,,the ,,penny ,,magazine ,,of ,,the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #ae4 ,,published ,,every ,,saturday4 ,june #cj1 #ahcb ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,cave ,,of ,,elephanta4 ,illustration3 ,a view of a cave1 with large statues and pillars and two people standing inside4 ,one of the earliest monuments of ,india that attracted the notice of ,europeans was the excavation of ,elephanta1 situated in a beautiful island of the same name1 called by the natives ,goripura1 or ,mountain ,city4 ,this island is in the bay of ,bombay1 seven miles from ,bombay castle2 it is about six miles in circumference1 and composed of two long hills with a narrow valley between them4 ,the island has taken its familiar name from a colossal statue of an elephant1 cut out of a detached mass of blackish rock unconnected with any stratum below4 ,this figure has had another on its back1 which the old travellers call a young elephant1 but which1 as far as we can judge from the drawing of what remains of it1 has much more probably been a tiger4 ,the head and neck of this elephant dropped off about #ahad1 owing to a large fissure that ran up through its back4 ,the length of this colossal figure1 from the forehead to the root of the tail1 was #ac feet #b inches2 and the height at the head #g feet #d inches4 ,the remains of this colossus stand about #bej yards to the right of the usual landing-place1 which is towards the southern part of the island4 ,after proceeding up the valley till the two mountains unite1 we come to a narrow path1 after ascending which there is a beautiful prospect of the northern part of the island1 and the opposite shores of ,salsette4 8,advancing forward and keeping to the left along the bend of the hill1 we gradually mount to an open space1 and come suddenly on the grand entrance of a magnificent temple1 whose huge massy columns seem to give support to the whole mountain which rises above it4 8,the entrance into this temple1 which is entirely hewn out of a stone resembling porphyry1 is by a spacious front supported by two massy pillars and two pilasters forming three openings1 under a thick and steep rock overhung by brushwood and wild shrubs4 ,the long ranges of columns that appear closing in perspective on every side2 the flat roof of solid rock that seems to be prevented from falling only by the massy pillars1 whose capitals are pressed down and flattened as if by the superincumbent weight2 the darkness that obscures the interior of the temple1 which is dimly lighted only by the entrances2 and the gloomy appearance of the gigantic stone figures ranged along the wall1 and hewn1 like the whole temple1 out of the living rock1--joined to the strange uncertainty that hangs over the history of this place1--carry the mind back to distant periods1 and impress it with that kind of uncertain and religious awe with which the grander works of ages of darkness are generally contemplated4 8,the whole excavation consists of three principal parts3 the great temple itself1 which is in the centre1 and two smaller chapels1 one on each side of the great temple4 ,these two chapels do not come forward into a straight line with the front of the chief temple1 are not perceived on approaching the temple1 and are considerably in recess1 being approached by two narrow passes in the hill1 one on each side of the grand entrance1 but at some distance from it4 ,after advancing to some distance up these confined passes1 we find each of them conduct to another front of the grand excavation1 exactly like the principal front which is first seen2 all the three fronts being hollowed out of the solid rock1 and each consisting of two huge pillars with two pilasters4 ,the two side fronts are precisely opposite to each other on the east and west1 the grand entrance facing the north4 ,the two wings of the temple are at the upper end of these passages1 and are close by the grand excavation1 but have no covered passage to connect them with it4#a0 ,from the northern entrance to the extremity of this cave is about #acj feet1 and from the eastern to the western side #acc4 ,twenty-six pillars1 of which eight are broken1 and sixteen pilasters1 support the roof4 ,neither the floor nor the roof is in the same plane1 and consequently the height varies1 being in some parts #ag1 in others #ae feet4 ,two rows of pillars run parallel to one another from the northern entrance and at right angles to it1 to the extremity of the cave2 and the pilasters1 one of which stands on each side of the two front pillars1 are followed by other pilasters and pillars also1 forming on each side of the two rows already described1 another row1 running parallel to them up to the southern extremity of the cave4 ,the pillars on the eastern and western front1 which are like those on the northern side1 are also continued across the temple from east to west4 ,thus the ranges of pillars form a number of parallel lines intersecting one another at right angles--the pillars of the central parts being considered as common to the two sets of intersecting lines4 ,the pillars vary both in their size and decorations1 though the difference is not sufficient to strike the eye at first4 ,all the walls are covered with reliefs 7which are yet very little known for want of complete drawings71 but are described as being in good proportion and producing rather a pleasing effect than the contrary4 ,all the sculptures refer to the ,indian mythology1 and the temple seems to have been the special property of the god ,siva1 since he appears very frequently with his usual attributes4 ,in one place we see him as half man and half woman1 with one breast and four hands1 in one of which he holds the snake4 ,in ,mr4 ,daniell's ,views in ,india 7vol4 v4 pl4 #g7 we have a beautiful drawing of the northern front of the ,elephanta cave1 with its overhanging trees and shrubs4 ,his eighth plate is that which we have above given4 8,the view is taken near the centre of the temple looking westward4 ,the space between four of the pillars is formed into a small temple1 sacred to ,mahadiva 7,siva71 and has an entrance on each side1 guarded by colossal figures40 8,on the walls are several groups of figures in basso-relievo1 evidently relating to the ,hindoo mythology2 many of them are of colossal dimensions and well executed4 ,to the east and west are small apartments1 decorated also in the same manner4 ,this excavation is considerably elevated above the sea2 the floor1 nevertheless1 is generally covered with water during the monsoon season2 the rain being then driven in by the wind2 a circumstance to which possibly its present state of decay is chiefly owing40 ,larger excavations of this kind are found in the neighbouring island of ,salsette4 ,but these are far surpassed by the temples of ,ellora1 which are in the province of ,hyderabad1 about twenty miles north-west from ,aurungabad1 the capital1 and #bci east of ,bombay4 ,it may be considered as near the centre of ,india4 ,here we have a granite mountain1 which is of an amphitheatre form1 completely chiselled out from top to bottom1 and filled with innumerable temples2 the god ,siva alone having1 it is said1 about twenty appropriated to himself4 ,to describe the numerous galleries and rows of pillars which support various chambers lying one