,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,und]scores 80 be=e & aft] a ^w or phrase indicate italics 9 ! orig9al text4 ,equal signs 80 be=e & aft] a ^w or phrase indicate bold 9 ! orig9al text4 ,small capitals h be5 conv]t$ to ,,solid capitals4 ,illu/rations h be5 mov$ s !y d n break up p>agraphs4 ,deprecat$ spell+s h be5 pres]v$4 ,typographical & punctuation errors h be5 sil5tly correct$4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,*emi/'s ,"w ,b5*4 ,,*emi/ry3 ,,develop$ ,,by ,,facts ,,& ,,pr9ciples ,,drawn ,,*iefly ,,f ,,! ,,non-,,metals1 ,,by ,,john ,,h[>d ,,appleton1 ,a4 ,m41 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry 9 ,br[n ,univ]sity4 ,,au?or ,,( 8,,! ,,"y ,,*emi/10 8,,qualitative ,,*emical ,,analysis10 8,,quantitative ,,*emical ,,analysis40 8,,! ,,laboratory ,,h&book40 ,,provid5ce3 ,,provid5ce ,,li?ograph ,,company4 #ahhd4 ,,o!r ,,works ,,on ,,*emi/ry ,,by ,,pr(essor ,,appleton3 ,i4 ,! ,"y ,*emi/3 ,a book ( *emical exp]im5ts = beg9n]s 9 ,*emi/ry4 ,x is compos$ almo/ entirely ( exp]im5ts1 ^? be+ *os5 t may be p]=m$ ) v simple app>atus4 ,,ii4 ,qualitative ,analysis3 ,a brief b ?or\gh manual = laboratory use4 ,x gives full explanations & _m *emical equations4 ,! processes ( analysis are cle>ly /at$ & ! :ole subject is h&l$ 9 a mann] t has be5 highly comm5d$4 ,,iii4 ,quantitative ,analysis3 ,! treatm5t ( ! subject is su* z to af=d an acqua9tance ) ! be/ me?ods ( det]m9+ all ! pr9cipal elem5ts1 z well z ) ! mo/ important type-processes bo? ( gravimetric & volumetric analysis4 ,,! ,,explanations ,,are ,,direct ,,& ,,cle> s t a pupil is enabl$ to "w intellig5tly ev5 )\t ! con/ant guidance ( ! tea*]4 ,by ?is means ! book is adapt$ = self-in/ruction ( tea*]s & o!rs :o require ?is k9d ( help to enable !m to advance beyond _! pres5t atta9m5ts4 ,,iv4 ,! ,laboratory ,h&book3 ,an annual publication conta9+ _m conv5i5t tables = laboratory use4 ,new tables are con/antly introduc$1 & *anges are made 9 ord] to keep ! matt] abrea/ ( ! late/ discov]ies4 ,,copyright1 #ahhd1 ,,by ,,john ,,h[>d ,,appleton4 ,,pr9t$ ,,& ,,electrotyp$ ,,by ,e4 ,a4 ,,johnson ,,co41 ,,provid5ce1 ,r4 ,i4 ,,preface4 ,?is little book has be5 prep>$ z a popul> introduction to ! /udy ( *emi/ry4 ,x is probably ne$less to recomm5d ! subject3 *emi/ry is recogniz$ z a sci5ce ( su* g5]al int]e/1 su* wide usefulness1 & su* univ]sal application1 t no intellig5t p]son c endure long to rema9 ignorant ( its pr9cipal facts & laws4 ,?is book treats pr9cipally ( ! non-metals2 x is believ$ to be ! v]dict ( au?ors & tea*]s ( exp]i5ce1 t ^! furni% ! mo/ suitable mat]ial = a beg9n] 9 ! /udy ( *emi/ry2 ^! be/ pres5t ! fundam5tal facts & pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce1 & !y d x 9 connection ) objects & ph5om5a easily accessible to almo/ e civiliz$ human be+4 ,! au?or contemplates ! prep>ation h]eaft] ( a book ( simil> g5]al "*1 only hav+ its pr9cipal facts drawn f ! *emi/ry ( ! metals4 ,9 writ+ ?is book x has be5 ! ef=t to treat ! subject 9 a /yle t %all be attractive to ! g5]al read]2 b x is believ$ t 9 no case has sci5tific fact be5 sacrific$ 9 ! int]e/ ( popul> =m4 ,! arrangem5t ( matt] 9 ! book is 9 accordance ) ! foll[+ plan3 ,aft] ! introductory *apt]s1 :i* pres5t ! g5]al pr9ciples ( *emical action1 ! *ief non-metals are treat$ 9 a sci5tific ord] z foll[s3 ! monads1 hydrog51 *lor9e1 brom9e1 iod9e1 & fluor9e2 !n ! dyads1 oxyg5 & sulphur2 next ! triads1 boron1 nitrog52 f9ally ! tetrads1 c>bon & silicon2 ?us includ+ ! f\r great gr\ps into :i* ! non-metals are naturally arrang$4 ,! hi/orical & biographical sket*es1 t are di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! book1 h be5 introduc$ ) ! view ( legitimately help+ to reta9 ! read]'s att5tion4 ,mo/ ( ! exp]im5ts describ$ are su* z may be p]=m$ by any "o possess$ ( reasonable skill2 x is believ$ t !y w af=d pr(itable in/ruction z well z ent]ta9m5t4 ,allusions to ! applications ( *emi/ry to ! affairs ( e-day life h be5 c>efully introduc$ & h be5 develop$ z fully z ! circum/ances seem to w>rant4 ,p]haps "s comm5t ^u ! read+ ref]5ces 7pp4 #aj1 #ag1 #bd1 #bg1 #ca1 #ch1 #de1 #ef1 #gc1 #hd1 #ih1 #aaa1 #aaf1 #acc1 #aef1 #afa1 #ahf1 #aif1 #bad7 is prop]4 ,!y are l>gely f p]iodical publications1 & x is ?\ght t !y w be ( s]vice1 especially to mature /ud5ts4 ,helps to read+ are n[ view$ z among ! mo/ important (f]+s ( tea*]s to le>n]s4 ,! read+ li/s 9 ?is book po9t out "s pap]s :i* are select$ z be+ *iefly popul> 9 /yle2 if ^! lead ! read] to consult ! o!rs he w f9d himself introduc$ to "s ( ! mo/ important contributions to ! k ( our sci5ce4 ,,br[n ,,univ]sity1 ,augu/1 #ahhd4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,! scope ( *emi/ry1 #g ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,! elem5t>y sub/ances1 #ab ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,names & symbols ( elem5ts1 #ai ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,classification ( ! elem5t>y sub/ances2 metals & non-metals1 #bh ,,*apt] ,v4--,comp\nd sub/ances2 examples ( b9>y & t]n>y comp\nds1 #cb ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,! con/ruction ( sub/ances2 ! mass1 ! molecule1 ! atom1 #ci ,,*apt] ,,vii4--,h[ *emical aff9ity works2 ! mod]n atomic !ory1 #df ,,*apt] ,,viii4--,hydrog52 its discov]y2 me?od ( prep>ation2 its prop]ties1 #eh ,,*apt] ,,ix4--,balloons2 _! inv5tion & uses1 #gd ,,*apt] ,x4--,*lor9e2 its prep>ation & prop]ties2 *lorohydric acid2 blea*+-p[d]1 #he ,,*apt] ,,xi4--,brom9e1 #ajj ,,*apt] ,,xii4--,iod9e1 #aje ,,*apt] ,,xiii4--,fluor9e1 #aab ,,*apt] ,,xiv4--,oxyg52 its discov]y2 its prep>ation2 its prop]ties2 its relation to hydrog52 ! comp\nd bl[pipe2 its relation to combu/ion 9 g5]al1 & to animal respiration1 #aag ,,*apt] ,,xv4--,wat]1 its importance to liv+ be+s2 its t]re/rial circulation2 its influ5ce on climate1 #acd ,,*apt] ,,xvi4--,sulphur2 sulphurett$ hydrog52 sulphur dioxide1 #adb ,,*apt] ,,xvii4--,sulphur trioxide2 manufacture ( sulphuric acid1 #aea ,,*apt] ,,xviii4--,boron1 #aeg ,,*apt] ,,xix4--,nitrog52 its discov]y2 its prop]ties2 comp\nd ) hydrog52 comp\nds ) oxyg52 nitric acid1 #afb ,,*apt] ,,xx4--,! ,atmosph]e1 #agj ,,*apt] ,,xxi4--,explosives2 gunp[d]2 fireworks2 fulm9ates gun-cotton2 nitroglyc]9e1 #agg ,,*apt] ,,xxii4--,phosphorus2 friction mat*es1 #ahg ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4--,c>bon2 *>coal2 lamp-black2 coal2 graphite2 ! diamond2 o!r natural =ms ( c>bon1 #aig ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4--,comp\nds ( c>bon & oxyg51 #bae ,,*apt] ,,xxv4--,illum9at+ gas1 #bba ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4--,silicon1 #bbh ,,*emi/ry4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,scope ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 ,*emi/ry treats ( all k9ds ( mat]ial sub/ances4 ,?is is a v broad ass]tion1 b x appe>s to be true4 ,! solid rock matt] ( ! e>? & ! weal? ( liv+ animal & vegetable sub/ances ^u x und]go all _! v>i$ *anges 9 subjection to *emical laws4 ,! same is true ( ! wat] & ( all liquid ?+s we "k2 & ! decl>ation applies yet fur!r to ! invisible gase\s mass :i* surr\nds & envelopes our t]re/rial globe4 ,?is deep] b ?9n] ocean :i* we call ! atmosph]e is also gov]n$ by *emical law 9 all its v>i$ relations to ! liv+ be+s z well z to ! inanimate sub/ances t h _! exi/5ce )9 x4 ,9 ?\ght we may asc5d above ^! solid1 liquid & gase\s sub/ances connect$ ) our e>?4 ,:5 ?us we rea* out to ! heav5ly bodies beyond1 we feel sure t ^!1 possess+ z !y may1 solid1 liquid or gase\s matt]1 are likewise controll$ by *emical laws1 & t 9 _! *anges !y exemplify ) m or less fulness1 di/9ct *emical pr9ciples4 ,! ,great ,numb] ( ,diff]5t ,sub/ances 9 ! ,e>?4 ,"h !n x is intimat$ t *emi/ry relates to an enorm\s numb] ( sub/ances4 ,9 fact ! numb] ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( matt] already exi/+ on our e>? is s great t !y h nev] be5 s mu* z c\nt$1 mu* less describ$1 9 any li/ or volume2 nay m1 d\btless _m exi/ t human be+s h nev] recogniz$ at all4 ,?is la/ /atem5t ref]s n m]ely to su* sub/ances z may be kn[n only to savages dwell+ beyond ! rea* ( civilization & comm]ce1 nor yet to su* z may be secret$ 9 absolutely un9habit$ portions ( ! globe1 nor ev5 to ^? t exi/ s deep 9 ! e>? t man's p[] may nev] be suffici5t to rea* !m4 ,probably ev5 "s ( ! mo/ humble & famili> natural ?+s1 su* z blades ( :eat1 petals ( daisies1 silks ( corn1 & ! l1 conta9 small quantities ( di/9ct & sep>ate comp\nds t h n yet be5 recogniz$ z su* by ev5 ! mo/ skillful *emi/s4 ,b ev5 comp\nds su* z are describ$ 9 books on *emi/ry are exce$+ly num]\s2 & fur!r1 ! *emical laws n[ kn[n sugge/ ! possibility ( produc+ artificially a great multitude ( sub/ances n yet recogniz$1 & ev5 m ?an h yet be5 produc$ 9 ! great laboratory ( nature4 ,h[ x ,happ5s t !re is su* a ,v>iety4 ,by se>*+ aright = ! secret ( ! c\ntless numb] & ! ri* & spl5did v>iety ( be+s t nature & art pres5t to ! curi\s gaze ( man1 a compreh5sive answ] is at la/ obta9$4 ,=ms ( ord9>y matt] may be comp>$ to great ca!drals1 l ^? ( ,cologne & ( ,milan1 :i* h be5 gr[+ = c5turies & :i* by ! comb9$ labor ( arti/s & artisans h at l5g? become intricate & beautiful /ructures1 ! admiration & delight ( ! behold]4 ,j z ^! arise f ! comb9ation 9 a multitude ( ways ( a comp>atively small numb] ( orig9al & fundam5tal sub/ances--l /one1 brick1 iron1 copp]1 pla/]1 glass1 wood--s all ?+s kn[n to *emi/s are made up ( a few simple sub/ances1 ei!r exi/+ alone or 9 ri*ly v>i\s comb9ation4 ,! simple/ sub/ances :5 alone are call$ ! *emical elem5ts or elem5t>y sub/ances2 ! ?+s result+ :5 diff]5t elem5ts are unit$ toge!r are call$ comp\nds4 ,?us metallic iron is "o famili> example ( a *emical elem5t2 ! oxyg5 gas ( ! atmosph]e is ano!r example4 ,a piece ( iron expos$ to damp air soon becomes *ang$ to a mass ( iron-ru/4 ,?is ru/ is a comp\nd2 x is made up ( iron & oxyg5 unit$ toge!r4 ,9 ! light ( :at has be5 said ! *emical elem5ts assume a new & gr& importance3 !y are ! individuals *os5 by ! ,creator to be ! f\ndation /ones & ! ess5tial con/itu5ts ( ! glori\s natural edifices ( 8 h&iwork4 ,aga9 :5 ! elem5t>y individuals unite toge!r !y d s by reason ( ! int]action ( _m & complex =ces :i* reside1 almo/ l s\l & _s1 )9 ! elem5ts4 ,^! la/ rem>ks sugge/ ! tw(old "* ( *emical /udy4 ,x involves1 ,fir/1 ! exam9ation ( elem5t>y sub/ances & _! comp\nds4 ,secondly1 x requires a consid]ation ( ! _m g5]al & special laws & =ces :i* det]m9e ! v>i\s possible comb9ations4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,9 g5]al1 ! fir/-m5tion$ books 9 ea* gr\p are ^? :i* are mo/ accessible & at ! same "t mo/ s]viceable4 ,"s r>e & co/ly books are m5tion$1 = ! b5efit ( p]sons :o h access to l>ge libr>ies4 ,*emi/ry1 ,g5]al & ,appli$1 ,s]ial ,publications4 ,*emical ,news4 7,william ,crookes1 ,ed47 ,london4 ,weekly4 7,comm5c$ #ahfj47 ,popul> ,sci5ce ,news & ,bo/on ,j\rnal ( ,*emi/ry4 ,bo/on4 ,mon?ly4 7,comm5c$ #ahfg47 ,j\rnal ( ! ,*emical ,society4 ,london4 ,mon?ly4 -------- ,index to =ego+4 #ahda-ahgb3 pp4 #bfc4 ,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique4 ,p>is4 ,mon?ly4 -------- ,table des ,tomes ,i ,,xxx4 7#ahda-ahea47 ,p>is1 pp4 #acd4 -------- ,table ,analytique des ,tomes ,,xxxi ,,lxix4 #c;d ,s]ies4 7#ahea-ahfc47 ,p>is4 pp4 #dgd4 -------- ,table des ,noms d',auteurs et ,table ,analytique des ,mati]es4 7#ahfd-ahgc47 #d? ,s]ies4 ,p>is4 pp4 #bdi4 ,b]i*te d] ,deuts*5 ,*emis*5 ,gesells*aft4 ,b]l94 7,comm5c$ #ahfh47 #bj p>ts p] ye>4 ,wagn]1 ,johannes ,r4 v4--,jahres-,b]i*t b] die ,=ts*ritte und ,lei/ung5 d] *emis*5 ,te*nologie4 ,leipzig4 ,annual4 7,comm5c$ #ahee2 la/ vol4 _h #a1ccb pp47 -------- ,index to =ego+4 ,vols4 ,i-,x4 -------- 0 0 ,vols4 ,x-,,xx4 ,diction>ies ( ,*emi/ry1 etc4 ,watts1 ,h5ry4--,diction>y ( ,*emi/ry & ! alli$ bran*es ( o!r sci5ces4 #h vols4 ,london4 #ahfe-ahge4 ,/or]1 ,frank ,h4--,fir/ ,outl9es ( a ,diction>y ( ,solubilities ( ,*emical ,sub/ances4 ,cambridge4 #ahfd4 ,wurtz1 ,ad4--,dictionnaire de ,*imie1 pure et applique4 #c vols4 ,p>is4 #ahgj4 ,fehl+1 ,h]mann v4--,neues ,h&wrt]bu* d] ,*imie4 ,a to ,morph94 ,brauns*weig4 #ahga--n[ issu+4 ,g5]al ,treatises on ,*emi/ry4 ,roscoe1 ,h4 ,e41 & ,s*orlemm]1 ,c4--,a ,treatise on ,*emi/ry4 ,london & ,new ,york4 #ahgh4 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #gga2 ,vol4 ,,ii1 "p ,i1 pp4 #ejd1 "p ,,ii1 pp4 #eeb2 ,vol4 ,,iii1 "p ,i1 pp #gbd4 7,n[ issu+47 ,cooke1 ,josiah ,p41 ,jr4--,pr9ciples ( ,*emical ,philosophy4 ,bo/on4 #ahha4 ,gmel91 ,leopold 7,h5ry ,watts1 ,tr47--,h&-,book ( ,*emi/ry4 ,pr9t$ = ! ,cav5di% ,society4 #ad vols4 ,london4 #ahdh-ahfj4 ,graham-,otto's ,ausfhrli*es ,lehrbu* d] ,*emie4 #f vols4 ,brauns*weig4 #aheg4 ,s*tz5b]g]1 ,p4--,trait de ,*imie gnrale4 #c vols4 ,p>is4 #ahhj4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,elem5t>y ,,sub/ances4 ,on ! foll[+ page is a li/ ( ! sixty-six elem5t>y sub/ances n[ g5]ally recogniz$ z su*4 ,_! respective symbols & _! atomic weights1 bo? 9 exact & approximate numb]s1 are also giv54 ,^! sub/ances1 !n1 ne>ly sev5ty 9 numb]1 are ^? f :i* are made up all mat]ial ?+s n[ kn[n to man4 ,:ile x is n necess>y = any "o to reta9 su* a li/ 9 memory1 e p]son :o desires any consid]able k ( *emi/ry %\ld be acqua9t$ ) ea* "n & ! symbol atta*$ to x1 & %\ld "k some?+ ( ! natural s\rces & ! prop]ties ( ! sub/ances designat$4 ,six ,sugge/ions ,convey$ by ?is ,table4 ,a c>eful & intellig5t read+ ( ! li/ af=ds sev]al important sugge/ions4 ,! foll[+ are "s ( !m3-- ,fir/4 ,! elem5ts are n v num]\s4 ,!y are 9 fact v few1 z comp>$ ) ! c\ntless numb] ( sub/ances !y may =m by _! prop] comb9ations4 ,second4 ,!y are h[ev] suffici5tly num]\s to produce ! _m sub/ances recogniz$ 9 nature4 ,=1 consid] h[ human language may h _m words & yet all ^! may be spell$ out by comb9ations ( few lett]s4 ,"s ,engli% diction>ies regi/] ov] a hundr$ ?\s& words1 yet ^! are all made by ! comb9ations ( less ?an ?irty lett]s4 ,n[ x is easy to compreh5d h[ ! few lett]s ( an alphabet may be ev5 /ill fur!r comb9$ 9 v>i\s ways s z to produce additional words almo/ )\t limit3 9 a simil> mann] x may be easily imag9$ t ! sixty-five elem5t>y sub/ances h ample capabilities = giv+ rise n only to ! comp\nds n[ kn[n1 b to yet m & m1 almo/ )\t limit4 ,x is true t ! *emi/ discov]s t "s ( ! *emical elem5ts appe> to h a limit$ p[] ( union1 b 9 o!rs he f9ds an app>5tly unb\nd$ capacity to =m new arrangem5ts & comb9ations4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,! ,*emi/'s ,elem5t>y ,sub/ances4 ,"n ,exact ,approximate ( ,elem5t4 ,atomic ,symbol4 ,atomic ,atomic ,weight4 ,weight4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,alum9um ,al #bg4jjij #bg4 ,antimony ,sb 7,/ibium7 #aai4ieej #abj4 ,ars5ic ,z #gd4iahj #gd4i ,b>ium ,ba #acf4gfcj #acf4h ,bismu? ,bi #bjg4ebcj #bjg4e ,boron ,b #aj4idaj #aj4i ,brom9e ,br #gi4gfhj #gi4h ,cadmium ,cd #aaa4hcej #aaa4h ,caesium ,cs #acb4ehcj #acb4f ,calcium ,ca #ci4iijj #dj4 ,c>bon ,c #aa4igcf #ab4 ,c]ium ,ce #adj4dbdj #adj4d ,*lor9e ,cl #ce4cgjj #ce4d ,*romium ,cr #eb4jjij #eb4 ,cobalt ,co #eh4hhgj #eh4i ,copp] ,cu 7,cuprum7 #fc4agcj #fc4b ,didymium ,d #add4egcj #add4f ,erbium ,e #afe4hiaj #afe4i ,fluor9e ,fl #ah4ihdj #ai4 ,gallium ,ga #fh4hedj #fh4i ,gluc9um ,g or ,be 7,b]yllium7 #i4jhej #i4a ,gold ,au 7,aurum7 #aif4aeej #aif4b ,hydrog5 ,h #a4jjjj #a4 ,indium ,9 #aac4cihj #aac4d ,iod9e ,i #abf4eegj #abf4f ,iridium ,ir #aib4feaj #aib4g ,iron ,fe 7,f]rum7 #ee4iacj #ee4i ,lan?anum ,la #ace4ebfj #ach4e ,lead ,pb 7,plumbum7 #bjf4dgaj #bjf4e ,li?ium ,li #g4jjgc #g4 ,magnesium ,mg #bc4ieij #bd4 ,manganese ,mn #ec4ijfj #ec4i ,m]cury ,hg 7,hydr>gyrum7 #aii4gabj #aii4g ,molybd5um ,mo #ie4ebgj #ie4e ,nickel ,ni #eg4ibhj #eg4i ,niobium ,nb #ic4habj #ic4h ,nitrog5 ,n #ad4jbaj #ad4 ,osmium ,os #aih4didj #aih4e ,oxyg5 ,o #ae4ifcc #af4 ,palladium ,pd #aje4gcgj #aje4g ,phosphorus ,p #cj4iehj #ca4 ,plat9um ,pt #aid4daej #aid4d ,potassium ,k 7,kalium7 #ci4jaij #ci4 ,rhodium ,rh #ajd4jeej #ajd4a ,rubidium ,rb #he4beaj #he4c ,ru!nium ,ru #ajd4bagj #ajd4b ,sc&ium ,sc #dc4ihjj #dd4 ,sel5ium ,se #gh4gigj #gh4h ,silicon ,si #bh4aiej #bh4b ,silv] ,ag 7,arg5tum7 #ajg4fgej #ajg4g ,sodium ,na 7,natrium7 #bb4iihj #bc4 ,/rontium ,sr #hg4cgdj #hg4d ,sulphur ,s #ca4ihdj #cb4 ,tantalum ,ta #ahb4addj #ahb4a ,tellurium ,te #abg4ifjj #abh4 ,?allium ,tl #bjc4gaej #bjc4g ,?orium ,? #bcc4dadj #bcc4d ,t9 ,sn 7,/annum7 #aag4fihj #aag4g ,titanium ,ti #dg4iiig #dh4 ,tung/5 ,w 7,wolframium7 #ahc4fajj #ahc4f ,uranium ,u #bch4dhbj #bch4e ,vanadium ,va #ea4befj #ea4c ,ytt]bium ,yb #agb4gfaj #agb4h ,yttrium ,y #hi4hafj #hi4h ,z9c ,zn #fd4ijde #fd4i ,zirconium ,zr #hi4cfgj #hi4d ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,?ird4 ,! elem5ts are mo/ly uncommon4 ,only ab\t "o-six? ( !m possess names t are famili> to ord9>y read]s4 ,?us c>bon1 copp]1 gold1 iron1 lead1 m]cury1 nickel1 silv]1 sulphur1 t91 z9c1 are almo/ ! only ones 9 ! li/ t c be said to sugge/ famili> ?+s4 ,inde$ "s memb]s ( ?is li/ exi/ 9 ! e>? 9 extremely small quantities2 b man by 8 +5uity & indu/ry has ga!r$ up ev5 ^! & br\ght !m ne> to ! h& ( e civiliz$ be+4 ,?us gold exi/s 9 ! e>?--s f> z man has access to ! e>?--9 only v m9ute am\nts2 yet gold has a multitude ( common uses beside its employm5t 9 co9age4 ,v>i\s =ms ( decorative art1 l gild$ lett]+ on books1 af=d famili> examples4 ,s also m]cury1 :i* 9 ! ord9>y !rmomet] is v famili> to e "o1 exi/s 9 ! e>? 9 b m9ute am\nts4 ,:5 ! *emi/ exam9es /ill m n>r[ly ! composition ( ! t]re/rial globe1 he discov]s an inequality yet m extraord9>y ?an t h9t$ at4 ,?us x appe>s t probably "o-half ( our entire planet consi/s ( a s+le sub/ance 7t is1 oxyg57 & t "o-qu>t] ( x consi/s ( ano!r s+le sub/ance 7t is1 silicon74 ,s9ce an am\nt equal to ?ree-qu>t]s ( ! e>?'s matt]1 by weight1 is made up ( b two elem5ts1 ! rema9+ ones mu/ necess>ily exi/ 9 mu* small] proportions4 ,! foll[+ table1 giv5 by ,roscoe & ,s*orlemm]1 %[s ! av]age composition ( ! e>?'s cru/--s f> z x is accessible to human inve/igation by means at pres5t kn[n3 ,p]c5tage ,composition ( ! ,e>?'s ,solid ,cru/ 7by ,weight74 ,oxyg51 #dd4j to #dh4g p] c5t4 ,silicon1 #bb4h #cf4b 0 ,alum9um1 #i4i #f4a 0 ,iron1 #i4i #b4d 0 ,calcium1 #f4f #j4i 0 ,magnesium1 #b4g #j4a 0 ,sodium1 #b4d #b4e 0 ,potassium1 #a4g #c4a 0 ---------- ---------- #ajj4j #ajj4j ,accord+ to ?is table1 ! sum total ( ! am\nts ( all ! elem5ts n m5tion$ may be e/imat$ z less ?an "o-t5? ( "o p] c5t4 ( ! :ole4 ,?is /atem5t is r5d]$ all ! m /rik+ :5 x is consid]$ t 9 ?is m9ute fractional "p mu/ be includ$ all coal & all ! useful metals1 except iron4 ,ano!r au?ority#a decl>es t x is probable t an am\nt equal to n9ety-n9e "o-hundr$?s ( ! entire weight ( ! solid1 liquid & gase\s matt] ( our globe1 is made up ( only ?irte5 elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,! elem5ts ref]r$ to & _! relative proportions are approximately repres5t$ 9 ! diagram foll[+3 #a ,pr(essor ,j4 ,p4 ,cooke4 ,diagram ( ! ,composition ( our ,globe 7by ,weight47 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,sulphur1 ,,hydrog51 ,,*lor9e1 ,,nitrog51 #ec ,,o!rs --------------------------------- ,,potassium1 ,,sodium1 ,,iron1 ,,c>bon1 ,,silicon1 ---------------------------------- ,,alum9um1 ,,magnesium1 ,,calcium1 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,oxyg51 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,f\r?4 ,mo/ ( ! elem5ts are metals4 ,?is may n appe> to ! ord9>y read] until he is in=m$ t t]m9ations 9 um1 z 9 case ( alum9um1 b>ium1 cadmium1 calcium & o!rs are int5d$ to sugge/ t ! sub/ances s designat$ are metals4 ,mo/ ( ! o!r elem5ts hav+ names n t]m9at+ 9 um are call$ non-metals4 ,fif?4 ,ea* *emical elem5t has an atomic symbol1 an abridgem5t1 9 "s =m1 ( its "n4 ,six?4 ,ea* *emical elem5t has an atomic weight4 ,z ! atomic weight ( hydrog5 is #a1 )\t any fraction1 x is easily und]/ood t ! weight ( "o atom ( hydrog5 is tak5 z ! unit ( ! sy/em4 ,an inspection ( ! numb]s giv5 %[s t 9 _m cases ! atoms weigh am\nts t are v ne>ly exact multiples ( ! weight ( an atom ( hydrog54 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,atomic ,weights1 ,calculations ( ,beck]1 ,george ,f4--,atomic ,weight ,det]m9ations3 a dige/ ( ! inve/igations publi%$ s9ce #ahad4 7,publi%$ z ,"p ,,iv ( ! ,con/ants ( ,nature1 9 ,smi?sonian ,miscellane\s ,collections1 ,no4 #ceh47 #ahhj4 ,cl>ke1 ,frank ,w4--,a ,recalculation ( ! ,atomic ,weights4 7,publi%$ z ,"p ,v ( ! ,con/ants ( ,nature1 9 ,smi?sonian ,miscellane\s ,collections1 ,no4 #dda47 #ahhb4 -------- ,am4 ,*em4 ,j\r4 iii1 #bfc4 7#ahha47 ,atomic ,weights1 ,p]iodicity ( ,mey]1 ,lo?>4--,*em4 ,news1 xli1 #bjc4 ,atomic ,weights1 ,m5delejeff's ,law ( ,am4 ,*em4 ,j\r4--iii1 #dee4 ,cooke1 ,j4 ,p4--,*em4 ,philosophy1 p4 #bfe4 ,wurtz1 ,ad4--,atomic ,!ory1 p4 #aed4 ,atomic ,weights1 ,ari?metical ,relations ( ,hodges1 ,m4 ,d4 ,c4--,silliman's ,j\rnal1 #c;d ,s]4 x1 #bgg4 ,newl&s1 ,j4 ,a4 ,r4--,*em4 ,news1 xlix1 #aih4 ,atomic ,weight ( ,oxyg54 ,odl+1 ,w4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london1 xi1 #ajg4 ,atomic ,weight ( ,?allium4 ,cookes1 ,wm4--,*em4 ,news1 xxix1 #ad1 #bi1 #ci1 #ee1 #fe1 #ge1 #he1 #ig1 #aje1 #aae1 #abf1 #acg1 #adg1 #aeg4 ,atomic ,weights1 ,pr\t's ,hypo!sis ( ,cooke1 ,j4 ,p4--,*emical ,philosophy1 #bgj4 ,cl>ke1 ,f4 ,w4--,am4 ,*em4 ,j\rnal1 iii1 #bgb4 7#ahha47 ,g]b]4--,silliman's ,j\rnal1 #c;d ,s]4 xxvi1 #bcf4 ,atoms1 ,absolute ,weight ( ,annaheim1 ,j4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london1 xxxi1 #ca4 ,elem5ts1 ,defunct ,bolton1 ,h4 ,c4--,am]ican ,*emi/1 i1 #a4 ,elem5ts1 ,sugge/ions t ,elem5ts are ,comp\nd4 ,locky]1 ,j4 ,n4--,nature1 ,jan'y #b & #i1 also ,nov4 #f1 #ahgi4 ,ha/+s1 ,c4 ,s4--,criticism ( above4 ,am4 ,*em4 ,j\r41 i1 #ae4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,names ,,& ,,symbols ,,( ,,elem5ts4 ,any hi/ory ( ! *emical elem5ts1 di/9ctly po9ts to ! enorm\s /ride :i* *emical discov]y has tak5 )9 ! la/ hundr$ ye>s4 ,! dawn ( ?is p]iod 0 m>k$ by _m mo/ important results3 among ^! may be m5tion$ ! detection ( ! elem5t>y gases1 oxyg51 hydrog5 & nitrog54 ,! light :i* ^! great ev5ts ?rew ^u ! future ( ! sci5ce enabl$ ! *emi/s ( t e>ly p]iod to p]ceive t ! numb] ( new comp\nd sub/ances !n discov]$1 & likely soon to be discov]$1 call$ = a multitude ( new t]ms4 ,9 #aghg ! em95t ,fr5* *emi/1 ,lavoisi]1 9 committee ) ,guyton de ,morveau & o!rs ( _! *emical associates ( ! ,fr5* ,academy1 sugge/$ a sy/em by :i* a consid]able numb] ( *emical comp\nds1 bo? !n kn[n & !reaft] to be discov]$1 might be provid$ ) names at once conv5i5t & sugge/ive4 ,?is sy/em1 slightly modifi$ & consid]ably ext5d$--to accommodate ! yet m widely exp&+ ne$s ( ! sci5ce--af=ds ! basis ( ! *emical language ( to-day4 ,a ,few ,pr9ciples ( ,*emical ,language4 ,x is propos$ to expla9 "h a few ( ! fir/ pr9ciples ( *emical nom5clature & notation2 t is1 to pres5t a few ( ! rules by :i* significant & useful names & symbols are provid$4 ,^! w be f\nd to meet ! wants ( hi!rto inaccurately kn[n sub/ances1 & ev5 ( ^? =m]ly unkn[n4 ,fir/2 ! names ( elem5t>y sub/ances long kn[n are reta9$4 ,?us1 gold & silv] are metals t 7 kn[n 9 ! e>lie/ hi/orical p]iods1 if n 9 prehi/oric times2 _! names1 !re=e1 /ill rema9 9 use4 ,second3 ! discov]]s ( new elem5t>y sub/ances assign ! names4 ,9 s do+1 !y usually inv5t a "n t sugge/s "s fact connect$ ) ! sub/ance itself4 ,?us ! "n nitrog5 is d]iv$ f two ,greek words 71 nitron1 m9]al alkali1 & 1 g5nao1 ,i produce7 c>ry+ ! sugge/ion t ! gas is "o ( ! con/itu5ts ( nitre4 ,! "n hydrog5 is d]iv$ f two ,greek words 71 hydor1 wat]1 & 1 g5nao1 ,i produce17 indicat+ t :]ev] wat] exi/s1 hydrog5 is an ess5tial con/itu5t ( x4 ,s ! "n *lor9e is d]iv$ f a ,greek ^w 71 *loros1 gre517 :i* rem9ds ! *emi/ ( ! fact t *lor9e gas possesses a gre5i% color4 ,! sub/ance oxyg51 h[ev]1 0 nam$ 9 a diff]5t mann]4 ,its "n is d]iv$ f two ,greek words 71 oxys1 acid1 & 1 g5nao1 ,i produce17 signify+ a g5]ator ( acids4 ,x appe>s !n1 t 9 ?is case ! "n is bas$1 n on an easily v]ifi$ fact1 b ^u a !ory1 curr5t :5 oxyg5 0 discov]$1 ( ! action ( ! sub/ance 9 "q4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se a "n ?us =m$ may be consid]$ ill-advis$4 ,?us 9 ! case 9 h& x has turn$ out t :ile oxyg5 is a con/itu5t ( a majority ( kn[n acids1 x is n ess5tially an acidify+ sub/ance3 _m acids are kn[n t conta9 no oxyg5 at all1 & aga9 !re are a multitude ( comp\nds conta9+ oxyg5 t are n acids 9 any prop] s5se4 ,?ird2 newly discov]$ metals are usually giv5 names :i*1 :ile !y sugge/ "s prop]ty ( ! sub/ance1 h 9 addition ! t]m9ation1 um4 ,?us ! metal ?allium d]ives its "n f a ,greek ^w 71 ?allos1 a gre5 twig17 :i* c>ries ! sugge/ion ( ! fact t ?allium & its comp\nds :5 highly heat$ evolve light ( a delicate gre5 color4 ,aga9 caesium1 a newly discov]$ metal1 has a "n d]iv$ f a ,lat9 ^w 7caesius1 blue17 :i* ref]s to ! fact t caesium & its comp\nds :5 highly heat$ af=d light ( a blue color4 ,! t]m9ation um is us$ = metals1 aft] ! analogy ( ! ,lat9 language :i* usually has its names ( metals end 9 um4 ,inde$ ! *emi/ (t5 makes use ( ! ,lat9 names ( ev5 ^? metals t h be5 long kn[n by m famili> ones4 ,?us = gold ! ,lat9 ^w aurum is us$1 = silv] ! ,lat9 ^w arg5tum1 = lead ! ,lat9 ^w plumbum2 x w be se5 lat] t slightly modifi$ =ms ( ^! names are v frequ5tly employ$ :5 comp\nds ( ^! metals are to be designat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,anto9e ,,laur5t ,,lavoisi]3 ,born 9 ,p>is1 ,augu/ #bf?1 #agdc2 di$ on ! scaffold 9 ,p>is1 ,may #h?1 #agid4 ,symbols us$ = ,atoms4 ,ea* elem5t>y sub/ance1 or1 /rictly speak+1 ! m9ute quantity ( x repres5t$ by ! t]m "o atom1 may be designat$ 9 brief by a special lett] or %ort gr\p ( lett]s call$ ! symbol4 ,! usual symbol is ! initial lett] ( ! native or ! ,lat9 "n ( ! sub/ance4 ,^u exam9+ ! li/ ( elem5t>y sub/ances at page #ac1 x w be se5 t ! foll[+ n9e ( ! names beg9 ) ! lett] ,c2 ( c\rse1 !re=e1 9 eight cases at lea/1 ! symbol mu/ conta9 an additional di/+ui%+ lett]3 ,accord+ly ,c indicates "o atom ( ,c>bon2 ,ca 0 0 ,calcium2 ,cd 0 0 ,cadmium2 ,ce 0 0 ,c]ium2 ,cl 0 0 ,*lor9e2 ,co 0 0 ,cobalt2 ,cr 0 0 ,*romium2 ,cs 0 0 ,caesium2 ,cu 0 0 ,copp] 7,lat9 ^w cuprum74 ,x also appe>s t 9 ! case ( metals1 l iron & copp]1 kn[n to ! anci5ts ! symbols us$ are d]iv$ f ! ,lat9 names4 ,! use ( ^! symbols made f lett]s--& !re=e call$ lit]al symbols1 f ! ,lat9 ^w lit]a1 a lett]--w become app>5t z ! read] advances2 b x is easily p]ceiv$ t !y af=d a conv5i5t abridgem5t ( ! long] titles ( ! elem5ts4 ,! use ( lit]al symbols z an abridgem5t ( ! *emical nom5clature 0 fir/ propos$ by ,b]zelius1 a ,sw$i% *emi/1 ^: em95ce 9 e bran* ( ! sci5ce 0 su* t ! sugge/ion "h ref]r$ to con/itutes "o ( ! lea/ ( ! _m & sub/antial gr\nds on :i* 8 fame re/s4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,al*emy4 ,rodwell1 ,g4 ,f4--,! ,bir? ( ,*emi/ry4 ,london4 #ahgd4 ,drap]1 ,j4 ,c4--,am]4 ,*emi/1 v1 #a4 ,mackay1 ,*>les4--,memoirs ( ,extraord9>y ,popul> ,delusions4 #b v4 ,london4 #ahfi4 i1 #ic4 ,b]zelius4 ,whl]1 ,f4--,e>ly ,recollections ( ,b]zelius4 ,am4 ,*emi/1 vi1 #aca4 ,*emi/ry1 ,hi/ory ( ,?omson1 ,?omas4--,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry1 #b v4 ,london4 #ahcj4 ,hoef]1 ,f4--,hi/oire de la ,physique et de la ,*imie4 ,p>is4 #ahgb4 ,kopp1 ,h]mann4--,ges*i*te d] ,*emie4 #d,?4 ,brauns*weig4 #ahdc4 -------- ,die ,entwickelung d] ,*emie 9 d] neu]5 ,zeit4 ,mn*54 #ahgc4 ,bolton1 ,h4 ,c4--,*em4 ,news4 xxxii1 #cf1 #ef1 #fh4 ,liebig1 ,j4 v4--,famili> ,lett]s on ,*emi/ry4 ,:ewell1 ,wm4--,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 #b v4 ,new ,york4 #ahge4 ii1 #bei4 ,illu/ration3 ,,jons ,,jakob ,,b]zelius3 ,born 9 ,ea/ ,go?l& 79 ,sw$571 ,aug4 #bj1 #agii2 di$ ,aug4 #g1 #ahdh4 ,lavoisi]1 ,?omson1 ,?omas1--,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry4 #b v4 ,london4 #ahcj4 ii1 #ge4 ,figui]1 ,l4--,vies des ,savants ,illu/res du xviii sicle1 #ddd4 ,br\gham1 ,h4--,lives ( ,philosoph]s ( ! "t ( ,george ,,iii4 ,ed9burgh1 #ahgb4 #bij4 ,nom5clature4 ,morveau1 ,guyton de4--,memoire sur les d5om9ations *imiques1 la necessit d'en p]fectionn] le sy/me1 les rgles p\r y p>v5ir1 suivi d'un tableau d'une nom5clature *imique2 ,dijon4 #aghb4 ,lavoisi]1 de ,morveau1 ,f\rcroy1 ,baum1 ,hass5fratz1 ,adet & o!rs4 ,m?ode de nom5clature *imique4 ,p>is4 #aghg4 7,! ,bo/on ,a!num ,libr>y conta9s a copy ( ?is "w47 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,classification ,,( ,,! ,,elem5t>y ,,sub/ances4 ,9 speak+ ( ! elem5t>y sub/ances "s ( !m h be5 ref]r$ to z metals4 ,:at !n is ! exact idea convey$ by ?is designat+ t]m8 ,ev]yone c readily picture 9 8 m9d "s metal or metals l gold1 silv]1 t91 z9c & o!rs t h c]ta9 common *>act]i/ics1 su* z great weight1 & ! peculi> brilliancy & p[] ( reflect+ light :i* is describ$ z metallic lu/re4 ,ano!r well m>k$ & widely recogniz$ *>act]i/ic at once ?\ght ( is ! facility ) :i* ! sub/ances ord9>ily kn[n z metals maybe beat5 or roll$ into ?9 lay]s4 ,?is prop]ty1 call$ malleability1 7a ^w d]iv$ f ! ,lat9 ^w malleus1 a hamm]17 is n possess$ 9 any /rik+ degree by sub/ances o!r ?an metals4 ,?us sulphur is n malleable3 q ! contr>y1 x is v brittle4 ,*>coal1 :i* consi/s mo/ly ( ! elem5t>y sub/ance call$ c>bon1 is likewise n malleable2 nei!r ( ^! la/ two sub/ances w\ld be likely to be consid]$ by ev5 an ord9>y obs]v] z metals4 ,9 fact !y are class$ z non-metals by ! *emi/4 ,?is division ( ! elem5t>y sub/ances into metals & non-metals is dwelt ^u1 n because x c be call$ a v important "o1 b because x is widely us$ 9 works on *emi/ry & because 9 decid+ to :i* ( ^! two classes a giv5 sub/ance belongs1 ultimate dep5d5ce mu/ be plac$ ^u its *emical *>act]i/ics r ?an ^u its m]e me*anical prop]ties4 ,! ,mean+s ,associat$ ) ! ,t]m ,metal4 ,! pr9cipal prop]ties ref]r$ to are be/ pres5t$ 9 ?ree gr\ps4 ,fir/4 ,metallic ,prop]ties ,associat$ ) ,me*anical ,relations4 ,an elem5tal sub/ance accept$ z a metal mu/ possess ! prop]ty ( exi/+ 9 a solid condition2 a weight r great] ?an t ( mo/ well-kn[n sub/ances2 consid]able h>dness1 malleability1 ductility 7t is ! capability ( be+ drawn out into f9e wire74 ,second4 ,metallic ,prop]ties ,associat$ ) ,physical ,relations4 ,a metal %\ld possess ! metallic lu/re2 ! p[] call$ opacity1 by reason ( :i* x does n all[ light to pass ?r\gh x2 ! noticeable capability ( all[+ heat to fl[ 9 x1 call$ ! p[] ( conduct+ heat2 ! ready capacity = all[+ ! electric curr5t to fl[ 9 x1 call$ good conduct+ p[] = electricity4 ,?ird4 ,metallic ,prop]ties ,associat$ ) ,*emical ,relations4 ,a metal %\ld possess ! p[] & ! t5d5cy to readily =m a *emical union ) oxyg52 ! *emical p[] to act ^u comp\nds conta9+ hydrog51 9 su* a way z to turn ! hydrog5 out1 & take its place 9 ! old comp\nd & ?us =m a new "o2 ! relation%ip t[>ds ! electric curr5t su* t :5 ! elem5t is subject$ to ! galvanic batt]y1 x t5ds to ga!r ab\t ! negative pole--9 consequ5ce ( :i* *>act]i/ic x is usually call$ electro-positive4 ,b :ile no kn[n metal appe>s to possess ! entire range ( prop]ties ) :i* 9 ?\ght ! ideal "o is end[$1 e sub/ance classifi$ z a metal %\ld possess _m ( !m4 ,an illu/ration ( :at has be5 said may be f\nd 9 metallic m]cury4 ,f ! fact t "u ord9>y conditions x is a liquid x is pla9 t m]cury mu/ lack c]ta9 ( ! metallic prop]ties ref]r$ to2 t is1 x does n possess ! solid =m1 x does n possess h>dness1 x does n possess malleability1 x does n possess ductility4 ,yet if x is cool$ to a l[ temp]ature--ab\t =ty degrees bel[ z]o--x freezes1 9 o!r words becomes solid2 !n x possesses _m ( ! di/9ctly metallic features t x necess>ily lacks :5 9 ! ord9>y liquid condition4 ,( c\rse ?is liquid condition is a m]e incid5tal circum/ance1 due to ! temp]ature :i* ord9>ily prevails ^u our e>?4 ,if our ord9>y temp]ature 7 slightly l[] ?an =ty degrees bel[ z]o1 m]cury w\ld !n be commonly kn[n z a solid1 h>d1 lu/r\s1 heavy1 malleable metal--capable ( c\rse ( melt+ ) a slight accession ( heat4 ,z a fur!r illu/ration1 9 a some:at diff]5t direction1 m5tion may be made ( ! metal li?ium4 ,?is sub/ance _c be call$ heavy1 s9ce x is light] ?an wat]2 inde$ x is ! lighte/ solid kn[n4 ,b on ! o!r h& x possesses 9 a /rik+ degree ^? *emical features ( metals1 su* z /rong aff9ity = oxyg5 & t5d5cy to comb9e ) x1 :i* h already be5 detail$ 9 our def9ition ( ! ideal metal4 ,! ,t]m ,non-metal4 ,! t]m non-metal is sugge/ive ( a negative idea1 & n ( any def9ite or positive "o4 ,9 fact x is int5d$ to intimate t elem5t>y sub/ances ( ?is class are ^? :i* d n prop]ly belong to ! o!r4 ,sulphur & c>bon h be5 already allud$ to z examples ( non-metals2 o!r non-metals1 su* z oxyg51 hydrog51 nitrog5 & *lor9e among ! gases1 brom9e1 a liquid1 & iod9e1 antimony1 phosphorus among solids1 are f> less famili>ly kn[n to mo/ p]sons4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,elem5ts1 ,classification ( ,williamson1 ,a4 ,w4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london1 xvii1 #baa4 ,*emical ,!ory4 ,cooke1 ,josiah ,p41 ,jr4--,! ,new ,*emi/ry4 ,new ,york4 #ahgd4 ,rems51 ,ira4--,pr9ciples ( ,!oretical ,*emi/ry4 ,philadelphia4 #ahhc4 ,tild51 ,william ,a4--,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,*emical ,philosophy4 ,wurtz1 ,ad4 7,h5ry ,watts1 ,tr47--,hi/ory ( ,*emical ,!ory4 ,london4 #ahfi4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,comp\nd ,,sub/ances4 ,9 a previ\s *apt] a li/ ( elem5t>y sub/ances has be5 giv54 ,all o!r matt]s kn[n are comp\nds4 ,f :at has be5 said already1 x is evid5t t ! comp\nds are v num]\s1 inde$ t !re is practically no limit to ! numb] ( possible ones4 ,^! comp\nds are all made up by ! union ( elem5t>y sub/ances 9 ob$i5ce to ! peculi> *emical =ces t reside )9 !m4 ,"s comp\nds h only two k9ds ( elem5ts3 !y are call$ b9>ies4 ,"s comp\nds h ?ree k9ds ( elem5ts3 !y are call$ t]n>ies4 ,o!r comp\nds may h f\r1 five1 six1 or ev5 m k9ds ( elem5ts gr\p$ toge!r to =m "o sort ( sub/ance4 ,9 ?is place ref]5ce w be made pr9cipally to b9>ies & t]n>ies--t is to ! comp\nds ( ! simpl] =ms ( con/itution4 ,examples ( ,b9>y ,comp\nds4 ,9 discuss+ b9>ies x w be well to give at ! outset ?ree or f\r examples = ! purpose ( illu/ration4 ,fir/4 ,! gas kn[n z hydrog5 & ! gas kn[n z *lor9e h ! p[] ( comb9+ *emically & produc+ an entirely new comp\nd1 a comp\nd diff]5t f hydrog5 & diff]5t f *lor9e yet conta9+ portions ( ea* ( !m4 ,?is comp\nd is a b9>y s9ce x consi/s ( b two k9ds ( elem5ts4 ,x has sev]al names1 "o ( :i* is hydric *loride4 ,! *emi/ frequ5tly repres5ts :at is evid5tly ! smalle/ possible quantity ( ?is sub/ance1 & also its exact composition1 by ! expression ,h ,cl4 ,x is pla9 t ?is expression means a m9ute portion ( sub/ance =m$ by ! union ( "o atom ( hydrog51 7express$ by ,h17 & "o atom ( *lor9e1 7express$ by ,cl74 ,second4 ,:5 sulphur burns 9 ! air1 x produces a blue flame4 ,at ! same "t a new & peculi> gas is =m$ :i* is easily recogniz$ by its *ok+ odor1 simil> to t giv5 (f by a burn+ sulphur mat*4 ,n[ ?is odor is "o ( ! prop]ties ( a new comp\nd t has be5 =m$3 a comp\nd diff]5t f sulphur1 diff]5t f oxyg51 yet conta9+ !m bo? & produc$ by ! union ( !m4 ,! comp\nd is a b9>y because x conta9s b two k9ds ( elem5ts4 ,x is call$ sulphur dioxide4 ,! "n is int5d$ to sugge/ t !re are two atoms ( oxyg5 to "o ( sulphur 9 ! comp\nd4 ,?is idea is fur!r convey$ by ! abridg$ sy/em ( notation s commonly us$ by *emi/s4 ,?us by ?is sy/em ! smalle/ possible quantity ( ! comp\nd 9 "q is express$ z foll[s1 ,,s4 ,9 ?is expression x is v pla9 t ,s /&s = "o atom ( sulphur1 & ,o = two atoms ( oxyg54 ,?ird4 ,b sulphur may be made to comb9e ) a /ill l>g] am\nt ( oxyg5 ?an x takes :5 x simply burns 9 ! air4 ,!n x =ms a comp\nd call$ sulphur trioxide4 ,?is is /ill a b9>y1 s9ce x conta9s no?+ b sulphur & oxyg51 t is only two elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,express$ 9 ! brief] =m ! smalle/ quantity ( ?is comp\nd may be repres5t$ by ! =mula1 ,,s4 ,?is expression means a comp\nd aris+ f ! union ( "o atom ( sulphur & ?ree atoms ( oxyg54 ,f\r?4 ,:5 lead is heat$ to ! melt+ po9t x is obs]v$ to become coat$ ) a con/antly increas+ mass ( a k9d ( a%es4 ,a p\nd ( ! lead :5 heat$ 9 ?is way produces consid]ably m ?an a p\nd ( dross4 ,! =mation ( ?is dross is expla9$ by ! fact t :5 lead is heat$ x really burns1 ?\gh ( c\rse ! rapidity ( ! burn+ dep5ds ^u ! am\nts ( heat & air to :i* ! lead is subject$4 ,evid5tly ! lead1 9 burn+1 has some?+ add$ to itself4 ,t some?+ is a gas :i* is ev] pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e & :i* is call$ oxyg54 ,! dross is a *emical comp\nd ( lead & oxyg54 ,x is call$ plumbic oxide1 & its smalle/ quantity is repres5t$ by ! =mula1 ,pb,o4 ,9 ?is =mula x is easy to see t ,pb /&s = an atom ( lead 7^: ,lat9 "n is plumbum71 & ,o = an atom ( oxyg54 ,! dross !n is a b9>y comp\nd4 ,a multitude ( su* examples ( b9>y comp\nds might be giv52 probably ^? already cit$ are suffici5t = ! pres5t4 ,x w be advantage\s to ! read] to c>efully le>n ! names & ! =mulas ( ! b9>y comp\nds ?us f> giv51 s9ce !y are select$ examples :i* may be us$ aga9 fur!r on4 ,examples ( ,t]n>y ,comp\nds4 ,! t]n>y comp\nds are ^? :i* consi/ ( ?ree k9ds ( elem5ts2 ( c\rse !y are m complicat$ 9 /ructure ?an ! b9>ies4 ,?is fact1 h[ev]1 mu/ n det] ! read] f ! attempt to und]/& !m at ! outset1 = ! pr9cipal t]n>ies are acids & salts1 & ev]yone kn[s t acids & salts are among ! mo/ important comp\nds :i* ! *emi/ has to employ4 ,z examples ( t]n>y acids m5tion w be made ( two ( ! pr9cipal ones us$ by ! *emi/4 ,& fir/1 nitric acid is a comp\nd ( hydrog51 nitrog5 & oxyg54 ,! =mula ( ! smalle/ individual portion ( x is ,,hno4 ,^! lett]s signify t nitric acid conta9s "o atom ( hydrog51 comb9$ ) "o atom ( nitrog5 & ?ree atoms ( oxyg54 ,n[ ?is nitric acid =ms a great _m salts4 ,a simple example may be f\nd 9 t "o conta9+ silv]4 ,?us :5 nitric acid & silv] are w>m$ toge!r1 ei!r a "p or ! :ole ( ! silv] dissolves4 ,a new sub/ance is produc$ :i* is commonly call$ nitrate ( silv]4 ,by ! *emi/ x is (t5] call$ arg5tic nitrate4 ,its solution may be dri$ into ! =m ( a :ite cry/all9e sub/ance1 "o t has long be5 accept$ z a memb] ( ! class ( salts4 ,its =mula is ,ag,n,o4 ,x is pla9 t ?is la/ =mula is employ$ z a %ort way ( express+ t ! salt is a comp\nd ( m ?an "o k9d ( elem5t--( ?ree k9ds 9 fact--& t ^! elem5ts are 9 ! proportions ( "o atom ( silv]1 "o atom ( nitrog51 & ?ree atoms ( oxyg54 ,promise 0 made to ref] to two important acids2 sulphuric acid is ! second "o4 ,comm]cially ?is sub/ance is by f> ! mo/ important ( all ! acids4 ,inde$ its manufacture is "o bran* ( ! greate/ *emical indu/ry devis$ by man--! alkali trade4 ,evid5tly x is important t ! *emi/ %\ld be ?or\ghly acqua9t$ ) sulphuric acid1 ) its composition1 its =mula1 its way ( *emically act+ on o!r sub/ances1 & ! ?