pensive and     
pondering ,montaigne4 ,the latter1      
however1 speaks of souls that know no   
fear4 ,it is true1 he has to go to the  
ancients in order to meet with this     
frame of mind4 ,quoting ,horace #ce--   
,non vultus instantis tyranni   ,mente  
quatit solida1 neque ,auster1   ,dux    
inquieti turbidus ,adriae1   ,nec       
fulminantis magna ,jovis manus--  he    
describes such a soul as being made     
'mistress over her passions and         
concupiscence2 having become proof      
against poverty and disgrace1 and all   
the other injuries of fortune4 ,let     
those who can1 gain this advantage4     
,herein lies true and sovereign freedom 
that allows us to scorn force and       
injustice1 and to deride prisons and    

fetters4'  ,to a friend with such a     
soul1 to a living ,horace or ,horatio1  
,hamlet addresses himself4 ,horatio also
 is his fellow-student and friend from  
the ,university days at ,wittenberg1 and
 he has made the views of the new       
philosophical school quite his own4 ,he 
does not tremble before the fire of     
,purgatory and ,hell4 ,despising death1 
he wishes1 in the last scene1 to empty  
the cup of poison from which his friend 
,hamlet has drunk1 in order to follow   
him4 ,when the latter keeps him back1   
,horatio makes answer--    ,i am more an
 antique ,roman than a ,dane4  ,hamlet1 
trusting more to this firmer and truly  
antique character than to his own1      
requests ,horatio to aid him during the 
play-scene in watching the ,king1 so as 
to procure more natural evidence of his 
guilt4 ,this school-friend--how often   
may he have philosophised with him6--is 
to him    as just a man   ,as e'er my   
conversation coped withal4  ,the        
following passage1 #cf in which         

,horatio's character is described by    
,hamlet1 is wanting in the first        
quarto3--    ,since my dear soul was    
mistress of her choice1   ,and could of 
men distinguish1 her election   ,hath   
seal'd thee for herself2 for thou hast  
been   ,as one1 in suffering all1 that  
suffers nothing2   ,a man that fortune's
 buffets and rewards   ,hath ta'en with 
equal thanks3 and blest are those       
,whose blood and judgment are so well   
commingled   ,that they are not a pipe  
for ,fortune's finger   ,to sound what  
stop she please4 ,give me that man      
,that is not passion's slave1 and ,i    
will wear him   ,in my heart's core1 ay1
 in my heart of heart1   ,as ,i do thee4
  ,how near these words of ,shakspere   
come to those with which ,montaigne     
describes an intrepid man after the poem
 of ,horace6  ,but1 in spite of subtle  
reasoning1 the ,french philosopher      
cannot fathom the cause why he himself  
does not attain any mind's ease1 and why
 he has no plain and straightforward    

faculty 7nulle facult simple7 within    
himself4 ,he once #cg uses the          
expression1 ',we trouble death with the 
care of life1 and life with the care of 
death2' but he does not succeed in      
firmly attaching himself to life with   
all the fibres of his nature1 and       
gathering strength from the             
mother-earth1 like ,antaeus4 ,he        
oscillates between two antagonistic     
views1 and feels unable to decide for   
either the one or the other4  ,we have  
explained the elements of which         
,hamlet's complex character is made up4 
,he is an adherent of old superstitions 
and dogmas2 he believes in ,purgatory1 a
 ,hell1 and a ,devil1 and in the        
miraculous powers of confession1 holy   
communion1 and the extreme unction4     
,yet1 to some degree1 he is a ,humanist1
 and would fain grant to ,nature certain
 rights4 ,scarcely has he yielded to the
 impulses of his blood1 than doubts     
begin to rise in him1 and he begins to  
fear the ,devil1 who might lure him into

 perdition4 ,this inner discord1        
creating1 as it does1 a mistrust in his 
own self1 induces him1 in the most      
important task of his life1 to appeal to
 ,horatio4 ,to him he says that1 if the 
,king's occulted guilt does not come out
 7'unkennel itself'71 he 7,hamlet7 will 
look upon the apparition as a damned    
ghost1 and 7this is new7 will think that
 his 'imaginations are as foul as       
,vulcan's stithy4' #ch  ,by the         
interlude1 ,hamlet--and in this he is   
confirmed by ,horatio--becomes convinced
 of the ,king's guilt4 ,all that he     
thereupon does is--to recite a little   
ditty6  ,we have already made the       
acquaintance of ,montaigne the          
soft-hearted1 who1 as above mentioned1  
always was touched when seeing innocent 
animals hunted to death1 and who felt   
much emotion at the tears of the hart   
asking us for mercy4 ,at the same time  
we have directed the reader's attention 
to the fact of his having said that the 
'common weal requires some to betray1   

some to lie1 and some to massacre1' #ci 
and that this task must be left to those
 who are ready to sacrifice their honour
 and their conscience1 and that men who 
do not feel up to such deeds must leave 
their commission to the stronger ones4  
,this ,french nobleman navely avows that
 he has resolved upon withdrawing into  
private life1 not because he is averse  
to public life--for the latter1 he says1
 would 'perhaps equally suit him'--but  
because1 by doing so1 he hopes to serve 
his ,prince all the more joyfully and   
all the more sincerely1 thus following  
the free choice of his own judgment and 
reason1 and not submitting to any       
restraint 7obligation particulire71     
which he hates in every shape4 ,and he  
adds the following curious moral        
doctrine3--',this is the way of the     
world4 ,we let the laws and precepts    
follow their way1 but we keep another   
course4' #dj  ,who could mistake        
,shakspere's satire against this        
sentimental nobleman1 who fights shy of 

action1 in making ,hamlet recite a      
little ditty at a moment when he has    
become convinced of the ,king's guilt3--
    ,why1 let the stricken deer go weep1
   ,the hart ungalled play2   ,for some 
must watch1 while some must sleep3      
,thus runs the world away4  ,this gifted
 ,frenchman1 ,montaigne1 was a new1 a   
strange1 phenomenon in the eyes of      
,shakspere and his active and energetic 
countrymen4 ,a man1 a nobleman too1 who 
lives for no higher aim2 who allows     
himself to be driven about1 rudderless1 
by his feelings and inclinations2 who   
even boasts of this mental disposition  
of his1 and sends a vain book about it  
into the world6 ,what is it to teach8   
,what good is it to do8 ,it gives mere  
words1 behind which there is no manly   
character4 ,are there yet more beaux    
esprits to arise who1 in ,epicurean     
fashion1 enjoy the beautiful thoughts of
 others1 whilst they themselves remain  
incapable for action1 letting the time  
go out of joint8  ,let us further study 

the character of ,hamlet1 and we shall  
find that the satire against ,montaigne 
becomes more and more striking--a       
veritable hit4  ,the ,queen asks for her
 son4 ,before he fulfils her wish and   
comes to her1 he utters a lullaby of    
superstition 7these lines are new71     
wherewith to tide over the excitement of
 his nature3--    ',tis now the very    
witching time of night1   ,when         
churchyards yawn and hell itself        
breathes out   ,contagion to this world3
 now could ,i drink hot blood1   ,and do
 such bitter business as the day        
,would quake to look on4  ,hamlet1      
always shrinking back from the impulses 
of his blood1 fears that the ,devil     
might once more gain power over him3--  
,soft6 now to my mother6   ,o heart1    
lose not thy nature6  ,this nature of   
his1 inclining to mildness and          
gentleness1 he wishes to preserve1 and  
he resolves upon being 'cruel1 not      
unnatural4' ,in vain one seeks here for 
logic1 and for the boundary between two 

words which to ordinary common sense    
appear synonymous4 ,in ,montaigne1      
however1 we discover the clue of such a 
senseless argumentation4 ,in one of his 
,essays1 #da which contains a confusion 
of ideas that might well make the humane
 ,shakspere shudder1 he writes3--  ',our
 condition1 both public and private1 is 
full of imperfections2 yet there is     
nothing useless in ,nature1 not even    
uselessness itself4444 ,our being is    
cemented with sickly qualities3         
ambition1 jealousy1 envy1 vengeance1    
superstition1 despair dwell in us1 and  
hold there so natural a possession that 
their counterfeit is also recognised in 
beasts2 for instance1 cruelty--so       
unnatural a vice4 ,yet he who would root
 out the seed of these qualities from   
the human breast would destroy the      
fundamental conditions of our life4'    
,now1 ,hamlet's resolution to be 'cruel1
 but not unnatural1' is but a fresh     
satire against ,montaigne's train of    
thoughts1 who would fain be a ,humanist1

 but who does not break with the        
reasoning of ,loyola and of the ,church1
 by which he permits himself to be      
guided as by the competent authority1   
and which tolerates cruelty--nay1 orders
 its being employed for the furtherance 
of what it calls the 'good aim4'  ,the  
idea that cruelty is a necessary but    
useful evil1 no doubt induced ,montaigne
 #db to declare that to kill a man from 
a feeling of revenge is tantamount to   
our protecting him1 for we thus         
'withdraw him from our attacks4'        
,furthermore1 this ,humanist argues that
 revenge is to be regretted if its      
object does not feel its intention2 for1
 even as he who takes revenge intends to
 derive pleasure from it1 so he upon    
whom revenge is taken must perceive that
 intention1 in order to be harrowed with
 feelings of pain and repentance4 ',to  
kill him1 is to render further attacks  
against him impossible2 not to revenge  
what he has done4'  ,shakspere already  
gives ,hamlet an opportunity in the     

following scene to prove to us that     
there is no boundary between cruel and  
unnatural conduct2 and that one cannot  
be cruel and yet remain natural4 ,in the
 most telling words1 the cause of       
,hamlet's want of energy is             
substantiated4 ,fate gives the criminal1
 the ,king1 into the hands of ,hamlet4  
,it is the most important moment of the 
drama4 ,a stroke of the sword would be  
enough to do the deed of revenge4 ,the  
cause which makes ,hamlet hesitate is1  
that the criminal is engaged in prayer1 
and that--      ,he took my father      
grossly1 full of bread1     ,with all   
his crimes broad-blown1 as flush as     
,may2     ,and how his audit stands1 who
 knows save ,heaven8  ,does ,hamlet1    
then1 not act with refined cruelty8     
,here1 a new thought is inserted1 which 
we mentioned already in the beginning1  
and which turns the balance at the      
decisive moment3--      ,but in our     
circumstance and course of thought      
,it is heavy with him4 #dc  ,a          

,shaksperean hero1 with drawn sword1    
allows himself to be restrained from    
action by the thought that1 because 'it 
is heavy' with his own murdered father1 
who is suffering in ,purgatory1 he      
7,hamlet7 ought not to kill the criminal
 now1 but later on1 when the latter is  
deeply wading in sin--    ,when he is   
drunk asleep1 or in his rage1 444   ,and
 that his soul may be as damn'd and     
black   ,as ,hell1 whereto it goes4     
,hamlet has been called a philosopher   
whose energy has been paralysed by too  
great a range of thought4 ,for the      
sovereignty of human reason this is a   
most dangerous premiss4 ,do we not owe  
to the full and free use of that reason 
everything great which mankind has      
created8 ,history speaks of a thousand  
heroes 7only think of ,alexander1 of    
,julius ,caesar1 of ,frederick the      
,great67 whose doings convince us that a
 strong power of thought and action can 
go hand in hand1 nay1 that the latter   
cannot be successful without the former4

  ,but1 on the other hand1 there is a   
way of thinking with preconceived       
supernatural conclusions--or rather1 we 
must call it an absence of              
thinking--when men allow themselves to  
be moved by the circumstances of a      
traditional course of thought4 ,against 
such intellectual slavery the great     
century of the ,reformation rose4 ,and  
the greatest ,humanist1 ,shakspere1     
scourges that slavery in the catharsis  
of his powerful drama4  ,questions of   
religion were not permitted to be       
treated on the stage4 ,but not merely   
the one deeply intelligent person for   
whom ,shakspere asks the players to act1
 and for whom the great master certainly
 endeavoured to write--no1 the public at
 large1 too1 will have understood that  
the 'course of thought' which induced   
,hamlet to forego action from a subtle  
refinement of cruelty1 was not the      
course of thought prevalent on this side
 of the ,channel1 and held up1 in this  
important scene1 as that of a hero to be

 admired4  ,hamlet resolved upon keeping
 out the soul of ,nero from his 'firm   
bosom4' 7,what a satire there is in this
 adjective 'firm'67 ,he means to be     
cruel1 but not unnatural2 he will 'speak
 daggers1 but use none4' ,a man who lets
 himself be moved by extraneous         
circumstances is not his own master4 ,in
 cruel1 unnatural manner1 for no object 
whatever1 he murders poor ,polonius4    
,then he begins to speak daggers in such
 a manner as to get into a perfect      
ecstasy4 ,nor need any priest have been 
ashamed of the sermon he preaches to his
 own mother4  ,in the first edition of  
',hamlet1' the scene between mother and 
son is rather like a sketch in which    
most things are merely indicated1 not   
worked out4 ,only the part of the       
,ghost1 with the exception of the       
line3--    ,conceit in weakest bodies   
strongest works1  which is wanting in   
the first edition1 and  ,hamlet's       
address to the ,ghost1 are in both      
quartos the same4 ,even as in the first 

act1 so this time also1 ,hamlet1 on     
seeing the ,ghost1 calls upon the       
saints3--    ,save me1 and hover o'er me
 with your wings1   ,you heavenly       
guards6  ,this was the usual course on  
the occasion of such doubtful           
apparitions1 of which one did not know  
whether they were 'airs of heaven' or   
'blasts from hell4'  ,a new             
intercalation is 7in the first quarto   
there is no vestige of it71 that ,hamlet
 reproaches his mother with having      
degraded 'sweet religion' to 'a rhapsody
 of words2' that he says 'the ,devil    
hath conquered her at hoodman blind 2'  
that she should confess herself to      
,heaven1 and 'assume a virtue if she    
have it not2' that 'virtue itself of    
vice must pardon beg in the fatness of  
these pursy times1 yea1 curb and woo1   
for leave to do him good4' ,so also is  
the ,queen's question new3--    ,ay me1 
what act1   ,that roars so loud1 and    
thunders in the index8 #dd  ,there is no
 trace1 in the first quarto1 of the     

following most characteristic           
thoughts3--    ,for1 use almost can     
change the stamp of ,nature #de   ,and  
either curb 787 the ,devil1 or throw him
 out   ,with wondrous potency4444   ,and
 when you are desirous to be blest1     
,i'll blessing beg of you4  ,let us     
figure to ourselves before what public  
,hamlet first saw the wanderer from     
,purgatory2 before what youth he bade   
,ophelia go to a nunnery2 before what   
men he remained inactive at the critical
 moment simply because the criminal is  
engaged in his prayers1 whilst his own  
murdered father died without ,holy      
,communion1 without having confessed and
 received the ,extreme ,unction4 ,let us
 remember before what audience he       
purposely made the thunders of the      
,index roar so loud2 at what place he   
gets into ecstasy2 and where he first   
preaches to his mother that the ,devil  
may be mastered and thrown out4  ,here1 
certainly1 we have questions of         
religion6  ,shakspere's genius has known

 how to transport these most important  
questions of his time1 away from the    
shrill contact with contemporary        
disputes1 into the harmonious domain of 
the ,muses4 ,he1 and his friends and    
patrons1 did not look upon the subjects 
discussed in this tragedy with the      
passionless1 indifferent eyes of our    
century4 ,many men1 no doubt1 were      
filled with the thought1 to which ,bacon
 soon gave a scientific form1 that the  
human mind can only make true progress  
if it turns towards the inquiry into    
,nature1 keeping far away from the      
hampering influence of transcendental   
dogmas4 ,the liberal1 intellectual      
tendencies of the ,reformation were not 
yet fettered in ,england with the new   
dogmatic strait waistcoat of a          
narrow-minded1 melancholy sect4 ,and    
,shakspere's views1 which he has        
embodied in ',hamlet1' were not in      
divinatory advance of his age2 they were
 easily comprehensible to the best of   
his time4  ,our chief argument will be  

contained in the chapter in which we    
shall hear ,shakspere's adversaries     
launch out furiously against the        
tendency of this drama4 ,meanwhile1 we  
will exhaust the course of its action4  
,hamlet has already come very near to   
that point of view where ,reason at last
 ceases to guide his conduct1 and where 
he becomes convinced that indiscretion  
often is of better service than deep    
planning4  ,now in ,montaigne's ,essay  
#df already mentioned we read3--',when  
an urgent circumstance1 or any violent  
or unexpected accident of ,state        
necessity1 induces a ,prince to break   
his word and faith1 or otherwise forces 
him out of his ordinary duty1 he is to  
ascribe that compulsion to a lash of    
,god's rod4'  ,the passage in which     
,hamlet consoles himself in regard to   
the murder committed against ,polonius  
is new3--    ,i do repent3 but heaven   
hath pleased it so1   ,to punish me with
 this1 and this with me1   ,that ,i must
 be their scourge and minister4         

,hamlet1 beholding the victim of his    
indiscretion1 excuses himself thus3--   
,i must be cruel1 only to be kind4  ,the
 cruel deed he has done1 he palliates   
with the remark that lovingkindness has 
forced him to it4 ,love of her ,god also
 forced ,catherine of ,medicis to the   
massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew4    ,thus 
bad begins1 and worse remains behind4   
,yes2 worse is coming6 ,hamlet knows    
that he is to be sent to ,england2 that 
the letters are sealed2 that his two    
schoolfellows whom he trusts as he will 
adders1 bear the mandate4 ,what does he 
do to prevent further misfortune8  ,he  
rejoices that--    they must sweep my   
way1   ,and marshall me to knavery4 #dg 
,he enjoys1 in advance1 the sweet       
presentiment of revenge which he intends
 taking upon them4 ,he lets things go   
without hindrance3--    ,let it work6   
,for 'tis sport to have the engineer    
,hoist with his own petard4  ,he enjoys 
his own crafty policy which shall blow  
his school-friends1 ,rosencrantz and    

,guildenstern 7who yet1 so far as he    
knows1 have not been guilty in any way  
towards him67 'at the moon3'--    ,o1   
'tis most sweet   ,when in one line two 
crafts directly meet4  ,because ,hamlet 
gives utterance to high-sounding        
thoughts1 to sentimental dreams1 and    
melancholy subtleties1 it has been      
assumed that his character is one       
nourished with the poet's own heart's   
blood4 ,a thousand times the noble      
sentiment of duty has been dwelt upon1  
which it is alleged he is inspired with2
 and on account of his fine words he has
 been more taken a fancy to than any    
other ,shaksperian figure4 ,but that was
 not the poet's object4 ,great deeds    
were more to him than the finest words4 
,his contemporaries understood him2 for 
,montaigne--as we shall prove--was given
 over to the lowest scorn of the age    
through ',hamlet1' because the whole    
reasoning of ,hamlet not only was a     
fruitless1 but a pernicious one4  ,in   
the fourth scene of the fourth act1 the 

poet describes the frame of mind of the 
hero before he steps on board ship4     
',excitements of his reason and his     
blood' once more call him to revenge4   
,this monologue1 in which ,hamlet gives 
expression to his feelings and thoughts1
 is only in the quarto of #afjd4 ,the   
folio of #afbc does not contain it4     
,shakspere1 in later years1 may have    
thought that the soul-struggle of his   
hero had been ended2 and so he may have 
regarded the passage as a superfluous   
one1 in which ,hamlet's better self once
 more asks him to seize the reins of    
destiny with his own hands4  ,he sees   
how young ,fortinbras1 the delicate and 
tender prince1 'puff'd with divine      
ambition1 mouthes the invisible event   
for a piece of land not large enough to 
hide the slain4' ,hamlet philosophises  
that the man who uses not his god-like  
reason is but a beast2 for--    --,he   
that made us with such large discourse  
,looking before and after1 gave us not  
,that capability and god-like reason1   

,to fust in us unused4  ,we further hear
 how ,hamlet reasons about the question 
as to how 'to be rightly great4' ,all   
the thoughts he produces1 seem to flow  
from the pen of the ,french philosopher4
 ,in ,essay ,,iii4 7#ac7 of ,montaigne  
we read the beautiful words that 'the   
noblest master-work of man is to live   
for a purpose 7yivre d fropos71'        
and3--',the greatness of the soul does  
not consist so much in drawing upwards1 
and haling forwards1 than in knowing how
 to range and to circumscribe itself4   
,it holds everything to be great1 which 
is sufficient in itself4 ,it shows its  
superiority in more loving humble things
 than eminent ones4'  ,to the majesty of
 the human reason also1 ,montaigne1 in  
spite of his so often condemning it1    
knows how to render justice4 ,in ,essay 
,i4 7#dj7 he remarks3 ',shall we then   
dare to say that this advantage of      
reason at which we rejoice so very much1
 and out of respect for which we hold   
ourselves to be lords and emperors of   

all other creatures1 has been put into  
us for our torment8 ,why strive for the 
knowledge of things if we become more   
cowardly thereby8 if we lose1 through   
it1 the rest and the tranquillity in    
which we should be without it8 444      
,shall we use the intellect that has    
been given to us for our greatest good1 
to effect our ruin2 combating the       
designs of ,nature and the general order
 of things which implies that everyone  
should use his tools and means for his  
own convenience8'  ,noble thoughts6 ,but
 it is not enough to play an aesthetic  
game with them4 ,the energetic ,english 
genius wishes that they should regulate 
our life2 that we should act in         
accordance with them1 so that no tragic 
complication should form itself1 which  
could only be solved by the ruin and    
death of the innocent together with the 
guilty4 ,the monologue concludes thus3--
      ,o1 from this time forth1     ,my 
thoughts be bloody1 or be nothing worth6
  ,nevertheless1 ,hamlet continues his  

voyage4  ,the reader will remember that 
,montaigne spoke of an instinctive      
impulse of the will--a daimon--by which 
he often1 and to his final advantage1   
had allowed himself to be guided1 so    
much so that such strong impulses might 
be attributed to divine inspiration4 ,a 
daimon of this kind1 under whose        
influence ,hamlet acts1 is described in 
the second scene of the fifth act4 ,the 
passage is wanting in the first quarto4 
#dh ,hamlet tells ,horatio how he lay in
 the ship1 and how in his heart there   
was a kind of fighting which would not  
let him sleep4 ,this harassing          
condition1 the result of his unmanly    
indecision1 he depicts in these words3--
  ,methought ,i lay ,worse than the     
mutines in the bilboes4  ,then all at   
once 7how could an impulsive manner of  
action be better described871 before he 
could 'make a prologue to his brains1'  
,hamlet lets himself be overcome by such
 a daimonic influence4 ,he breaks open  
the grand commission of others1 forges a

 seal with a signet in his possession1  
becomes a murderer of two innocent men1 
and draws the evil conclusion           
therefrom3--  ,let us know1 ,our        
indiscretion sometimes serves us well1  
,when our deep plots do pall2 and that  
should learn us1 ,there's a divinity    
that shapes our ends1 ,rough-hew them   
how we will4  ,this view we have already
 quoted from ,essay ,,iii4 7#ab74 ,in   
,florio's translation                   
7#fcb73--',therefore do our dessigns so 
often miscarry4444 ,the heavens are     
angry1 and ,i may say envious of the    
extension and large privilege we ascribe
 to human wisdome1 to the prejudice of  
theirs3 and abridge them so more unto   
us1 by so much more we endeavour to     
amplifie them4'  ,hamlet takes the      
twofold murder committed against        
,rosencrantz and ,guildenstern as little
 to heart as the 'indiscreet' deed by   
which ,polonius was killed4 ,then the   
consolation was sufficient for him that 
lovingkindness had forced him to be     

cruel4 ,this time1 his conscience is not
 touched1 because--    't is dangerous  
when the baser nature comes   ,between  
the pass and fell incensed points   ,of 
mighty opposites4  ,with such           
argumentation every tyranny may be      
palliated1 especially by those who1 like
 ,hamlet1 think that--    ,a man's life 
's no more than to say ',one4'  ,yet    
another peculiarity of ,montaigne's     
complex being is depicted by ,shakspere 
in the graveyard scene4 ,he shows us    
every side of this whimsical character  
who says of himself that he has no      
staying power for any standpoint1 but   
that he is driven about by incalculable 
emergencies4  ,let us read a passage in 
,essay ,,ii 7#ab71 and compare it with  
,hamlet's enigmatic conduct towards     
,laertes4 ,montaigne describes himself  
in these sentences3--',being of a soft  
and somewhat heavy temperament1 ,i have 
no great experience of those violent    
agitations which mostly come like a     
surprise upon our mind without allowing 

it leisure to collect itself4' ,in spite
 of the resistance--he further          
says--which he endeavoured to offer1    
even he1 however1 was occasionally thus 
seized4 ,he felt these agitations rising
 and growing in1 and becoming master    
over1 himself4 ,as in drunkenness1      
things then appeared to him otherwise   
than he usually saw them4 ',i manifestly
 saw the advantages of the object which 
,i sought after1 augmenting and growing2
 and ,i felt them becoming greater and  
swelling by the wind of my imagination4 
,i felt the difficulties of my          
enterprise becoming easier and simpler1 
my reasoning and my conscience drawing  
back4 ,but1 that fire being gone1 all of
 a sudden1 as with the flash of         
lightning1 my mind resumed another view1
 another condition1 another judgment4'  
,in this manner ,hamlet conducts himself
 towards ,laertes4 ,a great grief takes 
possession of him when he hears of the  
death of ,ophelia3 he leaps1 like       
,laertes1 into her grave2 he grapples   

with him2 he warns him that1 though 'not
 splenetive and rash1' he 7,hamlet7 yet 
has 'something dangerous' in him4 7,he  
means the daimon which so fatally       
impelled him against ,rosencrantz and   
,guildenstern47 ,hamlet and ,laertes    
wrestle1 but they are parted by the     
attendants4 ,hamlet begins boasting1 in 
high-flown language1 of what great      
things he would be able to do4  ,the    
,queen describes ,hamlet's rage in these
 words3--    ,and thus awhile the fit   
will work on him2   ,anon1 as patient as
 the female dove1   ,when that her      
golden couplets are disclosed1   ,his   
silence will sit drooping4 #di  ,in the 
meantime1 the fire with which ,hamlet's 
soul had been seized1 is gone1 like a   
flash of lightning4 ,he changes to      
another point of view--probably that one
 according to which everything goes its 
way in compliance with a heavenly       
decree4 ,the little verse he recites in 
parting3--  ,let ,hercules himself do   
what he may1 ,the cat will mew and dog  

will have his day1  quite corresponds to
 such a passive philosophy which has    
gained the mastery over him1 and to     
which he soon falls a victim4  ,we are  
approaching the conclusion of the great 
drama4 ,here1 again1 in order to explain
 ,hamlet's action1 or rather his        
yielding to influences around him1 we   
have to direct the attention of the     
reader to ,essay 7,,iii4 #aj71 in which 
,montaigne tells how easily he protects 
himself against the dangers of inward   
agitation by dropping the subject which 
threatens to become troublesome to him  
before he is drawn on and carried along 
by it4 ,the doughty nobleman says that  
he has escaped from many difficulties by
 not staking frivolously1 like others1  
happiness and honour1 life and          
everything1 on his 'rapier and his      
dagger4' #ej  ,there may be some truth  
in ,montaigne's charge that the cause of
 not a few struggles he has seen1 was   
often of truly pitiful origin1 and that 
such struggles were only carried on from