above another1 the steps1 porticos1 and bridges of rock over canals1 also hewn out of the solid rock1 would be impossible2 and we recommend those who have the opportunity to look at ,daniell's designs1 which will serve to give some idea of this wonderful place4 ,the rock-cut temples of ,india are generally supposed to be of higher antiquity than pagodas#b or temples1 built on the surface of the earth4 ,abridged from #8,british ,museum--,egyptian ,antiquities4' ----- ,footnote #a3 ,mr4 ,w4 ,erskine1 in the ,bombay ,literary ,transactions4 ,footnote #b3 ,the word pagoda is a corruption of ,bhaga-rati1 8holy house10 one of the several names by which the ,hindoo temples are known4 --------------------- ,,the ,,weather4--,no4 #c4 ,ben ,jonson1 in his play of #8,every ,man out of his ,humour1' has a character of which some examples may still be found1 even in our own day4 ,it is that of a credulous man1 who relies implicitly on the ,weather ,prophecies of the almanacs of his time2--and1 his barns being full1 resolves not to sow his ground1 because the almanacs foretel 8,rotten weather and unseasoned hours40 ,this species of credulity is probably not very often now carried as far as in the instance of ,sordido1 the dupe of the play2--but still there are some amongst us who will not cut their grass till they have seen what 8,master ,moore0 says about the weather4 ,in nine cases out of ten these superstitious confiders in an almost worn-out imposture1 have in the end to exclaim with the miser of the old dramatist1 8,tut1 these star-monger knaves1 who would trust 'em8 ,one says1 dark and rainy1 when 'tis as clear as crystal2 another says1 tempestuous blasts and storms1 and 'twas as calm as a milk-bowl4 ,here be sweet rascals for a man to credit his whole fortunes with#c60 ,now1 let us see what the almanac oracle of the present time--8,francis ,moore1 ,physician0--says about the weather1 for ,june1 #ahcb4 ,he says1 in one of his narrow columns which runs parallel with the calendar of the present month1 8,variable1 with thunder showers flying about4 ,some showers at intervals1 attended with electrical phenomena1 ,,even ,,to ,,the ,,end40 ,be it remembered that this prophecy is for all parts of the ,united ,kingdom--for ,england1 ,wales1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland2--for the hilly districts and for the plains1--for the coasts and for the inland countries4 ,a correspondent1 who writes to us about the weather1 very sensibly says1 8,does it not often happen that they have many rainy days successively at ,manchester1 whilst not a drop falls at ,leeds8 ,how then can any man's tables about the moon1 or general rules for the weather1 or the prophecies of almanacs1 answer for both the hilly and level districts8 ,the ,cheshire men say that their rugged-topt hills knock out the bottoms of the clouds1 and leave them as leaky as a sieve while passing over ,manchester40 ,so much for the universal application of these astrological predictions of the weather4 ,but let us further examine this prophecy of ,moore's ,almanac for the present month of ,june4 ,there are some who impudently defend the publication of such predictions1 as well as the predictions of political events which the same almanac contains2--and they say that the weather prophecies are only intended to give the average results of many years of actual observation1 which make more impression upon the farmer's mind in this form than if he were to refer himself to meteorological tables of the barometer1 of the thermometer1 of the hygrometer1 and of the rain-gauge4 ,now1 here is a prediction calculated to frighten the credulous agriculturist into a belief that the whole of ,june1 throughout the country1 will be unfavourable to hay-making3--8,showers at intervals1 attended with electrical phenomena1 ,,even ,,to ,,the ,,end40 ,electrical phenomena6 ,this is a phrase as terrific as the obscurities of the ancient oracles4 ,a phenomenon1 as most of our readers know1 is an appearance--anything made manifest to us in any way2 and as electricity is doubtless one of the most important agents in producing particular states of the weather1 rain and sunshine1 wind and calm1 heat and cold1 may be equally electrical phenomena4 ,but 8showers at intervals1 attended with electrical phenomena10 is a phrase naturally calculated to frighten the ignorant into a belief that the weather of ,june1 8even unto the end10 will be rainy1 attended with heavy storms2 the most unfavourable state1 because producing the greatest uncertainty and expense in the work of getting in the hay-harvest4 ,this prediction was probably manufactured a year ago3 it was printed in ,october last2 and so far from giving a notion of what is the average weather for ,june--the only matter upon which the prediction monger could possess the slightest information--he prophesies directly in the teeth of the best meteorological records2 for it is a well-known fact that in ,june the average number of days on which rain falls is under twelve--the lowest number of any month in the year4 ,june1 therefore1 is in general the most favourable month for hay-making1 whatever exceptions there may be in particular years2 of which 8,francis ,moore0 could know no more beforehand than the most ignorant peasant whom he deludes4 ,but let us look a little further at the prophecies of the ,weather-,almanac4 ,june being lost to the hay-farmer by the fear of 8rain and electrical phenomena10 ,july is to make him happy 8with fair and hot weather40 ,the hay-harvest therefore will be1 if possible1 deferred by the dupes onward to ,july4 ,now in ,july a continuance of rainy weather commonly happens about the middle of the month2 and this periodical tendency to rain has given rise to the popular tradition of ,st4 ,swithin4 ,of course there are exceptions to this tendency2 but in this1 as in most cases1 the popular error has some little foundation in truth4 ,the chances1 therefore1 are that the farmer who1 for fear of 8electrical phenomena10 has let ,june pass over without cutting his grass1 will find a very short interval between the beginning of ,july and the periodical rains of the middle of that month2 and thus a great deal of national property may be destroyed1 and the credulous individual's capital expended in vain1 because he has chosen to believe in a musty cheat1 of which even the propagators of the deception are ashamed4 ,we have endeavoured to show in a former ,number 7and we shall continue the subject in a future paper71 that by the careful use of good instruments1 some few facts may be established as guides in operations dependent upon the weather4 ,in the place of these the observations of shepherds1 fishermen1 and others who have attended to the passing and local signs of winds1 and clouds1 and tints of the sky1 and other omens1 are not to be despised4 ,these men are practical philosophers1 who may fairly claim some accurate knowledge of the weather from day to day4 ,they are much too sensible and honest to pretend to any power of predicting if it will be fair or foul weather1 for a year1 or a month1 or even a week beforehand4 ,such a man has been described by the poet3-- 8,in his shepherd's calling he was prompt1 ,and watchful more than ordinary men4 ,hence had he learned the meaning of all winds1 ,of blasts of every tone2 