+s or products t x gives rise to :5 x has opportunity s to act4 ,n[ sulphuric acid has ! =mula ,h,,s4 ,?is =mula means t sulphuric acid is a t]n>y1 be+ made up ( ?ree diff]5t k9ds ( elem5ts1 namely two atoms ( hydrog51 "o atom ( sulphur & f\r atoms ( oxyg54 ,fur!r sulphuric acid =ms a multitude ( salts4 ,?us x =ms "o conta9+ silv]4 ,?is is commonly call$ sulphate ( silv]1 ?\gh ! *emi/ g5]ally calls x arg5tic sulphate4 ,! =mula ( arg5tic sulphate is ,ag,,s ,:5 ?is =mula is firmly acquir$ by ! read] s t he c readily comp>e x ) o!rs already m5tion$1 a c]ta9 simple & di/9ct relation%ip may be trac$4 ,?us comp>+ ,arg5tic sulphate1 ,ag,,s ) ,sulphuric acid1 ,h,,s x is evid5t t 9 ! "o1 two atoms ( silv] h tak5 ! places ( two atoms ( hydrog5 t appe>$ 9 ! o!r4 ,& su* is usually ! case3 :5 silv] takes ! place ( hydrog51 x does s1 atom = atom4 ,inde$ arg5tic nitrate1 ,ag,n,o1 already describ$1 illu/rates ?is fact4 ,x is a comp\nd product closely relat$ to nitric acid1 ,,hno1 ! only diff]5ce ( con/ruction be+ t "h also "o atom ( silv] has tak5 ! place ( "o atom ( hydrog54 ,! ,purpose ( ?is ,*apt]4 ,! purpose ( ?is *apt] has be5 to sugge/ a few facts respect+ ! nature ( *emical comp\nds & also to %[ h[ ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry employs its peculi> language bo? 9 its long] & %ort] =ms4 ,?is language is v compreh5sive4 ,9 fact x is too elaborate = full explanation "h4 ,! plan contemplat$ is to give at ?is po9t a few h9ts z to its nature & scope1 & to develop x only s f> z may be necess>y to ! succe$+ /ages ( our progress4 ,x is prop] to sugge/ at ?is po9t t no s+le sci5tific man--nor society ( !m--c en=ce ! use ( any p>ticul> words ^u ! great body ( *emi/s4 ,= ?is reason1 z well z = o!rs1 !re /ill prevails ! use ( diff]5t *emical names = ! same sub/ance4 ,?us ! comp\nd ( hydrog5 & *lor9e fir/ ref]r$ to z repres5t$ by ! =mula ,h,cl1 has at lea/ f\r widely us$ names3 fir/1 a "n m]ely sugge/ive ( its compon5t p>ts1 t is hydric *loride2 second1 names :i* sugge/s some?+ 9 addition to its compon5t p>ts1 namely t x is an acid1 ?us x is call$ bo? *lorohydric acid & hydro*loric acid2 ?ird1 an old fa%ion$ "n1 :i* /ill reta9s its hold ^u ! comm]cial _w1 namely1 muriatic acid4 ,?is same g5]al pr9ciple applies to a great _m o!r sub/ances1 & :ile x is true t x ?us increases ! numb] ( names 9 ! *emical language1 x likewise incid5tally enri*es t language4 ,= 9 _m cases x has come to pass1 little by little1 t ^! diff]5t names are appropriat$ to slightly diff]+ =ms ( ! same sub/ance1 & s ! "n employ$ (t5 conveys to ! intellig5t *emi/ z def9ite a %ade ( mean+ z d ! diff]5t synonyms us$ 9 ! descriptions ( e-day affairs by any accompli%$ au?or4 ,a s+le example w elucidate ?is po9t4 ,! t]m oil ( vitriol w\ld usually be def9$ z mean+ sulphuric acid4 ,b ! words sulphuric acid convey1 /rictly speak+1 ! same mean+ z ! =mula ,h,,s ,?is latt] sub/ance1 h[ev]1 is ( v r>e occurr5ce alone3 x is usually associat$ ) v>y+ quantities ( wat]1 & is !n spok5 ( z sulphuric acid ( v>y+ degrees ( dilution4 ,n[ 9 comm]ce ! t]m oil ( vitriol has come to be appropriat$ exclusively to t dilution consi/+ ( ab\t #hi p] c5t4 ( sulphuric acid1 ,h,,s ) #aa p] c5t4 ( wat]1 ,h,o1 bo? tak5 by weight4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,notation1 ,*emical ,frankl&1 ,e4--,exp]im5tal ,rese>*es 9 ,*emi/ry4 #c4 ,london4 #ahgg4 ,williamson1 ,a4 ,w4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london1 xvii1 #dba4 ,frankl&1 ,e4--,loc4 cit4 xix1 #cgb4 ,madan1 ,h4 ,g4--,loc4 cit4 xxiii1 #bb4 ,c\ncil ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4--,in/ructions to ,ab/ractors f ,curr5t ,publications4 7#ahgi47 ,*em4 ,news4 xlvii1 #ae4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,sub/ances4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! *emical con/ruction ( sub/ances x is necess>y to consid] ?ree t]ms mu* us$ by ! *emi/3 ^! t]ms are1 ,mass1 ,molecule1 ,atom4 ,evid5tly ! words relate to ?ree grades ( magnitude 9 :i* matt] is capable ( exi/+2 x is equally pla9 t ( ! s]ies ! mass repres5ts ! l>ge/ individual portion ( sub/ance1 & ! atom ! smalle/1 :ile ! molecule repres5ts ! int]m$iate "o4 ,! ,*emical ,use ( ! ,t]m ,mass4 ,:oev] looks ab\t him sees sub/ances exi/+ 9 masses4 ,?is is true ( va/ m\nta9 *a9s & equally true ( ! smalle/ gra9s ( matt] t are recogniz$ z ! humble/ compon5ts ( ^? peaks4 ,b ! smalle/ ( ^! visible masses is made up ( p>ticles /ill m m9ute--yet p]haps ( precisely ! same k9d4 ,= ! *emi/ possesses means ( subdivision ( sub/ances by :i* he may make !m into m9ute fractional p>ts t are measurable & are all j alike1 & he may cont9ue ?is process long aft] ! portions h sunk bel[ ! rea* & range ( ord9>y vision4 ,a lump ( pure sug> z big z a cubic in* may be me*anically divid$ by any "o into _m small] ones1 ea* little "o be+ easily recogniz$ by ! ord9>y s5ses z possess+ ! sweetness1 ! cry/all9e con/ruction1 ! :it5ess1 ! solidity1 ! brilliancy1 ! p[] ( dissolv+ 9 wat] & inde$ a great _m o!r well-kn[n *>act]i/ics t p]ta9 to sug>4 ,b ! *emi/ is able to cont9ue ! subdivision ( ! sug> mu* fur!r4 ,?is he does by rec\rse to processes n exactly me*anical ?\gh closely alli$ to !m3 by processes (t5 call$ physical z di/+ui%$ f purely me*anical ones4 ,he may ?us r$uce ! sug> to fragm5ts ( su* extreme m9ut5ess t :ile !y d n impress our s5ses z l>g] portions d1 yet ea* fragm5t is capable ( display+ to a compet5t sci5tific obs]v] ! c]ta9 & sure *emical prop]ties t always belong to sug>1 :e!r 9 l>ge lumps or 9 small ones1 & :i* 9 fact belong to no?+ b sug>4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 all p>ticles producible by me*anical subdivision are masses1 :ile ! same is true ( mo/ p>ticles producible by physical subdivision4 ,! ,*emical ,use ( ! ,t]m ,molecule4 ,b !re is a po9t :]e any attempt at fur!r sci5tific subdivision results 9 a new & />tl+ *ange3 at ?is /age ! la/ individual t c prop]ly be call$ sug> is dissect$ & loses entirely ! *>act]i/ics ( sug>4 ,! fragm5ts produc$ by ! wreck ( ! la/ p>ticle are ( a new k9d4 ,!y are portions ( c>bon1 portions ( hydrog51 portions ( oxyg54 ,?is la/ p>ticle ( sug> is sep>at$ into its ultimate con/itu5ts only by *emical processes4 ,?is la/ p>ticle be=e x is brok5 up is call$ ! molecule1 ! ^w mean+ a little portion4 ,! s+le individual ?+ x ref]s to _c be detect$ by ! eye1 nor c x be 9 any way appreciat$ except by sci5tific means4 ,b a *emical *ange ( ! la/ multitude ( molecules at once1 is practicable to ev]ybody1 & x is to a c]ta9 ext5t recogniz$ by e "o :o heats sug> until x turns to a *>r$ mass4 ,?is *>r$ mass is ma9ly c>bon--"o ( ! compon5ts ( ! n[ ru9$ sug>--& x is v unlike sug> 9 e way4 ,! *emi/ c %[ t :5 sug> is *>r$1 ! oxyg5 & ! hydrog5 g (f mo/ly 9 ! =m ( gases or vapors1 & t on ?is acc\nt !y escape detection at ! h&s ( all ord9>y obs]v]s4 ,! ,*emical ,use ( ! ,t]m ,atom4 ,x appe>s !n t ! *emi/ is able to subdivide molecules into small] p>ts4 ,b he f9ds t fur!r division is at a c]ta9 /age =bidd5 him4 ,he c take ! oxyg5 out ( ! sug>1 b he _c take any?+ b oxyg5 out ( oxyg52 he c take hydrog5 out ( sug>1 b he _c take any?+ b hydrog5 out ( hydrog52 he c take c>bon out ( sug>1 b he _c take any?+ b c>bon out ( c>bon4 ,z a result ( all *emical /udy ( common sug> ! *emi/ has fix$ ^u ! foll[+ z express+ mo/ closely ! facts z he kn[s !m3 ,! =mula ( "o molecule ( pure cane sug>1 is ,c,h,o ,! *emical =mula ( any sub/ance expresses mu* m ?an ! read] w\ld at fir/ imag9e4 ,?us ! =mula ,c,h,o conveys at once to ! *emi/ a s]ies ( facts1 "s ( :i* may be amplifi$ z foll[s3--"o molecule ( sug> conta9s ?ree k9ds ( sub/ance3 c>bon1 hydrog5 & oxyg53--ea* ( ^! k9ds ( matt] exi/s 9 ! molecule 9 sep>ate m9ute portions su* z 9 ! pres5t /ate ( human k are divisible only 9 a limit$ way3 ?us ! c>bon ( "o molecule ( sug> is divisible into twelve p>ts1 & no fur!r2 ! hydrog5 ( "o molecule ( sug> is divisible into tw5ty-two p>ts1 & no fur!r2 ! oxyg5 ( "o molecule ( sug> is divisible into elev5 p>ts1 & no fur!r4 ,def9ition ( ! ,t]m ,atom4 ,n[ at la/ ! atom has be5 rea*$4 ,x is t portion ( any k9d ( matt] t is to human be+s indivisible 9 fact4 ,x has already be5 /at$ t !re are only sixty-six diff]5t k9ds ( atoms1 x appe>s !n t !re are only sixty-six k9ds ( matt] t at pres5t _c be *emically subdivid$ into diff]5t compon5ts4 ,x is true t "s p]sons consid] t c]ta9 intricate *emical processes sugge/ t :at h be5 "h call$ indivisible atoms are !mselves really capable ( yet fur!r decomposition4 ,)\t attempt+ "h to su/a9 or to demoli% ?is proposition or to say :at ! future ( *emical inve/igation may reveal1 x may be safely rem>k$ t adequate pro( has n yet be5 (f]$ ( ! ability ( any "o to successfully accompli% a decomposition ( ! sixty-six atoms enum]at$4 ,pla9ly !n j z bricks may be made into a build+1 & a s]ies ( build+s may make a city1 & a s]ies ( cities may exi/ 9 a /ate1 s atoms may comb9e toge!r to =m molecules1 & molecules may coh]e toge!r to =m a mass1 & visible masses may be plac$ side by side & give rise to ! ord9>y objects recogniz$ ab\t u4 ,true ! comp>ison sugge/$ is n /rictly c>ri$ out 9 all p>ticul>s4 ,b ! difficulty n a s]i\s "o3 = a city might conta9 a multitude ( h\ses ea* "o s simil> t no diff]5ce c\ld be di/+ui%$ betwe5 !m1 j z a mass ( sug> does 9 fact conta9 molecules ( :i* ea* "o is s l its neighbor t ! mo/ ref9$ *emical me?ods discov] no diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 ,aga9 ^! same h\ses might be compos$ ( comb9ations ( brick & o!r mat]ials diff]+ among !mselves1 b closely correspond+ 9 e h\se4 ,s ! molecule ( sug> does conta9 atoms ( c>bon1 hydrog5 & oxyg51 ! atoms ( "o k9d diff]+ di/9ctly & absolutely f ! atoms ( ! o!r k9d4 ,b "h ! p>allelism seems to cease4 ,= :ile all bricks & o!r compon5ts ( a build+ are capable ( be+ split into small] portions1 ! atoms compos+ ! molecule are f\nd by ! *emi/ to be absolutely indivisible 9 ! pres5t /ate ( k4 ,employ+ /ill fur!r ! illu/ration already 9 h& x may be add$ t j z ! walls ( a dwell+ might conta9 bricks ei!r ( ! same k9d z to _! color1 %ape & weight1 or else diff]+ 9 ^! or o!r respects1 s a molecule may be a little gr\p ( atoms ( ! same k9d1 or x may be a gr\p ( atoms ( diff]5t k9ds4 ,?us ! hydrog5 gas molecule is compos$ ( two atoms ea* j alike1 & ea* be+ hydrog54 ,?is molecule is repres5t$ by ! =mula ,h or ,h--,h4 ,s a molecule ( *lor9e gas is compos$ ( two atoms ea* j alike & ea* be+ *lor9e4 ,?is molecule is repres5t$ by ! =mula ,cl or ,cl--,cl4 ,ev]y?+ ,built up ( ,atoms4 ,n[ ea* ( ! sixty-six elem5t>y sub/ances has molecules compos$ ( atoms1 & ea* molecule ( a giv5 elem5t is compos$ ( atoms ( ! same k9d4 ,& fur!r all ! va/ & c\ntless myriad ( comp\nd sub/ances1 :e!r buri$ 9 ! he>t ( ! solid e>?1 :e!r drift+ 9 ! w&]+ c\rses ( ! ocean's curr5ts1 :e!r float+ 9 ! airy mass :i* is wrapp$ ab\t our globe1 :e!r compon5ts ( di/ant planets ( unkn[n con/itu5ts1 :e!r p>ts ( ! see?+ mass :i* p\rs its volcanic torr5ts millions ( miles out f ! surface ( our c5tral sun--all ^! sub/ances are con/ruct$1 s f> z we "k1 ( inconceivably m9ute atoms ( v>y+ k9ds b\nd toge!r by *emical attraction into molecules1 ! molecules be+ pil$ "o ^u ano!r into ^? masses ^: reaction our dull s5ses c appreciate4 ,atoms & ,molecules ,manife/ ,*emical ,aff9ity4 ,b to ! *emi/1 atoms1 molecules & masses possess an int]e/ ( ano!r k9d4 ,ea* atom & ea* molecule is end[$ ) an invisible1 occult p[] call$ *emical aff9ity4 ,?is p[] acts l an unse5 _s possess$ ( likes & dislikes4 ,by reason ( x an atom ( hydrog5 = example in/antly b9ds itself to an atom ( *lor9e :5ev] opportunity (f]s1 b w nev]1 ev5 "u ! mo/ favorable circum/ances1 comb9e ) an atom ( gold4 ,f9ally ?is attractive =ce is a k9d ( en]gy ( :i* no true explanation c be (f]$4 ,all t human be+s c d is to att5tively /udy x z x manife/s itself 9 ! relations ( elem5t>y sub/ances & comp\nd sub/ances "o t[>d ano!r4 ,inde$ "o ( ! pr9cipal (fices ( *emi/ry is to /udy ^! relation%ips z !y develop4 ,x is ! multitude ( possible relation%ips & actions ( :i* ! numb]less sub/ances kn[n are capable1 t gives to *emi/ry its great scope & v>iety & t makes x su* a va/ field = exp]im5t1 = discov]y ( facts1 & = indu/rial application ( !m4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,atoms & ,molecules4 ,b>k]1 ,g4 ,f4--,am]4 ,*emi/4 ,nov4 #ahgf4 p4 ms4 #afd4 ,/oney1 ,john/one4--,phil4 ,mag4 xxxvi1 #ada4 ,cl]k-,maxwell1 ,j4--,encyclopdia ,britannica1 article ,atoms4 -------- ,!ory ( ,heat4 ,new ,york4 #ahgb4 ,?ompson1 ,sir ,wm4--,nature4 ,m*4 #ahgj4 ,tait1 ,p4 ,g4--,rec5t ,advances 9 ,physical ,sci5ce4 ,london4 #ahgf4 p4 #bhc4 ,may]1 ,a4 ,m4--,lecture ,notes on ,physics4 p4 #eb4 ,cooke1 ,j4 ,p4--,! ,new ,*emi/ry4 ,new ,york4 #ahha4 pp4 #bi-dc4 -------- ,am]ican ,cyclopdia1 article ,molecule4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,h[ ,,*emical ,,aff9ity ,,works4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact t elem5ts & comp\nds manife/ an exce$+ly great v>iety ( t5d5cies to comb9ation4 ,fragm5ts ( matt]1 s small t no eye p]ceives !m1 h1 wrapp$ up 9 !mselves1 a multitude ( det]m9ate p[]s4 ,a giv5 atom z ( lead1 = example1 w v readily comb9e ) oxyg5 & ) "s o!r sub/ances1 b x seems to absolutely refuse to comb9e ) nitrog54 ,s hydrog5 w comb9e v readily ) *lor9e & ) _m o!r elem5ts1 b x refuses to =m any union ) silv] & ) _m o!r elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,x _c be call$ a :im t det]m9es ! k9d ( elem5t or its am\nt t a c]ta9 sub/ance w comb9e )1 ?\gh ! likes & dislikes ( atoms are 9 ?is respect exce$+ly m>k$ & ev5 incompreh5sible4 ,b h[ev] impossible x may be to expla9 an elem5t's fri5dly or unfri5dly deportm5t t[>d ano!r1 x is possible 9 ea* case to le>n ! facts ) c]ta9ty1 = ea* atom possesses its true individuality & is always con/ant & consi/5t 9 its aff9ities & hates4 ,x is ! purpose ( ?is *apt] to pres5t 9 an ord]ly mann] "s ( ! peculi>ities ( ?is my/]i\s p[] ( *emical aff9ity4 ,fir/4 ,ea* ,k9d ( ,atom ,has ,its ,peculi> ,*emical ,aff9ities4 ,*emical aff9ity seems to reside )9 ! atom z a p]man5t1 ev] pres5t & guid+ en]gy4 ,?us :ile iron oxidizes readily--t is manife/s "u a multitude ( common conditions a will+ness to comb9e ) oxyg5 & =m a new comp\nd call$ oxide ( iron1 & well-kn[n "u ! "n ( iron-ru/--gold on ! o!r h& oxidizes unwill+ly2 inde$ 9 ord] to get x to comb9e ) oxyg5 x mu/ be coax$ by means ( circuit\s & c>efully plann$ devices4 ,b ^! atoms are always consi/5t 9 _! action1 = iron "u any & e condition oxidizes m readily ?an gold does4 ,second4 ,*emical ,aff9ity ,acts ,only ,"u ,favorable ,conditions4 ,:ile *emical action (t5 works ) mo/ int5se en]gy x does s only :5 c]ta9 outside & incid5tal conditions are favorable4 ,?us c>bon has "u c]ta9 conditions an aff9ity = oxyg5 & manife/s its t5d5cy to comb9ation1 ) an int5sity t is sc>cely surpass$4 ,9 ord] h[ev] to awak5 & vivify ! dormant incl9ation x mu/ be /imulat$ by c]ta9 def9ite & favorable conditions2 ! mo/ important ( ^! conditions is a c]ta9 am\nt ( w>m?4 ,! /ores ( fuel 9 our cell>s--! coal & ! wood & all o!r combu/ible ?+s--are surr\nd$ by great quantities ( oxyg5 :i* w9ds its way1 ) e slighte/ /ir ( ! mobile air1 9 & out ?r\gh all ! crevices t ! fuel af=ds1 pass+ cont9ually 9 ! imm$iate neighborhood ( ample quantities ( atoms ( c>bon4 ,b x does n ord9>ily unite ) !m4 ,subject ! :ole or any portion ( ^! combu/ible ?+s to a slight rise 9 temp]ature--!n ! atoms ( oxyg5 & ! atoms ( c>bon seem to ar\se !mselves f repose3 !y unite 9 fri5dly & firm grasp1 & :at is call$ *emical union takes place4 ,to ! ord9>y obs]v] ! heat t is produc$ is ! mo/ notable sign ( ?is k9d ( comb9ation4 ,! *emi/1 h[ev]1 discov]s a yet m conclusive evid5ce1 = he f9ds t sev]al k9ds ( new molecules h be5 produc$2 "o ( ^! k9ds1 = example1 is expressible by ! "n c>bon dioxide & by ! =mula ,,co4 ,evid5tly ?is =mula means t ea* atom ( c>bon has unit$ ) two atoms ( oxyg54 ,9 ?is famili> example heat is ! ag5cy t /imulates ! atoms to a display ( ! *emical =ce t previ\sly 0 slumb]+ )9 !m4 ,light & ! electric curr5t & ! vital =ces ( animals & plants1 ?\gh act+ 9 a mann] less famili> to u1 are en]giz]s ( *emical aff9ity & all h _! prop] influ5ce to make atoms jo9 9 union2 inde$ 9 "s cases !y make atoms bur/ f ea* o!rs bonds & fly away to m cong5ial conditions4 ,?ird4 ,ea* ,atom ,has a ,c]ta9 ,equival5ce or ,atom-,fix+ ,p[]4 ,! *emi/ also recognizes ea* atom z possess+ c]ta9 peculi> num]ical pref]5ces 9 its comb9ations2 a manife/ation ( *emical aff9ity call$ equival5ce4 ,?us :5 c>bon burns 9 a /ove1 by reason ( ! air pass+ by x on its way to ! *imney1 x seizes ^u "s ( ! oxyg5 atoms & b9ds a def9ite numb] ( !m to itself4 ,if !re is mu* air1 ea* atom ( c>bon ( ! millions pres5t1 picks out two atoms ( oxyg5 f ! air2 if !re is b little air1 ea* atom ( c>bon has to be satisfi$ ) "o atom ( oxyg54 ,n[ 9 ^! two cases ( c\rse diff]5t sub/ances are =m$4 ,! fir/1 ^: composition is repres5t$ by ! =mula ,,co1 has already be5 spok5 ( z c>bon dioxide4 ,to ! o!r1 ^: composition is repres5t$ by ! =mula ,,co1 is appli$ ! "n c>bon monoxide4 ,"h !n we see t ! same atom may sometimes comb9e ) two atoms ( oxyg5 & sometimes ) only "o4 ,fur!r ! *emi/ kn[s f\r simple & famili> comp\nds ^: molecules illu/rate v /rik+ly ! diff]5ce ( equival5ce ( diff]5t atoms4 ,^! comp\nds are ! foll[+3 ,*lorohydric acid 7,hydric *loride71 ,h,cl or ,h--,cl ,h-- ,wat] 7,hydric oxide71 ,h,o or ,o ,h-- ,h-- ,ammonia gas 7,hydric nitride71 ,h,n or ,h-- ,n ,h-- ,h-- ,m>% gas 7,hydric c>bide71 ,h,c or ,h-- ,c ,h-- ,h-- ,x has be5 f\nd advisable to adopt ! atom ( hydrog5 z ! /&>d ( equival5ce or atom-fix+ p[]4 ,x is pla9 t by ?is me?od ( comp>ison ! atom *lor9e may be said to h ! equival5ce "o1 s9ce x comb9es ) "o atom ( hydrog54 ,& s ! atom oxyg5 may be said to h ! equival5ce two1 s9ce x comb9es ) two atoms ( hydrog54 ,& ! atom nitrog5 may be said to h ! equival5ce ?ree1 s9ce x comb9es ) ?ree atoms ( hydrog54 ,& ! atom c>bon may be said to h ! equival5ce f\r1 s9ce x comb9es ) f\r atoms ( hydrog54 ,! language ( *emi/ry sometimes pres5ts ! same obs]v$ facts 9 a slightly diff]5t =m1 some:at z foll[s3 ,*lor9e is said to h "o po9t ( attraction & is call$ a monad 7a t]m d]iv$ f ! ,greek ^w 1 monas1 a unit74 ,oxyg5 is said to h two po9ts ( attraction & is call$ a dyad 7a t]m d]iv$ f ! ,greek root 1 dyas1 two74 ,nitrog5 is said to h ?ree po9ts ( attraction & is call$ a triad 7a t]m d]iv$ f ! ,greek ^w 1 trias1 a gr\p ( ?ree74 ,c>bon is said to h f\r po9ts ( attraction & is call$ a tetrad 7a t]m d]iv$ f ! ,greek ^w 1 tetras1 f\r74 ,:ile hydrog5 z ! basis ( ! sy/em has ! uni=m equival5ce "o1 & is always a monad1 & oxyg5 its close fri5d & ally has always ! equival5ce two1 & is always a dyad1 mo/ o!r elem5ts h "s v>iety ( equival5ce4 ,?us *lor9e has at diff]5t times diff]5t equival5ces1 sometimes "o1 sometimes ?ree1 or five1 or sev54 ,s nitrog5 has at diff]5t times ! diff]5t equival5ces1 "o1 ?ree1 five4 ,s c>bon has sometimes an equival5ce two1 sometimes f\r4 ,f\r?4 ,*emical ,*anges ,nei!r ,create nor ,de/roy ,matt]4 ,:5 *emical *anges are produc$ by reason ( ! action ( *emical aff9ity1 !re is nev] ei!r ga9 9 weight or loss 9 weight4 ,9 o!r words !re is no creation ( matt] & no de/ruction ( x4 ,9 =m] times1 p :o obs]v$ ! disappe>ance ( solid matt] :5 *>coal burns1 ?\ght t ! sub/ance 0 de/roy$--p>tly if n :olly4 ,! mod]n *emi/ f9ds1 h[ev]1 t ! c>bon is only turn$ into ! =m ( an invisible gas1 & t by ! use ( appropriate appliances he c f9d ! weight ( ?is gas1 & comp>e x ) t ( ! c>bon produc+ x4 ,9 ! combu/ion ( c>bon ! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,c ,o ,,co ,"o atom ( ,two atoms ( ,"o molecule ( ,c>bon ,oxyg5 ,c>bon dioxide #ab #cb #dd p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #dd #dd ,?is equation means t ! *emi/ has discov]$1 by c>eful exp]im5ts1 t :5 any twelve p>ts by weight ( c>bon--say twelve p\nds--are completely burn$1 !y always unite ) ?irty-two correspond+ p>ts ( oxyg5 79 ?is case ?irty-two p\nds71 & !y produce =ty-f\r p>ts by weight ( c>bon dioxide 79 ?is case =ty-f\r p\nds74 ,& s 9 all *emical *anges ! sub/ances tak+ "p--:e!r solid1 liquid1 or gase\s--may be weigh$1 & ! sum ( ! weights ( all ! matt]s f9ally produc$ is j equal to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! orig9al factors4 ,fif?4 ,*emical ,*anges are ,(t5 ,att5d$ by ,displays ( ,=ce4 ,9 _m *emical *anges ! union ( ! atoms is att5d$ ) ! production ( heat1 or electricity1 or "s o!r =m ( en]gy4 ,n[ x is a law d]iv$ f mod]n discov]ies t ! am\nt ( en]gy giv5 out by any *emical union is fix$ & inv>iable1 & t x is j ! same 9 am\nt z ! quantity ( t k9d ( en]gy t is absorb$ :5 su* *emical action is rev]s$4 ,six?4 ,*emical ,*anges ,produce ,/rik+ ,results4 ,ea* ( ! atoms ( matt] is 9 itself fix$ & un*angeable & x possesses ?r\gh all its v>i$ comb9ations an inh]5t "* :i* belongs to x & :i* no human be+ c p]man5tly alt]4 ,b :5 atoms unite to build up ei!r simple or complex molecules1 ! v>i\s orig9al atomic *>act]s are s bl5d$ & balanc$ & re9=c$ z to af=d 9 ! molecul> product an entirely new & unexpect$ set ( prop]ties4 ,an example ( ^! pr9ciples is f\nd 9 ! union ( copp]1 sulphur1 oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,^! sub/ances may comb9e to =m a new molecule :i* is call$ cupric sulphate1 & :i* has ! composition express$ by ! =mula ,cu,s,o #e;,h,o4 ,( ! con/itu5ts ( ?is molecule1 copp] is r$1 sulphur is yell[1 oxyg5 is colorless1 hydrog5 is colorless2 b :5 !y unite ! cupric sulphate =m$ is blue1 t is its color is n t ( ei!r ( its con/itu5ts1 nor is x int]m$iate betwe5 !m4 ,!re is simply a new & unexpect$ result1 & "o :i* 9 ! pres5t /ate ( k _c be expla9$2 x c m]ely be record$4 ,& ?is example is only "o ( a myriad4 ,?r\gh\t nature *emical *anges mo/ m>k$--& to ! human ?\ght unexpect$--arise f ! union ( famili> elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,sev5?4 ,*emical ,atoms ,unite 9 ,ob$i5ce to ,def9ite ,law4 ,c>eful *emical /udy ( ! way 9 :i* atoms comb9e has develop$ ! foll[+ z a fundam5tal law ( nature4 ,! same *emical comp\nd always conta9s ! same k9d & numb] ( elem5t>y atoms1 & ^! atoms are unit$ 9 ! same proportions by weight4 ,?is law is a =mal /atem5t ( facts simil> to ^? already ref]r$ to 9 p>agraphs ?ird & f\r? ( ?is *apt]4 ,x does n !re=e seem to call = fur!r explanation at ?is po9t4 ,! ,mod]n ,atomic ,!ory4 ,! same *emical /udy :i* has develop$ ! tru? ( ! law j /at$ has also giv5 rise to ! mod]n atomic !ory4 ,! *emi/ is con/ra9$ to believe t matt] is compos$ ( ultimate indivisible p>ticles call$ atoms4 ,:ile ^! atoms are invisible to mortal eye ev5 ) ! help ( ! f9e/ kn[n optical appliances1 yet :5 _! exi/5ce is once admitt$ ?is admission af=ds an explanation t is a satisfactory "o1 & inde$ ! only "o t h>monizes ) ! multitude ( obs]v$ *emical & physical laws4 ,?is atomic !ory1 9 its ess5tial p>ticul>s1 0 sugge/$ 9 ! e>ly "p ( ?is c5tury by ,dr4 ,john ,dalton1 :o 0 a tea*] ( ma!matics 9 ,man*e/]1 ,engl&1 & :o di$ z rec5tly z 9 #ahdd4 ,dalton f\nd recreation 9 *emical exp]im5ts1 & ! ma!matical turn ( 8 m9d l$ him to express ! results ( 8 *emical analyses 9 a new num]ical =m4 ,?us previ\s to 8 "t x _h be5 cu/om>y to express ! composition ( all sub/ances 9 ! ord9>y p]c5tage =m4 ,n[ ,dalton f\nd t if "s special weight 0 adopt$ z ! unit1 a v>iety ( new & previ\sly conceal$ facts 0 reveal$4 ,! idea to be "h convey$ is p>tially b p]haps suffici5tly express$ by ! foll[+ examples d]iv$ f ! two comp\nds ( c>bon already ref]r$ to3 ,illu/ration3 ,,john ,,dalton3 ,born at ,eaglesfield4 7,engl&47 ,sept4 #e?1 #agff2 di$ ,july #bg?1 #ahdd4 ,composition ( ! ,two ,comp\nds ( ,c>bon & ,oxyg54 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,express$ ,,9 ,,p] ,,c5ts4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,c>bon ,monoxide 7,,co74 ,c>bon ,dioxide 7,,co74 ,c>bon1 #dc - p] c5t4 #bg p] c5t4 ,oxyg51 #eg p] c5t4 #gc - p] c5t4 -------- -------- #ajj #ajj ---------------------------------------- -------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,express$ ,,9 ,,dalton',s ,,=m4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,c>bon ,monoxide 7,,co74 ,c>bon ,dioxide 7,,co74 ,c>bon1 #ab p>ts by weight1 #ab p>ts by weight4 ,oxyg51 #af p>ts by weight4 #cb p>ts by weight4 ------ ------ #bh #dd ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,9 ,dalton's expression x is at once evid5t t1 z comp>$ ) ! weight ( c>bon1 ! am\nt ( oxyg5 9 c>bon dioxide is exactly twice :at x is 9 c>bon monoxide3 b to ! ord9>y unma!matical m9d ?is fact is buri$ 9 ! p]c5tage /atem5t4 ,dalton's exp]im5ts ) /ill o!r comp\nds gave him results %[+ a simplicity ( relation%ips simil> to t obta9$ f ! c>bon comp\nds j ref]r$ to4 ,to 8 m9d ^! facts sugge/$ imm$iately ! idea t an elem5t>y sub/ance is made up ( atoms ea* ( a det]m9ate weight1 & t ^! atoms comb9e by :oles & n by fractional p>ts1 & t al?\gh x is impossible to weigh any atom sep>ately1 yet ! weight ratios ( a multitude ( !m t comb9e z :oles express at once ! weight ratios ( ! atoms !mselves4 ,he ?us got ! idea ( atomic weights & con/ruct$ ! fir/ table ( !m4 ,s9ce ,dalton's fir/ decl>ation ( 8 atomic !ory1 ! comb9+ numb]s ( ! diff]5t atoms h be5 /udi$ by *emi/s ) ! mo/ ?\ghtful c>e & ! mo/ pa9/ak+ me?ods kn[n to mod]n sci5ce2 & tables h be5 con/ruct$ %[+ ! comb9+ numb]s :i* are believ$ also to be ! true atomic weights = all ! v>i\s elem5ts ?us f> recogniz$4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,atomic ,con/itution ( ,bodies4 ,sa9t-,v5ant4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xxx1 pt4 ,,ii1 #dgb4 ,atomic ,philosophy4 -------- ,am]4 ,*emi/1 iii1 #cbf4 ,atomic ,!ory4 ,williamson1 ,a4 ,w4 7& o!rs47--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xxii1 #cbh1 #dcc4 ,wurtz1 ,ad4--,! ,atomic ,!ory4 ,new ,york4 #ahha4 ,atomic ,volumes1 ,etc4 ,avogadro4--,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique4 #c ,sr4 xiv1 #ccj2 xxix1 #bdh4 ,atoms1 ,vortex ,!ory ( ,?omson1 ,sir ,wm4--,phil4 ,mag4 #ahfg4 ,?ompson1 ,j4 ,j4--,sci5ce4 iii1 #bhi4 ,tait1 ,p4 ,g4--,rec5t ,advances 9 ,physical ,sci5ce4 ,london4 #ahgf4 p4 #bhc4 ,atomic ,weights1 ,dalton's ,fir/ ,table ( ,roscoe1 ,h4 ,e4--,*em4 ,news4 xxx1 #bff4 ,*emical ,op]ations1 ,calculus ( ,brodie1 ,b4 ,c4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xxi1 #cfg4 ,dalton1 ,john ,h5ry1 ,w4 ,c4--,life ( ,dalton4 ,london4 #ahed4 ,def9ite ,proportions1 ,v>iability 9 ,law ( ,b\tl][4--,silliman's ,j\rnal4 #c;d ,s]4 xxvi1 #fc4 ,cooke1 ,j4 ,p4--loc4 cit4 #caj4 ,equival5ts ( ! ,elem5ts4 ,dumas1 ,j4--,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique4 #c ,sr4 lv1 #abi4 ,en]gy4 ,/ew>t1 ,balf\r4--,! ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy4 ,new ,york4 #ahgd4 ,tait1 ,p4 ,g4--,rec5t ,advances 9 ,physical ,sci5ce4 ,london4 #ahgf4 ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 vol4 viii4 ,gase\s & ,liquid ,/ates ( ,matt]4 ,&rews1 ,t4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xxiii1 #gd2 xxx1 pt4 ,,ii1 #aei4 ,ramsey1 ,w4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xlii1 #acf4 ,matt]1 ,con/itution ( ,ditte1 ,a4--,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique4 #e ,sr4 x1 #ade4 ,nom5clature ( ,salts4 ,madan1 ,h4 ,g4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xxiii1 #bb4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,hydrog54 ,?is sub/ance is "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ) :i* ! *emi/ has to deal4 ,on acc\nt ( its *emical & physical prop]ties1 by reason ( ! _m important comp\nd sub/ances into :i* x ent]s1 by reason ( ! "p x has play$ 9 ! hi/ory ( *emical progress1 x is entitl$ to a l>ge %>e ( ! /ud5t's att5tion4 ,mean+ ( ! ,^w ,hydrog54 ,! "n hydrog5 0 appli$ to x "s "t lat] ?an ! fir/ recognition ( ! sub/ance4 ,! ^w is d]iv$ f two ,greek words 71 hydor1 wat]1 & 1 g5nao1 ,i =m or produce71 ! ^w z a :ole mean+ wat] =m]4 ,9 fact hydrog5 is 9 all wat] :]ev] t sub/ance exi/s4 ,t ?is is a v compreh5sive expression appe>s :5 x is rememb]$ t ! atmosph]e always conta9s wat] diffus$ ?r\gh x 9 ! =m ( invisible vapor ev5 be=e t vapor is precipitat$ z ! g5tle dew1 or ! cry/all9e sn[1 or ! /ream+ ra94 ,aga91 wat] 9 seas & oceans1 lakes & riv]s1 is ! mantle ( ne>ly ?ree-f\r?s ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,e liv+ be+ on ! dry l&1 :e!r animal or vegetable1 conta9s l>ge quantities ( wat] 9 its /ructure3 ! blood ( ! high] animals is ne>ly n9e-t5?s wat]4 ,:ile wat] is ! pr9cipal sub/ance conta9+ hydrog51 ?is gas exi/s also z a con/itu5t "p ( a great _m o!r solid & liquid matt]s f\nd 9 ! e>?4 ,:y ,free ,hydrog5 is n ,f\nd 9 ! ,e>?4 ,hydrog5 sc>cely ev] exi/s on our globe alone1 t is 9 ! free or uncomb9$ condition4 ,inde$ !re are c]ta9 def9ite reasons :y x %\ld n4 ,^! are bas$ ma9ly ^u ! v /rong *emical aff9ity t hydrog5 has = oxyg54 ,n[1 z has be5 decl>$ already1 ! latt] sub/ance is ! mo/ abundant elem5t 9 nature1 & x exi/s 9 v l>ge quantities 9 our atmosph]e4 ,spread all ov] ! surface ( ! e>? !n1 ! free oxyg5 ( ! air /&s prep>$ to comb9e ) hydrog5 :]ev] ! latt] may be lib]at$4 ,su* comb9ation might n occur1 x is true1 unless initiat$ by influ5ce ( heat or "s flame ( fire2 b ow+ to ! con/ant agitation ( ! air by reason ( uni=m curr5ts l trade w9ds1 z well z ^? produc$ :5 ! atmosph]e is agitat$ by viol5t /orms1 any mixture ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 w\ld be likely soon to come into contact ) "s flame or fire1 & s ^! compon5ts w\ld ent] into comb9ation4 ,?us hydrog5 w\ld n be likely to rema9 long uncomb9$ ev5 7 x produc$ 9 consid]able quantity by natural t]re/rial op]ations4 ,! ,discov]] ( ,hydrog54 ,hydrog5 0 fir/ di/9ctly describ$ & its prop]ties z a special k9d ( gase\s matt] cle>ly po9t$ out 9 ! ye> #agff1 by an ,engli% *emi/1 ! ,honorable ,h5ry ,cav5di%4 ,?is philosoph]1 ! son ( ,"l ,*>les ,cav5di%1 & ! gr&son at once ( ! ,duke ( ,devon%ire & ! ,duke ( ,k5t1 is "o ( ! mo/ curi\s *>act]s 9 ! hi/ory ( ! natural sci5ces4 ,he 0 ( an exceptionally c>eful1 ?or\gh & pa9/ak+ temp]1 :i* well fitt$ him = ! sci5tific pursuits :i* 7 ! prime objects ( 8 ?\ghts4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy said ( him3 8,! accuracy & beauty ( 8 e>li] labors h rema9$ unimpair$ amid/ ! progress ( discov]y1 & _! m]its h be5 illu/rat$ by discussion & exalt$ by "t40 ,9 addition to 8 possession ( _m special aptitudes = ! exact /udies to :i* he devot$ 8 entire exi/5ce1 x %\ld be recogniz$ t he liv$ at a p]iod t 0 rem>kably favorable to ! pursuit ( ! natural sci5ces4 ,! times1 ! /ate ( k1 ! condition ( society all ov] ,europe seem$ to be ripe = ?is k9d ( progress1 = 9 ,scotl&1 9 ,engl&1 9 ,france1 9 ,g]many1 9 ,sw$5 !re appe>$ exp]im5t]s ( unsurpass$ skill1 & *emi/ry z a sci5ce _h !n its bir? "u mo/ =tunate auspices4 ,cav5di% 0 v peculi> 9 8 mann]s & habits1 liv+ 9 great seclusion & retirem5t & 9 ! mo/ simple & me?odical mann]2 inde$ 8 oddities atta9$ = him ! un5viable di/9ction ( a place 9 a book devot$ to ! lives ( ,engli% ecc5trics4 ,9 t "w1 z well z 9 ,dr4 ,wilson's life ( him1 are _m amus+ anecdotes ( 8 way ( life4 ,"o mo/ rem>kable episode 0 8 inh]itance ( weal?4 ,?\gh poor 9 8 y\? he 0 sudd5ly made ri* 9 middle life by a beque/ ^: orig9 is sc>cely kn[n4 ,m4 ,biot neatly describ$ him z 8le plus ri*e de t\s les savants1 et probablem5t aussi1 le plus savant de t\s les ri*es40 ,he liv$ on h[ev] 9 z great seclusion z be=e1 8 *os5 associates be+ 8 flasks & 8 !rmomet]s4 ,8 millions made no obs]vable impression ^u 8 habits1 not)/&+ at 8 dea? !y made him ! l>ge/ hold] ( ! /ock ( ! ,bank ( ,engl&4 ,"l ,br\gham says t ,cav5di% probably utt]$ few] words 9 ! c\rse ( 8 life ?an any o!r man :o ev] liv$ to f\rscore ye>s1 n at all except+ ! monks ( ,la ,trappe--:o 7 b\nd to p]petual sil5ce except 9 cases ( absolute necessity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,joseph ,,black1 ,m4 ,d4 ,born 9 ,bordeaux1 9 #agbh2 di$ 9 ,ed9burgh1 ,nov4 #bf1 #agii4 ,:y ,hydrog5 0 n ,discov]$ ,e>li]4 ,d\btless ^? prehi/oric m5 :o 9 e>lie/ days look$ ab\t ^u ! face ( ! e>?1 curi\sly exam9+ _! h]itage f ! ,creator1 7 famili> ) wat] 9 its v>i\s =ms4 ,!y mu/ h priz$ its bl& & refre%+ p[]s & h le>n$ _m ( its mo/ important uses4 ,b ! idea t x is made up ( m ?an "o k9d ( sub/ance or matt] 0 n suspect$ until v rec5t times1 & n prov$ until ! ma/]ly inve/igations ( ,cav5di% cle>ly set =? ! facts4 ,inde$ ! v idea ( a *emical comp\nd1 t is ( a sub/ance z made up ( inconceivably small portions ( matt] 9 a union ( almo/ inconceivable intimacy1 an idea v famili> to /ud5ts ( ! pres5t day1 probably did n ent] ! m9ds ev5 ( ^? pr(\nd ?9k]s :o sugge/$ ! e>li] atomic philosophies4 ,9 fact ! notion ( *emical union is sc>cely m ?an a c5tury old4 ,moreov]1 hydrog5 is a gas1 & ! notion ( gas is itself decid$ly a mod]n "o4 ,x 0 fir/ /at$ 9 well-def9$ =m 9 ! ye> #ageb1 by ,dr4 ,joseph ,black1 pr(essor 9 ,glasg[ & ,ed9burgh4 ,black cle>ly & conclusively demon/rat$ ! exi/5ce ( airs ( a diff]5t k9d f t famili> to u 9 our atmosph]e4 ,x is true ,van ,helmont & ev5 o!rs1 fully "o hundr$ ye>s be=e ,black's "t1 _h kn[n & /at$ m or less di/9ctly ! exi/5ce ( a gas or air diff]5t f t we brea!1 b ow+ to a v>iety ( circum/ances ^! wond]ful discov]ies 7 all[$ to relapse into =getfulness4 ,?us ! human race lo/ = a c5tury mu* advantage\s k2 b probably ! g5]al social advancem5t ( ^? times _h n !n prep>$ mank9d = ! b5efits :i* ! developm5t ( mod]n *emi/ry has conf]r$ ^u ! pres5t citiz5s ( ! _w4 ,aga91 exp]im5t+ ) gases 0 n well und]/ood until ab\t ! ye> #aggj1 :5 ,joseph ,prie/ley inv5t$ t contrivance = manipulat+ !m kn[n z ! pneumatic tr\gh1 = :i* no bett] sub/itute has yet be5 devis$4 ,fur!r1 9 wat]--:i* has already be5 ref]r$ to z ! mo/ abundant & widely diffus$ comp\nd ( hydrog5--! p>tn] elem5ts are b\nd toge!r by a *emical aff9ity t _c be readily ov]come4 ,?is int5sity ( attractive =ce betwe5 ! con/itu5t elem5ts is !re=e ano!r reason :y ! true composition ( wat] 0 s long an unsolv$ riddle & :y hydrog5 0 n e>li] recogniz$ z a ?+ or k9d ( matt] by itself1 al?\gh 9 its pr9cipal comp\nd--"o ( ! mo/ admirable gifts ( ! ,creator to man--x 0 well-kn[n f ! fir/ days ( ! human race4 ,h[ ,hydrog5 is ,prep>$4 ,hydrog5 may be obta9$ by ! *emi/ 9 sev]al ways3 ,fir/4--,!re is a me?od ( directly te>+ ! elem5ts compos+ wat] ap>t f ea* o!r4 ,consid]$ !oretically ?is process is a mo/ direct & simple "o4 ,9 ord] to realize its results1 h[ev]1 advantage mu/ be tak5 ( ! galvanic curr5t4 ,?is =ce may be obta9$ readily x is true3 ?us 9 mo/ cases :]e two metals1 dipp$ 9 a liquid1 are connect$ by a wire x is g5]at$4 ,b no "o kn[s fully :at ! curr5t is4 ,! words galvanic curr5t & voltaic curr5t sugge/ ! two inve/igators1 ,galvani & ,volta1 :o 7 ! pione]s 9 ?is field1 b !y give no?+ t c be call$ an explanation ( ! wondr\s1 invisible1 impond]able =m ( en]gy ref]r$ to4 ,x is a =ce ( an exce$+ly int]e/+ "* & ab\t :i* a c]ta9 consid]able body ( k has be5 collect$4 ,among ! v>iety ( facts kn[n ab\t x is t "o :i* relates to wat]2 namely1 :5 ! poles or electrodes ( a suitable galvanic batt]y are dipp$ into a vessel ( wat]1 bubbles ( gas may be se5 to fl[ freely f ea* ( !m4 ,! gases may be collect$ 9 a vessel plac$ ov] ! electrodes1 b ! exp]im5t] may well bew>e ( incauti\sly treat+ :at has n[ be5 produc$2 he has obta9$ a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 f ! orig9al wat]1 & ^! elem5ts :i* he has r5d$ ap>t f _! m intimate union1 are ready ^u ! approa* ( ! smalle/ flame to ru% into union aga91 ) extraord9>y viol5ce1 & 9 su* a way z to produce a trem5d\s explosion4 ,9 ! act ( ?is explosion1 !re=e1 wat] is aga9 produc$1 fir/ z expansive vapor1 !n cond5sible back to ! liquid drops :5ce x came4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,app>atus = decomposition ( wat]1 7by action ( two cells ( ! ,buns5 galvanic batt]y17 & = collection ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 gases 9 sep>ate receiv]s ov] ! two electrodes ( ! batt]y4 ,if h[ev] ! product f ea* electrode is collect$ by itself 9 a sep>ate tube1 ! "o gas is f\nd to be v diff]5t f ! o!r4 ,! "o is f\nd to be hydrog51 ! o!r oxyg54 ,9 accordance ) ! =mula ,h,o--:i* x has be=e be5 /at$ repres5ts ! composition ( wat]--! hydrog5 is f\nd to be giv5 (f 9 a bulk or volume t is twice z great z t ( ! oxyg5 obta9$ at ! same "t f ! same am\nt ( wat]4 ,second4--,hydrog5 may be obta9$ by br++ into contact ) wat] "u prop] conditions c]ta9 sub/ances t h a v /rong aff9ity = its oxyg5 & at ! same "t b little aff9ity = its hydrog54 ,n[ e "o is famili> ) ! fact t iron ru/s readily 9 ! air4 ,! *emi/ c demon/rate t ?is ru/ is a comp\nd ( iron & oxyg54 ,! union ( ^! elem5ts "u ord9>y conditions sugge/s at once t t union arises f an aff9ity betwe5 ! iron & ! oxyg54 ,?is aff9ity is mu* great] at high temp]atures1 = x is well kn[n t iron ru/s m viol5tly :5 subject$ to heat4 ,^! facts !n are made use ( = ! purpose ( )draw+ oxyg5 f wat] & ?us =c+ ! hydrog5 out 9 ! free or uncomb9$ condition s t x may be obta9$ & exp]im5t$ ^u4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,app>atus = prep>ation ( hydrog5 gas4 ,/eam1 g5]at$ 9 ! small retort1 is convey$ ?r\gh ! tube plac$ 9 ! gas furnace2 iron turn+s )9 ! tube be+ highly heat$1 decompose ! wat]-vapor1 :i* !reby evolves hydrog54 ,! lib]at$ gas is collect$ 9 ! little bell-glass4 ,to produce hydrog5 by ?is me?od1 !re mu/ be provid$ a long iron pipe :i* passes ?r\gh a hot furnace2 ! pipe %\ld conta9 fragm5ts ( iron su* z iron turn+s1 or iron fil+s1 or pieces ( iron wire4 ,!n a curr5t ( /eam mu/ be pass$ ?r\gh ! pipe4 ,! iron becomes r$ hot1 & "u ^! circum/ances manife/s m aff9ity = ! oxyg5 ( ! /eam ?an ! hydrog5 does4 ,! iron !n grasps ! oxyg5 & holds x fa/4 ,z a result a peculi> k9d ( oxide ( iron ( a black color is produc$4 ,its *emical =mula is ,fe,o & x is call$ by *emi/s f]roso-f]ric oxide4 ,! iron has n[ tak5 ! place z a p>tn] ( ! oxyg5 t ! hydrog5 =m]ly _h4 ,! hydrog5 is ?us ca/ out f its comb9ation & is set free z an uncomb9$ gas1 9 :i* lib]at$ condition x is expell$ at ! end ( ! tube4 ,! *emical action betwe5 ! iron & ! /eam may be repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,fe #d;,h,o ,?ree atoms ( ,f\r molecules ( ,iron1 ,wat]1 #afh #gb p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #bdj ,fe,o #d;,h ,"o molecule ( ,f\r molecules ( ,f]roso-f]ric oxide1 ,hydrog51 #bcb #h p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #bdj ,! gas produc$ z j describ$ may be collect$ by adju/+ a suitable tube 9 connection ) ! pipe conta9+ ! iron4 ,:5 ! gas is exam9$ x is f\nd to be 9 fact hydrog54 ,x w burn ) a blue flame & p]=m all ! v>i\s actions t ackn[l$g$ hydrog5 w4 ,?ird4--,!re are o!r metals1 n kn[n to ! common e-day uses ( life b /ill famili> to ! *emi/1 :i* h f> great] aff9ity = oxyg5 ?an iron has4 ,"o su* metal is t call$ sodium4 ,its aff9ity = oxyg5 is s great t x _c be long pres]v$ if expos$ to ! air3 a block or lump ( x w\ld1 9 a day or two 9 ! op5 air1 turn entirely to a mass ( ru/ ( sodium1 t is oxide ( sodium4 ,?is metal !re=e is pres]v$ by ! *emi/ 9 bottles conta9+ petroleum oil4 ,! oil keeps ! air away f ! metal2 moreov] ! oil conta9s no oxyg5 9 its composition z _m o!r liquids d4 ,?is metal sodium ?