 a mistaken feeling of self-respect4 ,it
 may be true also that it is a bad      
habit--as he maintains--to proceed still
 further in affairs of this kind simply 
because one is implicated4 ,but how     
strange a confession of a nobleman from 
whom we at all times expect bravery3    
',for want of judgement our hearte fails
 us4' #ea  ,hamlet is engaged in such a 
struggle with ,laertes through the      
graveyard scene4 ,the ,king1 who has had
 good cause to study ,hamlet's character
 more deeply than anyone else1 reckons  
upon his vanity in order to decide him  
to the fencing-match4 ',rapier and      
dagger' are forced upon weak-willed     
,hamlet by ,osric4 #eb ,how subtle is   
this satire6 ,for appearance' sake1 in  
order to outshine ,laertes1 the ,prince 
accepts the challenge4 #ec ,happiness   
and life1 which he ought long ago to    
have risked for the purpose of avenging 
his father and his honour1 are now      
staked from sheer vanity4 ,the 'want of 
prudence' ,hamlet displays in accepting 

a challenge which he must 'carry out    
from a 7mistaken7 feeling of            
self-respect1' has the 'intolerable'    
consequence that1 shortly before he     
crosses swords with ,laertes1 he        
confesses to ,horatio3--',but thou      
would'st not think how ill all's here   
about my heart4'  ,again1 ,shakspere1   
very briefly1 but not less pointedly1   
depicts the way in which ,hamlet allows 
himself to be influenced and driven to a
 decision4 ,this time the poet does so  
by bringing in a clearly expressed      
dogmatic tenet whereby ,hamlet's fate is
 sealed4 ,it is 'ill all about his      
heart4' ,he would prefer not going to   
meet ,laertes4 #ed    ,horatio4 ,if your
 mind dislike anything1 obey it4 ,i will
   forestal their repair hither1 and say
 you are not fit4  ,the fatalist        
,hamlet1 whom we have seen coming ever  
closer to the doctrine of               
,predestination1 answers as follows3--  
',not a whit2 we defy augury2 there is  
special providence in   the fall of a   

sparrow4 #ee ,if it be now1 'tis not to 
come2   if it be not to come1 it will be
 now2 if it be not now1 yet   it will   
come2 the readiness is all4 ,since no   
man has aught   of what he leaves1 what 
is't to leave betimes8 ,let be4'  ,this 
time it is a ',let be6'--even as it was 
a ',let it go' when he was sent to      
,england4  ,now let us read ,montaigne's
 ,essay1 #ef ',to ,philosophise is to   
,learn how to ,die3'--  ',our religion  
has had no surer human foundation than  
the contempt of life4 ,not only does the
 course of our reason lead us that way2 
for1 why should we fear to lose a thing 
which1 when lost1 cannot be             
regretted8--but also1 seeing that we are
 threatened by so many kinds of death1  
is it not a greater inconvenience to    
fear them all than to endure one8 ,what 
does it matter when ,death comes1 since 
it is inevitable8444 ,moreover1 nobody  
dies before his hour4 ,the time you     
leave behind was no more yours than that
 which was before your birth1 and       

concerns you no more4'  ,no further     
comment is needed to prove that         
,hamlet's and ,montaigne's thoughts are 
in so close a connection that it cannot 
be a mere accident4 ,and the nearer we  
come to the conclusion of the drama1 the
 more striking become ,shakspere's      
satirical hits4  ,hamlet allows his hand
 to be put into that of ,laertes by the 
,king4 ,he does not think of the wrong  
he has done to ,laertes--of the murder  
of the latter's father1 or the          
unhappiness he has criminally brought   
upon ,laertes' sister4 ,in most cowardly
 manner1 hoping that ,laertes would     
desist from the combat1 ,hamlet         
endeavours to excuse his conduct at the 
grave of ,ophelia1 by pleading his own  
madness4 ,laertes insists on the combat2
 adding that he would stand aloof 'till 
by some elder masters of known honour'  
the decision were given4  ,hamlet       
avenges the death of his father2 he     
kills the criminal1 the enemy1 when his 
wrath is up and aflame1 and every muscle

 of his is swelled with indignation--but
 it is too late4 ,together with himself1
 he has dragged them all into the grave4
 ,it is blind passion1 unbridled by     
reason1 which does the deed3 a sublime  
satire upon the words of ,montaigne in  
,essay ,,ii4 7#ab71 'that the most      
beautiful actions of the soul proceed   
from1 and have need of1 this impulse of 
passion2 valour1 they say1 cannot become
 perfect without the help of wrath2 and 
that nobody pursues the wicked and the  
enemies with sufficient energy1 except  
he be thoroughly in anger4'  ,even the  
kind of death by which ,shakspere makes 
,hamlet lose his life1 looks like a     
satire against ,montaigne4 ,the latter1 
always a coward in regard to death1 and 
continually pondering over it1 says3    
#eg--';,i would rather have chosen to   
drink the potion of ,sokrates than wound
 myself as ,cato did4' ,their 'virtuous 
deeds' he calls #eh 'vain and fruitless 
ones1 because they were done from no    
love of1 or obedience to1 the true      

,creator of all things4'  ,hamlet dies  
wounded and poisoned1 as if ,shakspere  
had intended expressing his abhorrence  
of so vacillating and weak-willed a     
character1 who places the treacherous   
excesses of passion above the power of  
that human reason in whose free service 
alone ,greeks and ,romans did their most
 exalted deeds of virtue4 #ei  ,the     
subtlety of the best psychologists has  
endeavoured to fix the limits of        
,hamlet's madness1 and to find the      
proper name for it4 ,no agreement has   
been arrived at4 ,we think we have      
solved the problem as to the nature of  
,hamlet's madness1 and to have shown why
 thought and action1 in him1 cannot be  
brought into a satisfactory harmony4    
,every fibre in ,shakspere's artistic   
mind would have rebelled against the    
idea of making a lunatic the chief      
figure of his greatest drama4 ,he wished
 to warn his contemporaries that the    
attempt of reconciling two opposite     
circles of ideas--namely1 on the one    

hand1 the doctrine that we are to be    
guided by the laws of ,nature2 and on   
the other1 the yielding ourselves up to 
superstitious dogmas which declare human
 nature to be sinful--must inevitably   
produce deeds of madness4  ,the main    
traits of ,montaigne's character        
,shakspere confers upon the ,danish     
,prince1 and places him before a        
difficult task of life4 ,he is to avenge
 his father's death4 7,montaigne was    
attached to his father with all his     
soul1 and speaks of him almost in the   
same words as ,hamlet does of his own47 
,he is to preserve the ,state whose     
legitimate sovereign he is4 ,the        
materials for a satire are complete4    
,and it is written in such a manner as  
to remain the noblest1 the most sublime 
poetical production as long as men shall
 live4  ,the two circles of ideas which 
in the century of the ,reformation began
 a struggle that is not yet brought to  
an end1 are1 in that drama1 represented 
on the stage4 ,the poet shows1 by making

 the gifted ,prince perish1 on which    
side every serious thinker ought to     
place himself4 ,that these intentions of
 ,shakspere were understood by his more 
intelligent contemporaries and friends1 
we shall prove when we come to the camp 
of his adversaries1 at whose head a     
,roman ,catholic stood1 who launches out
 in very marked language against the    
derision of ,montaigne as contained in  
the character of ,hamlet4  ,the noblemen
 who went to the theatre for the sake of
 the intellectual attractions 7the      
fairer sex being still excluded from    
acting on the stage and therefore not   
forming a point of attraction7 were     
initiated into the innermost secret of  
what authors meant by their productions4
 ,dekker1 in his ',gulls ,horn ,book'   
7c4 #f71 reports that 'after the play   
was over1 poets adjourned to supper with
 knights1 where they1 in private1       
unfolded the secret parts of their drama
 to them4'  ,as in no other of his      
plays1 there is in ,shakspere's         

',hamlet'--the drama richest in         
philosophy--a perfect wealth of life4   
,argument is pitted against argument2   
every turn of a phrase is a missile1    
sharp1 and hitting the mark4 ,in not a  
few cases1 the aim and object is no     
longer recognisable4 ,here and there we 
believe we shall be able to shed the    
light of day upon some dark passages of 
the past4  ,to the doughty friends of   
,shakspere1 this ,french ,knight of the 
,order of ,st4 ,michael1 who says #fj   
that1 if his freedom were in the least  
encroached upon1 or 'if the laws under  
which he lives threatened merely the tip
 of his finger1 he would at once betake 
himself to any other place to find      
better ones2' but who yet lets          
everything around him go out of joint   
without offering a helping hand for     
repair1 because 'the maintenance of     
,states is probably something beyond our
 powers of understanding' #fa--verily1  
to ,shakspere's doughty friends1 such a 
specimen of humanity as ,montaigne must 

have been quite a new and strange       
phenomenon4 ,they were children of an   
age which achieved great things because 
its nobler natures willingly suffered   
death when the ideals of their life were
 to be realised4 ,in them1 the fire of  
enthusiasm of the first ,reformation1 of
 the glorious time of ,elizabeth1 was   
still glowing4 ,they energetically      
championed the cause of ,humanism4 ,the 
sublime conceptions of their epoch were 
not yet marred by that dark and gloomy  
set of men whose mischievous members    
were just beginning to hatch their      
hidden plans in the most remote manors  
of ,england4  ,the friends of ,shakspere
 well understood the true meaning of    
,hamlet's words3 #fb--',what should such
 fellows as ,i do crawling between earth
 and heaven8' #fc ,they easily seized   
the gist and point of the answer given  
to the ,king's question3 #fd--';,how    
fares our cousin ,hamlet8' when ,hamlet 
replies3--    ,excellent1 i' faith2 of  
the chameleon's dish6  ,surely1 some of 

them had read the ,essay ',on the       
,inconsistency of our ,actions1' and had
 smiled at the passage3--  ',our        
ordinary manner is1 to follow the       
inclination of our appetite--this way1  
that way2 upwards1 downwards2 even as   
the wind of the occasion drives us4 ,we 
never think of what we would have1 but  
at the moment we would have it2 and we  
change like that animal 7the chameleon7 
of which it is said that it takes the   
colour of the place where it is laid    
down4' #fe  ,shakspere's teaching is1   
that if the nobler-gifted man who stands
 at the head of the commonwealth1 allows
 himself to be driven about by every    
wind of the occasion1 instead of        
furthering his better aims with all his 
strength and energy of will1 the wicked1
 on their part1 will all the more easily
 carry out their own ends4 ,he therefore
 makes the ,king say3 #ff--    ,that we 
would do1   ,we should do when we would2
 for this 'would' changes444            
,shakspere's friends understood the     

allusion contained in the first act1    
after the apparition of the ,ghost1 when
 ,hamlet calls for his 'tablets4' ,they 
knew that the much-scribbling ,montaigne
 was meant1 who1 as he avows1 had so bad
 a memory that he could not receive any 
commission without writing it down in   
his 'tablets' 7tablettes74 ,this defect 
of his1 ,montaigne mentions over and    
over again1 and may have been the cause 
of his many most ludicrous              
contradictions4 #fg  ,after ,hamlet has 
written down the important fact that    
'one may smile1 and smile1 and be a     
villain--at least1 ,i am sure it may be 
so in ,denmark1' he exclaims3--',now to 
my word6' ,that 'word' undoubtedly      
consists of the admonition addressed to 
him by the ,ghost1 that ,hamlet1 after  
having heard his duty1 also should      
fulfil it--that is3--    ',so art thou  
to revenge1 when thou shalt hear4'  ,but
 he only recollects the last words of   
the ,ghost2 and ,hamlet's parole1       
therefore1 is only this3--    ,adieu1   

adieu1 adieu6 ,remember me6  ,the value 
of ,montaigne's book is harshly treated 
in the second scene of the second act4  
,to the question of ,polonius as to what
 he is reading1 ,hamlet                 
replies3--',words1 words1 words6'       
,indeed1 ,shakspere did not think it    
fair that 'the satirical rogue' should  
fill the paper with such remarks 7whole 
,essays of ,montaigne consist of similar
 useless prattle7 as 'that old men have 
grey beards2 that their faces are       
wrinkled2 their eyes purging thick amber
 and plum-tree gum2 and that they have a
 plentiful lack of wit1 together with   
most weak hams4' #fh  ,the ideas of     
,shakspere as to the duties of a writer 
were different1 indeed1 from the        
contents of the book which ,hamlet      
characterises by his exclamation4  ,as  
to ,polonius' answer3 ',though this be  
madness1 yet there's method in it1' the 
public had no difficulty in finding out 
what was meant by that 'madness1' and to
 whom it applied4  ,what may the great  

master have thought of an author who1 as
 ,montaigne does1 jots down everything  
in kaleidoscopic manner1 just as        
changeful accident brings it into his   
head8 ,in ,essay ,,iii4 7#b7 we read3-- 
',i cannot get a fixed hold of my       
object4 ,it moves   and reels as if with
 a natural drunkenness4 ,i just seize   
it at some point1 such as ,i find it at 
the moment1 when ,i   amuse myself with 
it4 ,i do not describe its essence1 but 
its volatile passage 444 from one minute
 to the other4'  ,elsewhere he prides   
himself on his method of being able to  
write as long as there is paper and ink4
  ,hamlet says to the players3 ',we'll  
e'en to it like ,french falconers3 fly  
at anything we see4' ,montaigne's manner
 of spying out and pouncing upon things 
cannot be better depicted than by       
comparing it with a ,french falconer's  
manner4 ,in the first act already1      
,hamlet1 after the ghost-scene1 answers 
the friends who approach1 with the      
holla-call of a falconer3--    ,hillo1  

ho1 ho1 boy2 come1 bird1 come6          
,furthermore1 ,hamlet says in act ii4   
sc4 #b3--';,i am but mad                
north-north-west4 ,when the wind is     
southerly1 ,i know a hawk from a        
handshaw 7heronshaw674' ,now1 the       
north-west wind would drive ,montaigne  
back into his native province1          
,perigord1 where1 very likely according 
to ,shakspere's view1 he ought to have  
remained with his sham logic4 ,the south
 wind1 on the contrary1 brings the able 
falconer to ,england4 ,the latter       
possesses such a penetrating glance for 
the nature of things as to be able to   
distinguish the bird 7the heronshaw7    
that is to be pursued from the hawk that
 has been unhooded and cast4  ,in the   
second scene of the fifth act1 between  
,hamlet and ,horatio 7to the weak-minded
 ,osrick the words spoken there are     
incomprehensible71 the excellent        
qualities of ,laertes are apparently    
judged4 #fi ,this whole discussion is   
meant against ,montaigne2 and in the    

first quarto the chief points are       
wanting4 ,florio calls ,montaigne's     
,essays ',moral1 ,political1 and        
,military ,discourses4' #gj ,osrick     
praises the qualities of the cavalier   
who has returned from ,france2 and      
,hamlet replies that 'to divide him     
inventorily would dizzy the arithmetic  
of memory4'  ,the further1 hitherto     
utterly unexplained1 words 7'and  yet   
but yaw neither in respect of his quick 
sail'7 seem to have reference to the    
sonnet #ga by which the third book of   
the ,essays is dedicated by ,florio to  
,lady ,grey4 ,montaigne is praised      
therein under the guise of ,talbot's    
name1 who1 'in peace or war1 at sea or  
land1 for princes' service1 countries'  
good1 sweetly sails before the wind4'   
,in act ii4 sc4 #b1 the north-north-west
 and the south wind were already alluded
 to1 which are said to influence        
,hamlet's madness4  ,the translators and
 admirers of ,montaigne are meant when  
,hamlet says that 'to make true diction 

of him1 his semblable' must be 'his     
mirror2 and1 who else would trace him1  
his umbrage--nothing more4' ,that is1   
one must be ,montaigne1 or become his   
absolute admirer1 'his umbrage1' 'his   
semblable1' in order to do justice to   
him4 ,the whole scene is full of        
allusions1 easily explainable from the  
point of view we have indicated4 ,so    
also1 the reference to self-knowledge   
7'to know himself7 --an art which       
,montaigne never learnt and the 'two    
weapons' with which he fights1 are full 
of deep meaning4  ,it was probably no   
small number of men that took delight in
 the ,french essayist4 ,no doubt1 the   
jest of the gravedigger is directed     
against them1 when he says that if the  
mad ,hamlet does not recover his wits in
 ,england1 it is no great matter there1 
because there the men are as mad as he4 
,montaigne1 especially in ,essay ,,iii4 
7#b7 and ,,iii4 7#e71 brings forward    
indecencies of the most shameless kind4 
,we quite bear in mind what period it   

was when he wrote4 ,our manners and     
ideas are totally different from those  
of the sixteenth century4 ,but what     
indignation must ,shakspere have        
felt--he who had already created his    
noblest female characters1 ,helena and  
,olivia2 and who had sung his paean of  
love1 ',romeo and ,juliet'--when he read
 the ideas of the ,french nobleman about
 love and women6 ,nowhere1 and on no    
occasion1 does ,shakspere in his dramas1
 in spite of phrases which to-day we    
qualify as obscene ones1 lower the ideal
 of the womanly character--of the ewig  
,weibliche4  ,but let us read           
,montaigne's view3 #gb--  ',i find that 
love is nothing else than a thirst of   
enjoying a desired subject2 nor that    
,venus is anything else but the pleasure
 of emptying one's seminary vessels1    
similar to the pleasure which ,nature   
has given us in discharging other       
parts4'  ,now1 this significant quality 
also1 of saying indecencies without     
shame1 ,hamlet has in common with       

,montaigne4 ,no character in            
,shakspere's dramas uses such language  
as ,hamlet2 and in this case1 let it be 
observed1 it is not used between men1   
but towards the beloved one6 ,we shall  
remark upon his relations with ,ophelia 
later on4  ,the frivolous ,montaigne    
speaks of love as one might do of a good
 dish to be enjoyed at every degree of  
age1 according to taste and inclination4
 ,in ,essay ,,iii47#d7 we learn how1 in 
his youth1 'standing in need of a       
vehement diversion for the sake of      
distraction1 he made himself amorous by 
art and study4' ,elsewhere he tells what
 great things he was able1 as a young   
man1 to achieve in this line4 #gc ,he1  
therefore1 does not agree with the sage 
who praises age because it frees us from
 voluptuousness4 #gd  ,he1 on the       
contrary1 says3--',i shall never take   
kindly to impotence1 whatever good it   
may do me4'  ,montaigne1 the old and    
young lover1 is lashed in act v4 sc4 ,i1
 in disfigured verses of a song sung by 

the grave-digger1 which dates about from
 the year #aeeg1 and at ,shakspere's    
time probably was very popular4 ,in the 
original1 where the image of death is   
meant to be represented1 an old man     
looks back in repentance1 and with great
 aversion1 upon his youthful days when  
he found pleasure in love4 ,the original
 verse stood thus3--    ,i lothe that ,i
 did love1   ,in youth that ,i thought  
swete1   ,as time requires for my       
behove1   ,methinks they are not mete4  
,until now1 no sense could be made of   
the first verse which the gravedigger   
sings4 ,it runs thus3--    ,in youth1   
when ,i did love1 did love1   ,methought
 it was very sweet1   ,to contract1     
,,oh6 the time1 for1 ,,ah6 my behove1   
,o1 methought1 there was nothing meet4  
,let it be observed what stress is laid 
on the ',oh6'--the proper time1 and the 
',ah6'--the delight felt at the moment  
of enjoyment4 ,the meaning of the old   
verse is changed in such a manner as to 
show that old ,montaigne looks back with

 pleasure upon the time of his dissolute
 youth1 whilst the author of the        
original text shrinks back from it4     
,the second verse #ge is a further      
persiflage of the old song4 ,its        
reading1 too1 is changed4 ,it is said   
there that age1 with his stealing steps1
 as clawed the lover in his clutch #gf  
and shipped him into the land as if he  
'never had been such4'  ,by none has the
 relation between ,ophelia and ,hamlet  
been better felt and described than by  
,goethe4 ,he calls her 'the good child  
in whose soul1 secretly1 a voice of     
voluptuousness resounds4' ,hamlet       
who--driven rudderless by his impulse1  
his passion1 his daimon1 from one       
extreme to the other--drags everything  
that surrounds him into the abyss1 also 
destroys the future of the woman that   
might truly make him happy4 ,he disowns 
and rejects her whom ,nature has formed 
for love4 ,at a moment when fanatical   
thoughts have mastered his reason1 he   
bids her go to a nunnery4  ,once more we

 must point to the ,essay in which      
,montaigne lays down his ideas about    
woman and love4 ,french ladies1 he says1
 study ,boccaccio and such-like writers1
 in order to become skilful 7habiles74  
',but there is no word1 no example1 no  
single step in that matter which they do
 not know better than our books do4     
,that is a knowledge bred in their very 
veins 444 ,had not this natural violence
 of their desires been somewhat bridled 
by the fear and a feeling of honour     
wherewith they have been provided1 we   
would be dishonoured 7diffamez74'       
,montaigne says he knows ladies who     
would rather lend their honour than     
their 'coach4' #gg  ',at last1 when     
,ophelia has no longer any power over   
her own mind1' says ,goethe1 'her heart 
being on her tongue1 that tongue becomes
 a traitor against her4' #gh  ,in the   
scene of ,ophelia's madness1 we hear    
songs1 thoughts1 and phrases probably   
caught up by her from ,hamlet4 ,the     
ideal which man forms of woman1 is the  

moral altitude on which she stands4     
,now1 let the language be called to     
mind1 which ,hamlet1 before the players'
 scene1 uses towards his beloved6       
,ophelia's words3 ',come1 my coach #gi' 
will be understood from the passage in  
,montaigne above quoted4 ,the meaning   
of3 ',oh1 how the wheel becomes it6' has
 reference to a thought developed by    
,montaigne in ,essay ,,iii4 7#aa71 #hj  
which we cannot render here1 as it is   
opposed to every feeling of decency4    
,all commentators agree in thinking that
 the character of ,laertes is in direct 
contrast to that of ,hamlet4 ,in the    
first quarto1 the figure of ,laertes is 
but rapidly indicated4 ,only that scene 
is worked out where he cries out against
 the priest who will not follow his     
sister to the grave3--    ,a ministering
 angel shall my sister be4   ,when thou 
liest howling4  ,in the second quarto   
only1 we meet with the most             
characteristic speeches in which the    
strong-willed ,laertes1 #ha unmindful of

 any future world1 calls for revenge    
with every drop of his indignant        
blood3--    ,to ,hell1 allegiance6      
,vows1 to the blackest devils6          
,conscience and grace1 to the           
profoundest pit6   ,i dare damnation4444
   444 ,both the worlds ,i give to      
negligence1   ,let come what comes 444  
444 to cut his throat i' the church4    
,that passage1 too1 is new1 in which    
,ophelia's madness is explained as the  
consequence of blighted love3--         
,nature is fine in love1 and where 't is
 fine1   ,it sends some precious        
instance of itself   ,after the thing it
 loves4  ,her own reason1 which succumbs
 to her love1 is the precious token4    
,in the same way1 those words are not in
 the first quarto1 in which ,laertes    
gives vent to the oppressed feelings of 
his heart1 on hearing of the death of   
his sister3--    ,nature her custom     
holds1   ,let shame say what it will4   
,when these 7the tears7 are gone1   ,the
 woman will be out4  ,all those         

beautiful precepts1 also1 which ,laertes
 gives to his sister1 are wanting in the
 quarto of #afjc4 #hb  ,hamlet is the   
most powerful philosophical production1 
in the domain of poetry1 written at the 
most critical epoch of mankind--the time
 of the ,reformation4 ,the greatest     
,english genius recognised that it was  
everyone's duty to set a time out of    
joint to right4 ,shakspere showed to his
 noble friends a gifted and noble man   
whose life becomes a scourge for him and
 his surroundings1 because he is not    
guided by manly courage and conscience1 
but by superstitious notions and        
formulas4  ,this colossal drama ranges  
from the thorny1 far-stretching fields  
which man1 only trusting in himself1 has
 to work with the sweat of his brow1 to 
that wonder-land of mystery--    ,where 
these good tidings of great joy are     
heard4 #hc  ,if the principles that are 
fought out in this drama1 in tragic     
conflict1 were to be described by       
catchwords1 we might say3 ,reason stands

 against ,dogma2 ,nature against        
,tradition2 ,self-,reliance against     
,submission4 ,the great elementary      
forces are here at issue1 which the     
,reformation had unchained1 and with    
which we all have to reckon4            
,shakspere's loving1 noble heart        
beautifully does justice to the defeated
 ,hamlet by making him be borne to his  
grave 'like a soldier1' with all the    
honouring 'rites of war4' ,the poet who 
knew the human heart so well1 no doubt  
had seen many brave and gifted men who1 
after having been to ,wittenberg's      
,halls of ,intellectual ,freedom1 and   
become disciples of ,humanism1 once more
 were turned into slaves of dogmas      
which1 under a new guise1 not less      
restricted the free use of reason than  
the tenets of the old faith had done3-- 
,sure1 he that made us with such large  
discourse1   ,looking before and after1 
gave us not   ,the capability and       
god-like reason   ,to fust in us unused4
  ,the life of the most gifted remains  

fruitless if1 through fear of what may  
befall us in a future world1 we cravenly
 shrink back from following the dictates
 of our reason and our conscience4 ,from
 them we must take the mandate and      
commission for the task of our life2 not
 from any mysterious messenger1 nor from
 any ghost out of ,purgatory4 ,on the   
way to action1 no 'goblin damned' must  
be allowed to cross our path with his   
assumed terrors4 ,that which we feel to 
be right we must do1 even if 'it be the 
very witching time of night1 and hell   
breathes contagion into the world4'     
,shakspere broke with all antiquated    
doctrines4 ,he was one of the foremost  
,humanists in the fullest and noblest   
meaning of the word4 #hd   #a3 ,essay   
,,ii4 #ab4   #b3 ,essay ,i4 #bf4   #c3  
,the whole contents of this chapter may 
be said to be condensed    into two     
lines of ,shakspere3--       ',there are
 more things in heaven and earth1       
,horatio1      ,than are dreamt of in   
your philosophy4'   #d3 ,essay ,,iii4   