and1 oftentimes1 ,when others heeded not1 he heard the ,south ,make subterraneous music1 like the noise ,of bagpipers on distant ,highland hills40 ,the late ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 one of the most successful modern explorers of the secrets of nature1 was not above attending to1 and explaining the1 8weather-omens0 which are derived from popular observation4 ,in his #8,salmonia' he has the following dialogue between ,halieus 7a fly-fisher71 ,poietes 7a poet71 ,physicus 7a man of science71 and ,ornither 7a sportsman73-- 8,poiet4 ,i hope we shall have another good day to-morrow1 for the clouds are red in the west4 8,phys4 ,i have no doubt of it1 for the red has a tint of purple4 8,hal4 ,do you know why this tint portends fine weather8 8,phys4 ,the air1 when dry1 ,i believe1 refracts more red1 or heat-making rays2 and as dry air is not perfectly transparent1 they are again reflected in the horizon4 ,i have generally observed a coppery or yellow sun-set to foretel rain2 but1 as an indication of wet weather approaching1 nothing is more certain than a halo round the moon1 which is produced by the precipitated water2 and the larger the circle1 the nearer the clouds1 and consequently the more ready to fall4 8,hal4 ,i have often observed that the old proverb is correct-- #8,a rainbow in the morning is the shepherd's warning2 ,a rainbow at night is the shepherd's delight4' ,can you explain this omen8 8,phys4 ,a rainbow can only occur when the clouds containing1 or depositing1 the rain are opposite the sun1--and in the evening the rainbow is in the east1 and in the morning in the west2 and as our heavy rains1 in this climate1 are usually brought by the westerly wind1 a rainbow in the west indicates that the bad weather is on the road1 by the wind1 to us2 whereas the rainbow in the east proves that the rain in these clouds is passing from us4 8,poiet4 ,i have often observed1 that when the swallows fly high fine weather is to be expected or continued2 but when they fly low1 and close to the ground1 rain is almost surely approaching4 ,can you account for this8 8,hal4 ,swallows follow the flies and gnats1 and flies and gnats usually delight in warm strata of air2 and as warm air is lighter1 and usually moister1 than cold air1 when the warm strata of air are high1 there is less chance of moisture being thrown down from them by the mixture with cold air2 but when the warm and moist air is close to the surface1 it is almost certain that1 as the cold air flows down into it1 a deposition of water will take place4 8,poiet4 ,i have often seen sea-gulls assemble on the land1 and have almost always observed that very stormy and rainy weather was approaching4 ,i conclude that these animals1 sensible of a current of air approaching from the ocean1 retire to the land to shelter themselves from the storm4 8,orn4 ,no such thing4 ,the storm is their element1 and the little petrel enjoys the heaviest gale2 because1 living on the smaller sea insects1 he is sure to find his food in the spray of a heavy wave1 and you may see him flitting above the edge of the highest surge4 ,i believe that the reason of this migration of sea-gulls1 and other sea birds1 to the land1 is their security of finding food2 and they may be observed1 at this time1 feeding greedily on the earth-worms and larv1 driven out of the ground by severe floods2 and the fish1 on which they prey in fine weather in the sea1 leave the surface1 and go deeper in storms4 ,the search after food1 as we have agreed on a former occasion1 is the principal cause why animals change their places4 ,the different tribes of the wading birds always migrate when rain is about to take place2 and ,i remember once1 in ,italy1 having been long waiting1 in the end of ,march1 for the arrival of the double snipe in the ,campagna of ,rome1 a great flight appeared on the #c;d of ,april1 and the day after heavy rain set in1 which greatly interfered with my sport4 ,the vulture1 upon the same principle1 follows armies2 and ,i have no doubt that the augury of the ancients was a good deal founded upon the observation of the instincts of birds4 ,there are many superstitions of the vulgar owing to the same source4 ,for anglers1 in spring1 it is always unlucky to see single magpies1--but two may be always regarded as a favourable omen2 and the reason is1 that in cold and stormy weather one magpie alone leaves the nest in search of food1 the other remaining sitting upon the eggs or the young ones2 but when two go out together it is only when the weather is warm and mild1 and favourable for fishing4 8,poiet4 ,the singular connections of causes and effects to which you have just referred1 makes superstition less to be wondered at1 particularly amongst the vulgar2 and when two facts1 naturally unconnected1 have been accidentally coincident1 it is not singular that this coincidence should have been observed and registered1 and that omens of the most absurd kind should be trusted in4 ,in the west of ,england1 half a century ago1 a particular hollow noise on the sea coast was referred to a spirit or goblin1 called ,bucca1 and was supposed to foretel a shipwreck2 the philosopher knows that sound travels much faster than currents in the air--and the sound always foretold the approach of a very heavy storm1 which seldom takes place on that wild and rocky coast without a shipwreck on some part of its extensive shores1 surrounded by the ,atlantic40 ,we may not improperly conclude this paper with some lines which have been transmitted to us1 as a production of the late ,dr4 ,jenner1 the discoverer of vaccination4 ,we1 of course1 do not recommend an implicit reliance upon such natural prophecies of the weather of the coming day4 ,but1 at any rate1 whatever connected with this subject tends to open a man's own eyes1--whatever excites in him the habit of observation and comparison1--is a benefit2 whilst a reliance1 on the contrary1 on the unprincipled quackeries of the more popular almanacs which still disgrace our country1 as well as every other prostration of the understanding before the shrine of ignorance1 is the most deceptive of all states of the human mind1 and the most likely to engender a train of other delusions which shut up the sources of real knowledge1 and degrade the whole moral as well as intellectual character4 ,,signs ,,of ,,rain4 ,addressed by ,dr4 ,jenner1 in #ahaj1 to a ,lady who asked him if he thought it would rain to-morrow4 ,the hollow winds begin to blow1 ,the clouds look black1 the glass is low3 ,the soot falls down1 the spaniels sleep1 ,and spiders from their cobwebs creep3 ,last night the sun went pale to bed1 ,the moon in halos hid her head3 ,the boding shepherd heaves a sigh1 ,for see1 a rainbow spans the sky2 ,the walls are damp1 the ditches smell1 ,closed is the pink-eyed pimpernel2 ,the squalid toads at dusk were seen ,slowly crawling o'er the green2 ,loud quack the ducks1 the peacocks cry1 ,the distant hills are looking nigh2 ,hark1 how the chairs and tables crack1 ,old ,betty's joints are on the rack2 ,and see yon rooks1 how odd their flight1 ,they imitate the gliding kite1 ,or seem precipitate to fall ,as if they felt the piercing ball2 ,how restless are the snorting swine1 ,the busy flies disturb the kine1 ,low o'er the grass the swallow wings1 ,the cricket too1 how