,transcrib]'s ,notes ,phrases pr9t$ 9 bold face1 italics or small capitals 9 ! s\rce docum5t h be5 transcrib$ betwe5 equal signs or und]scores1 or z ,,all ,,capitals = ?is e-text4 ,m ,transcrib]'s ,notes may be f\nd at ! end ( ?is e-text4 ,,fir/ ,,c\rse ,,9 ,,biology ,illu/ration ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,bo/on ,,*icago ,,atlanta ,,san ,,francisco ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,,limit$ ,,london ,,bombay ,,calcutta ,,melb\rne ,,! ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,( ,,canada1 ,,ltd4 ,,toronto ,illu/ration3 ,,k5ti% ,,plov] ,,) ,,eggs ,,& ,,"y 7,,protective ,,resemblance7 ,f ! ,exhibit 9 ! ,briti% ,natural ,hi/ory ,museum4 7,morgan47 ,,fir/ ,,c\rse ,,9 ,,biology ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,,"p ,i4 ,,plant ,,biology ,,& ,,walt] ,m4 ,,coleman ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,animal ,,biology ,,"p ,,iii4 ,,human ,,biology ,new ,york ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company #aiji ,all rights res]v$ ,,copyright1 #aijh1 ,,by ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,set up & electrotyp$4 ,publi%$ ,july1 #aijh4 ,repr9t$ ,octob]1 #aijh2 ,febru>y1 ,septemb]1 #aiji4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cu%+ ,co4--,b]wick ,smi? ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,! pres5t t5d5cy 9 second>y education is away f ! =mal te*nical completion ( sep>ate subjects & t[>d ! develop+ ( a workable tra9+ 9 ! activities t relate ! pupil to 8 own life4 ,9 ! natural sci5ce field1 ! t5d5cy is to atta* less importance to botany & zoology & physiology z su*1 & to lay great] /ress on ! processes & adaptations ( life z express$ 9 plants & animals & m54 ,?is t5d5cy is a revolt aga9/ ! laboratory me?od & rese>* me?od ( ! college z x has be5 impress$ into ! common s*ools1 = x is n uncommon = ! pupil to /udy botany )\t really kn[+ plants1 or physiology )\t kn[+ himself4 ,education t is n applicable1 t does n put ! pupil into t\* ) ! liv+ k & ! affairs ( 8 "t1 may be ( less educative value ?an ! le>n+ ( a trade 9 a %op4 ,we are com+ to le>n t ! ideals & ! abilities %\ld be develop$ out ( ! common surr\nd+s & affairs ( life r ?an impos$ on ! pupil z a matt] ( ab/ract1 unrelat$ !ory4 ,"o ( ! m>ks ( ?is new t5d5cy 9 education is ! introduction ( unit c\rses 9 biology 9 ! second>y s*ools1 9 ! place ( ! =mal & (t5 dry & ne>ly mean+less isolat$ c\rses 9 botany1 zoology1 & physiology4 ,?is result is "o ( ! outcomes ( ! rec5t nature-/udy discussions4 ,! pres5t volume is an ef=t to meet ! ne$ = a simple & unte*nical text to cov] ?is second>y biology 9 its elem5t>y phases4 ,! book /&s betwe5 ! unorganiz$ nature-/udy ( ! int]m$iate grades & ! =mal sci5ce ( ! m advanc$ c\rses4 ,x is a difficult space to bridge1 p>tly because ! subjects are s div]se1 & p>tly because "s tea*]s d n yet und]/& ! importance ( imp>t+ to beg9n]s a g5]al r ?an a special view po9t4 ,/ill ano!r difficulty is ! lack ( uni=mity 9 ! practice ( diff]5t s*ools4 ,x is n urg$ t x is desirable to h uni=mity 9 all respects1 b ! lack ( x makes x difficult to prep>e a book t %all equally meet all ne$s4 ,x is hop$1 h[ev]1 t ! pres5t book is fairly adaptable to a v>iety ( conditions1 & ) ?is ?\ght 9 m9d ! foll[+ sugge/ions are made z to its use3 ,be+ 9 ?ree sep>ate p>ts1 ! tea*] may beg9 ) plants1 or ) animals1 or ) human physiology4 ,if a "o-ye> c\rse is desir$1 ! topics t are pr9t$ 9 l>ge type 9 ,p>ts ,,ii & ,,iii may be us$1 & a *oice f ! *apt]s 9 ,"p ,i4 ,= ?ree half-ye> c\rses1 all ! p>ts may be cov]$ 9 full4 ,if ! c\rse 9 biology beg9s 9 ! fall 7) ! s*ool ye>71 x may be well to /udy plant biology two days 9 ! week & animal biology ?ree days until midw9t]2 :5 outdoor mat]ial becomes sc>ce1 human biology may be foll[$ five days 9 ! week2 9 spr+1 plants may be /udi$ ?ree days & animals two days4 ,if ! use ( ! book is begun at midye>1 x w probably be bett] to foll[ ! ord] 9 ! book consecutively4 ,if x is desir$ to take only a "p ( ! plant biology1 ,*apt]s ,,vi1 ,,xiv1 ,,xx1 ,,xxiii1 ,,xxiv may be omitt$1 & also p]haps p>ts ( o!r *apt]s 7z ( ,x1 ,,xii1 ,,xiii7 if ! "t is v %ort4 ,! important po9t is to give ! pupil a rational conception ( :at plants are & ( _! ma9 activities2 !re=e1 ! p>ts t deal ) ! und]ly+ life processes & ! relation ( ! plant to its surr\nd+s %\ld n be omitt$4 ,if m "w is want$ x is be/ to provide ! extra "w by means ( ! /udy ( a great] abundance ( specim5s r ?an by ! addition ( m texts2 b ! tea*] mu/ be c>eful n to introduce too mu* detail until ! g5]al subject has fir/ be5 cov]$4 ,! value ( biology /udy lies 9 ! "w ) ! actual ?+s !mselves4 ,x is n possible to provide specim5s = e po9t 9 ! "w1 nor is x always desirable to d s2 = ! beg9n+ pupil may n be able to int]e/ himself 9 ! objects1 & he may become imm]s$ 9 details be=e he has arriv$ at any g5]al view or reason ( ! subject4 ,great c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ t ! pupil is n swamp$4 ,m]e book "w or memory /uff+ is useless1 & x may dw>f or div]t ! sympa?ies ( active "y m9ds4 ,e ef=t %\ld be made to apply ! lessons to daily life4 ,! v reason = kn[+ plants & animals is t "o may live ) !m1 & ! reason = kn[+ oneself is t he may live 8 daily life ) "s degree ( intellig5ce4 ,! tea*] %\ld n be afraid to make all tea*+ useful & practical4 ,9 _m cases a /ate syllabus designates j :at subjects %all be cov]$2 ! topics may be *os5 easily f ! text1 & ! ord] ( !m is usually left l>gely to ! discretion ( ! tea*]4 ,f9ally1 let x be repeat$ t x is mu* bett] = ! beg9n+ pupil to acquire a real conception ( a few c5tral pr9ciples & po9ts ( view respect+ common =ms t w enable him to tie 8 k toge!r & organize x & apply x1 ?an to famili>ize himself ) any numb] ( m]e facts ab\t ! l[] =ms ( life :i*1 at ! be/1 he c "k only indirectly & remotely4 ,if ! pupil wi%es to g f>!r 9 lat] ye>s1 he may !n take up special gr\ps & phases4 ,,cont5ts ,,page ,,g5]al ,,introduction ,i xi ,,"p ,i4 ,,plant ,,biology ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,no ,,two ,,plants ,,or ,,p>ts ,,are ,,alike ,p #a ,,ii4 ,,! ,,/ruggle ,,to ,,live ,p #d ,,iii4 ,,survival ,,( ,,! ,,fit ,p #g ,,iv4 ,,plant ,,societies ,p #i ,v4 ,,! ,,plant ,,body ,p #ae ,,vi4 ,,se$s ,,& ,,g]m9ation ,p #bj ,,vii4 ,,! ,,root--,,! ,,=ms ,,( ,,roots ,p #cb ,,viii4 ,,! ,,root--,,function ,,& ,,/ructure ,p #ch ,,ix4 ,,! ,,/em--,,k9ds ,,& ,,=ms--,,prun+ ,p #di ,x4 ,,! ,,/em--,,its ,,g5]al ,,/ructure ,p #ei ,,xi4 ,,leaves--,,=m ,,& ,,position ,p #gc ,,xii4 ,,leaves--,,/ructure ,,& ,,anatomy ,p #hf ,,xiii4 ,,leaves--,,function ,,or ,,"w ,p #ib ,,xiv4 ,,dep5d5t ,,plants ,p #ajf ,,xv4 ,,w9t] ,,& ,,dormant ,,buds ,p #aaa ,,xvi4 ,,bud ,,propagation ,p #aba ,,xvii4 ,,h[ ,,plants ,,climb ,p #abi ,,xviii4 ,,! ,,fl[]--,,its ,,p>ts ,,& ,,=ms ,p #acc ,,xix4 ,,! ,,fl[]--,,f]tilization ,,& ,,poll9ation ,p #add ,,xx4 ,,fl[]-,,clu/]s ,p #aee ,,xxi4 ,,fruits ,p #afc ,,xxii4 ,,disp]sal ,,( ,,se$s ,p #agb ,,xiii4 ,,ph5ogams ,,& ,,cryptogams ,p #agf ,,xxiv4 ,,/udies ,,9 ,,cryptogams ,p #ahb ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,animal ,,biology ,i4 ,,introduction ,a #a ,,ii4 ,,protozoans ,a #aj ,,iii4 ,,sponges ,a #ag ,,iv4 ,,polyps ,a #bb ,v4 ,,e*9od]ms ,a #cd ,,vi4 ,,worms ,a #db ,,vii4 ,,cru/aceans ,a #ea ,,viii4 ,,insects ,a #fc ,,ix4 ,,mollusks ,a #ig ,x4 ,,fi%es ,a #aji ,,xi4 ,,batra*ians ,a #abf ,,xii4 ,,reptiles ,a #aci ,,xiii4 ,,birds ,a #aej ,,xiv4 ,,mammals ,a #ahd ,,"p ,,iii4 ,,human ,,biology ,i4 ,,introduction ,h #a ,,ii4 ,,! ,,sk9 ,,& ,,kidneys ,h #af ,,iii4 ,,! ,,skeleton ,h #bh ,,iv4 ,,! ,,muscles ,h #ci ,v4 ,,! ,,circulation ,h #ea ,,vi4 ,,! ,,respiration ,h #gj ,,vii4 ,,food ,,& ,,dige/ion ,h #hi ,,viii4 ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em ,h #aag ,,ix4 ,,! ,,s5ses ,h #adb ,x4 ,,bact]ia ,,& ,,sanitation ,h #aeh ,,g5]al ,,index i ,,g5]al ,,introduction ,,prelim9>y ,,exp]im5ts ,^! exp]im5ts are ins]t$ = ^? pupils :o h n _h in/ruction 9 *emi/ry & physics1 to give !m a po9t ( view on ! subjects t foll[4 ,at lea/ a g5]al und]/&+ ( "s ( ^! subjects is necess>y to a satisfactory elem5t>y /udy ( biology4 ,elem5ts & ,comp\nds4--,! mat]ial _w is made up ( elem5ts & comp\nds4 ,an elem5t is a sub/ance t _c be sep>at$ into two or m sub/ances4 ,a comp\nd is =m$ by ! union ( two or m elem5ts4 ,all ! mat]ial or sub/ance ( :i* ! e>? & its inhabitants is compos$ is =m$ ( ! *emical elem5ts2 ?is sub/ance tak5 all toge!r is kn[n z matt]4 ,c>bon & iron are examples ( elem5ts4 ,comp>e a bit ( *>coal1 :i* is "o =m ( c>bon1 ) a new iron nail4 ,:i* is bright]8 ,heavi] = its size8 ,t\gh]8 ,m brittle8 ,h>d]8 ,m readily combu/ible8 ,resi/ant to *ange :5 left expos$ to air & dampness8 ,!re are two o!r =ms ( c>bon3 graphite or black lead 7us$ 9 p5cils & /ove poli%72 & diamond1 :i* occurs 9 cry/als & is ! h>de/ kn[n sub/ance4 ,iron does n h v>i$ =ms l c>bon4 ,sulfur is ano!r elem5t4 ,:at is its color8 ,has x odor8 ,ta/e8 ,w x dissolve 9 wat]8 ,is x heavy or light8 ,w x burn8 ,:at is ! color ( ! flame8 ,( ! fumes8 ,phosphorus1 ano!r elem5t1 burns s readily t x ignites by friction & is us$ 9 mat*es4 ,rub ! tip ( a mat* ) ! f+]4 ,:at is ! odor ( phosphorus8 ,phosphorus exi/s 9 nature only 9 comb9ation ) o!r elem5ts4 ,lead1 t91 silv]1 gold1 copp]1 z9c1 nickel1 plat9um1 are elem5ts4 ,!re are less ?an eighty kn[n elem5ts2 b ! comp\nds =m$ ( !m are innum]able4 ,c>bon is f\nd 9 all sub/ances =m$ by ! gr[? ( liv+ ?+s4 ,t !re is c>bon 9 sug>1 = example1 c easily be %[n by *>r+ x on a hot %ovel or a /ove until its wat] is driv5 (f & only *>coal is left4 ,"p ( ! />* 9 a biscuit rema9s z *>coal :5 x has be5 half burn$4 ,oxyg5 & ! ,air4--,! great activity ( pure oxyg5 9 attack+ o!r sub/ances c be %[n by pass+ into a fruit-j> a light$ spl9t]1 a piece ( light$ magnesium ribbon1 an old wat* spr+ 7or a bit ( picture wire71 ! end ( :i* has be5 dipp$ 9 sulfur & light$4 ,ab\t "o fif? ( ! air is oxyg5 & ab\t f\r fif?s is nitrog5 & o!r inactive gases4 ,pure nitrog5 w quickly ext+ui% a light$ spl9t] ?ru/ into x4 ,x is ! oxyg5 9 ! air t supports all =ms ( burn+4 ,less ?an "o half ( "o p] c5t ( ! air is an inactive gas call$ c>bon dioxid1 a comp\nd ( c>bon & oxyg54 ,x is =m$ n only :5 wood or coal is burn$1 b also by ! life processes ( animals & plants4 ,favorable & ,unfavorable ,conditions = ,evaporation4--,p\r ! same quantity ( wat] 7half a glassful7 into ?ree sauc]s & two bottles4 ,place "o sauc] ne> a hot /ove2 place ! o!r two 9 a cool place1 hav+ fir/ cov]$ "o ( !m ) a di%4 ,place "o ( ! bottles by ! /ove & ! o!r by ! rema9+ sauc]s4 ,aft] "s h\rs1 exam9e ! sauc]s & bottles & comp>e & record ! results4 ,expla94 ,/ate ?ree conditions t are favorable to evaporation4 ,/ate ?ree ways 9 :i* evaporation may be prev5t$ or decreas$4 ,te/s = ,acid1 ,alkal9e1 & ,neutral ,sub/ances4--,= acid te/s1 use s\r butt]milk 7:i* conta9s lactic acid71 or hydro*loric acid dilut$ 9 t5 p>ts wat]1 or /rong v9eg> 7:i* conta9s acetic acid74 ,has ! acid a *>act]i/ic 78s\r07 odor & ta/e 7te/ x only :5 v dilute78 ,rub dilute acid betwe5 ! f+]s2 h[ does x feel8 ,is !re any effect on ! f+]s8 ,obta9 litmus pap] at a druggi/'s4 ,dip a /rip ( r$ litmus & ( blue litmus pap] into ! acid4 ,:at result8 ,= alkal9e te/s1 dissolve 9 a glass ( wat] a spoonful ( bak+ soda or "s laundry soap2 or dissolve an in* /ick ( cau/ic soda 9 a glass ( wat]4 ,te/ odor & 8feel0 ( la/ solution z ) ! acid2 likewise te/ effect ( alkal9e solution on r$ & blue litmus pap]4 ,record results4 ,alkalies are /rong examples ( a m g5]al class ( sub/ances call$ bases1 :i* h ! opposite effect f acids4 ,te/ pure wat]4 ,has x odor8 ,a ta/e8 ,te/ x ) r$ & blue litmus pap]4 ,wat] is a neutral sub/ance3 t is1 x is nei!r an acid nor an alkali 7or base74 ,aft] mak+ appropriate te/s1 write ac1 al1 or neu aft] ea* "n 9 ! foll[+ li/ 7or write 9 ?ree columns73 v9eg>1 soda1 saliva1 sug>1 juice ( apple1 lemon1 & o!r fruits1 milk1 bak+ p[d]1 butt]milk1 ammonia1 salt wat]4 ,p\r "s ( ! alkal9e solution into a di%1 gradually add dilute acid 7or s\r butt]milk71 /irr+ ) glass rod & te/+ ) litmus until ! mixture does n turn r$ litmus blue nor blue litmus r$4 ,! acid & alkali are !n said to h neutraliz$ ea* o!r1 & ! result+ sub/ance is call$ a salt4 ,! salt may be obta9$ by evaporat+ ! wat] ( ! solution4 ,mo/ common m9]als are salts4 ,if ! la/ exp]im5t is tri$ ) soda & s\r butt]milk1 ! demon/ration w %[ "s ( ! facts involv$ 9 bread mak+ ) ! use ( ^! sub/ances4 ,te/ = ,/>*4--,/>* turns blue ) iod9e4 ,! color may be driv5 away by heat1 b w return aga9 z ! temp]ature l[]s4 ,procure a few c5ts' wor? ( t9cture ( iod9e & dilute x4 ,get a half doz5 pieces ( pap] & c>dbo>d1 all diff]5t1 & te/ ea* = />* by plac+ x ov] m\? ( bottle & tipp+ ! bottle up4 ,if mu* />* is pres5t ! spot w be blue-black or d>k blue2 if little />*1 pale blue2 if no />*1 br[n or yell[i%4 ,make pa/es ) :eat fl\r1 potato />*1 & corn />*4 ,treat a little ( ea* ) a solution ( r dilute t9cture ( iod9e4 ,try gra9s f cru%$ rice ) ! same solution4 ,are !y ! same color8 ,cut a ?9 section f a potato1 treat ) iod9e & exam9e "u ! microscope4 ,to /udy ,/>* ,gra9s4--,m\nt 9 cold wat] a few gra9s ( />* f ea* ( ! foll[+3 potato1 :eat1 arr[root 7buy at drug /ore71 rice1 oats1 corn4 ,/udy "u microscope ! sizes1 =ms1 lay]s1 fissures1 & location ( nuclei1 & make a draw+ ( a few gra9s ( ea*4 ,te/ = ,grape ,sug>4--,make a ?ick section ( a bit ( ! edible "p ( a pe> & place x 9 a ba? ( ,fehl+'s solution4 ,aft] a few mom5ts boil ! liquid conta9+ ! section = "o or two m9utes4 ,x w turn to an orange color1 %[+ a deposit ( an oxid ( copp] & p]haps a little copp] 9 ! metallic =m4 ,a ?9 section treat$ 9 l mann] may be exam9$ "u ! microscope1 & ! f9e p>ticles1 precipitat$ f ! sug> ( ! pe>1 may be cle>ly se54 7,fehl+'s solution is made by tak+ "o "p ea* ( ^! ?ree solutions & two p>ts ( wat]3 7#a7 ,copp] sulfate1 #i grams 9 #bej cubic c5timet]s ( wat]2 7#b7 sodium hydroxid1 #cj grams 9 #bej c4c4 wat]2 7#c7 ,ro*elle salts1 #dc grams 9 #bej c4c4 wat]47 ,te/ = ,nitrog5\s ,sub/ances1 or ,proteids4--,put a little :ite ( egg into a te/ tube & heat sl[ly4 ,:at *ange takes place 9 ! egg8 ,put ano!r "p ( ! :ite ( egg into a te/ tube & add dilute nitric acid4 ,comp>e ! results ( ! two exp]im5ts4 ,:ite ( egg is an example ( a proteid2 t is1 x is ! =m ( nitrog5 mo/ commonly f\nd 9 plant & animal tissue1 & x c be =m$ only by life processes4 ,d acid & heat h>d5 or s(t5 mo/ sub/ances8 ,ei!r ( ! above te/s reveal proteid1 if pres5t4 ,does cook+ t5d to s(t5 or t\gh5 lean meat8 ,ano!r te/ = proteid is nitric acid1 :i* turns proteid 7& h>dly any?+ else7 yell[4 ,proteid :5 burn$ has a *>act]i/ic odor2 ?is w be notic$ if lean meat or *eese is *>r$ 9 a spoon4 ,! (f5sive odor f decompos+ proteid is also *>act]i/ic1 :e!r x comes f /ale beans1 meat1 mu%rooms1 or o!r ?+s conta9+ proteid4 ,te/ = ,fats & ,oils4--,place a little tall[ f a c&le on unglaz$ pap] & w>m4 ,hold ! pap] up to ! light & exam9e x4 ,:at effect has ! fat _h on ! pap]8 ,place a little />*1 sug>1 p[d]$ *alk1 or :ite ( egg on pap] & repeat ! exp]im5t2 is ! effect ! same8 ,place "s ( ! tall[ 9 a spoon1 & heat4 ,comp>e ! effect ( heat on fat & proteid4 ,wat] also makes pap] semi-transp>5t1 b x soon evaporates3 fat does n evaporate4 ,ano!r te/ = fats is to m\nt a ?9 section ( ! endosp]m ( ca/or-oil se$ 9 wat] & exam9e ) high p[]4 ,small drops ( oil w be q abundant4 ,treat ! m\nt ) alcan9 7h5na root 9 alcohol74 ,! drops ( oil w /a9 r$4 ,?is is a /&>d te/ = fats & oils4 ,to make or lib]ate ,oxyg54--,if !re is a *emi/ry class 9 s*ool1 "o ( its memb]s w d\btless be glad to prep>e "s ( ! gas call$ oxyg51 & furni% sev]al glass j>s fill$ ) x to ! biology class4 ,if x is desir$ to make oxyg51 ! foll[+ me?od may be employ$3 ,provide a dry glass flask ( ?ree to f\r ounces capacity4 ,x %\ld h a glass deliv]y tube1 ins]t$ ?r\gh a "o-hol$ rubb] /opp]1 & s b5t z to pass "u ! surface ( wat] conta9$ 9 a deep di%4 ,fill sev]al p9t fruit-j>s ) wat]1 cov] ) pieces ( /iff pa/ebo>d1 & turn m\? d[nw>ds 9 ! di% ( wat]4 ,f "o half to two ?irds ounces ( an equal mixture ( potassium *lorate & manganese dioxid 7procur$ at drug /ore7 is put 9 ! flask & heat$ by means ( a gas or alcohol lamp4 ,:5 ! oxyg5 beg9s to =m1 collect "s 9 j>s by ins]t+ ! end ( deliv]y tube "u ! j>s z !y /& 9 wat]4 ,caution3 ,remove deliv]y tube f wat] be=e cool+ ! flask1 to prev5t any wat] be+ drawn back4 ,oxidation4--,t some?+ besides wood or coal is necess>y to a fire c be %[n by %utt+ (f entirely ! draught ( a /ove4 ,fire & o!r =ms ( combu/ion dep5d on a process call$ oxidation4 ,?is consi/s 9 ! unit+ ( oxyg5 ) o!r sub/ances4 ,:5 wood decays1 ! c>bon 9 x oxidizes 7unites ) oxyg57 & c>bon dioxid gas is =m$4 ,:5 wood burns1 ! oxidation is m rapid4 ,:5 iron oxidizes1 iron ru/ is =m$4 ,:5 hydrog5 is oxidiz$1 wat] is =m$4 ,k]os5e oil conta9s hydrog51 & wat] is =m$ :5 x is burn$4 ,almo/ e "o has notic$ ! cl\d ( moi/ure :i* collects on ! *imney :5 ! lamp is fir/ light$4 ,by us+ a *imney :i* has be5 kept 9 a cold place1 ! moi/ure becomes app>5t2 soon ! *imney becomes hot & ! wat] no long] collects1 b x cont9ues to pass into ! room z long z ! lamp burns4 ,fats also conta9 hydrog54 ,hold a piece ( cold glass or an inv]t$ tumbl] above ! flame ( a tall[ c&le4 ,does wat] collect on x8 ,oxidation may be said to be ! basis ( all life processes = ?is reason3 oxidation gives rise to heat & sets free en]gy1 & all liv+ ?+s ne$ heat & en]gy 9 ord] to gr[ & live4 ,! heat ( animals is v noticeable4 ,! oxidation 9 plants also =ms a slight am\nt ( heat4 ,9 bo? animals & plants oxidation is mu* sl[] ?an 9 ord9>y fires4 ,t heat is =m$ ev5 9 sl[ oxidation is %[n by fires :i* arise spontane\sly 9 masses ( decay+ mat]ial4 ,! rott+ ( wood is n only accompani$ by heat b sometimes by light1 z :5 8fox fire0 is emitt$4 ,rub ! end ( a mat* on y\r f+] 9 ! d>k4 ,expla9 ! result4 ,/rike a mat* & notice ! :ite fumes :i* rise = an in/ant4 ,^! fumes are n ord9>y smoke 7p>ticles ( c>bon71 b !y are oxid ( phosphorus4 ,:y w wat] 7oxid ( hydrog57 n burn8 ,s& is oxid ( silicon4 ,expla9 h[ ?r[+ s& on a fire puts x out4 ,see also exp]im5ts ) c&le & brea?1 9 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,biology4 ,inorganic & ,organic ,matt]4--,te/ = ,m9]als4--,! e>? 0 once 9 a molt5 condition1 :i* w\ld h de/roy$ any combu/ible mat]ial if any _h !n exi/$4 ,be=e plants & animals exi/$1 ! e>? consi/$ mo/ly ( incombu/ible m9]als1 kn[n z inorganic matt]4 ,sub/ances =m$ by animals & plants are organic matt]1 s call$ because built up by organiz$ or organ-be>+ or liv+ ?+s2 />* is an example1 be+ =m$ 9 plants4 ,organic sub/ances are compos$ *iefly ( c>bon1 oxyg51 hydrog51 & nitrog54 7,see page #a ( 8,animal ,biology407 ,coal-oil1 & all combu/ible mat]ials h _! orig9 9 life4 ,h5ce1 burn+ to f9d :e!r !re is an incombu/ible residue is also a te/ = m9]als4 ,meat1 bread1 oatmeal1 bone1 wood1 may be te/$ = m9]al matt] by burn+ 9 a spoon held ov] a hot fire1 or flame ( gas or lamp4 ,! sub/ance be+ te/$ %\ld be burn$ until all black mat]ial 7:i* is organic c>bon & n a m9]al7 has disappe>$4 ,any residue w be m9]al matt]4 ,protoplasm4--,inside ! cells ( plants & animals is ! liv+ sub/ance1 kn[n z protoplasm4 ,x is a /ructureless1 ne>ly or q colorless1 transp>5t jelly-l sub/ance ( v complex & un/able composition4 ,eighty p] c5t or m is wat]2 ! rema9d] is proteid1 fats1 oils1 sug>s1 & salts4 ,protoplasm has ! p[] ( gr[? & reproduction2 x c make liv+ sub/ance f dead or lifeless sub/ances4 ,x has ! p[] ( movem5t )9 ! cell1 & x is influ5c$ 7or is irritable7 by heat1 light1 t\*1 & o!r /imuli4 ,:5 protoplasm dies ! organism dies4 ,physics is ! sci5ce t treats ( ! prop]ties & ph5om5a 7or behavior7 ( matt] or ( objects2 z ( su* prop]ties or ph5om5a or ag5cies z heat1 light1 =ce1 electricity1 s\nd1 friction1 d5sity1 weight1 & ! l4 ,*emi/ry is ! sci5ce t treats ( ! composition ( matt]4 ,all matt] is made up1 z we h se51 ( elem5ts4 ,v few elem5ts exi/ 9 nature 9 a free or uncomb9$ =m4 ,! nitrog5 & oxyg5 ( ! air are ! lead+ uncomb9$ elem5ts4 ,9 ord] to express ! *emical comb9ations cle>ly1 symbols are us$ to repres5t ea* elem5t1 & ^! symbols are !n comb9$ to repres5t ! proportions ( ea* 9 ! comp\nd4 ,if ,c /&s = c>bon & ,o = oxyg51 ! c>bon dioxid might be repres5t$ by ! =mula ,,coo4 ,9 ord] to avoid ! repetition ( any lett]1 h[ev]1 a numb] is us$ to d5ote h[ _m times ! elem5t is tak53 ?us ! =mula always us$ = c>bon dioxid is ,,co4 ,! =mula = hydrog5 oxid1 or wat]1 is ,h,o2 t = />* is ,c,h,o4 ,n /&s = nitrog52 ,p1 = phosphorus2 ,k1 potassium2 ,fe1 iron2 ,s1 sulfur4 ,biology is ! sci5ce t treats ( life2 t is1 ( all k ( plants & animals ( all k9ds4 7,see page #a1 8,animal ,biology407 ,,h[ ,a ,,c&le ,,burns ,"s ( ! =ego+ sugge/ions may be readily expla9$ & illu/rat$ by simple exp]im5ts ) a burn+ c&le4 ,! foll[+ directions = su* exp]im5ts are by ,g4 ,w4 ,cavanaugh4 ,! mat]ials ne$$ = ?is ex]cise are3 a piece ( c&le ab\t two in*es long1 a lamp *imney 7"o ) a pla9 top is be/71 a piece ( :ite crock]y or w9d[ glass1 a piece ( f9e wire ab\t six in*es long1 a bit ( quicklime ab\t half ! size ( an egg1 & "s mat*es4 ,all ( ^!1 ) ! possible exception ( ! quicklime1 c be obta9$ 9 any h\sehold4 ,if y p]=m ! exp]im5t requir+ ! lime1 be sure t y />t ) a fre% piece ( quick or /one lime1 :i* c be _h ( any lime or cem5t deal]4 ,dur+ ! p]=mance ( ! foll[+ simple exp]im5ts1 ! pupil %\ld describe :at he sees at ea* /ep4 ,! que/ions ins]t$ 9 ! text are (f]$ m]ely z sugge/ions 9 ! developm5t ( ! desir$ ideas4 ,! answ]s are ^? :i* x is desir$ ! pupils %all rea* or confirm by _! own obs]vation4 ,i4 ,oxyg5 ,light ! c&le & place x on a piece ( blott+ pap] 7,a74 ,:at d y see burn+8 ,is any?+ burn+ besides ! c&le8 ,! answ] w probably be 8no40 ,let u see4 ,place ! lamp *imney ov] ! light$ c&le1 & p>tly cov] ! top by a piece ( /iff pap]1 z 9 ,fig4 ,a4 ,ask ! pupils to obs]ve & describe h[ ! flame goes out2 i4e4 t x is gradually ext+ui%$ & does n g out in/antly4 ,:y did ! flame g out8 ,! probable ?\ght w be1 8,because !re 0 no air40 7,if !re 0 no air )9 ! *imney1 "s c\ld h ent]$ at ! top47 ,illu/ration3 ,a4--,,! ,,beg9n+ ,,( ,,! ,,c&le ,,exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,b4--,,supply+ ,,air ,,und]nea? ,,! ,,*imney4 ,place two p5cils beside ! relight$ c&le & on !m ! *imney 7,b74 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! way 9 :i* ! c&le burns n[ & be=e ! *imney 0 plac$ ov] x8 ,x flick]s1 or dances ab\t m4 ,:at makes boys & girls feel l danc+ ab\t :5 !y g out f a w>m s*oolroom8 ,:at makes ! flame dance or flick] :5 ! *imney is rais$ by ! p5cils8 ,because x gets fre% air "u ! *imney4 ,repeat ! fir/ exp]im5t1 9 :i* ! flame gr[s gradually small] till x is ext+ui%$4 ,:y does ! flame die out n[8 ,is x really necess>y to h fre% air 9 ord] to keep a flame burn+8 ,to prove ?is fur!r1 let ! c&le be relight$4 ,place ! *imney ov] x1 n[ hav+ ! top completely clos$ by a piece ( pap]4 ,h ready a light$ spl9t] or mat*1 & j z soon z ! c&le is ext+ui%$ remove ! pap] f ! *imney top & ?ru/ 9 ! light$ spl9t]4 ,:y does ! light on ! spl9t] g out8 ,:at became ( ! fre%ness t 0 9 ! air8 ,x 0 de/roy$ by ! burn+ c&le4 ,evid5tly !re is "s decid$ diff]5ce betwe5 unburn$ air & burn$ air1 s9ce a flame c cont9ue to burn only 9 air t has ! quality kn[n z fre%ness4 ,?is quality ( fre% air is due to oxyg51 repres5t$ by ,o4 ,:y 0 ! spl9t] put out in/antly1 :ile ! c&le flame di$ out gradually8 ,:5 ! spl9t] 0 ?ru/ 91 ! air _h no fre%ness or oxyg5 at all1 :ile :5 ! c&le 0 plac$ "u ! *imney1 x _h :atev] oxyg5 0 orig9ally 9 ! air )9 ! *imney4 ,endeavor to h ?is po9t cle>ly und]/ood3 t ! c&le did n g out z long z ! air _h any oxyg5 & t ! spl9t] 0 ext+ui%$ imm$iately because !re 0 no oxyg5 left4 ,relight ! c&le4 ,a =m] "q may n[ be repeat$3 ,is any?+ else burn+ besides ! c&le8 ,:5 ! subject ( ! necessity ( fre% air & consequ5tly ( oxyg5 = ! burn+ ( ! c&le seems to be und]/ood1 ! foll[+ que/ions1 toge!r ) any o!rs :i* sugge/ !mselves1 may be ask$3 ,:at is ! reason t draughts are op5$ 9 /oves8 ,:y is ! bottom ( a 8burn]0 on a lamp always full ( holes8 ,,ii4 ,c>bon ,let u n[ obs]ve ! black5$ end ( a burn$ mat* or spl9t]4 ,?is black sub/ance is usually kn[n by ! "n ( *>coal4 ,if h&l$1 x w black5 ! f+]s4 ,try ?is4 ,! same sub/ance is f\nd on ! bottoms ( kettles :i* h be5 us$ ov] a wood fire1 b x is !re a f9e p[d]4 ,let u see :at 0 burn+ :5 ! c&le 0 light$1 besides ! oxyg5 9 ! air4 ,relight ! c&le & hold ! porcela9 or glass ab\t an in* above ! bright "p ( ! flame4 ,:at happ5s to x !re8 ,next1 l[] x directly into ! flame 7,c74 ,:at is ! black /uff t gets on ! glass8 ,look closely & see :e!r x is n deposit$ "h also z a f9e p[d]4 ,w ?is deposit f ! c&le black5 ! f+]s8 ,illu/ration3 ,c4--,,! ,,c>bon 7,,or ,,soot7 ,,is ,,deposit$ ,,on ,,! ,,glass4 ,in/ead ( us+ ! "n *>coal = ?is black sub/ance1 let u call x c>bon1 ! bett] "n1 because !re are sev]al k9ds ( c>bon1 & *>coal is only t k9d :i* is r light & easily black5s ! h&s4 ,! c>bon f ! c&le flame came mo/ly f ! wax or tall[2 only a v small "p came f ! wick4 ,x _c be se5 9 ! tall[1 nei!r c x be se5 9 unburn$ wood1 & yet x c be f\nd :5 ! wood is p>tly burn$4 ,:y1 n[1 is ! glass black5$ :5 held 9 ! flame & n :5 held directly above x8 ,x is because ! c>bon f ! c&le has n be5 completely burn$ at ! middle ( ! flame2 b x is burn$ beyond ! bright "p ( ! flame4 ,:5 ! glass is held 9 ! flame1 ! c>bon t is n yet completely burn$ is deposit$ on x1 because x is cool] ?an t 9 ! surr\nd+ flame4 ,a f9e deposit ( c>bon c be _h f any ( ! lum9\s p>ts ( ! flame2 & x is ^! ?\s&s ( little p>ticles ( c>bon1 gett+ :ite hot1 :i* gl[ l coals 9 ! /ove & make ! light4 ,j z soon z !y are completely burn$1 !re is no m light1 z coals cease to gl[ :5 burn$ to a%es4 ,,iii4 ,c>bon dioxid ,illu/ration3 ,d4--,,! ,,te/ ,,) ,,! ,,susp5d$ ,,film ,,( ,,limewat]4 ,let u n[ inquire :at becomes ( ! c>bon t we f9d 9 ! bright "p ( ! flame & ( ! oxyg5 t 0 9 ! air 9 ! lamp *imney4 ,:5 ! c&le 0 ext+ui%$ )9 ! *imney1 !re 0 no oxyg5 left1 z %[n by ! light$ spl9t]1 :i* 0 put out imm$iately4 ,nei!r c\ld any ( ! p>ticles ( c>bon be f\nd except on ! wick4 ,yet !y bo? /ill exi/ )9 ! *imney1 b 9 an entirely diff]5t condition4 ,:ile ! c&le 0 burn+1 ! little p>ticles ( c>bon t we f9d asc5d+ 9 ! flame are jo9+ ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air & mak+ an entirely new sub/ance4 ,?is new sub/ance is a gas & _c be se5 9 ! air4 ,( :at two sub/ances is ?is new sub/ance made8 ,x is ,,co4 ,place a bit ( quicklime 9 ab\t half a glass ( wat] on ! day previ\s to ! exp]im5t4 ,:5 ready = use !re w be a :ite s$im5t at ! bottom & a ?9 :ite scum on ! top ( ! cle> limewat]4 ,! pupils %\ld see ?is :ite scum1 z a "q ab\t x w foll[4 ,make a loop 9 ! end ( ! piece ( wire by turn+ x ar\nd ! po9t ( a lead p5cil4 ,remove ! scum f ! limewat] ) a piece ( pap] & ins]t ! loop into ! cle> wat]4 ,:5 )drawn1 ! loop ought to hold a film ( cle> wat]4 ,pass ! wire ?r\gh a piece ( c>dbo>d or /iff pap]1 & arrange z %[n 9 ,d4 ,place ! *imney ov] ! light$ c&le4 ,l[] ! loop into ! *imney & cov] ! top ( ! *imney ) ! pap]4 ,)draw ! wire two m9utes aft] ! c&le goes out4 ,note ! cl\dy appe>ance ( ! film ( wat] on ! wire4 ,! cl\d9ess 0 caus$ by ! c>bon dioxid =m$ :ile ! c&le 0 burn+4 ,omitt+ ! c&le1 hang ! fre%ly wett$ wire 9 ! empty *imney4 ,let ! film ( limewat] rema9 )9 ! *imney = ! same l5g? ( "t z :5 ! c&le 0 us$4 ,x does n become cl\dy n[4 ,! cl\d9ess 9 cle> limewat] is a te/ or indication t c>bon dioxid is pres5t4 ,:at caus$ ! :ite scum on ! limewat] :i* /ood ov]night8 ,h[ does ! ,,co get into ! air8 ,x is =m$ :5ev] wood1 coal1 oil1 or gas is burn$4 ,! am\nt ( ,,co 9 ord9>y air is v small1 be+ only ?ree p>ts 9 t5 ?\s&4 ,if ! limewat] 9 ! loop be left long en\gh 9 ! air1 x w become cl\dy4 ,! reason x cl\ds s quickly :5 ! c&le is be+ burn$ is t a l>ge am\nt ( ,,co is =m$4 ,besides be+ made by real flames1 ,,co is =m$ e "t we brea! out air4 ,r5ew ! film ( wat] 9 ! loop & brea! aga9/ x g5tly = two or ?ree m9utes4 ,! pres5ce ( ,,co 9 ! brea? may be %[n bett] by p\r+ (f "s ( ! cle> limewat] into a clean glass & bl[+ into x ?r\gh a /raw4 ,:y does wat] put out a fire8 ,! answ] is1 n alone because x wets & %uts (f ! supply ( free oxyg51 b because x cools ! c>bon1 :i* mu/ be hot 9 ord] to unite ) ! oxyg51 & prev5ts ! oxyg5 ( ! air f gett+ z ne> ! c>bon z be=e4 ,,plant ,,biology ,,*apt] ,i ,,no ,,two ,,plants ,,or ,,p>ts ,,are ,,alike ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,no ,,two ,,bran*es ,,are ,,alike4 7,hemlock47 ,if "o comp>es any two plants ( ! same k9d ev] s closely1 x w be f\nd t !y diff] f ea* o!r4 ,! diff]5ce is app>5t 9 size1 =m1 color1 mode ( bran*+1 numb] ( leaves1 numb] ( fl[]s1 vigor1 season ( maturity1 & ! l2 or1 9 o!r words1 all plants & animals v>y f an assum$ or /&>d type4 ,if "o comp>es any two bran*es or twigs on a tree1 x w be f\nd t !y diff] 9 size1 age1 =m1 vigor1 & 9 o!r ways 7,fig4 #a74 ,if "o comp>es any two leaves1 x w be f\nd t !y are unlike 9 size1 %ape1 color1 ve9+1 hair9ess1 m>k+s1 cut ( ! m>g9s1 or o!r small features4 ,9 "s cases 7z 9 ,fig4 #b7 ! diff]5ces are s great z to be readily se5 9 a small black-&-:ite draw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,no ,,two ,,leaves ,,are ,,alike4 ,if ! pupil ext5ds 8 obs]vation to animals1 he w /ill f9d ! same tru?2 = probably no two liv+ objects are exact duplicates4 ,if any p]son f9ds two objects t he ?9ks to be exactly alike1 let him set to "w to discov] ! diff]5ces1 rememb]+ t no?+ 9 nature is s small or app>5tly trivial z to be ov]look$4 ,v>iation1 or diff]5ces betwe5 organs & also betwe5 organisms1 is "o ( ! mo/ significant facts 9 nature4 ,,sugge/ions4--,! fir/ fact t ! pupil %\ld acquire ab\t plants is t no two are alike4 ,! way to appreh5d ?is great fact is to see a plant accurately & !n to comp>e x ) ano!r plant ( ! same species or k9d4 ,9 ord] to direct & conc5trate ! obs]vation1 x is well to set a c]ta9 numb] ( attributes or m>ks or qualities to be look$ =4 #a4 ,suppose any two or m plants ( corn are comp>$ 9 ! foll[+ po9ts1 ! pupil endeavor+ to det]m9e :e!r ! p>ts exactly agree4 ,see t ! obs]vation is close & accurate4 ,all[ no guesswork4 ,in/ruct ! pupil to measure ! p>ts :5 size is involv$3 7#a7 ,height ( ! plant4 7#b7 ,does x bran*8 ,h[ _m second>y /ems or 8suck]s0 f "o root8 7#c7 ,%ade or color4 7#d7 ,h[ _m leaves8 7#e7 ,arrangem5t ( leaves on /em4 7#f7 ,measure l5g? & bread? ( six ma9 leaves4 7#g7 ,numb] & position ( e>s2 color ( silks4 7#h7 ,size ( tassel1 & numb] & size ( its bran*es4 7#i7 ,/age ( maturity or rip5ess ( plant4 7#aj7 ,has ! plant gr[n symmetrically1 or has x be5 cr[d$ by o!r plants or be5 oblig$ to /ruggle = light or room8 7#aa7 ,note all unusual or int]e/+ m>ks or features4 7#ab7 ,always make note ( comp>ative vigor ( ! plants4 ,,note ,,to ,,tea*]4--,! tea*] %\ld always insi/ on p]sonal "w by ! pupil4 ,e pupil %\ld h&le & /udy ! object by himself4 ,books & pictures are m]ely guides & helps4 ,s f> z possible1 /udy ! plant or animal j :]e x gr[s naturally4 ,notebooks4--,insi/ t ! pupils make full notes & pres]ve ^! notes 9 suitable books4 ,note-tak+ is a p[]ful aid 9 organiz+ ! m5tal processes1 & 9 insur+ accuracy ( obs]vation & record4 ,! pupil %\ld draw :at he sees1 ev5 ?\gh he is n exp]t ) ! p5cil4 ,! draw+ %\ld n be made = looks1 b to aid ! pupil 9 8 ord]ly /udy ( ! object2 x %\ld be a means ( self-expression4 ,laboratory4--,e s*ool1 h[ev] small1 %\ld h a laboratory or "w-room4 ,?is "w-room may be no?+ m ?an a table at "o side ( ! room :]e ! light is good4 ,"h ! specim5s may be rang$ & /udi$4 ,(t5 an aqu>ium & t]r>ium may be add$4 ,a cab9et or set ( %elves %\ld be provid$ = a museum & collection4 ,! laboratory may be 9 "p out ( doors1 z a s*ool g>d52 or ! g>d5 may be at ! pupil's home1 & yet be "u ! g5]al direction ( ! tea*]4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,/ruggle ,,to ,,live ,e plant & animal is expos$ to unfavorable conditions4 ,x is oblig$ to cont5d ) ^! conditions 9 ord] to live4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,a ,,battle ,,= ,,life4 ,no two plants or p>ts ( plants are id5tically expos$ to ! conditions 9 :i* !y live4 ,! l>ge bran*es 9 ,fig4 #a probably _h m room & a bett] exposure to light ?an ! small] ones4 ,probably no two ( ! leaves 9 ,fig4 #b are equally expos$ to light1 or enjoy id5tical advantages 9 relation to ! food t !y receive f ! tree4 ,exam9e any tree to det]m9e "u :at advantages or disadvantages any ( ! limbs may live4 ,exam9e simil>ly ! diff]5t plants 9 a g>d5 r[ 7,fig4 #c72 or ! diff]5t bu%es 9 a ?icket2 or ! diff]5t trees 9 a wood4 ,! plant meets its conditions by succumb+ to !m 7t is1 by dy+71 or by adapt+ itself to !m4 ,! tree meets ! cold by ceas+ its active gr[?1 h>d5+ its tissues1 dropp+ its leaves4 ,_m h]bace\s or s(t-/emm$ plants meet ! cold by dy+ to ! gr\nd & )draw+ all life into ! root p>ts4 ,"s plants meet ! cold by dy+ outright & provid+ abundance ( se$s to p]petuate ! k9d next season4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,! ,,rea* ,,= ,,light ,,( ,a ,,tree ,,on ,,! ,,edge ,,( ,a ,,wood4 ,plants adapt !mselves to light by gr[+ t[>d x 7,fig4 #d72 or by hang+ _! leaves 9 su* position t !y cat* ! light2 or1 9 less sunny places1 by exp&+ _! leaf surface1 or by greatly l5g!n+ _! /ems s z to ov]top _! fell[s1 z d trees & v9es4 ,! adaptations ( plants w af=d a f]tile field ( /udy z we proce$4 ,/ruggle = exi/5ce & adaptation to conditions are among ! mo/ significant facts 9 nature4 ,! sum ( all ! conditions 9 :i* a plant or an animal is plac$ is call$ its environm5t1 t is1 its surr\nd+s4 ,! environm5t comprises ! conditions ( climate1 soil1 moi/ure1 exposure to light1 relation to food supply1 cont5tion ) o!r plants or animals4 ,! organism adapts itself to its environm5t1 or else x weak5s or dies4 ,e weak bran* or plant has und]gone "s h>d%ip t x 0 n :olly able to )/&4 ,,sugge/ions4--,! pupil %\ld /udy any plant1 or bran* ( a plant1 ) ref]5ce to ! position or condition "u :i* x gr[s1 & comp>e "o plant or bran* ) ano!r4 ,) animals1 x is common k t e animal is al]t to avoid or to escape dang]1 or to protect itself4 #b4 ,x is well to beg9 ) a bran* ( a tree1 z 9 ,fig4 #a4 ,note t no two p>ts are alike 7,*ap4 ,i74 ,note t "s are l>ge & /rong & t ^! /& f>!/ t[>ds light & room4 ,"s are v small & weak1 b>ely able to live "u ! competition4 ,"s h di$4 ,! pupil c easily det]m9e :i* ones ( ! dead bran*es p]i%$ fir/4 ,he %\ld take note ( ! position or place ( ! bran* on ! tree1 & det]m9e :e!r ! great] "p ( ! dead twigs are t[>d ! c5t] ( ! tree top or t[>d ! outside ( x4 ,det]m9e :e!r accid5t has ov]tak5 any ( ! p>ts4 #c4 ,let ! pupil exam9e ! top ( any ?ick old apple tree1 to see :e!r !re is any /ruggle = exi/5ce & :e!r any limbs h p]i%$4 #d4 ,if ! pupil has access to a =e/1 let him det]m9e :y !re are no bran*es on ! trunks ( ! old trees4 ,exam9e a tree ( ! same k9d gr[+ 9 an op5 field4 #e4 ,a r[ ( lettuce or o!r plants s[n ?ick w soon %[ ! competition betwe5 plants4 ,any f5ce r[ or we$y place w also %[ x4 ,:y does ! f>m] de/roy ! we$s among ! corn or potatoes8 ,h[ does ! flori/ r$uce competition to its l[e/ t]ms8 :at is ! result8 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,survival ,,( ,,! ,,fit ,! plants t mo/ p]fectly meet _! conditions are able to p]si/4 ,!y p]petuate !mselves4 ,_! (fspr+ are likely to inh]it "s ( ! attributes t enabl$ !m successfully to meet ! battle ( life4 ,! fit 7^? be/ adapt$ to _! conditions7 t5d to survive4 ,adaptation to conditions dep5ds on ! fact ( v>iation2 t is1 if plants 7 p]fectly rigid or inv>iable 7all exactly alike7 !y c\ld n meet new conditions4 ,conditions are necess>ily new = e organism4 ,x is impossible to picture a p]fectly inflexible & /able succession ( plants or animals4 ,bre$+4--,man is able to modify plants & animals4 ,all our common dome/ic animals are v unlike _! orig9al ance/ors4 ,s all our common & long-cultivat$ plants h v>i$ f _! ance/ors4 ,ev5 9 "s plants t h be5 9 cultivation less ?an a c5tury ! *ange is m>k$3 comp>e ! common black-cap raspb]ry ) its common wild ance/or1 or ! cultivat$ blackb]ry ) ! wild =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,desirable ,,& ,,undesirable ,,types ,,( ,,cotton ,,plants4 ,:y8 ,by *oos+ se$s f a plant t pleases him1 ! bre$] may be able1 "u giv5 conditions1 to produce numb]s ( plants ) m or less ( ! desir$ qualities2 f ! be/ ( ^!1 he may aga9 *oose2 & s on until ! race becomes greatly improv$ 7,figs4 #e1 #f1 #g74 ,?is process ( cont9u\sly *oos+ ! mo/ suitable plants is kn[n z selection4 ,a some:at simil> process proce$s 9 wild nature1 & x is !n kn[n z natural selection4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,,flax ,,bre$+4 ,a is a plant gr[n = se$ production2 ,b1 = fib] production4 ,:y8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,,bre$+4 ,a1 effect f bre$+ f smalle/ gra9s 7aft] f\r ye>s71 av]age head2 ,b1 result f bre$+ f ! plumpe/ & heavie/ gra9s 7aft] f\r ye>s71 av]age head4 ,,sugge/ions4--#f4 ,e pupil %\ld und]take at lea/ "o simple exp]im5t 9 selection ( se$4 ,he may select k]nels f ! be/ plant ( corn 9 ! field1 & also f ! poore/ plant1--hav+ ref]5ce n s mu* to m]e incid5tal size & vigor ( ! plants t may be due to accid5tal conditions 9 ! field1 z to ! app>5tly con/itutional /r5g? & size1 numb] ( e>s1 size ( e>s1 p]fectness ( e>s & k]nels1 habit ( ! plant z to suck]+1 & ! l4 ,! se$s may be sav$ & s[n ! next ye>4 ,e crop c no d\bt be v greatly improv$ by a c>eful process ( selection ext5d+ ov] a s]ies ( ye>s4 ,crops are increas$ 9 yield or effici5cy 9 ?ree ways3 bett] g5]al c>e2 enri*+ ! l& 9 :i* !y gr[2 att5tion to bre$+4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,plant ,,societies ,9 ! long c\rse ( "t 9 :i* plants h be5 accommodat+ !mselves to ! v>y+ conditions 9 :i* !y are oblig$ to gr[1 !y h become adapt$ to e diff]5t environm5t4 ,c]ta9 plants1 !re=e1 may live toge!r or ne> ea* o!r1 all enjoy+ ! same g5]al conditions & surr\nd+s4 ,^! aggregations ( plants t are adapt$ to simil> g5]al conditions are kn[n z plant societies4 ,moi/ure & temp]ature are ! lead+ factors 9 det]m9+ plant societies4 ,! great geographical societies or aggregations ( ! plant _w may conv5i5tly be associat$ *iefly ) ! moi/ure supply1 z3 wet-region societies1 compris+ aquatic & bog vegetation 7,fig4 #h72 arid-region societies1 compris+ des]t & mo/ s&-region vegetation2 mid-region societies1 compris+ ! mix$ vegetation 9 int]m$iate regions 7,fig4 #i71 ?is be+ ! commone/ type4 ,mu* ( ! *>act]i/ic sc5]y ( any place is due to its plant societies4 ,arid-region plants usually h small & h>d leaves1 app>5tly prev5t+ too rapid loss ( wat]4 ,usually1 also1 !y are *>act]iz$ by /iff gr[?1 hairy cov]+1 sp9es1 or a mu*-contract$ plant-body1 & (t5 by l>ge und]gr\nd p>ts = ! /orage ( wat]4 ,plant societies may also be di/+ui%$ ) ref]5ce to latitude & temp]ature4 ,!re are tropical societies1 temp]ate-region societies1 boreal or cold-region societies4 ,) ref]5ce to altitude1 societies might be classifi$ z l[l& 7:i* are *iefly wet-region71 int]m$iate 7*iefly mid-region71 subalp9e or mid-m\nta9 7:i* are *iefly boreal71 alp9e or high-m\nta94 ,! above classifications h ref]5ce *iefly to great geographical floras or societies4 ,b !re are societies )9 societies4 ,!re are small societies com+ )9 ! exp]i5ce ( e p]son :o has ev] se5 plants gr[+ 9 natural conditions4 ,!re are roadside1 f5ce-r[1 lawn1 ?icket1 pa/ure1 dune1 woods1 cliff1 b>n-y>d societies4 ,e diff]5t place has its *>act]i/ic vegetation4 ,note ! small] societies 9 ,figs4 #h & #i4 ,9 ! =m] is a wat]-lily society & a cat-tail society4 ,9 ! latt] !re are grass & bu% & woods societies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,a ,,wet-,,region ,,society4 ,"s ,details ( ,plant ,societies4--,societies may be compos$ ( scatt]$ & int]m+l$ plants1 or ( d5se clumps or gr\ps ( plants4 ,d5se clumps or gr\ps are usually made up ( "o k9d ( plant1 & !y are !n call$ colonies4 ,colonies ( mo/ plants are transi5t3 aft] a %ort "t o!r plants ga9 a foo?old among/ !m1 & an int]m+l$ society is ! outcome4 ,m>k$ exceptions to ?is are grass colonies & =e/ colonies1 9 :i* "o k9d ( plant may hold its own = ye>s & c5turies4 ,9 a l>ge newly cle>$ area1 plants usually fir/ e/abli% !mselves 9 d5se colonies4 ,note ! great pat*es ( nettles1 jewel-we$s1 sm>t-we$s1 clot-burs1 fire-we$s 9 rec5tly cle>$ b neglect$ swales1 also ! fire-we$s 9 rec5tly burn$ areas1 ! rank we$s 9 ! neglect$ g>d51 & ! ragwe$s & ,may-we$s along ! rec5tly work$ highway4 ,! competition among/ !mselves & ) _! neighbors f9ally breaks up ! colonies1 & a mix$ & int]m+l$ flora is g5]ally ! result4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,a ,,mid-,,region ,,society4 ,9 _m p>ts ( ! _w ! g5]al t5d5cy ( neglect$ areas is to run into =e/4 ,all plants ru% = ! cle>$ area4 ,"h & !re bu%es ga9 a foo?old4 ,"y trees come up2 9 "t ^! %ade ! bu%es & ga9 ! ma/]y4 ,sometimes ! area gr[s to popl>s or bir*es1 & p wond] :y ! orig9al =e/ trees d n return2 b ^! =e/ trees may be gr[+ unobs]v$ "h & !re 9 ! tangle1 & 9 ! sl[ processes ( "t ! popl>s p]i%--= !y are %ort-liv$--& ! orig9al =e/ may be replac$4 ,:e!r "o k9d ( =e/ or ano!r returns w dep5d p>tly on ! k9ds t are mo/ se$ful 9 t vic9ity & :i*1 !re=e1 h s[n !mselves mo/ pr(usely4 ,mu* dep5ds1 also1 on ! k9d ( und]gr[? t fir/ spr+s up1 = "s "y trees c endure m or less %ade ?an o!rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,ov]gr[? ,,& ,,und]gr[? ,,9 ,,?ree ,,s]ies1--trees1 bu%es1 grass4 ,"s plants associate4 ,!y gr[ toge!r4 ,?is is possible l>gely because !y div]ge or diff] 9 "*4 ,plants associate 9 two ways3 by gr[+ side by side2 by gr[+ above or b5ea?4 ,9 sp>sely populat$ societies1 plants may gr[ alongside ea* o!r4 ,9 mo/ cases1 h[ev]1 !re is ov]gr[? & und]gr[?3 "o k9d gr[s b5ea? ano!r4 ,plants t h become adapt$ to %ade are usually und]gr[?s4 ,9 a cat-tail swamp1 grasses & o!r n>r[-leav$ plants gr[ 9 ! bottom1 b !y are usually unse5 by ! casual obs]v]4 ,note ! und]gr[? 9 woods or "u trees 7,fig4 #aj74 ,obs]ve t 9 p9e & spruce =e/s !re is almo/ no und]gr[?1 p>tly because !re is v little light4 ,on ! same area ! societies may diff] at diff]5t times ( ! ye>4 ,!re are spr+1 summ]1 & fall societies4 ,! knoll :i* is cool ) grass & /rawb]ries 9 ,june may be agl[ ) gold5rod 9 ,septemb]4 ,if ! bank is exam9$ 9 ,may1 look = ! "y plants t are to cov] x 9 ,july & ,octob]2 if 9 ,septemb]1 f9d ! dead /alks ( ! flora ( ,may4 ,:at succe$s ! skunk cabbage1 hepaticas1 trilliums1 phlox1 violets1 butt]cups ( spr+8 ,:at prec$es ! wild sunfl[]s1 ragwe$1 a/]s1 & gold5rod ( fall8 ,! ,l&scape4--,to a l>ge ext5t ! color ( ! l&scape is det]m9$ by ! "* ( ! plant societies4 ,ev]gre5 societies rema9 gre51 b ! %ade ( gre5 v>ies f season to season2 x is bright & s(t 9 spr+1 becomes dull 9 midsumm] & fall1 & assumes a dull yell[-gre5 or a black-gre5 9 w9t]4 ,decidu\s societies v>y rem>kably 9 color--f ! dull br[ns & grays ( w9t] to ! br[n gre5s & olive-gre5s ( spr+1 ! /aid gre5s ( summ]1 & ! brilliant colors ( autumn4 ,! autumn colors are due to int]m+l$ %ades ( gre51 yell[1 & r$4 ,! coloration v>ies ) ! k9d ( plant1 ! special location1 & ! season4 ,ev5 9 ! same species or k9d1 individual plants diff] 9 color2 & ?is individuality usually di/+ui%es ! plant ye> by ye>4 ,t is1 an oak :i* is m>oon r$ ?is autumn is likely to exhibit t range ( color e ye>4 ,! autumn color is associat$ ) ! natural maturity & dea? ( ! leaf1 b x is mo/ brilliant 9 long & op5 falls--l>gely because ! foliage rip5s m gradually & p]si/s long] 9 su* seasons4 ,x is probable t ! autumn t9ts are ( no utility to ! plant4 ,autumn colors are n caus$ by fro/4 ,because ( ! long1 dry falls & ! great v>iety ( plants1 ! autumnal color ( ! ,am]ican l&scape is ph5om5al4 ,ecology4--,! /udy ( ! relation%ips ( plants & animals to ea* o!r & to seasons & environm5ts is kn[n z ecology 7/ill writt5 cology 9 ! diction>ies74 ,x consid]s ! habits1 habitats1 & modes ( life ( liv+ ?+s--! places 9 :i* !y gr[1 h[ !y migrate or are dissem9at$1 means ( collect+ food1 _! times & seasons ( fl[]+1 produc+ "y1 & ! l4 ,,sugge/ions4--,"o ( ! be/ ( all subjects = s*ool in/ruction 9 botany is ! /udy ( plant societies4 ,x adds def9it5ess & ze/ to excursions4 #g4 ,let ea* excursion be conf9$ to "o or two societies4 ,visit "o day a swamp1 ano!r day a =e/1 ano!r a pa/ure or mead[1 ano!r a roadside1 ano!r a we$y field1 ano!r a cliff or rav9e4 ,visit %ores :5ev] possible4 ,ea* pupil %\ld be assign$ a bit ( gr\nd--say #aj or #bj ft4 squ>e--= special /udy4 ,he %\ld make a li/ %[+ 7#a7 h[ _m k9ds ( plants x conta9s1 7#b7 ! relative abundance ( ea*4 ,! li/s secur$ 9 diff]5t regions %\ld be comp>$4 ,x does n matt] greatly if ! pupil does n "k all ! plants4 ,he may c\nt ! k9ds )\t kn[+ ! names4 ,x is a good plan = ! pupil to make a dri$ specim5 ( ea* k9d = ref]5ce4 ,! pupil %\ld endeavor to discov] :y ! plants gr[ z !y d4 ,note :at k9ds ( plants gr[ next ea* o!r2 & :i* are und]gr[? & :i* ov]gr[?2 & :i* are erect & :i* wide-spread+4 ,*all5ge e plant society4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,plant ,,body ,! ,p>ts ( a ,plant4--,our famili> plants are made up ( sev]al di/9ct p>ts4 ,! mo/ prom95t ( ^! p>ts are root1 /em1 leaf1 fl[]1 fruit1 & se$4 ,famili> plants diff] wond]fully 9 size & %ape1--f fragile mu%rooms1 delicate wat]we$s & pond-scums1 to float+ leaves1 s(t grasses1 co>se we$s1 tall bu%es1 sl5d] climb]s1 gigantic trees1 & hang+ moss4 ,! ,/em ,"p4--,9 mo/ plants !re is a ma9 c5tral "p or %aft on :i* ! o!r or second>y p>ts are borne4 ,?is ma9 "p is ! plant axis4 ,above gr\nd1 9 mo/ plants1 ! ma9 plant axis be>s ! bran*es1 leaves1 & fl[]s2 bel[ gr\nd1 x be>s ! roots4 ,! rigid "p ( ! plant1 :i* p]si/s ov] w9t] & :i* is left aft] leaves & fl[]s are fall51 is ! framework ( ! plant4 ,! framework is compos$ ( bo? root & /em4 ,:5 ! plant is dead1 ! framework rema9s = a "t1 b x sl[ly decays4 ,! dry w9t] /ems ( we$s are ! framework1 or skeleton ( ! plant 7,figs4 #aa & #ab74 ,! framework ( trees is ! mo/ conspicu\s "p ( ! plant4 ,! ,root ,"p4--,! root be>s ! /em at its apex1 b o!rwise x normally be>s only root-bran*es4 ,! /em1 h[ev]1 be>s leaves1 fl[]s1 & fruits4 ,^? liv+ surfaces ( ! plant :i* are mo/ expos$ to light are gre5 or highly color$4 ,! root t5ds to gr[ d[nw>d1 b ! /em t5ds to gr[ upw>d t[>d light & air4 ,! plant is an*or$ or fix$ 9 ! soil by ! roots4 ,plants h be5 call$ 8e>? p>asites40 ,! ,foliage ,"p4--,! leaves prec$e ! fl[]s 9 po9t ( "t or life ( ! plant4 ,! fl[]s always prec$e ! fruits & se$s4 ,_m plants die :5 ! se$s h matur$4 ,! :ole mass ( leaves ( any plant or any bran* is kn[n z its foliage4 ,9 "s cases1 z 9 crocuses1 ! fl[]s seem to prec$e ! leaves2 b ! leaves t made ! food = ^! fl[]s grew ! prec$+ ye>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,plant ,,( ,a ,,wild ,,sunfl[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,,framework ,,( ,,fig4 #aa4 ,! ,plant ,g5]ation4--,! c\rse ( a plant's life1 ) all ! ev5ts ?r\gh :i* ! plant naturally passes1 is kn[n z ! plant's life-hi/ory4 ,! life-hi/ory embraces v>i\s /ages1 or epo*s1 z dormant se$1 g]m9ation1 gr[?1 fl[]+1 fruit+4 ,"s plants run _! c\rse 9 a few weeks or mon?s1 & "s live = c5turies4 ,! entire life-p]iod ( a plant is call$ a g5]ation4 ,x is ! :ole p]iod f bir? to normal dea?1 )\t ref]5ce to ! v>i\s /ages or ev5ts ?r\gh :i* x passes4 ,a g5]ation beg9s ) ! "y se$1 n ) g]m9ation4 ,x ends ) dea?--t is1 :5 no life is left 9 any "p ( ! plant1 & only ! se$ or spore rema9s to p]petuate ! k9d4 ,9 a bulb\s plant1 z a lily or an onion1 ! g5]ation does n end until ! bulb dies1 ev5 ?\gh ! top is dead4 ,:5 ! g5]ation is ( only "o season's duration1 ! plant is said to be annual4 ,:5 x is ( two seasons1 x is bi5nial4 ,bi5nials usually bloom ! second ye>4 ,:5 ( ?ree or m seasons1 ! plant is p]5nial4 ,examples ( annuals are pigwe$1 bean1 pea1 g>d5 sunfl[]2 ( bi5nials1 ev5+ primrose1 mulle91 teasel2 ( p]5nials1 dock1 mo/ mead[ grasses1 cat-tail1 & all %rubs & trees4 ,duration ( ! ,plant ,body4--,plant /ructures :i* are m or less s(t & :i* die at ! close ( ! season are said to be h]bace\s1 9 contradi/9ction to be+ ligne\s or woody4 ,a plant :i* is h]bace\s to ! gr\nd is call$ an h]b2 b an h]b may h a woody or p]5nial root1 9 :i* case x is call$ an h]bace\s p]5nial4 ,annual plants are class$ z h]bs4 ,examples ( h]bace\s p]5nials are butt]cups1 ble$+ he>t1 violet1 wat] lily1 ,b]muda grass1 horse-radi%1 dock1 d&elion1 gold5 rod1 asp>agus1 rhub>b1 _m wild sunfl[]s 7,figs4 #aa1 #ab74 ,_m h]bace\s p]5nials h %ort g5]ations4 ,!y become weak ) "o or two seasons ( fl[]+ & gradually die out4 ,?us1 r$ clov] usually beg9s to fail aft] ! second ye>4 ,g>d5]s "k t ! be/ bloom ( hollyhock1 l>kspur1 p9k1 & _m o!r plants1 is secur$ :5 ! plants are only two or ?ree ye>s old4 ,h]bace\s p]5nials :i* die away ea* season to bulbs or tub]s1 are sometimes call$ pseud-annuals 7t is1 false annuals74 ,( su* are lily1 crocus1 onion1 potato1 bull nettle1 & false indigo ( ! ,s\!rn /ates4 ,true annuals rea* old age ! fir/ ye>4 ,plants :i* are normally p]5nial may become annual 9 a %ort]-season climate by be+ kill$ by fro/1 r ?an by dy+ naturally at ! end ( a season ( gr[?4 ,!y are climatic annuals4 ,su* plants are call$ plur-annuals 9 ! %ort-season region4 ,_m tropical p]5nials are plur-annuals :5 gr[n 9 ! nor?1 b !y are treat$ z true annuals because !y rip5 suffici5t ( _! crop ! same season 9 :i* ! se$s are s[n to make !m wor? cultivat+1 z tomato1 r$ pepp]1 ca/or bean1 cotton4 ,"n sev]al vegetables t are plant$ 9 g>d5s ) ! expectation t !y w be> till fro/ comes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,a ,,%rub ,,or ,,bu%4 ,dogwood osi]4 ,woody or ligne\s plants are usually long] liv$ ?an h]bs4 ,^? t rema9 l[ & produce sev]al or _m simil> %oots f ! base are call$ %rubs1 z lilac1 rose1 eld]1 osi] 7,fig4 #ac74 ,l[ & ?ick %rubs are bu%es4 ,plants t produce "o ma9 trunk & a m or less elevat$ head are trees 7,fig4 #ad74 ,all %rubs & trees are p]5nial4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,a ,,tree4 ,! weep+ bir*4 ,e plant makes an ef=t to propagate1 or to p]petuate its k9d2 &1 z f> z we c see1 ?is is ! end = :i* ! plant itself lives4 ,! se$ or spore is ! f9al product ( ! plant4 ,,sugge/ions4--#h4 ,! tea*] may assign ea* pupil to "o plant 9 ! s*ool y>d1 or field1 or 9 a pot1 & ask him to br+ out ! po9ts 9 ! lesson4 #i4 ,! tea*] may put on ! bo>d ! names ( _m common plants & ask ! pupils to classify into annuals1 pseud-annuals1 plur-annuals 7or climatic annuals71 bi5nials1 p]5nials1 h]bace\s p]5nials1 ligne\s p]5nials1 h]bs1 bu%es1 trees4 ,e plant gr[n on ! f>m %\ld be s classifi$3 :eat1 oats1 corn1 buck:eat1 timo?y1 /rawb]ry1 raspb]ry1 currant1 tobacco1 alfalfa1 flax1 crimson clov]1 hops1 c[pea1 field bean1 sweet potato1 peanut1 radi%1 sug>-cane1 b>ley1 cabbage1 & o!rs4 ,"n all ! k9ds ( trees y "k4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,se$s ,,& ,,g]m9ation ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,p>ts ,,( ,,! ,,bean4 ,r1 cotyl$on2 ,o1 caulicle2 ,a1 plumule2 ,f1 fir/ node4 ,! se$ conta9s a m9iature plant1 or embryo4 ,! embryo usually has ?ree p>ts t h receiv$ names3 ! /emlet1 or caulicle2 ! se$-leaf1 or cotyl$on 7usually #a or #b72 ! bud1 or plumule1 ly+ betwe5 or above ! cotyl$ons4 ,^! p>ts are well se5 9 ! common bean 7,fig4 #ae71 p>ticul>ly :5 ! se$ has be5 soak$ = a few h\rs4 ,"o ( ! l>ge cotyl$ons--compris+ half ( ! bean--is %[n at ,r4 ,! caulicle is at ,o4 ,! plumule is %[n at ,a4 ,! cotyl$ons are atta*$ to ! caulicle at ,f3 ?is po9t may be tak5 z ! fir/ node or jo9t4 ,! ,numb] ( ,se$-leaves4--,all plants hav+ two se$-leaves belong to ! gr\p call$ dicotyl$ons4 ,su* se$s 9 _m cases split readily 9 halves1 e4g4 a bean4 ,"s plants h only "o se$-leaf 9 a se$4 ,!y =m a gr\p ( plants call$ monocotyl$ons4 ,indian corn is an example ( a plant ) only "o se$-leaf3 a gra9 ( corn does n split into halves z a bean does4 ,se$s ( ! p9e family conta9 m ?an two cotyl$ons1 b = our purposes !y may be associat$ ) ! dicotyl$ons1 al?\gh really =m+ a diff]5t gr\p4 ,^! two gr\ps--! dicotyl$ons & ! monocotyl$ons--repres5t two great natural divisions ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,! dicotyl$ons conta9 ! woody b>k-be>+ trees & bu%es 7except conif]s71 & mo/ ( ! h]bs ( temp]ate climates except ! grasses1 s$ges1 ru%es1 lily tribes1 & or*ids4 ,! fl[]-p>ts are usually 9 fives or multiples ( five1 ! leaves mo/ly nett$-ve9$1 ! b>k or r9d di/9ct1 & ! /em (t5 be>+ a pi? at ! c5t]4 ,! monocotyl$ons usually h ! fl[]-p>ts 9 ?rees or multiples ( ?ree1 ! leaves long & p>allel-ve9$1 ! b>k n sep>able1 & ! /em )\t a c5tral pi?4 ,e se$ is provid$ ) food to support ! g]m9at+ plant4 ,commonly ?is food is />*4 ,! food may be /or$ 9 ! cotyl$ons1 z 9 bean1 pea1 squa%2 or outside ! cotyl$ons1 z 9 ca/or bean1 p9e1 ,indian corn4 ,:5 ! food is outside or ar\nd ! embryo1 x is usually call$ endosp]m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,,ext]nal ,,p>ts ,,( ,,bean4 ,se$-coats2 ,m>k+s on ,se$4--,! embryo & endosp]m are inclos$ )9 a cov]+ made ( two or m lay]s & kn[n z ! se$-coats4 ,ov] ! po9t ( ! caulicle is a m9ute hole or a ?9 place 9 ! coats kn[n z ! micropyle4 ,?is is ! po9t at :i* ! poll5-tube ent]$ ! =m+ ovule & ?r\gh :i* ! caulicle breaks 9 g]m9ation4 ,! micropyle is %[n at ,m 9 ,fig4 #af4 ,! sc> :]e ! se$ broke f its funiculus 7or /alk t atta*$ x to its pod7 is nam$ ! hilum4 ,x occupies a ?ird ( ! l5g? ( ! bean 9 ,fig4 #af4 ,! hilum & micropyle are always pres5t 9 se$s1 b !y are n always close toge!r4 ,9 _m cases x is difficult to id5tify ! micropyle 9 ! dormant se$1 b its location is at once %[n by ! protrud+ caulicle z g]m9ation beg9s4 ,opposite ! micropyle 9 ! bean 7at ! o!r end ( ! hilum7 is an elevation kn[n z ! raphe4 ,?is is =m$ by a union ( ! funiculus1 or se$-/alk1 ) ! se$-coats1 & ?r\gh x food 0 transf]r$ = ! developm5t ( ! se$1 b x is n[ functionless4 ,se$s diff] wond]fully 9 size1 %ape1 color1 & o!r *>act]i/ics4 ,!y also v>y 9 longevity4 ,^! *>act]i/ics are peculi> to ! species or k9d4 ,"s se$s ma9ta9 life only a few weeks or ev5 days1 :]eas o!rs w 8keep0 = t5 or tw5ty ye>s4 ,9 special cases1 se$s h reta9$ vitality long] ?an ?is limit1 b ! /ories t live se$s1 sev]al ?\s& ye>s old1 h be5 tak5 f ! wrapp+s ( mummies are unf\nd$4 ,g]m9ation4--,! embryo is n dead2 x is only dormant4 ,:5 suppli$ ) moi/ure1 w>m?1 & oxyg5 7air71 x awakes & gr[s3 ?is gr[? is g]m9ation4 ,! embryo lives = a "t on ! /or$ food1 b gradually ! plantlet secures a foo?old 9 ! soil & ga!rs food = itself4 ,:5 ! plantlet is f9ally able to %ift = itself1 g]m9ation is complete4 ,e>ly ,/ages ( ,se$l+4--,! g]m9at+ se$ fir/ absorbs wat]1 & swells4 ,! />*y matt]s gradually become soluble4 ,! se$-coats are ruptur$1 ! caulicle & plumule em]ge4 ,dur+ ?is process ! se$ respires freely1 ?r[+ (f c>bon dioxid 7,,co74 ,! caulicle usually elongates1 & f its l[] end roots are emitt$4 ,! elongat+ caulicle is kn[n z ! hypocotyl 78bel[ ! cotyl$ons074 ,t is1 ! hypocotyl is t "p ( ! /em ( ! plantlet ly+ betwe5 ! roots & ! cotyl$on4 ,! g5]al direction ( ! "y hypocotyl1 or em]g+ caulicle1 is d[nw>ds4 ,z soon z roots =m1 x becomes fix$ & its subsequ5t gr[? t5ds to raise ! cotyl$ons above ! gr\nd1 z 9 ! bean4 ,:5 cotyl$ons rise into ! air1 g]m9ation is said to be epigeal 78above ! e>?074 ,bean & pumpk9 are examples4 ,:5 ! hypocotyl does n elongate greatly & ! cotyl$ons rema9 "u gr\nd1 ! g]m9ation is hypogeal 78b5ea? ! e>?074 ,pea & sc>let runn] bean are examples 7,fig4 #dh74 ,:5 ! g]m9at+ se$ lies on a h>d surface1 z on closely compact$ soil1 ! hypocotyl & rootlets may n be able to secure a foo?old & !y assume grotesque =ms4 7,fig4 #ag47 ,try ?is ) peas & beans4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,pea4 ,grotesque =ms assum$ :5 ! roots _c ga9 entrance to ! soil4 ,! fir/ int]node 78betwe5 nodes07 above ! cotyl$ons is ! epicotyl4 ,x elevates ! plumule into ! air1 & ! plumule-leaves exp& into ! fir/ true leaves ( ! plant4 ,^! fir/ true leaves1 h[ev]1 may be v unlike ! lat] leaves 9 %ape4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,cotyl$ons ,,( ,,g]m9at+ ,,bean ,,spread ,,ap>t ,,to ,,%[ ,,elongat+ ,,caulicle ,,& ,,plumule4 ,g]m9ation ( ,bean4--,! common bean1 z we h se5 7,fig4 #ae71 has cotyl$ons t occupy all ! space inside ! se$-coats4 ,:5 ! hypocotyl1 or elongat$ caulicle1 em]ges1 ! plumule-leaves h begun to enl>ge1 & to unfold 7,fig4 #ah74 ,! hypocotyl elongates rapidly4 ,"o end ( x is held by ! roots4 ,! o!r is held by ! se$-coats 9 ! soil4 ,x !re=e takes ! =m ( a loop1 & ! c5tral "p ( ! loop 8comes up0 fir/ 7a1 ,fig4 #ai74 ,pres5tly ! cotyl$ons come out ( ! se$-coats1 & ! plant /raight5s & ! cotyl$ons exp&4 ,^! cotyl$ons1 or 8halves ( ! bean10 p]si/ = "s "t 7b1 ,fig4 #ai74 ,!y (t5 become gre5 & probably p]=m "s function ( foliage4 ,because ( its l>ge size1 ! ,lima bean %[s all ^! p>ts well4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,g]m9ation ,,( ,,bean4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,spr\t+ ,,( ,,ca/or ,,bean4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,,g]m9ation ,,( ,,ca/or ,,bean4 ,endosp]m at a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,,ca/or ,,bean4 ,endosp]m at a1 a2 cotyl$ons at b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,,g]m9ation ,,complete ,,9 ,,ca/or ,,bean4 ,g]m9ation ( ,ca/or ,bean4--,9 ! ca/or bean ! hilum & micropyle are at ! small] end 7,fig4 #bj74 ,! bean 8comes up0 ) a loop1 :i* indicates t ! hypocotyl greatly elongates4 ,on exam9+ g]m9at+ se$1 h[ev]1 x w be f\nd t ! cotyl$ons are conta9$ inside a fle%y body1 or sac 7a1 ,fig4 #ba74 ,?is sac is ! endosp]m4 ,aga9/ its inn] surface ! ?91 ve9y cotyl$ons are v closely press$1 absorb+ its sub/ance 7,fig4 #bb74 ,! cotyl$ons increase 9 size z !y rea* ! air 7,fig4 #bc71 & become functional leaves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,spr\t+ ,,indian ,,corn4 ,hilum at h2 micropyle at d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,k]nel ,,( ,,indian ,,corn4 ,caulicle at b2 cotyl$on at a2 plumule at p4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,,indian ,,corn4 ,caulicle at c2 roots em]g+ at m2 plumule at p4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,,indian ,,corn4 o1 plumule3 n to p1 epicotyl4 ,g]m9ation ( ,monocotyl$ons4--,?us f> we h /udi$ dicotyl$on\s se$s2 we may n[ consid] ! monocotyl$on\s gr\p4 ,soak k]nels ( corn4 ,note t ! micropyle & hilum are at ! small] end 7,fig4 #bd74 ,make a longitud9al section ?r\gh ! n>r[ diamet]2 ,fig4 #be %[s x4 ,! s+le cotyl$on is at a1 ! caulicle at b1 ! plumule at p4 ,! cotyl$on rema9s 9 ! se$4 ,! food is /or$ bo? 9 ! cotyl$on & z endosp]m1 *iefly ! latt]4 ,! em]g+ %oot is ! plumule1 ) a %ea?