,,steam ,,steel ,,and ,,electricity  ,by
  ,,james ,w4 ,,steele      ,,contents  
,,the ,,story ,,of ,,steam4      ,what  
,steam is4--,steam in ,nature4--,the    
,engine in its earlier                  
forms4--,gradual explosion4--,the ,hero 
engine4--,the ,temple-door              
machine4--,ideas of the ,middle         
,ages4--,beginnings of the modern       
engine4--,branca's engine4--,savery's   
engine4--,the ,papin engine     using   
cylinder and piston4--,watt's           
improvements upon the     ,newcomen     
idea4--,the crank movement4--,the first 
use of steam     expansively4--,the     
,governor4--,first engine by an         
,american     ,inventor4--,its effect   
upon progress in the ,united            
,states4--,simplicity and cheapness of  
the modern engine4--,actual             
construction of the modern              
engine4--,valves1 piston1 etc41 with    
diagrams4  ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,steel4    
,the various ,ages in                   
civilization4--,ancient knowledge of the

     metals4--,the invention and use of 
,bronze4--,what ,steel is4--,the        
,lost ,arts4--,metallurgy and           
chemistry4--,oriental ,steel4--,modern  
definition of ,steel4--,invention of    
,cast ,steel4--,first iron-ore          
discoveries in ,america4--,first        
,american ,iron-works4--,early          
methods without steam4--,first ,american
 casting4--,effect of iron     industry 
upon independence4--,water-power4--,the 
trip-hammer4--,the     steam-hammer of  
,nasmyth4--,machine-tools and their     
effects4--,first rolling-mill4--,product
 of the iron industry in                
#ahdj-ej4--,the modern nail1 and how it 
came4--,effect of iron upon             
architecture4--,the ,sky-,scraper4--,gas
 as fuel in iron     manufactures4--,the
 ,steel of the present4--,the invention 
of     ,kelley4--,the ,bessemer         
process4--,the ,converter4--,present    
product of ,steel4--,the ,steel-mill4   
,,the ,,story ,,of ,,electricity4       
,the oldest and the youngest of the     

sciences4--,origin of the               
name4--,ancient ideas of                
,electricity4--,later                   
experiments4--,crude     notions and    
wrong conclusions4--,first ,electric    
,machine4--,frictional                  
,electricity4--,the ,leyden             
,jar4--,extreme     ideas and           
,fakerism4--,franklin1 his new ideas and
 their     reception4--,franklin's      
,kite4--,the ,man                       
,franklin4--,experiments     after      
,franklin1 leading to our present modern
 uses4--,galvani and     his            
discovery4--,volta1 and the first       
,battery4--,how a battery               
acts4--,the laws of ,electricity1 and   
how they were                           
discovered4--,induction1 and its        
discoverer4--,the line at which         
modern ,electricity begins4--,magnetism 
and ,electricity4--,the                 
,electro-,magnet4--,the ,molecular      
theory4--,faraday1 and his ,law of      
,magnetic ,force4  ,,modern             

,,electricity4      ,,chapter ,i4 ,the  
,four great qualities of ,electricity   
which make     its modern uses          
possible4--,the universal               
wire4--,conductors and     non          
conductors4--,electricity an exception  
in the ordinary ,laws     of            
,nature4--,a dual nature3 ,positive and 
,negative4--,all     modern uses come   
under the law of ,induction4--,some of  
the laws     of this                    
induction4--,magnets and                
,magnetism4--,relationship between      
the two4--,magnetic poles4--,practical  
explanation of the action     of        
induction4--,the ,induction             
,coil4--,dynamic and ,static            
,electricity4--,the ,electric           
,telegraph4--,first attempts4--,morse1  
and his beginnings4--,the first         
,telegraph ,line4--,vail1 and the       
invention of the dot-and-dash           
alphabet4--,the old instruments and     
the new4--,the final simplicity of the  
telegraph4      ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,the    

,ocean ,cable4--,differences between    
land lines and     cables4--,the story  
of the first cable4--,field and his     
final     success4--,the                
,telephone4--,early                     
attempts4--,description of ,bell's      
invention4--,the ,telautograph4--,early 
attempts and the idea upon     which    
they were based4--,description of       
,gray's invention4--,how a              
,telautograph may be made mechanically4 
,,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,electric         
,light4--,causes of heat and light in   
the conductor of a current4--,the first 
,electric ,light4--,the ,arc     ,light1
 and how constructed4--,the             
,incandescent4--,the     ,dynamo4--,date
 of the invention4--,successive         
steps4--,faraday the     discoverer of  
its principle4--,pix's                  
machine4--,pacinatti4--,wilde4--,siemens
' and ,wheatstone4--,the                
,motor4--,how the ,dynamo and ,motor    
came to be coupled4--,review of         
first attempts4--,kidder's              

battery4--,page's machine4--,electric   
,railroads4--,electrolysis4--,general   
facts4--,electrical                     
,measurements4--,death                  
,current4--,instruments of              
,measurement4--,electricity as an       
,industry4--,medical                    
,electricity4--,incomplete              
possibilities4--,what the ,storage      
,battery is4      ,,chapter ,,iv4       
,electrical ,invention in the ,united   
,states4--,review     of the careers of 
,franklin1 ,morse1 ,field1 ,edison and  
others4--,some of the surprising        
applications of     ,electricity4--,the 
,range-,finder4--,cooking and heating by
     ,electricity4     ,,the ,,story    
,,of ,,steam   ,that which was utterly  
unknown to the most splendid            
civilizations of the past is in our time
 the chief power of civilization1 daily 
engaged in making that history of a new 
era that is yet to be written in words4 
,it has been demonstrated long since    
that men's lives are to be influenced   

not by theory1 or belief1 or argument   
and reason1 so much as by that course of
 daily life which is not attempted to be
 governed by argument and reason1 but by
 great physical facts like steam1       
electricity and machinery in their      
present applications4  ,the greatest of 
these facts of the present civilization 
are expressed in the phrase1 ,steam and 
,steel4 ,the theme is stupendous4 ,only 
the most prominent of its facts can be  
given in small space1 and those only in 
outline4 ,the subject is also old1 yet  
to every boy it must be told again1 and 
the most ordinary intelligence must have
 some desire to know the secrets1 if    
such they are1 of that which is         
unquestionably the greatest force that  
ever yielded to the audacity of         
humanity4 ,it is now of little avail to 
know that all the records that men      
revere1 all the great epics of the      
world1 were written in the absence of   
the characteristic forces of modern     
life4 ,a thousand generations had lived 

and died1 an immense volume of history  
had been enacted1 the heroes of all the 
ages1 and almost those of our own time1 
had fulfilled their destinies and passed
 away1 before it came about that a mere 
physical fact should fill a larger place
 in our lives than all examples1 and    
that the evanescent vapor which we call 
steam should change daily1 and          
effectively1 the courses and modes of   
human action1 and erect life upon       
another plane4  ,it may seem not a      
little absurd to inquire now what is    
steam8 ,everybody knows the answer4 ,the
 non-technical reader knows that it is  
that vapor which1 for instance1 pervades
 the kitchen1 which issues from every   
cooking vessel and waste-pipe1 and is   
always white and visible1 and moist and 
warm4 ,we may best understand an answer 
to the question1 perhaps1 by remembering
 that steam is one of the three natural 
conditions of water3 ice1 fluid water1  
and steam4 ,one or the other of these   
conditions always exists1 and always    

under two others3 pressure and heat4    
,when the air around water reaches the  
temperature of thirty-two degrees by the
 scale of ,fahrenheit1 or  or zero by   
the ,centigrade scale1 and is exposed to
 this temperature for a time1 it becomes
 ice4 ,at two hundred and twelve degrees
 ,fahrenheit it becomes steam4 ,between 
these two temperatures it is water4 ,but
 the change to steam which is so rapid  
and visible at the temperature above    
mentioned is taking place slowly all the
 time when water1 in any situation1 is  
exposed to the air4 ,as the temperature 
rises the change becomes more rapid4    
,the steam-making of the arts is merely 
that of all nature1 hastened            
artificially and intentionally4  ,the   
element of pressure1 mentioned above1   
enters into the proposition because     
water boils at a lower temperature1 with
 less heat1 when the weight of the      
atmosphere is less than normal1 as it is
 at great elevations1 and on days when1 
as we now express it1 there is a low    

barometer4 ,long before any cook could  
explain the fact it was known that the  
water boiling quickly was a sign of     
storm4 ,it has often been found by      
camping-parties on mountains that in an 
attempt to boil potatoes in a pot the   
water would all boil away1 and leave the
 vegetables uncooked4 ,the heat required
 to evaporate it at the elevation was   
less than that required to cook in      
boiling water4 ,it is one of the        
instances where the problems of nature  
intrude themselves prominently into the 
affairs of common life without previous 
notice4  ,this universal evaporation1   
under varying circumstances1 is probably
 the most important agency in nature1   
and the most continuous and potent4     
,there was only so much water to begin  
with4 ,there will never be any less or  
any more4 ,the saltness of the sea never
 varies1 because the loss by evaporation
 and the new supply through condensation
 of the steam--rain--necessarily remain 
balanced by law forever4 ,the surface of

 our world is water in the proportion of
 three to one4 ,the extent of nature's  
steam-making1 silent1 and mostly        
invisible1 is immeasurable and remains  
an undetermined quantity4 ,the three    
forms of water combine and work together
 as though through intentional          
partnership1 and have1 thus combined1   
already changed the entire land surface 
of the world from what it was to what it
 is1 and working ceaselessly through    
endless cycles will change it yet more4 
,the exhalations that are steam become  
the water in a rock-cleft4 ,it changes  
to ice with a force almost beyond       
measurement in the orderly arrangement  
of its crystals in compliance with an   
immutable law for such arrangement1 and 
rends the rock4 ,the process goes on4   
,there is no high mountain in any land  
where water will not freeze4 ,the water 
of rain and snow carries away the       
powdered remains from year to year1 and 
from age to age4 ,the comminuted ruins  
of mountains have made the plains and   

filled up and choked the mouth of the   
,mississippi4 ,the soil that once lay   
hundreds of miles away has made the     
delta of every river that flows into the
 sea4 ,the endless and resistless       
process goes on without ceasing1 a force
 that is never expended1 and but once   
interrupted within the knowledge of men1
 then covered a large area of the world 
with a sea of ice that buried for ages  
every living thing4  ,the common idea of
 the steam that we make by boiling water
 is that it is all water1 composed of   
that and nothing else1 and this         
conception is gathered from apparent    
fact4 ,yet it is not entirely true4     
,steam is an invisible vapor in every   
boiler1 and does not become what we know
 by sight as steam until it has become  
partly cooled4 ,as actual steam         
uncooled1 it is a gas1 obeying all the  
laws of the permanent gases4 ,the       
creature of temperature and pressure1 it
 changes from this gaseous form when    
their conditions are removed1 and in the

 change becomes visible to us4 ,its     
elasticity1 its power of yielding to    
compression1 are enormous1 and it gives 
back this elasticity of compression with
 almost inconceivable readiness and     
swiftness4 ,to the eye1 in watching the 
gliding and noiseless movements of one  
of the great modern engines1 the power  
of which one has only a vague and       
inadequate conception seems not only    
inexplicable1 but gentle4 ,the ponderous
 iron pieces seem to weigh nothing4     
,there is a feeling that one might      
hinder the movement as he would that of 
a watch4 ,there is an inability to      
realize the fact that one of the        
mightiest forces of nature is there     
embodied in an easy1 gliding1 noiseless 
impulse4 ,yet it is one that would push 
aside massy tons of dead weight1 that   
would almost unimpeded crush a hole     
through the enclosing wall1 that whirls 
upon the rails the drivers of a         
locomotive weighing sixty tons as though
 there were no weight above them1 no    

bite upon the rails4 ,there is an       
enormous concentration of force         
somewhere2 of a force which perhaps no  
man can fairly estimate2 and it is under
 the thin shell we call a boiler4 ,were 
it not elastic it could not be so       
imprisoned1 and when it rebels1 when    
this thin shell is torn like paper1     
there is a havoc by which we may at last
 inadequately measure the power of      
steam4  ,we have in modern times applied
 the word engine almost exclusively to  
the machine which is moved by the       
pressure of steam4 ,yet we might go     
further1 since one of the first examples
 of a pressure engine1 older than the   
steam machine by nearly four hundred    
years1 is the gun4 ,reduced to its      
principle this is an engine whose       
operation depends upon the expansion of 
gas in a cylinder1 the piston being a   
projectile4 ,the same principle applies 
in all the machines we know as engines4 
,an air-engine works through the        
expansion of air in a cylinder by heat4 

,a gas-engine1 now of common use1 by the
 expansion1 which is explosion1 caused  
by burning a mixture of coal-gas and    
air1 and the steam-engine1 the universal
 power generator of modern life1 works  
by the expansion of the vapor of water  
as it is generated by heat4 ,steam may  
be considered a species of gradual      
explosion applied to the uses of        
industry4 ,it often becomes a real one1 
complying with all the conditions1 and  
as destructive as dynamite4  ,it cannot 
be certainly known how long men have    
experimented with the expansive force of
 steam4 ,the first feeble attempt to    
purloin the power of the geyser was     
probably by ,hero1 of ,alexandria1 about
 a hundred and thirty years before      
,christ4 ,his machine was also the first
 known illustration of what is now      
called the turbine principle2 the       
principle of reaction in mechanics4     
,footnote3 ,this principle is often a   
puzzle to students4 ,there is an old    
story of the man who put a bellows in   

his boat to make wind against the sail1 
and the wind did not affect the sail1   
but the boat went backward in an        
opposite direction from the nozzle of   
the bellows4 ,there is probably no      
better illustration of reaction than the
 kick of a gun1 which most persons know 
about4 ,the recoil of a six-pound field 
piece is usually from six to twelve     
feet4 ,it can be understood by supposing
 a gun to be loaded with powder and an  
iron rod longer than the barrel to be   
left on the charge4 ,if the outer end of
 this rod were then placed against a    
tree1 and the gun were fired1 it is     
manifest that the gun would become the  
projectile1 and be fired off of the rod 
backward or burst4 ,in ordinary cases   
the air in the bore1 and immediately    
outside of the muzzle1 acts             
comparatively1 and in a measure1 as the 
supposed rod against the tree would4 ,it
 gives way1 and is elastic1 but not as  
quickly as the force of the explosion   
acts1 and the gun is pushed backwards4  

,it is the turbine principle1 running   
into hundreds of uses in mechanics4 ,he 
made a closed vessel from whose opposite
 sides radiated two hollow arms with    
holes in their sides1 the holes being on
 opposite sides of the tubes from each  
other4 ,this vessel he mounted on an    
upright spindle1 and put water in it and
 heated the water4 ,the steam issuing   
from the holes in the arms drove them   
backward4 ,the principle of the action  
of ,hero's machine has been accepted for
 two thousand years1 though never in a  
steam-engine4 ,it exists under all      
circumstances similar to his4 ,in water1
 in the turbine wheel1 it has been made 
most efficacious4 ,the power applied now
 for the harnessing of ,niagara for the 
purpose of sending electric currents    
hundreds of miles is the turbine wheel4 
,illustration3 ,,the ,,supposed ,,hero  
,,engine4  ,hero appears to the popular 
imagination as the greatest inventor of 
the past4 ,every school boy knows him4  
,archimedes1 the ,greek1 was the        

greater1 and a hundred and fifty years  
the earlier1 and was the author of the  
significance of the word ,eureka1 as we 
use it now4 ,but ,hero was the pioneer  
in steam4 ,he made the first            
steam-engine1 and is immortal through a 
toy4  ,the first practical device in    
which expansion was used seems to have  
been for the exploiting of an           
ecclesiastical trick intended to impress
 the populace4 ,there is a saying by an 
antique wit that no two priests or      
augurs could ever meet and look at each 
other without a knowing wink of         
recognition4 ,hero is said to have been 
the author of this contrivance also4    
,the temple doors would open by         
themselves when the fire burned on the  
altar1 and would close again when that  
fire was extinguished1 and the          
worshippers would think it a miracle4   
,it is interesting because it contained 
the principle upon which was afterwards 
attempted to be made the first working  
low-pressure or atmospheric             

steam-engine4 ,yet it was not steam1 but
 air1 that was used4 ,a hollow altar    
containing air was heated by the fire   
being kindled upon it4 ,the air expanded
 and passed through a pipe into a vessel
 below containing water4 ,it pressed the
 water out through another pipe into a  
bucket which1 being thereby made        
heavier1 pulled open the temple doors4  
,when the fire went out again there was 
a partial vacuum in the vessel that had 
held the water at first1 and the water  
was sucked back through the pipe out of 
the bucket4 ,that became lighter again  
and allowed the doors to close with a   
counter-weight4 ,all that was then      
necessary to convince the populace of   
the genuineness of the seeming miracle  
was to keep them from understanding it4 
,the machinery was under the floor4     
,there have been thousands of miracles  
since then performed by natural         
agencies1 and there have passed many    
ages since ,hero's machine during which 
not to understand a thing was to believe

 it to be supernatural4  ,illustration3 
,,the ,,temple-,,door ,,trick4  ,from   
the time of ,hero until the seventeenth 
century there is no record of any       
attempt being made to utilize           
steam-pressure for a practical purpose4 
,the fact seems strange only because    
steam-power is so prominent a fact with 
ourselves4 ,the ages that intervened    
were1 as a whole1 times of the densest  
superstition4 ,the human mind was       
active1 but it was entirely occupied    
with miracle and semi-miracle2 in       
astrology1 magic and alchemy2 in trying 
to find the key to the supernatural4    
,every thinker1 every educated man1     
every man who knew more than the rest1  
was bent upon finding this key for      
himself1 so that he might use it for his
 own advantage4 ,during all those ages  
there was no idea of the natural        
sciences4 ,the key they lacked1 and     
never found1 that would have opened all1
 is the fact that in the realm of       
science and experiment there is no      

supernatural1 and only eternal law2 that
 cause produces its effect invariably4  
,even ,kepler1 the discoverer of the    
three great laws that stand as the      
foundation of the ,copernican system of 
the universe1 was in his investigations 
under the influence of astrological and 
cabalistic superstitions4 ,footnote3    
,kepler1 a ,german1 lived between #aega 
and #afcj4 ,his life was full of        
vicissitudes1 in the midst of which he  
performed an astonishing ,even the      
science of amount of intellectual labor1
 with lasting results4 ,he was the      
personal friend of ,galileo and ,tycho  
,brahe1 and his life may be said to have
 been spent in finding the abstract     
intelligible reason for the actual      
disposition of the solar system1 in     
which physical cause should take the    
place of arbitrary hypothesis4 ,he did  
this4 medicine was1 during those ages1 a
 magical art1 and the idea of cure by   
medicine1 that drugs actually cure1 is  
existent to this day as a remnant of the

 ,middle ,ages4 ,a man's death-offense  
might be that he knew more than he could
 make others understand about the then  
secrets of nature4 ,yet he himself might
 believe more or less in magic4 ,no one 
was untouched2 all intellect was more or
 less enslaved4  ,and when experiments  
at last began to be made in the         
mechanisms by which steam might be      
utilized they were such as boys now make
 for amusement2 such as throwing a      
steam-jet against the vanes of a        
paddle-wheel4 ,such was ,branca's       
engine1 made nine years after the       
landing of our forefathers at ,plymouth1
 and thought worthy of a description and
 record4 ,the next attempt was much more
 practical1 but cannot be accurately    
assigned4 ,it consisted of two chambers1
 from each of which alternately water   
was forced by steam1 and which were     
filled again by cooling off and the     
forming of a vacuum where the steam had 
been4 ,one chamber worked while the     
other cooled4 ,it was an immense advance

 in the direction of utility4  ,about   
#afih1 we begin to encounter the names  
that are familiar to us in connection   
with the history of the steam-engine4   
,in that year ,thomas ,savery obtained a
 patent for raising water by steam4 ,his
 was a modification of the idea         
described above4 ,the boilers used would
 be of no value now1 nevertheless the   
machine came into considerable use1 and 
the world that learned so gradually     
became possessed with the idea that     
there was a utility in the pressure of  
steam4 ,savery's engine is said to have 
grown out of the accident of his        
throwing a flask containing a little    
wine on the fire at a tavern4           
,concluding immediately afterwards that 
he wanted it1 he snatched it off of the 
fender and plunged it into a basin of   
water to cool it4 ,the steam inside     
instantly condensing1 the water rushed  
in and filled it as it cooled4  ,we now 
come to the beginning of the steam      
engine as we understand the term2 the   

machine that involves the use of the    
cylinder and piston4 ,these two features
 had been used in pumps long before1 the
 atmospheric pump being one of the      
oldest of modern machines4 ,the vacuum  
was known and utilized long before the  
cause of it was known4 ,footnote3 ,the  
discoverer was an ,italian1 ,torricelli1
 about #afdc4 ,gallileo1 his tutor and  
friend1 did not know why water would not
 rise in a tube more than thirty-three  
feet4 ,no one knew of the weight of the 
atmosphere1 so late as the early days of
 this republic4 ,many did not believe   
the theory long after that time4        
,torricelli1 by his experiments1        
demonstrated the fact and invented the  
mercurial barometer1 long known as the  
,torricellian ,tube4 ,this last         
instrument led to another discovery2    
that the weight of the atmosphere varied
 from time to time in the same locality1
 and that storms and weather changes    
were indicated by a rising and falling  
of the column of mercury in the tube of 

the siphon-barometer4 ,that which we    
call the weather-bureau1 organized by   
,general ,albert ,j4 ,myer1 ,united     
,states ,army1 in #ahgj1 and growing out
 of the army signal service1 of which he
 was chief1 makes its forecasts by the  
use of the telegraph and the barometer4 
,the low pressure area follows a path1  
which means a change of weather on that 
path4 ,notices by telegraph define the  
route1 and the coming storm is not      
foretold1 but foreknown2 not prophesied1
 but ascertained4 ,if we have been led  
from the crude pump of ,gallileo's time 
directly to the weather bureau of the   
present with its invaluable signals to  
sailors and convenience to everybody1 it
 is no more than is continually to be   
traced even to the beginning of the     
wonderful school of modern science4     
,but in the beginning it was not        
proposed to use steam in connection with
 the cylinder and piston which now      
really constitutes the steam-engine4    
,reverting again to the example of the  

gun1 it was suggested to push a piston  
forward in a tube by the explosion of   
gunpowder behind it1 or to repeat the   
,savery experiment with powder instead  
of steam4 ,these ideas were those of    
about #afgh-afhe4 ,the very earliest    
cylinder and piston engine was suggested
 by ,denis ,papin in #afij4 ,these early
 inventors only went a portion of the   
way1 and almost the entire idea of the  
steam-engine is of much later date4     
,mankind had then a singular gift of    
beginning at the wrong end4 ,every      
inventor now uses facts that seem to him
 to have been always known1 and that are
 his by a kind of intuition4 ,but they  
were all acquired by the tedious        
experience of a past that is            
distinguished by a few great names whose
 owners knew in their time perhaps      
one-tenth part as much as the modern    
inventor does1 who is unconsciously     
using the facts learned by old          
experience4 ,but the others began at the
 beginning4  ,illustration3 ,,early     

,,newcomen ,,pumping ,,engine4          
,,steam-,,cock1 ,,cold ,,water ,,cock   
,,and ,,waste-,,spigot ,,all ,,worked   
,,by ,,hand4  ,in #agaa1 almost a       
hundred years after the arrival at      
,jamestown and ,plymouth of the fathers 
of our present civilization1 the        
steam-engine that is called ,newcomen's 
began to be used for the pumping of     
water out of mines4 ,this engine1       
slightly modified1 and especially by the
 boy who invented the automatic cut-off 
for the steam valves1 was a most rude   
and clumsy machine measured by our      
ideas4 ,there appears to have been      
scarcely a single feature of it that is 
now visible in a modern engine4 ,the    
cylinder was always vertical4 ,it had   
the upper end open1 and was a round iron
 vessel in which a plunger moved up and 
down4 ,steam was let in below this      
plunger1 and the walking-beam with which
 it was connected by a rod had that end 
of it raised4 ,when raised the steam was
 cut off1 and all that was then under   

the piston was condensed by a jet of    
cold water4 ,the outside air-pressure   
then acted upon it and pushed it down   
again4 ,in this down-stroke by          
air-pressure the work was done4 ,the far
 end of the walking-beam was even       
counter-weighted to help the            
steam-pressure4 ,the elastic force of   
compressed steam was not depended upon1 
was hardly even known1 in this first    
working and practical engine of the     
world4 ,every engine of that time was an
 experimental structure by itself4 ,the 
boiler1 as we use it1 was unknown4      
,often it was square1 stayed and braced 
against pressure in a most complicated  
way4 ,yet the ,newcomen engine held its 
place for about seventy-five years2 a   
very long time in our conception1 and in
 view of the vast possibilities that we 
now know were before the science4       
,footnote3 ,as late as #ahhj1 the       
steam-engine illustrated and described  
in the natural philosophy text books was
 still the ,newcomen1 or ,newcomen-,watt

 engine1 and this while that engine was 
almost unknown in ordinary              
circumstances1 and double-acting        
high-pressure engines were in operation 
everywhere4 ,this last1 without which   
not much could be done that is now done1
 was evidently for a long time after it 
came into use regarded as a dangerous   
and unphilosophical experiment1 hardly  
scientific1 and not destined to be      
permanently adopted4  ,in the year      
#agfj1 ,james ,watt1 who was by         
occupation what is now known as a       
model-maker1 and who lived in ,glasgow1 
was called upon to repair a model of a  
,newcomen engine belonging to the       
university4 ,while thus engaged he was  
impressed with the great waste of steam1
 or of time and fuel1 which is the same 
thing1 involved in the alternate heating
 and cooling of ,newcomen's cylinder4   
,to him occurred the idea of keeping the
 cylinder as hot as the steam used in   
it4 ,watt was therefore the inventor of 
the first of those economies now        

regarded as absolute requirements in    
construction4 ,he made the first        
steam-jacket1 and was1 as well1 the     
author of the idea of covering the      
cylinder with a coat of wood1 or other  
non-conductor4 ,he contrived a second   
chamber1 outside of the cylinder1 where 
the then indispensable condensation     
should take place4 ,then he gave this   
cylinder for the first time two heads1  
and let out the piston-rod through a    
hole in the upper head1 with packing4   
,he used steam on the upper side of the 
piston as well as the lower1 and it will
 be seen that he came very near to      
making the modern engine4  ,yet he did  
not make it4 ,he was still unable to    
dispense with the condensing and vacuum 
and air-pressure ideas4 ,acting for the 
first time in the line of real          
efficiency1 he failed to go far enough  
to attain it4 ,he made a double-acting  
engine by the addition of many new      
parts2 he even attained the point of    
applying his idea to the production of  

circular motion4 ,but he merely doubled 
the ,newcomen idea4 ,his engine became  
the ,newcomen-,watt4 ,he had a          
condensing chamber at each end of the   
stroke and could therefore command a    
reciprocating movement4 ,the            
walking-beam was retained1 not for the  
purpose for which it is often used now1 
but because it was indispensable to his 
semi-atmospheric engine4  ,illustration3
 ,,the ,,perfected ,,newcomen-,,watt    
,,engine4  ,it may seem almost absurd   
that the universal crank-movement of an 
engine was ever the subject of a patent4
 ,yet such was the case4 ,a man named   
,pickard anticipated ,watt1 and the     
latter then applied to his engines the  
sun-and-planet movement1 instead of the 
crank1 until the patent on the latter   
expired4 ,the steam-engine marks the    
beginning of a long series of troubles  
in the claims of patentees4  ,in #aghb  
came ,watt's last steam invention1 an   
engine that used steam expansively4     
,this was an immense stride4 ,he was    

also at the same time the inventor of   
the throttle1 or choke valve1 by which  
he regulated the supply of steam to the 
piston4 ,it seems a strange thing that  
up to this time1 about #agfg1 an engine 
in actual use was started by getting up 
steam enough to make it go1 and waiting 
for it to begin1 and stopped by putting 
out the fire4  ,then he invented the    
governor1 a contrivance that has        
scarcely changed in form1 and not at all
 in action1 since it was first used1 and
 is one of the few instances of a       
machine perfect in the beginning4 ,two  
balls hang on two rods on each side of  
an upright shaft1 to which the rods are 
hinged4 ,the shaft is rotated by the    
engine1 and the faster it turns the more
 the two balls stand out from it4 ,the  
slower it turns the more they hang down 
toward it4 ,any one can illustrate this 
by whirling in his hands a half-open    
umbrella4 ,there is a connection between
 the movement of these balls and the    
throttle2 as they swing out more they   

close it1 as they fall closer to the    
shaft they open it4 ,the engine will    
therefore regulate its own speed with   
reference to the work it has to do from 
moment to moment4  ,illustration3 ,,the 
,,governor4  ,through all these changes 
the original idea remained of a vacuum  
at the end of every stroke1 of          
indispensable assistance from           
atmospheric pressure1 of a careful use  
of the direct expansive power of steam1 
and of the avoidance of the high        
pressures and the actual power of which 
steam is now known to be safely capable4
 ,footnote3 ,in a reputable school      
philosophy printed in #ahhj1 thus3 ,in  
some engines 7describing the modern     
high-pressure engine1 universal in most 
land service7 the apparatus for         
condensing steam alternately above and  
below the piston is dispensed with1 and 
the steam1 after it has moved the piston
 from one end of the cylinder to the    
other1 is allowed to escape1 by the     
opening of a valve1 directly into the   

air4 ,to accomplish this it is evident  
that the steam must have an elastic     
force greater than the pressure of the  
air1 or it could not expand and drive   
out the waste steam on the other side of
 the piston1 in opposition to the       
pressure of the air4 ,according to this 
teaching1 which the young student is    
expected to understand and to entirely  
believe1 a pressure of steam of1 say    
eighty to a hundred and twenty pounds to
 the inch on one side of the piston is  
accompanied by an absolute vacuum there1
 which permits the pressure of the      
outside air to exert itself against the 
opposite side of the piston through the 
open port at the other end of the       
cylinder4 ,that is1 a state of things   
which would exist if the steam behind   
the piston were suddenly condensed1     
exists anyway4 ,if it be true the facts 
should be more generally known2 if not1 
most of the school philosophies need    
reviewing4 ,then an almost unknown      
,american came upon the scene4 ,in      

,english hands the story at once passes 
from this point to the experiments of   
,trevethick and ,george ,stevenson with 
steam as applied to railway locomotion4 
,but as ,watt left it and ,trevethick   
found it1 the steam engine could never  
have been applied to locomotion4 ,it was
 slow1 ponderous1 complicated and       
scientific1 worked at low pressures1 and
 ,watt and his contemporaries would have
 run away in affright from the          
innovation that came in between them and
 the first attempts of the pioneers of  
the locomotive4 ,this innovation was    
that of ,evans1 the ,american1 of whom  
further presently4  ,the first          
steam-engine ever built in the ,united  
,states was probably of the ,watt       
pattern1 in #aggc4 ,in #aggf1 the year  
of beginning for ourselves1 there were  
only two engines of any kind in the     
colonies2 one at ,passaic1 ,n4 ,j41 the 
other at ,philadelphia4 ,we were full of
 the idea of the independence we had won
 soon afterwards1 but in material       

respects we had all before us4  ,in     
#aghg1 ,oliver ,evans introduced        
improvements in grain mills1 and was    
generally efficient as one of the       
beginners in the field of ,american     
invention4 ,soon afterwards he is known 
to have made a steam-engine which was   
the first high-pressure double-acting   
engine ever made4 ,the engine that used 
steam at each end of the cylinder with a
 vacuum and a condenser1 was in this    
first instance1 so far as any record can
 be found1 supplanted by the engine of  
to-day4 ,the reason of the delay it is  
difficult to account for on any other   
grounds than lack of boldness1 for      
unquestionably the early experimenters  
knew that such an engine could be made4 
,they were afraid of the power they had 
evoked4 ,such a machine may have seemed 
to them a willful toying with disaster4 
,their efforts were bent during many    
years toward rendering a treacherous    
giant useful1 yet entirely harmless4    
,their boilers1 greatly improved over   

those ,i have mentioned1 never were such
 as were afterwards made to suit the    
high pressures required by the audacity 
of ,hopkins4 ,this audacity was the     
mother of the locomotive1 and of that   
engine which almost from that date has  
been used for nearly every purpose of   
our modern life that requires power4    
,the ,american innovation may have      
passed unnoticed at the time1 but       
intentionally or otherwise it was       
imitated as a preliminary to all modern 
engines4 ,nearly a century passed       
between the making of the first         
practical engine and that one which now 
stands as the type of many thousands4   
,but now every little saw-mill in the   
,american woods could have1 and finally 
did have1 its little cheap1             
unscientific1 powerful and non-vacuum   
engine1 set up and worked without       
experience1 and maintained in working   
order by an unskilled laborer4 ,a       
thousand uses for steam grew out of this
 experiment of a ,yankee who knew no    

better than to tempt fate with a        
high-pressure and speed and recklessness
 that has now become almost universal4  
,there was with ,watt and his           
contemporaries apparently a fondness for
 cost and complications4 ,most likely   
the finished ,watt engine was a handsome
 and stately machine1 imposing in its   
deliberate movements4 ,there is         
apparently nothing simpler than the     
placing of the head of the piston-rod   
between two guide-pieces to keep it in  
line and give it bearing4 ,yet we have  
only to turn back a few years and see   
the elaborate and beautiful geometrical 
diagram contrived by ,watt to produce   
the same simple effect1 and known as a  
parallel motion4 ,it kept its place     
until the walking-beam was cast away1   
and the ,american horizontal engine came
 into almost universal use4  ,the object
 of this chapter so far has been to     
present an idea of beginnings2 of the   
evolution of the universal and          
indispensable machine of civilization4  