loud she sings1 ,puss on the hearth with velvet paws ,sits wiping o'er her whisker'd jaws3-- ',twill surely rain1 ,i see1 with sorrow1 ,our jaunt must be put off to-morrow4 ----- ,footnote #c3 ,every ,man out of his ,humour2 ,act iii4 ,scene #g4 --------------------- ,,the ,,british ,,museum4--,no4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,the ,musk-,ox4 ,we shall occasionally turn aside from the monuments of ,art in the ,british ,museum to notice some of the specimens in the collection of ,natural ,history4 ,stuffed skins and skeletons are1 of course1 much less interesting1 both to the scientific student of zoology and to the ordinary observer1 than the living animal1 retaining his natural habits1 as far as they can be preserved1 in a menagerie4 ,but1 at the same time1 a stuffed skin affords a much better notion of the animated creature than the best drawing2 and1 in some cases1 the living specimen cannot be procured1 or kept alive1 in this country4 ,in such cases we are compelled to resort to such preserved specimens as that of the musk-ox1 on the great staircase of the ,museum4 ,this specimen is very faithfully represented in the above wood-cut4 ,the animal1 of which this skin was once a part1 was shot by some of the persons accompanying ,captain ,parry1 in one of his expeditions to the ,polar ,seas2 and was presented to the ,museum by the ,lords of the ,admiralty4 ,the appearance of the musk-ox1 as the visitor will observe1 is strikingly different from that of the common black cattle of ,great ,britain4 ,its limbs are singularly short1--its crooked horns are broad and flattened1--long thick hair covers the whole of its trunk1 hanging down nearly to the ground1--and its short tail1 bending inwards1 is entirely hidden by the long hair of the rump and hind quarters4 ,it will be noticed that the hair is particularly thick under the throat1 looking something like a horse's mane inverted4 ,the adaptation of the structure of this animal to the frozen regions which he inhabits1 offers one of the most striking illustrations of design which the natural world exhibits4 ,the shortness of the creature's limbs prevents that exposure of the trunk to the snow-storms and the cold1 which would result from a greater elevation2 whilst he is more effectually protected from the severity of the seasons by the dense mass of hair with which his whole body is covered1 and which1 in winter1 becomes a thick woolly coat1 beneath the long straight hair which forms his outer garment4 ,the ,author of the ,appendix to ,parry's ,second ,voyage1 in noticing the remarkable projection of the orbits of the eyes in this species1 considers that their formation is necessary to carry the eye of the animal clear beyond the large quantity of hair required to preserve the warmth of the head4 ,thus protected from the inclemency of winter cold1 the musk-ox remains the contented and happy inhabitant of the most barren and desolate parts of the earth4 ,within the ,arctic ,circle1 in those almost inaccessible regions which lie nearest the ,north ,pole1 large herds of these quadrupeds are found1 appearing to derive as much enjoyment from existence as the cattle who graze on the most luxuriant pastures1 beneath a genial sky4 ,they are not often found at a great distance from woods2 but when they feed upon open grounds they prefer the most precipitous situations1 climbing amidst rocks with all the agility and precision of the mountain-goat or the chamois4 ,grass1 when they can get it1 moss1 twigs of willow1 and pine shoots1 constitute their food4 ,the parts of the polar regions inhabited by the musk-ox are thus described in the ,appendix to ,parry's ,second ,voyage3-- 8,this species of ox inhabits the ,north ,georgian ,islands in the summer months4 ,they arrived in ,melville ,island in the middle of ,may1 crossing the ice from the southward1 and quitted it on their return towards the end of ,september4 ,the musk-ox may be further stated1 on ,esquimaux information1 to inhabit the country on the west of ,davis' ,strait1 and on the north of ,baffin's ,bay2 as a head and horns and a drawing of a bull being shown to the ,esquimaux of the west coast of ,davis' ,strait who were communicated with on the #gth of ,september1 were immediately recognized1 and the animal called by the name of ,umingmack4 ,this is evidently the same with the ,umimak of the ,esquimaux of ,wolstenholme ,sound1 who were visited by the former expedition1 and of which nothing more could be learnt at the time from their description than that it was a large horned animal inhabiting the land1 and certainly not a rein-deer4 ,it is probable that the individuals which extend their summer migration to the north-east of ,baffin's ,bay1 retire during the winter to the continent of ,america1 or to its neighbourhood1 as the species is unknown in ,south ,greenland40 ,captain ,franklin1 in his ,journey to the ,polar ,sea1 has given the following account of the habits of this species3-- 8,the musk-oxen1 like the buffalo1 herd together in bands1 and generally frequent barren grounds during the summer months1 keeping near the rivers1 but retire to the woods in winter4 ,they seem to be less watchful than most other wild animals1 and when grazing are not difficult to approach1 provided the hunters go against the wind4 ,when two or three men get so near a herd as to fire at them from different points1 these animals1 instead of separating or running away1 huddle closer together1 and several are generally killed2 but if the wound is not mortal they become enraged1 and dart in the most furious manner at the hunters1 who must be very dexterous to evade them4 ,they can defend themselves by their powerful horns against wolves and bears1 which1 as the ,indians say1 they not unfrequently kill4 ,the musk-oxen feed on the same substances with the rein-deer1 and the prints of the feet of these two animals are so much alike1 that it requires the eye of an experienced hunter to distinguish them4 ,the largest killed by us did not exceed in weight three hundred pounds4 ,the flesh has a musky disagreeable flavour1 particularly when the animal is lean1 which unfortunately for us was the case with all that we now killed10 ,the bulls of this species killed during ,parry's second voyage weighed1 upon an average1 about #gjj lbs41 yielding about #djj lbs4 of meat2 and they stood about #aj hands high at the withers4 ,on the staircase of the ,museum are also stuffed specimens of a male and female ,giraffe1 or ,camelopard1 which were presented to the ,museum by ,mr4 ,burchell1 the traveller in ,africa4 ,the living giraffe which was presented to ,george ,,iv4 in #ahbg1 by the ,pacha of ,egypt1 died in #ahbi4 ,the other giraffe sent to the government of ,france1 in #ahbg1 is still living in the ,jardin des ,plantes1 at ,paris4 ,it is impossible from a studied specimen to form an adequate idea of the grace and beauty of this remarkable animal2 nor of the impression produced upon the senses by a creature of such enormous height lifting up its head to gather the tender leaves from branches three times as high as a tall man4 ,till the living giraffes were brought to ,england and ,france there was a general belief that the descriptions of this animal were partly fabulous4 ,it is now established that the account which was given of this