+ leaf 7p1 ,fig4 #bf74 ,! root is emitt$ f ! tip ( ! caulicle1 c4 ,! caulicle is held 9 a %ea? 7=m$ mo/ly f ! se$-coats71 & "s ( ! roots escape ?r\gh ! upp] end ( ?is %ea? 7m1 ,fig4 #bf74 ,! epicotyl elongates1 p>ticul>ly if ! se$ is plant$ deep or if x is kept = a "t conf9$4 ,9 ,fig4 #bg ! epicotyl has elongat$ f n to p4 ,! true plumule-leaf is at o1 b o!r leaves gr[ f its %ea?4 ,9 ,fig4 #bh ! roots are se5 em]g+ f ! two ends ( ! caulicle %ea?1 c1 m2 ! epicotyl has gr[n to p2 ! fir/ plumule-leaf is at o4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,,g]m9ation ,,is ,,complete4 p1 top ( epicotyl2 o1 plumule-leaf2 m1 roots2 c1 l[] roots4 ,9 /udy+ corn or o!r fruits or se$s1 ! pupil %\ld note h[ ! se$s are arrang$1 z on ! cob4 ,c\nt ! r[s on a corn cob4 ,odd or ev5 9 numb]8 ,always ! same numb]8 ,! silk is ! /yle3 f9d :]e x 0 atta*$ to ! k]nel4 ,did ! e> h any cov]+s8 ,expla94 ,describe colors & m>k+s ( k]nels ( corn2 & ( peas1 beans1 ca/or bean4 ,gymnosp]ms4--,! se$s 9 ! p9e cone1 n be+ inclos$ 9 a se$-vessel1 readily fall out :5 ! cone dries & ! scales sep>ate4 ,h5ce x is difficult to f9d cones ) se$s 9 !m aft] autumn has pass$ 7,fig4 #bi74 ,! c$> is also a gymnosp]m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,,cones ,,( ,,hemlock 7,,above71 ,,:ite ,,p9e1 ,,pit* ,,p9e4 ,remove a scale f a p9e cone & draw x & ! se$s z !y lie 9 place on ! upp] side ( ! scale4 ,exam9e ! se$1 pref]ably ) a magnify+ glass4 ,is !re a hilum8 ,! micropyle is at ! bottom or little end ( ! se$4 ,toss a se$ upw>d into ! air4 ,:y does x fall s sl[ly8 ,c y expla9 ! peculi> :irl+ motion by ! %ape ( ! w+8 ,repeat ! exp]im5t 9 ! w9d4 ,remove ! w+ f a se$ & toss x & an un9jur$ se$ into ! air toge!r4 ,:at d y inf] f ^! exp]im5ts8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,,muskmelon ,,se$l+s1 ) ! unlike se$-leaves & true leaves4 ,,sugge/ions4--,few subjects connect$ ) ! /udy ( plant-life are s useful 9 s*oolroom demon/rations z g]m9ation4 ,! pupil %\ld prep>e ! soil1 plant ! se$s1 wat] !m1 & c>e = ! plants4 #aj4 ,plant se$s 9 pots or %all[ boxes4 ,! box %\ld n be v wide or long1 & n ov] f\r in*es deep4 ,holes may be bor$ 9 ! bottom s x w n hold wat]4 ,plant a numb] ( squa%1 bean1 corn1 p9e1 or o!r se$s ab\t an in* deep 9 damp s& or p9e sawdu/ 9 ?is box4 ,! dep? ( plant+ %\ld be two to f\r times ! diamet] ( ! se$s4 ,keep ! s& or sawdu/ moi/ b n wet4 ,if ! class is l>ge1 use sev]al boxes1 t ! supply ( specim5s may be ample4 ,cig> boxes & *alk boxes are excell5t = individual pupils4 ,x is well to beg9 ! plant+ ( se$s at lea/ t5 days 9 advance ( ! lesson1 & to make f\r or five diff]5t plant+s at int]vals4 ,a day or two be=e ! /udy is tak5 up1 put se$s to soak 9 moss or clo?4 ,! pupil !n has a s]ies f swoll5 se$s to complete g]m9ation1 & all ! /eps c be made out4 ,dry se$s %\ld be _h = comp>ison4 ,if !re is no special room = laboratory1 nor duplicate app>atus = e pupil1 ea* exp]im5t may be assign$ to a committee ( two pupils to wat* 9 ! s*oolroom4 #aa4 ,good se$s = /udy are ^? detail$ 9 ! lesson1 & buck:eat1 pumpk91 cotton1 morn+ glory1 radi%1 f\r o'clock1 oats1 :eat4 ,x is be/ to use famili> se$s ( f>m & g>d54 ,make draw+s & notes ( all ! ev5ts 9 ! g]m9ation4 ,note ! effects ( unusual conditions1 z plant+ too deep & too %all[ & diff]5t sides up4 ,= hypogeal g]m9ation1 use ! g>d5 pea1 sc>let runn] or ,dut* case-knife bean1 acorn1 horse-*e/nut4 ,squa% se$s are excell5t = g]m9ation /udies1 because ! cotyl$ons become gre5 & leafy & g]m9ation is rapid4 ,its g]m9ation1 z also t ( ! sc>let runn] bean1 is expla9$ 9 8,lessons ) ,plants40 ,onion is excell5t1 except t x g]m9ates too sl[ly4 ,9 ord] to /udy ! root developm5t ( g]m9at+ plantlets1 x is well to provide a deep] box ) a glass side aga9/ :i* ! se$s are plant$4 #ab4 ,obs]ve ! g]m9ation ( any common se$ ab\t ! h\se premises4 ,:5 elms1 oaks1 p9es1 or maples are abundant1 ! g]m9ation ( _! se$s may be /udi$ 9 lawns & along f5ces4 #ac4 ,:5 /udy+ g]m9ation1 ! pupil %\ld note ! diff]5ces 9 %ape & size betwe5 cotyl$ons & plumule-leaves1 & betwe5 plumule-leaves & ! normal leaves 7,fig4 #cj74 ,make draw+s4 #ad4 ,make ! te/s describ$ 9 ! introductory exp]im5ts ) bean1 corn1 ! ca/or bean1 & o!r se$ = />* & proteids4 ,te/ fl\r1 oatmeal1 rice1 sunfl[]1 f\r o'clock1 v>i\s nuts1 & any o!r se$s obta9able4 ,record y\r results by arrang+ ! se$s 9 ?ree classes1 #a4 ,mu* />* 7color blacki% or purple71 #b4 ,little />* 7pale blue or gre5i%71 #c4 ,no />* 7br[n or yell[74 #ae4 ,rate ( gr[? ( se$l+s z affect$ by diff]5ces 9 temp]ature4 ,pack s(t wet pap] to ! dep? ( an in* 9 ! bottom ( f\r glass bottles or tumbl]s4 ,put t5 soak$ peas or beans into ea*4 ,cov] ea* securely & set !m 9 places hav+ diff]5t temp]atures t v>y little4 7,a furnace room1 a room ) a /ove1 a room )\t /ove b rea*$ by sun%9e1 an unheat$ room n rea*$ by ! sun47 ,take ! temp]atures occasionally ) a !rmomet] to f9d diff]5ce 9 temp]ature4 ,! tumbl]s 9 w>m places %\ld be cov]$ v tightly to prev5t ! g]m9ation f be+ ret>d$ by dry+ out4 ,record ! numb] ( se$s :i* spr\t 9 ea* tumbl] )9 #a day2 #b days2 #c days2 #d days1 etc4 #af4 ,is air necess>y = ! g]m9ation & gr[? ( se$l+s8 ,place damp blott+ pap] 9 ! bottom ( a bottle & fill x ?ree f\r?s full ( soak$ se$s1 & close x tightly ) a rubb] /opp] or oil$ cork4 ,prep>e a 8*eck exp]im5t0 by hav+ ano!r bottle ) all conditions ! same except t x is cov]$ loosely t air may h access to x1 & set ! bottles side by side 7:y keep ! bottles toge!r874 ,record results z 9 ! prec$+ exp]im5t4 #ag4 ,:at is ! nature ( ! gas giv5 (f by g]m9at+ se$s8 ,fill a t9 box or l>ge-neck$ bottle ) dry beans or peas1 !n add wat]2 note h[ mu* !y swell4 ,secure two fruit-j>s4 ,fill "o ( !m a ?ird full ( beans & keep !m moi/4 ,all[ ! o!r to rema9 empty4 ,9 a day or two ins]t a light$ spl9t] or tap] into ea*4 ,9 ! empty j> ! tap] burns3 x conta9s oxyg54 ,9 ! se$ j> ! tap] goes out3 ! air has be5 replac$ by c>bon dioxid4 ,! air 9 ! bottle may be te/$ = c>bon dioxid by remov+ "s ( x ) a rubb] bulb atta*$ to a glass tube 7or a f\nta9-p5 fill]7 & bubbl+ x ?r\gh lime wat]4 #ah4 ,temp]ature4 ,usually !re is a p]ceptible rise 9 temp]ature 9 a mass ( g]m9at+ se$s4 ,?is rise may be te/$ ) a !rmomet]4 #ai4 ,int]ior ( se$s4 ,soak se$s = tw5ty-f\r h\rs & remove ! coat4 ,di/+ui% ! embryo f ! endosp]m4 ,te/ ) iod9e4 #bj4 ,( :at utility is ! food 9 se$s8 ,soak "s gra9s ( corn ov]night & remove ! endosp]m1 be+ c>eful n to injure ! fle%y cotyl$on4 ,plant ! incomplete & also "s complete gra9s 9 moi/ sawdu/ & measure _! gr[? at int]vals4 7,boil+ ! sawdu/ w de/roy molds & bact]ia :i* might int]f]e ) exp]im5t47 ,peas or beans may be spr\t$ on damp blott+ pap]2 ! cotyl$ons ( "o may be remov$1 & ?is ) a normal se$ equally advanc$ 9 g]m9ation may be plac$ on a p]=at$ cork float+ 9 wat] 9 a j> s t ! roots ext5d into ! wat]4 ,_! gr[? may be obs]v$ = sev]al weeks4 #ba4 ,effect ( d>kness on se$s & se$l+s4 ,a box may be plac$ m\? d[nw>d ov] a small] box 9 :i* se$l+s are gr[+4 ,! empty box %\ld re/ on half-in* blocks to all[ air to rea* ! se$l+s4 ,note any effects on ! se$l+s ( ?is cutt+ (f ( ! light4 ,ano!r box ( se$l+s n s cov]$ may be us$ = a *eck4 ,lay a plank on gre5 grass & aft] a week note ! *ange t takes place b5ea? x4 #bb4 ,se$l+ ( p9e4 ,plant p9e se$s4 ,notice h[ !y em]ge4 ,d ! cotyl$ons /ay 9 ! gr\nd8 ,h[ _m cotyl$ons h !y8 ,:5 d ! cotyl$ons get free f ! se$-coat8 ,:at is ! la/ "p ( ! cotyl$on to become free8 ,:]e is ! gr[+ po9t or plumule8 ,h[ _m leaves appe> at once8 ,does ! new p9e cone gr[ on old wood or on wood =m$ ! same spr+ ) ! cone8 ,c y always f9d p>tly gr[n cones on p9e trees 9 w9t]8 ,are p9e cones :5 mature on two-ye>-old wood8 ,h[ long d cones /ay on a tree aft] ! se$s h fall5 out8 ,:at is ! advantage ( ! se$s fall+ be=e ! cones8 #bc4 ,home exp]im5ts4 ,if desir$1 ne>ly all ( ! =ego+ exp]im5ts may be tri$ at home4 ,! pupil c ?us make ! draw+s = ! notebook at home4 ,a daily record ( measurem5ts ( ! *ange 9 size ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! se$l+ %\ld also be made4 #bd4 ,se$-te/+4--,x is important t "o "k be=e plant+ :e!r se$s are good1 or able to gr[4 ,a simple se$-te/] may be made ( two plates1 "o inv]t$ ov] ! o!r 7,fig4 #ca74 ,! l[] plate is ne>ly fill$ ) clean s&1 :i* is cov]$ ) *eese clo? or blott+ pap] on :i* ! se$s are plac$4 ,canton flannel is sometimes us$ 9 place ( s& & blott+ pap]4 ,! se$s are !n cov]$ ) ano!r blott] or piece ( clo?1 & wat] is appli$ until ! s& & pap]s are saturat$4 ,cov] ) ! second plate4 ,set ! plates :]e !y w h ab\t ! temp]ature t ! giv5 se$s w\ld require out ( doors1 or p]haps a slightly high] temp]ature4 ,place #ajj or m gra9s ( clov]1 corn1 :eat1 oats1 rye1 rice1 buck:eat1 or o!r se$s 9 ! te/]1 & keep record ( ! numb] t spr\t4 ,! result w give a p]c5tage measure ( ! ability ( ! se$s to gr[4 ,note :e!r all ! se$s spr\t ) equal vigor & rapidity4 ,mo/ se$s w spr\t 9 a week or less4 ,usually su* a te/] mu/ h fre% s& & pap] aft] e te/1 = mold fungi are likely to bre$ 9 x4 ,if canton flannel is us$1 x may be boil$4 ,if possible1 ! se$s %\ld n t\* ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,a ,,home-,,made ,,se$-,,te/]4 ,,note ,,to ,,tea*]4--,) ! /udy ( g]m9ation1 ! pupil w ne$ to beg9 dissect+4 ,= dissect+1 "o ne$s a l5s = ! exam9ation ( ! small] p>ts ( plants & animals4 ,x is be/ to h ! l5s m\nt$ on a frame1 s t ! pupil has bo? h&s free = pull+ ! "p 9 pieces4 ,an ord9>y pocket l5s may be m\nt$ on a wire 9 a block1 z 9 ,fig4 ,a4 ,a cork is slipp$ on ! top ( ! wire to avoid injury to ! face4 ,! pupil %\ld be provid$ ) two dissect+ ne$les 7,fig4 ,b71 made by secur+ an ord9>y ne$le 9 a p5cil-l /ick4 ,ano!r conv5i5t arrangem5t is %[n 9 ,fig4 ,c4 ,a small t9 di% is us$ = ! base4 ,into ?is a /iff wire /&>d is sold]$4 ,! di% is fill$ ) sold]1 to make x heavy & firm4 ,into a cork slipp$ on ! /&>d1 a cross wire is ins]t$1 hold+ on ! end a jewel]'s glass4 ,! l5s c be mov$ up & d[n & sidewise4 ,?is outfit c be made = ab\t sev5ty-five c5ts4 ,fig4 ,d %[s a conv5i5t h&-re/ or dissect+-/& to be us$ "u ?is l5s4 ,x may be #af 94 long1 #d 94 high1 & #d or #e 94 broad4 ,v>i\s k9ds ( dissect+ microscopes are on ! m>ket1 & ^! are to be recomm5d$ :5 !y c be af=d$4 ,illu/ration3 ,a4--,,improvis$ ,,/& ,,= ,,l5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,b4--,,dissect+ ,,ne$le natural size4 ,illu/ration3 ,c4--,,dissect+ ,,glass4 ,illu/ration3 ,d4--,,dissect+ ,,/&4 ,in/ructions = ! use ( ! comp\nd microscope1 ) :i* "s s*ools may be equipp$1 _c be giv5 9 a brief space2 ! te*nique requires c>eful tra9+4 ,su* microscopes are n ne$$ unless ! pupil /udies cells & tissues4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,root--,,! ,,=ms ,,( ,,roots ,! ,root ,sy/em4--,! (fices ( ! root are to hold ! plant 9 place1 & to ga!r food4 ,n all ! food mat]ials1 h[ev]1 are ga!r$ by ! roots4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,tap-,,root ,,sy/em ,,( ,,alfalfa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,tap-,,root ,,( ,,! ,,d&elion4 ,! entire mass ( roots ( any plant is call$ its root sy/em4 ,! root sy/em may be annual1 bi5nial or p]5nial1 h]bace\s or woody1 deep or %all[1 l>ge or small4 ,k9ds ( ,roots4--,a /rong lead+ c5tral root1 :i* runs directly d[nw>ds1 is a tap-root4 ,! tap-root =ms an axis f :i* ! side roots may bran*4 ,! side or spread+ roots are usually small]4 ,plants t h su* a root sy/em are said to be tap-root$4 ,examples are r$ clov]1 alfalfa1 beet1 turnip1 radi%1 burdock1 d&elion1 hickory 7,figs4 #cb1 #cc74 ,a fibr\s root sy/em is "o t is compos$ ( _m ne>ly equal sl5d] bran*es4 ,! great] numb] ( plants h fibr\s roots4 ,examples are _m common grasses1 :eat1 oats1 corn4 ,! butt]cup 9 ,fig4 #cd has a fibr\s root sy/em4 ,_m trees h a /rong tap-root :5 v "y1 b aft] a :ile x ceases to ext5d /rongly & ! side roots develop until f9ally ! tap-root "* disappe>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,a ,,butt]cup ,,plant1 ) fibr\s roots4 ,%ape & ,ext5t ( ! ,root ,sy/em4--,! dep? to :i* roots ext5d dep5ds on ! k9d ( plant1 & ! nature ( ! soil4 ,( mo/ plants ! roots ext5d f> 9 all directions & lie comp>atively ne> ! surface4 ,! roots usually radiate f a common po9t j b5ea? ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,! roots gr[ "h & !re 9 se>* ( food1 (t5 ext5d+ mu* f>!r 9 all directions ?an ! spread ( ! top ( ! plant4 ,roots t5d to spread f>!r 9 poor soil ?an 9 ri* soil1 = ! same size ( plant4 ,! root has no su* def9ite =m z ! /em has4 ,roots are usually v crook$1 because !y are con/antly turn$ aside by ob/acles4 ,exam9e roots 9 /ony soil4 ,! ext5t ( root surface is usually v l>ge1 = ! fe$+ roots are f9e & v num]\s4 ,an ord9>y plant ( ,indian corn may h a total l5g? ( root 7measur$ z if ! roots 7 plac$ end to end7 ( sev]al hundr$ feet4 ,! f9e fe$+ roots are mo/ abundant 9 ! ri*e/ "p ( ! soil4 ,!y are attract$ by ! food mat]ials4 ,roots (t5 w completely surr\nd a bone or o!r morsel4 ,:5 roots ( trees are expos$1 obs]ve t mo/ ( !m are horizontal & lie ne> ! top ( ! gr\nd4 ,"s roots1 z ( will[s1 ext5d f> 9 se>* ( wat]4 ,!y (t5 run into wells & dra9s1 & into ! m>g9s ( creeks & ponds4 ,gr[ plants 9 a long n>r[ box1 9 "o end ( :i* ! soil is kept v dry & 9 ! o!r moi/3 obs]ve :]e ! roots gr[4 ,buttresses4--,) ! increase 9 diamet]1 ! upp] roots (t5 protrude above ! gr\nd & become brac+ buttresses4 ,^! buttresses are usually l>ge/ 9 trees :i* always h be5 expos$ to /rong w9ds 7,fig4 #ce74 ,because ( gr[? & ?ick5+1 ! roots elevate "p ( _! diamet]1 & ! wa%+ away ( ! soil makes !m to appe> z if hav+ ris5 out ( ! gr\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,! ,,brac+ ,,base ,,( ,a ,,field ,,p9e4 ,arial ,roots4--,al?\gh roots usually gr[ und]gr\nd1 !re are "s t naturally gr[ above gr\nd4 ,^! usually occur on climb+ plants1 ! roots becom+ supports or fulfill+ ! (fice ( t5drils4 ,^! arial roots usually turn away f ! light1 & !re=e ent] ! crevices & d>k places ( ! wall or tree ov] :i* ! plant climbs4 ,! trumpet creep] 7,fig4 #cf71 true or ,engli% ivy1 & poison ivy climb by means ( roots4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,a,,rial ,,roots ,,( ,,trumpet ,,creep] ,,or ,,tecoma4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,a,,rial ,,roots ,,( ,,an ,,or*id4 ,9 "s plants all ! roots are arial2 t is1 ! plant gr[s above gr\nd1 & ! roots ga!r food f ! air4 ,su* plants usually gr[ on trees4 ,!y are kn[n z epiphytes or air-plants4 ,! mo/ famili> examples are "s ( ! tropical or*ids1 :i* are gr[n 9 glass-h\ses 7,fig4 #cg74 ,rootlike organs ( dodd] & o!r p>asites are discuss$ 9 a future *apt]4 ,"s plants be> arial roots1 t may propagate ! plant or may act z braces4 ,!y are (t5 call$ prop-roots4 ,! roots ( ,indian corn are famili> 7,fig4 #ch74 ,_m ficus trees1 z ! banyan ( ,india1 s5d out roots f _! bran*es2 :5 ^! roots rea* ! gr\nd !y take hold & become great trunks1 ?us spread+ ! top ( ! p>5t tree ov] l>ge areas4 ,! muscad9e grape ( ! ,s\!rn /ates (t5 s5ds d[n roots f its /ems4 ,! mangrove tree ( ! tropics gr[s along sea%ores & s5ds d[n roots f ! ov]hang+ bran*es 7& f ! fruits7 into ! %all[ wat]1 & !reby gradually m>*es into ! sea4 ,! tangl$ mass beh9d cat*es ! drift1 & soil is =m$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,indian ,,corn1 %[+ ! brace roots at oo4 ,adv5titi\s ,roots4--,sometimes roots gr[ f ! /em or o!r unusual places z ! result ( "s accid5t to ! plant1 be+ locat$ )\t kn[n me?od or law4 ,!y are call$ adv5titi\s 7*ance7 roots4 ,cutt+s ( ! /ems ( roses1 figs1 g]aniums1 & o!r plants1 :5 plant$1 s5d out adv5titi\s roots & =m new plants4 ,! ord9>y roots1 or soil roots1 are ( c\rse n class$ z adv5titi\s roots4 ,! adv5titi\s roots arise on occasion1 & n z a normal or regul> c\rse 9 ! gr[? ( ! plant4 ,no two roots are alike2 t is1 !y v>y among !mselves z /ems & leaves d4 ,ea* k9d ( plant has its own =m or habit ( root 7,fig4 #ci74 ,c>efully wa% away ! soil f ! roots ( any two relat$ plants1 z oats & :eat1 & note ! diff]5ces 9 size1 dep?1 direction1 mode ( bran*+1 numb] ( fibrils1 color1 & o!r features4 ,! "* ( ! root sy/em (t5 gov]ns ! treatm5t t ! f>m] %\ld give ! soil 9 :i* ! plant or crop gr[s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,,roots ,,( ,,b>ley ,,at ,a ,,& ,,corn ,,at ,b4 ,c>efully trace ! diff]5ces4 ,roots diff] n only 9 _! =m & habit1 b also 9 color ( tissue1 "* ( b>k or r9d1 & o!r features4 ,x is excell5t practice to try to id5tify diff]5t plants by means ( _! roots4 ,let ea* pupil br+ to s*ool two plants ) ! roots v c>efully dug up1 z cotton1 corn1 potato1 bean1 :eat1 rye1 timo?y1 pumpk91 clov]1 sweet pea1 raspb]ry1 /rawb]ry1 or o!r common plants4 ,root ,sy/ems ( ,we$s4--,"s we$s are pe/if]\s because !y se$ abundantly1 & o!rs because _! und]gr\nd p>ts run deep or f> & are p]si/5t4 ,make out ! root sy/ems 9 ! six wor/ we$s 9 y\r locality4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,! ,,root4--,,function ,,& ,,/ructure ,! function ( roots is tw(old1--to provide support or an*orage = ! plant1 & to collect & convey food mat]ials4 ,! fir/ function is consid]$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vii2 we may n[ give att5tion 9 m detail to ! second4 ,! fe$+ surface ( ! roots is ne> _! ends4 ,z ! roots become old & h>d1 !y s]ve only z *annels ?r\gh :i* food passes & z hold-fa/s or supports = ! plant4 ,! root-hold ( a plant is v /rong4 ,sl[ly pull upw>ds on "s plant1 & note h[ firmly x is an*or$ 9 ! soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,:eat ,,gr[+ ,,"u ,,diff]5t ,,soil ,,treatm5ts4 ,soil defici5t 9 nitrog52 comm]cial nitrog5 appli$ to pot #c 7on "r74 ,roots h p[] to *oose _! food2 t is1 !y d n absorb all sub/ances ) :i* !y come 9 contact4 ,!y d n take up great quantities ( useless or h>mful mat]ials1 ev5 ?\gh ^! mat]ials may be abundant 9 ! soil2 b !y may take up a great] quantity ( "s ( ! plant-foods ?an ! plant c use to advantage4 ,plants respond v quickly to lib]al fe$+1--t is1 to ! application ( plant-food to ! soil 7,fig4 #dj74 ,! poor] ! soil1 ! m m>k$ are ! results1 z a rule1 ( ! application ( f]tiliz]s4 ,c]ta9 sub/ances1 z common salt1 w kill ! roots4 ,roots absorb ,sub/ances only 9 ,solution4--,sub/ances _c be tak5 9 solid p>ticles4 ,^! mat]ials are 9 solution 9 ! soil wat]1 & ! roots !mselves also h ! p[] to dissolve ! soil mat]ials to "s ext5t by means ( sub/ances t !y excrete4 ,! mat]ials t come into ! plant ?r\gh ! roots are wat] & mo/ly ! m9]al sub/ances1 z comp\nds ( potassium1 iron1 phosphorus1 calcium1 magnesium1 sulfur1 & *lor9e4 ,^! m9]al sub/ances compose ! a% :5 ! plant is burn$4 ,! c>bon is d]iv$ f ! air ?r\gh ! gre5 p>ts4 ,oxyg5 is d]iv$ f ! air & ! soil wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,,nodules ,,on ,,roots ,,( ,,r$ ,,clov]4 ,nitrog5 ent]s ?r\gh ! ,roots4--,all plants mu/ h nitrog52 yet1 al?\gh ab\t f\r fif?s ( ! air is nitrog51 plants are n able1 s f> z we "k1 to take x 9 ?r\gh _! leaves4 ,x ent]s ?r\gh ! roots 9 comb9ation ) o!r elem5ts1 *iefly 9 ! =m ( nitrates 7c]ta9 comb9ations ) oxyg5 & a m9]al base74 ,! great family ( legum9\s plants1 h[ev] 7z peas1 beans1 c[pea1 clov]1 alfalfa1 vet*71 use ! nitrog5 conta9$ 9 ! air 9 ! soil4 ,!y are able to utilize x ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( nodules on _! roots 7,figs4 #da1 #db74 ,^! nodules conta9 bact]ia1 :i* appropriate ! free or uncomb9$ nitrog5 & pass x on to ! plant4 ,! nitrog5 becomes incorporat$ 9 ! plant tissue1 s t ^! crops are high 9 _! nitrog5 cont5t4 ,inasmu* z nitrog5 9 any =m is exp5sive to pur*ase 9 f]tiliz]s1 ! use ( legum9\s crops to pl[ "u is a v important agricultural practice 9 prep>+ ! l& = o!r crops4 ,9 ord] t legum9\s crops may acquire atmosph]ic nitrog5 m freely & !reby ?rive bett]1 ! l& is sometimes s[n or inoculat$ ) ! nodule-=m+ bact]ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,,nodules ,,on ,,vet*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,two ,,k9ds ,,( ,,soil ,,t ,,h ,,be5 ,,wet ,,& ,,!n ,,dri$4 ,! loamy soil above rema9s loose & capable ( gr[+ plants2 ! clay soil bel[ has bak$ & crack$4 ,roots require moi/ure 9 ord] to s]ve ! plant4 ,! soil wat] t is valuable to ! plant is n ! free wat]1 b ! ?9 film ( moi/ure :i* adh]es to ea* little p>ticle ( soil4 ,! f9] ! soil1 ! great] ! numb] ( p>ticles1 & !re=e ! great] is ! quantity ( film moi/ure t x c hold4 ,?is moi/ure surr\nd+ ! gra9s may n be p]ceptible1 yet ! plant c use x4 ,root absorption may cont9ue 9 a soil :i* seems to be du/ dry4 ,soils t are v h>d & 8bak$0 7,fig4 #dc7 conta9 v little moi/ure or air1--n s mu* z simil> soils t are granul> or mell[4 ,prop] ,temp]ature = ,root ,action4--,! root mu/ be w>m 9 ord] to p]=m its functions4 ,%\ld ! soil ( fields or gre5h\ses be mu* cold] ?an ! air1 ! plant suff]s4 ,:5 9 a w>m atmosph]e1 or 9 a dry atmosph]e1 plants ne$ to absorb mu* wat] f ! soil1 & ! roots mu/ be w>m if ! root-hairs are to supply ! wat] z rapidly z x is ne$$4 ,if ! roots are *ill$1 ! plant may wilt or die4 ,roots ne$ ,air4--,corn on l& t has be5 flood$ by heavy ra9s loses its gre5 color & turns yell[4 ,besides dilut+ plant-food1 ! wat] drives ! air f ! soil1 & ?is suffocation ( ! roots is v soon app>5t 9 ! g5]al ill heal? ( ! plant4 ,/irr+ or till+ ! soil arates x4 ,wat] plants & bog plants h adapt$ !mselves to _! p>ticul> conditions4 ,!y get _! air ei!r by special surface roots1 or f ! wat] ?r\gh /ems & leaves4 ,rootlets4--,roots divide into ! ?9ne/ & f9e/ fibrils3 !re are roots & !re are rootlets4 ,! smalle/ rootlets are s sl5d] & delicate t !y break (f ev5 :5 ! plant is v c>efully lift$ f ! soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,root-,,hairs ,,( ,,! ,,radi%4 ,! rootlets1 or f9e divisions1 are clo!d ) ! root-hairs 7,figs4 #dd1 #de1 #df74 ,^! root-hairs atta* to ! soil p>ticles1 & a great am\nt ( soil is ?us br\ght into actual contact ) ! plant4 ,^! are v delicate prolong$ surface cells ( ! roots4 ,!y are borne = a %ort di/ance j back ( ! tip ( ! root4 ,rootlet & root-hair diff]4 ,! rootlet is a compact cellul> /ructure4 ,! root-hair is a delicate tubul> cell 7,fig4 #de71 )9 :i* is conta9$ liv+ matt] 7protoplasm72 & ! protoplasmic l9+ membrane ( ! wall gov]ns ! entrance ( wat] & sub/ances 9 solution4 ,be+ long & tube-l1 ^! root-hairs are especially adapt$ = tak+ 9 ! l>ge/ quantity ( solutions2 & !y are ! pr9cipal means by :i* plant-food is absorb$ f ! soil1 al?\gh ! surfaces ( ! rootlets !mselves d _! "p4 ,wat] plants d n produce an abundant sy/em ( root-hairs1 & su* plants dep5d l>gely on _! rootlets4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,root1 enl>g$1 %[+ root-hairs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,,root-,,hair1 mu* enl>g$1 9 contact ) ! soil p>ticles 7s74 ,air-spaces at a2 wat]-films on ! p>ticles1 z at w4 ,! root-hairs are v small1 (t5 invisible4 ,!y1 ) ! "y roots1 are usually brok5 (f :5 ! plant is pull$ up4 ,!y are be/ se5 :5 se$s are g]m9at$ betwe5 lay]s ( d>k blott+ pap] or flannel4 ,on ! "y roots1 !y w be se5 z a mold-l or gossam]-l cov]+4 ,root-hairs soon die3 !y d n gr[ into roots4 ,new ones =m z ! root gr[s4 ,osmosis4--,! wat] ) its n\ri%m5t goes ?r\gh ! ?9 walls ( ! root-hairs & rootlets by ! process ( osmosis4 ,if !re are two liquids ( diff]5t d5sity on ! inside & outside ( an organic 7ei!r vegetable or animal7 membrane1 ! liquids t5d to mix ?r\gh ! membrane4 ,! law ( osmosis is t ! mo/ rapid fl[ is t[>d ! d5s] solution4 ,! protoplasmic l9+ ( ! cell wall is su* a membrane4 ,! soil wat] be+ a weak] solution ?an ! sap 9 ! roots1 ! fl[ is into ! root4 ,a /rong f]tiliz] sometimes causes a plant to )]1 or 8burns x40 ,expla94 ,/ructure ( ,roots4--,! root t gr[s f ! l[] end ( ! caulicle is ! fir/ or prim>y root4 ,second>y roots bran* f ! prim>y root4 ,bran*es ( second>y roots are sometimes call$ t]ti>y roots4 ,d ! second>y roots gr[ f ! cortex1 or f ! c5tral cyl9d] ( ! prim>y root8 ,trim or peel ! cortex f a root & its bran*es & det]m9e :e!r ! bran*es /ill hold to ! c5tral cyl9d] ( ! ma9 root4 ,int]nal ,/ructure ( ,roots4--,a section ( a root %[s t x consi/s ( a c5tral cyl9d] 7see ,fig4 #de7 surr\nd$ by a lay]4 ,?is lay] is call$ ! cortex4 ,! out] lay] ( cells 9 ! cortex is call$ ! epid]mis1 & "s ( ! cells ( ! epid]mis are prolong$ & =m ! delicate root-hairs4 ,! cortex resembles ! b>k ( ! /em 9 its nature4 ,! c5tral cyl9d] conta9s _m tube-l canals1 or 8vessels0 t convey wat] & food 7,fig4 #de74 ,cut a sweet potato across 7also a radi% & a turnip7 & di/+ui% ! c5tral cyl9d]1 cortex & epid]mis4 ,notice ! h>d cap on ! tip ( roots4 ,roots diff] f /ems 9 hav+ no real pi?4 ,microscopic ,/ructure ( ,roots4--,ne> ! end ( any "y root or %oot ! cells are f\nd to diff] f ea* o!r m or less1 accord+ to ! di/ance f ! po9t4 ,?is diff]5tiation takes place 9 ! region j back ( ! gr[+ po9t4 ,to /udy gr[+ po9ts1 use ! hypocotyl ( ,indian corn :i* has gr[n ab\t "o half in*4 ,make a longitud9al section4 ,note ^! po9ts 7,fig4 #dg73 7a7 ! tap]+ root-cap beyond ! gr[+ po9t2 7b7 ! blunt end ( ! root prop] & ! rectangul> %ape ( ! cells f\nd !re2 7c7 ! gr\p ( cells 9 ! middle ( ! fir/ lay]s b5ea? ! root-cap1--?is gr\p is ! gr[+ po9t2 7d7 /udy ! slight diff]5ces 9 ! tissues a %ort di/ance back ( ! gr[+ po9t4 ,!re are f\r regions3 ! c5tral cyl9d]1 made up ( sev]al r[s ( cells 9 ! c5t] 7pl72 ! endod]mis1 7e7 compos$ ( a s+le lay] on ea* side :i* sep>ates ! c5tral cyl9d] f ! b>k2 ! cortex1 or inn] b>k1 7e7 ( sev]al lay]s outside ! endod]mis2 & ! epid]mis1 or out] lay] ( b>k on ! out] edges 7d74 ,make a draw+ ( ! section4 ,if a s]ies ( ! cross-sections ( ! hypocotyl %\ld be made & /udi$1 beg9n+ ne> ! gr[+ po9t & go+ upw>d1 x w\ld be f\nd t ^! f\r tissues become m di/9ctly m>k$1 = at ! tip ! tissues h n yet assum$ _! *>act]i/ic =m4 ,! c5tral cyl9d] conta9s ! ducts & vessels :i* convey ! sap4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,,gr[+ ,,po9t ,,( ,,root ,,( ,,indian ,,corn4 d1 d1 cells :i* w =m ! epid]mis2 p1 p1 cells t w =m b>k2 e1 e1 endod]mis2 pl1 cells :i* w =m ! axis cyl9d]2 i1 initial gr\p ( cells1 or gr[+ po9t prop]2 c1 root-cap4 ,! ,root-cap4--,note ! =m ( ! root-cap %[n 9 ! microscopic section drawn 9 ,fig4 #dg4 ,gr[+ cells1 & especially ^? :i* are =m+ tissue by subdivid+1 are v delicate & are easily injur$4 ,! cells =m+ ! root-cap are old] & t\gh] & are suit$ = pu%+ aside ! soil t ! root may p5etrate x4 ,region ( mo/ ,rapid ,gr[?4--,! roots ( a se$l+ bean may be m>k$ at equal di/ances by wat]pro( ink or by bits ( black ?read ti$ mod]ately tight4 ,! se$l+ is !n replant$ & left undi/urb$ = two days4 ,:5 x is dug up1 ! region ( mo/ rapid gr[? 9 ! root c be det]m9$4 ,give a reason :y a root _c elongate ?r\gh\t its l5g?1--:e!r !re is any?+ to prev5t a "y root f do+ s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,! ,,m>k+ ,,( ,,! ,,/em ,,& ,,root4 ,9 ,fig4 #dh is %[n a g]m9at+ sc>let runn] bean ) a %ort root ^u :i* are m>ks made ) wat]pro( ink2 & ! same root 7,fig4 #di7 is %[n aft] x has gr[n long]4 ,:i* "p ( x did n l5g!n at all8 ,:i* "p l5g!n$ slightly8 ,:]e is ! region ( mo/ rapid gr[?8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,! ,,result4 ,geotropism4--,roots turn t[>d ! e>?1 ev5 if ! se$ is plant$ ) ! micropyle up4 ,?is ph5om5on is call$ positive geotropism4 ,/ems gr[ away f ! e>?4 ,?is is negative geotropism4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,! ,,grasp ,,( ,a ,,plant ,,on ,,! ,,p>ticles ,,( ,,e>?4 ,a grass plant pull$ 9 a g>d54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,plant ,,gr[+ ,,9 ,,inv]t$ ,,pot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,,holes ,,9 ,,soil ,,made ,,by ,,roots1 n[ decay$4 ,some:at magnifi$4 ,,sugge/ions 7,*aps4 ,,vii & ,,viii74--#be4 ,te/s = food4 ,exam9e a numb] ( roots1 includ+ sev]al fle%y roots1 = ! pres5ce ( food mat]ial1 mak+ ! te/s us$ on se$s4 #bf4 ,/udy ( root-hairs4 ,c>efully g]m9ate radi%1 turnip1 cabbage1 or o!r se$1 s t no delicate p>ts ( ! root w be injur$4 ,= ?is purpose1 place a few se$s 9 pack+-moss or 9 ! folds ( ?ick clo? or ( blott+ pap]1 be+ c>eful to keep !m moi/ & w>m4 ,9 a few days ! se$ has g]m9at$1 & ! root has gr[n an in* or two long4 ,notice t1 except at a di/ance ( ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* beh9d ! tip1 ! root is cov]$ ) m9ute hairs 7,fig4 #dd74 ,!y are actually hairs2 t is1 root-hairs4 ,t\* !m & !y collapse1 !y are s delicate4 ,dip "o ( ! plants 9 wat]1 & :5 remov$ ! hairs are n to be se54 ,! wat] mats !m toge!r along ! root & !y are no long] evid5t4 ,root-hairs are usually de/roy$ :5 a plant is pull$ out ( ! soil1 be x done ev] s c>efully4 ,!y cl+ to ! m9ute p>ticles ( soil 7,fig4 #df74 ,! hairs %[ be/ aga9/ a d>k backgr\nd4 #bg4 ,on "s ( ! blott+ pap]s1 spr9kle s&2 obs]ve h[ ! root-hairs cl+ to ! gra9s4 ,obs]ve h[ !y are flatt5$ :5 !y come 9 contact ) gra9s ( s&4 #bh4 ,root hold ( plant4 ,! pupil %\ld also /udy ! root hold4 ,let him c>efully pull up a plant4 ,if a plant gr[ alongside a f5ce or o!r rigid object1 he may te/ ! root hold by secur+ a /r+ to ! plant1 lett+ ! /r+ hang ov] ! f5ce1 & !n add+ weights to ! /r+4 ,w a /ake ( simil> size to ! plant & ext5d+ no deep] 9 ! gr\nd h su* firm hold on ! soil8 ,:at holds ! ball ( e>? 9 ,fig4 #ej8 #bi4 ,roots ex]t pressure4 ,place a /rong bulb ( hyac9? or daffodil on firm-pack$ e>? 9 a pot2 cov] ! bulb ne>ly to ! top ) loose e>?2 place 9 a cool cell>2 aft] "s days or weeks1 note t ! bulb has be5 rais$ out ( ! e>? by ! =m+ roots4 ,all roots ex]t pressure on ! soil z !y gr[4 ,expla94 #cj4 ,response ( roots & /ems to ! =ce ( gravity1 or geotropism4 ,plant a fa/-gr[+ se$l+ 9 a pot s t ! plumule ext5ds ?r\gh ! dra9 hole & susp5d ! pot ) m\? up 7i4e4 9 ! usual position74 ,or use a pot 9 :i* a plant is already gr[+1 cov] ) clo? or wire gauze to prev5t ! soil f fall+1 & susp5d ! pot 9 an inv]t$ position 7,fig4 #ea74 ,notice ! behavior ( ! /em1 & aft] a few days remove ! soil & obs]ve ! position ( ! root4 #ca4 ,if a pot is laid on "o side1 & *ang$ e two days & laid on its opposite side1 ! effect on ! root & /em w be int]e/+4 #cb4 ,if a fle%y root is plant$ wrong end up1 :at is ! result8 ,try x ) pieces ( horse-radi% root4 #cc4 ,by plant+ radi%es on a sl[ly revolv+ :eel ! effect ( gravity may be neutraliz$4 #cd4 ,region ( root mo/ s5sitive to gravity4 ,lay on its side a pot conta9+ a gr[+ plant4 ,aft] x has gr[n a few days1 wa% away ! e>? surr\nd+ ! roots4 ,:i* turn$ d[nw>d mo/ decid$ly1 ! tip ( root or ! upp] "p8 #ce4 ,soil texture4 ,c>efully turn up soil 9 a ri* g>d5 or field s t y h unbrok5 lumps z l>ge z a h5's egg4 ,!n break ^! lumps ap>t c>efully ) ! f+]s & det]m9e :e!r !re are any traces or rema9s ( roots 7,fig4 #eb74 ,are !re any pores1 holes1 or *annels made by roots8 ,are ! roots 9 !m /ill liv+8 #cf4 ,comp>e ano!r lump f a clay bank or pile :]e no plants h be5 gr[+4 ,is !re any diff]5ce 9 texture8 #cg4 ,gr9d up ?is clay lump v f9e1 put x 9 a sauc]1 cov] ) wat]1 & set 9 ! sun4 ,aft] a "t x w h ! appe>ance %[n 9 ! l[] sauc] 9 ,fig4 #dc4 ,comp>e ?is ) mell[ g>d5 soil4 ,9 :i* w plants gr[ be/1 ev5 if ! plant-food 7 ! same 9 bo?8 ,:y8 #ch4 ,to te/ ! effect ( moi/ure on ! plant1 let a plant 9 a pot or box dry out till x wilts2 !n add wat] & note ! rapidity ) :i* x recov]s4 ,v>y ! exp]im5t 9 quantity ( wat] appli$4 ,does ! plant call = wat] soon] :5 x /&s 9 a sunny w9d[ ?an :5 9 a cool %ady place8 ,prove x4 #ci4 ,imm]se a pott$ plant above ! rim ( ! pot 9 a pail ( wat] & let x rema9 !re4 ,:at is ! consequ5ce8 ,:y8 #dj4 ,to te/ ! effect ( temp]ature on roots4 ,put "o pot 9 a di% ( ice wat]1 & ano!r 9 a di% ( w>m wat]1 & keep !m 9 a w>m room4 ,9 a %ort "t notice h[ /iff & vigor\s is ! "o ^: roots are w>m1 :]eas ! o!r may %[ signs ( wilt+4 #da4 ,! process ( osmosis4 ,*ip away ! %ell f ! l>ge end ( an egg s z to expose ! un9jur$ membrane b5ea? = an area ab\t z l>ge z a dime4 ,) seal+-wax1 *ew+-gum1 or pa/e /ick a quill ab\t ?ree in*es long to ! small] end ( ! egg4 ,aft] ! tube is 9 place1 run a hat p9 into x s z to pi]ce bo? %ell & membrane2 or use a %ort glass tube1 fir/ scrap+ ! %ell ?9 ) a knife & !n bor+ ?r\gh x ) ! tube4 ,n[ set ! egg ^u ! m\? ( a pickle j> ne>ly full ( wat]1 s t ! l>ge end ) ! expos$ membrane is b5ea? ! wat]4 ,aft] sev]al h\rs1 obs]ve ! tube on top ( ! egg to see :e!r ! wat] has =c$ its way into ! egg & increas$ its volume s t "p ( its cont5ts are =c$ up into ! tube4 ,if no tube is at h&1 see :e!r ! cont5ts are =c$ ?r\gh ! hole :i* has be5 made 9 ! small end ( ! egg4 ,expla9 h[ ! law ( osmosis is v]ifi$ by y\r result4 ,if ! egg%ell conta9$ only ! membrane1 w\ld wat] rise into x8 ,if !re 7 no wat] 9 ! bottle1 w\ld ! egg-:ite pass d[n into ! bottle8 #db4 ,! region ( mo/ rapid gr[?4 ,! pupil %\ld make m>ks ) wat]pro( ink 7z ,higg9s' ink or indelible m>k+ ink7 on any s(t gr[+ roots4 ,place se$s ( bean1 radi%1 or cabbage betwe5 lay]s ( blott+ pap] or ?ick clo?4 ,keep !m damp & w>m4 ,:5 /em & root h gr[n an in* & a half long ea*1 ) wat]pro( ink m>k spaces exactly "o qu>t] in* ap>t 7,figs4 #dh1 #di74 ,keep ! plantlets moi/ = a day or two1 & x w be f\nd t on ! /em "s or all ( ! m>ks are m ?an "o qu>t] in* ap>t2 on ! root ! m>ks h n sep>at$4 ,! root has gr[n beyond ! la/ m>k4 ,,note ,,to ,,tea*]4--,! microscopic /ructure ( ! root c be det]m9$ only by ! use ( ! comp\nd microscope2 b a good g5]al conception ( ! /ructure may be _h by a c>eful att5tion to ! text & pictures & to explanations by ! tea*]1 if su* microscopes are n to be _h4 ,see note at close ( ,*apt] ,x4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,/em--,,k9ds ,,& ,,=ms2 ,,prun+ ,! ,/em ,sy/em4--,! /em ( a plant is ! "p t be>s ! buds1 leaves1 fl[]s1 & fruits4 ,its (fice is to hold ^! p>ts up to ! light & air2 & ?r\gh its tissues ! v>i\s food-mat]ials & ! life-giv+ fluids are di/ribut$ to ! gr[+ & work+ p>ts4 ,! entire mass or fabric ( /ems ( any plant is call$ its /em sy/em4 ,x comprises ! trunk1 bran*es1 & twigs1 b n ! /alks ( leaves & fl[]s t die & fall away4 ,! /em sy/em may be h]bace\s or woody1 annual1 bi5nial1 or p]5nial2 & x may assume _m sizes & %apes4 ,/ems are ( ,_m ,=ms4--,! g5]al way 9 :i* a plant gr[s is call$ its habit4 ,! habit is ! appe>ance or g5]al =m4 ,its habit may be op5 or loose1 d5se1 /raight1 crook$1 compact1 /raggl+1 climb+1 erect1 weak1 /rong1 & ! l4 ,! roots & leaves are ! important functional or work+ p>ts2 ! /em m]ely connects !m1 & its =m is exce$+ly v>iable4 ,k9ds ( ,/ems4--,! /em may be s %ort z to be sc>cely di/+ui%able4 ,9 su* cases ! cr[n ( ! plant--t "p j at ! surface ( ! gr\nd--be>s ! leaves & fl[]s2 b ?is cr[n is really a v %ort /em4 ,! d&elion1 ,fig4 #cc1 is an example4 ,su* plants are (t5 said to be /emless1 h[ev]1 9 ord] to di/+ui% !m f plants t h long or conspicu\s /ems4 ,^! s-call$ /emless plants die to ! gr\nd e ye>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,,/rict ,,simple ,,/em ,,( ,,mulle94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,,/rict ,,upright ,,/em ,,( ,,n>r[-,,leav$ ,,dock4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,,trail+ ,,/em ,,( ,,wild ,,morn+ ,,glory 7,convolvulus arv5sis74 ,/ems are erect :5 !y gr[ /raight up 7,figs4 #ec1 #ed74 ,!y are trail+ :5 !y run along on ! gr\nd1 z melon1 wild morn+-glory 7,fig4 #ee74 ,!y are creep+ :5 !y run on ! gr\nd & take root at places1 z ! /rawb]ry4 ,!y are decumb5t :5 !y lop ov] to ! gr\nd4 ,!y are asc5d+ :5 !y lie mo/ly or 9 "p on ! gr\nd b /& m or less upright at _! ends2 example1 a tomato4 ,!y are climb+ :5 !y cl+ to o!r objects = support 7,figs4 #cf1 #ef74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,a ,,climb+ ,,plant 7a tw9]74 ,trees 9 :i* ! ma9 trunk or ! 8lead]0 cont9ues to gr[ f its tip are said to be excurr5t 9 gr[?4 ,! bran*es are borne along ! sides ( ! trunk1 z 9 common p9es 7,fig4 #eg7 & spruces4 ,excurr5t means runn+ out or runn+ up4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,,excurr5t ,,trunk4 ,a p9e4 ,trees 9 :i* ! ma9 trunk does n cont9ue are said to be deliquesc5t4 ,! bran*es arise f "o common po9t or f ea* o!r4 ,! /em is lo/ 9 ! bran*es4 ,! apple tree1 plum 7,fig4 #eh71 maple1 elm1 oak1 ,*9a tree1 are famili> examples4 ,deliquesc5t means dissolv+ or melt+ away4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,,deliquesc5t ,,trunk ,,( ,,plum ,,tree4 ,ea* k9d ( plant has its own peculi> habit or direction ( gr[?2 spruces always gr[ to a s+le /em or trunk1 pe> trees are always deliquesc5t1 morn+-glories are always trail+ or climb+1 /rawb]ries are always creep+4 ,we d n "k :y ea* plant has its own habit1 b ! habit is 9 "s way associat$ ) ! plant's g5ealogy or ) ! way 9 :i* x has be5 oblig$ to live4 ,! /em may be simple or bran*$4 ,a simple /em usually gr[s f ! t]m9al bud1 & side bran*es ei!r d n />t1 or1 if !y />t1 !y soon p]i%4 ,mulle9s 7,fig4 #ec7 are usually simple4 ,s are palms4 ,bran*$ /ems may be ( v diff]5t habit & %ape4 ,"s /em sy/ems are n>r[ & erect2 ^! are said to be /rict 7,fig4 #ed74 ,o!rs are diffuse1 op51 bran*y1 twiggy4 ,nodes & ,int]nodes4--,! p>ts ( ! /em at :i* buds gr[ are call$ nodes or jo9ts & ! spaces betwe5 ! buds are int]nodes4 ,! /em at nodes is usually enl>g$1 & ! pi? is usually int]rupt$4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! nodes is influ5c$ by ! vigor ( ! plant3 h[8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,,rhizome ,,or ,,root/ock4 ,/ems vs4 ,roots4--,roots sometimes gr[ above gr\nd 7,*ap4 ,,vii72 s1 also1 /ems sometimes gr[ und]gr\nd1 & !y are !n kn[n z subt]ranean /ems1 rhizomes1 or root/ocks 7,fig4 #ei74 ,/ems normally be> leaves & buds1 & !reby are !y di/+ui%$ f roots2 usually1 also1 !y conta9 a pi?4 ,! leaves1 h[ev]1 may be r$uc$ to m]e scales1 & ! buds b5ea? !m may be sc>cely visible4 ,?us ! 8eyes0 on a :ite potato are cavities ) a bud or buds at ! bottom 7,fig4 #fj74 ,sweet potatoes h no evid5t 8eyes0 :5 fir/ dug 7b !y may develop adv5titi\s buds be=e ! next gr[+-season74 ,! :ite potato is a /em3 ! sweet potato is probably a root4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,,spr\ts ,,aris+ ,,f ,,! ,,buds1 or eyes1 ( a potato tub]4 ,h[ ,/ems elongate4--,roots elongate by gr[+ ne> ! tip4 ,/ems elongate by gr[+ m or less ?r\gh\t ! "y or s(t "p or 8betwe5 jo9ts0 7,figs4 #dh1 #di74 ,b any "p ( ! /em soon rea*es a limit beyond :i* x _c gr[1 or becomes 8fix$02 & ! new p>ts beyond elongate until !y1 too1 become rigid4 ,:5 a "p ( ! /em once becomes fix$ or h>d1 x nev] increases 9 l5g?3 t is1 ! trunk or woody p>ts nev] gr[ long] or high]2 bran*es d n become f>!r ap>t or high] f ! gr\nd4 ,/ems are modifi$ 9 =m by ! p>ticul> or incid5tal conditions "u :i* !y gr[4 ,! /ruggle = light is ! *ief factor 9 det]m9+ ! %ape & direction ( any limb 7,*ap4 ,,ii74 ,?is is well illu/rat$ 9 any tree or bu% t gr[s aga9/ a build+ or on ! m>g9 ( a =e/ 7,fig4 #d74 ,9 a v d5se ?icket ! inn]mo/ trees %oot up ov] ! o!rs or !y p]i%4 ,exam9e any /em & endeavor to det]m9e :y x took its p>ticul> =m4 ,! /em is cyl9drical1 ! out] "p be+ b>k & ! inn] "p be+ wood or woody tissue4 ,9 ! dicotyl$on\s plants1 ! b>k is usually easily sep>at$ f ! rema9d] ( ! cyl9d] at "s "t ( ! ye>2 9 monocotyl$on\s plants ! b>k is n free4 ,gr[? 9 ?ickness takes place inside ! cov]+ & n on ! v outside ( ! plant cyl9d]4 ,x is evid5t1 !n1 t ! cov]+ ( b>k mu/ exp& 9 ord] to all[ ( ! expansion ( ! woody cyl9d] )9 x4 ,! tissues1 !re=e1 mu/ be "u con/ant pressure or t5sion4 ,x has be5 det]m9$ t ! pressure )9 a gr[+ trunk is (t5 z mu* z fifty p\nds to ! squ>e in*4 ,! l[] "p ( ! limb 9 ,fig4 #fa %[s t ! out] lay]s ( b>k 7:i* are long s9ce dead1 & s]ve only z protective tissue7 h rea*$ ! limit ( _! exp&+ capacity & h begun to split4 ,! pupil w n[ be int]e/$ 9 ! b>k on ! body ( an old elm tree 7,fig4 #fb72 & he %\ld be able to sugge/ "o reason :y /ems rema9 cyl9drical1 & :y ! old b>k becomes m>k$ ) furr[s1 scales1 & plates4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,,crack+ ,,( ,,! ,,b>k ,,on ,,an ,,elm ,,bran*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,,piece ,,( ,,b>k ,,f ,,an ,,old ,,elm ,,trunk4 ,mo/ woody plants increase 9 diamet] by ! addition ( an annual lay] or 8r+0 on ! outside ( ! woody cyl9d]1 und]nea? ! b>k4 ,! monocotyl$on\s plants comprise v few trees & %rubs 9 temp]ate climates 7! palms1 yuccas1 & o!r tree-l plants are ( ?is class71 & !y d n increase greatly 9 diamet] & !y r>ely bran* to any ext5t4 ,consult ! woodpile = in=mation z to ! annual r+s4 ,b>k-b\nd ,trees4--,if1 = any reason1 ! b>k %\ld become s d5se & /rong t ! trunk _c exp&1 ! tree is said to be 8b>k-b\nd40 ,su* condition is n r>e 9 or*>d trees t h be5 neglect$4 ,:5 good tillage is giv5 to su* trees1 !y may n be able to ov]come ! rigidity ( ! old b>k1 &1 !re=e1 d n respond to ! treatm5t4 ,sometimes ! ?9n]-b>k$ p>ts may outgr[ 9 diamet] ! trunk or ! old bran*es bel[ !m4 ,! rem$y is to release ! t5sion4 ,?is may be done ei!r by s(t5+ ! b>k 7by wa%es ( soap or lye71 or by sep>at+ x4 ,! latt] is done by slitt+ ! b>k-b\nd "p 79 spr+71 ?ru/+ ! po9t ( a knife ?r\gh ! b>k to ! wood & !n draw+ ! blade d[n ! entire l5g? ( ! b>k-b\nd "p4 ,! slit is sc>cely disc]nible at fir/1 b x op5s ) ! gr[? ( ! tree1 fill+ up ) new tissue b5ea?4 ,let ! pupil consid] ! ridges :i* he n[ & !n f9ds on trees1 & det]m9e :e!r !y h any significance--:e!r ! tree has ev] be5 releas$ or injur$ by natural ag5cies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,prop] ,,cutt+ ,,( ,a ,,bran*4 ,! w\nd w soon be 8heal$40 ,! ,tissue cov]s ! ,w\nds & 8heals0 !m4--,?is is se5 9 ,fig4 #fc1 9 :i* a r+ ( tissue rolls out ov] ! w\nd4 ,?is r+ ( heal+ tissue =ms mo/ rapidly & uni=mly :5 ! w\nd is smoo? & regul>4 ,obs]ve ! heal+ on brok5 & spl9t]$ limbs2 also ! diff]5ce 9 rapidity ( heal+ betwe5 w\nds on /rong & weak limbs4 ,!re is diff]5ce 9 ! rapidity ( ! heal+ process 9 diff]5t k9ds ( trees4 ,comp>e ! apple tree & ! pea*4 ,?is tissue may 9 turn become b>k-b\nd1 & ! heal+ may /op4 ,on l>ge w\nds x progresses m rapidly ! fir/ few ye>s ?an x does lat]4 ,?is roll or r+ ( tissue is call$ a callus4 ,! callus gr[s f ! liv+ tissue ( ! /em j ab\t ! w\nd4 ,x _c cov] long dead /ubs or v r\gh brok5 bran*es 7,fig4 #fd74 ,!re=e1 9 prun+ ! bran*es %\ld be cut close to ! trunk & made ev5 & smoo?2 all long /ubs mu/ be avoid$4 ,! seat ( ! w\nd %\ld be close to ! liv+ "p ( ! trunk1 = ! /ub ( ! limb t is sev]$ has no fur!r p[] 9 itself ( mak+ heal+ tissue4 ,! end ( ! rema9+ /ub is m]ely cov]$ ov] by ! callus1 & usually rema9s a dead piece ( wood seal$ inside ! trunk 7,fig4 #fe74 ,if w\nds d n heal ov] spe$ily1 g]ms & fungi obta9 foo?old 9 ! dy+ wood & rot sets 94 ,holl[ trees are ^? 9 :i* ! decay-fungi h progress$ into ! inn] wood ( ! trunk2 !y h be5 infect$ 7,fig4 #ff74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,,errone\s ,,prun+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,knot ,,9 ,a ,,hemlock ,,log4 ,l>ge w\nds %\ld be protect$ ) a cov]+ ( pa9t1 melt$ wax1 or o!r adhesive & la/+ mat]ial1 to keep out ! g]ms & fungi4 ,a cov]+ ( %eet iron or t9 may keep out ! ra91 b x w n exclude ! g]ms ( decay2 9 fact1 x may provide ! v moi/ conditions t su* g]ms ne$ = _! gr[?4 ,deep holes 9 trees %\ld be treat$ by hav+ all ! decay$ p>ts remov$ d[n to ! clean wood1 ! surfaces pa9t$ or o!rwise /]iliz$1 & ! hole fill$ ) wax or cem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,a ,,knot ,,hole1 & ! beg9n+ ( a holl[ trunk4 ,/ems & roots are liv+1 & !y %\ld n be w\nd$ or mutilat$ unnecess>ily4 ,horses %\ld nev] be hit*$ to trees4 ,sup]vision %\ld be ex]cis$ ov] p]sons :o run telephone1 telegraph1 & electric light wires1 to see t !y d n mutilate trees4 ,electric light wires & trolley wires1 :5 c>elessly /rung or improp]ly insulat$1 may kill trees 7,fig4 #fg74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,,elm ,,tree ,,kill$ ,,by ,a ,,direct ,,curr5t ,,f ,,an ,,electric ,,railroad ,,sy/em4 ,,sugge/ions4--,=ms ( /ems4 #dc4 ,are ! trunks ( trees ev] p]fectly cyl9drical8 ,if n1 :at may cause ! irregul>ities8 ,d trunks (t5 gr[ m on "o side ?an ! o!r8 #dd4 ,slit a rapidly gr[+ limb1 9 spr+1 ) a knife blade1 & wat* ! result dur+ ! season4 #de4 ,consult ! woodpile1 & obs]ve ! v>iations 9 ?ickness ( ! annual r+s1 & especially ( ! same r+ at diff]5t places 9 ! circumf]5ce4 ,cross-sections ( horizontal bran*es are int]e/+ 9 ?is connection4 #df4 ,note ! enl>gem5t at ! base ( a bran*1 & det]m9e :e!r ?is enl>gem5t or bulge is l>g] on long1 horizontal limbs ?an on upright ones4 ,:y does ?is bulge develop8 ,does x s]ve z a brace to ! limb1 & is x develop$ z ! result ( con/ant /ra98 #dg4 ,/r5g? ( /ems4 ,! pupil %\ld obs]ve ! fact t a /em has wond]ful /r5g?4 ,comp>e ! proportionate height1 diamet]1 & weight ( a grass /em ) ^? ( ! sl5d]e/ t[] or /eeple4 ,:i* has ! great] /r5g?8 ,:i* ! great] height8 ,:i* w )/& ! mo/ w9d8 ,note t ! grass /em w rega9 its position ev5 if its top is b5t to ! gr\nd4 ,note h[ plants are weight$ d[n aft] a heavy ra9 & h[ !y recov] !mselves4 #dh4 ,split a corn/alk & obs]ve h[ ! jo9ts are ti$ toge!r & brac$ ) fib]s4 ,are !re simil> fib]s 9 /ems ( pigwe$1 cotton1 sunfl[]1 hollyhock8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,,potato4 ,:at are roots1 & :at /ems8 ,has ! plant m ?an "o k9d ( /em8 m ?an two k9ds8 ,expla94 ,,*apt] ,x ,,! ,,/em--,,its ,,g5]al ,,/ructure ,!re are two ma9 types ( /em /ructure 9 fl[]+ plants1 ! diff]5ces be+ bas$ on ! arrangem5t ( bundles or /r&s ( tissue4 ,^! types are endog5\s & exog5\s 7page #bj74 ,x w require pati5t laboratory "w to und]/& :at ^! types & /ructures are4 ,endog5\s1 or ,monocotyl$on\s ,/ems4--,examples ( endog5\s /ems are all ! grasses1 cane-brake1 sug>-cane1 smilax or gre5-bri]1 palms1 banana1 canna1 bamboo1 lilies1 yucca1 asp>agus1 all ! c]eal gra9s4 ,= our /udy1 a corn/alk may be us$ z a type4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,corn/alk1 %[+ ! scatt]$ fibro-vascul> bundles4 ,slightly enl>g$4 ,a piece ( corn/alk1 ei!r gre5 or dead1 %\ld be 9 ! h& ( ea* pupil :ile /udy+ ?is lesson4 ,fig4 #fi w also be ( use4 ,is !re a swell+ at ! nodes8 ,:i* "p ( ! int]node comes ne>e/ to be+ p]fectly r\nd8 ,!re is a groov$ *annel runn+ along "o side ( ! int]node3 h[ is x plac$ ) ref]5ce to ! leaf8 ) ref]5ce to ! groove 9 ! int]node bel[ x8 ,:at d y f9d 9 ea* groove at its l[] end8 7,9 a dri$ /alk only traces ( ?is are usually se547 ,does any bud on a corn/alk besides ! "o at ! top ev] develop8 ,:]e d suck]s come f8 ,:]e does ! e> gr[8 ,cut a cross-section ( ! /alk betwe5 ! nodes 7,fig4 #fi74 ,does x h a di/9ct b>k8 ,! int]ior consi/s ( s(t 8pi?0 & t\gh woody p>ts4 ,! wood is f\nd 9 /r&s or fib]s4 ,:i* is m abundant8 ,d ! fib]s h any def9ite arrangem5t8 ,:i* /r&s are l>ge/8 ,smalle/8 ,! firm smoo? r9d 7:i* _c prop]ly be call$ a b>k7 consi/s ( small wood /r&s pack$ closely toge!r4 ,grass /ems are holl[ cyl9d]s2 & ! corn/alk1 because ( ! lightness ( its cont5ts1 is also practically a cyl9d]4 ,/ems ( ?is k9d are admirably adapt$ = provid+ a /rong support to leaves & fruit4 ,?is is 9 accordance ) ! well-kn[n law t a holl[ cyl9d] is mu* /rong] ?an a solid cyl9d] ( ! same weight ( mat]ial4 ,cut a ?9 slice ( ! inn] s(t "p & hold x up to ! light4 ,c y make out a numb] ( t9y comp>tm5ts or cells8 ,^! cells consi/ ( a tissue call$ p>5*yma1 ! tissue f :i* :5 "y all ! o!r tissues arise & diff]5tiate 7,p>5*yma p>5t *yma1 or tissue74 ,! num]\s walls ( ^! cells may s]ve to brace ! out] wall ( ! cyl9d]2 b _! *ief function 9 ! "y /alk is to give orig9 to o!r cells4 ,:5 alive !y are fill$ ) cell sap & protoplasm4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,,diagram ,,to ,,%[ ,,! ,,c\rse ,,( ,,fibro-,,vascul> ,,bundles ,,9 ,,monocotyl$ons4 ,trace ! woody /r&s ?r\gh ! nodes4 ,d !y asc5d v]tically8 ,d !y curve t[>d ! r9d at c]ta9 places8 ,comp>e _! c\rse ) ! /r&s %[n 9 ,fig4 #gj4 ,! woody /r&s consi/ *iefly ( t\gh fibr\s cells t give rigidity & /r5g? to ! plant1 & ( long tubul> int]rupt$ canals t s]ve to convey sap upw>d f ! root & to convey food d[nw>d f ! leaves to ! /em & roots4 ,monocotyl$ons1 z %[n by fossils1 exi/$ be=e dicotyl$ons appe>$1 & x is ?\ght t ! latt] 7 develop$ f ance/ors ( ! =m]4 ,x w be int]e/+ to trace ! relation%ip 9 /em /ructure4 ,x w fir/ be necess>y to le>n some?+ ( ! /ructure ( ! wood /r&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,wood ,,/r&s ,,or ,,fibro-,,vascul> ,,bundles ,,9 ,a ,,root1 %[+ ! wood 7x7 & ba/ 7p7 sep>at$4 ,wood ,/r& 9 ,monocotyl$ons & ,dicotyl$ons4--,ea* wood /r& 7or fibro-vascul> bundle7 consi/s ( two p>ts--! ba/ & ! wood prop]4 ,! wood is on ! side ( ! /r& t[>d ! c5t] ( ! /em & conta9s l>ge tubul> canals t take ! wat]y sap upw>d f ! roots4 ,! ba/ is on ! side t[>d ! b>k & conta9s f9e tubes ?r\gh :i* diffuses ! d5se sap conta9+ dige/$ food f ! leaves4 ,9 ! root 7,fig4 #ga7 ! ba/ & ! wood are sep>ate1 s t !re are two k9ds ( /r&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,,"p ,,( ,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,root/ock ,,( ,,asp>agus1 %[+ a few fibro-vascul> bundles4 ,an endog5\s /em4 ,9 monocotyl$ons1 z already said1 ! /r&s 7or bundles7 are usually scatt]$ 9 ! /em ) no def9ite arrangem5t 7,figs4 #gb1 #gc74 ,9 dicotyl$ons ! /r&s1 or bundles1 are arrang$ 9 a r+4 ,z ! dicotyl$on\s se$ g]m9ates1 five bundles are usually =m$ 9 its hypocotyl 7,fig4 #gd72 soon five m are int]pos$ betwe5 !m1 & ! multiplication cont9ues1 9 t\gh plants1 until ! bundles t\* 7,fig4 #gd1 "r74 ,! inn] p>ts ?us =m a r+ ( wood & ! out] p>ts =m ! inn] b>k or ba/4 ,a new r+ ( wood or ba/ is =m$ on /ems ( dicotyl$ons ea* ye> & ! age ( a cut /em is easily det]m9$4 ,illu/ration3 a b ,,fig4 #gc4--,,! ,,scatt]$ ,,bundles ,,or ,,/r&s1 9 monocotyl$ons at a1 & ! bundles 9 a circle 9 dicotyl$ons at b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,,dicotyl$on\s ,,/em ,,( ,,"o ,,ye> ,,at ,,left ,,) ,,five ,,bundles1 & a ,two-ye> ,/em at ,"r4 o1 ! pi?2 c1 ! wood "p2 b1 ! ba/ "p2 a1 "o ye>'s gr[?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,,fibro-,,vascul> ,,bundle ,,( ,,indian ,,corn1 mu* magnifi$4 ,a1 annul> vessel2 ,a1 annul> or spiral vessel2 ,,tt1 ?ick-wall$ vessels2 ,w1 tra*eids or woody tissue2 ,f1 %ea? ( fibr\s tissue surr\nd+ ! bundle2 ,,ft1 fundam5tal tissue or pi?2 ,s1 sieve tissue2 ,p1 sieve plate2 ,c1 companion cell2 l1 int]cellul> space1 =m$ by te>+ d[n ( adjac5t cells2 ,w1 wood p>5*yma4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,! ,,dicotyl$on\s ,,bundle ,,or ,,wood ,,/r&4 ,upp] figure is ( moonse$3 c1 cambium2 d1 ducts2 #a1 end ( fir/ ye>'s gr[?2 #b1 end ( second ye>'s gr[?2 ba/ "p at left & wood "p at "r4 ,l[] figure 7f ,wett/e97 is sunfl[]2 h1 wood-cells2 g1 vessels2 c1 cambium2 p1 fundam5tal tissue or p>5*yma2 b1 ba/2 bp1 ba/ p>5*yma2 s1 sieve-tubes4 ,:5 cross-sections ( monocotyl$on\s & dicotyl$on\s bundles are exam9$ "u ! microscope1 x is readily se5 :y dicotyl$on\s bundles =m r+s ( wood & monocotyl$on\s _c 7,figs4 #ge & #gf74 ,! dicotyl$on\s bundle 7,fig4 #gf7 has1 runn+ across x1 a lay] ( brick-%ap$ cells call$ cambium1 :i* cells are a specializ$ =m ( ! p>5*yma cells & reta9 ! p[] ( gr[+ & multiply+4 ,! bundles conta9+ cambium are call$ op5 bundles4 ,!re is no cambium 9 monocotyl$on\s bundles 7,fig4 #ge7 & ! bundles are call$ clos$ bundles4 ,monocotyl$on\s /ems soon cease to gr[ 9 diamet]4 ,! /em ( a palm tree is almo/ z l>ge at ! top z at ! base4 ,z dicotyl$on\s plants gr[1 ! /ems become ?ick] ea* ye>1 = ! delicate active cambium lay] =ms new cells f e>ly spr+ until midsumm] or autumn1 add+ to ! wood )9 & to ! b>k )\t4 ,z ! gr[? 9 spr+ is v rapid1 ! fir/ wood-cells =m$ are mu* l>g] ?an ! la/ wood-cells =m$ by ! sl[ gr[? ( ! late season1 & ! spr+ wood is less d5se & light] color$ ?an ! summ] wood2 h5ce ! "t betwe5 two ye>s' gr[? is readily made out 7,figs4 #gg & #gh74 ,because ( ! rapid gr[? ( ! cambium 9 spr+ & its consequ5t s(t walls & fluid cont5ts1 ! b>k ( trees 8peels0 readily at t season4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,,:ite ,,p9e ,,/em1 #e ye>s old4 ,! out]mo/ lay] is b>k4 ,m$ull>y ,rays4--,! fir/ ye>'s gr[? 9 dicotyl$ons =ms a woody r+ :i* almo/ incloses ! pi?1 & ?is is left z a small cyl9d] :i* does n gr[ l>g]1 ev5 if ! tree %\ld live a c5tury4 ,x is n q inclos$1 h[ev]1 = ! n>r[ lay]s ( s(t cells sep>at+ ! bundles rema9 betwe5 !m 7,fig4 #gh71 =m+ radiat+ l9es call$ m$ull>y rays or pi? rays4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,tissues ,,9 ,,two-,,ye>-,,old ,,/em ,,( ,,moonse$4 p1 pi?2 f1 p>5*yma4 ,! fibro-vascul> bundles1 or wood /r&s1 are v prom95t1 ) ?9 m$ull>y rays betwe54 ,! ,sev]al ,plant ,cells & _! ,functions4--,9 ! wood !re are "s p>5*yma cells t are /ill ) ?9 walls1 b h lo/ ! p[] ( division4 ,!y are n[ /orage cells4 ,!re are also wood fib]s :i* are ?ick-wall$ & rigid 7h1 ,fig4 #gf71 & s]ve to support ! sap-canals or wood vessels 7or tra*eids7 t are =m$ by ! absorption ( ! end walls ( upright r[s ( cells2 ! canals pass f ! roots to ! twigs & ev5 to ribs ( ! leaves & s]ve to transport ! root wat]4 ,!y are recogniz$ 7,fig4 #gi7 by ! peculi> ?ick5+ ( ! wall on ! inn] surface ( ! tubes1 occurr+ 9 ! =m ( spirals4 ,sometimes ! :ole wall is ?ick5$ except 9 spots call$ pits 7g1 ,fig4 #gf74 ,^! ?9 spots 7,fig4 #hj7 all[ ! sap to pass to o!r cells or to neighbor+ vessels4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,,m>k+s ,,9 ,,cell ,,walls ,,( ,,wood ,,fib]s4 sp1 spiral2 an1 annul>2 sc1 scal>i=m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,,pits ,,9 ,,! ,,cell ,,wall4 ,longitud9al section ( wall at b1 %[+ pit bord]s at o1 o4 ,! cambium1 z we h se51 consi/s ( cells ^: function is gr[?4 ,^! cells are ?9-wall$ & fill$ ) protoplasm4 ,dur+ ! gr[+ season !y are cont9ually add+ to ! wood )9 & ! b>k )\t2 h5ce ! lay] moves outw>d z x deposits ! new woody lay] )94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,,sieve-,,tubes1 s1 s2 p %[s a top view ( a sieve-plate1 ) a companion cell4 c1 at ! side2 o %[s sieve-plates 9 ! side ( ! cell4 ,9 s1 s ! protoplasm is %runk5 f ! walls by reag5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,,?ick-,,wall$ ,,ba/ ,,cells4 ,! b>k consi/s ( inn] or fibr\s b>k or new ba/ 7^! fib]s 9 flax become l9571 ! gre5 or middle b>k :i* functions some:at z ! leaves1 & ! corky or out] b>k4 ,! common ^w 8b>k0 is se5 !re=e n to repres5t a homog5e\s or simple /ructure1 b r a collection ( sev]al k9ds ( tissue1 all sep>at+ f ! wood b5ea? by means ( cambium4 ,! new ba/ conta9s 7#a7 ! sieve-tubes 7,fig4 #ha7 :i* transport ! sap conta9+ organic sub/ances1 z sug> & proteids1 f ! leaves to ! p>ts ne$+ x 7s1 ,fig4 #gf74 ,^! tubes h be5 =m$ l ! wood vessels1 b !y h sieve-plates to all[ ! d5se organic-lad5 sap to pass ) suffici5t read9ess = purposes ( rapid di/ribution4 7#b7 ,!re are also ?ick-wall$ ba/ fib]s 7,fig4 #hb7 9 ! ba/ t s]ve = support4 7#c7 ,!re is also "s p>5*yma 7p>5t tissue7 9 ! new ba/2 x is n[ 9 "p a /orage tissue4 ,sometimes ! walls ( p>5*yma cells 9 ! cortex ?ick5 at ! corn]s & =m brace cells 7,fig4 #hc7 7coll5*yma7 = support2 sometimes ! :ole wall is ?ick5$1 =m+ grit cells or /one cells 7,fig4 #hd2 examples 9 t\gh p>ts ( pe>1 or 9 /one ( fruits74 ,"s p>ts s]ve = secretions 7milk1 ros91 etc47 & are call$ latex tubes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,,coll5*yma ,,9 ,,wild ,,jewelwe$ ,,or ,,t\*-,,me-,,n 7,,impati5s74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,,grit ,,cells4 ,! out] b>k ( old %oots consi/s ( corky cells t protect f me*anical injury1 & t conta9 a fatty sub/ance 7sub]97 imp]meable to wat] & ( s]vice to keep 9 moi/ure4 ,!re is sometimes a cork cambium 7or phellog57 9 ! b>k t s]ves to ext5d ! b>k & keep x f splitt+1 ?us increas+ its p[] to protect4 ,transport ( ! 8,sap40--,we %all soon le>n t ! common ^w 8sap0 does n repres5t a s+le or simple sub/ance4 ,we may r\ghly di/+ui% two k9ds ( m or less fluid cont5ts3 7#a7 ! root wat]1 sometimes call$ m9]al sap1 t is tak5 9 by ! root1 conta9+ its freight ( su* inorganic sub/ances z potassium1 calcium1 iron1 & ! re/2 ?is root wat] rises1 we h f\nd1 9 ! wood vessels1--t is1 9 ! "y or 8sapwood0 7p4 #if72 7#b7 ! elaborat$ or organiz$ mat]ials pass+ back & =?1 especially f ! leaves1 to build up tissues 9 all p>ts ( ! plant1 "s ( x go+ d[n to ! roots & root-hairs2 ?is organic mat]ial is transport$1 z we h le>n$1 9 ! sieve-tubes ( ! inn] ba/1--t is1 9 ! 8inn] b>k40 ,remov+ ! b>k f a trunk 9 a girdle w n /op ! upw>d rise ( ! root wat] s long z ! wood rema9s alive2 b x w /op ! passage ( ! elaborat$ or food-/or$ mat]ials to p>ts bel[ & ?us />ve ^? p>ts2 & if ! girdle does n heal ov] by ! deposit ( new b>k1 ! tree w 9 "t />ve to dea?4 ,x w n[ be se5 t ! common practice ( plac+ wires or hoops ab\t trees to hold !m 9 position or to prev5t bran*es f fall+ is irrational1 because su* wires int]pose b>ri]s ov] :i* ! fluids _c pass2 9 "t1 z ! trunk increases 9 diamet]1 ! wire girdles ! tree4 ,x is mu* bett] to bolt ! p>ts toge!r by rods ext5d+ ?r\gh ! bran*es 7,fig4 #he74 ,^! bolts %\ld fit v tight 9 _! holes4 ,:y8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,,! ,,wrong ,,way ,,to ,,brace ,a ,,tree4 7,see ,fig4 #aah74 ,wood4--,! ma9 /em or trunk1 & sometimes ! l>g] bran*es1 are ! s\rces ( lumb] & timb]4 ,diff]5t k9ds ( wood h value = _! special qualities4 ,! bus9ess ( rais+ wood1 = all purposes1 is kn[n z =e/ry4 ,! =e/ is to be consid]$ z a crop1 & ! crop mu/ be h>ve/$1 z mu* z corn or rice is h>ve/$4 ,man is (t5 able to gr[ a m productive =e/ ?an nature does4 ,resi/ance to decay gives value to wood us$ = %+les 7cypress1 he>t ( yell[ p9e7 & = f5ce po/s 7mulb]ry1 c$>1 po/ oak1 bois d'arc1 mesquite74 ,h>dness & /r5g? are qualities ( great value 9 build+4 ,live oak is us$ 9 %ips4 ,r$ oak1 rock maple1 & yell[ p9e are us$ = floors4 ,! be/ floor+ is sawn ) ! /raight edges ( ! annual r+s upw>d2 tang5tial sawn floor+ may spl9t]4 ,*e/nut is common 9 "s p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 be+ us$ = ceil+ & inexp5sive f9i%+ & furniture4 ,locu/ & bois d'arc 7osage orange7 are us$ = hubs ( :eels2 bois d'arc makes a rem>kably durable pavem5t = /reets4 ,ebony is a tropical wood us$ = flutes1 black piano keys1 & fancy articles4 ,a% is /raight & ela/ic2 x is us$ = h&les = light implem5ts4 ,hickory is v /rong z well z ela/ic1 & is sup]ior to a% = h&les1 spokes1 & o!r uses :]e /r5g? is want$4 ,hickory is nev] sawn into lumb]1 b is split or turn$4 ,! 8second gr[?10 :i* spr\ts f /umps1 is mo/ useful1 z x splits readily4 ,fa/-gr[+ hickory 9 ri* l& is mo/ valuable4 ,! supply ( useful hickory is be+ rapidly exhau/$4 ,s(tness is (t5 important4 ,:ite p9e & sweet gum because ( _! s(tness & lightness are useful 9 box-mak+4 8,georgia0 or s\!rn p9e is h>d] & /rong] ?an :ite p9e2 x is mu* us$ = floors1 ceil+s1 & "s k9ds ( cab9et "w4 ,:ite p9e is us$ = w9d[-sa%1 doors1 & mold+1 & *eap] grades = floor+4 ,hemlock is ! prevail+ lumb] 9 ! ea/ = ! framework & clapbo>d+ ( build+s4 ,r$wood & ,d\glas spruce are common build+ mat]ials on ! ,pacific coa/4 ,cypress is s(t & resi/s decay & is sup]ior to :ite p9e = sa%1 doors1 & po/s on ! outside ( h\ses4 ,c$> is readily c>v$ & has a unique use 9 ! mak+ ( *e/s = clo!s1 z its odor repels mo?s & o!r insects4 ,will[ is useful = baskets & light furniture4 ,basswood or l9d5 is us$ = light ceil+ & sometimes = *eap floors4 ,:itewood 7incorrectly call$ popl>7 is employ$ = wagon bodies & (t5 = h\se f9i%+4 ,x (t5 resembles curly maple4 ,beauty ( gra9 & poli% gives wood value = furniture1 pianos1 & ! l4 ,mahogany & :ite oak are mo/ beautiful1 al?\gh r$ oak is also us$4 ,oak logs :i* are fir/ qu>t]$ & !n sawn radially expose ! beautiful silv] gra9 7m$ull>y rays74 ,fig4 #hf %[s "o mode ( qu>t]+4 ,! log is qu>t]$ on ! l9es a1 a1 b1 b2 !n succe$+ bo>ds are cut f ea* qu>t] at #a1 #b1 #c1 etc4 ,! ne>] ! he>t ! bett] ! 8gra903 :y8 ,ord9>y bo>ds are sawn tang5tially1 z c1 c4 ,curly p9e1 curly walnut1 & bird's-eye maple are woods t owe _! beauty ( gra9 to wavy l9es or buri$ knots4 ,m]ely a /ump ( curly walnut is wor? sev]al hundr$ doll>s4 ,su* wood is slic$ v ?9 = v5e]+ & glu$ ov] o!r woods 9 mak+ pianos & o!r pieces4 ,if ! cause ( wavy gra9 c\ld be f\nd out & su* wood gr[n at w1 ! discov]y w\ld be v useful4 ,maple is mu* us$ = furniture4 ,bir* may be color$ s z v closely to repres5t mahogany1 & x is useful = desks4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,,ord9>y ,,bo>ds1 ,,& ,,"o ,,way ,,( ,,mak+ 8,,qu>t]$0 ,,bo>ds4 ,special ,products ( ,trees4--,cork f ! b>k ( ! cork oak 9 ,spa91 latex f ! rubb] & sap f ! sug> maple trees1 turp5t9e f p9e1 tann9 f oak b>k1 ,p]uvian b>k f c9*ona1 are all useful products4 ,,sugge/ions4--,p>ts ( a root & /em ?r\gh :i* liquids rise4 #di4 ,pull up a small plant ) abundant leaves1 cut (f ! root s z to leave two in*es or m on ! plant 7or cut a leafy %oot ( squa% or o!r /rong-gr[+ co>se plant71 & /& x 9 a bottle ) a little wat] 9 ! bottom :i* has be5 color$ ) r$ ink 7eos974 ,aft] ?ree h\rs exam9e ! root2 make cross-sections at sev]al places4 ,has ! wat] color$ ! axis cyl9d]8 ,! cortex8 ,:at is y\r conclusion8 ,/& "s cut fl[]s or a leafy plant ) cut /em 9 ! same solution & exam9e z be=e3 conclusion8 #ej4 ,girdle a twig ( a rapidly gr[+ bu% 7z will[7 9 e>ly spr+ :5 gr[? beg9s 7a7 by v c>efully remov+ only ! b>k1 & 7b7 by cutt+ away also ! sapwood4 ,"u :i* condition d ! leaves wilt8 ,:y8 #ea4 ,/& twigs ( will[ 9 wat]2 aft] roots h =m$ "u ! wat]1 girdle ! twig 79 ! two ways7 above ! roots4 ,:at happ5s to ! roots1 & :y8 #eb4 ,obs]ve ! swell+s on trees t h be5 girdl$ or v badly injur$ by wires or o!rwise3 :]e are ^! swell+s1 & :y8 #ec4 ,k9ds ( wood4 ,let ea* pupil det]m9e ! k9d ( wood 9 ! desk1 ! floor1 ! door & w9d[ cas+s1 ! doors !mselves1 ! sa%1 ! %+les1 ! f5ce1 & 9 ! small implem5ts & furniture 9 ! room2 also :at is ! *eape/ & ! mo/ exp5sive lumb] 9 ! community4 #ed4 ,h[ _m k9ds ( wood does ! pupil "k1 & :at are _! *ief uses8 ,,note ,,to ,,tea*]4--,! "w 9 ?is *apt] is int5d$ to be ma9ly descriptive1 = ! purpose ( giv+ ! pupil a rational conception ( ! ma9 vital processes associat$ ) ! /em1 9 su* a way t he may translate x into 8 daily ?