,the steam-engine has given a new       
impetus to industry1 and in a sense an  
added meaning to life4 ,it has made     
possible most that was ever dreamed of  
material greatness4 ,it has altered the 
destiny of this nation1 and other       
nations1 made greatness out of crude    
beginnings1 wealth out of poverty1      
prosperity upon thousands of square     
miles of uninhabitable wilderness4 ,it  
was the chiefest instrumentality in the 
widening of civilization1 the bringing  
together of alien peoples1 the          
dissemination of ideas4 ,electricity may
 carry the idea2 steam carries the man  
with the idea4 ,the crude misconceptions
 of old times existed naturally before  
its time1 and have largely vanished     
since it came4 ,marco ,polo and         
,mandeville and their kind are no longer
 possibilities4 ,applied to             
transportation1 locomotion alone1 its   
effects have been revolutionary4        
,applied to common life in its minute   
ramifications these effects could not   

have been believed or foretold1 and are 
incredible4 ,the thought might be       
followed indefinitely1 and it is almost 
impossible to compare the world as we   
know it with the world of our immediate 
ancestors4 ,only by means of contrasts1 
startling in their details1 can we      
arrive at an adequate estimate1 even as 
a moral farce1 of the power of steam as 
embodied in the modern engine in a      
thousand forms4         99       99     
99       99       99  ,perhaps it might 
be well to attempt to convey1 for the   
benefit of the youngest reader1 an idea 
of the actual working of the machine we 
call a steam-engine4 ,there are hundreds
 of forms1 and yet they are all alike in
 essentials4 ,to know the principle of  
one is to know that of all4 ,there is   
probably not an engine in the world in  
effective common use--the odd and       
unusual rotary and other forms never    
having been practical engines--that is  
not constructed upon the plan of the    
cylinder and piston4 ,these two parts   

make the engine4 ,if they are understood
 only differences in construction and   
detail remain4  ,imagine a short tube   
into which you have inserted a pellet1  
or wad of any kind1 so that it fits     
tolerably1 yet moves easily back and    
forth in the bore of the tube4 ,if this 
pellet or wad is at one end of the tube 
you may1 by inserting that end in your  
mouth and putting air-pressure upon it1 
make it slide to the other end4 ,you do 
not touch it with anything2 you may push
 it back and forth with your breath as  
many times as you wish1 not by blowing  
against it1 so to speak1 but by         
producing an actual air-pressure upon it
 which is confined by the sides of the  
tube and cannot go elsewhere4 ,the only 
pressure necessary is enough to move the
 pellet4  ,now1 if you push this little 
pellet one way by the air-pressure from 
your mouth1 and then1 instead of        
reversing the tube in the mouth and     
pushing it back again in the same way1  
reverse the process and suck the air out

 from behind it1 it comes back by the   
pressure of the outside atmosphere4     
,this was the way the first steam       
engines worked4 ,their only purpose was 
to get the piston lifted1 and           
air-pressure did all the actual work4   
,if you turn the tube1 and put an       
air-pressure first at one end and then  
at the other1 and pay no attention to   
vacuum or atmospheric pressure1 you will
 have the principle of the later modern1
 almost universal1 high-pressure1       
double-acting steam-engine4  ,but now   
you must imagine that the tube is fixed 
immovably1 and that the air-pressure is 
constant in a pipe leading to the tube1 
and yet must be admitted first to one   
end of the tube and then to the other   
alternately1 in order to push the pellet
 back and forth in it4 ,it seems simple4
 ,perhaps the young reader can find a   
way to do it1 but it required about a   
hundred years for ingenious men to find 
out how to do precisely the same thing  
automatically4 ,it involves the         

steam-chest and the slide-valve1 and all
 other kinds of steam valves that have  
been invented1 including the ,corliss   
cut-off1 and all others that are akin to
 it in object and action4  ,but now     
imagine the tube closed at each end to  
begin with1 and the little moving       
pellet1 or plunger1 on the inside4 ,to  
get the air into both ends of the tube  
alternately1 and to use its pressure on 
each side of the pellet1 we will suppose
 that the air-pipe is forked1 and that  
one end of each fork is inserted into   
the side of the tube near the end1 like 
the figure below1 and imagine also that 
you have put a finger over each end of  
the tube4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a  ,we 
are now getting the air-pressure through
 the pipe in both ends of the tube      
alike1 and do not move the pellet either
 way4 ,to make it move we must do       
something more1 and open one end of the 
tube1 and close that fork of the        
air-pipe1 and thus get all the pressure 
on one side of the pellet4 ,remove one  

finger from the end of the tube1 and    
pinch the fork of the air-tube that is  
on that side4 ,the pellet will now move 
toward that end of the tube which is    
open4 ,reverse the process1 and it can  
be pushed back again with air-pressure  
to the other end1 and so on             
indefinitely4  ,let us improve the      
process4 ,we will close each end of the 
tube permanently1 and insert four cocks 
in the tube and forked pipe4  ,we have  
here two tubes inserted at each end of  
the large tube1 and in each of these is 
a cock4 ,we have each cock connected by 
a rod to the lever set on a pin in the  
middle of the tube4 ,we must have these 
cocks so arranged that when the lever is
 moved 7say7 to the right1 ,a4 is opened
 and ,b4 is closed1 and ,d4 is opened   
and ,c4 is closed4 ,now if the          
air-pressure is constant through the    
forked air-tube1 and the cock ,e4 is    
open1 if the top of the lever is moved  
to the right1 the pellet will be pushed 
to the left in the large tube4 ,if the  

lever is moved to the left1 and the two 
cocks that were open are closed1 and the
 two that were closed are opened again1 
the pellet will be sent back to the     
other end of the tube4 ,this movement of
 the pellet in the tube will occur as   
often as the lever is moved and there is
 any air-pressure in the forked tube4   
,there is a supply-cock1 opened and an  
escape-cock closed1 and an escape-cock  
opened and a supply-cock closed1 at each
 end of the tube1 every time the lever  
is moved4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b  ,we 
are using air instead of steam1 and the 
movement of these four cocks all at the 
same time1 and the result of moving     
them1 is precisely that of the          
slide-valve of a steam-engine4 ,the     
diagrams of this slide-valve would be   
difficult to understand4 ,the action of 
the cocks can be more readily           
understood1 and the result1 and even    
much of the action1 is precisely the    
same4  ,but to make the arrangement     
entirely efficient we must go a little  

further into the construction of a      
steam-engine4 ,the pellet in the tube   
has no connection with the outside1 and 
we can get nothing from it4 ,so we give 
it a stem1 thus3 and when we do so we   
change it into a piston and its rod4    
,where it passes through the stopper at 
the end of the tube it must pass air-   
7or steam-7 tight4 ,then as we push the 
piston back and forth we have a movement
 that we can attach to machinery at the 
end of the rod1 and get a result from4  
,we also move the cocks1 or valves1     
automatically by the movement of the    
rod4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c  ,turning 
now to ,fig4 #c again let us imagine a  
connection made between the rod and the 
end of the lever in ,fig4 #b4 ,now put  
on the air 7or steam7 pressure1 and when
 the piston has reached the right-hand  
end of the tube it automatically1 by its
 connections1 closes ,b4 and opens ,a41 
and opens ,d4 and closes ,c4 ,the pellet
 will be pushed back in the tube and go 
to the other end of it1 through the     

pressure coming against the piston      
through the part of the air tube where  
the cock ,d4 is open4 ,it reaches the   
left-hand end of the tube1 and we must  
imagine that when it gets there it1 in  
the same manner and by the proper       
connections1 closes ,d41 opens ,c41     
closes ,a4 and opens ,b4 ,if these      
mechanical movements are completed it   
must be plain that so long as the air   
7or steam7 pressure is continued in the 
forked pipe the piston will             
automatically cut off its supply and    
open its escape at each alternate end1  
and move back and forth4 ,any boy can   
see how a backward and forward movement 
may be made to give motion to a crank4  
,all other details in an engine are     
questions of convenience in             
construction1 and not questions of      
principle or manner of action4  ,of     
older readers1 ,i might request the     
supposition that1 in ,fig4 #b1 only the 
valves ,a4 and ,b4 were automatically   
and invariably opened and closed by the 

action of the piston-rod of ,fig4 #c1   
and that ,c4 and ,d4 were controlled    
solely by the governor1 before          
mentioned1 which we will suppose to be  
located at ,e4 ,then the escape of the  
steam ahead of the piston must always   
come at the same time with reference to 
the stroke1 but the supply will depend  
upon the requirements of each individual
 stroke1 and the work it has to do1 and 
afford to the piston a greater or less  
push1 as the emergencies of that        
particular instant may require4 ,this   
arrangement would be one of regularity  
of movement and of economy in the use of
 steam4 ,that which is needed is        
supplied1 and no more4 ,this is the     
principle and the object of the ,corliss
 cut-off1 and of all others similar to  
it in purpose4 ,their principle is that 
only the escape is automatically        
controlled by the movements of the      
piston-rod1 occurring always at the same
 time with reference to the stroke1     
while the supply is under control of the

 movement of the governor1 and regulated
 according to the emergencies of the    
movement4 ,the governor1 in any of its  
forms1 as ordinarily applied1 performs  
only half of this function4 ,it         
regulates the general supply of steam to
 the cylinder1 but the supply-valve     
continues to be opened1 always to full  
width1 and always at the same moment    
with reference to the stroke4 ,with the 
two separate sets of automatic machinery
 required by engines of the ,corliss    
type1 the piston does not always receive
 its steam at the beginning of the      
stroke1 and the supply may be cut off   
partially or entirely at any point in   
its passage along the cylinder1 as the  
work to be done requires4 ,the economic 
value of such an arrangement is         
manifest4 ,no attempt is made here to   
explain by means of elaborate diagrams4 
,it is believed that if the reason of   
things1 and the principle of action1 is 
clear1 the particulars may be easily    
studied by any reader who is disposed to

 master mechanical details4     ,,the   
,,age ,,of ,,steel   ,in very recent    
times the processes of civilization have
 had a strong and almost unnoted        
tendency toward the increased use of the
 best4 ,thus1 most that iron once was1  
in use and practice1 steel now is4 ,this
 use1 growing daily1 widens the scope   
that must be taken in discussing the    
features of an ,age of ,steel4 ,one name
 has largely supplanted the other4 ,in  
effect iron has become steel4 ,had this 
chapter been written twenty1 or perhaps 
ten1 years earlier1 it should have been 
more appropriately entitled the ,age of 
,iron4 ,a separation of the two great   
metals in general description would be  
merely technical1 and ,i shall treat the
 subject very much as though1 in        
accordance with the practical facts of  
the case1 the two metals constituted one
 general subject1 one of them gradually 
supplanting the other in most of the    
fields of industry where iron only was  
formerly used4  ,the greatest progresses

 of the race are almost always          
unappreciated at the time1 and are      
certainly undervalued1 except by        
contrast and comparison4 ,we must       
continually turn backward to see how far
 we have gone4 ,an individual who is    
born into a certain condition thinks it 
as hard as any other until by experience
 and comparison he discovers what his   
times might have been4 ,as for us1 in   
the year #ahid1 we are not compelled to 
look backward very far to observe a     
striking contrast4  ,illustration3 ,,in 
,,old ,,times4 ,,prying ,,out ,a        
,,bloom4  ,all the wealth of today is   
built upon the forests and prairies and 
swamps of yesterday1 and we must take a 
wider and more comprehensive glance     
backward if we should wish to institute 
those comparisons which make contrasts  
startling4  ,we are accustomed to read  
and to hear of the ,age of this or that4
 ,there was a ,stone ,age1 beginning    
with the tribes to whom it came before  
the beginnings of their history1 or even

 of tradition1 and if we look far       
backward we may contrast our own time   
with the times of men who knew no       
metals4 ,they were men4 ,they lived and 
hoped and died as we do1 even in what is
 now our own country4 ,often they were  
not even barbarians4 ,they builded      
houses and forts1 and dug drains and    
built aqueducts1 and tilled the soil4   
,they knew the value of those things we 
most value now1 home and country2 and   
they organized armies1 and fought       
battles1 and died for an idea1 as we do4
 ,yet all the time1 a time ages long1   
the utmost help they had found for the  
bare and unaided hand was the serrated  
edge of a splintered flint1 or the      
chance-found fragment beside a stream   
that nature1 in a thousand or a million 
years of polishing1 had shaped into the 
rude semblance of a hammer or a pestle4 
,all men have in their time burned and  
scraped and fashioned all they needed   
with an astonishing faculty of making it
 answer their needs4 ,they once almost  

occupied the world4 ,such were those    
who1 so far as we know1 were once the   
exclusive owners of this continent4     
,they were an agricultural1 industrious 
and home-loving people4 ,footnote3 ,the 
,mound ,builders and ,cave ,dwellers4   
,they knew only lead and copper4  ,then 
came1 with a strange leaving out of the 
plentiful and easily worked metals which
 are the subject of this chapter1 the   
great ,age of ,bronze4 ,this next stage 
of progress after stone was marked by a 
skillful alloy1 requiring even now some 
scientific knowledge in its compounding 
of copper and tin4 ,a thousand theories 
have been brought forward to account for
 this hiatus in the natural stages of   
human progress1 the truth probably being
 that both tin and copper are more      
fusible than iron-ores1 and that both   
are found as natural metals4 ,some      
accident such as accounts for the first 
glass1 ,footnote3 ,the story is told by 
,pliny4 ,some sailors1 landing on the   
eastern coast of ,spain1 supported their

 cooking utensils on the sand with      
stones1 and built a fire under them4    
,when they had finished their meal1     
glass was found to have been made from  
the niter and sea-sand by the heat of   
their fire4 ,the same thing has been    
done1 by accident1 in more recent times1
 and may have been done before the      
incident recounted4 ,it is also done by 
the lightning striking into sand and    
making those peculiar glass tubes known 
as ,fulmenites1 found in museums and not
 very uncommon4 some camp-fire          
unintended fusion1 produced the alloy   
that became the metal of all the arms   
and arts1 and so remained for uncounted 
centuries4 ,in this connection it is    
declared that the ,age of ,bronze knew  
something that we cannot discover2 the  
art of tempering the alloy so that it   
would bear an edge like fine steel4 ,if 
this be true and we could do it1 we     
should by choice supplant the subject of
 this chapter for a thousand uses4 ,as  
the matter stands1 and in our ignorance 

of a supposed ancient secret1 the       
tempering of bronze has an effect       
precisely opposite to that which the    
process has upon steel4  ,nevertheless1 
the old ,age of ,bronze had its         
vicissitudes4 ,those men knew nothing   
that we consider knowledge now4 ,it was 
a time when some of the most splendid   
temples1 palaces and pyramids were      
constructed1 and these now lie ruined   
yet indestructible in the nooks and     
corners of a desert world4 ,perhaps the 
hard rock was chiselled with tools of   
tempered copper4 ,the fact is of little 
importance now since the object of the  
art is almost unknown1 and the scattered
 capitals and columns of ,baalbeck are  
like monuments without inscriptions2 the
 commemorating memorials of a memory    
unknown4 ,the ,age of ,bronze and all   
other ages that have preceded ours      
lacked the great essentials that insure 
perpetuity4 ,the ,age of ,steel1 that   
came last1 that is ours now2 a          
degenerate time by all ancient          

standards2 has for its crowning triumph 
a single machine which is alone enough  
to satisfy the union of two names that  
are to us what ,caster and ,pollux were 
to the bronze-armed ,roman legions of   
the heroic time--the modern power       
printing-press4  ,it may be well to ask 
and answer the question that at the     
first view may seem to the reader almost
 absurd4 ,what is steel8 ,the answer    
must1 in the majority of instances1 be  
given in accordance with the common     
conception2 which is that it is not     
iron1 yet very like it4 ,the old        
classification of the metal1 even       
familiarly known1 needs now to be       
supplemented1 since it does not describe
 the modern cast and malleable compounds
 of iron1 carbon and metalloids used for
 structural purposes1 and constituting  
at least three-fourths of the metal now 
made under the name of steel4 ,the old  
term1 steel1 meant the cast1 but        
malleable1 product of iron1 containing  
as much carbon as would cause the metal 

to harden when heated to redness and    
quenched in water4 ,it must also be     
included in the definition that the     
product must be as free as possible from
 all admixtures except the requisite    
amount of carbon4 ,this is tool steel4  
,footnote3 ,it must not be understood   
that tool steel was always a cast metal4
 ,in manufacturing1 iron bars were laid 
together in a box or retort1 together   
with powdered charcoal1 and heated to a 
certain degree for a certain time4 ,the 
carbon from the charcoal was absorbed by
 the iron1 and from the blistered       
appearance of the bars when taken out   
this product was1 and is known as       
blister steel4  ,and here occurs a      
strange thing4 ,a skill in chemistry1   
the successor of alchemy1 is the        
educational product of the highest form 
of civilization4  ,illustration3        
,,ancient ,,smelting4 ,a ,,rude ,,wall  
,,enclosing ,,alternate ,,layers ,,of   
,,iron ,,ore ,,and ,,charcoal4          
,metallurgy is the highest and most     

difficult branch of chemistry4 ,steel is
 the best result of metallurgy4 ,yet    
steel is one of the oldest products of  
the race1 and in lands that have been   
asleep since written history began4     
,wendell ,phillips in a lecture upon    
,the ,lost ,arts1--celebrated at the    
date of its delivery1 but now obsolete  
because not touching upon advances made 
in science since ,phillips's            
day1--states that the first needle ever 
made in ,england1 in the time of ,henry 
,,viii1 was made by a ,negro1 and that  
when he died the art died with him4     
,they did not know how to prepare the   
steel or how to make the needle4 ,he    
adds that some of the earliest travelers
 in ,africa found a tribe in the        
interior who gave them better razors    
than the explorers had4 ,oriental steel 
has been celebrated for ages as an      
inimitable product4 ,it is certainly    
true that by the simple processes of    
semi-barbarism the finest tool-steel has
 been manufactured1 perhaps from the    

days of ,tubal ,cain downward4 ,the     
keenness of edge1 the temper whose      
secret is now unknown1 the marvelous    
elasticity of the tools of ancient      
,damascus1 are familiar by repute to    
every reader and have been celebrated   
for thousands of years4 ,the swords and 
daggers made in central ,asia two       
thousand years ago were more remarkable 
than any similar product of the present 
for elaborate and beautiful finish as   
well as for a cutting quality and a     
tenacity of edge unknown to modern days4
 ,all the tests and experiments of a    
modern government arsenal1 with all the 
technical knowledge of modern times1 do 
not produce such tool-steel4 ,it is also
 alleged that the ancient weapons did   
not rust as ours do1 and that the oldest
 are bright to this day4 ,the steel     
tools and arms that are made in the     
strange country of ,india do not rust   
there1 while in the same climate ours   
are eaten away4 ,besides the secret of  
tempering bronze1 it would seem that    

among the lost arts ,footnote3 ,modern  
science dates from three discoveries4   
,that of ,copernicus1 the effect of     
which was to separate scientific        
astronomy1 the astronomy of natural law 
and defined cause1 from astrology1 or   
the astronomy of assertion and          
tradition4 ,that of ,torricelli and     
,paschal of the actual and measurable   
weight of the atmosphere1 which was the 
beginning for us of the science of      
physics1 and that of ,lavoisier who     
suspected1 and ,priestly who            
demonstrated1 oxygen and destroyed the  
last vestiges of the theory of alchemy4 
,stahl was the last of these1 and       
,lavoisier the first of the new school  
in that which ,i have stated is the     
highest development of modern science1  
chemistry4 ,in all these departments we 
have no adequate reason to assert that  
we are not ourselves mere students4     
,some of the functions of oxygen1 and   
the simplest1 were unknown within five  
years before the date of these          

chapters4--a subject that it is easy to 
make too much of--there was a chemical  
ingredient or proportion in steel that  
we now know nothing of4 ,the old lands  
of sameness and slumber have kept their 
secrets4  ,the definition of the word   
steel has been the subject of a         
scientific quarrel on account of new    
processes4 ,the grand distinguishing    
trait of steel1 to which it owes all the
 qualities that make it valuable for the
 uses to which no other metal can be    
put1 is homogeneity due to fusion4      
,wrought iron1 while having similar     
chemical qualities1 and often as much   
carbon1 is laminated in structure4      
,structural qualities are largely       
increasing in importance1 and as the    
structural compounds came gradually to  
be produced more and more by the casting
 processes2 as they ceased to be        
laminated in structure and became       
homogeneous1 they were called by the    
name of steel4 ,the name has been based 
upon the structure of the material      

rather than upon its chemical           
ingredients as heretofore4 ,there is now
 a disposition to call all compounds of 
iron that are crystalline in structure1 
made homogeneous by casting1 by the     
general name of steel1 and to           
distinguish all those whose structural  
quality is due to welding by the name of
 iron4 ,footnote3 ,it should be         
understood that the shapes of structural
 and other forms of what we now call    
steel are given by rolling the ingot    
after casting1 and that the crystalline 
composition of the metal remains4 ,this 
is an outline of the controversy about  
the differences which should be         
expressed by a name1 between tool steel 
and structural steel4 ,in tool steel    
there is an almost infinite variety as  
to quality4 ,the best is a high product 
of practical science1 and how to make   
the best seems now1 as hinted above1 a  
lost art4 ,it has1 besides1 a great     
variety4 ,these varieties are only      
produced after thousands of experiments 

directed to finding out what ingredients
 and processes make toward the desired  
result4 ,these processes1 were they all 
known outside the manufactories of      
certain specialists1 would little       
interest the general reader4 ,all       
machinists know of certain brands of    
tool steel which they prefer4 ,tool     
steel is made especially for certain    
purposes2 as for razors and surgical    
instruments1 for saws1 for files1 for   
springs1 for cutting tools generally4   
,in these there may be little actual    
difference of quality or manufacture4   
,the tempering of steel after it has    
been forged into shape is a specialty1  
almost a natural gift4 ,the manufacture 
of tool steel1 is1 as stated1 one of the
 most technical of the arts1 and one of 
the most complicated of the applications
 of long experience and experiment4     
,cast steel was first made in #aggj by  
,huntsman1 who for the first time melted
 the blistered steel1 which until that  
time had been the tool steel of         

commerce1 in a crucible4 ,since that    
time the process of melting wrought iron
 has become practical and cheap1 and    
results in crystalline1 instead of a    
laminated structure for all steels4 ,the
 definition of steel now is that it is a
 compound of iron which has been cast   
from a fluid state into a malleable     
mass4  ,the ordinary test applied to    
distinguish wrought iron from steel is  
to ascertain whether the metal hardens  
with heating and suddenly cooling in    
cold water1 becoming again softened on  
reheating and cooling slowly4 ,if it    
does this it is steel of some quality1  
good or bad2 if not1 it is iron4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,the first mention of iron-ore in       
,america is by ,thomas ,harriot1 an     
,english writer of the time of          
,raleigh's first colonies4 ,he wrote a  
history of the settlement on ,roanoke   
,island1 in which he says3 ,in two      
places in the countrey specially1 one   
about foure score and the other six     

score miles from the port or place where
 wee dwelt1 wee founde neere the water  
side the ground to be rockie1 which by  
the triall of a minerall man1 was found 
to hold iron richly4 ,it is founde in   
manie places in the countrey else4      
,harriot speaks further of the small    
charge for the labour and feeding of    
men2 the infinite store of wood2 the    
want of wood and the deerness thereof in
 ,england4 ,it was before the day of    
coal and coke1 or of any of the         
processes known now4 ,the iron mines of 
,roanoke ,island were never heard of    
again4  ,iron-ore in the colonies is    
again heard of in the history of        
,jamestown1 in #afjg4 ,a ship sailed    
from there in #afjh freighted with      
iron-ore1 sassafras1 cedar posts and    
walnut boards4 ,seventeen tons of iron  
were made from this ore1 and sold for   
four pounds per ton4 ,this was the first
 iron ever made from ,american ores4    
,the first iron-works ever erected in   
this country were1 of course almost1    

burned by the ,indians1 in #afbb1 and in
 connection three hundred persons were  
killed4  ,illustration3 ,,early         
,,smelting ,,in ,,america4  ,fire and   
blood was the end of the beginning of   
many ,american industries4 ,ore was     
plentiful1 wood was superabundant1      
methods were crude4 ,they could easily  
excel the ,virginia colonists in making 
iron in ,persia and ,india at the same  
date4 ,the orientals had certain        
processes1 descended to them from remote
 times1 discovered and practiced by the 
first metal-workers that ever lived4    
,the difference in the situation now is 
that here the situation and methods have
 so changed that the story is almost    
incredible4 ,there1 they remain as      
always4 ,the first instance of          
iron-smelting in ,america is a text from
 which might be taken the entire vast   
sermon of modern industrial             
civilization4  ,the orientals lacked the
 steam-engine4 ,so did we in ,america4  
,the blast was impossible everywhere    

except by hand1 and contrivances for    
this purpose are of very great          
antiquity4 ,the bellows was used in     
,egypt three thousand years ago4 ,it may
 be that the very first thought by      
primitive man was of how to smelt the   
metals he wanted so much and needed so  
badly4 ,his efforts to procure a means  
of making his fire burn under his little
 dump of ore led him first into the     
science which has attained a new        
importance in very recent times1        
pneumatics4 ,the first ,american        
furnaces were blown by the ordinary     
leather bellows1 or by a contrivance    
they had which was called a blowing tub1
 or by a very ancient machine known as a
 trompe in which water running through a
 wooden pipe was very ingeniously made  
to furnish air to a furnace4 ,it is when
 the means are small that ingenuity is  
actually shown4 ,if the later man is    
deprived of the use of the latest       
machinery he will decline to undertake  
an enterprise where it is required4 ,the

 same man in the woods1 with absolute   
necessity for his companion1 will show  
an astonishing capacity for persevering 
invention1 and will live1 and succeed4  
,illustration3 ,,water-,,power ,,blowing
 ,,tub4  ,in the lack of steam they     
learned1 as stated1 to use water-power  
for making the blast4 ,the blowing-tub  
was such a contrivance4 ,it was built of
 wood1 and the air-boxes were square4   
,there were two of these1 with square   
pistons and a walking-beam between them4
 ,a third box held the air under a      
weighted piston and fed it to the       
furnace4 ,some of these were still in   
effective use as late as #ahgc4 ,they   
were still used long after steam came4  
,the entire machine might be called1    
correctly1 a very large piston-bellows4 
,a smaller machine with a single barrel 
may be found now1 reduced1 in the hands 
of men who clean the interior of pianos1
 and tune them4  ,the first iron works  
built in the present ,united ,states    
that were commercially successful1 were 

established in ,massachusetts1 in the   
town of ,saugus1 a few miles from       
,boston4 ,the company had a monopoly of 
manufacture under grant for ten years4  
,footnote3 ,some quaint records exist of
 the incidents of manufacturing in those
 times4  ,in #agbh1 ,samuel ,higley and 
,joseph ,dewey1 of ,connecticut1        
represented to the ,legislature that    
,higley had1 with great pains and cost1 
found out and obtained a curious art by 
which to convert1 change1 or transmute1 
common iron into good steel sufficient  
for any use1 and was the first that ever
 performed such an operation in         
,america4 ,a certificate1 signed by     
,timothy ,phelps and ,john ,drake1      
blacksmiths1 states that1 in ,june1     
#agbe1 ,mr4 ,higley obtained from the   
subscribers several pieces of iron1 so  
shaped that they could be known again1  
and that a few days later he brought the
 same pieces which we let him have1 and 
we proved them and found them good      
steel1 which was the first steel that   

ever was made in this country1 that we  
ever saw or heard of4 ,but this         
remarkable transmuting process was not  
heard of again unless it be the process 
of case-hardening1 re-invented some     
years ago1 and known now to mechanics as
 a recipe4  ,the smallness of things may
 be inferred from the fact that1 in     
#agdj1 the ,connecticut ,legislature    
granted to ,messrs4 ,fitch1 ,walker     
,wyllys the sole privilege of making    
steel for the term of fifteen years1    
upon this condition that they should1 in
 the space of two years1 make half a ton
 of steel4 ,even this condition was not 
complied with and the term was extended4
 ,they began in #afdc1 twenty-three     
years after the landing1 which is one of
 the evidences of the anxiety of those  
troublesome people to be independent1   
and of how well men knew1 even in those 
early times1 how much the production of 
iron at home has to do with that        
independence4 ,this new industry was1 at
 all times1 controlled and regulated by 

law4  ,the very first hollow-ware       
casting made in ,america is said to be  
still in existence4 ,it was a little    
kettle holding less than a quart4       
,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,casting  
,,made ,,in ,,america4  ,the beginnings 
of the iron industry in ,america were   
none too early4 ,there came a need for  
them very soon after they had extended  
into other parts of ,new ,england1 and  
into ,new ,jersey1 ,new ,york1          
,pennsylvania and ,maryland4 ,in #agge1 
there were a large number of small      
furnaces and foundries4 ,but coal and   
iron1 the two earth-born servants of    
national progress which are now always  
twins1 were not then coupled4 ,the first
 of them was out of consideration4 ,the 
early iron men looked for water-falls   
instead1 and for the wood of the        
primeval forest4 ,footnote3 ,it is now  
easy to learn that a coal-mine may be a 
more valuable possession than a         
gold-mine1 and that iron is better as an
 industry than silver4 ,there are       

mountains of iron in ,mexico1 but no    
coal1 and silver-mines so rich that     
silver1 smelted with expensive wood     
fuel1 is the staple product of the      
country4 ,yet the people are among the  
poorest in ,christendom4 ,there is a    
ceaseless iron-famine1 so that the      
chiefest form of railway robbery is the 
stealing of the links and pins from     
trains4 ,there are almost no metal      
industries4 ,a barbaric agriculture     
prevails for the want of material for   
the making of tools4 ,the actual means  
of progress are not at hand1            
notwithstanding the product of silver1  
which goes by weight as a commodity to  
purchase most that the country needs4   
,they became very necessary to the      
country in #agee--when the ,french war  
came1 and they then began the making of 
the shot and guns used in that struggle1
 and became accustomed to the           
manufacture in time for the ,revolution4
 ,looking back for causes conducive to  
momentous results1 we may here find one 

not usually considered in the histories4
 ,but for the advancement of the iron   
industry in ,america1 great for the time
 and circumstances1 independence could  
not have been won1 and even the feeling 
and desire of independence would have   
been indefinitely delayed4  ,the        
industry was slow1 painful1 and         
uncertain1 only because the mechanic    
arts were pursued only to an extent     
possible with the skill and muscular    
energy of men4 ,there were none of the  
wonderful automatic mechanisms that we  
know as machine-tools4 ,there was only  
the almost unaided human arm with which 
to subdue the boundless savagery of a   
continent1 and win independence and form
 a nation besides4 ,the demand for huge 
masses of the most essential of the     
factors of civilization has grown since1
 because the ironclad and the big gun   
have come1 and those inadequate forces  
and crude methods supplied for a time   
the demand that was small and           
imperative4 ,the largest mass made then1

 and frequently spoken of in colonial   
records1 was a piece called a sow2      
spelled then sowe4 ,it was a long1      
triangular mass1 cast by being run into 
a trench made in sand4 ,footnote3 ,when1
 later1 little side-trenches were made  
beside the first1 with little channels  
to carry the metal into them1 the       
smaller castings were naturally called  
pigges4 ,hence our pig-iron4            
,illustration3 ,,making ,a ,,trench ,,to
 ,,cast ,a ,,sowe4  ,those were the     
palmy days of the trip hammer4 ,nasmyth 
was not born until #ahjh1 and no machine
 inventor had yet come upon the scene4  
,the steam-hammer that bears his name1  
which means a ponderous and powerful    
machine in which the hammer is lifted by
 the direct action of steam in a piston1
 the lower end of whose rod is the      
hammer-head1 has done more for the      
development of the iron industry than   
any other mechanical invention4 ,it was 
not actually used until #ahdb1 or '#dc4 
,it finally1 with many improvements in  

detail1 grew into a monster1 the        
hammer-head1 or tup1 being a mass of    
many tons4 ,and they of modern times    
were not content merely to let this     
great mass fall4 ,they let in steam     
above the piston1 and jammed it down    
upon the mass of glowing metal1 with a  
shock that jars the earth4 ,the strange 
thing about this ,titanic machine is    
that it can crack an egg1 or flatten out
 a ton or more of glowing iron4         
,hundreds of the forgings of later      
times1 such as the wrought iron or steel
 frames of locomotives1 and the shafts  
of steamers1 and the forged modern guns1
 could not be made by forging without   
this steam hammer4  ,illustration3 ,,the
 ,,steam ,,hammer4  ,then slowly came   
the period of all kinds of machine      
tools4 ,during the period briefly       
described above they could not make     
sheet metal4 ,the rolling mill must have
 come1 not only before the modern       
steam-boiler1 but even before the modern
 plow could be made4 ,can the reader    

imagine a time in the ,united ,states   
when sheet metal could not be rolled1   
and even tin plates were not known8 ,if 
so1 he can instantly transport himself  
to the times of the wooden trencher1 and
 the pewter mug and pitcher1 to the days
 when iron rails for tramways were      
unknown1 and when even the strap-iron1  
always necessary1 was rudely and slowly 
hammered out on an anvil4 ,footnote3    
,about #agbj1 nails were the most needed
 of all the articles of a new country4  
,farmers made them for themselves1 at   
home4 ,the secret of how to roll out a  
sheet and split it into nail-rods was   
stolen from the one shop that knew how1 
at ,milton1 ,mass41 to give to another  
at ,mlddleboro4 ,the thief had the      
,biblical name of ,hashay ,h4 ,thomas4  
,he stole the secret while the hands of 
the ,milton mill were gone to dinner1   
and served his country and broke up a   
small monopoly in so doing4  ,shears    
came with the rolls2 vast engines of    
gigantic biting capacity1 that cut      

sheets of iron as a lady's scissors cut 
paper4 ,this cut the squares of metal   
used for boiler plates1 and the         
steam-engine having come1 was turned to 
the manufacture of materials for its own
 construction4 ,others were able to bite
 off great bars4  ,the first mill in    
which iron was rolled in ,america1 was  
built in #ahag near ,connellsville1 in  
,fayette county1 ,penn4 ,until #ahdd1   
the rolling mills of this country       
produced little more than bar-iron1     
hoops1 and plates4 ,all the early       
attempts at railroads used the strap    
rail2 unless cast fish-bellies were     
used2 which was flat bar-iron provided  
with counter sunk holes1 in which to    
drive nails for holding the iron to long
 stringers of wood laid upon ties4 ,when
 actual rail-making for railroads began1
 the rolling mill raised its powers to  
meet the emergency4 ,the ,t rail1       
universally now used1 was invented by   
,robert ,stevens1 president and chief   
engineer of the ,camden and ,amboy      

railroad1 and the first of them were    
laid as track for that road in #ahcb4   
,from this time until #ahej1 rolling    
mills for making ,u and ,t rails rapidly
 increased in number1 but in that year  
all but two had ceased to be operated   
because of foreign competition4         
,illustration3 ,,shears ,,for ,,cutting 
,,bar-,,iron4  ,during some five years  
previous to this writing a revolution   
has taken place in the construction of  
buildings which has resulted in what is 
known as the sky-scraper4 ,this was1 in 
many respects1 the most startling       
innovation of times that are startling  
in most other respects1 and was begun in
 that metropolis of surprises and       
successes1 the city of ,chicago4 ,this  
innovation was really such in the matter
 of using steel in the entire framing of
 a commercial building1 but it was not  
the first use of metal as a building    
material4 ,the first iron beams used in 
buildings were made in #ahed1 in a      
rolling mill at ,trenton1 ,n4 ,j41 and  

were used in the construction of the    
,cooper ,institute1 and the building of 
,harper  ,brothers4 ,for these special  
rolls1 of a special invention1 were     
made4 ,these have now become obsolete1  
and a new arrangement is used for what  
are known as structural shapes4         
,illustration3 ,,hydraulic ,,shears4    
,,the ,,knife ,,has ,a ,,pressure ,,of  
#c1jjj ,,tons1 ,,clipping ,,pieces ,,of 
,,iron ,,two ,,by ,,four ,,feet4  ,i    
have spoken of the use of wood-fuel in  
the early stages of iron manufacture in 
this country1 followed by the adoption  
exclusively of coal and its products4   
,then1 many years later1 came the       
departure from this in the use of gas   
for fuel4 ,the first use of this kind is
 said to date as far back as the eighth 
century1 and modifications of the idea  
had been put in practice in this        
country1 in which gas was first made    
from coal and then used as fuel4 ,then  
came natural gas4 ,this product has been
 known for many centuries4 ,it was the  

eternal fuel of the ,persian            
fire-worshippers1 and has been used as  
fuel in ,china for ages4 ,its earliest  
use in this country was in #ahbg1 when  
it was made to light the village of     
,fredonia1 ,n4 ,y4 ,probably its first  
use for manufacturing purposes was by a 
man named ,tompkins1 who used it to heat
 salt-kettles in the ,kenawha valley in 
#ahdb4 ,its next use for manufacturing  
purposes was made in a rolling mill in  
,armstrong county1 ,penn41 in #ahgd1    
forty-seven years after it had been used
 at ,fredonia1 and twenty-nine years    
after it had been used to boil salt4    
,now the use of natural gas as          
manufacturing fuel is universal1 not    
alone over the spot where the gas is    
found1 but in localities hundreds of    
miles away4 ,it is one of the strangest 
developments of modern scientific       
ingenuity4 ,that enormous battery of    
boilers1 which was one of the most      
imposing spectacles of the ,columbian   
,exhibition of #ahic1 whose roar was    

like that of ,niagara1 was fed by       
invisible fuel that came silently in    
pipes from a state outside of that where
 the great fair was held4 ,we are left  
to the conclusion that the making of the
 coal into gas at the mine1 and the     
shipping of it to the place of          
consumption through pipes1 is more      
certain of realization than were a      
hundred of the early problems of        
,american progress that have now been   
successful for so long that the date of 
their beginning is almost forgotten4    
,,the ,,steel ,,of ,,the                
,,present4--,the story of steel has now 
almost been told1 in that general       
outline which is all that is possible   
without an extensive detail not         
interesting to the general reader4 ,in  
it is included1 of necessity1 a resum of
 the progress1 from the earliest times  
in this country1 of the great industry  
which is more indicative than any other 
of the material growth of a nation4 ,i  
now come to that time when steel began  

to take the place that iron had always  
held in structural work of every class4 
,the differences between this structural
 steel and that which men have known by 
the name exclusively from remote ages1  
,i have so far indicated only by        
reference to the well-known qualities of
 the latter4 ,it now remains to describe
 the first4  ,in #ahdf an ,american     
named ,william ,kelley was the owner of 
an iron-works at ,eddyville1 ,ky4 ,it   
was an early era in ,american           
manufactures of all kinds1 and the      
district was isolated1 the town not     
having five hundred inhabitants1 and the
 best mechanical appliances were remote4
  ,in #ahdg1 ,kelley began1 without     
suggestion or knowledge of any          
experiments going on elsewhere1 to      
experiment in the processes now known as
 the ,bessemer1 for the converting of   
iron into steel4 ,to him occurred1 as it
 now appears first1 the idea that in the
 refining process fuel would be         
unnecessary after the iron was melted if

 powerful blasts of air were forced into
 the fluid metal4 ,this is the basic    
principle of the ,bessemer process4 ,the
 theory was that the heat generated by  
the union of the oxygen of the air with 
the carbon of the metal1 would          
accomplish the refining4 ,kelley was    
trying to produce malleable iron in a   
new1 rapid and effective way4 ,it was   
merely an economy in manufacture he was 
endeavoring to attain4  ,to this end he 
made a furnace into which passed an     
air-blast pipe1 through which a stream  
of air was forced into the mass of      
melted metal4 ,he produced refined iron4
 ,following this he made what is now    
called a converter1 in which he could   
refine fifteen hundred pounds of metal  
in five minutes1 effecting a great      
saving in time and fuel1 and in his     
little establishment the old processes  
were thenceforth dispensed with4 ,it was
 locally known as ,kelley's air-boiling 
process4 ,it proved finally to be the   
most important1 in large results1 ever  

conceived in metallurgy4 ,i refer to it 
hurriedly1 and do not attempt to follow 
the inventor's own description of his   
constructions and experiments4 ,when he 
heard that others in ,england were      
following the same line of experiment1  
he applied for a patent4 ,he was decided
 to be the first inventor of the        
process1 and a patent was granted him   
over ,bessemer1 who was a few days      
before him4 ,there is no question that  
others were more skillful1 and with     
better opportunities and scientific     
associations1 in carrying out the final 
details1 mechanical and chemical1 which 
have completed the ,kelley process for  
present commercial uses4 ,neither is    
there any question that this back-woods 
iron-making ,american was the first to  
refine iron by passing through it1 while
 fluid1 a stream of air1 which is the   
process of making that steel which is   
not tool steel1 and yet is steel1 the   
now almost universal material for the   
making of structures2 the material of   

the ,ferris wheel1 the wonderful palaces
 of the ,columbian exposition1 the      
sky-scrapers of ,chicago1 the rails1 the
 tacks1 ,footnote3 ,in the history of   
,rhode ,island1 by ,arnold1 it is       
claimed that the first cold cut nails in
 the world were made by ,jeremiah       
,wilkinson1 in #aggg4 ,the process was  
to cut them from an old chest-lock with 
a pair of shears1 and head them in a    
smith's vise4 ,then small nails were cut
 from old ,spanish hoops1 and headed in 
a vise by hand4 ,needles and pins were  
made by the same person from wire drawn 
by himself4 ,supposing this to be the   
beginning of the cut-nail idea1 the     
machine for making them would still     
remain the actual and practical         
invention1 since it would mark the      
beginning of the industry as such4 ,the 
importance of the latter event may be   
measured by the fact that about the end 
of the last century there began a strong
 demand4 ,in the homely farm-houses1 or 
the little contracted shops of ,new     