animal by ,le ,vaillant1 one of the most amusing of travellers1 who saw the animal in its native woods1 is perfectly accurate4 ,we copy the following description from his ,second ,voyage1 as translated in #8,the ,menageries1' ,vol4 ,i43-- 8,the giraffe ruminates1 as every animal does that possesses1 at the same time1 horns and cloven feet4 ,it grazes also in the same way2 but not often1 because the country which it inhabits has little pasturage4 ,its ordinary food is the leaf of a sort of mimosa1 called by the natives kanaap1 and by the colonists1 kameeldoorn4 ,this tree being only found in the country of the ,namaquas1 may probably afford a reason why the giraffe is there fixed1 and why he is not seen in those regions of ,southern ,africa where the tree does not grow4 ,illustration3 ,the ,giraffe4 8,doubtless the most beautiful part of his body is the head4 ,the mouth is small2 the eyes are brilliant and full4 ,between the eyes1 and above the nose is a swelling1 very prominent and well defined4 ,this prominence is not a fleshy excrescence1 but an enlargement of the bony substance2 and it seems to be similar to the two little lumps1 or protuberances1 with which the top of his head is armed1 and which1 being about the size of a hen's egg1 spring1 on each side1 at the commencement of the mane4 ,his tongue is rough1 and terminates in a point4 ,the two jaws have1 on each side1 six molar teeth2 but the lower jaw has1 beyond these1 eight incisive teeth1 while the upper jaw has none4 8,the hoofs1 which are cleft1 and have no nails1 resemble those of the ox4 ,we may remark1 at first sight1 that those of the fore feet are larger than those of the hind4 ,the leg is very slender1 but the knees have a prominence1 because the animal kneels when he lies down4 8,if ,i had not myself killed the giraffe1 ,i should have believed1 as have many naturalists1 that the fore legs are much longer than the hind4 ,this is an error2 for the legs have1 in general1 the proportion of those of other quadrupeds4 ,i say in general1 because in this genus there are varieties1 as there are in animals of the same species4444 ,his defence1 as that of the horse and other hoofed animals1 consists in kicks2 and his hinder limbs are so light1 and his blows so rapid1 that the eye cannot follow them4 ,they are sufficient for his defence against the lion4 ,he never employs his horns in resisting any attack4444 ,the giraffes1 male and female1 resemble each other in their exterior1 in their youth4 ,their obtuse horns are then terminated by a knot of long hair3 the female preserves this peculiarity some time1 but the male loses it at the age of three years4 ,the hide1 which is at first of a light red1 becomes of a deeper colour as the animal advances in age1 and is at length of a yellow brown in the female1 and of a brown approaching to black in the male4 ,by this difference of colour the male may be distinguished from the female at a distance4 ,the skin varies in both sexes1 as to the distribution and form of the spots4 ,the female is not so high as the male1 and the prominence of the front is not so marked4 ,she has four teats4 ,according to the account of the natives1 she goes with young about twelve months1 and has one at a birth40 --------------------- ,,the ,,week4 ,illustration3 ,flaxman4 ,july #d4--,on this day1 in the year #agae1 was born at ,haynichen1 near ,freyberg1 in ,saxony1 the ,german poet1 ,,christian ,,furchtegott ,,gellert4 ,gellert was not a man of the highest genius2 but appearing at a favourable time1 being animated by the finest spirit of benevolence and virtuous ambition1 and possessing just the talents and character of mind suited to the task which he undertook1 that of awakening the general body of his countrymen to a taste for literature1 he produced as great and as gratifying an effect by his works as1 perhaps1 any writer that ever lived4 ,his father was a clergyman1 and he was originally intended for the same profession2 but his first attempt in the pulpit convinced him that his constitutional timidity would probably prevent him from ever becoming an effective public speaker4 ,he then resolved to devote himself to the instruction of his countrymen through the press4 ,at this time ,germany was almost destitute of a national literature4 ,the country had given birth to many great scholars2 and both classical learning and the abstruse philosophy of the middle ages were cultivated with zeal and success in its colleges4 ,but scarcely any one had yet arisen to write for the people4 ,this ,gellert and a few of his friends resolved to do4 ,discarding all the repulsive technicalities of the schools1 they proceeded to expound and illustrate the great principles of morality1 metaphysics1 and criticism1 for the use of society at large1 in a natural and popular style1 such as was fitted to be intelligible and interesting to all4 ,in this patriotic enterprise ,gellert may be said to have spent his life4 ,every successive work which he produced was received with delight by ,germany2 but his celebrated #8,fables' were read with rapture by all classes of the population4 ,one day a peasant appeared at ,gellert's door in ,leipsic1 with a waggon loaded with fire-wood4 8,is it not here10 asked the man1 8that ,mr4 ,gellert lives80 ,on being told that it was1 he desired to see the master of the house2 and having been brought to him1 8,are not you1 sir10 he said1 8the author of the #8,fables8'0 8,i am10 replied ,gellert4 8,well then10 said the other1 8here is a load of wood1 which ,i have brought you1 to thank you for the pleasure which your book has given to myself1 my wife1 and my children40 ,by such a heart as ,gellert's this was probably felt to be a more touching tribute to his powers than the plaudits of crowded theatres would have been4 ,another time he was standing in the workshop of a bookbinder1 when a villager came in with a book in his hand4 8,here10 said he1 8,i want this book strongly bound40 8,where did you pick up this book80 asked the binder4 8,i bought it in our town10 replied the delighted possessor of the treasure2 8it has made the steward of the manor and the schoolmaster laugh till they have almost split their sides3 ,i have a little boy1 who is now a tolerably good reader2 he shall read from this book to me in the evening1 while ,i smoke my pipe1 and ,i will go no more to the ale-house40 ,even the war 7commonly called the seven years' war7 which ravaged a great part of ,germany from #agef to #agfc1 did not extinguish the popular enthusiasm for the writings of ,gellert4 ,when ,leipsic was taken by the ,prussians in #ageh1 a lieutenant of hussars found out the peaceable poet in his house1 and not contented with thanking him warmly for the delightful books to which1 he said1 he owed so many pleasant hours1 insisted1 by way of more substantially testifying his gratitude1 upon making him a present of a pair of pistols1 which he had taken from a ,cossack4 ,nay1 the common soldiers themselves used to come1 almost in regiments1 to hear a course of lectures on moral philosophy1 which he read in public about this time2 and it is related that one man1 having obtained leave of absence1 turned a considerable way out of his road1 on his journey homewards1 in order to see1 as he expressed it1 that honest fellow1 ,mr4 ,gellert1 whose books had