,,agricultural ,,zoology ,,by ,,dr4 ,j4 ,,ritzema ,,bos1 ,,lecturer ,,in ,,the ,,royal ,,agricultural ,,college1 ,,wageningen1 ,,holland4 ,,with ,,an ,,introduction ,,by ,,eleanor ,a4 ,,ormerod1 ,f4,r4,,met4,s41 ,f4,r4,m4,s41 ,,etc41 ,,formerly ,,hon4 ,,consulting ,,entomologist ,,to ,,the ,,royal ,,agricultural ,,society ,,of ,,england4 ,,translated ,,by ,j4 ,r4 ,,ainsworth ,,davis1 ,b4,a4 7,,trin4 ,,coll4 ,,camb471 ,f4,c4,p41 ,,professor ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,wales1 ,,and ,,professor ,,of ,,biology ,,and ,,geology ,,in ,,the ,,scientific ,,and ,,agricultural ,,departments ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,college ,,of ,,wales4 ,,with #adi ,,illustrations4 ,,london3 ,,chapman ,,hall1 ,,ld4 #ahid ,,author',s ,,preface4 ,the present volume of the ,thaer ,library was undertaken with the intention of providing agricultural colleges with a condensed review of the entire animal kingdom1 but treating in greater detail the animals harmful or helpful to agriculture4 ,i have1 however1 omitted all reference to the domesticated farm animals1 as in all such institutions these are treated of1 not by the zoologist1 but by the lecturer on stock-breeding4 ,although the book is not allowed to exceed a certain size1 ,i have taken great pains to make it intelligible1 and venture to hope that it may be found suitable for the private use of the practical farmer4 ,to the farmer who wishes more exhaustive information1 and desires a reference book on the animal foes of agriculture1 stock-breeding1 horticulture1 fruit-tree culture1 and forestry1 ,i venture to point out my larger work1 ,animal ,foes and ,friends1#a brought out last year by the publisher of this book4 ,footnote #a3 ,tierische ,schdlinge und ,ntzlinge fr ,ackerbau1 ,viehzucht1 ,wald- und ,gartenbau4 ,lebensformen1 ,vorkommen1 ,einfluss und die ,massregeln zu ,vertilgung und ,schutz4 ,praktisches ,handbuch v4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,ritzema ,bos1 ,docent an der landwirtschaftl4 ,lehranstalt in ,wageningen4 ,mit #dgg eingedruckten ,abbildungen4 ,preis #ah m41 geb4 #bj m4 ,verlag von ,paul ,parey1 #aj ,hedemannstrasse1 ,berlin1 ,s4,w4 ,it is hoped that the present volume may be found serviceable1 both in the teaching of agricultural institutions1 and to the practical farmer4 ,,dr4 ,j4 ,,ritzema ,,bos4 ,,wageningen1 ,february1 #ahib4 ,,translator',s ,,preface4 ,agricultural education is making such rapid strides in this country1 that no apology is needed for translating a book which appears to fill a gap1 especially as it is written by a well-known authority4 ,dr4 ,ritzema ,bos has kindly allowed certain small alterations to be made which adapt the work to the requirements of ,british agriculture4 ,additions are indicated by square brackets1 and small print employed in the case of some non-,british animals4 ,a few forms have been omitted for similar reasons4 ,constant reference has been made to the published works of ,miss ,e4 ,a4 ,ormerod1 who has added to my obligation by writing an ,introduction1 and ,i also wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,salter1 ,b4,sc41 and ,mr4 ,j4 ,dawson ,roberts1 ,m4,r4,c4,v4,s41 for kind help given by them4 ,j4 ,r4 ,,ainsworth ,,davis4 ,,aberystwyth1 ,may1 #ahid ,,introduction4 ,by request of ,professor ,ainsworth ,davis1 the skilled translator of this 8handy-book0 on 8,agricultural ,zoology10 ,i add some words of introduction2 and ,i have especial pleasure in so doing3 not that any observations of mine can add value to the work of the well-known author1 but because1 having myself had the advantage for many years of colleagueship1 and important help in my own work from the assistance of ,dr4 ,ritzema ,bos1 ,i am well acquainted both with his extensive knowledge and also his scrupulous care in observation1 and ,i believe that this abstract of his larger work1 now given in a form in which it is available for general use1 will meet a great need4 ,we have long wanted a book1 plain in wording1 and of moderate size1 dealing with the wild animals or animal infestations generally which occur in connection with farm life--a manual1 in fact1 which1 whilst suitable for the use of agricultural students and teachers1 should at the same time not be too technically scientific to be intelligible to practical farmers or to general readers4 ,in the pages of the present volume a very serviceable amount of information will be found to be embodied4 ,so far as can be arranged in the limited space the chief characteristics of the main divisions of the animal kingdom are given1 from the ,vertebrata--including descriptions of some of our most notable forms of what may be popularly described as beasts1 birds1 and reptiles1--to the ,arthropoda1 including information on a most serviceable amount of insect infestation2 also regarding ,mites1 ,ticks1 etc4 ,these are followed by the ,vermes1 including1 among other families of the ,nematoda1 the eelworms which cause so much injury to crop growth2 and these are followed by the intestinal tapeworms and the fluke4 ,the fourth sub-kingdom1 that of ,mollusca1 includes1 besides snails and slugs1 various kinds of shell-fish2 and the lower sub-kingdoms--including ,echinodermata1 which may be typified by starfishes and sea urchins1 the ,clenterata1 or ,zoophytes1 and the ,protozoa--will be found to be just entered on sufficiently to show their place in the scale4 ,the clear descriptions1 made still more instructive by the numerous and good figures1 will speak for themselves to all readers2 but ,i should like to add a few lines to point out the serviceableness of a handbook in which the reader may turn at pleasure to the history of any common farm animal--as a weasel or a vole1 a wood-pigeon or a pheasant1 a blindworm or a common frog4 ,and1 in regard to the insect infestations1 to which it will be seen more than a hundred pages of the book are devoted1 ,i can bear witness to the great amount of valuable information which ,i constantly derive myself from the study of the writings of ,dr4 ,ritzema ,bos on this subject2 and ,i trust this little manual of 8,agricultural ,zoology0 may take the place in our farm and school libraries which ,i believe it to be excellently fitted to fill4 ,,eleanor ,a4 ,,ormerod1 ,late ,consulting ,entomologist of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england4 ,,torrington ,,house1 ,,st4 ,,alban',s1 ,may #bd1 #ahid4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,introduction-- ,i4 ,subdivision of the ,animal ,kingdom #a ,,ii4 ,review of the ,structure and ,vital ,phenomena of ,animals #c-af ,first ,sub-,kingdom3 ,,vertebrata 7,backboned ,animals7 #af-hb ,,class ,i3 ,,mammalia 7,sucklers7 #ba-dh ,,order3 ,carnivora 7,beasts of ,prey7 #bd-cj ,family3 ,felid 7,cat ,family7 #bd-be ,family3 ,canid 7,dog ,family7 #be-bf 7,wolf1 p4 #be2 ,fox1 p4 #bf47 ,family3 ,mustelid 7,weasel ,family7 #bf-cj 7,martens and ,polecat1 p4 #bf2 ,ferret1 p4 #bg2 ,stoat and ,weasel1 p4 #bh2 ,mink1 ,otter1 and ,badger1 p4 #bi47 ,,order3 ,insectivora 7,insect-eating ,mammals7 #cj-cc 7,shrews1 pp4 #cj1 #ca2 ,mole1 pp4 #ca-cc2 ,hedgehog1 p4 #cc47 ,,order3 ,cheiroptera 7,bats7 #cc-ce ,,order3 ,rodentia 7,gnawing ,mammals7 #ce-dc ,family3 ,leporid 7,hares and ,rabbits7 #cf-ch 7,hare and ,rabbit1 p4 #cg47 ,family3 ,murid 7,mouse ,family7 #ch-da 7,hamster1 ,black ,rat1 and ,brown ,rat1 p4 #ci2 ,common ,mouse1 ,long-tailed ,field ,mouse1 and ,harvest ,mouse1 p4 #dj2 ,corn ,mouse1 p4 #da47 ,family3 ,arvicolid 7,vole ,family7 #da-dc 7,bank ,vole and ,water ,vole1 p4 #db2 ,field ,vole1 pp4 #db1 #dc2 ,southern ,field ,vole1 p4 #dc47 ,,order3 ,ruminantia 7,cud-chewing ,mammals7 #dd-dg ,family3 ,cervid 7,deer ,family7 #de-dg 7,red ,deer1 p4 #df2 ,roebuck and ,fallow ,deer1 p4 #dg47 ,,order3 ,multungula or ,pachydermata 7,many-hoofed or ,thick-skinned ,mammals7 #dh 7,wild ,boar1 p4 #dh47 ,,order3 ,solidungula 7,single-hoofed ,mammals7 #dh ,,class ,,ii3 ,,aves 7,birds7 #di-gd ,,order3 ,raptores 7,birds of ,prey7 #ec-ee ,,order3 ,scansores 7,climbing ,birds7 #ee-ef 7,cuckoo1 pp4 #ee1 #ef47 ,,order3 ,passeres 7,perching ,birds7 #eg-fe ,group3 ,hirundinid 7,swallows7 #eg-eh 7,swallows and ,martins1 p4 #eg2 ,swift and ,goatsucker1 p4 #eh47 ,group3 ,magnirostres 7,large-beaked ,perchers7 #eh-fa 7,jackdaw1 ,crows1 ,rook1 and ,raven1 pp4 #ei-fa2 ,magpie and ,jay1 p4 #fa47 ,group3 ,conirostres 7,conical-beaked ,perchers7 #fa-fd 7,titmice1 ,larks1 and ,buntings1 pp4 #fa1 #fb2 ,finches1 p4 #fb2 ,sparrows1 pp4 #fb1 #fc2 ,linnet1 p4 #fc2 ,chaffinch1 pp4 #fc1 #fd47 ,group3 ,subulirostres 7,awl-beaked ,perchers7 #fd-fe 7,wagtails1 ,pipits1 and ,hedge 8,sparrow10 p4 #fd2 ,warblers1 pp4 #fd1 #fe2 ,thrush-like birds1 p4 #fe47 ,,order3 ,gyrantes 7,doves7 #fe-fg 7,wood ,pigeon1 pp4 #ff1 #fg2 ,turtle ,dove and ,rock ,pigeon1 p4 #fg47 ,,order3 ,rasores 7,poultry7 #fg-fh 7,pheasant1 p4 #fh47 ,,order3 ,grallatores 7,wading-,birds7 #fh-gj ,,order3 ,natatores 7,swimming-,birds7 #gj-gd ,family3 ,lamellirostra 7,ducks7 #ga-gc ,family3 ,longipennes 7,gulls7 #gc-gd ,,class ,,iii43 ,,reptilia 7,reptiles7 #gd-gi ,,class ,,iv43 ,,amphibia 7,amphibians7 #gi-ha ,,class ,v43 ,,pisces 7,fishes7 #ha-hb ,second ,sub-,kingdom3 ,,arthropoda 7,jointed-limbed ,animals7 #hb-bjf ,,class ,i43 ,,insecta 7,insects7 #he-aid ,,order ,i43 ,coleoptera 7,beetles7 #id-aah ,family3 ,carabid 7,ground ,beetles7 #id-if 7,corn ,ground ,beetle1 pp4 #ie1 #if47 ,family3 ,staphylinid 7,rove ,beetles7 #if-ig ,family3 ,silphid 7,burying ,beetles7 #ig 7,black ,burying ,beetle1 and ,beet ,carrion ,beetle1 p4 #ig47 ,family3 ,nitidulid 7,shine ,beetles7 #ig-ih 7,turnip-flower ,beetle1 pp4 #ig1 #ih47 ,family3 ,cryptophagid 7,secret-eating ,beetles7 #ih-ii 7,beet ,beetle1 pp4 #ih1 #ii47 ,family3 ,lamellicornia 7,chafers7 #ii-ajb 7,cockchafer1 pp4 #ajj1 #aja2 ,buckwheat ,beetle1 p4 #aja2 ,rye and ,garden ,chafers1 p4 #ajb47 ,family3 ,elaterid 7,click ,beetles7 #ajb-aje 78,wireworms10 pp4 #ajc-aje47 ,family3 ,curculionid 7,weevils7 #aje-aaj 7,seed ,beetles1 pp4 #ajf1 #ajg2 ,pea ,weevil1 pp4 #ajg1 #ajh2 ,mouse-tooth ,weevils1 p4 #ajh2 ,gall ,weevils1 pp4 #ajh-aaj47 ,family3 ,chrysomelid 7,leaf ,beetles7 #aaj-aag 7,colorado ,beetle1 pp4 #aaa-aac2 ,tortoise ,beetles1 pp4 #aac1 #aad2 ,flea ,beetles1 #aad-aag47 ,family3 ,coccinellid 7,lady ,birds7 #aag-aah ,,order ,,ii43 ,orthoptera 7,straight-winged ,insects7 #aah-aba 7,migratory ,grasshopper1 pp4 #aai1 #abj2 ,mole ,cricket1 pp4 #abj1 #aba47 ,,order ,,iii43 ,neuroptera 7,net-winged ,insects7 #aba-abc 7,dragon ,flies1 p4 #abb2 ,lace ,flies1 pp4 #abb1 #abc2 ,scorpion ,flies1 p4 #abc47 ,,order ,,iv43 ,hymenoptera 7,membranous-winged ,insects7 #abc-acf ,family3 ,apid 7,bees7 #abe-abf ,family3 ,vespid 7,wasps7 #abf-abh ,family3 ,fossores 7,digging ,wasps7 #abh-abi ,family3 ,formicid 7,ants7 #abi-acb ,family3 ,ichneumonid 7,ichneumon ,flies7 #acb-acd ,family3 ,tenthredinid 7,saw-flies7 #acd-acf 7,turnip ,saw-fly1 pp4 #acd-acf47 ,,order ,v43 ,lepidoptera 7,butterflies and ,moths7 #acf-aei ,family3 ,diurna 7,butterflies7 #acg-adb 7,whites1 pp4 #ach-adb47 ,family3 ,noctuid 7,owlet ,moths7 #adb-aeb 7,surface ,caterpillars1 p4 #adc2 ,dart or ,turnip ,moth1 pp4 #adc-ade2 ,cabbage ,moth1 pp4 #ade-adg2 ,lettuce and ,pea ,moths1 p4 #adg2 ,grass-root ,moth1 p4 #adh2 ,couch-grass ,moth1 pp4 #adh1 #adi2 ,wheat-haulm ,moth1 p4 #adi2 ,grass ,moth1 pp4 #adi1 #aej2 ,darnel ,moth1 p4 #aej2 ,silver ,y ,moth1 pp4 #aea1 #aeb47 ,family3 ,pyralid 7,snout ,moths7 #aeb-aee ,family3 ,tortricid 7,leaf-rollers7 #aee-aeg 7,fawn-coloured ,pea ,moth1 p4 #aef2 ,crescent ,pea ,moth1 pp4 #aef1 #aeg47 ,family3 ,tineid 7,leaf-miners7 #aeg-aei 7,carrot ,moth1 pp4 #aeg1 #aeh2 ,diamond-back ,moth1 pp4 #aeh1 #aei47 ,,order ,,vi43 ,hemiptera 7,half-winged ,insects7 #aei-afc ,family3 ,aphid 7,plant ,lice7 #aei-afc ,,order ,,vii43 ,physopoda 7,bladder-footed ,insects7 #afc-afd 7,thrips1 pp4 #afc1 #afd47 ,,order ,,viii43 ,diptera 7,flies7 #afd-aic ,family3 ,culicin 7,gnats7 #afd-afe ,family3 ,gallicol 7,gall ,gnats7 #afe-agj 7,hessian ,fly1 pp4 #aff-afh2 ,scarlet ,wheat ,midge1 pp4 #afh1 #afi2 ,wheat ,midge1 #afi1 #agj47 ,family3 ,rostrat 7,crane ,flies7 #agj-agb ,family3 ,muscformes 7,gnat ,flies7 #agc-agd 7,sand ,flies1 pp4 #agc1 #agd47 ,family3 ,tabanid 7,gad ,flies7 #agd ,family3 ,muscid 7,true ,flies7 #age-ahd 7,caterpillar and ,flesh ,flies1 p4 #age2 ,common ,flies1 p4 #age2 ,flower ,flies1 pp4 #agf1 #agg2 ,cheese-fly1 p4 #agh2 ,ribbon-footed ,corn ,fly1 pp4 #agh-ahb2 ,frit ,fly1 pp4 #ahb-ahd47 ,family3 ,syrphid 7,hover ,flies7 #ahe ,family3 ,stomoxyd 7,stable ,flies7 #ahe-ahf ,family3 strid 7,bot ,flies7 #ahf-aib 7,ox ,warble-fly1 pp4 #ahf-ahh2 ,sheep ,bot ,fly1 pp4 #ahh-aij2 ,horse ,bot1 etc41 pp4 #aij-aib47 ,family3 ,pupipara 7,louse ,flies7 #aib-aic ,,order ,,ix43 ,aphaniptera 7,fleas7 #aic ,,order ,x43 ,parasita 7,lice7 #aic-aid ,,class ,,ii43 ,,myriopoda 7,centipedes and ,millipedes7 #aie ,,class ,,iii43 ,,arachnoidea 7,scorpions1 ,spiders1 ,mites7 #aie-bje ,,order3 ,acaridea 7,mites7 #aif-bjb ,family3 ,acarid 7,true ,mites7 #aif-bjb 7,itch or ,mange ,mites1 pp4 #aif-bjb47 ,family3 ,ixodid 7,ticks7 #bjb-bjd ,family3 ,gamasid 7,beetle ,mites7 #bjd 7,fowl ,mite1 p4 #bjd47 ,family3 ,trombidiid #bje 7,plant ,mite or 8,red ,spider10 p4 #bje47 ,,class ,,iv43 ,,crustacea 7,crustaceans7 #bjf ,third ,sub-,kingdom3 ,,vermes 7,worms7 #bjf-bde ,,class3 ,,annelida 7,segmented ,worms7 #bjg-bji 7,earthworms1 pp4 #bjg-bji47 ,,class3 ,,nematelminthes 7,round ,worms7 #bji-bca ,,order3 ,nematoda 7,thread ,worms7 #baj-bca ,family3 ,strongylid 7,palisade ,worms7 #bab-bae ,family3 ,trichotrachelid 7,whip ,worms7 #bae-bah 7,trichina1 pp4 #baf-bah47 ,family3 ,filarid 7,slender ,thread ,worms7 #bah ,family3 ,ascarid 7,round ,worms7 #bah-bai ,family3 ,anguillulid 7,eelworms7 #bai-bca 7,stem ,eelworm1 pp4 #bbj-bbd2 ,wheat ,eelworm1 pp4 #bbd-bbg2 ,beet ,eelworm1 pp4 #bbg-bcj2 ,root-knot ,eelworm1 p4 #bca47 ,,class3 ,,platyhelmia 7,flat ,worms7 #bca-bde ,,order3 ,cestoda 7,tapeworms7 #bca-bdj ,,order3 ,trematoda 7,flukes7 #bdj-bde ,fourth ,sub-,kingdom3 ,,mollusca 7,mollusca7 #bde-bea ,,class3 ,,cephalopoda 7,cuttlefishes7 #bdg ,,class3 ,,gastropoda 7,snails and ,slugs7 #bdg-bea 7,grey ,field ,slug1 pp4 #bdi-bea47 ,,class3 ,,lamellibranchiata 7,bivalve ,molluscs7 #bea ,fifth ,sub-,kingdom3 ,,echinodermata 7,hedgehog-skinned ,animals7 #beb-bec ,sixth ,sub-,kingdom3 ,c,,lenterata 7,zoophytes7 #bec-bee ,seventh ,sub-,kingdom3 ,,protozoa 7,one-celled ,animals7 #bee-bef ,,illustrations4 ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,schematic ,longitudinal ,section of the ,human ,body #d #b4 ,human ,skeleton #g #c4 ,skeleton of an ,ox #i #d4 ,bending of the ,arm by ,contraction of the ,biceps ,muscle #aj #e4 ,diagram to explain the ,action of the ,motor and ,sensory ,nerves #aa #f4 ,diagram of the ,course of the ,circulation #ac #g4 ,life ,history of the ,small-winged ,gall-fly 7,andricus terminalis7 #ae #h4 ,diagram of a ,fish's ,heart #ah #i4 ,diagram of a ,mammal's ,heart #bj #aj4 ,diagram of a ,reptile's ,heart #bj #aa4 ,diagram of a ,frog's ,heart #ba #ab4 ,vertical ,section of a ,human ,grinding ,tooth #bb #ac4 ,crown of an ,ox's ,grinder #bb #ad4 ,skull of ,domestic ,cat #be #ae4 ,pine ,marten 7,mustela martes7 #bg #af4 ,skull of ,mole #cj #ag4 ,common ,shrew 7,sorex vulgaris7 #ca #ah4 ,skeleton of ,bat #cd #ai4 ,skull of ,squirrel #ce #bj4 ,abnormal ,tooth in ,hare #cg #ba4 ,hamster 7,cricetus frumentarius7 #ch #bb4 ,long-tailed ,field ,mouse 7,mus sylvaticus7 #dj #bc4 ,upper ,back ,teeth of ,brown ,rat #da #bd4 ,upper ,back ,teeth of ,water ,vole #da #be4 ,southern ,field ,vole 7,arvicola arvalis7 #dc #bf4 ,skull of ,sheep #dd #bg4 ,development of ,roebuck ,antlers #de #bh4 ,wing of ,buzzard #ej #bi4 ,section through ,bird's ,egg #ea #cj4 ,eagle ,owl 7,otus maximus7 #eb #ca4 ,head and ,foot of ,falcon #ec #cb4 ,golden ,eagle 7,aquila chrysatus7 #ed #cc4 ,barn ,owl 7,strix flammea7 #ee #cd4 ,cuckoo 7,cuculus canorus7 #ef #ce4 ,goatsucker 7,caprimulgus europus7 #eh #cf4 ,head of ,rook 7,corvus frugilegus7 #fj #cg4 ,head of ,bullfinch 7,pyrrhula vulgaris7 #fb #ch4 ,nightingale 7,daulias luscinia7 #fe #ci4 ,wood ,pigeon 7,columba palumbus7 #ff #dj4 ,capercailzie 7,tetrao urogallus7 #fh #da4 ,pheasant 7,phasianus colchicus7 #fi #db4 ,woodcock 7,scolopax rusticola7 #gj #dc4 ,crested and ,little ,grebes 7,podiceps cristatus and minor7 #ga #dd4 ,grey ,goose 7,anser cinereus7 #gb #de4 ,herring ,gull 7,larus argentatus7 #gd #df4 ,common ,lizard 7,lacerta agilis7 #ge #dg4 ,adder 7,pelias berus7 #gf #dh4 ,grass ,snake 7,tropidonotus natrix7 #gg #di4 ,blindworm 7,anguis fragilis7 #gh #ej4 ,great ,crested ,newt 7,triton cristatus7 #gi #ea4 ,common ,frog 7,rana temporaria7 #hj #eb4 ,natterjack 7,bufo calamita7 #ha #ec4 ,the ,perch 7,perca fluviatilis7 #hb #ed4 ,wood-borer 7,sirex7 #hc #ee4 ,centipede 7,scolopendra morsitans7 #hd #ef4 ,ground ,beetle1 showing ,nervous ,system #hd #eg4 ,disarticulated ,grasshopper #he #eh4 ,head and ,mouth-parts of a ,ground ,beetle #hg #ei4 ,leg of ,ground ,beetle #hh #fj4 ,stages of ,silkworm ,moth 7,bombyx mori7 #hh #fa4 ,stages of ,hornet 7,vespa crabro7 #hi #fb4 ,migratory ,grasshopper 7,acrydium migratorium7 #ij #fc4 ,looper ,caterpillar #ij #fd4 ,false ,caterpillar #ij #fe4 ,stages of ,cockchafer 7,melolontha vulgaris7 #ia #ff4 ,larva of a ,weevil #ib #fg4 ,stages of ,aphis-eating ,fly 7,syrphus pyrasti7 #ib #fh4 ,a ,ground ,beetle 7,carabus auronitens7 #ie #fi4 ,corn ,ground ,beetle 7,zabrus gibbus7 and larva #ie #gj4 ,a ,rove ,beetle 7,staphylinus erythropterus7 #if #ga4 ,black ,burying ,beetle 7,silpha atrata7 and larva #if #gb4 ,antenn of ,cockchafer #ii #gc4 ,abdomens of ,common and ,horse-chestnut ,cockchafers #ajj #gd4 ,skipjack 7,agriotes lineatus7 #ajb #ge4 ,skipjack about to spring #ajc #gf4 ,grain-plants sown deep and shallow1 to show ,wireworm attack #ajd #gg4 ,bean ,beetle 7,bruchus rufimanus7 #ajf #gh4 ,pea ,weevil 7,sitones lineatus7 #ajg #gi4 ,mouse-tooth ,weevil 7,baridius chloris7 and larva #ajh #hj4 ,turnip ,gall ,weevil 7,ceutorhynchus sulcicollis7 #aji #ha4 ,colorado ,beetle 7,chrysomela decemlineata7 #aaa #hb4 ,stages of ,colorado ,beetle #aab #hc4 ,cloudy ,tortoise ,beetle 7,cassida nebulosa7 #aac #hd4 ,rape ,flea ,beetle 7,psylliodes chrysocephalus7 #aad #he4 ,stages of ,seven-spotted ,lady-bird 7,coccinella septempunctata7 #aah #hf4 ,stages of ,common ,lace ,fly 7,chrysopa vulgaris7 #abb #hg4 ,head of ,honey ,bee 7,apis mellifica7 #abd #hh4 ,common ,wasp 7,vespa vulgaris7 and nest #abg #hi4 ,common ,sand ,wasp 7,ammophila sabulosa7 #abi #ij4 ,stages of ,yellow-legged ,ichneumon ,fly 7,microgaster glomeratus7 #acc #ia4 ,turnip ,saw-fly 7,athalia spinarum7 and caterpillars #ace #ib4 ,head of ,butterfly #acf #ic4 ,scales from ,butterfly's ,wing #acf #id4 ,stages of ,peacock ,butterfly 7,vanessa io7 #ach #ie4 ,stages of ,cabbage ,white 7,pieris brassic7 #aci #if4 ,garden ,white 7,pieris rap71 male #ada #ig4 ,garden ,white1 female and caterpillar #ada #ih4 ,green-veined ,white 7,pieris napi7 #adb #ii4 ,dart or ,turnip ,moth 7,agrotis segetum7 and caterpillar #adc #ajj4 ,stages of ,cabbage ,moth 7,mamestra brassic7 #adf #aja4 ,grass ,moth 7,charas ,graminis7 and caterpillar #aej #ajb4 ,stages of ,silver ,y ,moth 7,plusia gamma7 #aea #ajc4 ,hop ,snout ,moth 7,hypena rostralis7 #aec #ajd4 ,mother-of-,pearl ,moth 7,botys margaritalis7 and larva #aee #aje4 ,fawn-coloured ,pea ,moth 7,grapholitha nebritana7 #aef #ajf4 ,larch ,moth 7,coleophora laricella7 #aeg #ajg4 ,wings of a ,bug #aei #ajh4 ,bean ,aphis 7,aphis papaveris7 #afj #aji4 ,corn ,thrips 7,thrips cerealium7 #afc #aaj4 ,wheat ,midge 7,cecidomyia tritici7 #afe #aaa4 ,barley attacked by ,hessian ,fly #afg #aab4 ,larv of ,wheat ,midge 7,cecidomyia tritici7 #afi #aac4 ,stages of ,daddy ,longlegs 7,tipula oleracea7 #aga #aad4 ,rain ,breeze ,fly 7,hmatopota pluvialis7 #agd #aae4 ,caterpillar ,fly 7,tachina fera7 #age #aaf4 ,turnip infested by ,cabbage ,fly 7,anthomyia brassic7 #agg #aag4 ,ribbon-footed ,corn ,fly 7,chlorops tniopus7 #agi #aah4 ,stages of ditto #aha #aai4 ,wheat ,plant distorted by winter generation of ditto #aha #abj4 ,stages1 etc41 of ,frit ,fly 7,oscinis frit7 #ahc #aba4 ,stages of ,horse ,bot ,fly 7,gastrus equi7 #aij #abb4 ,horse ,louse 7,hmatopinus macrocephalus7 #aid #abc4 ,common ,snake ,millipede 7,julus terrestris7 #aie #abd4 ,a ,spider 7,salticus scenicus7 #aif #abe4 ,mange ,mite of the ,pig 7,sarcoptes scabiei1 var4 suis7 #aig #abf4 ,ditto #aih #abg4 ,the ,dog ,tick 7,ixodes ricinus7 #bjc #abh4 ,diagrammatic transverse section through a ,thread ,worm #baj #abi4 ,tail of male ,strongylus armatus #bac #acj4 ,encapsuled ,muscle ,trichin in flesh #bag #aca4 ,male ,intestinal ,trichina #bag #acb4 ,rye ,plant in the later stage of the ,eelworm ,disease #bbb #acc4 ,ear ,cockles of ,wheat #bbe #acd4 ,stages of ,beet ,eelworm 7,heterodera ,schachtii7 #bbf #ace4 ,tnia saginata #bcb #acf4 ,common ,tapeworm 7,tnia officinalis7 #bcd #acg4 ,tapeworm ,larva 7,tnia solium7 #bcd #ach4 ,types of ,bladder-worm #bce #aci4 ,measle of ,tnia solium #bce #adj4 ,measles in ,pork #bcf #ada4 ,liver ,fluke 7,distoma hepaticum7 #bda #adb4 ,life ,history of ,liver ,fluke #bdb #adc4 ,diagrams of ,molluscs #bdf #add4 ,grey ,field ,slug 7,limax agrestis7 #bdi #ade4 ,common ,starfish 7,asterias rubens7 #beb #adf4 ,freshwater ,polype 7,hydra7 #bed #adg4 ,a ,jellyfish 7,pelagia noctiluca7 #bed #adh4 ,a ,sea ,anemone 7,sagartia nivea7 #bed #adi4 ,proteus ,animalcule 7,amba7 #bee ,,zoology4 ,,introduction4 ,i4 ,subdivision of the ,animal ,kingdom4 ,there are animals so like one another that they are given the same name4 ,such animals are ranked in the same species4 ,animals which differ so much that they have to be referred to different species1 but which notwithstanding agree in the majority of their characters1 especially the most important ones1 are placed in the same genus4 ,hare and rabbit1 or horse and donkey1 are reckoned as different species of the same genus4 ,genera resembling one another are united into a family2 thus1 the pine marten and the beech or stone marten both belong to the ,marten genus 7,martes71 while the weasel and stoat are different species of the ,weasel genus 7,mustela72 but these two genera are so similar that they are both placed in the same family1 i4e4 the ,weasel family 7,mustelid74 ,nearly related families together build up an order4 ,thus1 the ,weasel family1 ,dog family1 ,cat family1 etc41 collectively constitute the order of ,carnivora1 characterized1 speaking generally1 by the same kind of teeth1 claws1 habits1 and food4 ,several related orders are united into a class4 ,thus1 for example1 carnivorous animals 7,carnivora71 ruminating animals 7,ruminantia71 gnawing animals 7,rodentia71 etc41 constitute different orders of the class of ,sucklers 7,mammalia72 while birds of prey 7,raptores71 pigeons 7,gyrantes71 and poultry 7,rasores71 are included in a second class1 that of ,birds 7,aves74 ,but both ,birds and ,mammals have a skeleton1 of which the chief support is the backbone2 on this account they are placed in a larger subdivision1 the sub-kingdom of ,backboned animals 7,vertebrata72 while snails are grouped under the sub-kingdom of ,molluscs1 millipedes and centipedes under that of ,jointed-limbed animals 7,arthropods74 ,in this way the animal kingdom is divided into sub-kingdoms1 the sub-kingdoms into classes1 the classes into orders1 the orders into families1 the families into genera1 and the genera into species4 ,animals of the same species which differ from one another in more or less constant characters1 belong to different races 7domestic or geographical races74 ,there are many species of animals the external features of which are well known to ordinary folk1 and which therefore possess a definite ,english name1 but a much larger number1 of the smaller forms especially1 have no ,english name4 ,it is1 therefore1 necessary to devise new names for these species4 ,the ,english names1 however1 are liable to cause great confusion1 since in different districts the same name is often applied to widely different animals4 ,besides this1 distinct names have usually been given to successive stages in the life history of the same form3 8wireworms10 for example1 are the young state of the 8click beetle40 ,by using the scientific method of naming invented by ,linnus1 confusion is made impossible4 ,the ,latin names of this naturalist have the great advantage that they not only give a perfectly distinct name to any particular species1 but also at the same time show the genus to which it belongs4 ,each kind of animal possesses1 in fact1 two names2 just in the same way as every person possesses at least two names1 a ,christian name and a surname4 ,the generic name comes first1 and is1 of course1 common to all animals of the same genus4 ,the second name is the specific one1 and belongs exclusively to animals of the same species4 ,the hare and rabbit1 for example1 are both included in the genus ,lepus4 ,the ,latin name of the first is ,lepus timidus2 that of the second1 ,lepus cuniculus4 ,horse ,equus caballus2 ass ,equus asinus4 ,,ii4 ,review of the ,structure and ,vital ,phenomena of ,animals4 ,i select as a point of departure the human body1 and the bodies of domestic animals1 because my readers are best acquainted with these4 ,the limbs consist1 beginning on the outside1 of skin1 flesh1 and bone4 ,the same parts can also be distinguished in the head1 neck1 and trunk2 but in these divisions of the body they enclose a cavity1 the body-cavity1 which1 again1 contains various parts 78organs071 which are not everywhere attached to the body-wall4 ,fig4 #a represents a longitudinal section through the body4 ,the skin is represented by a line1 flesh and internal lining are shaded1 while the bones are black4 ,these parts form together the body-wall4 ,in front the body-wall encloses a cavity1 the body-cavity 7,kh471 which in ,mammals is divided into two sections 7thoracic cavity1 ,bz4h1 and abdominal cavity1 ,b4h47 by the midriff 7diaphragm74 ,in the thoracic cavity are found the lungs and heart 7,h71 also most of the gullet or upper part of the gut2 the abdominal cavity contains the remainder of the often much-coiled gut1 which in one place widens into the stomach 7,m71 also the kidneys1 spleen1 and parts connected with the gut 7e4g4 the liver74 ,the cavities are bounded behind by the backbone 7vertebral column71 which is made up of many flattened vertebr4 ,the uppermost vertebra supports the skull1 which encloses a cranial cavity 7,sch4h47 continuous with a vertebral canal bounded by the vertebr4 ,cranial cavity and vertebral canal form together a second body-space1 in which are contained the brain and spinal cord4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,schematic ,longitudinal ,section of the ,human ,body4 ,we will now consider the individual parts of the body1 beginning with the skeleton4 ,the axis of the skeleton is formed by the vertebral column 7spine71 which is composed of flat bones1 the vertebr4 ,a vertebra usually consists of 7#a7 the body1 which occupies the front2 7#b7 the arch1 which possesses several projections or processes 7neural spine1 transverse processes1 articular processes7 and encloses the vertebral canal 7,w4h474 ,all mammals have seven neck or cervical vertebr 7,fig4 #b1 #a72 while the number of the remaining vertebr varies according to the species4 ,the cervical vertebr1 which support the head1 are followed by the dorsal or thoracic vertebr 7#ab in man1 ,fig4 #b1 #b71 and these by the strong loin or lumbar vertebr 7#e in man1 ,fig4 #b1 #c74 ,cervical1 thoracic1 and lumbar vertebr are movable1 but1 in man1 the last-named are followed by five vertebr immovably united together to make up the sacrum1 and these again by tail- or caudal vertebr4 ,man has four such vertebr1 all poorly developed1 and fused with one another 7,fig4 #b1 #e72 but in many animals there are a large number1 movably united to make up a tail4 ,the ribs1 which in mammals bound the chest1 are jointed to the thoracic vertebr4 ,man has #ab pairs of ribs2 each rib consists of a bony part behind and a gristly 7cartilaginous7 part in front4 ,the so-called true ribs 7,fig4 #b1 #ad7 the upper pairs are movably united with the breast-bone1 but this is not the case with the false ribs 7,fig4 #b1 #ae74 ,in the head we distinguish the brain-case or cranium1 and the skeleton of the face4 ,the first contains the cranial cavity in which the brain is enclosed4 ,we distinguish--#b frontal bones 7fused together in man1 ,fig4 #b1 #f72 #b parietal bones 7#g72 #b temporal bones 7#h72 an occipital bone 7#i7 composed of several pieces fused together1 perforated by the foramen magnum where brain and spinal cord unite1 and bearing two elevations or condyles for effecting union with the backbone2 and the sphenoid and ethmoid bones which make up the base of the cranium4 ,the facial skeleton consists of the framework of the jaws and palate1 and1 together with some of the cranial bones1 bounds the cavities in which the eyes are contained 7orbits71 and the nasal cavities4 ,it consists of the maxillary bones 7,fig4 #b1 #ab71 the premaxillary bones 7,fig4 #c1 #g1--;in man these #d bones are fused together into one piece71 the nasal bones1 the lachrymal bones1 the ploughshare bone 7vomer71 the turbinated bones1 the cheek-bones 7or malars1 ,fig4 #b1 #aa71 the palate-bones1 and the lower jaw 7,fig4 #b1 #ac74 7,the last originally consists of two symmetrical halves47 ,the upper and lower limbs are built on the same type1 and therefore consist of corresponding parts 7cp4 ,fig4 #b74 ,the more similar the functions of the two pairs1 the closer their resemblance4 ,in the ox they are much more alike than in man2 in the bird1 on the contrary1 the similarity is much less4 ,a distinction can be drawn in both limbs between the bony girdles 7shoulder-girdle and hip-girdle71 which serve for union with the trunk-skeleton1 and the different subdivisions of the limbs themselves4 ,i place side by side the parts of the arm and leg of man4 ,,arm4 ,,leg4 ,i4 ,shoulder-girdle1 consisting ,i4 ,hip-girdle1 consisting of3 of3 ,shoulder-blade 7,scapula7 7,fig4 ,hip-bone 7,ilium7 7#bd74 #b1 #ag74 ,collar-bone 7,clavicle74 ,pubis4 ,coracoid process 7of ,scapula74 ,rump-bone 7,ischium74 ,,ii4 ,upper arm3 ,,ii4 ,thigh3 ,upper arm-bone 7,humerus7 7#ah74 ,thigh-bone 7,femur7 7#be74 ,,iii4 ,fore arm3 ,,iii4 ,leg3 ,radius 7#ai74 ,shin-bone 7,tibia7 7#bf74 ,ulna 7#bj74 ,clasp-bone 7,fibula7 7#bg74 ,,iv4 ,hand3 ,,iv4 ,foot3 ,two rows of wrist-bones ,two rows of ankle-bones 7,carpal bones7 7#ba74 7,tarsal bones7 7#bh74 ,metacarpal bones 7#bb74 ,metatarsal bones 7#bi74 ,finger-bones 7,phalanges7 7#bc74 ,toe-bones 7,phalanges7 7#cj74 ,the differences between arm and leg are explained by their different uses4 ,the bones of the leg1 used to support the human body1 are firmer and thicker1 but less movable than those of the arm1 which is employed in grasping4 ,consequently the union between the hip-girdle and the trunk-skeleton is firmer than that of the shoulder-girdle4 ,the radius can rotate upon the ulna1 so as to completely turn the hand over2 a similar twisting of the foot would not be of use1 and cannot be effected4 ,the leg has a knee-pan 7patella7 7,fig4 #ca71 with which there is no bone in the arm to correspond4 ,in the foot the toes are short1 and the remaining parts long2 for instance1 one of the tarsal bones1 the calcaneum 7heel-bone71 is strongly developed and projects behind 7#bh9974 ,in the hand1 the digits are relatively long1 and since the tip of the thumb can be made to touch the tips of all the fingers1 are admirably adapted for grasping4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,the ,human ,skeleton4 ,the number of fingers or toes is at most five1 but may be less4 ,the horse has a single digit to each limb2 the ox1 two well developed and two remaining as rudiments2 the pig1 two large and two small2 while the dog has four toes in the hind foot1 five in the fore foot4 ,man walks on the sole of the foot4 ,some other animals 7dog1 cat7 on the toes2 others again 7horse1 ox1 pig71 on the tips of the toes4 ,in the last case there is not simply a horny structure 7nail or claw7 on the upper side of the toe1 but a hoof sheathing the whole of its tip4 ,in many animals the thigh and upper arm are drawn close up to the body1 so that the limbs appear quite different from those of man4 7,compare ,fig4 #b with ,fig4 #c47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,skeleton of an ,ox4 ,i4 ,skull3 #a1 ,frontal bone1 with horn cores1 a2 #b1 temporal bone2 #c1 malar or cheek-bone2 #d1 maxillary bone2 #e1 lachrymal bone2 #f1 nasal bone2 #g1 premaxillary bone2 #h1 lower jaw2 #i1 orbit2 #aj1 occipital bone4 ,,ii4 ,neck and ,trunk3 ,h1 #g cervical vertebr2 ,r1 #ac thoracic vertebr2 ,l1 #f lumbar vertebr2 ,k1 sacrum2 ,su1 caudal vertebr2 ,c1 #ac pairs of ribs2 ,d1 sternum4 ,,iii4 ,fore ,limbs3 ,sc41 scapula2 ,a1 humerus2 ,s1 radius2 ,e1 ulna2 ,u1 carpus2 ,m1 metacarpals2 i41 ii41 iii41 phalanges4 ,,iv4 ,hind ,limbs3 ,b1 hip-girdle1 a1 ilium1 b1 ischium2 ,f1 femur2 ,p1 patella2 ,t1 tibia2 ,sp1 tarsus2 ,m1 metatarsals2 i41 ii41 iii41 phalanges4 ,the bones are usually surrounded by flesh4 ,this consists of a number of different pieces united together by a delicate1 elastic1 fibrous mass 7connective tissue74 ,the different pieces are termed muscles1 each of which is again made up of a large number of muscle-fibres1 all taking a longitudinal direction4 ,each fibre can contract1 and a muscle becomes shorter and thicker by simultaneous contraction of all its fibres4 ,the contraction and subsequent relaxation of muscles move other parts4 ,there are some muscles1 the hollow muscles1 which surround a cavity1 and by their contraction propel the liquid or solid substances found in their cavity4 ,the heart1 for example1 is a large muscle of this sort1 serving to propel the blood1 while the hollow muscular coat of the gut moves on the contained food4 ,other muscles are fixed by their ends to other parts of the body1 which they move by their contraction4 ,we distinguish between dermal muscles and skeletal muscles1 attached respectively to the skin or by one end to an integumentary structure 7hair1 feather1 scale71 and to parts of the skeleton4 ,the animals which are devoid of any internal skeleton1 the invertebrates 7i4e4 all animals except vertebrates71 naturally possess no skeletal muscles4 ,examples of dermal muscles are those by means of which a bird erects its feathers 7tail-coverts of peacock671 and those which enable a hedgehog to roll itself into a ball and stick out its spines4 ,each end of a skeletal muscle is connected with a bone4 ,if such a muscle contracts the more easily movable bone is drawn towards the less easily movable one 7,fig4 #d74 ,in order that the bones may be movable upon one another they are united together by joints4 ,according as muscular movements are1 or are not1 under the influence of the will1 they are distinguished as voluntary and involuntary4 ,to the latter kind belong the movement of the heart1 and the movements of the muscles in the wall of the gut by which the food is made to progress4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,bending of the ,arm by ,contraction of the ,biceps ,muscle4 a1 humerus2 b1 ulna2 c1 elbow-joint2 d1 biceps muscle2 e1 origin2 f1 insertion of the same4 ,in the right-hand figure of the muscle d is contracted2 in the left-hand figure it is slackened4 ,to destroy the contractile power of a muscle it is not necessary to injure the muscle itself4 ,every muscle is related to a nerve1 which sends its fine branches to the fibres making up the muscle4 ,if we cut the nerve1 the corresponding muscle loses its power of contraction4 ,but the nerve arises from the central nervous system1 which in vertebrates principally consists of the brain and spinal cord4 ,the muscle will therefore lose its contractile power if the connection with these central parts is broken4 ,the true cause of movement resides in these parts4 ,a sort of change1 the essential nature of which is unknown to us1 takes place in them1 and is propagated along the nerve to the muscle1 causing it to contract4 ,the central nervous system is1 therefore1 the origin1 the centre from which the order to contract proceeds2 hence its name4 ,the nerves which run from these central parts to the muscles are known as the nerves of movement 7motor nerves74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,diagram to explain the ,action of the ,motor and ,sensory ,nerves4 ,there is still1 however1 a second group of nerves1 the nerves of sensation 7sensory nerves71 which arise in the sense-organs 7skin1 mucous membrane of tongue1 nose1 ear1 eye71 and convey to the central nervous system the impressions they receive from the outer world by the aid of these sense-organs4 ,in the appended diagram 7,fig4 #e71 ,c represents the central nervous system2 ,b4,n41 a motor nerve1 branching in the muscle ,m2 ,g4,n41 a sensory nerve1 which runs from the blood-bathed inner skin or dermis 7,l4h471 underlying the outer skin or epidermis 7,o4h471 to the central system4 7,the arrows indicate the direction in which impulses are conveyed along the corresponding nerve47 ,men or animals lose in weight if they take no food4 ,the reason for this is that certain substances leave the body either as gases 7through the lungs71 or as liquids 7by the kidneys and sweat-glands71 without a corresponding compensation4 ,an animal or human being could not live without taking in fresh substances1 which1 according as they are solid or liquid1 are known as food or drink4 ,the different kinds of food and drink1 which1 with few exceptions 7salts1 water71 are taken from the animal and plant kingdoms1 cannot1 however1 as such1 replace the gradually diminishing body substance1 for1 to begin with1 they contain useless matters1 which pass out of the body in the fces 7dung74 ,and even the nutritious parts of the animal and vegetable substances taken into the stomach1 are not always in a form in which they can be used at once4 ,digestion1 which in all the higher animals takes place in a food-tube 7gut71 serves to reduce them to a suitable condition1 at the same time separating the useless matters4 ,the action of several fluids 7saliva1 gastric juice1 bile1 etc47 secreted by glands1 extracts the useful 7nutritious7 substances from the food and drink1 converting them also into a suitable form4 ,the smaller the pieces into which the food is separated1 the better can this purpose be effected4 ,in mammals the teeth serve to break down the food2 in birds and many ,invertebrates the same part is played by special secretions of the stomach or intestine provided with hard ridges4 ,so long as the nutritious food-stuffs remain in the food-canal1 even though in a completely suitable form1 they cannot nourish the body4 ,and since waste of the substance of the body everywhere takes place1 it is absolutely necessary that the food-stuffs should pass after digestion into a system of organs going to all parts of the body4 ,this system is the circulatory1 or vascular system4 ,food-stuffs enter it from the gut directly or indirectly1 reaching it in the latter case through the lymphatic 7lacteal7 system4 ,the blood is the fluid into which the food-stuffs are taken up4 ,it consists of an almost colourless liquid1 together with an innumerable number of exceedingly minute blood-corpuscles4 ,the blood flows through the body in a system of tubes1 or blood-vessels1 which branch repeatedly1 and at last become merged in the microscopic capillary blood-vessels4 ,these capillaries are present in nearly all parts of the body except the epidermis and epidermal structures 7hairs1 feathers1 scales1 etc474 ,they have exceedingly thin walls1 which present no resistance to the passage of the nutritious substances contained in the blood1 so that these can be absorbed by those parts of the body which lie between the individual capillary vessels4 ,the central organ of the circulation is the heart1 an enlarged part of the vascular system1 possessing thick muscular walls4 ,by contraction of these1 the blood is driven out of the heart 7,fig4 #f1 ,h72 and its exit is possible on one side only 7a71 as at the other side 7b7 there is a valve1 which closes when the heart contracts4 ,the vessel into which the blood leaving the heart enters is termed an artery 7,s4,a47 ,it divides into several branches1 also known as arteries1 and the smallest arteries pass into capillaries1 which again are connected with veins1 which join larger and larger veins1 until finally one or a few open into the heart 7,a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,diagram of the ,course of the ,circulation4 ,since the blood in the course of its circulation gives up some of its nutriment to the various parts of the body1 it would in the end become useless for the purposes of nutrition if it did not receive a fresh supply of food-stuffs from the gut1 either directly or indirectly 7through the lacteal system74 ,but apart from this1 the blood would ultimately become useless1 and that very quickly1 if it did not traverse the lungs1 kidneys1 and sweat-glands4 ,it is well known to every one that a man or animal cannot live without air1 or at any rate without a certain gas1 oxygen1 that is contained in air4 ,this oxygen must be able to penetrate into the minutest particles of the body1 and the blood1 in the corpuscles of which it is contained1 carries it everywhere4 ,in the smallest particles 7molecules7 of the body an oxidation 7combustion7 of body substance takes place1 which not only causes an evolution of heat1 but also renders the body capable of doing work4 ,but if now the blood passes from the capillaries into the veins1 it contains too little oxygen4 ,and besides1 it has taken up from the molecules of the body several substances1 developed in those molecules1 which would be fatal to the animal if they were not removed from the body4 ,now1 when the blood streams through the lungs1 it gets rid of the poisonous gaseous matter1 and when it traverses the kidneys and sweat-glands it parts with the injurious liquid and solid substances4 ,but in the lungs the blood takes up at the same time fresh oxygen2 and since in this way the air in the lungs becomes poor in oxygen1 the movements of breathing 7respiration7 provide for the passage of a fresh supply of oxygen into the lungs4 ,only the higher ,vertebrates breathe by means of lungs2 fishes and numerous aquatic ,invertebrates breathe by gills1 and insects by air-tubes 7trache74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,the ,small-winged ,gall-fly1 d 7,andricus terminalis71 lays its eggs separately in the rootlets of oak4 ,root-galls 7a7 result from this1 and inside of each of them a larva develops which1 after a metamorphosis1 becomes a relatively large1 wingless gall-fly 7c7 known as ,biorhiza aptera4 ,this pierces the oak-buds in early spring1 and lays a large number of eggs in them2 from part of the bud is formed a large juicy gall 7b71 containing several larv1 from which the small-winged gall flies 7d7 develop4 ,the species here represented exist1 therefore1 in two forms1 e and d 7,heterogeny74 ,while ,nutrition is the life-process which shields the individual from death1 ,reproduction serves to maintain the species4 ,it is familiarly known that the offspring generally resemble their parents4 ,but it is also a fact recognized by the stock-breeder1 that a particular animal will not only transmit several of its own characteristics to its offspring1 but perhaps also various characteristics of the grandparents or of animals belonging to still more remote generations1 although these characteristics are not visible in the animal which is actually breeding 7,reversion1 ,atavism74 ,among insects and the lower animals there are species which1 as adult animals1 appear not in one form1 but two or several4 ,in this case1 as a regular thing1 the offspring does not resemble the parents1 but the grandparents1 great-grandparents1 or a still earlier generation4 ,the older observers have placed the offspring and the parents1 and sometimes the grandparents too1 of the same animal species in different species1 or even genera or families1 until newer researches on the reproduction and development of these animals have proved them to belong to one and the same species 7see ,fig4 #g and explanation74 ,the method of reproduction by which a species appears in two or several forms is distinguished as heterogeny and metagenesis1 or alternation of generations4 ,in the first 7,fig4 #g7 sexually reproducing animals alternate with other sexual animals4 ,it may be that these are of separate sexes1 or else they may possess both male and female organs 7hermaphrodite74 ,in metagenesis a sexual generation regularly alternates with one or several generations reproducing asexually4 ,the animal kingdom falls 7cf4 p4 #b7 into sub-kingdoms or main divisions4 ,seven of these are commonly distinguished3 ,i4 ,backboned animals2 ,,ii4 ,jointed-limbed animals2 ,,iii4 ,worms2 ,,iv4 ,molluscs2 ,v4 ,echinoderms2 ,,vi4 ,clenterates2 ,,vii4 ,protozoa4 ,first ,sub-,kingdom3 ,,vertebrata 7,,backboned ,,animals74 ,the ,vertebrate body possesses a bilateral or twosided symmetry2 i4e4 it can be separated into two exactly corresponding halves1 by a plane of division4 ,the bilateral symmetry is strictly carried out as regards the external parts of the body1 a single exception to this being flat-fish 7plaice1 flounder1 etc472 but1 on the other hand1 it is more or less obliterated in the arrangement of the internal organs4 ,in the ,vertebrate body we find1 as an axis1 a vertebral column 7backbone7 made up of vertebr1 and traversed by the vertebral canal4 ,as soon as this canal widens out in the skull to the cranial cavity1 the spinal cord1 which it contains1 merges into the brain4 ,in addition to the cavity containing the central nervous system1 and placed on the upper side 7 dorsal side7 of the animal1 a cavity1 the body-cavity1 is found in the under side 7 ventral side74 ,it contains for the most part the organs of respiration1 circulation1 digestion1 and excretion 7,fig4 #a71 and in ,mammals is divided by the diaphragm into thoracic and abdominal cavities4 ,in all the other subdivisions of the animal kingdom the central nervous system is situated in the same cavity as the above-mentioned organs4 ,various bones are connected with the vertebral column1 and they serve for the attachment of muscles4 ,the bones collectively constitute the skeleton1 which is one of the most distinctive features of a ,vertebrate4 ,the animals of this sub-kingdom never have more than four limbs1 and their blood is red1 while that of most other animal groups is colourless4 ,the structure of the heart in the various ,vertebrates must also be noticed4 ,in no ,vertebrate is this organ so simple in structure as in the scheme given in ,fig4 #f2 such an arrangement1 moreover1 would involve great difficulties4 ,one great difficulty would be that while the blood was leaving the heart at a 7,fig4 #f71 no fresh blood could enter1 so that the blood in the veins would stand still4 ,even in the lowest ,vertebrates 7the ,fishes7 this difficulty is obviated1 for where the main vein 7or veins7 opens into the heart an enlargement of this vein is found1 where the blood can collect as long as the heart continues to contract4 ,this expansion is also reckoned as part of the heart1 and named the auricle 7,fig4 #h1 ,v4,k471 while the heart proper is termed the ventricle 7,k474 ,it is also easy to see that there must be a tolerably wide opening between the two chambers1 so that as soon as the ventricle becomes flaccid the auricle can force blood into it4 ,but there being such a wide aperture between auricle and ventricle1 one valve is not enough to make it impossible for the blood to pass back into the auricle during the contraction of the ventricular walls4 ,there are two or three valves there 7,fig4 #h1 ,kl47 fixed by fibres to the wall of the ventricle4 ,in order that the blood which is forced into the artery 7,s4,a47 may not pass into the ventricle during its relaxation1 there is another valve 7not indicated in ,fig4 #h71 at the base of the artery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,diagram of the ,heart in a ,fish4 ,an arrangement like that so far described is found in fishes4 ,the heart consists in them of an auricle1 into which is returned the blood that has traversed the body1 and of a ventricle which moves it on again4 ,but the blood that has traversed the body is on that account poor in oxygen1 and consequently unfit to be circulated again when it is returned to the heart4 ,it is necessary for it to take up fresh oxygen before being circulated again4 ,in fishes this difficulty is met by the blood1 poor in oxygen1 which flows out of the ventricle1 first going to the gills and streaming through them4 ,the gills consist of a very large number of small1 thin-walled outgrowths arranged in regular rows on the firm gill-arches4 ,the blood1 poor in oxygen1 passing out of the ventricle and through various arterial branches to the gill-filaments1 takes up fresh oxygen as it streams through these from the oxygen dissolved in the water which constantly surrounds them4 ,for this purpose a stream of pure water is regularly taken in by the mouth and expelled again1 right and left1 through the gill-slits4 ,the blood1 having become rich in oxygen in the gills1 is now once more fit for circulation through the body1 and therefore flows out of the gill-capillaries into larger vessels1 which finally unite into a single large vessel that carries the purified blood to the various parts of the body4 ,in the arrangement of the heart here described there is the disadvantageous condition that the blood is obliged to traverse two sets of capillaries 7gill and body capillaries74 ,this is not an easy matter1 for there is a great deal of friction between the blood and the walls of the capillaries1 constituting a hindrance to its progress4 ,the circulation of the blood in fishes is consequently very slow1 and since the blood contains the oxygen which is used by the various parts of the body1 oxidation goes on slowly in the body of a fish2 hence the small amount of heat developed there4 ,since fishes almost immediately give off to their surroundings the small amount of heat which they develop1 they have no constant body temperature1 varying in this respect with the temperature of the surrounding water4 ,such animals are termed cold-blooded4 ,in all other ,vertebrates a more rapid movement of the blood is rendered possible by the insertion of a second heart1 quite similar in every respect to the other heart1 in the course of the blood between the respiratory organs and the body4 ,the first heart drives the blood through the lung capillaries1 and therefore corresponds to the fish-heart2 from these capillaries the blood returns to the auricle of the second heart1 and from the ventricle of that heart travels to the various parts of the body4 ,when it has completed this course1 it returns to the auricle of the first heart4 ,although these two structures work independently1 they lie close together and make up a single organ4 ,we do not therefore speak of two individual hearts1 but of one heart with two halves4 ,the first half1 which receives the blood1 poor in oxygen1 that is returned from the body1 and sends it on to the lungs1 lies on the right1 and is termed the right half4 ,the second half1 which receives the richly oxygenated blood from the lungs1 and pumps it to the various parts of the body1 is termed the left half 7,fig4 #i and explanation74 ,in the arrangement just described1 which is found in ,mammals and ,birds1 the blood returning from the lungs is propelled with new force through the body1 and therefore circulates very quickly1 so that the various parts receive a relatively large amount of oxygen in a short time4 ,it is therefore intelligible that ,birds and ,mammals develop more warmth than ,fish4 ,they possess a special1 constant body temperature1 somewhat different in different species1 but usually lying between #ih and #ajd ,fhr41 and they are called warm-blooded animals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,diagram of the ,mammalian ,heart4 #a1 right1 #b1 left ventricle2 #c1 right1 #d1 left auricle2 #e1 superior1 #f1 inferior vena cava2 #g1 pulmonary artery forking into branches for right and left lungs2 #h1 the four pulmonary veins2 #i1 the great body-artery 7aorta72 the arrows indicate the direction of the blood-stream4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,diagram of the ,heart of a ,reptile4 ,between the right 7r4,k47 and left 7l4,k47 ventricles is a perforated partition4 r4,v4,k41 right auricle2 l4,v4,k41 left auricle2 ,h4v41 vena cava1 carrying back the blood which has traversed the body into the right auricle2 ,l4art41 pulmonary artery2 ,l4v41 pulmonary vein2 ,ao41 aorta4 ,in ,reptiles 7snakes1 lizards1 etc471 the two halves of the heart are not entirely distinct1 since there is an opening in the partition-wall between the two ventricles4 ,as a consequence of this1 the poorly oxygenated blood of the right