\ght4 ,x is n int5d$ to give advice = ! use ( ! comp\nd microscope4 ,if ! pupil is l$ to make a c>eful /udy ( ! text1 draw+s1 & photographs on ! prec$+ & ! foll[+ pages1 he w obta9 "s ( ! b5efit ( /udy+ microscope sections )\t be+ =c$ to sp5d "t 9 ma/]+ microscope te*nique4 ,if ! s*ool is equipp$ ) comp\nd microscopes1 a tea*] is probably *os5 :o has ! necess>y skill to manipulate !m & ! k ( anatomy & physiology t goes naturally ) su* "w2 & x w\ld be useless to give in/ruction 9 su* "w 9 a text ( ?is k9d4 ,! writ] is ( ! op9ion t ! introduction ( ! comp\nd microscope into fir/ c\rses 9 botany has be5 productive ( h>m4 ,good & vital tea*+ dem&s fir/ t ! pupil h a normal1 direct1 & natural relation to 8 subject1 z he commonly meets x1 t ! obvi\s & significant features ( ! plant _w be expla9$ to him & be made a means ( tra9+ him4 ,! beg9n+ pupil _c be expect$ to "k ! fundam5tal physiological processes1 nor is x necess>y t ^! processes %\ld be kn[n 9 ord] to h a po9t ( view & tra9$ intellig5ce on ! ?+s t "o cu/om>ily sees4 ,_m a pupil has _h a s-call$ laboratory c\rse 9 botany )\t hav+ arriv$ at any real conception ( :at plants mean1 or )\t hav+ _h 8 m9d op5$ to any real sympa!tic t\* ) 8 environm5t4 ,ev5 if "o's k be n deep or ext5sive1 x may /ill be accurate z f> z x goes1 & 8 outlook on ! subject may be rational4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,,! ,,_m-,,/emm$ ,,?ickets ,,( ,,mangrove ,,( ,,s\!rnmo/ ,,seacoa/s1 _m ( ! trunks be+ =m$ ( arial roots4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,leaves--,,=m ,,& ,,position ,leaves may be /udi$ f f\r po9ts ( view1--) ref]5ce 7#a7 to _! k9ds & %apes2 7#b7 _! position1 or arrangem5t on ! plant2 7#c7 _! anatomy1 or /ructure2 7#d7 _! function1 or ! "w !y p]=m4 ,?is *apt] is conc]n$ ) ! fir/ two categories4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,a ,,simple ,,nett$-,,ve9$ ,,leaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,a ,,simple ,,p>allel-,,ve9$ ,,leaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,,comp\nd ,,or ,,bran*$ ,,leaf ,,( ,,brake 7a common f]n74 ,k9ds4--,leaves are simple or unbran*$ 7,figs4 #hh1 #hi71 & comp\nd or bran*$ 7,fig4 #ij74 ,! me?od ( comp\nd+ or bran*+ foll[s ! mode ( ve9+4 ,! ve9+1 or v5ation1 is ( two g5]al k9ds3 9 "s plants ! ma9 ve9s div]ge1 & !re is a conspicu\s network ( small] ve9s2 su* leaves are nett$-ve9$4 ,!y are *>act]i/ic ( ! dicotyl$ons4 ,9 o!r plants ! ma9 ve9s are p>allel1 or ne>ly s1 & !re is no conspicu\s network2 ^! are p>allel-ve9$ leaves 7,figs4 #hi1 #ajb74 ,^! leaves are ! rule 9 monocotyl$on\s plants4 ,! v5ation ( nett$-ve9$ leaves is p9nate or fea!r-l :5 ! ve9s arise f ! side ( a cont9u\s midrib 7,fig4 #ia72 palmate or digitate 7h&-l7 :5 ! ve9s arise f ! apex ( ! petiole 7,figs4 #hh1 #ib74 ,if leaves 7 divid$ betwe5 ! ma9 ve9s1 ! =m] w\ld be p9nately & ! latt] digitately comp\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--;,,complete ,,leaves ,,( ,,will[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,,digitate-,,ve9$ ,,peltate ,,leaf ,,( ,,na/urtium4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,,p9nately ,,comp\nd ,,leaf ,,( ,,a%4 ,x is cu/om>y to speak ( a leaf z comp\nd only :5 ! p>ts or bran*es are completely sep>ate blades1 z :5 ! division ext5ds to ! midrib 7,figs4 #ij1 #ic1 #id1 #ie74 ,! p>ts or bran*es are kn[n z leaflets4 ,sometimes ! leaflets !mselves are comp\nd1 & ! :ole leaf is !n said to be bi-comp\nd or twice-comp\nd 7,fig4 #ij74 ,"s leaves are ?ree-comp\nd1 f\r-comp\nd1 or five-comp\nd4 ,decomp\nd is a g5]al t]m to express any degree ( comp\nd+ beyond twice-comp\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--;,,digitately ,,comp\nd ,,leaf ,,( ,,raspb]ry4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,,poison ,,ivy4 ,,leaf ,,& ,,fruit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,,lob$ ,,leaf ,,( ,,sug> ,,maple4 ,leaves t are n divid$ z f> z to ! midrib are said to be3 lob$1 if ! op5+s or s9uses are n m ?an half ! dep? ( ! blade 7,fig4 #if72 cleft1 if ! s9uses are deep] ?an ! middle2 p>t$1 if ! s9uses rea* two ?irds or m to ! midrib 7,fig4 #ig72 divid$1 if s9uses rea* ne>ly or q to ! midrib4 ,! p>ts are call$ lobes1 divisions1 or segm5ts1 r ?an leaflets4 ,! leaf may be p9nately or digitately lob$1 p>t$1 cleft1 or divid$4 ,a p9nately p>t$ or cleft leaf is sometimes said to be p9natifid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,,digitately ,,p>t$ ,,leaves ,,( ,,begonia4 ,leaves may h "o or all ( ?ree p>ts--blade1 or exp&$ "p2 petiole1 or /alk2 /ipules1 or app5dages at ! base ( ! petiole4 ,a leaf t has all ?ree ( ^! p>ts is said to be complete 7,figs4 #ia1 #ajf74 ,! /ipules are (t5 gre5 & leaflike & p]=m ! function ( foliage1 z 9 ! pea & ,japanese qu9ce 7! latt] common 9 y>ds74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,,oblong-,,ovate ,,sessile ,,leaves ,,( ,,tea4 ,leaves & leaflets t h no /alks are said to be sessile 7,figs4 #ih1 #ajc71 i4e4 sitt+4 ,f9d sev]al examples4 ,! same is said ( fl[]s & fruits4 ,! blade ( a sessile leaf may p>tly or :olly surr\nd ! /em1 :5 x is said to be clasp+4 ,examples3 a/] 7,fig4 #ii71 corn4 ,9 "s cases ! leaf runs d[n ! /em1 =m+ a w+2 su* leaves are said to be decurr5t 7,fig4 #ajj74 ,:5 opposite sessile leaves are jo9$ by _! bases1 !y are said to be connate 7,fig4 #aja74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--;,,clasp+ ,,leaf ,,( ,a ,,wild ,,a/]4 ,leaflets may h "o or all ( ^! ?ree p>ts1 b ! /alks ( leaflets are call$ petiolules & ! /ipules ( leaflets are call$ /ipels4 ,! leaf ( ! g>d5 bean has leaflets1 petiolules1 & /ipels4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,,decurr5t ,,leaves ,,( ,,mulle94 ,! blade is usually atta*$ to ! petiole by its l[] edge4 ,9 p9nate-ve9$ leaves1 ! petiole seems to cont9ue ?r\gh ! leaf z a midrib 7,fig4 #ia74 ,9 "s plants1 h[ev]1 ! petiole jo9s ! blade inside or beyond ! m>g9 7,fig4 #ib74 ,su* leaves are said to be peltate or %ield-%ap$4 ,?is mode ( atta*m5t is p>ticul>ly common 9 float+ leaves 7e4g4 ! wat] lilies74 ,peltate leaves are usually digitate-ve9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,,two ,,pairs ,,( ,,connate ,,leaves ,,( ,,honeysuckle4 ,h[ to ,tell a ,leaf4--,x is (t5 difficult to di/+ui% comp\nd leaves f leafy bran*es1 & leaflets f leaves4 ,z a rule leaves c be di/+ui%$ by ! foll[+ te/s3 7#a7 ,leaves are tempor>y /ructures1 soon] or lat] fall+4 7#b7 ,usually buds are borne 9 _! axils4 7#c7 ,leaves are usually borne at jo9ts or nodes4 7#d7 ,!y arise on wood ( ! curr5t ye>'s gr[?4 7#e7 ,!y h a m or less def9ite arrangem5t4 ,:5 leaves fall1 ! twig t bore !m rema9s2 :5 leaflets fall1 ! ma9 petiole or /alk t bore !m also falls4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,,l9e>-,,acum9ate ,,leaf ,,( ,,grass4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,,%ort-,,oblong ,,leaves ,,( ,,box4 ,%apes4--,leaves & leaflets are inf9itely v>iable 9 %ape4 ,names h be5 giv5 to "s ( ! m def9ite or regul> %apes4 ,^! names are a "p ( ! language ( botany4 ,! names repres5t ideal or typical %apes2 !re are no two leaves alike & v few t p]fectly con=m to ! def9itions4 ,! %apes are lik5$ to ^? ( famili> objects or ( geometrical figures4 ,"s ( ! common] %apes are z foll[s 7"n orig9al examples 9 ea* class73 ,illu/ration ,l9e>1 sev]al times long] ?an broad1 ) ! sides ne>ly or q p>allel4 ,spruces & mo/ grasses are examples 7,fig4 #ajb74 ,9 l9e> leaves1 ! ma9 ve9s are usually p>allel to ! midrib4 ,illu/ration ,oblong1 twice or ?rice z long z broad1 ) ! sides p>allel = mo/ ( _! l5g?4 ,fig4 #ajc %[s ! %ort-oblong leaves ( ! box1 a plant t is us$ = p]man5t edg+s 9 g>d5s4 ,illu/ration ,elliptic diff]s f ! oblong 9 hav+ ! sides gradually tap]+ to ei!r end f ! middle4 ,! ,european bee* 7,fig4 #ajd7 has elliptic leaves4 7,?is tree is (t5 plant$ 9 ?is c\ntry47 ,illu/ration ,lanceolate1 f\r to six times long] ?an broad1 wide/ bel[ ! middle1 & tap]+ to ei!r end4 ,"s ( ! n>r[-leav$ will[s are examples4 ,mo/ ( ! will[s & ! pea* h oblong-lanceolate leaves4 ,illu/ration ,spatulate1 a n>r[ leaf t is broade/ t[>d ! apex4 ,! top is usually r\nd$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--;,,elliptic ,,leaf ,,( ,,purple ,,bee*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--,,ovate ,,s]rate ,,leaf ,,( ,,hibiscus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,,leaf ,,( ,,apple1 %[+ blade1 petiole1 & small n>r[ /ipules4 ,illu/ration ,ovate1 %ap$ some:at l ! longitud9al section ( an egg3 ab\t twice z long z broad1 tap]+ f ne> ! base to ! apex4 ,?is is "o ( ! commone/ leaf =ms 7,figs4 #aje1 #ajf74 ,illu/ration ,obovate1 ovate inv]t$1--! wide "p t[>ds ! apex4 ,leaves ( mulle9 & leaflets ( horse-*e/nut & false indigo are obovate4 ,?is =m is commone/ 9 leaflets ( digitate leaves3 :y8 ,illu/ration ,r5i=m1 kidney-%ap$4 ,?is =m is sometimes se5 9 wild plants1 p>ticul>ly 9 root-leaves4 ,leaves ( wild g+] are ne>ly r5i=m4 ,illu/ration ,orbicul>1 circul> 9 g5]al outl9e4 ,v few leaves are p]fectly circul>1 b !re are _m t are ne>] circul> ?an any o!r %ape 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,,orbicul> ,,lob$ ,,leaves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,truncate ,,leaf ,,( ,,tulip ,,tree4 ,! %ape ( _m leaves is describ$ 9 comb9ations ( ^! t]ms3 z ovate-lanceolate1 lanceolate-oblong4 ,! %ape ( ! base & apex ( ! leaf or leaflet is (t5 *>act]i/ic4 ,! base may be r\nd$ 7,fig4 #ajd71 tap]+ 7,fig4 #ic71 cordate or he>t-%ap$ 7,fig4 #aje71 truncate or squ>$ z if cut (f4 ,! apex may be blunt or obtuse1 acute or %>p1 acum9ate or long-po9t$1 truncate 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,"n examples4 ,! %ape ( ! m>g9 is also *>act]i/ic ( ea* k9d ( leaf4 ,! m>g9 is entire :5 x is n ind5t$ or cut 9 any way 7,figs4 #ii1 #ajc74 ,:5 n entire1 x may be undulate or wavy 7,fig4 #ib71 s]rate or saw-too!d 7,fig4 #aje71 d5tate or m co>sely not*$ 7,fig4 #ie71 cr5ate or r\nd-too!d1 lob$1 & ! l4 ,give examples4 ,leaves (t5 diff] greatly 9 =m on ! same plant4 ,obs]ve ! diff]5t %apes ( leaves on ! "y gr[?s ( mulb]ries 7,fig4 #b7 & wild grapes2 also on vigor\s squa% & pumpk9 v9es4 ,9 "s cases !re may be simple & comp\nd leaves on ! same plant4 ,?is is m>k$ 9 ! s-call$ ,bo/on ivy or ampelopsis 7,fig4 #aji71 a v9e t is us$ to cov] brick & /one build+s4 ,diff]5t degrees ( comp\nd+1 ev5 9 ! same leaf1 may (t5 be f\nd 9 honey locu/ & ,k5tucky c(fee tree4 ,rem>kable diff]5ces 9 =ms are se5 by comp>+ se$-leaves ) mature leaves ( any plant 7,fig4 #cj74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--;,,diff]5t ,,=ms ,,( ,,leaves ,,f ,,"o ,,plant ,,( ,,ampelopsis4 ,! ,leaf & its ,environm5t4--,! =m & %ape ( ! leaf (t5 h direct relation to ! place 9 :i* ! leaf gr[s4 ,float+ leaves are usually exp&$ & flat1 & ! petiole v>ies 9 l5g? ) ! dep? ( ! wat]4 ,subm]g$ leaves are usually l9e> or ?read-l1 or are cut into v n>r[ divisions3 !reby m surface is expos$1 & possibly ! leaves are less injur$ by mov+ wat]4 ,comp>e ! sizes ( ! leaves on ! ends ( bran*es ) ^? at ! base ( ! bran*es or 9 ! int]ior ( ! tree top4 ,9 d5se foliage masses1 ! petioles ( ! l[]mo/ or und]mo/ leaves t5d to elongate--to pu% ! leaf to ! light4 ,on ! approa* ( w9t] ! leaf usually ceases to "w1 & dies4 ,x may drop1 :5 x is said to be decidu\s2 or x may rema9 on ! plant1 :5 x is said to be p]si/5t4 ,if p]si/5t leaves rema9 gre5 dur+ ! w9t]1 ! plant is said to be ev]gre54 ,give examples 9 ea* class4 ,mo/ leaves fall by break+ (f at ! l[] end ( ! petiole ) a di/9ct jo9t or articulation4 ,!re are _m leaves1 h[ev]1 t )] & hang on ! plant until torn (f by ! w9d2 ( su* are ! leaves ( grasses1 s$ges1 lilies1 or*ids1 & o!r plants ( ! monocotyl$ons4 ,mo/ leaves ( ?is "* are p>allel-ve9$4 ,leaves also die & fall f lack ( light4 ,obs]ve ! yell[ & weak leaves 9 a d5se tree top or 9 any ?icket4 ,:y d ! l[] leaves die on h\se plants8 ,note ! c>pet ( ne$les "u ! p9es4 ,all ev]gre5s %$ _! leaves aft] a "t4 ,c\nt+ back f ! tip ( a p9e or spruce %oot1 det]m9e h[ _m ye>s ! leaves p]si/4 ,9 "s spruces a few leaves may be f\nd on bran*es t5 or m ye>s old4 ,arrangem5t ( ,leaves4--,mo/ leaves h a regul> position or arrangem5t on ! /em4 ,?is position or direction is det]m9$ l>gely by exposure to sunlight4 ,9 temp]ate climates !y usually hang 9 su* a way t !y receive ! greate/ am\nt ( light4 ,"o leaf %ades ! o!r to ! lea/ possible degree4 ,if ! plant 7 plac$ 9 a new position ) ref]5ce to light1 ! leaves w\ld make an ef=t to turn _! blades4 ,:5 leaves are opposite ! pairs usually alt]nate4 ,t is1 if "o pair /&s nor? & s\?1 ! next pair /&s ea/ & we/4 ,see ! box-eld] %oot1 on ! left 9 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,"o pair does n %ade ! pair b5ea?4 ,! leaves are 9 f\r v]tical ranks4 ,!re are sev]al k9ds ( alt]nate arrangem5t4 ,9 ! elm %oot1 9 ,fig4 #aaj1 ! ?ird bud is v]tically above ! fir/4 ,?is is true no matt] :i* bud is tak5 z ! />t+ po9t4 ,draw a ?read ar\nd ! /em until ! two buds are jo9$4 ,set a p9 at ea* bud4 ,obs]ve t two buds are pass$ 7n c\nt+ ! la/7 & t ! ?read makes "o circuit ( ! /em4 ,repres5t+ ! numb] ( buds by a d5om9ator1 & ! numb] ( circuits by a num]ator1 we h ! fraction 1 :i* expresses ! "p ( ! circle t lies betwe5 any two buds4 ,t is1 ! buds are "o half ( #cfj degrees ap>t1 or #ahj degrees4 ,look+ endwise at ! /em1 ! leaves are se5 to be #b-rank$4 ,note t 9 ! apple %oot 7,fig4 #aaj1 "r7 ! ?read makes two circuits & five buds are pass$3 two-fif?s repres5ts ! div]g5ce betwe5 ! buds4 ,! leaves are #e-rank$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,,phyllotaxy ,,( ,,box ,,eld]1 ,,elm1 ,,apple4 ,e plant has its own arrangem5t ( leaves4 ,= opposite leaves1 see maple1 box eld]1 a%1 lilac1 honeysuckle1 m9t1 fu*sia4 ,= #b-rank$ arrangem5t1 see all grasses1 ,indian corn1 basswood1 elm4 ,= #c-rank$ arrangem5t1 see all s$ges4 ,= #e-rank$ 7:i* is "o ( ! commone/71 see apple1 *]ry1 pe>1 pea*1 plum1 popl>1 will[4 ,= #h-rank$1 see holly1 osage orange1 "s will[s4 ,m complicat$ arrangem5ts occur 9 bulbs1 h\se leeks1 & o!r cond5s$ p>ts4 ,! buds or 8eyes0 on a potato tub]1 :i* is an und]gr\nd /em 7:y871 %[ a spiral arrangem5t 7,fig4 #aaa74 ,! arrangem5t ( leaves on ! /em is kn[n z phyllotaxy 7lit]ally1 8leaf arrangem5t074 ,make out ! phyllotaxy on six diff]5t plants ne>e/ ! s*oolh\se door4 ,9 "s plants1 sev]al leaves occur at "o level1 be+ arrang$ 9 a circle ar\nd ! /em4 ,su* leaves are said to be v]ticillate1 or :orl$4 ,leaves arrang$ 9 ?is way are usually n>r[3 :y8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--,,phyllotaxy ,,( ,,! ,,potato ,,tub]4 ,"w x out on a fre% long tub]4 ,al?\gh a def9ite arrangem5t ( leaves is ! rule 9 mo/ plants1 x is subject to modification4 ,on %oots t receive ! light only f "o side or t gr[ 9 difficult positions1 ! arrangem5t may n be def9ite4 ,exam9e %oots t gr[ on ! "u side ( d5se tree tops or 9 o!r p>tially light$ positions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,,c[pea4 ,describe ! leaves4 ,= :at is ! plant us$8 ,,sugge/ions4--#ee4 ,! pupil %\ld mat* leaves to det]m9e :e!r any two are alike4 ,:y8 ,comp>e leaves f ! same plant 9 size1 %ape1 color1 =m ( m>g91 l5g? ( petiole1 v5ation1 texture 7z to ?ickness or ?9ness71 /age ( maturity1 smoo?ness or hair9ess4 #ef4 ,let ! pupil take an av]age leaf f ea* ( ! fir/ t5 diff]5t k9ds ( plants t he meets & comp>e !m z to ! above po9ts 79 ,ex]cise #ee71 & also "n ! %apes4 ,det]m9e h[ ! v>i\s leaves resemble & diff]4 #eg4 ,describe ! /ipules ( rose1 apple1 fig1 will[1 violet1 pea1 or o!rs4 #eh4 ,9 :at "p ( ! _w are p>allel-ve9$ leaves ! m common8 #ei4 ,d y "k ( p>allel-ve9$ leaves t h lob$ or d5tate m>g9s8 #fj4 ,:at becomes ( dead leaves8 #fa4 ,:y is !re no grass or o!r und]gr[? "u p9e & spruce trees8 #fb4 ,"n sev]al leaves t are useful = decorations4 ,:y are !y useful8 #fc4 ,:at trees 9 y\r vic9ity are mo/ e/eem$ z %ade trees8 ,:at is ! "* ( _! foliage8 #fd4 ,:y are ! int]nodes s long 9 wat]-spr\ts & suck]s8 #fe4 ,h[ d foliage *>act]s 9 corn or sorghum diff] :5 ! plants are gr[n 9 r[s or broadca/8 ,:y8 #ff4 ,:y may removal ( half ! plants increase ! yield ( cotton or sug>-beets or lettuce8 #fg4 ,h[ d leaves curl :5 !y )]8 ,d diff]5t leaves behave diff]5tly 9 ?is respect8 #fh4 ,:at k9ds ( leaves d y "k to be eat5 by insects8 ,by cattle8 ,by horses8 ,:at k9ds are us$ = human food8 #fi4 ,h[ w\ld y describe ! %ape ( leaf ( pea*8 apple8 elm8 hackb]ry8 maple8 sweet-gum8 corn8 :eat8 cotton8 hickory8 c[pea8 /rawb]ry8 *rysan!mum8 rose8 c>nation8 #gj4 ,are any ( ! =ego+ leaves comp\nd8 ,h[ d y describe ! %ape ( a comp\nd leaf8 #ga4 ,h[ _m sizes ( leaves d y f9d on ! bu% or tree ne>e/ ! s*oolroom door8 #gb4 ,h[ _m colors or %ades8 #gc4 ,h[ _m l5g?s ( petioles8 #gd4 ,br+ 9 all ! %apes ( leaves t y c f9d4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,leaves--,,/ructure ,,or ,,anatomy ,besides ! framework1 or sy/em ( ve9s f\nd 9 blades ( all leaves1 !re is a s(t cellul> tissue call$ mesophyll1 or leaf p>5*yma1 & an epid]mis or sk9 t cov]s ! entire outside "p4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--,,section ,,( ,a ,,leaf1 %[+ ! air spaces4 ,brea?+-pore or /oma at a4 ,! palisade cells :i* *iefly conta9 ! *lorophyll are at b4 ,epid]mal cells at c4 ,mesophyll4--,! mesophyll is n all alike or homog5e\s4 ,! upp] lay] is compos$ ( elongat$ cells plac$ p]p5dicul> to ! surface ( ! leaf4 ,^! are call$ palisade cells4 ,^! cells are usually fill$ ) gre5 bodies call$ *lorophyll gra9s4 ,! gra9 conta9s a great numb] ( *lorophyll drops imb$d$ 9 ! protoplasm4 ,bel[ ! palisade cells is ! spongy p>5*yma1 compos$ ( cells m or less sph]ical 9 %ape1 irregul>ly arrang$1 & provid$ ) _m int]cellul> air cavities 7,fig4 #aac74 ,9 leaves ( "s plants expos$ to /rong light !re may be m ?an "o lay] ( palisade cells1 z 9 ! ,india-rubb] plant & ole&]4 ,ivy :5 gr[n 9 bright light w develop two su* lay]s ( cells1 b 9 %ad$ places x may be f\nd ) only "o4 ,su* plants z iris & compass plant1 :i* h bo? surfaces ( ! leaf equally expos$ to sunlight1 usually h a palisade lay] b5ea? ea* epid]mis4 ,epid]mis4--,! out] or epid]mal cells ( leaves d n be> *lorophyll1 b are usually s transp>5t t ! gre5 mesophyll c be se5 ?r\gh !m4 ,!y (t5 become v ?ick-wall$1 & are 9 mo/ plants devoid ( all protoplasm except a ?9 lay] l9+ ! walls1 ! cavities be+ fill$ ) cell sap4 ,?is sap is sometimes color$1 z 9 ! "u epid]mis ( begonia leaves4 ,x is n common to f9d m ?an "o lay] ( epid]mal cells =m+ ea* surface ( a leaf4 ,! epid]mis s]ves to reta9 moi/ure 9 ! leaf & z a g5]al protective cov]+4 ,9 des]t plants ! epid]mis1 z a rule1 is v ?ick & has a d5se cuticle1 !reby prev5t+ loss ( wat]4 ,!re are v>i\s outgr[?s ( ! epid]mis4 ,hairs are ! *ief ( ^!4 ,!y may be 7#a7 simple1 z on primula1 g]anium1 ngelia2 7#b7 once bran*$1 z on wallfl[]2 7#c7 comp\nd1 z on v]bascum or mulle92 7#d7 disk-l1 z on %eph]dia2 7#e7 /ellate1 or />-%ap$1 z 9 c]ta9 crucif]s4 ,9 "s cases ! hairs are gl&ul>1 z 9 ,*9ese primrose ( ! gre5h\ses 7,primula ,s95sis7 & c]ta9 hairs ( pumpk9 fl[]s4 ,! hairs (t5 protect ! brea?+ pores1 or /omates1 f du/ & wat]4 ,/omates 7sometimes call$ brea?+-pores7 are small op5+s or pores 9 ! epid]mis ( leaves & s(t /ems t all[ ! passage ( air & o!r gases & vapors 7/omate or /oma1 s+ul>2 /omates or /omata1 plural74 ,!y are plac$ ne> ! l>ge int]cellul> spaces ( ! mesophyll1 usually 9 positions lea/ affect$ by direct sunlight4 ,fig4 #aad %[s ! /ructure4 ,!re are two gu>d-cells at ! m\? ( ea* /omate1 :i* may 9 mo/ cases op5 or close ! passage z ! conditions ( ! atmosph]e may require4 ,! gu>d-cells conta9 *lorophyll4 ,9 ,fig4 #aae is %[n a case 9 :i* !re are comp\nd gu>d-cells1 t ( ivy4 ,on ! m>g9s ( c]ta9 leaves1 z ( fu*sia1 impati5s1 cabbage1 are op5+s kn[n z wat]-pores4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,/omate ,,( ,,iris 7,o/]h\t74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,,/omate ,,( ,,ivy1 %[+ comp\nd gu>d-cells4 ,/omates are v num]\s1 z w be se5 f ! numb]s %[+ ! pores to ea* squ>e in* ( leaf surface3 ,l[] surface ,upp] surface ,peony #ac1gij ,none ,holly #fc1fjj ,none ,lilac #afj1jjj ,none ,mi/letoe #bjj #bjj ,tradescantia #b1jjj #b1jjj ,g>d5 ,flag 7iris7 #aa1egb #aa1egb ,! arrangem5t ( /omates on ! leaf diff]s ) ea* k9d ( plant4 ,fig4 #aaf %[s /omates & also ! outl9es ( contigu\s epid]mal cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--,,/omates ,,( ,,g]anium ,,leaf4 ,! function or "w ( ! /omates is to regulate ! passage ( gases into & out ( ! plant4 ,! directly active organs or p>ts are gu>d-cells1 on ei!r side ! op5+4 ,"o me?od ( op5+ is z foll[s3 ,! ?ick] walls ( ! gu>d-cells 7,fig4 #aad7 absorb wat] f adjac5t cells1 ^! ?ick walls buckle or b5d & "p f ea* o!r at _! middles on ei!r side ( ! op5+1 caus+ ! /omate to op51 :5 ! air gases may be tak5 9 & ! leaf gases may pass out4 ,:5 moi/ure is r$uc$ 9 ! leaf tissue1 ! gu>d cells "p ) "s ( _! cont5ts1 ! ?ick walls /raight51 & ! faces ( ! two opposite ones come toge!r1 ?us clos+ ! /omate & prev5t+ any wat] vapor f pass+ out4 ,:5 a leaf is actively at "w mak+ new organic comp\nds1 ! /omates are usually op52 :5 unfavorable conditions arise1 !y are usually clos$4 ,!y also commonly close at night1 :5 gr[? 7or ! utiliz+ ( ! new mat]ials7 is mo/ likely to be active4 ,x is sometimes saf] to fumigate gre5h\ses & w9d[ g>d5s at night1 = ! noxi\s vapors are less likely to ent] ! leaf4 ,du/ may clog or cov] ! /omates4 ,ra9s b5efit plants by wa%+ ! leaves z well z by provid+ moi/ure to ! roots4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--,,l5ticels ,,on ,,"y ,,%oot ,,( ,,r$ ,,osi] 7,,cornus74 ,l5ticels4--,on ! "y woody twigs ( _m plants 7m>k$ 9 osi]s1 *]ry1 bir*7 !re are small corky spots or elevations kn[n z l5ticels 7,fig4 #aag74 ,!y m>k ! location ( "s loose cork cells t function z /omates1 = gre5 %oots1 z well z leaves1 take 9 & dis*>ge gases2 t is1 s(t gre5 twigs function z leaves4 ,"u "s ( ^! twig /omates1 corky mat]ial may =m & ! op5+ is torn & enl>g$3 ! l5ticels are successors to ! /omates4 ,! /omates lie 9 ! epid]mis1 b z ! twig ages ! epid]mis p]i%es & ! b>k becomes ! ext]nal lay]4 ,gases cont9ue to pass 9 & out ?r\gh ! l5ticels1 until ! bran* becomes heavily cov]$ ) ?ick1 corky b>k4 ,) ! gr[? ( ! twig1 ! l5ticel sc>s enl>ge l5g?wise or crosswise or assume o!r %apes1 (t5 becom+ *>act]i/ic m>k+s4 ,fibro-vascul> ,bundles4--,we h /udi$ ! fibro-vascul> bundles ( /ems 7,*ap4 ,x74 ,^! /em bundles cont9ue into ! leaves1 ramify+ into ! ve9s1 c>ry+ ! soil wat] inw>ds & br++1 by diffusion1 ! elaborat$ food out ?r\gh ! sieve-cells4 ,cut across a petiole & notice ! h>d spots or areas 9 x2 /rip ^! p>ts l5g?wise ( ! petiole3 :at are !y8 ,fall ( ! ,leaf4--,9 mo/ common decidu\s plants1 :5 ! season's "w = ! leaf is end$1 ! nutriti\s matt] may be )drawn1 & a lay] ( corky cells is complet$ ov] ! surface ( ! /em :]e ! leaf is atta*$4 ,! leaf soon falls4 ,x (t5 falls ev5 be=e x is kill$ by fro/4 ,decidu\s leaves beg9 to %[ ! surface l9e ( articulation 9 ! e>ly gr[+ season4 ,?is articulation may be obs]v$ at any "t dur+ ! summ]4 ,! area ( ! twig once cov]$ by ! petioles is call$ ! leaf-sc> aft] ! leaf has fall54 ,9 ,*ap4 ,,xv are %[n a numb] ( leaf-sc>s4 ,9 ! plane tree 7sycamore or buttonwood71 ! leaf-sc> is 9 ! =m ( a r+ surr\nd+ ! bud1 = ! bud is cov]$ by ! holl[$ end ( ! petiole2 ! leaf ( sumac is simil>4 ,exam9e ) a h& l5s leaf-sc>s ( sev]al woody plants4 ,note ! numb] ( bundle-sc>s 9 ea* leaf-sc>4 ,sections may be cut ?r\gh a leaf-sc> & exam9$ ) ! microscope4 ,note ! "* ( cells t cov] ! leaf-sc> surface4 ,,sugge/ions4--,to /udy epid]mal hairs3 #ge4 ,= ?is /udy1 use ! leaves ( any hairy or woolly plant4 ,a good h& l5s w reveal ! id5tity ( _m ( ! co>s] hairs4 ,a dissect+ microscope w %[ !m /ill bett]4 ,= ! /udy ( ! cell /ructure1 a comp\nd microscope is necess>y4 ,cross-sections may be made s z to br+ hairs on ! edge ( ! sections2 or 9 "s cases ! hairs may be peel$ or scrap$ f ! epid]mis & plac$ 9 wat] on a slide4 ,make sket*es ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( hairs4 #gf4 ,x is good practice = ! pupil to describe leaves 9 respect to _! cov]+3 ,are !y smoo? on bo? surfaces8 ,or hairy8 ,woolly8 ,?ickly or ?9ly hairy8 ,hairs long or %ort8 ,/&+ /raight out or ly+ close to ! surface ( ! leaf8 ,simple or bran*$8 ,atta*$ to ! ve9s or ! plane surface8 ,color8 ,mo/ abundant on "y leaves or old8 #gg4 ,place a hairy or woolly leaf "u wat]4 ,does ! hairy surface appe> silv]y8 ,:y8 ,o!r que/ions3 #gh4 ,:y is x good practice to wa% ! leaves ( h\se plants8 #gi4 ,describe ! leaf-sc>s on six k9ds ( plants3 size1 %ape1 color1 position ) ref]5ce to ! bud1 bundle-sc>s4 #hj4 ,d y f9d leaf-sc>s on monocotyl$on\s plants--corn1 c]eal gra9s1 lilies1 canna1 banana1 palm1 bamboo1 gre5 bri]8 #ha4 ,note ! table on page #hh4 ,c y sugge/ a reason :y !re are equal numb]s ( /omates on bo? surfaces ( leaves ( tradescantia & flag1 & none on upp] surface ( o!r leaves8 ,suppose y pick a leaf ( lilac 7or "s l>g] leaf71 seal ! petiole ) wax & !n rub ! "u surface ) vasel9e2 on ano!r leaf apply ! vasel9e to ! upp] surface2 :i* leaf )]s fir/1 & :y8 ,make a simil> exp]im5t ) iris or blue flag4 #hb4 ,:y d leaves & %oots ( h\se plants turn t[>ds ! light8 ,:at happ5s :5 ! plants are turn$ ar\nd8 #hc4 ,note position ( leaves ( beans1 clov]1 oxalis1 alfalfa1 locu/1 at night4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,leaves--,,function ,,or ,,"w ,we h discuss$ 79 ,*ap4 ,,viii7 ! "w or function ( roots & also 79 ,*ap4 ,x7 ! function ( /ems4 ,we are n[ ready to complete ! view ( ! ma9 vital activities ( plants by consid]+ ! function ( ! gre5 p>ts 7leaves & "y %oots74 ,s\rces ( ,food4--,! ord9>y gre5 plant has b two s\rces f :i* to secure food1--! air & ! soil4 ,:5 a plant is ?or\ghly dri$ 9 an ov51 ! wat] passes (f2 ?is wat] came f ! soil4 ,! rema9+ "p is call$ ! dry sub/ance or dry matt]4 ,if ! dry matt] is burn$ 9 an ord9>y fire1 only ! a% rema9s2 ?is a% came f ! soil4 ,! "p t pass$ (f z gas 9 ! burn+ conta9$ ! elem5ts t came f ! air2 x also conta9$ "s ( ^? t came f ! soil--all ^? 7z nitrog51 hydrog51 *lor9e7 t are trans=m$ into gases by ! heat ( a common fire4 ,! "p t comes f ! soil 7! a%7 is small 9 am\nt1 be+ consid]ably less ?an #aj p] c5t & sometimes less ?an #a p] c5t4 ,wat] is ! mo/ abundant s+le con/itu5t or sub/ance ( plants4 ,9 a corn plant ( ! roa/+-e> /age1 ab\t #hj p] c5t ( ! sub/ance is wat]4 ,a fre% turnip is ov] #ij p] c5t wat]4 ,fre% wood ( ! apple tree conta9s ab\t #de p] c5t ( wat]4 ,c>bon4--,c>bon ent]s abundantly into ! composition ( all plants4 ,note :at happ5s :5 a plant is burn$ )\t free access ( air1 or smo!r$1 z 9 a *>coal pit4 ,a mass ( *>coal rema9s1 almo/ z l>ge z ! body ( ! plant4 ,*>coal is almo/ pure c>bon1 ! a% pres5t be+ s small 9 proportion to ! l>ge am\nt ( c>bon t we look on ! a% z an impurity4 ,ne>ly half ( ! dry sub/ance ( a tree is c>bon4 ,c>bon goes (f z a gas :5 ! plant is burn$ 9 air4 ,x does n g (f alone1 b 9 comb9ation ) oxyg5 9 ! =m ( c>bon dioxid gas1 ,,co4 ,! gre5 plant secures its c>bon f ! air4 ,9 o!r words1 mu* ( ! solid matt] ( ! plant comes f "o ( ! gases ( ! air4 ,by volume1 c>bon dioxid =ms only a v small fraction ( #a p] c5t ( ! air4 ,x w\ld be v disa/r\s to animal life1 h[ev]1 if ?is p]c5tage 7 mu* increas$1 = x excludes ! life-giv+ oxyg54 ,c>bon dioxid is (t5 call$ 8f\l gas40 ,x may accumulate 9 old wells1 & an exp]i5c$ p]son w n desc5d into su* wells until !y h be5 te/$ ) a tor*4 ,if ! air 9 ! well w n support combu/ion1--t is1 if ! tor* is ext+ui%$1--x usually means t c>bon dioxid has dra9$ into ! place4 ,! air ( a clos$ s*oolroom (t5 conta9s f> too mu* ( ?is gas1 along ) little solid p>ticles ( wa/e matt]s4 ,c>bon dioxid is (t5 kn[n z c>bonic acid gas4 ,appropriation ( ! ,c>bon4--,! c>bon dioxid ( ! air readily diffuses itself into ! leaves & o!r gre5 p>ts ( ! plant4 ,! leaf is delicate 9 texture1 & :5 v "y ! air c diffuse directly into ! tissues4 ,! /omates1 h[ev]1 are ! special inlets adapt$ = ! admission ( gases into ! leaves & o!r gre5 p>ts4 ,?r\gh ^! /omates1 or diffusion-pores1 ! outside air ent]s into ! air-spaces ( ! plant1 & is f9ally absorb$ by ! little cells conta9+ ! liv+ matt]4 ,*lorophyll 78leaf gre507 is ! ag5t t secures ! en]gy by means ( :i* c>bon dioxid is utiliz$4 ,?is mat]ial is conta9$ 9 ! leaf cells 9 ! =m ( gra9s 7p4 #hf72 ! gra9s !mselves are protoplasm1 only ! color+ matt] be+ *lorophyll4 ,! *lorophyll bodies or gra9s are (t5 mo/ abundant ne> ! upp] surface ( ! leaf1 :]e !y c secure ! greate/ am\nt ( light4 ,)\t ?is gre5 color+ matt]1 !re w\ld be no reason = ! l>ge flat surfaces :i* ! leaves possess1 & no reason = ! fact t ! leaves are borne mo/ abundantly at ! ends ( bran*es1 :]e ! light is mo/ available4 ,plants ) color$ leaves1 z coleus1 h *lorophyll1 b x is mask$ by o!r color+ matt]4 ,?is o!r color+ matt] is usually soluble 9 hot wat]3 boil a coleus leaf & notice t x becomes gre5 & ! wat] becomes color$4 ,plants gr[n 9 d>kness are yell[ & sl5d]1 & d n rea* maturity4 ,comp>e ! potato spr\ts t h gr[n f a tub] ly+ 9 ! d>k cell> ) ^? t h gr[n normally 9 ! bright light4 ,! %oots h become sl5d] & are devoid ( *lorophyll2 & :5 ! food t is /or$ 9 ! tub] is exhau/$1 ^! %oots w h liv$ useless lives4 ,a plant t has be5 gr[n 9 d>kness f ! se$ w soon die1 al?\gh = a "t ! little se$l+ w gr[ v tall & sl5d]3 :y8 ,light favors ! production ( *lorophyll1 & ! *lorophyll is ! ag5t 9 ! mak+ ( ! organic c>bon comp\nds4 ,sometimes *lorophyll is f\nd 9 buds & se$s1 b 9 mo/ cases ^! places are n p]fectly d>k4 ,notice h[ potato tub]s develop *lorophyll1 or become gre51 :5 expos$ to light4 ,photosyn!sis4--,c>bon dioxid diffuses into ! leaf2 dur+ sunlight x is us$1 & oxyg5 is giv5 (f4 ,h[ ! c>bon dioxid :i* is ?us absorb$ may be us$ 9 mak+ an organic food is a complex "q1 & ne$ n be /udi$ "h2 b x may be /at$ t c>bon dioxid & wat] are ! con/itu5ts4 ,complex comp\nds are built up out ( simpl] ones4 ,*lorophyll absorbs c]ta9 light rays1 & ! en]gy ?us directly or indirectly obta9$ is us$ by ! liv+ matt] 9 unit+ ! c>bon dioxid absorb$ f ! air ) "s ( ! wat] br\ght up f ! roots4 ,! ultimate result usually is />*4 ,! process is obscure1 b sug> is g5]ally "o /ep2 & our fir/ def9ite k ( ! product beg9s :5 />* is deposit$ 9 ! leaves4 ,! process ( us+ ! c>bon dioxid ( ! air has be5 kn[n z c>bon assimilation1 b ! t]m n[ mo/ us$ is photosyn!sis 7f two ,greek words1 mean+ light & to put toge!r74 ,/>* & ,sug>4--,all />* is compos$ ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg5 7,c,h,o74 ,! sug>s & ! sub/ance ( cell walls are v simil> to x 9 composition4 ,all ^! sub/ances are call$ c>bohydrates4 ,9 mak+ fruit sug> f ! c>bon & oxyg5 ( c>bon dioxid & f ! hydrog5 & oxyg5 ( ! wat]1 !re is a surplus ( oxyg5 7#f p>ts ,,co #f p>ts ,h,o ,c,h,o #f ,o74 ,x is ?is oxyg5 t is giv5 (f into ! air dur+ sunlight4 ,dige/ion4--,/>* is 9 ! =m ( insoluble granules4 ,:5 su* food mat]ial is c>ri$ f "o "p ( ! plant to ano!r = purposes ( gr[? or /orage1 x is made soluble be=e x c be transport$4 ,:5 ?is />*y mat]ial is transf]r$ f place to place1 x is usually *ang$ into sug> by ! action ( a dia/ase4 ,?is is a process ( dige/ion4 ,x is mu* l ! *ange ( />*y food/uffs to sug>y foods by ! saliva4 ,di/ribution ( ! ,dige/$ ,food4--,aft] be+ *ang$ to ! soluble =m1 ?is mat]ial is ready to be us$ 9 gr[?1 ei!r 9 ! leaf1 9 ! /em1 or 9 ! roots4 ,) o!r m complex products x is !n di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t all ( ! gr[+ p>ts ( ! plant2 & :5 pass+ d[n to ! root1 x seems to pass m readily ?r\gh ! inn] b>k1 9 plants :i* h a def9ite b>k4 ,?is gradual d[nw>d diffusion ?r\gh ! inn] b>k ( mat]ials suitable = gr[? is ! process ref]r$ to :5 ! 8desc5t ( sap0 is m5tion$4 ,/>* & o!r products are (t5 /or$ 9 "o gr[+ season to be us$ 9 ! next season4 ,if a tree is con/rict$ or /rangl$ by a wire ar\nd its trunk 7,fig4 #aah71 ! dige/$ food _c readily pass d[n & x is /or$ above ! girdle1 caus+ an enl>gem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,,trunk ,,girdl$ ,,by ,a ,,wire4 ,see ,fig4 #he4 ,assimilation4--,! food f ! air & t f ! soil unite 9 ! liv+ tissues4 ,! 8sap0 t passes upw>ds f ! roots 9 ! gr[+ season is made up l>gely ( ! soil wat] & ! salts :i* h be5 absorb$ 9 ! dilut$ solutions 7p4 #fg74 ,?is upw>d-mov+ wat] is conduct$ l>gely ?r\gh c]ta9 tubul> canals ( ! "y wood4 ,^! cells are nev] cont9u\s tubes f root to leaf2 b ! wat] passes readily f "o cell or canal to ano!r 9 its upw>d c\rse4 ,! upw>d-mov+ wat] gradually passes to ! gr[+ p>ts1 & ev]y:]e 9 ! liv+ tissues1 x is ( c\rse 9 ! mo/ intimate contact ) ! soluble c>bohydrates & products ( photosyn!sis4 ,9 ! build+ up or recon/ructive & o!r processes x is !re=e available4 ,we may prop]ly conceive ( c]ta9 ( ! simpl] organic molecules z pass+ ?r\gh a s]ies ( *anges1 gradually increas+ 9 complexity4 ,!re w be =m$ sub/ances conta9+ nitrog5 9 addition to c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg54 ,o!rs w conta9 also sulfur & phosphorus1 & ! v>i\s processes may be ?\ght ( z culm9at+ 9 protoplasm4 ,protoplasm is ! liv+ matt] 9 plants4 ,x is 9 ! cells1 & is usually semifluid4 ,/>* is n liv+ matt]4 ,! complex process ( build+ up ! protoplasm is call$ assimilation4 ,respiration4--,plants ne$ oxyg5 = respiration1 z animals d4 ,we h se5 t plants ne$ ! c>bon dioxid ( ! air4 ,to mo/ plants ! nitrog5 ( ! air is in]t1 & s]ves only to dilute ! o!r elem5ts2 b ! oxyg5 is necess>y = all life4 ,we "k t all animals ne$ ?is oxyg5 9 ord] to brea! or respire4 ,9 fact1 !y h become accu/om$ to x 9 j ! proportions f\nd 9 ! air2 & ?is is n[ be/ = !m4 ,:5 animals brea! ! air once1 !y make x f\l1 because !y use "s ( ! oxyg5 & give (f c>bon dioxid4 ,likewise1 all liv+ p>ts ( ! plant mu/ h a con/ant supply ( oxyg54 ,roots also ne$ x1 = !y respire4 ,air goes 9 & out ( ! soil by diffusion1 & z ! soil is heat$ & cool$1 caus+ ! air to exp& & contract4 ,! oxyg5 passes into ! air-spaces & is absorb$ by ! moi/ cell membranes4 ,9 ! liv+ cells x makes possible ! =mation ( simpl] comp\nds by :i* en]gy is releas$4 ,?is en]gy enables ! plant to "w & gr[1 & ! f9al products ( ?is action are c>bon dioxid & wat]4 ,z a result ( ! use ( ?is oxyg5 by night & by day1 plants give (f c>bon dioxid4 ,plants respire2 b s9ce !y are /ation>y1 & m or less inactive1 !y d n ne$ z mu* oxyg5 z animals1 & !y d n give (f s mu* c>bon dioxid4 ,a few plants 9 a sleep+ room ne$ n di/urb "o m ?an a family ( mice4 ,x %\ld be not$1 h[ev]1 t g]m9at+ se$s respire vigor\sly1 h5ce !y consume mu* oxyg52 & op5+ buds & fl[]s are likewise active4 ,transpiration4--,mu* m wat] is absorb$ by ! roots ?an is us$ 9 gr[?1 & ?is surplus wat] passes f ! leaves into ! atmosph]e by an evaporation process kn[n z transpiration4 ,transpiration takes place m abundantly f ! "u surfaces ( leaves1 & ?r\gh ! pores or /omates4 ,a sunfl[] plant ( ! height ( a man1 dur+ an active p]iod ( gr[?1 gives (f a qu>t ( wat] p] day4 ,a l>ge oak tree may transpire #aej gallons p] day dur+ ! summ]4 ,= e ounce ( dry matt] produc$1 x is e/imat$ t #ae to #be p\nds ( wat] usually passes ?r\gh ! plant4 ,:5 ! roots fail to supply to ! plant suffici5t wat] to equalize t transpir$ by ! leaves1 ! plant wilts4 ,transpiration f ! leaves & delicate %oots is increas$ by all ( ! conditions :i* increase evaporation1 su* z high] temp]ature1 dry air1 or w9d4 ,! /omata op5 & close1 t5d+ to regulate transpiration z ! v>y+ conditions ( ! atmosph]e affect ! moi/ure cont5t ( ! plant4 ,h[ev]1 9 p]iods ( dr\ght or ( v hot wea!r1 & especially dur+ a hot w9d1 ! clos+ ( ^! /omates _c suffici5tly prev5t evaporation4 ,! roots may be v active & yet fail to absorb suffici5t moi/ure to equalize t giv5 (f by ! leaves4 ,! plant %[s ! effect 7h[874 ,on a hot dry day1 note h[ ! leaves ( corn 8roll0 t[>ds aft]noon4 ,note h[ fre% & vigor\s ! same leaves appe> e>ly ! foll[+ morn+4 ,any injury to ! roots1 su* z a bruise1 or exposure to heat1 dr\ght1 or cold may cause ! plant to wilt4 ,wat] is =c$ up by root pressure or sap pressure4 7,ex]cise #ii47 ,"s ( ! dew on ! grass 9 ! morn+ may be ! wat] =c$ up by ! roots2 "s ( x is ! cond5s$ vapor ( ! air4 ,! wilt+ ( a plant is due to ! loss ( wat] f ! cells4 ,! cell walls are s(t1 & collapse4 ,a toy balloon w n /& alone until x is inflat$ ) air or liquid4 ,9 ! woody p>ts ( ! plant ! cell walls may be /iff en\gh to support !mselves1 ev5 ?\gh ! cell is empty4 ,measure ! contraction due to wilt+ & dry+ by trac+ a fre% leaf on page ( notebook1 & !n trac+ ! same leaf aft] x has be5 dri$ betwe5 pap]s4 ,! s(t] ! leaf1 ! great] w be ! contraction4 ,/orage4--,we h said t />* may be /or$ 9 twigs to be us$ ! foll[+ ye>4 ,! v e>ly fl[]s on fruit trees1 especially ^? t come be=e ! leaves1 & ^? t come f bulbs1 z crocuses & tulips1 are support$ by ! />* or o!r food t 0 organiz$ ! ye> be=e4 ,"s plants h v special /orage res]voirs1 z ! potato1 9 ?is case be+ a ?ick5$ /em al?\gh gr[+ und]gr\nd4 7,:y a ?ick5$ /em8 p4 #hd47 ,x is well to make ! />* te/ on w9t] twigs & on all k9ds ( ?ick5$ p>ts1 z tub]s & bulbs4 ,c>nivor\s ,plants4--,c]ta9 plants capture insects & o!r v small animals & utilize !m to "s ext5t z food4 ,su* are ! sundew1 t has on ! leaves /icky hairs t close ov] ! insect2 ! ,v5us's flytrap ( ! ,s\!rn /ates1 9 :i* ! halves ( ! leaves close ov] ! prey l ! jaws ( a /eel trap2 & ! v>i\s k9ds ( pit*] plants t collect insects & o!r organic matt] 9 deep1 wat]-fill$1 flask-l leaf p\*es 7,fig4 #aai74 ,! sundew & ,v5us's flytrap are s5sitive to contact4 ,o!r plants are s5sitive to ! t\* )\t be+ insectivor\s4 ,! common cultivat$ s5sitive plant is an example4 ,?is is readily gr[n f se$s 7sold by se$sm57 9 a w>m place4 ,relat$ wild plants 9 ! s\? are s5sitive4 ,! utility ( ?is s5sitiv5ess is n und]/ood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--,,! ,,common ,,pit*] ,,plant 7,s>rac5ia purpurea7 ( ! ,nor?1 %[+ ! tubul> leaves & ! odd1 long-/alk$ fl[]s4 ,p>ts t ,simulate ,leaves4--,we h le>n$ t leaves are endlessly modifi$ to suit ! conditions 9 :i* ! plant is plac$4 ,! mo/ m>k$ modifications are 9 adaptation to light4 ,on ! o!r h&1 o!r organs (t5 p]=m ! functions ( leaves4 ,gre5 %oots function z leaves4 ,^! %oots may look l leaves1 9 :i* case !y are call$ cladophylla4 ,! foliage ( common asp>agus is made up ( f9e bran*es3 ! real morphological leaves are ! m9ute dry functionless scales at ! bases ( ^! bran*lets4 7,:at reason is !re = call+ !m leaves87 ,! broad 8leaves0 ( ! flori/'s smilax are cladophylla3 :]e are ! leaves on ?is plant8 ,9 mo/ ( ! cacti1 ! entire plant body p]=ms ! functions ( leaves until ! p>ts become cork-b\nd4 ,leaves are sometimes modifi$ to p]=m o!r functions ?an ! vital processes3 !y may be t5drils1 z ! t]m9al leaflets ( pea & sweet pea2 or sp9es1 z 9 b>b]ry4 ,n all sp9es & ?orns1 h[ev]1 repres5t modifi$ leaves3 "s ( !m 7z ( haw?orns1 osage orange1 honey locu/7 are bran*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--;,,exclud+ ,,light ,,& ,,co ,,f ,,"p ,,( ,a ,,leaf ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--,,! ,,result4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--,,to ,,%[ ,,! ,,escape ,,( ,,oxyg54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,to ,,illu/rate ,a ,,product ,,( ,,respiration4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--,,respiration ,,( ,,?ick ,,roots4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,,to ,,illu/rate ,,transpiration4 ,,sugge/ions4--,to te/ = *lorophyll4 #hd4 ,pur*ase ab\t a gill ( wood alcohol4 ,secure a leaf ( g]anium1 clov]1 or o!r plant t has be5 expos$ to sunlight = a few h\rs1 &1 aft] dipp+ x = a m9ute 9 boil+ wat]1 put x 9 a :ite cup ) suffici5t alcohol to cov]4 ,place ! cup 9 a %all[ pan ( hot wat] on ! /ove :]e x is n hot en\gh = ! alcohol to take fire4 ,aft] a "t ! *lorophyll is dissolv$ by ! alcohol1 :i* has become an int5se gre54 ,save ?is leaf = ! />* exp]im5t 7,ex]cise #he74 ,)\t *lorophyll1 ! plant _c appropriate ! c>bon dioxid ( ! air4 ,/>* & photosyn!sis4 #he4 ,/>* is pres5t 9 ! gre5 leaves :i* h be5 expos$ to sunlight2 b 9 ! d>k no />* c be =m$ f c>bon dioxid4 ,apply iod9e to ! leaf f :i* ! *lorophyll 0 dissolv$ 9 ! previ\s exp]im5t4 ,note t ! leaf is color$ purpli% br[n ?r\gh\t4 ,! leaf conta9s />*4 #hf4 ,secure a leaf f a plant :i* has be5 9 ! d>kness = ab\t two days4 ,dissolve ! *lorophyll z be=e1 & attempt to /a9 ?is leaf ) iod9e4 ,no purpli% br[n color is produc$4 ,?is %[s t ! />* manufactur$ 9 ! leaf may be entirely remov$ dur+ d>kness4 #hg4 ,secure a plant :i* has be5 kept 9 d>kness = tw5ty-f\r h\rs or m4 ,split a small cork & p9 ! two halves on opposite sides ( "o ( ! leaves1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #abj4 ,place ! plant 9 ! sunlight aga94 ,aft] a morn+ ( bright sun%9e dissolve ! *lorophyll 9 ?is leaf ) alcohol2 !n /a9 ! leaf ) ! iod9e4 ,notice t ! leaf is /a9$ deeply except :]e ! cork 02 !re sunlight & c>bon dioxid 7 exclud$1 ,fig4 #aba4 ,!re is no />* 9 ! cov]$ area4 #hh4 ,plants or p>ts ( plants t h develop$ no *lorophyll c =m no />*4 ,secure a v>iegat$ leaf ( coleus1 ribbon grass1 g]anium1 or ( any plant %[+ bo? :ite & gre5 areas4 ,on a day ( bright sun%9e1 te/ "o ( ^! leaves by ! alcohol & iod9e me?od = ! pres5ce ( />*4 ,obs]ve t ! p>ts devoid ( gre5 color h =m$ no />*4 ,h[ev]1 aft] />* has once be5 =m$ 9 ! leaves1 x may be *ang$ into soluble sub/ances & remov$1 to be aga9 conv]t$ into />* 9 c]ta9 o!r p>ts ( ! liv+ tissues4 ,to te/ ! giv+ (f ( oxyg5 by day4 #hi4 ,make ! exp]im5t illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #abb4 ,"u a funnel 9 a deep glass j> conta9+ fre% spr+ or /ream wat] place fre% pieces ( ! common wat]we$ elodea 7or ana*>is74 ,h ! funnel consid]ably small] ?an ! vessel1 & support ! funnel well up f ! bottom s t ! plant c m readily get all ( ! c>bon dioxid available 9 ! wat]4 ,:y w\ld boil$ wat] be undesirable 9 ?is exp]im5t8 ,= a home-made glass funnel1 crack ! bottom (f a n>r[-neck$ bottle by press+ a r$-hot pok] or iron rod aga9/ x & lead+ ! crack ar\nd ! bottle4 ,inv]t a te/-tube ov] ! /em ( ! funnel4 ,9 sunlight bubbles ( oxyg5 w arise & collect 9 ! te/-tube4 ,if a suffici5t quantity ( oxyg5 has collect$1 a light$ tap] ins]t$ 9 ! tube w gl[ ) a bright] flame1 %[+ ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 9 great] quantity ?an 9 ! air4 ,%ade ! vessel4 ,are bubbles giv5 (f8 ,= _m reasons x is impracticable to cont9ue ?is exp]im5t long] ?an a few h\rs4 #ij4 ,a simpl] exp]im5t may be made if "o ( ! wat]we$s ,cabomba 7wat]-lily family7 is available4 ,tie a lot ( bran*es toge!r s t ! basal ends %all make a small bundle4 ,place ^! 9 a l>ge vessel ( spr+ wat]1 & ins]t a te/-tube ( wat] z be=e ov] ! bundle4 ,! bubbles w arise f ! cut surfaces4 ,obs]ve ! bubbles on pond scum & wat]we$s on a bright day4 ,to illu/rate ! results ( respiration 7,,co74 #ia4 ,9 a j> ( g]m9at+ se$s 7,fig4 #abc7 place c>efully a small di% ( limewat] & cov] tightly4 ,put a simil> di% 9 ano!r j> ( ab\t ! same air space4 ,aft] a few h\rs comp>e ! cl\d9ess or precipitate 9 ! two vessels ( limewat]4 #ib4 ,or1 place a gr[+ plant 9 a deep cov]$ j> away f ! light1 & aft] a few h\rs ins]t a light$ c&le or spl9t]4 #ic4 ,or1 p]=m a simil> exp]im5t ) fre% roots ( beets or turnips 7,fig4 #abd7 f :i* ! leaves are mo/ly remov$4 ,9 ?is case1 ! j> ne$ n be kept d>k2 :y8 ,to te/ transpiration4 #id4 ,cut a succul5t %oot ( any plant1 ?ru/ ! end ( x ?r\gh a hole 9 a cork1 & /& x 9 a small bottle ( wat]4 ,inv]t ov] ?is a fruit j>1 & obs]ve t a mi/ soon accumulates on ! inside ( ! glass4 ,9 "t drops ( wat] =m4 #ie4 ,! exp]im5t may be v>i$ z %[n 9 ,fig4 #abe4 #if4 ,or1 inv]t ! fruit j> ov] an entire plant1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #abf1 tak+ c>e to cov] ! soil ) oil$ pap] or rubb] clo? to prev5t evaporation f ! soil4 #ig4 ,! te/ may also be made by plac+ ! pot1 prop]ly protect$1 on balances1 & ! loss ( weight w be notic$ 7,fig4 #abg74 #ih4 ,cut a w9t] twig1 seal ! sev]$ end ) wax1 & all[ ! twig to lie sev]al days2 x %rivels4 ,!re mu/ be "s upw>d movem5t ( wat] ev5 9 w9t]1 else plants w\ld %rivel & die4 #ii4 ,to illu/rate sap pressure4 ,! upw>d movem5t ( sap wat] (t5 takes place "u consid]able =ce4 ,! cause ( ?is =ce1 kn[n z root pressure1 is n well und]/ood4 ,! pressure v>ies ) diff]5t plants & "u diff]5t conditions4 ,to illu/rate3 cut (f a /rong-gr[+ small plant ne> ! gr\nd4 ,by means ( a bit ( rubb] tube atta* a glass tube ) a bore ( approximately ! diamet] ( ! /em4 ,p\r 9 a little wat]4 ,obs]ve ! rise ( ! wat] due to ! pressure f bel[ 7,fig4 #abh74 ,"s plants yield a l>ge am\nt ( wat] "u a pressure suffici5t to raise a column sev]al feet2 o!rs =ce out little1 b "u consid]able pressure 7less easily demon/rat$74 ,! vital processes 7i4e41 ! life processes74 #ajj4 ,! pupil hav+ /udi$ roots1 /ems1 & leaves1 %\ld n[ be able to describe ! ma9 vital functions ( plants3 :at is ! root function8 /em function8 leaf function8 #aja4 ,:at is meant by ! 8sap08 #ajb4 ,:]e & h[ does ! plant secure its wat]8 oxyg58 c>bon8 hydrog58 nitrog58 sulfur8 potassium8 calcium8 iron8 phosphorus8 #ajc4 ,:]e is all ! />* 9 ! _w made8 ,:at does a />*-factory e/abli%m5t d8 ,:]e are ! real />* factories8 #ajd4 ,9 :at "p ( ! tw5ty-f\r h\rs d plants gr[ mo/ rapidly 9 l5g?8 ,:5 is food =m$ & /or$ mo/ rapidly8 #aje4 ,:y does corn or cotton turn yell[ 9 a long ra9y spell8 #ajf4 ,if /ubble1 corn /alks1 or cotton /alks are burn$ 9 ! field1 is z mu* plant-food return$ to ! soil z :5 !y are pl[$ "u8 #ajg4 ,:at process ( plants is r\ghly analog\s to p]spiration ( animals8 #ajh4 ,:at "p ( ! organic _w uses raw m9]al = food8 #aji4 ,:y is e>? bank$ ov] cel]y to blan* x8 #aaj4 ,is ! am\nt ( wat] transpir$ equal to ! am\nt absorb$8 #aaa4 ,give "s reasons :y plants v close to a h\se may n ?rive or may ev5 die4 #aab4 ,:y are fruit-trees prun$ or ?9n$ out z 9 ,fig4 #abi8 ,prop] balance betwe5 top & root4 #aac4 ,we h le>n$ t ! leaf p>ts & ! root p>ts "w toge!r4 ,!y may be said to balance ea* o!r 9 activities1 ! root supply+ ! top & ! top supply+ ! root 7h[874 ,if half ! roots 7 cut f a tree1 we %\ld expect to r$uce ! top also1 p>ticul>ly if ! tree is be+ transplant$4 ,h[ w\ld y prune a tree or bu% t is be+ transplant$8 ,fig4 #acj may be sugge/ive4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--,,to ,,illu/rate ,,transpiration4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,,loss ,,( ,,wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--,,to ,,%[ ,,sap ,,pressure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--;,,be=e ,,& ,,aft] ,,prun+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--;,,an ,,apple ,,tree1 ) sugge/ions z to prun+ :5 x is set 9 ! or*>d4 ,at a is %[n a prun$ top4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,dep5d5t ,,plants ,?us f> we h spok5 ( plants ) roots & foliage & t dep5d on !mselves4 ,!y collect ! raw mat]ials & make !m ov] into assimilable food4 ,!y are indep5d5t4 ,plants )\t gre5 foliage _c make food2 !y mu/ h x made = !m or !y die4 ,!y are dep5d5t4 ,a spr\t f a potato tub] 9 a d>k cell> _c collect & elaborate c>bon dioxid4 ,x lives on ! food /or$ 9 ! tub]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--;,a ,,mu%room1 example ( a saprophytic plant4 ,?is is ! edible cultivat$ mu%room4 ,all plants ) naturally :ite or blan*$ p>ts are dep5d5t4 ,_! leaves d n develop4 ,!y live on organic matt]--t :i* has be5 made by a plant or elaborat$ by an animal4 ,! dodd]1 ,indian pipe1 bee* drop1 coral root among fl[]-be>+ plants1 also mu%rooms & o!r fungi 7,figs4 #aca1 #acb7 are examples4 ,! dodd] is common 9 swales1 be+ conspicu\s late 9 ! season f its ?read-l yell[ or orange /ems spread+ ov] ! h]bage ( o!r plants4 ,"o k9d attacks alfalfa & is a bad pe/4 ,! se$s g]m9ate 9 ! spr+1 b z soon z ! tw9+ /em atta*es itself to ano!r plant1 ! dodd] dies away at ! base & becomes :olly dep5d5t4 ,x produces fl[]s 9 clu/]s & se$s itself freely 7,fig4 #acc74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--;,a ,,p>asitic ,,fungus1 magnifi$4 ,! mycelium1 or vegetative "p1 is %[n by ! dott$-%ad$ p>ts ramify+ 9 ! leaf tissue4 ,! r\nd$ hau/oria project+ into ! cells are also %[n4 ,! long fruit+ p>ts ( ! fungus hang f ! "u surface ( ! leaf4 ,p>asites & ,saprophytes4--,a plant t is dep5d5t on a liv+ plant or animal is a p>asite1 & ! plant or animal on :i* x lives is ! ho/4 ,! dodd] is a true p>asite2 s are ! ru/s1 mildews1 & o!r fungi t attack leaves & %oots & injure !m4 ,! ?reads ( a p>asitic fungus usually creep ?r\gh ! int]cellul> spaces 9 ! leaf or /em & s5d suck]s 7or hau/oria7 into ! cells 7,fig4 #acb74 ,! ?reads 7or ! hyph7 clog ! air-spaces ( ! leaf & (t5 plug ! /omates1 & !y also appropriate & disorganize ! cell fluids2 ?us !y injure or kill _! ho/4 ,! mass ( hyph ( a fungus is call$ mycelium4 ,"s ( ! hyph f9ally gr[ out ( ! leaf & produce spores or reproductive cells t answ] ! purpose ( se$s 9 di/ribut+ ! plant 7b1 ,fig4 #acb74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--;,,dodd] ,,9 ,,fruit4 ,a plant t lives on dead or decay+ matt] is a saprophyte4 ,mu%rooms 7,fig4 #aca7 are examples2 !y live on ! decay+ matt] 9 ! soil4 ,mold on bread & *eese is an example4 ,lay a piece ( moi/ bread on a plate & inv]t a tumbl] ov] x4 ,9 a few days x w be moldy4 ,! spores 7 9 ! air1 or p]haps !y _h already fall5 on ! bread b _h n _h opportunity to gr[4 ,mo/ gre5 plants are unable to make any direct use ( ! humus or vegetable mold 9 ! soil1 = !y are n saprophytic4 ,! %elf-fungi 7,fig4 #acd7 are saprophytes4 ,!y are common on logs & trees4 ,"s ( !m are p]haps p>tially p>asitic1 ext5d+ ! mycelium into ! wood ( ! liv+ tree & caus+ x to become black-he>t$ 7,fig4 #acd74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--,,t9d] ,,fungus 7,polyporus igni>ius7 on bee* log4 ,! ext]nal "p ( ! fungus is %[n bel[2 ! he>t-rot injury above4 ,"s p>asites spr+ f ! gr\nd1 z o!r plants d1 b !y are p>asitic on ! roots ( _! ho/s4 ,"s p>asites may be p>tially p>asitic & p>tially saprophytic4 ,_m 7p]haps mo/7 ( ^! gr\nd saprophytes are aid$ 9 secur+ _! food by soil fungi1 :i* spread _! delicate ?reads ov] ! root-l bran*es ( ! plant & act z int]m$i>ies betwe5 ! food & ! saprophyte4 ,^! fungus-cov]$ roots are kn[n z mycorrhizas 7mean+ 8fungus root074 ,mycorrhizas are n peculi> to saprophytes4 ,!y are f\nd on _m :olly indep5d5t plants1 z1 = example1 ! hea?s1 oaks1 apples1 & p9es4 ,x is probable t ! fung\s ?reads p]=m "s ( ! (fices ( root-hairs to ! ho/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! fungus obta9s "s n\ri%m5t f ! ho/4 ,! association seems to be mutual4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--;,,bact]ia ,,( ,,sev]al ,,=ms1 mu* magnifi$4 ,saprophytes break d[n or decompose organic sub/ances4 ,*ief ( ^! saprophytes are _m microscopic organisms kn[n z bact]ia 7,fig4 #ace74 ,^! innum]able organisms are imm]s$ 9 wat] or 9 dead animals & plants1 & 9 all mann] ( moi/ organic products4 ,by break+ d[n organic comb9ations1 !y produce decay4 ,l>gely ?r\gh _! ag5cy1 & t ( _m true b microscopic fungi1 all ?+s pass into soil & gas4 ,?us are ! bodies ( plants & animals remov$ & ! cont9u+ r\nd ( life is ma9ta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--;,,am]ican ,,mi/letoe ,,gr[+ ,,on ,a ,,walnut ,,bran*4 ,"s p>asites are gre5-leav$4 ,su* is ! mi/letoe 7,fig4 #acf74 ,!y an*or !mselves on ! ho/ & absorb its juices1 b !y also appropriate & use ! c>bon dioxid ( ! air4 ,9 "s small gr\ps ( bact]ia a process ( organic syn!sis has be5 %[n to take place4 ,epiphytes4--,to be di/+ui%$ f ! dep5d5t plants are ^? t gr[ on o!r plants )\t tak+ food f !m4 ,^! are gre5-leav$ plants ^: roots burr[ 9 ! b>k ( ! ho/ plant & p]haps d]ive "s food f x1 b :i* subsi/ *iefly on mat]ials t !y secure f air du/1 ra9 wat]1 & ! air4 ,^! plants are epiphytes 7mean+ 8^u plants07 or air plants4 ,epiphytes ab\nd 9 ! tropics4 ,c]ta9 or*ids are among ! be/ kn[n examples 7,fig4 #cg74 ,! ,spani% moss or till&sia ( ! ,s\? is ano!r4 ,mosses & li*5s t gr[ on trees & f5ces may also be call$ epiphytes4 ,9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 ! plants probably h be5 driv5 to ^! special places 9 :i* to f9d opportunity to gr[4 ,plants gr[ :]e !y mu/1 n :]e !y w4 ,,sugge/ions4--#aad4 ,is a puffball a plant8 ,:y d y ?9k s8 #aae4 ,are mu%rooms ev] cultivat$1 & :]e & h[8 #aaf4 ,9 :at locations are mu%rooms & toad/ools usually f\nd8 7,!re is really no di/9ction betwe5 mu%rooms & toad/ools4 ,!y are all mu%rooms47 #aag4 ,:at k9ds ( mildew1 blight1 & ru/ d y "k8 #aah4 ,h[ d f>m]s ov]come potato blight8 ,apple scab8 ,or any o!r fung\s 8plant disease08 #aai4 ,h[ d ^! ?+s injure plants8 #abj4 ,:at is a plant disease8 #aba4 ,! pupil %\ld "k t e spot or injury on a leaf or /em is caus$ by some?+1--z an insect1 a fungus1 w9d1 hail1 dr\ght1 or o!r ag5cy4 ,h[ _m un9jur$ or p]fect leaves are !re on ! plant gr[+ ne>e/ ! s*oolh\se /eps8 #abb4 ,give =mula = ,bordeaux mixture & tell h[ & = :at x is us$4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,w9t] ,,& ,,dormant ,,buds ,a bud is a gr[+ po9t1 t]m9at+ an axis ei!r long or %ort1 or be+ ! />t+ po9t ( an axis4 ,all bran*es spr+ f buds4 ,9 ! gr[+ season ! bud is active2 lat] 9 ! season x ceases to increase ! axis 9 l5g?1 & z w9t] approa*es ! gr[+ po9t becomes m or less ?ick5$ & cov]$ by protect+ scales1 9 prep>ation = ! long re/+ season4 ,?is re/+1 dormant1 or w9t] body is :at is commonly spok5 ( z a 8bud40 ,a w9t] bud may be def9$ z an inactive cov]$ gr[+ po9t1 wait+ = spr+4 ,/ructurally1 a dormant bud is a %ort5$ axis or bran*1 be>+ m9iature leaves or fl[]s or bo?1 & protect$ by a cov]+4 ,cut 9 two1 l5g?wise1 a bud ( ! horse-*e/nut or o!r plant t has l>ge buds4 ,) a p9 sep>ate ! t9y leaves4 ,c\nt !m4 ,exam9e ! big bud ( ! rhub>b z x lies "u ! gr\nd 9 late w9t] or e>ly spr+2 or ! cr[n buds ( asp>agus1 hepatica1 or o!r e>ly spr+ plants4 ,dissect l>ge buds ( ! apple & pe> 7,figs4 #acg1 #ach74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--;,,bud ,,( ,,apricot1 %[+ ! m9iature leaves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--;,,bud ,,( ,,pe>1 %[+ bo? leaves & fl[]s4 ,! latt] are ! little knobs 9 ! c5t]4 ,! bud is protect$ by firm & dry scales4 ,^! scales are modifi$ leaves4 ,! scales fit close4 ,(t5 ! bud is protect$ by v>ni% 7see horse-*e/nut & ! balsam popl>s74 ,mo/ w9t] buds are m or less woolly4 ,exam9e !m "u a l5s4 ,z we might expect1 bud cov]+s are mo/ prom95t 9 cold & dry climates4 ,spr9kle wat] on velvet or flannel1 & note ! result & give a reason4 ,all w9t] buds give rise to bran*es1 n to leaves alone2 t is1 ! leaves are borne on ! l5g!n+ axis4 ,sometimes ! axis1 or bran*1 rema9s v %ort1--s %ort t x may n be notic$4 ,sometimes x gr[s sev]al feet long4 ,:e!r ! bran* gr[s l>ge or n dep5ds on ! *ance x has1--position on ! plant1 soil1 ra9fall1 & _m o!r factors4 ,! new %oot is ! unfold+ & enl>g+ ( ! t9y axis & leaves t we saw 9 ! bud4 ,if ! conditions are cong5ial1 ! %oot may =m m leaves ?an 7 tuck$ away 9 ! bud4 ,! l5g? ( ! %oot usually dep5ds m on ! l5g?s ( ! int]nodes ?an on ! numb] ( leaves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--,,leaf-,,sc>s4--,ailan?us4 ,:]e ,buds are4--,buds are borne 9 ! axils ( ! leaves1--9 ! acute angle t ! leaf makes ) ! /em4 ,:5 ! leaf is gr[+ 9 ! summ]1 a bud is =m+ above x4 ,:5 ! leaf falls1 ! bud rema9s1 & a sc> m>ks ! place ( ! leaf4 ,fig4 #aci %[s ! l>ge leaf-sc>s ( ailan?us4 ,obs]ve ^? on ! horse-*e/nut1 maple1 apple1 pe>1 basswood1 or any o!r tree or bu%4 ,sometimes two or m buds are borne 9 "o axil2 ! extra ones are accessory or sup]num]>y buds4 ,obs]ve !m 9 ! ,t>t>ian honeysuckle 7common 9 y>ds71 walnut1 butt]nut1 r$ maple1 honey locu/1 & sometimes 9 ! apricot & pea*4 ,if ! bud is at ! end ( a %oot1 h[ev] %ort ! %oot1 x is call$ a t]m9al bud4 ,x cont9ues ! gr[? ( ! axis 9 a direct l9e4 ,v (t5 ?ree or m buds are clu/]$ at ! tip 7,fig4 #adj72 & 9 ?is case !re may be m buds ?an leaf sc>s4 ,only "o ( !m1 h[ev]1 is /rictly t]m9al4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--,,t]m9al ,,bud ,,betwe5 ,,two ,,o!r ,,buds4--,currant4 ,a bud 9 ! axil ( a leaf is an axill>y or lat]al bud4 ,note t !re is normally at lea/ "o bud 9 ! axil ( e leaf on a tree or %rub 9 late summ] & fall4 ,! axill>y buds1 if !y gr[1 are ! />t+ po9ts ( new %oots ! foll[+ season4 ,if a leaf is pull$ (f e>ly 9 summ]1 :at w become ( ! "y bud 9 its axil8 ,try ?is4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--;,a ,,gigantic ,,bud4--,cabbage4 ,bulbs & cabbage heads may be lik5$ to buds2 t is1 !y are cond5s$ /ems1 ) scales or modifi$ leaves d5sely ov]lapp+ & =m+ a r\nd$ body 7,fig4 #ada74 ,!y diff] f true buds1 h[ev]1 9 ! fact t !y are cond5sations ( :ole ma9 /ems r ?an embryo /ems borne 9 ! axils ( leaves4 ,b bulblets 7z ( tig] lily7 may be sc>cely di/+ui%able f buds on ! "o h& & f bulbs on ! o!r4 ,cut a cabbage head 9 two1 l5g?wise1 & see :at x is l4 ,! buds t appe> on roots are unusual or abnormal1--!y occur only occasionally & 9 no def9ite ord]4 ,buds appe>+ 9 unusual places on any "p ( ! plant are call$ adv5titi\s buds4 ,su* usually are ! buds t arise :5 a l>ge limb is cut (f1 & f :i* suck]s or wat] spr\ts arise4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--;,,fruit-,,bud ,,( ,,pe>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--,,! ,,op5+ ,,( ,,! ,,pe> ,,fruit-,,bud4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #add4--,,op5+ ,,pe> ,,leaf-,,bud4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--,,op5+ ,,( ,,! ,,pe>-,,bud4 ,h[ ,buds ,op54--,:5 ! bud swells1 ! scales are pu%$ ap>t1 ! little axis elongates & pu%es out4 ,9 mo/ plants ! outside scales fall v soon1 leav+ a little r+ ( sc>s4 ,) t]m9al buds1 ?is r+ m>ks ! end ( ! ye>'s gr[?3 h[8 ,notice pea*1 apple1 plum1 will[1 & o!r plants4 ,9 "s o!rs1 all ! scales gr[ = a "t1 z 9 ! pe> 7,figs4 #adb1 #adc1 #add74 ,9 o!r plants ! inn] bud scales become gre5 & almo/ leaf-l4 ,see ! maple & hickory4 ,sometimes ,fl[]s come out ( ! ,buds4--,leaves may or may n accompany ! fl[]s4 ,we saw ! embryo fl[]s 9 ,fig4 #ach4 ,! bud is %[n aga9 9 ,fig4 #adb4 ,9 ,fig4 #adc x is op5+4 ,9 ,fig4 #ade x is m advanc$1 & ! woolly un=m$ fl[]s are appe>+4 ,9 ,fig4 #adf ! gr[? is m advanc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--;,a ,,s+le ,,fl[] ,,9 ,,! ,,pe> ,,clu/]1 z se5 at #g ,a4,m4 on ! day ( its op5+4 ,at #aj o'clock x w be fully exp&$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--,,! ,,op5+ ,,( ,,! ,,fl[]-,,bud ,,( ,,apricot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--;,,apricot ,,fl[]-,,bud1 enl>g$4 ,buds t conta9 or produce only leaves are leaf-buds4 ,^? :i* conta9 only fl[]s are fl[]-buds or fruit-buds4 ,! latt] occur on pea*1 almond1 apricot1 & _m v e>ly spr+-fl[]+ plants4 ,! s+le fl[] is em]g+ f ! apricot bud 9 ,fig4 #adg4 ,a longitud9al section ( ?is bud1 enl>g$1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #adh4 ,^? t conta9 bo? leaves & fl[]s are mix$ buds1 z 9 pe>1 apple1 & mo/ late spr+-fl[]+ plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--;,,fruit-,,buds ,,& ,,leaf-,,buds ,,( ,,pe>4 ,fruit buds are usually ?ick] or /\t] ?an leaf-buds4 ,!y are borne 9 diff]5t positions on diff]5t plants4 ,9 "s plants 7apple1 pe>7 !y are on ! ends ( %ort bran*es or spurs2 9 o!rs 7pea*1 r$ maple7 !y are along ! sides ( ! la/ ye>'s gr[?s4 ,9 ,fig4 #adi are %[n ?ree fruit-buds & "o leaf-bud on ,e1 & leaf-buds on ,a4 ,see also ,figs4 #aej1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec1 & expla94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aej4--;,,fruit-,,buds ,,( ,,apple ,,on ,,spurs3 a dormant bud at ! top4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aea4--;,,clu/] ,,( ,,fruit-,,buds ,,( ,,sweet ,,*]ry1 ) "o po9t$ leaf-bud 9 c5t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4--,,two ,,fruit-,,buds ,,( ,,pea* ) a leaf-bud betwe54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aec4--,,op5+ ,,( ,,leaf-,,buds ,,& ,,fl[]-,,buds ,,( ,,apple4 8,! bur/ ( spr+0 means 9 l>ge "p ! op5+ ( ! buds4 ,ev]y?+ 0 made ready ! fall be=e4 ,! embryo %oots & fl[]s 7 tuck$ away1 & ! food 0 /or$4 ,! w>m ra9 falls1 & ! %utt]s op5 & ! sleep]s wake3 ! frogs peep & ! birds come4 ,arrangem5t ( ,buds4--,we h f\nd t leaves are usually arrang$ 9 a def9ite ord]2 buds are borne 9 ! axils ( leaves3 !re=e buds mu/ exhibit phyllotaxy4 ,moreov]1 bran*es gr[ f buds3 bran*es1 !re=e1 %\ld %[ a def9ite arrangem5t2 usually1 h[ev]1 !y d n %[ ?is arrangem5t because n all ! buds gr[ & n all ! bran*es live4 7,see ,*aps4 ,,ii & ,,iii47 ,x is app>5t1 h[ev]1 t ! mode ( arrangem5t ( buds det]m9es to "s ext5t ! =m ( ! tree3 comp>e bud arrangem5t 9 p9e or fir ) t 9 maple or apple4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aed4--,,oak ,,spray4 ,h[ are ! leaves borne ) ref]5ce to ! annual gr[?s8 ,! upp]mo/ buds on any twig1 if !y are well matur$1 are usually ! l>g] & /rong] & !y are ! mo/ likely to gr[ ! next spr+2 !re=e1 bran*es t5d to be arrang$ 9 ti]s 7p>ticul>ly well m>k$ 9 spruces & firs74 ,see ,fig4 #aed & expla9 x4 ,w9t] ,buds %[ :at has be5 ! ,effect ( ,sunlight4--,buds are borne 9 ! axils ( ! leaves1 & ! size or vigor ( ! leaf det]m9es to a l>ge ext5t ! size ( ! bud4 ,notice t1 9 mo/ in/ances1 ! l>ge/ buds are ne>e/ ! tip 7,fig4 #aeg74 ,if ! l>ge/ ones are n ne> ! tip1 !re is "s special reason = x4 ,c y /ate x8 ,exam9e ! %oots on trees & bu%es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aee4--;,,an ,,apple ,,twig4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aef4--,same twig be=e leaves fell4 ,,sugge/ions4--,"s ( ! be/ ( all obs]vation lessons are ^? made on dormant twigs4 ,!re are _m ?