,,select ,,works                        
,,of                                    
,,porphyry2                             
,,containing                            
,,his ,,four ,,books ,,on               
,,abstinence ,,from ,,animal ,,food2    
,,his ,,treatise ,,on                   
,,the ,,homeric ,,cave ,,of ,,the       
,,nymphs2                               
,,and ,,his                             
,,auxiliaries                           
,,to ,,the                              
,,perception ,,of ,,intelligible        
,,natures4                              
,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,greek       
,,by                                    
,,thomas ,,taylor4                      
,,with                                  
,,an ,,appendix1                        
,,explaining ,,the ,,allegory ,,of ,,the
 ,,wanderings ,,of ,,ulysses4           
,,by ,,the ,,translator4                
1                 1   1                 
4--,,plotini ,op4 p4 #gga4              
,,london3                               

,,printed ,,for                         
,,thomas ,,rodd1 #ag1 ,,great ,,newport 
,,street4                               
#ahbc4                                  
,,london3                     ,,printed 
,,by ,j4 ,,moyes1 ,,greville ,,street4  
,,to                          ,,the     
,,rev4 ,,william ,,john ,,jolliffe1     
,,as ,a ,,testimony ,,of ,,great        
,,esteem ,,for ,,his                    
,,talents ,,and ,,worth1                
,,and ,a ,,tribute ,,of ,,the ,,warmest 
,,gratitude ,,for                       
,,his ,,patronage1                      
,,this ,,work ,,is ,,dedicated          
,,by ,,the ,,translator1                
,,thomas ,,taylor4                      
,,introduction4      ,porphyry1 the     
celebrated author of the treatises      
translated in this  volume1 was         
dignified by his contemporaries1 and by 
succeeding  ,platonists1 with the       
appellation of the philosopher1 on      
account of his  very extraordinary      
philosophical attainments4 ,he is       

likewise called by  ,simplicius1 the    
most learned of the philosophers1 and is
 praised by  ,proclus for his  1 or     
conceptions adapted to sanctity2  the   
truth of all which appellations is by   
the following treatises most  abundantly
 and manifestly confirmed4    ,a few    
biographical particulars only have been 
transmitted to us  respecting this great
 man1 and these are as follow4 ,he was  
born at ,tyre1  in the twelfth year of  
the reign of the ,emperor ,alexander    
,severus1 and  in the two hundred and   
thirty-third of the ,christian era2 and 
he died at  ,rome1 when he was more than
 seventy years old1 in the latter part  
of the  ,emperor ,dioclesian's reign4   
,he was also a disciple first of        
,longinus1  and afterwards of the great 
,plotinus1 with whom he became          
acquainted in  the thirtieth year of his
 age2 and it is to ,porphyry we are     
indebted  for the publication of the    
inestimable and uncommonly profound     
works  of that most extraordinary man4  

,for1 as ,i have observed in my ,history
  of the ,restoration of the ,platonic  
,theology1 it was a long time before    
,plotinus committed his thoughts to     
writing1 and gave the world a copy  of  
his inimitable mind4 ,that light which  
was destined to illuminate the          
philosophical world1 as yet shone with  
solitary splendour1 or beamed  only on a
 beloved few2 and it was through        
,porphyry alone that it at  length      
emerged from its sanctuary1 and         
displayed its radiance in full          
perfection1 and with unbounded          
diffusion4 ,for ,porphyry1 in the       
language  of ,eunapius1 8like a         
,mercurial chain let down for the       
benefit of mortals1  unfolded every     
thing with accuracy and clearness1 by   
the assistance of  universal erudition40
    ,we are likewise informed1 by the   
same ,eunapius1 that ,porphyry1 when  he
 first associated with ,plotinus1 bade  
farewell to all his other  preceptors1  
and totally applied himself to the      

friendship of that  wonderful man4 ,here
 he filled his mind with science1 as    
from a perennial  and never-satiating   
fount4 ,but afterwards1 being conquered1
 as it were1  by the magnitude of his   
doctrines1 he conceived a hatred of     
body1 and  could no longer endure the   
fetters of mortality4--8,hence10 says   
he#a1  8,i formed an intention of       
destroying myself1 which ,plotinus      
wonderfully  perceived2 and as ,i was   
walking home1 stood before me1 and said1
 ,your  present design1 ,o ,porphyry1 is
 not the dictate of a sound intellect1  
but  rather of a soul raging with an    
atrabilarious fury4 ,in consequence of  
this he ordered me to depart from ,rome2
 and accordingly ,i went to ,sicily1    
having heard that a certain worthy and  
elegant man dwelt at that time  about   
,lilybum4 ,and thus1 indeed1 ,i was     
liberated from this perturbation  of    
soul2 but was1 in the meantime1 hindered
 from being with ,plotinus till  his    
death40    ,porphyry also maintains a   

very distinguished rank among those     
great  geniuses who contributed to the  
development of the genuine dogmas of    
,plato1 after they had been lost for    
upwards of five hundred years2 as  ,i   
have shown in my above-mentioned        
,history of the ,restoration of the     
,platonic ,theology4 ,among these       
dogmas1 that which is transcendently    
important is this1--that the ineffable  
principle of things1 which is           
denominated by ,plato the good and the  
one1 is something superior to  intellect
 and being itself4 ,this1 as we are     
informed by ,proclus1 was  demonstrated 
by ,porphyry1 by many powerful and      
beautiful arguments1  in his treatise   
,concerning ,principles1 which is       
unfortunately lost4  ,and this dogma1   
which was derived principally from the  
#fth book of the  ,republic1 and the    
,parmenides1 of ,plato1 and was adopted 
by all succeeding  ,platonists1 is      
copiously unfolded1 and the truth of it 
supported by  reasoning replete with    

what ,plato calls geometrical           
necessities1 by those  two great        
philosophical luminaries ,proclus and   
,damascius#b2 the former  of whom was   
the ,coryphus of the ,platonists1 and   
the latter possessed a  profoundly      
investigating mind4    ,of the disciples
 of ,porphyry the most celebrated was   
,iamblichus1 a man  of an uncommonly    
penetrating genius1 and who1 like his   
master ,plato1  on account of the       
sublimity of his conceptions1 and his   
admirable  proficiency in theological   
learning1 was surnamed the divine4 ,this
  extraordinary man1 though zealously   
attached to the ,platonic philosophy1   
yet explored the wisdom of other sects1 
particularly of the ,pythagoreans1      
,egyptians1 and ,chaldeans2 and formed  
one beautiful system of recondite       
knowledge1 from their harmonious        
conjunction#c4    ,with respect to the  
works of ,porphyry which are translated 
in this  volume1 the first1 which is ,on
 ,abstinence from ,animal ,food1 is a   

treatise not only replete with great    
erudition1 but is remarkable for the    
purity of life which it inculcates1 and 
the sanctity of conception with  which  
it abounds4 ,at the same time it must be
 remembered1 that it was  written       
solely1 as ,porphyry himself informs us1
 with a view to the man  who wishes in  
the present life to liberate himself as 
much as possible  from the fetters of   
the corporeal nature1 in order that he  
may elevate  his intellectual eye to the
 contemplation of truly-existing being  
7  17 and may establish himself in deity
 as in his paternal  port#d4 ,but such a
 one1 as he beautifully observes1 must  
divest himself  of every thing of a     
mortal nature which he has assumed1 must
 withdraw  himself from sense and       
imagination1 and the irrationality with 
which  they are attended1 and from an   
adhering affection and passion towards  
them2 and must enter the stadium naked  
and unclothed1 striving for the  most   
glorious of all prizes1 the ,olympia of 

the soul#e4 ,hence1 says  he1 8my       
discourse is not directed to those who  
are occupied in sordid  mechanical arts1
 nor to those who are engaged in        
athletic exercises2  neither to soldiers
 nor sailors1 nor rhetoricians1 nor to  
those who lead  an active life#f2 but ,i
 write to the man who considers what he 
is1  whence he came1 and whither he     
ought to tend1 and who1 in what pertains
  to nutriment and other necessary      
concerns1 is different from those who   
propose to themselves other kinds of    
life2 for to none but such as these  do 
,i direct my discourse#g40 ,this        
treatise1 also1 is highly valuable  for 
the historical information which it     
contains1 independently of the          
philosophical beauties with which it    
abounds4    ,the ,explanation of the    
,homeric ,cave of the ,nymphs1 which    
follows next1  is not only remarkable   
for the great erudition which it        
displays1 but  also for containing some 
profound arcana of the mythology and    

symbolical  theology of the ,greeks4    
,and the third treatise1 which is       
denominated ,auxiliaries to the         
,perception of ,intelligibles1 may be   
considered as an excellent  introduction
 to the works of ,plotinus in general1  
from which a great  part of it is       
extracted1 and in particular1 to the    
following books of  that most sublime   
genius1 viz4 ,on the ,virtues#h2 ,on the
 ,impassivity  of ,incorporeal          
,natures#i2 and ,on ,truly-,existing    
,being1 in which it is  demonstrated    
that such being is every where one and  
the same whole#aj4  ,this ,porphyrian   
treatise1 also1 is admirably calculated 
to afford  assistance to the student of 
the ,theological ,elements of ,proclus1 
a work  never to be sufficiently praised
 for the scientific accuracy1 profundity
  of conception1 and luminous           
development of the most important       
dogmas1  which it displays4    ,in the  
fourth place1 ,porphyry1 in his treatise
 ,on the ,cave of the ,nymphs1  having  

informed us1 that ,numenius1 the        
,pythagorean1 considered the person  of 
,ulysses1 in the ,odyssey1 as the image 
of a man who passes in a regular  manner
 over the stormy sea of generation1 or a
 sensible life1 and thus at  length     
arrives at a region where tempest and   
seas are unknown1 and finds  a nation   
8,who ne'er knew salt1 or heard the     
billows roar30    ,i have endeavoured1  
by the assistance of this intimation1 to
 unfold1  in the ,appendix which        
concludes the work1 the secret meaning  
of the  allegory2 and1 ,i trust1 in a   
way which will not be deemed by the     
intelligent reader either visionary or  
vain4    ,with respect to the           
translation of the treatises1 ,i have   
endeavoured  faithfully to preserve both
 the matter and manner of the author2   
and  have availed myself of the best    
editions of them1 and1 likewise1 of all 
the information which appeared to me to 
be most important1 and most             
appropriate1 from the remarks of critics

 and philologists1 but especially  from 
the elucidations of philosophers4 ,this1
 ,i trust1 will be evident  from a      
perusal of the notes which accompany the
 translation4    ,of all the other      
writings of ,porphyry1 besides those    
translated in this  volume1 few         
unfortunately have been preserved       
entire#aa1 the greater  part of what    
remains of them being fragments4 ,among 
these fragments1  however1 there is one 
very important1 lately found by ,angelus
 ,maius1  and published by him1 ,mediol4
 #ahaf1 #hvo4 ,it is nearly the whole of
 the  ,epistle of ,porphyry to his wife 
,marcella1 in which ,i have discovered  
the original of many of the ,sentences  
of the celebrated ,sextus               
,pythagoricus#ab1 which have been       
hitherto supposed to be alone extant  in
 the fraudulent ,latin version of the   
,presbyter ,ruffinus4 ,and for  an      
account of the other entire works and   
fragments that are extant1  and also of 
the lost writings of ,porphyry1 ,i refer

 the reader to the  ,bibliotheca ,grca  
of ,fabricius1 and to my                
before-mentioned ,history of  the       
,restoration of the ,platonic ,theology2
 in which latter work1 in  speaking of  
,porphyry's lost treatise on the        
,reascent of the ,soul1 ,i have  given a
 long and most interesting extract      
relative to that treatise1  from        
,synesius on ,dreams4      ,,footnotes3 
#a ,in ,vit4 ,plotin4    #b ,see the    
#b;d book of my translation of ,proclus 
on the ,theology of  ,plato1 and the    
,introduction to my translation of      
,plato1 and notes on the  #c;d volume of
 that translation4    #c ,see my        
translation of his ,life of ,pythagoras1
 and also of his  treatise on the       
,mysteries4 ,the ,emperor ,julian says  
of ,iamblichus1 8that  he was posterior 
in time1 but not in genius1 to ,plato   
himself40    #d ,such a man as this1 is 
arranged by ,plotinus in the class of   
divine  men1 in the following extract   
from my translation of his treatise  on 

,intellect1 ,ideas1 and ,real ,being1   
,ennead ,v4 #i4 ,the extract1 which  is 
uncommonly beautiful in the original1   
forms the beginning of the  treatise4   
8,since all men1 from their birth1      
employ sense prior to  intellect1 and   
are necessarily first conversant with   
sensibles1 some1  proceeding no farther1
 pass through life1 considering these as
 the first  and last of things1 and     
apprehending1 that whatever is painful  
among  these1 is evil1 and whatever is  
pleasant1 is good2 thus1 thinking it    
sufficient to pursue the one and avoid  
the other4 ,those1 too1 among  them1 who
 pretend to a greater share of reason   
than others1 esteem this  to be wisdom2 
being affected in a manner similar to   
more heavy birds1  who1 collecting many 
things from the earth1 and being        
oppressed with the  weight1 are unable  
to fly on high1 though they have        
received wings for  this purpose from   
nature4 ,but others are in a small      
degree elevated from  things            

subordinate1 the more excellent part of 
the soul recalling them  from pleasure  
to a more worthy pursuit4 ,as they are1 
however1 unable  to look on high1 and as
 not possessing any thing else which can
 afford  them rest1 they betake         
themselves1 together with the name of   
virtue1 to  actions and the election of 
things inferior1 from which they at     
first  endeavoured to raise themselves1 
though in vain4 ,in the third class is  
the race of divine men1 who through a   
more excellent power1 and with  piercing
 eyes1 acutely perceive supernal light1 
to the vision of which  they raise      
themselves1 above the clouds and        
darkness1 as it were1 of this  lower    
world1 and there abiding1 despise every 
thing in these regions of  sense2 being 
no otherwise delighted with the place   
which is truly and  properly their own1 
than he who1 after many wanderings1 is  
at length  restored to his lawful       
country40    #e ,page #bc4    #f ,the   
translator of this work1 and of the     

other treatises contained  in this      
volume1 having been so circumstanced1   
that he has been obliged  to mingle the 
active with the contemplative life 7    
7 in acquiring for himself a knowledge  
of the philosophy of  ,plato1 and       
disseminating that philosophy for the   
good of others1 has also  found it      
expedient to make use of a fleshy diet4 
,nothing1 however1 but an  imperious    
necessity1 from causes which it would be
 superfluous to detail  at present1     
could have induced him to adopt animal1 
instead of vegetable  nutriment4 ,but   
though he has been nurtured in ,eleatic 
and ,academic  studies1 yet it has not  
been in ,academic bowers4    #g ,page   
#ai4    #h ,ennead ,i4 #b4    #i ,ennead
 ,,iii4 #f4    #aj ,ennead ,,vi4 lib4   
#d1 #e4    #aa ,for even with respect to
 the treatise ,on ,abstinence from      
,animal  ,food1 there is every reason to
 believe that something is wanting at   
the  end of it4    #ab ,see the ,latin  
translation of these ,sentences by      

,ruffinus1 in the  ,opuscula            
,mythologica of ,gale4 ,the ,sentences  
which are to be found in this  ,epistle 
of ,porphyry1 were published by me1 with
 some animadversions1 in  the ,classical
 ,journal1 about two years ago2 but on  
account of the great  importance of     
these ,sentences1 and for the sake of   
those who may not have  this ,journal in
 their possession1 ,i shall here repeat 
what ,i have there  said on this        
subject4    ,after having premised that 
great praise is due to the editor for   
the  publication of this ,epistle1 but  
that1 as he has taken no notice of the  
sources whence most of the beautiful    
moral sentences with which this         
,epistle abounds1 are derived1 it       
becomes necessary to unfold them to the 
reader1 particularly as by this means   
several of the ,sentences of ,sextus    
,pythagoricus may be obtained in the    
original ,greek2--,i then observe3      
,previous1 however1 to this development1
 ,i shall present the reader  with the  

emendation of the following defective   
sentence in p4 #ai3         444       4 
,the editor1 not being an adept in the  
philosophy of  ,pythagoras and ,plato1  
conceived that  was a genuine word2 for 
he  remarks1 8,nota vocabulum 10 whereas
 it is only a part of a word1  i4e4 it  
is a part of 4 ,hence1 if after 1 the   
words    are inserted1 the sentence of  
,porphyry will be perfect both  in its  
construction and meaning1 and will be in
 ,english1 8,erudition  does not consist
 in the resumption of polymathy1 but is 
to be surveyed  in a liberation from the
 passions pertaining to the soul40 ,the 
editor1  not perceiving the necessity of
 this emendation1 has1 by the following 
version1 totally mistaken the meaning of
 the sentence3 8,bonam autem            
institutionem nunquam stimem1 qu cum    
eruditionis copia1 animalium  quoque    
passionum contaminatione sordescat40    
,the first sentence of which ,i have    
discovered the source1 is from ,sextus1 
and is the following1 in p4 #bc3        

3 i4e4 8,for ,god is not in want of any 
thing2 but the wise  man is alone in    
want of ,god40 ,this1 in the version of 
,ruffinus1 is3 8,deus  quidem nullius   
eget1 fidelis autem ,dei solius40 7,vid4
 ,opusc4 ,mytholog4  #hvo4 #afhh1 p4    
#fdf47    #b4             1 7p4 #bd73   
i4e4 8,of every action1 and of every    
deed and word1  ,god is present as the  
scrutator and inspector40 ,this is      
evidently derived  from the following   
sentence of ,demophilus1 7,opusc4       
,mythol4 p4 #fba73    1       1     1   
1       1       1     1 i4e4 8,if you   
always remember1 that wherever your     
soul1 or your body1 performs any  deed1 
,god is present as an inspector1 in all 
your prayers and actions1  you will     
reverence the nature of an inspector1   
from whom nothing can  be concealed1 and
 will have ,god for a cohabitant40 ,what
 immediately  follows in this paragraph 
is from ,sextus1 viz4          3 i4e4   
8,of all the good that we do1 we  should
 consider ,god as the cause40 ,and      

,sextus says1 p4 #fdh4 8,deus in  bonis 
actibus hominibus dux est40 ,porphyry   
adds3         1   4 ,and the latter part
 is  evidently from ,sextus1 who says1  
p4 #fdh1 8,mali nullius autor est       
,deus40  ,porphyry further adds3        
'      '  1       3 i4e4 8,hence we     
should ask of ,god  things which are    
worthy of him1 and which we cannot      
receive from any  other4 ,the goods     
also1 of which labours are the leaders1 
in conjunction  with virtue1 we should  
pray that we may obtain after the       
labours are  accomplished40 ,all this is
 from ,sextus4 ,for1 in p4 #fdh1 he     
says3 8,hc  posce  ,deo1 qu dignum est  
prstare ,deum4 ,ea pete  ,deo1 qu       
accipere  ab homine non potes4 ,in      
quibus prcedere debet labor1 hc tibi    
opta  evenire post laborem40 ,only1 in  
this last sentence1 ,ruffinus has       
omitted  to add1 after labor1 the words 
cum virtute4 ,what ,porphyry says1      
almost immediately after this1 is       
precisely the first of the ,sentences of

  ,demophilus1 7,opusc4 ,mythol4 p4     
#fbf71 viz4     1                 3 i4e4
 8,do not ask of ,god that which1 when  
you have obtained1  you cannot preserve4
 ,for every gift of ,god is incapable of
 being taken  away2 so that he will not 
give that which you cannot retain40 ,the
  sentence immediately following this is
 ascribed to ,pythagoras1 and is to  be 
found in the ,sentences of ,stobus1     
7edit4 #afji1 p4 #fe73 viz4        1    
1         4 ,in  ,stobus1 however1 there
 is some difference1 so as to render the
 sentence  more complete4 ,for          
immediately after 1 there is 2 for      
there is 2 for 1 2 for  1  2 for   1  2 
and instead of  1    4 ,this1 therefore1
 translated1 will be3 8,despise all     
those  things which1 when liberated from
 the body1 you will not want2 and       
exercising yourself in those things1 of 
which1 when liberated from the  body1   
you will be in want1 invoke the ,gods to
 become your helpers40 ,in  pp4 #bg and 
#bh1 ,porphyry says1             '  1   

3 i4e4 8,it  should be more eligible to 
you carelessly to throw away riches than
  reason2 and to be vanquished when     
speaking the truth1 than to vanquish  by
 deception40 ,and the latter part of    
this sentence is to be found in         
,sextus3 for in p4 #fdi he says1        
8,melius est vinci vera dicentem1 quam  
vincere1 mentientem40 ,almost           
immediately after ,porphyry adds1       
1       1       1          1      1     
4 ,this sentence is  the last of the    
,sentences of ,demophilus1 7,opusc4     
,mythol4 p4 #fbe72 but  in ,porphyry it 
is in one part defective1 and in another
 is fuller than  in ,demophilus4 ,for in
 the first colon1  is wanting3 in the   
second colon1 after     1 the words     
are wanting4 ,and in ,demophilus1       
instead of           1     1 there  is  
nothing more than   1    1     4 ,in    
,demophilus also1 after     the words   
1 are wanting4 ,and in ,porphyry1 after 
1 the words    1 1 are wanting4  ,this  
sentence therefore1 thus amended1 will  

be in ,english1 8,it is  impossible for 
the same person to be a lover of ,god1 a
 lover of pleasure1  a lover of body1   
and a lover of riches4 ,for a lover of  
pleasure is also  a lover of body2 but a
 lover of body is entirely a lover of   
riches2 and  a lover of riches is       
necessarily unjust4 ,but he who is      
unjust #as impious  towards ,god and his
 parents1 and lawless towards others4   
,so that1 though  he should sacrifice   
hecatombs1 and adorn temples with ten   
thousand gifts1  he will be much more   
unholy1 impious1 atheistical1 and       
sacrilegious in  his deliberate choice4 
,hence it is necessary to avoid every   
lover of  body1 as one who is without   
,god1 and is defiled40    #c4 ,the      
following passages in the epistle of    
,porphyry1 are from ,sextus3      1   1 
7p4 #cj7 i4e4 8,the man who is  worthy  
of ,god1 will be himself a ,god40 ,and  
,sextus says1 8,dignus ,deo  homo1 deus 
est et in hominibus40 7p4 #fed47        
,porphyry says1       1       1 7p4     

#cj17  i4e4 8,and you will honour ,god  
in the best manner1 when you assimilate 
your reasoning power to ,god40 ,thus    
also ,sextus1 8,optime honorat ,deum    
ille1 qui mentem suam1 quantum fieri    
potest1 similem ,deo facit10 7p4  #fee47
 ,again1 ,porphyry says1             1  
7p4 #ca73 i4e4 8,god corroborates  man  
when he performs beautiful deeds2 but an
 evil dmon is the leader  of bad        
actions40 ,and ,sextus says1 8,deus     
bonos actus hominum confirmat4  ,malorum
 actuum1 malus dmon dux est40 7p4 #fec74
 ,porphyry adds1       1   1   1 7p4    
#ca17  i4e4 8,the soul of the wise man  
is adapted to ,god2 it always beholds   
,god1 and is always present with ,god40 
,thus1 too1 ,sextus1 8,sapientis  anima 
audit ,deum1 sapientis anima aptatur    
,deo1 sapientis anima semper  est cum   
,deo10 7p4 #fee74 ,there is1 however1   
some difference between the  original   
and the ,latin version1 which is most   
probably owing to the  fraud of         
,ruffinus4 ,and in the last place1      

,porphyry says1        1 7p4 #eh17 i4e4 
8,philanthropy  should be considered by 
you as the foundation of piety40 ,and   
,sextus says1  8,fundamentum et initium 
est cults ,dei1 amare ,dei homines40 7p4
 #fed74  ,ruffinus1 however1 in this    
version1 fraudulently translates 1      
amare ,dei homines1 in order that this  
sentence1 as well as the others1  might 
appear to be written by ,sixtus the     
bishop6    #d4 ,the learned reader will 
find the following passages in the      
,epistle of  ,porphyry1 to be sentences 
of ,demophilus1 viz4         1 444 usque
 ad  1 7p4 #bi74         1 444 usque ad 
1  7p4 #cb74      1 444 usque ad     1  
7p4 #ce74      1     1     1 444  usque 
ad  1 7p4 #cf74 ,in which passage1      
however1 there  is a remarkable         
difference1 as the learned reader will  
find1 between the  text of ,porphyry and
 that of ,demophilus4    1        1     
7lege 17 1 444  usque ad   1 7p4 #cg74  
1 444  usque ad  1 7p4 #ed74      444   
usque ad   1 7p4 #ed47      4 ,and    1 

1 7p4  #eg74 ,and lastly1      '     1  
7p4 #eh74 ,in all these passages1 it    
will be found1 by comparing  them with  
,porphyry1 that they occasionally differ
 from the text of  ,demophilus1 yet not 
so as to alter the sense4    ,i only    
add1 that many of the ,sentences of     
,demophilus will be found among  those  
of ,sextus4 ,nor is this at all         
wonderful1 as it was usual with the     
,pythagoreans1 from their exalted       
notions of friendship1 to consider the  
work of one of them as the production of
 all4          ,,the ,,select ,,works   
,,of ,,porphyry4          ,,on          
,,abstinence ,,from ,,animal ,,food4    
,,book ,,the ,,first4      #a4 ,hearing 
from some of our acquaintance1 ,o       
,firmus#ac1 that you1 having  rejected a
 fleshless diet1 have again returned to 
animal food1 at first  ,i did not credit
 the report1 when ,i considered your    
temperance1 and the  reverence which you
 have been taught to pay to those       
ancient and pious  men from whom we have

 received the precepts of philosophy4   
,but when  others who came after these  
confirmed this report1 it appeared to me
 that  it would be too rustic and remote
 from the rational method of persuasion 
to reprehend you1 who neither1 according
 to the proverb1 flying from  evil have 
found something better1 nor according to
 ,empedocles1 having  lamented your     
former life1 have converted yourself to 
one that is more  excellent4 ,i have    
therefore thought it worthy of the      
friendship which  subsists between us1  
and also adapted to those who have      
arranged their  life conformably to     
truth1 to disclose your errors through a
 confutation  derived from an           
argumentative discussion4    #b4 ,for   
when ,i considered with myself what     
could be the cause of this  alteration  
in your diet1 ,i could by no means      
suppose that it was for the  sake of    
health and strength1 as the vulgar and  
idiots would say2 since1  on the        
contrary1 you yourself1 when you were   

with us1 confessed that a  fleshless    
diet contributed both to health and to  
the proper endurance  of philosophic    
labours2 and experience testifies1 that 
in saying this  you spoke the truth4 ,it
 appears1 therefore1 that you have      
returned to  your former illegitimate#ad
 conduct1 either through deception#ae1  
because you think it makes no difference
 with respect to the acquisition  of    
wisdom whether you use this or that     
diet2 or perhaps through some  other    
cause of which ,i am ignorant1 which    
excited in you a greater fear  than that
 which could be produced by the impiety 
of transgression4 ,for  ,i should not   
say that you have despised the          
philosophic laws which we  derived from 
our ancestors1 and which you have so    
much admired1 through  intemperance1 or 
for the sake of voracious gluttony2 or  
that you are  naturally inferior to some
 of the vulgar1 who1 when they have     
assented  to laws1 though contrary to   
those under which they formerly lived1  

will  suffer amputation rather than     
violate them1 and will abstain from     
certain animals on which they before    
fed1 more than they would from human    
flesh4    #c4 ,but when ,i was also     
informed by certain persons that you    
even employed  arguments against those  
who abstained from animal food1 ,i not  
only  pitied1 but was indignant with    
you1 that1 being persuaded by certain   
frigid and very corrupt sophisms1 you   
have deceived yourself1 and have        
endeavoured to subvert a dogma which is 
both ancient and dear to the  ,gods4    
,hence it appeared to me to be requisite
 not only to show you what  our own     
opinion is on this subject1 but also to 
collect and dissolve the  arguments of  
our opponents1 which are much stronger  
than those adduced  by you in multitude 
and power1 and every other apparatus2   
and thus to  demonstrate1 that truth is 
not vanquished even by those arguments  
which  seem to be weighty1 and much less
 by superficial sophisms4 ,for you are  

perhaps ignorant1 that not a few        
philosophers are adverse to abstinence  
from animal food1 but that this is the  
case with those of the ,peripatetic  and
 ,stoic sects1 and with most of the     
,epicureans2 the last of whom have      
written in opposition to the philosophy 
of ,pythagoras and ,empedocles1 of      
which you once were studiously emulous4 
,to this abstinence1 likewise1  many    
philologists are adverse1 among whom    
,clodius the ,neapolitan wrote  a       
treatise against those who abstain from 
flesh4 ,of these men ,i shall  adduce   
the disquisitions and common arguments  
against this dogma1 at the  same time   
omitting those reasons which are        
peculiarly employed by them  against the
 demonstrations of ,empedocles4         
,the ,arguments of the ,peripatetics and
 ,stoics1 from ,heraclides              
,ponticus#af4    #d4 ,our opponents     
therefore say1 in the first place1 that 
justice will be  confounded1 and things 
immoveable be moved1 if we extend what  

is just1  not only to the rational1 but 
also to the irrational nature2          
conceiving  that not only ,gods and men 
pertain to us1 but that there is        
likewise an  alliance between us and    
brutes1 who in reality have no          
conjunction with  us4 ,nor shall we     
employ some of them in laborious works1 
and use others  for food1 from a        
conviction that the association which is
 between us and  them1 in the same      
manner as that of some foreign polity1  
pertains to a  tribe different from     
ours1 and is dishonourable4 ,for he who 
uses these  as if they were men1 sparing
 and not injuring them1 thus            
endeavouring  to adapt to justice that  
which it cannot bear1 both destroys its 
power1  and corrupts that which is      
appropriate1 by the introduction of what
 is  foreign4 ,for it necessarily       
follows1 either that we act unjustly by 
sparing them1 or if we spare and do not 
employ them1 that it will be  impossible
 for us to live4 ,we shall also1 after a

 manner1 live the life  of brutes1 if we
 reject the use which they are capable  
of affording4    #e4 ,for ,i shall omit 
to mention the innumerable multitude of 
,nomades and  ,troglodyt1 who know of no
 other nutriment than that of flesh2 but
 to us  who appear to live mildly and   
philanthropically1 what work would be   
left  for us on the earth or in the sea1
 what illustrious art1 what ornament  of
 our food would remain1 if we conducted 
ourselves innoxiously and  reverentially
 towards brutes1 as if they were of a   
kindred nature with  us8 ,for it would  
be impossible to assign any work1 any   
medicine1 or any  remedy for the want   
which is destructive of life1 or that we
 can act  justly1 unless we preserve the
 ancient boundary and law4        ,to   
fishes1 savage beasts1 and birds1 devoid
      ,of justice1 ,jove to devour each 
other      ,granted2 but justice to     
mankind he gave#ag4    i4e4 towards each
 other4    #f4 ,but it is not possible  
for us to act unjustly towards those to 

whom  we are not obliged to act justly4 
,hence1 for those who reject this       
reasoning1 no other road of justice is  
left1 either broad or narrow1  into     
which they can enter4 ,for1 as we have  
already observed1 our nature1  not being
 sufficient to itself1 but indigent of  
many things1 would be  entirely         
destroyed1 and enclosed in a life       
involved in difficulties1  unorganic1   
and deprived of necessaries1 if excluded
 from the assistance  derived from      
animals4 ,it is likewise said1 that     
those first men did  not live           
prosperously2 for this superstition did 
not stop at animals1  but compelled its 
votaries even to spare plants4 ,for1    
indeed1 what  greater injury does he do1
 who cuts the throat of an ox or a      
sheep1  than he who cuts down a fir tree
 or an oak8 since1 from the doctrine of 
transmigration1 a soul is also implanted
 in these4 ,these therefore are  the    
principal arguments of the ,stoics and  
,peripatetics4      ,the ,arguments of  

the ,epicureans1 from ,hermachus#ah4    
#g4 ,the ,epicureans1 however1          
narrating1 as it were1 a long genealogy1
 say1  that the ancient legislators1    
looking to the association of life1 and 
the mutual actions of men1 proclaimed   
that manslaughter was unholy1 and       
punished it with no casual disgrace4    
,perhaps1 indeed1 a certain natural     
alliance which exists in men towards    
each other1 through the similitude  of  
form and soul1 is the reason why they do
 not so readily destroy an  animal of   
this kind1 as some of the other animals 
which are conceded to  our use4         
,nevertheless1 the greatest cause why   
manslaughter was considered  as a thing 
grievous to be borne1 and impious1 was  
the opinion that it  did not contribute 
to the whole nature and condition of    
human life4  ,for1 from a principle of  
this kind1 those who are capable of     
perceiving  the advantage arising from  
this decree1 require no other cause of  
being  restrained from a deed so dire4  

,but those who are not able to have a   
sufficient perception of this1 being    
terrified by the magnitude of the       
punishment1 will abstain from readily   
destroying each other4 ,for those1      
indeed1 who survey the utility of the   
before-mentioned ordinance1 will        
promptly observe it2 but those who are  
not able to perceive the benefit  with  
which it is attended1 will obey the     
mandate1 in consequence of  fearing the 
threatenings of the laws2 which         
threatenings certain persons  ordained  
for the sake of those who could not1 by 
a reasoning process1  infer the         
beneficial tendency of the decree1 at   
the same time that most  would admit    
this to be evident4    #h4 ,for none of 
those legal institutes which were       
established from the  first1 whether    
written or unwritten1 and which still   
remain1 and are  adapted to be          
transmitted1 from one generation to     
another became lawful  through violence1
 but through the consent of those that  

used them4 ,for  those who introduced   
things of this kind to the multitude1   
excelled in  wisdom1 and not in strength
 of body1 and the power which subjugates
 the  rabble4 ,hence1 through this1 some
 were led to a rational consideration of
  utility1 of which before they had only
 an irrational sensation1 and which     
they had frequently forgotten2 but      
others were terrified by the magnitude  
of the punishments4 ,for it was not     
possible to use any other remedy for    
the ignorance of what is beneficial1    
than the dread of the punishment        
ordained by law4 ,for this alone even   
now keeps the vulgar in awe1 and        
prevents them from doing any thing1     
either publicly or privately1 which  is 
not beneficial to the community4 ,but if
 all men were similarly  capable of     
surveying and recollecting what is      
advantageous1 there would  be no need of
 laws1 but men would spontaneously avoid
 such things as  are prohibited1 and    
perform such as they were ordered to do4

 ,for the  survey of what is useful and 
detrimental1 is a sufficient incentive  
to  the avoidance of the one and the    
choice of the other4 ,but the infliction
  of punishment has a reference to those
 who do not foresee what is  beneficial4
 ,for impendent punishment forcibly     
compels such as these to  subdue those  
impulses which lead them to useless     
actions1 and to do that  which is right4
    #i4 ,hence also1 legislators        
ordained1 that even involuntary         
manslaughter  should not be entirely    
void of punishment2 in order that they  
might  not only afford no pretext for   
the voluntary imitation of those deeds  
which were involuntarily performed1 but 
also that they might prevent  many      
things of this kind from taking place1  
which happen1 in reality1               
involuntarily4 ,for neither is this     
advantageous through the same causes  by
 which men were forbidden voluntarily to
 destroy each other4 ,since1  therefore1
 of involuntary deeds1 some proceed from

 a cause which is  unstable1 and which  
cannot be guarded against by human      
nature2 but  others are produced by our 
negligence and inattention to different 
circumstances2 hence legislators1       
wishing to restrain that indolence      
which is injurious to our neighbours1   
did not even leave an involuntary       
noxious deed without punishment1 but1   
through the fear of penalties1          
prevented the commission of numerous    
offences of this kind4 ,i also am  of   
opinion1 that the slaughters which are  
allowed by law1 and which  receive their
 accustomed expiations through certain  
purifications1  were introduced by those
 ancient legislators1 who first very    
properly  instituted these things for no
 other reason than that they wished to  
prevent men as much as possible from    
voluntary slaughter4 ,for the vulgar    
every where require something which may 
impede them from promptly  performing   
what is not advantageous to the         
community4 ,hence those who  first      

perceived this to be the case1 not only 
ordained the punishment  of fines1 but  
also excited a certain other irrational 
dread1 through  proclaiming those not to
 be pure who in any way whatever had    
slain a man1  unless they used          
purifications after the commission of   
the deed4 ,for that  part of the soul   
which is void of intellect1 being       
variously disciplined1  acquired a      
becoming mildness1 certain taming arts  
having been from the  first invented for
 the purpose of subduing the irrational 
impulses  of desire1 by those who       
governed the people4 ,and one of the    
precepts  promulgated on this occasion  
was1 that men should not destroy each   
other  without discrimination4    #aj4  
,those1 however1 who first defined what 
we ought to do1 and what we  ought not1 
very properly did not forbid us to kill 
other animals4 ,for the  advantage      
arising from these is effected by a     
contrary practice1 since  it is not     
possible that men could be preserved1   

unless they endeavoured  to defend those
 who are nurtured with themselves from  
the attacks of  other animals4 ,at that 
time1 therefore1 some of those1 of the  
most  elegant manners1 recollecting that
 they abstained from slaughter because  
it was useful to the public safety1 they
 also reminded the rest of the  people  
in their mutual associations of what was
 the consequence of this  abstinence2 in
 order that1 by refraining from the     
slaughter of their  kindred1 they might 
preserve that communion which greatly   
contributes to  the peculiar safety of  
each individual4 ,but it was not only   
found to be  useful for men not to      
separate from each other1 and not to do 
any thing  injurious to those who were  
collected together in the same place1   
for  the purpose of repelling the       
attacks of animals of another species2  
but  also for defence against men whose 
design was to act nefariously4 ,to a    
certain extent1 therefore1 they         
abstained from the slaughter of men1    

for these reasons1 viz4 in order that   
there might be a communion among  them  
in things that are necessary1 and that a
 certain utility might be  afforded in  
each of the above-mentioned             
incommodities4 ,in the course of  time1 
however1 when the offspring of mankind1 
through their intercourse  with each    
other1 became more widely extended1 and 
animals of a different  species were    
expelled1 certain persons directed their
 attention in a  rational way to what   
was useful to men in their mutual       
nutriment1 and did  not alone recal this
 to their memory in an irrational       
manner4    #aa4 ,hence they endeavoured 
still more firmly to restrain those who 
readily destroyed each other1 and who1  
through an oblivion of past             
transactions1 prepared a more imbecile  
defence4 ,but in attempting to  effect  
this1 they introduced those legal       
institutes which still remain  in cities
 and nations2 the multitude             
spontaneously assenting to them1  in    

consequence of now perceiving1 in a     
greater degree1 the advantage  arising  
from an association with each other4    
,for the destruction of  every thing    
noxious1 and the preservation of that   
which is subservient  to its            
extermination1 similarly contribute to a
 fearless life4 ,and  hence it is       
reasonable to suppose1 that one of the  
above-mentioned  particulars was        
forbidden1 but that the other was not   
prohibited4 ,nor  must it be said1 that 
the law allows us to destroy some       
animals which  are not corruptive of    
human nature1 and which are not in any  
other way  injurious to our life4 ,for1 
as ,i may say1 no animal among those    
which the  law permits us to kill is of 
this kind2 since1 if we suffered them to
  increase excessively1 they would      
become injurious to us4 ,but through the
  number of them which is now preserved1
 certain advantages are imparted  to    
human life4 ,for sheep and oxen1 and    
every such like animal1 when the  number

 of them is moderate1 are beneficial to 
our necessary wants2 but  if they become
 redundant in the extreme1 and far      
exceed the number which  is sufficient1 
they then become detrimental to our     
life2 the latter by  employing their    
strength1 in consequence of             
participating of this through  an innate
 power of nature1 and the former1 by    
consuming the nutriment  which springs  
up from the earth for our benefit alone4
 ,hence1 through  this cause1 the       
slaughter of animals of this kind is not
 prohibited1 in  order that as many of  
them as are sufficient for our use1 and 
which we  may be able easily to subdue1 
may be left4 ,for it is not with horses1
  oxen1 and sheep1 and with all tame    
animals1 as it is with lions and        
wolves1 and1 in short1 with all such as 
are called savage animals1 that1        
whether the number of them is small or  
great1 no multitude of them can be      
assumed1 which1 if left1 would alleviate
 the necessity of our life4 ,and  on    

this account1 indeed1 we utterly destroy
 some of them2 but of others1  we take  
away as many as are found to be more    
than commensurate to our use4    #ab4   
,on this account1 from the              
above-mentioned causes1 it is similarly 
requisite to think1 that what pertains  
to the eating of animals1 was  ordained 
by those who from the first established 
the laws2 and that the  advantageous and
 the disadvantageous were the causes why
 some animals  were permitted to be     
eaten and others not4 ,so that those who
 assert1  that every thing beautiful and
 just subsists conformably to the       
peculiar  opinions of men respecting    
those who established the laws1 are full
 of a  certain most profound stupidity4 
,for it is not possible that this thing 
can take place in any other way than    
that in which the other utilities  of   
life subsist1 such as those that are    
salubrious1 and an innumerable          
multitude of others4 ,erroneous         
opinions1 however1 are entertained in   

many  particulars1 both of a public and 
private nature4 ,for certain persons do 
not perceive those legal institutes1    
which are similarly adapted to all  men2
 but some1 conceiving them to rank among
 things of an indifferent  nature1 omit 
them2 while others1 who are of a        
contrary opinion1 think  that such      
things as are not universally           
profitable1 are every where             
advantageous4 ,hence1 through this      
cause1 they adhere to things which  are 
unappropriate2 though in certain        
particulars they discover what is       
advantageous to themselves1 and what    
contributes to general utility4 ,and    
among these are to be enumerated the    
eating of animals1 and the legally      
ordained destructions which are         
instituted by most nations on account of
  the peculiarity of the region4 ,it is 
not necessary1 however1 that these      
institutes should be preserved by us1   
because we do not dwell in the same     
place as those did by whom they were    

made4 ,if1 therefore1 it was possible   
to make a certain compact with other    
animals in the same manner as with  men1
 that we should not kill them1 nor they 
us1 and that they should not  be        
indiscriminately destroyed by us1 it    
would be well to extend justice  as far 
as to this2 for this extent of it would 
be attended with security4  ,but since  
it is among things impossible1 that     
animals which are not  recipients of    
reason should participate with us of    
law1 on this account1  utility cannot be
 in a greater degree procured by        
security from other  animals1 than from 
inanimate natures4 ,but we can alone    
obtain security  from the liberty which 
we now possess of putting them to death4
 ,and such  are the arguments of the    
,epicureans4      ,the ,arguments of    
,claudius the ,neapolitan1 who published
 a ,treatise  against ,abstinence from  
,animal ,food4    #ac4 ,it now remains1 
that we should adduce what plebeians and
 the vulgar  are accustomed to say on   

this subject4 ,for they say1 that the   
ancients  abstained from animals1 not   
through piety1 but because they did not 
yet  know the use of fire2 but that as  
soon as they became acquainted with its 
utility1 they then conceived it to be   
most honourable and sacred4 ,they       
likewise called it ,vesta1 and from this
 the appellation of convestals  or      
companions was derived2 and afterwards  
they began to use animals4 ,for  it is  
natural to man to eat flesh1 but        
contrary to his nature to eat it  raw4  
,fire1 therefore1 being discovered1 they
 embraced what is natural1  and admitted
 the eating of boiled and roasted flesh4
 ,hence lynxes are  said by ,homer#ai to
 be crudivorous1 or eaters of raw flesh2
 and of  ,priam1 also1 he says1 as a    
disgraceful circumstance1        ,raw   
flesh by you1 ,o ,priam1 is devoured#bj4
    ,and1        ,raw flesh1            
dilacerating1 he devoured#ba4    ,and   
this is said1 as if the eating of raw   
flesh pertained to the impious4         

,telemachus1 also1 when ,minerva was his
 guest1 placed before her not raw1  but 
roasted flesh4 ,at first1 therefore1 men
 did not eat animals1 for man  is not   
naturally a devourer of raw flesh4 ,but 
when the use of fire was  discovered1   
fire was employed not only for the      
cooking of flesh1 but  also for most    
other eatables4 ,for that man is not    
naturally adapted  to eat raw flesh1 is 
evident from certain nations that feed  
on fishes4  ,for these they roast1 some 
upon stones that are very much heated by
 the  sun2 but others roast them in the 
sand4 ,that man1 however1 is adapted to 
feed on flesh1 is evident from this1    
that no nation abstains from animal     
food4 ,nor is this adopted by the       
,greeks through depravity1 since the    
same  custom is admitted by the         
barbarians4    #ad4 ,but he who forbids 
men to feed on animals1 and thinks it is
 unjust1  will also say that it is not  
just to kill them1 and deprive them of  
life4  ,nevertheless1 an innate and just

 war is implanted in us against brutes4 
,for some of them voluntarily attack    
men1 as1 for instance1 wolves and       
lions2 others not voluntarily1 as       
serpents1 since they bite not1 except   
they are trampled on4 ,and some1 indeed1
 attack men2 but others destroy  the    
fruits of the earth4 ,from all these    
causes1 therefore1 we do not  spare the 
life of brutes2 but we destroy those who
 commence hostilities  against us1 as   
also those who do not1 lest we should   
suffer any evil  from them4 ,for there  
is no one who1 if he sees a serpent1    
will not1 if  he is able1 destroy it1 in
 order that neither it1 nor any other   
serpent1  may bite a man4 ,and this     
arises1 not only from our hatred of     
those that  are the destroyers of our   
race1 but likewise from that kindness   
which  subsists between one man and     
another4 ,but though the war against    
brutes  is just1 yet we abstain from    
many which associate with men4 ,hence1  
the  ,greeks do not feed either on dogs1

 or horses1 or asses1 because of these1 
those that are tame are of the same     
species as the wild4 ,nevertheless1     
they eat swine and birds4 ,for a hog is 
not useful for any thing but food4  ,the
 ,phnicians1 however1 and ,jews1 abstain
 from it1 because1 in short1  it is not 
produced in those places4 ,for it is    
said1 that this animal is  not seen in  
,ethiopia even at present4 ,as1         
therefore1 no ,greek sacrifices  a camel
 or an elephant to the ,gods1 because   
,greece does not produce  these animals1
 so neither is a hog sacrificed to the  
,gods in ,cyprus or  ,phnicia1 because  
it is not indigenous in those places4   
,and1 for the  same reason1 neither do  
the ,egyptians sacrifice this animal to 
the ,gods4  ,in short1 that some nations
 abstain from a hog1 is similar to our  
being  unwilling to eat the flesh of    
camels4    #ae4 ,but why should any one 
abstain from animals8 ,is it because    
feeding  on them makes the soul or the  
body worse8 ,it is1 however1 evident1   

that  neither of these is deteriorated  
by it4 ,for those animals that feed on  
flesh are more sagacious than others1 as
 they are venatic1 and possess  an art  
by which they supply themselves with    
food1 and acquire power and  strength2  
as is evident in lions and wolves4 ,so  
that the eating of flesh  neither       
injures the soul nor the body4 ,this    
likewise is manifest1 both  from the    
athlete1 whose bodies become stronger by
 feeding on flesh1 and  from physicians1
 who restore bodies to health by the use
 of animal food4  ,for this is no small 
indication that ,pythagoras did not     
think sanely1  that none of the wise men
 embraced his opinion2 since neither any
 one of  the seven wise men1 nor any of 
the physiologists who lived after them1 
nor even the most wise ,socrates1 or his
 followers1 adopted it4    #af4 ,let it1
 however1 be admitted that all men are  
persuaded of the truth  of this dogma1  
respecting abstinence from animals4 ,but
 what will be  the boundary of the      

propagation of animals8 ,for no one is  
ignorant how  numerous the progeny is of
 the swine and the hare4 ,and to these  
add all  other animals4 ,whence1        
therefore1 will they be supplied with   
pasture8 ,and  what will husbandmen do8 
,for they will not destroy those who    
destroy the  fruits of the earth4 ,and  
the earth will not be able to bear the  
multitude  of animals4 ,corruption also 
will be produced from the putridity of  
those  that will die4 ,and thus1 from   
pestilence taking place1 no refuge will 
be  left4 ,for the sea1 and rivers1 and 
marshes1 will be filled with fishes1    
and the air with birds1 but the earth   
will be full of reptiles of every  kind4
    #ag4 ,how many likewise will be     
prevented from having their diseases    
cured1 if animals are abstained from8   
,for we see that those who are  blind   
recover their sight by eating a viper4  
,a servant of ,craterus1 the  physician1
 happening to be seized with a new kind 
of disease1 in which  the flesh fell    

away from the bones1 derived no benefit 
from medicines2  but by eating a viper  
prepared after the manner of a fish1 the
 flesh  became conglutinated to the     
bones1 and he was restored to health4   
,many  other animals also1 and their    
several parts1 cure diseases when they  
are properly used for that purpose2 of  
all which remedies he will be           
frustrated who rejects animal food4     
#ah4 ,but if1 as they say1 plants also  
have a soul1 what will become of our    
life if we neither destroy animals nor  
plants8 ,if1 however1 he is not  impious
 who cuts off plants1 neither will he   
who kills animals4    #ai4 ,but some one
 may1 perhaps1 say it is not proper to  
destroy that which  belongs to the same 
tribe with ourselves2 if the souls of   
animals are  of the same essence with   
ourselves4 ,if1 however1 it should be   
granted  that souls are inserted in     
bodies voluntarily1 it must be said that
 it  is through a love of juvenility3   
for in the season of youth there is an  

enjoyment of all things4 ,why1          
therefore1 do they not again enter into 
the nature of man8 ,but if they enter   
voluntarily1 and for the sake of        
juvenility1 and pass through every      
species of animals1 they will be much   
gratified by being destroyed4 ,for thus 
their return to the human form  will be 
more rapid4 ,the bodies also which are  
eaten will not produce any  pain in the 
souls of those bodies1 in consequence of
 the souls being  liberated from them2  
and they will love to be implanted in   
the nature  of man4 ,hence1 as much as  
they are pained on leaving the human    
form1  so much will they rejoice when   
they leave other bodies4 ,for thus they 
will more swiftly become man again1 who 
predominates over all irrational        
animals1 in the same manner as ,god does
 over men4 ,there is1 therefore1 a      
sufficient cause for destroying other   
animals1 viz4 their acting unjustly  in 
destroying men4 ,but if the souls of men
 are immortal1 but those of  irrational 

animals mortal1 men will not act        
unjustly by destroying  irrational      
animals4 ,and if the souls of brutes are
 immortal1 we shall  benefit them by    
liberating them from their bodies4 ,for1
 by killing them1  we shall cause them  
to return to the human nature4    #bj4  
,if1 however1 we only defend ourselves  
in putting animals to  death1 we do not 
act unjustly1 but we take vengeance on  
those that  injure us4 ,hence1 if the   
souls of brutes are indeed immortal1 we 
benefit  them by destroying them4 ,but  
if their souls are mortal1 we do nothing
  impious in putting them to death4 ,and
 if we defend ourselves against  them1  
how is it possible that in so doing we  
should not act justly4 ,for  we destroy1
 indeed1 a serpent and a scorpion1      
though they do not attack  us1 in order 
that some other person may not be       
injured by them2 and in so  doing we    
defend the human race in general4 ,but  
shall we not act justly in  putting     
those animals to death1 which either    

attack men1 or those that  associate    
with men1 or injure the fruits of the   
earth8    #ba4 ,if1 however1 some one   
should1 nevertheless1 think it is unjust
 to  destroy brutes1 such a one should  
neither use milk1 nor wool1 nor sheep1  
nor honey4 ,for1 as you injure a man by 
taking from him his garments1  thus1    
also1 you injure a sheep by shearing it4
 ,for the wool which you  take from it  
is its vestment4 ,milk1 likewise1 was   
not produced for you1  but for the young
 of the animal that has it4 ,the bee    
also collects honey  as food for itself2
 which you1 by taking away1 administer  
to your own  pleasure4 ,i pass over in  
silence the opinion of the ,egyptians1  
that we  act unjustly by meddling with  
plants4 ,but if these things were       
produced  for our sake1 then the bee1   
being ministrant to us1 elaborates      
honey1 and  the wool grows on the back  
of sheep1 that it may be an ornament to 
us1  and afford us a bland heat4    #bb4
 ,co-operating also with the ,gods      

themselves in what contributes to       
piety1 we sacrifice animals3 for1 of the
 ,gods1 ,apollo1 indeed1 is called  1   
the slayer of wolves2 and ,diana1 1 the 
destroyer  of wild beasts4 ,demi-gods   
likewise1 and all the heroes who excel  
us  both in origin and virtue1 have so  
much approved of the slaughter of       
animals1 that they have sacrificed to   
the ,gods ,dodecedes#bb and  ,hecatombs4
 ,but ,hercules1 among other things1 is 
celebrated for being an  ox-devourer4   
#bc4 ,it is1 however1 stupid to say that
 ,pythagoras exhorted men to abstain    
from animals1 in order that he might1 in
 the greatest possible degree1  prevent 
them from eating each other4 ,for1 if   
all men at the time of  ,pythagoras were
 anthropophagites1 he must be delirious 
who drew men away  from other animals1  
in order that they might abstain from   
devouring each  other4 ,for1 on this    
account1 he ought rather to have        
exhorted them to  become                
anthropophagites1 by showing them that  

it was an equal crime to  devour each   
other1 and to eat the flesh of oxen and 
swine4 ,but if men  at that time did not
 eat each other1 what occasion was there
 for this  dogma8 ,and if he established
 this law for himself and his           
associates1 the  supposition that he did
 so is disgraceful4 ,for it demonstrates
 that those  who lived with ,pythagoras 
were anthropophagites4    #bd4 ,for we  
say that the very contrary of what he   
conjectured would  happen4 ,for1 if we  
abstained from animals1 we should not   
only be deprived  of pleasure and riches
 of this kind1 but we should also lose  
our fields1  which would be destroyed by
 wild beasts2 since the whole earth     
would be  occupied by serpents and      
birds1 so that it would be difficult to 
plough  the land2 the scattered seeds   
would immediately be gathered by the    
birds2  and all such fruits as had      
arrived at perfection1 would be consumed
 by  quadrupeds4 ,but men being         
oppressed by such a want of food1 would 

be  compelled1 by bitter necessity1 to  
attack each other4    #be4 ,moreover1   
the ,gods themselves1 for the sake of a 
remedy1 have  delivered mandates to many
 persons about sacrificing animals4 ,for
  history is full of instances of the   
,gods having ordered certain persons  to
 sacrifice animals1 and1 when           
sacrificed1 to eat them4 ,for1 in the   
return of the ,heraclid1 those who      
engaged in war against ,lacedmon1 in    
conjunction with ,eurysthenes and       
,proscles1 through a want of            
necessaries1  were compelled to eat     
serpents1 which the land at that time   
afforded for  the nutriment of the army4
 ,in ,libya1 also1 a cloud of locusts   
fell for  the relief of another army    
that was oppressed by hunger4 ,the same 
thing  likewise happened at ,gades4     
,bogus was a king of the ,mauritanians1 
who  was slain by ,agrippa in ,mothone4 
,he in that place attacked the temple of
  ,hercules1 which was most rich4 ,but  
it was the custom of the priests daily  

to sprinkle the altar with blood4 ,that 
this1 however1 was not effected by  the 
decision of men1 but by that of         
divinity1 the occasion at that time     
demonstrated4 ,for1 the siege being     
continued for a long time1 victims  were
 wanting4 ,but the priest being dubious 
how he should act1 had the  following   
vision in a dream4 ,he seemed to himself
 to be standing in the  middle of the   
pillars of the temple of ,hercules1 and 
afterwards to see  a bird sitting       
opposite to the altar1 and endeavouring 
to fly to it1  but which at length flew 
into his hands4 ,he also saw that the   
altar was  sprinkled with its blood4    
,seeing this1 he rose as soon as it was 
day1 and  went to the altar1 and        
standing on the turret1 as he thought he
 did in  his dream1 he looked round1 and
 saw the very bird which he had seen in 
his sleep4 ,hoping1 therefore1 that his 
dream would be fulfilled1 he stood      
still1 saw the bird fly to the altar and
 sit upon it1 and deliver itself  into  

the hands of the high priest4 ,thus the 
bird was sacrificed1 and the  altar     
sprinkled with blood4 ,that1 however1   
which happened at ,cyzicus1 is  still   
more celebrated than this event4 ,for   
,mithridates having besieged  this city1
 the festival of ,proserpine was then   
celebrated1 in which it  was requisite  
to sacrifice an ox4 ,but the sacred     
herds1 from which it was  necessary the 
victim should be taken1 fed opposite to 
the city1 on the  continent#bc3 and one 
of them was already marked for this     
purpose4 ,when1  therefore1 the hour    
demanded the sacrifice1 the ox lowed1   
and swam over  the sea1 and the guards  
of the city opened the gates to it4     
,then the ox  directly ran into the     
city1 and stood at the altar1 and was   
sacrificed to  the ,goddess4 ,not       
unreasonably1 therefore1 was it thought 
to be most pious  to sacrifice many     
animals1 since it appeared that the     
sacrifice of them  was pleasing to the  
,gods4    #bf4 ,but what would be the   

condition of a city1 if all the citizens
 were  of this opinion1 viz4 that they  
should abstain from destroying animals8 
,for how would they repel their enemies1
 when they were attacked by them1  if   
they were careful in the extreme not to 
kill any one of them8 ,in this  case1   
indeed1 they must be immediately        
destroyed4 ,and it would be too  prolix 
to narrate other difficulties and       
inconveniences1 which would  necessarily
 take place4 ,that it is not1 however1  
impious to slay and feed  on animals1 is
 evident from this1 that ,pythagoras    
himself1 though those  prior to him     
permitted the athlet to drink milk1 and 
to eat cheese1  irrigated with water2   
but others1 posterior to him1 rejecting 
this diet1  fed them with dry figs2 yet 
he1 abrogating the ancient custom1      
allowed  them to feed on flesh1 and     
found that such a diet greatly increased
 their  strength4 ,some also relate1    
that the ,pythagoreans themselves did   
not  spare animals when they sacrificed 

to the gods4 ,such1 therefore1 are the  
arguments of ,clodius1 ,heraclides      
,ponticus1 ,hermachus the ,epicurean1   
and  the ,stoics and ,peripatetics1     
against abstinence from animal food3    
among  which also are comprehended the  
arguments which were sent to us by you1 
,o  ,castricius4 ,as1 however1 ,i intend
 to oppose these opinions1 and those of 
the multitude1 ,i may reasonably premise
 what follows4    #bg4 ,in the first    
place1 therefore1 it must be known that 
my discourse  does not bring with it an 
exhortation to every description of men4
 ,for  it is not directed to those who  
are occupied in sordid mechanical arts1 
nor to those who are engaged in athletic
 exercises2 neither to soldiers1  nor   
sailors1 nor rhetoricians1 nor to those 
who lead an active life4 ,but  ,i write 
to the man who considers what he is1    
whence he came1 and whither  he ought to
 tend1 and who1 in what pertains to     
nutriment1 and other  necessary         
concerns1 is different from those who   

propose to themselves  other kinds of   
life2 for to none but such as these do  
,i direct my  discourse4 ,for1 neither  
in this common life can there be one and
 the same  exhortation to the sleeper1  
who endeavours to obtain sleep through  
the  whole of life1 and who1 for this   
purpose1 procures from all places things
  of a soporiferous nature1 as there is 
to him who is anxious to repel  sleep1  
and to dispose every thing about him to 
a vigilant condition4 ,but  to the      
former it is necessary to recommend     
intoxication1 surfeiting1 and  satiety1 
and to exhort him to choose a dark      
house1 and        ,a bed luxuriant1     
broad1 and soft1--    as the poets say2 
and that he should procure for himself  
all such things  as are of a            
soporiferous nature1 and which are      
effective of sluggishness  and oblivion1
 whether they are odours1 or ointments1 
or are liquid or  solid medicines4 ,and 
to the latter it is requisite to advise 
the use of  a drink sober and without   

wine1 food of an attenuated nature1 and 
almost  approaching to fasting2 a house 
lucid1 and participating of a subtle air
  and wind1 and to urge him to be       
strenuously excited by solicitude and   
thought1 and to prepare for himself a   
small and hard bed4 ,but1 whether we    
are naturally adapted to this1 ,i mean  
to a vigilant life1 so as to grant  as  
little as possible to sleep1 since we do
 not dwell among those who are          
perpetually vigilant1 or whether we are 
designed to be in a soporiferous  state 
of existence1 is the business of another
 discussion1 and is a  subject which    
requires very extended demonstrations4  
#bh4 ,to the man1 however1 who once     
suspects the enchantments attending  our
 journey through the present life1 and  
belonging to the place in  which we     
dwell2 who also perceives himself to be 
naturally vigilant1 and  considers the  
somniferous nature of the region which  
he inhabits2--to  this man addressing   
ourselves1 we prescribe food            

consentaneous to his  suspicion and     
knowledge of this terrene abode1 and    
exhort him to suffer  the somnolent to  
be stretched on their beds1 dissolved in
 sleep4 ,for it  is requisite to be     
cautious1 lest as those who look on the 
blear-eyed  contract an ophthalmy1 and  
as we gape when present with those who  
are  gaping1 so we should be filled with
 drowsiness and sleep1 when the region  
which we inhabit is cold1 and adapted to
 fill the eyes with rheum1 as  being of 
a marshy nature1 and drawing down all   
those that dwell in it to  a somniferous
 and oblivious condition4 ,if1          
therefore1 legislators had  ordained    
laws for cities1 with a view to a       
contemplative and intellectual  life1 it
 would certainly be requisite to be     
obedient to those laws1  and to comply  
with what they instituted concerning    
food4 ,but if they  established their   
laws1 looking to a life according to    
nature1 and which  is said to rank as a 
medium1 between the irrational and the  

intellectual  life1 and to what the     
vulgar admit1 who conceive externals1   
and things  which pertain to the body to
 be good or evil1 why should any one1   
adducing their laws1 endeavour to       
subvert a life1 which is more excellent 
than every law which is written and     
ordained for the multitude1 and which   
is especially conformable to an         
unwritten and divine law8 ,for such is  
the  truth of the case4    #bi4 ,the    
contemplation which procures for us     
felicity1 does not consist1  as same one
 may think it does1 in a multitude of   
discussions and  disciplines2 nor does  
it receive any increase by a quantity of
 words4  ,for if this were the case1    
nothing would prevent those from being  
happy  by whom all disciplines are      
collected together and comprehended4    
,now1 however1 every discipline by no   
means gives completion to this          
contemplation1 nor even the disciplines 
which pertain to truly existing  beings1
 unless there is a conformity to them of

 our nature#bd and life4  ,for since    
there are1 as it is said1 in every      
purpose three#be ends1 the  end with us 
is to obtain the contemplation of real  
being1 the attainment  of it procuring1 
as much as it is possible for us1 a     
conjunction of  the contemplator with   
the object of contemplation4 ,for the   
reascent of  the soul is not to any     
thing else than true being itself1 nor  
is its  conjunction with any other      
thing4 ,but intellect is truly-existing 
being2  so that the end is to live      
according to intellect4 ,hence such     
discussions  and exoteric disciplines as
 impede our purification1 do not give   
completion to our felicity4 ,if1        
therefore1 felicity consisted in        
literary  attainments1 this end might be
 obtained by those who pay no attention 
to  their food and their actions4 ,but  
since for this purpose it is requisite  
to exchange the life which the multitude
 lead for another1 and to become        
purified both in words and deeds1 let us

 consider what reasonings and  what     
works will enable us to obtain this end4
    #cj4 ,shall we say1 therefore1 that 
they will be such as separate us from   
sensibles1 and the passions which       
pertain to them1 and which elevate us   
as much as possible to an intellectual1 
unimaginative1 and impassive  life2 but 
that the contraries to these are        
foreign1 and deserve to be  rejected8   
,and this by so much the more1 as they  
separate us from a life  according to   
intellect4 ,but1 ,i think1 it must be   
admitted1 that we should  follow the    
object to which intellect attracts us4  
,for we resemble those  who enter into1 
or depart from a foreign region1 not    
only because we are  banished from our  
intimate associates1 but in consequence 
of dwelling in  a foreign land1 we are  
filled with barbaric passions1 and      
manners1 and  legal institutes1 and to  
all these have a great propensity4      
,hence1 he who  wishes to return to his 
proper kindred and associates1 should   

not only  with alacrity begin the       
journey1 but1 in order that he may be   
properly  received1 should meditate how 
he may divest himself of every thing of 
a  foreign nature which he has assumed1 
and should recall to his memory such    
things as he has forgotten1 and without 
which he cannot be admitted by  his     
kindred and friends4 ,after the same    
manner1 also1 it is necessary1  if we   
intend to return to things which are    
truly our own1 that we should  divest   
ourselves of every thing of a mortal    
nature which we have assumed1  together 
with an adhering affection towards it1  
and which is the cause  of our descent  
into this terrestrial region2 and that  
we should excite  our recollection of   
that blessed and eternal essence1 and   
should hasten  our return to the nature 
which is without colour and without     
quality1  earnestly endeavouring to     
accomplish two things2 one1 that we may 
cast  aside every thing material and    
mortal2 but the other1 that we may      

properly return1 and be again conversant
 with our true kindred1 ascending  to   
them in a way contrary to that in which 
we descended hither4 ,for we  were      
intellectual natures1 and we still are  
essences purified from all  sense and   
irrationality2 but we are complicated   
with sensibles1 through  our            
incapability of eternally associating   
with the intelligible1 and  through the 
power of being conversant with          
terrestrial concerns4 ,for  all the     
powers which energize in conjunction    
with sense and body1 are  injured1 in   
consequence of the soul not abiding in  
the intelligible2  7just as the earth1  
when in a bad condition1 though it      
frequently  receives the seed of wheat1 
yet produces nothing but tares71 and    
this is  through a certain depravity of 
the soul1 which does not indeed destroy 
its essence from the generation of      
irrationality1 but through this is      
conjoined with a mortal nature1 and is  
drawn down from its own proper to  a    

foreign condition of being4    #ca4 ,so 
that1 if we are desirous of returning to
 those natures with which  we formerly  
associated1 we must endeavour to the    
utmost of our power to  withdraw        
ourselves from sense and imagination1   
and the irrationality with  which they  
are attended1 and also from the passions
 which subsist about  them1 as far as   
the necessity of our condition in this  
life will permit4  ,but such things as  
pertain to intellect should be          
distinctly arranged1  procuring for it  
peace and quiet from the war with the   
irrational part2  that we may not only  
be auditors of intellect and            
intelligibles1 but  may as much as      
possible enjoy the contemplation of     
them1 and1 being  established in an     
incorporeal nature1 may truly live      
through intellect2  and not falsely in  
conjunction with things allied to       
bodies4 ,we must  therefore divest      
ourselves of our manifold garments1 both
 of this visible  and fleshly vestment1 

and of those with which we are          
internally clothed1  and which are      
proximate to our cutaneous habiliments2 
and we must enter  the stadium naked and
 unclothed1 striving for the most       
glorious of all  prizes the ,olympia of 
the soul4 ,the first thing1 however1 and
 without  which we cannot contend1 is to
 divest ourselves of our garments4 ,but 
since of these some are external and    
others internal1 thus also with  respect
 to the denudation1 one kind is through 
things which are apparent1  but another 
through such as are more unapparent4    
,thus1 for instance1  not to eat1 or not
 to receive what is offered to us1      
belongs to things  which are immediately
 obvious2 but not to desire is a thing  
more obscure2  so that1 together with   
deeds1 we must also withdraw ourselves  
from an  adhering affection and passion 
towards them4 ,for what benefit shall we
  derive by abstaining from deeds1 when 
at the same time we tenaciously  adhere 
to the causes from which the deeds      

proceed8    #cb4 ,but this departure    
from sense1 imagination1 and            
irrationality1  may be effected by      
violence1 and also by persuasion and by 
reason1  through the wasting away1 and1 
as it may be said1 oblivion and death of
  the passions2 which1 indeed1 is the   
best kind of departure1 since it is     
accomplished without oppressing that    
from which we are divulsed4 ,for1  in   
sensibles1 a divulsion by force is not  
effected without either a  laceration of
 a part1 or a vestige of avulsion4 ,but 
this separation is  introduced by a     
continual negligence of the passions4   
,and this negligence  is produced by an 
abstinence from those sensible          
perceptions which excite  the passions1 
and by a persevering attention to       
intelligibles4 ,and among  these        
passions or perturbations1 those which  
arise from food are to be  enumerated4  
#cc4 ,we should therefore abstain1 no   
less than from other things1 from       
certain food1 viz4 such as is naturally 

adapted to excite the passive  part of  
our soul1 concerning which it will be   
requisite to consider  as follows3      
,there are two fountains whose streams  
irrigate the bond  by which the soul is 
bound to the body2 and from which the   
soul being  filled as with deadly       
potions1 becomes oblivious of the proper
 objects  of her contemplation4 ,these  
fountains are pleasure and pain2 of     
which  sense indeed is preparative1 and 
the perception which is according to    
sense1 together with the imaginations1  
opinions1 and recollections  which      
accompany the senses4 ,but from these1  
the passions being excited1  and the    
whole of the irrational nature becoming 
fattened1 the soul is  drawn downward1  
and abandons its proper love of true    
being4 ,as much as  possible1 therefore1
 we must separate ourselves from these4 
,but the  separation must be effected by
 an avoidance of the passions which     
subsist  through the senses and the     
irrational part4 ,but the senses are    

employed  either on objects of the      
sight1 or of the hearing1 or of the     
taste1 or  the smell1 or the touch2 for 
sense is as it were the metropolis of   
that  foreign colony of passions which  
we contain4 ,let us1 therefore1 consider
  how much fuel of the passions enters  
into us through each of the senses4     
,for this is effected partly by the view
 of the contests of horses and  the     
athlete1 or those whose bodies are      
contorted in dancing2 and partly  from  
the survey of beautiful women4 ,for     
these1 ensnaring the irrational  nature1
 attack and subjugate it by all-various 
deceptions4    #cd4 ,for the soul1 being
 agitated with ,bacchic fury through all
 these by  the irrational part1 is made 
to leap1 to exclaim and vociferate1 the 
external tumult being inflamed by the   
internal1 and which was first  enkindled
 by sense4 ,but the excitations through 
the ears1 and which  are of a passive   
nature1 are produced by certain noises  
and sounds1 by  indecent language and   

defamation1 so that many through these  
being exiled  from reason1 are furiously
 agitated1 and some1 becoming           
effeminate1  exhibit all-various        
convolutions of the body4 ,and who is   
ignorant how  much the use of           
fumigations1 and the exhalations of     
sweet odours1 with  which lovers supply 
the objects of their love1 fatten the   
irrational part  of the soul8 ,but what 
occasion is there to speak of the       
passions produced  through the taste8   
,for here1 especially1 there is a       
complication of a  twofold bond2 one    
which is fattened by the passions       
excited by the taste2  and the other1   
which we render heavy and powerful1 by  
the introduction  of foreign bodies i4e4
 of bodies different from our own4 ,for1
 as  a certain physician said1 those are
 not the only poisons which are         
prepared by the medical art2 but those  
likewise which we daily assume  for     
food1 both in what we eat1 and what we  
drink1 and a thing of a much  more      