half of the heart mixes with the richly oxygenated blood of the left half1 the extent to which this mixing takes place being proportional to the size of the aperture4 ,in ,reptiles1 therefore1 the blood supplied to the lungs is not so poor in oxygen as it might be1 nor1 on the other hand1 is the blood supplied to the other parts of the body completely oxygenated4 ,as consequences of this3 7#a7 respiration is feebler1 and 7#b7 the development of heat less than in ,mammals and ,birds 7i4e4 reptiles are cold-blooded71 and 7#c7 the chemical changes taking place in the body 7the metabolism7 go on more slowly than in warm-blooded animals1 and we can understand why reptiles execute fewer movements in a given space of time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,diagram of a ,frog's ,heart4 7,the ventricle ,k4 is quite undivided3 compare ,figs4 #i and #aj47 ,other letters as in ,fig4 #aj4 ,in ,amphibians 7e4g4 frog7 the two ventricles are similarly connected1 but the opening is still larger than in ,reptiles1 and the partition-wall may even be altogether absent4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that the mixing of the two kinds of blood is still more complete1 and that ,amphibians1 too1 are cold-blooded4 ,the vertebrate sub-kingdom embraces the classes of ,i4 ,mammals2 ,,ii4 ,birds2 ,,iii4 ,reptiles2 ,,iv4 ,amphibians2 ,v4 ,fishes4 ,,class ,i43 ,,mammalia 7,,sucklers74 ,warm-blooded ,vertebrates 7p4 #af71 usually covered with hair1 and bringing forth living young1 that suck for some time after birth4 ,the female is provided with milk-glands on the thorax or abdomen1 or both those regions4 ,speaking quite broadly1 the skeleton is like that of man1 described on pp4 #d-h4 ,there are1 however1 great differences in detail4 ,the cranium is relatively much smaller1 and the bones of the face 7especially of the jaws7 are usually much larger than in the human skull4 ,the number of the cervical vertebr is seven in all ,mammals1 as in man2 but the other kinds of vertebr vary in number in the different species4 ,the number of caudal vertebr1 for example1 is very variable4 ,as most ,mammals go on all fours1 their fore and hind limbs are much more similar than is the case in man4 ,in many the thigh and upper-arm bones are drawn closely up to the body 7horse1 ox1 pig74 ,mammals never have more than five fingers or toes1 but may have fewer4 ,the thumb or great toe is the first to disappear 7hind foot of dog1 fore and hind foot of pig74 ,there may be only three 7rhinoceros71 two 7ox1 sheep71 or one 7horse7 digit developed4 ,in addition to fully developed digits1 there are in many ,mammals very small stunted ones 78dew-claws0 of the stag74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,vertical ,section of a ,human ,grinding ,tooth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,crown of a ,grinder of the ,ox4 a1 cement2 b1 enamel2 c1 dentine2 d1 enamel2 e1 cement4 ,there are also great differences in the way of resting the feet on the ground4 ,man and bear tread on the soles of the feet 7plantigrade72 dog and cat walk on the under side of the toes 7digitigrade71 not on the other parts of the feet4 ,ox1 pig1 horse1 etc41 rest while walking only on the tips of the toes1 which are sheathed in hoofs 7unguligrade74 ,the teeth of mammals are wedged into special sockets in the jaw-bones4 ,the structure of a mammalian tooth is made clear by ,fig4 #ab4 ,we first distinguish a pulp-cavity 7p71 which in the living animal is filled with a substance supplied by a bloodvessel and nerve4 ,this cavity is surrounded by the dentine 7d71 a hard substance which makes up the greater part of the tooth4 ,hard enamel 7s7 covers the whole of the crown in man and many animals1 while in certain other forms it is found only on part of the crown4 ,the root of the tooth is covered with cement 7z71 a bone-like substance4 ,all teeth in which the entire surface of the crown is covered by enamel only are known as simple teeth1 while those into which the enamel only penetrates in more or less deep folds1 leaving the rest of the crown uncovered1 are known as compound teeth 7,fig4 #ac74 ,the structure of the teeth is related to the nature of the food4 ,we distinguish three kinds of teeth in the same animal1 which1 however1 are not all present in every species2 these are the incisors1 canines1 and grinders4 ,the first two kinds are changed2 but only the anterior grinders1 known as the premolars1 are changed1 while the hinder ones1 the true molars1 do not first appear as 8milk0 teeth1 but rather later on with the other 8permanent0 teeth4 ,the following orders of ,mammals are distinguished3 ,i4 ,bimana 7,man71 ,,ii4 ,quadrumana 7,apes71 ,,iii4 ,carnivora 7,beasts of prey71 ,,iv4 ,insectivora 7,insect-eaters71 ,v4 ,cheiroptera 7,bats71 ,,vi4 ,rodentia 7,gnawers71 ,,vii4 ,ruminantia1 ,,viii4 ,solidungula1 ,,ix4 ,pachydermata1 ,x4 ,cetacea1 ,,xi4 ,edentata1 ,,xii4 ,marsupialia 7,pouched animals71 ,,xiii4 ,monotremata4 ,i shall deal here only with those orders which are of agricultural importance4 ,,order3 ,carnivora 7,,beasts ,,of ,,prey74 ,in each jaw there are six relatively small incisor teeth2 and1 on each side of these1 a large projecting canine1 by which the flesh is torn from the body of the prey 7,fig4 #ad74 ,the premolars and the first of the true molars 7the carnassials#b7 are strongly compressed1 and have a cutting crown2 their outer surface is completely covered with hard enamel4 ,as the lower jaw is smaller than the upper jaw1 and is only able to move up and down1 not from side to side1 the sharp crowns of the premolars1 and especially those of the large carnassials1 cut along one another1 and divide anything coming between them as if with shears4 ,the small molars which are usually found behind the carnassials have broad tuberculated crowns4 ,the temporal 7i4e4 chewing7 muscles are strongly developed1 the general result of which is that the head is broad4 ,the claws are very sharp in some of the families4 ,the ,carnivora are powerful animals1 move very quickly1 and are endowed with keen smell and sight4 ,footnote #b3 ,the upper carnassials last premolars4 ,the lower first molars4--,,tr4 ,the wild ,carnivora living in ,britain belong to the families of cats1 dogs1 and weasels4 ,family3 ,felid 7,cat ,family74 ,typical ,carnivora with very large canines and carnassials1 two premolars in each half of each jaw1 one of the upper molars1 but none of the lower ones1 small and tuberculated4 ,tongue rough4 ,fore and hind feet five-toed4 ,when not in use1 the claws are drawn back 7retracted74 ,the ,felid are digitigrade4 ,backbone very flexible1 and with free power of movement4 ,the ,felid are bloodthirsty1 nocturnal animals1 many of which climb well1 and spring upon their prey4 ,the group is specially exemplified by the ,domestic ,cat1 the parent stock of which is the ,nubian cat 7,felis maniculata71 a native of ,nubia and the ,soudan4 ,the ,wild ,cat 7,felis catus7 is larger than the common kind1 and has a thicker tail4 ,formerly it was tolerably common in ,britain1 but now only occurs in a few thinly populated districts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,skull of ,domestic ,cat4 ,the ,lynx 7,felis ,lynx71 found at one time in ,germany1 still lives in the ,carpathians1 and in ,switzerland1 but occurs more commonly in ,scandinavia1 ,denmark1 and ,russia4 ,family3 ,canid 7,dog ,family74 ,head longer than in cats2 canines and carnassials relatively less developed4 ,two tuberculated molars on each side of each jaw4 ,claws not so sharp as those of cats1 and cannot be drawn back 7i4e4 are nonretractile74 ,fore-foot five1 hind-foot four toes4 ,tongue smooth4 ,the various races of the ,domestic ,dog belong here4 ,the wolf 7,canis lupus7 is no longer an inhabitant of ,britain or ,germany1 but sometimes crosses the ,german frontier from ,russia1 ,galicia1 ,hungary1 the ,alps1 and the ,ardennes1 especially in winter1 and preys upon the larger domestic animals4 ,the remaining example is-- ,the ,fox 7,canis vulpes74 ,this animal lives in an underground dwelling1 which is either dug out by itself or else is a deserted badger-burrow4 ,it kills roes1 fawns1 hares1 and game-birds2 in farms it preys on poultry and eggs4 ,it never commits depredations in the neighbourhood of its burrow1 for fear of betraying its hiding-place4 ,valuable services1 however1 must be balanced against the damage mentioned above1 for it catches many rabbits1 and also an enormous number of field-voles in the years when these become a pest4 ,it also often eats insects 7e4g4 cockchafers71 worms1 and snails4 ,in fact1 the fox is perhaps generally of more use than otherwise to the farmer and forester4 ,family3 ,mustelid 7,weasel ,family74 ,elongated1 slender2 legs short2 head small and flat2 cranium elongated2 tongue smooth4 ,five toes on each foot1 with small1 sharp claws4 ,a tuberculated molar on each side in the upper and lower jaws4 ,the weasels give out an offensive odour from stink-glands situated near the anus4 ,there belong to this family-- #a4 ,the ,pine ,marten 7,mustela martes74 ,body up to twenty inches1 tail up to ten inches long2 fur brown1 with yellowish wool-hairs2 a yellow patch on the throat4 ,is found in thick woods1 where it destroys small birds and squirrels2 it also kills much poultry and game4 #b4 ,the ,beech1 or ,stone ,marten 7,mustela foina74 ,about as large as the preceding species2 greyish-brown fur1 with whitish wool-hairs2 a white patch in the throat2 chiefly occurs in the immediate neighbourhood of human dwellings1 in barns1 wood-stacks1 etc42 kills a great deal of poultry1 sometimes also wild birds1 mice1 and game4 #c4 ,the ,polecat 7,putorius ftidus74 ,shining brownish black1 with yellow wool-hairs2 somewhat smaller than the stone marten2 in particular1 the tail is shorter and its hair is not so long as in the two preceding species4 ,in the summer it lives in the open country1 in hollow trees1 or in the burrows of foxes and rabbits2 in winter it settles down near human dwellings1 where it lives in wood and under heaps of brushwood1 haylofts1 etc4 ,in summer it may do more good by destroying numerous field-voles1 water-rats1 etc41 than harm by devouring those singing birds which are favourable to agriculture2 but in winter its undesirable visits to the fowl-house and dove-cot effect much injury4 ,it kills the birds and devours the eggs1 sucking without smashing them4 ,in winter1 too1 it is very harmful to beehives1 being fond of honey4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,the ,pine ,marten 7,mustela martes74 ,the ,ferret 7,putorius furo7 is undoubtedly a short-legged variety of the common polecat1 usually white in colour1 and1 when that is the case1 red-eyed4 #d4 ,the ,stoat1 or ,ermine 7,putorius erminea74 ,body twelve inches1 tail about three and a half inches long2 slender2 the body is scarcely broader than the head2 tail longer than in the next species2 summer fur1 cinnamon brown above1 white below2 tail1 cinnamon brown with black tip2 winter fur quite white1 but the end of the tail remains black4 ,mostly in fields1 in the neighbourhood of plantations or woods2 always abundant among sandhills1 owing to the rabbits living there4 ,the stoat usually follows its prey at night1 stealing upon mice1 rats1 rabbits1 hares1 and song-birds2 it is also sometimes very destructive in dove-cots and hen-houses4 ,it must1 however1 be stated that the stoat is on the whole more useful than harmful4 #e4 ,the ,weasel 7,putorius vulgaris74 ,smaller than the stoat2 head larger and thicker than the extremely slender1 almost snake-like1 trunk2 legs short4 ,the weasel is a very sharp little animal1 and can easily pass along mouse-holes4 ,summer and winter coats alike--back brown1 belly white4 ,its food chiefly consists of field-voles1 also of rats and water-rats1 young hares and rabbits1 birds building near the ground1 and also their eggs1 which the weasel1 by holding under its chin1 manages to carry to its home2 occasionally also lizards1 blindworms1 snakes1 and frogs4 ,the weasel does some damage in fowl-houses and dove-cots1 and is also destructive to game4 ,this1 however1 does not outweigh its very great use1 since it is above all an untiring vole-catcher4 ,when in any region the field-voles have multiplied excessively1 an immigration of weasels takes place from surrounding parts4 ,in years when there is a plague of voles the usual breeding time in spring is followed by another later on4 ,a very large number of weasels may be found in a vole-infected district1 and they thin out the mischievous rodents in a surprising manner4 ,nor are the weasels less useful in summer than in winter4 ,they even follow under the snow the voles which winter in the country1 and the slaughter effected at this period must exert a great influence on the following season1 when these animals recommence their injurious work1 and a pair of them that have survived the winter may perhaps produce two hundred others before the end of the summer4 #f4 ,the ,mink 7,putorius lutreola7 is as large as a polecat1 and may be regarded as a sort of link between it and the others4 ,leg and ears short2 skin smooth-haired1 brown both on the back and the belly2 chin1 lips1 and a small patch on the neck1 white2 tail about one-third the length of the body4 ,in well-watered regions on the banks of rivers1 lakes1 and ponds4 ,eats water-rats1 water-birds1 frogs1 salamanders1 fish1 crayfish1 water-insects1 water-snails1 and aquatic bivalves4 ,holstein1 ,mecklenburg1 ,pomerania1 ,brandenburg1 ,silesia4 #g4 ,the ,otter 7,lutra vulgaris74 ,body flattened2 legs short1 with webbed toes2 snout rounded2 ears short1 and can be closed by a fold of skin2 tail flat1 and pointed at its tip4 ,length of the body1 twenty-eight to thirty-two inches2 of the tail1 fourteen to sixteen inches4 ,skin smooth-haired1 shining dark brown above and below4 ,found on the banks of lakes1 pools1 ponds1 rivers1 brooks1 etc41 where fish is plentiful4 ,it catches water-rats1 ducks and geese1 as well as their young1 wild water-birds1 frogs1 fish1 crayfish1 water-insects4 ,especially destructive to fish4 #h4 ,the ,badger 7,meles taxus74 ,body heavy2 legs short1 plantigrade2 toes with strong digging claws2 snout pointed2 canines not very large2 both they and the carnassials much worn in old animals4 ,tuberculated molars well developed4 ,the dentition and whole structure of the body show that the badger is not exclusively a flesh-eater4 ,length of body1 three feet2 weight1 #bb to #cc lbs4 ,fur tolerably long-haired1 yellowish whitey grey1 mixed with black4 ,head with longitudinal stripes of black and white2 tail short1 yellowish grey4 ,the burrow is very large2 several passages1 the openings of which may be ninety-seven feet apart1 lead to the exterior4 ,the badger only leaves its dwelling in the evening4 ,it eats mice1 birds which nest on the ground1 especially their eggs and young1 snakes1 frogs1 cockchafer grubs1 earthworms1 insects2 also turnips1 carrots1 acorns1 and sweet fruits4 ,although it is both harmful and useful1 the latter is more generally the case4 ,its digging habits1 however1 are sometimes destructive1 since it throws up young trees and other plants by the roots4 ,the badger often sleeps several days in succession during the winter1 although it does not hibernate4 ,its fat is used up during the winter4 ,,order3 ,insectivora 7,,insect-,,eating ,,mammals74 ,since the ,insectivora feed upon very small animals 7insects1 worms1 snails71 they cannot themselves be large4 ,only those species 7hedgehog7 which feed on small mammals and birds or upon vegetable matter1 in addition to insects1 are of medium size4 ,the native species all live on or in the ground4 ,the snout is extremely slender1 and does duty as an organ of touch4 ,the eyes are usually very badly developed4 ,incisors sharp2 and the back teeth1 which are completely coated with enamel1 are remarkable for their pointed crowns4 ,when the mouth is closed the upper teeth fit into the spaces between the lower teeth1 and vice vers4 ,consequently the shutting of the mouth forces the points of all the back teeth into any insect which happens to be between the jaws4 ,the ,insectivora are plantigrade 7p4 #bb74 ,here belong the following forms3 the ,shrews 7,sorex71 the ,mole 7,talpa europa7 and the ,hedgehog 7,erinaceus europus74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,skull of the ,mole4 ,the ,shrews 7,sorex7 are small animals with a superficial resemblance to mice1 with slender soft-haired bodies1 small eyes1 and tolerably long1 thickly haired tails4 ,shrews are extremely voracious1 eating daily more than their own weight of food1 and destroying an enormous quantity of subterranean vermin4 ,they live in underground passages1 not usually made by themselves1 but dug out by field-voles4 ,they smell strongly of musk1 secreted by two glands in the hinder part of the body4 ,the blackish brown ,shrew-mouse1 or ,common ,shrew 7,sorex vulgaris71 and the ,lesser ,shrew 7,sorex pygmus71 only about two inches long1 kill1 in the cornfields1 gardens1 or woodland1 an enormous quantity of noxious insects found in the earth1 together with their larv2 also snails and worms1 and sometimes field-voles1 and are in the highest degree serviceable4 ,but the larger 7up to #c inches long71 black ,water ,shrew 7,sorex fodiens71 although serviceable on land in the same way as the other kinds1 is very injurious to fishing and fish-breeding1 since it devours the small fish and kills the larger ones1 eating out their eyes and brains4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,the ,common ,shrew 7,sorex vulgaris74 ,the ,mole 7,talpa europa74 ,body thick1 cylindrical4 ,legs short1 fore legs broad and spade-like1 with broad digging claws4 ,eyes small1 scarcely visible among the fur4 ,no external ears2 the auditory opening can be completely closed by a fold of skin4 ,shining black fur4 ,the mole is found in every soil inhabited by insects and earthworms1 provided it is not too stiff1 but yet sufficiently coherent to dig passages in1 which will not at once collapse4 ,its presence is known by the heaps which it throws up4 ,the nest1 however1 is always found under a larger heap1 frequently hidden under tree roots1 walls1 etc41 though sometimes in the open field4 ,it consists in the first place of a nearly round dwelling-chamber1 softly upholstered with vegetable substances2 this is surrounded by a labyrinth of passages4 ,from the nest a passage runs to the mole's hunting-ground4 ,the walls of this passage of the labyrinth1 and of the nest1 are hard4 ,the wider and subterranean channels1 which the mole digs out when it is simply catching insects in the soil1 easily fall in again1 and the animal takes no pains to compact their walls4 ,the highway to the hunting-ground1 in which the animal can progress very rapidly1 can be at once detected1 not like the ordinary passages by a small chain of mole-hills composed of the thrown-up earth1 but by a depression1 since in its preparation the earth is laterally compressed and not thrown out4 ,this tube is shorter or longer according as the hunting-ground is in the immediate neighbourhood or further off2 it may be #ajj or #afj feet long4 ,the mole sleeps in the nest during the time not employed in seeking for food1 and goes three times a day on the hunt for insects 7early morning1 midday1 and before sunset in the evening74 ,having reached the subterranean hunting-ground1 it tracks to some distance the insect larv1 and worms found in the soil1 being aided in this by its long snout4 ,it daily devours more than its own weight4 ,during summer the mole digs its passages near the surface1 since larv and worms are then found in the uppermost layer of earth4 ,in winter1 when these withdraw into the depths of the soil1 it digs much deeper channels4 ,it does not fall into a winter-sleep4 ,the young 7three to seven7 are born in ,may1 ,june1 or ,july4 ,the mole never gnaws plants4 ,it does service1 sometimes very great1 by eating many wireworms1 grubs1 snail embryos1 earth caterpillars1 mole-crickets1 and other earth-inhabiting insects1 as well as their larv4 ,it also willingly eats earthworms1 but whether this does good is not definitely known4 ,but under certain conditions it may also do harm1 rooting up plants as it makes its heaps4 ,grass and grain suffer little1 if at all1 by this2 other plants more2 while young flax-plants perish if their roots are loosened4 ,mole-hills in hayfields and cornfields are a nuisance at harvest time4 ,moles are not to be endured in the neighbourhood of dams1 since their borings may become the immediate cause of flooding4 ,trapping may usefully be resorted to in cases where moles are harmful4 ,the ,hedgehog1 or ,hedgepig 7,erinaceus europus74 ,when danger threatens it rolls itself into a ball covered all over with prickles1 and is in this way secured from the attacks of most enemies4 ,the hedgehog goes on the hunt in the evening2 while during the day it sleeps in its hiding-place1 situated in such places as the side of a ditch1 hedges1 or under heaps of brushwood4 ,it preys more particularly on field-voles1 sometimes also on eggs and small birds 7chickens occasionally71 lizards1 grass-snakes1 adders 7by the bites of which it is unaffected71 frogs1 cockchafers and their larv1 field snails1 earthworms1 and similar small deer2 now and then on fallen fruit and juicy plant roots4 ,,order3 ,cheiroptera 7,,bats74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,skeleton of a ,bat4 ,all ,bats1 except a few tropical genera1 feed on insects1 and possess teeth like those of the preceding order of ,mammals 7p4 #cj74 ,the leading feature is the characteristic modification of the fore limbs into a flying apparatus4 ,the bones of the fore arm 7,fig4 #ah1 u1 r71 the metacarpels 7mc71 and the phalanges 7except in the case of the thumb1 which possesses a sharp claw 7p77 are of great length2 and between the long fingers1 between the fore and hind limbs1 and1 last of all1 between the two hind limbs there is an elastic membrane1 serving both for flight and touch4 ,sight ill developed1 since the bat is a nocturnal animal2 a delicate sense of touch has its seat not only in the flying-membrane1 but also in the skin of the ears1 which are often very large1 and in the membranous flaps which1 in a few genera 7the 8leaf-nosed0 bats71 occur on the nose and lips4 ,as is well known1 bats sleep in the day2 and they also hibernate in chimneys1 hollow trees1 ruins1 and other similar places of concealment4 ,they principally devour night-flying moths1 and spiders2 and1 since they use a great quantity of nourishment1 are of great service1 since the caterpillars of many of the species they destroy are very injurious to agriculture or forestry4 ,about nine species live in ,britain1 but there is no use in enumerating them here4 ,,order3 ,rodentia 7,,gnawing ,,mammals74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,skull of ,squirrel4 ,two long incisors 7,fig4 #ai71 the crowns of which are continually being worn down1 while a corresponding growth takes place at the root-end4 ,these incisors are used for gnawing1 in which process the lower jaw is rapidly moved backwards and forwards4 ,gnawing wears down these teeth less in front than behind1 owing to the presence of a thick layer of enamel in the former position4 ,their crowns1 therefore1 maintain a chisel-edge4 ,that the incisors never stop growing is clearly seen when the usual wearing down does not take place1 as1 e4g41 when the lower jaw is placed obliquely under the upper jaw1 or when a tooth is absent in one jaw1 under which circumstances the corresponding incisor in the other jaw is not worn down4 ,in such a case the incisors continue to grow1 ultimately curving upwards or downwards1 and becoming tusk-like structures 7,fig4 #bj74 ,the ,rodents have no canines4 ,in those ,rodents which feed both on animal and vegetable food 7the 8,omnivora10 e4g4 squirrel1 common mouse1 brown rat1 etc471 the crowns of the back teeth are completely covered with enamel2 in the purely vegetable feeders 78,herbivora10 e4g4 hare1 rabbit71 they are compound teeth 7p4 #bb74 ,in most ,rodents the hind feet are longer than the fore1 giving a springing gait4 ,eyes large4 ,many forms have 8cheek-pouches10 in which the food they obtain can be stored up for some time4 ,when the pouches are full1 a muscle contracts by which their ends are drawn backwards2 they are emptied by the animal pressing them with its fore feet4 ,the majority of ,rodents are small1 they are at most of medium size 7hare74 ,the majority of the species have great powers of reproduction1 by which the injurious kinds are sometimes rendered a very great pest4 ,the ,british forms injurious to agriculture principally belong to the families of hares1 mice1 and voles4 ,the squirrel 7,sciurus vulgaris71 and the dormice 7especially ,myoxus avellanarius7 are solely of importance in forestry4 ,family3 ,leporid 7,hares and ,rabbits74 ,skull somewhat long4 ,two small incisors behind the two large upper ones4 ,ears long and spoon-shaped4 ,upper lip cleft4 ,back teeth with enamel folds4 ,here belong the hare 7,lepus timidus7 and rabbit 7,lepus cuniculus74 ,hare 7,lepus timidus74 ,ears longer than the head4 ,eyes yellowish brown4 ,fur rusty yellow to grey on the upper side1 white on the under side4 ,the doe litters in an open 8form20 the young are born covered with hair and with open eyes4 ,mature animals breed four or even five times a year1 producing two to four leverets each time4 ,the hare is injurious to agriculture1 eating cabbages1 rape1 turnips1 clover1 vetches1 young corn plants1 carrots1 and grass4 ,it also eats many weeds4 ,it is1 however1 less injurious than the rabbit1 for it does not burrow4 ,the damage done by the hare is also less evident1 since this restless1 fastidious animal seldom feeds continuously in the same spot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,abnormal ,tooth in ,hare4 ,rabbit 7,lepus cuniculus74 ,ears shorter than the head4 ,eyes dark brown4 ,fur yellowish brown to greyish yellow on the upper side1 redder in front4 ,under fur bluish grey4 ,shape more compressed4 ,the rabbit breeds more rapidly than the hare4 ,five to six times yearly the doe brings forth four to eight young1 which1 after six months1 can again reproduce4 ,dwelling subterranean4 ,young1 blind and hairless at birth4 ,as the rabbit burrows1 it is limited to certain districts1 for the soil must not be too stiff and firm1 nor1 on the other hand1 too light and incoherent4 ,the rabbit is injurious in the same way as the hare1 but the damage is more obvious 7see above72 and as a result of its burrowing habits it does infinitely more damage4 ,both in sandhills and in alluvial sandy soil rabbit burrows lead to the blowing away of material only held together by sand-plants4 ,kept down by shooting1 netting1 and ferreting 7p4 #bg74 ,family3 ,murid 7,mouse ,family74 ,the mouse-like animals 7the larger species of the family are called 8rats07 closely resemble the representatives of the following family1 but are distinguished from these 7the 8voles07 by their slender body1 longer legs1 a more pointed head with longer always clearly visible ears1 and usually1 with the exception of the hamster1 by a tail equal in length to the body4 ,the hind legs are longer than the fore legs1 hence the hopping mode of progression4 ,three back teeth on each side of each jaw1 possessing a tuberculated crown completely covered with enamel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,the ,hamster 7,cricetus frumentarius74 ,the ,hamster 7,cricetus frumentarius74--,the ,hamster has cheek-pouches1 and a very short1 thick1 but short-haired tail4 ,it attains the size of the brown rat4 ,bright yellowish brown2 belly and legs black4 ,the hamster is found almost exclusively on fertile soil devoted to cultivation4 ,it appears locally1 and then for several years in great abundance1 so that it is often caught in tens or even hundreds of thousands4 ,favourite food3 wheat1 field beans1 and peas1 then rye and similar grain2 and1 last1 roots1 turnips1 young corn plants4 ,sometimes1 too1 the hamster eats animal food--worms1 insects1 lizards1 small birds1 eggs1 and mice4 ,as a winter store it usually only accumulates grain1 beans1 and peas in its hiding-place1 often to the amount of more than five gallons4 ,a little heap of thrown-out soil marks on the surface the position of its nest4 ,the entry to this runs vertically down into the soil4 ,six to twelve young1 twice a year4 ,the dwellings of the hamster1 which are situated in stubble-fields1 can easily be found2 and by digging them up1 particularly in spring and late summer1 when there are young ones1 the number of these destructive ,rodents can be greatly reduced4 ,may be caught in traps4 ,genus ,mus 7,mice and ,rats7 includes ,rodents without cheek-pouches1 and with long1 scaly1 ringed tails4 ,two large species 78rats07 belong here1 namely-- ,the common ,black ,rat 7,m4 rattus71 indigenous to ,europe since pre-historic times1 and the stronger1 somewhat larger-- ,brown ,rat 7,m4 decumanus71 with greyish white belly 7while the first-named species is black on the upper and only slightly brighter on the under side74 ,the brown rat migrated during the first half of the eighteenth century from ,asia into ,russia1 and about the same time from ,further ,india to ,england by means of ships4 ,since then it has spread all over ,europe and other parts of the world1 and in many regions has quite driven out the black rat4 ,both kinds of rat eat almost everything1 and are a pest in housekeeping1 as well as in agriculture4 ,they feed on insects1 mice1 eggs1 and chickens1 will even bite pieces from the living bodies of grown poultry and fattening swine1 and also devour young geese and ducks4 ,they eat grain1 peas1 beans1 potatoes1 carrots1 turnips2 bread1 cheese1 and similar provisions4 ,multiply very rapidly4 ,can be driven away by clacking-mills1 and to a great extent by noise4 ,caught in traps4 ,besides these1 four mice belong here3-- ,the ,common ,mouse 7,mus musculus74 ,back yellowish grey-black1 gradually shading into a somewhat lighter tint on the under side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,the ,long-tailed ,field ,mouse 7,mus sylvaticus74 ,the ,wood ,mouse1 or ,long-tailed ,field ,mouse 7,m4 sylvaticus74 ,back a brown shade of yellowish grey2 belly white1 sharply marked off2 relatively very long hind legs1 hence a hopping gait4 ,the long-tailed field mouse penetrates tolerably far into woods1 but is also found in plantations and gardens1 sometimes also in quite treeless regions4 ,on arable land it may adopt the habits of the field vole 7p4 #db71 but as it does not multiply so rapidly is not nearly so injurious4 ,it may also live either for a short time or permanently in houses1 adopting the same habits as the common mouse4 ,the ,harvest ,mouse 7,m4 minutus74 ,small1 pretty2 back yellowish brown red1 belly of a sharply marked-off white4 ,lives in cornfields during the summer2 in harvest time by the field-paths2 during winter in barns and haystacks1 but also in outdoor nests in the fields4 ,climbs among the grass and corn-haulms1 and the small stems and branches of other plants1 including shrubs1 holding fast1 not only by the feet1 but also by the tail4 ,builds a beautiful spherical nest with a side entrance out of the haulms and leaves of grass and corn1 or out of other leaves4 ,devours seeds1 especially grain1 oats being the favourite4 ,the ,corn ,mouse 7,m4 agrarius74 ,back brownish red with longitudinal black stripes4 ,in plains east of the ,rhine4 ,usually local1 but then very abundant4 ,chiefly in cornfields and fruitfields2 digs holes in the soil4 ,in autumn it often occurs in the field in large colonies4 ,food3 grain1 beans1 peas1 potatoes1 turnips1 carrots4 ,in winter in the barns and dwelling-houses of farmers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,upper ,back ,teeth of ,brown ,rat1 seen from grinding surface4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,upper ,back ,teeth of ,water ,vole1 seen from grinding surface4 ,regarding the means of destroying those mice which are sometimes damaging to agriculture 7,m4 sylvaticus and ,m4 minutus71 see methods mentioned under 8,field-vole0 7p4 #dc74 ,family3 ,arvicolid 7,vole ,family74 ,the large voles are also popularly called 8rats10 the smaller ones 8mice40 ,they closely resemble the true mice and rats 7p4 #ch71 but are distinguished from them by their plumper1 more compressed body2 a thicker head with blunt snout1 and ears quite hidden in the fur2 and a short1 tolerably hairy tail1 on which no rings of scales can be distinguished4 ,there are on each side of each jaw three back teeth1 of which each appears to consist of two rows of three-sided prisms1 fused together along the middle line 7cp4 ,figs4 #bd and #bc74 ,the native species all belong to the genus ,arvicola2 the ,bank ,vole 7,arvicola glareolus71 the ,water ,rat1 or ,water ,vole 7,a4 amphibius71 and the ,short-tailed ,field ,mouse1 or ,field ,vole 7,a4 agrestis74 ,the brownish-red ,bank ,vole 7,a4 glareolus7 occurs in forests4 ,the ,water ,rat1 or ,water ,vole 7,a4 amphibius74 ,body six inches long1 tail half the length of the body4 ,fur of one colour1 brighter on the under side1 varying from brownish grey to brownish black on the back1 and from whitish to greyish black on the belly4 ,on the banks of rivers1 brooks1 ditches1 canals1 etc42 also on damp low-lying meadows and fields4 ,digs much-branched passages in the soil2 this often takes place in embankments to such an extent that it finally leads to their complete destruction4 ,the vole also does damage in grass-fields and cornfields in the same way as the mole 7p4 #cc74 ,in its case1 however1 there is no compensating service4 ,it certainly eats insects and worms1 but its chief food is of vegetable nature2 grain1 potatoes1 turnips1 and carrots are devoured by it in large quantity1 and in particular stored up in its hiding-place4 ,it also destroys the roots of grass and corn1 and eagerly devours chickens and the eggs of ducks and geese4 ,a variety 7,a4 amphibius1 var4 terrestris7 occurs in dry soils1 and is distinguished by its smaller size1 lighter colour1 and shorter tail4 ,its habits are the same as those of the ordinary form1 but it is more given to attacking trees4 ,traps1 shooting1 poisoning with celery stumps hollowed out and filled with phosphorus1 or else with phosphorus paste4 ,the ,field ,vole1 or ,short-tailed ,field ,mouse 7,a4 agrestis74 ,a small animal1 with dark brownish grey back and greyish white belly4 ,lives in pastures1 especially those which are low-lying and damp4 ,large numbers are found together1 and they make deep burrows in the soil1 each pair having a special nest to themselves4 ,three1 four1 or even more litters per year2 four to ten young in each litter4 ,its favourite food consists of roots1 young shoots of grass1 etc41 and the tender bark of shrubs1 but nothing of vegetable nature comes amiss4 ,specially destructive in permanent pasture4 ,,remedies4 7a7 ,preventive measures4 ,protection of its natural enemies 7weasel1 stoat1 polecat1 fox1 hedgehog1 owls1 buzzards1 kestrels1 the smaller seagulls74 ,catching in traps1 etc41 in the spring1 when the voles are only present in small numbers4 7b7 ,destructive measures1 which should be as generally used as possible in infested districts4 ,if a field has been completely devastated1 or the crop is over3 7#a7 ,working the soil with a spiked roller2 7#b7 ,partial inundation of the lower-lying fields4 ,if it is desired to kill the voles and spare the crop as well1 the following means may be recommended3 7#a7 ,the digging of cylindrical holes six inches across and two feet deep1 especially at the margins of the fields and in the furrows1 as well as--at harvest time--on any footpaths that may be found4 ,the voles fall into these holes1 cannot get out again1 and are starved4 7#b7 ,the employment of poisons4 7,care must be taken that no children or domestic animals are poisoned47 ,phosphorus paste is best4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,the ,southern ,field ,vole 7,arvicola arvalis74 ,the ,southern ,field ,vole 7,a4 arvalis7 plays the same destructive part on the ,continent that the preceding form does here 7,fig4 #be74 ,remedies--see above4 ,,order3 ,ruminantia 7,,cud-,,chewing ,,mammals74 ,the feet end in two hoof-covered toes1 besides which two 8after toes0 are present4 ,the upper incisors are absent1 with few exceptions1 but many deer have canines in the upper jaw4 ,the back teeth of ,ruminants are compound teeth4 ,the lower jaw is smaller than the upper1 and during chewing undergoes lateral movements1 so that the plants taken in as food are ground up1 as it were1 into small pieces1 between the projecting enamel ridges of the upper and lower back teeth4 ,the stomach consists of four subdivisions2 these are 7#a7 the rumen1 or paunch1 where the greater part of the food and water taken collects2 7#b7 the reticulum1 or honey-comb stomach2 7#c7 the psalterium1 or manyplies2 7#d7 the abomasum1 reed1 or rennet stomach4 ,the last is the second largest part1 and in it the same chemical changes take place as in the simple stomach of a non-ruminant4 ,after the food has remained for some time in the paunch it passes up again through the gullet1 and as the 8cud0 undergoes a second chewing4 ,the soft mass resulting is once more swallowed1 and passes into the psalterium and abomasum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,skull of a ,sheep4 ,not only the families of ,tylopoda 7,camels1 ,llamas71 and ,camelopardalid 7,giraffes71 but also the large family of ,cavicornia1 to which1 amongst others1 the ox1 sheep1 and goat belong1 will be passed over in this book4 ,i need only mention the-- ,family3 ,cervid 7,deer ,family74 ,deer have branched horns1 known as antlers4 ,with the solitary exception of the reindeer1 they are only found in the males4 ,they are bony structures borne upon projecting knobs 7horn cores7 of the frontal lines4 ,after each rutting-season the antlers are cast1 new ones1 clothed at first with a soft skin the 8velvet01 are developed4 ,before the next rutting-season the dermal part of the skin unites firmly with the underlying antler1 and becomes itself ossified1 while the epidermis shrivels up1 partly peels off in bits1 and is partly rubbed off by the animal against tree trunks4 ,if the conditions of life 7food1 weather7 are favourable1 the animal acquires a new side branch to each antler every year1 at any rate1 so long as he continues to get bigger and stronger4 ,the one-year-old male 78brocket07 has therefore a simple unbranched antler1 the two-year-old 78spayad07 one side branch as well1 the three-year-old 78sorel07 three points in all2 the four-year-old 78staggard07 has four points2 the five-year-old 78stag07 five1 and so on4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,development of ,roebuck ,antlers4 ,in ,britain two indigenous deer are found--the ,red ,deer 7,cervus elaphus7 and the ,roebuck 7,c4 capreolus72 a third species1 the ,fallow ,deer 7,c4 dama71 lives in ,south ,europe and ,asia ,minor and the exact date of its introduction into ,britain is not known4 ,the ,red ,deer 7,cervus elaphus74 ,six to seven feet long1 and four feet high4 ,antlers rough and cylindrical for their entire length2 each in its normal condition has two front branches 8brow0 and 8bez-tyne01 a middle branch 8tres01 and a 8crown40 ,tail small4 ,body of a brownish colour1 becoming red in summer4 ,a light yellowish brown spot on the tail4 ,male larger than the female1 with long dark hairs on the neck during the breeding season 7autumn74 ,the young 78calves07 are spotted with white till their first change of coat in ,october4 ,the hind brings forth one or rarely two calves in ,may or the beginning of ,june4 ,the stag sheds his antlers at the end of ,february2 the new ones are already full-grown in ,july4 ,so long as they are growing the stag keeps to the low woods1 and first seeks the high-lying forests when they are completed4 ,he only leaves the forest for any length of time during the breeding season1 but1 wherever possible1 comes to the field for a short time every evening to feed on cabbages1 peas1 beans1 young corn1 clover1 lupines1 grass1 etc4 ,turnips1 carrots1 and potatoes1 dug out of the ground by the fore legs1 are also devoured4 ,in this way red deer do a great deal of damage1 not only directly in feeding1 but also1 to a larger extent1 by trampling down the crops4 ,in autumn and winter they chiefly feed on acorns1 beechnuts1 buds and young shoots of various trees4 ,they also peel the bark from young trees1 and often cause damage while rubbing the remains of the velvet from their antlers4 ,red deer are injurious to agriculture and forestry4 ,suitable fencing of fields1 gardens1 etc41 to be protected4 ,the ,roebuck 7,cervus capreolus7 measures up to three and a half feet long1 and about two feet high4 ,antlers 7,fig4 #bg7 only slightly branched1 and rough all over2 beams and branches cylindrical4 ,no brow-tynes1 and usually only three branches4 ,tail extremely small and inconspicuous4 ,legs long and slender4 ,summer coat greyish brown1 passing over to a reddish tint2 the longer winter coat brownish grey4 ,a whitish patch on the rump4 ,the young 78fawns07 have at first white spots on a brownish ground4 ,breeding season in ,august4 ,the female 78doe07 brings forth her two fawns in ,may or ,june4 ,the roebuck keeps principally to the lower and middle forests1 especially in places where glades1 rich in grass and herbage1 and cornfields or meadows alternate with woodland4 ,in the evening it comes out of the cover to eat in the fields and meadows2 towards morning it withdraws again4 ,the roebuck devours both young corn and corn in the ear2 also ears of millet1 beans1 peas1 clover1 and lupines4 ,it does not appear to touch potatoes and turnips4 ,the bucks in particular do much mischief by trampling about in cornfields4 ,the ,fallow ,deer 7,cervus dama7 is about four feet long and three feet high2 antlers rough and cylindrical only towards the root1 with tolerably smooth1 flat1 shovel-like ends4 ,old individuals are pale brown1 the summer coat is reddish and brightly spotted2 belly whitish2 a white patch on the tail4 ,the young have sharply marked bright spots4 ,in its habits this non-indigenous species agrees in many respects with the red deer1 but changes its abode less4 ,towards evening it eagerly leaves the forest in order to seek its food in the cornfields4 ,as the fallow deer lives in large herds its trampling does much damage4 ,,order3 ,multungula or ,pachydermata 7,,many-,,hoofed ,,or ,,thick-,,skinned ,,mammals74 ,non-ruminating hoofed animals with thick1 often callous1 naked1 or scantily haired1 frequently bristly skin and with three to five toes1 which1 though they are not all developed to the same extent1 are yet never rudimentary4 ,the various species are very unlike one another as to food and dentition4 ,here belong domesticated swine1 and a single species--formerly occurring wild in ,britain-- ,the ,wild ,boar 7,sus scrofa74 ,on each foot four toes1 of which the two hinder are small and do not usually touch the ground4 ,the wild boar agrees in the general conformation of its body with the common domesticated swine4 ,six incisors in upper and lower jaw2 the lower ones forwardly directed4 ,the canines1 which are more developed in boars than sows1 curve outwards and upwards in both jaws as 8tusks40 ,on each side of each jaw seven tuberculated back teeth completely covered with enamel4 ,length of the body #e feet #aj inches2 length of tail #a foot #h inches4 ,colour3 black and rusty brown4 ,the young ones are white1 spotted and striped with dark brown4 ,the wild boar likes damp1 swampy1 but at the same time thickly overgrown districts1 where it remains hidden in the day1 only seeking the fields and meadows when it has become dark and quite still4 ,it then chiefly feeds on turnips1 carrots1 and potatoes1 rooting them out of the ground2 it also devours leguminous crops and grain1 but treads down far more of these plants than it eats4 ,besides this1 it also feeds on acorns1 beechnuts1 hazel-nuts1 and truffles4 ,the wild boar does some service by devouring snails1 worms1 insect larv living in the soil1 and also the pup of destructive species of caterpillars1 which occur in the same situation2 also voles4 ,thick hedges1 in order to protect the corn from injury4 ,,order3 ,solidungula 7,,single-,,hoofed ,,mammals71 to which the horse and the ass belong1 need not be dealt with here2 still less the other orders enumerated on p4 #bc4 ,,class ,,ii43 ,,aves 7,,birds74 ,warm-blooded ,vertebrates1 which breathe by lungs1 are covered with feathers1 have no teeth but a horny beak1 and lay hard-shelled eggs1 which are hatched by the warmth of their body4 ,they are adapted for movement in the air1 though not all to the same degree4 ,the fore limbs are modified into wings1 in which1 however1 the parts found in ,mammals can be recognized4 ,we distinguish in the first place a small thumb1 and then in most cases a two-jointed forefinger and a small second finger4 ,secondary quills 7,fig4 #bh1 ,,bb7 are attached to the ulna1 and primary quills 7,a1 #a-aj7 to the two metacarpals and the finger joints1 while the thumb bears the bastard wing 7,c74 ,the tail feathers1 or rectrices1 are attached to the last joint of the tail4 ,the body is clothed with stiff1 tolerably long contour feathers1 which conceal the soft short down from view4 ,the bones are hollow and filled with air4 ,their cavities are connected with air-sacs1 which are found in all parts of the body1 and fill themselves with air from the lungs when the bird begins to fly4 ,in this way its specific gravity is reduced4 ,the body firm1 especially the hinder part of it1 which is almost immovable2 the neck1 which may consist of many vertebr 7even as many as twenty-two71 can1 on the contrary1 be turned in many directions4 ,birds walk entirely on their toes2 the metatarsals are fused with one of the rows of tarsals into a 8tarsus0 bone4 ,tarsus and toes are covered with horny scales4 ,a bird's egg 7,fig4 #bi7 consists of a germinal disc 7h7 from which the young bird develops1 and which rests on the yolk1 made up of substances serving for the nutriment of the developing bird3 the yellow 7a7 and the white 7b7 yolk1 as well as the albumen 7c1 c#a1 8white of egg07 in which lie two twisted cords 7chalaz71--finally of protective structures3 the shell-membrane 7e7 and the calcareous shell 7f72 g is the air-chamber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,wing of the ,buzzard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,a ,bird's ,egg4 ,when the young escape from the egg1 they are either able to at once look after themselves more or less1 at least to look for their food1--in which case they can see and are clothed with feathers at hatching 7precocious young2 e4g4 fowls1 ducks1 gulls1 and pewits71--or the young remain some time in the nest1 as they are1 to begin with1 both blind and naked1 and in this case they are fed for some time by the parents 7nestlings2 e4g4 birds of prey1 sparrows1 nightingales1 pigeons74 ,in the frigid and temperate zones most species of birds do not remain in their native country after the breeding season2 those which go south in the autumn are termed migrants2 while birds which do not migrate1 but remain in the district where they have bred1 are known as residents 7sparrow1 jay1 magpie74 ,gipsy migrants execute more or less extensive wanderings1 influenced by want of food or other causes 7woodpecker1 titmouse1 golden-crested wren1 tree-creeper74 ,the travels of such birds are not1 like those of migrants1 undertaken at a definite time of year1 or in definite directions 7,n41 ,s471 but many of their species collect together in large flocks for the purpose of wandering1 like migrants4 ,the following orders are usually distinguished3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,the ,eagle ,owl 7,otus maximus74 ,i4 ,raptores 7,birds of ,prey71 ,,ii4 ,scansores 7,climbers71 ,,iii4 ,passeres 7,singing ,birds71 ,,iv4 ,gyrantes 7,doves71 ,v4 ,rasores 7,scratchers71 ,,vi4 ,grallatores 7,waders71 ,,vii4 ,natatores 7,swimmers71 ,,viii4 ,cursores 7,running ,birds74 ,the ,order ,cursores includes the ostrich-like birds1 and will not here receive further notice4 ,,order3 ,raptores 7,,birds ,,of ,,prey74 ,upper beak hooked1 covered with a skin 7cere7 at its base2 four toes possessing strong claws1 and provided with pads in their under side 7,fig4 #ca72 wings powerful4 ,birds of prey live in pairs1 and breed once a year in nests composed of pieces of wood and branches4 ,the young are nestlings 7p4 #ea74 ,sight keen4 ,these birds feed almost exclusively on vertebrates1 principally mammals and birds4 ,an idea of their food can be gained by examination of their 8pellets0--roundish balls composed of the indigestible parts of their food1 and disgorged from twelve to twenty hours after feeding4 ,two groups are distinguished--diurnal and nocturnal birds of prey4 ,the first 7,figs4 #ca1 #cb7 have a laterally flattened head1 eyes directed laterally1 and tolerably stiff feathers4 ,the nocturnal forms 78owls10 ,figs4 #cj1 #cc7 have a large head1 flattened in front1 with large eyes facing to the front1 soft plumage1 and hair-like feathers on the toes1 of which two are directed forwards1 one backwards1 and one outwards4 ,the radiating feathers round the eye constitute a 8veil40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,head and ,foot of ,falcon4 ,predominatingly harmful 7from killing domestic mammals7 are the following species occurring in ,britain3 the ,sea ,eagle 7,haliatus albicilla71 the ,golden ,eagle 7,aquila chrysatus71 the ,peregrine ,falcon 7,falco peregrinus71 the ,merlin 7,f4 salon71 the ,hobby 7,f4 subbuteo71 the ,sparrow ,hawk 7,accipiter nisus71 the ,kite 7,milvus regalis71 the ,goshawk 7,astur palumbarius71 the ,harriers 7,circus cyaneus and ,c4 cinerarius71 and the ,honey ,buzzard 7,pernis apivorus74 ,the last effects damage by catching honey bees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,the ,golden ,eagle 7,aquila chrysatus74 ,useful in the main1 being destroyers of field-voles1 are the following3 the ,kestrel 7,falco tinnunculus71 the ,buzzard 7,buteo vulgaris71 the ,barn ,owl 7,strix flammea1 ,fig4 #cc71 the ,brown ,owl 7,s4 aluco71 the ,little ,owl 7,athene noctua71 a casual1 the ,short-eared or ,woodcock ,owl 7,otus brachyotus71 the ,long-eared ,owl 7,o4 vulgaris71 and the ,eagle ,owl 7,otus maximus1 ,fig4 #cj71 a rare visitor4 ,a bird of prey cannot simply be classed as harmful or useful2 a species mainly injurious may sometimes destroy a field vole or a destructive bird1 while a useful species may sometimes attack domestic poultry4 ,game-preserving is destructive of almost all the indigenous diurnal birds of prey1 and of the owls to a less extent4 ,,order3 ,scansores 7,,climbers74 ,birds with two toes directed forwards and two backwards4 ,the young are nestlings4 ,here belong toucans1 parrots1 cuckoos1 and woodpeckers4 ,the first two groups are limited to the tropics2 woodpeckers are only of importance in the culture of fruit trees and in forestry4 ,i describe briefly-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,the ,barn ,owl 7,strix flammea74 ,the ,cuckoo 7,cuculus canorus1 ,fig4 #cd74 ,fourteen inches long1 tail eight inches4 ,the yellowish beak is slightly curved2 feet yellow4 ,back blue-grey in old birds1 brownish in young ones4 ,belly white with dark transverse lines4 ,ten tail quills1 flecked with white4 ,shy2 flies like a bird of prey4 ,the female lays her eggs at intervals of about fourteen days1 and cannot therefore hatch them out herself4 ,she lays the egg on the ground1 and then takes it in her bill to the nest of a small bird which feed its young with insects 7wagtail1 grasshopper warbler1 nightingale1 robin1 lesser whitethroat1 wren1 lark74 ,the cuckoo's egg is generally hatched by the foster parent1 and the true young often do not come out from the egg1 owing to lack of warmth2 or1 if hatched1 they are thrown out later on by the much larger1 rapidly developing young cuckoo4 ,every cuckoo1 therefore1 is so far harmful that it costs the lives of several insect-eating birds4 ,but it far more than compensates for this by destroying insects4 ,it is especially beneficial to fruit-tree culture and forestry1 since it eats an enormous number of caterpillars2 but in late summer it comes frequently from the woodland into the fields1 and then eats the caterpillars of the cabbage white1 cabbage moth1 and silver ,y moth1 surface caterpillars1 and the larv of the turnip saw-fly4 ,it also devours mole-crickets and 7naturally in the spring7 cockchafers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,the ,cuckoo 7,cuculus canorus74 ,,order3 ,passeres 7,,perching ,,birds74 ,this order is essentially constituted by all those birds with helpless young 7p4 #ea71 which do not belong to the two preceding orders or the one next following4 ,beak without a cere4 ,three toes forwardly1 one backwardly directed4 ,group3 ,hirundinid 7,swallows74 ,with short flat beak1 broad at