saved him from becoming a profligate4 ,the works of ,gellert have been frequently printed in a collected form1 and amount1 in the fullest edition1 to ten volumes duodecimo4 ,he had been afflicted during the greater part of his life by bad health2 and died on the night of the #acth of ,december1 #agfi1 in the fifty-fifth year of his age4 ,having lingered long in considerable pain1 he remarked to the physician1 a short time before his death1 that he had not believed it would have been so difficult to die1 and asked when the termination of his sufferings might be expected4 ,when he was informed that another hour would probably release him1 8,god be praised10 he said2 8still another hour60 and then lay in silent resignation1 till the expected deliverance came4 ,germany lamented1 with all the tokens of national grief1 the loss of her amiable instructor2 and medals and public monuments testified the admiration and gratitude of all ranks of his countrymen4 ,july #f4--,the birth-day of ,,john ,,flaxman1 the late eminent sculptor1 whose works have done so much to form the ,english school of design4 ,flaxman was born in #agee1 in ,york1 from whence he was removed in his infancy to ,london1 where his father1 who was a moulder of figures1 subsequently kept a shop in the ,strand for the sale of plaster casts4 ,the father's occupation1 no doubt1 contributed to call forth the genius of the son2 but the boy very early began to give evidence of fondness for those arts to which his future life was devoted1 and of singular taste and skill in the efforts of his uninstructed pencil4 ,like many more of the most distinguished cultivators of literature and art1 he was prevented by the weakness and delicate health of his early years from mixing in the ruder sports of boys of his own age2 and this1 of course1 gave him more time for solitary study4 ,his father was not able to afford him the advantages of a regular education2 but he rapidly acquired a great deal of knowledge by his own unaided efforts4 ,when he was fifteen he was admitted a student in the ,royal ,academy4 ,here he was successful in a competition for the inferior honour of the silver medal2 but on the contest for the gold one1 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 the ,president1 awarded the prize to another4 ,this was1 perhaps1 upon the whole1 not an unfortunate incident for ,flaxman1 though he severely felt what he thought an injustice4 ,his rival1 notwithstanding his good fortune on this occasion1 never rose to any distinction2 but ,flaxman1 with the heroism of true genius1 resolved to obliterate this defeat of his youth by future triumphs1 of the glory of which no such decision should be able to rob him4 ,and this resolution he nobly fulfilled4 ,his first employment was given him by the ,messrs4 ,wedgewood1 the productions of whose porcelain potteries he embellished with designs that gave at once a new character to this branch of ,british manufactures4 ,in #aghb he married2 and five years afterwards proceeded to visit ,italy1 where he remained till #agid1 studying the celebrated monuments of the fine arts with which that country abounds1 and at the same time exerting his own pencil in the production of works which soon spread his fame over ,europe4 ,having then returned to ,england1 he was in #agig elected an ,associate1 and in #ahjj a ,member1 of the ,royal ,academy4 ,after this he executed many great works in marble2 and1 as a lecturer1 afforded some valuable contributions to the literature of his profession4 ,for many years before his death his name ranked with the highest of the living artists of ,england4 ,but we must refer the reader for an account of his performances to ,mr4 ,allan ,cunningham's interesting life of him1 lately published1 or to the abstract of that memoir in the second number of the ,gallery of ,portraits4 ,he died at his house in ,buckingham-street1 on the #gth of ,december1 #ahbf1 in the seventy-second year of his age4 --------------------- ,,improvement ,,in ,,social ,,condition4 ,the history of the ,united ,states of ,north ,america is1 in some respects1 one of the most instructive that we can turn to2 because we are accurately acquainted with the origin of this social community1 and are also enabled to trace its history in all its important facts1 from the first establishment of the several colonies up to the present condition of the ,union4 ,of all historical records none can be put in comparison with legislative enactments1 as showing the condition of the people at any given period1 and the degree of mental culture diffused among them4 ,in the ,american ,states1 even under their former colonial government1 there were few men of any importance in the provinces who did not participate in some of the functions of government2 and we may therefore consider the laws enacted at that period as indicative of the opinions held by the most influential classes4 ,we happen to have before us an old collection of ,virginia laws1 entitled1 #8,a complete collection of the ,laws of ,virginia1 at a ,grand ,assembly held at ,james ,city1 #bc;d ,march1 #affb2' a few extracts from which may not be uninteresting4 ,there appears to be in this volume only one law about education1 which prescribes the founding of a college 8for the advance of learning1 education of youth1 supply of the ministry1 and promotion of piety40 ,the law states how the money is to be raised2 but as to its application nothing more is said1 except that a piece of land is to be got1 and1 8with as much speed as may be convenient1 housing is to be erected thereon for entertainment of students and scholars40 ,the housing department seems to have been the uppermost thing in the legislature's thoughts2 the providing of good teachers was a secondary consideration4 ,there are several enactments about 8rewards for killing wolves10 which at that time infested even the lower parts of ,virginia4 ,at the present day1 owing to the increase of population1 the wolf and other wild animals1 though occasionally heard of1 are but rarely seen even in the mountains1 and seldom do any damage4 ,the reward 8for every wolf destroyed by pit1 trap1 or otherwise1 is #bjj pounds of tobacco40 ,tobacco was the most common standard of value in ,virginia at that time1 as we see from this and numerous other instances1 where fines1 c4 are estimated at so many pounds of tobacco4 ,thus it is stated in enactment #ce1 that 8the court shall not take cognizance of any cause under the value of #bjj pounds of tobacco1 or twenty shillings sterling1 which a private justice may and is hereby authorized and empowered to hear and determine40 ,the following recipe for good order is contained in an enactment1 entitled #8,pillories to be erected at each ,court3'--8,in every county the court shall cause to be set up a pillory1 a pair of stocks1 and a whipping-post near the court-house1 and a ducking-stool2--and the court not causing the said pillory1 whipping-post1 stocks1 and ducking-stool to be erected1 shall be fined #ejjj pounds of tobacco to the use of the public40 ,in those days the following provision was made for extending the elective franchise1 which appears founded on a rational principle3 8,every county that will lay out #ajj acres of land1 and people it with #ajj tytheable 7taxable7 persons1 that place shall enjoy