,,! ,,p$igree ,,( ,,fascism ,a ,,popul> ,,essay ,,on ,,! ,,we/]n ,,philosophy ,,( ,,politics ,,by ,,al9e ,,lion ,lady ,m>g>et ,hall1 ,oxon4 ,,london3 ,,%e$ ,,w>d #ca1 ,,pat]no/] ,,r[1 ,e4,c4 #d ,,to ,,john ,,walt]1 ,,esq41 ,,to ,,^: ,,que/ions ,i ,,owe ,,! ,,fir/ ,,idea ,,( ,,?is ,,book4 ,a4 ,l4 ,fir/ ,publi%$1 #aibg ,,cont5ts ,"p ,i ,,! ,,political ,,antec$5ts ,,( ,,fascism ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4 ,is ,fascism a ,revolution8 #c ,,ii4 ,lib]alism 9 ,italy #aj ,,iii4 ,nationalism & ,socialism #bc ,,iv4 ,! ,european ,w> & its ,effects #cg ,"p ,,ii ,,philosophical ,,antec$5ts ,,( ,,fascism ,i4 ,philosophical ,antec$5ts #eh ,,ii4 ,humanism & ,r5aissance #gj ,,iii4 ,! ,sev5te5? ,c5tury #ib ,,iv4 ,! ,sev5te5? ,c5tury 9 ,france #aad ,v4 ,giambatti/a ,vico #abe ,,vi4 ,illum9ism 9 ,engl& & ,france #acg ,,vii4 ,n9ete5? ,c5tury 9 ,italy #aed ,,viii4 ,b5$etto ,croce #agj ,,ix4 ,giovanni ,g5tile #ahi ,x4 ,b5ito ,mussol9i #baa ,index #bce ,,au?or',s ,,note ,i %\ld1 p]haps1 say f ! fir/ t ,i am nei!r ,italian nor ,fasci/4 ,yet1 hav+ liv$ 9 ,italy f #aiac to #aibg1 ,i _c b be consci\s ( ! fact t ! c\ntry has und]gone a deep *ange1 & h come to ! conclusion t x is a *ange = ! bett]4 ,my purpose 9 writ+ ?is book has be5 to br+ to ! k ( p possess$ ( a fair am\nt ( g5]al k1 ! conclusions t might be =m$ by a speciali/ ) reg>d to ?is *ange & ! value ( x4 ,incid5tally ,i h endeav\r$ to disc\rage bo? ^? :o w\ld import ,fascism1 z x fl\ri%es 9 ,italy1 into o!r c\ntries1 & ^? :o w\ld h9d] ! spread ( t philosophy :i*1 ,i hold1 is its basis4 ,x is necess>y to avoid1 :5 possible1 def9itely p>tisan s\rces ( in=mation2 !re=e ,i h turn$ to ! works ( ,mi*ele ,rosi = ! hi/ory ( politics & to ,fr$]ick ,w9delb& = ! hi/ory ( philosophy :]ev] g5]al read+ has prov$ inadequate or my memory fail$4 ,9 conclusion ,i mu/ (f] special ?anks to ,sir ,frank ,fox = 8 c>eful read+ ( my manuscript & 8 invaluable sugge/ion ) reg>d to x4 ,i am also mo/ grateful to ! foll[+ :om ,i h consult$ z to hi/orical or philosophical accuracy--,pr(essor ,g4 ,a4 ,smi?1 ,pr(essor ,g4 ,c4 ,webb1 ,mrs4 ,anne ,mac,cormick1 ,miss ,jamison1 ,miss ,m>y ,coate & ,mr4 ,r4 ,g4 ,coll+wood4 ,,al9e ,,lion4 ,lady ,m>g>et ,hall1 ,ox=d4 ,"p ,i ,,! ,,political ,,antec$5ts ,,( ,,fascism ,,*apt] ,i ,,is ,,fascism ,a ,,revolution8 ,if "o may judge ( ! importance ( a political ev5t by ! numb] ( articles & books pr9t$ on ! subject !re is no "q b t ,fascism is "o ( ! mo/ important movem5ts ( ! po/-w> _w4 ,/range to say1 h[ev]1 ! light ?r[n by mo/ ( ^! publications fails to illum9ate ! po9ts mo/ int]e/+ to =eign]s4 ,?is is probably due fir/ ( all to ! fact t mo/ ( ! writ]s h writt5 ei!r = or aga9/ x2 moreov]1 ?is movem5t1 be+ peculi>ly ,italian1 is difficult = a =eign m9d to grasp4 ,9 any case1 x is a fact t 9 spite ( all ! good or bad w ( ! j\rnali/s ?is revolution is f> f be+ und]/ood4 ,! lack ( intellig5t in=mation reg>d+ x is felt ev]y:]e2 & x w\ld be difficult to say :e!r ! misrepres5tation is great] among ^? :o admire x &1 see+ 9 x a univ]sal rem$y = all mod]n woes1 want to introduce its me?od 9 o!r c\ntries2 or among ^? :o consid] x j z a matt] ( incid5tal & local politics4 ,i %all try to put x 9 its hi/orical sett+1 & ,i %all consid] myself =tunate if ,i c ?r[ light on its relation to ! political pa/ ( ,italy1 & to ! pres5t political conceptions ( o!r c\ntries4 ,! fir/ "q t inv>iably arises is :e!r ,fascism is or is n a revolution4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 mu/ be answ]$ by ano!r3 :at is a revolution8 ,no ^w /&s 9 great] ne$ ( a s\nd1 common-s5se def9ition1 yet a def9ition ( x /&s on ! v ?re%old ( any imp>tial rese>* on ,fascism4 ,is revolution m]ely a *ange ( gov]nm5t8 ,?is is n suffici5t4 ,if x 71 ! fall ( ,l\is ,philippe f ! ?rone ( ,france w\ld be a revolution2 yet x is obvi\sly by a lic5se t "o speaks ( x z ! ,revolution ( '#dh4 ,! =m ( gov]nm5t may *ange )\t any sub/antial alt]ation ( ! rgime4 ,!n does revolution imply a *ange ( rgime8 ,yes1 b1 aga91 :at is exactly a *ange ( rgime8 ,)\t foll[+ any fur!r ?is me?od ( inve/igation let u def9e ,fascism z ! introduction ( a new conception ( ! relation betwe5 ,/ate & ,citiz51 a new conception ( political reality4 ,x is1 !re=e1 a doctr9e1 a sy/em1 & z su* is philosophy express+ itself 9 hi/ory4 ,?is admitt$1 x is necess>y to gu>d aga9/ ! ab/ract b5t4 ( philosophical rese>*es4 ,! deepe/ curr5ts ( speculative ?\ght w\ld nev] br+ ab\t a s+le *ange ( gov]nm5t by !mselves2 b !n !y d n exi/ by !mselves4 ,x is only 9 ! syn!sis ( hi/ory t we f9d !m at play 9 ! _w ( hi/orical reality1 :i* is :at x is because ?\ghts & de$s are "o4 ,! ,m>* on ,rome did c]ta9ly m>k ! conflu5ce ( two /reams com+ to m+le _! wat]s betwe5 ! banks ( ! ,tib]4 ,"o 0 torr5tial1 ! impulse com+ f a fifty ye>s' accumulation ( economic & political mi/akes 9 ,italy4 ,! o!r 0 deep]1 sl[]1 ! contribution ( c5turies ( ,italian philosophy enri*$ by ! intellectual ?\ght ( all ,europe4 ,! torr5t is repres5t$ by ! political antec$5ts ( ,fascism3 ! deep /ream by ! philosophical antec$5ts ( ,fascism4 ,to illu/rate my figure a p]iod ( hi/ory pres5ts itself z an example4 ,x does n correspond exactly to ! pres5t movem5t 9 ,italy1 b x is at any rate famili> to "o & all3 ! ,fr5* ,revolution4 ,we see !re1 also1 ! typical /ream ( philosophical life c>v+ a deep b$ = ! riv] to come3 9 ! m9ds ( intellectuals1 9 ! consci\sness ( ! p1 ab/ract !ories or works ( arti/ic vulg>isation1 prep>e ! b$ = ! riv] t w become1 "u ! impulsion ( actual circum/ances1 an irresi/ible torr5t4 ,s t ?is revolution ^: intellectual p$igree makes x ! (fspr+ ( ,desc>tes1 & ,hobbes1 ( ,grotius1 ,locke & ! ,engli% political writ]s1 besides ! ,encyclopdi/s1 ,voltaire & ,r\sseau1 has to ! highe/ degree ! qualities t make x an elem5t ( univ]sal life1 & a f]tilis+ pr9ciple 9 ! politics ( all ,europe4 ,on ! o!r h& x receives1 und\bt$ly f ! economic & political conditions ( ,france1 ! p>ticul> det]m9ations t di/+ui% x z ,fr5*1 z belong+ to ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,! =m x took actually betwe5 #agij & #agie c\ld n be introduc$ any:]e else2 "u t =m x 0 exclusively ,fr5*1 because--we mu/ insi/ on ! po9t--x _h receiv$ x z its actual & concrete det]m9ation f its imm$iate antec$5ts4 ,actuation1 realisation1 concrete life1 :atev] ! field we move 91 :e!r we consid] politics1 arti/ic creation1 or natural life1 x requires two elem5ts1 ! "o univ]sal1 ! o!r p>ticul>4 ,n[ hi/ory %[s t ! univ]sal elem5t spreads1 not)/&+ fronti]s & ! w ( m54 ,its =ce ( expansion is a quality common to all ideas2 b ! p>ticul> is n to be import$1 & x is z impossible to introduce x 9 =eign l&s z x is to conf9e ! o!r to any l&4 ,h5ce ! political applications ( ! same !ories 9 diff]5t c\ntries diff] f ea* o!r z d ! c\ntries !mselves4 ,^! diff]5ces1 economic1 political1 religi\s1 intellectual1 9 a ^w ! hi/orical diff]5ces exi/+ betwe5 two c\ntries det]m9e ! diff]5ces t ! same !ory w und]go :5 x is adopt$ by ! p ( diff]5t nations4 ,! ,italian patriots at ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury 7 v few1 & all1 )\t exception1 intellectuals4 ,"s belong$ to ! high] or l[] ari/ocracy1 "s belong$ to ! upp] middle class1 b all 7 s*ol>s1 m5 ( ! wide/ read+4 ,x w\ld be difficult to f9d n[adays a body ( m5 s well in=m$4 ,= "o ?+1 production has increas$ imm5sely & life has lo/ ! leisure t all[$ intellectual ta/es to be satisfi$4 ,! fact rema9s t at ! close ( t c5tury ,italy c\ld boa/ ( m5 aw>e ( its inf]ior position1 ( its non-exi/5ce z a nation4 ,su* m5 7 ready to try any?+1 & did try to imitate ! ,fr5* revolution 9 s f> z !y c\ld by f\nd+ ! small republics t la/$ "o season or two1 dy+ away l plants ( di/ant c\ntries1 :5 !y are plant$ 9 our soil4 ,_! zeal1 h[ev]1 0 n /]ile1 !y fail$ 9 _! imm$iate purpose1 because !y want$ to introduce n only ideas b ! actual =m 9 :i* ^! 7 express$4 ,a con/itution1 a battle1 ! plan ( a t[n1 a project ( economic re=m1 ea* ( ^! ?+s is an expression end[$ ) an /hetic value v>y+ ) ! degree ( p]fection atta9$ by ! man :o work$ x out1 & gave ! idea t prompt$ him a suitable realisation4 ,b ! ess5tial quality ( ! /hetic creator is to be on a p>ticul> !me1 ! voice ( 8 "t & ( ! body ( m5 he repres5ts 9 8 act ( creation4 ,! m5 ( ! revolution 7 by no means fair repres5tatives ( ! p ( ,france2 b :5 !y drew up ! con/itution !y c]ta9ly realis$ on ! :ole ! desid]ata ( mo/ ,fr5*m54 ,giv+ expression1 giv+ =m to ! ideas t _h agitat$ ! :ole c5tury1 !y did x 9 ! only way t c\ld be a ,fr5* way 9 ^? days4 ,n[ ! w ( ,napoleon1 :5 he wi%$ ,italy to be politically a copy ( ,france1 0 a v empirical w1 & ! m5 :o tri$ to c>ry out 8 wi%es because !y lov$ ,italy 7 n any m transc5d5tal4 ,9 ?is "q !y took no notice ( :at 7 ! spiritual & political conditions ( _! c\ntry1 & yet surely a con/itution is an expression ( m9d4 ,9 all ?is h[ev] _! blund] pav$ ! way to a bett] und]/&+ ( ! matt]4 ,ev]ybody realis$ t 9 ord] to h any?+ l an indep5d5t gov]nm5t ! fir/ ?+ 0 to be a great & unifi$ c\ntry4 ,:5 ! ideas t _h l$ 9 ,france to ! ,revolution & ,republic 7 develop$ 9 ,italy1 accord+ to ! m5tality ( ! great ,italians1 !y bl5d$ ) all t 0 p>ticul> to ,italy & express$ !mselves 9 an ,italian movem5t3 ! ,risorgim5to4 ,x _c be ov] emphasis$1 = ! importance ( ! po9t is great2 ! same ideas t caus$ ! ,republic to become = m ?an a c5tury ! =m ( ,fr5* gov]nm5t1 gave bir? to ! ,k+dom ( ,italy4 ,r\ghly1 ! same c be said ( ,fascism4 ,its ideas & doctr9e w spread :e!r !y meet ) fav\r or ho/ility1 because !y are ,italian j z ,lib]alism is ,engli%1 t is to say !y are ,italian 9 _! me?ods ( actuation & p]fectly univ]sal 9 _! philosophical cont5t4 8,equality1 frat]nity1 lib]ty10 0 ! eighte5? c5tury cry1 & x might be ! cry ( ! ,fasci/s4 ,_! revolution>y contribution to ! hi/ory ( politics is ! d5ial ( natural rights1 natural rights be+ und]/ood z some?+ ! det]m9ation ( :i* is ant]ior to ! bir? ( man1 z ! quality ( a cabbage or a rose tree is ant]ior to its bir?4 ,"r is s n>r[ly l9k$ to duty t = ?is s*ool ( ?\ght x _c be ant]ior to consci\sness4 ,!re=e man mu/ be consid]$ & rat$ 9 ! ,/ate only accord+ to spiritual value & actual economic or intellectual int]e/4 ,! natural rights ( man are d5i$4 ,! spiritual value1 entitl+ man to citiz5%ip1 _c be acquir$ by him once = all & enjoy$ )\t ef=t4 ,he mu/ daily & cont9u\sly be work+ = ! v9dication ( ! rights he has won1 & = ! conque/ ( ^? he seeks4 ,citiz5%ip is n a *attel ly+ 9 a man's possession3 its only reality is b\nd to ! p]=m+ ( ! duties correlative ( rights4 ,!re ,fascism meets ) all our religi\s communities2 9 all ,israelite & ,*ri/ian ,communities or ,*ur*es ! new-born *ild is admitt$ on ! pl$ge1 tak5 = him by sponsors1 t he w dis*>ge 8 duties & accept ! law ( ! community ( :i* he becomes a memb]4 ,su* a pl$ge he has to confirm on 8 com+ to adult /ate4 ,citiz5%ip becomes1 f9ally1 ) ! :ole ( political reality1 a moral1 spiritual & ,*ri/ian reality1 & ! only real equality ( m5 c be atta9$ 9 a ,/ate 9 :i* ea* man is rat$ accord+ to actual value4 ,= citiz5%ip1 tak5 z a bir?right ( man1 is a rema9s ( ,pagan times1 :5 x 0 ! lot ( "s to be born slaves & ( "s to be born citiz5s4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,lib]alism ,,9 ,,italy ,= ! =eign] int]e/$ 9 ! political affairs ( ,italy a /udy ( ! p$igree ( ! two elem5ts ( ,fascism is ess5tial 9 ord] to di/+ui% :at is exclusively ,italian f :at is to become univ]sal4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to trace1 or at lea/ attempt to trace1 ?is p$igree 9 spite ( ! difficulty ( ! task4 ,fascism pres5ts itself at fir/ z be+ ess5tially ! expression ( ! national consci\sness ( ,italy4 ,s x is2 b x mu/ be /at$ at once t x is ! national consci\sness rec5tly acquir$ by ! p ( ,italy1 :i*1 l an uncontrollable =ce1 has work$ itself out1 tak+ ,fascism z its expression4 ,)\t ?is di/9ction ! /ud5t is induc$ by its nationali/ "* to see 9 ! pres5t movem5t ! la/ act ( ! long drama ( w>s & agitations t l$ to ! indep5d5ce & unification ( ! c\ntry4 ,! tru? is1 t ?\gh x is practically ! epilogue ( t drama1 ,fascism _c be id5tifi$ ) ! ,risorgim5to4 ,! _s :i* animat$ ! m5 ( ! days ( ,cav\r & ,g>ibaldi is totally & ess5tially diff]5t f t :i* impels ! foll[]s ( ,mussol9i to act z !y d4 ,! w>s ( indep5d5ce 7 due to ! initiative ( an ari/ocratic m9ority2 ^: ari/ocratic & intellectual qualities di/+ui%$ !m & p]haps ensur$ _! success4 ,! lead]s ( ! ,risorgim5to 7 n hamp]$ by any?+ l a popul> foll[+2 & _! ev5tual agreem5t z to :at 0 be/ = _! cause 0 always made c]ta9 by ?is intellectual selectness4 ,all 7 able1 l ,g>ibaldi & ,mazz9i1 to see ?+s z !y 7 & to act accord+ly1 n only to ! ext5t ( sacrific+ _! lives b ( sacrific+ _! de>e/ ideals z well4 ,republicans1 !y accept$ mon>*y2 m9i/]s1 ( _! own free w !y rel9qui%$ p[] to place x 9 h&s !y ?\ght m fit ?an _! own to realise _! dream2 /aun* ,ca?olics1 dur+ _! life !y f\ght ! ,*ur* 9 its temporal politics1 9 an age :5 ! be/ educat$ prie/s w\ld n admit & c\ld n ev5 see ! possibility ( di/9ction betwe5 temporal & spiritual p[]4 ,only religi\s & ideali/ic m5 c realise by h[ mu* su* sacrifices surpass$ = !m ! gift ( money1 lib]ty1 or ev5 life4 ,!re is "o ,engli% ^w t sums up :at ^! ,italian lib]ators 71 :e!r noblem51 solicitors1 writ]s1 pr(essors1 (fic]s1 doctors3 !y 7 g5tlem5 ( good classical education & wide read+ :o _h assimilat$ :at 0 be/ 9 ,europe4 ,! common p1 "o _c insi/ too mu* ^u ! fact1 rema9$ indiff]5t at be/1 & t only z long z _! int]e/s 7 n affect$2 ! l[] middle class 7 ho/ile1 t is to say ! %op p & all ! multitude ( small function>ies :o saw _! daily bread dep5d5t on ! exi/+ /ate ( ?+s1 7 op5ly aga9/ any *ange4 ,h[ c\ld su* p feel ! ne$ or see ! possibility ( build+ up a nation1 "o nation1 out ( ! h>lequ9 coat pres5t$ by ! map ( ,italy8 ,?us a free h& 0 gu>ante$ to ! small numb] ( ,italian g5tlem5 !n end[$ ) h]oic s\ls4 ,!y _h nobody to consult1 !y 7 a ,/ate 9 !mselves1 a ,/ate )\t a l[] class4 ,p]haps = ! la/ "t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w we see !re realis$ ! classical republic )\t a political plebs4 ,no wond] t !y work$ a miracle2 !y belong$ politically to diff]5t /ates1 & yet by ! =ce ( _! ideal !y atta9$ t on5ess ( consci5ce :i* gives p]sonality & reality to a nation4 ,! _s ( ! nation exi/$ be=e its mat]ial realisation2 !re is no bett] illu/ration ( ! new notion t ,fascism is br++ to ! =e 9 ! _w ( concrete hi/ory1 t ( ! nation z a spiritual reality1 indep5d5t ( geographical & e?nographical det]m9ations4 ,nev] 9 hi/ory has ?is notion receiv$ a m complete & actual realisation ?an 9 ?is fir/ dawn ( ! national life 9 ,italy4 ,! reality ( ! nation _h its fir/ affirmation 9 ! sacrifice ( ^! m51 = x is obvi\s t no sob] man w\ld give up life1 lib]ty1 weal?1 = some?+ unreal2 &1 9 fact1 ! reality ( ,italy z a nation ceas$ to be que/ion$ !n & !re4 ,e advantage1 ( c\rse1 has its disadvantage4 ,z ! pione]s ( ! ,risorgim5to did n ne$ ! p1 !y ov]look$ all ! problems t ! necessity ( obta9+ popul> collaboration w\ld h compell$ !m to face4 ,all economic & social que/ions 7 ov]look$ except by a v few2 ! spiritual education ( ! l[] class 0 n ev5 sugge/$ 9 _! programme ( action4 ,_! aims 7 ! indep5d5ce & ! political unity ( ,italy1 & to t goal !y direct$ _! he>ts & m9ds indiff]5t to ! ne$s ( practical life1 & to all ! ob/acles t seem$ to make _! dream a !me = ! lyrical effusions ( poets4 ,9 fact !y 7 poets1 all ( !m1 = !y creat$ a reality out ( an ideal vision t 0 m an intuition ?an an intellectual conception4 ,! v mann] 9 :i* !y c>ri$ out _! revolution 0 /hetic m ?an practical2 !y %ut _! eyes to all t 0 9 contradiction to _! dream1 exactly z ! arti/ does :o /rives to express an intuition ?r\gh mat]ial realisation1 & 9 ord] n to let ! objective _w cr[d 8 m9d delib]ately %uts 8 eyes to x1 to ev]y?+ t is n 8 pres5t ideal4 ,! economic & social que/ions c\ld n 9 any case h be5 fac$1 /ill less dealt )1 z long z ! nation 0 n a political reality4 ,any attempt w\ld h be5 /]ile & p]haps ev5 h>mful4 ,fir/1 x w\ld h l$ ! p to believe t "u ! !n pres5t conditions ! economic organisation ( ea* little /ate might h be5 s plann$ z to ensure ! mat]ial well-be+ ( ! population1 t !y c\ld receive a great] %>e ( political importance & !re=e ( adm9i/rative att5tion f ! local gov]nm5ts & ?us be bett] (f 9 ! h>lequ9 coat ?an "u ! flag ( a unit$ ,italy4 ,x 01 moreov]1 exp$i5t to hold to ! s+l5ess ( purpose t 0 m likely to make action coh]5t all ?r\gh ! p59sula2 only su* s+l5ess ( aim made x possible to m5 ( s diff]5t temp]am5t & bre$+ z pr(essional m5 & noblem51 ,tuscans & ,sicilians1 ,freemasons & ard5t ,ca?olics1 to ?9k & !re=e to act 9 positive h>mony4 ,:5 a bullet has hit ! bull's-eye x has fulfill$ its purpose1 & /ays !re 9 helpless immobility or falls to ! gr\nd a useless ?+4 ,x 0 meant = t %ot1 & is b\nd to be purposeless :5 x has made its m>k4 ,! g5]ations ( ,c>lo ,alb]to & ,mazz9i1 ( ,vittorio ,emmanuele & ,cav\r1 _h c]ta9ly hit ! m>k :5 ,rome _h become ! capital ( ,italy4 ,0 x to be expect$ t m5 :o _h id5tifi$ !mselves ) ! goal %\ld be able to take ano!r goal & fit !mselves to a new task8 ,or c\ld x be t ! realisation ( ! new ,/ate %\ld br+1 z its imm$iate consequ5ce1 a ready-made g5]ation ( /atesm58 ,inde$1 if !re is "o ?+ t _c be produc$ by a magic w&1 x is a body ( able & tra9$ political m54 ,:5 ! days ( h]oic de$s 7 ov] ! mak]s ( ,italy turn$ to ! gov]nm5t ( ! new realm & f\nd !mselves fac$ by all ! problems ( national life4 ,inspiration & idealism prov$ out ( place1 & al?\gh !irs 01 :at w\ld h be5 call$ 9 ,engl& or 9 ,france1 a ,cons]vative gov]nm5t1 !y _h to rely on a v /range electoral body4 ,:ile !y did n ext5d ! vote at once1 !y f\nd 9 ! middle class a set ( ,arrivi/s ) an imp]ative egoism t 0 to prove ! curse ( political life 9 ,italy4 ,x is difficult = an ,engli%1 ,fr5*1 or ,am]ican citiz5 to realise ! k9d ( problems ) :i* ^! m5 7 beset4 ,above all x is difficult to an ,engli%man2 ,engl& has _h five or six c5turies ( political exp]i5ce1 a l5g? ( "t suffici5t to produce electors & m&atories able to realise :at are ! duties ( ! executive z well z ( ! legislature4 ,9 ,italy1 on ! o!r h&1 ! n9ete5? c5tury has se5 all /age ( political developm5t succe$+ "o ano!r 9 a hurly-burly t has a good deal 9 common ) ! succession ( ! ev5ts ( a man's life on a c9ema film4 ,he passes f *ildhood to y\?1 & on to manhood1 maturity & old age 9 a c\ple ( h\rs4 ,if he actually c\ld cr[d all exp]i5ce into a c\ple ( ye>s ! proportion w\ld be bett]2 b he w\ld h no fair] notion ( reality & ( 8 own rights & duties at any /age ( 8 life ?an ! ,italians c\ld be expect$ to h :5 !y _h to pass 9 less ?an fifty ye>s ?r\gh ! political /ages successively exp]i5c$ by ! p ( o!r c\ntries 9 sev]al c5turies4 ,n[ no /ud5t ( ! hi/ory ( politics1 or ev5 ( art1 ignores ! fact t :5 a nation has rea*$ a political or arti/ic =m x is 9 ! process ( gett+ a ma/]y ( t =m t criticisms arise1 & t out ( criticism comes ! idea1 confus$ at fir/1 !n cle>] & cle>]1 ( ! =m t is to sup]s$e x4 ,?is is1 9 fact1 ! process ( dialectic3 x is ! dialectic ( hi/ory2 & 9 spite ( ! wi% to avoid any special t]m9ology1 x is bett] to call ! process by its own "n4 ,at fir/ p /ruggle to rea* a c]ta9 =m ( gov]nm5t1 & t mom5t ( dialectic ends :5 ! =m is rea*$2 !y !n apply x m & m fully &1 dur+ its application1 discov] its limitations2 ?is second mom5t ends 9 criticism ( ! :ole !ory2 f9ally !y set !mselves to rem$y its %ortcom+s4 ,?is la/ mom5t co9cides 9 ! p ) ! free consci\sness ( dissatisfaction1 & 9 ! lead]s ) a cle> und]/&+ ( ! new t5d5cies to be satisfi$1 s t x is n !oretical to say t ! p le>n to use a new =m :il/ !y are us+1 !n disc>d+1 ! "o t came be=e x4 ,9 ,italy no?+ ( ! sort happ5$4 ,! int]national culture ( its s*ol>s put !m 9 contact ) all t 0 be/ or wor/ 9 ! politics ( ,europe4 ,!y w\ld h be5 a%am$ to be beh9dh& 9 :at 0 consid]$ social progress4 ,!n two uncommon factors came into play aft] #ahgj4 ,to make ,italy1 x _h be5 necess>y to trample ^u a good deal ( hi/orical tradition4 ,n all ! local gov]nm5ts 7 z bad dur+ ! eighte5? c5tury z !y 7 said to be4 ,moreov]1 p>am\nt _h be5 ! pre/ige ( ! ,popes4 ,aga9/ all ! ,cons]vative =ces ! m5 ( ! ,risorgim5to _h appe>$ z a lot ( ,jacob9s2 !y _h to fight ! ,*ur* 9 its temporal p[]1 & al?\gh ?is p[] 0 n ess5tial to religion x _h beh9d x a tradition ( t5 c5turies4 ,) ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,popes ! :ole ,italian civilisation 0 closely connect$2 inde$1 ! be/ bra9s ( ,italy h always realis$ t1 :atev] ! faults ( ! ,*ur*1 ,italy is fir/ ( all a ,ca?olic c\ntry4 ,anti-cl]icals 9 _! political activity1 m5 l de ,sanctis1 w\ld n h pr9t$ a ^w aga9/ ! ,*ur* z hi/orians4 ,inde$1 ! greate/ ?9k]s ( ! "t1 ,giob]ti & ,rosm9i1 tri$ v h>d to be good ,ca?olics & great philosoph]s at ! same "t4 ,yet s9ce !y c\ld n d\bt t ,italy mu/ h ,rome = its capital z ! seal ( its political unity1 ! ,popes _h to be depriv$ ( _! temporal sov]eignty4 ,! feel+ ab\t ,rome 0 "o ( hi/orical my/icism1 & seldom1 if ev]1 h m5 f\nd !mselves ?r[n into an irreligi\s attitude by a s5tim5t ( t k9d4 ,no contradiction c\ld h be5 m pr(\nd1 = x br\ght ^! ard5t lov]s ( _! remote/ pa/ to make use ( =ces t 7 antagoni/ic to ! "o in/itution t l9k$ _! pres5t to ?is same pa/4 ,h[ev]1 !re 0 no alt]native2 adopt+ ,illum9ism z "o ( ! *ief curr5ts animat+ mod]n life1 !y _h z _! mo/ preci\s support ! anti-,ca?olic movem5t1 to :i*1 z a matt] ( fact1 a great _m ( !m belong$4 ,anti-,ca?olicism _h a great weakness 9 t x 0 n a national product1 b _h be5 introduc$ into political life z a necess>y /imulant to r\se ! p f _! slumb]s1 z w be se5 lat] on2 n[ t !y 7 awake x divid$ ! nation & prev5t$ ! weld+ ( ! new tradition to its hi/ory ( tw5ty c5turies4 ,! /atesm5 ( ?is epo* _h no exp]i5ce ( ! adm9i/ration & gov]nm5t ( a big ,/ate3 !y 7 n consci\s ( ! problems ( int]national relations2 !y knew no?+ ( ! economic & social exig5cies ( a population exce$+ ?irty millions ( s\ls4 ,! p _h no political education :atsoev]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! lead]s w\ld n be retrograde & became m & m lib]al1 at a rate t did n all[ ! p to be prep>$ by exp]i5ce = successive /eps 9 popul> gov]nm5t4 ,! sequ5ce ( re=ms 0 n hi/orical1 0 n dialectical3 x did n correspond ) ! spiritual & economic developm5t ( ! p1 b 0 introduc$ to make up = lo/ "t & br+ ,italy up to ! ,we/]n ,european level z fa/ z possible4 ,) no tradition to make up balla/1 ! s-call$ 8,"r0 c\ld n be t]m$ ,cons]vative because x orig9at$ 9 a revolution1 & x kept its old ideal z a t>get aft] x _h be5 realis$1 & !re=e _h ceas$ to be a pr9ciple ( action4 ,:at 0 to be expect$ "u su* conditions8 ,! wond] is t ! nation did n g to pieces1 & t ! "w ( two g5]ations ( con/ructive m5 0 n de/roy$ by _! incapacity to husb& :at !y _h creat$4 ,9 ! face ( su* facts "o _c help ?9k+ ( ,vico & 8 id5tification ( div9e ,provid5ce ) ! rationality ( hi/ory4 ,?is p 0 politically at ! nurs]y /age2 x _h no mod]n political sci5ce ( its own1 & !re=e none ( its legislative acts 7 bas$ on actual & practical und]/&+ ( :at 7 ! national necessities4 ,!y 7 inspir$ by ! example ( =eign gov]nm5ts &1 consequ5tly1 c\ld n meet ,italy's peculi> necessities4 ,:at did = ! o!rs c\ld n d = ,italy4 ,yet x 0 impossible to keep back a p s well in=m$ ( mod]n progress4 ,! ,italian ,lib]als1 x mu/ be said = _! immortal fame1 _h ! cle>-sight$ness necess>y to atta9 _! aims1 inasmu* z !y _h r$uc$ !m to a =mula t c\ld be accept$ by all ! o!r patriots4 8,italy1 "o & free10 0 _! aim1 & to ?is aim nobody c\ld object4 ,! flaw ( su* an aim is t x is too simple to correspond to actual reality4 ,x s\nds l an algebraical axiom1 &1 inde$1 is j z ab/ract 9 its basis z any ma!matical =mula4 ,= ! ,lib]als ! nation 0 exclusively con/itut$ by its t]ritorial expansion & by ! unification ( ! p ( ! diff]5t /ates !re9 includ$4 ,!y c\ld n *ange _! aim1 & :5 !y _h to adm9i/] ! new realm _! eag]ness & s+l5ess ( purpose (t5 bl9d$ !m to reality4 ,z ! unity !y _h rea*$ 0 =mal1 if "o c t]m x s1 _! legislation purposely ignor$ ! diff]5ces betwe5 ,sicilians & ,tuscans2 & 9 _! ha/e to unify int]nally :at 0 already ext]nally "o1 !y impos$ :at c\ld at be/ be =mal & artificial unity4 ,e annexation _h be5 prec$$ by a local /ruggle1 & success 0 n suffici5t to cause equanimity 9 ! triumphant p>ty4 ,all t _h exi/$ "u ! old rgime 0 an object ( hatr$ to ! ,lib]als2 & _! m9i/]s1 ev5 :5 !y kept above su* feel+s1 7 none ! less unable to discrim9ate betwe5 ! antiquat$ local laws & ^? t 7 /ill useful & ev5 good4 ,!y de/roy$ local in/itutions1 (t5 creat$ to meet actual requirem5ts1 to impose1 = in/ance1 ^u ! p ( ,sicily ,pi$montese laws1 ! inspiration ( :i* 0 usually import$ f ,france or ,engl&4 ,!y _h ! impression t x w\ld be dang]\s to ! unity ( ! c\ntry to keep "s ( ! local laws1 or to make new ones to meet ! p>ticul> ne$s ( ?is or t prov9ce4 ,9 ! m9ds ( ^! passionate creators ( unity1 unity 0 a q fragile affair1 produc$ by !m ex tempore2 !y did n see t x c\ld only be ! result ( a sl[ elaboration1 b\nd to g on = g5]ations1 & t ! f9al success ( _! ent]prise 0 m likely to be ensur$ by an intellig5t int]pretation ( tradition ?an by ! application ( exotic doctr9es t did n fit any ( ! hi/orical *>act]i/ics ( ! c\ntry4 ,! same s+l5ess ( vision 0 to prove bl9d+ 9 reg>d to sev]al o!r po9ts2 b x w be en\gh to /ate "h t ! fact t ! m5 :o _h sacrific$ !mselves to ! cause ( unity _h all be5 g5tlem51 l$ ^? 9 p[] to consid] ! high] classes z exclusively con/itut+ ! nation !y _h br\ght into be+4 ,! re/ 7 politically non-exi/5t2 & 9 ! ha/e to develop ! comm]cial & indu/rial possibilities ( ! c\ntry a good deal too mu* 0 done to en?rone capital & invite !reby ! adv5t ( ,socialism4 ,f9ally1 ano!r cause ( tr\ble--inde$1 ano!r consequ5ce ( ! same lack ( political tradition & education--0 ! impossibility ( =m+ prop] p>ty organisations4 ,:o 0 ,left--& :o 0 ,"r8 ,discrim9ation 0 impossible4 ,p>ties1 l all hi/orical organisms1 are call$ into be+ & develop$ accord+ to1 & 9 consequ5ce (1 ! political developm5t ( ! c\ntry4 ,9 ,italy !y _h to be produc$1 plann$ & organis$ all at once1 by ! m]e empirical decisions ( m51 :o1 :atev] _! ability1 or ! l(t9ess ( _! ideals1 c\ld n avoid ! arbitr>9ess & ! errors to :i* ! be/ individual m5 are subject1 limit$ z _! views are by _! p]sonal feel+s or ambitions4 ,!re=e1 :at happ5$ 0 ?is3 "s foll[]s ( ,mazz9i :o _h jo9$ ! ,lib]als 9 ! /ruggle = lib]ty1 /ood out z republicans2 "s :o _h foll[$ ,g>ibaldi & :o _h = t5 ye>s long$ to take ,rome f ! ,pope1 became anti-cl]ical democrats2 ! re/ 7 n to be cle>ly di/+ui%$ f "o ano!r because a man :o 0 a /aun* mon>*i/ may h be5 9 ! same "t anti-,ca?olic if he 0 a ,freemason1 :il/ ano!r might h _h /rong democratic t5d5cies & yet /& = tradition4 ,! be/ in/ance ( ?is may h be5 ,crispi3 he belong$ to ! ,left1 & c]ta9ly (t5 act$ & felt l a man ( ! ,"r4 ,su* confusion 0 to rea* its climax :51 aft] #ahff & #ahgj1 x 0 und]/ood t ! k+ & ! gov]nm5t1 hav+ obta9$ ! ,v5eto f ,au/ria1 _h giv5 up ! int5tion ( add+ ,tr5to & ,trie/e to ! k+dom4 ,!n ! extreme ,left jo9$ irr$5tism to its anti-,ca?olic activity4 ,!y w5t on speak+ ( ! e?nographic "r t su* prov9ces _h to claim !mselves z ,italian1 & !y artfully b\nd _! anti-religi\s campaign to a programme t s\nd$ highly ideali/ic4 ,no wond] t ! diff]5t gov]nm5ts t succe$$ ea* o!r %\ld lose _! "t fight+ ! gho/ ( f9ancial bankruptcy4 ,"o ?+ only c be br\ght aga9/ !m1 & x is t ?\gh all m5 ( great culture !y did n und]/& h[ unhi/orical 7 _! actions4 ,!y %\ld h kn[n t _! conception ( ,/ate & citiz51 _! idea ( :at is ! function ( ! gov]nm5t1 _h be5 tak5 ready made f o!r c\ntries & lazily accept$ )\t any prop] /udy ( its antec$5ts4 ,"s 7 ,anglophile1 "s "u _! new ,g]manophilism hid ! mo/ p]fect assimilation ( ,fr5* doctr9es tak5 9 _! easie/ &1 !re=e1 mo/ ab/ract =mulas4 ,none took lib]ty = :at ! ^w _h meant ( actual & positive political conque/ to ! av]age ,engli%man ( ! sev5te5? c5tury2 !y did n ev5 take x = :at x _h meant ( practical improvem5t to ! ,fr5*man ( ! eighte5? c5tury2 !y took x z a rhetorical figure ) an ab/ract concept beh9d x1 z soon z x ceas$ to mean indep5d5ce f =eign rule4 ,!y t]m$ !mselves ,lib]als1 h[ev]1 & :5 !y came to be m9i/]s ( a ,lib]al gov]nm5t !y pr(ess$ sometime a v curi\s notion ( :at su* a gov]nm5t %\ld be2 ,cairoli put x d[n 9 ?ree words1 reprim]e non prev5ire2 an excell5t motto p]haps1 :5 ! citiz5s are us$ to ! ex]cise ( _! duties & rights1 b soon prov$ to be dang]\s 9 a c\ntry :]e traditions _h be5 trampl$ ^u dur+ half a c5tury4 ,9 less ?an a decade ,italy 0 ! prey ( an>*y1 = 9 #ahgh1 ! same ,cairoli1 _h to def5d ! k+'s life 9 ,naples at ! risk ( 8 own1 & 9 ,flor5ce & ,pisa bombs 7 ?r[n aga9/ ! cr[ds rejoic+ ov] ! k+'s n>r[ escape4 ,! ,lib]als look$ at ! way legislation work$ 9 ,france & 9 ,engl&1 b1 l all foll[]s ( ,illum9ism1 !y took x = grant$ t !re exi/$ a c]ta9 k9d ( animal :i* 0 ! same :]ev] & :5ev] y f9d ,man1 & !y look$ at ! application ( ! sy/em1 n at its orig91 n at its philosophical & political antec$5ts2 9 %ort1 !y did n see t x 0 br\ght ab\t by ! :ole hi/ory ( ! c\ntries 9 :i* x fl\ri%$1 & !y believ$ t x w\ld "w :]ev] m5 liv$ toge!r 9 nations4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,nationalism ,,& ,,socialism ,"u su* circum/ances :at 0 ! gov]nm5t = ! political classes8 ,a coa* 9 a l& ( brig&s2 = ! mo/ popul> elem5ts a coa* to be attack$ on ! roadside2 = ! bett] elem5ts1 a coa* !y _h a "r to drive1 :ip 9 h&4 ,e man /ood up aga9/ ! gov]nm5t ei!r begg+ or ?reat5+2 s t x is no wond] t ! next g5]ation ( g5tlem5 mo/ly /ood aside & %unn$ politics1 see+ t at be/ ! m5 :o mix$ 9 x 7 mov$ by selfi% ambition1 or 7 a vulg> crew ( ,arrivi/s & mis*ief plott]s4 ,ab/5tion on ! "o side 01 h[ev]1 a =m ( selfi%ness1 z h>mful to ! /ate z ,arrivism on ! o!r4 ,provid$ !y kept clean h&s1 ! ab/5tioni/s did n m9d t ! national consci5ce %\ld be ei!r corrupt$ or lull$ to sleep by ! p ^: int]e/ x 0 t x %\ld slumb]4 ,obvi\sly _! )drawal f public life _h ! same cause z ! ambition & ! unscrupul\s opportunism ( ! o!rs4 ,aft] fifty ye>s ( h]oic life & feel+s1 !y want$ to att5d to _! own bus9ess & enjoy life privately4 ,public c>es & /ruggles _h be5 ! ord] ( ! day = half a c5tury1 & public consci5ce relax$2 ) a sudd5 eclipse ( national consci\sness1 ,italy lo/ ! pride ( autonomy 9 =eign affairs & ceas$ to realise 9 de$s ! "p x _h to play 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,its =eign policy is ! be/ index ( ! spiritual conditions ( ! p]iod1 & accord+ to ! hi/orian1 ,mi*ele ,rosi 7:o is nei!r a ,fasci/ nor a ,lib]al1 nor a ,sociali/1 because he is a man born to put toge!r facts1 hi/orical facts1 & live a passionate life among !m in/ead ( liv+ x among m57 ! l9e ( conduct ( ,italian =eign m9i/]s at ?is /age c be describ$ z ! policy ( m5 :o di/ru/$ !mselves m !n !y di/ru/$ o!rs4 ,rosi does n say s1 b ! facts he puts toge!r d say s4 ,( ?is ! be/ pro( 0 ! ,triple ,alliance4 ,9 #ahgc ,m>co ,m+hetti w5t ) ,k+ ,vittorio ,emmanuele ,,ii to ,b]l9 & to ,vi5na to discuss a second alliance ) ,g]many & m cordial relations ) ! ,au/rian c\rt4 ,! foll[]s ( ,g>ibaldi rais$ an outcry z !y saw 9 ?is a sure pro( t ! ,k+ ( ,italy 0 giv+ up ,tr5to & ,trie/e1 :]eas x _h nev] be5 ?\ght 9 ! pa/ t ,rome or ,v5ice might h be5 s ab&on$4 ,9 ,p>liam5t1 h[ev]1 ! ,left 0 q will+ to lean on ! %\ld] ( ,g]many1 & 0 submitt+ ev5 to an alliance ) ,au/ria1 al?\gh "s ( ! memb]s _h d>k remembrances ( its rule4 ,b at ! same "t !y flirt$ ) ,france1 :o 0 go+ m & m to ! ,left1 & ^: anti-cl]icalism seem$ to *e] on _! own anti-,ca?olicism4 ,9 #ahgg ,francesco ,crispi1 ! be/ /atesman ( ,italy at ! "t1 "o ( ^? m5 ( ! ,left ^: m5tality br\ght !m mo/ly to ?9k & (t5 to act z if !y _h belong$ to ! ,"r1 made a diplomatic t\r to ! capitals ( ,g]many1 ,au/ria1 ,france & ,engl&4 ,he _h "o op5 aim1 & ano!r "o n q s fully ackn[l$g$1 :i* 0 to look = support aga9/ a possible aggression t 0 fe>$ bo? f ,p>is & ,vi5na4 ,! impression he receiv$ 0 t ,b]l9 might accept an alliance ) ,italy aga9/ ,france1 on ! und]/&+ t ,au/ria w\ld be left free to d :at %e lik$ 9 ! ,ea/4 ,?irty ye>s be=e1 ,italy1 /ill 9 ! mak+ & f> f see+ yet h] way to unity1 _h attack$ s+le-h&$ ! greate/ empire ( ,europe 9 an (f5sive w>2 n[1 out ( fe> ( a possible attack f ,france1 :i* ,bism>ck himself decl>$ v unlikely1 %e ent]$ into an alliance f :i* %e receiv$ only ord]s & prohibitions4 ,:5 ! ,congress ( ,b]l9 took place1 all t ! repres5tative ( ,italy c\ld d 0 ( s little avail1 t ! ,g]mans decl>$ t ! ,fr5* & ! ,italians _h to settle ! "q ( ,tunis betwe5 !mselves4 ,?is did n admit ( any comp5sation to ,italy = ! ,au/rian occupation ( ,bosnia-,h]zegov9a & expansion 9 ! ,ea/4 ,! ,italian policy at t congress betray$ a total incapacity to display ! policy ( a great ,/ate 9 =eign affairs4 ,! reasons 7 ?reefold1 ! m5 9 p[] _h a v poor und]/&+ ( ! =ces & ! int]e/s ( ! c\ntry &1 9 consequ5ce1 c\ld n act accord+ to ^!2 !y 7 hold+ on to ideologies1 t _h s]v$ _! "t & ^: high-s\nd+ rhetoric c\ld only help !m to hide ! vacuum ( _! m9ds2 f9ally1 !y _h a s5se t _! home affairs 7 gett+ m & m out ( h& & ?is feel+ may h be5 ! mo/ cramp+ ( all ! circum/ances 9 :i* !y /ood4 ,negative z x 01 ! attitude ( ! gov]nm5t 0 9 h>mony ) t ( ,p>liam5t4 ,:51 9 ,janu>y1 #ahgi1 ! ,s5ate disapprov$ ( its =eign policy1 ! head ( ! gov]nm5t1 :o 0 ,depretis1 %ift$ all responsibility by say+ t1 z ,prime ,m9i/]1 he _h 9 t dep>tm5t foll[$ fai?fully ! traditions ( ! ,"r1 al?\gh he belong$ to ! ,left4 ,9 ,febru>y ( ! same ye>1 ,mussol9o /rongly advis$ !m to ent] into an alliance ) ,g]many2 he knew1 said he1 t ,bism>ck w\ld accept x unwill+ly1 z he believ$ ! ,italians to be unfai?ful1 b t he w\ld d s nev]!less1 ne$+ ,italy aga9/ ,france4 ,no?+ c\ld be less h]oic1 ?an a ,s5ate :i* _h good gr\nds to feel pride 9 ! newly a*iev$ national indep5d5ce1 & 0 yet s l[ spirit$ t x c\ld accept an alliance on su* gr\nds4 ,! ideal ( ! ,risorgim5to _h be5 realis$1 & z ! new lead]s _h no new ideals !y _h no?+ fur!r to realise2 !y 7 bodies )\t s\ls1 ) no?+ t might give !m a *ance to display ! gifts ) :i* nature _h s l>gely end[$ !m4 ,mat]iali/s 9 philosophy !y /rove to make ! c\ntry m & m mat]iali/1 fight+ religion "u ! names ( cl]icalism & obscurantism4 ,obvi\sly :at kept ! v>i\s gov]nm5ts ( ,italy f hav+ a dignifi$ =eign policy 0 t ! c\ntry 0 9 a /ate bord]+ on an>*y4 ,"o cause ( ?is 0 lack ( exp]ts 9 all ! political classes1 devoid1 z ! be/ m5 71 ( p]sonal or traditional exp]i5ce to help 9 ! application ( _! import$ legislation2 b ! ma9 cause 0 und\bt$ly ! amorph\s /ate ( ! work+ classes4 ,if man is to be call$ a political animal1 ! lab\r]s ( ,italy 7 n m5 fifty ye>s ago4 ,!y did n c>e :at happ5$ & did n ?9k !y _h any?+ to say 9 ! matt]3 !y 7 politically unconsci\s4 ,n t !y 7 /upid3 _! art1 _! songs1 _! traditions atte/ ! contr>y4 ,_! political unconsci\sness1 f> f mak+ ?+s easi]1 r5d]$ a good ,lib]al gov]nm5t v ne>ly impossible2 = apa?y & indiff]5ce 9 ! l[] class1 :ile x may be v well "u an absolute mon>*y ( ! patri>*al type1 "u a ,lib]al con/itution is apt to prove a curse4 ,fir/1 ! l[] middle class kept draw+ m5 f ! p1 & ^! m51 ) ! natural gift ( adaptation ! ,italian %[s to a great] degree ?an ! sl[] nor!rn races1 rose too quickly & too quickly became consci\s ( _! plebian =ce & ( ! opportunities (f]$ to !m by ! difficulties "u :i* ! gov]nm5t 0 work+4 ,among ^! m5 & among ! cr[ds ( half-intellectuals employ$ by ! ,/ate 9 ! innum]able (fices creat$ by ! c5tralis+ adm9i/ration1 9 ! national s*ools1 9 ! railways1 po/ s]vices & s on1 ! memb]s ( ,p>liam5t1 :o belong$ to ! ,left1 recruit$ _! votes4 ,h[ quickly ^! electors realis$ t _! *ances ( gett+ all ! political importance 9 _! h&s re/$ on ! ext5sion ( ! fran*ise ne$ n be emphasis$4 ,! dates are eloqu5t1 ,rome became ! capital ( ,italy 9 #ahgj1 9 #ahhb ! fran*ise is ext5d$1 & imm$iately a workman1 ,maffi1 & a pure ,sociali/1 ,&rea ,co/a1 are elect$4 ,)\t attempt+ a sket* ( ! developm5t ( ,socialism 9 ,italy1 x mu/ be said t x c]ta9ly did a great deal ( good to ! c\ntry4 ,x ar\s$ ! work+ masses f _! slumb] & bett]$ _! mat]ial conditions1 :i* badly want$ bett]+4 ,to /ir ! p out ( _! amorph\s /ate & make !m consci\s ( _! rights 0 a v :olesome op]ation4 ,x w\ld h be5 bett] to h made !m realise at ! same "t t rights nev] g )\t duties1 & t to co-op]ate 9 public life !y _h to und]take ! "o 9 ord] to get ! o!r4 ,b ?is1 h[ev]1 0 m ?an c\ld be expect$ f agitators1 :o (t5 _h1 !mselves1 a v poor notion ( ! relation ( "r & duties4 ,_! incitem5t to ! p 0 to make mat]ial well-be+1 ! ultimate end ( all ef=t4 ,vulg> z x 01 yet x 0 ! prop] aim = a mat]iali/ic age1 & x _h ! advantage ( be+ concrete1 positive1 & )9 range ( ! p's rudim5t>y political und]/&+4 ,!re=e x work$4 ,x _h ! fir/ quality t an idea mu/ h to move p to action2 x correspond$ to ! real ne$s ( ! work]s4 ,! nobl] side ( ,socialism1 t :i* _h made x highly ideali/ic & has made its ultimate end a dreamy ,messianism1 did n /rike root 9 ,italy4 ,x did n appeal to ! p1 & :5ev] x fasc9at$ "s /ray poet or ideali/1 l ,&rea ,co/a or ,mussol9i's fa!r1 !y fail$ to ar\se an e*o 9 ! m9ds ( ! lab\r]s4 ,?is %\ld h be5 suffici5t to %[ t x did n suit ! ,italian m5tality4 ,mank9d1 ! frat]nity ( mank9d1 ! lo/ p>adise reconqu]$ by ! mutual love ( m51 c\ld n mean mu* to ,italian e>s4 ,x s\nd$ ab/ract1 & at be/ did n %[ mu* *ance ( be+ realis$ by ! pres5t g5]ation4 ,! ,sociali/ lead]s _h to attract foll[]s ) m concrete ?+s1 ) plans t c\ld be realis$1 & to ar\se 9 !m a passion = an actual object4 ,consequ5tly !y h>p$ on ! necessity ( gett+ bett] wages = less "w4 ,!y plann$ ,lab\r organisations :i* gradually grew /rong]1 & !y taught ! work]s to hate _! employ]s4 ,yet ?is 0 n ! wor/ "p ( ! lead]s' activity2 t 0 ! corrupt+ consci\sness !y gave ! work]s ( an unlimit$ political p[] )\t any correspond+ duties4 ,out ( unfairly treat$ m5 !y made bullies1 mo/ unhappy bullies1 ! wor/ k9d ( bullies4 ,! torture ( ,mussol9i's y\? 0 ?is rapid decad5ce ( ,socialism 9 ,italy1 al?\gh x _h ! advantage ov] o!r p>ties ( a /ock ( g5]al ideas & a def9ite programme4 ,x 0 only ! weakness ( o!r p>ties :i* made x look /rong until ! w> & dur+ ! ye>s t foll[$ ! peace2 = z f> back z #aiaj ! hi/oric ideas x _h br\ght to ,italy _h yield$ _! crop4 ,_h x n be5 s1 ,socialism1 betwe5 #aiah & #aibj1 w\ld h work$ out 9 op5 revolution4 ,z x 01 x _h built up a class organisation t 0 ! fir/ regul> ,p>ty 9 mod]n ,italy1 & ?is meant consid]able exp]i5ce = ! :ole nation2 x _h besides bett]$ ! mat]ial conditions ( life ( ! l[] class & awak5$ !m to political consci\sness1 :i* is a contribution to ! developm5t ( ! c\ntry z a mod]n ,/ate t _c be ov]rat$4 ,lib]alism1 be x ( ! ,"r or ( ! ,left1 _h _h an ,italian =m1 :i* _h prov$ its consonance ) ! hi/orical position ( ! c\ntry by ! effici5cy ) :i* x _h realis$ its ideal4 ,italy1 free f =eign rule & politically "o "u ! ,h\se ( ,savoy1 0 d\btless ! creation ( ,italian ,lib]alism4 ,b z a home gov]n+ p>ty its ineffici5cy 0 obvi\s2 "o may ?9k t its failure 0 due to its non-national /ock ( ideas1 :i* l$ to ! application ( =eign legislation to a c\ntry ^: ne$s 7 n ! same z ^? ( ! nations 9 :i* ?is adm9i/rative & political ,lib]alism _h come out ( a long hi/orical evolution4 ,socialism1 on ! o!r h&1 0 yea/1 & z yea/ x 0 v good = ,italy1 = ! unleav5$ masses rose into %ape & life "u its action2 !reby em]g+ f _! amorph\sness !y ent]$ into ! political _w & br\ght ) !m ! =ce & life ( numb]s4 ,x br\ght !m also to ! level ( ! ,european prolet>iat & introduc$ ! ,p>ty discipl9e & organisation t ! o!r ,italian p>ties _h n ne$$1 z _! s+l5ess ( aim & ! l(t9ess ( _! ideals _h be5 suffici5t to keep _! high-m9d$ memb]s 9 unity4 ,yet x prov$ a curse1 z its lead]s 7 unable to realise t ! wret*$ means !y _h to resort to1 9 ord] to ar\se m5 into action1 7 due to ! fact t ! high] side ( ,socialism did n fit ! m5tality ( ! p4 ,ano!r p>ty mu/ be n[ consid]$1 & t comm&s a great deal ( respect f any =eign] t may h wat*$ ) lov+ eyes ! life ( ,italy3 ,nationalism4 ,corrad9i & ,f$]zoni may be look$ ^u z its lead]s1 & _! foll[]s 7 a m]e h&ful ( m54 ,!y _h a cle> notion ( :at !y want$1 & to a c]ta9 ext5t !y may be consid]$ z ! rightful heirs ( ! ,risorgim5to4 ,aga9 !y 7 all g5tlem51 g5tlem5 be+ tak5 z ! ,engli% equival5t ( vir1 imply+ ! /]l+ quality ( ! individual & n at all 8 social position or 8 /hetic ref9em5t1 :i* may be m]ely ! consequ5ce ( weal?4 ,small m9orities are always to be f\nd at ! orig9 ( any great political movem5t z x is ! conviction ( ! few :i* c>ries away ! multitude ( m54 ,b !n ! crucial po9t is t _! convictions mu/ h magnetic attraction = ! g5]al public4 ,& ! ,nationali/s _h n ?is4 ,_! ideas 7 too high &1 at ! same "t1 !y 7 obsolete1 besides be+ no m ,italian ?an ^? ( ,lib]alism or ,socialism4 ,! ,nationali/s' idea ( a nation 0 z mat]iali/ z _! aims 7 ideali/4#a ,n[ ?is w\ld be suffici5t to condemn to /]ility ! be/ wills 9 ! _w4 ,to /ate ?is pla9ly1 ! easie/ way is to take man z a simile = nation4 ,!re are two ways ( look+ at a man3 he is "o out ( _m1 or he is ! "o c5tral reality4 ,z "o out ( _m he knocks 9 e s5se aga9/ ! reality ( ! _m1 & is !re=e id5tifi$ by 8 v limitations4 ,su* a conception ( ! man is evid5tly negative4 ,he is appreciat$ n s mu* by :at he actually does1 b by :at he has done1 or possesses2 n s mu* by :at he is1 b by ! rank he occupies1 & :i* may (t5 be det]m9$ indep5d5tly ( 8 ,,actual value4 ,b z ! "o c5tral reality a man _c come into competition ) o!r objects ( appreciation2 he c no long] be gaug$ f outside4 ,n[1 obvi\sly1 f ! _w ( objective & natural reality1 we are %ift+ to ! subjective & spiritual _w4 ,we h 9 front ( u no long] an individual belong+ to ! _w ( ?