#ac4   #e3 ,see ,bacon's ,essay ',of    
,simulation and ,dissimulation1' where  
he says that 'dissimulation followeth   
many times upon secrecy by    a         
necessity3 so that he that will be      
secret must be a dissembler in    some  
degree1' c4   #f3 ,the following are    
,hamlet's modes of asseveration3--      
',angels and ministers of grace1' ',all 
you host of ,heaven1' ',god's    love1' 
',god and mercy1' ',god's willing1'     
',help and mercy1' ',god's    love1'    
',by ,st4 ,patrick1' ',god-a-mercy1'    
',by my fay 7ma foi71'    ',s' blood    
7,god's blood71' ',s' wounds1' ',god's  
bodykins1' ',by'r ,lady1'    ',perdy    
7,pardieu71' ',by the rood 7,cross71'   
',heavenly guards1' ',for    love and   
grace1' ',by the ,lord1' ',pray ,god1'  
c4   #g3 ,new ,shakspere ,society       
7,stubbs1 ,abuses in ,england71 #ahgi1  
p4 #aca4   #h3 ,act ii4 sc4 #b4   #i3   
,act ii4 sc4 i4  #aj3 ,this description 
is wanting in the first quarto4 ,the    
passages    there are essentially       

different2 there is no allusion to      
,hamlet's    mental struggle4  #aa3     
,about various allusions and satirical  
hints in this scene later on4  #ab3     
,florio1 #ba2 ,montaigne1 ,i4 ii4  #ac3 
,essay ,,iii4 i4  #ad3 ,isaiah1 ch4 iii4
 v4 #af4  #ae3 ,the word 'ecstasy1'     
which is often used in the new quarto1  
is    wanting in the first edition where
 only madness1 lunacy1 frenzy--the      
highest degrees of madness--are spoken  
of4  #af3 ,in the old play their names  
are ',rosencroft' and ',guilderstone4'  
,reynaldo1 in the first quarto1 is      
called ',montano4'    ,this change of   
name in a dramatis persona of minor     
importance    indicates1 in however a   
trifling manner1 that the interest      
excited    by the name of ,montaigne 7to
 which ',montano' comes remarkably near 
in ,english pronunciation7 was now to be
 concentrated on another point4  #ag3   
,essay ,i4 #dj4  #ah3 ,,ii4 #ab4  #ai3  
,essay ,,ii4 #bg1 p4 #adb4  #bj3 ,essay 
,,iii4 #d1 p4 #chd4  #ba3 ,rather sharp 

translations of songe-creux1 as         
,montaigne    calls himself 7,florio1 i4
 #ai1 p4 #cd74 ',i am given rather to   
dreaming and sluggishness4'  #bb3 '',s  
wounds' 7,god's wounds7--a most         
characteristic expression2    used by   
,shakspere only in ,hamlet1 in this     
scene1 and again    in act v4 sc4 #b4   
#bc3 ,as yet1 ,hamlet has but one ground
 of action--namely1 the one    which1   
after the apparition of the ,ghost1 he  
set down in his tablets3    'that one   
may smile1 and smile1 and be a villain2 
at least1 ,i am sure1    it may be so in
 ,denmark4'  #bd3 ,act ii4 sc4 #b4  #be3
 ,essay ,i4 #ai4  #bf3 ,,ii4 #c4  #bg3  
,tacitus1 annal4 xiii4 #ef4  #bh3 ,essay
 ,i4 #ai4  #bi3 ,act4 i4 sc4 #b4  #cj3  
,shakspere already uses this expression 
in ,king ,john 7#aeie7 for    purposes  
of mirthful mockery4 ,he makes the      
,bastard say to the    ,archduke of     
,austria 7act iii4 sc4 i73--',hang a    
calf's skin on    those recreant        
limbs6'--a circumstance which convinces 

us that    ,shakspere knew the ,essays  
of ,montaigne from the original at an   
early time4 ,we think it a fact         
important enough to point out that      
,florio translates peau d'un veau by    
'oxe-hide' 7fo4 #cd74 ,we    cannot     
think of any other explanation than that
 the phrase in    question had become so
 popular through ,king ,john as to      
render    it advisable for ,florio to   
steer clear of this rock4 ,jonson1 in   
his    ,volpone 7act4 i4 sc4 i71 makes  
,mosca the parasite say in    regard to 
his master3 ',covered with hide1 instead
 of skin4'  #ca3 ,florio's translation3 
',if it be a consummation of one's      
being'    7p4 #fbg74 ,shakspere3 'a     
consummation devoutly to be wished4'    
,this    word is only once used by      
,shakspere in such a sense4 ,it occurs  
in    another sense in ,king ,lear 7iv4 
#f7 and ,cymbeline 7iv4 #b71 but        
nowhere else in his works4  #cb3        
,monologue of the first quarto3--       
',to be1 or not to be1 ,i there's the   

point1       ,to ,die1 to sleepe1 is    
that all8 ,i all3       ,no1 to sleepe1 
to dreame1 ,i1 mary there it goes1      
,for in that dreame of death1 when wee  
awake1       ,and borne before an       
everlasting judge1       ,from whence no
 passenger ever returned1       ,the    
undiscovered country1 at whose sight    
,the happy smile1 and the accursed      
damned4       ,but for this1 the joyful 
hope of this1       ,whol'd beare the   
scornes of flattery of the world1       
,scorned by the right rich1 the rich    
curssed of the poore8       ,the widow  
being oppress'd1 the orphan wronged1    
,the taste of hunger1 or a tyrants      
raigne1       ,and thousand more        
calamities besides1       ,to grunte and
 sweate under the weary life1           
,when that he may his full quietus make1
       ,with a bare bodkin1 who would   
this indure1       ,but for a hope of   
something after death8       ,which     
pushes the brain and doth connfound the 
sence1       ,which makes us rather     

beare those evilles we have1       ,than
 flie to others that we know not of4    
,i that1 ,o this conscience makes       
cowardes of us all4       ,lady in thy  
orizons1 be all my sinnes remembered4   
#cc3 ,on closely examining the copy of  
,montaigne's ,essays in the ,british    
,museum1 which bears ,shakspere's       
autograph on the title-page1 we         
found--long after our treatise had been 
completed--that on the    fly-leaf at   
the end of the volume is written3 ,mors 
incrta1    7,written somewhat           
indistinctly1 meaning probably incerta4 
,it might also be an abbreviation of    
'incertam horam' incr4    ho41 as       
contained in the ,latin verse on p4     
#fbf3--       ,incertam frustra1        
mortales1 funeris horam      ,quaeritis1
 et qua sit mors aditura via47     #fbf1
 #fbg4 ,these two numbers1 apparently1  
refer to the corresponding    pages of  
,montaigne's work1 which contain nothing
 but thoughts    about the uncertainty  
of the hour of death and the hereafter4 

,on    p4 #fbg there is the speech of   
,sokrates1 which in ,florio's           
translation1 as shown above1 bears such 
striking resemblance to    ,hamlet's    
monologue4 ,there are other ,latin      
sentences on the same    fly-leaf1      
pronounced by ,sir ,frederic ,madden to 
be written by a    later pen than       
,shakspere's4 ,to us1 at any rate1 the  
above words    and numbers appear to    
proceed from a different hand than the  
other    sentences4 ,judgments thereon  
from persons well versed in the         
writings of that time would be of great 
interest4  #cd3 ,p4 #ajc4  #ce3 ,i4 #ai4
  #cf3 ,act iii4 sc4 #b4  #cg3 ,,iii4   
#ab 7,florio1 #fbf74  #ch3 ,we do not   
doubt that this is a sly thrust at      
,florio1 who1 in the    preface to his  
translation1 calls himself ',montaigne's
 ,vulcan1' who    hatches out ,minerva  
from that ',jupiter's bigge brain'4     
#ci3 ,florio1 #dgf4  #dj3 ,florio1 #eib3
 ',thus goe the world1 and so goe men4' 
#da3 ,,iii4 #a4  #db3 ,,ii4 #bg4  #dc3  

,clarendon3 ',circumstance of thought'  
means here the details    over which    
thought ranges1 and from which its      
conclusions are    formed4  #dd3        
',index1' in our opinion1 does not      
signify here either the    title1 or    
prologue1 or the indication of the      
contents of a book1    but is an        
allusion to the ,index of the ,holy ,see
 and its thunders4  #de3 ,montaigne1    
,,iii4 #aj2 ,florio1 #fjd3 ',custome is 
a second nature1    and no less         
powerfull4444 ,to conclude1 ,i am ready 
to finish this    man1 not to make      
another4 ,by longe custome this forme is
 changed    into substance1 ,fortune    
into ,nature4'  #df3 ,,iii4 #a4  #dg3   
,this is wanting in the first quarto1   
like the whole conclusion    of this    
scene4  #dh3 ,this whole scene between  
,horatio and ,hamlet consists of the    
following four lines in the old         
quarto3--       ,hamlet4 ,beleeuve me1  
it greeuves me much1 ,horatio1          
,that to ,laertes ,i forgot myselfe3    

,for by myselfe methinkes ,i feel his   
greefe1      ,though there's a          
difference in each other's way4         
,does this not look like a draught      
destined to be the kernel of a    scene8
 ,the end of the scene where ,osrick    
comes in1 is also much    shorter in the
 older play4  #di3 ,florio1 #ccj3 ',we  
amend ourselves by privation of reason  
and    by her drooping4' ,hamlet's      
conduct is only to be explained by his  
quietly sitting down until his reason   
should droop4--,,ii4 #ab4  #ej3 ,florio1
 #fjh4  #ea3 ,florio1 #fji4  #eb3 ,this 
whole scene is nearly new 7in the first 
quarto it is a mere    sketch74 ,there  
are in it several direct allusions to   
,montaigne's    book1 on which we shall 
touch later on4  #ec3 ,here the         
dramatist1 in order to paint a trait of 
vanity in ,hamlet's    character1 uses a
 device4 ,he makes the latter say that1 
since ,laertes    went into ,france1 he 
7,hamlet7 has been in continual         
practice4 ,yet we    know 7act ii4 sc4  

#b7 that he had given up his accustomed 
exercise4    ,in that scene the poet    
wishes to describe ,hamlet's melancholy2
 in    the other1 his vanity4 ,he       
chooses the colours which are apt to    
produce quickest impressions among the  
audience4  #ed3 ,act v4 sc4 #b4  #ee3   
,see ,st4 ,matthew x4#bi4  #ef3 ,i4 #ai4
  #eg3 ,,iii4 #i4  #eh3 ,,ii4 #ab4  #ei3
 ,the ,queen describes ,hamlet as 'fat1 
and scant of breath4' ,here    is       
,montaigne's description of himself     
7,essai ,,ii4 #bg73--';,j'ay1    au     
demourant1 la taille forte et ramassee2 
le visage non pas    gras1 mais plein1  
la complexion entre le jovial et le     
melancholique1    moyennement sanguine  
et chaude4' ,florio's translation1 p4   
#cgb3--';,as    for me1 ,i am of a      
strong and well compact stature1 my face
 is not    fat1 but full1 my complexion 
betweene joviall and melancholy1        
indifferently sanguine and hote--7'not  
splenetive and rash'74  #fj3 ,,iii4 #ac 
#fa3 ,,iii4 #i4  #fb3 ,act iii4 sc4 #a4 

#fc3 ,we shall now oftener touch upon   
satirical passages uttered by    the    
character himself against whom they are 
directed4 ,the true    dramatist gives  
the public no time to think over an     
incident in full    leisure4 ,every     
means--as we have already shown         
before--is welcome to    him1 which aids
 in rapidly bringing out the telling    
traits of his    figures4 ,no surprise  
need therefore be felt that ,hamlet1    
though    representing ,montaigne1      
sneers at1 and morally flagellates1     
himself4  #fd3 ,act iii4 sc4 #b4  #fe3  
,,ii4 #a4  #ff3 ,act iv4 sc4 #g4  #fg3  
,i4 #i1 #be2 ,,ii4 #aj1 c4 ,if an       
attentive reader will take the          
trouble to closely examine that part of 
the scene in ,shakspere's    ,tempest   
7act ii4 sc4 #a7 wherein the passage    
occurs1 which he    borrowed from ,essay
 ,i4 #cj--',on ,cannibals'--and compare 
it with    this most 'strange ,essay1'  
he will clearly convince himself that   
,shakspere can only have made use of it 

as a satire on ,montaigne's    defective
 memory1 which entangles this author in 
the most ludicrous    contradictions4   
,gonzala declares that1 if he were king 
of the isle    on which he and his      
companion were wrecked1 he would found a
    commonwealth as described in the    
above passage4 ,he concludes this       
description1 saying he would have 'no   
sovereignty4'     ,sebastian justly     
remarks3 ',yet he would be king on't2'  
and    ,antonio continues by saying3    
',the latter end of his commonwealth    
forgets the beginning4'     ,even such  
is the contradiction in ,montaigne's    
fanciful ,essay ',on    ,cannibals1'    
where1 towards the end1 he speaks of a  
captain who    holds authority over     
these savages1 not only in war1 but also
 in    peace1 'that when he went to     
visit the village of his dependence1    
they cut him paths through the thick of 
their woods1 through which    he might  
pass at ease4' ,the beginning of this   
,essay described the    commonwealth of 

these cannibals as tolerating no politic
 superiority1    no use of service1 no  
occupation1 c4 ',what short memory6     
much wanting tablets6'     ,in the      
above-mentioned scene of the ,tempest   
,sebastian makes    the remark3 ',no    
marrying 'mong his subjects1' which     
evidently is    also meant as a hit     
against ,montaigne's anti-matrimonial   
ideas1    which we dwelt upon in the    
scene between ,hamlet and ,ophelia4     
#fh3 ,jonson1 long afterwards1 had not  
forgotten this hit against              
,montaigne4 ,in ,epicoene 7#afji7 he    
makes ,cleremont say3--',when    we come
 to have grey heads and weak hams1 moist
 eyes and shrunk    members 444 then    
we'll pray and fast4'  #fi3 ,this whole 
passage of act v4 sc4 #b 7#ajf-ach7 is  
again    only to be found in the quarto 
of #afjd1 not in the folio edition of   
#afbc4 ,in later years the poet may have
 struck it out1 as being only           
comprehensible to a smaller circle of   
his friends4 ,in the same way    that   

passage of act iv4 sc4 #d1 which only   
contains thoughts    of ,montaigne1 was 
not received into the folio of #afbc4   
#gj3 ,this is their title in ,florio's  
translation3 ,morall1 ,politike1        
,millitarie ,discourses of ,lo4         
,michaell de ,montaigne1 ,knight of the 
noble order of ,saint ,michaell1 and one
 of the ,gentlemen in ordinary    of the
 ,french ,king ,henry ,,iii4 his        
,chamber4  #ga3 ,the sonnet runs thus3--
        ,to the ,right ,honourable      
,ladie ,elizabeth ,grey4 7,she was a    
daughter of ,count ,shrewsbury1 a       
,talbot47       ,of honorable ,,talbot  
honored farre1       ,the forecast and  
the fortune1 by his ,,word              
,montaigne here descrives2 what by his  
,sword1       ,what by his wit2 this1 as
 the guiding starre2       ,that1 as th'
 ,aetolian blast1 in peace or warre1    
,at sea1 or land1 as cause did use      
afforde1       ,avant le vent1 to tacke 
his sails aboarde1       ,so as his     
course no orethwart crosse might barre1 

,but he would sweetly sail before the   
wind2       ,for ,princes service1      
,countries good1 his fame4              
,heire-,daughter of that prudent1       
constant kinde1       ,joyning thereto  
of ,,grey as great a name1 ,of          
both chief glories shrining in your     
minde1       ,honour him that your      
,honor doth proclaime4'     ,we have    
already learned from the preface of the 
first book of the    ,essais how ,florio
 was 'sea-tosst1 weather-beaten1'       
'ship-wrackt1'    'almost drowned1' when
 exerting himself to capture the        
whale--,montaigne--and drag him through 
'the rocke-rough ,ocean'    with the    
assistance of his colleague ,diodati1   
whom he compares to    'a guide-fish4'  
,hamlet calls ,polonius a fish-monger4  
,the latter    fools ,hamlet by         
pretending that yonder cloud is in the  
shape of a    whale1 which just before  
appeared to him like the back of a      
weasel4    ,every word almost in this   
wonderful drama is a well-directed hit4 

#gb3 ,essay ,,iii4 #e4  #gc3 ,ibid4 #ac4
  #gd3 ,ibid4 #b4  #ge3 ,the quarto of  
#afbc has only the third verse4  #gf3   
,the old song has the word 'crouch4'    
#gg3 ,essay ,,iii4 #e1 p4 #dfj4 ,florio1
 p4 #ebi4  #gh3 ,we think it is worth   
while to quote the following verse      
,montaigne    7,,iii4 #e7 mentions when 
speaking of that nature of woman1 which 
he thinks suggests to her every possible
 act of libidinousness3--       ,nec    
tantum niveo gavisa est ulla columbo    
,compar1 vel si quid dicitur improbius1 
,oscula mordenti semper decerpere       
rostro1      ,quantum praecipue         
multivola est mulier4     ,florio       
translates 7#ead73--       ,no ,pigeons 
hen1 or paire1 or what worse name       
,you list1 makes with hir ,snow-white   
cock such game1      ,with biting bill  
to catch when she is kist1      ,as     
many-minded women when they list4       
,is not this the character of ,ophelia1 
as described by ,shakspere--the         
virgin inclining to voluptuousness in   

,goethe's view8  #gi3 ,hamlet1 act iv4  
sc4 #e4 ,in ,eastward ,hoe1 ,marston1   
,chapman1    and ,jonson make capital   
out of this word1 and use it as a sneer 
against ,hamlet and ,ophelia4 ,we shall 
return to this point later on4  #hj3    
,florio1 #fag4  #ha3 ,act iv4 sc4 #e4   
#hb3 ,laertes1 act i4 sc4 #c3--         
,for nature crescent does not grow alone
      ,in thews and bulk1 but1 as this  
temple waxes1      ,the inward service  
of the mind and soul      ,grows wide   
withal4      ,montaigne1 ,,ii4 #ab2     
,florio1 #cai3       ,the mind is with  
the body bred we do behold1      ,it    
jointly growes with it1 it waxeth       
old4--,lucr4 xliii4 #dej4  #hc3         
,goethe's ,faust4  #hd3 ,we must mention
 that ,john ,sterling1 in an essay on   
,montaigne    7,westminster ,review1    
#ahch71 makes the following introductory
    remarks3--',on the whole1 the       
celebrated soliloquy in ,hamlet         
presents a more characteristic and      
expressive resemblance to much of       

,montaigne's writings than any other    
portion of the plays of the great       
dramatist which we at present remember1 
though it would doubtless be    easy to 
trace many apparent transferences from  
the ,frenchman into the    ,englishman's
 works1 as both were keen and many-sided
 observers in the    same age and       
neighbouring countries4 ,but ,hamlet was
 in those days no    popular type of    
character2 nor were ,montaigne's views  
and tone    familiar to men till he     
himself had made them so4 ,now1 the     
,prince    of ,denmark is very nearly a 
,montaigne1 lifted to a higher eminence1
    and agitated by more striking       
circumstances and severer destiny1      
and altogether a somewhat more          
passionate structure of man4 ,it is     
not1 however1 very wonderful that       
,hamlet1 who was but a part of          
,shakspere1 should exhibit to us more   
than the whole of ,montaigne1    and the
 external facts appear to contradict any
 notion of a ,french    ancestry for the

 ,dane1 as the play is said to have been
 produced    in #afjj1 and the          
translation of the ,english not for     
three years later4'     ,during our long
 search through the ,commentaries       
written on    ,hamlet1 we also met with 
the following treatise3 ',,hamlet2      
ein ,tendenzdrama ,sheakspeare's 7sic667
 gegen die skeptische    und            
kosmopolitische ,weltanschauung des     
,michael de ,montaigne1 von ,g4    ,f4  
,stedefeld1 ,kreisgerichtsrath4 ,berlin1
 #ahga4'     ,the author of the         
latter-mentioned little book holds it to
 be    probable that ,shakspere wrote   
his ,hamlet for the object    of freeing
 himself from the impressions of the    
famous ,french sceptic4    ,he regards  
this masterwork as 'the ,drama of the   
,doubter2' as 'the    apotheosis of a   
practical ,christianity4' ,hamlet1 he   
says1 is wanting    in ,christian piety4
 ,he has no faith1 no love1 no hope4    
,his last words1    ',the rest is       
silence1' show that he has no           

expectation of a future    life4 ,he    
must perish because he has given up the 
belief in    a divine government of the 
world and in a moral order of things4   
,we believe we have read the ,essays of 
,michel ,montaigne with    great        
attention4 ,we not only do not regard   
him as a 'sceptic' in    the sense meant
 by ,mr4 ,stedefeld1 but we hold him1 as
 well as    ,hamlet1 to be an adherent  
of the so-called 'practical             
,christianity'    --at least1 of what   
both ,montaigne and ,hamlet reckon to be
 such4    ,this 'practical              
,christianity1' however1 is a notion    
somewhat    difficult to define4     ,v4
  ,,the  ,,controversy  ,,between       
,,ben  ,,jonson  ,,and ,,dekker4        
,,mention ,,of ,a ,,dispute ,,between   
,,ben ,,jonson ,,and ,,shakspere ,,in   
',,the ,,return ,,from ,,parnassus4'    
,,characteristic ,,of ,,ben ,,jonson4   
,,ben ,,jonson',s ,,hostile ,,attitude  
,,towards ,,shakspere4  ,,dramatic      
,,skirmish ,,between ,,ben ,,jonson     

,,and ,,shakspere4  ,,ben ,,jonson',s   
',,poetaster4'  ,,dekker',s             
',,satiromastix4'  ,we now proceed to an
 inquiry into the 'controversy between  
,jonson and ,dekker1' which has been    
repeatedly mentioned before4            
,shakspere1 we shall find1 was          
implicated in it in a very large degree4
 ,instead of indicating1 however1 that  
controversy by the designation under    
which it is known in literature1 it     
would be more correct to put            
,,shakspere',s name in the place of that
 of ,dekker4 ,many a reader who perhaps 
does not fully trust yet our bold       
assertion that ,hamlet is a counterfeit 
of ,montaigne's individuality1 will now1
 we hope1 be convinced by vouchers drawn
 from dramas published in #afjd and     
#afje1 and which are in the closest     
connection with that controversy4 ,we   
intend partly making a thorough         
examination of1 partly consulting in a  
cursory manner1 the following pieces3-- 
#a4 ',poetaster' 7#afja71 by ,ben       

,jonson4 #b4 ',satiromastix' 7#afjb71 by
 ,thomas ,dekker4 #c4 ',malcontent'     
7#afjd71 by ,john ,marston4 #d4         
',volpone' 7#afje71 by ,ben ,jonson4 #e4
 ',eastward ,hoe' 7#afje71 by ,ben      
,jonson1 ,chapman1 and ,marston4  ,in   
',the ,poetaster' ,ben ,jonson makes his
 chief attack upon ,dekker and          
,shakspere4 ,in ',satiromastix1' ,dekker
 defends himself against that attack4   
,in doing so1 he sides with ,shakspere2 
and we thereby gain an insight into the 
noble conduct of the latter4 ,between   
,jonson and ,shakspere there had already
 been dramatic skirmishes during several
 years before the appearance of ',the   
,poetaster4' ,we shall only be able to  
touch rapidly upon their meaning1       
considering that we confine ourselves1  
in the main1 to a statement of that     
which concerns ',hamlet4'  ,after       
,jonson1 in his ',poetaster1' had       
exceeded all bounds of decent behaviour 
with most intolerable arrogance1        
,shakspere seems to have become weary of

 these malicious personal onslaughts2   
all the more so because they were       
apparently put into the mouth of        
innocent children4 ,so he wrote his     
',hamlet1' showing up1 therein1 the     
loose and perplexing ideas of his chief 
antagonist1 who belonged to the party of
 ,florio-,montaigne4  ,hamlet1 as we    
shall prove beyond the possibility of   
cavil1 is the hitherto unexplained      
'purge' in ',the ,return from           
,parnassus1' which 'our fellow          
,shakspere' administered to ,ben ,jonson
 in return for the 'pill' destined for  
himself in ',the ,poetaster4' ,after the
 publication of ',hamlet1' ,jonson wrote
 his ',volpone' as a counterblast to    
this drama4 ,now ',volpone1' and the    
,preface in which the author dedicates  
it to the two ,universities1 furnish us 
with the evidence that our theory must  
be a fact2 for ,jonson therein defended 
both the party of ,florio-,montaigne and
 himself4  ,moreover1 we shall adduce a 
series of proofs from ',the ,malcontent'

 and from ',eastward ,hoe4'  ,a drama1  
written by an unknown author1 and       
printed in #afjf1 offers us a valuable  
material wherewith to make it clear     
that1 at that time1 a very bitter feud  
must have raged between ,jonson and     
,shakspere2 for it is scarcely to be    
believed that it would have been brought
 on the stage had a larger public not   
been deeply interested in the           
controversy4 ',the ,return from         
,parnassus1 or the ,scourge of ,simony1'
 #a is the title of the play1 mentioned 
several times before1 in which this     
controversy is referred to in clear     
words4 ,philomusus and ,studioso1 two   
poor scholars who in vain had sought to 
pursue their calling as medical men1    
resolve upon going to the more          
profitable stage4 ,they are to be       
prepared for it by two of the most      
famous actors from the ,globe ,theatre  
7,shakspere's company71 ,burbage and    
,kemp4 ,whilst these are waiting for    
their new pupils1 #b they converse about

 the capabilities of the students for   
the histrionic art4 ,kemp1 in words     
which show that the author must have had
 great knowledge of the stage1 condemns 
their ways and manners1 mocking the     
silly kind of acting which he had once  
seen in a performance of the students at
 ,cambridge4 ,burbage thinks they might 
amend their faults in course of time1   
and that1 at least1 advantage could be  
taken of them in so far as to make them 
write a part now and then2 which        
certainly they could do4 ,to this ,kemp 
replies3--  ',few of the ,university pen
 plaies well2 they smell too much of    
that writer ,ovid and that writer       
,metamorphosis1 and talk too much of    
,proserpina and ,jupiter4 ,why1 here's  
our fellow ,shakespeare puts them all   
down--,i1 and ,ben ,jonson too4 ,o that 
,ben ,jonson is a pestilent fellow2 he  
brought up ,horace giving the poets a   
pill2 #c but our fellow ,shakespeare    
hath given him spurge that made him     
bewray his credit4'  ,burbage           

answers3--',it's a shrewd fellow        
indeed4'  ,for the better understanding 
of this most interesting controversy1   
the centre of which ,hamlet forms1 it is
 necessary that we should give a        
characteristic of ,shakspere's          
adversary1 ,ben ,jonson1 whose          
individuality and mode of action are too
 little known among the general reading 
public4  ,ben ,jonson1 born in #aegc1 in
 the neighbourhood of ,westminster1 was 
the posthumous child of a ,scot who had 
occupied a modest position at the ,court
 of ,henry ,,viii41 but who1 under      
,queen ,mary1 had to suffer long        
imprisonment1 probably on account of his
 religious opinions4 ,his estates were  
confiscated by the ,crown4 ,after having
 obtained his liberation1 he became a   
priest of the ,reformed ,church of      
,england4 ,two years after his death1   
his widow1 the mother of ,ben1 again    
married3 this time her husband was a    
master bricklayer4 ,the education of the
 boy from the first marriage1 who at an 

early age showed talent for learning1   
was not neglected4 ,it is assumed that  
friends of his father1 seeing ,ben's    
ability1 rendered it possible for him to
 enter ,westminster ,school1 and        
afterwards to study at the ,university  
of ,cambridge4 ,in his seventeenth or   
eighteenth year1 probably from a want of
 means1 he had to give up the career of 
learning1 in order to follow the simple 
calling of his stepfather4 ,it may be   
easily understood that ,ben was little  
pleased with the use of the trowel2 he  
fled to the ,netherlands1 became a      
soldier1 and took part in a campaign4   
,after a year1 the youthful adventurer1 
then only nineteen years old1 came back 
to ,london4 ,he talks of a heroic deed2 
but the truthfulness of his account may 
well be doubted4 ,he pretends having    
killed an enemy1 in the face of both    
camps1 and come back to the ranks1 laden
 with his spoils4  ,after his return to 
,london1 ,jonson first tried to earn his
 livelihood as an actor4 ,his figure #d 

and his scorbutic face were1 however1   
sad hindrances to his success4 ,soon he 
gave up the histrionic attempts and     
began to write additions to existing    
plays1 at the order of a theatrical     
speculator1 of the name of ,philip      
,henslowe4 ,the only further detail we  
have of ,jonson's doings1 down to #aeih1
 #e is1 that he fell out with one of his
 colleagues1 an actor 7,jonson's        
quarrelsome disposition as regards his  
comrades commenced very early71 and that
 finally he killed his antagonist4 ,we  
then find him in prison where a         
,catholic priest induced him to become a
 convert to the ,roman ,church which1   
after the lapse of about twelve years1  
he again left1 returning to the         
,established ,protestant ,church of     
,england4 ,jonson himself afterwards    
said once that 'he was for any religion1
 as being versed in both4' #f ,it is1   
therefore1 not to be assumed that he    
once more changed from conviction4 ,his 
reconversion appears rather to have been

 a prudential act on his part1 in order 
to conform to the religious views of the
 pedantic ,james ,i41 and thus to obtain
 access at ,court1 which aim he indeed  
afterwards reached2 whereas he had not  
been able to obtain that favour under   
,elizabeth4 #g  ,it is not known by     
what1 or by whom1 ,ben ,jonson was saved
 from the near prospect of the gallows4 
,in #aeih his name is mentioned as one  
of the better-known writers of comedies1
 by ,francis ,meres1 in his ',palladis  
,tamia4' ,his first successful comedy   
was1 ',every ,man in his ,humour4' ,fama
 says that the manuscript which the     
author had sent in to the ,lord         
,chamberlain's ,company1 was on the     
point of being rejected when ,shakspere 
requested to have the play given to him1
 read it1 and caused its being acted on 
the stage4 ,this anecdote belongs1      
however1 to the class of traditional    
tales of that age1 whose value for      
fixing facts is a most doubtful one4 ,it
 is more certain that ,ben1 at the age  

of twenty1 took a  wife2 which          
contributed very little to the lessening
 of his chronic poverty with which he   
constantly had to struggle4 ,it does not
 appear that the union was a very happy 
one2 for he relates that he once left   
his wife for five years4  ,a diary      
written by an unknown barrister informs 
us1 ,february #ab1 #afjb3 ',ben ,jonson1
 the poet1 nowe lives upon one          
,townesend and scornes the world4' #h   
,in the society of gallants and lords1  
the young poet felt himself most at     
home4 ,all kinds of mendicant epistles1 
sonnets1 dedications1 petitions1 and so 
forth1 which he addressed to high       
personages1 and which have been         
preserved1 convince us that ,jonson     
neglected nothing that could give an    
opportunity to the generosity of liberal
 noblemen to prove themselves patrons of
 art in regard to him4 ,he boasts on the
 stage of being more in the enjoyment of
 the favour of the great ones than any  
of his literary contemporaries4 #i      