deadly nature is imparted to the soul   
through these1 than from the  poisons   
which are compounded for the purpose of 
destroying the body4 ,and  as to the    
touch1 it does all but transmute the    
soul into the body1 and  produces in it 
certain inarticulate sounds1 such as    
frequently take place  in inanimate     
bodies4 ,and from all these1            
recollections1 imaginations1  and       
opinions being collected together1      
excite a swarm of passions1 viz4  of    
fear1 desire1 anger1 love1              
voluptuousness#bf1 pain1 emulation1     
solicitude1 and disease1 and cause the  
soul to be full of similar              
perturbations4    #ce4 ,hence1 to be    
purified from all these is most         
difficult1 and requires  a great        
contest1 and we must bestow much labour 
both by night and by  day to be         
liberated from an attention to them1 and
 this1 because we are  necessarily      
complicated with sense4 ,whence1 also1  
as much as possible1  we should withdraw

 ourselves from those places in which we
 may1 though  unwillingly1 meet with    
this hostile crowd4 ,from experience1   
also1 we  should avoid a contest with   
it1 and even a victory over it1 and the 
want  of exercise from inexperience4    
#cf4 ,for we learn1 that this conduct   
was adopted by some of the celebrated   
ancient ,pythagoreans and wise men2 some
 of whom dwelt in the most  solitary    
places2 but others in temples and sacred
 groves1 from which1  though they were  
in cities1 all tumult and the multitude 
were expelled4  ,but ,plato chose to    
reside in the ,academy1 a place not only
 solitary and  remote from the city1 but
 which was also said to be insalubrious4
 ,others  have not spared even their    
eyes1 through a desire of not being     
divulsed  from the inward contemplation 
of reality4 ,if some one1 however1 at   
the same time that he is conversant with
 men1 and while he is filling  his      
senses with the passions pertaining to  
them1 should fancy that he  can remain  

impassive1 he is ignorant that he both  
deceives himself and  those who are     
persuaded by him1 nor does he see that  
we are enslaved to  many passions1      
through not alienating ourselves from   
the multitude4 ,for  he did not speak   
vainly1 and in such a way as to falsify 
the nature of  the ,coryphan            
philosophers1 who said of them1 8,these1
 therefore1 from  their youth1 neither  
know the way to the forum1 nor where the
 court of  justice or senate-house is   
situated1 or any common place of        
assembly  belonging to the city40 ,they 
likewise neither hear nor see laws1 or  
decrees1 whether orally promulgated or  
written4 ,and as to the ardent          
endeavours of their companions to obtain
 magistracies1 the associations  of     
these1 their banquets and wanton        
feastings1 accompanied by pipers1  these
 they do not even dream of              
accomplishing4 ,but whether any thing in
  the city has happened well or ill1 or 
what evil has befallen any one from  his

 progenitors1 whether male or female1   
these are more concealed from  such a   
one1 than1 as it is said1 how many      
measures called choes the sea  contains4
 ,and besides this1 he is even ignorant 
that he is ignorant#bg  of all these    
particulars4 ,for he does not abstain   
from them for the sake  of renown1 but1 
in reality1 his body only dwells1 and is
 conversant in  the city2 but his       
reasoning power considering all these as
 trifling and  of no value1 8he is borne
 away10 according to ,pindar1 8on all   
sides1 and  does not apply himself to   
any thing which is near40    #cg4 ,in   
what is here said1 ,plato asserts1 that 
the ,coryphan philosopher1  by not at   
all mingling himself with the           
above-mentioned particulars1  remains   
impassive to them4 ,hence1 he neither   
knows the way to the court  of justice  
nor the senate-house1 nor any thing else
 which has been before  enumerated4 ,he 
does not say1 indeed1 that he knows and 
is conversant with  these particulars1  

and that1 being conversant1 and filling 
his senses  with them1 yet does not know
 any thing about them2 but1 on the      
contrary1  he says1 that abstaining from
 them1 he is ignorant that he is        
ignorant of  them4 ,he also adds1 that  
this philosopher does not even dream of 
betaking  himself to banquets4 ,much    
less1 therefore1 would he be indignant1 
if  deprived of broth1 or pieces of     
flesh2 nor1 in short1 will he admit     
things of this kind4 ,and will he not   
rather consider the abstinence from  all
 these as trifling1 and a thing of no   
consequence1 but the assumption  of them
 to be a thing of great importance and  
noxious8 ,for since there  are two      
paradigms in the order of things1 one of
 a divine nature1 which  is most happy1 
the other of that which is destitute of 
divinity1 and  which is most            
miserable#bh2 the ,coryphan philosopher 
will assimilate  himself to the one1 but
 will render himself dissimilar to the  
other1 and  will lead a life conformable

 to the paradigm to which he is         
assimilated1  viz4 a life satisfied with
 slender food1 and sufficient to itself1
 and in  the smallest degree replete    
with mortal natures4    #ch4 ,hence1 as 
long as any one is discordant about     
food1 and contends  that this or that   
thing should be eaten1 but does not     
conceive that1 if  it were possible1 we 
should abstain from all food1 assenting 
by this  contention to his passions1    
such a one forms a vain opinion1 as if  
the  subjects of his dissension were    
things of no consequence4 ,he1          
therefore1  who philosophizes1 will not 
separate himself from his terrestrial   
bonds  by violence2 for he who is       
compelled to do this1 nevertheless      
remains  there from whence he was forced
 to depart4 ,nor must it be thought1    
that  he who strengthens these bonds1   
effects a thing of small importance4    
,so that only granting to nature what is
 necessary1 and this of a light         
quality1 and through more slender food1 

he will reject whatever exceeds  this1  
as only contributing to pleasure4 ,for  
he will be persuaded of the  truth of   
what ,plato says1 that sense is a nail  
by which the soul is  fastened to       
bodies#bi1 through the agglutination of 
the passions1 and  the enjoyment of     
corporeal delight4 ,for if sensible     
perceptions were no  impediment to the  
pure energy of the soul1 why would it be
 a thing of  a dire nature to be in     
body1 while at the same time the soul   
remained  impassive to the motions of   
the body8    #ci4 ,how is it1 also1 that
 you have decided and said1 that you are
 not  passive to things which you       
suffer1 and that you are not present    
with  things by which you are passively 
affected8 ,for intellect1 indeed1 is    
present with itself1 though we are not  
present with it4 ,but he who  departs   
from intellect1 is in that place to     
which he departs2 and when1  by         
discursive energies1 he applies himself 
upwards and downwards by his            

apprehension of things1 he is there     
where his apprehension is4 ,but it is   
one thing not to attend to sensibles1 in
 consequence of being present  with     
other things1 and another for a man to  
think1 that though he attends  to       
sensibles yet he is not present with    
them4 ,nor can any one show that  ,plato
 admits this1 without at the same time  
demonstrating himself to be  deceived4  
,he1 therefore1 who submits to the      
assumption of every kind  of food1 and  
voluntarily betakes himself to alluring 
spectacles1  to conversation with the   
multitude1 and laughter2 such a one1 by 
thus  acting1 is there where the passion
 is which he sustains4 ,but he who      
abstains from these in consequence of   
being present with other things1  he it 
is who1 through his unskilfulness1 not  
only excites laughter in  ,thracian     
maid-servants1 but in the rest of the   
vulgar1 and when he sits  at a banquet1 
falls into the greatest perplexity1 not 
from any defect  of sensation1 or from a

 superior accuracy of sensible          
perception1 and  energizing with the    
irrational part of the soul alone2 for  
,plato does  not venture to assert this2
 but because1 in slanderous             
conversation1  he has nothing           
reproachful to say of any one1 as not   
knowing any evil  of any one1 because he
 has not made individuals the subject of
 his  meditation4 ,being in such        
perplexity1 therefore1 he appears1 says 
,plato1  to be ridiculous2 and in the   
praises and boastings of others1 as he  
is  manifestly seen to laugh1 not       
dissemblingly1 but1 in reality1 he      
appears  to be delirious4    #dj4 ,so   
that1 through ignorance of1 and         
abstaining from sensible  concerns1 he  
is unacquainted with them4 ,but it is by
 no means to be  admitted1 that though  
he should be familiar with sensibles1   
and should  energize through the        
irrational part1 yet it is possible for 
him at the  same time genuinely to      
survey the objects of intellect4 ,for   

neither do  they who assert that we have
 two souls1 admit that we can attend at 
one  and the same time to two different 
things4 ,for thus they would make a     
conjunction of two animals1 which being 
employed in different energies1  the one
 would not be able to perceive the      
operations of the other4    #da4 ,but   
why would it be requisite that the      
passions should waste away1  that we    
should die with respect to them1 and    
that this should be daily  the subject  
of our meditation1 if it was possible   
for us1 as some assert1  to energize    
according to intellect1 though we are at
 the same time  intimately connected    
with mortal concerns1 and this without  
the intuition  of intellect8 ,for       
intellect sees1 and intellect hears as  
,epicharmus  says4 ,but if1 while eating
 luxuriously1 and drinking the sweetest 
wine1  it were possible to be present   
with immaterial natures1 why may not    
this  be frequently effected while you  
are present with1 and are performing    

things which it is not becoming even to 
mention8 ,for these passions  every     
where proceed from the boy#cj which is  
in us4 ,and you certainly  will admit   
that the baser these passions are1 the  
more we are drawn down  towards them4   
,for what will be the distinction which 
ought here to be  made1 if you admit    
that to some things it is not possible  
to be passive1  without being present   
with them1 but that you may accomplish  
other  things1 at the same time that you
 are surveying intelligibles8 ,for it   
is not because some things are          
apprehended to be base by the multitude1
  but others not4 ,for all the above    
mentioned passions are base4 ,so that   
to the attainment of a life according to
 intellect1 it is requisite to  abstain 
from all these1 in the same manner as   
from venereal concerns4 ,to  nature     
therefore1 but little food must be      
granted1 through the necessity  of      
generation or of our connexion with a   
flowing condition of being4  ,for1 where

 sense and sensible apprehension are1   
there a departure and  separation from  
the intelligible take place2 and by how 
much stronger  the excitation is of the 
irrational part1 by so much the greater 
is the  departure from intellection4    
,for it is not possible for us to be    
borne  along to this place and to that1 
while we are here1 and yet be there1    
i4e4 be present with an intelligible    
essence4 ,for our attentions to  things 
are not effected with a part1 but with  
the whole of ourselves4    #db4 ,but to 
fancy that he who is passively affected 
according to sense1  may1 nevertheless1 
energize about intelligibles1 has       
precipitated many  of the ,barbarians to
 destruction2 who arrogantly assert1    
that though  they indulge in every kind 
of pleasure1 yet they are able to       
convert  themselves to things of a      
different nature from sensibles1 at the 
same  time that they are energizing with
 the irrational part4 ,for ,i have heard
  some persons patronizing their        

infelicity after the following manner4  
8,we  are not10 say they1 8defiled by   
food1 as neither is the sea by the filth
  of rivers4 ,for we have dominion over 
all eatables1 in the same manner as  the
 sea over all humidity4 ,but if the sea 
should shut up its mouth1 so  as not to 
receive the streams that now flow into  
it1 it would be indeed1  with respect to
 itself1 great2 but1 with respect to the
 world1 small1 as  not being able to    
receive dirt and corruption4 ,if1       
however1 it was afraid  of being        
defiled1 it would not receive these     
streams2 but knowing its own  magnitude1
 it receives all things1 and is not     
averse to any thing which  proceeds into
 it4 ,in like manner1 say they1 we also1
 if we were afraid of  food1 should be  
enslaved by the conception of fear4 ,but
 it is requisite  that all things should
 be obedient to us4 ,for1 if we collect 
a little  water1 indeed1 which has      
received any filth1 it becomes          
immediately  defiled and oppressed by   

the filth2 but this is not the case with
 the  profound sea4 ,thus1 also1        
aliments vanquish the pusillanimous2 but
 where  there is an immense liberty with
 respect to food1 all things are        
received  for nutriment1 and no         
defilement is produced40 ,these men1    
therefore1  deceiving themselves by     
arguments of this kind1 act in a manner 
conformable to their deception4 ,but1   
instead of obtaining liberty1 being     
precipitated into an abyss of           
infelicity1 they are suffocated4 ,this1 
also1 induced some of the ,cynics to be 
desirous of eating every kind of  food1 
in consequence of their pertinaciously  
adhering to the cause of  errors1 which 
we are accustomed to call a thing of an 
indifferent nature4    #dc4 ,the man1   
however1 who is cautious1 and is        
suspicious of the  enchantments of      
nature1 who has surveyed the essential  
properties of  body1 and knows that it  
was adapted as an instrument to the     
powers of  the soul1 will also know how 

readily passion is prepared to accord   
with  the body1 whether we are willing  
or not1 when any thing external strikes 
it1 and the pulsation at length arrives 
at perception4 ,for perception  is1 as  
it were1 an answer to that which causes 
the perception4 ,but  the soul cannot   
answer unless she wholly converts       
herself to the sound1  and transfers her
 animadversive eye to the pulsation4 ,in
 short1 the  irrational part not being  
able to judge to what extent1 how1      
whence1  and what thing ought to be the 
object of attention1 but of itself      
being inconsiderate1 like horses without
 a charioteer#ca2 whither  it verges    
downward1 thither it is borne along1    
without any power of  governing itself  
in things external4 ,nor does it know   
the fit time or  the measure of the food
 which should be taken1 unless the eye  
of the  charioteer is attentive to it1  
which regulates and governs the motions 
of  irrationality1 this part of the soul
 being essentially blind4 ,but he who   

takes away from reason its dominion over
 the irrational part1 and permits  it to
 be borne along1 conformably to its     
proper nature3 such a one1  yielding to 
desire and anger1 will suffer them to   
proceed to whatever  extent they please4
 ,on the contrary1 the worthy man will  
so act that his  deeds may be           
conformable to presiding reason1 even in
 the energies of the  irrational part4  
#dd4 ,and in this the worthy appears to 
differ from the depraved man1  that the 
former has every where reason present1  
governing and guiding1  like a          
charioteer1 the irrational part2 but the
 latter performs many  things without   
reason for his guide4 ,hence the latter 
is said to be most  irrational1 and is  
borne along in a disorderly manner by   
irrationality2  but the former is       
obedient to reason1 and superior to     
every irrational  desire4 ,this1        
therefore1 is the cause why the         
multitude err in words  and deeds1 in   
desire and anger1 and why1 on the       

contrary1 good men act  with rectitude1 
viz4 that the former suffer the boy     
within them to do  whatever it pleases2 
but the latter give themselves up to the
 guidance  of the tutor of the boy1 i4e4
 to reason and govern what pertains to  
themselves in conjunction with it4      
,hence in food1 and in other corporeal  
energies and enjoyments1 the charioteer 
being present1 defines what is          
commensurate and opportune4 ,but when   
the charioteer is absent1 and1 as  some 
say1 is occupied in his own concerns1   
then1 if he also has with  him our      
attention1 he does not permit it to be  
disturbed1 or at all to  energize with  
the irrational power4 ,if1 however1 he  
should permit our  attention to be      
directed to the boy1 unaccompanied by   
himself1 he would  destroy the man1 who 
would be precipitately borne along by   
the folly of  the irrational part4      
#de4 ,hence1 to worthy men1 abstinence  
in food1 and in corporeal enjoyments    
and actions1 is more appropriate than   

abstinence in what pertains to the      
touch2 because though1 while we touch   
bodies1 it is necessary we should       
descend from our proper manners to the  
instruction of that which is most       
irrational in us2 yet this is still more
 necessary in the assumption of  food4  
,for the irrational nature is incapable 
of considering what will be  the effect 
of it1 because this part of the soul is 
essentially ignorant  of that which is  
absent4 ,but1 with respect to food1 if  
it were possible  to be liberated from  
it1 in the same manner as from visible  
objects1  when they are removed from the
 view2 for we can attend to other things
  when the imagination is withdrawn from
 them2--if this were possible1 it  would
 be no great undertaking to be          
immediately emancipated from the        
necessity of the mortal nature1 by      
yielding1 in a small degree1 to it4     
,since1 however1 a prolongation of time 
in cooking and digesting food1 and      
together with this the co-operation of  

sleep and rest1 are requisite1  and1    
after these1 a certain temperament from 
digestion1 and a separation  of         
excrements1 it is necessary that the    
tutor of the boy within us should  be   
present1 who1 selecting things of a     
light nature1 and which will be  no     
impediment to him1 may concede these to 
nature1 in consequence of  foreseeing   
the future1 and the impediment which    
will be produced by his  permitting the 
desires to introduce to us a burden not 
easily to be  borne1 through the        
trifling pleasure arising from the      
deglutition of food4    #df4 ,reason1   
therefore1 very properly rejecting the  
much and the  superfluous1 will         
circumscribe what is necessary in narrow
 boundaries1  in order that it may not  
be molested in procuring what the wants 
of the  body demand1 through many things
 being requisite2 nor being attentive to
  elegance1 will it need a multitude of 
servants2 nor endeavour to receive  much
 pleasure in eating1 nor1 through       

satiety1 to be filled with much         
indolence2 nor by rendering its burden  
the body more gross1 to become          
somnolent2 nor through the body being   
replete with things of a fattening      
nature1 to render the bond more strong1 
but himself more sluggish and  imbecile 
in the performance of his proper works4 
,for1 let any man show  us who          
endeavours as much as possible to live  
according to intellect1  and not to be  
attracted by the passions of the body1  
that animal food  is more easily        
procured than the food from fruits and  
herbs2 or that  the preparation of the  
former is more simple than that of the  
latter1  and1 in short1 that it does not
 require cooks1 but1 when compared with 
inanimate nutriment1 is unattended by   
pleasure1 is lighter in concoction1  and
 is more rapidly digested1 excites in a 
less degree the desires1 and            
contributes less to the strength of the 
body than a vegetable diet4    #dg4 ,if1
 however1 neither any physician1 nor    

philosopher1 nor wrestler1  nor any one 
of the vulgar1 has dared to assert this1
 why should we not  willingly abstain   
from this corporeal burden8 ,why should 
we not1 at the  same time1 liberate     
ourselves from many inconveniences by   
abandoning a  fleshly diet8 ,for we     
should not be liberated from one only1  
but from  myriads of evils1 by          
accustoming ourselves to be satisfied   
with things  of the smallest nature2    
viz4 we should be freed from a          
superabundance  of riches1 from numerous
 servants1 a multitude of utensils1 a   
somnolent  condition1 from many and     
vehement diseases1 from medical         
assistance1  incentives to venery1 more 
gross exhalations1 an abundance of      
excrements1  the crassitude of the      
corporeal bond1 from the strength which 
excites  to base actions1 and1 in short1
 from an ,iliad of evils4 ,but from all 
these1 inanimate and slender food1 and  
which is easily obtained1 will  liberate
 us1 and will procure for us peace1 by  

imparting salvation to  our reasoning   
power4 ,for1 as ,diogenes says1 thieves 
and enemies are not  found among those  
that feed on maize#cb1 but sycophants   
and tyrants are  produced from those who
 feed on flesh4 ,the cause1 however1 of 
our being  in want of many things being 
taken away1 together with the multitude 
of  nutriment introduced into the body1 
and also the weight of digestibles      
being lightened1 the eye of the soul    
will become free1 and will be           
established as in a port beyond the     
smoke and the waves of the corporeal    
nature4    #dh4 ,and this neither       
requires monition1 nor demonstration1 on
 account  of the evidence with which it 
is immediately attended4 ,hence1 not    
only  those who endeavour to live       
according to intellect1 and who         
establish  for themselves an            
intellectual life1 as the end of their  
pursuits1 have  perceived that this     
abstinence was necessary to the         
attainment of this  end2 but1 as it     

appears to me1 nearly every philosopher1
 preferring  frugality to luxury1 has   
rather embraced a life which is         
satisfied with  a little1 than one that 
requires a multitude of things4 ,and1   
what will  seem paradoxical to many1 we 
shall find that this is asserted and    
praised  by men who thought that        
pleasure is the end of those that       
philosophize4  ,for most of the         
,epicureans1 beginning from the         
,corypheus of their sect1  appear to    
have been satisfied with maize and      
fruits1 and have filled  their writings 
with showing how little nature requires1
 and that its  necessities may be       
sufficiently remedied by slender and    
easily-procured  food4    #di4 ,for the 
wealth1 say they1 of nature is definite1
 and easily obtained2  but that which   
proceeds from vain opinions1 is         
indefinite1 and procured  with          
difficulty4 ,for things which may be    
readily obtained1 remove in a  beautiful
 and abundantly sufficient manner that  

which1 through indigence1  is the cause 
of molestation to the flesh2 and these  
are such as have the  simple nature of  
moist and dry aliments4 ,but every thing
 else1 say they1  which terminates in   
luxury1 is not attended with a necessary
 appetition1  nor is it necessarily     
produced from a certain something which 
is in pain2  but partly arises from the 
molestation and pungency solely         
proceeding  from something not being    
present2 partly from joy2 and partly    
from vain  and false dogmas1 which      
neither pertain to any natural defect1  
nor to  the dissolution of the human    
frame1 those not being present4 ,for    
things  which may every where be        
obtained1 are sufficient for those      
purposes  which nature necessarily      
requires4 ,but these1 through their     
simplicity  and paucity1 may be easily  
procured4 ,and he1 indeed1 who feeds on 
flesh1  requires also inanimate natures2
 but he who is satisfied with things    
inanimate1 is easily supplied from the  

half of what the other wants1 and  needs
 but a small expense for the preparation
 of his food4    #ej4 ,they likewise    
say1 it is requisite that he who        
prepares the  necessaries of life1      
should not afterwards make use of       
philosophy as an  accession2 but1 having
 obtained it1 should1 with a confident  
mind1 thus  genuinely endure#cc the     
events of the day4 ,for we shall commit 
what  pertains to ourselves to a bad    
counsellor1 if we measure and procure   
what is necessary to nature1 without    
philosophy4 ,hence it is necessary  that
 those who philosophize should provide  
things of this kind1 and  strenuously   
attend to them as much as possible4     
,but1 so far as there  is a dereliction 
from thence1 i4e4 from philosophizing1  
which is  not capable of effecting a    
perfect purification#cd1 so far we      
should  not endeavour to procure either 
riches or nutriment4 ,in conjunction1   
therefore1 with philosophy1 we should   
engage in things of this kind1  and be  

immediately persuaded that it is much   
better to pursue what is  the least1 the
 most simple1 and light in nutriment4   
,for that which is  least1 and is       
unattended with molestation1 is derived 
from that which is  least#ce4    #ea4   
,the preparation also of these things1  
draws along with it many  impediments1  
either from the weight of the body1     
which they are  adapted to increase1 or 
from the difficulty of procuring them1  
or from  their preventing the continuity
 of the energy of our most principal    
reasonings#cf1 or from some other cause4
 ,for this energy then becomes          
immediately useless1 and does not remain
 unchanged by the concomitant           
perturbations4 ,it is necessary1        
however1 that a philosopher should hope 
that he may not be in want of any thing 
through the whole of life4 ,but  this   
hope will be sufficiently preserved by  
things which are easily  procured2      
while1 on the other hand1 this hope is  
frustrated by things of  a sumptuous    

nature4 ,the multitude1 therefore1 on   
this account1 though  their possessions 
are abundant1 incessantly labour to     
obtain more1 as if  they were in want4  
,but the recollection that the greatest 
possible wealth  has no power worth     
mentioning of dissolving the            
perturbations of the  soul1 will cause  
us to be satisfied with things easily   
obtained1 and of  the most simple       
nature4 ,things also1 which are very    
moderate and obvious1  and which may be 
procured with the greatest facility1    
remove the tumult  occasioned by the    
flesh4 ,but the deficiency of things of 
a luxurious  nature will not disturb him
 who meditates on death4 ,farther still1
 the  pain arising from indigence is    
much milder than that which is produced 
by  repletion1 and will be considered to
 be so by him who does not deceive      
himself with vain opinions4 ,variety    
also of food not only does not  dissolve
 the perturbations of the soul1 but does
 not even increase the  pleasure which  

is felt by the flesh4 ,for this is      
terminated as soon as  pain is          
removed#cg4 ,so that the feeding on     
flesh does not remove any  thing which  
is troublesome to nature1 nor effect any
 thing which1 unless  it is             
accomplished1 will end in pain4 ,but the
 pleasantness with which  it is attended
 is violent1 and1 perhaps1 mingled with 
the contrary4 ,for  it does not         
contribute to the duration of life1 but 
to the variety of  pleasure2 and in this
 respect resembles venereal enjoyments1 
and the  drinking of foreign wines1     
without which nature is able to remain4 
,for  those things1 without which nature
 cannot last1 are very few1 and may be  
procured easily1 and in conjunction with
 justice1 liberty1 quiet1 and  abundant 
leisure4    #eb4 ,again1 neither does   
animal food contribute1 but is rather an
  impediment to health4 ,for health is  
preserved through those things by  which
 it is recovered4 ,but it is recovered  
through a most slender and  fleshless   

diet2 so that by this also it is        
preserved4 ,if1 however1  vegetable food
 does not contribute to the strength of 
,milo1 nor1 in  short1 to an increase of
 strength1 neither does a philosopher   
require  strength1 or an increase of it1
 if he intends to give himself up to    
contemplation1 and not to an active and 
intemperate life4 ,but it is  not at all
 wonderful1 that the vulgar should fancy
 that animal food  contributes to       
health2 for they also think that sensual
 enjoyments and  venery are preservative
 of health1 none of which benefit any   
one2 and  those that engage in them must
 be thankful if they are not injured by 
them4 ,and if many are not of this      
opinion1 it is nothing to us4 ,for      
neither is any fidelity and constancy in
 friendship and benevolence to  be found
 among the vulgar2 nor are they capable 
of receiving these1  nor of             
participating of wisdom1 or any portion 
of it which deserves to  be mentioned4  
,neither do they understand what is     

privately or publicly  advantageous2 nor
 are they capable of forming a judgment 
of depraved and  elegant manners1 so as 
to distinguish the one from the other4  
,and1 in  addition to these things1 they
 are full of insolence and intemperance4
 ,on  this account1 there is no occasion
 to fear that there will not be those   
who will feed on animals4    #ec4 ,for  
if all men conceived rightly1 there     
would be no need of fowlers1  or        
hunters1 or fishermen1 or swineherds4   
,but animals governing  themselves1 and 
having no guardian and ruler1 would     
quickly perish1  and be destroyed by    
others1 who would attack them and       
diminish their  multitude1 as is found  
to be the case with myriads of animals  
on which  men do not feed4 ,but         
all-various folly incessantly dwelling  
with mankind1  there will be an         
innumerable multitude of those who will 
voraciously  feed on flesh4 ,it is      
necessary however to preserve health2   
not by the  fear of death1 but for the  

sake of not being impeded in the        
attainment  of the good which is derived
 from contemplation4 ,but that which is 
especially preservative of health1 is an
 undisturbed state of the soul1  and a  
tendency of the reasoning power towards 
truly existing being4 ,for  much benefit
 is from hence derived to the body1 as  
our associates have  demonstrated from  
experience4 ,hence some who have been   
afflicted with  the gout in the feet and
 hands1 to such a degree as to be       
infested with  it for eight entire      
years1 have expelled it through         
abandoning wealth1  and betaking        
themselves to the contemplation of      
divinity#ch4 ,at the  same time1        
therefore1 that they have abandoned     
riches1 and a solicitude  about human   
concerns1 they have also been liberated 
from bodily disease4  ,so that a certain
 state of the soul greatly contributes  
both to health  and to the good of the  
whole body4 ,and to this also1 for the  
most part1  a diminution of nutriment   

contributes4 ,in short1 as ,epicurus    
likewise  has rightly said1 that food is
 to be avoided1 the enjoyment of which  
we  desire and pursue1 but which1 after 
we have enjoyed1 we rank among things   
of an unacceptable nature4 ,but of this 
kind is every thing luxuriant and       
gross4 ,and in this manner those are    
affected1 who are vehemently desirous   
of such nutriment1 and through it are   
involved either in great expense1  or in
 disease1 or repletion1 or the privation
 of leisure#ci4    #ed4 ,hence also1 in 
simple and slender food1 repletion is to
 be avoided1  and every where we should 
consider what will be the consequence of
 the  possession or enjoyment of it1    
what the magnitude of it is1 and what   
molestation of the flesh or of the soul 
it is capable of dissolving4 ,for  we   
ought never to act indefinitely1 but in 
things of this kind we should  employ a 
boundary and measure2 and infer by a    
reasoning process1 that he  who fears to
 abstain from animal food1 if he suffers

 himself to feed on  flesh through      
pleasure1 is afraid of death4 ,for      
immediately1 together  with a privation 
of such food1 he conceives that         
something indefinitely  dreadful will be
 present1 the consequence of which will 
be death4 ,but  from these and similar  
causes1 an insatiable desire is produced
 of  riches1 possessions1 and renown1   
together with an opinion that every     
good is increased with these in a       
greater extent of time1 and the dread   
of death as of an infinite evil4 ,the   
pleasure however which is produced      
through luxury1 does not even approach  
to that which is experienced  by him who
 lives with frugality4 ,for such a one  
has great pleasure in  thinking how     
little he requires4 ,for luxury1        
astonishment about venereal             
occupations1 and ambition about external
 concerns1 being taken away1 what       
remaining use can there be of idle      
wealth1 which will be of no advantage   
to us whatever1 but will only become a  

burden1 no otherwise than               
repletion8--while1 on the other hand1   
the pleasure arising from frugality  is 
genuine and pure4 ,it is also necessary 
to accustom the body to become          
alienated1 as much as possible1 from the
 pleasure of the satiety arising  from  
luxurious food1 but not from the fulness
 produced by a slender diet1  in order  
that moderation may proceed through all 
things1 and that what is  necessary1 or 
what is most excellent1 may fix a       
boundary to our diet4 ,for  he who thus 
mortifies his body will receive every   
possible good1 through  being sufficient
 to himself1 and an assimilation to     
divinity4 ,and thus  also1 he will not  
desire a greater extent of time1 as if  
it would bring  with it an augmentation 
of good4 ,he will likewise thus be truly
 rich1  measuring wealth by a natural   
bound1 and not by vain opinions4 ,thus  
too1  he will not depend on the hope of 
the greatest pleasure1 the existence of 
which is incredible1 since this would be

 most troublesome4 ,but he will  remain 
satisfied with his present condition1   
and will not be anxious to  live for a  
longer period of time4    #ee4 ,besides 
this also1 is it not absurd1 that he who
 is in great  affliction1 or is in some 
grievous external calamity1 or is bound 
with  chains1 does not even think of    
food1 nor concern himself about the     
means  of obtaining it2 but when it is  
placed before him1 refuses what is      
necessary to his subsistence2 and that  
the man who is truly in bonds1 and  is  
tormented by inward calamities1 should  
endeavour to procure a variety  of      
eatables1 paying attention to things    
through which he will strengthen  his   
bonds8 ,and how is it possible that this
 should be the conduct of men  who know 
what they suffer1 and not rather of     
those who are delighted with  their     
calamities1 and who are ignorant of the 
evils which they endure8  ,for these are
 affected in a way contrary to those who
 are in chains1 and  who are conscious  

of their miserable condition2 since     
these1 experiencing  no gratification in
 the present life1 and being full of    
immense  perturbation1 insatiably aspire
 after another life4 ,for no one who can
  easily liberate himself from all      
perturbations1 will desire to possess   
silver tables and couches1 and to have  
ointments and cooks1 splendid  vessels  
and garments1 and suppers remarkable for
 their sumptuousness and  variety2 but  
such a desire arises from a perfect     
uselessness to every  purpose of the    
present life1 from an indefinite        
generation of good1 and  from immense   
perturbation4 ,hence some do not        
remember the past1 the  recollection of 
it being expelled by the present2 but   
others do not  inquire about the        
present1 because they are not gratified 
with existing  circumstances4    #ef4   
,the contemplative philosopher1 however1
 will invariably adopt a  slender diet4 
,for he knows the particulars in which  
his bond consists1  so that he is not   

capable of desiring luxuries4 ,hence1   
being delighted  with simple food1 he   
will not seek for animal nutriment1 as  
if he was  not satisfied with a         
vegetable diet4 ,but if the nature of   
the body  in a philosopher was not such 
as we have supposed it to be1 and was   
not so tractable1 and so adapted to have
 its wants satisfied through  things    
easily procured1 and it was requisite to
 endure some pains and  molestations for
 the sake of true salvation1 ought we   
not willingly to  endure them8 ,for when
 it is requisite that we should be      
liberated from  disease1 do we not      
voluntarily sustain many pains1 viz4    
while we are cut1  covered with blood1  
burnt1 drink bitter medicines1 and are  
purged through  the belly1 through      
emetics1 and through the nostrils1 and  
do we not also  reward those who cause  
us to suffer in this manner8 ,and this  
being the  case1 ought we not to sustain
 every thing1 though of the most        
afflictive  nature1 with equanimity1 for

 the sake of being purified from        
internal  disease1 since our contest is 
for immortality1 and an association with
  divinity1 from which we are prevented 
through an association with the  body8  
,by no means1 therefore1 ought we to    
follow the laws of the body1  which are 
violent and adverse to the laws of      
intellect1 and to the paths  which lead 
to salvation4 ,since1 however1 we do not
 now philosophize about  the endurance  
of pain1 but about the rejection of     
pleasures which are not  necessary1 what
 apology can remain for those1 who      
impudently endeavour to  defend their   
own intemperance8    #eg4 ,for if it is 
requisite not to dissemble any thing    
through fear1 but  to speak freely1 it  
is no otherwise possible to obtain the  
end of a  contemplative life1 than by   
adhering to ,god1 as if fastened by a   
nail1  being divulsed from body1 and    
those pleasures of the soul which       
subsist  through it2 since our salvation
 is effected by deeds1 and not by a mere

  attention to words4 ,but as it is not 
possible with any kind of diet1 and1  in
 short1 by feeding on flesh1 to become  
adapted to an union with even  some     
partial deity1 much less is this        
possible with that ,god who is  beyond  
all things1 and is above a nature simply
 incorporeal2 but after  all-various    
purifications1 both of soul and body1 he
 who is naturally  of an excellent      
disposition1 and lives with piety and   
purity1 will  scarcely be thought worthy
 to perceive him4 ,so that1 by how much 
more the  ,father of all things excels  
in simplicity1 purity1 and sufficiency  
to  himself1 as being established far   
beyond all material representation1 by  
so much the more is it requisite1 that  
he who approaches to him should  be in  
every respect pure and holy1 beginning  
from his body1 and ending  internally1  
and distributing to each of the parts1  
and in short to every  thing which is   
present with him1 a purity adapted to   
the nature of each4  ,perhaps1 however1 

these things will not be contradicted by
 any one4 ,but  it may be doubted1 why  
we admit abstinence from animal food to 
pertain  to purity1 though in sacrifices
 we slay sheep and oxen1 and conceive   
that these immolations are pure and     
acceptable to the ,gods4 ,hence1 since  
the solution of this requires a long    
discussion1 the consideration of        
sacrifices must be assumed from another 
principle4      ,,footnotes3    #ac     
,porphyry elsewhere calls this ,firmus  
,castricius his friend and  fellow      
disciple4 ,see more concerning him in   
,porphyry's ,life of ,plotinus4    #ad 4
 ,porphyry calls the conduct of ,firmus 
illegitimate1  because the feeding on   
flesh is for the most part contrary to  
the laws of  genuine philosophy4    #ae 
,the original in this place is1  '  1   
1 4442 but1 for    1  ,i read    4 ,and 
this appears to have been the reading   
which ,felicianus found in his ,,ms42   
for his version of this passage is1     
8,vel igitur deceptione inductus1 quod  

sive hoc sive illo modo vescaris1  c40  
#af ,this philosopher was an auditor of 
,plato and ,speusippus4    #ag ,hesiod4 
,op4 et ,di4 lib4 ,i4 v4 #bge1 c4    #ah
 ,this philosopher was a ,mitylenan1 and
 is said to have been an  auditor of1   
and also the successor of1 ,epicurus4   
#ai ,iliad1 ,,xi4 v4 #dgi4    #bj       
,iliad1 ,,iv4 v4 #ce4    #ba ,iliad1    
,,xxii4 v4 #cdg4    #bb i4e4 ,sacrifices
 from twelve animals4    #bc ,for       
,cyzicus was situated in an island4     
#bd ,in the original      '    2 but  it
 is obviously necessary for  to read 4  
#be viz4 ,as it appears to me1 a        
pleasurable1 a profitable1 and a        
virtuous end1 which last is a truly     
beautiful and good end4    #bf ,for     
here1 ,i read 4    #bg ,the multitude   
are ignorant that they are ignorant with
 respect to  objects of all others the  
most splendid and real2 but the         
,coryphan  philosopher is ignorant that 
he is ignorant with respect to objects  
most unsubstantial and obscure4 ,the    

former ignorance is the consequence  of 
a defect1 but the latter of a           
transcendency of gnostic energy4 ,what  
,porphyry here says of the ,coryphan    
philosopher1 is derived from the        
,thetetus of ,plato4    #bh ,see p4 #eb 
of my translation of the ,thetetus of   
,plato1 from which  ,dialogue1 what     
,porphyry here says1 as well as what he 
a little before  said1 is derived4      
#bi ,see the ,phdo of ,plato1 where this
 is asserted4    #cj ,sense1 and that   
which is beautiful in the energies of   
sense1 are  thus denominated by ,plato4 
#ca ,the rational part of the soul is   
assimilated by ,plato1 in the  ,phdrus1 
to a charioteer1 and the two irrational 
parts1 desire and  anger1 to two horses4
 ,see my translation of that ,dialogue4 
#cb ,a kind of bread made of milk and   
flour4    #cc ,in the original1         
' 4 ,but the editor of the quarto       
edition  of this work1 who appears to   
have been nothing more than a mere      
verbal  critic1 says1 in a note on this 

passage1 that the word 1  signifies     
pertinacissime illis inhrere1 nihil     
ultra studere2 whereas  it must be      
obvious to any man who understands what 
is here said1 that in  this place it    
signifies to endure4    #cd ,in the     
original1      2 but for   ,i read with 
,felicianus 4    #ce ,in the original1  
4 ,but  it is obviously necessary for   
to read 1 and yet this was  not         
perceived by the ,german editor of this 
work1 ,jacob ,rhoer4    #cf i4e4 ,of our
 reasonings about intelligible objects4 
#cg ,conformable to this1 it is         
beautifully observed by ,aristotle1 in  
his  ,nicomachean ,ethics1 that         
corporeal pleasures are the remedies of 
pain1  and that they fill up the        
indigence of nature1 but do not perfect 
any  energy of the rational soul4    #ch
 ,this is said by ,porphyry1 in his     
,life of ,plotinus1 to have been the    
case with the senator ,rogatianus4      
#ci ,and leisure1 to those who knew how 
rightly to employ it1 is1 as  ,socrates 

said1  1 8the most beautiful of         
possessions40          ,,on ,,abstinence
 ,,from ,,animal ,,food4    ,,book ,,the
 ,,second4      #a4 ,pursuing therefore 
the inquiries pertaining to simplicity  
and purity  of diet1 we have now        
arrived1 ,o ,castricius1 at the         
discussion of  sacrifices2 the          
consideration of which is difficult1 and
 at the same time  requires much        
explanation1 if we intend to decide     
concerning it in such a  way as will be 
acceptable to the ,gods4 ,hence1 as this
 is the proper place  for such a        
discussion1 we shall now unfold what    
appears to us to be the  truth on this  
subject1 and what is capable of being   
narrated1 correcting  what was          
overlooked in the hypothesis proposed   
from the beginning4    #b4 ,in the first
 place therefore we say1 it does not    
follow because  animals are slain that  
it is necessary to eat them4 ,nor does  
he who  admits the one1 ,i mean that    
they should be slain1 entirely prove    

that  they should be eaten4 ,for the    
laws permit us to defend ourselves      
against  enemies who attack us by       
killing them2 but it did not seem proper
 to  these laws to grant that we should 
eat them1 as being a thing contrary to  
the nature of man4 ,in the second place1
 it does not follow1 that because  it is
 proper to sacrifice certain animals to 
dmons1 or ,gods1 or certain  powers1    
through causes either known or unknown  
to men1 it is therefore  necessary to   
feed on animals4 ,for it may be shown1  
that men assumed  animals in sacrifices1
 which no one even of those who are     
accustomed  to feed on flesh1 would     
endure to taste4 ,moreover1 in the      
slaying of  animals1 the same error is  
overlooked4 ,for it does not follow1    
that if it  is requisite to kill some1  
it is therefore necessary to slay all   
animals1  as neither must it be granted1
 that if irrational animals1 therefore  
men  also may be slain4    #c4 ,besides1
 abstinence from animal food1 as we have

 said in the first  book1 is not simply 
recommended to all men1 but to          
philosophers1 and to  those especially1 
who suspend their felicity from ,god1   
and the imitation  of him4 ,for neither 
in the political life do legislators    
ordain that the  same things shall be   
performed by private individuals and the
 priests1  but conceding certain things 
to the multitude1 pertaining to food and
  other necessaries of life1 they forbid
 the priests to use them1 punishing  the
 transgression of their mandates by     
death1 or some great fine4    #d4 ,for  
these things not being confused1 but    
distinguished in a proper  manner1 most 
of the opposing arguments will be found 
to be vain4 ,for the  greater part of   
them endeavour to show1 either that it  
is necessary to  slay animals1 on       
account of the injuries sustained from  
them1 and it is  assumed as a thing     
consequent1 that it is proper to eat    
them2 or because  animals are slain in  
sacrifices1 it is inferred that         

therefore they  may be eaten by men4    
,and again1 if it is requisite to       
destroy certain  animals1 on account of 
their ferocity1 it is conceived1 that it
 must  follow1 that tame animals        
likewise ought to be slain4 ,if1 also1  
some  persons may be allowed to eat     
them1 such as those who engage in       
athletic  exercises1 soldiers1 and those
 who are employed in bodily labour1     
therefore this may likewise be permitted
 to philosophers2 and if to some1       
therefore to all of them2 though all    
these inferences are bad1 and are       
incapable of exhibiting any necessity   
for their adoption4 ,and1 indeed1  that 
all of them are bad1 will be immediately
 evident to men that are not            
contentious4 ,but some of these         
inferences we have already confuted1 and
  we shall show the fallacy of others as
 we proceed4 ,now1 however1 we shall    
discuss what pertains to the            
consideration of sacrifices1 unfolding  
the  principles from which they         

originated1 what the first sacrifices   
were1  and of what kind they were2 how  
they came to be changed1 and whence the 
change arose2 whether all things ought  
to be sacrificed by a philosopher1  and 
from what animals sacrifices are made4  
,in short1 we shall unfold  every thing 
pertaining to the proposed subject1     
discovering some things  ourselves1 but 
receiving others from the ancients1 and 
as much as  possible directing our      
attention to what is commensurate and   
adapted to  the hypothesis1 or thing    
intended to be investigated4    #e4 ,it 
seems that the period is of immense     
antiquity1 from which a nation1  the    
most learned of all others#dj1 as       
,theophrastus says1 and who inhabit  the
 most sacred region made by the ,nile1  
began first1 from the vestal  hearth1 to
 sacrifice to the celestial ,gods1 not  
myrrh1 or cassia1 nor  the first-fruits 
of things mingled with the crocus of    
frankincense2 for  these were assumed   
many generations afterwards1 in         

consequence of error  gradually         
increasing1 when men1 wanting the       
necessaries of life1 offered1  with     
great labour and many tears1 some drops 
of these1 as first-fruits1  to the      
,gods4 ,hence1 they did not at first    
sacrifice these1 but grass1  which1 as a
 certain soft wool of prolific nature1  
they plucked with  their hands4 ,for the
 earth produced trees prior to animals2 
and long  before trees grass1 which     
germinates annually4 ,hence1 gathering  
the  blades and roots1 and all the germs
 of this herb1 they committed them  to  
the flames1 as a sacrifice to the       
visible celestial ,gods1 to whom  they  
paid immortal honour through fire4 ,for 
to these1 also1 we preserve  in temples 
an immortal fire1 because it is         
especially most similar to  these       
divinities4 ,but from the exhalation or 
smoke      of things produced in the    
earth1 they called the offerings 1      
thumiateria2 to sacrifice1 they called 1
 thuein1 and the  sacrifices1 1 thusiai2

 all which1 as if unfolding the error   
which was afterwards introduced1 we do  
not rightly interpret2 since we  call   
the worship of the ,gods through the    
immolation of animals 1  thusia4 ,but so
 careful were the ancients not to       
transgress this custom1  that against   
those who1 neglecting the pristine1     
introduced novel modes  of sacrificing1 
they employed execrations#da1 and       
therefore they  now denominate the      
substances which are used for           
fumigations 1  aromata1 i4e4 aromatics1 
or things of an execrable nature4 ,the  
antiquity1 however1 of the              
before-mentioned fumigations may be     
perceived  by him who considers that    
many now also sacrifice certain portions
 of  odoriferous wood4 ,hence1 when     
after grass1 the earth produced trees1  
and  men at first fed on the fruits of  
the oak1 they offered to the ,gods but  
few of the fruits on account of their   
rarity1 but in sacrifices they  burnt   
many of its leaves4 ,after this1        

however1 when human life proceeded  to a
 milder nutriment1 and sacrifices from  
nuts were introduced1 they  said enough 
of the oak4    #f4 ,but as barley first 
appeared after leguminous substances1   
the race  of men used it in primitive   
sacrifices1 moistening it for this      
purpose  with water4 ,afterwards1 when  
they had broken and bruised it1 so as to
  render it eatable1 as the instruments 
of this operation afforded a divine     
assistance to human life1 they concealed
 them in an arcane place1 and           
approached them as things of a sacred   
nature4 ,but esteeming the food         
produced from it when bruised to be     
blessed1 when compared with their       
former nutriment1 they offered1 in fine1
 the first-fruits of it to the  ,gods4  
,hence also now1 at the end of the      
sacrifices1 we use fruits that  are     
bruised or ground2 testifying by this   
how much fumigations have  departed from
 their ancient simplicity2 at the same  
time not perceiving  on what account we 

perform each of these4 ,proceeding1     
however1 from  hence1 and being more    
abundantly supplied1 both with other    
fruits and  wheat1 the first-fruits of  
cakes1 made of the fine flour of wheat1 
and of  every thing else1 were offered  
in sacrifices to the ,gods2 many flowers
  being collected for this purpose1 and 
with these all that was conceived  to be
 beautiful1 and adapted1 by its odour1  
to a divine sense1 being  mingled4 ,from
 these1 also1 some were used for        
garlands1 and others were  given to the 
fire4 ,but when they had discovered the 
use of the divine  drops of wine1 and   
honey1 and likewise of oil1 for the     
purposes of human  life1 then they      
sacrificed these to their causes1 the   
,gods4    #g4 ,and these things appear  
to be testified by the splendid         
procession in  honour of the ,sun and   
the ,hours1 which is even now performed 
at ,athens1  and in which there were    
other herbs besides grass1 and also     
acorns1 the  fruit of the crab tree1    

barley1 wheat1 a heap of dried figs1    
cakes made  of wheaten and barley flour2
 and1 in the last place1 an earthen pot4
  ,this mode1 however1 of offering      
first-fruits in sacrifices1 having1 at  
length1 proceeded to great illegality1  
the assumption of immolations1  most    
dire and full of cruelty1 was           
introduced2 so that it would seem that  
the execrations which were formerly     
uttered against us1 have now received   
their consummation1 in consequence of   
men slaughtering animals1 and  defiling 
altars with blood2 and this commenced   
from that period in which  mankind      
tasted of blood1 through having         
experienced the evils of famine  and    
war4 ,divinity1 therefore1 as           
,theophrastus says1 being indignant1    
appears to have inflicted a punishment  
adapted to the crime4 ,hence some  men  
became atheists2 but others1 in         
consequence of forming erroneous        
conceptions of a divine nature1 may be  
more justly called 1  kakophrones1 than 

1 kakotheoi#db1 because they think that 
the ,gods are depraved1 and in no       
respect naturally more excellent than   
we are4 ,thus1 therefore1 some were seen
 to live without sacrificing any  thing1
 and without offering the first-fruits  
of their possessions to the  ,gods2 but 
others sacrificed improperly1 and made  
use of illegal oblations4    #h4 ,hence 
the ,thoes#dc1 who dwell in the confines
 of ,thrace1 as they  neither offered   
any first-fruits1 nor sacrificed to the 
,gods1 were at  that time suddenly taken
 away from the rest of mankind2 so that 
neither  the inhabitants1 nor the city1 
nor the foundations of the houses1 could
  by any one be found4        8,men     
prone to ill1 denied the ,gods their    
due1      ,and by their follies made    
their days but few4      ,the altars of 
the bless'd neglected stand1            
,without the offerings which the laws   
demand2      ,but angry ,jove in dust   
this people laid1      ,because no      
honours to the ,gods they paid40        

,,hesiod4 ,op4 et ,di4 lib4 i4 v4 #acc4 
,nor did they offer first-fruits to the 
,gods1 as it was just that they  should4
 ,but with respect to the ,bassarians1  
who formerly were not only  emulous of  
sacrificing bulls1 but also ate the     
flesh of slaughtered men1  in the same  
manner as we now do with other animals2 
for we offer to the  ,gods some parts of
 them as first-fruits1 and eat the      
rest2--with respect  to these men1 who  
has not heard1 that insanely rushing on 
and biting each  other1 and in reality  
feeding on blood1 they did not cease to 
act in this  manner till the whole race 
was destroyed of those who used         
sacrifices of  this kind8    #i4 ,the   
sacrifice1 therefore1 through animals is
 posterior and most  recent1 and        
originated from a cause which is not of 
a pleasing nature1  like that of the    
sacrifice from fruits1 but received its 
commencement  either from famine1 or    
some other unfortunate circumstance4    
,the causes1  indeed1 of the peculiar   

mactations among the ,athenians1 had    
their  beginning either in ignorance1 or
 anger1 or fear4 ,for the slaughter  of 
swine is attributed to an involuntary   
error of ,clymene1 who1 by              
unintentionally striking1 slew the      
animal4 ,hence her husband1 being       
terrified as if he had perpetrated an   
illegal deed1 consulted the  oracle of  
the ,pythian ,god about it4 ,but as the 
,god did not condemn  what had happened1
 the slaughter of animals was afterwards
 considered  as a thing of an           
indifferent nature4 ,the inspector1     
however1 of sacred  rites1 who was the  
offspring of prophets1 wishing to make  
an offering  of first-fruits from sheep1
 was permitted to do so1 it is said1 by 
an  oracle1 but with much caution and   
fear4 ,for the oracle was as follows3-- 
8,offspring of prophets1 sheep by force 
to slay1      ,the ,gods permit not     
thee2 but with wash'd hands      ,for   
thee 'tis lawful any sheep to kill1     
,that dies a voluntary death40    #aj4  

,but a goat was first slain in ,icarus1 
a mountain of ,attica1 because  it had  
cropped a vine4 ,and ,diomus1 who was a 
priest of ,jupiter ,polieus1  was the   
first that slew an ox2 because1 when the
 festival sacred to  ,jupiter1 and      
called ,diipolia1 was celebrated1 and   
fruits were prepared  after the ancient 
manner1 an ox approaching tasted the    
sacred cake4  ,but the priest1 being    
aided by others who were present1 slew  
the ox4  ,and these are the causes1     
indeed1 which are assigned by the       
,athenians  for this deed2 but by       
others1 other causes are narrated4 ,all 
of them1  however1 are full of          
explanations that are not holy4 ,but    
most of them  assign famine1 and the    
injustice with which it is attended1 as 
the cause4  ,hence men having tasted of 
animals1 they offered them in sacrifice1
 as  first-fruits1 to the ,gods2 but    
prior to this1 they were accustomed to  
abstain from animal food4 ,whence1 since
 the sacrifice of animals is  not more  

ancient than necessary food1 it may be  
determined from this  circumstance what 
ought to be the nutriment of men4 ,but  
it does not  follow1 because men have   
tasted of and offered animals in        
sacrifices as  first-fruits1 that it    
must necessarily be admitted to be pious
 to eat  that which was not piously     
offered to the ,gods4    #aa4 ,but what 
especially proves that every thing of   
this kind originated  from injustice1 is
 this1 that the same things are neither 
sacrificed  nor eaten in every nation1  
but that they conjecture what it is fit 
for  them to do from what they find to  
be useful to themselves4 ,with the      
,egyptians1 therefore1 and ,phnicians1  
any one would sooner taste human  flesh 
than the flesh of a cow4 ,the cause1    
however1 is1 that this animal  being    
useful1 is also rare among them4 ,hence1
 though they eat bulls1 and  offer them 
in sacrifice as first-fruits1 yet they  
spare cows for the  sake of their       
progeny1 and ordain that1 if any one    

kill them1 it shall  be considered as an
 expiation4 ,and thus1 for the sake of  
utility in one  and the same genus of   
animals1 they distinguish what is pious1
 and what  is impious4 ,so that these   
particulars subsisting after this       
manner1  ,theophrastus reasonably       
forbids those to sacrifice animals who  
wish to be  truly pious2 employing      
these1 and other similar arguments1 such
 as the  following4    #ab4 ,in the     
first place1 indeed1 because we         
sacrificed animals through the          
occurrence1 as we have said1 of a       
greater necessity4 ,for pestilence and  
war were the causes that introduced the 
necessity of eating them4 ,since1       
therefore1 we are supplied with fruits1 
what occasion is there to use  the      
sacrifice of necessity8 ,in the next    
place1 the remunerations of1 and  thanks
 for benefits1 are to be given          
differently to different persons1       
according to the worth of the benefit   
conferred2 so that the greatest         

remunerations1 and from things of the   
most honourable nature1 are to  be given
 to those who have benefited us in the  
greatest degree1 and  especially if they
 are the causes of these gifts4 ,but the
 most beautiful  and honourable of those
 things1 by which the ,gods benefit us1 
are the  fruits of the earth4 ,for      
through these they preserve us1 and     
enable us  to live legitimately2 so     
that1 from these we ought to venerate   
them4  ,besides1 it is requisite to     
sacrifice those things by the sacrifice 
of  which we shall not injure any one4  
,for nothing ought to be so innoxious   
to all things as sacrifice4 ,but if some
 one should say1 that ,god gave  animals
 for our use1 no less than the fruits of
 the earth1 yet it does  not follow that
 they are1 therefore1 to be sacrificed1 
because in so  doing they are injured1  
through being deprived of life4 ,for    
sacrifice  is1 as the name implies1     
something holy#dd4 ,but no one is holy  
who  requites a benefit from things     

which are the property of another1      
whether  he takes fruits or plants from 
one who is unwilling to be deprived of  
them4 ,for how can this be holy1 when   
those are injured from whom they  are   
taken8 ,if1 however1 he who takes away  
fruits from others does not  sacrifice  
with sanctity1 it cannot be holy to     
sacrifice things taken from  others1    
which are in every respect more         
honourable than the fruits of the       
earth4 ,for a more dire deed is thus    
perpetrated4 ,but soul is much more     
honourable than the vegetable           
productions of the earth1 which it is   
not  fit1 by sacrificing animals1 that  
we should take away4    #ac4 ,some one1 
however1 perhaps may say1 that we also  
take away something  from plants when we
 eat1 and sacrifice them to the ,gods4  
,but the  ablation is not similar2 since
 we do not take this away from those who
  are unwilling that we should4 ,for1 if
 we omitted to gather them1 they  would 
spontaneously drop their fruits4 ,the   

gathering of the fruits1 also1  is not  
attended with the destruction of the    
plants1 as it is when animals  lose     
their animating principle4 ,and1 with   
respect to the fruit which  we receive  
from bees1 since this is obtained by our
 labour1 it is fit  that we should      
derive a common benefit from it4 ,for   
bees collect their  honey from plants2  
but we carefully attend to them4 ,on    
which account it  is requisite that such
 a division should be made of our       
attention and  their labour that they   
may suffer no injury4 ,but that which is
 useless  to them1 and beneficial to us1
 will be the reward which we receive    
from  them of our attention to their    
concerns4 ,in sacrifices1 therefore1 we 
should abstain from animals4 ,for1      
though all things are in reality the    
property of the ,gods1 yet plants appear
 to be our property2 since we sow  and  
cultivate them1 and nourish them by     
other attentions which we pay to  them4 
,we ought to sacrifice1 therefore1 from 

our own property1 and not  from the     
property of others2 since that which may
 be procured at a small  expense1 and   
which may easily be obtained1 is more   
holy1 more acceptable  to the ,gods1 and
 better adapted to the purposes of      
sacrifice1 and to the  exercise of      
continual piety4 ,hence1 that which is  
neither holy1 nor to  be obtained at a  
small expense1 is not to be offered in  
sacrifice1 even  though it should be    
present4    #ad4 ,but that animals do   
not rank among things which may be      
procured  easily1 and at a small        
expense1 may be seen by directing our   
view to  the greater part of our race3  
for we are not now to consider that some
  men abound in sheep1 and others in    
oxen4 ,in the first place1 therefore1   
there are many nations that do not      
possess any of those animals which are  
offered in sacrifice1 some ignoble      
animals1 perhaps1 excepted4 ,and1 in    
the second place1 most of those that    
dwell in cities themselves1 possess     

these but rarely4 ,but if some one      
should say that the inhabitants of      
cities have not mild fruits in          
abundance2 yet1 though this should be   
admitted1 they are not in want of the   
other vegetable productions of  the     
earth2 nor is it so difficult to procure
 fruits as it is to procure  animals4   
,hence an abundance of fruits1 and other
 vegetables1 is more  easily obtained   
than that of animals4 ,but that which is
 obtained with  facility1 and at a small
 expense1 contributes to incessant and  
universal  piety4    #ae4 ,experience   
also testifies that the ,gods rejoice in
 this more than  in sumptuous offerings4
 ,for when that ,thessalian sacrificed  
to the  ,pythian deity oxen with gilt   
horns1 and hecatombs1 ,apollo said1 that
 the  offering of ,hermioneus was more  
gratifying to him1 though he had only   
sacrificed as much meal as he could take
 with his three fingers out of  a sack4 
,but when the ,thessalian1 on hearing   
this1 placed all the rest  of his       

offerings on the altar1 the ,god again  
said1 that by so doing his  present was 
doubly more unacceptable to him than his
 former offering4  ,hence the sacrifice 
which is attended with a small expense  
is pleasing to  the ,gods1 and divinity 
looks more to the disposition and       
manners of those  that sacrifice1 than  
to the multitude of the things which are
 sacrificed4    #af4 ,theopompus        
likewise narrates things similar to     
these1 viz4 that  a certain ,magnesian  
came from ,asia to ,delphi2 a man very  
rich1 and  abounding in cattle1 and that
 he was accustomed every year to make   
many  and magnificent sacrifices to the 
,gods1 partly through the abundance  of 
his possessions1 and partly through     
piety and wishing to please  the ,gods4 
,but being thus disposed1 he came to the
 divinity at ,delphi1  bringing with him
 a hecatomb for the ,god1 and           
magnificently honouring  ,apollo1 he    
consulted his oracle4 ,conceiving also  
that he worshipped the  ,gods in a      

manner more beautiful than that of all  
other men1 he asked the  ,pythian deity 
who the man was that1 with the greatest 
promptitude1 and  in the best manner1   
venerated divinity1 and made the most   
acceptable  sacrifices1 conceiving that 
on this occasion the ,god would deem him
 to  be pre-eminent4 ,the ,pythian deity
 however answered1 that ,clearchus1 who 
dwelt in ,methydrium1 a town of         
,arcadia1 worshipped the ,gods in a way 
surpassing that of all other men4 ,but  
the ,magnesian being astonished1  was   
desirous of seeing ,clearchus1 and of   
learning from him the manner in  which  
he performed his sacrifices4 ,swiftly1  
therefore1 betaking himself  to         
,methydrium1 in the first place1 indeed1
 he despised the smallness  and vileness
 of the town1 conceiving that neither   
any private person1  nor even the whole 
city1 could honour the ,gods more       
magnificently and  more beautifully than
 he did4 ,meeting1 however1 with the    
man1 he thought  fit to ask him after   

what manner he reverenced the ,gods4    
,but ,clearchus  answered him1 that he  
diligently sacrificed to them at proper 
times  in every month at the new moon1  
crowning and adorning the statues of    
,hermes and ,hecate1 and the other      
sacred images which were left to us by  
our ancestors1 and that he also honoured
 the ,gods with frankincense1  and      
sacred wafers and cakes4 ,he likewise   
said1 that he performed public          
sacrifices annually1 omitting no festive
 day2 and that in these festivals  he   
worshipped the ,gods1 not by slaying    
oxen1 nor by cutting victims into       
fragments1 but that he sacrificed       
whatever he might casually meet with1   
sedulously offering the first-fruits to 
the ,gods of all the vegetable          
productions of the seasons1 and of all  
the fruits with which he was  supplied4 
,he added1 that some of these he placed 
before the statues of  the ,gods#de1 but
 that he burnt others on their altars2  
and that1 being  studious of frugality1 

he avoided the sacrificing of oxen4     
#ag4 ,by some writers1 also1 it is      
related1 that certain tyrants1 after the
  ,carthaginians were conquered1 having1
 with great strife among themselves1    
placed hecatombs before ,apollo1        
afterwards inquired of the ,god with    
which  of the offerings he was most     
delighted2 and that he answered1        
contrary  to all their expectation1 that
 he was most pleased with the cakes of  
,docimus4 ,but this ,docimus was an     
inhabitant of ,delphi1 and cultivated   
some rugged and stony land4 ,docimus1   
therefore1 coming on that day from  the 
place which he cultivated1 took from a  
bag which was fastened round  him a few 
handfuls of meal1 and sacrificed them to
 the ,god1 who was more  delighted with 
his offering than with the magnificent  
sacrifices of  the tyrants4 ,hence1     
also1 a certain poet1 because the affair
 was known1  appears to have asserted   
things of a similar kind1 as we are     
informed by  ,antiphanes in his         

,mystics3        ,in simple offerings   
most the ,gods delight3      ,for though
 before them hecatombs are placed1      
,yet frankincense is burnt the last of  
all4      ,an indication this that all  
the rest1      ,preceding1 was a vain   
expense1 bestowed      ,through         
ostentation1 for the sake of men2       
,but a small offering gratifies the     
,gods4    ,menander likewise1 in the    
comedy called the ,morose1 says1        
,pious th' oblation which with          
frankincense      ,and popanum#df is    
made2 for in the fire      ,both these1 
when placed1 divinity accepts4    #ah4  
,on this account also1 earthen1 wooden1 
and wicker vessels were  formerly used1 
and especially in public sacrifices1 the
 ancients  being persuaded that divinity
 is delighted with things of this kind4 
,whence1 even now1 the most ancient     
vessels1 and which are made of  wood1   
are thought to be more divine1 both on  
account of the matter  and the          
simplicity of the art by which they were

 fashioned4 ,it is  said1 therefore1    
that schylus1 on his brother's asking   
him to write a  ,pan in honour of       
,apollo1 replied1 that the best ,pan was
 written by  ,tynnichus#dg2 and that if 
his composition were to be compared with
 that  of ,tynnichus1 the same thing    
would take place as if new were compared
  with ancient statues4 ,for the latter1
 though they are simple in their        
formation1 are conceived to be divine2  
but the former1 though they are  most   
accurately elaborated1 produce indeed   
admiration1 but are not  believed to    
possess so much of a divine nature4     
,hence ,hesiod1 praising  the law of    
ancient sacrifices1 very properly says1 
,your country's rites in sacrifice      
observe3      ,in pious works the       
ancient law is best#dh4    #ai4 ,but    
those who have written concerning sacred
 operations and  sacrifices1 admonish us
 to be accurate in preserving what      
pertains to  the popana1 because these  
are more acceptable to the ,gods than   

the  sacrifice which is performed       
through the mactation of animals4       
,sophocles  also1 in describing a       
sacrifice which is pleasing to divinity1
 says in  his ,polyidus3        ,the    
skins of sheep in sacrifice were used1  
,libations too of wine1 grapes well     
preserved1      ,and fruits collected in
 a heap of every kind2      ,the olive's
 pinguid juice1 and waxen work          
,most variegated1 of the yellow bee4    
,formerly1 also1 there were venerable   
monuments in ,delos of those who came   
from the ,hyperboreans1 bearing handfuls
 of fruits4 ,it is necessary1           
therefore1 that1 being purified in our  
manners1 we should make oblations1      
offering to the ,gods those sacrifices  
which are pleasing to them1 and not     
such as are attended with great expense4
 ,now1 however1 if a man's body  is not 
pure and invested with a splendid       
garment1 he does not think it  is       
qualified for the sanctity of sacrifice4
 ,but when he has rendered his  body    

splendid1 together with his garment1    
though his soul at the same  time is not
 purified from vice1 yet he betakes     
himself to sacrifice1  and thinks that  
it is a thing of no consequence2 as if  
divinity did not  especially rejoice in 
that which is most divine in our nature1
 when it  is in a pure condition1 as    
being allied to his essence4 ,in        
,epidaurus1  therefore1 there was the   
following inscription on the doors of   
the temple3        ,into an odorous     
temple1 he who goes      ,should pure   
and holy be2 but to be wise      ,in    
what to sanctity pertains1 is to be     
pure4    #bj4 ,but that ,god is not     
delighted with the amplitude of         
sacrifices1  but with any casual        
offering1 is evident from this1 that of 
our daily  food1 whatever it may be that
 is placed before us1 we all of us make 
an offering to the ,gods1 before we have
 tasted it ourselves2 this  offering    
being small indeed1 but the greatest    
testimony of honour to  divinity4       

,moreover1 ,theophrastus shows1 by      
enumerating many of the rites  of       
different countries1 that the sacrifices
 of the ancients were from  fruits1 and 
he narrates what pertains to libations  
in the following  manner3 8,ancient     
sacrifices were for the most part       
performed with  sobriety4 ,but those    
sacrifices are sober in which the       
libations are made  with water4         
,afterwards1 however1 libations were    
made with honey4 ,for we  first receive 
this liquid fruit prepared for us by the
 bees4 ,in the third  place1 libations  
were made with oil2 and in the fourth   
and last place  with wine40    #ba4     
,these things1 however1 are testified   
not only by the pillars which  are      
preserved in ,cyrbe#di1 and which       
contain1 as it were1 certain true       
descriptions of the ,cretan sacred rites
 of the ,corybantes2 but also by        
,empedocles1 who1 in discussing what    
pertains to sacrifices and theogony1  or
 the generation of the ,gods1 says3     