+s--we h a p]son4 ,common wisdom has = c5turies pr(ess$ t to und]/& a p]son's motives x is necess>y to put oneself 9 t p]son's position2 & daily exp]i5ce %[s t we und]/& ! p we love bett]1 because we c make ourselves "o ) !m & judge !m f _! own po9t ( view4 ,to appreciate a p]sonality ?is me?od is indisp5sable2 = x is n 9 ! de$s ( 8 pa/ t a man mu/ be judg$--he may h be5 a h]o 9 ! la/ w> & be a c[>d 9 8 pres5t family life--!y are n[ extr9sic to him1 unless he goes on liv+ !m & mak+ !m = ev] 8 spiritual exp]i5ce4 ,he mu/ be judg$ by :at he is do+ actually4 ,nei!r mu/ "o measure him by 8 prop]ty1 b by :at he is /ill able to produce2 nor by ! reg>d or contempt ( ! p :o surr\nd him1 :i* is bas$ on :at he has done2 nor on :at 8 p 71 b by :at he actually is4 ,none ( ^! conditions ( appreciation is fulfill$ z long z we look at a man f outside & weigh 8 manly wor? by comp>+ 8 a*ievem5t1 or 8 prop]ty1 to t ( o!r p4 ,pa/ de$s %\ld n raise him "o :it 9 our appreciation unless he cont9ues !m ) p]fect consci5ce ( _! value1 = _! actual & 8 p]sonal value dep5d exclusively ( ! consci5ce he has ( su* value & ( 8 aptitude to keep x actual4 ,( ?is fact ,corrad9i & 8 fri5ds _h excell5t examples 9 ,italy4 ,"s ( ! l&lords1 :o own$ relatively small e/ates & q insuffici5t capital1 manag$ to br+ _! l& to ! highe/ rate ( productiv5ess1 s t ! actual production 0 sup]ior to t ( e/ates ( a mu* bigg] acreage4 ,! own]s ( ! latifondi1 on ! o!r h&1 7 n all suffici5tly ri* to h _! l&s pl\gh$1 & ^? :o 7 did n always d s1 al?\gh "s ,roman pr9ces did cultivate ?or\ghly1 v (t5 z mu* f patriotism z f ! wi% to increase _! incomes4 ,conspicu\s among !m 7 "s lead+ ,nationali/s4 ,!y c\ld see f ?is t ! importance ( a man z a l&lord 0 n altoge!r dep5d5t on ! area ( 8 e/ate & on 8 capital1 & t x v>i$ accord+ to ! consci\sness he _h ( :at ! value ( 8 e/ate %\ld be & ! capacity he _h = realis+ x4 ,b !y did n ?9k ( ! nation z ( a man ^: value1 practically z well z spiritually1 dep5ds n s mu* on ! capacity he has = do+ ?+s1 z on 8 be+ consci\s ( su* capacity4 ,!re=e1 !y look$ at ,italy measur+ x by ! poor figure x cut 9 =eign policy1 by its colonies1 by its f9ancial weakness1 comp>+ x always 9 _! m9ds ) o!r c\ntries2 9 a ^w1 judg+ x f outside z if x _h belong$ to ! field ( natural sci5ce in/ead ( belong+ to ! _w ( hi/ory1 :i* is aft] all ! _w ( ,m9d4 ,?ank ,god1 h[ev]1 8le coeur a des raisons que la raison ne connat pas10 & "s ( ^! m51 ,corrad9i above all1 7 m5 ) great he>ts & deep s\ls4 ,out ( fai? & love ( _! c\ntry !y realis$ :at _! conception ( political reality w\ld h kept !m f see+1 namely t ! root ( all ! evil 0 t ! p ( ,italy _h almo/ all[$ ! /ifl+ ( _! s\ls4 ,religion 9 "s prov9ces _h be51 s to speak1 extirpat$ by ! anti-,ca?olic democrats1 republicans & radicals2 bo? religion & patriotism _h be5 lull$ to sleep by ! ,sociali/s4 ,! only political cell /ill liv+ & /rong 0 ! family4 ,! ,nationali/s 7 beset by ano!r cause ( /]ility1 ! m5 ^! lead]s recruit$ 444 did !y %>e _! religi\s & truly patriotic motives8 ,all did n1 & t 0 ! mis]y ( x4 ,yet ,corrad9i & "s o!rs 7 m5 ( fai?1 j z mu* z ,cav\r & ,mazz9i _h be52 !y c\ld get m5 to jo9 !m 9 hold+ al(t a tor* ^: flame flick]$ 9 ! cold twilight ( ,g>ibaldi's ,italy4 ,!y kept ! sacr$ fire ( ,rome burn+1 & op5ly prea*$ self-sacrifice1 :il/ great arti/s & sceptic s*ol>s invit$ ! y\? ( ! upp] class to enjoy life & %ut !mselves up 9 selfi% exi/5ce4 ,! ,nationali/s 7 m5 ( fai?1 & z ev]y?+ is possible to him t believe?1 !y kept work+ = _! cause a c]ta9 numb] ( foll[]s :o _h jo9$ !m 9 ! hope t bett] op5+s w\ld be obta9$ = ! export ( ,italian products & = ,italian emigrants if a /rong ,nationali/ =eign policy c\ld be sub/itut$ = ! exi/+ weak "o4 ,= ! ,nationali/s ! nation 0 a transc5d5t reality1 objectively consid]$ z to ! individual4 ,su* conception is n peculi> to ,italy by any means2 yet x 0 modifi$ 9 its ,italianisation1 b always 9 a way t made x m & m a policy = ! g5try4 ,a good deal ( culture 7,i don't mean philosophy1 b a true s5se ( hi/ory & a s\nd judgm5t7 0 at ! basis ( x1 & ?is did n t5d to make x a popul> movem5t4 ,to sacrifice oneself to some?+ transc5d5t1 to an hi/orical con/ruction1 is n = ! mob3 n ev5 = ! l[] middle classes1 absorb$ z !y are by ! problems ( daily life4 ,!re we t\* :at really di/+ui%es ! ,fasci/s f ! ,nationali/s1 = :om ! ,/ate belongs to natural reality1 is transc5d5t 9 its relation to ! individual1 & negatively conceiv$ 9 its relation to o!r /ates1 :]e x appe>s "o among/ _m4 ,x is a great eng9e t ne$s ! co-op]ation ( all ! citiz5s to make x "w1 b x does exi/ indep5d5tly ( ! citiz5s4 ,philosophically ?is conception belongs to ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,= ! ,fasci/s1 ! ,/ate is n transc5d5t 9 its relation to ! citiz5s3 x is imman5t2 x is _! own spiritual & economical life 9 its political summ+ up4 ,9 its relation to o!r /ates x is n negatively conceiv$ z "o among/ _m2 = its citiz5s1 x is _! national self1 :il/ ! o!r nations are con/itutive ( _! national non-self4 ,! positiv5ess ( ! ,/ate = its citiz5s implies !re=e1 = !m1 ! negativ5ess ( ! o!r /ates4#b ,su* a conception s\nds m]ely !oretical1 & yet x 0 n born 9 words4 ,its pa9ful bir? 0 ! outcome ( ,mussol9i's exp]i5ce z a ,sociali/ & a p>ty lead]4 ,words h nev] be5 giv5 to ?is newe/ ( all ! conceptions t ,italy is contribut+ to ! _w ( politics except 9 an answ] he gave to ! judges :o1 9 #aiaa1 7 condemn+ him at ,=li4 ,besides ?is v curt answ]1 he nev] express$ x except 9 de$s1 s t ! =m "u :i* x is giv5 "h is contribut$ by ! au?or4 ,! re/ ( ! doctr9e t c be inf]r$ f 8 f\r ye>s' spee*es1 legislation & adm9i/ration1 c be trac$ 9 ! :ole ( ! philosophical works produc$ by ,italian idealism2 b ?is1 al?\gh p]fectly consonant above all ) ,g5tile's !ories1 0 c]ta9ly "o ( ,mussol9i's mo/ orig9al ideas4 ,! task ( ! gov]nm5t is to raise ! level & increase ! value ( ! citiz5s1 att5d+ n to ! organisation ( e bran* ( life manife/ation1 b to ! regulation or r sy/ematisation ( su* organisation 9 ord] to h always ! mo/ intimate fusion ( /ate & citiz5s4 ,! empirical self requires t ! peasant %\ld pl\gh 8 field1 s[ ! se$ & reap ! h>ve/4 ,all ?is he is b\nd to d to satisfy 8 mat]ial ne$s & ! "w ?us consid]$ is c]ta9ly n ennobl+1 s9ce man works z ! slave ( hung]4 ,fascism says to ! peasant3 8,?\ %alt no long] pl\gh1 s[1 reap = ?yself1 t is to say exclusively = ?y mat]ial self1 b = ! ,/ate1 :i* is t same empirical self plus its transc5d5tal complem5t40 ,h5ce pl\gh+1 s[+ & reap+ are no long] ! "w ( man1 slave ( 8 mat]ial ne$s1 b ( man transc5d+ !m1 )\t disreg>d+ !m1 h[ev]1 & lift+ !reby 8 daily occupation to ! dignity ( moral realisation ( 8 own economic value4 ,! only prec$5t t ?is application ( ,fascism seems to h _h is ! ,*ri/ian sanctification ( "w1 :i* is und\bt$ly "o ( ! noble/ gifts be/[$ by our religion ^u mank9d4 ,! /udy ( ,fascism z a doctr9e w (f] _m su* co9cid5ces4 ,! ,/ate mu/ be univ]sally pres5t z a moral factor 9 e bran* ( its citiz5s' activity4 ,x is 9 fact ! all-p]vad+ consci\sness t man mu/ h ( 8 citiz5%ip :i* expresses itself z ! gov]nm5t4 ,obvi\sly ext5sion ( t]ritory %\ld be immat]ial if ! p ( a c\ntry c\ld actually be lift$ to ?is high /ate ( political realisation4 ,b ev5 at ! /age rea*$ by ,fascism x is easy to see h[ x affects ! policy ( =eign /ates t[>ds ,italy4 ,br+ ! p to su* a degree ( political consci\sness t e activity may be s direct$ t x ensures at ! same "t p]sonal & national increase ( value1 !n y c v ne>ly cease to tr\ble ab\t =eign policy1 :i* mu/ be ! projection ( ! home policy1 t is to be ! supreme affair ( a gov]nm5t int5t on ! valorisation ( its c\ntry4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,european ,,w> ,,& ,,its ,,effects ,9 ,m>*1 #aiad1 ! cab9et ( ,giolitti retir$ ow+ to "s diff]5ces ) ! ,radicals4 ,! mom5t 0 full ( difficulties & ! new m9i/ry 0 likely to h to deal ) /rikes & riots at home & complications out ( ,italy4 ,sonn9o1 lead] ( ! ,opposition & "o ( ! be/ m5 t ! ,"r c\ld boa/ (1 refus$ to =m a new cab9et & manag$ to h ! (fice entru/$ to ,sal&ra4 ,! ,g]man ,emp]or1 pass+ ?r\gh ,v5ice on 8 way to ,corf\1 _h a long talk ) ! k+ & ! ,m>quis ( ,san ,giuliano1 ! fact be+ consid]$ a new pro( ( ,italo-,g]man fri5d%ip app>5tly ev5 by ! gov]nm5t1 ^: endeav\rs 7 all direct$ to secure a majority 9 bo? ,h\ses & to av]t ! /orm t 0 ?reat5+ at home4 ,! railways 7 on ! v]ge ( a g5]al /rike1 ! /ate (ficials 7 dem&+ bett] wages & tri$ to en=ce _! reque/s by =m+ a trade union2 workm5 & peasants made riots 9 v>i\s prov9ces1 especially 9 ! ,romagne & ,m>*e1 :]e 9 ,june ! ,r$ ,week gave ! spectacle almo/ ( a revolution4 ,!re h[ev] ! ,sociali/s & ,republicans made su* a poor %[ t x is likely to h done a good deal t[>ds %ak+ ,mussol9i's fai? 9 popul> revolution4 ,sal&ra & 8 m9i/]s 7 s beset t !y let =eign affairs g unhe$$ or at lea/ treat$ !m z a matt] ( m9or urg5cy4 ,x mu/ h be5 a great %ock to !m to realise ! imm95ce ( w>4 ,:5 ! w> broke out involv+ all ! great ,european ,p[]s ! public g5]ally believ$ ,italy to be b\nd to back ! ,triple ,alliance4 ,imm$iately ! ,sociali/s & ! extreme ,left /irr$ up a campaign on ! gr\nd t ! ,italian p 7 pacifi/s & support]s ( int]national ,socialism4 ,x is n easy to say :e!r1 ev5 _h x be5 pl$g$ to d s1 ! gov]nm5t w\ld h be5 able to obta9 ! support ( ! nation to ent] w> imm$iately4 ,morally ! p 7 n ready to accept a w> )\t attack or )\t provocation f somebody4#c ,on ! fir/ ( ,augu/ ,italy decl>$ neutrality & on t day ! ,giornale d',italia cle>ly /at$ t su* neutrality 0 n l t ( ,holl& or ,switz]l&1 & above all %\ld n be consid]$ z def9itive4 ,! t5or ( ! press %[$ on :i* side an ev5tual int]v5tion ( ,italy w\ld take place4 ,ev]ybody 0 ei!r neutrali/ or int]v5tioni/1 b nobody 0 9 fav\r ( an int]v5tion on ! side ( ! ,triple ,alliance4 ,! mo/ ,g]manophile nev] w5t f>!r ?an neutralism2 all t !y hop$ & pray$ = 0 ! non-int]v5tion ( ,italy4 ,! argum5t ( ! neutrali/ pap]s 0 bas$ on a /atem5t ( ! economic & individual sacrifices t w> w\ld involve1 & a plea t ,italy c\ld n yet be fit to ent] su* a conflict4 ,anti-ideali/s or sceptics 7z _m ( ! sons ( ! h]oes ( ! ,risorgim5to 77 !y all agre$ to reg>d life z ! supreme value & mat]ial well-be+ z its natural frame4 ,( w> !y only saw ! de/ructive side4 ,!y 7 c]ta9ly logical4 ,a conception ( life s ?or\ghly mat]iali/ c\ld n p]mit ( a high] view ( w>2 = w> c]ta9ly does de/roy life & if x c & does promote an improvem5t 9 ! mat]ial conditions ( life x is only z a remote consequ5ce ( ! class *anges1 & ! indu/rial & comm]cial /imulus c>ri$ 9 its trail4 ,! imm$iate consequ5ces are c]ta9ly unsettl+ & p>alys+ to bus9ess4 ,on ! o!r h& ! int]v5tioni/s _h z ! basis ( _! argum5t a set ( platitudes ! ab/ract ideology ( :i* 0 ne>ly z objectionable z ! mat]ialism ( _! oppon5ts4 ,france1 ,belgium & ,engl& 7 id5tifi$ ) "r & civilisation1 ,g]many & ,au/ria ) wrong & b>b>ity4 ,!re=e ,italy %\ld h ! hon\r ( be+ among ! righte\s av5g]s ( lib]ty & civilisation aga9/ _! traditional foe1 b>b>ity4 ,?is opposition ( two ab/ractions to ! mat]ialism ( _! oppon5ts betray$ ! ideologic heirloom ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 s de> to ! self-admir+ m9ds ( ! educat$ mob4 ,= !re is su* a ?+ z an educat$ mob & x is sure to be on ! side t (f]s a high s\nd+ rhetoric1 a c]ta9 numb] ( /ock phrases & a fasc9at+ ideology4 ,x is s mu* easi] to accept ready-made ideas ?an to "w !m out f actual reality4 ,x 0 n likely1 h[ev]1 t su* claptrap %\ld move ! p to w>4 ,=tunately1 !re 0 ano!r side to ! "q & t 0 ! *ance ( gett+ ,tr5to & ,trie/e1 9 ^: intellectual life ! old _s ( ! ,risorgim5to _h kept two /rongholds4 ,all t 0 ,lib]al & traditional 9 ! ,italy ( ! n9ete5? c5tury rose to ! bait4 ,! highe/ =m ( ,italian ,lib]alism & its aft]ma? ,nationalism1 unfurl$ _! /&>d ) ! old ze/ & _! foll[]s display$ _! immortal eag]ness to make ?is la/ addition to _! =]unn]s' build+ ( ,italy4 ,n only 7 !y spl5did 9 ! propag&a days1 b !y 7 ! fir/ to enli/1 & bo? "y ,nationali/s & old ,lib]als made x a po9t t 8no g5tleman %\ld /ay at home40 ,naturally ! e*o !y ar\s$ 0 f> f be+ g5]al4 ,if all ! ,lib]als & ! ,nationali/s 7 g5tlem5 n all ! s-call$ g5tlem5 belong$ to ^! p>ties2 !re 0 z mu* political indiff]5ce among ! high] classes z among ! l[]4 ,b x is only fair to say t ! w> :i* gave rise to ! national & political consci\sness ^: fir/ expression is ,fascism 0 ma9ly due to ! pressure & ! en?usia/ic campaign ( ,italian ,lib]alism & its (fspr+ ,nationalism4 ,?is mu* be+ said 9 praise ( ! ,nationali/s1 x may be rem>k$ f ! ,italian po9t ( view t ! misrepres5tation ( ! "t & ( ! "* ( ! _w conflagration c\ld n h be5 c>ri$ mu* f>!r4 ,x 0 inde$ ! la/ fl>e ( _! import$ notions ( political reality4 ,= ne>ly five c5turies intellectual tradition _h be/[$ ^u ,italians a m5tality :i* is hi/orical ne>ly beyond und]/&+ = =eign]s4 ,x w be trac$ back 9 ano!r *apt] f ,dante's ,de ,mon>*ia1 b x may be "h tak5 f its fir/ practical ass]tion4 ,ma*iavelli1 at ! end ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 act+ z ,*ancellor & ,secret>y ( ,flor5ce1 0 hon\r$ ) ! unlimit$ tru/ ( ! ,gonfaloni]e a vita & 9 e respect prov$ himself wor?y ( su* high consid]ation4 ,he 0 exce$+ly grateful to ! man :o entru/$ him ) missions1 ! (ficial *>ge ( :i* c\ld n h be5 legally be/[$ ^u him4 ,yet1 :atev] 8 reg>d = ! high-m9d$ness ( 8 pr9cipal1 f a close /udy & /rict obs]vation ( political facts he came to ! conclusion t no?+ c\ld prev5t ! ,gonfaloni]e's policy f failure4 ,d9o 0 elect$ ,gonfaloni]e a vita :5 ! son ( ,lor5so il ,magnifico _h to leave ,flor5ce 9 a hurry aft] hav+ fail$ to av]t ! transit ( ,*>les ! ,,viii & 8 troops ?r\gh ,flor5ce4 ,cosimo & ,lor5zo dei ,m$ici _h only rul$ = ab\t half a c5tury b ! *anges :i* _h tak5 place dur+ t "t 9 ,tuscany & 9 ! :ole ( ,italy 7 s great t hi/ory %[s :ole c5turies :i* h n display$ half ( ! diff]5ce made1 = bad or good1 by ! civilisation ( ! "t4 ,hi/ory 0 inde$ at a turn+ ( ! road s t :5 ,d9o came 9 p[] !re 0 z mu* diff]5ce betwe5 ! political _w ant]ior to ! ,m$icean rule & 8 own z !re is betwe5 ! sweet & g5tle art ( ! ,beato ,angelico1 & t ( ,signorelli :o introduc$ realism 9 8 own vigor\s art4 ,good ,d9o1 h[ev]1 hav+ be5 *os5 ,gonfaloni]e to br+ ,flor5ce back to its =m] virtu\s ways1 look$ to ! old ,republican days = a model ( gov]nm5t1 & he fail$ to give 8 fell[ citiz5s ! political advantage t w\ld h met _! ne$s j z ,signorelli w\ld h %[n himself a failure if he _h pa9t$ exactly z ! ,beato _h done4 ,ma*iavelli 0 no optimi/1 b :atev] ! weakness ( 8 conception ( hi/ory due to ! philosophical notions ( 8 "t1 he did n give himself up entirely to abus+ ! wick$ness ( ! p4 ,sure en\gh1 !y 7 wick$--f> m s ?an !y _h be5 be=e ! ,m$icean _h corrupt$ !m--yet !y 7 above all diff]5t & _h1 !re=e1 to be gov]n$ accord+ to diff]5t ideas4 ,x is no wond]1 !re=e1 t ! ,flor5t9e ,secret>y %\ld h sp5t s _m h\rs ( 8 en=c$ leisure aft] ! realisation ( ! ev5t1 ! inevitability ( :i* _h s long haunt$ him1 to w>n 8 contempor>ies & ! po/]ity ( ! necessity ( gov]n+ n accord+ to a mummifi$ ideal1 b 9 h>mony ) "o's own "t4 ,bisogna riscontr>si coi propri tempi & to d s he recomm5ds ! /atesman aga9 & aga9 to get direct in=mation ( t :i* he calls la v]it effettuale delle cose1 t is effective or actual tru? 9 matt] ( politics4 ,x is bo? ! exp]im5tal me?od ( ,galileo & ,vico's hi/orical und]/&+ ( society t are allud$ to 9 ?is con/antly recurr5t admonition ( ! man ^: %rewdness 0 to bl9d po/]ity = sev]al c5turies & ?r[ ! p[] & dep? ( 8 political g5ius 9 ! d>k4 ,9 #aiae su* an excell5t jurisconsult z ,pr(4 ,sal&ra & su* a fir/-rate diplomat z ,sonn9o seem$ to realise b little t su* a pr9ciple exi/$4 ,at be/ !y h>p$ on ,tr5to & ,trie/e1 :5 !y did n display _! rhetoric on ! conflict betwe5 civilisation & b>b>ity4 ,/ill ?is t]ritorial conque/1 :atev] its importance z a traditional ideal to realise1 0 pres5t$ above all z a rectification ( ! nor!rn fronti]s /rictly necess>y = ! safety ( ! nation & e?nologically ju/ifi$4 ,nobody ev] seem$ to realise t ?is aim %\ld n h be5 ! fir/ objective to a nation :i* lack$ t :i* is ! v ess5ce ( ! national entity1 t :i* entitles a collectivity to h e?nological fronti]s1 9 %ort a national consci5ce & a national w4 ,nobody seem$ to realise x1 b !re 0 "o man :o did1 & !re we h ! second fl>e ( g5ius to be cr$it$ to ,mussol9i4 ,he _h become gradually consci\s ?r\gh con/ant contact ) ! work+ class1 & ! middle class z well1 t !y w\ld nev] be fit = political life unless !y acquir$ :at !y lack$ ?r\gh sacrifice4 ,! rec5t ,r$ ,week _h %[n him t !y w\ld n fight1 t !y might set traps = o!r p's lives1 b !y w\ld n face ei!r bl[s or dea? = any?+2 & :5 ! w> came he saw t !re ,italy _h ! "o *ance x c\ld h to acquire :at ! g5ial p :o call$ !mselves its citiz5s lack$ to lift !mselves into ! high] sph]e :]e human be+s are prep>$ to live & to die = _! political ideas4 ,x is1 9 fact1 ?is national consci5ce1 ?is spiritual &1 !re=e1 unlimit$ gift t ! w> has be/[$ ^u ,italy1 & x is only n[ t ,c>ducci1 ! mo/ typically civic ( all ,italian poets1 c\ld write ) p]fect tru?3 8,ei dip+a il trionfo dell ',italia ,assorta novella tra le g5ti40 ,nev]!less x is n ,fasci/ ,italy1 x is n ! real fri5ds ( ,italy1 :o w ev] f9d fault ) ! ideas t br\ght ,italy to jo9 ! ,allies & face ! tragic ordeal ( w>4 ,= x 0 ! w>1 ! my/]y ( dea? fac$ by millions ( h] sons1 :i* has made ,italy a moral value1 & a fir/-rate hi/orical factor 9 ! pres5t political _w4 ,! select m9ority t 0 ! bra9 & s\l ( ! ,risorgim5to has disappe>$2 national consci\sness n[ fills ! individual consci5ces ( ! majority1 & ?is ext5sion ( ! national consci5ce _h no?+ to d ) ! ext5d$ vote2 x is a consequ5ce ( ! w>4 ,p]sonality1 national p]sonality means actual unity ( consci5ce & w j z mu* z individual p]sonality4 ,su* p]sonality has effectively be5 born 9 ,italy out ( ! ordeal t meant direct or indirect sacrifice f e man & woman1 = nobody w\ld d\bt ! reality ( ! object = :i* 8 sacrifice 0 made4 ,italy & h] /> 71 up to #aiae1 a good !me = popul> or academic lit]ature1 b :5 x _h requir$ blood & te>s f e home x became t :i* c\ld easily be trans=m$ into ! mo/ awful & objective reality4 ,h5ce ! religi\sness ( _! new realisation ( ,italy4 ,x loom$ inde$ awful1 l an obscure div9ity1 :5 x call$ m5 :o did n q "k :y !y _h to fight to ! supreme sacrifice4 ,"o has to keep 9 m9d h[ little civilisation & b>b>ity1 pomp\s words1 meant to ! ,italian l[] class1 & h[ little ,sicilians or ,neapolitans c>$ = ,tr5to & ,trie/e4 ,aft] ,caporetto x 0 a diff]5t matt]4 ,! traditional foe 0 on _! l&1 & by !n !y _h realis$ :at w> meant4 ,!re=e1 "o may say t _! national s\l 0 temp]$ betwe5 ,caporetto & ! ,armi/ice1 & t only !n !y became an e?ical value1 a spiritual entity or r p]sonality fit to play a "p 9 ! con/ructive hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,! po9t _c be ov]-/at$4 ,x is only ?r\gh ! w> t ! spiritual reality ( ! c\ntry 0 enabl$ to /rike roots 9 ! s\ls ( ! lab\r]s & middle class m51 ceas+ !reby to be ! monopoly ( a small intellectual & ari/ocratic m9ority4 ,! subjects ( ! ,k+ ( ,italy all became ,italian citiz5s1 & ! p 0 f9ally "o 9 its full indep5d5ce2 x 01 inde$1 ! la/ act ( ! ,risorgim5to4 ,few =eign]s1 no =eign] s to speak1 _h 9 #aiae a fair idea ( :at 0 ! /ate ( m9d ( ! ,italians & /ill less ( :at c\ld be _! m5tality4 ,x w n be too d>+ to say t 9 ?is ignorance lay ! cause ( all ! diplomatic difficulties & ( ! fallaci\s appreciations ( :at t c\ntry c\ld give1 or has actually giv51 ) ! consequ5t mutual vexations t 7 to /ra9 ! relations betwe5 ! ,allies & ,italy4 ,! au?or _h already1 9 #aiae1 sp5t two ye>s 9 ,italy & /udi$ a good deal2 yet y\? did n all[ at ! "t m ?an an intuition ( ! fact--! conviction ( :i* 0 to be acquir$ by t5 ye>s ( exp]i5ce1 obs]vation & /udy4 ,! ,allies expect$ too mu* ( a g5]ation ^: fa!rs _h f\ght ! ,w>s ( ,indep5d5ce ) %e] h]oism & ) mat]ial means t ,engl& or ,france w\ld h consid]$ h>dly fit = a colonial campaign4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !y ov]look$ ! possibilities ( a p :o _h 9 front ( itself ! :ole ( its national future1 an hi/orical m5tality :i* 0 likely to keep x f ! /]ilis+ conception ( positivism1 ab/ract idealism or mat]ialism1 once x %\ld h rea*$ a cle> s5se ( its own secul> reality1 a ,lac$emonian frugality1 & f9ally intellectual =ces n inf]ior to ^? ( ! ,kantian & ,hegelian ,g]many4 ,! ,italians = _! "p _h to ov]come a radical scepticism4 ,!y _h a v poor op9ion ( :at milit>y a*ievem5t !y c\ld get out ( _! l[] class1 _! traditional f9ancial defici5cy made !m fe> economic de/ruction almo/ m ?an ! life sacrifice ( s _m m54 ,munitions 7 a nightm>e1 r5ewal ( _! coal & :eat /ocks a puzzl+ problem4 ,!y _h to tru/ bl9dly to ! ,allies4 ,9 fact x is a wond] t !y %\ld h ov]come ! s5se ( despond5cy t might h p>alys$ !m altoge!r4 ,?us x happ5$ t ! ,italians did actually a*ieve f> m ?an !y expect$1 f> surpass+ _! own op9ion ( _! milit>y effici5cy2 :il/ do+ f> less ?an ! ,allies _h expect$4 ,h5ce no end ( misund]/&+s4 ,!y ?\ght t !y _h surpris$ u by an unsuspect$ revelation ( =ce & effici5cy & !y ascrib$ our r disappo9t$ attitude to envy & fe> ( _! new p[]4 ,be=e ! w> !y ?\ght too little ( !mselves1 because1 z we h said1 !y 7 /ill nationally unconsci\s1 :ile ! ,briti% & ,fr5* gov]nm5ts ov]rat$ ! =ces t !y might contribute )\t ackn[l$g+ _! ambitions to develop ! lat5t =ces ( :i* !y 7 consci\s4 ,su* misund]/&+ 0 to bre$ all ! difficulties t we knew ( at ! end ( ! w>4 ,! ,italians _h be5 victori\s 9 w>1 !y _h triumph$ ov] _! enemies1 & above all ov] !mselves1 s9ce !y _h ass]t$ _! reality z an actual political value4 ,b !y 7 defeat$ 9 peace1 or at lea/ 7 on ! v po9t ( be+ defeat$ & de/roy$ by peace4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! sev]al ,treaties ( peace1 ! conf]5ces ( ! ,allies1 7 a long sequ5ce ( disappo9tm5ts to ! p ( ,italy4 ,! incompreh5sion ( ! real /ate ( ?+s 9 t c\ntry rea*$ su* a degree t _h ,socialism 9 ,italy be5 end[$ ) a m viol5t vitality ,bol%evism w\ld h fl\ri%$4 ,! propag&a ( ! ,sociali/ p>ty increas$ daily on gr\nd mo/ fav\rably prep>$ by ! g5]al discont5t & receiv$ moreov] ! collaboration ( ! s-call$ ,popol>i--a k9d ( ,social ,ca?olic p>ty t 9 !ory 0 to take ! place ( ! cl]icals4 ,:e!r _! lead]1 ,don ,/urzo1 a man ( rem>kable p[]1 realis$ ! sacrilegi\sness ( us+ ,ca?olic prie/s to p]v]t ! m9ds ( ! peasants or n1 ! ,popol>i br\ght _! viol5ces to su* a pit* 9 "s prov9ces t !y n only mat*$1 !y surpass$ ! ,r$s4#d ,naturally1 ^! p>ties & ! m5 :o 7 n suppos$ to belong to !m1 b 7 flatt]+ !m 9 case ( an ev5tual revolution1 7 wont to repres5t ! w> & ! sacrifices t _h be5 made by ! c\ntry z ! cause ( all ! social & economic difficulties4 ,to !m1 ! only consequ5ce ( ! w> 0 ! de/ruction ( :at _h be5 labori\sly done betwe5 #ahgj & #aiae4 ,x 0 at ?is juncture t "s p b&$ toge!r _! aspirations1 :i* seem$ 9 ! ma9 to be ! realisation 9 ! ,adriatic ( all ! value ( :at !y call$ 8_! mutilat$ victory40 ,!y _h mo/ly be5 9 ! tr5*es1 & !y clu/]$ r\nd ,gabriele d',annunzio :o l$ !m to occupy ,fiume1 :i* 0 /ill "u ! control ( ! ,allies4 ,! ,allies left ! :ole affair to ,italy & _h ! ,italian gov]nm5t1 or a /rong p>ty1 back$ d',annunzio & 8 fri5ds1 ! c\rse ( ev5ts w\ld h be5 diff]5t4 ,! c\ntry want$ ,fiume1 c]ta9ly1 b ) :at w did !y want x8 ,) a w t 0 national at la/1 because x 0 n mov$ exclusively by ,irr$5tism1 & did n id5tify itself ) ! w ( ! upp] classes1 b 0 a feel+ ) ! :ole p4 ,!y _h des]v$ x2 !y 7 consci\s ( a "r acquir$ ?r\gh ! common trial ( ! :ole nation4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 m a velleity ?an a w4 ,! new spiritual life 0 quiv]+1 x c\ld express itself 9 a pu]ile ge/ure ( ! h& t[>ds ! object ( its passion1 b x c\ld n yet express itself 9 action4 ,w or velleity--x 0 c]ta9ly ! fir/ manife/ation ( a really national life /riv+ aga9/ ! p>alys+ scaffold+ ( its political organisation4 ,! pr(essional politicians _h be5 tra9$ :5 politics 7 m]ely a "q ( te*nical detail1 :5 to be a ,deputy meant m]ely a job z a b>ga9]1 to get ! votes ( ! p = a p>ty on ! und]/&+ t ! p>ty w\ld satisfy ! arbitr>y & p]sonal requirem5ts ( its electors1 ) ! possibility ( com+ to p[] any day 9 "o ( ! incr$ible comb9ations t came to life almo/ daily & made ! ,*amb] a nurs]y ( m9i/]s4 ,on ! #bh? ( ,septemb]1 #aiai1 ! gov]nm5t appo9t$ ,g5]al ,badoglio ,extraord9>y ,commission] ( ! ,v5ezia ,guilia & accept$ a discussion on ! matt] 9 ! ,*amb]4 ,nei!r ! m5 9 p[] nor ! opposition felt x possible to accept ! sugge/ions ( ! ,press1 ( v>i\s associations1 & ev5 ( _! fri5ds :o 7 urg+ ! necessity ( ,fiume's annexation4 ,! ,m9i/ry gave 9 its resignation aft] dissolv+ ! ,h\se & ! elections return$ #aeg ,sociali/s1 among :om 7 mod]ate m5 l ,turati & ,treves & _m new m5 ^: programmes 7 op5ly revolution>y1 & ov] a hundr$ ,popol>i4 ,^! p>ties _h a good deal 9 common4 ,_! propag&a _h be5 ne>ly p]fect & _h appeal$ to ! p by t def9it5ess & practicalness ( purpose :i* is ! ma9 /r+ to pull 9 ord] to move ,italians to action4 ,!y 7 n dream]s & ev5 9 _! wor/ or be/ ideals !y 7 = def9it5ess ( means & purpose4 ,!re is 9 ! ,italian m9d su* a /rong t5d5cy to take a reali/ic view ( ?+s t to ?is *>act]i/ic ! be/ & ! wor/ ( _! hi/ory might be trac$ = tw5ty c5turies4 ,! ,nationali/s _h be5 return$ 9 v small numb]1 b 7 mo/ly "y1 ) consid]able intellectual culture1 fit & ready to assume responsibilities4 ,!y _h all done active s]vice 9 ! w> & 7 sorry to see its meagre result4 ,!y requir$ an audaci\s & /rong policy )\t be+ able1 h[ev]1 to see cle>ly h[ ?is 0 to be realis$4 ,lib]als held a good _m seats b !y 7 s split up t !y %\ld r be consid]$ z a set ( gr\ps ?an z a p>ty2 !y ev5 call$ !mselves diff]5t names & _h no common programme4 ,aft] ^! elections "o _h ! impression ( wat*+ ! sy/ematic ext9ction ( ! flick]+ flame t _h signalis$ ! com+ to light ( ! new national consci5ce4 ,"o mu/ h sp5t ^? ye>s 9 ,italy1 h actually liv$ ! life ( ! ,italians1 felt all _! actual exp]i5ces & at ! same "t h _h a good hi/orical & intellectual gr\nd+ 9 all t conc]ns ! c\ntry1 to und]/& fully ! trag$y ( x4 ,!y seem$ to precipitate !mselves f ! so>+ heights ( national consci5ce to ! l[e/ & vile/ egotism4 ,mat]ial well-be+ 0 aga9 ! ord] ( ! day & n y\rs or !irs or ! *ildr5's1 b m9e4 ,beyond t no?+4 ,reality 0 aga9 atomi/ic & ! atoms con/itutive ( x 7 absolutely irrelatives4 ,nobody seem$ to reflect2 all 7 act+ & behav+ l *ildr54 ,truly x is ! subjectiv5ess ( ! p]iod t mu/ be tak5 z its *>act]i/ic4 ,!y seem$ to move ea* 9 8 own _w4 ,ev5 f9ancially !y seem$ to h rea*$ an unbridl$ lic5ce4 ,! con/ant pr9ciples t regulate economic relations :i* =m ! basis ( society 7 disreg>d$4 ,objective reality 0 ignor$ j z x is ignor$ by *ildr5 & to a c]ta9 degree by arti/s4 ,!y _h ! economic deficit con/antly on _! lips--b nev] _h su* sp5d?rift way ( liv+ be5 display$ 9 _! c\ntry--& !y seem$ to ov]look ! moral deficit betray$ by su* an atomi/ic subjectiv5ess4 ,consid] ! factories4 ,x is evid5tly a high rate ( production t w ensure ! int]e/s ( bo? lab\r & capital4 ,well1 ! workm51 or wom51 set !mselves to get high] wages z !y h done 9 mo/ c\ntries1 b 9 ! nor? & c5tre ( ,italy !y did x ) su* a *ildi% &1 !re=e1 savage & lawless w t ! works _h to be %ut 9 _m in/ances & 7 n reop5$ until ! adv5t ( ,fascism4 ,s t x c be said t by n tak+ into consid]ation ! actual production z a :ole1 & ! own]'s int]e/1 !y r$uc$ _! legitimate desire = a bett] life to ! de/ructive :ims ( *ildr5 & ru9$ _! own int]e/4 ,! s*ools reflect$ ! same de/ructive /ate ( m9d4 ,t :i* makes ! s*ool is surely n ! build+2 ! *ildr5 are n pupils if !y d n le>n1 & nei!r is ! ma/] a tea*] except inasmu* z he does actually tea*4 ,discipl9e hav+ slack5$ to su* a degree t x bord]$ on an>*y ! pupils _h "o fix$ idea to d no "w1 & a great _m ( ! tea*]s--n all inde$1 = ! tea*+ body has always c\nt$ 9 ,italy a numb] ( fir/-rate m5--_h ! same purpose4 ,tea*+ & le>n+ 7 r$uc$ to a gho/ly %ad[ by ! r$uction ( s*ools to a subjective purpose by bo? p>ties4 ,! pr(essors saw 9 _! function ! title x gave !m to _! /ip5d & ! pupils att5d$ s*ool j = ! degree or ! promotion to :i* su* att5dance entitl$ !m4 ,su* a false vision ( life is c]ta9ly n natural to ! ,italian p1 & x _h tak5 a great deal ( tr\ble to introduce x 9 a c\ntry ! m5tality ( :i* is above all reali/ic4 ,x is natural to ?9k t ! ,sociali/ & ,popol>i lead]s 7 guilty ( ! mo/ crim9al falsehoods4 ,on ! #ae? ( ,june1 #aibj1 :5 ,giolitti 0 call$ ^u to =m a new m9i/ry1 ! gov]nm5t ( ,nitti _h wr\ght su* havoc 9 ! few mon?s he _h be5 9 p[] t ! old /atesman 0 hail$ ,salvatore della ,patria on 8 com+ to p[] by ! v p :o _h call$ him a traitor five ye>s be=e4 ,yet ! new gov]nm5t f\nd t ! be/ ?+ to d 0 to let ?+s g on z !y 71 ) ! result t factories 7 tak5 possession ( by workm51 & a /rong reaction took %ape "u ! w+s ( ! new-born ,fascism1 :i* came out ) ! simple programme ( re/or+ ord] ev5 aga9/ ! /ate if x 0 necess>y4 ,public op9ion at ! end ( ! ye> gave a cle> pro( ( ! depress+ influ5ce ! gov]nm5t _h _h on ! national consci5ce all[+ ,giolitti1 :o _h truly nev] be5 a ,nationali/1 to compel d',annunzio & 8 m5 to evacuate ,fiume )\t any prote/ aga9/ ! bomb>dm5t inflict$ ^u !m4 ,:51 9 ! next spr+1 ! elections took place1 all ! old p>ties 7 !re aga9 ) ! addition ( ,fascism4 ,! m5 ( ! new p>ty 7 mo/ly new to politics altoge!r1 :il/ "s came f all ! old p>ties 7includ+ ! ,sociali/7 & !y _h all ( !m tak5 an active "p 9 ! w>4 ,9 ! di/ricts !y _h made national blocks ) ,nationali/s & ,lib]als & ! few seats !y obta9$ 7 n lo/ by ! ,popol>i or ,sociali/s1 :o 7 return$ 9 ! same proportion z !y _h be5 9 ! la/ ,h\se4 ,! fir/ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,fasci/s 0 t !y seem$ to h ! same programme z ! ,nationali/s1 :il/ !y 7 display+ ! p[] ( mass organisation t _h be5 till !n ! privilege ( ,sociali/s & ,popol>i4 7,?is *>act]i/ic holds good up to n[47 ,!y want$ to realise ! political programme ( ! be/ m5 ( ,italy by lift+ ! work+ class up to x4 ,z to _! aim x 0 !n exclusively ! political & moral realisation ( ! practical & spiritual value !y ascrib$ to ! w> victory4 ,!y _h no?+ l an ab/ract programme4 ,:5 realisation is n "o ) conception--& su* has be5 ! case = ! la/ two c5turies--! political sy/ems /at$ on pap] appe> all h>mony1 & _! consequ5ces all = ! be/2 b ! tr\ble beg9s z soon z _! application is s\ght4 ,fascism has no ideologies b a cog5t sy/em ( ideas able to give :at ideologies w nev] give1 promptitude & coh]5ce ( action4 ,^! ideas s]ve z a crit]ion ( action r ?an a !ory4 ,if x draws ! att5tion ( =eign]s z a beacon light x is because x does %[ a way out ( ! ab/raction t 9 a c]ta9 s5se seems to h p]v]t$ our mod]n vision ( social & economic reality4 ,! me?od x en=ces ( look+ inv>iably at bo? ! t]ms ( any "o relation is practical1 z only c be a me?od ! axle ( :i* is a highly philosophical conception4 ,= ! divorce betwe5 ?\ght & action pron\nc$ by ! philosophy ( ! sixte5?1 sev5te5?1 & eighte5? c5turies might induce u to believe t speculative ?\ghts _h no?+ to d ) ev]yday life1 :]eas ! simple/ & humble/ action or relation to be productive has to be ! direct & imm$iate expression ( a ?\ght1 sci5tific or speculative4 ,! peasant :o lifts 8 axe ov] 8 head be=e /rik+ x into ! wood is n mak+ a *oreographic fl\ri% ) 8 tool2 its weight is augm5t$ by ! height to :i* he lifts x & ! comb9ation ( ! =ce ( gravitation ) 8 own s5ds 8 blade to ! core ( ! wood4 ,he c]ta9ly does n ?9k ( ! =ce ( gravitation1 b he acts ^u x4 ,9 ! fir/ contract1 tacit ?\gh x may h be51 ! man :o lack$ h&s to pl\gh 8 fields & ! m5 :o _h no field to pl\gh1 came into a relation t 0 ! typical relation ( ! "o & ! _m :i* has /ood z ! fundam5tal problem ( e?ics & politics 9 ! philosophy ( all ages4 ,:5 syn!sis rules !ory & a syn!tic view ( reality rules practice !n ! relation is kept 9 consid]ation z ! liv+ bond ( ! two p>ties1 & ! great] product ( ! h>ve/ is ! common aim4 ,b :5 analytic me?ods1 ei!r empirical or rational1 prevail 9 philosophy1 practical life is infect$ ) a f]oci\s individualism1 ! necess>y consequ5ce ( :i* is ! unju/ attribution ( ! h>ve/ to "o ( ! two t]ms1 to ! ru9 ( ! relation :i* has to be bilat]al if x is to be at all4 ,?is concrete way ( look+ ^u e economic & social problem does n inde$ pres5t itself z a miracul\s way ( remov+ ! class /ruggles1 :i* are1 aft] all1 "o ( ! ma9 =ces at play 9 ! civilis+ process ( mank9d4 ,x is m]ely ! way ( look+ at x t befits ! intellectual level rea*$ by man ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( g5ius & ?r\gh ! blood & te>s ( ! _m by :i* social & economic progress is a*iev$4 ,aft] all t has be5 said x is surely unnecess>y to po9t out ! absurdity ( consid]+ ,fascism z a reaction>y t5d5cy4 ,x goes inde$ /eadily =w>d & its lead] w\ld n h ! hi/orical m9d he has1 if x meant to reject ! lab\r]s' claim to pres]ve ! recognition ( _! int]e/s1 :i* is ! "o noble conque/ ( socialism4 ,! 8reaction0 0 nev] aga9/ ! work+ classes' rights2 x 0 aga9/ all rights t did n spr+ f duties4 ,x 0 aga9/ exclusive p[]--tyrannical z all exclusive p[]s are b\nd to be--t x react$ ) ! full cons5t ( ! population1 z sick ( be+ boss$ by a mob m9ority z ! mob _h be5 to be boss$ by ! g5try fifty ye>s be=e4 ,truly x w\ld be a /range illusion ( ! upp] classes if !y 7 to believe t ,fascism _h come to re/ore 8! good old times02 = t :i* x has come to re/ore or r to e/abli% is ! really ,*ri/ian equality ( m54 ,*ri/ian because x int5ds rights to be consonant ) spiritual value & actual recognition ( duties4 ,! revolutions ( ! pa/ 7 always ju/ifi$ by ! necessity ( en=c+ ! claims ( a s+le class4 ,fascism 9 its syn!tic view ( life /rives to en=ce ! rightful claims ( all classes1 & consid]s !m rightful z f> z !y pres5t rights & duties on ! same plane4 ,if x looks to ! pa/ x is to und]/& ! pres5t1 b its k & und]/&+ ( hi/ory d n all[ x to believe t hi/ory proce$s backw>ds4 ,"p ,,ii ,,philosophical ,,antec$5ts ,,( ,,fascism ,,*apt] ,i ,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,philosophical ,,antec$5ts ,fascism is ! concrete way ( consid]+ any organisation or relation 9 ! light ( ! aim = :i* x 0 creat$4 ,su* a me?od sweeps away a good deal ( claptrap rhetoric & a great _m prejudices4 ,:at matt]s is ! actual work+ ( an organisation t[>ds its aim1 & n at all ! exclusive int]e/ ( "o ( ! two contract+ p>ties4 ,obvi\sly ?is is ! practical application ( "o ( ! mo/ fam\s propositions ( ! philosophy ( ,m9d4 ,x is j z obvi\s t aft] a fir/ p]iod ( political sy/em exclusively = g5tlem5 & by g5tlem51 & a second p]iod ( a political sy/em exclusively drawn = ! b5efit ( ! l[] class1 x 0 natural t any sane p>ty %\ld h tri$ a syn!tic policy1 above all 9 a c\ntry :]e ! m5tality is ess5tially reali/4 ,! motto ( ,fascism is ord] & hi]>*y4 ,?is is ! necess>y consequ5ce ( its tak+ into consid]ation always ! aim & its actual realisation4 ,if effici5cy is to be ensur$ to any organisation f ! family upw>d x is evid5t t e memb] ( x mu/ play 8 "p 9 ! way :i* is mo/ likely to ensure effici5cy4 ,yet ?is notion ( discipl9e is a trifle m mod]n ?an x s\nds1 at lea/ 9 ,italy4 ,no?+ c bett] illu/rate x ?an ! example ( a football ,capta9 & 8 m54 ,! boy :o acts z ,capta91 let u say ,john ,smi?1 has no au?ority ov] 8 fell[s1 except :51 ceas+ to be ,john ,smi?1 he is ,capta9 ( ! team1 & :ile !y are actually play+1 practis+ or arrang+ a game4 ,8 au?ority is n p]sonal1 x is actual to ! sport int]e/s ( ! team1 or ! s*ool !y repres5t1 s t x is n demean+ to any ( 8 team to accept ! dictates ( 8 au?ority4 ,inde$ ! boys' commons5se is /rong en\gh1 9 ,engl& at lea/1 to make !m realise an idea :i* !y w\ld compreh5d ) great difficulty 9 its speculative =m4 ,to !m x is obvi\s t _! ,capta9's au?ority is z absolute z x is actual & imp]sonal4 ,he is ,capta9 z long z he is an actual value1 z long z he is a factor ( effici5cy to ! g5]al play ( 8 side4 ,8 au?ority does n dim9i% "o :it ( ! play]s' lib]ty1 because ! w ( e s+le play] is t 8 side %\ld w91 & su* id5tity is t :i* makes ! actual reality bo? ( ! team z an individual1 or r z a p]son1 9 ! _w ( sport & ( ! s+le play]s z memb]s ( t team4 ,! ,capta9 is entru/$ ) ! co-ord9ation ( a numb] ( wills1 & _! weld+ into "o 9 8 own p]son1 s t ea* boy freely wants :at all want4 ,div]g5cies are m]ely negative--z is con/antly %[n by ! negative scor+ ( sides 9 :i* fir/-rate m5 play )\t ?is unification ( _! s+le wills4 ,?us football comes to illu/rate p]fectly ! mo/ difficult ( all ! ,g5tilian notions in/9ctively act$ ^u by p :o w nev] be able to read "o l9e ( ,g5tile's works1 ! notion ( lib]ty tak5 z actual id5tification ( ea* s+le w :i* is lib]ty ) ! common w :i* is law4 ,aga9 ! boys' commons5se w\ld f9d x z ridicul\s to argue ov] _! ,capta9's ord]s :5 play+1 z to g on consid]+ him z _! sup]ior :5 ! game is ov]1 or :5 !y h detect$ among !mselves a bett] ,capta94 ,!reby !y tea* ! _w a deep tru?1 t is to say t no value c be consid]$ z /atic1 & t its realisation be+ dynamic & actual x _c be a*iev$ once = all1 b is a cont9u\s process ( develop+ "o's own effici5cy4 ,h5ce ! notion ( discipl9e & lib]ty act$ ^u by boys play+ football results 9 a conception ( hi]>*y :i* is also %>$ by ,fascism1 & is pregnant ) s mu* social & political re=mation t "o _c insi/ too mu* ^u x4 ,nor c "o ab/ract x f ,g5tile's sy/em1 ( :i* x is !oretically & practically ! c5tre4 ,9 _! organisation ! boys c]ta9ly d n consid] ! team's hi]>*y z be+ def9itely settl$ any m ?an ,fasci/s w\ld consid] any "o political con/itution or me?od ( gov]n+ z f9al1 t is to say z p]fect4 ,to _! "y m9ds1 full ( fre%ness & ela/icity1 x w\ld s\nd absurd n to be able to alt] _! arrangem5ts & to modify _! play 9 ! be/ int]e/s ( ! team4 ,if a boy slack5s 9 8 practice 8 unfitness w soon betray ! fact & 8 contribution to ! positive scor+ ( ! team w be !reby dim9i%$4 ,b ) ?is new view ( hi]>*y :i* ,fascism takes z be+ gr\nd$ on actual value1 ! mo/ un/able ( all liv+ reality !reby de/roy+ e notion ( any p]man5t class or organisation--! contribution to int]national politics ( ,fascism z ! imm$iate consequ5ce ( its national & political antec$5ts comes to an end4 ,pass+ n[ to ! exposition ( ! philosophical g5ealogy ( ,fascism x may be well to rememb] fir/ t !re are no su* ?+s z 8national0 philosophies1 philosophy be+ ! hi/orical process ( inf9ite ,m9d2 secondly1 t z a consequ5ce ( ! on5ess ( su* a process1 !re are no su* ?+s z br& new conceptions ei!r 9 ! mo/ sublime ( !oretical sy/ems or 9 _! practical realisation su* z p$agogy or politics4 ,nei!r is !re any su* ?+ z an int]national sy/em1 & ?is ought to be suffici5t to de/roy any hope ( int]nationalisation ( mank9d4 ,e great nation is a contributor to ! life ( ,m9d1 & may be said to take 9 int]national politics a "p :i* is proportion$ to its !oretical contribution4 ,ea* s*ool ( ?\ght takes ! problems 9 ! solution ( :i* x displays ! peculi>ities :i* di/+ui% its g5ius f ano!r s*ool1 ei!r :5 ?is has giv5 to x all ! developm5t ( :i* its own g5ius 0 capable1 or :5 x is develop+ x on unilat]al l9es4 ,9 philosophy good examples ( ?is are ! obvi\s d]ivation ( ,bacon's & ,desc>tes' problems f ! ,italian philosoph]s ( ! ,r5aissance1 & ! mutual influ5ce ( ,engli% empiricism & ,fr5* rationalism2 9 politics ! influ5ce ( ,engl& on ,france dur+ ! :ole ( ! eighte5? c5tury & ( bo? c\ntries on ,italy dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,look+ at any hi/ory ( philosophy or politics s]ves to illu/rate ! po9t4 ,= "o foll[s ! liv+ process ?r\gh :i* !oretical notions are born "o out ( ! o!r1 & "o realises ! "p play$ by ! *>act]i/ics ( ea* nation 9 ! con/ructive play ( hi/orical =ces4 ,!re c\ld be no /rong] evid5ce bo? ( ! intellectual int]dep5d5ce ( c\ntries1 & ! absolute necessity ( _! political indep5d5ce4 ,! relation ( !oretical & practical life ought no long] to be "o ( exclusive opposition4 ,pragmatism has done some?+ t[>ds ! simplification ( x & ! oncom+ idealism is a*iev+ x 9 a way t may be said radical4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( ! la/ ?ree c5turies1 h[ev]1 we see philosophy consid]+ ?\ght & action z ! two t]ms ( an irr$ucible dualism2 yet su* dualism mu/ n be consid]$ a product ( ! p]v]s5ess ( mod]n ?\ght4 ,ovid has left u a v]se :i* settles ! po9t ev5 = p unfamili> ) pagan philosophy4 ,x is only ! delib]ate application ( a giv5 sy/em :i* may foll[ aft] its conception1 b ! spontane\s con=mation ( political reality to ! actual life ( ! m9d is g5]ally simultane\s ) ! conception ( ! !ories ( :i* x is ! practical expression4 ,a good illu/ration ( ! po9t c be _h f ,g]many4 ,lvy ,bruhl has sket*$ ! p>allel developm5t ( ,g]man philosophy & national consci\sness 9 a "w :i* is n z fam\s z x des]ves4 ,aft] ,hegel's dea?1 :5 8 sy/em has giv5 bir? to its two political (fspr+s1 ! /atolatry ( ,imp]ialism & ! my? ( ,m>x's ,communism1 ! maximum =ce ( expansion is on ! v]ge ( be+ rea*$ by ,g]many & ! c\ntry is n f> f becom+ ! prey ( national fanaticism1 :i* is z bl9d+ z ! religi\s fanaticism t appe>s 9 ! hi/ory ( all *ur*es :51 hav+ exhau/$ ! =ce ( expansion t is dep5d5t on ! imm$iacy ( _! fai?1 !y want to g on exp&+ artificially ?r\gh arbitr>y =ce4 ,few legacies ( ! fir/ c5turies ( mod]n ?\ght h be5 z h>mful z ! divorce betwe5 ! two manife/ations ( human activity4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 inevitable4 ,fai? 9 ! positive tea*+ ( ! ,*ur* 0 ! fir/ sn>e into :i* e>ly ?9k]s fell2 = x is n exact to say t !y pr(ess$ ! exi/5ce ( two tru?s m]ely to escape dang]4 ,!y firmly believ$ x4 ,mo/ ( !m 7 good ,ca?olics1 & z sure 9 _! sci5tific maturity z 9 ! days ( _! *ildhood t ! ,*ur* 0 "r4 ,on ! o!r h& !y 7 sure ( ! result ( _! obs]vations & exp]im5ts4 ,!y 7 sure 9 bo? cases1 & s !y simply inf]r$ ! co-exi/5ce ( two tru?s4 ,n[adays1 x s\nds *ildi% & ! reciprocal limitation ( ! two tru?s w\ld be obvi\s to any mod]n /ud5t1 b 9 ^? days ! problem _h n receiv$ ! light t x has receiv$ s9ce2 & !y 7 p]fectly 9 e>ne/4 ,! philosoph]s foll[$ suit = two obvi\s reasons2 sci5ce 0 /ill = a v long "t id5tifi$ ) philosophy1 & ! sixte5? c5tury ?9k]s1 :5 !y 7 fac$ by ! dilemma ( be+ h]etics or ( disc>d+ _! passionate rese>*es1 took to consid]+ religion z belong+ to ! practical manife/ation ( m9d :il/ sci5tific & philosophic rese>*es 7 its !oretical activity4 ,"o m /ep & religion 0 to be id5tifi$ z ! enemy ( sci5ce4 99 99 99 99 99 ,:5 ,europe em]g$ f :at has be5 call$ ! ,d>k ,ages ( obscurantism--9 anti!sis to ! age ( light to :i* belong$ ! writ]s :o ?us labell$ an epo*1 :i* 0 d>k & obscure to !m m]ely because !y knew v little ab\t x--intellectual life 0 s full ( buoyancy t m5 frett$ at ! te!rs ( a s*ool ( ?