,transcriber's ,notes3 ,underscores 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate italics in the original text4 ,equal signs 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate bold in the original text4 ,small capitals have been converted to ,,solid capitals4 ,illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs4 ,deprecated spellings have been preserved4 ,typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected4 ,,webster',s ,,practical ,,forestry ,a ,,popular ,,handbook ,,on ,,the ,,rearing ,,and ,,growth ,,of ,,trees ,,for ,,profit ,,or ,,ornament ,,by ,a4 ,d4 ,,webster ,author of 8,hardy ,ornamental ,flowering ,trees and ,shrubs0 7#c ,editions71 8,foresters' ,diary0 7#ae ,editions71 8,hardy ,coniferous ,trees0 7#b ,editions71 8,town ,planting10 8,tree ,wounds and ,diseases10 8,british ,timber and ,timber-,producing ,trees10 etc41 etc4 ,,fifth ,,edition ,,enlarged ,,and ,,revised ,,london ,,william ,,rider ,,son1 ,,limited ,,cathedral ,,house1 ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,e4,c4 #d #aiag ,,to ,,my ,,wife ,,the ,,fifth ,,edition ,,of 8,,practical ,,forestry0 ,,is ,,dedicated ,,preface ,,to ,,fifth ,,edition ,to the ,author at least1 it is gratifying to know that four editions of ,practical ,forestry have been sold out1 and that a fifth is urgently called for2 no other work on ,british ,forestry having achieved a like popularity4 ,the whole has now been completely revised and several important chapters added1 particularly with reference to ,timber and the ,war1 ,british ,timber and ,timber ,trees1 ,afforesting ,waste ,lands1 and ,the ,education of ,foresters1 on both of which latter questions the ,author had the honour of giving evidence before the ,departmental ,committee on ,forestry of the ,board of ,agriculture4 ,a4 ,d4 ,,webster4 ,,regent',s ,,park1 ,june1 #aiag4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,fifth ,,edition ,in my long experience of ,british ,forestry1 which1 in a practical way1 has extended over a period of forty years1 ,i have become more and more convinced that in order to place it on a systematic and sound economic footing1 ,state aid and the afforesting of large areas of comparatively waste lands are first necessities4 ,for the past thirty years ,i have not failed to urge upon the ,state1 as well as private owners of suitable land1 the pressing necessity of afforestation2 and though in this matter a start has been made1 yet this can only be looked upon as a faint1 half-hearted attempt quite unworthy of our country and the vast interests at stake4 ,as early as #ahhc1 ,i drew attention to this matter in ,woods and ,forests1 and at later periods in most of the leading journals and papers of the day2 while in my evidence given before the ,select ,committee on ,forestry1 and in a paper contributed by special request to the ,board of ,agriculture1 ,i went fully into the question1 and pointed out what a boon to the unemployed1 and how great a saving to the country would be effected by a well-organized scheme of tree planting4 ,years ago ,i urged the ,government to take up the question of the ,larch disease1 the ravages of which ,i then described as being little short of a national calamity4 ,to the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society of ,scotland1 and the ,royal ,scottish ,arboricultural ,society1 ,i have contributed twenty-three papers on different topics connected with forestry1 for which special medals have been awarded1 while my ,practical ,forestry has now passed into a fifth edition4 ,in connection with the afforesting of waste lands1 ,i have travelled over the greater part of the ,united ,kingdom and have examined much of the ground that could be set aside for this purpose1 including the peat bogs of ,ireland2 while at altitudes up to #a1ajj ft4 ,i have formed plantations on the bare and wind-swept hillsides of ,wales and ,scotland1 which to-day are proving not only a boon to the farmers in the way of the shelter they afford1 but also a considerable source of profit to the owners4 ,the above investigations1 combined with the examination of and reports on several of the largest woodland properties in this country1 made at the request of the owners1 have given me a wide insight into the forestry problem generally1 but particularly with reference to our requirements in the near future1 in view of the fact that the ,united ,kingdom is by far the largest timber-importing country in the world4 ,a4 ,d4 ,w4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,page ,,forestry ,,and ,,the ,,war #a ,,chapter ,,ii ,,collecting ,,and ,,storing ,,tree ,,seeds #h ,,chapter ,,iii ,,propagating ,,trees ,,and ,,shrubs #ae ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,home ,,nursery3 ,,its ,,formation ,,and ,,management #bd ,,chapter ,v ,,formation ,,of ,,plantations #cb ,,chapter ,,vi ,,trees ,,for ,,economic ,,planting #dg ,,chapter ,,vii ,,planting ,,exposed ,,ground #fh ,,chapter ,,viii ,,seaside ,,planting #gc ,,chapter ,,ix ,,town ,,planting1 ,,and ,,the ,,trees ,,and ,,shrubs ,,that ,,are ,,best ,,adapted ,,for ,,withstanding ,,smoke #hg ,,chapter ,x ,,trees ,,suitable ,,for ,,hedgerow ,,and ,,field ,,planting #aaj ,,chapter ,,xi ,,ornamental ,,planting #aaf ,,chapter ,,xii ,,trees ,,best ,,adapted ,,for ,,various ,,soils #abh ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,transplanting ,,large ,,trees #aci ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,thinning ,,plantations #ada ,,chapter ,,xv ,,tree-,,pruning ,,in ,,economic ,,forestry #aea ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,bracing ,,and ,,repairing ,,trees #aei ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,coppice ,,and ,,underwood #agj ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,game ,,coverts3 ,,their ,,formation ,,and ,,management #agd ,,chapter ,,xix ,,hedges3 ,,their ,,formation ,,and ,,management #ahd ,,chapter ,,xx ,,shrubs ,,for ,,shady ,,situations #aia ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,insect ,,enemies ,,of ,,trees #aic ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,fungus ,,growth ,,on ,,trees #bab ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,barking ,,oak #bbj ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,charcoal #bbf ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,prices ,,of ,,home-,,grown ,,timber #bcg ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,british-,,grown ,,timber ,,and ,,some ,,of ,,its ,,uses #bdj ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,willows ,,for ,,basket-,,making #bdc ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,utilizing ,,waste ,,forest ,,produce #bej ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,fencing ,,plantations #beg ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,timber ,,measuring #bfh ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,blasting ,,and ,,burning ,,tree ,,roots #bgc ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,prices ,,of ,,contract ,,or ,,piecework #bgg ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,,forest ,,area ,,of ,,the ,,world #bhj ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,,afforesting ,,waste ,,lands ,,and ,,the ,,financial ,,returns ,,therefrom #bhb ,,index #bie ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,page ,arrangement of ,plantations #cc ,band and ,connecting-,rod #aff ,barking ,tools #bbb ,beam ,tree in ,london #ajc ,beech ,tree #ej ,blasting and ,burning ,tree ,roots #bgc ,bracing a ,tree #afe ,cricket ,bat ,willow #ee ,elm ,tree ,destroyer #aii ,faulkner's ,transplanting ,machine #adj ,felling ,tools #adc ,goat ,moth #bja ,hedging ,tools #ahe ,larch ,canker #bac ,measuring the ,height of ,trees #bga ,method of ,levelling #ci ,oak ,fences #bfb ,plan of ,nursery #bg ,plane ,tree in ,regent's ,park #ii ,polyporus ,sulphureus #bai ,polyporus ,squamosus #baf ,pruning ,tools #aec ,pruning1 ,bad effects of #aee ,rustic ,wooden ,fence1 ,strong ,mortised ,fence1 ,strong ,paling ,fence #bfb ,sawn ,wooden ,fence #bfa ,section of ,charcoal ,pit #bbi ,savin ,juniper as a ,town ,shrub #ajh ,slate ,fences #bei ,spirit-,level #ci ,stone and ,wire ,fence #beg ,tools used in ,planting #dc ,tools used in ,draining #cg ,tools required in ,nursery #bi ,tools for ,fencing #bfd ,tree ,guards #bff ,weymouth ,pine at ,gwydyr ,castle #fa ,wire ,fence with ,wooden ,posts #bfc ,willow ,beetle #aig ,wood ,leopard ,moth #bjc ,witch's ,broom on ,willow #bji1 #baj ,,webster',s ,,practical ,,forestry ,,chapter ,i ,,forestry ,,and ,,the ,,war ,during the war1 and for long afterwards1 there is bound to be a dearth of foreign timber1 with the result that our home supplies will be taxed to the utmost4 ,this1 indeed1 is already the case1 and never before in the history of our country has the demand for ,british-grown timber been greater or prices higher than at the present time4 ,plantations in ,england and ,scotland are being cut down wholesale by the ,government1 while felling on private estates is going on with such rapidity that in a couple of years at most there is bound to be a dearth of all home-grown timber1 and of pitwood in particular4 ,in the aggregate1 our supplies are by no means great1 the total area at present under woodlands being only a little over three million acres1 to which1 however1 must be added the amount of field and hedgerow timber--a by no means inconsiderable quantity4 ,of ,plantation timber much is1 however1 of very inferior quality and only suitable for rough fencing and mining purposes1 and this applies generally to that grown throughout ,england1 ,wales and ,ireland4 ,in ,scotland1 however1 there are large areas of coniferous woods that were planted for purely economic purposes which will yield a certain amount of valuable timber for pit-props and other immediate requirements4 ,the felling of ,scotch1 ,spruce1 and coniferous trees will1 however1 be a blessing in disguise1 for of late years both demand and price for this particular class of timber have been by no means great and have hardly warranted the owners of vacant land in undertaking the much-needed extension of our woodlands4 ,larch1 on the other hand1 is scarce and always in demand at a highly remunerative price1 as also are ,ash1 ,oak and ,beech of large size and good quality4 ,it is useless to go into the question of how long our home supplies of timber will last1 this depending largely on the volume of foreign importations and the duration of the war1 but1 judging from present demands1 three years will find our plantations in a more or less depleted condition4 ,the main question we have to consider and decide1 without delay1 is how our cut-over plantations are to be replaced by the replanting of exhausted woodlands and afforesting some of the waste lands of our country4 ,continental experience has demonstrated that1 from a commercial point of view at least1 ,state-owned forests are preferable to such as are owned either by public bodies or by private individuals4 ,the resources and continuity of a nation will always make the ,state the best custodian of forest property2 indeed1 only the ,state can acquire the necessary land on the most favourable terms1 and in sufficient quantity for the purposes of extensive afforestation4 ,private individuals--or1 indeed1 public bodies--labour under many disadvantages in this respect1 not the least being the long period required--in most cases from fifty to sixty years--before the money expended in planting can be even partially recovered4 ,contrary to the conditions obtaining in the raising of agricultural crops1 long periods have to elapse before the forestry harvest can be reaped4 ,it will be obvious1 therefore1 that extensive tree planting is quite beyond the power of the private individual unassisted4 ,it is a ,state business1 in which systematic methods of cultivation1 and large wooded areas are first necessities2 and1 unfortunately1 in this country commercial forestry is but little understood--in fact1 it may be described as an unknown industry4 ,extensive plantations of from a thousand to several thousand acres each1 in compact blocks1 are required1 for it is only in dealing with such areas that the planting1 tending1 thinning1 and conversion of the timber can be most economically and profitably carried out4 ,from the purely economic point of view1 the many small plantations dotted over the face of our country are worse than useless1 though exceptions might be noted1 especially in ,scotland1 where a few woods are planted and managed on a commercial basis4 ,with compact blocks of forest #b1jjj to #d1jjj acres in extent1 and with timber crops of mainly the same species in each1 a continuity of supplies could be guaranteed1 which under existing circumstances is quite out of the question4 ,in many outlying districts all over the country that are far removed from road and rail it is difficult--in some cases impossible--to dispose of the usually small amount of timber that is periodically cut down2 but were large quantities of the same kind and a continuity of supply ensured1 merchants would be tempted to make special transit and other arrangements1 as well as to offer a remunerative price for the timber1 while railway companies would no doubt provide cheaper facilities for its transport4 ,more than once ,i have been asked by owners of woodlands to recommend buyers of good ,larch1 ,ash1 and other timber1 the demand for which far exceeds the supply2 but after negotiating have invariably been told by the merchants that the quantity offered was too small to allow of special facilities for delivery being provided1 the timber being far removed from road and rail1 but that if a specified number of trees could be guaranteed annually for a number of years they were quite prepared to buy4 ,such cases occurred in the ,south and ,west of ,ireland1 and in remote parts of ,wales and ,scotland4 ,these1 then1 are cases in which a continuity of supply--such as would be quite possible if an extensive scheme of afforesting was carried out--would ensure speedy sales at fair rates in places where at present it is difficult1 if not impossible1 to dispose of the small quantities of timber1 even at ruinously low prices4 ,the question1 then1 before the nation is3 ,how1 and by whom1 is afforestation to be carried out on a scale commensurate with our necessities as by far the largest timber-importing country in the world8--larger1 indeed1 than all the countries of ,europe put together4 ,in answer1 and without the slightest hesitation1 ,i would say that the ,state should acquire and plant suitable lands at the rate of #dj1jjj acres annually for a period of twenty-five years1 or #a1jjj1jjj in all4 ,when we consider that the total area of woodlands in this country is only a little in excess of #c1jga1jjj acres1 that fully #ag1jjj1jjj acres of waste lands exist1 and that we annually import over #aj1jjj1jjj tons of timber at a cost of about #be1jjj1jjj1 the necessity for an increased area of woodlands1 so that a portion at least of this vast sum may be kept at home1 will be apparent to all1 the more so as a dearth of timber is imminent and outside supplies are being rigidly conserved1 while our home demands are ever on the increase4 ,in order to carry out my proposed scheme of planting a million acres during the next five years1 at the rate of #bjj1jjj acres annually1 profitable and healthy employment would at once be found for several thousand workmen4 ,the question of transporting1 housing and otherwise dealing with these workmen has been brought forward as the most serious drawback to the scheme1 but1 personally1 having had to deal with such cases ,i can see no insuperable difficulty in the undertaking4 ,surely1 if our railway and water companies1 as also private landowners1 can deal with hundreds of men in remote mountain districts that are far removed from road and rail1 the ,government could make the necessary arrangements for the various bodies of workmen that would be employed for afforesting purposes4 ,nor must tree planting be considered as a new departure for unemployed labour1 as in the formation of a large plantation on a dreary exposed hillside in ,wales1 the whole of the work1 including clearing the ground of rough surface growth1 draining1 pitting and planting1 was most successfully carried out by detachments of the unemployed4 ,the general physique of ,army and ,navy men and the discipline and hard work to which they have been subjected during the war will render them peculiarly suitable for carrying out the various operations connected with the formation of plantations4 ,convalescent soldiers and sailors could also find healthy employment in the various lighter tasks which go hand in hand with afforestation1 such as clearing the ground of rough growing vegetation and lifting and distributing the young trees4 ,several suggestions have been made for providing employment for our returned soldiers and sailors1 but much of this proposed work is1 so to speak1 invented for the purpose1 and would probably never be seriously considered except for the exigencies of the case4 ,now ,i am quite of opinion that afforesting waste lands offers a sensible system of employment1 for it is now generally admitted that a largely increased area of our woodlands is an imperative and pressing necessity1 and what is of equal importance1 the undertaking1 if wisely entered upon1 would not only increase the value of such lands fourfold but form the nucleus of an ever-increasing revenue of the ,state4 ,but this is not all1 for apart altogether from the question of immediate labour1 what an industry would be opened up in years to come by the planting of waste grounds6 ,in the first instance there would arise the necessity for clearing1 fencing1 draining1 and planting the ground1 subsequently the tending of the plantations in various ways would give employment4 ,thinning would commence about the tenth year1 after which the erection of sawmills and the conversion of the timber would open a vast and ever-increasing industry1 providing highly remunerative work to thousands of the unemployed4 ,there are other ways in connection with forestry in which the unemployed could be usefully and profitably set to work1 such as in preparing osier beds1 planting dogwood for gunpowder charcoal1 and in the formation and stocking of tree nurseries1 the produce of which could with advantage be used in the formation of plantations4 ,osiers for basket-making1 charcoal for gunpowder and heating purposes1 and seedling plants for afforestation will all be greatly in demand after the war when foreign supplies will not be forthcoming4 ,regarding the most desirable centres at which to commence planting operations1 ,i would suggest those counties where the greatest areas of waste lands exist1 and where1 in addition1 advantages are offered in the matter of cheap land purchase1 as well as in a demand for and easy removal of the produce4 ,thus we have3-- ,england ,yorkshire and ,northumberland with #a1jaj1ibd acres4 ,scotland ,inverness and ,argyleshire with #c1jhg1cab acres4 ,wales ,breconshire and ,merionethshire with #dfa1cbj acres4 ,ireland ,donegal and ,kerry with #feg1ccg acres 7exclusive of #agb1dcf acres of bogland74 ,from these figures it will be seen that in case of necessity we could get all the ground required for this afforesting scheme in two of the counties of ,england and ,scotland1 or in three of ,wales and ,ireland4 ,the cost of procuring suitable land for afforesting purposes need not be considered as any obstacle to the scheme4 ,from extensive inquiries made the price on an average would not be greater than #b per acre4 ,through the kindness of the agent on the ,gwydyr ,estate1 in ,carnarvonshire1 ,i have been allowed to look over the sale contracts on several of the properties1 and from these ,i find that #g1dab acres were disposed of at an average price of #b #bs4 #c;d4 per acre4 ,the ground was excellent for the production of timber1 as the ,larch on adjoining lands clearly evidenced4 ,again1 the ,crown recently purchased #ab1ejj acres in ,scotland at the modest rental of #b per acre4 ,many other instances could be quoted1 but the above suffice to show that land in every way suitable for the production of high-grade timber can be bought at probably less than #b per acre4 ,the cost of forming plantations has been very carefully considered1 and for all practical purposes may be put down at #e per acre1 taking the ,british ,isles as a whole4 ,regarding financial returns from tree planting1 there is overwhelming proof that land worth only from #as4 to #cs4 #f;d4 per acre has been made to realise as much as #bjs4 per acre for fifty or sixty years1 with a final crop worth from #ej to #ge per acre4 ,taking all the above points into consideration--the price of land1 the cost of planting and the financial returns--it will amply repay the ,state to plant up uncultivated and waste lands4 ,there should be no loss of time in setting about this work if we are to provide suitable employment for our returned soldiers and sailors and avoid the threatened timber famine which1 according to well-informed quarters1 is fast approaching4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,collecting ,,and ,,storing ,,tree ,,seeds ,owing to the war there is little doubt that for several years to come adequate supplies of seeds and young forest trees will not be available from their usual sources on the ,continent4 ,vast quantities of both are annually sent to this country from ,germany alone1 while from other parts of the ,continent coniferous seeds in particular are largely imported--in fact1 we are almost wholly dependent for both seeds and seedlings on foreign supplies4 ,under these circumstances1 it behoves the owners of woodlands in every part of the country to collect seeds1 particularly of such trees as our plantations are mainly composed of4 ,after these have been properly harvested1 they should be stored away in suitable places till seed-sowing time in the spring4 ,to some extent this will be a new forest industry1 though for long1 the seeds both of ,scotch ,pine and various hard-wooded trees1 particularly the ,oak1 ,ash and ,elm1 have been annually collected on various estates throughout the country1 and the young plants raised from such stock have given every satisfaction when planted out permanently4 ,for several reasons1 however1 we cannot compete with foreigners either in the production of seeds or in raising young forest stock4 ,for some years to come1 owing to the uncertainty of supplies from abroad1 both seeds and seedlings are bound to be scarce and expensive4 ,in the past1 far too little attention has been bestowed on the collecting and harvesting of the seeds of trees and shrubs1 the result1 in not a few cases1 being weak and unhealthy plants and an uneven and irregular crop4 ,the best seeds1 it should be remembered1 are those collected from healthy trees in the prime of life1 and grown under conditions favourable to their perfect development4 ,an unhealthy tree will often bear a heavy crop of seed1 but although the inducements to collect such are great1 they should be discarded1 those from the most robust specimens in the prime of life being chosen in preference4 ,regarding the best way of collecting tree seeds little need be said1 the exigencies of the case determining the best method to be adopted4 ,the seeds of not a few trees may be collected as they fall1 and this is especially the case with those of the ,oak1 ,beech1 ,elm1 etc41 all of which may be swept into heaps and gathered in quantity from beneath desirable trees4 ,in the case of the various ,conifer this method of seed collecting will not answer--indeed1 in the majority of instances1 the seed should be gathered1 or rather picked1 from the trees just before they became fully ripe1 as in falling they get loose from the cone-scales and are lost4 ,when collecting the cones of coniferous trees1 a long1 light hooked staff with which to draw the branches towards one can conveniently be used to procure an abundant supply4 ,a bag or satchel should also be in possession of the seed collector1 into which may be put such kinds of cones as fall readily apart1 as the seeds from these are easily lost4 ,sometimes1 as in the case of rare seeds1 and when only a few cones are borne near the top of the tree1 the seed collector must have recourse to climbing2 but1 in such cases1 in order to avoid injury to the bark1 he should be provided with a pair of elastic shoes or slippers4 ,great care is required in the collection of such seeds as those of ,abies nobilis and ,a4 nordmanniana1 the cones1 when fully ripe1 falling to pieces on the slightest touch4 ,this1 however1 applies equally to almost every species of ,abies1 whereas1 with the ,pines and ,spruces1 the cones remain intact for an almost indefinite period of time1 even though the seeds may have fallen out on becoming ripe4 ,the proper harvesting of tree seeds rarely1 except in the case of experienced nurserymen1 receives sufficient attention1 although this operation should be as carefully attended to as in the case of the seeds of any other form of crop4 ,after being collected1 the seeds of all trees1 unless such as are mixed with sand for the purpose of rotting1 should be thinly and evenly spread out in a sunny spot1 until thoroughly dry4 ,they may then be deposited in a cool1 airy place1 and in thin layers1 until wanted for sowing4 ,an occasional turning is all-important and should never be neglected4 ,the smaller and less common seeds may1 for convenience sake1 be hung up in calico bags1 but they1 too1 should be occasionally examined to prevent dampness and heating4 ,the number of plants of various kinds that may be expected from a bushel of seed of average quality varies very much1 and may be approximately given as follows3 ,horse ,chestnut1 #b1ejj2 ,oak1 #f1jjj to #h1jjj2 ,spanish ,chestnut1 about #c1jjj2 ,walnut1 #e1jjj2 ,norway ,maple1 #ab1jjj2 ,sycamore1 about #ab1jjj2 ,ash1 #ad1jjj2 ,beech1 #aj1jjj2 ,elm1 #a1jjj2 ,birch1 fully #af1jjj2 ,holly1 #ag1jjj2 ,scotch ,fir1 #i1jjj4 ,to #a lb4 of seed3 ,spruce ,fir1 about #i1jjj2 ,larch1 #c1jjj2 and the ,cluster ,pine1 ,silver ,fir1 and some others1 from about #ejj upwards4 ,for convenience in regulating orders for sowing1 the following table will show at a glance the approximate and relative number of seeds of the various commonly cultivated forest trees contained in #a lb4 weight3-- ,abies nobilis about #ai1djj ,abies nordmanniana 0 #aj1jjj ,ash 0 #f1hjj ,beech 0 #b1gjj ,douglas ,fir 0 #ie1bjj ,horse ,chestnut 0 #cf ,hornbeam 0 #i1ifh ,larch 0 #fe1jjj ,lawson's ,cypress 0 #aca1djj ,lebanon ,cedar 0 #aj1hjj ,norway ,maple 0 #d1fjj ,oak 0 #ajj ,pinus ,austriaca 0 #ce1jjj ,pinus ,laricio 0 #dc1jjj ,pinus ,pinaster 0 #ab1jjj ,pinus ,sylvestris 0 #ge1jjj ,spruce 0 #fd1ejj ,silver ,fir 0 #ad1ifj ,sycamore 0 #d1fbd ,walnut 0 #cf ,these figures must only be taken as approximate1 the seed of various trees of the same species seeming to vary in the number to the pound in a marked degree4 ,the results of careful analysis of one or two kinds may be cited as examples4 ,in one case the number of seeds in #a lb4 weight of ,scotch ,fir was #fi1fjj1 while in another it had increased to #ij1fjj2 and in the ,larch the numbers were #cc1ijj and #fh1jjj4 ,these differences are1 however1 mainly due to the individual seeds being weightier in one case than in another1 probably owing to the age and health of the tree from which they were collected1 the situation and exposure to which it was subjected1 etc4 ,however1 for all nursery purposes the above figures may be accepted as a fair standard4 ,the time of collecting and the after-management of the different forest seeds vary so much that a brief description of those kinds most commonly planted will be found useful3-- ,alder seed should be gathered from the trees in ,october and sown in spring1 say ,may4 ,ash seeds are ripe in ,october1 when they should be collected and kept in moist sand during the winter1 and sown in ,march4 ,austrian1 ,corsican and ,weymouth ,pine seeds are treated in every respect like those of ,scotch ,fir1 varying the kiln heat according to the looseness of the cone-bracts4 ,beech seeds are collected in ,october and ,november1 placed in sand1 and sown in ,april4 ,the young plants are readily affected by frost1 and the seed should1 therefore1 not be sown earlier than the time mentioned4 ,birch seed must be collected from the trees just before it becomes ripe in ,august1 otherwise it is scattered broadcast and lost for cultivation4 ,march is the time for sowing4 ,cupressus ,lawsoniana seed is usually ready for collecting in ,october1 but should not be sown before the first week in ,april4 ,douglas ,fir seed is1 in most cases1 readily removed from well-ripened cones by threshing or by pulling the cone to pieces1 but1 in some instances1 particularly where the quantity is large1 kiln-drying is resorted to4 ,the seeds are ripe in ,december and should be gently watered and sown in ,may4 ,elm seeds are ripe in ,june1 when they may either be sown at once1 or dried and kept in stock for planting in ,march and ,april4 ,hawthorn seed1 or berries1 may be sown when collected1 or the outer coating rotted off by keeping them during the winter in moist sand4 ,hazel nuts may be collected in autumn and sown at once1 or kept till spring4 ,holly berries require to be placed in sand for about eighteen months so as to rot off the fleshy outer coating1 and may be sown in ,march4 ,the mixture of sand and berries1 which should be about in equal proportions1 must be turned frequently4 ,they are usually sown with the sand in which they have been lying4 ,horse and ,spanish ,chestnut seeds may be taken together1 the method of collecting and sowing being very similar in both cases4 ,they are ripe by the middle of ,october1 and may either be sown at once or kept till spring4 ,one seed to #d square in4 will be close enough4 ,larch cones1 when ripe1 are of a rather bright brown colour and require to be collected from the trees4 ,this should not1 however1 be done till spring1 though occasionally they are gathered in ,december4 ,they part with the seeds far more readily than those of the ,scotch ,fir1 and consequently require less heat when in the kiln4 ,maple seeds are ready for collecting about ,october1 and should not be sown till the beginning of ,april4 ,mountain ,ash1 indeed1 all the ,pyrus family and others of a like kind1 require the berries to be placed in sand1 and when the outer fleshy coating has rotted away they may be sown either in autumn or spring4 ,oak4--,the acorns may be gathered or swept from the ground in ,november1 and either sown at once or stored away in a cool1 dry place till ,spring4 ,one acorn to every #d square in4 will be ample in the seed-bed4 ,sow in spring or autumn4 ,scotch ,fir cones are better not collected till early in ,january1 and the time may even be extended till ,march4 ,when quite ripe they have changed from bluish-green to a light1 grey colour4 ,as the cones part tardily with the seeds1 artificial means have to be resorted to1 the cones being placed thinly over a kiln heated to a temperature of from #ge to #aab4 ,they should be turned every third hour1 and after about thirty hours the kiln should be cooled down and the cones extracted as quickly as possible4 ,by beating with a flail the seeds are readily removed from the cones1 but it is best to do this before the cones have cooled down or immediately they are removed from the kiln4 ,the seeds are then swept together and collected1 and stored away until wanted for sowing4 ,when not required for sowing at once1 the seeds should be thinly spread out on the floor and slightly moistened with water from a fine rose watering-can4 ,they should then be turned about until perfectly dry before being stored away4 ,silver ,fir seed does not require much1 if any1 artificial heat to cause it to part from the cone4 ,by placing the cones in the sunshine1 and heating and turning freely1 the seeds come out without much trouble4 ,in all cases1 however1 wherever possible1 it is wise policy to dispense with artificial heat or kiln-drying as1 unless this is carried out most carefully1 the vitality of the seeds is greatly impaired thereby4 ,sycamore seeds are ready for gathering in ,october1 but should not be sown till the end of ,march or beginning of ,april4 ,walnuts are collected1 when ripe1 in autumn1 and sown in late spring4 ,yew seeds are usually washed of the pulpy matter before being sown4 ,in the case of large seeds1 such as those of ,araucaria imbricata1 ,pinus sabiniana1 and ,p4 macrocarpa1 the best way is to cut the cones to pieces and carefully remove the seeds4 ,this operation should be performed with great care1 so that the hard seed coating may not be injured4 ,with conifers in general ,i have invariably found it the best plan to allow the seed to remain in the cones until wanted for sowing4 ,by keeping the cones in a cool1 dry place1 and occasionally turning them over1 there need be little fear but that the seeds will turn out well4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,propagating ,,trees ,,and ,,shrubs ,there are several methods of propagating trees and shrubs3 such as by seed-sowing1 from cuttings or layers1 and by budding and grafting4 ,from ,seed4--,this natural process of reproduction is that most commonly adopted where large numbers of trees are required--indeed1 certain species1 particularly of the ,conifer1 cannot successfully be raised in any other way4 ,the preparation of the seed-beds is a point that deserves far more attention than it usually receives1 and that not only on economic grounds1 but in view of the general appearance of the nursery borders as well4 ,to tumble the seeds indiscriminately into the ground as if they had fallen in showers from the trees is highly objectionable2 and just as censurable is the too-oft-repeated practice of sowing these in rough1 cloddy1 and ill-prepared ground4 ,systematic arrangement in the laying out of the beds1 as to the number and requirements of the future seedlings1 should also be attended to4 ,the ground intended for seed-beds should be trenched or deeply dug up2 but this operation would1 for the mellowing and cleaning of the soil1 be better performed the autumn before than at the time of sowing down4 ,in any case1 just before sowing1 the ground should be carefully turned over1 all hard clods being broken down1 and large stones raked off1 the surface soil to the depth of #c in4 or #d in4 being made as fine as possible4 ,dry weather must be chosen for the formation of seed-beds1 as also1 indeed1 for the sowing of the seeds4 ,the beds are marked off and prepared as follows3--,a light1 strong line is stretched along the ground at1 say1 #c ft4 from the boundary fence or path1 and1 after being fixed at each end1 the first alley1 or path1 is marked out by treading the soil alongside of the line4 ,the length of the bed thus marked off on one side is quite immaterial1 but the width is of great importance1 and should never exceed #d ft42 #c ft4 #f in4 is nearer the mark4 ,adjoining this first line1 a bed the above width is marked off with a peg or stake at each end1 the line reset and a second alley marked off4 ,the alley1 or path1 between each couple of beds need not exceed #ae in4 in width1 this being for the sake of convenience in sowing1 weeding1 watering1 shading1 and otherwise attending to the bed1 and its occupants4 ,outside this follows a second bed1 and so on1 until the desired number has been formed4 ,some persons raise the seed-beds a little above the level of the paths1 but1 except in very retentive or damp soils1 this is not to be recommended4 ,the beds should in no instance1 however1 be below the level of the paths4 ,there are two methods employed in opening up and preparing the beds for the reception of the seeds either of which1 if carefully gone about1 is well suited for the exigencies of the case4 ,my own way has always been to level and smooth the surface of the bed with a small-toothed rake1 and after sowing the seeds to cover lightly with fine soil and ashes carefully sifted over the bed by means of a small-meshed riddle4 ,this plan has many advantages1 not the least important being the covering of the seeds to an equal depth1 and the employing of only the finest class of soil4 ,the other method is by using what is termed a 8cuffing-board0--that is1 a board about #h in4 wide1 placed on a handle1 which is inserted in the centre1 towards the back1 the handle being fully #e ft4 long4 ,a skilled person is required to use this tool1 who stands in the alley1 first on one side of the bed1 and then on the other1 pushing or drawing towards him from the surface of the bed a thin coating of soil along its full length and from about two-thirds of its surface4 ,as to the amount or depth of soil taken off1 this is regulated by the particular kind of seed to be sown1 as well as the nature of the soil4 ,the next matter1 the depth at which the seed should be sown1 is one of great importance4 ,usually seeds are sown unnecessarily deep4 ,in the majority of cases a safe guide is to place the seed1 of whatever kind it may be1 about three diameters below the surface of the soil4 ,the conditions most favourable to germination are moderate dampness1 abundance of air1 and a temperature of about #de4 ,in order to ensure these conditions1 the depth at which the seeds are placed will be seen to be of the greatest moment4 ,generally speaking1 the less seeds are covered1 consistently with their receiving a sufficient supply of moisture1 the better1 and but for their destruction by birds1 many of the smaller seeds would vegetate just as well if cast upon the ground-surface1 and pressed in1 as by being covered with soil4 ,the following interesting experiments with ,scotch fir seeds have been made3-- 8,those buried one-fifth of an inch came up first1 but were subsequently less vigorous--they soon1 however1 acquired vigour2 8,those covered from one-third to one-half of an inch came up more slowly1 but evenly and strong2 8,those buried from two-thirds of an inch to one inch came up in deficient numbers2 and 8,those buried from one to two inches never showed any signs of germination40 ,these statements are equally applicable to the sowing of seeds in general but especially if their relative size and the hardness of their covering are taken into account4 ,immediately after the bed is prepared the seed should be sown1 the amount used varying according to quality1 which latter may readily be tested by examining the embryos of a dozen seeds picked up at random from the heap4 ,to ascertain whether seeds are good1 the simplest way is to cut the sheath open with a sharp penknife1 when the kernel ought to completely fill the entire coating or shell4 ,small seeds might be crushed by the nail1 and if good1 will leave traces of moisture or emit an odour of turpentine4 ,another method is to place1 one after the other1 say a dozen seeds taken at haphazard from the heap1 on a red-hot iron4 ,if good they will turn about with a cracking report2 but if otherwise1 combustion is slow and smoke is given off4 ,seed may1 however1 be considered good if the germinating test gives1 say1 #gj per cent4 ,the quantity of seed to be sown on a given area will depend mainly on the quality and particular species4 ,when sown broadcast1 about a pound weight of larch1 and full half a pound of ,scotch1 is allowed per #ajj square ft4 of seed-bed4 ,generally1 however1 drill sowing is resorted to1 and in this case the following may be considered as about an average of the quantity used per #ajj square ft43 ,alder #g ozs4 ,ash #e 0 ,austrian ,pine #d 0 ,birch #f 0 ,elm #c 0 ,hornbeam #b 0 ,larch #g 0 ,maple #e 0 ,scotch fir #b 0 ,silver 0 #ac 0 ,spruce 0 #c 0 ,sometimes a small quantity of guano or other manure is sprinkled over the seeds1 after which they are gently pressed down with a light roller1 and the soil1 which was temporarily deposited along the margin of the bed1 replaced by the 8cuffing-board0 or riddle4 ,when seeds are sown early1 and with care1 on well-prepared ground1 watering is seldom necessary2 but still1 with small seeds and in very dry ground1 an occasional sprinkling the last thing at night is highly beneficial4 ,great care is1 however1 necessary to ensure the soil being thoroughly moistened4 ,protection from mice and birds must be afforded in some such manner as by coating the seeds with red lead2 and an occasional shading of the bed in very warm weather might be advocated4 ,there are not a few kinds of seeds1 such as those with a hard covering1 that it is almost imperative to steep in water before sowing4 ,larch seed1 in particular1 can be soaked for a week without fear or harm1 and many leguminous seeds for two or three days with great advantage4 ,some seeds do not come up until the second year1 such as the ash1 pyrus1 thorn1 etc41 and in these cases it is but a waste of ground to sow them as collected4 ,they should be mixed with sand1 as before directed1 and stored away for a year before being sown4 ,it should also be remembered that1 as a rule1 the sooner seeds are sown after being collected1 the stronger will be the young plants4 ,soon after germination1 hand weeding must be commenced1 and this may most successfully be performed after a shower of rain1 as the young plants then suffer less from loosening of the soil1 consequent on pulling out the weeds1 than would be the case in dry and warm weather4 ,the above method of raising plants from seeds will be found suitable in most cases1 but in respect of choice or half-hardy trees the shelter afforded by a frame is usually provided4 ,in this case the seeds are sown in pots or shallow boxes1 according to quantity1 and placed in an unheated frame4 ,the best time for seed-sowing is from the first to the fifteenth of ,april4 ,transplanting the young seedlings may be taken in hand usually after the first year1 but no hard and fast line can be laid down1 so much depending on the season and rate of growth of the young plants4 ,the experienced eye can always tell when seedlings should be lined out4 ,the best time for this operation is after the spring frosts are at an end1 for1 if planted out in the autumn1 the frost is apt to lift the tiny seedlings wholesale from the ground4 ,after this they should be transplanted at least every second year until planted out permanently4 ,by ,cuttings4--,propagating trees and shrubs from cuttings is at once a simple and inexpensive way of getting up a stock of such kinds as may be increased in that way4 ,the best months are ,august and ,september1 at which time the temperature of the earth and air are equal1 and roots are most readily emitted4 ,choose a sheltered and partially shady border for the insertion of the cuttings1 and be sure that the soil is not stiff and water-logged1 but fine1 rather inclined to sandy1 and moderately dry4 ,it should be well forked over and cleaned of weeds1 large stones being also removed4 ,the cuttings may be made of the present year's growth1 with a small portion--8heel0 it is generally termed--of the old wood1 and cut clean across beneath where a bud or shoot has protruded4 ,until a sufficient quantity has been made1 they should be stuck loosely in a heap of sand or soil1 and in the shade4 ,cuttings should be taken from the sunny side of a tree or shrub4 ,in planting the cuttings1 stretch a garden line along the previously prepared ground1 and1 having removed a trench about #f in4 deep1 by cutting in a perpendicular manner with a spade along the front of the line1 proceed to place the cuttings not too closely together1 and leaning somewhat backwards in the trench cut out4 ,this being done1 it is always well1 so as to hasten the formation of roots1 to sprinkle a small quantity of sand or grit along at the base of the cuttings1 at the same time regulating these as to their distances apart and upward inclination1 the remaining portion of the trench being filled up with the soil formerly removed4 ,firm tramping is one of the chief points to be observed1 as cuttings will not take at all quickly in loose soil4 ,the line should then be moved forwards about #ab in4 and the same method of procedure followed until the whole of the cuttings are inserted4 ,for such shrubs as the common and ,portugal laurel1 privet1 box1 euonymus1 laurestinus1 aucuba1 etc41 the above method will be found the quickest and best for raising young plants from cuttings4 ,it should be stated that cuttings taken from the sunny side of a tree or shrub always root more freely1 and turn out a greater number of plants1 than such as have been cut from the shady side--indeed1 this point should be carefully borne in mind and acted upon4 ,conifers1 such as the various species of ,cupressus1 ,juniperus1 the ,wellingtonia1 etc41 are also readily raised from cuttings inserted in the ground out of doors4 ,it is1 however1 well to put such cuttings in boxes1 so that they have the advantage of being placed in an unheated frame1 this greatly enhancing the speedy formation of roots4 ,two or three large frames are always useful in the nursery for the reception of choice cuttings1 seeds1 etc41 and if boxes1 say1 #bd in4 by #ad in4 by #e in41 are made just to suit the dimensions of the frames1 a great number of young plants1 cuttings1 and seeds of the less common kinds will find a beneficial protection4 ,the boxes should be made of stout wood1 and have six holes bored in the bottom of each1 so that the excess water may readily pass away4 ,before planting these1 fill each with a mixture of half sand1 half soil1 broken finely down1 the cuttings being inserted in small holes made by a sharp-pointed stick4 ,a thin coating of sand placed on the surface will greatly facilitate the process of rooting4 ,cuttings of coniferous trees should have #b in4 of ripened wood attached to them1 and be inserted #d in4 deep in the ground2 while1 for most others1 the cuttings may be #h in4 long1 #c in4 being inserted in the soil4 ,from ,layers4--,for increasing game coverts1 shrubberies1 or some of those trees and shrubs that cannot well and speedily be raised from cuttings or seed1 layering will be found a convenient and cheap method4 ,there are several other advantages too1 as no protection of any kind is necessary1 and the risk of loss is reduced to a minimum4 ,it is1 however1 generally resorted to as a means of increasing such plants as cannot readily be raised from cuttings1 and applies with greatest force to the rhododendrons and azaleas1 the magnolias1 conifer of various kinds1 and several species of our hardy deciduous trees4 ,the operation of layering is very simple1 and consists merely in bending down the outer branch of a tree or shrub and bringing it in contact with the soil1 it being there held in position by means of a hooked peg4 ,before fastening the layer with the peg1 it is well1 however1 to remove a portion of the bark from that part of the layer that is to be brought in contact with the ground1 this arresting the flow of sap and hastening the formation of roots4 ,the soil beneath the tree or shrub should be first loosened1 and1 if found hard and stiff1 a small quantity of sand and leaf soil might with advantage be added4 ,the same principle is carried out in all kinds of layering1 but the position of the plant will alter the method of bending over and bringing in contact with the soil4 ,in the case of layering conifer it is not only necessary to bend over and peg down the branch1 but1 so as to form a leader and assist in gaining an upright position1 it should also be tied or staked in a vertical position4 ,generally speaking1 trees and shrubs require two years before the branches that are layered are sufficiently well rooted to be removed from the parent1 but a few kinds require nearly double that time before they can be severed with safety4 ,a good plan is1 after the second or third year1 to cut through the layered branch behind the point that is brought in contact with the ground1 and to let it remain in position for another year4 ,it may then1 except in a very few cases1 be lifted and lined out with others in the nursery border1 the object being to get it into a good habit of growth before being finally planted out4 ,most varieties of trees and shrubs can readily be increased by layering the side branches in the way above described1 and it is a good plan to cover over with a spadeful of earth that part of the branch brought in contact with the ground4 ,by ,grafting4--,this may best be described as a makeshift method of increasing trees and shrubs4 ,it has only a few advantages1 and many disadvantages1 as is well known to every one on a large estate who goes in for collections of the less common kinds of trees and shrubs4 ,if a plant cannot be increased conveniently by any of the above methods grafting may be resorted to1 but the work should only be entrusted to those who have great practical knowledge of the art1 and who have paid particular attention to the evils attending injudicious grafting4 ,some of the errors in grafting may be cited as follows3 ,working on too tall stocks whereby an unnatural appearance and continual source of danger in windy weather are brought about2 grafting small scions on large stocks1 and grafting evergreen on deciduous species--all of which have tended1 in a marked degree1 to lower the art in the opinion of horticulturists generally4 ,the grafting of conifers may be performed at one of two seasons3 either early in spring or about the month of ,august4 ,two-year-old stock are mostly to be preferred1 so that the stock and scion may be of as near a size as possible4 ,several methods of grafting are adopted1 but that generally practised is what is known as 8side grafting40 ,this consists in making a clean cut in the stem1 downwards1 for about an inch in length4 ,a transverse cut is made at the termination of this first cut1 whereby a piece of the bark wood is removed from the side of the stock4 ,the scion is next prepared by being cut off square at the end1 and one side of the wood shaved off for about an equal length to the cut on the stock4 ,place the scion in the notch made on the stock1 and be careful that the barks1 on one side at least1 come neatly together1 for on this hangs the whole fate of successful grafting4 ,the scion should1 indeed1 be made to fit as nearly as possible and replace the wedge cut from the stock4 ,tie firmly and carefully with bast matting1 and cover over with prepared clay or grafting wax4 ,another method consists in making an incision obliquely in the stock1 the scion being so prepared that one side of it forms a sharp edge1 in order that it may be readily inserted therein1 the bark of the scion and stock coming neatly together4 ,tie with matting as before directed1 and cover over with clay or grafting wax4 ,inarching1 or grafting by approach1 consists in bringing the scion into union with the stock without detaching it from its own stem1 and the separation is not made until the new connection has been formed4 ,budding4--,this is usually performed in ,july1 and in the case of certain shrubs has been found useful4 ,the bud should1 in addition to its strip of bark1 have a portion of the cambium attached1 as unless this be present to unite with the cambium of the stock the operation will fail4 ,the bark of the stock is cut into a ,t shape1 opened with the end of the budding knife1 and the bud slipped neatly in4 ,bast matting will serve for tying1 until a junction takes place1 which is usually effected in five or six weeks4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,home ,,nursery3 ,,its ,,formation ,,and ,,management ,in the course of my experience on large estates where planting has been extensively engaged in1 few things have been more particularly impressed upon me than the importance of having a well-managed and well-stocked home nursery1 where the propagating and raising of trees and shrubs required for forest and ornamental planting may be taken in hand4 ,the numerous advantages of a home nursery1 especially where planting is extensively carried out1 are now so well known and appreciated by every proprietor of large estates that comment on this subject seems almost unnecessary4 ,where ornamental planting1 the formation of woods and plantations1 game coverts1 or hedging is performed on an extensive scale1 the convenience of a home nursery cannot be over-valued1 the plants being at hand when wanted1 of the size and in the quantity required1 and known to be well rooted1 sturdy1 and free from disease4 ,the advantages in these cases are too well known to require comment1 and plants1 more especially those of a large size1 sent from even a short distance by either road or rail1 cannot be expected to succeed equally with those raised and planted on the same day4 ,the extra soil1 or ball1 with which large plants can be removed for a short distance is also much in their favour1 but it is next to impossible to retain this where packing and transit have to be resorted to4 ,it is well known that too sudden a change from rich1 well-sheltered nursery borders to bare1 exposed hillsides often proves fatal to young plants2 and1 when we consider that few public nurseries are at a greater elevation than about #ejj ft41 the necessity of proprietors rearing their own stock1 whose plantations are1 perhaps1 upwards of #a1jjj ft4 above sea-level1 will the more readily be seen4 ,there are certain difficulties to contend with in planting high-lying ground1 more especially if the soil is poor and thin1 and the situation exposed1 and in these cases the advantage of using hardy plants that have frequently been transplanted in a well-chosen home nursery at a fair altitude is very noticeable1 especially when contrasted with others that have been grown under more favourable circumstances and in a sheltered position4 ,some plants seem better adapted than others for this removal1 but in the majority of cases the shock sustained by transferring from low-lying ground to that at a great elevation is only too apparent1 and one from which the plants seldom recover4 ,the same holds good in the case of seaside and town planting4 ,of late years in particular1 a good deal of comment has taken place as to the necessity of rearing trees from seed sown on the site of the future plantation1 and although the suggestion has many points in its favour1 still artificial planting is better adapted to the wants of our country1 and is not at all likely to be superseded by natural reproduction1 which is more fitted for countries differently situated from our own4 ,the nursery treatment of plants is1 therefore1 sure to remain a prominent feature of ,british forestry1 and this being the case1 the soil and situation1 as well as the most successful treatment of these1 with a view to producing plants suitable for the positions they are intended to occupy1 will require due consideration4 ,this will vary much according to the situation of the estate and ground to be planted4 ,in choosing the site of a home nursery1 a great deal will depend on the general elevation and exposure of the estate4 ,the situation should neither be too much exposed nor yet too sheltered1 and should have a southern or western aspect2 for1 although too sudden a change from sheltered to exposed ground often proves fatal to young trees1 this should not altogether form a criterion for rearing them in situations unfavourable to the development of strong1 healthy plants4 ,the soil should be good1 friable loam1 on an open1 porous subsoil2 but the quality of ground required for different seedlings is so diversified that it is next to impossible to suit all within the small bounds required for a home nursery4 ,as water is indispensable where seedlings are raised1 as well as for numerous other purposes in the nursery1 it is well to have provision made for a continuous supply1 either by a stream running through the ground1 or in close contiguity to it1 or by having a pipe laid on from the main water-supply4 ,from six acres to ten or even fifteen acres will be found sufficient nursery ground for most estates1 but it is always advisable to add a little more than is really required1 so that the brakes may not be all under forest trees at the same time1 but undergo1 when found necessary1 a course of green crops1 which will not only enrich1 but clean1 the ground and leave it in good condition for replanting with seedling forest plants1 bearing in mind that farmyard manure should always be applied first to the green crop1 and never directly to the plants themselves4 ,when a plot has become impoverished by repeated croppings of forest trees1 a heavy coating of well-decomposed farmyard manure should be applied1 and the ground planted with potatoes1 or sown down with turnips4 ,this has an almost magical effect in improving1 regenerating1 and cleaning the ground1 and leaving it in the best possible condition for receiving a crop of forest plants4 ,land intended for nursery ground should be thoroughly trenched to the full depth of the soil1 taking care1 at the same time1 that the best soil is kept within a reasonable distance of the surface1 and1 where necessary1 heavily manured or enriched by the addition of lime1 vegetable soil1 or loam as the case may be4 ,in laying out the ground into brakes it will be found convenient to have these either square or rectangular in shape and1 if possible1 parallel with each other4 ,the brakes should be of different sizes1 and divided from each other by walks or hedges1 but the fewer of the latter the better4 ,it is well for convenience sake to have a border1 say from #ab-ae ft4 wide1 running around the nursery1 which may be stocked with such trees and shrubs as are only limited in demand4 ,a narrow border like this is of great value1 too1 for planting out seedling stock of the less common kinds1 for the insertion of cuttings of the rarer shrubs1 as well as for any odds and ends that may be collected4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,nursery4 ,roadway1 #i ft4 wide2 ,paths1 #d ft4 wide2 ,border1 #ab ft4 wide4 ,the site chosen for the seed-beds should be naturally sheltered1 or failing this1 such artificial shelter as is found necessary should be provided1 as exposure of the young plants to cold1 cutting winds causes them to become stunted and bark-bound4 ,there should be a few cold frames for raising choice seeds and cuttings1 but1 as a rule1 the less glass the better4 ,in stocking the home nursery1 it is always preferable to buy young plants of the kinds most needed1 as also a few older specimens of such kinds as it may be deemed advisable to propagate from layers or by cuttings4 ,seedlings of many trees and shrubs can be procured from plantations on the estate1 and when such are grown on1 and carefully transplanted for two1 three1 or four years in the nursery borders1 they soon form stout1 bushy1 and well-rooted specimens of the greatest value for forest-planting4 ,this is a good and comparatively inexpensive way of getting up a stock of many trees and shrubs1 but particularly such as are reproduced plentifully in a wild state4 ,in the management of a home nursery the amount of care and attention required is certainly great2 but any trouble1 as well as expense1 connected with starting and keeping it in good condition afterwards will be amply repaid by the increased value and superiority of the stock obtained4 ,in the working of the home nursery no hard and fast lines can be laid down1 the nature of the season having much to do with the time at which the various operations may be taken in hand4 ,a wet spring retards seed-sowing1 a damp summer the killing-out of weeds and cleaning of the ground1 and early autumn frosts transplanting4 ,for the various seasons the nursery-work might1 however1 be sketched as follows3-- ,spring4--,by ,february1 all trenching1 digging1 manuring1 top-dressing1 and such-like work should be completed4 ,larch and thorn should be planted at once1 as they start early into growth1 following up with the various kinds of hardwoods and pines4 ,layers should be planted out and trees for grafting and budding made ready4 ,collect larch and pine cones1 and when quite dry store away in a cool1 airy place1 until wanted for sowing4 ,during ,march and ,april general grafting may be taken in hand4 ,ornamental conifer may be pruned and transplanted1 and towards the middle of ,april plants from the seed-beds may safely be lined out in a sheltered part of the nursery4 ,tree seeds of all kinds should be collected as opportunity offers4 ,in ,february sow yew1 holly and thorn2 in ,march1 birch1 beech and alder2 in ,april1 larch1 silver fir1 ,scotch1 ,austrian and ,corsican pines2 and seeds of the less hardy conifer may be sown in pans or boxes and placed in a cool frame4 ,general nursery-work should be finished up by the end of ,april4 ,illustration3 ,,tools ,,required ,,in ,,nursery4 ,summer4--,the keeping down of weeds1 watering and shading seed-beds1 and turning over and mixing of compost-heaps will be the principal work for the months of ,may1 ,june and ,july4 ,hollies should be planted out in ,may1 and seedlings of the same kind lined out in the nursery borders4 ,elm seeds may be collected as they ripen1 and some of these sown in well-pulverized beds in ,june4 ,autumn4--,weeds will still require attention1 particularly in seed-beds1 and amongst young trees that have been recently planted out4 ,general transplanting of shrubs1 particularly evergreens1 may now go on1 and seedlings be lined out4 ,cuttings should be inserted in light sandy soil by the middle of ,august1 or when the temperature of the earth and air is most nearly equal4 ,trim nursery fences1 cut grass1 clean walks and roads1 and attend generally to neatness and order4 ,look over the brakes of pines1 and remove and burn such as are attacked by any of the various insect and fungus pests to which they are liable4 ,the seeds of ash1 hornbeam1 yew and thorn should be collected and placed in barrels with about an equal bulk of sand1 to hasten the decomposition of the outer coating4 ,winter4--,the early winter months will be a busy time in the nursery1 the lifting and dispatching of trees for forest-planting being one of the principal operations--at least1 so long as the weather remains mild and open4 ,as time permits1 two and three year old plants should be lined out1 well-rooted cuttings lifted and transplanted1 and layers from old stools carefully cut away and placed in the borders for a year or two before being finally planted out4 ,turn manure-heaps1 and add a small quantity of fresh lime to hasten general decomposition1 to sweeten the soil1 and deprive the seeds of weeds of their germinative properties4 ,sloe1 holly1 and similar berries may be collected as they ripen1 and stored in the usual way4 ,in ,november and ,december1 horse chestnut1 oak and hazel may be sown in well-pulverized beds of good1 rich soil4 ,ash and hornbeam are sometimes sown in ,january4 ,,chapter ,v ,,formation ,,of ,,plantations ,laying out the ,boundary4--,before commencing actual planting operations several preliminaries must be attended to4 ,these will include 7#a7 laying out the boundary1 7#b7 clearing the ground of rough-growing vegetation1 7#c7 drainage where necessary1 7#d7 fencing1 and 7#e7 laying out such roads as may be necessary for the efficient working of the plantation4 ,for the benefit of the trees1 for shelter purposes1 and for the general appearance of the landscape1 it would be well were more attention paid to the laying out of the sites for new plantations4 ,in many cases1 however1 there is no choice in the matter1 the proprietor saying1 ,here is a field that is of no great value for agricultural purposes1 plant it up4 ,but in the case of hillside or moorland planting the matter is usually different1 the choice of ground1 size of plantation1 and method of planting being left entirely in the hands of the forester4 ,many considerations will tend to determine the position of boundaries--bounds of property1 proximity to roads1 public paths1 and the existence or future probabilities of modes of transit1 all being more or less significant factors4 ,first1 however1 it is advisable to take into consideration when planting hillside or moorland1 the shelter to be afforded to cultivated land in the neighbourhood1 but a combination of this with the aforementioned considerations will be all-important4 ,the form of the outline must also be laid out with due regard to the prevailing wind1 and should always present a convex side towards it1 as it is obvious that on striking such a curve the force of the wind would be divided and expend itself in two opposite directions1 thereby losing much of its destructive power4 ,blending one curve with another should be strictly observed1 and continuous straight lines should be avoided1 not only for appearance sake1 but as it is well known that the most destructive force of the wind concentrates on such outlines4 ,illustration3 ,,hillside ,,with ,,planting ,,artistically ,,arranged ,illustration3 ,,same ,,hillside ,,with ,,stiffly ,,arranged ,,plantation ,woodland ,roads4--,these are necessary for access to the wood when thinning1 the removal of timber and firewood1 and for sporting purposes4 ,they should either be pegged out or formed before planting operations have been commenced1 and need neither be of an elaborate character nor attended with great expense in construction4 ,according to the area of the plantation1 so should the roads be arranged1 and a considerable saving is effected by laying out the roads and leaving them unplanted4 ,usually they are made #cj ft4 wide1 and only require to have the surface equalised and any stagnant moisture removed by drainage4 ,it is a good plan1 so as at all times to keep the drives in a passable1 dry condition1 to cut a ditch along each side of the ride1 parallel to it1 and1 say1 #ah in4 wide by #ae in4 deep4 ,the soil so removed will come in for filling up inequalities on the road surface4 ,steep roads should be avoided by following1 in quickly sloping woodlands1 the curve of the ground41 ,for sowing down woodland drives1 bridle-paths1 etc41 the following mixture of grass seeds is to be recommended3-- lbs4 ,timothy grass1 hard fescue1 tall fescue1 and meadow foxtail1 #b lbs4 each #h ,smooth stalked meadow and rough cocksfoot1 #d lbs4 each #h ,rough stalked meadow and sweet-scented vernal1 #d lbs4 each #h ,wood meadow grass #h -------- ,total #cb ,in sowing down gravelly or sandy rides1 ,i have found the ,lyme or sand grass--,elymus arenarius--and the ,sea ,matweed--,psamma arenaria--to answer well1 the seeds of each being sown in equal proportions4 ,before sowing down woodland rides the soil should be well consolidated1 and all surface inequalities levelled4 ,fencing4--,local circumstances will often determine the mode of fencing new plantations4 ,where stones are abundant these may be utilized in the formation of walls1 while in districts where slate abounds excellent fences of this kind may be erected at a cheap cost4 ,turf walls and ditches are sometimes formed as plantation boundaries1 but unless carefully looked after they are rarely very successful4 ,stone and turf walls are now1 however1 almost entirely superseded by iron fencing1 it being not only readily conveyed to any desired point1 but quickly erected and moderately cheap4 ,to recommend any particular system of wire fencing would1 for various reasons1 be out of place1 for amongst the numerous kinds now offered almost any desired pattern can be obtained4 ,in any case the fence need not exceed #c ft4 #f in4 in height1 with seven-strand wires1 two ,no4 #f and five ,no4 #g2 and1 as this is placed in position at so much per mile by the makers1 it is always well1 so as to avoid bad erection and keep down expense1 to have it so put up4 ,where an abundance of larch timber is growing on the estate1 it would1 perhaps1 be unwise to employ iron1 but in the majority of cases it will be found cheapest in the end to have the fences erected wholly of iron and wire4 ,the straining-posts should be of sound1 well-seasoned larch or oak1 and #g ft4 long by #f in4 square1 or if round #g in4 in diameter4 ,the intermediate posts are usually of larch1 #e ft4 long by #c in41 by #c in41 or if round1 not less than #c in4 diameter at small end4 ,the straining-posts are placed in the ground at #aej yards apart1 with an additional strong post at every angle or curve that occurs in the line of fence4 ,the intermediate posts are pointed and driven into the ground along the line of fence at #f ft4 apart4 ,in order to make a fence proof against the inroads of sheep and cattle not less than six wires should be erected1 and galvanized strand wire is preferable4 ,the total height of the fence need not exceed #c ft4 #f in41 and the top wires should be placed farther apart than those lower down4 ,in tightening the wires a straining machine is usually employed1 but brackets for