,with them nor ,mars nor tumult dire was
 found1      ,nor ,saturn1 ,neptune1 or 
the sovereign ,jove1      ,but ,venus   
beauty's queen4    ,and ,venus is       
friendship4 ,afterwards he adds1        
,with painted animals1 and statues once 
,of sacred form1 with unguents sweet of 
smell1      ,the fume of frankincense   
and genuine myrrh1      ,and with       
libations poured upon the ground        
,of yellow honey1 ,venus was propitious 
made4    ,which ancient custom is still 
even now preserved by some persons as a 
certain vestige of the truth4 ,and in   
the last place1 ,empedocles says1       
,nor then were altars wet with blood of 
bulls      ,irrationally slain4    #bb4 
,for1 as it appears to me1 when         
friendship and a proper sense of the    
duties pertaining to kindred natures1   
was possessed by all men1 no one        
slaughtered any living being1 in        
consequence of thinking that other      
animals were allied to him4 ,but when   
strife and tumult1 every kind of        

contention1 and the principle of war1   
invaded mankind1 then1 for the  first   
time1 no one in reality spared any one  
of his kindred natures4  ,the following 
particulars1 likewise1 ought to be      
considered3 ,for1 as  though there is an
 affinity between us and noxious men1   
who1 as it were1  by a certain impetus  
of their own nature and depravity1 are  
incited to  injure any one they may     
happen to meet1 yet we think it         
requisite that  all of them should be   
punished and destroyed2 thus also1 with 
respect to  those irrational animals    
that are naturally malefic and unjust1  
and who  are impelled to injure those   
that approach them1 it is perhaps fit   
that  they should be destroyed4 ,but    
with respect to other animals who do not
  at all act unjustly1 and are not      
naturally impelled to injure us1 it is  
certainly unjust to destroy and murder  
them1 no otherwise than it would  be to 
slay men who are not iniquitous4 ,and   
this seems to evince1 that the  justice 

between us and other animals does not   
arise from some of them  being naturally
 noxious and malefic1 but others not1 as
 is also the case  with respect to men4 
#bc4 ,are therefore those animals to be 
sacrificed to the ,gods which are       
thought to be deserving of death8 ,but  
how can this be possible1 if they  are  
naturally depraved8 ,for it is no more  
proper to sacrifice such as  these1 than
 it would be to sacrifice mutilated     
animals4 ,for thus1 indeed1  we shall   
offer the first-fruits of things of an  
evil nature1 but we shall  not sacrifice
 for the sake of honouring the ,gods4   
,hence1 if animals  are to be sacrificed
 to the ,gods1 we should sacrifice those
 that are  perfectly innoxious4 ,it is  
however acknowledged1 that those animals
 are  not to be destroyed who do not at 
all injure us1 so that neither are they 
to be sacrificed to the ,gods4 ,if1     
therefore1 neither these1 nor those     
that are noxious1 are to be sacrificed1 
is it not evident that we should        

abstain from them more than from any    
thing else1 and that we should not      
sacrifice any one of them1 though it is 
fit that some of them should be         
destroyed8    #bd4 ,to which may be     
added1 that we should sacrifice to the  
,gods for  the sake of three things1    
viz4 either for the sake of honouring   
them1  or of testifying our gratitude1  
or through our want of good4 ,for1 as   
we offer first-fruits to good men1 thus 
also we think it is necessary  that we  
should offer them to the ,gods4 ,but we 
honour the ,gods1 either  exploring the 
means of averting evils and obtaining   
good1 or when we have  been previously  
benefited1 or in order that we may      
obtain some present  advantage and      
assistance1 or merely for the purpose of
 venerating the  goodness of their      
nature4 ,so that if the first-fruits of 
animals are  to be offered to the ,gods1
 some of them for the sake of this are  
to be  sacrificed4 ,for whatever we     
sacrifice1 we sacrifice for the sake of 

some  one of the above-mentioned        
particulars4 ,is it therefore to be     
thought  that ,god is honoured by us1   
when we are directly seen to act        
unjustly  through the first-fruits which
 we offer to him8 ,or will he not rather
  think that he is dishonoured by such a
 sacrifice1 in which1 by immolating     
animals that have not at all injured us1
 we acknowledge that we have  acted     
unjustly4 ,so that no one of other      
animals is to be sacrificed for  the    
sake of honouring divinity4 ,nor yet are
 they to be sacrificed for the  purpose 
of testifying our gratitude to the      
,gods4 ,for he who makes a just         
retribution for the benefits he has     
received1 ought not to make it by  doing
 an injury to certain other animals4    
,for he will no more appear to  make a  
retribution than he who1 plundering his 
neighbour of his property1  should      
bestow it on another person for the sake
 of honour4 ,neither are  animals to be 
sacrificed for the sake of obtaining a  

certain good of  which we are in want4  
,for he who endeavours to be benefited  
by acting  unjustly1 is to be suspected 
as one who would not be grateful even   
when  he is benefited4 ,so that animals 
are not to be sacrificed to the ,gods   
through the expectation of deriving     
advantage from the sacrifice4 ,for  he  
who does this1 may perhaps elude men1   
but it is impossible that he  can elude 
divinity4 ,if1 therefore1 we ought to   
sacrifice for the sake of  a certain    
thing1 but this is not to be done for   
the sake of any of the  before mentioned
 particulars1 it is evident that animals
 ought not to be  sacrificed4    #be4   
,for1 by endeavouring to obliterate the 
truth of these things through  the      
pleasures which we derive from          
sacrifices1 we deceive ourselves1 but   
cannot deceive divinity4 ,of those      
animals1 therefore1 which are of an     
ignoble nature1 which do not impart to  
our life any superior utility1 and      
which do not afford us any pleasure1 we 

do not sacrifice any one to the  ,gods4 
,for who ever sacrificed serpents1      
scorpions1 and apes1 or any one  of such
 like animals8 ,but we do not abstain   
from any one of those animals  which    
afford a certain utility to our life1 or
 which have something in  them that     
contributes to our enjoyments2 since we1
 in reality1 cut their  throats1 and    
excoriate them1 under the patronage of  
divinity#ej4 ,for we  sacrifice to the  
,gods oxen and sheep1 and besides these1
 stags and birds1  and fat hogs1 though 
they do not at all participate of       
purity1 but afford  us delight4 ,and of 
these animals1 indeed1 some1 by         
co-operating with our  labours1 afford  
assistance to our life1 but others      
supply us with food1  or administer to  
our other wants4 ,but those which effect
 neither of  these1 yet1 through the    
enjoyment which is derived from them1   
are slain  by men in sacrifices         
similarly with those who afford us      
utility4 ,we do  not1 however1 sacrifice

 asses or elephants1 or any other of    
those animals  that co-operate with us  
in our labours1 but are not subservient 
to our  pleasure2 though1 sacrificing   
being excepted1 we do not abstain from  
such like animals1 but we cut their     
throats on account of the delight  with 
which the deglutition of them is        
attended2 and of those which are  fit to
 be sacrificed1 we do not sacrifice such
 as are acceptable to the  ,gods1 but   
such as in a greater degree gratify the 
desires of men2 thus  testifying against
 ourselves1 that we persist in          
sacrificing to the ,gods1  for the sake 
of our own pleasure1 and not for the    
sake of gratifying the  ,gods4    #bf4  
,but of the ,syrians1 the ,jews indeed1 
through the sacrifice which  they first 
made1 even now1 says ,theophrastus1     
sacrifice animals1 and if  we were      
persuaded by them to sacrifice in the   
same way that they do1  we should       
abstain from the deed4 ,for they do not 
feast on the flesh of  the sacrificed   

animals1 but having thrown the whole of 
the victims into  the fire1 and poured  
much honey and wine on them during the  
night1 they  swiftly consume the        
sacrifice1 in order that the all-seeing 
sun may  not become a spectator of it4  
,and they do this1 fasting during all   
the  intermediate days1 and through the 
whole of this time1 as belonging to  the
 class of philosophers1 and also        
discourse with each other about the     
divinity#ea4 ,but in the night1 they    
apply themselves to the theory of  the  
stars1 surveying them1 and through      
prayers invoking ,god4 ,for these  make 
offerings both of other animals and     
themselves1 doing this from  necessity1 
and not from their own will4 ,the truth 
of this1 however1 may  be learnt by any 
one who directs his attention to the    
,egyptians1 the most  learned of all    
men2 who are so far from slaying other  
animals1 that they  make the images of  
these to be imitations of the ,gods2 so 
adapted and  allied do they conceive    

these to be both to ,gods and men4      
#bg4 ,for at first1 indeed1 sacrifices  
of fruits were made to the ,gods2  but1 
in the course of time1 men becoming     
negligent of sanctity1 in  consequence  
of fruits being scarce1 and1 through the
 want of legitimate  nutriment1 being   
impelled to eat each other2 then        
supplicating divinity  with many        
prayers1 they first began to make       
oblations of themselves  to the ,gods1  
not only consecrating to the divinities 
whatever among  their possessions was   
most beautiful1 but1 proceeding beyond  
this1 they  sacrificed those of their   
own species4 ,hence1 even to the present
 time1  not only in ,arcadia1 in the    
,lupercal festivals1 and in ,carthage1  
men are  sacrificed in common to        
,saturn1 but periodically1 also1 for the
 sake of  remembering the legal         
institute1 they sprinkle the altars of  
those of the  same tribe with blood1    
although the rites of their sacrifices  
exclude1 by  the voice of the crier1 him

 from engaging in them who is accused of
 human  slaughter4 ,proceeding therefore
 from hence1 they made the bodies of    
other  animals supply the place of their
 own in sacrifices1 and again1 through  
a satiety of legitimate nutriment1      
becoming oblivious of piety1 they  were 
induced by voracity to leave nothing    
untasted1 nothing undevoured4  ,and this
 is what now happens to all men with    
respect to the aliment from  fruits4    
,for when1 by the assumption of them1   
they have alleviated their  necessary   
indigence1 then searching for a         
superfluity of satiety1 they  labour to 
procure many things for food which are  
placed beyond the limits  of temperance4
 ,hence1 as if they had made no ignoble 
sacrifices to the  ,gods1 they proceeded
 also to taste the animals which they   
immolated2  and from this1 as a         
principle of the deed1 the eating of    
animals became  an addition to men to   
the nutriment derived from fruits4 ,as1 
therefore1  antiquity offered the first 

produce of fruits to the ,gods1 and     
gladly1  after their pious sacrifice1   
tasted what they offered1 thus also1    
when  they sacrificed the firstlings of 
animals to the divinities1 they thought 
that the same thing ought to be done by 
them1 though ancient piety did  not     
ordain these particulars after this     
manner1 but venerated each of the  ,gods
 from fruits4 ,for with such oblations1 
both nature1 and every sense  of the    
human soul1 are delighted4        ,no   
altar then was wet with blood of bulls  
,irrationally slain2 but this was       
thought      ,to be of every impious    
deed the worst1      ,limbs to devour of
 brutes deprived of life4    #bh4 ,the  
truth of this may also be perceived from
 the altar which is even  now preserved 
about ,delos1 which1 because no animal  
is brought to1 or  is sacrificed upon   
it1 is called the altar of the pious4   
,so that the  inhabitants not only      
abstain from sacrificing animals1 but   
they likewise  conceive1 that those who 

established1 are similarly pious with   
those  who use the altar4 ,hence1 the   
,pythagoreans having adopted this mode  
of  sacrifice1 abstained from animal    
food through the whole of life4 ,but    
when  they distributed to the ,gods a   
certain animal instead of themselves1   
they merely tasted of it1 living in     
reality without touching other  animals4
 ,we1 however1 do not act after this    
manner2 but being filled with  animal   
diet1 we have arrived at this manifold  
illegality in our life by  slaughtering 
animals1 and using them for food4 ,for  
neither is it proper  that the altars of
 the ,gods should be defiled with       
murder1 nor that  food of this kind     
should be touched by men1 as neither is 
it fit that  men should eat one another2
 but the precept which is still         
preserved at  ,athens1 should be obeyed 
through the whole of life4    #bi4 ,for 
formerly1 as we have before observed1   
when men sacrificed to the  ,gods fruits
 and not animals1 and did not assume the

 latter for food1  it is said1 that a   
common sacrifice being celebrated at    
,athens1 one  ,diomus1 or ,sopater1 who 
was not a native1 but cultivated some   
land in  ,attica1 seizing a sharp axe   
which was near to him1 and being        
excessively  indignant1 struck with it  
an ox1 who1 coming from his labour1     
approached  to a table1 on which were   
openly placed cakes and other offerings 
which  were to be burnt as a sacrifice  
to the ,gods1 and ate some1 but trampled
  on the rest of the offerings4 ,the ox1
 therefore1 being killed1 ,diomus1      
whose anger was now appeased1 at the    
same time perceived what kind of  deed  
he had perpetrated4 ,and the ox1 indeed1
 he buried4 ,but embracing  a voluntary 
banishment1 as if he had been accused of
 impiety1 he fled  to ,crete4 ,a great  
dryness1 however1 taking place in the   
,attic land from  vehement heat1 and a  
dreadful sterility of fruit1 and the    
,pythian deity  being in consequence of 
it consulted by the general consent1 the

 ,god  answered1 that the ,cretan exile 
must expiate the crime2 and that1 if the
  murderer was punished1 and the statue 
of the slain ox was erected in  the     
place in which it fell1 this would be   
beneficial both to those who  had and   
those who had not tasted its flesh4 ,an 
inquiry therefore being  made into the  
affair1 and ,sopater1 together with the 
deed1 having been  discovered1 he1      
thinking that he should be liberated    
from the difficulty  in which he was now
 involved1 through the accusation of    
impiety1 if the  same thing was done by 
all men in common1 said to those who    
came to him1  that it was necessary an  
ox should be slain by the city4 ,but1 on
 their  being dubious who should strike 
the ox1 he said that he would undertake 
to do it1 if they would make him a      
citizen1 and would be partakers with    
him of the slaughter4 ,this1 therefore1 
being granted1 they returned to  the    
city1 and ordered the deed to be        
accomplished in such a way as it is     

performed by them at present1 and which 
was as follows3    #cj4 ,they selected  
virgins who were drawers of water2 but  
these brought  water for the purpose of 
sharpening an axe and a knife4 ,and     
these being  sharpened1 one person gave 
the axe1 another struck with it the ox1 
and a third person cut the throat of the
 ox4 ,but after this1 having  excoriated
 the animal1 all that were present ate  
of its flesh4 ,these  things therefore  
being performed1 they sewed up the hide 
of the ox1 and  having stuffed it with  
straw1 raised it upright in the same    
form which  it had when alive1 and yoked
 it to a plough1 as if it was about to  
work  with it4 ,instituting also a      
judicial process1 respecting the        
slaughter of  the ox1 they cited all    
those who were partakers of the deed1 to
 defend  their conduct4 ,but as the     
drawers of water accused those who      
sharpened  the axe and the knife1 as    
more culpable than themselves1 and those
 who  sharpened these instruments       

accused him who gave the axe1 and he    
accused  him who cut the throat of the  
ox1 and this last person accused the    
knife1--hence1 as the knife could not   
speak1 they condemned it as the  cause  
of the slaughter4 ,from that time also1 
even till now1 during the  festival     
sacred to ,jupiter1 in the ,acropolis1  
at ,athens1 the sacrifice of  an ox is  
performed after the same manner4 ,for1  
placing cakes on a brazen  table1 they  
drive oxen round it1 and the ox that    
tastes of the cakes  that are           
distributed on the table1 is slain4 ,the
 race likewise of those  who perform    
this1 still remains4 ,and all those1    
indeed1 who derive their  origin from   
,sopater are called boutupoi i4e4       
slayers of oxen2  but those who are     
descended from him that drove the ox    
round the table1  are called kentriadai1
 or stimulators4 ,and those who         
originate  from him that cut the throat 
of the ox1 are denominated daitroi1  or 
dividers1 on account of the banquet     

which takes place from the  distribution
 of flesh4 ,but when they have filled   
the hide1 and the  judicial process is  
ended1 they throw the knife into the    
sea4    #ca4 ,hence1 neither did the    
ancients conceive it to be holy to slay 
animals that co-operated with us in     
works beneficial to our life1 and we    
should avoid doing this even now4 ,and  
as formerly it was not pious for  men to
 injure these animals1 so now it should 
be considered as unholy  to slay them   
for the sake of food4 ,if1 however1 this
 is to be done  from motives of         
religious reverence of the ,gods1 yet   
every passion or  affection which is    
essentially produced from bodies is to  
be rejected1  in order that we may not  
procure food from improper substances1  
and thus  have an incentive to violence 
as the intimate associate of our life4  
,for  by such a rejection we shall1 at  
least1 all of us derive great benefit   
in what pertains to our mutual security1
 if we do not in any thing else4  ,for  

those whose sense is averse to the      
destruction of animals of a  species    
different from their own1 will evidently
 abstain from injuring  those of their  
own kind4 ,hence it would perhaps have  
been best1 if  men in after-times had   
immediately abstained from slaughtering 
these  animals2 but since no one is free
 from error1 it remains for posterity   
to take away by purifications the crime 
of their ancestors1 respecting          
nutriment4 ,this1 however1 will be      
effected1 if1 placing before our eyes   
the dire nature of such conduct1 we     
exclaim with ,empedocles3        ,ah me1
 while yet exempt from such a crime1    
,why was ,i not destroyed by cruel      
,time1      ,before these lips began the
 guilty deed1      ,on the dire         
nutriment of flesh to feed8    ,for in  
those only the appropriate sense        
sympathetically grieves for  errors that
 have been committed1 who endeavour to  
find a remedy for the  evils with which 
they are afflicted2 so that every one1  

by offering pure  and holy sacrifices to
 divinity1 may through sanctity obtain  
the greatest  benefits from the ,gods4  
#cb4 ,but the benefit derived from      
fruits is the first and the greatest  of
 all others1 and which1 as soon as they 
are matured1 should alone be  offered to
 the ,gods1 and to ,earth1 by whom they 
are produced4 ,for she  is the common   
,vesta of ,gods and men2 and it is      
requisite that all of  us1 reclining on 
her surface1 as on the bosom of our     
mother and nurse1  should celebrate her 
divinity1 and love her with a parental  
affection1  as the source of our        
existence4 ,for thus1 when we exchange  
this life for  another1 we shall again  
be thought worthy of a residence in the 
heavens1  and of associating with all   
the celestial ,gods1 whom1 now          
beholding#eb1  we ought to venerate with
 those fruits of which they are the     
causes1  sacrificing indeed to them from
 all these1 when they have arrived at   
maturity1 but not conceiving all of us  

to be sufficiently worthy to  sacrifice 
to the ,gods4 ,for as all things are not
 to be sacrificed to  the ,gods1 so     
neither perhaps are the ,gods gratified 
by the sacrifice of  every one4 ,this1  
therefore1 is the substance of the      
arguments adduced by  ,theophrastus1 to 
show that animals ought not to be       
sacrificed2 exclusive  of the           
interspersed fabulous narrations1 and a 
few things which we have  added to what 
he has said4    #cc4 ,i1 however1 shall 
not attempt to dissolve the legal       
institutes which  the several nations   
have established4 ,for it is not my     
design at present  to speak about a     
polity4 ,but as the laws by which we are
 governed permit  us to venerate        
divinity by things of the most simple1  
and of an inanimate  nature1 hence1     
selecting that which is the least       
costly1 let us sacrifice  according to  
the law of the city1 and endeavour to   
offer an appropriate  sacrifice1        
approaching with consummate purity to   

the ,gods4 ,in short1 if  the oblation  
of first-fruits is of any value1 and is 
an acknowledgment of  thanks for the    
benefits which we receive1 it will be   
most irrational to  abstain ourselves   
from animals1 and yet offer the         
first-fruits of these  to the ,gods4    
,for neither are the ,gods worse than we
 are1 so as to be in  want of those     
things of which we are not indigent1 nor
 is it holy to  offer the first-fruits  
of that nutriment from which we         
ourselves abstain4  ,for we find it is  
usual with men1 that1 when they refrain 
from animal  food1 they do not make     
oblations of animals2 but that they     
offer to the  ,gods the first-fruits of 
what they themselves eat4 ,hence also it
 is now  fit1 that he who abstains from 
animals should offer the first-fruits of
  things which he touches for the       
purpose of food4    #cd4 ,let us        
therefore also sacrifice1 but let us    
sacrifice in such a  manner as is fit1  
offering different sacrifices to        

different powers#ec2  to the ,god indeed
 who is above all things1 as a certain  
wise man said1  neither sacrificing with
 incense1 nor consecrating any thing    
sensible4  ,for there is nothing        
material1 which is not immediately      
impure to an  immaterial nature4 ,hence1
 neither is vocal language1 nor internal
 speech1  adapted to the highest ,god1  
when it is defiled by any passion of the
  soul2 but we should venerate him in   
profound silence with a pure soul1  and 
with pure conceptions about him4 ,it is 
necessary1 therefore1 that  being       
conjoined with and assimilated to him1  
we should offer to him1  as a sacred    
sacrifice1 the elevation of our         
intellect1 which offering  will be both 
a hymn and our salvation4 ,in an        
impassive contemplation1  therefore1 of 
this divinity by the soul1 the sacrifice
 to him is effected  in perfection2 but 
to his progeny1 the intelligible ,gods1 
hymns1  orally enunciated1 are to be    
offered4 ,for to each of the divinities1

  a sacrifice is to be made of the      
first-fruits of the things which he     
bestows1 and through which he nourishes 
and preserves us4 ,as1 therefore1  the  
husbandman offers handfuls of the fruits
 and berries which the  season first    
produces2 thus also we should offer to  
the divinities the  first-fruits of our 
conceptions of their transcendent       
excellence1 giving  them thanks for the 
contemplation which they impart to us1  
and for truly  nourishing us through the
 vision of themselves1 which they afford
 us1  associating with1 appearing to1   
and shining upon us1 for our salvation4 
#ce4 ,now1 however1 many of those who   
apply themselves to philosophy  are     
unwilling to do this2 and1 pursuing     
renown rather than honouring  divinity1 
they are busily employed about statues1 
neither considering  whether they are to
 be reverenced or not1 nor endeavouring 
to learn from  those who are divinely   
wise1 to what extent1 and to what       
degree1 it is  requisite to proceed in  

this affair4 ,we1 however1 shall by no  
means  contend with these1 nor are we   
very desirous of being well instructed  
in  a thing of this kind2 but imitating 
holy and ancient men1 we offer to the   
,gods1 more than any thing else1 the    
first-fruits of contemplation1 which    
they have imparted to us1 and by the use
 of which we become partakers of  true  
salvation4    #cf4 ,the ,pythagoreans1  
therefore1 diligently applying          
themselves to the  study of numbers and 
lines1 sacrificed for the most part from
 these to  the ,gods1 denominating1     
indeed1 a certain number ,minerva1 but  
another  ,diana1 and another ,apollo3   
and again1 they called one number       
justice1 but  another temperance#ed4 ,in
 diagrams also they adopted a similar   
mode4 ,and  thus1 by offerings of this  
kind1 they rendered the ,gods propitious
 to  them1 so as to obtain of them the  
object of their wishes1 by the things   
which they dedicated to1 and the names  
by which they invoked them4 ,they       

likewise frequently employed their aid  
in divination1 and if they were in  want
 of a certain thing for the purpose of  
some investigation4 ,in order1          
therefore1 to effect this1 they made use
 of the ,gods within the heavens1  both 
the erratic and non-erratic1 of all of  
whom it is requisite to  consider the   
sun as the leader2 but to rank the moon 
in the second place2  and we should     
conjoin with these fire1 in the third   
place1 from its  alliance to them1 as   
the theologist#ee says4 ,he also says   
that no animal  is to be sacrificed2 but
 that first-fruits are to be offered    
from meal  and honey1 and the vegetable 
productions of the earth4 ,he adds1 that
 fire  is not to be enkindled on a      
hearth defiled with gore2 and asserts   
other  things of the like kind4 ,for    
what occasion is there to transcribe all
  that he says8 for he who is studious  
of piety knows1 indeed1 that to the     
,gods no animal is to be sacrificed1 but
 that a sacrifice of this kind  pertains

 to dmons1 and other powers1 whether    
they are beneficent1 or  depraved#ef4   
,he likewise knows who those are that   
ought to sacrifice to  these1 and to    
what extent they ought to proceed in the
 sacrifices which  they make4 ,other    
things1 however1 will be passed over by 
me in silence4  ,but what some          
,platonists have divulged1 ,i shall lay 
before the reader1 in  order that the   
things proposed to be discussed1 may    
become manifest to  the intelligent4    
,what they have unfolded1 therefore1 is 
as follows3    #cg4 ,the first ,god     
being incorporeal1 immoveable1 and      
impartible1 and  neither subsisting in  
any thing1 nor restrained in his        
energies1 is not1  as has been before   
observed1 in want of any thing external 
to himself1 as  neither is the soul of  
the world2 but this latter1 containing  
in itself  the principle of that which  
is triply divisible1 and being naturally
  self-motive1 is adapted to be moved in
 a beautiful and orderly manner1  and   

also to move the body of the world      
according to the most excellent  reasons
 i4e4 productive principles or powers4  
,it is1 however1  connected with and    
comprehends body1 though it is itself   
incorporeal1  and liberated from the    
participation of any passion4 ,to the   
remaining  ,gods1 therefore1 to the     
world1 to the inerratic and erratic     
stars1 who  are visible ,gods1          
consisting of soul and body1 thanks are 
to be returned  after the               
above-mentioned manner1 through         
sacrifices from inanimate  natures4 ,the
 multitude1 therefore1 of those         
invisible beings remains for  us1 whom  
,plato indiscriminately calls dmons#eg2 
but of these1 some  being denominated by
 men1 obtain from them honours1 and     
other religious  observances1 similar to
 those which are paid to the ,gods2 but 
others1  who for the most part are not  
explicitly denominated1 receive an      
occult  religious reverence and         
appellation from certain persons in     

villages  and certain cities2 and the   
remaining multitude is called in common 
by  the name of dmons4 ,the general     
persuasion1 however1 respecting all     
these invisible beings1 is this1 that if
 they become angry through being        
neglected1 and deprived of the religious
 reverence which is due to them1  they  
are noxious to those by whom they are   
thus neglected1 and that they  again    
become beneficent1 if they are appeased 
by prayers1 supplications1  and         
sacrifices1 and other similar rites4    
#ch4 ,but the confused notion which is  
formed of these beings1 and which  has  
proceeded to great crimination1         
necessarily requires that the nature  of
 them should be distinguished according 
to reason4 ,for perhaps it will  be     
said1 that it is requisite to show      
whence the error concerning them        
originated among men4 ,the distinction1 
therefore1 must be made after the       
following manner4 ,such souls as are the
 progeny of the whole soul of the       

universe1 and who govern the great parts
 of the region under the moon1  these1  
being incumbent on a pneumatic substance
 or spirit1 and ruling  over it         
conformably to reason1 are to be        
considered as good dmons1 who  are      
diligently employed in causing every    
thing to be beneficial to the  subjects 
of their government1 whether they       
preside over certain animals1  or       
fruits1 which are arranged under their  
inspective care1 or over things  which  
subsist for the sake of these1 such as  
showers of rain1 moderate  winds1 serene
 weather1 and other things which        
cooperate with these1  such as the good 
temperament of the seasons of the year4 
,they are also  our leaders in the      
attainment of music1 and the whole of   
erudition1 and  likewise of medicine and
 gymnastic1 and of every thing else     
similar to  these4 ,for it is impossible
 that these dmons should impart utility1
 and  yet become1 in the very same      
things1 the causes of what is           

detrimental4  ,among these two1 those   
transporters1 as ,plato calls them1 in  
his  ,banquet are to be enumerated1 who 
announce the affairs of men to the      
,gods1 and the will of the ,gods to men2
 carrying our prayers1 indeed1  to the  
,gods as judges1 but oracularly         
unfolding to us the exhortations  and   
admonitions of the ,gods4 ,but such     
souls as do not rule over the  pneumatic
 substance with which they are          
connected1 but for the most  part are   
vanquished by it2 these are vehemently  
agitated and borne along  in a          
disorderly manner1 when the irascible   
motions and the desires of  the         
pneumatic substance1 receive an impetus4
 ,these souls1 therefore1 are  indeed   
dmons1 but are deservedly called malefic
 dmons4    #ci4 ,all these beings1      
likewise1 and those who possess a       
contrary power1  are invisible1 and     
perfectly imperceptible by human senses2
 for they  are not surrounded with a    
solid body1 nor are all of them of one  

form1  but they are fashioned in        
numerous figures4 ,the forms1 however1  
which  characterize their pneumatic     
substance1 at one time become apparent1 
but  at another are invisible4          
,sometimes also those that are malefic1 
change  their forms2 but the pneumatic  
substance1 so far as it is corporeal1 is
  passive and corruptible3 and though1  
because it is thus bound by the  souls  
that are incumbent on it1 the form of it
 remains for a long time1  yet it is not
 eternal4 ,for it is probable that      
something continually  flows from it1   
and also that it is nourished4 ,the     
pneumatic substance1  therefore1 of good
 dmons1 possesses symmetry1 in the same 
manner as  the bodies of the visible    
,gods2 but the spirit of malefic dmons  
is  deprived of symmetry1 and in        
consequence of its abounding in         
passivity1  they are distributed about  
the terrestrial region4 ,hence1 there is
 no  evil which they do not attempt to  
effect2 for1 in short1 being violent    

and fraudulent in their manners1 and    
being also deprived of the guardian     
care of more excellent dmons1 they make1
 for the most part1 vehement  and sudden
 attacks2 sometimes endeavouring to     
conceal their incursions1  but at other 
times assaulting openly4 ,hence the     
molestations which are  produced by them
 are rapid2 but the remedies and        
corrections which  proceed from more    
excellent dmons1 appear to be more      
slowly effected3  for every thing which 
is good being tractable and equable1    
proceeds in  an orderly manner1 and does
 not pass beyond what is fit4 ,by       
forming this  opinion1 therefore1 you   
will never fall into that most absurd   
notion1  that evil may be expected from 
the good1 or good from the evil4 ,for   
this  notion is not only attended with  
absurdity1 but the multitude1 receiving 
through it the most erroneous           
conceptions of the ,gods1 disseminate   
them  among the rest of mankind4    #dj4
 ,it must be admitted1 therefore1 that  

one of the greatest injuries  occasioned
 by malefic dmons is this1 that though  
they are the causes  of the calamities  
which take place about the earth1 such  
as pestilence1  sterility1 earthquakes1 
excessive dryness1 and the like1 yet    
they  endeavour to persuade us1 that    
they are the causes of things the most  
contrary to these1 viz4 of fertility1   
salubrity1 and elementary peace4        
,hence1 they exonerate themselves from  
blame1 and1 in the first place1         
endeavour to avoid being detected as the
 sources of injury2 and1 in  the next   
place1 they convert us to supplications 
and sacrifices to the  beneficent ,gods1
 as if they were angry4 ,but they effect
 these1 and things  of a similar nature1
 in consequence of wishing to turn us   
from right  conceptions of the ,gods1   
and convert us to themselves2 for they  
are  delighted with all such as act thus
 incongruously and discordantly1 and1   
as it were1 assuming the persons of     
other ,gods1 they enjoy the effects of  

our imprudence and folly2 conciliating  
to themselves the good opinion of  the  
vulgar1 by inflaming the minds of men   
with the love of riches1 power1  and    
pleasure1 and filling them with the     
desire of vain glory1 from which        
sedition1 and war1 and other things     
allied to these1 are produced4 ,but     
that which is the most dire of all      
things1 they proceed still farther1  and
 persuade men that similar things are   
effected by the greatest  ,gods1 and do 
not stop till they even subject the most
 excellent of the  divinities to these  
calumnies1 through whom they say every  
thing is in  perfect confusion4 ,and not
 only the vulgar are affected in this   
manner1  but not a few also of those who
 are conversant with philosophy4 ,the   
cause  of this1 however1 extends equally
 to philosophers1 and the vulgar2 for   
of philosophers1 those who do not depart
 from the prevailing notions1  fall into
 the same error with the multitude2 and 
again1 the multitude1 on  hearing       

assertions from celebrated men          
conformable to their own opinions1  are 
in a greater degree corroborated in     
conceiving things of this kind of  the  
,gods4    #da4 ,for poetry also inflames
 the opinions of men1 by employing a    
diction  adapted to produce astonishment
 and enchantment1 and not only allures  
the ears1 but is also capable of        
procuring belief in things that are     
most impossible4 ,at the same time1     
however1 it is requisite to be firmly   
persuaded1 that what is good can never  
injure1 nor what is evil can ever  be   
beneficial2 for1 as ,plato says1 it is  
not the province of heat to             
refrigerate1 but of that which is       
contrary to heat2 and1 in like manner1  
neither is it the province of that which
 is just to injure4 ,but divinity  is   
naturally the most just of all things2  
since otherwise he would not  be        
divinity4 ,hence this power and portion 
of good is not to be abscinded  from    
beneficent dmons2 for the power which is

 naturally adapted1 and  wishes to      
injure1 is contrary to the power which  
is beneficent3 but  contraries can never
 subsist about the same thing4 ,as      
malefic dmons1  therefore1 injure the   
mortal race in many respects1 and       
sometimes in  things of the greatest    
consequence1 good dmons not only never  
cease  to act conformably to their      
office1 but also1 as much as possible1  
presignify to us the dangers which are  
impendent from malefic dmons1  unfolding
 these through dreams1 through a        
divinely inspired soul1 and  through    
many other things2 so that he who is    
capable of explaining  what is          
signified1 may know and avoid all the   
perils with which he is  threatened4    
,for they indicate future events to all 
men1 but every one  cannot understand   
what they indicate1 nor is every one    
able to read what  is written by them2  
but he alone is able to do this1 who has
 learnt their  letters4 ,all            
enchantment1 however1 or witchcraft1 is 

effected through  dmons of a contrary   
nature2 for those who perpetrate evil   
through  enchantments1 especially       
venerate these malefic beings1 and the  
power  that presides over them4    #db4 
,for they are full of every kind of     
imagination1 and are sufficiently       
qualified to deceive1 through effects of
 a prodigious nature2 and through       
these1 unhappy men procure philtres1 and
 amatory allurements4 ,for all          
intemperance1 and hope of possessing    
wealth and renown1 and especially       
deception1 exist through these1 since   
falsehood is allied to these  malevolent
 beings2 for they wish to be considered 
as ,gods1 and the power  which presides 
over them is ambitious to appear to be  
the greatest ,god4  ,these are they that
 rejoice in libations1 and the savour of
 sacrifices1  through which their       
pneumatic vehicle is fattened2 for this 
vehicle lives  through vapours and      
exhalations1 and the life of it is      
various through  various exhalations4   

,it is likewise corroborated by the     
savour of blood  and flesh4    #dc4 ,on 
this account1 a wise and temperate man  
will be religiously afraid  to use      
sacrifices of this kind1 through which  
he will attract to himself  such-like   
dmons2 but he will endeavour in all     
possible ways to purify  his soul4 ,for 
these malefic beings do not attack a    
pure soul1 because  it is dissimilar to 
them2 but if it is necessary to cities  
to render  them propitious1 this is     
nothing to us4 ,for by these riches1 and
 things  external and corporeal1 are    
thought to be good1 and their contraries
  evil2 but the smallest attention is   
paid by them to the good of the soul4   
,we however1 to the utmost of our       
ability1 endeavour not to be in want  of
 those things which they impart2 but all
 our endeavour is to become  similar to 
,god1 and to the divine powers with     
which he is surrounded  both from what  
pertains to the soul1 and from          
externals2 and this is  effected through

 an entire liberation from the dominion 
of the passions1  an evolved perception 
of truly existing beings1 and a vital   
tendency  towards them4 ,on the other   
hand1 we strive to become dissimilar to 
depraved men and evil dmons1 and1 in    
short1 to every being that rejoices  in 
a mortal and material nature4 ,so that1 
conformably to what is said by          
,theophrastus1 we also shall sacrifice  
from those things which theologists     
permit us to use for this purpose2 as   
well knowing1 that by how much the  more
 we neglect to exempt ourselves from the
 passions of the soul1 by so  much the  
more we connect ourselves with a        
depraved power1 and render it  necessary
 that he should become propitious to us4
 ,for1 as theologists  say1 it is       
necessary that those who are bound#eh to
 things external1 and  have not yet     
vanquished their passions1 should avert 
the anger of this  malefic power2 since1
 if they do not1 there will be no end to
 their  labours4    #dd4 ,thus far what 

pertains to sacrifices has been         
elucidated4 ,as we said1  however1 at   
first1 as it is not entirely necessary1 
if animals are to be  sacrificed1 that  
they are also to be eaten1 we shall now 
show that it is  necessary we should not
 eat them1 though it may be sometimes   
necessary  that they should be          
sacrificed4 ,for all theologists agree  
in this1 that  in sacrifices1 which are 
made for the purpose of averting some   
evil1 the  immolated animals are not to 
be tasted1 but are to be used as        
expiations4  ,for1 say they1 no one     
should go into the city1 nor into his   
own house1  till he has first purified  
his garments1 and his body1 in rivers1  
or some  fountain4 ,so that they order  
those whom they permit to sacrifice1 to 
abstain from the victims1 and to purify 
themselves before they sacrifice  by    
fasting1 and especially by abstaining   
from animals4 ,they add1 that  purity is
 the guardian of piety2 and is1 as it   
were1 a symbol or divine  seal1 which   

secures its possessor from the attacks  
and allurements of  evil dmons4 ,for    
such a one1 being contrarily disposed   
to1 and more  divine in his operations  
than those by whom he is attacked1      
because he  is more pure both in his    
body and in the passions of his soul1   
remains  uninjured1 in consequence of   
being surrounded with purity as with a  
bulwark4    #de4 ,hence a defence of    
this kind has appeared to be necessary  
even to  enchanters2 though it is not   
efficacious with them on all occasions4 
,for they invoke evil dmons for         
lascivious purposes4 ,so that purity    
does not belong to enchanters1 but to   
divine men1 and such as are  divinely   
wise2 since it every where becomes a    
guard to those that use  it1 and        
conciliates them with a divine nature4  
,i wish1 therefore1 that  enchanters    
would make use of purity continually1   
for then they would not  employ         
themselves in incantations1 because1    
through this1 they would be  deprived of

 the enjoyment of those things1 for the 
sake of which they act  impiously4      
,whence becoming full of passions1 and  
abstaining for a short  time from impure
 food1 they are notwithstanding replete 
with impurity1  and suffer the          
punishment of their illegal conduct     
towards the whole of  things1 partly    
from those whom they irritate1 and      
partly from ,justice1  who perceives all
 mortal deeds and conceptions4 ,both    
inward1 therefore1  and external purity 
pertain to a divine man1 who earnestly  
endeavours to  be liberated from the    
passions of the soul1 and who abstains  
from such  food as excites the passions1
 and is fed with divine wisdom2 and by  
right  conceptions of1 is assimilated to
 divinity himself4 ,for such a man1     
being  consecrated by an intellectual   
sacrifice1 approaches to ,god in a white
  garment1 and with a truly pure        
impassivity of soul1 and levity of body1
  and is not burdened with foreign and  
external juices1 and the passions of    

the soul4    #df4 ,for1 indeed1 it must 
not be admitted as necessary in temples1
 which  are consecrated by men to the   
,gods1 that those who enter into them   
should  have their feet pure1 and their 
shoes free from every stain1 but that in
  the temple of the father of all1 which
 is this world1 it is not proper  to    
preserve our ultimate and cutaneous     
vestment pure1 and to dwell in  this    
temple with an undefiled garment4 ,for  
if the danger consisted only  in the    
defilement of the body1 it might1       
perhaps1 be lawful to neglect  it4 ,but 
now1 since every sensible body is       
attended with an efflux of  material    
dmons1 hence1 together with the impurity
 produced from flesh  and blood1 the    
power which is friendly to1 and familiar
 with1 this  impurity1 is at the same   
time present through similitude and     
alliance4    #dg4 ,hence theologists    
have rightly paid attention to          
abstinence4 ,and  these things were     
indicated to us by a certain            

,egyptian#ei1 who also  assigned a most 
natural cause of them1 which was        
verified by experience4  ,for1 since a  
depraved and irrational soul1 when it   
leaves the body1 is  still compelled to 
adhere to it1 since the souls also of   
those men who  die by violence1 are     
detained about the body2 this           
circumstance should  prevent a man from 
forcibly expelling his soul from the    
body4 ,the violent  slaughter1          
therefore1 of animals1 compels souls to 
be delighted with the  bodies which they
 have left1 but the soul is by no means 
prevented from  being there1 where it is
 attracted by a kindred nature2 whence  
many souls  are seen to lament1 and some
 remain about the bodies that are       
unburied2  which souls are improperly   
used by enchanters1 as subservient to   
their  designs1 being compelled by them 
to occupy the body1 or a part of the    
body1 which they have left4 ,since1     
therefore1 these things were well  known
 to theologists1 and they also perceived

 the nature of a depraved  soul1 and its
 alliance to the bodies from which it   
was divulsed1 and the  pleasure which it
 received from a union with them1 they  
very properly  avoided animal food1 in  
order that they might not be disturbed  
by alien  souls1 violently separated    
from the body and impure1 and which are 
attracted to things of a kindred nature1
 and likewise that they might  not be   
impeded by the presence of evil dmons1  
in approaching alone or  without being  
burdened with things of a foreign nature
 to the highest  ,god#fj4    #dh4 ,for  
that the nature of a kindred body is    
attractive of soul1  experience         
abundantly taught these theologists4    
,hence those who wish to  receive into  
themselves the souls of prophetic       
animals1 swallow the most  principal    
parts of them1 such as the hearts of    
crows1 or of moles1 or of  hawks4 ,for  
thus they have soul present with1 and   
predicting to them like  a ,god1 and    
entering into them together with the    

intromission of the body4    #di4 ,very 
properly1 therefore1 will the           
philosopher1 and who is also the  priest
 of the ,god that is above all things1  
abstain from all animal food1  in       
consequence of earnestly endeavouring to
 approach through himself  alone to the 
alone#fa ,god1 without being disturbed  
by any attendants4  ,such a one likewise
 is cautious1 as being well acquainted  
with the  necessities of nature4 ,for he
 who is truly a philosopher1 is skilled 
in1 and an observer of many things1     
understands the works of nature1 is     
sagacious1 temperate and modest1 and is 
in every respect the saviour  of        
himself4 ,and as he who is the priest of
 a certain particular ,god1  is skilled 
in placing the statues of that divinity1
 and in his orgies1  mysteries1 and the 
like1 thus also he who is the priest of 
the highest  ,god1 is skilled in the    
manner in which his statue ought to be  
fashioned1  and in purifications1 and   
other things through which he is        

conjoined to  this divinity4    #ej4    
,but if in the sacred rites which are   
here1 those that are priests and        
diviners order both themselves and      
others to abstain from sepulchres1  from
 impious men1 from menstrual purgations1
 and from venereal congress1  and       
likewise from base and mournful         
spectacles1 and from those auditions    
which excite the passions1 7because     
frequently1 through those that are      
present being impure1 something appears 
which disturbs the diviner2 on  which   
account it is said1 that to sacrifice   
inopportunely1 is attended  with greater
 detriment than gain72--if this1        
therefore1 is the case1  will he1 who is
 the priest of the father of all things1
 suffer himself  to become the sepulchre
 of dead bodies8 ,and will such a one1  
being full  of defilement1 endeavour to 
associate with the transcendent ,god8   
,it is  sufficient1 indeed1 that in     
fruits we assume parts of death1 for the
  support of our present life4 ,this1   

however1 is not yet the place for such  
a discussion4 ,we must1 therefore1 still
 farther investigate what pertains  to  
sacrifices4    #ea4 ,for some one may   
say that we shall subvert a great part  
of  divination1 viz4 that which is      
effected through an inspection of the   
viscera1 if we abstain from destroying  
animals4 ,he1 therefore1 who makes  this
 objection1 should also destroy men3 for
 it is said that future  events are more
 apparent in the viscera of men than in 
those of brutes2  and many of the       
,barbarians exercise the art of         
divination through  the entrails of men4
 ,as1 however1 it would be an indication
 of great  injustice1 and inexhaustible 
avidity1 to destroy those of our own    
species  for the sake of divination1    
thus also it is unjust for the sake of  
this  to slay an irrational animal4 ,but
 it does not belong to the present      
discussion to investigate whether ,gods1
 or dmons1 or soul liberated from  the  
animal with which it had been connected1

 exhibit signs of future  events to     
those who explore such signs1 through   
the indications which the  viscera      
afford4    #eb4 ,nevertheless1 we permit
 those whose life is rolled about       
externals1  having once acted impiously 
towards themselves1 to be borne along to
 that  to which they tend2 but we       
rightly say1 that the man whom we       
designate as  a philosopher1 and who is 
separated from externals1 will not be   
disturbed  by dmons1 nor be in want of  
diviners1 nor of the viscera of animals4
  ,for he earnestly endeavours to be    
separated from those things for the     
sake of which divinations are effected4 
,for he does not betake himself  to     
nuptials1 in order that he may molest   
the diviner about wedlock1 or           
merchandise1 or inquiries about a       
servant1 or an increase of property1 or 
any other object of vulgar pursuit4 ,for
 the subjects of his investigation  are 
not clearly indicated by any diviner or 
viscera of animals4 ,but  he1 as we have

 said1 approaching through himself to   
the supreme ,god1  who is established in
 the true inward parts of himself1      
receives from  thence the precepts of   
eternal life1 tending thither by a      
conflux of the  whole of himself1 and   
instead of a diviner praying that he may
 become a  confabulator of the mighty   
,jupiter4    #ec4 ,for if such a one is 
impelled by some necessary circumstance1
 there  are good dmons1 who1 to the man 
living after this manner1 and who is  a 
domestic of divinity1 will indicate and 
prevent1 through dreams and  symbols1   
and omens1 what may come to pass1 and   
what is necessarily to be  avoided4 ,for
 it is only requisite to depart from    
evil1 and to know what  is most         
honourable in the whole of things1 and  
every thing which in the  universe is   
good1 friendly1 and familiar4 ,but vice1
 and an ignorance  of divine concerns1  
are dire1 through which a man is led to 
despise  and defame things of which he  
has no knowledge2 since nature does not 

proclaim these particulars with a voice 
which can be heard by the ears1  but    
being herself intellectual#fb1 she      
initiates through intellect  those who  
venerate her4 ,and even though some one 
should admit the art of  divination for 
the sake of predicting what is future1  
yet it does not  from thence necessarily
 follow that the flesh of animals is to 
be eaten2  as neither does it follow1   
that because it is proper to sacrifice  
to ,gods  or dmons1 food from animals is
 therefore to be introduced4 ,for1 not  
only the history which is related by    
,theophrastus1 but also many other      
narrations inform us1 that in ancient   
times men were sacrificed1 yet it  must 
not be inferred that on this account men
 are to be eaten4    #ed4 ,and that we  
do not carelessly assert these things1  
but that what we  have said is          
abundantly confirmed by history1 the    
following narrations  sufficiently      
testify4 ,for in ,rhodes1 on the sixth  
day of ,june1 a man  was sacrificed to  

,saturn2 which custom having prevailed  
for a long  time1 was afterwards changed
 into a more human mode of sacrificing4 
,for one of those men who1 by the public
 decision1 had been sentenced to  death1
 was kept in prison till the ,saturnalia
 commenced2 but as soon as  this        
festival began1 they brought the man out
 of the gates of the city1  opposite to 
the temple of ,aristobulus1 and giving  
him wine to drink1  they cut his throat4
 ,but in the island which is now called 
,salamis1  but was formerly denominated 
,coronis1 in the month according to the 
,cyprians ,aphrodisius1 a man was       
sacrificed to ,agraule1 the daughter of 
,cecrops1 and the nymph ,agraulis4 ,and 
this custom continued till the time  of 
,diomed4 ,afterwards it was changed1 so 
that a man was sacrificed  to ,diomed4  
,but the temples of ,minerva1 of        
,agraule1 and ,diomed1 were  contained  
in one and the same enclosure4 ,the man 
also who was about to be  slain1 was    
first led by young men thrice round the 

altar1 afterwards the  priest pierced   
him with a lance in the stomach1 and    
thus being thrown on  the pyre1 he was  
entirely consumed4    #ee4 ,this sacred 
institute was1 however1 abolished by    
,diphilus1 the king  of ,cyprus1 who    
flourished about the time of ,seleucus1 
the theologist4  ,but ,dmon substituted 
an ox for a man2 thus causing the latter
 sacrifice  to be of equal worth with   
the former4 ,amosis also abolished the  
law of  sacrificing men in the ,egyptian
 city ,heliopolis2 the truth of which is
  testified by ,manetho in his treatise 
on ,antiquity and ,piety4 ,but the      
sacrifice was made to ,juno1 and an     
investigation took place1 as if they    
were endeavouring to find pure calves1  
and such as were marked by the          
impression of a seal4 ,three men also   
were sacrificed on the day appointed    
for this purpose1 in the place of whom  
,amosis ordered them to substitute      
three waxen images4 ,in ,chios likewise1
 they sacrificed a man to ,omadius      

,bacchus#fc1 the man being for this     
purpose torn in pieces2 and the same    
custom1 as ,euelpis ,carystius says1 was
 adopted in ,tenedos4 ,to which may  be 
added1 that the ,lacedmonians1 as       
,apollodorus says1 sacrificed a man  to 
,mars4    #ef4 ,moreover the ,phnicians1
 in great calamities1 either of war1 or 
excessive dryness1 or pestilence1       
sacrificed some one of their dearest    
friends1 who was selected by votes for  
this purpose4 ,the ,phnician  history   
also is replete with instances of men   
being sacrificed1 which  history was    
written by ,sanchoniatho in the         
,phnician tongue1 and was  interpreted  
into ,greek in eight books1 by ,philo   
,byblius4 ,but ,ister1 in  his          
collection of the ,cretan sacrifices1   
says that the ,curetes formerly         
sacrificed children to ,saturn4 ,and    
,pallas1 who is the best of those  that 
have collected what pertains to the     
mysteries of ,mithras1 says1  that under
 the ,emperor ,adrian the sacrificing of

 men was nearly totally  abolished4     
,for1 prior to his time1 in ,laodicea1  
which is in ,syria1 they  anciently     
sacrificed a virgin to ,minerva1 but now
 they sacrifice a stag4  ,the           
,carthaginians too1 who dwell in ,libya1
 formerly sacrificed men2 but  this     
custom was abolished by ,iphicrates4    
,and the ,dumatii1 a people of  ,arabia1
 annually sacrificed a boy1 whom they   
buried under the altar1  which was used 
by them as a statue4 ,but ,phylarchus   
narrates1 that it  was the general      
custom of all the ,greeks1 before they  
went to war1 to  immolate men4 ,i omit  
to mention the ,thracians and           
,scythians1 and also  the ,athenians1   
who slew the daughter of ,erechtheus and
 ,praxithea4 ,and  even at present1 who 
is ignorant that in the great city of   
,rome1 in the  festival of ,jupiter     
,latialis1 they cut the throat of a man8
 ,human flesh1  however1 is not on this 
account to be eaten2 though1 through a  
certain  necessity1 a man should be     

sacrificed4 ,for1 when a famine takes   
place  during a siege1 some of the      
besieged feed on each other1 yet at the 
same  time those who do so are deemed   
execrable1 and the deed is thought to be
  impious4    #eg4 ,after the first war1
 likewise1 waged by the ,romans against 
the  ,carthaginians1 in order to obtain 
,sicily1 when the mercenary soldiers  of
 the ,phnicians revolted1 and1 together 
with them1 those of ,africa  deserted1  
,amilcar1 who was surnamed ,barkas1 in  
attacking the ,romans1 was  reduced to  
such a scarcity of food1 that at first  
his men ate those  that fell in battle2 
but afterwards1 these failing1 they ate 
their  captives2 in the third place1    
their servants2 and in the last place1  
they  attacked each other1 and devoured 
their fellow-soldiers1 who were led to  
be slaughtered for this purpose by lot4 
,but ,amilcar1 taking those men  that   
were in his power1 caused his elephants 
to trample on such of the  soldiers as  
had acted in this manner1 conceiving    

that it was not holy  to suffer them to 
be any longer mingled with other men2   
and neither did  he admit that men      
should be eaten because certain persons 
had dared to  do this2 nor his son      
,hannibal1 who1 when he was leading his 
army into  ,italy1 was advised by a     
certain person to accustom his troops to
 feed on  human flesh1 in order that    
they might never be in want of food4 ,it
 does  not follow1 therefore1 that      
because famine and war have been the    
causes  of eating other animals1 it is  
also requisite to feed on them for the  
sake of pleasure2 as neither must we    
admit1 that on this account men are  to 
be eaten4 ,nor does it follow1 that     
because animals are sacrificed to       
certain powers1 it is also requisite to 
eat them4 ,for neither do those  who    
sacrifice men1 on this account1 feed on 
human flesh4 ,through what  has been    
said1 therefore1 it is demonstrated1    
that it does not entirely  follow that  
animals are to be eaten because they are

 sacrificed4    #eh4 ,but that those who
 had learnt what the nature is of the   
powers in the  universe1 offered        
sacrifices through blood1 not to ,gods1 
but to dmons1  is confirmed by          
theologists themselves4 ,for they also  
assert1 that of  dmons1 some are        
malefic1 but others beneficent1 who will
 not molest us1  if we offer to them the
 first-fruits of those things alone     
which we eat1  and by which we nourish  
either the soul or the body4 ,after1    
therefore1 we  have added a few         
observations more1 in order to show that
 the unperverted  conceptions of the    
multitude accord with a right opinion   
respecting the  ,gods1 we shall conclude
 this book4 ,those poets1 therefore1 who
 are wise1  though but in a small       
degree1 say1        ,what man so        
credulous and void of mind1      ,what  
man so ignorant1 as to think the ,gods  
,in fiery bile and fleshless bones      
rejoice1      ,for hungry dogs a        
nutriment not fit2      ,or that such   

offerers they will e'er reward8    ,but 
another poet says1        ,my offerings 
to the ,gods from cakes alone      ,and 
frankincense shall be2 for not to       
friends      ,but deities my sacrifice  
,i make4    #ei4 ,apollo also1 when he  
orders men to sacrifice according to    
paternal  institutes1 appears to refer  
every thing to ancient custom4 ,but the 
ancient custom of sacrificing was1 as we
 have before shown1 with cakes  and     
fruits4 ,hence also1 sacrifices were    
called 1 thusiai1 and  1 thuelai1 and 1 
thumelai1 and   1 auto to  thuein1 i4e4 
the act of sacrificing1 signified the   
same thing as   1 tou thumian1 i4e4 to  
offer incense1 and which is now called  
by us1 1 epithuein1 i4e4 to sacrifice   
something more4 ,for  what we now call 1
 thuein1 i4e4 to sacrifice1 the ancients
  denominated 1 erdein1 i4e4 to perform 
or make4        ,they perfect hecatombs 
of bulls1 or goats1      ,made to       
,apollo4    #fj4 ,but those who         
introduced costliness into sacrifices1  

were ignorant  that1 in conjunction with
 this1 they also introduced a swarm of  
evils1  viz4 superstition1 luxury1 an   
opinion that a divine nature may be     
corrupted by gifts1 and that a          
compensation may be made by sacrifices  
for injustice4 ,or whence do some make  
an oblation of three animals with       
gilded horns1 but others of hecatombs8  
,and whence did ,olympias1 the  mother  
of ,alexander the ,great1 sacrifice a   
thousand of each species of  animals1   
unless sumptuousness had at length      
proceeded to superstition8  ,but when   
the young man was informed that the     
,gods rejoiced in magnificent           
sacrifices1 and1 as they say1 in solemn 
banquets of oxen and other  animals1    
how1 though he was willing to act       
wisely1 was it possible  that he could8 
,how also1 when he conceived that these 
sacrifices were  acceptable to the      
,gods1 was it possible he should not    
fancy that he was  permitted to act     
unjustly1 when he might exonerate       

himself from erroneous  conduct through 
sacrifices8 ,but if he had been         
persuaded that the ,gods  have no need  
of these things1 and that they look to  
the manners of those  who approach to   
them1 and conceive that a right opinion 
of them1 and of  things themselves1 is  
the greatest sacrifice1 how is it       
possible that he  should not have been  
temperate1 holy1 and just8    #fa4 ,to  
the ,gods1 indeed1 the most excellent   
offering is a pure intellect  and an    
impassive soul1 and also a moderate     
oblation of our own property  and of    
other things1 and this not negligently1 
but with the greatest  alacrity4 ,for   
the honours which we pay to the ,gods   
should be accompanied  by the same      
promptitude as that with which we give  
the first seat to  worthy men1 and with 
which we rise to1 and salute them1 and  
not by the  promptitude with which we   
pay a tribute4 ,for man must not use    
such  language as the following to ,god3
        ,if1 ,o ,philinus1 you recal to 

mind1      ,and love me for1 the        
benefits which ,i      ,on you          
conferr'd1 'tis well1 since for the sake
      ,of these alone my bounty was     
bestow'd4    ,for divinity is not       
satisfied with such assertions as these4
 ,and hence  ,plato says in his ,laws1  
that it pertains to a good man to       
sacrifice1  and to be always conversant 
with the ,gods by prayers1 votive       
offerings1  sacrifices1 and every kind  
of religious worship2 but that to the   
bad  man1 much labour about the ,gods is
 inefficacious and vain4 ,for the good  
man knows what ought to be sacrificed1  
and from what it is requisite to        
abstain2 what things are to be offered  
to divinity1 and of what the            
first-fruits are to be sacrificed2 but  
the bad man exhibiting honours to  the  
,gods from his own disposition and his  
own pursuits1 acts in so doing  more    
impiously than piously4 ,hence ,plato   
thought1 that a philosopher  ought not  
to be conversant with men of depraved   

habits2 for this is  neither pleasing to
 the ,gods1 nor useful to men2 but the  
philosopher  should endeavour to change 
such men to a better condition1 and if  
he  cannot effect this1 he should be    
careful that he does not himself become 
changed into their depravity4 ,he adds1 
that having entered into the right      
path1 he should proceed in it1 neither  
fearing danger from the multitude1  nor 
any other blasphemy which may happen to 
take place4 ,for it would be  a thing of
 a dire nature1 that the ,syrians indeed
 will not taste fish1  nor the ,hebrews 
swine1 nor most of the ,phnicians and   
,egyptians cows2 and  though many kings 
have endeavoured to change these        
customs1 yet those  that adopt them     
would rather suffer death1 than a       
transgression of the  law which forbids 
them to eat these animals2 and yet that 
we should  choose to transgress the laws
 of nature and divine precepts through  
the  fear of men1 or of a certain       
denunciation of evil from them4 ,for the

  divine choir of ,gods1 and divine men1
 may justly be greatly indignant  with  
us1 if it perceives us directing our    
attention to the opinions  of depraved  
men1 and idly looking to the terror with
 which they are  attended1 though we    
daily meditate how we may become        
philosophically  dead to other things in
 the present life4      ,,footnotes3    
#dj i4e4 ,the ,egyptians4    #da ,in the
 original 1 which is derived from the   
verb 1  imprecor1 maledico2 and from    
hence1 according to ,porphyry1 came the 
word 4    #db i4e4 ,may be rather called
 malevolent than unhappy4    #dc        
,fabricius is of opinion that these     
,thoes are the same with the            
,acrothoit1 mentioned by ,simplicius in 
his ,comment4 in ,epictet4 from         
,theophrastus4    #dd ,in the original1 
1     4    #de ,in the original1    1   
which ,felicianus very  erroneously     
renders1 8alius siquidem mihi ad        
vescendem sumo20 but  ,valentinus       
rightly1 8et horum aliqua coram illis   

apponere40    #df ,a round1 broad1 and  
thin cake1 which was offered in         
sacrifice to the  ,gods4    #dg         
,tynnichus1 the ,chalcidensian1 is      
mentioned by ,plato in his ,io4    #dh  
,vid4 ,hesiod1 ,fragm4 v4 #afi4    #di  
,a city of ,crete4    #ej i4e4 ,under   
the pretext of being patronized by      
divinity in so  doing4    #ea ,porphyry1
 in what he here says of the ,jews1     
alludes to that sect of  them called    
,essans2 concerning whom1 see the #dth  
book of this work4    #eb ,in the       
original1     1 4441 instead  of which1 
,reisk proposes to read1       vel   1  
444 ,but the insertion of  is most      
absurd3 for the  celestial are called   
the visible ,gods4 ,thus ,plato1 in the 
,timus1 in  the speech of the ,demiurgus
 to the junior or mundane ,gods1 who    
consist of  the celestial and sublunary 
deities1 calls the celestial ,gods those
  that visibly revolve1 and the         
sublunary1 those that become apparent   
when they please3       1     '    1  1 

444 ,conformably1  therefore1 to the    
above translation1 ,i read1       1 444 
,to which may be added1 that our author1
 in paragraph #cg1  expressly calls the 
stars visible ,gods4    #ec ,in the     
original1      1   1   1     4  ,this   
,valentinus erroneously translates as   
follows3 8,sacrificabimus igitur  etiam 
et nos1 sed prout decet1 victimas       
scilicet eximias potestatibus  eximiis  
adducentes40 ,for  and 1 in this        
passage1  evidently mean different1 and 
not excellent4    #ed ,concerning the   
appellations which the ,pythagoreans    
gave to numbers1  see my ,theoretic     
,arithmetic1 in which also the occult   
meaning of these  appellations is       
unfolded4    #ee 8,plotinus ni fallor1  
aut ,plato1 sed ille potius10 says      
,reisk2  but every one who is at all    
conversant with ,platonic writers1 will 
immediately see that by the theologist1 
,porphyry means ,orpheus4    #ef ,though
 ,porphyry excelled in all philosophical
 knowledge1 whence  also he was called '

 1 the philosopher1 yet he was inferior 
to his auditor ,iamblichus1 in          
theological information4 ,on this       
account1  ,iamblichus was called by all 
the ,platonists posterior to him1 the   
divine1 and the great priest4 ,i shall  
present the reader1 therefore1  with an 
extract from my translation of his      
treatise on the ,mysteries1  which      
appears to me to be an admirable        
supplement to what ,porphyry has  said  
in this book1 about sacrificing animals1
 and a satisfactory answer  to the      
question whether they are to be         
sacrificed or not4    ,in ,chap4 #ad1   
therefore1 of ,sect4 #e1 he observes as 
follows3 8,we shall  begin the          
elucidation of this subject in the best 
possible manner1 if we  demonstrate that
 the sacred law of sacrifices is        
connected with the order  of the ,gods4 
,in the first place1 therefore1 we say1 
that of the ,gods some  are material1   
but others immaterial4 ,and the         
material1 indeed1 are those  that       

comprehend matter in themselves1 and    
adorn it2 but the immaterial  are those 
that are perfectly exempt from1 and     
transcend matter3 but1  according to the
 sacrific art1 it is requisite to begin 
sacred operations  from the material    
,gods2 for the ascent to the immaterial 
,gods will not  otherwise be effected4  
,the material ,gods1 therefore1 have a  
certain  communication with matter1 so  
far as they preside over it4 ,hence they
  have dominion over things which happen
 about matter1 such as the  division1   
percussion1 repercussion1 mutation1     
generation1 and corruption  of all      
material bodies4 ,he1 therefore1 who    
wishes to worship these  theurgically1  
in a manner adapted to them1 and to the 
dominion which  they are allotted1      
should1 as they are material1 employ a  
material mode  of worship4 ,for thus we 
shall be wholly led to a familiarity    
with them1  and worship them in an      
allied and appropriate manner4 ,dead    
bodies1  therefore1 and things deprived 

of life1 the slaying of animals1 and the
  consumption of victims1 and1 in short1
 the mutation of the matter which  is   
offered1 pertain to these ,gods1 not by 
themselves1 but on account  of the      
matter over which they preside4 ,for    
though they are1 in the  most eminent   
degree1 separate from it1 yet1 at the   
same time1 they are  present with it2   
and1 though they comprehend matter in an
 immaterial  power1 yet they are        
co-existent with it4 ,things also that  
are governed1  are not foreign from     
their governors2 and things which are   
subservient  as instruments1 are not    
unadapted to those that use them4 ,hence
 it  is foreign to the immaterial ,gods1
 to offer matter to them through        
sacrifices1 but this is most adapted to 
all the material ,gods40    ,in the     
following chapter1 ,iamblichus observes1
 8that as there is a time  when we      
become wholly soul1 are out of the body1
 and sublimely revolve on  high1 in     
conjunction with all the immaterial     

,gods2 so1 likewise1 there is  a        
two-fold mode of worship1 one of which  
is simple1 incorporeal1 and pure  from  
all generation2 and this mode pertains  
to undefiled souls2 but the  other is   
replete with every thing of a material  
nature1 and is adapted  to souls which  
are neither pure1 nor liberated from all
 generation40  ,he adds1 8we must admit1
 therefore1 that there are two-fold     
species of  sacrifices2 one kind1       
indeed1 pertaining to men who are not   
entirely  purified1 which1 as           
,heraclitus says1 rarely happens to one 
man1 or to a  certain                   
easily-to-be-numbered few of mankind2   
but the other kind being  material1 and 
consisting in mutation1 is adapted to   
souls that are still  detained by the   
body4 ,hence1 to cities and people not  
yet liberated from  sublunary fate1 and 
the impending communion of bodies1 if   
such a mode of  sacrifice as this latter
 is not permitted1 they will wander both
 from  immaterial and material good4    

,for they will not be able to receive   
the  former1 and to the latter they will
 not offer what is appropriate40    ,he 
farther informs us1 in ,chap4 #bb1 that 
though the summit of the  sacrific art  
recurs to the most principal one of the 
whole multitude of  ,gods i4e4 to the   
ineffable cause of all1 and at one and  
the same  time worships the many        
essences and principles that are rooted 
and  concentred in it2 yet this happens 
at the latest period1 and to a very     
few1 and that we must be satisfied1 if  
it takes place1 when the sun  of life is
 setting4 8,but10 says he1 8our present 
discussion does not  ordain laws for a  
man of this kind2 for he is superior to 
all law2 but  it promulgates a law such 
as that of which we are now speaking1 to
 those  who are in want of a certain    
divine legislation40 ,in the above      
passage1  by 8a man of this kind10      
,iamblichus most probably alludes to    
,plotinus1  as both his works1 and the  
life of him1 written by ,porphyry1 show 

that he  was a man capable of recurring 
to1 and becoming united with the highest
  ,god1 and thus at the same time       
worshipping all the divine powers that  
are  rooted in him4    ,to what         
,iamblichus has thus excellently        
observed1 may be added what the         
philosopher ,sallust says in his golden 
treatise ,on the ,gods and the  ,world1 
viz4 8that since life primarily subsists
 in the ,gods1 and there  is also a     
certain human life1 but the latter      
desires to be united to  the former1 a  
medium is required2 for natures much    
distant from each  other cannot be      
conjoined without a medium2 and it is   
necessary that  the medium should be    
similar to the connected natures4 ,life1
 therefore1  must necessarily be the    
medium of life4 ,hence1 men of the      
present day  that are happy1 and all the
 ancients1 have sacrificed animals2 and 
this1 indeed1 not rashly1 but in a way  
accommodated to every ,god1 with  many  
other ceremonies respecting the         

cultivation of divinity40 ,let the      
truly intellectual and pious man1       
however1 never forget that prayer1  as  
,proclus divinely observes1 possesses of
 itself a supernatural  perfection and  
power4    #eg ,for a more theological   
account of dmons1 ,i refer the reader to
 my  translation of the before-mentioned
 admirable treatise of ,iamblichus on   
the ,mysteries4    #eh ,in the original1
                1 444 ,but for 1 it is  
necessary to read 2 and it is evident   
that both the ,latin  translators of    
this work found  in their manuscripts4  
,for  ,felicianus has 8qui devincti     
externis rebus sunt10 and ,valentinus1  
8qui  rebus externis illigantur40       
,reisk1 however1 has taken no notice of 
this  error in the printed text4    #ei 
,reisk1 with his usual stupidity1 where 
merely verbal emendations are  not      
concerned1 says that this ,egyptian is  
,plotinus1 whose country was            
,lycopolis1 in ,egypt4 ,but what        
instance can be adduced1 in all         

antiquity1  of the disciple of a        
philosopher speaking of his preceptor in
 this  indefinite manner8 ,is it not    
much more probable that this ,egyptian  
is  the priest mentioned by ,porphyry in
 his ,life of ,plotinus1 who1 at the    
request of a certain friend of          
,plotinus1 7which friend was1 perhaps1  
,porphyry himself17 exhibited to        
,plotinus1 in the temple of ,isis1 at   
,rome1  the familiar dmon1 or1 in modern
 language1 the guardian angel of that   
philosopher8    #fj ,conformably to     
this1 the ,pythagorean ,demophilus      
beautifully  observes1   1              
4 i4e4 8,the  wise man being sent hither
 naked1 should naked invoke him by whom 
he was  sent4 ,for he alone is heard by 
divinity1 who is not burdened with      
things  of a foreign nature40    #fa    
,this expression of 8approaching alone  
to the alone ,god10  ,porphyry derived  
from his master1 the great ,plotinus1   
who divinely  concludes his ,enneads as 
follows3--         1     1   1          

--i4e4 8,this1 therefore1 is the life of
 the ,gods1 and  of divine and happy    
men1 a liberation from all terrene      
concerns1 a life  unaccompanied by human
 pleasures1 and a flight of the alone to
 the  alone40    #fb ,nature1 considered
 as the last of the causes which        
fabricate  this corporeal and sensible  
world1 8bounds 7says ,proclus in ,tim47 
the  progressions of incorporeal        
essences1 and is full of forms and      
powers1  through which she governs      
mundane affairs4 ,and she is a ,goddess1
 indeed1  considered as deified2 but not
 according to the primary signification 
of the word4 ,by her summit likewise she
 comprehends the heavens1 but  through  
these rules over the fluctuating empire 
of generation2 and she  every where     
weaves together partial natures in      
admirable conjunction with  wholes40    
,see more on this subject in my         
translation of that work4    #fc ,this  
epithet is used in two of the ,orphic   
hymns1 viz4 in ,hymn ,,li4  #g41 and    

,hymn ,,xxix4 #e4 ,but the following    
appears to be the reason why  ,bacchus  
is so called4 ,bacchus is the intellect1
 and ,ippa the soul of  the world1      
according to the ,orphic ,theology2 and 
the former is said by  ,orpheus to be   
carried on the head of the latter4 ,for 
so we are informed  by ,proclus1 in     
,tim4 p4 #abd4 ,jacob de ,rhoer1        
therefore1 the editor of this  work1 was
 grossly mistaken in saying1 8,non      
dubito1 quin  1  idem sit qui 1         
crudivorus40 ,scaliger1 in his version  
of the ,hymns1  very improperly         
translates  bajulus1 a porter4 ,for     
,bacchus is  carried on1 but does not   
carry ,ippa4          ,,on ,,abstinence 
,,from ,,animal ,,food4    ,,book ,,the 
,,third4      #a4 ,in the two preceding 
books1 ,o ,firmus ,castricius1 we have  
demonstrated1  that animal food does not
 contribute either to temperance and    
frugality1  or to the piety which       
especially gives completion to the      
theoretic life1  but is rather hostile  

to it4 ,since1 however1 the most        
beautiful part of  justice consists in  
piety to the ,gods1 and this is         
principally acquired  through           
abstinence1 there is no occasion to fear
 that we shall violate  justice towards 
men1 while we preserve piety towards the
 ,gods4 ,socrates  therefore says1 in   
opposition to those who contend that    
pleasure is the  supreme good1 that     
though all swine and goats should accord
 in this  opinion1 yet he should never  
be persuaded that our felicity was      
placed  in the enjoyment of corporeal   
delight1 as long as intellect has       
dominion  over all things4 ,and we also 
say1 that though all wolves and vultures
  should praise the eating of flesh1 we 
should not admit that they spoke        
justly1 as long as man is by nature     
innoxious1 and ought to abstain  from   
procuring pleasure for himself by       
injuring others4 ,we shall pass  on1    
therefore1 to the discussion of justice2
 and since our opponents  say that this 

ought only to be extended to those of a 
similar species1  and on this account   
deny that irrational animals can be     
injured by men1  let us exhibit the     
true1 and at the same time ,pythagoric  
opinion1 and  demonstrate that every    
soul which participates of sense and    
memory is  rational4 ,for this being    
demonstrated1 we may extend1 as our     
opponents  will also admit1 justice to  
every animal4 ,but we shall epitomize   
what has  been said by the ancients on  
this subject4    #b4 ,since1 however1   
with respect to reason1 one kind1       
according to the  doctrine of the       
,stoics1 is internal1 but the other     
external#fd2 and  again1 one kind being 
right1 but the other erroneous1 it is   
requisite  to explain of which of these 
two1 animals1 according to them1 are    
deprived4 ,are they therefore deprived  
of right reason alone8 or are they      
entirely destitute both of internal and 
externally proceeding reason8  ,they    
appear1 indeed1 to ascribe to brutes an 

entire privation of reason1  and not a  
privation of right reason alone4 ,for if
 they merely denied  that brutes possess
 right reason1 animals would not be     
irrational1 but  rational beings1 in the
 same manner as nearly all men are      
according to  them4 ,for1 according to  
their opinion1 one or two wise men may  
be found  in whom alone right reason    
prevails1 but all the rest of mankind   
are  depraved2 though some of these make
 a certain proficiency1 but others are  
profoundly depraved1 and yet1 at the    
same time1 all of them are similarly    
rational4 ,through the influence1       
therefore1 of self-love1 they say1 that 
all other animals are irrational2       
wishing to indicate by irrationality1   
an entire privation of reason4 ,if1     
however1 it be requisite to speak the   
truth1 not only reason may plainly be   
perceived in all animals1 but in  many  
of them it is so great as to approximate
 to perfection4    #c4 ,since1          
therefore1 reason is two-fold1 one kind 

consisting in external  speech1 but the 
other in the disposition of the soul1 we
 shall begin from  that which is        
external1 and which is arranged         
according to the voice4 ,but  if        
external reason is voice1 which through 
the tongue is significant of  the       
internal passions of the soul 7for this 
is the most common definition  of it1   
and is not adopted by one sect of       
philosophers only1 and if it  is alone  
indicative of the conception of internal
 reason7--if this be  the case1 in what 
pertaining to this are such animals as  
have a voice  deficient8 ,do they not   
discursively perceive the manner in     
which they  are inwardly affected1      
before it is vocally enunciated by them8
 ,by a  discursive perception1 however1 
,i mean the perception produced by the  
silent discourse which takes place in   
the soul4 ,since1 therefore1 that  which
 is vocally expressed by the tongue is  
reason1 in whatever manner  it may be   
expressed1 whether in a barbarous or a  