+s to be le>n$1 ! eyes are tra9$1 & ! specim5s are ev]y:]e accessible4 #abc4 ,at :atev] "t ( ye> ! pupil takes up ! /udy ( bran*es1 he %\ld look = ?ree ?+s3 ! ages ( ! v>i\s p>ts1 ! relative positions ( ! buds & leaves1 ! diff]5t sizes ( simil> or comp>able buds4 ,if x is late 9 spr+ or e>ly 9 summ]1 he %\ld wat* ! developm5t ( ! buds 9 ! axils1 & he %\ld det]m9e :e!r ! /r5g? or size ( ! bud is 9 any way relat$ to ! size & vigor ( ! subt5d+ 7or support+7 leaf4 ,! sizes ( buds %\ld also be not$ on leafless twigs1 & ! sizes ( ! =m] leaves may be inf]r$ f ! size ( ! leaf-sc> bel[ ! bud4 ,! pupil %\ld keep 9 m9d ! fact ( ! /ruggle = food & light1 & its effects on ! develop+ buds4 #abd4 ,! bud & ! bran*4 ,a twig cut f an apple tree 9 e>ly spr+ is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aee4 ,! mo/ ha/y obs]vation %[s t x has v>i\s p>ts1 or memb]s4 ,x seems to be divid$ at ! po9t f into two p>ts4 ,x is evid5t t ! "p f f to h grew la/ ye>1 & t ! "p bel[ f grew two ye>s ago4 ,! buds on ! two p>ts are v unlike1 & ^! diff]5ces *all5ge inve/igation4--,9 ord] to und]/& ?is seem+ly lifeless twig1 x w be necess>y to see x z x look$ late la/ summ] 7& ?is condition is %[n 9 ,fig4 #aef74 ,! "p f f to h1--:i* has j complet$ its gr[?1--is se5 to h its leaves gr[+ s+ly4 ,9 e axil 7or angle :i* ! leaf makes :5 x jo9s ! %oot7 is a bud4 ,! leaf />ts fir/1 & z ! season advances ! bud =ms 9 its axil4 ,:5 ! leaves h fall51 at ! approa* ( w9t]1 ! buds rema91 z se5 9 ,fig4 #aee4 ,e bud on ! la/ ye>'s gr[? ( a w9t] twig1 !re=e1 m>ks ! position occupi$ by a leaf :5 ! %oot 0 gr[+4--,! "p bel[ f1 9 ,fig4 #aef1 %[s a :olly diff]5t arrangem5t4 ,! leaves are two or m toge!r 7aaaa71 & !re are buds )\t leaves 7bbbb74 ,a ye> ago ?is "p look$ l ! pres5t %oot f f to h1--t is1 ! leaves 7 s+le1 ) a bud 9 ! axil ( ea*4 ,x is n[ se5 t "s ( ^! bud-l p>ts are long] ?an o!rs1 & t ! longe/ ones are ^? :i* h leaves4 ,x mu/ be because ( ! leaves t !y h increas$ 9 l5g?4 ,! body c has lo/ its leaves ?r\gh "s accid5t1 & its gr[? has ceas$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! p>ts at aaaa are l ! %oot fh1 except t !y are %ort]1 & !y are ( ! same age4 ,"o grew f ! end or t]m9al bud ( ! ma9 bran*1 & ! o!rs f ! side or lat]al buds4 ,p>ts or bodies t be> leaves are1 !re=e1 bran*es4--,! buds at bbbb h no leaves1 & !y rema9 ! same size t !y 7 a ye> ago4 ,!y are dormant4 ,! only way = a mature bud to gr[ is by mak+ leaves = itself1 = a leaf w nev] /& bel[ x aga94 ,! twig1 !re=e1 has buds ( two ages1--^? at bbbb are two seasons old1 & ^? on ! tips1 ( all ! bran*es 7aaaa1 h71 & 9 ! axil ( e leaf1 are "o season old4 ,x is only ! t]m9al buds t are n axill>y4 ,:5 ! bud beg9s to gr[ & to put =? leaves1 x gives rise to a bran*1 :i*1 9 its turn1 be>s buds4--,x w n[ be int]e/+ to det]m9e :y c]ta9 buds gave rise to bran*es & :y o!rs rema9$ dormant4 ,! /ronge/ %oot or bran* ( ! ye> is ! t]m9al "o 7fh74 ,! next 9 /r5g? is ! upp]mo/ lat]al "o1 & ! weake/ %oot is at ! base ( ! twig4 ,! dormant buds are on ! "u side 7= ! twig grew 9 a horizontal position74 ,all ?is sugge/s t ^? buds grew :i* _h ! be/ *ance1--! mo/ sunlight & room4 ,!re 7 too _m buds = ! space1 & 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce ^? t _h ! be/ opportunities made ! l>ge/ gr[?s4 ,?is /ruggle = exi/5ce began a ye> ago1 h[ev]1 :5 ! buds on ! %oot bel[ f 7 =m+ 9 ! axils ( ! leaves1 = ! buds ne> ! tip ( ! %oot grew l>g] & /rong] ?an ^? ne> its base4 ,! gr[? ( "o ye>1 !re=e1 is v l>gely det]m9$ by ! conditions "u :i* ! buds 7 =m$ ! previ\s ye>4 ,o!r bud *>act]s4 #abe4 ,x is easy to see ! swell+ ( ! buds 9 a room 9 w9t]4 ,secure bran*es ( trees & %rubs1 two to ?ree feet long1 & /& !m 9 vases or j>s1 z y w\ld fl[]s4 ,r5ew ! wat] frequ5tly & cut (f ! l[] ends ( ! %oots occasionally4 ,9 a week or two ! buds w beg9 to swell4 ,( r$ maple1 pea*1 apricot1 & o!r v e>ly-fl[]+ ?+s1 fl[]s may be obta9$ 9 t5 to tw5ty days4 #abf4 ,! %ape1 size1 & color ( ! w9t] buds are diff]5t 9 e k9d ( plant4 ,by ! buds alone botani/s are (t5 able to di/+ui% ! k9ds ( plants4 ,ev5 su* simil> plants z ! diff]5t k9ds ( will[s h good bud *>act]s4 #abg4 ,di/+ui% & draw fruit-buds ( apple1 pe>1 pea*1 plum1 & o!r trees4 ,if diff]5t k9ds ( maples gr[ 9 ! vic9ity1 secure twigs ( ! r$ or swamp maple1 & ! s(t or silv] maple1 & comp>e ! buds ) ^? ( ! sug> maple & ,norway maple3 ,:at d y le>n8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4--;,,buds ,,( ,,! ,,hickory4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,bud ,,propagation ,we h le>n$ 79 ,*ap4 ,,vi7 t plants propagate by means ( se$s4 ,!y also propagate by means ( bud p>ts1--z root/ocks 7rhizomes71 roots1 runn]s1 lay]s1 bulbs4 ,! pupil %\ld det]m9e h[ any plant 9 :i* he is int]e/$ naturally propagates itself 7or spreads its k9d74 ,det]m9e ?is = raspb]ry1 blackb]ry1 /rawb]ry1 ,june-grass or o!r grass1 nut-grass1 wat] lily1 ,may apple or m&rake1 burdock1 ,iri% potato1 sweet potato1 buck:eat1 cotton1 pea1 corn1 sug>-cane1 :eat1 rice4 ,plants may be artificially propagat$ by simil> means1 z by lay]s1 cutt+s1 & grafts4 ,! la/ two we may discuss "h4 ,cutt+s 9 ,g5]al4--,a bit ( a plant /uck into ! gr\nd /&s a *ance ( gr[+2 & ?is bit is a cutt+4 ,plants h pref]5ces1 h[ev]1 z to ! k9d ( a bit :i* %all be us$1 b !re is no way ( tell+ :at ?is pref]5ce is except by try+4 ,9 "s in/ances ?is pref]5ce has n be5 discov]$1 & we say t ! plant _c be propagat$ by cutt+s4 ,mo/ plants pref] t ! cutt+ be made ( ! s(t or gr[+ p>ts 7call$ 8wood0 by g>d5]s71 ( :i* ! 8slips0 ( g]anium & coleus are examples4 ,o!rs gr[ equally well f cutt+s ( ! h>d or mature p>ts or wood1 z currant & grape2 & 9 "s in/ances ?is mature wood may be ( roots1 z 9 ! blackb]ry4 ,9 "s cases cutt+s are made ( tub]s1 z 9 ! ,iri% potato 7,fig4 #fj74 ,pupils %\ld make cutt+s n[ & !n4 ,if !y c d no?+ m1 !y c make cutt+s ( potato1 z ! f>m] does2 & !y c plant !m 9 a box 9 ! w9d[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4--;,,g]anium ,,cutt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aei4--,,rose ,,cutt+4 ,! ,s(twood ,cutt+4--,! s(twood cutt+ is made f tissue t is /ill gr[+1 or at lea/ f t :i* is n dormant4 ,x comprises "o or two jo9ts1 ) a leaf atta*$ 7,figs4 #aeh1 #aei74 ,x mu/ n be all[$ to wilt4 ,!re=e1 x mu/ be protect$ f direct sunlight & dry air until x is well e/abli%$2 & if x has _m leaves1 "s ( !m %\ld be remov$1 or at lea/ cut 9 two1 9 ord] to r$uce ! evaporat+ surface4 ,! soil %\ld be uni=mly moi/4 ,! pictures %[ ! dep? to :i* ! cutt+s are plant$4 ,= mo/ plants1 ! prop] age or maturity ( wood = ! mak+ ( cutt+s may be det]m9$ by giv+ ! twig a quick b5d3 if x snaps & hangs by ! b>k1 x is 9 prop] condition2 if x b5ds )\t break+1 x is too "y & s(t or too old2 if x spl9t]s1 x is too old & woody4 ,! tips ( /rong upright %oots usually make ! be/ cutt+s4 ,pref]ably1 ea* cutt+ %\ld h a jo9t or node ne> its base2 & if ! int]nodes are v %ort x may comprise two or ?ree jo9ts4 ,! /em ( ! cutt+ is ins]t$ "o ?ird or m its l5g? 9 clean s& or gravel1 & ! e>? is press$ firmly ab\t x4 ,a newspap] may be laid ov] ! b$ to exclude ! light--if ! sun /rikes x--& to prev5t too rapid evaporation4 ,! soil %\ld be moi/ cle> ?r\gh1 n on top only4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afj4--;,,cutt+-,,box4 ,loose s&y or gravelly soil is us$4 ,s& us$ by masons is good mat]ial 9 :i* to />t mo/ cutt+s2 or f9e gravel--sift$ ( mo/ ( its e>?y matt]--may be us$4 ,soils are avoid$ :i* conta9 mu* decay+ organic matt]1 = ^! soils are bre$+ places ( fungi1 :i* attack ! s(t cutt+ & cause x to 8damp (f10 or to die at or ne> ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,if ! cutt+s are to be gr[n 9 a w9d[1 put ?ree or f\r in*es ( ! e>? 9 a %all[ box or a pan4 ,a soap box cut 9 two l5g?wise1 s t x makes a box f\r or five in*es deep--z a g>d5]'s flat--is excell5t 7,fig4 #afj74 ,cutt+s ( common plants1 z g]anium1 coleus1 fu*sia1 c>nation1 are kept at a liv+-room temp]ature4 ,z long z ! cutt+s look bright & gre51 !y are 9 good condition4 ,x may be a mon? be=e roots =m4 ,:5 roots h =m$1 ! plants beg9 to make new leaves at ! tip4 ,!n !y may be transplant$ into o!r boxes or into pots4 ,! v]b5a 9 ,fig4 #afa is j ready = transplant+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--,,v]b5a ,,cutt+ ,,ready ,,= ,,transplant+4 ,x is n always easy to f9d gr[+ %oots f :i* to make ! cutt+s4 ,! be/ practice1 9 t case1 is to cut back an old plant1 !n keep x w>m & well wat]$1 & !reby =ce x to ?r[ out new %oots4 ,! old g]anium plant f ! w9d[ g>d51 or ! "o tak5 up f ! lawn b$1 may be treat$ ?is way 7see ,fig4 #afb74 ,! be/ plants ( g]anium & coleus & mo/ w9d[ plants are ^? :i* are n m ?an "o ye> old4 ,! g]anium & fu*sia cutt+s :i* are made 9 ,janu>y1 ,febru>y1 or ,m>* w give compact bloom+ plants = ! next w9t]2 & !reaft] new ones %\ld take _! places 7,fig4 #afc74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afb4--,,old ,,g]anium ,,plant ,,cut ,,back ,,to ,,make ,,x ,,?r[ ,,out ,,%oots ,,f ,,:i* ,,cutt+s ,,c ,,be ,,made4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afc4--;,,e>ly ,,w9t] ,,g]anium1 f a spr+ cutt+4 ,! ,h>dwood ,cutt+4--,be/ results ) cutt+s ( mature wood are secur$ :5 ! cutt+s are made 9 ! fall & !n buri$ until spr+ 9 s& 9 ! cell>4 ,^! cutt+s are usually six to t5 in*es long4 ,!y are n idle :ile !y re/4 ,! l[] end calluses or heals1 & ! roots =m m readily :5 ! cutt+ is plant$ 9 ! spr+4 ,b if ! prop] season has pass$1 take cutt+s at any "t 9 w9t]1 plant !m 9 a deep box 9 ! w9d[1 & wat*4 ,!y w ne$ no %ad+ or special c>e4 ,grape1 currant1 gooseb]ry1 will[1 & popl> readily take root f ! h>dwood4 ,fig4 #afd %[s a currant cutt+4 ,x has only "o bud above ! gr\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afd4--;,,currant ,,cutt+4 ,! ,graft4--,:5 ! cutt+ is ins]t$ 9 a plant r ?an 9 ! soil1 x is a graft2 & ! graft may gr[4 ,9 ?is case ! cutt+ gr[s fa/ to ! o!r plant1 & ! two become "o4 ,:5 ! cutt+ is ins]t$ 9 a plant1 x is no long] call$ a cutt+1 b a cion2 & ! plant 9 :i* x is ins]t$ is call$ ! /ock4 ,fruit trees are graft$ 9 ord] t a c]ta9 v>iety or k9d may be p]petuat$1 z a ,baldw9 or ,b5 ,davis v>iety ( apple1 ,seckel or ,b>tlett pe>1 ,navel or ,/4 ,mi*ael orange4 ,plants h pref]5ces z to ! /ocks on :i* !y w gr[2 b we c f9d out :at _! *oice is only by mak+ ! exp]im5t4 ,! pe> gr[s well on ! qu9ce1 b ! qu9ce does n ?rive on ! pe>4 ,! pe> gr[s on "s ( ! haw?orns1 b x is an unwill+ subject on ! apple4 ,tomato plants w gr[ on potato plants & potato plants on tomato plants4 ,:5 ! potato is ! root1 bo? tomatoes & potatoes may be produc$1 al?\gh ! crop w be v small2 :5 ! tomato is ! root1 nei!r potatoes nor tomatoes w be produc$4 ,*e/nut w gr[ on "s k9ds ( oak4 ,9 g5]al1 "o species or k9d is graft$ on ! same species1 z apple on apple1 pe> on pe>1 orange on orange4 ,! =m+1 gr[+ tissue ( ! /em 7on ! plants we h be5 discuss+7 is ! cambium 7,*ap4 ,x71 ly+ on ! outside ( ! woody cyl9d] b5ea? ! b>k4 ,9 ord] t union may take place1 ! cambium ( ! cion & ( ! /ock mu/ come toge!r4 ,!re=e ! cion is set 9 ! side ( ! /ock4 ,!re are _m ways ( %ap+ ! cion & ( prep>+ ! /ock to receive x4 ,^! ways are dictat$ l>gely by ! relative sizes ( cion & /ock1 al?\gh _m ( !m are matt]s ( p]sonal pref]5ce4 ,! und]ly+ pr9ciples are two3 secur+ close contact betwe5 ! cambiums ( cion & /ock2 cov]+ ! w\nd$ surfaces to prev5t evaporation & to protect ! p>ts f disease4 ,on l>ge /ocks ! commone/ =m ( graft+ is ! cleft-graft4 ,! /ock is cut (f & split2 & 9 "o or bo? sides a w$ge-%ap$ cion is firmly ins]t$4 ,fig4 #afe %[s ! cion2 ,fig4 #aff1 ! cions set 9 ! /ock2 ,fig4 #afg1 ! /ock wax$4 ,x w be se5 t ! l[] bud--t ly+ 9 ! w$ge--is cov]$ by ! wax2 b be+ ne>e/ ! food supply & lea/ expos$ to wea!r1 x is ! mo/ likely to gr[3 x w pu% ?r\gh ! wax4 ,cleft-graft+ is practic$ 9 spr+1 z gr[? beg9s4 ,! cions are cut previ\sly1 :5 p]fectly dormant1 & f ! tree :i* x is desir$ to propagate4 ,! cions are kept 9 s& or moss 9 ! cell>4 ,limbs ( v>i\s sizes may be cleft-graft$1--f "o half in* up to f\r in*es 9 diamet]2 b a diamet] ( "o to "o & "o half in*es is ! mo/ conv5i5t size4 ,all ! lead+ or ma9 bran*es ( a tree top may be graft$4 ,if ! rema9+ p>ts ( ! top are gradually cut away & ! cions gr[ well1 ! entire top w be *ang$ ov] to ! new v>iety4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afe4--;,,cion ,,( ,,apple4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--,,! ,,cion ,,ins]t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afg4--,,! ,,p>ts ,,wax$4 ,ano!r =m ( graft+ is kn[n z budd+4 ,9 ?is case a s+le bud is us$1 & x is slipp$ und]nea? ! b>k ( ! /ock & securely ti$ 7n wax$7 ) s(t mat]ial1 z bass b>k1 corn %uck1 y>n1 or raffia 7! la/ a comm]cial palm fib]74 ,budd+ is p]=m$ :5 ! b>k ( ! /ock w slip or peel 7s t ! bud c be ins]t$71 & :5 ! bud is mature en\gh to gr[4 ,usually budd+ is p]=m$ 9 late summ] or e>ly fall1 :5 ! w9t] buds are well =m$2 or x may be practic$ 9 spr+ ) buds cut 9 w9t]4 ,9 ord9>y summ] budd+ 7:i* is ! usual mode7 ! 8bud0 or cion =ms a union ) ! /ock1 & !n lies dormant till ! foll[+ spr+1 z if x 7 /ill on its own twig4 ,budd+ is mo/ly re/rict$ to "y trees 9 ! nurs]y4 ,9 ! spr+ foll[+ ! budd+1 ! /ock is cut (f j above ! bud1 s t only ! %oot f ! bud gr[s to make ! future tree4 ,?is prevail+ =m ( budd+ 7%ield-budd+7 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #afh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afh4--;,,budd+4 ,! 8bud02 ! op5+ to receive x2 ! bud ti$4 ,,sugge/ions4--#abh4 ,"n ! plants t ! g>d5] propagates by means ( cutt+s4 #abi4 ,by means ( grafts4 #acj4 ,! cutt+-box may be set 9 ! w9d[4 ,if ! box does n receive direct sunlight1 x may be cov]$ ) a pane ( glass to prev5t evaporation4 ,take c>e t ! air is n kept too close1 else ! damp+-(f fungi may attack ! cutt+s1 & !y w rot at ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,see t ! pane is rais$ a little at "o end to af=d v5tilation2 & if ! wat] collects 9 drops on ! "u side ( ! glass1 remove ! pane = a "t4 #aca4 ,graft+ wax is made ( beeswax1 res91 & tall[4 ,a good recipe is "o "p 7z "o p\nd7 ( r5d]$ tall[1 two p>ts ( beeswax1 f\r p>ts ( ros92 melt toge!r 9 a kettle2 p\r ! liquid into a pail or tub ( wat] to solidify x2 "w ) ! h&s until x has ! color & 8gra90 ( taffy c&y1 ! h&s be+ greas$ :5 necess>y4 ,! wax w keep any l5g? ( "t4 ,= ! little graft+ t any pupil w\ld d1 x is bett] to buy ! wax ( a se$sman4 #acb4 ,graft+ is h>dly to be recomm5d$ z a g5]al s*ool div]sion1 z ! mak+ ( cutt+s is2 & ! acc\nt ( x 9 ?is *apt] is ins]t$ *iefly to satisfy ! g5]al curiosity on ! subject4 #acc4 ,9 ,*ap4 ,v we _h a def9ition ( a plant g5]ation3 :at is 8"o g5]ation0 ( a graft$ fruit tree1 z ,le ,conte pe>1 ,baldw91 or ,b5 ,davis apple8 #acd4 ,! ,elb]ta pea* orig9at$ ab\t #ahhj3 :at is meant by 8orig9at$08 #ace4 ,h[ is ! grape propagat$ s z to come true to "n 7expla9 :at is meant by 8com+ true078 currant8 /rawb]ry8 raspb]ry8 blackb]ry8 pea*8 pe>8 orange8 fig8 plum8 *]ry8 apple8 *e/nut8 pecan8 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,h[ ,,plants ,,climb ,we h f\nd t plants /ruggle or cont5d = a place 9 :i* to live4 ,"s ( !m become adapt$ to gr[ 9 ! =e/ %ade1 o!rs to gr[ on o!r plants1 z epiphytes1 o!rs to climb to ! light4 ,obs]ve h[ woods grapes1 & o!r =e/ climb]s1 spread _! foliage on ! v top ( ! =e/ tree1 :ile _! long flexile trunks may be b>e4 ,!re are sev]al ways by :i* plants climb1 b mo/ climb]s may be classifi$ into f\r gr\ps3 7#a7 scrambl]s1 7#b7 root climb]s1 7#c7 t5dril climb]s1 7#d7 tw9]s4 ,scrambl]s4--,"s plants rise to light & air by re/+ _! long & weak /ems on ! tops ( bu%es & quick-gr[+ h]bs4 ,_! /ems may be elevat$ 9 "p by ! gr[+ twigs ( ! plants on :i* !y recl9e4 ,su* plants are scrambl]s4 ,usually !y are provid$ ) prickles or bri/les4 ,9 mo/ we$y swamp ?ickets1 scrambl+ plants may be f\nd4 ,bri]s1 "s roses1 b$-/raw or galium1 bitt]sweet 7,solanum ,dulcam>a1 n ! ,cela/rus71 ! te>-?umb polygonums1 & o!r plants are famili> examples ( scrambl]s4 ,root ,climb]s4--,"s plants climb by means ( true roots4 ,^! roots seek ! d>k places & !re=e ent] ! *9ks 9 walls & b>k4 ,! trumpet creep] is a famili> example 7,fig4 #cf74 ,! true or ,engli% ivy1 :i* is (t5 gr[n to cov] build+s1 is ano!r in/ance4 ,/ill ano!r is ! poison ivy4 ,roots are di/+ui%$ f /em t5drils by _! irregul> or indef9ite position z well z by _! mode ( gr[?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afi4--,,t5dril1 to %[ :]e ! coil is *ang$4 ,t5dril climb]s4--,a sl5d] coil+ "p t s]ves to hold a climb+ plant to a support is kn[n z a t5dril4 ,! free end sw+s or curves until x /rikes "s object1 :5 x atta*es itself & !n coils & draws ! plant close to ! support4 ,! spr+ ( ! coil also all[s ! plant to move 9 ! w9d1 !reby enabl+ ! plant to ma9ta9 its hold4 ,sl[ly pull a well-matur$ t5dril f its support1 & note h[ /rongly x holds on4 ,wat* ! t5drils 9 a w9d-/orm4 ,usually ! t5dril atta*es to ! support by coil+ ab\t x1 b ! ,virg9ia creep] & ,bo/on ivy 7,fig4 #agj7 atta* to walls by means ( disks on ! ends ( ! t5drils4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agj4--,,t5dril ,,( ,,bo/on ,,ivy4 ,s9ce bo? ends ( ! t5dril are fix$1 :5 x f9ds a support1 ! coil+ w\ld t5d to twi/ x 9 two4 ,x w be f\nd1 h[ev]1 t ! t5dril coils 9 diff]5t directions 9 diff]5t p>ts ( its l5g?4 ,9 ,fig4 #afi1 %[+ an old & /ret*$-out t5dril1 ! *ange ( direction 9 ! coil occurr$ at a4 ,9 long t5drils ( cucumb]s & melons !re may be sev]al *anges ( direction4 ,t5drils may repres5t ei!r bran*es or leaves4 ,9 ! ,virg9ia creep] & grape !y are bran*es2 !y /& opposite ! leaves 9 ! position ( fruit clu/]s1 & sometimes "o bran* ( a fruit clu/] is a t5dril4 ,^! t5drils are !re=e homolog\s ) fruit-clu/]s1 & fruit-clu/]s are bran*es4 ,9 "s plants t5drils are leaflets 7,*ap4 ,,xi74 ,examples are ! sweet pea & common g>d5 pea4 ,9 ,fig4 #aga1 obs]ve ! leaf ) its two great /ipules1 petiole1 six normal leaflets1 & two or ?ree pairs ( leaflet t5drils & a t]m9al leaflet t5dril4 ,! cobea1 a common g>d5 climb]1 has a simil> arrangem5t4 ,9 "s cases t5drils are /ipules1 z probably 9 ! gre5 bri]s 7smilax74 ,! petiole or midrib may act z a t5dril1 z 9 v>i\s k9ds ( clematis4 ,9 ,fig4 #agb1 ! common wild clematis or 8old man v9e10 ?is mode is se54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aga4--,,leaves ,,( ,,pea1--v l>ge /ipules1 opposite leaflets1 & leaflets repres5t$ by t5drils4 ,tw9]s4--,! entire plant or %oot may w9d ab\t a support4 ,su* a plant is a tw9]4 ,examples are bean1 hop1 morn+-glory1 moonfl[]1 false bitt]sweet or waxwork 7,cela/rus71 "s honeysuckles1 wi/>ia1 ,dut*man's pipe1 dodd]4 ,! free tip ( ! tw9+ bran* sweeps ab\t 9 curves1 mu* z ! t5dril does1 until x f9ds support or becomes old & rigid4 ,ea* k9d ( plant usually coils 9 only "o direction4 ,mo/ plants coil aga9/ ! sun1 or f ! obs]v]'s left across 8 front to 8 "r z he faces ! plant4 ,examples are bean1 morn+-glory4 ,! hop tw9es f ! obs]v]'s "r to 8 left1 or ) ! sun4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agb4--;,,clematis ,,climb+ ,,by ,,leaf-,,t5dril4 ,,sugge/ions4--#acf4 ,set ! pupil to wat* ! behavior ( any plant t has t5drils at diff]5t /ages ( maturity4 ,a vigor\s cucumb] plant is "o ( ! be/4 ,j beyond ! po9t ( a "y /raight t5dril set a /ake to comp>e ! position ( x4 ,note :e!r ! t5dril *anges position f h\r to h\r or day to day4 #acg4 ,is ! tip ( ! t5dril p]fectly /raight8 ,:y8 ,set a small /ake at ! end ( a /rong /raight t5dril1 s ! t5dril w j rea* x4 ,wat*1 & make draw+4 #ach4 ,if a t5dril does n f9d a support1 :at does x d8 #aci4 ,to te/ ! movem5t ( a free t5dril1 draw an ink l9e l5g?wise ( x1 & note :e!r ! l9e rema9s always on ! concave side or ! convex side4 #adj4 ,"n ! t5dril-be>+ plants t y "k4 #ada4 ,make simil> obs]vations & exp]im5ts on ! tips ( tw9+ /ems4 #adb4 ,:at tw9+ plants d y "k1 & :i* way d !y tw9e8 #adc4 ,h[ does any plant t y "k get up 9 ! _w8 #add4 ,does ! /em ( a climb+ plant conta9 m or less sub/ance 7weight7 ?an an erect self-support+ /em ( ! same height8 ,expla94 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,! ,,fl[]--,,its ,,p>ts ,,& ,,=ms ,! function ( ! fl[] is to produce se$4 ,x is probable t all its v>i$ =ms & colors contribute to ?is supreme end4 ,^! =ms & colors please ! human fancy & add to ! joy ( liv+1 b ! fl[] exi/s = ! good ( ! plant1 n = ! good ( man4 ,! p>ts ( ! fl[] are ( two g5]al k9ds--^? t are directly conc]n$ 9 ! production ( se$s1 & ^? t act z cov]+ & protect+ organs4 ,! =m] p>ts are kn[n z ! ess5tial organs2 ! latt] z ! floral envelopes4 ,envelopes4--,! floral envelopes usually be> a close resemblance to leaves4 ,^! envelopes are v commonly ( two s]ies or k9ds--! out] & ! inn]4 ,! out] s]ies1 kn[n z ! calyx1 is usually small] & gre54 ,x usually comprises ! out] cov] ( ! fl[] bud4 ,! calyx is ! l[e/ :orl 9 ,fig4 #agc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agc4--;,,fl[] ,,( ,a ,,butt]cup ,,9 ,,section4 ,! inn] s]ies1 kn[n z ! corolla1 is usually color$ & m special or irregul> 9 %ape ?an ! calyx4 ,x is ! %[y "p ( ! fl[]1 z a rule4 ,! corolla is ! second or l>ge :orl 9 ,fig4 #agc4 ,! calyx may be compos$ ( sev]al leaves4 ,ea* leaf is a sepal4 ,if x is ( "o piece1 x may be lob$ or divid$1 9 :i* case ! divisions are call$ calyx-lobes4 ,9 l mann]1 ! corolla may be compos$ ( petals1 or x may be ( "o piece & v>i\sly lob$4 ,a calyx ( "o piece1 no matt] h[ deeply lob$1 is gamosepal\s4 ,a corolla ( "o piece is gamopetal\s4 ,:5 ^! s]ies are ( sep>ate pieces1 z 9 ,fig4 #agc1 ! fl[] is said to be polysepal\s & polypetal\s4 ,sometimes bo? s]ies are ( sep>ate p>ts1 & sometimes only "o ( !m is s =m$4 ,! floral envelopes are homolog\s ) leaves4 ,sepals & petals1 at lea/ :5 m ?an ?ree or five1 are 9 m ?an "o :orl1 & "o :orl /&s bel[ ano!r s t ! p>ts ov]lap4 ,!y are borne on ! exp&$ or ?ick5$ end ( ! fl[] /alk2 ?is end is ! torus4 ,9 ,fig4 #agc all ! p>ts are se5 z atta*$ to ! torus4 ,?is "p is sometimes call$ ! receptacle1 b ?is ^w is a common-language t]m ( sev]al mean+s1 :]eas torus has no o!r mean+4 ,sometimes "o "p is atta*$ to ano!r "p1 z 9 ! fu*sia 7,fig4 #agd71 9 :i* ! petals are borne on ! calyx-tube4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agd4--;,,fl[] ,,( ,,fu*sia ,,9 ,,section4 ,subt5d+ ,p>ts4--,sometimes !re are leaf-l p>ts j bel[ ! calyx1 look+ l a second calyx4 ,su* p>ts accompany ! c>nation fl[]4 ,^! p>ts are bracts 7bracts are small specializ$ leaves72 & !y =m an involucre4 ,we mu/ be c>eful t we d n mi/ake !m = true fl[] p>ts4 ,sometimes ! bracts are l>ge & petal-l1 z 9 ! great :ite blooms ( ! fl[]+ dogwood3 "h ! real fl[]s are sev]al1 small & gre5i%1 =m+ a small clu/] 9 ! c5t]4 ,ess5tial ,organs4--,! ess5tial organs are ( two s]ies4 ,! out] s]ies is compos$ ( ! /am5s4 ,! inn] s]ies is compos$ ( ! pi/ils4 ,/am5s be> ! poll51 :i* is made up ( gra9s or spores1 ea* spore usually be+ a s+le plant cell4 ,! /am5 is ( two p>ts1 z is readily se5 9 ,figs4 #agc1 #agd1--! enl>g$ t]m9al "p or an!r1 & ! /alk or filam5t4 ,! filam5t is (t5 s %ort z to seem to be abs5t1 & ! an!r is !n said to be sessile4 ,! an!r be>s ! poll5 spores4 ,x is made up ( two or f\r p>ts 7kn[n z sporangia or spore-cases71 :i* bur/ & dis*>ge ! poll54 ,:5 ! poll5 is %$1 ! /am5 dies4 ,! pi/il has ?ree p>ts3 ! l[e/1 or se$-be>+ "p1 :i* is ! ov>y2 ! /igma at ! upp] extremity1 :i* is a flatt5$ or exp&$ surface1 & usually r\gh5$ or /icky2 ! /alk-l "p or /yle1 connect+ ! ov>y & /igma4 ,sometimes ! /yle is app>5tly want+1 & ! /igma is said to be sessile on ! ov>y4 ,^! p>ts are %[n 9 ! fu*sia 7,fig4 #agd74 ,! ov>y or se$ vessel is at a4 ,a long /yle1 be>+ a l>ge /igma1 projects f ! fl[]4 ,see also ,figs4 #age & #agf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #age4--,,! ,,/ructure ,,( ,a ,,plum ,,blossom4 se1 sepals2 p1 petals2 /a1 /am5s2 o1 ov>y2 s1 /yle2 /1 /igma4 ,! pi/il consi/s ( ! ov>y1 /yle1 & /igma4 ,x conta9s ! se$ "p4 ,! /am5s are tipp$ ) an!rs1 9 :i* ! poll5 is borne4 ,! ov>y1 o1 rip5s into ! fruit4 ,/am5s & pi/ils probably are homolog\s ) leaves4 ,a pi/il is sometimes conceiv$ to repres5t anci5tly a leaf z if roll$ into a tube2 & an an!r1 a leaf ( :i* ! edges may h be5 turn$ 9 on ! midrib4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agf4--,,simple ,,pi/ils ,,( ,,butt]cup1 "o 9 longitud9al section4 ,! pi/il may be ( "o "p or comp>tm5t1 or ( _m p>ts4 ,! diff]5t units or p>ts ( :i* x is compos$ are c>pels4 ,ea* c>pel is homolog\s ) a leaf4 ,ea* c>pel be>s "o or m se$s4 ,a pi/il ( "o c>pel is simple2 ( two or m c>pels1 comp\nd4 ,usually ! /ructure ( ! pi/il may be det]m9$ by cutt+ horizontally across ! l[] or se$-be>+ "p1 z ,figs4 #agg1 #agh expla94 ,a fl[] may conta9 a simple pi/il 7"o c>pel71 z ! pea 7,fig4 #agg72 sev]al simple pi/ils 7sev]al sep>ate c>pels71 z ! butt]cup 7,fig4 #agf72 or a comp\nd pi/il ) c>pels unit$1 z ! ,sa9t ,john's wort 7,fig4 #agh7 & apple4 ,h[ _m c>pels 9 an apple8 ,a pea*8 ,an okra pod8 ,a bean pod8 ,! se$ cavity 9 ea* c>pel is call$ a locule 7,lat9 locus1 a place74 ,9 ^! locules ! se$s are borne4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agg4--,,pi/il ,,( ,,g>d5 ,,pea1 ! /am5s be+ pull$ d[n 9 ord] to disclose x2 also a section %[+ ! s+le comp>tm5t 7comp>e ,fig4 #ahh74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agh4--;,,comp\nd ,,pi/il ,,( ,a ,,/4 ,,john',s ,,wort4 ,x has #e c>pels4 ,con=mation ( ! ,fl[]4--,a fl[] t has calyx1 corolla1 /am5s1 & pi/ils is said to be complete 7,fig4 #agc72 all o!rs are incomplete4 ,9 "s fl[]s bo? ! floral envelopes are want+3 su* are nak$4 ,:5 "o ( ! floral envelope s]ies is want+1 ! rema9+ s]ies is said to be calyx1 & ! fl[] is !re=e apetal\s 7)\t petals74 ,! knotwe$ 7,fig4 #agi71 sm>twe$1 buck:eat1 elm are examples4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agi4--,,knotwe$1 a v common b inconspicu\s plant along h>d walks & roads4 ,two fl[]s1 enl>g$1 are %[n at ! "r4 ,^! fl[]s are v small & borne 9 ! axils ( ! leaves4 ,"s fl[]s lack ! pi/ils3 ^! are /am9ate1 :e!r ! envelopes are miss+ or n4 ,o!rs lack ! /am5s3 ^! are pi/illate4 ,o!rs h nei!r /am5s nor pi/ils3 ^! are /]ile 7sn[ball & hydrangea74 ,^? t h bo? /am5s & pi/ils are p]fect1 :e!r or n ! envelopes are miss+4 ,^? t lack ei!r /am5s or pi/ils are imp]fect or dicl9\s4 ,/am9ate & pi/illate fl[]s are imp]fect or dicl9\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4--,,/am9ate ,,catk9s ,,( ,,oak4 ,! pi/illate fl[]s are 9 ! leaf axils1 & n %[n 9 ?is picture4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aha4--;,,begonia ,,fl[]s4 ,/am9ate at ,a2 pi/illate bel[1 ) ! w+$ ov>y at ,b4 ,:5 /am9ate & pi/illate fl[]s are borne on ! same plant1 e4g4 oak 7,fig4 #ahj71 corn1 bee*1 *e/nut1 hazel1 walnut1 hickory1 p9e1 begonia 7,fig4 #aha71 wat]melon1 g\rd1 pumpk91 ! plant is monci\s 789 "o h\se074 ,:5 !y are on diff]5t plants1 e4g4 popl>1 cottonwood1 bois d'arc1 will[ 7,fig4 #ahb71 ! plant is dici\s 789 two h\ses074 ,"s v>ieties ( /rawb]ry1 grape1 & mulb]ry are p>tly dici\s4 ,is ! rose ei!r monci\s or dici\s8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4--;,,catk9s ,,( ,a ,,will[4 ,a /am9ate fl[] is %[n at s1 & a pi/illate fl[] at p4 ,! /am9ate & pi/illate are on diff]5t plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4--;,,fl[] ,,( ,,g>d5 ,,na/urtium4 ,sep>ate petal at a4 ,! calyx is produc$ into a spur4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4--,,! ,,five ,,petals ,,( ,,! ,,pansy1 deta*$ to %[ ! =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4--;,,fl[] ,,( ,,catnip4 ,fl[]s 9 :i* ! p>ts ( ea* s]ies are alike are said to be regul> 7z 9 ,figs4 #agc1 #agd1 #age74 ,^? 9 :i* "s p>ts are unlike o!r p>ts ( ! same s]ies are irregul>4 ,_! regul>ity may be 9 calyx1 z 9 na/urtium 7,fig4 #ahc72 9 corolla 7,figs4 #ahd1 #ahe72 9 ! /am5s 7comp>e na/urtium1 catnip1 ,fig4 #ahe1 sage72 9 ! pi/ils4 ,irregul>ity is mo/ frequ5t 9 ! corolla4 ,v>i\s ,=ms ( ,corolla4--,! corolla (t5 assumes v def9ite or di/9ct =ms1 especially :5 gamopetal\s4 ,x may h a long tube ) a wide-fl>+ limb1 :5 x is said to be funnel=m1 z 9 morn+-glory & pumpk94 ,if ! tube is v n>r[ & ! limb /&s at "r angles to x1 ! corolla is salv]=m1 z 9 phlox4 ,if ! tube is v %ort & ! limb wide-spread+ & ne>ly circul> 9 outl9e1 ! corolla is rotate or :eel-%ap$1 z 9 potato4 ,a gamopetal\s corolla or gamosepal\s calyx is (t5 cleft 9 su* way z to make two prom95t p>ts4 ,su* p>ts are said to be lipp$ or labiate4 ,ea* ( ! lips or lobes may be not*$ or too!d4 ,9 #e-memb]$ fl[]s1 ! l[] lip is usually #c-lob$ & ! upp] "o #b-lob$4 ,labiate fl[]s are *>act]i/ic ( ! m9t family 7,fig4 #ahe71 & ! family !re=e is call$ ! ,labiat4 7,lit]ally1 labiate means m]ely 8lipp$10 )\t specify+ ! numb] ( lips or lobes2 b x is commonly us$ to designate #b-lipp$ fl[]s47 ,/rongly #b-p>t$ polypetal\s fl[]s may be said to be labiate2 b ! t]m is (t5e/ us$ = gamopetal\s corollas4 ,labiate gamopetal\s fl[]s t are clos$ 9 ! ?roat 7or entrance to ! tube7 are said to be gr9n+ or p]sonate 7p]sonate means mask$1 or p]son-l74 ,snap-dragon is a typical example2 also toadflax or butt]-&-eggs 7,fig4 #ahf71 & _m relat$ plants4 ,p]sonate fl[]s usually h def9ite relations to insect poll9ation4 ,obs]ve h[ an insect =ces 8 head into ! clos$ ?roat ( ! toadflax4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4--,,p]sonate ,,fl[] ,,( ,,toadflax4 ,! peculi> fl[]s ( ! pea tribes are expla9$ 9 ,figs4 #ahg1 #ahh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4--;,,fl[]s ,,( ,,! ,,common ,,bean1 ) "o fl[] op5$ 7a7 to %[ ! /ructure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,alfalfa ,,fl[] ,,9 ,,section3 ,c1 calyx2 ,d1 /&>d2 ,w1 w+2 ,k1 keel2 ,t1 /am5-tube2 ,f1 filam5t ( t5? /am52 ,x1 /igma2 ,y1 /yle2 ,o1 ov>y2 ! dott$ l9es at ,e %[ position ( /am5 tube1 :5 pu%$ upw>d by insects4 ,enl>g$4 ,spa! ,fl[]s4--,9 _m plants1 v simple 7(t5 nak$7 fl[]s are borne 9 d5se1 m or less fle%y spikes1 & ! spike is inclos$ 9 or att5d$ by a leaf1 sometimes corolla-l1 kn[n z a spa!4 ,! spike ( fl[]s is te*nically kn[n z a spadix4 ,?is type ( fl[] is *>act]i/ic ( ! great arum family1 :i* is *iefly tropical4 ,! commone/ wild repres5tatives 9 ! ,nor? are ,jack-9-!-pulpit1 or ,indian turnip1 & skunk cabbage4 ,9 ! =m] ! fl[]s are all dicl9\s & nak$4 ,9 ! skunk cabbage all ! fl[]s are p]fect & h f\r sepals4 ,! common calla is a good example ( ?is type ( infloresc5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4--;,,head ,,( ,,sunfl[]4 ,composit\s ,fl[]s4--,! head 7an?odium7 or s-call$ 8fl[]0 ( sunfl[] 7,fig4 #ahi71 ?i/le1 a/]1 d&elion1 daisy1 *rysan!mum1 gold5rod1 is compos$ ( sev]al or _m little fl[]s1 or florets4 ,^! florets are inclos$ 9 a m or less d5se & usually gre5 involucre4 ,9 ! ?i/le 7,fig4 #aij7 ?is involucre is prickly4 ,a longitud9al section discloses ! florets1 all atta*$ at bottom to a common torus1 & d5sely pack$ 9 ! involucre4 ,! p9k tips ( ^! florets con/itute ! %[y "p ( ! head4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aij4--,,longitud9al ,,section ,,( ,,?i/le ,,head2 also a ,,floret ,,( ,,?i/le4 ,ea* floret ( ! ?i/le 7,fig4 #aij7 is a complete fl[]4 ,at a is ! ov>y4 ,at b is a mu*-divid$ plumy calyx1 kn[n z ! pappus4 ,! corolla is long-tub$1 ris+ above ! pappus1 & is enl>g$ & #e-lob$ at ! top1 c4 ,! /yle projects at e4 ,! five an!rs are unit$ ab\t ! /yle 9 a r+ at d4 ,su* an!rs are said to be syng5esi\s4 ,^! are ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! florets ( ! ,composit4 ,9 "s cases ! pappus is 9 ! =m ( b>bs1 bri/les1 or scales1 & sometimes x is want+4 ,! pappus1 z we %all see lat]1 assi/s 9 di/ribut+ ! se$4 ,(t5 ! florets are n all alike4 ,! corolla ( ^? 9 ! out] circles may be develop$ into a long1 /raplike1 or tubul> "p1 & ! head !n has ! appe>ance ( be+ "o fl[] ) a bord] ( petals4 ,( su* is ! sunfl[] 7,fig4 #ahi71 a/]1 ba*elor's button or cornfl[]1 & field daisy 7,fig4 #baa74 ,^! long corolla-limbs are call$ rays4 ,9 "s cultivat$ composites1 all ! florets may develop rays1 z 9 ! dahlia & *rysan!mum4 ,9 "s species1 z d&elion1 all ! florets naturally h rays4 ,syng5esi\s arrangem5t ( an!rs is ! mo/ *>act]i/ic s+le feature ( ! composites4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aia4--,,petals ,,aris+ ,,f ,,! ,,/am9al ,,column ,,( ,,hollyhock1 & accessory petals 9 ! corolla-:orl4 ,d\ble ,fl[]s4--,"u ! /imulus ( cultivation & increas$ food supply1 fl[]s t5d to become d\ble4 ,true d\bl+ arises 9 two ways1 morphologically3 7#a7 /am5s or pi/ils may produce petals 7,fig4 #aia72 7#b7 adv5titi\s or accessory petals may arise 9 ! circle ( petals4 ,bo? ( ^! categories may be pres5t 9 ! same fl[]4 ,9 ! full d\ble hollyhock ! petals d]iv$ f ! /am9al column are %ort] & make a rosette 9 ! c5t] ( ! fl[]4 ,9 ,fig4 #aib is %[n ! d\bl+ ( a daffodil by ! modification ( /am5s4 ,o!r modifications ( fl[]s are sometimes kn[n z d\bl+4 ,= example1 d\ble dahlias1 *rysan!mums1 & sunfl[]s are =ms 9 :i* ! disk fl[]s h develop$ rays4 ,! sn[ball is ano!r case4 ,9 ! wild sn[ball ! ext]nal fl[]s ( ! clu/] are l>ge & /]ile4 ,9 ! cultivat$ plant all ! fl[]s h become l>ge & /]ile4 ,hydrangea is a simil> case4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aib4--,,n>cissus ,,or ,,daffodil4 ,s+le fl[] at ! "r4 ,,sugge/ions4--#ade4 ,if ! pupil has be5 skillfully conduct$ ?r\gh ?is *apt] by means ( c>eful /udy ( specim5s r ?an z a m]e memoriz+ process1 he w be 9 mood to *all5ge any fl[] t he sees & to make an ef=t to und]/& x4 ,fl[]s are endlessly modifi$ 9 =m2 b !y c be und]/ood if ! pupil looks fir/ = ! an!rs & ov>ies4 ,h[ may an!rs & ov>ies always be di/+ui%$8 #adf4 ,x is excell5t practice to f9d ! fl[]s 9 plants t are commonly kn[n by "n1 & to det]m9e ! ma9 po9ts 9 _! /ructure4 ,:at are ! fl[]s 9 ,indian corn8 pumpk9 or squa%8 cel]y8 cabbage8 potato8 pea8 tomato8 okra8 cotton8 rhub>b8 *e/nut8 :eat8 oats8 #adg4 ,d all =e/ trees h fl[]s8 ,expla94 #adh4 ,"n all ! monci\s plants y "k4 ,dici\s4 #adi4 ,:at plants d y "k t bloom be=e ! leaves appe>8 ,d any bloom aft] ! leaves fall8 #aej4 ,expla9 ! fl[]s ( m>igold1 hyac9?1 lettuce1 clov]1 asp>agus1 g>d5 calla1 a/]1 locu/1 onion1 burdock1 lily-(-!-valley1 crocus1 ,gold5 ,gl[ rudbeckia1 c[pea4 #aea4 ,def9e a fl[]4 ,,note ,,to ,,! ,,tea*]4--,x _c be urg$ too (t5 t ! specim5s !mselves be /udi$4 ,if ?is *apt] becomes a m]e recitation on names & def9itions1 ! ex]cise w be worse ?an useless4 ,prop]ly taught by means ( ! fl[]s !mselves1 ! names become m]ely incid5tal & a "p ( ! pupil's language1 & ! subject has liv+ int]e/4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,! ,,fl[]--,,f]tilization ,,& ,,poll9ation ,f]tilization4--,se$s result f ! union ( two elem5ts or p>ts4 ,"o ( ^! elem5ts is a cell-nucleus ( ! poll5-gra94 ,! o!r elem5t is ! cell-nucleus ( an egg-cell1 borne 9 ! ov>y4 ,! poll5-gra9 falls on ! /igma 7,fig4 #aic74 ,x absorbs ! juices exud$ by ! /igma1 & gr[s by s5d+ out a tube 7,fig4 #aid74 ,?is tube gr[s d[nw>d ?r\gh ! /yle1 absorb+ food z x goes1 & f9ally rea*es ! egg-cell 9 ! int]ior ( an ovule 9 ! ov>y 7,fig4 #aie71 & f]tilization1 or union ( a nucleus ( ! poll5 & ! nucleus ( ! egg-cell 9 ! ovule1 takes place4 ,! ovule & embryo )9 !n develops into a se$4 ,! gr[? ( ! poll5-tube is (t5 spok5 ( z g]m9ation ( ! poll51 b x is n g]m9ation 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! ^w is us$ :5 speak+ ( se$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aic4--;,b1 ,,poll5 escap+ f an!r2 ,a1 poll5 g]m9at+ on a /igma4 ,enl>g$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aid4--;,a ,,poll5-,,gra9 ,,& ,,! ,,gr[+ ,,tube4 ,bett] se$s--t is1 ^? t produce /rong] & m fruitful plants--(t5 result :5 ! poll5 comes f ano!r fl[]4 ,f]tilization effect$ betwe5 diff]5t fl[]s is cross-f]tilization2 t result+ f ! application ( poll5 to pi/ils 9 ! same fl[] is close-f]tilization or self-f]tilization4 ,x w be se5 t ! cross-f]tilization relation%ip may be ( _m degrees--betwe5 two fl[]s 9 ! same clu/]1 betwe5 ^? 9 diff]5t clu/]s on ! same bran*1 betwe5 ^? on diff]5t plants4 ,usually f]tilization takes place only betwe5 plants ( ! same species or k9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aie4--;,,diagram ,,to ,,repres5t ,,f]tilization4 s1 /igma2 /1 /yle2 ov1 ov>y2 o1 ovule2 p1 poll5-gra92 pt1 poll5-tube2 e1 egg-cell2 m1 micropyle4 ,9 _m cases !re is1 9 effect1 an app>5t selection ( poll5 :5 poll5 f two or m s\rces is appli$ to ! /igma4 ,sometimes ! =eign poll51 if f ! same k9d ( plant1 gr[s1 & f]tilization results1 :ile poll5 f ! same fl[] is less promptly effective4 ,if1 h[ev]1 no =eign poll5 is pres5t1 ! poll5 f ! same fl[] may f9ally s]ve ! same purpose4 ,9 ord] t ! poll5 may gr[1 ! /igma mu/ be ripe4 ,at ?is /age ! /igma is usually moi/ & sometimes /icky4 ,a ripe /igma is said to be receptive4 ,! /igma may rema9 receptive = sev]al h\rs or ev5 days1 dep5d+ on ! k9d ( plant1 ! wea!r1 & h[ soon poll5 is receiv$4 ,wat* a c]ta9 fl[] e day to see ! an!r locules op5 & ! /igma rip54 ,:5 f]tilization takes place1 ! /igma dies4 ,obs]ve1 also1 h[ soon ! petals )] aft] ! /igma has receiv$ poll54 ,poll9ation4--,! transf] ( ! poll5 f an!r to /igma is kn[n z poll9ation4 ,! poll5 may fall ( its own weight on ! adjac5t /igma1 or x may be c>ri$ f fl[] to fl[] by w9d1 insects1 or o!r ag5ts4 ,!re may be self-poll9ation or cross-poll9ation1 & ( c\rse x mu/ always prec$e f]tilization4 ,usually ! poll5 is dis*>g$ by ! bur/+ ( ! an!rs4 ,! commone/ me?od ( dis*>ge is ?r\gh a slit on ei!r side ( ! an!r 7,fig4 #aic74 ,sometimes x dis*>ges ?r\gh a pore at ! apex1 z 9 azalea 7,fig4 #aif71 rhodod5dron1 huckleb]ry1 w9t]gre54 ,9 "s plants a "p ( ! an!r wall raises or falls z a lid1 z 9 b>b]ry 7,fig4 #aig71 blue coho%1 ,may apple4 ,! op5+ ( an an!r 7z also ( a se$-pod7 is kn[n z dehisc5ce 7de1 f2 hisco1 to gape74 ,:5 an an!r or se$ pod op5s1 x is said to dehisce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aif4--;,,an!r ,,( ,,azalea1 op5+ by t]m9al pores4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aig4--;,,b>b]ry ,,/am51 ) an!r op5+ by lids4 ,mo/ fl[]s are s con/ruct$ z to increase ! *ances ( cross-poll9ation4 ,we h se5 t ! /igma may h ! p[] ( *oos+ =eign poll54 ,! commone/ means ( necessitat+ cross-poll9ation is ! diff]5t times ( matur+ ( /am5s & pi/ils 9 ! same fl[]4 ,9 mo/ cases ! /am5s mature fir/3 ! fl[] is !n prot]&r\s4 ,:5 ! pi/ils mature fir/1 ! fl[] is prot]ogyn\s4 7,an]1 &r1 is a ,greek root (t5 us$1 9 comb9ations1 = /am51 & gyne = pi/il47 ,! diff]5ce 9 "t ( rip5+ may be an h\r or two1 or x may be a day4 ,! rip5+ ( ! /am5s & pi/ils at diff]5t times is kn[n z di*ogamy1 & fl[]s ( su* "* are said to be di*ogam\s4 ,!re is little *ance = di*ogam\s fl[]s to poll9ate !mselves4 ,_m fl[]s are imp]fectly di*ogam\s--"s ( ! an!rs mature simultane\sly ) ! pi/ils1 s t !re is *ance = self-poll9ation 9 case =eign poll5 does n arrive4 ,ev5 :5 ! /igma receives poll5 f its own fl[]1 cross-f]tilization may result4 ,! hollyhock is prot]&r\s4 ,fig4 #aih %[s a fl[] rec5tly exp&$4 ,! c5t] is occupi$ by ! column ( /am5s4 ,9 ,fig4 #aii1 %[+ an old] fl[]1 ! long /yles are conspicu\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aih4--;,,fl[] ,,( ,,hollyhock2 prot]&r\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aii4--,,old] ,,fl[] ,,( ,,hollyhock4 ,"s fl[]s are s con/ruct$ z to prohibit self-poll9ation4 ,v irregul> fl[]s are usually ( ?is k9d4 ,) "s ( !m1 ! petals =m a sac to inclose ! an!rs & ! poll5 _c be %$ on ! /igma b is reta9$ until a bee =ces ! sac op52 ! poll5 is rubb$ on ! hairs ( ! bee & transport$4 ,regul> fl[]s usually dep5d mo/ly on di*ogamy & ! selective p[] ( ! pi/il to insure cross+4 ,fl[]s t are v irregul> & provid$ ) nect> & /rong p]fume are usually poll9at$ by insects4 ,gaudy colors probably attract insects 9 _m cases1 b p]fume appe>s to be a great] attraction4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4--;,,fl[] ,,( ,,l>kspur4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bja4--;,,envelopes ,,( ,a ,,l>kspur4 ,!re are five wide sepals1 ! upp] "o be+ spurr$4 ,!re are f\r small petals4 ,! insect visits ! fl[] = ! nect> 7= ! mak+ ( honey7 & may unkn[+ly c>ry ! poll54 ,spurs & sacs 9 ! fl[] are nect>ies 7,fig4 #bjj71 b 9 spurless fl[]s ! nect> is usually secret$ 9 ! bottom ( ! fl[] cup4 ,?is compels ! insect to pass by ! an!r & rub aga9/ ! poll5 be=e x rea*es ! nect>4 ,sometimes ! an!r is a long lev] pois$ on ! middle po9t & ! insect bumps aga9/ "o end & lifts x1 ?us br++ ! o!r end ( ! lev] ) ! poll5 sacs d[n on its back4 ,fl[]s t are poll9at$ by insects are said to be entomophil\s 78insect lov+074 ,fig4 #bjj %[s a l>kspur4 ,! envelopes are sep>at$ 9 ,fig4 #bja4 ,! long spur at once sugge/s insect poll9ation4 ,! spur is a sepal4 ,two holl[ petals project into ?is spur1 app>5tly s]v+ to guide ! bee's tongue4 ,! two small] petals1 9 front1 are peculi>ly color$ & p]haps s]ve ! bee 9 locat+ ! nect>y4 ,! /am5s en%ea? ! pi/ils 7,fig4 #bjb74 ,z ! insect /&s on ! fl[] & ?ru/s its head into ! c5t]1 ! envelopes are pu%$ d[nw>d & outw>d & ! pi/il & /am5s come 9 contact ) its abdom54 ,s9ce ! fl[] is prot]&r\s1 ! poll5 t ! pi/ils receive f ! bee's abdom5 mu/ come f ano!r fl[]4 ,note a some:at simil> arrangem5t 9 ! toadflax or butt]-&-eggs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4--,,/am5s ,,( ,,l>kspur1 surr\nd+ ! pi/ils4 ,9 "s cases 7,fig4 #bjc7 ! /am5s are long] ?an ! pi/il 9 "o fl[] & %ort] 9 ano!r4 ,if ! insect visits su* fl[]s1 x gets poll5 on its head f ! long-/am5 fl[]1 & deposits ?is poll5 on ! /igma 9 ! long-pi/il fl[]4 ,su* fl[]s are dimorph\s 7( two =ms74 ,if poll5 f its own fl[] & f ano!r fl[] bo? fall on ! /igma1 ! probabilities are t ! /igma w *oose ! =eign poll54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4--;,,dimorphic ,,fl[]s ,,( ,,primrose4 ,_m fl[]s are poll9at$ by ! w9d4 ,!y are said to be anemophil\s 78w9d lov+074 ,su* fl[]s produce great quantities ( poll51 = mu* ( x is wa/$4 ,!y usually h broad /igmas1 :i* expose l>ge surfaces to ! w9d4 ,!y are usually lack+ 9 gaudy colors & 9 p]fume4 ,grasses & p9e trees are typical examples ( anemophil\s plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4--;,,fl[]s ,,( ,,black ,,walnut3 two pi/illate fl[]s at ,a1 & /am9ate catk9s at ,b4 ,9 _m cases cross-poll9ation is insur$ because ! /am5s & pi/ils are 9 diff]5t fl[]s 7dicl9\s74 ,monci\s & dici\s plants may be poll9at$ by w9d or insects1 or o!r ag5ts 7,fig4 #bjd74 ,!y are usually w9d-poll9at$1 al?\gh will[s are (t51 if n mo/ly1 insect-poll9at$4 ,! ,indian corn is a monci\s plant4 ,! /am9ate fl[]s are 9 a t]m9al panicle 7tassel74 ,! pi/illate fl[]s are 9 a d5se spike 7e>71 inclos$ 9 a %ea? or husk4 ,ea* 8silk0 is a /yle4 ,ea* pi/illate fl[] produces a k]nel ( corn4 ,sometimes a few pi/illate fl[]s are borne 9 ! tassel & a few /am9ate fl[]s on ! tip ( ! e>4 ,is self-f]tilization possible ) ! corn8 ,:y does a 8volunte]0 /alk /&+ alone 9 a g>d5 h only a few gra9s on ! e>8 ,:at is ! direction ( ! prevail+ w9d 9 summ]8 ,if only two or ?ree r[s ( corn are plant$ 9 a g>d5 :]e prevail+ w9ds occur1 9 :i* direction w\ld !y bett] run8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bje4--;,,common ,,blue ,,violet4 ,! famili> fl[]s are %[n1 natural size4 ,! corolla is spurr$4 ,late 9 ! season1 clei/ogam\s fl[]s are (t5 borne on ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,a small "o is %[n at a4 ,a ne>ly mature pod is %[n at b4 ,bo? a & b are "o ?ird natural size4 ,al?\gh mo/ fl[]s are ( su* "* z to insure or increase ! *ances ( cross-poll9ation1 !re are "s t absolutely =bid cross+4 ,^! fl[]s are usually borne b5ea? or on ! gr\nd1 & !y lack %[y colors & p]fumes4 ,!y are kn[n z clei/ogam\s fl[]s 7mean+ 8hidd5 fl[]s074 ,! plant has normal %[y fl[]s t may be insect-poll9at$1 & 9 addition is provid$ ) ^! simplifi$ fl[]s4 ,only a few plants be> clei/ogam\s fl[]s4 ,hog-peanut1 common blue violet1 fr+$ w9t]gre51 & dalib>da are ! be/ subjects 9 ! ,nor!rn /ates4 ,fig4 #bje %[s a clei/ogam\s fl[] ( ! blue violet at a4 ,above ! true roots1 sl5d] /ems be> ^! fl[]s1 t are provid$ ) a calyx1 & a curv+ corolla :i* does n op54 ,inside are ! /am5s & pi/ils4 ,late 9 ! season ! clei/ogam\s fl[]s may be f\nd j und]nea? ! mold4 ,!y nev] rise above gr\nd4 ,! foll[+ summ] "o may f9d a se$l+ plant1 9 "s k9ds ( plants1 ) ! rema9s ( ! old clei/ogam\s fl[] /ill adh]+ to ! root4 ,clei/ogam\s fl[]s usually appe> aft] ! %[y fl[]s h pass$4 ,!y seem to insure a crop ( se$ by a me?od t exp5ds little ( ! plant's en]gy4 ,! pupil w be int]e/$ to "w out ! fruit+ ( ! peanut 7,fig4 #bjf74 ,unbak$ fre% peanuts gr[ readily & c easily be rais$ 9 ! ,nor? 9 a w>m s&y g>d54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4--,,pods ,,( ,,peanuts ,,rip5+ ,,und]gr\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4--,,/ruggle ,,= ,,exi/5ce ,,among ,,! ,,apple ,,fl[]s4 ,,sugge/ions4--#aeb4 ,n all ! fl[]s produce se$s4 ,note t an apple tree may bloom v full1 b t only relatively few apples may result 7,fig4 #bjg74 ,m poll5 is produc$ ?an is ne$$ to f]tilize ! fl[]s2 ?is increases ! *ances t suffici5t /igmas w receive acceptable poll5 to enable ! plant to p]petuate its k9d4 ,at any "t 9 summ]1 or ev5 9 fall1 exam9e ! apple trees c>efully to det]m9e :e!r any dead fl[]s or fl[] /alks /ill rema9 ab\t ! apple2 or1 exam9e any full-bloom+ plant to see :e!r any ( ! fl[]s fail4 #aec4 ,keep wat* on any plant to see :e!r insects visit x4 ,:at k9d8 ,:58 ,:at =8 #aed4 ,det]m9e :e!r ! calyx s]ves any purpose 9 protect+ ! fl[]4 ,v c>efully remove ! calyx f a bud t is normally expos$ to heat & sun & ra91 & see :e!r ! fl[] !n f>es z well z o!rs4 #aee4 ,cov] a s+le fl[] on its plant ) a t9y pap] or musl9 bag s tightly t no insect c get 94 ,if ! fl[] sets fruit1 :at d y conclude8 #aef4 ,remove c>efully ! corolla f a fl[] ne>ly ready to op51 pref]ably "o t has no o!r fl[]s v close to x4 ,wat* = insects4 #aeg4 ,f9d ! nect> 9 any fl[] t y /udy4 #aeh4 ,remove ! /igma4 ,:at happ5s8 #aei4 ,:i* ( ! foll[+ plants h p]fect fl[]s3 pea1 bean1 pumpk91 cotton1 clov]1 buck:eat1 potato1 ,indian corn1 pea*1 *e/nut1 hickory1 wat]melon1 sunfl[]1 cabbage1 rose1 begonia1 g]anium1 cucumb]1 calla1 will[1 cottonwood1 cantal\pe8 ,:at h ! o!rs8 #afj4 ,on w9d-poll9at$ plants1 are ei!r an!rs or /igmas m num]\s8 #afa4 ,are v small color$ fl[]s usually borne s+ly or 9 clu/]s8 #afb4 ,:y d ra9s at bloom+ "t (t5 less5 ! fruit crop8 #afc4 ,( :at value are bees 9 or*>ds8 #afd4 ,! cross+ ( plants to improve v>ieties or to obta9 new v>ieties4--,x may be desir$ to p]=m ! op]ation ( poll9ation by h&4 ,9 ord] to insure ! mo/ def9ite results1 e ef=t %\ld be made rightly to apply ! poll5 :i* x is desir$ %all be us$1 & rigidly to exclude all o!r poll54 7a7 ,! fir/ requisite is to remove ! an!rs f ! fl[] :i* x is propos$ to cross1 & !y mu/ be remov$ be=e ! poll5 has be5 %$4 ,! fl[]-bud is !re=e op5$ & ! an!rs tak5 out4 ,cut (f ! floral envelopes ) small1 %>p-po9t$ scissors1 !n cut out or pull out ! an!rs1 leav+ only ! pi/il unt\*$2 or m]ely op5 ! corolla at ! end & pull out ! an!rs ) a hook or tweez]s2 & ?is me?od is (t5 ! be/ "o4 ,x is be/ to delay ! op]ation z long z possible & yet n all[ ! bud to op5 7& !reby expose ! fl[] to =eign poll57 nor ! an!rs to dis*>ge ! poll54 7b7 ,! fl[] mu/ next be cov]$ ) a pap] bag to prev5t ! access ( poll5 7,figs4 #bjh1 #bji74 ,if ! /igma is n receptive at ! "t 7z x usually is n71 ! desir$ poll5 is n appli$ at once4 ,! bag may be remov$ f "t to "t to all[ ( exam9ation ( ! pi/il1 & :5 ! /igma is mature1 :i* is told by its glut9\s or r\gh5$ appe>ance1 ! "t = poll9ation has come4 ,if ! bag is slightly moi/5$1 x c be puck]$ m tightly ab\t ! /em ( ! plant4 ,! "t requir$ = ! /igma to mature v>ies f sev]al h\rs to a few days4 7c7 ,:5 ! /igma is ready1 an unop5$ an!r f ! desir$ fl[] is cru%$ on ! f+] nail or a knife blade1 & ! poll5 is rubb$ on ! /igma by means ( a t9y bru%1 ! po9t ( a knife blade1 or a sliv] ( wood4 ,! fl[] is aga9 cov]$ ) ! bag1 :i* is all[$ to rema9 = sev]al days until all dang] ( o!r poll9ation is pa/4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 completely to cov] ! /igmatic surface ) poll51 if possible4 ,! se$s produc$ by a cross$ fl[] produce hybrids1 or plants hav+ p>5ts belong+ to diff]5t v>ieties or species4 #afe4 ,"o ( ! means ( secur+ new =ms ( plants is by mak+ hybrids4 ,:y8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4--;,a ,,pap] ,,bag1 ) /r+ ins]t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bji4--,,! ,,bag ,,ti$ ,,ov] ,a ,,fl[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baj4--;,,fig4 ,! fig is a holl[ torus ) fl[]s borne on ! inside1 & poll9at$ by insects t ent] at ! apex4 ,,*apt] ,,xx ,,fl[]-,,clu/]s ,orig9 ( ! ,fl[]-clu/]4--,we h se5 t bran*es arise f ! axils ( leaves4 ,sometimes ! leaves may be r$uc$ to bracts & yet bran*es are borne 9 _! axils4 ,"s ( ! bran*es gr[ into long limbs2 o!rs become %ort spurs2 o!rs be> fl[]s4 ,9 fact1 a fl[] is itself a specializ$ bran*4 ,fl[]s are usually borne ne> ! top ( ! plant4 ,(t5 !y are produc$ 9 great numb]s4 ,x results1 !re=e1 t fl[] bran*es usually /& close toge!r1 =m+ a clu/]4 ,! %ape & arrangem5t ( ! fl[]-clu/] diff] ) ! k9d ( plant1 s9ce ea* plant has its own mode ( bran*+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baa4--,,t]m9al ,,fl[]s ,,( ,,! ,,:itewe$ 79 "s places call$ ox-eye daisy74 ,c]ta9 def9ite or well-m>k$ types ( fl[]-clu/]s h receiv$ names4 ,"s ( ^! names we %all discuss1 b ! fl[]-clu/]s t p]fectly mat* ! def9itions are ! exception r ?an ! rule4 ,! det]m9+ ( ! k9ds ( fl[]-clu/]s is "o ( ! mo/ p]plex+ subjects 9 descriptive botany4 ,we may classify ! subject ar\nd ?ree ideas3 solit>y fl[]s1 c5trifugal or det]m9ate clu/]s1 c5tripetal or indet]m9ate clu/]s4 ,solit>y ,fl[]s4--,9 _m cases fl[]s are borne s+ly2 !y are sep>at$ f o!r fl[]s by leaves4 ,!y are !n said to be solit>y4 ,! solit>y fl[] may be ei!r at ! end ( ! ma9 %oot or axis 7,fig4 #baa71 :5 x is said to be t]m9al2 or f ! side ( ! %oot 7,fig4 #bab71 :5 x is said to be lat]al or axill>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bab4--,,lat]al ,,fl[] ,,( ,,an ,,abutilon4 ,a gre5h\se plant4 ,c5tripetal ,clu/]s4--,if ! fl[]-be>+ axils 7 r close toge!r1 an op5 or leafy fl[]-clu/] might result4 ,if ! plant cont9ues to gr[ f ! tip1 ! old] fl[]s are left f>!r & f>!r beh9d4 ,if ! clu/] 7 s %ort z to be flat or convex on top1 ! out]mo/ fl[]s w\ld be ! old]4 ,a fl[]-clu/] 9 :i* ! l[] or out] fl[]s op5 fir/ is said to be a c5tripetal clu/]4 ,x is sometimes said to be an indet]m9ate clu/]1 s9ce x is ! result ( a type ( gr[? :i* may g on m or less cont9u\sly f ! apex4 ,! simple/ =m ( a def9ite c5tripetal clu/] is a raceme1 :i* is an op5 elongat$ clu/] 9 :i* ! fl[]s are borne s+ly on v %ort bran*es & op5 f bel[ 7t is1 f ! old] "p ( ! %oot7 upw>ds 7,fig4 #bac74 ,! raceme may be t]m9al to ! ma9 bran*2 or x may be lat]al to x1 z 9 ,fig4 #bad4 ,racemes (t5 be> ! fl[]s on "o side ( ! /em1 ?us =m+ a s+le r[4 ,:5 a c5tripetal fl[]-clu/] is long & d5se & ! fl[]s are sessile or ne>ly s1 x is call$ a spike 7,fig4 #bae74 ,common examples ( spikes are planta91 mignonette1 mulle94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bac4--,,raceme ,,( ,,currant4 ,t]m9al or lat]al8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bad4--,,lat]al ,,racemes 79 fruit7 ,,( ,,b>b]ry4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bae4--,,spike ,,( ,,planta94 ,a v %ort & d5se spike is a head4 ,clov] 7,fig4 #baf7 is a good example4 ,! sunfl[] & relat$ plants be> _m small fl[]s 9 a v d5se & (t5 flat head4 ,note t 9 ! sunfl[] 7,fig4 #ahi7 ! outside or ext]ior fl[]s op5 fir/4 ,ano!r special =m ( spike is ! catk91 :i* usually has scaly bracts1 ! :ole clu/] be+ decidu\s aft] fl[]+ or fruit+1 & ! fl[]s 79 typical cases7 hav+ only /am5s or pi/ils4 ,examples are ! 8pussies0 ( will[s 7,fig4 #ahb7 & fl[]-clu/]s ( oak 7,fig4 #ahj71 walnuts 7,fig4 #bjd71 popl>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baf4--;,,head ,,( ,,clov] ,,blossoms4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bag4--;,,corymb ,,( ,,c&y-,,tuft4 ,:5 a loose1 elongat$ c5tripetal fl[]-clu/] has "s prim>y bran*es simple1 & o!rs irregul>ly bran*$1 x is call$ a panicle4 ,x is a bran*+ raceme4 ,because ( ! e>li] gr[? ( ! l[] bran*es1 ! panicle is usually broade/ at ! base or conical 9 outl9e4 ,true panicles are n v common4 ,:5 an indet]m9ate fl[]-clu/] is %ort1 s t ! top is convex or flat1 x is a corymb 7,fig4 #bag74 ,! out]mo/ fl[]s op5 fir/4 ,c5tripetal fl[]-clu/]s are sometimes said to be corymbose 9 mode4 ,:5 ! bran*es ( an indet]m9ate clu/] arise f a common po9t1 l ! frame ( an umbrella1 ! clu/] is an umbel 7,fig4 #bah74 ,typical umbels occur 9 c>rot1 p>snip1 c>away & o!r plants ( ! p>sley family3 ! family is kn[n z ! ,umbellif]1 or umbel-be>+ family4 ,9 ! c>rot & _m o!r ,umbellif]1 !re are small or second>y umbels1 call$ umbellets1 at ! end ( ea* ( ! ma9 bran*es4 7,9 ! c5t] ( ! wild c>rot umbel "o (t5 f9ds a s+le1 blacki%1 (t5 abort$ fl[]1 compris+ a #a-;fl[]$ umbellet47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bah4--,,rema9s ,,( ,a ,,la/ ,,ye>',s ,,umbel ,,( ,,wild ,,c>rot4 ,c5trifugal or ,det]m9ate ,clu/]s4--,:5 ! t]m9al or c5tral fl[] op5s fir/1 ! clu/] is said to be c5trifugal4 ,! gr[? ( ! %oot or clu/] is det]m9ate1 s9ce ! l5g? is def9itely det]m9$ or /opp$ by ! t]m9al fl[]4 ,fig4 #bai %[s a det]m9ate or c5trifugal mode ( fl[] be>+4 ,d5se c5trifugal clu/]s are usually flatti% on top because ( ! cessation ( gr[? 9 ! ma9 or c5tral axis4 ,^! compact fl[]-clu/]s are kn[n z cymes4 ,c5trifugal clu/]s are sometimes said to be cymose 9 mode4 ,apples1 pe>s 7,fig4 #bbj71 & eld]s be> fl[]s 9 cymes4 ,"s cyme-=ms are l umbels 9 g5]al appe>ance4 ,a head-l cymose clu/] is a glom]ule2 x blooms f ! top d[nw>ds r ?an f ! base upw>ds4 ,mix$ ,clu/]s4--,(t5 ! clu/] is mix$1 be+ det]m9ate 9 "o "p & indet]m9ate 9 ano!r "p ( ! same clu/]4 ,! ma9 clu/] may be indet]m9ate1 b ! bran*es det]m9ate4 ,! clu/] has ! appe>ance ( a panicle1 & is usually s call$1 b x is really a ?yrse4 ,lilac is a famili> example ( a ?yrse4 ,9 "s cases ! ma9 clu/] is det]m9ate & ! bran*es are indet]m9ate1 z 9 hydrangea & eld]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bai4--;,,det]m9ate ,,or ,,cymose ,,arrangem5t4--,wild g]anium4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4--;,,cyme ,,( ,,pe>4 ,(t5 imp]fect4 ,infloresc5ce4--,! mode or me?od ( fl[] arrangem5t is kn[n z ! infloresc5ce4 ,t is1 ! infloresc5ce is cymose1 corymbose1 paniculate1 spicate1 solit>y1 det]m9ate1 indet]m9ate4 ,by cu/om1 h[ev]1 ! ^w 8infloresc5ce0 has come to be us$ = ! fl[]-clu/] itself 9 works on descriptive botany4 ,?us a cyme or a panicle may be call$ an infloresc5ce4 ,x w be se5 t ev5 solit>y fl[]s foll[ ei!r indet]m9ate or det]m9ate me?ods ( bran*+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bba4--;,,=ms ,,( ,,c5tripetal ,,fl[]-,,clu/]s4 #a1 raceme2 #b1 spike2 #c1 umbel2 #d1 head or an?odium2 #e1 corymb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4--;,,c5tripetal ,,infloresc5ce1 cont9u$4 #f1 spadix2 #g1 comp\nd umbel2 #h1 catk94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4--;,,c5trifugal ,,infloresc5ce4 #a1 cyme2 #b1 scirpioid raceme 7or half cyme74 ,! fl[]-/em4--,! /em ( a solit>y fl[] is kn[n z a p$uncle2 also ! g5]al /em ( a fl[]-clu/]4 ,! /em ( ! individual fl[] 9 a clu/] is a p$icel4 ,9 ! s-call$ /emless plants ! p$uncle may arise directly f ! gr\nd1 or cr[n ( ! plant1 z 9 d&elion1 hyac9?1 g>d5 daisy2 ?is k9d ( p$uncle is call$ a scape4 ,a scape may be> "o or _m fl[]s4 ,x has no foliage leaves1 b x may h bracts4 ,,sugge/ions4--#aff4 ,"n six columns 9 y\r notebook z foll[s3 spike1 raceme1 corymb1 umbel1 cyme1 solit>y4 ,write ea* ( ! foll[+ 9 its appropriate column3 l>kspur1 grape1 rose1 wi/>ia1 onion1 bridal wrea?1 banana1 hydrangea1 phlox1 ,*9a b]ry1 lily-(-!-valley1 ,spani% dagg] 7or yucca71 sorghum1 tub]ose1 hyac9?1 mu/>d1 gold5rod1 pea*1 hollyhock1 mulle91 crpe myrtle1 locu/1 n>cissus1 snapdragon1 pepp]grass1 %eph]d's purse1 coxcomb1 :eat1 haw?orn1 g]anium1 c>rot1 eld]1 millet1 dogwood1 ca/or bean2 sub/itute o!rs = plants t d n gr[ 9 y\r region4 #afg4 ,9 ! /udy ( fl[]-clu/]s1 x is well to *oose fir/ ^? t are fairly typical ( ! v>i\s classes discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraphs4 ,z soon z ! ma9 types are well fix$ 9 ! m9d1 r&om clu/]s %\ld be exam9$1 = ! pupil mu/ nev] receive ! impression t all fl[]-clu/]s foll[ ! def9itions 9 books4 ,clu/]s ( "s ( ! commone/ plants are v puzzl+1 b ! pupil %\ld at lea/ be able to discov] :e!r ! infloresc5ce is det]m9ate or indet]m9ate4 ,figures #bba to #bbc 7f ! ,g]man7 illu/rate ! !oretical modes ( infloresc5ce4 ,! num]als indicate ! ord] ( op5+4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi ,,fruits ,! rip5$ ov>y1 ) its atta*m5ts1 is kn[n z ! fruit4 ,x conta9s ! se$s4 ,if ! pi/il is simple1 or ( "o c>pel1 ! fruit also w h "o comp>tm5t4 ,if ! pi/il is comp\nd1 or ( m ?an "o c>pel1 ! fruit usually has an equal numb] ( comp>tm5ts4 ,! comp>tm5ts 9 pi/il & fruit are kn[n z locules 7f ,lat9 locus1 mean+ 8a place074 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4--;,,d5t>ia1 ,,or ,,too?-,,wort1 9 fruit4 ,! simple/ k9d ( fruit is a rip5$ #a-locul$ ov>y4 ,! fir/ /age 9 complexity is a rip5$ #b- or _m-locul$ ov>y4 ,v complex =ms may arise by ! atta*m5t ( o!r p>ts to ! ov>y4 ,sometimes ! /yle p]si/s & becomes a beak 7mu/>d pods1 d5t>ia1 ,fig4 #bbd71 or a tail z 9 clematis2 or ! calyx may be atta*$ to ! ov>y2 or ! ov>y may be emb$d$ 9 ! receptacle1 & ov>y & receptacle toge!r con/itute ! fruit3 or an involucre may become a "p ( ! fruit1 z possibly 9 ! walnut & hickory 7,fig4 #bbe71 & cup ( ! acorn 7,fig4 #bbf74 ,! *e/nut & ! bee* be> a prickly involucre1 b ! nuts1 or true fruits1 are n gr[n fa/ to x1 & ! involucre c sc>cely be call$ a "p ( ! fruit4 ,a rip5$ ov>y is a p]ic>p4 ,a p]ic>p to :i* o!r p>ts adh]e has be5 call$ an accessory or ren=c$ fruit4 7,page #afi47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4--;,,hickory-,,nut4 ,! nut is ! fruit1 conta9$ 9 a husk4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4--,,live-,,oak ,,acorn4 ,! fruit is ! 8se$0 "p2 ! involucre is ! 8cup40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4--,,key ,,( ,,sug> ,,maple4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4--,,key ,,( ,,common ,,am]ican ,,elm4 ,"s fruits are dehisc5t1 or split op5 at maturity & lib]ate ! se$s2 o!rs are indehisc5t1 or d n op54 ,a dehisc5t p]ic>p is call$ a pod4 ,! p>ts into :i* su* a pod breaks or splits are kn[n z valves4 ,9 indehisc5t fruits ! se$ is lib]at$ by ! decay ( ! envelope1 or by ! ruptur+ ( ! envelope by ! g]m9at+ se$4 ,indehisc5t w+$ p]ic>ps are kn[n z sam>as or key fruits4 ,maple 7,fig4 #bbg71 elm 7,fig4 #bbh71 & a% 7,fig4 #ic7 are examples4 ,p]ic>ps4--,! simple/ p]ic>p is a dry1 "o-se$$1 indehisc5t body4 ,x is kn[n z an ak5e4 ,a head ( ak5es is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bbi1 & ! /ructure is expla9$ 9 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,ak5es may be se5 9 butt]cup1 hepatica1 anemone1 sm>twe$1 buck:eat4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4--;,,ak5es ,,( ,,butt]cup4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4--;,,ak5es ,,( ,,butt]cup1 "o 9 longitud9al section4 ,a #a-locul$ p]ic>p :i* dehisces along ! front edge 7t is1 ! inn] edge1 next ! c5t] ( ! fl[]7 is a follicle4 ,! fruit ( ! l>kspur 7,fig4 #bca7 is a follicle4 ,!re are usually five ( ^! fruits 7sometimes ?ree or f\r7 9 ea* l>kspur fl[]1 ea* pi/il rip5+ into a follicle4 ,if ^! pi/ils 7 unit$1 a s+le comp\nd pi/il w\ld be =m$4 ,columb9e1 peony1 n9eb>k1 milkwe$1 also h follicles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bca4--;,,follicle ,,( ,,l>kspur4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4--;,,capsule ,,( ,,ca/or-,,oil ,,bean ,,aft] ,,dehisc5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4--;,a ,,bean ,,pod4 ,a #a-locul$ p]ic>p t dehisces on bo? edges is a legume4 ,peas & beans are typical examples 7,fig4 #bcb72 9 fact1 ?is "* gives "n to ! pea family1--,legum9os4 ,(t5 ! valves ( ! legume twi/ =cibly & expel ! se$s1 ?r[+ !m "s di/ance4 ,! ^w 8pod0 is sometimes re/rict$ to legumes1 b x is bett] to use x g5]ically = all dehisc5t p]ic>ps4 ,a comp\nd pod--dehisc+ p]ic>p ( two or m c>pels--is a capsule 7,figs4 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bcf1 #bcg74 ,"s capsules are ( "o locule1 b !y may h be5 comp\nd :5 "y 79 ! ov>y /age7 & ! p>titions may h vani%$4 ,sometimes "o or m ( ! c>pels are uni=mly cr[d$ out by ! exclusive gr[? ( o!r c>pels 7,fig4 #bce74 ,! se$s or p>ts :i* are cr[d$ out are said to be abort$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4--;,,capsule ,,( ,,morn+ ,,glory4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bce4--,,?ree-,,c>pel$ ,,fruit ,,( ,,horse-,,*e/nut4 ,two locules are clos+ by abortion ( ! ovules4 ,!re are sev]al ways 9 :i* capsules dehisce or op54 ,:5 !y break along ! p>titions 7or septa71 ! mode is kn[n z septicidal dehisc5ce 7,fig4 #bcf72 ,9 septicidal dehisc5ce ! fruit sep>ates into p>ts repres5t+ ! orig9al c>pels4 ,^! c>pels may /ill be entire1 & !y !n dehisce individually1 usually along ! inn] edge z if !y 7 follicles4 ,:5 ! comp>tm5ts split 9 ! middle1 betwe5 ! p>titions1 ! mode is loculicidal dehisc5ce 7,fig4 #bcg74 ,9 "s cases ! dehisc5ce is at ! top1 :5 x is said to be apical 7al?