the base1 with gape extending far back1 and triangular as seen from above4 ,in flight the beak is opened as widely as possible1 serving for catching insects4 ,wings long and pointed4 ,feet short and weak1 entirely unsuited or only poorly adapted for walking2 their chief use is to enable the swallow to hold fast to different objects4 ,swallows fly quickly and catch insects while on the wing4 ,the insects on which they prey are generally unimportant to agriculture and forestry2 but they may also do good by catching crane flies 7,tipula71 and ribbon-footed corn flies 7,chlorops71 which often fly about our fields in enormous swarms in order to lay their eggs4 ,all swallows are migratory birds4 ,there belong here-- #a4 ,true ,swallows 7,hirundo71 with forked tails2 three toes directed to the front1 one to the back4 ,here may be reckoned--,swallow 7,h4 rustica71 always broods in sheltered spots1 e4g4 inside a stable1 summer-house1 or verandah2 ,house ,martin 7,h4 urbica71 nests against buildings1 under the eaves for example2 the ,sand ,martin 7,h4 riparia71 breeds in the neighbourhood of streams1 especially in vertical banks of loamy or coherent sandy soil1 where it makes its nest at the end of a passage a yard long4 ,the ,house ,martin is shining black on the back1 white on the entire under surface and rump4 ,the ,bank ,martin is brownish grey on the back1 white on the under side1 with brownish-grey bands on the breast4 #b4 ,swifts 7,cypselus71 with forked tails and four strong1 curved1 forwardly directed claws4 ,only one ,british species belongs here--the ,swift 7,cypselus apus71 ten inches long1 brownish black except for white throat1 and with very long curved wings4 #c4 ,night-jars 7,caprimulgus71 with tail not forked1 soft plumage1 large head and eyes2 fly at night4 ,one species belongs here--the ,goatsucker 7,caprimulgus europus1 ,fig4 #ce71 twelve inches long1 grey on the upper side1 spotted with blackish brown and rusty yellow1 yellowish whitey grey with dark wavy lines on the under side4 ,in the day it flies awkwardly and heavily1 and usually keeps under cover2 by night it flies rapidly and boldly1 especially in bare spots in woods1 or in gardens and on fields4 ,it haunts especially the neighbourhood of sheepfolds and cattle in the meadows1 since it always finds flies and gnats there4 ,it also catches cockchafers and various moths4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,the ,goatsucker 7,caprimulgus europus74 ,group3 ,magnirostres 7,large-beaked ,perching ,birds74 ,beak strong1 thick1 often incurved near its apex4 ,these birds eat almost all kinds of food1 both animal and vegetable4 ,here belong ,starlings and ,raven-like ,birds 7crows1 magpies1 jays74 ,the ,starling 7,sturnus vulgaris74 ,plumage black1 with a violet sheen4 ,the tips of the contour feathers1 however1 are white or bright yellowish4 ,these white patches become so well marked after the autumn moult1 that they almost completely cover the shining metallic black of the feathers4 ,they gradually become smaller2 in the next spring they are almost or entirely lost4 ,very serviceable4 ,devours1 especially in autumn1 many field snails1 also cockchafer grubs1 wireworms1 grass caterpillars1 grasshoppers1 leaf-lice2 also many insects destructive to fruit trees and forest trees4 ,the starling1 however1 is able to do considerable damage to garden fruit trees1 since it eats cherries1 currants1 and sometimes even pears4 ,starlings often settle on the backs of sheep and cows in order to pick off the vermin4 ,genus3 ,corvus 7,crow-like ,birds74 ,here belong--#a4 ,the ,jackdaw 7,c4 monedula71 with relatively short beak and long tarsi4 ,black2 side of the head and neck ashen grey4 ,breeds in holes in trees1 chimneys1 ruins1 and towers4 #b4 ,the ,hooded ,crow 7,g4 cornix72 bright grey1 except the head1 throat1 wings1 and tail1 which are black4 ,breeds in all parts of ,europe east of the ,elbe2 occurs in ,western ,europe as a gipsy migrant in winter4 #c4 ,carrion ,crow 7,c4 corone72 black1 beak stout and strongly bent at its end4 ,breeds in trees1 but never 7like the ,rook7 in large numbers together4 #d4 ,rook 7,c4 frugilegus72 black1 beak rather long2 in adult specimens the head feathers are quite worn away at the base of the beak4 #e4 ,raven 7,c4 corax72 much larger than the other species2 black1 beak very strong1 strongly curved along its entire upper side4 ,nowhere in large numbers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,head of ,rook 7,corvus frugilegus74 ,food1 ,benefit conferred1 and ,damage done4 ,ravens1 and sometimes even rooks1 attack lambs and sick sheep1 also ducks1 geese1 fowls1 and pigeons4 ,carrion crows and hooded crows rarely attack our domestic animals4 ,all crows1 however1 steal the eggs of our poultry4 ,they also injure sport1 since they kill hares and rabbits1 young fawns1 quails1 pheasants1 etc4 ,they do a little good1 however1 by devouring field-voles1 but1 as a rule1 only catch the sick ones which are not able to move quickly4 ,they do harm by destroying useful insect-eating birds1 also eating their eggs and young4 ,but as insect-eaters1 they are extremely useful2 they devour cockchafers1 wireworms1 butterflies1 surface caterpillars1 crane flies and their larv1 and field snails2 also many earthworms4 ,as to the vegetable part of their food1 they devour1 in the first place1 germinating seeds2 grain1 peas1 beans4 ,they also pick grain from the ear1 both when ripe and1 to a larger extent1 when still soft2 and in doing this pull down the ear so as to crack the stalk1 thus causing more damage than by the mere eating4 ,they also plunder the ripening peas1 and feast upon cherries1 plums1 apricots1 and other juicy fruits2 even potatoes and turnips4 ,all crow-like birds do some harm and some good1 only the raven 7which eats scarcely any insects7 is to be always reckoned as an enemy4 ,the ,magpie 7,pica caudata7 and ,jay 7,garrulus glandarius7 are resident birds closely related to the crows4 ,the first affects open tracts of land 7fields1 meadows1 gardens7 in the neighbourhood of large trees2 the latter is a woodland bird4 ,both birds eat almost everything3 grain1 acorns1 beechnuts1 cherries1 berries2 cockchafers1 wireworms1 and similar insects2 the eggs and young of useful insect-eating song-birds 7such as titmice71 also these little birds themselves1 ducklings and chickens1 young partridges1 quails1 pheasants1 now and then field-voles4 ,more harmful than useful4 ,group3 ,conirostres 7,conical-beaked ,perching ,birds74 ,beak conical1 thicker and shorter than in the species of the following group4 ,they devour insects and seeds1 a few species seeds exclusively4 ,here belong first the ,titmice 7,parus71 gipsy migrants which are extremely serviceable both in fruit-tree culture and forestry4 ,then the ,larks 7especially the ,skylark1 ,alauda arvensis1 a resident71 which nest on the ground1 eating insects1 seeds1 and in winter even leaves2 they feed their young1 however1 with insects4 ,they do both good and harm1 but the former mostly preponderates4 ,in late summer and autumn1 skylarks collect in flocks1 and wander here and there for a long time3 before this1 they travel south2 at this time many are caught and eaten4 ,the male skylark sings beautifully1 rising meanwhile high in the air4 ,the ,buntings 7,emberiza7 have a characteristic compressed and pointed beak2 they seek their food on the ground in fields and meadows1 and on roads4 ,the food consists of grain and insects2 but since these birds never take grains from the ear1 they only do damage by picking them up at seed-time4 ,they feed their young with insects4 ,the damage is usually very inconsiderable1 but1 on the other hand1 the benefit conferred is slight4 7,yellow ,hammer1 ,e4 citrinella1 a yellow-coloured resident4 ,the ,common ,bunting1 ,e4 miliaria1 a grey-coloured migrant1 etc47 ,in the family of ,finches a number of species are included which are of small agricultural importance3 e4g4 the ,bullfinch 7,pyrrhula vulgaris71 specially attacks fruit-tree buds in ,march2 the ,goldfinch 7,carduelis elegans72 the ,siskin 7,chrysomitris spinus72 the ,lesser ,redpoll 7,linota linaria72 the ,greenfinch 7,ligurinus chloris74 ,a few species1 however1 must be dealt with more fully1 and1 first1-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,head of ,bullfinch4 ,the two ,sparrows1 i4e4 the ,house ,sparrow 7,passer domestica7 and the ,tree ,sparrow 7,p4 montana74 ,house ,sparrow3 ear region bright grey4 ,a rust-coloured or yellowish streak behind the eye4 ,the whole throat black in the male4 ,wings with a yellowish white transverse band4 ,tree ,sparrow3 ear region black4 ,a black streak behind the eye1 a white band round the neck1 and a black patch on the throat4 ,wings with two white transverse bands4 ,the two sparrows are very much alike in their habits1 but the house sparrow frequents more the neighbourhood of human dwellings1 even in large towns4 ,both sparrows are mainly harmful2 where seeds 7especially those containing starch1 e4g4 corn7 are available1 they prefer this kind of food to any other2 and1 besides this1 they chiefly bring up their young on soft unripe grain4 ,sparrows devour the germinating corn after seed-time1 and also pick the grain from the ear1 in which process they at the same time do damage by breaking down the haulms so that the grain falls out4 ,they pick the young peas from their pods2 devour1 too1 several juicy tree fruits1 e4g4 cherries and grapes2 and destroy young garden seedlings1 e4g4 lettuce1 spinach1 garden flowers4 ,the house sparrow eats more insects than the tree sparrow 7among them--geometer caterpillars1 injurious roller caterpillars71 but leaves the most noxious kinds untouched4 ,both sparrows are residents1 but in autumn and winter often collect together in large flocks4 ,the ,linnet 7,linota cannabina71 with grey-brown darkly spotted back4 ,belly whitish1 tail black with broad white margins4 ,during summer the top of the head and the breast of the male are of a beautiful red4 ,they are often found together in flocks during ,september4 ,in spring and summer they chiefly live on oil-containing seeds1 and may even do some good by eating the seeds of charlock2 usually1 however1 doing much more harm by devouring the seed of rape1 flax1 linseed1 and hemp4 ,the ,chaffinch 7,fringilla clebs74 ,a white patch on the two outermost tail feathers and the ones next them4 ,wings with one white and one yellowish transverse band4 ,male3 upper side of head and neck bluish grey1 back brown1 breast reddish brown4 ,female3 back grey-brown1 belly whitish1 breast ash-grey4 ,the chaffinch inhabits forests1 both those of ordinary foliage trees and those consisting of conifers2 it also nests in gardens and plantations4 ,at the beginning of ,september the males separate from the females1 and both sexes collect in large flocks which haunt gardens1 avenues1 and bushes4 ,in mild winters they remain resident1 but travel away if the cold is greater4 ,the chaffinch devours oil-containing seeds by preference1 but also eats starchy ones1 and seeks its food on the ground4 ,it does a great deal of damage in cornfields by picking the seeds out of the soil after they have been sown2 but does not take the grain from the ear4 ,it also eats young seedlings4 ,but valuable services more than counterbalance the harm done4 ,when the chaffinches in autumn fly about in large flocks in the fields1 they eat an enormous number of weed seeds4 ,the young are chiefly fed with insects1 especially with caterpillars4 ,in the spring1 when the seeds have germinated and the young corn is not yet ripe1 the chaffinch feeds itself also on insects4 ,group3 ,subulirostres 7,awl-beaked ,perching ,birds74 ,beak slender1 awl-shaped1 round in transverse section4 ,a fully developed organ of voice4 ,feed almost exclusively on insects2 there are only a few species which occasionally eat seeds4 ,a few of them1 however1 sometimes devour juicy fruits 7cherries1 bird-cherries1 elder-berries1 juniper-berries1 grapes74 ,the birds belonging to this group1 without exception1 feed their young on insects4 ,they are of service2 even those species which occasionally do damage are useful on the whole4 ,there belong to the ,subulirostres-- ,the ,wagtails 7,motacilla71 e4g4 the ,white ,wagtail 7,m4 alba71 usually living in the neighbourhood of water1 and seeking its insect food in the fields 7often behind the plough71 and in pastures and gardens4 ,the lark-coloured ,pipits 7,anthus74 ,the ,hedge ,accentor1 or 8,sparrow0 7,accentor modularis71--in garden hedges1 and woods1 feeding sometimes on seeds4 ,the following 8warblers30 ,nightingale 7,daulias luscinia71 ,robin 7,erithacus rubecula71 ,redstart 7,ruticilla phnicurus71 the ,lesser ,whitethroat 7,sylvia curruca71 ,garden ,warbler 7,s4 hortensis71 ,willow ,wren 7,s4 trochilus71 ,chiffchaff 7,s4 rufa71 ,reed ,warblers 7,acrocephalus streperus and ,a4 arundinacea71 etc4 ,the last-named live among reeds and rushes on the banks of fresh waters1 and eat insects which do not affect agriculture and forestry2 all the other warblers are useful4 ,other examples of the ,subulirostres are the ,golden-crested ,wren 7,regulus cristatus71 and the ,common ,wren 7,troglodytes parvulus71 which are of service to forestry and fruit-tree culture1 but not to agriculture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,the ,nightingale 7,daulias luscinia74 ,most of the native thrush-like birds 7,turdus71 e4g4 the ,blackbird 7,t4 merula71 the ,missel ,thrush 7,t4 viscivorus71 the ,fieldfare 7,t4 pilaris71 the ,redwing 7,t4 iliacus71 and the ,song ,thrush 7,t4 musicus71 assist the farmer by devouring noxious insects and snails2 but several of them occasionally do damage by poaching on cherries1 grapes1 currants1 etc4 ,some of them 7e4g4 the ,song ,thrush and ,blackbird7 breed in almost all parts of ,britain1 others come here only in autumn or winter4 ,,order3 ,gyrantes 7,,doves74 ,body strongly built1 somewhat thick-set4 ,wings long and pointed4 ,beak weak1 with a cere at its base2 nostrils covered by gristly scales4 ,toes3 three forwardly and one backwardly directed1 free1 i4e4 without a web 7as in poultry74 ,the young are at first blind and naked4 ,they are at first fed with a cheesy secretion of the glands of the crop2 later1 with grain softened in the crop4 ,doves always live in pairs4 ,nests careless1 flat1 of loosely arranged twigs2 situated on tree-branches1 rocks1 and large buildings4 ,doves breed twice or thrice a year1 laying two longish1 shining white eggs4 ,native ,british forms3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,the ,wood ,pigeon 7,columba palumbus74 #a4 ,wood ,pigeon 7,columba palumbus1 ,fig4 #ci71 from ,april to ,september scattered about in the woods1 but after the breeding season wander about in flocks1 and in winter travel further south1 although many remain4 ,it nests on horizontal branches1 and feeds on seeds of fir and pine1 acorns1 beechnuts1 also grain1 peas1 vetches1 rape-seed1--but seeds of many weeds as well 7e4g4 those of charlock1 vetchling1 spurry1 cleavers74 ,when the earth is covered with snow it often eats cabbage and the leaves of winter rape1 but is also of some service4 #b4 ,the ,turtle ,dove 7,c4 turtur7 occurs on the edges of woods1 especially those consisting of coniferous trees4 ,nests in the trees4 ,for food1 use1 and harm1 cp4 the preceding species4 ,steals buckwheat grains from the fields4 #c4 ,the ,rock ,pigeon 7,c4 livia7 is the original stock of our races of domestic pigeons4 ,it nests1 as a resident1 in the ,mediterranean countries2 as a migrant1 on the rocky parts of the coasts of ,great ,britain and the ,orkneys1 ,shetlands1 and ,faroe ,islands4 ,,order3 ,rasores 7,,poultry74 ,body strong1 thick-set4 ,head small1 often with naked1 brightly coloured patches1 with fleshy combs or with a crest of feathers4 ,tip of the upper beak bends over that of the lower one4 ,no cere 7cp4 ,doves74 ,wings short1 rounded2 flight heavy4 ,feet strong4 ,hinder toe small and usually attached to the tarsus higher up than the front toes4 ,claws blunt4 ,a small web at the bases of the toes4 ,the male of several species bears a spur on the tarsus4 ,birds of this order usually keep on the ground1 scraping it in search of their food1 which consists of seeds1 berries1 the green parts of plants1 insects1 worms1 and snails4 ,young precocious 7p4 #ea74 ,several domestic birds belong to the ,rasores3 pheasants1 the various races of fowls1 pea-fowls1 guinea-fowls1 turkeys4 ,the species living wild in ,britain are game-birds4 ,they are--the ,capercailzie 7,tetrao urogallus1 ,fig4 #dj71 ,black ,game 7,t4 tetrix71 ,partridge 7,perdix cinerea71 ,quail 7,p4 coturnix72 none of them are particularly harmful or useful to agriculture4 ,the ,pheasant 7,phasianus colchicus1 ,fig4 #da7 was originally a native of the ,caucasus1 and shores of the ,caspian ,sea and ,sea of ,aral2 it occurs wild in ,central ,europe4 ,pheasants are troublesome to the farmer1 both by devouring the newly sown seed and by scratching up the fields4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,male and ,female ,capercailzie 7,tetrao urogallus74 ,,order3 ,grallatores 7,,wading-,,birds74 ,the species here included differ very much among themselves2 but all seek their food1 which is almost exclusively of animal nature1 at the water-edge 7rivers1 brooks1 lakes1 ditches1 canals1 seashore7 or in damp places 7damp meadows and ploughed fields1 moors1 swamps74 ,they are1 therefore1 adapted to wading1 and for this purpose have a long featherless tarsus1 while the lower half of the long shank is quite bare and covered with horny scales4 ,in flight the wading-birds do not draw their legs up to their body1 as is the case with the birds already spoken of1 but stretch them out behind to their full length4 ,monogamous4 ,young precocious 7p4 #ea71 except in storks and herons when they are nestlings4 ,the shore-dwellers eat fish1 bivalve molluscs1 etc42 only those species living on damp meadows and fields are of use to agriculturists1 by devouring insects1 snails1 and worms4 ,these are indicated by the letter u in the following list of the commonest native kinds3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,the ,pheasant 7,phasianus colchicus74 ,coot 7,fulica atra72 ,water ,hen 7,gallinula chloropus72 ,corn ,crake 7,crex pratensis1 u72 ,plovers 7,charadrius1 u72 ,pewit or ,lapwing 7,vanellus cristatus1 u72 the ,snipes 7,scolopax72 the ,curlews 7,numenius1 u72 the ,stints 7,tringa72 the ,godwit 7,limosa gocephala1 u72 the ,sandpipers 7,totanus1 u72 the ,heron 7,ardea cinerea74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,the ,woodcock 7,scolopax rusticola74 ,,order3 ,natatores 7,,swimming-,,birds74 ,these birds are distinguished by their swimming powers and corresponding organization4 ,legs usually set on far back1 shorter than the body4 ,the feet in particular are adapted for swimming4 ,in some swimming-birds each of the forwardly directed toes has a webbed margin 78split swimming feet10 ,fig4 #dc72 in others1 the three front toes are all united by a web 7,fig4 #dd71 while the hind toe is either small or wanting 78swimming feet072 lastly1 there are some in which all the toes are forwardly directed and united by a common web 78oar-feet074 ,the plumage of swimming-birds is compact1 and always kept greasy by the secretion of the oil-gland4 ,i shall speak of two families only4 ,family3 ,lamellirostra 7,ducks74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,crested and ,little ,grebes 7,podiceps cristatus and minor74 ,the inner margin of the beak is covered by skin1 thrown into transverse ridges or tooth-like projections4 ,swimming feet 7,fig4 #dd74 ,tolerably long wings2 remarkable powers of flight4 ,feathers soft4 ,these birds mostly affect shallow fresh water1 in which they get their food by grubbing in the mud1 the soft skin of the beak serving as an organ of touch4 ,polygamous4 ,young precocious 7p4 #ea74 ,here belong--the long-necked ,swans 7,cygnus7 and the thick short-necked ,geese 7,anser71 in which the beak is higher than broad at its base2 the ,swimming ,ducks 7,anas7 with broader beaks1 the ,diving ,ducks 7,fuligula71 and ,goosanders 7,mergus7 with a broad hanging web to the hind toe4 ,none of these birds are useful1 while wild geese and ducks are harmful4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,goose 7,anser cinereus74 ,three species of wild ,geese 7,grey ,goose ,anser cinereus1 ,bean ,goose ,a4 segetum1 ,white-fronted ,goose ,a4 albifrons7 chiefly breed in ,eastern or ,northern ,europe1 and only come to ,britain in autumn or winter1 flying about in flocks4 ,they eat the grass in low-lying meadows1 and even pull it up by the roots2 in the cultivated fields they devour winter corn and winter rape1 and tread down more with their clumsy feet than they eat4 ,they are also harmful to vegetable growth1 owing to the very caustic nature of their dung1 which is often deposited in large quantities in one place4 ,in regions where they breed they also devour both ripe and unripe grain4 ,where they only occur in autumn1 they scrape potatoes1 turnips1 and carrots out of the ground in order to eat them4 ,flocks of geese fly in a slanting line or in the form of a ploughshare4 ,among ,swimming ,ducks damage is only done by the ,wild ,duck 7,anas boschas74 ,it breeds wherever there are fresh waters4 ,nests amongst grasses or swamp-plants1 or in a tree4 ,the wild ducks remain the whole winter as long as the waters are not frozen1 otherwise they go off for a short time to the south4 ,food3 the tops of stems1 buds1 leaves of various water-plants1 also barley1 oats1 and other grain2 water-insects1 fish1 and fish-spawn4 ,these ducks also do damage in cornfields by treading down and cracking the plants4 ,family3 ,longipennes 7,gulls74 ,usually swimming feet4 ,legs tolerably long1 adapted for wading 7,fig4 #de74 ,wings long1 pointed4 ,beak laterally compressed4 ,young nestlings 7p4 #ea74 ,breed in larger or smaller flocks1 usually on the coast1 occasionally on the margin of fresh waters4 ,they chiefly feed on fish1 worms1 molluscs1 and crustacea2 sometimes1 in the case of a few species1 on young birds and eggs1 as well as mice and other small mammals4 ,gulls are usually of no importance in agriculture2 but the ,black-headed ,gull 7,larus ridibundus71 which breeds on the banks of lakes and rivers1 devours many cockchafers and other noxious insects4 ,the ,herring ,gull 7,fig4 #de71 ,kittiwake 7,larus argentatus and ,l4 tridactylus71 and a few other species1 which breed on the coast1 sometimes show themselves inland1 especially in stormy weather2 they then pursue field-voles1 and catch many injurious insects4 ,besides the true ,gulls 7,larus71 ,i will only mention the ,sea ,swallows 7,sterna71 with forked tails4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,herring ,gull 7,larus argentatus74 ,,class ,,iii43 ,,reptilia 7,,reptiles74 ,cold-blooded ,vertebrates 7p4 #ai74 ,the heart has the same structure as in ,mammals and ,birds1 but the left and right ventricles are usually only incompletely divided from one another 7p4 #bj74 ,the body is invested with horny scales or with bony plates covered by a horny layer4 ,reptiles are very unlike ,birds in appearance1 but present many essential points of resemblance to them in their skeleton2 indeed1 during earlier geological times1 there were transitional forms between the two classes4 ,the structure of the reptile egg1 too1 is very similar to that of the bird's egg2 but the first has no lime-salts deposited in its shell4 ,the egg is not hatched out by the animal itself1 but exposed to the heat of the sun or to the warmth developed by decaying vegetable matter4 ,several reptiles 7adder1 for example7 keep their eggs in their bodies till the young escape4 ,reptiles have either no limbs 7snakes1 a few lizards71 or1 at any rate1 the limbs are not well developed1 and are so placed that the body does not rest upon them1 but is slung between them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,common ,lizard 7,lacerta agilis72 #b1 head of the same from below2 #c1 tongue4 ,the ,reptilia are divided into the ,orders of ,crocodilia 7,crocodiles71 ,chelonia 7,turtles and ,tortoises71 ,lacertilia 7,lizards71 ,ophidia 7,snakes74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,the ,adder 7,pelias berus74 ,our native reptiles have no agricultural importance4 ,i will1 however1 briefly mention the ,adder 7,pelias berus1 ,fig4 #dg71 as it is dangerous to man4 ,head broad2 tail much smaller than the hinder end of the body4 ,colour greenish grey or brownish4 ,a black zigzag band runs along the dorsal side of the body4 ,length about twenty inches4 ,the two hook-shaped poison-fangs are found in the front of the upper jaw2 opening the mouth widely causes them to be erected4 ,they are traversed by poison-canals through which the poison flows immediately into the two bloodless wounds4 ,the adder lives in woods and on mountain slopes1 where it devours mice4 ,the poison has a decomposing action on the blood2 it causes fever1 and swelling of the part bitten1 as well as sometimes of the neighbouring parts4 ,the bite may be fatal4 ,alcohol is spoken of very highly as a remedy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,the ,grass ,snake 7,tropidonotus natrix74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,blindworm 7,anguis fragilis74 ,the native ,ringed ,snake 7,tropidonotus natrix1 ,fig4 #dh71 three feet long1 is bluish with belly flecked with black and white2 a yellow and a black band on the neck4 ,it is fond of going into the water1 and eats frogs1 newts1 and insects4 ,the ,smooth ,snake 7,coronella lvis71 two feet long1 is brown1 with black patches on the back1 which1 however1 do not form a continuous band4 ,head dark velvety black4 ,devours lizards and blindworms4 ,the ,blindworm 7,anguis fragilis7 is indeed snake-like1 or rather worm-like 7,fig4 #di71 but nevertheless belongs to the lizards1 with which its internal structure agrees4 ,,class ,,iv43 ,,amphibia 7,,amphibians74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,great ,crested ,newt 7,triton cristatus72 male above1 female below4 ,cold-blooded ,vertebrates 7p4 #ai74 ,the heart has only one ventricle and two auricles 7cp4 p4 #ba74 ,the skin is naked1 damp1 usually slippery and smooth2 it helps in respiration4 ,although several ,amphibians resemble various ,reptiles in outward appearance 7,newt and ,lizard1 ,figs4 #ej and #df71 the structure of the skeleton is quite different4 ,upon the whole1 ,amphibians resemble fishes more closely1 and they breathe by gills when they are young1 which strengthens the agreement4 ,they undergo a metamorphosis4 ,the just-hatched young at first hold fast by suction to the jelly of the spawn2 they have external gills4 ,they quickly develop a membranous margin to the body1 especially round the tail1 which consequently forms a sort of oar4 ,meanwhile internal gills develop1 and the external ones disappear4 ,the larv are now fish-like 78tadpoles074 ,the limbs quickly grow out1 the lungs develop1 the tail shrivels up1 and the animal leaves the water4 ,even the adult1 however1 lives among damp surroundings4 ,in the adult state the ,amphibians feed on insects1 worms1 and snails2 many species are exceedingly useful owing to this4 ,amphibians are divided into two orders1 the ,urodela 7,newts1 etc47 and the ,anura 7,frogs and ,toads74 ,to the first belong the ,great ,crested ,newt 7,triton cristatus7 and the ,common ,newt 7,lissotriton tniatus74 ,examples of the ,anura are the ,edible ,frog 7,rana esculenta71 the brownish ,common ,frog 7,r4 temporaria1 ,fig4 #ea71 the ,common ,toad 7,bufo vulgaris71 and the ,natterjack 7,b4 calamita1 ,fig4 #eb74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,common ,frog 7,rana temporaria74 ,both frogs and toads do good by devouring many noxious insects1 and also1 in particular1 snails4 ,toads are often kept in greenhouses for this purpose2 and in the research garden attached to the ,rouen entomological laboratory the snails were entirely exterminated in #ahia1 as a result of introducing a hundred toads and ninety frogs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,natterjack 7,bufo calamita74 ,,class ,v43 ,,pisces 7,,fishes74 ,cold-blooded ,vertebrates 7p4 #ai71 which breathe by gills during their whole life4 ,the heart consists only of a single ventricle and a single auricle 7p4 #ah74 ,the head passes immediately into the body without any intervening neck4 ,fishes move chiefly by means of the tail1 at the end of which there is a tail-fin4 ,this and the dorsal and anal fins lie in the median plane of the fish1 while the pectoral fins1 which are attached to the skull in bony fishes1 and also the ventral fins1 are paired structures more or less comparable to the fore and hind limbs of higher vertebrates4 ,the skeleton of most fishes 7pike1 perch1 carp1 eel1 plaice7 is bony2 but in a few subdivisions of fishes 7sharks1 skates1 sturgeons1 lampreys7 it is cartilaginous4 ,the skin is usually covered with thin translucent scales2 but there are fishes with a smooth skin 7lampreys71 with prickle-like dermal ossifications 7sharks71 and with rhomboidal bony plates 7sturgeons74 ,as ,fishes are without exception aquatic1 there is no need for me to treat more specially of them here4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,the ,perch 7,perca fluviatilis74 ,second ,sub-,kingdom3 ,,arthropoda 7,,jointed-,,limbed ,,animals74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,wood-borer 7,sirex72 #a1 larva2 #b1 adult insect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,the ,large ,centipede 7,scolopendra morsitans74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,ground ,beetle1 with nervous system drawn in white4 ,the body of an ,arthropod is bilaterally symmetrical 7cp4 p4 #af71 and consists of a number of joints 7,fig4 #ee71 not equally numerous in all members of the sub-kingdom4 ,these joints or segments lie one behind the other1 and are at first alike2 but as in the course of further development they become adapted to various functions1 the difference between them becomes greater4 ,compare the ,wood-borer represented in ,fig4 #ed1 #b1 with the young form of the same animal 7,fig4 #ed1 #a74 ,the segments often fuse together1 which brings about the formation of a smaller number of subdivisions to the body2 or even all the segments may become united 7mites74 ,in the last case the ,arthropod characters are only to be seen in the jointing of the limbs4 ,segmented animals 7e4g4 the common earthworm7 are also found among the worms 7,sub-kingdom ,,iii4 of the ,animal ,kingdom72 but these worms have either no limbs1 or only small unjointed foot-stumps1 never jointed limbs as in the ,arthropods4 ,these last are limbless or with unjointed foot-stumps only when young2 when adult they always have jointed limbs4 ,the head of ,arthropods bears several successive pairs of jaws1 which move to and fro from one side towards the other4 ,the covering of the body consists of hard protective pieces2 it is only in the young condition that the skin of several species is soft4 ,arthropods have no internal skeleton2 the muscles are attached to the skin4 ,the central part of the nervous system 7p4 #aj71 which consists in ,vertebrates of brain and spinal cord1 lies in ,arthropods almost entirely on the ventral side4 ,in the head is situated the cerebral ganglion1 a large nervous mass resting on the gullet1 and giving off nerves to the eyes and feelers4 ,besides this1 there is a ventral nervecord on the ventral side of the animal1 running below the gut1 and made up of several pairs of ganglia1 united with one another by means of nerve fibres4 ,the ganglia of the ventral cord send their nerves to the jaws1 limbs1 muscles1 viscera1 etc4 ,the cerebral ganglion is connected with the first ventral ganglion by means of a cord on each side of the gullet 7,fig4 #ef71 so that a ring-like structure is formed4 ,the breathing organs are gills in some ,arthropods 7the ,crustacea1 e4g4 crayfish1 crabs72 insects and centipedes breathe by air-tubes or trache1 while the respiratory organs of spider-like animals1 when these do not breathe entirely by means of the skin1 are more or less strongly modified trache4 ,the structure of the tracheal system is generally as follows3 on each side of the body there is a row of breathing-holes1 or stigmata1 through which the air can enter the trache2 these are very much branched1 so that they finally become very fine tubes investing the various organs1 which in this way obtain the requisite amount of oxygen4 ,the stigmata on one side of a caterpillar are clearly shown in ,fig4 #fj1 and those of a hornet larva in ,fig4 #fa4 ,four classes belong to this sub-kingdom3 ,insecta 7,insects71 ,myriapoda 7centipedes1 etc471 ,arachnoidea 7spiders1 scorpions1 etc471 ,crustacea 7crayfish1 crabs1 lobsters1 etc474 ,,class ,i43 ,,insecta 7,,insects74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,a ,grasshopper1 with the different regions of the body separated from one another4 ,a1 head2 ,b1 thorax3 ,i41 prothorax2 ,,ii41 mesothorax2 ,,iii41 metathorax2 ,c1 abdomen2 a1 antenn2 b1 eyes2 c1 d1 e1 legs2 f1 g1 wings2 p1 shank2 q1 foot4 ,breathe by trache 7cp4 p4 #hd74 ,the segments fuse into three body regions 7,fig4 #eg74 ,these are--7#a7 the ,head1 bearing the eyes1 feelers 7antenn71 and jaws2 7#b7 the ,thorax1 composed of three fused segments1 of which the first 7prothorax7 bears a pair of legs1 while the second 7mesothorax7 and third 7metathorax7 not only bear a pair of legs each1 but also sometimes a pair of wings in addition2 7#c7 the ,abdomen1 which possesses no limbs1 and of which the number of segments is not always the same4 ,these three regions of the body perform different functions2 the head is concerned with sensation and the taking up of food1 the thorax with movement1 while the abdomen contains the organs of digestion and reproduction4 ,i will now deal somewhat more fully with the different body regions of an insect4 ,head4--,almost all insects have in the adult state a compound eye1 i4e4 an eye made up of a large number 7up to ten thousand7 of smaller eyes4 ,in many insects one finds in addition to this a few simple eyes on the top of the head4 ,the feelers are very unlike in different insects2 they serve as organs of touch1 and perhaps also help some other sense4 ,the mouth-parts consist of three pairs of jaws1 of which the first 7the mandibles7 and the second pair 7maxill7 are freely movable from side to side1 while the third consists of two jaws immovably fused together 7lower lip1 or labium74 ,a downward projection of the skin of the head 7the upper lip1 or labrum7 overhangs the three pairs of jaws 7,fig4 #eh74 ,in insects which feed on solid matters1 tearing or chewing them1 the jaws are short and sharp-edged 7biting mouth-parts72 in those which take up fluid food 7blood1 the juices of plants1 etc47 they are elongated1 and adapted for licking1 sucking1 or piercing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,head and ,mouth-parts of a ,ground ,beetle1 enlarged four times4 ,a1 from above2 ,b1 from below4 a1 labrum2 b1 mandible2 f1 maxilla with palpi 7g72 c1 labium with palp 7e74 ,thorax4--,the names of the parts of the legs are for the most part those used in the case of mammalian limbs2 though the similarity between the limbs of ,mammals and ,insects is quite superficial4 ,the following parts are distinguished in the leg of an insect3 7#a7 the generally spherical hip 7coxa7 7,fig4 #ei1 a72 7#b7 the very short trochanter 7b72 7#c7 the elongated thigh 7femur7 7c72 7#d7 the shank 7tibia7 provided with movable spines at its tip 7d72 7#e7 the three- to five-jointed foot 7tarsus7 7e71 whose last joint ends in claws1 and often also in flap-like outgrowths4 ,the ,wings are expansions of the skin1 which consist of two layers4 ,there are trache between the upper and lower lamell4 ,at first 7in the pupa7 the wings are folded up2 but the forcing of air into the trache quickly causes them to unfold4 ,a firm substance is now deposited in the larger trache1 which are thus converted into veins or ribs giving support to the wings4 ,in beetles the fore wings are quite hard and horny1 and serve for protecting the delicate hind wings and soft back rather than for flight2 they are therefore named 8wing-covers0 7elytra74 ,in many insects the fore wings 7wasps7 or the hind wings 7beetles1 grasshoppers7 are folded when at rest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,leg of a ,ground ,beetle 7 #b74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,silkworm ,moth 7,bombyx mori74 ,female moth1 caterpillar1 pupa and cocoon4 ,the abdomen only bears organs of movement in caterpillars 7,fig4 #fj7 and a few other insects in the young condition1 and in these cases they are not jointed like the true legs or 8thoracic feet10 but unjointed pro-legs or 8abdominal feet40 ,in the adult insect the abdomen may have thread-like 7mole-cricket7 or pincer-like 7earwig7 appendages2 or appendages used in egg-laying 7ovipositors1 e4g4 ,locust74 ,most insects have great powers of reproduction4 ,a few bring forth living young1 but most insects lay eggs4 ,it is only in a few 7e4g4 lice7 that animals exactly like their parents are hatched from the eggs2 the large majority of insects pass through a change1 or metamorphosis4 ,a distinction is drawn between complete and incomplete metamorphosis4 ,it is said to be complete when the insect passes through a stage in which it takes up no food1 and1 as a rule1 moves but little4 ,in this condition of almost complete rest the insect is called a 8pupa0 7,figs4 #fj1 #fa1 #fe74 ,the metamorphosis is called incomplete when the insect does not pass through a pupa stage1 and therefore feeds and moves during all the periods of its development1 merely altering its form somewhat during its various moults 7,fig4 #fb74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,the ,hornet 7,vespa crabro71 with larva and pupa4 ,the word 8moult0 must here be explained4 ,the covering of the skin of ,arthropods consists of hard parts incapable of being stretched4 ,at the end of a definite period of time this firm covering is stripped off and replaced by a new investment1 soft at first1 but afterwards becoming hard4 ,in this way growth can be effected in spite of the hard integument4 ,everyone must have noticed at some time or other the moulting of caterpillars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,the ,migratory ,grasshopper 7,acrydium migratorium74 ,larva and adult female4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,looper ,caterpillar4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,false ,caterpillar4 ,in insects with incomplete metamorphosis the form of the animal alters a little at every moult1 becoming more and more like that of the adult insect4 ,in the last moult but one small imperfect wings appear 7,fig4 #fb1 left71 and fully developed wings are only present after the last moult4 ,the ovipositors of female insects1 in those cases where the metamorphosis is incomplete1 first appear as fully developed organs in the perfect condition of the animal1 but begin to develop in the preceding stage4 ,in cases of this kind of metamorphosis the young insect 78larva07 closely resembles the adult in form even in the first stage of development4 ,in insects undergoing complete metamorphosis the difference between larva and adult insect 7imago7 is much greater 7,figs4 #fj1 #fa1 #fe74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,the ,common ,cockchafer 7,melolontha vulgaris74 ,larva1 pupa1 female flying1 and male creeping out of the earth4 ,the time passed in the pupa state by insects with complete metamorphosis is by no means always of the same length4 ,for example1 there are two generations annually of the cabbage white butterfly2 one lives through the winter in the pupa state1 the pup of the other are found in summer4 ,so that while an insect of the winter generation lives about half a year in the pupa state1 this condition lasts only about a month in the summer generation4 ,a higher temperature hastens the development4 ,although the insect in the pupa state takes no food1 it nevertheless breathes1 and therefore continually uses up body substance4 ,this using up only takes place to a small extent however1 since the animal moves but little4 ,from whence1 then1 does the pupa get the material to cover the loss of body substance8 ,in the larval condition the insect takes far more food than it requires for the development of its body1 and from this excess it builds up reserve stuffs1 which are deposited in the so-called 8fat-bodies0 of the larva4 ,these reserve materials are re-absorbed during the pupa state1 and serve to maintain the breathing4 ,consequently a pupa that has just been formed moves more than another one just about to become a butterfly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,larva of a ,weevil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,a ,hover ,fly 7,syrphus pyrasti74 ,fly1 maggot1 and pupa case4 ,the larv and pup of the different kinds of insects which undergo a complete metamorphosis have not the same shape of body4 ,among the larv may be distinguished caterpillars1 grubs1 and maggots4 ,the caterpillars 7,fig4 #fj7 have a clearly marked head with hard covering1 three pairs of jointed thoracic legs1 and a varying number of unjointed pro-legs4 ,they are usually variegated or green in colour1 and are divided into true caterpillars and false caterpillars 7,figs4 #fj1 #fc1 and #fd74 ,the first1 after the resting pupa stage1 become butterflies or moths2 the latter saw-flies4 ,the true caterpillars have two to five pairs of pro-legs1 the false caterpillars six to eight pairs4 ,reckoning in the thoracic legs1 therefore1 the true caterpillars have altogether five to eight1 the false caterpillars nine to eleven pairs4 ,the head of the latter is more rounded1 while that of the former is more flattened4 ,the way in which caterpillars walk depends upon the number of their legs4 ,if this is fairly large so that most of the segments of the body are provided with legs1 the whole body remains tolerably extended during progression4 ,but if the number is small--as in the looper caterpillars1 where there are three pairs of thoracic legs at the anterior end1 and at the posterior end only a terminal pair of legs 7the caudal pro-legs7 and another pair in front of them--the middle legless region is strongly bent during locomotion 7,fig4 #fc74 ,hence the name 8looper40 ,the loopers often bend their bodies in a characteristic way4 ,when at rest the hinder part is coiled up spirally2 but as soon as the animals are alarmed they throw the hinder part of the body upwards and forwards and even over the head4 ,the grubs 7,figs4 #ff and #fi1 left7 have indeed1 like the caterpillars1 a clearly visible hard head1 but no characteristic abdominal legs1 or at most a pair of sucker feet at the end of the body 7wireworms74 ,thoracic legs are present in several grubs 7cockchafer larv1 wireworms1 leaf beetles72 in others 7larv of weevils and fleas7 they are entirely absent4 ,maggots are those entirely footless insect larv which do not possess a head clearly marked off from the rest of the body1 and the head-end of which is only to be recognized by the presence of the mouth and mouth-parts4 ,pup are enclosed in a case which either only faintly indicates the outline of the various parts of the adult insect1 or else closely surrounds every part of the body--wings1 legs1 antenn1 and even the mouth-parts and eyes4 ,pup of the first kind are termed obtectate 7,fig4 #fj72 those of the second1 free 7,figs4 #fa1 #fe74 ,many pup are naked1 others are surrounded by a web 7cocoon7 spun by the larva 7,fig4 #fj74 ,there are also pup distinguished by the peculiarity that when the insect has lived through the maggot-stage it does not strip off its integument1 but turns into a pupa inside the shrivelled maggot-skin1 from which the perfect insect later on breaks out 7,fig4 #fg74 ,the class of insects can be divided into eleven orders3 7#a7 ,coleoptera 7,beetles72 7#b7 ,orthoptera 7,grasshoppers1 ,locusts72 7#c7 ,neuroptera 7,dragon-flies72 7#d7 ,hymenoptera 7,bees1 ,ants1 ,saw-flies72 7#e7 ,lepidoptera 7,butterflies and ,moths72 7#f7 ,hemiptera 7,aphides1 ,bugs72 7#g7 ,physopoda 7,thrips72 7#h7 ,diptera 7,flies with two wings72 7#i7 ,aphaniptera 7,fleas72 7#aj7 ,pediculina 7,lice72 7#aa7 ,collembola 7,spring-tails and ,tassel-tails74 ,,order ,i43 ,coleoptera 7,,beetles74 ,beetles 7,fig4 #fe7 are insects with biting mouth-parts1 and strongly developed prothorax united with the mesothorax so as to permit free movement4 ,the fore wings are in the form of hard covers1 leaving exposed only the head1 neck-shield 7i4e4 the dorsal side of the prothorax71 a three-cornered bit of the mesothorax 7scutellum71 and sometimes the tip of the abdomen4 ,flight is effected by the hind wings alone1 which in a state of rest are drawn back under the wing-covers4 ,the metamorphosis is complete2 the larv are legless1 or with thoracic legs only1 and have a hard head with biting mouth-parts2 change into free pup 7p4 #ic74 ,family3 ,carabid 7,ground ,beetles74 ,usually elongated1 slender2 with long slender legs1 five-jointed tarsi1 eleven-jointed antenn1 powerful jaws 7,figs4 #fh1 #fi74 ,run rapidly2 usually keep on the ground2 hide themselves during the day1 but are very active at night2 with very few exceptions feed entirely on other insects2 when touched squirt an acrid stinking fluid out of the abdomen4 ,larv longish1 six-legged1 with short antenn and sharp jaws1 with a few exceptions live exclusively on other insects and lower animals4 ,several species are of service1 both in the adult and larval conditions1 since they destroy injurious insects1 e4g4 surface caterpillars1 wireworms1 cockchafers1 grubs1 crane-fly larv4 ,the following do good in cultivated fields3 ,golden ,ground ,beetle 7,carabus auratus71 ,garden ,ground ,beetle 7,c4 hortensis71 ,granulated ,ground ,beetle 7,c4 granulatus71 ,cross-barred ,ground ,beetle 7,c4 cancellatus71 ,field ,ground ,beetle 7,c4 nemoralis71 ,large-headed ,ground ,beetle 7,cephalotes vulgaris71 species of ,harpalus1 ,pterostichus1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,a ,ground ,beetle 7,carabus auronitens74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,corn ,ground ,beetle 7,zabrus gibbus7 and larva4 ,the only destructive form is the ,corn ,ground ,beetle 7,zabrus gibbus1 ,fig4 #fi72 short1 thick-set2 back black2 belly1 legs1 and antenn dark brown4 ,larva cylindrical1 slightly hairy1 brown1 with yellowish white belly2 head broad and flattened1 black4 ,the beetles 7,june1 ,july7 usually remain hidden in the soil during the day1 climbing up the stalks of barley1 wheat1 and rye during the evening and in dull weather1 and eating the grain in the ear4 ,the larv remain during the day in vertical holes which they dig out2 but at night and during dull weather they devour the overground parts of the grain-plants mentioned above1 especially the hearts of young plants4 ,they are destructive both in autumn and spring1 damaging winter and summer grain4 ,the larval condition is maintained for three years1 the animal then turning into a pupa during ,july4 ,its ravages are limited to special years4 ,remedy3 ,sowing oats1 peas1 or vetches1 or planting potatoes in fields infested by the beetles or their larv2 collecting the beetles in the evening when they are in the ears4 ,family3 ,staphylinid 7,rove ,beetles74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,rove ,beetle 7,staphylinus erythropterus74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,the ,black ,burying ,beetle 7,silpha atrata7 and larva4 ,usually elongated1 small 7,fig4 #gj74 ,the short truncated wing-covers leave the whole of the abdomen exposed4 ,the rove beetles resemble the earwigs in their appearance and in a way they have of frequently lifting up the hinder end of the body and turning it forwards4 ,tarsi five-jointed1 jaws strongly developed4 ,the six-legged larv resemble those of the ground beetles1 but have a relatively large head4 ,the beetles live through the winter2 the metamorphosis takes place in autumn4 ,live on the ground under fallen leaves1 also under the bark of trees2 in carcases4 ,some chiefly eat insects living in the soil and noxious insects2 others1 dung and decomposing matter4 7,species of ,staphylinus1 and of ,ocypus1 e4g4 ,o4 olens1 the ,devil's ,coach ,horse47 ,several are of service4 ,a few devour the parts of plants4 ,anthobium torquatum is found in large numbers in the flowers of rape1 devouring the petals1 stamens1 and pollen4 ,family3 ,silphid 7,burying1 or ,sexton ,beetles74 ,the antenn either thicken gradually or have only the end-joints larger2 body flat2 head projecting2 tarsi five-jointed4 ,the burying beetles and their larv feed on dead animals4 ,a few 7sp4 of ,necrophorus7 bury the whole animal in the earth1 and lay their eggs in it4 ,failing carrion1 some of them can live on vegetable food2 these sometimes do harm4 ,others prefer living insects and snails4 ,they are of service in the economy of nature by doing away with stinking bodies4 ,the following are sometimes harmful3 ,black ,burying ,beetle 7,silpha atrata1 ,fig4 #ga71 the larv of which often do much damage in fields of beetroot2 ,silpha opaca 7,beet ,carrion ,beetle71 and ,s4 reticulata1 which1 in the adult condition1 may do harm to several kinds of plants4 ,remedies need not be considered1 as it is only rarely they increase so largely as to make the supply of carrion insufficient1 and consequently attack plants4 ,family3 ,nitidulid 7,shine ,beetles74 ,small4 ,antenn club-shaped1 eleven-jointed4 ,tarsi five-jointed4 ,a few species live on carrion and on fungi1 others under the bark of trees1 a few in flowers4 ,to these last belongs the ,turnip ,flower ,beetle 7,meligethes neus72 somewhat convex1 elongated oval2 shining metallic greenish black1 finely dotted4 ,occurs in the inflorescences of turnip1 rape1 and allied species2 also in the flowers of mustard1 charlock1 and similar crucifers1 and species of buttercup 7,ranunculus74 ,at the beginning of spring1 the turnip-flower beetle bores into the buds of turnip1 rape1 etc41 and1 later on1 attacks the flowers4 ,it perforates the petals1 devours the stamens and pollen1 and1 lastly1 the pistil4 ,the infested flowers wither4 ,three to four beetles are often found in a single flower4 ,the female soon lays her eggs1 separately1 in the ovary of the flower4 ,one to two weeks later the larv may be found in the flowers1 one or more in each4 ,the larv1 one-fiftieth of an inch long to begin with1 are1 when ready to become pup1 about one-fifth of an inch long1 cylindrical1 yellowish white with blackish brown head2 they have three pairs of short thoracic legs1 as well as a pair of caudal pro-legs4 ,each segment of the body has two dark blotches on its upper side4 ,on an average1 the larv reach their full size in four to five weeks4 ,they are first found at the bottom of the flower1 where they gnaw the stamens and ovary4 ,they then wander from flower to flower1 until ready to become pup4 ,if there are no more flowers in the neighbourhood they attack the developing pods1 first gnaw the green husk1 then bore through it and devour the young seeds4 ,become pup in the soil4 ,the beetle emerges after a fourteen days' pupa rest4 ,at least two1 usually three1 sometimes four generations4 ,remedy3 ,rooting out charlock and the species of buttercup4 ,selection of strongly growing varieties of turnip1 rape1 etc41 which blossom late 7and therefore soon finish blooming74 ,drill-culture4 ,family3 ,cryptophagid 7,secret-eating ,beetles74 ,very minute4 ,antenn composed of eleven joints1 of which the three last form a club4 ,legs wide apart2 tarsi five-jointed4 ,live in flowers1 fungi1 dead parts of plants1 under bark1 in the earth1 in humblebees' and ants' nests1 etc4 ,the ,beet ,beetle 7,atomaria linearis7 is harmful3 longish1 egg-shaped1 strongly convex2 neck-shield as long as broad4 ,brownish black or dark brown4 ,in fields where beet is cultivated for several years in succession1 the beetles often increase in a prodigious way4 ,they attack the seedlings1 and devour the base of the stalk just below the surface of the soil1 sometimes biting it half through4 ,the attacked seedlings often die even before the cotyledons appear above the surface of the soil4 ,looking1 therefore1 in spring at fields infested by the beet beetle1 the seedlings will appear quite normally developed in some few places1 while in some other places there may be no plants at all3 in many spots1 again1 small plants will be seen bearing only seed-leaves1 withered and yellow4 ,these cannot be pulled out of the ground1 for they break off at the place gnawed by the beetle4 ,it is often necessary to give two or three successive sowings1 as the young crop is attacked again and again4 ,the larva of the beet beetle is still unknown1 though this undoubtedly develops in the beet-fields4 ,remedy3 ,suitable rotation4 ,when the conditions will not permit this1 the seed must be sown thickly1 so that as many seedlings as possible may remain