,england villages1 the descendants of   
the ,pilgrims toiled providently1       
through the long winter months1 at      
beating into shape the little nails     
which play so useful a part in modern   
industry4 ,a small anvil served to beat 
the wire or strip of iron into shape and
 point it2 a vise worked by the foot    
clutched it between jaws furnished with 
a gauge to regulate the length1 leaving 
a certain portion projecting1 which1    
when beaten flat by a hammer1 formed the
 head4 ,this was industry1 but not      
manufacture1 for in #ahij the           
manufacturers of this country produced  
over eight hundred million pounds of    
iron1 steel1 and wire nails1            
representing a consumption of this      
absolutely indispensable manufacture for
 that year1 at the rate of over twelve  
pounds for each individual inhabitant of
 the ,united ,states4 the fence-wire1   
the sheet-metal1 the rails of the       
steam-railroads and the street-lines1   
the thousand things that cannot be      

thought of without a list1 and which is 
a material that is furnished more       
cheaply than the old iron articles were 
for the same purposes4  ,illustration3  
,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,a ,,bessemer   
,,converter4  ,the technical detail of  
steel-making is exceedingly interesting 
to students of applied science1 but it  
is detail1 the key to which is in the   
process mentioned2 the forcing of a     
stream of air through a molten mass of  
iron4 ,the converter is a huge          
pitcher-shaped vessel1 hung upon        
trunnions so as to be tilted1 and it is 
usual to admit through these trunnions1 
by means of a continuing pipe1 the      
stream of air4 ,the converters may      
contain ten tons or more of liquid metal
 at one time1 which mass is converted   
from iron into steel at one operation4  
,forty-five years ago1 or less1 works   
that could turn out fifty tons of iron  
in a day were very large4 ,now there are
 many that make five hundred tons of    
steel in the same time4 ,then1 nearly   

all the work was done by hand1 and men  
in large numbers handled the details of 
all processes4 ,now it would be         
impossible for human hands and strength 
to do the work4 ,the steel-mill is1     
indeed1 the most colossal combination of
 ,steam and ,steel4 ,there are tireless 
arms1 moved by steam1 insensible alike  
to monstrous strains and white heat1    
which seize the vast ingots and carry   
them to and fro1 handling with          
incredible celerity the masses that were
 unknown to man before the invention of 
the ,bessemer process4 ,and all these   
operations are directed and controlled  
by a man who stands in one place1       
strangely yet not inappropriately named 
a pulpit1 by means of the hand-gear that
 gives them all to him like toys4  ,no  
one who has seen a steel-mill in        
operation1 can go away and really write 
a description of it2 no artist or camera
 has ever made its portrait1 yet it is  
the most impressive scene of the modern1
 the industrial1 world4 ,there is a     

fervent heat1 surpassing in its         
impressions all the descriptions of the 
,bible1 and which destroys all doubt of 
fire with capacity to burn a world and  
roll the heavens together as a scroll4  
,there is a clang and clatter           
accompanying a marvelous order4 ,there  
are clouds of steam4 ,there are displays
 of sparks and glow surpassing all the  
pyrotechnics of art4 ,monstrous throats 
gasp for a draught of white-hot metal   
and take it at a gulp4 ,glowing masses  
are trundled to and fro4 ,there are     
mountains of ore1 disappearing in a     
night1 and ever renewed4 ,there is a    
railway system1 and the huge masses are 
conveyed from place to place by         
locomotive engines4 ,there is a water   
system that would supply a town4 ,there 
may be miles of underground pipes       
bringing gas for fuel4 ,amid these      
scenes flit strong men1 naked to the    
waist1 unharmed in the red pandemonium1 
guiding every process1 superintending   
every result2 like other men1 yet       

leading a life so strange that it is    
apparently impossible4 ,the glowing     
rivers they escape2 corruscating showers
 of flying white-hot metal do not fall  
upon them2 the leaping1 roaring1 hungry1
 annihilating flames do not touch them2 
the gurgling streams of melted steel are
 their familiar playthings2 yet they are
 but men4  ,the rolling of these slabs  
and ingots into rails is a following    
operation still4 ,the continuous rail is
 often more than a hundred feet in      
length1 which is cut into three or four 
rails of thirty feet each1 and it goes  
through every operation that makes it a 
,t rail weighing ninety pounds to the   
yard with the single first heat4 ,there 
are trains of rolls that will take in a 
piece of white-hot metal weighing six   
tons1 and send it out in a long sheet   
three thirty-seconds of an inch thick   
and nearly ten feet wide4 ,the first    
steel rails made in this country were   
made by the ,chicago ,rolling ,mill     
,company1 in ,may1 #ahfe4 ,only six     

rails were then made1 and these were    
laid in the tracks of the ,chicago and  
,north ,western ,railroad4 ,it is said  
they lasted over ten years4 ,the first  
nails1 or tacks1 were made of steel at  
,bridgewater1 ,mass41 at about the same 
date4  ,illustration3 ,,rolling         
,,ingots4  ,some thirty years ago there 
were but two ,bessemer converters in the
 ,united ,states1 and the manufacture of
 steel did not reach then five hundred  
tons per annum4 ,in #ahij the product   
was more than five million tons4  ,in   
#ahgb the price of steel was one hundred
 and eighty-six dollars per gross ton4  
,it can be purchased now at varying     
prices less than thirty dollars per ton4
 ,the consumption of seventy millions of
 people is so great that it is difficult
 to imagine how so enormous a mass of   
almost imperishable material can be     
absorbed1 and the latest figures show a 
consumption greatly in excess of those  
mentioned as the sum of manufactures4   
,we turn again for the comparison       

without which all figures are valueless 
to the good year #afdc1 when the        
,general court passed a resolve         
commending the great progress made in   
the manufacture of iron which they had  
licensed two years before1 and granted  
the company still further privileges and
 immunities upon condition that it      
should furnish the people with barre    
iron of all sorts for their use at not  
exceedynge twenty pounds per ton4 ,we   
recall the first little piece of hollow 
ware made in ,america4 ,we remember how 
old the old world is said to be and how 
long the tribes of men have plodded upon
 it1 and then the picture appears of the
 progress that has grown almost under   
our eyes4 ,the real ,age of ,steel began
 in #ahfe4 ,it is not yet thirty years  
old4 ,by comparison we are impressed    
with the fact that the real history of  
the metal is compressed into less than  
half an ordinary lifetime4     ,,the    
,,story ,,of ,,electricity              
,illustration3 ,,eripuit ,,caelo        

,,fulmen1 ,,sceptrumque ,,tyrannis4     
,there is a sense in which electricity  
may be said to be the youngest of the   
sciences4 ,its modern development has   
been startling4 ,its phenomena appear on
 every hand4 ,it is almost literally    
true that the lighting has become the   
servant of man4  ,but it is also the    
oldest among modern sciences4 ,its      
manifestations have been studied for    
centuries4 ,so old is its story that it 
has some of the interest of a mediaeval 
romance2 a romance that is true4 ,steam 
is gross1 material1 understandable1     
noisy4 ,its action is entirely          
comprehensible4 ,the explosives1        
gunpowder1 begriming the nations in all 
the wars since #acej1 nitroglycerine1   
oxygen and hydrogen in all the forms of 
their combination1 seem to be gross and 
material1 the natural1 though ferocious1
 servants of mankind4 ,but electricity  
floats ethereal1 apart1 a subtle        
essence1 shining in the changing        
splendors of the aurora yet existent in 

the very paper upon which one writes2   
mysteriously everywhere2 silent1 unseen1
 odorless1 untouchable1 a power capable 
of exemplifying the highest majesty of  
universal nature1 or of lighting the    
faint glow of the fragile insect that   
flies in the twilight of a summer night4
 ,obedient as it has now been made by   
the ingenuity of modern man1 docile as  
it may seem1 obeying known laws that    
were discovered1 not made1 it yet       
remains shadowy1 mysterious1 impalpable1
 intangible1 dangerous4 ,it is its own  
avenger of the daring ingenuity that has
 controlled it4 ,touch it1 and you die4 
,electricity was as existent when the   
splendid scenes described in ,genesis   
were enacted before the poet's eye as it
 is now1 and was entirely the same4 ,its
 very name is old4 ,before there were   
men there were trees4 ,some of these    
exuded gum1 as trees do now1 and this   
gum found a final resting place in the  
sea1 either by being carried thither by 
the currents of the streams beside which

 those trees grew1 or by the land on    
which they stood being submerged in some
 of the ancient changes and convulsions 
to which the world has been frequently  
subject4 ,in the lapse of ages this gum1
 being indestructible in water1 became a
 fossil beneath the waves1 and being in 
later times cast up by storms on the    
shores of the ,baltic and other seas1   
was found and gathered by men1 and being
 beautiful1 finally came to be cut into 
various forms and used as jewelry4 ,one 
has but to examine his pipe-stem1 or a  
string of yellow beads1 to know it even 
now4 ,it is amber4 ,the ancient ,greeks 
knew and used it as we do1 and without  
any reference to what we now call       
electricity their name for it was       
,,elektron4 ,the earliest mention of it 
is by ,homer1 a poet whose personality  
is so hidden in the mists of far        
antiquity that his actual existence as a
 single person has been doubted1 and he 
mentions it in connection with a        
necklace made of it4  ,but very early in

 human history1 at least six hundred    
years before ,christ1 this elektron had 
been found to possess a peculiar        
property that was imagined to belong to 
it alone4 ,it mysteriously attracted    
light bodies to it after it had been    
rubbed4 ,thales1 the ,franklin of his   
remote time1 was the man who is said to 
have discovered this peculiar and       
mysterious quality of the yellow gum1   
and if it be true1 to him must be       
conceded the unwitting discovery of     
electricity4 ,it was the first step in a
 science that usurps all the            
prerogatives of the ancient gods4 ,he   
recorded his discovery1 and was         
impressed with awe by it1 and accounted 
for the phenomenon he had observed by   
ascribing to the dull fossil a living   
soul4 ,that is the unconscious          
impression still1 after twenty-five     
hundred years have passed since ,thales 
died2 that hidden in the heart of       
electrical phenomena there is a weird   
sentience2 what a ,greek would consider 

something divine and immortal apart from
 matter4 ,but neither ,thales1 nor      
,theophrastus1 nor ,pliny the elder1 nor
 any ancient1 could conceive of a fact  
but dimly guessed until the day of      
,franklin2 that this secret of the      
silent amber was also that of the       
thunder-cloud1 that the essence that    
drew to it a floating filament is also  
that which rends an oak1 that had       
splintered their temples and statues1   
and had not spared even the image of    
,jupiter ,tonans himself4 ,the spectral 
lights which hung upon the masts of the 
ancient galleys of the ,mediterranean   
were named ,castor and ,pollux1 not     
electricity4 ,absolutely no discovery   
was made1 though the religion of ancient
 ,etruria was chiefly the worship of a  
spirit by them seen1 but unknown2 to us 
electrical science2 a science chained1  
yet really unknown and still feared     
though chained4 ,it is the story of this
 servitude only that is capable of being
 told1 and the first weak bands were a  

hundred and forty-six years in forging2 
from the ,englishman ,gilbert's ,de     
,magnete1 to ,franklin's ,kite4  ,during
 all this time1 and to a great degree   
long after1 electricity was a scientific
 toy4 ,experiences in the sparkling of  
the fur of cats1 the knowledge that     
there were fishes that possessed a      
mysterious paralyzing power1 and various
 common phenomena all attributable to   
some unknown common cause1 did not      
greatly increase the sum of actual      
knowledge of the subject4 ,there was no 
divination of what the future would     
bring1 and not the least conception of  
actual and impending possibilities4     
,when1 finally1 the greatest thinkers of
 their times began to investigate2 when 
,boyle began to experiment1 and even the
 transcendent genius of ,newton stooped 
to enquiry2 from the days of those      
giants down to those of the ,american   
provincial postmaster1 ,benjamin        
,franklin1 a period of some seventy     
years1 almost all the knowledge obtained

 was only useful in indicating how to   
experiment still further4 ,so small was 
the knowledge1 so aimless the long      
experimenting1 that the discovery that  
not amber only1 but other substances as 
well1 possessed the electric quality    
when rubbed1 was a notable advance in   
knowledge4 ,later1 in #agib1 it was     
found by ,gray that certain substances  
possessed the power of carrying2        
conducting as we now term it2 the       
mysterious fluid from one substance to  
another2 from place to place4 ,this     
discovery constituted an actual epoch in
 the history of the science1 and justly1
 since this small beginning with a wet  
string and a cylinder of glass or a     
globe of sulphur was the first unwitting
 illustration of the net-work of wires  
now hanging all over the world4 ,the    
next step was to find that all          
substances were not alike in a power to 
conduct a current2 i4e41 that there were
 conductors and non-conductors1 and all 
varying grades and powers between4 ,the 

next discovery was that there were1 as  
was then imagined1 several kinds of     
electricity4 ,this conclusion was       
incorrect1 and its use was to lead at   
last to the discovery1 by ,franklin1    
that the many kinds were but two1 and   
even these not kinds1 but qualities1    
present always in the unchanging essence
 that is everywhere1 and which are known
 to us now by the names that ,franklin  
gave them2 the positive and negative    
currents2 one always present with the   
other1 and in every phenomenon known to 
electrical science4  ,probably the first
 machine ever contrived for producing an
 electric current was made by a monk1 a 
,scotch ,benedictine named ,gordon who  
lived at ,erfurt1 in ,saxony4 ,i shall  
have occasion1 hereafter1 to describe   
other machines for the same purpose1 and
 this first contrivance is of interest  
by comparison4 ,it was a cylinder of    
glass about eight inches long1 with a   
wooden shaft in the center1 the ends of 
which were passed through holes in      

side-pieces1 and it is said to have been
 operated by winding a string around the
 shaft and drawing the ends of the      
string back and forth alternately4      
,illustration3 ,,the ,,first            
,,electrical ,,machine4  ,the           
,franklinic machine1 the modern glass   
disc fitted with combs1 rubbers1 bands  
and cranks1 is nothing more in principle
 or manner of action than the first     
crude arrangement of the monk of        
,erfurt4  ,all these experiments1 and   
all that for many years followed1 were  
made in electricity produced by         
friction2 by rubbing some body like     
glass1 sulphur or rosin4 ,many men took 
part in producing effects that were     
almost meaningless to them--the         
preliminaries to final results for us4  
,improved electrical machines were made1
 all seeming childish and inadequate    
now1 and all wonderful in their day4    
,there is a long list of immortal names 
connected with the slow development of  
the science1 and among their experiments

 the seventeenth century passed away4   
,dufaye and the ,abbe ,nollet worked    
together about #agcj1 and mutually      
surprised each other daily4 ,guericke1  
better known as the inventor of the     
air-pump1 made a sulphur-ball machine1  
often claimed to have been the first4   
,hawkesbee constructed a glass machine  
that was an improvement over that of    
,guericke4 ,stephen ,gray unfolded the  
leading principles of the science1 but  
without any understanding of their      
results as we now understand them4 ,the 
next advance was made in finding a way  
to hold some of the electricity when    
gathered1 and the toy which we know as  
the ,leyden ,jar surprised the          
scientific world4 ,its inventor1        
,professor ,muschenbrock1 wrote an      
account of it to ,raumur1 and lacks     
language to express the terror into     
which his own experiments had thrown    
him4 ,he had unwittingly accumulated1   
and had accidentally discharged1 and    
had1 for the first time in human        

experience1 felt something of the shock 
the modern lineman dreads because it    
means death4 ,he had toiled until he    
held the baleful genie in a glass vessel
 partially filled with water1 and the   
sprite could not be seen4 ,accidentally 
he made a connection between the two    
surfaces of the jar1 and declared that  
he did not recover from the experience  
for two days1 and that nothing could    
induce him to repeat it4 ,he had been   
touched by the lightning1 and had not   
known it4 ,footnote3 ,the ,leyden ,jar  
has little place in the usefulness of   
modern electricity1 and has no          
relationship with the modern so-called  
,storage ,battery4  ,then began the     
fakerism which attached itself to the   
science of electricity1 and that has    
only measurably abandoned it in very    
late times4 ,itinerant electricians     
began to infest the cities of ,europe1  
claiming medicinal and almost           
supernatural virtues for the mysterious 
shock of the ,leyden ,vial1 and showing 

to gaping multitudes the quick and      
flashing blue spark which was1 though no
 man knew it then1 a miniature imitation
 of the bolt of heaven4 ,that fact1     
verging as closely upon the sublimest   
power of nature as a man may venture to 
and live1 was not even suspected until  
,franklin had invented a battery of such
 jars1 and had performed hundreds of    
experiments therewith that finally      
established in his acute1 though        
prosaic1 mind the identity of his puny  
spark with that terrific flash that1    
until that time1 had been regarded by   
all mankind as a direct and intentional 
expression of the power of ,almighty    
,god4  ,thus ,franklin came into the    
field4 ,he was an investigator who      
brought to his aid a singular capacity  
possessed by the very few2 the capacity 
for an unbiased looking for the hidden  
reasons of things4 ,there was no field  
too sacred or too old for his prying    
investigations and his private          
conclusions4 ,he was1 as much as any man

 ever is1 an original thinker4 ,he knew 
of all the electrical experiments of    
others1 and they produced in his mind   
conclusions distinctly his own4 ,he was1
 upon topics pertaining to the field of 
reason1 experience and common sense1 the
 clearest and most vigorous writer of   
his time save one1 and such conclusions 
as he arrived at he knew how to         
promulgate and explain4 ,all that       
,franklin discovered would but add to   
the tedium of the subject of electricity
 now1 but from his time definitely dates
 the knowledge that of electricity1 in  
all its developments1 there is really   
but one kind1 though for convenience    
sake we may commonly speak of two1 or   
even more4 ,he first gave the names by  
which they are still known to the two   
qualities of one current2 a name of     
convenience only4 ,he knew first a fact 
that still puzzles inquiry1 and is still
 largely unknown--that electricity is   
not created1 produced1 manufactured1 by 
any human means1 and that all we may do1

 then or now1 is to gather it from its  
measureless diffusion in the air1 the   
world1 or the spaces of the wide        
creation1 and that1 like heat and cold1 
it is a relative term4 ,he demonstrated 
that any body which has electricity     
gives it to any other body that has at  
the moment less4 ,before he had actually
 tried that celebrated experiment which 
is alone sufficient to give him place   
among the immortals1 he had declared the
 theory upon which he made it to be     
true1 and by reasoning1 in an age that  
but dimly understood the force and      
conditions of inductive reason1 had     
proved that lightning is but an electric
 spark4 ,it seems hardly necessary to   
add that his theories were ridiculed by 
the most intelligent scientists of his  
time1 and scoffed at even by the        
countrymen of ,newton and ,davy1 the    
members of the ,royal ,society of       
,england4 ,franklin was a provincial    
,american1 and had1 in other fields than
 electricity1 troubled the ,british     

placidity4  ,illustration3 ,b4          
,,franklin  ,only one of these1 a man   
named ,collinson1 saw any value in these
 researches of the provincial in the    
wilds of ,america4 ,he published        
,franklin's letters to him4 ,buffon read
 them1 and persuaded a friend to        
translate them into ,french4 ,they were 
translated afterwards into many         
languages1 and when in his isolation he 
did not even know it1 the obscure       
printer1 the country postmaster who kept
 his official accounts with his own     
hands1 was the bearer of a famous name4 
,he was assailed by the ,nollet         
previously mentioned1 and by a party of 
,french philosophers1 yet there arose1  
in his absence and without his          
knowledge1 a party who called themselves
 distinctively ,franklinists4  ,then    
came the personal test of the truth of  
these theories that had been promulgated
 over ,europe in the name of the unknown
 ,american4 ,he was then forty-five     
years old1 successful in his walk and   

well-known in his immediate locality1   
but by no means as prominent or famous  
among his neighbors as he was in        
,europe4 ,he was not so fertile in      
resources as to be in any sense         
inspired1 and had privately waited for  
the finishing of a certain spire in the 
little town of ,philadelphia so that he 
might use it to get nearer to the clouds
 to demonstrate his theory of lightning4
 ,it was in ,june1 #ageb1 that this     
great exemplar of the genius of         
common-sense descended to the trial of  
the experiment that was the simplest and
 the most ordinary and the most sublime2
 the commonest in conception and means  
yet the most famous in results2 ever    
tried by man4 ,he had grown impatient of
 delay in the matter of the spire1 and  
hastily1 as by a sudden thought1 made a 
kite4 ,it was merely a silk handkerchief
 whose four corners were attached to the
 points of two crossed sticks4 ,it was  
only the idea that was great2 the means 
were infantile4 ,a thunder shower came  

over1 and in an interval between        
sprinklings he took with him his son1   
and went by back ways and alleys to a   
shed in an open field4 ,the two raised  
the kite as boys did then and do now1   
and stood within the shelter4 ,there was
 a hempen string1 and on this1 next his 
hand1 he had tied a bit of ribbon and an
 ordinary iron key4 ,a cloud passed over
 without any indications of anything    
whatever4 ,but it began to rain1 and as 
the string became wet he noticed that   
the loose filaments were standing out   
from it1 as he had often seen them do in
 his experiments with the electrical    
machine4 ,he drew a spark from the key  
with his finger1 and finally charged a  
,leyden jar from this key1 and performed
 all the then known proof-experiments   
with the lightning drawn from heaven4   
,it is manifest that the slightest      
indication of the presence of the       
current in the string was sufficient to 
have demonstrated the fact which        
,franklin sought to fix4 ,but it would  

have been insufficient to the general   
mind4 ,the demonstration required was   
absolute4 ,even among scientists of the 
first class less was then known about   
electricity and its phenomena1 and the  
causes of them1 than now is known by    
every child who has gone to school4 ,no 
estimate of the boldness and value of   
,franklin's renowned experiment can be  
made without a full appreciation of his 
times and surroundings4 ,he demonstrated
 that which was undreamed before1 and is
 undoubted now4 ,the wonders of one age 
have been the toys and tools of the next
 through the entire history of mankind4 
,the meaning of the demonstration was   
deep2 its results were lasting ,the     
experimenters thereafter worked with a  
knowledge that their investigations     
must1 in a sense1 include the universe4 
,perhaps the obscure man who had toyed  
with the lightnings himself but vaguely 
understood the real meaning of his      
temerity4 ,for he had1 as usual1 an     
intensely practical purpose in view4 ,he

 wished to find a way of drawing from   
the heavens their lightnings1 and       
conducting them harmless to the earth4  
,he was the first inventor of a         
practical machine1 for a useful purpose1
 with which electricity had to do4 ,that
 machine was the lightning-rod4         
,whatever its purpose1 mankind will not 
forget the simple greatness of the act4 
,at this writing the statue of ,franklin
 stands looking upward at the sky1 a key
 in his extended hand1 in the portico of
 a palace which contains the completest 
and most beautiful display of electrical
 appliances that was ever brought       
together1 at the dawn of that ,age of   
,electricity which will be noon with us 
within one decade4 ,the science and art 
of the civilized world are gathered     
about him1 and on the frieze above his  
head shines1 in gold letters1 that      
sentence which is a poem in a single    
line4 ,,eripuit ,,caelo ,,fulmen1       
,,sceptrumque ,,tyrannis4 ,footnote3 ,he
 snatched the lightning from heaven1 and

 the sceptre from tyrants4         99   
99       99       99       99  ,,the    
,,man ,,franklin4--,benjamin ,franklin  
was born at ,boston1 ,mass41 ,jan4      
#agth1 #agjf4 ,his father was a         
chandler1 a trade not now known by that 
term1 meaning a maker of soaps and      
candles4 ,benjamin was the fifteenth of 
a family of seventeen children4 ,he was 
so much of the same material with other 
boys that it was his notion to go to    
sea1 and to keep him from doing so he   
was apprenticed to his brother1 who was 
a printer4 ,to be apprenticed then was  
to be absolutely indentured2 to belong  
to the master for a term of years4      
,strangely enough1 the boy who wanted to
 be a sailor was a reader and student1  
captivated by the style of the          
,spectator1 a model he assiduously      
cultivated in his own extensive writings
 afterwards4 ,he was not assisted in his
 studies1 and all he ever knew of       
mathematics he taught himself4 ,being   
addicted to literature by natural       

proclivity he inserted his own articles 
in his brother's newspaper1 and these   
being very favorably commented upon by  
the local public1 or at least noticed   
and talked about1 his authorship of them
 was discovered1 and this led to a      
quarrel between the two brothers4       
,nevertheless1 when ,james1 the elder   
brother1 was imprisoned for alleged     
seditious articles printed by him1 the  
paper was for a time issued in young    
,benjamin's name4 ,but the quarrel      
continued1 the boy was imposed upon by  
his master1 and brother1 as naturally as
 might have been expected under the     
circumstances of the younger having the 
monopoly of all the intellectual ability
 that existed between the two1 and in   
#agbc1 being then only seventeen1 he    
broke his indentures1 a heinous offense 
in those times1 and ran away1 first to  
,new ,york and then to ,philadelphia1   
where he found employment as a          
journeyman printer4 ,he had attained a  
skill in the business not usual at the  

time4  ,the boy had1 up to this time1   
read everything that came into his      
hands4 ,a book of any kind had a charm  
for him4 ,his father observing this had 
intended him for the ministry1 that     
being the natural drift of a pious      
father's mind in the time of ,franklin's
 youth1 when he discovered any          
inclination to books on the part of a   
son4 ,but1 later1 he would neglect the  
devotions of the ,sabbath if he had     
found a book1 notwithstanding the piety 
of his family4 ,sometimes he distressed 
them further by neglecting his meals1 or
 sitting up at night1 for the same      
reason4 ,there is no question that young
 ,franklin was a member of that         
extensive fraternity now known as       
cranks4 ,footnote3 ,most people1 then   
and now1 can point to people of their   
acquaintance whom they hold in regard as
 originals or eccentrics4 ,it is a      
somewhat dubious title for respect1 even
 with us who are reckoned so eccentric a
 nation4 ,and yet all the great         

inventions which have done so much for  
civilization have been discovered by    
eccentrics--that is1 by men who stepped 
out of the common groove2 who differed  
more or less from other men in their    
habits and ideals4 ,he read a book      
advocating exclusive subsistence upon a 
vegetable diet and immediately adopted  
the idea1 remaining a disciple of       
vegetarianism for several years4 ,but   
there is another reason hinted4 ,he     
saved money by the vegetable scheme1 and
 when his printer's lunch had consisted 
of biscuits 7crackers7 and water for    
some days1 he had saved money enough to 
buy a new book4  ,this young printer1   
who1 at school1 in the little time he   
attended one1 had failed entirely in    
mathematics1 could assimilate ,locke on 
the ,understanding1 and appreciate a    
translation of the ,memorabilia of      
,xenophon4 ,even after his study of this
 latter book he had a fondness for the  
calm reasoning of ,socrates1 and wished 
to imitate him in his manner of         

reasoning and moralizing4 ,there is no  
question but that the great heathen had 
his influence across the abyss of time  
upon the mind of a young ,american      
destined also to fill1 in many respects1
 the foremost place in his country's    
history4 ,there was one1 at least1 who  
had no premonition of this4 ,his brother
 chastised him before he had been       
imprisoned1 and after he had begun to   
attract attention as a writer in one of 
the only two newspapers then printed in 
,america1 and beat him again after he   
was released1 having meantime been      
vigorously defended by his apprentice   
editorially while he languished4 ,to    
have beaten ,benjamin ,franklin with a  
stick1 when he was seventeen years old1 
seems an absurd anti-climax in ,american
 history4 ,but it is true1 and when the 
young man ran away there was still      
another odd episode in a great career4  
,upon his first arrival in ,philadelphia
 as a runaway apprentice1 with one piece
 of money in his pocket1 occurs the one 

gleam of romance in ,franklin's         
seemingly ,socratic life4 ,he says he   
walked in ,market ,street with a baker's
 loaf under each arm1 with all his      
shirts and stockings bulging in his     
pockets1 and eating a third piece of    
bread as he walked1 and this on a       
,sunday morning4 ,under these           
circumstances he met his future wife1   
and he seems to have remembered her when
 next he met her1 and to have been      
unusually prepossessed with her1 because
 on the first occasion she had laughed  
at him going by4 ,he was one of those   
whose sense of humor bears them through 
many difficulties1 and who are even     
attracted by that sense in others4 ,he  
was1 at this period1 absurd without     
question4 ,having eaten all the bread he
 could1 and bestowed the remainder upon 
another voyager1 he drank out of the    
,delaware and went to church2 that is1  
he sat down upon a bench in a ,quaker   
meeting-house and went to sleep1 and was
 admonished thence by one of the        

brethren at the end of the service4     
,franklin had1 in the time of his youth1
 the usual experiences in business4 ,he 
made a journey to ,london upon promises 
of great advancement in business1 and   
was entirely disappointed1 and worked at
 his trade in ,london4 ,afterwards1     
during the return voyage to ,america1 he
 kept a journal1 and wrote those        
celebrated maxims for his own guidance  
that are so often quoted4 ,the first of 
these is the gem of the collection3 ,i  
resolve to be extremely frugal for some 
time1 until ,i pay what ,i owe4 ,a      
second resolve is scarcely less         
deserving of imitation1 for it declares 
it to be his intention to speak all the 
good ,i know of everybody4 ,it must be  
observed that ,franklin was afterwards  
the great maximist of his age1 and that 
his life was devoted to the acquisition 
of worldly wisdom4 ,in his body of      
philosophy there is included no word of 
confidence in the condemnation of       
offenses by the act or virtue of        

another1 no promise of1 or reference to1
 the rewards of futurity4  ,when about  
twenty-one years of age1 we find this   
old young man tired of a drifting life  
and many projects1 and desiring to adopt
 some occupation permanently4 ,he had   
courted the girl who had laughed at him1
 and then gone to ,england and forgotten
 her4 ,she had meantime married another 
man1 and was now a widow4 ,in #agcj he  
married her4 ,meantime1 entering into   
the printing business on his own        
account1 he often trundled his paper    
along the streets in a wheelbarrow1 and 
was intensely occupied with his affairs4
 ,his acquisitive mind was never idle1  
and in #agcb he began the publication of
 the celebrated ,poor ,richard's        
,almanac4 ,this was among the most      
successful of all ,american             
publications1 was continued for         
twenty-five years1 and in the last      
issue1 in #ageg1 he collected the       
principal matter of all preceding       
numbers1 and the issue was extensively  

republished in ,great ,britain1 was     
translated into several foreign         
languages1 and had a world-wide         
circulation4 ,he was also the publisher 
of a newspaper1 ,the ,pennsylvania      
,gazette1 which was successful and      
brought him into high consideration as a
 leader of public opinion in times which
 were beginning to be troubled by the   
questions that finally brought about a  
separation from the mother country4     
,time and space would fail in anything  
like a detailed account of the life of  
this remarkable man4 ,his only son1 the 
boy who was with him at the flying of   
the kite1 was an illegitimate child1 and
 it is a remarkable instance of         
unlikeness that this only son became a  
royalist governor of ,new ,jersey1 was  
never an ,american in feeling1 and      
removed to ,england and died there4 ,the
 sum of ,franklin's life is that he was 
a statesman1 a financier of remarkable  
ability1 a skillful diplomat1 a         
law-maker1 a powerful and felicitous    

writer though without imagination or the
 literary instinct1 and a               
controversialist who seldom1 if ever1   
met his equal4 ,he was always a printer1
 and at no period of his great career   
did he lose his affection for the useful
 arts and common interests of mankind4  
,he is the founder of the ,american     
,philosophical ,society1 and of a       
college which grew into the present     
,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,to him is
 due the origin of a great hospital     
which is still doing beneficent work4   
,he raised1 and caused to be            
disciplined1 ten thousand men for the   
defense of the country4 ,he was a       
successful publisher of the literature  
of the common people1 yet a literature  
that was renowned4 ,he could turn his   
attention to the improvement of         
chimneys1 and invented a stove still in 
use1 and still bearing his name as the  
author of its principle4 ,footnote3 ,the
 stove was not used in ,franklin's time 
to any extent4 ,the ,franklin ,stove was

 a fireplace so far as the advantages   
were concerned1 such as ventilation and 
the pleasure of an open fire4 ,but it   
also radiated heat from the back and    
sides as well as the front1 and was     
intended to sit further out into a room2
 to be both fireplace and stove4 ,he    
organized the postal system of the      
,united ,states before the ,union       
existed4 ,he was a signer of the        
,declaration of ,independence4 ,he      
sailed as commissioner to ,france at the
 age of seventy-one1 and gave all his   
money to his country on the eve of his  
departure1 yet died wealthy for his     
time4 ,serene1 even-tempered1           
philosophical1 he was yet far-seeing1   
care-taking1 sagacious1 and intensely   
industrious4 ,he acquired a knowledge of
 the ,italian and ,spanish languages1   
and was a proficient ,french speaker and
 writer4 ,he possessed1 in an           
extraordinary degree1 the power of      
gaining the regard1 even the affection1 
of his fellow-men4 ,he was even a       

competent musician1 mastering every     
subject to which his attention was      
turned2 and province-born and reared in 
the business of melting tallow and      
setting types1 without collegiate       
education1 he shone in association with 
the men and women who had place in the  
most brilliant epoch of ,french         
intellectual history4 ,at fourscore     
years he performed the work that would  
have exhausted a man of forty1 and at   
the same time wrote1 for mere amusement1
 sketches such as the ,dialogue between 
,franklin and the ,gout1 and added1 with
 the cool philosophy of all his life    
still lingering about his closing hours3
 ,when ,i consider how many terrible    
diseases the human body is liable to1 ,i
 think myself well off that ,i have only
 three incurable ones1 the gout1 the    
stone1 and old age4  ,illustration3     
,,the ,,franklin ,,stove4         99    
99       99       99       99  ,after   
,franklin1 electrical experiments went  
on with varying results1 confined within