\ght :i* !y c\ld disreg>d aft] hav+ come to su* effici5cy "u its discipl9e t !y felt l boys com+ intellectually ( age4 ,s*ola/icism hav+ patronis$ ,ari/otle z 8,! ,philosoph]10 ,plato 0 = ! fir/ "t oppos$ to him1 !n ,neo-platonism2 !n mod]n 8national0 s*ools ( ?\ght arose at ! break+ up ( ! intellectual _w4 ,= a ,unit$ ,intellectual ,/ates ( ,europe exi/$ dur+ ! ,middle ,ages2 & ! biographies ( ,/4 ,anselm & ,/4 ,?omas tell u eloqu5tly h[1 9 _! c5turies1 a man c\ld pass f c\ntry to c\ntry to foll[ 8 /udies ) ! greate/ simplicity4 ,at ! "t ( ,/4 ,anselm1 nationality c\ld n be trac$ 9 a man's works4 ,by ! "t ,rog] ,bacon wrote ! diff]5ces _h develop$1 & x is n impossible to f9d 8 "* z a /urdy ,briton /&+ out di/9ctly 9 8 works4 ,su* national t5d5cies express$ !mselves only 9 matt]s ( little mom5t1 & x is a fact t ! wond]ful correspond5ce :i* pass$ betwe5 s*ol>s kept ! humanism ( ea* c\ntry 9 t\* ) t ( all o!rs2 x is none ! less obvi\s t !re 7 ess5tial diff]5ces betwe5 ! "* x gradually assum$ 9 v>i\s c\ntries1 a "* & an attitude t may be id5tifi$ z ! initial /age ( ! v>i\s ,european m5talities4 ,! be/ pro( ( ?is is to be _h 9 ! ess5tial & irr$ucible diff]5ces manife/ 9 ! conclusions to :i* ,italian1 ,engli% & ,fr5* philosophy came on ! v same problem1 :i* !y f\nd on ! ?re%old ( mod]n civilisation4 ,giordano ,bruno1 ,francis ,bacon & ,r5 ,desc>tes treat$ ! same "q :5 _! respective c\ntries em]g$ f ! lat] ,middle ,ages ) _! respective s*ools com+ to light f s*ola/icism ?r\gh humanism4 ,! problem ( k fac$ !m 9 ?is dawn ( mod]n intellectual life2 & ! same passionate reaction aga9/ ,ari/otelianism & s*ola/icism compell$ _! rese>*es to take ! same b5t4 ,yet !y came to widely diff]5t conclusions & ! diff]5ces hold good ev5 to-day z *>act]i/ic ( ,italian1 ,engli% & ,fr5* m5talities4 ,bruno1 ^: metaphysic is wond]fully syn!tic & pregnant ) a lyricism ! e*o ( :i* runs ?r\gh ! "w ( ,vico1 faces ! problem ( tru?1 ( sci5tific tru? accord+ to him1 9 ord] to f9d !oretical gr\nd to reject ! au?ority ( antiquity consid]$ by 8 =]unn]s z ! well ( all worldly wisdom4 ,a conception kn[n to t same antiquity b v uncommonly act$ ^u takes hold ( 8 m9d4 ,truly old age mu/ be wis] ?an y\?1 b antiquity is1 comp>$ to 8 age1 ! nurs]y age ( mank9d1 & a fairly good /ud5t ( ! sixte5? c5tury kn[s f> m ?an ,ari/otle1 because he may "k1 if he *ooses1 all t ,ari/otle knew1 & all t has come aft]w>ds to ! k ( m54 ,ea* g5]ation br+s its /one to ! con/ructive activity ( man's exp]i5ce4 ,h5ce ! idea he express$ v]itas filia temporis4 ,?us he proclaims t :i* w be ! motto ( e true ,italian ?9k]2 reality is ess5tially & above all1 ,hi/orical ,reality4 ,9 ,engl&1 ,bacon1 />t+ on ! same err&1 ?r\gh 8 rese>*es1 0 induc$ also to consid] m & m t ! reg>d ( man = ! au?ority ( tradition is "o ( ! greate/ ob/acles to ! progress ( sci5ce1 & t s]vile v5]ation = ,ari/otle is1 above all1 to be condemn$ z p>alys+ ! initiative ( mod]n ?9k]s4 ,le>n+ is n to be consid]$ z ! "w ( antiquity1 z a "w already done2 x is in/ead an ardu\s task /ill to be accompli%$ & ! fir/ /ep on ! way t[>ds its accompli%m5t mu/ be ! rejection ( ! old logic & its syllogism4 ,man mu/ tru/ to 8 p]sonal exp]i5ce1 ! imm$iate exp]i5ce ( 8 s5ses4 ,no?+ c\ld be m anti-hi/orical 9 its consequ5ces ?an ?is ass]tion1 ! unilat]alness ( :i* w\ld be a/oni%+ f a man :o felt ! :ole ( hi/orical & social _w z a puls+ reality1 if x 0 n ju/ifi$ by ! intellectual antec$5ts ( ! ,engli% national consci\sness com+ to realise its own p]sonality j at ! "t 9 :i* ,bacon ?\ght & wrote4 ,he c\ld n v well be expect$ to see ! condition ( 8 own exp]i5ce 9 ! exp]i5ce ( 8 =]unn]s1 9 ! age 9 :i* self-ass]tion 0 ! successful motto ( e great man fl\ri%+ 9 ,engl&4 ,! ab/raction ?us made ( all ! hi/orical pa/ condition+ ( man's exp]i5ce 0 balanc$ = ! "t be+ by 8 own hi/orical & political s5se & by ! love ( life z a :ole s /rong 9 ,elizabe?an days4 ,yet h5ce=? reality 9 ! eyes ( any true ,briton 0 to be ,empirical ,reality4 ,a ,fr5* ?9k] faces ! same problem4 ,r5 ,desc>tes at fir/ sight is ev]y?+ t ,bacon is n2 :il/ ! ,engli% philosoph] is a mixture ( recklessness & worldly wisdom1 anxi\s to enjoy ev]y?+ t p[] & weal? c beget1 & dr9k to ! dregs ! cup ( life1 ! ,fr5* metaphysician recoils f ! c>es ( p[] & ! noisy turmoil ( society4 ,a long] consid]ation1 specially f a m philosophic po9t ( view1 reveals aff9ities t 7 go+ to tell on _! !ories4 ,bo? lack ! y\?ful en?usiasm common to ,g]man & ,italian ?9k]s1 & bo? give %ape to _! !ories ) a cauti\s prud5ce t m>ks !m z m5 ( ! _w4 ,_! conclusions betray _! div]g5cies & aff9ities mu* bett] ?an any analysis ( _! life & "* c\ld2 = ,desc>tes c]titude is rea*$ by way ( induction :5 9 ! sil5ce ( m$itation he comes to 8 fam\s /atem5t ,cogito1 ergo sum4 ,! t\*/one ( c]titude is id5tifi$ ) ! actual consci\sness ( man 9 ! act ( ?9k+4 ,if ,i ?9k surely ,i am2 b ( ! re/1 t is to say ( ! k ( ! ext]ior _w ,i h no control1 & traditional sci5ce is communicat$ to me & 0 orig9ally obta9$ ?r\gh ! s5ses j z my actual objective k1 !re=e x _c be accept$ z c]ta94 ,ari/otle & all ! traditional feti%ism come to n\ght4 ,! tabula rasa is impli$ z def9itely 9 ?is z 9 ,bacon's "w2 9 bo? cases man mu/ beg9 8 "w f ! f\ndation & put to ! te/ ( 8 own exp]i5ce1 empirical 9 "o case1 rational 9 ! o!r1 ! legacies ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,! diff]5ce h[ev] impli$ 9 ! t]ms empirical & rational is fundam5tal & ! p$agogy & politics gr\nd$ on ,engli% philosophy :il/ lay+ d[n rules & =mulas inf]r$ f sy/ematic !ories1 w always be susceptible ( be+ temp]$ by a direct call to exp]i5ce & commons5se4 ,! rationality ( ,fr5* philosophy does n all[ ( su* adaptation4 ,to ?is day ! cog5cy = good or bad :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ,fr5* !ories is ! consequ5ce ( _! p]fect d$uction f a fir/ pr9ciple2 h5ce ! radicalness t m>s "s ( _! practical application4 ,) ! exception ( m5 greatly influ5c$ by =eign philosophy1 ! ,fr5* ?9k]s all took reality z be+ ,rational ,reality2 & all _! sy/ems 7 b\nd to be radical 9 _! applications4 ,9 _! rationalism or empiricism1 ,france & ,engl& ?rew ov]bo>d ! pa/ t loom$ inde$ r oppressive1 & 9 s do+ !y ass]t man1 9 8 individual det]m9ation1 z ! gr\nd ( all reality4 ,x is p]fectly all[able to consid] t ! two s*ools 7 b\nd to /imulate & temp] ea* o!r4 ,! atom1 ! monad at ! basis ( _! sy/em is always man1 b at ! outset ! unilat]alism ( ,bacon's gnoseology1 a me?od bas$ s to speak exclusively on s5se k1 call$ = ! ma!matical & d$uctive me?od ( ,desc>tes 9 ord] to display all t x held virtually ( sci5tific progress4 ,on ! o!r h& ! ,fr5* d$uctive me?od1 al?\gh admitt+ ! inf]5ce & resort+ to x 9 its rese>* ( fir/ pr9ciples1 /ood 9 sore ne$ ( a well-balanc$ recognition ( ! "p play$ by s5se p]ception 9 human k4 ,?is w be specially obvi\s 9 ! political consequ5ces ( ! two !ories4 ,= bo? _h _! political sy/em1 9 :i* _! common "* prevail$1 inasmu* z ! sev5te5? c5tury 0 = ,france & ,engl& ! c5tury ( metaphysics :il/ ! eighte5? drew ! conclusions ( _! premises1 see+ to ! application or realisation ( all t 0 f]tile z a sugge/ion ( a r5ovat+ process to be und]gone by society4 ,bruno's hi/orical reality 0 left 9 a corn]1 = x c\ld n h be5 integrat$ 9 our sy/em to :i* x 0 !n contradictory1 & /ill less 9 ! political conditions t 7 to be ! outcome ( our !ories1 s9ce x 0 consonant ) !m only z f> z ! individual 0 ! basis ( 8 reality z well z ( ours4 ,8 individual is1 h[ev]1 nei!r rational1 nor empirical2 he is hi/orical1 & ?is implies t he _c be consid]$ b]eft ei!r ( 8 roots 9 ! pa/ nor ( 8 projection on ! future4 ,no?+ !re9 t5ds to dim9i% man2 on ! contr>y ev]y?+ adh]es to him1 dilat+ 8 p]sonality "r into inf9ity4 ,b ?is notion ( man 0 f> too difficult to be realis$ ev5 !oretically 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 & ! ardu\s task ( ! ,fr5* & ,engli% s*ools 0 to pave ! way = ! ,g]man & mod]n ,italian ?9k]s & provide !m ) a />t+-po9t to rea* ! heights f :i* ! relation ( ! transc5d5tal & empirical selves c be detect$1 & ! hi/orical notion ( man realis$ 9 ! light ( su* a conception4 ,9 ,bruno x is n1 h[ev]1 a m]e intuition al?\gh x is realis$ only z f> z ! conception ( sci5ce & its hi/orical developm5t are conc]n$4 ,! practical realisation ( ?is notion impli$ a new conception ( tradition & au?ority1 :i*1 f> f be+ %ak5 to pieces1 are 9 x inve/$ ) a new & ne>ly sacr$ "*4 ,anti!tic !reby to ,prote/antism1 x knock$ no less aga9/ ! transc5d5t reality ( ,god z und]/ood !n by decad5t s*ola/icism & by mo/ ,ca?olics4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,humanism ,,& ,,r5aissance ,,%ap+ ,,! ,,hi/orical ,,m9d ,,( ,,italy ,! _s ( ,humanism--! v5]ation = antiquity :i* animat$ x--0 q obvi\sly diff]5t 9 ,italy f :at x 0 else:]e4 ,t ! diff]5ce consi/$ 9 ! clos] aff9ity ( ! s*ol>s to ! _w !y /udi$ is obvi\s also4 ,no great] pro( is ne$$ ?an ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ar*itecture ( ! twelf?1 ?irte5? & f\rte5? c5turies 9 ,we/]n ,europe & 9 ,italy4 ,art1 z conceiv$ by mod]n /hetics1 is t degree ( m9d1 ! function ( :i* is nei!r !oretical nor practical1 b consi/s 9 express+ ?r\gh intuition ! :ole life ( ! m9d4 ,we c1 !re=e1 rightly appeal to art z ! mo/ fai?ful witness to ! _s t animates an epo*4 ,ample docum5ts illu/rat+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! _s ( ,humanism 9 ,france & 9 ,italy c be f\nd 9 ! works ( ,emile ,mle on ! ,go?ic art ( ,france1 & 9 any illu/rat$ book ( ,italian m$ival ,art1 su* z ! small b excell5t album ( ,ojetti4 ,romanic ar*itecture fl\ri%$ 9 bo? c\ntries betwe5 ! eigh? & twelf? c5turies1 & its monum5ts 9 ,france1 su* z ,/4 ,s]n9 ( ,t\l\se1 leave no d\bt z to ! debt ( ! c\ntry to its ,roman conqu]ors4 ,ev5 at t "t1 :5 ! ,s\? ( ,france _h n yet altoge!r lo/ its traditions z ! ,roman ,prov9ce1 we c see new t5d5cies at "w4 ,9 ,italy1 ! contempor>y build+s1 piec$ toge!r ) fragm5ts ( anci5t columns1 capitals1 ar*itraves1 employ$ z simple build+ mat]ial1 po9t to ! m intimate co-exi/5ce 9 ,italy ( ! old & new elem5ts4 ,x is suffici5t to recall two *ur*es ( ! n9? c5tury 9 ,rome1 ,/4 ,m>ia 9 ,domnica & ,/4 ,prass$e1 bo? foll[+ ! model ( ! great ,con/ant9ian ,basilicas4 ,:ile _! ar*itecture is inspir$ by ! classic age ( ,*ri/ian art1 & ! mat]ials are /ol5 f ,pagan monum5ts1 _! mosaics ev9ce a heal?y realism t ass]ts ! liv+ tradition ( local art1 despite ! obvi\s & pr$om9ant influ5ce ( ! ,ea/4 ,b ?is p]si/5ce ( ,roman influ5ces does n exclude ^? ( ! ,nor?2 ,c>ol+ian art greatly influ5c$ ,italy1 especially 9 c]ta9 =ms ( decorative "w4 ,! gold5 alt> ( ,/4 ,ambrogio 9 ,milan1 ! canopy above x1 & "s ( ! /uccoes at ,cividale1 prove ! =ce ( ^! influ5ces 9 di/ricts e?nically & hi/orically fav\rable to _! reception4 ,by ! elev5? c5tury feudal society _h ei!r lo/ or assimilat$ ! pre-,*ri/ian elem5ts1 legacy ( ! anci5t _w1 :i* at fir/ _h cem5t$ toge!r ! v>i\s racial t5d5cies extant 9 ,europe at ! close ( ! ,roman ,empire1 !reby prep>+ ! way = new ?\ghts & ways ( liv+4 ,! ,nor!rn _w _h fully realis$ a new social ord]1 develop+ a new spiritual life & consequ5tly a new art to express x4 ,al?\gh ?is art conta9s num]\s & important classical & ,ea/]n elem5ts its orig9ality is manife/4 ,we are confront$ ) a new _w ) its own ideali/ic & naturali/ic t5d5cies4 ,! boldness ( ! ar*itecture1 toge!r ) ! m9ute r5d]+ ( nature 9 ! decoration te/ify to t union ( ab/ract speculation & close /udy ( reality t w *>act]ise all ! subsequ5t developm5ts ( ,nor!rn ?\ght4 ,mle has cle>ly %[n h[ ! arti/s h drawn ^u all ! !ology1 ! philosophy & ! lit]ature ( ! age to express at ! same "t bo? ! highe/ spiritual & ! pla9e/ practical life4 ,italian ar*itecture ( ! same p]iod1 foll[+ m fai?fully ! old tradition1 /&s 9 great contra/ to ?is orig9ality4 ,/4 ,ambrogio 9 ,milan is an excell5t example ( ?is traditional gr[? ( ,italian art 9 ! days t witness$ ! full developm5t ( communal lib]ty4 ,v diff]5t f ! ,con/ant9ian ,basilica1 ev5 z ! ,commune 0 n ! exact c\nt]p>t ( ! ,roman ,municipium1 its heavy /ructure1 s eloqu5t 9 its massiv5ess1 mu/ h appeal$ to its middle-class build]s4 ,9 o!r ,lomb>d *ur*es we meet ) ! same attempt to create a new /yle ) classical elem5ts4 ,9 seek+ to h>monise traditional disposition ) ! new ne$s1 !y tri$ to avoid ! extreme novelties ( ! ,nor?1 too ali5 to ! ,roman well-balanc$ & unlyrical m5tality4 ,! /yle ( su* build+s is pres5t to e m9d & reveals bett] ?an any description ! unbrok5 desc5t f ,imp]ial ,rome4 ,inde$1 f ,lomb>dy to ,sicily1 f ,v5ice to ,g5oa1 v>i\s are ! /yles fl\ri%+ 9 ! ,p59sula2 yet x is easy to detect ev]y:]e /rong traces ( su* desc5t4 ,! ,bapti/]y ( ,flor5ce is a v good in/ance ( ?is traditionalism & recalls fai?fully t ( ! ,lat]an ( ! "t ( ,con/ant9e4 ,9 ent]+ ,san ,m9iato 9 ,flor5ce1 :]e ! fanciful details ( ! decoration foll[ & are subord9ate to ! sev]ely classical ar*itecture1 we almo/ feel on ! ?re%old ( ! ,r5aissance1 al?\gh /ill 9 ! elev5? c5tury4 ,9 ! monum5ts ( ,pisa1 ,lucca & ,pi/oia we f9d ! same classical qualities 9 ! ar*itectural s*eme1 unit$ to ! m poetic fancies display$ 9 ! decoration4 ,!re is ?us a consci\s dep5d5ce on antiquity 9 ! ma9 ar*itectural features1 toge!r ) ! utmo/ read9ess to accept =eign accessories4 ,/4 ,m>k's 9 ,v5ice displays1 ev5 z ! hi/ory ( ! amphibi\s ,republic1 all ! sumptu\sness ( ! ,ea/1 b ev5 9 su* an exotic s*eme ! ar*itecture /ill relies on ,imp]ial ,rome1 :i* _h itself absorb$ _m ,ea/]n elem5ts4 ,torcello1 ,trie/e1 ,murano1 %[ z cle>ly z ! ,lomb>d communes ! sl[ process ( evolution t 0 to lead to ! ,r5aissance4 ,byzant9e elem5ts are n z ali5 z ,go?ic to ,roman tradition4 ,! contempor>y juri/s _h %[n ! great contribution ( ,byzantium to ! developm5t ( ,roman law1 & ,byzant9e motives 7 assimilat$ m easily ?an ^? f ! ,nor?4 ,! ,roman legions _h br\ght ! great expanses ( ! ,nor? into ! orbit ( hi/ory1 b ?\gh !y left deep & undy+ traces beh9d !m1 !y 7 unable to de/roy ! virile qualities ( ! ,nor!rn races4 ,s :5 ,*ri/ianity br\ght a new intuition ( life to ! ,we/]n _w x develop$ locally accord+ to ! t5d5cies ( ! v>i\s nations4 ,! result 0 b\nd to be m orig9al :]e m5 7 less influ5c$ by ! old ,pagan culture & fur!r f ! m5tality t _h produc$ x1 among peoples :o 8a cultu atque humanitate prov9ciae longissime absunt40 ,ev5 ?\gh _! gr[? 0 to be sl[] 9 "s respects1 su* z ! cultural1 su* peoples 7 b\nd to absorb m completely ! full import ( ! new fai? & ?us produce a ?or\ghly orig9al civilisation4 ,x 01 !re=e1 necess>y 9 ord] to glorify ! new religion to produce an art z novel z ! civilisation :i* inspir$ x4 ,9 contra/ to ?is affirmation ( an entirely new m5tality ,italy 0 influ5c$ by ! ,roman traditions t weigh$ ^u h]2 !y /imulat$ a premature effloresc5ce t exhau/$ h] virility = c5turies4 ,h] p 7 n =c$ to elaborate afre% all ! elem5ts ( life2 ! ,*ur* _h pres]v$ = !m ! framework ( ,roman life & law4 ,?us ! en]gy exp&$ 9 ,france & 9 ,engl& 9 work+ out a radically new society & civilisation1 9 ,italy drift$ p>tly into adapt+ ! old =mulas to ! new necessities & p>tly into acquir+ a deep] consci\sness ( ! intimate relations ) ! pa/4 ,9 all ! /ruggles f ! twelf? to ! fifte5? c5tury ) ! ,empire & ) ! ,*ur*1 ! ,italians inv>iably appeal$ to ! traditions ( ,anci5t ,rome2 & _! appeal 0 n to a remote civilisation1 b to a liv+ tradition ( _! own1 oppos$ to ! feudal in/itutions ( ! b>b>ians4 ,at ! "t ( ! ,communes ?is attitude is p>ticul>ly /rik+4 ,! peasantry _h tak5 %elt] f feudal oppression 9 t[ns protect$ by ! au?ority ( a bi%op1 & !re ) ! developm5ts ( comm]ce !y grew 9 weal? & political p[]4 ,we ?us f9d a new social class1 ! burgh]1 t contribut$ imm5sely to ! gr[+ importance ( ! cities4 ,^! /rong practical m5 7 di/+ui%$ by t common s5se & pride t to-day di/+ui%es ! /urdy & self-ass]tive ,fasci/s4 ,hav+ e/abli%$ _! in/itutions1 !y consid]$ !m a liv+ "p ( _! own p]sons1 & br\ght into political life _! s5se ( p]sonal dignity & ! en]gy ( ! m$ival ,*ri/ian1 ready to die = ! ideas repres5t$ by 8 ,corporation1 ev5 z ! ,fasci/ is ready to die = 8 symbolic ,black ,%irt4 ,! ,communes1 9 spite ( _! novelty1 p]haps inde$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! novelty ( _! self-ass]tion1 7 responsible = "o ( ! /ronge/ hi/orical bonds ) ! pa/4 ,= 9 _! opposition to ! feudal rights ackn[l$g$ by m$ival law1 !y appeal$ to ,roman jurisprud5ce 9 ord] to prove ! legal gr\nds ( _! lib]ties4 ,!y in/9ctively con=m$ to ! pa/1 creat+ =ms ( gov]nm5t ri* 9 future possibilities1 & su* con=mity 0 n1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,reggio1 a m]e "q ( high-s\nd+ names4 ,! ,communes reproduc$ ( ! actual & ess5tial features ( ! ,city-,/ate1 all ^? t c\ld be reviv$4 ,_! classicism 0 by no means artificial1 x 0 intimately felt z ! sure/ means ( de/roy+ feudalism1 at t "t ! mo/ ass]tive =m ( individualism4 ,ev5 ! pres5t ,fasci/ appeal to ,rome is f> f be+ m]e rhetoric2 ,rome is consid]$ ! "o =ce antagoni/ic to t anti-hi/orical m5tality due to illum9ism1 t has giv5 rise to ab/ract demagogy & individualism4 ,! burgh]s1 back$ by ! rec5tly lib]at$ peasantry1 =m$ ! /r5g? ( ! ,commune1 & upheld ! memories ( ,roman municipal organisation aga9/ ! preval5tly ,g]manic nobility4 ,! ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,communes consi/$ ( a college ( ,rectors ) an ,assembly ( ,eld]s1 v mu* l ! ,s5ate ( old1 ) v>i\s dep5d5t cli5tele t recall ! g5tes2 ! heads ( ! v>i\s ,guilds 7 call$ ,consuls & took comm& ( _! m5 9 any em]g5cy4 ,_! def5ce ( civic lib]ties 0 ess5tially ! def5ce ( fre$om to att5d to _! trades & occupations4 ,"h aga9 !y anticipat$ ,mussol9i4 ,:at matt]s to ! ,commonweal is n ! individual b ! int]e/ he repres5ts4 ,!y consid]$ t ?is fre$om ( "w 0 incompatible ) ! dep5d5ce ( ! ,commune on any sup]ior temporal au?ority4 ,?is 0 s deeply felt t ! city 0 plac$ "u ! protection ( a ,patron ,sa9t1 :o1 accord+ to ,ercole ,reggio1 0 n unlike ! eponym\s ,h]o ( an anci5t city4 ,9 attempt+ to ju/ify ^! =ms ( political & pr(essional life ! citiz5s ( ! ,commune came /ill m to consid] !mselves ! lawful desc5dants ( ! ,romans4 ,/udies ( ,roman ,law 7 pursu$ ) z mu* zeal & vig\r z any o!r =m ( practical or religi\s life4 ,z long z ,pisa1 ,milan1 ,cremona1 ,pavia1 pres]v$ _! municipal lib]ties _! :ole life 0 imbu$ ) a /rong s5se ( classicism :i* express$ itself bo? 9 ! int5sifi$ /udy ( ,roman ,law1 z ,pr(essor ,solmi has cle>ly po9t$ out1 & 9 ! art ( ,niccol ,pisano4 ,su* ,roman & classical qualities 7 to disappe> :5 ! t[ns lo/ _! municipal autonomy1 only to reappe> at ! pres5t day 9 ! idealism ( ,g5tile1 ^: ,filos(ia del ,diritto is z mu* impress$ by ! seal ( _! realism z x is influ5c$ by ! ?\ght ( ,hegel4 ,!y reappe> 9 ! ,re=m ( ! ,italian ,con/itution1 t5d+ to sub/itute actual int]e/ z ! dynamic basis ( ! ,/ate 9 ! place ( ! /atic & naturali/ic f\ndation x has _h up till n[4 ,!y reappe> above all 9 ,mussol9i1 :o told ! au?or he did n wi% t a !oretical legislation %\ld regulate or r p>alyse ! developm5t ( ! new corporations1 b t1 foll[+ ! example ( ! ,romans1 he wi%$ ! legislation to gr[ out ( ! m9utes ( e s+le case submitt$ to ! ,corporation ,c\rt4 ,be=e !y disappe>$ !y _h p]vad$ all ,italian life to su* a degree t s*ol>s c\ld say we 9 talk+ ( ! anci5t ,romans1 & consid] ,lat9 z _! own language4 ,ricordano ,malesp9i says t ,fr$]ick ,,ii spoke 8la no/ra l+ua lat9a e il no/ro volg>e40 ,!y _h two national languages1 ,lat9 & ! v]nacul>1 ! latt] itself a deg5]ate (fspr+ ( ,lat91 kn[n z ! 8romano ru/ico10 to :i* c\ld be trac$ all ! v>i\s dialects 9 spite ( _! local corruptions4 ,! ,communes _h also a great influ5ce on ! =mation ( ! ,italian language1 & ?is influ5ce t5d$ to unification n to diff]5tiation1 z _m hi/orians h tak5 = grant$ 9 consequ5ce ( _! political individualism4 ,francesco de ,sanctis says t intellectual culture necess>ily /imulates new ideas1 f> sup]ior to ! mat]ial necessities ( man1 & !reby calls into exi/5ce a m educat$ & ref9$ class ( citiz5s1 putt+ x 9 communication ) =eign intellectual life4 ,! ultimate consequ5ce is a clos] connection ( languages t develops n _! local1 b _! common elem5ts4 ,accord+ to him ! fir/ effects ( r5ew$ ,italian intellectual life 7 bo? to re/ore ! purity ( ,lat9 & fav\r ! =mation ( ! v]nacul>4 ,?us we see h[ ! classical revival />t$ at ! v mom5t :5 ! new ,italian consci\sness %\ld h be5 born4 ,?is revival 0 aid$ by ! e/abli%m5t ( great int]national c5tres su* z ! ,c\rt ( ,pal]mo at fir/1 & lat] ! cities ( ,tuscany & ,lomb>dy4 ,z ! /udies ( ,lat9 improv$1 ! local dialects became pur] & m ref9$4 ,! weakness ( ! contempor>y writ]s = rhetoric1 = v]bosity1 _! exagg]at$ love = ! m]e ^w1 to :i* !y attribut$ an almo/ religi\s value1 seems v (t5 ! nave pleasure ( reass]t+ a family claim on a *]i%$ prop]ty4 ,bo? ,guelphs & ,ghibell9es are foll[]s ( ,rome1 ! =m]1 z we h se51 f9d+ 9 ,roman ,law ! legality ( _! municipal in/itutions1 ! latt] appeal+ to ! traditions ( ,imp]ial ,rome to ju/ify ! sov]eign rights ( ,cs>4 ,! :ole public life assumes a religi\s "* z 9 all con/ructive p]iods ( hi/ory & z is ! case 9 ,italy to-day1 :]e ! previ\s lack ( s]i\sness has be5 consid]$ by ! greate/ ?9k]s to h be5 ! product ( religi\s scepticism4 ,at t "t ! object ( ! common v5]ation1 ! "o univ]sal feel+ ( ! mo/ facti\s ( peoples 9 ! mo/ facti\s p]iod ( its hi/ory 0 ! cult ( ,rome4 ,& z ,religion play$ su* an imm5se "p 9 _! :ole life1 ! ,italians 7 oblig$ to *ri/ianise ,rome & associate x ) ,*ri/ian idealism4 ,= ,dante1 ,*ri/1 & ,rome dom9ate ! hi/ory ( a ?\s& ye>s4 ,he views hi/ory z a va/ moral & religi\s evolution1 z an indissoluble :ole1 ea* portion ( :i* conv]ges irresi/ibly to its pre-orda9$ end4 ,! ,bir? ( ,our ,"l at ! mom5t :5 ,cs> ,augu/us orda9$ t all ! _w %\ld be tax$ te/ifi$ to ,god's approval ( ! ,empire4 ,*ri/1 9 submitt+ ,8 ,godhead to ! judgm5t ( a ,roman magi/rate1 gave ,div9e sanction to ,roman ,law4 ,dante does n consid] ! miracul\s orig9 ( ! ,sev5-,hill$ ,city z ! only pro( ( ! privileges x holds f ,god1 nor does he ascribe to x ! m important fav\r ( a special hi/orical process4 ,rome = ,dante is equival5t to ,ca?olicity1 to con=mity to ! plans ( ! ,div9e ,provid5ce1 & ! hi/ory ( ,rome raises ! ,roman ,/ate almo/ to ,div9e rank4 ,guelphs & ,ghibell9es f9d 9 ! ,roman ,juri/s & ! ,roman ,legions argum5ts 9 support ( _! opposite claims1 & :5 ! adv5t ( ! ,signorie involv$ !m 9 a common d[nfall1 ! consci\sness ( an unbrok5 desc5t f ,rome c\ld nev] aft] be eras$ f ,italian m5tality4 ,! influ5ce ( ,rome on all ! m$ival in/itutions ( ,italy is obvi\s to anyone famili> ) ! p]iod4 ,b ! ,italians1 at ! dawn ( mod]n hi/ory1 7 l$ by ?is unbrok5 tradition ( ,rome into a habit ( go+ to ,roman hi/ory & law = a solution ( contempor>y problems1 & ?is1 :ile x secur$ _! supremacy 9 ! field ( jurisprud5ce1 kept _! m5tality f develop+ on orig9al & mod]n l9es4 ,ev5 :5 ,italy seem$ almo/ to h )drawn f all competition 9 !oretical rese>*1 h] juri/s & hi/orians /ood out to proclaim ! immortality ( ! national g5ius4 ,! intimate relations ( ! pa/ ) ! pres5t c\ld nev] be lo/ sight ( by p :o f\nd 9 ! political & legal activities ( anci5t ,rome ! pr9ciples f :i* arose _! *ief political idea1 ! dignity ( man z a citiz54 ,!y ov]look$ ! fact t su* wond]ful citiz5%ip _h nev] be5 be/[$ on man z man1 t ! municipal lib]ties1 ! privileges ( ! ,collegia1 ! rule ov] ! b>b>ians1 7 ! rew>d ( ! ,romans1 n ! pre-orda9$ lot ( ,rome4 ,italian s*ol>s felt ) ! deepe/ conviction t h] g5ealogy alone end[$ ,italy ) a primacy :i* !y c\ld n r5\nce4 ,ev5 _h !y s wi%$ !y c\ld n h be5 a mod]n nation 9 a mod]n _w4 ,! m !y /udi$1 ! m did !y conv9ce !mselves l ,petr>* t !y desc5d$ 9 an unbrok5 l9e f ,m>ius & ,sulla4 ,_! hi/orical m5tality 0 already =m$ & !y c\ld n consid] ! human _w o!rwise ?an z a n>r[ collaboration ( successive g5]ations4 ,dante1 9 8 preface to ! ,de ,mon>*ia1 has /at$ 8 idea ( ?is hi/orical succession4 8,all m5 :om a l(ti] nature leads to ! love ( tru? seem to be mo/ greatly conc]n$ to h& d[n to po/]ity ! fruits ( _! ef=ts s t1 ev5 z !y !mselves h be5 enri*$ by ! lab\rs ( _! ance/ors1 !y may to ! same degree end[ _! successors4 ,inde$1 he :o is /eep$ 9 ! k ( public affairs is c]ta9ly f> f fulfill+ 8 duty %\ld he n tr\ble to be/[ ! fruit ( 8 /udies on ! ,republic1 n l unto #8a tree by ! riv]s ( wat] t br+e? =? 8 fruit 9 8 season1' b r unto a baneful :irlpool t swall[e? up all ?+s nor ev] re/ore? :at x ha? once swall[$40 ,"h we f9d ! empirical expression ( :at ,giordano ,bruno 0 to conceive !oretically ?ree hundr$ ye>s lat]1 ?us =e%ad[+ ! ,imman5ti/ doctr9e ( hi/ory & society t ,vico 0 to develop "s hundr$ & fifty ye>s lat] /ill4 ,vico _h1 9 8 turn1 to wait until ! second half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 9 ord] to be prop]ly und]/ood4 ,8 ideas 9 #aiaf =m$ ! basis ( ,giovanni ,g5tile's ,philosophy ( ,law1 & at ! pres5t day are realis$ 9 ! ,italian ,con/itution z elaborat$ by ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,mussol9i4 ,b ,dante's s*ola/ic tra9+ c\ld n all[ him to h ! lea/ inkl+ ( ! doctr9e ( ,imman5tism2 8 ideal ,mon>* is m]ely a magi/rate appo9t$ & end[$ by ,god4 ,= ,dante all political p[] c\ld only be lawfully d]iv$ f ! ,div9e law4 ,s*ola/ic philosophy c\ld n conceive a law t %\ld n be dep5d5t ^u a sup]ior w or a pre-exi/+ law4 ,none ! less1 ?is empirical /atem5t1 su* z x is1 %[s already h[ no speculation c\ld satisfy ! ,italian m9d unless x avoid$ ! unhi/orical position m natural 9 ^? c\ntries t _h !mselves evolv$ an orig9al =m ( society4 ,! removal ( ! ,papal c\rt to ,avignon gave ,italy a rude %ock 9 affect+ ! good fame ( ! :ole c\ntry4 ,! humiliation ( ! ,papacy is res5t$ all ov] ! ,p59sula1 & ! eclipse ( ! ,papal dignity dim9i%es ! pre/ige n only ( ,rome b ( ,italy4 ,a new religion1 ! cult ( ,rome1 spreads 9 all ,italian he>ts1 & its ru9$ monum5ts are sc>cely less v5]at$ ?an ! relics ( ! ,apo/les4 ,! glori\s memories ( ! ,roman ,republic1 ! pride ( ! ,roman "n1 give rise bo? to ! un=tunate /atesman%ip ( ,arnold ( ,brescia &1 a hundr$ & fifty ye>s lat]1 to ! ra% adv5ture ( ,cola di ,ri5zo4 ,all ^? :o _c boa/ su* an illu/ri\s desc5t are contemptu\sly designat$ z b>b>ians1 & ?is di/9ction gives rise to ! feel+ ( ! unity ( ! ,italian races4 ,! my/ical & religi\s f]v\r ) :i* ! m5 ( ! ,risorgim5to felt = ,rome1 s /rong t x l$ !m to trample on _! religion1 0 n /rong] ?an t ( ! fir/ humani/s4 ,petr>* & ,boccaccio 7 already prep>+ ! way = ! ,r5aissance1 ( :i* !y are rightly consid]$ z ! fir/ pione]s4 ,^! en?usia/s1 :o br\ght su* ine/imable b5efits to ! intellectual life ( ! :ole _w1 nev]!less introduc$ into _! own c\ntry ! g]m ( _m ills4 ,! m5 ( ,france & ,engl& c\ld nev] feel at home 9 ! ample folds ( ,cic]o's toga z ! ,italians did4 ,x 0 = !m1 inde$1 a useful g>m5t worn ) p]fect ease ( mann]s z a c]emonial robe donn$ on /ate occasions1 or a protective cov]+ unfurl$ 9 _! intellectual battles4 ,despite its assimilation & survival z late z ! eighte5? c5tury 9 ! ample p]iods ( ,dr4 ,johnson or 9 ! well-balanc$ s5t5ces ( ,bossuet1 x did n modify to any degree ! m5tality ( c\ntries ) :i* x did n h a close aff9ity1 al?\gh x left 9 ! m9ds a c]ta9 numb] ( ideas di/9ctly pagan1 su* z t ( bir?right4 ,fr5* & ,engli% s*ol>s look$ ^u ,rome z some?+ def9itely outside _! own _w1 l ! moon or ! sun1 & j z illum9at+ to !m z ! =m] is to ! night w&]] & ! latt] to all ! lab\rs ( mank9d4 ,?is transc5d5tal quality r5d]$ ,rome inde$ semi-div9e 9 _! eyes1 b =tunately kept !m f consid]+ !mselves ! l9eal prog5y ( ,m>ius or ,cs>4 ,_! cult ( antiquity 0 j z pr(\ndly religi\s z t ( ! ,italian s*ol>s ) :om !y 7 (t5 9 ! close/ relations1 only _! attitude 0 m deta*$4 ,!y 7 ?us able to cut !mselves adrift f _! ma/]s ) p]fect ease :5 !y _h assimilat$ all t 0 ne$ful to develop _! own natural gifts4 ,an abyss /ood betwe5 !m & antiquity2 !y 7 unable to appreciate _! real connection ) antiquity4 ,_! hi/orical in=mation z to ! int]v5+ c5turies c\ld only be drawn f m$ival *ronicles :i*1 full ( detail ?\gh !y 71 did n (f] any compreh5sive view ev5 ( a reign & mu* less ( a c5tury4 ,!y fail$ to und]/& ! ess5tial cont9uity ( ! hi/ory ( all c\ntries1 &1 :ile n mak+ ! mi/ake ( consid]+ ! ,romans z _! ance/ors1 !y c\ld n conceive hi/ory & society z imman5t 9 man4 ,petr>*1 on ! contr>y1 consid]s himself p]fectly ,roman1 al?\gh 8 lyrics are almo/ ! fir/ ass]tion ( mod]n individualism4 ,8 famili>ity ) ,livy1 ,cic]o1 ,virgil1 gave him an appreciation ( classical ,lat9 t l$ him to consid] t ( ,dante b>b>\s4 ,:at matt]s to him is ! =m 9 :i* ?\ghts are express$1 n ! ?\ghts !mselves2 he want$ art = art's sake4 ,=tunately1 8 g5ius & ! f]v\r ( 8 cult = ,rome sometimes animates 8 consci\sness ( ! cont9uity ( ! pa/ ) ! pres5t4 ,9 ! ,canzone di ,signori d',italia ! new ,italy t 0 try+ to recov] h] ,roman & ,lat9 tradition appe>s z a fully gr[n p]sonality4 ,guelphs & ,ghibell9es1 ,romans & ,flor5t9es h disappe>$1 & ,italy speaks ! pr\d language ( ! ,que5 ( ,civilisation4 ,z ,francesco ,de ,sanctis puts x1 ! poet is an ,italian1 consci\s ( ! sup]iority ( 8 race4 ,m>ius is m5tion$ z if he 7 an almo/ contempor>y p]son4 ,s deeply does ! "y poet feel ! classical _w t h5ce=? he consid]s ! h]oes ( ,greece & ,rome z 8 ance/ors4 ,) p]sonal pride he assumes ! milit>y glories ( ,m>ius & ,cs> no less ?an ! ample rhetoric ( ,cic]o4 ,& 9 ?is assumption ( a ready-made glory z ,italy's inh]5t "r1 cause ( mu* subsequ5t political & moral weakness1 we may f9d ! fir/ signs ( ! contribution t mod]n ,italy is p]haps n[ on ! v]ge ( br++ to civilisation4 ,x is !re=e natural t ,fascism %\ld attack ) en]gy ! negative side ( ! legacy ( ,humanism1 ! ,italian fondness = rhetoric1 union ( l(ty words & mean de$s1 :ile accept+ & proclaim+ ! hi/orical conception t l9ks man to ! g5]ations pa/ & future4 ,! ,italians ( ! fifte5? c5tury cont9u$ to revel 9 ! glory ( ,rome & gradually =got t !re 0 an actual & liv+ reality1 h>dly consi/5t ) _! sup]ior attitude z ! sons ( ,cs> & ,augu/us4 ,prose & v]se improv$ s long z ! cult ( antiquity reta9$ its initial my/ic f]v\r1 t provid$ ! religi\s elem5t indisp5sable to all creative art4 ,b :5 devotion to classical /udies became a "q ( int]e/ or vanity1 x 0 only f ! v greate/ arti/s1 f m5 ^: real religion 0 ! wor%ip ( art1 t "o c\ld expect s9c]ity4 ,all ! o!rs 7 only extraord9>ily adept at ! clev] word+ ( o!r p's ideas4 ,!y c\ld nev] fail to deck any subject1 no matt] h[ mean1 no matt] h[ repulsive1 9 ! full pomp ( a ,cic]onian oration1 ri* 9 beautiful s5t5ces & display+ ! c>eful /udy ( all ! figures ( spee* to be f\nd 9 ! classics4 ,fracca/orius describes a loa?some disease 9 ! f9e/ ( po/-classical hexamet]s4 ,politicians c\ld act z meanly z !y pleas$1 sure t ! glory ( ,rome w\ld raise !m above ! re/ ( mank9d4 ,ev5 _! real sup]iority 9 hi/orical feel+ & 9 ! int]pretation ( antiquity 0 a s\rce ( weakness4 ,= :5 beat5 9 w> !y c\ld always express contempt = ! victors & call !m b>b>ians1 consol+ !mselves ) _! real intellectual & arti/ic sup]iority = _! political humiliation4 ,9 #adid ,*>les ,,viii ( ,france invad$ ,italy1 meet+ ) no resi/ance wor? m5tion+4 ,x is n surpris+1 s9ce ! despair+ cry ( ,boi>do 8,m5tre *e io canto1 ,o ,dio ,r$5tore4 ,v$o l',italia tutta a fiamma e a foco0 is almo/ ! swan-song ( m$ival ,italy4 ,at ! same "t a tw5ty-ye>-old y\?1 de/9$ to become ! greate/ poet ( ! age1 ,lodovico ,ario/o1 c\ld s+ ) p]fect ,horatian art & ) an equally p]fect indiff]5ce = 8 c\ntry 8asp]i furore militis trem5do ,turribus ausoniis ru9am0 & ) all ! selfi%ness ( unconsci\s indiff]5ce 8,rursus quid ho/is prospiciat sibi ,me nulla tangat cura1 sub arbuto ,iac5tem aquae ad murmur cad5tis40 ,he has adopt$ ! measures & h>monies ( ,horace & ,virgil &1 wrapp$ up 9 8 pride 9 ! glory ( ,rome1 goes on s++ 8 classical bucolic loves 9 complete indiff]5ce to ! fate ( 8 c\ntry3 8,e/ mea nunc ,glyc]ae1 mea nunc e/ cura ,lycoris1 ,lyda modo meus e/1 e/ modo ,phyllis amor40 ,reality is a horrible dream1 8improba seclis conditio60 he is %ock$ t 8nup] ab occiduis illatum g5tibus1 olim pressa quibus no/ro colla fu]e iugo40 ,su* a p]fect ,lat9i/ c\ld b seek to dismiss ?is hide\s reality by ignor+ x & to f9d refuge 9 ! glori\s memories ( ! pa/ or 9 ! creation ( a _w ( fanciful *ivalry4#e ,! sixte5? c5tury witnesses ! f9al divorce ( ,italian culture f real life1 s t = two subsequ5t c5turies1 in/ead ( develop+ ! moral & social qualities ( ! individual citiz51 z 9 ,engl&1 9 ,france & 9 ! ,ne!rl&s1 x t5d$ r to ! atrophy ( all real patriotism4 ,b at ?is v mom5t1 9 opposition to ?is dissolv+ & negative influ5ce ( ,italian ,humanism1 "o ( ! greate/ m5 produc$ by a l& ev] 8magna p>5s virum0 /&s =? to proclaim t man alone is ! creator ( ! hi/orical _w & arbit] ( 8 own de/9y4 ,! public life & ! po/hum\s fame ( ! ,flor5t9e ,secret>y are equally un=tunate1 b ! pres5t age is bett] prep>$ to appreciate ! tru?s conta9$ 9 ! works ( ,niccol ,ma*iavelli4 ,he1 l all ! intellectuals ( ! p]iod1 w\ld h said 8we0 9 speak+ ( ! ,romans1 & he might h us$ ! phrase ( ,leon>do ,aret9o1 8,graecos 1 ,,no/ros ,,civitas appellavisse10 _h he desir$ to trace ! etymology ( t political reality s de> to 8 he>t4 ,b ?is id5tification 0 n s5tim5tal2 he analyses closely ! diff]5ces betwe5 pa/ glory & pres5t %ame4 ,/rictly speak+1 he is n a ,humani/ at all2 l ,galileo1 he repudiates ,neoplatonism & foll[s1 r1 ! exp]im5tal me?od4 ,he c>efully dissects ! pa/ = ! b5efit ( ! pres5t1 & deftly probes ! w\nds ( ! body politic4 ,?is empirical /&po9t inde$ w\ld be a grave defect1 did n 8 g5ius & s5se ( hi/ory z a liv+ reality (t5 lead him to intuitions t transc5d bo? 8 me?od & outlook4 ,! intuitions1 ! pro( ( ! tru? ( :i* 0 to be "o ( ! *ief conque/s ( mod]n ?\ght1 are cl\d$ by 8 prejudices or obscur$ by ! inevitable limitations ( 8 k ( facts4 ,8 conception ( 8virtue0 is p]haps ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ^? intuitions t all[$ him to =esee ideas only to be und]/ood by ! end ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & only to be act$ on by ! pres5t day4 ,( c\rse1 ! idea 9 itself 0 n entirely new4 ,"o ( ! able/ hi/orians ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 ,philippe ,monni]1 has cle>ly po9t$ out t already 9 ! twelf? c5tury ! c5tre ( reality _h be5 l[]$ f ! cele/ial heights & firmly plant$ 9 ! brea/ ( man4 ,! polemics on ,fr$]ick ,,ii's def9ition ( nobility are an ass]tion ( ! "p play$ by man's individuality 9 ! =mation ( ! _w4 ,aft] two c5turies ( ,humanism1 noble bir? is an absurdity4 ,= ,piccolom9i1 ,fic9o1 ,l&9o1 man _c be born noble1 he c only become noble ?r\gh 8 own ex]tions4 ,! ,/oic precept ( ! absolute autonomy ( ! human w is frequ5tly allud$ to 9 discussion on ! p[] ( ,=tune1 aga9/ :i* ,leone ,batti/a ,alb]ti /r5u\sly ass]ts ! p[] ( man to =ge 8 own de/9y4 ,alb]ti1 typical repres5tative ( ! ,r5aissance1 9 all 8 moral works1 emphasises ! fre$om ( man f all ext]nal influ5ces & above all f ! dom9ion ( ,*ance1 & = him man's life is a consequ5ce ( man's actions4 ,nei!r ,fate nor ,*ance are a cause ( ! v>y+ circum/ances ( individuals4 ,hav+ ^! doctr9es be=e him1 ,ma*iavelli 0 able to apply to ! life ( nations ! ideas t gov]n$ ! life ( ! individual4 ,rome _h be5 p[]ful & glori\s2 ,italy is weak & contemptible3 ! cause is ! moral corruption ( ! ,italians4 ,ma*iavelli does n always consid] ,italy's invad]s z b>b>ians2 he is always ready to /udy _! in/itutions & ways ( liv+ 9 ord] to discov] ! reasons = _! milit>y sup]iority4 ,he firmly believes t ,=tune c only display h] p[] :]e no 8virtue0 has prep>$ a resi/ance4 ,italy1 8vitup]io del mondo10 w c]ta9ly return to h] =m] /r5g? c\ld ! ,italians be ar\s$ f _! torpor4 ,8 attitude is id5tical ) t ( ,mussol9i's gov]nm5t3 ,italy is slight$ by ! ,allies1 %e is f9ancially weak1 ! cause is ! scepticism & self-indulg5ce ( ! p1 ! rem$y a /rict] conception ( life = adults & a m religi\s education = *ildr54 ,=tune1 h[ev]1 is n q id5tifi$ ) ,fate1 &1 :ile ! latt] is unhesitat+ly reject$1 ! =m] is reta9$ z a k9d ( backgr\nd aga9/ :i* man c display m effici5tly 8 w & 8virtue40 ,?is backgr\nd1 :i* he calls ,=tune or ,opportunity1 is no less a conception ?an ,croce's 8situation ( facts40 ,8 8v]it effettuale delle cose0 is ! objective k ( ! ,crocian 8situazione de fatto0 & mu/ be asc]ta9$ anew be=e emb>k+ on any new action1 =1 accord+ to ! %rewd ,flor5t9e1 8sono le cose umane sempre 9 moto40 ,x is1 !re=e1 necess>y to take "o's be>+s be=e emb>k+ on any c\rse to realise "o's w4 ,! be/ type ( w is t :i* draws its /r5g? f an intimate k ( actual circum/ances & is consequ5tly /eady & resolute4 ,h5ce ! pr(\nd morality ( su* w-p[]1 pursu+ its end )\t hesitation or inc]titude1 disda9ful ( half measures1 its moral value imman5t 9 ! v act ( volition4 ,x is no long] possible to cont9ue to id5tify ,ma*iavelli ) immorality or amorality1 n[ t 8 doctr9es h be5 pr(\ndly analys$ by philosoph]s1 juri/s1 & critics ( ! value ( ,ercole1 ,croce or ,g5tile4 ,we only f9d 9 8 works a transposition ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( e?ics4 ,:at he calls 8virtue0 is n to be und]/ood 9 its ,*ri/ian s5se4 ,x is closely alli$ to effici5cy b is an effici5cy display$ 9 ! accompli%m5t ( ! common good1 9 ! realisation ( a /rong ,/ate4 ,hung] & necessity c r5d] m5 indu/ri\s b only wise laws c make !m good4 ,inde$ ! laws br+ p to realise ! necessity ( ju/ice2 social int]c\rse gives rise to all ! v>i\s conditions ( life1 includ+ education1 religion1 habit1 law1 & ultimately to ! /&>d ( goodness4 ,z ,g5tile po9ts out1 = ,ma*iavelli z = ,sp9oza ! common good is a product ( society2 ! di/9ction betwe5 good & evil presupposes society1 t is to say a sy/em ( laws4 ,h5ce ! say+ put into ! m\? ( ,r9aldo degli ,albizzi3 8,no good man w ev] f9d fault ) anyone try+ to def5d 8 c\ntry1 :atev] ! means he may employ40 ,9 comm5t+ ^u ?is passage ,g5tile rightly says t ^? :o ext5d ! common good f ! c\ntry to ! :ole ( mank9d d n exp& b r re/rict ! mean+ ( ! writ]4 ,ma*iavelli by 8,patria0 und]/&s ! entirety ( social & civilis$ life1 t is to say t ! ,/ate is ! only hi/orical & concrete =m ( mank9d4 ,he is fundam5tally oppos$ to any indef9ite1 unsub/antial idea ( man t w\ld /rip him ( all ! hi/orical influ5ces t det]m9e 8 social & political life1 & t w\ld make ( mank9d a %ad[y ab/raction4 ,su* ideologies c\ld mean no?+ to ! sixte5? c5tury ,flor5t9e1 b !y d n mean mu* m to ! mod]n ,italian1 & ?is is ! reason :y ,socialism 9 ,italy nev] develop$ its nobl] side4 ,m5 :o1 l ,&rea ,co/a1 7 real ideali/s ( ! ,m>xian s*ool 7 devoid ( any influ5ce1 despite ! respect due to _! high /&>d ( p]sonal life4 ,if ! :ole ( mank9d is to be ! object ( ! duties ( e individual1 "o might z well aboli% ^? duties2 :at is ! bus9ess ( ev]ybody is ! bus9ess ( nobody4 ,!re=e1 ,italian ,socialism 0 oblig$ to adopt n ! high1 if impractical1 ideals ( ,nor!rn ,socialism1 b an entirely mat]iali/ic =m ( propag&a1 h>p+ con/antly on high] wages & %ort] h\rs1 9 ord] to ar\se ! int]e/ & secure ! support ( ! masses4 ,ma*iavelli 0 obvi\sly too mu* a man ( 8 age to be able to surpass ! !ory ( man z an individual attempt+ to realise 8 p]sonality 9 a _w 9 :i* he c\ld exp& z freely z possible4 ,he c\ld n conceive ! objectivity & consequ5t importance ( ! ,/ate z moral reality1 & /ill less ! intimate subjectivity ( ! objective _w 9 :i* man realises 8 w4 ,! v ^w 8,=tune0 kept to indicate actuality 0 mislead+1 & veil$ 8 real notion ( fre$om2 he sev]$ lib]ty f law & by only reta9+ ! =m] he gave ! c>eless or ignorant an opportunity = ! vulg> int]pretation ( 8 doctr9es4 ,"t & ! works ( ,bruno & ,campanella1 /ripp$ ( _! h]etical outlook1 7 to fur!r 9 ! m9d ( ,vico ! fir/ maturity ( ! fruits ( :i* ! se$ 0 to be f\nd 9 ! ,flor5t9e /atesman's ideas ( 8virtue0 & political morality4 ,?us1 :ile ! o!r mod]n nations 7 necess>ily gett+ m deeply embogg$ 9 _! anti-hi/orical attitude t[>ds life1 ,italy1 9 ! political idl5ess ( ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies1 0 sl[ly elaborat+ ^? doctr9es t may yet prove to be ! balla/ ne$$ by all c\ntries to wea!r ! pres5t political & social /orms4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,sev5te5? ,,c5tury ,,9 ,,engl& ,,& ,,italy ,! contribution ( ,engl& to ! hi/ory ( ! _w dur+ ! sev5te5? c5tury is s consid]able t ! v attempt to sket* x is almo/ an imp]t95ce4 ,x _c be r$uc$ into s*ematic l9es1 = !re nev] 0 a ri*] syn!sis ( life4 ,nev] h religion1 art1 & philosophy p]vad$ ! :ole life ( a p z !y did 9 ,engl& at ! end ( ! sixte5? & dur+ all ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,v highly ref9$ p]iods d n produce great arts & x mu/ be said t ) v few exceptions ! creative g5]ations are b\nd to be r trivial4 ,/rong m9ds1 deep religi\s feel+s1 ! virile consci\sness ( p]sonal effici5cy1 d n make = tol]ance & ref9em5t 9 practical life2 b !y yield a philosophical1 an arti/ic1 a political h>ve/ on :i* _! prog5y cont9ue to live = c5turies1 elaborat+ & ref9+ until tol]ance is ! ord] ( ! day 9 philosophical1 religi\s & political matt]s1 :il/ dilettantism & criticism fl\ri%1 prep>+ ! way = new g5]ations ( creative m54 ,! philosophy ( ,bacon 0 ess5tially ori5t$ t[>ds ! _w ext]ior to man1 b x _h already tak5 to consid] moral & especially political life 9 ! light ( natural causes4 ,! div9e orig9 ( ! k+'s maje/y 0 9 due "t to be d5i$ 9 consequ5ce ( su* a view1 al?