the same purpose are preferable1 these being attached to the straining-posts4 ,they are of particular value1 as the wire can be tightened or slackened at will4 ,the posts should be rounded on the top or sawn with a slant1 so that the rain may run off4 ,draining the ,ground4--,efficient drainage must be considered as one of the most important operations in the formation of a plantation4 ,every portion of the ground may not1 probably1 require to be drained1 but where it is at all surcharged with moisture the removal of such will be a step in the right direction if the future welfare of the trees is a point of first importance4 ,in commencing draining the position of the main outlet must first be determined1 and in doing so every fall of the ground should be taken advantage of4 ,it is quite impossible to lay down rules as to the number1 sizes1 and distances apart of the various drains1 these being points that can only be satisfactorily settled on the spot1 and when the nature of the soil1 lie of the ground1 and amount of rainfall to be carried off are determined4 ,in most cases1 however1 the main drains should be from #b ft4 #f in4 to fully #c ft4 wide at the top or surface1 from #aj in4 to #ab in4 wide at the bottom1 and about #c ft4 deep4 ,the minor drains may be less in proportion to the mains1 and are usually #b ft4 deep1 #b ft4 wide at top1 and the width of the draining spade at bottom4 ,according to the nature of the ground so will the distances at which the drains should be cut vary1 but in most cases from #ae ft4 to #cj ft41 sometimes even less1 and sometimes considerably more4 ,the minor drains should never run at right angles to the main1 but at about #de1 which will prevent the mouths becoming choked up when there is a rush of water in the main4 ,the soil removed from the drains should be evenly spread out over the ground-surface4 ,illustration3 ,,tools ,,used ,,in ,,draining ,levelling4--,in the carrying out of drainage operations in connexion with the formation of new plantations1 but particularly where the land is nearly level1 one of the most necessary implements is the spirit-level or theodolite4 ,there are many other operations1 as well as in connexion with draining1 where the level and the knowledge of its working are all-important for the forester4 ,thus in the formation of roads and paths1 levelling of ground inequalities1 lake and pond forming1 etc41 the level will be found an almost indispensable instrument--in fact1 it cannot well be done without4 ,of levelling instruments there are various descriptions1 but the simplest of any is the ordinary spirit-level1 it being cheap1 easily carried about in the pocket1 and when erected on a temporary staff will fall in with most requirements in connexion with general forest work4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #a7 will give a good idea of the simple instrument4 ,when in use the spirit-level is fixed in a frame of brass1 the whole being screwed into a staff or support1 e4 ,the brass screw1 d1 serves to adjust the level as required4 ,there are two eyesights1 a and b1 the latter being a square opening1 with a fine hair wire crossing it in the middle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,spirit-,,level4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,method ,,of ,,levelling4 ,the relative heights of a series of points are obtained by means of their vertical distances from others which1 on the supposition of the earth being a sphere1 are equally distant from its centre1 and these1 which are called level-points1 must be found by an instrument constructed for the purpose--spirit-level1 theodolite1 etc4 ,generally choice is made of any convenient stations1 a1 b1 c1 d1 on the line of operation 7see ,fig4 #b71 and the distances between them are determined by actual ad-measurement4 ,the instrument is then set up and adjusted at1 or near1 the middle of the interval between every two such points in succession4 ,when the level thus placed1 as at f1 has been rendered horizontal by means of the adjusting screw1 an assistant at each of the stations a and b1 holding what is called a station-staff in a vertical position1 moves an index along the staff1 up or down1 as dictated by the observer of the level1 till it coincides with the intersecting wire as seen in the eyesight or telescope4 ,the points thus determined on the stave are represented by e and g1 and these are termed level-points1 or points equally distant from the centre of the earth4 ,therefore the heights a1 e1 and b1 g1 being read on the graduated staves1 the difference between them will give the relative heights of the ground at a and b4 ,similar processes are repeated with respect to the points b and c1 and c and d1 the instrument being placed at i and m1 midway between them4 ,usually the heights b g1 c l and d n are inserted in a column headed 8,foresights10 and the heights a e1 b h1 c k and d n in a collateral column headed 8,backsights40 ,the difference between the sums of the numbers in these two columns will be equal to the height of one extremity 7a7 of the line1 above the other 7d74 ,when a number of levels have to be taken in succession1 it will be found a saving of time to use the surveyor's level or theodolite instead of the ordinary spirit-level illustrated4 ,with regard to the use of the instrument as shown in ,fig4 #a1 it may be necessary to state that the height of the eyesight b from the ground must be deducted from the point observed4 ,as an example3 if the object-pole or staff be marked in feet or inches1 and the hair wire in taking a sight strike the same at1 say1 #h ft41 then1 if the eyesight be #d ft4 from the ground1 the difference of level between the two stations 7instrument and station7 will be #d ft41 that is1 there will be #d ft4 of a fall from the spirit-level station to that of the station where the staff was placed4 ,on the other hand1 should the hair wire strike the object-pole at1 say1 #b ft4 from the ground1 these #b ft4 must be deducted from the height of the eyesight1 which1 as we have said1 was #d ft41 then the ground at the station-pole must be #b ft4 higher than that at the spirit-level4 ,clearing the ,ground4--,coarse-growing herbage1 which often includes heath1 gorse1 and rough grasses1 that would interfere with planting operations1 should be removed1 but not indiscriminately1 as it may prove of inestimable value under certain conditions4 ,on exposed and high-lying ground1 the heath and grasses will prove of great advantage to the young trees1 and usually they are not too luxuriant or apt to cause damage at high altitudes4 ,where1 however1 the growth of such shrubs or grasses would be detrimental to the young trees1 by all means have them removed4 ,the best way is either to cut them over or grub out by the root1 and burn on the ground4 ,during a continuance of dry weather it may be possible to burn without either cutting or uprooting1 but1 generally speaking1 removal of the roots is to be encouraged4 ,pitting4--,the advantages of pitting over any method of planting cannot be questioned1 and this is particularly the case with ground that has hitherto been uncultivated4 ,compared with notch planting1 this system is1 no doubt1 more expensive1 but that the future benefits to the plants are greatly enhanced is admitted by all practical arboriculturists4 ,it is not1 however1 to be inferred that1 though pitting is preferable1 notching is to be abandoned1 for there are many precipitous1 rocky places where it would be the only practice feasible1 and plants so inserted have often succeeded admirably4 ,the pits should in all cases be opened for some time before planting--indeed1 in unfavourable soils and situations1 it is a good practice to have such work performed in autumn and the plants inserted the following spring4 ,by so doing1 the earth that has been removed from the pits will lie fully exposed to the mellowing influences of frost and sunshine1 so that when the time for replacing it comes round1 it will be in the best possible condition for applying to the roots of the young trees4 ,the pits in uncultivated lands should be made circular1 about #ah in4 in diameter and fully #ab in4 deep1 and the sides and bottom well loosened up with a pick4 ,in loose or recently cultivated soil the pits may be much smaller4 ,take off the surface turf in halves1 placing these on one side of the pit1 and the soil on the other1 for ease and convenience in planting4 ,when the ground slopes quickly the soil removed from the pits should1 so as to facilitate quick replacing1 be deposited on the higher side4 ,planting4--,this may be successfully carried out during all open weather from about the end of ,september to the beginning of ,april1 but1 generally speaking1 autumn planting is to be recommended4 ,there are several exceptions however3 such as when we have to deal with peat bog1 water-logged soil1 exposed hillsides1 or land by the sea-coast4 ,where the newly-inserted plants have to cope with prolonged storms1 such as we get on hillsides or by the sea1 or contend with very uncongenial soils1 it is always a wise policy to defer planting until spring1 or just when the trees are about to make a start to growth1 as they1 with their freshness and vigour undiminished by the change from the nursery border to the more trying surroundings just referred to1 are more likely to take hold at once and succeed4 ,the battering and swaying that autumn planted trees receive when exposed to the hurricanes of our hillsides or seaside sites so enfeeble them that1 in spring1 when growth should commence1 the majority will be found to be in a very unsatisfactory state1 whereas1 by inserting in spring1 when growth will soon be at its full activity1 the chances of succeeding are greatly enhanced4 ,in peat bog the antiseptic properties of the soil act dangerously on the roots of young trees if allowed to remain therein for some time before active growth has commenced4 ,however1 with the exceptions cited1 tree planting throughout the ,british ,isles generally should be taken in hand as soon as the leaves of the hardwood species have fallen1 which usually takes place about the second or third week of ,october1 much depending on the particular season4 ,lift the plants very carefully from the nursery brakes1 and do not1 on any account1 tolerate the too-often-enacted practice of tearing the trees from the ground1 and before they have been properly loosened on both sides of the lines with a fork4 ,to lift nursery stock properly--and the extra expense incurred in so doing is money well spent--a trench should be thrown out along each side of the line and the soil undermined from beneath the roots1 so that the plants can be lifted without tearing or straining the tender rootlets4 ,it is not important1 if the plants are inserted soon after being lifted1 that soil should accompany each1 the roots being plentiful and unmutilated making up for the want of this4 ,where1 however1 the plants have not to be conveyed far from the home nursery to the plantation there is no need to remove much of the soil1 for if left intact the young tree is far more likely to start away freely into growth than if this was shaken clean off4 ,illustration3 ,,tools ,,used ,,in ,,planting ,immediate planting after being lifted is to be strongly recommended1 the evil of allowing plants to lie about exposed to wind and weather being well known4 ,should it1 however1 not be convenient to plant at once1 the nursery-stock should be stood closely together1 and some damp straw1 leaves1 or soil heaped around the roots of the outer or exposed specimens in the lot4 ,in any case1 the roots must never be allowed to become dry and parched1 or be subjected to frosty winds1 as these act most perniciously1 and soon destroy the tender fibres and render them almost useless for the purpose intended4 ,in planting1 spread the roots to their full extent in the pits1 avoiding all cramping and bending1 placing the largest to the most exposed side1 and cover with earth1 the finest soil being placed next the roots1 and the rougher and grassy on the top4 ,placing the turf in the bottom of the pit1 cutting it well up with the spade1 putting a little earth on the top of this1 and then planting the trees1 has its advantages1 the rotting turf acting as manure by the time the roots have got down to it4 ,slit or ,notch ,planting4--,this is done by simply cutting the sod or surface by two strokes of the spade1 and to the depth of about #e in43 thus ,l or ,t4 ,with the first stroke the spade is inserted in the ground in an almost perpendicular manner2 it is then withdrawn and inserted at right angles to the first notch and at the end of it1 and by pressing down the handle of the spade the turf is opened up1 the plant being inserted from the blade of the spade towards the further end2 the spade is then carefully withdrawn and the turf trampled so as to cause the notches to close completely4 ,this latter should be strictly attended to1 as should the notch be left partially open1 the plant will suffer from the admission of an undue quantity of air4 ,the operation requires two persons--a man to open the notch1 and a boy to insert the plant4 ,it is chiefly employed in bare and hilly ground1 and large tracts of ground in ,scotland have been very successfully operated upon in this way4 ,with the notch system there are advantages and disadvantages4 ,in the first instance1 we have reduced cost1 expedition1 and firm insertion2 whilst in the second small plants only can be used1 the soil remains unbroken1 and the root system presents an unnatural position4 ,the plants used with the notch system should not exceed #i in4 in height4 ,the ,planting-iron has been found of great value for inserting small forest trees in rocky ground1 where it would be almost impossible to do so in any other way4 ,it is #ag in4 long1 weighs #c lbs41 and can be conveniently used with one hand4 ,holding the 8iron0 slackly1 the planter strikes it into the ground with a force sufficient to drive the sharp1 heart-pointed blade in about #c in4 or #d in4 ,by pressing it down and towards the planter1 with a slight twist to the right1 the left corner of the turf is opened up1 the plant being carefully inserted with all the roots beneath the ground4 ,the iron is then withdrawn1 and the loosened turf made firm by tramping4 ,only a small plant should be inserted with the planting-iron1 and great care taken to insure the soil and turf being firmly pressed around the stem of the young tree4 ,planting ,trees too deep4--,fully #ej per cent4 of the deaths amongst newly-planted trees may be directly attributed to the pernicious practice of too deep planting4 ,cases come before us frequently where1 owing to burying the roots of the trees and shrubs at too great a depth in the soil1 they have either died out or gradually become unhealthy owing to strangulation and want of air4 ,it is a mistaken idea that by placing the roots at an excessive depth in the soil the young tree will be better enabled to withstand wind1 and so remain in an erect position4 ,most workmen quite ignore the original mark on the tree stem as to the depth it stood whilst in the nursery1 and go to an opposite extreme by covering up both root and stem to an unnecessary depth4 ,large trees suffer quite as much from being planted too deep as those of smaller growth4 ,quite recently we were asked to look at a large number of lime trees about #af ft4 in height that had been planted for several years without a sign of upward growth4 ,the reason for this was not hard to discover1 for on unearthing one of the trees it was found that the roots were covered with fully #b ft4 in depth of soil4 ,the trees in question had never budged an inch1 and were from year to year gradually on the decline owing to the ruinous practice of too deep planting4 ,no better guide as to the depth at which a tree should be planted can be had than the distinct mark on the stem showing the depth at which it stood whilst under nursery management4 ,in order to keep newly-planted trees from being damaged by rocking with the wind1 and to preserve them in an upright position1 firm trampling is all that is required4 ,in very exposed situations it may sometimes be found necessary to place a small piece of turf against the stem on the opposite side from which it is leaning1 and to make this firm by means of the foot4 ,staking1 at least in the case of small transplants1 is never necessary1 though in the case of larger trees and where the situation is exposed1 light poles thrust into the ground to which the stems are made fast may be found necessary4 ,of course1 it is a mistake to allow trees to rock about in the wind to such an extent that the roots become strained and barked1 and holes worked around the stems1 but this can readily be prevented by periodical examinations of the newly-planted trees4 ,stones should never be placed in the holes referred to1 as they damage the roots1 a piece of stiff turf or heavy soil being far preferable4 ,with a large experience of tree planting ,i find that the general tendency is to plant too deep--an evil that it is hoped these notes will be the means of remedying1 in some cases at least4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,trees ,,for ,,economic ,,planting ,from a commercial point of view the best trees to plant are such as will produce the largest volume of the most valuable timber in the shortest space of time4 ,amongst the several hundred species of trees that are cultivated in this country it is a remarkable fact that less than twenty can be recommended for profitable planting4 ,of course many others are valuable as shade and shelter producers1 but from a strictly economic point of view1 that is to say where the value of the timber is a point of first consideration1 only about ten hard-wooded and eight coniferous species can be included in the list4 ,amongst hardwoods we have the oak1 ash1 beech1 sycamore1 elm1 ,spanish chestnut1 willow1 poplar1 alder and birch2 while coniferous trees would include the larch1 ,scotch and ,corsican pines1 common and ,sitka spruce1 silver and ,douglas firs1 and possibly the giant ,arborvit and ,weymouth pine4 ,the ,oak4--,than the timber of the oak none other produced in this country is more lasting or valuable--indeed1 in few other trees are the qualities of strength and durability1 hardness and elasticity combined to such an extent4 ,as might be expected1 however1 the value of oak timber is greatly influenced by soil1 that produced on deep1 heavy loam or clay lands being of superior quality4 ,the colour of the wood also varies greatly with age from a dark grey to a deep rich brown and even green4 ,brown oak1 which is almost confined to the ,midland counties of ,england1 is considered to be wood in the first stage of decay1 and attacked by a fungus1 and is generally associated with trees that are long past their prime and whose larger limbs have become hollowed and unhealthy4 ,the finest examples ,i have seen of brown oak were produced at ,ampthill in ,bedfordshire1 and on the ,welbeck ,estate in ,notts4 ,the beautiful vivid green colour assumed by oak timber under certain conditions is due to the action of the fungus ,peziza ruginosa4 ,as this colouring matter in the timber is quite permanent and cannot be destroyed1 wood so affected is eagerly bought up by the makers of fancy furniture4 ,unhealthy or dead trees in damp shady positions are most often attacked by the fungus1 and we have known timber of the oak when left lying about in the woodlands to assume this colour4 ,owing to the scarcity and value of green oak timber experiments have been undertaken to produce the colouring by artificial means1 but as far as we are aware the results were not satisfactory4 ,the best examples of green oak timber that we have seen were produced in ,kent1 and in the ,north of ,ireland4 ,the ,ash4--,when viewed in a purely economic sense the ash must1 next to the oak1 be considered as our most valuable forest tree4 ,the massive1 deeply fluted1 or cylindrical trunk1 the weighty swelling branches1 and the usually pendant masses of the freshest pea-green foliage1 all combine to render this tree one of the most majestic for ornamental planting1 but particularly so when associated with others that are of a darker shade of green4 ,the ash is indigenous to ,europe1 ,northern ,africa1 and ,north ,america1 while throughout the ,british ,isles it is widely dispersed4 ,it thrives tolerably well in most soils and situations1 but the finest timber is produced in fairly sheltered sites1 and where the soil is rich and open or freely interspersed with loose rock or stones4 ,in order to produce clean1 springy timber1 such as is in request for the making of tool-handles1 aeroplanes and agricultural implements1 the ash should be planted thickly in order to induce straight stems that are for the greater part destitute of branches4 ,for black1 peaty soils1 or that of a dampish1 loamy character the sapling ash is peculiarly suited1 in which1 after being cut over1 it will reproduce itself freely4 ,at from thirty to forty years' growth the ash is most valuable for handle wood and for agricultural implements4 ,the timber is hard1 heavy1 and flexible1 and though rapidly grown it is tough and elastic above that of any other tree grown in this country1 hence its universal employment for machinery and other special purposes where great strength1 combined with yielding powers1 are points of first consideration4 ,few timbers become useful at such an early age as does the ash4 ,at from four to six years' growth it is fit for walking sticks1 for spade handles at ten years1 while after that age the uses to which it is applied are very numerous and diverse4 ,for the cartwright1 the agricultural implement maker1 carpenter1 cooper and turner1 it is of special value4 ,no timber has been found to equal it for the making of oars1 pulleys1 blocks1 ladders1 hoops1 and crates4 ,owing to its sawing without splintering it is used for milkpails1 kitchen tables1 staircases1 and similar purposes1 while when of large size it is greatly in demand for furniture making4 ,for smoking herrings ash wood has a certain local demand4 ,potash is procured from the ashes of the branches1 and the bark has a special value in the tanning of nets4 ,the ,beech4--,for profitable planting the beech is one of our most valuable trees1 while it has the extra recommendations that it grows rapidly1 succeeds well in the shade1 and reproduces itself freely4 ,the finest beech timber is produced on chalky or deep sandy soils1 the former being preferable as may be instanced by the comparatively high price obtained for that grown on the ,chiltern ,hills and chalky formations of parts of ,kent and ,herts4 ,the growth of the beech is rapid and it attains its prime at from sixty to seventy years1 after which age the timber often becomes black at the heart and accompanied by rottenness and shakes which render it almost useless for constructive purposes4 ,it is better suited for indoor than outdoor use and is extensively used in the making of ,windsor chairs1 for millwright and engineering purposes1 for the handles of carpenters' tools1 for bobbins and1 when clean and of large size1 for the calendar machines of cloth manufactures4 ,illustration3 ,,standard ,,beech ,,tree ,growing on comparatively poor soils where other species will not produce profitable timber the beech is particularly valuable on account of its reproducing itself freely from seed and withstanding a greater amount of shade than perhaps any other species4 ,it associates well with the oak under cultivation4 ,the ,sycamore for profitable planting can be recommended owing to the high price which can be obtained for timber of large size1 though even when of thirty years' growth it finds a ready market for bobbin making and other turnery purposes4 ,the most suitable soil for the sycamore is a dry sandy loam or even deep sand4 ,the tree is peculiarly suitable for planting in exposed or seaside situations and also for standing alone as a field or hedgerow tree4 ,the timber is white1 smooth and free from grain4 ,it is used for curtain rings1 churns1 butter prints1 backs of violins1 founders' patterns1 cutting boards1 and in the making of wooden vessels and furniture4 ,for calendar machines it is especially valuable4 ,the ,sweet or ,spanish ,chestnut is largely cultivated for the value of the timber it produces4 ,it thrives best on deep gravelly soil or on granite or sandstone with a dry subsoil1 and with a southern or western exposure4 ,the timber is of excellent quality and lasts well either in water or above or below ground4 ,it is often substituted for that of the oak1 and is extensively employed for mill timber1 bridges1 fencing of all kinds1 posts1 stakes1 casks1 and for hop poles4 ,the ,spanish ,chestnut is a tree of rapid growth and when the timber is of fair size it finds a ready market1 though at a lower figure than that of the oak4 ,unfortunately the timber produced on certain soils and situations is much reduced in value owing to cup shake4 ,elm1 both ,english and ,scotch1 are extensively planted for the value of timber produced4 ,the timber of the ,english elm is of a rich brown colour1 hard1 tough and usually twisted in the grain4 ,owing to the strength of its lateral fibre the timber is much in request for making blocks for ship's riggings1 while it furnishes naves for wheels1 coffin boards1 furniture1 pumps1 piles1 and is employed largely by the wheelwright4 ,for using under water it is the best wood cultivated in this country4 ,the wood of the ,scotch or ,wych elm is considered to be more valuable than that of the ,english species1 and is used for similar purposes and also as a substitute for ash4 ,it is very liable to become rotten at the core4 ,the ,alder and its ,uses4--,whether viewed from a strictly commercial standpoint1 for its justly recognized capacity for thriving luxuriantly where few other trees could exist1 or for its ornamental qualities1 the common alder will be found to rank high among ,british forest trees4 ,it usually attains to a height of from #ej ft4 to #fj ft41 with a stout1 well branched trunk that is more or less gnarled and fluted4 ,the branches have an upward inclination1 and are well clothed with roundly wedge-shaped leaves that are of a deep1 dark green colour4 ,with age the bark usually assumes a dark brown1 or almost black1 colour4 ,the alder is found in all parts of ,europe1 ,north ,africa1 and from ,asia to ,japan4 ,for planting in wet1 even swampy1 situations1 where only a very limited number of trees could eke out an existence1 the alder is of particular value1 and it is in such situations that it attains to the largest size and produces the greatest quantity of timber4 ,even in situations where the poplar and willow find a difficulty in battling with the excessive and stagnant moisture the alder thrives luxuriantly and reproduces itself freely from seed4 ,as an ornamental tree the alder is not much in request1 although the stately habit and ample deep-green foliage render it of value in that respect4 ,the fine old specimens by the river and stream sides at ,esher ,place in ,surrey1 have a beauty that is quite their own1 and it is in such tranquil situations that the tree is seen to perfection--the beauty of form and picturesque appearance causing it to be unrivalled in river and lake scenery4 ,the tree is readily propagated and comparatively cheap in consequence1 grows rapidly after becoming established1 and is not subject to disease or premature decay4 ,though soft1 the timber of the alder is in much request1 and in consequence numerous wants are supplied by it4 ,it is very durable under water1 and for this reason is largely employed for piles1 bridge foundations1 water pipes1 and for lining the banks of rapid running streams and rivers4 ,the celebrated bridge of the ,rialto1 at ,venice1 was1 according to ,evelyn1 built on piles of alder wood1 while the city of ,ravenna was stated to have likewise been built on piles of the same wood4 ,for herring barrel staves the wood is also in request1 as it is for mill bobbins and turnery work4 ,in cabinet work and for cheap furniture alder wood is largely used1 while as it does not readily split1 boards for the bottoms of carts and wheelbarrows are frequently made of the same wood4 ,the beautiful pale pink colour which the timber permanently retains causes knotty planks to be in great demand for veneering purposes4 ,in ,wales1 and throughout the ,midland counties1 large quantities of alder timber are consumed in the making of clog soles1 which1 after being roughly formed in the woodlands where the trees have been felled1 are sent by rail to several of the ,lancashire towns to be finished off4 ,throughout ,ireland--chiefly the north--large numbers of clog soles1 made of alder1 are annually employed in the manufacture of cheap boots2 indeed1 in many parts the making of clogs is quite an industry4 ,the bark of the alder is used in tanning leather1 though in much smaller quantities at present than was the case half a century ago1 when oak bark fetched as much as #aj a ton1 and when none of the chemicals that are now so commonly employed were offered in the market4 ,excellent gunpowder is made of the wood1 said to be second only in quality to that prepared from the dogwood4 ,the young shoots1 according to the peculiar way in which they are prepared1 are employed in dyeing red1 brown1 yellow1 and black4 ,alder is generally in good demand at all stages of its growth1 and is seldom grown to very large dimensions4 ,for the clogger1 turner1 or charcoal burner it is of greatest value up to about thirty years' growth1 while by cutting it over at that age a second crop springs rapidly from the stools4 ,the ,birch4--,it is hardly necessary to speak of the hardiness of the birch1 for no other native tree1 not even the ,scotch pine1 ascends to such elevations in ,britain4 ,the higher the tree ascends the more shrub-like it becomes1 until on very exposed rocky sites at great altitudes it hardly exceeds a yard in height4 ,as regards soil1 the birch is by no means particular1 for we find it succeeding well even on that of a poor rocky or gravelly character4 ,the largest individual specimens always1 however1 occur at not too high an altitude1 and on soil of a light1 loamy nature1 an abundance of moisture being still further favourable to quick development4 ,for planting on exposed ground for shelter-giving purposes1 but particularly where the soil is thin and poor1 the birch is a most valuable tree4 ,its growth is fairly rapid1 and it does not suffer to any appreciable extent either from insect or fungoid attacks4 ,as a coppice tree it is also valuable4 ,the timber of the birch1 though of little value for general estate purposes1 is largely employed in the arts and manufactures4 ,it is much used for thread bobbins1 turnery work1 shoe pegs1 hoops1 and fish barrels1 while it makes excellent firewood1 and yields superior charcoal for smelting purposes4 ,in ,wales large quantities of birch wood are cut into clog soles1 while the sabots used by the ,french peasantry are also made of that wood4 ,when of large size and good figure1 furniture and veneers are made of the wood1 and on the ,continent felloes for carriage wheels4 ,brooms and switches are made of the smaller branches or sprays1 while the bark is used for tanning1 and an oil expressed from it is employed in the preparation of the well-known and fragrant ,russian leather4 ,illustration3 ,,stem ,,of ,,the ,,true 8,,cricket ,,bat0 ,,willow 7,salix crulea7 ,the ,white or ,huntingdon ,willow 7,salix alba74--,whether for ornament or utility the ,white or ,huntingdon ,willow must be considered as one of our most valuable trees4 ,the timber sells readily at all prices up to #ajs4 per cubic foot1 and when it is considered that the tree will succeed in dampish ground where most other species decline to grow1 and that it is of rapid growth1 attaining maturity in less than forty years1 its value in economic planting will be recognized4 ,at the outset it may be well to point out that the wood of the particular willow from which the best class of cricket bats are manufactured sells at a higher rate than any other timber that is cultivated in this country4 ,there are many kinds of willows found growing throughout the ,british ,isles1 but one alone produces the particular class of wood from which first-class bats are turned out4 ,until quite lately the timber of the ,white or ,huntingdon ,willow 7,salix alba7 was largely used in the making of cricket bats1 but it has been found that a cross between that species and the crack willow 7,s4 fragilis71 and named ,s4 crulea1 produces by far the best wood for the manufacture of high-grade cricket bats4 ,in the trade the 8,cricket ,bat ,willow10 as it is now known throughout ,england1 is popularly designated as the close-barked willow in order to readily distinguish it from the open-barked or crack willow4 ,confusion generally exists in determining the various forms of willow1 but in ,s4 crulea the branches incline upwards2 indeed1 the tree has a semi-fastigiate form of growth1 and the branches also have an upward tendency4 ,the bark is a dark grey1 with long1 straight1 narrow fissures closely arranged and from which the term 8close-barked0 is derived4 ,the leaves are of a bluish tint or covered with bluish-grey hairs beneath and long and narrow in shape1 while an unerring point of difference between the hybrid and other willows is that the tree produces only female flowers4 ,it may be well to mention in connexion with the crack willow that the bark fissures are far more rugged and placed farther apart than is the case with the true cricket bat willow1 ,s4 crulea4 ,the great importance of recognizing and growing for purely economic purposes the true variety will be apparent when it is mentioned that makers of cricket bats will have nothing to do with any but the true 8close-barked0 tree1 and the ,english bat-maker is keen to recognize the characteristics of the timber he requires1 and will not stick at paying exorbitant prices for trees of the right kind4 ,as showing the value in ,england of the timber of the true bat-making willow1 it might be mentioned that in many instances that have come under my notice as much as #afs4 per cubit ft41 or six times the price of the best oak1 has been paid for trees of the true ,s4 crulea4 ,a single tree growing in ,london lately sold at #aj1 and in ,hertfordshire eleven trees fetched the handsome sum of #ha1 while #bj was refused for four trees growing in a wood in ,essex4 ,such prices are1 however1 exceptional1 though on a visit to two of the largest bat-making establishments in the metropolis ,i was told that for several years past the average price paid for willow worked out at #fs4 per cubit foot4 ,a well-known grower tells us that if planted in suitable soil a 8set0 or cutting1 which usually costs #as4 #f;d41 will in fifteen years be worth about #f4 ,the home of the true bat-making willow is in the ,eastern ,english counties1 and it is there that the manufacturer goes when wishing to purchase the most valuable timber for his special work4 ,the propagation of the bat-making willow is simple1 either by rooted cuttings or 8sets10 the latter being the best and cheapest method4 8,sets0 are usually from #ab to #bj ft4 long1 with a basal diameter of1 say1 #c ins41 the best being got from pollarded trees1 and straight1 clean1 branchless shoots are preferable4 ,they should be stripped of all side branches for about three-fourths of their length and only cut in spring4 ,by placing these sets together in a ditch or pond for about a month rootlets will be emitted1 when they may be planted in previously prepared holes1 which are formed by driving an iron rod or stake in the ground for a distance of1 say1 #b ft4 ,the ,poplar4--,several species of poplar are valuable for the timber they produce1 as also for their rapidity of growth and succeeding in low-lying1 damp ground4 ,when clean grown and of large size the timber sells readily at prices which vary from #as4 to #as4 #f;d4 per ft4 ,probably the most valuable species is the white poplar 7,populus alba71 though the black ,italian 7,p4 monilifera7 produces excellent timber for which there is generally a demand4 ,from a purely commercial point of view the above hard-wooded trees are the only kinds that can be recommended for planting in this country4 ,the timber of the lime1 hornbeam1 walnut and one or two others at times sells at a fair price1 but the small quantity offered shows that they have not been considered worthy of attention where the economic value of the plantations was being considered4 ,,coniferous ,,trees ,amongst the many conifers that have been introduced to this country during the last century very few can be recommended as suitable for profitable planting4 ,the following1 so far as is known1 are the only species to be recommended3-- ,the ,larch 7,larix europa74--,both for and against the larch much has been written and said1 particularly of late years2 but1 however much has been said in commendation of it1 there can be no doubt that to overstate its value as a timber tree in the economy of ,british forestry would be a task of some difficulty4 ,when we combine its great1 almost peculiar1 aptitude to suit itself to nearly all conditions of soils1 altitudes1 and diversities of climate1 its long-established value as a timber tree1 rapidity of growth and ease of culture1 it is clear that no other tree cultivated in this country can be ranked on a par with the larch4 ,unfortunately1 however1 of late years the larch has suffered much from disease1 the predisposing causes of which may mainly be attributed to the variableness of our spring weather1 and the rapidly degenerating state of the tree--the latter chiefly brought about by an injudicious selection of seed4 ,by far too little attention has been paid to this important matter1 the result being that weakness and tenderness have got into the constitution of the tree1 and it is thus unable to withstand even a few degrees of frost4 ,so weakened1 blight1 fungus1 and ulceration find a footing1 and thus the fell disease is generated about which so much has been said and written of late years4 ,in my own opinion1 strengthened by careful investigation and research1 induced tenderness in the constitution of the larch is the primary cause of disease1 cold winds and frost being the destructive agents1 and ulceration the direct consequence4 ,injury to the roots of the larch in transplanting is attended with most injurious results4 ,in corroboration of this1 it may be stated that natural or self-sown trees are1 in this country1 almost exempt from disease4 ,the variableness of our spring weather is1 no doubt1 one of the predisposing causes of disease1 for although no degree of cold experienced in this country can injure the tree when leafless1 yet few are more sensitive when in young foliage4 ,the durability of the wood of the larch is well known1 and this peculiarity is even noticeable when of only a few years' growth4 ,as compared with ,scotch and spruce firs1 the wood of the larch is about twice as durable--a fence of the latter cut at from twenty to thirty years' growth lasted from seventeen to twenty years1 while that of the spruce lasts about eleven years1 and the ,scotch seven years4 ,this refers especially to rails1 not to posts1 which decay in about half that time4 ,for mining and railway purposes the durability of larch wood makes it much sought after1 this being further enhanced by its extreme lightness1 the weight of a cubic foot when seasoned being only #cd lbs4 ,it takes a beautiful polish1 works with great freedom1 and1 when fully seasoned1 is not at all liable to twist or warp4 ,substitutes for the larch have often been recommended1 but1 in the true sense of the word1 there are practically none1 although1 doubtless1 some of those whose claims have been set forth might to a certain extent reflect one or more of its valuable qualities4 ,sitka or ,silver ,spruce 7,picea ,sitchensis74--,from a purely commercial point of view the ,sitka or ,silver ,spruce is probably the most valuable of any of the family to which it belongs4 ,it is a tree of noble growth in this country1 several specimens being well over #ajj ft4 in height and with boles that girth fully #aj ft4 at a yard from the ground1 these dimensions being attained in seventy-five years4 ,when used as a standard1 the tree is one of great beauty1 the stiff and rather irregularly disposed branches being thickly beset with vivid bluish-green foliage that is silvery on the under side4 ,it delights in a cool1 moist loam and not too exposed situation1 but when grown on gravel or any warm soil the foliage is distinctly meagre and affected by red spider4 ,the timber1 which is remarkably light for its bulk1 strong and flexible1 is of great value in the making of aeroplanes1 and special logs find a ready market at highly remunerative prices in the ,london market4 ,the ,corsican ,pine 7,pinus laricio74--,this is1 undoubtedly1 one of the best all-round conifers that has found its way into the ,british ,isles4 ,it is of very rapid growth1 and well suited for planting1 even in the most exposed and wind-swept situations2 a non-fastidious subject as to soil1 and a valuable timber-producer4 ,as to its adaptability for withstanding long-continued cold blasts at high altitudes1 ample evidence can be adduced on many an ,english and ,scotch estate where the pine has been introduced into the woodlands in such quantity as in certain places to form the ultimate or standing crop4 ,in ,north ,wales1 on one of the ,snowdon range of hills1 ,i have planted the ,corsican pine in great quantity4 ,the plantation was1 for the greater part1 fully exposed to the dreaded south-westerly wind1 which at times blows hard and long1 and sweeps the hillsides with terrific fury2 yet1 under such conditions1 the ,corsican pine has done remarkably well--in fact1 proved itself to be well suited for planting at high altitudes on our ,english hillsides4 ,even at the highest point of the woodlands in question1 this pine has thriven in a manner that is quite surprising1 and thrown its stoutest branches out into the very teeth of the blast1 and that where hardly a hardwood tree could survive1 and even the ,scotch fir shrank from the cold and almost unceasing storms4 ,other notable instances of how well the ,corsican does on exposed ground and high altitudes might be pointed out--such as at ,blair ,athol1 in ,perthshire1 at #gjj ft41 where it is thriving amazingly2 and again in ,yorkshire1 one of the most barren and wind-swept of ,english counties1 where in parts1 it grows with a luxuriance that is almost unparalleled in any other part of ,britain4 ,the timber produced by the ,corsican pine in this country is strong1 tough1 elastic1 very resinous1 and easily worked2 this is speaking of trees of fully fifty years' growth4 ,it thrives well on gravelly soil1 some of the largest specimens of the tree in this country growing along the margin of a disused gravel-pit4 ,it may be said that the ,corsican pine is perfectly hardy1 peculiarly well suited for planting in exposed situations1 a rapid and valuable timber-producer1 a tree that is cheaply and easily raised from seed1 and one of the most non-exacting conifers as regards choice of soil that could be named--all qualities of the highest value in a timber-producing tree and a combination that is rarely found in any other species4 ,in ,france extensive plantations of the ,corsican have been formed1 while it has also been introduced extensively into the ,state forests by the ,prussian ,government4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,weymouth ,,pine ,,at ,,gwydyr ,,castle ,the ,weymouth ,pine 7,p4 ,strobus71 whether viewed in an ornamental or economic aspect1 must be considered as another of the most valuable pines that have been introduced into this country4 ,admit1 we must1 that in certain situations the cultivation of this handsome tree has been attended with no very promising results2 but then it should be remembered that1 like most other trees1 the ,weymouth pine has its likes and dislikes of soil1 as well1 indeed1 as of aspect and altitude4 ,that it has succeeded well1 and produced an unusually large quantity of clean and firm wood in various parts of the country cannot be denied2 but then in such places its peculiar wants have been attended to4 ,at ,gwydyr ,castle1 in ,north ,wales1 the tree succeeds admirably1 specimens fully #ij ft4 in height1 straight as arrows1 branchless for three-fourths their length1 and fully #h ft4 in girth at breast-high1 being not uncommon4 ,the soil is rocky debris1 largely intermixed with vegetable refuse1 fairly moist at all times1 but without stagnant moisture4 ,on the western borders of ,ross-shire1 at ,strathkyle1 where the altitudes vary from #ajj ft4 to #a1bjj ft41 the ,weymouth pine is making rapid progress4 ,we do not wish it to be inferred that the ,weymouth pine alone is suitable for planting at high altitudes and on exposed situations2 but that it will grow rapidly and produce useful timber in partially-sheltered districts has been proved by those who have paid particular attention to the value of the more recently introduced conifers as profitable timber-producers in this country4 ,a comparison of the wood produced by the ,weymouth pine in this country with that sent to the late ,colonial and ,indian ,exhibition showed but slight differences1 and nothing more than could naturally be expected between a mature and an only partially-developed tree4 ,the ,scotch ,pine 7,p4 sylvestris7 must on no account be omitted from our list2 as1 especially for planting in exposed situations where few other trees could succeed1 it is one of the best4 ,probably the principal reason why this tree has not been more generally cultivated1 is on account of the low-priced timber it produces1 for1 of late years1 it has been difficult1 except in certain favoured districts1 to get rid of it at a remunerative price4 ,with the war1 matters are quite different4 ,the finest quality of ,scotch pine timber1 such as that produced in some of the northern ,scottish counties1 no doubt1 is even now fairly remunerative2 but1 generally speaking1 that grown throughout ,southern ,scotland1 ,england as a whole1 and also ,ireland1 is of so inferior a quality as hardly to fetch a remunerative price4 ,no doubt1 however1 this pine will continue to be largely planted wherever shelter and ornament are of first importance3 and rightly so1 for few others are so well able to withstand cold1 cutting blasts at high altitudes4 ,the ,douglas ,fir 7,pseudotsuga ,douglasii7 is1 in certain situations1 a valuable timber-producing tree--indeed1 as regards the actual production of timber in a given time1 it is1 perhaps1 ahead of any other tree grown in this country4 ,from measurements we have taken1 the actual production of timber during fifty years was #bdj ft41 or nearly #e ft4 per year for half a century4 ,in a plantation of the ,douglas fir in ,wales1 planted twenty-two years1 we found the average dimensions to be as follows3 ,height1 #gf ft42 girth of stem at #bd ft41 #d ft42 cubic contents1 fully #ej ft4 ,the timber produced in this country is of excellent quality1 being light but strong1 works very readily1 has a pleasant yellowish tinge1 and takes on a good polish4 ,that the ,douglas fir is a tree that is eminently adapted for cultivation in this country is already well known2 but to grow it in anything like a satisfactory way it must be planted in sheltered hollows1 for extensive experience has long ago proved to us that it is ill-adapted for braving the storm1 even at a few feet above the sea-level4 ,long ago we strongly advocated the forming of plantations of ,p4 ,douglasii alone1 or with some other tree of about equally rapid growth1 for1 when mixed up with the general run of our forest trees1 the leader1 on overtopping those of its neighbours1 soon gets broken over1 or otherwise presents an almost branchless1 whip-handle-like appearance4 ,we do not wish to say one word against this our favourite fir3 but the truth must be told1 and our own experience1 gained principally on a low-lying seaside estate1 where the tree was annually planted by the thousand1 is that ,p4 ,douglasii must occupy a sheltered situation if either ornament or utility be considered as points of first importance4 ,the ,giant ,arborvit 7,thuja gigantea7 is fast coming to the front as a ,british timber tree1 and has already1 at the hands of far-seeing planters1 received a fair amount of attention4 ,after a fair and impartial trial on our part1 we have found it to be perfectly hardy1 even at high altitudes1 a fast grower and rapid timber-producer1 a non-fastidious subject as regards the quality of soil in which it is planted1 and one of the most easily managed and most accommodating of trees4 ,the quality of timber produced in this country is such as to warrant us in speaking highly of it1 it being of a desirable yellow colour1 fine-grained1 easily worked1 remarkably durable1 and light in proportion to its bulk4 ,from the measurements of fully twenty-four specimens scattered over an ,english park1 we have found that the average annual rate of growth is #bb in41 but even this is exceeded by young trees4 ,the ,norway ,spruce 7,picea excelsa74--,whether as a hardy1 shelter-giving tree1 or for the quantity of fairly good timber it produces1 the common or ,norway spruce must ever rank high in the list of useful trees that have been found suitable for culture in the ,british ,isles4 ,that it is a tree in every sense of the word admirably suited for extensive planting is acknowledged by all1 as it luxuriates at high altitudes1 and where fully exposed to our worst winds1 and at the same time produces a great quantity of timber that has been found of excellent quality1 well suited for general constructive purposes4 ,as a shelter tree few others can equal the spruce1 and when planted along the outskirts of exposed plantations the amount of warmth and protection it affords is quite surprising4 ,the ,silver ,fir 7,abies pectinata7 is another of those trees that have of late years fallen into disrepute1 mainly owing to the increased importation of foreign timber4 ,that it is an excellent and highly remunerative tree is unquestionable1 and the very fact of its thriving luxuriantly on soils where the larch declines to grow should make it1 in this country at least1 of great value as a forest tree4 ,with the most satisfactory results has the timber been used for railway sleepers--in fact four sleepers laid experimentally have stood the wear and tear quite as well as those of ,baltic timber1 alongside of which they were placed4 ,for roofing purposes the wood has likewise attained great fame1 as it is found to stand vicissitudes of dry and damp alternately better than almost any other home-grown timber4 ,the coniferous trees just treated of are about the only kinds that can be recommended for profitable planting in this country4 ,the ,atlantic ,cedar and ,japanese ,larch might be added to the list1 but present experience will not justify us in bringing any of these prominently to notice4 ,twenty-five years ago1 at the instigation of the then ,earl of ,derby1 the writer formed several plantations on the ,holwood ,estate in ,kent4 ,at the outset it may be well to state that these plantations were not formed with the object of producing valuable timber1 but rather for the ornamentation and privacy of the newly-acquired property4 ,the trees used were the ,scotch1 ,corsican1 ,austrian and ,weymouth pines1 ,douglas fir1 the larch1 and several species of hardwoods4 ,as all have succeeded well under exactly similar conditions1 the following notes as to the rate of growth and production of timber1 both of which are unusually great1 during a period of twenty-five years may be instructive4 ,previously to being planted the land1 which may best be described as a hungry loam on a gravelly subsoil and sheltered1 was let out for rough grazing and the cultivation of strawberries and other fruit4 ,the cost per acre of forming these plantations was3-- s4 d4 ,pitting1 #b1gbb at #as4 per #ajj #a #g #b ,planting #a #a #j ,trees1 at #djs4 per #a1jjj #e #h #j ------------------------------ #g #af #b ,this price may appear both high and low1 but in connexion with the former it should be explained that the coniferous trees when planted were about #af in4 high1 the others about #c ft41 all being placed #d ft4 apart4 ,owing to the land having recently been under cultivation and labour at that time being cheap in the district1 the opening of pits was carried out by contract at quite a nominal rate1 the size of each being #ab in4 square and #i in4 deep4 ,after being planted the trees required little attention for the first six years1 at which period they averaged #h ft4 in height1 and the shade occasioned by the branch spread had killed out most of the grassy undergrowth4 ,as the plantations were primarily intended for ornament and shelter1 the retention of the lower branches of the trees1 at least along the margin1 was imperative1 and in order to ensure this1 early thinning was engaged in and carried out at regular intervals up to the present time1 always bearing in mind to allow the boundary trees plenty of room for branch development1 those inwards1 in order to induce clean growth1 being left much closer on the ground4 ,though in the latter case the volume of timber produced is comparatively less than along the margins1 yet it is of greater value owing to the trees being straight and clean-stemmed1 the only exception being the ,corsican pine which1 even when isolated1 has little inclination to form stout side branches4 ,the soil being light and resting on gravel was peculiarly suited for the growth of the pines1 none of which suffered from disease or insect attack1 though the ,weymouth had occasional patches of the aphis with which it is usually attacked around ,london4 ,the larch was practically free from canker4 ,during recent thinning operations a good opportunity was afforded of taking the actual measurements when felled of the various species of trees1 these being as follows3-- ,austrian pine1 average height1 #df ft42 cubic contents1 #i ft4 ,corsican 0 0 0 #ea ft42 0 0 #aa ft4 ,scotch 0 0 0 #de ft42 0 0 #h ft4 ,weymouth 0 0 0 #db ft42 0 0 #f ft4 ,larch 0 0 #dg ft42 0 0 #h ft4 ,it will thus be seen that the ,corsican pine has surpassed all the others both in height and in the quantity of timber produced2 and in viewing the plantations from a distance the leaders of the ,corsican pines soar quite #f ft4 above those of their neighbours4 ,the ,austrian comes next in the quantity of timber produced1 but not in height2 and the larch and ,scotch are of about equal size1 the ,weymouth being equal to the latter in height but not in bulk of stem4 ,but the larch beats all in value of timber1 for1 while that of the various species of pine was difficult to sell at a remunerative figure1 the larch wood was readily disposed of at a fair valuation4 ,my experience is that timber merchants fight shy of purchasing any of the pine family excepting the ,scotch4 ,this may be owing to prejudice or want of knowledge as to the value of timber produced by the ,corsican and ,weymouth2 but whatever the cause1 the fact remains that the timber of both these species is difficult to dispose of at any but firewood rates4 ,that of the ,scotch being better known finds a ready market at about half the price of larch1 which latter1 after all1 is the most useful and profitable of any coniferous tree cultivated in this country1 and one for which the demand always exceeds the supply4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,planting ,,exposed ,,ground ,as the majority of plantations for purely economic purposes are formed on the wind-swept moor or hillside1 the successful management of these is a matter of considerable importance4 ,there are many difficulties to encounter in planting high-lying and exposed ground that one would never have to think about in low-lying and sheltered situations4 ,planting1 for instance1 should not be commenced until ,february or ,march1 as1 by deferring it till that time1 the newly-inserted plants will be fresh and vigorous1 and ready for an immediate start in growth1 which would not be the case if they had been put out in autumn and subjected during winter to the inevitable wind shaking that is always to be reckoned with on exposed ground4 ,the choice of trees1 too1 for planting on wind-swept ground is a matter of far more moment than is generally supposed1 for that there are certain species of trees peculiarly suitable for withstanding prolonged storms is well known to those who have had to do with the forming of woods and plantations at high altitudes4 ,the size of trees planted has also much to do with the after success of the woods1 and it may be well at the outset to say that these should not exceed about #ab in4 in height on the most favoured sites to about from #f in4 to #i in4 on the more exposed grounds4 ,they should also be properly prepared by frequent careful transplanting for the situations they are intended to occupy1 as it can hardly be expected that a young and immature tree can1 after being brought from a probably sheltered lowland nursery--as nine-tenths of those in this country are--to a high piece of ground1 where at times the wind blows with terrific fury1 and where one can scarcely stand upright1 have sufficient stamina to stand against such odds and difference as must and do exist between the two points at present under consideration4 ,sometimes it is well to trench over a piece of ground on partially-exposed land1 and insert therein for a couple of years before the proposed plantation is to be formed1 the young trees intended for planting out4 ,this has a wonderful effect in hardening and inuring them to severe cold and a wind-swept situation4 ,by forming a nursery of young trees by the sea-coast1 ,i have known great success attend the formation of woods and plantations in maritime situations1 and like results are sure to attend the planting out of trees in any uncongenial and unfavourable situation4 ,about the trees to be planted1 being such as are sufficiently hardy to withstand prolonged storms1 we will now say a few words4 ,in the outer line--or1 rather lines--the ,scotch1 ,austrian1 and ,corsican ,pines 7,pinus sylvestris1 ,p4 austriaca1 and ,p4 laricio7 are of first value1 since they are able to stand against the storms of the hillside and produce a great amount of shelter to other less hardy kinds4 ,it is often only necessary to make a wind-barrier1 as it were--that is1 to plant well-tried evergreen kinds1 from which shelter can be obtained next the most windy position1 then to follow up with other kinds that are second hardy in nature1 and so on inwards2 while1 in the very centre of the plantation1 almost any kind of tree can be used4 ,the ,austrian ,pine has been successfully planted at high altitudes1 and in the most exposed situations1 and on the ,continent it has proved itself of great value for breezy sites and maritime situations4 ,the ,state forests are composed of not a few ,austrian pines1 and they are greatly valued for the shelter and warmth they afford to other less hardy kinds of trees4 ,the best results are to be obtained if planted when young1 for when removed at a greater age1 with roots large and rampant of growth1 it is with great difficulty that they can be got to keep upright4 ,unfortunately the timber is of no special value4 ,the ,corsican ,pine is equally as good as the latter for using where winds are of common occurrence1 proving stout and strong1 rooting well1 and presenting a broad surface of hardy evergreen foliage to the blast4 ,it is a good timber-producer1 and1 being well fitted for growing in patches close together1 will yet be largely used for forest work in this country4 ,about the ,scotch ,pine it is1 perhaps1 needless to speak1 for every one who has travelled in ,scotland1 particularly in the more exposed northern parts1 must have made himself acquainted with the capabilities of this valuable native tree4 ,it can grow and flourish almost anywhere--on pure gravel1 on the rocky mountain-slope1 or by the rushing brookside1 and in all these positions it seems to feel quite happy and contented1 as the beautiful silvery glaucous foliage1 the upright1 rampant growth1 and the cheery cinnamon or terra-cotta bark clearly indicate4 ,with these three excellent storm-resisting trees for an outer barrier almost any kind of planting can be engaged in1 for the shelter they afford is amply sufficient to start away into rapid growth even our only second-class hardy kinds of trees4 ,the ,sycamore is a good tree for planting where the storms blow loud and long1 being able to withstand in a very commendable way the first brunt of the hillside winds4 ,it is also a good timber-producer1 the wood at all times being easily disposed of1 and at a very remunerative price4 ,the ,elder and ,mountain ,ash are other valuable small-growing trees for planting on exposed ground1 both flourishing apace even in very high and exposed woodlands4 ,in the ,scotch or ,mountain ,elm 7,ulmus montana7 we have a first-class tree for planting as shelter1 while the ,alder1 ,willows of various kinds1 and the ,hornbeam should all receive attention in the formation of woodlands on exposed and storm-swept sites4 ,the ,american ,winged ,elm 7,ulmus alata7 has few equals for withstanding long-continued storms at high altitudes1 for it sends out its cork-covered branches without fear of harm into the very teeth of the blast4 ,i have noticed how well suited this elm is for planting on exposed1 high-lying ground by the few examples that occur at considerable elevations in some of the screen-belts that have been formed on the flanks of the ,snowdon range of hills1 where the tree looks quite as healthy and happy as at lower elevations in a sheltered park4 ,the ,larch1 be it remembered1 is a good tree for planting on exposed ground1 for1 though it gets twisted about and untidy of appearance1 it has a wonderful recuperative nature1 and will succeed well even when planted on the margins of exposed woodlands4 ,by taking advantage of natural tree or shrub growth when forming plantations at high altitudes much good may be brought about4 ,a young tree planted to the leeward of a clump of gorse1 broom1 juniper1 or birch has a much better chance of succeeding than another planted where it has no shelter from the worst winds of the particular district4 ,these wild clumps of natural shrubs should be encouraged in every way1 for they will not only give a great amount of shelter1 but help to thicken up the plantations as well4 ,in exposed woodlands it is a good plan to plant up the margins with such hardy wild shrubs as the gorse1 broom1 thorn1 juniper1 blackthorn1 etc41 all of which will afford a great amount of shelter to the young plants when newly inserted1 and help them to start away freely4 ,the ,common ,beech is a good all-round tree for planting in exposed sites1 but especially where the soil is poor1 or1 in other words1 composed principally of chalk or gravel4 ,some of the highest grounds in several of the ,english counties are occupied by thriving beech plantations1 these acting as landmarks for many miles around1 as notably at ,knockholt and on the ,chiltern ,hills4 ,the ,oak and ,ash should both find places in high-lying and exposed woodlands1 for1 although they cannot be planted successfully along the margins1 yet they thrive well where a little shelter is afforded1 and where the soil is fairly deep and rich4 ,the ,birch cannot be passed by in any list of trees for planting in exposed places2 it thrives well at high altitudes1 and where only a small quantity of soil overlies the rock4 ,the ,wild and ,bird ,cherries 7,cerasus vulgaris and ,c4 ,padus7 are excellent ornamental trees for exposed grounds1 where they grow to a large size and flower freely4 ,they can both subsist where but a small depth of soil is present4 ,preparation of the ,ground and ,planting4--,as regards the pits for planting1 these should be well prepared--that is1 the soil loosened up and made free for the roots to run in1 which will greatly help the trees to become quickly established--a point of great importance on exposed ground4 ,the top turf may be chopped up and placed in the bottom of the pit1 this serving1 when decomposed1 as manure to the roots1 and assisting to promote vigorous growth4 ,in planting1 place the best-rooted sides of the trees to the windward or most exposed site1 and do not cover with the soil to a greater depth than that in which the plant stood whilst in the nursery border4 ,on very exposed sites1 and where the soil is thin1 notch planting and inserting with the planting iron are to be recommended4 ,it will be well1 at stated intervals1 to examine young plantations formed on high-lying and exposed ground1 to see that the plants do not get shaken about with the wind and holes formed around the stems4 ,this latter is highly injurious to the welfare of the plants1 as the air passing down the stem side causes the roots to get dry to an inordinate degree4 ,wind-swaying1 where these holes have been formed around the stem1 is also hurtful1 as the tender roots get strained and barked1 and ill fitted for maintaining a healthy condition of the young trees4 ,the holes formed by swaying of the stems should be filled up with fine soil--not stones1 as is sometimes the case--and a small piece of stiff1 grassy turf tramped firmly against the stem on the side opposite that from which the worst winds may be expected4 ,should rank vegetation1 which1 is1 however1 rarely met with at high altitudes and on exposed ground1 interfere with the growth of the young trees1 it would be well to have such cut over and either burned or spread evenly over the ground4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,seaside ,,planting ,few persons other than those who have actually been engaged in the work have the remotest idea of the difficulties to be encountered in the formation of belts and plantations on exposed and wind-swept seaside ground4 ,to plant young trees around many parts of the coast of the ,british ,isles1 particularly where wide stretches of open seaboard are to be dealt with1 without first erecting a shelter-screen of some kind or other1 is useless work1 and only productive of the most unsatisfactory results4 ,that there are not a few districts1 however1 where such a preliminary would be needless is well known1 all that is required in certain instances being1 first of all1 to prepare the ground1 and secondly1 to suit the trees to the soil and situation1 seeing that some varieties succeed better than others in certain soils and sites4 ,from experience ,i have found out how useless it is to plant in a haphazard way1 at least1 on the more exposed seaboards along the west coast1 whereas1 by careful manipulation1 ,i have been successful in getting up shelter where before it was deemed almost an impossibility4 ,the chief consideration in seaside planting is unquestionably shelter1 be it only of a temporary kind1 for it may be noticed anywhere along our coast that1 wherever the direct force of the hurricane is broken1 there trees and shrubs are growing best4 ,another evil--a great one1 too--with which the planter has to contend is the injurious effect on trees1 but more particularly on evergreen shrubs1 of the saline particles which are driven and deposited with such force on the leaves and branches as in many instances to give them the appearance of having been scorched or cut over when in full vigour by an untimely frost4 ,wind-shaking1 although a minor evil1 must also be carefully guarded against1 so that at the outset it is well to have the trees1 except such as are of dwarf size1 securely staked and tied1 so as to obviate the dire results occasioned to the roots of newly-planted trees when the stems are allowed to rock to and fro with the wind4 ,before commencing planting operations on the sandy and exposed sea-coast1 the preliminary step is to erect a barrier of some kind1 which will intercept the violence of the wind1 and act as a screen or shelter to the young plants4 ,for this purpose various kinds of erections are equally suitable1 but that usually adopted1 especially where loose sand alone is present1 is a strong paling fence thatched with brushwood4 ,the posts should if possible be #f ft4 above ground and about #ab ft4 apart1 the paling-rails1 two in number1 being securely nailed to these at #b ft4 and #e ft4 from the ground2 against this are placed spruce or gorse trimmings1 these being #f ft4 long if possible1 in an upright manner1 and firmly tied to the crossbars by means of binding wire or strong tarred rope4 ,this may best be described as a dead fence1 but it