,modesty was certainly not a mitigating 
trait in the character of hot-tempered  
,jonson1 whose wrath was easily roused4 
,convinced of the power of his own      
genius1 he most eagerly wanted to see   
the value of his work acknowledged4 ,not
 satisfied with the slow judgment his   
contemporaries might come to1 or the    
niggardly reward they might confer2 nor 
content with the prospects of a laurel  
wreath which grateful ,posterity lays on
 the marble heads of departed eminent   
men1 this pretentious disciple of the   
,muse importunately claimed his full    
recompense during his own life4 ,for the
 applause of the great mass1 the        
dramatist1 after all1 has to contend4   
,jonson strove hard for it2 but in vain4
 ,a more towering genius was the        
favourite of the age4 ,ben1 however1    
laid the flattering unction to his soul 
that he was above ,shakspere1 #aj even  
as above all other contemporary authors2
 and he left nothing unattempted to gain
 the favour of the great public4 ,all   

his endeavours remained fruitless4 ,on  
every occasion he freely displays the   
rancour he felt at his ill-success2 for 
he certainly was not master of his      
temper4 ,in poems1 epistles1 and        
epigrams1 as well as in his dramas1 and 
in the dedications1 prologues1 and      
epilogues attached thereto1 he shows his
 anger against the 'so-called stage     
poets4' ,we shall prove that his fullest
 indignation is mainly directed against 
one--the very greatest3 need we name    
him8  ,jonson1 resolved upon making the 
most of his ,muse in a remunerative     
sense1 well knew how to obtain the      
patronage of the highest persons of the 
country2 and his ambition seems to have 
found satisfaction when1 afterwards1 a  
call was made upon him1 on the part of  
the ,court1 to compose ',masques' for   
,twelfth-,night and similar             
extraordinary occasions4 ,he produced a 
theatrical piece in consonance with the 
barbaric taste prevailing in ,whitehall1
 which gave plenty to do to the         

machinists1 the decorators1 and the     
play-dresser of the stage4 ,with such a 
division of labour in the domain of art1
 it is not easy1 to-day1 to decide to   
whom the greater merit belongs1 among   
those concerned1 of having afforded     
entertainment to the courtiers4         
,dramatic or poetical value is wanting  
in those productions of ,jonson4  ,from 
his poems1 as well as from the          
',conversations with ,drummond1' we know
 that among the patronesses of ,jonson  
there were ,lucie ,countess of ,bedford 
and ,elizabeth ,countess of             
,rutland--two ladies to whom ,florio    
dedicated a translation of ,montaigne4  
,lady ,rutland's marriage was a most    
unhappy one4 ,in the literary           
intercourse with prominent men of her   
time she appears to have sought         
consolation and distraction4  ,jonson's 
relations with this lady must have been 
rather friendly ones1 for ',ben one day 
being at table with my ,lady ,rutland1  
her husband coming in1 accused her that 

she keept table to poets1 of which she  
wrott a letter to him 7,jonson71 which  
he answered4 ,my lord intercepted the   
letter1 but never chalenged him4' #aa   
,from the same source which makes this  
statement we take the following trait in
 ,jonson's character1 which is as little
 calculated as his passionate           
quarrelsomeness to endear him to us4    
,sir ,thomas ,overbury had become       
enamoured of unhappy ,lady ,rutland4    
,jonson was asked by this nobleman1 who 
at the same time was a poet1 to read to 
the adored one a lyrical effusion of    
his2 evidently for the purpose of       
fomenting her inclinations towards the  
friend who was languishing for her4 ,ben
 ,jonson relates that he fulfilled      
,overbury's wish 'with excellent grace1'
 at the same time praising the author4  
,next morning he fell out with          
,overbury1 who would have him to make an
 unlawful proposal to ,lady ,rutland4   
,but how1 we may ask1 was it possible   
that ,jonson's noble friend could at all

 think of trying to use him as a        
go-between in this shameful manner8 ,are
 we not reminded here of the position of
 thirsty ,toby ,belch towards the simple
 ,aguecheek1 if not even of honest #ab  
,iago in his dealings with the liberal  
,rodrigo8 ,neither in ,olivia's uncle1  
nor in ,othello's ,ancient is it        
reckoned a merit to have omitted doing  
pimp service to friends4 ,their policy  
of taking advantage of amorous          
inclinations1 although they did not even
 try to promote them by the reading of  
poetical productions1 remains not the   
less contemptible4  ,as to ,jonson's    
passion for the cup that does more than 
cheer1 neither he himself conceals it1  
nor is evidence to the same effect      
wanting on the part of his              
contemporaries4 ,drayton says that he   
was in the habit of 'wearing a loose    
coachman's coat1 frequenting the        
,mermaid ,tavern1 where he drank seas of
 ,canary2 then reeling home to bed1 and1
 after a profuse perspiration1 arising  

to his dramatic studies4' #ac  ,at a    
certain time1 ,jonson accompanied a son 
of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh as tutor during
 a voyage to ,france4 ,the young hopeful
 pupil1 'being knavishly inclined1' and 
not less quick in the execution of      
practical jokes than in spying out human
 weaknesses1 had no difficulty in       
understanding his tutor's bent1 and     
succeeded in making ,jonson 'dead       
drunk4' ,he then 'laid him on a carr1   
which he made to be drawen by pioners   
through the streets1 at every corner    
showing his governour stretched out1 and
 telling them1 that was a more lively   
image of the ,crucifix than any they    
had4' ,the mother of young ,raleigh     
greatly relished this sport4 ,it        
reminded her of similar tricks her      
husband had been addicted to in his     
boyish days1 'though the father abhorred
 it4'  ,with habits of the kind         
described1 ,jonson had a hard but       
fruitless struggle against oppressing   
poverty and downright misery during his 

whole life4 ,when age was approaching1  
he addressed himself to his highborn    
patrons with petitions in well-set      
style4 ,his needy condition was1        
however1 little bettered1 even when     
,charles ,i41 in #afcj1 conferred upon  
him1 seven years before his death1 an   
annual pension of #ajj pounds1 with a   
terse of ,spanish wine yearly out of his
 ,majesty's store at ,whitehall4  ,a    
letter of ,sir ,thomas ,hawkins         
describes one of the last circumstances 
of ,jonson's life4 ,at 'a solemn supper 
given by the poet1 when good company1   
excellent cheer1 choice wine1 and jovial
 welcome had opened his heart and       
loosened his tongue1 he began to raise  
himself at the expense of others4'      
,wine1 joviality1 good company1 and     
bitter satire--these were the elements  
of ,ben ,jonson's happiness4  ',o rare  
,ben ,jonson6' ,sir ,john ,young1 #ad   
who1 walking through ,westminster       
,abbey1 saw the bare stone on the poet's
 grave1 gave one of the workmen         

eighteenpence to cut the words in       
question1 and posterity is still in     
doubt whether the word 'rare' was meant 
for the valuable qualities of the poet  
or for those of the boon-companion4  ,we
 will give a short abstract of ,jonson's
 character from the notes of a          
contemporary whose guest he had been    
during fully a month in #afai4 ,one     
might doubt the sincerity of this       
judgment if ,sir ,william ,drummond1 his
 liberal host1 had made it public for   
the purpose of harming ,jonson4 ,there  
was1 however1 no such intention1 for it 
remained in manuscript for fully two    
hundred years4  ,only then1 a copy of   
this incisive characteristic came before
 the world at large4 ,the ,scottish     
nobleman and poet had written it down1  
together with many utterances of        
,jonson1 after his guest who most freely
 and severely criticised his            
contemporaries had left4 ,the           
perspicacity of ,drummond1 and the      
truthful rendering of his impressions1  

are fully confirmed by ,jonson's manner 
of life and the contents of his literary
 productions4 #ae ,drummond concludes   
his notes thus3--  ',he' 7,jonson7 'is a
 great lover and praiser of himself2 a  
contemner and scorner of others2 given  
rather to loose a friend than a jest2   
jealous of every word and action of     
those about him 7especially after drink1
 which is one of the elements in which  
he liveth73 a dissembler of ill parts   
which reigne in him2 a bragger of some  
good that he wanteth2 thinking nothing  
well but what either himself or some of 
his friends and countrymen have said or 
done4 ,he is passionately kind and      
angry2 careless either to gain or keep2 
vindicative1 but1 if he be well         
answered1 at himself4 ,for any religion1
 as being versed in both2 interpreteth  
best sayings and deeds often to the     
worst4 ,oppressed with fantasie1 which  
has ever mastered his reason3 a general 
disease in many poets4'  ,it will easily
 be understood that between two natures 

of so opposite a bent as that of the    
quarrelsome ,jonson and 'gentle         
,shakspere1' friendship for any length  
of time could scarcely be possible4 #af 
,the creations of the dramatist obtain  
their real value by the poet's own      
character4 ,he who breathes a soul into 
so many figures destined for action must
 himself be gifted with a greatness of  
soul that encompasses a world4 ,in the  
dramatic art1 such actions only charm   
which are evolved out of clearly defined
 passions2 and such characters only     
awake interest which bear human features
 strongly marked4 ,if1 however1 we cast 
a glance at the dramatic productions of 
,ben ,jonson1 we in vain look among the 
many figures that crowd his stage for   
one which could inspire us with         
sympathy4 ,time has pronounced its      
verdict against his creations3 they are 
lying in the archive of mere            
curiosities4 ,even the inquirer feels   
ill at ease when going for them to their
 hiding-place4 ,jonson's characters do  

not speak with the ever unmistakeable   
and touching voice of human passions4   
,in his comedies he produces the        
strangest whims1 caprices1 and          
crotchets1 by which he probably points  
to definite persons4 ,the clue to these 
often malignant dialectics is very      
difficult to find4  ,the action of his  
plays--if incidental quarrels1 full of  
sneering allusions1 are left aside--is  
generally of such diminutive proportions
 that one may well ask1 after the       
perusal of some of his dramas1 whether  
they contain any action at all4 ,no     
doubt the satirist1 too1 has his        
legitimate place in the dramatic art2   
but he must know how to hit the         
weaknesses of human nature in certain   
striking types4 ,jonson1 however1 is far
 from being able to lay a claim to such 
dramaturgic merit4 ,at 'haphazard he    
took certain individualities from the   
idly gossiping crowd that congregated in
 the central nave of ,st4 ,paul's       
,church1 and put them on the stage4     

,whoever had been strutting about there 
to-day in his silken stockings1 proudly 
displaying the nodding feathers in his  
hat1 his rich waist-coat and mantle1 and
 boasting a little too loud before some 
other gallant of his love adventures1   
ran great danger--like all those whose  
demeanour in ,st4 ,paul's gave rise to  
backbiting gossip--of being pourtrayed  
in the ',rose1' in the ',curtain1' or in
 the theatres of the 'little eyases1' in
 such a manner that people were able1 in
 the streets1 to point them out with    
their fingers4  ,like so many other     
novelties1 this kind of comedy1 too1 may
 for a while have found its admirers4   
,soon1 however1 this degradation of the 
,muse brought up such a storm that      
,jonson had to take refuge in another   
domain of the dramatic art 7#afja74 ,he 
himself confesses3--    ,and since the  
,comic ,muse   ,hath proved so ominous  
to me1 ,i will try   ,if ,tragedy have a
 more kind aspect4 #ag  ,but he is      
nothing if not satirical4 ,the persons  

that are to enliven his tragedies are   
not filled with the true breath of life4
 ,they are mere phantoms or puppets of  
schoolcraft1 laboriously put together by
 a learning drawn from old folios4 ,in  
his tragedies1 ',sejanus' and           
',cataline1' he seeks to describe       
,romans whose whole bearing was to be in
 pedantically close harmony with the    
time in which the dramatic action       
occurs4 ,only a citizen from a certain  
period of ancient ,rome would be able to
 decide whether this difficult but      
thankless problem had been solved4      
,these cold academic treatises--for such
 we must1 practically1 take them to     
be--were not relished by the public4    
,there is no vestige of human passion in
 the bookish heroes thus put on the     
stage4 ,for their sorrows the audience  
has no feeling of fear or anguish and no
 tear of compassion4  ,jonson1 indignant
 at the small estimate in which his     
arduously composed works were received1 
ill-humoured by their want of success1  

looked enviously upon ,shakspere1 who   
had not been academically schooled2 who 
audaciously overthrew the customs of the
 antique drama2 who made his own rules1 
or rather1 who made himself a rule to   
others2 who created metrics that were   
peculiarly his2 who chose themes        
hitherto considered non-permissible1 and
 unusual with ,greeks and ,romans2 who  
flung the 'three unities' to the winds2 
and who1 nevertheless1 had an unheard-of
 success6  ,this favourite of the       
public1 ,jonson seems to have looked    
upon as the main obstacle barring the   
way to his own genius4 ,against this    
towering rival1 ,jonson directed a hail 
of satirical arrows4 ,only take1 for    
instance1 the prologue to ',every ,man  
in his ,humour4' #ah ,there1 ,jonson1   
with the most arrogant conceit1 tries to
 make short work of various dramas of   
,shakspere's--for instance1 of his      
historical plays1 in which he dared--   
444 with three rusty swords1   ,and help
 of some few foot and half-foot words1  

,fight over ,york and ,lancaster's long 
jars1   ,and in the tyring-house bring  
wounds to scars4  ,in ',the ,poetaster1'
 which in #afja was acted by the        
children of the ,queen's ,chapel1       
,jonson made an attack upon three poets4
 ,we hope to be able to prove that the  
one most bitterly abused1 and who is    
bidden to swallow the 'pill1' is no     
other than ,shakspere1 whilst the two   
remaining ones are ,john ,marston and   
,thomas ,dekker4 ,from the              
',apologetical ,dialogue' which ,jonson 
wrote after ',the ,poetaster' had       
already passed over the stage1 we see   
that this satire had excited the        
greatest indignation and sensation in   
the dramatic world4 ,it was a new manner
 of falling out with a colleague before 
the public4 ,the conceited presumption  
of the author1 who in the play itself   
assumes the part of ,horace1 seriously  
proclaiming himself as the poet of      
poets1 as the worthiest of the worthy1  
is not less enormous and repulsive than 

the way in which he proceeds against his
 rivals4  ,quite innocently1 ,jonson    
asks in that dialogue 7which was spoken 
on the stage after ',the ,poetaster' had
 given rise to a general squabble71 how 
it came about that such a hubbub was    
made of that play1 seeing that it was   
free from insults1 only containing 'some
 salt' but 'neither tooth1 nor gall1'   
whilst his antagonists1 after all1 had  
been the cause of whatever remarks he   
himself had made3--    444 ,but sure ,i 
am1 three years   ,they did provoke me  
with their petulant styles1   ,on every 
stage4 ,and ,i at last1 unwilling1      
,but weary1 ,i confess1 of so much      
trouble1   ,thought ,i would try if     
shame could win upon 'em4  ,in some     
comedies of ,shakspere1 which appeared  
between the years #aeih and #afja1 there
 are characters markedly stamped with   
,jonsonian peculiarities4 ,we may be    
convinced that 'gentle ,shakspere' had  
received many a provocation #ai before  
he took notice of the obscure dramatist 

who was younger by ten years than       
himself1 and publicly gave him a strong 
lesson4 ',all's ,well that ,ends ,well' 
contains a figure1 ,parolles1 whose     
peculiarities are too closely akin to   
those of ,ben ,jonson to be regarded as 
a mere fortuitous accident2 especially  
when we find that ,jonson1 in ',the     
,poetaster1' again tries to ridicule    
this hit by a characteristic expression4
 #bj  ,parolles is a follower of ,count 
,rousillon4 ,his position is not further
 defined than that he follows ,bertram2 
he is a cross between a gentleman and a 
servant4 ,we hear the old ,lord ,lafeu  
reproaching him in act ii4 sc4 #c3--    
',why dost thou garter up thy arms o'   
this fashion8 dost make hose of thy     
sleeves8 ,do other servants do so8'     
,again he calls him--'a vagabond1 no    
true traveller3 you are more saucy with 
lords and honourable personages than the
 heraldry of your birth and virtue gives
 you commission4' #ba  ,parolles boasts 
of being born under the sign of ,mars1  

and up to every heroic deed2 and it is  
certainly an allusion to ,jonson's      
bravado of having in the ,low           
,countries1 in the face of both camps1  
killed an enemy and taken opima spolia  
from him1 that ,shakspere lets this     
character make the attempt to retake1   
single-handed1 from the enemy1 a drum   
that had been lost in the battle4 ,of   
course1 ,parolles finally comes out a   
coward and a traitor4 ,parolles also    
mentions that he understands ',low      
,dutch4'  ,in the character of ,malvolio
 7',twelfth ,night2 or ,what ,you       
,will1' #afjj-afja71 the quarrelsome    
,ben has long ago been suspected1 who1  
puffed up with braggart pride1          
contemptuously looks down upon his      
colleagues1 and impudently exerts       
himself to gain access to high social   
circles2 thus assuming1 like ,parolles1 
a position that does not properly belong
 to him4 ,even as ,lord ,lafeu takes    
,parolles a peg lower1 so ,sir ,toby    
7act4 ii4 sc4 #c7 reminds the haughty   

,malvolio that he is nothing more than a
 steward4 ,the religion of ,malvolio    
also is several times discussed4 ,merry 
,maria relates that he is a ',puritan or
 anything constantly but a              
time-pleaser4' ,nor is the priest       
wanting who is to drive out the         
hyperbolical fiend from the captive     
,malvolio3 an unmistakeable allusion to 
,ben ,jonson's conversion in prison4    
,the ,fool who represents the ,priest1  
puts a question referring to ,pythagoras
 to ,malvolio who is groaning 'in       
darkness' and yearning for freedom4 ,he 
receives an evasive answer from the     
prisoner4 ,in ',volpone1' as we shall   
see1 ,jonson answers it very fully4 #bb 
,altogether1 there are allusions in     
',the ,poetaster1' and in ',volpone1' to
 ',all's ,well that ,ends ,well1' and to
 ',what ,you ,will1' which we shall have
 to touch upon in speaking of those     
plays4  ,the scene of ',the ,poetaster' 
is laid at the court of ,augustus       
,caesar4 ,jonson therein describes      

himself under the character of ,horace4 
,the whole drift of the play is1 to take
 the many enemies of the latter to task 
for their calumnies and libels against  
him4 ,rome is the place of action1 and  
the persons of the drama bear classic   
names4 ,there are1 besides ,augustus and
 ,horace1 ,mecaenas 7sic71 ,virgil1     
,propertius1 ,trebatius1 ,ovid1         
,demetrius ,fannius1 ,rufus ,laberius   
,crispinus1 and so forth4 ,the          
characters whom they are to represent   
are mostly authors of the dramatic world
 around ,ben ,jonson4 ,they are depicted
 with traits so easily recognisable     
that--as ,dekker says in his            
',satiromastix'--of five hundred people 
four hundred could 'all point with their
 fingers in one instant at one and the  
same man4'  ,more especially against two
 disciples of the ,muse is ,jonson's    
'gally ink' directed4 ,let us give a few
 instances of the lampoons and          
calumnious squibs by which ,horace      
pretends having been insulted on the    

part of envious colleagues who1 he      
maintains1 look askance at him because  
'he keeps more worthy gallants' company'
 than they can get into4 ,in act iv4 sc4
 ,i1 ,demetrius tells ,tucca3--  ',alas1
 ,sir1 ,horace6 he is a mere sponge2    
nothing but humours and observation2 he 
goes up and down1 sucking from every    
society1 and when he comes home1        
squeezes himself dry again4'  ,tucca    
adds3--',he will sooner lose his best   
friend than his least jest4'  ,crispinus
 is found guilty of having composed a   
libel against ,horace1 of which the     
following may serve as a specimen3--    
,ramp up my genius1 be not retrograde2  
,but boldly nominate a spade a spade4   
,what1 shall thy lubrical and glibbery  
muse   ,live1 as she were defunct1 like 
punk in stews8   ,alas6 that were no    
modern consequence1   ,to have cothurnal
 buskins frighted hence4   ,no1 teach   
thy ,incubus to poetize2   ,and throw   
abroad thy spurious snotteries4444   ,o 
poets all and some6 for now we list     

,of strenuous vengeance to clutch the   
fist4  ,such was the language the       
contemporaries of ,shakspere used4 ,are 
we to wonder1 then1 if here and there we
 find in his works an offensive         
expression8  ,the two persons who are   
specially taken to task1 and most       
harshly treated1 are ,demetrius         
,fannius1 'play-dresser and plagiarius1'
 and ,,rufus ,,laberius ,,crispinus1    
'poetaster and plagiarius4' ,in         
',satiromastix1' ,demetrius clearly     
comes out as ,dekker4 ,crispinus is the 
chief character of the play3--'the      
poetaster4' ,against him the satire is  
mainly directed1 and for his sake it    
seems to have been written1 for the     
title runs thus3 ',the ,poetaster1 or   
,his ,arraignment4' ,from all the       
characteristic qualities of ,crispinus  
we draw the conclusion that this figure 
represented ,,shakspere4  ,from the     
above-mentioned passage in ',the ,return
 from ,parnassus' it would seem as if a 
'pill' had been administered in the play

 to several poets4 ,that is1 however1   
not so4 ,then1 as now1 the plural form  
was a favourite one with writers afraid 
to attack openly4 ,horace administers a 
pill only to one poet--to ,crispinus4   
,and as ,kemp says that ,shakspere1     
thereupon1 gave a 'purge1' the          
conclusion is obvious that he who took  
revenge by administering the purge1 must
 have been the one to whom the pill had 
been given4 ',volpone1' a play directed 
against the 'purge'--that is1           
',hamlet'--will convince us that the    
chief controversy lay between ,jonson   
and ,shakspere1 and not between ,jonson 
and ,dekker4  ,the following points     
will1 we think1 make it still clearer   
that we are warranted in believing that 
the figure of ,crispinus was intended by
 ,jonson for ,shakspere4  ,when1 in     
presence of ,augustus1 as well as of the
 high jurors ,maecenas1 ,tibullus1 and  
,virgil1 the two poetasters have been   
heard2 when ,horace has forgiven        
,demetrius1 #bc and ,crispinus1 under   

the sharp effects of the pill1 has      
thrown up1 amidst great pain1 #bd the   
disgraceful words which he had used     
against ,horace1 he is dismissed by the 
latter with the admonition to observe1  
in future1 a strict and wholesome diet2 
to take each morning something of       
,cato's principles2 then taste a piece  
of ,terence and suck his phrase2 to shun
 ,plautus and ,ennius as meats too harsh
 for his weak stomach1 and to read the  
best ,greeks1 'but not without a tutor4'
  ,this fits in with ,shakspere's 'small
 ,latin and less ,greek'--a circumstance
 of which ,jonson himself1 in his poem  
in memory of ,shakspere 7#afbc71 thought
 he should remind the coming            
generations4  ,it is1 no doubt1 a little
 revenge for the 'dark chamber' in which
 ,malvolio #be is imprisoned1 that1     
after ,horace has concluded his speech  
in which the study of ,latin and ,greek 
is recommended to ,crispinus as         
something very necessary for him1       
,virgil should add the further advice3--

    ,and for a week or two see him      
locked up   ,in some dark place1 removed
 from company2   ,he will talk idly else
 after his physic4  ,the full name given
 by ,jonson to ,crispinus is--,,rufus   
,,laberius ,,crispinus4 ,john ,marston  
already1 in #aeih1 designates ,shakspere
 with the nickname ',rufus4' ,everyone  
can convince himself of this by first   
reading ,shakspere's  ',venus and       
,adonis1' and immediately afterwards    
,john ,marston's ',metamorphosis of     
,pigmalion's ,image4' #bf ,we do not    
know whether it has struck anyone as yet
 that this poem of ,marston is a most   
evident satire1 written even in the same
 metre as ,shakspere's first1 and at    
that time most popular1 poem4 #bg ,in   
his sixth satire of ',the ,scourge of   
,villanie1' ,marston explains why he had
 composed his  ',pigmalion's ,image3'-- 
,yet deem'st that in sad seriousnesse ,i
 write   such nasty stuff as in         
,pigmalion8   ,such maggot-tainted1 lewd
 corruption6 444   ,hence1 thou         

misjudging censor3 know ,i wrot   ,those
 idle rimes to note the odious spot     
and blemish that deformes the lineaments
   of modern poesies habiliments4  ,at  
the end of his satire 7',pigmalion's    
,image'71 ,marston self-complacently    
tacks on a concluding piece3 ',the      
,author in ,praise of his ,precedent    
,poem4' ,whom else does he address there
 than him whose poetical manner he      
wished to mock--namely1                 
,shakspere's--when he begins with these 
words3--    ,now1 ,rufus6 by old        
,glebron's fearfull mace1   ,hath not my
 ,muse deserv'd a worthy place8 444     
,is not my pen compleate8 ,are not my   
lines   ,right in the swaggering humour 
of these times8  ,the name of ',rufus'  
has two peculiarities which may have    
induced ,marston to confer it upon      
,shakspere4 ,first of all1 like the     
,english king of that name1 ,shakspere's
 pre-name was ,william4 ,secondly1 the  
best-preserved portrait of ,shakspere   
shows him with hair verging upon a      

reddish hue4  ,but not only the colour  
of the hair1 but also its thinness      
7according to all pictures and busts we 
have of ,shakspere1 he was bald-headed71
 seems to have been satirised by ,jonson
 in his ',poetaster4' ,in act ii4 sc4   
#a1 ,chloe asks ,crispinus1 who1 excited
 by her love and her beauty1 pretends   
becoming a poet1 whether1 as a poet1 he 
would also change his hair8 ,to which   
,crispinus replies1 ',why1 a man may be 
a poet1 and yet not change his hair4'   
,now ,dekker1 in his ',satiromastix1 in 
which all personal insults are to be    
avenged #bh7;for which reason the chief 
personages of ',the ,poetaster' are     
introduced under the same name71 makes  
,horace give forth a long song in praise
 of 'heades thicke of hair1' whilst     
,crispinus gives another in honour of   
'balde heads2' from which we conclude   
that ,chloe's remark on ,crispinus' hair
 has reference to a bald pate1 but the  
name of ',rufus' to the colour of       
whatever hair there is4  ',rufus        