,grecian1 a canine or a  bovine mode1   
other animals also participate of it    
that are vocal2 men1  indeed1 speaking  
conformably to the human laws of speech1
 but other  animals conformably to the  
laws which they received from the ,gods 
and  nature4 ,but if we do not          
understand what they say1 what is this  
to the  purpose8 ,for the ,greeks do not
 understand what is said by the         
,indians1  nor those who are educated in
 ,attica the language of the ,scythians1
 or  ,thracians1 or ,syrians2 but the   
sound of the one falls on the ears of   
the  other like the clangor of cranes1  
though by others their vocal sounds  can
 be written and articulated1 in the same
 manner as ours can by us4              
,nevertheless1 the vocal sounds of the  
,syrians1 for instance1 or the          
,persians1 are to us inarticulate1 and  
cannot be expressed by writing1  just as
 the speech of animals is unintelligible
 to all men4 ,for as we1  when we hear  
the ,scythians speak1 apprehend1 by the 

auditory sense1 a  noise only and a     
sound1 but are ignorant of the meaning  
of what they  say1 because their        
language appears to us to be nothing but
 a clangor1  to have no articulation1   
and to employ only one sound either     
longer or  shorter1 the variety of which
 is not at all significant to us1 but to
  them the vocal sounds are             
intelligible1 and have a great          
difference1 in  the same manner as our  
language has to us2 the like also takes 
place  in the vocal sounds of other     
animals4 ,for the several species of    
these  understand the language which is 
adapted to them1 but we only hear a     
sound1 of the signification of which we 
are ignorant1 because no one who  has   
learnt our language1 is able to teach us
 through ours the meaning of  what is   
said by brutes4 ,if1 however1 it is     
requisite to believe in the  ancients1  
and also in those who have lived in our 
times1 and the times of  our fathers1   
there are some among these who are said 

to have heard and  to have understood   
the speech of animals4 ,thus1 for       
instance1 this is  narrated of ,melampus
 and ,tiresias1 and others of the like  
kind2 and the  same thing1 not much     
prior to our time1 is related of        
,apollonius ,tyanus4  ,for it is        
narrated of him1 that once1 when he was 
with his associates1  a swallow         
happening to be present1 and twittering1
 he said1 that the  swallow indicated to
 other birds1 that an ass laden with    
corn had fallen  down before the city1  
and that in consequence of the fall of  
the ass1 the  corn was spread on the    
ground#fe4 ,an associate1 also1 of mine 
informed  me1 that he once had a boy for
 a servant1 who understood the meaning  
of  all the sounds of birds1 and who    
said1 that all of them were prophetic1  
and declarative of what would shortly   
happen4 ,he added1 that he was  deprived
 of this knowledge through his mother1  
who1 fearing that he would  be sent to  
the ,emperor as a gift1 poured urine    

into his ear when he was  asleep4    #d4
 ,omitting1 however1 these things1      
through the passion of incredulity1     
which is connascent with us1 ,i think   
there is no one who is ignorant1  that  
there are some nations even now who     
understand the sounds of certain        
animals1 through an alliance to those   
animals4 ,thus1 the ,arabians           
understand the language of crows1 and   
the ,tyrrhenians of eagles4 ,and1       
perhaps1 all men would understand the   
language of all animals1 if a  dragon   
were to lick their ears4 ,indeed1 the   
variety and difference in the  vocal    
sounds of animals1 indicate that they   
are significant4 ,hence1 we  hear one   
sound when they are terrified1 but      
another1 of a different kind1  when they
 call their associates1 another when    
they summon their young  to food1       
another when they lovingly embrace each 
other1 and another  when they incite to 
battle4 ,and so great is the difference 
in their  vocal sounds1 that1 even by   

those who have spent their whole life in
 the  observation of them1 it is found  
to be extremely difficult to ascertain  
their meaning1 on account of their      
multitude4 ,diviners1 therefore1 who    
predict from ravens and crows1 when they
 have noted the difference of the       
sounds1 as far as to a certain          
multitude1 omit the rest1 as not easily 
to be apprehended by man4 ,but when     
animals speak to each other1 these      
sounds are manifest and significant to  
them1 though they are not known to  all 
of us4 ,if1 however1 it appears that    
they imitate us1 that they learn  the   
,greek tongue1 and understand their     
keepers1 what man is so impudent  as not
 to grant that they are rational1       
because he does not understand  what    
they say8 ,crows1 therefore1 and        
magpies1 the robin redbreast1 and  the  
parrot1 imitate men1 recollect what they
 have heard1 are obedient  to their     
preceptor while he is teaching them2 and
 many of them1 through  what they have  

learnt1 point out those that have acted 
wrong in the  house4 ,but the ,indian   
hyna1 which the natives call crocotta1  
speaks in  a manner so human1 and this  
without a teacher1 as to go to houses1  
and  call that person whom he knows he  
can easily vanquish4 ,he also imitates  
the voice of him who is most dear1 and  
would most readily attend to the  person
 whom he calls2 so that1 though the     
,indians know this1 yet being  deceived 
through the similitude1 and obeying the 
call1 they come forth1  and are         
destroyed4 ,if1 however1 all animals do 
not imitate1 and all of  them are not   
adapted to learn our language1 what is  
this to the purpose8  ,for neither is   
every man docile or imitative1 ,i will  
not say of the vocal  sounds of animals1
 but of the five dialects of the ,greek 
tongue4 ,to which  may be added1 that   
some animals1 perhaps1 do not speak1    
because they have  not been taught1 or  
because they are impeded by the ill     
conformation  of the instruments of     

speech4 ,we1 therefore1 when we were at 
,carthage1  nurtured a tame partridge1  
which we caught flying1 and which1 in   
process  of time1 and by associating    
with us1 became so exceedingly mild1    
that it  was not only sedulously        
attentive to us1 caressed and sported   
with us1  but uttered a sound           
corresponding to the sound of our voice1
 and1 as far  as it was capable1        
answered us2 and this in a manner       
different from that  by which partridges
 are accustomed to call each other4 ,for
 it did not  utter a corresponding sound
 when we were silent1 but when we spoke 
to it4    #e4 ,it is also narrated1 that
 some dumb animals obey their masters   
with  more readiness than any domestic  
servants4 ,hence1 a lamprey was so      
accustomed to the ,roman ,crassus1 as to
 come to him when he called it by  its  
name2 on which account ,crassus was so  
affectionately disposed towards  it1    
that he exceedingly lamented its death1 
though1 prior to this1  he had borne the

 loss of three of his children with     
moderation4 ,many  likewise relate that 
the eels in ,arethusa1 and the          
shell-fish denominated  saperd1 about   
,mander1 are obedient to those that call
 them4 ,is not the  imagination1        
therefore1 of an animal that speaks1 the
 same1 whether it  proceeds as far as to
 the tongue1 or does not8 ,and if this  
be the case1  is it not absurd to call  
the voice of man alone external reason1 
but  refuse thus to denominate the voice
 of other animals8 ,for this is just as 
if crows should think that their voice  
alone is external reason1 but that  we  
are irrational animals1 because the     
meaning of the sounds which we  utter is
 not obvious to them2 or as if the      
inhabitants of ,attica should  thus     
denominate their speech alone1 and      
should think that those are  irrational 
who are ignorant of the ,attic tongue1  
though the inhabitants  of ,attica would
 sooner understand the croaking of a    
crow1 than the  language of a ,syrian or

 a ,persian4 ,but is it not absurd to   
judge of  rationality and irrationality 
from apprehending or not apprehending   
the  meaning of vocal sounds1 or from   
silence and speech8 ,for thus some one  
might say1 that the ,god who is above   
all things1 and likewise the other      
,gods1 are not rational1 because they do
 not speak4 ,the ,gods1 however1        
silently indicate their will1 and birds 
apprehend their will more rapidly  than 
men1 and when they have apprehended it1 
they narrate it to men as  much as they 
are able1 and different birds are the   
messengers to men of  different ,gods4  
,thus1 the eagle is the messenger of    
,jupiter1 the hawk and  the crow of     
,apollo1 the stork of ,juno1 the crex   
and the bird of night  of ,minerva1 the 
crane of ,ceres1 and some other bird is 
the messenger of  some other deity4     
,moreover1 those among us that observe  
animals1 and are  nurtured together with
 them1 know the meaning of their vocal  
sounds4 ,the  hunter1 therefore1 from   

the barking of his dog1 perceives at one
 time1  indeed1 that the dog explores a 
hare1 but at another1 that the dog has  
found it2 at one time1 that he pursues  
the game1 at another that he has  caught
 it1 and at another that he is in the   
wrong track1 through having  lost the   
scent of it4 ,thus1 too1 the cowherd    
knows1 at one time1 indeed1  that a cow 
is hungry1 or thirsty1 or weary1 and at 
another1 that she is  incited to venery1
 or seeks her calf1 from her different  
lowings#ff4  ,a lion also manifests by  
his roaring that he threatens1 a wolf by
 his  howling that he is in a bad       
condition1 and shepherds1 from the      
bleating  of sheep1 know what the sheep 
want4    #f4 ,neither1 therefore1 are   
animals ignorant of the meaning of the  
voice  of men1 when they are angry1 or  
speak kindly to1 or call them1 or pursue
  them1 or ask them to do something1 or 
give something to them2 nor1 in  short1 
are they ignorant of any thing that is  
usually said to them1 but  are aptly    

obedient to it2 which it would be       
impossible for them to do1  unless that 
which is similar to intellection        
energized1 in consequence  of being     
excited by its similar4 ,the            
immoderation of their passions1  also1  
is suppressed by certain modulations1   
and stags1 bulls1 and other  animals1   
from being wild become tame4 ,those1    
too1 who are decidedly of  opinion that 
brutes are deprived of reason1 yet admit
 that dogs have a  knowledge of         
dialectic1 and make use of the syllogism
 which consists of  many disjunctive    
propositions1 when1 in searching for    
their game1 they  happen to come to a   
place where there are three roads4 ,for 
they thus  reason1 the beast has either 
fled through this road1 or through that1
 or  through the remaining road2 but it 
has not fled either through this1 or    
through that1 and therefore it must have
 fled through the remaining third  of   
these roads#fg4 ,after which syllogistic
 process1 they resume their  pursuit in 

that road4 ,it may1 however1 be readily 
said1 that animals  do these things     
naturally1 because they were not taught 
by any one to  do them2 as if we also   
were not allotted reason by nature1     
though we  likewise give names to       
things1 because we are naturally adapted
 to do so4  ,besides1 if it be requisite
 to believe in ,aristotle1 animals are  
seen to  teach their offspring1 not only
 something pertaining to other things1  
but  also to utter vocal sounds2 as the 
nightingale1 for instance1 teaches  her 
young to sing4 ,and as he likewise says1
 animals learn many things  from each   
other1 and many from men2 and the truth 
of what he asserts is  testified by all 
the tamers of colts1 by every jockey1   
horseman1 and  charioteer1 and by all   
hunters1 herdsmen1 keepers of elephants1
 and  masters of wild beasts and birds4 
,he1 therefore1 who estimates things    
rightly1 will be led1 from these        
instances1 to ascribe intelligence to   
brutes2 but he who is inconsiderate1 and

 is ignorant of these things1  will be  
induced to act rashly1 through his      
inexhaustible avidity  co-operating with
 him against them4 ,for how is it       
possible that he should  not defame and 
calumniate animals1 who has determined  
to cut them in  pieces1 as if they were 
stones8 ,aristotle1 however1 ,plato1    
,empedocles1  ,pythagoras1 ,democritus1 
and all such as endeavoured to discover 
the  truth concerning animals1 have     
acknowledged that they participate of   
reason4    #g4 ,but it is now requisite 
to show that brutes have internal       
reason4 ,the  difference1 indeed1       
between our reason and theirs1 appears  
to consist1  as ,aristotle somewhere    
says1 not in essence1 but in the more   
and the  less2 just as many are of      
opinion1 that the difference between the
 ,gods  and us is not essential1 but    
consists in this1 that in them there is 
a  greater1 and in us a less accuracy1  
of the reasoning power#fh4 ,and1        
indeed1 so far as pertains to sense and 

the remaining organization1  according  
to the sensoria and the flesh1 every one
 nearly will grant that  these are      
similarly disposed in us1 as they are in
 brutes4 ,for they not  only similarly  
participate with us of natural passions1
 and the motions  produced through      
these1 but we may also survey in them   
such affections  as are preternatural   
and morbid4 ,no one1 however1 of a sound
 mind1 will  say that brutes are        
unreceptive of the reasoning power1 on  
account of  the difference between their
 habit of body and ours1 when he sees   
that  there is a great variety of habit 
in men1 according to their race1 and    
the nations to which they belong1 and   
yet1 at the same time1 it is  granted   
that all of them are rational4 ,an ass1 
therefore1 is afflicted  with a catarrh1
 and if the disease flows to his lungs1 
he dies in the  same manner as a man4 ,a
 horse1 too1 is subject to purulence1   
and wastes  away through it1 like a man4
 ,he is likewise attacked with rigour1  

the  gout1 fever1 and fury1 in which    
case he is also said to have a depressed
  countenance4 ,a mare1 when pregnant1  
if she happens to smell a lamp when  it 
is just extinguished1 becomes abortive1 
in the same manner as a woman4  ,an ox1 
and likewise a camel1 are subject to    
fever and insanity2 a  raven becomes    
scabby1 and has the leprosy2 and also a 
dog1 who1 besides  this1 is afflicted   
with the gout1 and madness3 but a hog is
 subject to  hoarseness1 and in a still 
greater degree a dog2 whence this       
disease in a  man is denominated from   
the dog1 cynanche4 ,and these things are
 known  to us1 because we are familiar  
with these animals2 but of the diseases 
of other animals we are ignorant1       
because we do not associate with them4  
,castrated animals also become more     
effeminate4 ,hence cocks1 when they  are
 castrated1 no longer crow2 but their   
voice becomes effeminate1 like  that of 
men who lose their testicles4 ,it is not
 possible1 likewise1 to  distinguish the

 bellowing and horns of a bull1 when he 
is castrated1  from those of a cow4 ,but
 stags1 when they are castrated1 no     
longer cast  off their horns1 but retain
 them in the same manner as eunuchs do  
their  hairs2 and if1 when they are     
castrated1 they are without horns1 they 
do  not afterwards produce them1 just as
 it happens to those who1 before they   
have a beard1 are made eunuchs4 ,so that
 nearly the bodies of all animals  are  
similarly affected with ours1 with      
respect to the bodily calamities  to    
which they are subject4    #h4 ,see1    
however1 whether all the passions of the
 soul in brutes1 are not  similar to    
ours2 for it is not the province of man 
alone to apprehend  juices by the taste1
 colours by the sight1 odours by the    
smell1 sounds  by the hearing1 cold or  
heat1 or other tangible objects1 by the 
touch2  but the senses of brutes are    
capable of the same perceptions4 ,nor   
are  brutes deprived of sense because   
they are not men1 as neither are we to  

be deprived of reason1 because the      
,gods1 if they possess it1 are rational 
beings4 ,with respect to the senses1    
however1 other animals appear greatly   
to surpass us2 for what man can see so  
acutely as a dragon8 7for this  is not  
the fabulous ,lynceus74 ,and hence the  
poets denominate to see  1 drakein3 but 
an eagle1 from a great height1 sees a   
hare4  ,what man hears more acutely than
 cranes1 who are able to hear from an   
interval so great1 as to be beyond the  
reach of human sight8 ,and as to  smell1
 almost all animals so much surpass us  
in this sense1 that things  which fall  
on it1 and are obvious to them1 are     
concealed from us2 so that  they know   
and smell the several kinds of animals  
by their footsteps4  ,hence1 men employ 
dogs as their leaders1 for the purpose  
of discovering  the retreat of a boar1  
or a stag4 ,and we1 indeed1 are slowly  
sensible  of the constitution of the    
air2 but this is immediately perceived  
by  other animals1 so that from them we 

derive indications of the future  state 
of the weather4 ,with respect to juices 
also1 they so accurately  know the      
distinction between them1 that their    
knowledge of what are  morbific1        
salubrious1 and deleterious among these1
 surpasses that of  physicians4 ,but    
,aristotle says1 that animals whose     
sensitive powers are  more exquisite1   
are more prudent4 ,and the diversities1 
indeed1 of bodies  are capable of       
producing a facility or difficulty of   
being passively  affected1 and of having
 reason1 more or less prompt in its     
energies2 but  they are not capable of  
changing the essence of the soul1 since 
neither  are they able to change the    
senses1 nor to alter the passions1 nor  
to  make them entirely abandon their    
proper nature4 ,it must be granted1     
therefore1 that animals participate more
 or less of reason1 but not that  they  
are perfectly deprived of it2 as neither
 must it be admitted that  one animal   
has reason1 but another not4 ,as1       

however1 in one and the same  species of
 animals1 one body is more1 but another 
less healthy2 and1 in  a similar manner1
 in diseases1 in a naturally good1 and a
 naturally bad1  disposition1 there is a
 great difference2 thus also in souls1  
one is  naturally good1 but another     
depraved3 and of souls that are         
depraved1 one  has more1 but another    
less1 of depravity4 ,in good men1       
likewise1 there  is not the same        
equality2 for ,socrates1 ,aristotle1 and
 ,plato1 are not  similarly good4 ,nor  
is there sameness in a concordance of   
opinions4 ,hence  it does not follow1 if
 we have more intelligence than other   
animals1 that  on this account they are 
to be deprived of intelligence2 as      
neither must  it be said1 that          
partridges do not fly1 because hawks fly
 higher2 nor  that other hawks do not   
fly1 because the bird called            
phassophonos#fi  flies higher than      
these1 and than all other birds4 ,some  
one1 therefore1  may admit that the soul

 is co-passive with the body1 and that  
the former  suffers something from the  
latter1 when the latter is well or ill  
affected2 but in this case it by no     
means changes its nature3 but if the    
soul is only co-passive to1 and uses the
 body as an instrument1 she may  be able
 to effect many things through it1 which
 we cannot1 even when it  is organized  
differently from ours1 and when it is   
affected in a certain  manner1 may      
sympathize with it1 and yet may not     
change its proper nature4    #i4 ,it    
must be demonstrated1 therefore1 that   
there is a rational power in  animals1  
and that they are not deprived of       
prudence4 ,and in the first  place1     
indeed1 each of them knows whether it is
 imbecile or strong1 and1  in           
consequence of this1 it defends some    
parts of itself1 but attacks  with      
others4 ,thus the panther uses its      
teeth1 the lion its nails and  teeth1   
the horse its hoofs1 the ox its horns1  
the cock its spurs1 and  the scorpion   

its sting2 but the serpents in ,egypt   
use their spittle1  7whence also they   
are called 1 ptuades1 i4e4 spitters17   
and  with this they blind the eyes of   
those that approach them3 and thus a    
different animal uses a different part  
of itself for attack1 in order  to save 
itself4 ,again1 some animals1 viz4 such 
as are robust1 feed and  live remote    
from men2 but others1 who are of an     
ignoble nature1 live  remote from       
stronger animals1 and1 on the contrary1 
dwell nearer men4  ,and of these1 some  
dwell at a greater distance from more   
robust animals1  as sparrows and        
swallows1 who build their nests in the  
roofs of houses2  but others associate  
with men1 as1 for instance1 dogs4 ,they 
likewise  change their places of abode  
at certain times1 and know every thing  
which contributes to their advantage4   
,in a similar manner1 in fishes and  in 
birds1 a reasoning energy of this kind  
may be perceived2 all which  particulars
 are abundantly collected by the        

ancients1 in their writings  concerning 
the prudence of animals2 and they are   
copiously discussed by  ,aristotle1 who 
says1 that by all animals an habitation 
subservient to  their subsistence and   
their safety1 is most exquisitely       
contrived4    #aj4 ,but he who says that
 these things are naturally present with
 animals1  is ignorant in asserting     
this1 that they are by nature rational2 
or  if this is not admitted1 neither    
does reason subsist in us naturally1    
nor with the perfection of it receive an
 increase1 so far as we are  naturally  
adapted to receive it4 ,a divine nature1
 indeed1 does not become  rational#gj   
through learning1 for there never was a 
time in which he  was irrational2 but   
rationality is consubsistent with his   
existence1  and he is not prevented from
 being rational1 because he did not     
receive  reason through discipline3     
though1 with respect to other animals1  
in  the same manner as with respect to  
men1 many things are taught them by     

nature1 and some things are imparted by 
discipline4 ,brutes1 however1  learn    
some things from each other1 but are    
taught others1 as we have  said1 by men4
 ,they also have memory1 which is a most
 principal thing in  the resumption of  
reasoning and prudence4 ,they likewise  
have vices1 and  are envious2 though    
their bad qualities are not so widely   
extended as in  men3 for their vices are
 of a lighter nature than those of men4 
,this1  indeed1 is evident2 for the     
builder of a house will never be able to
 lay  the foundation of it1 unless he is
 sober2 nor can a shipwright properly   
place the keel of a ship1 unless he is  
in health2 nor a husbandman plant  a    
vine1 unless he applies his mind to it2 
yet nearly all men1 when they  are      
intoxicated1 can beget children4 ,this1 
however1 is not the case with  other    
animals2 for they propagate for the sake
 of offspring1 and for the  most part1  
when the males have made the female     
pregnant1 they no longer  attempt to be 

connected with her2 nor1 if they should 
attempt it1 would  the female permit    
them4 ,but the magnitude of the         
lascivious insolence  and intemperance  
of men in these things1 is evident4 ,in 
other animals1  however1 the male is    
conscious of the parturient throes of   
the female1  and1 for the most part1    
partakes of the same pains2 as is       
evident in  cocks4 ,but others incubate 
together with the females2 as the males 
of  doves4 ,they likewise provide a     
proper place for the delivery of their  
offspring2 and after they have brought  
forth their offspring1 they both  purify
 them and themselves4 ,and he who       
properly observes1 will see that  every 
thing proceeds with them in an orderly  
manner2 that they fawn  on him who      
nourishes them1 and that they know their
 master1 and give  indications of him   
who acts insidiously4    #aa4 ,who      
likewise is ignorant how much gregarious
 animals preserve justice  towards each 
other8 for this is preserved by ants1 by

 bees1 and by other  animals of the like
 kind4 ,and who is ignorant of the      
chastity of female  ring-doves towards  
the males with whom they associate8 for 
they destroy  those who are found by    
them to have committed adultery4 ,or who
 has not  heard of the justice of storks
 towards their parents8 ,for in the     
several  species of animals1 a peculiar 
virtue is eminent1 to which each species
  is naturally adapted2 nor because this
 virtue is natural and stable1  is it   
fit to deny that they are rational8 ,for
 it might be requisite  to deprive them 
of rationality1 if their works were not 
the proper  effects of virtue and       
rational sagacity2 but if we do not     
understand how  these works are         
effected1 because we are unable to      
penetrate into the  reasoning which they
 use1 we are not on this account to     
accuse them  of irrationality2 for      
neither is any one able to penetrate    
into the  intellect of that divinity the
 sun1 but from his works we assent to   

those  who demonstrate him to be an     
intellectual and rational essence4      
#ab4 ,but some one may very properly    
wonder at those who admit that justice  
derives its subsistence from the        
rational part1 and who call those       
animals that have no association with   
men1 savage and unjust1 and yet  do not 
extend justice as far as to those that  
do associate with us2 and  which1 in the
 same manner as men1 would be deprived  
of life1 if they  were deprived of human
 society4 ,birds1 therefore1 and dogs1  
and many  quadrupeds1 such as goats1    
horses1 sheep1 asses1 and mules1 would  
perish1  if deprived of an association  
with mankind4 ,nature also1 the         
fabricator  of their frame1 constituted 
them so as to be in want of men1 and    
fashioned men so as to require their    
assistance2 thus producing an innate    
justice in them towards us1 and in us   
towards them4 ,but it is not at all     
wonderful1 if some of them are savage   
towards men2 for what ,aristotle  says  

is true1 that if all animals had an     
abundance of nutriment1 they  would not 
act ferociously1 either towards each    
other1 or towards men4  ,for on account 
of food1 though necessary and slender1  
enmities and  friendships are produced  
among animals1 and also on account of   
the places  which they occupy2 but if   
men were reduced to such straits as     
brutes  are with respect to food1 how   
much more savage would they become than 
those animals that appear to be wild8   
,war and famine are indications of  the 
truth of this2 for then men do not      
abstain from eating each other2  and    
even without war and famine1 they eat   
animals that are nurtured with  them1   
and are perfectly tame4    #ac4 ,some   
one1 however1 may say1 that brutes are  
indeed rational animals1  but have not a
 certain habitude1 proximity1 or        
alliance to us2 but he  who asserts this
 will1 in the first place1 make them to 
be irrational  animals1 in consequence  
of depriving them of an alliance to our 

nature4  ,and1 in the next place1 he    
will make their association with us to  
depend  on the utility which we derive  
from them1 and not on the participation 
of reason4 ,the thing proposed by us1   
however1 is to show that brutes are     
rational animals1 and not to inquire    
whether there is any compact between    
them and us4 ,for1 with respect to men1 
all of them do not league with us1  and 
yet no one would say1 that he who does  
not enter into a league with  us is     
irrational4 ,but many brutes are slaves 
to men1 and1 as some one  rightly says1 
though they are in a state of servitude 
themselves1 through  the improbity of   
men1 yet1 at the same time1 by wisdom   
and justice1 they  cause their masters  
to be their servants and curators4      
,moreover1 the  vices of brutes are     
manifest1 from which especially their   
rationality  is demonstrated4 ,for they 
are envious1 and the males are rivals of
 each  other with respect to the favour 
of the females1 and the females with    

respect to the regard of the males4     
,there is one vice1 however1 which is   
not inherent in them1 viz4 acting       
insidiously towards their benefactors1  
but they are perfectly benevolent to    
those who are kind to them1 and  place  
so much confidence in them1 as to follow
 wherever they may lead  them1 though it
 should even be to slaughter and        
manifest danger4 ,and  though some one  
should nourish them1 not for their sake1
 but for his  own1 yet they will be     
benevolently disposed towards their     
possessor4 ,but  men on the contrary do 
not act with such hostility towards any 
one1  as towards him who has nourished  
them2 nor do they so much pray for the  
death of any one1 as for his death4     
#ad4 ,indeed1 the operations of brutes  
are attended with so much               
consideration#ga1 that they frequently  
perceive1 that the food which is  placed
 for them is nothing else than a snare1 
though1 either through  intemperance or 
hunger1 they approach to it4 ,and some  

of them1 indeed1 do  not approach to it 
immediately1 but others slowly accede to
 it4 ,they also  try whether it is      
possible to take the food without       
falling into danger1  and frequently in 
consequence of rationality vanquishing  
passion1 they  depart without being     
injured4 ,some of them too revile at1   
and discharge  their urine on the       
stratagem of men2 but others1 through   
voracity1 though  they know that they   
shall be captured1 yet no less than the 
associates  of ,ulysses1 suffer         
themselves to die rather than not eat4  
,some persons1  likewise1 have not badly
 endeavoured to show from the places    
which  animals are allotted1 that they  
are far more prudent than we are4 ,for  
as  those beings that dwell in ther are 
rational1 so also1 say they1 are  the   
animals which occupy the region         
proximate to ther1 viz4 the air2        
afterwards aquatic animals differ from  
these1 and in the last place1 the       
terrestrial differ from the aquatic in  

degrees of rationality4 ,and we  belong 
to the class of terrene animals dwelling
 in the sediment of the  universe4 ,for 
in the ,gods1 we must not infer that    
they possess a greater  degree of       
excellence from the places which they   
illuminate1 though in  mortal natures   
this may be admitted4    #ae4 ,since1   
also1 brutes acquire a knowledge of the 
arts1 and these such  as are human1 and 
learn to dance1 to drive a chariot1 to  
fight a duel1 to  walk on ropes1 to     
write and read1 to play on the pipe and 
the harp1 to  discharge arrows1 and to  
ride1--this being the case1 can you any 
longer  doubt whether they possess that 
power which is receptive of art1 since  
the recipient of these arts may be seen 
to exist in them8 ,for where  will they 
receive them1 unless reason is inherent 
in them in which the  arts subsist8 ,for
 they do not hear our voice as if it was
 a mere sound  only1 but they also      
perceive the difference in the meaning  
of the words1  which is the effect of   

rational intelligence4 ,but our         
opponents say1  that animals perform    
badly what is done by men4 ,to this we  
reply1 that  neither do men perform all 
things well4 ,for if this be not        
admitted1  some men would be in vain    
victors in a contest1 and others        
vanquished4  ,they add1 that brutes do  
not consult1 nor form assemblies1 nor   
act in a  judicial capacity4 ,but tell  
me whether all men do this8 ,do not     
actions in  the multitude precede       
consultation8 ,and whence can any one   
demonstrate  that brutes do not consult8
 ,for no one can adduce an argument     
sufficient  to prove that they do not4  
,but those show the contrary to this1   
who  have written minutely about        
animals4 ,as to other objections1 which 
are  adduced by our adversaries in a    
declamatory way1 they are perfectly     
frivolous2 such1 for instance2 as that  
brutes have no cities of their  own4    
,for neither have the ,scythians1 who   
live in carts1 nor the ,gods4  ,our     

opponents add1 that neither have brutes 
any written laws4 ,to this we  reply1   
that neither had men while they were    
happy4 ,for ,apis is said to  have been 
the first that promulgated laws for the 
,greeks1 when they were  in want of     
them4    #af4 ,to men1 therefore1 on    
account of their voracity1 brutes do not
 appear  to possess reason2 but by the  
,gods and divine men1 they are honoured 
equally with sacred suppliants4 ,hence1 
the ,god#gb said to ,aristodicus1  the  
,cumean1 that sparrows were his         
suppliants4 ,socrates also1 and prior   
to him1 ,rhadamanthus1 swore by animals4
 ,but the ,egyptians conceive them  to  
be ,gods1 whether they1 in reality1     
thought them to be so1 or whether  they 
intentionally represented the ,gods in  
the forms of oxen1 birds1 and  other    
animals1 in order that these animals    
might be no less abstained  from than   
from men1 or whether they did this      
through other more mystical  causes#gc4 
,thus also the ,greeks united a ram to  

the statue of ,jupiter1  but the horns  
of a bull to that of ,bacchus4 ,they    
likewise fashioned the  statue of ,pan  
from the form of a man and a goat2 but  
they represented the  ,muses and the    
,sirens winged1 and also ,victory1      
,iris1 ,love1 and ,hermes4  ,pindar too1
 in his hymns1 represents the ,gods1    
when they were expelled  by ,typhon1 not
 resembling men1 but other animals4 ,and
 ,jupiter1 when in  love with ,pasiphae1
 is said to have become a bull2 but at  
another time1  he is said to have been  
changed into an eagle and a swan2       
through all  which the ancients         
indicated the honour which they paid to 
animals1 and  this in a still greater   
degree when they assert that ,jupiter   
was nursed  by a goat4 ,the ,cretans1   
from a law established by ,rhadamanthus1
 swore  by all animals4 ,nor was        
,socrates in jest when he swore by the  
dog and  the goose2 but in so doing1 he 
swore conformably to the just son of    
,jupiter ,rhadamanthus2 nor did he      

sportfully say that swans were his      
fellow-servants4 ,but fables obscurely  
signify1 that animals have souls        
similar to ours1 when they say that the 
,gods in their anger changed men  into  
brutes1 and that1 when they were so     
changed1 they afterwards pitied  and    
loved them4 ,for things of this kind are
 asserted of dolphins and  halcyons1 of 
nightingales and swallows4    #ag4 ,each
 of the ancients1 likewise1 who had been
 prosperously nursed by  animals1       
boasted more of this than of their      
parents and educators4 ,thus1  one      
boasted of having been nursed by a      
she-wolf1 another by a hind1  another by
 a she-goat1 and another by a bee4 ,but 
,semiramis gloried in  having been      
brought up by doves1 ,cyrus in being    
nursed by a dog1 and a  ,thracian in    
having a swan for his nurse1 who        
likewise bore the name of  his nurse4   
,hence also1 the ,gods obtained their   
surnames1 as ,bacchus that  of          
,hinnuleus1 ,apollo that of ,lyceus1    

and1 likewise ,delphinius1  ,neptune and
 ,minerva that of ,equestris4 ,but      
,hecate1 when invoked by  the names of a
 bull1 a dog1 and a lioness1 is more    
propitious4 ,if1  however1 those who    
sacrifice animals and eat them1 assert  
that they are  irrational1 in order that
 they may mitigate the crime of so      
doing1 the  ,scythians also1 who eat    
their parents1 may in like manner say   
that their  parents are destitute of    
reason4    #ah4 ,through these          
arguments1 therefore1 and others which  
we shall  afterwards mention1 in        
narrating the opinions of the ancients1 
it is  demonstrated that brutes are     
rational animals1 reason in most of them
  being indeed imperfect1 of which1     
nevertheless1 they are not entirely     
deprived4 ,since1 however1 justice      
pertains to rational beings1 as our     
opponents say1 how is it possible not to
 admit1 that we should also act  justly 
towards brutes8 ,for we do not extend   
justice to plants1 because  there       

appears to be much in them which is     
unconnected with reason2 though  of     
these1 we are accustomed to use the     
fruits1 but not together with the       
fruits to cut off the trunks4 ,we       
collect1 however1 corn and leguminous   
substances1 when1 being efflorescent1   
they have fallen on the earth1  and are 
dead4 ,but no one uses for food the     
flesh of dead animals1 that  of fish    
being excepted1 unless they have been   
destroyed by violence4 ,so  that in     
these things there is much injustice4   
,as ,plutarch also says#gd1  it does not
 follow that1 because our nature is     
indigent of certain  things1 and we use 
these1 we should therefore act unjustly 
towards all  things4 ,for we are allowed
 to injure other things to a certain    
extent1  in order to procure the        
necessary means of subsistence 7if to   
take any  thing from plants1 even while 
they are living1 is an injury to them72 
but to destroy other things through     
luxury1 and for the enjoyment of        

pleasure1 is perfectly savage and       
unjust4 ,and the abstinence from these  
neither diminishes our life nor our     
living happily4 ,for if1 indeed1  the   
destruction of animals and the eating of
 flesh were as requisite  as air and    
water1 plants and fruits1 without which 
it is impossible to  live1 this         
injustice would be necessarily connected
 with our nature4 ,but  if many priests 
of the ,gods1 and many kings of the     
barbarians1 being  attentive to purity1 
and if1 likewise1 infinite species of   
animals never  taste food of this kind1 
yet live1 and obtain their proper end   
according  to nature1 is not he absurd  
who orders us1 because we are compelled 
to  wage war with certain animals1 not  
to live peaceably with those with whom  
it is possible to do so1 but thinks1    
either that we ought to live without    
exercising justice towards any thing1 or
 that1 by exercising it towards  all    
things1 we should not continue in       
existence8 ,as1 therefore1 among  men1  

he who1 for the sake of his own safety1 
or that of his children or  country1    
either seizes the wealth of certain     
persons1 or oppresses some  region or   
city1 has necessity for the pretext of  
his injustice2 but he  who acts in this 
manner through the acquisition of       
wealth1 or through  satiety or luxurious
 pleasure1 and for the purpose of       
satisfying desires  which are not       
necessary1 appears to be inhospitable1  
intemperate1 and  depraved2--thus too1  
divinity pardons the injuries which are 
done to  plants1 the consumption of fire
 and water1 the shearing of sheep1 the  
milking of cows1 and the taming of oxen1
 and subjugating them to the  yoke1 for 
the safety and continuance in life of   
those that use them4  ,but to deliver   
animals to be slaughtered and cooked1   
and thus be filled  with murder1 not for
 the sake of nutriment and satisfying   
the wants of  nature1 but making        
pleasure and gluttony the end of such   
conduct1 is  transcendently iniquitous  

and dire4 ,for it is sufficient that we 
use1 for  laborious purposes1 though    
they have no occasion to labour         
themselves1  the progeny of horses1 and 
asses1 and bulls1 as schylus says1 as   
our  substitutes1 who1 by being tamed   
and subjugated to the yoke1 alleviate   
our toil4    #ai4 ,but with respect to  
him who thinks that we should not use an
 ox for  food1 nor destroying and       
corrupting spirit and life1 place things
 on  the table which are only the       
allurements and elegancies of satiety1  
of  what does he deprive our life1 which
 is either necessary to our safety1  or 
subservient to virtue8 ,to compare      
plants1 however1 with animals1  is doing
 violence to the order of things4 ,for  
the latter are naturally  sensitive1 and
 adapted to feel pain1 to be terrified  
and hurt2 on which  account also they   
may be injured4 ,but the former are     
entirely destitute  of sensation1 and in
 consequence of this1 nothing foreign1  
or evil1 or  hurtful1 or injurious1 can 

befall them4 ,for sensation is the      
principle  of all alliance1 and of every
 thing of a foreign nature4 ,but ,zeno  
and  his followers assert1 that alliance
 is the principle of justice4 ,and is   
it not absurd1 since we see that many of
 our own species live from sense  alone1
 but do not possess intellect and       
reason1 and since we also see1  that    
many of them surpass the most terrible  
of wild beasts in cruelty1  anger1 and  
rapine1 being murderous of their        
children and their parents1  and also   
being tyrants1 and the tools of kings is
 it not1 ,i say1  absurd1 to fancy that 
we ought to act justly towards these1   
but that no  justice is due from us to  
the ox that ploughs1 the dog that is fed
 with  us1 and the animals that nourish 
us with their milk1 and adorn our bodies
  with their wool8 ,is not such an      
opinion most irrational and absurd8     
#bj4 ,but1 by ,jupiter1 the assertion of
 ,chrysippus is considered by our       
opponents to be very probable1 that the 

,gods made us for the sake of           
themselves1 and for the sake of each    
other1 and that they made animals  for  
the sake of us2 horses1 indeed1 in order
 that they might assist us  in battle1  
dogs1 that they might hunt with us1 and 
leopards1 bears1 and  lions1 for the    
sake of exercising our fortitude4 ,but  
the hog 7for here  the pleasantry of    
,chrysippus is most delightful7 was not 
made for any  other purpose than to be  
sacrificed2 and ,god mingled soul1 as if
 it  were salt1 with the flesh of this  
animal1 that he might procure for us    
excellent food4 ,in order1 likewise1    
that we might have an abundance of      
broth1 and luxurious suppers1 divinity  
provided for us all-various kinds  of   
shell-fish1 the fishes called purples1  
sea-nettles1 and the various  kinds of  
winged animals2 and this not from a     
certain other cause1 but  only that he  
might supply man with an exuberance of  
pleasure2 in so  doing1 surpassing all  
nurses in kindness1 and thickly filling 

with  pleasures and enjoyments the      
terrestrial place4 ,let him1 however1 to
  whom these assertions appear to       
possess a certain probability1 and to   
participate of something worthy of      
deity1 consider what he will reply to   
the saying of ,carneades1 that every    
thing which is produced by nature1 is   
benefited when it obtains the end to    
which it is adapted1 and for which  it  
was generated4 ,but benefit is to be    
understood in a more general  way1 as   
signifying what the ,stoics call useful4
 ,the hog1 however1 says  he was        
produced by nature for the purpose of   
being slaughtered and used  for food2   
and when it suffers this1 it obtains the
 end for which it is  adapted1 and is   
benefited4 ,but if ,god fashioned       
animals for the use of  men1 in what do 
we use flies1 lice1 bats1 beetles1      
scorpions1 and vipers8  of which some   
are odious to the sight1 defile the     
touch1 are intolerable  to the smell1   
and in their voice dire and unpleasant2 

and others1 on  the contrary1 are       
destructive to those that meet with     
them4 ,and with  respect to the baln1   
pistrices1 and other species of whales1 
an  infinite number of which1 as ,homer 
says#ge1 the loud-sounding ,amphitrite  
nourishes1 does not the ,demiurgus teach
 us1 that they were generated for  the  
utility of the nature of things#gf8 ,and
 if our opponents should  admit that all
 things were not generated for us1 and  
with a view to our  advantage1 in       
addition to the distinction which they  
make being very  confused and obscure1  
we shall not avoid acting unjustly1 in  
attacking  and noxiously using those    
animals which were not produced for our 
sake1 but according to nature i4e4 for  
the sake of the universe1  as we were4  
,i omit to mention1 that if we define1  
by utility1 things  which pertain to us1
 we shall not be prevented from         
admitting1 that we  were generated for  
the sake of the most destructive        
animals1 such as  crocodiles1 baln1 and 

dragons4 ,for we are not in the least   
benefited  by them2 but they seize and  
destroy men that fall in their way1 and 
use  them for food2 in so doing acting  
not at all more cruelly than we do1     
excepting that they commit this         
injustice through want and hunger1 but  
we through insolent wantonness1 and for 
the sake of luxury1 frequently  sporting
 in theatres1 and in hunting slaughter  
the greater part of  animals4 ,and by   
thus acting1 indeed1 a murderous        
disposition and a brutal  nature become 
strengthened in us1 and render us       
insensible to pity3 to  which we may    
add1 that those who first dared to do   
this1 blunted the  greatest part of     
lenity1 and rendered it inefficacious4  
,the ,pythagoreans1  however1 made      
lenity towards beasts to be an exercise 
of philanthropy  and commiseration4 ,so 
that1 how is it possible they should not
 in a  greater degree excite us to      
justice1 than those who assert that1 by 
not  slaughtering animals1 the justice  

which is usually exercised towards  men 
will be corrupted8 ,for custom is most  
powerful in increasing those  passions  
in man which were gradually introduced  
into his nature4    #ba4 ,it is so1 say 
our antagonists2 but as the immortal is 
opposed to  the mortal1 the             
incorruptible to the corruptible1 and   
the incorporeal  to the corporeal1 so to
 the rational essence which has an      
existence in  the nature of things1 the 
irrational essence must be opposed1     
which has  a subsistence contrary to it2
 nor in so many conjugations of things1 
is  this alone to be left imperfect and 
mutilated4 ,our opponents1 however1     
thus speak1 as if we did not grant this1
 or as if we had not shown that  there  
is much of the irrational among beings4 
,for there is an abundance  of it in all
 the natures that are destitute of soul1
 nor do we require  any other opposition
 to that which is rational2 but         
immediately every  thing which is       
deprived of soul1 being irrational and  

without intellect1  is opposed to that  
which possesses reason and dianoia#gg4  
,if1 however1  some one should think fit
 to assert that not nature in common1   
but the  animated nature1 is divided    
into that which possesses and that which
 is  without imagination1 and into that 
which is sensitive1 and that which  is  
deprived of sensation1 in order that    
these oppositions of habits and         
privations may subsist about the same   
genus1 as being equiponderant2--he  who 
says this speaks absurdly4 ,for it would
 be absurd to investigate in  the       
animated nature that which is sensitive1
 and that which is without  sensation1  
that which employs1 and that which is   
without imagination1  because every     
thing animated is immediately adapted to
 be sensitive and  imaginative4 ,so that
 neither thus will he justly require1   
that one part  of the animated nature   
should be rational1 but another         
irrational1 when  he is speaking to men1
 who think that nothing participates of 

sense  which does not also participate  
of intelligence1 and that nothing is  an
 animal in which opinion and reasoning  
are not inherent1 in the same  manner as
 with animals every sense and impulse   
are naturally present4  ,for nature1    
which they rightly assert produced all  
things for the sake  of a certain thing1
 and with reference to a certain end1   
did not make an  animal sensitive merely
 that it might be passively affected1   
and possess  sensible perception2 but as
 there are many things which are allied 
and  appropriate1 and many which are    
foreign to it1 it would not be able to  
exist for the shortest space of time1   
unless it learnt how to avoid  some     
things1 and to pursue others4 ,the      
knowledge1 therefore1 of both  these1   
sense similarly imparts to every animal2
 but the apprehension and  pursuit of   
what is useful1 and the depulsion and   
avoidance of what is  destructive and   
painful1 can by no possible contrivance 
be present with  those animals that are 

incapable of reasoning1 judging1 and    
remembering1  and that do not naturally 
possess an animadversive power4 ,for to 
those  animals from whom you entirely   
take away expectation1 memory1 design1  
preparation1 hope1 fear1 desire1 and    
indignation1 neither the eyes when      
present1 nor the ears1 nor sense1 nor   
phantasy1 will be beneficial1 since     
they will be of no use2 and it will be  
better to be deprived of them  than to  
labour1 be in pain1 and be afflicted1   
without possessing the  power of        
repelling these molestations4 ,there is1
 however1 a treatise of  ,strato1 the   
physiologist1 in which it is            
demonstrated1 that it is not  possible  
to have a sensible perception of any    
thing without the energy of             
intellection4 ,for frequently the       
letters of a book1 which we cursorily   
consider by the sight1 and words which  
fall on the auditory sense1 are         
concealed from and escape us1 when our  
intellect is attentive to other  things2

 but afterwards1 when it returns to the 
thing to which it was  before           
inattentive1 then1 by recollection1 it  
runs through and pursues  each of the   
before-mentioned particulars4 ,hence    
also it is said by  ,epicharmus1--      
',tis mind alone that sees and hears1   
,and all besides is deaf and blind4     
,for the objects which fall on the eyes 
and the ears do not produce a  sensible 
perception of themselves1 unless that   
which is intellective  is present4 ,on  
which account1 also1 king ,cleomenes1   
when something  that was recited was    
applauded1 being asked1 if it did not   
also appear  to him to be excellent1    
left this to the decision of those that 
asked  him the question2 for he said1   
that his intellect was at the time in   
,peloponnesus4 ,hence it is necessary   
that intellect should be present with   
all those with whom sensible perception 
is present4    #bb4 ,let us1 however1   
admit that sense does not require       
intellect for  the accomplishment of its

 proper work1 yet1 when energizing about
 what  is appropriate and what is       
foreign1 it discerns the difference     
between  the two1 it must then exercise 
the power of memory1 and must dread that
  which will produce pain1 desire that  
which will be beneficial1 and  contrive1
 if it is absent1 how it may be present1
 and will procure  methods of pursuing  
and investigating what is advantageous1 
and of  avoiding and flying from hostile
 occurrences4 ,indeed1 our opponents1 in
  their ,introductions1 as they call    
them1 every where inculcate these       
things with a tedious prolixity1        
defining design to be an indication of  
perfection2 the tendency of intellect to
 the object of its perception1  an      
impulse prior to impulse2 preparation1  
an action prior to action2  and memory1 
the comprehension of some past thing#gh1
 the perception  of which1 when present1
 was obtained through sense4 ,for there 
is not  any one of these which is not   
rational1 and all of them are present   

with all animals4 ,thus1 too1 with      
respect to intellections1 those which   
are reposited in the mind1 are called by
 them 1 notions2 but  when they are in  
motion through a discursive energy they 
denominate  them 1 or perceptions       
obtained by a reasoning process4 ,but   
with respect to all the passions1 as    
they are in common acknowledged to  be  
depraved natures and opinions1 it is    
wonderful that our opponents  should    
overlook the operations and motions of  
brutes1 many of which are  the effects  
of anger1 many of fear1 and1 by         
,jupiter1 of envy also and  emulation4  
,our opponents1 too1 themselves punish  
dogs and horses when  they do wrong2 and
 this not in vain1 but in order to make 
them better1  producing in them1 through
 the pain1 a sorrow which we denominate 
repentance4 ,but the name of the        
pleasure which is received through the  
ears is 1 i4e4 an ear-alluring          
sweetness2 and the delight  which is    
received through the eyes is denominated

 1 i4e4  enchantment4 ,each of these1   
however1 is used towards brutes4 ,hence 
stags and horses are allured by the     
harmony produced from reeds and  flutes2
 and the crabs1 called 1 paguri1 are    
evocated from  their caverns by the     
melody of reeds4 ,the fish thrissa1     
likewise1 is  said through harmony to   
come forth from its retreats4 ,those1   
however1  who speak stupidly about these
 things1 assert that animals are neither
  delighted1 nor enraged1 nor terrified1
 nor make any provision for what  is    
necessary1 nor remember2 but they say   
that the bee as it were  remembers1 that
 the swallow as it were provides what is
 requisite1  that the lion is as it were
 angry1 and that the stag is as it were 
afraid4 ,and ,i know not what answer to 
give to those who say that animals      
neither see nor hear1 but see as it     
were1 and as it were hear2 that  they do
 not utter vocal sounds1 but as it were 
utter them2 and that1  in short1 they do
 not live1 but as it were live4 ,for he 

who is truly  intelligent1 will readily 
admit that these assertions are no more 
sane  than the former1 and are similarly
 destitute of evidence4 ,when1 however1 
on comparing with human manners and     
lives1 actions1 and modes of living1    
those of animals1 ,i see much depravity 
in the latter1 and no manifest  tendency
 to virtue as to the principal end1 nor 
any proficiency1 or  appetition of      
proficiency1 ,i am dubious why nature   
gave the beginning of  perfection to    
those that are never able to arrive at  
the end of it#gi4  ,but this to our     
opponents does not appear to be at all  
absurd4 ,for as  they admit that the    
love of parents towards their offspring 
is the  principle in us of association  
and justice2 yet1 though they perceive  
that this affection is abundant and     
strong in animals1 they nevertheless    
deny that they participate of justice2  
which assertion is similarly  defective 
with the nature of mules1 who1 though   
they are not in want of  any generative 

member1 since they have a penis and     
vulva1 and receive  pleasure from       
employing these parts1 yet they are not 
able to accomplish  the end of          
generation4 ,consider the thing1 too1 in
 another way3 ,is it  not ridiculous to 
say that such men as ,socrates1 ,plato1 
and ,zeno1 were  not less vicious than  
any slave1 but resembled slaves in      
stupidity1  intemperance1 and injustice1
 and afterwards blame the nature of     
brutes1  as neither pure1 nor formed    
with sufficient accuracy for the        
attainment  of virtue2 thus attributing 
to them a privation1 and not a depravity
  and imbecility of reason8 ,especially 
since they acknowledge that there  is a 
vice of the rational part of the soul1  
with which every brute is  replete4 ,for
 we may perceive that timidity1         
intemperance1 injustice1 and            
malevolence1 are inherent in many       
brutes4    #bc4 ,but he who thinks that 
the nature which is not adapted to      
receive  rectitude of reason1 does not  

at all receive reason1 he1 in the first 
place1 does not differ from one who     
fancies that an ape does not  naturally 
participate of deformity1 nor a tortoise
 of tardity2 because  the former is not 
receptive of beauty1 nor the latter of  
celerity4 ,and1  in the next place1 this
 is the opinion of one who does not     
perceive the  obvious difference of     
things4 ,for reason1 indeed1 is         
ingenerated by  nature2 but right and   
perfect reason is acquired by study and 
discipline4  ,hence all animated beings 
participate of reason1 but our opponents
 cannot  mention any man who possesses  
rectitude of reason and wisdom          
naturally1  though the multitude of men 
is innumerable4 ,but as the sight of one
  animal differs from that of another1  
and the flying of one bird from that  of
 another1 7for hawks and grasshoppers do
 not similarly see1 nor eagles  and     
partridges72 thus1 also1 neither does   
every thing which participates  of      
reason possess genius and acuteness in  

the highest perfection4  ,indeed there  
are many indications in brutes of       
association1 fortitude1  and craft1 in  
procuring what is necessary1 and in     
economical conduct2  as1 on the         
contrary1 there are also indications in 
them of injustice1  timidity1 and       
fatuity4 ,hence it is a question with   
some1 which are the  more excellent1    
terrestrial or aquatic animals#hj8 ,and 
that there are  these indications1 is   
evident from comparing storks with river
 horses3  for the former nourish1 but   
the latter destroy their fathers1 in    
order  that they may have connexion with
 their mothers4 ,this is likewise seen  
on comparing doves with partridges3 for 
the latter conceal and destroy  their   
eggs1 if the female1 during her         
incubation1 refuses to be connected     
with the male4 ,but doves successively  
relieve each other in incubation1       
alternately cherishing the eggs2 and    
first1 indeed1 they feed the young1  and
 afterwards the male strikes the female 

with his beak1 and drives  her to the   
eggs and her young1 if she has for a    
long time wandered from  them4          
,antipater1 however1 when he blames     
asses and sheep for the neglect  of     
purity1 overlooks1 ,i know not how1     
lynxes and swallows2 of which1 the      
former remove and entirely conceal and  
bury their excrement1 but the  latter   
teach their young to throw it out of    
their nest4 ,moreover1 we  do not say   
that one tree is more ignorant than     
another1 as we say that  a sheep is more
 stupid than a dog4 ,nor do we say that 
one herb is more  timid than another1 as
 we do that a stag is more timid than a 
lion4 ,for1  as in things which are     
immoveable1 one is not slower than      
another1 and  in things which are not   
vocal1 one is not less vocal than       
another3 thus1  too1 in all things in   
which the power of intellection is      
wanting1 one  thing cannot be said to be
 more timid1 more dull1 or more         
intemperate  than another4 ,for1 as     

these qualities are present differently 
in their  different participants1 they  
produce in animals the diversities which
  we perceive4 ,nor is it wonderful that
 man should so much excel other  animals
 in docility1 sagacity1 justice1 and    
association4 ,for many brutes  surpass  
all men in magnitude of body1 and       
celerity of foot1 and likewise  in      
strength of sight1 and accuracy of      
hearing2 yet man is not on this  account
 either deaf1 or blind1 or powerless4   
,but we run1 though slower  than stags1 
and we see1 though not so accurately as 
hawks2 and nature  has not deprived us  
of strength and magnitude1 though our   
possession  of these is nothing1 when   
compared with the strength and bulk of  
the  elephant and the camel4 ,hence1 in 
a similar manner1 we must not say that  
brutes1 because their intellection is   
more dull than ours1 and because  they  
reason worse than we do1 neither        
energize discursively1 nor1 in  short1  
possess intellection and reason2 but it 

must be admitted that they  possess     
these1 though in an imbecile and turbid 
manner1 just as a dull  and disordered  
eye participates of sight4    #bd4      
,innumerable instances1 however1 might  
be adduced in proof of the  natural     
sagacity of animals1 if many things of  
this kind had not by many  persons been 
collected and narrated4 ,but this       
subject must be still  further          
considered4 ,for it appears that it     
belongs to the same thing1  whether it  
be a part or a power1 which is naturally
 adapted to receive  a certain thing1 to
 be also disposed to fall into a        
preternatural mode  of subsistence1 when
 it becomes mutilated or diseased4      
,thus1 the eye is  adapted to fall into 
blindness1 the leg into lameness1 and   
the tongue  into stammering2 but nothing
 else is subject to such defects4 ,for  
blindness does not befall that which is 
not naturally adapted to see1 nor       
lameness that which is not adapted to   
walk2 nor is that which is deprived  of 

a tongue fitted to stammer1 or lisp1 or 
be dumb4 ,hence1 neither can  that      
animal be delirious1 or stupid1 or      
insane1 in which intellection1  and the 
discursive energy of reason1 are not    
naturally inherent4 ,for it  is not     
possible for any thing to be passively  
affected which does not  possess a      
power1 the passion of which is either   
privation1 or mutilation1  or some other
 deprivation4 ,moreover1 ,i have met    
with mad dogs1 and also  rabid horses2  
and some persons assert that oxen and   
foxes become mad4  ,the example of dogs1
 however1 is sufficient for our purpose3
 for it is a  thing indubitable1 and    
testifies that the animal possesses no  
despicable  portion of reason and       
discursive energy1 the passion of which1
 when  disturbed and confounded1 is fury
 and madness4 ,for1 when they are thus  
affected1 we do not see that there is   
any change in the quality of their      
sight or hearing4 ,but as he is absurd  
who denies that a man is beside         

himself1 and that his intellectual1     
reasoning1 and recollective powers1  are
 corrupted1 when he is afflicted with   
melancholy or delirium1 7for it  is     
usually said of those that are insane1  
that they are not themselves1  but have 
fallen off from reason73 thus1 also1 he 
who thinks that mad dogs  suffer any    
thing else than that of having the      
power1 which is naturally  intellective1
 and is adapted to reason and recollect1
 full of tumult and  distortion1 so as  
to cause them to be ignorant of persons 
most dear to  them1 and abandon their   
accustomed mode of living2--he who thus 
thinks1  appears either to overlook what
 is obvious2 or1 if he really perceives 
what takes place1 voluntarily contends  
against the truth4 ,and such are  the   
arguments adduced by ,plutarch in many  
of his treatises against the  ,stoics   
and ,peripatetics4    #be4 ,but         
,theophrastus employs the following     
reasoning3--,those that are  generated  
from the same sources1 ,i mean from the 

same father and mother1  are said by us 
to be naturally allied to each other4   
,and moreover1 we  likewise conceive    
that those who derive their origin from 
the same  ancestors that we do1 are     
allied to us1 and also that this is the 
case  with our fellow-citizens1 because 
they participate with us of the same    
land1 and are united to us by the bonds 
of association4 ,for we do not  think   
that the latter are allied to each      
other1 and to us1 through  deriving     
their origin from the same ancestors1   
unless it should so happen  that the    
first progenitors of these were the     
sources of our race1 or  were derived   
from the same ancestors4 ,hence ,i think
 we should say1 that  ,greek is allied  
and has an affinity to ,greek1 and      
,barbarian to ,barbarian1  and all men  
to each other2 for one of these two     
reasons1 either because  they originate 
from the same ancestors1 or because they
 participate of  the same food1 manners1
 and genus4 ,thus also we must admit    

that all  men have an affinity1 and are 
allied to each other4 ,and1 moreover1   
the  principles of the bodies of all    
animals are naturally the same4 ,i do   
not say this with reference to the first
 elements of their bodies2 for  plants  
also consist of these2 but ,i mean the  
seed1 the flesh1 and the  connascent    
genus of humours which is inherent in   
animals4 ,but animals  are much more    
allied to each other1 through naturally 
possessing souls1  which are not        
different from each other1 ,i mean in   
desire and anger2 and  besides these1 in
 the reasoning faculty1 and1 above all1 
in the senses4  ,but as with respect to 
bodies1 so likewise with respect to     
souls1 some  animals have them more1 but
 others less perfect1 yet all of them   
have  naturally the same principles4    
,and this is evident from the affinity  
of  their passions4 ,if1 however1 what  
we have said is true1 viz4 that such  is
 the generation of the manners of       
animals1 all the tribes of them are     

indeed intellective1 but they differ in 
their modes of living1 and in the       
temperature of the first elements of    
which they consist4 ,and if this be     
admitted1 the genus of other animals has
 an affinity1 and is allied to  us4     
,for1 as ,euripides says1 they have all 
of them the same food and the  same     
spirit1 the same purple streams2 and    
they likewise demonstrate that  the     
common parents of all of them are       
,heaven and ,earth4    #bf4 ,hence1     
since animals are allied to us1 if it   
should appear1 according  to            
,pythagoras1 that they are allotted the 
same soul that we are1 he  may justly be
 considered as impious who does not     
abstain from acting  unjustly towards   
his kindred4 ,nor because some animals  
are savage1 is  their alliance to us to 
be on this account abscinded4 ,for some 
men may be  found who are no less1 and  
even more malefic than savage animals to
 their  neighbours1 and who are impelled
 to injure any one they may meet with1  

as  if they were driven by a certain    
blast of their own nature and depravity4
  ,hence also1 we destroy such men2 yet 
we do not cut them off from an  alliance
 to animals of a mild nature4 ,thus1    
therefore1 if likewise some  animals are
 savage1 these1 as such1 are to be      
destroyed1 in the same  manner as men   
that are savage2 but our habitude or    
alliance to other  and wilder animals is
 not on this account to be abandoned4   
,but neither  tame nor savage animals   
are to be eaten2 as neither are unjust  
men4 ,now1  however1 we act most        
unjustly1 destroying1 indeed1 tame      
animals1 because  some brutes are savage
 and unjust1 and feeding on such as are 
tame4  ,with respect to tame animals1   
however1 we act with a twofold          
injustice1  because1 though they are    
tame1 we slay them1 and also1 because we
 eat  them4 ,and1 in short1 the death of
 these has a reference to the assumption
  of them for food4    ,to these1 also1 
such arguments as the following may be  

added4 ,for he who  says that the man   
who extends the just as far as to       
brutes1 corrupts  the just1 is ignorant 
that he does not himself preserve       
justice1 but  increases pleasure1 which 
is hostile to justice4 ,by admitting1   
therefore1  that pleasure is the end of 
our actions1 justice is evidently       
destroyed4 ,for to whom is it not       
manifest that justice is increased      
through abstinence8 ,for he who abstains
 from every thing animated1  though he  
may abstain from such animals as do not 
contribute to the  benefit of society1  
will be much more careful not to injure 
those of his  own species4 ,for he who  
loves the genus1 will not hate any      
species of  animals2 and by how much the
 greater his love of the genus is#ha1 by
 so  much the more will he preserve     
justice towards a part of the genus1 and
  that to which he is allied4 ,he1      
therefore1 who admits that he is allied 
to all animals1 will not injure any     
animal4 ,but he who confines justice  to

 man alone1 is prepared1 like one       
enclosed in a narrow space1 to hurl     
from him the prohibition of injustice4  
,so that the ,pythagorean is more       
pleasing than the ,socratic banquet4    
,for ,socrates said1 that hunger is  the
 sauce of food2 but ,pythagoras said1   
that to injure no one1 and to  be       
exhilarated with justice1 is the        
sweetest sauce2 as the avoidance of     
animal food1 will also be the avoidance 
of unjust conduct with respect  to food4
 ,for ,god has not so constituted       
things1 that we cannot preserve         
ourselves without injuring others2      
since1 if this were the case1 he would  
have connected us with a nature which is
 the principle of injustice4  ,do not   
they1 however1 appear to be ignorant of 
the peculiarity of  justice1 who think  
that it was introduced from the alliance
 of men to  each other8 ,for this will  
be nothing more than a certain          
philanthropy2  but justice consists in  
abstaining from injuring any thing which

 is not  noxious4 ,and our conception of
 the just man must be formed according  
to the latter1 and not according to the 
former mode4 ,hence1 therefore1  since  
justice consists in not injuring any    
thing1 it must be extended as  far as to
 every animated nature4 ,on this        
account1 also1 the essence of  justice  
consists in the rational ruling over the
 irrational1 and in the  irrational     
being obedient to the rational part4    
,for when reason governs1  and the      
irrational part is obedient to its      
mandates1 it follows1 by the  greatest  
necessity1 that man will be innoxious   
towards every thing4 ,for  the passions 
being restrained1 and desire and anger  
wasting away1 but  reason possessing its
 proper empire1 a similitude to a more  
excellent  nature and to deity          
immediately follows4 ,but the more      
excellent nature  in the universe is    
entirely innoxious1 and1 through        
possessing a power  which preserves and 
benefits all things1 is itself not in   

want of any  thing4 ,we1 however1       
through justice when we exercise it1 are
 innoxious  towards all things1 but1    
through being connected with mortality1 
are  indigent of things of a necessary  
nature4 ,but the assumption of what  is 
necessary1 does not injure even plants1 
when we take what they cast  off2 nor   
fruits1 when we use such of them as are 
dead2 nor sheep1 when  through shearing 
we rather benefit than injure them1 and 
by partaking  of their milk1 we in      
return afford them every proper         
attention4 ,hence1  the just man appears
 to be one who deprives himself of      
things pertaining  to the body2 yet he  
does not in reality injure himself4     
,for1 by this  management of his body1  
and continence1 he increases his inward 
good1  i4e4 his similitude to ,god4     
#bg4 ,by making pleasure1 therefore1 the
 end of life1 that which is truly       
justice cannot be preserved2 since      
neither such things as are primarily    
useful according to nature1 nor all such

 as are easily attainable1  give        
completion to felicity4 ,for in many    
instances1 the motions of the           
irrational nature1 and utility and      
indigence1 have been1 and still are  the
 sources of injustice4 ,for men became  
indigent as they pretended  of animal   
food1 in order that they might preserve1
 as they said1 the  corporeal frame free
 from molestation1 and without being in 
want of those  things after which the   
animal nature aspires4 ,but if an       
assimilation to  divinity is the end of 
life1 an innoxious conduct towards all  
things  will be in the most eminent     
degree preserved4 ,as1 therefore1 he who
 is  led by his passions is innoxious   
only towards his children and his wife1 
but despises and acts fraudulently      
towards other persons1 since1 in        
consequence of the irrational part      
predominating in him1 he is excited  to1
 and astonished about mortal concerns2  
but he who is led by reason1  preserves 
an innoxious conduct towards his        

fellow-citizens1 and still  more so     
towards strangers1 and towards all men1 
through having the  irrational part in  
subjection1 and is therefore more       
rational and divine  than the former    
character2--thus also1 he who does not  
confine harmless  conduct to men alone1 
but extends it to other animals1 is more
 similar  to divinity2 and if it was    
possible to extend it even to plants1 he
  would preserve this image in a still  
greater degree4 ,as1 however1 this  is  
not possible1 we may in this respect    
lament1 with the ancients#hb1  the      
defect of our nature1 that we consist of
 such adverse and discordant            
principles1 so that we are unable to    
preserve our divine part  incorruptible1
 and in all respects innoxious4 ,for we 
are not unindigent  in all things2 the  
cause of which is generation1 and our   
becoming needy  through the abundant    
corporeal efflux which we sustain4 ,but 
want procures  safety and ornament from 
things of a foreign nature1 which are   

necessary  to the existence of our      
mortal part4 ,he1 therefore1 who is     
indigent of  a greater number of        
externals1 is in a greater degree       
agglutinated to  penury2 and by how much
 his wants increase1 by so much is he   
destitute  of divinity1 and an associate
 of penury4 ,for that which is similar  
to  deity1 through this assimilation    
immediately possesses true wealth4 ,but 
no one who is truly rich and perfectly  
unindigent injures any thing4  ,for as  
long as any one injures another1 though 
he should possess the  greatest wealth1 
and all the acres of land which the     
earth contains1 he  is still poor1 and  
has want for his intimate associate4 ,on
 this account1  also1 he is unjust1     
without ,god1 and impious1 and enslaved 
to every kind  of depravity1 which is   
produced by the lapse of the soul into  
matter1  through the privation of good4 
,every thing1 therefore1 is nugatory to 
any  one1 as long as he wanders from the
 principle of the universe2 and he is   

indigent of all things1 while he does   
not direct his attention to ,porus  or  
the source of true abundance4 ,he       
likewise yields to the mortal part  of  
his nature1 while he remains ignorant of
 his real self4 ,but ,injustice  is     
powerful in persuading and corrupting   
those that belong to her empire1        
because she associates with her votaries
 in conjunction with ,pleasure4  ,as1   
however1 in the choice of lives1 he is  
the more accurate judge who  has        
obtained an experience of both the      
better and the worse kind of  life1 than
 he is who has only experienced one of  
them2 thus also1 in  the choice and     
avoidance of what is proper1 he is a    
safer judge who1  from that which is    
more1 judges of that which is less      
excellent1 than  he who from the less1  
judges of the more excellent4 ,hence1 he
 who lives  according to intellect1 will
 more accurately define what is eligible
  and what is not1 than he who lives    
under the dominion of irrationality4    

,for the former has passed through the  
irrational life1 as having from  the    
first associated with it2 but the       
latter1 having had no experience  of an 
intellectual life1 persuades those that 
resemble himself1 and  acts with        
nugacity1 like a child among children4  
,if1 however1 say our  opponents1 all   
men were persuaded by these arguments1  
what would become  of us8 ,is it not    
evident that we should be happy1        
injustice1 indeed1  being exterminated  
from men1 and justice being conversant  
with us1 in the  same manner as it is in
 the heavens8 ,but now this question is 
just the  same as if men should be      
dubious what the life of the ,danaids   
would be1  if they were liberated from  
the employment of drawing water in a    
sieve1  and attempting to fill a        
perforated vessel4 ,for they are dubious
 what  would be the consequence if we   
should cease to replenish our passions  
and  desires1 the whole of which        
replenishing continually flows away     

through  the want of real good2 since   
this fills up the ruinous clefts of the 
soul  more than the greatest of external
 necessaries4 ,do you therefore ask1 ,o 
man1 what we should do8 ,we should      
imitate those that lived in the golden  
age1 we should imitate those of that    
period who were truly free4 ,for  with  
them modesty1 ,nemesis1 and ,justice    
associated1 because they were  satisfied
 with the fruits of the earth4          
,the fertile earth for them spontaneous 
yields      ,abundantly her fruits#hc4  
,but those who are liberated from       
slavery1 obtain for themselves what they
  before procured for their masters4 ,in
 like manner1 also1 do you1 when        
liberated from the servitude of the     
body1 and a slavish attention to the    
passions produced through the body1 as1 
prior to this1 you nourished  them in an
 all-various manner with externals1 so  
now nourish yourself  all-variously with
 internal good1 justly assuming things  
which are  properly your own1 and no    

longer by violence taking away things   
which  are foreign to your true nature  
and real good4      ,,footnotes3    #fd 
,this external reason 7 7 is speech4    
#fe ,philostratus relates this of       
,apollonius1 in his ,life of him4    #ff
 ,the words within the brackets are     
added from the version of  ,felicianus4 
,hence it appears1 that the words       
are wanting in the original1 after the  
word 4 ,but this defect is not  noticed 
by any of the editors4    #fg ,porphyry 
derived this from the treatise of       
,plutarch1 in which it is  investigated 
whether land are more sagacious than    
aquatic animals4    #fh ,this was the   
opinion of the ,stoics2 but is most     
erroneous4 ,for the  supreme divinity1  
being superessential1 transcends even   
intellect itself1  and much more reason1
 which is an evolved perception of      
things2 and  this is also the case with 
every other deity1 according to the     
,platonic  theology1 when considered    
according to his hyparxis1 or summit4   