 what now seems to have been a very     
narrow field1 until #agij4 ,the great   
facts outside of the startling          
disclosure made by ,franklin's          
experiments remained unknown4 ,it was   
another forty years of amused and       
interested playing with a scientific    
toy4 ,but in that year the key to the   
utility of electricity was found by one 
,galvani4 ,he was not an electrician at 
all1 but a professor of anatomy in the  
university of ,bologna4 ,it may be      
mentioned in passing that he never knew 
the weight or purport of his own        
discovery1 and died supposing and       
insisting that the electric fluid he    
fancied he had discovered had its origin
 in the animal tissues4 ,misapprehending
 all1 he was yet unconsciously the first
 experimenter in what we1 for           
convenience1 designate dynamic          
electricity4 ,he knew only of animal    
electricity1 and called it by that name2
 a misnomer and a mistake of fact1 and  
the cause of an early scientific quarrel

 the promoting of which was the actual  
reason of the advance that was made in  
the science following his accidental and
 enormously important discovery4  ,there
 are many stories of the details of the 
ordinarily entirely unimportant         
circumstances that led to ,galvanism and
 the ,galvanic ,battery4 ,volta actually
 made this battery1 then known as the   
,voltaic ,pile1 but he made it because  
of ,galvani's discovery4 ,the reader is 
requested to bear these names in mind2  
,galvani and ,volta4 ,they have a unique
 claim upon us4 ,with others that will  
follow1 they have descended to all      
posterity in the immortal nomenclature  
of the science of electricity4 ,it is   
through the accidental discovery of the 
plodding demonstrator of anatomy in a   
medical college1 a man who died at last 
in poverty and in ignorance of the      
meaning of his own work1 that we have   
now the vast web of telegraph and       
telephone wires that hangs above the    
paths of men in every civilized country1

 and the cables that lie in the ooze of 
the oceans from continent to continent4 
,his discovery was the result of one of 
the commonest incidents of domestic     
life4 ,variously described by various   
writers1 the actual circumstance seems  
reducible to this4  ,in ,galvani's      
kitchen there was an iron railing1 and  
immediately above the railing some      
copper hooks1 used for the purpose of   
hanging thereon uncooked meats4 ,his    
wife was an invalid1 and wishing to     
tempt her appetite he had prepared a    
frog by skinning it1 and had hung it    
upon one of the copper hooks4 ,the only 
use intended to be asked of this        
renowned batrachian was the making of a 
little broth4 ,another part of the      
skinned anatomy touched the iron rail   
below1 and the anatomist observed that  
this casual contact produced a          
convulsive twitching of the dead        
reptile's legs4 ,he groped about this   
fact for many years4 ,he fancied he had 
discovered the principle of life4 ,he   

made the phenomenon to hang upon the    
facts clustering about his own          
profession1 familiar to him1 and about  
which it was natural for him to think4  
,he promulgated theories about it that  
are all now absurd1 however tenable     
then4 ,his was an instance of how the   
fatuities of men in all the fields of   
science1 faith or morals1 have often led
 to results as extraordinary as they    
have been unexpected4 ,that he died in  
poverty in #agih is a mere human fact4  
,that in this life he never knew is     
merely another4 ,it is but a part of    
that sadness that1 through life1 and1   
indeed1 through all history1 hangs over 
the earthly limitations of the immortal 
mind4  ,volta1 his contemporary and     
countryman1 finally solved the problem  
as to the reason why4 and made that     
,voltaic ,pile which came to be our     
modern battery4 ,acting upon the hint   
given by ,galvani's accident1 this pile 
was made of thin sheets of metal1 say of
 copper and zinc1 laid in series one    

above the other1 with a piece of cloth  
wet with dilute acid interposed between 
each sheet and the next4 ,the sheets    
were connected at the edges in pairs1 a 
sheet of zinc to a sheet of copper1 and 
the pile began with a sheet of one metal
 and ended with one of the other4 ,it is
 to be noted that a single pair would   
have produced the same result as a      
hundred pairs1 only more feebly4 ,a     
single large pair is1 indeed1 the modern
 electric battery of one cell4 ,the     
beginning and the ending sheets of the  
,voltaic pile were connected by a wire1 
through which the current passed4 ,we1  
in our commonest industrial battery1 use
 the two pieces of metal with the fluid 
between4 ,the metals are usually copper 
and zinc1 and the fluid is water in     
which is dissolved sulphate of copper4  
,the wire connection we make hundreds of
 miles long1 and over this wire passes  
the current4 ,if we part this wire the  
current ceases4 ,if we join it again we 
instantly renew it4 ,there are many     

forms of this battery4 ,the two metals1 
the electrodes1 are not necessarily zinc
 and copper and no others4 ,the         
acidulated fluid is not invariably water
 with sulphate of copper dissolved in   
it4 ,yet in all modifications the same  
thing is done in essentially the same   
way1 and the ,voltaic pile1 and a little
 back of that ,galvani's frog1 is the   
secret of the telegraph1 the telephone1 
the telautograph1 the cable message4 ,in
 the case of ,galvani's frog1 the fluids
 of the recently killed body furnished  
the liquid containing the acid1 the     
copper hook and the iron railing        
furnished the dissimilar metals1 and the
 nerves and muscles of the frog's body1 
connecting the two metals1 furnished the
 wire4 ,they were as good as ,franklin's
 wet string was4 ,the effect of the     
passage of a current of electricity     
through a muscle is to cause it to      
spasmodically contract1 as everyone     
knows who has held the metallic handles 
of an ordinary small battery4 ,many     

years passed before the mystery that has
 long been plain was solved by acute    
minds4 ,galvani thought he saw the      
electric quality in the tissues of the  
frog4 ,volta came to see them as        
produced by chemical action upon two    
dissimilar metals4 ,the first could not 
maintain his theories against facts that
 became apparent in the course of the   
investigations of several years1 yet he 
asserted them with all the pertinacious 
conservatism of his profession1 which it
 has required ages to wear away1 and    
died poor and unhonored4 ,the other     
became a nobleman and a senator1 and    
wore medals and honors4 ,it is a world  
in which success alone is seen1 and in  
which it may be truthfully said that the
 contortions of an eviscerated and      
unconscious frog upon a casual hook were
 the not very remote cause of the       
greatest advancements and discoveries of
 modern civilization4  ,yet the mystery 
is not yet entirely explained4 ,in the  
study of electricity we are accustomed  

to accept demonstrated facts as we find 
them4 ,when it is asked how a battery   
acts1 what produces the mysterious      
current1 the only answer that can now be
 given is that it is by the conversion  
of the energy of chemical affinity into 
the energy of electrical vibrations4    
,many mixtures produce heat4 ,the       
explanation can be no clearer than that 
for electricity4 ,electricity and heat  
are both forms of energy1 and1 indeed1  
are so similar that one is almost       
synonymous with the other4 ,the enquiry 
into the original sources of energy1    
latent but present always1 will1 when   
finally answered1 give us an insight    
into mysteries that we can only now     
infer are reserved for that hereafter1  
here or elsewhere1 which it is part of  
our nature to believe in and hope for4  
,the theory of electrical vibrations is 
explained elsewhere as the only tenable 
one by which to account for electrical  
action4 ,one may also ask how fire      
burns1 or1 rather1 why a burning        

produces what we call heat1 and the     
actual question cannot be answered4 ,the
 action of fire in consuming fuel1 and  
the action of chemicals in consuming    
metals1 are similar actions4 ,they each 
result in the production of a new form  
of energy1 and of energy in the form of 
vibrations4 ,in the action of fire the  
vibrations are irregular and spasmodic2 
in electricity they are controlled by a 
certain rhythm or regularity4 ,between  
heat and electricity there is apparently
 only this difference1 and they are so  
similar1 and one is so readily converted
 into the other1 that it is a current   
scientific theory that one is only a    
modified form of the other4 ,many acute 
minds have reflected upon the problem of
 how to convert the latent energy of    
coal into the energy of electricity     
without the interposition of the steam  
engine and machinery4 ,there apparently 
exist reasons why the problem will never
 be solved4 ,there is no intelligence   
equal to answering the question as to   

precisely where the heat came from1 or  
how it came1 that instantly results upon
 the striking of a common match4 ,it was
 evolved through friction4 ,the means   
were necessary4 ,friction1 or its       
precise equivalent in energy1 must      
occur4 ,the result is as strange1 and in
 the same manner strange1 as any of the 
phenomena of electricity4 ,precisely    
here1 in the beginning of the study of  
these phenomena1 the student should be  
warned that an attitude of wonder or of 
awe is not one of enquiry4 ,the         
demonstrations of electricity are       
startling chiefly for three reasons3    
newness1 silence1 and inconceivable     
rapidity of action4 ,let one hold a wire
 in one's hand six or eight inches from 
the end1 and then insert that end into  
the flame of a gas-jet4 ,it is as old as
 human experience that that part of the 
wire which is not in the flame finally  
grows hot1 and burns one's fingers4 ,a  
change has taken place in the molecules 
of the wire that is not visible1 is     

noiseless1 and that has traveled along  
the wire4 ,it excites neither wonder nor
 remark4 ,no one asks the reason why4   
,yet it cannot be explained except by   
some theory more or less tenable1 and   
the phenomenon1 in kind though not in   
degree1 is as unaccountable as anything 
in the magic of electricity4 ,in a true 
sense there is1 nothing supernatural1 or
 even wonderful1 in all the vast        
universe of law4 ,if we would learn the 
facts in regard to anything1 it must be 
after we have passed the stage of wonder
 or of reverence in respect to it4 ,that
 which was the ,voice of ,god--as truly1
 in a sense1 it was and is--until       
,franklin's day1 has since been a       
concussion of the air1 an echo among the
 clouds1 the passage of an electric     
discharge4 ,it is the first lesson for  
all those who would understand4  ,the   
time had now come when that which had   
seemed a lawless wonder should have its 
laws investigated1 formulated and       
explained4 ,a man named ,coulomb1 a     

,frenchman1 is the author of a system of
 measurements of the electric current1  
and he it was who discovered that the   
action of electricity varies1 not with  
the distance1 but1 like gravity1 in the 
inverse ratio of the square of the      
distance4 ,coulomb was the maker of the 
first instrument for measuring a        
current1 which was known as the torsion 
balance4 ,the results of his practical  
investigations made easier the practical
 application of electrical power as we  
now use it1 though he foresaw nothing of
 that application2 and the engineer of  
to-day applies his laws1 and those of   
his fellow scientists1 as those which do
 not fail4 ,volta was one of these1 and 
he also furnished1 as will hereafter be 
seen1 a name for one of the units of    
electrical measurement4  ,both ,galvani 
and ,volta passed into shadow1 when1 in 
#ahbj1 ,professor ,h4 ,c4 ,oersted1 of  
,copenhagen1 discovered the law upon    
which were afterwards slowly built the  
electrical appliances of modern life4   

,it was the great principle of          
,,induction4 ,the student of electricity
 may begin here if he desires to study  
only results1 and is not interested in  
effects1 causes1 and the pains and toils
 which led to those results4 ,the term  
may seem obscure1 and is1 doubtless1 as 
a name1 the result of a sudden idea2 but
 upon induction and its laws the        
simplest as well as the most complicated
 of our modern electrical appliances    
depend for a reason for action4 ,its    
discovery set ,ampre to work4 ,they had 
all imagined previously that there was  
some connection between electricity and 
magnetism1 and it was this idea that    
instigated the investigations of        
,ampere4 ,it was imagined that the      
phenomena of electricity were to be     
explained by magnetism4 ,this was not   
untrue1 but it was only a part of the   
truth4 ,ampere proved that magnetism    
could also readily be produced by a     
current of electricity4 ,from this idea1
 practically carried out1 grew the      

,,electro ,,magnet1 and to ,ampre we are
 indebted for the actual discovery of   
the elementary principles of what we now
 call electrodynamics1 or dynamic       
electricity1 ,footnote3 ,in all science 
there is a continual going back to the  
past for a means of expression for      
things whose application is most modern4
 ,dynamic2 ,,dynamo1 is the ,greek word 
for power2 to be able4 ,once            
established1 these names are seldom     
abandoned4 ,there is no more reason for 
calling our electrical power-producing  
machine a ,dynamo than there would be in
 so designating a steam engine or a     
water-wheel4 ,but1 a term of general    
significance if used at all1 it has come
 to be the special designation of that  
one machine4 ,it is brief1 easily said1 
and to the point1 but is in no way      
necessarily connected with electrical   
power distinctively4 in which are       
included the ,dynamo1 and its twin and  
indispensable1 the ,motor4 ,ampre is    
also the author of the molecular theory1

 by which alone1 with our present       
knowledge1 can the action of electricity
 be explained in connection with the    
iron core which is made a magnet by the 
current1 and left again a mere piece of 
iron when the current is interrupted4   
,ten years later ,faraday explained and 
applied the laws of ,induction1 basing  
them upon the demonstrations of ,ampre4 
,the use of a core of soft iron1        
magnetized by the passage of a current  
through a helix of wire wrapping it as  
the thread does a spool1 is the         
indispensable feature1 in some form     
meaning the same thing1 with the same   
results1 in all machines that are given 
movement to by an electric current4     
,this is the electro-magnet4 ,it is made
 a magnet not by actual contact1 or by  
being made the conductor of a current1  
but by being placed in the electrical   
field and temporarily magnetized by     
induction4  ,faraday began his brilliant
 series of experiments in #ahca4 ,to    
express briefly the laws of action under

 which he worked1 he wrote the          
celebrated statement of the ,law of     
,magnetic ,force4 ,he proved that the   
current developed by induction is the   
same in all its qualities with other    
currents1 and1 indeed1 demonstrated     
,franklin's theory that all electricity 
is the same2 that1 as to kind1 there is 
but one4 ,all electrical action is now  
viewed from the ,faradic position4  ,the
 story of electricity1 as men studied it
 in the primary school of the science1  
ends where ,faraday began4 ,under the   
immutable laws he discovered and        
formulated we now enter the field of    
result1 of action1 of commercial        
interest and value4 ,we might better say
 the field of usefulness1 since         
commercial value is but another         
expression for usefulness4 ,a revolution
 has been wrought in all the ways and   
thoughts of men since a date which a man
 less than sixty years old can recall4  
,the laws under which the miracle has   
been wrought existed from all eternity4 

,they were discovered but yesterday4    
,progress1 the destiny of man1 has kept 
pace in other fields4 ,we live our time 
in our predestined day1 learning and    
knowing1 like grown-up children1 what we
 may4 ,in a future whose distance we may
 not even guess1 the children of men    
shall reap the full fruition of the     
prophesy that has grown old in waiting1 
and shall be as gods1 knowing good from 
evil4     ,,modern ,,electricity        
,,chapter ,i4   ,electricity1 in all its
 visible exhibitions1 has certain       
unvarying qualities4 ,some of these have
 been mentioned in the preceding        
chapter4 ,others will appear in what is 
now to follow4 ,these qualities or      
habits1 invariable and unchangeable1    
are1 briefly3  7#a7 ,it has the unique  
power of drawing1 attracting other      
objects at a distance4  7#b7 ,for all   
human uses it is instantaneous in       
action1 through a conductor1 at any     
distance4 ,a current might be sent      
around the world while the clock ticked 

twice4  7#c7 ,it has the power of       
decomposing chemicals 7,electrolysis71  
and it should be remembered that even   
water is a chemical1 and that substances
 composed of one pure organic material  
are very rare4  7#d7 ,it is readily     
convertible into heat in a wire or other
 conductor4  ,these four qualities      
render its modern uses possible1 and    
should be remembered in connection with 
what is presently to be explained4      
,these uses are1 in application1 the    
most startling in the entire history of 
civilization4 ,they have come about1 and
 their applications have been made      
effective1 within twenty years1 and     
largely within ten4 ,this subtlest and  
most elusive essence in nature1 not even
 now entirely understood1 is a part of  
common life4 ,some years ago we began to
 spell our thoughts to our fellow-men   
across land and sea with dots and       
dashes4 ,within the memory of the       
present high school boy we began to talk
 with each other across the miles4 ,now 

there is no reason why we shall not     
begin to write to each other letters of 
which the originals shall never leave   
our hands1 yet which shall stand written
 in a distant place in our own          
characters1 indisputably signed by us   
with our own names4 ,we apparently      
produce out of nothing but the whirling 
of a huge bobbin of wire any power we   
may wish1 and send it over a thin wire  
to where we wish to use it1 though every
 adult can remember when the difficulty 
of distance1 in the propelling of       
machinery1 was thought to have been     
solved to the satisfaction of every     
reasonable man by the making of wire    
cables that would transmit power between
 grooved wheels a distance of some      
hundreds of feet4 ,we turn night into   
day with the glow of lamps that burn    
without flame1 and almost without heat1 
whose mysterious glow is fed from some  
distant place1 that hang in clusters1   
banners1 letters1 in city streets1 and  
that glow like new stars along the      

treeless prairie horizon where thirty   
years ago even the beginnings of        
civilization were unknown4 ,yet the     
mysterious agent has not changed4 ,it is
 as it was when creation began to shape 
itself out of chaos and the abyss4 ,men 
have changed in their ability to reason1
 to deduce1 to discover1 and to         
construct4 ,to know has become a part of
 the sum of life2 to understand or to   
abandon is the rule4 ,when the ages of  
tradition1 of assertion without the     
necessity for proof1 of content with all
 that was and was right or true because 
it was a standard fixed1 went by1 the   
age not necessarily of steam1 or of     
steel1 or of electricity1 but the age of
 thought1 came in4 ,some of the results 
of this thought1 in one of the most     
prominent of its departments1 ,i shall  
attempt to describe4  ,a wire is the    
usual concomitant in all electrical     
phenomena4 ,it is almost the universally
 used conductor of the current4 ,in most
 cases it is of copper1 as pure as it   

can be made in the ordinary course of   
manufacture4 ,there are other metals    
that conduct an electrical current even 
better than copper does1 but they happen
 to be expensive ones1 such as silver4  
,the usual telegraph-line is efficient  
with only iron wire4  ,we habitually use
 the words conductor and conduct in     
reference to the electric current4 ,a   
definition of that common term may be   
useful4 ,it is a relative one4 ,a       
conductor is any substance whose atoms1 
or molecules1 have the power of         
conveying to each other quickly their   
electricities4 ,before the common use of
 electricity we were accustomed to      
commonly speak of conductors of heat2   
good1 or poor4 ,the same meaning is     
intended in speaking of conductors of   
electricity4 ,non-conductors are those  
whose molecules only acquire this power 
under great pressure4 ,electricity      
always takes the easiest road1 not      
necessarily the shortest4 ,this is the  
path that electricians call that of     

least resistance4 ,there are no         
absolutely perfect conductors1 and there
 are no substances that may be called   
absolutely non-conductors4 ,a           
non-conductor is simply a reluctant1 an 
excessively slow1 conductor4 ,in all    
electrical operations we look first for 
these two essentials3 a good conductor  
and a good non-conductor4 ,we want the  
latter as supports and attachments for  
the first4 ,if we undertake to convey   
water in a pipe we do not wish the pipe 
to leak4 ,in conveying electricity upon 
a wire we have a little leak wherever we
 allow any other conductor to come too  
near1 or to touch1 the wire carrying the
 current4 ,these little electrical leaks
 constantly exist4 ,all nature is in a  
conspiracy to take it wherever it can   
find it1 and from everything which at   
the moment has more than some other has1
 or more than its share with reference  
to the air and the world1 of the        
mysterious essence that is in varying   
quantities everywhere4 ,glass is the    

usual non-conductor in daily use4 ,a    
glance at the telegraph poles will      
explain all that has just been said4    
,water in large quantity or widely      
diffused is a fair conductor4           
,therefore1 the glass insulators on the 
telegraph-poles are cup-shaped usually  
on the under side where the pin that    
holds them is inserted1 so that the rain
 may not actually wet this pin1 and thus
 make a water-connection between the    
wire1 glass1 pin1 pole and ground4  ,we 
are accustomed to things that are       
subject to the law of gravity4 ,water   
will run through a pipe that slants     
downward4 ,it will pass through a pipe  
that slants upward only by being pushed4
 ,but electricity1 in its far journeys  
over wires1 is not subject to gravity4  
,it goes indifferently in any direction1
 asking only a conductor to carry it4   
,there is also a trait called inertia2  
that property of all matter by which it 
tends when at rest to remain so1 and    
when in motion to continue in motion1   

which we meet at every step we take in  
the material world4 ,electricity is     
again an exception4 ,it knows neither   
gravity1 nor inertia1 nor material      
volume1 nor space4 ,it cannot be        
contained or weighed4 ,nothing holds it 
in any ordinary sense4 ,it is difficult 
to express in words the peculiar        
qualities that caused the early         
experimenters to believe it had a soul4 
,it is never idle1 and in its ceaseless 
journeyings it makes choice of its path 
by a conclusion that is unerring and    
instantaneous4  ,we find that it is the 
constant endeavor of electricity to     
equalize its quantities and its two     
qualities1 in all substances that are   
near it that are capable of containing  
it4 ,to this end1 seemingly by definite 
intention1 it is found on the outsides  
of things containing it4 ,it gathers on 
the surfaces of all conductors4 ,if     
there are knobs or points it will be    
found in them1 ready to leap off4 ,when 
any electrified body is approached by a 

conductor1 the fluid will gather on the 
side where the approach is made4 ,if in 
any conductor the current is weak1 very 
little of it1 if any1 will go off into  
the conductor before actual contact is  
made4 ,if it is strong1 it will often   
leap across the space with a spark4 ,one
 body may be charged with positive1 and 
another with negative1 electricity4     
,there is then a disposition to equalize
 that cannot be easily repressed4 ,the  
positive and the negative will assume   
their dual functions1 their existence   
together1 in spite of obstacles4 ,so as 
to quantity4 ,that which has most cannot
 be restrained from imparting to that   
which has less4 ,the demonstration of   
these facts belongs to the field of     
experimental1 or laboratory1            
electricity4 ,the most common of the    
visible experiments is on a vast scale4 
,it is the thunder-storm4 ,mother ,earth
 is the great depository of the fluid4  
,the heavy clouds1 as they gather1 are  
likewise full4 ,across the space that   

lies between the exchange takes         
place--the lightning-flash4  ,in the    
preceding chapter ,i have hastily       
alluded to the phenomenon known as the  
key to electricity as a utilitarian     
science2 a means of material usefulness4
 ,these uses are all made possible under
 the laws of what we term ,,induction4  
,to comprehend this remarkable feature  
of electric action1 it must first be    
understood that all electrical phenomena
 occur in what has been termed an       
,electrical ,field ,this field may be   
illustrated simply4 ,a wire through     
which a current is passing is always    
surrounded by a region of attractive    
force4 ,it is scientifically imagined to
 exist in the form of rings around the  
wire4 ,in this field lie what are termed
 lines of force4 ,the law as stated is  
that the lines in which the magnetism   
produced by electricity acts are always 
at right angles with the direction in   
which the current is passing4 ,let us   
put this in ordinary phrase1 and say    

that in a wire through which a current  
is passing there is a magnetic          
attraction1 and that the pull is always 
straight toward the wire4 ,this         
magnetism in a wire1 when it is doubled 
up and multiplied sufficiently1 has     
strong powers of attraction4 ,this      
multiplying is accomplished by winding  
the wire into a compact coil and passing
 a current through it4 ,if one should   
wind insulated wire around a core1 or   
cylinder1 and should then pull out the  
cylinder and attach the two ends of the 
wire to the opposite poles of a battery1
 when the current passed through the    
coil the hollow interior of it would be 
a strong magnetic field4 ,the air inside
 might be said to be a magnet1 though if
 there were no air there1 and the coil  
were under the exhausted receiver of an 
air-pump1 the effect would be the same1 
and the vacuum would be magnetized4 ,a  
piece of iron inserted where the core   
was1 would instantly become a magnet1   
and when the insulated wire is wound    

around a soft iron core1 and the core is
 left in place1 we have at once what is 
known as an ,electro-,magnet4  ,the wire
 windings of an electro-magnet are      
always insulated2 wound with a          
non-conductor1 like silk or cotton2 so  
that the coils may not touch each other 
in the winding and thus permit the      
current to run off through contact by   
the easiest way1 and cut across and     
leave most of the coil without a        
current4 ,for it may as well be stated  
now that no matter how good a conductor 
a wire may be1 two qualities of it cause
 what is called resistance--the current 
does not pass so easily4 ,these two     
qualities are thinness and length4 ,the 
current will not traverse all the length
 of a long coil if it can pass straight 
through the same mass1 and it is made to
 go the long way by keeping the wires   
from touching each other--preventing    
contact1 and lessening the opportunity  
to jump off which electricity is always 
looking for4  ,when this coil is wound  

in layers1 like the thread upon a spool1
 it increases the intensity of the      
magnetism in the core by as many times  
as there are coils1 up to a certain     
point4 ,if the core is merely soft iron1
 and not steel1 it becomes magnetized   
instantly1 as stated1 and will draw     
another piece of iron to it with a snap1
 and hold it there as long as there is a
 current passing through the coil4 ,but 
as instantly1 when the current is       
stopped1 this soft iron core ceases to  
be a magnet1 and becomes as it was      
before--an inert and ordinary piece of  
iron4 ,what has just been described is  
always1 in some form1 one of the        
indispensable parts of the              
electromagnetic machines used in        
industrial electricity1 and in all of   
them except the appliances of electric  
lighting1 and even in that case it is   
indispensable in producing the current  
which consumes the points of the carbon1
 or heats the filament to a white glow4 
,the current may traverse the wire for a

 hundred miles to reach this little     
coil4 ,but1 instantly1 at a touch a     
hundred miles away that forms a contact1
 there is a continuous circuit2 the core
 becomes a magnet1 and the piece of iron
 near it is drawn suddenly to it4       
,remove the distant finger from the     
button1 the contact is broken1 and the  
piece of iron immediately falls away    
again4 ,it is the wonder of the         
production of instant movement at any   
distance1 without any movement of any   
connecting part4 ,it is a mysterious and
 incredible transmission of force not   
included among human possibilities forty
 years ago4 ,it is now common1 old1     
familiar4 ,conceive of its              
possibilities1 of its annihilation of   
time and space1 of its distant control1 
and of that which it is made to mean and
 represent in the spelled-out words of  
language1 and it still remains one of   
the wonders of the world3 the ,electric 
,telegraph4         99       99       99
       99       99  ,,magnets ,,and     

,,magnetism4--,having described a magnet
 that is made and unmade at will1 it may
 be appropriate to describe magnets     
generally4 ,the ordinary1 permanent     
magnet1 natural or artificial1 has      
little place in the arts4 ,it cannot be 
controlled4 ,in common phrase1 it cannot
 be made to let go at will4 ,the        
greatest value of magnetism1 as         
connected with electricity1 consists in 
the fact of the intimate relationship of
 the two4 ,a magnet may be made at will 
with the electric current1 as described 
above4 ,a little later we shall see how 
the process may be reversed1 and the    
magnet be made to produce the most      
powerful current known1 and yet owe its 
magnetism to the same current4  ,the    
word ,magnet comes from the country of  
,magnesia1 where loadstone 7magnetic    
iron ore7 seems first to have been      
found4 ,the artificial magnet1 as made  
and used in early experiments and still 
common as a toy or as a piece in some   
electrical appliances1 is a piece of    

fine steel1 of hard temper1 which has   
been magnetized1 usually by having had a
 current passed through or around it1   
and sometimes by contact with another   
magnet4 ,for the singular property of a 
magnet is that it may continually impart
 its quality1 yet never lose any of its 
own4 ,steel alone1 of all the metals1   
has the decided quality of retaining its
 property of being a magnet4 ,a bar     
magnet is a straight piece of steel     
magnetized4 ,a horseshoe magnet is a bar
 magnet bent into the form of the letter
 ,u4  ,every magnet has two poles--the  
positive1 or ,north pole1 and the       
negative1 or ,south pole4 ,if any       
magnet1 of any size1 and having as one  
piece two poles only1 be cut into two1  
or a hundred pieces1 each separate piece
 will be like the original magnet and   
have its two poles4 ,the law is         
arbitrary and invariable under all      
circumstances1 and is a law of nature1  
as unexplainable and as invariable as   
any in that mysterious code4 ,all bar   

magnets1 when suspended by their        
centers1 turn their ends to the ,north  
and ,south1 a familiar example of this  
being the ordinary compass4 ,but in     
magnetism1 like repels like4 ,the world 
is a huge magnet4 ,the pole of the      
magnet which points to the ,north is not
 the ,north pole of the needle as we    
regard it1 but the opposite1 the ,south4
  ,no one can explain precisely why     
iron1 the purer and softer the better1  
becomes a powerful and effective magnet 
under the influence of the current1 and 
instantly loses that character when the 
current ceases1 and why steel1 the purer
 and harder the better1 at first rejects
 the influence1 and comes slowly under  
it1 but afterwards retains it           
permanently4 ,iron and steel are the    
magnetic metals1 but there is a         
considerable list of metals not magnetic
 that are better than they as conductors
 of the electric current4 ,in a certain 
sense they are also the electric metals4
 ,a ,dynamo1 or ,motor1 made of brass or

 copper entirely would be impossible4   
,all the phenomena of combined magnetism
 and electricity1 all that goes to make 
up the field of industrial electric     
action1 would be impossible without the 
indispensable of ordinary iron1 and for 
the sole reason that it possesses the   
peculiar qualities1 the affinities1     
described4         99       99       99 
99       99  ,there is now an           
understanding of the electro-magnet1    
with some idea of the part it may be    
made to play in the movement of pieces1 
parts1 and machines in which it is an   
essential4 ,it has been explained how   
soft iron becomes a magnet1 not         
necessarily by any actual contact with  
any other magnet1 or by touching or     
rubbing1 but by being placed in an      
electric field4 ,it acquired its        
magnetism by induction2 by drawing in   
7since that is the meaning of the term7 
the electricity that was around it4 ,but
 induction has a still wider field1 and 
other characteristics than this alone4  

,some distinct idea of these may be     
obtained by supposing a simple case1 in 
which ,i shall ask the reader to follow 
me4  ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,theory  
,,of ,,induction  ,let us imagine a wire
 to be stretched horizontally for a     
little space1 and its two ends to be    
attached to the two poles of an ordinary
 battery so that a current may pass     
through it4 ,another wire is stretched  
beside the first1 not touching it1 and  
not connected with any source of        
electricity4 ,now1 if a current is      
passed through the first wire a current 
will also show in the second wire1      
passing in an opposite direction from   
the first wire's current4 ,but this     
current in the second wire does not     
continue4 ,it is a momentary impulse1   
existing only at the moment of the first
 passing of the current through the wire
 attached to the poles of the battery4  
,after this first instantaneous throb   
there is nothing more4 ,but now cut off 
the current in the first wire1 and the  

second wire will show another impulse1  
this time in the same direction with the
 current in the first wire4 ,then it is 
all over again1 and there is nothing    
more4 ,the first of these wires and     
currents1 the one attached to the       
battery poles1 is called the ,primary4  
,the second unattached wire1 with its   
impulses1 is called the ,secondary4     
,let us now imagine the primary to be   
attached to the battery-poles           
permanently4 ,we will not make or break 
the circuit1 and we can still produce   
currents1 impulses1 in the secondary4   
,let us imagine the primary to be       
brought nearer to the secondary1 and    
again moved away from it1 the current   
passing all the time through it4 ,every 
time it is moved nearer1 an impulse will
 be generated in the secondary which    
will be opposite in direction to the    
current in the primary4 ,every time it  
is moved away again1 an impulse in the  
secondary will be in the same direction 
as the primary current4 ,so long1 as    

before1 as the primary wire is quiet1   
there will be no secondary current at   
all4  ,there is still a third effect4   
,if the current in the primary be       
increased or diminished we shall have   
impulses in the secondary4  ,this is a  
supposed case1 to render the facts1 the 
laws of induction1 clear to the         
understanding4 ,the experiment might    
actually be performed if an instrument  
sufficiently delicate were attached to  
the terminals of the secondary to make  
the impulses visible4 ,the following    
facts are deduced from it in regard to  
all induced currents4 ,they are the     
primary laws of induction3--  ,a current
 which begins1 which approaches1 or     
which increases in strength in the      
primary1 induces1 with these movements  
or conditions1 a momentary current in   
the opposite direction in the secondary4
  ,a current which stops1 which retires1
 or which decreases in strength in the  
primary1 induces a momentary current in 
the same direction with the current in  

the primary4  ,to make the results of   
induction effective in practice1 we must
 have great length of wire1 and to this 
end1 as in the case of the              
electro-magnet1 we will adopt the spool 
form4 ,we will suppose two wires1       
insulated so as to keep them from       
actually touching1 held together side by
 side1 and wound upon a core in several 
layers4 ,there will then be two wires in
 the coil1 and the opposite ends of one 
of these wires we will attach to the    
poles of a battery1 and send a current  
through the coil4 ,this would then be   
the primary1 and the other would be the 
secondary1 as described above4 ,but1    
since the power and efficiency of an    
induced current depends upon the length 
of the secondary wire that is exposed to
 the influence of the current carried by
 the primary1 we fix two separate coils1
 one small enough to slip inside of the 
other4 ,this smaller1 inner coil is made
 with coarser wire than the outer1 and  
the latter has an immense length of     

finer wire4 ,the current is passed      
through the smaller1 inside coil1 and   
each time that it is stopped1 or        
started1 there will be an impulse1 and a
 very strong one1 through the outer--the
 secondary coil4 ,leave the current     
uninterrupted1 and move the outer coil1 
or the inner one1 back and forth1 and   
the same series of strong impulses will 
be observed in the coil that has no     
connection with any source of           
electricity4  ,what ,i have just        
described as an illustration of the laws
 governing the production of induced    
currents1 is1 in fact1 what is known as 
the ,induction ,coil4 ,in the old times 
of a quarter of a century ago it was    
extensively used as an illustrator of   
the power of the electric current4      
,sometimes the outer coil contained     
fifty miles of wire1 and the spark1 a   
close imitation of a flash of lightning1
 would pass between the terminals of the
 secondary coil held apart for a        
distance of several feet1 and would     

pierce sheets of plate glass three      
inches thick4 ,before the days of       
practical electric lighting the         
induction-coil was used for the         
simultaneous lighting of the gas-jets in
 public buildings1 and is still so used 
to a limited extent4 ,its description is
 introduced here as an illustration of  
the laws of induction which the reader  
will find applied hereafter in newer and
 more effective ways4 ,the commonest    
instance now of the use of the          
induction-coil is in the very frequent  
small machine known as a medical        
battery4 ,there must be a means of      
making and breaking the current 7the    
circuit7 as described above4 ,this1 in  
the medical battery1 is automatic1 and  
it is that which produces the familiar  
buzzing sound4 ,the mechanism is easily 
understood upon examination4         99 
99       99       99       99  ,at some 
risk of tediousness with those who have 
already made an examination of          
elementary electricity1 ,i have now     

endeavored to convey to the reader a    
clear idea of 7#a71 what electricity is1
 so far as known4 7#b7 ,of how the      
current is conducted1 and its influence 
in the field surrounding the conductor4 
7#c7 ,the nature of the induced current1
 and the manner in which it is produced4
 ,the sum of the information so far may 
be stated in other words to be how to   
make an electromagnet1 and how to       
produce an induced current4 ,such       
information has an end in view4 ,a      
knowledge of these two items1 an        
understanding of the details1 will be   
found1 collectively or separately1 to   
underlie an understanding of all the    
machines and appliances of modern       
electricity1 and in all probability1 of 
all those that are yet to come4  ,but in
 the prominent field of electric        
lighting 7to which presently we shall   
come71 there is still another principle 
involved1 and this requires some        
explanation 7as well given here as      
elsewhere7 of the current theory as to  

what electricity is4 ,footnote3 ,there  
are several schools among scientists1   
those who pursue pure science1          
irrespective of practical applications1 
and who are rather disposed to narrow   
the term to include that field alone1   
that are divided among themselves upon  
the question of what electricity is4    
,the ,substantialists believe that it is
 a kind of matter4 ,others deny that1   
and insist that it is a form of ,energy1
 on which point there can be no serious 
question4 ,still others reject both     
these views4 ,tesla has said that       
nothing stands in the way of our calling
 electricity 'ether associated with     
matter1 or bound ether4' ,professor     
,lodge says it is a form1 or rather a   
mode of manifestation1 of the ether ,the
 question is still in dispute whether we
 have only one electricity or two       
opposite electricities4 ,the great field
 of chemistry enters into the discussion
 as perhaps having the solution of the  
question within its possibilities4 ,the 

practical electrician acts upon facts   
which he knows are true without knowing 
their cause2 empirically2 and so far    
adheres to the molecular hypothesis4    
,the demonstrations and experiments of  
,tesla so far produce only new theories1
 or demonstrate the fallacies of the    
old1 but give us nothing absolute4      
,nevertheless1 under his investigations1
 the possibilities of the near future   
are widely extended4 ,by means of       
currents alternating with very high     
frequency1 he has succeeded in passing  
by induction1 through the glass of #a   
lamp1 energy sufficient to keep a       
filament in a state of incandescence    
without the use of any connecting wires4
 ,he has even lighted a room by         
producing in it such a condition that an
 illuminating appliance may be placed   
anywhere and lighted without being      
electrically connected with anything4   
,he has produced the required condition 
by creating in the room a powerful      
electrostatic field alternating very    

rapidly4 ,he suspends two sheets of     
metal1 each connected with one of the   
terminals of the coil4 ,if an exhausted 
tube is carried anywhere between these  
sheets1 or placed anywhere1 it remains  
always luminous4  ,something of the     
unquestionable possibilities are shown  
in the following quotation from ,nature1
 as expressed in a lecture by ,prof4    
,crookes upon the implied results of    
,tesla's experiments4  ,the extent to   
which this method of illumination may be
 practically available1 experiments     
alone can decide4 ,in any case1 our     
insight into the possibilities of static
 electricity has been extended1 and the 
ordinary electric machine will cease to 
be regarded as a mere toy4  ,alternating
 currents have1 at the best1 a rather   
doubtful reputation4 ,but it follows    
from ,tesla's researches that1 is the   
rapidity of the alternation increases1  
they become not more dangerous but less 
so4 ,it further appears that a true     
flame can now be produced without       

chemical aid--a flame which yields light
 and heat without the consumption of    
material and without any chemical       
process4 ,to this end we require        
improved methods for producing          
excessively frequent alternations and   
enormous potentials4 ,shall we be able  
to obtain these by tapping the ether8   
,if so1 we may view the prospective     
exhaustion of our coal-fields with      
indifference2 we shall at once solve the
 smoke question1 and thus dissolve all  
possible coal rings4  ,electricity seems
 destined to annex the whole field1 not 
merely of optics1 but probably also of  
thermotics4  ,rays of light will not    
pass through a wall1 nor1 as we know    
only too well1 through a dense fog4 ,but
 electrical rays of a foot or two       
wave-length1 of which we have spoken1   
will easily pierce such mediums1 which  
for them will be transparent4  ,another 
tempting field for research1 scarcely   
yet attacked by pioneers1 awaits        
exploration4 ,i allude to the mutual    

action of electricity and life4 ,no     
sound man of science indorses the       
assertion that electricity is life4 nor 
can we even venture to speak of life as 
one of the varieties or manifestations  
of energy4 ,nevertheless1 electricity   
has an important influence upon vital   
phenomena1 and is in turn set in action 
by the living being--animal or          
vegetable4 ,we have electric fishes--one
 of them the prototype of the torpedo of
 modern warfare4 ,there is the electric 
slug which used to be met with in       
gardens and roads about ,hoinsey ,rise2 
there is also an electric centipede4 ,in
 the study of such facts and such       
relations the scientific electrician has
 before him an almost infinite field of 
inquiry4  ,the slower vibrations to     
which ,i have referred reveal the       
bewildering possibility of telegraphy   
without wires1 posts1 cables1 or any of 
our present costly appliances4 ,it is   
vain to attempt to picture the marvels  
of the future4 ,progress1 as ,dean      