,laberius ,crispinus' might truly be    
thus rendered3 ',the red-haired         
,,shak-erius1 with the crisp-head1 who  
cribs like ,st4 ,crispin4' ,the word    
,rufus1 as already explained1 reminds us
 both of ,shakspere's red hair and his  
pre-name ',william4' ,laberius 7from    
labare1 to shake2 hence ,shak-erius1 a  
similar nickname as ,greene's           
,,shake-scene7 is clearly an indication 
of the poet's family name4 ,the ,roman  
custom of placing the name of the gens1 
or family1 in the middle of a person's  
name1 leaves no doubt as to ,jonson's   
intention4 ,laberius was a dramatic     
poet1 even as ,shakspere4 ,laberius was 
an actor 7,suet4 c4i4 #ci74 ,so was     
,shakspere4 ,laberius played in his own 
dramas4 ,shakspere did the same4        
,laberius' name corresponds             
etymologically1 as regards meaning1 to  
the root-syllable in ,shakspere's name4 
,could ,jonson1 who was so well versed  
in classics1 have made his satirical    
allusion plainer or more poignant8 ,in  

,crispinus1 both ,shakspere's curly hair
 and the offence of application1        
plagiarism1 or literary theft1 with     
which he is charged by his antagonist1  
are manifestly marked2 ,st4 ,crispin    
being noted among the saints for his    
filching habits4 ,he made shoes for the 
poor from materials stolen from the     
rich4  ,crispinus approaches ,horace    
quite as a ',johannes ,factotum1' as    
,greene had designated ,shakspere in    
#aeib4 ,jonson makes him assert that he1
 too1 is a scholar1 a writer conversant 
with every kind of poetry1 and a ,stoic4
 ,he also declares that he is studying  
architecture1 and that1 if he builds a  
house1 #bi it must be similar to one    
before which they are standing4  ,in    
,dekker's ',satiromastix1' ,crispinus is
 described as being of a most gentle    
nature4 ,this is in harmony with the    
well-known quality generally attributed 
to ,shakspere4 ,in the beginning of     
',satiromastix1' ,crispinus approaches  
,horace for the object of peace and     

reconciliation4 ,the latter excuses     
himself1 in words similar to those of   
the ',apologetical ,dialogue1' that even
 if he should 'dip his pen in distilde  
,roses1' or strove to drain out of his  
ink all gall1 #cj yet his enemies would 
look at his writings 'with sharpe and   
searching eyes4' ,nay--    ,when my     
lines are measur'd out as straight   ,as
 even parallels1 'tis strange that      
still1   ,still some imagine they are   
drawne awry4   ,the error is not mine1  
but in their eye2   ,that cannot take   
proportions4    ,crispinus4 ,horrace1   
,horrace6   ,to stand within the shot of
 galling tongues1   ,proves not your    
gilt1 for could we write on paper1      
,made of these turning leaves of heaven1
 the cloudes1   ,or speak with ,angels  
tongues3 yet wise men know1   ,that some
 would shake the head1 tho' saints      
should sing1   ,some snakes must hisse1 
because they're borne with stings4      
,horace4 ',t is true4    ,crispinus4    
,doe we not see fooles laugh at heaven8 

and mocke   ,the ,makers workmanship8   
,crispinus goes on telling ,horace that 
none are safe from such calumnies2 but  
that1 if his 'dastard wit' will 'strike 
at men in corners1' if he will 'in      
riddles folde the vices' of his best    
friends1 then he must expect also that  
they will 'take off all gilding from    
their pilles1' and offer him 'the bitter
 coare' 7core74 #ca ,with great         
emphasis1 ,crispinus admonishes ,horace 
not to swear that he did not intend     
whipping the private vices of his       
friends while his 'lashing jestes make  
all men bleed4' ,crispinus concludes his
 mild1 conciliatory speech with the     
words3--    ,we come like your          
phisitions 7physicians7 to purge   ,your
 sicke and daungerous minde of her      
disease4  ,a peace is then concluded1   
which ,horace 7,jonson7 again breaks1   
for which he receives his punishment    
towards the end of ',satiromastix4'     
,dekker1 who brings in the chief        
personages of ',the ,poetaster' under   

the same name1 makes1 in this           
counter-piece1 two parts of the figure  
of ,rufus ,laberius ,crispinus--namely1 
that of ,william ,rufus1 the king1 at   
whose court he lays the scene 7,jonson's
 drama has the court of ,augustus71 and 
that of ,crispinus1 the poet4 ,the part 
of the king is a very unimportant one2  
and it may be assumed that ,dekker      
intended the king and the poet to be    
looked upon as the same person4 ,the    
object of the play-dresser ,demetrius   
7,dekker7 was1 no doubt1 to do homage in
 this way to his chief ,crispinus--that 
is1 ,shakspere4 ,when the accused       
,horace is to be judged1 the ,king says 
to ,crispinus3--    ,not under us1 but  
next us take thy seate2   ,artes        
nourished by ,kings make ,kings more    
great4  ,crispinus declares ,horace     
guilty of having 'rebelled against the  
sacred laws of divine ,poesie1' not out 
of love of virtue1 but--    ,thy pride  
and scorn made her turne saterist4      
,horace1 on account of his crimes       

against the sacred laws of divine poesy1
 is not 'lawrefyed1' but 'nettlefyed3'  
not crowned with laurels1 but with a    
wreath of nettles1 and afterwards1 in   
,sancho ,panza manner1 tossed in a      
blanket4 ,he then is told3--',you shall 
not sit in a ,gallery when your         
,comedies and ,enterludes have entred   
their ,actions1 and there make vile     
faces at everie lyne1 to make ,gentlemen
 have an eye to you1 and to make        
,players afraide to take your part4'    
,furthermore1 he 'must forsweare to     
venter on the stage when your ,play is  
ended1 and to exchange courtezies and   
complements with ,gallants in the       
,lordes roomes1 to make all the house   
rise up in ,armes1 and to cry that's    
,horace1 that's he1 that's he1 that's   
he1 that pennes and purges ,humours and 
diseases4' ,he must promise 'not to brag
 in ,bookebinders shops that your       
,vize-royes or ,tributorie ,kings have  
done homage to you1 or paide            
,quarterage4' ,and--'when your ,playes  

are misse-likt at ,court1 you shall not 
,crye ,mew like a ,pusse-,cat1 and say  
you are glad you write out of the       
,courtiers ,elements4' #cb  ,in his     
,preface to ',satiromastix' 7',to the   
,world '71 ,dekker says that in this    
play he did 'only whip his 7,horace's7  
fortunes and condition of life1 where   
the more noble ,,reprehension had bin of
 his ,,mindes ,,deformitie4' #cc  ,this 
nobler reprehension1 as we have         
sufficiently shown1 was undertaken by   
,shakspere in his ',hamlet4' #cd        
,dekker1 in his ,epilogue to            
',satiromastix' 7he there speaks of the 
',heretical ,libertine ,horace'71 asks  
the public for its applause2 for ,horace
 would thereby be induced to write a    
counter-play3 which1 if they hissed his 
own ',satiromastix1' would not be the   
case4 ,by applauding1 they would thus1  
in fact1 get more sport2 for we 'will   
untrusse him agen1 and agen1 and agen4' 
,shakspere may have been tired of this  
fruitless pastime1 of those pitiful     

squabbles1 as appears also from the     
reproach he makes in ',hamlet'to his    
people4 ,by the 'more noble             
,,reprehension' which he administered to
 ,jonson and his party1 he became       
absorbed in the profounder problems     
concerning mankind4 ,the time of the    
lighter comedies is now past for him4   
,there follow now his grandest          
master-works4 ,henceforth the poet      
stands in a relation created by himself 
to his ,god and to the world4  ,we      
proceed to an examination of ',volpone1'
 of that play which ,jonson sent as a   
counter-thrust after ',hamlet1' and from
 which1 as regards our                  
,hamlet-,montaigne theory1 we hope to   
convince our readers in the clearest    
manner possible4   #a3 ,arber's ,english
 ,scholars ,library1 #ahgi1 shows that  
this highly    interesting drama was for
 the first time given at ,cambridge in  
#afjb4 ,if so1 the manuscript has       
unquestionably received additions       
during the four years before its        

appearance in print4 ,the fact is1    we
 find in the play certain evident       
allusions which could not    possibly   
have been added before the years        
#afjc-d2 for instance1    references to 
the translators of ,montaigne--,john    
,florio1 and the    friends who aided   
him2--references which must have been   
made after    the ,essais were          
published4     ,in act i4 sc4 #b1       
,judicio speaks of the ,english ',flores
 ,poetarum1    against whom can-quaffing
 hucksters shoot their pellets4' ,these 
',flores ,poetarum' are ,florio and his 
fellow-workers1 among whom ,ben         
,jonson is also to be reckoned2 and we  
shall see farther on that the    latter 
abuses these offensive hucksters as     
'vernaculous orators1'    because they  
make ,montaigne the target of their     
sneers4 ,again1    in act iv4 sc4 #b1   
,furor ,poeticus1 ,ingenioso1 and       
,phantasma indulge    in expressions    
which can only apply to the ,dedications
 and the    ,sonnets of ,florio's       

translation4 ,phantasma1 for instance1  
addresses    an ,ode of ,horace to      
himself3--       ',maecenas1 atavis     
edite regibus1      ,o et praesidium et 
dulce decus meum      ,dii faciant votis
 vela secunda tuis4'     ,the latter    
line ought to run3--       ,sunt1 quos  
curriculo pulverem ,olympicum1     and  
if we take into consideration that      
,juror says in the same    scene3--     
,and when thy swelling vents amain1     
,then ,pisces be thy sporting           
chamberlain1     it is not asserting too
 much that these are manifest hits at   
,florio1    who1 to please his          
,maecenas1 tries with ,dr4 ,diodati1 his
 'guide-fish'    to capture the 'whale' 
in the 'rocke rough ocean4'             
,florio's way of translating the ,latin 
classic writers into    indifferent     
,english rhymes is also repeatedly      
ridiculed4 ,the    latter 7,florio1 p4  
#egd47 once gives a passage from        
,plautus    7,the ,captives1 ,prologue1 
v4 #bb7 correctly enough3 ',the ,gods1  

perdye 7pardieu71 doe reckon and racket 
us men as their    tennis balls4' ,furor
 ,poeticus1 in one of his fits of fine  
frenzy1    accuses ,phoebus3--          
,the heavens' promoter that doth peep   
and prey      ,into the acts of mortal  
tennis balls4     ,this he says after   
having1 in the same highly comic speech1
    travestied ,florio's ,dedication of 
the third book1 in which that    gallant
 compares himself to ',mercury between  
the radiant orbs of    ,venus and the   
,moon'--that is1 the two ladies to whom 
he dedicates    the book in question1   
and before whom he alleges he 'leads a  
dance4' ,a further sneer is directed by 
,furor ,poeticus against the    lazy    
manner with which ,florio's ,muse rises 
from her nest4     ,additional allusions
 to dramatic publications from the years
    #afjc-d will be found on pp4 #bja1  
#bjb4 ,another proof that the play      
7,the ,return from ,parnassus7 cannot be
 of a uniform cast1    is this3 ,in act 
i4 sc4 #b a list of the poets is given1 

that are to    be criticised4 ,the list 
is kept up in proper succession as far  
as    ',john ,davis4' ,then there are   
variations1 and names not contained     
in that list4 ,these additions mostly   
refer to dramatic authors1    whilst the
 previous names1 as far as ',john       
,davis1' only refer to    lyric poets4  
,we believe the intention of the first  
writer of ,the ,return    from          
,parnassus was only to criticise lyric  
poets4 ,moreover1    ,monius says in the
 ,prologue3--',what is presented here1  
is an old    musty show1 that has lain  
this twelvemonth in the bottom of a     
coal-house amongst brooms and old       
shoes4' ,our opinion is that    ,the    
,return from ,parnassus1 after having   
been acted before    a learned public at
 ,cambridge1 came into the hands of     
players    who applied the manner in    
which lyric poets had been criticised   
in it1 to dramatic writers4 ,the authors
 of the additions must    have been     
friends of ,shakspere2 for1 as we shall 

find1 the enemies    of the latter are  
also theirs4   #b3 ,act iv4 sc4 #c4     
#c3 ,in ,the ,poetaster1 of which we    
shall speak farther on4   #d3 ,according
 to certain indications in              
,satiromastix1    he had an 'ambling'   
walk1 or dancing kind of step4 7,see    
note    #bh47   #e3 ,collier's ,memoirs 
of ,alleyn1 pp4 #ej and #ea4   #f3      
,conversations with ,drummond4   #g3    
,satiromastix1 #afjb4   #h3 ,collier's  
,drama1 i4 #ccd4   #i3 ,poetaster4  #aj3
 ,compare his ,dedication in ,volpone1  
of which we shall have    more to say4  
#aa3 ,drummond's ,conversations4  #ab3  
,of all styles1 ,jonson liked best to be
 named ',honest2' and he    'hath ane   
hundred letters so naming               
him4'--,conversations with    ,drummond4
  #ac3 ,life of ,dryden1 p4 #bfe4  #ad3 
,by ,aubrey called ',jack ,young4'  #ae3
 ,as if the whole world had made it a   
point to conspire against    ,jonson1   
,gifford laboriously exerts himself to  
defend him against the    numberless    

attacks of all the previous             
commentators1 critics1 and              
biographers4 ,the endeavour of ,gifford 
to whitewash him seems to me    as      
fruitless a beginning as that of the    
little innocent represented    in a     
picture as trying to change1 with sponge
 and soap1 the ,african    colour of her
 nurse's face4  #af3 ,jonson's ,eulogy  
of ,shakspere was composed seven years  
after the    death of the latter4       
,having most probably been requested by 
,heminge and ,condell not to withhold   
his tribute from the departed1    to    
whom both his contemporaries as well as 
posterity had done homage1    ,jonson   
may readily have seized the occasion to 
do amends for the    wrong he had       
inflicted upon the great poet during his
 lifetime4 ,a    later opinion of       
,jonson in regard to ,shakspere         
7,timber2 or    ,discoveries made upon  
,men and ,matter1 #afcj-cg7 is of a more
 moderate    tone1 and on some points in
 contradiction to the words of praise   

contained in the published poem4  #ag3  
,poetaster1 ,apol4 ,dialogue4  #ah3     
,this ,prologue is not contained in the 
first edition 7#aeih71 but    only in   
the second 7#afaf74 ,it may1 therefore1 
have been written    in the meantime4   
,it is supposed that it was so in #afjf4
 7,see    ,shakspere's ,century of      
,praise1 #ahgi1 pp4 #aah1 #aai47  #ai3  
,only a few of the earliest productions 
of ,jonson have come    down to us4     
,some of them are3 ,every ,man in ,his  
,humour    7#aeih72 ,every ,man out of  
,his ,humour 7#aeii72 and ,cynthia's    
,revels 7#afjj71 all of them full of    
personal allusions4 ,many of    these   
are meant against ,shakspere4 ,we       
cannot1 however1 enter more    fully    
upon that1 as we have to confine        
ourselves to the chief    controversy   
out of which ,hamlet arose4 ,neither on 
,jonson's    nor on ,shakspere's part   
did the controversy cease after the     
appearance of ,hamlet4 ,it was still    
carried on through several    dramas1   

which1 however1 we leave untouched1 as  
not belonging    to our theme4  #bj3    
,see note #be4  #ba3 ,in ,satiromastix  
this reproach is made to ,ben           
,jonson3--',horace    did not screw and 
wriggle himselfe into great ,mens       
famyliarity1    impudentlie as thou     
doost4'  #bb3 ,gifford1 in his nervous  
anxiety to parry every reproach         
against his much-admired1 and1 in his   
eyes1 blameless ,jonson whose           
quarrelsomeness had from so many parts  
been properly charged1 and              
particularly desirous of shielding him  
against the accusation of    having     
taken up an attitude hostile to         
,shakspere1 declares1 in                
contradiction to the opinion of all     
previous commentators1 that             
,crispinus is to represent ,john        
,marston4 ,since then1 ,gifford's       
assertion has been taken for granted1   
without deeper inquiry4 ,the            
authority of this fond editor of ,jonson
 has1 however1 proved an                

untrustworthy one in many things1       
especially in matters relating to       
,shakspere4 ,thanks to the exertions of 
more recent inquirers1 not a    a few   
things are now seen in a better         
perspective than ,gifford was    able to
 offer4 ,we admit the difficulty of     
reconstructing facts from    productions
 like ,the ,poetaster1 which had been   
dictated by the    overwrought feelings 
of the moment4 ,but in a satire which   
bred so much    'tumult1' which 'could  
so deeply offend1' and 'stir so many    
hornets'    7four hundred persons out of
 five hundred being able to point with  
their fingers1 in one instant1 at one   
and the same man71 the    characters    
must have been very broadly drawn for   
general    recognition4 ,by such broad  
traits we must still be guided in our   
judgment to-day4 ,all the characteristic
 qualities of ,crispinus1    which we   
shall explain farther on1 prove that    
,gifford's idea about    ,crispinus     
being ,john ,marston is not tenable4    

,this latter poet was very well versed  
in ,greek and ,latin1 and had a         
complete classic education4 ,the        
admonition of ,horace to perfect        
himself in both languages1 is therefore 
not applicable to him4    ,furthermore1 
,marston1 at the time ,the ,poetaster   
was composed 7this    may have been     
towards the end of the year #afjj1 or   
the beginning of    #afja71 had scarcely
 yet written anything for the stage4    
,only his    ,metamorphosis of          
,pigmalion's ,image and ,certaine       
,satyres 7#aeih71    and his ,scourge of
 ,villanie 7#aeii7 had been published4  
,his first    tragedy came out in print 
in #afjb2 it may just have been in      
course    of becoming known on the      
stage4 ,we have no means of ascertaining
    whether it had already been acted   
when ,the ,poetaster appeared4    ,this 
much is however certain1 that when this 
latter satire obtained    publicity1    
,marston's relations to the drama and   
the stage must yet    have been of the  

most insignificant kind2 for ,philip    
,henslowe1 in    his ,diary 7pp4 #aef1  
#aeg71 expressly speaks of him1 even in 
#aeii1 as    a 'new' poet to whom he had
 lent1 through an intermediary1 the sum 
of forty shillings 'in earneste of a    
,boocke1' the title of which is    not  
mentioned4 ,is it1 then1 conceivable    
that such a dramatist who    in #afja   
certainly was yet very insignificant1   
should have been made    the subject1 in
 #afja1 in ,jonson's ,poetaster1 of the 
following    very characteristic        
remark--assuming ,crispinus to have been
    intended for ,marston8     ,tucca   
says1 in regard to the former1 to a poor
 player 7act    iii4 sc4 i73--',if he   
pen for thee once1 thou shalt not need  
to travel    with thy pumps full of     
gravel any more1 after a blind jade and 
a    hamper1 and stalk upon boards and  
barrel-heads to an old cracked          
trumpet4'     ,does this not quite fit  
,shakspere's popularity and dramatic    
success8     ,jonson1 it is true1 tells 

,drummond that he had written his       
,poetaster against ,marston4 7,according
 to his declaration in the              
',apologetical ,dialogue1' there is     
nothing personal in the whole           
,poetaster6 ',i can profess ,i never    
writt that piece more innocent    or    
empty of offence4'7 ,however1 we form   
our judgment in this    matter from the 
clear1 well-marked1 and indubitably     
characteristic    traits of the play1 as
 well as from the results of modern     
criticism1    which are fully in harmony
 with those traits4 ,everything points  
to the figure of ,ovid being a mask for 
,marston4 ,jonson perhaps    chose the  
name of ,ovid for him because he1 too1  
had written    ,metamorphoses4 ,besides 
the before-mentioned ,metamorphosis     
of ,pigmalion's ,image1 it is not       
improbable that ,marston is the         
author of the manuscript preserved in   
the ,british ,museum3--,the    ,new     
,metamorphosis2 or1 ,a ,feaste or       
,fancie of ,poeticall ,legendes4    ,the

 first parte divided into twelve books4 
,written by ,i4 ,m41    gent41 #afjj4   
,ovid--,marston--in the ,poetaster1 is  
described as the    younger son of a    
gentleman of considerable position4 ,he 
is    dependent on a stipend allowed to 
him by his father4 ,after having        
absolved his studies1 he is to become an
 advocate1 but secretly he    devotes   
his time to poetry4 ,the father warns   
him that poverty will    be his lot if  
he does not renounce poetry4 ,ovid      
senior makes the    following reproach  
to his son 7which probably has reference
 to    ,marston's first tragedy1        
,antonio and ,mellida73--',i hear of a  
tragedy of yours coming forth for the   
common players there1 called    ,medea4 
,by my household gods1 if ,i come to the
 acting of it1 ,i'll    add one tragic  
part more than is yet expected to it4444
 ,what8    shall ,i have my son a stager
 now8 an enghle for players8444         
,publius1    ,i will set thee on the    
funeral pile first6'     ,all this      

harmonises with the few facts we know of
 ,marston's    career1 who is said to   
have been the son of a counsellor of the
    ,middle ,temple1 who was at ,corpus 
,christi ,college at ,oxford1    and who
 was made a baccalaureus there on       
,february #bc1 #aeib4 ,in    comparison 
with ,crispinus and ,demetrius1 ,ovid is
 but mildly    chaffed2 and this1 again1
 is in accord with the relations which  
soon    after arose1 in a very friendly 
manner1 between ,jonson and ,marston4   
,it    is scarcely to be thought that1  
if ,marston had been derided as         
,crispinus1 he would already have       
composed1 as early as #afjc1 his        
eulogistic poem on ,jonson's ,sejanus1  
and dedicated to him in    #afjd1 in    
such hearty words1 his own ,malcontent4 
,from some pointed words in the libel   
composed by ,crispinus    against       
,horace1 ,gifford concludes that the    
former must be ,marston1    because we  
meet with these pointed words in some   
satires and    dramas of ,marston4 ,we1 

on our part1 go1 in these controversial 
plays1 by the main and most prominent   
characteristics2 and these    show that 
,crispinus is ,shakspere1 and ,ovid     
,marston4     ,the latter even once says
 7,scourge of ,villanie1 sat4 vi47 that 
many a one1 in reading his ,pigmalion1  
has compared him to ,ovid4    ,in order 
to make out ,crispinus to be guilty     
before ,augustus1 strong    language is 
required4 ,for this purpose1 ,jonson may
 have used the    way and manners of    
,marston1 and applied some of his newly 
coined    graphic words4 ,but this      
proves nothing for the identity of      
characters4    ,the libel also contains 
a pointed word of                       
,shakspere--'retrograde'--an            
expression little employed by the       
latter1 and which is hurled as a        
reproach against ,parolles1 the figure  
which in all likelihood is    to        
represent ,jonson2 ,helena 7act i4 sc4  
#b7 says to him1 that he was    born    
under ,mars1 'when he was retrograde4'  

,the remark in ,the ,return from        
,parnassus that few of the ,university  
can pen plays well1 smelling too much of
 that writer ,ovid and    that writer   
,metamorphosis1 has1 in our opinion1    
also reference to    ,john ,marston     
whose first dramatic attempts--although 
he1 like    ,jonson1 may be called a    
',university man'--do not admit of any  
comparison with those of ,shakspere4    
#bc3 ,demetrius repentingly admits that 
it was from envy he had    ill-treated  
,horace1 because 'he kept better company
 for the most    part than ,i1 better   
men loved him than loved me2 and his    
writings    thrived better than mine1   
and were better liked and graced4'  #bd3
 ,the little word 'clutcht' for a long  
time 'sticks strangely' in              
,crispinus' throat2 it is only thrown up
 with the greatest difficulty4    ,in   
,hamlet 7act v4 sc4 i1 in the second    
verse of the grave-digger's    song7 we 
hear1 ',hath claw'd me in his clutch4   
,in the original song1    which is here 

travestied1 the words are1 ',hath claw'd
 me with his    crouch'4  #be3 ,the     
following allusion in ,the ,poetaster   
7act iv4 sc4 #c7 also has    reference  
to ,twelfth ,night3--',i have read in a 
book that to play    the fool wisely is 
high wisdom4' ,for ,viola 7act iii4 sc4 
i7 says3--       ,this fellow 's wise   
enough to play the fool2      ,and1 to  
do that well1 craves a kind of wit444   
,as full of labour as a wise man's art4 
,there are several indications in ,the  
,poetaster pointing to    ,shakspere's  
,julius ,caesar which had appeared in   
the same year    7#afja74 ,not only does
 ,horace say to ,trebatius that 'great  
,caesar's    wars cannot be fought with 
words1' but he also corrects ,shakspere1
    who makes ,antony 7act iii4 sc4 #b7 
speak of ,caesar's gardens on this      
side of the ,tiber1 by putting into the 
mouth of ,horace 7act iii4    sc4 i7 the
 words3--' ,on the far side of all      
,tyber yonder4' ,in this    scene1 where
 the two ,pyrgi are examined1 there are 

some more    allusions to ,julius       
,caesar4 ,even the boy1 whose instrument
 ,brutus    takes away when he is       
asleep1 is not wanting4 ,in ,the        
,poetaster    it is a drum1 instead of a
 lyre 7the drum in ,all's ,well that    
,ends    ,well74 ,and are the following 
words of the same scene no satire       
upon act i4 sc4 #c of ,julius ,caesar1  
where ,casca and ,cicero meet    amidst 
thunder and lightning8       #b ,pyrgi4 
,where art thou1 boy8 where is          
,calipolis8      ,fight earthquakes in  
the entrails of the earth1      ,and    
eastern whirlwinds in the hellish       
shades2      ,some foul contagion of the
 infected heavens      ,blast all the   
trees1 and in their cursed tops         
,the dismal night-raven and tragic owl  
,breed and become forerunners of my     
fall6     ,casca dwells especially on   
the 'bird of night4'  #bf3 ,the y1 in   
,pygmalion1 seems to us not without     
cause to be changed    by ,marston into 
an i4  #bg3 ,the number of metaphors    

used by ,shakspere in ',venus and       
,adonis1'    which ,marston travesties1 
is strikingly large4  #bh3 ,a few       
instances may here be given of the      
coarseness with which    ,dekker pays   
back ,jonson for his personal allusions4
 ,in ,the ,poetaster1    ,crispinus is  
told that his 'satin-sleeve begins to   
fret at the rug    that is underneath   
it4' ,in ,satiromastix1 ,tucca cries out
 against    ,horace 7,jonson73--',thou  
never yet fel'st into the hands of      
sattin4'    ,and again3--',thou         
borrowedst a gowne of ,roscius the      
stager1 and    sentest it home lousie4' 
,crispinus1 in ,the ,poetaster1 is      
derided    on account of his short legs4
 ,in ,satiromastix1 ,horace is laughed  
at    for his 'ambling' walk2 wherefore 
he had so badly played mad              
,jeronimo's part4 ,jonson is reproached 
with all his sins3 that he    had killed
 a player2 that he had not thought it   
necessary to keep    his word to those  
whom he held to be heretics and         

infidels1 and    so forth4 ,his face1   
which1 as above mentioned1 had scorbutic
    marks1 is stated to be 'like a      
rotten russet apple when it is          
bruiz'd'2 or1 like the cover of a       
warming-pan1 'full  of oylet-holes4'    
,he is called an 'uglie ,pope           
,bonifacius2' also a 'bricklayer2' and  
he is asked why1 instead of building    
chimneys and laying down    bricks1 he  
makes 'nothing but railes'--'filthy     
rotten railes'--upon    which alone his 
,muse leans4 7',railes' has a double    
meaning here3    rails for fencing in a 
house2 and gibes47 ,he is told that his 
feet    stamp as if he had mortar under 
them--an allusion to his metrics1    as 
well as to his ambling walk4  #bi3      
,shakspere was already then the         
proprietor of a house--,new    ,place1  
in ,stratford4 ,in this scene ,horace   
also asks    ,crispinus3--',you have    
much of the mother in you1 sir8 ,your   
father    is dead8' ,john ,shakspere1   
the father1 died in the year when       