is1 nevertheless1 quite as valuable for the purpose required as a perfectly developed living hedge4 ,by means of this a great advantage is gained and a favourable start for the newly-planted trees is secured4 ,then1 compared with a stone wall1 or1 in fact1 a wall of any kind1 this screen-fence is greatly superior1 the wind being broken up in passing through it1 and1 what is of as much value1 also relieved of its saline particles1 at least to a very considerable extent4 ,where the shore is almost destitute of sand1 and where certain kinds of vegetation subsist1 ,i find it to be a capital plan to substitute for the dead fence just described that composed of turf and earth4 ,the raised mound should be not less than #e ft4 in height1 and of sufficient width at top to allow of the planting of a double line of such plants as have been found most suitable for the wind-swept maritime situation in which they are to be used4 ,for this purpose few plants equal1 and certainly none surpass1 the ,sea ,buckthorn 7,hippoph rhamnoides71 ,tamarisk 7,tamarix gallica71 the common elder1 hazel1 whitethorn1 and at least three species of willow--,salix ,caprea1 ,s4 helix1 and ,s4 alba4 ,immediately behind this screen1 pits of not less than #b ft4 in diameter and about #ah in4 in depth may be formed1 and it will be all the better if some time is allowed to elapse before they are planted4 ,the bottom and side of each pit should1 where found necessary1 be loosed with a pick1 and if the soil is found to be of very inferior quality1 it will be well1 more especially where such can be readily obtained1 to add a spadeful or two from some adjoining field4 ,planting should not be commenced before ,march or ,april1 an early start at growth being much in favour of young trees that have recently been transferred to the sea-coast4 ,the plants to be used should not exceed1 say1 #ab to #ae in4 in height1 but of strong growth in proportion to their size1 and supplied with an abundance of fibrous roots4 ,lanky1 ill-grown1 and coddled plants have but a poor chance of succeeding under such adverse circumstances4 ,in planting1 keep the strongest roots seaward1 and do not place the trees at a greater depth in the soil than that at which they stood whilst in the nursery border4 ,the failure to use this precaution is a mistake1 and is productive of anything but favourable results4 ,immediately behind this raised mound of turf1 or the dead fence of branches above described1 the best trees for withstanding the first brunt of the sea-breeze are the sycamore1 elm1 elder1 and willow amongst hardwoods1 and the ,austrian and cluster pines 7,pinus austriaca and ,p4 ,pinaster71 to which might be added ,p4 laricio1 ,p4 sylvestris1 and ,p4 montana1 amongst conifers4 ,these are all well-tried subjects1 and may be relied upon as peculiarly suited for doing battle with hard-blowing and long-continued storms on the sea-coast4 ,regarding the merits of the cluster pine for seaside planting1 it would be almost superfluous for me to speak2 while the elm and sycamore send out their stout branches into the very teeth of the blast1 and are known as peculiarly well suited for such situations4 ,the following list includes such trees and shrubs as have1 from long experience1 been found well suited for planting on cold and wind-swept shores1 and the trees are arranged according to their value in this respect4 ,,hardwoods ,the ,sycamore 7,acer ,pseudo-platanus7 is1 without doubt1 the most valuable hard-wooded tree of timber size that ,i have come across for planting in exposed seaside situations4 ,it succeeds well1 even at highwater mark1 the stout1 twiggy branches being thrown out into the very face of the blast4 ,even during winter1 and in a leafless state1 the amount of shelter afforded by this tree is quite surprising4 ,taking everything into consideration--its great hardihood1 and suitability to various soils and situations1 ,i consider the sycamore the most valuable of any deciduous tree that ,i have yet tried for seaside planting4 ,the ,elder 7,sambucus nigra7 is1 amongst small-growing trees1 the best for planting in exposed seaside districts4 ,its powers of endurance are even greater than those of the sycamore1 although the amount of shelter it affords is by no means so great4 ,where its branches are constantly exposed to the saline-laden breeze1 and its roots amongst almost pure sand1 it grows and thrives in a manner that is quite surprising4 ,with the greatest advantages have ,i used the elder as a wind-break on some of the most exposed and desolate coasts of the ,british ,isles4 ,even where grown as a single specimen1 it seems to disregard the angry blast and saline particles with which it is almost constantly pelted--a fact that may be verified1 in not one1 but several stations along the coast4 ,then1 what tree is of readier culture than the elder1 succeeds better in poor1 sandy soils1 or spreads about to an equal extent8 ,the ,norway ,maple 7,acer platanoides7 stands the first brunt of the sea-breeze in a most commendable way--indeed1 it may be recommended as one of the most hardy and valuable trees for the purpose under consideration that could be named4 ,on the western coast of ,england1 and in a very exposed and wind-swept district1 ,i have used it with the greatest success in the formation of plantations1 as it is of rapid growth and soon forms an excellent shelter to the other less hardy kinds of trees4 ,it is by no means particular as to soil1 but succeeds all the better if this is fairly rich4 ,the ,winged ,elm 7,ulmus alata74--,from a long experience of this1 at present1 little-known tree1 ,i have every confidence in recommending it as one of the most valuable trees for planting in cold1 wind-tortured1 and maritime districts that have yet found their way into this country4 ,where many of our hardiest trees are bent and shrinking from the blast1 this elm stands nobly out1 and seems to defy both winds and storm4 ,the ,huntingdon ,willow 7,salix alba7 and ,bedford ,willow 7,s4 ,russelliana71 but particularly the former1 are excellent trees for windy shores4 ,in many places along the coast the ,huntingdon willow may be seen in a most flourishing and happy condition1 and that1 too1 where the surroundings are the reverse of favourable4 ,it is a tree of quick growth1 and will succeed well in any class of soil if it be not too damp4 ,in one instance that came under my notice1 the trees were planted on a promontory overhanging the sea and in such a situation that they were almost constantly subjected to rough-blowing winds coming in from the ,irish ,sea1 and yet they have grown with the greatest freedom1 and to-day look as healthy and happy as if planted in some sheltered inland situation4 ,the ,beam ,tree 7,pyrus ,aria7 is another excellent small-growing tree for planting in sites where1 from cold saline blasts1 few others could eke out even a miserable existence4 ,on the limestone cliffs of the ,great ,orme's ,head this handsome and hardy tree grows in a most surprising way--indeed1 with the exception of one or two species of willow1 ,i question very much whether any other tree could exist under the trying circumstances4 ,the hard and leathery leaves seem as if specially constructed for bearing storms1 and1 being plentifully produced1 render a great amount of shelter to other trees4 ,the ,goat ,willow 7,salix ,caprea71 for planting in almost pure sand on the sea-coast1 is a most valuable small-growing tree1 and it is so hardy that1 without the least risk of harm1 it may be planted at great altitudes1 and in very exposed situations4 ,in several of the maritime plantations that ,i have formed1 this willow was used with remarkable success in the outer line or screen4 ,the ,aspen 7,populus tremula7 is an excellent shore-tree1 one that can withstand a great amount of rough usage1 and as hardy and fast-growing a subject as could well be desired4 ,in the formation of several exposed seaside woods on the west coast of ,england ,i planted the aspen largely1 and1 ,i may add1 the results have been most satisfactory4 ,p4 canadensis1 ,p4 alba1 and ,p4 nigra are likewise worthy of extended culture1 for they succeed well by the seaside4 ,they all stand the breeze from the sea1 are perfectly hardy1 and afford a great amount of shelter4 ,the ,mountain ,ash 7,pyrus ,aucuparia74--,although valueless1 or nearly so1 for the quantity of timber it produces1 yet1 as a hardy1 free-growing tree1 the mountain ash1 or rowan tree1 merits attention from planters of exposed seaside land4 ,all along the coast of ,great ,britain this pretty tree may be found growing luxuriantly1 and in such situations affording a great amount of shelter to other less hardy kinds of trees and shrubs4 ,it may be planted without fear of harm1 down even to highwater mark1 and where the soil is of the poorest description4 ,it is thus one of the most useful of trees for planting as shelter along the roughest and most wind-tortured parts of the coast4 ,the ,hoary ,alder 7,alnus incana7 and the ,common ,alder 7,a4 glutinosa7 can hardly be excelled for planting in wet portions of cold1 wind-swept ground1 and in the vicinity of the sea4 ,both trees grow with the greatest freedom1 and are perfectly hardy1 standing the first brunt of the saline blasts in a most commendable and praiseworthy manner4 ,i have found it to be a good plan where shelter is wanted on bare coast-tracts1 if the quality of soil be at all suitable1 to plant the alders pretty closely1 and when they have attained to #ae ft4 or #bj ft4 in height1 to cut every alternate one over at ground level4 ,by so doing a number of stout shoots are thrown out early in the following spring1 which1 as they grow with great rapidity1 soon fill up the blanks occasioned by cutting over the young trees4 ,after these have had several years' growth the remaining half of the original crop should be cut over1 and when all have started from the stools a first-class shelter is obtained4 ,of course1 damp portions of the ground should be selected on which to plant the alder4 ,the ,english ,maple 7,acer campestre7 can well hold its own as a tree for planting on exposed seaside grounds4 ,it is one of the hardiest trees with which ,i am acquainted1 growing on exposed hillsides and at considerable elevations in a way that seems to attract the attention of every one4 ,hedges or fringe fences of the native maple have succeeded amazingly in several maritime woods in which it was planted1 and in places1 too1 where the wind blew loud and long4 ,the ,scotch ,elm 7,ulmus montana7 comes next on the list of such trees as ,i would recommend for the purpose under consideration4 ,it affords plenty of shelter1 as it grows freely from the root-stock1 sending up numerous suckers1 and is so hardy and proof against damage from storms that it may safely be planted in wind-swept districts by the seaside4 ,birch 7,betula alba7 and ,ash 7,fraxinus excelsior7 are other trees that repeated experiments have proved to be well suited for withstanding the ocean's blast and for planting in poor1 rocky soils4 ,the ,turkey ,oak 7,quercus ,cerris71 with just a small amount of shelter1 will be found a most valuable tree for planting within the influence of the sea4 ,it thrives well in very poor soils1 and when in full leaf is capable of affording a great amount of shelter4 ,the ,evergreen ,oak 7,q4 ,ilex7 has proved itself to be peculiarly fitted for planting as shelter in exposed and maritime districts4 ,in the formation of seaside plantations1 but particularly where1 from the frequency and force of the storms1 few trees can succeed1 ,i have planted the evergreen oak with the greatest success4 ,the trees just treated of have no equals1 among such as have yet been introduced1 for withstanding cold seaside winds1 a trial of many other varieties only resulting in proving their unfitness for planting in such situations4 ,two or three others1 such as the ,english ,oak1 ,hornbeam1 ,beech and ,english ,elm1 might be added to the list1 but they can only be recommended for planting where at least partial shelter is afforded4 ,,conifer ,foremost amongst these ,i must1 from long personal experience and a fair trial of several kinds under exactly similar conditions in every way1 place the ,austrian ,pine 7,pinus austriaca74 ,it grows with unusual freedom1 and affords a greater amount of shelter than any other tree with which ,i am at present acquainted4 ,that it will succeed equally well with the ,p4 ,pinaster when subjected to the sea-breeze1 ,i am now fully convinced1 while the amount of shelter it affords1 and rapidity of growth1 place it far ahead of that species for the purpose we are now considering4 ,it may not succeed so well as the ,pinaster when planted in pure sand1 on the sea-coast1 and this is the only point that can be adduced in favour of the latter species over ,p4 austriaca4 ,in forming many large woods along the coast of ,northern ,england ,i used the ,austrian pine in preference to several others1 and happily1 too1 for it has succeeded in a surprising manner1 trees of ten years' growth being fully #ac ft4 in height1 and nearly as much in diameter of branch spread4 ,with such a screen as that afforded by the hardy ,austrian1 many half-tender trees can be planted farther inland2 and this is the method of procedure that ,i have found to be most successful in getting up shelter along bare and fully exposed parts of the shores of ,western ,england and ,scotland4 ,the ,cluster ,pine 7,p4 ,pinaster7 and its smaller-growing variety ,p4 maritima have a world-wide reputation for their suitability for planting on exposed seaside tracts of ground4 ,that they are of great value for planting on sandy wastes is a fact that cannot be gainsaid--indeed1 few other trees could succeed or eke out an existence in pure sand and where the roots come in contact with the salt water4 ,a great drawback to this pine is its long tap-root and want of fibrous roots2 it transplants with difficulty1 but this1 as in various other species of pine1 may be greatly obviated by careful nursery management4 ,in my own opinion the typical tree is hardly equal to the variety maritima either for shelter or withstanding the sea-breeze4 ,the variety1 too1 is1 if anything1 the most valuable for shelter-giving1 it having a much greater inclination to retain the lower branches intact4 ,the ,corsican ,pine 7,p4 laricio7 quite equals the ,austrian in its powers of withstanding long-continued and cold winds4 ,that it does not succeed so well on the sea-coast is a fact of which1 from repeated experiments1 ,i am fully aware4 ,the ,corsican pine1 too1 is a valuable timber-producer--a fact that is well worthy of consideration in extensive planting4 ,in the ,giant ,arborvit 7,thuja gigantea7 we have another excellent addition to the list of trees that have been found suitable for planting on exposed maritime grounds4 ,it grows with great rapidity1 and ,i have never found even a solitary example of this tree having been uprooted or injured during the most severe storms4 ,on the sea-coast of ,wales ,i have used the giant arborvit largely in the formation of woods and plantations1 and with great success4 ,it transplants well1 even when of large size1 and is readily propagated4 ,pinus montana may also be recommended for afforesting tracts of ground by the sea-coast4 ,it is a tree of undoubted hardihood1 withstanding cold and cutting winds in a worthy manner4 ,the ,scotch ,pine 7,p4 sylvestris71 though by no means equal to the above for planting by the seaside1 must on no account be omitted from our list1 for it is a hardy1 fast-growing specimen1 and one that can do battle with very severe and long-lasting storms4 ,it should not be planted where it will meet the first brunt of the storm1 but given a little shelter1 such as that afforded by the above-named kinds4 ,the varieties of pine just named may all be relied upon as peculiarly well fitted for the purpose under consideration4 ,the ,large-fruited ,cypress 7,cupressus macrocarpa7 and ,pinus insignis might be added to the list1 both being well suited for maritime planting--inland1 however1 they cannot be relied upon4 ,pinus insignis grows with unabated vigour on the wind-swept coast of the ,isle of ,anglesey1 and stands the breeze in a most surprising and praiseworthy manner4 ,the ,atlantic ,cedar 7,cedrus atlantica7 and ,swiss ,stone ,pine 7,pinus ,cembra7 do fairly well as seaside trees4 ,,shrubs ,the ,sea ,buckthorn 7,hippophea rhamnoides7 is unquestionably the best all-round shrub for planting as a shelter by the sea-coast with which we are acquainted4 ,to see it in several districts of ,scotland1 growing amongst almost pure sand1 and where constantly exposed to fierce blasts1 shows how valuable a shrub it is for exposed maritime situations4 ,for affording shelter it is one of the best shrubs that ,i know of1 the unusually twiggy branches sifting and dividing up the wind in a most remarkable manner4 ,tamarix gallica and ,t4 germanica are two excellent seaside shrubs1 and such as are well suited for planting on exposed places4 ,they grow with great freedom1 transplant well1 and are readily propagated4 ,even in pure sand they seem quite at home1 growing freely1 and producing a rich abundance of their showy flowers4 ,in very exposed parts of the coast1 and when fully open to direct sea-blasts1 we have frequently seen the tamarisk fully a dozen feet in height1 and nearly as much in branch-spread4 ,though little known ,t4 germanica is a most valuable seaside shrub1 about #f ft4 in height1 with small leaves1 and spikes of conspicuous red flowers4 ,the ,box ,thorn 7,lycium europum7 may be introduced without fear of harm to the seaside woods1 for it is not only perfectly hardy in such situations1 but it bears constant exposure to wind as well as any shrub ,i know of4 ,hedges of this plant have been formed in many maritime parts of ,england and ,wales1 the only support being a few stakes driven in here and there along the line of fence4 ,it will grow in pure sand1 and when lashed by the waves4 ,the ,snowberry 7,symphoricarpus racemosus7 comes next on the list of shrubs that have been found suitable for the purpose under consideration4 ,it is a plant of extraordinary hardihood1 one that increases rapidly from the root-stock and affords a fair amount of shelter4 ,the ,tree ,mallow 7,lavatera arborea7 can hardly be surpassed for shore planting1 where it frequently attains to a height of #aj ft4 ,it has been found of great utility in some of the islands along the coast of ,scotland4 ,spirea ,adiantifolia is a fitting companion for the latter1 growing and flowering very freely in wind-swept gardens along the ,scottish coast4 ,griselinia littoralis has stood a severe test as to its capability for withstanding cold winds blowing in from the sea4 ,the ,dogwood 7,cornus sanguinea7 and ,flowering ,currant 7,ribes sanguineum7 are1 likewise1 excellent seaside shrubs1 of perfect hardihood and readily propagated4 ,the ,tree ,purslane 7,atriplex halimus7 is also a really valuable shrub that is totally indifferent to the salt spray1 and from its dwarf1 evergreen nature1 and silvery-scaly leaves1 is also more or less ornamental4 ,it does not seem to mind either wind blowing direct from the sea1 or whether the soil in which it is planted is of only moderate quality4 ,the ,laurustinus 7,viburnum tinus74--,where the situation is not too exposed1 this is a most valuable and ornamental shrub4 ,lilac of various species are well adapted for planting by the seaside1 the two kinds most to be recommended being the ,common and ,persian 7,syringa vulgaris and ,s4 ,persica74 ,the ,spanish ,broom 7,spartium junceum7 has been used with the greatest success all along the coast1 being perfectly hardy1 and an excellent subject for cold1 draughty positions4 ,the ,tree ,groundsel 7,baccharis halimifolia7 is not only a shrub of great beauty1 but one that is perfectly hardy1 and well adapted for planting by the seaside4 ,it will thrive in almost pure sand1 but it is all the better for a poor gravelly loam1 and seems to delight in the ozone of the seaside atmosphere4 ,both the ,portugal ,laurel 7,prunus lusitanica7 and ,sweet-,bay 7,laurus nobilis7 are valuable evergreen shrubs for seaside planting4 ,from their large size and compact habit1 they afford a great amount of shelter4 ,the ,common ,holly 7,ilex aquifolium7 and its golden form both do well at the seaside1 and this may also be said of the ,common and ,scotch ,laburnums4 ,they may be used with best advantage where the direct force of the blast is broken up4 ,the ,common ,gorse 7,ulex europus7 and the ,broom 7,cytisus scoparius7 should on no account be omitted from our list of shrubs that are valuable for maritime wastes where the wind exerts its full power4 ,the above shrubs include the principal of such as can be recommended for planting along the sea-coast1 but where good shelter is afforded by the trees named in this chapter1 a few others might be recommended for trial4 ,these include the ,strawberry ,tree 7,arbutus unedo71 ,euonymus japonicus1 ,berberis ,darwinii1 ,ligustrum ,ovalifolium1 ,daphne ,mezereon1 and ,d4 laureola1 ,ruscus aculeatus1 ,hypericum calycinum1 ,vinca major and ,v4 minor1 and several kinds of thorn4 ,the ,maram1 or ,sea ,matweed 7,psamma arenaria7 is one of the most useful grasses with which ,i am acquainted for binding shifting sands on the sea-coast4 ,not only so1 but by using it as a pioneer1 the amount of shelter it affords renders other more difficult subjects by no means hard to cultivate4 ,it usually attains to a height of from #b ft4 to #b ft41 much depending on the situation1 whether partially sheltered or fully exposed4 ,the root-stock creeps widely1 some specimens that have been followed up in the sand being of the amazing length of #ce yards4 ,amongst loose and drifting sand the running roots find what is most suitable for the welfare of the plant1 and it is astonishing with what persistency they bind in an unusually short space of time these shifting hills of almost dust-dry sand4 ,in planting1 place the plants in parallel lines1 about #af in4 apart1 and at a distance of #ab in4 from each other4 ,large plants may be subdivided to almost any extent4 ,a garden line is stretched along the ground1 a notch #aj in4 deep taken out1 the grass inserted therein and filled with sand1 and afterwards firmly trodden4 ,that the sea matweed is a most useful plant for fast gaining a footing on sandy tracts of sea-coast1 and thus allowing of following up with the shelter-giving trees1 cannot be disputed4 ,the ,lymegrass 7,elymus arenarius7 is also valuable for growing in almost pure sand on the sea-coast4 ,it is of tall1 elegant growth1 and is readily increased from root divisions4 ,the following trees and shrubs1 alphabetically arranged1 are recommended for seaside planting3-- ,,trees ,,for ,,the ,,sea-,,coast4 ,acer campestre ,pinus ,pinaster maritima ---- creticum ,populus canadensis ---- ,pseudo-platanus ---- nigra ,alnus glutinosa ---- nigra ---- incana ,pyrus ,aucuparia ,betula alba ---- ,aria ,carpinus betulus ,quercus ,ilex ,cedrus atlantica ---- ,robur ,cupressus macrocarpa ,salix alba ,fagus sylvatica ---- ,caprea ,fraxinus excelsior ---- ,forsteriana ,pinus austriaca ---- ,russelliana ---- laricio ,thuja gigantea ---- montana ,ulmus alata ---- ,pinaster ---- campestris ---- montana ,,shrubs ,,for ,,the ,,sea-,,coast4 ,atriplex halimus ,lavatera arborea ,aucuba japonica ,lycium europum ,cerasus lusitanica ,rhamnus frangula ---- ,padus ,ribes sanguineum ,cytisus ,laburnum ,rosa spinosissima ---- scoparius ,shepherdia argentea ,euonymus japonicus ,spirea adiantifolia ---- europus ,syringa persica ,fabiana imbricata ---- vulgaris ,griselinia littoralis ,symphoricarpus racemosus ,hippoph rhamnoides ,tamarix gallica ,ilex ,aquifolium ---- germanica ---- ,aquifolium aurea ,ulex ,europus ,laurus nobilis ,viburnum tinus ,,grasses4 ,elymus arenarius ,psamma arenaria ,,chapter ,,ix ,,town ,,planting1 ,,and ,,the ,,trees ,,and ,,shrubs ,,that ,,are ,,best ,,adapted ,,for ,,smoky ,,localities ,probably no work connected with horticulture requires more judgment and good management than the planting of trees and shrubs in urban districts4 ,the materials and soil of which streets and town gardens are usually formed are ill-fitted for maintaining a healthy condition in trees and shrubs for any length of time4 ,this fact1 coupled with the impurities of the atmosphere in densely populated centres1 has to be constantly borne in mind4 ,in more favourable districts all that is necessary is to open a pit of sufficient size to contain the roots of the tree or shrub to be planted2 but in towns the soil1 often as hard as iron and composed mainly of refuse building materials1 contains but little plant food4 ,for many years past careful observations have been made1 not only in ,london1 but in ,glasgow1 ,liverpool1 ,manchester1 ,warrington and ,dublin1 as to which trees and shrubs succeed best in the smoky localities of each town1 and it is mainly by tabulating these different experiences that satisfactory information on the subject has been obtained4 ,coal smoke from the chimneys in the larger and more crowded centres of industry is no doubt bad enough1 but1 when we have to contend with an atmosphere that is largely impregnated with the outcome from chemical1 gas1 or iron works1 the difficulties to be encountered are correspondingly increased4 ,the injurious effects of smoke have become much more pronounced during the past century1 and ,sir ,william ,richmond1 ,r4,a41 told the annual meeting of the ,coal ,smoke ,abatement ,society that ,westminster ,abbey had suffered from more rapid decay in the last hundred years than in all the previous centuries of its existence4 ,the chief cause of the destruction of the stonework has been shown to be the presence in the air of sulphur acids3 the stone is converted into sulphate of lime2 in the process of its formation this disintegrates the stone by expansion4 ,the connexion between smoke and stone decay appears to lie in the action of invisible gases emitted from the smoke particles4 ,if stonework suffers so at the hands of smoke and sulphuric and other acids1 what1 it may be asked1 must the effect be on the foliage of trees and shrubs--particularly such as are planted in the most smoke-infested parts of our great towns and cities8 ,when compared with ,continental cities--,paris1 ,brussels or ,berlin--where tree-culture is carried out most successfully1 the atmosphere of ,british towns is impregnated to a far greater extent with noxious fumes4 ,dry low-lying and confined areas1 particularly where excessive heat and atmospheric impurities are present1 are decidedly the worst1 while open and high-lying districts1 though in the centre of a town1 offer fewer difficulties4 ,that certain trees and shrubs succeed best in particular towns is a well known fact1 and the smoke-proof ,london ,plane is by no means the best tree for some of the colliery districts2 in ,sheffield1 for instance1 its place is largely taken by the ,canadian ,poplar4 ,in ,manchester1 the ,lime would appear to thrive best1 after which the ,elder1 ,thorn and ,plane succeed in the order named4 ,the variegated-leaved ,sycamore and the horse chestnut are favourites where the smoke from collieries is most offensive4 ,but many such cases could be pointed out1 and even in the case of bedding plants certain species succeed best in particular localities4 ,in the gardens about the ,royal ,mint1 where they are exposed to the deleterious fumes from gold-refining works1 ,fuchsias do remarkably well2 indeed1 the dwarf edging variety1 ,golden ,treasure1 thrives so well that advantage has been taken of the fact to propagate some of the stock that is annually required for one of the ,london parks from cuttings taken at the ,mint4 ,in the ,east ,end of ,london the ,creeping ,jenny 7,lysimachia7 thrives well as a window plant1 while in the chemically impure atmosphere of ,lambeth one of the ,veronicas is the favourite plant for indoor culture4 ,the ,st4 ,john's ,worts 7,hypericum7 do not as a rule thrive well in ,london2 yet around the ,tate ,gallery1 which is only divided by the river from the ,lambeth pottery district--the worst in the metropolis for atmospheric impurities--one species at least flourishes amazingly1 and has produced flowers in abundance for many years past2 while at ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 the lesser ,periwinkle 7,vinca minor7 has become quite established and runs about freely4 ,in ,chancery ,lane1 at the ,record ,office1 the common ,ivy1 ,bladder ,senna1 and ,yucca do best4 ,in other parts of ,london1 too1 well known varieties of ,campanula are largely grown as pot plants4 ,it is a somewhat strange fact1 too1 that some varieties of trees and shrubs succeed better than the type species in smoky localities1 as witness the ,london ,plane 7a variety of ,platanus orientalis71 variegated-leaved ,sycamore1 fastigiate ,poplar1 two varieties of ,pyrus1 ,weeping ,elm1 ,weeping ,ash1 and several varieties of ,acacia1 notably ,robinia pseudo-acacia inermis and ,r4 pseudo-acacia ,bessoniana4 ,similarly1 amongst shrubs1 we have the dwarf ,holly1 golden variegated ,euonymus1 golden ,privet1 ,ribes1 double-flowered ,gorse1 ,euonymus radicans variegata1 and others4 ,with ,grasses1 too1 some curious experiences might be related4 ,at the ,british ,museum the ,yarrow completely ousted the ,grasses from the plots in front of that building1 and in the moat of the ,tower of ,london several ,grasses that succeed in less smoky parts of the metropolis quickly die out4 ,near the main entrance to the ,tower of ,london1 and close to ,billingsgate ,fish ,market1 considerable difficulty was experienced in getting the ,plane trees established2 though in the matter of soil1 and choice of strong sturdy specimens1 every possible care was taken4 ,at last it was found that the drip from the fish carts was the cause of the evil1 and a remedy was quickly found4 ,in another garden1 where dust1 smoke1 and soot are plentiful1 the ,bladder ,campion 7,silene inflata71 ,saponaria officinalis1 the common ,marigold1 and ,rye ,grass seem positively to revel4 ,in situations almost constantly subjected to the sulphurous fumes of the railway engines near ,camden ,town1 and in the poorest of soils1 ,poa annua would appear to be quite at home4 ,the chemical fumes from the pottery works at ,lambeth are well known to act injuriously on vegetation generally1 but the ,mulberry1 ,fig1 ,sycamore1 ,turkey and ,evergreen ,oaks thrive as well there as they do in any part of the metropolis4 ,the fumes given off from many of our city manufactories act most perniciously on vegetation generally--a fact that was brought to my notice by the behaviour of some of our most valuable smoke-resisting trees and shrubs planted in the graveyard at ,st4 ,giles-in-the-,fields4 ,meeting the gardener there ,i remarked on the wretched condition of the trees and shrubs generally1 his quick reply being1 8,well6 with ,crosse ,blackwell's on the one side1 and ,nixey's ,black ,lead ,works on the other1 it's a wonder there's a living plant left60 ,here the common ,fig and ,black ,poplar seemed better able to withstand the atmospheric conditions than either the ,london ,plane or ,acacia4 ,with the largely increased use of coal gas for cooking purposes1 improved grates1 and the better combustion of fuel1 the atmosphere of certain districts of ,london1 has1 however1 become much less smoky than was the case a few years ago1 and in consequence vegetation generally succeeds better4 ,this is especially the case in some of the low-lying districts adjoining the ,thames where the 8slot0 system of providing gas for cooking purposes has caused a great decrease in the consumption of coke and coal1 with a corresponding reduction of the attending evils of smoke and soot4 ,in one of the poorest parishes many of the inhabitants have taken advantage of the facilities offered by the ,gas ,company in the matter of cooking by means of gas provided by the 8slot0 system1 which1 in comparison with coal1 has been found not only cheaper1 but cleaner and handier to use4 ,according to a competent authority the smoke nuisance has1 in consequence1 greatly abated1 and with the purer air1 the cultivation of window and other plants1 as well as of trees and shrubs1 has been to some extent simplified4 ,the electrification of the ,underground ,railway has also had a beneficial effect on vegetation4 ,although we cannot prevent fog1 which is an atmospheric condition1 yet much can be done to prevent it being a dirty fog1 and during the past five years much has been done in that direction4 ,better roads with less dust also assist largely in keeping the atmosphere of ,london in a pure condition4 ,with the rage for coniferous trees which was at its height about half a century ago1 it is not surprising that several species of ,cypress and ,cedar1 the stately ,pines and ,arbor vits1 as also the ,araucaria and ,junipers1 found their way into our town gardens and squares4 ,hosts of evergreens1 too1 from almost every part of the world were introduced into ,london1 but few have been able to survive the smoky and otherwise impure atmosphere of the great metropolis4 ,deciduous trees and shrubs1 both flowering and ornamental-leaved1 should certainly be regarded as the sine qua non of the ,london planter4 ,amongst evergreen trees few are suitable for town planting1 and1 though a limited number of evergreen shrubs may succeed for a time1 yet the list of deciduous species is far more extensive4 ,we have only to take notice of such evergreens as the ,holly1 ,rhododendron1 ,laurel and all the conifers1 with probably one exception1 to find how useless it is to plant them in expectation that they will give satisfaction4 ,this is not hard to account for1 as in winter1 when the fires are all alight and smoke and soot the order of the day1 the leaves of evergreens are fully developed and in the best possible condition for reaping the attending disadvantages4 ,with deciduous species the case is quite different1 for these are1 so to speak1 asleep when the deadly smoke and vapours are most abundant in our towns and cities4 ,i am quite aware that one occasionally sees evergreen shrubs and trees in a fairly thriving condition2 but it should be remembered that in the majority of such cases they were planted when conditions were much more favourable than at present4 ,it is1 perhaps1 to be regretted that evergreen shrubs do not succeed better in smoky localities1 being planted principally for their refreshing colour in winter2 but if our atmospheric conditions utterly preclude the use of such1 then it is folly to throw away money on useless planting1 and the winter aspect of deciduous trees and shrubs is infinitely preferable to that of unhealthy evergreens4 ,the bursting into leaf of the deciduous tree or shrub is not shared to a like extent by evergreens1 which lack that delightful changeableness and the interest that is attached to spring growth4 ,it is difficult to define accurately the boundaries of a town or the worst smoke-infested areas1 as far as tree and shrub growth is concerned4 ,in ,london1 for instance1 certain trees and shrubs which positively refuse to live in the heart of the city do fairly well in the suburbs1 while still further out1 where the atmosphere is comparatively pure1 they may thrive in quite a satisfactory way4 ,these thriving and non-thriving areas are sometimes very sharply defined1 and this has given rise to a false idea regarding certain trees and shrubs that will rarely succeed in the more smoky parts when compared with the same species which are found to do well in the outer suburbs4 ,high-lying and fairly open parts of a town are also far more conducive to plant growth generally than those that are close and confined4 ,in town planting there is1 however1 no necessity for the almost monotonous repetition of such trees as the ,plane and ,lime1 or amongst shrubs1 of the ,privet and ,lilac1 for there are many others that will do almost equally well1 and that are quite as ornamental4 ,probably the fact that such are not well known would form an excuse for their absence1 and it is to be hoped that at least one object to be accomplished by the writing of this book will be a greater interest in1 and wider knowledge of1 the various species of trees1 shrubs1 and plants generally that from long experience have been found suitable for planting in the town garden4 ,preparation of the ,ground4--,generally speaking1 the materials with which roadways are made are not only unsuitable for tree cultivation1 but positively destructive to vegetation of almost every description4 ,this also applies to our squares1 terraces1 and open grounds around houses1 the soil of which is little other than refuse building materials1 and mainly composed of broken bricks and stones1 gravel1 old mortar1 iron1 wood and shavings4 ,in such a medium it is perfectly useless to look for that healthy and vigorous growth which is so essential in street trees1 that are still further handicapped by having to do battle above ground with the impurities of a town atmosphere4 ,having for a number of years had to plant trees and shrubs in many parts of ,london1 it was found that in nearly every instance substituting good soil for that found naturally was a first necessity4 ,many failures in street planting from this neglect of providing suitable soil could be pointed out1 the result being that a section of the public has become tired of the subject in consequence of the initial expense and subsequent failures4 ,too often1 also1 the important operations of preparing the ground and planting the trees are left in the hands of the surveyor or builder1 who has little or no knowledge to fit him for the work1 the operation being carried out by labourers who are also entirely ignorant of what is required or the conditions necessary for successful tree and shrub culture4 ,the consequence is that failure is almost certain1 and the trees which were strong and healthy when planted gradually become unhealthy and ultimately succumb to a combination of circumstances which were brought about by the ignorance of the operators4 ,another source of failure in street planting is the generally pent-up condition of the roots1 for in several cases that have come under our notice lately the planter seemed to think that it was quite enough to cut a small hole in the pavement or street of sufficient size to hold the roots of the tree to be inserted4 ,were the soil free1 as we find in a field1 this system might answer2 but where the roadway is hard as iron and composed mainly of clinkers and gravel1 the case is totally different4 ,another fruitful source of failure in street planting is placing the pavement in too close proximity to the stem of the tree1 and numerous instances could be pointed out where even old and established specimens have suffered irreparable damage in consequence of having the paving brought up too close to the stems4 ,the roots should always be allowed plenty of breathing room1 and to affect this a good-sized space should be railed off around each tree and no pavement laid within it4 ,gratings may be placed on the surface of the ground around the tree1 should circumstances compel such a course4 ,by adopting either plan1 a double benefit to the trees is brought about by allowing free access of water to the roots and preventing an accumulation of noxious gases in the soil1 as would ensue if the flagstone or pavements were used4 ,where street trees are to be planted1 the ground-surface should in every instance be thoroughly broken up for a space of not less than #h ft4 square1 and to a depth of1 say1 #d ft41 the inferior soil removed and replaced by that of good quality1 preferably of a loamy description1 or loam and leaf soil in about equal proportions4 ,before placing the fresh soil in position1 the sides and bottom of each pit should be thoroughly loosened with a pick or fork4 ,by undermining the sides of each pit1 a much larger and freer root run will be provided1 and this will not necessitate so much of the street or pavement being torn up as if the pits were of equal width at the top and bottom4 ,we have found1 in ,london at least1 that the addition of a small quantity of leaf soil to the loam is highly beneficial to the growth of trees by retaining dampness and encouraging root spread4 ,the newly added soil should be firmly trampled in the pit before planting is engaged in4 ,sometimes1 where the original soil is not of too inferior quality1 a small proportion has been mixed with the loam and leaf soil1 but1 speaking generally1 this course cannot be adopted4 ,in squares and gardens where shrub planting is to be engaged in1 a general renovation of the soil is also imperative1 and this can best be done by thoroughly trenching the soil to a depth of1 say1 #d ft4 and adding a large proportion of fresh loam or other soil4 ,deep trenching and thoroughly breaking up and loosening the soil is a most important factor in town planting1 and should never be neglected4 ,manure is sometimes added to the soil1 but it is objectionable from several points of view1 and1 if used at all1 should be thoroughly decomposed and incorporated in small quantity4 ,good loam and leaf soil is infinitely preferable1 and1 where necessary1 sandy soil makes a good addition4 ,a little fresh lime added to the soil has been found most beneficial in town planting1 and in old and exhausted borders1 where the soil has become tainted with chemical impurities1 the value of lime or chalk as a cleansing agent is not sufficiently appreciated4 ,of course1 where so-called ,american shrubs are to be planted--which is1 however1 rarely attempted in ,london--neither chalk nor lime should be added to the soil4 ,this question of soil is so important that no one planting street trees or shrubs can afford to ignore it1 and while the extra cost in providing it is but little1 the advantages gained are great4 ,preparing the ,trees and ,planting4--,trees intended for planting in towns1 and especially alongside streets and footpaths1 should be specially prepared in the matter of transplanting and pruning4 ,as tree guards are a necessity in protecting trees by the sides of streets1 the trees must have their stems free of branches2 therefore the buds and branches on the stems need to be removed for a distance of #f or #g ft41 whilst surplus leading shoots and ungainly branches should at the same time receive attention in pruning4 ,the tree also needs to be frequently transplanted in order that an abundance of fibrous roots may be produced1 and every effort made to produce healthy1 vigorous specimens suitable for the uncongenial surroundings of their permanent quarters4 ,in street planting it is advisable to use trees that are from #ab to #ad ft4 in height2 and if these1 for some years previously to their final shift1 have been specially prepared in the way of frequent transplanting and careful pruning1 little fear for their future welfare need be entertained4 ,autumn or early spring planting is to be recommended1 the former time being in most cases preferable4 ,as little time as possible should be allowed to elapse between the lifting of the tree in the nursery and its being transplanted in the new position4 ,spread the roots out to their full extent around the stem and avoid planting too deeply2 the nursery mark on the stem serves as the best guide as to the depth at which to plant4 ,planting too deeply under the mistaken idea that doing so will secure the tree in the ground is a fruitful source of decay and ultimate death of many street trees planted in the metropolis1 and it is not uncommon to see whole avenues of trees that have made little or no progress for many years owing to this cause4 ,after a tree has been placed in an upright position on the prepared site and the roots properly disposed1 the soil should be filled in and trampled firmly both amongst and over the roots4 ,it may be well to warn planters against the pernicious practice of allowing leaves1 packing materials1 or grassy turf to come in contact with the roots of newly-planted trees4 ,in dry situations a saucer-shaped hollow may be left around the stem of the newly-planted tree1 while mulching applied during dry and warm summers is to be recommended4 ,the planting of shrubs should be carried out with as much care as is used in the case of trees4 ,it is preferable to trench land in which shrubs are to be planted rather than to make a separate pit for each shrub4 ,street trees should be carefully matched--that is1 those of similar height and shape used in the same street4 ,too often this principle is not observed1 as in a new street near the ,strand1 where some of the specimens are about #aj ft4 high1 others1 #ae ft4 and #bj ft4 high--forming a very irregular1 badly matched row4 ,many newly-planted town trees are destitute of leading shoots and have ungainly side branches--faults that should never be permitted when choosing specimens for such an important purpose4 ,in choosing trees for street planting1 the following rules should be observed3-- #a4 ,stout1 healthy1 well-rooted and recently transplanted trees should alone be chosen4 #b4 ,they should1 for the same street1 be of nearly equal height and branch spread4 #c4 ,straight-stemmed trees1 with stout leading shoots1 are to be preferred4 #d4 ,the height should range from1 say1 #ab ft4 to #ad ft4 or over1 and the strength of stem should be proportionate to the height4 #e4 ,trees with wand-like1 crooked1 or cankered stems should be avoided in street planting4 #f4 ,they should be beautiful1 shade-giving1 and easy of culture4 ,fencing and ,staking4--,in order to prevent damage1 newly-planted trees should be fenced and staked at once4 ,of fences or guards there are many kinds3 they are made of wood1 wire or iron4 ,the iron tree guard has many advantages over those of wood or expanded metal1 and1 being made in two sections1 it can be readily placed in position after the tree has been planted4 ,for trees from #ab to #ad ft4 high the guards need not exceed1 say1 #g ft4 in height1 and preference should be given to those in which the uprights are bent outwards at the top2 for this not only lessens the risk of interference with the branches1 but is pleasing in appearance4 ,sometimes it may not be considered necessary to protect town trees1 particularly such as are growing in side streets1 or in squares1 but in every case firm staking is necessary in order to prevent damage from wind4 ,wooden tree guards consist of about half a dozen poles or uprights1 about #g ft4 long1 joined together around the tree trunk by means of wire4 ,when compared with those of iron1 they have1 however1 several disadvantages2 for they may be climbed with ease and they do not last long4 ,where it is found sufficient to stake the trees without having recourse to guards1 ash poles1 from #b in4 to #c in4 in diameter1 and #aj ft4 high1 should be driven firmly into the ground as close to the stem as possible4 ,the tree should be tied with specially prepared tar rope1 which should be crossed between the stem and stake to prevent damage by chafing4 ,from time to time it will be necessary to see that the band of string does not become too tight4 ,on rare occasions only is it necessary to stake shrubs1 but this is sometimes advisable in exposed positions or in the case of shrubs of unusually large size4 ,watering and ,after-,management4--,for a few years after being planted1 trees and shrubs will require a certain amount of attention in the matter of watering and mulching during the prolonged heat and drought1 and also in preventing the evils attending excessive wind-swaying owing to the stakes and moorings becoming defective4 ,the goat and wood leopard moth1 as also numerous kinds of caterpillars1 attack newly-planted town trees1 particularly the various species of ,pyrus1 ,thorn1 ,willow and ,poplar4 ,the former tunnel into the main stem and render it so weak at the point attacked that it readily breaks across during windy weather1 while the caterpillars feed on the foliage and greatly impair the health of the trees attacked4 ,spraying1 hand-picking and shaking are to be recommended in the case of the caterpillars1 while1 to combat the goat and leopard moth1 a small quantity of cyanide of potassium can be inserted in the mouth of the tunnel in order to dislodge or kill the insect4 ,watering should preferably be performed in the evening1 the ground around the roots being thoroughly soaked1 while mulching with freshly-mown grass or old straw will prevent the too rapid evaporation of the moisture4 ,in extreme cases binding the stem with a hay rope is to be recommended4 ,in order to prevent straining of the roots and bark chafing1 the moorings of trees should receive a periodical examination4 ,the following trees and shrubs are to be recommended for town planting3-- ,illustration3 ,,plane ,,tree ,,in ,,regent',s ,,park ,,trees ,the ,oriental or ,common ,london ,plane 7,platanus orientalis acerifolia74--,this variety of the oriental plane stands first in the category of select town trees4 ,not only does it grow vigorously in towns1 but it is peculiarly well adapted for withstanding smoke and other impurities of the atmosphere4 ,repeated experiments have clearly proved that in ,london this tree flourishes better than any other1 and a visit to the ,thames ,embankment and several of the urban districts will substantiate the statement2 while the fine old tree which still exists in ,cheapside1 and the equally beautiful specimen which has hardly room for perfect development in the ,court of ,stationers' ,hall1 ,ludgate ,hill1 afford other examples of how well suited this handsome tree is for doing battle with the adverse conditions peculiar to the great metropolis4 ,as a diversity of opinion has existed about which variety of plane it is that grows with such vigour in and around ,london1 it may be stated that1 on a careful examination of a large number of specimens1 the variety ,p4,o4 acerifolia was found not only more commonly distributed1 but1 likewise1 better suited for town planting than the typical ,p4 orientalis4 ,this valuable variety is readily distinguished from the normal plant by the less deeply divided leaves1 and from the ,american plane 7,p4 occidentalis71 with which it is sometimes confounded1 by the many fruit 8balls0 which are attached to each peduncle1 the fertile catkins of ,p4 occidentalis being1 for the greater part1 produced singly4 ,but not only for its value as a town tree is the oriental plane much sought after1 but the giant proportions to which it attains1 coupled with the handsome1 finely-cut leaves and easy habit of growth1 render it one of our most desirable ornamental trees4 ,further1 it is of the easiest culture1 succeeding extremely well in soils of very opposite qualities4 ,taking everything into consideration1 we question whether any other of our forest trees is equal in value to the plane for purposes of town planting4 ,the ,maidenhair ,tree 7,ginkgo biloba74--,the maidenhair or ginkgo tree is one of the most valuable that can be planted in the impure atmosphere of a town garden4 ,few trees can compare with the one in question for withstanding the deleterious effects produced on vegetation generally by coming in too close contact with the impurities of our great centres of industry4 ,the ample delicate-green foliage betrays--even late in the season1 and when about to be cast off--little evidence of the fierce struggle that must almost constantly go on between vegetation and the smoke and filth of our towns and cities4 ,that the thick1 leathery leaves and strong constitution of the tree play an important part in keeping it free from disease is clearly evident1 while the annual renewal of the leaves enables it to cast off the sooty nodules which work such havoc on the tender foliage of most evergreen trees4 ,at several places in and around the great metropolis--and in places1 too1 where one is almost stifled with the fumes from chimneys--this tree may be seen in almost as fresh a condition as those in the open country4 ,the ,ailanthus or ,tree of ,heaven 7,ailanthus glandulosa7 may be seen in a very flourishing condition in many of the largest centres of industry in ,southern ,england4 ,it has been largely planted in many ,continental cities1 and has proved itself one of the few trees that is capable of withstanding the impurities of a town atmosphere4 ,the ,black ,italian ,poplar 7,populus monilifera74--,next to the plane amongst forest trees ,i consider the black ,italian ,poplar to be the most valuable for planting in smoky towns4 ,as a proof of this there are to be seen numerous fine specimens of this tree in a flourishing condition1 and clothed with the most healthy foliage1 in some of our large cities--to wit1 ,london1 ,glasgow1 ,liverpool and ,manchester4 ,the ,canadian ,poplar 7,p4 canadensis71 and its variety1 ,p4,c4 nova1 are excellent trees for planting in smoky localities4 ,the former succeeds admirably in the very centre of ,sheffield1 in the old parish churchyard1 where for hundreds of yards around not a particle of living vegetation is to be seen4 ,the variety nova is a very superior tree for street planting1 it being far more ornamental1 and of more rapid growth than the black ,italian poplar1 and equally noticeable for retaining a healthy and flourishing condition under the adverse circumstances connected with a town atmosphere4 ,the ,abele ,poplar 7,p4 alba7 grows with great freedom when subjected to smoke and foul air4 ,in the very heart of our largest towns it may be seen flourishing in a manner that is almost incredible4 ,the ,lombardy ,poplar 7,p4 fastigiata7 is another tree that has been planted with some success in and around many of our largest cities1 but it cannot equal any of the foregoing for withstanding the baneful effects of a tainted atmosphere4 ,in the outskirts of towns1 where air is purer than amid chimneys pouring forth their volumes of smoke1 the ,lombardy poplar succeeds fairly well1 and imparts an air of grandeur that could hardly otherwise be obtained4 ,the ,cucumber ,tree 7,magnolia acuminata74--,few planters are aware of how valuable this tree is for withstanding the germs and soot of large towns4 ,experiments have1 however1 resulted in this highly ornamental tree being added to the list4 ,the ,tulip ,tree 7,liriodendron tulipifera74--,excellent examples are not wanting of how valuable a tree this is for towns and streets4 ,it seems to have a wonderful recuperative power1 for1 scorched1 blackened1 and encrusted as may appear the falling foliage1 yet in the following spring it again puts forth a garb of the freshest and richest greenery4 ,the remarkable four-lobed1 truncate leaves render the tree almost without an equal for ornamental planting1 while its undoubted smoke-resisting qualities place it high in the rank among town trees4 ,the ,indian ,bean 7,catalpa bignonioides74--,for various reasons this fast-growing tree is to be recommended for planting in smoky localities4 ,it grows with great vigour in many smoky centres of industry1 is a tree of handsome proportions1 and1 when fully established1 flowers freely4 ,a valuable trait in the character of the ,indian bean is that should accident befall it1 and the stem get injured1 numerous strong suckers are produced1 which1 as they grow with great rapidity1 soon take the place of the original4 ,the ,common ,mulberry 7,morus nigra7 and the white-fruited ,mulberry 7,m4 alba7 may be seen growing satisfactorily in several of the old gardens and nurseries of the metropolis1 where they are now buried alive1 as might be said1 in stones and mortar4 ,that they are excellent town trees will be admitted by every one who sees the fine specimens in ,liverpool and ,manchester4 ,the ,honey ,locust 7,gleditschia triacanthos7 is a very suitable subject for planting in smoky localities4 ,in many of the worst smoke-infested parts of ,london and ,manchester are seen goodly specimens of this handsome tree--not poor1 miserable trees1 but1 from their great size1 wealth of foliage1 and general appearance1 betokening perfect health amid their rather adverse surroundings4 ,the ,false ,acacia 7,robinia ,pseudo-acacia74--,almost by the hundred can the false acacia be seen in ,london and many other ,english towns1 thus proving that it is one of the most valuable trees that we possess for withstanding the injurious effects of an impure atmosphere4 ,what renders this acacia of greatest value as a town tree is that it retains its rich verdure till well on in autumn4 ,the varieties known as ,decaisneana1 inermis1 microphylla1 macrophylla1 sophorfolia1 and the upright-habited are most to be desired4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,beam ,,tree ,,in ,,london ,the ,white ,beam ,tree 7,pyrus ,aria74--,in many of the confined spaces in ,glasgow the white beam tree grows luxuriously1 and produces annually great quantities of its brightly-tinted berries4 ,the ,lime 7,tilia europa74--,where the situation is not too confined1 and where soot and smoke do not abound1 the lime may1 and does1 succeed2 but in the worst parts of the metropolis it soon shows signs of distress1 the tops of the branches dying off1 and the whole tree sooner or later showing the fierce struggle it has to endure with smoke and fumes4 ,as an avenue tree in the more airy and pure parts of a town1 the lime has certainly few equals1 its general contour and the pleasing shade it affords being points of special recommendation4 ,the ,sycamore 7,acer pseudo-platanus74--,this tree may be classed as amongst the most useful for planting in smoky towns4 ,in ,warrington1 where the noxious emanations from alkali and other chemical works are most disastrous in their effects on vegetation1 the sycamore is one of the few trees that grow satisfactorily4 ,being a rapid and strong grower1 it is thus seen to be1 for a certain time at least1 unaffected by its inimical surroundings4 ,the variegated variety would seem from recent experiments to be preferable1 and better adapted for smoky localities than the normal form4 ,the ,weeping ,ash 7,fraxinus excelsior pendula7 would seem to be superior to the common ash for planting in towns4 ,it thrives satisfactorily in many of our largest centres of industry--to wit1 ,london1 ,liverpool1 ,glasgow and ,manchester4 ,the ,horse ,chestnut 7sculus hippocastanum7 may be seen in a fairly satisfactory way in many town parks1 but only where it is not exposed to smoke and soot to any great extent4 ,in confined spaces both it and the ,english ,elm 7,ulmus campestris7 soon show signs of distress1 the points of the branches gradually becoming unhealthy1 and the trees dying off prematurely4 ,taking everything into consideration1 neither of these trees can be recommended for planting in smoky districts4 ,the ,birch1 ,walnut1 ,hornbeam1 and one or two kinds of ,willow will succeed in the less smoky parts of a town2 but they are not to be recommended for planting where the air is constantly impregnated with soot and dust4 ,the ,mountain ,ash1 or ,rowan ,tree 7,pyrus aucuparia7 and ,bird ,cherry 7,cerasus ,padus7 are both good town trees1 and excellent examples of both may be seen in the back streets and slums of ,london4 ,sophora japonica is well worthy of recommendation as a tree that is admirably suited for planting in towns4 ,it is of large and rapid growth1 with elegant dark green pinnate leaves4 ,being a native of ,china and ,japan1 it may not be perfectly hardy in the northern portions of the ,british ,isles1 but it succeeds well in ,southern ,england1 and thrives admirably in the most smoke-infested parts of ,london4 ,thorns of various kinds succeed well in towns1 but they must not be recommended for the most smoky and confined localities4 ,the ,tansy-leaved ,thorn 7,cratgus tanacetifolia7 is an excellent member of the family for town planting4 ,,shrubs ,of these there is rather a long list of kinds that are suitable for planting in smoky localities4 ,evidently deciduous species possess an advantage over evergreen kinds in the total annual renewal of their leaves1 and hence it follows that1 as with trees1 deciduous shrubs should have the preference4 ,the following list includes only such kinds as have been proved suitable for town planting3-- ,osmanthus ilicifolius is one of the handsomest of evergreen shrubs1 and also one of the few that succeed1 in a satisfactory way1 when subjected to the impurities of a town atmosphere4 ,in the smokiest districts of both ,london and ,liverpool it is unquestionably the best all-round shrub4 ,ligustrum coriaceum is a fitting companion to the last1 so far1 at least1 as its powers of withstanding the effects of an impure atmosphere are concerned4 ,being an evergreen1 it is peculiarly well suited for planting in the town garden1 where it grows with great freedom4 ,olearia ,hastii and ,o4 macrodonta are excellent shrubs for the ,london garden4 ,aucuba japonica4--,this well-known evergreen shrub is of great value for planting in urban districts1 it being able to do battle with a more than ordinary amount of atmospheric impurities4 ,for this reason it has been largely planted in town squares and gardens1 in the most crowded and densely populated parts4 ,griselinia littoralis4--,although a little-known evergreen1 this is well suited for town planting1 experiments having proved it to be a most valuable addition to the limited number of shrubs suitable for such a place4 ,hibiscus ,syriacus is one of the few shrubs that can successfully battle with an impure atmosphere4 ,it is a shrub which town residents should plant freely if they have a bit of ground that they want to look pretty4 ,the ,warfaring ,tree 7,viburnum lantana7 does not receive that amount of attention to which on its merits it is entitled4 ,it succeeds well in some of the most filthy and smoky districts of our largest cities4 ,the ,venetian ,sumach 7,rhus cotinus7 is a much-neglected shrub1 but for general usefulness it can hardly be surpassed4 ,it is peculiarly suitable for planting in cities4 ,the ,stag's ,horn ,sumach 7,rhus typhina7 must1 on no account1 be omitted1 as it is a shrub of curious appearance and one that thrives well in soot and dirt4 ,leycesteria formosa is a capital town plant2 this may also be said of the ,flowering ,currant 7,ribes sanguineum7--indeed1 too much praise can hardly be bestowed on these shrubs for planting in the town garden and shrubbery4 ,skimmia japonica and the ,snowy ,mespilus 7,amelanchier ,botryapium71 too1 succeed well in smoke-infested districts2 and the various kinds of ,lilac--particularly the ,common and ,persian--have few equals as town shrubs4 ,in the ,kentucky ,coffee-,tree 7,gymnocladus canadensis7 and ,bladder ,senna 7,colutea arborescens7 will be found two most useful shrubs for the town garden4 ,phillyrea ,vilmoriniana1 ,forsythia viridissima1 and the ,strawberry ,tree 7,arbutus unedo7 are all more or less suitable for town planting where the atmospheric conditions are not too seriously affected by smoke and dust4 ,the ,double ,furse 7,ulex europus florepleno7 is one of our handsomest flowering-shrubs1 and a good addition to the list of such as are suitable for planting in town gardens and squares4 ,the ,spurge ,laurel 7,daphne laureola7 grows freely in many a town garden--indeed1 it is no uncommon thing to see large and well-balanced specimens where smoke and filth are the order of the day4 ,cotoneasters of various kinds succeed well as town plants4 ,those to be particularly noted are ,c4 frigida1 ,c4 ,simonsii1 and ,c4 vulgaris4 ,euonymus japonicus is another excellent shrub1 being almost smoke-defying4 ,the double-flowered forms of ,prunus sinensis and the equally ornamental ,p4 triloba all succeed well as town plants2 while the ,almonds are quite as good4 ,koelreuteria paniculata1 the ,laurustinus 7,viburnum tinus71 ,weigelia rosea1 ,w4 amabilis1 ,deutzia scabra1 the common ,green ,box1 ,gum ,cistus 7,c4 ladaniferus71 ,mahonia aquifolia1 ,m4 ,bealii1 and ,m4 japonica are all more or less suitable for town gardens1 but not for those in the most smoke-infested parts4 ,the ,japan ,quince 7,cydonia japonica71 ,hypericum ,nepalense1 and ,euonymus radicans all do well when subjected to the town atmosphere4 ,,climbers ,of shrubs suitable for covering walls1 trellises1 and arbours1 and able to resist the dire influences of smoke and soot1 there are a few valuable and well-tried kinds4 ,the ,virginian ,creeper 7,ampelopsis hederacea7 has few equals as a town plant1 thriving successfully in the midst of our busiest centres of industry4 ,many instances could be pointed out in which this handsome climber grows with the greatest freedom in the most impure and smoke-laden atmosphere4 ,the ,common ,ivy 7,hedera helix7 is1 perhaps1 the most valuable of all climbing plants for using in smoke-infested localities4 ,in some of the courts near ,ludgate ,hill1 a district of ,london that is by no means free from smoke and dust1 the ivy climbs houses to a height of #fj ft41 and surprises one by its fresh appearance in such localities4 ,the ,evergreen1 or ,trumpet1 ,honeysuckle 7,lonicera sempervirens7 is another shrub of great merit for town planting1 as it thrives well in confined spaces1 and where the atmosphere is very impure4 ,cratgus ,pyracantha is a most valuable wall shrub for the town garden4 ,it is of free growth1 stands smoke well1 and is one of the handsomest berry-bearing plants in cultivation4 ,jasminum nudiflorum needs little description1 as it is one of our handsomest wall-plants4 ,for smoky districts it is invaluable1 blooming freely when flowers are scarce1 and seeming to heed but little the impurities of a town atmosphere4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,savin1 ,,or ,,juniper1 ,,as ,a ,,town ,,shrub ,the ,vine 7,vitis vinifera7 must not be omitted from our list1 it being an excellent plant for withstanding soot1 smoke1 dust and heat4 ,,coniferous ,,trees ,few of these1 if any1 succeed in a satisfactory way1 when constantly subjected to the impurities of a town atmosphere4 ,where the conditions are at all favourable the ,austrian ,pine 7,pinus austriaca71 ,thyiopsis ,dolabrata1 ,toxodium distichum1 and ,cupressus ,lawsoniana do fairly well1 but they are not to be recommended for general town planting4 ,retinospora plumosa aurea has stood for many years in one of the most smoky districts of ,glasgow1 and at present looks almost as well as it did when brought from the country1 while the ,savin 7,juniperus ,sabina7 may generally be relied upon4 ,,chapter ,x ,,trees ,,suitable ,,for ,,hedgerow ,,and ,,field ,,planting ,the well-founded complaint that hedgerow and field trees harbour birds to the serious destruction of the grain crops is largely counterbalanced by their ornamental appearance and the shelter they afford both to man and beast4 ,in proceeding to consider the trees that are most suitable for hedgerow and field planting four important points must be kept in view4 7#a7 ,that the spread of branches is1 comparatively speaking1 small in proportion to the tree's height2 7#b7 that the roots have a downward tendency1 or do not ramify to too great an extent2 7#c7 that the tree is well adapted for exposed situations and standing singly2 and 7#d7 that the timber value is such as to compensate in some degree for the cost of planting and after-management in the matter of pruning and fencing4 ,although we rarely find all these qualities concentrated in one tree1 still1 with careful choice and good after-management1 much may be done to produce the desired effect1 even in trees of a partially opposite character4 ,that the wrong class of timber is often planted in our hedgerows and fields is painfully apparent to every one who has paid attention to the subject--trees of wide-spreading habit both in root and branch occupying positions and doing irreparable damage1 where others of less obtrusive nature could with advantage have been selected to take their place4 ,timely and judicious pruning is of the utmost importance in the production of hedgerow timber3 but to be productive of the best results1 the work must be attended to early1 and prosecuted at intervals1 as by skilfully shortening the branches from time to time1 the spread of root is also checked1 thereby securing a double benefit to the farmer and the land4 ,the ,cornish ,elm 7,ulmus cornubiense71 unfortunately1 is far too seldom seen either as a standard or in our woodlands1 for which the propagator is greatly to blame1 there not being offered anything like a sufficient quantity to meet the demand4 ,as a park or hedgerow tree this distinct and well-marked variety of the elm has much to recommend it--such as a narrow branch-spread in proportion to the height1 suitability for exposed situations1 and the very decided ornamental character it imparts to the landscape when properly placed4 ,the principal advantages of this tree for hedgerow or field planting are that no