sound1 should the beetles exert their destructive influence in the spring4 ,family3 ,lamellicornia 7,chafers74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;a1 ,antenn of male2 b1 of female ,cockchafer4 ,body strong1 stout 7,fig4 #fe74 ,the first joints of the antenn have the usual shape2 the last1 three to seven1 are very short1 but broadened out on the inner side into leaf-like appendages1 so that the end of the antenn is fan-shaped 7,fig4 #gb74 ,the little leaves are laid together when at rest1 so as to form a club-shaped thickened end2 in flight1 and when the attention of the beetle is excited1 they are spread out like a fan4 ,legs strong2 feet five-jointed4 ,flight rapid1 somewhat awkward4 ,larv thick2 body cylindrical1 but curved2 head hard1 brown2 rest of the body thin-skinned and yellowish white4 ,the first three segments of the body bear legs4 ,the curved larv can move about in the soil1 but not on the surface4 ,the beetles and larv devour vegetable substances2 a comparatively small number of species feed on dung4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;a1 abdomen of ,common2 b1 of ,horse-chestnut ,cockchafer4 ,the ,common ,cockchafer 7,melolontha vulgaris7 will serve as a type of the lamellicorns 7,fig4 #fe74 ,the last segment of the body forms a gradually tapering process4 ,the club of the antenn with seven large leaflets in the male1 and six smaller leaflets in the female 7,fig4 #gb74 ,head1 neck-shield1 entire ventral surface1 and legs1 black2 although these parts1 with the exception of the head1 may be reddish brown4 ,many specimens are thickly clothed with numerous white hairs2 others are almost hairless4 ,the beetles usually appear during ,may1 but sometimes by mid ,april1 and sometimes not till the beginning of ,june4 ,in the evening they leave the soil and seek the neighbouring trees4 ,they devour the leaves and especially the buds of oak1 horse-chestnut1 beech1 poplar1 willow1 cherry1 and other forest and fruit trees1 but spare the lime and generally the morel cherry4 ,of coniferous trees it only devours the needles of larch and the young shoots of pine4 ,among cabbage-like plants it only devours rape4 ,in 8chafer years0 the cockchafer becomes a veritable scourge to the farmer4 ,for the purpose of laying her eggs 7about forty in number71 the female selects by preference a fertile soil rich in humus1 but will also put up with a dry sandy soil4 ,the grubs devour the grass and clover-roots in meadows1 and1 in cultivated fields1 the roots of grain-plants1 peas1 and beans1 rape1 cabbage1 etc41 also turnips and potatoes2 in gardens the roots of many vegetables and flowers1 and1 in particular1 the underground parts of strawberry plants4 ,if1 on poor sandy soil1 they can get nothing else1 they devour the bark of oak and fir4 ,cockchafers take three to four years for their development3 four in ,england1 ,north ,germany1 and ,central ,germany2 three in ,south ,france1 ,switzerland1 the ,rhine district1 and ,holland4 ,in regions where the insect is abundant1 every third or fourth year is a 8chaferyear10 when the beetles appear in millions1 while scarcely a cockchafer can be found in the intervening years4 ,in districts less infested there is not the same marked distinction4 ,it therefore appears that cockchafers and their larv are to be reckoned as injurious insects3 their occurrence1 however1 is local4 ,natural enemies3 moles1 shrews1 bats1 foxes1 crow-like birds1 starlings1 sparrows1 owls1 and the large species of ground-beetle4 ,winter floods do no harm to the grubs1 which are then deep in the ground1--but this is not the case with floods occurring in summer1 when they are near the surface eating the roots of the plants4 ,remedies3 ,collecting the grubs turned up during ploughing4 ,catching the cockchafers2 this is very expensive1 since it has to be done very energetically if most of them have left the pupastage4 ,a part of the expense may1 however1 be recouped by using the cockchafers as manure4 ,the ,horse-chestnut ,cockchafer 7,melolontha hippocastani7 has a short slender caudal process1 somewhat broader at the tip 7,fig4 #gc74 ,its habits are in no way different from those of the preceding species4 ,the ,buckwheat ,beetle 7,phyllopertha horticola71 one-third to one-fifth of an inch long1 without a caudal process4 ,shining blackish green1 with yellowish brown elytra4 ,dark-coloured specimens are also found4 ,the beetles appear in ,june2 in some years they occur1 like cockchafers1 in large numbers4 ,habits of the beetle and of the small grub not markedly different from those of the cockchafer4 ,the ,rye ,chafer 7,anisoplia fruticola71 somewhat larger than the buckwheat beetle1 in other respects very like it1 but with a snout-like projection of the thickened skin of the head4 ,dark bronzy green1 whitish on the under side4 ,wing-covers yellowish brown4 ,on poor sandy soil1 on the flowering ears of rye4 ,the beetles gnaw the flowers4 ,the ,garden ,chafer 7,anisoplia horticola7 is closely related to the preceding4 ,the grub is very harmful to pastures4 ,family3 ,elaterid 7,click ,beetles74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,the ,skipjack 7,agriotes lineatus73 #a1 magnified larva1 below it the under side of the tip of the abdomen and the larva1 natural size2 #b1 the beetle2 #c1 under side of the head of the larva1 strongly magnified4 a1 maxilla2 b1 lower lip2 d1 labial palp2 e1 k1 inner and outer maxillary palps2 f1 antenn4 ,the ,click ,beetles 7,fig4 #gd7 are longish1 of equal breadth all along1 tolerably blunt at the hind end4 ,neck-shield strongly developed4 ,antenn 8serrated10 i4e4 made up of three-cornered joints4 ,feet five-jointed4 ,looking at the under side a spine may be seen on the hinder margin of the prothorax 7,fig4 #ge1 b71 and on the mesothorax 7c7 a furrow which receives the spine when the body is extended1 but the spine is drawn out of it if the prothorax and mesothorax are lifted up from anything they happen to rest on 7,fig4 #ge74 ,a skipjack that has fallen upon its back first draws its antenn and legs close to its body1 and then bends this in such a way that the head and prothorax make an angle with the rest of the thorax and the abdomen4 ,in this way the junction of the prothorax and mesothorax is lifted up1 and the spine drawn as far as possible out of the furrow4 ,as soon as the beetle has taken up this attitude1 it can spring back into its usual position by lifting the two ends of the body and pressing the spine forcibly back into the furrow1 whereby it is jerked against the ground with such a shock that its elasticity makes it spring into the air1 where it turns round and comes down again ventral side below4 ,the larv 78wireworms10 ,fig4 #gd1 #a7 are like meal-worms1 elongated1 always flattened on the ventral side1 and sometimes on the dorsal side as well4 ,the head is dark brown1 the twelve remaining segments of the body yellow to yellowish brown2 the first three segments of the body bear three pairs of very small legs2 the last segment has a pair of caudal pro-legs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,a ,skipjack lying on its back and about to spring up4 a1 head2 b1 spine of the prothorax2 c1 mesothorax2 d1 metathorax2 e1 abdomen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,grain-plants sown deep and shallow2 a wireworm is devouring the underground part of the stem of the first4 ,many species of click beetle are quite harmless1 since they only devour decaying vegetable matter1 either in humus or in the rotting substance of dying trees4 ,there are also species1 however1 the larv of which feed on the living roots of plants4 ,the wireworms of ,lacon murinus1 which are tolerably thick and have a flattened tip to the abdomen1 devour the roots of fruit trees1 rose-bushes1 various vegetables 7lettuce1 cabbage1 onions1 turnips7 and flowers2 they are principally to be found in garden soils rich in humus4 ,the relatively small hairless wireworms which do great damage1 especially to grain-plants1 but also to potatoes1 carrots1 turnips1 rape1 hops1 and almost all the plants of our arable land1 belong to ,agriotes lineatus or ,a4 obscurus2 the larger and more hairy wireworms destructive in cultivated land almost all belong to ,athous hmorrhoidalis or a related species4 ,the species named above also do much damage in meadows and grass land4 ,those fields are most infested which bore grass or clover the preceding year4 ,wireworms are usually more destructive in dry soil than in wet4 ,they devour all underground parts1 but specially prefer fleshy organs 7potatoes1 turnips71 as well as the underground stem-parts of grain-plants1 working themselves up from the soil into the inside of the lower part of the haulm1 where they destroy the plant by gnawing its base4 ,they also often destroy1 in young grain-plants1 the region of the stem which extends from the remains of the seed to the surface 7,fig4 #gf1 left74 ,in both cases the plant is killed by the wireworms2 the injuring of the roots is less fatal4 ,it is obvious that in shallow sowing only a small piece of underground stem is exposed to the attacks of wireworms1 in deep sowing a much larger piece2 besides this1 a plant which has been sown shallow develops earlier a strong mass of roots1 and in its young state can therefore offer a greater resistance to the destructive influence4 ,since wireworms require four or five years for their development1 the same field is infested by them the whole year4 ,the greatest damage is done in spring and autumn4 ,when wireworms have gnawed into the lower part of the haulm1 the lower leaves first turn yellow1 and the death of the whole plant soon follows4 ,remedies3 ,repeated ploughing of fields infested by wireworms1 so that rooks1 starlings1 wagtails1 gulls1 etc41 can devour them4 ,perhaps1 too1 many larv are frozen4 ,sowing the seed as shallow as possible on infested fields 7,fig4 #gf74 ,waste potatoes may be used as a means of drawing them from the crop4 ,family3 ,curculionid 7,weevils74 ,most species are small4 ,head lengthened into a proboscis 7,fig4 #gi1 #c72 the jaws are found at the front end of the proboscis1 the eyes at its base4 ,the antenn1 which in most species are bent like a knee1 and are always thickened at the tip1 are attached to the front end1 middle1 or hinder end of the proboscis4 ,the wing-covers usually extend to the tip of the abdomen1 and clasp it in several species4 ,feet four-jointed4 ,weevils are mostly sluggish2 many kinds do not fly at all2 others only during the breeding season4 ,when disturbed they let themselves fall to the ground as if dead4 ,almost without exception the females lay their eggs within plants1 boring a hole by means of their proboscis1 and shoving in the egg4 ,the whitish larv 7,fig4 #ff7 are more or less curved and limbless1 with hard brownish heads4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,the ,bean ,beetle 7,bruchus rufimanus7 and beans gnawed by it4 ,the ,seed ,beetles 7,bruchus7 have a very short snout4 ,body short1 thick-set1 almost four-cornered4 ,the wing-covers leave the hinder part of the body exposed4 ,the female lays her eggs in the seeds of leguminous plants4 ,the larva hollows out one or several1 becoming a pupa in the one last inhabited4 ,here belong the ,pea ,beetle 7,b4 pisi71 the two ,bean ,beetles 7,b4 rufimanus and ,b4 granarius71 of which the last-named also lives in vetches and chickling peas1 and the ,lentil ,beetle 7,b4 lentis74 ,the ,pea ,beetle 7,b4 pisi7 is black1 with brown hairy covering flecked with white4 ,like all other species of seed beetle1 it becomes a pupa in the last seed inhabited by the larva1 and the pupa changes into a beetle in autumn4 ,a pea inhabited by such an insect can be recognized by a black translucent patch1 since the beetle has become a pupa immediately under the seed-coat4 ,late the following spring the beetle crawls out4 ,as the beetles are usually still in the peas at the time of sowing1 the process brings them into the fields4 ,later on1 when the beetles crawl out1 they lay their eggs in the ovaries of the flowers of the pea-plants1 which have meanwhile developed4 ,the remedies are1 consequently1--late sowing of the peas1 or killing the beetles in them by exposure 7for two minutes7 to a temperature of #abb ,fahr41 or for ten minutes to sulphur dioxide fumes in a closed space4 ,the remaining three species of ,bruchus have the same habits as the bean beetle1 but the insect often creeps out much earlier1 so that the seeds do not require treatment4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,attacks of ,pea ,weevil3 a1 b1 on pea leaves2 c1 on a bean leaflet4 ,the ,pea ,weevil 7,sitones lineatus74 ,longish1 with grey scales on a black background4 ,neck-shield with three longitudinal streaks1 wing-covers with dotted lines4 ,these weevils appear at the first beginning of spring on peas1 field and garden beans1 clover1 and vetches4 ,they gnaw the leaf-margins of the tender plants1 and always in such a way as to present a toothed appearance 7,fig4 #gh74 ,it often happens that in a large field one can scarcely find a pea-leaf with uninjured margin4 ,when the plants are somewhat grown the damage done by the weevils is of no further importance2 but if the plants1 when still very young1 are prevented from growing rapidly by reason of rough cold weather or unfavourable conditions of soil1 while at the same time the weevils continue their attacks1 the small leaves will be completely destroyed1 and the plants will perish4 ,the larv gnaw the roots of the plants infested by the weevils4 ,remedy3 rational rotation4 ,the ,mouse-tooth ,weevils 7,baris1 or ,baridius74 ,small1 tolerably elongated weevils with fairly long neck-shield 7,fig4 #gi74 ,develop in cruciferous plants4 ,the ,rape ,mouse-tooth ,weevil 7,b4 chloris74 ,shining green4 ,leaves in spring its hiding-place in the soil2 the female then lays her eggs in the leaf-axils or stem of rape or turnip4 ,the larva eats out passages in the stem and branches2 in ,july it becomes a pupa in the inside of the stem2 in late summer the beetle appears1 and quickly creeps into the soil4 ,remedy3 ,pulling up and burning the rape and turnip stubble1 which harbours the weevil4 ,the ,pitchy ,mouse-tooth ,weevil 7,b4 picina71 one-sixth of an inch long1 shining black4 ,similar habits to the previous species2 but lives exclusively in headed cabbage and cauliflower1 never in rape and turnip4 ,the ,cress ,mouse-tooth ,weevil 7,b4 lepidii71 black with blue or greenish-blue back1 one-eighth of an inch long4 ,lives in the stems of cauliflower and garden cress4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,mouse-tooth ,weevil 7,baridius chloris74 #a1 larva2 drawn on the left1 natural size1--above1 the magnified head3 #b1 pupa1 magnified3 #c1 beetle2 drawn of the natural size above3 a41 eye2 g1 antennary groove with antenna not drawn back4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,turnip ,gall ,weevil 7,ceutorhynchus sulcicollis74 ,the ,gall ,weevils 7,ceutorhynchus7 are very small beetles with thick-set bodies4 ,in a state of rest the proboscis is folded back into a ventral furrow1 situated between the fore-hips4 ,they are black1 and thickly covered with grey hairs4 ,live on cruciferous plants4 ,the ,turnip ,gall ,weevil 7,ceutorhynchus sulcicollis71 one-eighth of an inch long1 dull black1 with many grey hairs on the ventral side and few on the dorsal side4 ,the deeply pitted neck-shield has in its centre a well-marked longitudinal furrow4 ,wing-covers deeply furrowed4 ,the beetle appears in ,april1 and gnaws the flowers and shoots1 but can scarcely be considered as harmful4 ,in late summer or autumn1 after the sprouting of the winter rape1 the female bites into the root immediately under the surface of the soil1 or into the lower parts of the stem1 so as to form a hole in which she lays one or two eggs4 ,as the larva begins to develop1 the surrounding parts of the stem or root grow into a gall-like swelling 7,fig4 #hj74 ,at the beginning of spring the developed larv creep out1 and become pup in the soil2 in ,april the beetle appears4 ,if the ,ceutorhynchus galls are only present in small numbers they damage the rape plants only to a small extent1 but when ten to twelve are found in one plant the roots grow crooked1 and remain short1 and consequently the growth of the overground parts is detrimentally affected4 ,ceutorhynchus galls are found1 not only on rape1 but also on the different kinds of cabbage1 and on turnip plants4 ,in the last case they often occur in such numbers that the turnips do not develop at all1 and the overground parts also remain small4 ,there is a similar form 7,c4 assimilis71 as large as the preceding species1 but somewhat slimmer1 and1 on account of greater hairiness1 greyer4 ,appears in spring on flowering rape and several kinds of cabbage1 as well as on similar cruciferous plants4 ,it is harmful because the beetles gnaw the buds and flowers1 and the larv feed on the seeds within the pods4 ,the attacked pods ripen early1 and open so that the larv fall to the ground1 where they become pup4 ,usually only a single larva is found in each pod4 ,the ,rape ,gall ,weevil 7,c4 napi71 somewhat larger than the two preceding species1 has a neck-shield which projects strongly forward like a collar1 and is marked by a median longitudinal furrow4 ,it is covered with yellowish-grey hairs4 ,at the time when rape blooms it appears upon the flowers4 ,the female lays her eggs singly in a hole previously bored in the stalk by her proboscis2 during spring and early summer the larva eats out the stem1 which turns brown inside1 and becomes diseased or even dies4 ,family3 ,chrysomelid 7,leaf ,beetles74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,potato ,beetle 7,chrysomela decemlineata74 ,small1 generally thick-set beetles1 arched on the upper side1 with eleven-jointed antenn thickening somewhat towards their tips1 and four-jointed feet4 ,the first joints of the feet are covered with felt-like hairs on their under sides 7,fig4 #ha74 ,the larv have three pairs of thoracic feet1 and1 in addition to this1 there are in most species a pair of caudal pro-legs4 ,live in the inside parts of plants 7stems1 leaves71 and are usually elongated and yellowish white2 those which live on the outside of plants are more convex1 shorter1 and thicker1 more or less hairy1 often of a striking colour1 and always with dark spots4 ,the beetles eat leaves2 the larv feed upon parts of the same plants1 sometimes living outside upon the leaves1 or it may be excavating channels in the inside of a leaf or of the stem4 ,most leaf beetles lay many eggs1 and in many species there are several generations annually4 ,the plants attacked by them are often stripped quite bare4 ,here belongs the blue ,alder ,leaf ,beetle 7,galeruca alni71 the ,poplar ,beetles 7,chrysomeli populi and ,c4 tremul71 the ,asparagus ,beetles 7,crioceris merdigera and ,c4 duodecimpunctata71 etc4 ,of species injurious agriculturally1 ,i will first mention the ,colorado or ,potato ,beetle 7,chrysomela decemlineata74 ,this beetle originally lived in the west of the ,united ,states on wild solanaceous plants2 but as soon as potato culture extended to the west the beetles also attacked potato plants4 ,as soon as the insects had spread to this plant they began to appear in great numbers owing to their very great powers of reproduction2 and they quickly spread from one field to another1 always going further and further east4 #ahei was the first year when they became notorious as pests1 and1 since they first appeared as such in the ,state of ,colorado1 the insect received the name 8,colorado ,beetle40 ,in a short time the beetles spread to the east1 especially to places where potato culture was carried on2 in #ahfe they crossed the ,mississippi1 and in #ahgj they were already spread over the states of ,indiana1 ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania1 ,massachusetts1 and ,new ,york4 ,they were soon found in all the eastern states1 and ,european farmers began to be alarmed4 ,in most of the countries of ,europe police regulations were made for the purpose of preventing the introduction of the unbidden guests4 ,colorado beetles have indeed been brought several times to ,germany on board ship1 but in almost all cases the pests so introduced have been recognized and caught4 ,twice during #ahgg they were able to increase 7,mulheim1 ,schildau71 and the same thing has happened once at a more recent date 7,torgau72 but the vigorous action of the authorities quickly exterminated the beetles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,colorado ,beetles3 a1 eggs2 b1 c1 d1 younger and older larv2 e1 pup seen from the ventral side and from the dorsal side4 ,beetle 7,fig4 #ha71 half an inch long1 dusky yellow1 with five longitudinal black streaks on each wing-cover1 and black markings on the neck-shield4 ,larva 7,fig4 #hb71 half an inch long1 thick1 fleshy2 legs short and weak4 ,orange-yellow1 with shining black head1 and with black spots on the body segments4 ,the younger larv are darker1 almost blood red4 ,when the young potato plants come up1 the beetles which have survived the winter creep out of the soil and devour the margins of the young leaves4 ,the female lays her yellow eggs 7#gjj to #abjj87 in heaps on the leaves 7,fig4 #hb1 a74 ,after a week the larv appear1 and carry on the work of the beetles4 ,they attain their full development in seventeen to twenty days1 become pup in the soil1 and the beetles of the second generation make their appearance in the middle of ,june4 ,still a third generation may appear the same year4 ,since a considerable time elapses between the laying of the first and second batches of eggs1 one usually sees eggs1 larv1 pup1 and beetles at the same time4 ,entire potato fields are eaten bare by the beetles and their larv1 the formation of the potatoes being quite prevented4 ,remedies3 ,energetic measures must be taken on the first appearance of the beetle in any district4 ,where possible1 all the beetles and larv must be collected1 the plants being dug up and destroyed with the beetles1 pup1 larv1 and eggs adhering to them4 ,petroleum must then be poured over the whole field and set on fire1 so as to destroy any insects which may be hidden in the soil4 ,spraying the attacked plants with ,schweinfurt green4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--,the ,cloudy ,tortoise ,beetle 7,cassida nebulosa74 ,the ,cloudy ,tortoise ,beetle 7,cassida nebulosa7--,fig4 #hc4 ,one-fifth to one-fourth of an inch long2 the broad neck-shield projects in front over the small head4 ,the wing-covers1 too1 are much broader than the body of the animal2 they are longitudinally ribbed4 ,dorsal side reddish brown1 in young individuals greenish2 always with black spots4 ,ventral side black4 ,larva elongated oval1 yellowish green4 ,segments of the body beset with thorn-like structures bearing lateral branches2 the last segment possesses a 8tail-fork10 which the larva usually carries bent over its back and on which it heaps up its dung4 ,the beetles which have survived the winter usually attack in spring only wild goose-foot and orach plants1 on which they lay their eggs in heaps4 ,the larv quickly appear1 and to begin with chiefly keep to the under sides of the leaves4 ,they are sluggish1 grow quickly1 and devour the leaf substance2 when fully developed they cement themselves to a leaf and become pup4 ,in ,june the beetles of the second generation appear1 which again lay their eggs on the leaves4 ,in favourable weather there may be even a third generation4 ,in many it happens that the beetles of the second generation migrate to beet or mangold plants1 sometimes damaging them to a very great extent4 ,remedy3 ,rooting out species of goose-foot or orach4 ,the ,earth ,fleas1 or ,flea ,beetles1 are all small leaf beetles with the power of springing1 and therefore provided with thick thighs4 ,here belong3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,the ,rape ,flea ,beetle 7#b7 with hind-leg of the same2 larva 7#a7 and its head4 ,the ,rape ,flea ,beetle 7,psylliodes chrysocephalus7--,fig4 #hd4 ,egg-shaped4 ,hind feet not inserted at the ends of the shanks1 but higher up4 ,the first joint of the foot is as long as the others put together4 ,the rest of the hind foot is bent in a knee-like way on the first long joint4 ,shining blackish brown or blackish green1 rarely brownish4 ,larva one-fifth to one-fourth of an inch1 dusky white2 head1 neck-shield1 and last segment of the body blackish brown4 ,in spring and during the entire summer the beetles are found upon the plants of winter rape4 ,although they gnaw the leaves and the immature shoot the damage caused is small4 ,in late summer or autumn the female beetles lay their eggs separately at the bases of the leaf-stalks of the young winter rape plants4 ,the larv which emerge bore into the leaf-stalk1 and eat it completely out during autumn1 winter1 and spring1 so that the leaf dies4 ,since the eggs are laid separately the larv do not all develop at the same time in the spring4 ,in spring many larv eat their way from the leaf-stalks into the still very short stem1 which consequently ceases to develop4 ,it often happens that most1 or even all1 of the plants in a rape field are withered2 on poor soil the whole crop must be at once ploughed up2 but on fertile soil the plants often develop much better than one would believe4 ,plants whose stem has been killed in the winter while still short may develop a few 7#c to #e7 branches from buds situated near its base1 but these usually remain small1 and do not yield a large crop4 ,the beetles1 appearing in spring1 lay their eggs on the lower leaf-stalks of the rape1 either on the old plants of winter rape or young plants of summer rape4 ,in the latter case the summer rape is quite spoilt in the same way as the winter rape during the previous winter4 ,in the former case the larv eat out the lower part of the leaf-stalks1 and make their way into the stem1 hollowing it out at a definite spot in such a way that it is no longer able to hold itself up1 especially when the shoots and seeds develop4 ,the stems bend and become kneed1 sometimes to such an extent that the rape field looks as if persons or cattle had been running about in it in all directions1 and treading everything down4 ,meanwhile the larv bore their way out of the stem1 and become pup in the soil4 ,in late summer the beetles appear1 and once more lay their eggs on the leaf-stalks of the winter rape4 ,there are1 therefore1 two generations annually4 ,remedies3 ,never sow summer rape after winter rape which has been destroyed by the beetle and ploughed up4 ,temporary limitation of rape culture4 ,the ,cabbage ,flea ,beetle 7,haltica oleracea71 one-fifth to one-sixth of an inch long1 longish oval1 dark green1 metallic sheen4 ,the hind legs do not possess the peculiar features of the rape flea beetle 7p4 #aad74 ,larva one-fifth to one-fourth of an inch long1 greyish black1 with bristly hairs1 and with two rows of shining black warts4 ,the beetles attack1 in the spring1 chiefly cabbage1 rape1 radishes1 horseradish2 but do not spare other plants 7e4g4 peas and beets7 as well4 ,seedlings are chiefly attacked1 and in all cases only young plants are devoured4 ,since both seed-leaves and terminal buds are eaten1 much damage is done1 especially during continuously dry weather4 ,it must often happen that the beetles wander away1 to find other species of plants for the purpose of egg-laying2 so that it is exceptional to find the larv upon species of cabbage4 ,these larv are much less injurious than the beetles1 since they usually only prey upon mature plants4 ,in their youngest condition they are found in groups1 feeding upon the leaves2 this results from the eggs being laid in little heaps4 ,later on1 they wander away from one another4 ,in favourable weather they are fully grown in six weeks1 and several generations may succeed one another in the same year4 ,remedies3 ,destruction of the weeds which attract the beetles 7charlock1 shepherd's purse1 yellow rocket1 treacle mustard1 etc47 ,good preparation of the soil1 suitable manuring and drill culture1 since these bring about a more rapid growth of the plants4 ,thick sowing 7but not too thick71 so that1 even after the destruction of many seedlings1 a sufficient number may remain4 ,moistening the fields by means of water-carts or sprayers4 ,in garden-beds twigs are laid down1 by which the seeds are protected against birds and the seedlings against flea beetles4 8,flea-beetle machines10 consisting of a board smeared with tar1 which is drawn across the field1 so that the frightened beetles spring up1 and remain hanging in the sticky substance4 ,after rain1 or when dew is still clinging to the plants1 they should be strewed with powdered fowls' dung1 pigeons' dung1 or horse dung1 wood-ashes1 road-dust1 powdered lime1 coal-ashes2 or the plan of sprinkling with a decoction of wormwood may be adopted4 ,the ,turnip ,flea ,beetle1 or ,turnip ,fly 7,haltica nemorum71 one-tenth to one-eighth of an inch long1 egg-shaped1 black1 with longitudinal streaks of a sulphur yellow colour on the thickly pitted wing-covers4 ,larva one-fifth of an inch long1 yellowish white1 with dark brown head1 neck-shield1 and last body segment4 ,the adult beetles have the same habits as in the preceding species2 they also do damage in the same way1 and attack the same plants1 especially in the seedling condition4 ,the female1 however1 does not lay her eggs in heaps1 but separately on the leaves1 and always on the under side4 ,the larva bores into the leaf1 and digs a passage1 which1 like the animal inhabiting it1 is at first small1 but gets gradually larger4 ,in fine weather the larva is fully developed in a week4 ,it then pierces the skin covering the under side of the leaf1 falls to the ground1 and becomes a pupa4 ,several generations may appear every year1 if the weather is favourable 7dry74 ,this species is quite as harmful as the preceding1 chiefly in the mature condition4 ,remedies3 ,compare the preceding species4 ,family3 ,coccinellid 7,lady-birds74 ,hemispherical2 upper side convex2 under side flattened4 ,head small1 retractile4 ,antenn1 eleven-jointed1 thickened at their tips4 ,legs short2 feet apparently three-jointed--in reality four-jointed1 the second joint1 however1 being very small4 ,colour1 usually variegated2 many species black with red1 or red with black spots4 ,when grasped1 they let a yellowish1 unpleasant-smelling fluid escape from the abdomen4 ,the blunt1 four-cornered1 usually variegated pup hang on the leaves4 ,the fully developed larv are longer than the beetles4 ,they closely resemble those of the leaf beetles1 but are not so thick-set1 and their longer legs stick out more laterally4 ,they are covered with warts and little spines 7,fig4 #he74 ,the larv and beetles of most species feed chiefly on aphides and shield-lice2 they are therefore of use1 and this is especially true of the exceedingly ravenous larv4 ,the larv of the ,seven-spotted and ,two-spotted ,lady-birds1 in particular 7,coccinella septempunctata and ,c4 bipunctata71 are found in large numbers among aphis colonies4 ,the yellow eggs are laid in heaps4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,the ,seven-spotted ,lady-bird 7,coccinella septempunctata73 larv1 pup1 beetles2 all natural size4 ,,second ,,order3 ,orthoptera 7,,straight-,,winged ,,insects74 ,insects with biting mouth-parts and incomplete metamorphosis 7p4 #hi74 ,four wings1 of which the anterior are usually harder than the posterior2 hind wings membranous1 broader than the fore wings1 and folded like a fan4 ,the ,orthoptera feed entirely1 or almost so1 upon vegetable substances4 ,to this order belong3--the ,earwigs 7,forficulari71 which feed on sweet fruits and flowers1 and are sometimes very injurious2 the ,cockroaches 7,blattari71 which do much damage to provisions in kitchens1 stores1 and on board ship2 the ,grasshoppers 7,acrydites71 to which1 besides the ,migratory ,grasshopper 7,acrydium migratorium7 ,fig4 #fb1 various species of meadow grasshoppers belong1 which are quite harmless2 the ,locusts 7,locustid71 to which the well-known ,green ,locust 7,locusta viridissima7 belongs2 and the ,crickets 7,gryllid71 to which belong1 among others1 the ,house ,cricket 7,gryllus domesticus71 the quite harmless ,field ,cricket 7,gryllus campestris71 and the ,mole ,cricket 7,gryllotalpa vulgaris74 ,the ,migratory ,grasshopper 7,acrydium migratorium74 #a to #b inches long2 spread of the wing1 on the average1 #b inches4 ,greenish grey4 ,under side flesh colour4 ,wing-covers brownish1 darkly flecked4 ,colour very variable 7,fig4 #fb74 ,excessive multiplication and migrations of this insect often take place in ,south ,russia and ,turkey2 but they may also appear in ,central ,europe4 ,in ,north ,germany1 for example1 the following years of this century were 8grasshopper years30 #ahjc1 #ahbe-bg1 #ahec1 #ahge-gf4 ,in many cases the appearance of swarms of grasshoppers in ,central ,europe is due to migration from ,russia and ,hungary2 but it also often happens that the insects which appear in such large numbers have been bred in the places where they are found4 ,since the female lays1 on the average1 #aej eggs1 excessive increase may take place in any country to which they are indigenous--and therefore in ,central ,europe4 ,it appears1 however1 that a large number of grasshoppers are usually killed by their natural enemies1 such as cold and damp weather4 ,excessive increase may1 however1 take place in exceptionally favourable years2 and since the larv1 which are incapable of flight1 devour everything available1 the mature insects developed from them are forced to migrate4 ,where they descend they destroy everything they find in the fields4 ,remedies3 ,destruction of the longish eggs1 which are laid in heaps in the earth of fallow ground and meadows4 ,in all those places where dead insects are found in large numbers on the ground many eggs will also be discovered1 for the insects keep on laying till they sink down dead in the place where the last heap of eggs was deposited4 ,such places should be dug or ploughed1 and the eggs1 which are present in thousands1 either collected or else searched out by pigs1 ducks1 geese1 and fowls1 which have been driven to the spot4 ,destruction of the young animals while still incapable of flight4 ,working the soil with harrows1 rollers1 and cultivators will be effective here4 ,the adult grasshoppers must for the most part be destroyed with fire4 ,heaps of straw and brushwood are soaked with paraffin and then set on fire4 ,the ,mole ,cricket 7,gryllotalpa vulgaris74 ,body stout and flattened4 ,antenn1 palps1 and tail-filaments very long4 ,fore legs broad1 modified into true 8digging legs10 superficially resembling the feet of a mole4 ,fore wings broad1 but short1 leathery4 ,in a state of rest1 the hind wings lie on the back1 like a couple of tails4 ,colour dark brown4 ,principally occurs on peaty soils mixed with sand or clay1 also on all soils which have become of firm consistency by the application of much manure4 ,their presence is therefore local4 ,very early in the year the mole-cricket leaves its winter hiding-place1 and begins to make its passages near the surface4 ,where the female makes her nest the passage turns downward a little4 ,the nest is #a of an inch in diameter1 and its walls are compacted by the pressure of the hard body4 ,the number of eggs is from #bjj to #bej2 they are laid in lots with a few intermediate spaces4 ,the young creep out in the spring1 and are wingless4 ,to begin with1 they are white1 but quickly become brown4 ,the mother guards her young very carefully4 ,these grow tolerably fast1 and first begin to lead an independent life after the second moult4 ,in ,october and ,november they undergo a third moult4 ,then1 still in a wingless condition1 they hide themselves1 and do not moult again till ,april or ,may1 when the wing-cases appear2 while after the fifth moult 7,may1 ,june7 the mole-cricket becomes an adult insect1 capable of reproducing4 ,this insect is found in cornfields1 gardens1 grassland1 and meadows1 also in orchards and woods4 ,it gnaws the roots of all kinds of plants1 and often effects great damage in this way4 ,the mole-cricket is also harmful on account of its passages1 which are dug close to the surface4 ,in this way it lifts young plants out of the soil2 while older plants are killed1 both by its gnawing and by its digging4 ,such plants can often be pulled up by grasping the leaves4 ,all the plants wither in the place where the nest is found4 ,dry1 cold winters kill almost all the mole-crickets2 much drought in summer and also continuous wet are unfavourable to them4 ,enemies3 moles1 rooks1 etc41 butcher-birds1 starlings1 and the larger ground beetles4 ,remedies3 ,destruction of the nests1 in ,june1 to begin with1 but also to be continued later4 ,in those parts of a field where the plants are yellow or withered in a large circular patch 7some #ci inches in diameter7 the nest is felt for with the finger1 and carefully lifted up1 so that the eggs do not fall out4 ,mole-crickets can also be caught by means of flower-pots4 ,the apertures in the bottoms of these are stopped with corks1 and they are then sunk in the soil with their mouths on a level with the mole-cricket passages2 they thus serve as pitfalls1 from which the insects cannot escape4 ,if during winter little heaps of horse dung are placed on the ground1 the insects creep into them for the sake of the warmth1 and can thus be collected and killed4 ,,third ,,order3 ,neuroptera 7,,net-,,winged ,,insects74 ,insects with biting mouth-parts and four similar membranous wings1 with numerous veins arranged in a net-like manner4 ,the metamorphosis is either incomplete 7p4 #hi3 dragon flies1 may flies1 book lice71 or complete 7p4 #hi3 ant lions1 lace flies1 snake flies1 scorpion flies1 caddis flies74 ,the indigenous forms1 with the single exception of book lice1 feed upon animal food1 usually on the juices of other insects4 ,several of them are tolerably useful in this way4 ,the ,dragon ,flies 7,libellulid7 fly about incessantly from place to place on bright warm days1 and catch a large number of insects1 especially butterflies and flies1 among which are many that are harmful4 ,the larv live in water1 and feed on insects and such small deer1 which1 however1 are of no importance to forestry or agriculture4 ,they also devour fish-spawn1 and may therefore be injurious in that way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,the ,common ,lace ,fly 7,chrysopa vulgaris73 a1 eggs2 b1 the larva2 c1 cocoon2 d1 pupa contained in the same2 e1 open cocoon2 f1 adult insect2 a1 c1 e1 natural size2 d1 enlarged and natural size2 b and f enlarged4 ,the ,lace ,flies 7,hemerobid7 when at rest are covered as with a roof by their fore and hind wings1 which are almost alike1 clear as glass1 and finely veined4 ,head tolerably large1 eyes large1 abdomen elongated and slender4 ,the extremely rapacious larv 7,fig4 #hf1 b7 feed on the juices of the bodies of other insects1 which they suck up by means of a pincer-like organ situated on either side of the mouth4 ,the two pincers are perforated1 and the tubes open on each side into the gullet2 the body juices of the insects attacked thus flow into the gut of the larva4 ,this is strongly built1 and always much thicker and larger than the adult insect4 ,metamorphosis complete4 ,three genera belong to the lace flies3-- #a4 ,the delicate greenish1 or greenish yellow1 illsmelling ,gold-eyed ,lace ,flies 7,chrysopa71 the larv of which chiefly feed on plant lice 7a few species on caterpillars1 also1 and other small insect larv74 #b4 ,the ,aphis ,lions 7,hemerobius3 ,h4 hirtus1 with hairy veins on the fore wings2 ,h4 dipterus1 with hind wings almost entirely absent71 the larv of which also feed on aphides1 and make a case from their sucked-out skins4 #c4 ,the ,ant ,lions 7,myrmeleon71 of which the fat1 thick-set larv1 which have a large head and strong grasping pincers1 dig out in the sand funnel-shaped holes1 at the bottom of which they hide1 lying in wait for ants and the like1 which step on the edge1 when the sand gives way and causes them to fall in4 ,the species of the first two genera are of service as destroyers of aphides2 the ant lions are of no importance4 ,the ,scorpion ,flies 7,panorpat7 have attached to the head a kind of proboscis1 the upper side of which is formed by a prolongation of the forehead1 and the under side by the maxill and lower lip1 while the upper lip and mandibles are hinged on at its tip4 ,here belongs the slender-bodied ,scorpion ,fly 7,panorpa communis71 an insect found in ,may1 and again in ,july or ,august1 on the leaves of trees and shrubs1 when it is sunny4 ,while the abdomen of the female ends in an ovipositor1 it bends upwards in the male1 and terminates in a pincer-like organ2 hence the name 8scorpion fly40 ,wings flecked with brown4 ,scorpion flies catch on the wing a very large number of butterflies and moths1 and are therefore useful to some extent4 ,,fourth ,,order3 ,hymenoptera 7,,membranous-,,winged ,,insects74 ,upper lip and mandibles short2 the latter used for biting4 ,maxill loose-jointed1 so that they can be stretched out considerably2 elongated in those which lick the juices of flowers4 ,in the last-named forms the larva's lips are still more elongated1 and may even form a tongue or proboscis-like organ1 which may bear lateral appendages 78secondary tongues074 ,wings1 four1 all membranous1 with relatively few veins 7,figs4 #fa1 #ij74 ,metamorphosis complete2 larv very various2 pup free 7p4 #ic74 ,the female usually possesses an ovipositor1 the structure of which varies a great deal1 and which serves in many species1 not only for egg-laying1 but also for protection 7digging wasps72 in others exclusively for offence or defence 78stings0 of bees and wasps71 while the same opening serves for the passage both of eggs and excrement4 ,the abdominal glands1 secreting a sticky substance by which the eggs are attached1 are modified into poison-glands in those ,hymenoptera which possess a sting4 ,in those forms where the ovipositor is not modified into a sting1 it is used for piercing1 biting1 or sawing4 ,the ,hymenoptera with saw-like ovipositor first make an opening in wood or in a leaf by means of the saw-teeth in its edge1 and then lay an egg in this hole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,head of ,honey ,bee4 ,a1 compound eyes2 a1 simple eyes2 ,fh1 antenn2 ,z1 tongue 7under lip72 b1 labial palps2 ,fz1 elongated maxill2 the mandibles and upper lip remain short4 ,many ,hymenoptera 7all digging wasps1 gold wasps1 ichneumon flies1 and gall flies--several true bees and wasps7 live alone1 or in pairs4 ,others form colonies1 in which division of labour is always so far carried out that there are reproductive individuals and workers4 ,the former 7males and females2 in colonies of bees--8drones0 and 8queen07 are only present in small numbers in any particular colony4 ,they live merely for the perpetuation of the species4 ,at most the males seek their own food1 while the females are usually fed by the workers4 ,workers1 on the other hand1 are individuals in which the 7female7 reproductive organs remain in a low state of development1 so that they are sterile4 ,they seek food for the larv1 and usually for the adult reproductive individuals as well4 ,they also wage war against strange intruders4 ,family3 ,apid 7,bees74 ,the bees1 by means of their very much elongated mouth-parts 7maxill and lower lip or 8tongue071 collect honey from many different kinds of flowers4 ,body somewhat unwieldy1 usually hairy4 ,the fore wings are not1 as in wasps1 folded together longitudinally when in a state of rest4 ,eyes round4 ,the legless1 almost maggot-like larv are fed with pollen or with a mixture of pollen and honey4 ,most bees are colonial1 and in these we find1 besides the reproductive individuals1 workers which prepare the nest4 ,this is for the most part made up of 8cells10 in the construction of which the most various substances are used according to the species1 e4g4 wax1 sand grains1 chewed wood1 fragments of leaf4 ,in each nest there is at the same time only one queen1 who lays her eggs in the cells2 the larv are therefore developed in these cells1 other cells serve for the storage of pollen or honey4 ,in the non-colonial bees there are no workers2 in a few of these species 7parasitic bees1 cuckoo bees7 the female lays her eggs in the cells of other species1 which1 like foster parents1 undertake the care of the strange larv4 ,these species are naturally devoid of the apparatus for securing and carrying pollen4 ,in several bees 7honey bees1 humblebees7 this end is attained by the much-broadened shanks and first1 very large foot-joints of the hind legs4 ,other bees 7,megachile7 carry pollen on the under side of the abdomen4 ,bees play a very important part in the pollination 7fertilization7 of many cultivated plants4 ,the ,honey ,bee 7,apis mellifica7 cannot be spoken of here2 reference must be made to works on apiculture4 ,the ,humblebees 7,bombus7 are tolerably large1 stout1 thick-set1 and hairy4 ,they construct nests below the surface of the soil 7often in peaty places71 made up of oval or irregular waxen cells the size of a hazel-nut4 ,they fly rapidly1 always making a humming sound4 ,many species are black1 with yellow and white1 or red transverse stripes4 ,honey-producing flowers in which the corolla is so long that even the proboscis of humblebees cannot reach the honey hidden at the bottom of the flower1 7tobacco1 field and garden beans7 are gnawed at their base by the sharp mandibles of the bees1 so that a hole is made in the calyx and corolla through which the tongue can be put4 ,in this way the ovary is sometimes wounded1 and the normal development of the fruit rendered impossible4 ,perhaps a certain amount of damage1 always however inconsiderable1 may thus be effected4 ,family3 ,vespid 7,wasps74 ,mouth-parts as in bees4 ,also with stings4 ,slender1 and either hairless or only slightly hairy4 ,eyes kidney shaped4 ,fore wings folded together longitudinally when at rest 7,figs4 #fa and #hh74 ,a distinction is made between solitary and social wasps2 the latter possess males1 females1 and workers4 ,only the fertilized queens survive the winter4 ,in the spring each of these begins to construct a nest 7,fig4 #hh74 ,in the wasp's nest each comb consists only of a single layer of cells1 the openings of which are turned downwards4 ,in a single nest several of these horizontally placed combs are usually found one over another1 and are connected together by means of vertical pillars4 ,some nests are built in hollow trees1 others in holes in the ground2 others hang freely from trees1 in which case they are covered by several layers of a papery substance4 ,the combs and cells are also made of paper1 to prepare which the insect gnaws and crushes decaying wood1 and especially bark1 with its mandibles1 mixing the crushed material with saliva4 ,in this way a pulp is made which is used in the construction of the nest1 and dries into a kind of paper4 ,the opening of the nest is in its under side 7,fig4 #hh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,the ,common ,wasp 7,vespa vulgaris7 and its nest4 ,during spring and summer the queen1 or 8wasp-mother10 lays only eggs from which workers are hatched1 which undertake the work of nest-construction and care of larv1 so that the queen can devote herself exclusively to the function of reproduction4 ,towards autumn males1 and females capable of being fertilized1 are also hatched2 these last afterwards live over the winter in the fertilized condition4 ,during summer the larv are fed by the workers with finely chewed insects or with honey4 ,they do not1 however1 suck the honey from flowers1 but steal it from several species of bee1 or else form it in their stomachs from sugary materials drawn from sweet fruits4 ,wasps are harmful or troublesome in three ways3 7#a7 by gnawing the bark of trees2 7#b7 by feeding on sweet fruits2 7#c7 by the painful stings which they inflict4 ,these are most dangerous in hot summer days4 ,if a nest situated in the soil is destroyed during ploughing the alarmed insects attack both men and horses1 cases being known where their stings have proved fatal4 ,the pain is chiefly caused by the poison introduced into the wound4 ,on this account if the sting remains sticking in the skin it must not be drawn out simply with the fingers1 but carefully1 by means of the nails1 lest the poison-bag is pressed and thus still more poison brought into the wound4 ,remedies3 ,cooling substances1 e4g4 ground carrots1 apples or pears1 cabbage leaves1 damp sand4 ,rubbing in ammonia4 ,if there is acute inflammation1 a compress with sugar of lead4 ,family3 ,fossores 7,digging ,wasps74 ,several species of this group resemble the wasps in their habits1 as well as through their black and yellow-tinged abdomens2 but they are always distinguished from these by their fore wings1 which are not folded together in a state of rest1 and by their eyes1 which are not kidney shaped4 ,the shanks and feet possess thorns serviceable for digging4 ,the sting of the female has no barbs1 so that it is not torn off and left behind in the wound4 ,the digging wasps are not social4 ,they are lively and active2 in summer the female often flies busily about near the ground in order to find a place for bringing up her young4 ,she digs a hole in the earth in which she lays an egg4 ,then she buries an insect to serve as food for the young when hatched4 ,lest the insect to be buried should decompose1 while1 on the other hand1 a living animal would not allow itself to be buried1 the wasp first brings the insect into a condition in which it cannot make any voluntary movements4 ,for this purpose most species sting the captured prey several times in the body1 and thus often injure the ventral ganglia 7p4 #hd72 by this treatment the insect is not killed1 but reduced to a condition of apparent death4 ,most digging wasps are useful1 since they chiefly bury destructive kinds of insects4 ,the ,common ,sand ,wasp 7,ammophila sabulosa1 ,fig4 #hi71 buries caterpillars2 the ,path ,wasp 7,pompilius viaticus71 spiders2 the ,weevil-killing ,sand ,wasp 7,cerceris arenaria7 and the ,fly-killing ,sand ,wasp 7,mellinus arvensis7 respectively bury weevils and flies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,the ,common ,sand ,wasp 7,ammophila sabulosa72 natural size4 ,family3 ,formicid 7,ants74 ,large strong mandibles adapted for biting2 maxill and lower lip not prolonged like a proboscis4 ,workers wingless2 the males and reproductive females have weakly veined wings4 ,in correspondence with these facts1 the mesothorax which bears the larger wings is most strongly developed in the last1 but the prothorax in the workers4 ,abdomen united with the thorax by a one- 7,formica7 or two-jointed 7,myrmica7 stalk4 ,all female ants1 and naturally workers too1 possess poison-glands1 the secretion of which accumulates in a poison-bladder2 but the sting is lacking in all species of ,formica4 ,the stingless ants 7e4g4 the ,red ,wood ,ant1 ,f4 rufa7 inflict a wound with their strong mandibles1 and then1 bending the abdomen forwards under the thorax1 squirt the contents of the poison-bladder into the wound4 ,ants form colonies1 always of large size1 and consisting of reproductive and sterile individuals4 ,their food is both of animal and vegetable nature1 but chiefly consists of insects and similar small animals4 ,they mostly devour caterpillars1 but also dead or wounded beetles 7e4g4 cockchafers71 mammals1 birds1 and reptiles4 ,as destroyers of caterpillars they are of use1 but this is true more of those living in woods than those which inhabit fields and meadows4 ,ants are fond of all sweet substances2 when they enter houses the sugar jar is very often the end they have in view4 ,they are particularly fond of licking up the sweet juice which aphides excrete from their abdomens4 ,on plants infested with aphides many ants are found which greedily sip up all the drops hanging from the abdomens of the aphides2 they may even promote the shedding of the juice by stroking the abdomens of the little animals with their antenn4 ,there are1 indeed1 species of ants which carry the aphides to the plant parts on which they thrive best1 and again1 when these are sucked dry1 transport them to other uninjured parts4 ,sometimes aphides are kept in the overground or underground nests of the ants4 ,the common yellow meadow ants shelter aphides in their subterranean nests1 where they live on the roots of grasses and other plants4 ,in order to get1 when necessary1 fresh food for these 8milch kine10 they occasionally enlarge the nest1 so that new plant roots are laid bare1 and they then carry the aphides to these4 ,during the greater part of the year only workers1 larv1 and pup are found in an ants' nest1 but reproductive individuals appear in summer1 disappearing again before the cold weather comes on4 ,as soon as there is a sunshiny day they fly out1 usually in large numbers4 ,after pairing1 the females