,the ,poetaster was first performed--in 
,september1 #afja4  #cj3 ,twelfth       
,night1 act iii4 sc4 #b4 ,sir           
,toby3--',let there    be gall in thy   
ink1 though thou write with a           
goose-pen4'  #ca3 ,here ,crispinus      
threatens ,horace with the 'purge' 7a   
word    that may be used as a noun or a 
verb71 which1 in ,the ,return from      
,parnassus1 is mentioned as having been 
administered by ,shakspere    to        
,jonson4 ,it is highly probable that the
 reconciliation between    ,crispinus   
and ,horace1 which is described in the  
beginning of    ,satiromastix1 had taken
 place between ,shakspere and ,ben      
,jonson1    and that1 during this period
 of peace1 the performance of ,sejanus  
occurred1 in which ,shakspere actively  
co-operated4 ,after that1    traces of  
hostility only are to be discovered     
between the two    poets4     ,even when
 ,horace1 in the ',satiromastix1' has   
again broken the peace1    the gentle   
,crispinus says to him3--       ,were   

thy warpt soule put in a new molde1     
,i'd weare thee as a jewell set in      
golde4  #cb3 ,the ,satiromastix was     
performed in #afjb1 probably in the     
beginning of the year1 as the ,epilogue 
speaks of cold weather1 and    ,dekker  
scarcely would have waited a year with  
his answer to ,the    ,poetaster4 ,queen
 ,elizabeth died in #afjc4 ,another     
decennium had to    pass 7,shakspere had
 long since withdrawn to his ,stratford7
 before    the taste of ,whitehall had  
been so much lowered that ,jonson could 
become a favourite of the courtly       
element4  #cc3 ,in such type it is      
printed in the original4  #cd3 ,in      
,satiromastix1 ,captain ,tucca once     
bawls out against ,horace1    ',my      
name's ,hamlet ,revenge6' as if it had  
become known already then    in the     
dramatic world that ,shakspere was      
preparing his reply to    ,the          
,poetaster4 ,in the latter play 7act    
iii4 sc4 ,i7 which was    probably added
 after ,the ,poetaster had already been 

acted1 and    ,jonson had heard that    
,dekker was writing his ,satiromastix71 
,jonson makes a player from the other   
side of the ,tiber say3--',we    have   
hired him to abuse ,horace1 and bring   
him in1 in a play1 with    all his      
gallants1 as ,tibullus1 ,mecaenas1      
,cornelius ,gallus1 and the             
rest4444,o1 it will get us a huge deal  
of money1 ,captain1 and we have    need 
on't2 for this winter has made us all   
poorer than so many starved    snakes4  
,nobody comes at us1 not a gentleman1   
nor a--'     ,in the same scene ,tucca  
utters curses1 before that player1      
against    the theatres on the other    
side of the ,tiber4 ,the actor he       
addresses    belongs to one of them4    
,tucca mentions two theatres by         
name--'your    ,globes1 and your        
,triumphs4' ,he says to the             
actor3--',commend me    to seven shares 
and a half4' ,shakespere and his        
colleagues had    certain fixed shares  
in the ',globe2' and the words of the   

actor1 as    regards the poor winter    
they had1 confirm that which ,shakspere 
gives    to understand in ,hamlet1 that 
'there was1 for a while1 no money    bid
 for argument1 unless the poet and the  
player went to cuffs in the             
question4'    ,,vi4  ',,volpone1' by    
,ben ,jonson4  ',,eastward ,,hoe1' by   
,chapman1 ,ben ,jonson1 and ,marston4   
',,the ,,malcontent1' by ,john ,marston4
  ,ben ,jonson's ',volpone' was first   
acted in #afje2 and on ,february #aa1   
#afjg1 it appeared in print4 #a ,it is  
preceded by a ,dedication1 in which the 
author dedicates 'both it and himself'  
to 'the most noble and most equal       
sisters1 the two famous ,universities1' 
in grateful acknowledgment 'for their   
love and acceptance shown to this ,poem 
in the presentation4'  ,in this         
,dedication the most passionate language
 is used against all contemporary       
poets--especially against those who now1
 he says1 practise 'in dramatic1 as they
 term it3 stage-poetry1 nothing but     

ribaldry1 profanation1' and 'all licence
 of offence to ,god and man4' ,their    
petulancy1 he continues1 'hath not only 
rapt me to present indignation1 but made
 me studious heretofore2' for by them   
'the filth of the time is uttered1 and  
with such impropriety of phrase1 such   
plenty of solecisms1 such dearth of     
sense1 so bold prolepses1 so racked     
metaphors1 with brothelry able to       
violate the ear of a pagan1 and         
blasphemy to turn the blood of a        
,christian to water4'  ,jonson expresses
 his purpose of standing off from them  
7the stage-poets7 'by all his actions4' 
,solemnly he utters this vow3--',i shall
 raise the despised head of poetry      
again1 and1 stripping her out of those  
rotten and base rags wherewith the times
 have adulterated her form1 restore her 
to her primitive habit1 feature1 and    
majesty1 and render her worthy to be    
embraced and kist of all the great and  
master-spirits of our world4' ,this     
object of his--he adds--'may most appear

 in this my latest work 7',volpone'71   
which you1 most learned ,arbitresses1   
have seen1 judged1 and1 to my crown1    
approved2 wherein ,i have laboured for  
their instruction and amendment1 to     
reduce1 not only the ancient forms1 but 
manners of the scene1 the easiness1 the 
propriety1 the innocence1 and last1 the 
doctrine1 which is the principal end of 
poesie1 to inform men in the best reason
 of living4'  ,all contemporary         
dramatists are most pitilessly condemned
 by ,ben ,jonson1 and the cause of his  
present indignation is clearly stated3  
',a name so full of authority1          
antiquity1 and all great mark1 is1      
through their insolence1 become the     
lowest scorn of the age2' moreover1 'my 
7,jonson's7 fame1 and the reputation of 
divers honest and learned1 are the      
question--that is to say1 have been     
injured4  ,as in ',volpone1' wherein    
,jonson1 as he states1 'laboured for    
their 7the contemporary poets'7         
instruction and amendment1' we shall    

find most numerous allusions to         
,shakspere and ',hamlet1' we feel       
justified in asserting that ,jonson's   
whole fury is1 in his 'present          
indignation1' roused against this       
particular author and against this      
special drama4 ,therein1 as we have     
shown1 a name of authority1 antiquity1  
and all great mark--,montaigne--has been
 tampered with1 and1 through this       
satire1 divers honest and learned 7,john
 ,florio and his coadjutors in the      
translation--all friends of ,jonson7    
have been injured1 as well as the       
latter's own fame4 ,in ',hamlet1'       
,shakspere brought his own ideal of     
friendship in the figure of ,horatio on 
the stage1 in contrast to the ,horace of
 ',the ,poetaster4' ,jonson was not the 
man to be edified by the beautiful      
examples and the nobler words of his    
gentle adversary1 ,shakspere1 or to     
alter his sentiments in accordance with 
them4 ,he rather welcomed every         
opportunity for a quarrel4 ,that was the

 element in which he lived2 for thus he 
got the materials and the spicy         
condiments for his dramas4 ,now in      
',hamlet' there were motives enough for 
lighting up a fire of hatred against    
,shakspere1 and to entertain the public 
therewith4  ,jonson1 always ready for   
battle1 willingly takes up the pen in   
their defence4 ,in doing so1 the favour 
of a nobleman and of some high-born     
ladies could be earned1 at whose wish   
and request ,montaigne had been         
,englished4 ,besides1 every occasion was
 relished for opposing ,shakspere1 who  
had attacked ,montaigne whose religious 
creed was the same as that of ,jonson4  
,the ,british ,museum possesses a copy  
of ',volpone1' on which ,jonson has1    
with his own hand1 written the          
words3--',to his loving father and      
loving freind1 ,mr4 ,john ,florio1 the  
ayde of his ,muses3 ,ben ,jonson seals  
this testemony of freindship and love4' 
,not the gift of this little book1      
however1 but its contents--namely1 the  

attack which ,jonson made1 both for the 
sake of his friend and for himself1     
against the great antagonist            
7,shakspere7--must be held to be the    
token or 'testemony of freindship and   
love4'  ,in the very beginning of the   
,dedication1 ,jonson says that every    
author ought to be heedful of his       
fame3--',never1 most equal sisters1 had 
any man a wit so presently excellent as 
that it could raise itself1 but there   
must come both matter1 occasion1        
commenders1 and favourers to it4 ,if    
this be true1 and that the fortune of   
all writers doth daily prove it1 it     
behoves the careful to provide well     
towards these accidents2 and1 having    
acquired them1 to preserve that part of 
reputation most tenderly1 wherein the   
benefit of a friend is also defended4'  
,he then asserts that this is an age in 
which poetry1 and the professors of it1 
are so ill-spoken of on all sides       
because1 in their petulancy1 they have  
yet to learn that one cannot be a good  

poet without first being a good man4    
,in the following passage1 curiously    
enough1 a certain person is extolled as 
the model of a good man1 against whom   
the stage dramatists1 who themselves1   
according to ,jonson1 are not good men  
7'nothing remaining with them of the    
dignity of the poet'71 have1 as he      
thinks1 grievously sinned3--',he that is
 said to be able to inform young men to 
all good disciplines1 inflame grown men 
to all great virtues1 keep old men in   
their best and supreme state1 or1 as    
they decline to childhood1 recover them 
to their first strength2 #b that comes  
forth the interpreter and arbiter of    
nature1 a teacher of things divine no   
less than human1 #c a master in manners2
 and can alone1 or with a few1 effect   
the business of mankind3 #d this1 ,i    
take him1 is no subject for pride and   
ance to exercise their railing rhetoric 
upon4'  ,in this description we again   
see ,montaigne1 against whom 'railing   
rhetoric' has been used4  ,ben ,jonson  

proudly points to himself as having     
never done such mischief3 ',for my      
particular1 ,i can1 and from a most     
clear conscience1 affirm that ,i have   
ever trembled to think toward the least 
profaneness4' ,though--he says--he      
cannot wholly escape 'from some the     
imputation of sharpness1' he does not   
feel guilty of having offered insult to 
anyone1 'except to a mimic1 cheater1    
bawd1 or buffoon4' ,but--',i would ask  
of these supercilious politics1 what    
nation1 society1 or general order of    
state ,i have provoked8 444 ,what public
 person8 ,whether ,i have not1 in all   
these1 preserved their dignity1 as mine 
own person1 safe8 444 ,where have ,i    
been particular8 where personal8'  ,who 
does not see in the following words a   
reproach launched against ,shakspere1   
that he has taken his materials from    
other writers8 ,who does not feel that  
the warning addressed to 'wise and noble
 persons' has reference to the highly   
placed protectors of the great rival    

whose favour ,ben ,jonson1 in spite of  
his ,latin and ,greek1 was not able to  
obtain8 ,he says3--  ',application'     
7that is1 plagiarism7 'is now grown a   
trade with many2 and there are that     
profess to have a key for the           
decyphering of everything3 but let wise 
and noble persons take heed how they be 
too credulous1 or give leave to these   
invading interpreters to be             
over-familiar with their fames1 who     
cunningly1 and often1 utter their own   
virulent malice under other men's       
simplest meanings4'  ,jonson then       
approves of those 'severe and wise      
patriots' who1 in order to provide      
against 'the hurts these licentious     
spirits may do in a ,state1' rather     
desire to see plays full of 'fools and  
devils1' and 'those antique relics of   
barbarism' 7he means ',masques1' which  
he wrote with great virtuosoship7 acted 
on the stage1 than 'behold the wounds of
 private men1 of princes and nations4'  
,and now we come to the passage1 partly 

already quoted1 which more than anything
 else shows that the 'purge' which 'our 
fellow ,shakspere gave                  
him'--',hamlet'--must have greatly      
damaged1 in the eyes of the public1 both
 the reputation of ,jonson and of his   
friends4 ,he confesses it in these      
remarkable words3--  ',i cannot but be  
serious in a cause of this nature1      
wherein my fame1 and the reputation of  
divers honest and learned are the       
question2 when a name so full of        
authority1 antiquity1 and all great     
mark1 is1 through their insolence1      
become the lowest scorn of the age2 and 
those men subject to the petulancy of   
every vernaculous orator1 that were wont
 to be the care of kings and happiest   
monarchs4' #e  ,is there a character1 we
 may ask1 not only in ,shakspere's      
dramas1 but in any play of that period1 
to which the description given by       
,jonson could apply8--of course1 ,hamlet
 always excepted1 who is but a mask for 
,montaigne4 ,and who else but ,montaigne

 is designated by the expressions3 'a   
name so full of authority1 antiquity1   
and all great mark2' 'the care of kings 
and happiest monarchs8'  ,that the      
'railing rhetoric' in which such a      
character was derided1 could not be     
contained in a satirical poem1 but had  
reference to a drama1 is proved1 as     
already explained1 by the fact of       
,jonson's wrath being directed against  
the stage-poets4 ,he says expressly1    
that henceforth1 by all his actions1 he 
will 'stand off from them4' ,to the most
 learned authorities1 the two           
,universities1 he announces that1 by his
 own regular art1 he intends giving     
these wayward disciples of ,dramatic    
,poesy proper instruction and amendment4
 ,had his object not been to strike the 
most popular of the                     
stage-poets--,shakspere--he would have  
been bound to make an exception for that
 name of which everyone must have       
thought first when stage-poets were     
subjected to reproof4 ,we repeat3       

,jonson only intended measuring himself 
against him who was the greatest of his 
time4 ,this was fully in accordance with
 his disputatious inclination4 #f  ,the 
person once 'wont to be the care of     
kings and happiest monarchs' #g must    
have been a foreigner1 for we do not    
know of any favourite 'full of authority
 and antiquity' who enjoyed such high   
privilege from ,english kings4 ,however1
 if a dramatist had been bold enough to 
put such a favourite on the stage1 he   
would have met with the most severe     
punishment long before ,jonson had      
pointed out his reprehensible audacity4 
,by the 'happiest monarchs1' ,henry     
,,iii4 and ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france are  
meant4 ,the latter1 at that time1 yet   
stood in the zenith of his good fortune4
 ,again1 the expression3 'of every      
vernaculous orator1' points to the      
circumstance of the mockery being       
directed against a foreigner2 and the   
same may be said of ,jonson's question1 
addressed to supercilious politicians1  

as to what nation1 society1 or general  
order of ,state he had provoked8        
,clearly1 another nation1 a society of  
different modes of thought than the     
,english one1 and foreign institutions1 
are here indicated4  ,we now come to    
some hints contained in ',volpone1'     
which partly consist of an endeavour to 
expose ,shakspere on account of         
plagiarisms committed against other     
writers1 partly of references to        
irreligious tendencies1 against which   
,jonson warns1 and which he strives to  
ridicule4  ,under the existing strict   
laws which forbade religious questions  
being discussed on the stage1 the latter
 references had to be made in parable   
manner1 but still not too covertly1 so  
that they might be understood by a      
certain audience--namely1 the members of
 the ,universities of ,oxford and       
,cambridge4 #h  ,already1 in the        
,prologue of his ',volpone1' ,jonson    
says of himself that--    ,in all his   
poems still hath been this measure1     

,to mix profit with your pleasure4  ,he 
also despises certain deceptive tricks  
of composition3--    ,nor hales he in a 
gull old ends reciting1   ,to stop gaps 
in his loose writing2   ,with such a    
deal of monstrous and forced action1    
,as might make ,bethlem a faction3      
,nor made he his play for jests stolen  
from each table1   ,but makes jests to  
fit his fable4444   ,the laws of time1  
place1 persons he observeth1   ,from no 
needful rule he swerveth4  ,in the      
observance of the technical rules of the
 classic drama--this much ,jonson could 
certainly prove to the world--he was    
superior to ,shakspere4 ,the severe     
words3 'monstrous and forced action1'   
can only refer to a drama written not   
long before2 for1 in ',volpone1' ,jonson
 wishes to give to the stage-poets of   
his time his own ideal of a drama4      
',bethlem' 7,bedlam7 indicates madness  
round which all kinds of lunatics might 
gather as factionaries or adherents of  
the kind of drama which ,jonson wishes  

to stigmatise4  ,do we go too far in    
thinking that ',hamlet' is the play     
which is made the target of allusions in
 this very ,prologue8  ,however1 we     
proceed at once to the ,interlude which 
follows after the first scene of the    
first act of ',volpone4' ,in it1        
,shakspere himself is practically put on
 the stage1 by being asked3    how of   
late thou hast suffered translation1    
,and shifted thy coat in these days of  
reformation4  ,this ,interlude is in no 
connection with the course of the       
dramatic action4  ,mosca1 a parasite1   
brings in1 for the entertainment of his 
master 7,volpone71 three merry ,jack    
,andrews4 ,one of them1 ,androgyno1 must
 be held to be ,,shakspere4  ,here we   
have to note that ,francis ,meres1 a    
scholar of great repute1 and ,m4,a4 of  
both ,universities1 wrote in #aeih a    
book1 entitled ',palladis ,tamia1' which
 in ,english he calls ',wit's           
,treasury4' ,it contains1 so far as the 
sixteenth century is concerned1 the most

 valuable statements as regards         
,shakspere3 nay1 the only trustworthy   
ones dating from that century4 ,in that 
work1 ,meres classifies and criticises  
the poets of his time and country by    
comparing each of them with some ,greek 
or ,roman poet1 kindred to the          
corresponding ,english one in the line  
of production chosen and in quality4    
,ben ,jonson is only mentioned once1 at 
a very modest place2 his name stands    
last1 after ,chapman and ,dekker4       
,meres confers upon ,shakspere most     
enthusiastic but just praise3--  ',as   
the soule of ,euphorbus was thought to  
live in ,pythagoras3 so the sweete1     
wittie soul of ,ovid lives in           
mellifluous and hony-tongued            
,shakespeare2 witness his ',venus and   
,adonis2' his ',lucrece2' his sugred    
',sonnets' among his private friends4444
 ,as ,plautus and ,seneca are accounted 
the best for ,comedy and ,tragedy       
amongst the ,latines3 so ,shakspere     
among the ,english is the most excellent

 in both kinds for the stage4'  ,he then
 mentions twelve of his plays1 #i and   
thus concludes his eulogy3--  ',as      
,epius ,stolo said that the ,muses would
 speake with ,plautus tongue1 if they   
would speak ,latin3 so ,i say that the  
,muses would speak with ,shakespeare's  
fine filed phrases if they would speake 
,english4'  ,the envious ,jonson who    
pledges himself1 in the ,dedication to  
the two ,universities1 to give back to  
,poesy its former majesty1 may have     
considered it necessary1 before all1 to 
deride1 before a learned audience1 the  
enthusiastic praise conferred by        
,francis ,meres upon ,shakspere1 as well
 as ,shakspere himself on account of the
 free religious tendencies he had       
expressed in ',hamlet' ,this is done1 as
 we said1 in the ,interlude prepared by 
,mosca for the entertainment of his     
master4 ,volpone boasts of the clever   
manner with which he gains riches3--    
,i use no trade1 no venture2   ,i wound 
no earth with ploughshares1 fat no      

beasts   ,to feed the shambles2 have no 
mills for iron1   ,oil1 corn1 or men1 to
 grind them into powder3   444 expose no
 ships   ,to threatenings of the        
furrow-faced sea2   ,i turn no monies in
 the public bank1   ,nor usure private4 
,mosca1 in order to flatter his master1 
continues the speech of the latter in   
the same strain3--    444 ,no1 sir1 nor 
devour   ,soft prodigals4 ,you shall    
have some will swallow   ,a melting heir
 as glibly as your ,dutch   ,will pills 
of butter1 and ne'er purge for it2 #aj  
,tear forth the fathers of poor families
   ,out of their beds1 and coffin them  
alive   ,in some kind clasping prison1  
where their bones   ,may be forthcoming1
 when the flesh is rotten3   ,but your  
sweet nature doth abhor these courses2  
,you lothe the widow's or the orphan's  
tears   ,should wash your pavements1 or 
their piteous cries   ,ring in the      
roofs1 and beat the air for vengeance4  
,we have here an allusion to ,hamlet1   
#aa where he asks the ,ghost why the    

sepulchre has opened its 'ponderous and 
marble jaws' to cast him up again2 also 
to the ,queen and whilom widow2 and1    
furthermore1 to the orphans1 ,ophelia   
and ,laertes1 and to the tears shed by  
the latter at his sister's death4 ,the  
cry of vengeance refers to the similar  
utterances of the ,ghost1 of ,hamlet1   
and of ,laertes1 who all seek revenge4  
,mosca1 with a view of preparing for his
 master a pleasure more suitable to his 
taste than that which a play like       
',hamlet1' we suppose1 could afford him1
 brings in the three gamesters3--,nano1 
a dwarf2 ,castrone1 a eunuch2 and       
,androgyne1 a hermaphrodite4 #ab ,the   
latter is meant to represent ,shakspere2
 for he is introduced by ,nano as a soul
 coming from ,apollo1 which migrated    
through ,euphorbus and ,pythagoras      
7,meres uses these two names in his     
eulogy of the soul of ,shakspere74 #ac  
,after having recounted several other   
stages in the migration of ,androgyne's 
soul 7we shall mention them further on71

 the latter has to give an answer why he
 has 'shifted his coat in these days of 
reformation1' and why his 'dogmatical   
silence' has left him4 ,he replies that 
an obstreperous ',sir ,lawyer' had      
induced him to do so4 ,from this it may 
be concluded that ,bacon had some       
influence on ,shakspere's ',hamlet4'    
,are not1 in poetical manner1 the same  
principles advocated in ',hamlet1' which
 ,bacon promoted in science8 #ad  ,after
 the ,hermaphrodite has admitted that he
 has become 'a good dull mule1' #ae he  
avows that he is now a very strange     
beast1 an ass1 an actor1a hermaphrodite1
 and a fool2 and that he more especially
 relishes this latter condition of his1 
for in all other forms1 as ,jonson makes
 him confess1 he has 'proved most       
distressed4' #af  ,let us now quote from
 this ,interlude some highly-spiced     
satirical passages4  ,nano1 the dwarf1  
coming in with ,androgyno and ,castrone1
 asks for room for the new gamesters or 
players1 and says to the public3--      

,they do bring you neither play1 nor    
university show2   ,and therefore do    
intreat you that whatsoever they        
rehearse1   ,may not fare a whit the    
worse1 for the false pace of the verse4 
#ag   ,if you wonder at this1 you will  
wonder more ere we pass1   ,for know1   
here #ah is inclosed the soul of        
,pythagoras1 #ai   ,that juggler divine1
 as hereafter shall follow2   ,which    
soul1 fast and loose1 sir1 came first   
from ,apollo4  ,it is explained how that
 soul afterwards transmigrated into 'the
 goldy-locked ,euphorbus who was killed1
 in good fashion1 at the siege of old   
,troy1 by the cuckold of ,sparta2' how  
it then passed into ,hermotimus1 'where 
no sooner it was missing1 but with one  
,pyrrhus of ,delos #bj it learned to go 
a-fishing2' #ba how thence it did enter 
the ,sophist of ,greece1 ,pythagoras4   
,after having been changed into whom1   
she became a philosopher1   ,crates the 
cynick1 as itself doth relate it3 #bb   
,since kings1 knights and beggars1      

knaves1 lords1 and fools get it1        
,besides ox and ass1 camel1 mule1 goat1 
and brock1 #bc   ,in all which it has   
spoke1 as in the cobbler's cock4 #bd    
,nano's present intention1 however1 is  
not to refer to such things3--    ,but  
,i come not here to discourse of that   
matter1   ,or his one1 two1 or three1 or
 his great oath1 ,,by ,,quater1 #be     
,his musics1#bf his trigon1 his golden  
thigh1 #bg   ,or his telling how        
elements #bh shift3 but ,i   ,would ask1
 how of late thou hast suffered         
translation   ,and shifted thy coat in  
these days of ,reformation4             
,androgyno4 ,like one of the reformed1 a
 fool1 as you see1   ,,counting ,,all   
,,old ,,doctrine ,,heresie4    ,nano4   
,but not on thine own forbid meats hast 
thou ventured4    ,androgyno4 ,on fish1 
when first a ,carthusian ,i entered4#bi 
,nano4 ,why1 then thy dogmatical silence
 hath left thee8    ,androgyno4 ,of that
 an obstreperous lawyer bereft me4      
,nano4  ,o wonderful change1 when sir   

lawyer forsook thee6   ,for ,pythagore's
 sake1 what body then took thee8        
,androgyno4  ,a good dull mule4         
,nano4  ,and how6 by that means ,thou   
wert brought to allow of   the eating of
 beans8    ,androgyno4  ,yes4    ,nano4 
,but from the mule into whom didst thou 
pass8    ,androgyno4  ,into a very      
strange beast1 by some writers called   
an ass2   ,by others1 a precise1 pure1  
illuminate brother1   ,of those devour  
flesh1 and sometimes one another2   ,and
 will drop you forth a libel1 or a      
sanctified lie1   ,betwixt every        
spoonful of a ,nativity #cj pie4  ,nano 
then admonishes ,androgyno to quit that 
profane nation4 ,androgyno answers that 
he gladly remains in the shape of a fool
 and a hermaphrodite4 ,to the question  
of ,nano1 as to whether he likes        
remaining a hermaphrodite in order to   
'vary the delight of each sex1'         
,androgyno replies3--    ,alas1 those   
pleasures be stale and forsaken2   ,no  
't is your fool wherewith ,i am so      

taken1   ,the only one creature that ,i 
can called blessed2   ,for all other    
forms ,i have proved most distressed4   
,nano4  ,spoke true1 as thou wert in    
,pythagoras still4   ,this learned      
opinion we celebrate will1444  ,with a  
song1 praising fools1 the ,interlude    
closes4  ,in act ii4 sc4 #b1 after      
,mosca and ,volpone have erected a stage
 upon the stage1 ,volpone enters1       
disguised as a mountebank1 and abuses   
those 'ground ciarlatani' 7charlatans1  
impostors7 'who come in lamely1 with    
their mouldy tales out of ,boccaccio4'  
,then there is a most clear allusion to 
,hamlet 7act iv4 sc4 #f71 where he      
informs his friend ,horatio1 by letter1 
of his voyage to ,england when he was   
made prisoner by pirates1 who dealt with
 him 'like thieves of mercy4' ,a further
 remark of ,volpone on 'base pilferies1'
 and 'wholesome penance done for it1'   
may be taken as a hit against ,hamlet's 
'fingering' the packet to 'unseal their 
grand commission2' for which1 in        