\gh sev]al modes ( dehisc5ce are "h includ$74 ,:5 ! :ole top comes (f1 z 9 purslane & g>d5 portulaca 7,fig4 #bch71 ! pod is kn[n z a pyxis4 ,9 "s cases apical dehisc5ce is by means ( a hole or clefts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcf4--,,/4 ,,john',s ,,wort4 ,septicidal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4--,,loculicidal ,,pod ,,( ,,day-,,lily4 ,! peculi> capsule ( ! mu/>d family1 or ,crucif]1 is kn[n z a silique :5 x is di/9ctly long] ?an broad 7,fig4 #bbd71 & a silicle :5 its bread? ne>ly equals or exce$s its l5g?4 ,a crucif]\s capsule is #b-;c>pel$1 ) a ?9 p>tition1 ea* locule conta9+ se$s 9 two r[s4 ,! two valves deta* f bel[ upw>ds4 ,cabbage1 turnip1 mu/>d1 wat]-cress1 radi%1 rape1 %eph]d's purse1 sweet alyssum1 wallfl[]1 hone/y1 are examples4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bch4--,,pyxis ,,( ,,portulaca ,,or ,,rose-,,moss4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bci4--;,,b]ries ,,( ,,gooseb]ry4 ,rema9s ( calyx at c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4--;,,b]ry ,,( ,,! ,,gr\nd ,,*]ry ,,or ,,husk ,,tomato1 conta9$ 9 ! inflat$ calyx4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bda4--,,orange2 example ( a b]ry4 ,! p]ic>p may be fle%y & indehisc5t4 ,a pulpy p]ic>p ) sev]al or _m se$s is a b]ry 7,figs4 #bci1 #bdj1 #bda74 ,to ! horticulturi/ a b]ry is a small1 s(t1 edible fruit1 )\t p>ticul> ref]5ce to its /ructure4 ,! botanical & horticultural conceptions ( a b]ry are1 !re=e1 unlike4 ,9 ! botanical s5se1 gooseb]ries1 currants1 grapes1 tomatoes1 potato-balls1 & ev5 eggplant fruits & oranges 7,fig4 #bda7 are b]ries2 /rawb]ries1 raspb]ries1 blackb]ries are n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdb4--,,plum2 example ( a drupe4 ,a fle%y p]ic>p conta9+ "o relatively l>ge se$ or /one is a drupe4 ,examples are plum 7,fig4 #bdb71 pea*1 *]ry1 apricot1 olive4 ,! walls ( ! pit 9 ! plum1 pea*1 & *]ry are =m$ f ! inn] coats ( ! ov>y1 & ! fle% f ! out] coats4 ,drupes are also kn[n z /one-fruits4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdc4--;,,fruit ,,( ,,raspb]ry4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdd4--;,,aggregate ,,fruit ,,( ,,mulb]ry2 & a sep>ate fruit4 ,fruits t are =m$ by ! subsequ5t union ( sep>ate pi/ils are aggregate fruits4 ,! c>pels 9 aggregate fruits are usually m or less fle%y4 ,9 ! raspb]ry & blackb]ry fl[]1 ! pi/ils are ess5tially di/9ct1 b z ! pi/ils rip5 !y coh]e & =m "o body 7,figs4 #bdc1 #bdd74 ,ea* ( ! c>pels or pi/ils 9 ! raspb]ry & blackb]ry is a little drupe1 or drupelet4 ,9 ! raspb]ry ! entire fruit sep>ates f ! torus1 leav+ ! torus on ! plant4 ,9 ! blackb]ry & dewb]ry ! fruit adh]es to ! torus1 & ! two are remov$ toge!r :5 ! fruit is pick$4 ,accessory ,fruits4--,:5 ! p]ic>p & "s o!r "p gr[ toge!r1 ! fruit is said to be accessory or ren=c$4 ,an example is ! /rawb]ry 7,fig4 #bde74 ,! edible "p is a greatly enl>g$ torus1 & ! p]ic>ps are ak5es emb$d$ 9 x4 ,^! ak5es are commonly call$ se$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bde4--,,/rawb]ry2 fle%y torus 9 :i* ak5es are emb$d$4 ,v>i\s k9ds ( ren=c$ fruits h receiv$ special names4 ,"o ( ^! is ! hip1 *>act]i/ic ( roses4 ,9 ?is case1 ! torus is deep & holl[1 l an urn1 & ! sep>ate ak5es are borne inside x4 ,! m\? ( ! receptacle may close1 & ! walls sometimes become fle%y2 ! fruit may !n be mi/ak5 = a b]ry4 ,! fruit ( ! pe>1 apple1 & qu9ce is kn[n z a pome4 ,9 ?is case ! five unit$ c>pels are completely buri$ 9 ! holl[ torus1 & ! torus makes mo/ ( ! edible "p ( ! ripe fruit1 :ile ! pi/ils are repres5t$ by ! core 7,fig4 #bdf74 ,obs]ve ! sepals on ! top ( ! torus 7apex ( ! fruit7 9 ,fig4 #bdf4 ,note ! outl9es ( ! emb$d$ p]ic>p 9 ,fig4 #bdg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdf4--,,section ,,( ,,an ,,apple4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdg4--;,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,an ,,apple4 ,gymnosp]m\s ,fruits4--,9 p9e1 spruces1 & _! k91 !re is no fruit 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! ^w is us$ 9 ! prec$+ pages1 because !re is no ov>y4 ,! ovules are nak$ or uncov]$1 9 ! axils ( ! scales ( ! "y cone1 & !y h nei!r /yle nor /igma4 ,! poll5 falls directly on ! m\? ( ! ovule4 ,! ovule rip5s into a se$1 :i* is usually w+$4 ,because ! ovule is n borne 9 a sac or ov>y1 ^! plants are call$ gymnosp]ms 7,greek = 8nak$ se$s074 ,all ! true cone-be>+ plants are ( ?is class2 also c]ta9 o!r plants1 z r$ c$>1 junip]1 yew4 ,! plants are monci\s or sometimes dici\s4 ,! /am9ate fl[]s are m]e nak$ /am5s borne b5ea? scales1 9 small yell[ catk9s :i* soon fall4 ,! pi/illate fl[]s are nak$ ovules b5ea? scales on cones t p]si/ 7,fig4 #bi74 ,gymnosp]m\s se$s may h sev]al cotyl$ons4 ,,sugge/ions4--#afh4 ,/udy ! foll[+ fruits1 or any five fruits *os5 by ! tea*]1 & answ] ! que/ions = ea*3 ,apple1 pea*1 bean1 tomato1 pumpk94 ,:at is its =m8 ,locate ! sc> left by ! /em4 ,by :at k9d ( a /em 0 x atta*$8 ,is !re any rema9s ( ! blossom at ! blossom end8 ,describe texture & color ( surface4 ,divide ! fruit into ! se$ vessel & ! surr\nd+ "p4 ,has ! fruit any pulp or fle%8 ,is x )9 or )\t ! se$ vessel8 ,is ! se$ vessel simple or subdivid$8 ,:at is ! numb] ( se$s8 ,are ! se$s free1 atta*$ to ! wall ( ! vessel1 or to a support 9 ! c5t]8 ,are !y arrang$ 9 any ord]8 ,:at k9d ( wall has ! se$ vessel8 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 a pea* /one & a pea* se$8 #afi4 ,! nut fruits are always available = /udy4 ,note ! po9ts sugge/$ above4 ,det]m9e :at ! meat or edible "p repres5ts1 :e!r cotyl$ons or n4 ,figure #bdh is sugge/ive4 #agj4 ,m5tion all ! fle%y fruits y "k1 tell :]e !y come f1 & ref] !m to _! prop] gr\ps4 #aga4 ,:at k9ds ( fruits c y buy 9 ! m>ket1 & to :at gr\ps or classes d !y belong8 ,( :i* ones are ! se$s only1 & n ! p]ic>ps1 eat58 #agb4 ,an e> ( corn is always available = /udy4 ,:at is x--a fruit or a collection ( fruits8 ,h[ are ! gra9s arrang$ on ! cob8 ,h[ _m r[s d y c\nt on ea* ( sev]al e>s8 ,are all ! r[s on an e> equally close toge!r8 ,d y f9d an e> ) an odd numb] ( r[s8 ,h[ d ! p>ts ( ! husk ov]lap8 ,does ! husk s]ve z protection f ra98 ,c birds pick out ! gra9s8 ,h[ d insect enemies ent] ! e>8 ,h[ & :5 d weevils lay eggs on corn8 #agc4 ,/udy a gra9 ( corn4 ,is x a se$8 ,describe ! %ape ( a gra94 ,color4 ,size4 ,does its surface %[ any projections or depressions8 ,is ! se$-coat ?9 or ?ick8 ,transp>5t or opaque8 ,locate ! hilum4 ,:]e is ! silk sc>8 ,:at is ! silk8 ,sket* ! gra9 f ! two po9ts ( view t %[ x be/4 ,:]e is ! embryo8 ,does ! gra9 h endosp]m8 ,:at is d5t corn8 ,fl9t corn8 ,h[ _m k9ds ( corn d y "k8 ,= :at are !y us$8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdh4--,,pecan ,,fruit4 ,,note ,,to ,,tea*]4--,!re are few m int]e/+ subjects to beg9n+ pupils ?an fruits1--! pods ( _m k9ds1 =ms1 & colors1 ! b]ries1 & nuts4 ,?is int]e/ may well be utiliz$ to make ! tea*+ alive4 ,all common edible fruits ( or*>d & vegetable g>d5 %\ld be br\ght into ?is discussion 7"s ( ! k9ds are expla9$ 9 8,lessons ) ,plants074 ,( dry fruits1 z pods1 burs1 nuts1 collections may be made = ! s*ool museum4 ,fully mature fruits are be/ = /udy1 p>ticul>ly if x is desir$ to see dehisc5ce4 ,= comp>ison1 pi/ils & p>tially gr[n fruits %\ld be _h at ! same "t4 ,if ! fruits are n ripe en\gh to dehisce1 !y may be plac$ 9 ! sun to dry4 ,9 ! s*ool x is well to h a collection ( fruits = /udy4 ,! specim5s may be kept 9 glass j>s4 ,always note ext]ior ( fruit & its p>ts3 int]ior ( fruit ) arrangem5t & atta*m5t ( cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii ,,disp]sal ,,( ,,se$s ,x is to ! plant's advantage to h its se$s di/ribut$ z widely z possible4 ,x has a bett] *ance ( surviv+ 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,x gets away f competition4 ,_m se$s & fruits are ( su* "* z to increase _! *ances ( wide disp]sal4 ,! commone/ means ( dissem9ation may be class$ "u f\r heads3 explosive fruits2 transportation by w9d2 transportation by birds2 burs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdi4--;,,explosion ,,( ,,! ,,balsam ,,pod4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bej4--;,,explosive ,,fruits ,,( ,,oxalis4 ,an explod+ pod is %[n at c4 ,! dehisc5ce is %[n at b4 ,! /ructure ( ! pod is se5 at a4 ,explosive ,fruits4--,"s pods op5 ) explosive =ce & dis*>ge ! se$s4 ,ev5 bean & ev]la/+ peas d ?is4 ,m m>k$ examples are ! locu/1 wit* hazel1 g>d5 balsam 7,fig4 #bdi71 wild jewel-we$ or impati5s 7t\*-me-n71 violet1 crane's-bill or wild g]anium1 bull nettle1 morn+ glory1 & ! oxalis 7,fig4 #bej74 ,! oxalis is common 9 sev]al species 9 ! wild & cultivation4 ,"o ( !m is kn[n z wood sorrel4 ,fig4 #bej %[s ! common yell[ oxalis4 ,! pod op5s loculicidally4 ,! ela/ic tissue sudd5ly contracts :5 dehisc5ce takes place1 & ! se$s are ?r[n viol5tly4 ,! squirt+ cucumb] is easily gr[n 9 a g>d5 7procure se$s ( se$sm571 & ! fruits dis*>ge ! se$s ) great =ce1 ?r[+ !m _m feet4 ,w9d ,travel]s4--,w9d-transport$ se$s are ( two g5]al k9ds3 ^? t are provid$ ) w+s1 z ! flat se$s ( catalpa 7,fig4 #bea7 & cone-be>+ trees & ! sam>as ( a%1 elm1 tulip-tree1 ailan?us1 & maple2 & ^? :i* h fea!ry buoys or p>a*utes to enable !m to float 9 ! air4 ,( ! latt] k9d are ! fruits ( _m composites1 9 :i* ! pappus is copi\s & s(t4 ,d&elion & ?i/le are examples4 ,! silk ( ! milkwe$ & probably ! hairs on ! cotton se$ h a simil> (fice1 & also ! wool ( ! cat-tail4 ,recall ! cottony se$s ( ! will[ & popl>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bea4--,,w+$ ,,se$s ,,( ,,catalpa4 ,disp]sal by ,birds4--,se$s ( b]ries & ( o!r small fle%y fruits are c>ri$ f> & wide by birds4 ,! pulp is dige/$1 b ! se$s are n injur$4 ,note h[ ! *]ries1 raspb]ries1 blackb]ries1 ,june-b]ries1 & o!rs spr+ up 9 ! f5ce r[s1 :]e ! birds re/4 ,"s b]ries & drupes p]si/ f> into w9t]1 :5 !y supply food to c$> birds1 rob9s1 & ! w9t] birds4 ,r$ c$> is di/ribut$ by birds4 ,_m ( ^! pulpy fruits are agreeable z human food1 & "s ( !m h be5 greatly enl>g$ or 8improv$0 by ! arts ( ! cultivator4 ,! se$s are usually indige/ible4 ,burs4--,_m se$s & fruits be> sp9es1 hooks1 & hairs1 :i* adh]e to ! coats ( animals & to clo?+4 ,! burdock has an involucre ) hook$ scales1 conta9+ ! fruits inside4 ,! clotbur is also an involucre4 ,bo? are composit\s plants1 alli$ to ?i/les1 b ! :ole head1 r ?an ! sep>ate fruits1 is transport$4 ,9 "s composit\s fruits ! pappus takes ! =m ( hooks & sp9es1 z 9 ! 8,spani% bayonets0 & 8pit*=ks40 ,fruits ( v>i\s k9ds are kn[n z 8/ick tights10 z ( ! agrimony & h\nd's-tongue4 ,^? :o walk 9 ! woods 9 late summ] & fall are aw>e t plants h means ( dissem9at+ !mselves 7,fig4 #beb74 ,if x is impossible to id5tify ! burs :i* "o f9ds on clo?+1 ! se$s may be plant$ & specim5s ( ! plant may !n be gr[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beb4--,,/eal+ ,a ,,ride4 ,,sugge/ions4--#agd4 ,:at advantage is x to ! plant to h its se$s widely disp]s$8 #age4 ,:at are ! lead+ ways 9 :i* fruits & se$s are disp]s$8 #agf4 ,"n "s explosive fruits4 #agg4 ,describe w9d travel]s4 #agh4 ,:at se$s are c>ri$ by birds8 #agi4 ,describe "s bur ) :i* y are famili>4 #ahj4 ,are adhesive fruits usually dehisc5t or indehisc5t8 #aha4 ,d sam>as gr[ on l[ or tall plants1 z a rule8 #ahb4 ,are ! cotton fib]s on ! se$ or on ! fruit8 #ahc4 ,"n ! ways 9 :i* ! common we$s ( y\r region are dissem9at$4 #ahd4 ,?is lesson w sugge/ o!r ways 9 :i* se$s are transport$4 ,nuts are buri$ by squirrels = food2 b if !y are n eat51 !y may gr[4 ,! se$s ( _m plants are bl[n on ! sn[4 ,! old /alks ( we$s1 /&+ ?r\gh ! w9t]1 may s]ve to dissem9ate ! plant4 ,se$s are c>ri$ by wat] d[n ! /reams & along %ores4 ,ab\t wool5 mills /range plants (t5 spr+ up f se$ br\ght 9 ! fleeces4 ,sometimes ! entire plant is roll$ = miles be=e ! w9ds4 ,su* plants are 8tumblewe$s40 ,examples are ,russian ?i/le1 hair grass or tumblegrass 7,panicum capill>e71 cyclone plant 7,cycloloma platyphyllum71 & :ite am>an? 7,am>antus albus74 ,ab\t seaports /range plants are (t5 f\nd1 hav+ be5 introduc$ 9 ! e>? t is us$ 9 %ips = balla/4 ,^! plants are usually kn[n z 8balla/ plants40 ,mo/ ( !m d n p]si/ long4 #ahe4 ,plants are able to spread !mselves by means ( ! great numb]s ( se$s t !y produce4 ,h[ _m se$s may a giv5 elm tree or apple tree or raspb]ry bu% produce8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bec4--,,! ,,fruits ,,( ,,! ,,cat-,,tail ,,are ,,loos5$ ,,by ,,w9d ,,& ,,wea!r4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii ,,ph5ogams ,,& ,,cryptogams ,! plants ?us f> /udi$ produce fl[]s2 & ! fl[]s produce se$s by means ( :i* ! plant is propagat$4 ,!re are o!r plants1 h[ev]1 t produce no se$s1 & ^! plants 7includ+ bact]ia7 are probably m num]\s ?an ! se$-be>+ plants4 ,^! plants propagate by means ( spores1 :i* are g5]ative cells1 usually simple1 conta9+ no embryo4 ,^! spores are v small1 & sometimes are n visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bed4--;,,*ri/mas ,,f]n4--,dryopt]is acro/i*oides2 kn[n also z ,aspidium4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bee4--;,,fruit+ ,,frond ,,( ,,*ri/mas ,,f]n4 ,sori at a4 ,"o sorus ) its indusium at b4 ,prom95t among ! spore-propagat$ plants are f]ns4 ,! common ,*ri/mas f]n 7s call$ because x rema9s gre5 dur+ w9t]7 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bed4 ,! plant has no trunk4 ,! leaves spr+ directly f ! gr\nd4 ,! leaves ( f]ns are call$ fronds4 ,!y v>y 9 %ape1 z o!r leaves d4 ,"s ( ! fronds 9 ,fig4 #bed are se5 to be n>r[] at ! top4 ,if ^! are exam9$ m closely 7,fig4 #bee71 x w be se5 t ! leaflets are contract$ & are d5sely cov]$ b5ea? ) br[n bodies4 ,^! bodies are collections ( sporangia or spore-cases4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bef4--;,,common ,,polypode ,,f]n4 ,polypodium vulg>e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beg4--,,sori ,,& ,,sporangium ,,( ,,polypode4 ,a *a9 ( cells lies along ! top ( ! sporangium1 :i* spr+s back ela/ically on dry+1 ?us dissem9at+ ! spores4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beh4--,,! ,,brake ,,fruits ,,und]nea? ,,! ,,revolute ,,edges ,,( ,,! ,,leaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bei4--;,,fruit+ ,,p9nules ,,( ,,maid5hair ,,f]n4 ,! sporangia are collect$ into little gr\ps1 kn[n z sori 7s+ul>1 sorus7 or fruit-dots4 ,ea* sorus is cov]$ ) a ?9 scale or %ield1 kn[n z an indusium4 ,?is indusium sep>ates f ! frond at its edges1 & ! sporangia are expos$4 ,n all f]ns h indusia4 ,! polypode 7,figs4 #bef1 #beg7 does n2 ! sori are nak$4 ,9 ! brake 7,fig4 #beh7 & maid5hair 7,fig4 #bei7 ! edge ( ! frond turns ov] & =ms an indusium4 ,! nephrolepis or sword f]n ( gre5h\ses is alli$ to ! polypode4 ,! sori are 9 a s+le r[ on ei!r side ! midrib 7,fig4 #bfj74 ,! indusium is circul> or kidney-%ap$ & op5 at "o edge or f9ally all ar\nd4 ,! ,bo/on f]n1 ,wa%+ton f]n1 ,pi]son f]n1 & o!rs1 are horticultural =ms ( ! common sword f]n4 ,9 "s f]ns 7,fig4 #bfa7 an entire frond becomes contract$ to cov] ! sporangia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfj4--,,"p ,,( ,,frond ,,( ,,sword ,,f]n4 ,to ! pupil3 ,is ?is illu/ration "r side up8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfa4--;,,f]tile ,,& ,,/]ile ,,fronds ,,( ,,! ,,s5sitive ,,f]n4 ,! sporangium or spore-case ( a f]n is a m or less globul> body & usually ) a /alk 7,fig4 #beg74 ,x conta9s ! spores4 ,:5 ripe x bur/s & ! spores are set free4 ,9 a moi/1 w>m place ! spores g]m9ate4 ,!y produce a small1 flat1 ?91 gre51 m or less he>t-%ap$ membrane 7,fig4 #bfb74 ,?is is ! pro?allus4 ,sometimes ! pro?allus is an in* or m across1 b (t5] x is less ?an a dime 9 size4 ,al?\gh easily se51 x is commonly unkn[n except to botani/s4 ,pro?alli may (t5 be f\nd 9 gre5h\ses :]e f]ns are gr[n4 ,look on ! moi/ /one or brick walls1 or on ! firm soil ( undi/urb$ pots & b$s2 or spores may be s[n 9 a damp1 w>m place4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfb4--,,pro?allus ,,( ,a ,,f]n4 ,,enl>g$4 ,ar*egonia at a2 an!ridia at b4 ,on ! "u side ( ! pro?allus two k9ds ( organs are borne4 ,^! are ! ar*egonium 7conta9+ egg-cells7 & ! an!ridium 7conta9+ sp]m-cells74 ,^! organs are m9ute specializ$ p>ts ( ! pro?allus4 ,_! positions on a p>ticul> pro?allus are %[n at a & b 9 ,fig4 #bfb1 b 9 "s f]ns !y are on sep>ate pro?alli 7plant dici\s74 ,! sp]m-cells escape f ! an!ridium & 9 ! wat] t collects on ! pro?allus are c>ri$ to ! ar*egonium1 :]e f]tilization ( ! egg takes place4 ,f ! f]tiliz$ egg-cell a plant gr[s1 becom+ a 8f]n40 ,9 mo/ cases ! pro?allus soon dies4 ,! pro?allus is ! gametophyte 7f ,greek1 signify+ ! f]tiliz$ plant74 ,! f]n plant1 aris+ f ! f]tiliz$ egg 9 ! ar*egonium1 becomes a p]5nial plant1 ea* ye> produc+ spores f its fronds 7call$ ! sporophyte72 b ^! spores--:i* are m]ely deta*$ special k9ds ( cells--produce ! pro?allic phase ( ! f]n plant1 f :i* new individuals arise4 ,a f]n is f]tiliz$ b once 9 its lifetime4 ,! 8f]n0 be>s ! spore1 ! spore gives rise to ! pro?allus1 & ! egg-cell ( ! pro?allus 7:5 f]tiliz$7 gives rise to ! f]n4 ,a simil> alt]nation ( g5]ations runs all ?r\gh ! vegetable k+dom1 al?\gh !re are "s gr\ps ( plants 9 :i* x is v obscure or app>5tly want+4 ,x is v m>k$ 9 f]ns & mosses4 ,9 alg 7includ+ ! seawe$s7 ! gametophyte is ! 8plant10 z ! non-botani/ kn[s x1 & ! sporophyte is inconspicu\s4 ,!re is a g5]al t5d5cy1 9 ! evolution ( ! vegetable k+dom1 = ! gametophyte to lose its relative importance & = ! sporophyte to become l>g] & m highly develop$4 ,9 ! se$-be>+ plants ! sporophyte g5]ation is ! only "o se5 by ! non-botani/4 ,! gametophyte /age is ( %ort duration & ! p>ts are small2 x is conf9$ to ! "t ( f]tilization4 ,! sporophyte ( se$ plants1 or ! 8plant0 z we "k x1 produces two k9ds ( spores--"o k9d becom+ poll5-gra9s & ! o!r k9d embryo-sacs4 ,! poll5-spores are borne 9 sporangia1 :i* are unit$ into :at are call$ an!rs4 ,! embryo-sac1 :i* conta9s ! egg-cell1 is borne 9 a sporangium kn[n z an ovule4 ,a gametophytic /age is pres5t 9 bo? poll5 & embryo sac3 f]tilization takes place1 & a sporophyte arises4 ,soon ?is sporophyte becomes dormant1 & is !n kn[n z an embryo4 ,! embryo is pack$ away )9 tight-fitt+ coats1 & ! entire body is ! se$4 ,:5 ! conditions are "r ! se$ gr[s1 & ! sporophyte gr[s into h]b1 bu%1 or tree4 ,! utility ( ! alt]nation ( g5]ations is n und]/ood4 ,! spores ( f]ns are borne on leaves2 ! spores ( se$-be>+ plants are also borne among/ a mass ( specially develop$ conspicu\s leaves kn[n z fl[]s1 !re=e ^! plants h be5 kn[n z ! fl[]+ plants4 ,"s ( ! leaves are develop$ z envelopes 7calyx1 corolla71 & o!rs z spore-be>+ p>ts1 or sporophylls 7/am5s1 pi/ils74 ,b ! spores ( ! l[] plants1 z ( f]ns & mosses1 may also be borne 9 specially develop$ foliage1 s t ! l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 fl[]+ plants & fl[]less plants is n s def9ite z 0 once suppos$4 ,! "o def9ite di/9ction betwe5 ^! two classes ( plants is ! fact t "o class produces se$s & ! o!r does n4 ,! se$-plants are n[ (t5 call$ sp]maphytes1 b !re is no s+le cord9ate t]m to set (f ^? :i* d n be> se$s4 ,x is q z well1 = popul> purposes1 to use ! t]ms ph5ogams = ! se$-be>+ plants & cryptogams = ! o!rs4 ,^! t]ms h be5 object$ to 9 rec5t ye>s because _! etymology does n express lit]al facts 7ph5ogam signify+ 8%[y fl[]s10 & cryptogam 8hidd5 fl[]s071 b ! t]ms repres5t di/9ct ideas 9 classification4 ,! cryptogams include ?ree great s]ies ( plants--! ,?allophytes or alg1 li*5s1 & fungi2 ! ,bryophytes or mosslike plants2 ! ,pt]idophytes or f]nlike plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfc4--;,,diagram ,,to ,,expla9 ,,! ,,t]m9ology ,,( ,,! ,,frond4 ,,sugge/ions4--#ahf4 ,! p>ts ( a f]n leaf4 ,! prim>y complete divisions ( a frond are call$ p9n1 no matt] :e!r ! frond is p9nate or n4 ,9 f]ns ! ^w 8p9na0 is us$ 9 ess5tially ! same way t leaflet is 9 ! once-comp\nd leaves ( o!r plants4 ,! second>y leaflets are call$ p9nules1 & 9 ?rice1 or m1 comp\nd fronds1 ! la/ complete p>ts or leaflets are ultimate p9nules4 ,! diagram 7,fig4 #bfc7 w aid 9 mak+ ! subject cle>4 ,if ! frond 7 n divid$ to ! midrib1 x w\ld be simple1 b ?is diagram repres5ts a comp\nd frond4 ,! g5]al outl9e ( ! frond1 z b\nd$ by ! dott$ l9e1 is ovate4 ,! /ipe is v %ort4 ,! midrib ( a comp\nd frond is kn[n z ! ra*is4 ,9 a decomp\nd frond1 ?is ma9 ra*is is call$ ! prim>y ra*is4 ,segm5ts 7n divid$ to ! ra*is7 are se5 at ! tip1 & d[n to h on "o side & to m on ! o!r4 ,p9n are %[n at i1 k1 l1 o1 n4 ,! p9na o is entire2 n is cr5ate-d5tate2 i is s9uate or wavy1 ) an auricle at ! base2 k & l are comp\nd4 ,! p9na k has twelve entire p9nules4 7,is !re ev] an ev5 numb] ( p9nules on any p9na87 ,p9na l has n9e comp\nd p9nules1 ea* be>+ sev]al entire ultimate p9nules4 ,! spores4--#ahg4 ,lay a mature fruit+ frond ( any f]n on :ite pap]1 top side up1 & all[ x to rema9 9 a dry1 w>m place4 ,! spores w dis*>ge on ! pap]4 #ahh4 ,lay ! full-gr[n 7b n dry7 cap ( a mu%room or toad/ool bottom d[n on a %eet ( clean pap]1 "u a v5tilat$ box 9 a w>m1 dry place4 ,a day lat] raise ! cap4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv ,,/udies ,,9 ,,cryptogams ,! pupil :o has acquir$ skill 9 ! use ( ! comp\nd microscope may desire to make m ext5d$ excursions into ! cryptogam\s ord]s4 ,! foll[+ plants h be5 *os5 z examples 9 v>i\s gr\ps4 ,f]ns are suffici5tly discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,,bact]ia ,if an infusion ( ord9>y hay is made 9 wat] & all[$ to /&1 x becomes turbid or cl\dy aft] a few days1 & a drop "u ! microscope w %[ ! pres5ce ( m9ute oblong cells swimm+ 9 ! wat] p]haps by means ( num]\s hair-l app5dages1 t project ?r\gh ! cell wall f ! protoplasm )94 ,at ! surface ( ! di% conta9+ ! infusion ! cells are non-motile & are unit$ 9 long *a9s4 ,ea* ( ^! cells or organisms is a bact]ium 7plural1 bact]ia74 7,fig4 #ace47 ,bact]ia are v m9ute organisms1--! smalle/ kn[n1--consi/+ ei!r ( sep>ate oblong or sph]ical cells1 or ( *a9s1 plates1 or gr\ps ( su* cells1 dep5d+ on ! k9d4 ,!y possess a membrane-l wall :i*1 unlike ! cell walls ( high] plants1 conta9s nitrog54 ,! pres5ce ( a nucleus has n be5 def9itely demon/rat$4 ,multiplication is by ! fission ( ! vegetative cells2 b "u c]ta9 conditions ( dr\ght1 cold1 or exhau/ion ( ! nutri5t m$ium1 ! protoplasm ( ! ord9>y cells may become inve/$ ) a ?ick wall1 ?us =m+ an endospore :i* is v resi/ant to extremes ( environm5t4 ,no sexual reproduction is kn[n4 ,bact]ia are v widely di/ribut$ z p>asites & saprophytes 9 almo/ all conceivable places4 ,decay is l>gely caus$ by bact]ia1 accompani$ 9 animal tissue by ! lib]ation ( f\l-smell+ gases4 ,c]ta9 species gr[ 9 ! res]voirs & pipes ( wat] supplies1 r5d]+ ! wat] bracki% & (t5 undr9kable4 ,"s k9ds ( f]m5tation 7! break+ d[n or decompos+ ( organic comp\nds1 usually accompani$ by ! =mation ( gas7 are due to ^! organisms4 ,o!r bact]ia oxidize alcohol to acetic acid1 & produce lactic acid 9 milk & butyric acid 9 butt]4 ,bact]ia live 9 ! m\?1 /oma*1 inte/9es1 & on ! surface ( ! sk9 ( animals4 ,"s secrete gelat9\s %ea?s ar\nd !mselves2 o!rs secrete sulfur or iron1 giv+ ! sub/ratum a vivid color4 ,7 x n = bact]ia1 man c\ld n live on ! e>?1 = n only are !y ag5ts 9 ! process ( decay1 b !y are conc]n$ 9 c]ta9 heal?ful processes ( plants & animals4 ,we h le>n$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,viii h[ bact]ia are relat$ to nitrog5-ga!r+4 ,bact]ia are ( economic importance n alone because ( _! effect on mat]ials us$ by man1 b also because ( ! disease-produc+ p[] ( c]ta9 species4 ,pus is caus$ by a sph]ical =m1 tetanus or lock-jaw by a rod-%ap$ =m1 diph!ria by %ort oblong *a9s1 tub]culosis or 8consumption0 by m sl5d] oblong *a9s1 & typhoid fev]1 *ol]a1 & o!r diseases by o!r =ms4 ,_m diseases ( animals & plants are caus$ by bact]ia4 ,disease-produc+ bact]ia are said to be pa?og5ic4 ,! ability to gr[ 9 o!r nutri5t sub/ances ?an ! natural "o has greatly facilitat$ ! /udy ( ^! m9ute =ms ( life4 ,by ! use ( suitable culture m$ia & prop] precautions1 pure cultures ( a p>ticul> disease-produc+ bact]ium may be obta9$ ) :i* fur!r exp]im5ts may be conduct$4 ,milk provides an excell5t collect+ place = bact]ia com+ f ! air1 f ! coat ( ! c[ & f ! milk]4 ,disease g]ms are sometimes c>ri$ 9 milk4 ,if a drop ( milk is spread on a culture m$ium 7z ag>71 & provid$ ) prop] temp]ature1 ! bact]ia w multiply1 ea* "o =m+ a colony visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,9 ?is way1 ! numb] ( bact]ia orig9ally conta9$ 9 ! milk may be c\nt$4 ,bact]ia are dissem9at$ 9 wat]1 z ! g]m ( typhoid fev] & *ol]a2 9 milk & o!r fluids2 9 ! air2 & on ! bodies ( flies1 feet ( birds1 & o!rwise4 ,bact]ia are ?\ght by _m to h desc5d$ f alg by ! loss ( *lorophyll & decrease 9 size due to ! m specializ$ acquir$ saprophytic & p>asitic habit4 ,,alg ,! alg comprise mo/ ( ! gre5 float+ 8scum0 :i* cov]s ! surfaces ( ponds & o!r quiet wat]s4 ,! masses ( plants are (t5 call$ 8frog spittle40 ,o!rs are atta*$ to /ones1 pieces ( wood1 & o!r objects subm]g$ 9 /reams & lakes1 & _m are f\nd on moi/ gr\nd & on dripp+ rocks4 ,aside f ^!1 all ! plants commonly kn[n z seawe$s belong to ?is category2 ^! latt] are inhabitants ( salt wat]4 ,! simple/ =ms ( alg consi/ ( a s+le sph]ical cell1 :i* multiplies by repeat$ division or fission4 ,_m ( ! =ms f\nd 9 fre% wat] are filam5t\s1 i4e4 ! plant body consi/s ( long ?reads1 ei!r simple or bran*$4 ,su* a plant body is t]m$ a ?allus4 ,?is t]m applies to ! vegetative body ( all plants t are n diff]5tiat$ into /em & leaves4 ,su* plants are kn[n z ?allophytes 7p4 #aha74 ,all alg conta9 *lorophyll1 & are able to assimilate c>bon dioxid f ! air4 ,?is di/+ui%es !m f ! fungi4 ,no/oc4--,on wet rocks & damp soil d>k1 semitransp>5t irregul> or sph]ical gelat9\s masses ab\t ! size ( a pea are (t5 f\nd4 ,^! consi/ ( a colony ( contort$ filam5t\s alg emb$d$ 9 ! jelly-l mass4 ,! *a9 ( cells 9 ! filam5t is necklace-l4 ,ea* cell is homog5e\s1 )\t app>5t nucleus1 & blue-gre5 9 color1 except "o cell :i* is l>g] & cle>] ?an ! re/4 ,! plant !re=e belongs to ! gr\p ( blue-gre5 alg4 ,! jelly probably s]ves to ma9ta9 a m ev5 moi/ure & to provide me*anical protection4 ,multiplication is :olly by ! break+ up ( ! ?reads4 ,occasionally c]ta9 cells ( ! filam5t ?ick5 to become re/+-spores1 b no o!r spore =mation occurs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfd4--;,,filam5t ,,( ,,oscillatoria1 %[+ "o dead cell :]e ! /r& w break4 ,oscillatoria4--,! blue-gre5 coat+s f\nd on damp soil & 9 wat] frequ5tly %[ "u ! microscope ! pres5ce ( filam5t\s alg compos$ ( _m %ort homog5e\s cells 7,fig4 #bfd74 ,if wat*$ closely1 "s filam5ts w be se5 to wave back & =? sl[ly1 %[+ a peculi> p[] ( movem5t *>act]i/ic ( ?is plant4 ,multiplication is by ! break+ up ( ! ?reads4 ,!re is no true spore =mation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfe4--,/r& ( ,spirogyra1 %[+ ! *lorophyll b&s4 ,!re is a nucleus at a4 ,h[ _m cells1 or p>ts ( cells1 are %[n 9 ?is figure8 ,,spirogyra4--,"o ( ! mo/ common =ms ( ! gre5 alg is spirogyra 7,fig4 #bfe74 ,?is plant (t5 =ms ! great] "p ( ! float+ gre5 mass 7or 8frog spittle07 on ponds4 ,! ?readlike "* ( ! ?allus c be se5 ) ! nak$ eye or ) a h& l5s1 b to /udy x c>efully a microscope magnify+ two hundr$ diamet]s or m mu/ be us$4 ,! ?read is divid$ into long cells by cross walls :i*1 accord+ to ! species1 are ei!r /raight or curi\sly fold$ 7,fig4 #bff74 ,! *lorophyll is arrang$ 9 beautiful spiral b&s ne> ! wall ( ea* cell4 ,f ! "* ( ^! b&s ! plant takes its "n4 ,ea* cell is provid$ ) a nucleus & o!r protoplasm4 ,! nucleus is susp5d$ ne> ! c5t] ( ! cell 7a1 ,fig4 #bfe7 by delicate /r&s ( protoplasm radiat+ t[>d ! wall & t]m9at+ at c]ta9 po9ts 9 ! *lorophyll b&4 ,! rema9d] ( ! protoplasm =ms a ?9 lay] l9+ ! wall4 ,! int]ior ( ! cell is fill$ ) cell-sap4 ,! protoplasm & nucleus _c be easily se51 b if ! plant is /a9$ ) a dilute alcoholic solution ( eos9 !y become cle>4 ,spirogyra is propagat$ vegetatively by ! break+ (f ( p>ts ( ! ?reads1 :i* cont9ue to gr[ z new plants4 ,re/+-spores1 :i* may rema9 dormant = a "t1 are =m$ by a process kn[n z conjugation4 ,two ?reads ly+ side by side s5d out %ort projections1 usually f all ! cells ( a long s]ies 7,fig4 #bff74 ,! projections or processes f opposite cells gr[ t[>d ea* o!r1 meet1 & fuse1 =m+ a connect+ tube betwe5 ! cells4 ,! protoplasm1 nucleus1 & *lorophyll b& ( "o cell n[ pass ?r\gh ?is tube1 & unite ) ! cont5ts ( ! o!r cell4 ,! entire mass !n becomes surr\nd$ by a ?ick cellulose wall1 ?us complet+ ! re/+-spore1 or zygospore 7z1 ,fig4 #bff74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bff4--;,,conjugation ,,( ,,spirogyra4 ,ripe zygospores on ! left2 a1 connect+ tubes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfg4--,,/r&1 ,,or ,,filam5t ,,( ,,zygnema1 fre$ f its gelat9\s cov]+4 ,zygnema is an alga closely relat$ to spirogyra & f\nd 9 simil> places4 ,its life hi/ory is practically ! same1 b x diff]s f spirogyra 9 hav+ two />-%ap$ *lorophyll bodies 7,fig4 #bfg7 9 ea* cell1 in/ead ( a *lorophyll-be>+ spiral b&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfh4--,,?read ,,( ,,vau*]ia ,,) ,o,,gonia ,,& ,,an!ridia4 ,vau*]ia is ano!r alga common 9 %all[ wat] & on damp soil4 ,! ?allus is mu* bran*$1 b ! ?reads are n divid$ by cross walls z 9 spirogyra4 ,! plants are atta*$ by means ( colorless root-l organs :i* are mu* l ! root hairs ( ! high] plants3 ^! are rhizoids4 ,! *lorophyll is 9 ! =m ( gra9s scatt]$ ?r\gh ! ?read4 ,vau*]ia has a special mode ( asexual reproduction by means ( swimm+ spores or sw>m-spores4 ,^! are =m$ s+ly 9 a %ort enl>g$ lat]al bran* kn[n z ! sporangium4 ,:5 ! sporangium bur/s1 ! entire cont5ts escape1 =m+ a s+le l>ge sw>m-spore1 :i* swims ab\t by means ( num]\s la%es or cilia on its surface4 ,! sw>m spores are s l>ge t !y c be se5 ) ! nak$ eye4 ,aft] swimm+ ab\t = "s "t !y come to re/ & g]m9ate1 produc+ a new plant4 ,! =mation ( re/+-spores ( vau*]ia is accompli%$ by means ( special organs1 ogonia 7o1 ,fig4 #bfh7 & an!ridia 7a1 ,fig4 #bfh74 ,bo? ( ^! are specially develop$ bran*es f ! ?allus4 ,! an!ridia are ne>ly cyl9drical1 & curv$ t[>d ! ogonia4 ,! upp] "p ( an an!ridium is cut (f by a cross wall1 & )9 x num]\s ciliat$ sp]m-cells are =m$4 ,^! escape by ! ruptur$ apex ( ! an!ridium4 ,! ogonia are m enl>g$ ?an ! an!ridia1 & h a beak-l projection turn$ a little to "o side ( ! apex4 ,!y are sep>at$ f ! ?allus ?read by a cross wall1 & conta9 a s+le l>ge gre5 cell1 ! egg-cell4 ,! apex ( ! ogonium is dissolv$1 & ?r\gh ! op5+ ! sp]m-cells ent]4 ,f]tilization is ?us accompli%$4 ,aft] f]tilization ! egg-cell becomes inve/$ ) a ?ick wall & is ?us conv]t$ into a re/+-spore1 ! ospore4 ,fucus4--,^! are r l>ge specializ$ alg belong+ to ! gr\p kn[n z br[n seawe$s & f\nd atta*$ by a disk to ! rocks ( ! sea%ore j bel[ high tide 7,fig4 #bfi74 ,!y are firm & /rong to resi/ wave action & are s atta*$ z to avoid be+ wa%$ a%ore4 ,!y are v abundant alg4 ,9 %ape ! plants are long1 bran*$1 & multicellul>1 ) ei!r flat or t]ete bran*es4 ,!y are olive-br[n4 ,propagation is by ! break+ (f ( ! bran*es4 ,no zospores are produc$1 z 9 _m o!r seawe$s2 & reproduction is :olly sexual4 ,! an!ridia1 be>+ sp]m-cells1 & ! ogonia1 ea* be>+ eight egg-cells1 are sunk5 9 pits or conceptacles4 ,^! pits are aggregat$ 9 ! swoll5 light] color$ tips ( "s ( ! bran*es 7s1 s1 ,fig4 #bfi74 ,! egg-cells & sp]m-cells escape f ! pits & f]tilization takes place 9 ! wat]4 ,! matur$ eggs1 or spores1 reproduce ! fucus plant directly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfi4--;,,fucus4 ,fruit+ bran*es at s1 s4 ,on ! /em are two air-bladd]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgj4--,,nitella4 ,nitella4--,?is is a l>ge bran*$ & specializ$ fre%-wat] alga f\nd 9 tufts atta*$ to ! bottom 9 %all[ ponds 7,fig4 #bgj74 ,betwe5 ! :orls ( bran*es are long int]nodes consi/+ ( a s+le cyl9drical cell1 :i* is "o ( ! l>ge/ cells kn[n 9 vegetable tissue4 ,"u ! microscope ! walls ( ?is cell are f\nd to be l9$ ) a lay] ( small /ation>y *loropla/ids1 )9 :i* lay] ! protoplasm1 "u favorable circum/ances1 w be f\nd 9 motion1 mov+ up "o side & d[n ! o!r 79 rotation74 ,note ! cle> /reak up ! side ( ! cell & its relation to ! mov+ curr5t4 ,,fungi ,"s =ms ( fungi are famili> to e "o4 ,mu%rooms & toad/ools1 ) _! v>i$ =ms & colors1 are common 9 fields1 woods1 & pa/ures4 ,9 e h\sehold ! common molds are famili> intrud]s1 appe>+ on old bread1 vegetables1 & ev5 )9 tightly seal$ fruit j>s1 :]e !y =m a felt-l lay] du/$ ov] ) blue1 yell[1 or black p[d]4 ,! /range occurr5ce ( ^! plants long my/ifi$ p1 :o ?\ght !y 7 productions ( ! dead matt] ^u :i* !y grew1 b n[ we "k t a mold1 z any o!r plant1 _c orig9ate spontane\sly2 x mu/ />t f some?+ :i* is analog\s to a se$4 ,! 8se$0 9 ?is case is a spore4 ,a spore may be produc$ by a vegetative process 7gr[+ out f ! ord9>y plant tissues71 or x may be ! result ( a f]tilization process4 ,favorable conditions = ! gr[? ( fungi4--,place a piece ( bread "u a moi/ bell j> & ano!r 9 an uncov]$ place ne> by4 ,s[ mold on ea*4 ,note ! result f day to day4 ,moi/5 a ?ird piece ( bread ) weak copp] sulfate 7blue vitriol7 or m]curic *lorid solution1 s[ mold1 cov] ) bell j>1 note results1 & expla94 ,expose pieces ( diff]5t k9ds ( food 9 a damp atmosph]e & obs]ve ! v>iety ( organisms appe>+4 ,fungi are saprophytes or p>asites1 & mu/ be provid$ ) organic matt] on :i* to gr[4 ,!y are usually mo/ abundant 9 moi/ places & wet seasons4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bga4--,,mucor ,,muc$o1 %[+ habit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgb4--,,spores ,,( ,,mucor1 "s g]m9at+4 ,mold4--,"o ( ^! molds 7,mucor muc$o71 :i* is v common on all decay+ fruits & vegetables1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bga1 some:at magnifi$4 ,:5 fruit+1 ?is mold appe>s z a d5se mass ( long :ite hairs1 (t5 ov] an in* high1 /&+ erect f ! fruit or vegetable on :i* x is gr[+4 ,! life ( ?is mucor beg9s ) a m9ute r\nd$ spore 7a1 ,fig4 #bgb71 :i* lodges on ! decay+ mat]ial4 ,:5 ! spore g]m9ates1 x s5ds out a delicate ?read t gr[s rapidly 9 l5g? & =ms v _m bran*es t soon p]meate e "p ( ! sub/ance on :i* ! plant gr[s 7b1 ,fig4 #bgb74 ,"o ( ^! ?reads is t]m$ a hypha4 ,all ! ?reads toge!r =m ! mycelium ( ! fungus4 ,! mycelium disorganizes ! mat]ial 9 :i* x gr[s1 & ?us ! mucor plant 7,fig4 #bga7 is n\ri%$4 ,x corresponds physiologically to ! roots & /ems ( o!r plants4 ,:5 ! mycelium is ab\t two days old1 x beg9s to =m ! long fruit+ /alks :i* we fir/ notic$4 ,to /udy !m1 use a comp\nd microscope magnify+ ab\t two hundr$ diamet]s4 ,"o ( ! /alks1 magnifi$1 is %[n 9 a1 ,fig4 #bgd4 ,x consi/s ( a r\nd$ head1 ! sporangium1 sp1 support$ on a long1 delicate /alk1 ! sporangiophore4 ,! /alk is sep>at$ f ! sporangium by a wall :i* is =m$ at ! base ( ! sporangium4 ,?is wall1 h[ev]1 does n ext5d /raight across ! ?read1 b x ar*es up into ! sporangium l an inv]t$ pe>4 ,x is kn[n z ! columella1 c4 ,:5 ! sporangium is plac$ 9 wat]1 ! wall imm$iately dissolves & all[s hundr$s ( spores1 :i* 7 =m$ 9 ! cavity )9 ! sporangium1 to escape1 b4 ,all t is left ( ! fruit is ! /alk1 ) ! pe>-%ap$ columella at its summit1 c4 ,! spores t h be5 set free by ! break+ ( ! sporangium wall are n[ scatt]$ by ! w9d & o!r ag5ts4 ,^? t lodge 9 favorable places beg9 to gr[ imm$iately & reproduce ! fungus4 ,! o!rs soon p]i%4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgc4--,,mucor1 %[+ =mation ( zygospore on ! "r2 g]m9at+ zygospore on ! left4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgd4--,,mucor4 a1 sporangium2 b1 sporangium bur/+2 c1 columella4 ,! mucor may cont9ue to reproduce itself 9 ?is way indef9itely1 b ^! spores are v delicate & usually die if !y d n fall on favorable gr\nd1 s t ! fungus is provid$ ) ano!r means ( c>ry+ itself ov] unfavorable seasons1 z w9t]4 ,?is is accompli%$ by means ( curi\s ?ick-wall$ re/+-spores or zygospores4 ,! zygospores are =m$ on ! mycelium buri$ )9 ! sub/ance on :i* ! plant gr[s4 ,!y orig9ate 9 ! foll[+ way3 ,two ?reads t lie ne> toge!r s5d out %ort bran*es1 :i* gr[ t[>d ea* o!r & f9ally meet 7,fig4 #bgc74 ,! walls at ! ends1 a1 !n disappe>1 all[+ ! cont5ts to fl[ toge!r4 ,at ! same "t1 h[ev]1 two o!r walls are =m$ at po9ts f>!r back1 b1 b1 sep>at+ ! %ort section1 c1 f ! rema9d] ( ! ?read4 ,?is section n[ increases 9 size & becomes cov]$ ) a ?ick1 d>k br[n wall ornam5t$ ) ?ick5$ tub]cles4 ,! zygospore is n[ mature &1 aft] a p]iod ( re/1 x g]m9ates1 ei!r produc+ a sporangium directly or gr[+ out z mycelium4 ,! zygospores ( ! mucors =m "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ & in/ructive objects among ! l[] plants4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 v difficult to obta94 ,"o ( ! mucors 7,sporod9ia gr&is7 may be frequ5tly f\nd 9 summ] gr[+ on toad/ools4 ,?is plant usually produces zygospores t are =m$ on ! arial mycelium4 ,! zygospores are l>ge en\gh to be recogniz$ ) a h& l5s4 ,! mat]ial may be dri$ & kept = w9t] /udy1 or ! zygospores may be prep>$ = p]man5t microscopic m\nts 9 ! ord9>y way4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bge4--,,yea/ ,,plants4 ,yea/4--,?is is a v mu* r$uc$ & simple fungus1 consi/+ normally ( isolat$ sph]ical or elliptical cells 7,fig4 #bge7 conta9+ abundant protoplasm & probably a nucleus1 al?\gh ! latt] is n easily obs]v$4 ,x propagates rapidly by budd+1 :i* consi/s ( ! gradual extrusion ( a w>t-l swell+ t is soon] or lat] cut (f at ! base by con/riction1 ?us =m+ a sep>ate organism4 ,al?\gh simple 9 /ructure1 ! yea/ is f\nd to be closely relat$ to "s ( ! high] gr\ps ( fungi z %[n by ! me?od ( spore =mation4 ,:5 gr[n on special sub/ances l potato or c>rot1 ! cont5ts ( ! cell may =m spores inside ( ! sac-l "m cell1 ?us resembl+ ! sac-fungi to :i* blue mold & mildews belong4 ,! yea/ plant is rem>kable on acc\nt ( its p[] to induce alcoholic f]m5tation 9 ! m$ia 9 :i* x gr[s4 ,!re are _m k9ds ( yea/s4 ,"o ( !m is f\nd 9 ! common yea/ cakes4 ,9 ! process ( manufacture ( ^! cakes1 ! yea/ cells gr[ to a c]ta9 /age1 & ! mat]ial is !n dri$ & fa%ion$ into small cakes1 ea* cake conta9+ great numb]s ( ! yea/ cells4 ,:5 ! yea/ cake is add$ to d\gh1 & prop] conditions ( w>m? & moi/ure are provid$1 ! yea/ gr[s rapidly & breaks up ! sug> ( ! d\gh into c>bon dioxid & alcohol4 ,?is is f]m5tation4 ,! gases escape & puff up ! d\gh1 caus+ ! bread to rise4 ,9 ?is loos5$ condition ! d\gh is bak$2 if x is n bak$ quickly en\gh1 ! bread 8falls40 ,%ake up a bit ( yea/ cake 9 slightly sweet5$ wat]3 ! wat] soon becomes cl\dy f ! gr[+ yea/s4 ,p>asitic fungi4--,mo/ ( ! molds are saprophytes4 ,_m o!r fungi are p>asitic on liv+ plants & animals 7,fig4 #bhe74 ,"s ( !m h complicat$ life hi/ories1 und]go+ _m *anges be=e ! orig9al spore is aga9 produc$4 ,! will[ mildew & ! common ru/ ( :eat w s]ve to illu/rate ! habits ( p>asitic fungi4 ,! will[ mildew 7,unc9ula salicis74--,?is is "o ( ! sac fungi4 ,x =ms :ite d[ny pat*es on ! leaves ( will[s 7,fig4 #bgf74 ,^! pat*es consi/ ( num]\s int]wov5 ?reads t may be recogniz$ "u ! microscope z ! mycelium ( ! fungus4 ,! mycelium 9 ?is case lives on ! surface ( ! leaf & n\ri%es itself by s5d+ %ort bran*es into ! cells ( ! leaf to absorb food mat]ials f !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgf4--;,,colonies ,,( ,,will[ ,,mildew4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgg4--,,summ]-,,spores ,,( ,,will[ ,,mildew4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgh4--,,p]i!cium ,,( ,,will[ ,,mildew4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgi4--,,section ,,?r\gh ,,p]i!cium ,,( ,,will[ ,,mildew4 ,num]\s summ]-spores are =m$ ( %ort1 erect bran*es all ov] ! :ite surface4 ,"o ( ^! bran*es is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bgg4 ,:5 x has gr[n to a c]ta9 l5g?1 ! upp] "p beg9s to segm5t or divide into spores :i* fall & are scatt]$ by ! w9d4 ,^? fall+ on o!r will[s reproduce ! fungus !re4 ,?is process cont9ues all summ]1 b 9 ! lat] "p ( ! season provision is made to ma9ta9 ! mildew ?r\gh ! w9t]4 ,if "s ( ! :ite pat*es are closely exam9$ 9 ,july or ,augu/1 a numb] ( little black bodies w be se5 among ! ?reads4 ,^! little bodies are call$ p]i!cia1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #bgh4 ,to ! nak$ eye !y appe> z m9ute specks1 b :5 se5 "u a magnification ( #bjj diamet]s !y pres5t a v int]e/+ appe>ance4 ,!y are holl[ sph]ical bodies decorat$ ar\nd ! outside ) a fr+e ( crook-l hairs4 ,! re/+-spores ( ! will[ mildew are produc$ 9 sacs or asci inclos$ )9 ! lea!ry p]i!cia4 ,figure #bgi %[s a cross-section ( a p]i!cium ) ! asci aris+ f ! bottom4 ,! spores rema9 securely pack$ 9 ! p]i!cia4 ,!y d n rip5 9 ! autumn1 b fall to ! gr\nd ) ! leaf1 & !re rema9 securely protect$ among ! dead foliage4 ,! foll[+ spr+ !y mature & are lib]at$ by ! decay ( ! p]i!cia4 ,!y are !n ready to attack ! unfold+ leaves ( ! will[ & repeat ! "w ( ! summ] be=e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhj4--,,sori ,,conta9+ ,,teleutospores ,,( ,,:eat ,,ru/4 ,! :eat ru/4--,! developm5t ( "s ( ! ru/s1 z ! common :eat ru/ 7,pucc9ia gram9is71 is ev5 m int]e/+ & complicat$ ?an t ( ! mildews4 ,:eat ru/ is also a true p>asite1 affect+ :eat & a few o!r grasses4 ,! mycelium "h _c be se5 by ! unaid$ eye1 = x consi/s ( ?reads :i* are pres5t )9 ! ho/ plant1 mo/ly 9 ! int]cellul> spaces4 ,^! ?reads also s5d %ort bran*es1 or hau/oria 7,fig4 #acb71 into ! neighbor+ cells to absorb nutrim5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bha4--,,teleutospore ,,( ,,:eat ,,ru/4 ,! re/+-spores ( :eat ru/ are produc$ 9 late summ]1 :5 !y may be f\nd 9 black l9es break+ ?r\gh ! epid]mis ( ! :eat /alk 7black-ru/ /age74 ,!y are =m$ 9 masses1 call$ sori 7,fig4 #bhj71 f ! ends ( num]\s cr[d$ mycelial /r&s j b5ea? ! epid]mis ( ! ho/4 ,! individual spores are v small & c be well /udi$ only ) a microscope ( high p[] 7 ab\t #djj74 ,!y are br[n two-cell$ bodies ) a ?ick wall 7,fig4 #bha74 ,s9ce !y are ! re/+ or w9t]-spores1 !y are t]m$ teleutospores 78complet$ spores074 ,usually !y d n fall1 b rema9 9 ! sori dur+ w9t]4 ,! foll[+ spr+ ea* cell ( ! teleutospore puts =? a r /\t ?read1 :i* does n gr[ m ?an sev]al times ! l5g? ( ! spore & t]m9ates 9 a blunt extremity4 ,?is g]m tube1 promycelium1 n[ becomes divid$ into f\r cells by cross walls1 :i* are =m$ f ! top d[nw>ds4 ,ea* cell gives rise to a %ort1 po9t$ bran* :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( a few h\rs1 =ms at its summit a s+le spore call$ a sporidium4 ,?is 9 turn g]m9ates & produces a mycelium4 ,9 ,fig4 #bhb a g]m9at+ teleutospore is drawn to %[ ! promycelium1 p1 divid$ into f\r cells1 ea* produc+ a %ort bran* ) a little sporidium1 s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhb4--;,,g]m9at+ ,,teleutospore ,,( ,,:eat ,,ru/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhc4--,,leaf ,,( ,,b>b]ry ,,) ,,clu/]-,,cups4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhd4--,,section ,,?r\gh ,a ,,clu/]-,,cup ,,on ,,b>b]ry ,,leaf4 ,a mo/ rem>kable circum/ance 9 ! life hi/ory ( ! :eat ru/ is ! fact t ! mycelium produc$ by ! sporidium c live only 9 b>b]ry leaves1 & x foll[s t if no b>b]ry bu%es are 9 ! neighborhood ! sporidia f9ally p]i%4 ,^? :i* happ5 to lodge on a b>b]ry bu% g]m9ate imm$iately1 produc+ a mycelium t ent]s ! b>b]ry leaf & gr[s )9 its tissues4 ,v soon ! fungus produces a new k9d ( spores on ! b>b]ry leaves4 ,^! are call$ cidiospores4 ,!y are =m$ 9 long *a9s 9 little fr+$ cups1 or cidia1 :i* appe> 9 gr\ps on ! l[] side ( ! leaf 7,fig4 #bhc74 ,^! orange or yell[ cidia are t]m$ clu/]-cups4 ,9 ,fig4 #bhd is %[n a cross-section ( "o ( ! cups1 outl9+ ! long *a9s ( spores1 & ! mycelium 9 ! tissues4 ,! cidiospores are =m$ 9 ! spr+1 & aft] !y h be5 set free1 "s ( !m lodge on :eat or o!r grasses1 :]e !y g]m9ate imm$iately4 ,! g]m-tube ent]s ! leaf ?r\gh a /omate1 :5ce x spreads among ! cells ( ! :eat plant4 ,9 summ] "o-cell$ r$di% ur$ospores 78blight spores10 r$-ru/ /age7 are produc$ 9 a mann] simil> to ! teleutospores4 ,^! are capable ( g]m9at+ imm$iately1 & s]ve to dissem9ate ! fungus dur+ ! summ] on o!r :eat plants or grasses4 ,late 9 ! season1 teleutospores are aga9 produc$1 complet+ ! life cycle ( ! plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhe4--;,,h[ ,a ,,p>asitic ,,fungus ,,works4 ,an?racnose on a bean pod ent]+ ! bean b5ea?4 7,:etzel47 ,_m ru/s besides ,pucc9ia gram9is produce diff]5t spore =ms on diff]5t plants4 ,! ph5om5on is call$ het]cism1 & 0 fir/ %[n to exi/ 9 ! :eat ru/4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 ! peasants ( ,europe _h obs]v$ & ass]t$ t b>b]ry bu%es cause :eat to blight long be=e sci5ce expla9$ ! relation betwe5 ! clu/]-cups on b>b]ry & ! ru/ on :eat4 ,! true relation 0 actually demon/rat$1 z has s9ce be5 done = _m o!r ru/s on _! respective ho/s1 by s[+ ! cidiospores on heal?y :eat plants & ?us produc+ ! ru/4 ,! c$> apple is ano!r ru/1 produc+ ! curi\s swell+s (t5 f\nd on ! bran*es ( r$ c$> trees4 ,9 ! spr+ ! teleutospores ooze out f ! 8apple0 9 br[ni% yell[ masses4 ,x has be5 f\nd t ^! attack v>i\s fruit trees1 produc+ cidia on _! leaves4 ,fig4 #bhe expla9s h[ a p>asitic fungus works4 ,puffballs1 mu%rooms1 toad/ools1 & %elf fungi4--,^! repres5t :at are call$ ! high] fungi1 because ( ! size & complexity ( ! plant body z well z f ! fact t !y seem to /& at ! end ( "o l9e ( evolution4 ,! mycelial ?reads gr[ toge!r 9 ext5sive /r&s 9 rott5 wood or 9 ! soil1 & s5d out l>ge complex gr[?s ( mycelium 9 connection ) :i* ! spores are borne4 ,^! arial p>ts are ! only ones we ord9>ily see1 & :i* con/itute ! 8mu%room0 "p 7,fig4 #aca74 ,only asexual spores 7basidiospores7 are produc$1 & on %ort /alks 7basidia7 7,fig4 #bhf74 ,9 ! puffballs ! spores are inclos$ & con/itute a l>ge "p ( ! 8smoke40 ,9 ! mu%rooms & toad/ools !y are borne on gills1 & 9 ! %elf fungi 7,fig4 #acd7 on ! walls ( m9ute pores ( ! und]side4 ,! mycelium ( ^! %elf fungi frequ5tly lives & gr[s = a long "t conceal$ 9 ! sub/ratum be=e ! visible fruit bodies are s5t out4 ,practically all timb] decay is caus$ by su* gr[?1 & ! damage is l>gely done be=e ! fruit+ bodies appe>4 ,= o!r acc\nts ( mu%rooms1 see ,*ap4 ,,xiv4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhf4--,,"p ,,( ,,gill ,,( ,,! ,,cultivat$ ,,mu%room4 tr1 trama tissue2 %1 hym5ium2 b1 basidium2 /1 /]igma2 sp1 spore4 7,atk9son47 ,,li*5s ,li*5s are s common ev]y:]e t ! att5tion ( ! /ud5t is sure to be drawn to !m4 ,!y gr[ on rocks1 trunks ( trees 7,fig4 #bhg71 old f5ces1 & on ! e>?4 ,!y are ?91 usually gray ragg$ objects1 app>5tly lifeless4 ,_! /udy is too difficult = beg9n]s1 b a few words ( explanation may be useful4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhg4--,,li*5 ,,on ,,an ,,oak ,,trunk4 7,a species ( ,physcia47 ,li*5s 7 =m]ly suppos$ to be a di/9ct or sep>ate division ( plants4 ,!y are n[ kn[n to be organisms1 ea* species ( :i* is a con/ant association ( a fungus & an alga4 ,! ?allus is ord9>ily made up ( fung\s mycelium or tissue )9 :i* ! imprison$ alga is def9itely di/ribut$4 ,! result is a gr[? unlike ei!r compon5t4 ,?is association ( alga & fungus is usually spok5 ( z symbiosis1 or mutually helpful gr[?1 ! alga furni%+ "s ?+s1 ! fungus o!rs1 & bo? toge!r be+ able to accompli% "w t nei!r c\ld d indep5d5tly4 ,by o!rs ?is union is consid]$ to be a mild =m ( p>asitism1 9 :i* ! fungus pr(its at ! exp5se ( ! alga4 ,z favorable to ?is view1 ! facts are cit$ t ea* compon5t is able to gr[ indep5d5tly1 & t "u su* conditions ! algal cells seem to ?rive bett] ?an :5 imprison$ by ! fungus4 ,li*5s propagate by means ( sor$ia1 :i* are t9y p>ts sep>at$ f ! body ( ! ?allus1 & consi/+ ( "o or m algal cells ov]gr[n ) fungus ?reads4 ,^! are readily obs]v$ 9 _m li*5s4 ,!y also produce spores1 usually ascospores1 :i* are always ! product ( ! fungus elem5t1 & :i* reproduce ! li*5 by g]m9at+ 9 ! pres5ce ( algal cells1 to :i* ! hyph imm$iately cl+4 ,li*5s are f\nd 9 ! mo/ inhospitable places1 &1 by means ( acids :i* !y secrete1 !y attack & sl[ly dis9tegrate ev5 ! h>de/ rocks4 ,by mak+ ?9 sections ( ! ?allus ) a %>p razor & exam9+ "u ! comp\nd microscope1 x is easy to di/+ui% ! two compon5ts 9 _m li*5s4 ,,liv]worts ,! liv]worts are peculi> flat gre5 plants usually f\nd on wet cliffs & 9 o!r moi/1 %ady places4 ,!y frequ5tly occur 9 gre5h\ses :]e ! soil is kept con/antly wet4 ,"o ( ! commone/ liv]worts is ,m>*antia polymorpha1 two plants ( :i* are %[n 9 ,figs4 #bhh1 #bhi4 ,! plant consi/s ( a ribbon-l ?allus t creeps along ! gr\nd1 becom+ repeat$ly =k$ z x gr[s4 ,! end ( ea* bran* is always conspicu\sly not*$4 ,!re is a prom95t midrib ext5d+ along ! c5t] ( ea* bran* ( ! ?allus4 ,on ! "u side ( ! ?allus1 especially along ! midrib1 !re are num]\s rhizoids :i* s]ve ! purpose ( roots1 absorb+ n\ri%m5t f ! e>? & hold+ ! plant 9 its place4 ,! upp] surface ( ! ?allus is divid$ into m9ute rhombic areas t c be se5 ) ! nak$ eye4 ,ea* ( ^! areas is p]=at$ by a small brea?+ pore or /omate t leads into a cavity j b5ea? ! epid]mis4 ,?is space is surr\nd$ by *lorophyll-be>+ cells1 "s ( :i* /& 9 r[s f ! bottom ( ! cavity 7,fig4 #bij74 ,! delicate assimilat+ tissue is ?us br\ght 9 close communication ) ! out] air ?r\gh ! pore 9 ! ?ick1 protect+ epid]mis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhh4 ,,fig4 #bhi4 ,,plants ,,( ,,m>*antia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bij4--,,section ,,( ,,?allus ,,( ,,m>*antia4 ,/omate at a4 ,at v>i\s po9ts on ! midrib are little cups conta9+ small gre5 bodies4 ,^! bodies are buds or gemm :i* are outgr[?s f ! cells at ! bottom ( ! cup4 ,!y become loos5$ & are !n disp]s$ by ! ra9 to o!r places1 :]e !y take root & gr[ into new plants4 ,! mo/ /rik+ organs on ! ?allus ( m>*antia are ! peculi> /alk$ bodies %[n 9 ,figs4 #bhh1 #bhi4 ,^! are t]m$ ar*egoniophores & an!ridiophores or receptacles4 ,_! /ructure & function are v int]e/+1 b _! p>ts are s m9ute t !y c be /udi$ only ) ! aid ( a microscope magnify+ f #ajj to #djj times4 ,enl>g$ draw+s w guide ! pupil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bia4--,,section ,,?r\gh ,,an!ridiophore ,,( ,,m>*antia1 %[+ an!ridia4 ,"o an!ridium m magnifi$4 ,! an!ridiophores are fle%y1 lob$ disks borne on %ort /alks 7,fig4 #bia74 ,! upp] surface ( ! disk %[s op5+s sc>cely visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,h[ev]1 a section ( ! disk1 su* z is drawn 9 ,fig4 #bia1 %[s t ! pores lead into oblong cavities 9 ! receptacle4 ,f ! base ( ea* cavity !re arises a ?ick1 club-%ap$ body1 ! an!ridium4 ,)9 ! an!ridium are =m$ _m sp]m-cells :i* are capable ( swimm+ ab\t 9 wat] by means ( long la%es or cilia atta*$ to !m4 ,:5 ! an!ridium is mature1 x bur/s & all[s ! ciliat$ sp]m cells to escape4 ,! ar*egoniophores are also elevat$ on /alks 7,fig4 #bhi74 ,in/ead ( a simple disk1 ! receptacle consi/s ( n9e or m f+]-l rays4 ,along ! "u side ( ! rays1 betwe5 delicately fr+$ curta9s1 peculi> flask-l bodies1 or ar*egonia1 are situat$4 ,! ar*egonia are n visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,!y c be /udi$ only ) ! microscope 7 ab\t #djj74 ,"o ( !m mu* magnifi$ is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #bib4 ,its pr9cipal p>ts are ! long neck1 a1 & ! r\nd$ v5t]1 b1 inclos+ a l>ge free cell--! egg-cell4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bib4--;,,ar*egonium ,,( ,,m>*antia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bic4--;,,ar*egoniophore1 ,,) ,,sporogonia1 ,,( ,,m>*antia4 ,we h se5 t ! an!ridium at maturity dis*>ges its sp]m-cells4 ,^! swim ab\t 9 ! wat] provid$ by ! dew & ra94 ,"s ( !m f9ally f9d _! way to ! ar*egonia & egg-cells1 ! latt] be+ f]tiliz$1 z poll5 f]tilizes ! ovules ( high] plants4 ,aft] f]tilization ! egg-cell develops into ! spore capsule or sporogonium4 ,! mature spore capsules may be se5 9 ,fig4 #bic4 ,!y consi/ ( an oval spore-case on a %ort /alk1 ! base ( :i* is imb$d$ 9 ! tissue ( ! receptacle1 f :i* x d]ives ! necess>y n\ri%m5t = ! developm5t ( ! sporogonium4 ,at maturity ! sporogonium is ruptur$ at ! apex1 sett+ free ! sph]ical spores toge!r ) num]\s filam5ts hav+ spirally ?ick5$ walls 7,fig4 #bid74 ,^! filam5ts are call$ elat]s4 ,:5 dry+1 !y exhibit rapid movem5ts by means ( :i* ! spores are scatt]$4 ,! spores g]m9ate & aga9 produce ! ?allus ( m>*antia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bid4--,,spores ,,& ,,elat]s ,,( ,,m>*antia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bie4--,,polytri*um ,,commune4 f1f1 f]tile plants1 "o on ! left 9 fruit1 m1 an!ridial plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bif4--,,section ,,( ,,leaf ,,( ,,polytri*um ,,commune4 ,,mosses 7,bryophyta7 ,if we h foll[$ c>efully ! developm5t ( m>*antia1 ! /udy ( "o ( ! mosses w be comp>atively easy4 ,! mosses are m famili> plants ?an ! liv]worts4 ,!y gr[ on trees1 /ones1 & on ! soil bo? 9 wet & dry places4 ,"o ( ! common l>g] mosses1 kn[n z ,polytri*um commune1 may s]ve z an example1 ,fig4 #bie4 ,?is plant gr[s on r dry knolls1 mo/ly 9 ! bord]s ( op5 woods1 :]e x =ms l>ge b$s4 ,9 dry wea!r ^! b$s h a r$di% br[n appe>ance1 b :5 moi/ !y =m beautiful gre5 cu%ions4 ,?is color is due1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to ! color ( ! old /ems & leaves1 &1 9 ! second in/ance1 to ! peculi> action ( ! gre5 liv+ leaves "u ! influ5ce ( *ang+ moi/ure-conditions4 ,! inn] or upp] surface ( ! leaf is cov]$ ) ?91 longitud9al ridges ( delicate cells :i* conta9 *lorophyll4 ,^! cells are %[n 9 cross-section 9 ,fig4 #bif1 z dots or granules4 ,all ! o!r tissue ( ! leaf consi/s ( ?ick-wall$1 corky cells :i* d n all[ moi/ure to p5etrate4 ,:5 ! air is moi/ ! gre5 leaves spread out1 expos+ ! *lorophyll cells to ! air1 b 9 dry wea!r ! m>g9s ( ! leaves roll inw>d1 & ! leaves fold closely aga9/ ! /em1 ?us protect+ ! delicate assimilat+ tissue4 ,! an!ridia & ar*egonia ( polytri*um are borne 9 gr\ps at ! ends ( ! bran*es on diff]5t plants 7_m mosses be> bo? organs on ! same bran*74 ,!y are surr\nd$ by involucres ( *>act]i/ic leaves t]m$ p]i*tia or p]i*tal leaves4 ,multicellul> hairs kn[n z p>aphyses are scatt]$ among ! ar*egonia & an!ridia4 ,! involucres ) ! organs borne )9 !m are call$ receptacles1 or1 less appropriately1 8moss fl[]s40 ,z 9 m>*antia1 ! organs are v m9ute & mu/ be highly magnifi$ to be /udi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #big4--,,section ,,?r\gh ,a ,,receptacle ,,( ,,polytri*um ,,commune1 %[+ p>aphyses & an!ridia4 ,! an!ridia are borne 9 broad cup-l receptacles on ! an!ridial plants 7,fig4 #big74 ,!y are mu* l ! an!ridia ( m>*antia1 b !y /& free among ! p>aphyses & are n sunk 9 cavities4 ,at maturity !y bur/ & all[ ! sp]m cells or sp]matozoids to escape4 ,9 polytri*um1 :5 ! receptacles h fulfill$ _! function1 ! /em cont9ues to gr[ f ! c5t] ( ! cup 7m1 ,fig4 #bie74 ,! ar*egonia are borne 9 o!r receptacles on diff]5t plants4 ,!y are l ! ar*egonia ( m>*antia except t !y /& erect on ! end ( ! bran*4 ,! sporogonium :i* develops f ! f]tiliz$ egg is %[n 9 a1 b1 ,fig4 #bie4 ,x consi/s ( a long1 br[n /alk be>+ ! spore-case at its summit4 ,! base ( ! /alk is imb$d$ 9 ! end ( ! moss /em by :i* x is n\ri%$4 ,! capsule is entirely inclos$ by a hairy cap1 ! calyptra1 b4 ,! calyptra is really ! remnant ( ! ar*egonium1 :i*1 = a "t1 increases 9 size to accommodate & protect ! "y gr[+ capsule4 ,x is f9ally torn loose & c>ri$ up on ! spore-case4 ,! m\? ( ! capsule is clos$ by a circul> lid1 ! op]culum1 hav+ a conical projection at ! c5t]4 ,! op]culum soon drops1 or x may be remov$1 display+ a fr+e ( sixty-f\r tee? gu>d+ ! m\? ( ! capsule4 ,?is r+ ( tee? is kn[n z ! p]i/ome4 ,9 mo/ mosses ! tee? exhibit peculi> hygroscopic movem5ts2 i4e4 :5 moi/ !y b5d outw>ds1 & ^u dry+ curve 9 t[>d ! m\? ( ! capsule4 ,?is motion1 x w be se51 s]ves to disp]se ! spores gradually ov] a long p]iod ( "t4 ,n ! entire capsule is fill$ ) spores4 ,!re are no elat]s1 b ! c5t] ( ! capsule is occupi$ by a column> /r& ( tissue1 ! columella1 :i* exp&s at ! m\? into a ?91 membran\s disk1 clos+ ! entire m\? ( ! capsule except ! n>r[ annul> *9k gu>d$ by ! tee?4 ,9 ?is moss ! po9ts ( ! tee? are atta*$ to ! m>g9 ( ! membrane1 all[+ ! spores to sift out ?r\gh ! spaces betwe5 !m4 ,:5 ! spores g]m9ate !y =m a gre51 bran*$ ?read1 ! protonema4 ,?is gives rise directly to moss plants1 :i* appe> z little buds on ! ?read4 ,:5 ! moss plants h s5t _! little rhizoids into ! e>?1 ! protonema dies1 = x is no long] necess>y = ! support ( ! little plants1 & ! moss plants gr[ indep5d5tly4 ,fun>ia is a moss v common on damp1 op5 soil4 ,x =ms gre5 pat*es ( small f9e leaves f :i* arise long br[n /alks t]m9at$ by curv$ capsules 7,fig4 #bih74 ,! /ructure is simil> to t ( polytri*um1 except ! abs5ce ( plates on ! "u side ( ! leaves1 ! cont9u\s gr[? ( ! /em1 ! curv$ capsule1 d\ble p]i/ome1 monci\s r ?an dici\s receptacles1 & ne>ly glabr\s unsymmetrical calyptra4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bih4--;,,fun>ia ,,hygroscopica4 ,,equisetums1 ,,or ,,horsetails 7,pt]idophyta7 ,!re are ab\t tw5ty-five species ( equisetum1 con/itut+ ! only g5us ( ! unique family ,equisetace4 ,among ^! ,e4 arv5se 7,fig4 #bii7 is common on clayey & s&y soils4 ,9 ?is species ! "w ( nutrition & t ( spore production are p]=m$ by sep>ate %oots f an und]gr\nd rhizome4 ,! f]tile bran*es appe> e>ly 9 spr+4 ,! /em1 :i* is #c to #f in*es high1 consi/s ( a numb] ( cyl9drical1 furr[$ int]nodes1 ea* %ea!d at ! base by a circle ( scale leaves4 ,! %oots are ( a pale yell[ color4 ,!y conta9 no *lorophyll1 & are n\ri%$ by ! food /or$ 9 ! rhizome 7,fig4 #bii74 ,! spores are =m$ on specially develop$ f]tile leaves or sporophylls :i* are collect$ into a spike or cone at ! end ( ! /alk 7a1 ,fig4 #bii74 ,a s+le sporophyll is %[n at b4 ,x consi/s ( a %ort /alk exp&$ into a broad1 mu%room-l head4 ,sev]al l>ge sporangia are borne on its "u side4 ,! spores =m$ 9 ! sporangia are v int]e/+ & beautiful objects :5 exam9$ "u ! microscope 7 ab\t #bjj74 ,!y are sph]ical1 gre5 bodies1 ea* surr\nd$ by two spiral b&s atta*$ to ! spore at _! int]section1 s4 ,^! b&s exhibit hygroscopic movem5ts by means ( :i* ! spores become entangl$1 & are held toge!r4 ,?is is ( advantage to ! plant1 z we %all see4 ,all ! spores are alike1 b "s ( ! pro?allia gr[ to a great] size ?an ! o!rs4 ,! l>ge pro?allia produce only ar*egonia :ile ! small] ones produce an!ridia4 ,bo? ( ^! organs are mu* l ^? ( ! f]ns1 & f]tilization is accompli%$ 9 ! same way4 ,s9ce ! pro?allia are usually dici\s1 ! special advantage ( ! spiral b&s1 hold+ ! spores toge!r s t bo? k9ds ( pro?allia may be 9 close proximity1 w be easily und]/ood4 ,z 9 ! f]n1 ! f]tiliz$ egg-cell develops into an equisetum plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bii4--;,,equisetum ,,arv5se4 /1 /]ile %oot2 f1 f]tile %oot %[+ ! spike at a2 b1 sporophyll1 ) sporangia2 s1 spore4 ,! /]ile %oots 7/1 ,fig4 #bii7 appe> mu* lat] 9 ! season4 ,!y give rise to repeat$ :orls ( angul> or furr[$ bran*es4 ,! leaves are v mu* r$uc$ scales1 situat$ at ! int]nodes4 ,! /ems are provid$ ) *lorophyll & act z assimilat+ tissue1 n\ri%+ ! rhizome & ! f]tile %oots4 ,nutrim5t is also /or$ 9 special tub]s develop$ on ! rhizome4 ,o!r species ( equisetum h only "o k9d ( %oot--a tall1 h>d1 leafless1 gre5 %oot ) ! spike at its summit4 ,equisetum /ems are full ( silex1 & !y are sometimes us$ = sc\r+ floors & ut5sils2 h5ce ! common "n 8sc\r+ ru%40 ,,iso,,tes 7,pt]idophyta7 ,isotes or quillwort is usually f\nd 9 wat] or damp soil on ! edges ( ponds & lakes4 ,! g5]al habit ( ! plant is se5 9 ,fig4 #cjj1 a4 ,x consi/s ( a %ort1 p]5nial /em be>+ num]\s erect1 quill-l leaves ) broad %ea?