\gh ,bacon little suspect$ ! fact & 0 ready to uphold su* div9e orig9 ) all ! =ce ( 8 g5ius4 ,ano!r consequ5ce 0 to be ! consid]ation ( human society rul$ by ! same laws t rule ! me*anism ( nature1 & ?is 0 c]ta9ly pregnant ) political revolutions4 ,! sy/ematic empiricism s *>act]i/ic ( ,engli% politics ne$ n be trac$ f>!r back4 ,yet be=e com+ to ! political conception ( ,hobbes1 :o 0 ! fir/ great foll[] ( ,bacon & "o ( ! fir/ great political ?9k]s ( ,engl&1 ! contribution ( ,grotius mu/ be consid]$ z ,hobbes has a good deal 9 common ) him4 ,hugo ,grotius 0 born #aehc1 tw5ty-two ye>s aft] ,bacon & five ye>s be=e ,hobbes4 ,l ,bacon ?is ,dut*man 0 a /atesman & an ambassador4 ,! practice ( bus9ess _h !re=e a great influ5ce on 8 ideas & 0 apt to temp] ! excess ( doctr9e ( ! man4 ,8 idea ( natural law is a h]itage bo? ( ,pagan times & ( ,s*ola/icism1 & bas$ bo? on ! di/9ction e/abli%$ by ! ,roman juri/s1 betwe5 ! jus civile & jus naturale1 & on ! m$ival notion ( sociability1 a special s5se ( :i* he supposes man to be end[$ by ,nature4 ,! way su* a notion is appli$ is1 on ! contr>y1 due to ! m mod]n !ory ( ,nature2 & !re we meet ) an ass]tion t w\ld h r\s$ ,ma*iavelli f 8 grave if he _h he>d x1 & t und\bt$ly has giv5 orig9 to ! negative und]/&+ ( hi/ory aga9/ :i* ,idealism & ,fascism are react+ ) all _! =ces4 ,accord+ to ,grotius su* jus naturale--! only bran* ( legal /udies t c be treat$ is philosophy--is bas$ on ! ess5ce ( ! nature ( m54 ,b su* nature is ! same all ov] ! _w j z ,nature is4 ,x w be ! same = ev] 9 spite ( hi/orical oscillations j z ,nature w4 ,! presupposition ( ?is nature ( man1 po/ulat$ out ( & aga9/ e exp]i5ce1 is a negation ( hi/ory z ! process ( ! gradual developm5t ( mank9d4 ,yet unque/ionably its introduction 9 mod]n politics 0 ! cause ( a great progress t[>ds ju/ice1 & 9 ,grotius himself x is balanc$ by 8 insi/5ce on n tak+ positive law out ( hi/ory4 ,! lack ( good metaphysical gr\nd br\ght him to ! po/ulation ( an unhi/orical reality :il/ ! rec5t improvem5t ( hi/orical rese>*es at ! h&s ( ,jean ,bod9 & o!rs induc$ him n to consid] positive laws except 9 ! light ( hi/ory4 ,to be fair1 ?is in/9ct ( society deeply inset 9 ! nature ( man 0 n ( 8 own inv5tion4 ,x is to be f\nd 9 ,ari/otle4 ,x is to be f\nd 9 ,/4 ,?omas4 ,b !n ! in/9ct compell+ man to live 9 community is und]/ood 9 a v diff]5t way by ! ,greek philosoph]1 by ! great ,s*ola/ic doctor & by ! ,dut* /atesman4 ,= if x is true t hi/orical facts :i* are political1 arti/ic1 milit>y1 receive _! def9ite "* f ! ideas ( ! g5]ation t a*iev$ !m1 x is equally true t ! mean+ atta*$ to traditional ideas by any "o man is to a c]ta9 ext5t modifi$ by ! :ole life ( 8 g5]ation4 ,s t ,ari/otle und]/&s by ,nature ! transc5d5tal p[] :i* plann$ ! life ( man z a "p ( its univ]sal s*eme2 ,?omas ,aqu9as sees 9 ! nature ( man t :i* 0 det]m9$ z *>act]i/ic ( mank9d by ! ,div9e w2 :il/ ,grotius sees 9 ?is s5se ( society some?+ v mu* l ! law ( gravitation--n q1 h[ev]1 s9ce 9 him we see loom+ out already ! gho/ ( man ant]ior to society1 ( :om nobody ev] he>d any?+ & :i* is1 !re=e1 a pure conjecture4 ,consid]+ ?is nature ( mank9d z 8 basis1 x 0 inevitable t ,grotius %\ld ?9k ! be/ con/itution ( ! /ate to be "o ! orig9 ( :i* made x m likely to meet ! requirem5ts ( su* nature4 ,once ! filiation ( law z ! product ( ?is nature ( man 0 e/abli%$1 private & public law obvi\sly d]iv$ f ! jus naturale1 & ! /ate mu/ orig9ate f an agreem5t ( its compon5ts4 ,if ,grotius _h be5 able to realise !oretically ! imman5ce ( ! jus naturale 9 society he w\ld h =e%ad[$ all ! political !ories ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & work$ out 8 s*eme ) f> m cog5cy ?an ! m5 :o came aft] him4 ,z x is1 ! rationality imman5t to human society is too difficult = him & 8 "t1 & unable to realise ! moral w ( ! collectivity he is ?r[n back ) ,ma*iavelli on a v empirical notion ( lib]ty4 ,! subjectivism ( ,grotius is ! subjectivism ( ! philosophy ( 8 "t alt]natively empirical & rational1 s t ! contract by :i* m5 give !mselves a =m ( gov]nm5t is irrevocable3 !y are free to assume x1 n to reject x4 ,obvi\sly ! s\v5ir ( ! ,re=mation ) its political /ruggles mu/ h be5 q fre% 9 ! m9d ( 8 contempor>ies & influ5c$ him1 z ! ,revolution ( ,engl& 0 to influ5ce ,hobbes2 o!rwise x w\ld be difficult to und]/& h[ m5 c\ld be consid]$ z free to *oose a con/itution & n to disc>d x4 ,! contradiction 0 too pat5t n to be notic$1 b !re aga9 ! philosophy ( ,bacon & 8 foll[]s influ5c$ too mu* ! ?\ght ( ! :ole c5tury to all[ any resolution ( ! difficult problem4 ,x 0 ! nature ( man t l$ mank9d to =m communities1 & ! me*anicalness ( ?is conception 0 s mu* a consequ5ce ( ! me*anism ( ! philosophy ( ! "t t once su* communities _h come to a contract entru/+ _! gov]nm5t to "o man or a body ( m51 ! gov]nm5t itself 0 conceiv$ ( z me*anical z ,nature1 & its laws z irrevocable z natural law4 ,! contradiction inh]5t 9 ! tw(old notion ( man's nature1 held by m5 l ,grotius1 l$ !m to d5y ! lib]ty ( man :i* 0 ! gr\nd ( _! !ory4 ,hobbes has a metaphysic s cle>1 s well det]m9$1 t 8 political conception is b\nd to h t cog5cy :i* belongs exclusively to ! works ( m5 ^: philosophical gr\nds are !oretically fir/ rate4 ,t ,cromwell %\ld h (f]$ him a high (fice 9 8 gov]nm5t is n surpris+4 ,obvi\sly ! m9d & "* ( ,hobbes are = prompt decisions & coh]5cy ( action4 ,yet 8 political !ories are n fit = actual application4 ,x is n impossible t 8 ideas %\ld h influ5c$ ! political m5 ( 8 days2 b 8 ,levia?an is ! conception ( a man to :om philosophy 0 doctr9a corporum4 ,bodies c be natural or artificial1 & ! /ate is ! mo/ important ( all ! artificial bodies1 man be+ bo? a natural body1 ! mo/ p]fect natural body1 & an elem5t ( ! /ate1 ! mo/ p]fect ( all artificial bodies4 ,psy*ology is b\nd to occupy ! =egr\nd 9 8 an?ropology1 & no philosoph] ev] laid a great] emphasis on ! di/9ction betwe5 !ory & practice4 ,?\ght is consid]$ aft] ! ,c>tesian doctr9e z relatively free1 & w z dep5d5t ^u ?\ght2 ! sup]iority ( ! =m] is ackn[l$g$ inde$ by all ! ?9k]s ( ! "t & ( ! foll[+ c5tury4 ,9 psy*ology ! consequ5ce ( ?is di/9ction is a conception ( ! volitive activity t =e%ad[s ! m mod]n !ories ( det]m9ism1 aga9/ :i* all idealisms h f\ght _! mo/ /r5u\s battles & ,fascism is actually lead+ a political crusade4 ,= ,hobbes ass]ts ! necessity ( surpass+ ! /ate ( ,nature1 9 :i* all m5 are free1 by ! sacrifice ( "s lib]ties & by ! sacr$ pres]vation ( ! engagem5ts ( ! contract4 ,b on :at gr\nd c he require su* sacrifice & fai?fulness1 except t ( self-pres]vation8 ,?us selfi%ness is at ! basis ( ! edifice & !re looms already ! capital s9 ( ! m mod]n conception ( ,lib]alism4 ,! /ate is conceiv$ z ! algebraical sum ( ! citiz5s1 ! selfi%ness ( ^: life is gu>ante$ by ! legislature4 ,b ,hobbes 0 ,engli% &1 despite ! influ5ce ( ,fr5* ,rationalism1 8 logic 0 n s imp]i\s z to prev5t 8 views on actual life f tak+ ! upp] h& 9 "s important p>ts ( 8 sy/em4 ,su* an artificial agglom]ation ( political atoms1 und]/ood z x 0 to be ! mo/ reali/ic & naturali/ic view ( political life1 c\ld n h /ood ! te/ ( application2 & ,hobbes is c>ri$ away by 8 own notion ( ! contract into a !oretical view ( x :i* is di/9ctly sup]ior 9 moral tru?1 & mu* ne>] to hi/orical tru?4 ,:5 m5 come to an agreem5t = ! def5ce ( ! peaceful life ( ea* ( !m ! /ate comes into be+2 b x is n a tempor>y1 me*anical agglom]ation--x is unity want$ by m54 ,9 8 natural /ate man enjoys "s k9d ( security bas$ on ! concordia multorum1 b ?is concord is n suffici5t to ensure peace1 x is m]ely en\gh = animals4 ,to ensure human peace some?+ m ?an common cons5t is ne$$4 ,union1 ! union ( citiz5s becomes some?+ sup]ior to ! sum ( _! p>ticul> selfi%nesses4 ,hobbes realises t su* union is a liv+ reality & ev5 if he does n "w out ! way by :i* ! notion ( ! /ate z a p]son c be rea*$1 he none ! less jo9s h&s ) all political idealism4 ,9 ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury he _h an intuition ( ! conception ^u :i* ! ,nationalism ( all c\ntries 0 to live & act2 :il/ ,hegel 0 to "w x out 9 an ab/ract !ory & ,italian ,idealism to make x a reality by its good =tune 9 hav+ met ) a political movem5t able to realise ?is mo/ hi/orical ( all ! philosophical conceptions ( ! /ate4 ,hobbes _h _h en\gh political exp]i5ce to realise intuitively t :i* 8 natural me*anism did n all[ him to conceive on !oretical gr\nds4 ,su* a happy intuition does n1 h[ev]1 take him any f>!r4 ,8 /ate has no?+ ( a moral reality1 & ! union ( ! citiz5s :i* x implies falls back on ! gr\nd ( ! law ( self-pres]vation4 ,! fact is t ! /ate s conceiv$ by ,hobbes 0 an ab/raction despite ! happy intuition ( ! on5ess ( w impli$ 9 ! contract2 & 8 natural man ano!r ab/raction n to be met ) any:]e4 ,! id5tification ( man & /ate only happ5s 9 hi/ory & !re x 0 to rema91 unlook$ = 9 ,engl& until ,hume1 :il/ 9 ,italy ,vico 0 to h]ald ! reality ( society & hi/ory z ! creation ( man betwe5 #agbj & #agcj4 ,?us1 l ,grotius1 ,hobbes end$ by d5y+ ! fre$om ( w t ! v possibility ( ! contract _h impli$4 ,8 ideal /ate1 8 empirical /ate1 8 natural /ate1 are s conceiv$ t !y cont9ually oppose ea* o!r or are id5tifi$ "o ) ! o!r 9 8 !ory4 ,! /ate is !re9 z my/]i\s z ,nature1 & its laws are no less imp]i\s ?an ! laws ( ,nature1 call+ z !y d m]ely = passive ob$i5ce1 & at lea/ 9 ,hobbes' !ory ! /ate is no less et]nal ?an ,nature1 = aft] ! contract ! less ! citiz5s h to say 9 ! matt] ! bett]4 ,yet ,hobbes 0 an ,engli%man & ! fact 0 to tell2 ev5 9 ?is mo/ ab/ract !ory he _c lose sight ( ! realm ( exp]i5ce4 ,& if ! rul] 0 a bad "o8 ,l all 8 c\ntrym5 ! fa!r ( ! ,levia?an is ready to trip up 8 logic r ?an to (f] a s*eme :i* aft] all might n "w4 ,if ! rul] prov$ an ineffici5t or bad "o ! citiz5s c\ld disc>d him4 ,9 8 opposition to ! k+dom by ! grace ( ,god ! fa!r ( ! ,levia?an is l$ by 8 me?odical ,naturalism--& n at all by a repugnance = any =m ( tyranny4 ,! social contract is a purely human affair & no?+ c\ld be s ridicul\s z ! gr\nd+ ( s human a reality z ! au?ority ( ! /ate ^u an act ( ! grace ( ,god4 ,b ! m absolute is ?is au?ority ! bett]2 & 8 indiff]5ce z to ! *oice ( ! /ate-religion did n make = tol]ance4 ,n to ?9k ( ,cromwell :5 "o /udies ,hobbes is impossible2 = ! philosoph] 9 front ( ,nature1 8 almighty ?\gh me*anical ,nature1 is j a fanatic obs]v] z intol]ant z ,cromwell & z en]getic 9 ! sy/ematic application ( 8 philosophical fai?4 ,only m5 ( fai? c alt] ! hi/orical _w1 = religion rema9s "o ( ! greate/ factors 9 m5's life1 al?\gh x does n always appe> "u ! cloak ( a def9ite *ur*4 ,9 su* cases1 h[ev]1 x is (t5 apt to be m intol]ant & c]ta9ly m dang]\s--z all ab/ract dogmas are b\nd to be--?an ^? :i* h ?r\gh _! hi/orical organisation receiv$ "s k9d ( adaptation to ! society 9 :i* !y fl\ri%4 ,cromwell 0 intol]ant1 0 a fanatic1 b no m & ev5 p]haps less ess5tially s ?an ,hobbes1 & bo? are a p]fect embodim5t ( ! g5ius ( ,engl& dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,nev] has ! life ( a c\ntry express$ itself m fitt+ly 9 its !oretical & practical t]m4 ,hobbes l a bee _h ga!r$ aft] ,bacon ! be/ ( ,italy1 & ! e*o ( ,campanella is to be detect$ 9 ! mo/ *>act]i/ic "p ( 8 !ory ( k2 he _h1 besides1 import$ ! result ( ! mo/ rec5t sci5tific works ( ! ,fr5* & ,dut* ?9k]s4 ,engl& c\ld prep>e on 8 intellectual contribution to put =? ! g5ius ( ,locke j z x c\ld on ! assumption to political life ( new elem5ts make ready = ! organisation ( ! /ate t "u ,william ( ,orange 0 to ar\se ! envy ( ! _w4 ,! two fanatics1 "o 9 ! imm$iat5ess ( 8 fai? 9 ! righte\sness ( ,god1 ! o!r 9 ! elaboration ( 8 fai? 9 ,nature1 _h done a great deal 9 ! way ( %ap+ ! "* ( mod]n ,engl&1 & ! !ory ( "o & ! revelation ( ! o!r held 9 g]m mu* t meant progress = ! :ole ( mank9d4 ,b bo? by _! sup]lative intol]ance & despotism call$ = ! reaction t 0 to oppose mo/ =mally man to ! /ate4 ,= ,hobbes at lea/ ! fact 0 inevitable1 8 ,levia?an engulfs all rights & int]e/s2 at ! same "t 9 8 !ory ( k he picks up ! tr5d ( ,campanella & sets ! basis = a ne>ly ,protagorean subjectivism4 ,h[ f> ! !ory ( ! ,levia?an 0 f ,italian m5tality _c be judg$ f contempor>y op9ion4 ,! ,italians1 or at lea/ ! greate/ numb] ( ,italy's s*ol>s1 7 giv+ !mselves up to academical or to immoral pa/imes4 ,! ,c9quec5to _h be5 p]sonifi$ by ,ario/o1 ,ma*iavelli1 ,aret9o1 ! ?ree expressions ( ! ,italian society dur+ ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,! *>act]i/ics ( ! times _h be5 an arti/ic fancy1 full ( s]5ity1 aw>e ( its be+ a m]e play ( imag9ation & mak+ fun ( itself2 an adult ?\ght t swept away ! illusions ( fancy & feel+1 to make its own way t[>ds ! %r9e ( sci5ce1 at ! v core ( :at is ! _w ( ,man & ,nature2 !n a moral lic5ti\sness1 remorseless because unconsci\s1 !re=e %ameless & cynical4 ,ario/o's fancy is display$ to su* an ext5t t x mo/ly ar\s$ m]e irony f 8 contempor>ies4 ,ma*iavelli br+s realism & logic to _! ultimate consequ5ce1 ar\s+ !reby a s5se ( repulsion 9 m5 f> m wick$ ?an he 04 ,aret9o's cynicism rea*es su* a mon/r\s pit* t ! mo/ dissolute m5 turn away sickly f 8 books4 ,t 0 ! era 9 :i* ! great nations ( ,europe 7 tak+ _! def9itive p]sonal physiognomy4 7,engl&1 z has be5 said1 _h already ! features t 7 go+ to be ! family lik5ess to be reproduc$ all ov] ! ,anglo-,saxon _w by h] sons47 ,z ,de ,sanctis po9ts out1 ! ,european races 7 build+ up ! 8,patria0 s fondly dream$ by ,ma*iavelli = 8 own p1 a 8,patria0 :i* 0 to be a political unity1 =tifi$ & cem5t$ by religi\s1 moral1 & cultural elem5ts4 ,at ?is same "t ,italy n only fail$ to build up a 8,patria10 b 0 los+ h] indep5d5ce1 h] lib]ty1 & h] belov$ & treasur$ pre-em95ce 9 ! hi/orical _w4 ,n t su* a cata/rophe 0 realis$ except by ! ke5 m9d ( ,ma*iavelli4 ,x 0 unconsci\s1 x 0 b\nd to be unconsci\s1 s9ce x happ5$ j because national consci\sness _h vani%$4 ,h[ c\ld x h assum$ national %ape8 ,! "n ( ,italy 0 to become a geographical expression1 = its inhabitants 7 n citiz5s1 !y 7 m]e inhabitants1 subjects by natural det]m9ation ( ?is or t petty ,pr9ce4 ,! geographical "n ( a region becomes ! "n ( a nation ?r\gh ! v long or extremely %ort process ( =mation ( national consci\sness t p]mits ( all its inhabitants com+ on ! hi/orical /age ( ! _w z a p]son1 ?r\gh ! manife/ation ( a p]sonal w 9 =eign politics1 :i* are ! c\ntry's ass]tion z a p]sonal consci5ce4 ,?us a p is ackn[l$g$ z a nation by ! re/ ( ! _w ! mom5t :51 ?r\gh an action1 ! f9al scope ( :i* is purely national1 x ass]ts itself z a liv+ organism able to manife/ a w & act ^u x4 ,:at ,ma*iavelli _h t]m$ ! corruttela ( ,italy 0 ! abs5ce ( national & religi\s consci\sness1 & he _h po9t$ a way out ( x4 ,he 0 too mu* ( a positive m9d n to realise t ! diff]5ce betwe5 pa/ & mod]n times 0 due to a spiritual diff]5ce4 ,n kn[+ :at to attack 9 ! m5tality ( 8 c\ntrym51 bo? clev] & le>n$ beyond words1 he ?\ght t ! only great diff]5ce betwe5 anci5t ,rome & ! ,italy ( ! ,c9quec5to 7 ! political in/itutions :i* ( old _h be5 bas$ on a religion t p]vad$ ! :ole ( civic life1 & n[ 7 q a practical affair modifi$ cont9ually by ! *ance ( o!r c\ntries wag+ w> 9 ,italy4 ,8 great blund]1 ! notion he _h t ! ,roman /ate-religion ( ,pagan times w\ld be ! "o *ance ( salvation = 8 own "t is to be consid]$ ) due all[ance = ! ignorance ( ! sixte5? c5tury z to ! real import ( ! notion ( progress4 ,ma*iavelli pron\nc$ human ?+s to be always 9 movem5t1 b 9 spite ( ?is intuition he c\ld n detect ! processional "* ( su* movem5t4 ,z x 01 x 0 suffici5t to induce him to reject ! notion ( ! natural /ate ( ,man z a con/ant s de> to ,grotius4 ,yet x c\ld n help him to realise t 8 own times1 ) all _! wick$ness1 might be ?\ght sup]ior to ,roman times2 & ,guicci>d9i1 a fri5d ( 81 felt himself mu* wis] ?an ,ma*iavelli because he _h no illusion on ! possibility ( mak+ a nation out ( 8 c\ntrym54 ,x 0 absurd to him1 to be always call+ on ! ,romans = example1 x 0 j l want+ a donkey to gallop horsewise6 ,b :atev] ! wisdom ( ,guicci>d9i1 :o made 8 ,god ( 8 own private peace & well-be+1 a ,god no less exact+ ?an ! ,/ate ( ,ma*iavelli1 & consid]$ ! _w z 8 _w1 !reby en=c+ to irrelativism ! subjective atomism t 0 dis9tegrat+ ,italy1 ,ma*iavelli 0 a wond] *ild ( g5ius :il/ 8 wise fri5d 0 m]ely a clev] g5tleman mak+ egotism ! special /udy ( 8 life4 ,mussol9i's view on ! civic reg5]ation ( ! ,italian politically amorph\s classes is v mu* l ,ma*iavelli's4 ,political indiff]5ce is also to him a result ( ! lack ( religi\sness 9 ! _s animat+ ,italians 9 _! public life4 ,b f\r hundr$ ye>s h pass$ & he c\ld n if he wi%$ turn to ! /ate religion ( ,pagan ,rome4 ,if ! basis ( social life has to be religion1 ! positive religion has to be ! "o hi/orically belong+ to ! p4 ,9 spite ( ! ,ma*iavellian conception ( hi/ory1 ! sixte5? c5tury 0 to see ! introduction ( ! exp]im5tal me?od1 z practis$ 9 natural sci5ce1 9 ! treatm5t ( hi/ory at ! h&s ( no less a man ?an ,guicci>d9i4 ,8 ,/oria d',italia is 9 tw5ty books & cov]s ! p]iod betwe5 #adid & #aecd1 ?us beg9n+ ) ! invasion ( ,*>les ,,viii ( ,france & end+ ) ! fall ( ,flor5ce4 ,francesco de ,sanctis1 ) ! he>t ( a man ( ! ,risorgim5to1 comm5t+ ^u ?is "w1 s rem>kable f _m po9ts ( view1 says t ! hi/orical p]iod ( :i* x treats c\ld rightly h be5 call$ 8,! ,trag$y ( ,italy10 b t ! hi/orian has n ! slighte/ notion ei!r ( ! unity or ( ! import ( ?is tragic drama4 ,"o c\ld object to ! great critic t to realise su* on5ess ( drama 0 impossible to ,guicci>d9i1 z ! trag$y _h its root 9 ! hi/orian's unconsci\sness ( ?is on5ess or r ( ! possibility ( ?is on5ess1 s9ce su* on5ess did n exi/ 9 ,italy :5 ,guicci>d9i wrote1 except p]haps 9 ! he>t ( 8 fri5d ,ma*iavelli4 ,p ( o!r c\ntries provid$ !m ) ! political ev5ts & ! philosophical !ories t kept _! bra9s go+4 ,! works ( ,grotius 7 tak5 & easily /udi$ 9 ! l& ( jurisprud5ce1 = ! /udies t w5t on fl\ri%+ 7 law & hi/ory4 ,b ! purpose 0 a /]ile erudition1 at lea/ at ! mom5t1 = apa?y _h rea*$ su* a sup]lative degree t ! m>tyrdom ( m5 l ,bruno & ,soc9o pass$ unhe$$--worse ?an unhe$$1 n und]/ood--s t x is absurd to he> mod]n ,free-?9k]s reproa* ! ,*ur* ) ! dea? ( ,bruno1 :o 0 f> f que/ion+ ! "r ( ! ,*ur* to burn him4 ,! ,*ur* 9 its practical policy1 l all ! in/itutions 9 ,italy1 0 lack+ 9 ideas & 9 life4 ,! c5tre ( civilisation _h mov$ nor?w>d1 & s\? ( ! ,alps p 7 gett+ m & m away f x1 m & m effem9ate4 ,9 a l& :]e indiff]5ce 0 ! %r\d ( a m>tyr1 ,*ur*m5 :o knew ,bruno = ! h]etic he truly 0 c\ld n be expect$ to realise t ap>t f 8 h]esy he _h giv5 ! _w an idea t w\ld enable mod]n ?\ght to realise ! "p play$ by religion 9 man's life & to reject ! v idea :i* _h sev]$ man f au?ority4 ,! sev5te5? c5tury1 inaugurat$ 9 ,italy by ! burn+ ( ,bruno1 _h 9 lit]ature little to boa/ ( besides ! ,j]usalemme lib]ata ( ,tasso1 = x began ) ! ,arcadia ( ,sannaz>o & end$ ) ! ,arcadia ( ,gu>9i4 ,on ! o!r h& ,campanella1 ! mo/ em95t philosoph]1 0 n ! only "o4 ,al?\gh ! philosoph]s became less & less orig9al !y ma9ta9$ a suffici5t !oretical int]e/ to accept all t ,france & ,engl& 7 ?r[+ on ! _w4 ,p]haps no?+ is m expressive ( ! life ( ! m9d ?an ?is tempor>y intellectual de>? & /]ility ( a race ^: faculties 71 ev5 !n1 f> above ! av]age4 ,r$uc$ to political non-exi/5ce & !re=e to speculative unproductiv5ess1 ! :ole c\ntry seem$ to h gone to pieces j on purpose to let ! new nations %ake (f ! yoke ( hi/ory1 ( a hi/ory too heavy ) its pagan h]itance to all[ full play to ! new =ces ( mod]n1 t is to say ,*ri/ian1 civilisation4 ,= mod]n ?\ght & mod]n politics seem$ to reject au?ority & hi/ory1 9 ord] to h ! possibility ( display+ :at !y held virtually 9 _! m$ival & ,*ri/ian y\?4 ,!y rid !mselves ( ! pa/ j z ! ,*ur* _h done at h] />t1 ?r[+ ov]bo>d ,pagan culture4 ,b is x n all[able to ?9k t j z ! ,*ur* ceas$ to be anti-philosophical z soon z x _h ass]t$ its orig9al intuition1 mod]n nations w cease to be anti-hi/oric n[ t ! value ( man z a man has be5 ass]t$1 & has ev5 be5 ov]-ass]t$8 ,= if su* 7 ! case !n ,italy's /&+ out ( ! game1 9 ord] to elaborate sl[ly ! hi/orical =ces t may contribute to give back to ! _w ! balla/ x seems to h lo/1 w\ld appe> to be 9 h>mony ) ! develop+ process ( ,m9d4 ,nations h _! dawn1 _! twilight1 & _! night1 b ,m9d nev] re/s or sleeps1 & ?r\gh _! individual *>act]i/ics all ! races tell m or less directly on ! :ole life ( mank9d4 ,if ,italy _h to /& aside to let ,engl& & ,france ass]t ! individual wor? ( ! mo/ inf]ior human be+s1 & "w up sy/ems :]e ! weake/ may be he>d 9 legal circles1 !n h] attitude all ?r\gh ! sixte5? c5tury is t ( a box] tra9+ = 8 next mat*4 ,to rid politics & law ( ! idea t legitimis$ all au?ority by appeal to ! ,w ( ,god 7z x 0 commonly und]/ood to be a k9d ( ,deux ex ,ma*9a7 some?+ _h to be appeal$ to t c\ld be consid]$ z a religi\s support on ! mod]n side4 ,nature 0 upheld z antagoni/ic to sup]ior au?ority & religi\s int]f]5ce4 ,yet ,nature1 at lea/ to ! m5 ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 0 ! "w ( ,god1 & if mank9d 0 end[$ ) a long+1 or beset ) a necessity = society1 surely ! ,creator ( mank9d 0 responsible = x4 ,! fact is t x 0 n ( ! w ( ,god t ! juri/s & philosoph]s want$ to be rid1 = !y c\ld h f\nd cog5t argum5ts to uphold ! !sis1 s de> a c5tury lat] to ,r\sseau1 t ,god _h creat$ man free1 & t he 0 !re=e at lib]ty to *oose ! political con/itution t suit$ him be/--con=m+ by s do+ to ! ,w ( ,god3 x 0 ! au?ority ( m51 ! au?ority ( tradition1 :i* taught t x _h always be5 ! natural lot ( "s m5 to obey1 & ! natural lot ( o!rs to comm&2 & t is f> m ,pagan 9 its political orig9 & ,ari/otelian 9 its !oretical =m ?an ,ca?olic4 ,x 0 ! hi]>*y ( bir?1 q a ,pagan notion1 t m5 7 fight+ aga9/ 9 ,nor!rn ,europe dur+ ! sixte5?1 sev5te5?1 & eighte5? c5turies4 ,ari/otle's fir/ book on politics settles ! po9t = ! hell5ic _w4 ,"s m5 are born to be ma/]s2 "s are born to be slaves4 ,he t is to be a ma/] is born ) ! qualities t befit comm&2 he t is to be a slave is born ) ! qualities requir$ to fulfil ord]s4 ,7 x n s1 ,nature w\ld h fail$ to fit ea* ( !m = ! end to :i* x br\ght !m into life4 ,man 0 :at he 0 to be ant]ior to 8 bir?4 ,z to slav]y1 z an in/itution x 0 to be deplor$2 x 0 r sad = ! p :o 7 born slaves1 & t]ribly immoral at be/1 b x 0 an evil t c\ld n be avoid$ inasmu* z x 0 ess5tial to ! nature ( society4 ,! metaphysics & religion ( ! day c\ld n conceive ( any alt]ation 9 ! nature ( ?+s4 ,! ,/oics & ,epicureans did improve1 b n mu*1 ! idea ( lib]ty4 ,! be/ ?+ = m5 to d 0 to "k ,nature & _! own natural disposition1 n to g aga9/ ! natural b5t ( ?+s & ( _! con/itution4 ,?us ! "p ( ,fate 0 r$uc$ & ! dignity ( man ass]t$4 ,b ! r$uction & ass]tion w\ld h be5 m v]bal ?an actual _h x n be5 = ! ,romans1 :o ) _! reali/ic m9d c\ld n ov]look ! fact t man's virtus1 or lack ( x1 made a lot ( diff]5ce 9 8 life4 ,_! religion & philosophy ?\gh lack$ orig9ality & _h no adequate notion ( lib]ty4 ,*ri/ianity 0 to relieve mank9d f su* a fate4 ,man is 9 ! _w to save 8 s\l4 ,! grace ( ,god is necess>y to him1 b he only c a*ieve 8 own salvation4 ,if y want y\r horse to jump1 z ! sportsm5 ( ! old s*ool us$ to say1 give him 8 head2 ! fre$om to use 8 neck1 head & %\ld] to ! be/ ( 8 ability4 ,if ,god means man to save 8 s\l1 he mu/ h giv5 him suffici5t fre$om to be made responsible4 ,& 9 fact ! proclamation ( ?is p[] ( man is ! import ( ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,ev]y?+ is possible to him t believe?4 ,?is is f> f ,ari/otle1 s f> t m5 c\ld n at fir/ realise :at x meant1 & t ! abolition ( slav]y is only rec5t is suffici5t to %[ ! sl[ness ( ! process ?r\gh :i* ! good ^w ( ! ,gospel has rea*$ !oretical consci\sness & practical realisation4 ,man's lib]ty1 man's dignity1 7 ass]t$ all ?r\gh ! ,s*ola/ic p]iod & ! pray] ( ,?omas ,aqu9as ?ank+ ,god = ! dignity ,he _h be/[$ ^u man is a good pro( ( ! fact4 ,x c\ld1 !re=e1 only be ?r\gh ! greate/ misrepres5tation ( hi/orical facts t ,pagan times 7 id5tifi$ ) ! cause ( lib]ty & equality ( m51 two ideas t are ess5tially ,*ri/ian & 7 9 _! pres5t =m unkn[n to ,paganism4 ,su* p]v]sion ( facts _c be1 h[ev]1 ascrib$ to a wilful adult]ation ( hi/ory4 ,! m5 :o upheld x are too _m & "s are too obvi\sly s9c]e4 ,yet on ! o!r h& x is impossible to ascribe x to an in/9ctive =ebod+ ( imman5ce z n[adays und]/ood4 ,! only possible explanation is ! =ce ( repulsion = ! imm$iate pa/ t is inh]5t 9 ! hi/orical ass]tion ( any new social =ce4 ,a new age always ass]ts itself by fight+ its antec$5ts & (t5 ! v cause ( its com+ to light4 ,hobbes1 reject+ sov]eignty by ! grace ( ,god to en=ce 8 own conception ( ! sov]eignty ( 8 ,levia?an gr\nd$ on ! ,bellum omnium contra omnes1 is m]ely con=m+ to ! philosophy ( ,nature1 :i*1 z mat]ialism1 0 to him a religion1 a new religion t mu/ take ! place ( ! old "o1 at lea/ among/ educat$ m54 ,9 its objectivity ,nature /ood to him z ,god2 an awful div9ity t _h a good deal 9 common ) ! ,god ( ,calv9 9 ! inalt]ability ( its w4 ,b few ( ! new ?9k]s _h ! c\rage to be z coh]5t z he 04 ,= he 0 q aw>e t ! sub/itution ( ,nature = ! ,god ( ,*ri/ianity1 z ! ultimate reality to :i* political =ms _h to be trac$ back1 made = a great] implacability ( political laws4 ,! o!rs sometimes pret5d$ to believe & mo/ly did believe t ! unkn[n quidditas :i* !y call human nature _h a lum9\s social in/9ct t _h be5 m>r$ ?r\gh :at !y call$ ! ,d>k ,ages2 & !y did n realise t ! belief 9 su* nature ( man 0 elaborat$ 9 ! s*ools ( ! ,middle ,ages1 & t if x 0 tak5 = grant$ z mu* z ! geometrical po/ulate t makes ! ?ree inn] angles ( a triangle equival5t to two "r angles1 x 0 j z ab/ract & c\ld no m be prov$ on exp]im5tal gr\nd4 ,! nature ( man tak5 z imply+ ! necessity ( or long+ = social arrangem5ts is illu/rat$ 9 hi/ory2 b x is ! ess5ce ( hi/ory to relate to m5 ! de$s ( m51 !reby is en=c$ ! necessity ( hav+ society 9 ord] to h hi/ory4 ,s t isolat$ man _c ent] hi/ory4 ,( m5 ant]ior to society we c1 !re=e1 "k no?+4 ,b prehi/oric times are n ( necessity presocial2 inde$1 ! art t fl\ri%$ 9 su* p]iods %[s ! exi/5ce ( social int]c\rse 9 times ( :i* we h1 up to n[1 no hi/orical k4 ,9 any case ! philosophy ( politics if x wants to borr[ ! exp]im5tal me?od ( natural sci5ce mu/ take hi/ory = its basis1 ) all ! limitations t ?is implies1 9 ord] to rea* positive conclusions4 ,! political ?9k]s ( ! sev5te5? c5tury ?\ght & act$ z m5 ( deep convictions1 b ( v faulty me?ods2 ! _w !y ca/ into %ape repos$ on an assumption :i* is ! mo/ metaphysic ( all ! metaphysic axioms !y hat$ s mu*2 x w be m & m obvi\s ?r\gh ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,italy /ood aside4 ,italian m9ds c\ld n h made su* a position !irs4 ,! attitude ( a ,bacon1 ( a ,desc>tes1 ( a ,hobbes1 c\ld n be assum$ 9 ! l& ( ,ma*iavelli & ,bruno1 ! fa!rs ( ! idea ( hi/ory und]/ood z a con/ructive process ( ,sci5ce & ,society1 ( ,campanella1 ! man :o =e%ad[$ 9 ! sixte5? c5tury ! ph5om5ologic conception ( reality & ! notion ( imman5ce3 :i* may h be51 :i* 0 9 fact h]etic1 b is und\bt$ly ! (fspr+ ( ,*ri/ianity1 & kn[s t x is4 ,! race ^: en]gy & virility _h be5 maim$ by ! con/ant contemplation ( ! pa/1 by ?or\gh id5tification ) ! pa/1 _h be5 politically /unn$ l ! p ( ! ,bible :o turn$ back :5 !y %\ld h be5 look+ & proce$+ =w>d4 ,italian s*ol>s kept assimilat+ & admir+ ! philosophical production ( =eign]s1 & ! m readily prais$ & ! m truly appreciat$ ! new !ories t !y felt f>!r f imitat+ !m4 ,:at !y c\ld give !y gave1 9 legal & hi/orical erudition1 prep>+ ! mat]ials on :i* ,vico 0 to build 8 impos+ ,sci5za ,nuova & prep>+ ! hi/orical gr\nd = ! philosophy t fl\ri%es two c5turies aft] him1 j z ,s*ola/icism _h prep>$ ! ab/ract gr\nd on :i* ! !ories1 t 7 to give _! democratic or individuali/ic impulsion to ! mod]n _w1 fl\ri%$ two c5turies aft] a reaction _h />t$ aga9/ ! ab/ractness ( ,s*ola/icism4 ,francesco de ,sanctis realises x because he has liv$ = ?is on5ess ( ,italy1 !reby giv+ x ! full reality ( an hi/orical p]son4 ,guicci>d9i 0 z int]e/$ 9 ! calamities t befell ! individuals z de ,sanctis 0 9 ! trag$y ( 8 c\ntry1 & if he fill$ tw5ty books ) ! matt] ( two good books x 0 because ,italy's g5ius _h lo/ = ! "t be+ its syn!tic p[]4 ,he 0 an accurate man1 ) imm5se k & great acut5ess ( m9d tak+ ea* fact 9 its mo/ m9ute p>ticul>ity1 b los+ sight ( ! importance ( su* ev5ts z ! ,re=mation4 ,he 0 a naturali/ & uses ! same me?ods z if he /udi$ vegetables or m9]als1 look+ into ! intimate /ructure ( facts to f9d out :y !y are z !y are4 ,m5 !re=e appe> 9 8 "w l a product ( ,nature1 ^: actions are z fatally det]m9$ z ^? ( an animal4 ,x is impossible1 !re=e1 to f9d 9 ,guicci>d9i's tw5ty books a s+le page alive ) ! feel+s t ?rob 9 ,ma*iavelli's hi/orical works2 he keeps ! calm br[ ( ! naturali/ c\nt+ ! legs ( an insect4 ,& ,italy1 until ,vico comes1 w g on betwe5 ^! two ideas ( hi/ory & society4 ,guicci>d9i sees man free 9 appe>ance1 b 9 reality b\nd to act accord+ to ! det]m9ations ( 8 "*1 ( 8 temp]am5t1 ( 8 circum/ances2 & ! wise hi/orian c v ne>ly make out be=eh& t :at he %all d ) ! same approximate c]ta9ty ) :i* ! naturali/ c tell ! way ! swall[s w take :5 ! w9d & atmosph]ic pressure are kn[n4 ,ma*iavelli =e%ad[s a k9d ( sociology & 9 8 truly ,italian syn!tic view ( hi/ory he sees ! play ( ! v>i\s =ces1 spiritual =ces1 t make ( ! human _w a diff]5t realm ( reality f t ( nature1 :]e =ces exclusively physical are at play4 8,patria10 lib]ty1 nationality1 humanity1 social classes1 int]e/s & passions1 are to him =ces t move man1 b w\ld nev] move a plant or a tree4 ,b ! fact is1 to quote aga9 ,de ,sanctis1 t ,ma*iavelli is ! />t+ po9t ( a p]iod & ,guicci>d9i is ! ultimate end ( ! prec$+ age4 ,france1 ,spa91 ,engl&1 ,g]many & ! ,ne!rl&1 7 ov]run ) blood1 %$ ei!r ?r\gh ! ,w> ( ,religion or 9 consequ5ce ( ! ,inquisition1 9 ! proce$+s ( :i* ! gov]nm5ts ( ! diff]5t /ates int]f]$ to fur!r _! political int]e/s ?\gh seldom on ! side ( m]cy4 ,9 ,italy !re 0 no /ruggle2 m5 d n face dea? or torture )\t passionate convictions2 & :ile o!r races1 "y z !y 71 _h su* /rong convictions ! c\ntry :i* _h reap$ too easy & too ri* a h>ve/ betwe5 ! elev5? & fifte5? c5turies1 _h giv5 all t h] assimilation ( anci5t wisdom c\ld give1 & at ! end ( h] c>e] %e sat exhau/$ on ! wayside to wat* ! "y ones at play1 z a connoisseur wat*es a box+-mat* & takes all ! h9ts :i* may be useful to him4 ,metaphysics c\ld n fl\ri% "u su* circum/ances1 z virility is ! fir/ requisite = orig9al ?9k+1 s ,italian s*ol>s /ood on ! wat* tak+ law & ?\ght f abroad4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,sev5te5? ,,c5tury ,,9 ,,france ,! hi/ory ( ,france f ! adv5t ( ,l\is ,,xi to t ( ,l\is ,,xiv displays 9 its developm5t con/ructive t5d5cies s def9ite & con/ant t its edifice1 at once h>moni\s & impos+1 seems ! realisation ( an ar*itectural s*eme p]fectly 9 keep+ ) ! g5ius ( ,france4 ,ev]y?+ t5d$ to t unification ( ! c\ntry1 to t union ( ! prov9ces ! necess>y consequ5ce ( :i* mu/ be ! c5tralisation ( adm9i/ration & ! conc5tration ( political p[] 9 ! h&s ( ! sov]eign4 ,! idea ( absolute mon>*y has nev] be5 conceiv$ & realis$ 9 exactly ! same way z 9 ,france4 ,m4 ,jacques ,ba9ville is fully ju/ifi$ 9 hold+ t ! k+s ( ,france made x _! ma9 duty to conc5trate all _! ef=ts on id5tify+ !mselves & _! dyna/y ) ! developm5t & consolidation ( ! unification ( ! c\ntry4 ,b x has yet to be %[n :at is really ! orig9 ( a conception ( political reality t s f> seems to be unique4 ,mon>*y 0 inde$ j z absolute 9 ,spa9 & 9 ,au/ria4 ,b 9 bo? c\ntries x rema9$ comp>atively feudal4 ,s t ! b\rgeois orig9 ascrib$ by ,m4 ,ba9ville to ! ,capetian ,mon>*y1 its intimate relations ) ! ,middle ,class am\nt+ to a sort ( mutual league aga9/ ! great feudal lords1 is suffici5t to end[ x ) ! mod]n "* t attracts ! /ud5t1 eag] to p5etrate to ! liv+ core ( ! life ( political in/itutions4 ,x c\ld n1 h[ev]1 acc\nt = ! rationality ( its developm5t1 = ! h>mony & beauty ( its hi/orical features4 ,9 ! la/ half ( ! sixte5? & all ?r\gh ! sev5te5? c5tury ,france & h] mon>*y are end[$ ) a beauty t ex]cises a p]man5t fasc9ation4 ,x w\ld be true to say t ! "p play$ by ,france at t "t 9 ! civilisation ( ! _w 0 to a l>ge degree /hetic4 ,mod]n philosophy1 above all 9 ,italy1 und]/&s art z ! expression ( ! life ( m9d4 ,h5ce1 a battle1 a treaty ( peace1 a law1 a =m ( gov]nm5t1 c be consid]$ an arti/ic ma/]piece j z well z a poem or a monum5t4 ,n[ betwe5 ! coronation ( ,h5ry ,,iv & t ( ,l\is ,,xiv ! mon>*y ( ,france p]fectly expresses all t is positive &1 !re=e1 hi/orically con/ructive 9 ! life ( ! c\ntry4 ,its spiritual & practical =ces meet 9 ! k+'s p]son & receive !reby _! hi/orical realisation4 8,l',etat c'e/ moi10 says ,l\is ,,xiv4 8,cogito ergo sum10 says ,desc>tes4 ,! self-ass]tion ( ! k+ id5tify+ ! :ole ( political reality ) 8 empirical p]son is n )\t aff9ity ) ! import ( ! ,c>tesian assumption 9 :i* ! crit]ion ( c]titude1 ! root ( all reality1 0 id5tifi$ ) ! individual act ( ?9k+4 ,! self-ass]tion spontane\sly com+ on ! lips ( ! ,sov]eign & t com+ out ( ! m$itation ( ! philosoph] is "o & ! same ?+4 ,x is ! consequ5ce ( sixte5 c5turies ( ,*ri/ianity1 & 9 _! ma!matical concis5ess ! two =mulas are ! be/ proclamation ( ! g5ius ( ,france 9 all its cle>1 simple & lum9\s logic4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 at ! same "t a revelation ( :at is weak 9 t g5ius4 ,to be s cle>1 s lum9\s & s simple1 ,fr5* philosophy 0 b\nd to be ab/ract & radical4 ,! radicalness ( m9d common to ! ,jacob9s & to ! m mod]n anti-cl]icals & democrats caus$ ! elim9ation ( ! feudal class z a factor 9 political life1 a fact :i* 0 b\nd to c>ry 9 its trail ! political revolution ( ! eighte5? & ! economic "o ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,:5 a gov]nm5t r$uces a class to political non-exi/5ce ! "p =m]ly dis*>g$ by t class mu/ be entru/$ to ano!r1 :i* is b\nd to claim 9 ex*ange = ! support (f]$ to ! gov]nm5t 9 ! /ruggle aga9/ ! class displac$ ! privileges previ\sly grant$ to its rival = s]vices r5d]$ to ! /ate4 ,france "o1 "u ! gov]nm5t ( "o man4 ,x be>s a family lik5ess to ! trag$ies ( ,rac9e & ,corneille4 ,su* an idea is great & beautiful z ,horace & ,le ,cid4 ,b x owes its gr&eur to a simplicity t condemns x to leave out mu* ( political reality1 :i* is inde$ z complex & multi=m z life itself4 ,!re=e1 ?\gh x is beautiful1 its beauty is b\nd to be a tragic "o4 ,:5 ! concept _h become a fact1 :5 ,l\is ,,xiv c\ld say l',etat c'e/ moi2 :5 ,france 0 at lea/ "o "u h] ,k+1 ! ,fr5* mon>*y 0 9 ! position ( ! bullet t has be5 %ot "r 9 ! bull's-eye4 ,! aim is p]fectly caught1 ! /eely little ?+ is helplessly /uck !re1 useless4 ,! fun]al knell ( absolute mon>*y is rung by ?is id5tification ( ! ,sov]eign ) ! ,/ate4 ,z a political in/itution x 0 p]fect4 ,p]fection is /atic & _c1 !re=e1 belong to life1 :i* moves t[>ds p]fection b nev] is p]fect4 ,politically ! feudal nobility 0 hewn d[n ) ! indiff]5ce ) :i* a v5]able =e/ is raz$ to ! gr\nd to make a ,fr5* g>d54 ,! tr\ble 0 t society is n a g>d5 :i* once laid d[n c be kept by a succession ( good g>d5]s 9 consonancy ) ! plans ( ! ar*itect4 ,9 ,france society 0 to g on liv+ its hi/orical life ( et]nal alt]ation & =mation4 ,! political abolition ( ! nobility 0 a mo/ active f]m5t to bre$ m spe$ily ! modifications to come4 ,! ,fr5* nobility lo/ its virtues2 corrupt$ by ! idl5ess en=c$ ^u its memb]s1 x infe/$ ! moral atmosph]e & ?is 9 spite ( ! v rem>kable m5 produc$ by "s ( ! old /ocks4 ,soon ! o!r classes requir$ its social elim9ation & !y want$ x to be z radical z ! political annihilation _h be54 ,und\bt$ly ! k+s _h be5 oblig$ to de/roy :at %\ld h be5 _! natural support 9 ord] to con=m ) ! political conception t _h be5 elaborat$ by logical ,fr5* m9ds4 ,! k+ & 8 p mak+ "o )\t ! int]v5+ l9ks ( classes--no con/itution c\ld be m simple2 b its realisation requir$ ! amputation ( :at is necess>y to ! life ( any mon>*y4 ,desc>tes & ! ,roi-,soleil are s adequate an expression ( _! epo* t !y may be consid]$ z ! *>act]s ( ! prologue to ! trag$y t 0 to br+ ! next c5tury to its close4 ,m4 ,jacques ,m>ita9 has rightly be/[$ on ,desc>tes ! epi!t ( revolution>y1 b x c\ld be ext5d$ to ,l\is ,,xiv if "o did n run ! risk ( seem+ p>adoxical4 ,= bo? _! self-ass]tions1 politically & !oretically absolute1 are equally anti-religi\s & anti-hi/orical4 ,! position assum$ by ,m9d :5ev] man is really religi\s implies self-negation4 ,if ,god is1 ,he mu/ be inf9ite & ,man1 by comp>ison1 no?+2 at lea/ su* is ! logical sequ5ce ( ! doctr9es upheld by mo/ religi\s p4 ,& :5 ,m9d is speculatively too poor to realise ! necessity ( ! religi\s mom5t 9 :i* man b[s d[n to ev]y?+ t is n 8 belov$ self & accepts ! law t su* recognition begets1 man c turn to hi/ory & trace !re intuitively 7z ! fir/ great ?9k] ( ,italy has done71 ! "p play$ by ea* "o ( m9d's activities4 ,religion !n appe>s indep5d5tly ( p]sonal conviction1 a con/ant elem5t 9 ! life ( man1 m or less prepond]ant1 always !re1 z ! recognition ( all t is to man n-self4 ,x is :]e mod]n ?\ght has fail$ to realise ?is1 ei!r !oretically or hi/orically1 t x kn[s only ! fir/ t]m ( ! relation :i* is ! basis ( e social organisation4 ,lib]ty & law are correlative t]ms j z are light & %ad[4 ,lib]ty is ! claim ( ! subject & law spr+s f ! recognition ( ! object4 ,l\is ,,xiv & ,desc>tes1 ?anks to _! unb\nd$ selfi%ness1 ass]t emphatically _! empirical individuality4 ,= !m ! self swall[s up ! o!r t]m ! n-self1 t ! mod]n _w aft] !m seems to ignore4 ,desc>tes 0 end[$ ) ! mo/ preci\s gifts t make ! sci5ti/ & ! ?9k]4 ,yet x c be said t 8 greate/ =tune lay 9 ! fact t he embodies mo/ p]fectly all t is *>act]i/ic ( ! ,fr5* m9d4 ,=eign]s1 ev5 :5 _! k ( 8 language is f> f p]fect1 c take 8 ,disc\rs sur la ,m?ode & read x ) p]fect ease & a feel+ ( intellectual & /hetic well-be+4 ,to read ?is & to walk ?r\gh ! p>k ( ,v]sailles are equally indisp5sable to und]/& t great c5tury 9 ,france4 ,& bo? walk & read+ make v mu* ! same impression4 ,x is true t ! read] w easily pick up 9 ! ,c>tesian !ories ideas kn[n to ,/4 ,augu/9 & to ! ,s*ola/ic ,doctors aga9/ :om ,desc>tes react$ s viol5tly4 ,! visitor might j z well notice 9 ! p>k or on ! noble faade ( ! palace l9es & decorative patt]ns rem9d+ him ( ! ,r5aissance ,villas se5 9 ,italy1 b ?is does n deprive ! palace & its sett+ ( _! purely ,fr5* "*4 ,! fact is t ! sev5te5? c5tury ) ! la/ half ( ! sixte5? & ! fir/ ( ! eighte5?1 appe>s 9 ! life ( ,m9d1 i4e4 9 hi/ory1 z an ,anglo-,fr5* p]iod1 :]eas ! fifte5? & ! fir/ half ( ! sixte5? _h be5 9 _! arti/ic & intellectual production ma9ly ,italian4 ,! ideas elaborat$ 9 ,france & 9 ,engl& _h come f ev]y:]e & f all c5turies1 ,italy be+ *iefly ! hi/orical & natural ag5t ( communication1 a sort ( hi/orical po9t ( conv]g5ce betwe5 antiquity & mod]n times z %e is geographically betwe5 ea/ & we/4 ,! idea ( orig9ality1 )\t play+ ^u words1 c be call$ ! 8orig9al s90 ( our mod]n _w2 born f ! contempt ( ,bacon & ,desc>tes = ! pa/1 x is end+ n[ 9 ,futurism & ,bol%evism4 ,to attempt to create some?+ new )\t roots 9 ! pa/ 9 art1 politics1 sci5ce or philosophy is n m]ely absurd1 x is impossible4 ,! liv+ dialectic we t]m hi/ory displays ea* ( its mom5ts z ! logical sequ5ce ( ! prec$+ "o & ! elaborat+ /age ( ! next4 ,! "w ( ,desc>tes w live z long z our intellectual life la/s4 ,yet ?is v "w1 9 :i* he inaugurates ! anti-hi/orical me?od1 is ! be/ illu/ration ( ! law ( hi/ory1 display+ z x does ! ri*es ( a m9d 9 :i* 7 int]wov5 ! legacies ( ! pa/ & ! g]ms ( all t 0 to be subjective & positive 9 ! philosophy ( sev]al c5turies4 ,l\is ,,xiv br\ght a political =m to ! precision ( a ma!matical =mula1 t is to say he made x absolute & by s do+ r5d]$ ! evolution1 *>act]i/ic ( all social organisation1 impossible = ! mon>*y he repres5t$4 ,t :i* is absolute is unalt]able4 ,to be absolute ?is ,fr5* mon>*y _h to be /atic2 :]eas e political sy/em mu/ be dynamic4 ,p]fection is ! negation ( developm5t4 ,! p]son ( ,l\is ,,xiv 0 ! p]fect realisation ( ,france's ideal ( an absolute ,sov]eign & z su* x 01 !re=e1 ! conclusion ( ! process :i* _h br\ght him to ! ?rone4 ,! me?od ( ,engli% empiricism1 :i* consi/$1 aft] ,bacon1 9 look+ at ! ext]ior _w ) wide op5 eyes to get a notion ( reality bas$ on s5se k1 0 tak5 up 9 ,france ) z mu* en?usiasm z ! !ories ( ,desc>tes 7 tak5 up 9 ,engl&4 ,! two c\ntries balanc$ ea* o!r1 ,france t5d+ to ! unity ( man's consci\sness1 ,engl& to ! full realisation ( ! _w ( s5ses4 ,life obvi\sly is nei!r ( ^! b _! comb9ation or m prop]ly _! syn!sis4 ,s t ! mutual influ5ce ( bo? c\ntries is ! be/ illu/ration ( ! life ( m9d1 s+le 9 its developm5t1 multi=m 9 its manife/ation4 ,:at is tragic 9 ! philosophy ( ,desc>tes is almo/ p]fectly illu/rat$ 9 8 own life4 ,no "o has m eloqu5tly proclaim$ ! subjectivity ( life & reality ?an he has ?r\gh 8 own s*ol>ly selfi%ness4 ,only ,l\is ,,xiv c\ld be 8 rival 9 ?is self-ass]tion4 ,! self-c5tr$ mon>*1 ! self-c5tr$ s*ol>1 c vie ) ea* o!r4 ,!re=e he may be held to be j z anti-religi\s & anti-hi/orical z ,l\is ,,xiv2 ! "o c\ld n =get ! maje/y1 ! o!r ! g5ius1 ) :i* he felt himself inve/$ to b[ d[n 9 wor%ip ( ! ,k+ ( ,k+s1 9 wor%ip ( ! ,^w ( et]nal ?