let themselves fall to the ground2 they then either tear off their own wings or this is done for them by the workers1 which search them out and take them to the nest1 where the laying of eggs quickly begins4 ,the legless larv have feebly developed mouth-parts1 and are fed by the workers on food broken down by them4 ,the pup vary2 in the sting-bearing ants 7,myrmica7 they are naked1 in the stingless ants 7,formica71 on the other hand1 they are invested in a cocoon4 ,the latter kind of pup1 known by the incorrect name of 8ants' eggs10 are collected and used as food for insect-eating birds4 ,the nests are made either out of pine-needles and small branches heaped together 7,red ,wood ,ant ,formica rufa71 or they eat out passages and cell-like spaces in sound tree trunks 7the larger ,wood ,ants1 e4g4 ,f4 herculeana and ,f4 ligniperda7 or in decayed tree trunks 7,small ,wood ,ant ,f4 fuliginosa72 others 7,yellow ,wood ,ants ,f4 flava1 etc47 make passages and cavities in the ground1 throwing up the earth into ant-hills4 ,damage3 ,several species do harm by excavating the soil1 either in meadows and cornfields1 by which the plants are killed and harvesting rendered difficult1 or under summer-houses and dwelling-rooms4 ,others destroy tree stems4 ,they are indirectly harmful on account of the way in which they care for aphides1 causing these pests to increase to a greater extent than would otherwise be the case4 ,remedies3 ,if ants have got into a room the nest must be found if possible1 and the insects there destroyed with paraffin or boiling water4 ,if it proves to be too difficult to find and destroy the nest1 all the openings by which the ants can enter must be stopped up with lime to which some extract of colocynth has been added4 ,the nests found in fields and gardens may sometimes be destroyed by quickly digging them up1 pouring paraffin over them1 and then igniting it4 ,it is also a good plan to frequently tread or roll down the ant-hills which are thrown up1 as in this way they will be dispersed in the end4 ,ants are of service in forestry1 but scarcely in agriculture4 ,family3 ,ichneumonid 7,ichneumon ,flies74 ,the species of ichneumon flies deviate in many ways from one another1 but they all have similar habits and play a similar part in nature4 ,they all have a longer or shorter ovipositor1 always surrounded by two flaps1 and serving for laying eggs in other animals4 ,those which seek their prey in branches and leaves generally possess a very short ovipositor not obvious on cursory examination2 those which lay their eggs in insects inhabiting crevices1 e4g4 wood insects1 are often provided with a very long ovipositor4 ,no colonies and1 consequently1 no workers4 ,the female ichneumon fly generally lays her eggs in the body of an insect larva1 on which the ichneumon larv developed from these eggs feed1 using up the reserve matter stored up in the fat body 7p4 #ib74 ,caterpillars are most infested2 then follow false caterpillars1 and then the larv of weevils and leaf beetles4 ,the eggs of a few kinds are laid in pup1 or even in the eggs of moths and butterflies4 ,they always select for this purpose those insects which possess reserve material4 ,the large kinds of ichneumon fly lay only a single egg in one host1 especially if the latter is not of large size2 many of the smaller ichneumons1 on the other hand1 lay many eggs 7,fig4 #ij7 in one host1 even up to a hundred or more4 ,a caterpillar containing ichneumon eggs does not at first appear different from other caterpillars1 except that a dark spot or patch usually indicates where its body was pierced by the ovipositor of the ichneumon fly4 ,the parasite breathes while in the host by bringing the tip of its abdomen 7where the main stem of the air-tube system opens7 into connection with one of the host's spiracles4 ,since the larva feeds altogether upon perfectly digestible substances an anus is superfluous and is absent4 ,many ichneumon larv are ready to become pup when the host is about to pass into the same condition2 the larva then bores through the skin of the latter1 which quickly dies4 ,other species do not attack the organs of the host so soon1 but allow it to become a pupa in peace1 and then themselves become pup inside it2 later on1 one or several ichneumon flies come out of this pupa instead of a moth or butterfly4 ,it is obvious that ichneumon flies are very serviceable by destroying a large number of harmful insects4 ,they cannot1 indeed1 prevent the increase of any particular noxious insect1 but1 when this takes place1 they themselves increase to a greater extent1 and finally appear in such numbers as to make an end of the pest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,the ,yellow-legged ,ichneumon ,fly 7,microgaster glomeratus7 of the ,cabbage ,caterpillar4 ,left1 the adult insect2 right1 the larva 7both enlarged74 ,in the middle1 ,cabbage ,caterpillar and a heap of ,microgaster pup4 ,i shall not enumerate here all the various ichneumon flies which benefit agriculture1 but simply mention the ,small ,cabbage ,caterpillar ,ichneumon ,fly 7,microgaster glomeratus71 depicted in ,fig4 #ij1 which1 like its host 7the large cabbage white71 appears in two generations4 ,the larv of the ichneumon fly live in large numbers in the large cabbage caterpillar1 and at their last moult acquire minute teeth1 with which they bite through the skin of their host2 they then leave it to die1 and surround themselves with a cocoon close to its dead body4 ,there are1 besides1 a few small and also some large ichneumon flies which lay their eggs in the pup of the cabbage white1 so that1 e4g41 in winter many of its angular pup1 occurring on tree stems and hedges1 are found with many small or several large white ichneumon larv within them4 ,family3 ,tenthredinid 7,saw-flies74 ,body thick-set4 ,abdomen never very long1 and united by a broad base to the thorax 7,fig4 #ia74 ,saw-shaped ovipositor 7p4 #hi71 drawn in when not in use1 and only protruded during egg-laying4 ,mandibles strong1 the remaining mouth-parts not so well developed4 ,the larv are false caterpillars 7p4 #ib72 they can usually be recognized by their characteristic attitude1 for many of them bend the abdomen very much upwards and forwards1 especially when frightened1 and when at rest the hinder part of the body is spirally coiled 7,fig4 #ia74 ,the fully developed larva spins a cocoon in which it still remains for a long time in the larval condition1 even during the whole winter4 ,it becomes a pupa two or three weeks before the appearance of the perfect insect4 ,there are many larv of this kind destructive to woods1 but only a few which interest the farmer4 ,here is included-- ,the ,turnip ,saw-fly 7,athalia spinarum74 ,adult3 ,female one-third of an inch long1 stretch of wing over two-thirds of an inch2 male somewhat smaller4 ,bright orange or reddish yellow4 ,head black1 thorax and legs with black markings4 ,wings large4 ,larva3 ,length may be rather more than two-thirds of an inch4 ,the just-hatched larv are almost colourless1 but the skin quickly becomes bright green1 and after the first moult1 dark green to black4 ,ventral side slate grey4 ,head shining black4 ,twelve broad body segments1 upon which are many wrinkles of the skin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,the ,turnip ,saw-fly 7,athalia spinarum73 adult female and two caterpillars4 ,the sluggish adult is found1 during ,may or ,august1 upon kohl rabi and turnips1 mustard and charlock1 with its wings folded together4 ,the female1 by means of her ovipositor1 saws small holes in the margin or under side of the leaf1 and lays her eggs in these4 ,the larv are hatched in from four to six days1 and they undergo four moults4 ,the presence of the larv can be detected by their cast skins1 which remain sticking to the leaves even when the animals themselves1 which are often found rolled up on the under sides of the leaves1 cannot be seen4 ,the enemy is also known by its way of feeding1 for the larv keep on the surfaces of the leaves 7upper or under surface7 and eat out longish holes4 ,as soon as these have reached a certain size1 other parts of the leaves or other leaves are attacked4 ,when the larv are numerous the holes continually increase in number until only the leaf-ribs are left4 ,the mature larv creep into the soil to a depth of from two-fifths to four-fifths of an inch1 and spin a small cocoon4 ,the saw-fly emerges either the same or the following year4 ,these insects may therefore appear in ,may or in ,august1 but in many cases they are seen at only one of these times1 either the summer or autumn turnips being attacked1 as the case may be4 ,remedies3 ,fowls and ducks willingly eat the larv1 and1 provided they are not able to do any damage1 can therefore be brought into the fields4 ,strewing with soot has a good effect4 ,it pays to pick off the larv from young plants4 ,,order #e3 ,lepidoptera 7,,butterflies ,,and ,,moths74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,head of a ,butterfly4 ,a1 eye2 ,fh1 antenn2 ,z1 proboscis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,scales from a ,butterfly's ,wing 7strongly magnified74 ,sucking mouth-parts1 forming a 8proboscis0 made up of the two very long maxill1 spirally rolled up under the head when not in use 7,fig4 #ib71 and adapted for sucking honey4 ,there are some forms which take no food in the adult condition1 and in which the proboscis is short2 in a few species of hawk-moths1 this organ is even longer than the body4 ,the larv 78caterpillars07 have biting mouth-parts4 ,the body of a butterfly or moth is covered with hair-like structures developed by the skin2 in the wings these are broader1 have a characteristic appearance 7,fig4 #ic71 and partially overlap one another4 ,these scales cause the colours of the wing4 ,they can easily be wiped off1 leaving the corresponding part of the wing transparent and clear as glass4 ,in many species 7all hawk-moths1 many owlet moths7 there is a wing-hooklet1 i4e4 the hind wing has a spine or a thick brush which grasps a band-like area of the fore wing4 ,in this way the two pairs of wings are held together4 ,the females of a few species of spinner and looper moths are wingless1 or only possess short flap-like wings useless for flight4 ,the metamorphosis is complete 7p4 #hi72 the larv are true caterpillars2 the pup are obtectate 7p4 #ic74 ,many caterpillars creep into the ground to become pup1 and spin no investment at all 7e4g4 hawk-moths74 ,others make a cocoon1 which may consist of threads loosely woven together or may be of firm texture 7,fig4 #fj74 ,the cocoon consists chiefly of silk1 a substance secreted in a spinning gland1 and exuding to the exterior on the lower lip2 but minute particles of sand or earth1 and fragments of wood gnawed off by the caterpillar1 may be stuck in the cocoon4 ,the pup of butterflies are naked1 without cocoon1 but are fixed by threads to leaves1 tree stems1 walls1 hedges1 etc4 ,a distinction is drawn between girdled and suspended pup2 the first are fixed by a silk band1 which surrounds them1 and the head is directed upwards1 while the latter are suspended by the tip of the abdomen 7,fig4 #id74 ,the time required for the development of the perfect insect from the pupa is not always the same1 depending not only upon the species1 but also upon the time of year4 ,the summer generation of the large white spends scarcely fourteen days in the pupa stage1 the winter generation eight months4 ,family3 ,diurna 7,butterflies74 ,body relatively weak and thin2 wings very broad1 not very long relatively4 ,no wing-hooklet 7see above74 ,wings folded together above in a state of rest1 so that their upper sides touch4 ,antenn thickened in a club-like way at the tip4 ,the caterpillars possess five pairs of pro-legs2 they are usually almost devoid of hair4 ,there are1 however1 a few 7e4g4 the caterpillar of the peacock butterfly1 ,fig4 #id7 which possess hard1 spine-like1 much-branched bristles4 ,the naked pup are sharp cornered2 some are girdled1 others suspended 7p4 #acg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,the ,peacock ,butterfly 7,vanessa io71 with pupa1 and larva suspended before passing into the pupa state4 ,among butterflies with larv that become suspended pup are the ,red ,admiral 7,vanessa atalanta71 the ,peacock 7,vanessa io1 ,fig4 #id71 the ,fritillaries 7,argynnis71 the ,meadow ,browns 7,hipparchia71 etc42 and among those with girdled pup the ,swallow ,tail 7,papilio machaon71 the ,whites 7,pieris71 etc4 ,the ,cabbage ,white1 or ,large ,white 7,pieris ,brassic74 ,butterfly3 ,length a little over an inch1 span of wing #b inches4 ,both fore and hind wings milky white1 the former black at the root1 on the front edge1 and the outer angle2 also a black patch on the inner margin of the fore wing1 passing on to the front margin of the hind wing4 ,the female possesses1 in addition1 two round black patches on the middle of each fore wing4 ,under side of the fore wings milky white1 yellow at the tip1 blackish at the root2 under side of the hind wings yellow1 with black dots4 ,caterpillar 7,fig4 #ie73 ,as much as #a inch long2 greenish1 or sulphur yellow1 with black dots4 ,head and dorsal side of last segment of the body grey with black spots4 ,young specimens are of a very bright green with black wartlets closely crowded together4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,the ,cabbage ,white 7,pieris brassic7 female laying her eggs2 caterpillar1 and pupa4 ,from the pup which have lived through the winter butterflies emerge in ,may1 and lay their golden yellow eggs in small heaps on the under sides of the leaves of rape1 mustard1 and cress1 also on charlock and such-like cruciferous weeds4 ,the caterpillars of this first generation are hatched in fourteen days1 and rarely do any harm1 since they only appear in small numbers4 ,they develop rapidly1 and during the last days of ,june become pup on the branches and leaves of the plants they live on2 the butterflies appear in ,july4 ,owing to their rapid development the caterpillars and pup of this first generation are but little exposed to the attacks of enemies 7ichneumons1 birds1 etc474 ,only a few of them die1 therefore1 if the weather is favourable4 ,as a result of this1 the ,july butterflies and the eggs laid by them are relatively numerous1 so that the number of caterpillars appearing in late summer may be very large4 ,these caterpillars1 however1 live almost exclusively on the various kinds of cabbage and kohl rabi1 and it is this second generation which in many years is so harmful4 ,at the beginning of ,august the caterpillars are ready to become pup1 and for this purpose they seek tree stems1 hedges1 walls1 etc4 ,the pup now formed live as such through the winter4 ,during this period1 however1 they are exposed to many dangers 7damp1 cold1 sudden alternation between very low and very high temperatures2 ichneumons1 birds71 and most of them perish1 so that only a few butterflies come out the following spring1 and lay but a few eggs4 ,it is therefore obvious that the first generation of caterpillars 7,may1 ,june7 is much less numerous than the second generation occurring from late summer to autumn4 ,under exceptionally favourable conditions even a third generation may appear1 since caterpillars of the second generation are able to become pup at the beginning of ,august2 and these pup1 instead of remaining as such over winter1 become butterflies the same month4 ,these1 again1 lay eggs from which the caterpillars of the third generation are hatched1 which1 however1 are not always fully developed before the advent of the cold weather1 and in this case perish4 ,it is clear that1 in the case of pup which develop into butterflies during ,august in about fourteen days1 the unfavourable influences have either no effect 7unfavourable weather7 or but little 7ichneumons1 birds71 so that the butterflies appear in flocks1 which wander into other regions1 since they have themselves1 when larv1 devoured the cabbage and turnip plants4 ,in reference to the damage effected by the caterpillar1 it may be observed that only the chief veins of the leaf are left1 and the margins are not spared4 ,remedies3 ,collection of the little heaps of yellow eggs and the young caterpillars1 which are blackish and live together in small companies2 the planting of a few small hemp plants in the cabbage fields to be protected1 by which the butterflies will be kept away4 ,the ,garden ,white1 or ,small ,white 7,pieris rap74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,the ,garden ,white 7,pieris rap71 male4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,the ,garden ,white 7,pieris rap71 female1 caterpillar4 ,butterfly 7,figs4 #if and #ig73 ,length rather less than an inch1 span of wing two inches2 very much like the cabbage white4 ,base and tip of the fore wing not of such a deep black colour2 the black patch in the inner margin of the fore wing is usually absent in the female4 ,the male1 however1 very often has a black patch in the upper side of the fore wing4 ,caterpillar3 ,just over an inch long4 ,dull green2 a longitudinal yellow line on the back2 also the black stigmata are connected by a yellow line4 ,habits as in the preceding species2 the female1 however1 lays her yellow eggs separately1 and not in heaps1 and the second generation of caterpillars usually become pup somewhat later in the year4 ,collecting is more difficult than in the preceding species1 since the young caterpillars live independently1 and their colour makes it difficult to recognize them on the green cabbage leaves4 ,the ,green-veined ,white 7,pieris napi74 ,butterfly 7,fig4 #ih73 ,as large or somewhat smaller than the preceding species4 ,wings milky white on their upper side2 fore wings dusted with black on their front margin1 tips1 and ends of the ribs4 ,two spots on the middle of the fore wing in the female1 one or none in the male4 ,under side of the hind wings yellow2 under side of the veins dusted with greenish grey4 ,caterpillar3 ,a little over an inch4 ,dull bluish-green1 with minute blackish tubercles above1 and whitish ones below4 ,a yellow longitudinal line on each side connecting the black spiracles1 which are bordered by reddish yellow4 ,very like the preceding species in the larval condition4 ,habits as in the preceding species1 but this is less common4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,the ,green-veined ,white 7,pieris napi74 ,family3 ,noctuid 7,owlet ,moths74 ,night-flying moths1 of medium size and dull colour1 with smooth-haired bodies4 ,antenn long and thin1 thread like1--comb-shaped only in the males of a few species2 wings powerful1 lie in a roof-like way when at rest2 almost always a wing-hooklet4 ,caterpillars usually hairless2 mostly with five pairs of pro-legs1 a few with four or three pairs4 ,the owlets pair at night2 they also fly about during the day1 even in bright sunshine4 ,flight strong and rapid1 but always in fits and starts4 ,almost all species lay their eggs separately1 and on herbs1 only a few species on trees4 ,the caterpillars are very much scattered1 and the damage caused by them is never great1 except in spots here and there1--on the contrary1 when they increase to a great extent they spread over a wider area4 ,several species are harmful to agriculture4 ,the ,surface ,caterpillars 7,species of ,agrotis7 are stout caterpillars1 #a to #b inches long1 with five pairs of pro-legs1 and shining transparent external skin4 ,they remain in the ground during the day1 feeding above ground at night1 and also in the daytime when the sky is much overcast4 ,when touched they bend themselves into the form of a ,c4 ,there are in ,britain several species of surface caterpillars which have these habits1 but ,i will only describe here1 to begin with1 the commonest kind3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,the ,common ,dart or ,turnip ,moth 7,agrotis segetum7 with ,caterpillar4 ,the ,common ,dart or ,turnip ,moth 7,agrotis segetum or ,a4 clavis74--,moth 7,fig4 #ii73 ,length almost of an inch4 ,span of wing about #a inch4 ,fore wings small1 ash-grey or brownish1 with many dark patches and similar markings4 ,hind wings in the male1 bright grey to snowy white2 in the female1 brownish grey4 ,caterpillar 7,fig4 #ii73 ,up to two inches1 earthy grey1 occasionally somewhat greenish4 ,head and prothorax darker4 ,the time taken by the caterpillars to complete their development differs according to the plants attacked1 and it is therefore easy to understand why the moths should be seen flying about from the first half of ,may right on into the autumn1 without having recourse to the improbable hypothesis of two successive generations4 ,the eggs are consequently laid at very different times1 and are always deposited singly in the soil in the neighbourhood of plant roots1 or else in the low-lying leaves and stems of various herbs4 ,the caterpillars hatched from these are destructive earlier or later1 according to the time of egg-laying4 ,most specimens are half grown in winter2 these continue their destructive work the following spring4 ,in autumn they attack the roots of winter grain 7rye and wheat71 rape1 and species of cabbage2 they also bore readily into turnips and potatoes4 ,in spring1 after the winter rest1 they continue to attack the roots of winter grain1 winter rape1 etc41 or fleshy underground parts 7turnips1 potatoes7 developed in the interim1 or the roots of summer plants 7summer grain1 buckwheat1 summer rape1 vegetables1 etc474 ,on clear days the caterpillars always remain hidden in the soil2 and those which have bored into juicy underground parts of plants 7turnips1 carrots71 do not leave their abode during the day1 but the others1 both during the night and on cloudy days1 come above ground to attack the leaves and stems of young plants4 ,in exceptional cases the caterpillar is mature by the beginning of winter1 in which case it hybernates in the soil as a brown pupa4 ,the moths escaping from such pup naturally appear earlier than others4 ,as a rule1 the caterpillars do most damage to the winter crop in autumn1 wandering about a great deal2 in many cases they gnaw through the main root1 thus quickly killing the plant attacked1 from which they proceed to another4 ,remedies3 ,when the caterpillars have done much damage in late summer1 it is recommended to leave the field alone till ,october1 then to plough it up and sow the winter grain4 ,by putting off the seed-time in this way1 the caterpillars will have lost their activity when the corn germinates1 and the winter crop will thus escape them4 ,besides this1 the preceding ploughing will bring many caterpillars to the surface1 where they will become the prey of birds1 or1 if not1 can be collected4 ,warm soils1 especially those manured with horse dung1 are most infested by the caterpillars2 and the use of warm kinds of manure should1 therefore1 be avoided in regions which have much to fear from these insects4 ,where everything has been destroyed1 a thorough ploughing is desirable4 ,swine may also be driven in during autumn1 and will grub up and devour the caterpillars4 ,in this case1 sowing will take place the following spring4 ,other ,surface ,caterpillars1 which have pretty much the same habits as the preceding1 are those of the ,heart and ,dart ,moth 7,agrotis exclamationis71 the ,wheat ,moth 7,a4 tritici71 and the ,thick-bodied ,surface ,caterpillar 7,a4 ravida or ,a4 crassa74 ,the ,cabbage ,moth 7,mamestra brassic74 ,moth 7,fig4 #ajj72 about of an inch long1 span of wing #a inch4 ,fore wings shining brown1 with yellowish and black marbling2 each patch having a dark outline2 a yellowish zigzag line on the outer margin4 ,hind wings shining yellowish-grey brown4 ,a strongly developed crest in the middle line of the thorax4 ,caterpillar 7,fig4 #ajj73 #a inches1 cylindrical4 ,bright or dark green1 brownish green1 or greenish brown4 ,on the back a dark longitudinal stripe1 divided into two halves by a narrow white longitudinal line4 ,a whitish line running along each side2 between this and the dorsal line a dark transverse streak on each segment4 ,the brown pupa 7,fig4 #ajj7 remains in the soil during the winter1 and is not invested in a cocoon4 ,the moth appears in ,may2 during the day it rests on windows1 in barns1 etc4 ,the greenish yellow eggs are laid separately on the leaves of cabbages 7sometimes also on lettuces and turnips74 ,the caterpillars1 which appear in fourteen days1 creep about actively between the leaves4 ,within a month they are full-grown1 and become pup in the soil4 ,at the end of ,july and in ,august the summer generation of moths appears4 ,from the eggs laid by these are hatched a second generation of caterpillars1 which are always much more numerous than those of the first4 ,from ,august to ,october they are found in all kinds of cabbage1 especially compactly headed kinds and cauliflower4 ,at first they eat holes in the leaves1 leaving1 however1 the chief veins and usually the edges4 ,later on they eat right on into the heart of the cabbage4 ,they fill their burrows with excrement1 and the attacked plants begin to rot internally4 ,the full-grown caterpillars creep out and become pupa in the soil4 ,remedy3 ,collecting the caterpillars while they are still on the outer leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--,the ,cabbage ,moth 7,mamestra brassic71 with caterpillar and pupa4 ,the ,vegetable or ,lettuce ,moth 7,mamestra oleracea74 ,moth3 of an inch long2 span of wings about #a of an inch4 ,fore wings dark rusty brown1 darker on the nerves1 dusted with white4 ,hind wings reddish white4 ,head and thorax like the fore wings2 abdomen like the hind wings4 ,caterpillar3 ,up to #a inch2 dirty greenish grey1 or olive green1 irregularly bestrewn with dirty white dots4 ,the caterpillars feed on cabbages1 lettuce1 asparagus1 and other vegetables4 ,those of the first generation 7,june and ,july7 hollow out lettuce stalks before the head begins to be formed2 those of the second generation 7,august and ,september7 feed on cabbage or asparagus leaves4 ,the first generation of moths appear in ,may1 the second in the first half of ,august4 ,the ,pea ,moth 7,mamestra pisi74 ,moth3 ,about of an inch long2 span of wings about #a of an inch4 ,fore wings bright reddish brown with bluish-grey markings1 and a yellowish longitudinal streak4 ,hind wings reddish grey4 ,caterpillar3 #a of an inch2 cylindrical2 slender4 ,back dark greenish or brown red2 closely and tolerably regularly veined with dark lines1 and with two sulphur yellow longitudinal streaks on the back and one on each side4 ,head1 belly1 and feet flesh red4 ,if the caterpillar is touched it moves the front part of its body about here and there1 and then lets itself fall down4 ,the moths appear in ,may and ,june2 the caterpillars are found from ,july to ,september on peas1 vetches1 beans1 clover1 lupins1 sorrel1 orach1 heath1 willow1 birch1 and yet other plants4 ,seldom very destructive4 ,the ,grass-root ,moth 7,hadena monoglypha1 or ,h4 polyodon74 ,moth3 ,about of an inch long2 span of wing #a inches4 ,fore wings longish2 yellow brown blended with dark brown and white2 the tips are coloured most brightly4 ,three black rays on the fore wing2 hind wings brown grey4 ,caterpillar3 ,about #a inches long1 of an inch broad1 with sixteen feet4 ,grey or reddish white1 more or less shining4 ,head1 prothorax1 the last body segment and warts black4 ,at the end of ,july and during ,august the female lays her eggs separately on the bases of grass haulms and leaves4 ,the caterpillars creep out at the end of ,august1 and1 especially after their hybernation 7in ,april and ,may71 attack meadow grasses1 biting through the leaves and haulms at their bases1 immediately above the surface of the ground1 and devouring1 as it were1 passages through the grass4 ,the reddish brown pup rest in the soil4 ,the ,couch-grass ,moth 7,hadena basilinea74 ,moth3 ,nearly of an inch long2 span of wings #a inches4 ,head and back rust-coloured or reddish grey1 in the male with a large tuft of hairs4 ,fore wings coloured like the back1 with two transverse lines in the middle1 and brighter and darker marks as well4 ,hind wings bright brown1 with a faint golden sheen1 and with a yellowish fringe4 ,caterpillar3 #a to #a inches long1 with sixteen feet1 bluish grey1 somewhat brownish1 with dirty white longitudinal lines2 greenish belly1 and large bright brown head4 ,the moth lays the eggs in little heaps on the stems and leaves of grass plants4 ,the damage which the caterpillars effect among meadow grasses is inconsiderable2 but they sometimes appear in considerable numbers on grain-plants1 and are then very destructive4 ,the insects are chiefly found on dry high-lying land1 which is consequently most liable to the attacks of their larv4 ,after hybernation they feed on grass or the leaves and stems of young grain-plants1 and change in the soil into stout1 smooth1 yellowish-brown pup1 devoid of cocoon4 ,remedy3 ,in case the caterpillars have got into the crop1 threshing should take place as soon as possible1 or1 after hybernating1 they will continue to devour the grain in the barns4 ,the ,wheat-haulm ,moth 7,luperina didyma74 ,moth3 ,span of wing #a inches4 ,individual specimens differ very much from one another3 brownish1 greyish yellow to ochre yellow1 with various dark and light markings4 ,caterpillar3 ,with sixteen legs1 and over an inch long in full-grown specimens 7,may72 thin1 spindle-shaped2 stiff2 bright shining green1 with two broad dark red lines on the back4 ,the caterpillars live in the stalks of wheat plants1 and other gramineous forms1 hollowing them out2 they hybernate when tolerably young4 ,in spring they continue to hollow out the wheat plants1 going from one stalk to another4 ,the plants attacked quickly have their leaves turned to a rusty colour1 and they sicken or even die4 ,the ,grass ,moth 7,charas graminis74 ,moth3 ,length of an inch2 span of wings about #a inches4 ,antenn of the male comb-like4 ,fore wings short1 of a brownish-red1 olive brown1 or dirty olive-green ground colour1 with three whitish patches1 and darker markings4 ,hind wings yellowish grey1 brighter at the roots4 ,caterpillar3 ,with sixteen legs2 #a inches long2 bronze grey1 back more of a bronze brown1 with three narrow bright longitudinal streaks4 ,head ochre yellow4 ,the moth lays her some two hundred eggs during ,july1 in little heaps at the bases of the grass haulms and leaves4 ,the caterpillars hide during the day1 and feed at night4 ,they are very injurious even in the autumn1 but become insatiable the following spring1 always devouring the lowest parts of the haulms and leaves1 so that the upper parts die off4 ,they wander in large companies from one field to another4 ,in ,june they become pup of a shining reddish brown below the surface of the soil or under sods4 ,enemies3 swine1 moles1 shrews1 rooks1 wagtails1 ducks1 fowls4 ,remedy3 ,driving in swine1 where this is practicable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,the ,grass ,moth 7,charas graminis7 and its caterpillar4 ,the ,darnel ,moth 7,neuronia popularis74 ,moth3 ,length rather less than of an inch2 span of wings nearly #a inches4 ,much variegated1 beautiful4 ,fore legs reddish brown1 with peach-coloured glow2 all the nerves and several markings yellowish white1 and dark markings as well4 ,hind wings yellowish1 and abdomen white4 ,head and thorax brown1 mixed with yellowish white4 ,caterpillar3 ,over two inches long1 and about one-third of an inch thick2 #af-legged2 tapers at both ends4 ,has an oily lustre4 ,dorsal side of a bronze brown1 sharply marked off by a yellowish line from the bright brownish grey ventral side1 and traversed by three longitudinal bright brown lines1 which in young specimens are almost white4 ,habits pretty much like those of the preceding species4 ,the ,silver ,y ,moth 7,plusia gamma74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,the ,silver ,y ,moth 7,plusia gamma71 with caterpillar and pupa4 ,moth3 ,about of an inch long2 span of wings #a inches4 ,dark grey1 mixed with a reddish tint1 and darkly marbled4 ,about the middle of the fore wing there is a very obvious gamma 771 or ,y-shaped mark4 ,hind wings bright brown at the root1 darker at the margins1 with a whitish fringe4 ,a crest of hairs on the dorsal side of the thorax4 ,caterpillar3 #ab-legged4 ,it bends its body like a looper 7,fig4 #ajb74 ,length #a to #a inches4 ,ground colour green2 but there may be variations in this from a dirty green to a brownish colour4 ,six fine longitudinal lines on the back1 and a yellowish line above the legs4 ,the caterpillar is almost naked1 only possessing a few small1 isolated bristle-like hairs4 ,habits3 ,at least two generations1 and sometimes as many as five in two years4 ,the ,silver ,y ,moth generally hybernates as a half-grown caterpillar1 but sometimes also in the pupa1 or moth state4 ,the caterpillars may therefore be met with the whole year2 but they are usually most abundant from the end of ,june to the middle of ,august1 and1 under favourable conditions1 may become an agricultural pest4 ,they devour the leaves of almost all wild and cultivated plants 7except grasses1 corn1 and trees71 and are especially fond of leguminous plants 7peas1 vetches1 clover71 flax1 beet1 rape1 cabbage1 and buckwheat4 ,the moths mostly appear in ,may1 but also in ,july1 and later on in the summer1 especially on clear days4 ,the female lays her numerous bright green eggs1 some four hundred in number1 separately1 on the leaves of the above-named plants4 ,the caterpillars are not always easy to see1 owing to their greenish colour2 under favourable conditions they may pass through the whole of their development up to the moth stage in from six to seven weeks4 ,in some years they appear in such large numbers1 that almost all the cultivated plants found in the fields of an infested region are utterly spoilt by them1 excepting the corn4 ,natural enemies3 ,starlings1 all sharp-beaked singing birds haunting fields2 sparrows2 ground beetles1 rove beetles1 and the larv of these families2 several ichneumon flies1 parasitic fungi4 ,remedies3 ,driving in poultry1 where practicable4 ,collecting1 e4g4 by means of a machine invented by ,l4 ,dehoff1 of ,gutenberg1 near ,halle4 8,several troughs with steep inner walls are fastened together by laths1 at distances equal to those between adjacent furrows1 and besoms are fixed to the laths4 ,these troughs are drawn along like sledges by a horse walking in the furrows1 and the caterpillars are swept by the besoms into the troughs1 from which they are collected in sacks at the ends of the furrows4 ,with this cheap machine about twelve acres per day can be cleared0 7,taschenberg74 ,family3 ,pyralid 7,snout ,moths74 ,small moths with thread-like antenn1 comb-like in the males of a few species1 with tolerably large eyes1 and very large labial palps often stretched out in front like a beak 7,fig4 #ajc74 ,fore wings of an elongated triangular shape4 ,wing booklets4 ,legs tolerably long4 ,caterpillars slightly hairy1 with four or five pairs of pro-legs4 ,the ,rye ,snout ,moth 7,pyralis secalis74 ,moth3 of an inch long1 span of wings #a inches4 ,wings elongated1 whitish grey1 with an ,a-shaped patch on the fore wings4 ,caterpillar3 ,rather more than of an inch long2 green1 streaked with brown1 #af-legged1 with a brown head1 and tapering at both ends4 ,habits3 ,the caterpillar lives during ,june in the rye haulms1 hollowing them out4 ,as a result of this1 the ears remain hidden between the leaves and leaf-sheaths1 and it often happens that only the tips of the awns appear externally4 ,no grain is formed2 the ears first become white and dry1 and then fall off4 ,the ,hop ,snout ,moth 7,hypena rostralis74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,the ,hop ,snout ,moth 7,hypena rostralis74 ,moth 7,fig4 #ajc73 ,length rather less than of an inch2 span of wings #a inches1 or more4 ,fore wings usually brownish1 somewhat scalloped on the fringed outer margins2 a zigzag black line near the base2 in the middle1 near the front edge1 a patch bordered with white1 and behind this a dark longitudinal streak4 ,hind wings dull grey1 with a silky sheen4 ,caterpillar3 ,at most one inch long1 #ad-legged1 very slender1 green1 with a dark middle line and two white side lines4 ,very active2 wriggles about on the ground like an eel4 ,habits3 ,the moth is on the wing at the beginning of ,august1 the second generation in ,august2 the latter hybernates in outhouses1 barns1 summer-houses1 etc4 ,the eggs are laid on wild and cultivated hops1 also on stinging nettles4 ,the caterpillars are found on the hop plants1 especially in ,june2 they sometimes entirely devour the leaves1 with the exception of the nerves4 ,in ,july they become pup1 either between the leaves or on the soil1 and are invested in a grey cocoon4 ,the moths appear at the beginning of ,august1 and give rise to a second generation of caterpillars1 from which1 after the pupa stage1 the moths which live through the winter are developed4 ,the ,cabbage ,snout ,moth 7,botys forficalis74 ,moth3 ,length about half an inch4 ,span of wings rather over one inch4 ,fore wings sharply bent in front before their sharp tips2 rusty yellow1 somewhat darker on the nerves1 with rusty brown transverse streaks from the outermost corners to the middle of the hinder margin1 and with other reddish brown markings4 ,hind wings and body shining straw yellow4 ,caterpillar3 inch long1 #af-legged1 tapering in front and behind4 ,yellowish green1 with indistinct longitudinal lines and bright brown head4 ,a few small yellowish-green hairs4 ,habits3 ,the first generation appear in small numbers in ,may4 ,the caterpillars hatched out from the eggs of these live 7,may and ,june7 on the leaves of cabbages and wild cruciferous plants4 ,they always shelter themselves between the leaves1 and spin a few thin threads across the entrances to their abodes4 ,the caterpillars burrow horizontally in the earth1 and there become pup invested in cocoons4 ,the moths of the second generation appear in ,august2 in autumn the caterpillars hatched from their eggs damage cabbages1 sometimes to a large extent4 ,in ,october they burrow into the soil1 where they hybernate4 ,remedy3 ,deep digging or ploughing after the crop1 by which the larv invested in webs are buried deeply1 and consequently for the most part killed4 ,the ,mother-of-pearl ,moth 7,botys margaritalis ,b4 extimalis74 ,moth 7,fig4 #ajd73 ,length nearly inch2 span of wing over #a inches4 ,fore wings bright sulphur yellow1 with large rust-coloured patches1 and two rusty yellow transverse lines4 ,hind wings shining straw yellow2 all four wings with a mother-of-pearl sheen4 ,caterpillar 7,fig4 #ajd73 inch1 #af-legged1 yellowish1 head and neck-shield black4 ,body with a broad1 grey1 longitudinal streak on each side4 ,four longitudinal rows of dark brown warts4 ,habits3 ,the moth is on the wing in ,june and ,july1 and lays the longish ovoid eggs on cruciferous plants 7rape1 radish1 several wild forms74 ,the caterpillar lives concealed in a white web1 and gnaws holes in the pods1 into which it inserts the forepart of its body for the purpose of devouring the still green seeds4 ,the attacked pods1 owing to the presence of round holes in them1 look something like flutes or fifes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,the ,mother-of-pearl ,moth 7,botys margaritalis71 with larva 7#a7 and injured pods4 ,the full-grown caterpillars burrow into the soil1 where they hybernate in a delicate web4 ,remedy3 ,compare the preceding species4 ,family3 ,tortricid 7,leaf-rollers74 ,small1 thick-set moths 7,fig4 #aje71 with smaller palps than the snout moths4 ,fore wings broad at the root1 with straight or somewhat curved outer margins4 ,hind wings as broad1 or even broader1 than the fore wings4 ,when at rest the fore wings lie in a roof-like way4 ,they usually possess many characteristic markings4 ,hind wings greyish1 without markings4 ,antenn thread-like4 ,caterpillars hairless1 or only slightly hairy2 #af-legged3 many kinds live in leaves1 which they roll up2 others in twigs1 buds1 and fruits1 which they hollow out4 ,the ,fawn-coloured ,pea ,moth 7,grapholitha nebritana ,g4 pisana74 ,moth 7,fig4 #aje73 ,length inch2 span of wings about inch4 ,fore wings fawn-coloured1 with metallic sheen2 alternating short1 white1 and dark lines on the front margin4 ,hind wings black1 with bronze sheen and white fringe4 ,caterpillar3 inch long2 #af-legged2 pale green1 with brown or black head1 neck-shield1 and last body segment4 ,the thoracic legs are black4 ,dark warts on each segment4 ,habits3 ,compare the succeeding species4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--,the ,fawn-coloured ,pea ,moth 7,grapholitha nebritana74 ,the ,crescent ,pea ,moth 7,grapholitha dorsana74 ,moth3 ,somewhat larger than the preceding species4 ,fore wings olive brown1 with many small short white lines on the front margin4 ,a yellowish white crescent on the middle of the hinder margin4 ,hind wings brownish4 ,caterpillar3 ,nearly inch long1 #af-legged1 orange yellow1 with brown or black head1 neck-shield1 last body segment1 and thoracic feet4 ,covered with brownish-yellow warts4 ,habits3 ,the moths fly about in large numbers round the pea blossoms1 always a short time after sunset4 ,the female lays one1 two1 or at most three eggs1 on a very young pod1 or on an ovary4 ,in fourteen days the caterpillar is hatched1 bores into the pod1 and attacks the peas4 ,the opening made in the margin of the pod closes up again4 ,the pod generally ripens early4 ,when it opens1 the full-grown caterpillars creep out1 and become pup in the soil1 within a web1 where the pupa lives through the winter4 ,the peas attacked are always covered1 while in the pod1 with the coarse-grained excrement of the caterpillars1 and are often united two or three together by web fibres4 ,remedy3 ,deep digging of the soil before the winter1 or1 still better1 deep hoeing as soon as the pea crop is gathered in4 ,in this way many of the caterpillars or pup hidden in the soil will be destroyed4 ,family3 ,tineid 7,leaf-miners74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,the ,larch ,moth 7,coleophora laricella74 ,these moths are the smallest of the ,lepidoptera4 ,like the snout moths1 they have strongly developed labial palps1 but are distinguished from them by their small wings2 the hind wings are especially small1 and have sharp tips4 ,the extent of the wings is increased by a broad marginal fringe4 ,when at rest1 the wings slope like a roof1 and the fringe near their tips is often turned upwards4 ,antenn thread-like1 tolerably long--in the males of a few species may even be very long4 ,caterpillars slightly hairy1 with five1 or1 rarely1 four pairs of pro-legs4 ,to this family belong the well-known ,clothes ,moth2 the ,corn ,moth1 living in stored-up grain2 and also-- ,the ,carrot ,moth 7,depressaria nervosa ,hmylis daucella74 ,moth3 ,length inch4 ,span of wings rather over inch4 ,fore wings reddish-grey brown1 blackish on the nerves1 and with scattered whitish markings4 ,hind wings more of a grey brown4 ,thorax and abdomen very shiny1 and somewhat brighter than the wings4 ,caterpillar3 ,nearly inch long1 tolerably thick1 especially in the middle1 and variegated4 ,head1 thorax1 and last body segment shining black1 the last two regions with reddish-yellow margin1 and the thorax1 in addition to this1 divided into right and left halves by a longitudinal yellow line4 ,the rest of the body is olive green2 a broad orange-coloured line divides it into a darker dorsal and a lighter ventral side4 ,on the back many ill-defined warts of a shining black colour4 ,habits3 ,in ,march and ,april many of the carrot moths which have survived the winter come out of their hiding-places2 they only fly at night4 ,the eggs are laid separately on umbelliferous weeds1 carraway1 or carrot plants4 ,the caterpillars are first seen when the plants flower2 they live on the flower-stalks1 which they bind together by a few threads1 and devour the flowers and young fruits1 sometimes even the flower-stalks4 ,the caterpillars are very active1 and let themselves down by a thread when disturbed4 ,usually they are fully grown in five weeks1 and then bore into the stalks of the plant1 where they become pup4 ,it is not known whether there are one or two generations4 ,the caterpillars are found at very various times1 from ,may to ,august4 ,the ,diamond-back ,moth 7,plutella cruciferarum ,tinea xylostella74 ,moth3 ,about inch long2 span of wings inch4 ,fore wings small1 lancet-shaped1 with long fringes4 ,ground colour yellowish brown1 darkly speckled4 ,hind wings brownish grey1 small1 strongly fringed4 ,when at rest the long fringes form a sharp backward and upwardly directed comb1 while the antenn are applied together and stretched straight forwards4 ,caterpillar3 ,about inch long1 tapering in front and behind4 ,a beautiful green1 with a black head4 ,lives hidden under a very thin web or under a few fibres1 on the lower side of the leaves of cabbage1 rape1 and other crucifers4 ,habits3 ,the pupa lives through the winter2 the moths emerge in ,may1 and fly about in the evening4 ,two generations2 the first generation of caterpillars in the first half of ,july1 the second in late summer4 ,the second generation is particularly apt to be destructive to cabbage4 ,pup found on the leaves of the plants attacked1 and surrounded by a thick web4 ,,sixth ,,order3 ,hemiptera 7,,half-,,winged ,,insects74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,left pair of wings of a ,bug4 ,the mouth-parts are modified into a sucking and piercing beak4 ,head small4 ,legs usually slender1 with two- or three-jointed feet4 ,wings are absent in several species 7e4g4 bed bugs72 in one section 7e4g4 fruit bugs7 the fore wings are half of leathery1 half of membranous texture 7,fig4 #ajg72 in others1 all four wings are membranous 7winged plant lice71 or the fore wings are somewhat harder than the hind wings 7frog-hoppers74 ,incomplete metamorphosis 7p4 #hi74 ,none of agricultural importance except-- ,family3 ,aphid 7,plant ,lice74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,the ,bean ,aphis 7,aphis papaveris72 a larva of the same below4 ,long1 five- to seven-jointed antenn4 ,long thin legs1 no power of springing4 ,sucking beak long and thin4 ,in the same species there are both winged and wingless aphides1 mostly the latter4 ,in autumn1 male and female specimens are found4 ,after pairing1 the latter lay their eggs1 which are destined to live through the winter4 ,the aphides hatched from these the following spring are all females1 but are distinguished from those of the previous autumn by producing living young1 which contain at the time of their birth the germs of a new generation4 ,the number of young produced by a single female1 and the number of generations appearing within the year1 vary according to the species4 ,there are species in which each female bears from eighty to one hundred young1 and nine to sixteen generations succeed one another in the year4 ,in autumn males and egg-laying females once more appear4 ,as a rule the eggs live through the winter1 but the insects themselves may also do this4 ,i must add that there are constant differences within the boundaries of the same species according to the habitat1 and especially in the species which regularly wander1 either from one plant to another1 or from the leaves to the roots4 ,but since the species injurious to agriculture do not migrate in this way1 nothing further need be said on the point4 ,as aphides suck plant juices during the whole of their lives1 and have enormous reproductive powers1 they are very destructive4 ,they suck from stems and leaves the juices which would otherwise be used by the plants themselves for growth or for the production of flowers and fruit1 and bear young1 which bore their beaks into the same part in the immediate neighbourhood of their mother1 and quickly begin to multiply in their turn4 ,in this way1 colonies consisting of a hundred or more individuals are regularly formed 7e4g4 on peas1 beans1 roses74 ,a plant part attacked in this way shrivels for want of nourishment1 and the aphides upon it would die if they did not wander elsewhere4 ,the third generation usually contains1 not only wingless individuals1 but also others which1 after repeated moults1 fly away and start a new colony in another plant4 ,since aphides have many enemies 7starlings1 sparrows1 grasshopper warblers1 etc41 lady-birds and their larv1 drone fly larv1 lace fly larv71 and are often killed in large numbers by wind and rain1 it only occasionally happens1 particularly in dry summers1 that they entirely or largely destroy the plants they infest4 ,they injure plants1 not only by drawing away their nourishment1 but also by the separation of a sugary sticky fluid from the anus4 ,if the minute drops of this fluid fall from the upper parts of an infested plant to the lower 7garden and field beans71 or from the leaves of an infested tree to the plants growing at its foot1 or1 as sometimes happens1 are carried by the wind to more distant plants1 great damage may be caused4 ,the fluid evaporates and leaves behind a shining sticky substance1 which closes up the stomata of the leaves1 and partially checks exchange of gases 7assimilation and respiration74 ,particles of dust1 sand1 and smoke carried by the wind1 and also the cast skins of the aphides1 stick to the surface of the leaves and render exchange of gases still more difficult4 ,the leaves develop brown dirty patches1 and die off4 ,besides this1 the spores of disease-producing fungi1 carried by the wind1 stick very easily to the places covered by the sweet fluid1 and readily germinate in it4 ,aphides may thus be the indirect cause of several diseases 7e4g4 smut74 ,these insects are destructive1 therefore1 to other plants than those infested by them4 ,remedies3 ,spraying with any one of the fluids destructive to them--soapy water2 a decoction of quassia chips2 tobacco water1 not too concentrated2 ,nessler's fluid 7#a ozs4 soft soap1 #b ozs4 tobacco mixture1 #b ozs4 fusel alcohol1 half a pint ordinary alcohol1 diluted with rain water up to a quart3 when used1 mix with one-fifth the quantity of rain water72 ,koch's fluid 7#b lbs4 soft soap dissolved in half a gallon of hot water2 lb4 of quassia chips extracted for twelve hours in #e quarts of rain water1 and the fluid thus obtained boiled and filtered4 ,it is then added to the soap water1 and the whole brought up to #aj gallons by addition of rain water74 ,spraying with one of the above-named fluids must be renewed in a short time1 so as to reach all the aphides wherever possible2 if even a few remain untouched1 there will soon be a large number again4 ,a warm evening is best for the spraying4 ,infested plants can also be strewn with finely powdered substances1 or these may be scattered over them by means of a small bellows4 ,since such substances should remain on as long as possible1 they should be used after rain or early in the morning1 when the dew is still on the leaves4 ,among powdered matters suitable for the purpose1 the following may be named3 gypsum1 lime1 tobacco1 wood-ash1 insect powder 7prepared from the flower-heads of ,persian species of chrysanthemum and from tansy heads74 ,it must also be pointed out1 that these remedies must be employed as soon as the insects begin to show themselves in considerable numbers2 it is not desirable to delay till the infestation has made considerable headway1 as it is then much more difficult to get a satisfactory result4 ,in some cases1 it is desirable to cut off and burn or otherwise destroy much infested parts1 or those parts on which the insects first begin to multiply 7e4g4 early cutting off of the tips of the stems in field and garden beans74 ,the species of aphis which most commonly occur upon cultivated plants are3--,the ,bean ,aphis 7,aphis papaveris71 inch1 black2 on the tips of the stems of field and marsh beans1 also on poppy1 turnips1 lettuce1 and on several wild composites and umbellifers4 ,the ,pea ,aphis 7,aphis ulmari71 to of an inch long2 green2 ,july to ,september on peas1 chickling peas1 and several wild leguminous plants2 very destructive4 ,the ,corn ,aphis 7,aphis cerealis71 inch1 green or reddish brown1 also reddish brown with green abdomen2 ,june to ,august on rye1 barley1 oats and several grasses2 sucks the axis of the ears1 and the flower-stalks2 as the 7black7 eggs remain on the stubble during the winter1 it is advisable to plough this deeply in immediately after harvest4 ,the ,oat ,aphis 7,aphis aven71 inch1 dark green1 speckled with white2 on oats and barley1 scarcely ever on the ears1 but on the leaf-sheaths and the upper sides of the rolled-up leaves4 ,the ,hop ,aphis 7,aphis humuli71 inch1 green2 on the under side of the hop leaves1 and1 when very abundant1 on the scales of the fruit4 ,the ,cabbage ,aphis 7,aphis brassic71 inch1 dark green1 speckled with grey2 from ,may to ,september on all kinds of cabbage1 and also on other crucifers4 ,,seventh ,,order3 ,physopoda 7,,bladder-,,footed ,,insects74 ,very minute insects1 