\gh heavi] ?an ! oil is light] ?an wat]4 ,if ?r[n ^u wat] x floats4 ,b by virtue ( its int5se aff9ity = oxyg51 x at ! same "t decomposes ! wat]4 ,x draws ! oxyg5 to itself & x lib]ates ! hydrog54 ,"s *emical skill is requisite 9 ! p]=mance ( ?is app>5tly simple exp]im5t1 = occasionally ! viol5t aff9ities involv$ set ! sodium & ! hydrog5 on fire & give rise to dang]\s explosions4 ,:5 prop]ly conduct$1 h[ev]1 ! hydrog5 f ?is process may be collect$ 9 a vessel & its v>i\s *>act]i/ics display$4#b #b ,appleton's 8,"y ,*emi/10 ,philadelphia1 ,c[p]?wait ,co4 pp4 #bf1 #bg1 #bh4 ,f\r?4--,! mo/ common way ( produc+ hydrog5 is by br++ toge!r sulphuric acid & z9c4 ,! =mula = sulphuric acid is ,h,,s4 ,n[ ! z9c has aff9ity = ! comp\nd radicle ,,s1 kn[n z ! sulphuric acid radicle4 ,! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,zn ,h,,s ,"o atom ( ,"o molecule ( ,z9c1 ,sulphuric acid1 #fe #ih p>ts by weight p>ts by weight _/ #afc ,zn,s,o ,h ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,z9c sulphate1 ,hydrog51 #afa #b p>ts by weight p>ts by weight _/ #afc ,"h x is pla9 t by reason ( its aff9ities ! z9c has tak5 ! place ( ! hydrog5--or ! place :i* ! hydrog5 =m]ly held z relat$ to ! sulphuric acid radicle1 ,,s--& t ! hydrog5 !reby left )\t any?+ to comb9e )1 appe>s z a free & uncomb9$ sub/ance4 ,! hydrog5 produc$ by ?is me?od c be readily collect$ & exam9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,app>atus = production ( hydrog51 by action ( sulphuric acid on z9c1 & = collection ( ! gas 9 a receiv]4 ,p]haps x ought to be /at$ t nei!r ( ! processes ?us f> expla9$ is likely to yield hydrog5 9 an absolutely pure condition4 ,! v>i\s sub/ances us$ are likely !mselves to conta9 associat$ ) !m small am\nts ( o!r sub/ances :i* give "s impurity to ! gas evolv$4 ,! ,p[]s & ,prop]ties ,manife/$ by ,hydrog54 ,hydrog5 has be5 se51 f ! explanation already giv51 to be a gas4 ,d[n to )9 a few ye>s x resi/$ all attempts to liquify x4 ,*emi/s submitt$ x to int5se cold & enorm\s pressure & to bo? ^! influ5ces at ! same "t b )\t avail4 ,)9 a few ye>s1 h[ev]1 by use ( ampl] res\rces & contrivances = ! application ( ^! cond5s+ ag5cies1 x has be5 br\ght d[n to ! liquid & p]haps ev5 to ! solid /ate4 ,z a gas x is colorless1 odorless1 ta/eless4 ,bulk = bulk x is ! lighte/ sub/ance kn[n 9 nature4 ,?us a qu>t ( atmosph]ic air1 light z x is1 weighs ov] f\rte5 times z mu* z a qu>t ( hydrog54 ,a cubic in* ( gold weighs m ?an two hundr$ ?\s& times z mu* z a cubic in* ( hydrog54 ,?is lightness is prop]ly illu/rat$ by inflat+ a soap bubble ) hydrog5 r ?an ) air4 ,:5 soap bubbles are fill$ ) air !y fall1 unless inde$ c>ri$ upw>d by a tempor>y curr5t2 b :5 fill$ ) hydrog5 !y inv>iably rise ) great rapidity4 ,by reason ( ?is great lightness hydrog5 0 =m]ly us$ = ! inflat+ ( balloons1 b at ! pres5t day illum9at+ gas is s mu* *eap]1 t ! latt] is g5]ally us$1 al?\gh x is mu* heavi] ?an hydrog54 ,diffusive ,p[] ( ,hydrog5 ,gas4 ,x is n inappropriate to call att5tion "h to c]ta9 int]e/+ relations t hydrog5 manife/s t[>ds gases & solids4 ,?us hydrog5 possesses to a m>k$ degree t curi\s facility ( pass+ into & p]meat+ o!r gases :i* is spok5 ( z its diffusive p[]4 ,true1 ?is p[] is possess$ by all gases to a c]ta9 ext5t2 b 9 rapidity ( action none approa* hydrog54 ,z e>ly z #ahbe a ,g]man *emi/ nam$ ,db]e9] ann\nc$ 8 obs]vations ( ?is p[]4 ,he notic$ t ^u collect+ "s hydrog5 9 a crack$ j>1 plac$ 9 a pneumatic tr\gh1 ! hydrog5 leak$ out into ! air m rapidly ?an ! air w5t 94 ,s t 9 fact ! wat] ( ! tr\gh rose on ! inside ( ! j>4 ,x has be5 s9ce discov]$ t :5 almo/ any two gases :atsoev]1 if only ( diff]5t d5sities1 are sep>at$ by a p>tition hav+ f9e cracks or holes 9 x1 ! light] gas always moves out into ! heavi] "o m rapidly ?an ! heavi] gas moves 94 ,z hydrog5 is ! lighte/ ( all1 ( c\rse x diffuses into o!r gases ) ! greate/ rapidity4 ,9 liquids1 hydrog5 does n ord9>ily dissolve 9 any consid]able quantity4 ,) solids h[ev] x displays "s prop]ties t are well nigh incr$ible4 ,?us x has a v curi\s aptitude = pass+ into ! v int]ior ( c]ta9 solid metals4 ,! :ite1 compact1 solid metal palladium1 al?\gh x has no visible pores1 has ! p[] ( swall[+ up into itself 9 "s my/]i\s way ne>ly a ?\s& times its bulk ( ?is gas2 & aga9 a ?9 %eet ( ?is same solid metal1 air-tight to all appe>ances1 all[s hydrog5 to pass ?r\gh x z easily z a sieve does wat]4 ,! ,mo/ ,int]e/+ ,*emical ,prop]ty ( ,hydrog54 ,by all means ! mo/ int]e/+ *emical prop]ty ( hydrog5 is its p[] to unite ) oxyg54 ,:5 x does s unite all ! ph5om5a ( combu/ion appe>4 ,^! ph5om5a are g5]ally ! production ( heat1 light1 flame1 & ! =mation ( "s new *emical comp\nd4 ,s !n :5 hydrog5 unites ) oxyg51 x burns1 x gives out light 7al?\gh t light is ( b feeble int5sity71 x gives out an enorm\s quantity ( heat1 x =ms an oxidiz$ product4 ,?is product is wat]1 b wat] t--ow+ to ! great heat ( ! combu/ion--is rais$ to ! =m ( invisible vapor4 ,:5 h[ev] a jet ( hydrog5 gas is burn$ "u a bright b cool bell-glass1 ! deposit ( mi/ quickly =m$ on ! inside ( ! glass %[s t ! vapor produc$ by combu/ion has n[ cond5s$ on ! bell to m9ute liquid drops4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,a glass tube held ov] a hydrog5 flame1 = ! purpose ( develop+ a musical note4 ,9 ! matt] ( ! heat involv$1 hydrog5 has ! di/9ction ( be+ above e o!r sub/ance4 ,"o p\nd ( hydrog5 :5 burn$ "u favorable conditions evolves heat en\gh to raise ov] ?irty-f\r ?\s& p\nds ( wat] f z]o c5tigrade to "o degree c5tigrade1 or ne>ly ! same z f #cb degrees ,fahr5heit to #cd degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,?is expression ( ! calorific p[] ( hydrog5 has ! same mean+ z ! foll[+ m te*nical "o1 namely3 burn+ hydrog5 af=ds ov] ?irty-f\r ?\s& !rmal units4 ,n[ c>bon1 a fuel :i* nature has provid$1 & :i* is c]ta9ly admirably fitt$ to be man's *ief combu/ible1 yields b eight ?\s& !rmal units ( ! k9d j ref]r$ to1 & = purposes ( comp>ison x maybe add$ t sulphur yields b two ?\s& !rmal units4 ,hydrog5 ,_c ,supply ! ,uses ( ,atmosph]ic ,air4 ,not)/&+ ! rem>kable evid5ces ( *emical aff9ity sugge/$ by :at has j be5 said1 hydrog5 c 9 no s5se act z a sub/itute = ! atmosph]ic air4 ,?us x does n support animal life nor w x su/a9 ! combu/ion ( a c&le4 ,a liv+ animal imm]s$ 9 a room full ( hydrog5 w\ld be dr[n$ 9 x2 a burn+ c&le c>ri$ into su* a *amb] w\ld be ext+ui%$ z if dipp$ 9 wat]4 ,9 fact ! comp>ison ) dr[n+ is v prop]1 = 9 dr[n+ a liv+ animal ! wat] does n *emically injure ! organism2 ! hydrog5 & ! wat]1 9 ! cases suppos$1 h simil> action 9 depriv+ bo? ! animal & ! tap] ( _! requisite oxyg54 ,! ,uses to ,:i* ,hydrog5 ,may be ,put4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,disposition ( app>atus = ! production ( wat]1 by combu/ion ( dry hydrog5 9 air4 ,hydrog5 z ! elem5t>y gas f9ds b few applications 9 ! arts4 ,x is true t f :at has be5 said1 x appe>s z if its wond]ful calorific p[] might be utiliz$ 9 "s ( ! arts :]e high temp]atures are requisite4 ,b ! co/ & difficulties att5d+ its prep>ation1 ! liability to loss dur+ its /orage1 & ! dang] f explosion :ile 9 actual use1 ^! & o!r circum/ances h l$ ev5 ! skill$ artisan to cont5t himself 9 mo/ cases ) o!r ?\gh inf]ior mat]ials4 ,b if ! read] has att5tively foll[$ ! introductory *apt]s ( ?is "w he mu/ h p]ceiv$ t hydrog5 is made ( great s]vice 9 _m ( ! measurem5ts employ$ by ! *emi/4 ,x has be5 not$ t x is us$ z ! /&>d ( equival5ce or atom-fix+ p[]4 ,x has be5 spok5 ( z ! /&>d ( atomic weight1 & f :at has appe>$ 9 ! rem>ks ^u its lightness x w seem t x has be5 prop]ly adopt$ z ! /&>d ( d5sity = gases4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,cav5di%1 ,h5ry ,br\gham1 ,h4--,lives ( ,m5 ( ,lett]s & ,sci5ce1 etc4 p4 #dbi4 ,timbs1 ,j4--,engli% ,ecc5trics1 etc4 p4 #acb4 ,wilson1 ,george4--,life ( ,cav5di%4 ,london4 #ahea4 ,black1 ,joseph ,br\gham1 ,h4--,lives ( ,m5 ( ,lett]s & ,sci5ce1 etc4 ,london4 #ahde p4 #cbd4 ,diffusion ( ,gases4 ,graham1 ,t4--,elem5ts ( ,*emi/ry4 #b v4 ,london4 #ahej4 i1 #hd4 -------- ,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xvii1 #ccd4 ,occlusion ( ,hydrog5 by ,palladium4 ,graham1 ,t4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xxii1 #dai4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,balloons4 ,! rem>kable lightness ( hydrog5 e>ly sugge/$ ! fitness ( t gas = ! inflation ( balloons4 ,f ! e>lie/ ages m5 h desir$ to navigate ! air4 ,! drudg]y ( l& travell+ ov] hills & m\nta9s1 ov] m>%es & /reams1 ?r\gh jungles & =e/s1 has l$ m5 to pref] voyag+ ev5 by sea4 ,?us ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates cross$ ! /ormy ,atlantic 9 l>ge numb]s long be=e !y trav]s$ ! wilds ( ! ,am]ican cont95t to ! ,pacific coa/2 & ! e>ly voyag]s f ,new ,york to ! ,gold5 ,gate ( ,san ,francisco pref]r$ ! wat] way1 ?\gh x l$ !m ?r\gh an enorm\s di/ance & ar\nd ! p]il\s ,cape ,horn1 r ?an und]take ! %ort] c\rse ov] ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,ev5 at a lat] date1 ! sea voyage to ,panama1 & across ! ,i/hmus1 & aga9 by wat] way to ,san ,francisco 0 ! ord9>y c\rse until ,pacific railroads creat$ a l& pa?way f "o side ( ! cont95t to ! o!r4 ,s m51 envy+ ! bird 9 its flight ?r\gh ! mobile air1 h desir$ yet m to conqu] its smoo? c\rses1 j z _! keels h f\nd a slid+ pa?way 9 ! wat]y ma94 ,b no truly successful air-voyag+ 0 possible until ab\t "o hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,"o ( ! balloons ( ! ,montgolfi] bro!rs4 ,inv5tion ( ! ,balloon4 ,9 ! ye> #aghc two bro!rs nam$ ,/eph5 ,montgolfi] & ,joseph ,montgolfi]1 succe$$ 9 s5d+ up into ! atmosph]e ! fir/ air-%ip wor?y ( ! "n4 ,!y liv$ 9 ,france at a little t[n nam$ ,annonay1 situat$ ab\t =ty miles s\? ( ,lyons1 & at ! junction ( two small /reams ^: cle> wat]s fl[ into ! riv] ,rhone4 ,"h ! bro!rs c>ri$ on ) increas+ skill & success ! manufacture ( pap]1 a bus9ess :i* _! fa!r _h conduct$ !re be=e !m1 & :i* 9 fact is c>ri$ on by _! desc5dants ( ! same "n ev5 at ! pres5t day4 ,! bro!rs1 ,/eph5 & ,joseph1 7 skillful me*anics1 & "o ( !m1 x is said1 _h /udi$ ,dr4 ,prie/ley's "w on 8,diff]5t ,k9ds ( ,air40 ,?is seems to h l$ him to ! idea ( a]ial navigation4 ,h[ev] t may be1 x is a matt] ( hi/ory t on ! #e? ( ,june1 #aghc1 ! two bro!rs s5t up f ,annonay a balloon ab\t ?irty-five feet 9 diamet]4 ,naturally x 0 made ( pap]1 ?\gh l9$ ) l954 ,! asc5sional p[] ( ?is balloon 0 due to a proportional light5+ ( ! air )9 x by ! influ5ce ( heat4 ,! heat 0 produc$ by ! combu/ion ( a l>ge quantity ( *opp$ /raw1 & also f burn+ wool previ\sly saturat$ ) a little alcohol4 ,probably ! ,montgolfi] bro!rs did n !n fully "k :y _! balloon asc5d$3 !y appe> to h ?\ght t x arose because ( ! volumes ( smoke t fill$ x4 ,x is h>dly probable t ei!r ,/eph5 or ,joseph ,montgolfi] ?\ght at t "t ( us+ hydrog5 = _! air-%ip1 not)/&+ its extraord9>y lightness _h be5 a matt] ( public sci5tific k = six or sev5 ye>s4 ,?is may seem ! m /range 9 view ( ! admitt$ fact t z e>ly z #agfg ,dr4 ,black1 ( ,ed9burgh1 _h publicly demon/rat$ t a suitable vessel fill$ ) hydrog5 w\ld asc5d 9 ! atmosph]e z cork does 9 wat]4 ,( c\rse !y did n ?9k ( employ+ illum9at+ gas1 because t sub/ance 0 n !n 9 public use4 ,! ,fir/ ,balloon ,asc5sion 9 ,p>is4 ,! news ( ! wond]ful & successful exp]im5t at ,annonay 0 quickly s5t to ,p>is1 :]e x produc$ a pr(\nd s5sation4 ,! int]e/ ext5d$ f sci5tific m5 to ! royal family & ! c\rt1 & inde$ to ! entire population ( ! capital4 ,= ! ,fr5* p--p]haps ev5 m ?an o!r nations ( ,europe--seem to h be5 p>ticul>ly int]e/$ at ?is "t 9 ! /udy ( *emical & physical sci5ce4 ,! k+ in/antly issu$ a summons = ! ,montgolfi]s to come to ,p>is4 ,b ! ,p>isians c\ld n ev5 await _! arrival4 ,! sci5ti/s ( ! capital1 ?\gh b p>tially in=m$ z to ! "* ( ! exp]im5ts p]=m$ at ,annonay1 at once set to "w4 ,!y decid$ ^u hydrog5 gas z probably ! be/ fitt$ = _! purposes4 ,:]eupon !y fill$ a globul> balloon ) ?is gas1 & prep>$ to try x 9 public ^u ! ,*amp-de-,m>s4 ,x is said t ?ree hundr$ ?\s& p--t is1 ne>ly half ! population ( ,p>is--ga!r$ toge!r1 cr[d+ e adjac5t av5ue1 to witness ! unp>allel$ und]tak+4 ,! lib]ation ( ! a]ial mess5g] 0 ann\nc$ to ! public by a salvo ( artill]y4 ,! balloon imm$iately %ot upw>d &1 pi]c+ ! cl\ds1 0 soon lo/ to view4 ,:5 aft]w>d x sl[ly desc5d$ x rea*$ ! gr\nd "s fifte5 miles f ,p>is4 ,"h a troop ( peasants :o detect$ ! /range app>ition1 7 at fir/ /ruck ) al>m b quickly ralli$1 attack$ ! /range mon/] & ( c\rse soon r$uc$ x to %r$s4 ,! :ole *a9 ( circum/ances creat$ s mu* excitem5t t ! ,gov]nm5t ?\ght prop] to issue a proclamation ^u ! subject4 ,a copy ( ?is int]e/+ docum5t is "h pres5t$ 9 its orig9al =m4 ,p]haps "s read]s w f9d ! accompany+ translation acceptable3 ,fr5* ,proclamation ,respect+ ,balloons4 ,av]tissem5t au peuple sur l'enlvem5t des ballons ou globes en l'air4 ,on a fait une dc\v]te dont le g\v]nem5t a jug conv5able de donn] connaissance1 af9 de prv5ir les t]reurs qu'elle p\rrait occasion] p>mi le peuple4 ,en calculant la diffr5ce de pesanteur entre l'air appel inflammable et l'air de notre atmosphre1 on a tr\v qu'un ballon rempli de cet air inflammable devait s'lev] de lui-mme dans le ciel jusqu' au mom5t o les deux airs s]ai5t en quilibre1 ce qui ne peut tre qu' une trs gr&e hauteur4 ,la premire expri5ce a t faite ,annonay1 en ,viv>ais1 p> les sieurs ,montgolfi]1 inv5teurs4 ,une globe de toile et de papi] de c5t c9q pi$s de circonfr5ce1 rempli d'air inflammable1 s'leva lui-mme une hauteur qu'on n'a pu calcul]4 ,la mme expri5ce vi5t d'tre r5\vele ,p>is1 le #bg aot c9q heures du soir1 en prs5ce d'un nombre inf9i de p]sonnes4 ,un globe de taffetas enduit de gomme la/ique1 de tr5te-six pi$s de t\r1 s'e/ lev du ,*amp-de-,m>s jusque dans les nues1 o on l'a p]du de vue4 ,on se propose de rpt] cette expri5ce avec des globes beauc\p plus gros4 ,*acun de ceux qui dc\vriront dans le ciel de p>eils globes1 qui prs5t5t l'aspect de la lune obscurcie1 doit donc tre prv5ir que1 lo9 d'tre un phnomne effrayant1 ce n'e/ qu'une ma*9e t\j\rs compose de taffetas ou de toile lgre rec\v]te de papi]1 qui ne peut caus] aucun mal1 et dont il e/ prsum] qu'on f]a quelque j\r des applications utiles aux beso9s de la socit4 ,lu et approv1 ce #c septembre1 #aghc4 ,,de ,,sauvigny4 ,notice to ! public relative to ! asc5sion ( balloons or globes into ! air4 ,a discov]y has be5 made to :i* ! gov]nm5t consid]s x advisable to call public att5tion1 ) a view ( prev5t+ al>ms :i* x o!rwise might occasion among ! p4 ,^u calculat+ ! diff]5ce ( weight betwe5 ! gas call$ inflammable air & ! air ( our atmosph]e1 x has be5 discov]$ t a balloon fill$ ) ?is inflammable air ought to rise ( itself to a height 9 ! sky su* t ! air )9 & t )\t w be 9 equilibrium1 a condition :i* w n be rea*$ except at a v great elevation4 ,! fir/ exp]im5t ( ?is sort has be5 made at ,annonay1 9 ,viv>ais1 by ! ,messrs4 ,montgolfi]1 ! inv5tors4 ,a globe ( clo? & pap] "o hundr$ & five feet 9 circumf]5ce & fill$ ) inflammable air rose ( itself to a height :i* ! obs]v] c\ld n calculate4 ,! same exp]im5t has j be5 repeat$ at ,p>is on ! #bg? ( ,augu/ at #e o'clock 9 ! aft]noon1 9 pres5ce ( a va/ numb] ( p]sons4 ,a sph]e ( taffeta coat$ ) gum ela/ic1 ?irty-six feet 9 circumf]5ce1 asc5d$ f ! ,*amp-de-,m>s ev5 to ! cl\ds1 9 :i* x became lo/ to sight4 ,x is contemplat$ repeat+ ?is exp]im5t ) v mu* l>g] globes4 ,anyone :o discov]s 9 ! sky globes ( ?is sort :i* pres5t ! appe>ance ( ! moon :5 slightly obscur$1 may !re=e be w>n$ t1 f> f be+ an al>m+ ph5om5on1 ?is is no?+ b a ma*9e always con/ruct$ ( taffeta or ( light clo? cov]$ ) pap]1 :i* _c d any injury1 & :i* x is ?\ght w assume at "s future "t a =m t w prove useful to ! public4 ,read & approv$1 ,septemb] #c1 #aghc4 ,,de ,,sauvigny4 ,! en?usiasm creat$ by ! orig9al exp]im5t ( ! ,montgolfi] bro!rs l$ soon aft] to ! election ( bo? ( !m to ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,moreov] _! inv5tion 0 n all[$ to re/ long 9 its orig9al =m4 ,z e>ly z ,novemb] ( ! same ye>1 #aghc1 two ,fr5* g5tlem5 _h ! c\rage to risk _! lives 9 an asc5sion f ,p>is 9 a balloon ( ! ,montgolfi] con/ruction4 ,!y float$ freely away & made _! l&+ 9 safety4 ,"o ( !m1 h[ev]1 ,de ,rozi] by "n1 on a lat] occasion attempt$ to cross ! ,*annel 9 a d\ble balloon1 "o "p conta9+ hydrog51 ! o!r heat$ air 9 ! ,montgolfi] /yle4 ,b at a great altitude ! hydrog5 balloon took fire f ! o!r1 & ,de ,rozi] & 8 companion 7 da%$ to pieces on ! rocks ( ! ,fr5* coa/4 ,s9ce t e>ly ra% attempt ?\s&s ( int]e/+ & safe balloon asc5sions h be5 made1 & increas$ k ( ! sci5tific pr9ciples has l>gely contribut$ to ! pleasure & com=t ( ! a]onaut4 ,yet ! contrivance has be5 9 mo/ cases little m ?an a sci5tific toy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,gay-,lussac & ,biot mak+ _! balloon asc5sion = sci5tific obs]vations 9 #ahjd4 ,! atmosph]ic air has ?us f> baffl$ ! inv5tive p[] ( man to su* an ext5t t ! balloon z a me*anical contrivance has be5 subject$ to b few decid$ improvem5ts s9ce ! ,montgolfi]s' fir/ exp]im5ts1 & asc5sions h af=d$ comp>atively meagre sci5tific or o!r results4 ,inde$ ! mo/ ( !m h be5 conduct$ = p]sonal gratification or popul> ent]ta9m5t4 ,( c\rse !re are m>k$ exceptions4 ,?us on ! #bd? ( ,augu/1 #ahjd1 two ( ! y\nge/ b mo/ di/+ui%$ ( ,fr5* physici/s1 ,messrs4 ,gay-,lussac & ,biot1 made an important asc5sion4 ,_! voyage 0 ^u ! sugge/ion ( ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 & !y 7 well equipp$ ) app>atus = mak+ obs]vations4 ,_! results1 p>ticul>ly 9 magnetism1 %[$ ! same laws prevail+ 9 ! high] air z ^u ! e>?4 ,b z !re 7 aft]w>ds express$ "s d\bts z to ! accuracy ( ^! obs]vations1 ,gay-,lussac made a lat] & high] asc5t alone4 ,on ! #af? ( ,septemb] he atta9$ an altitude ( tw5ty-?ree ?\s& feet1 ! greate/ rea*$ up to t date4 ,8 exp]im5ts on ?is occasion v]ifi$ ^? made be=e4 ,( p>ticul> int]e/ 0 8 te/ ( ! composition ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! bottle ( air collect$ at ?is great height 0 f\nd ^u analysis to possess ! same proportional am\nts ( oxyg5 & nitrog5 z t collect$ at ! surface ( ! e>?4#c #c ,( ,gay-,lussac & ?is asc5sion !re is told a pretty tale1 :i* ,i w n m> by mak+ a translation3 8,p>v5u la hauteur de #gjjj mtres1 il v\lut1 dit-il1 essay] de mont] plus haut1 et se db>rassa de t\s les objets dont il p\vait rig\reusem5t se pass]4 ,au nombre de ces objets figurait une *aise en bois blanc1 que le has>d fit tomb] sur un buisson1 t\t prs d'une jeune fille qui g>dait les m\tons4 ,quel ne fut pas l'tonnem5t de la b]gre6--,comme et dit ,florian4--,le ciel tait pur1 le ballon invisible4--,que p5s] de la *aise1 si ce n'e/ qu'elle prov5ait du p>adis8--,on ne p\vait object] cette conjecture que la grossiret du travail3 les ouvri]s1 disai5t les incrdules1 ne p\vai5t l-haut tre si inhabiles4 ,la dispute en tait l1 lorsque les j\rnaux1 en publiant t\tes les p>ticuli>its du voyage de ,gay-,lussac1 y mir5t f91 en rangeant p>mi les effets naturels ce qui jusqu' alors avait p>ut un miracle40--,arago3 ,eloge de ,gay-,lussac4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,microscopic despat*es1 receiv$ 9 ,p>is by c>ri] pigeons1 enl>g$ by ! magic lant]n4 ,! height ( ?is asc5t has s9ce be5 surpass$ by ,messrs4 ,glai%] & ,coxwell1 ( ,engl&1 :o on ,sept4 #e1 #ahfb atta9$ an altitude ( ab\t ?irty-sev5 ?\s& feet4 ,rec5t ,use ( ,balloons4 ,hydrog5 is ! lighte/ sub/ance kn[n1 & ?is consid]ation t5ds to make x a p>ticul>ly favorable "o = ! inflation ( balloons4 ,b we h se5 t x 0 n until aft] ! ,montgolfi] exp]im5ts t hydrog5 came into consid]able use = ?is purpose4 ,hydrog5 is /ill occasionally prep>$ = purposes ( ?is sort4 ,x is !n produc$ by ! action ( sulphuric acid ^u z9c4 ,! equation already giv5 expla9+ ?is action is z foll[s3 ,zn ,h,,s ,"o atom ( ,"o molecule ( ,z9c1 ,sulphuric acid1 #fe #ih p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #afc ,zn,s,o ,h ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,z9c sulphate1 ,hydrog51 #afa #b p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #afc ,9 case z9c is n at h&1 iron turn+s h be5 made to answ] ! same purpose2 & ! *emical *ange 9 ?is ev5t is repres5t$ by an equation ( v simil> =m3 ,fe ,h,,s ,"o atom ( ,"o molecule ( ,iron1 ,sulphuric acid1 #ef #ih p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #aed ,fe,s,o ,h ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,f]r\s sulphate1 ,hydrog51 #aeb #b p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #aed ,bo? ( ^! me?ods ( produc+ hydrog5 are /ill some:at us$ :]e balloons h to be inflat$ at po9ts di/ant f a city gas supply4 ,b ! manufacture ( illum9at+ gas is n[ s g5]al1 ev5 9 small t[ns1 t ?is sub/ance is (t5] us$ at ! pres5t day4 ,! sup]ior conv5i5ce ) :i* x may be obta9$ makes x pref]r$ to hydrog51 not)/&+ ! great] asc5sional p[] ( ! latt] sub/ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,c>ri] pigeon hav+ atta*$ to 8 tail a quill conta9+ microscopic photographs ( despat*es to be s5t into ,p>is dur+ ! siege4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,! tube ( quill conta9+ messages z atta*$ to ! tail-fea!rs ( a c>ri] pigeon4 ,balloons h be5 us$ some:at 9 rec5t w>s4 ,?us !y 7 f\nd ( consid]able s]vice dur+ ! siege ( ,p>is1 p>ticul>ly f ,septemb] #bc1 #ahgj1 to ,janu>y #bh1 #ahga4 ,dur+ ^! la/ f\r mon?s ( t siege sixty-two balloons left ! city1 & !y c>ri$ out above two million lett]s & a great _m hom+ pigeons4 ,"s ( ! birds return$1 escap+ ! ,prussian %>p-%oot]s1 & br\ght ) !m lett]s & despat*es1 pr9t$ ^u ! ?9ne/ ( pap]1 9 ! =m ( microscopic photographs4 ,! balloons also took out ( ,p>is dur+ ! siege two especially notable pass5g]s1 ! "o1 ,leon ,gambetta1 head ( ! provisional gov]nm5t1 :o left ! city = ! purpose ( conduct+ ! public bus9ess 9 ! prov9ces2 ! o!r1 ,pr(4 ,janss51 :o _h ! c\rage to v5ture out 9 ! d>kness ( e>ly morn+ s z to escape ! rifles ( ! beleagur+ =ces4 ,8 voyage 0 = ! purpose ( rea*+ ! /ation 9 ,alg]ia f :i* he 0 to obs]ve ! total eclipse ( ! sun1 to occur a few weeks lat]1 ,decemb] #bb1 #ahgj4 ,read]s :o are int]e/$ 9 ! use ( balloons dur+ ?is memorable siege w f9d a mo/ int]e/+ acc\nt 9 ,mr4 ,glai%]'s book1 ,travels 9 ! ,air4 ,x conta9s a description ( ! manufacture ( air-%ips 9 ,p>is1 toge!r ) a li/ ( ! pass5g]s & an acc\nt ( ! freight ( ^? leav+ ! city :5 o!r means ( communication ) ! outside _w 7 cut (f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,own]'s "n on ! w+ ( a pigeon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,fac-simile ( a microscopic despat* z s5t by c>ri] pigeon4 ,lett]s & messages1 public or private1 to ! numb] ( ab\t #ejjj1 7 pr9t$ on a l>ge %eet ( pap]4 ,aft]w>ds ?is %eet 0 r$uc$ by photography to ! size & appe>ance %[n above4 ,! ,c5t5>y ( ,balloon+4 ,x is wor?y ( note t 9 ,augu/1 #ahhc1 ! c5t5>y ( ! exp]im5t ( ! ,montgolfi] bro!rs 0 celebrat$ by _! desc5dants & o!rs at ,annonay by a mod]n balloon asc5sion & o!r ftes4 ,^! includ$ ! d$ication ( a monum5t to ! two inv5tors4 ,?is monum5t is soon to be surm\nt$ by a gr\p 9 bronze repres5t+ ! two bro!rs inflat+ _! fir/ balloon4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,balloons1 ,_! ,e>ly ,hi/ory4 ,figui]1 ,l4--,les ,aro/ats et les ,aronautes4 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 ,oct4 #a1 #ahej4 p4 #aic4 ,?is int]e/+ article w well repay ! read]4 ,bl]zy1 ,h4--,la ,navigation ,ari5ne4 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 ,nov4 #ahfc4 p4 #bgi4 ,claim is "h made1 9 a g5]al way1 t ! orig9al inv5tion ( ! balloon 0 made at ! close ( ! #ag? c5tury by a ,portuguese nam$ ,gusmao4 ,balloons1 ,_! ,rec5t ,uses4 ,glai%]1 ,james1 & o!rs4--,travels 9 ! ,air4 ,london4 #ahga4 ,h(mann1 ,a4 ,w4--,*em4 ,news4 xxxii1 #bca1 #bda1 #bee1 #bfe4 ,balloons1 ,c5t5>y ( ,_! ,inv5tion4 ,london ,graphic4 ,aug #be1 #ahhc4 ,balloons1 ,popul> ,acc\nt (4 ,h>p]'s ,magaz9e4 ii1 #afh1 #cbc2 xxxix1 #ade4 ,scribn]'s ,mon?ly4 i1 #che4 ,gay-,lussac4 ,arago1 ,d4 ,f4 ,j4--,oeuvres ,completes4 ,p>is4 #ahed-ei4 iii4 ,! ,bo/on ,a!num libr>y has ?is "w4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,*lor9e4 ,*lor9e is a sub/ance ( v great comm]cial importance on acc\nt ( its ext5sive use z a blea*+ ag5t4 ,aga9 x is a con/itu5t ( common salt1 & 9 ?is =m ( comb9ation x is bo? ( great value z an article ( food1 & x is recogniz$ z widely di/ribut$4 ,?us x exi/s 9 salt1 :e!r t sub/ance is 9 ! br9e ( ! ocean or ( m9]al spr+s1 or :e!r x occurs z a solid rock--z inde$ x does 9 "s p>ts ( ! _w4 ,at ,wieliczka1 9 ,au/ria1 m9es ( solid salt h be5 work$ = hundr$s ( ye>s4 ,s also at ,c>dona1 9 ,spa91 are :at may be call$ qu>ries ( ?is valuable m9]al2 :ile ,*e%ire1 9 ,engl&1 furni%es imm5se solid deposits f :i* salt is obta9$ to supply ! enorm\s indu/rial e/abli%m5ts us+ ?is sub/ance = ! production ( *lor9e & ( comp\nds ( sodium4 ,*lor9e 0 fir/ recogniz$ z a di/9ct sub/ance1 by a ,european *emi/1 ,c>l ,wilhelm ,s*eele1 kn[n only to 8 neighbors z a humble apo!c>y4 ,s*eele 0 born at ,/ralsund1 a seaport t[n ( ,pom]ania1 situat$ on ! little /rait :i* leaves ! isl& ( ,rg5 9 ! ,baltic ,sea4 ,he sp5t ! pr9cipal portion ( 8 life 9 ,sw$51 & on ?is acc\nt is (t5 ref]r$ to z a ,sw$i% *emi/4 ,?\gh liv+ 9 great obscurity1 he yet made _m discov]ies 9 *emi/ry :i* h r5d]$ 8 "n1 o!rwise almo/ unkn[n1 "o ( ! mo/ brilliant 9 ! annals ( ?is sci5ce4 ,x is relat$ ( ,s*eele t ! ,k+ ( ,sw$51 ,gu/avus ,,iii41 :ile on a j\rney outside ( 8 own dom9ions1 he>d s mu* ( ! fame ( ?is *emi/1 unkn[n to him be=e1 t he regrett$ hav+ previ\sly done no?+ = him4 ,he !re=e comm&$ t ,s*eele receive ! honor ( be+ creat$ *evali]4 8,s*eele80 8,s*eele88 said ! m9i/] *>g$ ) ?is duty4 8,?is is v s+ul>2 :at 9 ! _w has ,s*eele done80 ,! ord] 0 p]emptory h[ev]1 & ,s*eele 0 knight$4 ,b1 z ! read] may p]haps div9e1 ! honor design$ = ! acute discov]] fell ^u ano!r ,s*eele--n ^u t ,s*eele unkn[n at c\rt b illu/ri\s among ! sci5ti/s ( ,europe4 ,x 0 ?is obscure apo!c>y !n1 :o add$ to ! li/ ( 8 o!r inve/igations a /udy ( ! prop]ties ( :at 0 ord9>ily consid]$ a dull & un9t]e/+ e>?y sub/ance call$ black magnesia4 ,?is /udy 0 repaid by ! revelation ( no less ?an f\r hi!rto unkn[n sub/ances3 oxyg51 b>ium1 manganese1 & f9ally *lor9e4 ,s*eele obta9$ ! *lor9e 9 ! ye> #aggd exactly z x is done at ! pres5t day1 namely1 by br++ toge!r ! two sub/ances1 n[ call$ *lorohydric acid & black oxide ( manganese1 b !n kn[n z muriatic acid & black magnesia4 ,s*eele believ$1 & o!r celebrat$ *emi/s concurr$ 9 ! op9ion1 t ! gre5i% gas t he discov]$ 0 a comp\nd sub/ance4 ,x 0 n until ?irty-six ye>s lat]1 t is #ahaj1 t ! di/+ui%$ ,engli% *emi/1 ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 demon/rat$ t ?is gas is n a comp\nd1 b is 9 fact a simple or elem5t>y sub/ance2 & x 0 he :o gave to x ! "n *lor9e1 a "n d]iv$ f a ,greek ^w 71 *loros1 mean+ light gre571 convey+ an obvi\s & conv5i5t rem9d] ( "o /rik+ prop]ty ( ! ?+ ref]r$ to4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sir ,,humphry ,,davy1 ,b>t43 ,born 9 ,p5zance1 ,engl&1 ,dec4 #ag1 #aggh2 di$ 9 ,g5eva1 ,switz]l&1 ,may #bi?1 #ahbi4 8,davy1 :5 n yet ?irty-two ye>s old1 occupi$1 9 ! op9ion ( all ^? :o c\ld judge ( su* labors1 ! fir/ rank among ! *emi/s ( ?is or any o!r age40 ,h[ ,*lor9e is ,obta9$4 ,! prep>ation ( *lor9e is a v simple matt]4 ,x may be accompli%$ by plac+ "s p[d]$ black oxide ( manganese1 an abundant m9]al sub/ance1 9 any deep glass vessel1 & !n add+ to x f\r or five times its weight ( *lorohydric acid4 ,anyone :o p]=ms ! exp]im5t w soon p]ceive ! gre5i% gas ris+ high] & high] 9 ! vessel1 & w soon discov] its *ok+ & corrosive odor4 ,moreov] ! *lor9e gas1 :i* is two & a half times z heavy z air1 accumulates )9 ! flask & /ays !re "s "t4 ,?is is ! process :i* has already be5 ref]r$ to z t :i* fir/ reveal$ ! gas to ,s*eele1 & ?is process1 ) b slight modification1 is t :i* to-day furni%es ! enorm\s quantities ( *lor9e dem&$ by mod]n indu/ries4 ,! ,*>act]i/ics ( ,*lor9e4 ,! ?ree mo/ /rik+ prop]ties ( *lor9e are its noticeable weight--great] ?an t ( ! air--its gre5i% color1 & its exce$+ly irritat+ odor4 ,its influ5ce on ! animal organism is v viol5t3 m ?an "o example c be produc$ ( fatal results foll[+ ! inhalation ( too l>ge quantities ( ! gas4 ,?us ,pelleti]1 a ,fr5* *emi/1 di$ at ,bayonne f ! effects ( inhal+ a consid]able quantity ( *lor9e1 & ,roe1 a "y ,iri% *emi/ ( ,dubl91 lo/ 8 life f ! same cause1 :ile /udy+ ! prop]ties ( ?is gas4 ,*lor9e1 z a *emical ag5t1 manife/s its activities 9 connection ) two pr9cipal prop]ties1 namely3 its aff9ity = hydrog5 & its aff9ity = ! metals4 ,by ?is /atem5t x is meant t *lor9e manife/s a /rong t5d5cy to comb9e ) hydrog51 & to comb9e ) metals1 :5ev] ^! sub/ances are accessible to x4 ,:5 x comb9es ) hydrog5 x =ms ! important comp\nd designat$ by ! =mula ,h ,cl & call$ by ! *emi/ *lorohydric acid1 b kn[n 9 comm]ce z muriatic acid4 ,:5 *lor9e comb9es ) ! metals x =ms *lorides ( !m4 ,?us ) ! metal sodium x =ms ! comp\nd designat$ by ! =mula ,na,cl & call$ by ! *emi/ indiff]5tly sodic *loride or *loride ( sodium2 ^! w be recogniz$ z ! *emical names = ! important & well-kn[n sub/ance1 common salt4 ,*lor9e & ,hydrog5 ,comb9e4 ,*lor9e & hydrog5 h a v /rong t5d5cy to comb9e ) ea* o!r4 ,!y manife/ ?is t5d5cy 9 a v>iety ( ways4 ,?us1 if ! two gases are prep>$ 9 a d>k room1 !y may be !re safely mix$ toge!r 9 a glass vessel2 b if ! sunlight is all[$ to ent] & fall ^u ! vessel1 !re is dang] ( its be+ %att]$ by ! explosive viol5ce ) :i* ! hydrog5 & *lor9e imm$iately unite4 ,z a result ( ?is comb9ation1 *lorohydric acid is produc$4 ,! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,h ,cl #b;,h,cl ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,two molecules ( ,hydrog51 ,*lor9e1 ,*lorohydric acid1 #b #ga #gc p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #gc #gc ,aga91 :5 *lor9e is br\ght 9 contact ) vegetable or animal sub/ances1 conta9+ hydrog51 x proce$s to )draw t hydrog5 = its own b5efit1 ev5 ?\gh ^! vegetable & animal comp\nds are !reby de/roy$4 ,al?\gh ?is op]ation1 z well z ! =ego+ "o1 produces *lorohydric acid1 yet nei!r me?od is suitable = a det]m9ate prep>ation ( t sub/ance4 ,x is usually bett] to prep>e *lorohydric acid 9 ano!r way4 ,?us x is easily produc$ by ! action ( sulphuric acid ^u common salt4 ,exp]im5tal ,prep>ation ( ,*lorohydric ,acid4 ,any "o :o w take a little tr\ble may prep>e *lorohydric acid 9 ! way indicat$4 ,! exp]im5t %\ld be conduct$ z foll[s3 ,place a small am\nt ( common salt 7,na,cl7 9 a small retort2 to x add en\gh conc5trat$ sulphuric acid to make a ?9 pa/e2 connect ! neck ( ! retort ) a clean te/-tube conta9+ a few drops ( wat]4 ,n[ g5tly heat ! retort2 *lorohydric acid w be =m$ & w di/il f ! retort & cond5se 9 ! receiv]4 ,! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,na,cl ,h,,s ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,sodic *loride1 ,sulphuric acid1 #eh #ih p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #aef ,h,cl ,h,na,s,o ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,*lorohydric acid ,hydro-,sodic sulphate #cf #abj p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #aef ,! product ( ! =ego+ exp]im5t may be te/$ 9 ?ree ways & s %[n to be 9 fact *lorohydric acid4 ,fir/3 ,take a m9ute drop on a glass rod & apply x to ! tongue & obs]ve ! s\r or acid ta/e4 ,second3 ,take a drop on a glass rod & t\* x ^u blue litmus-pap]4 ,x %\ld turn ! pap] r$4 ,?ird3 ,p\r a few drops ( ! liquid into a solution ( arg5tic nitrate 7t is1 nitrate ( silv]7 9 a te/-tube or o!r conv5i5t vessel3 a :ite precipitate ( arg5tic *loride w be =m$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,section ( furnace us$ = manufacture ( *lorohydric acid4 ,common salt & sulphuric acid are plac$ 9 ! l>ge retort ,a2 ^u heat+1 *lorohydric acid passes into ! receiv]s ,c1 ,c1 ,c4 ,! me?od ( produc+ *lorohydric acid j describ$ & illu/rat$1 is foll[$ 9 ! manufacture ( ! sub/ance = g5]al *emical purposes4 ,x is also employ$ = ! production ( ! enorm\s quantities ( x incid5tally us$ 9 ! manufacture ( blea*+-p[d]4 ,exp]im5ts ) ,common ,salt4 ,*lor9e has already be5 %[n to comb9e ) ! metal silv] produc+ ! comp\nd designat$ by ! =mula ,ag,cl1 & call$ arg5tic *loride & also *loride ( silv]4 ,?is sub/ance may also be prep>$ v easily some:at z foll[s3 ,make a solution ( nitrate ( silv]4 ,prep>e x ei!r by dissolv+ 9 wat] ! cry/als sold by apo!c>ies1 or by dissolv+ a small piece ( silv] 9 nitric acid4 ,!n make a second cle> solution1 by dissolv+ common salt 9 ord9>y wat]4 ,add ! salt solution cauti\sly1 drop by drop to ! silv] solution4 ,!re imm$iately appe> ?ick masses ( :ite flakes :i* soon] or lat] fall to ! bottom ( ! vessel4 ,^! flakes consi/ ( ! arg5tic *loride 7,ag,cl71 also call$ *loride ( silv]1 already ref]r$ to4 ,! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,ag,n,o ,na,cl ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,arg5tic nitrate1 ,sodic *loride1 #afi #eh p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #bbh ,ag,cl ,na,n,o ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,arg5tic *loride1 ,sodic nitrate1 #adc #he p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #bbh ,?is :ite precipitate produc$ 9 ?is exp]im5t possesses "s special int]e/ f its use 9 photography4 ,9 fact *loride ( silv]1 z a ?9 film ^u ! surface ( ! photographic pap]1 is ! pr9cipal sub/ance :i*1 by its s5sitiv5ess to light1 produces ! photographic picture4 ,9 fact any "o1 :o tries ! exp]im5t la/ describ$1 w soon obs]ve1 ^u pres]v+ ! *loride ( silv] s produc$1 t x rapidly gr[s d>k ^u exposure to sunlight4 ,blea*+-,p[d]4 ,! sub/ance kn[n z blea*+-p[d] may be spok5 ( 9 a g5]al way z consi/+ ( lime saturat$ ) *lor9e4 ,?is description po9ts v ju/ly to ! me?od ( produc+ ! sub/ance1 b gives no idea ( ! *emical arrangem5t ( ! con/itu5ts4 ,s*eele e>ly notic$ t *lor9e gas possess$ decid$ blea*+ p[]1 & ! ,fr5* *emi/1 ,b]?ollet1 soon call$ att5tion to ! possible applications ( ! sub/ance 9 ! blea*+ indu/ries4 ,b its annoy+ odor made x impracticable to use *lor9e on any l>ge scale 9 ! /ate ( gas1 & =bade ! use ( x ev5 :5 dissolv$ 9 wat]4 ,at l5g?1 tw5ty ye>s aft] ! discov]y ( ! gas--t is 9 #agih--! plan ( absorb+ *lor9e 9 lime 0 hit ^u1 & "h may be discov]$ ! beg9n+s ( ! blea*+-p[d] indu/ry1 n[ "o bran* ( ! alkali trade1 ! greate/ *emical indu/ry conduct$ by man4 ,?is blea*+-p[d]1 at fir/ a m]e *emical curiosity1 is n[ manufactur$ by ! ?\s&s ( tons1 & is us$ 9 ! blea*+ ( cotton & l95 goods1 bo? 9 ! =m ( clo? & 9 ! =m ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( pap]4 ,9 ano!r place ref]5ce is made to ! va/ proportions atta9$ by ! alkali indu/ry1 mean+ ! manufacture ( c]ta9 comp\nds ( sodium1 ! "o produc$ 9 l>ge/ quantities be+ d\btless sodic c>bonate 7,na,,co71 commonly call$ soda-a%4 ,9 trade ?is sub/ance is call$ an alkali because ( c]ta9 alkal9e prop]ties x possesses1 b m /rictly speak+ x is call$ a salt--sometimes an alkal9e salt4 ,9 *emi/ry ! s+le t]m alkali is res]v$ = c]ta9 comp\nds call$ hydrates1 ( :i* inde$ sodic hydrate--hav+ ! =mula ,na,o,h1 & (t5 call$ cau/ic soda--is an appropriate example4 ,?is latt] comp\nd is at pres5t manufactur$ on a l>ge scale 9 connection ) soda-a%4 ,n[ al?