the like privilege0 of sending a burgess4 ,the burgesses1 together with their attendants1 were free from arrest1 from the time of election till ten days after dissolution of the assembly2 this privilege1 however1 was somewhat modified by several clauses4 ,every burgess was allowed during the sitting of the assembly 8#aej lbs4 of tobacco and cask per day1 besides the necessary charge of going to the assembly and returning40 ,this practice of paying legislators1 which1 in ,america1 originated under the ,colonial system1 is still continued in the ,united ,states4 ,it did not entirely cease in ,england until the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 ,andrew ,marvell1 one of the burgesses of ,hull1 was the last member of the ,house of ,commons who appears to have accepted the wages which all were entitled to receive4 ,among commercial restrictions we find an enactment prohibiting the planting of tobacco after the #ajth of ,july1 which was done for 8the improvement of our only commodity tobacco1 which can no ways be effected but by lessening the quantity and amending the quality40 ,that the former effect might possibly be produced by the enactment1 without securing the latter1 seems pretty certain4 ,another object that the government had in view was to compel the people to become silk-growers against their will4 8,be it therefore enacted10 says the legislature1 8that every proprietor of land within the colony of ,virginia shall1 for every hundred acres of land holden in fee1 plant upon the said land ten mulberry-trees at twelve foot distance from each other1 and secure them by weeding and a sufficient fence from cattle and horses40 ,tobacco fines1 as usual1 were enacted in case the planting and weeding were not duly performed2 and further1 8there shall be allowed in the public levy to any one for every pound of wound silk he shall make1 fifty pounds of tobacco1 to be raised in the public levy1 and paid in the county or counties where they dwell that make it40 ,this act was passed in #affb1 and probably continued in force for a long time2 but ,virginia did not therefore become a silk-growing country1 nor has it yet1 though many parts are well adapted to raise this commodity4 ,people1 we presume1 have hitherto found other things more profitable than silk4 ,the following enactment has a most barbarous character about it1 not unmixed with something extremely ludicrous as to the idea of the legislature trying to prevent women from talking3 8,whereas many babbling women slander and scandalize their neighbours1 for which their poor husbands are often involved in chargeable and vexatious suits1 and cast in great damages3--,be it therefore enacted1 that in actions of slander1 occasioned by the wife1 after judgment passed for the damages1 the woman shall be punished by ducking2 and if the slander be so enormous as to be adjudged at greater damages than #ejj pounds of tobacco1 then the woman to suffer a ducking for each #ejj pounds of tobacco adjudged against the husband1 if he refuse to pay the tobacco40 ,this old statute book of ,virginia is full of enactments such as we have quoted2 some exceedingly mischievous1 and others very ludicrous4 ,it would1 however1 be unfair to say that there are not also some good regulations in it4 ,were a history of our own or any other country to be written1 founded on the legislative enactments and illustrated1 whenever it was possible1 by individual cases on record1 we should then begin to have some idea of what history is4 ,instead of the splendours or the follies of a few who occupy the attention of the historian1 we should be able to form a more complete picture of the condition of the whole community1 and a more exact estimate of the progress which has been made in social knowledge4 --------------------- ,,the ,,loss ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,george4 ,on the #bith of ,august1 #aghb1 it was found necessary that the ,royal ,george1 a line-of-battle ship of #ajh guns1 which had lately arrived at ,spithead from a cruise1 should1 previously to her going again to sea1 undergo the operation which seamen technically call a ,parliament heel4 ,in such cases the ship is inclined in a certain degree on one side1 while the defects below the watermark on the other side are examined and repaired4 ,this mode of proceeding is1 we believe1 at the present day1 very commonly adopted where the defects to be repaired are not extensive1 or where 7as was the case with the ,royal ,george7 it is desirable to avoid the delay of going into dock4 ,the operation is usually performed in still weather and smooth water1 and is attended with so little difficulty and danger1 that the officers and crew usually remain on board1 and neither the guns nor stores are removed4 ,the business was commenced on the ,royal ,george early in the morning1 a gang of men from the ,portsmouth ,dock-yard coming on board to assist the ship's carpenters4 ,it is said that1 finding it necessary to strip off more of the sheathing than had been intended1 the men in their eagerness to reach the defect in the ship's bottom1 were induced to heel her too much1 when a sudden squall of wind threw her wholly on her side2 and the gun-ports being open1 and the cannon rolling over to the depressed side1 the ship was unable to right herself1 instantaneously filled with water1 and went to the bottom4 ,the fatal accident happened about ten o'clock in the morning2 ,admiral ,kempenfeldt was writing in his cabin1 and the greater part of the people were between decks4 ,the ship1 as is usually the case upon coming into port1 was crowded with people from the shore1 particularly women1 of whom it is supposed there were not less than three hundred on board4 ,amongst the sufferers were many of the wives and children of the petty officers and seamen1 who1 knowing the ship was shortly to sail on a distant and perilous service1 eagerly embraced the opportunity of visiting their husbands and fathers4 ,the ,admiral1 with many brave officers and most of those who were between decks1 perished2 the greater number of the guard1 and those who happened to be on the upper deck1 were saved by the boats of the fleet4 ,about seventy others were likewise saved4 ,the exact number of persons on board at the time could not be ascertained2 but it was calculated that from #hjj to #ajjj were lost4 ,captain ,waghorne1 whose gallantry in the ,north ,sea battle1 under ,admiral ,parker1 had procured him the command of this ship1 was saved1 though he was severely bruised and battered2 but his son1 a lieutenant in the ,royal ,george1 perished4 ,such was the force of the whirlpool1 occasioned by the sudden plunge of so vast a body in the water1 that a victualler which lay alongside the ,royal ,george was swamped2 and several small craft1 at a considerable distance1 were in imminent danger4 ,admiral ,kempenfeldt1 who was nearly #gj years of age1 was peculiarly and universally lamented4 ,in point of general science and judgment1 he was one of the first naval officers of his time2 and1 particularly in the art of manuvring a fleet1 he was considered by the commanders of that day as unrivalled4 ,his excellent qualities1 as a man1 are said to have equalled his professional merits4 ,this melancholy occurrence has been recorded by the poet1 ,cowper1 in the following