,swift observed1 may be too fast for    
endurance4 ,as to this1 all we may be   
said to know1 as has been remarked1 is  
that it is one of the forms of energy1  
and its manifestations are in the form  
of motion of the minute and invisible   
atoms of which it is composed4 ,this    
movement is instantaneously communicated
 along the length of a conductor4 ,there
 must1 of course1 be an end to this     
process in theory1 because all the      
molecules once moved must return to     
rest1 or to a former condition1 before  
being moved again4 ,therefore it is     
necessary to add that when the motion of
 the last molecule has been absorbed by 
some apparatus for applying it to       
utility1 the last particles1 atoms1     
molecules1 are restored to rest1 and may
 again receive motion from infringing   
particles1 and this transmission of     
energy along a conductor is             
continuous--continually absorbed and    
repeated4 ,this is dynamic electricity2 
not differing in kind1 in essence1 from 

any other1 but only in application4  ,if
 the conductor is entirely insulated1 so
 that no molecular movements can be     
communicated by it to contiguous bodies1
 all its particles become energized1 and
 remain so as long as the conductor is  
attached to a source of electricity4 ,in
 such a case an additional charge is    
required only when some of the original 
charge is taken away1 escapes4 ,this is 
,static electricity2 the same as the    
other1 but in theory differing in       
application4  ,the molecular theory is1 
unquestionably1 tenable under present   
conditions4 ,it is that to which science
 has attained in its inquiries to the   
present date4 ,the electric light is    
scarcely explainable upon any other     
hypothesis4 ,the remaining conclusions  
may be left in abeyance1 and without    
argument4  ,science began with static   
electricity1 so called1 because its     
sources were more readily and easily    
discovered in the course of scientific  
accidents1 as in the original discovery 

of the property of rubbed amber1 etc41  
and the long course of investigations   
that were suggested by that antique1    
accidental discovery4 ,what we know as  
the dynamic branch of the subject was   
created by the investigations of        
,faraday2 induction was its mother4 ,it 
is the practically important branch1 but
 its investigation required the         
invention of machinery to perform its   
necessary operations4 ,between the two  
branches the sole difference--a         
difference that may be said not actually
 to exist--is in quantity and pressure4 
,to the department of static electricity
 all those industrial appliances first  
known belong1 as the telegraph1         
electro-plating1 etc4 ,i shall first    
consider this class of appliances and   
machines4 ,the most important of the    
class is  ,illustration  ,,the          
,,electric ,,telegraph4--,the word is   
,greek1 meaning1 literally1 to write    
from a distance4 ,but long since1 and   
before ,morse's invention1 it had come  

to mean the giving of any information1  
by any means1 from afar4 ,the existence 
of telegraphs1 not electric1 is as old  
as the need of them4 ,the idea of       
quickness1 speedy delivery1 is involved4
 ,if time is not an object1 men may go  
or send4 ,the means used in             
telegraphing1 in ancient and modern     
times1 have been sound and sight4       
,anything that can be expressed so as to
 be read at a distance1 and that conveys
 a meaning1 is a telegram4 ,footnote3   
,this word is of ,american coinage1 and 
first appeared in the ,albany ,evening  
,journal1 in #aheb4 ,it avoids the use  
of two words1 as ,telegraphic ,message1 
or ,telegraphic ,dispatch1 and the      
ungrammatical use of ,telegraph1 for a  
message by telegraph4 ,the new word was 
at once adopted4 ,our plains ,indians   
used columns of smoke1 or fires1 and are
 the actual inventors of the heliograph1
 now so called1 though formerly meaning 
the making of a picture by the aid of   
the sun--photography4 ,the vessels of a 

squadron at sea have long used          
telegraphic signals4 ,some of the       
celebrated sentences of our history have
 been written by visual signals1 such as
 ,hold the fort1 for ,i am coming1      
,don't give up the ship1 etc4 ,order of 
showing1 positions1 and colors are      
arbitrarily made to mean certain words4 
,the sinking of the ,victoria in #ahic1 
was brought about by the orders conveyed
 by marine signals4 ,bells and guns     
signal by sound4 ,so does the modern    
electric telegraph1 contrary to original
 design4 ,it is all telegraphy1 but it  
all required an agreed and very limited 
code1 and comparative nearness4 ,none of
 the means in ancient use were available
 for the multifarious uses of modern    
commerce4  ,as soon as it was known that
 electricity could be sent long         
distances over wires1 human genius began
 to contrive a way of using it as a     
means of conveying definite             
intelligence4 ,the first idea of the    
kind was attempted to be put into effect

 in #aggd4 ,this was1 however1 before   
the discovery of the electro-magnet     
7about #ahjj71 or even the ,galvanic    
battery1 and it was seriously proposed  
to have as many wires as there were     
letters2 each wire to have a frictional 
battery for generating electricity at   
one end of the circuit1 and a pith-ball 
electroscope at the other4 ,the modern  
reader may smile at the idea of the     
hurried sender of a message taking a    
piece of cat-skin1 or his silk          
handkerchief1 and rubbing up the        
successive letter-balls of glass or     
sulphur until he had spelled out his    
telegram4 ,later a man named ,dyer1 of  
,new ,york1 invented a system of sending
 messages by a single wire1 and of      
causing a record to be made at the      
receiving office by means of a point    
passing over litmus paper1 which the    
current was to mark by chemical action1 
the paper passing over a roller or drum 
during the operation4 ,the battery for  
this arrangement was also frictional4   

,they knew of no other4 ,then came the  
deflected-needle telegraph1 first       
suggested by ,ampre1 and a few such     
lines were constructed1 and to some     
extent operated4 ,in one of the original
 telegraph lines the wires were bound in
 hemp and laid in pipes on the surface  
of the ground4 ,the expedient of poles  
and atmospheric insulation was not      
thought of until it was adopted as a    
last resort during the construction of  
,morse's first line between ,washington 
and ,baltimore4  ,in the year #ahcb1 an 
,american named ,samuel ,f4 ,b4 ,morse  
was making a voyage home from ,havre to 
,new ,york in the sailing packet ,sully4
 ,he was an educated man1 a graduate of 
,yale1 and an artist1 being the holder  
of a gold medal awarded him for his     
first work in sculpture1 and no want of 
success drove him to other fields4 ,but 
during this tedious voyage of the old   
times in a sailing vessel he seems to   
have conceived the idea which           
thenceforth occupied his life4 ,it was  

the beginning of the present ,electric  
,telegraph4 ,during this same voyage he 
embodied his notions in some drawings1  
and they were the beginnings of         
vicissitudes among the most             
long-continued and trying for which life
 affords any opportunity4 ,he abandoned 
his studies4 ,he paid attention to no   
other interest4 ,he passed years in     
silent and lonesome endeavors that      
seemed to all others useless4 ,he       
subjected himself to the reproaches of  
all his friends1 lost the confidence of 
business men1 gained the reputation of  
being a monomaniac1 and was finally     
given over to the following of devices  
deemed the most useless and unpromising 
that up to that time had occupied the   
mind of any man4  ,the rank and file of 
humanity had no definite idea of the    
plan1 or of the results that would      
follow if it were successful4 ,in       
reality no one cared4 ,it was ,morse's  
enterprise exclusively--a crank's fad   
alone4 ,there has been no period in the 

history of society when the public1 as a
 body1 was interested in any great      
change in the systems to which it was   
accustomed4 ,there is always enmity     
against an improver4 ,in reality1 the   
question of how much money ,morse should
 make by inventing the electric         
telegraph was the question of least     
importance4 ,yet it was regarded as the 
only one4 ,he is dead4 ,his profits have
 gone into the mass1 his honors have    
become international4 ,the patents have 
long expired4 ,the public1 the entire   
world1 are long since the beneficiaries1
 and the benefits continue to be        
inconceivably vast4 ,nothing in all     
history exceeds in moral importance the 
invention of the telegraph except the   
invention of printing with movable      
types4  ,illustration3 ,,an             
,,electro-,,magnet ,,of ,,morse',s      
,,time4  ,after eight years of waiting1 
and the repeated instruction of the     
entire ,congress of the ,united ,states 
in the art of telegraphy1 that body was 

finally induced to make an appropriation
 of thirty thousand dollars to be       
expended in the construction of an      
experimental line between ,washington   
and ,baltimore4 ,and now begins the     
actual strangeness of the story of the  
,telegraph4 ,after many years of toil1  
,morse still had learned nothing of the 
efficient construction of an            
electro-magnet4 ,the magnet which he    
attempted to use unchanged was after the
 pattern of the first one ever made--a  
bent ,u-shaped bar1 around which were a 
few turns of wire not insulated4 ,the   
bar was varnished for insulation1 and   
the turns of wire were so few that they 
did not touch each other4 ,the apparatus
 would not work at a distance of more   
than a few feet1 and not invariably     
then4 ,professor ,leonard ,d4 ,gale     
suggested the cause of the difficulty as
 being in the sparseness of the coils of
 wire on the magnet and the use of a    
single-cell battery4 ,he furnished an   
electro-magnet and battery out of his   

own belongings1 with which the          
efficiency of the contrivance was       
greatly increased4 ,the only insulated  
wire then known was bonnet-wire1 used by
 milliners for shaping the immense      
flaring bonnets worn by our             
grandmothers1 and when it finally came  
to constructing the instruments of the  
first telegraphic system the entire     
stock of ,new ,york was exhausted4 ,the 
immense stocks of electrical supplies   
now available for all purposes was then1
 and for many years afterwards1 unknown4
 ,previous to the investigations of     
,professor ,henry1 in #ahcj1 only the   
theory of causing a core of soft iron to
 become a magnet was known1 and the     
actual magnet1 as we make it1 had not   
been made4 ,morse1 in his beginnings1   
had not money enough to employ a        
competent mechanic1 and was himself     
possessed of but scant mechanical skill 
or knowledge of mechanical results4     
,persistency was the quality by which he
 succeeded4  ,illustration3 ,,diagram   

,,of ,,morse',s ,,instrument1 #ahcj1    
,,with ,,its ,,writing4  ,the battery   
used first by ,morse1 as stated1 was a  
single cell4 ,the one made later by his 
partner1 ,alfred ,vail1 the real author 
of all the workable features of the     
,morse telegraph1 and of every feature  
which identifies it with the telegraph  
of the present1 was a rectangular wooden
 box divided into eight compartments1   
and coated inside with beeswax so that  
it might resist the action of acids4    
,the telegraphic instrument as made by  
,morse was a rectangular frame of wood1 
now in the cabinet of the ,western      
,union ,telegraph ,company1 at ,new     
,york1 which was intended to be clamped 
to the edge of a table when in use4 ,he 
knew nothing of the splendid invention  
since known as the ,morse ,alphabet1 and
 the spelling of words in a telegram was
 not intended by him4 ,his complicated  
system1 as described in his caveat filed
 by him in #ahcg1 consisted in a system 
of signs1 by which numbers1 and         

consequently words and sentences1 were  
to be indicated4 ,there was then a set  
of type arranged to regulate and        
communicate the signs1 and rules in     
which to set this type4 ,there was a    
means for regulating the movement       
forward of the rule containing the      
types4 ,this was a crank to be turned by
 the hand4 ,the marking or writing      
apparatus at the receiving instrument   
was a pendulum arranged to be swung     
across the slip of paper1 as it was     
unwound from the drum1 making a zig-zag 
mark the points of which were to be     
counted1 a certain number of points     
meaning a certain numeral1 which numeral
 meant a word4 ,a separate type was used
 to represent each numeral1 having a    
corresponding number of projections or  
teeth4 ,a telegraphic dictionary was    
necessary1 and one was at great pains   
prepared by ,morse4 ,his process was1   
therefore1 to translate the message to  
be sent into the numerals corresponding 
to the words used1 to set the types     

corresponding to those numerals in the  
rule1 and then to pass the rule through 
the appliance arranged for the purpose  
in connection with the electric current4
 ,the receiver must then translate the  
message by reference to the telegraphic 
dictionary1 and write out the words for 
the person to whom the message was sent4
 ,this was all changed by ,vail1 who    
invented the dot-and-dash alphabet1 and 
modified the mechanical action of the   
instrument necessary for its use4 ,the  
arrangement of a steel embossing-point  
working upon a grooved roller--a radical
 difference--was a portion of this      
change4 ,the invention of the axial     
magnet1 also ,vail's1 was another4      
,morse had regarded a mechanical        
arrangement for transmitting signals as 
necessary4 ,vail1 in the practice of the
 first line1 grew accustomed to sending 
messages by dipping the end of the wire 
in the mercury cup1--the beginning of   
the present transmitting instrument1    
which is also his invention--and        

,morse's port-rule1 types1 and other    
complicated arrangements1 went into the 
scrap-heap4  ,illustration3 ,,modern    
,,transmitter4  ,yet there were some    
strange things still left4 ,the         
receiving relay weighed #ahe pounds4 ,an
 equally efficient modern one need not  
weigh more than half a pound4 ,morse had
 intended to make a recording telegraph 
distinctively2 it was to his mind its   
chiefest value4 ,almost in the beginning
 it ceased to be such1 and the recording
 portion of the instrument has for many 
years been unknown in a telegraph       
office1 being replaced by the sounder4  
,this was also the invention of ,vail4  
,the more expert of the operators of the
 first line discovered that it was      
possible to read the signals by the     
sound made by the armature lever4 ,in   
vain did the managers prohibit it as    
unauthorized4 ,the practice was still   
carried on wherever it could be without 
detection4 ,morse was uncompromising in 
his opposition to the innovation4 ,the  

wonderful alphabet of the telegraph1 the
 most valuable of the separate          
inventions that make up the system1 was 
not his conception4 ,the invention of   
this alphabetical code1 based on the    
elements of time and space1 has never   
met with the appreciation it has        
deserved4 ,it has been found applicable 
everywhere4 ,flashes of light1 the      
raising and lowering of a flag1 the     
tapping of a finger1 the long and short 
blasts of a steam whistle1 spell out the
 words of the ,english language as      
readily as does the sounder in a        
telegraph-office4 ,it may be interpreted
 by sight1 touch1 taste1 hearing4 ,with 
a wire1 a battery and ,vail's alphabet1 
telegraphy is entirely possible without 
any other appliances4  ,illustration3   
,,modern ,,sounder4  ,a brief sketch of 
the difficulties attending the making of
 the first practical telegraph line will
 be interesting as showing how much and 
how little men knew of practical        
electricity in #ahdc4 ,footnote3 ,there 

was no possibility of their knowing     
more1 notwithstanding that1 viewed from 
the present1 their inexperienced        
struggles seem almost pathetic4 ,so1    
also1 do the ideas of ,galvani and the  
experiments and conclusions of all      
except ,franklin1 until we come to      
,faraday4 ,it is one of the features of 
the time in which we live that1         
regardless of age1 we are all scholars  
of a new school in which mere diligence 
and behavior are not rewarded1 and in   
which it is somewhat imperative that we 
should keep up with our class in an     
understanding of what are now the facts 
of daily life1 wonders though they were 
in the days of our youth4 ,to begin     
with1 it was a metallic circuit2 that   
is1 two wires were to be used instead of
 one wire and a ground connection4 ,they
 knew nothing of this last4 ,vail       
discovered and used it before the line  
was finished4 ,the two wires1 insulated1
 were inclosed in a pipe1 lead          
presumably1 and the pipe was placed in  

the ground4 ,ezra ,cornell1 afterwards  
the founder of ,cornell ,university1 had
 been engaged in the manufacture and    
sale of a patent plow1 and undertook to 
make a pipe-laying machine for this new 
telegraph line4 ,after the work had been
 begun ,vail tested and united the      
conductors as each section was laid4    
,when ten miles were laid the           
insulation1 which had been growing      
weaker1 failed altogether4 ,there was no
 current4 ,probably every schoolboy now 
knows what the trouble was4 ,the earth  
had stolen the current and absorbed it4 
,the modern boy would simply remark     
,induction1 and turn his attention to   
some efficient remedy4 ,then1 there was 
consternation4 ,cornell dexterously     
managed to break the pipe-laying        
machine1 so as to furnish a plausible   
excuse to the newspapers and such public
 as there may be said to have been      
before there was any telegraph line4    
,days were spent in consultation at the 
,relay ,house1 and in finding the cause 

of the difficulty and the remedy4 ,of   
the congressional appropriation nearly  
all had been spent4 ,the interested     
parties even quarreled1 as mere men will
 under such circumstances1 and the want 
of a little knowledge which is now      
elementary about electricity came near  
wrecking forever an enterprise whose    
vast importance could not be1 and was   
not then1 even approximately measured4  
,illustration3 ,,alfred ,,vail4         
,finally1 after some weeks delay1 it was
 decided to introduce what has become   
the most familiar feature of the        
landscape of civilization1 and string   
the wires on poles4 ,there is little    
need to follow the enterprise further4  
,morse stayed with one instrument in the
 ,capitol at ,washington1 and ,vail     
carried another with him at the end of  
the line4 ,already the type-and-rule and
 all the symbols and dictionaries had   
been discarded1 and the dot-and-dash    
alphabet was substituted4 ,on ,april    
#bc;d1 #ahdd1 ,vail substituted the     

earth for the metallic circuit as an    
experiment1 and that great step both in 
knowledge and in practice was taken4    
,within an incredibly brief space the   
,morse ,electric ,telegraph had spread  
all over the world4 ,no man's triumph   
was ever more complete4 ,he passed to   
those riches and honors that must have  
been to him almost as a fulfilled dream4
 ,in ,europe his progresses were like   
those of a monarch4 ,he was made a      
member of almost all of the learned     
societies of the world1 and on his      
breast glittered the medals and orders  
that are the insignia of human          
greatness4 ,a congress of               
representatives of ten of the           
governments of ,europe met in ,paris in 
#aheh1 and it was unanimously decided   
that the sum of four hundred thousand   
francs--about a hundred thousand        
dollars--should be presented to him4 ,he
 died in ,new ,york in #ahgb4           
,illustration3 ,,prof4 ,,henry',s       
,,electromagnet ,,and ,,armature  ,yet  

not a single feature of the invention of
 ,morse1 as formulated in his caveat and
 described in his original patent1 is to
 be found among the essentials of modern
 telegraphy4 ,they had mostly been      
abandoned before the first line had been
 completed1 and the arrangements of his 
associate1 ,vail1 were substituted4     
,professor ,joseph ,henry had1 in #ahcb1
 constructed an electromagnetic         
telegraph whose signals were made by    
sound1 as all signals now are in the    
so-called ,morse system4 ,he hung a     
bar-magnet on a pivot in its center as a
 compass-needle is hung4 ,he wound a    
,u-shaped piece of soft iron with       
insulated wire1 and made it an          
electro-magnet1 and placed the north end
 of the magnetized bar between the two  
legs of this electro-magnet4 ,when the  
latter was made a magnet by the current 
the end of the bar thus placed was      
attracted by one leg of the magnet and  
repelled by the other1 and was thus     
caused to swing in a horizontal plane so

 that the opposite end of it struck a   
bell4 ,thus was an electric telegraph   
made as an experimental toy1 and        
fulfilling all the conditions of such an
 one giving the signals by sound1 as the
 modern telegraph does4 ,it lacked one  
thing--the essential4 ,footnote3 ,the   
details of the construction of the      
modern telegraph line are not here      
stated4 ,there are none that change1 in 
principle1 the outline above given4     
,the ,vail telegraphic alphabet had not 
been thought of4 ,had such an idea been 
conceived previously a message could    
have been read as it is read now1 and   
with the toy of ,professor ,henry which 
he abandoned without an idea of its     
utility or of the possibilities of any  
telegraph as we have long known them4   
,morse knew these possibilities4 ,he was
 one of the innumerable eccentrics who  
have been right1 one of the prophets who
 have been in the beginning without     
honor1 not only in respect to their own 
country1 but in respect to their times4 

,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of           
,,telegraph ,,system4     ,,chapter     
,,ii4   ,,the ,,ocean ,,cable4--,the    
remaining department of ,telegraphy is  
embodied in the startling departure from
 ancient ideas of the possible which we 
know as cable telegraphy1 the messages  
by such means being cablegrams4 ,about  
these ocean systems there are many      
features not applying to lines on land1 
though they are intended to perform the 
same functions in the same way1 with the
 same object of conveying intelligence  
in language1 instantly and certainly1   
but under the sea4  ,the marine cables  
are not simple wires4 ,there is in the  
center a strand of usually seven small  
copper wires1 intended as the conductor 
of the current4 ,these1 twisted loosely 
into a small cable1 are surrounded by   
repeated layers of gutta-percha1 which  
is1 in turn1 covered with jute4 ,outside
 of all there is an armor of wires1 and 
the entire cable appears much like any  
other of the wire cables now in common  

use with elevators1 bridges1 and for    
many purposes4 ,in the shallow waters of
 bays and harbors1 where anchors drag   
and the like occurrences take place1 the
 armor of a submarine cable is sometimes
 so heavy as to weigh more than twenty  
tons to the mile4  ,there are peculiar  
difficulties encountered in sending     
messages by an ocean cable1 and some of 
these grow out of the same induction    
whose laws are indispensable in other   
cases4 ,the inner copper core sets up   
induction in the strands of the outer   
armor1 and that again with the          
surrounding water4 ,there is1 again1 a  
species of re-induction affecting the   
core1 so that faint impulses may be     
received at the terminals that were     
never sent by the operators4 ,all of    
these difficulties combined result in   
what electricians term retardation4 ,it 
is one of the departments of telegraphy 
that1 like the unavoidable difficulties 
in all machines and devices1 educates   
men to their special care1 and keeps    

them thinking4 ,it is one of the natural
 features of all the mechanical sciences
 that results in the continual making of
 improvements4  ,the first impression in
 regard to ocean cables would be that   
very strong currents are used in sending
 impulses so far4 ,the opposite is true4
 ,the receiving instrument is not the   
noisy sounder of the land lines4 ,there 
was1 until recently1 a delicate needle  
which swung to and fro with the         
impulses1 and reflected beams of light  
which1 according to their number and the
 space between them spelled out the     
message according to the ,vail          
dot-and-dash alphabet4 ,now1 however1 a 
means still more delicate has been      
devised1 resulting in a faint wavy      
ink-line on a long1 unwinding slip of   
paper1 made by a fountain pen4 ,this    
strange manuscript may be regarded as   
the latest system of writing in the     
world1 having no relationship to the art
 of ,cadmus1 and requiring an expert and
 a special education to decipher it4    

,those faint pulsations1 from a hand    
three thousand miles away across the    
sea1 are the realization of a magic     
incredible4 ,the necromancy and black   
art of all antiquity are childish by    
comparison4 ,they give but faint        
indications of what they often are--the 
messages of love and death2 the         
dictations of statesmanship2 the heralds
 of peace or war2 the orders for the    
disposition of millions of dollars4     
,the story of the laying of the first   
ocean cable is worthy of the telling in 
any language1 but should be especially  
interesting to the ,american boy and    
girl4 ,it is a story of native          
enterprise and persistence2 perhaps the 
most remarkable of them all4  ,the      
earliest ocean telegraph was that laid  
by two men named ,brett1 across the     
,english ,channel4 ,for this cable1 a   
pioneer though crossing only a narrow   
water1 the conservative officials of the
 ,british government refused a charter4 
,in ,august1 #ahej1 they laid a single  

copper wire covered with gutta-percha   
from ,dover in ,england to the coast of 
,france4 ,the first wire was soon       
broken1 and a second was made consisting
 of several strands1 and this last was  
soon imitated in various short reaches  
of water in ,europe4  ,but the ,atlantic
 had always been considered             
unfathomable4 ,no line had ever sounded 
its depths1 and its strong currents had 
invariably swept away the heaviest      
weights before they reached its bed4    
,its great feature1 so far as known1 was
 that strange ocean river first noted   
and described by ,franklin1 and known to
 us as the ,gulf ,stream4 ,in #ahec a   
circumstance occurred which again turned
 the attention of a few men to the      
question of an ,atlantic cable4         
,lieutenant ,berryman1 of the ,navy1    
made a survey of the bottom of the      
,atlantic from ,newfoundland to         
,ireland1 and the wonderful discovery   
was made that the floor of the ocean was
 a vast plain1 not more than two miles  

below the surface1 extending from one   
continent to the other4 ,this plain is  
about four hundred miles wide and       
sixteen hundred long1 and there are no  
currents to disturb the mass of broken  
shells and unknown fishes that lie on   
its oozy surface4 ,it was named the     
,telegraphic ,plateau1 with a view to   
its future use4 ,at either edge of this 
plateau huge mountains1 from four to    
seven thousand feet high1 rise out of   
the depths4 ,there are precipices of    
sheer descent down which the cable now  
hangs4 ,the ,azores and ,bermudas are   
peaks of ocean mountains4 ,the warm     
river known as the ,gulf ,stream1 coming
 northward meets the ice-bergs and melts
 them1 and deposits the shells1 rocks   
and sand they carry on this plain4 ,when
 it was discovered the difficulty in the
 way of an ,atlantic cable seemed no    
longer to exist1 and those who had been 
anxious to engage in the enterprise     
began to bestir themselves4  ,of these  
the most active was the ,american1      

,cyrus ,w4 ,field4 ,he began life as a  
clerk in ,new ,york ,city4 ,when        
thirty-five years old he became engaged 
in the building of a land line of       
telegraph across ,newfoundland1 the     
purpose of which was to transmit news   
brought by a fast line of steamers      
intended to be established1 and the idea
 is said to have occurred to him of     
making a line not only so far1 but      
across the sea4 ,in ,november1 #ahef1 he
 had succeeded in forming a company1 and
 the entire capital1 amounting to       
#cej1jjj pounds1 was subscribed4 ,the   
governments of ,england and the ,united 
,states promised a subsidy to the       
stockholders4 ,the cable was made in    
,england4 ,the ,niagara was assigned by 
the ,united ,states1 and the ,agamemnon 
by ,england1 each attended by smaller   
vessels1 to lay the cable4 ,in ,august1 
#aheg1 the ,niagara left the coast of   
,ireland1 dropping her cable into the   
sea4 ,even when it dropped suddenly down
 the steep escarpment to the great      

plateau the current still flowed4 ,but  
through the carelessness of an assistant
 the cable parted4 ,that was the        
beginning of mishaps4 ,the task was not 
to be so easily done1 and the enterprise
 was postponed until the following year4
  ,that next year was still more        
memorable for triumph and               
disappointment4 ,it was now designed    
that the two vessels should meet in     
mid-ocean1 unite the ends of the cable1 
and sail slowly to opposite shores4     
,there were fearful storms4 ,the huge   
,agamemnon1 overloaded with her half of 
the cable1 was almost lost4 ,but finally
 the spot in the waste and middle of the
 ,atlantic was reached1 the sea was     
still1 and the vessels steamed away from
 each other slowly uncoiling into the   
sea their two halves of the second      
cable4 ,it parted again1 and the two    
ships returned to ,ireland4  ,in ,july  
they again met in mid-ocean4 ,europe and
 ,america were both charitably deriding 
the splendid enterprise4 ,all faith was 

lost4 ,it was known1 to journalism      
especially1 that the cable would never  
be laid and that the enterprise was     
absurd4 ,but it was like the laying of  
the first land line4 ,there was a way to
 do it1 existing in the brains and faith
 of men1 though at first that way was   
not known4 ,from this third meeting the 
two ships again sailed away1 the        
,niagara for ,america1 the ,agamemnon   
for ,valencia ,bay4 ,this time the wire 
did not part1 and on ,august #bith1     
#aheh1 the old world and the new were   
bound together for the first time1 and  
each could read almost the thoughts of  
the other4 ,the queen saluted ,america1 
and the president replied4 ,there were  
salutes of cannon and the ringing of    
bells4 ,but the messages by the cable   
grew indistinct day by day1 and finally 
ceased4 ,the ,atlantic cable had been   
laid1 and--had failed4  ,eight years    
followed1 and the cable lay forgotten at
 the bottom of the sea4 ,the reign of   
peace on earth and good will to men had 

so far failed to come and they were     
years of tumult and bitterness4 ,the    
,union of the ,united ,states was called
 upon to defend its integrity in a great
 war4 ,a bitter enmity grew up between  
us and ,england4 ,the telegraph1 and all
 its persevering projectors1 were almost
 absolutely forgotten4 ,electricians    
declared the project utterly            
impracticable1 and it began1 finally1 to
 be denied that any messages had ever   
crossed the ,atlantic at all1 and ,field
 and his associates were discredited4   
,it was said that the current could not 
be made to pass through so long a       
circuit4 ,new routes were spoken        
of--across ,bering's ,strait1 and       
overland by way of ,siberia--and        
measures began to be taken to carry this
 scheme into effect4  ,amid these       
discouragements1 ,field and his         
associates revived their company1 made a
 new cable1 and provided everything that
 science could then suggest to aid final
 success4 ,this new cable was more      

perfect than any of the former ones1 and
 there was a mammoth side-wheel steamer 
known as the ,great ,eastern1           
unavailable as it proved for the        
ordinary uses of commerce1 and this     
vessel was large enough to carry the    
entire cable in her hold4 ,in ,july1    
#ahfe1 the huge steamer left ,ireland1  
dropping the endless coil into the sea4 
,the same men were engaged in this last 
attempt that had failed in all the      
previous ones4 ,it is one of the most   
memorable instances of perseverance on  
record4 ,but on ,august #fth a flaw     
occurred1 and the cable was being drawn 
up for repairs4 ,the sound of the wheel 
suddenly stopped2 the cable broke and   
sunk into the depths4 ,the ,great       
,eastern returned unsuccessful to her   
port4  ,field was present on board on   
this occasion1 and had been present on  
several similar ones4 ,there was1 so far
 as known1 no record made by him of his 
thoughts4 ,there were now five cables in
 the bed of the ,atlantic1 and each one 

had carried down with it a large sum of 
money1 and a still larger sum of hopes4 
,yet the ,great ,eastern sailed again in
 ,july1 #ahff1 her tanks filled with new
 cable and ,field once more on her      
decks4 ,it was the last1 and the        
successful attempt4 ,the cable sank     
steadily and noiselessly into the sea1  
and on ,july #bfth the steamer sailed   
into ,trinity ,bay4 ,the connection was 
made at ,heart's ,content1 a little ,new
 ,foundland fishing village1 and one for
 this occasion admirably named4 ,then   
the lost cable of #ahfe was found1      
raised and spliced4  ,in these later    
times1 if a flaw should occur1 science  
would locate it1 and go and repair it4  
,even if this were not true1 the fact   
remains that this last cable1 and that  
of #ahfe1 have been carrying their      
messages under the sea for nearly thirty
 years4 ,the lesson is that repeated    
failures do not mean final failure4     
,there is often said to be a malice1 a  
spirit of rebellion1 in inanimate       

things4 ,they refuse to become slaves   
until they are once and for all utterly 
subdued1 and then they are docile       
forever4 ,yet the malice truly lies in  
the inaptitude and inexperience of men4 
,had ,field and his associates known how
 to make and lay an ,atlantic cable in  
the beginning as well as they did in the
 end1 the first one laid would have been
 successful4 ,the years were passed in  
the invention of machinery for laying1  
and in improving the construction of    
each successive cable4 ,many have been  
laid since then1 certainly and without  
failure4 ,men have learned how4         
,footnote3 ,at present the total mileage
 of submarine cables is about #aeb1jjj  
miles1 costing altogether #bjj1jjj1jjj4 
,the length of land wires throughout the
 world is over #b1jjj1jjj miles1 costing
 #bbe1jjj1jjj4 ,the capital invested in 
all lines1 land and sea1 is about       
#ecj1jjj1jjj4  ,thirteen years were     
passed in this succession of toils1     
expenditures1 trials and failures4      