\gh ! ,leblanc process--:i* has long be5 us$ = manufactur+ soda-a%--is at pres5t meet+ ) a p[]ful & successful rival1 yet ! old] process has /ill a /rong hold ^u life 9 ! fact t x gives rise1 z a conv5i5t incid5tal product1 to va/ quantities ( *lorohydric acid4 ,! mean+ w be bett] und]/ood :5 x is expla9$ t ! fir/ /ep ( ! ,leblanc process is to add sulphuric acid to common salt4 ,two sub/ances are "h produc$3 ! "o is sodic sulphate1 to be c>ri$ =w>d until x is turn$ into sodic c>bonate2 ! o!r sub/ance is *lorohydric acid1 a comp\nd l>gely us$ 9 ! arts1 & especially 9 ! manufacture ( blea*+-p[d]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,blea*+ ( pulp = manufacture ( pap]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,app>atus = produc+ blea*+-p[d] 7by pass+ *lor9e gas1 g5]at$ 9 ,a1 ^u quicklime spread ^u ! %elves74 ,9 ! production ( blea*+-p[d]1 ! fir/ /ep is to m+le ?is *lorohydric acid & manganese dioxide4 ,*lor9e gas is ?us g5]at$1 mu* z x is :5 ! exp]im5t is conduct$ on a small scale z already describ$4 ,! *lor9e s g5]at$ is pass$ into a *amb] provid$ ) %elves & conta9+ slak$ lime4 ,h]eupon ! lime absorbs ! *lor9e1 giv+ rise to a new sub/ance call$ blea*+-p[d]--also kn[n z *loride ( lime4 ,f :at has be5 said x is evid5t t *emi/s "k p]fectly well :at elem5t>y sub/ances ent] into ?is comp\nd4 ,b !re are decid$ diff]5ces ( op9ion z to ! exact way 9 :i* ! atoms are arrang$4 ,blea*+-p[d] is g5]ally consid]$ to be a *emical union ( calcic hypo*lorite & calcic *loride ) ! addition ( calcic hydrate4 ,! foll[+ repres5tation may s]ve z a =mula = ! comp\nd3 ,ca,cl,o ,ca,cl ,ca,o,h 7,calcic hypo*lorite47 7,calcic *loride47 7,calcic hydrate47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig #bj4--,repres5tation ( ! old me?od ( blea*+ cotton & l95 goods on lawns4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,app>atus = 8s\r+0 cotton clo? by pass+ x into dilute acid1 be=e submitt+ x to ! action ( blea*+-p[d]4 ,! use ( blea*+-p[d] (f]s c]ta9 advantages4 ,! foll[+ are "s ( !m3 --,! comp\nd is itself :ite4 --,x is a p[d] :i* c be easily h&l$1 pack$ & transport$4 --,) reasonable precautions1 ! active blea*+ ag5t *lor9e is reta9$ by ! p[d] 9 available =m = a consid]able l5g? ( "t4 --,9 actual use 9 ! process ( blea*+1 ! entire am\nt ( *lor9e orig9ally /or$ up 9 ! p[d] may be lib]at$ 9 contact ) ! goods to be blea*$4 --,! lib]ation ( ?is *lor9e is easily affect$4 ,! addition ( almo/ any acid w accompli% x3 ev5 ! c>bon dioxide ( ! atmosph]e w suffice4 ,9 ! blea*+ ( cotton goods *lor9e is n ! only ag5t reli$ ^u1 ?\gh x seems to be an ess5tial "o4 ,at lea/ ?ree o!r sub/ances are employ$ to contribute to ! blea*+4 ,ea* ( !m ei!r removes "s colors or /a9s f ! goods1 or s modifies !m t ! solution ( blea*+-p[d]--"o ( ! la/ ag5ts to be employ$--c ! easi] f9i% its "w4 ,! ?ree sub/ances ref]r$ to are milk ( lime1 dilut$ sulphuric acid1 & sodic c>bonate1 also call$ soda-a%4 ,! pieces ( clo?1 be+ sew$ toge!r into cont9u\s /rips _m miles 9 l5g?1 pass f "o liquor to ano!r1 ) wa%+s 9 wat] at prop] times1 until f9ally1 aft] be+ fully :it5$ by ! *lor9e prep>ation & !n receiv+ ! f9al wa%+ 9 wat]1 !y em]ge f ! works1 completely blea*$4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,alkali ,trade1 9 its ,v>i\s ,bran*es4 ,claus1 ,c4--,*em4 ,news4 xxxviii1 #bfc4 7,ammonia soda47 ,davis1 ,g4 ,e4--,*em4 ,news4 xxxii1 #afd1 #agd1 #ahg1 #aih1 #baj1 #bch4 ,h>greaves1 ,j4--,*em4 ,news4 xlii1 #cbb4 ,k+zett1 ,*>les ,t4--,! ,alkali ,trade4 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,lunge1 ,g4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london1 xliv1 #ebd1 #ebh4 ,macte>1 ,j4--,*em4 ,news4 xxxv1 #d1 #ad1 #ag1 #bc1 #ce2 xxxvii1 #af4 ,s*midt1 ,t4--,*em ,news4 xxxviii1 #bjc4 7,ammonia soda47 ,weldon1 ,w4--,*em4 ,news4 xlvii1 #fg1 #gi1 #hg4 7,pres5t condition ( soda indu/ry47 ,blea*+ ,p[d]4 ,juris*1 ,k4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xxxi1 #cej4 ,k+zett1 ,c4 ,t4--loc4 cit4 xxviii1 #djd4 ,kopf]1 ,f4--loc4 cit4 xxviii1 #gac4 ,lunge1 ,g4--,*em4 ,news4 xliii1 #a4 ,/ahls*midt1 ,c4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xxxi1 #bgi4 ,wolt]s1 ,w4--loc4 cit4 xxviii1 #djd4 ,*lor9e ,indu/ry1 ,future ( ,hurt]1 ,f4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xlvi1 #bbe4 ,*lor9e1 ,prep>ation ( ,b]!lot4--,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique4 #e ,sr4 xxii1 #dfd4 ,davy1 ,sir ,humphry4 ,davy1 ,john4--,collect$ ,works & ,memoirs ( ,sir ,h4 ,davy4 ,london1 #ahci4 ,p>is1 ,john ,a4--,life ( ,sir ,humphrey ,davy4 ,london1 #ahca4 ,br\gham1 ,h4--,lives ( ,m5 ( ,lett]s1 etc4 ,london1 #ahde4 p4 #ddh4 ,cooke1 ,j4 ,p4--,sci5tific ,culture4 ,bo/on1 #ahha4 p4 #aa4 ,salt ,m9es ( ,europe4 ,h>p]'s ,magaz9e1 i1 #gei4 ,s*eele1 ,c4 ,w4 ,hoef]1 ,f4--,hi/oire de la ,physique et de la ,*imie4 ,p>is1 #ahgb4 p4 #dig4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,brom9e4 ,brom9e is an elem5t>y sub/ance1 :i* 0 fir/ recogniz$ z su* 9 ! ye> #ahbf4 ,x 0 detect$ by ,anto9e ,j]ome ,bal>d1 a ,fr5* *emi/1 :o1 at ! age ( tw5ty-f\r1 0 s =tunate & skillful z to discov] ?is int]e/+ sub/ance4 ,he liv$ at ,montpelli]1 n f> f ,m>seilles & b a few miles f ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! wat]s ( ?is great inl& sea conta9 ab\t "o-t5? m m9]al salts ?an ^? ( ! l>g] oceans1 & s x has long be5 ! cu/om along ! s\!rn coa/s ( ,france to evaporate ^! wat]s = ! production ( common salt4 ,aft] ?is pr9cipal con/itu5t is remov$1 !re rema9s a /rong br9e call$ bitt]n4 ,:ile exp]im5t+ ^u ?is bitt]n1 ,bal>d 0 /ruck by a peculi> orange-r$ coloration ( great int5sity :i* appe>$ at c]ta9 /ages ( 8 "w4 ,^u fur!r /udy1 he 0 able to demon/rate t ?is color 0 due to an elem5t>y sub/ance hi!rto unrecogniz$4 ,?us he _h ! felicity ( secur+ = 8 "n p]man5t r5[n z "o ( ! few philosoph]s :o h be5 able to detect a new memb] ( t family ( prime & fundam5tal mat]ials f :i* is built ! /ructure ( ! univ]se4 ,x has already be5 /at$ t ! elem5ts at pres5t ackn[l$g$ are less ?an sev5ty 9 numb]1 & "s ( ^! 7 kn[n to ! anci5ts4 ,9 "s cases1 a s+le individual has be5 able to recognize sev]al new ones3 ?us ,s*eele has already be5 m5tion$ z ! discov]] ( manganese1 b>ium1 & *lor9e4 ,s x appe>s t ( all ! em95t m51 ^: consci5ti\s labors contribute to ! build+ ( ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry z a noble & h>moni\s edifice1 necess>ily b few c possibly hope to atta9 ! specially conspicu\s honor ( hav+ _! names =ev] associat$ ) ! fir/ discov]y ( any ( ! prim>y elem5ts4 ,an int]e/+ /ory is told ( ! em95t ,g]man *emi/1 ,ju/us von ,liebig1 9 connection ) ?is p>ticul> subject4 ,"s ye>s be=e ,bal>d's discov]y !re 0 s5t to ,liebig1 f a ,g]man e/abli%m5t :]e salt br9es 7 employ$1 a flask--^: cont5ts 7 aft]w>ds f\nd to conta9 brom9e1 or at lea/ to be v ri* 9 brom9e--) ! reque/ t he exam9e ! cont5ts4 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( ! sub/ance seem$ to be t ( *loride ( iod9e1 & ?is circum/ance l$ ,liebig to neglect mak+ a m se>*+ inve/igation4 ,aft] ,bal>d _h publi%$ 8 discov]y1 ,liebig p]ceiv$ 8 own un=tunate ov]sight1 & occasionally1 ( c\rse n )\t "s bitt] regret1 he display$ to 8 fri5ds ?is int]e/+ flask1 to %[ !m h[ "o might fail to make a discov]y ( ! fir/ importance by reason ( "s trifl+ ov]sight4#d #d ,,s*utz5b]g]1 ,,paul3 ,trait de ,*imie ,gnrale4 ,p>is1 #ahhj4 i1 #cge4 ,di/ribution ( ,brom9e4 ,! "n brom9e is d]iv$ f a ,greek ^w 71 bromos1 a bad smell7 :i* sugge/s ! v pung5t odor ( its vapor4 ,! sub/ance occurs 9 ! br9e ( ! ocean & 9 t ( m9]al spr+s4 ,b ( c\rse x does n exi/ !re 9 ! uncomb9$ =m2 in/ead x is unit$ ) c]ta9 metals 9 ! =m ( bromides4 ,9 sea-wat] ! pr9cipal bromide is bromide ( magnesium 7,mg,br74 ,exp]im5tal ,prep>ation ( ,brom9e4 ,brom9e may be prep>$ by anyone :o is will+ to take a little tr\ble4 ,place 9 any suitable glass vessel a small am\nt ( manganese dioxide1 "s potassic bromide 7commonly kn[n z bromide ( potassium71 !n "s wat]1 & f9ally a small quantity ( *lorohydric acid4 ,brom9e is almo/ in/antly lib]at$1 & %[s its pres5ce by imp>t+ to ! liquid an orange hue4 ,if ! vessel is cov]$ lightly1 & !n g5tle heat is appli$ to x1 ! brom9e w be expell$ f ! liquid & w appe> above x z a heavy vapor ( a ri* r$di%-br[n color4 ,"s c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ h[ev] 9 conduct+ ?is exp]im5t1 s9ce ! vapor is v irritat+ to ! eyes & also to ! ?roat1 & x has a g5]al corrosive effect ^u mo/ sub/ances ) :i* x comes 9 contact4 ,*emical ,prop]ties ( ,brom9e4 ,9 its *emical relations brom9e %[s v decid$ resemblances to *lor9e1 hav+ aff9ities = ! same sub/ances1 only less 9 int5sity4 ,s9ce its discov]y x has f\nd a consid]able numb] ( uses4 ,?us x is an important sub/ance 9 ! processes ( photography2 & ! enorm\s expansion & gr[? ( ?is art )9 a v few ye>s has requir$ 9 ! aggregate l>ge quantities ( brom9e4 ,! consid]able dem& = brom9e1 :i* at fir/ increas$ its price1 has produc$1 z might h be5 anticipat$1 a /imulat+ influ5ce ^u ! manufacture ( x4 ,?is has l$ to greatly increas$ production ( ! sub/ance1 n only 9 ,europe b also 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ,p5nsylvania1 ,ohio1 & ,we/ ,virg9ia x has become an important article ( manufacture2 9 fact1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates n[ furni%es ! l>ge/ proportion ( ! entire am\nt ( ! mat]ial produc$ 9 ! _w4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important comp\nds ( brom9e is t produc$ by its union ) silv]4 ,we ref] to arg5tic bromide 7commonly call$ bromide ( silv]1 ,ag,br74 ,?is sub/ance may be easily produc$ by ! foll[+ simple exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,l\is ,jacques ,m& ,dagu]re1 f :om ! dagu]reotype 0 nam$3 born at ,cormeilles1 7,france17 #aghi2 di$1 #ahea4 ,to a solution ( potassic bromide 9 wat] add a wat] solution ( arg5tic nitrate2 a :ite1 or yell[i%-:ite precipitate imm$iately appe>s4 ,! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,k,br ,ag,n,o ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,potassic bromide1 ,arg5tic nitrate1 #aai #afi p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #bhh ,ag,br ,,kno ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,arg5tic bromide1 ,potassic nitrate1 #ahg #aja p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #bhh ,?is arg5tic bromide produc$1 at fir/ ne>ly :ite 9 color1 has ! p[] ( becom+ black ^u exposure to light1 & x is ?is important prop]ty :i* makes ! sub/ance suitable = use 9 ! processes ( photography4 ,aga9 9 ! =m ( potassic bromide1 brom9e has _h a v wide & b5efic5t use z a rem$ial ag5t2 x is /ill l>gely us$ 9 ! manufacture ( ! salt m5tion$4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ce4 ,liebig1 ,8 ,life-,"w 9 ,*emi/ry4 ,h(man1 ,a4 ,w4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xxviii1 #ajfe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,photograph] at "w 9 a room light$ ?r\gh a w9d[ ( r$ glass4 7,r$ glass cuts (f ! *ief act9ic1 or *emical1 rays ( sunlight47 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,iod9e4 ,iod9e belongs to :at may be call$ a *emical family1 ! o!r memb]s be+ *lor9e & brom9e4 ,all ?ree ( ^! elem5ts are f\nd 9 sea-wat]1 b 9 v diff]5t quantities4 ,?us *lor9e is extremely abundant2 brom9e is 9 ! wat] 9 m9ute quantities1 :ile iod9e exi/s !re 9 am\nts t are exce$+ly small4 ,!y all exi/ z salts1 ( :i* ( c\rse *loride ( sodium is by f> ! mo/ abundant4 ,x has already be5 %[n t brom9e is obta9$ f sea-wat]1 aft] enorm\s am\nts ( ! wat] h be5 conc5trat$ by evaporation4 ,b iod9e1 ! ?ird elem5t ( ?is gr\p1 exi/s 9 sea-wat] 9 quantities s v m9ute t x _c be extract$ f x at any practicable co/4 ,ev5 ! conc5tration me?od1 j allud$ to1 is n applicable 9 ! case ( iod9e4 ,x happ5s h[ev] t sea-we$s h ! p[] ( extract+ f sea-wat] ev5 ! exce$+ly m9ute am\nt ( iod9e1 or ( iodides1 t ! wat] conta9s2 & moreov] :5 sea-we$s are burn$1 iodides are f\nd 9 _! a%es4 ,! ,discov]y ( ,iod9e4 ,! discov]y ( iod9e is associat$ ) ! hi/ory ( c]ta9 ( ! mo/ important & int]e/+ products ( ! *emical arts4 ,x also has a /rik+ connection ) "s ( ! political & milit>y affairs 9 ,france1 & inde$ 9 ,europe1 9 ! e>ly ye>s ( ! pres5t c5tury4 ,f9ally1 its great usefulness to mank9d is 9 m>k$ contra/ ) ! mis=tunes t ov]took its discov]]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,ga!r+ ! h>ve/ ( sea-we$ = ! manufacture ( soda-a%4 ,! discov]y ( iod9e is directly ref]able to ! old soda indu/ry4 ,! t]m soda is a g5]al "o1 & x 0 =m]ly us$ to include sev]al diff]5t *emical comp\nds manufactur$ f ! a%es ( sea-we$4 ,decid$ly ! mo/ important ( ^! is sodic c>bonate4 ,?is sub/ance has a well m>k$ alkal9e reaction1 & al?\gh n an alkali 9 ! /ricte/ *emical s5se1 x is yet ! pr9cipal product ( t greate/ ( all ! *emical indu/ries kn[n z ! alkali trade4 7,see pp4 #id & #ii47 ,dur+ ! la/ sixty ye>s1 & aft] _m e>ly trials & failures1 ! production ( ! v>i\s alkal9e comp\nds ( sodium has ris5 to enorm\s proportions1 su* t 9 ,engl& alone ! daily product ( sodic c>bonate1 ! pr9cipal "o1 is probably m ?an two ?\s& tons4 ,?is va/ am\nt ( alkali is consum$ by civiliz$ peoples 9 "s ( _! mo/ ext5sive indu/ries su* z ! manufacture ( soap & ( glass1 & 9 _m processes ( blea*+4 ,! ext5sion ( ^! bran*es ( bus9ess has ( c\rse gone h& 9 h& ) ! increas$ production ( alkali4 ,inde$1 on ! "o side !re has be5 a /eady dim9ution 9 price1 & on ! o!r a /eady increase 9 consumption2 probably ea* circum/ance may be consid]$ z bo? cause & effect ( ! o!r4 ,prior to #agic h[ev]1 ! dem&s = alkali--va/ly small] ?an to-day--7 all satisfi$ by ! mat]ial obta9$ f ! a%es ( m>9e plants4 ,?us along ! coa/s ( ,great ,brita91 ,france1 & especially ( ,spa91 sea-we$ ( v>i\s k9ds 0 ga!r$ z a v important h>ve/4 ,"s ( ! we$ 0 us$ z a f]tiliz] ( ! soil2 m 0 dri$ & burn$ = ! sake ( ! a%es4 ,on ! ,briti% coa/ ! a% 0 kn[n z kelp2 t produc$ on ! coa/s ( ,norm&y 0 call$ v>e*2 & t produc$ on ! ,spani% coa/ w5t by ! "n ( b>illa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,v>ieties ( sea-we$ us$ to produce v>e*4 ,n[ "o ( ! important indirect effects ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution 0 t felt by ! consum]s ( ! old-fa%ion$ alkali4 ,9 #agic an emb>go 0 put ^u ! supply ( alkal9e a%es1 su* z kelp & b>illa1 into ,france4 ,b ! ,fr5* dem& = alkali1 n only = ord9>y purposes1 b also = ! production ( ! great am\nts ( saltpetre requir$ = ! manufacture ( gunp[d]1 0 imp]i\s4 ,! imm$iate effect1 !re=e1 0 to create ! sudd5 developm5t ( a process call$ ! ,leblanc me?od1 by :i* alkal9e comp\nds ( sodium are made f common salt4 ,not)/&+ ! /imulus ( ! prohibitory emb>go & ! fo/]+ help ( ! gov]nm5t ( ,napoleon ,bonap>te1 ! complexity ( ! ,leblanc process 0 su* t x 0 sl[ 9 ga9+ a foo?old z a practical indu/rial me?od4 ,b aft] its fir/ successful e/abli%m5t z a regul> bus9ess & up to almo/ ! pres5t day ! application ( ?is process has cont9ually wid5$1 & ! me?od has held undivid$ sway 9 its important field4 ,9 ! ye> #ahaa ,b]n>d ,c\rtois1 a ,fr5* *emi/1 0 engag$1 j z o!r manufactur]s 71 9 ! production ( nitrate ( pota%1 or saltpetre1 = use 9 gunp[d]4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is "w he employ$ soda obta9$ f v>e*4 ,9 ord] to sep>ate ! alkali f ! v>e* 9 a m ref9$ condition ! raw v>e* 0 subject$ to a v c>eful purification4 ,at c]ta9 /ages ( 8 exp]im5ts ,c\rtois discov]$ t ! addition ( sulphuric acid gave rise to ! production ( a magnific5t violet vapor4 ,he did n make ! matt] public h[ev] until late 9 ! ye> #ahac1 :5 he br\ght ! subject to ! att5tion ( ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 ! di/+ui%$ ,engli% *emi/1 :o 0 !n visit+ ,p>is4 ,! next ye>1 #ahad1 ! sub/ance 0 c>efully inve/igat$ by ,gay-,lussac1 :o gave to ! _w a v full description ( its prop]ties1 & :o call$ x iod9e f a ,greek ^w 71 ioeides1 violet color$71 sugge/+ ! /rik+ & *>act]i/ic color ( its vapor4 ,! political ev5ts ( #ahae ru9$ ! bus9ess ( ,c\rtois1 & he sunk into pov]ty f :i* he 0 n able to recov]1 until f9ally he di$ 9 #ahch1 poor & almo/ =gott51 leav+ a wid[ :o 0 =c$ to w9 h] bread by ! labor ( h] h&s4 ,pres5t ,s\rces ( ,iod9e4 ,al?\gh kelp1 v>e* & b>illa are no long] us$ = ! direct purpose ( af=d+ alkali1 !y are /ill produc$ ) a view to _! yield+ iod9e4 ,on ! r\gh & /ormy coa/s ( ,scotl&1 ,irel&1 ,france & ,spa91 l>ge quantities ( sea-we$s are ca/ a%ore4 ,!y are collect$1 !y are dri$ 9 ! sun1 !y are !n burn$1 & _! a%es are employ$--b pr9cipally 9 ! manufacture ( iod9e4 ,?us on ! coa/s ( ,brittany & ,norm&y ! occupation ( collect+ we$s occupies ?ree or f\r ?\s& families = ! l>g] "p ( ! ye>4 ,exp]im5tal ,me?od ( ,prep>+ ,iod9e4 ,iod9e may be prep>$ 9 a mann] closely resembl+ ! process already describ$ = brom9e2 t is1 by plac+ 9 a suitable glass vessel a small am\nt ( manganese dioxide1 "s potassic iodide 7commonly kn[n z iodide ( potassium71 !n "s wat]1 & f9ally a small quantity ( *lorohydric acid4 ,iod9e is almo/ in/antly lib]at$1 & %[s its pres5ce by imp>t+ to ! liquid a br[ni% color4 ,if ! vessel is cov]$ lightly & !n g5tle heat is appli$ to x ! iod9e w be expell$ & appe> 9 ! vessel above ! liquid z a heavy vapor ( a ri* violet color4 ,?is vapor readily cond5ses on ! upp] & cold] portions ( ! vessel 9 ! =m ( m9ute cry/als ( a color almo/ black4 ,?is is almo/ precisely ! me?od employ$ on ! l>ge scale = ! production ( iod9e f kelp4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,*ang+ iod9e to a violet vapor by means ( heat4 ,*emical ,prop]ties ( ,iod9e4 ,! *emical *>act]i/ics ( iod9e are ?r\gh\t closely alli$ to ^? ( *lor9e & ( brom9e1 only 9 g5]al iod9e may be said to h weak] *emical aff9ities ?an ei!r ( ! o!r two4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,app>atus us$ 9 ! manufactur+ process = obta9+ iod9e4 ,! retorts ,c1 ,c1 are surr\nd$ by s& 7s&-ba?72 ! heat drives iod9e1 9 =m ( vapor1 into ! receiv]s1 ,a1 ,a1 :]e x solidifies4 ,iod9e produces comp\nds ( ! same g5]al type z ! o!rs1 & ( ?is an example is f\nd 9 arg5tic iodide4 ,! foll[+ me?od ( produc+ x c be foll[$ by almo/ any "o4 ,prep>e a solution ( nitrate ( silv] 9 wat]1 & !n add a wat] solution ( potassic iodide2 a *emical *ange takes place1 ) ! production ( a yell[i%-:ite precipitate4 ,?is precipitate is arg5tic iodide4 ,^u exposure to sunlight x readily *anges 9 color1 becom+ almo/ black4 ,?is is an important *>act]i/ic & is made use (1 z is ! same prop]ty possess$ by arg5tic bromide & also by arg5tic *loride1 9 ! production ( ! photograph4 ,& :ile x is a fact1 & "o well kn[n1 t _m ( ! salts ( silv] black5 m or less ^u exposure to sunlight1 x is f\nd t ! *loride1 ! bromide1 & ! iodide1 h prop]ties p>ticul>ly fitt+ !m = ! purposes ( photography4 ,9 discuss+ brom9e1 ref]5ce 0 made to ! influ5ce ( ! great expansion ( ! photographic bus9ess2 & ?is circum/ance has /imulat$ ! dem& = iod9e j z = brom9e4 ,x 0 also po9t$ out1 t potassic bromide is an important rem$ial ag5t2 potassic iodide is likewise ( great m$ic9al value4 ,/>* z a ,te/ = ,iod9e4 ,iod9e1 :5 9 ! free or uncomb9$ condition1 has a rem>kable & v peculi> way ( atta*+ itself to granules ( />*4 ,?is prop]ty may be demon/rat$ by a simple & attractive exp]im5t4 ,?us if />* is boil$ ) wat] & !n ! hot mass is p\r$ into cold wat]1 m9ute p>ticles ( />* di/ribute !mselves ?r\gh ! liquid4 ,if to ?is liquid a v small am\nt ( free iod9e1 9 ! =m ( a solution1 is add$1 ! />* in/antly takes on a deep blue color4 ,if to ano!r portion ( ! same or simil> />* susp5d$ 9 wat]1 iod9e is add$ 9 a comb9$ =m--t is z potassic iodide = example--absolutely no *ange ( color is detect$4 ,^! two exp]im5ts %[ t ! iod9e only attacks />* :5 ! iod9e is free & uncomb9$4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,*lor9e1 ,brom9e1 ,iod9e1 & ,fluor9e4 ,mylius1 ,e4--,*em4 ,news4 xxxiii1 #bdd1 #bec2 xxxiv1 #e1 #ac1 #be1 #cc1 #de1 #ee1 #ff1 #gh1 #hf1 #aah1 #aci1 #adi1 #aff1 #ahj1 #ahh1 #aig1 #bae1 #bcc4 ,iod9e1 ,manufacture ( ,s*midt1 ,t4--,*em4 ,news4 xxxvii1 #ef4 ,/an=d1 ,e4 ,c4 ,c4--,loc4 cit4 xxxv1 #agb4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,fluor9e4 ,( ,fluor9e x is necess>y to made ! rem>kable /atem5t t x has nev] be5 kn[n to be produc$ isolat$1 t is 9 a sep>ate or uncomb9$ =m4 ,_m exp]im5ts h be5 p]=m$ = ! purpose ( rea*+ ?is result1 & ?\gh none ( ^! h result$ 9 ! production ( ! elem5t s\ght1 !y lead u to believe t ! elem5t is a gas4 ,=1 if x 7 a solid or a liquid at ord9>y temp]atures1 x may be safely suppos$ t "s processes t h be5 devis$ w\ld be capable ( produc+ at lea/ a small quantity ( ! elem5t>y sub/ance1 & t f ?is ! obs]v] w\ld be enabl$ to recognize & discov] at lea/ "s ( ! prop]ties ( ! fluor9e itself4 ,prop]ties ( ,fluor9e4 ,!re are a numb] ( comp\nds kn[n ^: v>i\s prop]ties1 p[]s ( *emical int]*ange1 & special molecul> weights1 cle>ly po9t out ! exi/5ce 9 !m all ( a c]ta9 peculi> elem5t analog\s 9 _m respects to *lor9e1 brom9e1 & iod9e4 ,to ?is elem5t ! "n fluor9e has be5 giv54 ,al?\gh1 z be=e intimat$1 x has n be5 kn[n to h be5 obta9$ lib]at$1 its prop]ties 9 ^! comb9$ =ms h be5 c>efully /udi$ & well made out4 ,?us1 l *lor9e & its family associates x comb9es ) hydrog5 to =m an acid1 fluohydric acid 7,h,fl71 prop]ly comp>able ) ! acids =m$ by ! ?ree elem5ts la/ discuss$3 ,*lorohydric acid1 ,h,cl4 ,bromohydric acid1 ,h,br4 ,iodohydric acid1 ,,hi4 ,x also comb9es ) ! metals to =m fluorides4 ,! be/ example ( ^! fluorides is t comp\nd 9 :i* fluor9e mo/ commonly occurs 9 nature3 t is fluor-sp>1 ! m9]al sub/ance ^: *emical "n is calcic fluoride1 & ^: composition is express$ by ! =mula ,ca,fl4 ,! prop]ty above all o!rs t is *>act]i/ic ( fluor9e is1 h[ev]1 its /rik+ aff9ity = silicon4 ,) ?is elem5t x readily comb9es "u almo/ any circum/ances4 ,m wond]ful /ill1 ! comp\nd produc$ ) x is a gas4 ,n[ 9 g5]al ! comp\nds ( silicon are solids4 ,^! solids are _m ( !m famili>ly kn[n 9 ^? mat]ials :i* con/itute ! pr9cipal portions ( ! /able e>? on :i* we tread1 ( ! rock b5ea? x & ( ! endur+ m\nta9 masses t "h & !re pi]ce ?r\gh ! soil & raise _! cre/s above ! g5]al level4 ,! majority ( ^! e>?y & rocky sub/ances are silicates4 ,x is app>5t !n t ! comp\nds ( silicon are types ( solidity & /ability4 ,!y _c be melt$ except 9 ! mo/ p[]ful heat+ appliances1 & ! *emi/ c h>dly imag9e conditions su* z w\ld *ange !m into vapor4 ,s !n x seems /range & almo/ contradictory t fluor9e %\ld h ! p[] ( attack+ comp\nds t seem to be ! embodim5ts ( p]man5cy itself2--yet x readily does s4 ,?us if fluohydric acid comes 9 contact ) silicon1 :e!r t sub/ance is 9 comb9ation z s& or z h>d rocky m9]als1 ! fluor9e atoms pluck out ! silicon & !n !y fly away toge!r 9 ! =m ( gas or vapor4 ,aga91 fluohydric acid may be spok5 ( z ! unique ag5t t readily attacks glass & dissolves1 & ev5 de/roys1 ?is ord9>ily un*angeable sub/ance4 ,f9ally1 !re may be add$ :at c be said ( no o!r elem5t1 namely3 t fluor9e is nev] kn[n to =m any comp\nd ) oxyg54 ,discov]y ( ,fluohydric ,acid4 ,x is n easy to ref] ! fir/ k ( fluor9e to any p>ticul> discov]]4 ,p]haps h[ev] r5ew$ m5tion ( ! +5i\s ,s*eele is n out ( place "h2 = x seems to h be5 he :o = ! fir/ "t1 & z e>ly z #agga1 recogniz$ fluohydric acid z a special acid4 ,he call$ x fluoric acid1 b he did n obta9 a correct idea ( its composition4 ,s*eele prep>$ ! acid f a well-kn[n m9]al1 fluor-sp>1 & by ! addition ( sulphuric acid4 ,?is op]ation _c be p]=m$ to advantage 9 a glass or porcela9 vessel = !y conta9 silicon1 & z has be5 sugge/$ already1 silici\s matt]s are freely attack$ by ! acid produc$4 ,! decomposition !re=e is commonly conduct$ 9 a retort ( lead1 or 9 "o ( plat9um1 & ! acid produc$ is collect$ 9 a receiv]1 also con/ruct$ ( "o ( ^! metals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,plat9um retort & receiv] %[n ) its sev]al p>ts sep>at$4 ,! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,ca,fl ,h,,s ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,calcic fluoride1 ,sulphuric acid1 #gh #ih p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #agf #b;,h,fl ,ca,s,o ,two molecules ( ,"o molecule ( ,fluohydric acid ,calcic sulphate #dj #acf p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #agf ,ord9>ily ! product is a liquid1 & consi/s ( wat] hold+ 9 solution ! fluohydric acid 7,h,fl74 ,x is possible h[ev] to prep>e ! acid free f wat]1 & /ill 9 a liquid =m4 ,b 9 ?is condition x is "o ( ! mo/ dang]\s1 poison\s1 & corrosive sub/ances kn[n4 ,x produces pa9ful burns if x falls ^u ! fle%1 & fatal results h be5 kn[n to foll[ injuries receiv$ f x4 ,?us 9 #ahfi1 ,pr(essor ,nickls1 an em95t ,fr5* *emi/1 di$ f injuries su/a9$ by ! accid5tal inhalation ( fluohydric acid vapor1 :ile /udy+ ! prop]ties ( ! sub/ance4 ,et*+ ,glass by ,fluohydric ,acid4 ,! effect ( fluohydric acid ^u glass may be %[n 9 attractive =m1 & )\t mu* difficulty or dang]1 by ! help ( a small di% ( lead & a plate ( glass to cov] x4 ,^! be+ provid$1 ! exp]im5t may be conduct$ some:at z foll[s3 ,melt a little beeswax ^u ! glass s t ! wax may =m a ?9 film ^u "o side ( x4 ,!n all[ ! wax to cool & h>d54 ,next1 by use ( any conv5i5t po9t$ in/rum5t1 draw "s sket* or design deep 9 ! wax--9 fact1 to ! surface ( ! glass4 ,next place "s p[d]$ fluor-sp> 9 ! lead5 di%1 & add to x "s conc5trat$ sulphuric acid4 ,n[ cov] ! di%1 ) ! glass already prep>$1 9 su* a way t ! sket* or design is turn$ d[nw>d s z to receive ! fumes ( fluohydric acid z !y rise f ! mixture 9 ! di%4 ,x is easily und]/ood f :at has be5 said already t ! fluohydric acid w attack ! glass1 c>ry+ away "s ( its silicon 9 ! =m ( gas or vapor4 ,z a result ( ?is action1 m9ute *annels are =m$ 9 ! glass4 ,:5 ! exp]im5t is ?\ght to be suffici5tly advanc$1 ! wax may be remov$ f ! plate by melt+ x (f or o!rwise2 !reupon x w be discov]$ t ! glass has actually become et*$ or engrav$ by ! fluohydric acid gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,plat9um retort & receiv] %[n z arrang$ = production ( fluohydric acid 7,h,fl74 ,9 #aghh ,puymaur9 pres5t$ to ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces su* a glass plate1 ^u :i* !re 0 a beautiful fluoric et*+ repres5t+ ,*emi/ry & ,g5ius weep+ at ! tomb ( ,s*eele1 :o _h contribut$ s mu* to ! hi/ory ( fluohydric acid4 8,?is "w10 says ,hay1 80 ( int]e/ to ! ,academy on acc\nt ( ! fitness ( ! subject z well z ! elegance ( its execution40 ,practical ,application ( ,fluohydric ,acid4 ,fluohydric acid1 =m]ly a m]e *emical curiosity1 has n[ become a famili> article ^u ! %elves ( ! druggi/s4 ,x is sold 9 gutta-p]*a bottles ) rubb] /opp]s4 ,x is (t5 us$ by jewel]s to correct errors 9 ! application ( silici\s enamels ^u _! "w4 ,?us if ! enamel has be5 incorrectly plac$1 x may be remov$ by fluohydric acid & aft]w>d a new portion may be introduc$ 9 ! prop] position4 ,aga91 x is l>gely us$ 9 ! decoration ( arti/ic glass objects1 su* z globes = gas *&eli]s1 & ! multitude ( articles ( table glass w>e4 ,9 engrav+ su* objects1 !y are fir/ cov]$ ) a suitable v>ni% t w resi/ ! fluohydric acid1 !n ! design is drawn ?r\gh ! v>ni% ) a %>p ne$le2 aft]w>d ! article is expos$ to ! gas & et*$ 9 a mann] simil> to t already describ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,lead5 tray & glass plate4 ,! tray is int5d$ to receive ! mat]ials = production ( fluohydric acid2 ! plate is repres5t$ z cov]$ ) a v>ni%1 ?r\gh :i* a sket* has be5 drawn1 prep>atory to et*+4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,fluohydric ,acid4 ,gore1 ,g4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xxii1 #cfh4 ,fluorides4 ,fremy1 ,e4--,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique4 #c ,sr4 xlvii1 #e4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,oxyg54 ,oxyg5 may ju/ly claim a high degree ( importance z a subject = ! /udy alike ( ! pr(essional *emi/ & ! casual read]4 ,?is importance dep5ds ^u a v>iety ( consid]ations4 ,among !m are ! surpass+ abundance ( ! sub/ance itself1 ! great numb] ( comp\nds into :i* x ent]s1 ! activity ( its *emical p[]s1 & f9ally1 ! int]e/+ circum/ances "u :i* its di/9ct recognition1 or1 z p]haps we may say1 its discov]y1 0 atta9$4 ,its great abundance has be5 po9t$ out already 9 ! decl>ation t oxyg5 makes up1 by weight1 fully "o-half ( our t]re/rial globe--includ+ e>?1 ocean & air4 ,! air is ab\t "o-fif? oxyg5 by weight2 all wat]1 :]ev] exi/+1 is sixte5-eighte5?s oxyg5 by weight1 :ile qu>tz1 s&1 & o!r simil> widespread & mo/ commonly occurr+ m9]al matt]s1 are a little m ?an "o-half oxyg54 ,o!r solid matt]s ?an ! rocks1 su* z mo/ p>ts ( ! mat]ial /ructures ( animal & vegetable be+s1 conta9 oxyg5 z an important con/itu5t elem5t4 ,:ile ?us we h scann$ ! great multitude ( sub/ances spread imm$iately ab\t u by ! h& ( nature1 & f\nd oxyg5 9 !m all1 x is none ! less true t oxyg5 is an important factor 9 artificial products--t is1 ^? result+ f man's manufactur+ op]ations4 ,*emical ,activity ( ,oxyg54 ,aga91 oxyg5 plays a "p ( exce$+ activity 9 "s ( ! gr&e/ *emical processes ( nature & ( ! arts4 ,= example1 x is ess5tial to ! vital processes ( all animals4 ,:]ev] a liv+ be+ inhales ! brea? ( life1 :e!r f ! fre% air ( ! m\nta9 tops1 or f ! popul\s /reets ( ! sw>m+ metropolis1 or f ! solit>y deck ( ! b>k t creeps ) ! ocean's curr5ts2 or :]ev] ! humbl] s]vants ( man's table f9d _! way ?r\gh unexplor$ dep?s ( ! ocean & pluck f its waves ! modicum ( life-giv+ gas dissolv$ )9 !m2 !re is ?is wond]ful ag5t1 :i* has no sub/itute1 su/a9+ by active processes truly *emical1 t vitality ( man or ( bea/ :i* gives to nature its =ms ( highe/ beauty & mo/ admirable intellig5ce4 ,aga91 oxyg5 is ! necess>y ag5t 9 all ord9>y combu/ions4 ,s :]ev] a faggot1 gl[+ b5efic5tly 9 a sp>sely peopl$ =e/1 helps to su/a9 man's vital sp>k2 or1 :]e 9 a highly civiliz$ community1 ! fires on ! alt>s ( mod]n indu/ry draw f ! fl9ty rocks ! metals t s]ve to give employm5t to millions ( *ildr5 ( toil2--!re oxyg5 is ev] active1 ! true support] ( ! combu/ion ( all ^? flames :i* 9 ! pa/ h s]v$ z signs ( life & civiliz$ activity1 & :i* are /ill ! be/ symbols ( vitality & intellig5ce4 ,! ,discov]y ( ,oxyg54 ,! fir/ discov]y ( oxyg5 is usually attribut$ to ,dr4 ,joseph ,prie/ley1 an ,engli% cl]gyman & /ud5t ( natural sci5ce4 ,he liv$ 9 a "t :5 m5's m9ds all ov] ,europe 7 /rongly drawn t[>d ! pursuit ( *emical k4 ,9 fact1 at almo/ ! same mom5t t ,prie/ley 0 en?usia/ically conduct+ 8 exp]im5ts1 ,s*eele 0 also produc+ oxyg5 9 8 apo!c>y's *amb] 9 ,sw$54 ,& ! brilliant ,lavoisi]1 prom95t among ! m5 ( di/9ction :o ?rong$ ! gay capital ( ,france1 0 also work+ 9 ! same direction2 x 0 he1 :o said ab\t oxyg5 9 "o ( 8 own *emical works3 8,cet air que n\s avons dec\v]t presque en mme temps1 ,dr4 ,prie/ley1 ,m4 ,s*eele et moi10 s t he is sometimes decl>$ by 8 en?usia/ic c\ntrym5 to be entitl$ to ! m]it ( ! e>lie/ discov]y ( ?is mo/ magnific5t ( elem5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,joseph ,prie/ley1 ,born ne> ,le$s1 ,engl&1 ,m>* #ac1 #agcc2 di$ 9 ,nor?umb]l&1 ,pa41 ,febru>y #f1 #ahjd4 ,prie/ley's life includ$ ample mat]ials = a romance4 ,on ! "o h&1 ! +5i\s discov]] 9 physics & *emi/ry & ! fri5d ( t ,b5jam9 ,frankl9--:o 0 !n m9i/] at ! brilliant c\rt ( ,france f a h&ful ( colonies t appe>$ capable ( be+ pluck$ up by ! roots1 b 7 in/ead de/9$ to gr[ to an unrivall$ empire--himself a figure 9 a romance2 &1 on ! o!r side1 a prea*] to a diss5t+ congregation2 a victim ( public odium = 8 lib]al op9ions on religi\s & political subjects2 8 h\se set on fire by a mob1 8 app>atus wreck$1 8 libr>y ca/ to ! w9ds2 f9ally1 an emigrant ) 8 wife & *ildr5 to an almo/ unkn[n village 9 ,p5nsylvania1 ^: little burial-gr\nd /ill gives 8 bones repose2--^! are b brief sugge/ions ( ! trials ( ?is p]turb$ _s1 9 8 life 8sadly driv5 ab\t & toss$10 n[ *]i%$ z "o ( ^? :o 9 ! realm ( ?\ght has made no mean contribution to ! glory ( ! ,engli% "n4 ,dr4 ,prie/ley prep>$ oxyg5 f r$ precipitate ( m]cury1 a sub/ance n[ designat$ by ! "n m]curic oxide & by ! =mula ,hg,o4 ,heat+ ?is sub/ance 9 a receiv] & by means ( a burn+ glass or l5s1 he obs]v$ t a peculi> k9d ( air 0 evolv$4 ,he fur!r discov]$ t ?is air _h an unusually /imulat+ influ5ce ^u burn+ bodies1 & 0 well suit$ = ! respiration ( liv+ animals4 ,prie/ley's prime exp]im5t 0 p]=m$ on ! fir/ day ( ,augu/1 #aggd1 a date :i* may be accept$ z almo/ ! bir?day ( mod]n *emi/ry4 ,l _m o!r great discov]]s1 ,prie/ley 01 to a c]ta9 degree1 anticipat$4 ,?us a c]ta9 ,john ,may[1 an ,engli% physician1 fully a hundr$ ye>s be=e ! "t ( ,prie/ley's exp]im5t1 enunciat$ ! doctr9e t ! atmosph]e conta9s an air1 9 a c]ta9 s5se ! ess5tial food ( animal life & ( flame4 ,b ^! wond]ful views ( ,may[1 br\ght =w>d too e>ly = ! /ate ( ?\ght at 8 "t1 lay dormant & unproductive = an entire c5tury4 ,fir/ ,me?od ( ,prep>+ ,oxyg54 ,oxyg5 may be prep>$ 9 _m ways1 b only two ne$ receive att5tion "h4 ,! fir/ me?od is ,prie/ley's4 ,if ! r$ oxide ( m]cury is heat$ ov] a p[]ful gas flame & 9 a tube ( n easily fusible glass1 ! oxyg5 passes f ! metal & may be c>ri$ by any small conduct+ tube into a conv5i5t receiv] fill$ ) wat] & /&+ 9 ! pneumatic tr\gh4 ,if ! gas s collect$ is te/$ by means ( a c&le1 hav+ only a sp>k on its wick1 ! oxyg5 is readily recogniz$ by ! fact t ! tap] promptly bur/s into a full & brilliant flame4 ,?is me?od is ( hi/orical int]e/ *iefly1 ?\gh x may well attract "s att5tion f ! simplicity ( ! *emical *ange involv$4 ,?us ?is *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 #b;,hg,o heat$ ,o #b;,hg ,two molecules ( ,"o molecule ( ,two atoms ( ,m]curic oxide1 ,oxyg51 ,m]cury1 #dcb #cb #djj p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #dcb #dcb ,a ^w ab\t ! pneumatic tr\gh is n out ( place "h1 because ?is useful contrivance 0 ! inv5tion ( ,prie/ley4 ,! "n may be appropriately appli$ to almo/ any vessel ( wat] 9 :i* may /& ! op5 m\? ( a bell-glass suitable = conta9+ gas4 ,! wat] s]ves at once to seal ! m\? ( ! j>1 & also to af=d a mat]ial ?r\gh :i* ! exit tube ( an appliance may be dipp$1 & ?r\gh :i* also ! gas f ! tube may freely & conv5i5tly fl[ into ! bell-glass4 ,be=e ,prie/ley's "t gases _h be5 collect$ 9 bladd]s or v>ni%$ bags1 b ! new contrivance furni%$ a mu* sup]ior means ( detect+ small quantities ( gas & work+ ) !m4 ,second ,me?od ( ,prep>+ ,oxyg54 ,! second me?od1 & t (t5e/ pursu$1 employs a salt n kn[n 9 ,prie/ley's "t4 ,?is salt is call$ potassic *lorate & is repres5t$ by ! =mula ,k,cl,o4 ,?is sub/ance1 :5 heat$1 evolves a l>ge am\nt ( oxyg51 b x does s ) almo/ explosive viol5ce4 ,! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 #b,k,cl,o heat$ #b,k,cl #c,o ,two molecules ( ,two molecules ( ,?ree molecules ( ,potassic *lorate1 ,potassic *loride1 ,oxyg51 #bde #adi #if p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #bde #bde ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! potassic *lorate is mix$ ) ab\t "o-?ird ( its weight ( ! e>?y m9]al kn[n z black oxide ( manganese1 7b call$ by ! *emi/1 manganese dioxide17 ! mixture :5 heat$ evolves oxyg5 m sl[ly & cont9u\sly ?an ! *lorate alone--& x does x at a l[] temp]ature4 ,/rangely en\gh h[ev]1 ! manganese dioxide appe>s to take ei!r no *emical "p 9 ! op]ation or else only a v obscure "o4 ,inde$1 "s o!r oxides w s]ve ! same purpose1 :ile !y likewise appe> to und]go no *emical *ange4 ,9 ?is me?od1 z 9 ! o!r1 ! oxyg5 gas produc$ may be collect$ 9 a bell-glass ov] ! pneumatic tr\gh1 & aft]w>ds its nature may be demon/rat$ z be=e by means ( ! tap] hav+ a sp>k ^u x4 ,! ,prop]ties ( ,oxyg54 ,x has be5 ! cu/om ( *emi/s to say ( oxyg5 t x is a p]man5t gas4 ,! =ce ( ?is expression is f\nd 9 ! fact t until rec5tly all attempts to liquefy x 7 futile4 ,b rec5t exp]im5ts1 ) app>atus capable ( subject+ x at once to m int5se cold & to great] pressure ?an 7 ev] be=e employ$1 seem to demon/rate t x w turn to a liquid :5 ^! conditions are c>ri$ to a suffici5t extreme4 ,t oxyg5 is colorless & odorless appe>s pla9 f ! prop]ties ( ! atmosph]ic air ?r\gh\t :i* ?is gas is ?or\ghly diffus$ & intimately int]m+l$1 al?\gh x con/itutes b "o-fif? ( x4 ,*emical ,prop]ties ( ,oxyg54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,! rays ( sunlight conc5trat$1 by a l5s1 ^u a diamond plac$ 9 oxyg5 gas1 ) a view ( prov+ ! combu/ibility ( ! gem4 ,( ! *emical p[]s ( oxyg5 ! mo/ /rik+ & important seems to be its m>k$ t5d5cy to comb9e ) o!r elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,9 _m cases ?is comb9ation does n comm5ce except :5 ! sub/ances are heat$4 ,?us ! noble build+s ( a city are e day & e night cont9u\sly & h>mlessly ba!d )9 & )\t by t same oxyg51 t1 9 "t ( conflagration1 is ready *emically to comb9e ) _! elem5ts & z a result to r$uce ! metropolis to a%es4 ,b su* comb9ation1 once inaugurat$1 (t5 itself af=ds suffici5t heat n only to make ! process cont9ue1 b also to g5]ate t flame or fire :i* is ! tok5 ( :at is ord9>ily call$ combu/ion4 ,9 ?is view1 oxyg5 is (t5 spok5 ( z a support] ( combu/ion4 ,t ?is prop]ty1 kn[n to be associat$ ) ! atmosph]ic air1 does 9 fact reside 9 ! oxyg5 ( x1 is to "s ext5t prov$ by ! m rapid & brilliant combu/ion ( ! c&le 9 pure oxyg54 ,ano!r int]e/+ exp]im5t is p]=m$ :5 a piece ( *>coal1 :i* may be support$ on a wire1 is burn$ a little s z to acquire a sp>k1 & !n is dipp$ 9 oxyg5 gas4 ,! s+le coal w\ld soon cease to burn 9 atmosph]ic air1 b x burns readily & brilliantly 9 pure oxyg54 ,ev5 ! diamond1 ! mo/ compact & imp]i%able =m ( c>bon kn[n1 may burn 9 pure oxyg5 gas j z ! mo/ humble piece ( coal does1 & ! relation%ip ( ! gem to ! commonplace fuel is prov$ by ?is exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,! burn+ ( a spiral ( iron wire 9 a j> ( oxyg5 gas4 ,/ill ano!r exp]im5t 9 ! same direction may be conduct$ ) sulphur4 ,= ?is purpose a fragm5t ( sulphur set on fire may be dipp$ 9 a j> ( pure oxyg54 ,! sulphur burns ) va/ly increas$ rapidity & ) a violet flame mu* m brilliant ?an t ( sulphur burn+ 9 air4 ,aga91 "s sub/ances n ord9>ily consid]$ combu/ible w burn 9 oxyg5 gas4 ,?us a bundle ( iron wire1 to :i* a little light$ *ip is atta*$1 itself takes fire & burns brilliantly :5 dipp$ into oxyg5 gas4 ,! ,products ( ,combu/ions 9 ,oxyg54 ,z a necess>y result ( ! combu/ion ( sub/ances 9 oxyg5 !re are produc$ a multitude ( comp\nds call$ oxides4 ,?is is true ( ! c&le1 :i* consi/s ma9ly ( c>bon & hydrog54 ,:5 ! c&le burns1 ^! two sub/ances *ange into oxides4 ,! c>bon produces c>bon dioxide1 ^: =mula is ,,co1 & :i* is famili>ly kn[n z c>bonic acid gas4 ,?is oxide1 x is true1 is n easily recogniz$ by ! ord9>y obs]v] because x is an invisible gas1 b ! *emi/ c prove t x is 9 fact ! product ( ?is combu/ion4 ,at ! same "t ! hydrog5 produces an oxide ^: =mula is ,h,o & :i* w be recogniz$ z ! *emical expression = wat]4 ,& s wat] is 9 fact produc$1 ?