,see my  translation of ,proclus on the 
,theology of ,plato4    #fi ,a musket1  
or male hawk of a small kind4 ,this bird
 is mentioned by  ,homer1 ,iliad1 ,,xiv4
 v4 #bch4    #gj ,reason in a divine    
intellect subsists causally1 or in a way
 better  than reason1 and therefore is  
not a discursive energy 7  71 but an    
evolved cause of things4 ,and though1 in
 a divine soul1  it is discursive1 or   
transitive1 yet it differs from our     
reason in this1  that it perceives the  
whole of one form at once1 and not by   
degrees1 as  we do when we reason4      
#ga ,in the original1  '    1 444 ,but  
for  1 ,lipsius proposes to read1 1 and 
,meerman 4 ,there  is1 however1 no      
occasion whatever to substitute any     
other word for  1 as1 with ,platonic    
writers1   is equivalent to   4    #gb  
,see the first book of ,herodotus1 chap4
 #aei4    #gc ,the more mystical cause  
why the ,egyptians worshipped animals1  
appears to me to be this1 that they     
conceived a living to be preferable  to 

an inanimate image of divinity4 ,hence1 
they reverenced animals  as visible and 
living resemblances of certain invisible
 powers of the  ,gods4--,see ,plutarch's
 ,treatise on ,isis and ,osiris4    #gd 
,see the ,symposiacs of ,plutarch1 lib4 
ix4 #h4    #ge ,odyss4 ,,xii4 v4 #if4   
#gf ,the latter part of this sentence1  
which in the original is            2   
,valentinius most  erroneously          
translates1 8quare nos rerum opifex non 
edocuit1 quomodo   natura in nostros    
usus facta fuerint80    #gg i4e4 ,the   
discursive energy of reason4    #gh ,in 
the original1     1       2 but for 1 ,i
 read 4  ,felicianus also appears to    
have found this reading in his          
manuscript copy  of this work2 for his  
version of the passage is1 8vel memoriam
 rei  prterit comprehensionem1 quam     
prsentem sensus perciperat40    #gi     
,this doubt may1 perhaps1 be solved1 by 
admitting that brutes have  an imperfect
 rationality1 or the very dregs of the  
rational faculty1 by  which they form a 

link between men and zoophytes1 just as 
zoophytes are a  link between brutes and
 merely vegetable substances4 ,brutes1  
therefore1  having an imperfect reason1 
possess only the beginning of           
perfection4    #hj ,plutarch has written
 a most ingenious treatise on this      
subject4    #ha ,in the original1       
1           4 ,on this passage1 ,reisk  
observes1  8,forte          1           
7scilicet 7    1 4440 ,but1 instead of  
1  it appears to me that   should be    
substituted4    #hb ,porphyry here      
particularly alludes to ,empedocles4    
#hc ,hesiod4 ,oper4 v4 #aag4            
,,on ,,abstinence ,,from ,,animal       
,,food4    ,,book ,,the ,,fourth4       
#a4 ,in the preceding books1 ,o         
,castricius1 we have nearly answered all
 the  arguments which in reality defend 
the feeding on flesh1 for the sake of   
incontinence and intemperance1 and which
 adduce impudent apologies for  so doing
 by ascribing a greater indigence to our
 nature than is fit4 ,two  particular   

inquiries1 however1 still remain2 in one
 of which the promise  of advantage     
especially deceives those who are       
corrupted by pleasure4  ,and1 moreover1 
we shall confute the assertion of our   
opponents1 that no  wise man1 nor any   
nation1 has rejected animal food1 as it 
leads those  that hear it to great      
injustice1 through the ignorance of true
 history2  and we shall also endeavour  
to give the solutions of the question   
concerning advantage1 and to reply to   
other inquiries4    #b4 ,but we shall   
begin from the abstinence of certain    
nations1 in the  narration of which1    
what is asserted of the ,greeks will    
first claim our  attention1 as being the
 most allied to us1 and the most        
appropriate of  all the witnesses that  
can be adduced4 ,among those1 therefore1
 that  have concisely1 and at the same  
time accurately collected an account of 
the affairs of the ,greeks1 is the      
,peripatetic ,dicarchus#hd1 who1 in     
narrating the pristine life of the      

,greeks1 says1 the ancients1 being      
generated with an alliance to the ,gods1
 were naturally most excellent1  and led
 the best life2 so that1 when compared  
to us of the present day1  who consist  
of an adulterated and most vile matter1 
they were thought to  be a golden race2 
and they slew no animal whatever4 ,the  
truth of this1 he  also says1 is        
testified by the poets1 who denominate  
these ancients the  golden race1 and    
assert that every good was present with 
them4        ,the fertile earth for them
 spontaneous bore      ,of fruits a     
copious and unenvy'd store2      ,in    
blissful quiet then1 unknown to strife1 
,the worthy with the worthy passed their
 life#he4    ,which assertions1 indeed1 
,dicarchus explaining1 says1 that a life
 of  this kind was under ,saturn2 if it 
is proper to consider it as a thing     
that once existed1 and that it is a life
 which has not been celebrated in  vain1
 and if1 laying aside what is extremely 
fabulous1 we may refer it  to a physical

 narration4 ,all things1 therefore1 are 
very properly said  to have been then   
spontaneously produced2 for men did not 
procure any  thing by labour1 because   
they were unacquainted with the         
agricultural  art1 and1 in short1 had no
 knowledge of any other art4 ,this very 
thing1  likewise1 was the cause of their
 leading a life of leisure1 free from   
labours and care2 and if it is proper to
 assent to the decision of the  most    
skilful and elegant of physicians1 it   
was also the cause of their  being      
liberated from disease4 ,for there is   
not any precept of physicians  which    
more contributes to health1 than that   
which exhorts us not to make  an        
abundance of excrement1 from which those
 pristine ,greeks always  preserved     
their bodies pure4 ,for they neither    
assumed such food as was  stronger than 
the nature of the body could bear1 but  
such as could be  vanquished by the     
corporeal nature1 nor more than was     
moderate1 on  account of the facility of

 procuring it1 but for the most part    
less than  was sufficient1 on account of
 its paucity4 ,moreover1 there were     
neither  any wars among them1 nor       
seditions with each other4 ,for no      
reward of  contention worth mentioning  
was proposed as an incentive1 for the   
sake of  which some one might be induced
 to engage in such dissensions4 ,so that
  the principal thing in that life was  
leisure and rest from necessary         
occupations1 together with health1      
peace1 and friendship4 ,but to those in 
after times1 who1 through aspiring after
 things which greatly exceeded          
mediocrity1 fell into many evils1 this  
pristine life became1 as it was         
reasonable to suppose it would1         
desirable4 ,the slender and             
extemporaneous  food1 however1 of these 
first men1 is manifested by the saying  
which  was afterwards proverbially used1
 enough of the oak2 this adage being    
probably introduced by him who first    
changed the ancient mode of living4  ,a 

pastoral life succeeded to this1 in     
which men procured for themselves       
superfluous possessions1 and meddled    
with animals4 ,for1 perceiving  that    
some of them were innoxious1 but others 
malefic and savage1 they  tamed the     
former1 but attacked the latter4 ,at the
 same time1 together  with this life1   
war was introduced4 ,and these things1  
says ,dicarchus1  are not asserted by   
us1 but by those who have historically  
discussed  a multitude of particulars4  
,for1 as possessions were now of such a 
magnitude as to merit attention1 some   
ambitiously endeavoured to obtain  them1
 by collecting them for their own use1  
and calling on others to  do the same1  
but others directed their attention to  
the preservation of  them when          
collected4 ,time1 therefore1 thus       
gradually proceeding1 and men  always   
directing their attention to what       
appeared to be useful1 they  at length  
became conversant with the third1 and   
agricultural form of  life4 ,and this is

 what is said by ,dicarchus1 in his     
narration of the  manners of the ancient
 ,greeks1 and the blessed life which    
they then led1  to which abstinence from
 animal food contributed1 no less than  
other  things4 ,hence1 at that period   
there was no war1 because injustice was 
exterminated4 ,but afterwards1 together 
with injustice towards animals1  war was
 introduced among men1 and the endeavour
 to surpass each other in  amplitude of 
possessions4 ,on which account also1 the
 audacity of those  is wonderful1 who   
say that abstinence from animals is the 
mother of  injustice1 since both history
 and experience testify1 that together  
with  the slaughter of animals1 war and 
injustice were introduced4    #c4       
,hence1 this being afterwards perceived 
by the ,lacedmonian ,lycurgus1  though  
the eating of animals then prevailed1   
yet he so arranged his  polity1 as to   
render food of this kind requisite in   
the smallest degree4  ,for the allotted 
property of each individual did not     

consist in herds  of oxen1 flocks of    
sheep1 or an abundance of goats1 horses1
 and money1  but in the possession of   
land1 which might produce for a man     
seventy  medimni#hf of barley1 and for a
 woman twelve1 and the quantity of      
liquid fruits in the same proportion4   
,for he thought that this quantity  of  
nutriment was sufficient to procure a   
good habit of body and health1  nothing 
else to obtain these being requisite4   
,whence also it is said1  that on       
returning to his country1 after he had  
been for some time absent  from it1 and 
perceiving1 as he passed through the    
fields1 that the corn  had just been    
reaped1 and that the threshing-floors   
and the heaps were  parallel and        
equable1 he laughed1 and said to those  
that were present1  that all ,laconia   
seemed to belong to many brothers1 who  
had just divided  the land among        
themselves4 ,he added1 that as he had   
therefore expelled  luxury from ,sparta1
 it would be requisite also to annul the

 use of money1  both golden and silver1 
and to introduce iron alone1 as its     
substitute1  and this of a great bulk   
and weight1 and of little value2 so that
 as much  of it as should be worth ten  
min1 should require a large receptacle  
to hold it1 and a cart drawn by two oxen
 to carry it4 ,but this being  ordained1
 many species of injustice were         
exterminated from ,lacedmon4  ,for who  
would attempt to thieve1 or suffer      
himself to be corrupted by  gifts1 or   
defraud or plunder another1 when it was 
not possible for him  to conceal what he
 had taken1 nor possess it so as to be  
envied by  others1 nor derive any       
advantage from coining it8 ,together    
with money  also1 the useless arts were 
expelled1 the works of the ,lacedmonians
  not being saleable4 ,for iron money   
could not be exported to the other      
,greeks1 nor was it esteemed by them1   
but ridiculed4 ,hence1 neither was  it  
lawful to buy any thing foreign1 and    
which was intrinsically of no  worth1   

nor did ships laden with merchandise    
sail into their ports1 nor  was any     
verbal sophist1 or futile diviner1 or   
bawd1 or artificer of  golden and silver
 ornaments1 permitted to come to        
,laconia1 because there  money was of no
 use4 ,and thus luxury1 being gradually 
deprived of its  incitements and        
nourishment1 wasted away of itself4     
,those likewise who  possessed much     
derived no greater advantage from it1   
than those who did  not1 as no egress   
was afforded to abundance1 since it was 
so obstructed  by impediments1 that it  
was forced to remain in indolent rest4  
,hence such  household furniture as was 
in constant use1 and was necessary1 such
 as  beds1 chairs1 and tables1 these    
were made by them in the best manner2   
and the ,laconic cup1 which was called  
cothon1 was1 as ,critias says1          
especially celebrated in military       
expeditions4 ,for in these expeditions1 
the water which they drank1 and which   
was unpleasant to the sight1 was        

concealed by the colour of the cup2 and 
the turbid part of the water  falling   
against the lips1 through their         
prominency1 that part of it which  was  
drank1 was received in a purer condition
 by the mouth4 ,as we are  informed1    
however1 by ,plutarch1 the legislator   
was the cause of these  things4 ,for the
 artificers being liberated from useless
 works1 exhibited  the beauty of art in 
things of a necessary nature4    #d4    
,that he might also in a still greater  
degree oppose luxury1 and take  away the
 ardent endeavour to obtain wealth1 he  
introduced a third1 and  most beautiful 
political institution1 viz4 that of the 
citizens eating  and drinking together  
publicly2 so that they might partake of 
the same  prescribed food in common1 and
 might not be fed at home1 reclining on 
sumptuous couches1 and placed before    
elegant tables1 through the hands  of   
artificers and cooks1 being fattened in 
darkness1 like voracious  animals1 and  
corrupting their bodies1 together with  

their morals1 by  falling into every    
kind of luxury and repletion2 as such a 
mode of  living would require much      
sleep1 hot baths1 and abundant quiet1   
and such  attentions as are paid to the 
diseased4 ,this indeed was a great      
thing2  but still greater than this1    
that1 as ,theophrastus says1 he caused  
wealth to be neglected1 and to be of no 
value1 through the citizens  eating at  
common tables1 and the frugality of     
their food4 ,for there was  no use1 nor 
enjoyment of riches2 nor1 in short1 was 
there any thing to  gratify the sight1  
or any ostentatious display in the whole
 apparatus1  because both the poor and  
the rich sat at the same table4 ,hence  
it was  universally said1 that in       
,sparta alone1 ,plutus was seen to be   
blind1 and  lying like an inanimate and 
immoveable picture4 ,for it was not     
possible  for the citizens1 having      
previously feasted at home1 to go to the
 common  tables with appetites already  
satiated with food4 ,for the rest       

carefully  observed him who did not eat 
and drink with them1 and reviled him1 as
  an intemperate person1 and as one who 
conducted himself effeminately  with    
respect to the common food4 ,hence these
 common tables were called  phiditia2   
either as being the causes of friendship
 and benevolence1 as  if they were      
philitia1 assuming  for 2 or as         
accustoming men      to frugality1 and a
 slender diet4 ,but the number of  those
 that assembled at the common table was 
fifteen1 more or less4 ,and  each person
 brought every month1 for the purpose of
 furnishing the table1  a medimnus of   
flour1 eight choas#hg of wine1 five     
pounds of cheese1 two  pounds and a half
 of figs1 and1 besides all these1 a very
 little quantity  of money4    #e4      
,hence the children of those who ate    
thus sparingly and temperately1  came to
 these common tables1 as to schools of  
temperance1 where they  also heard      
political discourses1 and were          
spectators of liberal sports4  ,here1   

likewise1 they learnt to jest           
acrimoniously1 without scurrility1  and 
to receive1 without being indignant1 the
 biting jests of others4 ,for  this     
appeared to be extremely ,laconic1 to be
 able to endure acrimonious  jests2     
though he who could not endure was      
permitted to refuse hearing  them1 and  
the scoffer was immediately silent4     
,such1 therefore1 was the  frugality of 
the ,lacedmonians1 with respect to diet1
 though it was  legally instituted for  
the sake of the multitude4 ,hence those 
who came  from this polity are said to  
have been more brave and temperate1 and 
paid  more attention to rectitude1 than 
those who came from other communities1  
which are corrupted both in souls and   
bodies4 ,and it is evident that  perfect
 abstinence is adapted to such a polity 
as this1 but to corrupt  communities    
luxurious food#hh4 ,if1 likewise1 we    
direct our attention to  such other     
nations as regarded equity1 mildness1   
and piety to the ,gods1  it will be     

evident that abstinence was ordained by 
them1 with a view to  the safety and    
advantage1 if not of all1 yet at least  
of some of the  citizens1 who1          
sacrificing to1 and worshipping the     
,gods1 on account of  the city1 might   
expiate the sins of the multitude4 ,for1
 in the mysteries1  what the boy who    
attends the altar accomplishes1 by      
performing accurately  what he is       
commanded to do1 in order to render the 
,gods propitious to all  those who have 
been initiated1 as far as to muesis#hi  
1 that1 in nations and cities1 priests  
are able to effect1 by  sacrificing for 
all the people1 and through piety       
inducing the ,gods to  be attentive to  
the welfare of those that belong to     
them4 ,with respect  to priests1        
therefore1 the eating of all animals is 
prohibited to some1  but of certain     
animals to others1 whether you consider 
the customs of the  ,greeks or of the   
barbarians1 which are different in      
different nations4  ,so that all of     

them1 collectively considered1 or       
existing as one1 being  assumed1 it will
 be found that they abstain from all    
animals4 ,if1  therefore1 those who     
preside over the safety of cities1 and  
to whose care  piety to the ,gods is    
committed1 abstain from animals1 how can
 any one  dare to accuse this abstinence
 as disadvantageous to cities8    #f4   
,chremon the ,stoic1 therefore1 in his  
narration of the ,egyptian  priests1    
who1 he says1 were considered by the    
,egyptians as philosophers1  informs us1
 that they chose temples1 as the places 
in which they might  philosophize4 ,for 
to dwell with the statues of the ,gods  
is a thing  allied to the whole desire1 
by which the soul tends to the          
contemplation  of their divinities4 ,and
 from the divine veneration indeed1     
which was  paid to them through dwelling
 in temples1 they obtained security1 all
 men  honouring these philosophers1 as  
if they were certain sacred animals4    
,they also led a solitary life1 as they 

only mingled with other men in  solemn  
sacrifices and festivals4 ,but at other 
times the priests were  almost          
inaccessible to any one who wished to   
converse with them4 ,for it  was        
requisite that he who approached to them
 should be first purified1  and abstain 
from many things2 and this is as it were
 a common sacred  law respecting the    
,egyptian priests4 ,but these           
philosophic priests1  having            
relinquished every other employment1 and
 human labours#ij1 gave  up the whole of
 their life to the contemplation and    
worship of divine  natures and to divine
 inspiration2 through the latter1       
indeed1 procuring  for themselves       
honour1 security1 and piety2 but through
 contemplation  science2 and through    
both1 a certain occult exercise of      
manners1 worthy  of antiquity#ia4 ,for  
to be always conversant with divine     
knowledge and  inspiration1 removes     
those who are so from all avarice1      
suppresses the  passions1 and excites to

 an intellectual life4 ,but they were   
studious  of frugality in their diet and
 apparel1 and also of continence and    
endurance1 and in all things were       
attentive to justice and equity4 ,they  
likewise were rendered venerable1       
through rarely mingling with other  men4
 ,for during the time of what are called
 purifications1 they scarcely  mingled  
with their nearest kindred1 and those of
 their own order1 nor  were they to be  
seen by any one1 unless it was requisite
 for the  necessary purposes of         
purification4 ,for the sanctuary was    
inaccessible  to those who were not     
purified1 and they dwelt in holy places 
for  the purpose of performing divine   
works2 but at all other times they      
associated more freely with those who   
lived like themselves4 ,they did  not1  
however1 associate with any one who was 
not a religious character4  ,but they   
were always seen near to the ,gods1 or  
to the statues of the  ,gods1 the latter
 of which they were beheld either       

carrying1 or preceding  in a sacred     
procession1 or disposing in an orderly  
manner1 with modesty  and gravity2 each 
of which operations was not the effect  
of pride1 but  an indication of some    
physical reason4 ,their venerable       
gravity also was  apparent from their   
manners4 ,for their walking was orderly1
 and their  aspect sedate2 and they were
 so studious of preserving this gravity 
of  countenance1 that they did not even 
wink1 when at any time they were        
unwilling to do so2 and they seldom     
laughed1 and when they did1 their       
laughter proceeded no farther than to a 
smile4 ,but they always kept their      
hands within their garments4 ,each      
likewise bore about him a symbol1       
indicative of the order which he was    
allotted in sacred concerns2 for  there 
were many orders of priests4 ,their diet
 also was slender and  simple4 ,for1    
with respect to wine1 some of them did  
not at all drink it1  but others drank  
very little of it1 on account of its    

being injurious to  the nerves1         
oppressive to the head1 an impediment to
 invention1 and an  incentive to        
venereal desires4 ,in many other things 
also they conducted  themselves with    
caution2 neither using bread at all in  
purifications1 and  at those times in   
which they were not employed in         
purifying themselves1  they were        
accustomed to eat bread with hyssop1 cut
 into small pieces4  ,for it is said1   
that hyssop very much purifies the power
 of bread4 ,but  they1 for the most     
part1 abstained from oil1 the greater   
number of them  entirely2 and if at any 
time they used it with pot-herbs1 they  
took very  little of it1 and only as    
much as was sufficient to mitigate the  
taste of  the herbs4    #g4 ,it was not 
lawful for them therefore to meddle with
 the esculent  and potable substances1  
which were produced out of ,egypt1 and  
this  contributed much to the exclusion 
of luxury from these priests4 ,but  they
 abstained from all the fish that was   

caught in ,egypt1 and from  such        
quadrupeds as had solid1 or             
many-fissured hoofs1 and from such as   
were not horned2 and likewise from all  
such birds as were carnivorous4  ,many  
of them1 however1 entirely abstained    
from all animals2 and in  purifications 
this abstinence was adopted by all of   
them1 for then they  did not even eat an
 egg4 ,moreover1 they also rejected     
other things1  without being calumniated
 for so doing4 ,thus1 for instance1 of  
oxen1  they rejected the females1 and   
also such of the males as were twins1   
or were speckled1 or of a different     
colour1 or alternately varied in  their 
form1 or which were now tamed1 as having
 been already consecrated  to labours1  
and resembled animals that are honoured1
 or which were the  images of any thing 
that is divine1 or those that had but   
one eye1  or those that verged to a     
similitude of the human form4 ,there are
 also  innumerable other observations   
pertaining to the art of those who are  

called 1 or who stamp calves with a     
seal1 and of which  books have been     
composed4 ,but these observations are   
still more curious  respecting birds2   
as1 for instance1 that a turtle should  
not be eaten2  for it is said that a    
hawk frequently dismisses this bird     
after he has  seized it1 and preserves  
its life1 as a reward for having had    
connexion  with it4 ,the ,egyptian      
priests1 therefore1 that they might not 
ignorantly  meddle with a turtle of this
 kind1 avoided the whole species of     
those  birds4 ,and these indeed were    
certain common religious ceremonies2 but
  there were different ceremonies1 which
 varied according to the class of  the  
priests that used them1 and were adapted
 to the several divinities4  ,but       
chastity and purifications were common  
to all the priests4 ,when also  the time
 arrived in which they were to perform  
something pertaining  to the sacred     
rites of religion1 they spent some days 
in preparatory  ceremonies1 some indeed 

forty-two1 but others a greater1 and    
others a  less number of days2 yet never
 less than seven days2 and during this  
time  they abstained from all animals1  
and likewise from all pot-herbs and     
leguminous substances1 and1 above all1  
from a venereal connexion with  women2  
for they never at any time had connexion
 with males4 ,they likewise  washed     
themselves with cold water thrice every 
day2 viz4 when they rose  from their    
bed1 before dinner1 and when they betook
 themselves to sleep4  ,but if they     
happened to be polluted in their sleep  
by the emission of the  seed1 they      
immediately purified their body in a    
bath4 ,they also used cold  bathing at  
other times1 but not so frequently as on
 the above occasion4  ,their bed was    
woven from the branches of the palm     
tree1 which they call  bais2 and their  
bolster was a smooth semi-cylindric     
piece of wood4 ,but  they exercised     
themselves in the endurance of hunger   
and thirst1 and were  accustomed to     

paucity of food through the whole of    
their life4    #h4 ,this also is a      
testimony of their continence1 that1    
though they  neither exercised          
themselves in walking or riding1 yet    
they lived free  from disease1 and were 
sufficiently strong for the endurance of
 moderate  labours4 ,they bore therefore
 many burdens in the performance of     
sacred  operations1 and accomplished    
many ministrant works1 which required   
more  than common strength4 ,but they   
divided the night into the observation  
of the celestial bodies1 and sometimes  
devoted a part of it to offices  of     
purification2 and they distributed the  
day into the worship of the  ,gods1     
according to which they celebrated them 
with hymns thrice or  four times1 viz4  
in the morning and evening1 when the sun
 is at his  meridian altitude1 and when 
he is declining to the west4 ,the rest  
of  their time they devoted to          
arithmetical and geometrical            
speculations1  always labouring to      

effect something1 and to make some new  
discovery1  and1 in short1 continually  
exercising their skill4 ,in winter      
nights also  they were occupied in the  
same employments1 being vigilantly      
engaged  in literary pursuits1 as paying
 no attention to the acquisition of     
externals1 and being liberated from the 
servitude of that bad master1  excessive
 expense4 ,hence their unwearied and    
incessant labour testifies  their       
endurance1 but their continence is      
manifested by their liberation  from the
 desire of external good4 ,to sail from 
,egypt likewise1 i4e4  to quit ,egypt1  
was considered by them to be one of the 
most unholy  things1 in consequence of  
their being careful to avoid foreign    
luxury  and pursuits2 for this appeared 
to them to be alone lawful to those  who
 were compelled to do so by regal       
necessities4 ,indeed1 they were  very   
anxious to continue in the observance of
 the institutes of their  country1 and  
those who were found to have violated   

them1 though but in a  small degree1    
were expelled from the college of the   
priests4 ,the true  method of           
philosophizing1 likewise1 was preserved 
by the prophets1 by the                 
hierostolist#ib1 and the sacred scribes1
 and also by the horologi1  or          
calculators of nativities4 ,but the rest
 of the priests1 and of the             
pastophori#ic1 curators of temples1 and 
ministers of the ,gods1 were  similarly 
studious of purity1 yet not so          
accurately1 and with such great         
continence1 as the priests of whom we   
have been speaking4 ,and such are  the  
particulars which are narrated of the   
,egyptians1 by a man who was  a lover of
 truth1 and an accurate writer1 and who 
among the ,stoics  strenuously and      
solidly philosophized4    #i4 ,but the  
,egyptian priests1 through the          
proficiency which they made  by this    
exercise1 and similitude to divinity1   
knew that divinity does  not pervade    
through man alone1 and that soul is not 

enshrined in man  alone on the earth1   
but that it nearly passes through all   
animals4 ,on  this account1 in          
fashioning the images of the ,gods1 they
 assumed every  animal1 and for this    
purpose mixed together the human form   
and the forms  of wild beasts1 and again
 the bodies of birds with the body of a 
man4  ,for a certain deity was          
represented by them in a human shape as 
far as  to the neck1 but the face was   
that of a bird1 or a lion1 or of some   
other animal4 ,and again1 another divine
 resemblance had a human head1  but the 
other parts were those of certain other 
animals1 some of which  had an inferior1
 but others a superior position2 through
 which they  manifested1 that these i4e4
 brutes and men1 through the decision of
  the ,gods1 communicated with each     
other1 and that tame and savage animals 
are nurtured together with us1 not      
without the concurrence of a certain    
divine will4 ,hence also1 a lion is     
worshipped as a ,god1 and a certain     

part of ,egypt1 which is called ,nomos1 
has the surname of ,leontopolis  or the 
city of the lion1 and another is        
denominated ,busiris from an  ox1 and   
another ,lycopolis or the city of the   
wolf4 ,for they venerated  the power of 
,god which extends to all things through
 animals which  are nurtured together1  
and which each of the ,gods imparts4    
,they also  reverenced water and fire   
the most of all the elements1 as being  
the  principal causes of our safety4    
,and these things are exhibited by them 
in  temples2 for even now1 on opening   
the sanctuary of ,serapis1 the worship  
is performed through fire and water2 he 
who sings the hymns making a  libation  
with water1 and exhibiting fire1 when1  
standing on the threshold  of the       
temple1 he invokes the ,god in the      
language of the ,egyptians4             
,venerating1 therefore1 these elements1 
they especially reverence those  things 
which largely participate of them1 as   
partaking more abundantly of  what is   

sacred4 ,but after these1 they venerate 
all animals1 and in the  village ,anubis
 they worship a man1 in which place also
 they sacrifice  to him1 and victims are
 there burnt in honour of him on an     
altar2 but  he shortly after only eats  
that which was procured for him as a    
man4  ,hence1 as it is requisite to     
abstain from man1 so1 likewise1 from    
other  animals4 ,and farther still1 the 
,egyptian priests1 from their           
transcendent  wisdom and association    
with divinity1 discovered what animals  
are more  acceptable to the ,gods when  
dedicated to them than man4 ,thus they  
found that a hawk is dear to the sun1   
since the whole of its nature  consists 
of blood and spirit4 ,it also           
commiserates man1 and laments over  his 
dead body1 and scatters earth on his    
eyes1 in which these priests  believe a 
solar light is resident4 ,they likewise 
discovered that a  hawk lives many      
years1 and that1 after it leaves the    
present life1 it  possesses a divining  

power1 is most rational and prescient   
when liberated  from the body1 and gives
 perfection to statues1 and moves       
temples4 ,a  beetle will be detested by 
one who is ignorant of and unskilled in 
divine  concerns1 but the ,egyptians    
venerate it1 as an animated image of the
 sun4  ,for every beetle is a male1 and 
emitting its genital seed in a muddy    
place1 and having made it spherical1 it 
turns round the seminal sphere  in a way
 similar to that of the sun in the      
heavens4 ,it likewise receives  a period
 of twenty-eight days1 which is a lunar 
period4 ,in a similar  manner1 the      
,egyptians philosophize about the ram1  
the crocodile1 the  vulture1 and the    
ibis1 and1 in short1 about every animal2
 so that1 from  their wisdom and        
transcendent knowledge of divine        
concerns1 they came  at length to       
venerate all animals#id4 ,an unlearned  
man1 however1 does  not even suspect    
that they1 not being borne along with   
the stream of the  vulgar who know      

nothing1 and not walking in the path of 
ignorance1 but  passing beyond the      
illiterate multitude1 and that want of  
knowledge which  befals every one at    
first1 were led to reverence things     
which are thought  by the vulgar to be  
of no worth4    #aj4 ,this also1 no less
 than the above-mentioned particulars1  
induced  them to believe1 that animals  
should be reverenced as images of the   
,gods1 viz4 that the soul of every      
animal1 when liberated from the body1   
was discovered by them to be rational1  
to be prescient of futurity1 to  possess
 an oracular power1 and to be effective 
of every thing which man  is capable of 
accomplishing when separated from the   
body4 ,hence they very  properly        
honoured them1 and abstained from them  
as much as possible4  ,since1 however1  
the cause through which the ,egyptians  
venerated the ,gods  through animals    
requires a copious discussion1 and which
 would exceed  the limits of the present
 treatise1 what has been unfolded       

respecting  this particular is          
sufficient for our purpose4             
,nevertheless1 this is not  to be       
omitted1 that the ,egyptians1 when they 
buried those that were of  noble birth1 
privately took away the belly and placed
 it in a chest1 and  together with other
 things which they performed for the    
sake of the dead  body1 they elevated   
the chest towards the sun1 whom they    
invoked as a  witness2 an oration for   
the deceased being at the same time made
 by one  of those to whose care the     
funeral was committed4 ,but the oration 
which  ,euphantus#ie has interpreted    
from the ,egyptian tongue was as        
follows3 8,o  sovereign ,sun1 and all ye
 ,gods who impart life to men1 receive  
me1 and  deliver me to the eternal ,gods
 as a cohabitant4 ,for ,i have always   
piously  worshipped those divinities    
which were pointed out to me by my      
parents as  long as ,i lived in this    
age1 and have likewise always honoured  
those who  procreated my body4 ,and1    

with respect to other men1 ,i have never
 slain  any one1 nor defrauded any one  
of what he deposited with me1 nor have  
,i  committed any other atrocious deed4 
,if1 therefore1 during my life ,i have  
acted erroneously1 by eating or drinking
 things which it is unlawful  to eat or 
drink1 ,i have not erred through myself1
 but through these10  pointing to the   
chest in which the belly was contained4 
,and having thus  spoken1 he threw the  
chest into the river ,nile2 but buried  
the rest of  the body as being pure4    
,after this manner1 they thought an     
apology ought  to be made to divinity   
for what they had eaten and drank1 and  
for the  insolent conduct which they had
 been led to through the belly4    #aa4 
,but among those who are known by us1   
the ,jews1 before they first  suffered  
the subversion of their legal institutes
 under ,antiochus1 and  afterwards under
 the ,romans1 when also the temple in   
,jerusalem was  captured1 and became    
accessible to all men to whom1 prior to 

this event1  it was inaccessible1 and   
the city itself was destroyed2--before  
this took  place1 the ,jews always      
abstained from many animals1 but        
peculiarly1 which  they even now do1    
from swine4 ,at that period1 therefore1 
there were three  kinds of philosophers 
among them4 ,and of one kind1 indeed1   
the ,pharisees  were the leaders1 but of
 another1 the ,sadducees1 and of the    
third1  which appears to have been the  
most venerable1 the ,essans4 ,the mode  
of  life1 therefore1 of these third was 
as follows1 as ,josephus frequently     
testifies in many of his writings4 ,for 
in the second book of his ,judaic       
,history1 which he has completed in     
seven books1 and in the eighteenth  of  
his ,antiquities1 which consists of     
twenty books1 and likewise in the       
second of the two books which he wrote  
against the ,greeks1 he speaks  of these
 ,essans1 and says1 that they are of the
 race of the ,jews1 and  are in a       
greater degree than others friendly to  

one another4 ,they are  averse to       
pleasures1 conceiving them to be        
vicious1 but they are of  opinion that  
continence1 and the not yielding to the 
passions1 constitute  virtue4 ,and they 
despise1 indeed1 wedlock1 but receiving 
the children of  other persons1 and     
instructing them in disciplines while   
they are yet  of a tender age1 they     
consider them as their kindred1 and form
 them to  their own manners4 ,and they  
act in this manner1 not for the purpose 
of  subverting marriage1 and the        
succession arising from it1 but in order
  to avoid the lasciviousness of women4 
,they are1 likewise1 despisers  of      
wealth1 and the participation of        
external possessions among them  in     
common is wonderful2 nor is any one to  
be found among them who is  richer than 
the rest4 ,for it is a law with them1   
that those who wish to  belong to their 
sect1 must give up their property to it 
in common2 so  that among all of them1  
there is not to be seen either the      

abjectness of  poverty1 or the insolence
 of wealth2 but the possessions of each 
being  mingled with those of the rest1  
there was one property with all of them1
  as if they had been brothers4 ,they   
likewise conceived oil to be a stain  to
 the body1 and that if any one1 though  
unwillingly1 was anointed1 he  should   
immediately wipe his body4 ,for it was  
considered by them as  beautiful to be  
squalid#if1 and to be always clothed in 
white garments4  ,but curators of the   
common property were elected by votes1  
indistinctly  for the use of all4 ,they 
have not1 however1 one city1 but in each
 city  many of them dwell together1 and 
those who come among them from other    
places1 if they are of their sect1      
equally partake with them of their      
possessions1 as if they were their own4 
,those1 likewise1 who first  perceive   
these strangers1 behave to them as if   
they were their intimate  acquaintance4 
,hence1 when they travel1 they take     
nothing with them for  the sake of      

expenditure4 ,but they neither change   
their garments nor their  shoes1 till   
they are entirely torn1 or destroyed by 
time4 ,they neither  buy nor sell any   
thing1 but each of them giving what he  
possesses to him  that is in want1      
receives in return for it what will be  
useful to him4  ,nevertheless1 each of  
them freely imparts to others of their  
sect what  they may be in want of1      
without any remuneration4    #ab4       
,moreover1 they are peculiarly pious to 
divinity4 ,for before the sun  rises    
they speak nothing profane1 but they    
pour forth certain prayers to  him which
 they had received from their ancestors1
 as if beseeching him  to rise4         
,afterwards1 they are sent by their     
curators to the exercise of  the several
 arts in which they are skilled1 and    
having till the fifth  hour strenuously 
laboured in these arts1 they are        
afterwards collected  together in one   
place2 and there1 being begirt with     
linen teguments1 they  wash their bodies

 with cold water4 ,after this           
purification1 they enter  into their own
 proper habitation1 into which no       
heterodox person is  permitted to enter4
 ,but they being pure1 betake themselves
 to the dining  room1 as into a certain 
sacred fane4 ,in this place1 when all of
 them are  seated in silence1 the baker 
places the bread in order1 and the cook 
distributes to each of them one vessel  
containing one kind of eatables4        
,prior1 however1 to their taking the    
food which is pure and sacred1 a  priest
 prays1 and it is unlawful for any one  
prior to the prayer to taste  of the    
food4 ,after dinner1 likewise1 the      
priest again prays2 so that both  when  
they begin1 and when they cease to eat1 
they venerate divinity4  ,afterwards1   
divesting themselves of these garments  
as sacred1 they  again betake themselves
 to their work till the evening2 and1   
returning  from thence1 they eat and    
drink in the same manner as before1     
strangers  sitting with them1 if they   

should happen at that time to be        
present4 ,no  clamour or tumult ever    
defiles the house in which they dwell2  
but their  conversation with each other 
is performed in an orderly manner2 and  
to  those that are out of the house1 the
 silence of those within it appears  as 
if it was some terrific mystery4 ,the   
cause1 however1 of this quietness  is   
their constant sobriety1 and that with  
them their meat and drink  is measured  
by what is sufficient to the wants of   
nature4 ,but those  who are very        
desirous of belonging to their sect1 are
 not immediately  admitted into it1 but 
they must remain out of it for a year1  
adopting the  same diet1 the ,essans    
giving them a rake1 a girdle1 and a     
white garment4  ,and if1 during that    
time1 they have given a sufficient proof
 of their  continence1 they proceed to a
 still greater conformity to the        
institutes  of the sect1 and use purer  
water for the purposes of sanctity2     
though  they are not yet permitted to   

live with the ,essans4 ,for after this  
exhibition of endurance1 their manners  
are tried for two years more1 and  he   
who after this period appears to deserve
 to associate with them1 is  admitted   
into their society4    #ac4 ,before1    
however1 he who is admitted touches his 
common food1 he  takes a terrible oath1 
in the first place1 that he will piously
 worship  divinity2 in the next place1  
that he will preserve justice towards   
men1  and that he will neither          
designedly1 nor when commanded1 injure  
any one2  in the third place1 that he   
will always hate the unjust1 but        
strenuously  assist the just2 and in the
 fourth place1 that he will act         
faithfully  towards all men1 but        
especially towards the rulers of the    
land1 since  no one becomes a ruler     
without the permission of ,god2 in the  
fifth  place1 that if he should be a    
ruler1 he will never employ his power   
to insolently iniquitous purposes1 nor  
will surpass those that are in          

subjection to him in his dress1 or any  
other more splendid ornament2 in  the   
sixth place1 that he will always love   
the truth1 and be hostile to  liars2 in 
the seventh place1 that he will preserve
 his hands from theft1  and his soul    
pure from unholy gain#ig2 and1 in the   
eighth place1 that  he will conceal     
nothing from those of his sect1 nor     
divulge any thing  to others pertaining 
to the sect1 though some one1 in order  
to compel  him1 should threaten him with
 death4 ,in addition to these things1   
also1  they swear1 that they will not   
impart the dogmas of the sect to any one
  in any other way than that in which   
they received them2 that they will      
likewise abstain from robbery#ih1 and   
preserve the books of their sect  with  
the same care as the names of the       
angels4 ,such1 therefore1 are  their    
oaths4 ,but those among them that act   
criminally1 and are ejected1  perish by 
an evil destiny4 ,for1 being bound by   
their oaths and their  customs1 they are

 not capable of receiving food from     
others2 but feeding  on herbs1 and      
having their body emaciated by hunger1  
they perish4 ,hence  the ,essans1       
commiserating many of these unfortunate 
men1 receive them  in their last        
extremities into their society1 thinking
 that they have  suffered sufficiently  
for their offences in having been       
punished for  them till they were on the
 brink of the grave4 ,but they give a   
rake to  those who intend to belong to  
their sect1 in order that1 when they sit
  for the purpose of exonerating the    
belly1 they may make a trench a foot  in
 depth1 and completely cover themselves 
by their garment1 in order that  they   
may not act contumeliously towards the  
sun by polluting the rays of  the ,god4 
,and so great1 indeed1 is their         
simplicity and frugality with  respect  
to diet1 that they do not require       
evacuation till the seventh  day after  
the assumption of food1 which day they  
spend in singing hymns  to ,god1 and in 

resting from labour4 ,but from this     
exercise they acquire  the power of such
 great endurance1 that even when        
tortured and burnt1  and suffering every
 kind of excruciating pain1 they cannot 
be induced  either to blaspheme their   
legislator1 or to eat what they have not
 been  accustomed to4 ,and the truth of 
this was demonstrated in their war with 
the ,romans4 ,for then they neither     
flattered their tormentors1 nor shed    
any tears1 but smiled in the midst of   
their torments1 and derided those  that 
inflicted them1 and cheerfully emitted  
their souls1 as knowing that  they      
should possess them again4 ,for this    
opinion was firmly established  among   
them1 that their bodies were indeed     
corruptible1 and that the  matter of    
which they consisted was not stable1 but
 that their souls were  immortal1 and   
would endure for ever1 and that1        
proceeding from the most  subtle ether1 
they were drawn down by a natural flux1 
and complicated  with bodies2 but that1 

when they are no longer detained by the 
bonds of  the flesh1 then1 as if        
liberated from a long slavery1 they will
 rejoice1  and ascend to the celestial  
regions4 ,but from this mode of living1 
and  from being thus exercised in truth 
and piety1 there were many among them1  
as it is reasonable to suppose there    
would be1 who had a foreknowledge of    
future events1 as being conversant from 
their youth with sacred books1          
different purifications1 and the        
declarations of the prophets4 ,and such 
is the order or sect of the ,essans     
among the ,jews4    #ad4 ,all of them1  
however1 were forbidden to eat the flesh
 of swine1  or fish without scales1     
which the ,greeks call 1 i4e4           
cartilaginous2 or to eat any animal that
 has solid hoofs4 ,they were  likewise  
forbidden not only to refrain from      
eating1 but also from killing  animals  
that fled to their houses as            
supplicants4 ,nor did the legislator    
permit them to slay such animals as were

 parents together with their  young2 but
 ordered them to spare1 even in a       
hostile land1 and not put to  death     
brutes that assist us in our labours4   
,nor was the legislator afraid  that the
 race of animals which are not          
sacrificed1 would1 through being  spared
 from slaughter1 be so increased in     
multitude as to produce famine  among   
men2 for he knew1 in the first place1   
that multiparous animals  live but for a
 short time2 and in the next place1 that
 many of them  perish1 unless attention 
is paid to them by men4 ,moreover1 he   
likewise  knew that other animals would 
attack those that increased excessively2
  of which this is an indication1 that  
we abstain from many animals1 such  as  
lizards1 worms1 flies1 serpents1 and    
dogs1 and yet1 at the same time1  we are
 not afraid of perishing through hunger 
by abstaining from them1  though their  
increase is abundant4 ,and in the next  
place1 it is not the  same thing to eat 
and to slay an animal4 ,for we destroy  

many of the  above-mentioned animals1   
but we do not eat any of them4    #ae4  
,farther still1 it is likewise related  
that the ,syrians formerly  abstained   
from animals1 and1 on this account1 did 
not sacrifice them  to the ,gods2 but   
that afterwards they sacrificed them1   
for the purpose  of averting certain    
evils2 yet they did not at all admit of 
a fleshly  diet4 ,in process of time1   
however1 as ,neanthes the ,cyzicenean   
and  ,asclepiades the ,cyprian say1     
about the era of ,pygmalion1 who was by 
birth  a ,phnician1 but reigned over the
 ,cyprians1 the eating of flesh was     
admitted1 from an illegality of the     
following kind1 which ,asclepiades1 in  
his treatise concerning ,cyprus and     
,phnicia1 relates as follows3--,in the  
first place1 they did not sacrifice any 
thing animated to the ,gods2 but        
neither was there any law pertaining to 
a thing of this kind1 because  it was   
prohibited by natural law4 ,they are    
said1 however1 on a certain  occasion1  

in which one soul was required for      
another1 to have1 for the  first time1  
sacrificed a victim2 and this taking    
place1 the whole of the  victim was then
 consumed by fire4 ,but afterwards1 when
 the victim was  burnt1 a portion of the
 flesh fell on the earth1 which was     
taken by the  priest1 who1 in so doing1 
having burnt his fingers1 involuntarily 
moved  them to his mouth1 as a remedy   
for the pain which the burning produced4
  ,having1 therefore1 thus tasted of the
 roasted flesh1 he also desired to  eat 
abundantly of it1 and could not refrain 
from giving some of it to his  wife4    
,pygmalion1 however1 becoming acquainted
 with this circumstance1  ordered both  
the priest and his wife to be hurled    
headlong from a steep  rock1 and gave   
the priesthood to another person1 who   
not long after  performing the same     
sacrifice1 and eating the flesh of the  
victim1  fell into the same calamities  
as his predecessor4 ,the thing1 however1
  proceeding still farther1 and men     

using the same kind of sacrifice1 and   
through yielding to desire1 not         
abstaining from1 but feeding on flesh1  
the deed was no longer punished4        
,nevertheless abstinence from fish      
continued among the ,syrians till the   
time of ,menander3 for he says1         
,the ,syrians for example take1 since   
these      ,when by intemperance led of 
fish they eat1      ,swoln in their     
belly and their feet become4      ,with 
sack then cover'd1 in the public way    
,they on a dunghill sit1 that by their  
lowly state1      ,the ,goddess may1    
appeas'd1 the crime forgive4    #af4    
,among the ,persians1 indeed1 those who 
are wise in divine concerns1  and       
worship divinity1 are called ,magi2 for 
this is the signification  of ,magus1 in
 the ,persian tongue4 ,but so great and 
so venerable are  these men thought to  
be by the ,persians1 that ,darius1 the  
son of  ,hystaspes1 had among other     
things this engraved on his tomb1 that  
he  had been the master of the ,magi4   

,they are likewise divided into three   
genera1 as we are informed by ,eubulus1 
who wrote the history of ,mithra1  in a 
treatise consisting of many books4 ,in  
this work he says1 that  the first and  
most learned class of the ,magi neither 
eat nor slay any  thing animated1 but   
adhere to the ancient abstinence from   
animals4 ,the  second class use some    
animals indeed for food1 but do not slay
 any  that are tame4 ,nor do those of   
the third class1 similarly with other   
men1 lay their hands on all animals4    
,for the dogma with all of them  which  
ranks as the first is this1 that there  
is a transmigration of  souls2 and this 
they also appear to indicate in the     
mysteries of ,mithra4  ,for in these    
mysteries1 obscurely signifying our     
having something in  common with brutes1
 they are accustomed to call us by the  
names of  different animals4 ,thus they 
denominate the males who participate in 
the same mysteries lions1 but the       
females lionesses1 and those who are    

ministrant to these rites crows4 ,with  
respect to their fathers also1  they    
adopt the same mode4 ,for these are     
denominated by them eagles and  hawks4  
,and he who is initiated in the ,leontic
 mysteries1 is invested  with           
all-various forms of animals#ii2 of     
which particulars1 ,pallas1 in  his     
treatise concerning ,mithra1 assigning  
the cause1 says1 that it is  the common 
opinion that these things are to be     
referred to the circle  of the zodiac1  
but that truly and accurately speaking1 
they obscurely  signify something       
pertaining to human souls1 which1       
according to the  ,persians1 are        
invested with bodies of all-various     
forms4 ,for the ,latins  also1 says     
,eubulus1 call some men1 in their       
tongue1 boars and scorpions1  lizards1  
and blackbirds4 ,after the same manner  
likewise the ,persians  denominate the  
,gods the demiurgic causes of these3 for
 they call ,diana a  she-wolf2 but the  
sun1 a bull1 a lion1 a dragon1 and a    

hawk2 and ,hecate1  a horse1 a bull1 a  
lioness1 and a dog4 ,but most           
theologists say that  the name of       
,proserpine   is derived from nourishing
 a  ringdove1     3 for the ringdove is 
sacred to  this ,goddess#ajj4 ,hence1   
also1 the priests of ,maia dedicate to  
her a  ringdove4 ,and ,maia is the same 
with ,proserpine1 as being obstetric1   
and a  nurse#aja4 ,for this ,goddess is 
terrestrial1 and so likewise is ,ceres4 
,to this ,goddess1 also1 a cock is      
consecrated2 and on this account those  
that are initiated in her mysteries     
abstain from domestic birds4 ,in the    
,eleusinian mysteries1 likewise1 the    
initiated are ordered to abstain  from  
domestic birds1 from fishes and beans1  
pomegranates and apples2  which fruits  
are as equally defiling to the touch1 as
 a woman recently  delivered1 and a dead
 body4 ,but whoever is acquainted with  
the nature  of divinely-luminous        
appearances 1 knows also on what account
  it is requisite to abstain from all   

birds1 and especially for him who       
hastens to be liberated from terrestrial
 concerns1 and to be established  with  
the celestial ,gods4 ,vice1 however1 as 
we have frequently said1 is             
sufficiently able to patronize itself1  
and especially when it pleads its  cause
 among the ignorant4 ,hence1 among those
 that are moderately vicious1  some     
think that a dehortation of this kind is
 vain babbling1 and1  according to the  
proverb1 the nugacity of old women2 and 
others are of  opinion that it is       
superstition4 ,but those who have made  
greater advances  in improbity1 are     
prepared1 not only to blaspheme those   
who exhort to1  and demonstrate the     
propriety of this abstinence1 but       
calumniate purity  itself as enchantment
 and pride4 ,they1 however1 suffering   
the punishment  of their sins1 both from
 ,gods and men1 are1 in the first place1
  sufficiently punished by a disposition
 i4e4 by a depravity of this  kind4 ,we 
shall1 therefore1 still farther make    

mention of another foreign  nation1     
renowned and just1 and believed to be   
pious in divine concerns1  and then pass
 on to other particulars4    #ag4 ,for  
the polity of the ,indians being        
distributed into many parts1  there is  
one tribe among them of men divinely    
wise1 whom the ,greeks are  accustomed  
to call ,gymnosophists#ajb4 ,but of     
these there are two sects1  over one of 
which the ,bramins preside1 but over the
 other the ,samanans4  ,the race of the 
,bramins1 however1 receive divine wisdom
 of this kind by  succession1 in the    
same manner as the priesthood4 ,but the 
,samanans are  elected1 and consist of  
those who wish to possess divine        
knowledge4 ,and  the particulars        
respecting them are the following1 as   
the ,babylonian  ,bardesanes#ajc        
narrates1 who lived in the times of our 
fathers1 and  was familiar with those   
,indians who1 together with ,damadamis1 
were sent  to ,csar4 ,all the ,bramins  
originate from one stock2 for all of    

them are  derived from one father and   
one mother4 ,but the ,samanans are not  
the  offspring of one family1 being1 as 
we have said1 collected from every      
nation of ,indians4 ,a ,bramin1 however1
 is not a subject of any government1    
nor does he contribute any thing        
together with others to government4     
,and with respect to those that are     
philosophers1 among these some dwell  on
 mountains1 and others about the river  
,ganges4 ,and those that live on        
mountains feed on autumnal fruits1 and  
on cows' milk coagulated with  herbs4   
,but those that reside near the ,ganges1
 live also on autumnal  fruits1 which   
are produced in abundance about that    
river4 ,the land  likewise nearly always
 bears new fruit1 together with much    
rice1 which  grows spontaneously1 and   
which they use when there is a          
deficiency of  autumnal fruits4 ,but to 
taste of any other nutriment1 or1 in    
short1  to touch animal food1 is        
considered by them as equivalent to     

extreme  impurity and impiety4 ,and this
 is one of their dogmas4 ,they also     
worship  divinity with piety and purity4
 ,they spend the day1 and the greater   
part  of the night1 in hymns and prayers
 to the ,gods2 each of them having a    
cottage to himself1 and living1 as much 
as possible1 alone4 ,for the  ,bramins  
cannot endure to remain with others1 nor
 to speak much2 but when  this happens  
to take place1 they afterwards withdraw 
themselves1 and do  not speak for many  
days4 ,they likewise frequently fast4   
,but the ,samanans  are1 as we have     
said1 elected4 ,when1 however1 any one  
is desirous of  being enrolled in their 
order1 he proceeds to the rulers of the 
city2 but  abandons the city or village 
that he inhabited1 and the wealth and   
all  the other property that he         
possessed4 ,having likewise the         
superfluities  of his body cut off1 he  
receives a garment1 and departs to the  
,samanans1  but does not return either  
to his wife or children1 if he happens  

to  have any1 nor does he pay any       
attention to them1 or think that they at
  all pertain to him4 ,and1 with respect
 to his children indeed1 the king       
provides what is necessary for them1 and
 the relatives provide for the  wife4   
,and such is the life of the ,samanans4 
,but they live out of the  city1 and    
spend the whole day in conversation     
pertaining to divinity4  ,they have also
 houses and temples1 built by the king1 
in which there are  stewards1 who       
receive a certain emolument from the    
king1 for the purpose  of supplying     
those that dwell in them with nutriment4
 ,but their food  consists of rice1     
bread1 autumnal fruits1 and pot-herbs4  
,and when they  enter into their house1 
the sound of a bell being the signal of 
their  entrance1 those that are not     
,samanans depart from it1 and the       
,samanans  begin immediately to pray4   
,but having prayed1 again1 on the bell  
sounding  as a signal1 the servants give
 to each ,samanan a platter1 7for two of

  them do not eat out of the same dish17
 and feed them with rice4 ,and to  him  
who is in want of a variety of food1 a  
pot-herb is added1 or some  autumnal    
fruit4 ,but having eaten as much as is  
requisite1 without any  delay they      
proceed to their accustomed employments4
 ,all of them likewise  are unmarried1  
and have no possessions3 and so much are
 both these and  the ,bramins venerated 
by the other ,indians1 that the king    
also visits  them1 and requests them to 
pray to and supplicate the ,gods1 when  
any  calamity befals the country1 or to 
advise him how to act4    #ah4 ,but they
 are so disposed with respect to death1 
that they unwillingly  endure the whole 
time of the present life1 as a certain  
servitude to  nature1 and therefore they
 hasten to liberate their souls from the
 bodies  with which they are connected4 
,hence frequently1 when they are seen   
to be well1 and are neither oppressed1  
nor driven to desperation by any  evil1 
they depart from life4 ,and though they 

previously announce to  others that it  
is their intention to commit suicide1   
yet no one impedes  them2 but1          
proclaiming all those to be happy who   
thus quit the present  life1 they enjoin
 certain things to the domestics and    
kindred of the  dead3 so stable and true
 do they1 and also the multitude1       
believe the  assertion to be1 that souls
 in another life associate with each    
other4  ,but as soon as those to whom   
they have proclaimed that this is their 
intention1 have heard the mandates given
 to them1 they deliver the body  to     
fire1 in order that they may separate   
the soul from the body in the  purest   
manner1 and thus they die celebrated by 
all the ,samanans4 ,for  these men      
dismiss their dearest friends to death  
more easily than others  part with their
 fellow-citizens when going the longest 
journeys4 ,and they  lament themselves1 
indeed1 as still continuing in life2 but
 they proclaim  those that are dead to  
be blessed1 in consequence of having now

 obtained  an immortal allotment4 ,nor  
is there any sophist1 such as there is  
now  amongst the ,greeks1 either among  
these ,samanans1 or the above-mentioned 
,bramins1 who would be seen to doubt and
 to say1 if all men should imitate  you 
i4e4 should imitate those ,samanans who 
commit suicide1 what  would become of   
us8 ,nor through these are human affairs
 confused4 ,for  neither do all men     
imitate them1 and those who have1 may be
 said to  have been rather the causes of
 equitable legislation1 than of         
confusion  to the different nations of  
men4 ,moreover1 the law did not compel  
the  ,samanans and ,bramins to eat      
animal food1 but1 permitting others to  
feed  on flesh1 it suffered these to be 
a law to themselves1 and venerated  them
 as being superior to law4 ,nor did the 
law subject these men to the  punishment
 which it inflicts1 as if they were the 
primary perpetrators of  injustice1 but 
it reserved this for others4 ,hence1 to 
those who ask1 what  would be the       

consequence if all men imitated such    
characters as these1  the saying of     
,pythagoras must be the answer2 that if 
all men were kings1  the passage through
 life would be difficult1 yet regal     
government is not  on this account to be
 avoided4 ,and we likewise say that if  
all men were  worthy1 no administration 
of a polity would be found in which the 
dignity  that probity merits would be   
preserved4 ,nevertheless1 no one would  
be  so insane as not to think that all  
men should earnestly endeavour to       
become worthy characters4 ,indeed1 the  
law grants to the vulgar many  other    
things besides a fleshly diet1 which1   
nevertheless1 it does not  grant to a   
philosopher1 nor even to one who        
conducts the affairs of  government in a
 proper manner4 ,for it does not receive
 every artist into  the administration1 
though it does not forbid the exercise  
of any art1  nor yet men of every       
pursuit4 ,but it excludes those who are 
occupied in  vile and illiberal         

arts#ajd1 and1 in short1 all those who  
are destitute  of justice and the other 
virtues1 from having any thing to do    
with the  management of public affairs4 
,thus1 likewise1 the law does not forbid
  the vulgar from associating with      
harlots1 on whom at the same time it    
imposes a fine2 but thinks that it is   
disgraceful and base for men that  are  
moderately good to have any connexion   
with them4 ,moreover1 the law  does not 
prohibit a man from spending the whole  
of his life in a tavern1  yet at the    
same time this is most disgraceful even 
to a man of moderate  worth4 ,it        
appears1 therefore1 that the same thing 
must also be said with  respect to diet4
 ,for that which is permitted to the    
multitude1 must not  likewise be granted
 to the best of men4 ,for the man who is
 a philosopher1  should especially      
ordain for himself those sacred laws    
which the ,gods1  and men who are       
followers of the ,gods1 have instituted4
 ,but the sacred  laws of nations and   

cities appear to have ordained for      
sacred men purity1  and to have         
interdicted them animal food4 ,they have
 also forbidden the  multitude to eat   
certain animals1 either from motives of 
piety1 or on  account of some injury    
which would be produced by the food4 ,so
 that it is  requisite either to imitate
 priests1 or to be obedient to the      
mandates of  all legislators2 but1 in   
either way1 he who is perfectly legal   
and pious  ought to abstain from all    
animals4 ,for if some who are only      
partially  pious abstain from certain   
animals1 he who is in every respect     
pious will  abstain from all animals4   
#ai4 ,i had almost1 however1 forgotten  
to adduce what is said by ,euripides1   
who asserts1 that the prophets of       
,jupiter in ,crete abstained from       
animals4 ,but what is said by the chorus
 to ,minos on this subject1 is as       
follows3        ,sprung from ,phnicia's 
royal line1      ,son of ,europa1 nymph 
divine1      ,and mighty ,jove1 thy     

envy'd reign      ,o'er ,crete          
extending1 whose domain      ,is with a 
hundred cities crown'd--      ,i leave  
yon consecrated ground1      ,yon fane1 
whose beams the artist's toil      ,with
 cypress1 rooted from the soil1         
,hath fashion'd4 ,in the mystic rites   
,initiated1 life's best delights      ,i
 place in chastity alone1      ,midst   
,night's dread orgies wont to rove1     
,the priest of ,zagreus#aje and of      
,jove2      ,feasts of crude flesh ,i   
now decline1      ,and wave aloof the   
blazing pine      ,to ,cybele1 nor fear 
to claim      ,her own ,curete's        
hallow'd name2      ,clad in a snowy    
vest ,i fly      ,far from the throes of
 pregnancy1      ,never amidst the tombs
 intrude1      ,and slay no animal for  
food4    #bj4 ,for holy men were of     
opinion that purity consisted in a thing
 not  being mingled with its contrary1  
and that mixture is defilement4 ,hence1 
they thought that nutriment should be   
assumed from fruits1 and not  from dead 

bodies1 and that we should not1 by      
introducing that which  is animated to  
our nature1 defile what is administered 
by nature4 ,but  they conceived1 that   
the slaughter of animals1 as they are   
sensitive1  and the depriving them of   
their souls1 is a defilement to the     
living2  and that the pollution is much 
greater1 to mingle a body which was once
  sensitive1 but is now deprived of     
sense1 with a sensitive and living      
being4 ,hence universally1 the purity   
pertaining to piety consists in         
rejecting and abstaining from many      
things1 and in an abandonment of  such  
as are of a contrary nature1 and the    
assumption of such as are  appropriate  
and concordant4 ,on this account1       
venereal connexions are  attended with  
defilement4 ,for in these1 a conjunction
 takes place of  the female with the    
male2 and the seed1 when retained by the
 woman1 and  causing her to be pregnant1
 defiles the soul1 through its          
association  with the body2 but when it 

does not produce conception1 it         
pollutes1 in  consequence of becoming a 
lifeless mass4 ,the connexion also of   
males with  males defiles1 because it is
 an emission of seed as it were into a  
dead  body1 and because it is contrary  
to nature4 ,and1 in short1 all venery1  
and emissions of the seed in sleep1     
pollute1 because the soul becomes       
mingled with the body1 and is drawn down
 to pleasure4 ,the passions of  the soul
 likewise defile1 through the           
complication of the irrational  and     
effeminate part with reason1 the        
internal masculine part4 ,for1 in a     
certain respect1 defilement and         
pollution manifest the mixture of things
  of an heterogeneous nature1 and       
especially when the abstersion of this  
mixture is attended with difficulty4    
,whence1 also1 in tinctures which are   
produced through mixture1 one species   
being complicated with another1  this   
mixture is denominated a defilement4    
,as when some woman with a lively red   

,stains the pure iv'ry----    says      
,homer#ajf4 ,and again1 painters call   
the mixtures of colours1  corruptions4  
,it is usual1 likewise1 to denominate   
that which is unmingled  and pure1      
incorruptible1 and to call that which is
 genuine1 unpolluted4  ,for water1 when 
mingled with earth1 is corrupted1 and is
 not genuine4  ,but water which is      
diffluent1 and runs with tumultuous     
rapidity1 leaves  behind in its course  
the earth which it carries in its       
stream4        ,when from a limpid and  
perennial fount      ,it defluous       
runs----    as ,hesiod says#ajg4 ,for   
such water is salubrious1 because it is 
uncorrupted and unmixed4 ,the female1   
likewise1 that does not receive  into   
herself the exhalation of seed1 is said 
to be uncorrupted4 ,so that  the mixture
 of contraries is corruption and        
defilement4 ,for the mixture  of dead   
with living bodies1 and the insertion of
 beings that were once  living and      
sentient into animals1 and of dead into 

living flesh1 may be  reasonably        
supposed to introduce defilement and    
stains to our nature2  just1 again1 as  
the soul is polluted when it is invested
 with the body4  ,hence1 he who is born1
 is polluted by the mixture of his soul 
with body2  and he who dies1 defiles his
 body1 through leaving it a corpse1     
different  and foreign from that which  
possesses life4 ,the soul1 likewise1 is 
polluted by anger and desire1 and the   
multitude of passions of which in  a    
certain respect diet is a co-operating  
cause4 ,but as water which flows        
through a rock is more uncorrupted than 
that which runs through marshes1        
because it does not bring with it much  
mud2 thus1 also1 the soul which         
administers its own affairs in a body   
that is dry1 and is not moistened  by   
the juices of foreign flesh1 is in a    
more excellent condition1 is  more      
uncorrupted1 and is more prompt for     
intellectual energy4 ,thus too1  it is  
said1 that the thyme which is the driest

 and the sharpest to the  taste1 affords
 the best honey to bees4 ,the dianotic1 
therefore1 or  discursive power of the  
soul1 is polluted2 or rather1 he who    
energizes  dianotically1 when this      
energy is mingled with the energies of  
either  the imaginative or doxastic     
power4 ,but purification consists in a  
separation from all these1 and the      
wisdom which is adapted to divine       
concerns1 is a desertion of every thing 
of this kind4 ,the proper  nutriment1   
likewise1 of each thing1 is that which  
essentially preserves  it4 ,thus you may
 say1 that the nutriment of a stone is  
the cause of its  continuing to be a    
stone1 and of firmly remaining in a     
lapideous form2  but the nutriment of a 
plant is that which preserves it in     
increase  and fructification2 and of an 
animated body1 that which preserves its 
composition4 ,it is one thing1 however1 
to nourish1 and another to fatten2  and 
one thing to impart what is necessary1  
and another to procure what is          

luxurious4 ,various1 therefore1 are the 
kinds of nutriment1 and various  also is
 the nature of the things that are      
nourished4 ,and it is necessary1        
indeed1 that all things should be       
nourished1 but we should earnestly      
endeavour to fatten our most principal  
parts4 ,hence1 the nutriment of  the    
rational soul is that which preserves it
 in a rational state4 ,but  this is     
intellect2 so that it is to be nourished
 by intellect2 and we  should earnestly 
endeavour that it may be fattened       
through this1 rather  than that the     
flesh may become pinguid through        
esculent substances4 ,for  intellect    
preserves for us eternal life1 but the  
body when fattened  causes the soul to  
be famished1 through its hunger after a 
blessed life  not being satisfied1      
increases our mortal part1 since it is  
of itself  insane1 and impedes our      
attainment of an immortal condition of  
being4  ,it likewise defiles by         
corporifying the soul1 and drawing her  

down to  that which is foreign to her   
nature4 ,and the magnet1 indeed1        
imparts1  as it were1 a soul to the iron
 which is placed near it2 and the iron1 
though most heavy1 is elevated1 and runs
 to the spirit of the stone4  ,should   
he1 therefore1 who is suspended from    
incorporeal and intellectual  deity1 be 
anxiously busied in procuring food which
 fattens the body1  that is an          
impediment to intellectual perception8  
,ought he not rather1  by contracting   
what is necessary to the flesh into that
 which is little  and easily procured1  
be himself nourished1 by adhering to    
,god more  closely than the iron to the 
magnet8 ,i wish1 indeed1 that our nature
  was not so corruptible1 and that it   
were possible we could live free  from  
molestation1 even without the nutriment 
derived from fruits4 ,o  that1 as       
,homer#ajh says1 we were not in want    
either of meat or drink1  that we might 
be truly immortal6--the poet in thus    
speaking beautifully  signifying1 that  

food is the auxiliary not only of life1 
but also of  death4 ,if1 therefore1 we  
were not in want even of vegetable      
aliment1 we  should be by so much the   
more blessed1 in proportion as we should
 be more  immortal4 ,but now1 being in a
 mortal condition1 we render ourselves1 
if  it be proper so to speak1 still more
 mortal1 through becoming ignorant      
that1 by the addition of this mortality1
 the soul1 as ,theophrastus says1  does 
not only confer a great benefit on the  
body by being its inhabitant1  but gives
 herself wholly to it#aji4 ,hence1 it is
 much to be wished  that we could easily
 obtain the life celebrated in fables1  
in which  hunger and thirst are unknown2
 so that1 by stopping the               
every-way-flowing  river of the body1 we
 might in a very little time be present 
with the  most excellent natures1 to    
which he who accedes1 since deity is    
there1  is himself a ,god4 ,but how is  
it possible not to lament the condition 
of  the generality of mankind1 who are  

so involved in darkness as to cherish   
their own evil1 and who1 in the first   
place1 hate themselves1 and him  who    
truly begot them1 and afterwards1 those 
who admonish them1 and call  on them to 
return from ebriety to a sober condition
 of being8 ,hence1  dismissing things of
 this kind1 will it not be requisite to 
pass on to  what remains to be          
discussed8    #ba4 ,those then who      
oppose the ,nomades1 or ,troglodyt#aaj1 
or  ,ichthyophagi1 to the legal         
institutes of the nations which we have 
adduced1 are ignorant that these people 
were brought to the necessity of  eating
 animals through the infecundity of the 
region they inhabit1 which  is so       
barren1 that it does not even produce   
herbs1 but only shores and  sands4 ,and 
this necessity is indicated by their not
 being able to make  use of fire1       
through the want of combustible         
materials2 but they dry  their fish on  
rocks1 or on the shore4 ,and these      
indeed live after this  manner from     

necessity4 ,there are1 however1 certain 
nations whose manners  are rustic1 and  
who are naturally savage2 but it is not 
fit that those  who are equitable judges
 should1 from such instances as these1  
calumniate  human nature4 ,for thus we  
should not only be dubious whether it is
 proper  to eat animals1 but also1      
whether we may not eat men1 and adopt   
all  other savage manners4 ,it is       
related1 therefore1 that the ,massaget  
and  the ,derbices consider those of    
their kindred to be most miserable who  
die spontaneously4 ,hence1 preventing   
their dearest friends from dying        
naturally1 they slay them when they are 
old1 and eat them4 ,the ,tibareni  hurl 
from rocks their nearest relatives1 even
 while living1 when they  are old4 ,and 
with respect to the ,hyrcani and        
,caspii1 the one exposed the  living1   
but the other the dead1 to be devoured  
by birds and dogs4 ,but  the ,scythians 
bury the living with the dead1 and cut  
their throats on  the pyres of the dead 

by whom they were especially beloved4   
,the ,bactrii  likewise cast those among
 them that are old1 even while living1  
to the  dogs4 ,and ,stasanor1 who was   
one of ,alexander's prefects1 nearly    
lost his  government through            
endeavouring to destroy this custom4    
,as1 however1 we  do not on account of  
these examples subvert mildness of      
conduct towards  men1 so neither should 
we imitate those nations that feed on   
flesh  through necessity1 but we should 
rather imitate the pious1 and those who 
consecrate themselves to the ,gods4 ,for
 ,democrates#aaa says1 that to live     
badly1 and not prudently1 temperately1  
and piously1 is not to live in          
reality#aab1 but to die for a long time4
    #bb4 ,it now remains that we should 
adduce a few examples of certain        
individuals1 as testimonies in favour of
 abstinence from animal food4  ,for the 
want of these was one of the accusations
 which were urged  against us4 ,we      
learn1 therefore1 that ,triptolemus was 

the most ancient  of the ,athenian      
legislators2 of whom ,hermippus#aac1 in 
the second book  of his treatise on     
,legislators1 writes as follows3 8,it is
 said1 that  ,triptolemus established   
laws for the ,athenians4 ,and the       
philosopher  ,xenocrates asserts1 that  
three of his laws still remain in       
,eleusis1  which are these1 ,honour your
 parents2 ,sacrifice to the ,gods from  
the  fruits of the earth2 ,injure not   
animals40 ,two of these1 therefore1 he  
says1 are properly instituted4 ,for it  
is necessary that we should as  much as 
possible recompense our parents for the 
benefits which they have  conferred on  
us2 and that we should offer to the     
,gods the first-fruits  of the things   
useful to our life1 which they have     
imparted to us4 ,but  with respect to   
the third law1 he is dubious as to the  
intention of  ,triptolemus1 in ordering 
the ,athenians to abstain from animals4 
,was  it1 says he1 because he thought it
 was a dire thing to slay kindred       

natures1 or because he perceived it     
would happen1 that the most useful      
animals would be destroyed by men for   
food8 ,wishing1 therefore1 to make  our 
life as mild as possible1 he endeavoured
 to preserve those animals  that        
associate with men1 and which are       
especially tame4 ,unless1 indeed1       
because having ordained that men should 
honour the ,gods by offering to  them   
first-fruits1 he therefore added this   
third law1 conceiving that  this mode of
 worship would continue for a longer    
time1 if sacrifices  through animals    
were not made to the ,gods4 ,but as many
 other causes1  though not very         
accurate1 of the promulgation of these  
laws1 are assigned  by ,xenocrates1 thus
 much from what has been said is        
sufficient for our  purpose1 that       
abstinence from animals was one of the  
legal institutes  of ,triptolemus4      
,hence1 those who afterwards violated   
this law1 being  compelled by great     
necessity1 and involuntary errors1 fell1

 as we  have shown1 into this custom of 
slaughtering and eating animals4 ,the   
following1 also1 is mentioned as a law  
of ,draco3 8,let this be an eternal     
sacred law#aad to the inhabitants of    
,attica1 and let its authority  be      
predominant for ever2 viz4 that the     
,gods1 and indigenous ,heroes1 be       
worshipped publicly1 conformably to the 
laws of the country1 delivered by  our  
ancestors2 and also1 that they be       
worshipped privately1 according to  the 
ability of each individual1 in          
conjunction with auspicious words1 the  
firstlings of fruits1 and annual cakes4 
,so that this law ordains1 that         
divinity should be venerated by the     
first offerings of fruits which are     
used by men1 and cakes made of the fine 
flour of wheat40#aae      ,,footnotes3  
#hd ,there were many celebrated men of  
this name among the ancients1           
concerning which vid4 ,fabric4          
,biblioth4 ,grc4 ,l4 ,,iii4 c4 #aa4     
#he ,these lines are from ,hesiod4      