possessing a characteristic jaw apparatus1 with which they pierce the outer skin of leaves or the parts of flowers1 and suck their juices4 ,the four small wings have long fringes at their edges2 the fore wings are tolerably hard4 ,the ends of the feet do not possess claws1 but small bladders or suckers4 ,the metamorphosis is incomplete4 ,in some years1 one or other of the species may increase to a very large extent1 and these minute insects then fly about in swarms1 especially on very hot days2 and they also wander about in large flocks4 ,if they settle on the face or hands of human beings1 they cause a disagreeable and persistent itching1 as they continually walk about4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--;,corn ,thrips 7,thrips cerealium74 ,the ,corn ,thrips 7,thrips cerealium71 inch4 ,dark brown to black4 ,male wingless4 ,female with small wings bending outwards at their tips 7,fig4 #aji72 fore wings horny1 hind wings membranous4 ,larva orange yellow2 head1 prothorax1 and tip of the abdomen1 black4 ,after the last moult it becomes yellowish white1 and acquires scale-like wings4 ,hybernates in the adult condition2 lays its eggs on various grasses1 also on different grain-plants4 ,the larv1 and1 later on1 the perfect insects are found in large numbers sucking the ovaries of flowering corn 7wheat1 rye1 barley72 as a result of which the ears do not fully develop1 but wither away4 ,remedy3 ,deep ploughing of the stubble1 by which the hybernating individuals are destroyed4 ,the ,elder ,thrips 7,thrips sambuci7 lives in elder1 and sometimes also multiplies in very young field beans1 the leaves of which blacken and shrivel up in consequence4 ,the ,flax ,thrips 7,thrips lini7 often injures flax4 ,,eighth ,,order3 ,diptera 7,,flies74 ,mouth-parts elongated1 adapted for sucking or piercing4 ,fore wings developed1 rarely absent4 ,hind wings absent1 as such1--altered into club-like bodies 7balancers or halteres7 often covered with scales4 ,metamorphosis complete4 ,larv always legless2 most have biting mouth-parts and no distinct head 7maggots72 the head-bearing dipterous larv possess similar mouth-parts4 ,the last become obtectate pup 7p4 #ic71 while the headless larv become pup within the larval skin4 ,family3 ,culicin 7,gnats74 ,slenderly built1 with long1 thin legs4 ,an elongated piercing proboscis in the female4 ,the male with feebly developed mouth-parts1 and feather-like antenn4 ,both sexes suck up water and plant juices1 and the female blood as well2 hence only the latter bites1 especially at night4 ,they hybernate in the adult condition in cellars1 barns1 etc4 ,the female lays #bej to #cjj eggs on any floating object in stagnant water 7pools1 ditches1 water-vessels74 ,the larv 7with large head1 well-developed prothorax1 and a breathing-tube on the abdomen7 live in water1 as do the pup4 ,several generations annually2 especially in damp summers and districts where the draining of the soil leaves much to be desired4 ,although sand flies torment our domestic animals more than gnats1 yet these also may be very troublesome to them4 ,they principally attack the less hairy parts of the body 7inner side of the ears1 nose1 mouth1 corners of the eye1 arms1 sexual parts74 ,remedies3 ,thorough draining of the soil4 ,washing the domestic animals to be protected with a vinegar extract of walnut leaves2 rubbing with walnut leaves4 ,wherever possible1 any sores should be covered up1 as they attract gnats1 sand flies1 and flies2 or the skin near them may be painted with turpentine or very dilute carbolic acid4 ,this is the less to be neglected1 as several kinds of flies eagerly lay their eggs in the sores of domestic animals4 ,family3 ,gallicol 7,gall ,gnats74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,the ,wheat ,midge 7,cecidomyia tritici71 female4 ,small gnats with large broad wings1 much narrowed at the root1 rounded at the tip1 and generally rough with hairs4 ,feelers made up of a large number of spherical or cylindrical joints1 covered with spreading hairs4 ,proboscis short1 legs long4 ,the female has an ovipositor1 with which she inserts eggs in any part of a plant4 ,at this particular spot a luxuriant growth of vegetable tissue takes place later on1 of varying extent1 and even forming a regular gall4 ,the species of gall gnat are usually brightly coloured1 often red or yellow2 these colours are lost1 however1 in dried specimens4 ,the larv are spindle-shaped1 yellowish white1 yellow1 or red2 they become pup either in the soil or within the part of the plant which they inhabit4 ,several species are destructive to fruit-tree culture or forestry2 ,i mention here only the most destructive kinds which attack cultivated plants4 ,the ,hessian ,fly 7,cecidomyia destructor74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--,plant of ,barley1 attacked by ,hessian ,fly4 ,the pup at a4 ,female about one-eighth of an inch long1 male somewhat smaller4 ,the former velvety black1 with black hairs1 red belly1 and red markings2 wings greyish2 antenn one-third the length of the body4 ,male black1 with reddish-yellow hairs1 dirty red belly1 and red markings4 ,the name 8,hessian flies0 was given in ,north ,america1 during last century1 because it was believed they were introduced from ,germany1 in #aggh1 by ,hessian soldiers1 in their straw4 ,it is still very destructive in ,north ,america1 also in ,germany1 ,russia1 ,england1 and ,scotland4 ,habits3 ,during ,april or ,may1 on warm still evenings1 the female lays her eighty or ninety eggs1 singly or in pairs1 on the lowest leaves of the still very short haulms of rye1 wheat1 and barley4 ,eight days1 on an average1 after this the maggots1 which are at first oblong and spotted with reddish yellow1 are hatched1 and glide down into the leaf-sheath1 where they begin to suck the haulm4 ,they gradually alter their shape1 becoming ovoid1 and transparent with the exception of the large yellowish white1 quite opaque fat body4 ,they soon become pup 7,fig4 #aaa71 which look like grains of linseed1 and are found in summer on the haulms of the ripe grain4 ,the presence of the constantly sucking larv causes great and injurious distortions of the plant1 especially obvious during the flowering time1 and for a short time afterwards4 ,the haulm withers1 and shrivels at the point where the larv are present1 i4e4 above the lowest node1 or the lowest but one4 ,at the time when the haulm begins to turn yellow--that is1 when the grain begins to ripen1--the larv become pup2 the haulm now easily breaks off at the infected spot2 a strong wind or heavy rain throws it to the ground4 ,a badly infested field looks1 on this account1 as if a herd of cattle had got loose and trodden it all down1 or as if the grain had been devastated by hail4 ,only a few haulms bear ears containing normally developed grains4 ,the flies emerge from the pup in ,august and ,september1 after which the females quickly seek the winter corn1 and lay their eggs singly or in pairs on the leaves of the yet young plants4 ,the larv creep between the leaf-sheath and the still quite undeveloped haulm1 and1 in the case of small haulms1 a number of larv may collect together in the immediate neighbourhood of the root1 causing a spherical swelling4 ,in many cases the plant dies if its lower parts are inhabited by many larv4 ,before winter1 the larv attain their full size1 leave the plants1 and creep into the soil1 where1 in the following spring1 they become pup1 from which flies emerge fourteen days later4 ,there are1 therefore1 two generations annually4 ,the spreading of ,hessian flies into regions where they were formerly unknown may be caused by 7a7 straw containing the linseed-like pup 7straw for paper manufacture1 packing1 etc472 7b7 grain1 among which are often found pup that have fallen out of the haulms among the separated grain4 ,remedies3 #a4 ,sowing the winter grain as late as possible1 so that the females of the summer generation when they come out of the pup will find no winter-grain-plants in which to lay their eggs4 #b4 ,ploughing up the stubble immediately after harvest1 or else burning it1 so that the pup found above the lower nodes are either deeply buried or else burnt4 ,the ,scarlet ,wheat ,midge 7,cecidomyia equestris74 ,female about inch1 male inch2 cherry red1 with yellow hairs2 back of the thorax dark brown4 ,antenn as long as the body in the male1 half as long in the female4 ,on the wing from ,may till ,june2 lays its eggs on the leaves of grain-plants1 at the base of the uppermost leaf by preference4 ,the blood-red maggots1 when they are hatched1 let themselves slide down1 and get between the leaf-sheath and haulm4 ,here they work themselves into the haulm1 making a longitudinal groove1 the walls of which swell more or less1 and the end of which is indicated by an obvious transverse thickening4 ,the leaf-sheath hiding the attacked part of the stem is usually more or less swollen4 ,these gall-like outgrowths take up a great deal of nutritious matter1 not only from the affected haulm but also from the plant at large1 so that the regions not directly attacked are retarded in their growth4 ,the larv are full-grown at harvest time1 leave their hiding-places1 and let themselves fall to the ground1 where the following spring they become pup1 from which midges quickly emerge4 ,remedy3 ,after a year in which the insect has caused great damage1 the fields must be deeply ploughed in order to kill the larv1 which would otherwise live through the winter4 ,the ,wheat ,midge 7,cecidomyia tritici74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--,the ,wheat ,midge 7,cecidomyia tritici73 ,,li1 larva in the contracted1 ,,lii1 the same in the extended condition4 ,b1 a wheat flower3 a#a outer1 a#b inner glume1 b1 stamens2 c1 brush-like stigmas2 d1 ovary2 l1 larv of the wheat midge4 ,,li and ,,lii highly1 ,b less highly1 magnified4 ,male inch1 female 7,fig4 #aaj7 inch1 and possessing an ovipositor which1 when extended1 is twice that length4 ,citron yellow1 slightly hairy2 antenn blackish1 eyes black1 legs dirty yellow4 ,in spring or early summer1 the midges creep out of the soil in fields where wheat has been planted the previous year4 ,after pairing1 the females wander to fields where wheat or1 more rarely1 rye is growing4 ,the attacks of the midges commence when the ears begin to emerge from the leaf-sheaths1 and are continued throughout the flowering time of the wheat4 ,at night the female pierces the glumes with her ovipositor1 and lays three to ten perfectly transparent eggs in each flower4 ,each midge lays eggs in several flowers1 but two or more midges may use the same flower for this purpose1 so that as many as thirty maggots may be found in one bloom 7,fig4 #aab74 ,the maggots1 which are hatched out in a week1 creep down to the ovary and suck its juices4 ,if many maggots live in one flower it is sure to die1 but if there are only a few it may produce a grain1 though this may be small4 ,ears infested by the maggots develop yellow spots later on2 many ears remain quite empty1 and consequently thin and upright4 ,full-grown maggot3 inch2 straw yellow to chrome yellow2 quite transparent when very young4 ,is fully developed in three weeks1 and then lets itself fall to the ground 7,july or ,august74 ,becomes a pupa the following spring2 fourteen days later the midge escapes4 ,family3 ,rostrat 7,crane ,flies1 ,daddy ,longlegs74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--,the ,daddy ,longlegs1 or ,common ,crane ,fly 7,tipula oleracea74 ,left1 the male and the maggot2 right1 the female and the pupa4 ,these very long-legged gnats live on the juices of plants1 and do not sting4 ,the larv are legless1 without a hard well-marked head2 those of most species live in mouldering plant parts 7e4g4 rotten wood71 or the decaying manures of our fields and meadows4 ,a few species1 however1 are very destructive1 since they injure roots and other parts of cultivated plants4 ,the adult and larval stages of all the injurious kinds are not yet distinguished4 ,we know that the larv of the yellow and spotted ,tipula maculosa are chiefly destructive in sandy soil2 while more binding clay soil and rich garden earth are infested by the larv of ,tipula oleracea 7,fig4 #aac71 and damp meadows by those of ,tipula paludosa4 ,the two last-named species are very much like one another2 grey or greyish brown with bright brown wings1 having dark front margin4 ,much is still unknown about the habits of 8crane flies02 my researches relate to the ,yellow-spotted ,crane ,fly 7,tipula maculosa74 ,the adults fly about in swarms during summer1 usually from the beginning of ,june1 in the fields where the larv lived in spring4 ,they lay their eggs either in the same fields or 7usually7 in others1 and are blown about for long distances by the wind4 ,where the flies settle they lay each time two or three black ovoid eggs1 bent like a sickle1 and repeat this till all the eggs 7#bjj to #bej7 are laid4 ,those fields which have previously been grass land are the most infested by the crane flies4 ,the larv are headless1 grey to lead coloured1 with small prickles at the hinder end of the body1 and they first appear1 in large numbers1 under the pieces of turf which are left behind in such fields1 and which appear to be the centres from which the destruction of the standing corn begins4 ,the larv are hatched out in summer1 during the later part of which1 and during autumn1 they devour plant roots2 after hybernating1 they again attack the underground parts of plants the following spring4 ,they devour most readily the roots of grass and corn1 but also those of clover1 rape1 and several other plants1 including some found in flower and kitchen gardens4 ,they are mainly injurious either in autumn or spring1 according to the nature of the plants attacked4 ,young grain-plants are killed by them1 older ones usually not4 ,on fields where winter corn grows they therefore do most damage in autumn1 while this is the case in spring on land where summer corn is cultivated4 ,they are sometimes harmless1 since they can also feed on roots left behind in the ground4 ,the larva do not limit their ravages to underground parts2 in the evening1 and also in the daytime during dark damp weather1 they devour parts of the first leaves of very young corn plants1 though the damage thus effected is often inconsiderable4 ,in ,may the larva is ready to pass into the pupa stage2 it comes near the surface and becomes a brown pupa1 bearing small spines on the abdominal rings4 ,after a rest of fourteen to seventeen days1 the pupa works its way upward till the front part of its body sticks out of the soil4 ,the fly then escapes4 ,enemies3 ,mole1 shrews1 wagtails1 grasshopper warbler1 rook1 gulls4 ,remedies3 ,when the maggots are very destructive in gardens they may be collected1 preferably in wet weather1 since they then leave the soil during the day4 ,if they appear to an injurious extent on summer corn1 the fields should be rolled in ,april 7either with the ordinary or the spiked roller74 ,at the time 7,june7 when the crane flies swarm about the fields and meadows in flocks1 thousands of individuals can easily be caught with a net4 ,family3 ,muscformes 7,gnat ,flies74 ,gnats with relatively short legs1 and antenn which are in any case shorter than the body1 and are usually quite short and cylindrical1 possessing1 however1 six or more joints1 while the antenn of true flies usually have only three joints4 ,the gnat flies form1 as it were1 the transition between the slender gnats with their long legs and antenn1 and the more thick-set flies1 the legs and antenn of which are short4 ,here belong the genera of ,shade ,gnats 7,sciara1 e4g4 ,sciara ,thom1 the larv of which often wander about in companies1 as the so-called ,army ,worm71 the ,sand ,flies 7,simulia71 and the ,hair ,gnats 7,bibio1 e4g4 the ,garden ,hair ,gnat1 ,bibio hortulanus1 the larva of which gnaws the roots of plants1 especially in humous garden soil74 ,the ,sand ,flies1 or ,mosquitoes 7,simulia71 have thick-set bodies1 short legs1 and short nine or ten-jointed antenn2 they are from to of an inch long1 and have a short but sharp proboscis1 with which they suck up the flower juices which constitute their chief food4 ,but the female also sucks the blood of human beings and animals1 making herself exceedingly annoying in this way4 ,its larval state is passed through in stagnant water2 its appearance is therefore local1 and is especially favoured by damp summers4 ,the mature sand flies are found from early spring or through the whole summer2 several generations succeed one another in the same year4 ,sand flies often appear in swarms1 containing thousands of individuals4 ,since the female eagerly creeps into the ears1 noses1 and corners of the eyes in horses and oxen1 she is extremely annoying and even dangerous4 ,her bite produces a smarting sensation1 and may cause actual boils to form in the skin4 ,when a large swarm of sand flies settles on a herd of cattle or on some horses1 these animals become maddened and furious2 they often rush wildly round for so long that they fall down dead4 ,simulia reptans is a common ,british form4 ,remedies3 ,compare what is said on p4 #afe1 about gnats4 ,sand flies can usually be kept from horses' ears by means of ear-caps4 ,family3 ,tabanid 7,gad ,flies74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--,the ,rain ,breeze ,fly 7,hmatopota pluvialis74 ,large or medium-sized flies with thick-set body1 large broad head1 flat abdomen1 and strong legs4 ,the proboscis is less developed in the male1 which lives merely on plant juices1 than in the blood-sucking female4 ,the cylindrical whitish larv live in earth1 and are harmless4 ,but the female insects bite human beings1 and the larger kind attack horses and cattle in such a manner that blood-drops may be seen on the ground under the animals attacked1 if these remain for a time in the same spot4 ,there belong to this family3 #a4 ,the ,breeze ,flies 7,tabanus71 large insects up to inch long1 which are seen flying about with a buzzing sound over meadows and fields in the sunshine 7,ox ,fly ,t4 bovinus2 ,horse ,fly ,t4 autumnalis74 #b4 ,the ,lesser ,breeze ,flies 7,hmatopota71 smaller and more slender1 with grey wings1 bite most before a storm and in hot sultry days4 #c4 ,the ,blinding ,breeze ,flies 7,chrysops71 as large as the ,lesser ,breeze ,flies1 but broader1 with shining golden-green eyes and wings marked with black4 ,remedies3 ,compare p4 #afe1 and above2 draining the soil1 however1 is no good here4 ,family3 ,muscid 7,true ,flies74 ,these are flies with three-jointed antenn1 constructed on the type seen in the common house fly4 ,here are included the ,caterpillar ,flies 7,tachina71 the ,flesh ,flies 7,sarcophaga71 ,common ,flies 7,musca71 ,flower ,flies 7,anthomyia71 ,green-eyed ,flies 7,chlorops71 etc4 ,the ,caterpillar ,flies 7,tachina7 are black1 grey1 or reddish yellow flies1 reminding one by their appearance of the common house fly or the blue-bottle4 ,they play the same part in the economy of nature as the sand wasps 7p4 #abi71 but always lay their eggs externally on the skin of the host2 the maggots consequently never prey on those insect larv which live in the tissues of plants or in the soil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--;,caterpillar ,fly 7,tachina fera74 ,the ,flesh ,flies 7,sarcophaga7 have a longish abdomen1 with large bristles on the hinder margins of the segments4 ,thorax with three longitudinal streaks4 ,the flies suck up sweat1 but do not bite4 ,the eggs develop within the abdomen of the mother2 the flies lay the young larv in dead flesh2 also1 if not kept clean1 in wounds of human beings and animals1--sometimes1 too1 in the genital opening of horses1 cattle1 and swine1 in which case the maggots live as true parasites in the vagina and uterus1 causing a secretion of mucus1 upon which they live4 ,two to three generations yearly2 fifty to eighty maggots each time4 ,remedies3 ,on keeping the flies from cattle1 cf4 p4 #afe2 to keep them from meat1 flynets1 a gauze cover4 ,blow ,fly 7,s4 carnaria71 with black speckled abdomen4 ,the ,common ,flies 7,musca7 are coloured dark or shining green4 ,the headless white maggots live in dung 7,house ,fly ,musca domestica71 in fresh or decaying meat 7,blue-bottle ,m4 vomitoria71 exceptionally 7,m4 vomitoria7 in wounds that are not kept clean1 or in the vagina of several domestic animals4 ,remedy3 ,compare above 78,flesh ,fly074 ,the ,flower ,flies 7,anthomyia74 ,these are found on flowers1 and resemble many common flies in appearance and colour4 ,the headless white maggots live in dung1 also in decaying or sound parts of plants2 a few species may sometimes develop in the one kind of material1 sometimes in the other4 ,anthomyia meteorica swarms round the heads of domestic animals1 and may even cause inflammation of the eyes and ears4 ,the ,wheat ,bulb ,fly 7,anthomyia coarctata1 about a quarter of an inch long1 yellowish grey1 with black hairs7 lives as a larva during winter and spring in the hearts of rye and wheat plants1 the leaves of which become yellow in consequence4 ,during ,april and the beginning of ,may the larv quit these plants and become pup in the ground4 ,the second generation can1 in like manner1 live in various kinds of summer grain4 ,the ,lupine ,fly 7,a4 funesta7--nearly one-fifth of an inch long1 brownish grey 7male7 or whitish grey 7female71 with black legs--digs1 when a larva1 tunnels in the roots1 stems1 and seed-leaves of young lupine plants1 causing the root and stem to turn black1 and the seed-leaves to wither4 ,preventive ,measure3 ,early sowing of the lupines4 ,the ,mangold and ,beet ,fly 7,a4 bet71 a quarter of an inch long1 yellowish grey1 lays its eggs1 five to eight in number1 in the young leaves of mangold and beet4 ,the maggots devour the green substance of the leaf between the two layers of epidermis1 so that the leaves die4 ,in ,june the maggots creep out of the leaves1 and become pup in the soil4 ,the flies quickly escape1 and two or three generations follow one another in the year4 ,as1 however1 the leaves are now larger1 the later generations only effect a small amount of damage4 ,preventive ,measure3 ,close sowing of the turnips1 so that even if many are killed there will still be enough young plants4 ,the ,cabbage ,root-eating ,fly 7,a4 radicum7 and the ,radish ,fly 7,a4 floralis7 live as fleshy1 wrinkled1 dirty white maggots with black dots1 in the underground parts of turnip1 cabbage1 horseradish1 radishes1 etc4 ,they lead a similar life to the ,cabbage ,fly 7,a4 brassic71 the cylindrical1 smooth1 yellowish white maggot of which lives in the underground parts of cabbage1 turnip1 and rape4 ,the roots attacked swell here and there 7,fig4 #aaf71 and later on decay2 the leaves of the infested plants first become of a dull leaden colour and then wither4 ,entire fields of cabbage1 rape1 or turnips1 are often destroyed by cabbage fly maggots4 ,the insect passes the winter in the pupa state2 the flies appear early in the spring1 and usually twice more later on4 ,it is therefore most desirable to pull up and burn the infested plants as soon as possible4 ,a proper rotation of crops should also be practised4 ,the ,onion ,fly 7,a4 ceparum7 maggot feeds within the bulbs of stored onions4 ,the male fly is grey1 the female yellow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,a turnip infested by the ,cabbage ,fly3 ,a1 swellings2 ,g1 tunnels4 ,the ,cheese ,fly 7,piophila casei71 one-fifth of an inch long1 slender1 with a metallic sheen1 almost hairless1 black1 with dirty yellow legs and wings of glassy clearness4 ,these small flies abound in front of the windows of places where cheese is stored2 in summer and autumn the shining white maggots1 which are cylindrical in form with tapering ends1 and one-third of an inch long1 live in large numbers in old cheese1 gnawing it through and through1 and making it dirty4 ,now and then they spring forwards by bending their bodies into a circle and suddenly straightening them again4 ,they become pup on the walls or in straw1 near the cheeses from which they have crept out4 ,remedies3 ,keeping the cheeses clean2 mechanical exclusion 7gauze screens outside the windows1 enclosure in chests74 ,the ,green-eyed ,flies 7,chlorops7 include a number of small flies1 under one-sixth of an inch long1 with spherical head1 rounded greenish eyes1 strongly arched thorax1 and short egg-shaped abdomen1 pointed in the male and blunt in the female4 ,the headless larv live in the haulms of grasses and species of grain2 the life history of a few forms only is adequately known4 ,a few are harmful1 especially as there are two or three generations annually4 ,the late summer generation often appears in large numbers1 indeed in actual swarms4 ,since no species lives exclusively on corn1 it is impossible to keep them down for a long period of time4 ,i describe only two species3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--,the ,ribbon-footed ,corn ,fly 7,chlorops tniopus74 ,the ,ribbon-footed ,corn ,fly or ,yellow ,haulm ,fly 7,chlorops tniopus71 nearly one-sixth of an inch long1 shining yellow2 the antenn are black1 and there are three longitudinal stripes on the dorsal side of the thorax and four transverse bands on the abdomen of the same colour2 the latter region is scarcely longer than the thorax4 ,the insect 7,fig4 #aag7 is on the wing in cornfields about the middle of ,may4 ,it lays its eggs separately on the upper leaves of various species of wheat1 rye1 and barley1 choosing the upper side of the blade1 not far from the sheath4 ,only those plants are selected for the purpose in which the ears are still hidden deep down between the leaf-sheaths4 ,wheat plants are picked out whenever possible4 ,the maggot when hatched works its way between leaf-sheath and haulm1 digging into the latter4 ,it is yellowish white1 clear and translucent1 and about a quarter of an inch long4 ,while still young it penetrates the haulm1 and then attacks the developing ear or the upper part of the haulm which immediately adjoins this1 and travels gradually up to the first node of the haulm or nearly so1 always continuing to slowly suck4 ,thus a furrow1 from #b to #c inches long 7,fig4 #aah1 ,c and ,d71 is formed along the surface of the upper part of the haulm1 and often also along the lower part of the ear4 ,the part of the haulm attacked swells transversely1 and the part below often remains short1 so that the ear cannot emerge from the leaf-sheath2 but1 in any case1 only small worthless grains are developed4 ,the furrow is always much deeper below than above1 and its margins thicken in consequence of the swelling of the tissues of the haulm4 ,at the end of ,june or in ,july1 the larva becomes a pupa at the lower end of the furrow4 ,the yellowish-brown pupa 7,fig4 #aah1 ,b71 one-fifth of an inch long1 remains as such in the furrow for three weeks2 the fly emerges in ,august4 ,very considerable damage may be done by the first generation1 of which the habits have just been described4 ,during #ahfi in ,silesia1 from two-thirds to five-sixths of the ears in many fields remained hidden in the leaf-sheaths1 and consequently gave no increase4 ,the first generation of the ribbon-footed corn fly can also develop in the way described in the haulms of several grasses1 e4g4 in species of ,poa and ,holcus4 ,the flies1 emerging in late summer1 lay their eggs1 here1 too1 separately1 on the leaves of grass or corn4 ,wherever possible1 they seek out for the purpose the winter wheat plants then present in the fields1 but also content themselves with rye1 or even with wild or meadow grasses2 they have to be satisfied with grasses if1 at the time of egg-laying1 the winter corn is not yet up4 ,the maggot1 when hatched1 works its way to the inner side of the leaf-sheath1 and thence to the apex of the still very small haulm2 there it remains during the winter4 ,the damage becomes apparent the following spring4 ,the growth in length of the haulm in question is extremely small1 while growth in thickness increases to an abnormal extent4 ,almost all the leaves completely surround the haulm1 which swells to an enormous extent 7,fig4 #aai71 together with the enclosing leaf-sheaths1 which are much broader than usual4 ,the unattacked plants are naturally much larger than the sickly ones1 and deprive these of air and light1 so that they die down1 being overshadowed1 not only by the sound haulms1 but also by their own secondary shoots4 ,the resulting damage may be tolerably great1 especially at the edges of the field4 ,it may happen that both summer and winter generations of the ribbon-footed corn fly are harmful in the same district2 but it frequently happens that only one or the other is complained of in a particular spot4 ,it is only natural that the flies1 which swarm around in ,may1 and again in ,august1 ,september1 or ,october1 should not always find suitable corn plants upon which to deposit their eggs4 ,in such cases grasses are used4 ,remedies3 ,sowing the summer corn as early as possible1 that it may be developed to a stage which is unsuitable for the purpose of egg-laying1 before the flies appear4 ,the winter seed1 however1 must be sown as late as possible1 so that the second generation of flies may find no corn plants fit to lay their eggs upon4 ,bearded wheat1 especially the strongest varieties1 should be sown in preference to awnless wheat4 ,careful tillage and suitable manuring1 so that strong plants of rapid growth may be produced4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,the ,ribbon-footed ,corn ,fly 7,chlorops tniopus72 larva 7,a7 and pupa 7,b7 magnified4 ,to the left a wheat haulm and ear 7,c7 with the furrow 7q7 dug out by the larva2 the pupa 7p7 is seen at the bottom of the furrow4 ,to the right a wheat haulm with furrow 7,d7 and the larva 7r7 lying in it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--;,a wheat plant distorted by the winter generation of the ,ribbon-footed ,corn ,fly4 ,the ,frit ,fly 7,chlorops1 or ,oscinis frit7 7,fig4 #abj1 ,c7 is about one-tenth of an inch long1 shining black1 with a metallic sheen4 ,legs short1 feet yellow4 ,maggot 7,fig4 #abj1 ,a7 yellowish white1 about one-eighth of an inch long1 cylindrical1 and tapering in front4 ,usually three generations4 #a4 ,the maggots of the first generation are found during ,may1 in the lower part of the haulm of summer corn 7especially oats and barley72 the plants attacked either die off entirely1 or some haulms develop further1 remaining small1 however1 and yielding only a few light grains4 ,the base of the haulm thickens abnormally1 but the growth in length is always small2 the leaves1 too1 grow badly1 first becoming yellowish at the tip1 and then entirely yellow or reddish4 ,the symptoms of disease are exhibited to a less or greater extent1 according as few or many 7even up to ten7 maggots inhabit the base of a plant4 ,the shining brown pup 7,fig4 #abj1 ,b7 are found in the lower part of the haulm1 or between the leaf-sheath and the haulm 7,fig4 #abj1 ,d74 ,the adult insect is on the wing at the end of ,may and in ,june4 ,the first generation often appear on wild or meadow grasses1 and are chiefly seen on summer corn when this is sown late or develops slowly4 #b4 ,the maggots of the second generation are found in average cases during ,july1 on the as yet scarcely ripe grains of late summer corn1 principally those of oats and barley1 often occurring also in the haulms of grasses4 ,they keep between the awns1 and suck the juices of the soft developing grains1 which are rendered incapable of growth1 and in any case remain light4 ,the maggots of the second generation develop more quickly than those of the first or third2 they are mature in three weeks4 ,the pupa rest is very short1 and the flies appear in ,august1 ,september1 or ,october4 ,they lay their eggs on the leaves of winter corn or winter grasses1 and from these eggs are developed 7#c7 the maggots of the third generation1 which are to be found1 during ,september and ,october1 in the heart of winter corn and grasses1 injuring these plants in exactly the same way that the maggots of the first generation injure the summer corn4 ,the insect passes the winter as a pupa in winter corn plants or grasses4 ,it is but very rarely that all three generations infest the corn of any particular region2 as a rule1 only the first1 second1 or third generations do this1 or the first and third2 in such cases the other generations live on grasses4 ,remedies3 ,extermination of the insect is impossible1 since it can always go from corn to grass plants4 ,oats and barley are almost always attacked in spring1 if in the immediate neighbourhood there is winter rye inhabited by the maggots1 for the flies1 when they emerge the next spring1 seek out the summer corn4 ,this may1 however1 be made impossible1 or at least difficult1 if a field of peas1 clover1 lupines1 rape1 or some other crop not of gramineous nature1 is interposed between fields of winter corn and those of oats1 barley1 or similar late sown crops of summer corn4 ,sowing the summer corn 7especially oats and barley7 as early as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,the ,frit ,fly 7,oscinis frit1 ,l473 ,a1 larva2 ,b1 pupa2 ,c1 fly2 ,d1 a diseased corn plant1 as appearing in spring1--the larv and pup are seen of the natural size in the lower part of the plant4 ,family3 ,syrphid 7,hover or ,hawk ,flies74 ,chiefly includes brightly coloured flies1 marked with yellow or red and black bands or patches 7,fig4 #fg71 and flying rapidly with a buzzing noise4 ,they can remain suspended at the same point in the air by moving their wings up and down with great rapidity4 ,a few of them resemble the humblebee in their thick covering of hair2 others1 with yellow and black abdomen1 look like wasps 7,syrphus74 ,the proboscis is adapted for sucking1 but not for piercing2 these flies suck their food from flowers4 ,they are fond of hovering in the air in sunny places4 ,the legless larv vary1 according to species1 in their habits1 and consequently in their structure4 ,some 7those of the ,drone ,flies1 ,eristalis7 live in stagnant water2 others 7e4g4 those of ,eumerus lunulatus7 live in onions1 which they hollow out2 while some1 again1 develop in rotten wood1 etc4 ,the maggots of the ,aphis-eating ,flies 7,syrphus71 however1 feed on insects1 chiefly aphides1 which they suck out completely4 ,they are elongated1 tapering in front1 thickened behind1 move like leeches1 and vary much in colour 7green1 yellow1 brown1 chequered71 according to the species4 ,as they grow quickly1 and consequently more than one generation is found each year1 and as they are very voracious1 we must look upon them as powerful allies for the extermination of aphides4 ,family3 ,stomoxyd 7,stable ,flies74 ,in many points the stable flies resemble ordinary flies1 but their mouths are adapted for piercing4 ,their painful bites make them known to every one as pests to human beings and cattle4 ,here belongs the common ,stable ,fly 7,stomoxys calcitrans71 a form often confounded with the house fly1 but distinguished from it by a sharp proboscis projecting at right angles1 besides which the abdomen is more of a yellowish grey4 ,the maggots usually live in dung4 ,two generations yearly3 the first flies about in ,march2 the second1 and much more numerous one1 in ,august and ,september4 ,remedies3 ,cp4 p4 #afe4 ,family3 strid 7,bot ,flies74 ,medium-sized or large flies 7,fig4 #aba71 with thick hemispherical heads1 and mouth-parts not strongly developed4 ,the antenn can be drawn back into deep pits4 ,the hot flies make a buzzing sound during flight4 ,the headless1 twelve-ringed maggots live in the bodies of various mammals4 ,their skin is provided with numerous wart-like projections1 or circlets of spines4 ,when very young the maggots are elongated and cylindrical1 and then possess a mouth-hook1 which disappears during the later moults4 ,as soon as the maggots are fully developed they leave the body of the animal they inhabit1 and let themselves fall to the ground1 where they become pup within the shrivelled larval skin4 ,the following genera are distinguished3 ,warble ,flies 7,hypoderma71 and ,bot ,flies 7strus and ,gastrus1 or ,gastrophilus74 ,to the first-named genus belongs the ,ox ,warble-fly1 or ,ox ,bot ,fly 7,hypoderma bovis71 two-fifths of an inch long1 black4 ,hair3 whitish yellow on the head2 reddish yellow on the fore part of the thorax1 black on the hinder part2 grey on the fore part of the abdomen1 black in the middle1 and reddish yellow behind4 ,legs black4 ,wings brownish1 not quite transparent4 ,on the wing during summer 7,june to ,september74 ,as soon as the cattle hear the flies buzzing around 7especially on hot days7 they become very restless1 run about as if mad1 and even plunge down steep places4 ,young cattle are selected for egg-laying2 the elongated white eggs are fixed separately to hairs4 ,the maggot1 elongated when first hatched1 perforates the skin1 and gets into the subcutaneous connective tissue1 where it does not1 as a rule1 keep to any one place1 but wanders here and there1 sometimes penetrating the flesh1 or even entering the spinal canal4 ,it always1 however1 wanders back again later on into the subcutaneous connective tissue1 where it gives rise1 during the winter or the following spring1 to one of the well-known tumours1 or 8warbles40 ,after fixing on a definite spot1 it moults1 becoming broader1 and of a yellowish white colour4 ,the maggot first causes an increased flow of blood to the part1 and then inflammation4 ,an excavation filled with matter is thus developed1 and there is gradually formed a connective tissue sac communicating with the exterior by a minute tube4 ,in spring1 or early summer1 the warble1 which is visible externally1 has reached the size of a pigeon's egg2 the maggot meanwhile becomes first greyish yellow1 then brown patches appear1 and lastly it assumes a dark brown colour1 is an inch long or rather more1 and somewhat swollen4 ,it is now ready to pass into the resting stage1 crawls out1 and lets itself fall to the ground1 where1 within the larval skin1 it becomes a black pupa four-fifths of an inch long1 from which1 about four weeks later1 the fly creeps out4 ,damage done3 ,if the warbles occur only in small numbers on an animal1 its health is not much affected1 though this must undoubtedly be the case if there are many1 say fifty1 or even up to a hundred1 in the same animal4 ,in such cases the yield of milk will be considerably diminished4 ,holes1 too1 are present in the skin1 which1 though they may close again1 if the animal remains alive1 always leave a thin place4 ,the outer surface of meat from animals infested with warbles is dirty yellow1 flaccid1 or even soft and jelly-like 78licked beef072 it must be scraped off4 ,enemies3 ,starlings settle1 in spring1 on the backs of infested cattle1 and seize the parasites with their beaks4 ,starlings1 rooks1 and wagtails destroy the maggots ready to become pup1 as they lie on the ground4 ,remedies3 ,washing the back1 shoulders1 and loins with vinegar extract of walnut leaves during the summer1 to keep away the bot flies4 ,in spring3 squeezing out the maggots from the warbles1 having previously opened them1 when necessary1 with a penknife4 ,if the warble is 8ripe10 i4e4 if it has opened so far that the black hinder end of the maggot can be seen1 the opening may be stopped with fat or cart-grease1 by which the larva will be killed where it lies4 ,the ,sheep ,bot ,fly 7strus ovis71 two-fifths to three-quarters of an inch long1 yellowish grey1 almost hairless2 head large1 round1 reddish2 thorax grey1 with small black warts2 abdomen yellowish white2 legs short1 bright2 wings of a glassy clearness4 ,the flies are found 7in ,september7 on the walls of sheepfolds1 and in woods near which sheep graze4 ,on sunny days the female flies round the sheep1 in order to deposit her brood upon them4 ,the sheep threatened press their nostrils to the ground1 though this is not of much use4 ,the maggots are hatched while still in the body of their mother1 and are deposited by her on the margins of the nostrils4 ,these little maggots creep about on the mucous membrane lining the internal cavities of the nose1 causing intolerable itching4 ,the sheep try to get rid of the intruders by shaking their heads and rubbing their noses on the ground4 ,the maggots1 however1 creep further into the nasal cavities1 and get into the hollows of the frontal bone and upper jaw1 perhaps even into the horns4 ,in these places they feed on the fluid which their presence causes the mucous membrane to give out in large quantities4 ,the maggots remain as such for nine months1 during which time they alter their shape in various ways4 ,those just born are white1 one-twenty-fifth of an inch long1 while those which have reached the length of two-fifths of an inch are yellowish white4 ,individuals ready to become pup are about an inch long1 yellowish brown1 with dark transverse lines2 they wander back to the nasal cavities and thence to the exterior1 often being expelled by sneezing4 ,in the soil they become pup1 first of a brown1 then of a black colour1 within the larval skin2 the flies emerge in six or seven weeks4 ,different maggots develop at different rates1 according to the nature of the cavities into which they penetrate4 ,the maggots cause the disease known as 8false gid10 which appears most obviously from ,march to ,may2 at this time the parasites are tolerably well developed4 ,they irritate the mucous membrane of the cavities of the head in which they live1 causing an unusually large flow of blood to these parts1 as a result of which the mucus secreted in the nose increases largely in quantity 7sneezing1 snuffling71 and the brain begins to work abnormally 7uneasy movements of the head1 high lifting of the feet2 in worse cases1 rolling of the eyes1 gnashing of the teeth1 and foaming at the mouth74 ,the sheep have also an intolerable itching of the nose1 which they rub in consequence on the ground1 against posts1 or their own legs2 besides this1 there may be inflammation of the eyelids and increased secretion of tears4 ,they are also apt to grow very thin4 ,the disease is more frequent1 and the symptoms severer1 in young than in old sheep4 ,false gid may cause death2 the animal is cured1 however1 after the maggots have crept out4 ,preventive ,measures3 ,keeping the sheep away from the edges of woods1 avenues1 etc41 where the flies live by preference4 ,when sheep are killed1 the maggots coming from the head should be collected and destroyed4 ,smearing the margins of the nostrils with tar1 or rubbing them with walnut leaves1 before the sheep go to pasture in the morning4 ,for sheep1 which in late summer rub their noses up and down tree stems1 walls1 hedges1 or their own legs1 substances that cause sneezing may be employed1 e4g4 cheap snuff1 which is best introduced into the nose by means of a quill-feather4 ,later on1 when the maggots have passed from the nasal cavities into the frontal sinuses1 etc41 sneezing does no good4 ,operations seldom succeed in removing all the maggots4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--;,horse ,bot ,fly 7,gastrus equi73 a1 egg on a hair1 strongly magnified2 c1 younger 7magnified71 and b1 older larva2 d1 opened pupa case2 e1 fly4 ,the ,bot ,flies 7,gastrus1 or ,gastrophilus7 live in various parts of the stomach 7in left side of horse's stomach7 and intestine4 ,i give1 first of all1 a compressed tabular view of the external characters and mode of life of the four ,british species4 7,see next page47 ,diseases caused by ,bot ,flies4--,the maggots bore into the walls of the stomach and intestines until they reach the layer in which the blood-vessels1 lacteals1 and lymphatics ramify2 they then suck the juices found in these vessels1 and also serous fluids4 ,in small numbers they are often almost harmless1 but when a great many are present they hinder the secretion of the digestive juices4 ,they may also set up inflammation of the intestinal coats1 or may cause death by internal bleeding if they perforate the wall of an artery4 ,in foals they often bore right through the wall of the intestine1 and enter the abdominal cavity1 where they may set up inflammation of the peritoneum or of the mesentery4 ,there may be as many as a hundred or two hundred maggots in the stomach or intestine1 and they then cause1 at the very least1 digestive disturbances and colic4 ,if the maggots 7,g4 nasalis7 get into the windpipe 7or larynx7 they interfere with the breathing2 if into the gullet1 with swallowing4 ,in either case death may ensue 7winter1 early spring74 ,remedies3 ,killing the flies as they lay their eggs4 ,removing the eggs by brushing1 combing1 and washing2 the last is best done with warm water1 to which some caustic potash is added4 ,rubbing the lips and nostrils1 neck1 chest1 and fore legs with walnut leaves1 or a decoction of the same4 ,,species4 ,,fly4 ,,egg4 ,,maggot4 ,horse ,bot to inch1 very ,white3 on the ,at first flesh 7,gastrus equi74 hairy1 like a hairs of the red1 then humblebee2 mane1 neck1 yellowish-brown4 brownish yellow4 chest1 fore ,lives in the ,fore part of legs1 and hind stomach of the thorax with feet of horse4 horse1 often in yellowish-brown1 large numbers4 hind half with black hairs4 ,abdomen with brown hair in front1 brownish-yellow behind4 ,cattle ,bot ,male about inch1,black3 on the same,first yellowish 7,gastrus brown1 closely parts of the grey1 then pecorum47 covered with a horse's body as blood-red4 ,first mixture of in the preceding in the small yellowish and species2 intestine1 and1 black hairs4 exceptionally on for some time ,wings the hairs of during ,june or smoke-coloured4 horned stock4 ,july1 in the ,female rather rectum of the larger4 ,head1 horse4 ,when thorax1 and ready to become first segment of pup1 they creep the abdomen with out of the anus1 colour and hairs to the margin of as in the male2 which1 however1 rest of abdomen they may remain black1 and sticking for tapering some time4 posteriorly4 ,wings smoke-coloured4 ,red-tailed ,bot ,about inch4 ,fore,black3 on the lips,first red1 then 7,gastrus part of thorax and margins of bluish-green4 ,to hmorrhoidalis74 dark fawn the nostrils in begin with1 in colour1 with the horse4 the cavities of bright yellow the nose or fur-like hair2 mouth1 in the hinder part horse1 very soon black4 ,abdomen in the stomach shining black1 or small with yellowish intestine1 white hair in remaining there front1 black in several months2 the middle1 and then1 a few orange yellow at months longer1 the tip4 ,wings in the rectum4 of glassy ,exceptionally1 clearness1 with the maggots dark brown remain in the veins4 gullet for some time4 ,nose ,bot ,nearly inch 7not,white3 on the lips,yellowish white4 7,gastrus including the and margins of ,in the first nasalus74 long ovipositor the nostrils in part of the of the female74 the horse4 horse's small ,a fine but close intestine1 near covering of the aperture of hairs2 the stomach2 variegated1 not exceptionally in always evenly the nasal covered with cavities1 hair1 especially gullet1 and not on the black stomach4 abdomen 7partly white1 black1 orange yellow1 yellowish grey72 thorax a shining blackish brown1 covered with fine1 golden yellow hair4 ,wings clear as glass1 widely spread when at rest4 ,family3 ,pupipara 7,louse ,flies74 ,body flat and broad2 skin leathery and tough4 ,fore legs curved1 adapted for climbing among the hairs4 ,some 7e4g4 the ,forest ,fly7 have a pair of wings1 others 7the ,sheep ,louse ,fly7 are wingless4 ,they bring forth living maggots1 each time one only1 which is ready to become a pupa immediately4 ,they reproduce several times4 ,here belong3 #a4 ,the ,forest ,fly1 ,spider ,fly1 or ,flat ,fly 7,hippobosca equina71 about one-third of an inch long1 brown1 with broad abdomen1 and two broad stumpy wings4 ,occurs in summer and early autumn1 chiefly on horses1 especially near the anus1 on the belly1 and on the flanks4 ,it sucks blood1 and irritates by running about on the body4 ,seldom flies4 #b4 ,the ,sheep ,louse ,fly1 wrongly called 8sheep louse0 and 8sheep tick0 7,melophagus ovinus72 about one-fifth of an inch long1 wingless1 rusty yellow1 with brown abdomen1 very hairy4 ,climb slowly about among the wool of the sheep1 and suck blood4 ,their excrement may colour the wool green4 ,lambs especially are much hindered in their growth by this fly4 ,the fleece is also damaged1 for the itching set up by the insect forces the animal to rub itself against things so that the wool gets pulled out4 ,the flies are chiefly found on meadow sheep2 but relatively few in winter4 ,the parasites leave the body of their host for the purpose of reproduction1 and lay their maggots1 which at the time of birth are nearly one-sixth of an inch long1 under little bits of earth or heaps of dung4 ,when sheep are kept in folds no permanent result can consequently be expected from the use of any remedy if1 at the same time1 the fold and all its contents are not kept clean4 ,the walls must be cleansed1 and washed with caustic potash1 to which carbolic acid has been added4 ,curative ,washes3 ,a decoction of walnut leaves and vinegar4 ,turpentine1 soapsuds1 decoction of tobacco4 ,washes containing arsenious acid 7e4g4 ,bigg's ,improved ,sheep and ,lamb ,dipping ,composition7 must be used with caution2 unpalatable substances may be added1 so that the sheep will not lick them1 or else a muzzle may be employed4 ,,ninth ,,order3 ,aphaniptera 7,,fleas74 ,body strongly compressed laterally4 ,head small4 ,mouth-parts adapted for sucking and biting4 ,legs long1 especially the last pair4 ,they possess the power of springing4 ,wingless4 ,complete metamorphosis4 ,larva worm-like1 legless1 hard-headed4 ,the ,dog ,flea 7,pulex serraticeps71 which only occasionally passes on to human beings1 lives on dogs and cats4 ,remedy3 ,sprinkling the moistened hair with ,persian insect powder or powdered parsley seed4 ,,tenth ,,order3 ,parasita 7,,lice74 ,body flattened4 ,legs adapted for climbing among hairs and feathers1 as the last joint of the foot is hook-shaped1 and can be bent back against the preceding joint2 a hair can thus be held fast between the two joints4 ,eyes absent or ill developed 7simple74 ,wingless4 ,the eggs 78nits07 are fastened by the mother louse to the hairs of the host2 the young lice resemble the old ones in almost all particulars2 there is no true metamorphosis4 ,all lice have a kind of proboscis1 which can be protruded and retracted1 and upon which are placed the mouth-parts1 which enable it to be used for sucking or biting4 ,according to the last feature a distinction can be drawn between true or blood-sucking lice and biting lice or fur-eaters1 which devour small scales derived from the skin or else bits of hair and feathers4 ,lice multiply very rapidly on the bodies of human beings and animals when insufficiently cleansed1 and under these circumstances more on sick and ill-nourished individuals than on those which are healthy and well nourished4 ,it is obvious that the true1 blood-sucking lice usually injure their host more than the biting lice1 which1 however1 especially when present in large numbers1 may cause an intolerable and injurious itching by their movements here and there4 ,preventive ,measures3 ,suitable feeding and treatment4 ,proper care of the skin4 ,remedies3 ,repeated combing with a comb which has been dipped into a solution of soda4 ,rubbing the badly infested spots with soft soap and soda1 washing them out after twenty-four hours4 ,among other washes are--#f parts soft soap1 #a part benzine1 #aj to #ae parts water2 or tobacco water1 #a part of common tobacco in #bj to #be parts water2 arsenious acid1 in various mixtures1 e4g4 in ,bigg's ,composition 7p4 #aic74 ,employ the muzzle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--;,horse ,louse 7,hmatopinus macrocephalus71 magnified ten times4 ,,class ,,ii43 ,,myriopoda 7,,centipedes ,,and ,,millipedes74 ,respiration by trache1 as in insects4 ,the body consists of a head and a large number of very similar segments1 each of which possesses limbs4 ,one pair of antenn4 ,this class is divided into two orders3 7#a7 that of ,centipedes 7,chilopoda71 with mouth-parts adapted for seizing prey1 and one pair of legs to each segment2 7#b7 that of ,millipedes 7,chilognatha71 adapted for devouring substances resembling humus1 also the parts of plants2 and two pairs of legs to each segment4 ,here belong1 above all1 the ,snake ,millipedes 7,julus7 or 8,false ,wireworms0 7,fig4 #abc71 of which several species eat out germinating seeds 7peas1 beans1 mangolds1 and beet71 and also attack juicy plant parts 7potatoes1 turnips1 carrots74 ,seedlings may be protected by using potatoes to draw away the millipedes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--;,common ,snake ,millipede 7,julus terrestris71 somewhat magnified4 ,,class ,,iii43 ,,arachnoidea 7,,scorpions1 ,,spiders1 ,,mites74 ,air-breathing 7by ordinary or modified trache72 the lower forms breathe with the skin4 ,body at most consists of two chief regions1 since head and thorax are always fused together1 making up a cephalothorax 7,fig4 #abd72 but this may again be united with the always unsegmented abdomen into a single piece 7,fig4 #abg74 ,the last is the case with the mites1 in which1 therefore1 the characters of segmented animals can only be recognized in the limbs4 ,in the true spiders 7,fig4 #abd7 the body consists of cephalothorax and abdomen4 ,arachnids have always four pairs of legs1 which1 in the true spiders1 are attached to the cephalothorax1 in the mites to the front part of the unsegmented body4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--;,a ,spider 7,salticus scenicus74 ,the chief ,orders belonging here are3 7#a7 true ,spiders 7,araneida72 7#b7 ,scorpions 7,scorpionida72 7#c7 ,harvestmen 7,opilionida72 7#d7 ,mites 7,acaridea74 ,only the last contains species of importance agriculturally4 ,,order3 ,acaridea 7,,mites74 ,small arachnids1 in which the cephalothorax and abdomen are fused together into one piece 7,fig4 #abg74 ,the just-hatched young have three pairs of legs1 the adults1 of course1 four4 ,family3 ,acarid 7,true ,mites74 ,soft skin4 ,no trache1 no eyes4 ,legs short1 often with a sucker at the end4 ,here belong the ,cheese ,mite 7,acarus siro71 the ,meal ,mite 7,tyroglyphus farin71 and several other species living in dead organic substances2 also-- ,the ,itch1 or ,mange ,mites4 ,these live as parasites on or in the epidermis1 and cause the itch or mange 7scabies7 in man1 as well as in several domestic animals4 ,by means of the structure and habits three genera are distinguished3-- #a4 ,digging1 blood-sucking mange-mites living in the skin 7,sarcoptes72 #b4 ,blood-sucking mange-mites living on the outer surface 7,dermatocoptes72 #c4 ,mange-mites which merely devour scales of the epidermis 7,dermatophagus74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,mange ,mite of the ,pig 7,sarcoptes scabiei1 var4 suis71 seen from the ventral side4 ,it is obvious that sarcoptic scabies is not so easily cured in the same host as the dermatocoptic scabies1 since the mites causing the former dig their passages into the epidermis1 while those causing the latter at least remain on the surface4 ,dermatophagic scabies is most easily got rid of1 since the mites which cause it not only remain on the outer surface of the skin1 but also1 instead of holding fast1 run about here and there2 it is easily understood that this kind of mange can often be removed by simple brushing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--,mange ,mite of the ,pig 7,sarcoptes scabiei1 var4 suis71 seen from the dorsal surface4 #bjj4 ,the itch1 or mange 7scabies71 is caused by the irritation which the mites continually exert on the skin4 ,the warmer the surroundings of the host1 the more active the mites1 and the more painful the skin disease4 7,the scarcoptes mites1 e4g41 are most unendurable in man when in bed1 and scabby sheep are most tormented when in a warm fold47 ,the mites multiply with such enormous rapidity that it is easy to understand how a single fertilized female1 transferred to a new host by contact with an affected animal1 is able1 in a short time1 to make large patches of the skin mangy4 ,the course of the disease is generally as follows3--,soon after infection small swellings appear1 which become little bladders of the size of a pin's head4 ,these burst1 and the affected parts of the skin are quickly covered with a crust formed from shrivelled bits of skin and dried-up fluid4 ,in many places the attacked parts of the skin are moist1 for the host1 in consequence of the severe itching1 rubs or knocks itself4 ,in consequence of the shedding of fluid the hairs stick together1 and later on fall out4 ,the skin thickens1 becomes encrusted1 and is thrown into folds1 between which there are deep cracks4 ,among domesticated animals the sheep is certainly the one which suffers most from scabies 7,dermatocoptes71 especially as the disease spreads rapidly in the warm sheltering fleece1 which also makes the removal of the parasites a matter of the greatest difficulty4 ,the wool gets dry and brittle in the diseased parts1 and its fibres become loose1 though they remain attached for a short time1 since their tips are glued together by the sticky substance which exudes from the little thickenings in the skin4 ,they gradually fall out1 however1 leaving the skin covered with a thick brownish crust1 looking as if it were soaked with oil4 ,badly infested sheep get thin and even die4 ,this1 however1 is not usually the case1 and the injury consists in the great deterioration of the wool1 both as regards quantity and quality4 ,the following summarizes the kinds of scabies affecting man and domestic animals1 and indicates how far one kind of host can affect another3-- ,itch of ,man 7,sarcoptes7 can be caught by the dog1 but by no other domestic animal4 ,scabies of the ,horse4--,the sarcoptes mange of this animal is contagious for man1 and for the ox1 but no other domestic animal4 ,the dermatocoptes mange 7found more particularly on the inner sides of the legs1 and on the genital organs1 tail1 and mane7 does not spread to man or to other domestic animals4 ,nor is this the case with the dermatophagus mange of the horse 7on the fetlocks and adjacent parts of the legs74 ,scabies of the ,ox4--,the dermatocoptes mange of the ox 7chiefly affecting the sides of the neck and root of the tail7 spreads to men and horses1 but not to sheep4 ,the dermatophagus mange 7principally on the root of the tail and near the anus7 does not seem to be transmitted to man1 horse1 pig1 or dog4 ,scabies of the ,sheep4--,the dermatocoptes mange of sheep is not transmitted as a permanent disease to man1 nor to other domestic animals 7with the exception of the goat74 ,the sarcoptes mange of the sheep 7chiefly on the head7 causes the itch in man4 ,scabies of the ,pig 7,sarcoptes7 is contagious for the dog1 and causes an eruption in man4 ,scabies of the ,dog 7,sarcoptes7 can be caught by man1 pig1 and horse4 ,scabies of the ,cat 7,sarcoptes7 is contagious for man1 horse1 ox1 dog1 and rabbit4 ,scabies of the ,rabbit 7,sarcoptes7 is contagious for man1 but this is not so with the dermatocoptes mange1 which flourishes in the external passage of the ear in the rabbit4 ,scabies of the ,fowl 7,sarcoptes71 which affects the legs of hens1 causing thickening of the skin and formation of large spongy crusts1 may infect horses4 ,hen-houses should not be built in stables4 ,remedies4--,from the foregoing facts relating to the transmission of scabies from one host to another1 the preventive measures at once follow3 ,a mangy animal must not be allowed to come into contact either with another animal of the same kind or with an animal of any other kind for which the disease in question is contagious4 ,if scabies appears in a few members of a flock or herd1 it is absolutely necessary to separate the healthy animals from the sick ones1--and it is further necessary to cleanse and disinfect places where mangy animals have been kept1 as well as implements or machines which they have touched1 before sound animals are brought near such things4 ,cleansing of folds1 etc41 with hot water1 followed by six weeks' disuse4 ,cleansing of infected implements with hot soda and water4 ,the first important thing to ascertain is whether a sick animal1 which has the external symptoms of scabies1 is really affected2 in order to determine this the mange-mites must be found4 ,if the mites cannot be found on the suspected animal1 it must be brought into a warm stall and covered over2 especial care must be taken to warm the places where the skin seems worst attacked2 warmth makes the mites more active1 and induces them to come to the surface4 ,sarcoptic mites are the worst4 ,i will deal but briefly with the treatment of mangy animals1 as it is usually best to obtain the advice of a veterinary surgeon4 ,external applications must naturally be employed4 ,it appears from the investigations of ,vogel that corrosive sublimate and arsenic kill the mange-mites less rapidly and therefore less surely than creosote1 carbolic acid1 benzine1 tar1 caustic potash1 and tobacco1 or even soft soap4 ,zrn recommends a thorough smearing of soft soap on the parts affected4 ,the soap is allowed to remain for some time1 even for a whole day1 the infested spots are then rubbed with hot water1 and brushed1 if possible1 until the crust on the skin disappears4 ,other remedies may now be employed4 ,as such1 ,zrn mentions creosote1 diluted with spirit or oil 7#a 3 #be74 ,also1 among other things1 the following are recommended--benzine shaken up with water 7#a 3 #e-aj71 or a solution of #a part caustic potash in #cj to #dj parts of water4 ,the above and several other remedies can be used with good results in combating scabies in most of our domestic animals4 ,but there is more difficulty with sheep than with other animals1 for the fleece is a hindrance to the beneficial action of the wash employed4 ,it is not possible to make the sheep quite healthy so long as they remain unshorn4 ,till then1 the efforts made must be directed to preventing the spread of the mange4 ,this is managed in the following way4 ,the crust is scraped from the parts attacked1 after the loose wool which covers them has been removed4 ,the mangy places are then rubbed with a decoction of tobacco leaves with carbolic acid 7#a part carbolic acid to #ae parts spirit and #fj parts water71 or with some other of the remedies named above4 ,when the sheep are shorn1 first dip them in a solution 7#b parts soda1 #a part lime1 and #ej parts water7 by which the crust on the affected places is softened2 twenty-four hours later dip in a solution which will kill the mites4 ,a decoction of tobacco 7#a part tobacco to #ab parts water7 may be used for this purpose1 using for each sheep about #a pints of the fluid1 to which has been added #f drams carbolic acid and #f drams alcohol4 ,the first washing must be followed by a second1 for the fluid destroys only the mites and not their eggs4 ,as the young mites are hatched out in three to seven days1 the dipping must be repeated seven days afterwards4 ,family3 ,ixodid 7,ticks74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,the ,dog ,tick 7,ixodes ricinus74 ,ticks are generally rather larger than the mites of the preceding family4 ,the skin is tough as leather4 ,the front part of the body is covered by a hard shield above2 the skin of the hinder part1 though tough1 is very extensible4 ,the front end bears a sucking apparatus formed by the pointed jaws1 and by its means the tick pierces the skin of man or animals and holds on fast4 ,ticks are chiefly found in sandy soil1 among bushes and shrubs1 or among herbs4 ,as long as they remain on the ground they are tolerably small 7 inch7 and very active4 ,they creep up haulms and branches1 and rest in a suitable spot till a mammal or bird passes1 when they attach themselves to its hair or feathers by their legs1 and bore into its skin with their sharp mouth-parts4 ,having thus fixed themselves1 they suck the blood of their temporary host4 ,the walls of their stomach and intestine are extremely elastic1 so that the tick1 which at first is only about one-tenth of an inch long and one-sixteenth of an inch broad1 becomes as big as a pea1 or even a garden bean4 ,when the tick has sucked itself as full as possible1 it withdraws its mouth-parts from the skin of its host for the time being1 and lets itself fall to the ground1 where it lies for many weeks without feeding4 ,the small and feeble legs of the tick are not able to move the heavy1 blood-filled body1 and movements do not take place for some time1 till the greater part of the imbibed blood has been digested and the tick has shrunk once more to its normal size4 ,what has been said about the habits refers only to the female2 the much smaller male never seems to pierce mammals1 and its food is not known4 ,in pairing1 it is found attached to the under side of the female1 remaining there several days1 even when the female is fixed to the host4 ,egg-laying does not take place till the host is quitted4 ,as ticks draw blood from their host their presence1 in spite of the fact that they remain but a short time1 is not a matter of indifference1 especially if large numbers affix themselves to one animal4 ,sheep and cattle become thin if daily attacked in the meadows by many ticks4 ,the piercing of the skin causes a stinging sensation1 followed later on by itching of the parts to which the ticks are attached4 ,the ticks which are fixed must never be seized and pulled out1 for the mouth-parts are so deeply imbedded in the skin that it is impossible to remove them by force1 and the attempt would only result in tearing the body from the mouth-parts4 ,a better plan is to put a drop of oil or tobacco water1 or1 still better1 benzine1 on the tick1 when it will loosen itself4 ,we distinguish between the ,dog ,tick 7,ixodes ricinus71 the ,sheep ,tick 7,i4 reduvius71 and the ,ox ,tick 7,i4 reticulatus71 which1 however1 are not found exclusively on the animals after which they are named4 ,the first1 although found most commonly on the dog1 attacks men who force their way through underwood 7hunters71 and in the same way fixes on sheep and oxen4 ,the last two species are chiefly1 but not exclusively1 found on sheep and goats4 ,family3 ,gamasid 7,beetle ,mites74 ,beetle mites are temporary parasites on insects1 reptiles1 and birds4 ,they have no eyes1 but possess shear-like jaws1 and tolerably long hairy legs4 ,the ,beetle ,louse 7,gamasus coleoptratorum7 lives on dung beetles1 sexton beetles1 etc4 ,the ,fowl ,mite 7,dermanyssus gallin7 is the size of a sand grain1 and blood-red or red-brown in colour4 ,during the night it is found in large numbers on the fowls1 but during the day hides on the perches1 in the nests1 and particularly in the chinks and crannies in the walls of the poultry-house1 also in dung4 ,it draws much blood from the fowls1 and disturbs their sleep by producing a constant itching1 the result being that they get very thin4 ,remedy3 ,whitewash the fowl-houses twice a year 7autumn and spring7 with hot lime to which #e per cent4 of carbolic acid has been added4 ,the wooden parts should be scalded with boiling water before whitewashing4 ,family3 ,trombidiid 7,running ,mites74 ,body four-cornered or longish oval2 legs tolerably long1 hairy2 jaws claw or needle-shaped2 surface of the skin velvety2 colour reddish or yellowish4 ,they run about with great rapidity on the ground1 tree trunks1 leaves1 etc4 ,most species feed on the juices which they suck from insects1 or from other arachnids4 ,the ,plant ,mite1 or ,red 8,spider0 7,tetranychus telarius71 is ovoid1 at most one-fiftieth of an inch long2 reddish 7also yellowish or brownish71 with a dark spot on each shoulder4 ,plant mites are often found in considerable numbers during the summer1 especially on the under sides of the leaves of low-growing plants2 on garden beans1 turnips1 and hops2 on several ornamental plants1 grasses1 and various weeds2 on roses1 limes1 horse-chestnut trees1 elms1 willows1 and fruit trees4 ,in some exceptionally dry summers the mite increases to such an extent as to become a great pest4 ,on the upper sides of the infested leaves there is to be seen1 besides the adult and immature mites1 a whitish1 mealy substance1 consisting of the cast skins and whitish eggs4 ,many of the mites run about here and there1 but most of them remain fixed1 and suck the sap4 ,all are covered by a delicate web1 which is formed by the animal4 ,the attacked leaves become limp1 shrivel up1 die1 and fall off4 ,in dicotyledonous plants the withering generally commences in the axils of the veins4 ,the infested plants often die off gradually1 but death may also take place with great rapidity4 ,annuals are often killed by the attacks of the mite4 ,the mites pass the winter in the ground1 under fallen leaves1 under the bark of trees1 etc4 ,,class ,,iv43 ,,crustacea 7,,crustaceans74 ,the ,crustacea breathe by gills1 and are therefore suited to an aquatic life4 ,a few species1 however1 live in damp earth1 or in places where the air is damp 7wood lice74 ,crustacea have two pairs of antenn1 and a large number of appendages arranged in a characteristic way1 but differing very much in shape in the different groups2 skin usually hard and thick4 ,lobsters1 crayfish1 crabs1 wood lice1 and the small sand-hoppers1 water-fleas1 etc41 belong to the ,crustacea4 ,no ,crustacean is harmful agriculturally4 ,third ,sub-,kingdom3 ,,vermes 7,,worms74 ,worms#c are bilaterally symmetrical animals1 in which the body is enclosed in a 8dermo-muscular tube40 ,under the delicate epidermis there is found a layer1 which does not1 as in the higher animals1 consist exclusively of dermis1 but is partly composed of muscle-fibres1 which form a distinct coat internally4 ,worms are able to move by contracting the various components of the dermo-muscular tube thus formed4 ,in some worms limbs assist in the movements1 but in others this is not so2 in any case1 however1 the limbs play a relatively subordinate part4 ,these limbs1 which are only present in the bristle-worms1 are small1 always unjointed1 foot-stumps1 which bear bristles4 ,leeches and some other worms possess suckers by which they can attach themselves1 and move by alternately contracting and extending their bodies4 ,footnote #c3 ,in ordinary language one understands by 8worms0 elongated1 cylindrical animals2 and several insect larv 7e4g4 8wireworms10 p4 #ajc7 have the name applied to them4 ,but to zoologists all 8worm-shaped0 animals are not worms1 nor have all worms an elongated cylindrical shape 7liver-fluke74 ,there are segmented and unsegmented worms 7thread worms1 liver-flukes72 the degree of segmentation is also very various4 ,in many tapeworms each joint may be regarded as an individual animal4 ,the joints of other segmented worms 7earthworms7 do not become detached1 like those of tapeworms1 for the purpose of reproduction4 ,the nervous system is absent in the lowest worms2 in the higher worms ganglia always constitute its central parts1 and in annelids these are arranged in pairs on the ventral side of the body1 and united by nerve fibres into a ventral cord1 which is connected in front with a nerve ring surrounding the gut and thickened above into cerebral ganglia4 ,in many worms 7e4g4 tapeworms and flukes7 the nervous system is of much simpler structure4 ,the sub-kingdom of worms contains a very large number of forms4 ,it is only necessary to mention here representatives of three classes3 ,segmented worms 7,annelida71 round worms 7,nematelminthes71 and flat worms 7,platyelminthes74 ,,class3 ,,annelida 7,,segmented ,,worms74 ,segmented worms with rounded 7earthworm7 or flattened 7leech7 bodies1 and possessing both mouth and anus4 ,they fall into two sub-classes3 ,i4 ,leeches 7,discophora71 ,,ii4 ,bristle-worms 7,chtopoda74 ,the first possess suckers as organs assisting locomotion1 the latter foot-stumps1 which bear longer or shorter bristles2 but these foot-stumps may be absent1 and the bundles of bristles are then simply imbedded in pits4 ,the latter is the case in the only members of the class which interest us here1 i4e4 the earthworms4 ,the ,earthworms 7,lumbricus74 ,there are several species in the genus1 but all agree in their habits4 ,the body of the earthworm is slender and cylindrical1 tapering in front and somewhat flattened behind4 ,on the ventral side of the second segment is found the opening of the mouth4 ,there are no eyes1 though these animals are sensitive to the action of light4 ,the earthworm is hermaphrodite 7p4 #af72 when two individuals pair they mutually fertilize each other4 ,on a warm summer evening two adjacent worms creep half out or nearly out of their burrows1 and apply the front parts of their bodies together1 especially a reddish1 swollen part found at about the middle of the anterior half of the body4 ,in this region the glands in the skin are very strongly developed1 and secrete a substance which surrounds the eggs as a capsule as they are being laid4 ,earthworms are chiefly found in damp humus1 or1 at any rate1 not in very poor sandy soil or clay4 ,from time to time they carry their burrows up to the surface in order to get rid of the undigested remains 78worm castings07 of the humus and vegetable matters which have been taken into the body4 ,the burrows run down obliquely into the soil1 or more rarely vertically1 to the depth of eight feet or more2 they end in an enlargement1 where the worm remains coiled up during the winter1 after having closed the mouth of the burrow with a plug of leaves1 twigs1 paper1 straw1 etc4 ,although the earthworm chiefly subsists on the organic matters found in earth rich in humus1 it also devours the leaves of cabbage1 onion1 and other plants1 and especially seedlings 7particularly those of beet74 ,it draws these parts of plants about four-fifths of an inch into its burrow1 and moistens them there with an acid fluid it secretes1 and which acts upon them before they are taken into the body4 ,earthworms may effect considerable damage by destroying seedlings1 particularly in damp fields1 though this damage is always local4 ,a not inconsiderable amount of benefit is to be set against this4 ,by means of the burrows which they dig earthworms cause air to penetrate into the soil much better than it could otherwise do1 which is known to be of the greatest importance for plant life4 ,earthworms are extremely important owing to the large numbers in which they are present in the soil1 and for another reason besides the one just given4 ,darwin shows that in many parts of ,england a weight of ten tons of earth per acre passes through the bodies of earthworms1 and is brought to the surface by them1 so that in a few years the entire humus-containing surface layer of earth has passed through their bodies4 ,they therefore prepare the soil in an excellent manner for the growth of plants1 by continually exposing it to the air4 ,they cause stones to sink in the soil by throwing out at the top earth which naturally consists only of particles small enough to pass through their intestines4 ,they play the part of gardeners by thoroughly mixing together the particles of soil1 and bury under their castings1 in a shorter time than one would imagine1 objects found on the surface of the soil 7bones1 oyster-shells1 dead animals1 leaves74 ,plantfood is quickly formed again from these buried matters4 ,earthworms1 therefore1 play a very important part in the economy of nature2 indeed1 many regions1 now occupied by luxuriant pastures or fertile cornfields1 would be a waste1 had it not been for them4 ,where1 however1 in damp spots they injure seedlings1 they may be collected1 either during the day after a warm rain1 or in the evening1 at which times they lie half out of their burrows4 ,if a decoction of walnut leaves is poured into these1 they will crawl out4 ,enemies3 ,mole1 shrews1 hedgehog1 toads and frogs1 ground beetles1 rove beetles1 mole-crickets1 centipedes1 etc4 ,,class3 ,,nematelminthes 7,,round ,,worms74 ,body cylindrical1 unsegmented2 body-wall tough1 hooklets or spines may be present on it1 but deeply imbedded bristles are always absent4 ,the gut may be absent 7some parasites71 but this is exceptional4 ,there are no special organs for circulation and respiration4 ,sexes distinct in the large majority4 ,i will deal with only one of the orders belonging here4 ,,order3 ,nematoda 7,,thread ,,worms74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,diagrammatic transverse section through the body of a ,thread ,worm1 internal organs being omitted3 p1 cuticle and skin2 q1 muscle layer2 a1 lateral lines2 b1 dorsal and ventral lines4 ,elongated1 thread-shaped or spindle-shaped1 unsegmented4 ,a gut1 terminating in a ventral anus1 is present4 ,outer investment of the skin smooth1 often weakly ringed or striated4 ,the muscle layer underlying the true skin is interrupted here and there1 where the skin itself stretches further inwards4 ,in this way are distinguished the lateral lines or fields 7,fig4 #abh1 a71 which run right along the sides of the body1 dividing it into a dorsal and a ventral region4 ,there are often present as well two smaller but similar dorsal and ventral lines1 respectively situated above and below 7,fig4 #abh1 b74 ,mouth usually surrounded by lip-like folds1 but more or less distinct jaws may also be present4 ,the anus either lies at the apex of the tapering posterior end of the body 7trichina71 or further forward1 on the ventral surface4 ,among the ,nematodes are included a number of relatively small species1 living free in the earth1 and sucking plant parts1 while other forms fairly closely related live parasitically in plants1 and often cause very serious plant diseases 7e4g4 ,beet ,eelworm72 a larger number of species are parasitic in animals4 ,the free forms and those parasitic in plants lay relatively few1 but very large1 eggs1 although1 in several species1 increase is furthered by a succession of many generations in the year4 ,the ,nematodes parasitic in animals lay very numerous eggs1 even several millions4 ,harmful species are known from the following families3 #a4 ,palisade ,worms 7,strongylid71 #b4 ,whip ,worms 7,trichotrachelid71 #c4 ,slender ,thread ,worms 7,filarid71 #d4 the ,round ,worms 7,ascarid71 #e4 ,eelworms 7,anguillulid74 ,i will successively treat of the harmful forms1 but since many species belonging to different families infest the digestive organs of the different domesticated animals1 causing similar symptoms of disease which may be dealt with in much the same way1 the following general sketch is first given3-- ,nematodes in the ,gut 7more in young animals than old7 cause the following symptoms3 7#a7 ,appetite variable4 7#b7 ,nutrition in general affected1 even if sufficient food is taken2 constipation or diarrha2 belly much drawn in or else1 and usually1 swollen out4 ,the animal itself is thin1 and has 7except horse7 a tendency to vomit4 7#c7 ,an itching all over the body1 especially at the nostrils and anus4 ,the animal rubs and bites the sides of its body4 7#d7 ,tongue covered with a thick1 soft1 yellowish coating4 ,a sweet smell from the mouth4 7#e7 ,the skin is tense1 lacking its usual elasticity4 7#f7 ,the animal suffers from spasmodic colic1 and 7#g7 disturbances of the nervous system 7whining or crying2 unrestrained or suppressed fits74 ,remedies3 ,horses and cows infested with thread worms may be given chopped carrots1 beets1 and turnips1 previously mixed with sugar or crushed sugarcandy4 ,roasted oats are also good4 ,for sheep finely crushed glass1 kneaded into pills with bread1 will always suffice4 ,gritty sand in the food may also be of use4 ,pigs should be given sour milk1 acorns1 unripe cheese1 horseradish4 ,for dogs1 sausages containing garlic1 as much flesh food as possible1 strongly salted food1 milk boiled with garlic4 ,in all cases iron may be given4 ,the advice of a veterinary surgeon should be sought in the matter of medicines 7tansy1 male fern root1 tartar emetic1 arsenious acid1 etc474 ,family3 ,strongylid 7,palisade ,worms74 ,spindle-shaped2 anus on the tip of the hind end of the body2 in all thread worms the rectum and male sexual organs open by a common cloacal opening1 which1 in the palisade worms1 is surrounded by an umbrella1 or cup-shaped apparatus 7bursa71 kept expanded by means of muscular ribs 7,fig4 #abi74 ,here belong-- ,the ,giant ,palisade ,worm1 or ,strongyle1 7,eustrongylus gigas74 ,female from a foot to thirty-nine inches long1 and as much as two-fifths of an inch thick4 ,male six to sixteen inches long2 reddish4 ,lives in the cavity 7pelvis7 of the kidneys in horses1 oxen1 dogs1 and man2 causes degeneration of the kidneys1 with blood in the urine1 nervous diseases1 and disturbance of the feelings and intelligence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,tail of male ,strongylus armatus1 strongly magnified4 ,the ,armed ,palisade ,worm1 or ,strongyle 7,strongylus armatus71 four-fifths of an inch to two inches long1 one twenty-fifth to one-twelfth of an inch thick2 reddish brown4 ,taken into the gut of the horse with the drinking water as a young1 minute worm1 it bores through the walls of this organ into the blood-vessels branching there4 ,later on it bores into the walls of the larger arteries of the hinder part of the body1 especially into those which carry blood to the wall of the gut 7particularly anterior mesenteric artery74 ,at those parts of the arterial walls where it collects in large numbers1 swellings 7aneurisms7 are produced1 varying from the size of a pea to that of a hen's egg4 ,a constriction is often developed quite close to this swelling1 and a plug of fibrin may also be formed within the artery1 so that the circulation in the wall of the gut is greatly hindered4 ,as a result of this the glands and muscles in the wall of the digestive tube refuse their office1 so that regular digestion and onward movement of the food do not take place4 ,this leads to colic4 ,as soon as the strongyloid larv have become adult1 they pass from the walls of the arteries into their cavities1 and are carried by the blood-stream to the walls of the gut1 which they penetrate in order to reach its cavity1 where 7ccum and large intestine7 they pair1 after which the female lays eggs1 which are carried to the exterior in the dung4 ,the quickly hatched young seek water1 mud1 or damp earth1 where they live until1 by some means 7e4g4 with the drinking water7 they manage to enter the gut of a horse or 7more often7 ass4 ,preventive ,measure3 ,horses and asses must not be allowed to drink stagnant water4 ,the ,stomach ,palisade ,worm1 or ,strongyle of the ,sheep 7,strongylus contortus74 ,male one-half to two-thirds of an inch1 female three-quarters to four-fifths of an inch long2 whitish or reddish1 somewhat coiled at both ends4 ,the disease of the stomach1 and diarrha1 which affect lambs1 usually in spring1 and result from the presence of these worms in large numbers in the true or fourth stomach1 lead to emaciation1 weakness1 and poverty of blood4 ,development unknown4 ,nutritious food will cure lambs which are not very badly infested1 but hastens the death of those which are4 ,the ,lung ,worm of ,lambs 7,strongylus filaria74 ,male an inch1 female as much as three and a half inches long1 thread-shaped1 white or yellowish4 ,it appears that the young worms are taken into the stomach of a lamb 7or sheep7 with the drinking water2 they are found there in ,may1 ,june1 and ,july4 ,they quickly climb back into the throat1 from which they get into the windpipe and its branches4 ,there they penetrate the mucous membrane1 where1 until they have reached the sexual stage1 they are found imbedded in small swellings1 which they quit at the end of winter or the beginning of the next spring1 if their host lives so long4 ,the female bears living young1 which as very minute worms may be met with by the hundred in the mucous lining the windpipe and its branches4 ,a direct transference of the parasite from one sheep to another does not take place1 since the young born in the mucus secreted by the walls of the air-tubes must first live and grow for some time in water or slime before they are able to undergo further development in the body of a sheep or lamb4 ,the fate1 however1 of the young worms which pass to the exterior in the mucus is not yet sufficiently known4 ,symptoms of ,disease3 ,running of slime from the nose1 difficulty of breathing1 cough1 emaciation1 poverty of blood4 ,death ensues in from two to four months4 ,recovery only of very strong individuals infested by comparatively few parasites1 most of which they cough out4 ,preventive ,measures3 ,in regions where the evil is very prevalent the young sheep must not be allowed to go into the meadows4 ,if it is impossible to keep them penned in1 a little food and water may be given before sending them to pasture in the morning4 ,in this way the danger of infection will be somewhat lessened1 since it is then less likely that the animals will eagerly betake themselves to pools and ditches in order to quench their thirst4 ,since during the months ,may to ,july the young worms 7most probably taken in with the water drunk7 are found in the stomach1 it is good during this time to give vermifuges to the lambs and sheep4 ,for medicines a veterinary surgeon should be consulted4 ,the ,small-tailed ,palisade ,worm1 or ,strongyle 7,strongylus micrurus74 ,thread-shaped2 male one and two-fifths1 female two and two-fifths to two and four-fifths of an inch long2 lives in oxen 7especially calves7 in swellings of the arteries1 also in the windpipe and its branches4 ,severe bronchitis4 ,family3 ,trichotrachelid 7,whip ,worms74 ,small1 slender1 elongated worms1 with the anus or1 in the male1 cloacal aperture at the hinder end of the body2 the latter1 however1 is not--as in palisade worms--surrounded by an umbrella or cup-shaped expansion4 ,here belongs3 ,the ,trichina 7,trichina spiralis74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--;,encapsuled ,muscle ,trichin in flesh1 strongly magnified4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--,male ,intestinal ,trichina1 strongly magnified4 ,in the sexual condition this lives as a minute worm 7male one-seventeenth1 female one-eighth to one-sixth of an inch long71 the so-called 8intestinal trichina10 in the gut of human beings and carnivorous mammals4 ,in this situation it brings forth living young 7some fifteen hundred in number71 and the multiplication is enhanced by the fact that of the very numerous trichin found in the gut there are1 on the average1 about twelve females to every male4 ,the young trichin bore into the walls of the gut1 and are carried by the blood-stream into the muscles4 ,at first each little worm extends itself longitudinally in a muscle fibre1 but1 as it gets larger1 curves and becomes spirally twisted1 so that the sheath 7sarcolemma7 of the fibre is bulged more and more outwards4 ,the growth of the young trichina is very rapid--an individual only of an inch long before leaving the gut may attain the length of one twenty-fifth of an inch in fourteen days4 ,it then grows no more1 and the sheath of the muscle fibre gradually thickens to form a capsule or cyst4 ,later on1 in about a year1 lime is deposited in the capsule4 ,the 8muscle trichin0 retain their vitality for several years4 ,if now the host of the muscle trichina is devoured by any other mammal1 the capsule is digested in the stomach of the latter1 and the once more liberated worm becomes a sexually mature 8intestinal trichina0 in a few days4 ,the pig is the ordinary host of trichin1 which 7without the intervention of any other host7 can be permanently parasitic in this domestic animal1 since pigs often devour swine's flesh4 ,they often enough devour even their own young1 and1 especially in large slaughterhouses1 swine are often fed with the offal of their companions4 ,the trichin also spread through the body of any living being 7men1 rats7 which eats trichinous pork4 ,the trichin thus introduced cause1 in the human subject1 a dangerous or even fatal disease known as trichinosis4 ,the size of this book does not permit me to describe the symptoms of this complaint in man4 ,pigs suffer much less from the parasite2 they may even contain an enormous number of trichin in their muscles without being noticeably ill4 ,symptoms of disease1 however1 often appear more or less clearly4 ,a short time after eating the trichinous meat the appetite of the pigs is bad2 they appear in bad spirits2 the tail straightens out1 and they often remain standing with bent limbs and arched backs4 ,there may be1 in addition1 pains in the abdomen1 diarrha1 and fever4 ,later on1 when the trichin have settled down in the muscles1 the pigs suffer from stiffness in the legs and tenderness in the loins2 they often cry out in pain4 ,after this1 however1 health and appetite may return1 and they can be fattened4 ,trichinous swine therefore appear quite sound1 and are slaughtered in due course4 ,the trichin in the pig are found most abundantly in the diaphragm1 the masticatory1 eye-1 and other muscles of the head1 also in those of the neck1 larynx1 abdomen1 and loins4 ,the fore part is more infested by trichin than the hinder part1 but in very bad cases they are found everywhere1 even in the hams4 ,remedies3 7#a7 ,the swine must be prevented1 as far as possible1 from taking up trichin1 and therefore must never be given the offal from other slaughtered swine4 ,the flesh of trichinous swine should be burnt1 and not buried1 lest dogs or other animals should eat it and spread trichinosis4 7#b7 ,care must be taken that no trichinous pork is eaten by human beings 7microscopic examination2 meat inspection74 ,pork 7or sausages7 must never be used raw or half cooked4 ,trichin are killed by a temperature of #adj to #aej ,f4 ,the inside of the piece of meat must be exposed to this temperature4 ,family3 ,filarid 7,slender ,thread ,worms74 ,elongated and thread-shaped4 ,round mouth4 ,do not infest the gut or other cavities1 but the tissues of the body1 chiefly connective tissue4 ,none of the species require notice here4 ,family3 ,ascarid 7,round ,worms74 ,relatively shorter than the worms of the preceding family4 ,mouth triangular1 surrounded by three teatshaped lips4 ,in the male the hinder end of the body is usually bent in a hook-like manner4 ,the anus is not placed quite at the hind end of the body4 ,all the species inhabit the alimentary canal 7,cf4 p4 #baa74 ,horse ,worm 7,ascaris megalocephala74 ,male six to eight1 female twelve to seventeen inches long2 sometimes occurs in great balls1 causing stoppage4 ,round ,worm of ,cat 7,ascaris mystax74 ,male two to two and two-fifths1 female four and four-fifths to five and one-fifth inches long2 in the intestines of the cat4 ,ascaris marginata infests the dog4 ,pinworm 7,oxyuris curvula74 ,male one-fourth to one-third1 female one and four-fifths of an inch long4 ,in the rectum of the horse1 causing persistent itching4 ,family3 ,anguillulid 7,eelworms74 ,extremely small1 thin-skinned2 lay only a few relatively large eggs1 which develop very quickly4 ,with few exceptions either earth eelworms 7i4e4 live in decomposing organic matter or humus soil7 or as plant parasites leading to characteristic diseases of wild and cultivated forms4 ,all these parasitic forms have a 8mouth spine40 ,this structure1 found in the mouth cavity1 is very sharp and pointed in front1 and can be worked forwards and backwards so as to penetrate the cell walls of plants4 ,a mouth spine is not only found in the species which infest plant tissues 7several species of ,tylenchus and ,aphelenchus1 as well as all the known species of ,heterodera71 but also in those forms living free in the earth which bore into the exterior of plant roots 7the remaining species of ,tylenchus and ,aphelenchus1 ,dorylaimus1 etc474 ,in all cases an eelworm1 devoid of a spine1 is not a plant parasite4 ,i will only deal with those parasites by which well-known destructive diseases of cultivated plants are caused4 ,these belong to the genera ,tylenchus and ,heterodera4 ,the first remain eel-shaped throughout life1 but the adult females of the latter swell out considerably and become lemon- or pear-shaped4 ,the ,stem ,eelworm 7,tylenchus devastatrix74 ,length one-thirtieth to one-fifteenth of an inch long1 usually of intermediate size2 the two sexes of approximately equal length4 ,live and reproduce in various cultivated plants 7e4g41 rye1 oats1 stored onions1 hyacinths1 buckwheat1 potatoes1 clover1 fuller's teasel7 and wild plants 7e4g41 ,poa annua1 ,anthoxanthum odoratum1 ,dipsacus silvestris1 ,polygonum persicaria71 but not to the same extent in all4 ,it must also be added that eelworms of which the progenitors have developed for a considerable number of generations in the same plant1 are not easily transferred to another kind of plant1 or at any rate do not multiply vigorously there4 ,eelworms1 of which the ancestors have lived for many years exclusively in rye1 or alternately in rye and buckwheat1 do not readily pass over to seedling onions1 and first only reproduce in them to a small extent4 ,the eelworms live only in stems1 branches1 and leaves1 never in roots4 ,in the places where they have penetrated the plant tissues an abnormal growth in thickness of the parts involved takes place1 while the growth in length is either much diminished or even entirely stopped4 ,also the chlorophyll disappears sooner or later from the attacked spots1 and rapid death generally ensues4 ,since only those parts of an organ which are inhabited by a large number of eelworms swell much1 it is obvious that cracks are often developed in the stems and leaves concerned4 ,it is further easily seen that the species and constitution of the infested plants will have an important influence on the progress of the disease caused by the eelworms4 ,but since several generations of this parasite succeed one another during the same year1 the resulting malformation is usually very considerable4 8,clover sickness0 is probably due to this eelworm4 ,i will treat in somewhat greater detail the ,eelworm ,disease of rye1 which is largely prevalent in ,westphalia and the ,rhine provinces1 and had already made its appearance1 in the latter at least1 at the beginning of the century4 ,the eelworms producing the disease migrate into the soil on the ripening or death of the grain1 and later on go back to the new young rye plants or to other plants in which they can live1 as the case may be4 ,it is therefore clear that 7#a7 where this disease exists the soil is infected for a time1 and 7#b71 the eelworm disease of rye principally appears in regions where the culture of rye is carried on to excess4 ,germination of the seed corn goes on quite normally in infected fields1 and it is only exceptionally that anything particular is noticed in the young plants of winter rye during autumn and winter4 ,the disease appears at the beginning of spring4 ,some plants soon become yellow and die3 others appear to grow very luxuriantly2 they possess a beautiful bluish-green colour and seem very healthy2 later on they develop enormously in breadth1 and each separate plant covers a relatively large area4 ,the base of the stem swells abnormally1 so that the plant looks as if it bore below an onion projecting above the ground4 ,this is caused by the lower joints of the haulm remaining very short and thickening considerably1 causing the leaf-sheaths which surround the base of the stem to become thicker and broader than usual4 ,the feeble development of roots is also characteristic4 ,the leaves generally remain short1 but get very thick2 they often become wavy1 and may even appear frilled4 ,all the leaves1 however1 are not crumpled in this way2 a few remain quite normal1 while others are small and grass-like1 but thick 7,fig4 #acb74 ,later on1 the tip of the haulm and the ear often do not come out of the leaf-sheaths2 in other plants the ear may appear1 but remains small and deformed as well as the rest of the haulm1 while the grains which develop are small4 ,a number of shoots1 however1 may develop normally and bear fruit4 ,badly infested plants quickly die1 some at the very beginning of spring1 others later4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,rye plant in the later stage of the ,eelworm disease4 ,where the disease is very bad it may easily be recognized by its characteristic distribution4 ,a number of bare places are noticed in spring on the infected fields2 round about these places still living but badly diseased plants may be noticed1 and the symptoms of attack are less obvious the further one goes from the bald spots4 ,on the death of the rye plants the eelworms mostly travel back to the soil1 but sundry eggs and larv stop in the dried-up remains4 ,rye straw may further infect a diseased field by getting into farmyard manure and being brought back again with it2 for the eelworms 7at any rate as eggs and larv7 are killed neither by drying nor by the action of dung and other decaying substances4 ,strongly infected spots 7bare patches7 on an infested field are usually the places where dung containing diseased rye-straw has lain for some time4 ,from such centres the spreading of the eelworms takes place3 7#a7 actively by the migration of the worms1 7#b7 passively by rain1 the feet of labourers1 the hoofs of horses1 field implements1 etc42 also 7on loose soils7 by the wind1 which not only blows about particles of earth1 but also the dried-up larv which are always found on the surface of the ground4 ,as the eelworms multiply very rapidly whenever they are in the plants1 and as the means of distribution are very numerous1 the disease spreads with great rapidity4 ,remedies4--,proper rotation2 limitation of the culture of rye1 growing in place of it carrots1 turnips1 or lupines4 ,now and then 7but not too frequently71 potatoes1 buckwheat1 clover1 and oats may be cultivated in the fields affected1 at any rate before sowing rye again4 ,abundant manuring1 especially with sulphates of potash1 ammonia1 and iron4 ,deep cultivation of the soil1 since the eelworms find no food in the deeper1 damper layers of the soil1 nor can they pass into the dried condition1 and so must die4 ,oats suffer from eelworms just in the same way as rye4 ,clover ,sickness is marked by short stunted shoots1 and whitish rounded buds1 often remaining closed2 also by the whitish colour and abnormal thickening of the shoots and buds4 ,eelworm ,disease of ,potatoes4--,crumpling and small growth of the parts above ground4 ,in many cases there may even be no potatoes at all1 or only small ones1 poor in starch1 though sometimes they may be tolerably large4 ,on the surface of the tubers there are discoloured rotten spots1 not penetrating deeply1 and usually 7but not always7 at the attached end4 ,these dark patches contain the eelworms4 ,eelworm ,disease of ,buckwheat4--,joints of the stem for the most part much thickened1 but abnormally short4 ,in many cases a large amount of branching in the lower part of the stem1 usually at a place where it bears a nodular swelling4 ,branches generally short4 ,there may be twists and bends in the stem and branches4 ,often1 but not always1 the formation of flowers and fruit is stopped4 ,the thickened parts of the stem are brittle2 they contain the eelworms in their interior4 ,the ,wheat ,eelworm 7,tylenchus scandens ,t4 tritici74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--;,ear ,cockles of ,wheat2 the third shows the eelworm larv on its cut surface4 ,length of the male about one-twelfth of an inch1 of the female one-tenth to one-fifth of an inch 7according to the size of the galls in which the eelworms develop74 ,the wheat eelworm is the cause of 8ear cockles10 also known as 8peppercorns0 and 8purples40 ,in several parts of the ear short thick dark brown galls 7,fig4 #acc71 resembling the seeds of corn-cockle1 are found instead of wheat grains4 ,inside the thick brown shell there is a yellowish white mass1 containing hundreds or even thousands of eelworm larv 7one thirty-first to one twenty-seventh of an inch long74 ,these are quite dry and rigid1 but gradually revive on moistening1 even if the black galls have remained twenty years in the dried-up condition4 ,when the wheat is ripe the dark-walled galls are gathered in with the crop1 and in many cases are sown again with the sound grains4 ,the brown shell then decays1 and the eelworm larv leave the gall1 travelling to a neighbouring wheat seedling1 where they live between leaf-sheath and haulm1 also penetrating into the terminal bud4 ,the haulm of a wheat plant infested by many eelworms remains relatively short1 the leaves are often sharply bent and have wavy margins4 ,wheat plants thus infested closely resemble rye plants diseased in a similar way1 but are much less deformed4 ,this is because the wheat eelworms do not reproduce till they reach the ear1 and there is consequently only one generation per year1 while several generations of eelworms succeed one another in the same rye plant4 ,the eelworms quickly travel from all parts of the plants into the ears1 and get into the rudiments of the flowers1 causing them to swell up like bladders1 and their walls to become first dark green1 and then dark brown4 ,sixteen to twenty eelworms are present in the lowest flowers of the ear1 ten to twelve in those higher up 7and therefore smaller71 and four to six in the topmost 7smallest7 ones4 ,soon after entering the flowers the eelworms become sexually mature1 and lay eggs 7#fjj to #afjj71 from which are developed the larv that inhabit later on the cockle-seed like galls4 ,the disease is known in ,england1 ,germany1 ,france1 and ,italy1 and is especially harmful in ,saxony1 where it sometimes attacks a quarter of the wheat crop4 ,remedies3 ,either there should be no ear cockles in the seed corn1 or else the eelworms should be destroyed in them4 ,the infested grain may either be put through a sieve1 or else soaked for twenty-four hours in weak sulphuric acid 7one pint strong acid to thirty-three gallons of water71 when many of the galls float and can be skimmed off1 while the eelworms are killed in those which sink4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4 7,for ,description1 see note#d1 next page47 ,footnote #d3 ,,fig4 #acd4--,the ,beet ,eelworm 7,heterodera ,schachtii73 #a1 ,a beet root with adult females attached 7natural size72 #b1 a lateral rootlet of beet which ,eelworm larv 7a7 are penetrating 7enlarged72 #c1 a lateral rootlet of beet with swelling 7a7 of the outer skin caused by the excessive development of larv which have previously entered it1 and which have now become nearly mature females 7enlarged72 #d1 a just-hatched larva2 #e1 a larva which has penetrated a root and swollen up into a club-shaped form2 #f-h1 development of the male2 #i1 a nearly adult and1 #aj1 an adult female4 ,the following letters have reference to ,figs4 #d-aj3 a1 mouth spine1--b1 sucking stomach 7pharynx71--c1 d1 intestine1--e1 f1 rectum1--f1 anus1--g1 excretory organ2 h 7in ,figs4 #d-g71 rudiments of the sexual organs in the undeveloped larv2 h 7in ,fig4 #h71 testis2 i 7in ,figs4 #g and #h71 copulatory spicules of the male2 k 7,figs4 #i and #aj71 ovary2 l 7,figs4 #i and #aj71 female sexual opening2 m1 nerve ring2 w#a 7,figs4 #f-h71 larval skin2 w#b 7,figs4 #f-h71 new skin which the developing male forms within the larval skin4 ,figs4 #d and #e are magnified more than ,figs4 #f-aj4 ,the ,beet ,eelworm 7,heterodera ,schachtii7#d is the cause of the 8beet sickness0 of the soil4 ,the course of the disease is as follows4 ,at the end of ,july light-coloured patches are found here and there among the normally developed beet4 ,the leaves are weak and limp1 and the outer ones especially get yellow1 spotted1 and die off4 ,later on the inner leaves die as well1 after which the top of the beet becomes black and the whole root gradually decays4 ,in less severe cases the beet may recover towards autumn and develop new heart leaves1 but the roots remain small and the crop is poor1 often being only one-third of its normal amount4 ,khn has proved by infection experiments that the sole cause of beet sickness is a nematode1 of which the life history is as follows4 ,the female is found fixed to the branches of the root2 it is citron-shaped1 about one twenty-fifth of an inch long 7,fig4 #acd1 #a and #aj71 and contains on an average three hundred and fifty eggs4 ,some few of these1 together with a jelly-like substance making up an 8egg-sac10 may pass out to the exterior1 but the large majority develop in the body of the female1 which ultimately becomes a mere sac enclosing the eel-like larv4 ,the female is killed by the process4 ,the liberated larva 7,fig4 #acd1 #d7 seeks out a root 7about one twenty-fifth of inch thick71 and bores into it4 ,here it lives as a parasite1 causing the disease of the attacked beet plant4 ,the larva quickly sheds its old skin1 assumes a thicker form 7,fig4 #acd1 #e71 ceases to move1 and gradually causes the outer skin of the root to bulge out externally 7,fig4 #acd1 #c1 a74 ,the distinction between the sexes now rapidly makes its appearance4 ,a thick motionless larva1 destined to become a male1 temporarily ceases to feed1 shrinks within its old skin1 develops a thin new one1 and ultimately becomes a long eel-like worm 7,fig4 #acd1 #f1 #g1 #h71 which grows into an adult male 7#h74 ,in the stage represented in ,fig4 #acd1 #h1 the animal still lies under the outer skin of the root1 which never bursts during its development1 but the mature male bores out of its larval skin and out of the root1 passing into the soil1 where it finds and fertilizes the female1 which in the meantime has developed but remains attached to the root4 ,the female develops in a simpler way1 by the gradual distension and growth of a larva 7not by a process of re-formation7 and gradual development of the female sexual organs4 ,as the larva passes from the stage of ,fig4 #acd1 #e1 into that of ,fig4 #acd1 #i1 and later on into the adult condition1 #aj1 the outer skin of the rootlet is ruptured1 and the female comes out from its tissues1 remaining1 however1 attached to its outside 7,fig4 #acd1 #a74 ,the entire development from egg