,field crossed the ,atlantic more than  
fifty times in these years1 in pursuit  
of his great idea4 ,at last1 like       
,morse1 he was crowned with wealth1     
success1 medals and honors4 ,he was     
acquainted with all the difficulties4   
,it is now known that he knew through   
them all that an ocean cable could      
finally be laid4  ,,the                 
,,telephone4--,the telegraph had become 
old4 ,all nations had become accustomed 
to its use4 ,more than thirty years had 
elapsed--a long time in the last half of
 the nineteenth century--before mankind 
awoke to a new and startling surprise2  
the telegraph had been made to transmit 
not only language1 but the human voice  
in articulate speech4 ,footnote3 ,it has
 been noted that ,morse's idea was a    
recording telegraph1 that being in his  
mind its most valuable point1 and that  
this idea has long been obsolete4 ,in   
like manner1 when the ,telephone was    
invented there was a general business   
opinion that it was perhaps an          

instrument useful in colleges for       
demonstrating the wonders of            
electricity1 but not useful for         
commercial purposes because it made no  
record4 ,business will always be done in
 black and white was the oracular       
verdict of prominent and experienced    
business men4 ,it may be true1 but a    
little conversation across space has    
been found indispensable4 ,the telephone
 is a remarkable business success4 ,the 
fact first became known in #ahgc1 and   
was the invention of ,alexander ,g4     
,bell1 of ,chicago4  ,illustration3     
,,diagram ,,of ,,telephone4--,,the      
,,blake ,,transmitter4  ,there were     
several1 no one knows how many1 attempts
 to accomplish this remarkable feat     
previous to the success of ,professor   
,bell4 ,one of these was by ,reis1 of   
,frankfort1 in #ahfj4 ,it did not       
embrace any of the most valuable        
principles involved in what we know as  
the telephone1 since it could not       
transmit speech4 ,professor ,bell's     

first operative apparatus was           
accompanied by simultaneous inventions  
by ,gray1 ,edison1 and others4 ,this    
remarkable instance of several of the   
great electricians of the country       
evolving at nearly the same time the    
same principal details of a             
revolutionary invention1 has never been 
fully explained4 ,the first rather crude
 and ineffective arrangements were      
rapidly improved by these men1 and by   
others1 prominent among whom is ,blake1 
whose remarkable transmitter will be    
described presently4 ,the best devices  
of these inventors were finally         
embodied1 and in the resulting          
instrument we have one of the chiefest  
of those modern wonders whose first     
appearance taxed the credulity of       
mankind4 ,footnote3 ,there were1 until a
 recent period1 a line of statements1   
alleged facts and reasonings1 that were 
incredible in proportion to             
intelligence4 ,the occurrences of recent
 times have reversed this rule with     

regard to all things in the domain of   
applied science4 ,it is the ignorant and
 narrow only who are incredulous1 and   
the ears of intelligence are open to    
every sound4 ,all that is not absurd is 
possible1 and all that is possible is   
sure to be accomplished4 ,the telephone1
 as a statement1 was absurd1 but not to 
the men who worked for its              
accomplishment and finally succeeded4   
,the lines grow narrow4 ,it requires now
 a high intelligence to decide even upon
 the fact of absurdity within the domain
 of natural law4  ,in reality the       
telephone is simple in construction4    
,workmen who are not accomplished       
electricians constantly erect1 correct  
and repair the lines and instruments4   
,the machine is not liable to           
derangement4 ,any person may use it the 
first time of trying1 and this use is   
almost universal4 ,yet it is1 from the  
view of any hour in all the past1 an    
incomprehensible mystery4 ,a moment of  
reflection drifts the mind backward and 

renders it almost incredible in the     
present4 ,the human voice1 recognizable1
 in articulate words1 is apparently     
borne for miles1 now even for some      
hundreds of miles1 upon an attenuated   
wire which hangs silent in the air      
carrying absolutely nothing more than   
thousands of little varying impulses of 
electricity4 ,not a word that is spoken 
at one end of it is ever heard at the   
other1 and the conclusion inevitable to 
the reason of even twenty years ago     
would be that if one person does not    
actually hear the other talk there is a 
miracle4 ,probably this idea that the   
voice is actually carried is not very   
uncommon4 ,the facts seem               
incomprehensible otherwise1 and it is   
not considered that if that idea were   
correct it would be a miracle4  ,the    
entire explanation of the magic of the  
telephone lies in electrical induction4 
,to the brief explanation of that       
phenomenon previously given the reader  
is again referred for a better          

understanding of what now follows4      
,but1 first1 a moment's consideration   
may be given to the results produced by 
the use of this appliance1 which1 as an 
illustration of the way of the world was
 an innovation that1 had it remained    
uninvented or impossible1 would never   
have been even desired4 ,one third more 
business is said now to be transacted in
 the average day than was possible      
previously4 ,since many things can now  
go on together which previously waited  
for direction1 authority and personal   
arrangement1 a man's business life is   
lengthened one-third1 while his business
 may mostly be done1 to his great       
convenience1 from one place4 ,it has    
given employment to a large number of   
persons1 a large proportion of whom are 
young women4 ,the status of woman in the
 business world has been1 fortunately or
 unfortunately1 by so much changed4 ,it 
has introduced a new necessity1 never   
again to be dispensed with4 ,it has     
changed the ancient habits1 and with    

them1 unconsciously1 the habit of       
thought4 ,contact not personal between  
man and man has increased4 ,the thought 
of others is quickly arrived at4 ,it has
 caused us to become more appreciative  
of the absolute meanings and values of  
words1 without assistance from face1    
manner or gesture4 ,laughter may be     
heard1 but tears are unseen4 ,it has    
induced caution in speech and enforces  
brevity4 ,while none of its conveniences
 are now noted1 and all that it gives is
 expected1 the telephone1 with all its  
effects1 has entered--into the sum of   
life4  ,on the wall or table there is a 
box1 and beside this box projects a     
metal arm4 ,in a fork of this arm hangs 
a round1 black1 trumpet-shaped1 hard    
rubber tube4 ,this last is the receiving
 instrument4 ,it is taken from its arm  
and held close to the ear4 ,the answers 
are heard in it as though the person    
speaking were there concealed in an     
impish embodiment of himself4 ,meantime 
the talking is done into a hole in the  

side of the box1 while the receiver is  
held to the ear4 ,this is all that      
appears superficially4 ,an operation    
incredible has its entire machinery     
concealed in these simplicities4 ,it is 
difficult to explain the mystery of the 
telephone in words--though it has been  
said to be simple--and it is almost     
impossible unless the reader            
comprehends1 or will now undertake to   
comprehend1 what has been previously    
said on the subject of the production of
 magnetism by a current of electricity1 
as in the case of the electro-magnet1   
and on the subject of induction and its 
laws4  ,it has been shown that          
electricity produces magnetism2 that the
 current1 properly managed as described1
 creates instantly a powerful magnet out
 of a piece of soft iron1 and leaves it 
again a mere piece of iron at the will  
of the operator4 ,this process also will
 work backwards4 ,an electric current   
produces a magnet1 and a magnet also may
 be made to produce an electric current4

 ,it is one more of the innumerable1    
almost universal1 cases where scientific
 and mechanical processes may be        
reversed4 ,when the dynamo is examined  
this process is still further           
exemplified1 and when we examine the    
dynamo and the motor together we have a 
striking example of the two processes   
going on together4  ,the application of 
this making of a current1 or changing   
its intensity1 in the telephone1 is     
apparently totally unlike the continuous
 manufacture of the induced current for 
daily use by means of the steam engine  
and dynamo4 ,but it is in exact accord  
with the same laws4 ,it will1 perhaps1  
be more readily understood by recalling 
the results of the experiment of the two
 wires1 where it was found that an      
approach to1 or a receding from1 a wire 
carrying a current1 produces an impulse 
over the wire that has by itself no     
current at all4 ,now1 it must be added  
to that explanation that if the battery 
were detached from that conducting wire1

 and if1 instead of its being a wire for
 the carrying of a battery current it   
were itself a permanent magnet1 the same
 results would happen in the other wire 
if it were rapidly moved toward and away
 from this permanent magnet4 ,if the    
reader should stretch a wire tightly    
between two pegs on a table1 and should 
then hold the arms of a common horseshoe
 magnet very near it1 and should twang  
the stretched wire with his finger1 as  
he would a guitar string1 the           
electrometer would show an induced      
alternate current in the wire4 ,since   
this is an illustration of the principle
 of the dynamo1 stated in its simplest  
form1 it may be well to remember that in
 this manner--with the means multiplied 
and in all respects made the most of--a 
very strong current of electricity may  
be evolved without any battery or other 
source of electricity except a magnet4  
,in connection with this substitution of
 a magnet for a current-carrying wire1  
it must be remembered that moving the   

magnet toward or from the wire has the  
same result as moving the wire instead4 
,it does not matter which piece is      
moved4  ,in addition to the above1 it   
should be stated that not only will an  
induced current be set up in the wire1  
but also the magnetism in the magnet    
will be increased or diminished as the  
tremblings of the wire cause it to      
approach or recede from it4 ,therefore  
if a wire be led away from each pole of 
a permanent magnet1 and the ends united 
to form a circuit1 an induced current   
will appear in this wire if a piece of  
soft iron is passed quickly near the    
magnet4  ,there is an essential part of 
the telephone that it is necessary to go
 outside of the field of electricity to 
describe4 ,it is undoubtedly understood 
by the reader that all sound is produced
 by vibrations1 or rapid undulations1 of
 the surrounding air4 ,if a membrane of 
any kind is stretched across a hoop1 and
 one talks against it1 so to speak1 the 
diaphragm or membrane will be shaken1   

will vibrate1 with the movement of the  
air produced by the voice4 ,if a cannon 
be fired all the windows rattle1 and are
 often broken4 ,a peal of thunder will  
cause the same jar and rattle of window 
panes1 manifestly by what we call       
sound--vibrations of the air4 ,the      
window frame is a diaphragm4 ,the ear is
 constructed on the same principle1 its 
diaphragm being actually moved by the   
vibrations of air1 being what we call   
hearing4 ,with these facts about sound  
understood in connection with those     
given in connection with the            
substitution of a magnet for a battery  
current1 it is entirely possible for any
 non-expert to understand the theory of 
the construction of the telephone4  ,in 
the ,bell telephone1 now used with the  
,blake transmitter which differs        
somewhat from the arrangement ,i shall  
now describe a bar magnet has a portion 
of its length wound with very fine      
insulated wire4 ,across the opposite end
 of this polarized ,footnote3 ,polarized

 means magnetized2 having the two poles 
of a permanent magnet4 ,the term is     
frequently used in descriptions of      
electrical appliances4 ,instead of using
 the terms positive and negative1 it is 
also customary to speak of the ,north or
 the ,south of a magnet1 battery or     
circuit4 magnet1 crosswise to it1 and   
very close1 there is placed a diaphragm 
of thin sheet iron4 ,this is held only  
around its edge1 and its center is free 
to vibrate toward and from the end of   
this polarized magnet4 ,this thin disc  
of iron1 therefore1 follows the         
movements1 the soundwaves1 of the air   
against it1 which are caused by the     
human voice4 ,we have an instance of    
apiece of soft iron moving toward1 and  
away from1 a magnet4 ,it moves with a   
rapidity and violence precisely         
proportioned to the tones and           
inflections of the voice4 ,those        
movements are almost microscopic1 not   
perceptible to the eye1 but sufficient4 
,the approaching and receding have made 

a difference1 in the quality of the     
magnet4 ,its magnetism has been         
increased and diminished1 and the little
 coil of insulated wire around it has   
felt these changes1 and carried them as 
impulses over the circuit of which it is
 a part4 ,in that circuit1 at the other 
end1 there is a precisely similar little
 insulated coil1 upon a precisely       
similar polarized magnet4 ,these        
impulses pass through this second coil1 
and increase or diminish the magnetism  
in the magnet round which it is coiled4 
,that1 in turn1 affects by magnetic     
attraction the diaphragm that is        
arranged in relation to its magnet      
precisely as described for the first4   
,the first being controlled as to the   
extent and rapidity of its movements by 
the loudness and other modifications of 
the voice1 the impulses sent over the   
circuit vary accordingly4 ,as a         
consequence1 so does the strength of the
 magnet whose coil is also in the       
circuit4 ,so1 therefore1 does its power 

of attraction over its diaphragm vary4  
,the result is that the movements that  
are caused in the first diaphragm by the
 voice1 are caused in the second by an  
attraction that varies in strength in   
proportion to the vibrations of the     
voice speaking against the first        
diaphragm4  ,this is the theory of the  
telephone4 ,the sounds are not carried1 
but mechanically produced again by the  
rattle of a thin piece of iron close to 
the listener's ear4 ,the voice is full1 
audible1 distinct1 as we hear it        
naturally1 and as it impinges upon the  
transmitting diaphragm4 ,in reproduction
 at the receiving instrument it is small
 in volume2 almost microscopic1 if the  
phrase may be applied to sound4 ,we hear
 it only by placing the ear close to the
 diaphragm4 ,it will be seen that this  
is necessarily so4 ,no attempts to      
remedy the difficulty have so far been  
successful4 ,there is no means of       
reproducing the volume of the voice with
 the minute vibrations of a little iron 

disc4  ,in actual service an            
electro-magnet is used instead of1 or in
 addition to1 the bar magnets described 
above4 ,a steady flow from a battery is 
passed through an instrument which      
throws this current into proper         
vibrations by stopping the flow of the  
current at each interval between        
impulses4 ,there is a piece of carbon   
between the diaphragm and its support4  
,the wires are connected with the       
diaphragm and its support1 and the      
current passes through the carbon4 ,when
 the diaphragm vibrates1 the carbon is  
slightly compressed by it4 ,pressure    
reduces its resistance1 and a greater   
current passes through it and over the  
wires of the circuit for the instant    
during which the touch remains4 ,this is
 the ,blake transmitter4 ,it should be  
explained that carbon stands low on the 
list of conductors of electricity4 ,the 
more dense it is1 the better conductor4 
,the varying pressures of the diaphragm 
serve to produce this varying density   

and the consequent varying impulses of  
the current which effect the receiving  
diaphragm4  ,the transmitter1 as above  
described1 is in the square box1 and its
 round black diaphragm may be seen      
behind the round hole into which one    
talks4 ,footnote3 ,shouting into a      
telephone doubtless comes of the idea1  
unconscious1 that one is speaking to a  
person at a distance4 ,to speak         
distinctly is better1 and in an ordinary
 tone4 ,the receiver is the             
trumpet-shaped tube which hangs on its  
side1 and is taken from its hook to be  
used4 ,the call-bell has nothing to do  
with the telephone4 ,it is operated by a
 small magneto-generator1--a very near  
relative of the dynamo-the current from 
which is sent over the telephone circuit
 7the same wires7 when the small crank  
is turned4 ,sometimes the question      
occurs3 ,why ring one's own bell when   
one desires to ring only that at the    
central office8 ,the answer is that both
 bells are in the same circuit4 ,if the 

circuit is uninterrupted your bell will 
ring when you ring the other1 and a bell
 at each end of your circuit is         
necessary in any case1 else you could   
not yourself be called4  ,when the      
receiving instrument is on its hook its 
weight depresses the lever slightly4    
,this slight movement connects the bell 
circuit and disconnects the telephone   
circuit4 ,take it off the hook and the  
reverse is effected4  ,the long-distance
 telephone differs from the ordinary    
only in larger conductors1 improved     
instruments1 and a metallic circuit--two
 wires instead of the ordinary single   
wire and ground connections4            
,illustration3 ,,teleautograph          
,,transmitting ,,instrument4  ,,the     
,,telautograph4--,this1 the latest of   
modern miracles in the field of         
electricity1 comes naturally after the  
telegraph and telephone1 since it       
supplements them as a means of          
communication between individuals4 ,it  
also is the invention of ,prof4 ,elisha 

,gray1 who seems to be as well the      
author of the name of his extraordinary 
achievement4 ,it is not the first       
instrument of the kind attempted4 ,the  
desire to find a means of writing at a  
distance is old4 ,bain1 of ,edinburgh1  
made a machine partially successful     
fifty years ago4 ,like the telegraph as 
intended by ,morse1 there was the       
interposition of typesetting before a   
message could be sent4 ,it did not      
write1 or follow the hand of the        
operator in writing1 though it did      
reproduce at the other end of the       
circuit in facsimile the faces of the   
types that had been set by the sender4  
,it was a process by electrolysis1 well 
understood by all electricians4 ,several
 of this variety of writing telegraphs  
have been made1 some of them almost     
successful1 but all lacking the vital   
essential4 ,footnote3 ,the lack of one  
vital essential has been fatal to       
hundreds of inventions4 ,inventors      
unconsciously follow paths made by      

predecessors4 ,the entire class of      
transmitting instruments must dispense  
with tedious preliminaries1 and must use
 words4 ,vail accomplished this in      
telegraphy4 ,bell and others in the     
telephone1 and ,gray has borne the same 
fact in mind in the present development 
of the telautograph4 ,in #ahef          
,casselli1 of ,florence1 made a writing 
telegraph which had a pendulum          
arrangement weighing fourteen pounds4   
,only one was ever made1 but it resulted
 in many new ideas all pertaining to the
 facsimile systems--the following of the
 faces of types--and all were finally   
abandoned4  ,the invention of ,gray is a
 departure4 ,the sender of a message    
sits down at a small desk and takes up a
 pencil1 writing with it on ordinary    
paper and in his usual manner4 ,a pen at
 the other end of the circuit follows   
every movement of his hand4 ,the result 
is an autograph letter a hundred miles  
or more away4 ,a man in ,chicago may    
write and sign a check payable in       

,indianapolis4 ,personal directions may 
be given authoritatively and privately4 
,as in the case of the telephone1 no    
intervening operator is necessary4 ,no  
expertness is required4 ,even the use of
 the alphabet is not necessary4 ,a      
drawing of any description1 anything    
that can be traced with a pen or pencil1
 is copied precisely by the pen at the  
receiving desk4 ,the possibilities of   
this instrument1 the uses it may        
develop1 are almost inconceivable4 ,it  
might be imagined that the lines drawn  
would be continuous4 ,on the contrary1  
when the pen is lifted by the writer at 
the sending desk it also lifts itself   
from the paper at that of the receiver4 
,the action of the telautograph depends 
upon the variations in magnetic strength
 between two small electro-magnets4 ,it 
has been seen that an electro-magnet    
exerts its attractive force in          
proportion to the current which passes  
through its coil4 ,to use a phrase      
entirely non-technical1 it will pull    

hard or easy in proportion to the       
strength of the passing current4 ,this  
fact has been observed as the cause of  
action in the telephone1 where one      
diaphragm1 moved by the air-vibrations  
caused by the voice1 causes a varying   
current to pass over the wire1          
attracting the other diaphragm less or  
more as the first is moved toward or    
away from its magnet4 ,in the           
telautograph the varying currents are   
caused not by the diaphragm influenced  
by the voice1 but by a pencil moved by  
the hand4  ,to show how these movements 
may be caused let us imagine a case that
 may occur in nature4 ,it is an         
interesting mechanical study4 ,there is 
an upright rush or reed growing in the  
middle of a running stream4 ,the stem of
 this rush has elasticity naturally2 it 
has a tendency to stand upright2 but it 
bends when there is a current against   
it4 ,it is easy enough to imagine it    
bending down stream more or less as the 
current is more or less strong4         

,imagine now another stream entering the
 first at right angles to it1 and that  
the rush stands in the center of both   
currents4 ,it will then bend to the     
force of the second stream also1 and the
 direction in which it will lean will be
 a compromise between the forces of the 
two4 ,lessen the flow of the current in 
one of the streams1 and the rush will   
bend a little less before that current  
and swing around to the side from which 
it receives less pressure4 ,cut off     
either of the currents entirely1 and it 
will bend in the direction of the other 
current only4 ,in a word1 if the        
quantity or strength of the current of  
both streams can be controlled at will1 
the rush can be made to swing in any    
direction between the two1 and its tip  
will describe any figure desired1 aided1
 of course1 by its own disposition to   
stand upright when there is no pressure4
  ,let us imagine the rush to be a pen  
or pencil1 and the two streams of water 
to be two currents of electricity having

 power to sway and move this pencil in  
proportion to their relative strength1  
as the streams did the rush4 ,imagine   
further that these two currents are     
varied and changed with reference to    
each other by the movements of a pen in 
a man's hand at another place4 ,it is an
 essential part of the mechanism of the 
telautograph1 and the movement is known 
among mechanicians as compounding a     
point4  ,gray1 while using the          
principles involved in compounding a    
point1 seems to have discarded the ways 
of transmitting magnetic impulses of    
varying strength commonly in use4 ,his  
method he calls the step-by-step        
principle1 and it is a striking example 
of what patience and ingenuity may      
accomplish in the management of what is 
reputedly the most elusive and difficult
 of the powers of nature4 ,the machine  
was some six years in being brought into
 practical form1 and was perfected only 
after a long series of experiments4 ,in 
its operation it deals with             

infinitesimal measurements and          
quantities4 ,the first attempts were on 
the variable current system1 which was  
later discarded for the step-by-step    
plan mentioned4  ,in writing an ordinary
 lead pencil may be used4 ,from the     
point of this two silk cords are        
extended diagonally1 their directions   
being at right angles to each other1 and
 the ends of these cords enter openings 
made for them in the cast iron case of  
the instrument on each side of the small
 desk on which the writing is done4     
,inside the case each cord is wound on a
 small drum which is mounted on a       
vertical shaft4 ,now if the pencil-point
 is moved straight upward or downward it
 is manifest that both shafts will move 
alike4 ,if the movement is oblique in   
any direction1 one of the shafts will   
turn more than the other1 and the degree
 of all these turnings of each shaft in 
reference to the other will be precisely
 governed by the direction in which the 
pencil-point is moved4  ,illustration3  

,,diagram ,,of ,,mechanical             
,,telautograph4 ,,bow-,,drill           
,,arrangement4  ,now1 suppose each shaft
 to carry a small1 toothed wheel1 and   
that upon these teeth a small arm rests4
 ,as the wheel turns this arm will move 
as a pawl does on a ratchet4 ,imagine   
that at each slight depression between  
the ratchet-teeth it breaks a contact   
and cuts off a current1 and at each     
slight rise renews the contact and      
permits a current to pass4 ,this current
 affects an electro-magnet--one for each
 shaft--at the receiving end1 and each  
of these magnets1 when the current is   
on1 attracts an armature bearing a pawl1
 which1 being lifted1 allows the notched
 wheel1 upon which it bears1 to turn to 
the extent of one notch4 ,the           
arrangement may be called an electric   
clutch1 that may be arranged in many    
ways1 and the detail of its action is   
unimportant in description1 so that it  
be borne in mind that each time a notch 
is passed in turning the shaft by       

drawing upon or relaxing the cords      
attached to the pencil-point1 an impulse
 of electricity is sent to an           
electro-magnet and armature which allows
 a corresponding wheel and its shaft to 
turn one notch1 or as many notches1 as  
are passed at the transmitting shaft4   
,in moving the pencil one inch to one   
side1 we will suppose it permits the    
shaft on which the cord is wound to turn
 forty notches4 ,then forty impulses of 
electricity have been sent over the     
wire1 the clutch has been released forty
 times1 and the shaft to which it is    
attached has turned precisely as much as
 the shaft has which was turned1 or was 
allowed to turn1 by the cord wound upon 
it and attached to the pencil4  ,it will
 be remembered that the arrangement is  
double4 ,there are two shafts operated  
by the writer's pencil--one on each side
 of it4 ,two corresponding shafts occupy
 relative positions in respect to the   
automatic pen of the receiving          
instrument4 ,there are two circuits1 and

 two wires are at present necessary for 
the operation of the instrument4 ,it    
remains to describe the manner of       
operating the automatic pen by          
connection with its two shafts which are
 turned by the step-by-step arrangement 
described1 precisely as much and at the 
same time as those of the transmitting  
instrument are4  ,illustration3 ,,work  
,,of ,,the ,,telautograph4 ,,columbian  
,,exposition1 #ahic4  ,to each shaft of 
the receiving instrument is attached an 
aluminum pen-arm by means of cords1 each
 arm being fixed1 in regard to its      
shaft1 as a bow drill is in regard to   
its drill4 ,these arms meet in the      
center of the writing tablet1 ,v-shaped1
 as the cords are with relation to the  
writer's pencil in the sending          
instrument4 ,a small tube conveys ink   
from a reservoir along one of the       
pen-arms1 and into a glass tube upright 
at the junction of the arms4 ,this tube 
is the pen4 ,now1 let us imagine the    
pencil of the writer pushed straight    

upward from the apex of the ,v-shaped   
figure the cords and pencil-point make  
on the writing desk4 ,then both the     
shafts at the points of the arms of the 
,v will rotate equally4 ,footnote3 ,see 
diagram of mechanical ,telautograph1 and
 of bow drill4 ,in the latter1 in       
ordinary use1 the stick and string2     
rotate the spool4 ,rotating the spool   
will1 in turn1 move the stick and       
string1 and this is its action in the   
pen-arms of the ,telautograph4 ,the     
number of impulses sent from each of    
these shafts1 by the means explained1   
will be equal4 ,each of the shafts of   
the receiving instrument will rotate    
alike1 and each draw up its arm of the  
automatic pen precisely as though one   
took hold of the points of the two legs 
of the ,v1 and drew them apart to right 
and left in a straight line4 ,this moves
 the apex of the ,v1 with its pen1 in a 
straight line upward at the same time   
the writer at the sending instrument    
pushed his pencil upward4 ,if this one  

movement1 considered alone1 is          
understood1 all the rest follow by the  
same means4 ,this is1 as nearly as it   
may be described without the use of     
technical mechanical terms1 the         
principle of the telautograph4 ,it must 
be seen that all that is necessary to   
describe any movement of the sender's   
pencil upon the paper under the         
receiving pen is that the rotating      
upright shafts of the latter should move
 precisely as much1 and at the same     
time1 with those two which get their    
movement from the wound cords and       
attached pencil-points in the hand of   
the writer4  ,only one essential item of
 the movement remains4 ,the shafts of   
both instruments must be rotated by some
 separate mechanical agency1 capable of 
being automatically reversed4 ,by an    
arrangement unnecessary to explain in   
detail1 the pencil of the writer lifted 
from the paper resting on the metallic  
table which forms the desk2 results in  
the automatic lifting of the pen from   

the paper at the receiving desk4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,prof4 ,elisha ,gray was born in #ahce1 
in ,ohio4 ,he was a blacksmith1 and     
later1 a carpenter4 ,but he was given to
 chemical and mechanical experiments    
rather than to the industries4 ,when    
twenty-one1 he entered ,oberlin         
,college1 remaining there five years1   
and earning all the money he spent4 ,he 
devoted his time chiefly to studies of  
the physical sciences4 ,as a young man  
he was an invalid4 ,later he was not    
remarkably successful in business1      
failing several times in his beginnings4
 ,his first invention was a telegraph   
self-adjusting relay4 ,it was not       
practically successful4 ,afterwards he  
was employed with an electrical         
manufacturing company at ,cleveland and 
,chicago4 ,most of his earlier          
inventions in the line of electrical    
utility are not distinctively known4 ,he
 has never been idle1 and they all      
possessed practical merit4 ,for many    

years before he was known as the wizard 
of the telautograph1 he was foremost in 
the ranks of physicists and             
electricians4 ,he is not a discoverer of
 great principles1 but is professionally
 skillful and accomplished1 and         
eminently practical4 ,his every effort  
is exerted to avoid intricacy and       
clumsiness in machinery4 ,in #ahgh he   
was awarded the grand prize at the      
,paris ,exposition1 and was given the   
degree of ,chevalier and the decorations
 of the ,legion of ,honor by the ,french
 ,government1 and again in #ahha1 at the
 ,electrical ,exposition at ,paris1 he  
was honored with the gold medal for his 
inventions4 ,he secured the degree of   
,a4,m4 at ,oberlin ,college1 and was the
 recipient of the degree of ,ph4,d4 from
 the ,ripon 7,wis47 ,college4 ,for years
 he was connected with those            
institutions as non-resident ,lecturer  
in ,physics4 ,another ,university gave  
him the degree of ,,ll4,d4 ,he is a     
member of the ,american ,philosophical  

,society1 the ,society of ,electrical   
,engineers of ,england1 and the ,society
 of ,telegraph ,engineers of ,london4   
,he received an award and a certificate 
from the ,centennial ,exposition for his
 inventions in electricity4  ,the same  
lesson is to be gathered from his       
career1 so far1 that is given by the    
life of every noted ,american4 ,it means
 that money1 family1 prestige1 have no  
place as leverages of success in any    
field4 ,the rule is toward the opposite4
 ,the qualities and capacities that win 
do so without these early advantages1   
and all the more surely because there is
 an inducement to use them4 ,there is no
 luck4     ,,chapter ,,iii4  ,,the      
,,electric ,,light4   ,illustration  ,it
 has been stated that modern theory     
recognizes two classes of electricity1  
the ,static and the ,dynamic4 ,the      
difference is1 however1 solely          
noticeable in operation4 ,of the dynamic
 class there can be no more common and  
striking example than the now almost    

universal electric light4 ,yet1 with a  
sufficient expenditure of chemicals and 
electrodes1 and a sufficient number of  
cells1 electric lighting1 either arc or 
incandescent1 can be as effectively     
accomplished as with the current evolved
 by a powerful dynamo4 ,footnote3 ,as an
 illustration of the day of beginnings1 
a few years ago the thalus1 or lantern1 
the pride of the rural ,congressman1 on 
the dome of the ,capitol at ,washington 
was lighted by electricity1 and an      
immense circular chamber beneath the    
dome was occupied by hundreds of cells  
of the ordinary form of battery4 ,the   
lamps were of the incandescent variety1 
and what we now know as the filament was
 platinum wire4 ,vacuum bulb1 filament1 
carbon1 dynamo1 were all unknown4 ,but  
the current1 and the heat of resistance1
 and every fact now in use in electric  
lighting1 were there in operation4  ,the
 reader will understand that modern     
dynamic electricity owes its development
 to the principle of economy in         

production4 ,practical science most     
effectively awakens from its lethargy at
 the call of commerce4 ,nevertheless1   
from the earliest moment in which it    
became known that electricity was akin  
to heat--that an interruption of the    
easy passage of a current produced      
heat--the minds of men were busy with   
the question of how to turn the         
tremendous fact to everyday use4        
,progress was slow1 and part of it was  
accidental4 ,the great servant of modern
 mankind was first an untrained one4 ,it
 was a marked advance when the gaslights
 in a theater could be all lighted at   
once by means of batteries and the spark
 of an induction coil4 ,the bottom of   
,hell ,gate1 in ,new ,york harbor1 was  
blown out by ,gen4 ,newton by the same  
means1 and would have been impossible   
otherwise4 ,but these were only         
incidents and suggestions4 ,the question
 was how to make this instantaneous     
spark continuous4 ,there was pondering  
upon the fact that the only difference  

between heat and electricity is one of  
molecular arrangement4 ,heat is a       
molecular motion like that of           
electricity1 without the symmetry and   
harmony of action electricity has4 ,the 
vibrations of electricity are           
accomplished rapidly1 and without loss4 
,those of heat are slow1 and greatly    
radiated4 ,when a current of electricity
 reaches a place in the conductor where 
it cannot pass easily1 and the orderly  
vibrations of its molecules are         
disturbed1 they are thrown into the     
disorderly motion known as heat4 ,so1   
when the conductor is not so good2 when 
a large wire is reduced suddenly to a   
small one2 when a good conductor1 such  
as copper1 has a section of resisting   
conduction1 such as carbon2 heat and    
light are at once evolved at that point1
 and there is produced what we know as  
the electric light4 ,however concealed  
by machinery and devices1 and all the   
arrangements by which it is made more   
lasting1 steady1 economical and         

automatic1 it is no more nor less than  
this4 ,the difference between heat and  
electricity is only a difference in the 
rates of vibration of their molecules4  
,whatever the theory as to molecules1 or
 essence1 or actual nature and origin1  
the practical fact that heat and light  
are the results of the circumstances    
described above remains4 ,this has long 
been known1 and the question remained   
how to produce an adequate current      
economically4 ,the result was the       
machine we know as the ,dynamo4  ,the   
first electric light was very brief and 
brilliant and was made by accident4 ,sir
 ,humphrey ,davy1 in #ahji1 in pulling  
apart the two ends of wires attached to 
a battery of two thousand small cells1  
the most powerful generator that had    
been made to that time1 produced a brief
 and brilliant spark1 the result of     
momentarily imperfect contact4 ,every   
such spark1 produced since then         
innumerable times by accident1 is an    
example of electric lighting4 ,there are

 now in use in the ,united ,states some 
two million arc lights and nearly double
 that number of incandescent4  ,there   
are two principal systems of electric   
lighting2 one is by actually burning    
away the ends of carbon-points in the   
open air4 ,this is the arc4 ,the other  
is by heating to a white heat a filament
 of carbon1 or some substance of high   
resistance1 in a glass bulb from which  
the air has been exhausted4 ,this is the
 incandescent4  ,illustration3 ,,the    
,,incandescent ,,light  ,in the arc     
light the current passes across an      
imperfect contact1 and this imperfection
 consists in a gap of about             
one-sixteenth of an inch between the    
extremities of two rods of carbon       
carrying a current4 ,this small gap is a
 place of bad conduction and of the     
piling up of atoms1 producing heat1     
burning1 light4 ,in the body of the lamp
 there are appliances for the automatic 
holding apart of the two points of the  
carbon1 and the causing of them to      

continually creep together1 yet never   
touch4 ,many devices have been contrived
 to this end4 ,with all theories and    
reasons well known1 and all effects     
accurately calculated1 upon this small  
arrangement depends the practical       
utility of the arc light4 ,the best     
arrangement is the invention of ,edison1
 and is controlled most ingeniously by  
the current itself1 acting through the  
increased difficulty of its passage when
 the two carbon-points are too far      
apart1 and the increased ease with which
 it flows when they are too near        
together4 ,the current1 in leaping the  
small gap between the carbon-points1    
takes a curved path1 hence the name arc 
light4 ,in passing from the positive to 
the negative carbon it carries small    
particles of incandescent carbon with   
it1 and consequently the end of the     
positive carbon is hollowed out1 while  
the end of the negative is built up to a
 point4  ,the incandescent light is in  
principle the same as the arc1 produced 

by the same means and based upon the    
same principle of impediment to the free
 passage of the current4 ,it was first  
produced by heating with the current to 
incandescence a fine platinum wire4 ,as 
stated above1 electricity that quietly  
traverses a large wire will suddenly    
develop great heat upon reaching a point
 where it is called upon to traverse1 a 
smaller one4 ,platinum was attempted for
 this place of greater resistance       
because of its qualities4 ,it does not  
rust1 has a low specific heat1 and is   
therefore raised to a higher temperature
 with less heat imparted4 ,but it was a 
scarce and expensive material1 and so   
long as it was heated to incandescence  
in the open air1 that is1 so long as its
 heat was fed as other heat is1 by      
oxygen1 it was slowly consumed4         
,platinum is no longer in the field of  
electric lighting1 and the substitute   
which takes its place in the present    
incandescent lamp1 and which is known as
 a filament1 is not heated in contact   

with the air4 ,the experiments and      
endeavors that brought this result      
constitute the story of the incandescent
 lamp4  ,the result is due to the       
patient intelligence of the ,american   
scientist and inventor1 ,thomas ,a4     
,edison4 ,after all the absolute        
essentials of a practical incandescent  
lamp had been thought out2 after the    
qualities and characteristics of the    
current were all known under the        
circumstances necessary to its use in   
lighting1 the practical accomplishment  
still remained4 ,edison is said to have 
once worked for several weeks in the    
making of a single loop-shaped carbon   
filament that would bear the most       
delicate handling4 ,this was then       
carefully carried to a glass-worker to  
be inclosed in a bulb1 and at the first 
movement he broke it1 and the work must 
be done over and done better4 ,it       
finally was4 ,the little pear-shaped    
bulb with its delicate loop of filament1
 which cost months of toil and          

experiment at first1 is now a common    
article1 manufactured at an absurdly    
small cost1 packed in barrelfuls and    
shipped everywhere1 and consumed by the 
million4 ,a means has been found for    
producing the vacuum of its interior    
rapidly1 cheaply and thoroughly1 and the
 beautiful incandescent glow hangs in   
lines and clusters over the civilized   
world4 ,the phenomenon of incandescence 
without oxygen seems peculiar to these  
lights alone4 ,footnote3 ,the electric  
field1 previously explained1 seemed to  
exist by giving a magnetic quality to   
the surrounding air4 ,it would be as    
true if one should speak of a magnetized
 vacuum1 since the same field would     
exist in that as in surrounding air4    
,so simple are great facts when finally 
accomplished that there remains little  
to add on the subject of the mechanism  
of the electric light4 ,the two         
varieties1 arc and incandescent1 are    
used together as most convenient1 the   
large and very brilliant arc being      

especially adapted to out-of-doors      
situations1 and the gentler1 steadier   
and more permanent glow of the          
incandescent to interiors4 ,the latter  
is also capable of a modification not   
applicable to the arc4 ,it can1 in      
theaters and other buildings1 be turned 
down to a gentle1 blood-red glow4 ,the  
means by which this is accomplished is  
ingenious and surprising1 since it means
 that the supply of electricity over a  
wire--seemingly the most subtle and     
elusive essence on earth--may be        
controlled like a stream from a cock1 or
 the gas out of a burner4 ,but this     
reduction of the current that makes the 
red glow in the clusters in a theater is
 by no means the only instance4 ,the    
trolley-car1 and even the common motor1 
may be made to start very slowly1 and   
the unseen current whose touch kills is 
fed to its consumer at will4            
,illustration  ,,the ,,dynamo4--,to the 
man who has been all his life thinking  
of the steam engine as the highest and  

almost only embodiment of controlled    
mechanical power1 another machine1 both 
supplementary to the steam engine and   
far excelling it1 whose familiar burring
 sound is now heard in almost every     
village in the ,united ,states and has  
become the characteristic sound of      
modern civilization1 must constitute a  
source of continual question and        
surprise4 ,to be accustomed to the      
dynamo1 to look upon it as a matter of  
course and a conceded fact1 one must    
have come to years of maturity and found
 it here4  ,its practical existence     
dates back at furthest to #ahgj4 ,yet it
 is based upon principles long since    
known1 and can scarcely be said to be   
the invention of any one mind or man4   
,its lineal ancestor was the            
magneto-electric machine1 in the early  
construction of which figure the names  
of ,siemens1 ,wilde1 ,ladd1 and earlier 
and later electricians4 ,kidder's       
medical battery used forty years ago or 
more1 and still used and purchasable in 

its first form1 was a dynamo4 ,a        
footnote in a current encyclopedia      
states that3 ,an account of the         
,magneto-electric machine of ,m4        
,gramme1 in the ,london ,standard of    
,april #ith1 #ahgc1 confirmed by other  
information1 leads to the belief that a 
decided improvement has been made in    
these machines4 ,the word dynamo was    
then unknown4 ,later1 ,edison1 ,weston1 
,thompson1 ,hopkinson1 ,ferranti and    
others appear as improvers in the       
mechanism necessary for best developing 
a well-known principle1 and many of     
these improvements may be classed among 
original inventions4 ,as soon as the    
magneto-electric machine attained a size
 in the hands of experimenters that took
 it out of the field of scientific toys 
it began to be what we now know as a    
dynamo4 ,a paragraph in the encyclopedia
 referred to says1 in speaking of ,ladd1
 of ,london1 ,these developments of     
electric action are not obtained without
 corresponding expenditure of force4    