,oper4 #aaf4 ,the different ages1       
however1  of mankind1 which are         
celebrated by ,hesiod in his ,works and 
,days1  signify the different lives     
which the individuals of the human      
species  pass through2 and as ,proclus  
on ,hesiod beautifully observes1 they   
may  be comprehended in this triad1 the 
golden1 the silver1 and the  brazen age4
 ,but by the golden age an intellectual 
life is implied4  ,for such a life is   
pure1 impassive1 and free from sorrow2  
and of this  impassivity and purity1    
gold is an image1 through never being   
subject to  rust or putrefaction4 ,such 
a life1 too1 is very properly said to be
 under  ,saturn1 because ,saturn is an  
intellectual ,god1 or a ,god            
characterised  by intellect4 ,by the    
silver age1 a rustic and natural life is
 implied1  in which the attention of the
 rational soul is entirely directed to  
the  care of the body1 but without      
proceeding to extreme depravity4 ,and by
  the brazen age1 a dire1 tyrannic1 and 

cruel life is implied1 which is         
entirely passive1 and proceeds to the   
very extremity of vice4 ,the order1     
also1 of these metals1 harmonizes1 as   
,proclus observes1 with that of the     
lives4 8,for10 says he1 8gold is        
solar-form1 because the sun is solely   
immaterial light4 ,but silver is        
lunar-form1 because the moon partakes   
of shadow1 just as silver partakes of   
rust4 ,and brass is earthly1 so  far as 
not having a nature similar to a lucid  
body2 it is replete with  abundance of  
corruption40    #hf ,the medimnus was a 
measure containing six bushels4    #hg  
,an ,attic measure1 containing six      
,attic pints4    #hh ,in the original1  
1      1   1   4 ,but the  latter part  
of this sentence is evidently defective1
 though the defect  is not noticed      
either by ,valentinus1 or ,reiske1 or   
,rhoer4 ,it appears  therefore to me1   
that   is wanting2 so that for   1  we  
should read     4 ,and my conjecture is 
justified  by the version of            

,felicianus1 which is1 8,huic autem     
abstinentiam1 cteris  luxuriam victus   
fuisse peculiarem perspicuum est40      
#hi ,those who1 in being initiated1     
closed the eyes1 which muesis           
signifies1 no longer 7says ,hermias in  
,phdrum7 received by sense those  divine
 mysteries1 but with the pure soul      
itself4 ,see my ,dissertation on  the   
,eleusinian and ,bacchic ,mysteries4    
#ij ,in the original1   2 but for  ,i   
read  1 and ,felicianus appears to have 
found the same reading in his ,,ms42    
for his version is1 8laboribusque       
humanis40 ,neither ,reisk1 however1 nor 
,rhoer1 have at all noticed the word  as
 improper in this place4    #ia ,much is
 related about the ,egyptian priests by 
,herodotus1 lib4 ii4  #cg4 ,with respect
 to ,chremon1 the decisions of the      
ancients concerning  him are very       
discordant4    #ib i4e4 ,those to whose 
care the sacred vestments were          
committed4    #ic ,these were so        
denominated from carrying the little    

receptacles in  which the images of the 
,gods were contained4    #id ,see on    
this subject ,plutarch's excellent      
treatise of ,isis and ,osiris4    #ie   
,fabricius is of opinion1 that this     
,euphantus is the same with  the        
,ecphantus mentioned by ,iamblichus 7in 
,vit4 ,pyth47 as one of the             
,pythagoreans4 ,vid4 ,fabric4 ,bibl4    
,grc4 lib4 ii4 c4 #ac4    #if ,this is  
not wonderful2 for the ,jews appear to  
have been always  negligent of          
cleanliness4 ,the intelligent reader    
will easily perceive  that there is some
 similitude between these ,essans and   
the ancient  ,pythagoreans1 but that the
 latter were infinitely superior to the 
former4  ,see my translation of         
,iamblichus' ,life of ,pythagoras4      
#ig ,this was a very necessary oath for 
these ,essans to take2 as the  ,jews in 
general1 if we may believe ,tacitus and 
other ancient historians1  were always a
 people immoderately addicted to gain4  
#ih ,as the ,essans appear to have been 

an exception to the rest of the  ,jews1 
the reason is obvious why they took this
 oath4    #ii ,similar to this was the  
garment with which ,apuleius was        
invested  after his initiation into the 
mysteries of ,isis1 and which he        
describes  as follows3--8,there i4e4 on 
a wooden throne ,i sat conspicuous1 in a
  garment which was indeed linen1 but   
was elegantly painted4 ,a precious      
cloak also depended from my shoulders   
behind my back1 as far as to my  heels4 
,nevertheless1 to whatever part of me   
you directed your view1  you might see  
that ,i was remarkable by the animals   
which were painted  round my vestment1  
in various colours4 ,here were ,indian  
dragons1 there  ,hyperborean griffins1  
which the other hemisphere generates in 
the form of  a winged animal4 ,men      
devoted to the service of divinity1 call
 this cloak  the ,olympic               
garment40--,see ,book ,,ii4 of my       
translation of the ,metamorphosis  of   
,apuleius4    #ajj ,proclus1 however1 in

 his ,scholia on the ,cratylus of       
,plato1 gives  a much more theological  
account of the derivation of the name of
  ,proserpine1 as follows3--8,socrates  
now delivers these three vivific monads 
in a consequent order1 viz4 ,ceres1     
,juno1 ,proserpine2 calling the first   
the mother1 the second the sister1 and  
the third the daughter of the           
,demiurgus ,jupiter4 ,all of them1      
however1 are partakers of the whole  of 
fabrication2 the first in an exempt     
manner1 and intellectually2 the  second 
in a fontal manner1 and1 at the same    
time1 in a way adapted to a  principle 2
 and the third in a manner adapted to a 
principle and  a leader   4    8,of     
these ,goddesses the last is allotted   
triple powers1 and impartibly  and      
uniformly comprehends three monads of   
,gods4 ,but she is called ,core         
through the purity of her essence1 and  
her undefiled transcendency  in her     
generations4 ,she also possesses a      
first1 middle1 and last empire2  and    

according to her summit1 indeed1 she is 
called ,diana by ,orpheus2 but1         
according to her middle1 ,proserpine2   
and according to the extremity of  the  
order1 ,minerva4 ,likewise1 according to
 an essence transcending the  other     
powers of this triple vivific order1 the
 dominion of ,hecate is  established2   
but according to a middle power1 and    
which is generative  of wholes1 that of 
soul2 and1 according to intellectual    
conversion1  that of ,virtue,a4 ,ceres1 
therefore1 subsisting on high1 and among
 the  supermundane ,gods1 uniformly     
extends this triple order of divinities2
  and1 together with ,jupiter1 generates
 ,bacchus1 who impartibly presides  over
 partible fabrication4 ,but beneath1 in 
conjunction with ,pluto1 she  is        
particularly beheld according to the    
middle characteristic3 for it is  this  
which1 proceeding every where1 imparts  
vivification to the last of  things4    
,hence she is called ,proserpine1       
because she especially associates  with 

,pluto1 and1 together with him1         
distributes in an orderly manner the    
extremities of the universe4 ,and1      
according to her extremities1 indeed1   
she is said to be a virgin1 and to      
remain undefiled2 but1 according to  her
 middle1 to be conjoined with ,hades1   
and to beget the ,furies in the         
subterranean regions4 ,she1 therefore1  
is also called ,ceres1 but after        
another manner than the supermundane and
 ruling ,ceres4 ,for the one is  the    
connective unity of the three vivific   
principles2 but the other  is the middle
 of them1 in herself possessing the     
peculiarities of the  extremes4 ,hence1 
in the ,proserpine conjoined with       
,pluto1 you will find  the peculiarities
 of ,hecate and ,minerva2 but these     
extremes subsist in  her occultly1 while
 the peculiarity of the middle shines   
forth1 and that  which is characteristic
 of ruling soul1 which in the           
supermundane ,ceres  was of a ruling,b  
nature1 but here subsists according to a

 mundane  peculiarity40    ,proclus     
farther observes1 8that ,proserpine is  
denominated either through  judging of  
forms1 and separating them from each    
other1 thus obscurely  signifying the   
subversion of slaughter,c1 7    1       
17 or through  separating souls         
perfectly from bodies1 through a        
conversion to things  on high1 which is 
the most fortunate slaughter and death  
to such as are  worthy of it4 7         
1          47 ,but the name 1           
,pherephatta1 is adapted  to            
,proserpine1 according to a contact with
 generation2 but according  to wisdom   
and counsel1 to ,minerva4 ,at the same  
time1 however1 all the  appellations by 
which she is distinguished1 are adapted 
to the perfection  of soul4 ,on this    
account1 also1 she is called            
,proserpine1 and not by the  names of   
the extremes2 since that which was      
ravished by ,pluto1 is this  middle     
deity2 the extremes at the same time    
being firmly established in  themselves2

 according to which ,ceres is said to   
remain a virgin40    ,a ,proclus says   
this conformably to the theology of the 
,chaldeans2 for1  according to that     
theology1 the first monad of the vivific
 triad is  ,hecate1 the second ,soul1   
and the third ,virtue4    ,b ,that is1  
of a supermundane nature2 for the ruling
 are the  supermundane ,gods4    ,c     
,proclus here alludes to the war which  
subsists among forms through  their     
union with matter1 and which ,proserpine
 subverts by separating them  from each 
other4    #aja ,the first subsistence of
 ,maia1 who1 according to the ,orphic   
theology1 is the same with the ,goddess 
,night1 is at the summit of the         
intelligible1 and at the same time      
intellectual order1 and is wholly       
absorbed in the intelligible4 ,as we are
 also informed by ,proclus 7in          
,cratylum71 8,she is the paradigm of    
,ceres4 ,for immortal ,night is the     
nurse of the ,gods according to         
,orpheus4 ,night1 however1 is the cause 

of aliment intelligibly3 for the        
intelligible is1 as the ,chaldean       
,oracle  says1 the aliment of the       
intellectual orders of ,gods4 ,but      
,ceres1 first  of all1 separates the two
 kinds of aliment nectar and ambrosia in
 the  ,gods40 ,he adds1 8,hence our     
sovereign mistress 1 ,ceres1 not only   
generates life1 but that which gives    
perfection to life2 and this from       
supernal natures1 to such as are last4  
,for virtue is the perfection of        
souls40    #ajb ,concerning the ,indian 
philosophers1 see the second book of    
,diodorus  ,siculus4    #ajc ,this is   
the ,bardesanes who lived in the time of
 ,marcus ,antoninus1  and who wrote a   
treatise on the ,lake of ,probation in  
,india1 which is  mentioned by ,porphyry
 in his fragment ,de ,styge1 preserved  
by ,stobus4    #ajd 1 i4e4 dirty        
mechanics and bellows-blowers1  an      
appellation by which ,plato in his      
,rivals designates the                  
experimentalists4    #aje ,zagreus is an

 epithet of ,bacchus4 ,wodhull1 however1
 from whose  translation of ,euripides  
the above lines are taken1 is greatly   
mistaken  in saying1 that 8it is evident
 from the hymns of ,orpheus that        
,zagreus  was a name given to ,bacchus  
at his sacred rites40 ,for the word     
7,zagreus7 is not to be found either in 
the hymns of ,orpheus1 or in any  other 
of the ,orphic writings that are extant4
    #ajf ,iliad1 ,,iv4 v4 #ada4    #ajg 
,oper4 et ,dies1 #eie4    #ajh ,iliad1  
,v4 v4 #cda4    #aji ,in the original1  
1    1      1 444 ,but for    1 it      
appears  to me to be necessary to read1 
1 444    #aaj ,vid4 ,diod4 ,sic4 lib4   
iii4 #cb4    #aaa ,reisk says1 that he  
does not know who this ,democrates is2  
but there  can1 ,i think1 be no doubt of
 its being the ,pythagorean of that     
name1  whose ,golden ,sentences are     
extant in the ,opuscula ,mythologica of 
,gale1 of  which see ,mr4 ,bridgman's   
translation4    #aab ,in the original1  
4 ,but for  1 ,i read1   4 ,for without 

this emendation1 ,democrates will       
contradict himself4    #aac ,this       
,hermippus is also cited by ,diogenes   
,laertius in ,pyth4    #aad ,in the     
original1 1 which1 as we are informed by
 ,proclus1  signifies divine order1 and 
a uniform boundary4    #aae ,this book  
is evidently imperfect1 because there   
are wanting at the  end examples of     
illustrious ,greeks and ,romans1 who1   
from the most remote  antiquity1        
abstained from animal food4 ,and this   
was also obvious to ,reisk4             
,,on ,,the ,,cave ,,of ,,the ,,nymphs1  
,,in ,,the ,,thirteenth ,,book ,,of     
,,the ,,odyssey4      #a4 ,what does    
,homer obscurely signify by the cave in 
,ithaca1 which he  describes in the     
following verses8        8,high at the  
head a branching olive grows1      ,and 
crowns the pointed cliffs with shady    
boughs4      ,a cavern pleasant1 though 
involv'd in night1      ,beneath it     
lies1 the ,naiades' delight3      ,where
 bowls and urns of workmanship divine   

,and massy beams in native marble shine2
      ,on which the ,nymphs amazing webs
 display1      ,of purple hue1 and      
exquisite array4      ,the busy bees    
within the urns secure      ,honey      
delicious1 and like nectar pure4        
,perpetual waters through the grotto    
glide1      ,a lofty gate unfolds on    
either side2      ,that to the north is 
pervious to mankind2      ,the sacred   
south t' immortals is consign'd40       
,that the poet1 indeed1 does not narrate
 these particulars from historical      
information1 is evident from this1 that 
those who have given us a  description  
of the island1 have1 as ,cronius#aaf    
says1 made no mention  of such a cave   
being found in it4 ,this likewise1 says 
he1 is manifest1  that it would be      
absurd for ,homer to expect1 that in    
describing a cave  fabricated merely by 
poetical license1 and thus artificially 
opening a  path to ,gods and men in the 
region of ,ithaca1 he should gain the   
belief  of mankind4 ,and it is equally  

absurd to suppose1 that nature herself  
should point out1 in this place1 one    
path for the descent of all mankind1    
and again another path for all the      
,gods4 ,for1 indeed1 the whole world is 
full of ,gods and men3 but it is        
impossible to be persuaded1 that in the 
,ithacensian cave men descend1 and ,gods
 ascend4 ,cronius1 therefore1 having    
premised thus much1 says1 that it is    
evident1 not only to the wise but  also 
to the vulgar1 that the poet1 under the 
veil of allegory1 conceals  some        
mysterious signification2 thus          
compelling others to explore what  the  
gate of men is1 and also what is the    
gate of the ,gods3 what he means  by    
asserting that this cave of the ,nymphs 
has two gates2 and why it is  both      
pleasant and obscure1 since darkness is 
by no means delightful1  but is rather  
productive of aversion and horror4      
,likewise1 what is the  reason why it is
 not simply said to be the cave of the  
,nymphs1 but it is  accurately added1 of

 the ,nymphs which are called ,naiades8 
,why1 also1 is  the cave represented as 
containing bowls and amphor1 when no    
mention is  made of their receiving any 
liquor1 but bees are said to deposit    
their  honey in these vessels as in     
hives8 ,then1 again1 why are oblong     
beams  adapted to weaving placed here   
for the ,nymphs2 and these not formed   
from  wood1 or any other pliable matter1
 but from stone1 as well as the amphor  
and bowls8 ,which last circumstance is1 
indeed1 less obscure2 but that1 on      
these stony beams1 the ,nymphs should   
weave purple garments1 is not only      
wonderful to the sight1 but also to the 
auditory sense4 ,for who would  believe 
that ,goddesses weave garments in a cave
 involved in darkness1  and on stony    
beams2 especially while he hears the    
poet asserting1 that  the purple webs of
 the ,goddesses were visible4 ,in       
addition to these  things likewise1 this
 is admirable1 that the cave should have
 a twofold  entrance2 one made for the  

descent of men1 but the other for the   
ascent  of ,gods4 ,and again1 that the  
gate1 which is pervious by men1 should  
be  said to be turned towards the north 
wind1 but the portal of the ,gods to    
the south2 and why the poet did not     
rather make use of the west and the     
east for this purpose2 since nearly all 
temples have their statues and          
entrances turned towards the east2 but  
those who enter them look towards  the  
west1 when standing with their faces    
turned towards the statues1  they honour
 and worship the ,gods4 ,hence1 since   
this narration is full of  such         
obscurities1 it can neither be a fiction
 casually devised for the  purpose of   
procuring delight1 nor an exposition of 
a topical history2 but  something       
allegorical must be indicated in it by  
the poet1 who likewise  mystically      
places an olive near the cave4 ,all     
which particulars the  ancients thought 
very laborious to investigate and       
unfold2 and we1 with  their assistance1 

shall now endeavour to develope the     
secret meaning  of the allegory4 ,those 
persons1 therefore1 appear to have      
written very  negligently about the     
situation of the place1 who think that  
the cave1  and what is narrated         
concerning it1 are nothing more than a  
fiction of  the poet4 ,but the best and 
most accurate writers of geography1 and 
among  these ,artemidorus the ,ephesian1
 in the fifth book of his work1 which   
consists of eleven books1 thus writes3  
8,the island of ,ithaca1 containing  an 
extent of eighty-five stadia#aag1 is    
distant from ,panormus1 a port  of      
,cephalenia1 about twelve stadia4 ,it   
has a port named ,phorcys1 in  which    
there is a shore1 and on that shore a   
cave1 in which the ,phacians  are       
reported to have placed ,ulysses40 ,this
 cave1 therefore1 will not be  entirely 
an ,homeric fiction4 ,but whether the   
poet describes it as it  really is1 or  
whether he has added something to it of 
his own invention1  nevertheless the    

same inquiries remain2 whether the      
intention of the  poet is investigated1 
or of those who founded the cave4 ,for1 
neither did  the ancients establish     
temples without fabulous symbols1 nor   
does ,homer  rashly narrate the         
particulars pertaining to things of this
 kind4 ,but how  much the more any one  
endeavours to show that this description
 of the  cave is not an ,homeric        
fiction1 but prior to ,homer was        
consecrated to the  ,gods1 by so much   
the more will this consecrated cave be  
found to be full  of ancient wisdom4    
,and on this account it deserves to be  
investigated1  and it is requisite that 
its symbolical consecration should be   
amply  unfolded into light4    #b4 ,the 
ancients1 indeed1 very properly         
consecrated a cave to the world1        
whether assumed collectively1 according 
to the whole of itself1 or  separately1 
according to its parts4 ,hence they     
considered earth as a  symbol of that   
matter of which the world consists2 on  

which account  some thought that matter 
and earth are the same2 through the cave
  indicating the world1 which was       
generated from matter4 ,for caves are1  
for the most part1 spontaneous          
productions1 and connascent with the    
earth1 being comprehended by one uniform
 mass of stone2 the interior  parts of  
which are concave1 but the exterior     
parts are extended over an  indefinite  
portion of land4 ,and the world being   
spontaneously produced1  i4e4 being     
produced by no external1 but from an    
internal cause1  and being also         
self-adherent1 is allied to matter2     
which1 according to  a secret           
signification1 is denominated a stone   
and a rock1 on account  of its sluggish 
and repercussive nature with respect to 
form3 the  ancients1 at the same time1  
asserting that matter is infinite       
through  its privation of form4 ,since1 
however1 it is continually flowing1 and 
is of itself destitute of the           
supervening investments of form1 through

  which it participates of morphe#aah1  
and becomes visible1 the flowing        
waters1 darkness1 or1 as the poet says1 
obscurity of the cavern1 were           
considered by the ancients as apt       
symbols of what the world contains1  on 
account of the matter with which it is  
connected4 ,through matter1  therefore1 
the world is obscure and dark2 but      
through the connecting  power1 and      
orderly distribution of form1 from which
 also it is called  world1 it is        
beautiful and delightful4 ,hence it may 
very properly be  denominated a cave2 as
 being lovely1 indeed1 to him who first 
enters into  it1 through its            
participation of forms1 but obscure to  
him who surveys  its foundation1 and    
examines it with an intellectual eye4   
,so that its  exterior and superficial  
parts1 indeed1 are pleasant1 but its    
interior  and profound parts are        
obscure1 and its very bottom is darkness
 itself4  ,thus also the ,persians1     
mystically signifying the descent of the

 soul  into the sublunary regions1 and  
its regression from it1 initiate the    
mystic or him who is admitted to the    
arcane sacred rites in a place  which   
they denominate a cavern4 ,for1 as      
,eubulus says1 ,zoroaster was  the first
 who consecrated1 in the neighbouring   
mountains of ,persia1 a  spontaneously  
produced cave1 florid1 and having       
fountains1 in honour  of ,mithra1 the   
maker and father of all things2 a cave1 
according to  ,zoroaster1 bearing a     
resemblance of the world1 which was     
fabricated by  ,mithra4 ,but the things 
contained in the cavern being arranged  
according  to commensurate intervals1   
were symbols of the mundane elements and
  climates4    #c4 ,after this          
,zoroaster likewise1 it was usual with  
others to perform  the rites pertaining 
to the mysteries in caverns and dens1   
whether  spontaneously produced1 or made
 by the hands4 ,for1 as they established
  temples1 groves1 and altars1 to the   
celestial ,gods1 but to the  terrestrial

 ,gods1 and to heroes1 altars alone1 and
 to the subterranean  divinities pits   
and cells2 so to the world they         
dedicated caves and dens2  as likewise  
to ,nymphs#aai1 on account of the water 
which trickles1 or is  diffused in      
caverns1 over which the ,naiades1 as we 
shall shortly observe1  preside4 ,not   
only1 however1 did the ancients make a  
cavern1 as we have  said1 to be a symbol
 of the world1 or of a generated and    
sensible nature2  but they also assumed 
it as a symbol of all invisible powers2 
because1 as  caverns are obscure and    
dark1 so the essence of these powers is 
occult4  ,hence ,saturn fabricated a    
cavern in the ocean itself1 and         
concealed in  it his children4 ,thus1   
too1 ,ceres educated ,proserpine1 with  
her ,nymphs1  in a cave2 and many other 
particulars of this kind may be found in
 the  writings of theologists4 ,but that
 the ancients dedicated caverns to      
,nymphs1 and especially to the ,naiades1
 who dwell near fountains1 and who  are 

called ,naiades from the streams over   
which they preside1 is manifest  from   
the hymn to ,apollo1 in which it is     
said3 8,the ,nymphs residing in  caves  
shall deduce fountains of intellectual  
waters to thee1 7according  to the      
divine voice of the ,muses17 which are  
the progeny of a terrene  spirit4 ,hence
 waters1 bursting through every river1  
shall exhibit to  mankind perpetual     
effusions of sweet streams#abj40 ,from  
hence1 as it  appears to me1 the        
,pythagoreans1 and after them ,plato1   
showed that the  world is a cavern and a
 den4 ,for the powers which are the     
leaders of  souls1 thus speak in a verse
 of ,empedocles3        ,now at this    
secret cavern we're arrived4    ,and by 
,plato1 in the #gth book of his         
,republic1 it is said1 8,behold men  as 
if dwelling in a subterraneous cavern1  
and in a den-like habitation1  whose    
entrance is widely expanded to the      
admission of the light through  the     
whole cave40 ,but when the other person 

in the ,dialogue says1 8,you  adduce an 
unusual and wonderful similitude10 he   
replies1 8,the whole of  this image1    
friend ,glauco1 must be adapted to what 
has been before said1  assimilating this
 receptacle1 which is visible through   
the sight1 to the  habitation of a      
prison2 but the light of the fire which 
is in it to the  power of the sun40     
#d4 ,that theologists therefore         
considered caverns as symbols of the    
world1  and of mundane powers1 is1      
through this1 manifest4 ,and it has been
  already observed by us1 that they also
 considered a cave as a symbol of  the  
intelligible essence2 being impelled to 
do so by different and not  the same    
conceptions4 ,for they were of opinion1 
that a cave is a symbol  of the sensible
 world1 because caverns are dark1 stony1
 and humid2 and  they asserted1 that the
 world is a thing of this kind1 through 
the matter  of which it consists1 and   
through its repercussive and flowing    
nature4  ,but they thought it to be a   

symbol of the intelligible world1       
because  that world is invisible to     
sensible perception1 and possesses a    
firm and  stable essence4 ,thus1 also1  
partial powers are unapparent1 and      
especially  those which are inherent in 
matter4 ,for they formed these symbols1 
from  surveying the spontaneous         
production of caves1 and their          
nocturnal1 dark1  and stony nature2 and 
not entirely1 as some suspect1 from     
directing their  attention to the figure
 of a cavern4 ,for every cave is not    
spherical1  as is evident from this     
,homeric cave with a twofold entrance4  
,but since  a cavern has a twofold      
similitude1 the present cave must not be
 assumed  as an image of the            
intelligible1 but of the sensible       
essence4 ,for in  consequence of        
containing perpetually-flowing streams  
of water1 it will  not be a symbol of an
 intelligible hypostasis1 but of a      
material essence4  ,on this account     
also1 it is sacred to ,nymphs1 not the  

mountain1 or  rural#aba ,nymphs1 or     
others of the like kind1 but to the     
,naiades1 who  are thus denominated from
 streams of water4 ,for we peculiarly   
call the  ,naiades1 and the powers that 
preside over waters1 ,nymphs2 and this  
term1  also1 is commonly applied to all 
souls descending into generation4 ,for  
the ancients thought that these souls   
are incumbent on water which is         
inspired by divinity1 as ,numenius says1
 who adds1 that on this account1  a     
prophet asserts1 that the ,spirit of    
,god moved on the waters4 ,the          
,egyptians likewise1 on this account1   
represent all dmons1 and also  the sun1 
and1 in short1 all the planets#abb1 not 
standing on any thing  solid1 but on a  
sailing vessel2 for souls descending    
into generation  fly to moisture4       
,hence1 also1 ,heraclitus says1 8that   
moisture appears  delightful and not    
deadly to souls20 but the lapse into    
generation is  delightful to them4 ,and 
in another place speaking of unembodied 

souls1  he says1 8,we live their death1 
and we die their life40 ,hence the poet 
calls those that are in generation      
humid1 because they have souls  which   
are profoundly steeped in moisture4 ,on 
this account1 such souls  delight in    
blood and humid seed2 but water is the  
nutriment of the souls  of plants4 ,some
 likewise are of opinion1 that the      
bodies in the air1 and  in the heavens1 
are nourished by vapours from fountains 
and rivers1 and  other exhalations4 ,but
 the ,stoics assert1 that the sun is    
nourished by  the exhalation from the   
sea2 the moon from the vapours of       
fountains and  rivers2 and the stars    
from the exhalation of the earth4       
,hence1 according  to them1 the sun is  
an intellectual composition formed from 
the sea2 the  moon from river waters2   
and the stars from terrene exhalations4 
#e4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 that   
souls1 whether they are corporeal  or   
incorporeal1 while they attract to      
themselves body1 and especially  such as

 are about to be bound to blood and     
moist bodies1 should verge  to humidity1
 and be corporalized1 in consequence of 
being drenched in  moisture4 ,hence the 
souls of the dead are evocated by the   
effusion of  bile and blood2 and souls  
that are lovers of body1 by attracting a
  moist spirit1 condense this humid     
vehicle like a cloud4 ,for moisture     
condensed in the air constitutes a      
cloud4 ,but the pneumatic vehicle being 
condensed in these souls1 becomes       
visible through an excess of moisture4  
,and among the number of these we must  
reckon those apparitions of images1     
which1 from a spirit coloured by the    
influence of imagination1 present       
themselves to mankind4 ,but pure souls  
are averse from generation2 so  that1 as
 ,heraclitus says1 8a dry soul is the   
wisest40 ,hence1 here  also1 the spirit 
becomes moist and more aqueous through  
the desire  of coition1 the soul thus   
attracting a humid vapour from verging  
to  generation4 ,souls1 therefore1      

proceeding into generation1 are the     
,nymphs  called ,naiades4 ,hence it is  
usual to call those that are married    
,nymphs1  as being conjoined to         
generation1 and to pour water into baths
 from  fountains1 or rivers1 or         
perpetual rills4    #f4 ,this world1    
then1 is sacred and pleasant to souls   
who have now  proceeded into nature1 and
 to natal dmons1 though it is           
essentially  dark and obscure2 1 from   
which some have suspected that  souls   
also are of an obscure nature1 1 and    
essentially  consist of air4 ,hence a   
cavern1 which is both pleasant and dark1
 will  be appropriately consecrated to  
souls on the earth1 conformably to its  
similitude to the world2 in which1 as in
 the greatest of all temples1  souls    
reside4 ,to the ,nymphs likewise1 who   
preside over waters1 a cavern1  in which
 there are perpetually flowing streams1 
is adapted4 ,let1  therefore1 this      
present cavern be consecrated to souls1 
and1 among the  more partial powers1 to 

nymphs1 that preside over streams and   
fountains1  and who1 on this account1   
are called fontal and ,naiades4 ,what1  
therefore1 are the different symbols1   
some of which are adapted to  souls1 but
 others to the aquatic powers1 in order 
that we may apprehend  that this cavern 
is consecrated in common to both8 ,let  
the stony bowls1  then1 and the amphor1 
be symbols of the aquatic ,nymphs4 ,for 
these are1  indeed1 the symbols of      
,bacchus1 but their composition is      
fictile1 i4e4  consists of baked earth2 
and these are friendly to the vine1 the 
gift  of the ,god2 since the fruit of   
the vine is brought to a proper maturity
  by the celestial fire of the sun4 ,but
 the stony bowls and amphor1 are in  the
 most eminent degree adapted to the     
,nymphs who preside over the water  that
 flows from rocks4 ,and to souls that   
descend into generation1 and  are       
occupied in corporeal energies1 what    
symbol can be more appropriate  than    
those instruments pertaining to weaving8

 ,hence1 also1 the poet  ventures to    
say1 8that on these the ,nymphs weave   
purple webs1 admirable  to the view40   
,for the formation of the flesh is on   
and about the bones1  which in the      
bodies of animals resemble stones4      
,hence these instruments  of weaving    
consist of stone1 and not of any other  
matter4 ,but the purple  webs will      
evidently be the flesh which is woven   
from the blood4 ,for  purple woollen    
garments are tinged from blood2 and wool
 is dyed from  animal juice4 ,the       
generation of flesh1 also1 is through   
and from blood4  ,add1 too1 that the    
body is a garment with which the soul is
 invested1 a  thing wonderful to the    
sight1 whether this refers to the       
composition of  the soul1 or contributes
 to the colligation of the soul to the  
whole  of a visible essence4 ,thus1     
also1 ,proserpine1 who is the inspective
  guardian of every thing produced from 
seed1 is represented by ,orpheus as     
weaving a web#abc2 and the heavens are  

called by the ancients a veil1  in      
consequence of being1 as it were1 the   
vestment of the celestial ,gods4    #g4 
,why1 therefore1 are the amphor said not
 to be filled with water1  but with     
honey-combs8 ,for in these ,homer says  
the bees deposit their  honey4 ,but this
 is evident from the word 1 which       
signifies    2 i4e4 to deposit aliment4 
,and honey is the nutriment  of bees4   
,theologists1 also1 have made honey     
subservient to many and  different      
symbols1 because it consists of many    
powers2 since it is both  cathartic and 
preservative4 ,hence1 through honey1    
bodies are preserved  from putrefaction1
 and inveterate ulcers are purified4    
,farther still1  it is also sweet to the
 taste1 and is collected by bees1 who   
are  ox-begotten1 from flowers4 ,when1  
therefore1 those who are initiated in   
the ,leontic sacred rites1 pour honey   
instead of water on their hands2  they  
are ordered by the initiator to have    
their hands pure from every  thing      

productive of molestation1 and from     
every thing noxious and  detestable4    
,other initiators into the same         
mysteries employ fire1  which is of a   
cathartic nature1 as an appropriate     
purification4 ,and they  likewise purify
 the tongue from all the defilement of  
evil with honey4  ,but the ,persians1   
when they offer honey to the guardian of
 fruits1  consider it as the symbol of a
 preserving and defending power4 ,hence 
some persons have thought that the      
nectar and ambrosia#abd1 which the  poet
 pours into the nostrils of the dead1   
for the purpose of preventing           
putrefaction1 is honey2 since honey is  
the food of the ,gods4 ,on this         
account1 also1 the same poet somewhere  
calls nectar 2 for such is  the colour  
of honey1 viz4 it is a deep yellow4 ,but
 whether or not honey  is to be taken   
for nectar1 we shall elsewhere more     
accurately examine4  ,in ,orpheus1      
likewise1 ,saturn is ensnared by        
,jupiter through honey4 ,for  ,saturn1  

being filled with honey1 is intoxicated1
 his senses are darkened1  as if from   
the effects of wine1 and he sleeps2 just
 as ,porus1 in the  ,banquet of ,plato1 
is filled with nectar2 for wine was not 
7says he7 yet  known4 ,the ,goddess     
,night1 too1 in ,orpheus1 advises       
,jupiter to make use  of honey as an    
artifice4 ,for she says to him--        
,when stretch'd beneath the lofty oaks  
you view      ,saturn1 with honey by the
 bees produc'd1      ,sunk in           
ebriety#abe1 fast bind the ,god4        
,this1 therefore1 takes place1 and      
,saturn being bound1 is castrated in    
the same manner as ,heaven2 the         
theologist obscurely signifying by this1
  that divine natures become through    
pleasure bound1 and drawn down into  the
 realms of generation2 and also that1   
when dissolved in pleasure1  they emit  
certain seminal powers4 ,hence ,saturn  
castrates ,heaven1 when  descending to  
earth1 through a desire of coition#abf4 
,but the sweetness  of honey signifies1 

with theologists1 the same thing as the 
pleasure  arising from copulation1 by   
which ,saturn1 being ensnared1 was      
castrated4  ,for ,saturn1 and his       
sphere1 are the first of the orbs that  
move contrary  to the course of ,clum1  
or the heavens4 ,certain powers1        
however1 descend  both from ,heaven or  
the inerratic sphere and the planets4   
,but ,saturn  receives the powers of    
,heaven1 and ,jupiter the powers of     
,saturn4  ,since1 therefore1 honey is   
assumed in purgations1 and as an        
antidote  to putrefaction1 and is       
indicative of the pleasure which draws  
souls  downward to generation2 it is a  
symbol well adapted to aquatic ,nymphs1 
on  account of the unputrescent nature  
of the waters over which they preside1  
their purifying power1 and their        
co-operation with generation4 ,for water
  co-operates in the work of generation4
 ,on this account the bees are said1  by
 the poet1 to deposit their honey in    
bowls and amphor2 the bowls being  a    

symbol of fountains1 and therefore a    
bowl is placed near to ,mithra1  instead
 of a fountain2 but the amphor are      
symbols of the vessels with  which we   
draw water from fountains4 ,and         
fountains and streams are adapted  to   
aquatic ,nymphs1 and still more so to   
the ,nymphs that are souls1  which the  
ancients peculiarly called bees1 as the 
efficient causes of  sweetness4 ,hence  
,sophocles does not speak               
unappropriately when he says of  souls--
        ,in swarms while wandering1 from
 the dead1      ,a humming sound is     
heard4    #h4 ,the priestesses of       
,ceres1 also1 as being initiated into   
the mysteries  of the terrene ,goddess1 
were called by the ancients bees2 and   
,proserpine  herself was denominated by 
them honied4 ,the moon1 likewise1 who   
presides over generation1 was called by 
them a bee1 and also a bull4  ,and      
,taurus is the exaltation of the moon4  
,but bees are ox-begotten4 ,and  this   
appellation is also given to souls      

proceeding into generation4 ,the  ,god1 
likewise1 who is occultly connected with
 generation1 is a stealer  of oxen4 ,to 
which may be added1 that honey is       
considered as a symbol  of death1 and on
 this account1 it is usual to offer     
libations of honey  to the terrestrial  
,gods2 but gall is considered as a      
symbol of life2  whether it is obscurely
 signified by this1 that the life of the
 soul  dies through pleasure1 but       
through bitterness the soul resumes its 
life1  whence1 also1 bile is sacrificed 
to the ,gods2 or whether it is1 because 
death liberates from molestation1 but   
the present life is laborious and       
bitter4 ,all souls1 however1 proceeding 
into generation1 are not simply  called 
bees1 but those who will live in it     
justly1 and who1 after having  performed
 such things as are acceptable to the   
,gods1 will again return  to their      
kindred stars4 ,for this insect loves to
 return to the place  from whence it    
first came1 and is eminently just and   

sober4 ,whence1 also1  the libations    
which are made with honey are called    
sober4 ,bees1 likewise1  do not sit on  
beans1 which were considered by the     
ancients as a symbol of  generation     
proceeding in a right line1 and without 
flexure2 because this  leguminous       
vegetable is almost the only            
seed-bearing plant1 whose stalk  is     
perforated throughout without any       
intervening knots#abg4 ,we must         
therefore admit1 that honey-combs and   
bees are appropriate and common  symbols
 of the aquatic ,nymphs1 and of souls   
that are married as it were  to the     
humid and fluctuating nature of         
generation4    #i4 ,caves1 therefore1 in
 the most remote periods of antiquity1  
were  consecrated to the ,gods1 before  
temples were erected to them4 ,hence1   
the  ,curetes in ,crete dedicated a     
cavern to ,jupiter2 in ,arcadia1 a cave 
was  sacred to the ,moon1 and to ,lycean
 ,pan2 and in ,naxus1 to ,bacchus4 ,but 
wherever ,mithra was known1 they        

propitiated the ,god in a cavern4 ,with 
respect1 however1 to this ,ithacensian  
cave1 ,homer was not satisfied with     
saying that it had two gates1 but adds1 
that one of the gates was turned        
towards the north1 but the other1 which 
was more divine1 to the south4 ,he  also
 says1 that the northern gate was       
pervious to descent1 but does not       
indicate whether this was also the case 
with the southern gate4 ,for of  this1  
he only says1 8,it is inaccessible to   
men1 but it is the path of the          
immortals40    #aj4 ,it remains1        
therefore1 to investigate what is       
indicated by this  narration1 whether   
the poet describes a cavern which was in
 reality  consecrated by others1 or     
whether it is an enigma of his own      
invention4  ,since1 however1 a cavern is
 an image and symbol of the world1 as   
,numenius  and his familiar ,cronius    
assert1 there are two extremities in the
  heavens1 viz4 the winter tropic1 than 
which nothing is more southern1 and  the

 summer tropic1 than which nothing is   
more northern4 ,but the summer  tropic  
is in ,cancer1 and the winter tropic in 
,capricorn4 ,and since ,cancer  is      
nearest to us1 it is very properly      
attributed to the ,moon1 which is  the  
nearest of all the heavenly bodies to   
the earth4 ,but as the southern  pole1  
by its great distance1 is invisible to  
us1 hence ,capricorn is  attributed to  
,saturn1 the highest and most remote of 
all the planets4  ,again1 the signs from
 ,cancer to ,capricorn1 are situated in 
the following  order3 and the first of  
these is ,leo1 which is the house of the
 ,sun2  afterwards ,virgo1 which is the 
house of ,mercury2 ,libra1 the house of 
,venus2 ,scorpius1 of ,mars2            
,sagittarius1 of ,jupiter2 and          
,capricornus1 of  ,saturn4 ,but from    
,capricorn in an inverse order1         
,aquarius is attributed to  ,saturn2    
,pisces1 to ,jupiter2 ,aries1 to ,mars2 
,taurus1 to ,venus2 ,gemini1 to         
,mercury2 and1 in the last place1       

,cancer to the ,moon4    #aa4           
,theologists therefore assert1 that     
these two gates are ,cancer and         
,capricorn2 but ,plato calls them       
entrances4 ,and of these1 theologists   
say1 that ,cancer is the gate through   
which souls descend2 but ,capricorn     
that through which they ascend4 ,cancer 
is indeed northern1 and adapted  to     
descent2 but ,capricorn is southern1 and
 adapted to ascent#abh4 ,the  northern  
parts1 likewise1 pertain to souls       
descending into generation4  ,and the   
gates of the cavern which are turned to 
the north1 are rightly  said to be      
pervious to the descent of men2 but the 
southern gates are not  the avenues of  
the ,gods1 but of souls ascending to the
 ,gods4 ,on this  account1 the poet does
 not say that they are the avenues of   
the ,gods1 but  of immortals2 this      
appellation being also common to our    
souls1 which are  per se1 or            
essentially1 immortal4 ,it is said1 that
 ,parmenides mentions  these two gates  

in his treatise ,on the ,nature of      
,things2 as likewise1  that they are not
 unknown to the ,romans and ,egyptians4 
,for the ,romans  celebrate their       
,saturnalia when the ,sun is in         
,capricorn2 and during this  festivity1 
slaves wear the shoes of those that are 
free1 and all things  are distributed   
among them in common2 the legislator    
obscurely signifying  by this ceremony1 
that through this gate of the heavens1  
those who are  now born slaves will be  
liberated through the ,saturnian        
festival1 and the  house attributed to  
,saturn1 i4e4 ,capricorn1 when they live
 again1 and  return to the fountain of  
life4 ,since1 however1 the path from    
,capricorn  is adapted to ascent#abi1   
hence the ,romans denominate that month 
in  which the ,sun1 turning from        
,capricorn to the east1 directs his     
course  to the north1 ,januarius1 or    
,january1 from janua1 a gate4 ,but with 
the  ,egyptians1 the beginning of the   
year is not ,aquarius1 as with the      

,romans1  but ,cancer4 ,for the star    
,sothis1 which the ,greeks call the     
,dog1 is near  to ,cancer4 ,and the     
rising of ,sothis is the new moon with  
them1 this being  the principle of      
generation to the world4 ,on this       
account1 the gates of  the ,homeric     
cavern are not dedicated to the east and
 west1 nor to the  equinoctial signs1   
,aries and ,libra1 but to the north and 
south1 and to  those celestial signs    
which1 towards the south1 are most      
southerly1 and1  towards the north1 are 
most northerly2 because this cave was   
sacred  to souls and aquatic ,nymphs4   
,but these places are adapted to souls  
descending into generation1 and         
afterwards separating themselves from   
it4 ,hence1 a place near to the         
equinoctial circle was assigned to      
,mithra  as an appropriate seat4 ,and on
 this account he bears the sword of     
,aries1  which is a martial sign4 ,he is
 likewise carried in the ,bull1 which is
 the  sign of ,venus4 ,for ,mithra1 as  

well as the ,bull1 is the demiurgus and 
lord  of generation#acj4 ,but he is     
placed near the equinoctial circle1     
having  the northern parts on his right 
hand1 and the southern on his left4     
,they  likewise arranged towards the    
south the southern hemisphere1 because  
it is hot2 but the northern hemisphere  
towards the north1 through the  coldness
 of the north wind4    #ab4 ,the        
ancients1 likewise1 very reasonably     
connected winds with souls  proceeding  
into generation1 and again separating   
themselves from it1  because1 as some   
think1 souls attract a spirit1 and have 
a pneumatic  essence4 ,but the north    
wind is adapted to souls falling into   
generation2  and1 on this account1 the  
northern blasts refresh those who are   
dying1  and when they can scarcely draw 
their breath4 ,on the contrary1 the     
southern gales dissolve life4 ,for the  
north wind1 indeed1 from its  superior  
coldness1 congeals as it were1 the      
animal life1 and detains  it in the     

frigidity of terrene generation4 ,but   
the south wind being hot1  dissolves    
this life1 and sends it upward to the   
heat of a divine nature4  ,since1       
however1 our terrene habitation is more 
northern1 it is proper  that souls which
 are born in it should be familiar with 
the north wind2  but those that exchange
 this life for a better1 with the south 
wind4 ,this  also is the cause why the  
north wind is at its commencement great2
 but  the south wind1 at its            
termination4 ,for the former is situated
 directly  over the inhabitants of the  
northern part of the globe2 but the     
latter  is at a great distance from     
them2 and the blast from places very    
remote1  is more tardy than from such as
 are near4 ,but when it is coacervated1 
then it blows abundantly1 and with      
vigour4 ,since1 however1 souls proceed  
into generation through the northern    
gate1 hence this wind is said to be     
amatory4 ,for1 as the poet says1        
,boreas1 enamour'd of the sprightly     

train1      ,conceal'd his godhead in a 
flowing mane4      ,with voice          
dissembled1 to his loves he neigh'd1    
,and coursed the dappled beauties o'er  
the mead3      ,hence sprung twelve     
others of unrivall'd kind1      ,swift  
as their mother mares1 and father       
wind#aca4    ,it is also said1 that     
,boreas ravished ,orithya#acb1 from whom
 he begot  ,zetis and ,calais4 ,but as  
the south is attributed to the ,gods1   
hence1 when  the ,sun is at his         
meridian1 the curtains in temples are   
drawn before the  statues of the ,gods2 
in consequence of observing the ,homeric
 precept1  8that it is not lawful for   
men to enter temples when the ,sun is   
inclined  to the south20 for this is the
 path of the immortals4 ,hence1 when the
  ,god is at his meridian altitude1 the 
ancients placed a symbol of mid-day  and
 of the south in the gates of           
temples#acc2 and1 on this account1 in   
other gates also1 it was not lawful to  
speak at all times1 because gates  were 

considered as sacred4 ,hence1 too1 the  
,pythagoreans1 and the wise  men among  
the ,egyptians1 forbade speaking while  
passing through doors or  gates2 for    
then they venerated in silence that ,god
 who is the principle  of wholes and1   
therefore of all things4    #ac4 ,homer 
likewise knew that gates are sacred1 as 
is evident from his  representing       
,oeneus1 when supplicating1 shaking the 
gate3        ,the gates he shakes1 and  
supplicates the son#acd4    ,he also    
knew the gates of the heavens which are 
committed to the  guardianship of the   
,hours2 which gates originate in cloudy 
places1 and  are opened and shut by the 
clouds4 ,for he says4        ,whether   
dense clouds they close1 or wide        
unfold#ace4    ,and on this account1    
these gates emit a bellowing sound1     
because thunders  roar through the      
clouds3        ,heaven's gates          
spontaneous open to the powers2         
,heaven's bellowing portals1 guarded by 
the ,hours#acf4    ,he likewise         

elsewhere speaks of the gates of the    
,sun1 signifying by these  ,cancer and  
,capricorn2 for the ,sun proceeds as far
 as to these signs1 when  he descends   
from the north to the south1 and from   
thence ascends again  to the northern   
parts4 ,but ,capricorn and ,cancer are  
situated about the  galaxy1 being       
allotted the extremities of this circle2
 ,cancer1 indeed1  the northern1 but    
,capricorn the southern extremity of it4
 ,according to  ,pythagoras1 also1 the  
people of dreams#acg1 are the souls     
which are  said to be collected in the  
galaxy1 this circle being so called from
  the milk with which souls are         
nourished when they fall into           
generation4  ,hence1 those who evocate  
departed souls1 sacrifice to them by a  
libation  of milk mingled with honey2   
because1 through the allurements of     
sweetness1 they will proceed into       
generation2 with the birth of man1 milk 
being naturally produced4 ,farther      
still1 the southern regions produce     

small bodies2 for it is usual with heat 
to attenuate them in the greatest       
degree4 ,but all bodies generated in the
 north are large1 as is evident  in the 
,celt1 the ,thracians1 and the          
,scythians2 and these regions are       
humid1 and abound with pastures4 ,for   
the word ,boreas is derived from  1     
which signifies nutriment4 ,hence1 also1
 the wind which blows from  a land      
abounding in nutriment1 is called 1 as  
being of a nutritive  nature4 ,from     
these causes1 therefore1 the northern   
parts are adapted to  the mortal tribe1 
and to souls that fall into the realms  
of generation4  ,but the southern parts 
are adapted to that which is            
immortal#ach1  just as the eastern parts
 of the world are attributed to the     
,gods1  but the western to dmons4 ,for1 
in consequence of nature originating    
from diversity1 the ancients every where
 made that which has a twofold  entrance
 to be a symbol of the nature of things4
 ,for the progression  is either through

 that which is intelligible1 or through 
that which is  sensible4 ,and if through
 that which is sensible1 it is either   
through  the sphere of the fixed stars1 
or through the sphere of the planets4   
,and  again1 it is either through an    
immortal1 or through a mortal           
progression4  ,one centre1 likewise1 is 
above1 but the other beneath the earth2 
and  the one is eastern1 but the other  
western4 ,thus1 too1 some parts of  the 
world are situated on the left1 but     
others on the right hand3 and  night is 
opposed to day4 ,on this account1 also1 
harmony consists of1 and  proceeds#aci  
through contraries4 ,plato also says1   
that there are two  openings#adj1 one of
 which affords a passage to souls       
ascending to the  heavens1 but the other
 to souls descending to the earth4 ,and1
 according  to theologists1 the ,sun and
 ,moon are the gates of souls1 which    
ascend  through the ,sun1 and descend   
through the ,moon4 ,with ,homer1        
likewise1  there are two tubs1          

,from which the lot of every one he     
fills1      ,blessings to these1 to     
those distributes ills#ada4    ,but     
,plato1 in the ,gorgias1 by tubs intends
 to signify souls1 some of  which are   
malefic1 but others beneficent1 and some
 of which are rational1  but others     
irrational#adb4 ,souls1 however1 are    
analogous to tubs1  because they contain
 in themselves energies and habits1 as  
in a vessel4  ,in ,hesiod too1 we find  
one tub closed1 but the other opened by 
,pleasure1  who scatters its contents   
every where1 ,hope alone remaining      
behind4 ,for  in those things in which a
 depraved soul1 being dispersed about   
matter1  deserts the proper order of its
 essence2 in all these1 it is accustomed
  to feed itself with the pleasing      
prospects of auspicious hope4    #ad4   
,since1 therefore1 every twofold        
entrance is a symbol of nature1 this    
,homeric cavern has1 very properly1 not 
one portal only1 but two gates1  which  
differ from each other conformably to   

things themselves2 of which  one        
pertains to ,gods and good dmons#adc1   
but the other to mortals1  and depraved 
natures4 ,hence1 ,plato took occasion to
 speak of bowls1 and  assumes tubs      
instead of amphor1 and two openings1 as 
we have already  observed1 instead of   
two gates4 ,pherecydes ,syrus also      
mentions recesses  and trenches1        
caverns1 doors1 and gates2 and through  
these obscurely  indicates the          
generations of souls1 and their         
separation from these  material realms4 
,and thus much for an explanation of the
 ,homeric cave1  which we think we have 
sufficiently unfolded without adducing  
any farther  testimonies from ancient   
philosophers and theologists1 which     
would give a  needless extent to our    
discourse4    #ae4 ,one particular1     
however1 remains to be explained1 and   
that is the  symbol of the olive planted
 at the top of the cavern2 since ,homer 
appears  to indicate something very     
admirable by giving it such a position4 

,for  he does not merely say that an    
olive grows in this place1 but that it  
flourishes on the summit of the cavern4 
8,high at the head a branching olive    
grows1      ,beneath1 a gloomy grotto's 
cool recess40    ,but the growth of the 
olive in such a situation1 is not       
fortuitous1 as  some one may suspect1   
but contains the enigma of the cavern4  
,for since  the world was not produced  
rashly and casually1 but is the work of 
divine  wisdom and an intellectual      
nature1 hence an olive1 the symbol of   
this  wisdom1 flourishes near the       
present cavern1 which is an image of the
  world4 ,for the olive is the plant of 
,minerva2 and ,minerva is wisdom4 ,but  
this ,goddess being produced from the   
head of ,jupiter1 the theologist has    
discovered an appropriate place for the 
olive1 by consecrating it at the  summit
 of the port2 signifying by this1 that  
the universe is not the  effect of a    
casual event1 and the work of irrational
 fortune1 but that  it is the offspring 

of an intellectual nature and divine    
wisdom1 which  is separated1 indeed1    
from it by a difference of essence1 but 
yet is  near to it1 through being       
established on the summit of the whole  
port2  i4e4 from the dignity and        
excellence of its nature governing the  
whole  with consummate wisdom4 ,since1  
however1 an olive is ever-flourishing1  
it possesses a certain peculiarity in   
the highest degree adapted to the       
revolutions of souls in the world2 for  
to such souls this cave as we  have said
 is sacred4 ,for in summer1 the white   
leaves of the olive tend  upward1 but in
 winter1 the whiter leaves are bent     
downward4 ,on this  account1 also1 in   
prayers and supplications1 men extend   
the branches of  an olive1 ominating    
from this1 that they shall exchange the 
sorrowful  darkness of danger for the   
fair light of security and peace4 ,the  
olive1  therefore1 being naturally      
ever-flourishing1 bears fruit which is  
the  auxiliary of labour by being its   

reward2 it is also sacred to ,minerva2  
supplies the victors in athletic labours
 with crowns2 and affords a  friendly   
branch to the suppliant petitioner4     
,thus1 too1 the world is  governed by an
 intellectual nature1 and is conducted  
by a wisdom eternal  and                
ever-flourishing2 by which the rewards  
of victory are conferred on  the        
conquerors in the athletic race of life1
 as the reward of severe toil  and      
patient perseverance4 ,and the          
,demiurgus1 who connects and contains   
the world in ineffable comprehensions1  
invigorates miserable and  suppliant    
souls4    #af4 ,in this cave1 therefore1
 says ,homer1 all external possessions  
must  be deposited4 ,here1 naked1 and   
assuming a suppliant habit1 afflicted in
  body1 casting aside every thing       
superfluous1 and being averse to the    
energies of sense1 it is requisite to   
sit at the foot of the olive1 and       
consult with ,minerva by what means we  
may most effectually destroy that       

hostile rout of passions which          
insidiously lurk in the secret recesses 
of the soul4 ,indeed1 as it appears to  
me1 it was not without reason that      
,numenius and his followers thought the 
person of ,ulysses in the ,odyssey      
represented to us a man1 who passes in a
 regular manner over the dark and       
stormy sea of generation1 and thus at   
length arrives at that region where     
tempests and seas are unknown1 and finds
 a nation        8,who ne'er knew salt1 
or heard the billows roar40    #ag4     
,again1 according to ,plato1 the deep1  
the sea1 and a tempest1 are  images of a
 material nature4 ,and on this account1 
,i think1 the poet  called the port by  
the name of ,phorcys4 ,for he says1 8,it
 is the port of  the ancient marine     
,phorcys#add40 ,the daughter1 likewise1 
of this ,god is  mentioned in the       
beginning of the ,odyssey4 ,but from    
,thoosa the ,cyclops  was born1 whom    
,ulysses deprived of sight4 ,and this   
deed of ,ulysses became  the occasion of

 reminding him of his errors1 till he   
was safely landed  in his native        
country4 ,on this account1 too1 a seat  
under the olive is  proper to ,ulysses1 
as to one who implores divinity1 and    
would appease his  natal dmon with a    
suppliant branch4 ,for it will not be   
simply1 and in  a concise way1 possible 
for any one to be liberated from this   
sensible  life1 who blinds this dmon1   
and renders his energies inefficacious2 
but  he who dares to do this1 will be   
pursued by the anger#ade of the marine  
and material ,gods1 whom it is first    
requisite to appease by sacrifices1     
labours1 and patient endurance2 at one  
time1 indeed1 contending with  the      
passions1 and at another employing      
enchantments and deceptions1 and  by    
these1 transforming himself in an       
all-various manner2 in order that1      
being at length divested of the torn    
garments by which his true person  was  
concealed1 he may recover the ruined    
empire of his soul4 ,nor will  he even  

then be liberated from labours2 but this
 will be effected when  he has entirely 
passed over the raging sea1 and1 though 
still living1  becomes so ignorant of   
marine and material works through deep  
attention  to intelligible concerns1 as 
to mistake an oar for a corn-van4       
#ah4 ,it must not1 however1 be thought1 
that interpretations of this kind  are  
forced1 and nothing more than the       
conjectures of ingenious men2  but when 
we consider the great wisdom of         
antiquity1 and how much ,homer  excelled
 in intellectual prudence1 and in an    
accurate knowledge of every  virtue1 it 
must not be denied that he has obscurely
 indicated the images  of things of a   
more divine nature in the fiction of a  
fable4 ,for it would  not have been     
possible to devise the whole of this    
hypothesis1 unless the  figment had been
 transferred to an appropriate meaning  
from certain  established truths4 ,but  
reserving the discussion of this for    
another  treatise1 we shall here finish 

our explanation of the present ,cave of 
the  ,nymphs4      ,,footnotes3    #aaf 
,this ,cronius1 the ,pythagorean1 is    
also mentioned by ,porphyry1 in  his    
,life of ,plotinus4    #aag i4e4 ,rather
 more than ten ,italian miles and a     
half1 eight stadia  making an ,italian  
mile4    #aah ,in the original1   4 ,but
 morphe1 as we are informed  by         
,simplicius1 pertains to the colour1    
figure1 and magnitude of  superficies4  
#aai 8,nymphs10 says ,hermias1 in his   
,scholia on the ,phdrus of ,plato1  8are
 ,goddesses who preside over            
regeneration1 and are ministrant to     
,bacchus1 the offspring of ,semele4     
,hence they dwell near water1 that  is1 
they are conversant with generation4    
,but this ,bacchus supplies the         
regeneration of the whole sensible      
world40    #abj ,these lines are not to 
be found in any of the hymns now extant1
  ascribed to ,homer4    #aba ,in the   
original1  2 but for 1 ,i read1 4       
#abb ,in the original1             1    

1   1    1         1     4 ,but after   
the words   1 it appears to me  to be   
requisite to insert  4 ,for ,martianus  
,capella1 in lib4  ii4 ,de ,nuptiis     
,philologi1 speaking of the sun1 says3  
8,ibi quandam navim1  totius natur      
cursibus diversa cupiditate moderantem1 
cunctaque flammarum  congestione        
plenissimam1 beatis circumactam mercibus
 conspicatur4 ,cui  naut septem germani1
 tamen suique consimiles prsidebant10 c4
 ,for in  this passage the seven sailors
 are evidently the seven planets4       
#abc ,the theological meaning of this   
,orphic fiction is beautifully  unfolded
 by ,proclus1 as follows3--8,orpheus    
says that the vivific cause  of partible
 natures i4e4 ,proserpine1 while she    
remained on high1  weaving the order of 
celestials1 was a nymph1 as being       
undefiled2 and  in consequence of this  
connected with ,jupiter1 and abiding in 
her  appropriate manners2 but that1     
proceeding from her proper habitation1  
she left her webs unfinished1 was       

ravished2 having been ravished1 was     
married2 and that being married she     
generated1 in order that she might      
animate things which have an            
adventitious life4 ,for the unfinished  
state of her webs indicates1 ,i think1  
that the universe is imperfect or       
unfinished1 as far as to perpetual      
animals i4e4 ,the universe would be     
imperfect if nothing inferior to the    
celestial ,gods was produced4 ,hence    
,plato says1 that the one ,demiurgus    
calls on the many ,demiurgi to weave    
together the mortal and immortal        
natures2 after a manner reminding us1   
that the addition of the mortal genera  
is the perfection of the textorial  life
 of the universe1 and also exciting our 
recollection of the divine  ,orphic     
fable1 and affording us interpretative  
causes of the unfinished  webs of       
,proserpine40--,see vol4 ii4 p4 #cef1 of
 my translation of ,proclus on  the     
,timus4    ,the unfinished webs of      
,proserpine are also alluded to by      

,claudian1 in  his poem ,de ,raptu      
,proserpin1 in the following verse3     
,sensit adesse ,deas1 imperfectumque    
laborem      ,deserit4    ,i only add1  
that1 by ancient theologists1 the       
shuttle was considered as a  signature  
of separating1 a cup of vivific1 a      
sceptre of ruling1 and  a key of        
guardian power4    #abd ,the theological
 meaning of nectar and ambrosia1 is     
beautifully  unfolded by ,hermias1 in   
his ,scholia on the ,phdrus of ,plato1  
published  by ,ast1 ,lips4 #ahaj1 p4    
#ade1 where he informs us1 that ambrosia
 is  analogous to dry nutriment1 and    
that1 on this account1 it signifies an  
establishment in causes2 but that nectar
 is analogous to moist food1  and that  
it signifies the providential attention 
of the ,gods to secondary  natures2 the 
former being denominated1 according to a
 privation of the  mortal and           
corruptible      2 but the  latter1     
according to a privation of the funeral 
and sepulchral         4 ,and when the  

,gods are  represented as energizing    
providentially1 they are said to drink  
nectar4  ,thus ,homer1 in the beginning 
of the #dth book of the ,iliad3         
1                      ' 1   4          
,now with each other1 on the golden     
floor      ,seated near ,jove1 the ,gods
 converse2 to whom      ,the venerable  
,hebe nectar bears1      ,in golden     
goblets2 and as these flow round1       
,th' immortals turn their careful eyes  
on ,troy4    ,for then they             
providentially attend to the ,trojans4  
,the possession1  therefore1 of         
immutable providence by the ,gods is    
signified by their  drinking nectar2 the
 exertion of this providence1 by their  
beholding  ,troy2 and their             
communicating with each other in        
providential energies1  by receiving the
 goblets from each other4    #abe       
,ebriety1 when ascribed to divine       
natures by ancient theologists1         
signifies a deific superessential       
energy1 or an energy superior  to       

intellect4 ,hence1 when ,saturn is said 
by ,orpheus to have been  intoxicated   
with honey or nectar1 the meaning is1   
that he then energized  providentially1 
in a deific and super-intellectual      
manner4    #abf ,porphyry1 though he    
excelled in philosophical1 was deficient
 in  theological knowledge2 of which    
what he now says of the castrations of  
,saturn and ,heaven1 is a remarkable    
instance4 ,for ancient theologists1 by  
things preternatural1 adumbrated the    
transcendent nature of the ,gods2  by   
such as are irrational1 a power more    
divine than all reason2 and  by things  
apparently base1 incorporeal beauty4    
,hence1 in the fabulous  narrations to  
which ,porphyry now alludes1 the genital
 parts must be  considered as symbols of
 prolific power2 and the castration of  
these  parts as signifying the          
progression of this power into a subject
 order4  ,so that the fable means that  
the prolific powers of ,saturn are      
called  forth into progression by       

,jupiter1 and those of ,heaven by       
,saturn2 ,jupiter  being inferior to    
,saturn1 and ,saturn to ,heaven4--,see  
the ,apology for the  ,fables of ,homer1
 in vol4 i4 of my translation of ,plato4
    #abg ,hence1 when ,pythagoras       
exhorted his disciples to abstain from  
beans1 he intended to signify1 that they
 should beware of a continued and       
perpetual descent into the realms of    
generation4    #abh ,macrobius1 in the  
#abth chapter of his ,commentary on     
,scipio's ,dream1  has derived some of  
the ancient arcana which it contains    
from what is  here said by ,porphyry4 ,a
 part of what he has farther added1 ,i  
shall  translate1 on account of its     
excellence and connexion with the above 
passage4 8,pythagoras thought that the  
empire of ,pluto began downwards  from  
the milky way1 because souls falling    
from thence appear to have  already     
receded from the ,gods4 ,hence he       
asserts1 that the nutriment of  milk is 
first offered to infants1 because their 

first motion commences  from the galaxy1
 when they begin to fall into terrene   
bodies4 ,on this  account1 since those  
who are about to descend are yet in     
,cancer1 and  have not left the milky   
way1 they rank in the order of the      
,gods4 ,but  when1 by falling1 they     
arrive at the ,lion1 in this            
constellation  they enter on the        
exordium of their future condition4 ,and
 because1  in the ,lion1 the rudiments  
of birth1 and certain primary exercises 
of human nature1 commence2 but ,aquarius
 is opposite to the ,lion1  and         
presently sets after the ,lion rises2   
hence1 when the sun is in  ,aquarius1   
funeral rites are performed to departed 
souls1 because he is  then carried in a 
sign which is contrary or adverse to    
human life4 ,from  the confine1         
therefore1 in which the zodiac and      
galaxy touch each other1  the soul1     
descending from a round figure1 which is
 the only divine form1  is produced into
 a cone by its defluxion4 ,and as a line

 is generated  from a point1 and        
proceeds into length from an            
indivisible1 so the soul1  from its own 
point1 which is a monad1 passes into the
 duad1 which is the  first extension4   
,and this is the essence which ,plato1  
in the ,timus1  calls impartible1 and at
 the same time partible1 when he speaks 
of the  nature of the mundane soul4 ,for
 as the soul of the world1 so likewise  
that of man1 will be found to be in one 
respect without division1 if  the       
simplicity of a divine nature is        
considered2 and in another respect      
partible1 if we regard the diffusion of 
the former through the world1 and  of   
the latter through the members of the   
body4    8,as soon1 therefore1 as the   
soul gravitates towards body in this    
first  production of herself1 she begins
 to experience a material tumult1 that  
is1 matter flowing into her essence4    
,and this is what ,plato remarks  in the
 ,phdo1 that the soul is drawn into body
 staggering with recent  intoxication2  

signifying by this1 the new drink of    
matter's impetuous  flood1 through which
 the soul1 becoming defiled and heavy1  
is drawn into  a terrene situation4 ,but
 the starry cup placed between ,cancer  
and the  ,lion1 is a symbol of this     
mystic truth1 signifying that descending
 souls  first experience intoxication in
 that part of the heavens through the   
influx of matter4 ,hence oblivion1 the  
companion of intoxication1 there  begins
 silently to creep into the recesses of 
the soul4 ,for if souls  retained in    
their descent to bodies the memory of   
divine concerns1 of  which they were    
conscious in the heavens1 there would be
 no dissension  among men about         
divinity4 ,but all1 indeed1 in          
descending1 drink of  oblivion2 though  
some more1 and others less4 ,on this    
account1 though  truth is not apparent  
to all men on the earth1 yet all        
exercise their  opinions about it2      
because a defect of memory is the origin
 of opinion4  ,but those discover most  

who have drank least of oblivion1       
because they  easily remember what they 
had known before in the heavens4        
8,the soul1 therefore1 falling with this
 first weight from the zodiac and  milky
 way into each of the subject spheres1  
is not only clothed with the  accession 
of a luminous body1 but produces the    
particular motions which  it is to      
exercise in the respective orbs4 ,thus  
in ,saturn1 it energizes  according to a
 ratiocinative and intellective power2  
in the sphere of  ,jove1 according to a 
practic power2 in the orb of the ,sun1  
according to a  sensitive and           
imaginative nature2 but according to the
 motion of desire  in the planet ,venus2
 of pronouncing and interpreting what it
 perceives  in the orb of ,mercury2 and 
according to a plantal or vegetable     
nature1  and a power of acting on body1 
when it enters into the lunar globe4    
,and  this sphere1 as it is the last    
among the divine orders1 so it is the   
first in our terrene situation4 ,for    

this body1 as it is the dregs of  divine
 natures1 so it is the first animal     
substance4 ,and this is the  difference 
between terrene and supernal bodies     
7under the latter of which  ,i          
comprehend the heavens1 the stars1 and  
the more elevated elements17  that the  
latter are called upwards to be the seat
 of the soul1 and merit  immortality    
from the very nature of the region1 and 
an imitation of  sublimity2 but the soul
 is drawn down to these terrene bodies1 
and is  on this account said to die when
 it is enclosed in this fallen region1  
and the seat of mortality4 ,nor ought it
 to cause any disturbance that we  have 
so often mentioned the death of the     
soul1 which we have pronounced  to be   
immortal4 ,for the soul is not          
extinguished by its own proper  death1  
but is only overwhelmed for a time4 ,nor
 does it lose the benefit  of perpetuity
 by its temporal demersion4 ,since1 when
 it deserves to be  purified from the   
contagion of vice1 through its entire   

refinement from  body1 it will be       
restored to the light of perennial life1
 and will return  to its pristine       
integrity and perfection40    8,the     
powers1 however1 of the planets1 which  
are the causes of the  energies of the  
soul in the several planetary spheres1  
are more  accurately described by       
,proclus1 in p4 #bfj of his admirable   
,commentary  on the ,timus1 as follows3 
1              1                     1  
1                           1    1      
1 i4e4 8,if you are willing1 also1 you  
may say1 that of the  beneficent        
planets1 the ,moon is the cause to      
mortals of nature1 being  herself the   
visible statue of fontal nature4 ,but   
the ,sun is the ,demiurgus  of every    
thing sensible1 in consequence of being 
the cause of sight and  visibility4     
,mercury is the cause of the motions of 
the phantasy2 for of  the imaginative   
essence itself1 so far as sense and     
phantasy are one1  the ,sun is the      
producing cause4 ,but ,venus is the     

cause of epithymetic  appetites or of   
the appetites pertaining to desire2 and 
,mars1 of the  irascible motions which  
are conformable to nature4 ,of all vital
 powers1  however1 ,jupiter is the      
common cause2 but of all gnostic powers1
 ,saturn4  ,for all the irrational forms
 are divided into these40    #abi ,for 1
 in this place1 it appears to me to be  
obviously  necessary to read 4 ,for     
,porphyry has above informed us1 that   
,capricorn is the gate through which    
souls ascend4    #acj ,hence ,phanes1 or
 ,protogonus1 who is the paradigm of the
 universe1  and who was absorbed by     
,jupiter1 the ,demiurgus1 is represented
 by ,orpheus  as having the head of a   
bull among other heads with which he is 
adorned4 ,and in the ,orphic hymn to    
him1 he is called bull-roarer4    #aca  
,iliad1 lib4 xx4 v4 #bbc1 c4    #acb    
,this fable is mentioned by ,plato in   
the ,phdrus1 and is beautifully         
unfolded as follows1 by ,hermias1 in his
 ,scholia on that ,dialogue3 8,a        

twofold solution may be given of this   
fable2 one from history1 more  ethical2 
but the other1 transferring us from     
parts to wholes4 ,and the  former of    
these is as follows3 ,orithya was the   
daughter of ,erectheus1 and  the        
priestess of ,boreas2 for each of the   
winds has a presiding deity1  which the 
telestic art1 or the art pertaining to  
sacred mysteries1  religiously          
cultivates4 ,to this ,orithya1 then1 the
 ,god was so very  propitious1 that he  
sent the north wind for the safety of   
the country2  and besides this1 he is   
said to have assisted the ,athenians in 
their  naval battles4 ,orithya1         
therefore1 becoming enthusiastic1 being 
possessed  by her proper ,god ,boreas1  
and no longer energizing as a human     
being  7for animals cease to energize   
according to their own peculiarities1   
when possessed by superior causes71 died
 under the inspiring influence1  and    
thus was said to have been ravished by  
,boreas4 ,and this is the more  ethical 

explanation of the fable4    8,but the  
second1 which transfers the narration to
 wholes1 and does not  entirely subvert 
the former1 is the following3 for divine
 fables often  employ transactions and  
histories1 in subserviency1 to the      
discipline  of wholes4 ,it is said then1
 that ,erectheus is the ,god that rules 
over  the three elements1 air1 water1   
and earth4 ,sometimes1 however1 he  is  
considered as alone the ruler of the    
earth1 and sometimes as the  presiding  
deity of ,attica alone4 ,of this deity  
,orithya is the daughter2  and she is   
the prolific power of the ,earth1 which 
is indeed coextended  with the word     
,erectheus1 as the unfolding of the name
 signifies4 ,for it  is the prolific    
power of the ,earth1 flourishing and    
restored1 according  to the seasons4    
,but ,boreas is the providence of the   
,gods1 supernally  illuminating         
secondary natures4 ,for the providence  
of the ,gods in the  world is signified 
by ,boreas1 because this divinity blows 

from lofty  places4 ,and the elevating  
power of the ,gods is signified by the  
south  wind1 because this wind blows    
from low to lofty places2 and besides   
this1  things situated towards the south
 are more divine4 ,the providence of    
the ,gods1 therefore1 causes the        
prolific power of the ,earth1 or of the 
,attic land1 to ascend1 and become      
visible4    8,orithya also may be said  
to be a soul aspiring after things      
above1 from   and 1 according to the    
,attic custom of adding a letter at the 
end of a word1 which letter is here an  
840 ,such a soul1 therefore1 is         
ravished by ,boreas supernally blowing4 
,but if ,orithya was hurled from a      
precipice1 this also is appropriate1 for
 such a soul dies a philosophic1  not   
receiving a physical death1 and abandons
 a life pertaining to her own           
deliberate choice1 at the same time that
 she lives a physical life4 ,and        
philosophy1 according to ,socrates in   
the ,phdo1 is nothing else than a       

meditation of death40    #acc ,in the   
original1          1   1   1 which      
,holstenius translates  most erroneously
 as follows3 8,austrum igitur meridiei  
symbolum statuunt2  cum deus meridiano  
tempore ostio immineat40    #acd ,iliad1
 lib4 xi4 v4 #egi4    #ace ,iliad1 lib4 
viii4 v4 #cie4    #acf ,iliad1 lib4     
viii4 v4 #cic4    #acg ,the souls of the
 suitors are said by ,homer1 in the     
#bdth book of  the ,odyssey 7v4 #aa71 to
 have passed1 in their descent to the   
region of  spirits1 beyond the people of
 dreams4    #ach ,hence1 the southern   
have always been more favourable to     
genius1  than the northern parts of the 
earth4    #aci ,in the original1 2 but  
instead of it1 ,i read 4    #adj ,see my
 translation of the #ajth book of his   
,republic4    #ada ,iliad1 xxiv4 v4     
#ebh4    #adb ,the passage in the       
,gorgias of ,plato1 to which ,porphyry  
here  alludes1 is as follows3--8,soc4   
,but1 indeed1 as you also say1 life is a
  grievous thing4 ,for ,i should not    

wonder if ,euripides spoke the truth    
when  he says3 #8,who knows whether to  
live is not to die1 and to die is not to
  live8' ,and we1 perhaps1 are in       
reality dead4 ,for ,i have heard from   
one  of the wise1 that we are now dead2 
and that the body is our sepulchre2  but
 that the part of the soul in which the 
desires are contained1 is of  such a    
nature that it can be persuaded1 and    
hurled upwards and downwards4  ,hence a 
certain elegant man1 perhaps a          
,sicilian1 or an ,italian1  denominated1
 mythologizing1 this part of the soul a 
tub1 by a derivation  from the probable 
and the persuasive2 and1 likewise1 he   
called those that  are stupid1 or       
deprived of intellect1 uninitiated4 ,he 
farther said1 that  the intemperate and 
uncovered nature of that part of the    
soul in which  the desires are          
contained1 was like a pierced tub1      
through its insatiable  greediness40    
,what is here said by ,plato is         
beautifully unfolded by ,olymipiodorus1 

in  his ,,ms4 ,commentary on the        
,gorgias1 as follows3--8,euripides 7in  
,phryxo7  says1 that to live is to die1 
and to die to live4 ,for the soul coming
  hither1 as she imparts life to the    
body1 so she partakes through this  of a
 certain privation of life2 but this is 
an evil4 ,when separated1  therefore1   
from the body1 she lives in reality3 for
 she dies here1  through participating a
 privation of life1 because the body    
becomes the  source of evils4 ,and hence
 it is necessary to subdue the body4    
8,but the meaning of the ,pythagoric    
fable1 which is here introduced by      
,plato1 is this3 ,we are said to be     
dead1 because1 as we have before        
observed1 we partake of a privation of  
life4 ,the sepulchre which we carry     
about with us is1 as ,plato himself     
explains it1 the body4 ,but ,hades is   
the unapparent1 because we are situated 
in obscurity1 the soul being in  a state
 of servitude to the body4 ,the tubs are
 the desires2 whether they  are so      

called from our hastening to fill them1 
as if they were tubs1 or  from desire   
persuading us that it is beautiful4 ,the
 initiated1 therefore1  i4e4 those that 
have a perfect knowledge1 pour into the 
entire tub3  for these have their tub   
full2 or1 in other words1 have perfect  
virtue4  ,but the uninitiated1 viz4     
those that possess nothing perfect1 have
  perforated tubs4 ,for those that are  
in a state of servitude to desire       
always wish to fill it1 and are more    
inflamed2 and on this account they  have
 perforated tubs1 as being never full4  
,but the sieve is the rational  soul    
mingled with the irrational4 ,for the   
rational soul is called a  circle1      
because it seeks itself1 and is itself  
sought2 finds itself1 and  is itself    
found4 ,but the irrational soul imitates
 a right line1 since  it does not revert
 to itself like a circle4 ,so far1      
therefore1 as the  sieve is circular1 it
 is an image of the rational soul2 but1 
as it is  placed under the right lines  

formed from the holes1 it is assumed for
  the irrational soul4 ,right lines1    
therefore1 are in the middle of the     
cavities4 ,hence1 by the sieve1 ,plato  
signifies the rational in subjection  to
 the irrational soul4 ,but the water is 
the flux of nature3 for1 as  ,heraclitus
 says1 moisture is the death of the     
soul40    ,in this extract the          
intelligent reader will easily perceive 
that the  occult signification of the   
tubs is more scientifically unfolded by 
,olympiodorus than by ,porphyry4    #adc
 ,in the original1   1       4 ,but     
after 1 ,i have no doubt we should      
insert 4    #add ,phorcys is one among  
the ennead of ,gods who1 according to   
,plato  in the ,timus1 fabricate        
generation4 ,of this deity1 ,proclus    
observes1  8that as the ,jupiter in this
 ennead causes the unapparent divisions 
and  separation of forms made by ,saturn
 to become apparent1 and as ,rhea calls 
them forth into motion and generation2  
so ,phorcys inserts them in matter1     

produces sensible natures1 and adorns   
the visible essence1 in order that      
there may not only be divisions of      
productive principles or forms in       
natures and in souls1 and in            
intellectual essences prior to these2   
but  likewise in sensibles4 ,for this is
 the peculiarity of fabrication40       
#ade 8,the anger of the ,gods10 says    
,proclus1 8is not an indication of any  
passion in them1 but demonstrates our   
inaptitude to participate of their      
illuminations40          ,,auxiliaries  
,,to ,,the ,,perception ,,of            
,,intelligible ,,natures4      ,,section
 ,i4    #a4 ,every body is in place2 but
 nothing essentially incorporeal1 or any
  thing of this kind1 has any locality4 
#b4 ,things essentially incorporeal1    
because they are more excellent than    
all body and place1 are every where1 not
 with interval1 but impartibly4    #c4  
,things essentially incorporeal1 are not
 locally present with bodies1  but are  
present with them when they please2 by  

verging towards them so  far as they are
 naturally adapted so to verge4 ,they   
are not1 however1  present with them    
locally1 but through habitude1          
proximity1 and alliance4    #d4 ,things 
essentially incorporeal1 are not present
 with bodies1 by  hypostasis and        
essence2 for they are not mingled with  
bodies4 ,but they  impart a certain     
power which is proximate to bodies1     
through verging  towards them4 ,for     
tendency constitutes a certain secondary
 power  proximate to bodies4    #e4     
,soul1 indeed1 is a certain medium      
between an impartible essence1  and an  
essence which is divisible about bodies4
 ,but intellect is an  impartible       
essence alone4 ,and qualities and       
material forms are divisible  about     
bodies4    #f4 ,not every thing#adf     
which acts on another1 effects that     
which it  does effect by approximation  
and contact2 but those natures which    
effect  any thing by approximation and  
contact1 use approximation accidentally4