pruning is required to keep the branches in bounds1 that the spread of branches is very small in proportion to the tree's height1 and that the roots do not approach too near the surface1 or ramify to any great extent1 so as to become injurious to crops in their immediate vicinity4 ,the ,english ,elm 7,ulmus campestris7 is another tree of value for hedgerow planting1 and is1 perhaps1 more commonly used for that purpose than any other4 ,like the ,cornish variety1 though in very much less degree1 it has an upward inclination1 the ramification of its branches being narrow in proportion to its height1 while as an ornamental tree and valuable timber-producer it is held in high esteem4 ,as a shelter tree it is of great value1 and as the branches1 particularly the lower1 seldom spread to a great extent1 the injury caused to the adjoining crop is usually not very serious4 ,the ,british ,oak 7,quercus ,robur7 is of about equal value with the elm for hedgerow planting--indeed by careful manipulation it is even superior to that tree1 being1 perhaps1 less injurious to the herbage beneath it1 and the roots having a greater downward tendency4 ,as an ornamental tree and valuable timber-producer the oak requires no praise from us1 these qualities having been recognised from the earliest date4 ,it bears pruning with impunity1 so that all ungainly or far-spreading branches can be cut back or foreshortened at pleasure2 while those near the ground1 which in any way interfere with the fence or crop1 can1 by judicious management1 be altogether removed4 ,several of the fastigiate forms of the oak are equally1 if not better1 suited for hedgerow planting4 ,the ,lombardy ,poplar 7,populus fastigiata74--,although of but little value as a timber-producer1 yet1 as an ornamental tree of singular habit and appearance1 the ,lombardy poplar is almost unique amongst our hardy deciduous trees4 ,when planted in judiciously-arranged clumps in the corners of fields1 or hedgerows1 this poplar produces a most pleasing effect in the landscape3 and1 being of close1 fastigiate growth1 it is not in the least injurious to crops in its immediate vicinity4 ,no tree is1 however1 more readily misplaced than the one in question2 and in planting it is well to avoid the prevalent mistake of placing in lines1 squares1 round or oval forms1 or even in single specimens1 these methods being highly objectionable and devoid of good taste--that is1 if we desire to preserve in the landscape a natural appearance4 ,the ,sycamore 7,acer pseudo-platanus71 as a standard tree1 either in field or fence1 is worthy of attention1 not only for its well-known ornamental character1 but also on account of the great value of the wood produced1 as it is in this latter respect1 perhaps1 second to none4 ,as a farmer's tree it is1 also1 not one of the worst2 for1 although the branches incline to spread1 still1 by careful manipulation in the way of pruning1 this may be corrected without doing injury to too great an extent to the ornamental qualities of the tree4 ,for imparting both shade and shelter to farm stock the sycamore may be used with the best advantage4 ,few trees produce such valuable timber when grown singly or in clumps in the corners of fields and paddocks as the sycamore1 and no other repays so fully the damage it occasions to fences and the surrounding ground4 ,the ,hornbeam 7,carpinus betulus71 for exposed situations and poor soils1 has few1 if any1 equals4 ,the roots do not run near the surface1 but1 like those of the oak1 derive sustenance at a considerable distance from it1 and this quality1 combined with its somewhat upright inclination of growth and hardy nature1 renders it well adapted for hedgerow or field planting1 where shelter combined with effect is required4 ,the ,lime 7,tilia ,europa71 although one of our most ornamental trees1 can hardly be recommended as suitable for situations in which the underlying herbage is at stake4 ,for this latter reason alone1 however1 can it be omitted from our list1 and1 as it bears pruning well1 does not to any great extent impoverish the adjoining ground4 ,it is at all times a pleasing object in the landscape1 and it will therefore be seen that the evil done by shade is in a great degree compensated for4 ,amongst coniferous trees1 if we except the ,larch and ,scotch ,fir1 few are at all suitable for the end in question4 ,the larch is a much-neglected fence and park tree1 this being attributable to an erroneous impression that it is of too stiff and cold an appearance1 either for standing singly or giving effect to the landscape4 ,nothing can1 however1 be farther from the facts1 as when placed so that its fine form is seen to advantage1 few deciduous trees are more picturesque than the larch1 or offer a better contrast to the ordinary run of our forest trees4 ,it also occasions less damage to the undergrowing herbage than most trees1 while1 at the same time1 it enriches the soil to a great extent by the annual shedding of its leaves4 ,the ,scotch ,fir1 especially for shelter-giving purposes1 has much to recommend it for being extensively planted as stock-shelter in the corners of exposed fields4 ,as it usually rises to a great height without branches1 it cannot be considered as extremely injurious to its surroundings1 although the shallow-running roots can hardly be spoken of as non-injurious to the greensward4 ,planting and ,fencing4--,whether for planting in the hedgerow or singly in the fields1 good1 strong1 well-rooted specimens should always be used--indeed1 it is well when a home nursery is on the estate to have these specially prepared1 by frequent transplantings for a few years previous to their final planting out4 ,the nursery management will require both care and experience1 so that trees with strong1 fibrous roots equally distributed around the stem may be produced2 lanky1 ill-grown1 and ill-rooted plants having but a poor chance of succeeding under the circumstances4 ,from #aj ft4 to #ad ft4 will be found the most suitable size for the purpose under consideration4 ,the pits for their reception should be opened of sufficient size to admit the roots without cramping or bending1 the bottom and sides being made loose and free with a pick--it will be all the better if the pits have been opened for some time previously to planting1 the winter frosts having a beneficial effect in clearing and pulverizing the soil4 ,this is1 however1 seldom convenient1 as1 if in the field1 they become filled in1 and trampled on by cattle1 while gaps in the fences occasioned by these cannot well remain open for any length of time4 ,the better plan--at least1 we have found it so--is to open the pits1 plant the trees1 and have these fenced in on the same day1 as by this method no part of the work has ever to be done a second time1 everything being finished up as the work proceeds4 ,in planting1 be careful to spread the roots out in an even manner around the stem1 as1 by so doing1 the tree is not only more firmly fixed in the ground1 but is enabled to collect food from all quarters4 ,fencing should follow up at once the work of planting1 as1 if the young trees are allowed to remain unprotected for any length of time1 they get injured by the farm stock4 ,the fences may be of any desired kind1 but1 as they are only required for a few years1 a simple erection made of small larch poles about #h ft4 long1 driven firmly into the ground in a circle around the tree1 say1 #ah in4 from the stem1 and made fast to hoops of wood at top1 and half-way up1 will be found sufficient4 ,wooden erections are1 perhaps1 preferable to those made of iron for fencing hedgerow trees1 as they seldom require renewing1 for by the time the fence has decayed the trees will1 in most cases1 be out of harm's way4 ,for shelter and shade clumps in fields probably the best trees to use are the oak and sycamore1 the value of timber produced being also a valuable asset4 ,pruning and ,after-,management4--,for at least the first ten years after planting1 careful and regular pruning of hedgerow and field timber should in all cases be attended to1 bearing in mind that timely attention in this way will alone obviate the necessity for heavy prunings at any future stage of the tree's growth4 ,early and judicious pruning is necessary to the trees in question2 for it is well known that if branches are allowed to ramify at will1 greater injury to the underlying herbage must be committed than where timely pruning and shortening of all straggling branches has been attended to4 ,early summer pruning1 say1 in the month of ,june1 is to be recommended1 as at that time1 owing to the active circulation of the sap1 the wounds heal up much more quickly than when the operation is performed at any other season of the year4 ,the pruning should be performed by a person who is thoroughly conversant with the work1 haphazard cutting and hewing1 by an inexperienced hand1 and at any season1 being injurious4 ,if the young trees have been well attended to in the matter of pruning whilst in the nursery border1 little or no attention will afterwards be required--at least for a number of years4 ,the main object in pruning both hedgerow and field trees is to develop a valuable main stem which is only to diverge into branches at a given height from the ground1 and to prevent the overgrowth of straggling branches farther up1 so as to maintain a symmetrical and rather fastigiate head4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,ornamental ,,planting ,as the beauty and picturesqueness of an estate are so dependent on the disposition of its single trees1 groups and plantations1 the forester should never lose sight of the fact1 even when dealing with plantations that are mainly intended for the value of the timber produced4 ,in ornamental planting one of the principal things to bear in mind is to allow sufficient space for each of the permanent standards to develop its true and natural character4 ,instead1 therefore1 of planting indiscriminately and in a sort of haphazard way1 have a fixed idea1 and only plant on a regular and well-matured plan4 ,should the individual standards be considered stiff or unsightly for the first few years1 a good plan is to fill up the spaces between them with small-growing trees and shrubs1 these being removed subsequently as necessity demands1 but always before damage to the permanent specimens has been brought about by too close contact4 ,the habit of the tree or shrub1 and the size to which it will ultimately attain are points that should never be lost sight of in ornamental planting4 ,far too often the mistake is made of planting specimen trees too near roads and buildings1 or1 quite as bad1 too close to each other4 ,this is a most unfortunate mistake1 as it sooner or later necessitates the sacrifice of specimens when their full beauty is probably developed1 or when they can least be spared4 ,in the case of both hard-wooded and coniferous1 the latter in particular1 the trees are planted when young and small1 and ample room is supposed to be given to them2 but1 as they grow up and near perfect development1 the spread of branches soon points out that a great mistake has been made in the space of ground allotted1 and that the ultimate size to which the particular specimen would attain had never1 at the time of planting1 been duly considered4 ,there is little left then to be done but either to put up with crowded and ill-formed specimens1 or to attempt their removal to more suitable quarters4 ,the latter1 in the case of trees that have been left undisturbed for many years1 and when tap and side roots have been sent down to a great depth for safe anchorage1 is quite out of the question1 the only remaining way out of the evil being to sacrifice the specimen by having it stubbed out and removed4 ,in any case1 in the event of one tree encroaching too closely on another1 no time should be lost in deciding which is to be removed1 for1 if they crowd into and interfere with each other1 the branches on that side will get thin and die off1 and the tree will thus lose the uniformity of appearance on which its whole beauty depends4 ,should crowding of specimen trees be permitted for even a few years1 partial disfiguration of the trees will have been brought about1 and it will take years of careful management to restore them to their original beauty4 ,in order to plant with any degree of certainty as to future results1 it is absolutely necessary to become first of all well acquainted with the nature and habit of every tree planted1 as also the properties and peculiarities of the various soils1 and aspect and position of the ground to be planted4 ,probably no other branch of forestry requires sound judgment and correct ideas to such an extent as the laying out of parks and grounds1 or1 in other words1 landscape and ornamental planting--and this knowledge can only be attained by perseverance1 investigation1 and study4 ,in selecting sites for the various trees1 it will be well to bear in mind that certain species are better suited than others for planting in exposed places1 for using in particular soils1 and for inserting in either dry or damp ground4 ,by the lake or pond side the ,deciduous ,cypress 7,taxodium distichum71 the ,bhoton ,pine 7,pinus excelsa71 the beautiful cut-leaved ,imperial ,alder 7,alnus glutinosa imperialis71 the ,golden and ,purple ,willows may all be planted with the best chances of success2 whereas none of these would thrive well on dry or sandy soils4 ,should chalk or calcareous soil crop up1 we have good subjects in the ,fern-leaved ,beech 7,fagus sylvatica asplenifolia71 the ,cephalonian and ,spanish ,silver ,firs 7,abies cephalonica and ,a4 ,pinsapo7 and many of the ,pyrus family2 while1 where only a small quantity of loam overlies the gravel1 the ,scotch and ,cluster ,pines 7,pinus sylvestris and ,p4 ,pinaster71 the pretty and far from common ,manna ,ash 7,fraxinus ,ornus71 and many others may be successfully planted4 ,in good1 rich soil1 and where the position is fairly sheltered1 there are no end of ornamental trees1 both hard-wooded and coniferous1 that may be planted4 ,some of the ,magnolias1 but particularly ,magnolia stellata1 ,m4 acuminata1 and ,m4 ,umbrella should find a place1 while the ,juneberry 7,amelanchier canadensis71 the ,cornelian ,cherry 7,cornus ,mas71 and various ,thorns should not be neglected4 ,in exposed places plant clumps of the ,corsican and ,austrian ,pines 7,pinus laricio and ,p4 austriaca71 following up with the hardy ,spruces and ,cypresses4 ,such dainty conifers as the ,japanese ,cryptomeria 7,c4 japonica71 the ,elegant ,cryptomeria 7,c4 elegans71 ,fitzroya patagonica1 ,prince ,albert's ,fir 7,tsuga ,mertensiana17 and ,umbrella ,pine 7,sciadopitys verticillata7 must have cosy corners and good soil to show their beauty to perfection4 ,pitting and ,planting4--,the pits for the reception of ornamental trees should be well formed3 that is to say1 should be made of sufficiently large size for the specimens to be planted--indeed1 it is always preferable to dig out pits of a greater size than are required1 thus allowing of a quantity of broken-up soil being placed beneath and around the roots4 ,in any case1 have the bottom and side of each pit thoroughly broken up1 and should the soil be found to be of inferior quality1 it is best to substitute that of a more desirable kind such as is known to be suitable for the wants of the particular specimen4 ,in removing large specimen trees great care should be exercised--first1 that the roots are uninjured1 or if at all1 in a very small degree2 second1 that a good ball of earth is attached2 and1 third1 that replanting is delayed as short a time as possible4 ,have the pit1 for the reception of the tree1 dug out and prepared before the specimen is lifted4 ,lift carefully by undermining the roots1 and digging out a deep trench at a reasonable distance from the stems1 the distance from the stem to be regulated by the root spread1 size of the specimen1 etc4 ,in order to avoid falling apart1 the ball of earth should be bound with a strong mat or tarpaulin1 the ends being made fast around the stem4 ,a stout low-wheeled truck has been found a most convenient appliance for removing the specimen2 but in the case of large and heavy trees the common timber wheels1 or janker1 may be found of great service4 ,the truck to which we refer should be specially made1 and should be of the following dimensions3 length1 #e ft42 width1 #c ft42 on wheels #a ft4 #c in4 in diameter1 these being placed so as to be below the level of the body1 thus avoiding contact with the load when that is either longer or broader than the specified dimensions4 ,the framework should be of stout oak1 and the bottom #c in4 thick boarding4 ,the timber wheels1 or janker1 being an adjunct of forest appliances1 is always at hand1 and does away with the necessity of procuring any of the elaborate and costly carriages usually recommended for transplanting large trees and shrubs4 ,the tree being placed in the pit opened for its reception1 the roots should be spread out and the soil replaced and trampled firmly1 and afterwards well watered4 ,staking the ,trees4--,next to careful planting and watering a matter of the most vital importance--but one that1 unfortunately1 is too often lost sight of--is the efficient staking or otherwise securing of large transplanted trees4 ,the great strain and consequent damage to the roots of large transplants when allowed to rock about with every gust of wind is not only highly injurious1 but1 viewing the matter from a point of neatness1 few things in forestry have a more unsightly or neglected appearance than trees almost blown over by the wind4 ,various are the methods usually adopted in staking and tying newly-transplanted trees4 ,as no hard and fast lines can be laid down1 as a rule1 the size of the trees and the exposure of the positions in which they are planted must determine the method of procedure to be adopted4 ,it may be that when growing in a low-lying1 sheltered valley1 trees of even #h or #aj ft4 in height may be perfectly safe without stake or tie of any kind1 whereas others of similar or even smaller size1 growing in an open position and exposed to the prevailing winds of the district1 will require a mooring of the most secure description1 and adjusted in the most efficient manner4 ,for trees and shrubs up to #f ft4 in height1 a strong1 sharp-pointed stake should be driven firmly into the ground1 within about #i in4 of the main stem1 and on the most exposed side4 ,the stake should be fully #g ft4 long1 and driven1 not perpendicularly1 but with the head slightly inclined from the tree1 and in the direction from which the prevailing winds usually blow4 ,a strong ligature of some kind1 such as tarred rope or thick matting1 is then placed round the stem of the tree requiring support1 at about #d ft4 from the ground1 and made fast to the stake at a similar height4 ,by crossing the tie between the tree and stake1 a more efficient job results1 as there is then less room for the tree to work in when rocking with the wind4 ,it will thus be seen that the nearer to the stem of the tree the stake is placed1 the greater will be the power of resistance4 ,when the trees and shrubs are from #h ft4 in height and upwards1 but especially in the case of evergreen species1 stronger moorings than those just described will have to be employed1 and the following plan we have found suitable for almost any emergency4 ,a strong band of leather1 or several strands of tarred rope1 are placed loosely around the stem of the tree to be staked1 and at1 say1 three-quarters of its height4 ,three wires--ordinary fencing wire does well--are then joined to this collar1 two on the most exposed side and one on the other1 and made fast to stout stakes driven firmly into the ground1 at a distance from the main stem proportionate to the tree's height4 ,in the case of very large trees1 or those that have been reinstated from a fallen position1 double wires are used in a manner similar to that just described1 the collar1 however1 being unusually strong4 ,the advantages of double wires are extra strength1 and the fact that they admit of being twisted at any time to the tightness required4 ,the above may be considered the two principal ways of staking large transplants1 but occasionally cases will crop up in which it may be necessary to resort to other methods1 but such are peculiar cases1 and must be dealt with in a peculiar manner4 ,,cut-,,leaved1 ,,weeping ,,and ,,fastigiate ,,trees ,these have their own place in landscape gardening1 and when placed in the hands of a skilful planter are capable of producing the most beautiful and pleasing effects4 ,the majority are graceful in outline1 distinct and impressive in appearance2 in fact1 possess all those qualities which render them specially valuable for the embellishment of park or garden4 ,great care is1 however1 necessary in planting these trees1 for if not used with the greatest discretion1 the good effects they are so capable of producing in the hands of a trained planter are destroyed4 ,weeping ,trees4--,both picturesque and beautiful is a well-developed specimen of the ,weeping ,beech1 and particularly so when associated with trees of a light and airy appearance1 for the general character of the tree is somewhat massive and lumpy4 ,being of large growth1 the ,weeping ,beech wants plenty of room for development4 ,there is also a desirable weeping form of the purple ,beech4 ,the ,kilmarnock ,weeping ,willow 7,salix caprea pendula7 is one of the most popular and widely cultivated of weeping trees4 ,it originated near ,ayr1 in ,scotland1 and was so named to distinguish it from two other well-known varieties1 the common ,weeping ,willow and the ,american ,weeping ,willow--two desirable forms for waterside planting4 ,in the ,american ,fountain ,willow we have another excellent weeping tree1 while the ringed-leaved ,willow 7,s4 ,babylonica annularis or crispa7 is one of the most curious and picturesque of the whole group4 ,amongst the ,birches are at least two desirable weeping forms in the cut-leaved 7,betula pendula ,youngi71 ,young's weeping ,birch1 and the weeping white ,birch 7,b4 alba pendula71 both of which are admirably adapted for lawns1 even where space is restricted4 ,the ,birch will thrive on poor1 light soil1 and is1 therefore1 peculiarly suitable for planting in gravelly or rocky formations4 ,the distinct habit of the ,weeping ,mountain ,ash1 or ,rowan tree1 has made it a favourite in the embellishment of small grounds1 and the wealth of conspicuous fruit produces a telling effect1 especially if the tree is backed up by darker foliaged trees or shrubs4 ,there are other forms of ,pyrus well worthy of attention1 such as the pendulous ,siberian ,crab 7,p4 prunifolia pendula7 and ,salicifolia pendula1 the latter in particular being a distinct and graceful small-growing tree4 ,the ,weeping ,mulberry 7,morus alba pendula7 is occasionally seen in good form when it is a desirable acquisition1 so is the ,weeping ,laburnum 7,l4 vulgare pendulum7 and the curious and scarce ,gleditschia triacanthos excelsa pendula4 ,in the silver-leaved ,weeping ,holly we have one of the best of evergreens for confined situations2 and ,cornus florida pendula is a strikingly beautiful tree in which the weeping habit is decidedly pronounced4 ,among ,weeping ,elms some varieties are most pronounced1 but there are several others all equally worthy of culture4 ,of the ,english ,elm1 probably the best is ,ulmus campestris ,petersii pendula1 while of the ,mountain or ,scotch1 that known as ,u4 montana pendula is the most desirable4 ,weeping thorns are by no means common1 but they are probably the most natural and graceful of all drooping trees of modern growth4 ,in the flower garden at ,regent's ,park is growing a beautiful specimen of this tree4 ,perhaps the most common of weeping trees is the ,weeping ,ash 7,fraxinus excelsior pendula71 and its strong1 vigorous growth causes it to be employed where others would not succeed4 ,even in smoky localities it is quite at home1 as many fine old trees throughout ,london clearly prove that the deleterious effects of an impure atmosphere have but little effect on its hardy constitution4 ,it is one of the best of weeping trees for forming an arbour1 and as a distinctly ornamental specimen for the park or large lawn it has few equals4 ,amongst coniferous trees we have several distinct and beautiful pendulous trees or shrubs1 such as ,abies excelsa inverta and the well-known and much appreciated ,a4 ,smithian or morinda4 ,the pendulous ,hemlock spruce 7,a4 ,canadensis pendula7 is one of the prettiest and most natural in appearance of all weeping trees4 ,there are several distinct and beautiful forms of the ,cypress1 particularly ,c4 ,lawsoniana gracilis pendula and ,c4 ,lawsoniana alba pendula4 ,the ,weeping ,chinese ,juniper 7,juniperus ,chinensis pendula7 and ,virginiana pendula are well worthy of attention where this particular class of trees or shrubs is in request4 ,than the weeping form of the common ,larch1 perhaps no tree is more beautiful1 the feathery pea-green foliage being distinct from that of every other tree4 ,cut-leaved ,trees4--,of the ,maples we have several cut-leaved forms1 such as the beautiful ,acer palmatum laciniatum and dissectum1 while of the ,norway ,maple1 the variety known as ,platanoides dissectum is particularly valuable on account of the freely divided and beautifully coloured leaves4 ,in the cut-leaved ,birch 7,betula alba laciniatum pendula71 we have at once one of the most graceful and distinct of hardy trees4 ,not only are the leaves cut up and divided1 but the weeping sprays of foliage1 owing to the fine1 whipcord-like branchlets1 produce a most beautiful and graceful effect4 ,in addition1 this ,birch is a tree of neat1 clean growth1 and will succeed in a satisfactory way even on poor gravelly soils and upland situations4 ,amongst the ,beam trees 7,pyrus7 we find several good cut-leaved forms1 such as pinnatifida and salicifolia1 both highly desirable medium-sized trees and valuable for woodland margins or steep1 undulating grounds4 ,numerous forms of the ,oak have appeared with incised leaves1 such as ,quercus dentata and the fern-leaved variety of the ,turkey ,oak 7,quercus ,cerris asplenifolia71 a decidedly beautiful and worthy form4 ,of the ,english ,oak 7,q4 ,robur7 we have at least two good cut-leaved forms in ,pedunculata asplenifolia and pectinata4 ,there are other varieties of the ,oak in which the foliage differs considerably from that of the species in being much more freely divided4 ,rhus glabra laciniata has become widely known of late years on account of its neatly divided foliage and as being a good town shrub4 ,the leaves are of a delicate pea-green and the flowers inconspicuous and succeeded by feathery lawns4 ,the common ,alder has at least two forms that are much sought after for dampish ground by the pond or lake side1 in ,alnus glutinosa laciniata and its well-marked and distinct variety imperialis4 ,both attain to a goodly size1 and when suitably placed where the abundant1 rich green1 deeply divided leaves can be readily seen1 are distinctly valuable for contrast and waterside effect4 ,the incised or cut-leaved ,hornbeam 7,carpinus ,betulus incisa7 is rarely seen1 but it is of so distinct a type that its inclusion in this list is considered desirable4 ,in this case the almost entire beech-like leaf is finely divided and the whole tree presents a comparatively light and airy appearance4 ,of the common ,hawthorn there is a specially elegant cut-leaved form in that named laciniata1 but its distinctive characteristics are best revealed when planted in conjunction with the species4 ,several of the ,vine family are rendered highly ornamental for covering walls and pergolas by reason of their beautifully coloured and divided leaves4 ,vitis heterophylla dissecta is one of the best in this way1 but others of the less-incised forms are well worthy of attention4 ,v4 vinifera purpurea has much to recommend it as an ornamental-leaved variety1 and is specially suitable for covering mounds of earth1 stones or tree stumps4 ,we must not omit to include the cut or fern-leaved variety of the ,lime 7,tilia platyphillos laciniata71 which for neat habit of growth and distinct character from the species merits special attention4 ,the cut-leaved ,japan ,maples are exceedingly beautiful1 but their slow growth and difficult propagation will always be against extensive planting1 and render them rare and expensive4 ,other interesting cut-leaved trees are the willow-leaved ,ash1 laurel-leaved ,willow1 scarlet ,oak1 ,maidenhair tree1 and that most beautiful of all1 the fern-leaved form of the golden ,elder4 ,though somewhat stiff of outline the cut-leaved ,horse ,chestnut 7sculus71 in the form known as laciniatum1 is not to be despised1 and affords a striking contrast to the species4 ,the fern-leaved ,beech 7,fagus sylvatica asplenifolia7 is probably the most commonly distributed of cut-leaved trees1 and rightly so1 for it is certainly one of the most beautiful and distinct of the type4 ,f4 sylvatica quercifolia1 the ,oak-leaved1 is also worthy of attention1 but cannot compare with the former in point of beauty4 ,even of the common ,walnut 7,juglans ,regia7 there is a cut-leaved variety1 which is distinct and worthy of culture as an ornamental tree4 ,it is named laciniata and is fairly common4 ,of the numerous varieties of the ,sweet or ,spanish ,chestnut1 the most desirable is that which bears the rather cumbrous name of ,castanea vesca heterophylla dissecta4 ,it is one of the most beautiful of hardy trees1 in which the long1 narrow leaves of the upper parts of the branches droop in a graceful manner and render it so much sought after in ornamental gardening4 ,fastigiate ,trees4--,the ,lombardy ,poplar 7,populus fastigiata7 is at once one of the most conspicuous and picturesque of tapering trees4 ,though it can hardly be described as a beautiful tree1 yet for landscape effect the tall1 spiry1 column-like appearance renders the ,lombardy ,poplar of particular value for certain well-chosen positions in our parks and grounds4 ,in the neighbourhood of a town or country village it produces an effect almost akin to architectural embellishment1 while in flat or low-lying districts1 and particularly near water1 it is most at home and probably looks best4 ,it also associates kindly with old ruins and has a pleasing effect when rising out of pointed-headed ,cypresses or ,yews1 but in all cases it is a tree that should be used sparingly and with extreme caution4 ,forming avenues or lines of the tree is not good taste1 while planting single specimens in open situations should be avoided4 ,of the ,poplars there are several upright-growing varieties in addition to the ,lombardy1 such as the beautiful ,p4 alba ,bolleana1 a desirable fast-growing tree with a character of its own4 ,the ,oak1 too1 has its decidedly upright form in ,quercus pedunculata fastigiata1 which in old parks is a fairly common tree4 ,a decidedly beautiful small-growing tree is the upright form of the dwarf ,acacia 7,robinia ,pseudo-acacia inermis fastigiata7 which for confined spaces and wealth of delightful pea-green foliage is a valuable small-growing variety4 ,the ,elms are not wanting in upright-growing forms1 both the ,english and ,scotch being represented1 the former in ,dampieri aurea1 and the latter in ,montana fastigiata4 ,a beautiful and distinct tree of upright habit will be found in the fastigiate variety of the ,tulip tree 7,liriodendron tulipifera fastigiata74 ,cupressus sempervirens1 in many parts of ,england1 but particularly by the coast1 forms a beautiful tapering evergreen tree with the darkest-green foliage4 ,for clump planting it is particularly desirable1 but it is not quite hardy in some parts of the country4 ,another coniferous tree of naturally erect growth is the red or ,virginian ,cedar 7,juniperus ,virginiana71 which in sheltered sites is a most desirable member of the family4 ,two other ,junipers are of decidedly strict growth1 ,j4 drupacea and ,j4 thurifera4 ,the ,irish ,juniper 7,juniperus hibernica7 originated in ,ireland1 most probably as a chance seedling4 ,it is a most desirable shrub1 and on account of its singular habit of growing in a compact1 slender and graceful column1 has proved itself a most valuable evergreen for almost any position1 but particularly where geometrical gardening is carried out4 ,the silvery glaucous hue of the thickly produced foliage is extremely beautiful4 ,the nearly allied but much smaller growing ,j4 hibernica compressa forms a compact slender pyramid of bright-tinted foliage and is an excellent plant for rockwork or small gardens4 ,amongst the ,cypresses are several upright-growing forms1 probably the best1 and certainly the most widely distributed1 being ,lawson's erect ,cypress 7,cupressus ,lawsoniana erecta viridis71 of dense1 erect habit and with vivid green foliage4 ,cupressus macrocorpa lutea1 raised by ,messrs4 ,dicksons1 of ,chester1 has a decidedly neat and upright habit of growth1 while the distinct golden tint of the foliage renders it a desirable acquisition for ornamental planting4 ,than the ,irish ,yew 7,taxus baccata fastigiata7 with its dark sombre foliage and neat columnar outline1 few evergreens are more conspicuous and effective4 ,this favourite and far-distributed variety originated at ,florence ,court1 in ,ireland1 a century and a quarter ago4 ,cupressus macrocarpa fastigiata is a well-marked variety in which the branches closely press to the main stem4 ,the foliage is of the brightest green1 and the long whip-cord-like shoots with the conspicuous reddish back1 impart a peculiar grace to healthy specimens4 ,c4 torulosa1 for planting where space is confined1 is a decided acquisition1 the easy though columnar habit of growth1 slender branchlets and bright glaucous foliage being all points of recommendation4 ,the upright form of the ,birch 7,betula alba fastigiata7 has a peculiarity of habit that1 associated with the slender weeping shoots1 is highly ornamental2 while ,cornus stricta and the upright variety of our common ,hawthorn have both points of recommendation4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,trees ,,best ,,adapted ,,for ,,various ,,soils ,there is1 perhaps1 no soil so bad and barren that it may not be rendered either profitable or ornamental by judicious planting2 but1 as might be expected1 there is often a great want of knowledge as to the proper kind of trees to be chosen to suit a particular soil4 ,in looking over a large extent of woodland one will often be struck with the great disproportion in size of the individual trees of a species2 but it will generally be noticed that where the largest and healthiest occur the tree is usually growing upon its own soil1 and is found to be flourishing at the expense of all around it4 ,thus the finest oaks will be found where the soil is deep and loamy1 resting on clay2 beech1 and the ,austrian pine 7,pinus austriaca7 upon a calcareous gravel1 resting on a bed of chalk2 ash and elm on a dampish1 loamy gravel2 birch in a light1 black loam1 with a gravelly substratum2 ,spanish chestnut1 in a good loamy or gravelly soil1 not too damp2 the ,scotch and ,corsican pines 7,p4 sylvestris and ,p4 laricio7 at fairly high altitudes1 and in gravelly1 well-drained soils2 and the ,cluster and ,aleppo pines 7,p4 ,pinaster and ,p4 halepensis71 in almost pure sand on the sea-coast4 ,some trees grow rapidly for a few years in almost any soil1 but where the soil is unsuitable they generally show signs of distress after a time1 make little or no progress1 and ultimately become stunted and ill-grown4 ,should the soil be very unfavourable1 they die outright4 ,instances of this are1 unfortunately1 far too common wherever one travels over the country1 owing to trees of a kind that are utterly unfitted for the particular class of soil being planted in a haphazard kind of way1 without any consideration of their individual requirements4 ,for all practical purposes with reference to tree-culture1 soils1 generally speaking1 may be divided into six distinct classes--peaty1 chalky or limey1 gravelly1 clayey1 loamy1 and such as contain ironstone1 coal1 etc4 7#a7 ,peat4--,few trees will succeed well on an unreclaimed peat bog1 but1 where draining and soiling have been attended to at the outset1 the number that grow and produce a fair amount of valuable timber is almost without limit among our generally cultivated species4 ,among conifers that have proved themselves suitable for bog planting are the larch1 ,scotch pine1 and common and black spruces 7,picea excelsa and ,p4 nigra74 ,the larch grows rapidly1 and is less subject to disease on peaty than any other soil--indeed1 up to a few years ago1 ,i cannot remember having seen a trace of any of the diseases which have rendered the life of the tree so precarious of late years in this country4 ,in thinning a larch plantation of fully sixty years' growth ,i found the trees felled to be perfectly healthy1 and of exceptional quality1 with1 on an average1 #gb ft4 of wood in each4 ,the subsoil in this case was clay1 and the bog1 previous to being planted1 had been cut over for fuel4 ,the ,scotch pine grows almost as freely as the larch--the average in over fifty trees measured being about an eighth less--under similar conditions4 ,natural reproduction of the ,scotch pine goes on so rapidly that it must be considered one of the very best trees for planting on peat bog4 ,the spruces are excellent trees for planting on reclaimed peat bog1 where they produce a fair amount of timber and afford excellent shelter to other trees4 ,of hardwoods1 the beech is one of the best for bog planting1 as it grows rapidly and produces a large amount of clean timber4 ,the alder grows luxuriously on peaty soils1 and shows no traces of disease or canker4 ,another excellent bog tree is the ,gean or ,wild ,cherry1 and this may likewise be said of the holly4 ,ash and oak are not generally of large size1 nor are they always healthy on peat bog1 even when it has received a great amount of attention in the way of reclaiming4 ,birch1 lime and poplar of various kinds are all suited for planting on well-drained bog4 ,among coniferous trees1 a large number are well suited for planting in reclaimed peat bog4 ,by way of experiment ,i have planted specimens of various kinds in newly-formed plantations1 and in nearly every case the trees have grown well1 particularly when partially sheltered4 ,cupressus macrocarpa is one of the best1 and not one whit behind it are ,c4 ,lawsoniana and ,c4 goveniana4 ,wellingtonia gigantea and ,sequoia sempervirens have done well1 while ,pinus laricio and ,p4 austriaca grow freely4 ,i find that the majority of the recently introduced conifers do well on prepared peat bog--that is1 where a quantity of loam has been incorporated with the bog and all superfluous moisture drained away4 7#b7 ,chalky ,soils4--,the beech is peculiarly well suited for planting in chalk districts1 for it will grow and produce a large quantity of excellent timber where but a few inches of loam overlie the chalk4 ,it is a fact that1 in ,southern ,england particularly1 in order to find where the chalk beds lie1 one has only to be guided by the line traced out by the largest and most luxuriant beeches4 ,the beech will grow freely enough on almost pure chalk1 but it certainly flourishes best where loam1 say1 from #a ft4 to #c ft4 in depth1 overlies the chalk1 or is incorporated with it1 as on the ,chiltern ,hills4 ,the ,norway maple 7,acer platanoides7 revels in a chalky soil1 and so does ,a4 colchicum rubrum4 ,these are both handsome1 hardy1 large-growing trees1 and well suited for extensive forest-planting under certain conditions of soil4 ,white poplar 7,populus alba7 is an excellent tree for planting in chalky districts--indeed1 it is surprising to see to what an immense size it attains on almost pure chalk4 ,other poplars that do almost equally well on the chalk formation are ,p4 monilifera and ,p4 canadensis1 both excellent1 free-growing trees4 ,elms1 particularly the ,huntingdon and the ,american1 grow rapidly1 and attain to a large size1 where but a small quantity of loam is present in the chalk4 ,the wych elm grows freely in chalky districts1 and this may also be said of the common and silver-leaved lime4 ,false acacia 7,robinia ,pseud-acacia7 is an excellent tree for chalky soils1 and there attains to a greater size than in even the richest of loams4 ,the alder and birch also thrive with vigour on chalky soils4 ,indeed1 most trees which in a state of nature grow in damp or marshy soils1 are well suited for planting where chalk is the component of the main soil1 and this is explained as follows3--,chalk1 although sufficiently porous to allow water to percolate through it1 has1 like all other calcareous matter1 a strong attraction for water1 and acts like a sponge in holding it in considerable quantity for a very long time4 ,among the conifers that are suitable for chalky soils the ,spanish fir 7,abies ,pinsapo7 is one of the best4 ,in the chalky districts of ,southern ,england it thrives with unusual luxuriance4 ,the ,mount ,enos fir 7,abies cephalonica7 is1 likewise1 well adapted for growing in chalky districts4 ,of evergreen trees that succeed well on chalk the number is well known to be limited1 and it is important that two such beautiful conifers as the ,spanish and ,mount ,enos firs should there find their most congenial home4 ,both the ,scotch and ,weymouth pines 7,pinus sylvestris and ,p4 ,strobus7 are well suited for planting on chalk1 and many fine examples of both may be seen on the chalky reefs of ,kent and ,surrey4 ,the common ,yew grows freely where hardly a particle of soil overlies the chalk formation4 ,the ,giant ,arborvit 7,thuja gigantea7 is peculiarly suitable for planting in chalky soils3 and the ,lebanon ,cedar 7,cedrus ,libani7 is never found in greater perfection than when growing in the chalk with a fair depth of loam atop4 ,wellingtonia gigantea also does well4 7#c7 ,gravelly and ,sandy ,soils4--,the ,corsican pine is an excellent tree for planting on gravelly soils1 and some of the largest and finest specimens in this country are growing in a disused gravel-pit1 and this may also be said of the ,douglas fir 7,pseudothuga ,douglasii74 ,the ,scotch pine is well known to be one of the best conifers for planting in gravelly soils1 where it reproduces itself in great numbers1 when the conditions of growth are at all favourable4 ,pinus ,pinaster1 the cluster pine1 is1 perhaps1 one of the most valuable conifers for planting either in gravelly or sandy soils4 ,the great value of the tree in reclaiming sandy tracts1 both at home and abroad1 has been so often described that further reference here is not required4 ,the ,aleppo pine is a good companion to the ,pinaster1 and grows with great freedom in a sandy or gravelly soil1 within the influence of the sea4 ,gravelly soil also suits the ,weymouth pine1 on which it produces a fair quantity of very resinous timber4 ,both the beech and oak produce a large volume of timber on poor gravelly and sandy soils4 7#d7 ,clay ,soils4--,the soil here referred to is genuine clay1 devoid of stones1 and without a particle of sand or loam in it4 ,it occurred on the slopes1 and for some considerable distance along the sides of one of the park roads on an estate in ,england4 ,this is recorded simply to show what species of trees are best able to succeed when planted in pure clay4 ,the pits1 in this case1 it may be well to mention1 were dug and the soil thrown loosely up for a month previous to planting1 but no soil was added to the stiff clay4 ,nearly one hundred kinds of trees and shrubs were used1 but out of all these not more than eight are doing well1 the others having gradually died out1 or become so rusty and miserable looking that their removal was compulsory4 ,first among the trees that have succeeded is the giant arborvit 7,thuja gigantea71 which seems to revel in what is generally considered the most unkindly of soils4 ,cryptomeria japonica has also done well1 but the trees of this kind1 though bushy and well-furnished1 have grown at a comparatively slow rate4 ,cupressus macrocarpa also has done fairly well3 the growth certainly has not been rapid1 but for all that the general appearance of the trees is the reverse of what one might expect from the unfavourable nature of the soil4 ,the ,indian ,cedar 7,cedrus ,deodara7 we have found to be peculiarly well suited for planting in clayey soils1 the bright silvery tint that is so characteristic of this cedar when well grown being discernible in the clay-grown specimens4 ,pinus austriaca has1 in a few instances1 done well1 the foliage being ample and of the usual dark yew-green4 ,amongst shrubs the double-flowered gorse 7,ulex ,europus1 fl4 pl47 has done best of any--indeed1 it has grown and increased freely1 and would seem to be quite as much at home as in its natural element--a dry1 gravelly bank4 ,these may be considered as the trees that have succeeded best in stiff1 clayey soil4 ,few of the pine tribe did well1 and this may also be said of the spruces1 cypresses1 yews1 junipers1 arbutus1 dogwood1 cotoneaster1 hollies1 and others planted4 ,it is1 of course1 far from advisable to plant trees or shrubs in such unkindly soil without first adding other of better quality2 but it is of great value to know that there are a few trees and shrubs that will thrive almost in defiance of the stubborn and unkindly nature of a stiff clay soil4 7#e7 ,ironstone ,soils4--,the particular class of soil to which ,i refer1 and which in several districts occurs in plenty1 is on the coal and ironstone formation1 where the top soil is usually shallow1 and the subsoil consists of a loose1 yellowish rag that is largely impregnated with iron4 ,in most places but a very small quantity of soil exists1 and that is of the poorest description1 varying in depth according to the lie of the measure4 ,the ,spanish ,chestnut is one of the very best trees for this soil1 growing with freedom1 and producing a fair amount of good timber1 while its appearance indicates perfect health4 ,birch and beech do well1 although neither of them attains to a large size4 ,the latter reproduces itself freely from seeds1 and soon spreads wherever a footing can be got4 ,sycamore grows freely1 particularly where the pan is broken up1 and produces a small quantity of good timber4 ,another tree that seems perfectly at home on the coal and ironstone is the wild cherry1 for there it grows to a fair size1 flowers freely1 and produces excellent timber4 ,larch cannot be recommended for this soil1 but in places where a small quantity of loam overlies the coal and ironstone it grows with great freedom for a number of years1 and the timber1 if cut early1 is of good quality4 ,the common spruce soon dies out1 although it may grow freely enough for a number of years after being planted1 and wear a healthy appearance4 ,oak and ash do fairly well1 but they rarely attain to a large size or produce first-class timber4 ,rhododendrons almost revel in this soil1 and some of the largest and healthiest are growing with their roots in close contact with the coal and ironstone4 ,shrubs for ,hot and ,dry ,soils4--,the ,bladder ,senna 7,colutea arborescens7 is one of the most useful of shrubs for planting in poor1 hot1 dry soils1 and not only will it succeed and flower well in these1 but it is equally valuable for using where the air is chemically impure1 and for that reason has few equals for the town or city shrubbery4 ,c4 cruenta is also valuable in a similar way4 ,the ,sea ,purslane 7,atriplex halimus7 is another valuable shrub for planting in hot and dry situations as is ,caragana arborescens1 the native ,barberry 7,berberis vulgaris71 many forms of ,genista and ,cytisus1 ,spartium junceum1 and the double flowering ,gorse4 ,another excellent shrub is the ,box ,thorn or ,tea ,tree 7,lycium ,europum7 which is useful for covering an arid hot bank1 several species of ,cotoneaster1 particularly ,c4 horizontalis and ,c4 microphylla1 and the neat and curious ,muchlenbeckia complexa4 ,helianthemums also do well1 so does the ,venetian ,sumach 7,rhus cotinus71 and several varieties of bramble1 but especially the double pink flowering form4 ,the ,rest ,harrow 7,ononis arvensis71 a native shrubby plant of great floral beauty1 also does well2 while the little known ,celastris articulatus should not be neglected in hot and dry situations4 ,other good shrubs for hot dry banks are ,potentilla fruticosa1 the ,tamarisk and ,juniperus tamariscifolia4 ,concluding ,remarks4--,in conclusion1 it may be pointed out that it is only by a careful selection of soil that we may expect tree planting to be successful1 and ,i have no hesitation in saying that many failures can be clearly traced to errors of judgment in the selection of trees for planting on particular soils4 ,the subject is a wide and complicated one1 and it must be admitted that very perplexing diversities occur with the same kinds of trees on what1 to all appearance1 is the same class of soil4 ,there are1 of course1 other considerations beyond the soil itself which must be taken into account1 such as aspect1 elevation1 and whether the ground is inland or on the coast4 ,with reference to some of the newer conifers it must be admitted that soil and situation have a wonderful influence on their successful culture1 and this applies in particular to such kinds as are not perfectly hardy and liable to injury by unseasonable frost4 ,the too common practice of selecting warm and sheltered spots for such is1 in the main1 to be condemned4 ,it may be said that ,abies cephalonica and ,a4 ,pinsapo are not worth growing1 and in many places they are not1 but when planted on limestone or chalk they are highly ornamental4 ,the same holds good in the case of ,tsuga ,mertensiana1 ,picea ,sitchensis1 and ,p4 excelsa1 which are rarely seen in good form except on soil of a peaty description4 ,every one at all interested in trees and shrubs knows that there are certain kinds which in a state of ,nature are only found growing in a peaty soil1 mixed it may be more or less with sand1 and any attempt to cultivate them in other soils is productive of very unsatisfactory results4 ,who would ever think of planting the so-called ,american or peat plants1 ,cape ,heaths1 etc41 amongst gravel or chalk1 or ,rhododendrons where lime is present in the soil8 ,and these facts show us that there is something in the composition of certain soils only suitable for the requirements of a certain class of plants4 ,another curious fact is this1 that when growing on certain soils the timber of one species of tree is found to be far more durable than in others4 ,deep loamy soil and soft peat produce timber that is usually of a second-rate description1 being deficient in firmness4 ,by studying the geological strata of a district much useful information may be learnt regarding the trees best suited for planting4 ,the following alphabetical table will serve to show at a glance the trees that have been found best suited for planting in the class of soil under which they are enumerated3-- ,,reclaimed ,,peat ,,bog4 ,hardwoods4 ,alnus glutinosa ,populus alba ---- ---- imperialis ---- balsamifera ---- ---- laciniata ---- canadensis ,betula alba ,quercus ,robur1 and vars4 ,cerasus ,padus ,salix fragilis ---- vulgaris ,tilia europe ,fagus sylvatica ,ulmus alata ---- ---- purpurea ---- montana ,conifers4 ,abies concolor ,larix ,kmpferi ---- bracteata ,pinus austriaca ---- nobilis ---- excelsa ---- ,nordmanniana ---- laricio ,cedrus ,deodara ---- sylvestris ,cryptomeria japonica ,retinospora ericoides ,cupressus ,goveniana ---- plumosa ---- ,lawsoniana ---- ---- aurea ---- macrocarpa ,taxus baccata ,juniperus chinensis ,thuja gigantea ---- recurva ---- occidentalis ---- ,sabina ,thujopsis borealis ,larix europe ,wellingtonia gigantea ,,chalky ,,or ,,calcareous4 ,hardwoods4 ,acer colchicum rubrum ,cerasus ,padus ---- dasycarpum ,cratgus 7nearly all7 ---- ,negundo ,cytisus ,laburnum ---- platanoides ,fagus sylvatica ---- ,pseudo-platanus ---- ---- purpurea sculus ,hippocastanum ,fraxinus excelsior ---- rubicunda ---- ,ornus ,alnus glutinosa1 and vars4 ,gleditschia sinensis ,amelanchier ,botryapium ---- triacanthos ,amygdalus communis ,koelreuteria paniculata ,betula alba ,populus alba ,castanea vesca ---- balsamifera ,catalpa bignonioides ---- canadensis ,populus monilifera ,quercus ,turneri ---- tremula ,robinia ,pseud-acacia1 and vars4 ,pyrus ,aria ,salix alba ---- ,aucuparia ,tilia argentea ---- ,malus floribunda ---- europe ---- spectabilis ,ulmus alata ,quercus ,ilex ---- glabra ---- ,mirebecki ---- montana ---- rubra ,virgilia lutea ,conifers4 ,abies ,amabilis ,pinus austriaca ---- magnifica ---- ,cembra ---- nobilis ---- excelsa ---- ,nordmanniana ---- laricio ---- ,pinsapo ---- ,pinaster ---- ,webbiana ---- ,strobus ,cedrus atlantica ---- sylvestris ---- ,deodara ---- tuberculata ---- ,libani ,retinospora ericoides ,cupressus ,lawsoniana ---- filicoides ---- macrocarpa ---- plumosa ,juniperus chinensis ---- ---- aurea ---- communis ,salisburia adiantifolia ---- ,sabina ,taxus baccata1 and vars4 ---- ---- tamariscifolia ,thuja gigantea ,larix europe ---- ,lobbii ---- ,kmpferi ---- occidentalis ---- leptolepis ---- ,warreana ,picea excelsa ,thujopsis borealis ,,gravelly ,,and ,,sandy4 ,hardwoods4 ,alianthus glandulosa ,morus nigra ,alnus cordata ,platanus occidentalis ,betula alba ,populus ,bolleana ,carpinus betulus ,quercus ,robur1 and vars4 ,fagus sylvatica ---- suber ---- ---- purpurea ,robinia ,pseud-acacia ,fraxinus ,ornus ,sambucus nigra ,gleditschia horrida ,tilia europe ,ilex1 many vars4 ,ulmus alata ,juglans cinerea ---- campestris ---- nigra ---- montana ,magnolia acuminata ,virgilia lutea ,conifers4 ,juniperus communis ,pinus ,pinaster ---- ,sabina ---- pumilio ,pinus austriaca ---- sylvestris ---- halepensis ,taxus baccata ---- laricio ,thuja gigantea ,,clay4 ,carpinus betulus ,quercus ,ilex ,castanea vesca ---- pannonica ,cryptomeria elegans ---- ,robur ---- japonica ,thuja gigantea ,gleditschia triacanthos ---- ,lobbii ,,ironstone ,,and ,,coal4 ,acer ,pseudo-platanus ,larix europe ,betula alba ---- ---- pendula ,castanea vesca ,pinus ,cembra ,cerasus ,padus ---- ,montana ,cupressus ,lawsoniana ,quercus ,robur ,fraxinus excelsior ,thuja gigantea ,juniperus communis ,ulmus montana ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,transplanting ,,large ,,trees ,where immediate effect is required1 the transplanting of large trees and shrubs will be an operation of considerable importance1 and though it is fraught with both trouble and expense1 the results obtained have led to an increased adoption of the system during recent years4 ,there is hardly a limit to the size or weight of the tree to be removed when the operator is provided with suitable appliances1 and success has crowned the effort of several recent operations of this nature in our ,royal and other parks4 ,of late years several appliances for removing large and weighty trees and shrubs have been placed on the market2 amongst these one of the best is certainly that made and patented by ,messrs4 ,faulkners ,ltd4 ,its principal recommendations are simplicity of structure1 the ease with which it may be worked1 and lightness1 combined with such strength that even the weightiest tree can be removed4 ,but not only is this tree-lifter valuable where transplanting is being engaged in1 for in removing large tree roots1 logs of timber1 blocks of stone1 and heavy materials generally1 it has been found most useful4 ,the apparatus is made somewhat in the form of a four-wheeled lorry1 having a steel frame only4 ,the frame at the back is made movable to admit of the apparatus being placed so that the tree to be moved stands in the centre of the machine4 ,two stout planks with guide rails are laid across the trench1 and the machine is backed on to these4 ,the machine is constructed with four iron rollers1 lying along over the side frame and parallel with the frame4 ,around the rollers a chain is wound1 the loose end being fastened to the planking which has been placed under the ball of earth containing the roots of the tree4 ,the rollers are worked with a specially made screw-gear1 which is self-sustaining1 and can be moved to draw up or lower at will4 ,illustration3 ,,faulkner',s ,,transplanting ,,machine4 ,the illustration given clearly shows the apparatus with the tree being lifted for transportation4 ,barron's transplanting machine is also well known1 and with this much valuable work in the removal of large and heavy trees and shrubs has been accomplished4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,thinning ,,plantations ,in the successful rearing of timber trees for profit there is1 perhaps1 no other branch of more importance than a good knowledge of the art of thinning1 and1 at the same time1 one on which so great a diversity of opinion exists4 ,thinning plantations1 be they old or young1 must always be subject to great modification1 according to the nature of the trees and soil1 or ultimate design of the plantation being operated upon1 and is a matter requiring great tact1 forethought1 and discrimination1 and this can only be acquired by long experience and by those having a good insight into the peculiarities and properties of our forest trees4 ,the same rule as regards thinning will not apply to1 say1 fir1 hardwood1 and mixed plantations2 and far less will it hold good in the case of an ornamental and a profitable wood4 ,no universal rule can1 however1 be laid down for thinning1 but general principles can be given that will be sufficient for the guidance of those who have to undertake such work4 ,in thinning any plantation two important points are to be borne in mind--first1 cut away all diseased1 dead and dying trees2 second1 study the relationship of trees and soil1 and act accordingly4 ,to be more explicit1 we might say that in the first case1 the removal of all dead and dying trees is a necessity1 and that being done1 one can proceed with the disposal of the standards to be left4 ,in the second case1 by suiting the trees to the soil1 at least as far as possible1 great benefit results1 and an instance of this that came under our own observation lately will be given as an example4 ,a plantation #acj acres in extent was composed of oak1 larch and ,spanish chestnut1 placed at regular distances apart throughout the whole extent of the wood4 ,now1 the soil was gravelly for a considerable distance down1 and1 consequently1 fairly well suited for the chestnut1 but just the reverse for the larch1 which1 on such a soil1 generally becomes 8pumped10 or rotten at the core4 ,in thinning this particular plantation1 it would have been very unwise to cut away the chestnut and the oak and leave the larch1 and this had happened to some extent before the proper system of management and adaptability of soil to tree was thought of4 ,larch may look healthy enough1 and show but small indications of disease1 even when growing on gravel up to twenty or thirty years of age1 so that it is with difficulty that the inexperienced become aware of the pending doom that usually awaits this tree when planted on such a soil4 ,this example is merely given to point out how carefully thinning should be gone about1 and that in all cases it is a wise policy to study soil in relation to the future crop of timber before an axe is laid to the tree4 ,at the outset of these remarks on thinning plantations it should be distinctly borne in mind that there are two chief objects for which trees may be grown1 each requiring a special mode of management1 in order that the best results may be obtained4 ,the first is their management in a purely economical sense or with a view to profit2 the second1 their management with a view to ornament4 ,there is also a third object that is well worthy of consideration1 and that is the growing of timber in one and the same wood1 both for ornament and utility combined1 and this is very frequently the case with home woodlands that are visible from roads and drives1 with strips bounding parks or pleasure-grounds1 and on small properties4 ,to produce ornamental trees of natural appearance is by no means difficult1 as by allowing the individual specimens ample room for branch development1 the desired effect is gradually brought about4 ,far greater difficulty1 however1 attends the production of the greatest quantity of the most valuable trees on a given space of ground4 ,here many questions of the greatest moment1 on which difference of opinion exists1 crop up3 such as at what age thinning should be commenced1 to what extent should it be engaged in1 what time should elapse between each thinning1 and which trees should be removed4 ,illustration3 ,,felling ,,tools4 ,any one at all interested in the management of our woods and plantations must have noticed that trees having an abundance of room and light on all sides make comparatively short and thick trunks that are well furnished with branches2 whereas such as are grown up in a circumscribed space and amongst others are tall and straight1 with clean1 well-formed stems destitute of branches for the greater part of their height4 ,all species1 or nearly all1 are governed by the same laws1 that is to say1 those that have the least room laterally within certain prescribed limits1 which will be described hereafter1 produce the tallest1 cleanest and straightest trunks1 and vice versa4 ,the influence of light has not1 in this country at least1 been sufficiently taken into account in the rearing of timber1 but it has everything to do in directing the growth of trees1 and should be reckoned as a most important factor by the forester4 ,thus1 if it be allowed in excess1 as when the trees stand far apart1 the growth of lateral shoots and large branches will be greatly induced1 the result being short and thick boles1 that are rough and knotty1 and ill-adapted for constructive purposes4 ,on the other hand1 by keeping the trees thick on the ground1 light is1 to a greater or less extent1 excluded1 and the trees grow tall1 straight and branchless for the greater part of their height1 and are of the greatest economic value4 ,but here another and very important question crops up4 ,to what extent in a wood1 managed solely for the value of the timber it produces1 will it be profitable to thin8 ,in dealing with this1 two distinct bearings should be kept in mind--the first1 that too small a quantity of branches and consequently of leaves1 must1 to a greater or less extent1 check the growth of the trees1 and so diminish the production of timber2 and1 second1 that by having too large a quantity1 the value of the timber is greatly reduced in consequence1 and the number of trees to the acre much diminished as well4 ,there is1 therefore1 a medium between these two1 by adopting which1 the greatest quantity of the most valuable timber will be produced2 although1 at the same time1 it is astonishing1 when looked at from a physiological point of view1 what a small quantity of foliage is required to keep a plantation tree in a healthy1 growing condition1 and to produce a trunk of useful dimensions4 ,this may1 however1 be explained by the fact that the almost entire absence of large limbs and branches1 which in some cases would amount to one-fifth the total bulk of the tree1 renders the amount of sap1 and consequently of leaves1 required proportionately less1 the nutriment being mainly elaborated in the building of the trunk4 ,independent altogether of the forests of northern ,europe1 ,canada1 etc41 which have grown up naturally1 examples might be given in our own country--the native ,fir forests in the ,highlands of ,scotland1 the valuable ,beech woods on the ,chiltern ,hills1 and a few ,larch plantations in ,yorkshire and ,bedfordshire--where trees averaging #gj ft4 in height1 growing at from #d to #f yards apart1 and with only a tuft of foliage atop1 may be seen4 ,it is only1 however1 by long and careful study and attention to different trees at different stages of their growth that any idea can be formed of the amount of branches and foliage required for preparing the sap that will be necessary for the profitable yearly increase of the trunk until maturity is arrived at4 ,the questions now to be dealt with in growing timber for purely economical purposes are3 7#a7 ,at what age should thinning be commenced8 7#b7 ,to what extent should it be engaged in8 7#c7 ,what time should elapse between each thinning8 ,and 7#d7 ,which trees should be removed8 ,at the outset1 it may be well to mention1 that in so far as any of the above questions are concerned1 no hard and fast line can be laid down as to the universal management of plantations1 each tract of wood1 and even different parts of the same wood1 according to the particular species of tree1 quality of soil1 altitude1 and exposure1 being dealt with on its own peculiar footing4 ,many serious mistakes have been committed1 and irreparable damage done1 by treating every plantation alike and according to the rule-of-thumb method4 ,upon the manner in which thinning is performed1 much of the ultimate success of a plantation will depend1 and it is a matter requiring great tact1 forethought1 and discrimination1 which can only be acquired by long experience1 and an intimate knowledge of trees and their surroundings4 ,the quality as well as quantity of timber produced should be carefully considered in the management of every plantation4 ,in dealing with the following questions regarding thinning1 it may be well to state that the average plantation will alone form the basis of remarks4 #a4 ,at what age should thinning be commenced8--,the necessity of thinning1 few practical arboriculturists will care to deny1 and that whether the plantation be composed of coniferous or hard-wooded trees4 ,it is the abuse of the practice that1 in this country at least1 is so to be condemned1 and ,i entirely dissent from those who consider that a coniferous plantation should be left to ,nature1 or1 in other words1 should thin itself4 ,the argument that the natural forests of ,america1 the source from which we derive the finest and best quality of timber1 thinned themselves1 is often quoted2 but it should also be remembered that the conditions of such forests are widely different from those of our own1 and that the waste of timber is immense1 great quantities being destroyed in procuring what is required4 ,although1 however1 we cannot adopt all the details of ,nature's practice1 we can and we should admit the correctness of the principle on which she acts1 and by studying this we learn much1 and it is by acquiring a knowledge of her economy1 and where and when to apply assistance1 that the point of the whole argument rests4 ,natural regeneration1 unless it be in a limited number of cases1 and particularly with our least valuable classes of timber1 is never1 in this country1 likely to supersede artificial planting1 and it has been conclusively proved in the ,forest of ,dean1 that with our most valuable timber-producing tree1 the ,oak1 the latter system is most to be encouraged4 ,no thinning of young trees should take place until a complete ground shade has been established2 and it is most important for the welfare of the plantation1 that a complete overhead foliage covering be brought about at as early a date as possible after planting4 ,at what age this may take place will depend mainly on the size of the plants used and the distance apart at which they were inserted in the ground1 and to a lesser extent on the quality of soil and other considerations4 ,at a short period after a complete leaf canopy has been established1 the individual trees begin to press against each other1 and later on a struggle for existence commences1 the stronger specimens gaining the supremacy over the weaker4 ,here it must be borne in mind that hard-wooded trees require proportionately more room for their healthy development than coniferous kinds1 while length and clearness of stem1 produced by a due proportion of shade1 is an object of prime importance4 ,it might1 as some suppose1 do little harm1 to let the struggle for existence go on unchecked1 but there can be no question that for several reasons it is wise policy to allow the stronger trees every chance of succeeding1 and to cut away the weaker4 ,the object should be to provide for the trees left standing that amount of room or growing space best suited for bringing about the particular conditions aimed at1 and in thinning1 it must be the aim of the forester to arrive at the happy mean--neither over nor underdoing the work1 the former in particular4 ,but while overcrowding is not to be tolerated1 the danger of suddenly exposing the trees to currents of air1 to which they have hitherto been unaccustomed1 must be carefully guarded against1 and it should be distinctly