,jonson's view1 he would be forced by   
his father confessor1 in a              
well-regulated ,roman ,catholic ,state1 
to do penance4  ,this is what ,volpone  
says3--  ',no1 no1 worthy gentlemen2 to 
tell you true1 ,i cannot endure to see  
the rabble of these ground ciarlatani1  
that 444 come in lamely1 with their     
mouldy tales out of ,boccaccio1 like    
stale ,tabarine1 the fabulist2 some of  
them discoursing their travels2 and of  
their tedious captivity #ca in the      
,turks' galleys1 when1 indeed1 were the 
truth known1 they were the ,christians' 
gallies1 where very temperately they eat
 bread and drunk water1 as a wholesome  
penance1 #cb enjoined them by their     
confessors for base pilferies4'         
,shakspere1 as we have already          
explained1 got a 'pill' in ',the        
,poetaster1' whereupon 'our fellow      
,shakespeare1' as is maintained in the  
',return from ,parnassus1' 'has given   
him' 7,jonson7 'a purge that made him   
bewray his credit' ,now ,ben1 clearly   

enough1 calls this answer of the great  
adversary--a 'finely wrapt-up antimony1'
 whereby minds 'stopped with earthy     
oppilations1' are purged into another   
world4  ,volpone says3--',these         
turdy-facy1 nasty-paty1 lousy-fartical  
rogues1 with one poor groat's worth of  
unprepared antimony1 finely wrapt up in 
several scartoccios 7covers71 #cc  are  
able1 very well1 to kill their twenty a 
week1 and play2 yet these meagre1       
starved spirits1 who have stopt the     
organs of their minds with earthy       
oppilations1 want not their favourers   
among your shrivelled sallad-eating     
artizans1 #cd who are overjoyed that    
they may have their half-pe'rth of      
physic2 though it purge them into       
another world1 it makes no matter4'     
,jonson then continues his satire       
against ',hamlet' by making ,volpone1   
disguised as a mountebank1 sell medicine
 which is to render that 'purge'        
7',hamlet'7 perfectly innocuous4 ,he    
calls his medicine ',oglio del ,scoto3' 

#ce good for strengthening the nerves2 a
 sovereign remedy against all kinds of  
illnesses2 and1 'it stops a dysenteria1 
immediately4'  ,nano praises its        
miraculous effects in a song3--    ,had 
old ,hippocrates1 or ,galen1   ,that to 
their books put med'cines all in1   ,but
 known this secret1 they had never      
7,of which they will be guilty ever7    
,been murderers of so much paper1   ,or 
wasted many a hurtless taper2   ,no     
,indian drug had e'er been famed1       
,tobacco1 sassafras not named2   ,ne yet
 of guacum one small stick1 sir1   ,nor 
,raymund ,lully's great elixir4   ,ne   
had been known the ,danish ,gonswart1   
,or ,paracelsus1 with his long sword4   
,is not ,,hamlet here as good as        
indicated by name8  ,the ,danish ,prince
 appears on the stage in his 'inky      
cloak4' ,no doubt1 ,jonson picked up the
 word ',gonswart' 7gansch-zwart1 in     
,flemish7 among his ,flemish1 ,dutch1   
and other ,nether-,german comrades of   
war in the ,low  ,countries4 ,surely1   

the ,danish ,prince ',all-,black' is    
none else but ,hamlet clad in black4    
,in the same scene1 the connection      
between ,hamlet and ,ophelia also is    
satirically pulled to pieces4 ,in       
',eastward ,hoe' 7#afje71 ,jonson and   
his party do the same in the most       
indecent and most despicable manner4    
,nano1 praising the sublime virtues of  
the ',oglio del ,scoto1' sings3--       
,would you live free from all diseases8 
,do the act your mistress pleases1      
,yet fright all aches from your bones8  
,here's a medicine for the nones4 #cf   
,the scene of the action in ',volpone'  
is laid in ,venice4 ,during the whole   
scene above-mentioned1 ,sir ,politick   
,would-,be and a youthful               
gentleman-traveller are present ,others 
have already pointed out that1 by the   
former1 ,shakspere is meant4 #cg ,the   
traveller1 ,peregrine1 is a youth whom  
the jealous ,lady ,politick once        
declares to be 'a female devil in a male
 outside1'--again an allusion to        

,shakspere's 'two loves' which he       
himself describes in ,sonnet #add4  ,the
 words1 also1 with which ,hamlet 7act   
iii4 sc4 #c7 praises his friend ,horatio
 7the ,shaksperian ideal of a ,horace7  
are ridiculed by ,jonson in this scene4 
,sir ,politick ,would-,be says to       
,peregrine3--    ,well1 if ,i could but 
find one man1 one man1   ,to mine own   
heart1 whom ,i durst trust1 ,i would--  
,when the stage is raised on the theatre
 for ,volpone1 who is disguised as a    
quacksalver1 ,sir ,politick wishes to   
enlighten ,peregrine as to the fellows  
that 'mount the bank4' #ch ,we need not 
explain that this is directed against   
the 'so-called stage-poets' and players4
 ,it will easily be perceived that the  
meaning of the subsequent conversation  
is the same as in the ,preface of       
',volpone1' where ,jonson says that 'wis
 and noble persons 'ought to' take heed 
how they be too credulous1 or give leave
 to these invading interpreters to be   
over-familiar with their fames4'  ,sir  

,politick 7describing the fellows1 one  
of which is to mount the bank7 says3--  
,they are the only knowing men of       
,europe6   ,great general scholars1     
excellent physicians1 #ci   ,most       
admired statesmen1 profest favourites1  
,and ,cabinet counsellors to the        
greatest princes2   ,the only languaged 
men of all the world6    ,peregrine4    
,and ,i have heard1 they are most lewd  
#dj impostors   ,made all of terms and  
shreds1 no less beliers   ,of great     
men's favours1 than their own vile      
med'cines444  ,in act iv4 sc4 #a1 ,sir  
,politick gives counsels to the young   
,peregrine1 which are a manifest satire 
upon ,polonius' fatherly farewell speech
 to ,laertes2 and here again1 let it be 
observed1 religious tendencies are made 
the subject of persiflage4    ,sir      
,politick4 ,first1 for your garb1 it    
must   be grave and serious   ,very     
reserved and locked2 not tell a secret  
,on any terms1 not to your father2      
scarce   ,a fable1 but with caution2    

make sure choice   ,both of your company
 and your discourse2 beware   ,you never
 speak a truth--4444   ,and then1 for   
your religion1 profess none1   ,but     
wonder at the diversity of all2   ,and1 
for your part1 protest1 were there no   
other   ,but simply the laws o' th'     
land1 you could content you4   ,nic     
,machiavel and ,monsieur ,bodin1 both   
,were of this mind4  ,in act iii4 sc4   
#b1 it is openly said that ,english     
authors namely1 such as understand      
,italian1 have stolen from ,pastor ,fido
 'almost as much as from ,,montaigni'   
7,montaigne74 ,in vain we have looked   
for traces of ,montaigne's ,essays in   
other dramas that have come down to us  
from that epoch4 ,that ,shakspere must  
have been conversant with the ,italian  
tongue1 ,charles ,armitage ,brown has   
tried to prove1 and according to our    
opinion he has done so successfully4 #da
  ,the talkative ,lady ,politick wishes 
to offer some distraction to the        
apparently sick ,volpone4 ,she          

recommends him an ,italian book in these
 words3--      ,all our ,english        
writers1     ,i mean such as are happy  
in the ,italian1     ,will deign to     
steal out of this author mainly2        
,almost as much as from ,montagni3 #db  
,he has so modern and facile a vein1    
,fitting the time1 and catching the     
court-ear6 #dc  ,when ,sir ,politick    
7act v4 sc4 #b7 is to be arrested 7he is
 suspected of having got up a           
conspiracy1 and betrayed the ,republic  
of ,venice to the ,turks71 he asserts   
his innocence2 and when his papers are  
to be examined1 he exclaims3--    ,alas1
 ,sir6 ,i have none but notes   ,drawn  
out of play-books--   ,and some essays4 
#dd  ,mosca 7act i-v4 sc4 #b71 spurring 
on his counsel1 says3--    ,mercury sit 
upon your thundering tongue1   ,or the  
,french ,hercules #de and make your     
language   ,as conquering as his club1  
to beat along1   ,as with a tempest1    
flat1 our adversaries4  ,hamlet1 when   
asked by the ,king how he 'calls the    

play1 answers3--',the ,mouse-trap4'     
,mosca calls his own cunningness with   
which he thinks he can overreach his    
master1 the ',fox-trap4'  ,if our       
intention were not to restrict this     
treatise to desirable limits1 many more 
satirical passages might be pointed out 
in ',volpone1' which are manifestly     
directed against ',hamlet' and          
,shakspere4 ,those who take a deeper    
interest in the subject1 will discover  
not a few passages of this kind in      
',volpone4'  ,in #afje--we believe1 a   
few months before ',volpone'            
#df--';,eastward ,hoe' came out1 a      
comedy written by ,ben ,jonson1         
,chapman1 and ,marston1 in which1 as    
already stated1 the connection between  
,hamlet and ,ophelia is derided in a    
low1 burlesque manner4  ,shakspere1 in  
order to flagellate ,montaigne's mean   
views about womankind1 puts into the    
mouth of ,ophelia1 when she has no      
longer the control of her tongue1 the   
hideous words3--',come1 my coach6' and  

',oh1 how the wheel become it6' #dg     
,this is a satirical hit1 rapidly       
indicated1 but only understood by those 
who had carefully read ,montaigne's     
book4 ,ben ,jonson1 ,chapman1 and       
,marston try to make capital out of     
these expressions1 by deriding and      
denouncing them to the crowd1 in order  
to defame ,shakspere4  ,girtred         
7,gertrud1 name of ,hamlet's mother1 the
 ,queen17 is the figure under which     
,ophelia is ridiculed in ',eastward     
,hoe4' #dh ,the first is a girl of      
loosest manners4 ,her ambition torments 
her to marry a nobleman1 in order to    
obtain a 'coach4' ,to her mother 7,mrs4 
,touchstone7 she incessantly speaks     
words of most shameless indecency1 which
 cannot be repeated2 more especially as 
regards her 'coach1' for which she asks 
ever and anon4 ,a lackey1 called        
,hamlet1 must procure it to her4 ,we    
will give some fragments of that scene4 
,the remainder cannot be offered to a   
modern circle of general readers4       

,enter ,hamlet1 a ,foote-man1 in haste4 
,hamlet4 ,what coachman--my ladye's     
coach6 for shame6   ,her ladiship's     
readie to come down4    ,enter          
,potkinne1 a ,tankard-bearer4           
,potkinne4 ',sfoote6 ,hamlet1 are you   
madde8 ,whither run   you nowe8 ,you    
should brushe up my olde mistresse6     
,thereupon neighbours come together1 all
 impelled by the greatest curiosity 'to 
see her take coach1' and wishing to     
congratulate her4    ,gertrud4 ,thank   
you1 good people6 ,my coach for the love
 of   ,heaven1 my coach6 ,in good truth1
 ,i shall swoune else4    ,hamlet4      
,coach1 coach1 my ladye's coach6 ,exit  
,hamlet4  ,after a little conversation  
between mother and daughter1 which we   
must leave out1 ,hamlet enters again3   
,hamlet4 ,your coach is coming1 madam4  
,gertrud4 ,that's well said4 ,now       
,heaven6 methinks ,i am eene up   to the
 knees in preferment4444   ,but a little
 higher1 but a little higher1 but a     
little higher6   ,there1 there1 there   

lyes ,cupid's fire6    ,mrs4            
,touchstone4 ,but must this young man   
7,hamlet71 an't   please you1 madam1 run
 by your coach all the way a foote8     
,gertrud4 ,i by my faith1 ,i warrant    
him2 hee gives no other   milke1 as ,i  
have another servant does4    ,mrs4     
,touchstone4 ,ahlas6 'tis eene pittie   
meethinks2 for ,god's   sake1 madam1 buy
 him but a hobbie horse2 let the poore  
youth have   something betwixt his      
legges to ease 'hem4 ,alas6 we must doe 
as we   would be done too4  ,that is all
 we dare to quote from this comedy2 but 
it quite suffices to characterise the   
meanness of the warfare which ,jonson's 
clique carried on against ,shakspere4   
,however1 the lofty ideas contained in  
',hamlet' could not be lowered by such  
an attack2 they became the common       
property of the best and noblest4 ,those
 ideas were of too high a range1 too    
abstract in their nature1 to be easily  
made a sport of before the multitude4 ,a
 few pleasantries1 used by ,shakespeare 

in a moment of easy-going style1 were   
laid hold of maliciously1 and           
caricatured most indecently1 by his     
antagonists1 in order to entertain the  
common crowd there with4 ,innocent      
children1 moreover1 were made to act    
such satires3 'little eyases1 that cry  
out on the top of the question1 and are 
most tyrannically clapped for't3 these  
are now the fashion1 and so berattle the
 common stages4'  ,not less than in     
',volpone1' the tendency of ',hamlet' as
 regards religious questions is1 in the 
most evident manner1 ridiculed in ,john 
,marston's ',malcontent4' ,although this
 satire 7so the play is called in the   
preface ',to the ,reader'7 appeared     
before ',volpone1' we yet thought it    
more useful first to speak of ,jonson's 
comedy being the work of ,shakspere's   
most formidable adversary4  ',the       
,malcontent' was printed in #afjd2 and  
soon afterwards 7in the same year7 a    
second edition appeared1 augmented by   
the author1 as well as enriched by a few

 additions from the pen of ,john        
,webster4 #di ,the play is preceded by a
 ,latin ,dedication to ,ben ,jonson1    
which sufficiently shows that a close   
friendship must have existed1 at that   
time1 between the two4 #ej ,the satire  
is replete with phrases taken from      
',hamlet' for the purpose of mockery2   
and they are introduced in the loosest1 
most disconnected manner1 thus doubly   
showing the intention and purpose4      
,marston's style is pointedly described 
in ',the ,return from ,parnassus2' and  
we do not hesitate to say that the      
following criticism was written in      
consequence of his ',malcontent3'--     
,methinks he is a ruffian in his style1 
,withouten bands or garters' ornament3  
,he quaffs a cup of ,frenchman's #ea    
,helicon1     ,then roister doister in  
his oily terms1     ,cuts1 thrusts1 and 
foins at whomsoever he meets444         
,tut1 what cares he for modest          
close-couch'd terms1     ,cleanly to    
gird our looser libertines8444     ,ay1 

there is one1 that backs a paper steed1 
,and manageth a penknife gallantly1     
,strikes his poinardo at a button's     
breadth1     ,brings the great          
battering-ram of terms to towns2        
,and1 at first volley of his            
cannon-shot1     ,batters the walls of  
the old fusty world4  ,who else can be  
indicated by the ',one' but ,shakspere8 
,to ,marston's hollow creations1 which  
drag the loftiest ideas through the mire
 to amuse the vulgar1 the sublime and   
serious discourses of ,shakspere are    
opposed1 which are destined to afford   
profoundest instruction4 ,is not the    
whole tendency of ',hamlet' described in
 the last two lines just quoted1 in     
which it is stated that under this      
poet's attack the walls of the old fusty
 world are battered down8 #eb  ,the     
chief character in ',the ,malcontent' is
 a ,duke of ,genoa4 ,marston1 in his    
preface ',to the ,reader1' lays stress  
on the fact of this ,duke being1 not an 
historical personage1 but a creation of 

fiction1 so 'that even strangers1 in    
whose ,state ,i laid my scene1 should   
not from thence draw any disgrace to    
any1 dead or living4' ,after having     
complained that1 in spite of this       
endeavour of his1 there are some who    
have been 'most unadvisedly over-cunning
 in misinterpreting' him1 and1 'with    
subtletie1 have maliciously spread ill  
rumours1' he goes on declaring that he  
desires 'to satisfie every firme spirit1
 who in all his actions proposeth to    
himself no more ends then ,god and      
vertue do1 whose intentions are alwaies 
simple4' ,those only he means to combat 
'whose unquiet studies labor innovation1
 contempt of holy policie1 reverent     
comely superioritie and establisht      
unity4' ,he fears not for the rest of   
his 'supposed tartnesse2 but unto every 
worthy minde it will be approved so     
generall and honest as may modestly     
passe with the freedome of a satyre4'   
,that this satire could only be directed
 against ',hamlet1' every one will be   

convinced who spends a short hour in    
reading ,marston's ',malcontent4' ,here1
 too1 we must confine ourselves to      
pointing out only the most important    
allusions2 especially such as refer to  
religion4 ,indeed1 we would have to copy
 the whole play1 in order to make it    
fully clear how much ,marston1 with his 
undoubted talent for travesty1 has      
succeeded in grotesquely deriding the   
lofty1 noble tone of ,shakspere's drama4
  ,the chief character in ',the         
,malcontent' is ,malevole1 the ,duke of 
,genoa before-mentioned1 who has been   
wrongfully deprived of the crown4 ,with 
subtle dissimulation1 disguised and     
unknown1 he hangs about the ,court4     
,against the ladies especially1 whom he 
all holds to be adulteresses1 he        
entertains the greatest mistrust4 ,he   
watches every one2 but most closely     
women4 ,he is the image of mental       
distemper2 and ,pietro1 the ruling      
,duke1 describes him in act i4 sc4 #b by
 saying that 'the elements struggle     

within him2 his own soule is at variance
 within her selfe2' he is 'more         
discontent than ,lucifer4' ,in short1 he
 confers upon him all the qualities of a
 ',hamlet' character4  ,whenever        
religious questions are addressed to    
,malevole1 we have to look upon him as  
the very type of ,shakspere himself1    
whom ,marston takes to task for his     
spirit of 'innovation' and his 'contempt
 of holy policie and establisht unity4' 
,shakspere1 it ought to be remembered1  
had scourged ,ben ,jonson under the     
figure of ,malvolio4 ,marston1 who      
dedicates ',the ,malcontent' to ,jonson1
 no doubt wished to please ,jonson by   
calling the chief character1 which      
represents ,shakspere1 ,malevole4  ,the 
play opens with an abominable charivari4
 7',the vilest out-of-time musicke being
 heard4'7 ,this is partly a hit against 
the ,globe ,theatre where--as we see    
from ,shakspere's dramas--music was     
often introduced in a play2 partly it is
 to indicate the disharmony of          

,malevole's mind4  ,only a few          
travesties may be mentioned here1 before
 we quote the treatment of religious    
questions4  ,in act i4 sc4 #g 7here the 
scene is ridiculed in which ,hamlet1    
with drawn sword1 stands behind the     
,king71 ,pietro enters1 'his sword      
drawne4'    ,pietro4 ,a mischiefe fill  
thy throate1 thou fowle-jaw'd slave6    
,say thy praiers6    ,mendozo4 ,i ha    
forgot um4    ,pietro4 ,thou shall die4 
,mendozo4 ,so shall ,ihou4  ,i am       
heart-mad4    ,pietro4 ,i am horne-mad4 
,mendozo4 ,extreme mad4    ,pietro4     
,monstrously mad4    ,mendozo4 ,why8    
,pietro4 ,why8 thou1 thou hast          
dishonoured my bed4  ,hamlet's words3   
#ec--',o1 most wicked speed1 to post    
with such dexterity to incestuous       
sheets6' are so often ridiculed because 
,shakspere1 instead of the word 'bed1'  
uses the more unusual 'sheets4'         
,aurelia #ed speaks of 'chaste sheets1' 
,malevole #ee prophesies that 'the      
,dutches 7,duke1 ,doge7 sheets will     

smoke for't ere it be long4' ,mendozo   
#ef 'hates all women1 waxe-lightes1     
antique bed-postes1' c42 'also sweete   
sheetes4' ,aurelia1 parodying the words 
,hamlet addresses to his mother1 asks   
herself3 ',o1 judgement1 where have been
 my eyes8 ,what bewitched election made 
me dote on thee8 what sorcery made me   
love thee8'  ,the counsel which ,hamlet 
gives to his mother 'to throw away the  
worser part of her cleft heart1' ,pietro
 ridicules in act i4 sc4 #g3--    ,my   
bosome and my heart1   ,when nothing    
helps1 cut off the rotten part4  ,the   
splendid speech of ,hamlet3 ',what a    
piece of work is man6' sounds from      
,mendozo's #eg lips thus3--',in body how
 delicate2 in soule how wittie2 in      
discourse how pregnant2 in life how     
warie2 in favours how juditious2 in day 
how sociable2 in night how6--,o pleasure
 unutterable6'  ,hamlet's little        
monologue3 #eh ',tis now the very       
witching time of night1' runs thus with 
,mendozo3--#ei    ',tis now about the   

immodest waste of night2   ,the mother  
of moist dew with pallide light         
,spreads gloomie shades about the mummed
 earth4   ,sleepe1 sleepe1 whilst we    
contrive our mischiefes birth4  ,then1  
parodying ,hamlet as he draws forth the 
dead ,polonius from behind the arras1   
,mendozo says3--    ,this man ,ile      
7,i'll7 get inhumde4  ,thus1 all kinds  
of ,shaksperian incidents and locutions 
are brought forward1 wherever they are  
apt to produce the most comic effect4   
,several times1 from the beginning1 the 
'weasel' is mentioned with which ,hamlet
 rallies ,polonius4 ,we also hear of the
 'sponge which sucks'--a simile used by 
,hamlet 7act iv4 sc4 #c7 in regard to   
,rosencrantz4 ,nor is the 'true-penny'  
forgotten--a word used by ,hamlet #fj to
 designate his father's ghost as a true 
and genuine one2 nor the ',hillo1 ho1   
ho4'  ,in all these allusions1 of which 
an attentive reader might easily find   
scores1 there is no systematic order of 
thoughts4 ,only in the religious        

questions we meet with a clear system3  
they are all addressed to ,malevole1 who
 is represented as a kind of            
freethinker1 similar to the one whom    
,marston1 in his preface1 wishes to be  
outlawed1 and of whom he says that he   
fully merits the 'tartness' and freedom 
of his satire4 ,in the very beginning of
 ',the ,malcontent1' ,pietro asks       
,malevole3    ,i wonder what religion   
thou art of8    ,malevole4 ,of a        
souldiers religion4 #fa    ,pietro4 ,and
 what doost thinke makes most infidells 
now8    ,malevole4 ,sects4 ,sects6 ,i   
have seene seeming ,pietie change   her 
roabe so oft1 that sure none but some   
arch-divell can shape her   pitticoate4 
,pietro4 ,o6 a religious pllicie4       
,malevole4 ,but damnation on a politique
 religion6  ,in act ii4 sc4 #e we find  
the following3--      ,malevole4 ,i     
meane turne pure ,rochelchurchman4 #fb  
,i--     ,mendozo4 ,thou ,churchman6    
,why8 ,why8     ,malevole4 ,because ,he 
live lazily1 raile upon authoritie1     

deny ,kings supremacy in things         
indifferent1 and be a pope in mine owne 
parish4     ,mendozo4 ,wherefore doost  
thou thinke churches were made8         
,malevole4 ,to scowre plow-shares4 ,i   
have seene oxen plow    uppe altares3   
,et nunc seges ubi ,sion fuit4  ,then   
there is again what appears to be an    
allusion to ,hamlet1 act i4 sc4 #d1     
resembling that in ',volpone'3--    ,i  
have seen the stoned coffins of         
long-flead ,christians burst up   and   
made hogs troughs4  ,in act iv4 sc4 #d1 
,mendozo says to ,malevole1 whom he     
wishes to use for the murder of a       
hermit3--    ,yea1 provident4 ,beware an
 hypocrite6   ,a ,church-man once       
corrupted1 ,oh avoide6   ,a fellow that 
makes religion his stawking horse4   ,he
 breeds a plague4 ,thou shalt poison    
him4  ,from the many hints in ',volpone'
 and in ',the ,malcontent1' it clearly  
follows that ,shakspere was to be       
represented1 in those dramas1 before the
 public at large1 as an ,atheist4 #fc   

,according to ,jonson1 he counted ',,all
 ,,old ,,doctrine ,,heresie4' ,according
 to ,marston1 he had an aversion for all
 sects1 and ',,contempt ,,of ,,holy     
,,policie1 ,,reverent ,,comely          
,,superioritie1 ,,and ,,establisht      
,,unitie4' ,we hope we have convinced   
our readers that ,shakspere spoke in    
matters of religion as clearly as his   
'tongue-tied muse' #fd permitted him to 
do4 ,above all1 we think of having      
successfully proved that the controversy
 of ',hamlet' is directed against       
doctrines which assert that there is    
nothing but evil in human nature4       
,shakspere's prophetic glance saw the   
pernicious character of ,montaigne's    
inconsistent thoughts1 which1 unable to 
place us in sound relation to the       
,universe1 only succeed in making men   
pass their lives in subtle reflection   
and unmanly1 sentimental inaction4      
,shakspere1 intending to avert the      
blighting influence of such a philosophy
 from the best and foremost of his      

country1 wrote his ',hamlet4' ,as a     
truly heaven-born poet he bound for     
ever1 by ,thought's enduring chain1     
,all that flows unfixed and undefined   
,in glimmering phantasy before the mind4
  ,in spite of the powerful impression  
his master-work1 ',hamlet1' has made    
upon all thinking minds1 the deepest and
 most serious meaning of ,shakspere's   
warning words could not have been       
fathomed by the many4 ,the parables     
through which a ,prophet spoke were cast
 into the form of a theatrical play1 not
 easy to understand for the mass of men2
 for 'tongue-tied' was his ,muse by     
earthly powers4 ,and ,shakspere deeply  
felt the disgrace of being compelled to 
give forth his utterances in so dubious 
a manner4  ,his ,sonnets #fe express the
 feeling that weighed upon him on this  
account4 ,had he not 'gor'd his own     
thoughts1' revealed his innermost soul8 
,yet1 now1 his narrow-minded            
fellow-dramatists--but no6 not          
fellow-dramatists3 mere contemporary    

playwrights1 immeasurably far behind him
 in rank--eaten up1 as they were1 with  
envy and jealous malice1 meanly derided 
everything sacred to him2 holding up his
 ideals to ridicule before a jeering    
crowd4 ,it has long ago been surmised   
that ,sonnet lxvi4 belongs to the       
',hamlet' period4 ,but now it will be   
better understood why that sonnet speaks
 of 'a maiden virtue rudely strumpeted2 
#ff of 'right perfection wrongfully     
disgrac'd1 and strength by limping sway 
disabled2' of 'simple truth miscall'd   
simplicity4'  ,these are the full words 
of this mighty sigh of despair3--       
,tir'd with all these1 for restful death
 ,i cry--   ,as1 to behold desert a     
beggar born1   ,and needy nothing       
trimm'd in jollity1   ,and purest faith 
unhappily forsworn1   ,and gilded honour
 shamefully misplac'd1   ,and maiden    
virtue rudely strumpeted1   ,and right  
perfection wrongfully disgrac'd1   ,and 
strength by limping sway disabled1      
,and art made tongue-ty'd by authority1 