,the armatures are powerfully attracted 
by the magnets1 and must be forcibly    
pulled away4 ,indeed1 one of ,wilde's   
machines1 when producing a very intense 
electric light1 required about five     
horse power to drive it4  ,illustration3
 ,,magneto-,,electric ,,machine4 ,,the  
,,predecessor ,,of ,,the ,,dynamo4      
,thus was the secret in regard to       
electric power unconsciously divulged   
some twenty years ago4  ,in all nature  
there is no recipe for getting something
 for nothing4 ,the modern dynamo1       
apparently creating something out of    
nothing1 like all other machines gives  
back only what is given to it1 minus a  
fair percentage for waste1 loss1        
friction1 and common wear4 ,its         
advantages amount to a miracle of       
convenience only4 ,so far as power is   
concerned1 it merely transfers it for   
long distances over a single wire4 ,so  
far as light is considered1 it          
practically creates it where wanted1 in 
new and convenient forms1 with a new    

intensity and beauty1 but with the same 
expenditure of transmitted energy in the
 form of burned coal as would be used in
 manufacturing the gas that was new1    
wonderful1 and a luxury at the beginning
 of the century4  ,the dynamo is the    
most prominent instance of actual       
mechanical utility in the field of      
electrical induction4 ,it seems almost  
incredible that the apparently small    
facts discovered by ,faraday1 the       
bookbinder1 the employ of ,sir ,humphrey
 ,davy at weekly wages the struggling   
experimenter in the subtleties of an    
infant giant1 should have produced such 
results within sixty years4 ,footnote3  
,faraday was not entirely alone in his  
life of physical research4 ,he was      
associated with ,davy1 and quarreled    
with him about the liquefaction of      
chlorine and other gases1 and was the   
companion of ,wallaston1 ,herschel1     
,brand1 and others4 ,in connection with 
,stodart1 he experimented with steel1   
with results still considered valuable4 

,the scientific world still speaks of   
his quarrel with ,davy with regret1     
since the personalities of great men    
should be free from ordinary weaknesses4
 ,but ,lady ,davy was not a scientist1  
and while the brilliant young mechanic  
was in her husband's employment for     
scientific purposes she insisted upon   
treating him as a servant1 whereat the  
independence of thinking which made him 
capable of wandering in fields unknown  
to conventionality and routine blazed   
into natural resentment4 ,the quarrel of
 #ahbc must have been greatly augmented1
 in the lady's eyes1 in #ahbd1 for in   
that year ,faraday was made a member of 
the ,royal ,society4  ,in his lectures  
and public experiments he was greatly   
assisted by a man now almost forgotten1 
an intelligent artilleryman named       
,andersen4 ,this unknown soldier with a 
taste for natural science doubtless had 
his reward in the exquisite pleasure    
always derived from the personal        
verification of facts hitherto unknown4 

,there is often a pecuniary reward for  
the servant of science4 ,just as often  
there is not1 and the work done has been
 the same4  ,it was on ,christmas       
morning1 #ahba1 that ,faraday first     
succeeded in making a magnetic needle   
rotate around a wire carrying an        
electric current4 ,he was the discoverer
 of benzole1 the basis of our modern    
brilliant aniline dyes4 ,in #ahca he    
made the discovery he had been leading  
to for many years--that of              
magneto-electric induction4 ,all we have
 of electricity that is now a part of   
our daily life is the result of this    
discovery4  ,faraday was born in #agia1 
and died ,august1 #ahfg1 in a house     
presented to him by ,victoria1 who had  
not the same opinion of his relations to
 the aristocracy that ,lady ,davy seems 
to have had4 ,his insight into science  
was something explainable only on the   
supposition that he was gifted with a   
kind of instinct4 ,he was a scientific  
prophet4 ,a man who could1 in #ahch1    

foresee the ocean cable1 and describe   
those minute difficulties in its working
 that all in time came true1 must be    
classed as one of the great1 clear1     
intuitive intellects of his race4 ,he   
was in youth apprenticed to a           
bookbinder1 and many of the books he    
bound he read4 ,a line in his indentures
 says3 ,in consideration of his faithful
 service1 no premium is to be given4    
,when these words were written there was
 no dream that the faithful service     
should be for all posterity4            
,illustration3 ,faraday's ,spark4       
,striking the leg of a horseshoe magnet 
with an iron bar wound with insulated   
wire causes a contact between loose end 
of wire and small disc1 and a spark4    
,faraday's ,first ,magneto-,electric    
,experiment4 ,a horseshoe magnet passed 
near a bent soft iron wound with        
insulated wire caused an induced current
 in the wire4  ,,two ,,of ,,faraday',s  
,,early ,,experiments ,,in ,,induction4 
,he who made the first actual machine to

 evolve a current in compliance with    
,faraday's formulated laws was an       
,italian named ,pix1 in #ahcb4 ,his     
machine consisted of a horseshoe magnet 
set on a shaft1 and made to revolve in  
front of two cores of1 soft iron wound  
with wire1 and having their ends        
opposite the legs of the magnet4        
,shortly after ,pix1 the inventors of   
the times ceased to turn the magnet on a
 shaft1 and turned the iron cores       
instead1 because they were lighter4 ,in 
like manner1 the huge field magnets of a
 modern dynamo are not whirled round a  
stationary armature1 but the armature is
 whirled within the legs of the magnet  
with very great rapidity4 ,the next step
 was to increase the number of magnets  
and the number of wire-wound iron       
cores--bobbins4 ,the magnets were made  
compound1 laminated2 a large number of  
thin horseshoe magnets were laid        
together1 with opposite poles touching4 
,these were all comparatively small     
machines--what we now1 with some reason1

 regard as having been toys whose       
present results were rather long in     
coming4  ,illustration3 ,,the ,,siemens'
 ,,armature ,,and ,,winding4 ,,the      
,,first ,,step ,,toward ,,the ,,modern  
,,dynamo4  ,then came ,siemens1 of      
,berlin1 in #aheg4 ,he was probably the 
first to wind the iron core1 what we now
 call the armature1 with wire from end  
to end1 lengthwise1 instead of round and
 round as a spool4 ,this resulted1 of   
course1 in the shaft of the armature    
being also placed crosswise to the legs 
of the magnet1 as it is in the modern   
dynamo4 ,one of the ends of the wire    
used in this winding was fastened to the
 axle of the armature1 and the other to 
a ring insulated from the shaft1 but    
turning with it4 ,two springs1 one      
bearing on the shaft and the other on   
the ring1 carried away the current      
through wires attached to them4 ,siemens
 also originated the mechanical idea of 
hollowing out the legs of the magnet on 
the inside for the armature to turn in  

close to the magnet1 almost fitting4 ,it
 was the first time any of these things 
had been done1 and their author probably
 had no idea that they would be         
prominent features of the dynamo of a   
little later time1 in all essentials    
closely imitated4  ,illustration3       
,,diagram ,,of ,,shaft1 ,,split ,,ring  
,,and ,,brushes4  ,it will be guessed   
from what has been previously said on   
the subject of induction that the       
currents from such an electro-magnetic  
machine would be alternating currents1  
the impulses succeeding each other in   
alternate directions4 ,to remedy this   
and cause the currents to flow always in
 the same direction1 the commutator was 
devised4 ,the ring mentioned above was  
split1 and the two springs both bore    
upon it1 one on each side4 ,the ends of 
the wires were both fastened to this    
ring4 ,the springs came to be known as  
brushes4 ,the effect was that one of    
them was in the insulated space between 
the split halves of the ring while the  

other was bearing on the metal to which 
the wire was attached4 ,this action was 
alternate1 and so arranged that the     
current carried away was always direct4 
,when an armature has a winding of more 
than one wire1 as the practical dynamo  
always has1 the insulated ring is       
divided into as many pieces as there are
 wires1 and the two brushes act as above
 for the entire series4  ,pacinotti1 of 
,florence1 constructed a                
magneto-electric machine in which the   
current flows always in one direction   
without a commutator4 ,it has what is   
known as a ring armature1 and is the    
mother of all dynamos built upon that   
principle4 ,it is exceedingly ingenious 
in construction1 and for certain        
purposes in the arts is extensively     
used4 ,a description of it is too       
technical to interest others than those 
personally interested in the class of   
dynamo it represents4  ,wilde1 of       
,manchester1 ,england1 improved the     
,siemens machine in #ahff by doing that 

which is the feature that makes possible
 the huge field magnet of the modern    
dynamo1 which is not a magnet at all1   
strictly speaking4 ,he caused the       
current1 after it had been rectified by 
the commutator1 to return again into    
coils of wire round the legs of his     
field magnets1 as shown in the diagram4 
,this induced in them a new supply of   
magnetism1 and this of course           
intensified the current from the        
armature4 ,it is true he had a separate 
smaller magneto-electric machine1 with  
which he evolved a current for the coil 
around the legs of the field magnet of a
 greatly larger machine upon which he   
depended for his actual current1 and    
that he did not know1 although he was   
practically doing the same thing1 that  
if he should divert this current made by
 the larger machine itself back through 
the coils of its field magnet1 he would 
not need the extra small machine at all1
 and would have a much more powerful    
current4  ,illustration3 ,,simplest     

,,form ,,of ,,dynamo  ,and here arises a
 difference and a change of name4 ,all  
generating machines to this date had    
been called ,magneto-electric because   
they used permanent steel magnets with  
which to generate a current by the      
whirling of the bobbin which we now call
 an armature4 ,the time came1 led to by 
the improvement of ,wilde1 in which     
those steel permanent magnets were no   
longer used4 ,then the machine became   
the dynamo-electric machine1 and leaving
 off one word1 according to our custom1 
dynamo4  ,siemens and ,wheatstone almost
 simultaneously invented so much of the 
dynamo as was yet incomplete4 ,it has   
cores--the parts that answer to the legs
 of a horseshoe magnet--of soft iron1   
sometimes now even of cast iron4 ,these1
 at starting1 possess very little       
magnetism--practically none at all--yet 
sufficient to generate a very weak      
current in the coils1 windings1 of the  
armature when it begins to turn4 ,this  
weak current1 passing through the       

windings of the field magnet1 makes     
these still stronger magnets1 and the   
effect is to evolve a still stronger    
current in the armature4 ,soon the full 
effect is reached4 ,the big iron field  
magnet1 often weighing some thousands of
 pounds1 is then the same as a permanent
 steel horseshoe magnet1 which would    
hardly be possible at all4 ,one who has 
watched the installation of a dynamo1   
knowing that there is nowhere near any  
ordinary source of electricity1 and has 
seen its armature begin to whirl and    
hum1 and then in a few moments the      
violet sparklings of the brushes and the
 evident presence of a powerful current 
of electricity1 is almost justified in  
the common opinion that the genius of   
man has devised a machine to create     
something out of nothing4 ,it is true   
that a starting quantity of electricity 
is required4 ,it exists in almost every 
piece of iron4 ,sometimes1 to hasten    
first action1 some cells of a galvanic  
battery are used to pass a current      

through the coils of the field magnet4  
,after the first use there is always    
enough magnetism remaining in them      
during rest or stoppage to make a dynamo
 efficient after a few moments          
operation4  ,illustration3              
,,pacinotti',s ,,ring-,,armature        
,,dynamo4  ,this is the dynamo in       
principle of action4 ,the varieties in  
construction now in use number scores1  
perhaps hundreds4 ,some of them are     
monsters in size1 and evolve a current  
that is terrific4 ,they are all         
essentially the same1 depending for     
action upon the laws illustrated in the 
simplest experiment in induced          
electricity4 ,one of the best known of  
the modern machines is ,edison's1       
represented in the picture at the head  
of this article4 ,in it the field       
magnet--answering to the horseshoe      
magnet of the magneto-electric          
machine--is plainly distinguishable to  
the unskilled observer4 ,it is not even 
solid1 but is made of several pieces    

bolted together4 ,its legs are hollowed 
at the ends to admit closely the        
armature which turns there4 ,there are  
valuable peculiarities in its           
construction1 which1 while complying in 
all respects with the dynamo principle1 
utilize those principles to the best    
mechanical advantage4 ,so do others1 in 
other respects that did not occur even  
to ,edison1 or were not adopted by him4 
,probably the modern dynamo is the most 
efficient1 the most accurately          
measurable1 the least wasteful of its   
power1 and the most manageable1 of any  
power-machine so far constructed by man 
for daily use4  ,the motor4--,this is   
the twin of the dynamo4 ,in all         
essentials the two are of the same      
construction4 ,a difference in the      
arrangement of the terminals of the wire
 coils or the wrappings of armature and 
field magnet1 makes of the one a dynamo 
and of the other a motor4 ,nevertheless1
 they are separate studies in electrical
 science4 ,practice has brought about   

modified constructions1 as in the case  
of the dynamo4 ,the differences between 
the two machines1 and their similarities
 as well1 may be explained by a general 
brief statement4  ,it is the work of the
 dynamo to convert mechanical energy    
into the form of electrical energy4 ,the
 motor1 in turn1 changes this electrical
 energy back again into mechanical      
energy4  ,where the electric light is   
produced by the dynamo current no motor 
intervenes4 ,the current is converted   
into heat and light by merely having an 
impediment1 a restriction1 a narrowness1
 interposed to its free passage on a    
conducting wire1 as heretofore          
explained1 very much as water in a pipe 
foams and struggles at a narrow place or
 an obstruction4 ,where mechanical      
movements are to be produced by the     
dynamo current the motor is always the  
intermediate machine4 ,in the dynamo the
 armature is rotated by steam power1    
producing an electrical energy in the   
form of a powerful current transmitted  

by a wire4 ,in the motor the armature1  
in turn1 is rotated by this current4 ,it
 is but another instance of that ability
 to work backwards--to reverse a        
process--that seems to pervade all      
machines1 and almost all processes4 ,i  
have mentioned steam power1 and1        
consequently1 the necessary burning of  
coal and expenditure of money in        
producing the dynamo current4 ,the      
dynamo and motor are not necessarily    
economical inventions1 but the opposite 
when the force produced is to be        
transmitted again1 with some loss1 into 
the same mechanical energy that has     
already been produced by the burning of 
coal and the making of steam4 ,across   
miles of space1 and into places where   
steam would not be possible1 the power  
is invisibly carried4 ,suggestions of   
this convenience--stated cases--it is   
not necessary to cite4 ,the fact is a   
prominent one1 to be noted everywhere4  
,and it may be made a mechanical        
economy4 ,the most prominent instance of

 this is the new utilization of ,niagara
 as a turbine water-power with which to 
whirl the armatures of gigantic dynamos1
 using the power thus obtained upon     
motors1 and in the production of light  
and the transmission of power to        
neighboring cities4  ,the discovery of  
the possibility of transmitting power by
 a wire1 and converting it again into   
mechanical energy1 is a strange story of
 the human blindness that almost always 
attends an acuteness1 a thinking power1 
a prescience1 that is the characteristic
 of humanity alone1 but which so often  
stops short of results4 ,this discovery 
has been attributed to accident alone2  
the accident of an employ mistaking the 
uses of wires and fastening their ends  
in the wrong places4 ,but a ,french     
electrician thus describes the          
occurrence as within his own experience4
 ,his name is ,hypolyte ,fontaine4  ,but
 let us first advert to the             
forgetfulness of the man who really     
invented the machine that was capable of

 the opposite action of both dynamo and 
motor4 ,this was the ,italian1          
,pacinotti4 ,footnote3 ,moses ,g4       
,farmer1 an ,american1 and celebrated in
 his day for intelligent electrical     
researches1 is claimed to have made the 
first reversible motor ever contrived4  
,a small motor made by ,farmer in #ahdg1
 and embodying the electro-dynamic      
principle was exhibited at the great    
exposition at ,chicago in #ahic4 ,if the
 genealogy of this machine remains      
undisputed it fixes the fact that the   
discovery belongs to this country1 and  
to an ,american4 ,he mentioned that his 
machine could be used either to generate
 a current of electricity on the        
application of motive power to its      
armature1 or to produce motive power on 
connecting it with a source of          
electricity4 ,yet it did not occur to   
him to definitely experiment with two of
 his machines for the purpose of        
accomplishing that which in less than   
twenty years has revolutionized our     

ideas and practice in transmitted force4
 ,he did not suggest that two of his    
machines could be run together1 one as a
 generator and the other as a motor4 ,he
 did not think of its advantages with   
the facilities for it1 of his own       
creation1 in his hands4  ,m4 ,fontaine  
states that at the ,vienna ,exposition  
of #ahgc there was a ,gramme machine    
intended to be operated by a primary    
battery1 to show that the ,gramme was   
capable of being worked by a current1   
and1 as there was also a second machine 
of the same kind there1 of also         
generating one4 ,these two machines were
 to demonstrate this range of capacity  
as separately worked1 one by power1 the 
other with a battery4 ,there was1 then1 
no intention of coupling them together  
as late as #ahgc1 with the means at hand
 and the suggestion almost unavoidable4 
,the dynamo and motor had not occurred  
to any one4 ,but ,m4 ,fontaine states   
that he failed to get the primary       
7battery7 current in time for the       

opening1 and was troubled by the        
dilemma4 ,then the idea occurred to him1
 as he could do no better1 to work one  
of the machines with a current deprived1
 partly stolen1 from the other1 as a    
temporary measure4 ,a friend lent him   
the necessary piece of wire1 and he     
connected the two machines4 ,the machine
 used as a motor was connected with a   
pumping apparatus1 and when the machine 
intended as a generator started1 and    
this make-shift1 temporarily-stolen     
current was carried to the acting motor1
 the action of the last was so much more
 vigorous than was intended that the    
water was thrown over the sides of the  
tank4 ,fontaine was forced to remedy    
this excessive action by procuring an   
additional wire of such length that its 
resistance permitted the motor to work  
more mildly and throw less water4 ,this 
accidentally established the fact of    
distance1 convenience1 a revolution in  
the power of the industrial world4      
,fontaine states that ,gramme had       

previously told him that he had done the
 same thing with his machines4 ,the idea
 was never patented4 ,neither           
,pacinotti1 who invented the machine    
originally1 nor ,gramme1 one of the     
great names of modern electricity1 nor  
this skilled practical electrician1     
,fontaine1 who had charge of the exhibit
 of the ,gramme system at ,vienna1      
considered the fact of the transmission 
of concentrated power over a thin wire  
to a great distance as one of value to  
its inventor or to the industries of    
mankind4 ,with the motor and the dynamo 
already made1 it was an accident that   
brought them together after all4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,it may be amusing1 if not useful1 to   
spend a moment in reviewing of the      
efforts of men to utilize the power of  
the electrical current in mechanics     
before the day of the dynamo and a      
motor1 and while yet the electric light 
was an infant in the nursery of the     
laboratory4 ,they knew then1 about #ahce

 to #ahgj1 of the laws of induction as  
applied to the electro-magnet1 or in    
small machines the generating power1 so 
called1 of the magneto-electric         
arrangement embodied1 as a familiar     
example1 in ,kidder's medical battery4  
,there is a long list of those          
inventors1 ,american and ,european4 ,the
 first patent issued for an ,american   
electro-motor was in #ahcg1 to a man    
named ,thomas ,davenport1 of ,brandon1  
,vt4 ,he was a man far ahead of his     
times4 ,he built the first electric     
railroad ever seen1 at ,springfield1    
,mass41 in #ahce1 and considering the   
means1 whose inadequacy is now better   
understood by any reader of these lines 
than it then was by the deepest student 
of electricity1 this first railroad was 
a success4 ,davenport came as near to   
solving the problem of an electric motor
 as was possible without the invention  
of ,pacinotti4 ,following this there    
were many patents issued for            
electro-magnetic motors to persons      

residing in all parts of the country1   
north and south4 ,one was made by ,c4   
,g4 ,page1 of the ,smithsonian          
,institute1 in which the motive power   
consisted in a round rod1 acting as a   
plunger1 being pulled into the space    
where the core would be in an ordinary  
electro-magnet1 and thereby working a   
crank4 ,footnote3 ,the ,national        
,intelligencer1 a prominent ,washington 
newspaper1 said with reference to       
,page's motor ,he has shown that before 
long electro-magnetic action will have  
dethroned steam and will be the adopted 
motor1 etc4 ,this was an enthusiasm not 
based upon any fact then known about a  
machine not even in the line of the     
present facts of electro-dynamics4 ,a   
large motor of this kind is alleged1 in 
#ahej1 to have developed ten horse      
power4 ,it was actually applied to      
outdoor experiment as a car-motor on an 
actual railroad track1 and was efficient
 for several miles4 ,but it carried with
 it its battery-cells1 and they were    

disarranged and stirred by the jolting1 
and being made of crockeryware were     
broken4 ,the chemicals cost much more   
than fuel for steam1 and there could be 
no economical motive for further        
experiment4 ,it was a huge toy1 as the  
entire sum of electrical science was    
until it was made useful first in the   
one instance of the telegraph1 and long 
after that date the use of the          
electro-magnet1 with a cam to cut off   
and turn on again the current at proper 
intervals1 which was the one principle  
of all attempts1 was a repeated and     
invariable failure4 ,that which was     
wanted and lacking was not known1 and   
was finally discovered and successively 
developed as has been described4        
,electric railroads4--,there was an     
instance of almost simultaneous         
invention in the case of the first      
practical electric railroads4 ,s4 ,d4   
,field1 ,dr4 ,siemens1 and ,thomas ,a4  
,edison all applied for patents in      
#ahhj4 ,of these1 ,field was first in   

filing1 and was awarded patents4 ,the   
combined dynamo and motor were1 of      
course1 the parents of the practical    
idea4 ,field's patents covered a motor  
in or under the car1 operated by a      
current from a stationary source of     
electricity--of course a dynamo4 ,these 
first electric roads had the current    
carried on the rail4 ,they were         
partially successful1 but there was     
something wrong in the plan1 and that   
something was induction by the earth4   
,later came1 as a remedy for this1 the  
,trolley system2 the trolley being a    
small1 grooved wheel running upon a     
current-carrying wire overhead4 ,the    
question of how best to convey a current
 to the car-motor is a serious one1     
doubtless at this moment occupying the  
attention of highly-trained intelligence
 everywhere4 ,the motor current is one  
of high power1 and as such intractable2 
and it is in the character of this      
current1 rather than in methods of      
insulation1 that the remedy for the     

much-objected-to overhead wire is to be 
found4 ,it will be remembered that all  
the phenomena of induction are          
unhindered by insulation4  ,aside from  
the current-carrying problem1 the       
electric road is explainable in all its 
features upon the theory and practice of
 the dynamo and motor4 ,it is merely an 
application of the two machines4 ,the   
last is1 in usual practice1 under the   
car1 and geared to the truck-axle4 ,a   
more modern mechanical improvement is to
 make the axle the shaft of the motor   
armature4 ,when the motor has used the  
current it passes by most systems into  
the rail and the ground4 ,by others     
there is a metallic circuit--two wires4 
,many men whose interest and occupation 
leads them to a study of such matters   
know that the use of electricity1       
instead of steam locomotion1 is merely a
 question of time on all railroads4 ,i  
have said elsewhere that the actual age 
of electricity had not yet fully come4  
,it seems to us now that we have        

attained the end2 that there is little  
more to know or to do4 ,but so have all 
the generations thought in their day4   
,in the field of electricity there are  
yet to come practical results of which  
one may have some foreshadowings in the 
experiments of men like ,tesla1 which   
will make our present times and         
knowledge seem tame and slow4           
,electrolysis4--,in all history1 fire   
has been the universal practical        
solvent4 ,it has been supplanted by the 
electrical current in some of the most  
beautiful and useful phenomena of our   
time4 ,electrolysis is the name of the  
process by which fluid chemicals are    
decomposed by the current4  ,a familiar 
early experiment in electrolysis is the 
decomposition of water--a chemical      
composed of oxygen and hydrogen1 though 
always thought of and used as a simple1 
pure fluid4 ,if the poles of a galvanic 
battery are immersed in water slightly  
mixed with sulphuric acid to favor      
electrical action1 these poles will     

become covered with bubbles of gas which
 presently rise to the surface and pass 
off4 ,these bubbles are composed of the 
two constituents of water1 the oxygen   
rising from the positive and the        
hydrogen from the negative pole4        
,particles of the substance decomposed  
are transferred1 some to one pole and   
some to the other2 and1 therefore1      
electrolysis is always practiced in a   
fluid in order that this transference   
may more readily occur4  ,the quantity  
of electrolyte--the substance           
decomposed--that is transferred in a    
given time is in proportion to the      
strength of the current4 ,when this     
electrolyte is composed of many         
substances a current will act a little  
on all of them1 and the quantity in     
which the elementary bodies appear at   
the poles of the current depends upon   
the quantities of the compounds in the  
liquid1 and on the relative ease with   
which they yield to the electrical      
action4  ,the electrolytic processes are

 not the mere experiments a brief       
description of them would indicate1 but 
are among the important processes for   
the mechanical products of modern times4
 ,the extensive nickel-plating that     
became a permanent fad in this country  
on the discovery of a special process   
some years ago1 is all done by          
electrolysis4 ,the silver plating of    
modern tableware and table cutlery1 as  
beautiful and much less expensive than  
silver1 and the fine finish of the      
beautiful bronze hardware now used in   
house-furnishing1 are the results of the
 same process4 ,some use for it enters  
into almost every piece of fine         
machinery1 and into the beautifying or  
preserving of innumerable small articles
 that are made and used in unlimited    
quantity4  ,the process and its         
principle is general1 but there are many
 details observed in the actual work of 
electroplating which interest only those
 engaged4 ,one of the most usual of     
these is that of making an electrotype4 

,this may mean the making of an exact   
impression of a medal1 coin1 or other   
figure1 or a depositing of a coating of 
the same on any metallic surface4       
,formerly the faces of the types used in
 printing were very commonly faced with 
copper to give them finish and a wearing
 quality4 ,even fresh1 natural fruits   
that have been evenly coated with       
plumbago may be covered with a thin     
shell of metal4 ,a silver head may be   
placed on the wood of a walking stick1  
precisely conforming on the outside to  
the form of the wood within4  ,the      
deposit of metal in the electrotyping   
process always takes place at the       
negative pole--the pole by which the    
current passes out of the fluid into its
 conductor4 ,this is the cathode4 ,the  
other is the anode4 ,the bath1 as the   
fluid in which the process is           
accomplished is called1 for silver1 gold
 or platinum contains one hundred parts 
of water1 ten of potassium cyanide1 and 
one of the cyanide of whichever of those

 metals is to be deposited4 ,the        
articles to be plated are suspended in  
this bath and the battery-power1 varying
 in intensity according to              
circumstances1 is applied4 ,after       
removal they are buffed and finished4 ,a
 varying detail is practiced for        
different metals1 and the current now   
commonly used is from a dynamo4         
,footnote3 ,among modern modifications  
of the dynamic current1 is its use1     
modified by proper appliances1 for the  
telegraph and the telephone circuits of 
cities and the larger towns4 ,every     
electric current may now be safely      
attributed to that source1 and from the 
same circuit and generator all          
modifications may be produced at once4  
,the origin of electrolysis is said to  
be with ,daniell1 who noticed the       
deposit of copper while experimenting   
with the battery that bears his name4   
,jacobi1 at ,st4 ,petersburg1 first     
published a description of the process  
in #ahci4 ,the ,elkingtons were the     

first to actually put the process into  
commercial practice4  ,it would be      
interesting now1 were it apropos1 to    
describe the seemingly very ancient     
processes by which our ancestors gilded1
 plated1 were deceived and deceived     
others1 previous to about #ahde4 ,for   
those things were done1 and the         
genuineness of life has by no means been
 destroyed by the modern ease with which
 a precious metal may be deposited upon 
one utterly base4 ,a contemplation of   
the moral side of the subject might lead
 at once to the conclusion that we could
 now spare one of the least in actual   
importance of the processes of the      
all-pervading and wonderful essence that
 alike makes the lightning-stroke and   
gilds the plebeian pin that fastens a   
baby's napkin4 ,but from any other view 
we could not now dispense with anything 
electricity does4  ,general facts4--,the
 names of many of the original          
investigators of electrical phenomena   
are perpetuated in the familiar names of

 electrical measurements4 ,for1         
notwithstanding its seeming subtlety1   
there is no force in use1 or that has   
ever been used by men1 capable of being 
so definitely calculated1 measured1     
determined beforehand1 as electricity   
is4 ,as time passes new measurements are
 adopted and named1 some of them being  
proposed as lately as #ahic4 ,an        
instance of the value of some of these  
old determinations of a time when all we
 now know of electrical science was     
unknown1 may be given in what is known  
as ,ohm's ,law4 ,ohm was a native of    
,erlangen1 in ,bavaria1 and was         
,professor of ,physics at ,munich1 where
 he died in #ahgd4 ,he formulated this  
,law in #ahbg1 and it was translated    
into ,english in #ahdg4 ,he was         
recognized at the time1 and was given   
the ,copley medal of the ,royal ,society
 of ,london4 ,the ,law--for by that     
distinctive name is it still called1    
though the name ,ohm1 also expresses a  
unit of measurement--is that the        

quantity of current that will pass      
through a conductor is proportional to  
the pressure and inversely proportional 
to the distance4 ,that is3  ,current    
,pressure _/ ,resistance4  ,transposing 
the terms of the equation we may get an 
expression for either of those elements1
 current1 pressure1 or resistance1 in   
the terms of the other two4 ,this       
relation holds true and is accurate in  
every possible case and condition of    
practical work4 ,this remarkable        
precision and definiteness of action has
 made possible the creation of an       
extensive school of electrical testing1 
by which we are not only enabled to make
 accurate measurement of electrical     
apparatus and appliances1 but also to   
make determinations in other fields by  
the agency of electricity4 ,when an     
ocean cable is injured or broken the    
precise location of the trouble is made 
by measuring the electrical resistance  
of the parts on each side of the injury4
  ,the magnitudes of measurements of    

electricity are expressed in the        
following convenient electrical units3  
,the ,,volt 7named from ,volta7 equals a
 unit of pressure that is equal to one  
cell of a gravity battery4  ,the ,,ohm1 
as a unit of measurement1 equals a unit 
of resistance that is equivalent to the 
resistance of a hundred feet of copper  
wire the size of a pin4  ,the ,,amp,,re 
7named from ,ampre1 #agge-ahcf1 author  
of a ,collection of ,observations on    
,electro-,dynamics and other works1 and 
a profound practical investigator7      
equals a unit of current equivalent to  
the current which one ,volt of pressure 
will produce through one ,ohm of wire   
7or resistance74  ,the ,coulomb         
7#agcf--;inventor of the means of       
measuring electricity called the        
,torsion balance1 and general early     
investigator7 equals a unit of quantity 
of one ,ampere flowing for one second4  
,the ,farad 7from ,faraday1 the         
discoverer of the laws of ,induction1   
see ante71 equals that unit of capacity 

which is the capacity for holding one   
,coulomb4 ,death current4--,what is now 
spoken of as the ,death ,current is one 
that will instantly overcome the        
resistance of the human1 or animal1     
body4 ,it is a current of from one to   
two thousand ,volts--about the same as  
that used in maintaining the large arc  
lights4 ,this question of the killing   
capacity of the current became          
officially prominent some years ago1    
upon the passage by the legislature of  
the ,state of ,new ,york of a statute   
requiring the death penalty to be       
inflicted by means of electricity4 ,the 
object was to deter evildoers by        
surrounding the penalty with scientific 
horror1 ,footnote3 ,hence also the new  
lingual atrocity1 the word electrocute1 
derived from execute by decapitation and
 the addition of electro and the idea   
had its origin in the accidents which   
formerly occurred much more frequently  
than now4 ,the death current is now     
almost everywhere1 though the care of   

the men who continually work about live 
wires has grown to be much like that of 
men who continually handle firearms or  
explosives1 and accidents seldom happen4
 ,at first it was apparently difficult  
for the general public to appreciate the
 fact that the silent and               
harmless-looking wires must be avoided4 
,there was suddenly a new and terrific  
power in common use1 and it was as      
slender1 silent and unobtrusive as it   
was fatal4  ,insulation of the hands by 
the use of rubber gloves1 and extreme   
care1 are the means by which those who  
are called linemen--a new               
industry--protect themselves in their   
occupation4 ,but there is a new         
commandment added to the list of those  
to be memorized by the body-politic4 ,do
 not tread upon1 drive over1 or touch   
any wire4 ,it may be1 and probably is1  
harmless4 ,but you cannot positively    
know4 ,footnote3 ,it is a common trait  
of general human nature to refuse to    
learn save by the hardest of            

experiences1 and so far as the crediting
 of statements is concerned1 to at first
 believe everything that is not true1   
and reject most that is4 ,the           
supernatural1 the phenomena of alleged  
witchcraft and diabolism1 and of luck1  
hoodoo1 fate1 etc41 find ready disciples
 among those who reject disdainfully the
 results of the working of natural law4 
,when the railroads were first built    
across the plains the ,indians          
repeatedly attempted to stop moving     
trains by holding the ends of a rope    
stretched across the track in front of  
the engine1 and with results which      
greatly surprised them ,when the lines  
were first constructed in northern      
,mexico the ,mexican peasant could not  
be induced to refrain from trying       
personal experiments with the new power1
 and scores of him were killed before he
 learned that standing on the track was 
dangerous4 ,in the ,united ,states the  
era of accidents through indifference to
 common-looking wires has almost passed1

 but for some years the fatality was    
large because people are always governed
 by appearances connected with previous 
notions1 until new experiences teach    
them better4  ,,instruments ,,of        
,,measurement4--,some of the most costly
 and beautiful of modern scientific     
instruments are those used in the       
measurements and determinations of      
electrical science4 ,there are many     
forms and varieties for every specific  
purpose4 ,electrical measurement has    
become a department of physical science 
by itself1 and a technical1 extensive   
and varied one4 ,already the electrical 
specialist1 no more an original         
experimenter or investigator than the   
average physician is1 has become        
professional4 ,he makes plans1 submits  
facts1 estimates cost1 and states       
results with almost certainty4          
,,electricity ,,as ,,an                 
,,industry4--,immense factories are now 
devoted to the manufacture of electrical
 goods exclusively4 ,large              

establishments in cities are filled with
 them4 ,the installation of the electric
 plant in a dwelling house is done in   
the same way1 and as regularly1 as the  
plumbing is4 ,soon there must be still  
another enlargement1 since the heating  
of houses through a wire1 and the       
kitchen being equipped with cooking     
utensils whose heat is for each vessel  
evolved in its own bottom1 is           
inevitable4  ,the following are some of 
the facts1 in figures1 of the business  
side of electricity in the ,united      
,states at the present writing4 ,in     
#ahff1 about twenty years after the     
establishment of the telegraph1 but with
 a population of only a little more than
 half the present1 there were #ge1fhf   
miles of telegraph wire in use1 and     
#b1ebj offices4 ,in #ahic there were    
#gdj1jjj miles of wire1 and more than   
#bj1jjj offices4 ,the receipts for the  
year first named are unknown1 but for   
#ahic they were about #bd1jjj1jjj4 ,the 
expenses of the system for the same year

 were #af1ejj1jjj4  ,the telephone1 an  
industry now about sixteen years old1   
had in #ahic1 for the ,bell alone1 over 
#bjj1jjj miles of wire on poles1 and    
over #ij1jjj miles of wire under ground4
 ,the instruments were in #ae1jjj       
buildings4 ,there were #aj1jjj employs1 
and #bcc1jjj subscribers4 ,all companies
 combined had #dda1jjj miles of wire4   
,ninety-two millions of dollars were    
invested in telephone fixtures4  ,in    
#ahic1 the average cost of a telegram   
was thirty-one and one six-tenths cents1
 and the average alleged cost of sending
 the same to the companies was          
twenty-two and three-tenths cents1      
leaving a profit of nine and            
three-tenths cents on every message4 ,it
 must be remembered that with mail      
facilities and cheapness that are       
unrivalled1 the telegraph message is    
always an extraordinary mode of         
communication2 an emergency4 ,these few 
figures may serve to give the reader a  
dim idea of the importance to which the 

most ordinary and general of the        
branches of electrical industry have    
grown in the ,united ,states4  ,,medical
 ,,electricity4--,for more than fifty   
years the medical fraternity in regular 
practice persisted in disregarding all  
the claims made for the electric current
 as a therapeutic agent4 ,in earlier    
times it was supposed to have a value   
that supplanted all other medical       
agencies4 ,franklin seems to have been  
one of the earliest experimenters in    
this line1 and to have been successful  
in many instances where his brief spark 
from the only sources of the current    
then known were applicable to the case4 
,the medical department of the science  
then fell into the hands of charlatans1 
and there is a natural disposition to   
deal in the wonderful1 the miraculous or
 semi-miraculous1 in the cure of        
disease4 ,divested of the wonder-idea   
through a wider study and greater       
knowledge of actual facts1 electricity  
has again come forward as a curative    

agent in the last ten years4            
,instruction in its management in       
disease is included in the curriculum of
 almost every medical school1 and most  
physicians now own an outfit1 more or   
less extensive1 for use in ordinary     
practice4 ,to decry and utterly condemn 
is no longer the custom of the          
steady-going physician1 the ethics of   
whose cloth had been for centuries to   
condemn all that interfered with the use
 of drugs1 and everything whose action  
could not be understood by the examples 
of common experience1 and without       
special study outside the lines of      
medical knowledge as prescribed4        
,perhaps the developments based upon the
 discoveries of ,faraday have had much  
to do with the adoption of electricity  
as a curative agent4 ,the current       
usually used is the ,faradic2 the       
induced alternate current from an       
induction coil4 ,this is1 indeed1 the   
current most useful in the majority of  
the nervous derangements in the         

treatment of which the current is of    
acknowledged utility4  ,in surgery the  
advance is still greater4               
,galvano-cautery is the incandescent    
light precisely2 the white-hot wire     
being used to cut off1 or burn off1 and 
cauterize at the same time1 excrescences
 and growths that could not be easily   
reached by other means than a tube and a
 small loop of platinum wire4 ,a little 
incandescent lamp with a bulb no bigger 
than a pea is used to light up and      
explore cavities1 and this advance      
alone1 purely mechanical and outside of 
medical science1 is of immense          
importance in the saving of life and the
 avoidance of human suffering4  ,it may 
be added that there is nothing magical1 
or by the touch1 or mysterious1 in the  
treatment of disease by the electrical  
current4 ,the results depend upon       
intelligent applications1 based upon    
reason and experience1 a varied         
treatment for varying cases4 ,nor is it 
a remedy to be applied by the patient   

himself more than any other is4 ,on the 
contrary1 he may do himself great       
injury4 ,the pills1 potions1 powders and
 patent medicines made to be taken      
indiscriminately1 and which he more or  
less understands1 may be still harmful  
yet much safer4 ,even the application of
 one or the other of the two poles with 
reference to the course of a nerve1 may 
result in injury instead of good4       
,,incomplete ,,possibilities4--,there   
are at least two things greatly desired 
by mankind in the field of electrical   
science and not yet attained4 ,one of   
these1 that may now be dismissed with a 
word1 is the resolving of the latent    
energy of1 say a ton of coal1 into      
electrical energy without the use of the
 steam engine2 without the intervention 
of any machine4 ,for electricity is not 
manufactured2 not created by men in any 
case4 ,it exists1 and is merely         
gathered1 in a measure and to a certain 
extent confined and controlled1 and sent
 out as a concentrated form of energy on

 its various errands4 ,should a means   
for the concentration of this           
universally diffused energy be found    
whereby it could be made to gather1 by  
the new arrangement of some natural law 
such as places it in enormous quantities
 in the thundercloud1 a revolution that 
would permeate and visibly change all   
the affairs of men would take place1    
since the industrial world is not a     
thing apart1 but affects all men1 and   
all institutions1 and all thought4  ,the
 other desideratum1 more reasonable     
apparently1 yet far from present        
accomplishment1 is a means of storing   
and carrying a supply of electricity    
when it has been gathered by the means  
now used1 or by any means4  ,,the       
,,storage ,,battery is an attempt in    
this last direction4 ,the name is       
misleading1 since even in this attempt  
electricity is in no sense stored1 but a
 chemical action producing a current    
takes place in the machine4 ,the        
arrangement is in its infancy4          