borne in mind that to thin trees in an abrupt manner is one of the greatest mistakes that it is possible to make4 ,statistics compiled from a healthy ,larch plantation1 growing on fair soil1 and in a moderately sheltered position in southern ,england1 will now be given1 from which a good idea can be formed as to the age and size when thinning should be commenced4 ,the trees when planted were #b ft4 high1 and pitted at #c ft4 apart4 ,in four years the outer branches began to touch each other1 and in six years from time of planting the average height of trees was #g ft4 #aj in4 and the shade occasioned had killed out most of the grassy undergrowth4 ,at this period of growth1 the disproportion in the size of the trees was1 as is usually the case1 considerable1 and left no doubt about which to remove when the first thinning took place4 ,two years afterwards1 or in eight years from time of planting1 thinning was first engaged in1 the taller trees at that time averaging nearly #aa ft4 in height1 but many of the suppressed and weakly were little more than half that size4 ,another thinning took place during the twelfth year1 and in #aiaa the trees average #dj ft4 in height and were standing at a distance of #i ft4 apart4 ,the plantation referred to is on the ,earl of ,derby's property of ,holwood1 in ,kent4 #b4 ,to what extent should thinning be engaged in8--,in following up the latter case1 the tallest and healthiest trees were reserved2 all distorted1 sickly1 and stunted specimens being removed2 but in the case of two or more proportionately small trees growing in close proximity1 the most promising was left1 and the others cut away1 thus avoiding gaps in the plantation4 ,at the first thinning it will be found quite impossible to leave the trees anything like regular over the ground1 although this should be studied as much as possible1 and bare spaces are to be carefully guarded against4 ,with the vigorous growth of the trees1 and the interlacing of branches previous to the first thinning1 no great openings will require to be made1 and nothing more than will be canopied over during the next two years4 #c4 ,what time should elapse between each thinning8--,this can only be correctly decided after a careful inspection of the particular wood4 ,generally speaking1 after the first thinning1 when the trees were eight years old1 the lower branches gradually began to give way1 and as the trees increased in height1 this became more and more apparent1 and formed a good guide as to the time which should elapse before the second thinning might profitably be engaged in4 ,the intervals between the various thinnings should for the first thirty years in the case of ,larch--and1 indeed1 most other trees--be comparatively short1 but become longer with advance of age2 but heavy thinnings must be carefully avoided1 especially if the best class of coniferous timber is to be produced4 ,a well-managed ,larch plantation of twenty years' growth should have the trees branchless for about one-half of their height1 which is1 of course1 brought about by crowding1 and at forty years three-fourths of the trunk should be clear of branches4 ,i have purposely abstained from giving the number of feet apart at which trees ought to stand at various stages of their growth1 and the number of thinnings they require1 as being likely to prove misleading4 #d4 ,the question as to which trees should be removed need cause little or no anxiety1 as the dead1 dying1 diseased1 and badly-formed will naturally receive first attention4 ,in thinning1 the following short rules should be observed3-- #a4 ,thin not at all until the undergrowing vegetation has been completely killed out by the overhead foliage1 the golden rule of sylviculture being to keep the sunshine off the ground until near the end of the tree's career4 #b4 ,thinning should be performed in such a manner as not to reduce the value of the crop1 but so as to tend to the production of the greatest quantity of the most valuable timber in the shortest possible space of time4 #c4 ,by thinning allow of sufficient light and air to prevent the trees becoming drawn up and lanky1 but avoid too much space1 which induces the growth of side branches and detracts from the value of the timber4 #d4 ,keep up the number of trees to the highest possible pitch until they are tall1 straight and clean1 and thin gradually4 #e4 ,the danger of suddenly exposing the trees to currents of cold air to which they have hitherto been unaccustomed must be carefully guarded against and it is a serious mistake to thin in an abrupt or unequal manner4 #f4 ,in thinning remove all dead and dying trees first1 then the distorted and stunted1 the best grown and healthiest being preserved for the permanent crop4 #g4 ,hard-wooded trees require proportionately more space for development than conifers1 and the annual rings in the timber of the latter should be narrow in proportion to those of the former1 good quality of hard-wooded timber being indicated by broad annual rings1 but with coniferous wood the reverse is the case4 #h4 ,thinning should be commenced at the central or most sheltered point of a plantation1 or section of same1 so that the outer intact boundary may continue to form a barrier to cold winds1 which might prove injurious to trees that had hitherto stood in close order4 #i4 ,in economic forestry1 timber trees should be cut down when they have arrived at maturity or have ceased to grow4 ,with coniferous trees this generally occurs at from seventy to ninety years2 but with hardwoods1 excepting the ash and chestnut1 which are of most value1 say1 up to fifty years' growth1 the period may be greatly extended4 #aj4 ,thinning is usually performed in autumn and early winter1 but it may be well to remember that at the latter period the lowest percentage of moisture 7about #dg per cent47 is present1 and the timber consequently of the greatest value for constructive purposes4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,tree-,,pruning ,,in ,,economic ,,forestry ,where trees are grown for profit1 they will1 if properly managed1 prune themselves1 and where for ornament the natural outline is far better than any of the contortions and symmetrical shapes that have been recommended by various writers on the subject4 ,a broken or dead branch may be removed1 a rival leading shoot cut away1 or an ungainly or dangerous limb amputated1 but here all pruning should cease1 the practice being wholly wrong and unreasonable1 and without one recommendation to be adduced in its favour4 ,in an economic way the finest plantations of either coniferous or hard-wooded trees in this country are those where the individual specimens are growing so thickly together that the branches are killed outright for fully one-half of their height4 ,here the stems will be straight and clean1 and the timber when converted free from the knots and warping that are so characteristic either of standard specimens or such as have been grown too thinly on the ground4 ,every one knows that an ,oak growing alone or along the margins of a wood is in nine cases out of ten branched almost to the ground1 and the bole in consequence rough and ill-fitted for any particular constructive purpose1 and the same may be said of every other tree1 be it hard-wooded or coniferous4 ,larch and ,scotch ,fir trees growing along the margins of plantations are rough and knotty1 and sell at a considerably lower figure compared with those further in1 where the branches have been killed back gradually as the trees increased in size4 ,the same thing is markedly the case in young woods of ash1 oak and chestnut1 where they have been grown sufficiently thick on the ground to kill off the lower branches1 and also to cause the trees to rise straight1 clean and tapering4 ,it is a well-known fact1 too1 that the timber of trees so grown is far more elastic and realizes a much higher price than that of the same age grown under conditions where pruning might have been a necessity4 ,a case of this kind came under my own notice only a short time ago in which one-half of a plantation of hard-wooded trees realized fully one-fourth more than the remaining half4 ,it came about in this way4 ,both ends and a large patch in the centre of the wood had been thinned out severely for the purpose of planting game covert4 ,the trees1 standing thinly on the ground1 branched out and soon covered the open spaces where underwood had been planted4 ,in thinning the whole plantation the trees on these particular parts were very rough and knotty1 and bore no comparison to those where they had been left moderately thick on the ground1 in consequence of which the boles were straight1 clean and tapering4 ,this case is specially noteworthy1 inasmuch as the trees over the whole area were growing under exactly similar conditions as to soil1 shelter1 etc41 and were of the same age and species4 ,great and irreparable damage has been done to woods and plantations in this country by too heavy thinnings1 by commencing the thinnings at too early a period1 and by adopting the book method of leaving the trees at measured distances apart and a stated number to the acre according to the age of the plantation4 ,such rules can never be expected to work satisfactorily1 the size of trees depending so much on the character of the soil1 exposure of the woodland1 and other peculiarities of the particular district in which they are planted4 ,illustration3 ,,pruning ,,tools ,timely and judicious thinning should never be neglected1 but it is the over-thinning1 whereby branches and knotty trunks are produced and the supposed need for pruning follows1 that ,i wish to deprecate and entirely dissent from4 ,grow your timber trees so thickly on the ground that the stems are induced to become straight1 clean and branchless for the greater part of their height1 and on no account admit sufficient light and air to cause the lower branches to be retained intact1 or1 in other words1 at all times retain an unbroken leaf canopy4 ,the necessity for pruning will then be entirely done away with1 and a more valuable class of timber produced4 ,the losses sustained through injudicious planting and the unnecessary and ruinous practice of pruning have taught a lesson that is fraught with good for the tree planter of the future4 ,when ,pruning is ,admissible4--,there are a few cases1 however1 where pruning is quite justifiable1 and where the abuse of a system should furnish no argument against its legitimate use4 ,hedgerow and field timber1 for the sake of the live fences1 the grass1 or the grain crop in the vicinity1 may require attention in the way of judicious pruning4 ,again1 pruning is sometimes a necessity where standard trees are grown in conjunction with coppice wood1 as by shortening the lower branches the undergrowth in consequence becomes much improved4 ,in the case of town trees1 too1 where it is necessary to restrict the spread of branches1 pruning is resorted to1 as also with old and heavy-headed elms and other trees in our parks and public gardens4 ,pruning ,live ,branches4--,in and around ,london1 as well as many other large centres of industry1 the hacking and hewing--pruning we cannot call it--to which trees are subjected is barbarous in the extreme1 and calls for the strongest denunciation4 ,to annually prune and elbow in such noble forest trees as the lime and plane1 in order that the restricted growth may render them suitable for the cramped positions in which they have been unwisely planted1 is little short of vandalism4 ,the lime and plane1 perhaps1 suffer most in this way1 for as soon as they have overgrown the allotted space an annual system of pruning back the branches is resorted to1 the result being great mop-headed protuberances at the points where amputation took place1 which not only rob the tree of its graceful natural appearance1 but render it susceptible to disease and insect pests4 ,there is no need to specialize cases where this most objectionable system is carried out1 for a walk around our squares and gardens will unfortunately reveal how prevalent is the maltreatment of trees in the way of pruning4 ,there might be some excuse for planting our noblest forest trees in cramped and unsuitable positions were there no other species of smaller growth that would take their place1 but the ,pyrus1 ,cratgus1 dwarf ,acacia1 ,mulberry1 ,catalpa and ,sumach surely give us sufficient scope for choosing trees of restricted growth for confined positions and so do away with the barbarous system of pruning which the use of large-growing species necessitates4 ,illustration3 ,,bad ,,effects ,,of ,,pruning ,even in the case of dwarf avenues and screens it is quite unnecessary to use such large-growing trees as the lime and plane where pruning must oft be resorted to1 for an avenue or screen of thorn or mulberry1 the beam tree or mountain ash would be more suitable1 and in the end far more natural and artistic in appearance4 ,to sum up in a few words1 my contention is that no tree should be planted in a position where1 in order to keep it within due bounds1 a systematic clipping and pruning has to be resorted to4 ,pruning ,dead ,wood4--,opinions differ greatly as to whether or not dead branches should be removed from park and woodland trees4 ,it is1 however1 mainly a matter of taste1 and a point on which two of the largest owners of woodlands in this country hold distinctly opposite opinions1 though at the same time it cannot be denied that the careful removal of all dead and dying wood from a tree is highly beneficial4 ,pruning should1 however1 only be extended to such trees as are in a fairly healthy condition1 with well-developed heads1 and containing only a moderate quantity of dead wood1 there being many fine old specimens that would be rendered unsightly in the extreme and receive no benefit from removal of the dead and dying timber1 but this has direct reference to trees standing singly throughout the park1 and not to specimens in the woodland4 ,in many of our parks and woodlands at the present time there exists an undue quantity of dead and dying wood1 which may be attributed to natural decay1 the quality of the soil1 and in some instances to long-standing neglect in the matter of non-attention to wounds which have been caused by wind-broken limbs and branches4 ,such trees would be greatly improved1 both in health and appearance1 by judicious removal of the dead branches and attention to old wounds in order to prevent the ingress of water1 the decay of many branches being directly attributable to this cause4 ,that an undue quantity of dead wood will induce injurious insect pests1 such as the goat and wood leopard moths1 which attack healthy trees1 is well known1 and was exemplified in one of our ,london parks recently where numerous young thorns and various species of ,pyrus were injured by the latter4 ,in removing dead branches cut them well back into the living wood in order to induce fresh growth at the point where amputation takes place4 ,the removal of large dead limbs from old specimen trees is an operation that requires a great amount of skill1 and should only be entrusted to those who have had practical experience of pruning in its various phases4 ,as before stated1 the removal of dead wood is merely a matter of sentiment1 though of its practical utility there can be no doubt1 and in all cases where the stag-headed trees are conspicuous1 the removal of the dead wood is to be recommended4 ,pruning ,shrubs4--,generally speaking1 shrubs are pruned with little or no consideration as to whether they will be benefited by the operation4 ,while symmetry and regularity of outline are to be admired in a shrub1 these qualities should never be gained at the expense of natural grace and production of flowers4 ,the judicious pruner will1 therefore1 aim at preserving the peculiar habit of each shrub as far as possible1 while interfering but little with the production of flowers4 ,the various species of ,deutzia1 ,forsythia1 ,philadelphus and ,weigela flower on the wood of the previous year's growth2 therefore such shrubs should be pruned immediately after the flowering season--say in ,june1 but never in spring or winter--at least1 if the production of flowers is to be taken into account4 ,again1 the various species of ,syringa1 ,spira1 ,lonicera and ,hibiscus may safely be pruned during winter1 the flowers being produced on the young wood2 while ,hydrangea paniculata grandiflora must be severely pruned in early spring1 for only by so doing will the greatest wealth of flowers be produced4 ,chimonanthus fragrans should be pruned in ,february2 while the various species of ,ceanothus should not be touched till all danger of frost is past4 ,kerria japonica should be pruned in autumn1 when old wood may be cut away4 ,all pruning operations should be carefully carried out with a sharp knife and not with the pruning shears1 the point of amputation being always close to an eye or bud4 ,too severe pruning should be avoided1 a judicious thinning out of the branches being far preferable to indiscriminate shearing and cutting back4 ,how and when to ,prune4--,the latter part of ,may or beginning of ,june is undoubtedly the best season for pruning the majority of hard-wooded trees1 as during that time the motion of the sap is most vigorous1 and in consequence the wounds caused by amputation heal most quickly4 ,there are a few exceptions--the birch1 sycamore and maple--where1 on account of profuse bleeding1 pruning had best be postponed till after full foliage has been attained4 ,much mischief has been done by the pruning knife1 and still more by the handbill and saw when placed in the hands of inexperienced workmen--a fact that is apparent to any interested person who visits various parts of the country4 ,when conducted with care1 on sound principles1 the effect of pruning on the class of timber referred to is highly beneficial1 whereas1 when done in a haphazard way and by an inexperienced hand1 it is often attended with great danger and grave results4 ,in cutting or foreshortening small branches1 a sharp pocket-knife will be found most convenient1 but when large limbs have to be removed the pruning saw should be brought into request4 ,the branch to be removed1 especially if of large size and weighty1 should first be cut through at any convenient distance from the main stem1 thus preventing splitting and tearing of the bark1 after which the stump may be neatly sawn through as close to the bole of the tree as possible4 ,undercutting by a few draughts of the saw will here also go far in preventing tearing of the wood and bark4 ,so as to render the saw-cut smooth and prevent water lodging on the surface1 the face and edge should be neatly dressed with an adze or sharp pruning knife1 and then painted with tar4 ,when cutting over an upright-growing branch1 such as in pollarding trees1 etc41 never cut on the horizontal1 but always in a sloping direction1 so that the rain may pass off quickly4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,bracing ,,and ,,repairing ,,trees ,though occasionally resorted to in olden times1 particularly in the case of orchard trees1 it is only of late years that the systematic treatment of tree wounds and diseases has been generally adopted4 ,even at the present time1 the filling of hollow trunks1 bracing of heavy and diseased branches and attention to insect and fungoid pests are rarely engaged in and but imperfectly understood4 ,when the value of old trees in an ornamental or utilitarian sense is taken into account1 it is remarkable what a small amount of attention they receive when subjected to accident or disease4 ,as a general rule1 cavities or hollows in a tree stem1 if left to themselves1 gradually increase in size until the ascending sap is entirely cut off1 when the crumbling stem either falls to pieces or is broken over by the wind4 ,a branch requires to be braced or strengthened when from its weight and shape it is likely to get wrenched from the main stem during stormy weather and so injure the tree or man its natural beauty4 ,both insect and fungoid pests do a considerable amount of damage to trees1 both young and old1 but as special chapters are devoted to their depredations they need only receive a passing notice here4 ,hollow ,trunks and their ,treatment4--,however desirable it may be to repair hollow trunks1 yet a great deal of discrimination is necessary in deciding which trees should be operated upon1 especially in the case of such as are reduced to mere shells and are not likely to derive any benefit commensurate with the labour and cost of materials involved in bracing and filling4 ,young1 healthy1 vigorous growing trees1 that have become damaged or diseased1 should in the majority of instances be attended to2 but in the case of old specimens on which a great amount of labour and money would necessarily have to be expended1 several important bearings must be considered before works of repair are taken in hand4 ,historic and valuable trees1 those occupying prominent positions on a lawn or park1 town trees where vegetation is scarce1 and such as are not too old and fragile1 may be dealt with within certain bounds1 but to doctor all diseased and hollow trees on the most approved principle in such places as ,epping ,forest or ,burnham ,beeches would be highly imprudent1 whether in view of the little benefit which in many instances would accrue by so doing or of the great expense involved in such an operation4 ,the filling1 too1 must be adapted to circumstances1 and to deal with the entire trunk of a hollow tree is in most cases quite out of the question1 both from the point of utility and expense4 ,short-lived trees1 such as the ,alder1 ,birch and ,poplar1 or such as are liable to sudden attacks of insect and fungoid pests1 and those that are unfavourably situated in mining and chemical areas1 should be scantily dealt with1 but the practical woodman will see at a glance which trees are best worthy of his attention and treatment4 ,probably the simplest1 and certainly the cheapest method of dealing with diseased and hollow trunks is to clean out thoroughly all dead and decaying matter1 the interior being scraped and swept with a rough brush1 so that the loose rotting wood and bark is removed4 ,when quite dry1 the interior of the trunk should be painted with one1 or preferably with two coats of creosote or carbolineum1 and filled up with a composition of one part of ,portland cement to three of clean gravel and sand1 the surface coating at the orifice containing the largest quantity of cement4 ,a coat of coal tar on top of the dry creosote goes far in making the concrete adhere firmly to the wood4 ,when a fairly healthy tree is being operated upon1 and when the bark is likely to grow over the exposed surface1 the concrete should only be brought up on a level with the underside of the living bark2 in other words1 the cambium should be left free for expansion4 ,sometimes1 brickbats1 broken small1 are used instead of gravel1 but for various reasons concrete is preferable4 ,the concrete surface may be prevented from cracking by applying annually a coat of paint1 which1 for appearance sake1 may be of a similar colour to that of the bark of the tree4 ,in the case of a large tree in which the trunk is quite hollow1 usually with a basal and top opening1 the amount of cement required to fill the cavity precludes the possibility of it being employed on the score of economy1 but where the hollow only extends for a comparatively short distance upwards and inwards the composition is to be recommended4 ,when a large amount of material is required to fill a hollow stem1 clean bricks broken to about the size of a golf ball may be used1 but they must be packed firmly and the surface1 wherever it comes in contact with the weather1 glazed over with cement in order to effectually shut out dampness4 ,asphalt has of late years been employed in the filling of hollow stems1 and is to be recommended on account of its elasticity and lasting properties4 ,sometimes1 the interior of a large1 hollow tree stem is strengthened by crossbeams of timber1 any holes which extend to the outside being carefully covered with sheet lead or zinc so as to prevent the ingress of water4 ,a sheet of lead or zinc is1 however1 only a superficial remedy and should be dispensed with where filling the cavity is at all practicable4 ,lead1 in some cases1 is preferable to zinc for covering wounds in trees1 as it fits into position more readily and is easily fixed4 ,the treatment of hollow stems without filling the cavity is in certain instances quite permissible1 and can be carried out at a comparatively small cost4 ,broadly speaking1 this method consists in cleaning out all decayed and decaying matter1 painting the interior with carbolineum or tar1 and1 where possible1 bracing the trunk from the interior by means of stout crossbars of wood and covering surface holes with lead1 zinc or sheet copper4 ,when a tree trunk is hollow from top to bottom this method is to be recommended1 and stout struts placed within the cavity at various of the weaker points will go far towards preserving many an aged specimen4 ,when the cavity in a hollow stem is so large that a person can enter it1 the work of either filling with a suitable composition or supporting with wooden struts is greatly simplified4 ,recent experiments have proved the value of a mixture of sawdust and asphalt for filling cavities4 ,it is particularly valuable in cases where concrete is too rigid and unyielding1 such as in dealing with trunks and branches that are apt to be swayed about in stormy weather4 ,the materials are dry sawdust1 that of ,oak1 ,chestnut and ,beech being preferable1 and solid asphalt derived from the refining of petroleum1 which is at present in use for filling the interstices of street pavements in various parts of the metropolis4 ,for filling cavities in heavy1 swaying branches1 one part of asphalt to four of clean1 dry sawdust will form a mixture that is non-rigid and yields with the motion of the branch in which it is inserted4 ,in dealing with the trunk1 which is more rigid and less affected in stormy weather1 a larger quantity of sawdust should be used4 ,the filling is made by stirring dry sawdust into boiling asphalt until the desired consistency is reached1 and before the composition has cooled1 it should be inserted in the previously prepared cavity4 ,as in cement filling1 the preparation of cavities to be filled with sawdust and asphalt should be carefully attended to1 the decayed wood and all soft and rotten material being removed1 and the interior surface rendered sterile by an application of carbolineum or kerosene4 ,for wound dressings1 gas tar and liquid asphalt is to be recommended1 this combination forming a more continuous and elastic covering than is the case when tar or paint alone is used4 ,where the cavity is small and1 as is often the case1 filled with water and decayed and decaying vegetable matter1 the following course is recommended3--,when only a few inches deep1 the water can usually be got rid of by mopping it out with a sponge attached to a convenient handle1 but when the hole is too deep for this method the water may be extracted by tapping1 that is by boring a hole with an auger through the trunk to the bottom of the hole4 ,a half-inch auger will suffice1 and the correct spot to bore can usually be ascertained by measuring the depth of the hole4 ,after the water has been removed the cavity must be thoroughly cleared of all decaying tissue and accumulated vegetable matter1 and in order that this may be done effectually1 it may sometimes be necessary to enlarge the opening so that a suitable tool can be inserted4 ,when the cavity has become quite dry--a matter of considerable importance--it should be treated with creosote or carbolineum and afterwards filled with concrete in the proportion of one part of cement to four of clean gravel4 ,ram the concrete firm so that the cavity is perfectly filled1 and finish off at the orifice with pure cement in such a way that the cambium may be induced to form a growth over the edge of the filling4 ,a cheap but temporary method of dealing with small hollows and cavities in fruit and other trees1 is to fill these with a mixture of clay and cow-dung in the proportion of two of the former to one of the latter4 ,knead well and apply when in the consistency of putty1 cleaning and disinfecting the hollows before filling4 ,supporting ,heavy and ,diseased ,branches4--,a limb requires to be braced or strengthened when from its weight and shape it is likely to get wrenched from the main stem during stormy weather1 when the weight of the minor branches and foliage is too great for the strength of the limb1 when the wood of the tree is unusually brittle1 when trunk or limb is decayed1 and when1 from accident1 the tree has become one-sided and lost its natural appearance4 ,forked trees often require staying1 as also do such as have suddenly become exposed to storms to which they have hitherto been unaccustomed4 ,but probably in the matter of bracing and strengthening1 the most important of all trees are those in our public parks and such as are contiguous to or overshadow dwelling-houses4 ,park trees should receive special attention in the way of making sure that limbs are secure and not likely to cause injury to visitors2 while in the case of heavy branches hanging over dwelling-houses these should be carefully and periodically examined and made secure whenever it is found necessary4 ,should there be any doubt as to whether a limb is insecure and dangerous1 a decision should be made in favour of bracing or reducing the weight by pruning4 ,unwieldy and heavy limbs are most commonly to be found on isolated trees1 or such as have had plenty of room for the perfect development of stem and branch4 ,as the loss of one or more of the larger branches often mars the ornamental appearance of a specimen tree1 every reasonable means should be employed to prevent such a disfigurement4 ,by reducing the weight of a branch by pruning1 or by giving support to any that are heavy and diseased by means of wires1 chains or light iron bands and connecting-rods1 the trouble may be averted4 ,in all cases the object should be to unite the branches in such a way that they may offer the greatest amount of resistance to the storm1 and at the same time be neither conspicuous nor clumsy in appearance owing to the operation4 ,chains1 though often used1 probably owing to their being readily obtainable and cheap1 are for various reasons to be avoided1 the flat iron band lined with leather or rubber being preferable1 more readily adjusted1 and less likely to cut into the bark and wood4 ,the bands1 which can be made by any blacksmith1 are usually #b in4 wide1 and of the shape of the branch to be encircled1 each being in two parts to facilitate fixing and to allow of slackening at any future time should the necessity arise4 ,the band is made of a larger size than the branch to be encircled1 so as to allow of the insertion of a leather or rubber collar between it and the wood1 the purpose of the packing being to prevent undue friction and chafing of the bark owing to the movement of the tree4 ,the bands1 whether placed around two opposite branches or the main stem and a branch1 are connected together by a light iron rod and1 according to the strain1 may be from one-half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter4 ,this rod1 like the bands1 is divided into two parts1 which are connected by a swivel and screw for convenience in loosening or tightening4 ,illustration3 ,,bracing ,a ,,tree ,great care is necessary in choosing the point at which a band should be placed1 and in deciding which branches or branch and stem should be joined together1 so that the greatest resistance may be obtained and in order that the one may act as a support to the other4 ,the shape of the tree and disposition of the stem and branches can alone be the guides in this matter4 ,in comparison with the use of a chain1 the advantages of this method of supporting heavy branches are principally ease of fixing1 greater rigidity1 less friction1 adaptability for loosening or tightening as may be required1 and better results4 ,accurate measurements as to the size and shape of the limb to be operated upon must be taken and the girdling hoops made accordingly4 ,the best way to take these is to ascend the tree1 and1 after deciding as to the points where bracing is to take place1 encircle each branch with a strip of hoop-iron1 which will not only give the size but shape of the particular limb1 a most important point where neatness is studied and after-chafing of the bark and wood is to be avoided4 ,illustration3 ,,band ,,and ,,connecting-,,rod ,in the case of old trees1 or such as are not likely to greatly increase in size1 the bands need not be much larger than the actual size of the branches to which they are to be affixed1 but where the tree is young and vigorous1 room for expansion should be provided4 ,fixing the bands and connecting-rods is readily accomplished either by the use of ladders or by climbing the trunk and slinging the portions into position by means of ropes4 ,the exigencies of each case will point out the best means of carrying out the work1 as also the height at which the supports can most effectively be placed4 ,when damaged or diseased branches are being dealt with1 great care is necessary to ensure that the bands are placed in such positions that the greatest leverage against wind is afforded1 and so as to minimize the risk of the branch being broken across at the weakened point during stormy weather4 ,frequently1 where the main trunk divides into two or more portions near ground level1 it will be found that a split or crack has been caused by the swaying of the divided stems4 ,in such cases the split between the stems should be carefully cleaned out1 treated with an antiseptic and filled with asphalt4 ,the limbs should then be braced together by means of a band and connecting-rod1 and1 as the asphalt becomes set1 the brace may be tightened up as may be found necessary4 ,rarely is it found necessary to place a band around the stem of a tree to prevent splitting4 ,where1 however1 appearances point to the likelihood of this taking place1 as in the case of forked trees1 especially when the stem divides abruptly into two or three heavy limbs1 it is a wise precaution to encircle the bole with a wide band of iron4 ,this band should be placed at such a height that the greatest possible resistance to splitting of the stem is afforded4 ,such bands are usually proportionate to the strain of the stem to which they are to act as support4 ,a band of leather or rubber between the iron and bark of the tree to allow for expansion of the stem is necessary4 ,supporting tree branches by chains is not to be recommended1 for the simple reason that1 however carefully they may be adjusted1 friction and chafing of the bark and wood is sooner or later bound to ensue4 ,connecting the flat iron bands1 already referred to1 by means of chains or strand wire1 is1 however1 not so open to objection nor attended with such ill effects as is the case when the chain or wire is placed in direct contact with the branch1 for even with the most careful adjusting and packing1 the uneven surface of a chain1 with its saw-like action during stormy weather1 soon renders the belting useless for the purpose intended1 and both bark and wood suffer in consequence4 ,occasionally we see holes bored through the live branch or trunk in order to fix the binding rod or chain--a most reprehensible practice that1 fortunately1 has few supporters amongst those who have even had a cursory knowledge of trees and their growth4 ,it is1 however1 generally admitted that there are several disadvantages connected with bracing trees with iron rods that pass through holes bored in the trunk or branch4 ,however carefully this operation may be performed1 there are grave risks from insect and fungoid attacks in holes that have been made in living wood1 as the friction caused by the movement of the tree renders healing of the wound quite problematical4 ,further1 the movement of an embedded iron rod is not only apt to cause friction with the wood but the strain must often be in an opposite direction to that which was intended1 this increasing with the diameter of the stem or branch4 ,another untidy1 slipshod and most objectionable method of staying a tree is by using wire as a band around the trunk4 ,this certainly has the virtue of cheapness1 but in so far as efficiency is concerned1 and especially in the case of old trees1 it is to be deprecated4 ,in the repairing and strengthening of tree limbs it should consistently be borne in mind that any girdle or band that either partially or wholly constricts the growth of a branch defeats its own object by preventing the uninterrupted flow of sap and impairing the strength of the limb4 ,with care in forming the band and a proper method of adjusting it1 there is no reason why the desired object of strengthening a stem or branch may not be attained4 ,on the other hand1 a badly formed1 narrow band1 too tightly applied and without the requisite packing1 may in a short space of time be productive of the most unsatisfactory results1 particularly in the case of young and fast-growing trees4 ,the main point is that the bands should be fixed in such a way that friction to the bark is avoided and the flow of sap uninterrupted4 ,unfortunately in the past this has not in all cases been carefully provided against1 with the result that the bands1 owing to their being too small1 gradually became embedded in the wood and1 by injuring the cambium and preventing the flow of sap1 defeated the object for which they were intended4 ,for fuller information on doctoring trees1 the reader is referred to my book on ,tree ,wounds and ,diseases4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,coppice ,,and ,,underwood3 ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,coppice ,,wood ,although coppice wood has deteriorated considerably in value during late years1 yet in certain districts and on suitable soils its cultivation is still to be recommended4 ,unfortunately1 however1 the uses to which coppice wood are in the main applied are much localized1 and this1 with the bulky nature of the commodity1 will to a very considerable extent restrict its sale to the localities in which it is used4 ,thus in parts of ,kent and ,sussex hop poles find a ready market1 pea and bean stakes in the gardening districts around ,london1 crate wood in the neighbourhood of potteries1 willow and ash in basket-making localities1 and faggot wood wherever kilns abound1 or in the environs of populous districts generally4 ,it will1 therefore1 be seen that next to the question of soil probably the most important is that of local demand1 so that in forming a coppice plantation only such underwood should be used as there is a demand for in the particular district4 ,foreign importations and preferential carriage rates have also dealt hardly with the profitable cultivation of coppice wood4 ,coppice wood may either be grown alone or in company with large standard trees1 but the latter must at all times be kept sufficiently thin1 so as not to overshadow and kill out the undergrowth4 ,there are advantages1 too1 in employing standards for the protection they afford to the young shoots in spring1 as also in the amount realized for the periodical thinnings to which they may be subjected4 ,for this purpose the oak is to be recommended1 but such wide-spreading trees as the ash1 elm and beech1 which produce so dense a shade as to kill out or seriously injure all vegetation that might spring up beneath them1 are to be avoided4 ,generally where the health and vigour of the coppice wood are points of first consideration1 it will not be advisable to allow the standard trees to occupy altogether more than about one-fifth of the wooded area2 and even then the lower branches should be pruned off1 so that the effects of shade will be mitigated as much as possible4 ,as to the woods which coppice most freely1 the ash1 oak and hazel occupy the first rank1 at least in a profitable sense1 the elm1 willow1 beech1 birch1 hornbeam1 alder and sycamore occupying a second1 but1 as before stated1 the nature of the soil1 and less so the altitude and exposure1 have everything to do with the particular species that will succeed best4 ,thus ash will do well where the soil is moist and loamy1 the ,spanish chestnut in sandy or gravelly districts1 for rich plains and hollows the oak will be most remunerative1 the alder and willow in marshy ground1 and where bare and exposed1 the birch1 hazel1 beech and hornbeam will succeed best4 ,the preparation of the land and planting for coppice are similar in all respects to that adopted for the growing of an ordinary timber crop4 ,where the ground is too wet1 draining should be judiciously engaged in1 while trenching1 although expensive at first1 is amply compensated for in the increased growth and vigour of the underwood4 ,the pits for planting may be made from #c ft4 to #d ft4 apart1 and1 if the ground was previously trenched1 of sufficient size to hold the roots without undue cramping4 ,it is always well to keep the stools tolerably close together1 as the shoots take a more erect habit and are straighter and more valuable than when allowed too much space and side room4 ,two years after being planted1 or at the end of the second autumn1 the young trees1 excepting such as it may be thought advisable to leave as standards1 should be cut over near ground level4 ,this cutting is a most important operation1 and should only be performed by skilled workmen1 with tools of the best description well sharpened4 ,the cut should be clean and directed upwards1 all splitting of the stems and tearing of the bark being assiduously guarded against as conducive to decay and early death to the stools4 ,after four years' growth the shoots should be thinned out1 leaving1 say1 four on each stool1 and these preferably the strongest1 the work being carried out at any time from ,november to the end of ,march1 but not during frosty weather4 ,upon the kind of wood grown and uses for which it is designed will depend very much the length of rotation pursued1 for while osiers might profitably be cut at the end of the second year1 ash1 oak and chestnut would not usually1 even on the best quality of soil1 be felled sooner than from ten to twelve years1 and the poorer classes of coppice wood1 especially on light soil1 at from twelve to sixteen years4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that the duration of the stool is usually proportionate to the length of the rotation adopted1 and with good management on fair soil the best class of coppice wood has a duration of nearly a century4 ,in felling the coppice wood it is always advisable to cut as near the ground level as possible1 the shoots sent up having the advantage of rooting in the ground and so extending the area of the stool4 ,the system of allowing the stools1 by careless cutting1 to rise in some instances several feet from the ground is contrary to the methods adopted under the best management4 ,a sharp billhook should be used for all smaller shoots1 a light well-ground axe for those from #c to1 say1 #f inches in diameter1 and the cross-cut saw for all over that size4 ,the coppice wood is usually sorted out after being cut down1 the best poles being laid aside for the use of the hop grower1 the next size for pit props1 or fencing according to the demand of the moment1 and so on until every pole has been sorted according to the use for which it may be intended1 the lop and branches being bound into faggots for fire or oven-lighting4 ,the following are the various uses to which underwood is applied3 hoops1 hurdles1 crate rods1 pea stakes1 spars for thatching1 withes for faggot-tying1 sheep cages1 hop poles1 brooms1 broom handles1 skewers for butchers1 chisel handles1 plant stakes1 whip handles1 gunpowder wood and faggots4 ,profits will vary from #aes4 to #bes4 per acre1 exclusive of the standards which are left1 and the crop1 according to age and quality1 will realize from #e per acre downwards4 ,great care is necessary to avoid damage to the stools when removing the fall1 which is not usually done until just before the young buds are shooting out1 and consequently at the time when injury is most easily brought about4 ,the trampling of horses and passage of wheels are most injurious1 while the browsing of cattle should be carefully guarded against4 ,good roads are always a great advantage in a coppice plantation1 and to these as much of the produce as possible should be carried for loading1 thus avoiding damage to the stools4 ,although the growth of coppice wood has its disadvantages1 particularly in park scenery1 yet it is valuable in this way1 that should the crop from local circumstances not be found remunerative1 the plantation can at any time be converted into a standing wood by allowing the best and strongest shoots from the stools to form the permanent crop4 ,the approximate cost of forming a coppice wood per acre is as follows3-- s4 d4 ,trenching at #bs4 per rod #af #j #j #e1jjj trees at #ces4 per #a1jjj #h #ae #j ,pitting and planting #b #e #j -------------------------------- #bg #j #j ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,formation ,,and ,,management ,,of ,,game ,,coverts ,when we consider that on not a few estates in this country the value of the plantations as game coverts is wellnigh of as much importance as that of the timber produced1 it will be readily seen that the successful formation and management of these is a matter of no small moment to those entrusted with the work4 ,that game-rearing and economic forestry can be advantageously carried on in the same woods is1 however1 a contention we by no means feel inclined to uphold1 and from which1 being apart from the subject matter of the chapter1 we will for the present stand aloof4 ,game coverts may be divided into two kinds1 natural and artificial--natural when the woods are kept sufficiently thin to admit of the free growth of bramble1 bracken or other native vegetation2 and artificial when the planting of such shrubs as are suitable for underwood is resorted to4 ,natural game coverts1 which1 by most sportsmen1 are considered superior to those artificially formed1 can only exist where the plantations are kept well and regularly thinned1 so as to admit abundance of both light and air--the two principal requisites for the successful growth of natural underwood4 ,generally speaking1 the formation of natural coverts has seldom to be helped1 although occasionally it is found necessary to assist ,nature by the sowing of such seeds as those of gorse1 broom1 etc41 in the thinner and more open portions of the woodlands4 ,this may1 however1 be considered an exception to the rule1 as where the woods are kept sufficiently thin1 spontaneous undergrowth is usually pretty abundant1 and requires neither care nor management1 beyond preventing its too free incursions along the margins of roads and shooting drives4 ,where1 however1 bare patches do occur1 the sowing of seed may be relied upon as not only a speedy but most effectual method of increasing the cover4 ,where seeds are intended to be sown1 the soil should be dug over1 and all hard clods or lumps broken down1 and the whole made smooth and fine with a rake4 ,the seeds may be sown in spring1 and afterwards covered over with hardwood branches as a preservative against the depredations of small birds and game4 ,the best natural game coverts are those composed of bramble1 gorse1 heath1 hazel1 holly1 blackthorn1 elder1 blackberry1 bracken or the stronger growing grasses1 these being arranged according to merit1 and each possessing some peculiar feature1 specially recommending it for planting in certain soils1 altitudes or situations4 ,in the formation of artificial game coverts1 when not only shelter and protection for game are required1 but ornamental effect as well1 the judicious grouping of the different shrubs should never be lost sight of1 more especially when the coverts are within the park or policy grounds1 and visible from drives and roads4 ,formality and stiffness are so often the characteristics of the present style of shrub planting1 that in many cases our woodlands seem utterly destitute of that variety of outline and contrast of light and shade so essential to picturesque beauty4 ,in planting evergreen shrubs for the two-fold purpose of covert and ornament1 the best method is to plant each variety in separate groups or clumps4 ,no hard and fast lines can be laid down as to the distribution or number of plants to be used in the clumps1 which1 to a great extent1 must depend on the size and shape of the ground as well as taste of the operator4 ,the clumps should1 however1 be placed at irregular distances apart1 be irregular in size and outline1 and with from forty or fifty to one hundred plants in each--bearing in mind that game of all kinds delight in small patches of shrubs with abundance of open space around each1 but detest in a most marked manner continuous masses or jungles of underwood4 ,in selecting sites for the various groups1 be careful to choose the most open positions1 avoiding as much as possible planting immediately under the spread of trees2 and1 if practicable1 so arrange that in viewing the wood from any point1 the eye may not pass along a straight bare unplanted space1 but become arrested by the various clumps in passing to the farther side4 ,having arranged the positions of the various clumps1 the pits should be opened of a size1 and at a distance apart suitable for the plants intended to be used1 taking care that they are sufficiently large to avoid cramping or bending of the roots1 which in all cases should be spread out to their full extent4 ,in making the pits1 it is well to thoroughly loosen the soil in the bottom and sides with a pick1 so as to give the tender rootlets a free course when starting into growth in spring4 ,should the soil be found of inferior quality1 a few loads of leaf-mould1 road-scrapings or loam from an adjoining field will be found to work wonders in the way of giving the plants a start1 and also in producing a strong1 healthy growth4 ,drainage should also have been attended to previous to opening the pits1 and all stagnant water or superfluous moisture removed by the formation of open ditches4 ,in giving a list of the best evergreen shrubs for covert purposes1 ,i would call attention particularly to the merits of laurel1 box1 privet1 laurustinus1 rhododendron1 holly and yew1 as these have been very extensively used for underwood1 and with the best possible results4 ,as to which of the above shrubs should receive pre-eminence as an ornamental covert plant ,i cannot decide1 each having some peculiar merit rendering it valuable in its own particular place4 ,we will for the present1 however1 consider all alike in this respect1 and briefly describe the value of each separately1 beginning with the laurel4 ,the ,common and ,colchic laurels are amongst our best shrubs for underwood1 and should be planted extensively2 they are of free growth1 bear cutting and pruning well1 and thrive under the shade and drip of other trees4 ,for covert planting the ,colchic is perhaps preferable to the normal form1 as it is of a more dense and procumbent habit1 perfectly hardy1 and less liable to injury from hares and rabbits4 ,the common laurel requires frequent and heavy pruning to keep it in bounds1 as1 if allowed to ramble at will1 it soon becomes bare near the ground1 and useless either as game covert or ornament4 ,some years ago we layered a great number of this plant that had through neglect become useless for the purpose intended1 many being from #ab ft4 to over #bj ft4 in height1 with simply a tuft of foliage near the top4 ,in layering1 the stems were sawn half through near the ground1 to assist in bending1 and laid flat on their sides1 a couple of stout pegs being driven alongside1 the crooked heads of which served to keep the plants in their procumbent position4 ,a spadeful of soil was then placed on the top of each peg to assist the layer in rooting4 ,the result at the present time is everything that could be desired1 each stem having thrown up quantities of young shoots1 and thus formed a jungle of underwood1 which year by year will increase in value4 ,in planting the laurel for covert avoid overcrowding1 as1 being of quick growth1 the plants1 even although placed at a considerable distance apart1 soon unite and form a continuous undergrowth4 ,no rule can be laid down as to the distance which should be allowed between individual plants1 this depending entirely on their size1 as well as on the quality of the soil in which they are to be planted4 ,we not unfrequently plant double thick1 either for immediate effect1 or to produce covert at once1 and when the plants begin to encroach on each other every alternate one is removed1 thus giving the remaining plants ample room for developing side branches and thereby inducing a dwarf-spreading habit4 ,having a tendency1 especially when confined1 to increase more in height than width1 the laurel1 after a few years' growth1 should have all the leading and straggling upper branches cut over1 by which not only will the under shoots be increased but the plants will be prevented from running up into tall1 branchless specimens4 ,the ,green ,tree ,box 7,buxus sempervirens7 forms a very pretty as well as desirable covert plant1 and thrives well beneath the shade of deciduous trees4 ,it is also of slow1 dense growth1 and well adapted for planting in various soils and situations1 although preferring a light loam and a shady position4 ,another recommendation is its immunity from the attacks of game1 hares and rabbits having such an aversion to this plant that even during the most severe weather ,i cannot remember having seen it badly injured4 ,few plants suffer more from overcrowding than the box1 and for this reason it should be planted at wide distances apart1 the plants soon getting top-heavy and falling over of their own accord4 ,where the plants are not of large size1 and immediate effect or covert is required1 they may be planted pretty close1 and in a few years1 when encroaching on each other1 every alternate one may be removed4 ,it is well adapted for transplanting1 the almost solid mass of matted roots holding the ball of earth firmly together1 thus rendering the plant one of our easiest as well as safest to remove4 ,the box would seem at one time to have been more abundant in our own land than it now is2 thus1 ,boxley in ,kent1 ,boxwell in ,gloucestershire1 and ,boxhill in ,surrey1 were named from the quantity of this plant which was formerly found in their neighbourhoods4 ,privet1 as a covert plant1 has its advantages and disadvantages4 ,on the one hand it is cheap1 easily grown1 and not at all fastidious about soil4 ,when planted amongst trees1 however1 it generally assumes a loose1 straggling habit1 and as the shade increases it usually dies out altogether4 ,where the plantations are well thinned and regularly kept so1 privet1 if a little care and trouble be expended on its cultivation1 will succeed and form capital underwood4 ,in planting privet the greatest care is necessary to prevent its being overdone4 ,close planting is always productive of the most unsatisfactory results1 not only as regards the health of the plants1 but management of the woods as well4 ,instead of filling up the whole ground1 as is not unfrequently done1 plant in small clumps1 and these at wide distances apart1 as this will not only allow the privet to grow more healthy and compact but also admit of space for pruning and layering--two necessaries for the successful cultivation of privet as underwood4 ,the layering of privet1 which is a simple and inexpensive though effectual method of increase1 is performed as follows3--,cut off all the branches1 except those intended for layering1 which are then laid flat on the ground equidistant around the main stem or root and kept fast by hooked pegs driven firmly down4 ,a spadeful or two of soil should then be placed on the top of each peg1 which will partly exclude air and hasten the formation of roots4 ,the pegs may be made of any refuse branches--hard wood1 such as ash or oak1 being preferable--about #aj ins4 in length1 one end being hooked for holding the branches in position1 and the other sharply pointed for ease in driving4 ,as several forms of privet have crept into circulation of late1 it is well to be sure that none but the true evergreen are used in the formation of game coverts4 ,the oval-leaved privet1 though a most desirable evergreen plant and well suited for ornamental hedges1 is from its too luxuriant growth and upright form hardly to be commended for underwood2 at least1 its merits in this respect are inferior to those of the common form4 ,aucuba ,japonica and the ,laurustinus are two of our handsomest evergreen shrubs1 but1 unlike those already described1 they will not succeed in the densest shade4 ,in open places or along woodland drives they thrive well1 and are excellent for variety and contrast4 ,the laurustinus cannot1 however1 be considered as perfectly hardy in this country1 for even in maritime situations where the air is to some extent ameliorated1 it suffers severely from frost1 and during severe winters it is even killed completely to the ground4 ,it1 however1 springs very freely from the root1 and in a few years quite regains its original size and luxuriance4 ,from their bushy1 well-furnished habit of growth both the above plants are excellent as game covert1 more especially around the outskirts of woods and plantations4 ,they should be allowed plenty of room for development of both root and branch1 though they may1 when necessary1 be pruned with the greatest advantage4 ,mahonia aquifolia1 ,berberis ,darwinii and ,b4 ,stenophylla are frequently recommended as covert plants and for using in similar situations to those favoured by the laurel and box4 ,along the margins of plantations or in very open places they may and do succeed1 but from practical experience of these plants we find them next to useless as underwood in shady positions4 ,where many thousands of covert plants are used annually1 we have entirely discarded them from use except in the most open situations4 ,these plants are highly ornamental1 both in foliage and flower2 produce berries which are much sought after by game1 are quite hardy1 and not at all fastidious about soil--qualities which specially recommend them for extensive use in positions at all suited for their growth4 ,the barberry1 more especially when planted out in rich soil1 and when at all confined1 is apt to lose the compact1 branchy nature so recognizable a feature of the plant when allowed ample room in the nursery border1 and to assume a more upright habit of growth1 which is anything but desirable in underwood generally4 ,to check this and keep the plant in bounds1 frequent light prunings will have to be resorted to1 and this had best be effected during dull1 damp weather1 as the barberry is not a good subject for the pruning shears4 ,neither the barberry nor mahonia are adapted for planting in very high or exposed situations--at least where such has been tried the results have been anything but satisfactory1 the plants soon presenting a miserable1 half-starved appearance4 ,both plants are readily propagated--the mahonia1 when planted in loose soil and an open situation1 soon covering a considerable space of ground1 the running roots being especially active under such circumstances4 ,rhododendron ponticum1 although useful in an ornamental point of view1 cannot be considered a first-class plant for game shelter4 ,it has1 however1 several good qualities which recommend it for underwood1 such as ease of culture1 dwarf-spreading habit1 and immunity from the attacks of game--indeed1 in this latter respect1 it is not equalled by any other plant1 if we except one or two species of ,daphne4 ,it is seldom resorted to by pheasants1 the bottom being not only damp1 but such a tangled mass of branches that it forms anything but pleasant quarters for game4 ,for ornamental effect along the outskirts of plantations1 the rhododendron is invaluable1 and is by no means so fastidious about soil as is generally supposed1 peat being not at all essential to its growth and successful cultivation4 ,few plants can be made to increase in like proportion with the rhododendron1 and for this reason it should be planted in small patches2 and when it is desirable to increase the cover1 the outer branches may be pegged down or layered4 ,this plant also bears pruning with impunity1 so that old plants that have1 through neglect1 become lank and straggling1 may without fear or risk be layered or pruned in with advantage4 ,the ,common ,yew and ,holly cannot be too extensively used in the formation of game coverts1 both being unrivalled for beauty and hardiness4 ,they thrive in a great variety of soils1 and beneath the densest shade of our woodland trees4 ,in planting the yew it is well1 however1 to bear in mind that its branches are highly deleterious to farm stock that may browse upon them1 and for this reason it should never be planted along the outskirts of a wood1 or in any position to which such have access4 ,the ,st4 ,john's ,wort1 as a low-spreading shrub1 is unsurpassed1 and thrives best in a light sandy or peaty soil4 ,it is readily propagated by division of the roots2 and when planted out in small patches a foot or two apart1 the creeping stems soon cover a considerable surface of ground1 and form a dense evergreen mass1 covered in summer with bright golden flowers4 ,gaultheria ,shallon1 another plant of creeping habit1 is1 notwithstanding its many good qualities1 seldom planted to any extent in our woodlands2 but this may1 to some extent at least1 be accounted for by the high price of the plants1 and the small size of those purchaseable from our nurserymen4 ,like most other ,north ,american plants1 the ,gaultheria prefers a rather damp1 peaty soil1 and is one of the few shrubs found to thrive in pine plantations4 ,the berries1 which are borne in great abundance1 are greedily devoured by pheasants1 and in their native country are not unfrequently used as food4 ,the ,butcher's ,broom is a fine glaucous green shrub densely covered with sharp1 prickly1 leaves and invaluable for planting in shady places--indeed1 in such positions it seems to be quite at home4 ,there it flowers and fruits freely beneath half-standard rhododendrons where few other plants could exist1 far less succeed4 ,the twigs of this shrub were formerly used by butchers for sweeping their blocks2 hence the ,english name4 ,some of the above plants1 notably the ,st4 ,john's ,wort and ,gaultheria1 may be considered as carpet plants1 which1 in contradistinction to general underwood1 may be classed as evergreens1 which1 from their low1 procumbent mode of growth1 are scarcely in the true sense of the word suited for game coverts4 ,to clearly define the difference would1 however1 be no easy matter1 and1 even were it possible to do so1 would in the end be productive of but little good1 as the habits of different plants vary so much that what is used in one place for carpeting purposes might in another and more favourable situation be equally valuable for game covert4 ,a good example of this will be found in the ,st4 ,john's ,wort1 which1 when planted out and allowed to ramble at will amongst bramble1 privet1 etc41 forms a capital covert2 whereas1 when used in open1 airy situations--such as alongside shrubbery walks--it soon forms a dense evergreen carpet1 of so compact a growth as to be almost impenetrable even to ground game4 ,in addition to the above-named plants1 the following are well adapted for giving shelter to game3--,dogwood1 ,hazel1 ,elder1 ,arbutus1 ,cotoneaster of sorts1 ,juniper of sorts1 ,pernettya mucronata1 ,rubus nutkanus1 ,taxus adpressa1 ,photinia serrulata1 ,kalmia latifolia1 ,garrya elliptica1 etc4 ,these should be planted out in small groups--the more valuable kinds in the most conspicuous position1 such as alongside or within view of woodland drives and shooting-roads4 ,protection from ,rabbits1 etc4--,it may seem somewhat absurd to speak of planting coverts1 and then to protect them from the depredations of game2 but that this is highly necessary for the first two years1 at least1 is well known to all planters4 ,few of the shrubs treated of in this paper are exempt from the attacks of hares and rabbits1 more especially when in a young state and newly transferred from the nursery2 and for this reason it is always found necessary to protect them in some way or other until fairly started into growth and beyond the reach of game4 ,for this purpose wire netting is the cheapest and most effectual preservative with which ,i am acquainted4 ,the netting should be about #d ft4 in height1 not more than #a in4 mesh1 and inserted in the ground #d in41 to prevent rabbits from working underneath4 ,it may be fixed to posts driven firmly into the ground at a distance of #e ft4 apart along the line of fence4 ,this precaution against the depredations of game may not be necessary for all the clumps1 but it is especially so for those of laurustinus1 barberry1 and laurel4 ,for the first two or three years after planting1 the shrubs should be kept free of grass and weeds1 as this will encourage the plants to start into growth more quickly and thrive much better than they can do if the ground is impoverished and light and air excluded by weeds4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,hedges3 ,,their ,,formation ,,and ,,management ,strictly speaking1 hedges are divided into two kinds--useful and ornamental--the former being employed for keeping farm stock in bounds1 and the latter in the subdivision of private gardens and for lawn and park purposes generally4 ,where the fences are intended purely for protective purposes the thorn1 beech1 hornbeam or holly are the plants usually employed1 while for ornamental garden subdivisions almost any shrub may be used1 the choice of which will lie with the operator4 ,amongst all the trees and shrubs that have been found suitable for the climate of ,britain1 none equals the common whitethorn1 or ,quick1 for hedge-formation1 where strength and shelter are points of first consideration4 ,the beech and hornbeam certainly can thrive better on exposed and high-lying ground and where the soil is poor and thin1 but neither forms so durable a protection against farm stock as the thorn4 ,when properly treated the thorn is a fast grower1 and as a fence plant it is ornamental1 smooth1 stubborn1 and long lived4 ,it is also not at all subject to disease1 and is very readily propagated4 ,few soils come amiss to the thorn--that is1 if they are not overcharged with moisture1 but it delights in a rich hazelly loam4 7#a7 ,plantation ,hedges--,preparation of the ,ground and ,planting4--,thorough preparation of the ground where live fences are formed should take precedence of all other operations--indeed1 nothing can repay the planter more satisfactorily than the previous suiting of the land1 in the way of draining and trenching1 to the plants intended to be inserted4 ,in all cases we have found it well to have the ground along the line of fence trenched to a depth of #b ft41 and about #c ft4 in width1 and a quantity of manure incorporated at the same time4 ,if this can be done some months before planting the thorns or other fence plants1 so much the better1 as it gives time for the loosely upturned soil to get mellowed and sweetened1 as also for the manure to get well decomposed4 ,in all cases it may not be necessary to apply manure1 but1 where the soil is at all poor1 the addition of a quantity of well-rotted manure has a wonderful effect in stimulating the quick into active and strong growth4 ,the vigorous and rapid growth of a hedge1 when the soil has been well worked and manured1 is remarkable1 and in all cases the labour and outlay expended on the fence is amply repaid4 ,illustration3 ,,hedging ,,tools ,it is well to plant rather above than below the general ground level1 so that in trenching the soil a slight mound should be raised along the intended line of fence1 which will not only materially assist in keeping the plants from excessive moisture1 but aid in the cleaning and general management of the hedge4 ,where superfluous moisture is present in the soil the hedge-and-ditch system is to be recommended1 which consists in digging out a ditch parallel with the line on which it is intended to place the fence4 ,it should be #c ft4 deep1 #e ft4 wide at top1 and #a ft4 at bottom1 and the soil removed in so doing is thrown upon that side where the hedge is to be planted1 thus forming a mound1 or rather ridge1 on