\ght4 ,yet bo? 7 believ]s & conv9c$ ,roman ,ca?olics4 ,! contradiction ( fact ?us introduc$ 9 _! lives f9d its mo/ exquisite expression 9 ! v[ ( ,desc>tes1 :5 he pl$g$ himself to make a pilgrimage to ,our ,lady ( ,loreto if he c\ld get rid ( all ! duties t fell to him z a soldi]1 z a man ( ! _w4 ,!y prev5t$ him f att5d+ freely to ! satisfaction ( 8 long+ = sci5tific rese>*es4 ,h5ce 8 impati5ce to retire f ?is va/ _w1 full ( rights & duties1 :]e m5 suff] & require help & love4 ,! anti-religi\sness ( su* feel+ ne$ n be emphasis$1 x is obvi\sly worse ?an t ( _m p :o1 call+ !mselves a!i/s1 7 drawn into deify+ nature or _! own negation ( ,god6 ,to tell man t he has only to turn 8 m9d inw>ds to f9d 9 ! mo/ intimate recess ( 8 s\l ! crit]ion ( ,tru? & consequ5tly ( ,ju/ice1 is a mo/ ,*ri/ian say+4 ,b 9 ! works ( ,/4 ,augu/91 :]e ,desc>tes f\nd x1 x implies ei!r ! belief 9 ,god's pres5ce 9 ! he>t ( e believ]1 or ! imman5ce ( ! transc5d5tal self 9 e empirical self1 :]eas 9 ,desc>tes' own writ+s & m9d nei!r ( ! two is to be f\nd4 ,8 rationalism seems brutally to reject belief outside philosophy1 outside ! !oretical & intellectual _w altoge!r4 ,x only seems to d s1 because x is "o ( ! fir/ /epp+-/ones ( ,idealism1 b ( ?is he c\ld n ev5 dream & he w5t on e/abli%+ betwe5 w & k su* a relation t e rational act ought to be good & e irrational "o bad4 ,h5ce ! duty ( vulg>is+ rational ?9k+ ?r\gh education1 :i* 0 to become p>am\nt 9 p$agogy & politics4 ,h5ce aga9 ! radicalness ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 educat$ & un$ucat$ :i* 0 to produce 9 our mod]n democracies a class diff]5ce f> /rong] ?an t ( ! ,middle ,ages :5 a man c\ld be made squire or ev5 knight provid$ he prov$ 8 p]sonal val\r 9 actual de$s4 ,engli% philosophy receiv$ ?r\gh ,hobbes all ! rationalism x ne$$ to balance ! excessive empiricism ( ,bacon & ! _w 0 ready = ,illum9ism1 :i*1 orig9at+ 9 ,engl&1 became "o ( ! greate/ & noble/ movem5ts record$ 9 hi/ory 9 spite ( its _m flaws4 ,italy c\ld n1 inde$1 (f] any?+ to make up = su* rationalism & empiricism4 ,) h] political virility ! :ole c\ntry 0 daily los+ its speculative orig9ality & fecundity1 = z ,v9c5zo ,cuoco 0 to realise a c5tury & a half lat]1 ! two manife/ations ( man's g5ius1 political & !oretical1 usually g h& 9 h&4 ,! intellectual gifts ( ,italian s*ol>s 7 wa/$ 9 academic pa/imes or devot$ to works ( erudition1 :i* prep>$ = ! g5ius ( ,vico ! mat]ials ( 8 hi/orical vision ( reality1 b 7 ( little avail to c\nt]act ! impati5ce display$ by ,france & ,engl&1 turn+ _! backs ^u hi/ory 9 ord] to feel free to %ake (f ! yoke ( e traditional au?ority4 ,feel+1 int5tion1 wor%ip1 s _m elem5ts ( spiritual life1 7 almo/ disc>d$ to make room = ! goddess ,reason4 ,art & ,religion 7 ?us d5i$ 9 _! ess5ce4 ,art c\ld only be at be/ didactic or h$oni/ic1 x 01 !re=e1 consid]$ at ! s]vice ei!r ( ?\ght z a means ( vulg>isation ( sci5tific k1 or ( s5sation z capable ( caus+ agreeable emotions4 ,z to ,religion x 0 dispos$ ( 9 a m radical way4 ,!oretically misrepres5t$1 hi/orically ignor$1 x 0 to be tol]at$ by ,engli% philosophy = practical reasons z a political in/rum5t & z ! be/ educative =ce4 ,x _h be5 useful & necess>y 9 ! c5turies ( d>k ignorance1 b to ! c5tury t 0 to call itself ! age ( light x 0 a h9drance1 an imp$im5t ( :i* mank9d 0 to be rid at all co/4 ,illum9ism1 t is to say ! enlight5m5t ( ! p1 & ! anti-religi\sness ( ! philosoph]s 7 id5tifi$4 ,! w> wag$ aga9/ religion 0 confus$ ) ! w> wag$ aga9/ ignorance4 ,"o /ep only 0 ne$$ to make ( ignorance a synonym = religion4 ,nobody wait$ to enquire :y religion 0 ev]y:]e & :y x 0 always a factor 9 social life2 nobody anyway c\ld h answ]$ ! "q z x w\ld h impli$ hi/orical rese>*1 a syn!tic view ( hi/ory1 = :i* no "o 0 fit4 ,! ,italians lack$ ! philosophical basis = su* "w1 ,france & ,engl& lack$ ! turn ( m9d necess>y to d x ) intellig5ce4 ,g]many 0 /ill 9 h] te5s until ,leibniz came to proclaim ! intellectual com+ ( age ( 8 c\ntry4 ,?us religion 0 a puzzl+ problem to philosoph]s & ! lack ( intellig5ce t[>ds ?is enigmatic ,x 0 to bre$ a great _m political difficulties4 ,religion alone c\ld h made up = ! oncom+ individualism1 fir/ social1 !n economic1 :i* ?reat5$ univ]sal de/ruction4 ,man 0 rais$ to ! hon\rs ( ! alt>1 hail$ z ultimate reality 9 :at is mo/ negative & empirical 9 him4 ,8 intellectual activity 0 to become ! pr9ciple ( reality1 :i* inde$ x is 9 s f> z x is transc5d5tal &1 !re=e1 div9e4 ,b ! sev5te5? & ! eighte5? c5turies c\ld only "k ?is activity z f> z x is empirical &1 !re=e1 non-div9e4 ,illum9ism1 ) all its g5]osity & noble impulses1 0 unable to realise :at transc5ds ! reason & exp]i5ce ( e s+le man4 ,x 0 to be ! lot ( ,g]many &1 above all1 ,italy to conceive 9 speculative =m ! life ( ,m9d & to realise ! natural function ( religion ?r\gh\t hi/ory4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,giambatti/a ,,vico ,9 _! /udies ( ! ,neapolitan philosoph]1 ,croce & ,g5tile h done _! "w s ?or\ghly t to anyone approa*+ ! same subject x w\ld be v ne>ly impossible to say any?+ bo? new & good4 ,! mat]ial "h us$ to illu/rate ! contribution ( ,italy's mo/ orig9al ?9k] to mod]n speculation & practical life w be drawn f ! works ( ,g5tile & ,croce4 ,vico is ! mo/ ,italian ( ,italy's ?9k]s4 ,yet a close survey ( 8 ideas reveals 9 8 works1 besides ! mo/ ,italian ( intellectual h]itage1 ! pres5ce ( ! deepe/ & ri*e/ t5d5cies ( ! mod]n philosophy ( ,europe1 be x ,fr5*1 ,engli%1 or ,g]man4 ,he is ?us ! be/ illu/ration ( 8 own !ory4 ,9 ! man ( g5ius ! mo/ concrete hi/orical det]m9ations bl5d ) ! broade/ univ]sality ( ideas4 ,b 8 critics h usually *os5 to look exclusively to ei!r ( ^! accord+ to _! own nationality2 & ?is way ( ab/ract+ f "o ( 8 qualities has made him obscure & baffl+4 ,:ile 8 c\ntrym5 liv$ ^u ! contribution ( ,france & ,engl&1 ,vico1 to ! naturali/ic intuition ( atomism1 :i* implies individualism 9 morals & politics1 oppos$ ! ideali/ic intuition ( hi/ory z ! develop+ process ( mank9d4 ,to ! ab/ract contemplation ( cle> ideas t 7 a matt] ( ma!matical intuitions & d$uctions he oppos$ ! self-g5]at$ progress ( mank9d t goes on creat+ its own _w4 ,9 ?is he reveal$ himself z a direct son ( ! ,italian ,humanism & ,r5aissance1 an ana*ronism1 & ! fact 0 ne>ly fatal to 8 fame1 z ?is put him1 z a writ]1 9 a position ( great inf]iority to ,locke or ,desc>tes4 ,he nev] deals ) ! "q he _h sat d[n to treat1 because he nev] realis$ be=eh& :]e he 0 go+1 & x 0 only on 8 way t 8 m9d became prop]ly fix$ on ! po9t t 0 obscurely torm5t+ him4 ,"o ought n to read ei!r ! titles or prefaces ( 8 books1 = he usually />ts on a traditional & ev5 /ale matt]4 ,?us x is t />t+ z a good ,platoni/ to write :at ,mi*elet took 8 ,sci5za ,nuoa to be1 t is to say a philosophy ( hi/ory1 he got /r&$ 9 ! deepe/ speculation on ! nature ( man's m9d q 9 contradiction to ! doctr9e ( ,plato4 ,he _h begun by consid]+ ! orig9 ( man's intellectual activity4 ,! difficulty 0 great1 b he casually obs]ves t :atev] ! difficulty ( ! problem & its obscurity1 "o always has ! /eady light ( ! conviction t ! _w ( ! ,g5tile nations is ! a*ievem5t ( m52 & t ! pr9ciples ( x mu/ be f\nd 9 ! nature ( our human m9d & 9 ! =ce ( our und]/&+4 ,su* proclamation ( man's p[] to create 8 own _w1 ! only hi/orical _w1 0 inde$ a revolution & ,r\sseau's !ories1 evolv$ to ensure ! lib]ty ( man to arrange society to suit 8 requirem5ts1 are *ildi% comp>$ to ?is sublime ?\ght ( a man :o 0 a ,ca?olic ) all ! humility & simplicity ( a *ild4 ,! qualities ( ! hi/orian 7 9 him balanc$ by ^? ( ! juri/ & ?r\gh ! rese>*es t 7 meant to give a philosophy ( hi/ory he w5t on build+ a philosophy ( ,m9d4 ,b be=e />t+ to exp\nd ! =ms ( ,m9d's activity1 = :i* he claim$ ! "r ( hi/orical citiz5%ip1 x may be good to note t ,vico's criticism or cont9uation ( previ\s sy/ems 0 simply dialectical2 inasmu* z he contradict$ ! ma9 !sis ( 8 fav\rite au?ors j z well z ^? ( ,desc>tes1 :o 0 8 pet av]sion1 or accept$ !m to trans=m !m4 ,= in/ance1 he took ! ,c>tesian c]titude & oppos$ x to tru?2 call+ c]ta9 t :i* is ! result ( p>ticul>is+ k if "o may t]m x s1 or ( k direct$ to ! p>ticul>4 ,& he took ! nature ( man z ,grotius or ,hobbes _h misund]/ood x1 a k9d ( me*anism ! laws ( :i* 7 z fatally unalt]able z ! in/9ct ( bea/s1 & *ang$ x into ! nature ( ,m9d1 q spiritual &--!re is no o!r ^w--,*ri/ian4 ,vico turn$ to ! p]iods ( hi/ory :i* 7 ! mo/ remote f ! psy*ology ( 8 "t4 ,consequ5tly he 0 l$ to /udy ! inf]ior =ms ( m9d su* z imag9ation1 viol5ce1 simplicity2 :]eas o!rs _h m$itat$ only ^u ! nature ( man z !y f\nd him ref9$ by ,religion & laws1 & _h gr\nd$ _! !ories on 8 mature intellect4 ,!y ignor$ ! imag9ation ( 8 y\?4 ,!y /udi$ 8 w morally tra9$ & ov]look$ ! wild passions ( 8 =efa!rs4 ,x is1 !re=e1 legitimate to say t ,vico came to reject ! basis ( man's natural rights gr\nd$ z !y 7 on a false notion ( human nature2 & gave concrete gr\nd = ! ass]tion ( man's spiritual rights & duties4 ,art1 or z he calls x1 poetry1 is n born ?r\gh ! caprice ( man to give pleasure or clo! philosophic say+s4 ,x 0 born out ( natural necessity1 x is 9 %ort ! fir/ op]ation ( man's m9d4 ,man1 be=e he c conceive a notion1 su* z table or dog1 realises !m ) an op]ation n ( ! intellect1 b ( 8 imag9ation4 ,be=e he c reflect ) a pure m9d1 he p]ceives ) emotion4 ,be=e he c speak 9 prose he speaks 9 v]ses4 ,! ne>] poetry gets to ! p>ticul>1 ! bett] x is2 ! high] reflection rises t[>ds ! univ]sal ! m p]fect x is4 ,yet if "o c say t ! poet is ! s5se ( mank9d & philosophy its intellect1 "o's conclusion co9cides ) ! say+ ( ,s*ola/icism1 ,nihil e/ 9 intellectu qui prius non fu]it 9 s5su1 s9ce )\t poetry x is impossible to h philosophy & civilisation4 ,aft] _m views on ! subject1 (t5 contradictory1 8 real idea is und\bt$ly t ! fir/ =m ( m9d is poetry1 ant]ior to ! intellect & free f reflection & reason4 ,my?s1 he holds1 d n ref] inevitably to real m51 !y are ess5tially hi/orical tru? "u ! =m x is wont to take 9 primitive m9ds4 ,any my? is an individual1 z ,h]cules1 & accompli%es individual actions--z he kills ! ,hydra or cleanses ! /ables--b x is also a concept1 ! notion ( useful & glori\s activity4 ,x is1 !re=e1 bo? a univ]sal z ! expression ( a concept & a creation ( man's imag9ation z a p>ticul> fancy4 ,pass+ to morality & to society1 al?\gh he react$ aga9/ rationalism1 ,vico's ass]tion ( ! irrational has no?+ to d ) ,r\sseau's4 ,he took = 8 gr\nd hi/ory1 lit]ature1 ar*ology & above all1 law4 ,?us 8 fir/ discov]y l$ him to sub/itute = ! ,gold5 ,age t _h be5 po/ulat$ z ! initial /age ( mank9d1 8! natural /ate ( man10 an obscure p]iod 9 :i* man did n diff] mu* f ! wild bea/s & 0 at be/ an irrational & non-intellectual be+4 ,he 0 to develop ! great & immortal notion t lay hidd5 at ! core ( 8jus naturalism10 ! notion ( society z imman5t 9 man1 :i* _h be5 9 ! air s9ce ,?omas ,aqu9as _h spok5 ( x z ( a six? s5se ( man4 ,utilit>ianism is ! fir/ t>get on :i* ,vico op5s fire1 & he takes x z ,hobbes & ,sp9oza _h =mulat$ x4 ,utility _c be a suffici5t gr\nd = morals s9ce x spr+s f ! temporal "p ( man :il/ morals are gr\nd$ on 8 et]nal "p4 ,no pr9ciple ( utilit>ianism1 :atev] ! =ms ascrib$ to x by philosoph]s1 c ju/ify ! process ( diff]5tiation1 :i* is ! con/ant developm5t ( social organisations4 ,deceit1 =ce1 ne$1 imply z already 9 exi/5ce ! society !y are suppos$ to h produc$4 ,h[ c\ld ! suppos$ly happy & simple fir/ own]s ( ! soil be deceiv$ into giv+ up _! claims1 if !y _h no desire :atev] & no relation ( any k9d4 ,= relations imply "s k9d ( social /ate ev5 if tacitly agre$ ^u4 ,z to =ce1 ! fir/ rul]s 7 n m]ely /rong 9 _! individual =ce2 _! p[] _h a f> deep] root z !y inv>iably appe> at fir/ z protectors ( ! weak & z antagoni/s ( all anti-social & de/ructive t5d5cies2 & _! law 0 =ce inde$1 b =ce a natura pr/antiori dictata4 ,! real gr\nd ( society is1 !re=e1 moral1 & z su* ess5tially spiritual4 ,yet at fir/ sight ,vico's view ( ! orig9 ( law & society appe>s v mu* ak9 to t ( 8jus naturalism02 b z soon z x is und]/ood t ,vico's notion ( man's nature is ! ,*ri/ian or spiritual "o1 !n ! diff]5ce is q evid5t4 ,law to him is natural to man because :at is n natural c nei!r /ay nor la/4 ,fe> is c]ta9ly ! orig9 ( society2 n1 h[ev]1 ! m]e fe> ( wild bea/s or hung] b ! fe> ( oneself2 fe> ( solitude due to remorse & %ame4 ,out ( %ame ,vico sees aris+ ! s5ses ( hon\r1 fidelity1 probity1 tru/ 9 promises1 tru? 9 words1 hone/y 9 de$s4 ,s t society comes to h moral consci\sness = its gr\nd1 & "o c inde$ consid] society z ! realisation ( man's be/ nature1 ( man's spiritual consci5ce4 ,?is s5se ( %ame or mode/y c\ld be call$ by empiricism ! s5se common to all m5 t enables !m to realise )\t judgm5t :at is necess>y or useful to m54 ,x is ?r\gh ?is s5se ( dec5cy or %ame t ! moral consci\sness is enabl$ to embody itself 9 in/itutions & give /ability & c]titude to ! freewill ( man :i* is ( its nature mo/ unc]ta94 ,! nature ( ?is fe>1 manife/+ itself 9 remorse or %ame1 ( ?is s5se ( dec5cy giv+ rise to moral consci\sness1 is easy = u to und]/& on acc\nt ( ! sy/ematic treatm5t ,m9d has receiv$ 9 subsequ5t /udies1 above all 9 ! works ( ,croce & ,g5tile4 ,?is fe> is :at we usually call self-consci\sness2 & :5 we say t a *ild has gr[n self-consci\s we mean t he ?9ks too mu* ( ! op9ion ( ! p :o surr\nd him4 ,n[ 9 ?is case common language1 z 9 _m in/ances1 lays a trap = our und]/&+1 s9ce at fir/ sight x seems to imply t ! *ild's uneas9ess ( mann]s is due to a self-c5tr$ conception ( himself2 :]eas x is 9 fact 8 realis+ ! importance ( 8 surr\nd+s t makes him wi% to please 8 eld]s1 to attract _! notice1 or to appease _! indignation :5 he feels guilty4 ,x is1 !re=e1 ! consci\sness ( ! non-self t we t]m self-consci\sness4 ,b ?is trap is easily avoid$1 = philosophy kn[s n[adays t x is impossible to rea* self-consci\sness except ?r\gh ! consci5ce ( t :i* we are n1 = ,we )\t ! re/ ( ! _w 9 opposition to :i* we are ,we1 means no?+ at all4 ,?us ! self-awe 9 :i* ,vico sees ! fir/ orig9 ( society is ! consci\sness man has ( 8 n-self1 ( ! ext]ior _w1 or1 to use an image1 ( ! imm5se %ad[ t surr\nds him & is 9 reality 8 own negativity1 all t :i* he is n4 ,s t if man kn[s %ame & remorse 9 ! mo/ absolute solitude x is because 9 8 own he>t he feels ! pres5ce ( a nameless ,p[]4 ,vico's is n a speculative hypo!sis4 ,primitive m5 w&]$ savage & f]oci\s1 )\t family ties or matrimonial bonds1 7 ! prey ( ! wilde/ passions4 ,:5ce c\ld !y receive ! law t w\ld prev5t _! mutual de/ruction8 ,!y _c be sav$ by ! wisdom ( m5 s9ce human wisdom does n exi/ z yet1 nei!r by ,god1 ,he has retir$ among ,8 *os5 p & left to its fate ! re/ ( mank9d4 ,b ,he has left !m ! "* ( m5 & _! humanity is suffici5t to save !m4 ,?und] /rikes !m ) fe>1 & ! consci\sness ( _! impot5cy1 ( _! own limitation1 sugge/s ! confus$ & obscure notion ( t :i* is n limit$4 ,& to appease ! ,almight9ess ( ?is inf9ite & enjoy its fav\r !y refra9 f "s ?+s & d o!rs4 ,!y refra9 f satisfy+ "s ( _! physical crav+s & ,m9d's lib]ty is ! result2 s t lib]ty is born ) h] tw9 si/]1 moral law1 out ( ! fe> ( ,god1 out ( ! awe-inspir+ consci\sness ( ! n-self4 ,! l& becomes cov]$ ) alt>s2 ! caves behold ! union ( m5 & wom5 eag] to ensure ! ,div9e fav\r to _! nuptials2 ! soil is brok5 to receive ! body ( ! dead :o return to ! gods4 ,e?ics are born ) ! ?ree fundam5tal in/itutions ( society1 ! cult ( ! ,deity1 matrimony z ! fir/ call ( society1 ! v5]ation ( ! dead z ! fir/ ass]tion ( immortality4 ,:y has ,croce be5 able to /ate1 aft] ?is en]getic ass]tion ( ,vico on ! ess5tially religi\s orig9 ( society1 t ! fa!r ( ! philosophy ( ,m9d agrees ) ! s*ool ( natural law 9 _! purely imman5t notion ( e?ics8 ,because l !m he con/ructs 8 sci5ce ( society indep5d5tly ( revelation4 ,! natural law ( ! ,g5tile nation spontane\sly creat$ by m5 is ! matt] ( 8 rese>* n ! sup]natural law t came d[n on ,s9ai = ! b5efit ( ! ,*os5 ,p4 ,x is n on ! idea ( law & its orig9 t he criticis$ ,grotius1 ,puf5dorf1 & ! re/1 x is _! idea ( religion t is di/9ctly q ali5 to 84 ,religion = ,vico c be und]/ood fir/ z a conception ( reality z su*2 & ?is is ! reason :y x is 9 ,g5tile's !ories "o ( ! ess5tial mom5ts ( ,m9d z recognition ( ! n-self1 or object4 ,second1 x belongs to practical reality z ! basis ( e?ics4 ,9 ?is case religion is ! v ess5ce ( e?ics z x is ! v ess5ce ( tru?4 ,x is1 !re=e1 evid5t t :at ,vico intuitively1 p]haps1 unconsci\sly1 is /riv+ to ass]t is ! et]nity ( religion1 hi/orically prov$ ap>t f any revelation4 ,?us 9 8 se>* = ! gr\nd ( morality he c ab/ract f positive religion1 b h[ c\ld he ab/ract f ! k ( tru?1 or m ?an k1 ! consci\sness ( tru?8 ,plut>*1 aft] describ+ ! primitive religions & _! horrors1 wond]s if x w\ld n h be5 bett] n to h _h any religion ?an to wor%ip ! gods 9 su* impi\s ways4 ,& ,vico1 aft] quot+ him1 obs]ves t surely :5 he wrote ?is he mu/ h lo/ sight ( ! fact t f su* atroci\s sup]/itions lum9\s civilisation develop$ 9 due "t1 :]eas no?+ ev] grew on a!ism4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z hi/orical or social life )\t a religion1 full ei!r ( t5d]ness or f]ocity1 rational or fanta/ic1 b 9 any case provid+ man ) ! idea1 m or less cle>1 m or less noble1 t !re is some?+ :i* transc5ds ! individual1 9 :i* all individuals weld into "o1 & :i* provides man's morality ) ! object ( 8 moral w1 & !reby means ,law4 ,9 8 und]/&+ ( ! p]iod 9 :i* man _h be5 a brute1 ,vico 0 mu* ne>] to ! ,bible ?an ! ,prote/ants _h be54 ,he accept$ z a matt] ( fact ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ,g5tiles & ! ,jews1 z imply+ ! radical privation ( any sup]natural help be/[$ on ! =m]1 & he ?\ght ( !m z be+ 9 a pre-moral /ate1 a /ate t 0 inde$ devoid ( morality1 b full ( moral t5d5cies1 & f :i* mank9d em]g$ ?r\gh ! realisation ( ^? t5d5cies4 ,su* realisation is n on ! o!r h& ! effect ( a ,div9e grace1 x is ,,natural1 due m]ely to ! developm5t ( ! natural light grant$ to e man t comes to life4 ,man's free w is weak & betwe5 passions & virtue might succumb if he 0 n upheld 9 8 ef=ts by ,provid5ce4 ,= ,vico makes an absolute di/9ction betwe5 ! grace ( ,god & ,provid5ce4 ,! grace ( ,god1 9 :i* he firmly believ$1 is an extraord9>y help grant$ to "s m5 & p>ticul>ly to ! ,*os5 ,p2 ,provid5ce is ! ord9>y help ( ,god grant$ to all m5 z _! bir?right s to speak1 z inh]5t 9 _! nature z m54 ,vico /ood h5ce=? z ! be/ antidote to ! dang]\s side ( ,anglo-,fr5* speculation4 ,! philosophy ( ,m9d _h yet to be develop$1 b x 0 suffici5tly ass]t$ to claim man & all 8 activities z belong+ to spiritual reality1 to hi/orical reality4 ,?us :at ,vico call$ ,provid5ce provid$ ! gr\nd = a m human1 t is to say1 m spiritual1 idea ( lib]ty1 j :5 ! m5 :o 7 go+ to popul>ise ,illum9ism 7 prep>+ = _! task4 ,b 8 0 a f> m difficult idea1 & less palatable z well1 = 8 lib]ty spr++ z x does f ,religion1 h& 9 h& ) morality1 is a d\ble-fac$ div9ity4 ,"o nev] c1 accord+ to su* a conception ( life1 grasp lib]ty )\t law1 or enjoy a "r )\t satisfy+ ! correspond+ duty4 ,pass+ f religion to law1 ,vico 9 8 objective und]/&+ ( hi/ory rejects a ju/ice t %\ld consi/ 9 measur+ ev]y?+1 = says he1 fir/ ?is w\ld n be ! philosophy b ! ma!matics ( law2 !n x is ! duty ( m5 to %>e ! common goods 9 su* a way z to pres]ve ! diff]5ces requir$ by ! diff]5ces ( des]ts1 & ?us to ma9ta9 t :i* is ! only true equality ( m54 ,! natural law1 accord+ to him1 0 born at fir/ "u ! =m ( j desires1 j viol5ces2 !n x took ! =m ( moral fables2 ultimately x 0 ass]t$ 9 all its rationality & g5]osity4 ,away goes ) ?is ! ab/ract & anti-hi/oric notion ( an et]nal & natural law1 sup]ior to positive laws4 ,vico goes on b[+ to ! jus naturale philosophorum b in/ead ( putt+ x high above hi/ory1 he looks = x exclusively :]e x c be f\nd--t is to say 9 hi/ory1 mak+ x ?us hi/orical4 ,aft] accept+ ,plato's idea ( an et]nal ,republic1 ,vico breaks x to pieces to come out ) a q diff]5t conception ( 8 own4 ,! only really et]nal ,republic is ! et]nal process ( hi/ory 9 all ! v>iety & succession ( its modes ( realisation1 f ! man-brute d[n to ,plato4 ,e s+le tru? has its practical manife/ation1 its practical consequ5ces2 to ?9k 9 ?is or t way implies liv+ & act+ 9 ?is or t way4 ,! divorce ( !ory & practice result+ f ! difficulties t arose a c5tury be=e betwe5 sci5tific m5 & _! *ur*es is "h absolutely annull$4 ,vico calls m5 to realise t 9 ! human _w ( hi/ory1 ! only "o real to man1 s9ce x is ! "w ( man z ,nature is ! "w ( ,god1 ?\ght & action g h& 9 h&4 ,!ories br+ inevitably a modification ( practical life4 ,man does n exi/1 at lea/ n to our k1 z an individual devoid ( a social & !re=e hi/orical frame4 ,art is ! mom5t 9 :i* man moves 9 a self-c5tr$ _w1 ab/ract+ f ! univ]sal1 & is !re=e ! subjective mom5t ( lib]ty1 ! mom5t ( intuition4 ,religion is ! mom5t 9 :i* man /&s full ( awe 9 front ( ! _w :i* is 8 n-self1 ab/ract+ f ! individual he is1 & is !re=e ! objective mom5t ( ,law1 ! "o l9k f ! intuitive to ! rational realisation ( life z morality &1 !re=e1 society4 ,hi/ory1 h[ev]1 nev] %[s ! "o ap>t f ! o!r1 z nature nev] %[s "o ( two correlative t]ms absolutely ap>t f ! o!r4 ,light or d>kness may be preval5t1 bo? are always !re4 ,lib]ty & law h alt]nately held _! sway ov] our mod]n1 t is to say ,*ri/ian _w1 & _! syn!sis may n[ be call$ into be+ by ! gr&sons ( ,vico4 ,8 !ories c\ld n be und]/ood by ! g5]al public be=e practical life _h %[n ! s\ndness ( 8 criticism ( ! !ories t 7 fo/]+ ! ab/ract individualism & lib]ty aga9/ :i* ,fascism is react+2 & react+ ?r\gh n a retrograde process1 b ?r\gh a =w>d movem5t :i* %all en=ce lib]ty z ! correlative t]m ( law1 & all[ religion to dis*>ge its function z ! ess5tial basis ( man's spiritual life & n z an in/rum5t ( politics4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,illum9ism ,,9 ,,engl& ,,& ,,france ,! *>act]i/ic t di/+ui%es ,engli% ,illum9ism is ! reasonable adaptation ( its !ories to practical circum/ances2 ?is is be/ illu/rat$ 9 ! greate/ man x has produc$4 ,locke 0 = ! pres]vation ( fai? 9 ,revelation & tri$ to make x agree ) reason4 ,x 0 z impossible = him z = ,?omas ,aqu9as to ?9k t ,god's _w %\ld mean any?+ 9 contradiction ) ! natural light ,he has grant$ to man4 ,he sees 9 ! ,scriptures ! revelation ( tru?s :i* w\ld h be5 out ( rea* ( man's natural p[]s1 limit$ z !y 7 to s5se k4 ,su* a view 0 *>act]i/ic ( ! fair-m9d$ness ( ! practical & political man1 b x held a sn>e 9 ! sanction ?us grant$ to ! mo/ unphilosophical & unhi/orical notion ( ,deism & natural religion4 ,! fact is t ! mo/ en]getic *ampion ( ,subjectivism aft] ,desc>tes c\ld n realise at all ! religi\s position ( man t[>ds ! ,div9ity :i* is ass]tive ( objectivism4 ,8 e?ics take human felicity z ! high] aim ( !oretical & practical activity1 :i* is n orig9al at all1 b has ! m]it ( be+ q consi/5t ) 8 subjective ass]tions4 ,9 8 contribution to p$agogy ! commons5se ( ! practical man comes to temp] ! !oretical individualism :i* inspir$ him & he ?us keeps g5]ally on a level above ! !ory aft]w>ds =mulat$ by ,r\sseau4 ,b n[h]e does ?is inconsi/5cy ( 8 practical application ) 8 ma9 sy/em appe> z cle>ly z 9 8 "w on ! ,/ate4 ,william ( ,orange /&s to ,locke z ,cromwell does to ,hobbes1 n t ! k+ c be comp>$ to ! dictator1 b 8 reign beheld ! inauguration ( ! political sy/em :i* is ! greate/ gift ( ,engl& to mank9d2 & ?is practical manife/ation ( ! political g5ius ( t c\ntry %[s by its co9cid5ce ) its greate/ !oretical contribution to philosophy h[ little practice & !ory are sev]$ 9 actual life1 t is to say 9 hi/ory4 ,yet ,locke 0 en=c+ ! di/9ction ) all 8 might to avoid ! inconsi/5cy already notic$ betwe5 ! !oretical & practical aspects ( 8 "w4 ,z ,hobbes _h done be=e him 9 ,engl&1 & ,grotius 9 ,holl&1 he saw ! basis ( ! ,/ate 9 a contract1 b he 0 ! fir/ 7al?\gh ,alg]non ,sydney _h prep>$ public op9ion = su* an idea7 to ass]t t ! collective w 0 embodi$ n 9 any s+le p]son1 b 9 ! majority ( ! p4 ,!re he 0 p]fectly consi/5t ) 8 gnoseology1 ! multiplicity ( ! data ( s5se k de/roy$ ! unity ( ! metaphysical conception4 ,only legislation1 h[ev]1 fell to ! %>e ( ! majority2 ! executive & =eign policy 7 to be entru/$ to h]$it>y mon>*s4 ,! exig5cies ( ! new notions ( lib]ty & equality ( man 7 temp]$ by ! practical necessity ( insur+ ! cont9uity & unity ( national developm5t1 :i* 0 ! la/ ass]tion ( hi/orical necessities4 ,h5ce politics w5t on gradually los+ t\* ) hi/orical consci\sness4 ,yet ! necessity "u :i* ,locke & ! be/ ?9k]s ( ,engli% ,illum9ism 7 ( temp]+ _! !ories ?r\gh practical consid]ations 0 symptomatic ( ! fundam5tal weakness ( ! :ole sy/em4 ,!ories spr++ f a syn!tic conception ( life d n want readju/+ to practical life1 d n want a p]iod ( assimilation "u _! !oretical =m & ano!r ( elaboration into practical sy/ems4 ,! be/ example ( ?is is ! simultane\s production ( ,g5tile's mo/ important !oretical "w kn[n to ! ,engli%-speak+ s*ol>s z ! ,pure ,act & ( its practical (fspr+ ! ,fondam5ti della ,filos(ia del ,diritto1 bo? ( #aiaf1 foll[$ at five ye>s' di/ance by _! political application by ! ,fasci/s :o _h1 s to speak1 no direct k ( su* works2 to say no?+ ( 8 p$agogy1 ! application ( :i* ! au?or has _h ! opportunity ( c>ry+ out ) h] own pupils4 ,b !n su* !ories are conceiv$ )\t ab/ract+ "o m9ute f practical life1 & _! basis is hi/ory & society z !y are 9 real life4 ,( ,fascism ! same may be said2 its idealism does n prev5t x f be+ ! mo/ ?or\ghly practical & reali/ic ( movem5ts4 ,! philosophy ( ! sev5te5? c5tury _h1 h[ev]1 made ?is consi/5cy ( !ory & practice an obvi\sly unrealisable *im]a = ! m5 ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & :il/ ,fr5* rationalism br\ght p to ?9k ( rational !ories z capable ( radically re=m+ society1 ,engli% empiricism held t ideas may "w v well 9 !ory & v badly 9 practice4 ,su* a di/9ction 0 ! s\rce ( great difficulties4 ,if ?\ght & action 7 ! t]ms ( an irr$uctible dualism x 0 natural to say ,meliora video2 det]iora sequor4 ,inde$1 ! moral imp]ative ( ,kant c\ld n be rea*$ on su* gr\nd & 9 ! lit]ature & philosophy ( ! eighte5? c5tury moral treatises & diss]tations take su* a place t !re is no d\bt z to ! m5 ( ! p]iod realis+ ! difficulties ( ! problem4 ,!y _h sep>at$ religion f philosophy1 religion f law & politics1 & z !y _h ! jus naturale !y mu/ h natural morals4 ,a s5se ( "r & wrong due to ! natural light grant$ to man by ,god 0 to be f\nd 9 ,s*ola/icism z ! natural t5d5cy to sociability already m5tion$4 ,x c\ld1 9 fact1 be trac$ to ! ,/oic s*ool & ev5 f>!r back4 ,b ?is did n make ?+s easi] to ! p :o held positive religions to be useless1 :il/ on ! o!r h& !y 7 ready to admit _! value z e/abli%m5ts provid+ = ! moral c>e ( ! l[] classes4 ,9 _! ab/5tion f hi/ory1 ! only use ( *ur*es !y c\ld see 0 to curb ! egoi/ical t5d5cies ( man 9 ! classes :i* 7 d5i$ ! enlight5m5t t c\ld provide educat$ p ) pr9ciples ( discrim9ation betwe5 "r & wrong4 ,!y c\ld n realise t ?is function ( ! *ur*es is m]ely a consequ5ce ( ! position ( ! believ] t[>ds 8 div9ity1 t su* a position br+s man to realise :at is to him n-self1 !reby giv+ to ! moral law ! objectivity :i* alone c free x f ! con/ant alt]ation ( selfi% motives1 & be/[ ! /ability necess>y to its effici5cy4 ,a natural s5se ( "r & wrong 0 ackn[l$g$ 9 ord] to f9d 9 ,man himself an explanation ( 8 moral life4 ,?is orig9al pr$isposition1 t 0 to ensure autonomy to man's high] life hav+ be5 admitt$1 ! psy*ological m5tality ( ! "t did n hesitate to make x a matt] ( psy*ology to det]m9e :i* 0 ! organ ( ?is natural function ( man4 ,:il/ su* rese>*es proce$$1 ,cumb]l& hav+ already illu/rat$ ! ,cic]onian doctr9e ( ! lex naturae z ! natural reaction ( altrui/ic t5d5cies aga9/ ! selfi% motives ( ,hobbes's !ory1 ! ,e>l ( ,%aftesbury1 a fri5d ( ,locke1 contribut$ ! be/ ( all ^! !ories4 ,he claim$ ! autonomy ( morals1 free+ x no less f physiological ?an f !ological fett]s4 ,= ! intr9sic value ( morals is equally de/roy$ :e!r y make good de$s dep5d5t ( ! fe> ( puni%m5t & hope ( rew>d or on ! me*anism ( nature4 ,goodness1 righte\sness1 & virtue are real ( !mselves1 a reality2 !y c be conceiv$ & und]/ood2 !y _c be inf]r$ f any?+ else4 ,:y he did n "w out s orig9al a notion is easily und]/ood2 ! philosophy ( 8 "t af=d$ him little m ?an psy*ology1 & 8 p]sonal gifts & bre$+ fitt$ him r = /hetics ?an = s ardu\s a task2 h5ce x 0 p]fectly natural t 8 idea %\ld h develop$ into a real eudemonism4 ,! nature ( virtue is to him h>mony1 he ?us bl5ds ! conclusions ( mat]ialism & ( ! doctr9e :i* upheld ! social in/9ct ( man2 ! supremacy 0 to be ascrib$ to ! egoi/ic motives by ! s*ool ( ,hobbes1 to ! s5se ( altruism by ! o!rs4 ,to ,%aftesbury ea* ( ^! s*ools held half ( ! tru? & only ! comb9ation ( bo? t5d5cies c\ld produce 9 _! h>mony real morality4 ,nei!r lax nor ascetic morals mu/ result f ! h>moni\s comb9ation ( ! two opposites4 ,su* a !ory implies ! p]fection ( ! individual z ! ultimate end ( all intellectual life2 x ?r[s light on ! nobl] side ( ,illum9ism1 & if x is n !oretically s\nd x is ! bl5d+ ( all t 0 be/ 9 a movem5t t 0 g5]\s 9 its optimism4 ,! v>iety ( ! gr\nds :i* 7 ascrib$ to morality is suffici5t to betray ! orig9al flaw ( su* philosophy4 ,ev5 ,"l ,%aftesbury _h be5 unfai?ful to ,locke1 ma9ly ow+ to 8 own /rong s5se ( ! /hetic1 b also ow+ to ! unsuitability ( ! great philosoph]'s doctr9e1 z x 0 und]/ood !n1 z a basis = a !ory ( e?ics4 ,?us ,utilit>ianism came into be+4 8,! be/ = ! greate/ numb]10 0 to rema9 z ! ideal or ideology ( ,illum9ism2 & ! be/ 9 "q became m & m ! mat]ial be/1 & less & less ! moral be/4 ,aft] ! natural s5se ( sociability :i* _h tak5 ! place ( ! w ( ,god at ! basis ( ! /ate1 aft] ! natural s5se ( "r & wrong :i* _h be5 elaborat$ z a sub/itute = ! ,decalogue1 v little 0 left ( ! tabula rasa idea ( man's s\l upheld by ,locke4 ,all ^! natural s5ses 7 ant]ior to exp]i5ce & :5 natural religion 0 add$ to !m x 0 und]/ood t all ^! innate faculties 7 con/itutive ( rationalness 9 practical life2 & ,nature 0 gradually oppos$ to hi/ory z rational to irrational4 ,?is natural religi\sness _h _h its fir/ ,engli% ass]tor 9 ,h]b]t ( ,*]bury4 ,to him man's s\l is f> f be+ tabula rasa2 x is a book t op5s naturally & displays its hidd5 treasure4 ,& ,john ,tol&1 9 8 ef=ts to retrieve free ?9k+ f ! int]f]5ce ( ! ,/ate1 det]m9es ! limitation ( ! /ate's jurisdiction1 to :i* ! citiz5's actions mu/ be subject b nev] 8 op9ions2 :il/ he limit$ 8 reque/ = tol]ance = ! b5efit ( t class ( m5 ^: social position enabl$ !m to af=d a suffici5t culture to make a h>mless use ( su* lib]ty4 ,!n ! negativ5ess ( any lib]al gov]nm5t 0 obvi\s1 s9ce 9 ,tol&'s notion ( x x became l a simple set ( brakes de/9$ to act :5 ! ma*9e goes wrong & to keep ! s]5e impossibility ( an impeccable butl] until ord] & peace are actually brok54 ,?us aga9 ! radical diff]5ce betwe5 educat$ & un$ucat$ :i* _h be5 fo/]$ by ! cultural movem5t ( ,humanism & ,r5aissance1 assum$ a religi\s & political significance :i* made ! new idea ( class a great] imp$im5t to ! self-mak+ man ?an t ( ! feudal hi]>*y :i* _h always admitt$ ! admission to knigh?ood ( a valor\s man :atev] 8 condition4 ,?is cauti\s exclusion ( ! p f ! new intellectual religion 0 a condemnation2 ! rational cult prov$ an artificial !ory & c\ld h no vitality4 ,yet x w\ld be a p]v]sion ( facts to pres5t x z due to ! p]sonal feel+ ( ,tol& or any o!r man4 ,x 0 ! consequ5ce bo? ( ! pr$om9ance ( ,rational ,reality 9 ! sy/ems !n 9 hon\r1 & ( ! traditional ,humanism accord+ to :i* !re 0 ! same diff]5ce betwe5 a s*ol> & a non-s*ol> z !re _h be5 once betwe5 ! citiz5 & ! non-citiz5 ( ! old pagan _w4 ,b ! ma9 feature is ! anti-hi/orical vision ( life t made m5 incapable ( suspect+ fir/ ! social orig9 ( ! religi\s notions :i* _h fl\ri%$ f pre-hi/oric "t1 !n ! impossibility ( introduc+ social p>titions 9 ! life ( ! ,m9d4 ,( religion !y only saw its practical organisation 9 ! diff]5t *ur*es2 ( ! ne$ f :i* ! pre-,*ri/ian =ms ( religion _h sprung !y _h n ! slighte/ suspicion4 ,! r\gh & obscure notion !y _h ( ! ,middle ,ages 0 too (t5 id5tifi$ ) religion & !y _h no possibility ( realis+ ! "p play$ by ! ,*ur* to keep ! objectivity ( a religi\s cre$ z a c\nt]poise to ! an>*y-bre$+ self-ass]tion ( man4 ,*ri/ianity _h reveal$ ! pr(\nd humanity1 t is to say spirituality1 ( ! _w1 & ,man1 feel+ himself to be ! ma9 ag5t ( ,god 9 ! _w1 realis$ 8 subjective importance4 ,only ,god _h rema9$ above him--only ! notion ( ,god's pres5ce c\ld en=ce objective law4 ,x is n ! ,decalogue & ! ,*ur*'s precepts :i* are meant "h4 ,x is ! recognition1 ess5tial to religion1 ( a reality exi/+ besides 8 own self t compels man to realise su* objectivity ( law4 ,/4 ,paul laid an emphatic /ress on ! fact4 ,b ! c>itas sibi is t :i* raises ! subject1 raises u & enl>ges our capacity until we are capable ( tak+ 9 ! object1 all t we are n1 ! _w 9 %ort2 :at mod]n philosophy calls ! n-self4 ,:5 man does realise ?is objectivity1 ?is di/9ction ( ! _w f him1 8 attitude is t ( respect n only t[>ds ,god b t[>ds ! _w4 ,?us we h ! religi\sness1 t ,fascism is /riv+ to en=ce until x w p]vade ! :ole ( life1 practical & !oretical life1 s9ce x does n "p !m4 ,?is notion ( religi\sness1 h[ev]1 is ultra-mod]n1 & c\ld n h be5 conceiv$ 9 pre-,kantian days1 9 pre-,hegelian1 pre-,g5tilian days4 ,x is n m$ival by any means1 & ,illum9ism is "o ( ! /ages ?r\gh :i* ,m9d has _h to pass1 to realise a subject capable ( tak+ 9 ! object )\t go+ back to ,pagan objectivism4 ,= ?is objective _w mu/ at all co/ be su* ?r\gh subjective objectivity4 ,if x is to rema9 a ,*ri/ian _w 9 its v objectivity x mu/ rema9 a human _w1 ! _w ( man1 ! _w ( ! subject ^: religi\s recognition ( 8 n-self is a supreme self-ass]tion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,be=e ! end ( ! c5tury ,reason fell f h] en?ron$ glory1 & s5tim5t 0 glorifi$ z ! pure/ activity ( man's s\l4 ,s t ! c5tury ( light end$ by rais+ ! less rational motives ( man's life to semi-div9e hon\rs4 ,?is reaction 0 due to ! unilat]al dogmatism assum$ by philosophy 9 ,france ow+ to ! political circum/ances ( ! c\ntry4 ,) a democratic s5se t is p>tly due to ! democratic orig9 ( ! ,fr5* mon>*y1 :i* to be absolute1 _h to re/ on ! support ( ! p1 ! ?9k]s ( ,france did n dream ( keep+ _! conclusions to !mselves4 ,:at !y consid]$ true %\ld be public4 ,p]haps1 9 _! feel+ t x is ! duty ( ! man ( sci5ce to communicate to ! p ! result ( 8 /udies1 !y hid ! mo/ beautiful motive ( ! :ole c5tury--"o t is n br\ght out by ! hi/orians ( philosophy--! imp]ative exig5cy ( ,tru? t impels divulgation4 ,x is frequ5tly rem>k$ t !y 7 ! real *ampions ( ,illum9ism inasmu* z !y claim$ ! "r ( ! p to be enlight5$2 ! idea ( ,tru? :i* prompt$ su* a claim is ! l(tie/ "p ( _! contribution to philosophy4 ,! ,fr5* ma!matical m5tality1 aft] hav+ export$ ,desc>tes1 _h import$ ,newton1 & z ,hobbes &1 be=e him1 ,bacon1 _h come to ,france to f9d ! yea/ !y ne$$ to develop _! own !ories1 s n[ m5 l ,voltaire & ,r\sseau made _! leav5 out ( ,locke's & ,hume's doctr9es & /udi$ ! political in/itutions ( ,engl&4 ,9 ,france1 f ,montaigne1 f ,pascal1 m5 _h le>n$ ! cauti\s prud5ce1 & ! self-d$ication to ! object ( fai? t are ne>ly anti!tic & usually nev] appe> toge!r ,montaigne's influ5ce is due to ! fact t he reflects ! /ate ( m9d ( all ! we/]n _w1 tir$ ( religi\s /ruggles & ! emphatic expressions ( dogmatism on all sides2 x 0 due also to 8 *>m+ /yle & ! purity ( 8 ,fr5* m9d4 ,s ,fr5* is he1 s mu* a man ( ! ,we/1 t 8 *>m is felt alike by ,fr5* & ,anglo-,saxon m9ds4 ,"o _c resi/ him4 ,9 8 analytic scepticism he is s logically me?odic1 t 8 /yle is l ! col\r ( a piece ( antique bronze1 invit+ ! onlook] to t\* x :il/ its l9es1 its lights & %ad[s reveal ! p[]ful m9d ( ! sculptor4 ,montaigne ?r\gh 8 v respect = ! ,*ur* help$ to ru9 ! religi\s _s ( 8 c\ntrym51 & ! g5ius ( ,pascal c\ld n h made up = x1 ev5 if its my/icism & its repugnance = ! ,moi haissable _h n be5 t+$ z !y 7 by ! self-ass]tive _s ( 8 "t4 ,bo? my/icism & scepticism take _! practical =m 9 ,pi]re ,bayle4 ,few m5 ev] enjoy$ ! gift ( sympa?y ) :i* he 0 end[$ because few m5 are s sup]latively s9c]e4 ,he does n r5\nce religion1 he is inde$ q a religi\s man1 b 8 religion is negative on acc\nt ( 8 my/icism z a believ] & ( 8 scepticism z a sci5ti/4 ,to him ! ,?omi/ & ,lockian po9t ( view ( ! sup]-rationality ( ! ,revelation is an illusion4 ,9 p]fect s9c]ity he c\ld say cr$o quia absurdum1 & l ,t]tullian proclaim def9itely ! divorce ( sci5ce f religion1 ( rationality f irrationality4 ,8 next move 0 to divorce morality f religion4 ,m5 c\ld be excell5t 9 ,pagan times & !y c be wick$ 9 ,*ri/ian times1 yet ,*ri/ianity is sup]ior to ,paganism2 obvi\sly religi\s op9ions are indep5d5t ( ! morality ( m54 ,he !n pass$ to politics4 ,8 idea ( religion 0 f> too high to all[ him to consid] x z an auxili>y ( ! /ate's police z ,engli% !ori/s _h (t5 done1 & s9ce x _h no?+ to d ) morals ! ,*ur* c\ld h no?+ to d ) man z a citiz54 ,?is evid5tly made n only = tol]ance1 b = indiff]5ce on ! "p ( ! /ate 9 all religi\s matt]s4 ,expell$ f sci5ce1 morality1 & politics1 religion 0 ?us z good z expell$ f life by a my/ic simply because he _h ! s9c]ity & coh]5cy to be practically consi/5t ) ! !oretical gr\nd ( ! philosophy ( ! "t4 ,voltaire ov]%ad[s ! c5tury z ,l\is ,,xiv _h done ! prec$+ "o4 ,8 greatness does n dep5d on 8 contribution to philosophy1 b on 8 imm5se effici5cy z a propag&i/ ( ! conclusions rea*$ by philosophy4 ,l all ! great & be/ m5 ( ,illum9ism he 0 absorb$ 9 ! moral & religi\s problem & _h mo/ obvi\sly assimilat$ ! be/ ,engli% !ories4 ,less s9c]e ?an ,bayle1 he took up 8 sceptical conclusions1 )\t1 h[ev]1 %>+ 8 my/icism1 & 9 ! prose ( ! greate/ ,fr5* writ] ( ! c5tury1 he set to "w to popul>ise ! de/ructive criticisms ( all dogmas4 ,voltaire may h be5 conv9c$ t dogmas 7 h>mful1 b z he did n br+ =w>d any?+ to put 9 _! /ead 8 influ5ce 0 negative4 ,:at x w\ld h be5 )\t ! con/ant recall to pres5t exp]i5ce ( ,engli% empiricism _c be gaug$2 z x 01 pres5t exp]i5ce 0 r an inc5tive to dissolve & de/roy ! :ole social ord] ?an to build2 & t[>ds pa/ exp]i5ces !re c\ld be no recall :atsoev]1 or r !re 0 only "o & an orig9al "o1 b x c\ld n be he>d4 ,to ,voltaire hi/ory (f]$ no direct lesson4 ,8 belief 9 ! supremacy ( reason c\ld only br+ him to despise ! incoh]5cy ( hi/orical facts ?r\gh :i* v (t5 ! rationality ( hi/ory displays itself4 ,8 cle>ness ( sight limit$ 8 outlook to ! pres5t1 & ?is focuss+ ( life 0 an ab/raction :i* prev5t$ him f realis+ ! hi/orical =ces at play 9 ! political & social circum/ances ( 8 c\ntry4 ,8 religi\sness is /rongly t+$ ) utilit>ianism1 z he held1 l _m ,engli%m5 _h done1 t ! purpose ( ,*ur*es 0 to act z moral *eck to ! l[] class4 ,all ^! fa!rs ( ,lib]alism & ,radicalism are m ari/ocrats ?an democrats4 ,_! wor%ip ( culture & reason makes = political tyranny & a social sy/em ( ca/e z di/9ct z t ( ! ,indians4 ,h5ce x evok$ a reaction1 & ?is f\nd its spokesman 9 ,jean ,jacques ,r\sseau4 ,p 7 tir$ ( dry reason & its negativ5ess1 !y felt p>*$ & long$ = affirmative works2 he came out1 a man ( g5ius1 devoid ( ! ma!matical & classical gr\nd+ ( ! o!rs2 entirely l$ by feel+s &1 alt]nately1 by ! mo/ g5]\s & l[e/ impulses he 0 a democrat4 ,until ,r\sseau appe>$ ! writ]s on political matt]s _h be5 ei!r foll[]s ( ! jus naturalism or ( ! con/itutionali/ s*ools4 ,9 ,r\sseau two /reams m+le _! wat]s1 = he is an arti/ z well z ! mo/ orig9al ?9k] ,france _h aft] ,bayle4 ,z an arti/ he is ! spokesman ( 8 g5]ation1 & x is z su* t 8 contempor>ies took to him z !y did 9 spite ( 8 disreputable p]sonal life4 ,z a ?9k]1 al?\gh ! /atem5t may s\nd v d>+1 he ought to %>e ) ,b]keley & ,hume ! hon\r ( be+ consid]$ z "o :o made ! way = ,kant4 ,8 7 m]e intuitions2 !y c\ld n be m z he _h no sci5tific or philosophic tra9+4 ,b z ,pr(essor ,saitta has po9t$ out1 8 reaction aga9/ rationalism transc5ds v mu* :at 0 grasp$ by mo/ ( 8 read]s & ev5 sometimes by rec5t critics4 ,8 passionate claim = ! important "p play$ by s5tim5t 9 ! life ( man & by all irrational =ces1 orig9al ?\gh x is1 is ! impulsive reaction ( an arti/1 :]eas by ! "t he wrote1 ,italy _h already _h = "s qu>t] ( a c5tury ! works ( a man :o _h claim$1 ) a speculative g5ius f> sup]ior to 81 ! ackn[l$gm5t ( all ! diff]5t activities ( m9d4 ,& ,giambatti/a ,vico _h be5 a juri/ & an hi/orian z well z a philosoph]4 ,s t 8 notion ( ,man 0 capable ( tak+ 91 n only 8 rational activity1 or 8 s5se relation to ! ext]ior _w1 or 8 s5tim5tal life1 or 8 religi\s position1 z rationalism1 empiricism1 s5sism & my/icism _h respectively done2 b ! :ole range ( man's spiritual manife/ations4 ,!re=e1 is x t ,r\sseau's greate/ intuitions are ^? t c\ld n affect ,italy 9 a speculative way4 ,! man :o 0 to pick !m up 0 a ,g]man ^: g5ius _h all ! robu/ness ( 8 c\ntry at t /age1 com+ z x 0 to ! =e aft] hav+ f$ on ! intellectual production ( ,italy1 ,france & ,engl&4 ,:at affect$ ,italian ?\ght mo/ 0 ! weake/ "p ( ,r\sseau4 ,! idea to :i* he ow$ 8 imm$iate fame is t nature made man happy & good1 b t society _h made him bad & unhappy4 ,he 0 !reby contradict+ rationalism & empiricism1 he 0 fl++ 8 glove 9 ! face ( all ,illum9ism4 ,& he c\ld d x n on philosophical gr\nd1 b m]ely call+ ^u life to ju/ify 8 ass]tion4 ,t age ( light 0 an age ( corruption & mis]y4 ,! lack ( religion _h br\ght 9 its trail ! lack ( s]i\sness2 ! ab/ract subjectivism ( a c5tury _h made ( ea* man a self-c5tr$ _w4 ,lib]ty 01 s to speak1 con/antly cri$ = out ( tune s9ce x c\ld n be accompani$ by ! ass]tion ( law4 ,= all t ! ,jus-naturali/s & ,con/itutionali/s _h admitt$ ! lib]ty ( m5 to make a contract & give !mselves ! =m ( gov]nm5t :i* suit$ !m be/2 !y _h d5i$ ! citiz5s ! lib]ty ( decl>+ su* contract laps$ :5 x _h ceas$ to satisfy !m4 ,z ?is 0 due to _! tra9+ 9 a philosophy t consid]$ ! _w z a ma*9e1 ,r\sseau _h no reason to foll[ !m nor to see 9 ! /ate a me*anism subject to laws z inalt]able z ^? ( nature4 ,!re=e he realis$ ! real ess5ce ( lib]ty z inali5able4 ,x c\ld be transf]r$1 n ali5at$4 ,/rong 9 ?is s5se ( lib]ty ,man mu/ fight all ! unnatural edifice ( society :i*1 accord+ to him1 is ! cause ( all immorality ?r\gh ! inequalities ( m5 x begets4 ,once m5 accept$ ! notion ( ,r\sseau--t ,nature _h made man good & society _h made him bad--x became n only p]missible b morally "r to de/roy ! ord] ( ?+s :i* _h be5 evolv$ by society & to inve/ man1 e s+le man1 ) ! consci\sness ( 8 sov]eignty4 ,( ! two t5d5cies :i* h be5 comp>$ to two /reams1 "o 0 ! naturali/ic individualism root$ 9 ! ?