+ bases4 ,! plants are commonly mi/ak5 = "y grasses4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjj4--;,,iso,,tes1 %[+ habit ( plant at a2 b1 base ( leaf1 %[+ sporangium1 velum1 & ligule4 ,isotes be>s two k9ds ( spores1 l>ge r\gh5$ ones1 ! macrospores1 & small ones or microspores4 ,bo? k9ds are =m$ 9 sporangia borne 9 an excavation 9 ! exp&$ base ( ! leaf4 ,! macrospores are =m$ on ! out] & ! microspores on ! inn] leaves4 ,a sporangium 9 ! base ( a leaf is %[n at b4 ,x is p>tially cov]$ by a ?9 membrane1 ! velum4 ,! m9ute triangul> app5dage at ! upp] end ( ! sporangium is call$ ! ligule4 ,! spores are lib]at$ by ! decay ( ! sporangia4 ,!y =m rudim5t>y pro?allia ( two k9ds4 ,! microspores produce pro?allia ) an!ridia1 :ile ! macrospores produce pro?allia ) ar*egonia4 ,f]tilization takes place z 9 ! mosses or liv]worts1 & ! f]tiliz$ egg-cell1 by cont9u$ gr[?1 gives rise aga9 to ! isotes plant4 ,,club-,,mosses 7,pt]idophyta7 ,! club-mosses are l[ trail+ plants ( moss-l looks & habit1 al?\gh m closely alli$ to f]ns ?an to true mosses4 ,except "o g5us 9 ,florida1 all our club mosses belong to ! g5us ,lycopodium4 ,!y gr[ mo/ly 9 woods1 hav+ #a-n]v$ ev]gre5 leaves arrang$ 9 f\r or m ranks4 ,"s ( !m make long /r&s1 z ! gr\nd p9e1 & are mu* us$ = ,*ri/mas decorations4 ,! spores are all ( "o k9d or =m1 borne 9 #a-;cell$ sporangia t op5 on ! m>g9 into two valves4 ,! sporangia are borne 9 "s species 7,fig4 #cja7 z small yell[ bodies 9 ! axils ( ! ord9>y leaves ne> ! tip ( ! %oot2 9 o!r species 7,fig4 #cjb7 !y are borne 9 ! axils ( small scales t =m a catk9-l spike4 ,! spores are v num]\s1 & !y conta9 an oil t makes !m inflammable4 ,ab\t #ajj species ( lycopodium are kn[n4 ,! plants gr[n by flori/s "u ! "n ( lycopodium are ( ! g5us ,selag9ella1 m closely alli$ to isotes1 be>+ two k9ds ( spores 7microspores & macrospores74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cja4--;,a ,,lycopodium ,,) ,,sporangia ,,9 ,,! ,,axils ,,( ,,! ,,foliage ,,leaves4 7,lycopodium lucidulum74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjb4--;,a ,,club-,,moss 7,lycopodium complanatum74 ,,animal ,,biology ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,biology ,biology 7,greek1 bios1 life2 logos1 disc\rse7 means ! sci5ce ( life4 ,x treats ( animals & plants4 ,t bran* ( biology :i* treats ( animals is call$ zoology 7,gr4 zoon1 animal2 logos1 disc\rse74 ,! biological sci5ce ( botany 7,gr4 botane1 plant or h]b7 treats ( plants4 ,liv+ ?+s are di/+ui%$ f ! n liv+ by a s]ies ( processes1 or *anges 7fe$+1 gr[?1 developm5t1 multiplication1 etc471 :i* toge!r con/itute :at is call$ life4 ,^! processes are call$ functions4 ,bo? plants & animals h c]ta9 p>ts call$ organs :i* h ea* a def9ite "w1 or function2 h5ce animals & plants are said to be organiz$4 ,= example1 m5 & mo/ animals h a c]ta9 organ 7! m\?7 = tak+ 9 n\ri%m5t2 ano!r 7! food tube71 = its dige/ion4 ,because ( its organization1 ea* animal or plant is said to be an organism4 ,liv+ ?+s con/itute ! organic k+dom4 ,?+s )\t life & n =m$ by life con/itute ! inorganic1 or m9]al1 k+dom4 ,m>k ,i = inorganic & ,o = organic aft] ! prop] words 9 ?is li/3 granite1 sug>1 lumb]1 gold1 %ellac1 s&1 coal1 pap]1 glass1 />*1 copp]1 gelat9e1 clo?1 air1 potatoes1 alcohol1 oil1 clay4 ,:i* ( ^! ?+s are us$ = food by animals8 ,conclusion8 ,en]gy 9 ! ,organic ,_w4--,we see animals ex]t+ en]gy2 t is1 we see !m mov+ ab\t & do+ "w4 ,plants are nev] se5 act+ t way2 yet !y ne$ en]gy 9 ord] to =m _! tissues1 gr[1 & raise !mselves 9 ! air4 ,s\rce ( ,plant ,en]gy4--,we notice t gre5 plants ?rive only 9 ! light1 :ile animal gr[? is l>gely indep5d5t ( light4 ,9 fact1 9 ! salt m9es ( ,pol& !re are *ur*es & villages bel[ ! gr\nd1 & *ildr5 are born1 become adults1 & live all _! lives bel[ gr\nd1 )\t see+ ! sun4 7,t ^! p are n v /rong is d\btless due m to want ( fre% air & o!r causes ?an want ( sunlight47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,surfaces ,,( ,a ,,leaf1 ,,magnifi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,a ,,leaf ,,/or+ ,,en]gy ,,9 ,,sunlight4 ,! ne$ ( plants = sunlight %[s t !y mu/ obta9 some?+ f ! sun4 ,?is has be5 f\nd to be en]gy4 ,?is enables !m to lift _! /ems 9 gr[?1 & =m ! v>i\s /ructures call$ tissues :i* make up _! /ems & leaves4 7,see ,"p ,i1 ,*ap4 ,,xiii47 ,x is notic$ t !y take 9 food & wat] f ! soil ?r\gh _! roots4 ,exp]im5ts also %[ t gre5 plants take 9 ?r\gh pores 7,fig4 #a71 on ! "u side ( _! leaves1 a gas compos$ ( c>bon & oxyg51 & call$ c>bon dioxid4 ,! en]gy 9 ! sunlight enables ! plant to sep>ate out ! c>bon ( ! c>bon dioxid & build m9]al & wat] & c>bon into organic sub/ances4 ,! oxyg5 ( ! c>bon dioxid is set free & returns to ! air 7,fig4 #b74 ,/>*1 sug>1 oil1 & woody fib] are examples ( sub/ances ?us =m$4 ,c y ?9k ( any fuel n due to plants8 ,h[ ,animals obta9 ,en]gy4--,y h notic$ t />*1 oil1 etc41 w burn1 or oxidize1 t is1 unite ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air2 ?us ! sun's en]gy1 /or$ 9 ^! sub/ances1 is *ang$ back to heat & motion4 ,! oxidation ( oil or sug> may occur 9 a furnace2 x may also occur 9 ! liv+ sub/ance ( ! active animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,colorless plants1 z ,,mu%rooms1 give (f no oxyg54 ,a ,,gre5 ,,leaf1 ev5 aft] x is cut1 gives (f oxyg5 7,o7 if kept 9 ! sun4 ,=tunately = ! animals ! plants oxidize v little ( ! sub/ances built up by !m1 s9ce !y d n move ab\t nor ne$ to keep !mselves w>m4 ,we notice t animals are con/antly us+ plant sub/ances = food1 & con/antly draw+ ! air into _! bodies4 ,if ! sunlight _h n enabl$ ! gre5 plant to /ore up ^! sub/ances & set free ! oxyg5 7,fig4 #c71 animals w\ld h no food to eat nor air to brea!2 h5ce we may say t ! sunlight is indirectly ! s\rce ( ! life & en]gy ( animals4 ,mu%rooms & o!r plants )\t gre5 matt] _c set oxyg5 free 7,fig4 #c74 ,exp]im5t to %[ ! ,cause ( ,burn+1 or ,oxidation4--,obta9 a l>ge glass bottle 7a pickle j>71 a %ort c&le1 & "s mat*es4 ,light ! c&le & put x on a table ne> ! edge1 & cov] x ) ! glass j>4 ,! flame sl[ly smo!rs & goes out4 ,:y is ?is8 ,is ! air n[ 9 ! j> diff]5t f t :i* 0 9 x be=e ! c&le 0 light$8 ,"s *ange mu/ h tak5 place or ! c&le w\ld cont9ue to burn4 ,to try :e!r ! c&le w burn aga9 "u ! j> )\t *ang+ ! air1 slide ! j> to ! edge ( ! table & let ! c&le drop out4 ,light ! c&le & slip x up into ! j> aga91 ! j> be+ held ) its m\? a little ov] ! edge ( ! table to receive ! c&le 7,fig4 #e74 ,! flame goes out at once4 ,evid5tly ! air 9 ! j> is n ! same z ! air outside4 ,take up ! j> & wave x to & fro a few times1 s z to remove ! old air & admit fre% air4 ,! c&le n[ burns 9 x ) z bright a flame z at fir/4 ,s we conclude t ! c&le w n cont9ue to burn unless !re is a con/ant supply ( fre% air4 ,! gas =m$ by ! burn+ is c>bon dioxid4 ,x is ! gas f :i* plants extract c>bon4 7,see ,plant ,biology1 ,*ap4 ,v47 ,"o te/ = ! pres5ce ( ?is gas is t x =ms a :ite1 *alky cl\d 9 lime wat]2 ano!r is t x smo!rs a fire4 ,exp]im5t to %[ t ,animals give (f ,c>bon ,dioxid4--,place a c>dbo>d ov] ! m\? ( a bottle conta9+ pure air4 ,take a long /raw1 ! holl[ /em ( a we$1 a glass tube1 or a %eet ( /iff pap] roll$ into a tube1 & pass ! tube into ! bottle ?r\gh a hole 9 ! c>dbo>d4 ,)\t draw+ 9 a deep brea?1 s5d "o long brea? into ! bottle ?r\gh ! tube1 empty+ ! lungs by ! brea? z ne>ly z possible 7,fig4 #d74 ,next inv]t ! bottle on ! table z 9 ! =m] exp]im5t1 aft]w>d )draw+ ! c>dbo>d4 ,move ! bottle to ! edge ( ! table & pass ! light$ c&le up into x 7,fig4 #e74 ,does ! flame g out z quickly z 9 ! =m] exp]im5t8 ,if y brea! ?r\gh a tube into cle> lime wat]1 ! wat] turns milky4 ,! effect ( ! brea? on ! c&le & on ! lime wat] %[s t c>bon dioxid is cont9ually leav+ our bodies 9 ! brea?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,brea?+ into a bottle4#a ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,te/+ ! air 9 ! bottle4#a #a ,f ,coleman's 8,physiology = ,beg9n]s10 ,macmillan ,co41 ,n4,y4 ,oxidation & ,deoxidation4--,! union ( oxyg5 ) c>bon & o!r sub/ances1 :i* occurs 9 fires & 9 ! bodies ( animals1 is call$ oxidation4 ,! sep>ation ( ! oxyg5 f c>bon su* z occurs 9 ! leaves ( plants is call$ deoxidation4 ,! fir/ process sets en]gy free1 ! o!r process /ores x up4 ,animals give (f c>bon dioxid f _! lungs or gills1 & plants give (f oxyg5 f _! leaves4 ,b plants ne$ "s en]gy 9 gr[+1 s oxidation also occurs 9 plants1 b to a f> less ext5t ?an 9 animals4 ,at night1 because ( ! abs5ce ( sunlight1 no deoxidation is tak+ place 9 ! plant1 b oxidation & gr[? cont9ue2 s at night ! plant actually brea!s out "s c>bon dioxid4 ,! deepe/ "p ( ! lungs conta9s ! mo/ c>bon dioxid4 ,:y 0 x necess>y to empty ! lungs z ne>ly z possible 9 ! exp]im5t ) ! c&le8 ,:y w\ld fir/ draw+ a deep brea? int]f]e ) ! exp]im5t8 ,:y does clos+ ! draught ( a /ove1 ?us %utt+ (f "p ( ! air1 less5 ! burn+8 ,:y does a 8firefly0 %9e bright] at ea* brea?8 ,:y is ! pulse & brea?+ fa/] 9 a fev]8 ,v sl[ 9 a trance8 ,! key = und]/&+ any animal is to f9d h[ x gets food & oxyg51 & h[ x uses ! en]gy ?us obta9$ to gr[1 move1 avoid its enemies1 & get m food4 ,because x moves1 x ne$s s5ses to guide x4 ,! key = und]/&+ a plant is to f9d h[ x gets food & sunlight = its gr[?4 ,x makes little provision aga9/ enemies2 its food is 9 rea*1 s x ne$s no s5ses to guide x4 ,! plant is built on ! plan ( hav+ ! nutritive activities ne> ! surface 7e4g4 absorption by roots2 gas ex*ange 9 leaves74 ,! animal is built on ! plan ( hav+ its nutritive activities on ! inside 7e4g4 dige/ion2 brea?+74 ,cell & ,protoplasm4--,bo? plants & animals are compos$ ( small p>ts call$ cells4 ,cells are usually microscopic 9 size4 ,!y h v>i\s %apes1 z sph]ical1 flat1 cyl9drical1 fib]-l1 />-%ap$4 ,! liv+ sub/ance ( cells is call$ protoplasm4 ,x is a /iff1 gluey fluid1 album9\s 9 its nature4 ,e cell has a d5s] spot or k]nel call$ a nucleus1 & 9 ! nucleus is a /ill small] speck call$ a nucleolus4 ,mo/ cells are d5s] & t\gh] on ! outside1 & are said to h a cell wall1 b _m cells are nak$1 or )\t a wall4 ,h5ce ! indisp5sable "p ( a cell is n ! wall b ! nucleus1 & a cell may be def9$ z a bit ( protoplasm conta9+ a nucleus4 ,?is def9ition includes nak$ cells z well z cells ) walls4 ,"o-cell$ ,animals4--,!re are c\ntless millions ( animals & plants ! exi/5ce ( :i* 0 n suspect$ until ! inv5tion ( ! microscope sev]al c5turies ago4 ,!y are "o-cell$1 & h5ce microscopic 9 size4 ,x is believ$ t ! l>ge animals & plants are desc5d$ f "o-cell$ animals & plants4 ,9 fact1 ea* individual plant or animal beg9s life z a s+le cell1 call$ an egg cell1 & =ms its organs by ! subdivision ( ! egg cell into _m cells4 ,an egg cell is %[n 9 ,fig4 #f1 & ! fir/ /ages 9 ! developm5t ( an egg cell are %[n 9 ,fig4 #g4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,egg cell ( mammal ) yolk4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,egg cell subdivides into _m cells =m+ a sph]e 7morula7 conta9+ a liquid4 ,a dimple =ms & deep5s to =m ! next /age 7ga/rula74 ,! animals to be /udi$ 9 ! fir/ *apt] are "o-cell$ animals4 ,to und]/& !m we mu/ le>n h[ !y eat1 brea!1 feel1 & move4 ,!y are call$ ,protozoans 7,greek protos1 fir/2 zoon1 life74 ,all o!r animals are compos$ ( _m cells & are call$ ,metazoans 7,greek meta1 beyond or aft]74 ,! cells compos+ ! muc\s membrane 9 man are %[n 9 ,fig4 #h4 ,! cellul> /ructure ( ! leaf ( a _m-cell$ plant is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #a4 7,see also ,*ap4 ,i1 ,human ,biology47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,,muc\s ,,membrane =m$ ( "o lay] ( cells4 ,a few cells secrete mucus4 ,me?od ( ,classify+ ,animals4--,! v>i\s animals display diff]5ces m or less m>k$4 ,! "q arises1 are n "s ( !m m closely relat$ ?an o!rs8 ,we conclude t !y are1 s9ce ! diff]5ce betwe5 "s animals is v slight1 :ile ! diff]5ce betwe5 o!rs is q m>k$4 ,to %[ ! diff]5t /eps 9 classify+ an animal1 we w take an example1--! c[4 ,ev5 little *ildr5 le>n to recognize a c[1 al?\gh individual c[s diff] some:at 9 =m1 size1 color1 etc4 ,! v>ieties ( c[s1 su* z %ort-horn1 ,j]sey1 etc41 all =m "o species ( animals1 hav+ ! sci5tific "n taurus4 ,let u include 9 a l>g] gr\p ! animals close/ ak9 to a c[4 ,we see a cat1 a bison1 & a dog2 reject+ ! cat & ! dog1 we see t ! bison has horns1 ho(s1 & o!r simil>ities4 ,we include x ) ! c[ 9 a g5us call$ ,bos1 call+ ! c[ ,bos taurus1 & ! bison1 ,bos bison4 ,! sacr$ c[ ( ,india 7,bos indicus7 is s l ! c[ & buffalo z also to belong 9 ! g5us ,bos4 ,:y is n ! camel1 :i*1 l ,bos bison1 has a hump1 plac$ 9 ! g5us ,bos8 7,fig4 #cij47 ,! ,old ,_w buffaloes1--mo/ abundant 9 ,africa & ,india1--! antelopes1 %eep1 goats1 & sev]al o!r g5]a are plac$ ) ! g5us ,bos 9 a family call$ ! holl[ horns4 ,?is family1 because ( its ev5 numb] ( toes & ! habit ( *ew+ ! cud1 resembles ! camel family1 ! de] family1 & sev]al o!r families4 ,^! are all plac$ toge!r 9 ! next high] sy/ematic unit call$ an ord]1 9 ?is case1 ! ord] ( rum9ants4 ,! rum9ants1 because !y are cov]$ ) hair & n\ri% ! "y ) milk1 are 9 e ess5tial respect relat$ to ! "o-to$ horses1 ! bea/s ( prey1 ! apes1 etc4 ,h5ce !y are all plac$ 9 a m inclusive division ( animals1 ! class call$ mammals4 ,all mammals h ! skeleton1 or support ( ! body1 on ! inside1 ! axis ( :i* is call$ ! v]tebral column4 ,?is feature also belongs to ! classes ( reptiles1 amphibians1 & fi%es4 ,x is !re=e consi/5t to unite ^! classes by a g5]al idea or conception into a great bran* ( animals call$ ! v]tebrates4 ,return+ f ! g5]al to ! p>ticul> by successive /eps1 /ate ! bran*1 class1 ord]1 family1 g5us1 & species to :i* ! c[ belongs4 ,! ,eight ,bran*es or ,sub-k+doms4--,! simple/ classification divides ! :ole animal k+dom into eight bran*es1 nam$ & *>act]iz$ z foll[s1 beg9n+ ) ! l[e/3 ,i4 ,,protozoans4 ,"o-cell$4 ,,ii4 ,,sponges4 ,_m op5+s4 ,,iii4 ,,polyps4 ,circul>2 cup-l2 hav+ only "o op5+ :i* is bo? m\? & v5t4 ,,iv4 ,,e*9od]ms4 ,circul>2 r\gh-sk9n$2 two op5+s4 ,v4 ,,mollusks4 ,no skeleton2 usually ) ext]nal %ell4 ,,vi4 ,,v]mes4 ,elongate body1 no jo9t$ legs4 ,,vii4 ,,ar?ropods4 ,ext]nal jo9t$ skeleton2 jo9t$ legs4 ,,viii4 ,,v]tebrates4 ,int]nal jo9t$ skeleton ) axis or backbone4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,protozoa 7,"o-cell$ ,animals7 ,,! ,,ameba ,,sugge/ions4--,amebas live on ! slime f\nd on subm]g$ /ems & leaves 9 /&+ wat]1 or 9 ! ooze at ! bottom4 ,wat] plants may be cr[d$ into a glass di% & all[$ to decay1 & aft] ab\t two weeks ! ameba may be f\nd 9 ! br[n slime scrap$ f ! plants4 ,an ameba culture sometimes la/s only ?ree days4 ,! mo/ abundant supply ev] us$ by ! writ] 0 f a bottle ( wat] :]e "s oats 7 g]m9at+4 ,use or in* objective1 & cov] ) a ?9 cov] glass4 ,tea*]s :o object to ! use ( ! comp\nd microscope 9 a fir/ c\rse %\ld require a mo/ c>eful /udy ( ! figures4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,,ameba ,,proteus1 mu* enl>g$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,,ameba4 cv1 contractile vacuole2 ec1 ectoplasm2 en1 endoplasm2 n1 nucleus2 ps1 pseudopod2 ps1 pseudopod =m+2 ectoplasm protrudes & endoplasm fl[s into x4 ,=m & ,/ructure4--,! ameba 7also spell$ amba7 looks s mu* l a cle> drop ( jelly t a beg9n] _c be c]ta9 t he has f\nd "o until x moves4 ,x is a speck ( protoplasm 7,fig4 #i71 ) a cle> out] lay]1 ! ectoplasm2 & a granul>1 int]nal "p1 ! endoplasm4 ,is !re a di/9ct l9e betwe5 !m8 7,fig4 #aj47 ,note ! c5tral portion & ! sl5d] prolongations or pseudopods 7,greek1 false feet74 ,does ! endoplasm ext5d into ! pseudopods8 7,fig4 #aj47 ,are ! pseudopods arrang$ ) any regul>ity8 ,sometimes x is possible to see a d5s] appe>+ portion1 call$ ! nucleus2 also a cle> space1 ! contractile vacuole 7,fig4 #aj74 ,movem5ts4--,sometimes :ile ! pseudopods are be+ ext5d$ & contract$1 ! c5tral portion rema9s 9 ! same place 7?is is motion74 ,usually only "o pseudopod is ext5d$1 & ! body fl[s into x2 ?is is locomotion 7,fig4 #aa74 ,!re is a new foot made = ea* /ep4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,! same ameba se5 at diff]5t times4 ,fe$+4--,if ! ameba crawls ne> a food p>ticle1 ! pseudopod is press$ aga9/ x1 or a depression occurs 7,fig4 #ab71 & ! p>ticle is soon emb$d$ 9 ! endoplasm4 ,(t5 a cle> space call$ a food vacuole is notic$ ar\nd ! food p>ticle4 ,?is is ! wat] t is tak5 9 ) ! p>ticle 7,fig4 #ab74 ,! wat] & ! p>ticle are soon absorb$ & assimilat$ by ! endoplasm4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,! ,,ameba tak+ food4 ,excretion4--,if a p>ticle ( s& or o!r indige/ible matt] is tak5 91 x is left beh9d z ! ameba moves on4 ,!re is a cle> space call$ ! contractile vacuole1 :i* sl[ly contracts & disappe>s1 !n reappe>s & exp&s 7,figs4 #i & #aj74 ,?is possibly aids 9 excret+ oxidiz$ or useless mat]ial4 ,circulation 9 ! ameba consi/s ( ! movem5t ( its protoplasmic p>ticles4 ,x lacks special organs ( circulation4 ,feel+4--,j>r+ ! glass slide seems to be felt1 = x causes ! activity ( ! ameba to v>y4 ,x does n take 9 = food e p>ticle t x t\*es4 ,?is may be ! beg9n+ ( ta/e1 bas$ ^u m]e *emical aff9ity4 ,! pseudopods aid 9 feel+4 ,reproduction4--,sometimes an ameba is se5 divid+ into two p>ts4 ,a n>r[+ takes place 9 ! middle2 ! nucleus also divides1 a "p go+ to ea* portion 7,fig4 #ac74 ,! "m ameba f9ally divides into two daught] amebas4 ,sex is want+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,,ameba1 divid+4 ,s\rce ( ! ,ameba's ,en]gy4--,we ?us see t ! ameba moves )\t feet1 eats )\t a m\?1 dige/s )\t a /oma*1 feels )\t n]ves1 &1 x %\ld also be /at$1 brea!s )\t lungs1 = oxyg5 is absorb$ f ! wat] by its :ole surface4 ,its movem5ts require en]gy2 ?is1 z 9 all animals1 is furni%$ by ! unit+ ( oxyg5 ) ! food4 ,c>bon dioxid & o!r wa/e products are =m$ by ! union2 ^! pass (f at ! surface ( ! ameba & ta9t ! wat] ) impurities4 ,que/ions4--,:y w ! ameba die 9 a v small quantity ( wat]1 ev5 ?\gh ! wat] conta9s en\gh food8 ,:y w x die /ill quick] if air is exclud$ f contact ) ! drop ( wat]8 ,! ameba nev] dies ( old age4 ,c x be said to be immortal8 ,accord+ to ! def9ition ( a cell 7,*apt] ,i71 is ! ameba a unicellul> or multicellul> animal8 ,cy/s4--,if ! wat] inhabit$ by a protozoan dries up1 x ency/s1 t is1 x =ms a t\gh sk9 call$ a cy/4 ,^u return ( bett] conditions x breaks ! cy/ & comes out4 ,ency/$ protozoans may be bl[n ?r\gh ! air3 ?is expla9s _! appe>ance 9 vessels ( wat] conta9+ suitable food b previ\sly free f protozoans4 ,,! ,,slipp] ,,animalcule ,,or ,,p>amecium ,sugge/ions4--,/agnant wat] (t5 conta9s ! p>amecium z well z ! ameba2 or !y may be f\nd 9 a di% ( wat] conta9+ hay or f9ely cut clov]1 aft] ! di% has be5 all[$ to /& 9 ! sun = sev]al days4 ,a :ite film =m+ on ! surface is a sign ( _! pres5ce4 ,!y may ev5 be se5 ) ! unaid$ eye z t9y :ite p>ticles by look+ ?r\gh ! side ( ! di% or j>4 ,use at fir/ a or 94 objective4 ,re/rict _! movem5ts by plac+ cotton fib]s b5ea? ! cov] glass2 !n exam9e ) or objective4 ,o!rwise1 /udy figures4 ,%ape & ,/ructure4--,! p>amecium's :ole body1 l ! ameba's1 is only "o cell4 ,x resembles a slipp] 9 %ape1 b ! po9t$ end is ! h9d end1 ! front end be+ r\nd$ 7,fig4 #ad74 ,! p>amecium is propell$ by ! rapid beat+ ( num]\s f9e1 ?readlike app5dages on its surface1 call$ cilia 7,lat91 eyela%es7 7,figs474 ,! cilia1 l ! pseudopods ( ! ameba1 are m]ely prolongations ( ! cell protoplasm1 b !y are p]man5t4 ,! sep>ation betwe5 ! out] ectoplasm & ! int]ior granul> endoplasm is m m>k$ ?an 9 ! ameba 7,fig4 #ad74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,p>amecium1 %[+ cilia1 c4 ,two contractile vacuoles1 cv2 ! macronucleus1 mg2 two micronuclei1 mi2 ! gullet 771 a food ball =m+ & t5 food balls 9 _! c\rse f gullet to v5t1 a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,nucleus & ,vacuoles4--,!re is a l>ge nucleus call$ ! macronucleus1 & beside x a small] "o call$ ! micronucleus4 ,!y are h>d to see4 ,ab\t "o ?ird ( ! way f ea* end is a cle>1 pulsat+ space 7bb4 ,fig4 #ae7 call$ ! pulsat+ vacuole4 ,^! spaces contract until !y disappe>1 & !n reappe>1 gradually exp&+4 ,tubes lead f ! vacuoles :i* probably s]ve to keep ! cont5ts ( ! cell 9 circulation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,two ,,p>amecia ex*ang+ p>ts ( _! nuclei4 ,fe$+4--,a depression1 or groove1 is se5 on "o side1 ?is s]ves z a m\? 7,figs474 ,a tube :i* s]ves z a gullet leads f ! m\?-groove to ! int]ior ( ! cell4 ,! m\?-groove is l9$ ) cilia :i* sweep food p>ticles inw>d4 ,! p>ticles accumulate 9 a mass at ! inn] end ( ! gullet1 become sep>at$ f x z a food ball 7,fig4 #ad71 & s9k into ! s(t protoplasm ( ! body4 ,! food balls foll[ a circul> c\rse ?r\gh ! endoplasm1 keep+ ne> ! ectoplasm4 ,reproduction4--,?is1 z 9 ! ameba1 is by division1 ! con/riction be+ 9 ! middle1 & "p ( ! nucleus go+ to ea* half4 ,sometimes two individuals come toge!r ) _! m\?-grooves t\*+ & ex*ange p>ts ( _! nuclei 7,fig4 #af74 ,!y !n sep>ate & ea* divides to =m two new individuals4 ,we ?us see t ! p>amecium1 ?\gh ( only "o cell1 is a mu* m complex & advanc$ animal ?an ! ameba4 ,! t9y paddles1 or cilia1 ! m\?-groove1 etc41 h _! special duties simil> to ! specializ$ organs ( ! _m-cell$ animals to be /udi$ lat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,vorticella 7or bell animalcule71 two ext5d$1 "o )drawn4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,eugl5a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,,%ell ,,( ,a ,,radiol>ian4 ,if "t & circum/ances all[ a prolong$ /udy1 sev]al additional facts may be obs]v$ by ! pupil1 e4g4 ,does ! p>amecium swim ) ! same end always =emo/1 & same side upp]mo/8 ,c x move backw>ds8 ,avoid ob/acles8 ,*ange %ape 9 a n>r[ passage8 ,does refuse matt] leave ! body at any p>ticul> place8 ,trace movem5t ( ! food p>ticles4 ,draw ! p>amecium4 ,:i* has m p]man5t p>ts1 ! ameba or p>amecium8 ,"n two anatomical simil>ities & ?ree diff]5ces2 f\r functional simil>ities & ?ree diff]5ces4 ,! ameba belongs 9 ! class ( protozoans call$ ,rhizopoda 8root foot$40 ,o!r classes ( ,protozoans are ! ,infusorians1 :i* h _m wav+ cilia 7,fig4 #ag7 or "o :ip-l flagellum 7,fig4 #ah71 & ! ,=am9if]s :i* possess a calc>e\s %ell pi]c$ ) holes4 ,mu* *alky lime/one has be5 =m$ ( _! %ells4 ,^! & ! radiol>ians1 :i* h fl9ty %ells 7,fig4 #ai71 are (t5 plac$ 9 ! class rhizopoda4 ,to :i* class does ! p>amecium belong8 ,protozoans furni% a l>ge am\nt ( food to ! high] animals4 ,to ! ,tea*]4 ,if plant1 animal1 & human biology are to be giv5 9 "o ye> z plann$1 & full "t all[$ = practical "w1 ! portions ( ! text 9 small type1 z ,*apt] ,,iii1 may be omitt$ or m]ely read & discuss$4 ,any two ( ! ?ree p>ts =m+ ! c\rse may be us$ = a ye>'s c\rse by us+ all ( ! text & sp5d+ m "t on practical & field "w4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,sponges ,,sugge/ions4--,9 _m p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 fre%-wat] sponges may1 by c>eful se>*+1 be f\nd gr[+ on rocks & logs 9 cle> wat]4 ,!y are br[n1 creamy1 or gre5i% 9 color1 & resemble m a cu%ion-l plant ?an an animal4 ,!y h a *>act]i/ic gritty feel4 ,!y soon die aft] removal to an aqu>ium4 ,a numb] ( common small ba? sponges may be b\ght & kept = use 9 /udy+ ! skeleton ( an ocean sponge4 ,^! sponges %\ld n h l>ge holes 9 ! bottom2 if s1 too mu* ( ! sponge has be5 cut away4 ,a piece ( m>9e sponge pres]v$ 9 alcohol or =mal9 may be us$ = %[+ ! sponge ) its fle% 9 place4 ,microscopic slides may be us$ = %[+ ! spicules4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,,fre%-,,wat] ,,sponge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,section ( fre%-wat] sponge 7enl>g$74 ,! small fre%-wat] sponge 7,fig4 #ba7 lacks ! m or less vase-l =m typical ( sponges4 ,x is a r\nd$ mass gr[+ ^u a rock or log4 ,z indicat$ by ! arr[s1 :]e does wat] ent] ! sponge8 ,?is may be te/$ by putt+ color+ matt] 9 ! wat] ne> ! liv+ sponge4 ,:]e does ! wat] come out8 7,fig4 #bb47 ,does x pass ?r\gh ciliat$ *amb]s 9 its c\rse8 ,is ! surface ( ! sponge r\gh or smoo?8 ,d any ( ! skeletal spicules %[ on ! surface8 7,fig4 #ba47 ,does ! sponge ?9 out ne> its edge8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,,eggs & ,,spicules ( fre%-wat] sponge 7enl>g$74 ,! egg ( ?is sponge is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bc4 ,x escapes f ! p>5t sponge ?r\gh ! osculum1 or l>ge outlet4 ,z 9 mo/ sponges1 ! fir/ /age aft] ! egg is ciliat$ & free-swimm+4 ,m>9e ,sponges4--,! grantia 7,fig4 #bd7 is "o ( ! simple/ ( m>9e sponges4 ,:at is ! %ape ( grantia8 ,:at is its l5g? & diamet]8 ,h[ does ! free end diff] f ! fix$ end8 ,are ! spicules project+ f its body few or _m8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,grantia4 ,:]e is ! osculum1 or l>ge outlet8 ,) :at is ?is surr\nd$8 ,! osculum op5s f a c5tral cavity call$ ! cloaca4 ,! canals f ! pores lead to ! cloaca4 ,buds are sometimes se5 gr[+ out f ! sponge ne> its base4 ,^! are "y sponges =m$ asexually4 ,lat] !y become deta*$ f ! p>5t sponge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,plan ( a sponge4 ,comm]cial 8,sponge40--,:at "p ( ! complete animal rema9s 9 ! ba? sponge8 ,sl[ gr[+ sponges gr[ m at ! top & =m tall1 simple1 tubul> or vase-l animals4 ,fa/ gr[+ sponges gr[ on all sides at once & =m a complicat$ sy/em ( canals1 pores1 & oscula4 ,:i* ( ^! habits ( gr[? d y ?9k belong$ to ! ba? sponge8 ,is !re a l>ge hole 9 ! base ( y\r specim58 ,if s1 ?is is because ! cloaca 0 rea*$ 9 trimm+ ! l[] "p :]e x 0 atta*$ to a rock4 ,te/ ! ela/icity ( ! sponge :5 dry & :5 wet by squeez+ x4 ,is x s(t] :5 wet or dry8 ,is x m ela/ic :5 wet or dry8 ,h[ _m oscula does y\r specim5 h8 ,h[ _m inhal5t pores to a squ>e in*8 ,us+ a probe 7a wire ) knob at end1 or small hat p971 try to trace ! canals f ! pores to ! cavities inside4 ,d ! fib]s ( ! sponge appe> to int]lace1 or jo91 accord+ to any sy/em8 ,d y see any fr+e-l gr[?s on ! surface :i* %[ t new tubes are beg9n+ to =m8 ,0 ! sponge gr[+ fa/] at ! top1 on ! sides1 or ne> ! bottom8 ,burn a bit ( ! sponge2 f ! odor1 :at w\ld y judge ( its composition8 ,is ! inn] cavity m conspicu\s 9 a simple sponge or 9 a comp\nd sponge l ! ba? sponge8 ,is ! ba? sponge bran*$ or lob$8 ,comp>e a numb] ( specim5s 7,figs4 #bf1 #bg1 #bh7 & decide :e!r ! common sponge has a typical %ape4 ,:at features d _! =ms possess 9 common8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,ba? ,sponge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,ba? ,sponge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,ba? ,sponge4 ,sponges are divid$ into ?ree classes1 accord+ z _! skeletons are fl9ty 7silici\s71 limy 7calc>e\s71 or horny4 ,"s ( ! silici\s sponges h skeletons t resemble spun glass 9 _! delicacy4 ,fl9t is *emically ne>ly ! same z glass4 ,! skeleton %[n 9 ,fig4 #bi is t ( a glass sponge :i* lives ne> ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,skeleton ( a glass sponge4 ,! horny sponges d n h spicules 9 _! skeletons1 z ! fl9ty & limy sponges h1 b ! skeleton is compos$ ( int]weav+ fib]s ( spong91 a durable sub/ance ( ! same *emical nature z silk 7,figs4 #cj & #ca74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,a horny sponge4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,section ( horny sponge4 ,! limy sponges h skeletons made ( num]\s spicules ( lime4 ,! ?ree-ray$ spicule is ! commone/ =m4 ,! comm]cial sponge1 se5 z x gr[s 9 ! ocean1 appe>s z a r\ndi% mass ) a smoo?1 d>k ext]ior1 & hav+ ab\t ! consi/5cy ( beef liv]4 ,sev]al l>ge op5+s 7oscula71 f :i* ! wat] fl[s1 are visible on ! upp] surface4 ,small] holes 7inhal5t pores--_m ( !m s small z to be indi/+ui%able7 are on ! sides4 ,if ! sponge is di/urb$1 ! small] holes1 & p]haps ! l>g] ones1 w close4 ,! out] lay] ( cells s]ves z a sort ( sk94 ,s9ce s mu* ( ! sponge is 9 contact ) wat]1 mo/ ( ! cells d _! own brea?+1 or absorption ( oxyg5 & giv+ (f ( c>bon dioxid4 ,nutrim5t is pass$ on f ! surface cells to n\ri% ! re/ ( ! body4 ,reproduction4--,egg-cells & sp]m-cells are produc$ by c]ta9 cells along ! canals4 ,! egg-cell1 aft] x is f]tiliz$ by ! sp]m-cell1 beg9s to divide & =m new cells1 "s ( :i* possess cilia4 ,! embryo sponge passes out at an osculum4 ,by ! vibration ( ! cilia1 x swims ab\t = a :ile4 ,x aft]w>ds settles d[n ) ! "o end atta*$ to ! ocean floor & rema9s fix$ = ! re/ ( its life4 ,! o!r end develops oscula4 ,"s ( ! cilia cont9ue to vibrate & create curr5ts :i* br+ food & oxyg54 ,! cilia 9 _m species are f\nd only 9 cavities call$ ciliat$ *amb]s4 7,figs4 #bb1 #cb47 ,!re are no di/9ct organs 9 ! sponge & !re is v little specialization ( cells4 ,! ciliat$ cells & ! reproductive cells are ! only specializ$ cells4 ,! sponges 7 = a long "t consid]$ z colonies ( sep>ate "o-cell$ animals class$ z protozoans4 ,!y are1 )\t d\bt1 _m-cell$ animals4 ,if a liv+ sponge is cut into pieces1 ea* piece w gr[ & =m a complete sponge4 ,t ! sponge is n a colony ( "o-cell$ animals1 ea* l an ameba1 b is a _m-cell$ animal1 w be realiz$ by exam9+ ,fig4 #cb1 :i* %[s a bit ( sponge highly magnifi$4 ,a sponge may be conceiv$ z hav+ develop$ f a "o-cell$ animal z foll[s3 ,sev]al "o-cell$ animals happ5$ to live side by side2 ea* possess$ a ?read-l flagellum 7,e1 ,fig4 #cb7 or :ip-la% = /rik+ ! wat]4 ,by la%+ ! wat]1 !y caus$ a /rong] curr5t 7,fig4 #be7 ?an protozoans liv+ s+ly c\ld cause4 ,?us !y obta9$ m food & multipli$ m rapidly ?an ^? liv+ alone4 ,! habit ( work+ toge!r left its impress on ! cells & 0 transmitt$ by inh]itance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,microscopic plan ( ciliat$ *amb]4 ,ea* cell l9+ ! *amb] has a nucleus1 a :ip-la%1 & a coll> ar\nd base ( :ip-la%4 ,"q3 ,/ate two uses ( :ip-la%4 ,cell jo9$ to cell =m$ a r+2 r+ jo9$ to r+ =m$ a tube :i* 0 /ill m effective ?an a r+ 9 la%+ ! wat] into a curr5t & br++ fre% food 7p>ticles ( dead plants & animals7 & oxyg54 ,no animals eat sponges2 possibly because spicules1 or fib]s1 are f\nd ?r\gh\t ! fle%1 or because ! ta/e & odor is unpleasant en\gh to protect !m4 ,small animals sometimes crawl into !m to hide4 ,"o species gr[s ^u %ells inhabit$ by h]mit crabs4 ,mov+ ( ! %ell f place to place is an advantage to !m1 :ile !y conceal ! crab & ?us protect x4 ,special ,report3 ,sponge 8,fi%]ies40 7,localities2 h[ sponges are tak51 clean$1 dri$1 %ipp$1 & sold47 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,polyps 7,,cuplike ,,animals7 ,,! ,,hydra1 ,,or ,,fre% ,,wat] ,,polyp ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,a ,,hydra4 ,,sugge/ions4--,except 9 ! dri] regions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! hydra c usually be f\nd by c>eful se>* 9 fre% wat] ponds n too /agnant4 ,x is f\nd atta*$ to /ones1 /icks1 or leaves1 & has a sl5d]1 cyl9drical body f a qu>t] to half an in* long1 v>y+ 9 ?ickness f t ( a f9e ne$le to t ( a common p94 ,! gre5 hydra & ! br[n hydra1 bo? v small1 are common species1 ?\gh hydras are (t5 :ite or colorless4 ,!y %\ld be kept 9 a l>ge glass di% fill$ ) wat]4 ,!y may be di/+ui%$ by ! nak$ eye b are n /udi$ satisfactorily )\t a magnify+ glass or microscope4 ,place a liv+ specim5 atta*$ to a bit ( wood 9 a wat* cry/al fill$ ) wat]1 or on a holl[$ slip1 or on a slip ) a bit ( we$ to support ! cov] glass1 & exam9e ) h& l5s or l[e/ p[] ( microscope4 ,prep>$ microscopical sections1 bo? transv]se & longitud9al1 may be b\ght ( deal]s 9 microscopic supplies4 ,"o is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ci4 ,is ! hydra's body r\nd or two-sid$8 7,fig4 #ce47 ,:at is its g5]al %ape8 ,does "o individual keep ! same %ape8 7,fig4 #cd47 ,h[ does ! l5g? ( ! ?readlike t5tacles comp>e ) ! l5g? ( ! hydra's body8 ,ab\t h[ _m t5tacles are on a hydra's body8 ,d all h ! same numb] ( t5tacles8 ,are ! t5tacles knotty or smoo?8 7,fig4 #ce47 ,! hydra is usually ext5d$ & sl5d]2 sometimes x is contract$ & r\nd$4 ,9 :i* ( ^! conditions is ! base 7! foot7 l>g] ar\nd ?an ! re/ ( ! body8 7,fig4 #cd47 ,small]8 ,h[ _m op5+s into ! body are visible8 ,is !re a depression or an em95ce at ! base ( ! t5tacles8 ,= :at is ! op5+ on top ( ! body probably us$8 ,:y are ! t5tacles plac$ at ! top ( ! hydra's body8 ,does ! m\? h ! mo/ conv5i5t location possible8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,=ms assum$ by ,hydra4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,,hydra 7mu* enl>g$74 ,! conical projection be>+ ! m\? is call$ hypo/ome 7,fig4 #cd74 ,! m\? op5s into ! dige/ive cavity4 ,is ?is ! same z ! g5]al body cavity1 or does ! /oma* h a wall di/9ct f ! body cavity8 ,h[ f> d[n does ! body cavity ext5d8 ,does x ext5d up into ! t5tacles8 7,fig4 #ci47 ,if a t5tacle is t\*$1 :at happ5s8 ,is ! body ev] b5t8 ,:i* is m s5sitive1 ! column> body or ! t5tacles8 ,9 se>*+ = hydras w\ld y be m likely to f9d ! t5tacles ext5d$ or drawn 98 ,is ! hypo/ome ev] ext5d$ or drawn 98 7,fig4 #cd47 ,locomotion4--,! r\nd surface1 or disk1 by :i* ! hydra is atta*$1 is call$ its foot4 ,c y move on "o foot )\t hopp+8 ,! hydra moves by alt]nately elongat+ & r\nd+ ! foot4 ,c y discov] o!r ways by :i* x moves8 ,does ! hydra always /& ^u its foot8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,,nettl+ ,,cell4 ,,ii4 dis*>g$1 & ,i4 n dis*>g$4 ,lasso ,cells4--,^u ! t5tacles 7,fig4 #ce7 are num]\s cells provid$ ea* ) a ?read-l process 7,fig4 #cf7 :i* lies coil$ )9 ! cell1 b :i* may be ?r[n out ^u a wat] flea1 or o!r m9ute animal t comes 9 rea*4 ,! t\* ( ! lasso p>alyzes ! prey 7,fig4 #cg74 ,^! cells are v>i\sly call$ lasso cells1 nettl+ cells1 or ?read cells4 ,! ?read is holl[ & is pu%$ out by ! pressure ( liquid )94 ,:5 ! pressure is )drawn ! ?read goes back z ! f+] ( a glove may be turn$ back into ! glove by turn+ ! f+] outside 94 ,:5 a m9ute animal1 or o!r p>ticle ( food comes 9 contact ) a t5tacle1 h[ does ! t5tacle get ! food to ! m\?8 ,by b5d+ & br++ ! end to ! m\?1 or by %ort5+ & *ang+ its =m1 or 9 bo? ways8 7,fig4 #cd1 ,c47 ,d ! neighbor+ t5tacles seem to b5d ov] to assi/ a t5tacle 9 secur+ prey8 7,fig4 #cd1 ,c47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,,hydra captur+ a wat] flea4 ,dige/ion4--,! food p>ticles break up be=e rema9+ long 9 ! /oma*1 & ! nutritive "p is absorb$ by ! l9+ cells1 or endod]m 7,fig4 #ci74 ,! indige/ible remnants g out ?r\gh ! m\?4 ,! hydra is n provid$ ) a special v5t4 ,:y c\ld ! v5t n be situat$ at ! end opposite ! m\?8 ,circulation & ,respiration4--,does wat] h free access to ! body cavity8 ,does ! hydra h few or ne>ly all ( its cells expos$ to ! wat] 9 :i* x lives8 ,f its /ructure1 decide :e!r x c brea! l a sponge or :e!r special respiratory cells are necess>y to supply x ) oxyg5 & give (f c>bon dioxid4 ,blood vessels are unnecess>y = transf]r+ oxyg5 & food f cell to cell4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,hydras on pondwe$4 ,reproduction4--,d y see any swell+s ^u ! side ( ! hydra8 7,fig4 #cd1 ,a47 ,if ! swell+ is ne> ! t5tacles1 x is a sp]m>y2 if ne> ! base x is an ov>y4 ,a sp]m coalesces ) or f]tilizes ! ovum aft] ! ovum is expos$ by ! break+ ( ! ov>y wall4 ,sometimes ! sp]m f "o hydra unites ) ! ovum ( ano!r hydra4 ,?is is call$ cross-f]tilization4 ,! same t]m is appli$ to ! process 9 plants :5 ! male elem5t1 or poll51 ( ! fl[] unites ) ! ovules1 or female elem5t1 ( ! fl[] on ano!r plant4 ,! hydra1 l mo/ plants & "s o!r animals1 is h]maphrodite1 t is to say1 bo? sp]ms & ova are produc$ by "o individual4 ,9 ! autumn1 eggs are produc$ ) h>d %ells to )/& ! cold until spr+4 ,sexual reproduction takes place :5 food is sc>ce4 ,asexual g5]ation 7by budd+7 is common ) ! hydra :5 food supply is abundant4 ,aft] ! bud gr[s to a c]ta9 size1 ! out] lay] ( cells at ! base ( ! bud con/ricts & ! "y hydra is deta*$4 ,comp>e ! sponge & ! hydra 9 ! foll[+ respects3--_m cell$1 or "o cell$2 obta9+ food2 brea?+2 tubes & cavities2 op5+s2 reproduction2 locomotion4 ,:i* ranks high] among ! metazoa8 ,! metazoa1 or _m cell$ animals1 include all animals except :i* bran*8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,longitud9al section ( hydra 7microscopic & diagrammatic74 ,figure #ci is a microscopic view ( a v]tical section ( a hydra to %[ ! /ructure ( ! body wall4 ,!re is an out] lay] call$ ! ectod]m1 & an inn] lay] call$ ! endod]m4 ,!re is also a ?9 support+ lay] 7black 9 ! figure7 call$ ! mesoglea4 ,! mesoglea is ! ?9ne/ lay]4 ,are ! cells l>g] 9 ! endod]m or ! ectod]m8 ,d bo? lay]s ( cells assi/ 9 =m+ ! reproductive bud8 ,! ectod]m cells end on ! inside 9 contractile tails :i* =m a ?9 l9e & h ! effect ( muscle fib]s4 ,!y s]ve ! hydra = its rem>kable *anges ( %ape4 ,:5 ! hydra is cut 9 pieces1 ea* piece makes a complete hydra1 provid$ x conta9s bo? endod]m & ectod]m4 ,9 :at ways does ! hydra %[ 8division ( labor08 ,answ] ?is by expla9+ ! classes ( cells specializ$ to s]ve a diff]5t purpose4 ,:i* cells ( ! hydra are lea/ specializ$8 ,9 :at p>ticul>s is ! plan ( ! hydra diff]5t f t ( a simple sponge8 ,an +5i\s naturali/ liv+ m ?an a c5tury ago1 ass]t$ t x made no diff]5ce to ! hydra :e!r ! ectod]m or ! endod]m lay] 7 outside or inside1--t x c\ld dige/ equally well ) ei!r lay]4 ,he all[$ a hydra to swall[ a worm atta*$ to a ?read1 & !n by g5tly pull+ 9 ! ?read1 turn$ ! hydra inside out4 ,m rec5tly a ,japanese naturali/ %[$ t ! hydra c\ld easily be turn$ inside out1 b he also f\nd t :5 left to itself x soon rev]s$ matt]s & return$ to its natural condition1 t ! cells are really specializ$ & ea* lay] c d its own "w & no o!r4 ,habits4--,! hydra's :ole body is a holl[ bag1 ! cavity ext5d+ ev5 into ! t5tacles4 ,! t5tacles may increase 9 numb] z ! hydra gr[s b seldom exce$ eight4 ,! hydra has m active motion ?an locomotion4 ,x seldom moves f its place1 b its t5tacles are con/antly b5d+1 /raight5+1 contract+1 & exp&+4 ,! body is also usually 9 motion1 b5d+ f "o side to ano!r4 ,:5 ! t5tacles approa* ! m\? ) captur$ prey1 ! m\? 7invisible )\t a h& l5s7 op5s widely1 %[+ five lobes or lips1 & ! booty is soon tuck$ )94 ,a hydra c swall[ an animal l>g] 9 diamet] ?an itself4 ,! endod]m cells h ameboid motion1 t is1 !y ext5d pseudopods4 ,!y also resemble amebas 9 ! p[] ( intra-cellul> dige/ion2 t is1 !y absorb ! h>d] p>ticles ( food & dige/ !m aft]w>ds1 reject+ ! indige/ible portions4 ,"s ( ^! cells h flagella 7see ,fig4 #ci7 :i* keep ! fluid ( ! cavity 9 con/ant motion4 ,sometimes ! hydra moves aft] ! mann] ( a small cat]pill> call$ a 8measur+ worm10 t is1 x takes hold fir/ by ! foot1 !n by ! t5tacles1 loop+ its body at ea* /ep4 ,sometimes ! body goes end ov] end 9 sl[ som]saults4 ,! l5g? ( ! ext5d$ hydra may rea* "o half in*4 ,:5 t\*$1 bo? t5tacles & body contract until x looks to ! unaid$ eye l a r\nd speck ( jelly4 ,?is %[s s5sibility1 & a few small />-%ap$ cells are believ$ to be n]ve cells1 b ! hydra has n a n]v\s sy/em4 ,hydras %[ _! lik+ = light by mov+ to ! side ( ! vessel or aqu>ium :5ce ! light comes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,,hydroid ,,colony1 ) nutritive 7,p7 reproductive 7,m7 & def5sive 7,s7 hydran?s4 ,! ,bran* ,polyps 7sometimes call$ ,cl5t]ata74--,! hydra is ! only fre% wat] repres5tative ( ?is great bran* ( ! animal k+dom4 ,?is bran* is *>act]iz$ by its memb]s hav+ only "o op5+ to ! body4 ,! polyps also include ! salt wat] animals call$ hydroids1 jellyfi%es1 & coral polyps4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--8,,portuguese ,,man-,o'-,,w>0 7comp>e ) ,fig4 #dj74 ,a float+ hydroid colony ) long1 /++ 7& s5sory7 /ream]s4 ,tr\blesome to ba!rs 9 ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,notice balloon-l float4 ,hydroids4--,figure #dj %[s a hydroid1 or gr\p ( hydra-l gr[?s1 "o ( :i* eats & dige/s = ! gr\p1 ano!r def5ds by nettl+ cells1 ano!r produces eggs4 ,ea* hydra-l "p ( a hydroid is call$ a hydran?4 ,sometimes ! buds on ! hydra rema9 atta*$ s long t a bud =ms ^u ! fir/ bud4 ,?us ?ree g5]ations are repres5t$ 9 "o organism4 ,su* gr[?s %[ u t x is n always easy to tell :at con/itutes an individual animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,! =mation ( _m free swimm+ jellyfi%es f "o fix$ hydra-l =m4 ,! sauc]-l p>ts 7h7 turn ov] aft] !y sep>ate & become l ,fig4 #dc or #dd4 ,lett]s %[ sequ5ce ( diagrams4 ,hydroids may be conceiv$ to h be5 develop$ by ! failure ( budd+ hydras to sep>ate f ! p>5t1 & by ! gradual =mation ( ! habit ( liv+ toge!r & assi/+ ea* o!r4 ,:5 ea* hydran? ( ! hydroid devot$ itself to a special function ( dige/ion1 def5se1 or reproduction1 ?is gr\p liv$ long] & prosp]$2 m eggs 7 =m$1 & ! habits ( ! gr\p 7 transmitt$ to a m num]\s prog5y ?an 7 ! habits ( a gr\p :]e memb]s work$ m indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r4 ,z ! sponge is ! fir/1 l[e/1 & simple/ example ( ! devotion ( special cells to special purposes1 ! hydroid is ! fir/1 l[e/1 & simple/ example ( ! occurr5ce ( organs1 t is ( special p>ts ( ! body 7gr\ps ( cells7 set aside = a special "w4 ,h[ _m mature hydran?s are se5 9 ! hydroid %[n 9 ,fig4 #dj8 ,:y are ! def5sive hydran?s on ! outside ( ! colony8 ,:i* hydran?s h no t5tacles8 ,:y n8 ,jellyfi%4--,alt]nation ( ,g5]ations4--,m$usa4--,) "s species ( hydroids1 a v curi\s ?+ happ5s4--,! hydran? t is to produce ! eggs falls (f & becomes indep5d5t ( ! colony4 ,m surpris+ /ill1 its appe>ance *anges entirely & in/ead ( be+ hydra-l1 x becomes ! l>ge & complex creature call$ jellyfi% 7,fig4 #dc74 ,b ! egg ( ! jellyfi% produces a small hydra-l animal :i* gives rise by budd+ to a hydroid1 & ! cycle is complete4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,a ,,jellyfi%4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,a ,,jellyfi% 7m$usa74 ,! bud 7or reproductive hydran?7 ( ! hydroid does n produce a hydroid1 b a jellyfi%2 ! egg ( ! jellyfi% does n produce a jellyfi%1 b a hydroid4 ,?is is call$ by zoologi/s1 alt]nation ( g5]ations4 ,a complete individual is ! life f ! g]m9ation ( "o egg to ! production ( ano!r4 ,s t an 8individual0 consi/s ( a hydroid colony fix$ 9 "o place toge!r ) all ! jellyfi% produc$ f its buds1 & :i* may n[ be float+ miles away f x 9 ! ocean4 ,ba!rs 9 ! surf are sometimes t\*$ & /ung by ! long1 /ream]-l t5tacles ( ! jellyfi%4 ,^!1 l ! t5tacles ( ! hydra1 h nettl+ cells 7,fig4 #da74 ,! umbrella-%ap$ free swimm+ jellyfi% is call$ a m$usa 7,fig4 #dd74 ,coral ,polyps4--,"s ( ! salt wat] relatives ( ! hydra produce buds :i* rema9 atta*$ to ! p>5t )\t1 h[ev]1 becom+ diff]5t f ! p>5t 9 any way4 ,! coral polyps & corall9es are examples ( colonies ( ?is k9d1 possess+ a common /alk :i* is =m$ z ! process ( multiplication goes on4 ,9 ! case ( coral polyps1 ! sep>ate animals & ! fle% connect+ !m secrete )9 !mselves a h>d1 limy1 support+ /ructure kn[n z coral4 ,9 "s species1 ! coral1 or /ony "p1 is s develop$ t ! polyp seems to be ins]t$ 9 ! coral1 into :i* x )draws itself = p>tial protection 7,fig4 #de74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,,coral ,,polyps 7t5tacles1 a multiple ( six74 ,notice hypo/ome4 ,! corall9es secrete a smoo? /alk :i* af=ds no protection1 b !y also secrete a coat+ or %ea? :i* incloses bo? !mselves & ! /alk4 ,! coat+ has ap]tures ?r\gh :i* ! polyps protrude 9 ord] to fe$ :5 no dang] is ne> 7,fig4 #df74 ,! r$ 8corals0 us$ = jewelry are bits ( /alks ( corall9es4 ,! corall9es 7,figs4 #dg1 #dh7 are n s abundant nor s important z ! coral polyps 7,figs4 #de1 #di74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,,r$ ,,corall9e ) cru/ & polyps 7eight t5tacles74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,,sea ,,fan 7a corall9e74 ,colonies ( coral polyps gr[ 9 c\ntless numb]s 9 ! tropical seas4 ,! coral =m$ by successive colonies ( polyps accumulates & builds up _m isl&s & important additions to cont95ts4 ,! ,florida 8keys10 or isl&s1 & ! s\!rn "p ( ! ma9l& ( ,florida 7 s =m$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,organ ,,pipe 8,coral0 7a corall9e74 ,! ,sea ,anemone1 l ! coral polyp1 lives 9 ! sea1 b l ! fre% wat] hydra1 x deposits no limy support = its body4 ,! anemone is mu* l>g] ?an ! hydra & mo/ coral polyps1 _m species atta9+ a height ( sev]al in*es4 ,x does n =m colonies4 ,:5 its arms are drawn 91 x looks l a l>ge knob ( %9y b opaque jelly4 ,polyps us$ to be call$ zoophytes 7plant-animals71 because ( _! fl[]-l appe>ance 7,figs4 #ej1 #ea74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,upright ,,cut ?r\gh coral polyp #d4 ms1 m\?2 mr1 gullet2 ls1 ls1 fle%y p>titions 7mes5t]ies7 ext5d+ f out] body wall to gullet 7to increase absorb+ surface72 s1 s1 %ort] p>titions2 mb1 fb1 /ony support 7( lime1 call$ coral72 t1 t5tacles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,sea ,,anemone4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,sea ,,anemones4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,e*9od]ms 7,,sp9y ,,animals7 ,,! ,,/>fi% ,,sugge/ions4 ,s9ce ! e*9od]ms are ab]rant ?\gh int]e/+ =ms n 9 ! regul> l9e ( developm5t ( animals1 ?is *apt] may be omitt$ if x is desir$ to %ort5 ! c\rse4--,! common />fi% occurs along ! ,atlantic coa/4 ,x is captur$ by wad+ along ! %ore :5 ! tide is out4 ,x is kill$ by imm]sion 9 w>m1 fre% wat]4 ,specim5s are usually pres]v$ 9 #d p] c5t =mal94 ,dri$ />fi% & sea ur*9s are also useful4 ,a liv+ />fi% kept 9 a pail ( salt wat] w be in/ructive4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,/>fi% on a rocky %ore4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,,plan ( />fi%2 ,,iii1 madreporite4 ,ext]nal ,features4--,/>fi% are usually br[n or yell[4 ,:y8 7,see ,fig4 #eb47 ,has x a head or tail8 ,"r & left sides8 ,:at is ! %ape ( ! disk1 or "p :i* be>s ! five arms or rays8 7,fig4 #ec47 ,does ! body z a :ole h symmetry on two sides ( a l9e 7bilat]al symmetry71 or ar\nd a po9t 7radial symmetry78 ,d ! sep>ate rays h bilat]al symmetry8 ,! skeleton consi/s ( limy plates emb$d$ 9 ! t\gh sk9 7,fig4 #ed74 ,is ! sk9 r\gh or smoo?8 ,h>d or s(t8 ,are ! projections 7or sp9es7 9 ! sk9 long or %ort8 ,! sk9 is h>d5$ by ! limy plates1 except ar\nd ! m\?1 :i* is at ! c5t] ( ! l[] side & surr\nd$ by a membrane4 ,:i* is r\gh]1 ! m\? side1 7oral side7 or ! opposite 7aboral side78 ,:i* side is m ne>ly flat8 ,! v5t is at or ne> ! c5t] ( ! disk on ! aboral surface4 ,x is usually v small & sometimes abs5t4 ,:y a v5t is n ( mu* use w be und]/ood aft] le>n+ h[ ! />fi% takes food4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,,limy ,,plates 9 portion ( a ray4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,/>fi% 7%[+ ,,madreporite74 ,an organ peculi> to animals ( ?is bran*1 & call$ ! madreporic plate1 or madreporite1 is f\nd on ! aboral surface betwe5 ! bases ( two rays 7,fig4 #ee74 ,x is w>tlike1 & usually :ite or r$4 ,?is plate is a sieve2 ! small op5+s keep out s& b all[ wat] to filt] ?r\gh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,,wat] tube ,sy/em ( />fi%4 m1 madreporite2 /c1 /one canal2 ap1 ampulla4 ,movem5ts3 ! ,wat]-tube ,sy/em4--,! wat]1 :i* is filt]$ ?r\gh ! p]=at$ madreporite1 is ne$$ to supply a sy/em ( canals 7,fig4 #ef74 ,! madreporite op5s into a canal call$ ! /one canal1 ! wall ( :i* is h>d5$ by ! same k9d ( mat]ial z t f\nd 9 ! sk94 ,! /one canal leads to ! r+ canal :i* surr\nds ! m\? 7,fig4 #ef74 ,! r+ canal s5ds radial canals into ea* ray to supply ! d\ble r[ ( tube feet f\nd 9 ! groove at ! l[] side ( ea* ray 7,fig4 #eg74 ,because ( _! arrangem5t 9 r[s1 ! feet are also call$ ambulacral feet 7,lat9 ambulacra1 8=e/ walks074 ,!re is a wat] hold] 7ampulla71 or muscul> wat] bulb at ! base ( ea* tube foot 7,fig4 #eh74 ,^! contract & =ce ! wat] into ! tube feet & ext5d !m4 ,! cuplike ends ( ! tubes cl+ to ! gr\nd by suction4 ,! feet conta9 delicate muscles by :i* !y contract & %ort54 ,?us ! animal pulls itself sl[ly along1 hundr$s ( feet act+ toge!r4 ,! tube feet1 = _! own protection1 may contract & retire into ! groove1 ! wat] :i* ext5d$ !m be+ s5t back into ! ampulla4 ,?is sy/em ( wat] vessels 7or wat]-vascul> sy/em7 ( ! e*9od]mata is *>act]i/ic ( !m2 i4e4 is n f\nd else:]e 9 ! animal k+dom4 ,! grooves & ! plates on ea* side ( !m occupy ! ambulacral areas4 ,! r[s ( sp9es on ea* side ( ! grooves are freely movable4 7,:at advantage87 ,! sp9es on ! aboral surface are n freely movable4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,/>fi%1 f bel[2 tube feet ext5d$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,section ,,( ,,"o ,,ray & c5tral portion ( />fi%4 f#a1 f#b1 f#c1 tube feet m or less ext5d$2 au1 eye spot2 k1 gills2 da1 /oma*2 m1 madreporite2 /1 /one canal2 p1 ampulla2 ei1 ov>y4 ,respiration4--,! sy/em ( wat] vessels s]ves ! additional purpose ( br++ wat] conta9+ oxyg5 into contact ) v>i\s p>ts ( ! body1 & ! />fi% 0 =m]ly ?\ght to h no special respiratory organs4 ,h[ev] !re are holes 9 ! aboral wall ?r\gh :i* ! folds ( ! delicate l9+ membrane protrude4 ,^! are n[ suppos$ to be gills 7k1 ,fig4 #eh74 ,! n]v\s sy/em is s close to ! aboral surface t mu* ( x is visible )\t dissection4 ,its *ief p>ts are a n]ve r+ ar\nd ! m\?1 :i* s5ds (f a bran* along ea* ray4 ,^! bran*es may be se5 by sep>at+ ! r[s ( tube feet4 ,!y end 9 a pigm5t$ cell at ! end ( ea* ray call$ ! eye-spot4 ,! food ( />fi% consi/s ( su* animals z crabs1 snails1 & oy/]s4 ,:5 ! prey is too l>ge to be tak5 into ! m\?1 ! />fi% turns its /oma* inside out ov] ! prey 7,fig4 #ei74 ,aft] ! %ells sep>ate1 ! /oma* is appli$ to ! s(t dige/ible p>ts4 ,aft] ! animal is eat51 ! /oma* is retract$4 ,?is odd way ( eat+ is v economical to its dige/ive p[]s1 = only t "p ( ! food :i* c be dige/$ & absorb$ is tak5 into ! body4 ,only ! l[] "p ( ! /oma* is wide & ext5sible4 ,! upp] portion 7next to ! aboral surface7 is n s wide4 ,?is portion receives ! secretion f five pairs ( dige/ive gl&s1 a pair ( :i* is situat$ 9 ea* ray4 ,jaws & tee? are abs5t4 7,:y87 ,! v5t is sometimes want+4 ,:y8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,/>fi% eat+ a sea snail4 b1 /oma* ev]t$4 ,reproduction4--,!re is a pair ( ov>ies at ! base ( ea* ray ( ! female />fi% 7,fig4 #eh74 ,! sp]m>ies ( ! male h ! same position & =m z ! ov>ies1 b !y are light] color$1 usually :ite4#b #b ,! sp]m cells & egg cells are p\r$ out into ! wat] by ! adults1 & ! sp]m cell1 :i*1 l all sp]m cells1 has a vibratory1 tail-l flagellum to propel x1 rea*es & f]tilizes ! egg cell4 ,reg5]ation aft] ,mutilation4--,if a />fi% loses "o or m rays1 !y are replac$ by gr[?4 ,only a v ignorant oy/]-man1 angry at ! depr$ations ( />fi% ^u 8 oy/] b$s1 w\ld *op />fi% to pieces1 z ?is only s]ves to multiply !m4 ,?is p[] simulates multiplication by division 9 ! simple/ animals4 ,/eps 9 ,advance ( ,l[] ,bran*es4--,! />fi% & o!r e*9od]mata h a m develop$ n]v\s sy/em1 s5sory organs1 & dige/ion1 ?an =ms previ\sly /udi$2 mo/ di/9ctive ( all1 !y h a body cavity di/9ct f ! food cavity4 ,! dige/ive gl&s1 reproductive gl&s1 & ! fluid :i* s]ves imp]fectly = blood1 are 9 ! body cavity4 ,!re is no he>t or blood vessels4 ,! motions ( ! /oma* & ! b5d+ ( ! rays give motion to ?is fluid 9 ! body cavity4 ,x _c be call$ blood1 b x conta9s :ite blood corpuscles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,"y />fi% crawl+ ^u _! "m4 7,*all5g] ,reports47 ,! />fi% :5 fir/ hat*$ is an actively swimm+ bilat]al animal1 b x soon becomes />like 7,fig4 #fj74 ,! limy plates ( ! />fi% belong nei!r to ! out] nor inn] lay] 7endod]m & ectod]m7 ( ! body wall1 b to a ?ird or middle lay] 7mesod]m72 = e*9od]ms1 l ! polyps1 belong to ! ?ree-lay]$ animals4 ,9 ?is its skeleton diff]s f ! %ell ( a crawfi%1 :i* is =m$ by ! h>d5+ ( ! sk9 itself4 ,protective ,coloration4--,/>fi% are br[n or yell[4 ,?is makes !m inconspicu\s on ! br[n rocks or yell[ s&s ( ! sea%ore4 ,?is is an example ( protective coloration4 ,,! ,,sea ,,ur*9 ,ext]nal ,features4--,:at is ! %ape ( ! body8 ,:at k9d ( symmetry has x8 ,d y f9d ! oral 7or m\?7 surface8 ,! aboral surface8 ,:]e is ! body flatt5$8 ,:at is ! %ape ( ! sp9es8 ,:at is _! use8 ,h[ are ! tube feet arrang$8 ,:]e d ! r[s beg9 & end8 ,w\ld y ?9k a sea ur*9 plac$ upside d[n 9 wat]1 c\ld "r itself less or m readily ?an a />fi%8 ,:at advantage 9 turn+ w\ld ea* h t ! o!r w\ld n h8 ,! "n sea ur*9 has no ref]5ce to a mis*iev\s boy1 b means sea h$gehog 7,fr5* ours91 h$gehog71 ! "n be+ sugge/$ by its sp9es4 ,comp>ison ( ,/>fi% & ,sea ,ur*94--,! wat] sy/em ( ! sea ur*91 consi/+ ( madreporite1 tubes1 & wat] bulbs1 or ampull1 is simil> to t ( ! />fi%4 ,! tube feet & locomotion are alike4 ,!re is no ne$ = well-develop$ respiratory organs 9 ei!r animal1 z ! :ole body1 inside & out1 is ba!d 9 wat]4 ,! me?od ( reproduction is ! same4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,a ,,sea ,,ur*9 crawl+ up ! glass front wall ( an aqu>ium 7%[+ m\? sp9es & tube feet74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,a ,,sea ,,ur*9 ) sp9es remov$1 ! limy plates %[+ ! knobs on :i* ! sp9es grew4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,section ,,( ,,sea ,,ur*9 ) s(t p>ts remov$1 %[+ ! jaws :i* be> ! tee? protrud+ 9 ,fig4 #fb4 ,! />fi% eats animal food4 ,! food ( ! sea ur*9 is almo/ exclusively vegetable1 h5ce x ne$s tee? 7,fig4 #fb1 #fc72 its food tube is long] ?an t ( a />fi%1 j z ! food tube ( a %eep1 ^: food dige/s sl[ly1 is mu* long] ?an t ( a dog4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,,! ,,sea ,,ott]1 an ur*9 ) m\? 7o7 & v5t 7,a7 on same side ( body4 ,! l>ge/ species ( sea ur*9s are almo/ z big z a *ild's head1 b ?is size is unusual4 ,! sp9es are m\nt$ on knobs1 & ! jo9t resembles a ball-&-socket jo9t1 & all[ z wide range ( movem5t4 ,"s sea ur*9s live on s&y %ores1 o!r species live ^u ! rocks4 ,! s& doll>s are light] color$4 7,:y87 ,!y are usually flatt] & h light]1 ?9n] walls1 = !re is dang] ( s9k+ into ! s&4 ,! five-hol$ s& cake or s& doll> has its weight /ill fur!r dim9i%$ by ! holes1 :i* also all[ x to rise m easily ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,! flatt5$ l[] surface ( bo? />fi% & sea ur*9 causes ! body to rema9 /ill :ile ! tube feet are /ret*+ =w>d = ano!r /ep4 ,,o!r ,,e*9od]ms ,! sea cucumb]s1 or holo?urians1 resemble ! sea ur*9 9 _m respects1 b _! bodies are elongat$1 & ! limy plates are abs5t or v m9ute4 ,! m\? is surr\nd$ by t5tacles 7,fig4 #fe74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,sea ,,cucumb]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,a ,,brittle ,,/>4 ,! brittle />s resemble ! />fi% 9 =m1 b _! rays are v sl5d]1 m di/9ct f ! disk1 & ! tube feet are on ! edges ( ! rays1 n "u !m 7,fig4 #ff74 ,! cr9oids are ! mo/ anci5t ( ! e*9od]ms4 7,figs4 #fg1 #fh47 ,_! fossils are v abundant 9 ! rocks4 ,!y inhabit$ ! geological seas1 & x is believ$ t ! o!r e*9od]ms desc5d$ f !m4 ,a few n[ inhabit ! deep seas4 ,"s species are fix$ by /ems :5 "y1 & lat] break away & become free-swimm+1 o!rs rema9 fix$ ?r\gh\t life4 ,! f\r classes ( ! bran* e*9od]ms are ,/>fi% 7a/]oids71 ,sea ur*9s 7e*9oids71 ,sea cucumb]s 7holo?urians71 & ,sea lilies 7cr9oids74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,,cr9oid1 arms clos$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,,disk ,,( ,,cr9oid f above1 %[+ m\? 9 c5t] & v5t ne> x1 at "r 7arms remov$74 ,comp>ative ,review ,make a table l ?is z l>ge z ! page ( ! notebook w all[1 & fill 9 )\t guess+4 ,,ameba ,,sponge ,,hydra ,,coral ,,/>fi% ,,polyp ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,is body r\nd1 two- sid$1 or irregul> ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,:at organs ( s5se ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,op5+s into body ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,h>d or support+ p>ts ( body ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,h[ food is tak5 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,h[ move ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,h[ brea! ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,worms ,,sugge/ions3--,e>?worms may be f\nd 9 ! daytime aft] a heavy ra91 or by digg+ or turn+ ov] planks1 logs1 etc41 9 damp places4 ,!y may be f\nd on ! surface at night by se>*+ ) a lant]n4 ,live specim5s may be kept 9 ! laboratory 9 a box pack$ ) damp 7n wet7 loam & dead leaves4 ,!y may be f$ on bits ( fat meat1 cabbage1 onion1 etc41 dropp$ on ! surface4 ,:5 /udy+ live worms1 !y %\ld be all[$ to crawl on damp pap] or wood4 ,an e>?worm plac$ 9 a glass tube ) ri*1 damp soil1 may be wat*$ f day to day4 ,ext]nal ,features4--,is ! body bilat]al8 ,is !re a dorsal & v5tral surface8 ,c y %[ ?is by a te/ ) a live worm8 ,d y "k ( an animal ) dorsal & v5tral surface1 b n bilat]al8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,an ,e>?worm4 ,c y make out a head8 ,a head end8 ,a neck8 ,t\* ! head & te/ :e!r x c be made to crawl backw>ds4 ,:i* end is m tap]+8 ,is ! m\? at ! tip ( ! head end or on ! upp] or l[] surface8 ,h[ is ! v5t situat$8 ,its %ape8 ,z ! worm lies on a horizontal surface1 is ! body any:]e flatt5$8 ,are !re any v di/9ct divisions 9 ! body8 ,d y see any eyes8 ,exp]im5t to f9d :e!r ! worm is s5sitive 7#a7 to t\*1 7#b7 to light1 7#c7 to /rong odors1 7#d7 to irritat+ liquids4 ,does x %[ a s5se ( ta/e8 ,! exp]im5ts %\ld %[ :e!r x avoids or seeks a bright light1 z a w9d[2 also :e!r any p>ts ( ! body are especially s5sitive to t\*1 or all equally s5sitive4 ,:at effect :5 a bright light is br\ght sudd5ly ne> x at night8 ,is r$ blood visible ?r\gh ! sk98 ,c y notice any pulsations 9 a vessel along ! back8 ,d all e>?worms h ! same numb] ( divisions or r+s8 ,comp>e ! size ( ! r+s or segm5ts4 ,c x crawl fa/] on glass or on pap]8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,,m\? ,,& ,,set4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,,e>?worm1 m\? end above4 ,a magnify+ glass w %[ on mo/ species t9y bri/le-l projections call$ set4 ,h[ are ! set arrang$8 7d1 ,fig4 #gj47 ,h[ _m on "o r+ ( ! worm8 ,h[ d !y po9t8 ,does ! worm feel smoo!r :5 x is pull$ =w>d or backw>d betwe5 ! f+]s8 ,:y8 ,are set on ! l[] surface8 ,upp] surface8 ,! sides8 ,:at is ! use ( ! set8 ,are !y useful bel[ gr\nd8 ,does ! worm move at a uni=m rate8 ,:at *ange 9 =m occurs z ! front "p ( ! body is pu%$ =w>d8 ,z ! h9d] "p is pull$ onw>d8 ,h[ f> does x g at ea* movem5t8 ,at c]ta9 seasons a broad b&1 or r+1 appe>s1 cov]+ sev]al segm5ts & mak+ !m seem enl>g$ 7,fig4 #ga74 ,?is is ! clitellum1 or reproductive girdle4 ,is ?is girdle ne>] ! m\? or ! tail8 ,draw ! ext]ior ( an e>?worm4 ,dorsal & ,v5tral ,surfaces4--,! e>?worm always crawls ) ! same surface to ! gr\nd2 ?is is call$ ! v5tral surface1 ! opposite surface is ! dorsal surface4 ,?is is ! fir/ animal /udi$ to :i* ^! t]ms are applicable4 ,:at are ! v5tral & dorsal surfaces ( a fi%1 a frog1 a bird1 a horse1 a man8 ,! "n 8worm0 is (t5 c>elessly appli$ to v>i\s crawl+ ?+s 9 g5]al4 ,x is prop]ly appli$1 h[ev]1 only to segm5t$ animals )\t jo9t$ app5dages4 ,al?\gh a cat]pill> crawls1 x is n a worm = sev]al reasons4 ,x has six jo9t$ legs1 & x is n a develop$ animal1 b only an e>ly /age 9 ! life ( a mo? or butt]fly4 ,a 8grubworm0 also has jo9t$ legs 7,fig4 #afg74 ,x does n rema9 a grub1 b 9 ! adult /age is a beetle4 ,a worm nev] develops into ano!r animal 9 ! latt] "p ( its life2 its set are n jo9t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,,food ,,tube ( e>?worm4 7,top view47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,,food ,,tube ,,& ,,blood ,,vessels ( e>?worm %[+ ! r+-l he>ts4 7,side view47 ,! ,food ,tube4--,! e>?worm has no tee?1 & ! food tube1 z might be inf]r$ f ! =m ( ! body1 is simple & /raight4 ,on acc\nt ( slight v>iation 9 size & /ructure1 its p>ts are nam$ ! ph>ynx 7muscul>71 gullet1 crop1 gizz>d 7muscul>71 & ! long inte/9e ext5d+ ?r\gh ! la/ ?ree f\r?s ( its body 7,fig4 #gb74 ,! functions ( ! p>ts ( ! food tube are indicat$ by _! names4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,circulation4--,!re is a l>ge dorsal blood vessel above ! food tube 7,fig4 #gc74 ,f ! front portion ( ?is tube arise sev]al l>ge tubul> r+s or 8he>ts0 :i* are contractile & s]ve to keep ! blood circulat+4 ,!y lead to a v5tral vessel bel[ ! food tube 7,fig4 #gd74 ,! blood is r$1 b ! color+ matt] is 9 ! liquid1 n 9 ! blood cells4 ,n]v\s ,sy/em4--,betwe5 ! v5tral blood vessels is a n]ve cord compos$ ( two /r&s 7see ,fig4 #ge74 ,!re is a slight swell+1 or ganglion1 on ea* /r&1 9 ea* segm5t 7,fig4 #ge74 ,! /r&s sep>ate ne> ! front end ( ! worm1 & a bran* goes up ea* side ( ! gullet & ent]s ! two pe>-%ap$ c]ebral ganglia1 or 8bra90 7,fig4 #ge74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,,ganglia ,,ne> ,,m\? & "p ( n]ve *a9 ( e>?worm4 ,food4--,! e>?worm eats e>? conta9+ organic matt]1 ! inorganic "p pass+ ?r\gh ! v5t 9 ! =m ( circul> ca/s f\nd 9 ! morn+ at ! top ( ! e>?worm's hole4 ,:at else does x eat8 ,! e>? worm ne$s no tee?1 z x excretes ?r\gh ! m\? an alkal9e fluid :i* s(t5s & p>tly dige/s ! food be=e x is eat54 ,:5 ?is fluid is p\r$ out ^u a gre5 leaf1 ! leaf at once turns br[n4 ,! />* 9 ! leaf is also act$ ^u4 ,! sn\t aids 9 pu%+ ! food into ! m\?4 ,kidneys4--,s9ce oxidation is occurr+ 9 its tissues1 & impurities are =m+1 !re mu/ be "s way ( remov+ impurities f ! tissues4 ,! e>?worm does n possess "o-pair organs l ! kidneys ( high] animals to s]ve ?is purpose1 b x has num]\s pairs ( small tubul> organs call$ nephridia :i* s]ve ! purpose4 ,ea* "o is simply a tube ) sev]al coils 7,fig4 #gf74 ,!re is a pair on ! floor ( ea* segm5t 7,fig4 #gf74 ,ea* nephridium has an inn] op5 end )9 ! body cavity1 & its out] end op5s by a pore on ! surface betwe5 ! set 7,fig4 #gh74 ,! nephridia absorb wa/e wat] f ! liquid 9 ! celom1 or body cavity surr\nd+ ! food tube1 & convey x to ! outside4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,two ,,pairs ,,( ,,nephridia4 ,respiration4--,! sk9 ( ! e>?worm is moi/1 & ! blood capill>ies approa* s ne> to ! surface ( ! body t ! oxyg5 is con/antly pass+ 9 f ! air1 & c>bon dioxid pass+ out2 h5ce x is con/antly brea?