which the plants are to be placed4 ,in wet soils such a ditch is indispensable1 but1 under ordinary circumstances1 it is to be condemned1 and for the simple reasons that it is expensive and rather against than in favour of the free growth of the fence4 ,thorn or ,quick4--,the best time to plant the whitethorn is just after the fall of the leaf in autumn2 but the operation is usually extended from that time until early spring1 though in the latter case perhaps with less satisfactory results4 ,in selecting the plants a great amount of care is necessary1 as also in the lifting and after-planting4 ,four-year-old plants are best suited for hedge-formation1 and they should be stout of growth and well rooted4 ,the size of the plants is of more importance than the age1 and those with stems as thick as one's finger are to be preferred to others of greater height1 but lank and small of stem4 ,frequent transplanting while in the nursery border should have been paid attention to1 as then the roots are bushy and fibrous and well suited for planting out permanently4 ,great damage is frequently done to thorn plants by careless lifting1 and1 worse still1 by bundling the plants in lots ready for the planter4 ,this should never be tolerated1 as it is quite evident that when tied up in bundles and covered over with soil1 the plants in the centre of each bundle get dust-dry and fall a prey to the searching winds of spring4 ,plants should in all cases1 where it is possible1 be lifted and replanted within the week1 but1 much better still--and this is readily effected where a home nursery is on the estate--on the same or the following day4 ,in planting1 stretch a line along the centre of the prepared ground1 and close to the line take out a perpendicular trench with the spade of sufficient size to allow of the roots of the plants being spread out to their full extent4 ,from #f in4 to #h in4 will be found a convenient distance apart to place the thorns1 and they should not be planted deeper than they stood whilst in the nursery border1 which will readily be seen by the mark on the stems4 ,a small quantity of fine soil should now be placed next the roots1 and this firmly trodden1 the remainder of the soil being added afterwards4 ,dibbling the plants is sometimes recommended1 but1 in our own opinion1 it is a dangerous practice and to be avoided1 the roots necessarily being thus confined to small space and placed in an unnatural position4 ,planting in single line is in most cases preferable to inserting in double line1 as it is by the former method that the strongest and most durable fences have been formed4 ,some planters cut back the young thorns to within #b in4 of the ground1 and the practice1 although not readily reconciled with physiological principles1 is to be recommended4 ,it is unquestionable that headed-back thorns shoot out with greater vigour1 and become thicker1 than such as have been left untouched1 but the fact that they are then greedily devoured by ground game has somewhat caused the practice to fall into disuse1 at least where game is abundant and the cost of fencing cannot be entertained4 ,the ,beech1 as a hedge-plant1 must not be despised1 being a rapid grower on most soils1 and soon forming a very valuable fence4 ,in rich soils it retains a great proportion of its leaves during winter1 and is1 therefore1 an excellent shelter-plant4 ,it1 however1 lacks the rigidity of the thorn1 and for that reason is not very suitable for planting where farm stock have access4 ,it may be planted in a manner similar to that recommended for the thorn1 only the individual plants should stand farther apart4 ,the ,hornbeam makes a good live fence1 and will grow readily in any fairly good soil and not too exposed ground4 ,it may be treated similarly to the beech4 ,privet--both the common and oval-leaved--have been largely used1 either alone or with other plants1 in the formation of hedges1 for which they are peculiarly suitable4 ,they1 however1 want stiffness1 so as to be able to cope with farm stock1 and for this reason are principally used in ornamental garden subdivisions4 ,gorse or ,furze4--,strikingly beautiful as well as useful hedges may be formed of gorse4 ,it is well adapted for planting on light dry or sandy soils1 or on the top of a dyke or sunk fence4 ,seed sowing is to be recommended in the formation of gorse fences1 and after preparing and well working the soil1 #a lb4 of seed to every #ajj lineal yards will be found sufficient for sowing down4 ,it should be remembered that in order to keep the fence full and bushy1 pruning should take place immediately after flowering and before seeds are produced4 ,cutting over the hedge at ground level every third year will be very beneficial to this fence4 7#b7 ,ornamental ,hedges--,holly4--,this makes an excellent ornamental fence1 and it is occasionally though rarely used for plantation purposes4 ,the ground should be thoroughly prepared1 and1 if necessary1 enriched by a dressing of strong loam1 and the plants inserted in ,may4 ,the holly can be planted when of almost any height1 if previous transplanting was attended to4 ,yew4--,for purposes similar to the latter1 the yew is generally in use4 ,it may be planted at any time1 but should be kept well watered until it has become established4 ,laurustinus4--,as a flowering hedge for garden or lawn purposes few shrubs are of greater value than the laurustinus1 particularly in maritime districts4 ,in severe winters it suffers considerably1 though generally fresh growths are sent up from the root-stock4 ,pruning should be carefully done1 so that the flowering shoots are not cut away4 ,box4--,very neat and serviceable garden fences are made of this shrub4 ,it grows freely and stands pruning well4 ,rosa rugosa and ,r4 rubiginosa 7,sweet ,briar74--,both these species of rose have come greatly into favour for garden subdivisions1 for which they are peculiarly suitable4 ,they make charming hedges1 are of easy growth1 and stand pruning with impunity4 ,of course1 where they are wanted to flower great care in pruning is necessary4 ,laurel4--,both the common and ,colchic laurels make fairly good hedges1 but they are apt to get gappy by portions dying out4 ,this can1 however1 easily be remedied by filling up with others instead4 ,they bear trimming well4 ,aucuba japonica forms a useful and ornamental hedge1 stands pruning well1 and lasts for a long time4 ,berberis ,darwinii and ,b4 stenophylla are both highly ornamental hedge shrubs1 and when not pruned too severely flower with great freedom4 ,shortening the long shoots with a pocket-knife is best4 ,cleaning and ,pruning4--,an annual cleaning of the ground alongside hedges must never be neglected1 as weeds rob the soil of its nourishment1 choke the young plants1 and to a great extent prevent the free access of rain to the roots of the hedge plants4 ,the common hoe is1 for this purpose1 to be recommended1 and any weeds that cannot be got at around the stems must be removed by the hand4 ,ivy1 elder and honeysuckle should all be treated as weeds1 for they are highly injurious to hedges1 be these young or old4 ,very little1 if any1 pruning or switching should be done till the third year after the fence has been formed1 and then only the longer twigs cut back1 so as to get by degrees a general uniformity of shape4 ,the switching-knife is alone to be recommended for pruning fences1 shears never making a clean cut1 and pressing and loosening the bark at the point where amputation took place4 ,a well-sharpened switching-knife in the hands of a dexterous hedger turns out beautiful and commendable work4 ,unless it be an annual cleaning and trimming1 a well-formed hedge should require but little attention for many years4 ,should it1 however1 when old1 begin to show signs of distress and become gappy1 a top-dressing of rich farmyard manure will go a great way towards throwing fresh energy into the plants4 ,this should be applied in winter1 and lightly forked in the following spring1 and before growth has commenced4 ,should gaps occur by reason of deaths in the old plants these should be removed1 and others of young growth substituted1 the soil at the same time being dug out and other fresh from a field or roadside used instead4 ,great care should be exercised that the roots of living plants are not injured whilst removing the dead and substituting the live specimens4 ,specially-prepared plants and such as are unusually stout and bushy should alone be used in hedge-repairing4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,shrubs ,,for ,,shady ,,situations ,the list of procumbent or carpeting shrubs that have been found to succeed when planted beneath the shade and drip of forest trees is by no means a long one1 and as the clothing of such bare places is often a point of the greatest importance1 particularly in park or ornamental grounds1 the following notes may prove useful4 ,by careful manipulation much may be done to carpet such places with suitable shrubs1 but the task in some instances is by no means an easy one1 and must be set about in a common-sense and practical way4 ,evidently deciduous trees have an advantage over evergreen kinds in that with the extra light and greater amount of surface dampness undergrowth succeeds better beneath their shade4 ,the common ,ivy is probably the best evergreen carpet for shade planting with which we are acquainted4 ,it runs about and roots freely1 soon covering a large space of ground with its neat1 deep-green foliage4 ,propagation is brought about either by means of cuttings or suckers1 and is simple and inexpensive4 ,the ,periwinkles 7,vinca major and ,v4 minor7 are well adapted for planting beneath our larger trees1 where1 unless the shade is very dense1 they succeed admirably1 soon forming large breadths of evergreen carpet and producing their deep blue flowers in abundance4 ,they are readily increased by layering or subdivision1 and when once established soon spread about unheeded4 ,the ,st4 ,john's ,wort 7,hypericum calycinum7 can confidently be recommended for planting as a ground covering beneath our larger trees4 ,it increases readily1 and if occasionally cut over1 shoots out all the more freely and thickly4 ,for the showy yellow flowers it is also a desirable shrubby plant4 ,the ,mezereon and ,spurge ,laurel 7,daphne ,mezereum and ,d4 ,laureola7 are excellent1 medium-sized shrubs for planting in shady positions1 where they not only succeed well1 but flower freely4 ,they are both increased by layering4 ,euonymus ,radicans ,variegata is a useful1 procumbent shrub for planting in the shade1 and succeeds well in smoky localities4 ,the ,butcher's ,broom 7,ruscus aculeatus7 grows with great freedom beneath the densest shade of our forest trees1 and being an evergreen is to be recommended for such situations4 ,gaultheria ,shallon and ,g4 ,procumbens may also be recommended for planting where the shade is not too dense2 they both flower and fruit freely1 and are of neat procumbent growth4 ,amongst taller growing subjects for planting in the shade1 mention may be made of the holly and yew1 both of which thrive beneath the shade and drip of forest trees and where they often assume a dwarf1 procumbent habit of growth4 ,two at least of the recent shrubs introduced from ,china have just claims to be included in the list of suitable species for planting in the shade4 ,these are ,sarcoccos humile and ,s4 ruscifolia4 ,they are of particularly neat growth1 with persistent leaves and bear yellowish-white flowers4 ,the ,common ,ling or ,heather1 ,blackberry1 and ,andromeda ,catesbi all succeed well in the shade of trees1 particularly if the soil be inclined to peat4 ,it frequently happens that the soil beneath large trees is thoroughly exhausted1 and that the small1 fibrous rootlets are so abundant as to render planting almost impossible4 ,under such conditions it is advisable to first gently loosen the soil1 without disturbing the larger roots1 and add a top-dressing of1 say1 three or four inches of good friable loam4 ,this1 thoroughly incorporated with the existing soil1 will give the young plants a start and allow of their becoming strong and established before the encroaching roots rob the ground of its nourishment4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,insect ,,enemies ,,of ,,trees ,whether viewed from a commercial or sylvicultural point of view1 the widespread damage caused to timber from insect attacks can scarcely be overrated4 ,the depredations in various parts of our own country1 particularly in young plantations1 are bad enough1 but when compared with those of ,europe and ,america they appear insignificant4 ,in ,france and ,germany whole woods have been wiped out by insect pests1 while the ,government of ,bavaria were mulcted in something like #ajj1jjj by the destruction of its spruce forests4 ,the ,united ,states fares no better1 for we find that over a period of ten years the amount of timber killed and reduced in value was calculated at fully #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,the coffee plantations of ,ceylon suffered much from the attacks of a fungus1 and we could go on multiplying cases4 ,in our own country the ravages of the pine beetle and of the larch disease have caused incalculable damage2 indeed1 in the latter case there is hardly a plantation of larch where the presence of the fell disease cannot be distinctly traced1 while the pine beetle has ruined whole plantations both in ,england and ,scotland4 ,though the adult bark and wood-boring beetles do a great amount of damage1 yet that inflicted by the caterpillar or grub from the egg is greater still1 and in the case of fungi we have a typical example of their destructive properties in the case of the well-known larch disease4 ,the ,pine ,beetle 7,myelophilus ,hylurgus piniperda7 is a dreaded enemy to not a few species of ,pinus1 but particularly ,p4 sylvestris1 ,p4 laricio1 ,p4 austriaca and ,p4 ,strobus4 ,the injury done by this beetle consists in its destruction of the leading shoots of the tree it attacks4 ,it enters by boring a hole into the side of the shoot until it reaches the pith1 after which its course is directed upwards1 and an exit made at the terminal bud4 ,this tunnelling of the shoot so weakens it that frequently during stormy weather it is broken across at the point where the beetle entered4 ,not only are unhealthy trees attacked by the pine beetle1 but young and robust-growing specimens frequently fall a prey to its insidious depredations4 ,june1 ,july and ,august are the months when it is most commonly found4 ,the only remedy is to collect and burn the affected shoots--work that requires to be done with the utmost care to prevent the escape of the wary insect4 ,burning all brushwood in plantations is a great preventive4 ,the ,pine ,weevil 7,curculio ,hylobius ,abietis7 is another destructive insect1 which differs from the former in waging its attacks against the buds of the leaders and branches1 as also by eating patches of the bark here and there on the stems and branches4 ,the various species of ,abies suffer most1 but the pines are occasionally attacked as well4 ,it is always most destructive in young plantations growing on the margins of old woods1 and equally bad amongst trees that have been planted on the site of a former pine plantation4 ,the beetle is about half an inch long1 and nearly black4 ,one remedy1 probably the best1 is to place fresh pieces of pine bark on the ground1 beneath the infested trees4 ,by shaking the trees and examining the traps the following morning1 many may be destroyed4 ,bostrichus typographus is another pest of our woodlands1 and may frequently be seen1 like fine white wool1 spreading over the stem and branches of the silver and other firs4 ,it spreads with terrible rapidity1 first appearing in small patches here and there on the bole1 and particularly on the under sides of the branches4 ,the tree infested soon becomes unhealthy1 and frequently dies off prematurely4 ,trees growing in low-lying1 heavy ground would seem to fall a first prey to this insect4 ,bostrichus laricis is nearly allied to the former1 but its devastations1 which are1 however1 not very deadly1 are principally confined to the larch4 ,it is usually known as the 8larch blight40 ,the ,pine ,shoot ,moths 7,retinia buoliana and ,r4 turionella7 would seem to be more numerous in this country than is generally supposed4 ,quite lately ,i visited a large plantation of young ,scotch fir1 the terminal buds of which were greatly injured by the caterpillars of this elaborately-coloured moth4 ,the moth lays its eggs at the base of the buds1 and into these the caterpillars enter by hollowing out the centre1 thus destroying their vitality and causing them to take on a withered appearance and to feel soft and empty to the touch4 ,trees infested by this insect resemble greatly in their stunted shoots and exudation of resin such as have become a prey to the ,pine beetle 7,myelophilus piniperda71 only in the latter case it is the fresh young shoot and not the bud that is attacked4 ,the ,retinia would seem1 from all my notes and observations1 to be most abundant in what might be termed neglected fir plantations1 that is1 where the trees have suffered from overcrowding1 or from unfavourable conditions as to soil1 etc41 and particularly when the wood is composed entirely of one species4 ,there is no method of dealing with large infested areas1 for the attacked trees have repeatedly been cut over and removed without any seeming diminution in the numbers of the insect4 ,one experiment with a small infested corner has been rewarded with good results1 viz4 the lighting of a fire to windward1 and causing the smoke of coal tar to pass over the infected area4 ,this might be worth trying in the case of fruit trees infested by particular insects4 ,the ,larch ,miner 7,coleophora laricella74--,few1 other than those specially interested in tree diseases1 have the remotest idea that the yellow1 withered appearance of many of our ,english larch plantations is due to the larv of the above tiny moth4 ,it usually attacks young trees1 say1 from five to twenty years old1 and although it may not kill them out1 yet the repeated onslaughts year after year tend to keep the trees in an unhealthy condition1 and so render them liable to other and more deadly diseases4 ,unfortunately the attacks of the larch miner are by no means confined1 as is usually supposed1 to trees growing under unfavourable conditions1 for ,i have this season noticed in an unusually healthy1 fast-growing plantation in ,sussex that almost every tree was more or less affected4 ,certainly in another large extent of larch in ,gloucestershire which ,i examined lately1 where nine-tenths of the trees were being ruined by the ,peziza1 the larch miner was very abundant2 but1 ,i think1 that young trees1 whatever may be their state of health1 suffer alike1 although where hard-wooded trees form a portion of the crop the larch certainly suffers less than when grown in pure woods4 ,the moth lays its eggs at the end of ,june on the needles of the larch2 the caterpillar mining into and feeding upon the interior of the needle causes it to turn faded and yellow4 ,it lives in the tube thus formed during the winter1 changing to a pupa1 and ultimately to a moth4 ,it is a most difficult matter in the case of this insect1 as1 indeed1 of all others that are fairly abundant1 to suggest a remedy1 and ,i have looked over and examined larch plantations that are differently situated in many respects to find out under what condition the attacks are most persistent1 but with little or no success--healthy and unhealthy1 native or ,tyrolese1 faring alike when grown as a pure crop4 ,where the larches are intermixed with hard-wooded trees--sycamore1 oak and beech--the attacks are certainly less frequent1 as ,i have noticed in a number of cases4 ,trees growing at high altitudes do not seem to suffer less than those only a few feet above sea-level1 and this point ,i have paid particular attention to4 ,whether the wounds caused by this insect will serve as a nidus for the spores of ,peziza ,willkommii has yet to be determined1 but special importance should be attached to all larch-feeding insects1 and their depredations minimized to as great an extent as possible4 ,the ,pine ,sawfly 7,lophyrus ,pini74--,fortunately1 this insect is not abundant in the ,british ,isles1 though on the ,continent the damage it does in the pine forests is by no means inconsiderable4 ,the insect may readily be recognized by its wide1 flattish body1 and usually dark appearance4 ,having attained to full size in the trees1 they form cocoons among the foliage or on the stems1 and remain in this condition until the following spring1 when1 in ,april or ,may1 the perfect insects make their appearance4 ,the male is considerably smaller than the female1 while the full-grown caterpillar1 which is of a greenish-yellow colour1 with a row of black spots on either side1 is about an inch long4 ,the remedial measures are not at all easy1 especially when a large number of trees are attacked1 but single specimens may be entirely cleared by shaking the caterpillars into a sheet placed beneath the tree4 ,illustration3 7a7 ,,willow ,,beetle 7,phyllodecta vulgatissima71 ,,and 7b7 ,,its ,,larva4 ,the ,larch ,aphis 7,adelgis laricis7 and ,giant ,sirex 7,sirex gigas7 are both1 more or less1 harmful to the larch4 ,the latter is a formidable and splendid insect1 which is1 however1 not very abundant in this country4 ,generally felled trees1 or such as are somewhat sickly1 are chosen by the female in which to lay her eggs4 ,these are deposited beneath the bark by means of the powerful ovipositor1 and in course of time the whitish cylindrical maggots make an appearance1 and with their strong jaws form large borings in the affected tree4 ,cutting down and burning infested trees is the only practical remedy4 ,the ,willow ,beetle 7,phyllodecta vulgatissima7 causes considerable damage to osier plantations1 and would appear to be greatly on the increase of late years4 ,much damage has been done to osier holts in various parts of the country1 and in northern ,ireland the ravages of this beetle were particularly noticeable during the past five years4 ,the insect1 which is metallic green or blue in colour1 passes the winter in the adult state1 at which time it may be found amongst refuse of the osier beds1 such as the heaps of bark1 and also at the base of old stools and beneath stones or other shelter4 ,the larv have a tough yellowish cuticle with conspicuous brown bristles1 the head and prothorax being black and hard4 ,the eggs are laid on the undersides of the leaves in spring1 and when the larv are hatched they feed on the leaves1 eating holes quite through to the upper surface4 ,burning all rubbish in the osier beds is to be recommended1 and spraying with ,paris green or lead arsenate has been found useful4 ,the ,larch ,sawfly 7,nematus ,erichsonii74--,this is a species of sawfly the larv of which bear considerable resemblance to those of the caterpillar of the pine sawfly1 and also to that of the better known gooseberry caterpillar4 ,the larv are about three-quarters of an inch long1 and possess twenty feet4 ,from ,july to ,august they feed on the leaves of the larch1 and a plantation that has been attacked presents a partially leafless condition with quantities of the brown cylindrical cocoon cases lying amongst the grass beneath the trees4 ,there have been several notable instances in which larch plantations have suffered severely from the attacks of this insect1 and in northern ,england1 particularly ,cumberland1 whole areas of plantation have been attacked4 ,burning all brushwood and grass beneath the trees in infected plantations is probably the best means of lessening the numbers of this dread insect in our larch plantations4 ,the ,spruce ,gall ,aphis 7,chermes abietis74--,this is a common insect1 and one that renders many fine young spruce trees very unsightly by reason of the cone-like excrescences that are formed by the action of the insect on the shoots of the infested specimen4 ,the formation of this excrescence is brought about by the female aphis piercing with her beak1 or sucker1 one of the buds1 and drawing off the sap1 the consequence being an unusual growth at that part4 ,when the young larv appear1 they also1 by piercing the gall1 extract the juices1 and the gall enlarging soon causes the larv to become embedded at the bases of the leaves1 which1 by this time1 have become curiously malformed4 ,the insects are scarcely one-tenth of an inch long4 ,illustration3 ,,elm ,,tree ,,destroyer ,a4 ,entrance of ,parent ,tube4 ,b4 ,insect in ,tube4 ,c4 ,an imperfect ,tube arrested from want of nourishment4 ,d4 ,scolytus ,destructor4 ,natural size4 ,e4 ,lateral ,tubes with ,larv1 some changing to the ,pupa state4 ,the only remedy is to collect the cone-like excrescences and have them destroyed1 except in the case of badly infested trees1 which should be cut down and burned4 ,the ,elm ,tree ,destroyer 7,scolytus destructor7 is about one-fifth of an inch long1 stout and cylindrical1 and usually confines its depredations to the elm4 ,in the beginning of ,june this beetle bores into the inner bark1 where it forms galleries1 along the margins of which are laid the eggs4 ,cutting down and burning badly-attacked trees is the best remedy1 but promoting exuberant health of the infested specimens by means of enriching the soil has been attended with promising results4 ,the ,goat ,moth 7,cossus ligniperda7 is most frequently found on the willow1 oak1 lime and other trees4 ,being not only one of our largest native moths1 but also one of the most destructive1 its ravages are much dreaded1 the holes or tunnels made by the moth being of large size--large enough to admit the little finger4 ,filling up the tunnels with a mixture of soot1 lime and cow manure is an excellent remedy4 ,the ,lackey ,moth 7,clisiocampa neustria71 so called from the gay colours of the caterpillar1 is another destructive woodland pest1 eating wholesale the leaves of the oak1 elm1 beech1 poplar and most fruit trees4 ,in ,april and ,may the caterpillars are hatched1 when the leaves are just unfolding4 ,they form a nest or web of silken hairs1 generally amongst the smaller branches1 in which they live during the day1 sallying forth in the evening to feed on the tender foliage4 ,being very plentiful1 they are usually difficult to deal with1 but hand-picking and destroying the cocoons are the only practicable methods of meeting the evil4 ,the ,winter ,moth 7,cheimatobia brumata7 and the ,lime ,looper ,moth 7,hybernia defolaria74--,the caterpillars of both these moths are very destructive to the leaves of elms1 limes and willows1 but particularly to the buds of the apple tree4 ,when full grown they descend to the ground1 where they cover themselves and become chrysalides1 from which the moths appear from ,october to ,december4 ,being almost wingless1 it is by no means difficult to prevent their ascending the trees by painting a band of any sticky substance around the stems of the trees that it is expected they might attempt to crawl up4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,larva of the ,cossus ,ligniperda1 three years old1 ready to change into the ,chrysalis state4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,cossus ,moth4 ,b4 ,chrysalis from which the perfect ,insect has escaped4 ,c4 ,cluster of ,eggs4 ,d4 ,magnified ,ovum4 ,,the ,,goat ,,moth ,the ,red ,spider 7,tetranychus74--,in hot and dry summers trees suffer much from this member of the mite family4 ,limes and poplars1 as also many other trees1 are greatly injured1 the foliage turning to a russety brown colour1 and falling off long before the usual time4 ,there are several remedies1 such as fumigating and spraying with a solution of soft soap1 but none of these are applicable to a plantation of trees1 or even a single specimen of large size4 ,the ,thorn ,fly 7,aphis ,cratgi7 attacks whole hedges or brakes of ,quick1 especially those in the nursery border2 as a rule1 the younger and more healthy plants first fall a prey to its depredations4 ,sponging with tobacco water1 or almost any of the prescribed solutions will rapidly exterminate the fly2 but such work is laborious when a large brake or long hedge of the thorn has to be gone over4 ,the ,cockchafer 7,melolontha vulgaris7 is usually pretty abundant1 and does most damage by eating the leaves of the sycamore1 beech1 oak1 cherry and many other trees4 ,it will also eat the roots of most young trees1 but those of pine in particular4 ,the insect is about #a in4 long1 and of a chestnut-brown colour on the upper part of the body1 while the head and some other parts of the body are of a bronzy green1 and thickly covered with yellowish-white hairs4 ,in ,april and ,may the eggs are laid in a hole in the ground about #e in4 deep1 and the grubs are hatched in ,july4 ,they are of a dirty-white colour and much wrinkled4 ,in this state1 however1 they do but little harm2 but1 after having changed their skins and remained in a torpid state during winter1 come to the surface in spring and eat the roots of almost any plant that comes in their way4 ,they again burrow deeper at the approach of winter1 coming to the surface again in spring1 and1 when full grown1 are about #a in4 long1 and almost in4 in diameter4 ,the perfect insects do not live more than about twelve days1 and are easily known by their heavy1 awkward flight towards the evening4 ,the ,laburnum ,moth 7,cemiostoma laburnella7 is fairly abundant--in ,england1 at least2 and1 in some instances1 every leaf of a tree has been eaten almost wholesale by the caterpillars of this pretty moth4 ,the insect is about one-eighth of an inch in length1 and three-tenths of an inch across the fully expanded wing4 ,it is of a silvery-white colour4 ,the greenish-grey caterpillars are about in4 long4 ,by burning the attacked leaves great numbers of the caterpillars may be destroyed1 while1 by shaking the trees in ,may and ,august1 the moths will fly out1 and may be caught in a butterfly net4 ,illustration3 ,,wood ,,leopard ,,moth 7,zeuzera sculi7 7,very destructive to trees1 particularly around ,london7 ,wood ,leopard ,moth 7,zeuzera sculi74--,the caterpillar of this beautiful moth is very destructive to the beech1 ash1 birch1 elm1 walnut1 privet1 etc41 which it bores into1 eating and living on the wood4 ,usually young trees or the branches of old specimens are attacked1 and the tunnelling is confined in the former either to the pithy centre or the soft wood near the bark4 ,the moths appear about mid-,july1 and the female1 by piercing the bark with her powerful ovipositors1 deposits her eggs1 one in each hole4 ,three years are required for the caterpillar to arrive at maturity when it is nearly #b in4 long4 ,both in form and colour the leopard moth is particularly elegant1 the head and thorax being covered with a thick white pile1 the body with a black down1 fringed with white at each joint4 ,the wings are white with yellowish-brown veins1 a row of rounded bluish spots running between every two4 ,by stuffing a piece of tow in gas tar1 or placing cyanide of potassium in the hole and closing the aperture1 the caterpillar may be overpowered and destroyed4 ,a bent wire has often been successfully used in dislodging the caterpillar4 ,the ,holly ,fly 7,phytomyza aquifolia74--,the foliage of the holly is frequently very much disfigured by the grubs of the holly fly1 which burrow beneath the upper skin of the leaves1 feeding on the internal substance4 ,this imparts a blistered and discoloured appearance1 which1 in the case of ornamental varieties1 is anything but desirable4 ,probably no great damage to the infested trees is brought about1 but the wholesale destruction of the leaves1 as is often the case1 cannot but weaken the plant4 ,in ,may and ,june the flies make their appearance1 and lay their eggs beneath the upper skin of the leaf1 from which the grubs1 about one-fifth of an inch long1 are hatched4 ,these work their way beneath the skin of the leaves1 forming small tracks of a more or less circular shape1 thus causing the large and unsightly blisters4 ,they quit the leaves about ,march1 by making small holes in the skin of the leaf1 and afterwards become chrysalides4 ,the fly is small and inconspicuous4 ,picking off and destroying affected leaves1 or crushing the grub by pinching the blisters are the only ways of lessening the attacks4 ,the ,oak ,leaf ,roller ,moth 7,tortrix viridana74--,the widespread destruction caused to oak-woods in almost every part of the country by the caterpillars of this little moth would seem to be on the increase from year to year4 ,but it is not the oak alone that suffers1 for numbers of the hornbeam and beech are in an equally pitiable condition4 ,having closely watched this insect for several years1 mainly with the view of striving to keep it in check or devise some means of destruction1 ,i have come to the conclusion that a few individual trees may1 at considerable expense1 be rid of the pest1 but in the case of whole woodlands artificial treatment is quite out of the question4 ,many observers are under the impression that the caterpillar is most abundant where the trees grow closest together1 and when we consider that both wind and rain destroy numbers of these1 the fact of isolated trees1 which1 consequently1 are most exposed to storms1 being comparatively free from attack is not to be wondered at4 ,so far as we know at present1 the only way to diminish in any appreciable degree the numbers of this insect is by encouraging as much as possible its enemies4 ,the rook1 jackdaw1 starling1 thrush and sparrow help immensely in destroying the caterpillars1 and the occupants of a rookery will frequently in a few hours clear the pest from the trees over a considerable area of woodland4 ,the same has been noted with regard to the starling1 and ,i have frequently seen the trees over an infested area almost black with this particular bird when in the act of feeding on the caterpillars4 ,in support of this recommendation it may be stated that insects are far less numerous in the forests of ,st4 ,germain1 ,senart and ,fontainebleau than in the ,bois de ,boulogne1 where1 of course1 small birds are scarcer4 ,sometimes with the oak leaf roller moth its excessive number proves the means of its extinction1 the foliage being devoured before the caterpillars are fully fed2 while1 as is usual at the season of attack1 parasitic flies and ichneumons destroy them wholesale1 and a box of caterpillars sent to me the other day revealed the fact that each one had succumbed to the attacks of one of these enemies4 ,the life history of this moth is full of interest1 and the curious manner in which it rolls up the leaves is well worthy of study4 ,the ,felted ,beech ,coccus 7,cryptococcus ,fagi74--,judging from the numerous specimens of the beech coccus that are being forwarded to me for identification1 and the inquiries as to how this insect pest may be dealt with1 its presence in almost every part of the country is indicated4 ,it was only in #ahfb that ,dr4 ,balfour reported the presence of this coccus in ,scotland1 and ,i remember well how the beautiful beech hedges on the ,penicuik ,estate1 ,mid-,lothian1 were ravaged by the insect in #ahge4 ,in ,germany1 however1 the beech coccus was noticed as early as #ahdi4 ,it is probable that the beech coccus also extends to the ,weymouth pine1 as at ,keston1 ,lord ,derby's estate in ,kent1 several of these trees were badly affected with an insect that appeared to me identical with this pest1 and other instances of the ,weymouth pine being similarly attacked have been recorded4 ,since the appearance of the insect in ,scotland it has spread southwards rapidly1 but it is only of late years that its ravages have been felt severely1 and that owners of woodlands have been driven to do everything in their power to combat its injurious effects4 ,i think ,i have nowhere seen the insect so abundant as on the ,burnham beeches1 which ,i visited in company with several members of the ,royal ,horticultural ,society at the request of the ,lord ,mayor and the ,corporation of the ,city of ,london4 ,here1 speaking broadly1 all the trees are affected in a greater or less degree1 independent altogether of the age or health of the trees4 ,amongst the beautiful beech woods of ,hertfordshire1 where the timber produced commands a higher price than that from any other station in ,britain excepting the ,chiltern ,hills1 the trees are suffering severely4 ,after a careful inspection of many beech woods1 ,i am at a loss to account for the spread of this insect4 ,usually1 in the case of injurious forest insects1 the presence of dead and dying wood and the general health of the plantations have much to do with the attack1 but this would not appear to be the cause in the case of the beech coccus4 ,even old and diseased trees do not appear to suffer more than the young and healthy specimens1 and at ,burnham some of the youngest and fastest growing specimens were by far the worst affected1 appearing in parts as if coated with drifted snow4 ,neither would soil appear to have anything to do with the spread of the insect1 as on chalky1 sandy and loamy soils1 as well as on shale rock1 the trees are all more or less affected4 ,i cannot say that unhealthy trees are more liable to be attacked than vigorous ones1 for ,i have observed diseased trees to be sometimes quite free from the coccus1 whilst healthy specimens in the immediate neighbourhood were badly infested4 ,this was particularly noticeable on some park trees on two estates that ,i visited lately2 in each instance the majestic boles rose to a height of fully #ij ft4 and contained about #ajj cubic ft4 of wood4 ,at one time ,i had an idea that beech trees when grown too thickly were most liable to be attacked1 but more extensive observations have disproved the hypothesis4 ,by some it has been suggested that the drainage of ground on which the beech is growing will facilitate the spread of the insect by bringing about an unhealthy state of the trees4 ,to some extent this has been noticed at ,burnham1 and particularly in ,gloucestershire1 where a lake had been formed contiguous to a beech plantation4 ,in another instance that came under my notice the burrowing of rabbits to an unusual extent was blamed for the appearance of the insect and the gradual death of the trees1 the soil in this case being sand and gravel4 ,it is a strange fact1 too1 that a badly infested tree may be standing amongst others that are perfectly free from the attack4 ,under a magnifying glass the insect appears of a yellowish colour1 irregularly globular in shape1 and almost transparent4 ,it is thickly covered over by a secretion from the body1 which looks like fine waxen-white threads or cotton wool1 which effectually screens the insect from observation4 ,with its proboscis it sucks up the juices1 which are readily reached through the thin1 smooth bark4 ,when badly attacked1 the foliage becomes meagre and has a burnt appearance1 then the tips of the branches1 and finally whole branches die off4 ,afterwards the bark becomes dry and cracks1 usually longitudinally1 falling off in flakes with the death of the tree4 ,the timber of trees that have been killed by the coccus is dry1 short-grained1 and by no means comparable with that of healthy specimens4 ,from whatever cause1 the presence of the insect in our plantations is much to be deplored1 and already many fine old trees in different parts of the country have succumbed to the attack4 ,it is a curious fact that certain trees fall victims to the attack of this insect very rapidly1 often in the short space of two years1 while others of equal age and vigour1 and1 as far as can be seen1 similarly situated1 live for many years4 ,fully grown trees are1 in my opinion1 more liable to be killed quickly than younger specimens4 ,as regards remedies1 these can only conveniently be applied to single specimens and are scarcely practicable on a large scale4 ,that success has1 however1 attended the application of certain remedies ,i am quite convinced1 for several valuable ornamental trees on a lawn in ,buckinghamshire that were badly affected by the pest are now1 twelve months after being treated1 quite free from the insect1 and do not appear to have suffered in consequence4 ,in this case the remedy was simple1 and consisted merely in scrubbing the tree stems where affected with a stiff brush dipped in an emulsion of soft soap1 this being rubbed well into all crevices of the bark4 ,only one application was given1 but as the trees were nearly #ajj ft4 high with many large limbs1 which also showed the presence of the coccus1 the work took a considerable time4 ,however1 the results well repaid the expense of labour4 ,another excellent remedy is to mix together equal portions of paraffin and soft soap1 and when required for use add twenty times their bulk of hot water1 stirring all well together4 ,this may be applied either with a scrubbing brush or syringed on to the affected parts4 ,other measures of a more drastic nature have been found to be beneficial1 but those given are probably the simplest and best4 ,three or four handfuls of lime to a bucket of water is an excellent application1 the only drawback being the unpleasant colour imparted to the trees4 ,this is a simple remedy1 and may be applied with a painter's or scrubbing brush4 ,it has saved many trees on an estate near ,london4 ,wireworms4--,these occasionally do a great deal of damage in beds of seedling trees1 particularly conifers1 and in some instances they attack and destroy the seeds before germination4 ,in the case of young conifers they are gnawed completely through just above or at the ground level1 the beds in many instances being strewn with the cut-over plants4 ,abies nobilis and ,a4 ,nordmanniana suffer to a great extent1 and ,i have frequently been at my wit's end to put a stop to the repeated depredations4 ,in the case of a newly-formed nursery or freshly-made-up seed-beds the attack of the wireworm is always most pronounced4 ,in the case of fresh nursery ground1 paring off and burning a couple of inches of the top soil in the autumn has been attended with excellent results1 as has also dressing the ground with gas lime4 ,when seedlings are attacked1 hand-picking1 with the use of sliced carrots1 mangold or potatoes1 varied with pieces of oilcake as a bait1 are to be recommended4 ,dressing the seeds with red lead is very advantageous to prevent birds and mice from attacking freshly-sown quantities4 ,injury from wireworm is not likely to cause any serious consequences after the first year's growth of the plants1 especially if the ground has been kept clean and free from weeds during the egg-laying season in ,june4 ,illustration3 ,,witch',s ,,broom ,,on ,,the ,,willow 7,,summer ,,appearance7 ,the above are only a few of the many insects that injure our forest trees2 but those treated of are the most familiar to the forester1 and those whose attacks he has most frequently to wage war against4 ,willow trees all over ,london are suffering severely from attacks of a mite insect4 ,it is known as the 8,witch's ,broom0 on the ,willow 7,eriophyes triradiatus74 ,remedial measures are frequently of little avail1 more particularly when a whole wood or plantation is attacked2 but with single specimens the numbers may readily be lessened by the methods suggested4 ,illustration3 ,,witch',s ,,broom ,,on ,,the ,,willow 7,,winter ,,aspect7 ,keeping the woodlands free of dead and dying trees and branches is a preventive of insect attacks that should never be neglected4 ,as showing the injury that can be inflicted on our forest trees by some of these insect pests1 the following cases may be mentioned3-- ,during fifteen years 7between #ahec-fh7 the spruce in ,east ,prussia1 ,poland and ,russia was killed over an area of #g1jjj square ,german miles2 while in the ,bavarian forests1 the loss to the ,revenue in one year was #dj1jjj4 ,in both cases the destructive insect ,liparis monacha was the cause of injury4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,fungus ,,growth ,,on ,,trees ,some fungi attack living wood1 some dead1 and some both2 and1 while the majority are found growing on the stem1 others attack the twigs1 leaves or root4 ,they are of all sizes1 from the almost microscopical to the beefsteak fungus1 which often exceeds a couple of feet in diameter4 ,some are jelly-like in consistency1 others leathery or almost woody in texture2 and while certain kinds spring up and disappear in a few days1 others remain intact on the tree stem for several years4 ,in shape1 too1 they vary considerably1 from the curious ,jew's ear fungus1 which greatly resembles the human organ1 to the giant puff-ball1 that sometimes measures four feet in circumference4 ,then the cup-shaped and parasol fungi are appropriately named1 while the flat1 shelf-like arrangement of a species that frequents the oak and elm has interested many a casual observer4 ,excepting perhaps green1 they are found of almost all colours from dull brown to the brightest crimson1 while beautifully spotted and mottled kinds are not uncommon4 ,healthy trees growing under normal conditions are little affected by fungi1 whereas such as are predisposed to infection1 by unsuitable soil1 excessive drought or dampness1 injury by accident or otherwise--in fact1 those in a weakened condition however brought about--are1 of course1 far more liable to attacks4 ,though certain species of fungi only attack dead and decomposing wood1 and are1 therefore1 the consequence and not the cause of disease1 there are others1 fortunately fewer in number1 that attack healthy living trees and are the direct cause of disease and death4 ,the prevention and extermination of fungus pests is by no means an easy matter1 but by keeping the woods free from dead and dying trees and branches1 and by giving immediate attention to outbreaks of the malady1 much harm may be averted4 ,illustration3 ,,larch ,,canker ,in the following notes1 only the most serious cases are dealt with1 or1 in other words1 such fungi referred to as are commonly met with and cause most damage to our woodland trees4 ,larch ,disease4--,in all probability the larch disease or larch canker owes its origin to the minute spores formed in the fructification of the now well-known fungus--,peziza ,willkommii4 ,it has been pretty conclusively proved that these spores can only find a footing where the rind of the bark has become in some way injured1 such as might be occasioned by the puncture of an insect1 by wind1 frost or from many other causes4 ,the spores send down their germ tubes into the cambium1 between the bark and the wood1 where the moisture and nourishment afforded causes rapid development of the fungus4 ,this soon spreads to the cells of the wood1 and the annual layers either entirely cease to grow1 or become disorganized and crippled in growth1 causing a hollow appearance of the stem at the point of attack4 ,the surrounding bark1 by its attempts to heal over the wound1 causes a thickened or burly appearance of the trunk1 thus imparting to affected trees the cankered1 swollen and distorted look that is so distinguished a characteristic4 ,the disease appears in this country on the larch1 both common and ,tyrolese1 at all stages of growth up to thirty years1 but rarely after that age4 ,i have examined a plantation of only four years' growth sadly infested by the ,peziza whereas1 in other cases1 the trees may be fully twenty years old before being attacked4 ,cause4--,under what conditions of growth the larch is most susceptible to the ,peziza is still a matter of vague uncertainty1 but there can be little doubt that an enfeebled constitution1 as fully explained in the article on the larch 8,trees for ,economic ,planting01 aided by our peculiarly erratic climate1 has much to answer for4 ,the variableness of our spring weather is1 no doubt1 one of the predisposing causes of disease1 for1 although no degree of frost experienced in this country can injure the tree when leafless1 yet few are more sensitive when in young foliage4 ,bearing on the subject of the larch disease1 ,i have communications from almost every part of the country1 and have personally visited and examined many of the worst infested plantations1 particularly in ,england and ,wales4 ,soil1 if we exclude peaty1 would seem to have little or nothing to do with encouraging the disease1 as ,i have found it equally virulent on dry1 sandy and heavy damp soils1 but worse on chalk4 ,curiously enough1 the disease is hardly known in the peat bogs of ,ireland1 and there the rainfall is excessive4 ,it is equally strange that it first made its appearance in the ,eastern and drier parts of ,england1 and gradually proceeded to the more humid ,west4 ,i have1 however1 noticed it in certain low-lying still1 and damp portions of some woodlands1 and where frosts would be most prevalent1 but such cases are not general4 ,remedy4--,several remedies have been more or less successfully tried with a view to getting rid of the disease on trees1 such as by cutting and scraping out the injured portions1 and applying a suitable dressing2 but such remedies1 although suited for single specimens1 cannot be applied to a whole area of infested trees4 ,under exceptionally favourable conditions1 ,i have found the larch to outgrow the disease1 though the cankered1 swollen stems are never afterwards of great value for constructive purposes4 ,prevention in the present case is undoubtedly the best measure1 for when once it has made headway1 the larch disease is most difficult to cope with4 ,by planting only sound1 healthy trees1 with uninjured roots in the most suitable soils and situations1 and retaining these in as healthy a condition as possible1 can we guard against attacks of the disease4 ,hardwoods mixed with the larch are to be recommended4 ,polyporus squamosus attacks the elm and other hard-wooded trees and rapidly brings about decay4 ,it is one of our commonest species on diseased trees4 ,the ,sycamore ,fungus 7,rhytisma acerinum74--,every one interested in trees must be familiar with the conspicuous black1 pitch-like spots which so mar the appearance of sycamore leaves4 ,these are due to the above-named fungus which1 appearing as small yellowish spots on the undersides of the leaves towards the end of ,june1 gradually increase in size and intensity of colour until they attain to fully half an inch in diameter and are inky black1 with a margin of dirty yellow4 ,the attacked portion of the leaf becomes wrinkled and much thickened in texture1 while all the affected foliage drops off prematurely4 ,after lying on the ground during the winter1 the thread-like spores are produced in large quantities at the time when the foliage of the sycamore is appearing in ,may and ,june4 ,the sycamore is not the only tree affected by this fungus1 for the ,norway ,maple and our native ,acer campestre are equally liable to attack1 and have in some instances suffered very severely from this cause4 ,the fungus is becoming more plentiful1 and it disfigures the maple and sycamore leaves to a wide extent4 ,illustration3 ,,polyporus ,,squamosus 7,,on ,,elm ,,tree7 ,rhytisma punctata may at once be distinguished from the above species by the many small black spots studded thickly together1 which combine to form the large conspicuous blotches for which affected trees are remarkable4 ,both species are sometimes found on the same leaf4 ,as the attacks of this fungus continue from year to year1 and cause almost every leaf to drop off prematurely1 the health of the trees is greatly impaired1 and they become an easy prey to the still more destructive coral spot fungus1 ,nectria cinnabarina4 ,by burning the leaves affected with ,rhytisma before the spores are liberated in spring1 the spread of the fungus is prevented in a simple and effective manner4 ,the sycamore fungus is very plentiful on trees around ,london4 ,the canker of hard-wooded trees is brought about by one of the ,nectria 7,n4 ditissima71 and is very common in every part of the country1 affecting the oak1 beech1 ash1 sycamore and fruit trees generally4 ,the ash perhaps suffers most1 the timber turning black and being quite unfitted for structural purposes4 ,it is strictly parasitical1 growing on wounded portions of the stem and branch1 and spreads with great rapidity1 attacking trees of all ages4 ,we have known the trees in a plantation of ash to be quite destroyed by this canker1 which attacks most freely those growing on wet1 sour land4 ,this should be a warning to planters to avoid such soil4 ,the ,red-rot ,fungus 7,fomes annosus or ,trametes radiciperda7 attacks the roots of several species of pine1 particularly the ,scotch1 ,corsican and ,weymouth1 as also the ,spruce and ,silver ,fir4 ,it is probably the most destructive of the family1 attacking living roots and spreading rapidly from tree to tree4 ,the trees1 when affected1 quickly turn sickly and die1 the wood becoming spongy and of a brownish colour1 with distinct black spots4 ,the only remedy is to take out affected trees and burn them root and branch1 replanting the ground with beech or elm4 ,though one of the most destructive fungi in coniferous woodlands1 its attacks are by no means confined to these alone1 since it is found on the roots of several hard-wooded species1 such as the filbert1 hazel1 birch and beech4 ,quite recently a nut plantation in ,kent suffered severely from the attacks of this fungus1 whole lines of trees being killed outright before the cause was detected4 ,it spreads quickly underground from tree to tree1 and unless eradicated1 as it may easily be by uprooting affected trees and carefully destroying the mycelium1 much damage may result4 ,the ,white-rot ,fungus 7,fomes igniarius7 is usually found on hard-wooded trees1 and takes possession of wounds that may have been occasioned by the accidental breaking of a branch or stem injury4 ,oak trees suffer most from the attacks of this fungus1 which is often as large as a foot across1 and of a brownish colour4 ,it is named igniarius on account of the inner surface being used as tinder1 when prepared with saltpetre1 especially in the old days of flint and steel4 ,by removing the fungus and attending to the wound by cleaning away all dead and dying matter1 and coating with tar1 much benefit will ensue4 ,the ,leaf-shedding ,fungus or ,pine-leaf ,scurf 7,lophodermium pinastre7 is a well-known and widely distributed species1 and is usually found on the ,scotch and ,austrian ,pines4 ,the leaves1 when attacked1 wither suddenly and fall off1 the fungus being most prevalent after unusually dry weather1 or in early spring succeeded by a frosty winter4 ,it occurs both as a saprophyte on dead pine leaves and a parasite on the living foliage4 ,we have been most successful in combating the attacks and preventing the spread of the pest by spraying the affected parts with 8,bordeaux mixture40 ,young trees under ten years of age are most commonly attacked1 and when this occurs in the nursery borders1 the plants should be rooted out and burned4 ,on several ,scottish and ,english estates1 thousands of ,scotch ,pines have been killed out by the attacks of the leaf-shedding fungus4 ,one of the commonest fungi on old stumps is ,agaricus melleus4 ,it has no particular host1 being found alike on coniferous and hard-wooded trees1 and on both root and stem4 ,known as the honey fungus1 and edible1 this toadstool is about three inches in diameter1 and of a yellowish-brown or rusty colour4 ,it spreads with great rapidity both in the soil and between the bark and wood of the affected tree4 ,the only remedy is digging out and destroying the fungus1 and1 in the case of healthy young trees1 collecting and burning the mycelium4 ,next to the larch canker1 one of the most destructive diseases of forest trees is caused by attacks of the ,bladder-rust or ,cluster-cup 7,peridermium piniacicola74 ,it is a wound fungus and attacks almost every species of pine1 the ,scotch in particular1 especially when the trees are growing on light1 poor soils4 ,young trees up to1 say1 twenty years old are most commonly attacked by this fungus1 which appears like blisters1 emitting bright reddish-coloured spores4 ,rooting up and burning all affected trees is the best remedy4 ,illustration3 ,,polyporus ,,sulphureus 7,,on ,,white ,,poplar7 ,polyporus sulphureus attacks many species of trees--yew1 poplar1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,barking ,,oak ,previous to the war the price of oak bark--about #b #ajs4 per ton--rendered it questionable whether from a purely financial point of view the operations of stripping and harvesting should be undertaken4 ,now1 however1 with bark at fully three times that figure1 the operation is to be recommended4 ,the period of bark-stripping and harvesting is one of the most anxious seasons of the year with the forester1 as the quality of the bark is so largely dependent upon the weather during the time that intervenes between the stripping and stacking1 or delivery1 and not less so upon the carrying out of the work at the proper time1 to secure easy and expeditious peeling4 ,in most cases the time when the bud is just expanding into leaf is that which gives the greatest weight of bark of the best quality1 with the smallest amount of labour4 ,by deferring the work1 even for a few days1 there is often a loss in weight amounting to as much as #aj per cent41 and a great deterioration in quality4 ,even in the most favoured situations it is seldom that the season for stripping extends beyond twenty-eight days4 ,the advantages of early stripping are so well known that any comment on the subject is unnecessary2 suffice it to say that1 immediately the bark commences to 8run0 freely1 no time should be lost in making a start1 and the work should be prosecuted with vigour and dispatch until completed4 ,the proper time to commence barking cannot1 however1 be fixed with any amount of certainty1 much depending on the season1 whether early or late1 as well as on the district of the country in which the operation is to be performed4 ,during ordinary seasons1 and in most parts of ,england1 bark-stripping commences during the third week in ,april and continues for about a month1 or until such time as the trees are in full leafage1 whereas in some parts of ,scotland1 especially the north1 the operation is frequently nearly a month later4 ,no mistake can1 however1 arise as to the right time to start barking in any locality1 as in all cases the period when the bud is first bursting into leaf will be found the proper time for felling to insure easy stripping and the best quality of bark4 ,as the season of bark-stripping is1 therefore1 of short duration1 every preparation should be made beforehand--trees marked and numbered1 tools in readiness1 and squads arranged--so that an early start may be made1 as1 by deferring the work beyond the time stated above1 there is not only a perceptible loss in weight1 but considerable deterioration in the quality of bark as well4 ,elaborate directions regarding the arrangements of squads and tools to be used are unnecessary1 as almost every district has its own peculiarities in this way4 ,the tools generally in use are heavy axes and the cross-cut saw for felling1 hand-bills and saws for pruning1 peeling-irons or chisels for removing the bark1 scrapers for removing moss1 and light wooden mallets for beating refractory bark or such as cannot be removed by the peeling-irons alone4 ,previously to felling the trees a man or stout lad is sent before1 who removes the bark from the root upwards for a distance of #b ft4 or #c ft42 this not only prevents its being injured when laying in and felling the tree1 but is convenient for after-stripping as well4 ,when the stools are intended for reproduction great care is necessary to avoid tearing or loosening the bark from the roots4 ,after being thus prepared the trees are felled in the usual manner1 those under #f in4 in diameter being cut with the axe2 above that size it is found an economy of time and timber to fell with the cross-cut saw4 ,following in the rear of the cutters should be a squad of men1 to clear the trunk and larger limbs of all branches down to #a in4 in diameter1 leaving the limbs to be peeled as part of the tree4 ,heavy timber and large branches are usually peeled where they fall1 but it will be found convenient to have the smaller trees and branches carried out to some open space adjoining the stacking ground1 and peeled while one end is supported by means of two forked sticks placed against each other4 ,when the bark of small branches cannot readily be removed by the peeling-iron1 a smooth and flat stone is brought into use1 beside which the peeler sits1 and with one hand holds the branch on the stone1 moving it along from one end to the other1 at the same time applying the mallet with the other hand until the bark becomes loosened from the wood4 ,here it may be well to issue a caution against a too frequent use of the mallet1 which should never be brought into request when the bark can be otherwise removed from the wood1 as all hammering and beating not only diminishes the quality of tannin1 but has a tendency to blacken the fleshy part of the bark and cause rapid decay in a bad season4 ,the body1 or trunk bark1 is removed in lengths of from #cj in4 to #cf in41 and in as large pieces as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,barking ,,tools ,a dry1 open and airy situation1 convenient to the work1 but without the wood1 should be selected on which to harvest the bark1 and rather than this should be done in a sheltered1 humid spot1 the bark should be carted to some distance off4 ,the drying racks1 or ranges1 may be fully #b ft4 high1 drooping somewhat to one side1 and formed of forked sticks driven firmly in the ground1 while stout rods are placed transversely upon these4 ,it should also be so arranged as that not only may the rain be thrown off1 but so that the ends of the bark may be facing the prevailing wind1 thereby insuring a current of air through and beneath the mass4 ,after being carted or carried to the drying-ground1 the small bark is spread out loosely on the stage to a depth of about #f in41 and thatched or covered over with the larger pieces as a means of protection against rain4 ,each day's bark should be cleared up1 and put on the range the same evening1 and oftener1 if found necessary1 during damp showery weather1 keeping the white or fleshy part downwards and using the larger pieces as covers to run off the rain4 ,during favourable weather the bark will be ready for stacking in about a fortnight from the time it was placed on the stage1 but should close damp weather intervene1 it may be found necessary to turn the bark occasionally1 thus adding to the length of time required for harvesting4 ,it should1 however1 be remembered that the less turning the bark receives after being placed on the stage the better will the quality be4 ,well-seasoned bark has the fleshy side of a creamy colour1 whereas such as has been exposed to the sun or rain is of a dull brown1 and is wanting in tannin matter1 and consequently of inferior value4 ,as soon as the bark is thoroughly dry and ready for stacking1 which may readily be ascertained by its breaking freely across rather than bending or yielding to pressure1 it should be secured in a shed1 ricked1 or delivered to the tanner4 ,in stacking bark the rick should not be made too wide--say about #i ft4--but well hearted1 so that the side pieces may have a good fall or declivity outwards to throw off the rain4 ,the rick may be of any length1 according to the quantity of bark on hand1 and of a height proportionate to the width4 ,the largest pieces of bark should be reserved for thatching the rick1 the whole being covered over by a tarpaulin or waterproof cloth of some kind4 ,in most cases the bark is chipped previously to being sold1 but as this necessitates having a large shed at command1 the system is not generally adopted4 ,there are1 however1 several advantages accruing from this method1 not the least of which is that the bark may be chopped up as it is removed from the drying-stands1 thus saving the expense of stacking4 ,chopping the bark can also be done by the workmen during wet weather1 and when not otherwise engaged4 ,in computing the quantity of bark before stripping1 we have found the following data fairly reliable3-- #a4 ,a well-balanced tree with a good head will yield about #f cwt4 of bark for every ton of measurable timber1 if branches down to an inch in diameter are peeled4 #b4 ,hedgerow trees usually yield about a ton of bark to every three tons of timber4 #c4 ,trees growing in close woodland are usually thin barked1 the yield being about a ton of bark to every #d tons of timber4 #d4 ,oak poles will average five tons of timber to a ton of bark4 ,tall1 clean stems1 as are produced when the poles are grown thickly together1 with small heads1 give the smallest yield in proportion to the quantity of timber1 and short stems with spreading heads the largest4 ,the cost of production is as follows3-- s4 d4 ,labour1 peeling and harvesting #a #aj #j ,cartage to railway station1 including loading 7this is the average from six districts7 #j #g #f ,loss on four months' delay in selling the timber1 which1 but for the bark1 would have been felled in winter at #e per cent4 #j #e #j ,customary terms of payment1 less #b per cent4 #j #b #j ,superintendence1 etc4 #j #a #f ---------------------- #b #f #j ,it has been carefully estimated that there is a loss of fully #ab per cent4 of wood1 caused by felling the oak during the barking season4 ,in other words1 the proportion of sap wood to the whole tree is about #ad per cent41 which1 for the majority of purposes to which oak timber is applied1 is rendered by the peeling of little or no value4 ,we may say1 however1 that #b per cent4 can be profitably utilized1 which still leaves us with a considerable loss on the whole tree4 ,the average price of the best oak is #bs4 per ft41 #ab per cent4 of which is as nearly as possible #c;d4 per ft41 or #a #ags4 #f;d4 per ton of bark to #aej ft4 of wood4 ,this1 with the #b #fs4 per ton cost of production1 brings the total to #d #cs4 #f;d41 leaving a considerable balance on the wrong side at pre-war prices4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,charcoal ,amongst dead or dying industries of our woodlands that have been revived by the war1 none is at present receiving a greater share of attention than the manufacture of charcoal4 ,there was a time1 and not so long ago1 when the merry voice and ring of the charcoal burner's axe were familiar sounds in some of the ,kentish and other forests of ,southern ,england2 but keen foreign competition1 aided by preferential carriage rates1 have caused this time-honoured industry to slip from our hands2 indeed1 it was almost forgotten till again called into existence for the battlefields of ,france and ,flanders4 ,the trenches must be warmed without apprising the enemy of the existence of our men1 and in order to do this and prevent soaring signals of smoke1 the tent brazier is filled with glowing charcoal4 ,except1 perhaps1 in ,kent and ,surrey and the ,english ,lake district1 where small quantities of charcoal are annually produced for the hop kilns and iron smelting1 charcoal burning is a thing of the past4 ,the expert charcoal burner is now a difficult man to find1 and an independent1 highly-paid workman when you have found him4 ,successive members of the same family in ,kent have been known to follow the occupation of charcoal burning for fully a century and a half1 and it is distinctly a skilled industry1 and confined to few4 ,usually the men work in threes1 and1 having selected a piece of ground sheltered from the prevailing winds and in a position to which easy access with wood can be obtained1 a rough hut is erected for the accommodation of these nocturnal workmen4 ,water1 sand or sawdust and turf are other requisites that must be provided as the work proceeds4 ,a couple of large tarpaulins and half a dozen straw-covered hurdles are other necessities4 ,from the point of economy in carting the wood to the kilns it may seem that shifting the position of burning from one part of the woodland to another is to be recommended4 ,such is1 however1 not the case1 as the hard1 dry1 ash-covered site1 where charring has already been carried out1 has its advantages1 and the cost of transferring the workmen's hut and tools from one position to another must also be considered4 ,several methods1 largely dependent on the quantity and quality of charcoal to be obtained1 are adopted1 but in order to procure that of the best description the following system1 which has been successfully carried out on a large estate for the past hundred years at least1 is recommended4 ,the timber carted