to sexual adult takes four or five weeks1 and there may be six or seven successive generations1 the reproduction is consequently very rapid4 ,it also obviously follows that 8beet sickness0 of the soil is especially prevalent in fields where there has been an excessive amount of beet culture4 ,the disease1 however1 may suddenly appear in fields which have been hitherto 8safe0 for beet1 and in many such cases it has been proved to result from manuring with artificial compost rich in refuse from affected fields4 ,the disease frequently appears1 too1 in fields where beet have never been cultivated1 but where cabbage has been grown for a long time4 ,it has been shown1 especially by ,khn's investigations1 that the beet eelworm can live in many plants both cultivated and wild1 e4g4 of the former1 cabbage1 rape1 mustard1 garden cress1 chickling peas1 mangold1 oats2 of the latter1 charlock1 spurrey1 couch grass4 ,these researches are of the greatest importance both for understanding the way in which beet sickness spreads and in combating it4 ,preventive ,measures3 ,manufactured compost must not be used as a manure on beet-fields4 ,the refuse from infested beets1 if used on other fields1 must be mixed with one-sixth its bulk of quicklime4 ,the boots of labourers employed in beet-sick fields1 the hoofs of horses working in them1 and also the implements used1 must be carefully cleansed lest infected earth should be carried to other fields4 ,remedies3 ,khn has recommended the use of plants which attract the eelworms 78lure-plants074 ,he sows on beet-sick land rapidly germinating plants1 of kinds which the worms readily attack1 and weeds them out again when they have become infested by the parasites1 but before these have had time to mature and re-enter the soil4 ,the eelworms are thus allured into the plants grown1 and destroyed with them4 ,such lure-plants must be sown as thickly as practicable1 so that the soil may be penetrated by as many slender rootlets as possible4 ,after these plants have been dug up1 a second lot should be grown1 since all the eelworms will not have attacked the first lot2 and it is even advisable to grow a third batch4 ,khn used as lure-plants the various kinds of cabbage1 also summer rape 7,brassica rapa71 since this plant has a great attractive power for the beet eelworms1 and can hold a large number of them in its numerous1 much branched rootlets4 ,i cannot go into all ,khn's researches here1 and will only mention the following4 ,in the course of the year #ahhj part of a beet-sick field had three successive crops of lure-plants grown upon it1 each being dug up from thirty to forty days after sowing4 ,the field was ploughed in autumn1 suitably manured the next spring1 and sown with beet in the middle of ,april4 ,the other part of the piece of land was treated in exactly the same way1 except that no lure-plants were grown upon it4 ,a difference was very soon seen between the two plots1 and there was a very great difference at the time the crop was ready to be gathered in4 ,the plants on all parts of the first plot were in a flourishing condition1 but those on the second plot were in many places either killed outright or else small and misshapen4 ,the crop succeeding the lure-plants was three times as great as it had been before1 and almost equal to that of a healthy field4 ,later on1 ,khn made an important discovery2 he found that larv which have reached the thickened motionless stage1 depicted in ,fig4 #acd1 #e1 require a considerable amount of food to keep them alive1 and enable them to develop further4 ,if the plants are disturbed in such a way as to kill the rootlets containing the larv in this stage1 these are unable to develop any further4 ,khn caused a kind of horse machine to be made1 adapted for rapidly destroying the lure-plants in the fields4 ,for further details1 his original memoirs may be consulted4 ,the ,root-knot ,eelworm 7,heterodera radicicola74 ,this second species of the genus ,heterodera develops much like the beet eelworm1 living like it on the roots of plants1 but more deeply within them1 so that the body of the female 7which swells till it becomes pear- or flask-shaped7 does not cause the outer part of the infested root to project1 and does not reach the exterior4 ,where the eelworms collect1 galls are formed which decay later on1 when the eel-shaped larv escape into the soil1 very soon1 however1 to enter the roots again at their slender tips4 ,the galls are thickenings in the course of the root1 and are never lateral appendages1 like1 for instance1 the well-known 8tubercles0 in the roots of leguminous plants 7e4g4 clover1 pea74 ,the root eelworm lives in the roots of more than fifty plant species in the most various parts of the world1 and infests both weeds and cultivated plants4 ,it is especially damaging to clover and lucerne1 in which not only the galls die1 but also all parts of the root below them4 ,in this country the roots of cucumber and tomato are sometimes attacked 7,e4 ,a4 ,ormerod74 ,,class3 ,,platyhelmia 7,,flat ,,worms74 ,flat worms have a flat1 generally leaf-like body1 and usually no body-cavity1 the space between the internal organs and the muscular body-wall being filled up with connective tissue4 ,i will only deal here with the orders of ,tapeworms 7,cestoda7 and ,flukes 7,trematoda74 ,,order3 ,cestoda 7,,tapeworms74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--,tnia saginata3 head1 and a number of joints1 represented natural size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--,the ,common ,tapeworm 7,tnia officinalis73 a1 head and neck1 strongly magnified2 b1 joints1 natural size2 c1 eggs1 strongly magnified4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--,tapeworm ,larva 7of ,tnia solium71 much enlarged4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--,the three types of ,bladder-worm1 diagrammatically represented4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--,measle of ,t4 solium1 with head thrust out 7 #f74 ,the external characters of an ordinary tapeworm may be gathered from ,figs4 #ace and #acf4 ,a very small 8head0 continued behind into a small 8neck0 can be distinguished1 and a very large number of joints1 of which the first are very small and short1 while those which follow get larger and larger the further they are from the head4 ,the tapeworm at first consists only of a head which holds on to the lining of the intestine by means of suckers or similar structures4 ,the hinder part of the head next elongates to form the so-called 8neck10 and a cross-wall is quickly developed a little way in front of the hind end of this neck4 ,by this division is formed the first joint1 which1 though forthwith tolerably independent1 remains attached to the neck of the tapeworm head1 until a new joint is separated off from the hinder part of the neck1 immediately in front of the first joint4 ,every new joint is similarly formed by the constriction of the hinder part of the neck4 ,each joint possesses a complete set of hermaphrodite reproductive organs2 it becomes sexually mature without reference to other joints1 breaks off1 and creeps about1 even for considerable distances1 and finally ruptures1 so that the numerous eggs are liberated4 ,each joint may therefore be regarded as an individual1 though the tapeworm1 considered as a whole1 also possesses a certain individuality4 ,the tapeworm is a species of animal which exists in two forms4 ,one of these is the sexually reproducing joint1 which leaves the original host1 and from the eggs of which are developed larv1 which become1 in another host1 bladder-worms1 or measles4 ,these develop a head1 which is the asexual second form of the tapeworm4 ,this1 therefore1 is a case of metagenesis 7p4 #af74 ,it appears1 from what has been said1 that the head can in no sense be compared to the head of an ordinary animal2 it has neither mouth nor jaws1 for tapeworms do not possess a gut4 ,the head and joints take up osmotically through their walls the nutritive matter found in the intestine of their host4 ,there are suckers and1 in several species1 a circlet of hooks on the head 7,fig4 #acf1 a71 by which the animal holds fast to the intestinal wall4 ,thousands1 or even tens of thousands1 of eggs may be produced by a single joint4 ,the joint is liberated when the eggs begin to ripen1 often before4 ,in some species several adjacent joints are pinched off at the same time4 ,the tapeworm joints leave the intestine of their host either alone or with the dung4 ,after falling to the ground they creep along like snails1 and attach themselves to various plants4 ,it is obvious that a tapeworm joint or a number of the eggs produced by it may easily be taken up by a grazing animal4 ,the eggs of a particular kind of tapeworm are only able to develop further if they reach the intestine of a particular kind of host4 ,it is undoubtedly true that1 as a rule1 only a relatively small number of the eggs produced by a tapeworm develop further1 but the great powers of reproduction prevent the species from dying out4 ,if1 now1 either a joint or the eggs from one are taken into the gut of a suitable host1 the joint and the egg-shells1 or the latter only1 as the case may be1 are digested in the stomach or intestine1 so that the larv are set free4 ,these 7,fig4 #acg7 are spherical1 glass-like1 of microscopic size1 as might be expected1 and bear three pairs of hooklets1 by means of which they quickly perforate the wall of the gut1 and make a way through the tissues of the host4 ,they may also be carried further by the blood-stream4 ,the larva of a particular species settles down finally1 not only in some particular kind of host1 but also in some definite organ or tissue4 ,it then loses its hooks1 and is rapidly transformed into a hollow bladder-worm 7measle71 which grows till it reaches a definite size1 depending on the species4 ,meanwhile it gradually develops one 7,cysticercus7 or several 7,cnurus7 ingrowths1 or 7in ,echinococcus1 ,fig4 #ach7 several new bladders are developed inside the bladder-worm1 and ingrowths are usually formed within these1 similar to those of the simpler kinds of bladder-worm4 ,these ingrowths resemble tapeworm heads in all respects1 possessing suckers1 and1 it may be1 a circlet of hooks1 but these are inside1 and not outside4 ,later--either in the animal originally inhabited by the bladder-worm1 or after it has been transferred in the flesh of this to the gut of some carnivorous animal--the bladder-worm contracts1 so that it can no longer hold the fluid which is present1 and the ingrowth is turned inside out1 the suckers thus becoming external4 ,the tapeworm head is formed in this way1 but the bladder still remains attached to its hinder end 7,fig4 #aci74 ,if a host inhabited by bladder-worms is not devoured by another animal1 the bladder-worms1 after reaching their full size1 remain for a long time in the same stage of development without being able to develop further4 ,but if the host is devoured by another animal1 the bladder-worms enter its stomach and intestine1 where the bladder is digested1 while the tapeworm head remains uninjured4 ,this thrusts out its suckers and attaches itself by means of them to the wall of the intestine1 the process of joint-formation already described beginning soon afterwards4 ,the following tapeworms1 which are important to the owner of stock1 will be briefly dealt with4 ,the ,common or ,armed ,tapeworm of ,man 7,tnia solium74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--,measles in ,pork2 the white spot is the head 7natural size74 ,six to ten feet long1 with seven to eight hundred joints1 and a circlet of hooks 7,fig4 #acf71 lives in the human intestine4 ,several of its sexually mature joints are commonly pinched off at a time1 and if these are picked up from a field or dung-heap by a pig1 the contained eggs develop into 8pork measles0 7,cysticercus1 ,fig4 #adj71 which are especially abundant in the connective tissue between the muscles1 and make the meat 8measly40 ,they may also occur in the connective tissue of other parts 7fat1 brain1 spinal cord74 ,young pigs not more than six months old are most in danger of becoming measly4 ,a tolerably large number of measles can be borne very well1 but if very abundant they cause emaciation1 weakness1 lameness1 and poverty of blood4 ,the flesh of an animal badly infested with measles may be pale1 watery1 or even greasy1 while pork not so much diseased may seem all right1 though it is really unfit for food1 since if eaten in an insufficiently cooked state by human beings it would produce tapeworms4 ,the measles are most abundant in the muscles of the breast and neck1 and next to them in those of the hams and shoulders4 ,from twelve to twenty thousand measles may be present in a single pig4 ,the ,unarmed ,tapeworm of ,man 7,tnia saginata7 lives in the intestine of man1 and1 as a bladder-worm 7,cysticercus71 in the connective tissue of the muscles of the ox 7and especially in the calf74 ,it is from twelve to twenty feet1 with as many as a thousand joints1 but does not possess a circlet of hooks4 ,the joints generally leave the intestine one by one1 and creep on to grass and herbs1 where they burst1 so that the eggs are set free1 and therefore get widely distributed4 ,the ox scarcely ever takes in several joints of ,tnia saginata1 and consequently only a certain number of eggs4 ,beef never1 therefore1 contains so many measles as pork1 and there is not a special measle disease of oxen4 ,as1 however1 the eggs of ,tnia saginata are more widely distributed1 calves and oxen are more frequently infected with bladder-worms than is the case with swine4 ,the ,cnurus ,tapeworm of the ,dog 7,tnia cnurus7 is the cause of the bladder-worm1 producing sheep-gid1 or sturdy 7,cnurus cerebralis74 ,this tapeworm1 which may live in the intestine of other animals besides the dog1 has a circlet of hooks1 is from fourteen to sixteen inches long1 and consists of about two hundred joints4 ,it generally lives in the intestine of the sheep-dog1 in correspondence with which is the fact that the bladder-worm lives in the brain of young sheep4 ,if a sheep-dog harbours ,tnia cnurus in its stomach1 a sheep may very easily take up a joint with grass or heath4 ,the joint is then digested in the sheep's intestine1 and the larva escapes from the egg4 ,it bores through the wall of the sheep's intestine1 gets into the circulation1 and is carried by the blood-stream to various parts of the body2 it can only develop further1 however1 in the brain 7or spinal cord74 ,after the minute larv have reached the cavity of the cranium they move about on the outer surface of the brain1 and dig out channels there till they find a suitable place for further growth4 ,the larva now becomes a bladder-worm1 which gradually grows1 until it attains a size varying from that of a nut to that of a hen's egg4 ,it develops numerous tapeworm heads1 even from three to four hundred4 ,these become tapeworms if a sheep is killed by the parasite1 and its head devoured by a dog or fox4 ,the disease caused by the presence of bladder-worms in the brain is called 8gid10 or 8sturdy10 also 8staggers40 ,two stages can be distinguished in it4 ,during the first period the symptoms of disease are chiefly due to the wounds which the larv make on the surface of the brain1 and the consequent inflammation of the investing membranes4 ,even in this stage the disease may be fatal1 but the symptoms cease as soon as the larv cease to move about4 ,the bladder-worms are only able to do harm by the pressure they exert1 which is small at first1 though it gradually becomes greater4 ,the first stage of gid manifests itself in late summer1 the second in late autumn1 winter1 or spring1 according to the rate at which the bladder-worms develop4 ,the symptoms of the first stage are caused by the increased flow of blood to the brain and head generally1 resulting from the irritation which the larv exert4 7,head very hot4 ,eyes bloodshot4 ,the sheep are sluggish but restless1 and carry their heads in a strange way1 to one side1 bent back1 or turned up4 ,they often run round in a large circle4 ,there may also be gnashing of the teeth1 foaming at the mouth1 squinting1 convulsive movements1 and loss of consciousness47 ,the symptoms of the disease in its second stage are the result of pressure on the brain and some of the arteries of the brain and skull4 7,the sheep affected separate themselves from the others1 and generally hang their heads4 ,gaze fixed4 ,occasional loss of consciousness4 ,movements strange2 run or turn round in a circle4 ,the sheep often staggers and falls to the ground4 ,the bones of the skull become thinner at the place under which the bladder-worm is found1 sometimes even as thin as paper47 ,remedies3 ,trepanning1 as the bladders lie just underneath the roof of the skull4 ,prevention3 ,reducing the number of sheep-dogs2 giving the dogs medicine to rid them of tapeworms in spring and summer2 administering a specific to the yearling sheep in ,july and ,august1 suitable for driving out any tapeworm larv which may be present in their intestines2 burning 7instead of burying7 the heads of sheep affected with staggers which have died or been slaughtered4 ,it is but rarely that all the larv living on the surface of the brain die between the first and second stages of the disease4 ,a sheep affected by gid is therefore almost sure to die1 and should be slaughtered as soon as possible4 ,compare 8false gid10 p4 #ahi4 ,the ,minute ,tapeworm of the ,dog 7,tnia eckinococcus7 is at most scarcely one-sixth of an inch long1 and consists of only three or four joints1 often lives in large numbers in the intestine of the dog without injuring its host1 but causes huge cysts 7from the size of a pigeon's egg to that of a child's head7 in the liver1 lungs1 or other organs of man1 pig1 and ruminants4 ,these cysts are of the type represented on the right of ,fig4 #ach4 ,they may prove fatal1 owing to the pressure they exert in the organs containing them and the blood-vessels of the same4 ,the ,expanded ,tapeworm 7,tnia expansa7 lives in the intestine of the ox1 where it may attain the length of two feet1 while in the intestine of the lamb it reaches at most the length of about nineteen inches4 ,it is sometimes present in large numbers in lambs1 causing difficulty of digestion with resulting emaciation1 poverty of blood1 and even death4 ,bladder-worm still unknown4 ,,order3 ,trematoda 7,,flukes74 ,flattened parasitic worms1 tongue-shaped or leaf-shaped1 living on or in a host1 and provided with one or two ventral suckers4 ,the intestine forks into two branches immediately behind the gullet1 and these two divisions in some species 7e4g4 the large liver-fluke7 branch again repeatedly in a tree-like fashion4 ,anus and blood-vessels absent4 ,almost all flukes are hermaphrodite2 they fertilize themselves4 ,all the forms living within a host 7i4e4 endoparasitic forms7 lay an immense number of small eggs1 from which larv are hatched that become asexually reproducing animals4 ,these or their progeny produce once more the sexual form4 ,the development is therefore an example of metagenesis 7p4 #af71 but there is a change of host4 ,only the two liver-flukes need be dealt with here4 ,the ,large ,liver ,fluke 7,distoma hepaticum71 7,fig4 #ada71 is flat1 but swollen in the middle1 when it contains a large number of eggs1 under which circumstances the edges only are flat4 ,the last are of a dirty brown colour1 while the middle of the body is greyish yellow4 ,there is a triangular projection at the front end of the body with a sucker at the apex1 and another at hinder end of the triangle4 ,the outer surface of the body is covered with minute backwardly projecting spines1 which present no hindrance to the forward creeping of the body in the bile-ducts1 but make backward creeping or gliding impossible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--,the ,liver ,fluke 7,distoma hepaticum71 natural size4 ,eggs of an inch long1 with a red shell possessing a greenish sheen4 ,they can only develop if they get into water1 and in wet years the conditions are very favourable on damp meadows1 for under such conditions the sheep-dung1 with the contained fluke eggs1 is liable to fall into pools of water4 ,but many of the eggs can develop in years that are not so wet and on dryer fields1 as they may be carried into a ditch by rain or on the feet of the sheep4 ,the larva hatched from the egg of the liver-fluke is of an inch long1 elongated in shape1 and swims about freely in the water by means of a covering of cilia 7,fig4 #adb1 a74 ,it soon finds its way into the lung cavity of a small water snail 7,lymnus truncatulus1 ,fig4 #adb1 i71 loses its covering of cilia1 and becomes broader1 even almost spherical4 ,in the free-swimming larva there are already to be found a collection of germinal cells in the hinder part of the body2 later on1 these cells repeatedly divide and form little heaps1 which ultimately become fresh individuals4 ,the larva has1 therefore1 passed into a second stage1 and this is now known as a sporocyst 7,fig4 #adb1 b1 c74 ,the stage developed asexually from the heap of germinal cells is distinguished from the sporocyst by a differently shaped body and by the possession of a gut 7with mouth1 pharynx1 and intestine1 but no anus71 which is absent in the latter4 ,this stage is termed a 8redia0 7,fig4 #adb1 d74 ,from five to eight of them are usually developed within one sporocyst4 ,germinal cells are also present in the redia1 and they develop into little heaps of cells from which1 while the weather is warm1 new redi are developed1 that live in the lung cavity of the snail1 like their parents4 ,when the weather becomes colder1 8cercari0 7,fig4 #adb1 f7 are developed from the germinal cells1 some fifteen to twenty of them within a single redia 7,fig4 #adb1 e74 ,the cercaria has a long tail1 by means of which it can propel itself in the water1 after leaving the mother redia and the snail4 ,it possesses two suckers1 and a forked intestine without anus4 ,after the cercari have moved about in the water for some time they fix themselves1 by means of their suckers1 to various plants growing in the water4 ,the tail being now superfluous is lost1 the cercaria becomes spherical1 and contracts somewhat within an investment which it secretes 7,fig4 #adb1 g74 ,when1 later on1 the pools in which the cercari live dry up1 the plants which were before submerged are now on dry land1 and may be devoured by sheep1 together with the encysted cercari found upon them4 ,the wall of the cyst is dissolved in the intestine of the sheep1 and the contained cercaria gradually becomes a young liver-fluke1 which at first is oval and very small 7,fig4 #adb1 h71 while1 later on1 its anterior third becomes the triangular projection at the front end of the adult fluke1 and its posterior two-thirds grow very considerably4 ,meanwhile the young liver-fluke has travelled from the intestine of the sheep into its bile-ducts4 ,it appears that the fluke is completely grown within a few weeks after its introduction into the body of the sheep4 ,infection almost always takes place in summer or autumn4 ,the life history of the liver-fluke exemplifies change of host and metagenesis 7p4 #af74 ,from the egg of a sexual worm a free-swimming larva is developed1 which becomes an asexual sporocyst within the snail4 ,this sporocyst produces asexual redi1 and from these1 also asexually1 are developed cercari1 which leave the snail1 pass into water1 attach themselves to plants1 and reach the intestine of the sheep later on4 ,the cercari become flukes by a process of metamorphosis1 and are to be regarded as fluke larv4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--,liver ,fluke3 a1 free-swimming ciliated larva2 b1 young ,sporocyst1 a few days after migration into the snail2 c1 sporocyst1 containing redi in various stages of development2 d1 redia1 containing balls of germinal cells2 e1 mature redia1 containing its brood of cercari2 f1 mature cercaria2 g1 just-encysted cercaria2 h1 young fluke1 soon after entering sheep2 i1 the water snail1 ,lymnus truncatulus4 a1 b1 c1 d #bjj2 e #aej2 f #cjj2 g #aej2 h #be2 i1 natural size and #c4 ,it is easily explained why the 8fluke disease10 or 8liver rot10 caused by the fluke should appear much oftener in some regions than others4 ,low-lying pastures which are now and then flooded are best suited for the development of the disease1 since the fluke eggs have a better chance of developing upon them4 ,this is because at certain times of the year there are in such spots numerous submerged plants on which cercari encyst1 and which1 later on1 when the pools dry up1 are nibbled by sheep4 ,it seems that the cercari mostly attach themselves to certain kinds of plants1 hence the local nature of the disease1 which of course also depends on the presence of ,lymnus truncatulus 7,fig4 #adb1 i74 ,fluke disease first makes itself apparent in the sheep one or two months after infection4 ,if the sheep does not die the parasites often remain in its liver till the next spring4 ,the liver of a single sheep may contain from #bjj to #bej individuals4 ,they live in the various branches of the bile-duct1 and the irritation they set up first causes an unusual quantity of blood to flow to the liver4 ,inflammation and internal bleeding may result1 and gall stones are deposited in the thickened walls of the biliary passages4 ,the flow of bile from the liver is made difficult or impossible4 ,later on1 the parasites draw so much blood from the liver that this organ is very insufficiently nourished1 so that no more bile is secreted1 and the liver substance shrivels up4 ,in consequence of these changes the digestion is incomplete1 and the whole body of the sheep is very insufficiently nourished4 ,the diseased sheep are therefore sluggish and enfeebled2 they eat little1 but drink a great deal1 and suffer from poverty of blood4 ,their wool gets dry1 and does not hold together1 and they become emaciated4 ,dropsy and diarrha set in1 and jaundice often makes its appearance4 ,if a sheep is infested by a tolerably large number of flukes1 death is almost always the final result4 8,the best preventative is a trustworthy and careful shepherd10#e who will not let the sheep feed in spots where previous experience shows the disease is usually contracted during damp summers4 ,furthermore1 sheep badly infested should be slaughtered as soon as possible1 so that the flukes they contain may not get to the egg-laying stage4 ,sick sheep should be fed with nourishing food 7various kinds of hay1 oats2 with addition of cooking salt71 so that young sheep containing but few flukes may get back their strength1 while this treatment will make the badly infested sheep die more quickly4 ,footnote #e3 ,spinola4 ,oxen are also frequently affected by fluke disease in many regions1 other animals to a less extent4 ,the ,small or ,lancet-shaped ,liver ,fluke 7,distoma lanceolatum7 is about three-eighths of an inch long1 one-tenth of an inch broad1 thin1 and lancet-shaped4 ,lives1 like the preceding kind1 in the liver of the sheep4 ,development unknown4 ,fourth ,sub-,kingdom3 ,,mollusca 7,,molluscs74 ,this sub-kingdom1 to which oysters1 snails1 cuttle-fish1 etc41 belong1 includes unsegmented animals devoid of internal skeleton1 and with bilaterally symmetrical 7p4 #af7 embryo1 while the adult may be much modified1 especially in snails1 which are enclosed in spiral shells1 and also have their bodies partially coiled4 ,the skin of molluscs possesses a peculiar and characteristic covering4 ,from a definite part of the body a larger or smaller fold of skin 78mantle07 grows out1 which encloses a space termed the 8mantle-cavity10 and also1 from its function1 the 8respiratory cavity40 ,in most molluscs this mantle secretes an external or internal calcareous mass4 ,in this way a 8shell0 is developed 7,fig4 #adc1 ,a1 ,s71 which is usually external4 ,this is the case1 for example1 with the edible1 or ,roman snail1 and the common garden snail4 ,in other cases 7cuttlefishes71 the shell is formed inside the mantle1 or it may be replaced by a collection of calcareous granules 7various slugs74 ,in most molluscs the chief organ of locomotion is the so-called 8foot0 7,fig4 #adc1 ,f74 ,this is a very muscular region of the body1 covered by skin1 and serving either for crawling 7snails71 or else for digging in the sand1 and even springing 7bivalve molluscs74 ,its structure varies according to its function4 ,i mention three classes1 those of ,cephalopoda 7,cuttlefishes71 ,gastropoda 7,snails and ,slugs71 and ,lamellibranchiata 7,bivalve ,molluscs74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--;,diagrams to explain the form of the body of a ,mollusc4 ,a1 a ,bivalve ,mollusc2 ,b1 a ,snail 7cross sections74 ,in both2 ,k1 body2 ,f1 foot2 ,s1 shell2 m1 mantle2 k1 k1 gills4 ,,class3 ,,cephalopoda 7,,cuttlefishes74 ,the head is sharply marked off from the rest of the body1 and the mouth is surrounded by a circle of arms bearing suckers or claw-like hooks4 ,these arms are supposed to be a modification of part of the foot1 the rest of this organ being constituted by a hollow1 funnel-shaped structure1 which places the mantle-cavity in communication with the exterior4 ,the water used for respiration is forced suddenly out from the mantle-cavity1 through the funnel1 so as to propel the animal in the opposite direction4 ,a gland1 known as the 8ink sac10 secretes a brownish fluid1 which may be pressed out of the sac so as to shield the animal from attack4 ,all cephalopods are marine1 and1 since they are therefore of no agricultural importance1 it is unnecessary to enter into details regarding their form and structure1 and ,i will only mention the following3 ,pearly ,nautilus 7,nautilus pompilius71 with external shell and numerous arms2 ,paper ,nautilus 7,argonauta argo71 with a very thin1 boat-shaped shell1 and eight arms2 ,poulpe 7,octopus71 without shell1 and with eight arms2 ,cuttle-fish 7,sepia71 and ,squid 7,loligo71 also without external shell1 and possessing ten arms4 ,,class3 ,,gastropoda 7,,snails ,,and ,,slugs74 ,snails and slugs possess a head which bears unjointed tentacles1 and also eyes1 which1 in many cases1 are borne on the tips of these4 ,the foot serves for creeping1 and is flattened in a sole-like way on its under side4 ,the mantle is generally small1 and limited to the dorsal side of the animal4 ,the usually spiral shell covers therefore only a small part of the body1 but the rest of the body can also be mostly or entirely drawn back into it4 ,snails possess jaws1 but the chief organ used in attacking the plant structures is the swollen tongue1 covered by a rasping plate 7radula71 on the surface of which regular rows of teeth are arranged4 ,the rest of the tongue consists of muscle1 and two small cartilages are also found within it4 ,the teeth stick up when the tongue is protruded1 and the whole apparatus forms a kind of rasp1 by the backward and forward movements of which the food is reduced to small fragments4 ,marine snails breathe by gills1 which are found in the mantle-cavity1 while most of the freshwater and all the land forms 78,pulmonata07 breathe by means of the inner wall of the mantle-cavity1 which thus serves as a lung4 ,some members of the group are hermaphrodite1 while the sexes are distinct in others2 the first is the case in all terrestrial forms4 ,such snails pair1 however1 mutually fertilizing each other4 ,they are not able to fertilize themselves4 ,it is only among land snails and slugs that injurious kinds are found4 ,species of the genus ,helix1 e4g4 the ,edible or ,roman ,snail 7,h4 pomatia7 and the ,field ,snail 7,h4 nemoralis71 may do harm in fruit-culture2 ,slugs are very injurious to agriculture 7,limax and ,arion72 in ,limax1 the respiratory opening is situated behind the middle of the right margin of the mantle1 while the genital opening lies behind the right feeler2 in ,arion1 the respiratory opening is situated on the front edge of the mantle1 and the genital opening immediately in front of it4 ,any kind of snail or slug may be harmful1 especially if it attacks young plants4 ,some kinds1 however1 live chiefly in woods1 feeding upon toadstools and dung1 perhaps also on bark and weeds 7e4g4 dandelion74 ,this is especially true of the larger kinds1 but these too1 if they multiply very rapidly1 may effect much damage in gardens and fields4 ,the commonest slugs are-- ,the ,common ,black ,slug 7,arion ater74--,about four inches long1 and generally black4 ,the ,grey ,field ,slug 7,limax agrestis1 ,fig4 #add74--;,four-fifths of an inch long1 small and smooth1 with dark tentacles1 grey back1 often a reddish sheen1 and bright grey or white under side4 ,the ,large ,slug 7,limax maximus74--,up to six inches long1 with black flecks on the hump-like mantle1 and black streaks on the rest of the body4 ,in a large majority of cases where slugs appear to an injurious extent1 the grey field slug is the offender1 and ,i will therefore deal with it in greater detail4 ,what is said regarding the small species1 however1 may be taken to apply to all the other kinds1 should they become a pest4 ,the ,grey ,field ,slug 7,limax agrestis74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4--,the ,grey ,field ,slug 7,limax agrestis74 ,the life of the grey field slug is very dependent on moisture4 ,during dry weather it rolls itself up and hides in the ground1 under a stone1 or in some such place1 where it is protected as much as possible from completely drying up4 ,at such times it only comes to the surface to feed at night1 but does so during the day as well when the weather is wet4 ,the field slug is very destructive in fields and gardens1 but this is only the case in those years the great dampness of which is specially favourable to its continuance and multiplication4 ,the glassy eggs are laid in heaps containing from six to fifteen1 in damp concealed spots in the ground1 under moss1 grass1 etc41 during ,august1 ,september1 and even ,october4 ,a single slug may lay as many as four hundred4 ,the eggs are able to withstand extreme cold and extreme dryness1 and moisture makes them swell out again if they have shrivelled up4 ,in warm1 damp weather the young slugs 7which are one-twelfth of an inch long in the contracted1 and two-fifths of an inch in the extended condition7 hatch out in three or four weeks4 ,cold weather retards the development4 ,if the weather is favourable1 and suitable food is not wanting1 they are often almost full-grown in six weeks' time4 ,it is clear1 from the foregoing1 that in damp years the slugs may appear in very large numbers1 especially in autumn2 but it may also happen that most of the young slugs hatch out the following spring1 in which case the greatest amount of damage will be done then4 ,a snail may live several years1 spending the dry days and the whole of the cold season in the ground or some other sheltered place4 ,these slugs devour by preference delicate leaves and stems2 young grain1 young clover plants1 leaves of rape1 cabbage1 turnips1 and lettuce are their favourite food1 also fallen fruit1 strawberries1 cucumbers1 and vegetable marrows4 ,preventive ,measures3 ,protection of their natural enemies3 pigs1 moles1 shrews1 ducks1 fowls1 pigeons1 rooks1 starlings1 toads4 ,draining the soil1 as slugs flourish most where it is moist4 ,sowing the winter grain as soon as possible1 as the young plants will then probably have attained a fair size when the slugs appear in force4 ,remedies3 ,collection4 ,the slugs readily crawl on to bits of cucumber or turnip which are thrown down1 and can then easily be collected1 or killed with quicklime4 ,all substances which readily absorb water kill slugs by taking from them the moisture which is necessary for their existence4 ,cooking-salt1 unslaked and slaked lime may be employed for this purpose4 ,it seems to me most convenient to use freshly slaked lime1 ten to twelve bushels per acre4 ,since the lime can only kill the slugs when it comes into contact with their skins1 it must always be strewn on the land at a time when they are on the crawl1 not later than #h a4m41 and only in dry weather4 ,as soon as the slugs are touched by the lime they begin to give out a great deal of slime1 and many of them1 especially the younger ones1 are killed and become black4 ,very many of the older slugs1 however1 escape death1 since the tenacious slime they give out1 when the lime touches them1 forms a continuous coat like a cocoon1 out of which the slug creeps1 now much poorer in water4 ,it is therefore a good plan to strew powdered lime over a slug-infested field twice in succession1 leaving an interval of some ten or fifteen minutes4 ,the second strewing brings the lime into contact with those slugs which have just crawled out of their slimy investment in a desiccated condition4 ,they are unable to form a second coating of slime1 and if touched for this second time with even the smallest particles of lime they at once contract and die4 ,if a double strewing is repeated very early on the following morning1 no slugs will be left alive on the field so treated4 ,,class3 ,,lamellibranchiata 7,,bivalve ,,molluscs74 ,headless4 ,the mantle consists of two flaps1 which secrete two shelly pieces 7valves7 movably united on the dorsal side 7,fig4 #dc74 ,the foot is usually wedge-shaped4 ,respiration effected by gills placed in the mantle-cavity1 which communicates with the exterior either by the usual respiratory opening1 or by a breathing-tube 7siphon74 ,most species are marine1 but some live in fresh water4 ,no kind is of agricultural importance4 ,to this class belong the ,oyster 7,ostrea edulis71 the ,sea ,mussel 7,mytilus edulis71 the tropical ,pearl ,mussel 7,meleagrina margaritifera71 the freshwater ,swan ,mussel 7,anodonta cygnea71 the notorious ,ship ,worm 7,teredo navalis71 etc4 ,fifth ,sub-,kingdom3 ,,echinodermata 7,,hedgehog-,,skinned ,,animals74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--,the ,common ,starfish 7,asterias rubens71 seen on the right from above1 on the left from below4 ,the echinoderms are radially symmetrical1 i4e4 a number of similar parts which together make up the body are arranged around an axis 7,fig4 #ade74 ,these animals are usually five-rayed4 ,the mouth lies at lower end of the axis of the body4 ,in some echinoderms the radial symmetry is indistinct1 and at the same time there is a more or less clear bilateral symmetry 7p4 #af74 ,the dermal skeleton either consists of numerous microscopic calcareous deposits1 or of firm plates2 the skin often bears spines1 hence the name of the group4 ,echinoderms move by means of rows of tubular feet1 which are connected with a water-vascular system1 and are protruded by means of small bladders1 connected with the same system1 which contract and force water into them4 ,the form of the body is apple-shaped to spherical 7,regular ,sea ,urchins71 shield- or heart-shaped 7,irregular ,sea ,urchins71 pentagonal to star-shaped1 with arms of varying length 7,starfishes71 or cylindrical to vermiform 7,sea ,cucumbers74 ,all echinoderms are marine1 and none of them1 therefore1 are of agricultural importance1 though near the coast starfishes are sometimes used as manure4 ,sixth ,sub-,kingdom3 ,c,,lenterata 7,,zoophytes74 ,with a few exceptions the zoophytes are radially symmetrical 7p4 #beb71 and four-1 six-1 eight-1 or many-rayed4 ,they consist of a body-wall enclosing a cavity which1 in the simplest forms 7,fig4 #adf71 is sack-like1 but in several of the higher sub-groups divided up1 and serves1 not only for the reception and digestion of food1 but also for the circulation of the digested food4 ,many zoophytes develop hard parts in the walls of their bodies1 which remain after their death4 ,the red coral used for ornamental purposes is of this nature1 and so also are the coral islands which polypes build up4 ,with the exception of the sponges1 which are usually reckoned as belonging to this sub-kingdom1 these animals possess 8nettling organs0 with which they kill their prey1 and by which they are protected from attack4 ,they reproduce by eggs1 and most of them by means of budding as well 7,fig4 #adf74 ,in many species the buds are not detached as in the ,freshwater ,polype 7,hydra71 but remain attached so that a 8colony0 is formed4 ,there are also free-swimming clenterates1 known as jellyfishes or medus 7,fig4 #adg74 ,many of these lay eggs which do not develop into fresh medus1 but into polypes1 which increase by budding to form colonies1 on which medus are once more developed as buds4 ,there is thus an alternation of generations 7p4 #af71 in which the medus represent the sexual and the polypes the asexual stage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--;,freshwater ,polype 7,hydra71 bearing two buds of different ages4 ,highly magnified4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--;,a ,phosphorescent ,jellyfish 7,pelagia noctiluca71 the natural size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--;,a ,sea ,anemone 7,sagartia nivea74 ,almost all zoophytes live in the sea1 but some few in fresh water2 none are important agriculturally4 ,the following belong to this sub-kingdom3 #a4 ,the ,hydroid ,zoophytes 7,hydrozoa71 including the medus of the ,north ,sea1 many of which are the sexual stage in the life history of fixed asexual polypes4 ,the common ,freshwater ,polypes 7,hydra viridis1 fusca1 etc474 #b4 ,the ,flower ,polypes 7,anthozoa71 to which belong ,red ,coral 7,corallium rubrum71 and the reef-building corals 7,astra1 ,mandrina1 etc474 #c4 ,the ,sponges 7,porifera71 which are usually considered clenterates1 though they possess no nettling organs 7,freshwater ,sponge ,spongilla1 ,bath ,sponge ,euspongia officinalis74 ,seventh ,sub-,kingdom3 ,,protozoa 7,,one-,,celled ,,animals74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--,two species of ,proteus ,animalcule 7,amba71 one with protoplasmic processes1 slender and branched2 the other with short blunt processes4 ,highly magnified4 ,this sub-kingdom includes animals which are mostly microscopic1 or at any rate small1 and live in the sea1 fresh water1 or damp places4 ,they are unicellular1 and consist of a soft viscous substance 7protoplasm or sarcode7 of contractile nature1 and therefore capable of altering its shape4 ,they may or may not be enclosed by a firm wall4 ,many secrete siliceous structures or calcareous shells4 ,they are of no agricultural importance4 ,here belong3 ,infusoria1 common in putrid solutions2 and ,rhizopods1 such as ,amba1 the ,proteus ,animalcule 7,fig4 #adi71 so called because its shape is constantly altering4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,clowes ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,london ,,and ,,beccles4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,other ,,works ,,by ,,prof4 ,,ainsworth ,,davis4 ,published by ,,chas4 ,,griffin ,,co41 ,exeter ,street1 ,strand4 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,of ,,biology4 ,second ,edition4 ,part ,i41 ,botany1 #hs4 #f;d4 ,part ,,ii41 ,zoology1 #ajs4 #f;d4 8,furnishes a clear and comprehensive exposition of the subject in a systematic form40--,saturday ,review4 8,it is certainly the best #8biology' with which we are acquainted1 and it owes its pre-eminence to the fact above stated1 that it is an excellent attempt to present biology to the student as a correlated and complete science40--,british ,medical ,journal4 8,as a reference book 444 one cannot speak too highly of this text-book1 and as a treatise in theoretical biology it occupies a place not filled by any other ,english publication40--,science4 ,,the ,,flowering ,,plant1 as ,illustrating the ,first ,principles of ,botany4 ,second ,edition4 #cs4 #f;d4 8,it would be hard to find a text-book which would better guide the student to an accurate knowledge of modern discoveries in ,botany4444 ,the ,,scientific ,,accuracy of statement1 and the concise exposition of ,,first ,,principles make it valuable for educational purposes4 ,in the chapter on the ,physiology of ,flowers an admirable rsum is given1 drawn from ,darwin1 ,hermann ,mller1 ,kerner1 and ,lubbock1 of what is known of the ,fertilization of ,flowers40--,journal of the ,linnean ,society4 ,a ,,zoological ,,pocket-,,book2 or1 ,synopsis of ,animal ,classification4 ,by ,,dr4 ,,emil ,,selenka1 ,professor in the ,university of ,erlangen4 ,authorized ,english translation from the ,third ,german ,edition4 ,in ,small ,post #hvo1 interleaved for the use of ,students4 ,limp ,covers1 #ds4 8,dr4 ,selenka's ,manual will be found useful by all ,students of ,zoology4 ,it is a ,,comprehensive and ,,successful attempt to present us with a scheme of the natural arrangement of the animal world40--,edin4 ,med4 ,journal4 8,will prove very serviceable to those who are attending ,biology ,lectures4444 ,the translation is accurate and clear40--,lancet4 ,,works ,,on ,,ornithology1 ,etc4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,hudson1 ,c4,m4,z4,s4 ,,birds ,,in ,a ,,village4 ,square crown #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,idle ,,days ,,in ,,patagonia4 ,with numerous ,illustrations by ,j4 ,,smit and ,a4 ,,hartley4 ,demy #hvo1 #ads4 ,,the ,,naturalist ,,in ,,la ,,plata4 ,with numerous ,illustrations by ,j4 ,,smit4 ,second ,edition4 ,demy #hvo1 #afs4 ,,charles ,,dixon4 ,,the ,,nests ,,and ,,eggs ,,of ,,non-,,indigenous ,,british ,,birds4 ,in ,press4 ,,the ,,nests ,,and ,,eggs ,,of ,,british ,,birds3 ,when and ,where to ,find ,them4 ,being a ,handbook to the ,oology of the ,british ,islands4 ,crown #hvo1 #fs4 ,also large paper ,edition1 containing #aeg ,coloured ,illustrations of ,eggs4 ,large demy #hvo1 #aes4 ,,jottings ,,about ,,birds4 ,with ,coloured ,frontispiece by ,j4 ,,smit4 ,crown #hvo1 #fs4 ,,the ,,game ,,birds ,,and ,,wild ,,fowl ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,islands4 ,illustrated by ,a4 ,t4 ,,elwes4 ,demy #hvo1 #ahs4 ,,the ,,migration ,,of ,,birds3 ,an ,attempt to ,reduce the ,avian ,season-flight to ,law4 ,crown #hvo1 #fs4 ,,the ,,birds ,,of ,,our ,,rambles3 ,a ,companion for the ,country4 ,with ,illustrations by ,a4 ,t4 ,,elwes4 ,large crown #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,idle ,,hours ,,with ,,nature4 ,with ,frontispiece4 ,crown #hvo1 #fs4 ,,annals ,,of ,,bird ,,life3 ,a ,year-,book of ,british ,ornithology4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,chapman ,,hall1 ,,ld41 ,,london4 ,,farming ,,for ,,pleasure ,,and ,,profit4 ,by ,,arthur ,,roland4 ,edited by ,,william ,,ablett4 #h vols4 ,crown #hvo1 #es4 each4 ,,dairy-,,farming1 ,,management ,,of ,,cows1 etc4 ,,poultry-,,keeping4 ,,tree-,,planting1 ,,for ,,ornamentation ,,or ,,profit4 ,,stock-,,keeping ,,and ,,cattle-,,rearing4 ,,drainage ,,of ,,land1 ,,irrigation1 ,,manures1 etc4 ,,root-,,growing1 ,,hops1 etc4 ,,management ,,of ,,grass-,,lands1 ,,laying ,,down ,,grass1 ,,artificial ,,grasses1 etc4 ,,market ,,gardening1 ,,husbandry ,,for ,,farmers ,,and ,,general ,,cultivators4 ,,uniform ,,with ,,the ,,above4 ,,british ,,bee-,,farming3 ,its ,profits and ,pleasures4 ,by ,,james ,f4 ,,robinson4 ,large crown #hvo1 #es4 ,,james ,,long4 ,,british ,,dairy-,,farming1 to which is added a ,description of the ,chief ,continental ,systems4 ,by ,,james ,,long4 ,with ,numerous ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 #is4 ,from the ,,mark ,,lane ,,express4 8,a new book on dairy-farming could scarcely have been issued at a more seasonable period than the present time1 when that branch of agriculture is1 for the first time1 receiving the attention it deserves and requires2 and ,mr4 ,james ,long's #8,british ,dairy-,farming1' published by ,messrs4 ,chapman ,hall1 is likely to have a wide circulation4 ,as #agh out of #dia pages are devoted to foreign systems of dairying1 besides numerous references in the rest of the work1 and as a book is always known by its short title1 it is a pity that the more comprehensive title was not chosen1 especially as the foreign portion of the work is by no means the least valuable4 ,the collection of facts1 including prices1 and various other statistics in the chapters on milk1 butter1 and cheese1 is very useful1 and must have cost a great deal of labour4 ,the illustrated description of dairy utensils and appliances1 again1 is very complete1 and the details given about cream-separators1 to which ,mr4 ,long has devoted special study1 are worthy of careful attention4 ,in our opinion1 however1 the most valuable portion of the work is that devoted to descriptions of ,continental systems of dairying4444 ,the instructions as to the making of the most famous fancy cheeses of ,france1 ,italy1 and ,switzerland are especially worthy of study1 with a view to the manufacture of similar cheeses in this country4 ,very full details of the practices of the best makers of these cheeses1 with numerous illustrations and records of quantities and prices1 are supplied4 ,indeed1 it is marvellous that so many trade secrets should have been divulged by the foreign dairy-farmers4 ,the descriptions of butter-making in ,france and ,denmark are also worthy of careful attention4 ,on the whole1 we sincerely congratulate ,mr4 ,long upon the notable addition which he has made to the literature of dairy-farming40 ,,chapman ,,hall1 ,,ld41 ,,london4 ,,professor ,j4 ,,wrightson',s ,,works4 ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,agricultural ,,practice ,,as ,,an ,,instructional ,,subject4 ,by ,,professor ,j4 ,,wrightson1 ,m4,r4,a4,c41 ,f4,c4,s41 etc42 ,examiner in ,agriculture to the ,science and ,art ,department2 ,professor of ,agriculture in the ,normal ,school of ,science and ,royal ,school of ,mines2 ,president of the ,college of ,agriculture1 ,downton1 near ,salisbury2 etc41 etc4 ,with ,geological ,map4 ,second ,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 #es4 ,from the ,,st4 ,,james',s ,,gazette4 8,professor ,wrightson is a practical farmer as well as a man of science2 and he is1 as far as our memory serves us1 the only man living who combines these qualities with the actual function of teaching4 ,the conjunction is as valuable as it is rare4444 ,every teacher of elementary agriculture should study these pages4 ,it is a safe and judicious guide to what lies further on40 ,from the ,,academy4 8,besides stating lucidly the theory of modern agriculture1 the author every here and there descends to practical advice4 ,most farmers are amusingly distrustful of the man who writes2 but the sound sense here concentrated1 and the teachings necessary for these times of sorrow and trial to agriculture1 will at once disarm suspicion1 if the cautious reader perseveres and weighs the value of ,professor ,wrightson's advice40 ,from ,,bell',s ,,weekly ,,messenger4 8,professor ,wrightson has given us a very interesting and instructive book1 and he treats on many subjects with a precision and definiteness which can only be achieved by those who have had actual experience in carrying out the work connected with them1 and watching the results4444 ,a book which will be found of much use to a young farmer1 as well as to the teachers for whom he particularly wrote it4 ,it is in reality a book on farming1 and it has more actual farming in it than any book we know of the same size40 ,from the ,,times4 8,as a practical text-book of farming there is no work that we have read that can surpass this handy little volume1 and it should have a good number of readers among those actually engaged in tilling the soil4 ,but this is not its chief value4 ,this comes from its being a model of the way in which agriculture1 as an art1 can be intelligently and popularly taught40 ,from the ,,morning ,,post4 8,an important work1 #8,the ,principles of ,agricultural ,practice1' has just been published by ,messrs4 ,chapman ,hall4 ,it comes from the pen of the most experienced teacher of agriculture in this country1 ,professor ,j4 ,wrightson4 ,the author deplores the tendency1 which has become accentuated in recent years1 of presenting agriculture as a patchwork of half a dozen different sciences1 and endeavours to show that it is a great subject in itself1 and one which may be treated independently4 ,the result is a very successful and acceptable treatise4 ,professor ,wrightson possesses the advantage of being himself a successful farmer and breeder1 and he is able therefore to clothe his ideas in words that appeal forcibly to practical agriculturalists4444 ,the work embraces a full and exhaustive study of the soil1 and deals also with methods of cultivation1 cropping1 fertilizers1 laying land down to grass1 and cognate subjects4 ,the volume is one which can be confidently recommended to the perusal of all who are interested in the great subject with which it deals40 ,,uniform ,,with ,,the ,,above4 ,,fallow ,,and ,,fodder ,,crops4 ,crown #hvo1 #es4 ,,chapman ,,hall1 ,,ld41 ,,london4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,typos fixed2 non-standard spelling and dialect retained4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4 ,enclosed bold font in equals4 ,the caret 77 serves as a superscript indicator4 ,subscripts are shown using an underscore 77 with curly braces 1 as in ,h#b,o4