+ ?r\gh all p>ts ( its sk94 ,x ne$s no lungs nor special respiratory organs ( any k9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,sp]m 7sp7 & egg gl&s 7es7 ( e>?worm4 ,reproduction4--,:5 "o individual animal produces bo? sp]m cells & egg cells1 x is said to be h]maphrodite4 ,?is is true ( ! e>?worm4 ,! egg cell is always f]tiliz$1 h[ev]1 n by ! sp]m cells ( ! same worm1 b by sp]m cells =m$ by ano!r worm4 ,! op5+s ( ^! ova or egg gl&s consi/ ( two pairs ( small pores f\nd on ! v5tral surface ( ! f\rte5? & fifte5? segm5ts 9 mo/ species 7see ,fig4 #gg74 ,!re are also two pairs ( small receptacles = tempor>ily hold+ ! =eign sp]m cells4 ,"o pair ( ! op5+s f ^! receptacles is f\nd 7) difficulty7 9 ! wr9kle beh9d ! n9? segm5t 7,fig4 #gg71 & ! o!r pair beh9d ! t5? segm5t4 ,! sp]m gl&s are 9 front ( ! ov>ies 7,fig4 #gg71 b ! sp]m ducts are long] ?an ! oviducts1 & op5 beh9d !m 7,figs4 #gg1 #gh74 ,! worms ex*ange sp]m cells1 b n egg cells4 ,! reproductive girdle1 or clitellum1 already spok5 (1 =ms ! case :i* is to hold ! eggs 7see ,fig4 #ga74 ,:5 ! sp]m cells h be5 ex*ang$1 & ! ova are ready = f]tilization1 ! worm draws itself backw>d f ! coll>like case or clitellum s t x slips ov] ! head4 ,z x passes ! fifte5? & sixte5? segm5ts1 x collects ! ova1 & z x passes ! n9? & t5? segm5ts1 x collects ! sp]m cells previ\sly receiv$ by t\*+ ano!r worm4 ,! ela/ic1 coll>-l clitellum closes at ! ends aft] x has slipp$ ov] ! worm's head1 =m+ a capsule4 ,! ova are f]tiliz$ 9 ?is capsule1 & "s ( !m hat* into worms 9 a few days4 ,^! dev\r ! eggs :i* d n hat*4 ,! eggs develop into complete b v small worms be=e ! worms escape f ! capsule4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,side view %[+ set1 nephridia pores1 & reproductive op5+s4 ,habits4--,! e>?worm is omnivor\s4 ,x w eat bits ( meat z well z leaves & o!r vegetation4 ,x has also ! advantage1 :5 digg+ its hole1 ( eat+ ! e>? :i* mu/ be excavat$4 ,e "o has notic$ ! fre% 8ca/s0 pil$ up at ! holes 9 ! morn+4 ,z ! holes are p>tly fill$ by ra9s1 ! ca/s are mo/ abundant aft] ra9s4 ,! *ief enemies ( ! e>?worm are moles & birds4 ,! worms "w at night & retire s e>ly 9 ! morn+ t x takes a v e>ly bird to cat* a worm4 ,p]haps ! ne>e/ to an intellig5t act ! e>?worm accompli%es is to conceal ! m\? ( its hole by plugg+ x ) a pebble or bit ( leaf4 ,!y hib]nate1 go+ bel[ dang] ( fro/ 9 w9t]4 ,9 dry wea!r !y burr[ sev]al feet deep4 ,! muscul> coat b5ea?1 & mu* ?ick] ?an ! sk91 consi/s ( two lay]s3 an out] lay] runs ar\nd ! body j b5ea? ! sk91 & an inn]1 ?ick] lay] ( fib]s runs l5g?wise4 ,! worm crawls by %ort5+ ! longitud9al muscles4 ,z ! bri/les 7set7 po9t backw>d1 !y prev5t ! front "p ( ! body f slipp+ back1 s ! h9d] "p is drawn =w>d4 ,next1 ! circul> muscles contract1 & ! bri/les prev5t+ ! h9d "p f slipp+ back1 ! =e portion is pu%$ =w>d4 ,is ! worm ?ick] :5 ! h9d] "p is be+ pull$ up or :5 ! =e "p is be+ ?ru/ =w>d8 ,does ! e>?worm pull or pu% itself along1 or does x d bo?8 ,occasionally x travels backw>d1 e4g4 x sometimes goes backw>d into its hole4 ,!n ! bri/les are direct$ =w>d4 ,! "r & left halves ( ! body are c\nt]p>ts ( ea* o!r1 h5ce ! e>?worm is bilat]ally symmetrical4 ,! lungs & gills ( animals mu/ always be kept moi/4 ,! worm _c live long 9 dry air1 = respiration 9 ! sk9 ceases :5 x _c be kept moi/1 & ! worm smo!rs4 ,long imm]sion 9 wat] is injuri\s to !m1 p]haps because !re is f> less oxyg5 9 wat] ?an 9 ! air4 ,d>w9 wrote a book call$ 8,vegetable ,mold & ,e>?worms40 ,he e/imat$ t !re 7 fifty ?\s& e>?worms to ! acre on f>m l& 9 ,engl&1 & t !y br+ up eighte5 tons ( soil 9 an acre ea* ye>4 ,z ! acids ( ! food tube act ^u ! m9]al gra9s t pass ?r\gh x1 ! e>?worm r5d]s great aid 9 =m+ soil4 ,by burr[+ x makes ! soil m por\s & br+s up ! subsoil4 ,al?\gh )\t eyes1 ! worm is s5sitive to light fall+ ^u its ant]ior segm5ts4 ,:5 ! light ( a lant]n sudd5ly /rikes x at night1 x crawls quickly to its burr[4 ,its s5se ( t\* is s ke5 t x c detect a light puff ( brea?4 ,:i* ( ! foods kept 9 a box ( damp e>? disappe>$ fir/8 ,:at is indicat$ z to a s5se ( ta/e8 ,:y is ! bilat]al type ( /ructure bett] adapt$ = developm5t & high] organization ?an ! radiate type ( ! />fi%8 ,! e>?worm's body is a d\ble tube2 ! hydra's body is a s+le tube2 :i* plan is m advantage\s1 & :y8 ,w\ld any o!r color d j z well = an e>?worm8 ,:y1 or :y n8 ,! s&worm 7,n]eis7 lives 9 ! s& ( ! sea%ore1 & swims 9 ! sea at night 7,fig4 #gi74 ,x is m advanc$ 9 /ructure ?an ! e>?worm1 z x has a di/9ct head 7,fig4 #hj71 eyes1 two tee?1 two lips1 & sev]al pairs ( ant5n1 & two r[s ( muscul> projections :i* s]ve z feet4 ,x is mu* us$ by fi%]m5 = bait4 ,if m easily obta9$1 x may be /udi$ in/ead ( ! e>?worm4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,,s& ,,worm 7,n]eis74 ,!re are f\r classes 9 ! bran* ,v]mes3 #a7 ! e>?worms1 includ+ s&worms & lee*es2 #b7 ! r\ndworms1 includ+ tri*9a1 hairworms1 & v9eg> eels2 #c7 flatworms1 includ+ tapeworm & liv] fluke2 #d7 rotif]s1 :i* are m]e specks 9 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,,head ,,( ,,s&worm 7enl>g$74 ,! tapeworm is a flatworm :i* has lo/ mo/ ( its organs on acc\nt ( its p>asitic life4 ,its egg is pick$ up by an h]bivor\s animal :5 graz+4 ,! embryo und]goes only p>tial developm5t 9 ! body ( ! h]bivor\s animal1 e4g4 an ox4 ,! next /age w n develop until ! beef is eat5 by a c>nivor\s animal1 to ^: food canal x atta*es itself & soon develops a long *a9 ( segm5ts call$ a 8tape40 ,ea* segm5t absorbs fluid food ?r\gh its body wall4 ,z ! segm5ts at ! old] end mature1 ea* becomes full ( g]ms1 & ! segm5ts become deta*$ & pass out ( ! canal1 to be dropp$ & p]haps pick$ up by an h]bivor\s animal & repeat ! life cycle4 ,! tri*9a is m dang]\s to human life ?an ! tapeworm4 ,x gets into ! food canal 9 uncook$ pork 7bologna sausage1 = example71 multiplies !re1 migrates into ! muscles1 caus+ great pa91 & ency/s !re1 rema9+ until ! dea? ( ! ho/4 ,x is believ$ to get into ! bodies ( hogs aga9 :5 !y eat rats1 :i* 9 turn h obta9$ ! cy/s f c>casses4 ,summ>y ( ! ,biological ,process4--,an e>?worm is a liv+ ma*9e :i* does "w 7digg+ & crawl+2 seiz+1 swall[+1 & dige/+ food2 pump+ blood2 gr[+ & reproduc+74 ,to d ! "w x mu/ h a cont9ual supply ( en]gy4 ,! en]gy = its "w is set free by ! protoplasm 79 its microscopic cells7 und]go+ a de/ructive *emical *ange 7oxidation74 ,! wa/e products f ! break+ d[n ( ! protoplasm mu/ be cont9ually remov$ 7excretion74 ,! brok5-d[n protoplasm mu/ be cont9ually replac$ if life is to cont9ue 7! income mu/ exce$ ! outgo if ! animal is /ill gr[+74 ,! microscopic cells con/ruct m protoplasm out ( food & oxyg5 7assimilation7 suppli$ !m by ! processes ( nutrition 7eat+1 dige/+1 brea?+1 circulat+74 ,?is protoplasm 9 turn oxidizes & releases m en]gy to d "w1 & ?us ! cycle ( life proce$s4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,cru/aceans ,,crawfi% ,,sugge/ions4--,9 regions :]e crawfi% are n f\nd1 a live crab may be us$4 ,locomotion & behavior may be /udi$ by provid+ a tub ( wat]1 or bett]1 a l>ge glass j> su* z a broad c&y j>4 ,= sugge/ions on /udy ( int]nal /ructure1 see p4 #eh4 ,habitat4--,d y (t5 see crawfi%1 or crayfi%1 mov+ ab\t1 ev5 9 wat] :]e !y are kn[n to be abundant8 ,:at does y\r answ] sugge/ z to ! "t :5 !y are probably mo/ active8 ,:y d y nev] see "o build+ its *imney1 ev5 :]e crawfi% holes are abundant8 ,is ! *imney always ( ! same color z ! surface soil8 ,are ! crawfi% holes only ( use = protection8 ,9 :at k9d ( spots are crawfi% holes always dug8 ,:y8 ,:at becomes ( crawfi% :5 ! pond or creek dries up8 ,h[ deep are ! holes8 ,h[ l>ge are ! lumps ( mud ( :i* ! *imney is built8 ,h[ does x get !m out ( ! hole8 ,:y is ! mud built into a *imney in/ead ( ?r[n away8 7,:at w\ld happ5 to a well ) its m\? no high] ?an ! gr\nd87 ,:y are crawfi% sc>ce 9 rocky regions1 z ,new ,engl&8 ,h[ does ! color ( ! crawfi% comp>e ) its surr\nd+s8 ,is its color suit$ to life 9 cle> or muddy wat]8 ,def9e protective coloration4 ,habits4--,does ! crawfi% walk bett] 9 wat] or out ( x8 ,:y8 ,does x use ! legs ) ! l>ge claws to assi/ 9 walk+8 ,d ! swimm]ets 7"u ! abdom57 move fa/ or sl[8 7,obs]ve x f bel[ 9 a l>ge j> ( cle> wat]47 ,:at propels x backw>d8 ,=w>d8 ,does ! crawfi% move at a m uni=m rate :5 swimm+ backw>d or =w>d8 ,:y8 ,9 :i* way c x swim m rapidly8 ,d ! big legs ) claws (f] m resi/ance to ! wat] :ile x is swimm+ backw>d or =w>d8 ,h[ does x hold ! tail aft] ! /roke1 :ile x is d>t+ backw>d ?r\gh ! wat]8 ,hold a crawfi% ) its tail subm]g$ & its head up4 ,c ! tail /rike ! wat] ) mu* =ce8 ,all[ x to grasp a p5cil3 c x su/a9 its own weight by its grip8 ,fe$+4--,(f] sev]al k9ds ( food to a crawfi% t has n be5 al>m$ or teas$4 ,does x pref] bread1 meat1 or vegetables8 ,h[ does x get ! food to its m\?8 ,does x eat rapidly or sl[ly8 ,does x te> ! food ) ! big p9c]s8 ,c x gnaw ) ! small app5dages ne> ! m\?8 ,brea?+4--,does ! crawfi% brea! ) gills or lungs8 ,place a few drops ( ink ne> ! base ( ! h9d legs ( a crawfi% re/+ quietly 9 %all[ wat]4 ,:]e is ! ink drawn 98 ,:]e does x come out8 ,to expla9 ! cause & purpose ( ?is motion1 place a crawfi% 9 a l>ge glass j> conta9+ wat]1 & see ! vibratory motion ( ! p>ts "u ! front portion ( ! body4 ,!re is a gill paddle1 or gill bail]1 "u ! %ell on ea* side ( ! body t moves at ! same rate4 ,s5ses4--,crawfi% are be/ caught ) a piece ( meat or beef's liv] ti$ to a /r+4 ,d !y always lose hold z soon z !y are lift$ above ! wat]8 ,:at d y conclude z to ! al]tness ( _! s5ses8 ,does ! cov]+ ( its body sugge/ ! possession ( a delicate or dull s5se ( t\*8 ,( :at motions are ! eyes capable8 ,t\* "o ( ! eyes4 ,! result8 ,c a crawfi% see 9 all directions8 ,to te/ ?is1 place a crawfi% on a table & try :e!r y c move to a place :]e y c see ! crawfi% )\t see+ its eyes4 ,:at are ! advantages & disadvantages ( hav+ ! eyes on /alks8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,,crawfi% 7dorsal surface74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,t\* ! body & ! sev]al app5dages ( ! crawfi%4 ,:]e does x seem mo/ s5sitive to t\*8 ,:i* c rea* f>!r1 ! ant5n or ! big claws8 ,:y are %ort feel]s ne$$ z well z long ones8 ,make a l\d & sudd5 noise )\t j>r+ ! crawfi%4 ,is x affect$ by s\nd8 ,ext]nal ,anatomy 7,figs4 #ha1 #hb1 #hc1 #hd74--;,is ! body ( ! crawfi% r\nd$ out 7convex7 ev]y:]e1 or is any "p ( its surface ei!r flat or r\nd$ 9 7concave78 ,:at color has ! crawfi%8 ,is ?is color ( any use to ! crawfi%8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--,,lat]al ,,view ,,( ,,crawfi%4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,,f\r? ,,abdom9al ,,segm5t ,,( ,,crawfi% ) swimm]et4 ,make out ! two di/9ct regions or divisions ( ! body 7,fig4 #ha74 ,! ant]ior 7front7 region is call$ ! head-*e/ or cephalo?orax1 & ! po/]ior 7re>7 region is call$ ! tail4 ,:i* region is l>g]8 ,:y8 ,:i* is flexible8 ,:y8 ,is ! cov]+ ( ! body h>d or s(t8 ,:at is ! advantage ( su* a cov]+8 ,:at are its disadvantages8 ,h[ is ! cov]+ modifi$ at ! jo9ts to p]mit motion8 ,tail4--,h[ _m jo9ts1 or segm5ts1 on ! tail8 7,figs4 #ha1 #hc47 ,does ! h>d cov]+ ( ea* segm5t slip "u or ov] ! segm5t beh9d x :5 ! abdom5 is /raight8 ,does ?is less5 friction :ile swimm+ =w>d8 ,is !re a pair ( swimm]ets to ea* segm5t ( ! abdom58 7,figs4 #hb1 #hf47 ,notice t ea* swimm]et has a ma9 /alk 7protopod71 an out] bran* 7exopod71 & an inn] bran* 7endopod7 7,fig4 #hd74 ,are ! /alk & ! bran*es ea* 9 "o piece or jo9t$8 ,! middle "p ( ! tail f9 is call$ ! telson4 ,by f9d+ ! position ( ! v5t1 decide :e!r ! food tube goes into ! telson 7,fig4 #hb74 ,%\ld x be call$ an abdom9al segm5t8 ,are ! side pieces ( ! tail f9 atta*$ to ! telson or to ! six? segm5t8 ,d ^! side pieces correspond to swimm]ets8 ,d !y likewise h ! ,y-%ap$ /ructure8 7,fig4 #hf47 ,if ! swimm]ets on ! fir/ abdom9al segm5t are l>ge1 ! specim5 is a male4 ,if !y are small1 x is a female4 ,:i* sex is %[n 9 ,fig4 #hb8 ,fig4 #hf8 ,c>apace4--,! cov]+ ( ! head *e/ 7cephalo?orax7 is call$ ! c>apace4 ,has x free edges8 ,! gills are on ! sides ( ! body & are cov]$ by ! c>apace 7,fig4 #hg74 ,! projection 9 front is call$ ! ro/rum1 mean+ beak4 ,does ! ro/rum project beyond ! eyes8 ,!re is a transv]se groove across ! c>apace :i* may be said to divide ! head f ! abdom54 ,:]e does ?is groove end at ! sides8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--a1 m&ible2 #b1 #c1 maxill2 #d1 #e1 #f1 maxillip$s4 ,legs4--,h[ _m legs has ! crawfi%8 ,h[ _m are provid$ ) l>ge claws8 ,small claws8 ,is ! out] claw h+$ 9 ea* ( ! l>ge grasp+ p9c]s8 ,! inn] claw8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--;,,crawfi% 7v5tral surface74 ,app5dages = ,tak+ ,food4--,if possible to wat* a liv+ crawfi% eat+1 notice :e!r x places ! food directly into ! m\? ) ! l>ge claws4 ,b5d ! l>ge claws "u & see if !y w rea* ! m\?4 ,atta*$ j 9 front ( ! legs ! crawfi% has ?ree pairs ( f+]-l app5dages1 call$ foot jaws 7maxillip$s71 ) :i* x passes ! food f ! l>ge p9c]s to its m\? 7,figs4 #he1 #hf74 ,!y are 9 =m & use m l f+]s ?an feet4 ,9 front ( ! foot jaws are two pairs ( ?9 jaws 7maxill7 & 9 front ( ! ?9 jaws are a pair ( /\t jaws 7m&ibles7 7,fig4 #he74 ,d ! jaws move sidewise or up & d[n8 ,:i* ( ! jaws has a jo9t$ f+] 7palp7 atta*$ to x8 ,d all ( ! app5dages = tak+ food h bo? exopod & endopod bran*es on a basal /alk or protopod8 ,:i* ( ! app5dages h a scallop$ edge8 ,h[ w\ld y "k f look+ at ! crawfi% t x is n m]ely a scav5g]8 ,:y are !re no p9c]s on ! h9d feet8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,gill cov] remov$ & gills expos$4 ,mp1 gill bail]4 ,s5se ,organs4--,f9d ! ant5n1 or long feel]s 7,figs4 #hb1 #ij74 ,are ! ant5n atta*$ above or bel[ ! eyes8 7,fig4 #hg47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,,l5g?wise ,,section ,,( ,,male ,,crawfi%4 c1 he>t2 ,ac1 art]y to head2 ,aa1 art]y to abdom52 ,km1 /oma*2 ,d1 inte/9e2 ,l1 liv]2 ,t1 sp]m>y2 ,g1 op5+ ( sp]m duct2 ,g1 bra92 ,n1 n]ve *a94 ,f9d ! pair ( ant5nules1 or small feel]s4 ,are _! divisions l or unlike ea* o!r8 ,comp>e ! l5g? ( ! ant5nules & ! ant5n4 ,comp>e ! flexibility ( ! ant5n ) t ( ! o!r app5dages4 ,obs]ve ! position ( ! eyes 7,figs4 #ha1 #hh74 ,h[ long are ! eye/alks8 ,is ! /alk flexible or /iff8 ,t\* ! eye4 ,:]e is ! jo9t :i* enables ! /alk to move8 ,is ! out] cov]+ ( ! eye h>d or s(t8 ,a m\nt$ prep>ation ( ! transp>5t cov]+ 7cornea7 ( ! eye1 se5 ) l[] p[] ( microscope1 reveals t ! cornea is made up ( _m divisions1 call$ facets4 ,ea* facet is ! front ( a v small eye1 hundr$s ( :i* make up ! :ole eye1 :i* is !re=e call$ a comp\nd eye4 ,! elongat$ op5+s to ! e> sacs are locat$ ea* on ! upp] side ( ! base ( a small feel] j bel[ ! eye4 ,respiratory ,sy/em4--,! respiratory organs are gills locat$ on ea* side ( ! ?orax 9 a space betwe5 ! c>apace & body 7,fig4 #hg74 ,! gills are :ite1 curv$1 & fea!ry4 ,is ! front gill ! l>ge/ or ! smalle/8 ,! gills ov]lap ea* o!r2 :i* is ! out]mo/ gill8 ,on ! second maxilla is a ?91 d\bly curv$ plate call$ a gill bail] 7,fig4 #he74 ,! second maxilla is s plac$ t ! gill bail] comes at ! front end ( ! gill *amb]4 ,! bail] paddles cont9ually1 br++ ! wat] =w>d out ( ! gill4 ,! gills are atta*$ bel[ at ! base ( ! legs4 ,are ! gills ?ick or ?98 ,h[ f> upw>d d !y g8 ,does ! backw>d motion 9 swimm+ aid or h9d] ! passage ( ! wat] ?r\gh ! gills8 ,does a crawfi%1 :5 at re/ on ! bottom ( a /ream1 h its head up or d[n /ream8 ,:y8 ,op5+s4--,! slitlike v5t is on ! "u side ( ! telson 7,figs4 #hb1 #hh74 ,! m\? is on ! "u side ( ! ?orax beh9d ! m&ibles4 ,at ! base ( ! long ant5n are ! op5+s f ! gre5 gl&s1 two gl&s 9 ! head :i* s]ve z kidneys 7,fig4 #hi74 ,! op5+s ( ! reproductive organs are on ! ?ird pair ( legs 9 ! female1 & ! fif? pair ( legs 9 ! male 7,fig4 #hh74 ,! eggs are c>ri$ on ! swimm]ets4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,level l5g?wise section %[+ h1 he>t4 d1 gre5 gl&4 le1 liv]4 kie1 gills4 kh1 gill cavity4 ma1 /oma*4 7,aft] ,huxley47 ,int]nal ,/ructure4--,,sugge/ions4 ,if /udi$ by dissection1 x w be necess>y to h sev]al crawfi% = ea* pupil1 "o = ga9+ g5]al k1 & o!rs = /udy+ ! sy/ems 9 detail4 ,specim5s %\ld h la9 9 alcohol = sev]al days4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,,section ,,( ,,crawfi% %[+ /oma* s1 liv] li1 & v5t a4 ,! ,food ,tube4--,is ! /oma* 9 ! head portion ( ! cephalo?orax or 9 ! ?oracic portion8 7,figs4 #hh1 #hi74 ,is ! /oma* l>ge or small8 ,:at is its g5]al %ape8 ,does ! gullet lead upw>d or backw>d8 ,is x long or %ort8 7,fig4 #hh47 ,! mid tube1 :i* is ! next portion ( ! food tube1 is small] ?an ! /oma*4 ,on ea* side ( x are op5+s f ! bile ducts :i* br+ ! secretion f ! dige/ive gl&1 sometimes call$ ! liv]4 ,does ?is gl& ext5d ! :ole l5g? ( ! ?orax8 ,is x ne> ! floor or ! top ( ! cavity8 ,! ?ird & la/ portion ( ! food tube is ! inte/9e4 ,x ext5ds f ! ?orax to ! v5t4 ,is x l>ge or small8 ,/raight or curv$8 ,! p[]ful flexor muscles ( ! tail lie 9 ! abdom5 bel[ ! inte/9es4 ,comp>e ! size ( ^! muscles ) ! ext5sor muscle above ! inte/9e 7,fig4 #ij74 ,:y ?is diff]5ce8 ,does ! food tube ext5d into ! telson8 ,locate ! v5t 7,fig4 #ij74 ,! ,circulation4--,! blood is a liquid conta9+ :ite corpuscles4 ,x lacks r$ corpuscles & is colorless4 ,! he>t is 9 ! upp] "p ( ! ?orax4 ,x is surr\nd$ by a l>ge1 ?9 bag1 & ?us x is 9 a *amb] 7call$ ! p]ic>dial s9us74 ,! blood f ! pulmon>y ve9s ent]s ?is s9us be=e x ent]s ! he>t4 ,! orig9 ( ?is p]ic>dial s9us by ! fus+ ( ve9s is %[n 9 ,fig4 #acj4 ,does "o art]y1 or d sev]al art]ies1 leave ! he>t8 ,!re is a l>g] dorsal art]y ly+ on ! inte/9e & pass+ back to ! telson2 !re are ?ree art]ies pass+ =w>d close to ! dorsal surface 7,figs4 #hi1 #ia74 ,"o l>ge art]y 7! /]nal7 passes directly d[nw>d 7,figs4 #hh1 #ia71 & s5ds a bran* =w>d & ano!r backw>d ne> ! v5tral surface4 ,! op5+s into ! he>t f ! s9us h valvul> lips :i* prev5t a backw>d fl[ ( blood into ! s9us4 ,h5ce1 :5 ! he>t contracts1 ! blood is s5t out into ! sev]al art]ies4 ,! art]ies take a supply ( fre% blood to ! eyes1 /oma*1 muscles1 liv]1 & ! v>i\s organs4 ,aft] x has giv5 oxyg5 to ! sev]al organs & tak5 up c>bon dioxid1 x returns by ve9s to pass ?r\gh ! gills on ea* side1 :]e x gives out ! useless gas & takes up oxyg5 f ! wat]4 ,x is !n l$ upw>d by ve9s into ! p]ic>dial s9us aga94 ,a d\ble n]ve *a9 ( ganglia supplies n]ve =ce to ! v>i\s n]ves 7,fig4 #ib74 ,?is ma9 n]ve *a9 lies along ! v5tral surface bel[ ! food tube 7,fig4 #ij71 except "o pair ( ganglia :i* lie above ! esophagus or gullet 7,fig4 #hh71 & are call$ ! supra-esophageal ganglia1 or bra94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,%[+ he>t & ma9 blood vessels4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,cru/acea4--,because ( ! limy cru/ :i* cov]s ! crawfi% & its k9dr$1 !y are plac$ 9 ! class call$ ,cru/acea4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--;,,crab ,,f ,,bel[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--;,,h]mit ,,crab1 us+ %ell ( sea snail = a h\se4 ,decapods4--,all cru/acea :i* h t5 feet belong 9 ! ord] call$ decapoda 7t5-foot$74 ,?is ord] includes ! crabs1 lob/]s1 %rimp1 etc4 ,! crabs & lob/]s are ( consid]able importance because ( use z food4 ,small boys sometimes cat* crawfi%1 & 9 "s in/ances are kn[n to cook & eat !m = amusem5t1 ! only "p cook$ be+ ! muscul> tail4 ,! crab's tail is small & flat & held "u ! body 7,fig4 #ic74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--;,,developm5t ,,( ,a ,,crab4 a1 nauplius j aft] hat*+2 b1 c1 d1 zoa2 e1 megalops2 f1 adult4 ,"q3 ,:i* /age is mo/ l a crayfi%8 ,comp>e ) metamorphoses ( insects4 ,s9ce ! limy cov]+ to s]ve ! purpose ( protection is n s(t en\gh to be alive & gr[+1 x is evid5t t ! cru/acea are hamp]$ 9 _! gr[? by _! cru/y cov]+4 ,dur+ ! fir/ ye> ! crawfi% %$s its cov]+1 or molts ?ree times1 & once ea* ye> !reaft]4 ,x gr[s v fa/ = a few days j aft] molt+1 :ile ! cov]+ is s(t & ext5sible4 ,s9ce x is at ! m]cy ( birds1 fi%1 & o!r enemies :ile 9 ?is s(t & def5seless condition1 x /ays hidd5 until ! cov]+ h>d5s4 ,h5ce x _c eat mu*1 b probably by ! absorption ( wat] ! tissues gr[2 t is1 enl>ge4 ,9 ! int]v5+ p]iods1 :5 gr[? is impossible1 x develops2 t is1 ! tissues & organs *ange 9 /ructure & become /rong]4 8,s(t-%ell$ crab0 is a popul> di%1 b !re is no species by t "n1 ?is be+ only a crab j aft] molt+ :i* has be5 f\nd by fi%]m5 9 spite ( its hid+4 ,g5]al ,que/ions4--,h[ d crawfi% *oose _! food8 ,h[ long c !y live out ( wat]8 ,:y d _! gills rema9 moi/ out ( wat] long] ?an a fi%8 ,h[ d !y brea! out ( wat]8 ,are !y c\rage\s or c[>dly animals8 ,:5 !y lose app5dages :5 fight+ or molt+1 !y are readily reproduc$1 b ! "p molts sev]al times 9 rega9+ its size4 ,h y se5 crawfi% ) "o claw small] ?an ! o!r8 ,expla94 ,comp>e ! crawfi% & crab 7,figs4 #ha1 #ic1 & #ie7 9 ! foll[+ p>ticul>s3 %ape1 body1 eyes1 legs1 abdom51 habitat1 movem5t4 ,,key ,,to ,,! ,,f\r ,,classes ,,9 ,,bran* ,,ar?ropods #a4 ,,insects #c body divisions1 #f legs #b4 ,,ara*nids #b body divisions1 #h legs #c4 ,,myriapods _m body divisions1 _m legs #d4 ,,cru/aceans gill brea!rs1 skeleton 7ext]nal7 limy ,by ! aid ( ! key & ( figures #if-aje1 classify ! foll[+ ,ar?ropods3 tick1 ?\s&-leg c5tip$e1 k+ crab1 pill bug1 spid]1 scorpion1 beetle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,,pill ,,bug4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,,lady ,,beetle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,,scorpion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,,tick be=e & aft] fe$+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,,c5tip$e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,,"o ,,segm5t ,,( ,,c5tip$e ) "o pair ( legs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,,"o ,,segm5t ,,( ,,?\s& ,,legs ) two pairs ( legs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,,?\s& ,,legs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--;,a ,,spid]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--,,k+ ,,crab4 ,illu/rat$ ,/udy4 ,,classification ,,( ,,ar?ropods4 ,key on p4 #fa4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,insects ,,! ,,gras%opp] ,,sugge/ions4--,collect gras%opp]s1 bo? "y & full-gr[n1 & keep alive 9 broad bottles or tumbl]s & fe$ on fre% grass or lettuce4 ,:5 h&l+ a live gras%opp]1 nev] hold x by its legs1 z ! jo9ts are weak4 ,to keep !m = "s "t & obs]ve _! molts1 place sod 9 ! bottom ( a box & cov] ! box ) mosquito nett+ or wire gauze4 ,:at is ! g5]al %ape ( its body8 7,fig4 #ajf47 ,:]e is ! body ?icke/8 ,is x bilat]ally symmetrical1 t is1 are ! two sides ( ! body alike8 ,is ! skeleton1 or h>d "p ( ! body1 int]nal or ext]nal8 ,is ! skeleton z /iff & ?ick z t ( a crawfi%8 ,:at is ! l5g? ( y\r specim58 ,its color8 ,:y does x h ?is coloration8 ,9 :at ways does ! gras%opp] resemble ! crawfi%8 ,diff] f x8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--;,a ,,gras%opp]4 ,! ,?ree ,regions ( ! ,body4--,! body ( ! gras%opp] is divid$ into ?ree regions1--! head1 ?orax1 & abdom54 ,:i* ( ^! ?ree divisions has no di/9ct subdivisions8 ,! body ( ! gras%opp]1 l t ( ! e>?worm1 is made ( r+like segm5ts4 ,are ! segm5ts mo/ di/9ct 9 ! head1 ?orax1 or abdom58 ,:i* region is longe/8 ,%orte/8 ,/ronge/8 ,:y8 ,:i* region be>s ! *ief s5se organs8 ,! app5dages = tak+ food8 ,! locomotory app5dages8 ,:i* division ( ! body is mo/ active 9 brea?+8 ,! ,abdom54--,ab\t h[ _m segm5ts or r+s 9 ! abdom58 ,d all gras%opp]s h ! same numb] ( r+s8 7,answ] = diff]5t species & diff]5t individuals ( ! same species47 ,! fir/ segm5t & ! la/ two are incomplete r+s4 ,does ! flexibility ( ! abdom5 reside 9 ! r+s1 or ! jo9ts betwe5 ! r+s8 ,is !re m]ely a ?91 s(t l9e betwe5 ! r+s1 or is !re a fold ( ! cov]+8 ,does "o r+ slip into ! r+ be=e x or beh9d x :5 ! abdom5 is b5t8 ,z ! gras%opp] brea!s1 does ea* r+ enl>ge & dim9i% 9 size8 ,ea* r+ is divid$ into two p>ts by folds4 ,does ! upp] half-r+ ov]lap ! l[] half-r+1 or ! rev]se8 ,) magnify+ glass1 f9d a small slit1 call$ a spiracle1 or brea?+ hole1 on ea* side ( ea* r+ j above ! side groove 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,a tube leads f ea* spiracle4 ,:ile ! air is be+ tak5 91 d ! two portions ( ! r+s move f>!r ap>t8 ,:5 !y are br\ght toge!r aga91 :at mu/ be ! effect8 ,9 pump+ ! air1 ! abdom5 may be said to "w l a bell[s4 ,bell[s usually h folds to all[ motion4 ,is ! comp>ison correct8 ,h[ _m times 9 a m9ute does ! gras%opp] take 9 air8 ,if x is made to hop vigor\sly ar\nd ! room & ! brea?+ is aga9 tim$1 is !re any *ange8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--;,a ,,gras%opp] ,,dissect$4 ,f9d ! e>s on ! front wall ( ! fir/ abdom9al r+ 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,!y may be se5 by slightly press+ ! abdom5 s z to wid5 ! *9k betwe5 x & ! ?orax4 ,! e>s are m]ely gli/5+1 transp>5t membranes1 oval 9 =m4 ,a n]ve leads f ! inn] surface ( ea* membrane4 ,/ate any advantage or disadvantage 9 hav+ ! e>s locat$ :]e !y are4 ,ovipositor4--,if ! specim5 is a female1 x has an egg-plac] or ovipositor1 consi/+ ( f\r blunt projections at ! end ( ! abdom5 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,if x is a male1 !re are only two app5dages4 ,^! are above ! end ( ! abdom51 & small] ?an ! p>ts ( ! ovipositor4 ,females are l>g] & m abundant ?an males4 ,9 lay+ ! eggs1 ! f\r blunt po9ts are br\ght tightly toge!r & !n =c$ into ! gr\nd & op5$ 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,by repeat+ ?is1 a pit is made almo/ z deep z ! abdom5 is long4 ,:at sex is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajf8 ,fig4 #ajg8 ,draw a side view ( ! gras%opp]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--;,,gras%opp] ,,lay+ ,,eggs4 7,riley47 ,?orax4--,?is1 ! middle portion ( ! body1 consi/s ( ?ree segm5ts or r+s 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,is ! division betwe5 ! r+s mo/ app>5t above or bel[8 ,:i* two ( ! ?ree r+s are m closely unit$8 ,! front r+ 7pro?orax7 ( ! ?orax has no r+s4 ,is x l>g] above or bel[8 ,does x look m l a coll> or a cape8 7,fig4 #ajf47 ,a spiracle is f\nd on ! second r+ 7meso?orax1 or middle ?orax7 j above ! second pair ( legs4 ,!re is ano!r 9 ! s(t sk9 betwe5 ! pro?orax & meso?orax j "u ! l>ge cape or coll>4 ,! la/ r+ ( ! ?orax is call$ ! meta?orax 7re> ?orax74 ,h[ _m legs are atta*$ to ea* r+ ( ! ?orax8 ,c a gras%opp] walk8 ,run8 ,climb8 ,jump8 ,fly8 ,d any ( ! legs set =w>d8 7,see ,fig4 #ajf47 ,outw>d8 ,backw>d8 ,c y give reasons = ! position ( ea* pair8 7,sugge/ion3 ,:at is ! use ( ea* pair87 ,if an organ is modifi$ s t x is suit$ to s]ve "s p>ticul> purpose or function1 x is said to be specializ$4 ,are any ( ! legs specializ$ s t !y s]ve = a diff]5t purpose ?an ! o!r legs8 ,! leg ( a gras%opp] 7z ( all insects7 is said to h five p>ts1 all ! small p>ts aft] ! fir/ f\r p>ts be+ c\nt$ z "o "p & call$ ! foot4 ,are all ! legs simil>1 t is1 d ! %ort & long jo9ts 9 all come 9 ! same ord]8 ,numb]$ 9 ord] f ! body1 :i* jo9t ( ! leg is ! l>ge/1--! fir/1 second1 ?ird1 or f\r?8 ,:i* jo9t is ! %orte/8 ,! sl5d]e/8 ,:i* jo9t has a numb] ( %>p po9ts or sp9es on x8 ,f9d by exp]im5t :e!r ^! sp9es are ( use 9 walk+ 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,jump+8 ,climb+8 ,9 :at ord] are ! legs us$ 9 walk+8 ,h[ _m legs support ! body at ea* /ep8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--;,,h[ ,a ,,gras%opp] ,,walks4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--;,,h[ ,a ,,spid] ,,walks4 ,all animals t h e>s h ways ( communicat+ by s\nds4 ,:y w\ld x be impossible = ! gras%opp] to h a voice1 ev5 if x _h vocal cords 9 its ?roat8 ,! male gras%opp]s ( _m species make a *irp+1 or /ridulation1 by rubb+ ! w+ aga9/ ! leg4 ,look on ! inn] side 7:y n out] side87 ( ! l>ge/ jo9t ( ! h9d leg = a r[ ( small sp9es visible ) ! aid ( a h& l5s 7,fig4 #aaa74 ,! s\nd is produc$ by ! out] w+s rubb+ aga9/ ! sp9es4 ,h y notic$ :e!r ! s\nd is produc$ :ile ! insect is /ill or 9 motion8 ,:y8 ,! male gras%opp]s ( "s species1 in/ead ( hav+ sp9es1 rub ! "u side ( ! front w+ on ! upp] side ( ! h9d w+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--;,a1 ,,r[ ,,( ,,sp9es1 z1 us$ 9 *irp+4 ,b1 ! same m enl>g$4 ,w+s4--,to :at is ! fir/ pair ( w+s atta*$8 ,! second pair8 ,:y are ! w+s n atta*$ to ! pro?orax8 ,:y are ! w+s atta*$ s ne> ! dorsal l9e ( ! body8 ,:y are ! second & ?ird r+s ( ! ?orax m solidly jo9$ ?an ! fir/ & second r+s8 ,comp>e ! fir/ & second pairs ( w+s 9 %ape1 size1 color1 ?ickness1 & use 7,fig4 #aab74 ,h[ are ! second w+s fold$ s z to g "u ! fir/ w+s8 ,ab\t h[ _m folds 9 ea*8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,,gras%opp] ,,9 ,,flight4 ,draw a h9d w+ op5$ out4 ,head4--,:at is ! %ape ( ! head view$ f ! front1 ! side1 & above8 ,make sket*es4 ,:at c y say ( a neck8 ,is ! head movable 9 all directions8 ,:at is ! position ( ! l>ge eyes8 ,l ! eyes ( ! crawfi%1 !y are comp\nd1 ) _m facets4 ,b ! gras%opp] has also ?ree simple eyes1 situat$ "o 9 ! middle ( ! =ehead & "o j above ea* ant5na4 ,!y are too small to be se5 )\t a h& l5s4 ,h[ does ! gras%opp]'s range ( vision comp>e ) t ( ! crawfi%8 ,are ! ant5n flexible8 ,:at is _! %ape8 ,position8 ,are !y segm5t$8 ,t\* an ant5na1 a w+1 a leg1 & ! abdom5 9 succession4 ,:i* seems to be ! mo/ s5sitive to t\*8 ,! ant5n are = feel+2 9 "s species ( insects !y are also ! organs ( he>+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aac4 ,! m\? p>ts ( a gras%opp] are highly specializ$4 ,!y %\ld be comp>$ ) ! m\? p>ts ( a beetle %[n 9 ,fig4 #aac1 s9ce ! m\? p>ts ( ^! two insects correspond closely4 ,if ! gras%opp] is f$ ) a blade ( fre% grass1 ! function ( ea* m\? "p may be pla9ly se54 ,x is almo/ impossible to und]/& ^! functions by /udy+ a dead specim51 b a fre% specim5 is mu* bett] ?an a dry "o4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--;a1 ,,food ,,tube ,,( ,,beetle4 b1 gizz>d2 d1 inte/9e2 c1 bili>y vessels4 ,see ,fig4 #abg4 ,! upp] lip1 or labrum1 is se5 9 front4 ,is x tap]+ or exp&$8 ,9 :at direction is x movable8 ,! d>k po9t$ bit+ jaws 7m&ibles7 are next4 ,are !y curv$ or /raight8 ,%>p or blunt po9t$8 ,not*$ or smoo?8 ,d !y "w up & d[n1 or sideways8 ,! hold+ jaws 7maxill71 ea* ) two jaw f+]s 7maxill>y palpi7 are beh9d ! *ew+ jaws4 ,:y8 ,! l[] lip 7labium7 has a pair ( lip f+]s 7labial palpi7 ^u x4 ,! br[n tongue1 usually ba!d 9 saliva1 is se5 9 ! l[] "p ( ! m\?4 ,s9ce ! gras%opp] has no lips1 or any way ( produc+ suction1 x mu/ lap ! dew 9 dr9k+4 ,does x m]ely break (f bits ( a grass blade1 or does x *ew8 ,! he>t1 circulation1 n]v\s sy/em1 dige/ive & respiratory organs ( ! gras%opp] agree ma9ly ) ! g5]al description ( ! organs ( insects giv5 9 ! next section4 ,microscopic ,objects4--,^! may be b\ght ready m\nt$1 or may be exam9$ fre%4 ,a portion ( ! cov]+ ( ! l>ge eye may be cut (f & ! d>k lay] on ! inside ( ! cov]+ scrap$ (f to make x transp>5t4 ,:at is ! %ape ( ! facets8 ,c y make any e/imate ( _! numb]8 ,a portion ( ! transp>5t h9d w+ may be us$1 & ! 8ve9s0 9 x /udi$4 ,a ?9 bit ( an abdom9al segm5t conta9+ a spiracle w %[ ! /ructure ( ^! important organs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--;,,egg ,,& ,,molts ,,( ,a ,,gras%opp]4 ,gr[? ( ! ,gras%opp]4--,"s species hib]nate 9 %elt]$ places & lay eggs 9 ! spr+1 b adult species are sc>ce at t season4 ,mo/ species lay ! eggs 9 ! fall2 ^! )/& ! cold & hat* out 9 ! spr+4 ,^? hat*$ f "o set ( eggs sometimes /ay toge!r = a few days4 ,!y eat voraci\sly1 & z !y gr[1 ! s(t sk9 becomes h>d5$ by ! deposit ( horny sub/ance call$ *it94 ,?is prev5ts fur!r gr[? until ! insect molts1 ! sk9 fir/ splitt+ above ! pro?orax4 ,aft] hat*+1 !re are five successive p]iods ( gr[?4 ,at :i* molt d ! v %ort w+s fir/ appe>8 7,fig4 #aae47 ,aft] ! la/ molt ! animal is complete1 & *anges no m 9 size = ! re/ ( its life4 ,!re has be5 an attempt among writ]s to re/rict ! t]m gras%opp] to ! long-w+$1 sl5d] species1 & to call ! %ort] w+$1 /\t] species locu/s accord+ to old ,engli% usage4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,,cockroa*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--,,pray+ ,,mantis1 or devil's horse4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--;,,cricket4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--,,mole ,,cricket4 ,economic ,importance ( ,gras%opp]s4--,great injury is (t5 done to vegetation by gras%opp]s2 h[ev]1 ! millions ( t9y b rav5\s eat]s hat*$ 9 e>ly spr+ are usually soon ?9n$ out by ! birds4 ,! migratory locu/s con/itute a plague :5 !y appe>1 & !y h done s s9ce anci5t times4 ,! ,rocky ,m\nta9 locu/s fly+ ea/w>d h d>k5$ ! sky1 & :]e !y settl$ to ! e>? ate almo/ e gre5 ?+4 ,9 #ahgd-e !y produc$ almo/ a fam9e 9 ,kansas1 ,nebraska1 & o!r ,we/]n /ates4 ,! "y hat*$ away f ! m\nta9s 7 n heal?y1 & di$ prematurely1 & _! deva/ations came to an end4 ,( c\rse ! migrations may occur aga94 ,pack>d calculates t ! f>m]s ( ! ,we/ lo/ #bjj1jjj1jjj because ( _! ravages 9 #ahgd-e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--;,,front ,,leg ,,( ,,mole ,,cricket4 #c4 ,! cockroa*es 7,fig4 #aaf71 k9dr$ ( ! gras%opp]s1 are h\sehold pe/s t h migrat$ almo/ ev]y:]e t %ips g4 ,! pray+ mantis 7,fig4 #aag71 or devil's horse1 also belongs to ?is ord]4 ,x is b5eficial1 s9ce x de/roys o!r insects4 ,:i* ( its legs are specializ$8 ,! walk+ /ick 7,fig4 #aba7 & cricket 7,fig4 #aah71 l mo/ memb]s ( ! ord]1 are veget>ian4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--;,,f\r ,,walk+ ,,/ick ,,insects4 ,are gras%opp]s m common 9 fields & mead[s1 or 9 wood$ places8 ,h[ _m diff]5t colors h y se5 on gras%opp]s8 ,:i* colors are mo/ common8 ,gras%opp]s are v sc>ce 9 ,europe z !y love dry1 w>m c\ntries4 ,:y d locu/s migrate8 ,give an in/ance 9 anci5t times4 ,h[ long d mo/ gras%opp]s live8 ,does a gras%opp] spread its w+s be=e x flies8 ,does x jump & fly toge!r8 ,c x select ! place = alight+8 ,,note ,,to ,,tea*]4--,field "w 9 ,zoology %\ld be sy/ematic4 ,e trip has a def9ite region & def9ite l9e ( /udy 9 view1 b e animal se5 %\ld be not$4 ,! habitat1 adaptation by /ructure & habits to ! environm5t1 relations to o!r animals1 classification ( animals se51 %\ld be "s ( ! ideas guid+ ! /udy4 ,! excursions may be divid$ some:at z foll[s1 accord+ z opportunities (f]3 ,upl& woods1 l[l& woods1 upl& pa/ures1 fields1 swamps1 a fre%-wat] lake1 a pond1 l[] sea bea*1 high] sea bea*1 s& hills along %ore1 roadside1 g>d51 haunts ( birds1 insect visits to fl[]s1 gr\nd insects1 insects 9 logs4 ,an alphabetical lett] file may be us$ = fil+ individual field obs]vations4 ,^! %\ld be plac$ be=e ! class orally or 9 writ+4 ,if accept$ z reliable 7repeat$ & revis$ if necess>y71 ! obs]vations %\ld be fil$ away & cr$it giv5 ! /ud5t on a regul> scale4 ,?us w grad+ & m>ks be plac$ to enc\rage intellig5t /udy ( nature r ?an book or laboratory cram4 ,"o p] c5t to be add$ to ! f9al grade may be cr$it$ = e species ( pupa1 e r>e insect 7) an obs]v$ fact z to its habits7 br\ght 91 e bird migration obs]v$1 e in/ance ( protective coloration1 mimicry 7p4 #adf71 outwitt+ ( enemy1 in/ance ( injuri\s insects1 & h[ to combat !m1 etc4 ,%>p eyes & cle> reason+ w !n c\nt z mu* on s*ool grades z a memory = words or me*anical foll[+ ( laboratory directions4 ,on scale ( #ajj1 class "w #ej1 exam9ation #be1 field "w #be4 ,collect+ ,insects4--,9 cities & t[ns insects1 v>y+ ) ! season1 are attract$ by electric lights4 ,beetles & bugs w be f\nd "u ! lights1 mo?s on po/s ne> ! lights1 gras%opp]s & crickets & o!r insects 9 ! grass ne> by4 ,a lamp plac$ by a w9d[ br+s _m specim5s4 ,9 ! woods & 9 rocky places insects are f\nd "u logs & /ones1 & "u ! b>k ( dead trees4 ,9 op5 places1 prairies1 mead[s1 & old fields ) grass & fl[]s1 x w be easy to f9d gras%opp]s1 butt]flies1 & "s beetles4 ,ponds & /reams are usually ri* 9 animal =ms1 su* z bugs & beetles1 :i* swim on or "u ! surface1 & l>v ( dragon flies crawl+ on ! bottom4 ,dragon flies & o!r insects t lay eggs on ! wat] are f\nd fly+ 9 ! air above4 7,9 ! spr+1 newly hat*$ crawfi%1 tadpoles1 & ! eggs ( frogs & toads %\ld also be collect$1 if f\nd47 ,mo?s may be caught at night by daub+ molasses or sirup made f br[n sug> ^u ! trunks ( sev]al trees1 & visit+ ! trees at int]vals ) a lant]n4 ,an insect net = cat*+ butt]flies & = dr$g+ ponds may be made by b5d+ a /\t wire into a circle "o foot 9 diamet]1 leav+ en\gh /raight wire to fa/5 ) /aples on an old broom/ick4 ,to ! frame is fa/5$ a fl\r sack1 or cone made ( a piece ( mosquito nett+4 ,butt]flies & mo?s %\ld be promptly kill$1 or !y w beat _! w+s to pieces4 ,! quicke/ me?od is by dropp+ sev]al drops ( gasol9e ^u ! v5tral 7"u7 side ( ! ?orax & abdom54 7,caution3 ,gasol9e %\ld nev] be us$ ne> an op5 fire1 or lamp1 z explosions & dea?s result f ! flame be+ l$ ?r\gh ! gasol9e-saturat$ air to ! vessel conta9+ x47 ,a cig> box & a bottle ) a not*$ cork may be us$ = hold+ specim5s4 ,cig> boxes may be us$ = hold+ collections ( dri$ insects4 ,cork or ribb$ pack+ pap] may be fix$ 9 ! bottom = support+ ! insect p9s4 ,mo? balls or tobacco may be plac$ 9 ea* box to keep out ! insect pe/s :i* infe/ collections4 ,x is pleasant & pr(itable to take to ! fields a small book l ?is "o1 or ev5 ,com/ock's 8,manual ( ,insects10 or ,kellogg's 8,am]ican ,insects10 & /udy ! insects & _! habits :]e !y are f\nd4 ,captur$ insects :i*1 9 ei!r ! l>val or p]fect /age1 are injuri\s to vegetation1 %\ld always be kill$ aft] /udy+ _! actions & ext]nal features1 ev5 if ! int]nal /ructure is n to be /udi$4 ,b5eficial insects1 su* z ladybugs1 i*neumon flies1 bees1 mantis 7devil's horse71 dragon flies1 etc41 %\ld be set free un9jur$4 ,,anatomy ,,& ,,g5]al ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,class ,,insecta ,! body ( an insect 7e4g4 a wasp1 ,fig4 #abb7 is divid$ by means ( two m>k$ n>r[+s into ?ree p>ts3 ! head 7,k71 *e/ 7,b71 & abdom5 7,h74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--;,a ,,wasp4 ,! head is a freely movable capsule be>+ f\r pairs ( app5dages4 ,h5ce x is reg>d$ z hav+ be5 =m$ by ! union ( f\r r+s1 s9ce ! ance/or ( ! insects is believ$ to h consi/$ ( simil> r+s1 ea* r+ be>+ a pair ( unspecializ$ legs4 ,! e>ly grub or cat]pill> /age ( insects is believ$ to resemble some:at ! ance/ral =m4 ,! typical m\? p>ts ( an insect 7,fig4 #abc71 nam$ 9 ord] f above1 are 7#a7 an upp] lip 7labrum1 ol7 7#b7 a pair ( bit+ jaws 7m&ibles1 ok7 7#c7 a pair ( grasp+ jaws 7maxill1 ,a1 ,b71 & 7#d7 a l[] lip 7labium1 m1 a1 b74 ,! grasp+ jaws be> two pairs ( jo9t$ jaw f+]s 7maxill>y palpi1 ,d1 ,c71 & ! l[] lip be>s a pair ( simil> lip f+]s 7labial palpi1 d74 ,! bit+ jaws move sideways2 !y usually h sev]al po9t$ not*es :i* s]ve z tee?4 ,:y %\ld ! grasp+ jaws be b5ea? ! *ew+ jaws8 ,:y is x bett] = ! l[] lip to h f+]s ?an ! upp] lip8 ,:y are ! f+]s 7or palpi7 jo9t$8 7,wat* a gras%opp] or beetle eat+47 ,:y does an insect ne$ grasp+ jaws8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,m\? ,,p>ts ,,( ,,beetle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--;,,ext]nal ,,p>ts ,,( ,a ,,beetle4 ,! *e/1 or ?orax1 consi/s ( ?ree r+s 7,fig4 #abd7 call$ ! front ?orax 7pro?orax71 middle ?orax 7meso?orax7 & h9d ?orax 7meta?orax71 or fir/1 second1 & ?ird r+s4 ,! fir/ r+ be>s ! fir/ pair ( legs1 ! second r+ be>s ! second pair ( legs & ! upp] or front w+s1 & ! ?ird r+ be>s ! ?ird pair ( legs & ! "u or h9d w+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,,leg ,,( ,,insect4 ,! six feet ( insects are *>act]i/ic ( !m1 s9ce no o!r animals h t numb]1 ! spid] hav+ eight1 ! crawfi% & crabs hav+ t51 ! c5tip$es /ill m1 :ile ! birds & bea/s h less ?an six4 ,h5ce ! insects are sometimes call$ ! ,six-,foot$ class 7,hexapoda74 ,! insects are ! only animals t h ! body 9 ?ree divisions4 ,man1 bea/s1 & birds h only two divisions 7head & trunk72 worms are n divid$4 ,def9e ! class insecta by ! two facts *>act]i/ic ( !m 7i4e4 possess$ by !m alone71 viz43 ,insects are animals ) & 4 ,:y w\ld x be ambigu\s to include 8h>d out] skeleton0 9 ?is def9ition8 ,to include 8bilat]al symmetry08 8,segm5t$ body08 ,! def9ition ( a class mu/ include all ! individuals ( ! class1 & exclude all ! animals t d n belong to ! class4 ,! leg ( an insect 7,fig4 #abe7 has five jo9ts 7two %ort jo9ts1 two long1 & ! foot74 ,nam$ 9 ord] f above1 !y are 7#a7 ! hip 7coxa71 7#b7 ?igh r+ 7tro*ant]71 7#c7 ?igh 7femur71 7#d7 ! %9 7tibia71 7#e7 ! foot1 :i* has five p>ts4 ,:i* ( ! five jo9ts ( a wasp's leg 7,fig4 #abb7 is ?icke/8 ,sl5d]e/8 ,%orte/8 ,"o jo9t 7:i*87 ( ! foot 7,fig4 #abb7 is ab\t z long z ! o!r f\r jo9ts ( ! foot comb9$4 ,is ! relative l5g? ( ! jo9ts ( ! leg ! same 9 gras%opp]s1 beetles1 etc41 z 9 ! wasp 7,figs478 ,figure #abe is a diagram ( an insect's leg cut l5g?wise4 ,! leg consi/s ( ?ick-wall$ tubes 7o1 n7 ) _! ends held toge!r by ?91 easy-wr9kl+ membranes :i* s]ve z jo9ts4 ,?us motion is provid$ = at ! exp5se ( /r5g?4 ,:5 h&l+ live insects !y %\ld nev] be held by ! legs1 z ! legs come (f v easily4 ,does ! jo9t motion ( insects mo/ resemble ! motion ( h+e jo9ts or ball-&-socket jo9ts8 ,answ] by te/s ( liv+ insects4 ,!re are no muscles 9 ! foot ( an insect4 ,! claw is mov$ by a muscle 7m7 9 ! ?igh ) :i* x is connect$ by ! long t5don 7z1 s1 t1 v74 ,9 :i* "p are ! brea?+ muscles8 ,z ! w+s are develop$ f folds ( ! dorsal sk91 ! w+ has two lay]s1 an upp] & a l[] lay]4 ,^! inclose ! s-call$ 8n]ves0 or ribs ( ! w+1 ea* ( :i* consi/s ( a blood tube inclos$ 9 an air tube4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--;,,foot ,,( ,,fly1 ) climb+ pads4 ,! abdom5 9 v>i\s species consi/s ( f five to elev5 ov]lapp+ r+s ) _! foldlike jo9ts betwe5 !m4 ,does ea* r+ ov]lap ! r+ 9 front or ! "o beh9d x8 ,! food tube 7,fig4 #abg7 beg9s at ! m\?1 :i* usually conta9s saliv>y gl&s 7#d1 ,fig4 #abg74 ,:at is ! color ( ! gras%opp]'s saliva8 ,! food tube exp&s fir/ into a croplike enl>gem5t2 next to ?is is ! /oma* 7#f1 ,fig4 #abg71 :i* resembles ! gizz>d 9 birds1 z its inn] wall is furni%$ ) *it9\s tee? 7b1 ,fig4 #aad74 ,^! r$uce ! food fragm5ts t 7 imp]fectly brok5 up by ! bit+ jaws be=e swall[+4 ,gl&s comp>able to ! liv] ( high] animals op5 into ! food tube :]e ! /oma* jo9s ! small inte/9e4 ,at ! junction ( ! small & l>ge inte/9e 7#i7 are a numb] ( f9e tubes 7#h7 :i* correspond to kidneys & empty _! secretion into ! l>ge inte/9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,,visc]a ,,( ,,gras%opp]4 ,key 9 text4 ,comp>e ) ,fig4 #aad4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--;,,air ,,tubes ,,( ,,insect4 ,! brea?+ organs ( ! insects are peculi> to !m 7see ,fig4 #abh74 ,!y consi/ ( tubes :i* are kept op5 by hav+ 9 _! walls cont9u\s spirals ( horny mat]ial call$ *it94 ,mo/ noticeable are ! two l>ge membran\s tubes fill$ ) air & situat$ on ea* side ( ! body4 ,d ^! tubes ext5d ?r\gh ! ?orax8 7,fig4 #abh47 ,! air rea*es ^! two ma9 tubes by a numb] ( pairs ( %ort w9dpipes1 or tra*eas1 :i* beg9 at op5+s 7spiracles74 ,9 :i* division are ! spiracles mo/ num]\s8 7,fig4 #abh47 ,:i* division is )\t spiracles8 ,c\ld an insect be dr[n$1 i4e4 smo!r$1 by hold+ its body "u wat]8 ,c\ld x be dr[n$ by imm]s+ all ( x b its head8 ,! motion ( ! air ?r\gh ! brea?+ tubes is caus$ by a bell[slike motion ( ! abdom54 ,?is is readily obs]v$ 9 gras%opp]s1 beetles1 & wasps4 ,z ea* r+ slips into ! r+ 9 front ( x1 ! abdom5 is %ort5$1 & ! impure air1 lad5 ) c>bon dioxid1 is =c$ out4 ,z ! r+s slip out1 ! abdom5 is ext5d$ & ! fre% air comes 91 br++ oxyg54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--;,,insect',s ,,he>t 7plan74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--;,,diagrams ,,( ,,evolution ,,( ,,p]ic>dial ,,sac ar\nd insect's he>t f a numb] ( ve9s 7,lanke/]74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--,,position ,,( ,,insect',s ,,he>t1 food tube1 & n]ve *a94 ,! ,circulation4--,ne> ! dorsal surface ( ! abdom5 7,fig4 #aca7 ext5ds ! long1 sl5d] he>t 7,fig4 #abi74 ,! he>t has divisions sep>at$ by valvelike p>titions4 ,! blood comes into ea* ( ! he>t comp>tm5ts ?r\gh a pair ( op5+s4 ,! he>t contracts f ! re> t[>d ! front1 driv+ ! blood =w>d4 ,! blood conta9s bodies correspond+ to ! :ite corpuscles ( human blood1 b lacks ! r$ corpuscles & ! r$ color4 ,! blood is s5t ev5 to ! w+s4 ,! ribs on ! w+s consi/ ( blood tubes inclos$ 9 air tubes1 s t ! blood vessels are surr\nd$ by air1 & ! purification ( ! blood is tak+ place ?r\gh\t ! c\rse ( ! circulation4 ,h5ce ! imp]fect circulation is no disadvantage4 ,! p]fect provision = supply+ oxyg5 expla9s ! rem>kable activity ( :i* insects are capable & _! great /r5g?1 :i*1 consid]+ _! size1 is unequal$ by any o!r animals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,,n]v\s ,,sy/em ,,( ,,bee4 ,! ,n]v\s ,sy/em4--,! he>t 9 backbon$ animals1 e4g4 man1 is v5tral & ! *ief n]ve trunk is dorsal4 ,z already /at$1 ! he>t ( an insect is dorsal2 its *ief n]ve *a91 consi/+ ( a d\ble r[ ( ganglia1 is ne> ! v5tral surface 7,fig4 #aca74 ,all ! ganglia are bel[ ! food tube except ! fir/ pair 9 ! head1 :i* are above ! gullet4 ,?is pair may be said to correspond some:at to ! bra9 ( backbon$ animals2 ! n]ves f ! eyes & feel]s lead to x4 ,) social insects1 z bees & ants1 x is l>ge & complex 7,fig4 #acb74 ,9 a typical insect !y are ! l>ge/ ganglia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--;,,feel] ( a beetle4 ,! ,s5ses4--,! s5se ( smell ( mo/ insects is believ$ to be locat$ 9 ! feel]s4 ,! organ ( he>+ is v>i\sly locat$ 9 diff]5t insects4 ,:]e is x 9 ! gras%opp]8 ,! organs ( sight are highly develop$1 & consi/ ( two comp\nd eyes on ! side ( ! head & ?ree simple eyes on ! top or front ( ! head betwe5 ! comp\nd eyes4 ,! simple eye has n]ve cells1 pigm5ts1 & a l5s resembl+ ! l5s 9 ! eyes ( v]tebrates 7,fig4 #acd74 ,! comp\nd eye 7,fig4 #ace7 has ?\s&s ( facets1 usually hexagonal1 on its surface1 ! facets be+ ! out] ends ( cones :i* h _! inn] ends direct$ t[>d ! c5t] ( ! eye4 ,x is probable t ! l>ge1 or comp\nd1 eyes ( insects only s]ve to di/+ui% bright objects f d>k objects4 ,! simple eyes af=d di/9ct images ( objects )9 a few in*es ( ! eye4 ,9 g5]al1 ! sight ( insects1 contr>y to :at its complex sight organs w\ld lead u to expect1 is n at all ke54 ,yet an insect c fly ?r\gh a =e/ )\t /rik+ a twig or bran*4 ,is x bett] = ! eyes t are immovable 9 ! head to be l>ge or small8 ,:i* has comp>atively l>g] eyes1 an insect or a bea/8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--;,diagram ( simple eye ( insect4 ,l1 l5s2 ,n1 optic n]ve4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--;,,comp\nd ,,eye ,,( ,,insect4 #a1 hexagonal facets ( cry/all9e cones4 #f1 blood vessel 9 optic n]ve4 ,inh]it$ ,habit1 or ,in/9ct4--,insects & o!r animals inh]it f _! p>5ts _! p>ticul> =m ( body & ( organs :i* p]=m ! diff]5t functions4 ,= example1 !y inh]it a n]v\s sy/em ) a /ructure simil> to t ( _! p>5ts1 & h5ce ) a t5d5cy to repeat simil> impulses & acts4 ,repeat$ acts con/itute a habit1 & an inh]it$ habit is call$ an in/9ct4 ,mo?s1 = example1 are us$ to f9d+ nect> 9 ! night-bloom+ fl[]s1 mo/ ( :i* are :ite4 ,! habit ( go+ to :ite fl[]s is transmitt$ 9 ! /ructure ( ! n]v\s sy/em2 s we say t mo?s h an in/9ct to g to :ite objects2 x is sometimes m obscurely express$ by say+ !y are attract$ or drawn !reby4 ,in/9cts are n ,infallible4--,!y are tru/wor?y 9 only "o n>r[ set ( conditions4 ,n[ t man makes _m fires & lights at night1 ! in/9ct j m5tion$ (t5 causes ! dea? ( ! mo?4 ,! in/9ct to provide = (fspr+ is necess>y to ! p]petuation ( all b ! simple/ animals4 ,! dirt daub]1 or mud wasp1 because ( inh]it$ habit1 or in/9ct1 makes ! cell ( ! "r size1 lays ! egg1 & provides food = (fspr+ t ! "m w nev] see4 ,x seals /ung & semip>alyz$ spid]s 9 ! cell ) ! egg4 ,if y try ! exp]im5t ( remov+ ! food be=e ! cell is clos$1 ! insect w br+ m spid]s2 if !y are remov$ aga91 a ?ird supply w be br\ght2 b if tak5 out ! ?ird "t1 ! mud wasp w usually close ! cell )\t food1 & :5 ! egg hat*es ! grub w />ve4 ,! ,developm5t ( ,insects4--,! gr[? & molt+ ( ! gras%opp] f egg to adult has be5 /udi$4 ,all insects d n develop exactly by ?is plan4 ,"s hat* f ! egg 9 a condition m>k$ly diff]5t f ! adult4 ,! butt]fly's egg produces a wormlike cat]pill> :i* has no resemblance to ! butt]fly4 ,aft] x gr[s x =ms an inclos+ case 9 :i* x sp5ds a quiet p]iod ( developm5t & comes out a butt]fly4 ,?is *ange f cat]pill> to butt]fly is call$ ! metamorphosis4 ,! life ( an insect is divid$ into f\r /ages3 7#a7 egg1 7#b7 l>va1 7#c7 pupa1 & 7#d7 imago1 or p]fect insect 7,figs4 #acf1 #acg1 #ach74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--,measur+ worm1 ! l>va ( a mo?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--,pupa ( a mosquito4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--,,! ,,f\r ,,/ages ,,( ,a ,,botfly1 all enl>g$4 a1 egg on hair ( horse 7bitt5 (f & swall[$72 b1 l>va2 c1 l>va ) hooks = hold+ to l9+ ( /oma*2 d1 pupal /age1 pass$ 9 ! e>?2 e1 adult horse fly4 ,! egg /age is "o ( developm5t1 no n\ri%m5t be+ absorb$4 ,! l>val /age is "o ( voraci\s fe$+ & rapid gr[?4 ,9 ! pupa /age no food is tak5 & !re is no gr[? 9 size1 b rapid developm5t takes place4 ,9 ! p]fect /age food is eat51 b no gr[? 9 size takes place4 ,9 ?is /age ! eggs are produc$4 ,:5 !re is v little resemblance betwe5 ! l>va & imago1 & ! pupa is quiesc5t1 ! metamorphosis1 or *ange1 is said to be complete4 ,:51 z ) ! gras%opp]1 no v m>k$ *ange takes place betwe5 ! l>va & imago 7t is to say1 dur+ ! pupa /age1 :i* is active71 ! metamorphosis is said to be incomplete4 ,by /udy+ ! illu/rations & specim5s1 & by ?9k+ ( y\r pa/ obs]vations ( insects1 det]m9e :i* ( ! insects 9 ! foll[+ li/ h a complete metamorphosis3 beetle1 h\se fly1 gras%opp]1 butt]fly1 cricket1 wasp4 ,,table ,,= ,,classify+ ,,insects 7class ,insecta7 ,,into ,,ord]s ,,ord] ,a ,bit+ ,insects2 m\? p>ts = grasp+ & bit+ ,b ,w+less2 *anges 7metamorphosis7 ,,no ,,w+s incomplete 7,apt]a7 ,b ,"u w+s ?9n] ?an upp] w+s1 & ,,fan ,,w+s fold l a fan b5ea? !m2 *anges 7,or?opt]a7 incomplete ,b ,upp] w+s h>d & ?ick1 protect+ ,,%ea? ,,w+s "u w+s1 :i* fold bo? l5g?wise & 7,coleopt]a7 crosswise b5ea? !m2 *anges incomplete ,b ,all f\r w+s ne>ly alike1 f9ely ve9$1 transp>5t ,c ,h9d w+s small] ?an =e1 two or ,,n]ve ,,w+s ?ree filam5ts atta*$ to abdom51 7,neuropt]a7 ant5n long2 *anges complete ,c ,h9d w+s n small] ?an =e2 no ,,false ,,n]ve ,,w+s filam5ts on abdom51 ant5n 7,pseudoneuropt]a7 inconspicu\s2 *anges incomplete ,a ,suck+ ,insects2 m\? p>ts = suck+ or lick+ ,b ,basal half ( upp] w+ usually lea!ry1 ,,half ,,w+s o!r half ( w+ transp>5t2 l[] lips 7,hemipt]a7 trans=m$ into a tube2 true bugs ,b ,f\r w+s cov]$ by scales1 hold+-jaws ,,scaly ,,w+s 7maxill7 elongat$ to =m a suck+ tube 7,lepidopt]a7 coil$ "u head2 *anges complete ,b ,f\r w+s1 membran\s1 h9d w+s hook to ,,jo9$ ,,w+s =e w+s 9 flight2 m\? p>ts = bo? 7,hym5opt]a7 bit+ & suck+2 abdom5 ) /+2 *anges complete ,b ,two w+s1 m&ibles rudim5t>y1 m\? a ,,two ,,w+s s(t beak 7,dipt]a7 ,b ,no w+s1 m&ibles rudim5t>y1 m\? a ,,lo/ ,,w+s horny beak 7,siphonopt]a7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--,,may ,,fly4 ,:at ord] 7see table78 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--,,silv] ,,scale4 7,ord]87 ,ex]cise 9 ! ,use ( ! ,table or ,key4--,write ! "n ( ! ord] aft] ea* ( ! foll[+ names ( insects3-- ,wasp 7,fig4 #abb7 ,weevil 7,fig4 #afc7 ,squa% bug 7,fig4 #ahd7 ,ant lion 7,fig4 #agj7 ,dragon fly 7,fig4 #agg7 ,i*neumon fly 7,fig4 #aei7 ,h\se fly 7,fig4 #agb7 ,flea 7,fig4 #agc7 ,silv] scale or e>wig 7,fig4 #adj7 ,codl+ mo? 7,fig4 #ada7 ,botfly 7,fig4 #ach7 ,mo?s & ,butt]flies4--,ord] 8 ,:y 7p4 #hb78 ,! pres5ce ( scales on ! w+s is a nev]-fail+ te/ ( a mo? or butt]fly4 ,! w+s d n fold at all4 ,!y are s l>ge & ! legs s weak & delicate t ! butt]fly keeps its balance ) difficulty :5 walk+4 ,! maxill are develop$ to =m ! long suck+ proboscis4 ,h[ d !y fit toge!r to =m a tube8 7,see ,fig4 #adg47 ,! proboscis v>ies f a fraction ( an in* 9 ! 8mill]0 to five in*es 9 "s tropical mo?s1 :i* use x to extract nect> f long tubul> fl[]s4 ,:5 n 9 use1 x is held coil$ l a wat* spr+ "u ! head 7,fig4 #adh74 ,! upp] lip 7labrum71 "u lip 7labium71 & lip f+]s 7labial palpi7 are v small1 & ! m&ibles small or want+ 7,fig4 #adf74 ,! metamorphosis is complete1 ! contra/ betwe5 ! cat]pill> or l>va ( ! mo? & butt]fly & ! adult =m be+ v great4 ,! cat]pill> has ! ?ree pairs ( jo9t$ legs typical ( insects2 ^! are f\nd ne> ! head 7,fig4 #ada74 ,x has also f ?ree to five pairs ( fle%y unjo9t$ proplegs1 "o pair ( :i* is always on ! la/ segm5t4 ,h[ _m pairs ( proplegs has ! silkworm cat]pill>8 7,fig4 #adc47 ,! measur+ worm1 or loop]8 7,fig4 #acf47 ,! pupa has a ?9 %ell4 ,c y see ext]nal signs ( ! ant5n1 w+s1 & legs 9 ?is /age8 7,fig4 #adc47 ,! pupa is conceal$ by protective coloration1 & is sometimes inclos$ 9 a silk5 cocoon :i* 0 spun by ! cat]pill> be=e ! la/ molt4 ,hairy cat]pill>s usually produce butt]flies1 & ! nak$ ones usually produce mo?s4 ,hairy ones are uncom=table = birds to eat4 ,! nak$ & brightly m>k$ ones 7w>n+ coloration7 (t5 conta9 an acrid & di/a/eful fluid4 ,! injuries f lepidopt]a are done 9 ! cat]pill> /age4 ,! codl+ mo? 7,fig4 #ada7 de/roys apples to ! value ( #f1jjj1jjj annually4 ,! clo!s mo? 7,fig4 #aga7 is a h\sehold pe/4 ,! t5t cat]pill> d5udes trees ( _! leaves4 ,! only useful cat]pill> is ! silkworm 7,fig4 #adc74 ,9 ,italy & ,japan _m ( ! c\ntry dwell+s h silk rooms :]e ?\s&s ( ^! cat]pill>s are f$ & t5d$ by wom5 & *ildr54 ,:y is ! cabbage butt]fly s call$8 ,:y c x n eat cabbage8 ,:y does seal+ clo!s 9 a pap] bag prev5t ! ravages ( ! clo!s mo?8 ,flight ( ,lepidopt]a4--,:i* appe>s to use m ex]tion to keep afloat1 a bird or a butt]fly8 ,expla9 :y4 ,( all fly+ insects :i* w\ld m probably be f\nd highe/ up m\nta9s8 ,h[ does ! butt]fly sudd5ly *ange direction ( flight8 ,does x usually fly 9 a /raight or zigzag c\rse8 ,advantage ( ?is8 ,:y is zigzag flight unnecess>y to mo?s8 ,bright colors are protective1 z lepidopt]a are 9 greate/ dang] :5 at re/ on fl[]s4 ,are ! brighte/ colors on upp] or "u side ( w+s ( butt]fly8 ,:y8 7,?9k ( ! colors 9 a fl[]47 ,:y is x bett] = mo?s to hold _! w+s flat out :5 at re/8 ,:]e are mo?s dur+ ! day8 ,h[ c y te/ :e!r ! color ( ! w+s is giv5 by ! scales8 ,/ate h[ mo?s & butt]flies diff] 9 respect to3 body1 w+s1 feel]s1 habits2 abundance ( scales4 ,insects & ,fl[]s4--,we are indebt$ to insects = ! bright colors & sweet honey ( fl[]s4 ,fl[]s ne$ insects to c>ry _! poll5 to o!r fl[]s1 z cross-f]tilization produces ! be/ se$s4 ,! insects ne$ ! nect> ( ! fl[]s = food1 & ! bright colors & sweet odors are ! adv]tisem5ts ( ! fl[]s to attract insects4 ,!re 7 no fl[]s 9 ! _w be=e fly+ insects 7 develop$4 ,mo?s1 butt]flies1 & bees c>ry mo/ poll5 7see ,plant ,biology1 ,*ap4 ,,vi74 ,comp>ative ,/udy4--,make a table l ?is1 occupy+ entire page ( notebook1 leav+ no m>g9s1 & fill 9 accurately3-- ,,fly ,,dragon ,,beetle ,,bee ,,grass- ,,butt]- pp4 #ib1 ,,fly1 pp4 #ij1 pp4 #hh1 ,,hopp] ,,fly #ic p4 #ic #ia #hi ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,numb] & k9d ( w+s ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,descrip- tion ( legs ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,ant5n 7l5g?1 %ape1 jo9ts7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,bit+ or suck+ m\? p>ts ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,complete or incomplete metamor- phosis ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--;,,codl+ ,,mo?1 f egg to adult4 7,see ,f>m]s' ,bullet91 p4 #ie47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--;,,cabbage ,,butt]fly1 male & female1 l>va & pupa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--,,life ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,silkworm4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #add4--,,scales ,,f ,,butt]flies' ,,w+s1 z se5 "u microscope4 ,,to ,,! ,,tea*]3 ,^! illu/rat$ /udies require sl[] & m c>eful /udy ?an ! text4 ,"o1 or at mo/ two1 /udies w suffice = a lesson4 ,! que/ions c be answ]$ by /udy+ ! figures4 ,weak obs]v]s w (t5 fail & !y %\ld n be told1 b %\ld try aga9 until !y succe$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--,,scales ,,on ,,mo?',s ,,w+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--;,,head ,,( ,,butt]fly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--,,section ,,( ,,proboscis ( butt]fly %[+ lapp+ jo9t & dovetail jo9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--;,,head ,,( ,,butt]fly 7side view74 ,,figs4 #ada-adh4 ,illu/rat$ ,/udy ( ,lepidopt]a4--,/udy ! /ages 9 ! developm5t ( codl+ mo?1 silkworm mo?1 & cabbage butt]fly4 ,:]e does ea* lay its eggs8 ,:at does ! l>va ( ea* fe$ ^u8 ,describe ! pupa ( ea*4 ,describe ! adult =ms4 ,f9d ! spiracles & prolegs on ! silkworm4 ,comp>e ant5n ( mo? & butt]fly4 ,:i* has l>g] body comp>$ to size ( w+s8 ,describe ! scales f a butt]fly's w+s z se5 "u microscope 7#add74 ,h[ are ! scales arrang$ on mo?'s w+ 7#ade78 ,by :at "p is scale atta*$ to w+8 ,d ! scales ov]lap8 ,/udy butt]fly's head & proboscis 7,figs4 #adf-adh74 ,:at %ape is comp\nd eye8 ,are ! ant5n jo9t$8 ,is ! proboscis jo9t$8 ,:y n call x a tongue8 7,see text47 ,:i* m\? p>ts h almo/ disappe>$8 ,:at is ! %ape ( cut ends ( halves ( proboscis8 ,h[ are ! halves jo9$ to =m a tube8 ,if y saw a butt]fly on a fl[]1 = :at purpose w\ld y ?9k x 0 !re8 ,:at1 if y saw x on a leaf8 ,h[ _m spots on =e w+ ( female cabbage butt]fly8 7,fig4 #abd1 above47 ,does ! silkworm *rysalis fill its cocoon8 ,eggs may be obta9$ f ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agriculture4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adi4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aej4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aea4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aec4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aed4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aee4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aef4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4--;,anatomy ( bee4 ,,figs4 #adi-afa4 ,illu/rat$ ,/udy ( ,bees & _! ,k9dr$4--,head ( work] 7,fig4 #adi73 o1 upp] lip2 ok1 *ew+ jaws2 uk1 grasp+ jaws2 kt1 jaw f+]2 lt1 lip f+]2 z1 tongue4 ,h[ d heads ( drone 7#aej7 & que5 7#aea7 diff] z to m\?1 size ( ! two comp\nd eyes1 size & position ( ! ?ree simple eyes8 ,is ! head ( a work] m l head ( drone or head ( que58 ,judg+ by ! head1 :i* is ! que51 drone1 & work] 9 ,figs4 #aed-aef8 ,:i* ( ! ?ree is l>ge/8 ,smalle/8 ,broade/8 ,figure #aeb %[s h9d leg ( work]4 ,:at surr\nds ! holl[1 u1 :i* s]ves z poll5 basket8 ,! po9t1 fh1 is a tool = remov+ wax :i* is secret$ 7c1 ,fig4 #aeg7 betwe5 r+s on abdom54 ,9 ,fig4 #aeh1 f9d relative positions ( he>t1 v1 food tube1 & n]ve *a94 ,is crop1 ,j1 9 ?orax or abdom58 ,9 ?is nect> is *ang$ to honey1 t x may n spoil4 ,comp>e n]ve *a9 9 ,fig4 #acb4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aei4--;,i*neumon fly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--,wasp us+ pebble4 ,f ,peckham's 8,solit>y ,wasps10 ,h\ghton1 ,miffl9 ,co4 ,comp>e ! cells ( bumble bee 7,fig4 #aec7 ) ^? ( hive bee4 ,!y diff] n only 9 %ape b 9 mat]ial1 be+ made ( web in/ead ( wax1 & !y usually conta9 l>v in/ead ( honey4 ,only a few ( ! que5s among bumble bees & wasps survive ! w9t]4 ,h[ d ants & honey bees provide = ! work]s also to survive ! w9t]8 ,"n all ! social insects t y c ?9k (4 ,d !y all belong to ! same ord]8 ,! i*neumon fly %[n enl>g$ 9 ,fig4 #aei lays its eggs "u a cat]pill>'s sk94 ,:at becomes ( ! eggs8 ,! true size ( ! insect is %[n by ! cross l9es at a4 ,! eggs are almo/ microscopic 9 size4 ,! pup %[n 7true size7 on cat]pill> are sometimes mi/ak5 = eggs4 ,! same mi/ake is made ab\t ! pupa cases ( ants4 ,i*neumon flies also use tree-bor]s z 8ho/s0 = _! eggs & l>va4 ,is ?is insect a fri5d ( man8 ,! digg+ wasp 7,figs4 #afj & #afa7 supplies its l>va ) cat]pill>s & closes ! hole1 sometimes us+ a /one z p\nd+ tool4 ,among ! few o!r uses ( tools among l[] animals are ! elephant's use ( a bran* = a fly bru%1 & ! ape's use ( a walk+ /ick4 ,?is wasp digs ) =e feet l a dog & kicks ! dirt out ( ! way ) its h9d feet4 ,are ! w+s ( bees & wasps m closely or less closely ve9$ ?an ! w+s ( dragon flies8 7,fig4 #agg47 ,= an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ! ord] 8,jo9$-w+s0 7bees & _! k9dr$7 see ,com/ock's 8,ways ( ! ,six-foot$10 ,g9n ,co4 ,illu/rat$ ,/udy ( ,beetles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afb4--;,div+ beetle 7,dy/icus71 ) l>va1 a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afc4--,weevil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--;,click beetle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afg4--,,may ,,beetle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afh4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afi4--;,colorado beetle 7potato bug74 ,illu/rat$ ,/udy ( ,beetles 7,figs4 #afb-afi74--,write ! life hi/ory ( ! ,colorado beetle1 or potato bug 7,fig4 #afi71 /at+ :]e ! eggs are laid & describ+ ! =m & activities ( ea* /age 7! pupal /age1 b1 is pass$ 9 ! gr\nd74 ,d ! same = ! ,,may ,,beetle 7,figs4 #afg-afh74 7,x is a l>va--! :ite grub--= ?ree ye>s2 hogs root !m up47 ,beetles1 l mo?s1 may be trapp$ ) a lant]n set above a tub ( wat]4 ,:]e does a ,sc>ab or sacr$ beetle ( ! ,egyptians1 also call$ tumble bug 7,fig4 #afd71 lay its eggs 7,fig4 #afe78 ,:y8 ,h[ does ! click beetle1 or jack snapp] 7,fig4 #aff71 ?r[ itself into ! air8 ,= :at purpose8 ,! l>ge proboscis ( ! weevil 7,fig4 #afc7 is us$ = pi]c+ a hole 9 :i* an egg is laid 9 gra9 ( corn1 boll ( cotton1 acorn1 *e/nut1 plum1 etc4 ,h[ are ! legs & body ( ! div+ beetle suit$ = swimm+ 7,fig4 #afb78 ,describe its l>va4 ,:at is ! %ape ( ! lady bug 7,fig4 #ig78 ,x fe$s ^u plant lice 7,fig4 #ahe74 ,is any beetle ( b5efit to man8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agj4--,life hi/ory ( ant lion4 ,illu/rat$ ,/udy ( ,ant ,lion1 or ,doodle ,bug 7,fig4 #agj74--;,f9d ! pitfall 7:at %ape872 ! l>va 7describe x72 ! pupa case 7ball cov]$ ) web & s&72 ! imago4 ,comp>e imago ) dragon fly 7,fig4 #agg74 ,h[ does ant lion prev5t ant f climb+ out ( pitfall 7see ,fig4 #agj78 ,:at is on edge ( ne>e/ pitfall8 ,expla94 ,ant lions may be kept 9 a box half fill$ ) s& & f$ on ants4 ,h[ is ! pitfall dug8 ,:at "p ( ant is eat58 ,h[ is unus$ food remov$8 ,h[ long is x 9 ! l>val /ate8 ,pupal /ate8 ,keep net ov] box to prev5t adult f fly+ away :5 x em]ges4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aga4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agb4--,metamorphosis ( h\se fly 7enl>g$74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agc4--,metamorphosis ( flea4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agd4--,l\se4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #age4--;,b$ bug4 #e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agf4--,life hi/ory ( mosquito4 ,illu/rat$ ,/udy ( ,insect ,pe/s 7,figs4 #aga-agf74--,:y does ! clo!s mo? 7#aga7 lay its eggs ^u wool5 clo?