,and folly 7doctor-like7 controlling    
skill1   ,and simple truth miscall'd    
simplicity1   ,and captive ,good        
attending captain ill3   ,tir'd with all
 these1 from these would ,i be gone1    
,save that1 to die1 ,i leave my love    
alone4  ',purest faith unhappily        
forsworn' was ,shakspere's faith in     
,god--without any 'holy policie' and    
without 'old doctrines'--trusting above 
all in the majesty of ennobled human    
nature4 ,he was a veritable ,humanist1  
the truest and greatest1 who ever strove
 to raise the most essential part of    
human nature1 man's soul and mind1 yet  
by no mean supernatural1 but by 'mean   
that ,nature makes4'  ,shakspere's      
',hamlet' appears to us like a solemn   
admonition to his distinguished friends4
 ,he showed them1 under the guise of    
that ,prince1 a nobleman without fixed  
ideal--'virtues which do not go forth'  
to assert themselves1 and to do good for
 the sake of others--noble life wasted1 
letting the world remain 'out of joint' 

without determined will to set it right3
 this was the poet's prophetic warning4 
,one aspiration of ,shakspere clearly   
shines through his career1 in whatever  
darkness it may otherwise be            
enveloped--namely1 his longing to       
acquire land near the town he was born  
in4 ,when he had realised this ambition1
 he cheerfully seems to have left the   
splendour of town life1 and to have     
readily renounced all literary fame2 for
 he did not even care to collect his own
 works4  ,he was contented to cultivate 
his native soil3 a giant ,antaeus who1  
as the myth tells us1 ever had to touch 
,mother ,earth to regain his strength4  
#a3 ,volpone is stated to have been     
first acted in the ,globe ,theatre    in
 #afje4 ,it is simply impossible that   
this drama1 in its present shape1       
should have been given in that theatre  
as long as ,shakspere    was actively   
connected with it4 ,we therefore must   
assume that    ,shakspere--as ,delius   
holds it to be probable--had at that    

time    already withdrawn to ,stratford1
 or that the biting allusions which     
are contained in ,volpone against the   
great ,master1 had been added    between
 #afje 7the year of its first           
performance7 and #afjg 7the year    of  
its appearance in print74 ,we consider  
the latter opinion the    likelier one1 
as we suspect1 from allusions in        
,epicoene1    that ,shakspere1 when this
 play was published1 still resided in   
,london4 ,however1 it is also probable  
that in #afje he may for a    while have
 withdrawn from the stage4   #b3 ,in    
this enumeration1 ,jonson seems to have 
the various ,qualities of the    ,essays
 in view which ,florio calls ',morall1  
,politike1 and ,millitarie4'   #c3      
,against ,montaigne1 'the teacher of    
things divine no less than    human1'   
,shakspere's whole argumentation in     
',hamlet' is directed4   #d3 ,here we   
have the noble ,knight of the ,order of 
,st4 ,michael1 as well    as the        
courtier and ,mayor of ,bordeaux4   #e3 

,montaigne was ,knight of the ,order of 
,st4 ,michael1 and    ,chamberlain of   
,henry ,,iii4 ,he was on terms of       
friendship with    ,henry ,,iv4 ,both   
,kings he had as guests in his own      
house4 ,in his    ,essai de ,vanitie1   
,montaigne also relates with great pride
    and satisfaction1 that during his   
sojourn at ,rome he was made a          
burgess of that city1 'the most noble   
that ever was1 or ever shall    be4'    
#f3 ,in spite of ,gifford's protest we  
do not hesitate to maintain    that     
,jonson's ,epigram ,,lvi4 7,on          
,poet-,ape7 is directed against         
,shakspere1 and that the poet whom      
,jonson--in the ,epistle ,,xii4         
7,forest7 to ,elizabeth1 ,countess of   
,rutland--abuses1 is    also none else  
than ,shakspere4   #g3 ,montaigne died  
in #aeib4   #h3 ,we can only quote the  
most striking points1 and must leave it 
to    the reader who takes a deeper     
interest in the subject1 to give his    
own closer attention to the dramas      

concerning the controversy4   #i3       
,gentlemen of ,verona2 ,comedy of       
,errors2 ,love's ,labour ,lost2         
,love's ,labour ,won 7probably ,all's   
,well that ,ends ,well72 ,midsummer     
,night's ,dream2 ,merchant of ,venice4  
,of ,tragedies3 ,richard the    ,second2
 ,richard the ,third2 ,henry the        
,fourth2 ,king ,john2 ,titus            
,andronicus2 ,romeo and ,juliet4  #aj3  
,as the words that follow seem to       
contain an allusion to    ,shakspere's  
,hamlet1 it is to be supposed that by   
the    'melting heir' ,jonson points to 
some protector of the great poet4       
,whether this be ,william ,herbert1 or  
the ,earl of ,southampton1 we    must   
leave undecided4  #aa3 ,act i4 sc4 #d4  
#ab3 ,jonson probably calls ,shakspere  
an hermaphrodite because1    having a   
wife1 he cultivated an intimate         
friendship at the same time    with     
,william ,herbert1 the later ,earl of   
,pembroke4 ,jonson's ,epicoene1    or   
,the ,silent ,woman 7#afji7 satirises   

this connection4 ,we are    not the     
first in making this assertion4 7,see   
,sonnets of ,shakspere    ,solved1 by   
,henry ,brown3 ,london1 #ahgf1 p4 #af47 
,in ,epicoene a ,college is described1  
which is stated to be    composed of    
women4 ,instead of women1 we may boldly 
assume men to    be meant4 ,truewitt    
thus describes the new ,society3--      
',a new foundation1 ,sir1 here in the   
town1 of ladies1 that call    themselves
 the ,collegiates3 an order between     
courtiers and country    madams that    
live from their husbands1 and give      
entertainment to all    the wits and    
braveries of the time1 as they call     
them3 cry down1 or up1    what they like
 or dislike in a brain or a fashion1    
with most masculine    or rather        
hermaphroditical authority2 and every   
day gain to their    ,college some new  
probationer4       ,clerimont4  ,who is 
the president8      ,truewitt4   ,the   
grave and youthful matron1 the ,lady    
,haughty4'     ,shakspere at that time  

was in the 'matronly' age of forty-five4
    ,we have seen how a 'dislike in a   
brain' has been expressed in ,hamlet4   
#ac3 ,the name of ,ovid1 likewise used  
in that eulogy1 ,jonson assigned1    in 
his ,poetaster1 to ,marston4 7,see note 
#bb at end of    ,section ,v47  #ad3 ,it
 would have been most strange1 indeed1  
if the two greatest    geniuses of their
 time had not exercised some influence  
on each    other2 if the greatest       
thinker of that age had not given some  
suggestive thoughts to the poet2 and if 
the poet had not animated    the thinker
 to the cultivation of art1 inducing him
 to offer his    philosophical thoughts 
in beautiful garment4 ,hence ,mrs4      
,henry ,pott    may have found vestiges 
of a more perfected and nobler style in 
,bacon's ,diaries1 on which she founded 
her wild theory4 ,had not ,kant    and  
,fichte great influence on their        
contemporary1 ,schiller8 ,does    not   
,goethe praise the influence exercised  
by ,spinoza upon him8 ,let    us assume 

that the latter two had been            
contemporaries2 that they    had lived  
in the same town4 ,would it not have    
been extraordinary    if they had       
remained intellectual strangers to each 
other1 instead    of drawing mutual     
advantage from their intercourse8 ,why  
should    ,bacon not have been one of   
the noblemen who1 after the performance 
of a play1 were initiated1 in the       
,mermaid ,tavern1 into the more         
hidden meaning of a drama8 ,is it not   
rather likely that ,bacon    drew       
,shakspere's attention to the           
inconsistencies of ,montaigne8  #ae3    
,the advocates1 in festive processions1 
made use of mules4 ,maybe    that       
,jonson calls ,shakspere a 'good dull   
mule' because in ,hamlet    he champions
 the views of ',sir ,lawyer' ,bacon4    
#af3 ,this notion1 that ,shakspere has  
mainly distinguished himself in    the  
comic line--in the representation of    
,foolery--harmonises    with ,jonson's  
opinion1 as privately expressed in      

,timber2 or1    ,discoveries made upon  
,men and ,matter 7#afcj-cg71 in a       
noteworthy    degree4 ,there he says of 
,shakspere3--',his wit was in his own   
power4    ,would the rule of it had been
 so1 too4'  #ag3 ,an allusion to        
,shakspere's unclassical metrics1 and   
his great    success among the public1  
although in ,jonson's opinion he brings 
neither regular 'play nor university    
show4'  #ah3 ,in ,androgyno1 whom he    
brings in4  #ai3 ,this is ,jonson's     
answer to the question raised in        
,twelfth ,night    7act iv4 sc4 #b71    
when ,malvolio is in prison1 in regard  
to ,pythagoras4  #bj3 ,we can nowhere   
find any clue to such a personage of    
antiquity1    and we take it to be a    
reference to ,pyrrhon of ,elis1 the     
founder    of the sceptic school4  #ba3 
,bacon was a friend of this sport4 ,mrs4
 ,pott points out some    technical     
expressions which we find both in       
,bacon's works and in    ,shakspere4    
,perhaps we might stretch our fancy so  

far as to assume    that ,bacon is      
,pyrrhus of ,delos1 and that gentle     
,shakspere    sometimes went a-fishing  
with him on the banks of the ,thames4   
#bb3 ',as itself doth relate it4' ,yet  
the soul does not relate anything1      
except that it is said to have spoken1  
in all the characters it    assumed1 'as
 in the cobbler's cock4' ,we must1      
therefore1 probably    look in plays--in
 ,shakspere's dramas--for that which the
 soul has    spoken in its various      
stages as a king1 as a beggar1 and so   
forth4  #bc3 ',brock' 7badger7--a word  
which ,shakspere only uses once2    viz4
 in ,twelfth ,night 7act ii4 sc4 #e74   
,sir ,toby's whole    indignation       
against ,malvolio culminates in the     
words3--',marry1    hang thee1 brock6'  
,we know of ,jonson's unseemly bodily   
figure1    his 'ambling' gait1 which    
rendered him unfit for the stage4 ,the  
pace of a badger would be a very graphic
 description of his manner    of        
walking4 ,now1 ,jonson sneers at the    

word 'brock' in a way not    unfrequent 
with ,shakspere himself1 in regard to   
various words used    by ,jonson against
 him4 ,in ,the ,poetaster1 ,tucca falls 
out    against the 'wormwood' comedies1 
which drag everything on to the         
stage4 ,we are reminded here of         
,hamlet's exclamation3--',wormwood1     
wormwood6' when the ,queen of the       
,interlude speaks the two lines he      
had probably intercalated3--       ,in  
second husband let me be accurst6       
,none wed the second but who kill'd the 
first4  #bd3 ',cobbler's cock' refers   
most likely to a drama by ,robert       
,wilson1 entitled3 ,cobbler's ,prophecy4
 ,in ,collier's    ,history of the      
,english ,drama 7iii4 pp4 #bdg-h7 it is 
thus    described3--     ',it is a mass 
of absurdity without any leading        
purpose1 but here and    there          
exhibiting glimpses of something better4
 ,the scene of the play    is laid in   
,boeotia which is represented to be     
ruled by a duke1 but    in a state of   

confusion and disorganisation4444 ,one  
of the principal    characters is a     
whimsical ,cobbler who1 by              
intermediation of the    heathen god    
,mercury1 obtains prophetic power1 the  
chief object    of which is to warn the 
,duke of the impending ruin of his state
    unless he consents to introduce     
various reforms1 and especially    to   
unite the discordant classes of his     
subjects4' ,jonson may have    looked   
upon ,hamlet in this manner from his    
point of view4    ,it is for us to      
admire the prophetical spirit of        
,shakspere who    in ,montaigne         
perceived the germ of the helplessly    
divided nature    of modern man4   #be3 
',or his great oath1 by ,quarter4' ,no  
doubt1 this is an    allusion of ,jonson
 to ,shakspere's 'quarter share1' the   
fourth    part of the receipts of his   
company4 ,the ,blackfriars ,theatre had 
sixteen shareholders4 ,it is proved that
 ,shakspere at that time1    when a     
valuation of the theatre was made1 had a

 claim to four    parts1 each of #bcc   
#fs4 #h;d4 7,chr4 ,armitage ,brown1     
,shak4    ,autobiographical ,poems1     
,london1 #ahch1 p4 #aja74 ,in ,the      
,poetaster 7act iii4 sc4 i71 ,tucca says
 to ,crispinus the                      
,poetaster3--',thou shall have a quarter
 share4' ,in ,epistle xii4    7,forest71
 which ,jonson addresses to ,elizabeth1 
,countess    of ,rutland1 and which1 in 
our opinion1 also contains an allusion  
to ,shakspere1 as well as to his        
protector1 ,william ,herbert1 ,ben      
speaks of poets with 'their quarter     
face4'  #bf3 ,shakspere often introduced
 music in his dramas4 ,jonson ridicules 
this2 so did ,marston1 as we shall see4 
7,twelfth ,night1 for instance1    opens
 with music47  #bg3 ',his golden thigh4'
 ,the shape of the legs1 the 'yellow    
cross-gartered    stockings' of poor    
,malvolio in ,twelfth ,night are here   
ridiculed4  #bh3 ,malvolio says to his  
friends3--',i am not of your element4'  
,in    the same play1 great sport is    

made of this word1 until the ,fool      
himself    at last gets weary of it1    
when he says 7act iii4 sc4 i73--',you   
are    out of my welkin--,i might say   
element1 but the word is overworn4'     
#bi3 ,blackfriars1 where ,shakspere     
first acted1 was a former cloister4     
',on fish1 when first a ,carthusian ,i  
entered1' no doubt means that    from   
the beginning he had preferred keeping  
mute as a fish1 in regard    to         
forbidden matters of the ,church4  #cj3 
,i4e41 ,christmas-pie4 ,in the ,prologue
 of ,the ,return from    ,parnassus1    
this comedy is called a ,christmas ,toy4
    ,shakspere is therein lavishly      
praised by his brother actors1          
whereas ,jonson is spoken of as 'a bold 
whoreson1 as confident now    in making 
of a book1 as he was in times past in   
laying of a brick4'    ,a veritable     
libel6  #ca3 ,hamlet 7act v4 sc4 #b73-- 
,methought1 ,i lay       ,worse than the
 mutines in the bilboes  #cb3 ,through  
,jonson's satire we always see the      

sanctimonious ,jesuit    peering out4   
#cc3 ,these are the parables in which   
,hamlet speaks4 ,many a reader will     
understand why ,shakspere could not use 
more explicit language4  #cd3 ,so the   
envious ,jonson calls ,shakspere's      
public who are satisfied with           
'salad2' that is1 with patchy           
compositions1 pieced together from all  
kinds of material4  #ce3 ,jonson had    
,scottish ancestry4  #cf3 ,in a moment  
of fanaticism1 ,hamlet wishes ,ophelia  
to go to a    nunnery4 ,jonson1 in most 
cynical manner1 means to say that       
,hamlet had been impotent as regards his
 innamorata4 ,though    'for the nones' 
may be taken as 'for the nonce1' it yet 
comes close    enough to a              
double-entendre--namely1 'for the nuns4'
  #cg3 ,dramatic versus  ,wit ,combats4 
,london1 #ahfd4 ,ed4 ,john ,russell     
,smith4  #ch3 ,to mount a bank          
mountebank4  #ci3 ,from one of them poor
 ,ben received a vile medicine3 a purge4
  #dj3 ',lewd'unlearned4  #da3          

,shakspere's ,autobiographical ,poems4  
#db3 ,karl ,elze 7,essays on            
,shakespeare2 ,london #ahgd7 thinks this
 passage    is intended against         
,shakespeare's alleged theft committed  
in the    ,tempest1 the composition of  
which he1 therefore1 places in the year 
#afjd-e1 while most critics assign it to
 a much later period4 ,it must    also  
be mentioned that ,karl ,elze draws     
attention to the more friendly    words 
with which ,jonson1 in his own          
handwriting1 dedicates his ,volpone     
to ,florio4     ,in the opinion of the  
,german critic1 it is not difficult to  
gather from    this ,dedication the     
desire of the meanly quarrelsome scholar
 ,jonson    to give his friend ,florio  
to understand that1 among other things1 
he    would read with considerable      
satisfaction how he 7,jonson7 had made  
short    work with this ',shake-scene'  
and this 'upstart ,crow4'  #dc3 ,dekker 
tells ,horace that                      
his--,johnson's--plays are misliked at  

,court4    ,according to the            
above-quoted words of ,jonson1 ,hamlet  
seems to have    pleased at ,court on   
its first appearance4  #dd3 ,the        
following passage in ,jonson's ,epicoene
 is also    interesting1 though in the  
play itself it is not made to refer to  
,montaigne but apparently to ,plutarch  
and ,seneca3 ',grave asses6 mere        
essayists3 a few loose sentences1 and   
that's all4 ,a man could talk    so his 
whole age4 ,i do utter as good things   
every hour if they were    collected    
and observed1 as either of them4' ,may  
not such words have    fallen from      
,shakspere's lips1 in regard to         
,montaigne1 before an    intimate circle
 in the ,mermaid ,tavern8  #de3 ,this   
may point either to ,montaigne or to    
,dr4 ,guinne1 the    fellow-worker of   
,florio in the translation of the       
,essays1 whom the    latter calls 'a    
monster-quelling ,theseus or ,hercules4'
  #df3 ,the reasons which induce us to  
this opinion are the following3    ,the 

three authors of ,eastward ,hoe were    
arrested on account of a    satire      
contained in this play against the      
,scots2 ,james ,i41 himself    a ,scot1 
having become ,king of ,england a year  
before4 ,the audacious    stage-poets   
were threatened with having their noses 
and ears cut    off4 ,they were         
presently freed1 however2 probably      
through the    intervention of some     
noblemen4 ,soon afterwards1 ,jonson was 
again    in prison2 and we suspect that 
this second imprisonment took place     
in consequence of ,volpone4 ,we base    
this view on several incidents4    ,in a
 letter ,jonson addressed in #afje1 from
 his place of confinement1    to ,lord  
,salisbury 7,ben ,jonson1 edited by     
,cunningham1 vol4 i4 xlix471    he says 
that he regrets having once more to     
apply to his kindness    on account of a
 play1 after having scarcely repented   
'his first    error' 7most probably     
,eastward ,hoe74' ,before ,i can shew   
myself    grateful in the least for     

former benefits1 ,i am enforced to      
provoke    your bounties for more4' ,in 
this letter1 ,jonson uses a tone similar
    to the one which pervades his       
,dedication of ,volpone4 ,we therefore  
believe that both letter and ,dedication
 have reference to one and    the same  
matter4 ,in the letter1 ,jonson         
addresses ,lord ,salisbury in    this   
way3--',my noble lord1 they deal not    
charitably who are witty in    another  
man's work1 and utter sometimes their   
own malicious meanings    under our     
words4' ,he then continues1 protesting  
that since his first    error1 which was
 punished more with his shame than with 
his bondage1    he has only touched at  
general vice1 sparing particular        
persons4 ,he    goes on3--',i beseech   
your most honourable ,lordship1 suffer  
not other    men's errors or faults past
 to be made my crimes2 but let me be    
examined by all my works past and this  
present2 and trust not to    ,rumour1   
but my books 7for she is an unjust      

deliverer1 both of    great and of small
 actions71 whether ,i have ever 7many   
things ,i    have written private and   
public7 given offence to a nation1 to a 
public order or state1 or any person of 
honour or authority2 but    have equally
 laboured to keep their dignity1 as my  
own person1    safe4'     ,now1 let us  
compare the following verses from the   
second ,prologue    of ,epicoene 7the   
plural here becomes the singular73--    
,if any yet will1 with particular       
sleight      ,of application1           
7,occasioned by some person's           
impertinent      ,exceptions47          
wrest what he doth write2      ,and that
 he meant1 or him1 or her1 will say3    
,they make a libel1 which he made a     
play4     ,nor will it be easy to find  
out who was the cause of ,volpone having
    been persecuted at one time--that is
 to say1 forbidden to be acted    on the
 stage4 7,perchance by the 'obstreperous
 ,sir ,lawyer' who is    mentioned in   
it87     ,we direct the reader's        

attention to the eulogistic poems       
composed    by ,jonson's friends on     
,volpone4 7,ben ,jonson1 by ,cunningham1
 vol4    i4 pp4 civ4-cv47 ,first there  
are the extraordinary praises written   
by those who sign their names in        
full3--,j4 ,,donne1 ,e4 ,,bolton1       
,,francis    ,,beaumont4 ,then follow   
verses1 probably composed somewhat      
later1    which are cautiously signed by
 initials only--,d4 ,d41 ,j4 ,c41 ,g4   
,c41    ,e4 ,s41 ,j4 ,f41 ,t4 ,r4 ,this 
is not the case with any other          
eulogistic    poems referring to        
,jonson's dramas4 ,the verses before    
mentioned1    which are only signed by  
initials1 all speak of a 'persecuted    
fox1    or of a fox killed by hounds4'  
#dg3 ',come1 my coach6' means3 ',i value
 my honour less than my coach4'    ,the 
expression1 ',o1 how the wheel becomes  
it6' is of such a character    that we  
must refer the reader to ,montaigne's   
,essay ,,iii4 #aa4  #dh3 ,eastward ,hoe 
was acted in the ,blackfriars ,theatre  

by    ',the ,children of ,her           
,majestie's ,revels4'  #di3 ,until now  
it has been assumed that ,the           
,malcontent was acted by    ,shakspere's
 ,company in the ,globe ,theatre4 ,this 
conclusion was    based on the          
title-page of the drama1 which runs     
thus3--       ,,the ,,malcontent        
,augmented by ,marston      ,with the   
,additions played by the ,kings         
,,maiesties ,,servants      ,written    
by ,,john ,,webster4     ,it is1        
however1 to be noted that in regard to  
all other plays of    ,marston1 whenever
 it is mentioned by whom they were acted
 7so1    for instance1 in regard to ,the
 ,parasitaster1 the ,dutch ,courtesane1 
and ,eastward ,hoe71 the title is always
 indicated in this way    7designating  
both the ,theatre and the               
,company73--',as it was plaid    in the 
,black ,friars by the ,children of her  
,maiesties ,revels4' ,again1    the mere
 perusal of the ',induction' of ,the    
,malcontent 7not to speak    of the     

drama itself7 shows that this play could
 not have been acted    'by the ,kings  
,maiesties servants' during ,shakspere's
 membership4 ,for1    in this ,induction
 there appear four actors of            
,shakspere's company3    ,sly1          
,burbadge1 ,condell1 and ,lowin4 ,they  
are brought in to justify    themselves 
why they act a certain play1 'another   
,company having    interest in it4' ,one
 of the actors excuses their doing so by
 saying    that1 as they themselves have
 been similarly robbed1 they have a     
clear right to ,malevole1 the chief     
character in ,the ,malcontent4    ',why 
not ,malevole in folio with us1 as      
,jeronimo in decimo sexto    with them8 
,they taught us a name for our play3 we 
call it3 ,one    for ,another4' 7,that  
is to say1 we give them ',tit for       
,tat4'7       ,sly4 ,what are your      
additions8      ,burbadge4 ,sooth1 not  
greatly needefull1 only as your         
sallet 7salad7 to your greate feast--to 
entertaine a little more      time1 and 

to abridge the not received custome of  
musicke in our      theater4 ,i must    
leave you1 ,sir4 ,exit ,burbadge4       
,sinklow4 ,doth he play ,the            
,malcontent8      ,condell4 ,yes1 ,sir4 
,our explanation of the ,induction is   
this3 ,marston has committed            
satirical trespass upon ,hamlet4        
,shakspere1 on his part1 made    use of 
the chief action and the chief          
characters of ,the ,malcontent    in his
 ,measure for ,measure 7',one for       
,another'72 but he did so in    his own 
nobler manner4 ,from the wildly confused
 material before    him he composed a   
magnificent drama4 ,once more1 in the   
very beginning    of act i4 sc4 ,i1     
,shakspere makes the ,duke utter words1 
each of which    is directed against the
 inactive nature of ,montaigne3--       
,thyself and thy belongings      ,are   
not thine own so proper as to waste     
,thyself upon thy virtues1 them on thee4
      444,for if our virtues      ,did  
not go forth of us1 't were all alike   

,as if we had them not4     ,shakspere's
 contemporaries were not over careful as
 regards    style4 ',with the additions 
played by the ,kings ,maiesties         
,servants1    written by ,john          
,webster1' means that the additions1 in 
which    the servants of ,his ,majesty1 
in the ',induction1' are brought on the 
stage1 were written by ,john ,webster4  
,read the ',extempore ,prologue' which  
,sly speaks at the conclusion of    the 
,induction--a shameless travesty of the 
,epilogue in ,as ,you    ,like ,it4     
,read the beginning of act iii4 sc4 #b  
of ,the ,malcontent1    where ,malevole 
7'in some freeze gown'7 burlesques the  
splendid    monologue in ,king ,henry   
the ,fourth 7,part #aa4 act iv4 sc4 ,i74
 ,read    act iii4 sc4 #c of ,the       
,malcontent1 where ,marston sneers at   
the scene    in act iv4 of ,king        
,richard the ,second when ,richard      
says3--       ,now is this golden crown 
like a deep well1      ,that owes two   
buckets filling one another4  #ej3 ,is  

it imaginable that ,shakspere could have
 allowed his own    most beautiful      
productions to be thus leered at1 and   
mocked1    in his own theatre8 ,our     
feeling rebels against the thought4     
,beniamini ,jonsonio      ,poetae       
,elegantissimo ,gravissimo      ,amico  
,suo ,candido et ,cordato      ,johannes
 ,marston1 ,musarum ,alumnus1           
,asperam ,hanc ,suam ,thaliam ,,dd4     
#ea3 ,who else can be meant by the      
',frenchman's ,helicon' than            
,montaigne8 ,he is satirically called   
',helicon1' as he is taken down    from 
his height in ',hamlet4'  #eb3 ,in      
meaning alike to ,jonson's3 ',counting  
all old doctrine heresie4'  #ec3 ,act i4
 sc4#b4  #ed3 ,act iv4 sc4 #e4  #ee3    
,act i4 sc4 #d4  #ef3 ,act i4 sc4 #g4   
#eg3 ,act i4 sc4 #f4  #eh3 ,act iii4 sc4
 #b4  #ei3 ,act ii4 sc4 #e4  #fj3 ,act  
i4 ,sc4 #e in ,hamlet2 ,malcontent1 act 
iii4 sc4 #c4  #fa3 ,perhaps an allusion 
to the conclusion of ,hamlet1 when the  
,state falls into the hands of a soldier

 7,fortinbras74                         
--,soldaten-,religion1 keine ,religion  
7'a soldier's religion1 no              
religion'71 as the old ,german saying   
is4  #fb3 ,rochelle-,churchman--that is1
 ,huguenot4  #fc3 ,see ,bacon's ,essay1 
,of ,atheism3 ',all that impugn a       
received    religion or superstition are
 by the adverse part branded with the   
name of ,atheists4'  #fd3 ,sonnet lxvi4 
lxxxv4  #fe3 xc4 xci4 xcii4  #ff3 ,in   
,eastward ,hoe1 his most delicate       
poetical production1    ,ophelia1 is    
most abominably parodied--'rudely       
strumpeted4'