\ghts ( 8 contempor>ies & :i* he express$ m]ely z an arti/1 z ! greate/ arti/ ( ! "t2 ! o!r 0 ! ideali/ic univ]salism :i* 0 p]sonal to him z a ?9k]1 b t 0 b\nd to rema9 a s\rce ( fleet+ intuitions on acc\nt ( 8 incapacity to raise x to speculative consci\sness4 ,he r\s$ a p[]ful e*o :]e m5 l ,voltaire & ! ,encyclopdi/s fail$ to comm& att5tion2 & ev5 8 art ( writ+ c\ld n h provid$ him ) s great a fasc9ation if mo/ ( ! ideas & feel+s he express$ _h n be5 a liv+ reality ?robb+ 9 ! he>ts ( 8 read]s1 ev5 ( ! l[e/ classes4 ,x 0 ! l[e/ side ( 8 doctr9es t spread among/ ! p1 ! "p :i* appeal$ to envy & hatr$1 two v p[]ful lev]s inde$1 b ( :i* ,r\sseau might n h *os5 to make use _h he be5 able to *oose4 ,8 insi/5ce on ! di/9ction betwe5 ! w ( all & ! g5]al w tells eloqu5tly ( ! intuition he _h ( transc5d5tal self & ( ! e?ic ess5ce ( ! /ate2 b all ?is comes to n\ght on acc\nt ( 8 lack+ a !oretical gr\nd = su* a notion1 & he is oblig$ to fall back on ! intellectual /ock ( 8 "t2 9 spite ( 8 g5ius1 9 spite ( all s5tim5tal intuition ( a univ]sal w1 he is ?r[n back on a w :i* is m]ely ! sum1 ! num]ical sum1 ( ! s+le wills4 ,?us x is t he gave u ! sy/em :i* en?rones quantity :ile x aims at quality4 ,8 fir/ pr9ciple t m5 are made all alike by ,nature1 happy & good1 is1 z mo/ ( ! philosophy aga9/ :i* he 0 ! fir/ to react ) ! p[] ( g5ius1 p]fectly anti-hi/orical &1 !re=e1 ab/ract4 ,:5 x _h receiv$ at ! h&s ( ,kant & ,hegel a sy/ematic & speculative treatm5t ?is pr9ciple 0 b\nd to h z necess>y consequ5ces ,socialism & ,communism4 ,if ! nature ( man1 ?us hypo!tically accept$1 is z ab/ract & z unreal z an algebraical axiom1 x 0 b\nd to lead to political & economic hypo!sis j z ab/ract & z unreal4 ,s9ce hi/ory %[s u 9 ! class /ruggles & individual competitions ! ma9 spr+ ( progress1 ! condition s9e qua non ( all social life1 x is impossible ev5 to dream ( ! elim9ation ( su* class & individual diff]5ces4 ,life w\ld cease to be dynamic1 cease to be a mov+ process1 x w\ld be /atic1 ev]y?+ be+ br\ght to a /&/ill1 :i* is dea?4 ,to look at real life1 to turn away f atomi/ic individualism t[>ds a subjectivism capable ( compreh5d+ all ! objective _w 9 ord] to realise f9ally :at %\ld be ! ,*ri/ian _w :i* mu/ be ,lib]ty & ,law1 ano!r c5tury & a half 0 ne$$4 ,n[ we c look back to ,r\sseau & detect 9 him ! obscure =e%ad[+ ( ! s*ool ( ?\ght :i* 0 to r$eem 9 ! face ( reason ! irrational activities ( ,m9d1 n z ! h&maids ( reason b 9 _! full autonomy & necessity4 ,m9d is no long] pure reason1 & philosophy does n exclude b imply religion & art1 ! two mom5ts ( law & lib]ty1 al?\gh su* di/9ction ( activities does n de/roy ! vital unity ( man's consci5ce4 ,mank9d is no long] ! ari?metical sum ( ,x be+s r$uc$ to ! same type & value1 x transc5ds ! individual & c be realis$ z well 9 ! small] cell ( society :i* is ! family z 9 ! great] cell :i* is ! c\ntry4 ,consequ5tly1 = ! ab/ract man ( ,r\sseau a ,man c be n[ sub/itut$ :o nev] is ,man z ,man1 b ,man 9 8 full reality z son1 z bro!r1 z husb&1 z fa!r1 z work]1 z citiz51 z believ]1 z arti/4 ,to make ?is possible1 h[ev]1 a long process 0 requir$1 ! fir/ /age be+ ,r\sseau & ! application ( 8 !ories ev5 9 _! negativity4 ,= to rea* ,fascism1 :i* really puts m5 on ! same level1 x 0 necess>y to break ?r\gh class di/9ctions z !y exi/$ !n1 t is to say z /atic p>titions meant to /ay z !y 74 ,x 0 necess>y s t p[] %\ld slip f ! h&s ( p1 :o consid]$ x z _! natural bir?right1 into ! h&s ( ^? :o are actually fit to hold x4 ,aga9 su* a revolution 0 necess>y s t a day %\ld come 9 :i* nei!r ! ari/ocracy nor ! prolet>iat c\ld ?9k ( elim9at+ politically ea* o!r4 ,&1 z ! philosophy ( ,italy proclaims1 e?ical reality is nei!r ( ! subject 9 itself1 nor ( ! object1 b ( _! actual relation2 s ,fascism does n all[ class elim9ation b protects class competition z ! be/ means ( rais+ ! spiritual & economical /&>d ( ! nation4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury ,,9 ,,italy ,x is n surpris+ t ,g]man philosophy f\nd an adoptive c\ntry 9 ,italy4 ,mo/ ( ! speculative notions ( ,kant 7 =mulat$ f\rte5 ye>s be=e ,kant 0 born 9 ,vico's ,de ,antiquissima ,italorum ,sapi5tia1 & ,hegel's mo/ orig9al conception1 =ty-five ye>s be=e ,/uttg>t _h ! hon\r ( produc+ him1 0 act$ ^u 9 ! ,sci5za ,nova4 ,ev5 if ,vico _h nev] be5 realis$ 9 8 totality1 p 9 ,italy knew m or less t su* ideas z ^? ( ! ,g]man philosoph]s 7 9 ! air & f\nd !m easi] 9 ,kant ?an 9 ,vico s9ce ! =m] _h br\ght !m to sy/ematic cog5cy4 ,vico1 indep5d5t ( any k ( ,leibniz's !ories1 _h come to %>e sev]al ( 8 ideas m]ely because !y fac$ ! same problems & bo? _h practical & syn!tic speculative m9ds4 ,also ,vico ) 8 ho/ility = rationalism1 8 sympa?y = empiricism & 8 criticism ( bo? f\nd himself v ne>ly 9 :at 0 to be ,kant's position4 ,8 prep>ation1 :i* 0 m legal & hi/orical & ar*ological ?an ,kant's1 clos$ ! way to a cle> & precise view2 b x 0 sup]ior 9 "o s5se inasmu* z t prep>ation provid$ him ) a ri*]1 a full] view ( reality1 ?us all[+ him to =e%ad[ ,hegel z well z ,kant4 ,! greate/ man :o react$ aga9/ ,rationalism & ,empiricism 9 politics z factors ( a /]ilis+ ,utilit>ianism1 r$uc+ man to ! mo/ abject egoism1 ,mazz9i1 is an intuitive g5ius l ,r\sseau & l him a son ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 ris+ above 8 g5]ation4 ,b :il/ ! "o %[$ little or no s5se ( hi/ory ! o!r saw x z x really is1 animat$ by ideas & creat$ by ! w ( m54 ,"o writ] _h _h a v great influ5ce on ! great ,g5oese1 :o nev] knew ev5 z mu* z 8 "n1 ,v9c5zo ,cuoco4 ,he 0 :at might be call$ a writ] ( political p$agogy1 z ! problems he fac$ are always practical & usually political4 ,! education ( :i* he 0 an ard5t apo/le 0 ! civic education ( ! inhabitants ( ,italy2 & l all m5 ^: aim is practical he sets 8 ideal 9 life & n 9 sci5ce4 ,he is ! p$agogue ( ! fir/ dawn ( ,italy's national consci\sness at ! "t ( ,napoleon4 ,born 9 #aggj 9 ! ,molise he di$ 9 ,naples 9 #ahbc4 ,among ! ,neapolitan ,jacob9s he /ood z an exception 9 ! lack ( en?usiasm ) :i* he view$ ! ,fr5* ,revolution4 ,he _h assimilat$ all ! ideas ( ! ,fr5* writ]s1 b he 0 a /ud5t ( all social1 political & economical problems2 s t x is no wond] t he %\ld h come1 ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ,f4 ,m4 ,pagano1 to respect ,vico & look askance at ! new sy/ems4 ,8 fundam5tal pr9ciple 0 t human reality is hi/orical reality1 t is to say ! reality :i* is n1 b = ev] becomes1 & goes on becom+ & develop+ n ?r\gh extr9sic causes1 b ?r\gh its own activity1 intr9sic & autonom\s2 t su* activity transc5ds ! s+le activities & _! hi/orical det]m9ation2 its s\rce is id5tifi$ by him z ,div9e ,provid5ce4 ,su* 0 ! pr9ciple f :i* mov$ all ,vico's philosophy1 & ?\gh ,cuoco c\ld n ev5 suspect ! speculative value ( x1 he realis$ x practically1 & x 0 to him a lum9\s beacon1 m ?an suffici5t to enable him to take 8 be>+s 9 ! political _w & make out ! "r way to rid ,italy ( h] tr\bles4 ,?us he c\ld n be satisfi$ ) a ,fr5* ,con/itution because ,vico _h taught t 8gov]nm5ts mu/ be drawn 9 con=mity ) ! nature ( ! m5 :o are to be gov]n$44440 ,! ,fr5* ,revolution seem$ to him drawn = ideal m5 :o did n exi/4 ,accord+ to him a con/itution mu/ con=m to ! nature ( ! p & be produc$ by ! p1 ?r\gh ! few m5 :o are fit to int]pret its hi/orical w & realise its p>ticul> requirem5ts4 ,al?\gh ,mussol9i may n h read ,cuoco's articles x is greatly to 8 praise t he %\ld s p]fectly con=m to ! ideas ( ?is fir/ foll[] ( ,vico4 ,n t ?is fact is consid]$ "h z a co9cid5ce--if ,mussol9i is ! g5ius ( ,italy :i* he is hail$ to be1 x is b natural t he %\ld realise 9 its practical application a !ory :i* is s p]fectly ,italian4 ,a con/itution _c be 8good = e nation40 ,if x is suppos$ to be1 x means x is good = nobody4 ,besides x mu/ n be drawn l an ab/ract !ory e/abli%$ once = all accord+ to a philosophical notion ( :at is suppos$ to be ! nature ( man1 & z su* et]nal2 x is b\nd to be always tempor>y & hi/orically det]m9$1 accord+ to ! vices & qualities1 accord+ to ! ways & ! hi/ory ( ! p4 ,9 ?is brief exposition ( :at 7 ,v9c5zo ,cuoco's mo/ important ideas on politics1 we meet con/antly ) s5t5ces t might be met f ! p5 or on ! lips ( ,mussol9i4 ,c5sure c d little to re=m ! moral & political life ( man4 ,fea/s & premiums are bett] means2 & x is m likely t gov]nm5ts w improve ! c\ntry by pull+ ! p to ! good r ?an by pu%+ !m away f ! bad4 ,?is is pure ,fascism4 ,! gov]nm5t mu/ n act z a brake1 b r z a propell] or a helm4 ,public virtue mu/ be nurs$1 n by dim9i%+ ! avidity ( ! l[] classes1 b by %[+ !m ! way to satisfy x4 ,! love ( "w is ! "o means ( reg5]at+ ! l[] classes4 ,a good gov]nm5t mu/1 !re=e1 de/roy ! call+s t are unproductive2 & to accompli% ?is ! be/ way is to make x impossible = p to get z mu* money out ( !m z out ( ! productive call+s4 8,"w10 writes ,cuoco1 j z a ,fasci/ m9i/] might1 8w make u indep5d5t ( ! nations ^u :i* we dep5d40 ,! ,love ( ,man = 8 c\ntry mu/ spr+ f self respect2 & ?is1 inde$1 is z f> z "o c\ld g m ?an a hundr$ ye>s ago t[>ds ! id5tification ( /ate & citiz51 :i* is ! basis ( ,fascism1 & has be5 =mulat$ 9 its speculative =m by ,giovanni ,g5tile 9 #aiaf4 ,if a nation 0 to be creat$ out ( ! pat*work ,italy pres5t$ on ! map x c\ld only be ?r\gh ! education ( ! p1 = ! unification c\ld only be atta9$ by awak5+ national consci\sness 9 ! s+le consci5ces4 ,cuoco call$ ?is ! =mation ( an ,italian public _s4 ,:5 ?is foll[] ( ,vico 9 #ahjb rea*$ ,milan1 capital ( ! ,cisalp9e ,republic1 ,melzi realis$ 8 value & entru/$ him ) ! f\ndation & direction ( ! fir/ ,giornale d',italia4 ,f\r articles writt5 9 #ahjd are probably ^? read & m$itat$ ^u by ,mazz9i & are ( su* a quality t !y c\ld be writt5 to-day4 ,to ! m5 :o did n see ! po9t 9 s mu* zeal = ! =mation ( public _s he answ]s by a mo/ coh]5t demon/ration t political reality is spiritual reality4 ,! spiritual build+ up ( ! citiz5 is ! real conque/ ( political autonomy4 ,to a*ieve su* a task x 0 necess>y to fo/] ! love ( agriculture1 & ( ! militia--comp>e ,mussol9i--& to replace self-love & p]sonal vanity ) ! love ( ! c\ntry & national pride4 ,! 8,city0 to ,cuoco is n "o ?+ & ! citiz5s ano!r1 ! prosp]ity ( ! =m] dep5ds on ! moral & practical effici5cy ( ! latt]4 ,he 0 full ( contempt = ! dream]s :o ?\ght t ev]y?+ may be expect$ f ! laws4 ,b ! m5 :o r\s$ him to real passion 7 ^? :o argu$ t ! ,army1 ! navy1 comm]ce1 7 c>es t %\ld be left to ! great nations1 to ,engl& & ,france = in/ance4 ,to ?is he object$ t ^? c\ntries _h be5 small1 small] ?an ! ,italian /ates1 & _h gr[n ?r\gh ! /ead9ess & effici5cy ( _! national w4 ,su* effici5cy & /ead9ess ( national w he call$ 8public _s40 ,! regions ^: inhabitants did n ?9k ( be+ or becom+ a great c\ntry1 w\ld nev] be nations4 ,= ! small /ates !re 0 "o law2 ei!r to become great or p]i%4 ,x may be timely to obs]ve t ?is dep5d5ce ( a c\ntry's greatness on ! consci5ce & ! w ( its citiz5s 0 ass]t$ by ,mussol9i :5 he 0 /ill ! head ( ! ,sociali/ p>ty 9 ,=li 9 #aiaa4 ,aga9 9 #ahjd1 review+ 9 8 ,giornale d',italia a philosophical "w1 ,cuoco expresses ! desire to see philosophy fl\ri%+ 9 ,italy1 = ! developm5t ( speculative ?\ght 0 9 close relation ) ! political /ate ( society1 & x 0 important t a nation %\ld n be !oretically /]ile4 8,x is a long "t s9ce we receiv$ x10 he writes1 8fir/ f ,france ) ! works ( ,desc>tes1 !n f ,engl& ) ^? ( ,locke4 ,! p]iods ( political greatness ( ea* nation always co9cide ) ^? ( its philosophical greatness4 ,! fir/ /r5g? is ,m9d2 weak is ! arm ( ^? :o lack x or ?9k !y d40 ,d\btless ?is is po9t+ ! way to ,g5tile's affirmation ( ! impossibility ( hav+ ! !oretical & practical activities ( m9d sep>ate f ea* o!r j z ! la/ quotation 0 po9t+ to ,mussol9i's policy ( 8h]oicis+0 ! p ( 8 c\ntry ?r\gh giv+ !m an h]oic w & a national consci5ce4 ,no wond] t ,mazz9i %\ld h realis$ :at ,r\sseau c\ld nev] see4 ,! e?ical nature ( :at goes "u ! "n ( 8,nation0 is a ,mazz9ian concept4 ,:5 ,hegel speculatively proclaim$ ?is x _h be5 already intuitively conceiv$1 arti/ically express$ & religi\sly obs]v$ by ! m5 to :om ,mazz9i's ard5t fai? 0 l an electric curr5t4 ,! ,mazz9ian articles ( fai? 7 few1 & _h nev] be5 !oretically work$ out4 ,?is help$ _! adoption by p :o w\ld nev] h grasp$ ! import ( a huge sy/em4 ,:il/ ,rosm9i & ,giob]ti 7 read by ! few1 ,mazz9i 0 on ! lips & ?robb$ 9 ! he>ts ( ! _m1 s t ! w> he wag$ aga9/ mat]ialism & individualism 0 effective4 ,8 my/ic feel+ spreads 9 "y he>ts z easily n[ z x did !n4 ,lads take to sacrifice f> m easily ?an m5 ( a m mature age & ,mazz9i's decl>ations all proclaim$ self-sacrifice1 self-effacem5t1 ev5 8 idea ( lib]ty4 ,at ! v "t 9 :i* ! ,anglo-,fr5* idea ( political reality 0 introduc$ 9 ,italy1 to r\se ! c\ntry once m into life ) ! magic ^w lib]ty1 ?is "y man1 a poet1 an inspir$ prophet1 0 ready ) a new mean+ = t ^w4 ,accord+ to ,mazz9i ! individual is m]ely ! repres5tation we h ( our own self :5 we look at x z "o among/ _m & see x limit$ to ! %ort span ( "t betwe5 ! bir? & ! dea? ( its body1 :]eas ! self :i* c conceive ( lib]ty1 & !re=e realise x1 is ! self ev]yone ( u feels :5 9 ! sil5t recess ( ,m9d we h a "r to claim1 a feel+ to express1 an intuition to ca/ into s\nd or col\r1 & a fai? ?r\gh :i* we l9k ourselves to ! political1 family1 arti/ic & religi\s reality t has giv5 u ! consci\sness ( su* "r or ar\s$ 9 u su* family1 arti/ic1 or religi\s s5se4 ,to him political lib]ty c\ld only mean = ,italians ! lib]ty ( %ak+ (f =eign rule & creat+ ! nation4 ,x 0 n & c\ld n be ! lib]ty to att5d "o's private affairs z "o wi%$1 = ?is la/ mean+ ( ! ^w _h be5 elaborat$ 9 8 c\ntry ?r\gh ,humanism & ! ,r5aissance1 & x 0 n only obsolete1 b 0 ! cause ( ,italy's corruption & decay4 ,! idea ( empirical & transc5d5tal self1 implicit 9 ?is conception ( lib]ty1 came to produce ! second article ( fai? 9 ! ,mazz9ian doctr9e4 ,if man 7 to try creat+ a new natural k+dom & add x to ! animal1 vegetable & m9]al (f]$ to u by ,nature1 8 attempt w\ld be a va9 endeav\r4 ,b political reality does n belong to ! _w ( ,nature b to ! _w ( ,m9d1 9 :i* man is a ,creator1 & :]e no?+ is really impossible to him t believe?4 ,?is mo/ ,*ri/ian view ( ! po9t frees ! nation f natural cont+5cies & frees ! citiz5s besides f ! lazy excuse t man mu/ accept ! political & economic position ( 8 c\ntry z det]m9$ by ,nature4 ,!reby x =bids any idea ( its be+ /atic4 ,no "o c f9d at 8 bir? 8 nation ready-made = him2 ev]yone mu/ "w to ! be/ ( 8 moral1 intellectual1 & bodily p[] to create x2 s9ce ! mom5t ! citiz5s cease to "w at ?is1 _! political task1 ! c\ntry />ts ceas+ to be a nation & becomes a region :il/ ! citiz5s become inhabitants4 ,! nation is n a geographical unit1 x is n ev5 hi/ory empirically und]/ood1 b x is hi/ory z f> z hi/ory is process1 developm5t1 programme1 mission & sacrifice2 9 a ^w1 human life4 ,9 ,mazz9i's insi/5cy on ! po9t "o detects ! desire to react aga9/ ! negative side ( ! m5tality :i* has be5 trac$ z a consequ5ce ( ,humanism4 ,! ,italians _h id5tifi$ !mselves ) anci5t ,rome1 & ?is _h br\ght !m to ?9k ( _! national glory & hi/ory z a ready-made affair4 ,9 _! c\ntry !y saw ! ,temple ( ! pa/1 & exploit$ _! ru9s morally z well z f9ancially4 ,:il/ ! o!r c\ntries ( ! we/]n _w _h be5 fight+ & lab\r+1 = ! conque/ ( _! political & f9ancial /atus1 ,italy _h sat on h] pa/ glories & pr\dly wrapp+ h]self 9 ,cic]o's or ,cs>'s toga _h tak5 tips f ! :ole _w4 ,mazz9i _h grasp$ en\gh ( ,vico's notion ( man z creator ( ! hi/orical _w to br+ to ! =e1 9 ! av]age man's m9d1 ! idea t 0 ! import ( all ! hi/orical philosophy ( ,italy &1 !re=e1 ! positive side ( 8 c\ntry's hi/orical m5tality4 ,nei!r ,cuoco nor ,mazz9i 7 philosoph]s1 _! task 01 s to speak1 to realise philosophy1 to introduce o!r p's !ories into life1 & ?is !y did uncommonly well bo? ( !m1 al?\gh ,mazz9i play$ 9 ! ,risorgim5to s em95t a "p t 8 gigantic hi/orical figure ov]%ad[s t ( ,cuoco4 ,b ,cuoco1 ?r\gh 8 ,giornale d',italia & 8 subsequ5t writ+s _h ! greate/ influ5ce on ! be/ poets & writ]s ( ! p]iod1 to beg9 ) on ,foscolo & ,manzoni4 ,= ! fir/ "t s9ce ,savon>ola's days intellectual life 9 ,italy beheld a spontane\s revival ( ,ca?olic ?9k+1 & ?is1 /rong en\gh s9ce x c\nt$ m5 z great z ,giob]ti1 ,rosm9i & ,manzoni1 0 n due to ! initiative ( ! ,*ur*4 ,x 0 spontane\s1 intellectually s1 & ,vico may be consid]$ z its =]unn]4 ,:at 0 p>am\nt 0 p]haps ! moral sy/em ( ,rosm9i4 ,he />t$ out to fight ,kant's moral sy/em z unfit = use on acc\nt ( ! subjective gr\nd ( ! ,kantian imp]ative1 & mean+ to fight x he develop$ x & f\nd new gr\nd = x4 ,! moral1 p$agogic & ev5 p$antic _s :i* spread 9 ! intellectual classes ( ,italy dur+ ! la/ c5tury has inde$ a good deal 9 common ) ! moral movem5t :i* _h accompani$ 9 ,g]many ! developm5t ( a national consci5ce4 ,we h 9 bo? cases a reaction aga9/ ! =eign ways ( ! ari/ocracy--b ) a great diff]5ce s9ce 9 ,italy ! ari/ocracy _h v little ( ! feudal "* & 0 s op5 to intellectual life t x respond$ to ! call soon] & bett] ?an any o!r class--prelud+ a reaction aga9/ ! atomi/ic political life ( ! c\ntry4 ,to pass f ,rosm9i & ,giob]ti to ,croce & ,g5tile1 ! ?9k]s :o h]ald ! com+ ( ,italy z a mod]n nation1 z mu* 0 ne$$ z to pass f ,leibniz1 liv+ 9 ! days 9 :i* ,g]man intellectual life & national consci5ce c\ld be at be/ ! object ( a my/ical wor%ip1 to ,kant's "t1 :5 ,europe realis$ t !re 7 actually su* ?+s z ,g]man metaphysics & a ,g]man nation4 ,9 bo? cases ! philosophy has to be1 & is1 syn!tic1 = 9 bo? cases ! exig5cy t op5s life ) ! pung5cy ( ne$1 ( defici5cy1 ( negativ5ess1 is ! ?ir/ = national ass]tion & =eign recognition4 ,obvi\sly 9 bo? cases also x is ! assimilation ( =eign contributions t has enabl$ ! s*ol>s to realise ! negative position ( _! respective c\ntries4 ,aft] ! un=tunate w> ( '#dh-'di1 ,giob]ti w5t into exile & philosophy 0 ov]tak5 accord+ to ,pr(4 ,g4 de ,ruggi]o by an inv9cible dr[s9ess4 ,dr[sy1 obscure1 unconsci\s ( _! own positions1 are epi!ts :i* c be ju/ly be/[$ on ! ?9k]s ( ! "t1 = eclecticism prevails )\t ! hi/orical culture t alone c make x f]tile4 ,& ( ! mo/ em95t philosoph] ( ! "t ! be/ t c be said is t he did 8 be/ to lull to sleep 8 c\ntrym5's newborn consci\sness4 ,among ! ,positivi/s1 inf]ior foll[]s ( =eign t5d5cies1 sev]al rema9 fir/-rate hi/orians1 ?anks to a few s5t5ces ( ,vico kept l ! se$s 9 ,noah's ark1 & suffici5t to prev5t !m f fall+ into a mat]iali/ metaphysic :i* w\ld h be5 a /]ilis+ curse to ! newborn nation4 ,mat]ialism 0 f> m logical & coh]5t 9 ,france :5 ! hi/orians simply exclud$ ! ideologies :i* 7 left hov]+ ?r\gh ! hi/orical works--= in/ance1 ( z good an hi/orian z ,vill>i2 b ?is 0 n unconsci\s4 ,aft] ! ef=ts :i* !y _h made to get rid ( pseudo-ideali/ic metaphysic !y did n want to entangle !mselves 9 ano!r metaphysic1 7 x to be mat]iali/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !y did n want1 or 7 n able1 to make !irs ! position ( ,engli% positivi/s4 ,ardigo1 = in/ance1 al?\gh he is ! be/ ,italian ?9k] t upheld ,positivism1 _c be comp>$ to a ,sp5c] or a ,mill4 ,b speculative voices are nev] sil5c$1 al?\gh !y may be hu%$1 & ! spiritual exig5cies :i* _h produc$ ,giob]ti & ,rosm9i 7 sl[ly work+ !mselves out 9 o!r m9ds4 ,neo-,kantianism gave bir? 9 ,italy to a s]ies ( hi/orical /udies 9 ! field ( philosophy1 s t x became impossible = any dec5t pr(essor to misrepres5t ! developm5t ( speculative ?\ght z ^! two great expon5ts ( ,italy's m9d _h done4 ,:il/ ,neo-,kantians a*ieve little !oretically1 !y d s mu* hi/orically t "o may say t ! works ( su* m5 z ,fior5t9o1 ,tocco1 & o!rs prep>$ ! gr\nd = ,spav5ta & de ,sanctis :o 9 _! turn h giv5 u ,croce & ,g5tile4 ,all read ,g]man1 ,engli% & ,fr5*1 besides ,lat9 & ,greek2 s t we c say t ! speculative !ories ( ! :ole we/]n _w 7 /udi$ 9 _! s*ools2 & t1 l ! *ild :o becomes self-consci\s z he gradually realises ! wor? & importance ( ! p surr\nd+ him1 ,italy has gr[n to speculative self-consci\sness ?r\gh ! close /udy ( univ]sal speculation & ( ! hi/ory ( h] national political life1 national art1 national lit]ature1 national speculative !ories1 until h] hi/orians came to ! idea ( hi/ory z ! co-ord9ation ( all ! diff]5t bran*es4 ,b]tr&o ,spav5ta taught 9 ! univ]sity ( ,napoli1 &1 a /aun* ,hegelian1 he criticis$ ,hegel 9 ! same creative way z ,vico _h criticis$ ,desc>tes & ,locke4 ,he develop$ & cont9u$ ! intuition :i* is at ! basis ( all ,hegelian sy/em z ,hegel c\ld n h done1 inasmu* z ,spav5ta realises ,hegel's logic 9 its hi/orical position1 t is to say z ! fulfilm5t ( ,desc>tes' claim4 ,?9k+ means caus+ to ! ,fr5* m9d1 :il/ to ,hegel x is n m]ely caus+ x is creat+4 ,b ,giob]ti _h n only express$ ! ,hegelian intuition2 he _h complet$ x2 ?9k+ is creat+1 b to him prov+ also is creat+4 ,& ,spav5ta1 ri* ) all ! hi/ory ( speculative ?\ght1 realis$ ,hegel's logic & prep>$ x to ent] life1 ?anks to ,giob]ti's contribution1 al?\gh ,giob]ti himself _h be5 f> f realis+ x4 ,! speculative possibilities ( ! ,c>tesian ,cogito are exploit$ to ! full2 :]eas !y _h be5 left aside by ,hegel4 ,vico's factum et v]um conv]tuntur1 pragmatically und]/ood by ! ,positivi/s1 is "h realis$ z a process4 ,b1 z is ! wont ( ,italian ?9k]s1 ! orig9al "p ( 8 intuition rema9s at an intuitive /age & has to wait = ! speculative g5ius ( ,g5tile to "w x out & modify x into ! fi]i et v]um conv]tuntur :i* is ! adequate expression ( ! hi/orical dialectic4 ,hegel's mo/ orig9al & fecund motive 0 ?us ne>+ its !oretical realisation at ! h&s ( ,spav5ta1 :il/ ,vico's conception ( life 0 practically illu/rat$ by ,francesco de ,sanctis1 ^: important "p 9 ! %ap+ out ( ,italy's pres5t m5tality _c be ov]/at$4 ,! process ( dissolution ( ,hegel's & ,vico's !ories 0 accompli%$ & ! passage f dissolution to re-elaboration 0 done by de ,sanctis4 ,9 8 ,/oria della lett]atura ,italiana ! philosophy ( m9d receives m ?an a p]fect illu/ration1 an /hetic r5d]+ t makes ! mo/ ab/ruse notion ( dialectic a tangible object ( m$itation to ! av]age read]4 /hetic r5d]+ is "h us$ z exclud+ any?+ l !oretic exposition2 & su* /hetic quality is insur$ by ! great critic's own gifts z an arti/4 ,8 read+ & philosophic prep>ation are incr$ible1 n to be gaug$2 !y are1 h[ev]1 assimilat$ by him v mu* 9 ! way 9 :i* a great arti/ assimilates 8 te*nique & intellectual exp]i5ce4 ,d\btless ,mi*elangelo1 mov+ to sket* ! ceil+ ( ! ,si/9e ,*apel or ! la/ panel ( x1 is c>ry+ 9 himself ! exp]i5ce1 ! arti/ic exp]i5ce ( eighte5 c5turies4 ,yet he mu/ h =gott5 x all1 at lea/ z objective k1 to f9d x 9 himself fle% ( 8 fle%1 m>r[ ( 8 bones1 s\l ( 8 s\l2 s t he c\ld move freely z an arti/1 9 all ! spontaneity &1 !re=e1 lib]ty ( creation4 ,! "* ( 8 "w is p]sonal1 s highly p]sonal t x includes all ! det]m9ations :i* s+le out ,buon>roti z a man ( t l&1 ( t religion & ev5 ( t p>ticul> mom5t ( 8 religion1 ( t "t1 ( su* & su* temp]am5t & incl9ation1 & s+les out ! :ole ( 8 production z belong+ to t p>ticul> mom5t ( ! ,italian ,r5aissance4 ,! great] is ! arti/'s p]sonality1 ! bett] he dis*>ges 8 tw(old function ( microcosm & macrocosm ( 8 _w4 ,x is an illusion ( ! n9ete5? c5tury to believe t p]sonality 9 art makes = atomi/ic individualism4 ,j z x is an absurd error ( ! p :o judge ,mussol9i & ,fascism to believe t !y h gr[n )\t roots4 ,!y w\ld !n be sup]pos$ to hi/ory1 sup]flu\s1 unnecess>y2 :]eas ! great arti/ & ! great politician belong to life1 & 9 fact are hi/orical life work+ itself out to expression or political realisation4 ,! ,/oria della lett]atura ,italiana1 l an imm5se relief1 unfurls ! developm5t ( ! life ( ,m9d 9 ,italy f ! dawn ( ! ,italian m5tality "r up to ! days ( ! critic4 ,= de ,sanctis1 ,art is ,m9d individualis+ itself ?r\gh ! s5ses 9 ! transp>5cy ( intuition2 ,art 9 o!r words1 is life rea*+ ! lum9osity ( =m4 ,?is bl5d+1 ?is p]fectly intimate weld+ ( reason & s5se1 ( univ]sal & p>ticul> is ,art4 ,x is1 !re=e1 individuality1 n individuality tak5 z x is too (t5--z ! contr>y ( univ]sality1 b z its realisation 9 ! p>ticul>4 ,= ?is relation ( ! univ]sal & p>ticul> is con/itutive ( art1 :i* is1 !re=e1 nei!r individual arbitr>9ess1 nor ! m]e reflection ( life 9 ! arti/'s fancy1 b life itself com+ ?r\gh its own developm5t to intuitive transp>5cy4 ,life _c be a matt] ( :i* art w\ld be ! =m2 & religion1 politics1 sci5ce z elem5ts ( life are n ali5 to art or indiff]5t to x4 ,none ( ?is elem5t c exi/ )\t art1 & hi/ory leaves no d\bt on ! po9t--ea* new religion1 new political sy/em1 new sci5tific progress is n to be p>t$ f ! arti/ic production ( ! "t4 ,de ,sanctis1 l a m$ical /ud5t1 foll[s /ep by /ep ! corruption ( ,italy1 gradually gr[+ ) ! decay ( religi\s & political consci\sness1 above all :5 ,humanism1 hav+ rea*$ its climax 9 ! works ( ,poliziano1 /opp$ provid+ a s9c]e feel+ to ! s*ol>s :o ceas$ to wor%ip antiquity "s fifty ye>s aft] him4 ,de ,sanctis 0 a man ( ! ,risorgim5to he _h lab\r$ & suff]$ = ! indep5d5ce ( 8 c\ntry1 hop$ & despair$ ( ! future greatness ( 8 c\ntrym54 ,he 0 aw>e t 9 spite ( ,ma*iavelli1 ( ,vico1 ( ,alfi]i1 ( ,cuoco1 ( ,mazz9i1 ! greate/ numb] ( 8 c\ntrym5 _h1 s to speak1 no s\ls4 ,kn[+ z he did t religion 0 ! basis ( all relation & ! fir/ cause ( all real social progress1 see+ 9 x ! key/one ( man's recognition ( ! ext]ior _w1 he refra9$ 9 all 8 books f attack+ n only religion1 b ! ,*ur* z well2 al?\gh he 0 a /aun* anti-cl]ical 9 politics until ,rome 0 tak5 f ! ,pope4 ,he drew su* a graph ( ! developm5t ( ,italy's m9d t f ,dante's onw>ds x %[s all ! =ces ( corruption prep>+ ! s]ies ( invasions t made ( 8 c\ntrym5's %ame a byword1 & ! =ces ( recon/ruction f ,ma*iavelli onw>d4 ,to ! read+ public he pres5t$ x z a mirror1 9 ! transp>5cy ( ,art %[+ ! :ole spiritual life ( ! p ) its political consequ5ces4 ,he bade !m realise t corruption _h be5 ! cause ( =eign rule & tyranny1 n =eign rule & tyranny ! cause ( corruption4 ,?is 0 new inde$1 too new = a g5]ation :i* _h a*iev$ ! political indep5d5ce ( ! c\ntry ) ! belief t bad gov]nm5t & =eign rule 7 ! cause ( ! p's corruption4 ,no wond]1 !re=e1 t de ,sanctis' ma/]piece1 publi%$ 9 #ahga1 %\ld h be5 practically laid aside = m ?an tw5ty-five ye>s await+ ,croce & ,g5tile to take x up4 ,! public t respond$ to _! call :5 x came 0 exactly ! "o :i* de ,sanctis w\ld h wi%$ to rea*4 ,! boys took de ,sanctis up1 & :at is m curi\s !y took him z _! idea-provid]2 inasmu* z ! big volumes1 :i* c\ld n be includ$ 9 ! s*ools' syllabus1 7 turn$ to 9 ! h\r ( ne$1 :5 !y _h to write essays & f\nd !mselves %ort ( ideas4 ,no me?od ( popul>is+ & assimilation c\ld mat* ?is1 = ! ideas ?us borr[$ by ! "y _h to be expos$1 prov$ & illu/rat$4 ,! s*ool lads & univ]sity m5 :o enli/$ z volunte]s 9 ! w>1 7 mo/ly spiritual sons ( de ,sanctis1 "o ( !m be+ ,mussol9i1 :o told ! au?or t he 0 a wor%ipp] ( t "w4 ,9 ! same way ! idea ( ,croce & ,g5tile h spread ev5 among p unfit to realise _! !oretical import4 ,nev]1 h[ev]1 c\ld !y spread l ^? ( de ,sanctis1 b he is s mu* s completely _! spiritual fa!r t mo/ ( _! speculative notions c be f\nd z intuitions 9 de ,sanctis' pages4 ,!re ! boys get s famili> ) !m t :5 !y come to a ,g5tilian !ory1 & ! tea*] takes ! tr\ble to introduce to !m ! fundam5tal intuition1 !y grasp x at once z a matt] ( c\rse & wond] :y ! tea*] %\ld ?9k x s difficult to expla91 = in/ance1 ! intimate relation ( ?\ght & action1 ! necessity ( religion & ! l4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,b5$etto ,,croce ,b5$etto ,croce's opposition to ,mussol9i's gov]nm5t is s well kn[n t to include him among ! precursors ( ,fascism may seem /range4 ,b "h ,fascism is consid]$ z ! political expression ( ! intellectual or r spiritual =ces :i* are br++ ,italy to ! =e & det]m9+ ! gr[? ( ! ,italian m9d4 ,h5ce ! necessity ( includ+ ,croce 9 ?is acc\nt ( ! p$igree ( ! t5d5cies :i* h be5 realis$ 9 politics by ,b5ito ,mussol9i4 ,?is naturally does n imply t all ! ideas act$ ^u by ,fasci/s are to be f\nd 9 ! !ories ( ,croce1 b t c]ta9 ne$s ( ,italian m9ds1 m or less consci\sly express$ dur+ ! eighte5? & n9ete5? c5turies1 _h be5 =mulat$ & work$ out by ,croce1 :o _h ei!r f\nd !m 9 de ,sanctis or _h develop$ !m on l9es sugge/$ to him by t great critic4 ,"o ( ! po9ts on :i* ?is p5etrat+ & f> see+ man _h mo/ emphatically insi/$ 0 t ! vague idealism :i* swept ov] "s ,european arti/ic c5tres dur+ ! la/ c5tury 0 ali5 to ! ,italian m9d4 ,! ass]tions t he met ) f _m qu>t]s z to ! impossibility ( ! arti/'s realis+ 8 ideal 0 treat$ by him z exotic nons5se4 ,an ineffable poem is n a poem at all1 a h>mony defy+ expression is n a h>mony at all1 a vision transc5d+ col\rs & l9es1 %ad[ & light is n a vision at all4 ,italians _h to be rem9d$ ( ! necessity ( be+ reali/ic2 _! greatness z well z ! greatness ( anci5t ,rome _h always re/$ ^u a s\nd s5se ( ! relation betwe5 means & end4 ,he describ$ ! ,italian g5ius z a disposition r to id5tify ! end & means ?an to fit ! end to ! means4 ,he en=c$ ?is claim1 n only = arti/ic creation1 b = hi/orical rese>*es or !oretical speculation z well4 ,he _h evid5tly realis$ ! %ort-com+s ( m5 su* z ,giob]ti & ,rosm9i4 ,x 0 mu* bett] to />t on p>ticul> problems ) an adequate prep>ation1 & develop !m into speculative !ories1 ?an to />t ) an indiff]5t prep>ation on vital que/ions & come to inadequate conclusions4 ,n[ if !re c\ld be 9 hi/ory su* a ?+ z good luck1 ! fri5d%ip ( ,croce & ,g5tile1 _! fl\ri%+ at ! same "t1 c\ld be consid]$ ! mo/ wond]ful piece ( good luck = ,italy4 ,by luck1 h[ev]1 we usually mean a c]ta9 comb9ation ( circum/ances escap+ our att5tion4 ,moreov]1 _! be+ contempor>ies ( ,mussol9i1 ! "o man fit to create a political _w capable ( br++ into liv+ reality _! mo/ difficult conceptions--v (t51 9 fact g5]ally1 )\t kn[+ any?+ ( _! !ories--is a suffici5t pro( t !re is no possibility "h ( invok+ luck z an explanation ( ! concomitance ( ,croce's & ,g5tile's activity ) t ( ,mussol9i4 ,x is mu* ne>] to hi/orical tru? to /ate t ,italy has rea*$ "o ( ^? /ages ( h] hi/ory 9 :i* %e has always yield$ a ri* h>ve/ ( m5 ( g5ius1 speculative1 political or arti/ic4 ,any & e practical activity1 says ,croce1 implies !oretical activity1 s9ce no action c be p]=m$ )\t k4 ,?is h[ev] is n to be sep>at$ f ! action2 = ! two =ms ( ! _s are di/9ct1 n sep>ate4 ,?us 9 any action1 :ile ! practical activity is explicit1 ! !oretical activity :i* is k is implicit2 9 fact !y are concomitant4 ,! man ( ?\ght c no m ?9k ?an walk )\t us+ 8 w2 ! importance ( ! w is j z great = ! ?9k] or ! arti/ z x is = ! s-call$ practical man4 ,b x is only ?r\gh ! we>+ ( ! ,pragmati/'s bl9k]s t "o c be br\ght to see 9 ! w ! root ( tru?4 ,a di/9ction is1 h[ev]1 made by ,croce betwe5 ! k requir$ = a practical act1 su* z ! dispos+ ( a regim5t ( infantry = a review1 & t ( ! philosoph] or ! arti/4 ,! "o is an intuition1 ! o!r is a conception1 & to make ! gr\nd ( a volition y want bo?1 = ! comb9ation is hi/orical k4 ,!re1 obvi\sly en\gh1 ,croce reveals himself a true son ( ,ma*iavelli1 ,vico1 & de ,sanctis4 ,! ,flor5t9e secret>y _h be5 h9t+ z mu* :5 he insi/$ on ! necessity ( our kn[+ ! actual tru? ab\t ?+s 7s9ce human ?+s are always mov+71 9 ord] to gov]n 9 h>mony ) ! times4 ,?is hi/orical k is n an idea t w surprise aft] all t has be5 said ab\t ! con/ant t5d5cy ( ,italy's be/ ?9k]s to te/ ! practicability ( any concept on ! concrete gr\nd ( hi/ory4 ,to !m1 ! natural realm ( action be+ hi/ory1 x 0 manife/ t any k or !ory is liable to be act$ ^u only 9 s f> z x is hi/orical2 & su* k becomes1 "u ! "n ( condition ( fact1 ! gr\nd ( ,croce's conception ( ! necessity & lib]ty ( man's w4 ,to ! g5]ally accept$ ideas ( means & end ,croce 0 to br+ a mo/ radical *ange4 ,fir/ he proce$s to prove t :at is kn[n z ! end1 ! purpose1 or ! aim is n to be di/+ui%$ f ! w4 ,:5 ,i wa% my h&s my purpose is obvi\sly t ,i %\ld h !m clean2 b !n x is equally obvi\s t ?is means t ,i want !m to be clean4 ,turn+ to ! means1 ! wa%+ ( my h&s 9 ord] to h !m clean1 supposes a condition ( fact :i* means ! availabl5ess ( soap & wat]1 = ,i c\ld n w to wa% my h&s if ,i _h nei!r soap nor wat]4 ,^! mat]ial means are kn[n by me to be available :5 ,i make up my m9d to wa% my h&s 9 ord] to get !m clean4 ,s t purpose & means are all includ$ 9 my act ( w1 :i* is no?+ m nor less ?an ! actual act ( wa%+ my h&s4 ,if ! situation ( fact did n include soap & wat] ,i c\ld at be/ wi% to wa% !m1 nev] w to d s4 ,:at is consequ5tly to be reject$ once = all is ! idea ( a def9ite plan t w\ld n all[ ! tak+ into consid]ation ( ! cont9ual v>iation ( ! means4 ,?us ! m5 ( ! ,risorgim5to _h to v>y _! purpose & to reconsid] ! means to atta9 x aft] & be=e ea* campaign1 hav+ to take z _! actual w only t ! realisation ( :i* 0 9 h>mony ) ! !n actual situation ( fact4 ,s t we c say t _! real w1 ! w :i* creat$ mod]n ,italy1 0 exclusively t g5]al w :i* 0 individualis$ 9 _! _m spl5did de$s ( h]oism or r5unciations ( _! =m] plans or ideals2 ^! _h be5 =m$ )\t ! hi/orical k :i* alone c\ld make !m realise :at 0 ! situation ( fact4 ,n[ a good deal ( admiration is usually be/[$ on p ( good-w & ( pure int5tions4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! v exi/5ce ( su* good-w1 su* pure int5tions1 is d5i$4 ,! long+ ( ! man :o wi%es he c\ld alt] ! pres5t /ate ( public affairs 9 8 c\ntry is n at all to be consid]$ z a w to d s4 ,= he does n w to d s z long z he ?9ks x is impossible4 ,a wi% ( ?is k9d has no value ei!r economically or morally4 ,:atev] ! circum/ances1 if he kn[s !m well1 he w "k t !re mu/ be at lea/ "o ?+ t he c d in/ead ( deprecat+ly %ak+ 8 head z he reads ! pap] by ! fire4 ,:5 ,ma*iavelli tri$ to =m a ,tuscan ,militia to free ,flor5ce f h] tr\ble1 he did n succe$2 b :5 he left 8 boi/]\s & ru/ic fri5ds ov] _! w9e & retir$ to ! small libr>y ( 8 mode/ villa1 he did ! only civic duty t 0 left to him to p]=m2 he plung$ 8 lancet into ! corrupt$ body ( 8 c\ntry & prep>$ ! way = ! com+ c5turies4 ,criticism1 t is to say negative criticism1 :5 ! c\ntry is 9 dang]1 or sugge/ion z to ! ideal ?+ to be done1 unless !y are "p ( a plan ( re=m s 9 keep+ ) facts t x c be imm$iately act$ ^u1 are m]ely pret5d+ to be acts ( w4 ,i _c keep by my fireside or lean at my w9d[ deplor+ ! ?+s :i* are go+ on & pret5d t 8,i w to alt] !m40 ,yet x is (t5 said t we c w ! good 9 ! ab/ract1 :ile unable to w x 9 ! concrete1 & ?is means simply t we may h good int5tions & yet behave badly4 ,! answ] to ?is has be5 already giv52 x may be well1 h[ev]1 to /ate x once m4 ,will+ 9 ! ab/ract1 will+ )\t act+ accord+ly1 is equival5t to n-will+1 s9ce1 accord+ to ,croce1 a volition implies a situation hi/orically det]m9$ f :i* x arises z an act equally det]m9$ & concrete4 ,! importance assign$ 9 ?is !ory to ! k ( ! actual situation ( fact1 & consequ5tly to ! hi/orical judgm5t1 inve/s ) ! greate/ importance ! possibility ( error4 ,su* possibility is1 h[ev]1 exclud$ by ,croce f ! !oretical realm ( m9d2 = lack ( k1 ignorance1 is n error4 ,x belongs to practical activity & we _c err unwill+ly4 ,all errors are due to an int]f]5ce ( ! w ) our appreh5sion ( reality2 & z any volition is an ass]tion ( our lib]ty we are responsible = x4 ,ev]yone kn[s t immod]ate passions or illegitimate int]e/s lead insidi\sly into error2 t we err 9 ord] to be quick & f9i%1 or to obta9 = ourselves undes]v$ repose--t we err by acquiesc5ce 9 old ideas1 t is to say1 9 ord] n to all[ ourselves to be di/urb$ 9 our repose1 & to prolong x unduly1 & s on4 ,! possibility ( err+ 9 good fai? is dispos$ ( 9 ?is way by reject+ ! possibility ( an error n due to our own w4 ,x ?us becomes p]fectly legitimate & wise to use practical measures to induce ^? :o err to correct !mselves1 puni%+ !m :5 ?is c be ( any use4 ,croce's def5ce ( ! ,holy ,inquisition1 be x ( ! old ,romans aga9/ ! ,*ri/ians1 ( ,ca?olics aga9/ h]etics1 or ( ,prote/ants aga9/ ,ca?olics mu/ n be f\nd surpris+4 ,x is ! logical conclusion ( 8 view on ! responsibility = error2 & he is n to be f\nd %irk+ ! consequ5ces ( 8 sy/em any m ?an ! ,fasci/s4 ,= x is h>dly necess>y to po9t out t _! abhorr5ce ( all vagu5ess & indef9it5ess is b\nd to det]m9e responsibilities 9 practical activity & consequ5ces 9 !oretical activity4 ,! necessity ( hav+ a s+le man responsible = anyone ( ! public s]vices has be5 mo/ly realis$ 9 ,anglo-,saxon c\ntries2 b :]e bureaucracy fl\ri%es x is usually a ,bo>d1 a ,committee1 9 a ^w an anonym\s body :i* takes decisions & /eps = :i* nobody 9 p>ticul> is responsible4 ,!re=e1 to any compla9t ! answ] mu/ be 8we ?\ght2 ! committee held2 x 0 g5]ally suppos$2 ! majority came to ! conclusion 444 t 4440 ,9 su* case nobody /&s responsible2 & ea* memb] ( ! ,committee1 or ,bo>d1 ?r[s on ! o!rs all ! weight ( ! unhappy /ep or decision4 ,) ,croce's !ories su* vagu5ess is de/roy$ at its root4 ,! w ( ! p :o take a /ep is _! tak+ ( ! /ep1 & bo? action & volition spr+ f _! hi/orical k ( ! actual situation ( fact4 ,su* k is !re=e "p ( ! action4 ,! responsibility ?us includes ! assum+ ( ! in=mation necess>y to ! tak+ ( ! decision4 ,naturally ?is has always be5 ! case1 :]e man's responsibility is really ( importance4 ,on bo>d a %ip1 = in/ance1 ! (fic] 9 comm& has always kn[n t 8 responsibility includes ?is k4 ,ignorance ( fact is ! greate/ fault :5ev] a decision has to be tak51 :e!r ! importance ( ! decision be great or small4 ,?is h[ev]1 mu/ n be held to imply ! judg+ ( an action accord+ to its success4 ,hi/orical judgm5ts are n to be pass$ on ! result ( pa/ actions2 hi/orical judgm5t mu/ be pass$ on acts1 n on facts4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 action & ev5t is by ,croce emphasis$ z be+ gr\nd$ on ! di/9ction betwe5 ! act ( "o man & ! act ( ! :ole2 & "o might say t ! action dep5ds on ! w ( man & ! ev5t on ! w ( ,god4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory ! action ( ! man :o %oots at ,mussol9i is ! manife/ation ( 8 w1 & 8 failure is ! manife/ation ( ,god's w2 because ! w ( ! :ole1 includ+ ! w ( ! *auffeur1 :o is driv+ ,mussol9i's c>1 ! wills ( ! p cr[d+ ! edge ( ! /reet1 ! wills ( ! gu>ds told (f to keep ! road cle> = ! c> & ! wills ( ! ,fasci/s ?rong+ to cat* a glimpse ( _! idol1 :i* are also volition-actions1 det]m9e ! ev5t2 & ?is is usually t]m$ ,provid5ce1 or ! rationality ( hi/ory4 ,?us :5 =eign]s1 ev5 ^? :o d n approve ( ,mussol9i's gov]nm5t1 & ,italians1 ei!r religi\sly or coldly1 repeat at ea* new attempt1 8! h& ( ,god is on 8 head10 ! conviction :i* !y express is p]fectly 9 keep+ ) ,croce's view1 & is by no means equival5t to fatalism4 ,to express ?is relation ( action to ev5t 9 a less my/ical =m x ought to be said t ! volition-action ( any s+le man is 8 contribution to ! volitions ( ! :ole univ]se4 ,on ?is po9t ,g5tile produc$ ano!r !ory "s eight or t5 ye>s aft] ,croce _h giv5 a sy/ematic =m to ?is doctr9e :i* _h be5 implicit 9 all 8 =m] works4 ,?is d\ble contribution ( ,italy to ! conception ( conduct1 if n an entirely new idea ( lib]ty1 provides two v orig9al views on t problem1 "o ( ^? :i* h always torm5t$ humanity4 ,! fir/ great /ep made by ,croce 0 ! consequ5ces ( 8 hav+ d5i$ any possible di/9ction betwe5 ! volition & ! action2 = ?us he 0 able to ass]t ! on5ess ( lib]ty4 ,we mu/ no long] speak ( a lib]ty ( w & a lib]ty ( action4 ,he quotes "h z an example ! case ( a p>alytic g5tleman c>ri$ into ! squ>e 9 8 s]vant's arms dur+ ! revolt ( #aedb & f\nd aft] ! tumult on ! top ( a *ur*-t[]4 ,! t]ror _h ar\s$ 9 him su* a w t he _h climb$ !re4 ,z a rule ! p>alytic does n w because he kn[s he _c1 :at he c d at ! mo/ is to wi% t he 0 9 a diff]5t condition4 ,x is q inexact to say t he :o is ?reat5$ & yields to ! ?reat is depriv$ ( 8 fre$om ( action4 ,! old =mula coacti tam5 volunt says z mu*4 ,:5ev] p h be5 clam\r+ = great] fre$om ( action1 :at !y really want$ 0 to h ! conditions ( fact alt]$4 8,ev]yone kn[s10 says ,croce1#f 8t no vultus in/antis tyranni c ext+ui% ! fre$om ( ! s\l2 no rul]1 be he ev] s /rong & viol5t1 c prev5t a rebellion1 or :5 all else fails1 a noble dea? outw>dly affirm+ ! fre$om )940 ,e /ep onw>d 9 ,croce's !ories is admirably consequ5t ^u ! /atem5ts t h prec$$ x4 ,z man 9 8 !oretical activity appreh5ds ! _w & by kn[+ x makes x 81 s ?r\gh practical activity he collaborates 9 its creation4 ,! second be+ gr\nd$ 9 ! fir/1 a w indep5d5t ( kn[+ is un?9kable4 ,! bl9d w is n w2 ! true w has eyes4#g ,)\t ?is x w\ld be difficult to see h[ actions c\ld be bo? free & necess>y4 ,inde$ "o c say t up to ^! ,italian !ories all ! cont5tions on lib]ty 7 wag$ betwe5 two t5d5cies1 "o lead+ to ! ev]-recurr5t conclusions ( ,det]m9ism1 ! o!r to ! ass]tion ( free w4 ,to detect t actions are at once free & det]m9$ x 0 necess>y t k ( ! actual conditions ( fact %\ld be consid]$ z ! ess5tial gr\nd ( any volition4 ,volition ?us is n consid]$ z aris+ 9 ! void1 b 9 a def9ite situation1 "u def9ite hi/orical conditions1 9 relation to an ev5t :i* _c be elim9at$4 ,:5 ! situation *anges ! act ( w *anges4 ,?is am\nts to say+ t x is necessitat$ by ! situation 9 :i* x arises4 ,b x also means t su* act ( w is free4 ,= x does n make "o ) ! situation1 nei!r does x produce a duplicate ( x4 ,! volition-action produces some?+ diff]5t1 t is1 some?+ new2 !re=e x is initiative1 creation1 an act ( fre$om4 ,7 x n s1 a volition w\ld n be an act ( w & reality w\ld n *ange ?r\gh ! action ( m51 x w\ld n become1 w\ld n gr[ ^u itself4 8,?is consci\sness ( necessity & lib]ty insep>ably unit$ is f\nd 9 all m5 ( action1 9 all political g5iuses1 :o are nev] in]t or reckless3 !y feel !mselves at once b\nd & n b\nd2 !y always con=m to facts1 b always rise above !m4 ,! fatu\s1 on ! o!r h&1 oscillate betwe5 ! passive acceptance ( ! giv5 situation & ! /]ile attempt to ov]leap x1 t is1 to leap ov] _! own %ad[4 ,!y are consequ5tly n[ in]t1 n[ ra%4 ,!y1 !re=e1 d n fix or conclude any?+1 !y d n act2 or1 if !y d1 x is always accord+ to :at ( ! actual situation !y h und]/ood1 & :at ( initiative !y h display$40#h ,if ,b5$etto ,croce _h be5 a prophet he c\ld n h bett] contra/$ ,mussol9i's way ( proce$+1 always surr\nd$ by exp]ts & nev] ! slave ( data1 ) ! way 9 :i* =m] gov]nm5ts proce$$ 9 ,italy1 :5 m9i/]s ?