    #g4 ,the soul is bound to the body  
by a conversion to the corporeal        
passions2 and is again liberated by     
becoming impassive to the body4    #h4  
,that which nature binds1 nature also   
dissolves3 and that which the  soul     
binds1 the soul likewise dissolves4     
,nature1 indeed1 bound the body  to the 
soul2 but the soul binds herself to the 
body4 ,nature1 therefore1  liberates the
 body from the soul2 but the soul       
liberates herself from the  body4    #i4
 ,hence there is a twofold death2 the   
one1 indeed1 universally known1  in     
which the body is liberated from the    
soul2 but the other peculiar to         
philosophers1 in which the soul is      
liberated from the body4 ,nor does the  
one#adg entirely follow the other4      
#aj4 ,we do not understand similarly in 
all things1 but in a manner  adapted to 
the essence of each4 ,for intellectual  
objects we understand  intellectually2  
but those that pertain to soul          
rationally4 ,we apprehend  plants       

spermatically2 but bodies idolically    
i4e4 as images2 and that  which is above
 all these1 super-intellectually and    
super-essentially#adh4    #aa4          
,incorporeal hypostases1 in descending1 
are distributed into parts1  and        
multiplied about individuals with a     
diminution of power2 but when  they     
ascend by their energies beyond bodies1 
they become united1 and  proceed into a 
simultaneous subsistence1 through       
exuberance of power4    #ab4 ,the       
homonymous is not in bodies only1 but   
life also is among the  number of things
 which have a multifarious subsistence4 
,for the life  of a plant is different  
from that of an animated being2 the life
 of an  intellectual essence differs    
from that of the nature which is beyond 
intellect2 and the psychical differs    
from the intellectual life4 ,for  these 
natures live1 though nothing which      
proceeds from1 possesses a life  similar
 to them4    #ac4 ,every thing which    
generates by its very essence1 generates

 that which  is inferior to itself#adi2 
and every thing generated1 is naturally 
converted to its generator4 ,of         
generating natures1 however1 some are   
not  at all converted to the beings     
which they generate2 but others are     
partly  converted to them1 and partly   
not2 and others are only converted to   
their  progeny1 but are not converted to
 themselves4    #ad4 ,every thing       
generated1 possesses from that which is 
different from  itself the cause of its 
generation1 since nothing is produced   
without a  cause4 ,such generated       
natures1 however1 as have their         
existence through  composition1 these   
are on this account corruptible4 ,but   
such as1 being  simple and incomposite1 
possess their existence in a simplicity 
of  hypostasis1 these being             
indissoluble1 are1 indeed1              
incorruptible2 yet  they are said to be 
generated1 not as if they were          
composites1 but as  being suspended from
 a certain cause4 ,bodies1 therefore1   

are in a twofold  respect generated2 as 
being suspended from a certain producing
 cause2  and as being composites4 ,but  
soul and intellect are only generated as
  being suspended from a cause1 and not 
as composites4 ,hence bodies  are       
generated1 dissoluble and corruptible2  
but soul and intellect  are unbegotten1 
as being without composition1 and on    
this account  indissoluble and          
incorruptible2 yet they are generated so
 far as they are  suspended from a      
cause4    #ae4 ,intellect is not the    
principle of all things2 for intellect  
is many  things2 but1 prior to the many1
 it is necessary that there should be   
the one4 ,it is evident1 however1 that  
intellect is many things4 ,for  it      
always understands its conceptions1     
which are not one1 but many2  and which 
are not any thing else than itself4 ,if1
 therefore1 it is the  same with its    
conceptions1 but they are many1         
intellect also will be  many things4    
,but that it is the same with           

intelligibles or the objects  of its    
intellection1 may be thus demonstrated4 
,for1 if there is any  thing which      
intellect surveys1 it will either survey
 this thing as  contained in itself1 or 
as placed in something else4 ,and that  
intellect1  indeed1 contemplates or     
surveys1 is evident4 ,for1 in           
conjunction with  intellection1 or      
intellectual perception1 it will be     
intellect2 but if  you deprive it of    
intellection1 you will destroy its      
essence4 ,it is  necessary1 therefore1  
that1 directing our attention to the    
properties  of knowledge1 we should     
investigate the perception of intellect4
 ,all  the gnostic powers1 then1 which  
we contain1 are universally sense1      
imagination1 and intellect#aej4 ,the    
power1 however1 which employs  sense1   
surveys by projecting itself to         
externals1 not being united to  the     
objects which it surveys1 but only      
receiving an impression of1 by  exerting
 its energies upon them4 ,when1         

therefore1 the eye sees a visible       
object1 it is impossible that it should 
become the same with that which  it     
perceives3 for it would not see if there
 was not an interval between  it and the
 object of its perception4 ,and1 after  
the same manner1 that  which is touched1
 if it was the same with that by which  
it is touched1  would perish4 ,from     
which it is evident that sense1 and that
 which employs  sense1 must always tend 
to an external object1 in order to      
apprehend  something sensible4 ,in like 
manner also1 the phantasy1 or           
imagination1  always tends to something 
external1 and by this extension of      
itself1  gives subsistence to1 or       
prepares an image2 its extension to what
 is  external1 indicating that the      
object of its perception is a           
resemblance  of something external4 ,and
 such1 indeed1 is the apprehension of   
these two  powers2 neither of which     
verging to1 and being collected into    
itself1  perceives either a sensible or 

insensible form4    ,in intellect1      
however1 the apprehension of its objects
 does not subsist  after this manner1   
but is effected by converging to1 and   
surveying  itself4 ,for by departing    
from itself1 in order to survey its own 
energies1 and become the eye of them1   
and the sight of essences1 it will  not 
understand any thing4 ,hence1 as sense  
is to that which is sensible1  so is    
intellect to that which is intelligible4
 ,sense1 however1 by1  extending itself 
to externals1 finds that which is       
sensible situated  in matter2 but       
intellect surveys the intelligible1 by  
being collected  into itself1 and not   
extended outwardly#aea4 ,on this account
 some are  of opinion1 that the         
hypostasis of intellect differs from    
that of the  phantasy only in name4 ,for
 the phantasy1 in the rational animal1  
appeared  to them to be intelligence4   
,as these men1 however1 suspended all   
things  from matter and a corporeal     
nature1 it follows that they should also

  suspend from these intellect4 ,but our
 intellect surveys both bodies and      
other essences4 ,hence it apprehends    
them situated somewhere4 ,but as the    
proper objects of intellect have a      
subsistence out of matter1 they will  be
 no where#aeb locally4 ,it is evident1  
therefore1 that intellectual  natures   
are to be conjoined with intelligence4  
,but if intellectual  natures are in    
intellect1 it follows that intellect1   
when it understands  intelligibles1     
surveys both the intelligible and       
itself2 and that  proceeding into       
itself1 it perceives intellectually1    
because it proceeds  into intelligibles4
 ,if1 however1 intellect understands    
many things1 and  not one thing only1   
intellect also will necessarily be many4
 ,but the  one subsists prior to the    
many2 so that it is necessary that the  
one  should be prior to intellect4      
#af4 ,memory is not the conservation of 
imaginations1 but the power of  calling 
forth de novo those conceptions which   

had previously occupied  the attention  
of the mind#aec4    #ag4 ,soul1 indeed1 
contains the reasons or forms of all    
things1 but  energizes according to     
them1 either being called forth to this 
energy  by something else1 or converting
 itself to them inwardly4 ,and when     
called forth by something else1 it      
introduces1 as it were1 the senses  to  
externals1 but when it enters into      
itself1 it becomes occupied with        
intellectual conceptions4 ,hence some   
one may say1 that neither the  senses1  
nor intellectual perceptions1 are       
without the phantasy2 so that1  as in   
the animal1 the senses are not without  
the passive affection of  the sensitive 
organs1 in like manner intellections are
 not without the  phantasy4 ,perhaps1   
however1 it may be said1 in answer to   
this1 that1 as  an impression in the    
sensitive organ is the concomitant of   
the sensitive  animal1 so analogously a 
phantasm is the concomitant of the      
intellection  of the soul in man1       

considered as an animal#aed4    #ah4    
,soul is an essence without magnitude1  
immaterial1 incorruptible1  possessing  
its existence in life1 and having life  
from itself4    #ai4 ,the passivity of  
bodies is different from that of        
incorporeal  natures4 ,for the passivity
 of bodies is attended with mutation2   
but the  adaptations and passions of the
 soul are energies2 yet they are by no  
means similar to the calefactions and   
frigefactions of bodies4 ,hence1  if the
 passivity of bodies is accompanied by  
mutation1 it must be said  that all     
incorporeal natures are impassive4 ,for 
the essences which are  separated from  
matter and bodies1 are what they are in 
energy4 ,but those  things which        
approximate to matter and bodies1 are   
themselves1 indeed1  impassive2 but the 
natures in which they are surveyed are  
passive4 ,for  when the animal perceives
 sensibly1 the soul i4e4 the rational   
soul  appears to be similar to separate 
harmony#aee1 of itself moving the       

chords adapted to harmony2 but the body 
is similar to the inseparable  harmony  
in the chords1 i4e4 to the harmony which
 cannot exist  separate from the chords4
 ,but the animal is the cause of the    
motion1  because it is an animated      
being4 ,it is1 however1 analogous to a  
musician1  because it is harmonic2 but  
the bodies which are struck through     
sensitive  passion1 are analogous to the
 harmonized chords of a musical         
instrument4  ,for in this instance1     
also1 separate harmony is not passively 
affected1  but the chords4 ,and the     
musician1 indeed1 moves according to the
 harmony  which is in him2 yet the      
chords would not be musically moved1    
even though  the musician wished that   
they should1 unless harmony ordered this
 to take  place4    #bj4 ,incorporeal   
natures are not denominated like bodies1
 according to a  participation in common
 of one and the same genus2 but they    
derive their  appellation from a mere   
privation with respect to bodies4       

,hence1 nothing  hinders some of them   
from having a subsistence as beings1 but
 others as  non-beings2 some of them1   
from being prior to1 and others         
posterior to  bodies2 some1 from being  
separate1 and others inseparable from   
bodies2  some1 from having a subsistence
 by themselves1 but others from being   
indigent of things different from       
themselves1 to their existence2 some1   
from being the same through energies and
 self-motive lives1 but others  from    
subsisting together with lives1 and     
energies of a certain quality4  ,for    
they subsist according to a negation of 
the things which they are  not1 and not 
according to the affirmation of the     
things which they are4    #ba4 ,the     
properties of matter1 according to the  
ancients1 are the  following3 ,it is    
incorporeal2 for it is different from   
bodies4 ,it is  without life2 for it is 
neither intellect nor soul1 nor vital   
from  itself i4e4 essentially4 ,it is   
also formless1 variable1 infinite1  and 

powerless4 ,hence1 it is neither being1 
nor yet non-being4 ,not that  it is     
non-being like motion1 but it is true   
non-being1 the image and  phantasm of   
bulk1 because it is that which bulk     
primarily contains4 ,it  is likewise    
powerless1 and the desire of            
subsistence1 has stability1 but  not in 
permanency1 and always appears in itself
 to be contrary4 ,hence1 it  is both    
small and great1 more and less1         
deficient and exceeding4 ,it is  always 
becoming to be1 or rising into          
existence2 abides not1 and yet is       
unable to fly away2 and is the defect of
 all being4 ,hence1 in whatever  it     
announces itself to be1 it deceives2 and
 though it should appear to  be great1  
it is nevertheless small4 ,for it       
resembles a flying mockery1  eluding all
 pursuit1 and vanishing into non-entity4
 ,for its flight is not  in place1 but  
is effected by its desertion of real    
being4 ,hence1 also1  the images which  
are in it1 are in an image more unreal  

than themselves2  just as in a mirror1  
where the thing represented is in one   
place1 and  the representation of it in 
another4 ,it likewise appears to be     
full1 yet  contains nothing1 though it  
seems to possess all things#aef4    #bb4
 ,all passions subsist about the same   
thing as that about which  corruption   
subsists2 for the reception of passion  
is the path to  corruption4 ,and the    
thing that is the subject of passivity1 
is also the  subject of corruption4     
,nothing incorporeal1 however1 is       
corrupted4 ,but  some of them either    
exist1 or do not exist2 so that they are
 not at all  passive4 ,for that which is
 passive1 ought not to be a thing of    
this kind1  but such as may be changed  
in quality1 and corrupted by the        
properties  of the things that enter    
into it1 and cause it to be passive4    
,for the  change in quality of that     
which is inherent1 is not casually      
effected4  ,neither1 therefore1 does    
matter suffer2 for it is of itself      

without  quality4 ,nor do the forms     
which enter into1 and depart from it1   
suffer2  but the passion subsists about 
the composite from matter and form1 the 
very being of which consists in the     
union of the two4 ,for this1 in the     
contrary powers and qualities of the    
things which enter and produce  passion1
 is seen to be the subject of them4 ,on 
which account1 also1 those  things1 the 
life of which is externally derived1 and
 does not subsist  from themselves1 are 
capable of suffering both the           
participation and  the privation of     
life4 ,but those beings whose existence 
consists in an  impassive life1 must    
necessarily possess a permanent life2   
just as a  privation of life1 so far as 
it is a privation of it1 is attended    
with  impassivity4 ,as1 therefore1 to be
 changed and to suffer pertain to the   
composite from matter and form1 and this
 is body1 but matter is exempt  from    
this2 thus also1 to live and to die1 and
 to suffer through the  participation of

 life and death1 is beheld in the       
composite from soul and  body4          
,nevertheless1 this does not happen to  
the soul2 because it is not a  thing    
which consists of life and the privation
 of life1 but consists of  life alone4  
,and it possesses this1 because its     
essence is simple1 and the  reason or   
form of the soul is self-motive#aeg4    
#bc4 ,an intellectual essence is so     
similar in its parts1 that the  same#aeh
 things exist both in a partial and an  
all-perfect intellect4 ,in  an universal
 intellect1 however1 partial natures    
subsist universally2 but  in a partial  
intellect1 both universals and          
particulars subsist partially4    #bd4  
,of that essence1 the existence of which
 is in life1 and the passions  of which 
are lives1 the death also consists in a 
certain life1 and not in  a total       
privation of life2 because1 neither is  
the deprivation of life  in this essence
 a passion1 or a path which entirely    
leads to a non-vital  subsistence4      

#be4 ,in incorporeal lives1 the         
progressions are effected while the     
lives  themselves remain firm and       
stable1 nothing pertaining to them being
  corrupted1 or changed into the        
hypostasis of things subordinate to     
them4  ,hence1 neither are the things to
 which they give subsistence produced   
with a certain corruption or mutation4  
,nor do these incorporeal lives  subsist
 like generation1 which participates of 
corruption and mutation4  ,hence1 they  
are unbegotten and incorruptible1 and on
 this account are  unfolded into light  
without generation and incorruptibly4   
#bf4 ,of that nature which is beyond    
intellect1 many things are asserted     
through intellection1 but it is surveyed
 by a cessation of intellectual  energy 
better than with it#aei2 just as with   
respect to one who is  asleep1 many     
things are asserted of him while he is  
in that state by  those who are awake2  
but the proper knowledge and            
apprehension of his  dormant condition1 

is only to be obtained through sleep4   
,for the similar  is known by the       
similar2 because all knowledge is an    
assimilation to the  object of          
knowledge4    #bg4 ,with respect to that
 which is non-being1 we either produce  
it1 being  ourselves separated from real
 being1 or we have a preconception of   
it1  as adhering to being4 ,hence1 if we
 are separated from being1 we have not  
an antecedent conception of the         
non-being which is above being1 but our 
knowledge in this case is only that of a
 false passion1 such as that  which     
happens to a man when he departs from   
himself4 ,for as a man may  himself1 and
 through himself1 be truly elevated to  
the non-being which  is above being1 so1
 by departing from being1 he is led to  
the non-being  which is a falling off   
from being4    #bh4 ,the hypostasis of  
body is no impediment whatever to that  
which is  essentially incorporeal1 so as
 to prevent it from being where1 and in 
such a way1 as it wishes to be4 ,for as 

that which is without bulk is           
incomprehensible by body1 and does not  
at all pertain to it1 so that  which has
 bulk cannot impede or obscure an       
incorporeal nature1 but lies  before it 
like a non-entity4 ,nor does that which 
is incorporeal pervade  locally1 when it
 wishes to pass from one thing to       
another2 for place is  consubsistent    
with bulk4 ,nor is it compressed by     
bodies4 ,for that which  in any way     
whatever is connected with bulk1 may be 
compressed1 and effect  a transition    
locally2 but that which is entirely     
without bulk and without  magnitude1    
cannot be restrained by that which has  
bulk1 and does not  participate of local
 motion4 ,hence1 by a certain           
disposition1 it is found  to be there1  
where it is inclined to be1 being with  
respect to place  every where and yet no
 where#afj4 ,by a certain disposition1  
therefore1  it is either above the      
heavens1 or is contained in a certain   
part of the  world4 ,when1 however1 it  

is contained in a certain part of the   
world1 it  is not visible to the eyes1  
but the presence of it becomes manifest 
from  its works4    #bi4 ,it is         
necessary that an incorporeal nature1 if
 it is contained in  body1 should not be
 enclosed in it like a wild beast in a  
den2 7for no  body is able thus to      
enclose and comprehend it71 nor is it   
contained in  body in the same way as a 
bladder contains something liquid1 or   
wind2 but  it is requisite that it      
should give subsistence to certain      
powers which  verge to what is external1
 through its union with body2 by which  
powers1  when it descends1 it becomes   
complicated with body4 ,its conjunction1
  therefore1 with body1 is effected     
through an ineffable extension4  ,hence1
 nothing else binds it1 but itself binds
 itself to body4 ,neither1  therefore1  
is it liberated from the body1 when the 
body is mortally  wounded and corrupted1
 but it liberates itself1 by turning    
itself from an  adhering affection to   

the body4    #cj4 ,none of the          
hypostases which rank as wholes1 and are
 perfect1 is  converted to its own      
progeny2 but all perfect hypostases are 
elevated  to their generators as far as 
to the mundane body or the body of the  
world4 ,for this body1 being perfect1 is
 elevated to its soul1 which  is        
intellectual3 and on this account it is 
moved in a circle4 ,but the  soul of    
this body is elevated to intellect2 and 
intellect1 to the first  principle of   
all things4 ,all beings1 therefore1     
proceed to this principle  as much as   
possible1 beginning from the last of    
things4 ,the elevation1  however1 to    
that which is first1 is either proximate
 or remote4 ,hence1  these natures may  
not only be said to aspire after the    
highest ,god1 but  also to enjoy him to 
the utmost of their power4 ,but in      
partial#afa  hypostases1 and which are  
able to verge to many things1 there is  
also a  desire of being converted to    
their progeny4 ,hence1 likewise1 in     

these  there is error1 in these there is
 reprehensible incredulity4 ,these1     
therefore1 matter injures1 because they 
are capable of being converted  to it1  
being at the same time able to be       
converted to divinity4 ,hence1          
perfection gives subsistence to         
secondary from primary natures1         
preserving them converted to the first  
of things2 but imperfection  converts   
primary#afb to posterior natures1 and   
causes them to love the  beings which   
have departed from divinity prior to    
themselves4    #ca4 ,god is every where 
because he is no where3 and this is also
 true of  intellect and soul3 for each  
of these is every where1 because each is
  no where4 ,but ,god indeed is every   
where1 and no where1 with respect to    
all things which are posterior to him2  
and he#afc alone is such as he  is1 and 
such as he wills himself to be4         
,intellect is in ,god1 but is every     
where1 and no where1 with respect to the
 natures posterior to it4 ,and  soul is 

in ,god and intellect1 and is every     
where and no where1 in or  with respect 
to body#afd4 ,but body is in soul1 and  
in intellect#afe1  and in ,god4 ,and as 
all beings and non-beings are from and  
in ,god1 hence1  he is neither beings   
nor non-beings1 nor subsists in them4   
,for if1  indeed1 he was alone every    
where1 he would be all things and in    
all1 but  since he is also no where1 all
 things are produced through him1 and   
are  contained in him1 because he is    
every where4 ,they are1 however1        
different  from him1 because he is no   
where4 ,thus1 likewise1 intellect being 
every  where and no where1 is the cause 
of souls1 and of the natures posterior  
to souls2 yet intellect is not soul1 nor
 the natures posterior to soul1  nor    
subsists in them2 because it is not only
 every where1 but is also no  where1    
with respect to the natures posterior to
 it4 ,and soul is neither  body1 nor in 
body1 but is the cause of body2 because 
being every where1  it is also no where1

 with respect to body4 ,and this        
progression of things  in the universe  
extends as far as to that which is      
neither able to be at  once every where1
 nor at once no where1 but partially    
participates of  each of these#aff4     
#cb4 ,the soul does not exist on the    
earth when it is conversant with        
terrene natures1 in the same manner as  
bodies accede to the earth2  but a      
subsistence of the soul on the earth1   
signifies its presiding  over terrene   
bodies4 ,thus1 also1 the soul is said to
 be in ,hades1 when  it presides over   
its image#afg1 which is naturally       
adapted to be in  place1 but possesses  
its hypostasis in darkness4 ,so that if 
,hades is a  subterranean dark place1   
the soul1 though not divulsed from      
being1 will  exist in ,hades1 by        
attracting to itself its image4 ,for    
when the soul  departs from the solid   
body1 the spirit accompanies it which it
 had  collected from the starry spheres4
 ,but as from its adhering affection  to

 the body1 it exerts a partial reason1  
through which it possesses an  habitude 
to a body of a certain quality1 in      
performing the energies of              
life2--hence1 from this adhesion to     
body1 the form of the phantasy is       
impressed in the spirit1 and thus the   
image is attracted by the soul4  ,the   
soul1 however1 is said to be in ,hades1 
because the spirit obtains a  formless  
and obscure nature4 ,and as a heavy and 
moist spirit pervades  as far as to     
subterranean places1 hence the soul is  
said to proceed  under the earth4 ,not  
that this essence of the soul changes   
one place  for another1 and subsists in 
place1 but it receives the habitudes of 
bodies which are naturally adapted to   
change their places1 and to be  allotted
 a subsistence in place2 such-like      
bodies receiving it according  to       
aptitudes1 from being disposed after a  
certain manner towards it4 ,for  the    
soul1 conformably to the manner in which
 it is disposed1 finds an  appropriate  

body4 ,hence1 when it is disposed in a  
purer manner1 it has a  connascent body 
which approximates to an ethereal       
nature1 and this is an  ethereal body4  
,but when it proceeds from reason to the
 energies of the  phantasy1 then its    
connascent body is of a solar-form      
nature4 ,and when it  becomes effeminate
 and vehemently excited by corporeal    
form1 then it is  connected with a      
lunar-form body4 ,when1 however1 it     
falls into bodies  which consist of     
humid vapours1 then a perfect ignorance 
of real being  follows1 together with   
darkness and infancy4    ,moreover1 in  
its egress from the body1 if it still   
possesses a spirit  turbid from humid   
exhalations1 it then attracts to itself 
a shadow1 and  becomes heavy2 a spirit  
of this kind naturally striving to      
penetrate  into the recesses of the     
earth1 unless a certain other cause     
draws it  in a contrary direction4 ,as  
therefore the soul1 when surrounded with
  this testaceous and terrene vestment1 

necessarily lives on the earth2 so      
likewise when it attracts a moist       
spirit1 it is necessarily surrounded    
with the image4 ,but it attracts        
moisture when it continually endeavours 
to associate with nature1 whose         
operations are effected in moisture1    
and which are rather under than upon the
 earth4 ,when1 however1 the soul        
earnestly endeavours to depart from     
nature1 then she becomes a dry          
splendour1 without a shadow1 and without
 a cloud1 or mist4 ,for moisture  gives 
subsistence to a mist in the air2 but   
dryness constitutes a dry  splendour    
from exhalation4    #cc4 ,the things    
which are truly predicated of a sensible
 and material  nature1 are these3 that  
it has1 in every respect1 a diffused and
  dispersed subsistence2 that it is     
mutable2 that it has its existence in   
difference2 that it is a composite2 that
 it subsists by itself1 as the  subject 
or recipient of other things2 that it is
 beheld in place1 and  in bulk3 and     

other properties similar to these are   
asserted of it4 ,but  the following     
particulars are predicated of truly     
existing being1 and  which itself       
subsists from itself2 viz4 that it is   
always established  in itself2 that it  
has an existence perpetually similar and
 the same2  that it is essentialized in 
sameness2 that it is immutable according
  to essence1 is uncompounded1 is       
neither dissoluble1 nor in place1 nor   
is dispersed into bulk2 and is neither  
generated1 nor capable of being         
destroyed3 and other properties are     
asserted of it similar to these4 ,to    
which predications adhering1 we should  
neither ourselves assert any  thing     
repugnant to them1 concerning the       
different nature of sensible and        
truly-existing beings1 nor assent to    
those who do4      ,,section ,,ii4      
#cd4 ,there is one kind of virtues      
pertaining to the political character1  
and another to the man who tends to     
contemplation1 and who1 on this         

account1 is called theoretic1 and is now
 a beholder of intellectual and         
intelligible natures4 ,and there are    
also other virtues pertaining to        
intellect1 so far as it is intellect1   
and separate from soul4 ,the virtues    
indeed of the political character1 and  
which consist in the moderation  of the 
passions1 are characterized by following
 and being obedient to  the reasoning   
about that which is becoming in actions4
 ,hence1 looking to  an innoxious       
converse with neighbours1 these virtues 
are denominated1  from the aggregation  
of fellowship1 political4 ,and here     
prudence indeed  subsists about the     
reasoning part2 fortitude about the     
irascible  part2 temperance in the      
consent and symphony of the             
epithymetic#afh  with the reasoning     
part2 and justice1 in each of these     
performing its  proper employment with  
respect to governing and being governed4
 ,but  the virtues of him who proceeds  
to the contemplative life1 consist in  a

 departure from terrestrial concerns4   
,hence1 also1 they are called           
purifications1 being surveyed in the    
refraining from corporeal actions1  and 
avoiding sympathies with the body4 ,for 
these are the virtues of the  soul      
elevating itself to true being4 ,the    
political virtues therefore  adorn the  
mortal man1 and are the forerunners of  
purifications4 ,for it  is necessary    
that he who is adorned by the cathartic 
virtues1 should  abstain from doing any 
thing precedaneously in conjunction with
 body4  ,hence1 in these purifications1 
not to opine with body1 but to energize 
alone1 gives subsistence to prudence2   
which derives its perfection  through   
energizing intellectually with purity4  
,but not to be similarly  passive with  
the body1 constitutes temperance4 ,not  
to fear a departure  from body1 as into 
something void1 and non-entity1 gives   
subsistence to  fortitude4 ,but when    
reason and intellect are the leaders1   
and there  is no resistance from the    

irrational part1 justice is produced4   
,the  disposition therefore1 according  
to the political virtues1 is surveyed   
in the moderation of the passions2      
having for its end to live as man       
conformable to nature4 ,but the         
disposition1 according to the theoretic 
virtues1 is beheld in apathy#afi1 the   
end of which is a similitude to  ,god4  
,since1 however1 of purification1 one   
kind consists in purifying1 but  another
 pertains to those that are purified1   
the cathartic virtues are  surveyed     
according to both these significations  
of purification4 ,for  the end of       
purification is to become pure4 ,but    
since purification1 and  the being      
purified1 are an ablation of every thing
 foreign1 the good  resulting from them 
will be different from that which       
purifies2 so1 that  if that which is    
purified was good prior to the impurity 
with which it  is defiled1 purification 
is sufficient4 ,that1 however1 which    
remains  after purification1 is good1   

and not purification4 ,the nature of the
 soul  also was not good prior to       
purification1 but is that which is able 
to  partake of good1 and is boniform4   
,for if this were not the case1 it would
  not have become situated in evil4 ,the
 good therefore of the soul consists  in
 being united to its generator1 but its 
evil in an association with  things     
subordinate to itself4 ,its evil also is
 twofold2 the one arising  from an      
association with terrestrial natures1   
but the other from doing  this with an  
excess of the passions4 ,hence1 all the 
political virtues  which liberate the   
soul from one evil1 may be denominated  
virtues1 and  are honourable4 ,but the  
cathartic are more honourable1 and      
liberate it  from evil1 so far as it is 
soul4 ,it is necessary therefore1 that  
the  soul1 when purified1 should        
associate with its generator4 ,hence1   
the  virtue of it1 after its conversion1
 consists in a scientific knowledge of  
true being2 but this will not be the    

case1 unless conversion precedes4       
,there is1 therefore1 another genus of  
virtues after the cathartic  and        
political1 and which are the virtues of 
the soul energizing  intellectually4    
,and here1 indeed1 wisdom and prudence  
consist in the  contemplation of those  
things which intellect possesses4 ,but  
justice  consists in performing what is 
appropriate in conformity to1 and       
energizing according to intellect4      
,temperance is an inward conversion  of 
the soul to intellect4 ,and fortitude is
 apathy1 according to a  similitude of  
that to which the soul looks1 and which 
is naturally  impassive4 ,these virtues 
also1 in the same manner as the others1 
alternately follow each other4    ,the  
fourth species of the virtues1 is that  
of the paradigms subsisting  in         
intellect3 which are more excellent than
 the psychical virtues1 and  exist as   
the paradigms of these2 the virtues of  
the soul being the  similitudes of them4
 ,and intellect indeed is that in which 

all things  subsist at once as          
paradigms4 ,here1 therefore1 prudence is
 science2 but  intellect that knows all 
things is wisdom4 ,temperance is that   
which is  converted to itself4 ,the     
proper work of intellect1 is the        
performance  of its appropriate duty1   
and this is justice#agj4 ,but fortitude 
is  sameness1 and the abiding with      
purity in itself1 through an abundance  
of power4 ,there are therefore four     
genera of virtues2 of which1 indeed1    
some pertain to intellect1 concur with  
the essence of it1 and are              
paradigmatic4 ,others pertain to soul   
now looking to intellect1 and being     
filled from it4 ,others belong to the   
soul of man1 purifying itself1 and      
becoming purified from the body1 and the
 irrational passions4 ,and others  are  
the virtues of the soul of man1 adorning
 the man1 through giving  measure and   
bound to the irrational nature1 and     
producing moderation  in the passions4  
,and he indeed1 who has the greater     

virtues1 has also  necessarily the less2
 but the contrary is not true1 that he  
who has  the less1 has also the greater 
virtues4 ,nor will he who possesses the 
greater1 energize precedaneously        
according to the less1 but only so far  
as the necessities of the mortal nature 
require4 ,the scope also of the         
virtues1 is1 as we have said1           
generically different in the different  
virtues4 ,for the scope of the political
 virtues1 is to give measure  to the    
passions in their practical energies    
according to nature4  ,but the scope of 
the cathartic virtues1 is entirely to   
obliterate  the remembrance of the      
passions2 and the scope of the rest     
subsists  analogously to what has been  
before said4 ,hence1 he who energizes   
according to the practical virtues1 is a
 worthy man2 but he who  energizes      
according to the cathartic virtues1 is  
an angelic man1 or  is also a good dmon4
 ,he who energizes according to the     
intellectual  virtues alone is a ,god2  

but he who energizes according to the   
paradigmatic virtues1 is the father of  
the ,gods4 ,we1 therefore1 ought        
especially to pay attention to the      
cathartic virtues1 since we may  obtain 
these in the present life4 ,but through 
these1 the ascent is to the  more       
honourable virtues4 ,hence1 it is       
requisite to survey to what degree      
purification may be extended3 for it is 
a separation from body1 and from  the   
passive motion of the irrational part4  
,but how this may be effected1  and to  
what extent1 must now be unfolded4      
,in the first place1 indeed1 it is      
necessary that he who intends to        
acquire this purification1 should1 as   
the foundation and basis of it1  know   
himself to be a soul bound in a foreign 
thing1 and in a different  essence4 ,in 
the second place1 as that which is      
raised from this  foundation1 he should 
collect himself from the body1 and as it
 were from  different places1 so as to  
be disposed in a manner perfectly       

impassive  with respect to the body4    
,for he who energizes uninterruptedly   
according  to sense1 though he may not  
do this with an adhering affection1 and 
the  enjoyment resulting from pleasure1 
yet1 at the same time1 his attention  is
 dissipated about the body1 in          
consequence of becoming through         
sense#aga in contact with it4 ,but we   
are addicted to the pleasures or  pains 
of sensibles2 in conjunction with a     
promptitude1 and converging  sympathy2  
from which disposition it is requisite  
to be purified4  ,this1 however1 will be
 effected by admitting necessary        
pleasures1 and  the sensations of them1 
merely as remedies1 or as a liberation  
from  pain#agb1 in order that the       
rational part may not be impeded in its 
energies4 ,pain also must be taken away4
 ,but if this is not possible1  it must 
be mildly diminished4 ,and it will be   
diminished1 if the soul  is not         
copassive with it4 ,anger1 likewise1    
must as much as possible be  taken away2

 and must by no means be premeditated4  
,but if it cannot be  entirely removed1 
deliberate choice must not be mingled   
with it1 but  the unpremeditated motion 
must be the impulse of the irrational   
part4  ,that however which is           
unpremeditated1 is imbecile and small4  
,all fear  likewise must be expelled4   
,for he who is adapted to this          
purification1  will fear nothing4 ,here1
 however1 if it should take place1 it   
will be  unpremeditated4 ,anger         
therefore and fear must be used for the 
purpose  of admonition4 ,but the desire 
of every thing base must be             
exterminated4  ,such a one also1 so far 
as he is a cathartic philosopher1 will  
not  desire meats and drinks except so  
far as they are necessary4 ,neither     
must there be the unpremeditated in     
natural venereal connexions2 but if     
this should take place1 it must only be 
as far as to that precipitate           
imagination which energizes in sleep4   
,in short1 the intellectual soul  itself

 of the purified man must be liberated  
from all these corporeal  propensities4 
,he must likewise endeavour1 that what  
is moved to the  irrational nature of   
corporeal passions1 may be moved without
 sympathy1  and without animadversion2  
so that the motions themselves may be   
immediately dissolved1 through their    
vicinity to the reasoning power4  ,this1
 however1 will not take place while the 
purification is proceeding  to its      
perfection2 but will happen to those in 
whom reason rules without  opposition4  
,hence1 in these1 the inferior part will
 so venerate reason1  that it will be   
indignant if it is at all moved1 in     
consequence of not  being quiet when its
 master is present1 and will reprove    
itself for its  imbecility4 ,these1     
however1 are yet only moderations of the
 passions1  but at length terminate in  
apathy4 ,for when copassivity is        
entirely  exterminated1 then apathy is  
present with him who is purified from   
this  passivity4 ,for passion becomes   

moved when reason imparts excitation1   
through verging to the irrational       
nature4    #ce4 ,every thing which is   
situated somewhere1 is there situated   
according  to its own nature1 and not   
preternaturally4 ,for body1 therefore1  
which  subsists in matter and bulk1 to  
be somewhere1 is to be in place4 ,hence1
  for the body of the world1 which is   
material and has bulk1 to be every      
where1 is to be extended with interval1 
and to subsist in the place  of         
interval4 ,but a subsistence in place1  
is not at all present with  the         
intelligible world1 nor1 in short1 with 
that which is immaterial1  and          
essentially incorporeal1 because it is  
without bulk1 and without  interval2 so 
that the ubiquity of an incorporeal     
nature is not local4  ,hence1 neither   
will one part of it be here1 but another
 there2 for if  this were the case1 it  
would not be out of place1 nor without  
interval2  but wherever it is1 the whole
 of it is there4 ,nor is it indeed in   

this1  but not in another place2 for    
thus it would be comprehended by one    
place1  but separated from another4 ,nor
 is it remote from this thing1 but near 
to that2 in the same manner as          
remoteness and nearness are asserted of 
things which are adapted to be in place1
 according to the measures of           
intervals4 ,hence1 the sensible is      
present1 indeed1 with the intelligible  
world1 according to interval1 but a     
truly incorporeal nature is  present    
with the world impartibly1 and          
unaccompanied by interval4 ,the         
impartible1 likewise1 when it is in that
 which has interval1 is wholly  in every
 part of it1 being one and the same in  
number in every part of  it4 ,that which
 is impartible1 therefore1 and without  
multitude1 becomes  extended into       
magnitude1 and multiplied1 when         
intimately connected  with that which is
 naturally multitudinous1 and endued    
with magnitude2  and thus the latter    
receives the former in such a way as it 

is adapted  to receive it1 and not such 
as the former truly is4 ,but that which 
is  partible and multitudinous1 is      
received by that which is naturally     
impartible and without multitude1       
impartibly and non-multitudinously1 and 
after this manner is present with it2   
i4e4 the impartible is present          
impartibly1 without plurality1 and      
without a subsistence in place1         
conformably to its own nature1 with that
 which is partible1 and which is        
naturally multitudinous1 and exists in  
place4 ,but that which is partible1     
multiplied1 and in place1 is present    
with the impartible essence1  partibly1 
multitudinously1 and locally4 ,hence1 it
 is necessary1 in the  survey of these  
natures1 to preserve and not confound   
the peculiarities  of each2 or rather1  
we should not imagine or opine of that  
which is  incorporeal1 such properties  
as pertain to bodies1 or any thing of   
the  like kind4 ,for no one would       
ascribe to bodies the peculiarities of a

  genuinely incorporeal essence4 ,for   
all of us are familiar with bodies2  but
 the knowledge of incorporeal natures is
 attainable by us with great            
difficulty2 because1 through not being  
able to behold them intuitively1  we are
 involved in doubt about their nature2  
and this takes place as long  as we are 
under the dominion of imagination4      
,thus1 therefore1 you should say1 ,if   
that which is in place1 is out of1  or  
has departed from itself1 through having
 proceeded into bulk1 that  which is    
intelligible is not in place1 and is in 
itself1 because it  has not proceeded   
into corporeal extension4 ,hence1 if the
 former is an  image1 the latter is an  
archetype4 ,and the former1 indeed1     
derives its  being through the          
intelligible2 but the latter subsists in
 and through  itself4 ,for every        
physical image is the image of          
intellect4 ,it is also  requisite that1 
calling to mind the peculiarities of    
both these1 we  should not wonder at the

 discrepance which takes place in their 
congress  with each other2 if1 in short1
 it is proper on this occasion to use   
the  word congress4 ,for we are not now 
surveying the congress of bodies1 but   
of things which are entirely distinct   
from each other1 according to           
peculiarity of hypostasis4 ,hence1 also1
 this congress is different from  every 
thing which is usually surveyed in      
things essentially the same4  ,neither1 
therefore1 is it temperament1 or        
mixture1 or conjunction1 or  apposition1
 but subsists in a way different from   
all these2 appearing1  indeed1 in all   
the mutual participations of            
consubstantial natures1 in  whatever way
 this may be effected2 but transcending 
every thing that  falls under the       
apprehension of sense4 ,hence1 an       
intelligible essence is  wholly present 
without interval1 with all the parts of 
that which has  interval1 though they   
should happen to be infinite in number4 
,nor is  it present distributed into    

parts1 giving a part to a part2 nor     
being  multiplied1 does it              
multitudinously impart itself to        
multitude2 but it  is wholly present    
with the parts of that which is extended
 into bulk1  and with each individual of
 the multitude1 and all the bulk        
impartibly1  and without plurality1 and 
as numerically one4 ,but it pertains to 
those  natures to enjoy it partibly1 and
 in a distributed manner1 whose power is
  dissipated into different parts4 ,and 
to these it frequently happens1 that    
through a defect of their own nature1   
they counterfeit an intelligible        
essence2 so that doubts arise respecting
 that essence1 which appears to  have   
passed from its own nature into theirs4 
#cf4 ,truly-existing being is neither   
great nor small1 for magnitude  and     
parvitude are properly the peculiarities
 of bulk4 ,but true being  transcends   
both magnitude and parvitude2 and is    
above the greatest1 and  above the      
least2 and is numerically one and the   

same1 though it is found  to be         
simultaneously participated by every    
thing that is greatest1 and  every thing
 that is least4 ,you must not1          
therefore1 conceive of it as  something 
which is greatest2 as you will then be  
dubious how1 being that  which is       
greatest1 it is present with the        
smallest masses1 without being          
diminished or contracted4 ,nor must you 
conceive of it as something which  is   
least2 since you will thus again be     
dubious how1 being that which is  least1
 it is present with the greatest masses1
 without being multiplied  or increased1
 or without receiving addition4 ,but at 
one and the same time  receiving into   
the greatest magnitude that which       
transcends the greatest  bulk1 and into 
the least magnitude that which          
transcends the least#agc1  you will be  
able to conceive how the same thing1    
abiding in itself1  may be              
simultaneously seen in any casual       
magnitude1 and in infinite  multitudes  

and corporeal masses4 ,for according to 
its own peculiarity1  it is present with
 the magnitude of the world impartibly  
and without  magnitude4 ,it also        
antecedes the bulk of the world1 and    
comprehends every  part of it1 in its   
own impartibility2 just as1 vice versa1 
the world1  by its multitude of parts1  
is multifariously present1 as far as it 
is  able1 with truly-existing being1 yet
 cannot comprehend it1 neither with  the
 whole of its bulk1 nor the whole of its
 power2 but meets with it in  all its   
parts as that which is infinite1 and    
cannot be passed beyond2  and this both 
in other respects1 and because          
truly-existing being is  entirely free  
from all corporeal extension4    #cg4   
,that which is greater in bulk1 is less 
in power1 when compared1 not  with      
things of a similar kind1 but with those
 that are of a different  species1 or of
 a different essence4 ,for bulk is1 as  
it were1 the  departure of a thing from 
itself1 and a division of power into the

  smallest parts4 ,hence1 that which    
transcends in power1 is foreign from    
all bulk4 ,for power proceeding into    
itself1 is filled with itself1 and1  by 
corroborating itself1 obtains its proper
 strength2 on which account1  body      
proceeding into bulk through a          
diminution of power1 is as much  remote 
from truly-incorporeal being1 as that   
which truly exists is from  being       
exhausted by bulk2 for the latter abides
 in the magnitude of the  same power1   
through an exemption from bulk4 ,as1    
therefore1 truly-existing  being is1    
with reference to a corporeal mass1     
without magnitude and  without bulk2    
thus also1 that which is corporeal is1  
with reference  to truly-existing being1
 imbecile and powerless4 ,for that which
 is  greatest by magnitude of power1 is 
exempt from all bulk2 so that the  world
 existing every where1 and1 as it is    
said1 meeting with real being  which is 
truly every where1 is not able to       
comprehend the magnitude of  its power4 

,it meets1 however1 with true being1    
which is not partibly  present with it1 
but is present without magnitude1 and   
without any  definite limitation4 ,the  
presence1 therefore1 of truly-existing  
being  with the world1 is not local1 but
 assimilative1 so far as it is possible 
for body to be assimilated to that which
 is incorporeal1 and for that  which is 
incorporeal to be surveyed in a body    
assimilated to it4 ,hence1  an          
incorporeal nature is not present with  
body1 so far as it is not  possible for 
that which is material to be assimilated
 to a perfectly  immaterial nature2 and 
it is present1 so far as a corporeal can
 be  assimilated to an incorporeal      
essence4 ,nevertheless1 this is not     
effected  through reception2 since1 if  
it were1 each would be corrupted4 ,for  
the  material1 indeed1 in receiving the 
immaterial nature1 would be corrupted1  
through being changed into it2 and the  
immaterial essence would become         
material4 ,assimilations1 therefore1 and

 participations of powers1 and  the     
deficiency of power1 proceed into things
 which are thus different  in essence   
from each other1 into each other4 ,the  
world1 therefore1 is  very far from     
possessing the power of real being2 and 
real being is very  remote from the     
imbecility of a material nature4 ,but   
that which subsists  between these1     
assimilating and being assimilated1 and 
conjoining  the extremes to each other1 
becomes the cause of deception about the
  extremes1 in consequence of applying1 
through the assimilation1 the one  to   
the other4    #ch4 ,truly-existing being
 is said to be many things1 not by a    
subsistence  in different places1 nor in
 the measures of bulk1 nor by           
coacervation1  nor by the               
circumscriptions or comprehensions#agd  
of divisible parts1  but by a difference
 which is immaterial1 without bulk1 and 
without  plurality1 and which is divided
 according to multitude4 ,hence1 also1  
it is one2 not as one body1 nor as in   

one place2 nor as one bulk2 nor  as one 
which is many things2 because it is     
different so far as it is  one1 and its 
difference is both divided and united4  
,for its difference  is not externally  
acquired1 nor adscititious1 nor obtained
 through the  participation of something
 else1 but it is many things from       
itself4 ,for1  remaining one1 it        
energizes with all energies1 because1   
through sameness1  it constitutes all   
difference2 not being surveyed in the   
difference of  one thing with respect to
 another1 as is the case in bodies4     
,for1 on  the contrary1 in these1 unity 
subsists in difference2 because         
diversity  has in them a precedaneous   
existence2 but the unity which they     
contain  is externally and              
adscititiously derived4 ,for in truly   
existing being1  indeed1 unity and      
sameness precede2 but difference is     
generated1  from this unity being       
energetic4 ,hence1 true being is        
multiplied in  impartibility2 but body  

is united in multitude and bulk4 ,the   
former  also is established in itself1  
subsisting in itself according to unity2
  but the latter is never in itself1    
because it receives its hypostasis in   
an extension of existence4 ,the former1 
therefore1 is an all-energetic  one2 but
 the latter is an united multitude4     
,hence1 it is requisite to  explore how 
the former is one and different2 and    
again1 how the latter is  multitude and 
one4 ,nor must we transfer the          
peculiarities of the one to  those which
 pertain to the other4    #ci4 ,it is   
not proper to think that the multitude  
of souls was generated  on account of   
the multitude of bodies2 but it is      
necessary to admit  that1 prior to      
bodies1 there were many souls1 and one  
soul the cause  of the many4 ,nor does  
the one and whole soul prevent the      
subsistence  in it of many souls2 nor do
 the multitude of souls distribute by   
division the one soul into themselves4  
,for they are distinct from1 but  are   

not abscinded from the soul1 which ranks
 as a whole2 nor do they  distribute    
into minute parts this whole soul into  
themselves4 ,they are  also present with
 each other without confusion2 nor do   
they produce the  whole soul by         
coacervation4 ,for they are not         
separated from each other  by any       
boundaries2 nor1 again1 are they        
confused with each other2 just  as      
neither are many sciences confused in   
one soul by which they are  possessed4  
,for these sciences do not subsist in   
the soul like bodies1  as things of a   
different essence from it2 but they are 
certain energies  of the soul4 ,for the 
nature of soul possesses an infinite    
power4 ,every  thing also that occurs in
 it is soul2 and all souls are in a     
certain  respect one2 and again1 the    
soul which ranks as a whole1 is         
different  from all the rest4 ,for as   
bodies1 though divided to infinity1 do  
not  end in that which is incorporeal1  
but alone receive a difference of       

segments according to bulk2 thus also   
soul1 being a vital form1 may  be       
conceived to consist of forms ad        
infinitum4 ,for it possesses  specific  
differences1 and the whole of it        
subsists together with1 or  without     
these4 ,for1 if there is in the soul    
that which is as it were a  part divided
 from the rest of the parts1 yet1 at the
 same time that  there is difference1   
the sameness remains4 ,if1 however1 in  
bodies1 in  which difference            
predominates over sameness1 nothing     
incorporeal when  it accedes cuts off   
the union1 but all the parts remain     
essentially  united1 and are divided by 
qualities and other forms2 what ought we
 to  assert and conceive of a specific  
incorporeal life1 in which sameness  is 
more prevalent than difference2 to which
 nothing foreign to form is  subjected1 
and from which the union of bodies is   
derived8 ,nor does body1  when it       
becomes connected with soul1 cut off its
 union1 though it is an  impediment to  

its energies in many respects4 ,but the 
sameness of soul  produces and discovers
 all things through itself1 through its 
specific  energy1 which proceeds to     
infinity2 since any part of it whatever 
is  capable of effecting all things1    
when it is liberated and purified from  
a conjunction with bodies2 just as any  
part of seed possesses the power  of the
 whole seed4 ,as1 however1 seed1 when it
 is united with matter1  predominates   
over it1 according to each of the       
productive principles  which the seeds  
contain2 and all the seed1 its power    
being collected into  one1 possesses the
 whole of its power in each of the      
parts2 thus also1  in the immaterial    
soul1 that which may be conceived as a  
part1 has the  power of the whole soul4 
,but that part of it which verges to    
matter1 is  vanquished1 indeed1 by the  
form to which it verges1 and yet is     
adapted to  associate with immaterial   
form1 though it is connected with       
matter1 when  withdrawing itself from a 

material nature1 it is converted to     
itself4  ,since1 however1 through       
verging to matter1 it becomes in want of
 all  things1 and suffers an emptiness  
of its proper power2 but when it is     
elevated to intellect1 is found to      
possess a plenitude of all its powers2  
hence those who first obtained a        
knowledge of this plenitude of the soul1
  very properly indicated its emptiness 
by calling it poverty1 and its  fulness 
by denominating it satiety4             
,,section ,,iii4    #dj4 ,the ancients1 
wishing to exhibit to us the peculiarity
 of incorporeal  being1 so far as this  
can be effected by words1 when they     
assert that  it is one1 immediately add1
 that it is likewise all things2 by     
which  they signified that it is not    
some one#age of the things which are    
known by the senses4 ,since1 however1 we
 suspect that this incorporeal  one is  
different from sensibles1 in consequence
 of not perceiving  this total one1     
which is all things according to one1 in

 a sensible  nature1 and which is so    
because this one is all things3--hence  
the  ancients added1 that it is one so  
far as one2 in order that we might      
understand that what is all things in   
truly existing being1 is something      
uncompounded1 and that we might withdraw
 ourselves from the conception  of a    
coacervation4 ,when likewise they say   
that it is every where1 they  add that  
it is no where4 ,when also they assert  
that it is in all things1  they add1    
that it is no where in every thing4     
,thus1 too1 when they say1  that it is  
in all things1 and in every divisible   
nature which is adapted  to receive it1 
they add1 that it is a whole in a whole4
 ,and1 in short1  they render it        
manifest to us1 through contrary        
peculiarities2 at one and  the same time
 assuming these1 in order that we may   
exterminate1 from the  apprehension of  
it1 the fictitious conceptions which are
 derived from  bodies1 and which obscure
 the cognoscible peculiarities of real  

being4    #da4 ,when you have assumed an
 eternal essence1 infinite in itself    
according to power1 and begin to        
perceive intellectually an hypostasis   
unwearied1 untamed1 and never-failing1  
but transcending in the most  pure and  
genuine life1 and full from itself2 and 
which is likewise  established in       
itself1 satisfied with1 and seeking     
nothing but itself3--to  this essence1  
if you add a subsistence in place1 or a 
relation to a  certain thing1 at the    
same time that you appear to diminish   
it1 by  ascribing to it an indigence of 
place1 or a relative condition of being1
  you do not in reality diminish this   
essence1 but you separate yourself  from
 the perception of it1 by receiving as a
 veil the phantasy which runs  under    
your conjectural apprehension of it4    
,for you cannot pass beyond1  or stop1  
or render more perfect1 or effect the   
least change in a thing  of this kind1  
because it is impossible for it to be in
 the smallest  degree deficient4 ,for it

 is much more never-failing than any    
perpetually  flowing fountain can be    
conceived to be4 ,if1 however1 you are  
unable  to keep pace with it1 and to    
become assimilated to the intelligible  
all1 you should not investigate any     
thing pertaining to real being2  or1 if 
you do1 you will deviate from the path  
that leads to it1 and  will look to     
something else4 ,but if you investigate 
nothing else1 being  established in     
yourself and your own essence1 you will 
be assimilated to  the intelligible     
universe1 and will not adhere to any    
thing posterior  to it4 ,neither1       
therefore1 should you say1 ,i am of a   
great magnitude4  ,for1 omitting this   
greatness1 you will become universal2   
though you were  universal prior to     
this4 ,but1 together with the universal1
 something else  was present with you1  
and you became less by the addition2    
because the  addition was not from      
truly-existing being4 ,for to that you  
cannot add  any thing4 ,when1 therefore1

 any thing is added from non-being1 a   
place is  afforded to ,poverty as an    
associate1 accompanied by an indigence  
of all  things4 ,hence1 dismissing      
non-being1 you will then become         
sufficient to  yourself#agf4 ,for he    
will not return properly to himself who 
does not  dismiss things of a more vile 
and abject nature1 and who opines       
himself  to be something naturally      
small1 and not to be such as he truly   
is4 ,for  thus he1 at one and the same  
time1 departs both from himself1 and    
from  truly-existing being4 ,when1 also1
 any one is present with that which is  
present in himself1 then he is present  
with true being1 which is every  where4 
,but when you withdraw from yourself1   
then1 likewise1 you recede  from real   
being2--of such great consequence is it1
 for a man to be present  with that     
which is present with himself1 i4e4 with
 his rational  part1 and to be absent   
from that which is external to him4     
,if1 however1 true being is present with

 us1 but non-being is absent1  and real 
being is not present with us in         
conjunction with other things  of a     
nature foreign to it2 it does not accede
 in order that it may be  present1 but  
we depart from it1 when it is not       
present with things of  a different     
nature4 ,and why should this be         
considered as wonderful8  ,for you when 
present are not absent from yourself2   
and yet you are not  present with       
yourself1 though present4 ,and you are  
both present with and  absent from      
yourself when you survey other things1  
and omit to behold  yourself4 ,if1      
therefore1 you are thus present1 and yet
 not in reality  present with yourself1 
and on this account are ignorant of     
yourself1  and in a greater degree      
discover all things1 though remote from 
your  essence1 than yourself1 with which
 you are naturally present1 why should  
you wonder if that which is not present 
is remote from you who are remote  from 
it1 because you have become remote from 

yourself8 ,for1 by how much  the more   
you are truly present with yourself1    
though it is present1 and  inseparably  
conjoined with you1 by so much the more 
will you be present  with real being1   
which is so essentially united to you1  
that it is as  impossible for it to be  
divulsed from you1 as for you to be     
separated  from yourself4 ,so that it is
 universally possible to know what is   
present  with real being1 and what is   
absent from it1 though it is every where
  present1 and again is also no where4  
,for those who are able to proceed  into
 their own essence intellectually1 and  
to obtain a knowledge of  it1 will1 in  
the knowledge itself1 and the science   
accompanying this  knowledge1 be able to
 recover or regain themselves1 through  
the union  of that which knows with that
 which is known4 ,and with those1 who   
are  present with themselves1           
truly-existing being will also be       
present4 ,but  from such as abandon the 
proper being of themselves to other     

things1--from  these1 as they are absent
 from themselves1 true being will also  
be  absent4 ,if1 however1 we are        
naturally adapted to be established in  
the  same essence1 to be rich from      
ourselves1 and not to descend to that   
which  we are not2 in so doing becoming 
in want of ourselves1 and thus again    
associating with ,poverty1 though       
,porus#agg or ,plenty is present2--and  
if we are cut off from real being1 from 
which we are not separated either  by   
place1 or essence1 nor by any thing     
else1 through our conversion to         
non-being1 we suffer as a just          
punishment of our abandonment of true   
being1 a departure from1 and ignorance  
of ourselves4 ,and again1 by a  proper  
attention to1 we recover ourselves1 and 
become united to divinity4  ,it is1     
therefore1 rightly said1 that the soul  
is confined in body as in  a prison1 and
 is there detained in chains like a     
fugitive slave#agh4  ,we should1        
however1 earnestly endeavour to be      

liberated from our  bonds4 ,for1 through
 being converted to these sensible      
objects1 we desert  ourselves1 though we
 are of a divine origin1 and are1 as    
,empedocles says1        ,heaven's      
exiles1 straying from the orb of light4 
,so that every depraved life is full of 
servitude2 and on this account  is      
without ,god and unjust1 the spirit in  
it being full of impiety1 and           
consequently of injustice4 ,and thus1   
again1 it is rightly said1 that  justice
 is to be found in the performance of   
that which is the province  of him who  
performs it4 ,the image also of true    
justice consists in  distributing to    
each of those with whom we live1 that   
which is due to the  desert of each4    
#db4 ,that which possesses its existence
 in another i4e4 in something  different
 from itself1 and is not essentialized  
in itself1 separably  from another1 if  
it should be converted to itself1 in    
order to know  itself1 without that in  
which it is essentialized1 withdrawing  

itself  from it2 would be corrupted by  
this knowledge1 in consequence of       
separating itself from its essence4 ,but
 that which is able to know  itself     
without the subject in which it exists1 
and is able to withdraw  itself from    
this subject1 without the destruction of
 itself1 cannot be  essentialized in    
that1 from which it is capable of       
converting itself  to itself1 without   
being corrupted1 and of knowing itself  
by its own  energies4 ,hence1 if sight1 
and every sensitive power1 neither      
perceives  itself1 nor apprehends or    
preserves itself by separating itself   
from body2 but intellect1 when it       
separates itself from body1 then        
especially perceives intellectually1 is 
converted to itself1 and is not         
corrupted2--it is evident that the      
sensitive powers obtain the power of    
energizing through the body2 but that   
intellect possesses its energies  and   
its essence not in body1 but in itself4 
#dc4 ,incorporeal natures are properly  

denominated1 and conceived to be  what  
they are1 according to a privation of   
body2 just as1 according to  the        
ancients1 matter1 and the form which is 
in matter1 and also natures  and        
physical powers1 are apprehended by an  
abstraction from matter4  ,and after the
 same manner place1 time1 and the       
boundaries of things1 are  apprehended4 
,for all such things are denominated    
according to a privation  of body4      
,there are likewise other things which  
are said to be incorporeal  improperly1 
not according to a privation of body1   
but1 in short1 because  they are not    
naturally adapted to generate body#agi4 
,hence those of  the former             
signification subsist in bodies2 but    
those of the second are  perfectly      
separated from bodies1 and from those   
incorporeal natures which  subsist about
 bodies4 ,for bodies1 indeed1 are in    
place1 and boundaries  are in body4 ,but
 intellect1 and intellectual reason1    
neither subsist  in place nor in body2  

nor proximately give existence to       
bodies1 nor  subsist together with      
bodies1 or with those incorporeal       
natures which  are denominated according
 to a privation of bodies4 ,neither1    
therefore1  if a certain incorporeal    
vacuum should be conceived to exist1    
would it  be possible for intellect to  
be in a vacuum4 ,for a vacuum may be the
  recipient of body2 but it is          
impossible that it should be the        
recipient  of intellect1 and afford a   
place for its energy4 ,since1 however1  
the  genus of an incorporeal nature     
appears to be twofold1 one of these the 
followers of ,zeno do not at all admit1 
but they adopt the other2 and           
perceiving that the former is not such  
as the latter1 they entirely  subvert   
it1 though they ought rather to conceive
 that it is of another  genus1 and not  
to fancy that1 because it is not the    
latter1 it has no  existence4    #dd4   
,intellect and the intelligible are one 
thing1 and sense and that  which is     

sensible another4 ,and the intelligible1
 indeed1 is conjoined  with intellect1  
but that which is sensible with sense4  
,neither1 however1  can sense by itself 
apprehend itself4444 ,but the           
intelligible1 which  is conjoined with  
intellect1 and intellect1 which is      
conjoined with  the intelligible1 by no 
means fall under the perception of      
sense4  ,intellect1 however1 is         
intelligible to intellect4 ,but if      
intellect is the  intelligible object of
 intellect1 intellect will be its own   
intelligible  object4 ,if1 therefore1   
intellect is an intellectual and not a  
sensible  object1 it will be            
intelligible4 ,but if it is intelligible
 to intellect1  and not to sense1 it    
will also be intelligent4 ,the same     
thing1 therefore1  will be that which is
 intelligent1 or intellectually         
perceives1 and  which is intellectually 
perceived1 or is intelligible2 and this 
will be  true of the whole with respect 
to the whole2 but not as he who rubs1   

and he who is rubbed4 ,intellect1       
therefore1 does not intellectually      
perceive by one part1 and is            
intellectually perceived by another3 for
  it is impartible1 and the whole is an 
intelligible object of the whole4  ,it  
is likewise wholly intellect1 having    
nothing in itself which can be          
conceived to be deprived of             
intelligence4 ,hence one part of it does
 not  intellectually perceive1 but not  
another part of it#ahj4 ,for1 so far as 
it does not intellectually perceive1 it 
will be unintelligent4 ,neither1        
therefore1 departing from this thing1   
does it pass on to that4 ,for of  that  
from which it departs1 it has no        
intellectual perception4 ,but if  there 
is no transition in its intellections1  
it intellectually perceives  all things 
at once4 ,if1 therefore1 it understands 
all things at once1 and  not this thing 
now1 but another afterwards1 it         
understands all things  instantaneously 
and always4444#aha    ,hence1 if all    

things are instantaneously perceived by 
it1 its perceptions  have nothing to do 
with the past and the future1 but       
subsist in an  indivisible untemporal   
now2 so that the simultaneous1 both     
according  to multitude1 and according  
to temporal interval1 are present with  
intellect4 ,hence1 too1 all things      
subsist in it according to one1 and  in 
one1 without interval1 and without time4
 ,but if this be the case1  there is    
nothing discursive or transitive in its 
intellections1 and  consequently they   
are without motion4 ,hence1 they are    
energies according  to one1 subsisting  
in one1 and without increase or         
mutation1 or any  transition4 ,if1      
however1 the multitude subsists         
according to one1 and  the energy is    
collected together at once1 and without 
time1 an essence  of this kind must     
necessarily always subsist in an        
intelligible one4  ,but this is         
eternity4 ,hence1 eternity is present   
with intellect4 ,that  nature1 however1 

which does not perceive intellectually  
according to one1  and in one1 but      
transitively1 and with motion1 so that  
in understanding  it leaves one thing   
and apprehends another1 divides and     
proceeds  discursively1--this nature    
which is soul subsists in conjunction   
with  time4 ,for with a motion of this  
kind1 the future and the past are       
consubsistent4 ,but soul1 changing its  
conceptions1 passes from one thing  to  
another2 not that the prior conceptions 
depart1 and the posterior  accede in    
their place1 but there is1 as it were1 a
 transition of the  former1 though they 
remain in the soul1 and the latter      
accede1 as if from  some other place4   
,they do not1 however1 accede in reality
 from another  place2 but they appear to
 do so in consequence of the self-motion
 of the  soul1 and through her eye being
 directed to a survey of the different  
forms which she contains1 and which have
 the relation of parts to her  whole    
essence4 ,for she resembles a fountain  

not flowing outwardly1  but circularly  
scattering its streams into itself4     
,with the motion1  therefore1 of soul1  
time is consubsistent2 but eternity is  
consubsistent  with the permanency of   
intellect in itself#ahb4 ,it is not1    
however1  divided from intellect in the 
same manner as time is from soul2       
because  in intellect the consubsistent 
essences are united4 ,but that which is 
perpetually moved1 is the source of a   
false opinion of eternity1 through  the 
immeasurable extent of its motion       
producing a conception of eternity4     
,and that which abides in one1 is       
falsely conceived to be the same with   
that which is perpetually moved4 ,for   
that which is perpetually moved1        
evolves the time of itself in the same  
manner as the now of itself1  and       
multiplies it1 according to a temporal  
progression4 ,hence1 some have          
apprehended that time is to be surveyed 
in permanency no less than in  motion2  
and that eternity1 as we have said1 is  

infinite time2 just as  if each of these
 imparted its own properties to the     
other2 time1 which  is always moved1    
adumbrating eternity by the perpetuity  
of itself1 and  the sameness of its     
motion2 and eternity1 through being     
established  in sameness of energy1     
becoming similar to time1 by the        
permanency of  itself arising from      
energy4 ,in sensibles1 however1 the time
 of one thing  is distinct from that of 
another4 ,thus1 for instance1 there is  
one time  of the sun1 and another of the
 moon1 one time of the morning-star1 and
  another of each of the planets4       
,hence1 also1 there is a different year 
of different planets4 ,the year1        
likewise1 which comprehends these times1
  terminates as in a summit in the      
motion of the soul of the universe1     
according to the imitation of which the 
celestial orbs are moved4 ,the  motion  
of this soul1 however1 being of a       
different nature from that of  the      
planets1 the time of the former also is 

different from that of the  latter4 ,for
 the latter subsists with interval1 and 
is distinguished from  the former by    
local motions and transitions4          
,,footnotes3    #adf ,in the original1  
1    1    444 ,but it is evident1 from  
the sense of the whole passage1  that1  
for   1 we should read1    1 444    #adg
 ,the article  is wanting here in the   
original before 4    #adh ,knowledge    
subsists conformably to the nature by   
which it is  possessed1 and not         
conformably to the thing known4 ,hence  
it is either  better than1 or           
co-ordinate with1 or inferior to the    
object of knowledge4  ,thus the rational
 soul has a knowledge of sensibles1     
which is superior  to sensibles2 but it 
knows itself with a co-ordinate         
knowledge2 and its  knowledge of        
divinity is inferior to the object of   
knowledge4 ,porphyry1  therefore1 is not
 correct in what he here says4 ,this    
dogma respecting the  conformity of     
knowledge to that which knows1 rather   

than to the thing  known1 originated    
from the divine ,iamblichus1 as we are  
informed by  ,ammonius in his commentary
 on ,aristotle's treatise ,de           
,interpretatione1  and is adopted by    
,proclus 7in ,parmenid474 ,boetius      
likewise employs it in  his reasoning in
 lib4 v4 about the prescience of        
divinity4 ,none of his  commentators1   
however1 have noticed the source from   
whence it was derived4    #adi ,because 
here the generator is that primarily    
which the thing  generated is           
secondarily4 ,see my translation of     
,proclus's ,theological  ,elements4     
#aej ,porphyry here summarily           
comprehends the rational gnostic powers 
of the soul in intellect1 because1 being
 rational1 they are expansions  of      
intellect properly so called4 ,but these
 powers1 beginning from the  lowest1 are
 opinion1 dianoia1 and the summit of    
dianoia1 which summit  is the intellect 
of the human soul1 and is that power1 by
 the light of  which we perceive the    

truth of axioms1 it being intuitive     
perception4  ,dianoia is the discursive 
energy of reason2 or it is that power   
which  reasons scientifically1 deriving 
the principles of its reasoning from    
intellect4 ,and opinion is that power   
which knows that a thing is1 but  is    
ignorant of the cause of it1 or why it  
is4    #aea ,in the original1     2 but 
for   1 it  appears to me to be         
obviously necessary to read  4    #aeb  
,in the original1    1    2 which       
,holstenius1 wholly mistaking the       
meaning1 most erroneously translates1   
8,at si extra materiam sint1 neutiquam  
id fieri poterit40 ,farther on1         
,porphyry asserts1 that ,god1 intellect1
 and soul1 are no where1 according  to  
corporeal locality4    #aec ,in the     
original1      1        4 ,but for 1 ,i 
read  4 ,this power1 by which ,porphyry 
characterizes memory1 is of a  stable   
nature4 ,and hence memory is stability  
of knowledge1 in the same  manner as    
immortality is stability of life1 and   

eternity stability of  being4    #aed   
,see the notes on the #c;d book of my   
translation of ,aristotle's  treatise on
 the ,soul1 and also my translation of  
,plotinus on ,felicity4  8,the          
phantasy10 says ,olympiodorus 7in       
,platonis ,phd47 8is an impediment  to  
our intellectual conceptions2 and hence1
 when we are agitated by  the inspiring 
influence of ,divinity1 if the phantasy 
intervenes1 the  enthusiastic energy    
ceases3 for enthusiasm and the phantasy 
are contrary  to each other4 ,should it 
be asked1 whether the soul is able to   
energize  without the phantasy8 we      
reply1 that its perception of universals
  proves that it is able4 ,it has       
perceptions1 therefore1 independent of  
the phantasy2 at the same time1 however1
 the phantasy attends it in its         
energies1 just as a storm pursues him   
who sails on the sea40    #aee ,the     
analogy of the soul to harmony1 is more 
accurately unfolded as  follows1 by     
,olympiodorus1 in his ,commentary on the