,instances occur in which1 under given  
circumstances1 it is more or less       
efficient1 and has been improved into   
greater efficiency4 ,but many           
difficulties intervene1 one of which is 
the great weight of the appliances used1
 and another1 considerable cost4 ,the   
term storage battery is now infrequently
 used1 and the name secondary battery is
 usually substituted4 ,the principle of 
its action is the decomposing of        
combined chemicals by the action of a   
current applied from a stationary       
generator or dynamo1 and that these     
chemicals again unite as soon as they   
are allowed to do so by the completing  
of a circuit1 and in re-combining give  
off nearly as much electricity as was   
first used in separating them4 ,the     
action of the secondary1 storage1       
battery1 once charged1 is like that of a
 primary battery4 ,the current is       
produced by chemical action4 ,two metals
 outside of the solution contained in a 
primary battery cell1 but under         

differing physical conditions from each 
other1 will yield a current4 ,a piece of
 polished iron and a piece of rusty     
iron1 connected by a wire1 will yield a 
small current4 ,rusty lead1 so to speak1
 so connected with bright lead1 has a   
high electromotive force4 ,oxygen makes 
lead rusty1 and hydrogen makes it       
bright4 ,oxygen and hydrogen are the two
 gases cast off when water is subjected 
to a current4 7,see ante under          
,electrolysis7 ,so ,augustin ,plant1 the
 inventor of as much as we yet have of  
what is called a storage or secondary   
battery1 suspended two plates of lead in
 water1 and when a current of           
electricity was passed through it       
hydrogen was thrown off at one plate1   
making it bright1 and oxygen at the     
other plate1 peroxydizing its surface4  
,when the current was removed the       
altered plates1 connected by a wire1    
would send off a current which was in   
the opposite direction from the first1  
and this would continue until the plates

 were again in their original condition4
 ,this is the principle and mode of     
action of the storage battery4 ,so far  
it has assumed many forms4 ,scores of   
modifications have been invented and    
patented4 ,the leaden plates have taken 
a variety of forms1 yet have remained   
leaden plates1 one cleaned and the other
 fouled by the electrolytic action of a 
current1 and giving off an almost       
equivalent current again by the return  
process4 ,the arrangement endures for   
several repetitions of the process1 but 
is finally expensive and always         
inconvenient4 ,the secondary battery1 in
 its infancy1 as stated1 presents now   
much the same obstacles to commercial   
use the galvanic1 or primary1 battery   
did before the induced current had      
become the servant of man4     ,,chapter
 ,,iv4  ,,electrical ,,invention ,,in   
,,the ,,united ,,states4   ,a list of   
the electrical inventors of this country
 would be very long4 ,many of the names 
are1 in the mass and number of          

inventions1 almost lost4 ,it happens    
that many of the practical applications 
described in this volume1 indeed most of
 them1 are the work of citizens of this 
country4  ,in previous chapters ,i have 
referred briefly to ,franklin1 ,morse1  
,field1 and others4 ,these men have left
 names that1 without question1 may be   
regarded as permanent4 ,their chiefest  
distinguishing trait was originality of 
idea1 and each one of them is a lesson  
to the ,american boy4 ,in a sense the   
greatest of all these1 and in the same  
sense1 the greatest ,american1 was      
,benjamin ,franklin4 ,a sketch of his   
career has been given1 but to that may  
be added the following3 ,he had arrived 
at conclusions that were vast in scope  
and startling in result by applying the 
reasoning faculty upon observations of  
phenomena that had been recurring since 
the world was made1 and had been        
misunderstood from the beginning4 ,he   
used the simplest means4 ,his experiment
 was in a different way daily performed 

for him by nature4 ,he was              
philosophically daring1 indifferently a 
tinker with nature's terrific machinery2
 a knocker at the door of an august     
temple that men were never known to have
 entered2 a mortal who smiled in the    
face of inscrutable and awful mystery1  
and who defied the lightning in a sense 
not merely moral4 ,footnote3 ,professor 
,richmann1 of ,st4 ,petersburg1 was     
instantly killed by lightning while     
repeating ,franklin's experiment4  ,his 
genius lay in a power of swift inductive
 reasoning4 ,his common sense and his   
sense of humor never forsook him4 ,he   
uttered keen apothegms that have lived  
like those of ,solon4 ,he was a         
philosopher like ,diogenes1 lacking the 
bitterness4 ,he wrote the ,busy-,body1  
and annually made the plebeian and      
celebrated ,almanac1 and the ,ephemera  
that were not ephemeral1 and is the     
author of the story of ,the ,whistle1   
that everybody knows1 and everybody     
reads with shamefacedness because it is 

a brief chapter out of his own history4 
,he was apparently an adept in the art  
of caring for himself1 one of the most  
successful worldings of his time1 yet he
 wrote1 thought1 toiled incessantly1 for
 his fellow men4 ,he had little         
education obtained as it is supposed an 
education must be obtained4 ,he was     
commonplace4 ,no one has ever told of   
his silver tongue1 or remembered a      
brilliant after-dinner speech that he   
has made4 ,yet he finally stood before  
mankind the companion of princes1 the   
darling of splendid women1 covered with 
the laurels of a brilliant scientific   
renown4 ,but he was a printer1 a        
tinkerer with stoves1 the inventor of   
the lightning rod1 the man who had spent
 one-half his life in teaching          
apprentices1 such as he himself had been
 when his jealous and common-minded     
brother had whipped him1 that time is   
money1 that credit is money--which is   
the most prominent fact in the          
commercial world of #ahie--;and that    

honor and self-respect are better than  
wealth1 pleasure1 or any other good4    
,yet clear1 keen1 cold and inductive as 
was ,franklin's mind1 no vision reached 
him1 in the moment of that triumph when 
he felt the lightning tingling in his   
fingers from a hempen string1 of those  
wonders which were to come4 ,he knew    
absolutely nothing of that necromancy   
through which others of his countrymen  
were to girdle the world with a common  
intelligence1 and yet others were to use
 in sprinkling night with clusters as   
innumerable and mysterious as the higher
 stars4  ,the story of the ,morse       
telegraph has been repeatedly told1 and 
,i have briefly sketched it in          
connection with the subject of the      
telegraph4 ,but1 unlike the original1   
scientifically lonely and independent   
,franklin1 ,morse had the best          
assistance of his times in the persons  
of men more skilled than himself and    
almost as persistent4 ,the chief of     
these was ,alfred ,vail1 a name until   

lately almost unknown to scientific     
fame1 who eliminated the clumsy         
crudities of ,morse's conception1 remade
 his instruments1 and was the inventor  
of that renowned alphabet which spells  
without letters or writing or types1    
that may be seen or heard or felt or    
tasted1 that is adapted to any language 
and to all conditions1 and that performs
 to this day1 and shall to all time1 the
 miracle of causing the inane rattle of 
pieces of metal against each other to   
speak to even a careless listener the   
exact thoughts of one a thousand miles  
away4  ,another of the men who might be 
appropriately included in any           
comprehensive list of aiders and        
abettors of the present telegraph system
 were ,leonard ,d4 ,gale1 then          
,professor of ,chemistry in the         
,university of ,new ,york1 and          
,professor ,joseph ,henry1 who had made1
 and was apparently indifferent to the  
importance of it because there was no   
alphabet to use it with1 the first      

electric telegraph ever constructed to  
be read1 or used1 by sound4 ,last1      
though hardly least if all facts are    
understood1 might be included a skillful
 youth named ,william ,baxter1          
afterwards known as the inventor of the 
,baxter ,engine1 who1 shut in a room    
with ,vail in a machine shop in ,new    
,jersey1 made in conjunction with the   
author of the alphabet the first        
telegraphic instrument that1 with       
,henry's magnet and battery cells1 sent 
across space the first message ever read
 by a person who did not know what the  
words of the message would say or mean  
until they had been received4  ,after   
the telegraph the state of electrical   
knowledge was for a long time such that 
electrical invention was in a sense     
impossible4 ,the renowned exploit of    
,field was not an invention1 but a      
heroic and successful extension of the  
scope and usefulness of an invention4   
,but thought was not idle1 and filled   
the interval with preparations for final

 achievements unequaled in the history  
of science4 ,two of these results are   
the electric light and the telephone4   
,for the various candles1 such as that  
of ,jablochkoff1 exhibited at ,paris in 
#ahgj1 only served to stimulate         
investigation of the alluring           
possibilities of the subject4 ,the      
details of these great inventions are   
better known than those of any others4  
,the telegraph and the newspaper        
reporter had come upon the field as     
established institutions4 ,every process
 and progress was a piece of news of    
intense interest4 ,when the light glowed
 in its bulb and sparkled and flashed at
 the junction points of its             
chocolate-colored sticks it had been    
confidently expected4 ,there was little 
surprise4 ,the practical light of the   
world was considered probable1          
profitable1 and absolutely sure4 ,the   
real story will never be told4 ,the     
thoughts1 which phrase may also include 
the inevitable disappointments of the   

inventor1 are never written down by him4
 ,that variety of brain which1 with a   
few great exceptions1 was not known     
until modern1 very recent times1 which  
does not speculate1 contrive1 imagine   
only1 but also reduces all ideas to     
commercial form1 has yet to have its    
analysis and its historian1 for it is to
 all intents a new phase of the         
evolution of mind4  ,illustration3      
,,thomas ,a4 ,,edison4  ,a typical      
example of this class of intellect is   
,mr4 ,thomas ,a4 ,edison4 ,it may be    
doubted if such a man could1 in the     
qualities that make him remarkable1 be  
the product of any other country than   
ours4 ,in common with nearly all those  
who have left a deep impression upon our
 country1 ,edison was the child of that 
hackneyed respectable poverty which here
 is a different condition from that     
existing all over ,europe1 where the    
phrase was coined4 ,there1 the phrase1  
and the condition it describes1 mean a  
dull content1 an incapacity to rise1 a  

happy indifference to all other         
conditions1 a dullness that does not    
desire to learn1 to change1 to think4   
,to respectable poverty in other        
civilizations there are strong local    
associations like those of a cat1 not   
arising to the dignity of love of       
country4 ,in the ,united ,states1       
without a word1 without argument or     
question1 a young man becomes a         
pioneer--not necessarily one of locality
 or physical newness1 but a pioneer in  
mind--in creed1 politics1 business--in  
the boundless domain of hope and        
endeavor4 ,in ,america no man is as his 
father was except in physical traits4   
,no man there is a volunteer soldier    
fighting his country's battles except   
from a conviction that he ought to be4  
,a man is an inventor1 a politician1 a  
writer1 first because he knows that     
valuable changes are possible1 and1     
second1 because he can make such changes
 profitable to himself4 ,it is the great
 realm of immutable steadfastness       

combined with constant change2 unique   
among the nations4  ,edison never had   
more than two months regular schooling  
in his entire boyhood4 ,there is1       
therefore1 nothing trained1 regular1    
technical1 about him4 ,if there had been
 it is probable that we might never have
 heard of him4 ,he is one of the        
innumerable standing arguments against  
the old system advocated by everybody's 
father1 and especially by the older     
fathers of the church1 and which meant  
that every man and woman was practically
 cut by the same pattern1 or cast in the
 same general mould1 and was to be      
fitted for a certain notch by training  
alone4 ,no more than thirty years ago   
the note of preparation for the grooves 
of life was constantly sounded4 ,natural
 aptitude1 bent1 inclination1 were      
disregarded4 ,the maxim concocted by    
some envious dull man that genius is    
only another name for industry1 was     
constantly quoted and believed4  ,but   
,edison's mother had been trained1      

practically1 as an instructor of youth4 
,he had hints from her in the technical 
portions of a boy's primary training4   
,he is not an ignorant man1 but1 on the 
contrary1 a very highly educated one4   
,but it is an education he has          
constructed for himself out of his      
aptitudes1 as all other actual          
educations have really been4 ,when he   
was ten years old he had read standard  
works1 and at twelve is stated to have  
struggled1 ineffectually perhaps1 with  
,newton's ,principia4 ,at that age he   
became a train-boy on the ,grand ,trunk 
railroad for the purpose of earning his 
living2 only another way of pioneering  
and getting what was to be got by       
personal endeavor4 ,while in that       
business he edited and printed a little 
newspaper2 not to please an amateurish  
love of the beautiful art of printing1  
but for profit4 ,he was selling papers1 
and he wanted one of his own to sell    
because then he would get more out of it
 in a small way4 ,he never afterwards   

showed any inclination toward           
journalism1 and did not become a        
reporter or correspondent1 or start a   
rural daily4 ,while he was a train-boy1 
enjoying every opportunity for absorbing
 a knowledge of human nature1 and of    
finally becoming a passenger conductor  
or a locomotive engineer1 something     
called his attention to the telegraph as
 a promoter of business1 as a great and 
useful institution1 and he resolved to  
become an operator4 ,this was his       
electrical beginning4 ,yet before he    
took this step he was accused of a      
proclivity toward extraordinary things4 
,in the old caboose where he edited1 set
 up1 and printed his newspaper he had   
established a small chemical laboratory1
 and out of these chemicals there is    
said to have been jolted one day an     
accident which caused him some          
unpopularity with the railroad people4  
,he was all the time a business man4 ,he
 employed four boy helpers in his news  
and publishing business4 ,it took him a 

long time to learn the telegraph        
business under the circumstances1 and   
when he was at last installed on a plug 
circuit he began at once to do unusual  
things with the current and its machines
 and appliances4 ,this is what he tells 
of his first electrical invention4      
,there was an operator at one end of the
 circuit who was so swift that ,edison  
and his companion could not take fast   
enough to keep up with him4 ,he found   
two old ,morse registers--the machines  
that printed with a steel point the dots
 and dashes on a paper slip wound off of
 a reel4 ,these he arranged in such a   
way that the message written1 or        
indented1 on them by the first          
instrument were given to him by the     
second instrument at any desired rate of
 speed or slowness4  ,this gave to him  
and his friend time to catch up4 ,this1 
in ,morse's time1 would have been       
thought an achievement4 ,edison seems to
 regard it as a joke4 ,there was no time
 for prolonged experiment4 ,it was an   

emergency1 and the idea must necessarily
 have been supplemented by a quick      
mechanical skill4  ,it was this same    
automatic recorder1 the idea embodied in
 it1 that by thought and logical        
deduction afterwards produced that      
wonderful automaton1 the phonograph4 ,he
 rigged a hasty instrument that was     
based upon the idea that if the         
indentations made in a slip of paper    
could be made to repeat the ticking     
sound of the instrument1 similar        
indentations made by a point on a       
diaphragm that was moved by the voice   
might be made to repeat the voice4 ,his 
rude first instrument gave back a sound 
vaguely resembling the single word first
 shouted into it and supposed to be     
indented on a slip of paper1 and this   
was enough to stimulate further effort4 
,he finally made drawings and took them 
to a machinist whom he knew1 afterwards 
one of his assistants1 who laughed at   
the idea but made the model4 ,previously
 he bet a friend a barrel of apples that

 he could do it4 ,when the model was    
finished he arranged a piece of tin foil
 and talked into it1 and when it gave   
back a distinct sound the machinist was 
frightened1 and ,edison won his barrel  
of apples1 which1 he says1 ,i was very  
glad to get4  ,the ,wizard is a man     
evidently pertaining to the class of    
human eccentrics who excite the interest
 of their fellow-men to see what they   
will do next1 but without any idea of   
the final value of that which may come  
by what seems to them to be mere        
unbalanced oddity4 ,such people are     
invariably misunderstood until they     
succeed4 ,when he invented the automatic
 repeating telegraph he was discharged1 
and walked from ,decatur to ,nashville1 
#aej miles1 with only a dollar or two as
 his entire possessions4 ,with a pass   
thence to ,louisville1 he and a friend  
arrived at that place in a snowstorm1   
and clad in linen dusters4 ,this does   
not seem scientific or professor-like1  
but it has not hindered2 possibly it has

 immensely helped4 ,it reminds one of   
the ,franklinic episodes when remembered
 in connection with future scientific   
renown and the court of ,france4  ,one  
of the secrets of ,edison's great       
success is the ease with which he       
concentrates his mind4 ,he is said to   
possess the faculty of leaving one thing
 and taking up another whenever he      
wills4 ,he even carries on in his mind  
various trains of thought at the same   
time4 ,the operations of his brain are  
imitated in his daily conduct1 which is 
direct and simple in all respects4 ,he  
is never happier than when engaged in   
the most absorbing and exacting mental  
toil4 ,he dresses in a machinist's      
clothes when thus employed in his       
laboratory1 and was long accustomed to  
work continuously for as long as he was 
so inclined without regard to           
regularity1 or meals1 or day or night4  
,he is willing to eat his food from a   
bench that is littered with filings1    
chips and tools4 ,to relieve strain and 

take a moment's recreation he is known  
to have bought a cottage organ and      
taught himself to play it1 and to go to 
it in the middle of the night and grind 
out tunes for relaxation4 ,he has a     
working library containing several      
thousand books4 ,he pores over these    
volumes to inform himself upon some     
pressing idea1 and does so in the midst 
of his work4 ,no man could have made    
some of his inventions unaided by       
technical science and a knowledge of the
 results of the investigations of many  
others1 and it has often been wondered  
how a man not technically educated could
 have seemed so well to know4 ,there was
 a mistake4 ,he is educated2 a          
scientific investigator of remarkable   
attainments4  ,in thinking of the       
inventions of ,edison and their value1 a
 dozen of the first class1 that would   
each one have satisfied the ambition or 
taken the time of an ordinary man1 can  
be named4 ,the mimeograph and the       
electric pen are minor4 ,then there are 

the stock printer1 the automatic        
repeating telegraph1 quadruplex         
telegraphy1 the phono-plex1 the         
ore-milling process1 the railway        
telegraph1 the electric engine1 the     
phonograph4 ,some of these inventions   
seem1 in the glow of his incandescent   
light1 or with one's ear to the tube of 
the telephone he improved in its most   
essential part1 to be too small for     
,edison4 ,but nothing was too small for 
,franklin1 or for the boy who played    
idly with the lid of his mother's       
tea-kettle and almost invented the      
steam-engine of today1 or for ,hero of  
,alexandria1 who dreamed a thousand     
years before its time of the power that 
was to come4 ,so was ,henry's first     
electric telegraph the merest toy1 and  
his electro-magnet was supported upon a 
pile of books1 his signal bell was that 
with which one calls a servant1 and his 
idea was a mere experiment without      
result4 ,there was a boy ,edison needed 
there then1 whose toys reap fortunes and

 light1 and enlighten1 the world4 ,the  
electric pen was in its day immensely   
useful in the business world1 because it
 was the application of the stencil to  
ordinary manuscript1 and caused the     
making of hundreds of copies upon the   
stencil idea1 and with a printer's      
roller instead of a brush4 ,the         
mimeograph was the same idea in a       
totally different form4 ,it was writing 
upon a tablet that is like a            
bastard-file1 with a steel-pointed      
stylus4 ,each slight projection makes a 
hole in the paper1 and then the stencil 
idea begins again4  ,something has been 
previously said of the difficulties     
attending the making of the filament for
 the incandescent light4 ,it is a little
 thing1 smaller than a thread1 frail1   
delicate1 sealed in a bulb almost       
absolutely exhausted of air1 smooth     
without a flaw1 of absolutely even      
caliber from end to end4 ,the world was 
searched for substances out of which to 
make it1 and experiments were endlessly 

and tediously tried2 all for this one   
little part of a great invention1 which1
 like all other inventions1 would be    
valueless in the want of a single little
 part4  ,there are hundreds1 an unknown 
number1 of inventions in electricity in 
this country whose authors are unknown1 
and will never be known to the general  
public4 ,the patent office shows many   
thousands of such in the aggregate4     
,many useful improvements in the        
telephone alone have come under the eye 
of every casual reader of the           
newspapers4 ,these are now locked up    
from the world1 with many other patented
 changes in existing machines1 because  
of the great expense attending their    
substitution for those arrangements now 
in use4  ,all the principles--the       
principles that1 finally demonstrated1  
become laws--upon which electrical      
invention is based1 are old4 ,it seems  
impossible1 during the entire era of    
modern thought1 to have found a new     
trait1 a development1 a hitherto        

unsuspected quality4 ,tesla1 in some of 
his most wonderful experiments1 seems   
almost to have touched the boundaries of
 an unexplored realm1 yet not quite1 not
 yet1 and most likely absolute discovery
 can no farther go4 ,to play upon those 
known laws--to twist them to new        
utilities and give them new             
developments--has been the work of the  
creators of all the modern electrical   
miracles4 ,there is scarcely a field in 
which men work in which the results are 
not more apparent1 yet all we have1 and 
undoubtedly most we shall ever have1 of 
electricity we shall continue to owe to 
the infant period of the science4  ,it  
may be truthfully claimed that most of  
these extraordinary applications of     
electricity have been made by ,american 
inventors4 ,wherever there is steam1 on 
sea or land1 there1 intimately          
associated with ,american management1   
will be found the dynamic current and   
all its uses4 ,the science of explosive 
destruction has almost entirely changed1

 and with a most extraordinary result4  
,but one of the factors of this change  
has been the electric current1 a        
something primarily having nothing to do
 with guns1 ships or sailing4 ,the      
modern man-of-war1 beginning with those 
of our own navy1 is lighted by the      
electric light1 signalled and controlled
 by the current1 and her ponderous guns 
are loaded1 fired1 and even sighted by  
the same means4 ,her officers are a     
corps of electrical experts4 ,a large   
part of her crew are trained to         
manipulate wires instead of ropes1 and  
her total efficiency is perhaps three   
times what it would be with the same    
tonnage under the old rgime4 ,there is a
 new sea life and sea science1 born full
 grown within ten years from a service  
encrusted with traditions like          
barnacles1 and that could not have come 
by any other agency4 ,a big gun is no   
longer merely that1 but also an         
electrical machine1 often with machinery
 as complicated as that of a chronometer

 and much more mysterious in operation4 
,i have said that the huge piece was    
even sighted by electricity4 ,there is  
really nothing strange in the statement1
 though it may read like a fairy tale or
 a metaphor to whoever has never had his
 attention called to the subject4 ,in a 
small way1 with the name of its inventor
 almost unknown except to his messmates1
 it is one of the most wonderful1 and   
one of the simplest1 of the modern      
miracles4 ,as a mere instance of the    
wide extent of modern ideas of utility1 
and of the possibilities of application 
of the laws that were discovered and    
formulated by those whose names the     
units of electrical measurements bear1  
it may be briefly stated how a group of 
gunners may work behind an iron         
breastwork1 and never see the enemy's   
hull1 and yet aim at him with a hundred 
times the accuracy possible in the day  
of the ,old ,ironsides and the          
,guerriere4  ,and first it may be stated
 that the range-finder is largely a     

measure of mere economy4 ,a             
two-million-dollar cruiser is not       
sailed1 or lost1 as a mere pastime4     
,whoever aims best will win the fight4  
,ten years ago the way of finding       
distance1 or range1 which is the same   
thing1 was experimental4 ,if a costly   
shot was fired over the enemy the next  
one was fired lower1 and possibly       
between the two the range might be got1 
both vessels meantime changing positions
 and range4 ,to change this1 to either  
injure an antagonist quickly or get     
away1 the range-finder was invented1 as 
a matter not of business profit1 by     
,lieutenant ,bradley ,a4 ,fiske1 of the 
,u4 ,s4 ,navy1 in #ahhi4 ,it has its    
reason in the familiar mathematical     
proposition that if two angles and one  
side of a triangle are known1 the other 
sides of the triangle are easily found4 
,that is1 that it can be determined how 
far it is to a distant object without   
going to it4 ,but ,fiske's range-finder 
makes no mathematical calculations1 nor 

requires them to be made1 and is        
automatic4 ,a base line permanently     
fixed on the ship is the one side of a  
triangle required4 ,the distance of the 
object to be hit is determined by its   
being the apex of an imaginary triangle1
 and at each of the other angles1 at the
 two ends of the base line1 is fixed a  
spyglass4 ,these are directed at the    
object4  ,so far electricity has had    
nothing to do with the arrangement1 but 
now it enters as the factor without     
which the device could have no          
adaptation4 ,as the telescopes are      
turned to bear upon the target they move
 upon slides or wires bent into an arc1 
and these carry an electric current4    
,the difference in length of the slide  
passed over in turning the telescopes   
upon the object causes a greater or less
 resistance to the current1 precisely as
 a short wire carries a current more    
easily2 with less resistance2 than a    
long one4 ,a contrivance for measuring  
the current1 amounting to the same thing

 that other instruments do of the same  
class that are used every day1 allows of
 this resistance being measured and     
read1 not now in units of electricity1  
but in distance to the apex of the      
triangle where the target is2 in yards4 
,the man at each telescope has only to  
keep it pointed at the target as it     
moves1 or as the vessel moves which     
wishes to hit it4 ,and now even the     
telephone enters into the arrangement4  
,elsewhere in the ship another man may  
stand with the transmitter at his ear4  
,he will hear a buzzing sound until the 
telescopes stop moving1 and at the same 
time there will be under his eye a      
pointer moving over a graduated scale4  
,the instant the sound ceases he reads  
the range denoted by the index and      
scale4 ,the information is then conveyed
 in any desired way to the men at the   
guns2 these1 of course1 being aimed by a
 scale corresponding to that under the  
eye of the man at the telephone4 ,the   
plan is not here detailed as technical  

information valuable to the casual      
reader1 but as showing the wide range of
 electrical applications in fields where
 possible usefulness would not have been
 so much as suspected a few years ago4  
,the same gentleman1 ,lieut4 ,fiske1 is 
also the author of ingenious electrical 
appliances for the working of those     
immense gun-carriages that have grown   
too big for men to move1 and for the    
hoisting into their cavernous breeches  
of shot and shell4 ,the men who work    
these guns now do not need to see the   
enemy1 even through the porthole or the 
embrasure4 ,they can attend strictly to 
the business of loading and firing1     
assisted by machines nearly or quite    
automatic1 and can cant and lay the     
piece by an index1 and fire with an     
electric lanyard4 ,the genius of science
 has taken the throne vacated by the    
goddess of glory4 ,the sailor has gone1 
and the expert mechanician has taken his
 place4 ,the tar and his training have  
given way to the register1 the gauge and

 the electrometer4 ,the big black guns  
are no longer run backward amid shouts  
and flying splinters1 and rammed by men 
stripped to the waist and shrouded in   
the smoke of the last discharge1 but    
swing their long and tapering muzzles to
 and fro out of steel casemates1 and    
tilt their ponderous breeches like huge 
grotesque animals lying down4 ,the grim 
machinery of naval battle is moved by   
invisible hands1 and its enormous weight
 is swayed and tilted by a concealed and
 silent wire4  ,this strange slave1 that
 toils unmoved in the din of battle1 has
 been reduced to domestic servitude of  
the plainest character4 ,the            
demonstrations made of cooking by       
electricity at the great fair of #ahic  
leave that service possible in the      
future without any question4 ,electrical
 ovens1 models of neatness1 convenience 
and coolness1 were shown at work4 ,they 
were made of wood1 lined with asbestos1 
and were lighted inside with an         
incandescent lamp4 ,the degree of       

temperature was shown by a thermometer1 
and mica doors rendered the baking or   
roasting visible4 ,there could be no    
question of too much heat on one side   
and too little on another1 because      
switches placed at different points     
allowed of a cutting off1 or a turning  
on1 whenever needed4 ,laundry irons had 
an insulated pliable connection         
attached1 so that heat was high and     
constant at the bottom of the iron and  
not elsewhere4 ,there were all the      
appliances necessary for the broiling of
 steaks1 the making of coffee and the   
baking of cakes1 and the same mystery1  
which is no longer a mystery1 pervaded  
it all4 ,woman is also to become an     
electrician1 at least empirically1 and  
in time soon to come will understand her
 voltage and her ,ampres as she now does
 her drafts and dampers and the quality 
of her fuel4  ,it is a practical fact   
that chickens are hatched by the        
thousand by the electrical current1 and 
that men have discovered more than      

nature knew about the period of         
incubation1 and have reduced it by      
electricity from twenty-one to nineteen 
days4 ,the proverb about the value of   
the time of the incubating hen has      
passed into antiquity with all things   
else in the presence of electrical      
science4  ,whenever an ,american        
mechanician1 a manufacturer or an       
inventor1 is confronted by a difficulty 
otherwise insolvable he turns to        
electricity4 ,its laws and qualities are
 few4 ,they seem now to be nearly all   
known1 but the great curiosity of modern
 times is the almost infinite number of 
applications which these laws and       
qualities may be made to serve4 ,one may
 turn at a single glance from the       
loading and firing of naval guns to the 
hatching of chickens and the cooking of 
chocolate by precisely the same means1  
silently used in the same way4 ,most of 
these applications1 and all the most    
extraordinary ones1 are of ,american    
origin4 ,their inventors are largely    

unknown4 ,there is no attempt made here 
to more than suggest the possibilities  
of the near future by a glimpse of the  
present4 ,the generation that is rising1
 the boy who is ten years old1 should   
easily know more of electrical science  
than ,franklin did4 ,there are certain  
primal laws by which all explanations of
 all that now is1 and most probably of  
almost all that is to come so far as    
principles go1 may be readily           
understood1 and these ,i have           
endeavored1 in this and preceding       
chapters1 to explain4  ,there are in the
 ,united ,states new applications of    
electricity literally every day4 ,before
 the written page is printed some       
startling application is likely to be   
made that gives to that page at once an 
incompleteness it is impossible to guard
 against or avoid4 ,there is a strong   
inclination to prophesy2 to tell of that
 which is to come2 to picture the warmed
 and illuminated future1 smokeless and  
odorless1 and the homes in which the    

children of the near future shall be    
reared4 ,some of those few apprehended  
things1 suggested as being possible or  
desirable in these chapters1 have been  
since done and the author has seen them4
 ,this ,american facility of electrical 
invention has one great cause1 one      
specific reason for its fruitfulness4   
,it is because so many acute minds have 
mastered the simple laws of electrical  
action4 ,this knowledge not only fosters
 intelligent and fruitful experiment but
 it prevents the doing of foolish       
things4 ,no man who has acquired a      
knowledge of mechanical forces1 who     
understands at least that great law that
 for all force exerted there is exacted 
an equivalent1 ever dreams upon the     
folly of the perpetual motion4 ,in like 
manner does a knowledge1 purely         
theoretical1 of the laws of electricity 
prevent that waste of time in gropings  
and dreams of which the story of science
 and the long human struggle in all ages
 and in all departments is full4        

,finally1 ,i would1 if possible dispell 
all ideas of strangeness and mystery and
 semi-miracle as connected with         
electrical phenomena4 ,there is no      
mystery2 above all1 there is no caprice4
 ,there are1 in electricity and in all  
other departments of science1 still many
 things undiscovered4 ,it is certain    
that causes lead far back into that     
realm which is beyond present human     
investigation4 ,force has innumerable   
manifestations that are visible1 that   
are understood1 that are controlled4    
,its origin is behind the veil4 ,a      
thousand branching threads of argument  
may be taken up and woven into the      
single strand that leads into the       
unknown4 ,out of the thought that is    
born of things has already arisen a new 
conception of the universe1 and of the  
,eternal ,mind who is its master4 ,among
 these things1 these daily              
manifestations of a seeming mystery1 the
 most splendid are the phenomena of     
electricity4 ,they court the human      

understanding and offer a continual     
challenge to that faculty which alone   
distinguishes humanity from the beasts4 
,the assistance given in the preceding  
pages toward a clear understanding of   
the reason why1 so far as known1 is     
perhaps inadequate1 but is an attempt   
offered for what of interest or value   
may be found4