\ght t by ! grace ( ! p !y _h receiv$ "s sort ( sup]-natural light to dis*>ge _! duty4 ,no practical activity c\ld h be5 z vigor\s z ! !oretical reaction ( ,croce & ,g5tile aga9/ ! futility1 ! ab/ractness1 ! pessimism1 & above all ! mat]ialism t 7 sl[ly b surely de/roy+ ! ?ird ,italy6 ,b _! jo9t philosophical campaign1 h[ev] brilliant x may h be51 c\ld n ar\se ! work+ masses to ! new gospel ( civic life4 ,?is _h to be und]tak5 by a man ( fai?1 end[$ ) ! gifts t make ! /atesman & ! popul> lead]4 ,b ! fact t ?ree su* m5 are contempor>ies & t )\t previ\s arrangem5t ! !oretical activity ( ! two =m] co9cide ) ! practical activity ( ! ?ird is a good argum5t on behalf ( ,croce's !ory ( ! fre$om & necessity ( man's action4 ,! situation ( fact is ! same = all ?ree1 & !y !re=e arise = ! same purpose al?\gh !y endeav\r to realise x ?r\gh v diff]5t means4 ,s9ce man's action1 8 volition-action1 is free1 ! "q :e!r an individual has or has n be5 free to d :at he has done is equival5t to ask+ if he has done x or n4 ,?us aga9 ! "* ( responsibility is emphasis$ 9 all human actions4 ,croce objects v /rongly to ! way 9 :i* crim9al lawy]s put a poor madman on a level ) ! guilty1 = he :o is mad is p>tially dead4 ,practical good & evil c be n[ id5tifi$ ) w & anti-w1 ) fre$om & anti-fre$om1 ) ! reality ( ! w & its unreality4 ,= evil1 :5 real1 does n exi/ save 9 ! good1 :i* opposes & conqu]s x2 x is1 !re=e1 m]ely ! negative ( good1 & x w\ld be impossible to f9d an act ( w di/9ctly will+ t :i* is evil z su*4 ,a man may want to intoxicate himself ) alcohol1 b 9 ! act ( s do+ he expects ! w>m? t w spread 9 8 limbs & ! delightful oblivion t w free him f all c>es4 ,h5ce t :i* he expects f dr9k is good4 ,su* negativity ( evil has always be5 curr5t among !ologians ev5 be=e ! days ( ,?omas ,aqu9as2 b ! !ory d$uc$ by ,croce f x is q orig9al4 ,all practical activity is ei!r economic1 or bo? economic & moral4 ,! economic activity is t :i* wills & effects only :at corresponds to ! condition ( fact 9 :i* a man f9ds himself2 ! e?ical activity1 al?\gh x corresponds to ^! conditions1 is t :i* transc5ds !m4 ,!re=e1 any act ( ! individual's w is economic1 b to be moral x mu/ be an act ( ! univ]sal w4 ,! =m] is judg$ by ! great] or less coh]5ce ( ! action 9 itself1 ! o!r by its great] or less coh]5ce 9 respect to ! univ]sal end :i* transc5ds ! individual4 ,no act c be moral )\t be+ economic1 = h[ev] univ]sal x may be 9 its mean+ my action mu/ be m9e 9 ord] to be some?+ concrete & individually det]m9$4 ,9 practical life we d n meet ) morality z a univ]sal1 b always ) a det]m9ate moral volition4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is easy to see t our actions always obey a rational law1 ev5 :5 moral law is suppress$2 s t1 :5 e incl9ation t transc5ds ! individual has be5 set aside1 x is necess>y to w ?is or t coh]5tly1 n to oscillate betwe5 two or m volitions at ! same "t4 ,& if we succe$ 9 really obta9+ our desire1 if1 :ile ! moral consci\sness is = ! mom5t susp5d$ )9 u1 we ab&on ourselves to ! execution ( a project ( v5geance & execute a ma/]piece ( ability1 ev5 :51 9 ?is case1 human society does n approve1 we = our "p feel satisfi$1 at lea/ s long z ! susp5sion ( ! moral consci\sness la/s2 = we h done :at we want$ to d1 we h ta/$1 ?\gh b = a little :ile1 ! pleasure ( ! gods4 ,! economic =m ( activity we easily recognise z individual1 h$oni/ic1 utilit>ian1 & economic2 ! moral =m is j z easily id5tifi$4 ,to be moral1 an action mu/ fir/ satisfy u z individuals occupy+ a def9ite po9t ( "t & space1 & mu/ also satisfy 9 u ! transc5d5tal be+ :o defies "t & space4 ,croce hav+ made ?is di/9ction absolutely cle>1 c\ld face ! "q conc]n+ ! nature ( law4 ,to him law is a volitional act conc]n+ a class ( actions4 ,!re=e1 :]e ! volitional elem5t or ! elem5t ( class is want+1 !re _c be law4 ,obvi\sly1 h[ev]1 ! law is ab/ract2 ! act ( w is1 accord+ to ,croce1 always ( ! individual1 & ! elem5t ( class is suffici5t to deprive ! law ( any?+ l concrete life1 be x an individual law or a social law4 ,s9ce ! fre$om ( human actions is logically b\nd up ) 8 notion ( practical activity1 x is impossible to object t !re is an ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ! programme ( life laid d[n by any s+le man = himself1 ! programme ( action laid d[n by any association1 & ! laws laid d[n by ! /ate1 ! fir/ be+ m]ely a matt] ( acceptance & ! la/ rely+ on compulsion4 ,inde$1 x is obvi\s en\gh t by compulsion "o usually means ! alt]native ( comply+ ) ! law or fac+ a p5alty4 ,su* alt]native is ! gr\nd ( a *oice1 & ! citiz5 usually *ooses1 b always freely *ooses1 to obey ! law r ?an endure ! p5alty4 ,! fact t "s m5 d rebel is suffici5t to prove t fre$om _c be aboli%$ by compulsion4 ,!n :at is ! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 individual & social law8 ,an attempt is usually made to diff]5tiate !m by say+ t ! latt] has emanat$ f & is su/a9$ by a supreme p[]4 ,b :]e is ! seat ( ?is supreme p[]8 ,surely n 9 any?+ l a sup]-individual1 dom9at+ individuals4 ,x is only to be f\nd 9 ! individuals !mselves4 ,& 9 ?is case its p[] & value correspond ) ! p[] ( ! individuals :o compose x2 x is ! law ( a circle empirically consid]$ to be l>g] & /rong]1 b ^: w is law 9 s f> z ! individuals compos+ x spontane\sly con=m to su* a w1 because !y recognise ! conv5i5ce ( do+ s4 ,mon>*s :o believ$ !mselves to be all-p[]ful1 h realis$ at c]ta9 mom5ts t _! p[] re/$ 9 a univ]sal cons5sus ( op9ion1 fail+ :i* _! p[] vani%$1 or 0 r$uc$ to a ge/ure ( solit>y comm&1 n f> f be+ ridicul\s4 ,go+ back to ! def9ition ( laws z volitional acts conc]n+ classes ( actions1 ,croce %[s t ! s-call$ laws ( nature or ( gramm> are no laws at all1 because ! act ( w is lack+ 9 !m4 ,nei!r is ! juri/1 quietly elaborat+ rules f cases1 a legislator4 ,8 excogitations w h to wait = a man ( w1 :o alone1 & sword 9 h&1 w end[ !m ) ! "* ( law4 ,on ! o!r h& ! s-call$ moral law1 economic law1 are no laws at all inasmu* z !y lack ! elem5t ( class6 8,w ! good10 8,w ! true10 8,w ! useful10 are all /atem5ts 9 :i* a volition is express$1 b !n ! object ( su* w is inv>iably ! univ]sal1 :]eas laws h = object some?+ g5]al2 a class1 n a concept4 ,9 %ort moral law1 logical law1 or economic law ought to be call$ pr9ciples in/ead ( laws4 ,! "* ( laws be+ g5]al & n univ]sal1 is p]fectly 9 keep+ ) _! mutability2 s9ce actual conditions are con/antly *ang+4 ,x is necess>y to add new laws to ! old1 to ret\* ^! or to aboli% !m altoge!r4 ,philosophically speak+1 !re is b "o cause ( *ang+ ! laws1 viz41 ! w t 9 its lib]ty produces ! new law 9 new conditions ( fact4 ,! "q :e!r we %\ld recognise ,cons]vatism or ,revolution z ! fundam5tal concept ( practical life1 does n conc]n ,croce 9 ! lea/4 ,= him e ,cons]vative is also ,revolution>y1 s9ce he is always oblig$ to adapt to ! new facts ! law t he wi%es to pres]ve4 ,e ,revolution>y is also a ,cons]vative1 s9ce he is oblig$ to />t f c]ta9 laws t he pres]ves1 at any rate provisionally1 t he may *ange o!rs & sub/itute = !m new laws1 :i* he 9 8 turn int5ds to pres]ve4 ,cav\r1 to use ,croce's own example1 0 a ,cons]vative 9 respect ( c]ta9 problems1 & revolution>y 9 respect ( o!rs1 to su* a degree t he seem$ to ! ,mazz9ians to be a ,cons]vative & to ! cl]icals & legitimi/s a ,revolution>y4 ,! dem& = an et]nal code1 a univ]sal1 rational1 or natural ju/ice1 9 its claim to fix ! transitory1 is 9 op5 contradiction ) ! hi/orical &1 !re=e1 cont+5t "* ( laws4 ,7 ,natural ,law p]mitt$ to en=ce itself once = all we %\ld witness1 ) ! =mation & application ( ! et]nal code1 ! cessation ipso facto ( ,developm5t1 ! end ( ,hi/ory1 ! dea? ( ,life & ! dissolution ( ,reality4 ,su* an end ( ! _w _c take place because1 if x is possible to develop !ories :i* are 9 contradiction to life1 x is q impossible to make !m concrete & actual3 ,god1 t is to say ,reality1 does n all[ ?is to be done4 ,( su* !ories ! be/ examples are surely ,absolute ,mon>*y & ,communism4 ,bo? z an ideal pres5t !mselves z an absolute1 a p]fect =m ( gov]nm5t &1 !re=e1 w\ld be1 if realis$1 ! end ( life4 ,any?+ p]fect 9 ! way ( political in/itutions w\ld put a /op to any fur!r progress s9ce ! new ne$s spr+ f ! actual %ort-com+s ( pres5t in/itutions1 & f ! new ne$s ! new projects :i* w br+ ab\t new in/itutions4 ,! mo/ intellig5t ,communi/s "k n[adays t ! hi/orical necessities :i* h br\ght _! p>ty to ! =e 7 economic & t t :i* has be5 done 9 pass+1 su* z ! improvem5t ( work+-class conditions1 bo? mat]ially & intellectually1 is inde$ :at %\ld h be5 its real aim4 ,b ,provid5ce p]mits m5 to act ^u _! own motives2 & well x may1 s9ce ! w ( ! :ole c always h ! la/ ^w4 ,communi/s h done all !y t h 9 ! belief t x 0 done only 9 ! process ( gett+ ne>] to _! ultimate aim1 ! abolition ( classes4 ,! k+s ( ,france :o1 little by little1 de/roy$ ! ,feudal ord]1 & by s do+ br\ght ab\t ! unification ( ,france & ! rise ( ! b\rgeoisie1 may h ?\ght t !y 7 m]ely work+ = ! e/abli%m5t ( an absolute mon>*y4 ,_! real "w1 t is to say ! task :i* 0 laid out = !m by ,provid5ce1 0 to create a great nation & de/roy ,feudalism 9 ,france ?r\gh ! necessity 9 :i* !y f\nd !mselves ( gett+ ! support ( ! middle & l[] class 9 ord] to de/roy ! petty sov]eignties ( ! great vassals4 ,b :5 ?is 0 a*iev$ ! absolut5ess 9 _! conception ( mon>*y 0 b\nd to be ! cause ( its fall4 ,= _h x be5 possible x w\ld h meant ! cessation ( developm5t4 ,a =m ( gov]nm5t if x is absolute is p]fect1 & x is ! imp]fection :i* calls = fur!r developm5t4 ,n[ ,communism makes ! same mi/ake :5 aim+ at br++ ab\t s p]fect a society t x w\ld n ev5 ne$ a gov]nm5t4 ,if ?is came to be x w\ld be ! end ( ! _w4 ,b ?is is anticipat+ ,mussol9i's realisation ( ! fact1 & x may be suffici5t to /ate t ,croce's ideas1 /at$ "h toge!r1 7 scatt]$ explicitly 9 sev]al essays publi%$ betwe5 #ahig & #aijj1 & collect$ = ! fir/ "t 9 #aijg :ile !y 7 implicitly p]vad+ ! :ole ( 8 own writ+s & ^? ( innum]able j\rnali/s z well z runn+ on ! lips ( ! ,pr(essors :o taught 9 upp] s*ools & univ]sities4 ,on ?is po9t ( ! ess5tial mutability ( laws & in/itutions1 ,croce lays a great /ress4 8,we (t5 meet 9 hi/ory ) projects ( new laws :i* are said to be bett] ?an ! old1 or good by comp>ison ) ^? judg$ m or less bad1 ! new ones be+ propos$ z natural or rational ju/ice1 :il/ ! old ones are reject$ z unnatural or irrational1 j z passionate erotic temp]am5ts1 un9/ruct$ by ! exp]i5ce ( _! pa/1 believe ) ! utmo/ s]i\sness t _! new love w be con/ant & et]nal4 ,su* #8,natural laws' are hi/orical1 are transitory1 l all o!rs4 ,all m5 "k h[1 9 c]ta9 times1 & places1 religi\s tol]ance1 fre$om ( trade1 private prop]ty1 con/itutional mon>*y1 h be5 proclaim$ et]nal1 & 9 o!r times & places ! extirpation ( unbeliev]s1 comm]cial protection1 communism1 ! republic & an>*y40#i ,f :at has be5 said x might be tak5 t ,croce has be5 m]ely de/roy+ ! religi\s rev]5ce ( 8 c\ntrym5 = ! actual app>el ( law4 ,no?+ c be f>!r f tru?4 ,8 cont5tion 0 t laws be+ manife/ations ( man's w mu/ *ange ) ! *anges 9 facts4 ,! ideas ( ! eighte5? or n9ete5? c5tury c no long] be a liv+ reality4 ,! reality :i* he d5ies to ! law itself he recognises z belong+ to ! s+le act done "u ! law1 t is to say to ! execution ( ! law4 ,! indubitable tru?1 z to ! necessity ( act+ 9 ea* case accord+ to hi/orical necessities1 has induc$ p at diff]5t times & 9 diff]5t places1 to proclaim ! %e] uselessness ( law4 ,b5$etto ,croce is mo/ def9itely aga9/ su* !ories4 ,accord+ to him1 ! be/ argum5ts to be us$ aga9/ !m c be drawn f hi/ory itself1 & if !y d n rigor\sly demon/rate ! necessity ( laws !y %[ well en\gh t su* necessity has be5 g5]ally felt 9 all l&s & 9 all times4 ,! necessity ( laws1 ord9ances1 ju/ice1 & ! /ate1 appe>s at all po9ts ( human hi/ory4 ,bett] a bad gov]nm5t ?an no gov]nm5t at all2 & ^? :o declaim aga9/ laws c well d s at _! ease1 = ! law surr\nds1 protects1 & pres]ves _! life = !m4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,giovanni ,,g5tile ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! philosophies ( ! two greate/ ?9k]s n[ fl\ri%+ 9 ,italy is due to ! natures ( _! m9ds4 ,croce always />ts f a di/9ct problem1 f a p>ticul> "q1 & rises to speculative heights p>tly ?r\gh ! vig\r ( 8 own g5ius & p>tly ?r\gh 8 con/ant int]c\rse ) ,g5tile1 to :om any p>ticul> problem always pres5ts itself f ! outset sub quadam specie t]nitatis4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,g5tile />t+ ?us1 is l$ to pursue 8 rese>*es on ! c5tral problem into all its p>ticul> & practical applications by a s5se ( reality s /rong t he has be5 ?\ght to recall ,?omas ,aqu9as1 by 8 va/ erudition n only 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 b 9 ! :ole hi/orical _w4 ,yet1 ev5 ap>t f ?is1 & f 8 special int]e/ 9 all ! problems ( ,law & p$agogy1 ! influ5ce ( ,b5$etto ,croce always compels ,g5tile to keep 9 t\* ) actual reality4 ,_! mutual criticism is p]haps ! be/ example 9 philosophical hi/ory ( ! creative p[] ( ! critic4 ,= except 9 "o in/ance--:]e ,croce insi/s ^u see+ 9 8 fri5d's ,actual ,idealism ! late/ =m ( my/icism--! critic is always cont9u+ ! "w :i* he is engag$ 9 review+ & reveal+ to ! au?or ! g]ms ( tru? t lie z yet undevelop$ 9 8 !ory4 ,! import ( ,croce's "w is c]ta9ly m easily grasp$ ?an ,g5tile's ideas z !y pres5t !mselves 9 8 !oretical _w4 ,_m ,italians are act+ on ^! ideas ( ,g5tile's :o w\ld be unable to =mulate !m2 & t is ! mo/ rem>kable ?+ ab\t !m4 ,he became a pr(essor at ! age ( tw5ty-"o1 exactly ?irty ye>s ago1 & z ,pr(essor ,wildon ,c>r truly says 9 8 introduction to 8 own translation ( ,g5tile's ,pure ,act--:i* w be "h con/antly quot$--he has become fam\s n only on acc\nt ( 8 hi/orical & philosophical writ+s1 b also by ! numb] & f]v\r ( ! disciples he has attract$4 ,a born tea*]1 he loves tea*+1 & 9 tea*+ has acquir$ mu* ( 8 k ( m9d4 ,he nev] divorces !ory f ! concrete gr\nd ( life2 & :5 he addresses p betwe5 #ag & #fj ye>s ( age he is con/antly =c+ !m to te/ 9 _! own actual life ! tru? ( :at he is say+4 ,he /rongly dislikes ! tak+ ( notes2 = he does n want ! /ud5ts to repeat 8 own words on ! day ( _! exam9ation4 ,! lectures are only meant to help !m to take _! be>+s1 to enlight5 !m2 !y mu/ read _! set books by !mselves & int]pret !m by _! own wits4 ,8 words mu/ be tak5 z an invitation to ?9k out _! own problems = !mselves2 he wants to spur !m on1 n to solve problems = !m4 ,?\s&s ( s*oolma/]s are actually foll[+ 8 p$agogy :i* s p]fectly meets ! requirem5ts ( ! pres5t g5]ation1 t x is admirably act$ ^u 9 ! remote/ villages & by p ^: philosophy is t ( commons5se & good-w4 ,g5tile has produc$ n only a sy/em ( philosophy1 b det]m9$ a curr5t ( spiritual life :i* p>takes bo? ( !ory & practice--bl5d+ !m p]fectly4 ,j z ,bruno1 ,bacon & ,desc>tes op5$ ! era ( subjectivism1 individualism & lib]ty1 s n[ ,g5tile op5s a new era :i* is a syn!sis ( law & lib]ty s9ce he po/ulates ! individual z ! relation ( ! empirical self to ! transc5d5tal self1 s9ce 8 subjectivism becomes concrete & capable ( realis+ ! object4 ,?is s\nds some:at ab/ruse & a few illu/rations ( ! po9t at issue may be useful4 ,fuel is n fire1 & 9 ord] to w>m myself1 fire is ! ?+ ,i ne$4 ,b ! fuel is necess>y to ! fire4 ,! fire1 inde$1 is only s f> z x consumes ! fuel4 ,bo? are necess>y2 yet x is ! fire :i* makes ! fuel2 s9ce ! coal1 wood1 or *>coal is fuel m]ely because ! fire c de/roy x z su*4 ,b ! fire does n exi/ be=e x />ts to consume ! fuel4 ,n[ 9 k ! ?+ man kn[s is n kn[+1 x is kn[n2 !re=e1 ! pr9ciple ( k is man4 ,b c man "k1 9 ! abs5ce ( t :i* he kn[s8 ,obvi\sly n4 ,%all we !n g back to ! old dualism & take man & ! _w1 ! subject & ! object1 z /&+ 9 opposition aga98 ,no2 a ?+ is an object ( k because ! subject po/ulates x z su* & is !re=e only 9 ! act by :i* ! subject kn[s x4 ,! "o s+le s\rce ( spiritual reality is man2 b he realises ! _w only 9 s f> z he realises himself z a kn[+ subject4 ,& j z fire is fire z long z x de/roys ! fuel2 s man is really man1 a spiritual be+1 a subject z long z he acts z su*4 ,! po9t is (t5 expla9$ by practical illu/ration to q t9y *ildr51 to :om no "o w\ld try to /ate x1 z ,i h j done1 !oretically4 ,ma/]3 ,:y d y come to s*ool8 ,pupil3 ,because my "m s5t me 7--or--to le>n to read & write47 ,ma/]3 ,if y come because y\r "m s5t y1 t is q "r2 b until y see = y\rself :y y %\ld come to s*ool1 y w get v little good out ( x4 ,pupil3 ,b s9ce ,i h got to come1 ,i want to le>n4 ,ma/]3 ,& :at d y suppose all ! o!rs come =8 ,pupil3 ,:y1 sir1 to le>n4 ,ma/]3 ,& tell me1 :at mu/ ,i d if y are all to le>n8 ,pupil3 ,i suppose y mu/ tea* u4 ,ma/]3 ,well n[1 :at is a s*ool8 ,pupil3 ,?is is a s*ool4 ,ma/]3 ,y mean ! build+8 ,pupil3 ,yes1 ( c\rse4 ,ma/]3 ,don't y ?9k ,i c\ld tea* & y c\ld le>n 9 a field8 ,pupil3 ,well1 ,i suppose we c\ld4 ,ma/]3 ,w\ld t be a s*ool8 7,no answ]74 ,x w\ld4 ,y see ! build+ & ! writ+ ov] ! door h no?+ to d ) x4 ,we make ! s*ool4 ,= if to-morr[ ! au?orities 7 to s5d u to a b>n & put "s poor p "h---- ,pupil 7int]rupt+73 ,sir1 ,i "k1 x w\ld be a poorh\se4 ,ma/]3 ,& ! b>n :]e we w5t8 ,pupil3 ,x w\ld be ! s*ool4 ,ma/]3 ,"r4 ,!n :o makes ! s*ool8 ,pupil3 ,! tea*] & ! pupils4 ,ma/]3 ,"r4 ,b let u g on talk+ ab\t ! same case4 ,! au?orities say t ?is place mu/ be giv5 up to h\se poor old p4 ,n[ ,i ?9k t a lot ( /rong boys l y c\ld c>ry ! b5*es1 blackbo>d & s on to ! b>n4 ,pupil3 ,( c\rse we c\ld4 ,ma/]3 ,& ,i might say to y3 8,come ?is aft]noon1 all ( y1 & let u d x40 ,pupil3 ,v well1 we w\ld come1 at lea/ ^? :o live ne>4 ,ma/]3 ,& we w\ld />t tea*] & pupils toge!r1 c>ry+ ! ?+s4 ,pupil3 ,yes1 sir4 ,ma/]3 ,w\ld t be a s*ool8 ,pupil3 ,( c\rse n1 sir4 ,ma/]3 ,!n x is n en\gh to h pupils & tea*] toge!r to make a s*ool4 ,pupil3 ,no1 sir4 ,ma/]3 ,:at is miss+1 !n8 ,pupil3 ,:y1 sir1 we c>ry b5*es & ?+s1 & t is n a s*ool4 ,ma/]3 ,well1 :at exactly is a s*ool8 ,pupil3 444 ,i don't "k4 ,ma/]3 ,i'll tell y4 ,x is my tea*+ & y\r le>n+ t makes a s*ool4 ,d y see8 ,pupil3 ,oh1 yes4 ,ma/]3 ,b if x is actual tea*+ & le>n+ t make a s*ool1 :at happ5s if ! ma/] is a bad ma/] & does n actually tea* any?+8 ,pupil3 ,well 444 ,i suppose x is n a real s*ool 444 ,ma/]3 ,x is n a s*ool at all4 ,pupil3 ,i see4 ,ma/]3 ,n[ if a boy does n want to le>n at all---- ,pupil3 ,he is a bad pupil4 ,ma/]3 ,he is n a pupil at all1 z long z he p]si/s 9 n le>n+4 ,pupil3 ,( c\rse he is n4 ,ma/]3 ,& if he makes a noise & prev5ts ! o!rs f le>n+1 :at !n8 ,pupil3 ,he oughtn't1 sir4 ,ma/]3 ,i "k he oughtn't4 ,b if he does n see t he oughtn't1 & goes on do+ x1 :at happ5s8 ,pupil3 ,he prev5ts ! o!rs f le>n+ & ! ma/] f tea*+4 ,ma/]3 ,v good1 & :at is ! result = ! s*ool1 if1 z y see1 x is ! actual tea*+ & le>n+ :i* makes ! s*ool8 ,pupil3 ,x is j z be=e1 :5 ! ,ma/] 0 bad1 x /ops be+ a s*ool4 ,ma/]3 ,n[ suppos+ y didn't m9d be+ puni%$ r ?an keep /ill1 c\ld y />t s++ or jump+ ab\t j to be funny8 ,pupil3 ,well1 no1 n ev5 if ,i did n m9d be+ s5t out1 ,i c\ldn't4 ,ma/]3 ,d y "k :y8 ,pupil3 ,because ,i %\ld spoil y\r tea*+ & _! le>n+4 ,ma/]3 ,& y w\ld de/roy ! s*ool4 ,9 su* a discussion1 :i* may occupy sev]al days or weeks1 ! *ild has obvi\sly le>nt "s rules ( life d]iv$ f highly speculative notions4 ,! reality ( any relation dep5ds on two acts direct$ t[>ds a common aim2 !re=e1 ! rights ( ! two p>ties are dep5d5t ^u _! actual effici5cy 9 ! pursuit ( ! common aim4 ,a ma/] :o does n tea* mu/ be dismiss$2 a pupil :o does n le>n loses ! "r ( be+ a pupil4 ,simil>ly1 if a l&[n] all[s ! gr\nd to lie wa/e1 he is n dis*>g+ 8 duties z a l&[n] & 8 rights to 8 prop]ty are n actual4 ,?is /&s 9 complete contra/ ) ! 8,rights ( ,man0 :i* c\ld ass]t man's lib]ty to use 8 prop]ty z he *ose1 ! /ate only call+ ^u its citiz5s to pay taxes--& fight 9 w>1 because ! /ate 0 und]/ood z some?+ ext]nal to ! citiz5s4 ,! relation betwe5 employ] & employ$ is cle>ly p>allel to t betwe5 ma/] & pupil2 9 x ! common aim is to realise z mu* pr(it z possible out ( ! ent]prise4 ,z soon z "o ( ! p>ties dim9i%es ! productivity ( ! ent]prise1 he =feits 8 "r to damage himself1 ! o!r p>ty & ! commonweal?4 ,! /ate1 ?\gh hav+ no direct %>es 9 ! pr(it is enri*$ or impov]i%$ accord+ to ! increas$ or decreas$ productivity ( private ent]prises4 ,9 ?is is /at$ = ! fir/ "t s9ce ,*ri/ prea*$ & liv$ ! ,gospel1 ! true equality ( m5 t _h be5 ass]t$ 9 x4 ,s ?or\ghly does ,*ri/ianity realise t rights are correlative to duties1 t be=e spiritual citiz5%ip c be be/[$ on a *ild 9 mo/ ,*ri/ian *ur*es sponsors are requir$ to take a pl$ge 9 its "n1 & ^u its com+ to adult /ate ! "y ,*ri/ian mu/ confirm t pl$ge & ackn[l$ge ! duties on :i* its rights dep5d4#aj ,?is is ! reason :y ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* is at once democratic & hi]>*ical4 ,a %eph]d c become ,pope1 an ,emp]or c be depriv$ ( 8 spiritual citiz5%ip4 ,! view ( citiz5%ip z a bir?right is a relic ( ,paganism :5 slav]y might be ! pr$e/9$ fate ( "s & citiz5%ip ( o!rs4 ,political reality f9ally becomes spiritual reality2 man is a citiz5 exactly 9 s f> z he realises ! /ate1 ?r\gh ! act ( consci\sness by :i*1 transc5d+ ! empirical elem5t 9 8 own w1 he po/ulates su* a w 9 religi\s objectivity1 !reby mak+ x law4 ,! little boy1 9 realis+ t 8 purpose 9 go+ to s*ool is to le>n1 transc5ds ev]y?+ 9 8 w t is m]ely individual or private4 ,8 w ceases to be subjective1 x becomes great] ?an ! little boy1 x becomes s*ool life1 x becomes objective & transc5d+ ! little boy1 x is to him ,law 9 all ! maje/y & imp]ativ5ess ( ! t]m4 ,aga91 boys become memb]s ( a football team because !y want to play & ev5tually w9 mat*es4 ,!y want ?is freely & ?is *oice1 toge!r ) _! individual skill 9 ! game1 produces ! team z a unit = ! purposes ( play4 ,b ! team once =m$1 ! capta9 *os5 = 8 fitness to comm& ! team 9 su* a way z to increase its effici5cy1 & ea* memb] call$ to p]=m ! "p 9 :i* he c be/ s]ve ! team's int]e/1 ! act ( w by :i* ea* memb] 9 p]fect lib]ty wants to w9 a mat* transc5ds itself1 become ! team's w1 & z su*1 objective1 sacr$1 inviolable law4 ,! in/ances 9 :i* memb]s ( a team1 disreg>d+ ! ord]s ( ! capta9 79 :om ! elev5 wills 9 all _! lib]ty fuse into "o & become law71 play to %[ (f _! p]sonal skill illu/rate cle>ly en\gh by _! effect on ! score1 ! inviolabl5ess ( su* collective w4 ,to realise ! full =ce ( ?is relation betwe5 lib]ty & law1 ! /ate & ! citiz51 is n easy1 if "o looks = x exclusively 9 ,g5tile's philosophy ( law2 b 8 p$agogy makes x f> easi] & 8 lectures p]fectly easy4 ,!re is some?+ religi\s ab\t x :i* p]vades ! :ole ( 8 philosophy z x p]vades ,fascism4 ,! *ild is br\ght to realise :at he is by look+ at ! v>i\s societies :i* co-op]ate 9 mak+ him :at he is4 ,be+ ask$ :at he w\ld say1 ,if somebody meet+ him 9 ,am]ica ask$ him :at he 0 & :o he 01 :at w\ld he say8 ,he usually answ]s to su* a "q t he w\ld say3 8,i am s-&-s10 b he is !n ask$3 8,:at does t mean80 :i* br+s ! *ild to realise t ! mean+ ( 8 "n is t he is ! son ( 8 fa!r & "m1 he is :at he is fir/ ( all z belong+ to 8 p>ticul> family4 ,aga93 8,i am s-&-s0 conveys b little to a p]fect /rang]4 ,:at w\ld he say next4 8,i am an ,italian40 ,v well1 & 8:at k9d ( man 9 ,italy80444 ,! *ild "h usually pauses 9 great p]plexity4 ,x takes "s "t be=e he comes to speak ( a possible pr(ession & ( 8 religion2 & = ?is la/ po9t x is necess>y to po9t out to him t !re are sev]al religions4 ,once he has got !re1 h[ev]1 he realises s fully all t is impli$ 9 ?is k9d ( def9ition t "o c h>dly help be+ a/oni%$ by ! read9ess ) :i* *ildr5 or old] boys "w out ,g5tile's ideas4 ,! au?or has _h ! opportunity ( not+ h[ easily *ildr5 grasp$ ! true nature ( _! relation to family1 c\ntry1 religion1 & s*ool1 & ! fact t :at !y 7 dep5d$ on _! consci\sness ( be+ a liv+ memb] ( su* societies4 ,! *ild ?us acquires a religi\s attitude t[>ds !m4 ,he realises ! sacr$ "* ( ! family1 z bas$ solely ^u 8 own moral realisation ( 8 relation to ! memb]s ( 8 family4 ,! family blood runn+ 9 8 ve9s1 he is told has no?+ to d ) t relation4 ,8 fa!r is 8 fa!r 9 ! spiritual way :i* alone b9ds !m toge!r1 because he calls him 8 son & ackn[l$ges pat]nal relation%ip to him ) all ! duties & claims t x involves4 ,gradually he comes to realise t he draws all 8 importance--8 reality--f 8 consci\s relation to ! societies to :i* he belongs & :i* toge!r make up ! n-self2 & t su* societies are m]ely ! v>i\s consci\sness ( s+le memb]s transc5d+ _! poor1 limit$1 empirical little selves & call+ into exi/5ce _! bett] & great]1 transc5d5tal selves4 ,man z a ?+-9-itself is n[h]e to be f\nd2 mank9d vani%es l a phantom z soon z y try to meet x4 ,if e man & boy 9 ! _w dis*>g$ 8 duty z a memb] ( a family1 ( a s*ool1 ( a club1 ( a call+1 & f9ally ( a *ur* & ( a /ate1 mank9d w\ld c]ta9ly "k peace & well-be+1 = man !n w\ld consid] 8 relations1 s*ool1 club & trade fell[s1 religi\s bre?r5 & fell[ citiz5s z belong+ to 8 own self4 ,b no man c d s p]fectly1 & x is z mu* z c be expect$ f him if he does :at1 9 ! s9c]ity ( 8 s\l1 he kn[s to be ! v be/ he c d & loves 8 neighb\r m]ely s f> z he realises him to be "p ( 8 great] self4 ,! speculative gr\nd ( su* a conception ( life mu/ be briefly /at$ be=e com+ to ! idea ( ,lib]ty & ,law1 & to t ( citiz5 & /ate4 ,spiritual reality is n ,m9d plus "s spiritual fact2 x is purely & simply ,m9d z subject1 s9ce any spiritual fact mu/ be resolv$ 9 ! real activity ( ! subject1 :o kn[s x4 ,common language expresses ?is by say+ t to "k some?+ ?or\ghly we mu/ make x our own4 ,/rictly speak+ we "k no o!rs4 ,if we "k !m & speak ( !m !y mu/ be )9 u4 ,to "k is to id5tify1 to ov]come o!rness z su*4 ,z long z we feel ourselves confront$ by ! spiritual exi/5ce ( o!rs z diff]5t f ourselves1 some?+ f :i* we mu/ di/+ui% ourselves1 some?+ :i* we presuppose z hav+ be5 9 exi/5ce be=e our bir?1 x is m]ely a sign t we are n yet realis+ ! spirituality ( _! exi/5ce4 ,to u !y are /ill nature4 ,?is doctr9e w\ld be absurd if x 7 n consid]$ 9 ! light ( ,g5tile's notion ( ! transc5d5tal & empirical selves1 bo? meet+ 9 man1 z a concrete p]son 9 :om ! inf9ity ( ! transc5d5tal individualises itself ?r\gh ! f9it5ess ( ! empirical4 ,! transc5d5tal ego be+ "o & ! empirical egos be+ multiplicity itself1 x is obvi\s t ! diff]5ces are z necess>y to ! id5tity z ! fuel to ! fire4 ,x is1 inde$1 ?r\gh ! process ( transc5d+ empirical diff]5ces t man ass]ts ! transc5d5tal "* ( m9d4 ,obvi\sly all ! difficulties ( moral problems arise f an empirical conception ( man & 8 relations to o!rs4 ,empirically ,i am an individual1 & z su* 9 opposition n only to all mat]ial ?+s1 b equally to all ! individuals to :om ,i assign a spiritual value1 s9ce all objects ( exp]i5ce1 :atev] _! value1 are n only di/9ct b sep>ate f "o ano!r 9 su* a way t ea*1 by its own p>ticul>ity absolutely excludes f itself all ! re/4 ,all moral problems arise f exp]i5ce & arise precisely because ( ! absolute opposition 9 :i* ! ego1 empirically conceiv$1 /&s to o!r p]sons torm5t$ by ! supreme moral aspiration ( our be+ t longs = a h>mony 9 :i* we %\ld become "o ) all o!rs & ) ! :ole _w4 ,?is means t moral problems arise 9 s f> z we become aw>e ( ! unreality ( our be+1 z an empirical ego1 oppos$ to o!r p]sons & surr\nd+ ?+s1 & 9 s f> z we come to see t our own life is actualis$ 9 ! ?+s oppos$ to x4 ,b ?\gh ?is is ! situation 9 :i* moral problems arise1 !y are solv$ only :5 man comes to feel ano!r's ne$s z 8 own1 & !reby f9ds t 8 own life means t he is n clos$ )9 ! n>r[ circle ( 8 empirical p]sonality1 b is ev] exp&+ 9 ! activity ( a m9d sup]ior to all p>ticul> int]e/s & yet imman5t 9 ! v core ( 8 p]sonality4 ,x mu/ nev] be =gott51 h[ev]1 t ! reality ( ! transc5d5tal ego1 f> f de/roy+ ! empirical ego1 implies x4 ,pass+ to ! ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( :at might be oppos$ z spiritual to :at is natural1 we f9d ,g5tile work+ out ! di/9ction f ! fact t any?+ natural1 su* z a /one1 is :il/ any?+ spiritual1 m9d1 a "w ( m9d1 a political con/itution becomes4 ,m9d & be+ are opposite t]ms4 ,a plant is1 an animal is1 9 s f> z all ! det]m9ations ( ! plant or animal are a necess>y & pre-orda9$ consequ5ce ( its nature4 ,all ! manife/ations by :i* _! nature is express$ are already !re1 exi/+ implicitly4 ,! empirical manife/ations ( _! be+ come to be conceiv$1 !re=e1 z clos$ )9 limits already prescrib$ z impassable b\nd>ies4 ,9 ! natural _w ev]y?+ is pre-orda9$ accord+ to ! law ( ,nature1 or1 to use ,g5tile's own words1 ev]y?+ is by ,nature4 ,9 ! spiritual _w no?+ is by ,nature1 b x becomes :at x becomes ?r\gh ! activity ( m9d4 ,no?+ is ev] ready-made2 no?+ c be f9i%$ & complete4 ,! social position ( a family1 ! political sy/em ( a c\ntry c nev] be settl$ once = all2 ! memb]s ( ! =m] & ! citiz5s ( ! latt] mu/ g on creat+ x day by day & h\r by h\r4 ,s is x ) moral life4 ,all ! noble/ a*ievem5ts ( ! pa/ d n dim9i% "o :it ! sum ( duties /ill to be p]=m$4 ,! m9ute man /ops realis+ 9 ! inmo/ recesses ( 8 consci\sness :at he mu/ d = 8 family1 = 8 c\ntry1 or ev5 = ! firm to :i* he belongs1 ! family w be decad5t1 ! c\ntry w beg9 to lose :at 8 pr$ecessors _h pa9fully won1 ! firm w feel ! incipi5t decay ( a cr$it acquir$ ?r\gh "w & sacrifice4 ,no?+ is ev] done once = all2 morally1 intellectually1 politically1 socially1 economically1 ev]y?+ is always to be done4 ,a h>d gospel to prea* :5 man is accu/om$ z he is n[ to he> only ! proclamation ( 8 rights4 ,sacrifice1 self-d5ial is "h po9t$ out z ! way to great] conque/s & to ! ass]tion ( a nobl] & m p[]ful self4 ,to f9d spiritual reality man mu/ seek x &1 seek+ x1 create x4 ,?is means t x nev] confronts him z an ext]nal reality4 ,if man wants to f9d x he mu/ "w to realise x4 ,s long z x is s\ght x is f\nd1 s long z x is be+ conqu]$ or con/ruct$ x is to be f\nd1 s long b no long]4 ,empires %[ signs ( incipi5t decay ! mom5t ! ,empire build]s /op build+ !m1 /op want+ to build !m4 ,yet f ?is au/]e conception ( life spr+s a beautiful notion ( lib]ty1 a spl5did conception ( man's creativity4 ,g5tile has _h ! c\rage to /udy closely1 v closely1 ! old s*ola/ic ,doctors1 !reby acquir+ a deep & almo/ un]r+ s5se ( ,*ri/ianity2 :il/ 8 famili>ity ) ! problems ( law & ! works ( ! ,humani/s & ! ,r5aissance1 h m>k$ him ) *>act]i/ics t sometimes cause 8 he>]s to hail 9 him a ,fa!r ( ! ,*ur*4 ,all ?is not)/&+ !re are _m po9ts ( doctr9e ^u :i* he /&s 9 contra/ ) ! !ologians4 99 99 99 99 99 ,:]e ,g5tile speaks ( ?9k+ he inv>iably ref]s bo? to ! act ( ! w & to ! act ( ! intellect2 = he consid]s _! di/9ction z hav+ be5 aboli%$ :5 ?r\gh ! "w ( mod]n psy*ology ! v notion ( a multiplicity ( faculties 0 reject$4 ,! m9d is n n[ intellect & n[ w2 b is kn[n n[ z intellect & n[ z w4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t ! creative w does n create a _w t issues f x & exi/s indep5d5tly ( x2 x is self-creative j z any judgm5t is fir/ ( all self-ass]tive4 ,no act ( man's w is ev] direct$ to some?+ already realis$2 man always wants to d an action4 ,= in/ance1 want+ a new pair ( %oes m]ely means want+ to buy1 to h1 to get1 a new pair ( %oes2 & s9ce we h se5 t any action is self-ass]tion1 man 9 any act ( w is want+ to realise 8 own self4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! unity exi/+ betwe5 him & ! _w1 man's purpose is nev] ext]nal to him4 ,man realis+ 8 own self3 su* is ! nature ( m9d1 dynamic & dialectic at once4 ,?is notion ( dialectic enables u to meet law & lib]ty on _! common gr\nd1 morality2 spiritual reality is end[$ ) a life t is be/ call$ dialectic1 inasmu* z x is nev] ei!r completely positive or purely negative4 ,any?+ spiritual f ! mo/ intimate religi\s exp]i5ce1 d[n to any political =m1 family arrangem5t1 or bus9ess e/abli%m5t is s long z1 n yet be+1 x /rives to realise1 to ass]t1 to e/abli% itself4 ,any?+ spiritual let u say1 human1 ! mom5t x is1 t is to say ! mom5t x is accompli%$1 ! mom5t x ceases to develop or e/abli% itself1 is dead or dy+4 ,g5tile uses ev5 /rong] language3 he says outright1 z a reality x is absolutely annihilat$4 ,= him1 z = ,kant1 ! law ( man's w is ! end t det]m9es ea* act ( w2 s9ce to be moral ! w mu/ h 9 itself its own law & its own end4 ,! ^w moral c "h h b "o equival5t1 namely1 spiritual1 t is to say possess+ value4 ,morality s und]/ood is an attribute ( ! entire life ( m9d1 :i* mu/ h an absolute value--be x tru?1 beauty1 or goodness--su* value be+ mean+less if x does n correspond to an ought to be1 imp]ative hic et nunc z a consequ5ce ( lib]ty4 ,moreov]1 ?is b9d+ imp]ativ5ess is univ]sal--= imp]ative means necess>y1 & !re c be no necessity )\t univ]sality4 ,! good is1 9 conclusion1 ! value ( man's _s 9 its dialectical actuality2 x may be t]m$ ! mo/ concrete =m ( spiritual reality4 ,any spiritual act is moral 9 s f> z x is m9d's realisation2 consequ5tly ! negation ( morality _c be und]/ood )\t und]/&+ ?is realisation1 :i* is ! spiritual process or developm5t ( m9d z society4 ,! good is developm5t2 & z su* x implies evil z its negativity4#aa ,light & %ad[1 good & evil2 9 bo? cases ! second t]m is ! negative ( ! fir/4 ,& h]e9 lies all ! trag$y ( m9d4 ,spiritual life is a complex ( light & %ad[1 a con/ant /ruggle ( ! p>ticul> ) ! univ]sal4 ,negativity opposes itself to positivity1 evil to good1 z ! p>ticul> to ! univ]sal4 ,yet x is ?r\gh _! conflict & opposition t spiritual life realises itself1 & ?is realisation is entru/$ to ! individual1 :o 9 & ?r\gh 8 v p>ticul>ity is ! ag5t ( ! univ]sal w4 ,obvi\sly1 if we take man1 ! individual man1 9 8 pure empiricalness1 he c d no?+ )\t sup]human help4 ,b ?is notion ( man1 :i* is ! gr\nd ( all ! ab/ract =ms ( egoism1 individualism & an>*y1 is a m]e fancy4 ,no s+le man c s be depriv$ ( ! div9e light ( intellig5ce z n to "k ( 8 own exi/5ce z a p]son1 z a self1 & 9 ! v act ( kn[+ himself z su* to ass]t :at is univ]sal 9 him4 ,man 9 %ort is univ]sal 9 s f> z he does n belong to nature1 a pure object ( k1 b is a subject4 ,s t 8 moral law is no?+ sup]add$ to him ab extra1 x is ! life grant$ to him by ,provid5ce realis+ itself4 ,?is is a f> cry f ord9>y selfi%ness4 ,f ?is po9t ( view ! bellum omnium contra omnes appe>s z ! mat]iali/ic fancy ( a man ^: idea ( ! _w 0 inf]r$ f ! idea ( ! body4 ,man's body is 9 fact "o among _m4 ,b man's w 9 8 opposition to o!r wills reveals 8 univ]sality4 ,t opposition :i* _h be5 tak5 z pro( ( ! plurality & radical p>ticul>ity ( subjective w is insi/$ ^u by ,g5tile z a pro( ( ! unity & radical univ]sality ( su* w4 ,m5's wills collide ) ea* o!r1 x is true1 b !y d s 9 ! v attempt to en=ce ! claims ( t 9 !m :i* is univ]sal4 ,= w has n realis$ itself z long z x /&s z "o w face to face ) ano!r w or s _m o!r wills4 ,9 su* a position x appe>s z "o among _m1 z accid5tal & p>ticul>1 z hav+ a law diff]+ f t ( ! o!rs2 :]eas x always claims to be ,w1 aga9/ :i* !re c be no o!r w--exp]i5ce %[s u daily t no?+ c be done :5 div]g+ wills are ex]t+ !mselves--& su* is ! *>act]i/ic ( ! moral w4 ,! /atem5t ( ?is problem1 ! moral problem1 is v difficult inde$1 & f a misrepres5tation ( ! relations betwe5 my w & y\r w & 8 w1 arise conflict & w>2 b our conception ( w> is n complete if we consid] x ap>t f ! conception ( peace4 ,w> is no?+ b ! realisation ( peace1 :i* is ! reconciliation ( a duality or plurality ( wills 9 ! ,w4 ,?is is :y w> exi/s & :y !re are private int]e/s conflict+ 9 ! plurality ( wills4 ,su* w> & conflict1 h[ev]1 are due to ! p>ticul>ity ( ! wills & la/ z long z ea* ( ^! wills insi/s on realis+ itself z univ]sal1 ceas+ :5 !y compose _! diff]5ces & accept z ! common w t :i* has manife/$ its univ]sality ?r\gh ! conflict4 ,a peace )\t w> _c be conceiv$1 s9ce peace is ! life ( w & w _c live b 9 a self-ass]tion :i* is no?+ b ! et]nal resolution ( ! conflict ?r\gh :i* x comes into be+4 ,?us w is1 & ev] mu/ be1 concordia discors4 ,:atev] ! social unit tak5 z an example--family1 s*ool1 /ate1 *ur*--! reality ( x is always 9 developm5t & is intelligible only z a process4 ,x nev] is1 & always is1 b only 9 s f> z x realises itself 9 p]fect lib]ty4 ,?is free realisation does n p]mit ( ! sep>ation ( its negativity f its positivity4 ,9 su* a way1 ?\gh realis+ itself z univ]sal1 ! family or /ate c be ?\ght ( z a spiritual reality only 9 s f> z x conta9s ! p>ticul> elem5t :i* (f]s an endless resi/ance to ! process ( univ]salisation4 ,a society t p]fectly unifies its spiritual div]sity1 aboli%+ e sign ( v>iety1 has inevitably gone to pieces s9ce x loses all ! spiritual =ces t made x alive4 ,g5tile goes s f> z to say t 9 fact x is already dead4 ,x is ! et]nally recurr+ opposition ( int]e/s & wills t p]mits ! dialectic & dynamic unity ( life to pulsate 9 any social con/itution4 ,consequ5tly ! p>ticul>ity ( ! w--to be resolv$ 9 ! univ]sal--consi/s 9 its negativity1 )\t :i* ! ass]tion ( ! univ]sal c\ld n exi/ z an act1 = x w\ld be a m]e fact1 n some?+ due to ! act ( man b j some?+ :i* is by nature4 ,!re is no ass]tion ( w :i* is n exclusion1 suppression ( its own negation4 ,?us society is empirically ! agreem5t ( individuals1 & speculatively ! realisation ( w ?r\gh an et]nal process4 ,univ]sal value is !reby id5tifi$ z a process realis+ itself ?r\gh ! suppression ( :at is p>ticul> & negative4 ,society is n int] hom9es1 b 9 int]iore hom9e & x c exi/ betwe5 m5 inasmu* z all m5 are spiritually "o man1 ) "o s+le int]e/3 ! et]nal increm5t ( ! patrimony ( mank9d4 ,n[ society implies au?ority1 a sup]ior w impos$ on ! associat$ wills to unite !m "u a common law4 ,r\sseau _h conceiv$ ! /ate1 ! p z a passive body1 res]v+ activity = ! sov]eign4 ,g5tile hav+ rais$ to speculative =m ! brilliant intuition t lies 9 ! ,contract1 aft] hav+ fully recognis$ x z ,r\sseau's idea1 n[ rejects 8 conception ( ! di/9ction betwe5 sov]eign & subjects4 ,:at he actually d5ies is ! passivity ascrib$ to ! p1 & ! s*ool is1 z usual1 ! exp]im5tal gr\nd ( 8 notion4 ,s*ool is a =m ( spiritual association imply+ a tea*]1 lawgiv] to 8 pupils4 ,x is n ! tea*]1 h[ev] t1 ?r\gh 8 au?ority1 br+s ! pupils to accept tru?2 on ! contr>y x is tru? t conf]s au?ority on ! tea*]4 ,! ,ipse dixit implies a great k ( ! ma/]'s famili>ity ) sci5ce4 ,:atev] ! gr\nd on :i* we ackn[l$ge an au?ority1 ! au?ority is su* z a consequ5ce ( our ackn[l$g+ x2 & all ! !ories & inquiries conc]n+ ! s\rce ( a high] au?ority are to ,g5tile va9 prattl+4 ,= him x is q obvi\s t1 h[ev] high su* an au?ority may be x w nev] be high] ?an ! height to :i* x has be5 rais$ by ! p subject to x4 ,?r\gh ?is ag5cy & ?is ag5cy alone au?ority becomes law4 ,au?ority is inve/$ 9 ! spiritual self1 ! univ]sal p]son1 ultimately ! only sov]eign4 ,?is transc5d5tal self is ! transc5d5tal law ( :i* we h spok5 z moral law1 ! transc5d5tal sov]eign :i* has br\ght ,g5tile to reject ,r\sseau's di/9ction betwe5 passive citiz5%ip & active sov]eignty because x ?robs 9 e man's brea/ & is ! "o law & sov]eign t c impose laws & make !m ackn[l$g$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,x is n[ easy to realise t1 al?\gh ,g5tile 0 fir/ kn[n z a ,hegelian1 by ! "t he wrote 8 philosophy ( law he _h fully develop$ ! m reali/ic t5d5cies ( 8 ,idealism :i* l9k him to ,?omas ,aqu9as1 ,kant & above all to ,vico4 ,! real diff]5ce betwe5 ,g5tile's notion ( political reality & t ( ,hegel--! lik5ess is too obvi\s to require po9t+ out--is a consequ5ce ( _! diff]5t ways ( work+ out _! respective notions ( reality4 ,9 spite ( 8 brilliant conception ( dialectic ,hegel's intuition ( ,reality is n dialectical b intellectuali/ic1 & !re=e /atic4 ,he realis$ t we d n conceive reality dialectically unless we conceive x z itself ?\ght4 ,b he di/+ui%$ ! intellect :i* conceives ?+s f ! reason :i* conceives m9d & 8 dialectic 0 9 consequ5ce a dialectic ( ?\ght1 ?\ght h[ev] be+ und]/ood z ! result ( ! act ( ?9k+4 ,:]eas to h a real dialectic1 correspond+ to ! ?robb+ reality ( life1 :at is want$ is a dialectic ( ?\ght1 und]/ood z ! act ( ?9k+4 ,:at has already be5 ?\ght is z /atic z a /one4 ,h5ce ! necessity 9 :i* ,hegel f\nd himself ( sep>at+ ?\ght & action1 :i* l$ him to decl>e 9 ! introduction to 8 philosophy ( ,"r t ,philosophy 0 a twilight bird1 ^: activity began at dusk :5 ! day's "w 0 done4 ,= ,hegel a law 9 ord] to be imp]ative mu/ be pron\nc$ by some?+ t is already 9 exi/5ce4 ,b ,reality 9 exi/5ce is nature4 ,hegel's /ate belong+ ?us to /atic reality1 be+ a fact1 n an act1 ! citiz5 is no?+ 9 himself2 all 8 reality come to him f ! /ate4 ,?is does n mean t he is annihilat$ 7bo? 9 ,imp]ialism & ,communism he is v highly cultivat$71 b is z ! little :eel ( a huge eng9e :i* is c>efully oil$ s t ! ma*9e may g ! bett] = x4 ,8 end is ! /ate's end4 ,n s ) ,g5tile4 ,reality1 be+ really dialectical does n admit ( a di/9ction betwe5 w & intellect4 ,y d n act & !n ?9k ab\t x4 ,= life1 natural or spiritual1 is ! reality3 if !ory1 ! activity ( ! intellect1 is m]ely a contemplation ( x1 su* !ory is n ev5 real4 ,h[ c "o ?9k ( some?+ add$ to ! real _w8 ,:at c\ld su* an addition be8 ,!re is no way ( conceiv+ k except z a creation ( ! spiritual reality :i* is itself k4 ,if ,reality is spiritual1 9 realis+ itself x creates bo? ! w & ! intellect4 ,x is only ?r\gh ! empirical consid]ation ( _! manife/ations t !y c be di/+ui%$2 speculatively !y are "o & ! same ?+4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! idea ( a good action & a good action itself is a diff]5ce betwe5 two ideas4 ,9 ! fir/ case we mean ! idea :i* is a cont5t or ab/ract result ( ?\ght1 b n ! act by :i* we ?9k x1 & 9 :i* its concrete reality truly lies4 ,& 9 ! second we mean ! idea1 n z an object or cont5t ( ?\ght1 b z ! act :i* realises a spiritual reality4 ,! /ate c n be a fact1 some?