\gh 9 ! =m ( vapor1 by ! burn+ c&le4 ,*>coal is compos$ almo/ entirely ( :at ! *emi/ calls c>bon1 & :5 x burns x produces ! oxide call$ c>bon dioxide 7,,co74 ,?is is ! same invisible gas t has already be5 decl>$ to be produc$ :5 ! c>bon ( ! c&le is burn$1 & 9 ?is case z 9 ! o!r x is easy = ! *emi/ to prove its pres5ce4 ,9 case ( c>bon1 ! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,c ,o ,,co ,"o atom ( ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,c>bon1 ,oxyg51 ,c>bon dioxide1 #ab #cb #dd ,p>ts by weight4 ,p>ts by weight4 ,p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #dd #dd ,& likewise :5 iron is burn$1 !re is =m$ an oxide ^: composition is express$ by ! =mula1 ,fe,o2 7to ?is sub/ance ! *emical "n f]roso-f]ric oxide is appli$74 ,s :5 sulphur is burn$1 sulphur dioxide is =m$ 7,,s74 ,9 ?is case ! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,s ,o ,,s ,"o atom ( ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,sulphur1 ,oxyg51 ,sulphur dioxide1 #cb #cb #fd ,p>ts by weight4 ,p>ts by weight4 ,p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #fd #fd ,comp\nd ( ,oxyg5 ) ,hydrog54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,hydrog5 gas1 g5]at$ by use ( z9c & sulphuric acid1 is !n pass$ ?r\gh a dry+ tube conta9+ calcic *loride 7,ca,cl74 ,by ! act ( combu/ion ! union ( ! dri$ gas ) oxyg5 ( ! air produces drops ( wat]4 ,x has already be5 %[n t ! hydrog5 escap+ f a suitable tube may be light$ 9 ! air4 ,if ! burn+ jet is introduc$ into oxyg5 gas ! same combu/ion proce$s1 only ) great] en]gy4 ,9 ei!r case !re is produc$ a comp\nd ( hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,?is comp\nd is repres5t$ by ! =mula ,h,o1 a =mula repres5t+ no o!r ?an ! famili> sub/ance wat]4 ,at ! mom5t ( combu/ion ( hydrog5 v great heat is g5]at$4 ,9 fact1 a p\nd ( hydrog51 ^u burn+ 9 pure oxyg51 yields ab\t f\r times z mu* heat z a p\nd ( pure c>bon does 9 burn+ "u ! same favorable conditions4 ,inde$1 ! p\nd ( hydrog51 :5 9 combu/ion1 yields m heat ?an a p\nd ( any o!r sub/ance kn[n4 ,on acc\nt ( ?is heat ! wat] result+ f ! burn+ hydrog5 at fir/ floats (f 9 ! air 9 ! =m ( vapor2 b if ! hydrog5 flame is br\ght 9 contact ) "s cool+ surface1 ! wat] =m$ cond5ses 9 drops ^u x & ?us x may be readily recogniz$ z 9 its ord9>y =m4 ,a great multitude ( exp]im5ts %[ t ! composition ( wat] is z foll[s3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,wat] ,,is ,,made ,,up ,,by ,,! ,,union ,,(1 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,p>ts ,,by ,,weight1 ,,p>ts ,,by ,,bulk1 ,,atoms4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,hydrog51 #b #b #b ,,oxyg51 #af #a #a ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,! composition ( wat]1 z display$ 9 ! =ego+ table1 has be5 demon/rat$ by analysis1 ?is ^w mean+ 8! process ( tak+ ap>t40 ,?us by *emical influ5ces a portion ( wat] may be subdivid$ into its con/itu5ts & _! am\nts det]m9$4 ,on ! o!r h& ! composition ( wat] has also be5 made out by syn!sis1 ?is ^w mean+ 8! process ( putt+ ?+s toge!r40 ,9 ?is latt] case1 by putt+ toge!r :at are believ$ to be ! prop] proportional am\nts ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 to =m wat]1 & !n ^u us+ "s suitable means = br++ ^! ?+s into a /ate ( true *emical comb9ation1 x has be5 f\nd t !y d comb9e 9 fact to =m wat] & 9 ! proportions already giv5 9 ! table4 ,! ,comp\nd ,bl[pipe4 ,! fact ( ! enorm\s heat develop$ :5 hydrog5 burns1 0 kn[n long ago1 & x gave rise to ! inv5tion ( a contrivance = utiliz+ x4 ,?is has tak5 ! =m ( ! app>atus call$ ! comp\nd bl[pipe1 also ! oxy-hydrog5 bl[pipe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,app>atus = analysis ( wat] by use ( ! galvanic batt]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,app>atus devis$ by ,dumas = det]m9+ ! composition ( wat]4 ,?is bl[pipe1 z usually con/ruct$1 has a s+le jet or tip--to :i* !re is convey$ by sep>ate tubes1 on ! "o h& oxyg51 on ! o!r h& hydrog54 ,! gases1 :5 light$1 give rise to a flame ( b little lum9\s p[] b ( int5se heat+ p[]4 ,_m difficultly fusible metals1 su* z iron = in/ance1 melt l wax be=e x1 :ile o!rs1 l lead & z9c1 boil & vaporize b5ea? its f]v5t brea?4 ,x mu/ n be look$ ^u h[ev] z a m]e *emical toy2 x has "s uses 9 ! arts4 ,( ^! "o ( ! mo/ prom95t is its application to ! melt+ & ref9+ ( ! ores & alloys ( plat9um1 sub/ances :i* no ord9>y furnace c liquefy4 ,= purposes ( ?is sort1 a special furnace or crucible mu/ be provid$1 & x mu/ be con/ruct$ ( "s sub/ance t is itself practically infusible4 ,su* a mat]ial is f\nd 9 quicklime 7calcic oxide1 ,ca,o71 = ?is sub/ance does n melt "u ! influ5ce ( any kn[n contrivance = produc+ heat4 ,moreov] x does n conduct heat rapidly1 & ?us any heat appli$ to ! metal )91 is n subject to s]i\s loss by be+ conduct$ away ?r\gh ! walls ( ! vessel4 ,= melt+ plat9um !n a crucible con/ruct$ ( quicklime1 & hav+ a cov] ( ! same mat]ial1 is employ$4 ,a /ream ( burn+ gases f a comp\nd bl[pipe is =c$ ?r\gh an ap]ture 9 ! crucible cov] 9 su* a way z to fall on ! metal to be melt$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,flame ( ! oxy-hydrog5 bl[pipe direct$ ^u a crucible 9 a furnace ( lime4 ,! ,calcium ,light4 ,ano!r int]e/+ application ( ?is bl[pipe is f\nd 9 ! lime light1 an appliance also kn[n z ! calcium light & sometimes z ! ,drummond light4 ,9 ?is app>atus1 :atev] may be its p>ticul> =m1 ! /ream ( burn+ gases is direct$ ^u a small block or cyl9d] ( lime4 ,( c\rse ! block becomes highly heat$1--9 fact x assumes a :ite heat1 )\t melt+2 & :ile at ?is temp]ature x gives out a dazzl+ light4 ,?is light has be5 utiliz$ by ar*itects & eng9e]s = c>ry+ on important con/ructions dur+ ! d>kness ( night4 ,x is also (t5 us$ 9 "s ( ! f9] =ms ( ! magic lant]n1 z = example 9 ! v>i\s /]eopticons us$ 9 illu/rat$ lectures4 ,s num]\s are ! uses ( ! calcium light 9 l>ge cities t x has become a regul> indu/ry !re to furni% ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 gases 9 sep>ate iron cyl9d]s or cans1 into :i* !y are pump$ "u great pressure4#e 7,x is true t illum9at+ gas is sometimes sub/itut$ = hydrog5 ) decid$ economy 9 co/1 & yet )\t s]i\s loss ( illum9at+ p[]47 ,:5 ! cyl9d]s are 9 use ! /op-cocks are slightly op5$1 & ! gases are "u suffici5t pressure to fl[ to ! top ( ! bl[pipe z freely z c be desir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,drummond light1 or calcium light4 ,! flame ( ! oxy-hydrog5 bl[pipe direct$ aga9/ a block ( lime r5d]s ! latt] int5sely lum9\s4 #e ,,dang]\s ,,explosibility ,,( ,,mixtures ,,( ,,oxyg5 ,,& ,,hydrog54--,at ?is po9t a w>n+ %\ld n be omitt$1 = mixtures ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 gas1 :e!r produc$ purposely or by accid5t1 are capable ( v dang]\s explosions4 ,ev5 a soap bubble1 inflat$ ) ! mix$ gases1 & !n light$ ) a tor*1 explodes ) trem5d\s viol5ce & a l\d report4 ,?is result is all ! m wond]ful :5 ! extreme ?9ness & weakness ( ! filmy conf9+ envelope is consid]$4 ,su* explosions are 9 entire h>mony ) ! v>i\s /atem5ts already made4 ,= :5 ! two gases comb9e1 ! int5se heat !n g5]at$ gives rise to a mom5t>y b enorm\s expansion ( ! vapor ( wat] produc$ by ! combu/ion4 ,! greatly exp&$ vapor imm$iately /rikes ! air a %>p & viol5t bl[4 ,9 ano!r in/ant h[ev] ! vapor sudd5ly cools & cond5ses to an exce$+ly m9ute drop ( liquid wat]4 ,imm$iately ^u ?is effect1 ! air t 0 previ\sly =c$ outw>d imm$iately falls into ! vacancy left1 & n[ a second bl[ results4 ,x is ^! two viol5t %ocks ! "o foll[+ ! o!r 9 almo/ in/antane\s succession1 t produce ! report2 & to ! same causes mu/ be ref]r$ ! t]ribly de/ructive results ( ! accid5tal explosion ( consid]able quantities ( ! mix$ gases4 ,x is pla9 !re=e t all contrivances1 de/9$ to employ ^! gases 9 close proximity1 mu/ be h&l$ ) great caution :5 ready = use4 ,oxyg5 z ,relat$ to ,combu/ions 9 ,g5]al4 ,b oxyg5 is prom95t 9 _m o!r combu/ions besides t ( hydrog54 ,( c\rse ! be/ kn[n & mo/ common are ^? 9 :i* ! ord9>y =ms ( fuel are ! ?+s burn$4 ,"h g5]ally ! pr9cipal con/itu5t ( ! combu/ible mat]ial is c>bon4 ,oxyg5 z ,relat$ to ,animal ,respiration4 ,oxyg5 p]=ms also "o ( its mo/ important (fices 9 connection ) ! process ( animal respiration4 ,9 ! fulfillm5t ( ?is mission no elem5t is kn[n t c 9 any way act z a sub/itute4 ,! gas1 :i* is to s]ve z ! brea? ( life = ! humble/ z well z ! mo/ exalt$ individuals ( ! animal creation1 mu/ possess a comb9ation ( qualities truly m>vell\s :5 resid+ 9 a s+le sub/ance4 ,ev5 a brief description ( ! ways 9 :i* x dis*>ges ?is delicate & manifold duty ought to sub/antiate ! g5]al proposition4 ,oxyg5 is qualifi$ to su/a9 respiration by virtue ( ! exce$+ abundance ( ! atmosph]ic air1 an abundance su* t x ext5ds above our heads a di/ance ( =ty ?\s& times ! height ( a man4 ,nor are ! d5iz5s ( ! sea =gott51 = oxyg5 possesses su* capacity = dissolv+ 9 wat] t !re exi/s1 absorb$ 9 ! liquid ( ! riv]s & oceans1 en\gh ( ?is vital gas to furni% brea? = all ! f9ny tribes4 ,aga91 ! oxyg51 s viol5t 9 its comb9ations1 is yet bl& en\gh to pass ?r\gh all ! delicate passages lead+ into ! lungs )\t excit+ ! ?roat to ! slighte/ c\gh2 to filt] ?r\gh ! f9e membranes ( ! lungs )\t do+ an injury2 to saturate ! blood1 & to fl[ to e tissue & cell ( ! body1 & n only d no h>m b ev]y:]e accompli% a reviv+ "w4 ,x p]=ms ?r\gh\t ! animal frame a well regulat$ b no inconsid]able combu/ion4 ,inde$ ! body ( a liv+ creature may be prop]ly look$ ^u z a k9d ( furnace1 tak+ 9 air ^: oxyg5 %all su/a9 ! combu/ion ( worn-out p>ts4 ,nay m1 ^! z !y burn d 9 _! v dea? make z a f9al contribution ! gift ( t w>m? & gl[ :i* ma9ta9s ! animal temp]ature at ! vital po9t4 ,:ile c>ry+ out ! important functions j ref]r$ to1 oxyg5 produces sev]al gase\s sub/ances1 ea* ( :i*1 z if "u ! con/ant direction ( an ev] wat*ful b>omet]1 ma9ta9s its prop] bulk & pressure1 s z to d no injury to ! mo/ delicate capill>y ( a ve9 or to ! t5d] walls ( ! smalle/ *amb]$ cell ( ! lungs4 ,) ea* brea? exhal$ f ! sy/em1 ! blood1 & !nce ! lungs1 dis*>ge ! gase\s products ( ! combu/ion already describ$2 pla9ly !y d x some:at 9 ! same mann] z a *imney does 9 its prop] action1 only ! lungs d _! "w 9 a f> m p]fect way4 ,! p>allelism is n /ra9$ "h1 = ! burn+ ( ! animal tissue 9 ! body gives rise pr9cipally to ! production ( ! gas call$ c>bon dioxide & ! vapor ( wat]1 j z :5 a faggot burns 9 ! *imney-place1 ! c>bon & ! hydrog5 ( ! wood oxidize into ! self-same products1 bo? ( :i* are waft$ up ! flue & out into ! great ocean ( atmosph]e beyond4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,gases1 ,liquefaction ( ,cailletet1 ,m4--,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique4 #e ,sr4 xv1 #acb4 -------- ,*em4 ,news4 xxxvii1 #aa4 ,coleman1 ,j4 ,j4--,*em4 ,news4 xxxix1 #hg4 ,pictet1 ,r4--,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique4 #e ,sr4 xiii1 #ade4 -------- ,*em4 ,news4 xxxvii1 #a1 #bc1 #hc4 ,roscoe & ,s*orlemm]4--,*emi/ry4 ,new ,york4 #ahgh4 ii1 pt4 ,,ii1 #eaf4 ,s*utz5b]g]1 ,p4--,trait de ,*imie ,gnrale4 i1 #be4 ,prie/ley1 ,joseph ,br\gham1 ,h4--,lives ( ,m5 ( ,lett]s1 etc4 p4 #djb4 -------- ,am]4 ,*emi/4 iv1 #cfb-dda2 v1 #aa-ce1 #dc1 #baj4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,wat]4 ,z ! mo/ prom95t comp\nd ( oxyg51 wat] may prop]ly receive ! read]'s att5tion at ?is "t4 ,he :o /&s ^u a high cliff & looks out ^u ! ocean1 exp]i5ces z "o ( 8 /ronge/ impressions t ( ! b\ndlessness ( ! expanse4 ,& x is true t ! area ( t]re/rial wat]s is v wide1 = 9 ! aggregate _! waves cov] m ?an ?ree-f\r?s ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,b :ile _! sup]ficial ext5t is s great1 _! dep?s are relatively b small4 ,:5 comp>$ to ! diamet] ( ! e>? ! deepe/ ocean seems %all[ inde$4 ,if ! wat]s ( ! oceans 7 dri$ up or o!rwise wip$ away1 ! r\ghness ( ! dry globe w\ld be less relatively ?an ! r\ghness ( an orange4 ,9 fact ! total am\nt ( wat] actually exi/+ ^u ! e>?'s surface is less--relatively to ! entire mass ( ! globe--?an ! am\nt t w\ld rema9 on an orange aft] dipp+ x into a bas9 ( wat] & !n )draw+ x4 ,not)/&+ ^! facts1 ! am\nt ( wat] is s va/ 9 proportion to ! littl5ess ( human be+s1 & x has tak5 s prom95t a "p 9 ! ph5om5a obs]vable by man1 & x has be5 su* a p[]ful ag5t 9 ! geological eras ( ! pa/1 t x is n surpris+ t its prop]ties & hi/ory h excit$ ! int]e/ ( /ud5ts & ?9k]s ( all times4 ,9 ! light ( mod]n *emical k too1 its v>i\s (fices create an admiration t is height5$1 ! m !y are consid]$4 ,! *emical hi/ory1 ! *>act]i/ics1 ! prop]ties1 & ! uses ( wat]1 all ^! are important *emical topics2 :5 "o consid]s fur!r1 ! v>i$ =ms & uses 9 :i* ?is famili> sub/ance is employ$ 9 nature & 9 ! arts1 a subject is sugge/$ t might well furni% mat]ial = a volume4 ,pla9ly !n only a few ( its m /rik+ adaptations c be discuss$ "h4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,egyptian ,wat]-c>ri]4 ,importance ( ,wat] to ,liv+ ,be+s4 ,to liv+ animals & plants wat] appe>s to be absolutely indisp5sable4 ,! reason = ?is is f\nd n only 9 ! fact t wat] =ms a necess>y con/itu5t "p ( mo/ liv+ be+s1 b also because x s]ves z a sort ( vehicle by virtue ( ^: prop]ties ! vital processes are conduct$ & ?r\gh :i* ! vital curr5ts fl[4 ,x is easy to und]/& t if ! atmosph]ic air1 :i* lies wrapp$ ab\t our globe l a ?9 veil1 7 sudd5ly waft$ away1 animal life w\ld be in/antly ext+ui%$4 ,n[1 wat] is n less ess5tial ?an air4 ,bani% wat] f ! e>?1 & ! life ( all animal & vegetable be+s w\ld in/antly take its flight4 ,= ! blood1 t liv+ tide :i* c\rses ?r\gh ! natural gates & alleys ( ! body1 conta9s wat] to ! ext5t ( ne>ly sev5-eigh?s ( its weight4 ,aga9 pure1 unadult]at$ milk1 ri* z x is 9 solid food mat]ials dissolv$ or susp5d$ )9 x1 conta9s n f> %ort ( #ij p] c5t ( wat]4 ,& fur!r1 an exam9ation ( vegetable products reveals 9 !m a prepond]ance ( wat] su* z w\ld n at fir/ be suspect$4 ,?us ! foll[+ brief table repres5ts facts s surpris+ t x is at fir/ difficult to accept !m3 ,apples conta9 ab\t #hj p] c5t ( wat]4 ,turnips 0 0 #ij 0 0 0 0 ,cucumb]s 0 0 #ig 0 0 0 0 ,f9ally z an extreme example among ! k+doms ( life x may be m5tion$ t "s =ms ( jelly-fi%1 z tak5 f _! appropriate home 9 ! ocean1 h be5 f\nd to conta9 n less ?an #ii _/ p] c5t4 ( wat]4#f #f ,,cooke1 ,,josiah ,p43 ,religion & ,*emi/ry4 ,new ,york1 #ahfd4 p4 #adh4 ,! extraord9>y & incr$ible proportion ( wat] 9 liv+ be+s is associat$ ) ! num]\s1 v>i$1 & ev5 app>5tly contradictory (fices to be p]=m$ by x1 & ! fitness ( wat] to fulfil ^! requirem5ts is ref]able fur!r to ! curi\s & int]e/+ prop]ties ) :i* x is end[$4 ,b x is s famili> to e "o & s bl& 9 its action 9 its relation to mo/ well-kn[n sub/ances1 t ! ord9>y obs]v] fails to recognize ^! prop]ties & _! m>vell\s adaptations4 ,"o ( ! prop]ties mo/ appropriate = pres5tation 9 ?is connection is ! p[] wat] possesses ( dissolv+ gases4 ,x is capable ( /or+ up )9 itself1 conceal$ f human view1 almo/ e gas ) :i* x comes 9 contact4 ,x displays ?is p[] ^u ! atmosph]ic air1 n only 9 its bett] kn[n relations to man & ! high] animals1 b also z respects ! humbl] population ( ! globe4 ,x w be se5 by-&-by t ! air consi/s 9 ! ma9 ( a mixture ( two gases v diff]5t 9 _! prop]ties4 ,"o is oxyg51 ! su/a9] ( animal respiration2 ! o!r1 nitrog51 ! inactive sub/ance exi/+ 9 ! air z a m]e dilu5t ( ! active oxyg54 ,n[ wat] possesses a v curi\s relation to ^! gases2 x naturally dissolves a l>g] proportion ( oxyg5 ?an ( nitrog54 ,by reason ( ?is prop]ty x acts ^u ! atmosph]ic air ) a selective effect highly sugge/ive ( intellig5t plan4 ,= ! gas x selects to dissolve 9 l>g] proportional quantity is oxyg51--! "o absolutely ne$$ to take ! pr9cipal "p 9 support+ ! respiration ( ! c\ntless millions ( fi%es t make _! natural homes 9 all great bodies ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,arctic explor]s employ+ dynamite to op5 a *annel ?r\gh ! ice4 ,t]re/rial ,circulation ( ,wat]4 ,wat] is ! *ief liquid ( ! great globe itself4 ,& x c>ries on "h a cont9u$ & b5efic5t circulation :i* may be prop]ly lik5$ to t ( ! liv+ animal & plant1 except t x proce$s on ! cosmical scale4 ,?is circulation may be describ$ z />t+ 9 ! dep?s ( ! ocean1 :]e p]man5t curr5ts are con/antly fl[+ 9 c]ta9 directions4 ,^! contribute to make ! seas ! highways ( navies ev5 m completely ?an !y w\ld be if ! wat]s 7 always at re/4 ,a yet m /rik+ circulatory movem5t is t initiat$ by ! volumes ( moi/ure :i* rise by con/ant evaporation f ! temp]ate z well z ! tropical seas4 ,?is wat]1 asc5d+ into ! high] atmosph]e1 is c>ri$ by curr5ts ( ! air hi!r & ?i!r & ov] ! l&1 :]e by m\nta9 ranges or o!r natural means adequate to ?is purpose1 x becomes precipitat$ into a solid or liquid =m4 ,9 ?is cond5s$ =m x is recogniz$ z b5efic5t :5 x is 9 cl\d masses :i* delight mank9d ) ! purity ( _! fleecy :it5ess1 or ! beauty ( _! gorge\s color+ z well z :5 x is 9 ! =m ( %[]s :i* refre% ! ?ir/y e>?1 or z ! sn[ :i* protects x4 ,! ra9 & sn[ supply ! numb]less rivulets t contribute to make up riv]s1 & ^! fl[ joyfully to ! ocean &1 m+l+ 9 its wat]s1 return to ! s\rce f :i* !y came4 ,?us has be5 pictur$ 9 brief an outl9e ( ! circulation previ\sly sugge/$4 ,wat] 9 ! ,solid ,=m4 ,aga91 c]ta9 prop]ties ( wat] 9 ! solid =m are wor?y ( pres5tation4 ,p]haps x is n inconsi/5t ) ! tru? to say t !y are ev5 m pla9ly b5eficial4 ,?us 9 ! =m ( sn[1 wat] appe>s at fir/ sight to be an emblem ( cold4 ,b :5 x falls ^u ! e>? x becomes a mantle or cov]let1 :i* protects ! soil f ! *ill+ effects ( ! w9try season & f t rapid loss ( heat by radiation (f into space :i* ! fields w\ld suff] )\t ?is protective coat+4 ,& s ice1 z x =ms on ! surface ( lakes & ponds1 manife/s sev]al rem>kable prop]ties4 ,( ^! only two w be discuss$ "h4 ,!y are bo? due to its p[] ( exp&+ at ! mom5t ( solidification4 ,mo/ p]sons make acqua9tance ) ?is *>act]i/ic ( wat] by ! inconv5i5t bur/+ ( pit*]s & pipes1 recogniz$ z a disagreeable att5dant ^u ! w9t]'s cold4 ,:5 look$ ^u ) m fully in/ruct$ eyes1 h[ev]1 x is discov]$ to be "o feature ( a rem>kable sy/em :i* results 9 great b5efit to ! inhabitants ( ! e>?4 ,= x is pla9 t z wat] 9 freez+ exp&s1 x !reby becomes relatively light]4 ,on ?is acc\nt ice floats 9 wat]1 :]eas solid sub/ances g5]ally s9k 9 liquid matt]s ( _! own k9d4 ,n[ ! ice =m$ ^u lakes 9 ! w9t]1 /ays at ! top & ?us protects ! wat] bel[ f ! *ill ( ! cold] air2 s x prev5ts ! lakes f becom+ un9habitable to ! fi%4 ,! same prop]ty prev5ts a lake f becom+ a mass ( solid f ! bottom upw>ds1 z w\ld be ! case if ! ice ^u freez+ w5t to ! bottom4 ,! summ]'s sun w\ld h>dly be capable ( ?aw+ ! solid masses s =m$4 ,?is same curi\s fact ( ! expansion ( ice at ! mom5t ( its =mation contributes to ! f]tility ( ! soil4 ,?us ! wat] t p5etrates ! crevices ( rocks1 exp&s ^u freez+1 *ipp+ (f ^? rocks1 9 fact pulv]iz+ !m little by little1 & s convey+ fre% & valuable mat]ials to ! e>?'s soils4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,wat] 9 ! =m ( cumulus cl\ds4 ,wat] z ,affect+ ,climate4 ,fur!r1 ! relations ( wat] to heat are v int]e/+4 8,! g5]al aque\s circulation ( ! e>? is a great /eam-heat+ app>atus1 ) its boil] 9 ! tropics & its cond5s]s all ov] ! globe4 ,! sun's rays make ! /eam4 ,& :]ev] dew1 ra9 or sn[ fall1 !re heat1 :i* came orig9ally f ! sun1 & :i* has be5 br\ght f ! tropics conceal$ 9 ! folds ( ! vapor1 is set free to w>m ! less favor$ regions ( ! e>?4 ,?is app>atus 9 nature1 al?\gh s mu* simpl] & work+ )\t pipes1 iron boil] or radiators1 is exactly ! same 9 pr9ciple z ! /eam heat] :i* may be se5 at "w 9 almo/ e l>ge factory40#g ,9 o!r words1 :5 wat] is *ang$ into vapor 9 ! tropics1 heat is n only requisite to ! op]ation1 b a def9ite quantity ( heat is actually /or$ up )9 ! vapor s produc$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5ev] 9 "s cool] p>ts ( ! globe ?is same portion ( vapor cond5ses into ! =m ( liquid1 t heat t 0 /or$ )9 x at ! tropics is imm$iately evolv$ & contributes some?+ to ! w>m? ( ! region :]e cond5sation takes place4 ,nay m1 if ! wat]1 in/ead ( fall+ z ra91 falls z sn[ a /ill l>g] am\nt ( heat is by ?is means giv5 out into ! atmosph]e4 ,?is la/ /atem5t is ins5sibly sub/antiat$ by ! expression (t5 he>d 9 w9t]1 8! wea!r is too cold = sn[40 ,?is common expression1 translat$ into sci5tific language1 means 8! air does n possess t am\nt ( w>m? t x w\ld manife/ if sn[ 7 n[ cond5s+ 9 ! upp] air & 7 ready to fall40 #g ,,cooke1 ,,josiah ,p43 ,religion & ,*emi/ry4 ,new ,york1 #ahhd4 p4 #ace4 ,x is n only ) respect to ^? *anges tak+ place :5 ! vapor ( wat] *anges to ! liquid or ! solid =m t its heat relations are b5eficial to mank9d4 ,no lake c *ange "o degree 9 temp]ature--t is1 gr[ w>m] or cool]--)\t at ! same "t ex]cis+ a contr>ywise influ5ce ^u ! air ab\t x1 & ?us a regulat+ "o4 ,9 explanation ( ?is decl>ation ! foll[+ /atem5ts may be made3 ,:51 9 ! int5sely hot days ( summ]1 a lake or any mass ( wat] become influ5c$ by ! high temp]ature1 ( c\rse its wat]s become w>m]4 ,b x is a curi\s fact t x takes m heat to raise ! temp]ature ( wat] "o degree ?an x does to raise ! temp]ature ( ! adjo9+ l& "o degree--or 9 fact to raise any o!r sub/ance kn[n1 "o degree4 ,?us x appe>s t a giv5 am\nt ( heat appli$ 9 a summ] day to a lake w be absorb$ )9 ! wat]s ( t lake )\t rais+ ! temp]ature ( ^? wat]s to ! ext5t t might be expect$4 ,s !n 9 hot wea!r ! lake becomes an equaliz] ( temp]ature ) a t5d5cy 9 ! opposite direction1 t is to cool ! air ab\t x4 ,n[ 9 cold wea!r x becomes equally b5eficial1 only1 z might be expect$1 9 ! opposite direction4 ,?us ! /ore ( heat reta9$ by ! liquid wat] is giv5 out z ! lake cools4 ,= j z ! wat] 9 ord] to rise "o degree 9 temp]ature requires1 & inde$ absorbs1 m heat ?an any o!r sub/ance kn[n1 s naturally ! same wat]1 9 cool+ "o degree 9 temp]ature1 freely gives out ! am\nt ( heat x _h previ\sly /or$ )9 itself1 :i*1 z has be5 said is great] ?an t /or$ up by any o!r sub/ance kn[n4 ,wat] z a ,work+ ,contrivance4 ,:5 ! moi/ure ( ! tropical oceans is tak5 up into ! air by evaporation1 ! sun has !reby done a truly /up5d\s am\nt ( "w4 ,= has x n lift$ up high into ! atmosph]e an enorm\s weight ( ?is liquid mat]ial8 ,n[ z ! vapor is waft$ ov] ! l& prep>atory to fall+ z ra91 x has acquir$ a position 9 :i* x may d a great am\nt ( "w = human uses2 = e ra9-drop1 fall+ f its l(ty position 9 ! air1 acquires !reby a mom5tum :i* repres5ts a quantity ( =ce1 m9ute 9 ea* individual case b truly va/ 9 ! aggregate4 ,( ?is sum total b a small portion is employ$ = man's indu/rial uses2 only a m9ute fractional "p is h>ness$ to ! :eels t gr9d 8 food or weave 8 clo?+ or trans=m ! trees ( ! =e/ into 8 habitations2 yet ! am\nt he does s employ--compell+ x to d 8 "w = him--repres5ts an enorm\s total quantity4 ,all ?is "w done1 z well z all t might be done1 by ! va/ quantities ( wat] all[$ to escape & viol5tly run to wa/e1 is ref]able back aga9 to ! sun ( ! tropics1 :i* has be5 enabl$1 by reason ( ! wond]ful prop]ties ( wat]1 to /ore up all ?is p[] )9 x4 ,9 view ( :at has be5 said1 ! sun & ! wat] ( ! tropics may be comp>$ n inappropriately to ! *ief artificial contrivances us$ 9 mod]n times = g5]at+ & apply+ me*anical p[]--boil] & eng9e4 ,z an ord9>y /eam-boil] imp>ts to wat] ! expansive & work+ p[] ( /eam1 & aga9 ! ord9>y /eam-eng9e utilizes ?is /eam p[] s t x may be directly appli$ to ! labor ( man's work%ops1 s ! sun ( ! tropics lifts ! wat] ( ! ocean high up into ! air1 & ?us may be lik5$ to ! boil]2 :ile ! rapidly runn+ brooks may fitly repres5t an eng9e 9 motion1 ready to actuate any ma*9e to :i* by prop] appliances x may be atta*$4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,sulphur4 ,sulphur1 9 its aggregate 9 ! e>? is by no means an abundant elem5t4 ,?us its quantity is f> inf]ior to t ( oxyg51 z is /rik+ly illu/rat$ by ! diagram already pres5t$4 7,see page #af47 ,yet sulphur 0 recogniz$ by human be+s ?\s&s ( ye>s be=e oxyg51 :i* x has already be5 /at$ 0 discov]$ 9 #aggd4 ,! comp>ative lat5ess ( ! discov]y ( ?is latt] elem5t1 n[ kn[n to be t "o :i* pr$om9ates l>gely ov] all o!rs 9 ! e>?1 is due p>tly to ! fact t free oxyg5 almo/ inv>iably exi/s 9 gase\s =m & t ! idea or notion ( gas is "o ( rec5t gr[?4 ,! fact t sulphur 0 recogniz$ s mu* e>li] is due to _m circum/ances4 ,fir/3 ,x is f\nd 9 ! e>? 9 ! solid condition--a =m at once tangible & easy ( recognition4 ,second3 ,its yell[ color helps to r5d] x noticeable4 ,?ird3 ,x exi/s 9 ! e>? 9 c\ntries :i* h long be5 ! abode ( civiliz$ be+s4 ,?us x 0 e>ly recogniz$ 9 ,italy4 ,f\r?3 ,x occurs 9 deposits ( su* a "* t x c be readily obta9$ 9 a comp>atively pure =m f !m4 ,fif?3 ,x possesses c]ta9 rem>kable prop]ties "s ( :i* w\ld be easily detect$ ev5 by savage peoples1 :ile o!rs h = c5turies excit$ great int]e/ 9 ! m9ds ( /ud5ts ( al*emy & *emi/ry4 ,"o ( ^! prop]ties is ! ease ) :i* x assumes a liquid =m--t is1 melts--:5 slightly heat$4 ,ano!r is ! read9ess ) :i* x takes fire & burns 9 ! air4 ,a ?ird1 closely connect$ ) ! =ego+1 is ! /rik+ blue flame produc$ :5 x burns4 ,/ill ano!r1 & n less noticeable1 is ! *ok+ & disagreeable odor att5dant ^u ?is combu/ion4 ,f9ally may be m5tion$ a circum/ance :i* = a long "t contribut$ to make x peculi>ly int]e/+ to ! al*emi/1 if n to ord9>y m53 ?is is ! fact t :5 sulphur is 9 ! pure =m x may be burn$ away )\t leav+ any a%es4 ,9 ?is respect x diff]s f mo/ o!r combu/ible mat]ials4 ,& ?is prop]ty creat$ ! impression t sulphur is a sort ( pr9ciple ( fire1 & t x someh[ exi/s 9 all combu/ible bodies4 ,inde$ x is only = ab\t a hundr$ ye>s t sulphur has be5 classifi$ z a di/9ct elem5t>y =m ( matt]4 ,x is n int5d$ to indicate "h t ! /rong int]e/ ( ! al*emi/s 9 sulphur 0 ma9ly ref]able to ! circum/ances ( its combu/ibility4 ,its p[] ( comb9ation ) ! metals 0 well kn[n to !m1 & 0 recogniz$ z a subject ( practical importance & "o wor?y ( c>eful /udy & ?\ght4 ,natural ,s\rces ( ,sulphur4 ,! pr9cipal supply ( sulphur = comm]ce is obta9$ f ! volcanic di/ricts ( ! isl& ( ,sicily4 ,"h 9 fact !re are m ?an two hundr$ di/9ct e/abli%m5ts = production ( ! sub/ance1 & !y are capable ( yield+ ab\t two hundr$ million p\nds ( x p] ye>4 ,! fact t sulphur is easily & widely recogniz$ 9 ! e>? has already be5 dwelt ^u4 ,b x occurs 9 nature 9 a great v>iety ( =ms4 ,! fir/ & mo/ /rik+ =m is t ( free & uncomb9$ sulphur4 ,9 ?is condition x occurs ei!r z masses or z f9e p[d]4 ,sometimes ^! mat]ials possess ! well-kn[n & easily recogniz$ yell[ color ( sulphur2 sometimes h[ev] ! color is :ite or o!rwise disguis$ by reason ( "s peculi>ity ( ! sulphur itself or else because ( ! admixture ( =eign sub/ances4 ,deposits ( sulphur occur 9 ! mo/ consid]able quantities 9 ! neighborhood ( ei!r active or ext9ct volcanoes4 ,?us sulphur e>? occurs ne> ,vesuvius & tna1 also 9 ! vic9ity ( ! volcanoes ( ,icel&1 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica & 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s4 ,9 ! region ( "s ext9ct volcanoes ! soil is impregnat$ ) sulphur to ! dep? ( tw5ty or ?irty feet & su* soil is !re=e a conv5i5t s\rce ( ! elem5t4 ,purification ( ,natural ,sulphur ,ores4 ,9 obta9+ sulphur f ! e>? = comm]cial purposes1 two simple processes are resort$ to4 ,by ! fir/ me?od masses ( ! sulphur e>? are heap$ up into a pile1 9 connection ) a small am\nt ( fuel & ov] a %all[ depression 9 ! e>?4 ,^u sett+ ! mass on fire1 consid]able quantities ( sulphur escape combu/ion1 & s melt & run d[n to ! gr\nd bel[ ! heap4 ,:5 ! fire is ext+ui%$1 ! sulphur t collect$ b5ea? may be secur$ 9 a =m n[ only slightly impure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,calc>one or heap ( burn+ m9]al f :i* sulphur is obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,sket* illu/rat+ ! process ( ref9+ sulphur4 ,! second me?od ( purification ( ! e>? is /ill conduct$ 9 ,sicily 9 ! foll[+ crude mann]1 ?\gh ?is is q an improvem5t ^u t j describ$4 ,a slightly incl9$ plane ( masonry is built ^u ! gr\nd4 ,ar\nd ! edges ( ?is plane a l[ wall is erect$4 ,at ! l[] side ( ! plane ! wall is p]=at$4 ,^u ! surface ( ! plane l>ge masses ( sulphur e>? are c>efully pil$ up s z to =m a well-built heap4 ,:5 x rea*es ! prop] height its outside is cov]$ all ov]1 fir/1 ) small fragm5ts ( ! same k9d ( e>?1 & !n ) its f9e du/4 ,"s sulphur at ! l[] portion ( ! heap is !n set on fire at sev]al po9ts4 ,! heat f ! sulphur t burns melts o!r portions ( x1 :i* !n trickle d[n ! spaces betwe5 ! masses ( rock4 ,?is melt$ mat]ial1 f9d+ ! bottom ( ! pile1 runs freely to ! l[e/ portion ( ! plat=m1 !n ?r\gh ! p]=ations & out into wood5 boxes plac$ to receive x4 ,! heap burns = two or ?ree weeks1 at ! end ( :i* "t ! op]ation is f9i%$4 ,:5 ! mass is cool x is torn d[n1 & a simil> pile is erect$ f fre% portions ( ! sulphur e>?4 ,! objectionable features ( ?is process are at lea/ f\r4 ,fir/1 ! consumption ( sulphur z fuel is a wa/eful "o4 ,b 9 reply x may be said t no *eap] fuel is accessible :]e ?is manufacture is c>ri$ on4 ,aga91 ! great volumes ( sulphur dioxide giv5 out by ! burn+ calc>oni--z ! heaps are call$--are injuri\s to ! heal? ( ! workm54 ,fur!r1 ^! same products ex]cise a v de/ructive effect ^u all vegetation 9 _! vic9ity4 ,9 fact on ?is acc\nt ! ,italian gov]nm5t has provid$ by law t ?is "w %all n be c>ri$ on at all betwe5 ,july #a/ & ,decemb] #ca/4 ,f9ally ! me?od is n z successful ) ! ri*] ores1 = !y break d[n into p[d] :i* x is difficult to utilize 9 ! calc>oni4 ,a new & greatly improv$ me?od1 & "o :i* ov]comes all ! objections above cit$ has rec5tly be5 introduc$4 ,9 ?is1 ! ore is plac$ 9 p]=at$ metal baskets & !n imm]s$ 9 tanks conta9+ hot solutions ( calcic *loride4 ,"u ^! conditions ! sulphur melts out f its ore & falls to ! bottom ( ! tanks1 :5ce x is drawn out by /op-cocks 9 a comp>atively pure =m4 ,sulphur is g5]ally subject$ to a /ill fur!r purification4 ,?is is conduct$ some:at z foll[s4 ,! crude sulphur1 be+ melt$ 9 a suitable retort & ov] a coal fire1 *anges into vapor & passes into an ap>tm5t con/ruct$ ( /one or brick1 & prep>$ = ! purpose4 ,9 ?is ap>tm5t1 ! sulphur at fir/ cond5ses on ! walls z m9ute yell[ cry/als or p[d] call$ fl[]s ( sulphur4 ,:5 ! fir/ *>ge ( sulphur 9 ! retort has be5 completely vaporiz$ a new supply is all[$ to run 91 ?is "t 9 ! liquid =m f a small heat] plac$ above ! retort4 ,! wa/e heat f ! furnace melts ! sulphur 9 ! heat]1 f :i* x fl[s into ! retort 7by means ( ! tube %[n 9 ! diagram74 ,:5 a suffici5t am\nt ( fl[]s ( sulphur has collect$ 9 ! *amb]1 ! fire is ext+ui%$4 ,! pur] product is !n remov$4 ,aft]w>d ! :ole op]ation is repeat$4 ,! ref9+ may be conduct$ s t ! temp]ature ( ! cond5s+ ap>tm5t may rise consid]ably2 9 ?is case ! vapor 9 x *anges to ! liquid =m4 ,?is liquid may be drawn (f at ! base ( ! *amb] into a small receiv]1 f :i* x is ladl$ into m\lds1 :i* give x ! =m ( cyl9d]s kn[n 9 trade z roll brim/one4 ,natural ,comp\nds ( ,sulphur4 ,sulphur is also f\nd 9 ! e>? 9 ! =m ( c]ta9 *emical comp\nds4 ,"s ( ^! are v widely di/ribut$4 ,!y may be divid$ into two classes4 ,! fir/ class--^: repres5tatives are by f> ! m abundant--includes ! metallic sulphides1 t is1 comp\nds =m$ by ! direct union ( sulphur ) "s metallic sub/ance4 ,z examples ( comp\nds ( ?is class we m5tion3 ,sulphide ( iron 7commonly call$ iron pyrites & hav+ ! =mula ,fe,s74 ,sulphide ( lead 7commonly call$ gal5a1 & hav+ ! =mula ,pb,s74 ,sulphide ( z9c 7commonly call$ bl5de1 & hav+ ! =mula ,zn,s74 ,sulphide ( m]cury 7commonly call$ c9nab> & hav+ ! =mula ,hg,s74 ,_m o!r examples ( simil> import might be giv51 = x is a well-kn[n fact t mo/ ( ! heavy metals occur 9 ! e>? 9 comb9ation ) sulphur4 ,! o!r class ( comp\nds also conta9+ sulphur comb9$ ) ! metals has usually oxyg5 9 addition4 ,two examples ( ?is class may be giv5 "h--calcic sulphate 7commonly call$ anhydrite1 & hav+ ! =mula ,ca,s,o72 also b>ic sulphate 7commonly call$ heavy sp>1 & hav+ ! =mula ,ba,s,o74 ,sulphur is v widely di/ribut$ 9 animal & vegetable matt]s4 ,9 ^! x exi/s1 n z an uncomb9$ elem5t1 b 9 union ) o!rs4 ,inde$ su* comp\nds h _m o!r elem5ts besides ! sulphur1 & !y are *>act]iz$ by decid$ complexity ( /ructure4 ,b sulphur is (t5] a compon5t ( animal matt]s ?an ( vegetable4 ,! pres5ce ( sulphur 9 an egg is prov$ by an exp]im5t ( e-day occurr5ce4 ,t is to say1 ! silv] spoon ) :i* ! egg is eat5 becomes black5$4 ,?is black5+ is due to ! production ( a new comp\nd =m$ by a true union ( sulphur f ! egg1 ) a "p ( ! metal ( ! spoon4 ,9 fact ! black mat]ial is sulphide ( silv]1 & x may be repres5t$ by ! =mula ,ag,s4 ,a ,fr5* *emi/ has e/imat$ t 9 ! body ( a human be+ ( ord9>y size !re exi/s1 9 ! aggregate1 n f> f "o qu>t] ( a p\nd ( sulphur4 ,to ?is1 he adds ! curi\s e/imate t ! entire human population ( ,france may be repres5t$ z conta9+ n f> f n9e millions ( p\nds ( sulphur4 ,*emical ,prop]ties ( ,sulphur4 ,! *emical prop]ties ( sulphur may be said to be its mo/ important & int]e/+ ones4 ,t x has a wide range ( *emical aptitudes is %[n by ! fact t x comb9es 9 simple =ms ( union ) a majority ( ! elem5ts kn[n4 ,?us x has /rong aff9ities = mo/ ( ! metals4 ,on ! o!r h& x comb9es ) v>i\s degrees ( attractive =ce ) ne>ly all ! non-metals z well4 ,evid5tly !n1 sulphur =ms a v l>ge numb] ( *emical comp\nds4 ,:ile ! limits ( ?is "w are su* z to make x impossible to describe _m ( !m1 !re are ?ree t may ) propriety be briefly discuss$ 9 ?is place1 & ^! are3 ,sulphurett$ hydrog5 7,h,s71 ,sulphur dioxide 7,,s71 ,sulphur trioxide 7,,s74 ,sulphurett$ ,hydrog54 ,?is sub/ance is a colorless gas4 ,x has an extremely (f5sive odor2 9 fact x is a prom95t compon5t ( t num]\s gr\p ( gase\s products ( decomposition ( animal matt]s t produce ! disagreeable smell att5dant ^u ! decay ( ! latt]4 ,aga91 x is f\nd 9 ! wat]s ( c]ta9 natural sulphur spr+s1 & x is a rem$ial ag5t ( consid]able value :5 prop]ly appli$ ext]nally or :5 tak5 into ! /oma*4 ,:5 receiv$ into ! lungs1 h[ev]1 x is decid$ly poison\s4 ,a consid]able numb] ( simple exp]im5ts may be tri$ ) x4 ,9 ^! ! gas us$ is g5]at$ by add+ dilut$ sulphuric acid to artificial f]r\s sulphide4 ,! f]r\s sulphide is usually manufactur$ by heat+ a mixture ( roll brim/one & iron fil+s 9 a s& crucible4 ,9 produc+ ! gas1 ! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,fe,s ,h,,s ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,f]r\s sulphide1 ,sulphuric acid1 #hh #ih p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #ahf ,h,s ,fe,s,o ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,sulphurett$ hydrog51 ,f]r\s sulphate1 #cd #aeb p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #ahf ,= ! purpose ( ! exp]im5ts "h m5tion$1 a flask or bottle may be us$ to prep>e ! gas & convey x into ano!r bottle conta9+ wat]4 ,9 ! wat]1 ! sulphurett$ hydrog5 gas dissolves 9 su* quantity t ! solution s af=d$ may be conv5i5tly employ$ = %[+ ! prop]ties ( ! gas itself4 ,! foll[+ int]e/+ exp]im5ts may be p]=m$ by use ( ?is solution3 #a4 ,dissolve 9 wat] a small quantity ( plumbic acetate1 also call$ sug> ( lead4 ,filt] ?is solution if conv5i5t4 ,to ! cle> liquid1 add "s sulphurett$ hydrog5 wat]4 ,a black precipitate ( plumbic sulphide 7,pb,s7 %\ld imm$iately appe>4 #b4 ,dissolve 9 *lorohydric acid a fragm5t ( :ite-ars5ic n bigg] ?an a p9's head4 ,to ! solution1 freely add sulphurett$ hydrog5 wat]4 ,a beautiful lemon-yell[ precipitate1 consi/+ ( ars5i\s sulphide 7,z,s71 %\ld result4 #c4 ,dissolve 9 *lorohydric acid a m9ute quantity ( t>t>-emetic4 ,to ! solution1 freely add sulphurett$ hydrog5 wat]4 ,a beautiful orange r$ & flaky precipitate ( antimoni\s sulphide 7,sb,s7 %\ld appe>4 #d4 ,dissolve 9 wat] a m9ute fragm5t ( cupric sulphate1 commonly call$ sulphate ( copp] or blue vitriol4 ,to ! solution1 add "s ( ! sulphurett$ hydrog5 wat]4 ,?is %\ld in/antly give rise to a black precipitate ( cupric sulphide 7,cu,s74 #e4 ,dissolve 9 wat] a small quantity ( z9c sulphate4 ,to ! solution1 freely add sulphurett$ hydrog5 wat]4 ,!re %\ld appe> 9 ?is case a :ite precipitate consi/+ ( z9c sulphide 7,zn,s74 ,^! few exp]im5ts %[ t sulphurett$ hydrog5 is a conv5i5t sub/ance = br++ sulphur into union ) ! metals1 &1 moreov]1 !y su/a9 ! /atem5ts already pres5t$1 t _m metals %[ /rong aff9ity = sulphur & m>k$ t5d5cies to comb9e ) x4 ,= ^! reasons sulphurett$ hydrog5 is mu* us$ 9 *emical laboratories = di/+ui%+ "o metal f ano!r4#h #h ,see ,appleton's ,qualitative ,analysis1 publi%$ by ,c[p]?wait ,co41 ,philadelphia2 p4 #ad4 ,sulphur ,dioxide4 ,:5 sulphur burns 9 oxyg5 gas or 9 atmosph]ic air1 x gives rise to a new gas ( *ok+ & (f5sive odor4 ,?is is ! same sub/ance z t produc$ 9 ! fir/ /ages ( ! burn+ ( a sulphur mat*4 ,x is a sub/ance ( consid]able importance 9 ! arts1 fir/1 because x is always produc$ 9 "o /age ( ! process us$ 9 ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid4 ,n[ sulphuric acid 7commonly call$ oil ( vitriol7 is a comm]cial product ( enorm\s consumption4 7,see page #aeb47 ,aga91 sulphur dioxide is us$1 z su*1 to a consid]able ext5t 9 ! arts1 ! pr9cipal uses be+ 9 ! blea*+ ( /raw & wool5 goods4 ,*lor9e z a blea*+ ag5t has already be5 discuss$1 b x is us$ ma9ly = ! blea*+ ( cotton & l95 goods2 x has an unfavorable & injuri\s action ^u /raw & wool5 goods4 ,! way 9 :i* ^! latt] are blea*$ by ! use ( sulphur may be illu/rat$ by a v simple exp]im5t4 ,place a few fragm5ts ( roll brim/one 9 a small crucible4 ,heat ! crucible c>efully until ! sulphur takes fire4 ,!n cov] ! burn+ sulphur ) a glass lamp-*imney1 or any o!r suitable contrivance4 ,9 ! top ( ! *imney hang a moi/5$ c>nation p9k or o!r r$ fl[]4 ,a few m9utes exposure to ! gas1 results 9 a p>tial blea*+ ( ! fl[]4 ,on a comm]cial scale1 ! sulphur blea*+ process is conduct$ 9 practically ! same mann]4 ,= blea*+ wool5 goods !re is provid$ a small wood5 h\se hav+ a brick floor1 ) a small pit 9 ! c5tre4 ,! goods are hung up 9 ?is h\se4 ,! pit is fill$ ) sulphur :i*1 :5 all is ready1 is set on fire by ?r[+ a piece ( r$-hot iron ^u x4 ,n[ ! doors & w9d[s ( ! h\se are clos$4 ,( c\rse ! sulphur burns into sulphur dioxide4 ,! op]ation is all[$ to proce$ )\t any fur!r att5tion dur+ "o night4 ,! gas di/ributes itself ?r\gh\t ! goods & blea*es !m4 ,! next morn+ ! doors & w9d[s are op5$1 &1 :5 ! fre% air has driv5 ! sulphur dioxide f ! *amb]1 ! goods are f\nd blea*$4 ,ev]yone kn[s1 h[ev]1 t ?is blea*+ has n ! p]man5ce t *lor9e blea*+ has4 ,?us :ite flannels v soon return to _! orig9al yell[i% %ade4 ,sulphur dioxide is plac$ by ! *emi/ 9 ! class ( acid anhydrides4 ,?is t]m is int5d$ to c>ry ! mean+ t sub/ances belong+ to ?is class comb9e ) wat] to =m acids4 ,9 accordance ) ?is =m ( expression1 sulphur dioxide is also call$ sulphur\s anhydride4 ,pla9ly ?is means t sulphur dioxide ) wat] w =m an acid4 ,su* seems to be inde$ ! case1 = wat] has ! p[] ( dissolv+ l>ge quantities ( sulphur dioxide1 & :5 x does s ! wat] acquires ! *>act]i/ics ( an acid4 ,9 fact x is !n call$ sulphur\s acid4 ,! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,,s ,h,o ,h,,s ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,sulphur dioxide1 ,wat]1 ,sulphur\s acid1 #fd #ah #hb p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #hb #hb ,"o special *>act]i/ic :i* ju/ifies ! "n sulphur\s acid1 is ! fact t ! solution s produc$ has ! p[] ( produc+ a s]ies ( salts z ! o!r acids d4 ,9 ?is case1 ! salts h ! g5]al "n sulphites4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,sulphur ,,trioxide4 ,sulphur trioxide does n exi/ by itself 9 nature4 ,moreov] x is b little kn[n ev5 z an artificial product4 ,x is n an article ( ord9>y sale1 ?\gh x is occasionally made by ! *emi/4 ,yet x is a con/itu5t "p ( "o ( ! mo/ important comp\nds kn[n to mod]n indu/ry4 ,t comp\nd is sulphuric acid4 ,sulphur trioxide is a :ite solid1 b x _c easily be kept s4 ,?is is because x has v /rong aff9ity = moi/ure4 ,x fact x readily absorbs t wat]-vapor :i* is di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! atmosph]e1 ev5 9 dry wea!r & :5 ! ord9>y obs]v] w\ld suppose t ! air conta9$ no moi/ure at all4 ,:5 x absorbs moi/ure x *emically comb9es ) x1 =m+ sulphuric acid4 ,! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,,s ,h,o ,h,,s ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,sulphur trioxide1 ,wat]1 ,sulphuric acid1 #hj #ah #ih p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #ih #ih ,on acc\nt ( ?is reaction1 sulphur trioxide is (t5 spok5 ( z sulphuric anhydride1 ! t]m anhydride be+ int5d$ to sugge/ t ! sub/ance s nam$ is d]iv$ f an acid by ! removal ( wat] f ! latt]4 ,?us sulphuric acid m9us wat] produces sulphuric anhydride4 ,& ?is h>monizes ) :at has be=e be5 decl>$1 namely1 t sulphuric anhydride--or sulphur trioxide--plus wat] produces sulphuric acid4 ,sulphuric ,acid4 ,?is sub/ance is kn[n to comm]ce *iefly "u ! "n ( oil ( vitriol4 ,x is an oily liquid ne>ly twice z heavy z wat]4 ,x has v p[]ful *emical action ^u mo/ sub/ances ) :i* x comes 9 contact4 ,moreov]1 its m>ket price is v l[1 t is1 betwe5 "o & two c5ts a p\nd at :olesale4 ,to ^! two facts la/ m5tion$--t is1 ! m>k$ *emical p[] & ! l[ price is ref]able ! enorm\s dem& = ! sub/ance4 ,to be sure1 increase ( dem& & fall 9 price h a reciprocal action2 = ev5 a slight *eap5+ ( a sub/ance wid5s consid]ably ! range ( its possible uses & increases ! am\nt consum$4 ,aga91 increase ( dem& & consumption1 lead manufactur]s to increase _! production1 a circum/ance :i* is g5]ally foll[$ by l[] price4 ,! manufacture ( sulphuric acid exemplifies ^! well-kn[n pr9ciples ( political economy4 ,! manufacture ( ?is sub/ance has ris5 )9 ! la/ hundr$ ye>s f almo/ no?+ to a pres5t annual production ( ab\t n9e hundr$ ?\s& tons 9 ,great ,brita9 alone4 ,! price mean:ile has fall5 to ab\t "o-?irtie? ( :at x 0 9 ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! price ( oil ( vitriol seems to be /eadily decreas+1 :ile ! am\nt produc$ is /eadily increas+ 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 ,g]many & ! ,unit$ ,/ates--inde$ 9 all c\ntries p]vad$ by active indu/rial ent]prises4 ,x w be g5]ally admitt$1 z ,m4 ,dumas has said1 t ! am\nt ( sulphuric acid consum$ af=ds a v precise measure ( ! advancem5t 9 indu/rial arts ( a giv5 c\ntry or ( a hi/orical epo*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,section ( *amb]s = manufacture ( sulphuric acid4 ,uses ( ,oil ( ,vitriol4 ,x w\ld be difficult to enum]ate ! _m indu/ries t dem& ! use ( sulphuric acid4 ,x mu/ likewise be admitt$ t !re are b few manufactur+ op]ations :i* d n directly or indirectly involve its employm5t4 ,! indu/ries t /& 9 ! front rank z direct consum]s ( ?is acid are ^? t involve ! foll[+ processes1 namely3 ! blea*+ ( cotton goods2 ! removal ( scale f iron 9 its v>i\s =ms1 su* z ca/+s1 wire1 etc42 ! *ang+ ( corn />* into ! v>iety ( sug> commonly call$ glucose2 ! ref9+ ( bullion ( gold & silv]2 ! ref9+ ( petroleum oil2 la/1 b n lea/1 ! manufacture ( *emical f]tiliz]s = agricultural use4 ,less directly1 b /ill 9 enorm\s quantities1 x is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( soda-a%1 & blea*+ p[d] already ref]r$ to z hav+ rea*$ an incr$ible consumption2 9 ! manufacture ( alum2 9 ! manufacture ( bo? ( ! great acids ( comm]ce1 *lorohydric acid & nitric acid1 :i* mu/ be said to come next to sulphuric acid 9 usefulness2 & f9ally1 9 almo/ all ! di/9ctly *emical indu/ries4 ,manufacture ( ,sulphuric ,acid4 ,not)/&+ ! extremely l[ price ( oil ( vitriol & ! imm5se quantity ( x manufactur$1 its production implies a s]ies ( processes f> m complicat$ ?an ^? involv$ 9 ! prep>ation ( any o!r well-kn[n acid4 ,moreov]1 al?\gh ! v>i\s intricate details ( its prep>ation are matt]s ( ?or\gh exp]im5tal k to ! produc]1 !re are sev]al /eps :i* are n yet cle>ly compreh5d$ ev5 by ! mo/ em95t *emi/s ( ! age4 ,! process ( manufacture1 z at pres5t conduct$1 is prop]ly describ$ z a cont9u\s "o4 ,by ?is x is meant t ! raw mat]ials are /eadily introduc$ at "o end ( ! app>atus us$1 & ! f9i%$ product is /eadily drawn out at ! o!r1 ! process mean:ile go+ on )\t int]ruption1 night & day1 = ye>s4 ,9 ord] to a bett] compreh5sion ( ! process x is "h describ$ 9 f\r /ages4 ,9 ! fir/ /age1 sulphur is burn$ 9 a curr5t ( air4 ,! mat]ial employ$ is ei!r p>tly ref9$ ,sicily sulphur1 or :at is l>gely us$ at ! pres5t day1 "s m9]al comp\nd ( sulphur1 l ! iron & copp] pyrites4 ,9 ei!r case1 sulphur dioxide 7,,s7 is =m$4 ,?is is ! well-kn[n *ok+ gas giv5 out by a burn+ sulphur mat*4 ,z produc$ on a l>ge scale ! gas passes into a s]ies ( enorm\s lead5 *amb]s4 ,^! are1 9 fact1 rectangul> rooms1 (t5 z l>ge z "o hundr$ & fifty feet long1 tw5ty feet wide & fifte5 feet high4 ,g5]ally at lea/ ?ree *amb]s are 9 a s]ies1 connect$ by lead5 pipes4 ,sulphur dioxide gas fl[s 9 a /eady /ream into ! s]ies ( *amb]s & t[>d ! high *imney ( ! works1 ^: draft produces ! advance ( gases ?r\gh ! :ole app>atus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,section ( build+ fitt$ = manufacture ( ,sulphuric acid2 f1 furnace :]e sulphur is burn$ & oxides ( nitrog5 are lib]at$2 k1 boil] f :i* /eam is suppli$ to ! lead5 *amb]1 ,a4 ,! second /age is ! mo/ complicat$ "o4 ,x is ! oxidiz+ ( ! sulphur dioxide 7,,s7 into sulphur trioxide 7,,s74 ,?is is inde$ accompli%$ by means ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,b ?is oxyg5 is n capable ( directly *ang+ ,,s into ,,s4 ,c]ta9 gase\s oxides ( nitrog5 are =c$ into ! *amb] at ?is /age2 & ^! h ! rem>kable p[] on ! "o h& ( tak+ oxyg5 to !mselves f ! air1 & on ! o!r ( imp>t+ ?is oxyg5 to ! comp\nd ,,s 9 su* a way z to *ange x into ! comp\nd ,,s4 ,( c\rse ! air is impov]i%$ by ! op]ation1 a fact :i* necessitates a fre% supply ( x ?r\gh ! entire s]ies ( *amb]s4 ,! ?ird /age is "o ^: pr9ciple has already be5 expla9$4 ,at v>i\s p>ts ( ! *amb]1 jets ( /eam are bl[n 94 ,:ile ^! aid me*anically 9 ! progress ( ! gases ?r\gh ! entire s]ies1 _! ma9 purpose is to furni% wat] :i* %all comb9e ) sulphuric anhydride to produce sulphuric acid4 ,al?\gh ?is *emical *ange1 repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation1 has be5 giv5 be=e1 x may n be improp] to repeat x "h3 ,,s ,h,o ,h,,s ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,sulphur trioxide1 ,wat]1 ,sulphuric acid4 #hj #ah #ih p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #ih #ih ,! effect ( ! /eam is to give rise to a /eady ra9 ( oil ( vitriol 9 ! *amb]s4 ,( c\rse ?is liquid collects at ! bottom4 ,!nce x is drawn (f1 = treatm5t 9 a f\r? /age4 ,x is pla9 t up to ?is po9t ! s]ies ( *emical reactions takes place 9 :at we may *>act]ize z a va/ b irregul> tube1 op5 at bo? ends4 ,?is tube is enl>g$ "h & !re into great pockets :i* con/itute ! *amb]s4 ,x is b5t into a =m appropriate to ! conditions ( ! bus9ess4 ,x is ent]$ "h & !re by pipes = introduc+ ! ag5ts ^: prop] int]action gives rise to ! product s\ght4 ,x is also tapp$ = ! purpose ( draw+ (f ! acid g5]at$4 ,?is op5 tube has its f9al exit into ! atmosph]e ?r\gh ! tall *imney ) :i* x is connect$4 ,x has its fir/ connection ) ! atmosph]e at ! op5 ?roat1 :i* swall[s at once ! va/ volumes ( sulphur\s gas f ! sulphur burn$1 & at ! same "t levies ^u ! air to contribute its oxyg5 to produce ! sub/ance :i* is ! f9al purpose ( ! :ole indu/ry4 ,! f\r? /age is ! only "o t may be prop]ly said to be disconnect$ f ! o!rs4 ,! cont9u\s process already describ$ _c prop]ly be made to produce acid ( ! /r5g? dem&$ by comm]ce4 ,9 ! f\r? /age !n1 ! acid f ! *amb]s is boil$ ) a view ( expell+ "s ( ! wat] 9 x1 & ?us ( produc+ a m conc5trat$ product4 ,?is evaporation is itself no inconsid]able portion ( ! bus9ess4 ,x is conduct$ fir/ 9 %all[ tanks ( lead1 & f9ally 9 co/ly /ills ( plat9um4 ,:5 at l5g? ! acid 9 ! plat9um /ills has atta9$ ! prop] degree ( conc5tration1 x is drawn out by means ( a siphon tube1 & ?r\gh a cool+ tank ( cold wat]1 into ! glass flasks call$ c>boys1 9 :i* x makes its appe>ance 9 comm]ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,section ( app>atus us$ = conc5trat+ sulphuric acid4 ,a1 ,a1 lead5 pans 9 :i* ! fir/ evaporation is conduct$2 ,b1 plat9um retort 9 :i* ! conc5trat+ is f9i%$4 ,( c\rse ! acc\nt ?us giv5 is b a g5]al sket* ( ?is great indu/ry4 ,associat$ ) ! app>atus & ! processes "h briefly describ$ !re are employ$ 9 actual work+ a multitude ( o!r devices & op]ations4 ,inde$ x might be anticipat$ t ! successful conduct ( a bus9ess ( su* magnitude & complexity w\ld draw ^u ! inv5tive res\rces ( "s ( ! be/ m9ds t h be5 br\ght to be> ^u *emical indu/ries4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,sulphur ,indu/ry 9 ,sicily4 ,b>baglia1 ,a4--,*em4 ,news4 xxxiv1 #bde2 xxxv1 #c1 #bh4 ,v9c5t1 ,c4--,am4 ,*em4 ,j\rnal4 vi1 #fc4 ,sulphur1 ,extraction (4 ,se/9i1 ,f4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xxviii1 #cce4 ,sulphuric ,acid4 ,affleck1 ,j4--,*em4 ,news4 xxxvii1 #afg1 #aib1 #bjg4 ,has5clev]1 ,r4--,*em4 ,news4 xxxv1 #dh1 #fg1 #hh1 #aah1 #ahc1 #ahi1 #bad1 #bbg4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,boron4 ,! :ite sub/ance call$ borax has long be5 kn[n to exi/ z a solid deposit 9 ! e>? ( _m p>ts ( ! anci5t ,ea/4 ,b its uses h increas$ a ?\s& fold z ! result ( ! mod]n discov]y ( new & f> m abundant s\rces ( x4 ,?us 9 ! manufacture ( porcela9 & 9 o!r ( ! indu/rial arts1 & z a rem$ial ag5cy 9 m$ic9e1 borax has n[ come to be an important & truly useful sub/ance to mank9d4 ,! k ( its composition is ref]able to a v rec5t date2 only 9 ! pres5t c5tury its "* z a true *emical salt 0 fully made out4 ,borax is n[ recogniz$ z sodic borate1 :i* usually exi/s 9 a =m hold+ t5 molecules ( wat] ( cry/allization2 accord+ly ! *emical =mula is ,na,b,o #aj ,h,o4 ,f ?is x appe>s t1 9 addition to ! well-kn[n sub/ances sodium & oxyg51 borax conta9s a special & peculi> elem5t call$ boron--a "n evid5tly d]iv$ f borax4 ,aga91 be+ a salt1 ! sub/ance mu/ be view$ z conta9+ an acid--or m prop]ly speak+1 ! repres5tative ( an acid4 ,t ?is is inde$ ! fact may be readily prov$4 ,if borax is dissolv$ 9 wat] 9 su* a way z to =m a conc5trat$ solution1 !n1 ^u addition ( *lorohydric acid1 a solid sub/ance sep>ates out 9 pe>ly flakes2 ?is ^u subsequ5t exam9ation is f\nd to be an acid4 ,?is solid acid has receiv$ ! "n boric acid1 & x may be repres5t$ by ! =mula ,h,,bo4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,view among ! ,tuscan lagoni be=e ! introduction ( ! borax indu/ry4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,view 9 ,tuscany aft] ! e/abli%m5t ( ! borax indu/ry4 ,s\rces ( ,borax 9 ,nature4 ,= a long "t ! only kn[n s\rce ( borax 0 ! natural cru/s ( ?is sub/ance f\nd pr9cipally 9 ! gr\nd 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ,asia4 ,at ! pres5t day1 h[ev]1 borax is obta9$ f ,borax ,lake1 9 ,cali=nia1 9 v l>ge quantities4 ,9 fact ! comm]cial ne$s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates = ?is sub/ance1 are readily suppli$ f borax f\nd )9 its own bord]s4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ & important /ep 9 connection ) ! prep>ation ( borax dates back to ab\t ! ye> #aggf1 :5 ! fact 0 made public t c]ta9 lagoons 9 ,tuscany conta9$ boric acid 9 _! wat]4 ,x 0 n until ab\t ! ye> #ahbh1 h[ev]1 t ! manufacture ( boric acid f ?is s\rce 0 successful ^u a l>ge scale4 ,9 "s ( ! ,tuscan valleys !re are volcanic crevices 9 ! e>?1 call$ suffioni4 ,f !m /eam escapes *>g$ ) c]ta9 comp\nds ( boron4 ,:5 ?is /eam is br\ght 9 contact ) wat]1 boric acid is lib]at$ 9 ! wat]4 ,! me?od ( secur+ ! acid is z foll[s3 ,a r+ ( masonry is built 9 a suitable place & s z to include sev]al suffioni4 ,sometimes new suffioni are artificially bor$ )9 ?is r+4 ,into ! bas9 s produc$1 wat] f "s conv5i5t spr+ is conduct$4 ,! /eam f ! suffioni pass+ into ! wat]1 produces boric acid !re4 ,:5 ! wat] is suffici5tly *>g$1 x is made to fl[ z a g5tle cascade ov] a long s]ies ( %all[ pans4 ,! liquid readily evaporates f ^! pans = "u !m also1 /eam f suffioni is turn$4 ,x is inde$ ?is la/ m5tion$ /ep 9 ! manufacture1 t became ! turn+ po9t :i* has lead to its successful prosecution4 ,! great co/ ( fuel = artificially evaporat+ ! acid liquors1 r5d]$ unpr(itable ! e>li] attempts to utilize ?is s\rce ( boric acid4 ,a ,fr5* g5tleman1 ,m4 ,l>d]el1 sugge/$ ! use ( /eam f suffioni = ! evaporation ( ! liquids produc$1 & ! process 0 s successful t he quickly d]iv$ a colossal =tune f its employm5t4 ,at ! same "t he enri*$ ! t]ritory t 0 previ\sly n only des]t & unproductive1 b also 0 look$ ^u by ! inhabitants ) sup]/iti\s dread & z little bett] ?an ! gate ( ! inf]nal regions4 ,z a result ( ^! inv5tions1 a b>r5 & unfrequ5t$ t]ritory has be5 *ang$ to a seat ( ?riv+ & b5eficial indu/ry4 ,f9ally1 x is int]e/+ to note t = 8 s]vices 9 develop+ ! boric acid indu/ry ,m4 ,l>d]el 0 creat$ ,c\nt ( ,monte-,c]boli by ! ,gr& ,duke ( ,tuscany4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,boric ,acid1 ,manufacture (1 etc4 ,pay54--,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique4 #c ,sr4 i1 #bdg2 ii1 #cbb4 ,dieulafait1 ,l4--loc4 cit4 #e ,sr4 xii1 #cah2 xxv1 #ade4 ,borax ,lagoons ( ,tuscany4 ,h>p]'s ,magaz9e4 i1 #cig4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,nitrog54 ,nitrog5 is an important con/itu5t ( our atmosph]ic air ( :i* x makes up ab\t eighty p] c5t4 ,! o!r tw5ty p] c5t41 z has already be5 /at$1 is oxyg54 ,9 ! air ! nitrog5 is f\nd 9 ! free or uncomb9$ /ate1 & we may reasonably suppose t x exi/s "h to fulfil "s important (fices4 ,unque/ionably "o ( ^! is t ( dilut+ ! oxyg51 ! en]getic con/itu5t ( air1 & less5+ its activities--= nitrog5 itself is extremely in]t4 ,f ! "p x p]=ms 9 ! atmosph]e1 nitrog5 d]ives a consid]able portion ( ! int]e/ ) :i* x is inve/$4 ,discov]y ( ,nitrog54 ,p]haps ! fir/ cle>ly def9$ recognition ( nitrog5 z a con/itu5t ( ! air is ref]able to ! g5ius ( a wond]ful man1 :o1 9 obscurity & ) ! mo/ imp]fect appliances1 obta9$ an insight into ! con/itution ( sub/ances :i* has r>ely be5 surpass$4 ,ref]5ce is "h made to ! ,sw$i%1 or r ,prussian1 *emi/ ,s*eele1 "s ( ^: discov]ies h be5 briefly adv]t$ to 9 e>li] *apt]s4 ,x has already be5 /at$ t ! di/9ct notion ( a gas dates b little m ?an a hundr$ ye>s back2 & ?is /atem5t is int5d$ to call to m9d t brilliant p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry :5 among o!rs1 ,black 9 ,scotl&1 ,cav5di% & ,prie/ley 9 ,engl&1 ,lavoisi] & 8 wor?y associates 9 ,france1 & f9ally1 ! sagaci\s ,s*eele 9 ,sw$51 7 engag$ 9 a g5]\s rivalry 9 *emical /udies1 :i* made ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury a p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry t w n be =gott5 s long z ! sci5ce itself %all endure4 ,at ?is "t un/9t$ ef=t 0 devot$1 ) +5i\s b imp]fect appliances1 to ! /udy ( gases4 ,( c\rse ! atmosph]ic air1 z ! gas mo/ va/ 9 quantity1 mo/ accessible = exp]im5t1 mo/ important 9 its relation to ! economy ( liv+ nature1 receiv$ its full %>e ( att5tion4 ,x 0 at ?is p]iod t ,dr4 ,ru!r=d1 a pr(essor 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 demon/rat$ t aft] liv+ animals h brea!d 9 a conf9$ bulk or volume ( air1 !re rema9s an in]t & peculi> gas beh9d4 ,& ,prie/ley %[$ t aft] ! burn+ ( *>coal 9 a conf9$ volume ( air !re rema9s a gase\s mat]ial equal to ab\t f\r-fif?s ( ! am\nt ( orig9al air us$4 ,b x 0 ,s*eele :o fir/ cle>ly po9t$ out t ! air conta9$ a second di/9ct con/itu5t t fails to support combu/ion & animal respiration4 ,& ,lavoisi] fir/ prov$ ?is con/itu5t to be an elem5t>y sub/ance & he gave to x ! "n azote1 :i* x /ill reta9s 9 ! ,fr5* nom5clature ( *emi/ry4 ,x is n =gott5 t a critical exam9ation ( ! hi/ory ( human k respect+ ! atmosph]e reveals ! fact t a wond]fully cle>1 ev5 ?\gh incomplete1 acc\nt ( ! functions ( ! active con/itu5t ( ! air 0 pr9t$ z e>ly z ! ye> #affi1 by an ,engli% physician nam$ ,john ,may[4#i ,?is af=ds ano!r illu/ration ( ! fact1 recogniz$ by all /ud5ts ( hi/ory1 t (t5 9 ! progress ( k1 be=e ! cle> & full dawn !re seems to be a twilight2 at su* a "t1 & be=e ! d>kness has be5 fully dispell$1 !re h be5 f\nd "h & !re m5 gift$ ) sup]natural vision :o h be5 able to read ! laws ( nature long be=e ackn[l$g$ philosoph]s ev5 _h f\nd light suffici5t4 ,& s ! tru?s le>n$ by ,may[1 ?\gh cle>ly /at$ by him1 fail$ ( recognition until !y 7 r$iscov]$ a hundr$ ye>s lat]4 7,see p4 #aba47 #i ,,kopp1 ,,h]mann3 ,ges*i*te d] ,*emie4 ,dritt] ,!il4 s4 #aic4 ,prep>ation ( ,nitrog54 ,nitrog5 is usually prep>$ f ! air by ! )drawal ( oxyg5 f x4 ,?is )drawal is effect$ by "s sub/ance :i* has a /rong aff9ity = oxyg54 ,?us "o me?od frequ5tly resort$ to = ! prep>ation ( nitrog51 is to burn phosphorus 9 air4 ,phosphorus is plac$ 9 a little crucible ( porcela9 & !n float$ ^u a cork on ! surface ( wat] 9 a pneumatic tr\gh4 ,a bell-glass ( air is n[ inv]t$ ov] ! phosphorus1 aft] ! latt] has be5 set on fire4 ,! phosphorus burns at ! exp5se ( ! oxyg5 9 ! bell-glass4 ,?us ! oxyg5 is little by little )drawn & z a result ! nitrog5 is left4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,prep>ation ( nitrog5 f air1 by absorb+ ! oxyg5 by burn+ phosphorus4 ,ano!r me?od = prep>+ nitrog5 is bas$ ^u ! same g5]al pr9ciple4 ,x is ! foll[+3 ,pass a curr5t ( dry air ?r\gh a tube conta9+ copp] turn+s heat$ to dull r$ness 9 a furnace4 ,"u ^! circum/ances ! copp] absorbs oxyg5 f ! air1 & leaves ! nitrog51 :i* passes on to a receiv] prep>$ = x4 ,prop]ties ( ,nitrog54 ,nitrog5 prep>$ by ^! me?ods1 or by any o!rs1 possesses ! foll[+ *>act]i/ics3 ,x is a gas t is colorless1 odorless & ta/eless4 ,x is n necess>y to make any sci5tific demon/ration ( ^! facts1 because ) e brea? ( air drawn into ! lungs ( a human be+ a l>ge quantity ( nitrog5 is inhal$1 & x is easily p]ceiv$ to be )\t odor or ta/e1 :ile a glance ( ! eye into ! atmosph]e %[s t1 9 mod]ate quantities at lea/1 x is free f color4 ,up to a p]iod dat+ b a few ye>s back1 nitrog5 0 spok5 ( z "o ( ! p]man5t gases2 & ?is ^w p]man5t 0 int5d$ to convey ! idea t x is n cond5sable to ! liquid =m4 ,x is true t x 0 surmis$ t = e gas !re mu/ be a po9t ( v l[ temp]ature & v great pressure at :i* ! gas w\ld assume ! liquid =m4 ,yet nitrog51 & two or ?ree o!rs1 successfully resi/$ all su* attempts to liquefy !m until t[>d ! close ( ! ye> #ahgh4 ,s9ce t "t1 successful ef=t has be5 made to br+ to a high] degree ( p]fection ! appliances us$ = subject+ gases at once to int5se cold & enorm\s pressure4 ,) ^!1 x is believ$ t small am\nts ( nitrog5 h be5 liquefi$4 ,& x may ev5 be said t !re is n[ no p]man5t gas kn[n1 b t all gase\s sub/ances may 9 fact be liquefi$4#aj #aj ,,scrutz5b]g]1 ,,paul3 ,trait de ,*imie ,gnrale1 ,p>is1 #ahhj1 i1 #cj4 ,z a simple & uncomb9$ sub/ance1 nitrog5 is *>act]iz$ by extreme inactivity4 ,x does n burn2 x does n support combu/ion2 x _c be made to ent] into *emical union ) o!r sub/ances1 except by specially devis$ & circuit\s processes4 ,:ile on ! "o h& in]tness is ! m>k$ *>act]i/ic ( ! nitrog51 on ! o!r h& ?is elem5t is a con/itu5t ( a v l>ge numb] ( comp\nds4 ,moreov]1 ^! comp\nds are !mselves (t5 *>act]iz$ by a high degree ( activity4 ,( ! la/ two decl>ations ! fir/ "o seems to be inconsi/5t ) ! prop]ties ( nitrog5 9 its elem5tal =m4 ,! second "o seems inconsi/5t1 b less s :5 x is c>efully consid]$4 ,?us ! activity ( ! comp\nds ( nitrog5 is to a c]ta9 ext5t ref]able to _! in/ability4 ,! mean+ ( in/ability1 z us$ "h1 is t ! comp\nds are easily decompos$2 & ?is is because ! in]t nitrog5 readily lets g its hold ^u ! o!r elem5ts4 ,:5ce x appe>s1 t ! activity ( ! comp\nds1 9 reality ref]able to ! en]getic action ( ! elem5t or elem5ts n[ loos$ f ! nitrog51 r ?an ! nitrog5 itself4 ,9 nature1 nitrog5 is f\nd z a con/itu5t 9 "s v important comp\nds4 ,?us x seems to be an ess5tial elem5t ( "s ( ! pr9cipal animal matt]s1 su* z muscul> fibre & ! mat]ial ( ! bra94 ,aga91 x is a con/itu5t ( ammonia gas & also ( a multitude ( comp\nds d]iv$ f x4 ,n[ ^! comp\nds are memb]s ( a gr\p ( sub/ances :i* s]ve z mo/ valuable k9ds ( food = liv+ plants4 ,s x may be said t bo? liv+ animals & plants seem to be 9 a peculi> way dep5d5t ^u nitrog5 or nitrog5\s matt]s4 ,comp\nd ( ,nitrog5 ) ,hydrog54 ,"u favorable circum/ances1 nitrog5 & hydrog5 comb9e to =m ! /able1 int]e/+ & important comp\nd call$ ammonia gas & hav+ ! =mula ,,nh4 ,:ile ?is gas may be produc$ by ! direct union ( ! con/itu5ts--t is :5 a mixture ( nitrog5 gas ) hydrog5 gas has an electric dis*>ge sl[ly pass$ ?r\gh x--?is is n a common mode ( proc$ure4 ,ammonia gas is (t5] produc$ by a natural or artificial decomposition ( c]ta9 sub/ances t conta9 nitrog5 & hydrog5 among _! con/itu5ts4 ,z x has already be5 /at$ t _m animal matt]s conta9 nitrog5 & hydrog51 x foll[s t animal matt]s :5 decompos$1 af=d ammonia gas2 & s !y d1 9 fact1 :e!r ! decomposition is 9 ! c\rse ( _! natural decay1 or :e!r x is conduct$ artificially1 z = example :5 animal matt]s are heat$ 9 clos$ vessels to ! po9t ( decomposition4 ,inde$ ammonia gas & its important comm]cial comp\nds 7 =m]ly produc$ 9 ?is la/ m5tion$ mann]4 ,ammonia gas--or "s comp\nd ( x--is also =m$1 z may be readily imag9$ f :at has already be5 said1 f decomposition ( vegetable matt]s conta9+ nitrog54 ,x is a fact t at ! pres5t day ! pr9cipal supplies ( ammonia gas & its comp\nds = ! uses ( comm]ce & ! arts come f su* a s\rce1 t is f ! artificial decomposition ( bitum9\s coal4 ,x is true t 9 ! ord9>y s5se coal is n vegetable matt]4 ,b c>eful exam9ation ( x1 %[s t x is v directly d]iv$ f ! vegetation ( anci5t =e/s4 ,! vegetable matt] has be5 pack$ away 9 ! e>? & has be5 subject$ to wat]1 heat & pressure "u su* conditions t ^! ag5cies h *ang$ x to ! =m 9 :i* we f9d x4 ,n[ ! coal-gas indu/ry ( ! pres5t day is s conduct$ z to decompose coal & collect _m ( ! products ( its decomposition4 ,"o ( ^! products is ammonia gas4 ,to ! decomposition ( coal1 !re=e1 ! bus9ess _w at pres5t looks = its supply ( ammonia gas & ! _m comp\nds d]iv$ f x4 ,! "n ammonia gas1 indicates t x ord9>ily exi/s 9 ! a]i=m condition4 ,x has a v pung5t odor1 well-kn[n z t evolv$ f smell+-salts4 ,x dissolves 9 wat] ) v great facility & 9 v l>ge quantities4 ,x has a /rong t5d5cy to comb9e ) acids4 ,?is la/ fact may be easily illu/rat$ by simple exp]im5ts )9 ! rea* ( almo/ any "o4 ,exp]im5t ) ,ammonia4 ,provide two w9e-glasses or two %all[ vessels ( any sort4 ,into "o ( !m p\r ! liquid kn[n z spirits ( h>t%orn1 & call$ by ! *emi/ ammonic hydrate4 ,into ! o!r p\r "s conc5trat$ *lorohydric acid4 ,abundant :ite cl\ds w quickly =m above ! vessels & betwe5 !m4 ,^! cl\ds are compos$ ( m9ute p>ticles ( a solid1 call$ by ! *emi/ ammonic *loride & express$ by ! =mula ,,nh,cl4 ,! reason = _! =mation is ?is3 f ! spirits ( h>t%orn escapes ammonia gas 7,,nh72 f ! acid !re con/antly escapes *lorohydric gas 7,h,cl72 ! two gases meet+ 9 ! atmosph]e comb9e ) en]gy1 & =m ! smoky product ref]r$ to4 ,! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,,nh ,h,cl ,,nh,cl ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,ammonia gas1 ,*lorohydric acid1 ,ammonic *loride1 #ag #cf #ec p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #ec #ec ,! ammonic *loride ?us produc$ is an article ( comm]ce1 well-kn[n "u ! "n sal ammoniac4 ,z has be5 said1 x is a solid & x belongs to ! class ( sub/ances designat$ by *emi/s z salts4 ,9 fact "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ *>act]i/ics ( ammonia gas is its p[] to produce salts by union ) acids4 ,"h is a li/ ( ?ree well-kn[n salts ( ?is sort3 ,) ,*lorohydric acid1 ,h,cl x produces ,ammonic *loride1 ,,nh,cl 0 ,nitric acid1 ,,hno x produces ,ammonic nitrate1 ,,nh,,no 0 ,sulphuric acid1 ,h,,s x produces ,ammonic sulphate1 7,,nh7,,s ,comp\nds ( ,nitrog5 & ,oxyg54 ,nitrog5 & oxyg5 ord9>ily manife/ sc>cely any aff9ity = ea* o!r4 ,!re are conditions h[ev] "u :i* !y unite2 & moreov] !y unite 9 diff]5t proportions s z to =m at lea/ five diff]5t comp\nds4 ,^! may be pres5t$ 9 ! =m ( ! foll[+ /rik+ s]ies3 ,nitrog5 protoxide 7call$ laugh+-gas17 ,n,o4 ,nitrog5 dioxide1 ,n,o 7or ,,no74 ,nitrog5 trioxide or nitr\s anhydride1 ,n,o4 ,nitrog5 tetroxide 7br[n fumes17 ,n,o 7or ,,no74 ,nitrog5 p5toxide or nitric anhydride1 ,n,o4 ,( ^! comp\nds1 unque/ionably ! mo/ important is nitric anhydride--& ?is n on acc\nt ( itself1 = x is v r>ely produc$ ei!r 9 ! arts or 9 ! inve/igator's laboratory4 ,its importance is ref]able to ! fact t add$ to wat]1 x produces nitric acid4 ,?is *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,n,o ,h,o #b;,,hno ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,two molecules ( ,nitric anhydride1 ,wat]1 ,nitric acid1 #ajh #ah #abf p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #abf #abf ,nitric ,acid4 ,?is acid has be5 ref]r$ to 9 ano!r place z "o ( ?ree pr9cipal acids ( comm]ce4 ,c]ta9 ( its mo/ /rik+ prop]ties may be display$ 9 an easy & int]e/+ mann] by any "o4 ,= ?is purpose ! foll[+ exp]im5ts are sugge/$3 ,fir/ exp]im5t4--,nitric acid turns quill yell[4 ,place a few fragm5ts ( :ite quill 9 a te/-tube4 ,add a few drops ( nitric acid & !n "s wat]4 ,n[ w>m ! mixture4 ,! quill w be f\nd to acquire a yell[ color4 ,fill ! tube ) cold wat] 9 ord] bo? to dilute ! acid & to cool x4 ,p\r away ! liquid1 & wa% ! quill 9 wat]4 ,! yell[ color w be f\nd to be p]man5t4 ,_m o!r animal matt]s are turn$ to a p]man5t yell[ color by nitric acid4 ,second exp]im5t4--,nitric acid attacks copp] ) viol5ce4 ,!re is lib]at$ by ! process a gas call$ nitrog5 dioxide 7,n,o71 :i* is colorless b :i* becomes br[n ^u exposure to ! atmosph]ic air4 ,! *emical *ange gives rise to a solution sometimes gre5 & sometimes blue1 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,place 9 a te/-tube a small piece ( metallic copp] 9 ! =m ( ei!r wire or foil4 ,add "s nitric acid to ! copp]4 ,!n w>m x g5tly until ! copp] disappe>s4 ,! br[n fumes w be recogniz$4 ,! color$ solution ( cupric nitrate1 ,cu7,,no7 %\ld also be notic$4 ,?ird exp]im5t4--,nitric acid attacks z9c ) great viol5ce4 ,try ano!r exp]im5t q simil> to t j describ$1 only employ z9c 9 place ( copp]4 ,br[n fumes are evolv$1 & a colorless solution is produc$ conta9+ z9c nitrate1 ,zn7,,no74 ,f\r? exp]im5t4--,nitric acid attacks iron ) viol5ce4 ,try ano!r exp]im5t1 q simil> to ! second & ?ird1 only employ iron in/ead ( ! o!r metals m5tion$4 ,! f9e iron wire us$ by flori/s is suitable = ?is purpose4 ,! same br[n fumes are evolv$4 ,a metallic nitrate is also produc$2 x is call$ f]ric nitrate & its =mula is ,fe7,,no74 ,! solution is yell[1 or b slightly color$4 ,fif? exp]im5t4--,nitric acid dissolves a nickel co94 ,an exp]im5t simil> to ^? already detail$ may be tri$ ^u a nickel co92 b x is n necess>y to entirely dissolve ! co94 ,aft] ! acid has act$ = a few mom5ts1 wat] may be p\r$ into ! tube s z to dilute ! acid1 & at ! same "t to cool x4 ,!n ! liquid may be p\r$ away & ! co9 )drawn4 ,9 addition to ! br[n fumes evolv$1 ! feature mo/ noticeable is ! decid$ gre5 color ( ! solution4 ,?is is ref]able1 to a consid]able degree at any rate1 to ! nickel pres5t4 ,nickel imp>ts a gre5 color to mo/ ( its solutions4 ,^! exp]im5ts sugge/ t nitric acid has a m>k$ influ5ce ^u ! metals4 ,?is is 9 fact "o ( its prom95t *>act]i/ics2 & x is l>gely us$ 9 ! arts = ! purpose ( dissolv+ metals4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,! ,,atmosph]e4 ,! atmosph]e or ! air ( our globe is ! va/ ocean ( gase\s matt] at ! bottom ( :i* human be+s1 z well z o!r l& animals1 dwell4 ,:ile x is s ?9 t a vessel full ( x is spok5 ( 9 ord9>y language z be+ empty1 x yet possesses a reality :i* x (t5 displays 9 a v s]i\s mann]4 ,its pres5ce is made g5tly evid5t to human be+s by ! mod]ate resi/ance x (f]s to !m :5 !y are 9 motion2 b :5 itself is 9 motion ) ! =ce ( ! hurricane or tornado1 no solid matt]s c /& 9 its pa?4 ,heavy railroad tra9s & massive build+s are hurl$ f _! positions & turn$ into mis]able masses ( wreckage1 :ile ev5 /rongly root$ =e/s are swept out ( place by its vigor\s brea?4 ,! t]ribly de/ructive p[] ( air at "o mom5t & its mild & subtle effici5cy at ano!r are v sugge/ive ( ! wond]ful adju/m5t ( ! =ces resid+ 9 x4 ,x is by ! re/ra9$ action ( ^! =ces t ! atmosph]ic air is s admirably fitt$ to p]=m its v>i$ functions 9 connection ) animal life4 ,at ! same "t x is s unobtrusive 9 its work+s t its v exi/5ce is at fir/ sc>cely not$4 ,:5 at re/1 x peacefully wraps ! e>? ab\t z 9 a gossam] veil1 b :5 9 angry agitation x sc\rges c\ntry & city alike z ) a :ip ( gigantic cables4 ,! height to :i* ! atmosph]ic air ext5ds above ! e>? is n exactly kn[n4 ,b c>efully devis$ exp]im5ts h %[n t go+ upw>d1 its compactness or d5sity dim9i%es v rapidly4 ,inde$ calculations bas$ ^u exact exp]im5t %[ t at a height ( fprty miles1 or !reab\ts1 f ! surface ( ! e>?1 ! air is s highly r>ifi$ t practically x !re comes to an end4 ,9 o!r words1 at ?is height a giv5 bulk ( space conta9s no m air ?an exi/s 9 ! s-call$ vacuum produc$ by a sup]ior air-pump4 ,weight ( ,air4 ,not)/&+ ! extreme t5uity ( ! gase\s m$ium 9 :i* we live1 x is capable ( buoy+ up on its w+s a multitude ( liv+ be+s ( va/ aggregate weight4 ,x is firm en\gh to support ! millions ( birds t sail 9 x1 & ! myriad ( millions ( insects :o yet m freely navigate x 9 se>* ( food & w>m?1 & 9 answ] to ! v>i\s ne$s ( _! exi/5ce4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ evid5ces ( ! fact t air is inde$ a mat]ial sub/ance is v easily discov]$ by %[+ t x possesses weight4 ,?us suppose a prop]ly con/ruct$ glass globe is almo/ entirely empti$ ( air by ! action ( an effici5t air-pump4 ,suppose !n t ! globe is weigh$4 ,next if x be connect$ ) a bell-glass conta9+ ord9>y atmosph]ic air ov] a pneumatic tr\gh1 x may be readily se5 t ! air leaves ! bell-glass 9 ord] to pass into ! globe4 ,if ?is globe is n[ weigh$ aga91 x is f\nd to manife/ a decid$ increase ( weight4 ,?is increase is due to ! air x has receiv$4 ,by su* means x may be easily %[n t a cubic y>d ( air weighs n f> f two p\nds4 ,composition ( ,air4 ,! pr9cipal con/itu5ts ( air are ! two gases oxyg5 & nitrog52 & ( ^! ! oxyg5 makes up ab\t "o-fif? & ! nitrog5 ab\t f\r-fif?s ( ! :ole4 ,9 addition to ^! pr9cipal sub/ances1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 o!rs are always pres5t1 ( :i* may be specifi$ vapor ( wat]1 c>bon dioxide & ammonia gas2 :ile m m9ute quantities ( a va/ multitude ( o!r gase\s sub/ances f9d a res]voir 9 ! air4 ,x is an unque/ion$ fact t ! atmosph]e is likewise *>g$ mo/ ( ! "t ) /ill m m9ute quantities ( solid du/ mat]ials ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,an example is f\nd 9 ! common salt1 bl[n up into ! atmosph]e f ! ruffl$ surface ( ! oceans4 ,n[ ! oceans are spread ov] fully ?ree-f\r?s ( ! e>?'s surface1 & ! w9ds1 bl[+ ^u ! cre/$ waves1 n only diffuse ! salt ov] ! oceans !mselves b also c>ry x f> inl&2 accord+ly spectrum analysis reveals ! pres5ce ( salt 9 almo/ all atmosph]ic air4 ,j z ! riv]s ( wat] fl[ to ! ocean & be> along to x debris ( e k9d--pulv]iz$ rock & e>?y mat]ials & o!r wa%+s f ! soil1 leaves ( =e/s1 impure products ( civilization ?r[n 9 f h\ses & manufactur+ e/abli%m5ts--& all ^! mat]ials make _! relatively m9ute contributions to ! impurities 9 ! great ocean itself1 s x is ) ! atmosph]ic ocean4 ,?\s&s ( millions ( liv+ animals p\r out1 ) e brea? f ! lungs1 mat]ials exhal$ f _! bodies4 ,& s :]ev] fuel is burn$1 or :]ev] manufactur+ e/abli%m5ts lib]ate gases or vapors1 or ev5 f9ely pulv]iz$ solids1 ^! are ca/ =? f ! m\?s ( _! reek+ *imneys2 & !y all fl[ into ! great a]ial sea4 ,s !n x is no unexpect$ circum/ance t ! air %\ld be a res]voir 9 :i*1 9 m9ute quantity1 is likely to exi/ e gase\s sub/ance produc$4 ,(fices ( ! ,sev]al ,con/itu5ts ( ! ,air4 ,! oxyg5 ( ! air is its mo/ active con/itu5t4 ,?is is ! sub/ance t has already be5 describ$ z ess5tial = all ord9>y combu/ion & all animal respiration4 ,by a great v>iety ( *>act]i/ics x is well fitt$ = ^! important (fices4 ,! *ief duty ( ! nitrog5 appe>s to be to dilute ! oxyg5 & mod]ate ! excessive activities t w\ld be manife/$ if ! atmosph]e consi/$ entirely ( ! active gas4 ,s9ce iron & o!r metals burn 9 pure oxyg51 x is pla9 t 9 an atmosph]e ( oxyg5--conta9+ no mod]at+ gas l nitrog5--a fire once k9dl$ 9 a /ove w\ld n conf9e itself to its prop] fuel1 b w\ld soon spread to ! metal ( ! /ove itself1 & s initiate conflagrations t c\ld h>dly be re/ra9$4 ,! moi/ure 9 ! air adds a numb] ( wond]ful & s]viceable *>act]i/ics to x4 ,?us x helps to reta9 ! heat receiv$ f ! sun & s mat]ially contributes to ! su/5ance ( animal & vegetable life4 ,! heat ( ! sun p5etrates our atmosph]ic cov]let ) great read9ess & ?is heat is receiv$ by ! surface ( ! e>? & !nce is imp>t$ to ! lay] ( air imm$iately ^u x4 ,n[ ! moi/ure conta9$ 9 ! atmosph]e--& 9 pr9cipal quantity 9 ! portions ( air close/ to ! e>?--is "o ( ! *ief ag5cies t prev5t ! imm$iate escape ( t heat t ! solid e>? has secur$ f ! sun's rays4 ,& x is 9 ! w>m lay] ( air s produc$ t animals & plants *iefly fl\ri%4 ,asc5d a m\nta9's side & a height is soon rea*$ at :i* et]nal sn[ & cold prevail1 :]e animal life _c p5etrate & ev5 ! l[e/ =ms ( vegetable life c h>dly make _! resid5ce4 ,:at has ?us f> be5 said po9ts out a valuable (fice ( wat]y vapor & "o t is entirely 9 addition to t :i* ?is same mat]ial p]=ms z x floats 9 ! cl\ds1 ready to fall z b5efic5t %[]s & !n to proce$ to ! o!r /eps 9 ! progress ( t useful circulation :i* x p]=ms z a liquid4 ,b x may n be out ( place to m5tion "h t ! aque\s vapor 9 ! atmosph]e appe>s to s]ve 9 ano!r way = man's pleasure1 ev5 ?\gh 9 ?is p>ticul> no utility c be claim$4 ,?us ! glories ( sunrise & sunset1 :i* h delight$ intellig5t be+s = s _m ages1 are pa9t+s ^u ! drap]y ( ! firmam5t :i* ! p5cil ( light has be5 enabl$ to produce ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! refractive p[] ( ^? ga!r+ drops ( wat] :i* float ab\t 9 v>i\s =ms & comb9ations 9 ! morn+ or ! ev5+ sky4 ,x has already be5 m ?an once decl>$ t c>bon dioxide is p\r$ out into ! atmosph]e by all ! ord9>y processes ( combu/ion4 ,?is is n only true ( combu/ions su* z ^? ( coal & wood & simil> highly c>bonace\s mat]ials2 x applies ) equal =ce to ! animal body itself1 :i* has be5 prop]ly lik5$ to a furnace4 ,! air tak5 into ! lungs at ea* brea? inspir$1 supports dur+ life a cont9ual combu/ion1 by reason ( :i*1 m9ute fragm5ts ( ! animal tissue are burn$ 9 all p>ts ( ! sy/em4 ,"o ( ! products ( ?is burn+ is c>bon dioxide1 :i* is c>ri$ to ! lungs1 !nce to be exhal$ z a wa/e product into ! atmosph]e4 ,x might at fir/ be expect$ t ?is c>bon dioxide w\ld accumulate & =m a con/antly increas+ proportion ( ! air4 ,b x is "o ( ! prop] foods ( vegetable life2 = nature has wond]fully provid$ t plants %\ld ?rive by ! absorption or inhalation ( ?is p>ticul> gas4 ,& s all ! leaves 9 ! =e/ are cont9ually cleans+ ! air ( t c>bon dioxide t liv+ animals h ca/ aside z a useless ?+4 ,& by a magnific5t al*emy1 ! result ( a wond]ful & b5efic5t plan1 !y turn ?is wa/e matt] ( ! animal frame into food = !mselves1 & !y ca/ out into ! air z _! refuse t oxyg5 gas :i* liv+ animals dem&4 ,s !n ! two =ms ( liv+ be+s exi/ 9 a h>moni\s p>tn]%ip by reason ( :i* ea* "o is b5efit$4 ,an example simil> to t j giv5 ) respect to c>bon dioxide is f\nd 9 ammonia gas4 ,?is sub/ance is "o ( ! commone/ products ( ! decay & decomposition ( animal matt]s4 ,:]ev] animal wa/e is deposit$ ^u ! surface ( ! e>? x quickly evolves ammonia gas4 ,?is gas diffuses itself ?r\gh ! atmosph]e "u ! influ5ce ( conditions :]eby x may p]=m an important s]vice2 = x is always extremely soluble 9 wat]4 ,& s z soon z ra9 is cond5s$1 :e!r 9 a g5tle %[] or 9 abundant torr5ts1 ea* drop 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! air ga!rs ammonia & c>ries x d[n to ! e>?4 ,aga91 ammonia is "o ( ! *ief foods = plants4 ,& s ! ra9 drops1 *>g$ ) su* ammonia z !y h be5 able to collect1 be> x to ! rootlets 9 ! soil1 z a valuable & important food1 & "o :i* has be5 prov$ to h a mo/ /imulat+ influ5ce ^u _! gr[?4 ,!re is n opportunity "h = a discussion ( ! (fices & ! int]play ( ! o!r sub/ances exi/+ 9 atmosph]ic air2 = !y are m local 9 _! effects & m difficult to trace & to describe4 ,! ,air is n a ,*emical ,comp\nd4 ,! importance ( ! atmosph]e & its great abundance h naturally l$ to mo/ ?or\gh sci5tific scrut9y ( x4 ,?us ! am\nts ( its pr9cipal con/itu5ts h be5 /udi$ ) extreme c>e4 ,"o result has be5 t ! pr9cipal con/itu5ts--! oxyg5 & ! nitrog5-- h be5 f\nd to exi/ 9 air 9 proportions s+ul>ly con/ant 9 am\nt4 ,?is fact inde$ has sugge/$ to "s *emi/s ! impression t air is a true *emical comp\nd4 ,?is latt] sugge/ion appe>s n to be su/a9$ by ! mo/ rigid exam9ations t h be5 made4 ,9 fact !y give ample support to ! op9ion already decl>$--t ! air consi/s ( a mass ( m]ely m+l$ gases & t ^! gases are uni=mly ma9ta9$ 9 _! prop] proportional am\nts by ! beautiful int]action ( ! physical & *emical prop]ties ) :i* !y are end[$4 ,fitness ( ,atmosph]ic ,air = its ,uses4 ,! /atem5ts already pres5t$ mu/ h sugge/$ to ! read] t ! atmosph]ic air fulfils its (fices 9 nature mu* z any contrivance c>efully devis$ by an intellig5t fram] w\ld accompli% ! "w = :i* x 0 plann$4 ,beside ^? *emical adaptations :i* h be5 ! pr9cipal gr\nds ^u :i* ?is l9e ( ?