to the charcoal yard consists of all kinds of hardwoods1 preferably not under two inches in diameter4 ,firewood and rough1 unsaleable timber1 as also inferior grades of heavy coppice wood1 are mainly utilized for the production of charcoal4 ,the wood is sawn into pieces about #b ft4 long1 this being the most convenient size for building the kiln1 and these again split if required to some #d in4 to the side1 and when a sufficient quantity for two pits has been cut up1 the building of these is proceeded with4 ,it has been found economical to burn two pits at the same time1 as both can be attended to as conveniently as one1 and it is unnecessary for the men to sit up at night to watch each separately4 ,the charcoal pits1 one of which is shown in the accompanying sketch1 are made of a broadly conical shape1 #ba ft4 in diameter and about #i ft4 high1 and the mode of construction is as follows3-- ,a strong stake is driven firmly into the ground and left protruding about a foot4 ,around this are placed small pieces of dry ash of equal length1 and standing as close to the upright stake as possible2 around this another layer is placed in the same manner1 and this is continued until a circle #e ft4 in diameter is obtained4 ,a circle #a ft4 in diameter1 and having the top of the stake previously driven into the ground as centre1 is next made by placing the wood horizontally on the upright pieces and side by side1 the ends of each piece being placed at the circumference of the circle already made1 and directed towards its centre4 ,layer upon layer is built in this manner until the pit is of the required height1 the wood used here being dry pieces of ash #b ft4 in length1 but split rather smaller than the ordinary pieces4 ,a sort of chimney is thus formed1 by means of which the pit is fired4 ,outside the core the wood is placed on end and reclining inwards1 this being continued until the pits are of the required size4 ,when the building is completed the pits are covered with newly cut turf1 the grassy side placed innermost1 beginning at the base and working towards the top1 each line of turf overlapping the previous one by a few inches4 ,the circular hole or chimney is left open for firing4 ,before turfing the top half of each pit it is carefully examined1 and any crevices between the wood packed full of small pieces of turf and sawdust to exclude the air4 ,the turfs are cut about #a ft4 in width1 and of any convenient length4 ,the quantity required for two pits of the dimensions stated is seven loads4 ,when the pit is satisfactorily covered it is fired by dropping a couple of shovelfuls of burning wood and some dry pieces of pine or ash into the opening left at the top2 the top turf is then put on1 which effectually shuts up the chimney1 and the process of charring commences4 ,the smoke is first seen issuing from the lower half of each pit1 where the chinks were not packed with sawdust1 and ultimately it escapes from the whole surface4 ,constant attention is required day and night during the period of burning1 especially should the weather be stormy1 as the wind1 by striking on a particular part of the pit1 causes that side to burn more rapidly1 and fall in4 ,when this occurs the hole must at once be filled in with rough logs1 which had been set aside for the purpose when splitting the wood1 and re-covered with turf4 ,when the weather is mild the pits burn uniformly1 require but little attention1 and produce the finest charcoal4 ,the time required for burning will vary with the size of the pit1 quality of wood1 method of covering1 and meteorological conditions4 ,from six to seven days are usually required for pits of the above dimensions1 but smaller kilns only covered with grass1 fern and a little soil may be ready for uncovering in from two to four days4 ,long experience has1 however1 proved that by the slower process of charring the best charcoal is produced1 but the cost is higher4 ,by covering the pits with grass and fern1 as is often done1 a considerable saving is no doubt effected1 but where turf is available there can be no question as to its value over the former1 and on the boundaries of most woodlands it is readily procurable at the cost of cutting4 ,as the charring proceeds the turf gradually disappears until only a slight covering of burnt earth remains4 ,when the pits have burned out and become cool1 it is found that they are reduced to rather less than half their original size4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,,charcoal ,,pit ,the charcoal is extracted by means of a specially constructed rake resembling a light drag1 but having much finer teeth1 which1 after it has become quite cold1 is stored in a shed until required for use4 ,the very finest charcoal1 superior to what is generally sold1 is produced by this method4 ,the expenses connected with making it are1 however1 a little heavier than usual1 owing to the slower system of charring1 the use of larger wood1 and the extra cost of covering with turf4 ,as to the cost of producing charcoal by the above method1 this will vary greatly1 much depending on the distance the wood has to be carted and on the cost of labour in the particular district4 ,the price paid to the charcoal burners is #g;d4 per bushel1 or about four guineas per ton1 which may seem high1 but when we consider that it is specialized work that is confined to few and attended with grave risks and discomfort1 the amount earned is not excessive4 ,it should also be remembered that1 previous to lighting the kilns1 sufficient rough1 not corded1 wood has to be sawn and split and the pits carefully built and covered1 not to speak of the constant attention required1 both day and night1 wet or dry1 for from three to seven days1 during charring process4 ,the usual price for burning charcoal when the wood is corded is #ces4 per ton4 ,fresh-felled wood is rarely converted into charcoal1 the greater portion of that used being thinnings of the previous season4 ,the proportion of wood to charcoal varies greatly1 much depending on the size1 quality1 and maturity of timber4 ,having had occasion to purchase charcoal lately1 ,i found the price1 retail1 to be #bs4 #f;d4 per bushel1 or in quantities of not less than a ton1 #ad1 for that of fair quality4 ,from about the twelfth century onwards ,scotland1 where wood was abundant1 produced annually a large quantity of charcoal iron2 and in #affj the ,navy ,commissioners nominated ,john ,evelyn to investigate the then denudation of forests owing to the manufacture of charcoal for iron smelting1 and the following quaint extract from his report will be interesting3--8,nature has thought fit to produce this wasting ore more plentifully in woodlands than any other point1 and to enrich our forests to their own destruction--a deep execration of iron mills and ironmasters also40 ,the ,lorn ,works1 in ,argyllshire1 were started in #agec1 and annually consumed upwards of #c1jjj tons of lump charcoal4 ,the ,sussex and ,kentish forests at one time supported many of the familiar charcoal burners1 and right brawny and thrifty were these denizens of the woodland with their rustic wooden huts and piles of rifted firewood1 but the industry was almost a thing of the past till again called into active existence by the exigencies of the war4 ,kiln burning4--,the kiln is made of brick1 one course being sufficient1 if bands of iron be added to strengthen the brickwork4 ,it is usually conical in shape1 #bd ft4 in diameter1 with an equal height1 and holds about forty cords of wood4 ,the wall of the kiln is carried up nearly straight for about #f ft41 when it is gradually drawn in and made a blunt cone shape4 ,a plate of iron is fastened on the top in the manner of a stone to an arch4 ,three-inch hoop-iron bands1 about an eighth of an inch thick1 are placed around the kiln and drawn together by means of screw-bolts and nuts4 ,at the base1 and near the top1 are double sheet-iron doors1 by which it is filled with wood or emptied of charcoal4 ,the time required to fill1 burn and empty is about three weeks4 ,pit-burning1 for estate purposes1 is1 however1 most commonly pursued1 and has this advantage--that the charcoal can be made at any place where timber is being felled1 without extra expense1 save that of the cartage of the charcoal1 whereas in using the kiln or retort the wood must1 in most cases1 be conveyed to the place where it is erected4 ,comparative ,value of ,woods for ,charcoal making4--,amongst home-grown timber1 oak1 ash1 and beech are generally preferred for charcoal making1 but the following table will show pretty correctly the proportionate relative values of the various descriptions of wood for gunpowder charcoal3-- ,per ,cent4 ,rhamnus frangula contains #bg ,laburnum #be ,boxwood #bd ,sweet ,chestnut #bc ,oak #bb ,holly #bj ,walnut #bj ,beech #ai ,sycamore #ai ,elm #ai ,willow #ah ,poplar #ah ,birch #ag ,alder #ag ,ash #ag ,hazel #ag ,mountain ,ash #ag ,scotch fir #af ,larch #af ,uses of ,charcoal4--,the uses of charcoal for estate purposes are very numerous1 for horticultural1 agricultural and other departments4 ,from remote antiquity charcoal has been used as a fuel1 and for many purposes it is still unsurpassed4 ,it is by far the cleanest solid fuel known2 it burns steadily1 gives out a great amount of heat1 and lasts well4 ,on account of its smokelessness it is invaluable for cookery1 and it is also admirably suited for use in green-house and other stoves4 ,it is not adopted for heating apartments on account of the poisonous gas 7carbonic oxide7 produced in its combustion1 and the danger1 most apparent when the charcoal is burnt in an open chauffer1 is not obviated by using it in a stove1 as carbonic oxide has the power of diffusing through red-hot iron4 ,in gardening1 charcoal is largely used for potting purposes1 for vine borders1 and for flower beds2 and in the form of dust it is the best material for packing bulbs for transmission to a distance4 ,perhaps the most important of the uses to which charcoal can be put about a house or estate is that depending on its extraordinary power of absorbing gases4 ,it is a perfect deodorant1 a preservative of food and all animal substances and a valuable disinfectant4 ,the gases most readily absorbed by charcoal are those which are most prejudicial to health and most frequently produced by putrefactive changes4 ,in the pores of the charcoal they are destroyed by union with the oxygen condensed from the air4 ,the fact of its being absolutely non-poisonous and perfectly odourless puts it before all other disinfectants4 8,dogwood0 for ,gunpowder ,charcoal4--,the alder buckthorn1 berry-bearing or black alder 7,rhamnus frangula7 is a native shrub that is fairly plentiful in ,southern ,england1 though rare in ,scotland and ,ireland4 ,confusion sometimes arises from the same popular name being applied to widely different species of plants1 and this1 unfortunately1 is the case with the shrub in question4 ,what is known among gunpowder manufacturers as dogwood is in reality the present shrub 7,rhamnus71 which1 however1 is quite distinct from the true dogwood 7,cornus7 and belongs to an entirely different family4 ,to those who contemplate growing charcoal wood for the making of explosives1 this distinction is of the utmost importance1 as ,i have seen ,cornus sanguinea cultivated for the making of gunpowder4 ,the alder buckthorn is perfectly hardy1 growing freely even in the ,north of ,scotland1 where it ripens its seeds4 ,it is usually found as an erect-growing bush from #h ft4 to #aj ft4 in height1 though in suitable situations in ,southern ,england specimens fully #bj ft4 high1 with stems #f in4 in diameter1 are to be met with4 ,the bright green leaves are oval in shape and vary1 according to conditions of growth1 from #b in4 to #c in4 in length1 while the flowers are of a dull yellowish green and are succeeded by dark purple berries each about the size of a pea4 ,from a very early date the alder buckthorn has been cultivated1 though not extensively1 in this country for charcoal making1 and the price1 upwards of #ae per ton1 that is paid for the wood1 shows that the growing of this shrub is a profitable undertaking4 ,at one time large quantities of the wood were produced in ,sussex and other counties1 the selling price being #ad per ton when peeled and tied in bundles4 ,the cultivation of the alder buckthorn is nearly similar to that of the osier for basket-making1 and the produce is dealt with and disposed of in like manner4 ,for soil any good loam inclined to be dampish will suit it well1 and an open1 but not wind-swept1 situation should be chosen for its cultivation4 ,the land intended for growing the alder buckthorn should be trenched the winter before planting1 and a top-dressing of leaf soil or thoroughly decomposed manure1 the former preferably1 will greatly assist the growth of the young plants and prevent too speedy evaporation of moisture from the soil4 ,young plants are not offered in quantity in our nursery catalogues1 and in order to obtain a stock sufficient to form a plantation1 seed-sowing or layering old plants must be resorted to4 ,fortunately1 by either method the plant is readily obtained in quantity1 and as the seeds are produced in fair abundance and ripen freely this method of getting up a stock is to be recommended4 ,the berries1 after being collected in the early winter1 are treated much as we treat those of the yew and holly4 ,they are mixed with sand in order to separate the seed and fleshy covering1 and the whole is sown during early spring in previously prepared beds4 ,the seed beds may be prepared in any shady situation out of doors1 the soil being largely composed of light sandy loam mixed with finely riddled leaf-mould4 ,sometimes the seeds are sown in boxes and placed in a cool frame1 but we have found cultivation out of doors more satisfactory4 ,when two years old1 the seedlings should be transplanted into lines #ah in4 apart and #i in4 from plant to plant4 ,here they may remain for another two years1 after which they should be planted out permanently and headed back the following season4 ,rather thick final planting is to be recommended1 as the shrub being of upright growth1 requires comparatively small room for development1 and the best wands are produced by a close order of growth1 say #e ft4 from plant to plant4 ,layering does not produce such upright-habited shrubs as those grown from seed1 and the yield of wood per acre under exactly similar conditions of growth is greatly in favour of seedlings4 ,after planting1 the ground should be kept free from rough-growing seeds for the first two years1 the crop being cut at from six to seven years' growth1 when the wands are from #a in4 to #b in4 diameter at butt end4 ,cutting and bundling is usually done by contract1 but1 as with the osier1 it is imperative that the crop be cut over near ground level and short 8stumps0 without 8spurs0 encouraged4 ,as in the case of ordinary coppice wood1 the buckthorn for charcoal making may be cut every sixth or seventh year1 the straightest shoots when sorted in about #e ft4 lengths being tied in bundles which are about a yard in girth4 ,the buckthorn being a gross feeder1 manuring the land after the removal of a crop has been found advantageous4 ,although largely imported from ,holland1 and other parts of the ,continent1 home-grown wood is preferred1 as it produces a much superior charcoal for the manufacture of explosives4 ,unfortunately1 however1 home supplies are so limited that foreign wood is imported in considerable quantity1 and as there was a scarcity before the war1 the probabilities are that1 with our greatly increased consumption of charcoal explosives1 a dearth of suitable wood is now being felt4 ,with the present small remuneration attaching to the cultivation of coppice or underwood1 which under ordinary circumstances does not exceed #d per acre1 the cultivation of the alder buckthorn is to be recommended1 particularly as the price is at least quadrupled4 ,the cultivation of this is quite simple1 while the quality of soil required need not be better than that which produces a crop of chestnut or hazel4 ,in cultivating the alder buckthorn for charcoal purposes the following rules should be observed3-- #a4 ,it will not succeed satisfactorily in sandy1 poor or water-logged soils2 rich1 well-manured loam being preferred4 #b4 ,the ground should either be trenched or ploughed and cleared of all rough-growing weeds the winter before planting4 #c4 ,plant seedlings or layers in the spring in lines about #e ft4 apart and the same distance from plant to plant4 #d4 ,an annual clearance of weeds and loosening of the soil between the rows of plants is recommended where a heavy crop is expected4 #e4 ,induce the growth of stout clean shoots by liberal feeding and clean cultivation4 #f4 ,cut the shoots close to the ground so as to prevent the formation of long spurs and minimize the number of off-shoots4 ,clean cutting with a sharp tool is imperative4 #g4 ,after the removal of a crop1 stirring and enriching the soil is to be recommended4 #h4 ,though found mixed with undershrubs and in the shade of trees when in a wild state1 yet the greatest quantity of the most valuable wood for charcoal making is produced in open situations4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,prices ,,of ,,home-,,grown ,,timber ,these vary so much in different parts of the country that it is almost impossible to give a list that would apply generally to the ,british ,isles4 ,local demand and the situation of the plantations where the timber is to be sold have to be considered1 while the quantity available and quality of the particular timber are also important factors in determining the price4 ,in many instances woods and plantations are far removed from road and rail1 consequently the cost of delivering to the consuming centre is proportionately high1 while in the vicinity of coal mines or manufacturing towns almost every class of timber will find a ready and profitable market4 ,then the quality of the timber 7its reputation1 we might almost say7 is a powerful factor in assessing its value1 as will be seen in the case of oak produced in ,surrey and ,sussex1 or beech from the chalky districts of ,kent and ,hertfordshire4 ,no timber merchant thinks twice as to whether he should1 on account of quality1 purchase oaks at ,rockingham1 ,ashridge1 ,welbeck or other well-known centres1 and so it is with the beech timber on the ,chiltern ,hills1 at the ,chenies1 in ,hertfordshire1 or with ,scotch pine from the famous ,aberdeenshire plantations4 ,but there is another factor that frequently affects the price of good timber1 and that is1 that in inaccessible positions the quantity offered is too small4 ,this has been the case with excellent larch timber in ,ireland1 where the quantity offered was not sufficient to induce the timber merchant to lay down plant and arrange for delivery to the nearest railway or port4 ,there are other causes of a minor nature that greatly affect the price of home-grown timber1 and it is a curious fact that in adjoining counties1 sometimes even in the same county1 the prices of various timbers vary several pence per cubic foot4 ,with all woodland products the same is the case1 and locality and local demand determine the price of faggots1 firewood and other commodities4 ,previous to the war1 the following were the average prices of home-grown timber1 felled and lying in the wood2 also of other woodland produce4 ,the prices at present are generally much higher4 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,ash from #a #f to #b #f per cubic foot4 ,alder 0 #j #g 0 #j #aj 0 0 ,beech 0 #j #aj 0 #a #d 0 0 ,birch 0 #j #g 0 #j #aj 0 0 ,chestnut 7,spanish7 0 #a #c 0 #a #f 0 0 0 7,horse7 0 #j #h ---- 0 0 ,cherry 0 #j #i 0 #a #b 0 0 ,elm 0 #j #g 0 #a #f 0 0 ,larch 0 #j #aj 0 #a #d 0 0 ,lime 0 #j #aj 0 #a #f 0 0 ,oak 0 #a #c 0 #b #f 0 0 ,oak1 brown 0 #c #f 0 #aj #f 0 0 7but these trees are usually sold at so much for each7 ,poplar from #j #i to #a #f per cubic foot4 ,scotch ,pine 0 #j #e 0 #j #aj 0 0 ,spruce ,fir 0 #j #e 0 #j #i 0 0 ,willow 0 #a #f 0 #aj #f 0 0 ,walnut 0 #a #j 0 #b #f 0 0 ,sycamore 0 #a #c 0 #b #f 0 0 ,firewood 0 #e #j per cart load4 0 0 #ab #j to #af #j per cord4 ,faggots 7large7 0 #ad #j 0 #ba #j 0 #ajj4 0 7small7 0 #b #f per #ajj4 ,oak bark 0 #eb #j 0 ton4 ,charcoal 0 #a #j 0 bushel4 ,since the war commenced several kinds of timber have increased greatly in value1 notably ash1 poplar1 ,scotch pine and spruce fir4 ,for the latter as much as #as4 #d;d4 per cubic foot was obtained in ,bucks1 while in several cases first-class ash timber realized upwards of #ds4 per cubic foot4 ,pitwood1 also1 has increased in price4 ,,prices ,,of ,,timber ,,per ,,ton ,,weight ,in several parts of the country1 particularly ,ireland1 timber is regularly sold by weight and the following prices were realized previous to the war3-- s4 d4 s4 d4 ,ash and sycamore ---- #ah #j per ton4 ,beech #e #j to #aj #j 0 ,larch #ab #j 0 #bj #j 0 ,scotch pine1 spruce and silver fir ---- #h #j 0 ,spruce #h #j 0 #aj #j 0 ,oak ---- #ae #j 0 ,elm and beech ---- #aj #j 0 ,hardwoods of pitwood size ---- #f #j 0 ,larch poles and pitwood 7,wales7 #i #j 0 #aj #j 0 ,that the heavy importation of foreign woods has had a prejudicial influence on the value of home-grown timbers is realized by all those who are engaged in the trade4 ,the depreciation in price has1 however1 been so gradual that it is difficult to realize this unless by comparing the prices of to-day with those of1 say1 a hundred years ago4 ,several of these comparisons clearly indicate that oak1 at least1 has become much reduced in value1 less so ash and elm1 and the following list of prices obtained in #ahjg for timber on two estates in ,hants will serve to show that for trees of equal size the price to-day is far behind that of a century ago4 s4 d4 ,oak averaging #i cubic feet #d #j per foot4 ,ash 0 #g 0 #b #c 0 ,elm 0 #bb 0 #a #i 0 ,beech 0 #ad 0 #a #f 0 ,sycamore 0 #ai 0 #a #c 0 ,fir 0 #aa 0 #a #c 0 ,on another estate trees of about the same size brought3 oak1 #ds42 ash1 #as4 #f;d42 elm1 etc41 #as42 beech1 #as42 and firs1 #as4 per cubic foot4 ,when the small size of the individual trees is taken into account1 and even admitting that only the best portion of each trunk was measured1 the prices1 as compared with those of to-day1 are exceedingly high1 particularly for oak1 ash and fir4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,british ,,timber ,,and ,,some ,,of ,,its ,,uses ,the following are a few of the many uses to which home-grown timber is applied3-- ,alder is used extensively for clog soles1 barrel staves1 mill bobbins1 and occasionally in furniture making4 ,it makes excellent charcoal for cooking and heating1 as well as that used in the manufacture of gunpowder4 ,the wood of the ,apple1 ,cherry and ,pear tree1 when of large size1 is used for cabinet purposes1 and stained in imitation of other woods4 ,for veneers1 golf clubs1 bowls1 etc41 these woods are of value1 as also for weaving shuttles4 ,ash timber is largely used by agricultural implement makers on account of its possessing great elasticity and bearing considerable cross-strain4 ,it is the best wood for shafts of all kinds1 for tool handles and wooden rakes1 and is largely used by furniture makers4 ,beech wood is the chief constituent of cane-bottomed chairs1 and is largely employed for the handles of joiners'1 carpenters' and other wood-workers' tools4 ,for gunstocks1 saddle-trees for heavy harness1 wheel-felloes and bobbins it is also largely employed4 ,when of large size and clean growth1 it is used for calendar machines1 and for engineering purposes in spinning and bleaching districts4 ,it makes excellent charcoal4 ,birch wood is largely used for turnery work1 thread bobbins1 clog soles1 shoe pegs1 furniture1 hatters' blocks2 it is also used in the manufacture of brushes and in toy making4 ,chestnut 7,spanish7 timber more nearly approaches that of oak than any other species1 and when stained is not only substituted for it1 but for the walnut as well4 ,for piano sides it is largely used1 as also for rafters in open-roof churches1 for furniture and cabinet work1 ship fittings1 sign-boards1 and post and rail fencing4 ,elm wood is extensively used for the boarding and flooring of carts and wagons1 in coffin making1 for the framework and foundations of bridges1 for naves for wheels1 and for the keels of boats and ships4 ,it makes strong furniture1 and is often substituted for ash in making agricultural implements4 ,holly is used by mathematical instrument makers1 for fancy turnery and inlaid work4 ,it is often sold as ebony when 8ebonized40 ,hornbeam timber for cogs in mill gearing is well known1 also in 8bushing0 for sawmill rollers1 and for skittle pins4 ,horse ,chestnut4--,the timber is largely used for packing boxes1 moulding patterns for castings1 cutting boards1 manufacture of brushes1 and occasionally for covering temporary buildings4 ,larch4--,the wood of this tree is largely used for fencing1 boat building1 permanent staging1 and pitwood4 ,lime4--,the wood is white and very fine of grain1 and used for carved work1 sounding boards for musical instruments1 wagon brakes1 packing boxes1 toys1 domestic utensils1 and for shoemakers' and saddlers' cutting boards4 ,charcoal for gunpowder is made from this wood4 ,maple is employed in the turning of bowls1 for toys1 and 8bird's-eye0 maple for furniture4 ,oak has long been associated with our national defence as the chief element in shipbuilding1 but although iron and steel have to a great extent taken its place1 yet for barges and small boats the timber is still largely used4 ,wagons for railway mineral traffic are largely made of oak1 while the builder finds in it his best material for the strong frames of domes1 spires and roofs of public buildings4 ,it is also used for the bottoms of carts and wagons1 cartwheel spokes1 fencing1 furniture making1 railway 8spraggs10 charcoal1 etc4 ,poplar wood is woolly and tenacious1 and for this reason is used for the bottoms of stone carts and barrows4 ,it is well adapted for making packing cases1 railway brakes1 weather boarding1 and for purposes where lightness is of greater importance than durability4 ,the ,abele1 or white ,poplar1 produces perhaps the most valuable timber of any of the numerous species4 ,scotch ,spruce and ,silver ,fir may all be classed under the same heading1 being of about equal value and applicable to similar purposes1 viz41 for sleepers and pitwood1 boarding under slates1 headings for barrels1 soap boxes1 temporary fencing1 also for conversion into planking for lead works1 and for all erections of a temporary kind4 ,sycamore timber is peculiarly white and smooth and free from grain1 which makes it very valuable4 ,it is used for curtain rings1 churns1 butter prints1 for the backs of violins1 for founders' patterns and cutting boards1 and in the making of wooden vessels and furniture4 ,for calendar machines and in cotton and jute factories it is much employed4 ,walnut timber is much in demand for gun and rifle stocks1 for the best class of furniture1 and for veneering purposes4 ,willow is famous for the production of the best class of cricket bats and for artificial limbs and crutches4 ,it also makes good charcoal4 ,yew wood is valuable when employed for veneering4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,willows ,,for ,,basket-,,making ,previous to the war1 preferential railway and boat rates1 aided by keen foreign competition1 wellnigh rendered the time-honoured industry of basket-making a thing of the past in this country4 ,the best classes of osiers1 cleaned and ready for manipulation1 were delivered to our principal markets from ,continental sources at so low a price that competition on our part was almost out of the question4 ,there are still1 however1 a few stations1 such as those in ,bedfordshire1 the fen districts of ,lincoln and ,cambridge1 and along certain reaches of the ,thames1 where willow culture is engaged in1 though not in the same energetic way as was the case some half a century ago4 ,about #g1jjj acres1 producing roughly #bj1jjj tons of osiers1 are cultivated in this country at the present time1 many small plantations having been grubbed out and the land laid down in other crops during the past five and twenty years4 ,this falling off is much to be regretted1 as the sorting and harvesting of osiers and basket-making gave light and remunerative employment to a large number of residents1 both young and old1 of the districts in which the willow-beds were situated4 ,land that was damp and could not well be brought under other cultivation without the expense of drainage1 gave a good return under a crop of osiers4 ,taking everything into consideration1 and judging from talks that ,i have had recently with those who are interested in the osier industry1 the formation of willow-beds1 under the plea that considerable profits attend the undertaking1 is not to be recommended4 ,no doubt in some favoured districts where carriage is reduced to a minimum and local demand is considerable1 osier cultivation gives a fair return for capital invested2 but until we can get back the once lucrative trade in baskets for fruit and other similar commodities from the hands of our ,continental rivals1 profits of any magnitude are quite precluded4 ,there is little doubt that on soil which is unsuited for farming purposes willow culture can be made fairly profitable1 but it is a mistake to suppose that any marshy piece of stiff ground will grow osiers1 or that the planting and tending are matters of small import4 ,quite the reverse is the case4 ,the willow will not thrive for long in water-logged soils1 though periodical inundations1 particularly during winter and early spring1 are highly beneficial4 ,in addition1 the soil must be well worked1 the cutting of rods carefully and systematically carried out1 and the clearing of the ground must receive strict attention1 else deterioration of the crop will quickly ensue4 ,previously to planting the cuttings or sets1 the ground should be ploughed1 harrowed and consolidated1 all objectionable weeds being destroyed4 ,for some considerable time to come there is bound to be a dearth of willows for basket-making1 as our main supplies have come from ,germany and the ,netherlands4 ,here1 then1 is a chance for the owners of suitable land in this country to set to work at once and revive a time-honoured industry by planting up suitable grounds with the most approved kinds of willow for basket-making4 ,that the undertaking1 if wisely carried out1 would be a remunerative one is beyond question1 and the excellent results attained at such places as ,leicester and ,bedford clearly prove that willow culture is a most profitable way of utilizing naturally dampish land in any but the most exposed situations4 ,for the past few years the demand in this country for high-grade willows has been greatly in excess of the supply1 in fact1 hardly one-fifth of our requirements are produced at home4 ,germany1 previous to the war1 exported willows and rods to the value of about #db1jjj1 this being an increase in five years of fully one-half2 while of the manufactured articles in the way of baskets and basket ware her total value exceeded #db1jjj4 ,but as giving some idea of our wants in this direction it may be stated that the total value of willow rods annually sent to this country from the ,continent is in round figures about #ajj1jjj1 and of baskets and basket ware fully #agj1jjj4 ,what a contrast with the period in our history when an important export trade in willows was done by this country6 ,the willow working industry is a rapidly expanding one4 ,owing to the increasing demand1 the value of peeled willows is gradually on the increase1 and present prices range from #bd to #ch per ton for those of best size and quality4 ,these are in the main exported and used for high-class work in the basket trade1 rougher unpeeled willows that are largely in use for cheap packing hampers and farm purposes bringing in a much lower price4 ,fruit baskets in immense numbers are annually imported from the ,continent1 one firm alone having sent over #aej1jjj2 while at ,leith basket works1 which mainly caters for the agricultural and fishing industries1 thousands of herring baskets alone are sent out every month1 while the packing hamper department is of great interest and a special feature of this enterprising firm4 ,previous to the war willow or osier culture was mainly in the hands of the ,french for rods of good quality1 the ,belgians and ,germans supplying a cheaper kind probably owing to the quality of soil and inferior varieties that are cultivated4 ,there are not a few persons who consider that in order to cultivate willows successfully1 any neglected1 damp piece of ground1 which is unsuited for other crops1 may be utilized1 and the cuttings simply stuck in without ground preparation of any kind4 ,this is1 however1 a great mistake1 as experience has long ago demonstrated that in order to make osier cultivation at all profitable1 a low level1 and a naturally rather moist situation must be chosen1 and further1 that the soil should be deep1 well drained and thoroughly prepared4 ,thoroughly drain the ground first1 then steam-plough or trench the soil to a depth of about #ah in41 removing carefully all weeds1 particularly such troublesome kinds as the bindweed1 couch grass and dock4 ,it is always preferable to take a crop of potatoes first from the land intended to be laid down for osier culture1 as it not only sweetens and enriches the soil1 but allows of the eradication of all obnoxious weeds4 ,where1 however1 it is not practicable to crop the land first with potatoes1 the soil should be well and roughly broken up and left so for a year1 or for a winter1 at least1 before being planted with the osiers4 ,the best time to plant is from ,october to the middle of ,march4 ,the sets1 or cuttings1 should be about #ae in4 long1 and formed of well-ripened rods1 of one year's growth1 and the straightest and cleanest portion of the rod only used4 ,three or four buds should1 if possible1 be on the top end of each set4 ,in planting1 insert the cuttings from #i to #ab in4 into the ground1 leaving #c in4 above soil1 which forms the stool that bears the future crops4 ,it is well to exercise great caution while inserting the cuttings1 as1 if the work has been delayed till the sap is rising1 the bark readily strips away from the wood1 and this is very objectionable1 as the plants in such a state usually die4 ,the sets may be placed about #ae in4 apart1 and the rows1 which1 for convenience1 should be lined off straight1 about #cj in4 from each other4 ,of course1 as regards distances1 these will depend to a great extent on the quality of the soil and the particular kind of willow being planted1 but the above are good average distances4 ,for basket-making1 etc41 the best kinds of osiers to use are ,salix triandra and ,s4 viminalis1 but there are others4 ,a good basket-willow1 be it of whatever kind1 should1 when green1 twist from end to end without breaking4 ,it is well to bear in mind that1 in order to obtain the greatest profits from willow culture1 only the very best kinds should be planted--indeed1 next to preparing the ground1 a judicious selection should be one of the main considerations4 ,for the first year1 at least1 after being formed1 osier beds must be carefully attended to in the way of cleaning and weeding4 ,hoeing will be found the most convenient method of getting rid of weeds1 but1 in the case of bindweed1 hand-picking around and amongst the sets will be found necessary4 ,cutting the osiers must be done while the crop is dormant1 or not later than the middle of ,february1 but not during frost1 which will injure and kill off parts of the stool4 ,the cutting is done by means of a rod-hook1 which resembles a miniature sickle2 this should always be kept sharp1 so that the cuts may be made clean4 ,tie the rods together when dry1 in bundles of three or four sizes1 and either house or stack them4 ,it should be borne in mind that rods are easily spoiled by being tied up or stacked whilst in a wet state1 as they very soon become heated1 which makes them brittle and utterly valueless for the purpose intended4 ,what is known in ,england as 8bolting0 is simply taking a number of osiers1 as nearly of a size as possible1 and laying them on a twisted wand1 at the same time keeping the butts all one way1 and level1 then drawing them tightly together--not1 however1 to such an extent as to injure the bark--with a rope and two levers1 and finishing off by tying the wand4 ,the wand should be at #ad in4 from the butts4 ,a bolt of rods should measure #dj in4 round the band4 ,in forming a willow bed1 the following short rules should be observed3-- #a4 ,willows will not succeed well in peaty1 sandy1 or water-logged soils2 rich1 well-drained loam1 that can be flooded at will is the most suitable4 #b4 ,trench or plough1 and thoroughly clean or pulverize the ground before planting4 #c4 ,plant only the best kinds1 studying soil and market1 and avoid a mixed crop4 #d4 ,from ,november to ,march insert the cuttings about nine inches deep1 avoiding such as are bark-chafed1 and tramp firmly4 #e4 ,keep the beds clean and free from weeds4 #f4 ,cut the crop close to the ground2 pollard willows soon decay and in that state harbour injurious insects4 ,the following estimate of the approximate cost per acre of osier culture1 and the returns therefrom for the first three years will be of interest3-- ,,first ,,year4 s4 d4 ,ploughing the ground and planting #d #aj #j ,hoeing and other attention #a #e #j #ae1gjj willow cuttings 7,salix viminalis7 #aj #j #j ,rent1 rates1 and #e per cent4 interest on capital #b #ab #j ,harvesting #j #ah #j ------------------------ #ai #e #j ,yield first year #c tons1 value #i #j #j ------------------------ ,loss #aj #e #j ,,second ,,year4 s4 d4 ,rent1 rates and incidentals #b #aj #j ,hoeing and cleaning #a #h #j ,harvesting #a #aj #j ------------------------ #e #h #j ,yield about #e tons4 #bj #j #j ------------------------ ,profit #ae #h #j ,,third ,,and ,,subsequent ,,years4 ,expenditure #f4 ,yield #bd4 ,profit #ah4 ,if the ground is properly cultivated and losses made good1 the plantation should give a yield similar to the third year for fully a quarter of a century4 ,in the low-lying district between ,taunton1 ,bridgwater and ,langport1 in ,somerset1 willow or osier culture is largely engaged in4 ,the system generally adopted is that the owner or tenant of the land planted to willows keeps the land free from weeds to prevent the withies being choked4 ,this entails an outlay of about #bes4 per acre per annum if properly done4 ,the crops are measured and marked out in half-acre lots and sold in ,october or ,november4 ,the purchasers cut and remove them1 and in some cases convert them into baskets1 basket-chairs1 and such like4 ,in other cases the purchasers select and bundle the crop in the regulation sizes and sell them to dealers4 ,the results of some recent sales are as follows3 ,one field of #aa acres realized #acb and the first two half-acres1 being remarkably good withies1 made #ai #ajs4 ,three other fields1 containing #af acres in all1 made #afa #ajs42 and three others1 containing #bb acres1 #bbb #bs4 #f;d4 ,the agricultural annual rental value of this land when pasture1 before it was planted to willows1 was under #b per acre4 ,from the above it will be seen that if prudently entered upon and economically carried out the cultivation of willows for basket-making is a paying industry1 and as for some years to come foreign supplies will be barred to our markets1 the enterprise should prove highly remunerative4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,utilizing ,,waste ,,forest ,,produce ,that the production of timber1 in common with other trades1 has of late years been rendered far less remunerative than formerly1 owing principally to keen foreign competition1 is a fact that is now well known1 even to the most casual observer4 ,in face of this it behoves us to ask ourselves the question3 ,do we utilize to the fullest extent the by-products of the forest and woodland1 and so diminish waste1 and1 at the same time1 add to the general revenue of the forest department8 ,by waste produce1 or by-products1 is meant anything other than wood in the condition in which it is generally used1 and includes bark1 charcoal1 firewood1 house and kiln faggots1 tar1 wood-spirit1 turpentine1 sawdust1 wood-ashes1 leaf soil1 etc4 ,that much may be done1 both in economy of production and in utilization of waste produce1 is well known to those in charge of woods and forests in every part of the country4 ,where the by-products cannot well be utilized in any of the above-named ways1 it would be better1 perhaps1 to reduce them to ashes2 for1 by so doing1 insect and fungus life are lessened1 and a valuable manure is obtained1 particularly rich in potash1 whether for grassland or certain farm or garden crops4 ,the forest by-products of ,great ,britain and ,ireland are1 in the main1 applied in the four following ways3-- 7#a7 ,firewood4 7#b7 ,charcoal1 for heating purposes1 etc4 7#c7 ,bark for tanning4 7#d7 ,faggots1 for house and kiln purposes4 ,although the ,british forester has usually little or nothing to do with what we might term the volatile products of the forest--tar1 pitch1 turpentine1 rosin1 wood-spirit1 acetic acid1 etc4--nor1 indeed1 with paper-pulp1 it may not be out of place to point out briefly the minor uses to which waste timber and by-products generally may be applied4 ,tar1 which at present is largely imported from the ,baltic ports and ,southern ,united ,states1 is obtainable principally from three species of ,pinus3 ,p4 palustris1 ,p4 ,pinaster1 and ,p4 sylvestris4 ,pitch is simply tar deprived of the volatile oils1 which is brought about by boiling4 ,turpentine comes from incisions made in the stems of some of the pines1 principally ,pinus palustris1 ,p4 sylvestris1 and ,p4 tda4 ,the common silver fir 7,abies pectinata7 produces the famous ,strasburg turpentine1 while the larch is the source of the ,venice turpentine of commerce4 ,in ,new ,england the whole of the younger sapling pines--stem1 branches1 bark and leaves--are made into pasteboard1 while in other countries the lime and poplar are converted into paper-pulp of great value4 ,that the great and ever-increasing demand for paper of all qualities will cause a corresponding demand for the material used in its production cannot be doubted1 and attention has already been directed to this matter in some parts of this country4 ,from the sap of the larch and ,scotch firs 8coniferin0 is obtained1 while 8rubber10 a valuable product for mixing with gutta-percha1 which is very durable1 is got from the bark of the common birch by distillation4 ,the value of gorse as a food for horses and sheep is well known even in this country1 while in ,italy poplar leaves have long been used as cattle-food1 and ground fir-needles in ,styria for the same purpose4 ,dried leaves make excellent litter1 and they are valuable as manure4 ,sawdust1 though without manurial value1 absorbs liquid manure1 and is thus used as an excellent top-dressing4 ,leaf-mould is well known for its many uses in the garden1 as for top-dressing and mixing with other poorer soils in the making of composts for planting4 ,these are some of the many uses to which the minor by-products of the forest can be applied1 but1 as these hardly come within the scope of the forester1 special attention will be devoted to the major by-products--firewood1 charcoal1 bark and faggots--with which the ,british forester is most intimately associated4 7#a7 ,firewood4--,never1 perhaps1 was the subject of ,english firewood more worthy of consideration than at the present time1 when the price of other fuels is excessively high4 ,many persons will maintain that in districts where coal is abundant1 it is very questionable whether there is any advantage to be obtained from burning wood4 ,we have satisfied ourselves that even if wood could be procured at less than its present price--firewood price--it is nearly as expensive as coal1 as sold previous to the war1 in most of our large towns4 ,no doubt1 on many large estates where there is a superfluity of unsaleable wood1 it would be utter folly not to have it converted into firewood1 more particularly as such work gives employment to the woodmen when the inclemency of the weather puts a stop to general outdoor work4 ,but this in itself is no proof that the firewood when prepared and ready for the grate is not as expensive as coal2 for1 when the rent of ground on which the wood was grown1 and the cost of felling and converting it into firewood is taken into account1 it will be found nearly as costly as household coal of ordinary quality4 ,what will it cost to prepare a ton of firewood8 ,this is a question that is not readily answered1 the cost of labour in various parts of the country varying so widely4 ,in ,england1 generally speaking1 the cutting up and stacking of a cord of fairly clean firewood--that is to say when large knotty pieces1 which require the mallet and wedge for their manipulation1 are excluded--costs from #es4 to #fs4 ,again1 how many cords of wood will make a ton of firewood8 ,this is another question that is more readily asked than answered1 for the difference in weight between equal-sized logs of1 say1 oak and birch is considerable4 ,for all practical purposes1 however1 we may state that about one and a half cords of wood go to the ton of firewood1 thus making the cost of preparing and housing the latter about #ajs4 ,the lowest price at which we have sold a ton weight fresh cut was #hs41 but #ajs4 is nearer the usual price1 or about one-half of what is generally obtained for firewood4 ,the cartage of this ton of wood cannot be less than #cs4 ,much depends upon the distance it must be carted1 no doubt1 but it is usually delivered within a radius of two miles for the price quoted4 ,the whole matter1 therefore1 stands something like this3 ,lowest cost of a ton of wood1 #hs41 cutting same into firewood and stacking1 #hs42 cost of delivery1 #cs4--total #ais4 ,it will thus be seen that the difference in price between a ton of firewood and one of coal is inconsiderable1 and every one knows which of the two as fuel lasts the longer and imparts the greater amount of heat4 ,of course1 where the firewood is cut up during wet weather by the estate workmen and consumed on the estate1 the matter will stand somewhat differently1 the two principal items1 the cost of preparing and cutting being considerably diminished4 ,in districts where the firewood cannot readily be sold1 and would only rot in the woods1 it is a wise policy to have it cut into firewood1 not only for the saving effected in the coal bill1 but also for preservation of the health of the plantations4 ,in mining districts1 or on the outskirts of large towns1 there is usually little difficulty in getting rid of all surplus wood for firing and other purposes1 but in thinly-populated1 outlying parts of the country1 where the cost of transit is excessive1 the actual difference between the price of a ton of coal and one of firewood has to be considered4 7#b7 ,charcoal4--,the following are the chief uses to which charcoal is put in this country3 the manufacture of gun and blasting powders1 the heating of hall-stoves1 cooking1 boiling preserves1 and the smelting of iron4 ,it is also employed as a filtering and deodorizing agent4 ,further1 it occupies an important place in the making of black paint1 ink1 ivory- and lamp-black1 and is valuable as a horticultural requisite in the packing of bulbs and for potting purposes4 ,in the manufacture of gunpowder1 for which a highly inflammable quality is required1 the three principal woods used are the so-called dogwood 7,rhamnus frangula71 the white willow 7,salix alba71 and the common alder 7,alnus glutinosa71 though not infrequently the hazel1 chestnut and our native ,rhamnus catharticus are substituted4 ,charcoal produced from the dogwood is1 however1 preferred to any other1 as this forms a very explosive powder1 used for military small-arms and for sporting purposes4 ,for this purpose the dogwood is cut when an inch in diameter1 and1 if possible1 when not more than of ten years' growth4 ,although iron cylinders or retorts are more economical in the making of charcoal1 yet for various reasons the primitive method of pit-burning is to be recommended for general estate purposes4 ,the manufacture of charcoal in this way having received due attention elsewhere in this book1 it need not be repeated here4 ,it should be remembered that small wood is more profitable for charcoal making than that of a larger size1 not only because the former requires little or no cutting and splitting1 but for the main reason that it can be procured at less cost1 and produces more charcoal1 weight for weight4 ,even at the present low price of charcoal--about #as4 per bushel--there is a fair profit attached to the making of it1 as will be seen from the following figures1 which may be taken as fairly representative4 ,a cord of ordinary mixed wood1 which should measure1 after being stacked1 #ab ft4 long1 #c ft4 wide1 and #c ft4 high1 will usually1 when properly burned1 yield #ce bushels of charcoal1 and this1 at the low price of #aj;d4 will realize #bis4 #b;d4 ,the cost of cutting this cord of wood1 which is generally performed by contract1 will be at the least #es41 and that of burning #gs42 thus leaving a clear profit of #ags4 #b;d4 per cord for the wood4 ,even roots are made into charcoal1 and we have seen whole woods grubbed up free of expense1 the roots being given in return for the labour2 but such work is usually performed during the winter1 when labour is at a discount4 ,pinewood is not nearly so valuable for charcoal making as hardwood1 but the former is not infrequently made to realize a profit of from #hs4 to #ajs4 per cord of wood4 7#c7 ,bark4--,in the past1 the annual home supply of bark was estimated at about #cjj1jjj tons1 but1 in addition to this some #cj1jjj tons were imported from the ,continent2 but of late years1 owing to the employment of chemical substitutes1 the amount used is much smaller4 ,for tanning purposes1 oak1 and occasionally larch1 bark is principally in use in this country1 though both willow and alder are largely used for the same purpose in various countries1 more especially in ,russia4 ,although not at present a valuable product1 a small margin of profit1 even at the present low price1 will accrue through careful and judicious management of the bark crop4 ,of this we are fully convinced4 ,it is1 perhaps1 not so well known as it should be that of our two varieties of oak1 ,quercus ,robur pedunculata and ,q4 ,r4 sessiliflora--the former contains #ae and the latter only #ac per cent4 of tannin4 ,the branches1 too1 down to an inch in diameter1 contain a relatively higher proportion of tannin than the bark of the stem4 ,the stripping and harvesting of oak bark having received notice in a separate paper1 nothing further need be said of these here4 7#d7 ,faggots4--,these are made of the smaller branches or spray1 the remains of charcoal wood1 etc41 and tied into bundles similar in size to a sheaf of wheat4 ,they are either left lying on the ground or standing upright in threes or fours together for a few days after being made1 previous to being stacked1 as they always are for about six months before being used4 ,in thinning a woodland the faggots are usually bound up by contract at #ds4 #f;d4 per hundred1 except when the wood is exceptionally rough and crooked1 when another shilling is added4 ,when stacked and dry they realize about #afs4 per hundred in the wood1 thus giving a clear profit of #aas4 #f;d41 if we deduct #ds4 #f;d41 for binding1 per hundred4 ,in ,england the demand for these faggots is considerable1 they being used either for kiln purposes1 or1 when chopped up into smaller bundles1 for fire-lighting4 ,these latter are about #i in4 long1 and half that in diameter1 and are bound tightly round the centre with tarred rope4 ,previous to the war they were sold at #cs4 #f;d4 per hundred4 ,this is a good and profitable way of getting rid of all superfluous spray and branches4 ,brush or kiln faggots1 which are largely used for brick-burning1 consist of all refuse woodland scrub1 and when tied up and dry can be sold at from #es4 to #fs4 per hundred for the brick-kilns4 ,they are made by contract at #bs4 #f;d4 per hundred4 ,by the utilizing of this otherwise waste-product1 every twig and branch is carefully gathered together1 and the woodlands are thus kept in a neat and healthy condition4 ,minor ,products4--,in addition to firewood1 charcoal1 faggots1 etc41 which may be considered as the main by-products of the forest and woodland1 there are other minor products1 such as are to be met with largely where coppice wood is grown to any extent1 which will repay the cost of singling out from amongst the above4 ,these may include flower-stakes1 tool-handles1 walking-sticks1 barrel-hoops1 chisel-rods1 etc41 all of which sell readily in various parts of the country and from which considerable profits are realized4 ,in cutting the coppice wood1 the longest and straightest poles are selected for hop-stakes1 the next size for bean stakes1 pea-boughs1 etc41 and so on until every part of the wood is utilized4 ,leaf soil1 too1 sells readily at #es4 per cart load--indeed1 near large towns the demand for this and peat often exceeds the supply4 ,in all cases1 however1 it may not be a wise policy to remove this valuable soil from the woodlands1 even at the high price offered4 ,half-decayed leaves1 too1 are much sought after where market gardening is largely carried on1 being used to form forcing-beds1 and to preserve plants and roots from severe frost4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,fencing ,,plantations ,many different methods of fencing are adopted throughout the country1 each one1 no doubt1 possessing peculiar advantages according to the circumstances in which it may happen to be required4 ,in hilly districts very efficient fences of stones may be made where these are abundant4 ,turf dykes may be constructed on high-lying grounds where stones cannot be readily procured1 and iron or wood used wherever fancy dictates4 ,the term 8dead fence0 may be applied to these in contradistinction to 8live fence0 or hedge1 to which a special chapter is devoted4 ,to describe even a few of the various wood or iron fences erected nowadays would be by no means an easy task1 but typical examples of several kinds will be explained4 ,illustration ,stone ,walls4--,these make capital plantation fences1 but they are at first rather expensive1 and unless well built require a good deal of attention in the way of repairing breaches4 ,they possess a great advantage over most other fences in the amount of shelter afforded to the young trees4 ,two methods of building are usually adopted3 firstly1 where stones are abundant1 the entire wall may be of these2 and1 secondly1 where only a limited quantity are available1 the wall is built to a certain height and wires placed atop4 ,the dry stone wall as this is usually termed1 is built without mortar1 with the exception of the cope-stone1 which in all cases should be bedded in and pointed with lime4 ,from #d ft4 to #e ft4 is the usual height1 the foundations being from #bb in4 to #bd in4 wide1 and the wall #ad in4 across beneath the cope-stone1 the latter being about #aj in4 high and placed on edge4 ,great care is necessary in building to see that the 8throughs0 or binding-stones are placed in position1 as on this depends mainly the efficiency of the fence4 ,where wires are used atop1 the wall need only be #c ft4 high1 #bb in4 wide at base1 and #ab in4 under the cope-stone4 ,the latter are bedded in mortar1 and an extra large stone is placed every #f ft4 for receiving the iron standard1 to which the wires are attached4 ,slate slabs1 where these are readily procured1 may be used for the same purpose as the iron standards1 but they should be built firmly into the wall1 and reach from the base of the foundation4 ,two1 and sometimes three1 wires are used atop of the wall4 ,slate ,fences4--,these are commonly in use throughout ,wales2 in fact1 wherever slate quarries are worked4 ,when well erected and of fairly regular sized slates1 this fence is certainly not to be despised1 and it may be considered as practically indestructible4 ,the expenses incurred for keeping these fences in repair are also very little1 as they seldom become damaged1 and when an upright chances to get broken1 another whole one can easily be substituted1 and without interfering with any other portion of the fence4 ,the size of slate pale1 or slab1 as usually termed1 is #e ft4 long1 #d in4 to #f in4 wide1 and about #a in4 in thickness4 ,in erecting the fence a trench is cut about #ab in4 wide and #h in4 deep1 care being taken that the trench is cut perpendicular1 so as to ensure the pales standing in a similar position4 ,these are placed upright in the trench1 about #c in4 apart1 with their flat side close to the perpendicular cut and the soil replaced in the trench and made firm with a rammer4 ,a double wire is then tightly interlaced about #c in4 from the top of the pales1 and given a double twist between each1 thereby ensuring great stability by uniting the fence and keeping the pales at equal distance apart4 ,the straining-posts are also of slate1 #f ft4 long1 #f in4 wide1 and #c in4 thick4 ,illustration3 ,,slate ,,fences ,turf ,dykes4--,these were formerly much used in moorland and outlying districts1 where stones are not abundant1 and where1 from the nature of the soil and situation1 hedges would not succeed4 ,they are1 at best1 troublesome fences to keep in repair1 and require some adjunct either in the way of wires atop1 or1 failing this1 they must be planted with gorse or other suitable shrubs4 ,one advantage is the great amount of shelter they afford to the young plants1 while they are1 comparatively speaking1 cheap of erection4 ,there are several methods of building turf dykes1 the best being to cut or pare the turf #c in4 in thickness in one or more lengths to suit the width of the dyke1 and of a convenient breadth3 these are laid cross-wise one above the other4 ,both sides of the dyke should be built at once1 giving the necessary batter as the work proceeds1 and the grassy surface of the turf placed to the outside4 ,the dyke is usually made #c ft4 in height1 #c ft4 wide1 and drawn gradually in to #ab in4 at top4 ,a two-rail fence surmounts the dyke1 bringing the total height to #d ft4 or #e ft4 ,sometimes a ditch is cut alongside the dyke #c ft4 wide1 about #b ft4 deep1 and #i in4 wide at bottom1 so as to prevent the farm stock getting at and damaging it1 the soil removed being used in forming the fence4 ,by sowing gorse and broom seeds on top of the dyke an excellent shelter fence is obtained4 ,wood ,fences4--,these are common on almost every estate throughout the country1 especially such as are well wooded1 and1 owing to the low prices obtainable for home-grown timber1 it is well that such should be employed as widely as possible4 ,wooden fences are also much preferred by many owners of property to those erected either of stone or iron on account of their rustic appearance4 ,wooden fences are1 therefore1 sure to be largely employed when the appearance of the property and not too-exacting financial results are points of importance4 ,there are many forms of wooden fences adopted1 these varying chiefly according to the particular use to which they are applied4 ,the following descriptions are of such kinds as are generally in use for woods and plantations4 ,here it might be well to mention in passing that only matured and seasoned timber should be used in fencing1 the cost of erection1 whether the timber be good or inferior1 being the same1 and every one knows which will last the longer4 ,a good strong fence is erected as follows3--,posts1 #e ft4 #i in4 long1 #d in4 broad1 and #b in4 thick2 bars or rails1 #i ft4 long1 by #c in4 by #a in4 ,four holes are mortised into the posts for the reception of the bars1 the ends of which are so formed as to overlap each other tightly4 ,the fence is usually #d ft4 high1 and so as to strengthen the horizontal bars a stake is driven into the ground midway between the larger posts1 and to this the rails are securely nailed4 ,in some cases the posts are not to be mortised1 so that the bars require to be attached by nails4 ,illustration3 ,,sawn ,,wood ,,fence ,for park clumps1 particularly where a substantial and neat fence to keep back horses1 cattle or deer is required1 the following1 though rather expensive at first1 is largely employed4 ,the entire fence is made of oak or ,spanish chestnut1 and is shown on following page4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,oak ,,fences ,posts #g ft4 long1 #f in4 by #d in41 and run out with the circular saw4 ,rails triangular1 about #c in4 to the side4 ,the uprights are rent from oak or chestnut trees of straight grain1 and are usually about _/ of an inch thick1 and #e ft4 high4 ,the posts are erected #f ft4 apart1 the rails being mortised into these1 and the rent uprights fastened about #b in4 apart by patent rose nails to the horizontal rails4 ,a fence of this kind1 when properly erected1 will last for upwards of forty years1 especially if the butts of the posts are charred before being inserted in the ground4 ,illustration3 ,,wire ,,fence ,,with ,,wooden ,,posts ,rustic fences for small tree clumps may be of almost any design1 but the following is cheap and easily erected4 ,it is formed of larch posts #f ft4 long1 and about #d in4 diameter1 driven into the ground at #f ft4 apart4 ,two flat or rounded rails about #c in4 by #a in4 are nailed horizontally to these1 the lower at #i in4 from the ground and the other flush with the tops of the posts1 which when driven in are #d ft4 from ground level4 ,the uprights are also of larch1 split up the centre and nailed on the horizontal bars at #b in4 apart4 ,they extend above the top rail for #g in41 and are sharply pointed so that they cannot be climbed over4 ,illustration3 ,,tools ,,for ,,fencing ,wire ,fences4--,these may be erected either with iron or wooden standards and straining-posts4 ,the form most commonly in use for enclosing woods is that with wooden posts and strainers1 these being made of mature and thoroughly seasoned larch or oak4 ,the strainers are #g ft4 long and #f in4 square1 or1 if round1 about #g in4 in diameter1 while the intermediate posts are #e ft4 long1 and #c in4 by #c in41 or1 if round1 #c in4 diameter at smallest end4 ,the strainers should be fitted into the ground at #aej yards apart1 and the posts driven firmly at #f ft4 from each other4 ,at every sharp curve along the line of fence a stout post1 say #e in4 in diameter1 should be used4 ,in order to make a stout fence proof against cattle and sheep1 six wires should be used1 the two top ,no4 #f1 and the others ,no4 #g gauge1 the distances between each pair1 beginning at the top1 being #h1 #g1 #f1 #e and #e in41 the lower being #e in4 from the ground4 ,brackets for straining the wires should be attached to each of the strainers1 these having this advantage over the older system of using the straining machine1 that the wires can be loosened or tightened at will1 when repairs are found necessary4 ,the tops of the posts should be rounded off or sawn on angle so as to prevent the lodgment of water4 ,iron and wire fences combined are now commonly in use1 and there are so many excellent systems that it would be invidious to recommend one kind more than another4 ,iron box fencing1 which consists of standards with double pronged feet for fixing in the ground and round or flat horizontal bars run through them1 has been largely used and looks neat1 being also1 if properly erected1 very efficient4 ,wrought-iron hurdles are sometimes used for fencing park clumps1 and they possess at least this advantage1 that they can be lifted at any time and re-erected should it be found necessary to remove them from one place to another4 ,unclimbable iron fencing1 usually in hurdles #g ft4 long1 are now much in use for park fencing1 but for general plantation purposes this class of fencing is too expensive4 ,tree ,guards4--,these may either be erected of wood or iron2 the former is1 however1 preferred on most large estates where timber is plentiful1 and will receive first attention4 ,for large trees whose branches sweep the greensward an elaborate structure is required1 which may take the form of almost any of those described under wooden fencing4 ,that entirely formed of oak is to be recommended1 or split larch for uprights1 with oak posts and rails may be considered more rustic in appearance4 ,in any case the guard should be sufficiently high and wide to prevent cattle and horses reaching over to damage the branches4 ,illustration3 ,,tree ,,guards ,when the trees are destitute of branches for a considerable distance up the stem1 say #h ft4 or #aj ft41 a very neat and efficient guard is made as follows3--,procure a number of larch1 oak or ,spanish chestnut poles1 #g ft4 high1 and about #b in4 diameter at small end4 ,thread these on wires by boring holes in the poles at #b ft4 and #e ft4 from the butt end1 keeping each couple separate by #c in-long pieces of the same size of pole1 also threaded on the wires4 ,these can be formed on the level1 and when sufficient to embrace the tree have been got together1 the whole may be lifted up and placed in position closely around the trunk4 ,another method is to bind the poles together with fencing wire1 giving a double twist between each to keep them at a suitable distance apart4 ,when a more elaborate fence or guard is required1 four posts #g ft4 long1 #d in4 square1 and sawn from crooked oak branches are used4 ,the posts are quite straight for #e ft4 in length1 the upper #b ft4 being inclined outwards1 which not only gives the guard a neat appearance1 but is a great preventive against the encroachments of farm stock4 ,the posts are inserted nearly #b ft4 in the ground1 and so as to form a square around the stem of #d ft4 to the side1 four bars1 each #c in4 by #a in41 are nailed horizontally on the straight portions of the posts1 and at equal distances apart from where the angle occurs downwards2 upwards from that three hoop-iron rails are nailed in a similar manner1 the top one being one inch below the level of the crown of the posts4 ,iron has a light and neat appearance when used for the top bars1 but wood is often substituted4 ,another cheap and neat tree guard for using with the rarer trees1 to which horses and cattle have not access1 is made as follows3--,pales #c ft4 long1 #b in4 wide1 by in4 thick1 are sawn out and pointed4 ,they are driven into the ground round the tree to be protected1 the tops sloping outwards and #a in4 apart4 ,stout tying wire is then interlaced at two heights from the ground4 ,oak or chestnut bark placed loosely around clean-stemmed young trees will prevent damage by ground game1 and is cheap and looks unobtrusive4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,timber ,,measuring ,to those who are not practically acquainted with the measuring of home-grown timber the following brief remarks in elucidation of the subject will be useful4 ,it may1 however1 be well to mention that timber measuring is rather a vexed question1 some following what is known as ,hoppus's system1 and others advocating that of ,horton4 ,the former being that generally in use amongst timber merchants in this country1 and consequently of greatest value to the forester1 the following details of this system may prove serviceable4 ,regarding the timber-measurer's equipment it may first be necessary to say a few words4 ,this consists of a #ff ft4 ,chesterman's tape-line1 or instead of this a #e ft4 wooden rod1 standard girt-strap1 or fine cord1 scribing knife1 and bent piece of iron1 with eye at end for drawing the girt-strap beneath such trees as the arm cannot readily pass under4 ,for girthing timber a piece of thin whipcord or string is frequently used1 but as the elasticity of this varies greatly1 and has in many instances led to dispute1 a much fairer plan and one that is liable to no abuse is to use the #ab ft4 girt-strap1 upon which every inch in length is reckoned 4 ,as the proper quarter-girth can be seen at a glance on this strap1 its adoption will at once remove any chance of trickery1 which may be possible in the use of the string and rule4 ,for entering measurements the most convenient book is that #i in4 by #d in41 with stiff pasteboard covers1 ruled with horizontal lines1 and divided into four vertical columns4 ,to measure proceed as follows3--,mark a number with the scribe on the butt end of the tree1 and enter a similar number in the first