 ,phdo of ,plato1 than  it is in this   
place by ,porphyry3 8,harmony has a     
triple subsistence4 ,for  it is either  
harmony itself1 or it is that which is  
first harmonized1 and  which is such    
according to the whole of itself2 or it 
is that which is  secondarily           
harmonized1 and which partially         
participates of harmony4 ,the  first of 
these must be assigned to intellect1 the
 second to soul1 and the  third to body4
 ,this last1 too1 is corruptible1       
because it subsists in a  subject2 but  
the other two are incorruptible1 because
 they are neither  composites1 nor      
dependent on a subject4 ,hence1 the     
rational soul is  analogous to a        
musician1 but the animated body to      
harmonized chords2 for  the former has a
 subsistence separate1 but the latter   
inseparable from  the musical           
instrument40    #aef ,what ,porphyry    
here says about matter1 is derived from 
the treatise  of ,plotinus1 ,on the     
,impassivity of ,incorporeal ,natures1  

to my  translation of which ,i refer the
 reader4    #aeg ,see my translation of 
the before-mentioned treatise of        
,plotinus4    #aeh ,for   here1 ,i read 
4    #aei ,hence1 it is beautifully said
 in the ,clavis of ,hermes              
,trismegistus1  8that the knowledge of  
the good or the supreme principle of    
things1  is a divine silence1 and the   
quiescence of all the senses40 ,see1    
also1 on  this subject1 a most admirable
 extract from ,damascius1  1 at the  end
 of the #c;d volume of my ,plato4       
#afj ,for that which is truly           
incorporeal1 is every where virtually1  
i4e4 in power and efficacy1 but is no   
where locally4    #afa ,for  here1 ,i   
read1 4 ,for ,porphyry is here speaking 
of essences which are opposed to such as
 rank as wholes1 as is evident  from the
 whole of this paragraph4    #afb ,the  
primary natures of which ,porphyry is   
now speaking1 are rational  partial     
souls1 such as ours2 for the natures    
superior to these1 are never  converted 

to beings posterior to themselves4      
#afc ,for 1 isthic1 ,i read1 4    #afd  
,in the original1        1     1 but it 
appears to me to be necessary to read1  
1      4    #afe   1 is omitted in the  
original1 but ought to be inserted1 as  
is evident from the version of          
,holstenius4    #aff ,the irrational    
life is a thing of this kind1 which is  
partly  separable and partly inseparable
 from body4 ,hence1 so far as it is     
inseparable from body1 it partakes of   
the every where2 but1 so far as  it is  
separable1 of the no where4    #afg i4e4
 ,the animal spirit1 or pneumatic soul1 
in which the rational  soul suffers her 
punishments in ,hades4    #afh i4e4     
,that part of the soul which is the     
source of all-various  desires4    #afi 
,this philosophic apathy is not1 as is  
stupidly supposed by most of  the       
present day1 insensibility1 but a       
perfect subjugation of the passions  to 
reason4    #agj ,the words  1 are       
omitted in the original4 ,but it is     

evident from the treatise of ,plotinus  
8,on the ,virtues10 that they ought  to 
be inserted4 ,for what ,porphyry says in
 this ,section about the virtues1  is   
derived from that treatise4    #aga     
,instead of ' 1 here it is necessary to 
read1 ' 4    #agb ,conformably to this1 
as we have before observed1 ,aristotle  
says in  the #gth ,book of his          
,nicomachean ,ethics1 8that corporeal   
pleasures are  remedies against pain1   
and that they fill up the indigence of  
nature1 but  perfect no energy of the   
rational soul40    #agc ,in the         
original1      1    1      1  1 444     
,this  ,holstenius most erroneously     
translates1 8,verum id quod maximam     
molem  intervallo maximo1 et minimam    
minimo excedit simul sumens1 c40 ,for a 
truly incorporeal nature1 such as that  
of which ,porphyry is now speaking1  has
 nothing to do with interval1 and1      
therefore1 does not by interval  surpass
 either the greatest or the least       
corporeal mass2 but is received         

transcendently by the greatest and the  
least magnitude4    #agd ,for 1 here1 ,i
 read 1 and ,holstenius also has  in    
this place comprehensionibus4    #age   
,in the original1     '  2 but it       
appears to me to be necessary1 after 1  
to insert the words  4  ,for incorporeal
 being is not like some one of the      
things which are known  by the senses1  
because no one of these is one1 and1 at 
the same time1 all  things4 ,holstenius 
did not perceive the necessity of this  
emendation1 as  is evident from his     
version of the passage4    #agf         
,immediately after this something is    
wanting in the original1 7as is  evident
 from the asterisks17 which1 as it      
appears to me1 no conjecture  can       
appropriately supply4    #agg ,in the   
original1       1    2 but for 1 ,i read
 2 as it appears to me that  ,porphyry  
is here alluding to what is said by     
,diotima1 in the ,banquet of  ,plato1   
concerning the parents of ,love1 viz4   
that they are ,poverty and  ,porus1 or  

,plenty4    #agh ,see the ,phdo of      
,plato4 ,but something is here wanting  
in the  original1 as is evident not only
 from the asterisks1 but from the want  
of  connexion in the words themselves4  
#agi i4e4 ,they are not adapted to be   
the immediate causes of body1  because  
they are perfectly separated from it4   
,the original is1        1    1        4
 ,holstenius1 not understanding what is 
here  said by ,porphyry1 translates the 
words        1 8sed quod nullum omnino  
corpus generare possunt40 ,for          
,porphyry1 as  is evident from what     
immediately follows1 is here speaking of
 natures  which are perfectly separated 
from bodies1 and which are1 therefore1  
not  naturally adapted to be the        
immediate generators of them1 not       
through any  deficiency1 but through    
transcendency of power4    #ahj ,in the 
original1      1    1  which ,holstenius
 erroneously translates1 8,ideoque non  
quidem unam sui  partem intelligit1     
alteram vero non intelligit40 ,for      

,porphyry is not here  speaking of      
intellect surveying its parts1 but of   
its being wholly  intellective4 ,this is
 evident from what immediately follows4 
#aha ,the asterisks in the original     
denote something is wanting4            
,nevertheless1 what immediately follows 
them1 is evidently connected with  what 
immediately precedes4    #ahb ,see the  
fourth book of my translation of        
,proclus1 on the ,timus  of ,plato1 in  
which the nature of time and eternity is
 most admirably  unfolded4 ,see1 also1  
my translation of ,plotinus1 on         
,eternity and ,time4 ,in  these works1  
what both these divine men have said of 
eternity1 and what  the former has said 
of time1 contains1 as it appears to me1 
the ne plus  ultra of philosophical     
investigation on these most abstruse    
subjects4          ,,appendix4          
,,appendix4    ,,on ,,the ,,wanderings  
,,of ,,ulysses4      ,in my ,history of 
the ,restoration of the ,platonic       
,theology see ,vol4 ,,ii4  of my        

,proclus on ,euclid1 and in a note      
accompanying my translation  of the     
treatise of ,porphyry1 on the ,cave of  
the ,nymphs1 in that work1  ,i          
attempted1 from the hints afforded by   
,porphyry1 and the work of an  anonymous
 ,greek writer1 ,de ,ulyxis ,erroribus1 
to unfold the latent meaning  of the    
wanderings of ,ulysses1 as narrated by  
,homer4 ,but as1 from my  continued     
application to the philosophy of ,plato 
for upwards of forty  years1 ,i now know
 much more of that philosophy than ,i   
then did1 a period  of thirty-five years
 having elapsed from that to the present
 time1 ,i  shall again attempt to       
explain those wanderings1 rejecting some
 things1  and retaining others which ,i 
had adopted before4    ,in the first    
place1 it is necessary to observe1 that 
,ulysses does not  rank among the first 
heroic characters1 or in other words1 he
 was not  one of those heroes who       
descend into the regions of mortality at
 certain  periods1 not only in          

compliance with that necessity through  
which all  partial souls such as ours   
descend periodically1 but also for the  
purpose  of benefiting others1 and      
leading them back to their pristine     
state of  perfection4 ,hence1 he was by 
no means such an exalted hero as        
,hercules1  or ,pythagoras1 or          
,socrates1 or ,plato2 for they largely  
benefited others2  but he only benefited
 himself4 ,for all his companions       
perished prior  to his arrival at       
,ithaca4 ,so that he was able to save   
himself1 but not  others4 8,hence10 says
 ,olympiodorus1 in his ,,ms4 ,scholia on
 the ,gorgias  of ,plato1 8it is said1  
that ,ulysses wandered on the sea by the
 will of  ,neptune4 ,for by this it is  
signified that the ,odyssean life was   
neither  terrestrial1 nor yet celestial1
 but between these4 ,since1 therefore1  
,neptune is the lord of the middle      
natures1 on this account it is said1    
that ,ulysses wandered through the will 
of ,neptune1 because he had a           

,neptunian allotment4 ,thus1 also1      
theologists speak of the sons of        
,jupiter1 ,neptune1 and ,pluto1         
regarding the allotment of each4 ,for we
 say1  that he who has a divine and     
celestial polity1 is the son of         
,jupiter2  that he who has a terrestrial
 polity1 is the son of ,pluto2 and he is
 the  son of ,neptune1 whose polity or  
allotment is between these#ahc40 ,hence 
,ulysses1 from his ,neptunian allotment1
 was a man who ranked among the  middle 
class of characters that transcend the  
majority of mankind4    ,in the next    
place1 in order to understand accurately
 the recondite  meaning of the          
wanderings of ,ulysses1 it is requisite 
to know what the  most divine and       
theological poet ,homer indicates by the
 ,trojan war in  the ,iliad4 ,for       
,homer1 by combining fiction with       
historical facts1 has  delivered to us  
some very occult1 mystic1 and valuable  
information1 in  those two admirable    
poems1 the ,iliad and ,odyssey4 ,hence1 

by those who  directed their attention  
to this recondite information1 he was   
said1  conformably to the tragical mode 
of speaking1 which was usual with  the  
most ancient writers1 to have been      
blind1 because1 as ,proclus             
observes#ahd1 he separated himself from 
sensible beauty1 and extended  the      
intellect of his soul to invisible and  
true harmony4 ,he was said1  therefore1 
to be blind1 because that intellectual  
beauty to which he  raised himself      
cannot be perceived by corporeal eyes4  
,thus1 too1 ,orpheus  is tragically said
 to have been lacerated in an           
all-various manner1  because men of that
 age partially participated of his      
mystic doctrine4  ,the principal part of
 it1 however1 was received by the       
,lesbians2 and  on this account1 his    
head1 when separated from his body1 is  
said to  have been carried to ,lesbos4  
,hence1 the ,platonic ,hermeas1         
conformably to  this opinion of the     
occult meaning of the ,iliad1           

beautifully explains as  follows the    
,trojan war1 in his ,scholia on the     
,phdrus of ,plato3    8,by ,ilion1 we   
must understand the generated and       
material place1 which  is so denominated
 from mud and matter 7     17 and  in   
which there are war and sedition4 ,but  
the ,trojans are material forms1  and   
all the lives which subsist about       
bodies4 ,hence1 also1 the ,trojans  are 
called genuine 774 ,for all the lives   
which subsist about  bodies1 and        
irrational#ahe souls1 are favourable and
 attentive to their  proper matter4 ,on 
the contrary1 the ,greeks are rational  
souls1 coming  from ,greece1 i4e4 from  
the intelligible into matter4 ,hence1   
the ,greeks  are called foreigners 717  
and vanquish the ,trojans1 as being  of 
a superior order4 ,but they fight with  
each other about the image of  ,helen1  
as the poet says about the image of     
,eneas4        ,around the phantom      
,greeks and ,trojans fight#ahf4         
,helen signifying intelligible beauty1  

being a certain vessel 7   17 attracting
 to itself intellect4 ,an efflux1       
therefore1 of this  intelligible beauty 
is imparted to matter through ,venus2   
and about this  efflux of beauty the    
,greeks fight with the ,trojans i4e4    
rational  with irrational lives#ahg4    
,and those1 indeed1 that oppose and     
vanquish  matter1 return to the         
intelligible world1 which is their true 
country2  but those who do not1 as is   
the case with the multitude1 are bound  
to  matter4 ,as1 therefore1 the prophet1
 in the tenth book of the ,republic1    
previously to the descent of souls1     
announces to them how they may return   
to their pristine felicity1 according to
 periods of a thousand and  ten thousand
 years2 thus1 also1 ,calchas predicts to
 the ,greeks their  return in ten years1
 the number ten being the symbol of a   
perfect period4  ,and as1 in the lives  
of souls1 some are elevated through     
philosophy1  others through the amatory 
art1 and others through the royal and   

warlike  disciplines2 so with respect to
 the ,greeks1 some act with rectitude   
through prudence1 but others through war
 or love1 and their return is  different
 according to their different pursuits40
    ,the first obviously fabulous       
adventure1 then1 of ,ulysses1 is that of
 the  ,lotophagi1 which ,homer          
beautifully narrates1 and whose         
narration ,pope  very elegantly         
translates as follows3        ,the trees
 around them all their fruit produce1   
,lotos the name1 and dulcet is the      
juice#ahh6      7,thence call'd         
,lotophagi7 which1 whoso tastes1        
,insatiate riots in the sweet repasts1  
,nor other home1 nor other care intends1
      ,but quits his house1 his country1
 and his friends4      ,the three we    
sent from off th' enchanting ground     
,we dragg'd reluctant1 and by force we  
bound3      ,the rest in haste forsook  
the pleasing shore1      ,or1 the charm 
tasted1 had return'd no more#ahi4       
,plato1 in the #hth book of his         

,republic1 has admirably unfolded to us 
what the lotos occultly indicates1 viz4 
that it signifies 8false and  arrogant  
reasonings and opinions30 for daily     
experience shows that  nothing is more  
enchanting and delicious than these to  
such as have made  no solid proficiency 
in virtue1 and who1 like some of the    
companions of  ,ulysses1 being          
fascinated by erroneous conceptions1    
consign their true  country and true    
kindred to oblivion1 and desire to live 
for ever lost in  the intoxication of   
fallacious delight4    ,the next        
adventure of ,ulysses is that of the    
,cyclops1 whom he deprived  of sight1   
and irritated by reproaches4 ,but       
according to ,porphyry1 in  the         
above-mentioned excellent treatise1 this
 is no other than the natal  dmon of    
,ulysses1 or the dmon to whose          
protecting power he became  subject1 as 
soon as he was born#aij4 ,in order1     
however1 to understand  perfectly the   
arcane meaning of this fable1 it is     

necessary to observe1  that according to
 the ancient theology1 those souls that 
in the present  life will speedily      
return to their pristine felicity in the
 intelligible  world1 have not the      
essential dmon1 or the dmon which is    
inseparable  from the essence of the    
soul1 different from the dmon that      
presides  over the birth2 for they are  
one and the same4 ,but the case is      
otherwise  with more imperfect souls2 as
 the natal is in these different from   
the  essential dmon#aia4 ,as ,ulysses1  
therefore1 does not rank among the  more
 perfect heroic characters1 and was not 
one who in the present life  is         
immediately ascending to his kindred    
star1 or1 in ,platonic language1  to the
 paternal port1 the soul's true paradise
 of rest2 but was a man  who1 prior to  
this1 had many laborious wanderings to  
accomplish1 and many  difficulties and  
dangers of no common magnitude to       
sustain1 his natal  was not the same    
with his essential dmon4 ,as he is1     

however1 departing  from a sensible to  
an intellectual life1 though            
circuitously and slowly1  he is         
represented in so doing as blinding and 
irritating his natal  dmon4 ,for he who 
blinds the eye of sense1 and            
extinguishes its light1  after his will 
has profoundly assented to its use1 must
 expect punishment  for the deed2 as    
necessary ultimately to his own peculiar
 good1 and the  general order of the    
universe4 ,indeed1 troubles and         
misfortunes resulting  from such        
undertakings1 not only contribute to    
appease the anger of their  authors1 but
 likewise purify and benefit the        
subjects of their revenge4  ,according  
to the ,greek theology1 therefore1 he   
who1 in the present life1  while he is  
in the road of virtue1 and is eagerly   
searching for wisdom1  perceives that   
there is a great resemblance between his
 destiny and that  of ,ulysses1 may     
safely conclude1 that either here1 or in
 a prior state of  existence1 he has    

voluntarily submitted to the power of   
his natal dmon1  and has now deprived   
him of sight2 or in other words1 has    
abandoned  a life of sense2 and that he 
has been profoundly delighted with the  
nature of matter1 and is now abrogating 
the confessions which he made4  ,this1  
too1 is insinuated in the beautiful     
story of ,cupid and ,psyche1  by        
,apuleius1 when the terrestrial ,venus  
sends ,mercury with a book in  which her
 name is inscribed1 to apprehend ,psyche
 as a fugitive from her  mistress4 ,for 
this whole story relates to the descent 
of the soul into  this terrene body1 and
 its wanderings and punishments1 till it
 returns to  its true country and       
pristine felicity#aib4    ,in the next  
fable1 which is that of olus1 the poet  
appears to me to  signify that          
providence of divinity which is of an   
elevating and guardian  nature1 the     
influence of which1 when properly       
received by the subjects  of it1 enables
 them to pass with security over the    

stormy sea of life to  their native     
land2 but when this influence is        
neglected through the sleep  of reason1 
the negligence is followed by a         
temporary destruction of hope4  ,this   
providence also of the ,gods is not only
 one1 but all-various1  which ,homer    
appears to indicate by olus2 the word   
signifying  various and manifold4 ,as   
the advancement1 therefore1 of ,ulysses 
in the  virtues is as yet imperfect1    
extending no farther than to the ethical
  and political1 which are but          
adumbrations of the true virtues1 the   
cathartic and theoretic#aic1 he is said 
to have fallen asleep1 and to  have been
 thereby disappointed of his wishes1 his
 soul not being at that  time in a truly
 vigilant state1 as not having yet      
elevated its eye to  real being from    
objects of sense which resemble the     
delusions of dreams4    ,by the         
adventure of the ,lestrigons1 which     
follows in the next place1  ,homer      
represents to us ,ulysses flying from   

voracity1 and fierce and  savage        
manners2 a flight indispensably         
necessary1 as preparatory to his        
attainment of the higher virtues4    ,in
 the next adventure1 which contains the 
beautiful allegory of ,circe1  we shall 
find some deep arcana of philosophy     
contained1 exclusive of its  connexion  
with ,ulysses4 ,by the ean isle1 then1  
in which the palace of  ,circe was      
situated1 the region of sorrow and      
lamentation is signified1  as is evident
 from the name of the island itself4    
,and1 by ,circe1 we must  understand the
 ,goddess of sense4 ,for thus ,porphyry1
 in ,stobus1 p4 #ada3  8,homer calls the
 period and revolution of regeneration  
in a circle1  ,circe1 the daughter of   
the ,sun1 who perpetually connects and  
combines all  corruption with           
generation1 and generation again with   
corruption40 ,and  this is asserted     
still more explicitly by ,proclus1 in   
his ,scholia on the  ,cratylus of       
,plato4 ,for he says1 8,circe is that   

divine power which weaves  all the life 
contained in the four elements1 and1 at 
the same time1 by  her song harmonizes  
the whole sublunary world4 ,but the     
shuttle with  which she weaves1 is      
represented by theologists as golden1   
because her  essence is intellectual1   
pure1 immaterial1 and unmingled with    
generation2  all which is signified by  
the shuttle being golden4 ,and her      
employment  consists in separating#aid  
stable things from such as are in       
motion1  according to divine diversity40
 ,and he also informs us1 8that ,circe  
ranks among the divinities who preside  
over generation1 or the regions  of     
sense40 ,homer1 too1 with great         
propriety1 represents ,circe1 who  rules
 over the realms of generation1 as      
waited on by ,nymphs sprung from        
fountains2 for ,nymphs1 says ,hermias   
7in ,plat4 ,phdrum17 are ,goddesses who 
preside over regeneration1 and are the  
attendants of ,bacchus1 the son  of     
,semele4 ,on this account1 they are     

present with water2 that is1 they       
ascend1 as it were1 into1 and rule over 
generation4 ,but this ,dionysius1  or   
,bacchus1 supplies the regeneration of  
every sensible nature4    ,hence we may 
observe1 that the ean isle1 or this     
region of sense1 is1  with great        
propriety1 called the abode of trouble  
and lamentation4 ,in  this region1 then1
 the companions of ,ulysses1 in         
consequence of being  very imperfect    
characters1 are changed1 through the    
incantations of the  ,goddess1 into     
brutes1 i4e4 into unworthy and          
irrational habits and  manners4         
,ulysses1 however1 as one who is        
returning1 though slowly1 to  the proper
 perfection of his nature1 is1 by the   
assistance of ,mercury1  or reason1     
prevented from destruction4 ,hence      
intellect1 roused by its  impassive     
power1 and at the same time armed with  
prudent anger1 and the  plant moly1 or  
temperance1 which is able to repel the  
allurements of  pleasure1 wars on       

sensible delight1 and prevents the      
effects of its  transforming power4     
,ulysses1 also1 though he was not able  
to lead his  companions back to their   
native land1 the paternal port of the   
soul1 yet  saves them from being        
transformed1 through the enchantments of
 sense1  into an irrational life4       
,after this follows the allegory        
respecting the descent of ,ulysses into 
,hades1 which occultly signifies1 that  
he still lived a life according  to     
sense1 and not according to intellect1  
and that1 in consequence  of not having 
yet vanquished a terrestrial life1 he   
was involved in  obscurity4 ,for ancient
 wise men universally considered ,hades 
as  commencing in the present state of  
existence1 and that sense is nothing    
more than the energy of the dormant     
soul1 and a perception1 as it were1  of 
the delusions of dreams1 as ,i have     
abundantly proved in my treatise  on the
 ,mysteries4 ,the secret meaning1 also1 
of what ,ulysses saw in  ,hades1 is no  

less beautiful than profound1 as the    
following extract  from the manuscript  
,commentary of ,olympiodorus1 on the    
,gorgias of  ,plato1 abundantly evinces3
 8,ulysses10 says he1 8descending into  
,hades1  saw1 among others1 ,sysiphus1  
and ,tityus1 and ,tantalus4 ,and ,tityus
 he  saw lying on the earth1 and a      
vulture devouring his liver2 the liver  
signifying that he lived solely         
according to the epithymetic part of    
his nature or that part of the soul     
which is the source of desires1  and    
that through this1 indeed1 he was1      
indeed1 internally prudent2  but earth  
signifying the terrestrial condition of 
his prudence4 ,but  ,sysiphus1 living   
under the dominion of ambition and      
anger1 was employed  in continually     
rolling a stone up an eminence1 because 
it perpetually  descended again2 its    
descent implying the vicious government 
of himself2  and his rolling the stone1 
the hard1 refractory1 and1 as it were1  
rebounding condition of his life4 ,and1 

lastly1 he saw ,tantalus extended  by   
the side of a lake1 and that there was a
 tree before him1 with  abundance of    
fruit on its branches1 which he desired 
to gather1 but it  vanished from his    
view4 ,and this indeed indicates1 that  
he lived under  the dominion of the     
phantasy2 but his hanging over the lake1
 and in vain  attempting to drink1      
denotes the elusive1 humid1 and         
rapidly-gliding  condition of such a    
life40    ,we must now1 however1 view   
,ulysses passing from sense to          
imagination2 in  the course of which    
voyage he is assailed by various        
temptations of great  power1 and        
destructive effect4 ,we shall perceive  
him victorious in some  of these1 and   
sinking under others2 but struggling    
against the incursions  of all4 ,among  
the first of these is the enchanting    
melody of the ,sirens1        ,whose    
song is death1 and makes destruction    
please4    ,but what is occultly        
signified by the ,sirens1 is beautifully

 unfolded by  ,proclus1 on the ,cratylus
 of ,plato1 as follows3 8,the divine    
,plato knew  that there are three kinds 
of ,sirens2 the celestial1 which is     
under  the government of ,jupiter2 that 
which is effective of generation1 and   
is under the government of ,neptune2 and
 that which is cathartic1 and  is under 
the government of ,pluto4 ,it is common 
to all these1 to incline  all things    
through an harmonic motion to their     
ruling ,gods4 ,hence1 when  the soul is 
in the heavens1 they are desirous of    
uniting it to the  divine life which    
flourishes there4 ,but it is proper that
 souls living  in generation should sail
 beyond them1 like the ,homeric         
,ulysses1 that  they may not be allured 
by generation1 of which the sea is an   
image4 ,and  when souls are in ,hades1  
the ,sirens are desirous of uniting them
 through  intellectual conceptions to   
,pluto4 ,so that ,plato knew that in the
 kingdom  of ,hades there are ,gods1    
dmons1 and souls1 who dance1 as it were1

 round  ,pluto1 allured by the ,sirens  
that dwell there40 ,ulysses1 therefore1 
as  now proceeding to a life which is   
under the dominion of imagination1 but  
which is superior to a life consisting  
wholly in sensitive energies1  abandons 
those alluring and fraudulent pleasures 
of sense1 which charm  the soul with    
flattering and mellifluous incantations4
 ,hence he closes  with divine reasons  
and energies1 as with wax1 the impulses 
of desire  and the organs of sense2 so  
that every passage being barred from    
access1  they may in vain warble the    
song of ecstasy1 and expect to ruin the 
soul  by the enchanting strain4 ,he also
 restrains the corporeal assaults by the
  bands of morality1 and thus employs   
the senses without yielding to their    
impetuous invasions2 and experiences    
delight without resigning the empire  of
 reason to its fascinating control4     
,ulysses1 having escaped the dangers of 
the ,sirens1 passes on to the rocks  of 
,scylla and ,charybdis1 of terrific     

appearance and irresistible force4  ,by 
these two rocks the poet seems to       
signify the passions of anger and       
desire1 and their concomitants1 that    
compress human life on both sides2  and 
which every one must experience who     
proceeds1 like ,ulysses1 in a  regular  
manner to an intellectual state of      
existence4 ,some of these are1  like    
,scylla1 of a lofty malignity2          
fraudulent1 yet latent and obscure1  as 
being concealed in the penetration of   
the soul4 ,and such is revenge1  and    
other passions of a similar kind4 ,in   
these recesses a dmon1 the  prince of   
such passions1 resides4 ,for the        
,chaldean oracles assert that           
terrestrial dmons dwell in the soul1    
which is replete with irrational        
affections#aie4 ,this dmon also may     
justly be denominated a dire and        
enraged dog1 who partly exposes his own 
malice1 and partly hides it in          
impenetrable obscurity4 ,hence he is    
capable of producing mischief in a      

twofold respect4 ,for he privately hurts
 by malignant stratagems1 openly        
ravishes the soul on the lofty rock of  
fury1 and rends it with the triple  evil
 of deadly teeth1 viz4 dereliction of   
duty1 hatred of humanity1 and           
self-conceit4 ,indeed1 a dmon of this   
kind will be perpetually vigilant  in   
endeavouring to destroy1 at one time the
 whole1 and at another time a  part of  
the soul of one1 struggling1 like       
,ulysses1 against passion1 and  yielding
 reluctantly to its invasions4    ,but  
the other affections which pertain to   
desire are of a more corporeal  nature1 
and are more conspicuously depraved4 ,a 
wild fig-tree1 i4e4 the  will1 is       
produced on the top of this rock2 wild1 
indeed1 on account of  its free nature1 
but sweet in fruition2 and under which1 
often through  the day1 the             
impetuosities of the boiling body are   
accustomed to absorb  and destroy the   
man1 agitating upwards and downwards    
inflamed desire2  so that mighty        

destruction1 both to soul and body1 is  
produced by their  mutual consent4 ,but 
it is highly proper that a rock of this 
last kind  should be anxiously avoided  
by one1 who1 like ,ulysses1 is labouring
 to  return to his true country and     
friends4 ,hence1 if necessity requires1 
he will rather expose himself to the    
other3 for there the energy of  thought1
 and of the soul's simple motions1 is   
alone necessary to be  exerted1 and it  
is easy to recover the pristine habit of
 the soul4 ,in  short1 the poet seems to
 represent1 by this allegory of the two 
rocks1  as well the dangers which       
spontaneously arise from the irascible  
part of  the soul1 as those which are   
the effect of deliberation1 and are of a
  corporeal nature2 both of which must  
be sustained1 or one at least1 by a     
necessary consequence4 ,for it is       
impossible that neither of them should  
be experienced by one who is passing    
over the stormy ocean of a sensible     
life4    ,after this succeeds the       

allegory of the ,trinacrian isle1       
containing the  herds sacred to the ,god
 of day1 which were violated by the     
companions  of ,ulysses2 but not without
 the destruction of the authors of this 
impiety1 and the most dreadful danger to
 ,ulysses4 ,by the result of this       
fable1 the poet evidently shows that    
punishment attends the sacrilegious  and
 the perjured2 and teaches us that we   
should perpetually reverence  divinity1 
with the greatest sanctity of mind1 and 
be cautious how we  commit any thing in 
divine concerns contrary to piety of    
manners and  purity of thought4 ,but    
,homer1 by attributing sense to the     
flesh and hides  of the slain herds1    
manifestly evinces that every base deed 
universally  proclaims the iniquity of  
its author2 but that perjury and        
sacrilege are  attended with the most   
glaring indications of guilt1 and the   
most horrid  signatures of approaching  
vengeance and inevitable ruin4 ,we may  
here1  too1 observe1 that the will of   

,ulysses was far from consenting to this
  impious deed2 and that1 though his    
passions prevailed at length over his   
reason1 it was not till after frequent  
admonition had been employed1 and  great
 diligence exerted1 to prevent its      
execution4 ,this1 indeed1 is so         
eminently true1 that his guilt was the  
consequence of surprise1 and not  of    
premeditated design2 which ,homer       
appears to insinuate by relating that   
,ulysses was asleep when his associates 
committed the offence4    ,in the next  
fable we find ,ulysses1 impelled by the 
southern wind towards  the rocks of     
,scylla and ,charybdis2 in the latter of
 which he found  safety1 by clinging to 
the fig-tree which grew on its summit1  
till she  refunded the mast1 on which he
 rode after the tempest4 ,but the secret
  meaning of the allegory appears to me 
to be as follows3--,ulysses1 who has    
not yet taken leave of a life according 
to sense1 is driven by the warmth  of   
passion1 represented by the southern    

gales1 into the dire vortex of  insane  
desires1 which frequently boiling over1 
and tossing on high the  storms of      
depraved affections1 plunges into ruin  
the soul obnoxious  to its waves4       
,however1 perceiving the danger to which
 he is exposed1  when the base storms   
begin to swell1 and the whirlpools of   
depravity  roar1 he seizes the helm of  
temperance1 and binds himself fast to   
the  solid texture of his remaining     
virtue4 ,the waves of desire are1       
indeed1  tempestuous in the extreme2 but
 before he is forcibly merged1 by the   
rage  of the passions1 into the depths  
of depravity1 he tenaciously adheres to 
his unconsenting will1 seated1 as it    
were1 on the lofty summit of terrene    
desire4 ,for this1 like the wild        
fig-tree1 affords the best refuge to the
  soul struggling with the billows of   
base perturbations4 ,hence he thus      
recovers the integrity which he had     
lost1 and afterwards swims without      
danger over the waves of temptation2    

ever watchful and assiduous1 while  he  
sails through this impetuous river of   
the flesh1 and is exposed to  the stormy
 blasts of heated passion and           
destructive vice4 ,hence1 too1  while he
 is thus affected1 and anxious lest the 
loss from unworthy  affections should   
return upon himself1 he will escape     
being lacerated by  the teeth of ,anger1
 though she should terribly and fiercely
 bark in the  neighbourhood of ,desire1 
and endeavour1 like ,scylla1 to snatch  
him on  her lofty rock4 ,for those who  
are involuntarily disturbed1 like       
,ulysses1  by the billows of ,desire1   
suffer no inconvenience from the        
depraved rock  of ,wrath2 but           
considering the danger of their present 
situation1 they  relinquish the false   
confidence produced by rage for modest  
diffidence  and anxious hope4           
,hitherto we have followed ,ulysses in  
his voyage over the turbulent and       
dangerous ocean of sense2 in which we   
have seen him struggling against  the   

storms of temptation1 and in danger of  
perishing through the  tempestuous      
billows of vice4 ,we must now attend him
 in the region of  imagination1 and mark
 his progress from the enchanted island1
 till he  regains the long-lost empire  
of his soul4 ,that the poet then1 by    
,calypso1  occultly signifies the       
phantasy or imagination1 is1 ,i think1  
evident  from his description of her    
abode4 ,for she is represented as       
dwelling  in a cavern1 illuminated by a 
great fire2 and this cave is surrounded 
with a thick wood1 is watered by four   
fountains1 and is situated in an        
island1 remote from any habitable place1
 and environed by the mighty  ocean4    
,all which particulars correspond with  
the phantasy1 as ,i presume  the        
following observations will evince4 ,in 
the first place1 the primary  and proper
 vehicle of the phantasy1 or1 as it is  
called by the ,platonic  philosophers1  
the imaginative spirit1 is attenuated   
and ethereal1 and  is therefore         

naturally luminous4 ,in the next place1 
the island is said  to be surrounded    
with a thick wood1 which evidently      
corresponds to a  material nature1 or   
this body1 with which the phantasy is   
invested4 ,for  1 or matter1 also       
signifies a wood4 ,but the four         
fountains1 by  which the cave is        
watered1 occultly signify the four      
gnostic powers of  the soul1 intellect1 
the discursive energy of reason1        
opinion1  and sense2 with all which the 
phantasy1 being also a gnostic power1   
communicates2 so that it receives       
images1 like a mirror1 from all of      
them1 and retains those which it        
receives from the senses1 when the      
objects by which they were produced are 
no longer present4 ,hence the           
imagination1 or the phantasy1 1 is      
denominated from being    1 the         
permanency of appearances4 ,and1 in the 
last place1  the island is said to be   
environed by the ocean2 which admirably 
accords  with a corporeal nature1 for   

ever flowing1 without admitting any     
periods  of repose4 ,and thus much for  
the secret agreement of the cavern and  
island with the region of imagination4  
,but the poet1 by denominating the      
,goddess ,calypso1 and the island       
,ogygia1  appears to me very evidently  
to confirm the preceding exposition4    
,for  ,calypso is derived from 1 which  
signifies to cover as with a  veil2 and 
,ogygia is from 1 ancient4 ,and as the  
imaginative  spirit is the primary      
vehicle of the rational soul1 which it  
derived  from the planetary spheres1 and
 in which it descended to the sublunary 
regions1 it may with great propriety be 
said to cover the soul as with a  fine  
garment or veil2 and it is no less      
properly denominated ancient1  when     
considered as the first vehicle of the  
soul4    ,in this region of the         
phantasy1 then1 ,ulysses is represented 
as an  involuntary captive1 continually 
employed in bewailing his absence from  
his true country1 and ardently longing  

to depart from the fascinating  embraces
 of the ,goddess4 ,for thus his         
situation is beautifully described  by  
the poet3        ,but sad ,ulysses1 by  
himself apart1      ,pour'd the big     
sorrows of his swelling heart2      ,all
 on the lonely shore he sat to weep1    
,and roll'd his eyes around the restless
 deep2      ,tow'rd his lov'd coast he  
roll'd his eyes in vain1      ,till     
dimm'd with rising grief they stream'd  
again#aif4    ,his return1 however1 is  
at length effected through ,mercury1 or 
reason1  who prevails on the ,goddess to
 yield to his dismission4 ,hence1 after 
her  consent1 ,ulysses is1 with great   
propriety1 said to have placed himself  
on the throne on which ,mercury had     
sate3 for reason then resumes her       
proper seat when the reasoning power is 
about to abandon the delusive and       
detaining charms of imagination4 ,but   
,homer appears to me to insinuate       
something admirable when he represents  
,ulysses1 on his departure from         

,calypso1 sailing by night1 and         
contemplating the order and light of the
  stars1 in the following beautiful     
lines3        ,and now1 rejoicing in the
 prosperous gales1      ,with beating   
heart ,ulysses spread his sails2        
,plac'd at the helm he sate1 and mark'd 
the skies1      ,nor clos'd in sleep his
 ever watchful eyes4      ,there viewed 
the ,pleiads1 and the northern team1    
,and great ,orion's more refulgent beam2
      ,to which around the axle of the  
sky      ,the ,bear1 revolving1 points  
his golden eye2      ,who shines exalted
 on the ethereal plain1      ,nor bathes
 his blazing forehead in the main#aig4  
,for what he here says of ,ulysses1 is  
perfectly conformable to what is  said  
by ,plato in the #gth book of his       
,republic1 respecting the man who  is to
 be led from the cave1 which he there   
describes1 to the light  of day1 i4e4   
from a sensible to an intellectual life1
 viz4 8that  he will more easily see    
what the heavens contain1 and the       

heavens  themselves1 by looking in the  
night to the light of the stars and the 
moon1 than by day looking on the sun1   
and the light of the sun40 ,for  by     
this1 as ,proclus well observes1 8,plato
 signifies the contemplation  of        
intelligibles1 of which the stars and   
their light are imitations1 so  far as  
all of them partake of the form of the  
sun1 in the same manner as              
intelligibles are characterized by the  
nature of the good4 ,these1 then1  such 
a one must contemplate1 that he may     
understand their essence1 and  those    
summits of their nature1 by which they  
are deiform processions from  the       
ineffable principle of things40         
,ulysses1 therefore1 who is hastening   
to an intellectual life1 contemplates   
these lucid objects with vigilant  eyes1
 rejoicing in the illuminations and     
assistance they afford him while        
sailing over the dark ocean of a        
sensible life4    ,but as he is now     
earnestly engaged in departing from     

sense1 he must  unavoidably be pursued  
by the anger of ,neptune1 the lord of   
generation  and a sensible life1 whose  
service he has forsaken1 and whose      
offspring  he has blinded by stratagem1 
and irritated by reproach4 ,hence1 in   
the  midst of these delightful          
contemplations1 he is almost overwhelmed
 by the  waves of misfortune1 roused by 
the wrath of his implacable foe4 ,he is1
  however1 through divine assistance1 or
 ,leucothea1 enabled to sustain the     
dreadful storm4 ,for1 receiving from    
divinity the immortal fillet of true    
fortitude1 and binding it under his     
breast1 7the proper seat of courage17   
he encounters the billows of adversity1 
and bravely shoots along the  boisterous
 ocean of life4 ,it must1 however1 be   
carefully observed1 that  the poet is   
far from ascribing a certain passion to 
a divine nature1 when  he speaks of the 
anger of ,neptune3 for1 in thus         
speaking1 he1 as well  as other         
theologists1 intended only to signify   

our inaptitude to the  participation of 
its beneficent influence4    ,ulysses   
therefore1 having with much difficulty  
escaped the dangers  arising from the   
wrath of ,neptune1 lands at length on   
the island of  ,phacia1 where he is     
hospitably received1 and honourably     
dismissed4 ,now1  as it is proper that  
he who1 like ,ulysses1 departs from the 
delusions of  imagination1 should       
immediately betake himself to the more  
intellectual  light of the rational     
energy of the soul1 the land of ,phacia 
ought to  correspond to our intellectual
 part1 and particularly to that portion 
of  it which is denominated in ,greek   
dianoia1 and which is characterized  by 
the power of reasoning scientifically1  
deriving the principles of its          
discursive energy from intellect4 ,and  
that it has this correspondence1  the   
following observations will1 ,i persuade
 myself1 abundantly evince4  ,in the    
first place1 then1 this island is       
represented by the poet as  enjoying a  

perpetual spring1 which plainly         
indicates that it is not  any           
terrestrial situation4 ,indeed1 the     
critical commentators have been  so     
fully convinced of this1 that they      
acknowledge ,homer describes  ,phacia as
 one of the ,fortunate ,islands2 but    
they have not attempted to  penetrate   
his design1 in such a description4 ,if1 
however1 we consider  the perfect       
liberty1 unfading variety1 and endless  
delight1 which our  intellectual part   
affords1 we shall find that it is truly 
the ,fortunate  ,island of the soul1 in 
which1 by the exercise of the theoretic 
virtues1  it is possible for a man1 even
 in the present life1 to obtain genuine 
felicity1 though not in that perfection 
as when he is liberated from  the body4 
,with respect to the ,fortunate         
,islands1 their occult meaning  is thus 
beautifully unfolded by ,olympiodorus1  
in his ,,ms4 commentary  on the ,gorgias
 of ,plato3            1           1    
4        1      1       1     1       3 

i4e4 8,it is  necessary to know that    
islands are raised above1 being higher  
than the  sea4 ,a condition of being1   
therefore1 which transcends this        
corporeal  life and generation1 is      
denominated the islands of the blessed2 
but these  are the same with the        
,elysian fields4 ,and on this account1  
,hercules is  reported to have          
accomplished his last labour in the     
,hesperian regions2  signifying by this1
 that having vanquished an obscure and  
terrestrial  life1 he afterwards lived  
in open day1 that is1 in truth and      
resplendent  light40 ,in the next place1
 the poet1 by his description of the    
palace  of ,alcinous1 the king of this  
island1 admirably indicates the pure and
  splendid light of the energy of       
reason4 ,for he says of it3        ,the 
front appear'd with radiant splendours  
gay1      ,bright as the lamp of night1 
or orb of day4      ,the walls were     
massy brass3 the cornice high      ,blue
 metals crown'd in colours of the sky4  

,rich plates of gold the folding doors  
incase2      ,the pillars silver on a   
brazen base4      ,silver the lintels   
deep projecting o'er1      ,and gold the
 ringlets that command the door4        
,two rows of stately dogs on either     
hand1      ,in sculptur'd gold1 and     
labour'd silver1 stand4      ,these     
,vulcan form'd intelligent to wait      
,immortal guardians at ,alcinous'       
gate#aih4    ,and he represents it as no
 less internally luminous by night4     
,refulgent pedestals the walls surround1
      ,which boys of gold with flaming  
torches crown'd2      ,the polish'd ore1
 reflecting ev'ry ray1      ,blaz'd on  
the banquets with a double day4         
,indeed ,homer1 by his description of   
the outside of this palace1             
sufficiently indicates its agreement    
with the planet ,mercury1 the  deity of 
which presides over the rational energy4
 ,for this ,god1 in  the language of    
,proclus#aii1 8unfolds into light       
intellectual gifts1  fills all things   

with divine reasons i4e4 forms1 and     
productive  principles1 elevates souls  
to intellect1 wakens them as from a     
profound  sleep1 converts them through  
investigation to themselves1 and by a   
certain obstetric art and invention of  
pure intellect1 brings them to a        
blessed life40 ,according to            
astronomers1 likewise1 the planet       
,mercury  is resplendent with the       
colours of all the other planets4 ,thus 
,baptista  ,porta in ,clest4 ,physiog4  
p4 #hh4 8,videbis in eo ,saturni        
luridum1  ,martis ignem1 ,jovis         
candidum1 ,veneris flavum1 necnon       
utriusque nitor1  hilaritasque1 et ob id
 non peculiaris form1 sed eorum formam  
capit1 cum  quibus associatur1 ob id in 
describendo ejus colore astrologi       
differunt40  i4e4 8,you may perceive in 
this planet the pale colour of ,saturn1 
the  fire of ,mars1 the whiteness of    
,jupiter1 and the yellow of ,venus2 and 
likewise the brilliancy and hilarity of 
each4 ,on this account it is not  of a  

peculiar form1 but receives the form of 
its associates1 and thus  causes        
astrologers to differ in describing its 
colour40    ,but that the island of     
,phacia is the dominion of reason1 is1  
,i think1  indisputably confirmed by    
,homer's account of the ships fabricated
 by its  inhabitants4 ,for of these1 he 
says3        ,so shalt thou instant     
reach the realm assign'd1      ,in      
wond'rous ships self-mov'd1 instinct    
with mind4      ,no helm secures their  
course1 no pilot guides1      ,like man 
intelligent they plough the tides1      
,conscious of ev'ry coast and ev'ry bay1
      ,that lies beneath the sun's      
all-seeing ray2      ,and veil'd in     
clouds impervious to the eye1           
,fearless and rapid through the deep    
they fly#bjj4    ,for it is absurd to   
suppose that ,homer would employ such an
 hyperbole1  in merely describing the   
excellency of the ,phacian ships4       
,hence1 as it  so greatly surpasses the 
bounds of probability1 and is so        

contrary to  the admirable prudence     
which ,homer continually displays1 it   
can only be  admitted as an allegory1   
pregnant with latent meaning1 and the   
recondite  wisdom of antiquity4 ,the    
poet likewise adds respecting the       
,phacians3        ,these did the ruler  
of the deep ordain      ,to build proud 
navies1 and command the main2      ,on  
canvas wings to cut the wat'ry way1     
,no bird more light1 no thought more    
swift than they4    ,the last of which  
lines so remarkably agrees with the     
preceding  explanation1 that ,i presume 
no stronger confirmation can be desired4
 ,nor  is the original less             
satisfactory3              #bja1    i4e4
 8,the ships of these men are swift as a
 wing1 or as a conception  of the mind40
 ,but the inhabitants of the palace are 
represented as  spending their days in  
continual festivity1 and unceasing      
mirth2 in  listening to the harmony of  
the lyre1 or in forming the tuneful     
mazes of  the joyful dance4 ,for to the 

man who lives under the guidance of     
reason1  or to the good man1 every day1 
as ,diogenes said1 is a festival4       
,hence1  such a one is constantly       
employed in tuning the lyre of          
recollection1  in harmonious revolutions
 about an intelligible essence1 and the 
never-satiating and deifying banquet of 
intellect4    ,and here we may observe  
how much the behaviour of ,ulysses1 at  
the palace  of ,alcinous1 confirms the  
preceding exposition1 and accords with  
his  character1 as a man passing in a   
regular manner from the delusions of    
sense1 to the realities of intellectual 
enjoyment4 ,for as he is now  converted 
to himself1 and is seated in the palace 
of reason1 it is highly  proper that he 
should call to mind his past conduct1   
and be afflicted  with the survey2 and  
that he should be wakened to sorrow by  
the lyre of  reminiscence1 and weep over
 the follies of his past active life4   
,hence1  when the divine bard           
,demodocus1 inspired by the fury of the 

,muses1 sings  the contention between   
,ulysses and ,achilles1 on his golden   
lyre1 ,ulysses  is vehemently affected  
with the relation4 ,and when the        
inhabitants of the  palace1 i4e4 the    
powers and energies of the rational     
soul1 transported  with the song1       
demanded its repetition4        ,again  
,ulysses veil'd his pensive head1       
,again1 unmann'd1 a shower of sorrow    
shed4    ,for to the man who is making a
 proficiency in virtue1 the recollection
 of  his former conduct is both pleasing
 and painful2 pleasing1 so far as in    
some instances it was attended with     
rectitude1 but painful so far as in     
others it was erroneous4    ,ulysses1   
also1 is with the greatest propriety    
represented as relating his  past       
adventures in the palace of ,alcinous4  
,for as he now betakes himself  to the  
intellectual light of the reasoning     
power1 it is highly necessary  that he  
should review his past conduct1         
faithfully enumerate the errors  of his 

life1 and anxiously solicit a return to 
true manners1 and perfect  rectitude of 
mind4 ,as likewise he is now on his     
passage1 by the pure  energy of reason  
to regain the lost empire of his soul1  
he is represented  as falling into so   
profound a sleep in his voyage1 as to be
 insensible  for some time of its happy 
consummation2 by which the poet         
indicates  his being separated from     
sensible concerns1 and wholly converted 
to the  energies of the rational soul4  
,nor is it without reason that the poet 
represents ,ithaca1 as presenting itself
 to the mariners' view1 when the  bright
 morning star emerges from the darkness 
of night4 ,for thus he sings3           
,but when the morning star1 with early  
ray1      ,flam'd in the front of heav'n
 and promis'd day2      ,like distant   
clouds1 the mariner descries      ,fair 
,ithaca's emerging hills arise#bjb4     
,since it is only by the dawning beams  
of intellect1 that the discursive       
energy of reason can gain a glimpse of  

the native country and proper seat  of  
empire of the soul4    ,ulysses         
therefore1 being now converted to the   
energies of the rational  soul1 and     
anxious to commence the cathartic       
virtues1 recognizes1 through  the       
assistance of ,minerva1 or wisdom1 his  
native land3 and immediately  enters    
into a consultation with the ,goddess1  
how he may effectually  banish the      
various perturbations and inordinate    
desires1 which yet lurk  in the         
penetralia of his soul4 ,for this       
purpose1 it is requisite that  he should
 relinquish all external possessions1   
mortify every sense1  and employ every  
stratagem1 which may finally destroy    
these malevolent  foes4 ,hence1 the garb
 of poverty1 the wrinkles of age1 and   
the want of  the necessaries of life1   
are symbols of mortified habits1        
desertion of  sensible pursuits1 and an 
intimate conversion to intellectual     
good4 ,for  the sensitive eye must now  
give place to the purer sight of the    

rational  soul2 and the strength and    
energies of the corporeal nature must   
yield to  the superior vigour of        
intellectual exertion1 and the severe   
exercise of  cathartic virtue4 ,and     
this1 ,homer appears most evidently to  
indicate in  the following beautiful    
lines3        ,now seated in the olive's
 sacred shade1      ,confer the hero and
 the martial maid4      ,the ,goddess of
 the azure eyes began3      ,son of     
,laertes6 much experienc'd man6         
,the suitor train thy earliest care     
demand1      ,of that luxurious race to 
rid the land4      ,three years thy     
house their lawless rule has seen1      
,and proud addresses to the matchless   
queen#bjc2      ,but she thy absence    
mourns from day to day1      ,and inly  
bleeds1 and silent wastes away2         
,elusive of the bridal hour1 she gives  
,fond hopes to all1 and all with hopes  
deceives#bjd4    ,hence3        ,it fits
 thee now to wear a dark disguise1      
,and secret walk unknown to mortal eyes2

      ,for this my hand shall wither    
ev'ry grace1      ,and ev'ry elegance of
 form and face1      ,o'er thy smooth   
skin a bark of wrinkles spread1         
,turn hoar the auburn honours of thy    
head1      ,disfigure every limb with   
coarse attire1      ,and in thine eyes  
extinguish all the fire2      ,add all  
the wants and the decays of life1       
,estrange thee from thy own2 thy son1   
thy wife2      ,from the loath'd object 
ev'ry sight shall turn1      ,and the   
blind suitors their destruction         
scorn#bje4    ,after this follows the   
discovery of ,ulysses to ,telemachus1   
which is  no less philosophically       
sublime than poetically beautiful4 ,for1
 by  ,telemachus1 we must understand a  
true scientific conception of things2   
since this is the legitimate offspring  
of the energy of the rational  soul1 in 
conjunction with philosophy4 ,hence     
,ulysses1 while employed in  the great  
work of mortification1 recognizes his   
genuine offspring1 and  secretly plans  

with him the destruction of his         
insidious foes4 ,and hence  we may see  
the propriety of ,telemachus being      
represented as exploring  his absent    
father1 and impatient for his return4   
,for the rational soul  then alone      
associates with a true conception of    
things1 when it withdraws  itself from  
sensible delights1 and meditates a      
restoration of its fallen  dignity and  
original sway4    ,and now ,ulysses     
presents himself to our view in the     
habits of  mortification1 hastening to  
his long deserted palace1 or the occult 
recesses of his soul1 that he may mark  
the conduct and plan the  destruction of
 those baneful passions which are       
secretly attempting  to subvert the     
empire of his mind4 ,hence1 the poet    
very properly and  pathetically         
exclaims3        ,and now his city      
strikes the monarch's eyes1      ,alas6 
how chang'd6 a man of miseries2         
,propt on a staff1 a beggar1 old and    
bare1      ,in tatter'd garments1       

flutt'ring with the air#bjf4            
,however1 as this disguise was solely   
assumed for the purpose of procuring    
ancient purity and lawful rule1 he      
divests himself of the torn garments  of
 mortification1 as soon as he begins the
 destruction of occult desires2  and    
resumes the proper dignity and strength 
of his genuine form4 ,but it  is not    
without reason that ,penelope1 who is   
the image of philosophy1  furnishes the 
instrument by which the hostile rout of 
passions are  destroyed4 ,for what      
besides the arrows of philosophy can    
extirpate the  leading bands of impurity
 and vice8 ,hence1 as soon as he is     
furnished  with this irresistible       
weapon1 he no longer defers the ruin of 
his  insidious foes1 but        ,then   
fierce the hero o'er the threshold      
strode2      ,stript of his rags1 he    
blaz'd out like a ,god4      ,full in   
their face the lifted bow he bore1      
,and quiver'd deaths a formidable store2
      ,before his feet the rattling     

show'r he threw1      ,and thus terrific
 to the suitor crew#bjg4    ,but ,homer 
represents ,penelope as remaining       
ignorant of ,ulysses1 even  after the   
suitors are destroyed1 and he is seated 
on the throne of  majesty1 anxious to be
 known1 and impatient to return her     
chaste and  affectionate embrace4 ,for  
thus he describes her3        ,then     
gliding through the marble valves in    
state1      ,oppos'd before the shining 
fire she sate4      ,the monarch1 by a  
column high enthron'd4      ,his eye    
withdrew1 and fixed it on the ground1   
,anxious to hear his queen the silence  
break3      ,amaz'd she sate1 and       
impotent to speak2      ,o'er all the   
man her eyes she rolls in vain1         
,now hopes1 now fears1 now knows1 then  
doubts again#bjh4    ,by which ,homer   
indicates1 that ,philosophy1 through her
 long absence from  the soul1 and the   
foreign manners and habits which the    
soul had assumed1  is a stranger to it1 
so that it is difficult for her to      

recognize the  union and legitimate     
association which once subsisted between
 them4  ,however1 in order to facilitate
 this discovery1 ,ulysses renders all   
pure  and harmonious within the recesses
 of his soul2 and1 by the assistance of 
,minerva1 or wisdom1 resumes the garb   
and dignity which he had formerly       
displayed4        ,then instant to the  
bath 7the monarch cries17      ,bid the 
gay youth and sprightly virgins rise1   
,thence all descend in pomp and proud   
array1      ,and bid the dome resound   
the mirthful lay2      ,while the sweet 
lyrist airs of raptures sings1      ,and
 forms the dance responsive to the      
strings#bji4    ,and afterwards1        
,ulysses is described as appearing1     
through the  interposition of ,minerva1 
like one of the immortals4        ,so   
,pallas his heroic form improves1       
,with bloom divine1 and like a ,god he  
moves#baj4    ,for1 indeed1 he who1 like
 ,ulysses1 has completely destroyed the 
domination of his passions1 and purified

 himself1 through the cathartic         
virtues1 from their defiling nature1 no 
longer ranks in the order of  mortals1  
but is assimilated to divinity4 ,and    
now1 in order that he may  become       
entirely known to ,philosophy1 that     
chaste ,penelope of the soul1  it is    
only requisite for him to relate the    
secrets of their mystic  union1 and     
recognize the bower of intellectual     
love4 ,for then perfect  recollection   
will ensue2 and the anxiety of          
diffidence will be changed  into        
transports of assurance1 and tears of   
rapturous delight4    ,and thus we have 
attended ,ulysses in his various        
wanderings and woes1  till1 through the 
cathartic virtues1 he recovers the      
ruined empire of  his soul4 ,but1 as it 
is requisite that he should1 in the next
 place1  possess and energize according 
to the theoretic or contemplative       
virtues1  the end of which is a union   
with deity1 as far as this can be       
effected  by man in the present life1   

,homer only indicates to us his         
attainment of  this end1 without giving 
a detail of the gradual advances by     
which he  arrived at this consummate    
felicity4 ,this union is occultly       
signified by  ,ulysses first beholding1 
and afterwards ardently embracing his   
father  with ecstatic delight4 ,with    
most admirable propriety1 also1 is      
,ulysses  represented as proceeding1 in 
order to effect this union1 by himself  
alone1 to his father who is also alone4 
,alone and unattended1 let me try       
,if yet ,i share the old man's          
memory#baa1    says ,ulysses4 ,and      
afterwards it is said1        ,but all  
alone the hoary king he found#bab4      
,for a union with the ineffable one of  
the ,demiurgus1 the true father  of the 
soul1 can only be accomplished by the   
soul recurring to its own  unity2 and   
having for this purpose previously      
dismissed and abandoned  every thing    
foreign to it4 ,this occurrence1 indeed1
 of the soul with  deity1 is1 as        

,plotinus divinely says1    #bac1 a     
flight of the alone to the alone1 in    
which most beautiful expression ,i  have
 no doubt he alludes to this mystic     
termination of the wanderings  of       
,ulysses1 in the embraces of his father4
 ,proclus also1 in a no less  admirable 
manner1 alludes to this union in his    
,commentaries on the ,timus  of         
,plato#bad4 ,the allusion is in his     
comment on the words1 8,it is           
difficult1 therefore1 to discover the   
maker and father of this universe2  and1
 when found1 it is impossible to speak  
of him to all men40 ,on this  passage   
,proclus observes3 8,it is necessary    
that the soul1 becoming an  intellectual
 world1 and being as much as possible   
assimilated to the  whole intelligible  
world1 should introduce herself to the  
maker of the  universe2 and from this   
introduction1 should1 in a certain      
respect1  become familiar with him      
through a continued intellectual energy4
 ,for  uninterrupted energy about any   

thing calls forth and resuscitates our  
dormant ideas4 ,but through this        
familiarity1 becoming stationed at  the 
door of the father1 it is necessary that
 we should be united to  him4 ,for      
discovery is this1 to meet with him1 to 
be united to him1 to  associate alone   
with the alone1 and to see him himself1 
the soul hastily  withdrawing herself   
from every other energy to him4 ,for1   
being present  with her father1 she then
 considers scientific discussions to be 
but  words#bae1 banquets together with  
him on the truth of real being1 and in  
pure splendour is purely initiated in   
entire and stable visions4 ,such1       
therefore1 is the discovery of the      
father1 not that which is doxastic or   
pertaining to opinion2 for this is      
dubious1 and not very remote from the   
irrational life4 ,neither is it         
scientific2 for this is syllogistic and 
composite1 and does not come into       
contact with the intellectual essence   
of the intellectual ,demiurgus4 ,but it 

is that which subsists according  to    
intellectual vision itself1 a contact   
with the intelligible1 and a  union with
 the demiurgic intellect4 ,for this may 
properly be denominated  difficult1     
either as hard to obtain1 presenting    
itself to souls after  every evolution  
of life1 or as the true labour of souls4
 ,for1 after the  wandering about       
generation1 after purification1 and the 
light of science1  intellectual energy  
and the intellect which is in us shine  
forth1 placing  the soul in the father  
as in a port1 purely establishing her in
 demiurgic  intellections1 and          
conjoining light with light2 not such as
 that of  science1 but more beautiful1  
more intellectual1 and partaking more of
 the  nature of the one than this4 ,for 
this is the paternal port1 and the      
discovery of the father1 viz4 an        
undefiled union with him40    ,with     
great beauty also1 and in perfect       
conformity to the most recondite        
theology1 is the father of ,ulysses     

represented as coarsely clothed1 and    
occupied in botanical labours3          
,but all alone the hoary king he found2 
,his habit coarse1 but warmly wrapt     
around2      ,his head1 that bow'd with 
many a pensive care1      ,fenc'd with a
 double cap of goatskin hair2      ,his 
buskins old1 in former service torn1    
,but well repair'd2 and gloves against  
the thorn4      ,in this array the      
kingly gard'ner stood1      ,and clear'd
 a plant1 encumber'd with its wood#baf4 
,for this simplicity1 and coarseness of 
the garb of ,laertes1 considered as  an 
image of the true father of ,ulysses1   
is1 in every respect1 conformable  to   
the method adopted by ancient           
mythologists in their adumbrations  of  
deity4 ,for they imitated the           
transcendency of divine natures by      
things preternatural2 a power more      
divine than all reason by things        
irrational2 and1 by apparent deformity1 
a beauty which surpasses every  thing   
corporeal4 ,this array1 therefore1 of   

the father of ,ulysses1 is1 in  the     
language of ,proclus1 indicative 8of an 
essence established in the  simplicity  
of the one1 and vehemently rejoicing1 as
 some one of the  piously wise says1 in 
an unadorned privation of form1 and     
extending it  to those who are able to  
survey it#bag40 ,and the botanical      
labours of  ,laertes are an image of the
 providential attention of the          
,demiurgus to  the immediate            
ramifications and blossoms of his own   
divine essence1 in  which they are      
ineffably rooted1 and from which they   
eternally germinate4    ,though         
,ulysses1 however1 is placed through the
 theoretic virtues in the  paternal     
port1 as far as this is possible to be  
effected in the present  life1 yet we   
must remember1 according to the         
beautiful observation of  ,porphyry1    
that he is not freed from molestation1  
till he has passed over  the raging sea 
of a material nature2 i4e4 has become   
impassive#bah to  the excitations of the

 irrational life1 and is entirely       
abstracted from  external concerns4     
,for1        ,then heav'n decrees in    
peace to end his days1      ,and steal  
himself from life by slow decays2       
,unknown to pain1 in age resign his     
breath4      ,when late stern ,neptune  
points the shaft of death2      ,to the 
dark grave retiring as to rest2         
,his people blessing1 by his people     
blest#bai4    ,i shall only observe     
farther1 that ,plotinus also considered 
the  wanderings of ,ulysses as a        
fabulous narration containing a latent  
meaning1 such as that which we have     
above unfolded4 ,this is evident from   
the following extract from his admirable
 treatise on the ,beautiful3 8,it  is   
here1 then1 in order to survey the      
beautiful itself that we may more  truly
 exclaim4        ,haste1 let us fly and 
all our sails expand1      ,to gain our 
dear1 our long-lost native land#bbj4    
,but by what leading stars shall we     
direct our flight1 and by what means    

avoid the magic power of ,circe1 and the
 detaining charms of ,calypso8  ,for    
thus the fable of ,ulysses obscurely    
signifies1 which feigns him  abiding an 
unwilling exile1 though pleasant        
spectacles were continually  presented  
to his sight2 and every thing was       
proffered to invite his  stay1 which can
 delight the senses and captivate the   
heart4 ,but our true  country1 like that
 of ,ulysses1 is from whence we came1   
and where our  father lives#bba40       
,,footnotes3    #ahc   1                
1     1 '    1           1              
supple                 1   1   1        
1   1 1     4    #ahd ,in ,plat4 ,polit4
 p4 #cih4    #ahe ,instead of  1 in this
 place1 it is necessary to read   4     
#ahf ,iliad1 ,v4 v4 #dea4    #ahg       
,conformably to this1 ,proclus1 in      
,plat4 ,polit4 p4 #cih1 says1 8that  all
 the beauty subsisting about generation 
or the regions of sense1  from the      
fabrication of things1 is signified by  
,helen2 about which  there is a         

perpetual battle of souls1 till the more
 intellectual having  vanquished the    
more irrational forms of life1 return to
 the place from  whence they originally 
came40 ,for the beauty which is in the  
realms of  generation1 is an efflux of  
intelligible beauty4    #ahh ,this      
second line is1 in ,pope's version1     
8,lotos the name1 divine1  nectarious   
juice60 which ,i have altered as above1 
as being more  conformable to the       
original4    #ahi ,lib4 ix4 l4 #id1 c4  
#aij ,vid4 ,censoris1 ,de ,die ,natali1 
cap4 iii4    #aia ,this is evident from 
the following passage in the ,commentary
 of  ,proclus1 on the ,first ,alcibiades
 of ,plato3                     '  1    
4  p4 #cg1 ,edit4 ,creuz4 ,but for a    
copious account of the essential dmon1  
and  of the different orders and offices
 of dmon1 see the notes accompanying  my
 translation of the ,first ,alcibiades1 
,phdo1 and ,gorgias of ,plato4    #aib  
,see the note 7p4 #ij7 accompanying my  
translation of the  ,metamorphosis of   

,apuleius4    #aic ,for an accurate     
account of the gradation of the virtues1
 see  ,porphyry's ,auxiliaries to       
,intelligibles1 p4 #bag4    #aid ,for   
the shuttle is a symbol of separating   
power4    #aie ,and this is the meaning 
of the ,chaldaic oracle1--            4 
i4e4 8,the wild beasts of the earth     
shall inhabit thy vessel40 ,for1  as    
,psellus well observes1 by the vessel1  
the composite temperature of  the soul  
is signified1 and by the wild beasts of 
the earth1 terrestrial  dmons4    #aif  
,odyss4 lib4 v4 #hb1 c4 ,the translation
 by ,pope4    #aig ,ibid4 lib4 v4 #bfi1 
c4    #aih ,odyss4 lib4 vii4 #hd1 c4    
,the translation by ,pope4    #aii ,in  
,euclid4 ,element4 lib4 i4 p4 #ad4      
#bjj ,odyss4 lib4 viii4 #eef1 c4    #bja
 ,odyss4 lib4 vii4 #cc4    #bjb ,odyss4 
lib4 xiii4 #ic1 c4    #bjc i4e4         
,philosophy2 for of this ,penelope is an
 image4    #bjd ,odyss4 lib4 xiii4 #cgc1
 c4    #bje ,odyss4 lib4 xiii4 #cig1 c4 
,the translation of the above1 and      

likewise of all the following passages  
from the ,odyssey1 is by ,pope4    #bjf 
,odyss4 lib4 xvii4 #bja1 c4    #bjg     
,odyss4 lib4 xxii4 #a1 c4    #bjh       
,odyss4 lib4 xxiii4 #hh1 c4    #bji     
,odyss4 lib4 xxiii4 #aca1 c4    #baj    
,odyss4 lib4 xxiii4 #afc1 c4    #baa    
,odyss4 lib4 xxiv4 #bae1 c4    #bab     
,ibid4 lib4 xxiv4 #bbe4    #bac ,these  
are the concluding words of the last    
book of his last ,ennead4    #bad ,see  
vol4 i4 p4 #bed1 of my translation of   
that work4    #bae ,this is in          
consequence of a union with the         
,demiurgus being so much  superior to   
scientific perception4    #baf ,odyss4  
lib4 xxiv4 #bbe1 c4    #bag             
7lege 7        1  1        4--,procl4 in
 ,parmenid4 lib4 i4 p4 #ch4 #hvo4       
,parisiis1 #ahba4    #bah ,this         
impassivity1 or perfect subjugation of  
the passions to reason1  which is the   
true apathy of the ,stoics and          
,platonists1 is indicated by  ,ulysses  
finding a nation        8,who ne'er knew

 salt or heard the billows roar40       
#bai ,odyss4 lib4 xxiii4 #bha1 c4 ,by   
the people1 in these lines1 the         
inferior parts or powers of the soul are
 indicated4    #bbj ,iliad1 lib4 ii4    
#adj1 and lib4 ix4 #bg4    #bba ,see my 
paraphrased translation of this         
treatise1 p4 #cg1 c4      ,,the ,,end4  
,,london3                     ,,printed 
,,by ,j4 ,,moyes1 ,,greville ,,street4