+ already realis$4 ,x is ! et]nal process1 ! in/auratio regnum boni always becom+1 & dy+ to be realis$ by ! consci\sness ( ! individual 9 its own process ( self-realisation4 ,! /ate is inde$ ! moral reality ( ! individual1 :o to become a citiz5 realises himself transc5d+ 8 empirical subjectivity4 ,! /ate exi/s only 9 ! he>ts ( m52 x is ! intellectual & practical activity ( m5 realis+ !mselves z spiritual reality4 ,x is always be+ alt]$ ?r\gh ! positive & negative manife/ation ( man's moral w4 ,man is n & _c be subject to ! /ate1 except 9 s f> & 9 s f> only z he is its creator4 ,& creation means lib]ty no less ?an self-realisation means realisation ( ! n-self & !re=e ! law4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,b5ito ,,mussol9i ,n[ t we h trac$ bo? ! political & philosophical antec$5ts ( :at is "h call$ ,fascism1 s9ce x expresses itself z su*1 b might p]haps z well be t]m$ ! political & philosophical com+ ( age ( ,italy z a great nation1 we mu/ turn to ! man1 ^: lot x has be5 to embody su* hi/orical =ces & br+ !m to actual realisation4 ,x may seem r ra% to comp>e ,b5ito ,mussol9i ) ,dante & "s p may ?9k x a pr(anation4 ,poetry & politics put on ! same level2 a man consid]$ by _m little bett] ?an an adv5tur] 7& appe>+ z su* 9 ! biography writt5 by a fri5d ( 81 ,miss ,m4 ,s>fatti72 ! new con/itution f> f be+ complete &1 ,fasci/ legislation compris+ ) a v few great laws1 a sequ5ce ( decrees sugge/ive ( tyranny6 ,su* a comp>ison mu/ seem to "s absurd1 al?\gh x is a fact t j z ,dante embodi$ 9 ! ,div9a ,comm$ia all ! philosophy1 all ! arts & politics ( m$ival ,italy1 ,mussol9i is n[ embody+ 9 ! new rgime all t is great & good 9 mod]n ,italy4 ,x may be held1 9 fact1 t political de$s d express ! life ( m9ds j z =cibly z poetry1 !re=e t !y d n /& 9 a position ( /hetic inf]iority to ! compositions ( poets1 unless "o *ooses to comp>e ! politics ( a decad5t p]iod to ! poetry ( a great p]iod4 ,x may also be held t 8adv5tur]0 is an epi!t t befits bett] ! ,duce ( ,miss ,s>fatti ?an ! ,uomo ,novo ( ,antonio ,beltramelli1 9 ^: book ! same ,duce appe>s z ! h]ald ( an entirely new p]iod ( ! life ( ,italy4 ,& ! pres5t book is conc]n$ exclusively ) :at may prove ( la/+ value 9 ! laws ( ! gov]nm5t ( ,mussol9i1 & does n imply an approval ( :at may be objectionable 9 ! actual me?ods ( gov]nm5t2 x takes ! view t tyrannical decrees & ! l are inh]5t 9 ! revolution>y /age ( ! rgime & tempor>y measures b\nd to disappe> :5 t /age has be5 outgr[n4 ,our s5sible s\ls may be %ock$ :5 we feel ! viol5ce ( ! hatr$ ) :i* ,dante pursues 8 enemies "r into ,hell or ,purgatory4 ,mussol9i's s\l is j z s5sible & mod]n z our own4 ,n only w\ld he =be> f hat+ 8 dead adv]s>ies1 b he does n hate 8 enemies ev5 dur+ _! life4 ,he c speak ( !m ) ! greate/ s]5ity & recall ! "t :5 !y 7 8 fri5ds )\t los+ 8 s5se ( fair appreciation4 ,he c comp>e ) ,dante = ! viol5ce ( 8 ho/ility only :5 ho/ile attacks are direct$ aga9/ 8 task & are an imp$im5t to him & 8 m5 9 :at he consid]s ! "w laid d[n = !m by ,provid5ce4 ,b ?is is /ret*+ too f> a comp>ison :i* has be5 made m]ely to expla9 ! impossibility ( giv+ good gr\nds = ! fact t ,mussol9i 0 ! "o man fit to realise 9 politics all ! !oretical ideas & practical t5d5cies t h be5 trac$ 9 ?is "w4 ,su* facts are z my/]i\s z ! nature ( g5ius4 ,yet x may n be out ( place to note t bo? ,dante & ,mussol9i h ! same love ( le>n+ & j too mu* intuition to contribute to ! !oretical life ( m9d2 & t ! contra/ :i* exi/s betwe5 "s inf]ior passages ( ! ,div9a ,comm$ia & ^? t make x an immortal poem is n great] ?an t :i* exi/s betwe5 :at is objectionable 9 ,mussol9i's way ( rul+ & t :i* is likely to be ( et]nal value 9 ! ideals t und]lie ! :ole ( 8 political ?\ght ( action4 ,?r\gh ! political realisation ( :at 0 pot5tially includ$ 9 _! political !ories ,france & ,engl& h %>$1 z we h se51 ! hon\r ( be+ ! *ampions ( ,lib]alism & ,radical ,democracy1 j z ?r\gh ! political elaboration ( ! !ories ( ,kant1 ,fi*te & ,hegel1 ,g]many has develop$ ,imp]ialism & ,communism4 ,n[ t su* political in/itutions & sy/ems ( philosophy h giv5 all t c\ld be _h out ( !m1 ,italy comes =w>d & opposes1 to :at h] ?9k]s consid] z be+ h5ce=? at be/ ab/ract subjectivism1 ano!r subjectivism :i*--be+ fre$ f ! mat]ialism1 me*anism & naturalism1 t p]si/$ 9 ?\ght & life ( =m] g5]ations1 be+ fre$ also f ! practical reasons :i* compell$ ! ?9k]s ( ^? days to oppose religion on acc\nt ( ! ,*ur*'s imp$im5ts to free rese>*es--c id5tify itself ) ,m9d1 & m specially ) ! activity ( ,m9d4 ,! individual1 ! subject to ass]t itself 9 ! activity ( m9d mu/ h an object4 ,self implies ,n-self4 ,!re=e1 lib]ty implies law4 ,! citiz5 implies ! /ate4 ,! employ]1 or ! employ$1 implies ! ent]prise = ! productivity ( :i* "o employs & ! o!r is employ$4 ,9 %ort1 aft] ! objectivism ( ! late ,middle ,ages & ,r5aissance1 aft] ! subjectivism ( ! mod]n _w1 ,fascism is ! syn!sis ( bo? 9 politics1 j z well z 9 philosophy1 s9ce1 aft] ! 8ev]y?+ ?r\gh ! =ce ( privilege0 ( ! =m] & ! 8ev]y?+ ?r\gh ! =ce ( numb]s0 ( ! latt]1 x comes & says 8ev]y?+ = ev]yone t %all des]ve x ?r\gh moral sacrifice & productive activity40 ,x tries to br+ =w>d ! ,*ri/ian equality ( m5 s9ce x meets ev]yone on ! basis ( actual value4 ,x tries to realise frat]nity by gett+ m5 to feel t _! real value is bas$ on _! realis+ z p]fectly z possible ! intimate relation ( self & ,n-self :i* br+s ea* man to see himself 9 8 neighb\r1 & 8 neighb\r z himself4 ,mussol9i1 to :om we mu/ always turn z ! liv+ expression ( ,fascism1 firmly believes t m5 may be call$ ^u to sacrifice "s ( _! mo/ selfi% claims & he hopes to make !m realise t !y mu/ r5\nce _! empirical selves to create !reby ! ,/ate z _! transc5d5tal self4 ,fascism does n want m5 to look ^u law--9 ! broade/ s5se ( ! ^w--z a sort ( />ry reality inalt]able & indiff]5t to m52 x hopes t !y may realise h[ intimately x is relat$ to e citiz51 & f ! v fir/ ye> ( _! s*ool life little *ildr5 are m5tally tra9$ to see x z _! own w transc5d+ itself & becom+ law 9 a k9d ( religi\s objectivity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mussol9i1 :5 he 0 /ill 9 8 te5s1 us$ to sit up late 9 ! inn kept by 8 fa!r 9 ,=li1 & accord+ to a man :o us$ to meet him !re1 he 0 ev5 !n wont to di/ress himself at ! mat]iali/ic =m :i* ,socialism _h tak5 9 ,italy4 ,day aft] day he w\ld make ! same objection1 8,x is all "r10 he w\ld say1 8to bett] ! economic conditions ( ! p1 & y d bett] !m4 ,b ,i _c help realis+ t !y are los+ m & m ! spiritual life :i* 0 = !m religion & tradition1 )\t tak+ any?+ ( ! high] & nobl] side ( ,socialism40 ,he _h read ,&rea ,co/a's writ+s & 0 dev\r+ ! int]national classics ( ,socialism1 besides 8 ,mazz9i1 s (t5 quot$ by 8 own fa!r & ! ,republicans ( ,=li1 :o _h nev] read a page ( ! great ideali/4 ,! ?\ght t p 7 gett+ m & m indiff]5t to ev]y?+ b food or re/1 0 a nightm>e to him4 ,:5 "s twelve ye>s lat] he became ! lead] ( ! ,sociali/ ,p>ty 9 ! same t[n he took up ! (ficial attitude ( 8 p>ty aga9/ religion4 ,?is may be not$ 9 ! articles he wrote z ! editor ( ,la ,lotta di classe dur+ ! ye>s #aiaj-aiaa4 ,he is an or?odox ,sociali/1 & p\rs out a lot ( anti-religi\s & ev5 anti-patriotic /uff 9 a /yle & ) a *oice ( vocabul>y t might befit indiff]5tly an ,engli%1 a ,fr5*1 or a ,g]man ,sociali/ lead] ( ! same p]iod4 ,"h & !re1 h[ev]1 a s+le s5t5ce attracts ! c>eful ,italian read]1 or ! =eign] famili> ) all ! %ades ( ! language4 ,a p]sonal acc5t is felt2 !re is an orig9al idea 9 an orig9al word+2 & x is ei!r a reque/ t ! p>ty lead]s %\ld be exp]ts & ! memb]s qualifi$ artisans2 or an appeal highly spiritual1 & 9 a way deeply religi\s4 ,!re are witnesses to ! fact t :5 he _h be5 9 ! morn+ issu+ an (ficial prohibition ( all religi\s practises he (t5 met 9 ! ev5+ ) a !ologian to see if !re c\ld be a way ( re-introduc+ religion )\t detrim5t to ,socialism4 8,= ?is p10 he w\ld say1 8above all ! wom51 h no conception ( life at all1 s9ce we h depriv$ !m ( religion40 ,x w\ld be1 !re=e1 a pr(\nd mi/ake to see 9 ,mussol9i's attitude t[>ds ! ,*ur*1 & 9 ! action ( 8 gov]nm5t to re9/ate religion all ?r\gh life1 a political move1 int5d$ to secure ! support ( ! cl]gy4 ,religion is n a useful /r+ on :i* he plays z ! great arti/ he is1 ei!r to secure ! support ( ! ,ca?olics & _! cl]gy1 or to keep p quiet & insure _! moral education4 ,:at he realis$ betwe5 #aijj & #aiab1 ?r\gh an intuition ( g5ius1 is t ! p _h no g5]al notion :atev]1 no concept ( :at is life1 nev] ev5 realis$ t !y c\ld ask !mselves su* a "q z3 ,:at is life1 :at is ! _w8 & t religion 0 necess>y to !m4 ,mussol9i firmly believes 9 ! necessity ( ar\s+ /rong religi\s conviction 9 ! p ( e class4 ,he does s on gr\nd provid$ to him by ! example ( 8 "m1 by ! result ( 8 own obs]vation & exp]i5ce z a lead]1 & la/1 b n lea/ by 8 read+ ( de ,sanctis's pr9cipal "w4 ,t great critic is1 inde$1 ! "o l9k betwe5 ,vico1 ,croce1 ,g5tile & ,mussol9i1 ^: g5ius 0 to create ! political sy/em 9 :i* _! ideas receive practical realisation4 ,fascism rejects ! v notion ( !ory z di/9ct f action & is a con/ant expression 9 action ( ideas f> m easily act$ ^u ?an =mulat$1 s t its mo/ ignorant foll[]s g z f> z to reject ! possibility ( any?+ l an intellectual movem5t pav+ ! way = !m ?r\gh ! prec$+ g5]ations1 :il/ !y act all along 9 keep+ ) ! spiritual atmosph]e :i* t intellectual movem5t has develop$ & ! ideas x has put 9 circulation4 ,! reason ( ?is lies 9 ! /hetic g5ius ( ,mussol9i4 ,l ! greate/ arti/s produc$ by ,italy1 he is at once macrocosm & microcosm4 ,! :ole ( ,italy's pa/1 z 9 ano!r ,dante1 conv]ges 9 him4 ,8 avid p]sonality takes x all 91 to put x out aga9 ) su* an indelible /amp ^u x t :at might be t]m$ its ,fasci/-ness is ! only "* left to x4 ,n[ :at ,mussol9i hopes to obta9 f ! recrudesc5ce ( religi\s life is t ! p %\ld get a wid] outlook ^u ,life 9 ! highe/ s5se ( ! ^w4 ,he nev] uses philosophical t]ms to express x2 yet s highly speculative is ! notion t ,giovanni ,g5tile is probably ! only philosoph] to h work$ x out1 & :osoev] did n believe 9 ,provid5ce c\ld be conv9c$ t ,provid5ce exi/s j by /udy+ ,croce1 ,g5tile1 & ! way _! "w atta9s realisation at ! h&s ( ,mussol9i )\t any previ\s arrangem5t4 ,by gett+ p to h a deep] und]/&+ ( life ,mussol9i means to make !m realise t man's individual life is n by a long way ! supreme value1 t man's individual w is n by a long way ! supreme law1 t man's individual circum/ances are n 9 !mselves by a long way con/itutive ( ,life4 ,all ^! aims he hopes to rea* ?r\gh religion4 ,:5 he 0 a ,sociali/ ,lead] he 0 /ruck by ! immorality ( wom5 & by ! c[>dice ( m54 ,^! w\ld lay traps 9 :i* o!r p might lose _! lives1 z :5 !y unscrew$ ! rails ( ! railway 9 ! prov9ce ( ,=li1 b !y w\ld n risk _! own lives4 ,be+ at t "t1 a mo/ or?odox ,sociali/ he c\ld n ?9k3 8let u /op ?is demoralis+ propag&a40 ,he believ$ t x w\ld be all "r 9 ! end1 :5 ! end1 ) a capital ,e1 %\ld h come = ?is capitali/ society bas$ z x 0 on selfi%ness4 ,he want$ a religion1 & hav+ !n a m5tality q anti-hi/orical1 he really believ$ t he c\ld give !m a new religion if he c\ld b f9d x4 ,= ?is w\ld make !m realise1 s he ?\ght1 t !y did n c\nt 9 !mselves b only ?r\gh _! relations to o!rs2 & t to realise _! bett] self1 !y mu/ always look at ! :ole1 :i* is no?+ s long z s+le m5 are n consci\s ( belong+ to x1 b )\t :i* !y c d no?+ to ass]t _! claims z rights & out ( :i* inde$ no claim ( !irs c really be a "r4 ,obvi\sly1 ?is is man transc5d+ 8 own self to ass]t x ?r\gh ! v negation ( its empirical nature4 ,x is impossible to insi/ too mu* on ?is po9t = ! new conception ( life t 0 rea*+ speculative expression 9 ! works ( ,g5tile 0 "h1 9 ?is intuitive m9d ( q a "y man1 :o knew no?+ ( ,g5tilian !ories1 work+ its way t[>ds practical realisation4 ,be=e ! way 9 :i* he 0 to proce$ f ?is to ! economic !ories t may rid ! we/]n _w ( /rikes & lock-outs "o fact mu/ be put 9 evid5ce4 ,f :at has be5 said above1 x is cle> t 8 appreciation ( ! /r5g? ( any collectivity mu/ be bas$ on ! degree ( consci\sness ) :i* ! s+le memb]s realise su* collectivity4 ,he _h at fir/ n made out ! import & ! consequ5ces ( su* a view4 ,b ! necessity ( plead+ 8 own cause1 :5 he 0 tri$ 9 #aiaa by ! ,tribunal ( ,=li1 = hav+ ord]$ a /rike ( prote/ aga9/ ! ,tripoli w>1 put on 8 lips a decl>ation t mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation :5ev] ,mussol9i's 8,imp]ialism0 is 9 "q4 ,9 ! records ( ! tribunal he is /at$ to h plead$ 8 case1 say+ t he did n love 8 c\ntry less ?an ! ,nationali/s did2 ! diff]5ce 0 betwe5 8 idea ( a c\ntry's greatness & !irs4 ,he ?\ght t su* greatness dep5d$ f> m on ! spiritual & economic level rea*$ by ! p ( a c\ntry1 ?an on its t]ritorial ext5sion1 ! numb] ( its inhabitants1 or ! importance ( its colonies4 ,to argue t he has *ang$ 8 m9d on ?is z on o!r po9ts w\ld n be consi/5t ) facts4 ,s9ce 8 adv5t to p[] ! effici5cy ( ! army & navy has be5 br\ght to a high] /&>d1 b _! effective numb]s h n be5 increas$ at all2 :il/ ! greate/ c>e & exp5se h be5 d$icat$ to ! re=m ( education1 no?+ be+ sp>$ t c promote a deep] consci\sness ( ! individual1 & an imm5se s*eme is a foot to improve ! intellectual & spiritual conditions ( adults1 involv+ huge exp5se by ! gov]nm5t & great p]sonal sacrifice by ! intellectual & arti/ic classes4 ,:5 ,mussol9i 0 9 ,=li he c\ld n satisfy any ( 8 reali/ic or ideali/ic exig5cies4 ,8 intellectual position z a ,sociali/ made him long = a p>adise to come1 a dream at be/2 8 nature1 l t ( _m 9 8 prov9ce1 made him long = actual facts4 ,! position prov$ a difficult "o & he 0 only kept go+ by ! /r5g? ( 8 convictions :i* 7 mo/ s9c]e4 ,! man :o 0 on 8 /aff 9 ! ,lotta di ,classe is /ill a workman & a ,sociali/2 & speaks ) z mu* regret = t "t z ) bitt]ness = ,mussol9i's 8des]tion f ! p>ty10 a 8des]tion0 :i* no?+ w make him see z a consequ5ce ( ! v s9c]ity to :i* he ascribes ,mussol9i's p[] ( fasc9ation4 ,x is ?is man :o has furni%$ ! au?or ( ?is pres5t book ) ! clue t made x possible to trace back ! way ?r\gh :i* ,mussol9i came to realise h[ unhi/orical &1 !re=e1 false 0 8 position4 ,! adv]s>ies ( ! ,sociali/s 7 cont9ually reproa*+ !m = hav+ inv5t$ ! class /ruggle4 ,j because he 0 absolutely s9c]e ,mussol9i m9d$ ! accusation v mu*4 ,= if t 0 s ! responsibility 0 inde$ a heavy "o4 ,he />t$1 !re=e1 look+ 9 hi/ory = ! orig9 ( t /ruggle4 ,& x 0 inevitable t 8 ,italian m5tality %\ld1 ?r\gh ! process ( 8 rese>*es1 em]ge 9 all its national & p]sonal def9it5ess2 t he %\ld reject1 m or less consci\sly1 all t is n concrete & actual4 ,! ,italians usually call 8hi/orical0 a true k or realisation ( a giv5 situation ( fact1 :e!r pa/ or pres5t2 aga9 !y call 8hi/orical0 ! vision ( life z ! et]nal alt]ation ( su* situations ?r\gh a process :i* kn[s no regress4 ,to 8 relief ,mussol9i soon f\nd out t ! class /ruggle _h exi/$ always & ev]y:]e1 & t x 0 due to social & f9ancial diff]5ces3 & ?is *e]$ ! conv9c$ ,sociali/ 9 him4 ,8 next /ep 0 to realise t n only _h su* a /ruggle exi/$ 9 ,rome1 9 ,a!ns1 & else:]e1 b t x 0 actually ! ma9 cause ( social progress4 ,& ) ?is ! ,sociali/ triumphantly exult$4 ,! triumph 0 a %ort "o1 h[ev]1 & ! cause ( ?is exultation 0 to prove a mortal bl[ to 8 ,sociali/ fai?4 ,if class /ruggle 0 ! ma9 ag5t ( progress & class diff]5ces ! cause ( su* /ruggle1 !re c\ld be no progress1 no movem5t1 :5 class diff]5ces _h be5 aboli%$4 ,s pa9ful 0 ! conclusion t he mu/ h tri$ to reject x4 ,:5 classes %\ld be aboli%$1 e ?+ w\ld be = ! be/1 grant$ t x c\ld come to be4 ,8 incursion into ! hi/ory ( ! pa/ _h giv5 him ! "o *ance 8 reali/ic m9d _h be5 wait+ = to realise t p]fection does n exi/1 t p]fection _c exi/1 s9ce x is only f ! defici5cies ( a =m ( society t ! idea ( :at is to be ! next =m ( society c arise4 ,obvi\sly1 x is by ! inconv5i5ce ( an actual law t ! next law is call$ into be+4 ,life w\ld h1 !re=e1 to be /atic :5 ! actual /ate ( society w\ld be p]fect4 ,a "q rema9$ & inde$ 0 ( mom5t4 ,c\ld life be /atic8 ,! answ] c\ld n h wait$ long = s %>p an obs]v] ( life4 ,life is dialectic4 ,! nature ( life 0 manife/ to him 9 ! arts4 ,de ,sanctis _h taught him to see t1 :il/ ! v p[] ( 8 own individuality 0 compell+ him to realise t no?+ is done b by s+le m5 act+1 act+ h[ev] z memb]s ( ! v>i\s collectivities :i* det]m9$ _! p]sonalities4 ,he c\ld no long] ?9k ( *oos+ a religion & impos+ x on 8 foll[]s2 !y _h "o at h& :i* _h be5 prep>$ = !m by hi/ory4 ,little by little ! tru? came4 ,m5 did n act = mank9d1 !y act$ = _! family1 = _! religion1 = _! c\ntry2 !y act$ to bett] _! conditions or to prev5t !m f gett+ worse4 ,to release ,man f 8 traditions 0 equival5t to tak+ ! roots ( a tree f ! gr\nd1 & condemn+ x to dry1 m\ld] & rot4 ,01 !n1 ,socialism a drug ( su* a k9d t x c\ld only d h>m8 ,surely x _h done wond]s = ! wret*$ l[] classes ( ,italy6 ,!n ! outbreak ( ! ,european ,w> spurr$ him to take ! /ep :i* _h become inevitable4 ,8 m9d 0 ready2 8 g5ius _h rea*$ maturity2 circum/ances w\ld d ! re/4 99 99 99 99 99 ,x is necess>y to realise ! man & 8 ,dantesque gift = look+ at ! idea & grasp+ facts all along1 = dis*>g+ ) p]sonal passion a mo/ imp]sonal task4 ,x is equally necess>y to realise :y ! p %\ld h want$ him to succe$ & give him t support )\t :i* 8 g5ius w\ld h abort$ z a /]ile long+ = action4 ,accord+ to ,croce ! act ( w ( any s+le man becomes an ev5t & is grant$ success accord+ to ! way 9 :i* x /&s to ! w ( ! :ole1 & to ! actual situation ( fact4 ,mac*iavelli1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d1 tri$ to d ) 8 ,tuscan militia :at ,mussol9i has a*iev$1 & he only succe$$ 9 realis+ h[ out ( keep+ ) ! times 8 s*eme _h be54 ,sadly1 ?is =]unn] ( ,mussol9i1 n inf]ior to him 9 g5ius or read+1 _h to sit d[n & write :at ! reg5]ator ( ,italy w\ld h to d1 ! necessity ( gov]n+ 9 h>mony ) ! times & accord+ to ! actual tru? ( circum/ances be+ "o ( ! pr9ciples ev] recurr+ "u 8 p54 8,ev]yone kn[s10 says ,b5$etto ,croce1 :o is by no means a ,fasci/1 9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,practical1 pr9t$ = ! fir/ "t 9 #aijh1 8t no vultus in/antis tyranni c ext+ui% ! fre$om ( ! s\l2 no rul]1 be he ev] s /rong & viol5t1 c prev5t a rebellion40 ,if p *oose to use ! ^w tyrant 9 ! ,greek s5se ( ! ^w !y may call ,mussol9i a tyrant1 = he is & w be an uncon/itutional rul] until ! new in/itutions are s fram$1 t ! new rgime c function normally4 ,b if x is impli$ by t1 z ! mod]n s5se ( ! ^w all[s1 t he rules aga9/ ! p's w x is m]ely absurd1 & "o s+le fact c\ld prove ! contr>y4 ,:5 two ye>s ago he ask$ t a c]ta9 sum %\ld be subscrib$ 9 doll>s t[>ds ! pay+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,w> ,debt1 ! issue 0 _m times :at he _h ask$4 ,x w\ld n be true to facts to omit t al?\gh x 0 n compulsory1 !re 0 a good deal ( moral pressure made to get ! p to subscribe4 ,b surely !y did n ne$ to cov] x s _m times & ! excess 0 inde$ mo/ spontane\sly subscrib$4 ,! p ( ,italy d grumble at _m ?+s :i* are done by ! ,fasci/s1 & anybody w\ld d s4 ,x is ma9ly1 h[ev]1 individual actions :i* are ! object ( compla9t & n laws or public s]vices4 ,= x mu/ be kept 9 m9d t ! actual =m ( ,mussol9i's gov]nm5t has be5 call$ into be+ by ! misgov]nm5t or r non-gov]nm5t ( ! p :o prec$$ him 9 p[]1 & ! c\ntry felt ! ne$ ( be+ gov]n$ 9 "o way or ano!r4 ,x has be5 %[n 9 ! fir/ "p ( ?is book :y ,italy 0 n gov]n$ at all1 :y no public s]vice c\ld "w effectively1 :y =eign policy _h to be s inf]ior to ! real position ( ! c\ntry1 :y ! beautiful p59sula _h fall5 into a /ate bord]+ on an>*y4 ,x is difficult = an ,engli%man to realise h[ a c\ntry c\ld fall into su* conditions4 ,engl& has five or six c5turies ( political exp]i5ce1 a l5g? ( "t m ?an suffici5t to produce electors & repres5tatives able to realise :at are ! duties ( ! executive z well z ^? ( ! legislature4 ,ev]ybody 9 ,engl& is famili> ) ! process ?r\gh :i* political =ms come into be+4 ,p /ruggle to rea* a c]ta9 =m ( gov]nm5t & t mom5t ( dialectic ends :5 ! =m is rea*$2 !y !n apply x m & m fully & dur+ its application discov] its limitations2 ?is second movem5t ends 9 criticism ( ! :ole ?+2 f9ally1 p set !mselves to rem$y its %ortcom+s4 ,?is la/ mom5t co9cides 9 ! p ) ! full consci\sness ( dissatisfaction1 & 9 ! lead]s ) a cle> und]/&+ ( ! new t5d5cies to be satisfi$4 ,?us ! p le>n to use a new =m :il/ !y are us+1 !n disc>d+1 ! "o t came be=e x4 ,9 ,italy no?+ ( ! sort happ5$4 ,! political lead]s w\ld h be5 a%am$ to be beh9dh& 9 :at 0 consid]$ 8social progress40 ,! imm$iate aft]ma? ( ! w> 9 ,italy 0 z we h se5 morally a trag$y4 ,x seem$ z if some?+ _h di$1 some?+ spiritual4 ,ev]y?+ seem$ to be go+ to pieces4 ,nobody seem$ to ?9k1 nobody seem$ to realise t moral =ces1 a national consci\sness _h be5 produc$ by ! g5]al sacrifice4 ,a few h]oes 7 wat*+ ov] ! flame lit up 9 ! "y s\ls :o _h le>n$ tru? 9 ! bitt] exp]i5ce ( w>4 ,!y 7 v few inde$1 & !y c\ld only get a he>+ ?r\gh ! actual viol5ce ) :i* !y fell on ! old political classes1 :o 7 int5t on conv9c+ ! p t ! w> _h to be =gott5 z a nightm>e1 t man mu/ =get x z soon z possible to ?r[ himself aga9 into 8 pursuit ( mat]ial well-be+4 ,:atev] ! smallness ( _! numb]--:5 ,mussol9i f\nd$ ! fir/ ,fascio 9 #aiai !y 7 #aej--!y 7 en\gh to ar\se a deep e*o 9 ! y\? ( ,italy1 :i* 0 beg9n+ bo? = spiritual & practical reasons to conceive life z an en]gy1 a =ce1 a consci\sness transc5d+ ! limits set by ! int]e/s ( ! individual1 b\nd to upset viol5tly ! quiet & selfi% life ( ! man int5t on ! satisfaction ( 8 mo/ empirical desires4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mussol9i's belief 0 t y c\ld make man realise t1 if he is ! c5tre ( ! univ]se1 he is s ?r\gh 8 relation to ! univ]se1 b t y c\ld n d ?is by words4 ,! only way to make m5 realise t selfi%ness1 :5 x becomes absolute is b\nd to r$uce society to atomi/ic irrelativ5ess & !reby to an>*y1 01 accord+ to him1 action4 ,if a body ( m5 7 ready to d1 ?r\gh coh]5t action & sacrifice ( _! individual wills1 :at ! gov]nm5t ought to h done1 !n ! p w\ld "k t !y c\ld cease f be+ bulli$ by ! ,bol%evi/ ,sociali/s & foll[]s ( ,don ,/urzo1 provid$ !y 7 will+ to sacrifice _! individual wills1 z ! m5 ( a team ( football d :5 !y want to w9 a mat*4 ,he felt sure t he c\ld call 8 c\ntrym5 to ! sacrifice ( life & to ! acceptance ( ! h>%e/ discipl9e if !y c\ld b be induc$ to cease c5tr+ _! :ole m9d ^u _! preci\s selves4 ,!re 01 h[ev]1 no "t to organise a religi\s revival2 & 8 k ( m5 provid$ him ) ! "o intuition t c\ld be act$ ^u at ! "t4 ,he call$ on !m to def5d ! value ( _! own sacrifice 9 ! tr5*es & 9 ! field4 ,n[ t 0 n cold & di/ant z ! idea ( ! nation might h prov$2 x 0 q real to !m & mov$ !m consequ5tly z no?+ else c\ld4 ,?r\gh ! action ( a few hundr$s sev]al hundr$s ( ?\s&s 7 induc$ to fight = ! def5ce ( :at _h be5 _! =m] action4 ,! fight+ h[ev] 0 only on a v small scale & mo/ly 9 ! prov9ces :]e ! tyranny ( ! ,r$s & ,:ites _h to be brok52 ! break+ up ( t tyranny made ! p look ^u ! ,black ,%irts z _! lib]ators4 ,peasant wom5 & *ildr5 7 once m free to g to ,*ur*1 (fic]s & w\nd$ m5 7 once m free to g ab\t 9 _! uni=ms )\t be+ attack$ or insult$1 workm5 7 once m free to att5d _! daily "w & e>n _! money z !y lik$4 ,! ,fasci/s did n h to fight _! way to p[]4 ,!y m]ely took x & 7 *e]$ on to tak+ x4 99 99 99 99 99 ,z soon z ,mussol9i 0 9 p[] he 0 ask$ by 8 m9i/]s :at 8 programme 04 ,he curtly answ]$ 8t x 0 to realise ! full value ( ,italy's sacrifice 9 ! w>40 ,he _h no political programme & 0 s indiff]5t to p>ty di/9ctions t he took m9i/]s f e p>ty1 *oos+ !m only accord+ to _! qualification z exp]ts4 ,:at he requir$ f !m 0 ! maximum ( effici5cy1 & ! maximum also ( p]sonal responsibility4 ,8 fir/ great move 0 ! re=m ( education4 ,= him ! greatness ( a c\ntry dep5d$ on ! consci\sness ( its citiz5s4 ,! "w 0 naturally entru/$ to ,giovanni ,g5tile1 :o 0 ! greate/ au?ority on p$agogy4 ,he _h to face imm5se difficulty & he did x ) su* en]gy & indomitable w t ! educational re=m became law & 0 be+ appli$ elev5 mon?s aft] ! m>* on ,rome4 ,! ma9 features ( x are ! re-introduction ( religi\s & moral1 /hetic & practical education 9 ! s*ools :]e rational in/ruction _h be5 p>am\nt = tw5ty ye>s4 ,?is 0 9 accord ) mod]n philosophy1 re9/at+ 9 _! lawful places along ) imag9ation & intuition1 all ! activities ( ,m9d :i* _h n be5 duly recognis$ nor suffici5tly develop$ 9 ! la/ g5]ations4 ,religion is und]/ood z ! "o ?+ capable ( provid+ man ) a reasonable outlook ^u life z a :ole1 ) a deep consci\sness ( 8 own importance z a factor 9 ! _w1 & ) an equally deep consci\sness ( 8 non5tity z soon z he ceases to be "p ( a :ole1 & consid]s himself ap>t f 8 relations to 8 family1 to 8 *ur*1 to 8 s*ool1 to 8 c\ntry4 /hetic education is meant to develop ! faculty ( realis+ ) great def9it5ess4 ,! *ild mu/ n describe 9 8 small essays ( t5 l9es or less some?+ t he _c draw1 & he mu/ n draw some?+ diff]5t f t :i* he describes4 8,practical0 is a v bad t]m = ! developm5t ( judgm5t 9 *ildr5 yet x is ! late/ ^w ( philosophy :i* is introduc$ "h4 ,a good deal ( ! new education 9 ,italy is done ?r\gh ! tea*+ ( hi/ory4 ,x may be po9t$ out1 = in/ance1 by ! tea*]s1 t ,russia has _h less importance 9 ! developm5t ( civilisation ?an ,engl& or ,france1 ?\gh !y are s mu* small]4 ,?is is po9t$ out z be+ a pro( t ! importance ( a c\ntry has no?+ to d ei!r ) ! area x occupies on ! map or ) ! numb] ( its inhabitants4 ,a!ns & ,p]sia may be oppos$ 9 ! same way4 ,! *ild is ?us gradually br\ght to realise ! creative p[] ( man's w :5 x is ! 8good-w0 ( ! ,scriptures4 ,su* w is pres5t$ to him z ! individual w ) a plus4 ,t is to say t ! man :o realises 8 duty t[>ds 8 family1 8 s*ool1 c\ntry & s on1 creates some?+ & !reby is really ! collaborator ( ,god4 ,ano!r side ( ?is education is ! highly ideal notion ( actual reality :i* is en=c$4 ,! *ild is taught t s*ool is n a p>ticul> build+1 b any place :]e !re is a ma/] to tea* & pupils to le>n4 ,! "* ( su* a place is b\nd to ! two acts ( tea*+ & le>n+1 !re=e1 _! lib]ty is a sacr$ ?+4 ,he :o prev5ts ! ma/] f be+ he>d1 ! pupils f he>+ him & le>n+ :at he says1 de/roys su* lib]ty4 ,ceas+ himself to li/5 & to le>n1 he loses 8 quality z a pupil1 !re=e1 if 8 s*oolfell[s kick him out or ! ma/]1 to protect _! lib]ty & _! "r to le>n1 s5ds him away he has no?+ to say1 = he has =feit$ 8 rights by ceas+ to le>n4 ,he is a pupil 9 z f> z he is le>n+4 ,x is ne$less to po9t out t 9 consequ5ce ( ?is a workman is entitl$ to 8 rights z su*1 only s long z he is a contributor to ! productivity ( ! ent]prise 9 :i* he is work+2 t a l&[n] is ! own] ( 8 l& z f> z he dis*>ges 8 duty z su*1 :i* is ( mak+ su* l& produce z mu* z possible = himself1 = 8 t5ants & = ! c\ntry2 t a man has ! rights ( a citiz5 z long z he is consci\s ( 8 be+ "o & dis*>ges all ! duties correlative to 8 rights4 ,! ,g5tilian re=m ) ,mussol9i's au?ority has be5 able to infuse a new life into ! tea*]s ( ! elem5t>y s*ools4 ,!y h tak5 _! "w up z an apo/olate4 ,boys & girls "k n[ t manual "w is z dignifi$ z any1 & t x has ! m]it ( be+ always 9 dem& & be+ m productive ?an %op & (fice "w4 ,!y are taught t !y mu/ ?9k1 :5 !y *oose a call+1 ( _! old p :om !y may h to help & ( ! family :i* !y are go+ to create4 ,on ?is p>ticul> po9t ! success is wond]ful & ! au?or has _h sev]al opportunities ( realis+ x4 ,9 ,rome %e 0 met by ! reque/ ( a wid[1 ! "m ( f\r *ildr51 to recomm5d h] elde/ son #ae ye>s old1 to a s5ator to see if he c\ld n f9d him a job z callboy4 ,objection 0 made to ! *oice ( ! job1 s badly paid & s t$i\s1 good at mo/ = a weak or less clev] lad2 ! recomm5dation1 h[ev]1 0 promis$ out ( respect = ! "m's *oice4 ,b ! morn+ aft] ! boy appe>$1 r %y1 & full ( apologies4 ,he _h und]/ood t ! *oice ( ! job _h n be5 approv$4 ,might he say :at he felt ab\t x8 ,!n he began to unburd5 himself4 8,y "k1 miss1 ,i _c /& ! notion ( op5+ doors1 answ]+ bells & c>ry+ trays4444 ,i want to h a real call+4444 ,if ,i am a tra9$ workman ,i c g all ov] ! _w1 or /ay "h & m>ry1 help+ my "m all along1 because ,i c get #ce lire a day & ev5 m4 ,if ,i am a real workman 4440 ,he made up 8 m9d to be a pr9t] & 0 introduc$ to a publi%]4 ,religi\s & patriotic z x is1 education 9 ,italy is1 moreov]1 gr\nd$ on a deep s5se ( :at are ! family duties ( man1 & on a few s\nd ideas ( :at is economic 9 e man's life4 ,economy is by ,mussol9i trans=m$ into a moral value4 ,9 ?is aga9 we see 8 political g5ius go+ to meet ,croce's !ories )\t kn[+ any?+ ab\t !m4 ,= ,croce1 an action is economic :5 x is due to ! w ( a well-in=m$ individual1 x becomes moral :5 ! individual's act ( w is consonant ) ! w ( ! :ole4 ,! mo/ typical example is t kn[n "u ! "n ( ,campagna del ,grano1 :i* is meant to induce ! l&[n] & 8 t5ants to use ! mo/ sci5tific means ( increas+ ! production ( ! soil1 9 ord] t ! c\ntry %\ld be ei!r fre$ f ! enorm\s exp5diture ( :eat importation or h x balanc$ by ! silk1 w9e1 fruit & oil :i* %\ld be export$ 9 great] quantities4 ,travell+ tea*]s g f village to village & are met will+ly by ! peasants :om !y address 9 ! mo/ homely way4 ,fir/ te*nical sugge/ions are made ) /ati/ics ( results obta9$ 9 ! ne>e/ fields ( exp]im5t4 ,!n !y are discuss$ ) ! m54 ,f9ally1 ^! are told t ! result w be good = !m z !y w get m out ( _! l& )\t _! "w be+ mu* increas$1 b t !y mu/ above all1 rememb] t !y w dis*>ge ! fir/ ( _! civic duty2 _! productive activity is z con/ructive z t ( ! great sci5ti/ & z noble z _! own life 9 ! tr5*es dur+ ! w>4 ,y mu/ no long] pl\gh1 s[1 reap = y\r own self1 t is to say exclusively = y\r mat]ial self1 b = ! /ate1 :i* is t same empirical self plus its transc5d5tal complem5t4 ,!reby pl\gh+1 s[+ & reap+ are no long] ! "w ( ,man1 slave ( 8 mat]ial ne$s1 b ( ,man transc5d+ !m1 )\t disreg>d+ !m1 h[ev]1 & lift+ 8 daily occupation to ! dignity ( a moral realisation ( 8 own economic value4 ,! /ate mu/1 inde$1 accord+ to su* ideas1 be univ]sally pres5t z a moral factor 9 e bran* ( its citiz5's activity4 ,x is1 9 fact1 ! all-p]vad+ consci\sness t man mu/ h ( 8 citiz5%ip :i* expresses itself z gov]nm5t4 ,su* an ass]tion is believ$ by ,fasci/s to be q acceptable to ! p & :]e ! au?or has _h ! possibility ( te/+ ! tru? ( x %e _h ! impression t 9 a little less ?an a ye> ! peasants 7 g5]ally gett+ us$ to x1 & _m act+ ^u x al?\gh !y c\ld n h expla9$ x at all4 ,?is moral %>e ( ! /ate 9 e economic int]e/ is t :i* has made x possible = ! gov]nm5t to "w out ! s*eme ( ! ,national ,syndicates4 ,?is has no?+ to d ) ! ,fasci/ ,syndicates :i* 7 until rec5tly oppos$ to ! ,sociali/ trade unions z "o political organisation to ano!r4 ,! new ,syndicates are to be ( no political col\r at all2 _! action is to be purely economic & !y are ne>ly compulsory4#ab ,e man mu/ belong to "o ( !m ei!r z a lab\r]1 a capitali/ or an intellectual1 ! la/ category conta9+ mo/ pr(essional m54 ,:5 any economic conflict arises--causes ( conflict h be5 r$uc$ to ! l[e/ possible numb]--! ,syndicate ( employ]s s5ds its delegates to meet ! delegate ( ! ,syndicate ( employ$4 ,su* delegates are mo/ly ! secret>ies ( ! ,syndicates & mu/ belong to ! call+ ( ! m5 ^: int]e/s are entru/$ to !m2 !n !y mu/ h qualifi$ & hold a diploma te/ify+ to _! te*nical & economic k ( ! problems t !y may h to treat4 ,! fact t !y mu/ belong to ! trade !y ex]cise & actually ex]cise x1 sweeps away all ! pr(essional secret>ies ( trade unions1 :o1 liv+ out ( _! lead]%ip ( ! workm51 are ready to d any?+ to reta9 _! po/s4 ,no less important is ! necessity ( _! te*nical & economical qualification4 ,yet z = ! mom5t !re are no su* qualifi$ p to be _h & ! p are n yet us$ to *oose _! repres5tative accord+ to _! value 9 ! trade & common-s5se !y are appo9t$ by ! gov]nm5t4 ,& ?is is "o weak po9t ( ! organisation1 al?\gh x is obvi\sly a tempor>y "o4 ,= ! re/ x is simply wond]ful4 ,! delegates ( ! two syndicates--employ$ & employ]s--meet1 & !y discuss ! po9t at issue4 ,usually !y come to an agreem5t because ! greate/ consid]ation is tak5 ( ! economic facts1 local conditions ( life1 supply & dem& ( "w & s on4 ,fail+ agreem5t1 ! syndicates !mselves meet & discuss ! matt]4 ,if ! agreem5t is n possible ! delegates meet aga91 b 9 ! pres5ce ( a special magi/rate1 :o /udies ! case & ^: conclusions are en=c$ by law4 ,no lock-out or /rike is ev5 contemplat$2 !y h become an (f5ce aga9/ ! community1 & z su* liable to v>i\s p5alties4 ,m5 are free to produce1 b n to de/roy4 ,?is br+s our /udy to a conclusion1 s9ce to deal ) any "o po9t ( ^? :i* h be5 m]ely sket*$ "h w\ld require a :ole volume4 ,! p's w is free s long z :at !y wi% is = ! common good & _! own good1 b x is n free to want any?+ t is ei!r n = ! common good or aga9/ x4 ,football is /ill ! be/ example4 ,! m5 ( a team freely want to w9 ! mat* & freely d :at !y are ord]$ to d by _! capta91 b !y are n free to %[ (f or to spoil ! game1 to spite ! capta9 or any "o ( ! m54 ,mussol9i makes no my/]y ab\t x2 8 p>ty has come into ! _w z ! negation ( ! ,rights ( ,man z !y 7 =mulat$ 9 ! eighte5? c5tury2 z ! negation ( ,lib]ty z x has be5 und]/ood1 t is to say ab/ract+ x f its correlative t]m ,law2 z ! negation ( democracy z f> z democracy is und]/ood1 ?r\gh a wrong int]pretation ( its ,greek root tak+ p z equival5t to l[] class1 is quantity oppos$ to quality--:]eas x is equival5t to ! nation z a :ole2 z ! negation ( ! equality ( #aghi :i* 0 mat]ially & me*anically conceiv$4 ,yet su* negations are ! prelim9>y /age to affirmations--! affirmation ( ! rights ( man aris+ f 8 consci\sness ( duty2 ( lib]ty z ! positive t]m ( ,law1 yet z insep>able f x z light f %ad[2 ( democracy und]/ood z ! impossibility ( any class will+ to rule by =ce ov] o!r classes1 be x by ! =ce ( weal?1 arms1 or numb]s2 f9ally1 ! equality ( m51 bo? moral & legal1 accord+ to :i* e man's rights mu/ be proportion$ to :at he does = ! community4 ,! great new feature ( x is ! idea ( /ate & citiz5 ^u :i* ! :ole ,mussol9ian legislation & gov]nm5t is bas$ al?\gh x seems nev] to m5tion x4 ,:il/ 9 ! ,anglo-,saxon & ,fr5* views ( political reality ! ,/ate is a function ( ! citiz52 :il/ 9 ! ,g]man view1 :e!r 9 its ,imp]iali/ic or ,communi/ic =m1 ! citiz5 is a function ( ! /ate1 = mod]n ,italy ! /ate is ! consci\sness ( ! citiz5 transc5d+ itself & po/ulat+ itself 9 religi\s objectivity4 ,no class diff]5ces1 no f9ancial diff]5ces may !re=e be r5d]$ p]man5t by ! ,/ate4 ,no c>e mu/ be sp>$ t may ensure _! et]nal mutability4 ,diff]5ces are necess>y to p]mit moral1 social1 & economic progress2 b _! f]tility lies 9 _! ela/icity4 ,if 8,avanti0 0 n ! motto ( ,socialism ! ,fasci/s c\ld make x !irs2 z x is1 re9troduc+ fai? & belief at ! basis ( man's life !y seem to po9t to high] moral1 political & economical conque/s4 ,! only motto t c befit ! black %irts movem5t is !re=e ,sursum corda4 ,,footnotes #a ,! au?or wi%es to /ate t be+ a ,nationali/ h]self %e has be5 unable to assume t[>ds ,nationalism ! purely critical attitude t %e has kept t[>ds ,socialism4 #b ,j z ! idea ( family 9 any "o individual makes him feel t ! re/ ( ! p are to him n 8 family1 are to him objective reality1 :il/ 8 p are to him ,,! ,,family1 & "p ( 8 subjective reality4 #c ,! au?or has liv$ 9 ,italy z a /ud5t s9ce ,may1 #aiac1 9 con/ant contact ) p ( all classes4 #d ,to ref] to "o s+le di/rict & to facts directly kn[n by ! au?or1 x may be /at$ t 9 ,may1 #aibj1 mo/ ( ! prov9ce ( ,ud9e hav+ be5 organis$ "u ,don ,/urzo's :ite bann]1 ! peasants _h _! m9ds p]v]t$ by ! v prie/s to :om !y _h look$ hi!rto = moral guidance1 to ! ext5t ( />v+ _! own cattle1 ( ceas+ to milk _! c[s1 leav+ hundr$s ( bea/s h[l+ day & night = a week4 7,"s ( ! l&-own]s1 above all ^? :o 7 sportsm51 did _! be/1 at ! risk ( _! life1 to relieve ! poor animals1 b c\ld n manage to g r\nd ! /ables e day47 ,! pres5t writ] is a ,roman ,ca?olic1 a fri5d ( peasants :]ev] %e goes & an animal lov]2 %e c\ld n !re=e speak ) equanimity ( a p>ty :o us$ ! prie/s ( h] own *ur* to speak words ( viol5ce on ! /eps ( ! alt> or 9 ! p>sonage-h\ses1 mak+ bullies ( c\ntry folk %e has kn[n = ?irte5 ye>s z excell5t p1 look+ aft] _! cattle ) s mu* humanity t !y nev] sit d[n to a meal be=e _! bea/s are f$4 ,x is !re=e bett] to /ate a few facts ) names & dates4 ,9 ,may1 #aibj1 9 ,san ,m>t9o al ,tagliam5to1 ,c\nt ,francesco di ,pramp]o 0 seque/]$ 9 8 h\se ) f\r m5 ( ! :ite legion m\nt+ gu>d on 8 doors1 to compel him to yield to ! w ( ! prie/s & _! foll[]s4 ,! same might be said ( all ! l&-own]s ( ! villages :]e ,don ,/urzism fl\ri%$4 ,b ,c\nt ,francesco di ,pramp]o is select$ "h z be+ su* a fri5d ( peasants1 t he nev] liv$ ) 8 family1 s9ce he 0 9 8 te5s pref]r+ ! company ( 8 t5ants1 al?\gh he belongs to ! mo/ anci5t ari/ocracy4 ,9 ! same ye> gr\ps ( foll[]s ( ,don ,/urzo & "s ,arditi ,bian*i w5t ab\t ) _! :ite flag compell+ p to kiss ! hem ( x & can+ ^? :o w\ld n1 ! ,arditi ,bian*i1 :o 7 ! arm$ legion ( ! p>ty1 be+ ready to %oot ! obdurate m5 or wom54 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! mo/ t]rible h>m 0 t ( ! sacram5ts1 9 a prov9ce z religi\s z t ( ,ud9e1 s t x is no wond] t ,b5$ict ,,xv1 ask$ by ! pres5t writ] if he c\ld approve su* ?+s1 0 absolutely %ock$ & let h] und]/& t s9ce ! w> x 0 8 greate/ torm5t4 ,space compels to br+ ?is note to a conclusion1 & x may be said t "o ( ! =emo/ lieut5ants ( ,don ,/urzo1 9 t ,prov9ce1 0 ,monsignor ,gori1 a canon ( ! ca!dral ( ,ud9e1 a man :o rejoic$ ov] ! defeat ( 8 c\ntry at ,caporetto1 befri5d$ ! invad]s1 & betray$ two wom5 :o _h said to him t !y 7 pray+ = ! victory ( ! allies1 s t on 8 d5unciation !y 7 condemn$ by ! ,au/rians4 ,?is may give a fair idea ( :at 0 a p>ty t took su* a man n only 9 its ranks1 b z a ma9 ag5t1 kn[+ him to be ev5 !n1 be=e ! adv5t ( ,fascism1 9 antagonism ) 8 ,ar*bi%op1 ^: patriotism has s9ce br\ght ^u him ! und]h& p]secution ( ! cl]gy t _h be5 contam9at$ by ,don ,/urzism ev5 9 its ecclesia/ical discipl9e4 #e ,see ,francisco de ,sancti's ,/oria della ,lett]atura ,italiana1 ,lateza1 ,b>i1 vol4 ii1 *ap4 i4 #f ,philosophy ( ! ,practical4 #aiab4 ,macmillan1 ,london4 #g ,quot$ by ,wildon ,c>r's ,! ,philosophy ( ,m9d ( ,b5$etto ,croce4 #h ,op4 cit4 #i ,op4 cit41 page #dia4 #aj ,! same c be said ( ! ,israelite community4 #aa ,negativity does n imply unreality4 #ab ,! way 9 :i* !y are compulsory is n q simple2 b ! fact is t :5 ! new in/itutions are fram$ m5 w p]haps get _! political rights z memb]s ( ! corporations4 ,,index ,alb]ti1 ,leone ,batti/a1 #hg ,alfi]i1 #afh ,ardigo1 #afd ,aret9o1 #aja ,ario/o1 #aja ,ari/otle1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #id1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #agb1 #baf ,bacon1 ,francis1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #ib1 #ic1 #abj1 #adf1 #aia ,bacon1 ,rog]1 #fd ,ba9ville1 #aad1 #aae ,bayle1 #adf1 #adg ,beltramelli1 #bab ,b]keley1 #adi ,bod91 #id ,boccacio1 #ha ,bassuet1 #hb ,bism>ck1 #be1 #bf ,cairoli1 #ba1 #bb ,campanella1 #ajj1 #aja1 #aje ,c>ducci1 #dc ,c>lo1 ,alb]to1 #ad ,cav\r1 #aj1 #ad1 #cc1 #ahe ,*]bury1 ,h]b]t (1 #adb ,corneille1 #aaf ,cola di ,ri5zo1 #ha ,co/a1 ,&ria1 #bg1 #bh1 #ij1 #bae ,c>rad9i1 #cj1 #cb1 #cc1 #dj ,crispi1 #bj1 #bd ,croce1 #hh1 #hi1 #abe1 #acj1 #agj-ahh1 #ahi1 #baf1 #bbb ,cromwell1 #if1 #ii1 #ajj ,cumb]l&1 #ada ,cuoco1 ,v9c5zo1 #abb1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afb1 #afh ,dante1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 #afh1 #bab1 #bac ,d',annunzio1 #dh1 #eb ,d',azeglio ,massimo1 #aa ,depretis1 #be ,de ,ruggi]o1 ,g41 #afc ,de ,sanctis1 #af1 #gg1 #hc1 #aja1 #ajd1 #afd1 #afe1 #afg1 #afh1 #afi1 #agj1 #aga1 #agb1 #baf ,desc>tes1 #fd1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #aaj1 #aad-abd1 #abf1 #adf1 #aia ,ercole1 #hi ,f$]zoni1 #cj1 #cb1 #cc1 #dj ,fic9o ,m>silio1 #hg ,fior5t9o1 #afd ,fr$]ick ,,ii1 #gg1 #hg ,fi*te1 #bac ,g>ibaldi1 #aj1 #aa1 #bj1 #bd1 #cc ,g5tile1 #ce1 #ei1 #fj1 #gf1 #abe1 #acj1 #acb1 #aga1 #ahh-baj ,giob]ti1 #af1 #aei1 #afb1 #afc1 #afd1 #afe1 #aga ,ghibell9es1 #gh1 #gi1 #hc ,giolitti1 #cg1 #eb ,grotius1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #abg ,gu>9i1 #aje ,guicci>d9i1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aaa1 #aab ,guelphs1 #gh1 #gi1 #hc ,hegel1 #fb1 #gf1 #ih1 #aed1 #aei1 #afe1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bac ,hobbes1 #ic1 #ie1 #if1 #ig1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajj1 #aji1 #aaa1 #abb1 #abg1 #abi1 #adf ,hume1 #ih1 #adf ,johnson1 #hb ,kant1 #adj1 #adi1 #aed1 #afb1 #afd1 #bjc1 #bjh ,l\is ,,xiv1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abd ,l&9o1 #hg ,lvy ,bruhl1 #fb ,leibniz1 #abd1 #afc ,locke1 #ajj1 #abe1 #acb1 #ach1 #ahi ,ma*iavelli1 #dj1 #da1 #db1 #hf1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aaj1 #aab1 #afh1 #agb1 #agd ,mle1 #fi1 #gb ,mazz9i1 #aa1 #ad1 #bj1 #cc1 #aee1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa1 #afh1 #ahe1 #bae ,malesp9i1 ,a41 #gg ,m>ita91 #aag ,m>x1 #fb ,monni]1 ,ph41 #hg ,melzi1 #aeg ,mill1 #afd ,mi*elangelo1 #aff ,m+hetti1 #bd ,montaigne1 #adf ,montesquieu1 #adg1 #adi ,mussol9i1 #bi1 #ce1 #cg1 #dc1 #gf1 #gg1 #hh1 #ajc1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #aei1 #agj1 #aga1 #agg1 #ahj1 #ahf ,nitti1 #eb ,newton1 #adf ,orange1 ,william1 #ajj1 #ach ,pascal1 #adf ,pagano1 #aee ,plato1 #ace ,plut>*1 #acc ,poliziano1 #afg ,petr>*1 #hj1 #ha1 #hc ,piccolom9i1 #hb ,pisano ,nicolo1 #gf ,rosm9i1 #af1 #aei1 #afb1 #afd1 #aga ,reggio1 ,e41 #ge ,r\sseau1 #ajg1 #abf1 #abh1 #ach1 #ade1 #adh1 #adi1 #aej1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aee1 #bjg ,sal&ra1 #cg1 #db ,saitta1 #adi ,san ,giuliano1 #cg ,s>fatti1 #bab ,savon>ola1 #afb ,s*ola/icism1 #fc1 #fd1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #aai1 #abh ,%aftesbury1 #ada1 #adb ,sonn9o1 #cg1 #db ,solmi1 #gf ,spav5ta1 #afd1 #afe ,sp9oza1 #hi1 #abi ,/urzo1 & 8 p>ty1 #dg1 #dh1 #di1 #eb1 #ec1 #bbe ,/4 ,anselm1 #fd ,/4 ,augu/91 #aai1 #aba ,/4 ,?omas1 #fd1 #id1 #ajh1 #abi1 #bjh ,tasso1 #aje ,tol&1 #adb1 #adc ,tocco1 #afd ,vico1 #fe1 #hj1 #ih1 #aaa1 #abd-acf1 #adi1 #aed1 #afc1 #afe1 #afh1 #agb1 #baf ,vill>i1 #afc ,vittorio1 ,emmanuele1 #ad ,wildon ,c>r1 #aij ,,made ,,& ,,pr9t$ ,,9 ,,great ,,brita9 ,,by ,,! ,,g>d5 ,,city ,,press ,,limit$1 ,,let*wor?1 ,,h]ts ,transcrib]'s notes ,no attempt has be5 made to correct or normalize ! spell+ ( prop] names or non-,engli% text4 ,! index is 9 orig9al ord]4 ,footnotes h be5 ga!r$ at ! end ( ! text1 be=e ! index4 ,! includ$ cov] is a modifi$ v]sion ( ! book's title page & is plac$ 9 ! public doma94