column of the book2 this will not only serve to identify the particular log1 but prevent any risk of measuring twice4 ,should the taper throughout the whole length of the tree be tolerably gradual1 set down the length in the second column of the book1 opposite the number already entered4 ,at exactly one-half of the length of the portion measured1 take the girth by passing the girt-strap tightly around the stem4 ,put this down in the third column on the same horizontal line as the number and length4 ,should1 however1 the trunk taper not be fairly uniform throughout the entire length1 as frequently happens1 several measurements may require to be taken4 ,for example1 a tree may be #cf ft4 in length1 running with regular taper for perhaps #ab ft41 after which it branches out1 reducing the size of the remaining part very considerably for1 say another #ab ft41 where it again branches and leaves the last #ab ft4 of a relatively small size4 ,with such a tree it would be quite impossible to obtain anything like a correct measurement by taking only one length and girth4 ,the difficulty is1 however1 readily got over by first measuring the lower #ab ft41 then the second1 and then the third1 marking the respective lengths and girths in the vertical columns as already described4 ,the measurement of these trees1 so far as the field work is concerned1 is now completed1 the contents of each tree being found by referring to 8,hoppus's ,measurer0--a book with which every forester should be supplied4 ,by squaring the quarter-girth in inches1 multiplying by the length in feet1 and dividing by #add1 the same result will be obtained4 ,this is1 however1 a tedious method1 especially where large numbers of trees have to be dealt with1 and should only be adopted when ,hoppus is not at hand4 ,by committing to memory the following short table of quarter-girths much time in calculating and consulting authorities will be saved4 #f-;inch quarter-girth will give contents equal to the entire length in feet4 #g 0 0 0 #h 0 0 0 #aj 0 0 0 #ab 0 0 0 #a #ac 0 0 0 #a #ad 0 0 0 #a #af 0 0 0 #a #ag 0 0 0 #b #ai 0 0 0 #b #ba 0 0 0 #c #bb 0 0 0 #c #bd 0 0 0 #d #bg 0 0 0 #e #bi 0 0 0 #f #ca 0 0 0 #g #cd 0 0 0 #h #cf 0 0 0 #i ,the sliding rule is also useful for determining contents4 ,the proper allowance to be made for bark is half an inch for every foot of quarter-girth for oak and elm under #ab in4 quarter-girth1 and an inch for all beyond1 but it is quite impossible to fix upon any one uniform scale that will meet even the majority of circumstances4 ,trees growing in exposed situations will frequently have bark almost double the thickness of those of a similar size in the woodland4 ,my plan has been always to allow for the bark of each tree at the time of measurement4 ,measuring ,standing ,timber4--,for this a pliable pole #ah ft4 long1 marked in feet1 and the girt-strap already referred to are the necessary equipment4 ,in estimating the number of feet of timber upon a large area1 it is not always necessary to measure each tree separately1 particularly when the whole situation is composed of one species1 and the individual trees are about the same age and size1 as by multiplying the total number of trees by the average content of those selected and measured a very just calculation will be arrived at4 ,great care in their selection1 and considerable judgment in taking the average will1 however1 be required4 ,illustration3 ,,measuring ,,height ,,of ,,trees ,when each tree is to be measured separately two assistants will be required1 one to carry the #ah-;ft4 pole1 and the other the girting-strap4 ,sometimes1 when the timber is of great height1 jointed bamboos are used1 and a light ladder brought into requisition4 ,in carrying out the work in this way1 the man with the pole declares the height of the tree1 and the one with the tape the quarter-girth4 ,measuring the ,height of ,trees4--,there are several methods of ascertaining the heights of trees1 but the two following are1 perhaps1 the most simple1 and the appliances necessary quite inexpensive3-- ,no #a4--,take three laths1 such as bricklayers use for tiling1 and nail them in the shape of the frame shown2 a a must be of equal length2 a and b being placed on the ground1 the eye must follow up the larger lath d d until it is in a line with e1 the top of the tree or object you wish to measure4 ,the frame must be placed as level with the bottom of the tree as possible4 ,should the ground be very uneven you must give and take accordingly4 ,it will be seen that b to c is the same length as c to e1 and this gives the height of the tree4 ,no #b4--,suspend the triangle between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand1 knuckles down1 upon the point a a1 allowing it to swing freely4 ,the edge b c will then fall perpendicularly1 and c d will be horizontal4 ,the remaining edge d b will then lie at an angle of #de to the horizon4 ,on this edge are two sights1 e and f4 ,look through e until f is aligned with the tree-top1 advancing or retiring till the sights point exactly to it4 ,then1 if the observer's feet are level with the tree root1 the height of the tree is the distance from his feet to the root1 plus the height of the eye from the ground4 ,the dendrometer is perhaps the most useful instrument for taking the height of a tree and can be procured from some of our nurserymen4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,blasting ,,and ,,burning ,,tree ,,roots ,illustration3 ,,blasting ,,and ,,burning ,,tree ,,roots ,blasting by gunpowder or dynamite is not only the most expeditious but also the cheapest method of clearing away tree stumps and large logs4 ,in preparing to blast a stump1 great care must be exercised to bore the hole in the right place and not to use too much explosive4 ,for blasting powder the hole should be #a in4 in diameter1 and should penetrate to the centre of the stump4 ,it must not be too low down1 lest the bottom should blow out and the force be expended in shattering the ground instead of the stump or log4 ,in selecting the spot to bore for the powder1 choose the hardest part of the root and ensure an equal thickness of wood all round1 and even splitting of the log will be the result4 ,the following is a good way of putting in the powder3--,for large stumps of from #b ft4 to #d ft4 in diameter about #c in4 depth of coarse blasting powder should be inserted in a hole #a in4 in diameter4 ,the end of the fuse should be put into the centre of the powder1 and left protruding for #ae in4 outside the hole1 which is filled with dry sand1 consolidated1 or packed around the fuse by means of a coarse iron wire4 ,the outside end of the fuse should be teased out and lighted with a match1 and as it will require over a minute for the fire to reach the powder1 time is given for the operator to find a place of safety4 ,burning ,tree ,stumps4--,with a #b-;in4 auger bore a vertical hole in the centre of the stump from the top towards the bottom4 ,in the side of the stump1 near ground level1 bore a horizontal hole towards the centre1 so as to open into the vertical hole1 drop some fire down the vertical hole1 and if the wood is at all dry the draught of air entering by the horizontal hole will1 like the draught of a chimney1 maintain the combustion of the fire in the centre1 until this slowly spreads and ultimately burns away the stump4 ,another and equally simple method of destroying stumps of trees is as follows3--,in autumn bore a hole #b in4 in diameter and #ah in4 deep1 put in #a oz4 of saltpetre1 fill with water1 and plug up close4 ,in the following spring put in the same hole half a gill of kerosene oil and then light4 ,the stump will smoulder away without blazing1 down to every part of the roots4 ,american ,method of ,blasting4--,at ,studley ,horticultural ,college1 ,warwickshire1 the ,american method of blasting was successfully carried out and reported upon by ,mr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,long as follows3-- ,a hole is bored with a long auger or crowbar in a sloping direction from one side of the stump to its base1 generally from #b ft4 to #c ft4 deep4 ,the bore-hole is cleaned out1 and a number of dynamite cartridges inserted1 each being firmly pressed home by a wooden rod4 ,a primer cartridge containing a detonator is then placed on the top of these1 and the bore-hole is filled with clay and tightly rammed4 ,the primer is either connected directly with a safety fuse1 or to a high-tension battery1 by a cable1 and is afterwards fired4 ,as dynamite strikes downwards as well as upwards1 the effect of the explosion is that the roots and stump are all either ejected or loosened1 so that they can be easily removed by hand4 ,the ,american method is less costly and more speedy than the methods hitherto used in ,england in removing stumps4 ,if there is no man on the estate qualified to handle explosives1 an expert must be employed at about #a per day1 besides travelling and hotel expenses4 ,three men--an expert and two labourers--can bore holes and blast thirty sound stumps per day easily4 ,if the stumps are hollow in the centre1 two or three bore holes are necessary for each stump1 and in that case twenty only can be blasted during the day4 ,taking the pre-war wages of two labourers at #bs4 #f;d4 each per day1 the cost of boring and firing averages #b;d4 per stump1 exclusive of the expert's fee4 ,the expert's fee increases the cost by about #bs4 per stump4 ,the explosive used is ,nobel's dynamite1 in the form of cartridges1 costing #i;d4 per lb4 ,the average quantity used for each stump is between #b lbs4 and #c lbs4 7about twenty to thirty cartridges71 so that the cost of the explosive is not more than #bs4 #f;d4 per stump4 ,the detonators and fuses required only cost a few pence4 ,summing up1 the cost per stump is3-- s4 d4 ,expert's fee #b #j ,cost of boring #j #b ,cost of explosive #b #f ,detonators and fuse #j #i -------------- #e #f ,misfires and partial removal of stump may require fresh borings and further charges of explosive1 thus increasing the cost4 ,by employing a skilled estate hand capable of using explosives instead of an expert1 the expense1 however1 is greatly diminished4 ,by the old method of grubbing and jacking1 stumps were removed at ,studley some time ago at the high cost of about #b #es4 each butt1 and even then success was only partial4 ,in another case1 on an estate in ,norfolk1 where an old pasture was converted into a plantation of mixed trees1 trenching at the cost of #ah per acre had to be resorted to on account of the presence of roots and stumps of old trees4 ,in this case it would have been much cheaper to have removed the stumps by blasting4 ,the demonstrations at ,studley showed that both sound and unsound stumps could be successfully blasted1 and whole trees--an ,apple and an ,oak--were also uprooted by the same method with equal success1 using only one bore-hole and about the same charge of explosive4 ,the timber of the trees so treated1 however1 is very much split1 so that blasting is only advisable when the timber is considered of little value4 ,the particular explosives used are unaffected by damp1 and1 in consequence1 the method is applicable in both wet and dry situations4 ,firing the charges was done at the demonstrations mostly by ladies1 and a photographer was able to get sufficiently near to obtain photographs of the effect of the explosion without danger4 ,the principal recommendations of this method1 therefore1 are cheapness1 effectiveness and safety4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,prices ,,of ,,contract ,,or ,,piecework ,the following prices may be taken as approximating to those paid generally throughout the country previous to the war4 ,it may be well to remember1 however1 that in districts where unusually high or low wages are paid1 so in proportion will be the contract prices for the various classes of work4 ,,barking ,,oak3 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,barking oak per ton #ba #j ,loading bark on wagons 0 #c #j ,barking oak per ton of bark #cj #j ,chopping bark 0 #h #j to #aj #j ,,coppicewood3 ,cutting out hurdle rods per score #j #a 0 hurdle stakes per dozen #j #a 0 rake stems 0 #j #a 0 spade stems 0 #j #a 0 spick gads 0 #j #a 0 dahlia stakes 0 #j #a 0 rose stakes per two dozen #j #a 0 besom handles 0 #j #a 0 kidney-bean stakes #ej in bundle #j #b 0 pea stakes per bundle #j #a 0 birchwood for besoms 0 #j #a ,,draining3 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,pipe draining1 mains1 #d ft4 #c in4 deep1 #d in4 or #f in4 pipes per chain #c #j to #c #f 0 0 small1 #d ft4 deep1 #a in4 to #c in4 pipes 0 #b #j 0 #b #i 0 0 small1 #d ft4 deep1 #a in4 pipes 0 #a #i 0 #b #f ,ditches1 open1 #cf in4 wide at top1 #cj in4 deep1 and #i in4 wide at bottom per chain #c #j to #d #j ,scouring out ditto 0 #j #i 0 #a #j ,small open ditches1 #ae in4 to #ah in4 wide at top1 #ab in4 to #ae in4 deep1 and #i in4 wide at bottom 0 #a #f 0 #b #f ,scouring out ditto 0 #j #f 0 #j #i ,,faggot-,,making3 s4 d4 ,making faggots per #ajj #d #f 0 oven faggots 0 #c #j 0 faggots for fire-lighting 0 #a #c ,cutting bands for tying faggots 0 #j #d ,,felling ,,and ,,stubbing ,,timber3 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,felling oak timber per ton of #dj ft4 #c #j 0 other hardwoods 0 0 #b #f 0 pinewood 0 0 #a #f to #a #i ,stubbing out timber 0 0 #c #f 0 #d #j ,cutting underwood from #ab to #ae years' growth per acre #i #f 0 #ab #j ,,fencing3 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,setting out and mortising #d-;holed posts per score #d #j 0 0 0 #c-;holed 0 0 #c #j 0 0 0 #b-;holed 0 0 #b #f 0 0 0 #a-;holed 0 0 #b #j 0 and cleaving rails 0 #j #aj 0 0 0 stakes 0 #j #f 0 0 0 long poles 0 #j #f 0 0 0 short poles 0 #j #d ,hanging field-gates each #d #j to #e #j ,fixing stile 0 #b #j ,preparing posts1 rails and pails for tree guards per set #j #i ,fixing ditto 0 #b #j ,six-wire fence larch posts and creosoted per chain #ce #j to #dj #j ,fixing same 0 #d #f 0 #e #j ,,firewood3 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,splitting firewood per cord #d #j to #f #j 0 0 for charcoal 0 #b #f 0 #c #j ,cutting and stacking cordwood 0 #b #j 0 #c #j ,burning charcoal per bushel of #bj lbs4 #j #b ,loading and spreading soil per load #j #e 0 #j #f ,,gate-,,making3 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,field gate1 oak #e-;bar #ag #j ,posts per pair #bc #j ,iron fastening and ironwork complete #e #i 0 ,fixing #d #f ,making #e-;bar oak gate #b #f 0 half gate #a #i 0 rough wickets #b #j 0 wrought wickets #c #j ,sawing hardwood per #ajj ft4 #c #f to #d #j 0 softwood 0 0 #b #f 0 #c #j ,,hedging3 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,trimming hedges1 ordinary size per chain #j #i to #a #f ,making bank for quick hedge1 digging ditch and planting quick 0 #g #f 0 #aj #f 0 hedge1 without bank or ditch1 trenching ground1 preparing bed and planting 0 #c #j 0 #d #j ,cleaning young hedges 0 #j #h 0 #j #i ,laying hedge and scouring out ditch 0 #b #j 0 #c #j ,,hurdle-,,making3 s4 d4 s4 d4 ,making hurdles per dozen #c #f to #d #j 0 cattle hurdles 7wattle7 0 #e #j 0 #f #j 0 ,welsh hurdles1 for sheep 0 #d #j 0 #e #j ,,pitting3 ,digging out clay per yard #j #f 0 holes for tree planting1 #ae in4 in diameter and #ae in4 deep per #ajj #a #f to #b #f ,inserting plants 0 #j #f 0 #a #j ,notch planting 0 #b #j 0 #c #j ,,preparing ,,road ,,material3 ,quarrying stones per yard #j #aj to #a #c ,breaking stones for roads 0 #j #h 0 #a #j ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,,forest ,,area ,,of ,,the ,,world ,exclusive of the forests of ,china1 ,corea and parts of ,africa and ,south ,america1 for which there are no available data1 the forest area of the world is approximately #c1hjj1jjj1jjj acres4 ,the forests of ,europe total upwards of #gej1jjj1jjj or1 roughly speaking1 about #ca per cent4 of the total land area of the ,continent2 whilst among non-,european countries ,canada comes first with #gii1jjj1jjj acres1 ,united ,states1 #ede1jjj1jjj1 tropical ,south ,america #ebh1jjj1jjj1 ,asiatic ,russia #cdh1jjj1jjj1 and ,central ,africa #bbd1jjj1jjj4 ,finland is1 perhaps1 the best wooded country in the world1 ,bosnia1 ,herzegovina and ,sweden coming next1 whilst amongst the least wooded areas are ,great ,britain and ,portugal1 the former including only about #d per cent4 of the total area of the land4 ,so far as is at present known the following are the approximate areas of woodlands in the various countries of the world3-- ,,country4 ,,total ,,forest ,,area4 7,acres47 ,russia-- ,european ,russia #dfa1faa1jjj ,finland #eb1ejj1jjj ,austria-,hungary-- ,austria #bc1iif1jjj ,hungary #ah1fib1jjj ,croatia and ,slavonia #c1gfi1jjj ,bosnia and ,herzegovina #f1chj1jjj ,sweden #di1cij1jjj ,germany #cd1iij1jjj ,france #bd1jba1jjj ,norway #af1hdh1jjj ,spain #af1jfe1jjj ,italy #aj1aae1jjj ,bulgaria #g1fjc1jjj ,roumania #f1cfg1jjj ,british ,isles #c1jga1cfa ,switzerland #b1adj1jjj ,belgium #a1cjd1jjj ,servia #c1hfe1jjj ,other ,countries #d1dbg1jjj ------------ #gdg1aed1cfa ,asiatic ,russia #cdh1jcj1jjj ,india #adi1jjj1jjj ,ceylon #f1gfc1jjj ,japan #eg1gah1jjj ,philippine ,islands #di1jjj1jjj ,british ,australasia #abf1gbj1jjj ,cape ,colony1 ,natal1 ,swaziland and ,transvaal #fda1jjj ,madagascar #be1jjj1jjj ,barbary ,states #i1ebg1jjj ,central ,africa #bbd1jjj1jjj ,south ,america 7tropical7 #ebh1jjj1jjj ,west ,indies #db1ffi1jjj ,canada #gii1cfj1jjj ,mexico #be1jjj1jjj ,alaska #ajg1jjj1jjj ,united ,states of ,america #ede1jjj1jjj ,other ,countries including the ,straits ,settlement1 ,java1 etc4 #f1hgj1jjj ------------------------ #c1jej1bih1jjj ,the approximate area of woodlands in ,great ,britain and ,ireland are3-- ,acres4 ,england #a1gae1dgc ,scotland #hfh1dji ,wales #ahd1cfa ,ireland #cjc1aah -------------------- #c1jga1cfa ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,,afforesting ,,waste ,,lands ,,and ,,the ,,financial ,,returns ,,therefrom ,now that the ,government is being urged seriously to consider the question of afforestation1 it may be opportune on my part1 as one of the earliest writers on the subject1 to briefly recall what has already been done in this matter1 and to offer some remarks on planting waste lands1 with special reference to cost and the financial returns therefrom4 ,for the past thirty years ,i have not failed to urge on the ,state and private owners of woodlands the pressing necessity for planting up some at least of the waste and unprofitable lands of our country1 in order to provide a sufficiency of timber for the future and leave us less dependent on the supplies that are annually sent us from abroad4 ,as stated elsewhere1 when we consider that the total area of woodlands in this country is only a little over #c1jbi1jjj acres1 that fully #ae1jjj1jjj acres of waste lands exist1 and that we annually import over #aj1jjj1jjj tons of timber1 at a cost of about #be1jjj1jjj1 the necessity for an increased area of woodlands1 so that a portion at least of this vast sum may be kept at home1 will be apparent to all1 and the more so as a dearth of timber is imminent1 and outside supplies are being rigidly conserved1 while our home demands are ever on the increase4 ,england being1 so to speak1 a residential country1 the retention of a certain amount of heath1 mountain and common lands1 for the purpose of deer forests1 grouse moors1 game coverts and golfing links is imperative1 and will considerably reduce the acreage of land available for afforesting purposes4 ,but ,i think that ,i am well within bounds in alloting out of the #ae1jjj1jjj acres of waste land #a1jjj1jjj to afforesting and #ad1jjj1jjj to game preserves1 deer forests and rough pasture4 ,having personally explored much of the mountain and heath lands in ,england and ,scotland1 and some of the vast tracts of bog land in ,ireland 7the latter extending to fully one million acres71 ,i have carefully computed that of land up to #a1bjj feet altitude1 where timber would grow perfectly well1 about #i1jjj1jjj acres are available for afforesting purposes4 ,as far as ,i have been able to find out1 the average rental of the ground referred to is a fraction under #cs4 per acre1 and ,i am quite confident that any land which does not bring in at least three times that amount for grazing or agricultural purposes would be more profitably employed in carrying a crop of timber4 ,it is unfortunate that much of these waste lands are private property1 the owners of which1 even could they afford it1 have little inclination to sink1 for a period of say twenty years1 the necessary capital required to be expended on the formation of woods and plantations4 ,equally unfortunate is it that owing to an injudicious system of management many plantations in this country have been wrongly formed--in so far as adaptation of soil and trees are concerned1 the results being that financially speaking the woods are a failure1 and proprietors in consequence fight shy of further planting operations4 ,i have examined and reported on several of such woods in various parts of the country1 one of the most noticeable being in ,nottinghamshire1 where a large area of ground was planted with a crop of oak1 for which tree the soil was quite unsuitable1 the result being that over the whole ground the average production of timber per tree was under #aj cubic feet in sixty years4 ,when pressing home the question of woodland extension ,i have frequently been confronted by the argument that past experience does not warrant further expenditure in that way4 ,that this is true cannot be denied1 but let us hope that it will be remedied in the near future by the better education of our foresters and by greater attention being given to the relation of trees and soil4 ,with the wholesale felling of timber for war purposes and the disinclination of owners of land to engage in extensive planting operations1 the question naturally arises3 ,what is the most feasible way of overcoming the difficulty8 ,in answer1 and without the slightest hesitation1 ,i would say that the ,state should acquire and plant suitable waste lands at the rate of #dj1jjj acres annually for a period of twenty-five years4 ,such lands could1 in ,england1 ,scotland and ,wales1 be gradually and cheaply acquired by the ,state1 while in ,ireland there are vast tracts of peat bog which their owners would willingly hand over to the ,government at the present time at a small cost per acre4 ,taking the ,british ,isles as a whole1 the cost of procuring suitable lands would be at an annual rental of about #cs4 per acre1 or #djs4 per acre for purchase4 ,on the ,gwydyr ,estate1 ,carnarvonshire1 #g1dab acres of land1 described as rough grazing and sheep walk1 were lately sold by public auction for #ae1fgj1 or at the rate of #b #bs4 #c;d4 per acre4 ,i have little faith either in the ,state advancing money to landed proprietors towards afforesting1 or in municipalities coming to the front as planters of woodlands4 ,the ,state would be the best custodian of forest property for the simple reason that the ,state only can readily acquire the needed land in sufficient quantity and on the best terms1 and ,i am fully convinced that plantations formed under ,government supervision will1 in an economic sense at least1 be far more successful than those planted either by private persons or public bodies4 ,again1 the continuity of ownership under such a scheme1 together with the ample resources guaranteed by ,state control1 would both largely contribute towards a successful issue in such an undertaking4 ,the difficulty of housing and providing for the workmen employed in afforesting out-of-the-way lands has been brought to my notice1 but from personal experience of similar work in ,scotland and ,wales ,i anticipate little difficulty in that way4 ,in these cases1 where a good deal of the work was carried out by contract1 the workmen gladly walked to and from the adjoining villages each day1 often a distance of three or four miles1 bringing their midday meal with them1 which was heated or cooked on the ground4 ,then1 as the plantations increase in age and size1 and sawmills are required1 the ever-increasing industry so created will cause hamlets to spring up in the wooded regions1 just as we find is the case in mining and quarrying districts4 ,after careful computation ,i have no hesitation in saying that the area of plantations in the ,united ,kingdom could at once be doubled by the planting of waste lands which at present do not bring in over #bs4 per acre per year of rental1 with infinite benefit to the country generally and a vast increase in the value of land both to the owner and farmer who cultivates it4 ,in the matter of afforesting1 a grain of practice is worth a ton of theory1 and as ,i have personally supervised every operation1 from marking out the plantation boundary on the exposed hillside1 to draining1 fencing1 planting1 thinning and disposing of the produce1 my opinions on the question are at least worthy of consideration4 ,the ,approaching ,scarcity of ,timber4--,than timber no article is probably more indispensable to the welfare of a nation1 entering extensively as it does into almost every trade and industry4 ,for ,england1 therefore1 with an ever-increasing import1 the possibility of a dearth of timber must be regarded with the keenest anxiety1 more particularly as this would entail prohibitive prices and seriously cripple the trade of the country4 ,the following table1 as reported to the ,washington ,bureau of ,manufactures1 will show at a glance the annual imports of timber of the principal countries of ,europe3-- ,england #af1cdb1fjj cub4 yds4 ,germany #aa1gff1ffg 0 ,france #h1dif1cjj 0 ,belgium #a1hig1ggg 0 ,italy #iae1adh 0 ,denmark #hdi1fcj 0 ,spain #cib1bbb 0 ,switzerland #cac1ggh 0 ,in face of this it is only reasonable to suppose that the ,government will act promptly in the matter1 remembering that no scheme of afforesting1 however extensive or well ordered1 can bring the necessary relief for at least forty years after its inception4 ,for all this1 and in spite of numerous warnings as to the pressing necessity for tree planting and the ominous signs of a timber famine1 little or nothing has been done1 save the holding of meetings by the ,board of ,agriculture and the purchase of a few hundred acres of waste land in ,scotland4 ,to sum up briefly1 the situation is this3--,england's imports before the war rapidly increased from a trifle under #c million loads in #ahfd to fully #aj million loads in #aijf1 thus showing an increment of fully #g million loads in forty-two years4 ,most ,european countries have large internal supplies of timber1 so that1 by a system of conserving and protective tariffs1 the pinch of want would not be felt severely for years to come4 ,but not so ,england1 which is almost wholly dependent on supplies from abroad4 ,according to the ,secretary of the ,agricultural ,department of ,washington1 the area of forests in the ,united ,states is #gjj million acres1 but even now the ,states are more or less dependent on ,canada1 and actually receive the entire surplus from that country4 ,but regarding the ,united ,states1 ex-,president ,roosevelt said3 8,if the present rate of forest destruction is allowed to continue with nothing to offset it1 a timber famine in the future is inevitable4 ,remember that you can prevent such a famine occurring by wise action taken in time2 but once the famine occurs there is no possible way of hurrying the growth of trees necessary to relieve it40 ,again1 the late ,mr4 ,lewis ,miller1 who had vast forests both in ,sweden and ,nova ,scotia1 told me that in twenty-five years neither the ,united ,states nor ,canada will have much timber left1 while ,sweden and ,finland are already played out4 8,i am also of opinion10 he said1 8that during the next twenty-five years timber will be double its present price1 and that it will not only pay to plant land valued at #cs4 per acre1 but that worth #bjs4 per acre40 ,these are no idle words1 but the records of those who know well what they are talking about2 neither are the writers in any sense pessimists4 ,with all these warnings from men whose business it is to study the question and who are fully qualified to advance an opinion1 surely it is time that we took up seriously the question of afforestation4 ,it may be said by some that the timber of our foreign possessions will partly fill up the gap1 but this is not the case4 ,indian timber1 principally teak1 is not in request to any appreciable extent1 while the great ,african forests are hardwoods1 and as a rule unsuited to our wants4 ,the forests of ,south ,america are on a par with those of ,india and ,africa1 while ,china and ,japan1 as also ,australia1 require more timber than they possess4 ,cost of suitable ,land for ,afforesting4--,when in the past the question of afforesting has been brought forward1 the usual outcry has been that suitable land is too expensive to buy4 ,but this argument will no longer suffice1 for1 as ,i have before pointed out1 excellent land for the cultivation of high-class timber can be procured in considerable quantity at about #b per acre4 ,through the kindness of ,lord ,ancaster's estate agent1 ,i have been allowed to look over the sale contracts of several parts of the ,gwydyr ,estate1 in ,carnarvonshire1 and from these ,i find that #g1dab acres were disposed of1 at an average price of #b #bs4 #c;d4 per acre4 ,the ground was excellent for the production of timber1 as the larch on other adjoining lands clearly evidenced4 ,again the ,crown recently purchased #ab1ejj acres in ,scotland at the modest rental of about #b per acre4 ,other instances could be quoted1 but the above suffice to show that land in every way suited for profitable tree planting can be bought at probably less than #b per acre4 ,it is perhaps unfortunate that many of these waste lands are private property1 the owners of which1 even if they could afford it1 have little inclination to sink for a period of1 say1 twenty-five years the necessary capital required to be expended on the formation of plantations4 ,but all this would be obviated by ,state ownership of the woodlands4 ,private individuals1 or1 indeed1 public bodies1 labour under many disadvantages in respect of afforestation1 not the least1 as before stated1 being the quarter of a century required before the money expended in planting can be even partially recovered1 while a systematic method of cultivation and large wooded areas are first necessities to successful timber culture4 ,it is therefore preferable in every way that the ,government should take up the question of tree planting on a large scale1 the necessary land being available at a moderate cost per acre4 ,cost of ,forming ,plantations4--,this will vary greatly with the manner in which the work is carried out1 the particular district of the country1 nature of soil and rate of wages paid1 as also whether fencing and draining have to be engaged in4 ,the difference in cost between 8notch0 and 8pit0 planting is very considerable1 and the fact that the former method is almost exclusively adopted on the rough grounds throughout ,scotland accounts mainly for the smaller first outlay on ,scottish plantations4 ,thus at ,grantown1 ,strathspey1 the ,countess of ,seafield's estate1 ,mr4 ,thomson1 the very capable wood manager1 has planted during the past forty-seven years upwards of #bj1jjj acres of woodlands1 at a cost1 including fencing1 of rather under #b per acre4 ,in ,england1 however1 where1 for various reasons1 pit planting is adopted1 and larger plants are used1 the cost varies from #e to #f per acre4 ,for all practical purposes1 however1 the cost of forming plantations may be put down at1 say1 #e per acre1 as an average taken from the following figures will show3-- ,,england ,,and ,,wales4 s4 d4 ,yorkshire1 at #fjj ft4 altitude1 cost of planting and fencing per acre #d #ah #i ,kent1 fencing and planting 0 #f #c #j ,lincolnshire 0 0 0 #h #j #j ,gloucestershire 0 0 0 #g #aj #j ,carnarvonshire 0 0 0 #e #b #j ,,scotland4 ,inverness-shire1 ,glengloy ,estate1 #hjj ft4 altitude1 cost of fencing and planting per acre #c #aj #j ,ross-shire1 up to #a1bjj ft4 altitude1 cost of fencing and planting per acre #b #aj #j ,perthshire 7planting only7 0 #b #aj #j ,blair ,athol1 #c1ffe acres1 fencing and planting 0 #b #aj #j ,grantown1 ,strathspey1 fencing and planting 0 #b #j #j ,,ireland4 ,wicklow1 #gjj-ijj ft4 altitude1 fencing and planting per acre #d #ac #aa ,armagh 7bogland71 fencing and planting 0 #e #b #j ,another instance in ,scotland may be recorded1 in which #eej acres were planted at a cost of #a1agh1 or at the rate of #b #bs4 #aj;d4 per acre4 ,this included for fencing1 #afd #ahs4 #d;d42 drainage1 #abc #aes42 plants1 #ebj #ajs42 planting1 #cfh #afs4 #h;d4 ,in connexion with these figures1 it may be reassuring to state that in each case a strict account of the expenditure involved had been carefully noted1 and the returns given are practically correct4 ,the average cost1 therefore1 taking ,great ,britain as a whole1 would be about #e per acre for fencing and planting the ground4 ,the above-named plantations1 too1 were formed on the very class of ground of which we have so much lying idle or bringing in only a few shillings rental per acre1 in various parts of the country4 ,the ,ross-shire plantation referred to was a bleak and barren moorland which the crofters1 who used it as a common for their cattle and sheep1 refused to rent at #as4 per acre per annum1 while at ,strathspey the #bj1jjj acres of land were let out previous to planting at #h;d4 per acre per annum4 ,vast tracts of the bare hillsides of ,wales are only bringing in a few shillings of rental per acre4 ,it should be remembered that all the above-named plantations were formed on bleak1 exposed moorlands--the very class of waste lands that ,i have so strongly advocated as being suitable for the woodlands of the future1 and of which at the present time there are about #ae1jjj1jjj acres lying idle in various parts of the kingdom4 ,therefore the cost of planting may be considered as or about #e per acre4 ,this1 with #b #es4 for cost of purchase and #es4 for incidental expenses1 would bring the initial total expenditure to #g #ajs4 per acre4 ,elsewhere ,i have suggested that #a1jjj1jjj acres should be planted over a period of twenty-five years1 at the rate of #dj1jjj acres per year1 which would entail an outlay of #cjj1jjj annually--a small sum when compared with the #be1jjj1jjj expended each year by this country on supplies brought from abroad4 ,but there is another point that ,i should like to touch upon whilst dealing with the formation of plantations1 and that is that the work should only be entrusted to the efficient and practical wood manager1 who is fully conversant with the whole routine of woodland work4 ,it is frequently urged that forestry does not pay1 but where this holds good1 the cause is always traceable to injudicious planting and wrong methods of management4 ,no more can we expect the gardener1 gamekeeper1 estate joiner1 or even the land agent to undertake economical timber culture than we could expect the forester to carry out successfully the duties of any of these individuals4 ,wrongly formed plantations are1 unfortunately1 far too common1 in so far1 at least1 as adaptation of soil and trees are concerned1 the result being that1 financially speaking1 the woods are a failure1 and proprietors1 in consequence1 fight shy of further planting operations4 ,when pressing home the question of the extension of plantations1 ,i have more than once been confronted by the statement that past experience does not warrant further expenditure in that way4 ,that this is true cannot be denied1 in many instances at least1 but1 then1 as above stated1 faulty methods of management are alone responsible for the failure4 ,financial ,returns from ,tree ,planting4--,though it must be admitted that1 in the majority of cases at least1 the financial returns cannot be accepted as strictly correct 7in most cases they are too low71 owing to the woods being treated for other than commercial purposes1 yet in not a few instances1 where neither game-rearing nor ornamental effect have to be considered1 the yield of timber and gross returns for a stated number of years are perfectly reliable4 ,of course1 where game coverts and underwood1 or where the perfect development of the trees1 as in ornamental plantations1 are matters of first importance1 and require that the individual specimens be scattered thinly over the ground1 the greatest yield of the best quality of timber cannot be expected2 but where1 as on various ,scottish and ,english estates1 the trees are grown thickly together and solely for their economic value1 the case is quite different1 as the returns given below will attest4 ,one hundred acres of common land were planted from #aheb to #ahfb4 ,larch was the principal crop1 with a few beech1 ,scotch pine1 spruce and silver fir4 ,the plantation was thinned at intervals from #ahga to #ahhd1 the thinnings being sold for close on #ejj1 but many trees were used for fencing and estate purposes generally4 ,the whole plantation was felled in #aijg1 and realized fully #d1ejj1 or at the rate of #de per acre4 ,the larch on the lower portion averaged #bc ft4 per tree1 but on the exposed ground the trees were only about one-third of that dimension4 ,this plantation has a northern aspect1 and is situated at from #hjj ft4 to #a1cjj ft4 above sea-level4 ,after allowing for the cost of planting and interest on the money expended1 the annual return per acre comes to about #bjs4 ,the adjoining heath-covered lands let for about #bs4 #f;d4 per acre4 ,again1 on the ,countess of ,seafield's estates1 ,scotland1 on grazing land which formerly brought in #h;d4 per acre1 ,mr4 ,thomson1 the woods manager1 tells me that1 at the age of forty-seven years1 ,scotch fir realized #dj per acre2 while in another wood the individual trees brought #bds4 #f;d4 each4 ,a larch plantation of #bjh acres1 on a steep hillside1 was felled at the age of fifty years4 ,the actual returns during that period were3 from thinnings1 #d1ejj2 from final felling1 #ad1ejj2 or fully #ij per acre4 ,the original cost of planting was under #e per acre1 and the value of the land at thirty years' purchase #g #ajs4 per acre1 thus leaving a balance of fully #gh per acre at the age of fifty years4 ,the extensive hillside plantations formed by the late ,lord ,powerscourt in ,ireland1 those at ,glendalough in the same country1 formed by the ,duke of ,atholl between ,dunkeld and ,blair ,atholl1 those at ,glengoy1 in ,aberdeenshire1 at ,strathkyle in ,ross-shire1 and at ,gwydyr and ,penrhyn ,castle in the ,principality of ,wales--all of which were formed over thirty-five years ago1 account of the cost of formation and management being strictly kept--these surely afford sufficient evidence not only of the profitable returns to be obtained from woodlands1 but of the feasibility of afforesting mountain lands with vast benefit in the way of shelter to the dreary1 treeless1 and bleak1 exposed uplands where the planting has been carried out4 ,as far as actual profits are concerned1 it will be prudent to assume that for the first twenty years no return whatever will be derived from hillside plantations1 the sales of thinnings up to that time barely covering the expense of cutting and interest on first cost4 ,from twenty-five to forty years an annual return of fully #abs4 per acre has in many instances been forthcoming1 while the value of the standing crop at the latter age has been found to vary from #ej to #gj per acre4 ,i do not think that these figures would be1 generally speaking1 too high1 as at ,balfour1 in ,scotland1 the larch at forty-three years' growth on a hillside were valued at #bjs4 each1 while a valuation of #bas4 per tree was made of larch on the slopes of the ,snowdon range of hills1 in ,wales1 at the age of forty years4 ,but many similar instances could be recorded1 and are constantly coming before those who have to do with the valuing and felling of timber4 ,the late ,mr4 ,lewis ,miller1 who had probably a larger experience of home woods than any other person1 has given me some valuable and interesting information regarding what he has paid per acre for larch in various parts of ,scotland4 ,in twenty years1 between #ahgj and #ahij1 ,mr4 ,miller has cut down growing timber to the value of over #bej1jjj4 ,a great many of the plantations were fifty years old1 and yielded over #ej per acre when finally cut down1 apart from the value of the thinnings taken out of them previously to the time they were cut down4 ,to one proprietor in ,aberdeenshire he paid #fj1jjj for plantations about fifty years of age1 and the price worked out on an average at fully #ej per acre4 ,one particular plantation of larch in ,aberdeenshire1 about seventy years old1 yielded #aej per acre2 another plantation1 all larch1 about forty-four years of age gave over #ajj per acre1 and these plantations were for the most part growing on what was formerly pasture or waste land1 and cost for planting and fencing from #b to #b #ajs4 per acre4 ,it will be needless to multiply cases in which poor lands worth only from #as4 to #cs4 per acre have been made to realize by judicious tree planting as much as #bjs4 per acre for fifty or sixty years with a final crop worth from #ej to #ge per acre4 ,all the plantations above referred to are excellent object-lessons of the possibilities of the ,british ,isles for the production of high-class timber if woods are properly planted and managed4 ,advantages of ,tree ,planting4--,not only from a strictly financial point of view but also from a hygienic sense standpoint1 plantations are of the utmost importance4 ,for shelter for farm stock1 for improving the agricultural value of the lower lying lands1 and for the part they play in clothing and ornamenting our bare commons and hillsides1 their value can hardly be over-estimated4 ,twenty-five years ago ,i formed a plantation on a spur of the ,snowdon range of hills1 in ,wales1 where the fierce1 long-continued and hard-hitting blasts were of almost constant occurrence1 and the amount of shelter and warmth it now affords to the farm stock and lower lying lands would hardly be credited4 ,previous to the formation of this particular plantation1 at altitudes varying up to #fjj ft41 the adjoining lands were quite incapable of cultivation1 but now crops are gradually creeping up the hillsides1 while the farm stock find the much-needed shelter and warmth that they were formerly denied4 ,so great has been the benefit of this wood both to man and beast that the farmer on whose land it was planted speaks of it as 8a ,godsend40 ,other similar cases in ,wales might be mentioned1 as for instance the plantations on the ,gwydyr and ,penrhyn ,estates1 and also those near ,abergele1 where the judicious planting up of rocky and almost worthless land has converted dreary and inhospitable districts into the most fashionable and expensive residential property4 ,in many parts of ,scotland1 particularly ,perth1 ,inverness and ,aberdeenshire1 equally good results have been obtained by judicious tree planting4 ,another notable advantage gained by the planting of trees lies in the provision of profitable work for the unemployed4 ,as a special chapter is devoted to this important subject1 it need only be mentioned here4 ,it should not be overlooked that excellent results have followed in the wake of planting bog lands in ,ireland4 ,in #ahfb my father formed several plantations there1 a full account of which will be found in the ,transactions of the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society of ,scotland for #ahgc4 ,i examined these woods and was agreeably surprised at the height which the trees had attained1 the cubic contents of the timber1 and the price realized4 ,incidentally1 it might be noticed that the ground previously to planting was a dreary1 heath-clad waste1 only suitable for snipe-shooting and the production of turf for fuel4 ,many other instances of the numerous advantages to be derived from a well-organized system of tree planting could be cited1 not the least important being the greater facilities that would be afforded for disposing of the timber4 ,in many outlying districts all over the country far removed from road and rail1 it is difficult to get rid of the small amount of timber that is periodically cut down1 but were larger quantities handled and a continuity of supply forthcoming1 ,i feel certain that timber merchants would be prompted to make special transit arrangements4 ,more than once ,i have been asked by ,irish landowners to recommend buyers of good larch and oak timber1 but1 after negotiation1 ,i have invariably been told by the merchant that the quantity offered was far too small to allow of special facilities for delivery being provided1 since the timber was far away from road and rail4 ,they stated1 however1 that if a specified number of cubic feet of good timber could be guaranteed annually for a number of years they were quite prepared to buy4 ,the same obstacles to the sale of timber have been experienced in ,scotland and remote parts of ,wales4 ,in these cases a continuity of supply1 such as would be forthcoming if my scheme of afforesting was carried out1 would ensure speedy sales at moderate prices in places where at present it is difficult1 if not impossible1 to dispose of small quantities except at ruinously low prices4 ,,index ,a ,,page ,abele ,poplar for ,town ,planting1 #aja ,acacia1 ,false1 for ,town ,planting1 #ajb ,advantages of ,tree ,planting1 #bic ,afforesting ,waste ,lands1 #bhb ,agaricus melleus1 #bah ,ailanthus for ,town ,planting1 #aja ,alder as ,timber1 #bdj ---- ,common1 for ,seaside ,planting1 #gh ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #eb ---- ---- ,exposed ,positions1 #eb ---- ---- ,ornamental ,planting1 #aag ---- ---- ,seaside 0 #gh ---- ,hoary1 for ,seaside ,planting1 #gh ,almond for ,town ,planting1 #ajg ,american ,winged ,elm for ,exposed ,planting1 #gj ,andromeda for the ,shade1 #aib ,apple as ,timber1 #bdj ,appliances used in ,forestry1 #aec ,araucaria ,imbricata ,seed1 #ad ,area of ,woodlands1 #bhj ,arrangement of ,plantations1 #cc ,ash as ,timber1 #bdj ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #dh ---- ---- ,exposed 0 #ga ---- ---- ,ornamental 0 #acb ---- ---- ,seaside 0 #gi ---- ---- ,town 0 #ajd ---- ,seed1 #aa ,aspect of ,home ,nursery1 #bf ,aspen for ,seaside ,planting1 #gh ,atlantic ,cedar for ,seaside ,planting1 #hb ---- ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #fe ,aucuba ,japonica for ,town ,planting1 #aje ---- ---- ---- ,game ,coverts1 #agi ---- ---- ---- ,hedges1 #ahi ,austrian ,pine for ,economic ,planting1 #fe ---- ---- ---- ,exposed ,planting1 #fi ---- ---- ---- ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ---- ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ajh ---- ---- ,seed1 #aa ,autumn-tinted ,foliage ,trees for ,ornamental ,planting1 #abc ,autumn ,work in ,home ,nursery1 #cj ,b ,bark1 #bee ---- ,stripping----,tools used1 #bbb ,barking ,oak1 #bbj-bbb ,barron's ,transplanting ,machine1 #adj ,beam ,tree for ,seaside ,planting1 #gg ---- ---- in ,london1 #ajc ,bedford ,willow for ,seaside ,planting1 #he ,beech ,coccus1 #bje ,beech as ,timber1 #bdf ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #di ---- ---- ,exposed 0 #ga ---- ---- ,hedge 0 #ahg ---- ---- ,ornamental 0 #ahh ---- ---- ,seaside 0 #hj ---- ,seed1 #aa ,beetle ,pine1 #aic ,berberis ,darwinii for ,game ,coverts1 #ahj ---- ---- ---- ,hedge ,planting1 #ahi ---- ---- ---- ,seaside1 #hd ,bhotan ,pine for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aag ,birch as ,timber1 #bdj ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #ec ---- ---- ,exposed 0 #ga ---- ---- ,ornamental 0 #abb ---- ---- ,seaside 0 #gi ---- ---- ,town 0 #ajd ---- ,seed1 #aa ,bird ,cherry for ,exposed ,planting1 #ga ---- ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ajd ,black ,italian ,poplar for ,town ,planting1 #aja ,blackberry for the ,shade1 #aib ,bladder ,senna for ,town ,planting1 #ajf ---- ,rust or ,cluster-,cup1 #bai ,blasting ,tree ,roots1 #bgc ,bog ,soils1 ,trees for1 #acf ,bostrichus ,laricis1 #aid ---- ,typographus1 #aid ,box for ,hedge ,planting1 #ahh ---- ---- ,game ,covert1 #agg ---- ,thorn for ,seaside ,planting1 #hc ,bracing a ,tree1 #aei ,briar for ,hedge ,planting1 #ahh ,british ,oak for ,hedge ,planting1 #aaa ---- ,timber and its ,uses1 #bdj ,broom for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,buckthorn1 ,sea1 for ,seaside ,planting1 #hb ,burning ,tree ,stumps1 #bgd ,butcher's ,broom for ,game ,coverts1 #ahb ---- ---- ---- ,carpeting in ,shade1 #aib ,by-products of the ,forest1 #bej ,c ,canadian ,poplar for ,town ,planting1 #aja ,cedar for ,seaside ,planting1 #hb ,cephalonian ,fir for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ,chalky ,soil for ,tree ,planting1 #acj1 #acf ,charcoal1 #bec ---- ,making1 #bbf ---- ,comparative ,value of ,wood1 #bca ---- ,pit1 #bca ---- ,kiln ,burning1 #bca ---- ,uses of1 #bcb ,cherry as ,timber1 #bdj ---- for ,exposed ,planting1 #ga ---- ---- ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ,chestnut as ,timber1 #bdj ---- for ,town ,planting1 #ajd ---- ---- ,economic ,planting1 #ea ,clay ,soil for ,tree ,plantations1 #ach ,cleaning and ,pruning ,hedges1 #ahi ,climbers for ,town ,planting1 #ajg ,cluster ,pine for ,planting1 #ha ---- ---- ---- ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ---- ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #ha ,cockchafer1 #bjb ,colchic ,laurel for ,hedge ,planting1 #ahi ,collecting ,tree ,seeds1 #h ,common ,alder for ,seaside ,planting1 #gh ---- ,gorse for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,common ,holly for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ---- ,ivy for ,carpeting in ,shade1 #aia ---- ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ajg ---- ,laburnum for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ---- ,laurel for ,hedge ,planting1 #ahi ---- ,london ,plane for ,town ,planting1 #ih ---- ,mulberry for ,town ,planting1 #ajb ,comparative ,value of ,woods for ,charcoal ,making1 #bca ,conifers suitable for ,chalky ,soil1 #aca ---- ---- ---- ,reclaimed ,peat ,bog1 #abi ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #eg ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ajh ---- ,seeds1 #i ---- ,seaside1 #hj ,contract ,work1 ,prices of1 #bgg ,contents1 xi ,coppice ,wood ,management1 #agj ---- ,cost of1 #agc ,cornelian ,cherry for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ---- ---- ---- ,hedgerow ,planting1 #aaa ,corsican ,pine for ,economic ,planting1 #ei ---- ---- ---- ,exposed ,planting1 #gj ---- ---- ---- ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ---- ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #ha ---- ---- ,seeds1 #aa ,cost of ,forming ,plantations1 #bhg-bhh ,cratgus ,pyracantha for ,town ,planting1 #ajh ,cricket ,bat ,willow1 #ed ,cryptomeria for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ,cucumber ,tree for ,town ,planting1 #aja ,cupressus ,lawsoniana1 ,seed of1 #aa ---- ---- for ,town ,planting1 #aji ,currant1 ,flowering1 for ,town ,planting1 #ajf ,cut-leaved ,trees1 #aba ,cutting ,osiers1 #bdg ,cypress for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #hb ,d ,daphne ,laureola for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ---- ,mezereon for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,darwin's ,barberry for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,deciduous ,cypress for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aag ,dedication1 v ,dogwood for ,seaside ,planting1 #hc ---- ---- ,charcoal1 #bcb ,double ,furze for ,town ,planting1 #ajf ,douglas ,fir for ,economic ,planting1 #fc ---- ---- ,seed1 #ab ,draining----,tools used1 #cg ---- and ,clearing ,ground for ,plantations1 #cf ,dried ,leaves as ,litter1 #bea ,e ,economic ,planting1 #dg ---- ---- ,trees for1 #dh ,elder for ,exposed ,planting1 #gj ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #gf ,elegant ,cryptomeria for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ,elm1 as ,timber1 #bdj ---- ,english for ,hedge ,planting1 #aaa ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #ea ---- ---- ,exposed ,planting1 #gj ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #gi ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ajd ---- ,scotch1 for ,seaside ,planting1 #he ---- ,seed1 #ab ---- ,tree ,destroyer1 #aii1 #bjj ,english ,elm for ,hedge ,planting1 #aaa ---- ,maple for ,seaside ,planting1 #gi ,euonymus ,japonicus for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ---- ,radicans ,variegata for ,carpeting in ,shade1 #aib ,evergreen ,honeysuckle for ,town ,planting1 #ajg ---- ,oak for ,seaside ,planting1 #gi ,exposed ,ground1 ,planting1 #gb ,f ,faggots1 #bee ,false ,acacia for ,town ,planting1 #ajb ,felling----,tools used1 #dc ,felted ,beech ,coccus1 #bje ,fencing1 #ig ---- ,plantations1 #beg ---- ,tools used1 #bfd ,fern-leaved ,beech for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ,financial ,returns of ,planting1 #bij ,firewood1 #beb ,fitzroya ,patagonica for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ,flowering ,currant for ,town ,planting1 #ajf ---- ,trees for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aaf ,forest ,area of the ,world1 #bhj ,forest ,by-,products1 #bej ---- ,produce1 ,utilizing1 #bej ,forestry and the ,war1 #a ,formation of ,game ,coverts1 #agd ---- ---- ,plantations1 #cb ,forsythia ,viridissima for ,town ,planting1 #ajf ,fountain ,willow1 #aba ,fruit ,trees for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aaf ,fungi on ,trees1 #bab ,furze for ,hedge ,planting1 #ahh ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ajf ,g ,game ,coverts1 ,formation and ,management1 #ahd ,gaultheria ,procumbens for ,carpeting in ,shade1 #aib ---- ,shallon for ,carpeting in ,shade1 #aib ---- ---- ---- ,game ,coverts1 #aha ,giant ,arborvit for ,economic ,planting1 #fd ---- ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #ha ,goat ,moth1 #bjj ---- ,willow for ,seaside ,planting1 #gh ,golden ,willow for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aag ,gorse for ,hedge ,planting1 #ahh ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,grasses for the ,sea-,coast1 #hf ---- ---- ,woodland ,drives1 #cd ,gravelly ,soil for ,tree ,plantation1 #aca-acg ,green ,tree ,box for ,game ,coverts1 #agg ,griselinia ,littoralis for ,seaside ,planting1 #hc ---- ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #aje ,groundsel ,tree for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,h ,hard-wooded ,trees for ,economic ,planting1 #dg ,hardwoods for ,chalky ,soil1 #acj ---- ---- ,clay ,soils1 #acb ---- ---- ,gravelly ,soil1 #aca ---- ---- ,ironstone ,soils1 #acc ---- ---- ,reclaimed ,peat ,bog1 #abi ,hawthorn ,seed1 #ab ,hazel ,nuts1 #ab ,heather for the ,shade1 #aib ,heaven1 ,tree of1 for ,town ,planting1 #aja ,hedges as ,fences1 #ahe ---- ,formation of1 #ahd ---- ,management1 #ahd ---- ,ornamental1 #ahh ---- ,planting1 #ahf ---- ,pruning1 #ahi ,hedgerow and ,field ,planting1 #aaj ,hedging ,tools used1 #ahe ,height of ,trees1 ,measuring1 #bga ,hoary ,alder for ,seaside ,planting1 #gh ,holly as ,timber1 #bdj ---- ,berries1 #ab ---- ,fly1 #bjd ---- for ,game ,coverts1 #aha ---- ---- ,hedge ,planting1 #ahh ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,home ,nursery1 #bd ---- ---- ,spring ,work1 #bh ---- ---- ,summer ,work1 #cj ---- ---- ,autumn ,work1 #cj ---- ---- ,winter ,work1 #cj ,honeysuckle for ,town ,planting1 #ajg ,hornbeam as ,timber1 #bda ---- for ,exposed ,planting1 #gj ---- ---- ,hedge ,planting1 #aac1 #afg ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #hj ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ajd ,horse ,chestnut as ,timber1 #bda ---- ---- for ,town ,planting1 #ajd ---- ---- ,seeds1 #ab ,hot and ,dry ,soils1 ,shrubs for1 #acd ,how to ,prune1 #aeg ,huntingdon ,willow for ,seaside ,planting1 #gg ,hypericum ,calycinum for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,i ,imperial ,alder for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aag ,index1 #bie ,indian ,bean for ,town ,planting1 #ajb ,insects and ,diseases ,injurious to ,forest ,trees1 #aic ,introduction1 ix ,ironstone ,soil for ,plantations1 #acc1 #ach ,italian ,poplar for ,town ,planting1 #aja ,ivy for ,carpeting in ,shade1 #aia ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ajg ,j ,japanese ,cryptomeria for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ,jasminum ,nudiflorum for ,town ,planting1 #ajh ,juneberry for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ,juniper1 ,savin for towns1 #aji ,k ,kentucky ,coffee-,tree for ,town ,planting1 #ajf ,kilmarnock ,willow1 #aba ,kiln ,burning ,charcoal1 #bca ,l ,laburnum1 ,common1 for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ---- ,moth1 #bjb ---- ,scotch1 for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,lackey ,moth1 #bjj ,land ,sale on the ,gwydyr ,estate1 #bhg ,larch ,aphis1 #aig ---- ,canker1 #bac ---- ,cones1 #ab ---- ,disease1 ,cause and ,remedy1 #bac ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #eg ---- ---- ,exposed ,planting1 #ga ---- ---- ,hedge ,planting1 #aad ---- ,miner1 #aie ---- ,sawfly1 #aih ---- ,timber1 #bda ,large-,fruited ,cypress for ,seaside ,planting1 #hb ,laurel ,spurge for ,carpeting in ,shade1 #aib ,laurustinus for ,game ,coverts1 #agi ---- ---- ,hedge ,planting1 #ahh ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #hc ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ajg ,leaf-,shedding ,fungus1 #bah ,levelling1 #ch ,leycesteria ,formosa for ,town ,planting1 #ajf ,ligustrum ,coriaceum for ,town ,planting1 #aje ---- ,ovalifolium for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,lilacs for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #hd ,lime as ,timber1 #bda ---- for ,hedge ,planting1 #aac ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ajc ,litter of ,dried ,leaves1 #bea ,lombardy ,poplar for ,hedge ,planting1 #aab ---- ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #aja ,london ,plane for ,town ,planting1 #ih ,lymegrass for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,m ,magnolias for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ---- for ,town ,planting1 #aja ,mahonia ,aquifolia for ,game ,coverts1 #ahj ,maidenhair ,tree for ,town ,planting1 #ajj ,manna ,ash for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ,manufacture of ,charcoal1 #bbf ,manure for ,home ,nursery1 #bf ,maple as ,timber1 #bda ---- for ,seaside ,planting1 #gi ,maram for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,measuring ,height of ,trees1 #bgb ,measuring ,standing ,timber1 #bgj ,mezereon ,laurel for ,carpeting in ,shade1 #aib ,minor ,products of ,forest ,waste1 #bef ,mountain ,ash for ,exposed ,planting1 #gj ---- ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #gh ---- ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ajd ---- ---- ,seed1 #ab ,mulberry for ,town ,planting1 #ajb ,n ,norway ,maple for ,seaside ,planting1 #gf ---- ,spruce for ,economic ,planting1 #fd ,notch ,planting1 #dd ,nursery1 ,formation and ,management1 #bd ---- ,home1 its ,formation and ,management1 #bd ---- ,plan of1 #bg ---- ,tools used in1 #bi ---- ,work for the ,seasons1 #bh ,o ,oak as ,timber1 #bda ---- ,evergreen for ,seaside ,planting1 #gi ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #dg ---- ---- ,exposed ,planting1 #ga ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #gi ---- ---- ,roller ,moth1 #bjd ---- ,seed1 #ac ,olearia ,hastii1 #aje ---- ,macrodonta1 #aje ,oriental ,plane for ,town ,planting1 #ih ,ornamental ,planting1 #aaf ---- ,weeping ,trees1 #aba ,osmanthus ,ilicifolius for ,town ,planting1 #aje ,p ,paper,pulp1 #bea ,peat ,soil1 #abi ,periwinkles for ,carpeting in ,shade1 #aia ,phillyrea ,vilmoriniana for ,town ,planting1 #ajf ,picia ,sitchensis1 #ei ,pine ,beetle1 #aic ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #ei ---- ---- ,exposed ,planting1 #gj ---- ---- ,ornamental ,planting1 #aba ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #ha ---- ,sawfly1 #aif ---- ,shoot ,moth1 #aie ---- ,weevil1 #aid ,pinus ,insignis1 #hb ---- ,montana for ,seaside ,planting1 #ha-he ---- ,macrocarpa ,seed1 #ad ---- ,sabiniana ,seed1 #ad ---- ,stropus1 #aa ,pitch1 #bea ,pitting1 #dj ,plane for ,town ,planting1 #ii ---- ,tree in ,regent's ,park1 #ii ,plantations1 ,formation and ,cost1 #cb ---- ,hedges1 #ahd ,planting1 #da ---- ,advantages of ,tree1 #bic ---- ,exposed ,ground1 #fh ---- ,financial ,returns of1 #bij ---- ,hedges1 #ahd ---- ,iron1 #de ---- ,ironstone ,soils1 #acc ---- ,notch1 #dd ---- ,ornamental1 #aba ---- ,osiers1 #bdc ---- ,tools used for1 #dc ,polyporus ,sulphureus1 #bai ---- ,squamosus1 #baf ,poplar as ,timber1 #bda ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #eg ---- ,town ,planting1 #aja ,populus ,canadensis for ,seaside ,planting1 #gh ---- ,alba for ,seaside ,planting1 #gh ---- ,nigra for ,seaside ,planting1 #gh ,portugal ,laurel for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,preface1 vii ,preparation of ,ground for ,town ,planting1 #ib ---- ---- ---- ,hedges1 #ahd ,prices of ,contract ,work1 #bgg ---- of ,timber per ton1 #bci ---- ---- ---- per cubic foot1 #bch ---- ---- ,forest ,produce1 #bcg ,prince ,albert's ,fir for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ,privet for ,game ,coverts1 #agh ---- ---- ,hedge ,planting1 #ahh ,propagating ,trees and ,shrubs1 #ae ---- by ,cuttings1 #ai ---- ---- ,grafting1 #bb ---- from ,budding1 #bc ---- ---- ,layers1 #ba ---- ---- ,seed1 #ae ,prune1 ,how and ,when to1 #aeg ,pruning ,bad ,effects of1 #aeb ---- ,dead ,wood1 #aee ---- ,hedges1 #aeb ---- ,live ,branches1 #aed ---- ,shrubs1 #aeg ---- ,tools used in1 #aec ---- ,trees1 #aea ,purple ,willow for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aag ,pyrus for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ,q ,quick ,hedges1 #ahf ,r ,red-,rot ,fungus1 #bag ,red ,spider1 #bja ,retinospora for ,town ,planting1 #aji ,rhamnus ,frangula for ,charcoal1 #bcc ,rhododendron ,ponticum for ,game ,coverts1 #ahj ,rhytisma ,punctata1 #baf ,rosa ,rugosa for ,hedge ,planting1 #ahh ---- ,rubiginosa for ,hedge ,planting1 #ahh ,rowan ,tree for ,town ,planting1 #ajd ,ruscus ,aculeatus for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,s ,st4 ,john's ,wort for ,carpeting in ,shade1 #aia ---- ---- ---- ---- ,game ,coverts1 #ahb ,scotch ,elm for ,exposed ,planting1 #gj ---- ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #gi ---- ,fir as ,timber1 #bdb ---- ---- for ,hedge ,planting1 #aac ---- ,laburnum for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ---- ,pine for ,economic ,planting1 #fb ---- ---- ---- ,exposed ,planting1 #gj ---- ---- ---- ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ---- ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #hb ,sea ,buckthorn for ,seaside ,planting1 #hb ,seaside ,planting1 #gc ---- ---- ,hardwoods for1 #gf ---- ---- ,shrubs for1 #hb ---- ---- ,list of ,trees for1 #he ,seed1 ,best ,depth for ,germinating1 #ag ---- ,collecting and ,harvesting1 #h ---- of ,various ,trees contained in a ,bushel1 #aj ---- ,required to plant #ajj sq4 ft41 #ah ---- ,tree1 number in a lb41 #aj ,selecting ,tree ,seeds1 #i ,shade-loving ,shrubs1 #aia ,shrubs for ,carpeting in ,shade1 #aia ,shrubs for ,hot and ,dry ,soils1 #acd ---- ---- the ,sea-,coast1 #hb-hf ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #aje-ajg ,silver ,fir as ,timber1 #bdb ---- ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #fd ---- ---- ,seed1 #ac ,sitka ,spruce for ,economic ,planting1 #ei ,skimmia ,japonica for ,town ,planting1 #ajf ,slate ,fences for ,plantations1 #beh ,slit ,planting1 #dd ,snowberry for ,seaside ,planting1 #hc ,snowy ,mespilus for ,town ,planting1 #ajf ,soil for ,home ,nursery1 #bf ,sophora ,japonica for ,town ,planting1 #ajd ,spanish ,broom for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ---- ,chestnut as ,timber1 #ea ---- ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #ea ---- ---- ,seed1 #ab ---- ,silver ,fir for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ,spider1 ,red1 #bja ,spirea ,adiantifola for ,seaside ,planting1 #hc ,spring ,work in ,home ,nursery1 #bh ,spruce ,fir as ,timber1 #bdb ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #ei ---- ---- ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ---- ,gall ,aphis1 #aih ,spurge ,laurel for ,carpeting in ,shade1 #aib ---- ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ajf ,stag's ,horn ,sumach for ,town ,planting1 #ajf ,staking ,trees1 #aai ,standing ,timber ,measuring1 #bgj ,stone ,walls for ,fencing ,plantations1 #beg ,strawberry ,trees for ,town ,planting1 #ajf ---- ---- for ,seaside1 #hd ,summer ,work in ,home ,nursery1 #cj ,sweet-,bay for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ---- ,briar for ,hedge ,planting1 #ahh ---- ,chestnut for ,economic ,planting1 #ea ,sycamore as ,timber1 #bdb ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #ea ---- ---- ,exposed ,planting1 #gj ---- ---- ,hedge ,planting1 #aab ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #gf ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ajd ---- ,fungus1 #baf ,t ,tamarisk for ,seaside ,planting1 #gf-hb ,tamarix ,gallica for ,seaside ,planting1 #hb ---- ,germanica for ,seaside ,planting1 #hb ,tansy-leaved ,thorn for ,town ,planting1 #aje ,tar1 #bea ,taxodium ,distichum for ,town ,planting1 #aji ,thinning ,plantations1 #ada ---- ---- ,rules for1 #adi ,thorn ,fly1 #bjb ---- for ,hedge ,planting1 #ahf ,thorns for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #hc ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #aje ,thujopsis ,dolabrata for ,town ,planting1 #aji ,timber1 ,british1 and ,some of ,its ,uses1 #bdj ---- ,measuring1 #bhh ---- ,prices1 #bcg ,tools used in ,forestry1 #dc ,town ,planting1 #hg-aji ---- ---- ,trees for1 #ih ,transplanting ,seedlings1 #ah ---- ,large ,trees1 #aci ---- ,machine1 ,faulkner's1 #adj ---- ,specimen ,trees1 #aah ,tree ,groundsel for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ---- ,guards1 #bfe ---- ,mallow for ,seaside ,planting1 #hc ,tree of ,heaven for ,town ,planting1 #aja ---- ,planting1 ,advantages of1 #bic ---- ---- ,financial ,returns of1 #bij ---- ,pruning in ,economic ,forestry1 #aea ---- ,purslane for ,seaside ,planting1 #hc ,trees and ,shrubs1 ,propagating1 #ae ---- best adapted for ,various ,soils1 #abh ---- for ,chalky or ,calcareous ,soils1 #acj ---- ---- ,clay ,soils1 #acb ---- ---- ,economic ,planting1 #dg ---- ---- ,exposed ,planting1 #fh ---- ---- ,gravelly and ,sandy ,soils1 #aca ---- ---- ,hedge ,planting1 #aaj ---- ---- ,hedgerow and ,field1 #aaj ---- ---- ,ironstone ,soils1 #acc ---- ---- ---- and ,coal ,soils1 #acc ---- ---- ,ornamental ,planting1 #aba ---- ---- ,peaty ,soils #abi ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #he ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ih ,trumpet ,honeysuckle for ,town ,planting1 #ajg ,tulip ,tree for ,town ,plantations1 #ajb ,turf ,dykes for ,plantations1 #bfi ,turkey ,oak for ,seaside ,planting1 #gi ,turpentine1 #bej ,u ,umbrella ,pine for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aah ,underwood1 #agj ,uses of ,charcoal1 #bcb ,utilizing ,waste ,forest ,produce1 #bej ,v ,value of ,woods for ,charcoal ,making1 #bca ---- ---- ,reclaimed ,peat ,bog1 #abi ,venetian ,sumach for ,town ,planting1 #ajf ,vinca ,major for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ---- ,minor for ,seaside ,planting1 #hd ,vine for ,town ,planting1 #ajh ,virginia ,creeper for ,town ,planting1 #ajg ,w ,walnut as ,timber1 #bdb ---- for ,town ,planting1 #ajd ---- ,seed1 #ac ,waste ,forest ,produce1 ,utilizing1 #bej ,water for ,home ,nursery1 #bf ,watering ,trees1 #ig ,wayfaring ,tree for ,town ,planting1 #ajf ,weeping ,ash for ,town ,planting1 #ajd ---- ,trees for ,ornamental ,planting1 #aba ,weymouth ,pine for ,economic ,planting1 #fj ---- ,pine ,seeds1 #aa ,when to ,prune1 #aeg ,white ,beam ,tree for ,town ,planting1 #ajb ---- ,fruited ,mulberry for ,town ,planting1 #ajb ---- ,rot ,fungus1 #bah ,wild ,cherry for ,exposed ,planting1 #ga ,willow ,beetle1 #aig ---- ,culture1 #bdc ---- for ,economic ,planting1 #ed ---- ---- ,ornamental ,planting1 #aag ---- ---- ,seaside ,planting1 #gh ---- ---- ,timber1 #bdb ---- ---- ,town ,planting1 #ajd ---- ,kilmarnock1 #aba ---- ,ringlet1 #aba ,willows for ,basket-,making1 #bdc ---- ,profits of ,culture1 #bdh ---- ,rules for ,culture1 #bdg ,winged ,elm for the ,seaside1 #gg ,winter ,moth1 #baj ---- ,work in ,home ,nursery1 #cj ,wire ,fences for ,plantations1 #bfc ,wireworms1 #bjh ,witch's ,broom or ,willow1 #baj ,wood ,fences for ,plantations1 #bfb ---- ,leopard ,moth1 #bjc ,woods for ,charcoal ,making1 #bca ,y ,yew as ,timber1 #bdb ---- for ,game ,coverts1 #aha ---- ---- ,hedge ,planting1 #ahh ---- ,seed1 #ac ,butler ,tanner ,frome and ,london