\ght has be5 support$ "h1 !re are o!rs :i* may be briefly sugge/$4 ,by reason ( ! mobility ( air1 z well z its t5d5cies to expansion by heat1 our atmosph]e is necess>ily 9 a /ate ( mo/ intricate ebb+ & fl[+4 ,"o prom95t effect ( ! motion ?us set up is to cause a transf] ( w>m air1 & s a di/ribution ( heat1 f m favor$ portions ( ! globe to ! o!rs4 ,?is same result is also m completely atta9$ by ! influ5ce ( ! specific heat ( air4 ,atmosph]ic air has rem>kable p[]1 9 :i* x resembles to "s ext5t wat]3 to take up a v l>ge am\nt ( heat ) b a slight rise 9 temp]ature2 simil>ly a slight fall ( temp]ature is associat$ ) a l>ge evolution ( heat4 ,by reason ( ^! prop]ties1 air1 l wat]1 has an exceptional /orage p[] = heat4 ,?is contributes l>gely to ! equalization ( climates4 ,! ela/icity ( ! atmosph]e p]mits x to become a useful s]vant ( man 9 ! transmission ( s\nd4 ,?us human be+s--& ) less di/9ctness mo/ ( ! liv+ creatures ( ! l[] ord]s--communicate _! ?\ghts by means ( spok5 words ?r\gh t l9e ( atmosph]ic air ext5d+ f !m to _! he>] or he>]s4 ,aga9 ! *>act]i/ics ( ! atmosph]e are su* t x diffuses sunlight4 ,by ?is is meant t 9 air1 sunlight does n conf9e itself to ^? /rictly /raight l9es :i* x foll[s 9 empty spaces4 ,s !n ?is prop]ty ( air mitigates ! blackness ( %ad[s &1 = example1 he :o walks into a %ady lane does n plunge into absolute d>kness1 z he might if we 7 depriv$ ( ?is b5eficial diffus+ influ5ce ( ! atmosph]ic air4 ,! two consid]ations la/ adduc$ contribute mu* t[>ds mak+ ! e>? a *e]ful home = human be+s2 = !y aid mat]ially 9 ! di/ribution ( intelligible ideas4 ,moreov] ^? prop]ties ( air by virtue ( :i* its undulat+ waves makes music possible1 & fur!r ^? :i* p]mit ! flight ( light1 & s all[ ( ! exi/5ce ( ! graphic arts1 c]ta9ly make no mean contributions to ! happ9ess ( man2 & ?us !y help to furni% ! e>? z 8 place ( resid5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,display ( fireworks on ! ,se9e1 ,p>is4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,explosives4 ,! pr9cipal explosives owe _! activity1 to a v l>ge degree1 to ! pres5ce ( nitrog5 9 !m2 ?us !y may prop]ly be discuss$ 9 connection ) t elem5t4 ,! explosives ( *ief importance are f\r 9 numb]3 gunp[d]1 ! fulm9ates1 gun-cotton1 nitroglyc]9e4 ,:ile ^! sub/ances sugge/ at once ! w>-l uses to :i* !y are put1 x mu/ n be =gott5 t !y h also important applications 9 ! arts ( peace4 ,?us enorm\s quantities ( gunp[d] & nitroglyc]9e are us$ 9 bla/+ op]ations = purposes l ! removal ( rock prep>atory to lay+ f\ndations = l>ge build+s1 z well z 9 excavations = railway cutt+s & 9 ! bor+ ( tunnels2 also 9 ! gett+ ( build+ /one f qu>ries1 ! te>+ ( ore out ( m9]al be>+ ve9s 9 m9+ op]ations2 & = loos5+ coal 9 coal pits4 ,l>ge quantities are likewise employ$ 9 pyrote*nics4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t fireworks are n only = purposes ( night illum9ations & = public gratification 9 times ( popul> rejoic+s2 !y are also employ$ to a consid]able ext5t = su* useful purposes z night signall+ on vessels at sea4 ,gunp[d]4 ,( ! v>i\s explosives m5tion$1 gunp[d] is ! olde/4 ,:ile ! inv5tion ( ?is sub/ance has (t5 be5 ref]r$ to ,rog] ,bacon1 ! celebrat$ ,engli% fri> :o di$ ab\t #abib1 x is n[ conc$$ t ?\gh ,bacon evid5tly knew ! composition ( x1 ! orig9al inv5tion dates f> e>li] ?an 8 times4 ,!re seems f\ndation = ! belief t x is z old z a ?\s& ye>s1 :ile its use by artill]y at ! battle ( ,crcy %[s its employm5t 9 w>f>e = ov] five hundr$ ye>s4 ,bacon's p[] ( indep5d5t ?\ght1 plac$ him s f> 9 advance ( ! c5tury 9 :i* he liv$ t he became an object ( p]secution1 b he is at pres5t rank$ z "o ( ! prom95t figures ( hi/ory4 ,9 8 works ,bacon ref]s to a sub/ance t seems to correspond to gunp[d]1 & 9 t]ms t sugge/ t he consid]$ x z a mat]ial ( n uncommon k 9 8 day4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,rog] ,bacon1 born ne> ,il*e/]1 ab\t #abad1 di$ probably at ,ox=d1 9 #abib4 ,! pr9cipal con/itu5ts ( gunp[d] are ?ree3 potassic nitrate1 *>coal & sulphur4 ,! *emical action betwe5 potassic nitrate & *>coal 9 gunp[d] may be bett] und]/ood aft] a simple exp]im5t1 :i* any "o c try4 ,! exp]im5t ref]r$ to is z foll[s3 take a l>ge piece ( *>coal2 heat x ov] a _s lamp or gas lamp until c]ta9 portions ( x take fire s z to burn ) a slight gl[2 next spr9kle v c>efully a small am\nt ( p[d]$ potassic nitrate--also call$ bo? saltpetre & nitre--^u x4 ,a burn+1 some?+ l t ( gunp[d]1 only less viol5t1 results4 ,! potassic nitrate has ! =mula ,,kno4 ,:5 x falls ^u ! gl[+ coal a portion ( ! oxyg5 leaves ! o!r con/itu5ts & accompli%es !reby a true combu/ion ( ! c>bon4 ,"o important factor 9 ! op]ation is ! elem5t nitrog52 ow+ to ! g5]al in]tness ( nitrog5 x easily all[s ! escape ( o!r elem5ts comb9$ ) x4 ,s 9 case ( ! exp]im5t j sugge/$1 ! combu/ion ( ! *>coal is ref]able to oxyg5 lib]at$ by reason ( ! feeble aff9ity ( "o ( ! o!r con/itu5ts ( ! potassic nitrate--t is1 ! nitrog54 ,?us f> ! only ?+ p>ticul>ly sugge/$ is ! combu/ion t takes place2 ano!r po9t ( importance may be m5tion$ 9 ?is connection4 ,if f9ely p[d]$ *>coal & potassic nitrate are ?or\ghly int]m+l$ & !n set on fire 9 a clos$ vessel1 a l>ge am\nt ( a gas1 t is1 c>bon dioxide1 w be g5]at$ by ! combu/ion2 & ?is gas may bur/ ! vessel unless x is a v /rong "o4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! vessel has an op5+ suppli$ ) a cork or plug1 ?is /opp] w be viol5tly driv5 out by reason ( ! explosive =ce ( ! c>bon dioxide g5]at$4 ,s 9 ! prep>ation ( gunp[d]1 potassic nitrate1 *>coal & ! ?ird sub/ance sulphur1 are f9ely pulv]iz$ & c>efully int]m+l$4 ,?us !y are br\ght to a /ate ( ?or\gh diffusion & intimate contact4 ,! (fices ( c>bon & potassic nitrate h be5 already expla9$4 ,! (fice ( ! sulphur is pr9cipally to comb9e ) ! potassium ( ! potassic nitrate1 produc+ z a result a some:at l>g] evolution ( gas4 ,at all ev5ts1 :5 gunp[d] is consum$1 two important results are af=d$4 ,z already intimat$1 ! fir/ is ! sudd5 lib]ation ( a v l>ge am\nt ( gas--c>bon dioxide4 ,! second is t ?is gas is g5]at$ by a process ( true combu/ion att5d$ ) great heat1 ! latt] contribut+ l>gely to ! explosive =ce by reason ( ! great expansion ( ! gase\s products1 effect$ by ! heat+4 ,!re are sev]al diff]5t k9ds ( gunp[d]1 b !y all consi/ ess5tially ( ! con/itu5ts m5tion$4 ,_! diff]5ces are ei!r 9 ! proportions ( ! con/itu5ts us$ or 9 ! size ( ! granules 9 :i* ! p[d] is =m$4 ,?us = "s w> purposes x is requisite t ! p[d] %\ld burn v rapidly1 :ile 9 o!rs x is requir$ to burn sl[ly4 ,= ! purpose ( regulat+ ! rate ( combu/ion1 ! gra9s are made ( v>i\s sizes4 ,! small] sizes burn m quickly1 :ile ^? ( l>g] dim5sions z well z ^? m /rongly compress$1 burn m sl[ly4 ,:ile ! exact *emical *anges :i* take place :5 gunp[d] burns1 are too complicat$ to admit ( discussion "h1 !y are 9 ! ma9 ^? j expla9$4 ,fireworks4 ,gunp[d] af=ds ! basis ( ! pyrote*nic art4 ,x is employ$ also ) ! di/9ct int5tion ( utiliz+ bo? ( ^? prime prop]ties already ref]r$ to4 ,t is to say1 by reason ( its explosive =ce1 gunp[d] produces ! v>i\s =ms ( motion requisite 9 fireworks4 ,by reason ( ! int5se heat af=d$ by its combu/ion1 ! v>i\s k9ds ( light are producible4 ,! truly m>vell\s effects obta9$ by ! skill$ pyrote*ni/ involve ! use ( a great multitude ( sub/ances & also an +5i\s me*anical comb9ation ( !m4 ,! effects he mu/ produce require brilliant light 9 v>i\s qualities & also ^u occasions l\d reports1 z ! bur/+ ( bombs & ! l4 ,s _m =ms & comb9ations ( fireworks are possible t no enum]ation c be made "h2 moreov]1 _! inf9ite capabilities dep5d ^u ! inv5tive res\rces & skill ( ! mak]4 ,9 a brief description1 ! rocket may be tak5 z ! type ( fireworks4 ,x is (t5 ( mo/ +5i\s con/ruction4 ,?us x may be provid$ ) _m *amb]s1 "o connect+ ) ano!r by prop] passages4 ,9 ^! passages are plac$ fuses s t ! fire %all run f "o *amb] to ano!r 9 prop] ord]4 ,( c\rse ! ma9 b>rel conta9s a quickly burn+ gunp[d]4 ,?is is = ! purpose ( produc+ ! asc5t4 ,x is well kn[n t a pi/ol1 a rifle or a cannon1 always exp]i5ces a /rong recoil :5 fir$4 ,s does a rocket2 b ! rocket is s con/ruct$ t ! recoil is ! *ief factor 9 its fir/ dis*>ge4 ,t is1 if ! rocket is comp>$ to a cannon1 ! dis*>ge is d[nw>d & ! recoil upw>d1 s t 9 fact ! asc5t ( ! rocket is due to :at may be call$ an exce$+ly p[]ful recoil4 ,:5 ! rocket is high 9 air1 ! fuse connect$ ) its pr9cipal b>rel lights its subord9ate *amb]s1 & ^! !n explod+ di/ribute into ! sky ! brilliant masses ( />s or o!r graceful pieces orig9ally int5d$4 ,! l\d reports t take place at su* times are due to portions ( viol5tly explosive sub/ances )9 c]ta9 *amb]s2 :ile ! p>ty-color$ lights produc$ are ref]able to ! burn+ ( sub/ances :i* h be5 c>efully select$ = ! purpose4 ,?us ! pyrote*ni/ has rec\rse to mixtures ( gunp[d] & v>i\s o!r *emical sub/ances to produce color$ fire4 ,f9ely p[d]$ *>coal or lamp-black give rise to a r$ fire2 s also d mo/ ( ! salts ( /rontium4 ,common salt or p[d]$ ros9 give rise to yell[ fire4 ,copp] fil+s & c]ta9 salts ( copp] produce gre5i% hues2 s d salts ( b>ium4 ,z9c fil+s & *loride ( copp]1 & c]ta9 o!rs1 produce blue %ades4 ,saltpet] 9 consid]able quantity af=ds a delicate p9k2 :ile iron fil+s & /eel fil+s produce sc9tillations ( great brilliancy4 ,fulm9ates4 ,! fulm9ates are sub/ances t are s extremely un/able 9 *emical "*1 t !y require b a v slight me*anical bl[ to decompose !m4 ,two fulm9ates 9 p>ticul> may be m5tion$3 fulm9ate ( m]cury & fulm9ate ( silv]4 ,!y are bo? view$ z salts ( a peculi> complex acid call$ fulm9ic acid4 ,?is acid is a comp\nd ( c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,:5 silv] or m]cury takes ! place ( ! hydrog5 9 fulm9ic acid1 ! dang]\s salts j m5tion$ are obta9$4 ,fulm9at+ m]cury is ! "o ( *ief use4 ,x is employ$ 9 p]cussion caps4 ,a drop ( gum is put 9 ! inside ( ! cap1 !n ! exact am\nt ( fulm9ate 9 ! =m ( a p[d] is all[$ to fall into ! gum2 f9ally ! :ole is all[$ to h>d54 ,:5 ! cap is us$1 a viol5t bl[ f ! hamm] ( ! gun or pi/ol gives rise to ! explosion ( ! fulm9ate1 & ?is communicates to ! gunp[d] ( ! c>tridge to be fir$4 ,fulm9at+ silv] is too dang]\s = use 9 p]cussion caps1 b x is employ$ 9 c]ta9 explosive toys l torp$oes4 ,gun-,cotton4 ,gun-cotton is a *emical modification ( ! ord9>y cotton fibre4 ,?is fibre :5 purifi$ by *emical wa%+s consi/s entirely ( ! sub/ance call$ cellulose4 ,x is n diff]5t f c]ta9 o!r vegetable fibres4 ,x has ! =mula3 ,c,h,o,h :i* may also be repres5t$ z foll[s3 ,h ,h ,c,h,o ,h ,h ,h ,:5 clean cotton is act$ ^u by /rong nitric acid x und]goes ! wond]ful *emical *ange to gun-cotton4 ,)\t mat]ial alt]ation 9 its physical appe>ance !re has be5 a *emical sub/itution by reason ( :i* a nitrog5 comp\nd has be5 introduc$ into ! *emical molecule1 z a sub/itute 9 place ( c]ta9 ( ! hydrog5 atoms orig9ally pres5t4 ,?us ! =mula ( gun-cotton may be repres5t$ z foll[s3 ,h ,h ,c,h,o ,,no ,,no ,,no ,a comp>ison ( ?is =mula ) ! "o giv5 = pure cotton %[s t ?ree atoms ( hydrog5 9 ! cotton h be5 replac$ 9 ! gun-cotton by ?ree molecules ( ! comp\nd radicle ,,no4 ,on ?is acc\nt gun-cotton is (t5 spok5 ( z tr9itrocellulose4 ,by reason ( ?is *emical sub/itution ! cotton *anges z if by magic f ! simple1 safe mat]ial ord9>ily kn[n1 to "o ( ! mo/ dang]\s ( explosives4 ,?us ,mr4 ,abel1 ! *emi/ to ! ,engli% ,w> ,dep>tm5t1 :o has made a s]ies ( mo/ c>eful /udies ( gun-cotton ) ref]5ce to its use = w> purposes1 f9ds ! explosive p[] ( gun-cotton to be m ?an fifty times t ( gunp[d] ( equal weight4 ,"o ( ! greate/ objections to ! use ( gun-cotton is f\nd 9 ! fact t ^u keep+1 x und]goes ( itself a /eady decomposition result+ ultimately 9 dang]\s explosions4 ,?is fact appe>s to be likely to prev5t ! sub/ance com+ into g5]al use4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,e/abli%m5t = manufacture ( dynamite1 ne> ,tur94 ,nitroglyc]9e4 ,glyc]9e--produc$ at pres5t 9 enorm\s quantities f fats & oils--is well kn[n z a sweeti%1 oily & h>mless sub/ance4 ,glyc]9e is compos$ ( c>bon1 hydrog5 & oxyg5 9 proportions b slightly diff]5t f ^? 9 cotton4 ,?us its =mula is ,c,h,o,h4 ,if ?is bl& & simple mat]ial is subject$ to ! action ( conc5trat$ nitric acid1 x und]goes a *ange v simil> to t recogniz$ 9 ! case ( cotton & j describ$4 ,x !n produces a comp\nd call$ tr9itroglyc]9e :i*1 :ile x ranks z "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful & useful explosives1 is also associat$ ) a long li/ ( horrible disa/]s produc$ by accid5tal1 or 9 "s cases int5tional1 explosion ( x4 ,nitroglyc]9e is itself an oily mat]ial & 0 at fir/ consid]ably us$ 9 t =m4 ,! t]rible accid5ts f transportation ( ! article h giv5 rise to ! adoption ( two means = less5+ ! risks att5d+ x4 ,! fir/ is ! manufacture ( ! sub/ance 9 suitable localities--t is ne> to great public works 9 :i* x is to be employ$4 ,& aga9 ! factories are s arrang$ t ! op]ation ( ! manufacture %all be conduct$ 9 small build+s surr\nd$ by e>?works suffici5t to localize any explosion t might unhappily occur4 ,at ! manufactory ( explosives at ,arde] on ! ,scot* coa/1 ab\t fifty miles f ,glasg[1 a mo/ +5i\s additional precaution is tak54 ,"h ea* labor]1 z he ent]s ! works 9 ! morn+1 passes into a cottage to *ange 8 dress4 ,he dons a uni=m ( a special & di/9ctive color--x may be sc>let1 or bright blue or :ite or gray1 accord+ to ! dep>tm5t 9 :i* he is employ$4 ,?us ! policem5 :o are con/antly on duty c detect at once any employ :o /rays into a dep>tm5t to :i* he does n belong & :]e 8 lack ( acqua9tance ) ! processes might lead to a t]rible accid5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,torp$o-boat attack+ a l>ge w> vessel4 ,ano!r special device is ! inv5tion ( ,alb]t ,nobel1 :o has be5 not$ z ! pr9cipal p]son by ^: ef=ts nitroglyc]9e has be5 introduc$ into ! important uses :i* x f9ds at ! pres5t day4 ,?is is ! absorption ( ! liquid nitroglyc]9e 9 "s spongy mat]ial su* z w s]ve z a safe & prop] vehicle = ! explosive4 ,! sub/ance ?us employ$ is a k9d ( f9e silice\s e>? call$ diatomace\s e>?1 also infusorial e>?4 ,?is is a m9]al mat]ial f\nd 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w 9 some:at abundant deposits4 ,^u exam9ation by ! microscope x is f\nd to be compos$ ( ! m9]al skeletons ( microscopic organisms4 ,! m9ute cellul> texture :i* ?is sub/ance af=ds seems to be admirably fitt$ to imbibe ! liquid nitroglyc]9e1 & assi/ 9 pack+ x 9 prop] c>tridges4 ,! explosive produc$ by ! comb9ation is ! "o commonly kn[n z dynamite4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,dynamite explod]4 ,a peculi>ity ( nitroglyc]9e & dynamite is t !y _c be fir$ 9 ! ord9>y fa%ion4 ,t is1 if a light$ mat* is br\ght to !m !y may take fire & burn ) p]fect quietness4 ,= _! explosion !y dem& "s k9d ( viol5t bl[4 ,= ?is reason _! c>tridges h to be provid$ ) special explod]s4 ,^! are small cases ( gunp[d] or p]haps fulm9at+ mat]ials1 :i* may be set on fire by means ( a p[d] fuse or an electric curr5t2 _! explosion )9 ! nitroglyc]9e mass det]m9es a viol5t %ock to ! latt]4 ,x is ! concussion ?us produc$ t is ! appropriate means ( explod+ ! nitroglyc]9e or dynamite c>tridges4 ,:ile ! sad accid5ts ) ^! mat]ials h horrifi$ ! :ole _w by _! sudd5 & disa/r\s results x is too (t5 =gott5 t _! gigantic =ces are day by day safely & quietly contribut+ to ! execution ( great public works all ov] ! e>?4 ,?us 9 ! great rock tunnels ( ,mont-,c5is & ,/4 ,go?>d1 :i* pi]ce ! ,alps1 nitroglyc]9e & dynamite h done ! "w ( armies ( m54 ,9 ! ,/4 ,go?>d tunnel m ?an two million p\nds ( dynamite h be5 employ$1 & x has prov$ wond]fully effective 9 advanc+ mo/ ardu\s subt]ranean "w4 ,unque/ionably ! pr9cipal use ( ?is explosive1 z well z o!rs1 is 9 ! labors ( peace4 ,/ill1 nitroglyc]9e & dynamite h come into great prom95ce by reason ( _! use 9 naval w>f>e4 ,torp$oes ( a great v>iety ( =ms are n[ con/ruct$ s t a quick mov+ laun* may /eam up to a l>ge %ip ( w>1 place close to h] side "o ( ^! dang]\s contrivances & !n quickly )draw 9 "t to avoid ! effects ( ! explosion :i* involves ! great vessel 9 deva/at+ ru9s4 ,torp$oes *>g$ ) nitroglyc]9e or dynamite1 are also us$ = ! def5ce ( h>bors1 be+ sometimes plac$ 9 su* a way t an enemy's %ip1 9 cross+ ! l9e =m$ by ! torp$oes1 %all by t act explode "o or m ( !m & produce h] own de/ruction4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,explosive ,ag5ts4 ,abel1 ,f4 ,a4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xxiii1 #da1 xxvii1 #ecf4 --,*em4 ,news4--xxxix1 #afe1 #ahg1 #aih1 #bjh4 ,explosives1 a ,new ,class ( ,spr5gel1 ,h4--,j\r4 ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xxvi1 #gif4 ,explosives1 ,=ce ( ,b]!lot4--,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique4 #d ,sr4 xxiii1 #bbc4 ,explosives1 9 ,bla/+4 ,scribn]'s ,mon?ly4 iii1 #cc4 ,greek ,fire1 7s call$47 ,lalanne1 ,l4--,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique4 #c ,sr4 iv1 #dcc4 ,gun-cotton1 ,manufacture & ,composition ( ,abel1 ,f4 ,a4--,j\rnal ( ,*em4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 xx1 #caa1 #eje4 ,gunp[d]1 ,*emical ,!ory ( ,debus1 ,h4--,*emical ,news4 xlv1 #ia4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,phosphorus4 ,phosphorus is a mo/ int]e/+ *emical elem5t4 ,?is is because ( its exceptional *emical prop]ties1 ! v important "p x plays 9 ! *emi/ry ( animal & vegetable life1 & its employm5t 9 ! friction mat*1 "o ( ! mo/ conv5i5t & useful articles ( human inv5tion4 ,phosphorus appe>s to h be5 fir/ prep>$ 9 ! ye> #affi by a ,hamburg m]*ant nam$ ,br&t :o became fasc9at$ ) ! /udy ( al*emy & pursu$ 8 exp]im5ts ) ! view ( repair+ 8 brok5 =tunes by ! discov]y ( ! philosoph]'s /one4 ,! happy discov]y ( phosphorus1 :ile x did n enri* him1 at lea/ pres]v$ 8 "n 9 ! annals ( *emi/ry4 ,br&t produc$ x by a labori\s process f c]ta9 animal matt]s4 ,not)/&+ ! rem>kable prop]ties ( ! sub/ance & ! extraord9>ily useful purposes to :i* mod]n sci5tific k has appli$ x & its comp\nds1 phosphorus rema9$ ! m]e/ toy = m ?an a hundr$ ye>s4 ,9 #agga ,s*eele reveal$ to ! _w ! fact t x may be prep>$ f bone-a%es1 t is f burnt bone1 & ?is has ev] s9ce be5 f\nd to be its mo/ conv5i5t s\rce4 ,! "n phosphorus is d]iv$ f two ,greek words 7 phos1 light1 &1 ph]o1 ,i be>7 :i* sugge/ "o ( its m>k$ prop]ties1 namely its p[] ( cont9ually af=d+ light ev5 ?\gh n set on fire aft] ! mann] ( ord9>y illum9at+ mat]ials4 ,x is true ! light is feeble & *iefly noticeable 9 ! d>k4 ,x is ! same1 9 fact1 z t yield$ 9 ! d>k by an ord9>y friction mat* :5 x is g5tly rubb$1 b has n yet tak5 fire4 ,?is light1 h[ev]1 is ! product ( a true combu/ion1 only ( a v sl[ "o2 & aga9 ?is burn+ ( phosphorus is initiat$ by heat1 7?\gh only a v mod]ate am\nt is requir$ = x74 ,( c\rse = phosphorus mu* less heat is dem&$ ?an to set on fire our ord9>y combu/ibles4 ,phosphorus1 ?\gh v widely di/ribut$ 9 nature1 is nev] f\nd free or uncomb9$4 ,?is fact is di/9ctly ref]able to ! ease ) :i* ! sub/ance comb9es ) oxyg52 if x 7 f\nd free at any po9t on ! surface ( ! e>?1 :]e x suff]$ exposure to atmosph]ic air1 x w\ld ( c\rse quickly ent] into comb9ation ) oxyg54 ,phosphorus exi/s occasionally 9 ! e>? 9 ! /ate ( comb9ation 9 v h>d rocky masses1 ( :i* ! m9]al kn[n z apatite--compos$ ma9ly ( calcic phosphate--is a good example4 ,x is also pres5t 9 small quantities 9 almo/ all soils2 & 9 m9ute quantities 9 mo/ natural wat]s1 l riv]-wat] & sea-wat]4 ,"o ( ! mo/ famili> sub/ances conta9+ phosphorus is ! bony skeleton ( ! high] animals4 ,"h also x exi/s z calcic phosphate4 ,x exi/s also 9 ! bra91 ?\gh 9 a =m ( *emical comb9ation n easily /at$4 ,fur!r1 x is a con/itu5t ( v>i\s portions ( ! vegetable /ructure1 especially ( se$s4 ,! /atem5ts 9 ! la/ two p>agraphs h be5 pres5t$ ) ! express purpose ( call+ att5tion to ! important (fices ( phosphorus 9 connection ) animal & vegetable life4 ,?us exact exp]im5ts h %[n t plants _c fl\ri% 9 soils b>r5 ( phosphates1 & t ! m]e addition ( almo/ any soluble phosphate to an arid soil promptly /imulates ! plant liv+ ^u x1 into m luxuriant gr[?4 ,^! facts h l$ to ! introduction into comm]ce ( artificial f]tiliz]s conta9+ soluble phosphates z _! pr9cipal +r$i5ts2 & ! manufacture ( su* f]tiliz]s has cont9ually exp&$1 until n[ x is conduct$ by ! pr9cipal comm]cial nations on a truly gigantic scale4 ,= ! purpose ( ?is manufacture1 bones are p>ticul>ly favorable because ( _! porosity4 ,9 fact ! surface ( ! _w is ransack$ to supply ?is raw mat]ial4 ,?us f ! des]ts ( ,africa1 bones are convey$ z f> z ,engl& to be manufactur$ into f]tiliz]s2 & s f ! great we/]n pla9s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 bones are br\ght to ! ea/]n c5tres = a l use4 ,! agricultural dem& = phosphates ( "s sort has become s imp]i\s t ev5 apatite is n[ l>gely us$1 not)/&+ ! difficulties t its exce$+ly h>d & compact /ructure place 9 ! way ( ! manufactur]4 ,f ! plant1 phosphorus f9ds its way 9 ! =m ( food into ! animal sy/em4 ,! liv+ animal appreciates ?is ess5tial +r$i5t1 c>efully selects x out f ! food1 & /ores x up bo? 9 its bra9 & 9 its bony framework4 ,?is framework is exce$+ly important z giv+ ! requisite rigidity to ! :ole /ructure1 & ! prop] support = ! action ( ! v>i\s muscles4 ,phosphorus itself is prep>$ by a process too complicat$ = ! ord9>y amateur *emi/ to repeat2 inde$ its prep>ation1 ev5 on ! l>ge scale1 pres5ts s]i\s difficulties4 ,^! are associat$ ) ! great combu/ibility ( ! sub/ance1 :i* makes necess>y extraord9>y precautions aga9/ fire4 ,aga91 labor]s 9 phosphorus works are subject to a pa9ful & incurable disease call$ phosphorus necrosis1 :i* has a peculi> & de/ructive effect ^u ! bones ( ! jaw4 ,f9ally1 ! *emical *anges involv$ give rise to su* difficulties & complexities z =ce ! manufactur] to unusual wat*fulness4 ,9 fact x has be5 rec5tly /at$ t !re are sc>cely m ?an two factories = phosphorus manufacture 9 ! _w--"o 9 ,engl& & "o 9 ,france4 ,! elem5t phosphorus1 z ord9>ily se51 has mu* ! appe>ance ( wax4 ,x has a :ite or amb] color1 & is transluc5t2 x may be cut ) a knife mu* z wax cuts4 ,x is ord9>ily sold 9 ! =m ( cyl9d]s ( ab\t half-an-in* 9 diamet]4 ,x is necess>y to keep x 9 vessels ( wat]1 = z already /at$1 if expos$ to ! air x w\ld oxidize4 ,?is oxidation1 at fir/ sl[1 increases 9 vigor f ! heat af=d$ by ! e>li] /ages4 ,aft] a %ort exposure to air1 portions ( phosphorus spontane\sly bur/ into flame4 ,evid5tly !n1 phosphorus %\ld n be h&l$ except "u wat]4 ,cases are record$ ( sev]e & ev5 fatal burns--! result ( h&l+ phosphorus 9 ! air4 ,we may ) propriety call att5tion "h to ano!r peculi>ity ( phosphorus1 :i* con/itutes "o ( ! rem>kable features ( ?is int]e/+ elem5t4 ,ab\t ?irty ye>s ago1 a ,vi5na *emi/ discov]$ t :5 phosphorus is heat$ = a consid]able l5g? ( "t1 "u conditions su* t no gas is pres5t :i* c act *emically ^u x1 x und]goes a m>k$ *ange 9 its prop]ties4 ,?us its color turns to r$1 &1 /range to say1 x loses altoge!r t ready combu/ibility :i* is ! mo/ /rik+ *>act]i/ic ( ord9>y phosphorus4 ,x may seem incr$ible t any su* *ange c\ld 9 fact occur4 ,b ?is r$ phosphorus has become an article ( consid]able importance 9 comm]ce1 & x is a well-e/abli%$ fact t ord9>y phosphorus may be turn$ into ?is modification )\t any ga9 or loss ( weight1 & t1 on ! o!r h&1 ?is r$ phosphorus may be turn$ back aga91 by suitable processes1 to ! ord9>y =m1 also )\t ga9 or loss ( weight4 ,phosphorus is n ! only elem5t>y sub/ance t is capable ( ?is k9d ( *ange4 ,inde$ ! g5]al t]m allotropism has be5 appli$ to ! t5d5cy ( elem5t>y sub/ances to und]go int]nal *anges1 by reason ( :i* _! *emical prop]ties are tempor>ily modifi$ )\t ga9 or loss ( weight1 & !re=e indep5d5tly ( *emical comb9ation or decomposition4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,coignet's app>atus = production ( r$ phosphorus4 ,ord9>y phosphorus is plac$ 9 a ca/-iron vessel c2 x is !n heat$ t5 or twelve days1 an ev5 temp]ature be+ ma9ta9$ by ! two iron jackets1 "o enclos+ s&1 ! o!r hold+ fusible alloy4 ,*emical ,prop]ties ( ,phosphorus4 ,! *emical prop]ties ( phosphorus are wide 9 _! range2 t is1 x comb9es ) _m ( ! *emical elem5ts4 ,?us x unites ) hydrog5 9 m ?an "o proportion1 & !reby =ms sev]al comp\nds4 ,z might be expect$1 !y are all exce$+ly combu/ible2 "o ( !m 9 p>ticul>1 call$ phosphurett$ hydrog51 takes fire at ord9>y temp]atures imm$iately ^u com+ 9 contact ) ! atmosph]e4 ,its production af=ds opportunity = a beautiful exp]im5t1 ?\gh a some:at dang]\s "o4 ,:5 ! gas is produc$ 9 a retort1 x may be made to bubble ?r\gh wat] 9 ! =m ( vapor 9 company ) v>i\s gases g5]at$ at ! same "t4 ,!n1 z x rea*es ! surface1 x in/antly takes fire1 ! phosphorus burn+ to a :ite1 smoke-l sub/ance :i* usually floats away 9 =ms simil> to ^? ( smok]'s r+s4 ,! smoke consi/s ( m9ute p>ticles ( a solid1 call$ phosphorus p5toxide1 & express$ by ! =mula ,p,o4 ,?is is evid5tly ! product ( ! combu/ion ( t phosphorus :i* is a "p ( ! inflammable gas4 ,! %ape ( ! r+s is due to a m]e me*anical circum/ance & ! same 9 effect z t af=d$ by ! lips ( ! smok] :ile produc+ r+s4 ,inde$ if a pap] box1 hav+ a r\nd hole on "o side1 be fill$ ) smoke ( any k9d1 %>p bl[s ^u ! opposite side w drive out portions ( ! smoke 9 su* a way z to produce simil> r+s4 ,su* r+s are (t5 se5 on a /ill day puff$ out ( ! smoke/ack ( a locomotive1 & !y are sometimes produc$ by ! dis*>ge ( a cannon 9 /ill air4 ,! fact is t 9 all ^! cases ! portion ( smoke produc+ a r+ advances ?r\gh ! op5+ ) a sudd5 impulse1 ! edge ( ! op5+ ret>d+ ^? p>ticles t pass ne>e/ to x4 ,?us ! delay$ p>ticles acquire a t5d5cy backw>d & inw>d :i* />ts !m on ! peculi> s]ies ( circul> c\rses1 :i* 9 ! gr& aggregate give rise to ! r+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,phosphurett$ hydrog5 gas1 ( ! spontane\sly inflammable v>iety1 tak+ fire 9 air & =m+ smoke-r+s4 ,z has m ?an once be5 /at$1 phosphorus has a m>k$ aff9ity = oxyg54 ,x burns 9 any vessel conta9+ air1 comb9+ ) oxyg5 9 su* a way z to readily deprive ! air ( ! entire am\nt ( ?is elem5t conta9$ 9 x4 ,! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,p #e,o #b,p,o ,"o molecule ( ,five molecules ( ,two molecules ( ,phosphorus1 ,oxyg51 ,phosphorus p5toxide1 #abd #afj #bhd p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #bhd #bhd ,:5 ! op]ation is p]=m$ 9 a tall j>1 ! oxide ( phosphorus produc$ falls z abundant flakes hav+ a sn[-l consi/5cy4 ,:5 ^! flakes are ?r[n ^u wat] !y *emically comb9e ) ! wat]1 af=d+ mu* heat & produc+ a hiss+ s\nd :i* is ! evid5ce ( x4 ,! liquid n[ acquires a s\r ta/e ref]able to ! fact t phosphoric acid has be5 produc$4 ,! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,p,o #c;,h,o #b;,h,,po ,"o molecule ( ,?ree molecules ( ,two molecules ( ,phosphorus p5toxide1 ,wat]1 ,phosphoric acid1 #adb #ed #aif p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #aif #aif ,phosphoric acid is ! />t+ po9t ( an imm5se s]ies ( salts call$ phosphates4 ,"o ( ^!1 calcic phosphate1 we h already ref]r$ to z exi/+ 9 bones & 9 apatite4 ,friction ,mat*es4 ,! e>lie/ me?od ( produc+ flame appe>s to h be5 by ! friction ( pieces ( dry wood 9 contact ) dry leaves or simil>ly combu/ible sub/ances4 ,?is me?od travel]s h f\nd to be /ill 9 use among tribes ( a l[ /age ( developm5t4 ,! next me?od seems to h be5 by ! use ( fl9t & /eel & t9d]4 ,:5 ! fl9t is %>ply /ruck aga9/ ! /eel1 x te>s (f m9ute p>ticles ( ! metal1 & ^! fragm5ts are heat$ to ! lum9\s po9t by ! viol5ce ( ! /roke2 if !y are made to fall ^u ! t9d]1 ?is easily combu/ible mat]ial takes fire2 f its burn+1 a c&le or lamp may be light$4 ,b ! fl9t & /eel & t9d] mu/ be dry & 9 good ord] to produce ! be/ results2 ev5 !n consid]able skill is dem&$4 ,s x is easy to see t mank9d has (t5 pref]r$ to pres]ve a flame once light$1 & !n communicate ?is to ano!r & ano!r f "t to "t1 r ?an to g to ! tr\ble ( excit+ a new combu/ion :5 fire 0 ne$$4 ,& x is easy to appreciate ! usefulness to its possessor ( a flame once k9dl$--& ! s]i\s inconv5i5ce result+ f its ext9ction4 ,?us we c readily compreh5d h[ nations h adopt$ fire z a sacr$ ag5t1 to be pres]v$ cont9u\sly unext+ui%$1 & to be gu>d$ ) religi\s c>e4 ,! fl9t & /eel me?od has ample illu/ration z to its pr9ciple1 n only 9 famili> cases l sp>ks f ! horse's ho(1 b also 9 _m processes 9 factories & ma*9e %ops4 ,"h x is well kn[n t ! gr9d/ones us$ = f9i%+ articles ( iron & /eel s5d (f f _! "w an un9t]rupt$ curr5t ( m9ute *ips ( ! hot & lum9\s metal4 ,! fl9t & /eel me?od ( obta9+ fire held its own until ab\t sixty ye>s ago4 ,9 #ahbi a k9d ( *emical mat* 0 devis$1 & soon aft]1 9 #ahcb1 a true friction mat* conta9+ phosphorus 0 br\ght into use4 ,! pr9ciples ^u :i* ! phosphorus mat* dep5d are b v slightly diff]5t f ^? involv$ 9 ! use ( ! fl9t & /eel4 ,?us 9 ! friction mat* ! rubb+ ^u ! r\gh surface is a me*anical process :i* g5]ates heat1 j z any bl[ or any friction does4 ,9 ! case 9 "q ! am\nt ( heat is small1 b x is suffici5t to set on fire ! small am\nt ( phosphorus on ! tip ( ! mat*2 ! phosphorus sets on fire ! sulphur :i* coats ov] ! end ( ! mat*2 ! sulphur 9 burn+ sets on fire ! wood ( ! mat*1 & "h ! combu/ion has rea*$ a /age at :i* x is easily communicat$ to l>g] masses ( mat]ial4 ,9 ! f9] k9ds ( wood5 mat*es1 9 ord] to avoid ! objectionable smell ( ! burn+ sulphur1 ?is latt] sub/ance is sometimes replac$ by a ?9 coat+ ( wax ^u ! end ( ! /ick4 ,9 ?is case1 o!r *emicals are add$ to ! tip ( ! mat*1 9 ord] to make ! combu/ion m active4 ,friction mat*es ( ! ord9>y k9d are n[ s abundant & famili> ev]y:]e t ! exce$+ usefulness1 conv5i5ce & importance ( ! mat* z a device or inv5tion1 is apt to be ov]look$4 ,x is n int5d$ to dwell "h ^u ?is subject1 h[ev]1 = p]haps :at has be5 said ( ! appliances = light+ us$ 9 ! pa/1 r5d]s unnecess>y fur!r pres5tation ( ! pr9ciples utiliz$ 9 ! little tap]s ( to-day4 ,z an article ( manufacture1 ! individual mat* is s small t x is n easy at fir/ to appreciate ! greatness ( ! comm]cial int]e/ x repres5ts4 ,?us x is e/imat$ t 9 ,europe alone fifty ?\s& p]sons are con/antly employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( mat*es4 ,aga91 ?\gh ! am\nt ( phosphorus us$ 9 ea* mat* is v m9ute1 its sum total is no less ?an a ?\s& tons a ye>4 ,! value ( ! annual product ( ?is indu/ry is n f> f fifty millions ( doll>s4 ,if !re 7 introduc$ "h an acc\nt describ+ at l5g? ! manufacture ( ! friction mat*--comm5c+ at ! beg9n+ ) ! special k9d ( wood employ$ & ! processes us$ = its subdivision into ! requisite fragm5ts1 cont9u+ ev5 s z to expla9 ! v>i\s contrivances = pack+ ! f9i%$ product--t description might be ( int]e/2 b ! special topic seems to be m prop]ly ! prep>ation & application ( ! mat]ial at ! tip ( ! mat*4 ,! /icks hav+ be5 prep>$1 !y are plac$1 by ma*9e1 9 frames capable ( conta9+ l>ge numb]s ( !m4 ,!y are fir/ sulphur$1 t is _! ends are dipp$ 9 melt$ sulphur & x is all[$ to h>d5 ^u !m4 ,= ! f9] grade ( mat*es h[ev]1 ! sulphur mu/ be disp5s$ )1 & in/ead ! /icks are dipp$ into melt$ wax4 ,9 any case1 !y are next tipp$ ) ! highly inflammable mat]ial1 ?is process be+ call$ *emick+4 ,! inflammable pa/e is prep>$ 9 l>ge quantities by mix+ ! prop] +r$i5ts 9 a kettle surr\nd$ by boil+ wat]4 ,fir/1 a solution ( an appropriate gum or glue is made4 ,:5 x has atta9$ a prop] consi/5cy1 ! phosphorus is introduc$ little by little4 ,! :ole mass is !n sl[ly b ?or\ghly agitat$ ) a wood5 /irr] until !phosphorus is diffus$ ?r\gh ! mass4 ,f9ally1 o!r +r$i5ts1 su* z potassic nitrate or b9oxide ( lead or manganese dioxide1 :i* favor combu/ion1 are add$2 & c]ta9 color+ matt]s1 su* z ,prussian blue or v]milion1 are introduc$4 ,"h is a ,g]man recipe = mak+ ?is pa/e3 ,gum1 #af p>ts4 ,phosphorus1 #i p>ts4 ,potassic nitrate1 #ad p>ts4 ,manganese dioxide1 #af p>ts4 ,z has already be5 intimat$1 all ( ^! sub/ances1 except ! phosphorus1 may be replac$ by o!rs1 accord+ to ! /yle ( ! article to be manufactur$ or ! views ( ! mak]4 ,! process ( *emick+ consi/s 9 dipp+ ! sulphur$ ends into ! inflammable pa/e1 :i* = ?is purpose is spread out on a /one slab4 ,f9ally1 ! tips are coat$ ov] ) a ?9 v>ni% to protect !m f absorption ( moi/ure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,pan or wat]-ba?1 = melt+ & mix+ ! inflammable pa/e = mat* tips4 ,at pres5t ! manufacture ( friction mat*es is c>ri$ on to a v l>ge ext5t 9 ,sw$51 & t c\ntry1 x is n[ /at$1 produces ab\t sev5ty-five p] c5t ( all ! mat*es made 9 ! _w4 ,9 ,sw$51 too1 are l>gely manufactur$ :at are call$ safety mat*es4 ,! safety mat*es are tipp$ ) a composition ( potassic *lorate1 potassic di*romate1 r$ oxide ( lead1 & sulphide ( antimony4 ,"u ord9>y circum/ances friction w n set ^! mat*es on fire4 ,9 light+1 !y mu/ be rubb$ on a prep>$ surface :i* conta9s pr9cipally r$ phosphorus & sulphide ( antimony4 ,:5 ! mat* is rubb$ ^u ?is surface1 ! potassic *lorate ( ! mat* & ! r$ phosphorus ( ! friction-surface />t a *emical comb9ation :i* ext5ds to ! o!r mat]ials on ! tip ( ! mat*4 ,safety mat*es1 !n1 involve an inv5tion :i* 9 accompli%+ its purpose1 af=ds a tw(old advantage4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 z ! mat* lights only on ! prep>$ surface1 ! dang] ( conflagrations f accid5tal ignition ( !m is v l>gely r$uc$4 ,?is co/ly feature ( ! ord9>y phosphorus mat* w\ld be l>gely1 if n entirely1 done away ) by ! g5]al use ( ! safety mat*4 ,9 ! second place1 ! use ( r$ phosphorus has ! advantage ( sav+ human lives 9 o!r ways4 ,?us x sp>es ! op]atives1 employ$ 9 ?is bus9ess1 ! liability to ! phosphorus disease already m5tion$4 ,aga91 ord9>y phosphorus is v poison\s2 9 fact ! tips ( mat*es conta9+ ?is sub/ance h n only (t5 produc$ ! dea? ( *ildr5 :o h ta/$ !m1 b su* mat*es h (t5 be5 us$ 9 cases ( int5tional suicide4 ,( c\rse z safety mat*es conta9 no phosphorus1 ^! =ms ( poison+ _c arise f !m4 ,a flame ( fire1 z a visible & tangible ?+1 has 9 all ages be5 accept$ z a symbol :i* appropriately typifies enlight5m5t ( ! m9d & s\l4 ,?is favorite & beautiful figure loses none ( its fitness :5 n>r[$ 9 its application to ! aspects ( ^! subjects 9 _! peculi>ly mod]n =ms4 ,= 9 ! friction mat*1 ^: *eapness br+s x to ! h& ( e human be+ h[ev] l[ 8 degree1 we may discov] ! type ( t opportunity = enlight5m5t (f]$ to individuals ^: circum/ances seem mo/ humble & ev5 =bidd+4 ,! "o is ! inv5tion ( mod]n sci5ce2 ! o!r ! gift ( mod]n laws1 ( mod]n !ories ( ! rights ( m51 ( mod]n s*ools1 libr>ies1 & newspap]s1 ( ! mod]n pr9t+ press1 telegraph1 & railroad4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ce4 ,friction ,mat*es4 ,s*rtt]1 ,a4 ,v4--,*em4 ,news4 xxxvi1 #bjg1 #bai1 #bei4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,c>bon4 ,c>bon exi/s 9 nature 9 a multitude ( =ms4 ,x is r>ely f\nd 9 ! pure & uncomb9$ condition1 ?\gh c]ta9 well-kn[n sub/ances possess x 9 l>ge quantity4 ,ord9>y ,*>coal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,*>coal pit4 ,probably ! mo/ famili> & repres5tative =m ( c>bon is t kn[n z *>coal4 ,b *>coal is r>ely free f o!r *emical elem5ts1 & a di/9ction ought to be made betwe5 x & ! absolutely pure =m ( ! elem5t "u consid]ation4 ,*>coal is produc$ by ! p>tial decomposition1 "u ! influ5ce ( heat1 ( vegetable or animal sub/ances4 ,?us *>coal is commonly prep>$ by pil+ wood into a conical heap1 !n cov]+ x ) e>? & sods1 & f9ally sett+ x on fire )94 ,c]ta9 portions ( ! wood are ?us burn$1 :ile o!rs are only *>r$4 ,! wood is decompos$ by ! heat to :i* x is subject$2 volatile mat]ials g5]at$ by ?is decomposition are expell$1 :ile !re is left beh9d a solid matt] consi/+ ma9ly ( c>bon1 & call$ *>coal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,tree trunks discov]$ 9 coal m9es4 ,animal ,*>coal4 ,! same g5]al treatm5t ( c]ta9 animal matt]s1 su* z wa/e lea!r1 gives rise to a f9] k9d ( c>bon call$ animal *>coal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--;,*>coal burn]s at "w4 ,aga91 :5 bones are p>tly burn$1 !y produce :at is call$ bone-coal4 ,! m9]al matt] ( ! bone und]goes no *ange by ! heat2 b ! gelat9\s matt]s :i* p]meate x are decompos$1 & !y leave beh9d !m ! c>bon deposit$ ^u ?is m9]al matt]4 ,lamp-,black4 ,ano!r mat]ial1 closely assimilat$ to ^? already spok5 (1 is lamp-black4 ,?is is a product ( ! imp]fect combu/ion ( sub/ances l oil1 t>1 res91 & ! l1 :i* are v ri* 9 c>bon4 ,! t> or res9 be+ set on fire is all[$ to burn1 b 9 an imp]fect way1 & s z to evolve a d5se black smoke4 ,! smoke fl[s into a *amb] prep>$ = x1 :]e ! sooty mat]ial collects on ! floor & walls4 ,x is aft]w>ds scrap$ up & put into packages = comm]cial di/ribution4 ,9 ! ,engli% me?od ( manufacture ( lamp-black1 ! smoke is made to pass ?r\gh a s]ies ( heavy canvas bags4 ,f op5+s at ! bottoms ( ! bags1 ! soot is aft]w>d drawn out = pack+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,manufacture ( lamp-black4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--;,bags 9 :i* lamp-black is collect$ 9 ! ,engli% process ( manufacture4 ,coal4 ,an?racite coal & bitum9\s coal are bo? well-kn[n comp\nds ( c>bon4 ,an?racite seems to be d]iv$ f bitum9\s coal :i* has be5 subject$ 9 ! e>? to heat & pressure "u conditions favorable to ! expulsion ( "s ( ! m volatile con/itu5ts ( ! orig9al bitum9\s coal4 ,bo? ( ^! combu/ibles1 :5 c>efully /udi$1 %[ di/9ct evid5ces ( _! vegetable orig94 ,pla9ly !y are accumulat$ masses ( ! rema9s ( a rank vegetation :i* fl\ri%$ 9 an e>li] p]iod 9 ! geological hi/ory ( our globe4 ,c>eful obs]vations made 9 ! m9es h reveal$ 9 ! coal ! exi/5ce ( trunks ( trees1 bran*es1 leaves1 fruits1 9 v>i\s conditions f ! "o extreme ( comp>atively p]fect pres]vation1 to ! o!r extreme 9 :i* ! m9]al pres]ves a m]e impression ( ! orig9al vegetable matt]4 ,^! rema9s h made x possible to con/ruct a complete botany ( ?is p]iod ( geological hi/ory2 & ) b a mod]ate aid ( ! imag9ation1 arti/s h be5 able to produce ideal l&scapes repres5t+ ^! e>ly =ms ( vegetable life z !y fl\ri%$ 9 ! anci5t ages4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,imag9>y l&scape dur+ ! c>bonif]\s era4 ,graphite4 ,closely alli$ to an?racite coal is t valuable mat]ial call$ graphite4 ,?is a v compact & comp>atively pure =m ( c>bon4 ,x is famili>ly kn[n to e "o 9 ! black mat]ial us$ 9 lead p5cils4 ,graphite is commonly call$ black lead1 ?