beautiful lines3-- ,toll for the brave6 ,the brave1 that are no more6 ,all sunk beneath the wave1 ,fast by their native shore4 ,eight hundred of the brave1 ,whose courage well was tried1 ,had made the vessel heel1 ,and laid her on her side4 ,a land-breeze shook the shrouds1 ,and she was overset2 ,down went the ,royal ,george1 ,with all her crew complete4 ,toll for the brave6 ,brave ,kempenfeldt is gone2 ,his last sea-fight is fought2 ,his work of glory done4 ,it was not in the battle2 ,no tempest gave the shock2 ,she sprang no fatal leak2 ,she ran upon no rock4 ,his sword was in its sheath2 ,his fingers held the pen1 ,when ,kempenfeldt went down1 ,with twice four hundred men4 ,weigh the vessel up1 ,once dreaded by our foes6 ,and mingle with our cup ,the tear that ,england owes4 ,her timbers yet are sound1 ,and she may float again1 ,full charg'd with ,england's thunder1 ,and plough the distant main4 ,but ,kempenfeldt is gone1 ,his victories are o'er2 ,and he1 and his eight hundred1 ,shall plough the wave no more4 --------------------- ,strange ,mode of curing a vicious ,horse4--,i have seen vicious horses in ,egypt cured of the habit of biting1 by presenting to them1 while in the act of doing so1 a leg of mutton just taken from the fire3 the pain which a horse feels in biting through the hot meat1 causes it1 after a few lessons1 to abandon the vicious habit4--,burckhardt4 --------------------- ,the ,bedouins never allow a horse1 at the moment of his birth1 to fall upon the ground2 they receive it in their arms1 and so cherish it for several hours1 occupied in washing and stretching its tender limbs1 and caressing it as they would a baby4 ,after this they place it on the ground1 and watch its feeble steps with particular attention1 prognosticating from that time the excellences or defects of their future companion4--,burckhardt4 --------------------- ,tremendous ,earthquakes4--,earthquakes have caused many melancholy changes in ,calabria2 and every thing bears testimony to the cruel ravages occasioned by that of #aghc4 ,this frightful catastrophe1 which has altered the aspect of these countries in an inconceivable manner1 was preceded by the most appalling indications4 ,close1 compact1 and immoveable mists seemed to hang heavily over the earth3 in some places the atmosphere appeared red hot1 so that people expected it would every moment burst out into flames3 the water of the rivers assumed an ashy and turbid colour1 while a suffocating stench of sulphur diffused itself around4 ,the violent shocks which were repeated at several intervals from the #eth of ,february to the #bhth of ,may1 destroyed the greater part of the buildings of ,calabria ,ultra4 ,the number of inhabitants who were crushed under the ruins of their houses1 or who perished on the strands of ,scylla1 was estimated at about #ej1jjj4 ,rivers arrested in their course by the fall of mountains1 became so many infected lakes1 corrupting the air in all directions4 ,houses1 trees1 and large fields were hurried down together to the bottom of the deep glens without being separated by the shock3 in short1 all the extraordinary calamities and changes which can be effected by earthquakes were beheld at this deplorable period1 under the various forms which characterize them4--,calabria1 during a ,military ,residence4 --------------------- ,age of ,sheep4--,the age of a sheep may be known by examining the front teeth4 ,they are eight in number1 and appear during the first year1 all of a small size4 ,in the second year1 the two middle ones fall out1 and their place is supplied by two new teeth1 which are easily distinguished by being of a larger size4 ,in the third year two other small teeth1 one from each side1 drop out and are replaced by two large ones2 so that there are now four large teeth in the middle1 and two pointed ones on each side4 ,in the fourth year the large teeth are six in number1 and only two small ones remain1 one at each end of the range4 ,in the fifth year the remaining small teeth are lost1 and the whole front teeth are large4 ,in the sixth year the whole begin to be worn1 and in the seventh1 sometimes sooner1 some fall out or are broken4 ,from #8the ,mountain ,shepherd's ,manual1' a useful little tract on the nature1 diseases1 and management of sheep1 being ,no4 #bd of the #8,farmer's ,series1' published under the ,superintendence of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge4 --------------------- ,anecdote of the late ,honourable ,henry ,cavendish4-- ,one ,sunday evening he was standing at ,sir ,joseph ,banks's1 in a crowded room1 conversing with ,mr4 ,hatchett1 when ,dr4 ,ingenhousz1 who had a good deal of pomposity of manner1 came up with an ,austrian gentleman in his hand1 and introduced him formally to ,mr4 ,cavendish4 ,he mentioned the titles and qualifications of his friend at great length1 and said that he had been peculiarly anxious to be introduced to a philosopher so profound and so universally known and celebrated as ,mr4 ,cavendish4 ,as soon as ,dr4 ,ingenhousz had finished1 the ,austrian gentleman began1 and assured ,mr4 ,cavendish1 that his principal reason for coming to ,london was to see and converse with one of the greatest ornaments of the age1 and one of the most illustrious philosophers that ever existed4 ,to all these high-flown speeches ,mr4 ,cavendish answered not a word2 but stood with his eyes cast down1 quite abashed and confounded4 ,at last1 seeing an opening in the crowd1 he darted through it1 with all the speed he was master of2 nor did he stop till he reached his carriage1 which drove him directly home4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,the ,office of the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge is at #ei1 ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields4 ,,london3--,,charles ,,knight1 ,,pall-,,mall ,,east4 ,shopkeepers and ,hawkers may be supplied ,wholesale by the following ,booksellers3-- ,london1 ,,groombridge1 ,panyer ,alley1 ,paternoster ,row4 ,bath1 ,,simms4 ,birmingham1 ,,drake4 ,bristol1 ,,westley and ,co4 ,carlisle1 ,,thurnam2 and ,,scott4 ,derby1 ,,wilkins and ,,son4 ,falmouth1 ,,philip4 ,hull1 ,,stephenson4 ,leeds1 ,,baines and ,,newsome4 ,lincoln1 ,,brooke and ,,sons4 ,liverpool1 ,,willmer and ,,smith4 ,manchester1 ,,robinson2 and ,,webb and ,,simms4 ,newcastle-upon-,tyne1 ,,charnley4 ,norwich1 ,,jarrold and ,,son4 ,nottingham1 ,,wright4 ,sheffield1 ,,ridge4 ,dublin1 ,,wakeman4 ,edinburgh1 ,,oliver and ,,boyd4 ,glasgow1 ,,atkinson and ,co4 ,printed by ,,william ,,clowes1 ,stamford ,street4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,notes ,this file uses underscores to indicate italic text4 ,new original cover art included with this e,book is granted to the public domain4 ,itemized changes from the original text3 p4 #abd3 ,added period after abbreviation 8lbs40 in phrase 8weighed1 upon an average1 about #gjj lbs41 yielding about #djj lbs4 of meat40 p4 #abe3 ,added period after phrase 8,doubtless the most beautiful part of his body is the head40 p4 #abf3 ,supplied missing letters in word 8style0 in phrase 8in a natural and popular style40 p4 #abf3 ,added period after phrase 8the highest of the living artists of ,england40 p4 #abh3 ,removed closing double quotation mark after phrase 8under the various forms which characterize them40