\gh x is a well e/abli%$ fact t x conta9s no lead at all4 ,/rangely en\gh graphite is rem>kably incombu/ible "u all ord9>y circum/ances4 ,x is also--l o!r =ms ( c>bon--infusible at ! highe/ temp]atures kn[n4 ,on acc\nt ( ^! prop]ties graphite f9ds use1 ?\gh x mu/ be deem$ a some:at anomal\s "o1 9 ! manufacture ( crucibles4 ,:5 ! preci\s metals are fus$ 9 su* a crucible1 at a high temp]ature 9 a gl[+ furnace1 an int]e/+ p>adox is furni%$4 ,x is ?is3 ! coal--freely burn+ 9 ! fire1 & s furni%+ ! int5se heat desir$--is fundam5tally ( precisely ! same *emical nature z ! graphite ( ! crucible1 :i* resi/s ! heat & ! combu/ion1 &1 :ile all[+ ! metals to melt1 pres]ves !m4 ,! ,diamond4 ,! diamond is ne>ly pure c>bon1 cry/alliz$4 ,p]haps x is n too mu* to say t x is ! mo/ /rik+ & wond]ful ( all ! =ms ( ?is int]e/+ elem5t4 ,! co/l9ess ( ! diamond is ref]able l>gely to its great r>ity2 = x is f\nd 9 comp>atively few portions ( ! e>?4 ,! anci5t ,greeks & ,romans highly priz$ ! r>e & preci\s cry/al1 :i* !y obta9$ f ,india1 & x 0 worn by !m n only because ( its co/l9ess & beauty1 b also because !y believ$ t x s]v$ z a pot5t *>m aga9/ al>ms & en*antm5ts2 m important yet1 !y ascrib$ to x ! p[] ( pres]v+ ! peace & h>mony ( ! family circle4 ,^u ?is po9t a ,fr5* writ] has wittily said3 8,cette d]nire v]tu1 je crois qu'il la possde encore qu& le m>i e/ assez ri*e p\r a*et] le bij\ que sa femme ambitionne de port]60 ,! ,ea/ ,indies1 ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope & ! ,brazils may be said to be ! pr9cipal s\rces ( ?is gem4 ,9 ,brazil ! se>* = diamonds is sy/ematically conduct$4 ,! diamond be>+ soils are c>efully pulv]iz$ 9 vessels ( wat]1 "u ! direction ( exp]i5c$ inspectors4 ,! "w is done by slaves :o prosecute _! se>* "u ! /imulus ( ! well und]/ood rule t he :o f9ds a diamond weigh+ sev5te5 & "o-half c>ats or m1 publicly receives 8 fre$om z a rew>d4 ,not)/&+ ! sy/ematic labor appli$ to ! se>* = ^! gems & ! fasc9ation naturally att5d+ und]tak+s ( ?is sort1 ! weal? ( ,brazil is d]iv$ to a va/ly great] ext5t f its agricultural products ?an f its m9es4 ,?us x is /at$ t f #agdj to #ahbb1 a p]iod ( m ?an eighty ye>s1 ! diamond m9es yield$ b little m ?an #ag1jjj1jjj4 ,on ! o!r h& ! value ( c(fee export$ 9 a s+le ye> has sometimes be5 d\ble or ev5 m ?an d\ble ?is am\nt4 ,?us 9 ! ye> #ahei ! c(fee export$ 0 valu$ at above #bh1jjj1jjj2 & 9 #ahgc ! quantity ( ?is article export$ 0 valu$ at above #fj1jjj1jjj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--8,! ,sancy40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--8,! ,pol> ,/>40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--8,! ,empress ,eug5ie0 or 8,pigott40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--8,! ,koh-i-noor40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--8,! ,/> ( ! ,s\?40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--8,! ,reg5t0 or 8,pitt40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--8,! ,gr& ,duke ( ,tuscany40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--8,! ,orl(f40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--8,! ,gr& ,mogul40 ,! great diamonds ( ! _w 7natural size74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,transportation ( diamonds "u milit>y protection4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,diamond cutt] at "w4 ,! l>g] gems are exce$+ly r>e4 ,on ?is acc\nt ! money value ( diamonds increases 9 a f> m rapid ratio ?an ! weight4 ,! ,cutt+ ( ,diamonds4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,diamond kn[n z 8,! ,/> ( ! ,s\?02 be=e & aft] cutt+4 ,! cutt+ ( diamonds z an art has be5 kn[n = b a few c5turies1 & ! p]fection ) :i* x is at pres5t conduct$ is ( mu* m rec5t date4 ,( c\rse ! process is an extremely delicate & important "o because x involves splitt+ (f portions ( ! gem s z to r$uce x to ! exact geometrical %ape previ\sly decid$ ^u4 ,t =m call$ ! brilliant is ! "o commone/ produc$ at ! pres5t day4 ,! bus9ess ( cutt+ diamonds has be5 = a long "t conc5trat$ 9 ! city ( ,am/]dam 9 ,holl&4 ,"h1 among a ,jewi% population ( tw5ty-eight ?\s& p]sons1 t5 ?\s& are employ$ exclusively 9 work+ on diamonds4 ,9 _m cases diamonds are subject to a v l>ge relative loss ( weight by ! process ( cutt+4 ,?us ! ,koh-i-noor1 :5 br\ght f ,india z a gift f ! ,ea/ ,india ,company to ! ,engli% ,cr[n1 0 9 ! r\gh /ate & weigh$ "o hundr$ & eighty-six c>ats4 ,x 0 aft]w>ds cut 9 ,am/]dam1 by :i* process x suff]$ a loss ( weight v>i\sly /at$ z f eighty to "o hundr$ c>ats4 ,aft] ! fir/ trimm+1 ! gem is c>efully poli%$ by rubb+ x g5tly aga9/ a revolv+ plate ^u :i* is a mixture ( oil & diamond du/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,diamond poli%] at "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,diamond wa%+ 9 ,brazil4 ,up to ! close ( ! la/ c5tury ! nature & composition ( ! diamond _h be5 a subject ( int]e/+ discussion among /ud5ts ( natural sci5ce4 ,at ! p]iod m5tion$ h[ev]1 ! "q 0 settl$ by ,lavoisi] & o!r sci5tific inve/igators1 :o cle>ly prov$ t ! diamond und]w5t complete combu/ion 9 oxyg5 & t z a result c>bon dioxide gas 0 g5]at$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,! ,koh-i-noor be=e cutt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--,! ,koh-i-noor aft] cutt+4 ,o!r ,natural ,=ms ( ,c>bon4 ,9 addition to ! well-kn[n =ms ( matt] conta9+ c>bon1 & already describ$1 !re are yet _m o!rs4 ,?us x is f\nd 9 ! atmosph]e1 z has already be5 expla9$1 9 ! =m ( c>bon dioxide4 ,?is gas exi/s 9 ! air 9 small relative proportion1 b 9 enorm\s aggregate am\nt4 ,z a natural c>bonace\s sub/ance petroleum1 too1 ought n to be =gott54 ,?is wond]ful & useful sub/ance /or$ up b5ea? ! surface ( ! e>?1 9 incr$ibly l>ge quantities1 owes its *ief value to its weal? ( c>bon4 ,x is compos$ ( c>bon & hydrog51 b ! =m] is ! con/itu5t to :i* is ref]able ! beautiful light x af=ds4 ,aga91 ! m>ble & ! lime/ones ( ! globe conta9 enorm\s quantities ( c>bon4 ,^! m9]als consi/ pr9cipally ( calcic c>bonate 7,ca ,,co72 & ! c>bon makes up ab\t "o-eight ( ?is sub/ance4 ,s9ce "s :ole m\nta9 *a9s consi/ *iefly ( lime/one or m>ble1 x is pla9 t ! total am\nt ( c>bon 9 ^! =ms mu/ be v l>ge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,view 9 ! vic9ity ( ! ,p5nsylvania oil wells4 ,) few exceptions1 all animal & vegetable matt]s conta9 c>bon--a sub/ance :i* appe>s to p]=m its mo/ important (fices 9 connection ) ! k+doms ( life4 ,inde$ x has be5 call$ ! *>act]i/ic elem5t ( animal & vegetable comp\nds4 ,s va/ is ! v>iety ( ^! comp\nds already recogniz$ t x is h>dly conceivable t man c ev] be able to acquire an acqua9tance ) all ^? z yet undetect$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,automatic regulator :]eby ! c>bon p5cils ( ! electric light are ma9ta9$ at ! prop] di/ance ap>t4 ,infusibility ( ,c>bon4 ,c>bon diff]s f mo/ solid sub/ances 9 ! fact t x is infusible at ! highe/ temp]atures to :i* x has yet be5 subject$4 ,& s9ce 9 ! elem5t>y =m x has n be5 *ang$ to ! liquid /ate1 mu* less has x be5 br\ght to ! gase\s condition4 ,inde$ ?is /ability & fix$ness ( c>bon is "o ( its mo/ valuable attributes4 ,?us ?is *>act]i/ic is a pr9cipal "o t r5d]s x specially appropriate = use 9 ! p5cils employ$ 9 electric light+4 ,x is true ^! p5cils sl[ly burn away4 ,b "s combu/ion ought to be expect$ :5 x is rememb]$ t ! electric curr5t1 fl[+ f "o p5cil to ! o!r1 af=ds an int5se heat z well z brilliant light4 ,b x is a g5]al law t sub/ances give out ! mo/ int5sely brilliant :ite light :5 !y nei!r liquefy nor volatilize1 & to ?is pr9ciple--exemplifi$ 9 ! c>bon p5cils--mu/ be ref]r$ ! brilliancy ( ! electric light4 ,decoloriz+ ,p[] ( ,c>bon4 ,c>bon1 :e!r 9 ! =m ( wood *>coal1 animal *>coal1 or bone-coal1 has a wond]ful p[] ( decoloriz+ liquids4 ,ev5 m compact c>bonace\s matt]1 su* z an?racite coal1 possesses ?is same prop]ty ?\gh1 z might be expect$1 to a mu* inf]ior degree4 ,?us if a color$ solution is /ra9$ ?r\gh a consid]able quantity ( "o ( ^! =ms ( c>bon1 ! latt] sub/ance absorbs ! color+ matt] & ! liquid passes ?r\gh practically colorless4 ,on acc\nt ( ?is wond]ful p[] bone-coal is us$ 9 ! arts 9 enorm\s quantity 9 _m processes :]e liquids mu/ be decoloriz$4 ,! sug> ref9+ indu/ry af=ds a prom95t example ^u ?is po9t4 ,"h1 enorm\s quantities ( bone-coal are us$ = ! purpose ( :it5+ ! syrups be=e cry/alliz+ ! sug>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,magnifi$ view ( ! c>bon t]m9als us$ = ! production ( ! electric light4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,excavations c>ri$ on at night by aid ( ! electric light4 ,*>coal has also a simil>1 & yet m /rik+1 prop]ty ( absorb+ (f5sive gases4 ,?us1 ta9t$ meat pack$ 9 fre%ly burn$ *>coal quickly loses its odor--:i* is absorb$ by ! coal--& ! meat !n becomes sweet & :olesome4 ,*emical ,prop]ties ( ,c>bon4 ,! *emical prop]ties ( c>bon are by no means less wond]ful ?an ! *>act]i/ics already ref]r$ to4 ,x is v in]t at l[ temp]atures2 b at high temp]atures1 x manife/s *emical activities ( extraord9>y vigor4 ,?us at high temp]atures c>bon )draws oxyg5 f almo/ any o!r elem5ts kn[n1 9 ?is way manife/+ *emical =ce sup]ior to t possess$ by any ( !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,color$ liquid filt]$ ?r\gh *>coal1 & !reby decoloriz$4 ,! ,great ,numb] ( ,comp\nds ,=m$ by ,c>bon4 ,! va/ numb] ( ! comp\nds ( c>bon seems to be ref]able to two fundam5tal prop]ties ) :i* x is end[$ by nature4 ,"o ( ^! is ! fact t ! atom ( c>bon possesses f\r po9ts ( attraction4 ,?is matt] ne$ n be expla9$ "h z x has already be5 discuss$ at suffici5t l5g?4 ,b ! fact may be conv5i5tly repres5t$ to ! eye by a symbol l ! foll[+3 ----,c---- ,! o!r prop]ty ref]r$ to is ?is3 c>bon--unlike mo/ o!r elem5ts--has a peculi> capacity by virtue ( :i* atoms ( x may jo9 toge!r 9 ei!r %ort or long *a9s1 & aft]w>ds may ga!r o!r elem5ts to ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! *a94 ,"o among ! _m ways 9 :i* c>bon takes "p 9 =m+ su* comp\nds may be repres5t$ by ! simple diagram %[n 9 ! m>g93 ----,c---- ----,c---- ----,c---- ----,c---- ----,c---- ,! numb] ( comp\nds ( ?is "* already kn[n to *emi/s is v l>ge2 x sugge/s ! probability t !re is no di/9ct limit to ! numb] ( atoms t may be l9k$ 9 a cont9u\s *a9 9 ?is way4 ,moreov] a giv5 *a9 may h atta*$ ^u its sides or ends "o or m additional *a9s ( elem5ts or comp\nds & ?us give rise to an all b inf9ite numb] ( sub/ances ) almo/ inf9itely v>i$ prop]ties4 ,,read+ ,,ref]5ces4 ,coal1 & ! ,coal-m9es ( ,p5nsylvania4 ,h>p]'s ,magaz9e4 xv1 #dea4 ,diamonds4 ,scribn]'s ,mon?ly4 v1 #ebi4 ,h>p]'s ,magaz9e4 xix1 #dff2 xxxii1 #cdc4 ,diamond ,fields ( ,s\? ,africa4 ,h>p]'s ,magaz9e4 xlvi1 #cba4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,comp\nds ,,( ,,c>bon ,,& ,,oxyg54 ,:ile comp\nds ( c>bon & hydrog5 are v num]\s1 ^? already kn[n be+ numb]$ by hundr$s1 ! aff9ities ( oxyg5 & c>bon give rise to a /rik+ly diff]5t result4 ,:5 comb9$ ) oxyg5 alone1 c>bon =ms b two comp\nds4 ,^! are express$ by ! foll[+ names & =mulas3 ,c>bon monoxide1 ,,co4 ,c>bon dioxide1 ,,co4 ,c>bon ,monoxide 7,,co74 ,?is gas is mo/ famili>ly kn[n z t "o :i* (t5 plays ^u ! surface ( a h>d coal fire & burns !re ) a d>k blue1 feebly lum9\s1 flame4 ,mo/ ( ! ph5om5a ( its production & f9al burn+ may be pres5t$ z foll[s3 ,:5 an ord9>y coal fire1 burn+ 9 a /ove1 is amply suppli$ ) air at ! bottom1 ! oxyg5 ( ! air burns ! l[] portions ( c>bon into c>bon dioxide4 ,next1 ?is c>bon dioxide is c>ri$ up1 by ! draft1 betwe5 any masses ( fre% coal t may be ^u ! top ( ! fire4 ,?is fre% coal has itself aff9ity = oxyg5 "u ! circum/ances j describ$ z prevail+4 ,z a result1 ea* molecule ( c>bon dioxide f ! l[] portion ( ! fire yields "o ( its atoms ( oxyg5 to an atom ( c>bon 9 ! upp] "p4 ,! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,,co ,c #b;,,co4 ,"o molecule ( ,"o atom ( ,two molecules ( ,c>bon dioxide1 ,c>bon1 ,c>bon monoxide1 #dd #ab #ef p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #ef #ef ,z a result1 !re=e1 c>bon monoxide is =m$ & escapes z a colorless gas f ! top ( ! fuel2 !re1 if ! upp] door ( ! /ove admits a suffici5t am\nt ( air1 ! c>bon monoxide comb9es ) ! oxyg5 ( ?is air1 & burns ) ! blue flame already ref]r$ to1 & s produces c>bon dioxide aga94 ,?is *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 #b;,,co ,o #b;,,co ,two molecules ( ,"o molecule ( ,two molecules ( ,c>bon monoxide1 ,oxyg51 ,c>bon dioxide1 #ef #cb #hh p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ _/ #hh #hh ,! c>bon monoxide is a v poison\s gas1 f> m injuri\s to heal? ?an c>bon dioxide4 ,c>bon ,dioxide 7,,co74 ,?is sub/ance & its mann] ( production h be5 ref]r$ to m ?an once 9 prec$+ *apt]s4 ,a m ext5d$ notice ( x1 h[ev]1 is appropriate to ?is place4 ,x has already be5 /at$ t c>bon dioxide exi/s ready-=m$ 9 nature--notably 9 ! atmosph]ic air4 ,its pr9cipal natural s\rce 9 ! atmosph]e is ! combu/ion ( fuel2 = almo/ all fuel is c>bonace\s4 ,?us coal1 wood1 oil1 illum9at+ gases1 are all highly c>bonace\s sub/ances1 & "o ( ! pr9cipal products ( _! combu/ion is ! gas n[ "u consid]ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,ma*9]y = fill+ bottles ) artificial m9]al wat]s4 ,z has already be5 describ$1 ! respiration ( animals is closely connect$ ) a real combu/ion 9 ! liv+ be+4 ,x is true t ?is sort ( combu/ion is n att5d$ by ! evolution ( light2 x is productive ( heat1 nev]!less1 & ! heat af=d$ by respiration is an important factor 9 ! su/5ance ( animal exi/5ce4 ,= ?is heat n only enables ! liv+ be+ to endure ! *ill+ effects ( ! w9t]'s cold2 x also keeps ! temp]ature ( ! int]nal organs up to t po9t :i* is necess>y = ! prop] p]=mance ( c]ta9 animal functions--( :i* dige/ion is a mo/ important example4 ,n[ by ?is combu/ion c>bon dioxide is g5]at$ j z truly z w\ld be ! case if ! fle% ( ! liv+ animal 7 consum$ 9 a gl[+ fire4 ,! product ( respiratory combu/ion is ! same c>bon dioxide z t recogniz$ 9 well-e/abli%$ burn+s4 ,! quantities ( c>bon dioxide evolv$ by man & c]ta9 ( ! dome/ic animals1 9 ea* h\r ( _! exi/5ce1 h be5 calculat$4 ,!y are approximately /at$ 9 ! foll[+ table3 ,a man exhales #d gallons c>bon dioxide p] h\r4 ,a dog 0 #d 0 0 0 0 0 ,a horse 0 #ej 0 0 0 0 0 ,an ox 0 #gj 0 0 0 0 0 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,production ( c>bon dioxide by combu/ion ( a diamond 9 oxyg5 gas4 ,& ,m4 ,b\ss+ault has calculat$ t ! approximate am\nt ( c>bon dioxide produc$ 9 ! city ( ,p>is dur+ a s+le tw5ty-f\r h\rs is z foll[s3 ,am\nt produc$ by liv+ animals1 #ee1jjj1jjj cubic feet4 ,am\nt produc$ by burn+ ( v>i\s k9ds ( fuel1 #bg1jjj1jjj cubic feet4 -------------------- ,total ,,co produc$ 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 #hb1jjj1jjj cubic feet4 ,!re are c]ta9 o!r natural s\rces ( c>bon dioxide t are wor?y ( pass+ m5tion4 ,?us 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w ! gas is cont9ually evolv$ n only f active volcanoes b also f ext9ct ones4 ,aga91 ano!r int]e/+ s\rce--?\gh n 9 ! aggregate a v important "o--is f\nd 9 natural m9]al spr+s4 ,9 ^! ! wat] (t5 comes to ! surface highly *>g$ ) c>bon dioxide1 & ! gas1 escap+ into ! air1 imp>ts to ! wat] its well-kn[n bubbl+ appe>ance4 ,exp]im5ts ) ,c>bon ,dioxide4 ,= *emical purposes c>bon dioxide is commonly produc$ by ! action ( an acid ^u "s "o ( ! salts kn[n z c>bonates4 ,accord+ly *lorohydric acid & calcic c>bonate 7t is1 common m>ble7 :5 br\ght toge!r produce c>bon dioxide4 ,?is fact may be readily %[n by ! p]=mance ( a simple b int]e/+ exp]im5t4 ,! op]ation may also s]ve = ! display ( "s ( ! pr9cipal prop]ties ( ! gas4 ,! exp]im5t 9 "q may be conduct$ advantage\sly some:at z foll[s3 ,provide two conv5i5t glass j>s--su* z c&y j>s or pres]ve j>s2 also a %ort c&le1 a piece ( copp] wire1 a bottle ( *lorohydric acid & "s fragm5ts ( :ite m>ble4 ,n[ atta* ! c&le to ! wire & aft] light+ ! =m] let x d[n into ! j>s1 /ill burn+4 ,! combu/ion cont9ues because ! j>s are full ( air & conta9 ample quantities ( oxyg54 ,next )draw ! c&le & ext+ui% x = a mom5t4 ,n[ place 9 ! bottom ( ! l>g] j> "s *lorohydric acid & into x g5tly drop "s ( ! fragm5ts ( m>ble4 ,eff]vesc5ce imm$iately comm5ces4 ,a c>eful exam9ation ( eff]vesc5ce %[s t 9 ?is1 z 9 o!r cases1 ! process consi/s 9 ! evolution ( a gas f a liquid4 ,9 ! case 9 "q a colorless gas is pla9ly evolv$1 & ?is gas is c>bon dioxide4 ,! *emical *ange is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,ca,c,o #b;,h,cl ,"o molecule ( ,two molecules ( ,calcic c>bonate1 ,*lorohydric acid1 #ajj #gc p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #agc ,,co ,ca,cl ,h,o ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,"o molecule ( ,c>bon dioxide1 ,calcic *loride1 ,wat]1 #dd #aaa #ah p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 p>ts by weight4 _/ #agc ,aft] all[+ ! eff]vesc5ce to cont9ue = five or t5 m9utes1 relight ! c&le & aga9 l[] x into ! j> n[ conta9+ c>bon dioxide4 ,if a suffici5t quantity ( ! gas is pres5t1 ! light w be promptly ext+ui%$ :5 ! wick passes bel[ ! surface ( ! gas4 ,! exp]im5t displays at ?is /age ! additional fact t ! c>bon dioxide is heavy1 & 9 fill+ ! j> x does s f ! bottom upw>d4 ,n[ relight ! c&le & imm]se x 9 ! second j>2 ?is is prov$ to conta9 air by ! fact t ! c&le cont9ues to burn4 ,:ile x is /ill quietly burn+ !re1 p\r g5tly ^u x ! c>bon dioxide accumulat$ 9 ! o!r j>4 ,if ! am\nt ( ?is gas is l>ge en\gh1 x w fill ! j> conta9+ ! light$ c&le & s w readily ext+ui% ! latt]4 ,^! exp]im5ts demon/rate simply & cle>ly1 c]ta9 ( ! mo/ important prop]ties ( c>bon dioxide4 ,its action 9 ext+ui%+ flame is to qu5* x1 v mu* z wat] w\ld4 ,:5 ! c&le dips b5ea? ! surface ( ! c>bon dioxide1 ! flame expires simply f lack ( t oxyg5 ( ! air :i* ord9>ily supports ! combu/ion4 ,& ?is leads v naturally to ! additional /atem5t t1 9 simil> fa%ion1 liv+ be+s are dr[n$ if imm]s$ 9 c>bon dioxide4 ,= j z wat] prev5ts ! access ( air to ! lungs1 & !n dr[n+ ensues1 s :5 ! animal is b5ea? ! surface ( c>bon dioxide he dies f ! simil> deprivation ( air4 ,eff]vesc+ ,bev]ages4 ,a l>ge quantity ( c>bon dioxide tak5 into ! lungs is promptly fatal to animal life1 & ev5 a small increase ( t gas1 9 ! atmosph]ic air brea!d1 also produces a m>k$ l[]+ ( ! vitality4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact h[ev] t :5 ?is gas is tak5 into ! /oma*1 especially 9 its solution 9 wat]1 x has a :olesome & /imulat+ effect4 ,:5 c>bon dioxide is dissolv$ 9 wat] x seems to produce a true acid1 ?\gh an un/able "o4 ,9 accordance ) ! pres5t nom5clature1 ?is acid is call$ c>bonic acid & is repres5t$ by ! =mula ,h,,co4 ,?is sub/ance is pres5t z ! ma9 con/itu5t1 or z a subord9ate "o1 9 c]ta9 natural m9]al wat]s1 & 9 _m simple eff]vesc5t bev]ages4 ,?us pla9 soda-wat] is m]ely a solution ( c>bon dioxide 9 wat]4 ,su* solutions are n[ manufactur$ on a l>ge scale1 & by me*anical appliances are fill$ into siphonlike bottles 9 su* a way t small quantities ( ! liquid may be )drawn )\t loss ( ! pr9cipal /ock ( gas4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,illum9at+ ,,gas4 ,x has be5 /at$ m ?an once t ! comp\nds ( c>bon are v num]\s2 x might prop]ly be add$ t _! usefulness is no less /rik+ ?an _! numb]4 ,?is portion ( ! subject is s va/1 h[ev]1 t x is (t5 discuss$ z an entirely sep>ate bran*1 call$ ! *emi/ry ( ! c>bon comp\nds1 & (t5 organic *emi/ry4 ,by organic *emi/ry is meant ! *emi/ry ( organic sub/ances2 & by organic sub/ances is meant mat]ials d]iv$ f ^? exi/5ces t possess organs4 ,n[ animals & plants1 & !y alone1 possess organs2 :5ce organic *emi/ry is describ$ z ! *emi/ry ( animal & vegetable bodies4 ,on "s acc\nts1 x is bett] def9$ z ! *emi/ry ( ! c>bon comp\nds2 = :ile x 0 =m]ly ?\ght t animal & vegetable be+s involv$ 9 _! processes a *emi/ry peculi> to !mselves1 ?is notion has long s9ce be5 dispell$1 & x is n[ cle>ly p]ceiv$ t animal & vegetable comp\nds are gov]n$ by ! same *emical laws z o!rs4 ,b n only is ! numb] ( ^! organic comp\nds v great2 ! v>iety & importance ( animal & vegetable matt]s give !m a high degree ( int]e/4 ,?us !y include animal & vegetable juices1 extracts1 gums1 res9s1 ess5ces1 rem$ial ag5ts1 bitt] pr9ciples1 acids1 oils1 color+ matt]s2 & ( ! memb]s ( ea* "o ( ^! classes ! "n is legion4 ,moreov]1 ! m any portion ( ! subject is /udi$1 ! m x seems to reveal a cont9ually increas+ complexity4 ,mo/ ( ! sub/ances ( ! classes ref]r$ to are ei!r comp\nds ( c>bon & hydrog51 or ( c>bon1 hydrog5 & oxyg5 9 v>i$ proportions1 or !y are comp\nds conta9+ ^! elem5ts & yet a few o!rs comb9$ ) !m4 ,x is manife/1 f :at has be5 said1 t 9 a book l ! pres5t x is impossible to give any consid]able discussion ( ! va/ field (f]$ by ! organic comp\nds ( c>bon4 ,x seems bett] to *oose = description "s important manufactur+ op]ation t involves ^! comp\nds & t is on o!r acc\nts specially in/ructive4 ,accord+ly ! manufacture ( illum9at+ gas is select$ = consid]ation "h4 ,! ,manufacture ( ,illum9at+ ,gas4 ,! mat]ial on :i* ?is indu/ry is bas$ is bitum9\s coal4 ,?is sub/ance is cle>ly a vegetable product1 ?\gh x is d]iv$ f a vegetation :i* liv$1 fl\ri%$ & decay$ 9 a p]iod ( prehi/oric antiquity4 ,! manufacture ( illum9at+ gas1 al?\gh "o ( ! mo/ important ( ! *emical indu/ries ( to-day1 _h its beg9n+ b little be=e ! op5+ ( ! pres5t c5tury4 ,a ,scot*man nam$ ,william ,murdo* is g5]ally cr$it$ ) ! fir/ introduction1 into consid]able use1 ( burn+ gas made f coal4 ,9 #agih he ga9$ ! opportunity to introduce 8 me?od ( illum9ation into ! eng9e works ( ,b\lton ,watt1 locat$ at ,soho1 ne> ,birm+ham4 ,f t date ! manufacture & use ( illum9at+ gas f s(t coal has ext5d$ & exp&$ until x has rea*$ its pres5t enorm\s developm5t4 ,g5]al ,pr9ciples ( ! ,process4 ,! g5]al pr9ciple ( ! manufacture is exce$+ly simple4 ,b its comm]cial gr[? has be5 assi/$ by ! inv5tion & application ( a multitude ( delicate & +5i\s appliances4 ,if any p]son w take a glass te/-tube1 place 9 x a few fragm5ts ( />*1 & w !n heat ! />* /rongly ov] a lamp flame1 he w readily detect ?ree important effects4 ,! fir/ is t a mass ( smoky gas or vapor p\rs out ( ! m\? ( ! te/-tube4 ,! second is t an oily or t>ry liquid cond5ses1 on ! inside ( ! tube1 & runs d[n 9 /reams4 ,! ?ird is t at ! close ( ! op]ation a mass ( c>bon rema9s 9 ! bottom ( ! tube :]e ! />* 04 ,n[ ! v>i\s sub/ances1 t h be5 ref]r$ to z produc$ by ! heat+ process1 are ref]able to ! decomposition ( ! molecules ( />*4 ,a ,simil> ,op]ation on a ,l>ge ,scale4 ,9 ! manufacture ( illum9at+ gas on a l>ge scale !re are develop$ practically ! same s]ies ( ph5om5a z ^? not$ 9 ! exp]im5t ) />* j ref]r$ to4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,?ree views ( a gas retort4 ,9 ! manufacture ( illum9at+ gas1 in/ead ( />* z j describ$1 s(t coal or bitum9\s coal is us$4 ,9 place ( a lamp1 a l>ge r[ ( furnaces is employ$ to supply ! heat4 ,in/ead ( glass tubes1 ^? ( e>!nw>e1 t5 or twelve feet 9 l5g? & betwe5 "o & two feet 9 diamet]1 are us$4 ,^! tubes1 call$ retorts1 are plac$ 9 a horizontal position & s t ! flame ( ! fire 9 ! furnace may sweep ar\nd !m & raise !m to a *]ry-r$ heat4 ,at ! front end ( ! retort is atta*$ a door to prev5t ! escape ( ! gases g5]at$1 & !re is also a suitable pipe to c>ry ^! gases =w>d to ^? o!r portions ( ! works :i* s]ve to p]=m ^u ! crude gas c]ta9 necess>y purifications2 ^! are3 ,fir/4 ,! cond5sation ( cond5sable vapors4 ,second4 ,! removal ( objectionable gases4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,section %[+ five retorts 9 place4 ,! op]ations spok5 ( %[ t ! gas mu/ be c>ri$ f "o portion ( ! e/abli%m5t to ano!r4 ,n[ illum9at+ gas is made up ( mat]ial sub/ances & al?\gh light] ?an air yet !y di/9ctly possess weight4 ,gas w n move ( itself2 to c>ry x f place to place ! application ( =ce by means ( me*anical appliances is requisite4 ,9 fact x is discov]$ t :at is call$ an exhau/] is necess>y = use 9 gas-works4 ,! exhau/] is simply a k9d ( rot>y pump :i* pulls ! gas f ! retorts 9 :i* x is fir/ =m$1 & pu%es x along ?r\gh ! v>i\s purifi]s1 to ! gas hold] 9 :i* x is /or$4 ,if ! exhau/] 7 n us$1 !re w\ld be a con/ant t5d5cy to ! creation ( pressure 9 ! retort1 by virtue ( :i* ! gas w\ld p5etrate ! e>!nw>e into ! fire1 & s become a s\rce ( loss4 ,f :at has be5 said x w be easily compreh5d$ t ! ess5tial p>ts ( a gas-works are ! foll[+3 ,fir/4 ,! furnace4 ,second4 ,! retorts1 9 :i* ! coal is heat$4 ,?ird4 ,! hydraulic ma93 a tr\gh ( wat] 9 :i* ! gas is cool$1 & :i* also s]ves z a gate1 ?r\gh :i* ! gas c pass =w>d t[>d ! purifi]s b n backw>d t[>d ! retort4 ,f\r?4 ,! out-door cond5s]s1 9 :i* ! gas is cool$ & "s ( its vapors cond5se to t>ry liquids4 ,fif?4 ,! scrubb]1 9 :i* ! gas is cleans$ by a spray ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,view 9 gas-works2 draw+ coke f ! retorts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,section to %[ ! processes ( ! manufacture ( illum9at+ gas4 ,six?4 ,! purifi]s1 :]e sulphurett$ hydrog51 & "s o!r objectionable gases are remov$4 ,sev5?4 ,! gas hold]1 9 :i* ! f9i%$ gas is collect$ & /or$ prior to deliv]y to consum]s4 ,! processes by :i* ^! v>i\s appliances are us$ 9 ! manufacture ( illum9at+ gas may be briefly sket*$ z foll[s3 ,a suitable quantity ( s(t coal is plac$ 9 an ev5 lay] on ! bottom ( ! retort4 ,gas at once =ms & /reams out ( ! op5 door4 ,! door ( ! retort be+ n[ quickly clos$ by ! workm51 ! gas passes out ?r\gh an exit pipe--call$ ! dip-pipe because x dips into ! wat] ( ! hydraulic ma94 ,! gas bubbles up f ! dip-pipe ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,once deliv]$ 9 ! hydraulic ma91 ! gas _c g back to ! retort4 ,next1 ! gas passes ?r\gh ! cond5s]s1 a s]ies ( connect$ up-&-d[n pipes4 ,z ^! cond5s]s /& 9 ! op5 air !y cool ! gas s t x deposits t>ry liquids t1 until ?is /age1 h be5 susp5d$ 9 x 9 ! =m ( vapor4 ,next ! gas fl[s to a l>ge iron box1 call$ ! scrubb]4 ,9 diff]5t works ! scrubb] v>ies consid]ably 9 outw>d %ape & int]nal arrangem5ts4 ,its ess5tial (fice h[ev] is to wa% ! gas1 & x does s by ! use ( wat] :i* is appli$ to ! gas ei!r 9 sprays or ?9 films4 ,ammonia gas is ! pr9cipal sub/ance absorb$ by ! wat] 9 ! scrubb]4 ,inde$ ! liquor ?us produc$ is ! ma9 comm]cial s\rce1 at ! pres5t day1 ( ammonia & its comp\nds4 ,! gas next goes to ! purifi]s4 ,^! are l>ge iron boxes suppli$ ) a multitude ( %elves ^u :i*1 9 mo/ works1 dry quicklime is spread4 ,! quicklime absorbs sulphurett$ hydrog5 & "s o!r acid gases4 ,f ^! purifi]s ! gas is c>ri$ on to ! gas hold]4 ,! ,di/illation ( ,coal1 ,*emically ,consid]$4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ! high temp]ature ( ! gas furnace1 ! s(t coal 9 ! retorts und]goes decomposition4 ,z has be=e be5 intimat$1 ?ree di/9ct classes ( sub/ances are produc$3 ,solids1 :i* are left 9 ! retorts2 liquids1 :i* are cond5s$ 9 ! v>i\s cool]s2 gases1 :i* pass on ! gas hold]4 ,fir/4 ,! solids4 ,^! are pr9cipally two k9ds ( c>bon4 ,"o is coke1--! pr9cipal solid matt] f\nd 9 ! retorts z a residue f ! s(t coal aft] ! latt] has ceas$ to evolve gas4 ,x is m]ely a =m ( c>bon1 some:at spongy 9 its /ructure4 ,x is sold = use z fuel4 ,beside ?is ! retorts accumulate a sort ( scale ( a v diff]5t =m ( c>bon call$ gas c>bon4 ,x is extremely h>d & almo/ non-combu/ible1 be+ ev5 v difficult to remove f ! retorts4 ,x is at pres5t some:at us$ 9 ! manufacture ( ! c>bon p5cils employ$ 9 electric lights ( ! arc v>iety4 ,prior to ?is use x f\nd sc>cely any comm]cial outlet4 ,second4 ,! liquids4 ,! fir/ cond5sation ( liquids takes place 9 ! hydraulic ma9 :]e t>ry & oily matt]s cond5se & accumulate1 & are drawn (f f "t to "t into ! t> well4 ,aga9 9 ! cond5s]s !re is a /ill fur!r deposition ( liquids1 also t>ry & oily 9 _! nature4 ,^! liquids consi/ ( v complicat$ mixtures ( c>bon comp\nds1 b !y are ( ! mo/ int]e/+ "*4 ,9 ! e>li] /ages ( ! manufacture ( coal-gas !y 7 reg>d$ z m]e nuisances4 ,little by little h[ev] *emi/s h le>n$ to sep>ate ! int]m+l$ products1 & h ?us be5 able to obta9 a numb] ( sub/ances ( /rik+ int]e/ & usefulness 9 ! arts4 ,among ! multitudes ( sub/ances t g to make up ! liquid call$ coal-t>1 "s are z yet h>dly classifi$ o!rs are di/9ctly recogniz$ & h uses ( great comm]cial importance4 ,( ^! latt]1 two w be m5tion$ "h4 ,^! are an?rac5e & b5zole4 ,! sub/ance call$ an?rac5e1 a comp\nd ( c>bon & hydrog5 7,c,h71 has )9 ! la/ t5 ye>s sprung into ! highe/ comm]cial importance4 ,?is is ref]able to ! fact t x has be5 f\nd to be a suitable mat]ial f :i*1 by *emical processes1 !re may be manufactur$ a sub/ance kn[n z aliz>9e1 besides o!r equally valuable & int]e/+ comp\nds4 ,aliz>9e 0 previ\sly recogniz$ z ! color+ matt] ( *ief value 9 madd] root1 a sub/ance t has be5 us$ z a dye-/uff = above a ?\s& ye>s4 ,! aliz>9e1 :e!r ( madd] or f an?rac5e1 is a color+ matt] ( ! highe/ value & usefulness4 ,x af=ds turkey-r$ & o!r colors t are v important because !y are extremely brilliant & extremely fa/4 ,its artificial manufacture1 f ! an?rac5e ( ! fil?y & (f5sive coal-t>1 is "o ( ! greate/ triumphs ( ?is or any age4 ,ano!r sub/ance f\nd 9 ! coal-t> is b5zole1 a comp\nd ( c>bon & hydrog5 hav+ ! =mula ,c,h4 ,?is is ! pr9cipal mat]ial f :i*1 by a v>iety ( well und]/ood ?\gh complicat$ *emical processes1 ! well-kn[n anil9e colors h be5 produc$4 ,:ile ^! colors may well comm& ! admiration ( all1 on acc\nt ( _! unsurpass$ beauty & brilliancy1 !y are ( especial int]e/ to ! sci5ti/ by reason ( ! *emical laws !y illu/rate4 ,! prep>ation ( ^! colors1 z a gr\p1 ranks second only z a *emical a*ievem5t to t ( artificial aliz>9e4 ,?ird4 ,! ,gase\s ,products4 ,! gases g5]at$ 9 ! process ( ! coal-gas manufacture are extremely num]\s2 "s ( !m are ( high illum9at+ p[]1 ( :i* t call$ e?yl5e 7,c,h7 is an excell5t example4 ,aga9 !re are "s t are combu/ible1 b yet are ( slight illum9at+ p[]4 ,sub/ances ( ?is class are pres5t 9 ! f9i%$ product4 ,hydrog5 & c>bon monoxide 7,,co7 may s]ve z examples4 ,!re are always pres5t also gases t are ei!r injuri\s to ! illum9at+ p[] or are o!rwise objectionable4 ,= example1 nitrog5 is always pres5t1 & x is n practicable to remove x f ! gas4 ,x contributes no?+ to ! value ( ! product4 ,aga9 c]ta9 sulphur comp\nds1 l sulphurett$ hydrog51 are usually pres5t4 ,^! inde$ burn1 b !y give rise to (f5sive & un:olesome oxides ( sulphur4 ,! sket* ?us giv51 :ile x b imp]fectly describes ! wond]ful indu/ry 9 "q1 ) its v>i\s well contriv$ & delicate appliances1 s]ves h[ev] to give "s idea ( ! importance ( ! op]ation1 f a *emical po9t ( view1 & ! m9e ( ri* mat]ials its c>bon comp\nds (f] to *emical /ud5ts4 ,,clos+ ,,*apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,silicon4 ,silicon may well be consid]$ important on acc\nt ( its quantity 9 ! e>?1 if on no o!r4 ,9 an e>li] *apt] x has be5 %[n t oxyg5 exi/s 9 our globe--includ+ its atmosph]e & its oceans--9 an am\nt equal to ab\t "o-half ( ! weight ( ! :ole4 ,n[ silicon exi/s 9 a quantity equal to ab\t "o-f\r? ( ?is entire weight4 ,9 ! e>? h[ev]1 nei!r ( ^! sub/ances exi/s 9 ! uncomb9$ =m4 ,^! facts seem to involve z a necess>y consequ5ce t !y exi/ 9 ! e>?1 to a l>ge ext5t1 comb9$ ) ea* o!r2 inde$ ?is is f\nd to be ! case4 ,! pr9cipal e>?y matt] ( our planet is ! comp\nd ( silicon & oxyg51 exi/+ ei!r alone 9 ! =m ( s&1 qu>tz cry/al & simil> m9]als1 or else 9 comb9ation ) o!r well-kn[n abundant e>? mat]ials1 su* z oxides ( calcium1 magnesium & alum9um4 ,x has already be5 /at$ t c>bon is ! *>act]i/ic elem5t ( animal & vegetable matt]s2 s silicon is ! *>act]i/ic elem5t ( m9]al matt]s4 ,?us granite & simil> ar*aic rocks conta9 approximately tw5ty-five p] c5t ( silicon4 ,9 nature1 silicon p]=ms its important (fice z a con/itu5t ( rock mat]ial1 ) a fitness t is ref]able l>gely to ! high degree ( /ability possess$ by mo/ ( its comp\nds4 ,! p]man5ce ( ! mat]ials ( ! e>?'s surface "u ! influ5ce ( heat1 & wat]1 & fro/1 & simil> ag5cies is an illu/ration ( ?is pr9ciple4 ,silicic oxide 7,si,o71 occurs on our globe 9 _m diff]5t =ms ( :i* diatomace\s e>? & rock cry/al may be m5tion$4 ,diatomace\s e>? is a p[d]y mat]ial f\nd 9 abundant deposits 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w4 ,its *>act]i/ic /ructure1 :5 exam9$ "u ! microscope1 reveals its nature2 !n x is se5 to be made up ( ! %ells ( m9ute vegetable organisms call$ diatoms4 ,^! assume a great _m beautiful =ms1 & "s ( !m are *eck]$ all ov] ) m>k+s ( su* extreme f95ess t !y h be5 us$ z te/ objects = try+ ! resolv+ p[] ( ! objectives ( microscopes4 ,?is k9d ( e>? is employ$1 z has already be5 /at$1 9 ! prep>ation ( dynamite4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--;,diatomace\s e>? z se5 ?r\gh ! microscope4 ,qu>tz sometimes occurs 9 colorless transp>5t masses ( great beauty & cle>ness call$ rock cry/al4 ,! ame?y/ is ! same sub/ance slightly color$ by comp\nds ( ! metal manganese1 :ile qu>tz exi/s ( a v>iety ( o!r %ades1 9 "s ( :i* x is priz$ z a gem4 ,qu>tz g5]ally assumes =ms ( a hexagonal t5d5cy3 !y are (t5 hexagonal prisms t]m9at$ by hexagonal pyramids4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,mass ( natural qu>tz cry/als4 ,qu>tz & ! f9] & pur] v>ieties ( s& are us$ l>gely 9 ! manufacture ( glass4 ,! silicic oxide "h displays :at may be express$ z its acid t5d5cies2 = 9 ! manufacture ( glass x is fus$ ) sodic c>bonate1 & !n ! silicic oxide displaces ! c>bon dioxide f ! sodic c>bonate2 z a result !re is =m$ :at mu/ be reg>d$ z a true salt1 or a mixture ( salts1 t 9 ! simple/ k9d ( glass may be t]m$ sodic silicate4 99 99 99 99 99 ,clos+ ,words4 ,! c\rse laid out 9 ! preface is n[ t]m9at$ ) silicon1 z !re plann$4 ,f sci5tific consid]ations1 ?is is a natural end+2 x seems to be appropriate on ano!r acc\nt also4 ,aft] ! read] has be5 c>ri$1 9 ?\ght1 among ! v>i\s gase\s elem5ts1 t make up atmosph]e & oceans1 x seems suitable t we %\ld say f>ewell to him ^u ! discussion ( t elem5t t may be call$ ! *>act]i/ic mat]ial ( our solid e>?4 ,,index4 ,abel1 ,f4 ,a41 #ahb ,acid1 ,boric1 #aeg ------ ,nitric1 #ce1 #afh ------ ,sulphuric1 #ce1 #cg1 #aeb ------ ,*lorohydric1 #cc1 #aij ------ ,phosphoric1 #aib ,aff9ity1 ,*emical1 #dd1 #df-eb ,aliz>9e1 #bbf ,alkali ,trade1 #id1 #ajf ,allotropism1 #aij ,ame?y/1 #bbi ,ammonia1 #aff1 #agd1 #bbe ,anhydride1 #aea ,anhydrite1 #adf ,an?rac5e1 #bbf ,antimony1 ,sulphide (1 #adh ,apatite1 #ahh1 #ahi ,ars5ic1 ,sulphide (1 #adh ,atom1 #da1 #db ,atomic ,!ory1 #eb ,atmosph]e1 #agj ,bacon1 ,rog]1 #agh ,bal>d1 #ajj ,balloons1 #gd ,b>illa1 #ajg ,b5zole1 #bbg ,b]?ollet1 #id ,b]zelius1 #bd ,bev]ages1 eff]vesc+1 #bai ,b9>y ,comp\nds1 #cb ,biot1 #hj ,black1 ,joseph1 #fa1 #fc1 #gf ,blea*+-,p[d]1 #ic ,bl5de1 #adf ,bl[pipe1 ,comp\nd1 #abi ,bone-,a%1 #ahg ,borax1 #aeg ,boron1 #aeg ,b\ss+ault1 #bag ,br&t1 #ahg ,brom9e1 #ajj ,c>bon1 #aig ------ ,dioxide1 #agc1 #baf ------ ,monoxide1 #bae ,cav5di%1 ,h5ry1 #fj ,*>coal1 #aig ,*emi/ry1 ,scope (1 #g1 #i ,*lor9e1 #he ,c9nab>1 #adf ,coal1 #bja ,coal-t>1 #bbf ,coke1 #bbf ,comp\nds1 #cb ------ ,numb] (1 #h1 #i ------ ,organic1 #bba ,copp]1 ,sulphate (1 #ea ,cotton1 #aha ,c\rtois1 #ajh ,curr5t1 ,galvanic1 #fd ,dagu]re1 #ajc ,dalton1 ,john1 #eb1 #ef ,davy1 ,humphry1 #fj1 #hf1 #ajh ,de ,rozi]1 #gh ,diamond1 #bjc ,diatoms1 #ahe1 #bbh ,diffusion1 #fi ,db]e9]1 #gj ,dynamite1 #ahc1 #ahe ,e>?'s ,cru/1 ,composition (1 #ae ,elem5ts1 ,*emical1 #i1 #ab1 #ad1 #bh ------ ,names & ,symbols (1 #ai1 #bc ,equival5ce1 #dh1 #gb ,e?yl5e1 #bbg ,explosives1 #agg ,f]tiliz]s1 #ahh ,fluor9e1 #aab ,fireworks1 #ahj ,fulm9ates1 #aha ,gal5a1 #adf ,gas1 #fc ---- ,illum9at+1 #bba ,gas-,c>bon1 #bbf ,gay-,lussac1 #hj ,glai%] & ,coxwell1 #ha ,glass1 #bbi ,glyc]9e1 #ahd ,granite1 #bbh ,graphite1 #bja ,gun-,cotton1 #aha ,gunp[d]1 #agg ,hay1 #ae ,heat1 unit (1 #ga ,hydrog51 #eh ,iod9e1 #aje ,iron1 ,sulphide (1 #adf ,janss51 #hc ,kelp1 #ajg ,lamp-,black1 #bjj ,l>d]el1 #afj ,lavoisi]1 #ai1 #ba1 #aah ,lead1 #cd ------ ,sulphide (1 #adf1 #adh ,leblanc ,process1 #id ,liebig1 #aja ,light1 ,calcium1 #aca ------ ,electric1 #baa1 #bbf ,lime/one1 #bji ,li?ium1 #cj ,m>ble1 #bji ,mass1 #ci ,mat*es1 #aib ,may[1 #aba1 #afc ,metals1 #bh1 #bi ------ ,names (1 #af1 #bj ,m]cury1 #cj ------ ,sulphide (1 #adf ,moi/ure 9 ! ,air1 #agc ,molecule1 #dj ,montgolfi]1 #gd ,murdo*1 #bbb ,nobel1 #ahe ,nitrog51 #afb ,nitroglyc]9e1 #ahd ,nom5clature1 ,*emical1 #ai1 #bj1 #cb1 #cc1 #cg ,non-metal1 #cj ,oxide1 ,f]roso-f]ric1 #ff ,oxyg51 #aag ------ ,abundance ( 9 ! e>?1 #ad1 #af ,palladium1 #gj ,pelleti]1 #hi ,petroleum1 #bji ,photography1 #ic ,phosphorus1 #ahg ,phosphorus ,necrosis1 #ahi ,phosphurett$ ,hydrog51 #aia ,potassic ,*lorate1 #abc ,prie/ley1 ,joseph1 #fd1 #aah1 #afc ,puymaur91 #aae ,pyrites1 #adf ,qu>tz1 #bbh ,roe1 #hi ,ref]5ces1 ,read+1 #aj1 #ag1 #bd1 #bg1 #ca1 #ch1 #de1 #ef1 #gc1 #hd1 #ih1 #aaa1 #aaf1 #acc1 #aef1 #afa1 #ahf1 #aif1 #bad ,ru!r=d1 #afc ,s*eele1 #he1 #aad1 #aah1 #afb1 #ahg ,silicon1 #bbh ------ ,abundance (1 #af ,sodium1 #fg ,sug>1 #da ,sulphur1 #adb ------ ,dioxide1 #cc1 #adi ------ ,trioxide1 #cc1 #aea ,sulphurett$ ,hydrog51 #adg ,t]n>y ,comp\nds1 #cd ,van ,helmont1 #fc ,v>e*1 #ajg ,vitriol1 ,oil (1 #aeb ,wat]1 #abg1 #acd ,weight1 ,atomic1 #ag ,z9c1 #fh ---- ,sulphide (1 #adf1 #adi