+8 ,h[ does ! l>va conceal itself8 ,! l>va c cut ?r\gh pap] & cotton1 yet seal+ clo!s 9 bags ( pap] or cotton protects !m4 ,expla94 ,! h\se fly eats liquid sweets4 ,x lays its eggs 9 horse dung4 ,describe its l>val & pupal =ms4 ,bani%+ horses f city w\ld h :at b5eficial effect8 ,describe ! l\se & its eggs1 :i* are %[n atta*$ to a hair1 natural size & enl>g$4 ,describe ! b$ bug4 ,b5z9e p\r$ 9 cracks kills b$ bugs4 ,d b$ bugs bite or suck8 ,:y are !y w+less8 ,describe ! l>va1 f1 pupa1 g1 & ! adult flea1 all %[n enl>g$4 ,its m&ibles1 b1 b1 are us$ = pi]c+4 ,to kill fleas la!r dog or cat completely & let la!r rema9 on five m9utes be=e wa%+4 ,eggs are laid & fir/ /ages pass$ 9 ! gr\nd4 ,h[ does ! mosquito lay its eggs 9 ! wat] )\t dr[n+ 7#agf78 ,:y are ! eggs always laid 9 /ill wat]8 ,:i* "p ( ! l>va 7wiggletail7 is held to ! surface 9 brea?+8 ,:at "p ( ! pupa 7call$ tumbl]1 or bull head7 is held to ! surface 9 brea?+8 ,give diff]5ces 9 l>va & pupa4 ,:]e does pupa *ange to p]fect insect8 ,describe m\? p>ts ( male mosquito 7at left7 & female 7at "r74 ,only female mosquitoes suck blood4 ,males suck juice ( plants4 ,mal>ial mosquito alights ) h9d end ( body rais$ at an angle4 ,= figure see ,human ,biology1 ,*ap4 ,x4 ,:y does kill+ fi% & frogs increase mosquitoes8 #a oz4 ( k]os5e = #ae ft4 ( surface ( wat]1 r5ew$ mon?ly1 prev5ts mosquitoes4 ,:at is ! use to ! squa% bug 7,fig4 #ahd7 ( hav+ s bad an odor8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agg4 ,,fig4 #agg4 ,illu/rat$ ,/udy ( ,dragon ,fly4--#c %[s dragon fly lay+ its eggs 9 wat] :ile pois$ on w+4 ,describe ! l>val =m 7wat] tig]74 ,! ext5sible tongs are ! maxill enl>g$4 ,! pupa 7#a7 is active & lives 9 wat]4 ,:]e does trans=mation to adult take place 7#e78 ,:y are eyes ( adult l>ge8 its legs small8 ,comp>e front & h9d w+s4 ,d ! eyes t\* ea* o!r8 ,:y is a long abdom5 useful 9 flight8 ,:y w\ld long feel]s be useless8 ,:at is ! "t ( greate/ dang] 9 ! developm5t ( ! dragon fly8 ,:at o!r appropriate "n has ?is insect8 ,:y %\ld we nev] kill a dragon fly8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agh4--,! t>antula4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agi4--,trap-door spid]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aha4--;,anatomy ( spid]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4--,lay+ egg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4--;,foot ( spid]4 ,illu/rat$ ,/udy ( ,spid]s 7,figs4 #agh-ahc74--,! t>antula1 l mo/ spid]s1 has eight simple eyes 7none comp\nd74 ,f9d !m 7,fig4 #agh74 ,h[ d spid]s & insects diff] 9 body8 ,numb] ( legs8 ,:i* h m jo9ts to legs8 ,does trap-door spid] hold ! door clos$ 7,fig4 #agi78 ,h[ _m pairs ( sp9n]ets = sp9n+ web has a spid] 7,spw1 #ahj78 ,foot ( spid] has h[ _m claws8 ,h[ _m combs on claws = hold+ web8 ,spid]s sp9 a cocoon = hold+ eggs4 ,f :at "p ( abdom5 are eggs laid 7,e1 #ahb2 #b1 #aha78 ,f9d spid]'s air sacs1 lu1 ,fig4 #aha2 sp9n+ organs1 sp2 fang1 kf2 poison gl&1 g2 palpi1 kt2 eyes1 au2 n]ve ganglia1 og1 ug2 suck+ tube1 sr2 /oma*1 d2 inte/9e1 ma2 liv]1 le2 he>t1 h1 7black72 v5t1 a4 ,give two reasons :y a spid] is n an insect4 ,h[ does x place its feet at ea* /ep 7,fig4 #aaj78 ,does ! size ( its n]ve ganglia indicate great or little intellig5ce8 ,:y d y ?9k fir/ "p ( body corresponds to bo? head & ?orax ( insects8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4--,squa% bug1 or /9k bug4 ,! foll[+ ,f>m]'s ,bullet9s are available = free di/ribution to ^? int]e/$1 by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c43-- ,f>m]'s ,bullet9 ,no4 #dg1 ,insects affect+ ! ,cotton ,plant2 ,no4 #ei1 ,bee ,keep+2 ,no4 #gj1 ,! ,pr9cipal ,insect ,enemies ( ! ,grape2 ,no4 #hj1 ,! ,pea* ,twig ,bor]2 ,no4 #ii1 ,?ree ,insect ,enemies ( ,%ade ,trees2 ,no4 #abj1 ,! ,pr9cipal ,insects affect+ ! ,tobacco ,plant2 ,no4 #abg1 ,important ,insecticides2 ,no4 #acb1 ,! ,pr9cipal ,insect ,enemies ( ,gr[+ ,:eat2 ,no4 #ade1 ,c>bon ,bisulphid z an ,insecticide2 ,no4 #adf1 ,insecticides & ,fungicides2 ,no4 #aeb1 revis$1 ,mange 9 ,cattle2 ,no4 #aec1 ,or*>d ,enemies 9 ! ,pacific ,nor?we/2 ,no4 #aee1 ,h[ ,insects affect ,heal? 9 ,rural ,di/ricts2 ,no4 #aei1 ,scab 9 ,%eep2 ,no4 #afe1 ,silkworm ,culture2 ,no4 #aga1 ,! ,control ( ! ,codl+ ,mo?2 ,no4 #agb1 ,scale ,insects & ,mites on ,citrus ,trees2 ,no4 #aif1 ,usefulness ( ! ,toad2 ,no4 #bji1 ,controll+ ! ,boll ,weevil 9 ,cotton ,se$ & at ,g9n]ies2 ,no4 #baa1 ,! ,use ( ,p>is ,gre5 9 controll+ ! ,cotton ,boll ,weevil2 ,no4 #bab1 ,! ,cotton ,bollworm2 ,no4 #baf1 ,! ,control ( ! ,boll ,weevil2 ,no4 #bbc1 ,miscellane\s ,cotton ,insects 9 ,texas2 ,no4 #bdg1 ,! ,control ( ! ,codl+ ,mo? & ,apple ,scab4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4--;,female plant l\se1 ) & )\t w+s 7enl>g$74 ,! foll[+ bullet9s ( ! ,bureau ( ,entomology may be obta9$ f ! same s\rce at ! prices affix$3 ,bullet9 ,no4 #be 7old s]ies71 ,de/ructive ,locu/s1 #ae;c42 ,no4 #a 7new s]ies71 ,! ,honey ,bee1 #ae;c42 ,no4 #c1 ,! ,san ,jos ,scale1 #aj;c42 ,no4 #d1 ,! ,pr9cipal ,h\sehold ,insects ( ! ,u4 ,s41 #aj;c42 ,no4 #aa1 ,! ,gypsy ,mo? 9 ,am]ica1 #e;c42 ,no4 #ad1 ,! ,p]iodical ,cicada1 #ae;c42 ,no4 #ae1 ,! ,*9* ,bug1 #aj;c42 ,no4 #af1 ,! ,hessian ,fly1 #aj;c42 ,nos4 #ai1 #bc1 & #cc1 ,insects ,injuri\s to ,vegetables1 #aj;c4 ea*2 ,no4 #be1 ,notes on ,mosquitoes ( ! ,u4 ,s41 #aj;c42 ,no4 #db1 ,"s ,insects attack+ ! ,/ems ( ,gr[+ ,:eat1 ,rye1 ,b>ley1 & ,oats1 #e;c42 ,no4 #ej1 ,! ,cotton ,bollworm1 #be;c42 ,no4 #ea1 ,! ,mexican ,boll ,weevil1 #be;c4 ,bureau ( ,plant ,indu/ry--,bullet9 ,no4 #hh1 ,weevil-resi/+ ,adaptations ( ! ,cotton ,plant1 #aj;c4 ,?is gives an in/ructive acc\nt ( ! /ruggle ( a plant = exi/5ce aga9/ an insect enemy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4--;,gall fly 7enl>g$7 & oak gall ) l>va1 & "o f :i* a develop$ insect has escap$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4--,,plan ,,( ,,m\? ,,p>ts ,,( ,,! ,,insect ,,ord]s4 ,a1 /raight w+s1 n]ve w+s1 false n]ve w+s2 ,b1 jo9$ w+s2 ,c1 scaly w+s2 ,d1 half w+s2 ,e1 two w+s4 ol1 upp] lip2 ok1 bit+ jaws2 uk1 hold+ jaws2 ul1 "u lip2 kt1 jaw f+]s2 lt1 lip f+]s4 ,illu/ration ,illu/ration3 ,pe>l div]s4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,mollusks ,,! ,,fre%-,,wat] ,,mussel ,,sugge/ions4--,! mussel is usually easy to procure f /reams & lakes by rak+ or dr$g+4 ,9 cities ! h>d-%ell$ clam1 or quahog1 is = sale at ! m>kets1 & ! foll[+ descriptions apply to ! anodon1 unio1 or quahog1 ) slight *anges 9 reg>d to ! siphons4 ,mussels c be kept alive = a long "t 9 a tub ) s& 9 ! bottom4 ,pairs ( %ells %\ld be at h& = /udy4 ,ext]nal ,features4--,! %ell is an elongat$ oval1 broad] & blunt] at "o end 7,fig4 #ahh74 ,:y does ! animal close its %ell8 ,does x op5 ! %ell8 ,:y8 ,does x ?ru/ ! foot =w>d & pull up to x1 or ?ru/ ! foot back & pu%8 7,mussels & clams h no bones47 ,does x g ) ! blunt or ! m tap]+ end ( ! %ell =w>d8 7,fig4 #ahh47 ,c a mussel swim8 ,:y1 or :y n8 ,lay ! %ells1 fitt$ toge!r1 9 y\r h& ) ! h+e side away f y & ! blunt end to ! left 7,fig4 #ahh74 ,is ! "r or ! left %ell upp]mo/8 ,:i* is ! top1 or dorsal1 side8 ,:i* is ! front1 or ant]ior1 end8 ,is ! /raight edge at ! top or ! bottom8 ,our ^w 8valve0 is d]iv$ f a ^w mean+ %ell1 because ! ,romans us$ %ells = valves 9 pumps4 ,is ! mussel a univalve or a bivalve8 ,:i* k9d is ! oy/]8 ,! snail8 ,does ! mussel h bilat]al symmetry8 ,c y f9d a horny cov]+1 or epid]mis1 ov] ! limy %ell ( a fre% specim58 ,:y is x necess>y8 ,does wat] dissolve lime8 ,horn8 ,f9d a b>e spot4 ,does any ( ! %ell appe> to be miss+ !re8 ,! b>e projection on ea* %ell is call$ ! umbo4 ,is ! umbo ne> ! v5tral or ! dorsal l9e8 ,! po/]ior or ant]ior end8 ,is ! surface ( ! umbones worn8 ,d ! umbones rub aga9/ ! s& z ! mussel pl[s its way along8 ,h[ are ! %ells held toge!r8 ,:]e is ! ligam5t atta*$8 7,fig4 #ahi47 ,is x opposite ! umbones or m to ! front or re>8 7,fig4 #ahi47 ,is ! ligam5t ( ! same mat]ial z ! %ell8 ,is ! ligam5t 9 a compress$ condition :5 ! %ell is op5 or :5 x is clos$8 7,fig4 #ahi47 ,:5 is ! muscle relax$8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4--;,,anodon1 or fre%-wat] mussel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,%ell op5 & clos$1 %[+ muscle1 m1 & ligam5t1 b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aij4--,,mussel crawl+ 9 s&4 ,notice ! l9es on ! outside ( ! %ell 7,figs4 #ahh & #aij74 ,:at po9t d !y surr\nd8 ,!y are l9es ( gr[?4 ,0 ea* l9e once ! m>g9 ( ! %ell8 ,if ! %ell %\ld increase 9 size1 :at w\ld ! pres5t m>g9 become8 7,fig4 #aia47 ,does gr[? take place on ! m>g9 only8 ,did ! %ell gr[ ?ick] z x grew l>g]8 ,:]e is x ?9ne/8 ,draw ! outside ( ! %ell f ! side4 ,draw a dorsal view4 ,by ! draw+s write ! names ( ! m>g9s ( ! %ell 7p4 #ih7 & ( o!r p>ts le>n$1 us+ l9es to indicate ! location ( ! p>ts4 ,/udy ! surface ( ! %ell inside & out4 ,! inside is call$ "m-(-pe>l4 ,is x ( lime8 ,is ! deep] lay] ( ! %ell ( lime8 7,:5 weak hydro*loric acid or /rong v9eg> is dropp$ on limy sub/ances1 a gas1 c>bon dioxid1 bubbles up47 ,comp>e ! ?ickness ( ! epid]mal lay]1 ! middle *alky lay]1 & ! inn]1 pe>ly lay]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aia4--;,,diagram4 ,*ange ( po9ts ( atta*m5t ( muscles z mussel enl>ges4 7,morgan47 ,anatomy ( ! ,mussel4--,:at p>ts protrude at any "t beyond ! edge ( ! %ell8 7,fig4 #aij47 ,! %ell is secret$ by two folds ( ! out] lay] ( ! s(t body ( ! mussel4 ,^! l>ge1 flaplike folds hang d[n on ea* side1 & are call$ ! mantle4 ,! two great flaps ( ! mantle hang d[n l[] ?an ! re/ ( ! body & l9e ! %ell :i* x secretes 7,fig4 #aib74 ,! epid]mis ( ! mantle secretes ! %ell j z ! epid]mis ( ! crawfi% secretes its cru/4 ,c y f9d ! pallial l9e1 or ! l9e to :i* ! mantle ext5d$ on ea* %ell :5 ! animal 0 alive8 ,a free portion ( ! mantle ext5d$ l a fr+e bel[ ! pallial l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aib4--;,,cross ,,section ,,( ,,mussel4 7,diagram1 aft] ,p>k]47 ,! %ells 7 held toge!r by two l>ge adductor muscles4 ,! ant]ior adductor 7,fig4 #aic7 is ne> ! front end1 above ! foot4 ,! po/]ior adductor is t[>d ! re> end1 b n s ne> ! end z ! ant]ior4 ,c y f9d bo? muscle sc>s 9 ! %ells8 ,are !y ne>] ! v5tral or dorsal surface8 ,! po9ts ( atta*m5t travel$ d[nw>d & f>!r ap>t z ! animal grew 7see ,fig4 #aia74 ,high] ?an ! l>g] sc>s are small sc>s1 or impressions1 :]e ! protractor & retractor muscles t ext5d & draw 9 ! foot 7 atta*$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aic4--;,,anatomy ,,( ,,mussel4 7,b$d>d47 ,! muscul> foot ext5ds d[nw>d 9 ! middle1 halfway betwe5 ! %ells 7,fig4 #aic74 ,on ea* side ( ! foot & beh9d x hang d[n ! two pairs ( gills1 ! out] pair & ! inn] pair 7,fig4 #aib74 ,!y may be comp>$ to f\r ,v-%ap$ tr\ghs ) _! sides full ( holes4 ,! wat] ent]s ! tr\ghs ?r\gh ! holes & ov]fl[s above4 ,is !re a m>k$ diff]5ce 9 ! size ( ! two pairs ( gills8 ,a k9d ( *amb] = ! gills is made by ! jo9+ ( ! mantle flaps bel[1 along ! v5tral l9e4 ,! mantle edges are sep>at$ at two places1 leav+ op5+s call$ exhal5t & inhal5t siphons4 ,fre% wat] ) its oxyg51 propell$ by cilia at ! op5+ & on ! gills1 ent]s ?r\gh ! l[] or inhal5t siphon1 passes betwe5 ! gills1 & goes to an upp] passage1 leav+ ! gill *amb] by a slit :i* sep>ates ! gills f ! foot4 ,= ?is passage1 see arr[ 7,fig4 #aid74 ,! movem5t ( ! wat] is opposite to ! way ! arr[ po9ts4 ,aft] go+ upw>d & backw>d1 ! wat] em]ges by ! exhal5t siphon4 ,! gills orig9ally consi/$ ( a great numb] ( filam5ts4 ,^! are n[ unit$1 b n completely s1 & ! gills /ill h a p]=at$ or lattice /ructure4 ,?us !y pres5t a l>ge surface = absorb+ oxyg5 f ! wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aid4--,,mussel4 ,a1 left %ell & mantle flap remov$4 ,b1 section ?r\gh body4 ,"q3 ,guid$ by o!r figures1 id5tify ! p>ts to :i* l9es are drawn4 ,! m\? is 9 front ( ! foot1 betwe5 x & ! ant]ior adductor muscle 7,fig4 #aid74 ,on ea* side ( ! m\? are ! labial palps1 :i* are lat]al lips 7,fig4 #aie74 ,!y h cilia :i* convey ! food to ! m\? aft] ! inhal5t siphon has s5t food beyond ! gill *amb] & ne> to ! m\?4 ,?us bo? food & oxyg5 ent] at ! inhal5t siphon4 ,! foot is 9 ! position ( a l[] lip1 & if reg>d$ z a greatly ext5d$ l[] lip1 ! animal may be said to h :at is to u ! absurd habit ( us+ its l[] lip z a foot4 ,! foot is sometimes said to be hat*et-%ap$ 7,fig4 #aie74 ,d y see any resemblance8 ,does ! foot p5etrate deep or %all[ into ! s&8 7,fig4 #aij47 ,:y1 or :y n8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aie4--,,mussel4 ,f bel[4 ,level cut across bo? %ells4 ,se1 palp2 ,p1 foot2 ,o1 m\?2 ,g1 liv]2 ,gg1 ,vg1 ,pg1 ganglia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aif4--;,,he>t ,,( ,,mussel1 ) inte/9e pass+ ?r\gh x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aig4 ,! food tube ( ! mussel is comp>atively simple4 ,beh9d ! m\? x enl>ges into a swell+ call$ ! /oma* 7,fig4 #aic74 ,! bile ducts ( ! neighbor+ liv] empty into ! /oma*4 ,! inte/9e makes sev]al turns 9 ! sub/ance ( ! upp] "p ( ! foot1 & !n pass+ upw>d1 x runs approximately /raight to ! v5t 7or anus71 :i* is 9 ! wall ( ! exhal5t siphon4 ,! inte/9e n only runs ?r\gh ! p]ic>dial cavity 7celome7 surr\nd+ ! he>t1 b ?r\gh ! v5tricle ( ! he>t itself 7,fig4 #aif74 ,! kidneys consi/ ( tubes :i* op5 into ! p]ic>dial *amb] above & into ! gill *amb] bel[ 7,neph41 ,fig4 #aic74 ,! tubes are surr\nd$ by num]\s blood vessels 7,fig4 #aih7 & c>ry (f ! wa/e matt] f ! blood4 ,! n]v\s sy/em consi/s ( ?ree pairs ( ganglia & n]ves 7,fig4 #aig74 ,! ganglia are di/+ui%able because ( _! orange color4 ,! p$al ganglia on ! front ( ! foot are easily se5 also2 ! visc]al ganglia on ! po/]ior adductor muscle may be se5 )\t remov+ ! mussel f ! %ell 7,fig4 #aic74 ,! reproductive organs op5 into ! re> portion ( ! gill cavity 7,fig4 #aic74 ,! sp]ms1 hav+ be5 set free 9 ! wat]1 are drawn into ! ova by ! same curr5t t br+s ! food4 ,! eggs are hat*$ 9 ! gills4 ,aft] a :ile ! "y mussels g out ?r\gh ! siphon4 ,summ>y4--,9 ! gills 7,fig4 #aih7 ! blood ga9s :at8 ,loses :at8 ,f ! dige/ive tube ! blood absorbs n\ri%m5t4 ,9 ! kidneys ! blood is p>tly purifi$ by ! loss ( nitrog5\s wa/e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aih4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,mussel ,,cut ,,across1 %[+ mantle1 ma2 gills1 kie2 foot1 f2 he>t1 h2 inte/9e1 ed4 ,! cilia ( ! fr+es on ! inhal5t1 or l[]1 siphon1 vibrate cont9ually & drive wat] & food p>ticles into ! m\? cavity4 ,food p>ticles t are br\ght ne> ! labial palps are convey$ by !m to ! m\?4 ,z ! wat] passes along ! p]=at$ gills1 its oxyg5 is absorb$2 ! mantle also absorbs oxyg5 f ! wat] z x passes4 ,! wat]1 z /at$ be=e1 goes next ?r\gh a passage betwe5 ! foot & palp into ! cavity above ! gills & on out ?r\gh ! exhal5t siphon4 ,by /irr+ ! wat]1 or plac+ a drop ( ink ne> ! siphons ( a mussel kept 9 a tub1 ! direction ( its fl[ may be se54 ,! pulsations ( ! he>t are pla9ly visible 9 a liv+ mollusk4 ,habits ( ! ,mussel4--,is x abundant 9 cle> or muddy wat]2 swift1 /ill1 or slightly mov+ wat]8 ,describe its track or furr[4 ,:at is its rate ( travel8 ,c y di/+ui% ! spots :]e ! foot 0 atta*$ to ! gr\nd8 ,h[ long is "o 8/ep0 comp>$ to ! l5g? ( ! %ell8 ,! animal usually has ! valves op5$ t x may brea! & eat4 ,! h+e ligam5t acts l ! case spr+ ( a wat*1 & holds ! valves op5 unless ! adductor muscles draw !m toge!r 7,fig4 #ahi74 ,:5 ! mussel fir/ hat*es f ! egg1 x has a triangul> %ell4 ,x soon atta*es itself to "s fi% & ?us travels ab\t2 aft] two mon?s x drops to ! bottom aga94 ,o!r ,mollusca4--,! oy/]'s %ells are n an exact pair1 ! %ell :i* lies ^u ! bottom be+ holl[$ out to conta9 ! body1 & ! upp] %ell be+ flat4 ,c y tell by exam9+ an oy/] %ell :i* 0 ! l[] valve8 ,does x %[ signs ( hav+ be5 atta*$ to ! bottom8 ,! "y oy/]1 l ! "y mussel1 is free-swimm+4 ,l ! ar?ropoda1 mo/ mollusks und]go a metamorphosis to rea* ! adult /age 7,fig4 #aii74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aii4--,,oy/]4 ,c1 m\?2 a1 v5t2 g1 g1 ganglia2 mt1 mantle2 b1 gill4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4--,,tro*us4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bja4--;,,cypr,a4 7,univalve1 ) a long op5+ to %ell47 ,exam9e ! %ells ( clams1 snails1 scallops1 & cockles4 ,make draw+s ( _! %ells4 ,! slug is v simil> to ! snail except t x has no %ell4 ,if ! %ell ( ! snail %[n 9 ,fig4 #bjb 7 remov$1 !re w\ld be left a v good repres5tation ( a slug4 ,economic ,importance ( ,mollusca4--,sev]al species ( clams are eat54 ,"o ( !m is ! h>d-%ell clam 7quahog7 f\nd on ! ,atlantic coa/ f ,cape ,cod to ,texas4 ,its %ell is :ite4 ,x (t5 burr[s slightly b5ea? ! surface4 ,! s(t-%ell clam is bett] lik$ z food4 ,x lives along ! %ores ( all nor!rn seas4 ,x burr[s a foot b5ea? ! surface & ext5ds its siphons ?r\gh ! burr[ to ! surface :5 ! tide is 91 & draws into its %ell ! wat] conta9+ animalcules & oxyg54 ,oy/]s to ! value ( _m millions ( doll>s are ga!r$ & sold e ye>4 ,! mo/ valuable oy/] fi%]ies ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are 9 ,*esapeake ,bay4 ,! "y oy/]s1 or 8spat10 aft] !y atta* !mselves to ! bottom 9 %all[ wat]1 are transplant$4 ,new oy/] b$s are =m$ 9 ?is way4 ,! b$s are sometimes /rewn ) pieces ( rock1 brok5 pott]y1 etc41 to enc\rage ! oy/]s to atta* !mselves4 ,! d>k spot 9 ! fle%y body ( ! oy/] is ! dige/ive gl&1 or liv]4 ,! cut ends ( ! t\gh adductor muscles are noticeable 9 raw oy/]s4 ,! />fi% is v de/ructive 9 oy/] b$s4 ,pe>ls are deposit$ by bivalves ar\nd "s irritat+ p>ticle t gets betwe5 ! %ell & ! mantle4 ,! pe>l oy/] furni%es mo/ ( ! pe>ls2 sometimes pe>ls ( great value are obta9$ f fre%-wat] mussels 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,"n articles t are made p>tly or :olly ( "m-(-pe>l4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4--;,a ,,snail4 l1 m\?2 vf1 hf1 feel]s2 e1 op5+ ( egg duct2 fu1 foot2 ma1 mantle2 lu1 op5+ to lung2 a1 v5t4 ,/udy ( a ,live ,snail or ,slug4--,is its body dry or moi/8 ,d l& snails & slugs h lungs or gills8 ,:y8 ,h[ _m pairs ( t5tacles has x8 ,:at is _! relative l5g? & position8 ,! eyes are d>k spots at bases ( t5tacles ( snail & at ! tips ( ! re> t5tacles ( slug4 ,t\* ! t5tacles4 ,:at happ5s8 ,d ! t5tacles simply /ret*1 or d !y turn inside out z !y are ext5d$8 ,is ! respiratory op5+ on ! "r or left side ( ! body8 ,on ! mantle fold or on ! body8 7,figs4 #bjb-c-d47 ,h[ (t5 does ! ap]ture op5 & close8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4--;,a ,,slug4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4--;,,circulation ,,& ,,respiration ,,9 ,,snail4 a1 m\?2 b1 b1 foot2 c1 v5t2 d1 d1 lung2 h1 he>t4 ,blood vessels are black4 7,p]ri]47 ,place ! snail 9 a moi/ tumbl]4 ,does ! :ole "u surface seem to be us$ 9 creep+8 ,does ! creep+ surface *ange %ape z ! snail creeps8 ,d any folds or wr9kles seem to move ei!r t[>d ! front or re> ( its body8 ,is en\gh mucus left to m>k ! pa? travel$8 ,! fold moves to ! front1 adh]es1 & smoo?s out z ! slug or snail is pull$ =w>d4 ,cephalopods4--,! highe/ & be/ develop$ mollusks are ! cephalopods1 or 8head-foot$0 mollusks4 ,surr\nd+ ! m\? are eight or t5 app5dages :i* s]ve bo? z feet & z arms4 ,^! app5dages h two r[s ( suck+ disks by :i* ! animal atta*es itself to ! sea bottom1 or seizes fi% or o!r prey ) a firm grip4 ,! commone/ examples are ! squid1 ) a long body & t5 arms1 & ! octopus1 or devilfi%1 ) a %ort body & eight arms4 ,cephalopods h /rong bit+ m\? p>ts & complex eyes some:at resembl+ ! eyes ( backbon$1 or v]tebrate1 animals4 ,! l>ge & />+ eyes add to ! uncanny1 t]rify+ appe>ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bje4--;,a ,,squid4 ,! sepia or 8ink0 dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! siphon ( ! squid makes a d>k cl\d 9 ! wat] & favors its escape f enemies almo/ z mu* z its swiftness 7,fig4 #bje74 ,! squid sometimes approa*es a fi% ) motion s sl[ z to be imp]ceptible1 & !n sudd5ly seizes x1 & quickly kills x by bit+ x on ! back beh9d ! head4 ,! octopus is m sluggi% ?an ! squid4 ,l>ge species call$ devilfi% sometimes h a spread ( arms ( tw5ty-five feet4 ,! pe>ly nautilus 7,fig4 #bjf7 & ! female ( ! pap] argonaut 7,fig4 #bjg7 are examples ( cephalopods t h %ells4 ,! cuttlefi% is closely relat$ to ! squid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4--,,pe>ly ,,nautilus4 7,%ell saw$ ?r\gh to %[ *amb]s us$ :5 x 0 small]1 & siphuncle1 ,s1 connect+ !m4 ,t5tacles1 ,t47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4--,,pap] ,,argonaut 7female74 7i4e4 ! animal is ?ree times z long & broad z figure74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4--,,pap] ,,argonaut 7male74 4 ,g5]al ,que/ions4--,! liv+ p>ts ( ! mussel are v s(t1 ! "n mollusca hav+ be5 d]iv$ f ! ,lat9 ^w mollis1 s(t4 ,:y is x t ! s(te/ animals1 ! mollusks1 h ! h>de/ cov]+s8 ,to :i* class ( mollusks is ! "n acephala 7headless7 appropriate8 ,lamellibran*iata 7platelike gills78 ,:y is a smoo? %ell suit$ to a clam & a r\gh %ell suit$ to an oy/]8 ,:y are ! turns ( a snail's %ell s small ne> ! c5t]8 ,:y does ! mussel h no use = head1 eyes1 or project+ feel]s8 ,9 :at position ( ! valves ( a mussel is ! h+e ligam5t 9 a /ret*$ condition8 ,h[ does ! %ape ( ! mussel's gills insure t ! wat] curr5t & blood curr5t are br\ght 9 close contact8 ,! ?ree classes ( mollusks are3 ! pelecypoda 7hat*et-foot$72 ga/ropoda 7/oma*-foot$72 & cephalopoda 7head-foot$74 ,give an example ( ea* class4 ,comp>ison ( ,mollusks4 ,,mussel ,,snail ,,squid ----------------------------------- ,%ell ----------------------------------- ,head ----------------------------------- ,body ----------------------------------- ,foot ----------------------------------- ,gills ----------------------------------- ,eyes ,comp>ative ,review4--7,to occupy an entire page 9 notebook47 ,,grass- ,,hopp] ,,spid] ,,crayfi% ,,c5tip$e ,,mussel ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,bilat]al or radiate ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,app5dages = locomotion ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,names ( divisions ( body ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,organs & me?od ( brea?+ ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,locomotion ,,*apt] ,x ,,fi%es ,illu/ration ,,sugge/ions4--,! behavior ( a live fi% 9 cle> wat]1 pref]ably 9 a glass vessel or an aqu>ium1 %\ld be /udi$4 ,a skeleton may be prep>$ by plac+ a fi% 9 ! rea* ( ants4 ,skeletons ( animals plac$ on ant b$s are clean$ v ?or\ghly4 ,! /udy ( ! p]*1 t foll[s1 w apply to almo/ any common fi%4 ,movem5ts & ,ext]nal ,features4--,:at is ! g5]al %ape ( ! body ( a fi%8 ,h[ does ! dorsal1 or upp]1 region diff] 9 =m f ! v5tral8 ,is !re a n>r[ "p or neck :]e ! head jo9s ! trunk8 ,:]e is ! body ?icke/8 ,:at is ! ratio betwe5 ! l5g? & height8 7,fig4 #bji47 ,are ! "r & left sides alike8 ,is ! symmetry ( ! fi% bilat]al or radial8 ,! body ( ! fi% may be divid$ into ?ree regions1--! head1 trunk1 & tail4 ,! trunk beg9s ) ! =emo/ scales2 ! tail is said to beg9 at ! v5t1 or anus4 ,:i* regions be> app5dages8 ,is ! head movable indep5d5tly ( ! trunk1 or d !y move toge!r8 ,/ate ! advantage or disadvantage 9 ?is4 ,is ! body depress$ 7flatt5$ v]tically7 or compress$ 7flatt5$ lat]ally78 ,d bo? =ms occur among fi%es8 7,see figures on pages #abc1 #abd47 ,h[ is ! %ape ( ! body advantage\s = movem5t8 ,c a fi% turn m readily f side to side1 or up & d[n8 ,:y8 ,is ! head w$ge-%ap$ or conical8 ,are ! jaws flatt5$ lat]ally or v]tically8 ,! fi% swims 9 ! wat]1 ! bird swims 9 ! air4 ,acc\nt = ! diff]5ces 9 ! %ape ( _! bodies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bji4--,,:ite ,,p]* 7,morone ,am]icana74 ,is ! cov]+ ( ! body l ! cov]+ ( any animal yet /udi$8 ,! scales are atta*$ 9 little pockets1 or folds1 9 ! sk94 ,obs]ve ! %ape & size ( scales on diff]5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,:at p>ts ( ! fi% are )\t scales8 ,exam9e a s+le scale2 :at is its %ape8 ,d y see conc5tric l9es ( gr[? on a scale8 ,sket* a few ( ! scales to %[ _! arrangem5t4 ,:at is ! use ( scales8 ,:y are no scales ne$$ on ! head8 ,h[ mu* ( ea* scale is hidd58 ,is !re a film ov] ! scale8 ,are ! colors 9 ! scale or on x8 ,! ,f9s4--,are ! movem5ts ( ! fi% active or sluggi%8 ,c x rema9 /ation>y )\t us+ its f9s8 ,c x move backw>d8 ,h[ are ! f9s set 9 motion8 ,:at is ! color ( ! fle%1 or muscles1 ( a fi%8 ,c\nt ! f9s4 ,h[ _m are 9 pairs8 7,fig4 #bji47 ,h[ _m are v]tical8 ,h[ _m are on ! side8 ,h[ _m are on ! middle l9e8 ,are ! pair$ or unpair$ f9s m effective 9 balanc+ ! fi%8 ,9 turn+ x f side to side8 ,9 rais+ & l[]+ ! fi%8 ,9 propell+ x =w>d8 ,h[ are "s ( ! f9s useful to ! fi% besides = balanc+ & swimm+8 ,! h>d sp9es support+ ! f9s are call$ ! f9 rays4 ,! f9 on ! dorsal l9e ( ! fi% is call$ ! dorsal f94 ,are its rays l>g] or small] ?an ! rays ( ! o!r f9s8 ,! p]* is sometimes said to h two dorsal f9s1 s9ce x is divid$ into two p>ts4 ,! f9 =m+ ! tail is call$ ! tail f91 or caudal f94 ,are its upp] & l[] corn]s alike 9 all fi%es8 7,fig4 #bbh47 ,on ! v5tral side1 j beh9d ! v5t1 is ! v5tral f91 also call$ ! anal f94 ,! ?ree f9s m5tion$ are unpair$ f9s4 ,( ! f\r-pair$ f9s1 ! pair high] on ! sides 7& usually ne>] ! front7 are ! pectoral f9s4 ,! pair ne>] ! v5tral l9e are ! pelvic f9s4 ,!y are close toge!r1 & 9 _m fi% are jo9$ across ! v5tral l9e4 ,! v5tral f9s are comp>$ to ! legs1 & ! pectoral f9s to ! arms1 ( high] v]tebrates4 7,fig4 #bdd47 ,comp>e f9s ( fi%1 pages #abc1 #abd4 ,make a draw+ ( ! fi% se5 f ! side1 omitt+ ! scales unless y\r draw+ is v l>ge4 ,are ! eyes on ! top or sides ( ! head1 or bo?8 ,c a fi% %ut its eyes8 ,:y1 or :y n8 ,is ! eyeball b>e1 or cov]$ by a membrane8 ,is ! cov]+ ( ! eyeball cont9u\s ) ! sk9 ( ! head8 ,is !re a fold or wr9kle 9 ?is membrane or ! surr\nd+ sk98 ,has ! eye a pupil8 ,an iris8 ,is ! eye ( ! fi% immovable1 slightly movable1 or freely movable8 ,c x look ) bo? eyes at ! same object8 ,is ! range ( vision m upw>d or d[nw>d8 ,to ! front or side8 ,9 :at direction is vision impossible8 ,c a fi% close its eyes 9 sleep8 ,does ! eyeball appe> sph]ical or flatt5$ 9 front8 ,! ball is really sph]ical1 ! l5s is v convex1 & fi% are ne>sight$4 ,f> sight w\ld be useless 9 a d5se m$ium l wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baj4--;,,blackbo>d ,,outl9e ,,( ,,fi%4 ,9 :at direction are ! no/rils f ! eyes8 7,fig4 #baa47 ,!re are two pairs ( no/rils1 b only "o pair ( nasal cavities1 ) two no/rils op5+ into ea*4 ,!re are no nasal passages to ! m\?1 z ! te/ ) a probe %[s t ! cavities d n op5 into ! m\?4 ,:at two functions has ! nose 9 man8 ,:at function has x 9 ! fi%8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baa4--;,,head ,,( ,,c>p4 ,!re are no ext]nal e>s4 ,! e> sacs are emb$d$ 9 ! bones ( ! skull4 ,is he>+ acute or dull8 ,:5 fi%+1 is x m necess>y n to talk or to /ep lightly1 s z n to j> ! boat or bank8 ,:at is ! use ( ! l>ge op5+s f\nd at ! back ( ! head on ea* side8 7,fig4 #baa47 ,"u ! sk9 at ! sides ( ! head are ?9 membrane bones =m$ f ! sk92 !y aid ! sk9 9 protection4 ,j "u ^! membrane bones are ! gill cov]s1 ( true bone4 ,:i* consi/s ( m p>ts1 ! membran\s lay]1 or ! true bony lay] 9 ! gill cov]8 7,figs4 #baa & #bab47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bab4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,p]*4 ,is ! m\? l>ge or small8 ,are ! tee? blunt or po9t$8 ,ne> ! out] edge1 or f> 9 ! m\?8 7,fig4 #bab47 ,does ! fi% h lips8 ,are ! tee? 9 "o cont9u\s r[ 9 ei!r jaw8 ,9 ! upp] jaw !re are also tee? on ! premaxill>y bones4 ,^! bones are 9 front ( ! maxill>y bones1 :i* are )\t tee?4 ,tee? are also f\nd 9 ! ro( ( ! m\?1 & ! tongue be>s horny app5dages simil> to tee?4 ,are ! tee? ( ! fi% bett] suit$ = *ew+ or = grasp+8 ,:y are tee? on ! tongue useful8 ,wat* a fi% eat+3 does x *ew its food8 ,c a fi% ta/e8 ,te/ by plac+ bits ( br[n pap] & food 9 a vessel or j> conta9+ a live fi%4 ,is ! ?roat1 or gullet1 ( ! fi% l>ge or small8 ,! skeleton ( a fi% is simpl] ?an ! skeleton ( o!r backbon$ animals4 ,/udy ,fig4 #bab or a prep>$ skeleton4 ,at fir/ glance1 ! skeleton appe>s to h two v]tebral columns4 ,:y8 ,:at bones does ! fi% h t correspond to bones 9 ! human skeleton8 ,are ! projections 7processes7 f ! v]tebr long or %ort8 ,! ribs are atta*$ to ! v]tebr ( ! trunk1 ! la/ rib be+ above ! v5t4 ,! tail beg9s at ! v5t4 ,are !re m tail v]tebr or trunk v]tebr8 ,are !re any neck 7c]vical7 v]tebr 7i4e4 9 front ( ^? t be> ribs78 ,! fir/ few ribs 7h[ _m87 are atta*$ to ! c5tral body ( ! v]tebr4 ,! rema9+ ribs are loosely atta*$ to processes on ! v]tebr4 ,! ribs ( bony fi%es are n homolog\s ) ! ribs ( ! high] v]tebrates4 ,9 mo/ fi%es !re are bones call$ int]muscul> bones atta*$ to ! fir/ ribs 7h[ _m 9 ! p]*87 :i* are possibly homolog\s to true ribs2 t is1 true ribs 9 ! high] v]tebrates may h be5 develop$ f su* beg9n+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bac4 ,:i*1 if any1 ( ! f9 skeletons 7,fig4 #bad7 are n atta*$ to ! g5]al skeleton8 ,:i* f9 is compos$ *iefly ( tap]+1 po9t$ rays8 ,:i* f9s consi/ ( rays :i* subdivide & wid5 t[>d ! end8 ,:i* k9d are /iff1 & :i* are flexible8 ,:i* ( ! f9 rays are segm5t$1 or 9 two portions8 ,! out] segm5t is call$ ! radial1 ! inn] ! basal segm5t4 ,:i* segm5ts are long]8 ,!re is "o basal segm5t t lacks a radial segm5t2 f9d x 7,fig4 #bab74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bad4--,,s(t-,,ray$ ,,& ,,sp9y-,,ray$ ,,f9s4 ,:at is ! advantage ( ! backbone plan ( /ructure ov] ! armor-plate plan8 ,y h se5 ! spool-l body ( ! v]tebra 9 cann$ salmon4 ,is x concave1 flat1 or convex at ! ends8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bae4--;,,c>p1 ) "r gill cov] remov$ to %[ gills4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baf4--,,skeleton ,,ar\nd ,,?roat ,,( ,,fi%4 ,! gills are at ! sides ( ! head 7,fig4 #bae7 "u ! op]cula1 or gill cov]s4 ,:at is ! color ( ! gills8 ,d ! blood vessels appe> to be v ne> ! surface ( ! gills1 or away f ! surface8 ,:at advantage 9 ?is8 ,are ! gills smoo? or wr9kl$8 7,fig4 #bae47 ,:at advantage8 ,! bony supports ( ! gills1 call$ ! gill ar*es1 are %[n 9 ,fig4 #baf 7k to k74 ,h[ _m ar*es on ea* side8 ,! gill ar*es h projections on _! front sides1 call$ gill rak]s1 to prev5t food f be+ wa%$ ?r\gh ! clefts betwe5 ! ar*es4 ,! fr+es on ! re> ( ! gill ar*es are call$ ! gill filam5ts 7a1 ,fig4 #baf74 ,^! filam5ts support ! ?9 & mu*-wr9kl$ bord]s ( ! gills1 = ! gills are con/ruct$ on ! plan ( expos+ ! greate/ possible surface to ! wat]4 ,comp>e ! plan ( ! gills & ! human lungs4 ,! gill op5+ on ea* side is gu>d$ by sev5 rays 7kh1 ,fig4 #baf7 along ! h9d] bord] ( ! gill cov]4 ,^! rays gr[ f ! tongue bone4 7,zu1 ,fig4 #baf4 ,?is is a re> view47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bag4--;,,circulation ,,9 ,,gills4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bah4--,,no/rils1 ,,m\?1 ,,& ,,gill ,,op5+s ,,( ,,/+-,,ray4 ,wat* a live fi% & det]m9e h[ ! wat] is =c$ betwe5 ! gills4 ,is ! m\? op5$ & clos$ 9 ! act ( brea?+8 ,are ! op5+s beh9d ! gill cov]s op5$ & clos$8 ,h[ _m times p] m9ute does fre% wat] rea* ! gills8 ,d ! m\? & gill cov]s op5 at ! same "t8 ,:y mu/ ! wat] 9 contact ) ! gills be *ang$ con/antly8 ,:y does a fi% usually re/ ) its head up /ream8 ,h[ may a fi% be kept alive = a "t aft] x is remov$ f ! wat]8 ,:y does dry+ ( ! gills prev5t brea?+8 ,if ! m\? ( a fi% 7 propp$ op51 & ! fi% return$ to ! wat]1 w\ld x suffocate8 ,:y1 or :y n8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bai4--;,,gill ,,op5+s ,,( ,,eel4 ,food ,tube4--,! gullet is %ort & wide4 ,! /oma* is elongat$ 7,fig4 #bbj74 ,!re is a slight con/riction1 or n>r[+1 :]e x jo9s ! inte/9e4 ,is ! inte/9e /raight1 or does x lie 9 few or 9 _m loops8 7,fig4 #bbj47 ,! liv] has a gall bladd] & empties into ! inte/9e ?r\gh a bile duct4 ,is ! liv] l>ge or small8 ,simple or lob$8 ,! sple5 7mi1 ,fig4 #bbj7 lies 9 a loop ( ! inte/9e4 ,! la/ "p ( ! inte/9e is /raight & is call$ ! rectum4 ,is x ( ! same size z ! o!r portions ( ! inte/9e8 ,! fi% does n possess a pancreas1 ! mo/ important dige/ive gl& ( high] v]tebrates4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4--;,,anatomy ,,( ,,c>p4 7,see also color$ figure #d47 bf1 b>bels on head 7= feel+72 h1 v5tricle ( he>t2 z1 aortic bulb = regulat+ fl[ to gills2 vk1 v5\s s9us2 ao1 dorsal aorta2 ma1 /oma*2 l1 liv]2 gb1 gall cy/2 mi1 sple52 d1 small inte/9e2 md1 l>ge inte/9e2 a1 v5t2 s1 s1 swim bladd]2 ni1 ni1 kidney2 hl1 uret]2 hb1 bladd]2 ro1 eggs 7roe72 mhe1 op5+ ( ducts f kidney & ov>y4 ,que/ions3 ,are ! kidneys dorsal or v5tral8 ,! swim bladd]8 ,:y8 ,:y is ! swim bladd] d\ble8 ,does blood ent] gills above or bel[8 ,! ov>y lies betwe5 ! inte/9e & ! air bladd]4 ,9 ,fig4 #bbj x is %[n enl>g$ & fill$ ) egg masses call$ roe4 ,x op5s by a pore beh9d ! v5t4 ,! silv] l9+ ( ! body cavity is call$ ! p]itoneum4 7,see ,*ap4 ,,vii1 ,human ,biology47 ,is ! air bladd] simple or p>tly divid$ 9 ! p]*8 ,9 ! c>p8 7,fig4 #bbj47 ,is x above or bel[ ! c5t] ( ! body8 ,:y8 ,! air bladd] makes ! body ( ! fi% ab\t z light z wat] t x may rise & s9k ) little ef=t4 ,:5 a fi% dies1 ! gases ( decomposition di/5d ! bladd] & ! abdom51 & ! fi% turns ov]4 ,:y8 ,:]e are ! kidneys8 7,fig4 #bbj47 ,_! ends unite close "u ! sp9al column4 ,! uret]s1 or tubes1 lead+ f !m1 unite1 & aft] pass+ a small ur9>y bladd]1 lead to a t9y ur9>y pore j beh9d ! op5+ f ! ov>y4 7,color$ figure #d47 ,! ,circulation4--,! fi%1 unlike o!r v]tebrates1 has its brea?+ organs & its he>t 9 its head4 ,! gills h already be5 describ$4 ,! he>t ( an air-brea?+ v]tebrate is ne> its lungs4 ,:y8 ,! he>t ( a fi% is ne> its gills = ! same reason4 ,! he>t has "o auricle & "o v5tricle4 7,color$ figure #a47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bba4--,,plan ,,( ,,circulation4 ,ab1 art]ies to gills2 ,ba1 aortic bulb2 ,v1 v5tricle4 ,blood return+ to ! he>t comes ?r\gh sev]al ve9s into a s9us1 or ante*amb]1 :5ce x passes d[n ?r\gh a valve into ! auricle2 f ! auricle x goes =w>d into ! v5tricle4 ,! v5tricle s5ds x into an art]y1 n directly1 b ?r\gh a bulb 7z1 ,fig4 #bbj71 :i* s]ves to ma9ta9 a /eady fl[1 )\t pulse beats1 into ! l>ge art]y 7aorta7 lead+ to ! gills4 ,! art]ies lead+ f ! gills jo9 to =m a dorsal aorta 7,ao1 ,fig4 #bba71 :i* passes backw>d1 inclos$ by ! l[] processes ( ! sp9al column4 ,aft] go+ ?r\gh ! capill>ies ( ! v>i\s organs1 ! blood returns to ! he>t ?r\gh ve9s4 ,! color ( ! blood is giv5 by r$ corpuscles4 ,^! are nucleat$1 oval1 & l>g] ?an ! blood corpuscles ( o!r v]tebrates4 ,! blood ( ! fi% is slightly above ! temp]ature ( ! wat] x inhabits4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4--;,,bra9 ,,( ,,p]*1 f above4 n1 end ( n]ve ( smell2 au1 eye2 v1 z1 m1 =e1 mid1 & h9d bra92 h1 sp9al bulb2 r1 sp9al cord4 ,notice ! g5]al %ape ( ! bra9 7,fig4 #bbb74 ,are its subdivisions di/9ct or indi/9ct8 ,are ! lobes 9 pairs8 ,! middle portion ( ! bra9 is ! wide/1 & consi/s ( ! two optic lobes4 ,f ^! lobes ! optic n]ves pass b5ea? ! bra9 to ! eyes 7,sn1 ,fig4 #bbc74 ,9 front ( ! optic lobes lie ! two c]ebral lobes1 or ! c]ebrum4 ,! small olfactory lobes are se5 7,fig4 #bbd7 9 front ( ! c]ebrum4 ,! olfactory n]ves may be trac$ to ! no/rils4 ,back ( ! optic lobes 7mid bra97 is ! c]ebellum 7h9d bra971 & back ( x is ! m$ulla oblongata1 or beg9n+ ( ! sp9al cord4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4--;,,bra9 ,,( ,,p]*1 side view4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4--;,,bra9 ,,( ,,p]*1 f bel[4 ,tak+ ! eyeball = comp>ison1 is ! :ole bra9 z l>ge z "o eyeball8 7,fig4 #bbb47 ,judg+ f ! size ( ! p>ts ( ! bra91 :i* is m important ) ! fi%1 ?9k+ or p]ception8 ,:i* is ! mo/ important s5se8 ,! scales along a c]ta9 l9e on ea* side ( ! fi%1 call$ ! lat]al l9e1 are p]=at$ ov] a s]ies ( lat]al l9e s5se organs1 suppos$ to be ! *ief organs ( t\* 7see ,fig4 #bji74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4--,,! ,,/ickleback4 ,in/ead ( deposit+ ! eggs on ! bottom1 x makes a ne/ ( wat] plants--! only fi% t does s--& bravely def5ds x4 ,que/ions4--,:i* ( ! f9s ( ! fi% h a use :i* corresponds to ! keel ( a boat8 ,! rudd]8 ,a paddle = scull+8 ,an o>8 ,/ate sev]al reasons :y ! head ( ! fi% mu/ be v l>ge1 al?\gh ! bra9 is v small4 ,does all ! blood g to ! gills j aft] leav+ ! he>t8 ,make a li/ ( ! diff]5t species ( fi% f\nd 9 ! wat]s ( y\r neighborhood2 9 ! m>kets ( y\r t[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4--;,,artificial ,,fecundation4 ,! egg-cells & sp]m-cells are press$ out into a pan ( wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4--,,newly ,,hat*$ ,,tr\t1 ) yolk-sac adh]+1 eyes l>ge1 & f9s m]e folds ( ! sk94 7,enl>g$47 ,reproduction4--,! female fi% deposits ! unf]tiliz$ eggs1 or ova1 9 a seclud$ spot on ! bottom4 ,aft]w>d ! male fi% deposits ! sp]ms 9 ! same place 7see ,fig4 #bbe74 ,! eggs1 ?us unprotect$1 & newly hat*$ fi% z well1 are us$ = food by fi% ( ! same & o!r species4 ,to comp5sate = ?is great de/ruction1 mo/ fi% lay 7spawn7 _m ?\s&s ( eggs1 v few ( :i* rea* maturity4 ,high] v]tebrates 7e4g4 birds7 h1 by _! sup]ior intellig5ce1 ris5 above ?is wa/eful me?od ( reproduction4 ,"s k9ds ( m>9e fi%1 notably cod1 h]r+1 & salmon1 g _m miles up fre% riv]s to spawn4 ,x is possible t ?is is because !y 7 orig9ally fre%-wat] species2 yet !y die if plac$ 9 fre% wat] except dur+ ! spawn+ season4 ,!y g because ( in/9ct1 :i* is simply an inh]it$ habit4 ,riv]s may be saf] ?an ! ocean = _! "y4 ,!y are worn & exhau/$ by ! j\rney1 & nev] survive to lay eggs ! second "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4--;,a ,,%>k 7,acan?ias vulg>is74 ,! air bladd] is develop$ f ! food tube 9 ! embryo fi%1 & is homolog\s ) lungs 9 ! high] v]tebrates4 ,are _! functions ! same8 ,fi% t fe$ on fle% h a %ort inte/9e4 ,^? t eat plants h a long inte/9e4 ,:i* k9d ( food is m quickly dige/$8 ,!re are muc\s gl&s 9 ! sk9 ( a fi% :i* supply a secretion to facilitate movem5t ?r\gh ! wat]2 h5ce a fre%ly caught fi%1 be=e ! secretion has dri$1 feels v slipp]y4 ,! air bladd]1 al?\gh homolog\s to lungs1 is n a brea?+ organ 9 common fi%es4 ,x is fill$ by ! =mation ( gases f ! blood1 & c be made small] by ! contraction ( muscles along ! sides ( ! body2 ?is causes ! fi% to s9k4 ,9 ! g> & o!r ganoids1 ! air bladd] conta9s blood vessels1 is connect$ ) ! gullet1 & is us$ 9 brea?+4 ,organs s]v+ ! same purpose 9 diff]5t animals are said to be analog\s4 ,to :at 9 man are ! gills ( ! fi% analog\s8 ,organs hav+ a l position & orig9 are said to be homolog\s4 ,! air bladd]s ( a fi% are homolog\s ) ! lungs ( man2 b s9ce !y h n ! same use !y are n analog\s4 ,h[ does ! tail ( a %>k or a g> diff] f ! tail ( common fi%es8 7,fig4 #bbh47 ,d y "k ( fi% de/itute ( scales8 ,d y "k ( fi% ) :iplike feel]s on ! head8 7,figs47 ,:y are mo/ fi%es :ite on ! "u side8 ,comp>ative ,review4--7,copy table on "o page or two fac+ pages ( notebook47 ,,is ,,!re ,,dige/ive ,a ,,head8 ,,me?od ,,( ,,organs ,,& ,,re- ,a ,,neck8 ,,fe$+ ,,dige/ion ,,production ,,s5ses ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,ameba ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,sponge ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,hydra ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,/>fi% ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,e>?worm ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,wasp ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,mussel ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,fi% ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4--;,,draw+ ,,! ,,se9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4--,,sunfi%4 ,,fig4 #bca4--,,tunny4 ,,fig4 #bcb4--,,swordfi%4 ,,fig4 #bcc4--,,swellfi%4 ,,fig4 #bcd4--,,turbot4 ,,fig4 #bce4--;,,c>p4 ,,fig4 #bcf4--;,,h]r+4 ,,fig4 #bcg4--,,speckl$ ,,tr\t4 ,,fig4 #bch4--,,p]*4 ,,fig4 #bci4--,,salmon4 ,sev5 ,food ,fi%4 ,?ree ,curi\s ,fi%4 ,,special ,,reports4 7,encyclop$ia1 texts1 diction>y47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4--,,sea ,,horse 7hippocampus71 ) incubat+ p\*1 ,brt4 ,,fig4 #bda4--;,,b& ,,fi%4 ,,fig4 #bdb4--,,torp$o4 ,electrical organs at "r & left ( bra94 ,,fig4 #bdc4--,,lant]n ,,fi% 7,l9ophryne lucif]74 7,aft] ,collett47 ,,fig4 #bdd4--,,lung ,,fi% ( ,au/ralia 7,c]atodus miolepis74 ,,fig4 #bde4--,,trunk ,,fi%4 ,,fig4 #bdf4--,,seawe$ ,,fi%4 7,phyllopt]yx eques74 ,rem>kable ,fi%4 ,,special ,,reports4 7,encyclop$ia1 texts1 diction>y47 ,,key ,,to ,,! ,,bran*es1 ,,or ,,sub-,,k+doms ,a ,"o-cell$ ,animals 7,protozoans7 ,i4 ,,protozoans ,a ,_m-cell$ ,animals 7,metazoans7 ,b ,,radiate 7ar\nd a c5t]74 ,)\t head2 all aquatic1 resembl+ plants1 & (t5 fix$ to bottom ,c ,walls ( body s]v+ z dige/ive organs ,d ,_m op5+s1 no t5tacles ,,ii4 ,,sponges 7,porif]a7 ,d ,"o op5+1 :i* is bo? m\? & ,,iii4 ,,polyps v5t2 t5tacles = seiz+ prey 7,cl5t]ata7 ,c ,dige/ive tube di/9ct f body wall1 ,,iv4 ,,e*9od]ms sp9y sk9 ,b ,,bilat]al4 ,) ant]ior & po/]ior end2 dorsal & v5tral surface ,c ,body ( successive segm5ts2 legs ,v4 ,,v]mes )\t jo9ts ,c ,ext]nal skeleton ( successive r+s2 ,,vi4 ,,ar?ropods jo9t$ legs ,c ,body s(t2 no skeleton2 usually be>+ ,,vii4 ,,mollusks a limy %ell ,c ,int]nal jo9t$ skeleton1 atta*$ to ,,viii4 ,,v]tebrates an axis or v]tebral column ,examples4--,tell ! bran* to :i* ea* ( ! foll[+ animals belongs3 crayfi%1 e>?worm1 ?\s& leg1 :ite grub1 sea anemone1 ameba1 tapeworm1 cat]pill>1 beetle1 sp>r[1 snake1 oy/]1 />fi%1 fi%4 ,be prep>$ to /ate ! reason = ea* classification4 ,! classes 9 ! bran* v]tebrata are3 #a4 ,fi%es 7pisces74 #b4 ,frogs & ,salam&]s 7batra*ia74 #c4 ,reptiles 7reptilia74 #d4 ,birds 7aves74 #e4 ,mammals 7mammalia74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdg4--;,a ,,snail4 7,:i* bran*8 ,:y87 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,batra*ia ,! !ory ( evolution tea*es t animal life began 9 a v simple =m 9 ! sea1 & t aft]w>d ! high] sea animals lo/ _! gills & develop$ lungs & legs & came out to live ^u ! l&2 truly a m>vel\s proc$ure1 & incr$ible to _m1 al?\gh ! process is repeat$ e spr+ 9 c\ntless in/ances 9 pond & brook4 ,9 popul> language1 e cold-blood$ v]tebrate brea?+ ) lungs is call$ a reptile4 ,! "n reptile is prop]ly appli$ only to liz>ds1 snakes1 turtles1 & alligators4 ,! common mi/ake ( speak+ ( frogs & salam&]s z reptiles arises f consid]+ !m only 9 _! adult condition4 ,reptiles hat* f ! egg z t9y reptiles resembl+ ! adult =ms2 frogs & salam&]s1 z e "o kn[s1 leave ! egg 9 ! =m ( tadpoles 7,fig4 #bdh74 ,! fact t frogs & salam&]s beg9 active life z fi%es1 brea?+ by gills1 s]ves to di/+ui% !m f o!r cold-blood$ animals1 & causes naturali/s to place !m 9 a sep>ate class1 call$ batra*ia 7twice brea!r7 or amphibia 7d\ble life74 ,,tadpoles ,,sugge/ions4--,tadpoles may be /udi$ by plac+ a numb] ( frog's eggs 9 a j> ( wat]1 c>e be+ tak5 n to place a l>ge numb] ( eggs 9 a small am\nt ( wat]4 ,:5 !y hat*1 wat] plants 7e4g4 gre5 alg7 %\ld be add$ = food4 ,! behavior ( frogs may be be/ /udi$ 9 a tub ( wat]4 ,a toad 9 captivity %\ld be giv5 a cool1 moi/ place1 & f$ well4 ,a piece ( meat plac$ ne> a toad may attract flies1 & ! toad may be obs]v$ :ile cat*+ !m1 b ! motion is s swift z to be almo/ imp]ceptible4 ,live flies may be put into a glass j> ) a toad4 ,toads d n move ab\t until twilight1 except 9 cl\dy1 wet wea!r4 ,!y return to ponds & brooks 9 spr+ at ! "t = lay+ eggs4 ,?is "t = bo? frogs & toads is %[n by trill+4 ,all frogs1 except tree frogs1 rema9 9 or ne> ! wat] all ! ye>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdh4--,,metamorphoses ,,( ,,! ,,frog1 numb]$ 9 ord]4 ,d eggs hat* & tadpoles gr[ m rapidly 9 a j> ( wat] kept 9 a w>m place or 9 a cold place8 ,9 pond wat] or dr9k+ wat]8 ,c ! tadpoles be se5 to move 9 ! eggs be=e hat*+8 ,:5 d ! ext]nal gills %[8 7,fig4 #bdh47 ,:at p>ts may be describ$ 9 a tadpole8 ,:at is ! %ape ( ! tail8 ,comp>e ! tadpole ) ! fi% z to 7#a7 g5]al %ape1 7#b7 cov]+1 7#c7 f9s1 7#d7 tail1 7#e7 gills4 ,d ! ext]nal gills disappe> be=e or aft] any rudim5ts ( limbs appe>8 7#f1 #g1 ,fig4 #bdh47 ,c y locate ! gills aft] !y become int]nal8 7,fig4 #bdi47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bdi4--,,tadpole1 f bel[1 %[+ inte/9e & int]nal gills4 7,enl>g$47 ,9 :at /ate ( gr[? are ! legs :5 ! tadpole fir/ goes to ! surface to brea!8 ,:i* legs appe> fir/8 ,:at advantage is ?is8 ,:at becomes ( ! tail8 ,is ! tail entirely gone be=e ! frog fir/ leaves ! wat]8 ,are tadpoles habitually 9 motion or at re/8 ,is ! inte/9e visible ?r\gh ! sk98 7,fig4 #bdi47 ,is x /raight or coil$8 ,rememb]+ :y "s fi% h l>g] inte/9es ?an o!rs1 & t a c[ has a long inte/9e & a cat a %ort "o1 /ate :y a tadpole has a relatively long] inte/9e ?an a frog4 ,comp>e ! m\?1 jaws1 eyes1 sk91 body1 & habits ( tadpole & frog4 ,,frogs ,prove t frogs & toads are b5eficial to man4 ,did y ev] "k ( a frog or toad de/roy+ any?+ useful1 or h>m+ any "o1 or caus+ w>ts8 ,h[ _m pupils 9 class ev] _h w>ts8 ,_h !y h&l$ frogs be=e ! w>ts came8 ,frogs are int]e/+1 g5tle1 timid animals4 ,:y are !y repulsive to "s p8 ,environm5t4--,:]e are frogs f\nd 9 greate/ numb]s8 ,:at occurs :5 dang] ?reat5s !m8 ,:at enemies d !y h8 ,:at color1 or t9t1 is mo/ prom95t on a frog8 ,does ! color 8mimic0 or imitate its surr\nd+s8 ,:at is ! color ( ! "u side ( ! body8 7,fig4 #bej47 ,:y is !re great] safety 9 t color8 ,:at enemies w\ld see wat] frogs f bel[8 ,d tree frogs mimic ! b>k8 ,! leaves8 ,c a frog /ay "u wat] = an indef9ite "t8 ,:y1 or :y n8 ,:at "p ( a frog is above ! surface :5 x floats or swims 9 a tub ( wat]8 ,:y8 ,d frogs croak 9 ! wat] or on ! bank8 ,:y d !y croak aft] a ra98 ,d toads croak8 ,are ! eggs laid 9 /ill or fl[+ wat]8 ,9 a cle> place or among /icks & /ems8 ,s+ly1 or 9 /r+s or 9 masses8 7,fig4 #bdh47 ,describe an egg4 ,:y d frogs dig into ! mud 9 autumn 9 cold climates8 ,:y d !y n dig 9 mud at ! bottom ( a pond8 ,:y is digg+ unnecess>y 9 ! ,gulf /ates8 ,describe ! position ( ! frog :5 /ill 7,fig4 #bej74 ,:at advantage 9 ?is position8 ,does ! frog use its =e legs 9 swimm+ or jump+8 ,its h9d legs8 ,h[ is ! frog fitt$ = jump+8 ,comp>e x 9 ?is respect ) a jump+ insect2 a jump+ mammal4 ,h[ is x fitt$ = swimm+8 ,is ! g5]al build ( its body bett] fitt$ = swimm+ or jump+8 ,h[ f> c a frog jump8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bej4--,,pa9t$ ,,frog 7,*orophilus ornatus71 ( ,mexico4 ,ext]nal ,features4--,! frog may be said to h two regions 9 its body1 ! head & trunk4 ,a neck h>dly exi/s1 z !re is only "o v]tebra 9 front ( ! %\ld]s 7,fig4 #beb71 al?\gh mo/ v]tebrates h sev5 neck 7c]vical7 v]tebr4 ,!re are no tail 7caudal7 v]tebr1 ev5 9 ! tadpole /ate ( frogs & toads4 ,! head appe>s triangul> 9 %ape :5 view$ f :at direction8 ,! head ( a frog is m po9t$ ?an ! head ( a toad4 ,is ! skull a clos$ case ( broad bones or an op5 /ructure ( n>r[ bones8 7,fig4 #beb47 ,describe ! m\?4 ,obs]ve ! ext5t ( ! m\? op5+ 7,fig4 #bea74 ,are tee? pres5t 9 ! upp] jaw8 ,! l[] jaw8 ,are ! tee? %>p1 or dull8 ,does ! frog *ew its food8 ,is ! tongue sl5d] or ?ick8 7,fig4 #bea47 ,is x atta*$ to ! front or ! back ( ! m\?8 ,9 :at direction does ! free end ext5d :5 ! tongue lies flat8 ,is ! end po9t$ or lob$8 ,h[ f> out w ! tongue /ret*8 ,= :at is x us$8 ,:y is x bett] = ! tee? to be 9 ! upp] jaw r ?an 9 ! l[] jaw8 ,t ! tee? are ( little s]vice is %[n by ! fact t ! toad ) simil> habits ( eat+ has no tee?4 ,w a toad cat* & swall[ a bullet or pebble roll$ be=e x8 ,! toad is accu/om$ to liv+ food1 h5ce pref]s a mov+ insect to a /ill "o4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bea4--;,,head ,,( ,,frog4 ,! ,s5ses4--,comp>e ! eyes ) ! eyes ( a fi% 9 respect to position & p>ts4 ,are ! eyes protrud+ or deep-set8 ,t\* ! eye ( a live frog4 ,c x be retract$8 ,:at is ! %ape ( ! pupil8 ,! color ( ! iris8 ,is ! eye bright or dull8 ,:at probably gave rise to ! sup]/ition t a toad _h a jewel 9 its head8 ,is !re a ?ird eyelid8 ,are ! upp] & l[] eyelids ( ! same ?ickness8 ,) :i* lid does x w9k8 ,close its eye8 ,obs]ve ! l>ge oval e> drum or tympanum4 ,:at is its direction f ! eye8 7,fig4 #bea47 ,! m\?8 ,is !re a project+ e>8 ,does ! frog he> well8 ,:at reason = y\r answ]8 ,z 9 ! human e>1 a tube 7! ,eu/a*ian tube7 leads f ! m\? to ! inn] side ( ! tympanum4 ,h[ _m no/rils8 7,fig4 #bea47 ,are !y ne> toge!r or sep>at$8 ,l>ge or small8 ,a bri/le pass$ into ! no/ril comes into ! m\? n f> back 9 ! ro(4 ,:y mu/ x diff] f a fi% 9 ?is8 ,h[ d ! =e & h9d legs diff]8 ,h[ _m toes on ! =e foot or h&8 ,on ! h9d foot8 ,on :i* foot is "o ( ! toes rudim5t>y8 ,:y is ! =e limb ( no assi/ance 9 propell+ ! body 9 jump+8 ,d ! toes turn 9 or out8 7,fig4 #bej47 ,h[ does ! frog give direction to ! jump8 ,:at w\ld be ! disadvantage ( always jump+ /raight =w>d :5 flee+8 ,:i* legs are m useful 9 alight+8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beb4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,frog4 ,divisions ( ! ,limbs4--,di/+ui% ! upp] arm1 =e>m1 & h& 9 ! =e limb 7,figs4 #beb & #bec74 ,comp>e ) skeleton ( man 7,fig4 #cii74 ,d ! arms ( a man & a frog bo? h "o bone 9 ! upp] arm & two 9 ! =e>m8 ,bo? h sev]al closely jo9$ bones 9 ! wri/ & five sep>ate bones 9 ! palm4 ,d any ( ! frog's f+]s h ?ree jo9ts8 ,comp>e also ! leg ( man& ! h9d leg ( ! frog 7,figs4 #bec & #cii74 ,does ! ?igh h "o bone 9 ea*8 ,! %ank ( man has two bones1 %9 & spl9t bone4 ,d y see a groove ne> ! end 9 ! %ank bone ( a frog 7,fig4 #beb71 indicat+ t x 0 =m$ by ! union ( a %9 & spl9t bone8 ,! fir/ two ( ! five bones ( ! ankle are elongat$1 giv+ ! h9d leg ! appe>ance ( hav+ an extra jo9t 7,fig4 #bec74 ,! foot consi/s ( six digits1 "o ( :i*1 l ! ?umb on ! =e limb1 is rudim5t>y4 ,! five develop$ toes give ! five digits ( ! typical v]tebrate foot4 ,besides ! five bones correspond+ to ! in/ep1 ! toes h two1 ?ree1 or f\r bones ea*4 ,h[ is ! h9d foot specializ$ = swimm+8 ,:i* jo9t ( ! leg conta9s mo/ muscle8 7,fig4 #bed47 ,f9d o!r bones ( ! frog analog\s 9 position & simil> 9 =m to bones 9 ! human skeleton4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bec4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,frog4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bed4--,,leg ,,muscles ,,( ,,frog4 ,is ! sk9 ( a frog tight or loose8 ,does x h any app5dages correspond+ to scales1 fea!rs1 or hair ( o!r v]tebrates8 ,is ! sk9 r\gh or smoo?8 ,! toad is furni%$ ) gl&s 9 ! sk9 :i* are sometimes swoll52 !y =m a bitt] secretion1 & may be1 to "s ext5t1 a protection4 ,yet birds & snakes d n hesitate to swall[ toads :ole4 ,%[ h[ bo? upp] & "u surfaces ( frog illu/rate protective coloration4 ,all batra*ians h l>ge & num]\s blood vessels 9 ! sk9 by :i* gases are ex*ang$ ) ! air1 ! sk9 be+ almo/ equal to a ?ird lung4 ,t ! sk9 may function 9 ?is way1 x mu/ n become dry4 ,us+ ?is fact1 acc\nt = c]ta9 habits ( toads z well z frogs4 ,if a frog is kept 9 ! d>k or on a d>k surface1 its sk9 w become d>k] ?an if kept 9 ! light or on a :ite di%4 ,try ?is exp]im5t1 comp>+ two frogs4 ,?is p[] ( *ang+ color is believ$ to be due to ! dim9ution 9 size ( c]ta9 pigm5t cells by contraction1 & enl>gem5t f relaxation4 ,?is p[] is possess$ to a c]ta9 degree n only by batra*ians b also by _m fi%es & reptiles4 ,! *ameleon1 or gre5 liz>d ( ! ,gulf /ates1 surpasses all o!r animals 9 ?is respect 7,fig4 #bhj74 ,:at advantage f ?is p[]8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bee4--;,,dige/ive ,,canal ,,( ,,frog4 ,mh1 m\?2 ,z1 tongue pull$ outw>d2 ,s1 op5+ to l>ynx2 ,oe1 gullet2 ,m1 /oma*2 ,d1 inte/9e2 ,p1 pancreas2 ,l1 liv]2 ,g1 gall bladd]2 ,r1 rectum2 ,hb1 bladd]2 ,cl1 cloaca2 ,a1 v5t4 ,dige/ive ,sy/em4--,! l>ge m\? cavity is connect$ by a %ort ?roat ) ! gullet1 or esophagus 7,fig4 #bee74 ,a slit call$ ! glottis op5s f ! ?roat into ! lungs 7,fig4 #bee74 ,is ! gullet long or %ort8 ,broad or n>r[8 ,is ! /oma* %ort or elongat$8 ,is ! division di/9ct betwe5 ! /oma* & gullet1 & /oma* & inte/9e8 ,is ! liv] l>ge or small8 ,is x simple or lob$8 ,! pancreas lies betwe5 ! /oma* & ! fir/ b5d ( ! inte/9es 7,fig4 #bee74 ,:at is its %ape8 ,a bile duct connects ! liv] ) ! small inte/9e 7,dc1 ,fig4 #bee74 ,x passes ?r\gh ! pancreas1 f :i* x receives sev]al pancreatic ducts4 ,aft] _m turns1 ! small inte/9e jo9s ! l>ge inte/9e4 ,! la/ "p ( ! l>ge inte/9e is call$ ! rectum 7,lat91 /raight74 ,! la/ "p ( ! rectum is call$ ! cloaca 7,lat91 a dra971 & into x ! ducts f ! kidneys & reproductive gl&s also op54 ,! kidneys are l>ge1 elongat$1 & flat4 ,!y lie "u ! dorsal wall4 ,! ur9>y bladd] is also l>ge4 ,does ! salam&] h a simil> dige/ive sy/em8 7,fig4 #bef47 ,:y are ! liv] & lungs 7,fig4 #bef7 long] 9 a salam&] ?an 9 a frog8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bef4--;,,anatomy ,,( ,,salam&]4 #a;a1 he>t2 #b1 lungs2 #c;a1 /oma*2 #c;b1 inte/9e2 #c;c1 l>ge inte/9e2 #d1 liv]2 #h1 egg masses2 #aj1 bladd]2 #aa1 v5t4 ,respiration4--,h[ _m lungs8 ,are !y simple or lob$8 7,fig4 #bef47 ,a lung cut op5 is se5 to be baglike1 ) num]\s ridges on its inn] surface4 ,?is increases ! surface ) :i* ! air may come 9 contact4 ,9 ! walls ( ! lungs are num]\s capill>ies4 ,does ! frog brea! ) m\? op5 or clos$8 ,does ! frog h any ribs = exp&+ ! *e/8 ,:at "p ( ! head exp&s & contracts8 ,is ?is motion repeat$ at a sl[ or rapid rate8 ,regul>ly or irregul>ly8 ,!re are valves 9 ! no/rils = op5+ & clos+ !m4 ,is !re any indication ( op5+ & clos+ z ! ?roat exp&s & contracts8 ,! m\? & ?roat 7ph>ynx7 are fill$ ) air ea* "t ! ?roat swells1 & ! ex*ange ( gases 7:i* gases87 takes place cont9ually ?r\gh _! walls & ! walls ( ! lungs4 ,at int]vals ! air is =c$ ?r\gh ! glottis into ! lungs4 ,aft] a %ort "t x is expell$ f ! lungs by ! muscul> abdom9al walls1 :i* press ^u ! abdom9al organs1 & s ^u ! lungs4 ,imm$iately ! air is =c$ back into ! lungs1 s t !y are kept fill$4 ,9 "s species ! lungs regul>ly exp& at e second contraction ( ! ?roat4 ,?is is %[n by a slight outw>d motion at ! sides4 ,does ! motion ( ! ?roat cease :5 ! frog is "u wat]8 ,:y w\ld ! frog be unable to brea! 7except ?r\gh ! sk97 if its m\? 7 propp$ op58 ,:y does ! fact t ! brea?+ is s sl[ z to almo/ cease :5 hib]nat+1 aid ! frog 9 go+ ?r\gh ! w9t] )\t />v+8 7,*ap4 ,i47 ,:y mu/ frogs & toads keep _! sk9s moi/8 ,:i* looks m l a clod8 ,:y8 ,! ,he>t & ,circulation4--,:at is ! %ape ( ! he>t8 7,fig4 #beg47 ,obs]ve ! two auricles 9 front & ! conical v5tricle beh9d !m4 ,! great art]ial trunk f ! v5tricle passes =w>d beyond ! auricles2 x divides into two bran*es :i* turn to ! "r & left 7,fig4 #beg74 ,ea* bran* imm$iately subdivides into ?ree art]ies 7,fig4 #beg71 "o go+ to ! head1 "o to ! lungs & sk91 & a ?ird1 ! l>ge/1 passes backw>d 9 ! trunk1 :]e x is unit$ aga9 to its fell[4 7,color$ ,fig4 #b47 ,bo? ( ! pulmon>y ve9s1 return+ to ! he>t ) pure blood f ! lungs1 empty into ! left auricle4 ,ve9s ) ! impure blood f ! body empty into ! "r auricle4 ,bo? ! auricles empty into ! v5tricles1 b ! pure & impure blood are prev5t$ f ?or\ghly mix+ by ridges on ! inside ( ! v5tricle4 ,only 9 an animal ) a f\r-*amb]$ he>t does pure blood f ! lungs pass unmix$ & pure to all p>ts ( ! body1 & only su* animals are w>m-blood$4 ,! pur] 7i4e4 ! m oxyg5at$7 ! blood1 ! great] ! oxidation & w>m?4 ,! r$ corpuscles 9 a frog's blood are oval & l>g] ?an ^? ( man4 ,are all ( !m nucleat$8 7,fig4 #beh47 ,! fl[ ( blood 9 ! web ( a frog's foot is a /rik+ & int]e/+ sight4 ,x may be easily %[n by wrapp+ a small frog 9 a wet clo? & lay+ x ) "o foot ext5d$ ^u a glass slip on ! /age ( a microscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beg4--,,plan ,,( ,,frog',s ,,circulation4 ,v5\s sy/em is black2 ! art]ial1 :ite4 ,,au1 auricles2 ,v1 v5tricle2 ,l1 lung2 ,,liv1 liv]4 ,aorta has "o bran* to "r1 ano!r to left1 :i* reunite bel[4 ,"r bran* only p]si/s 9 birds1 left bran* 9 bea/s & man4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #beh4--;,,frog',s ,,blood 7magnifi$ #bejj areas74 ,r$ cells oval1 nucleat$1 & l>g] ?an human blood cells4 ,nuclei ( two :ite cells visible ne> c5t]4 7,peabody47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bei4--;,,bra9 ,,( ,,frog4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfj4--,,n]v\s ,,sy/em ,,( ,,frog4 ,! bra9 ( ! frog 7,fig4 #bei7 is mu* l t ( a fi% 7,fig4 #bbd74 ,! olfactory1 c]ebral1 & optic lobes1 c]ebellum & m$ulla are 9 ! same relative position1 al?\gh _! relative sizes are n ! same4 ,comp>$ ) ! o!r p>ts1 are ! olfactory lobes m or less develop$ ?an 9 a fi%8 ,! c]ebral hemisph]es8 ,! optic lobes8 ,! c]ebellum8 ,!re is a cavity 9 ! bra94 ,x is readily expos$ on ! "u surface ( ! m$ulla by cutt+ ! membrane1 :i* is !re its only cov]+ 7,fig4 #bei74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfa4--,position ( legs 9 tailless 7,a7 & tail$ 7,b7 amphibian4 ,frogs & toads are b5eficial 7:y87 & d n ! slighte/ injury to any int]e/ ( man4 ,if toads are enc\rag$ to take up _! abode 9 a g>d51 !y w aid 9 ridd+ x ( insects4 ,a h\se may be made 9 a %ady corn] ) f\r bricks1 or bett] /ill1 a hole a foot deep may be dug to furni% !m protection f ! heat ( ! day4 ,a toad's muzzle is n s tap]+ z a frog's 7:y871 its feet are n s fully webb$ 7:y871 & its sk9 is n s smoo? 7:y874 ,9 case ( d\bt op5 ! m\? & rub ! f+] along ! upp] jaw2 a frog has %>p tee?1 a toad none at all4 ,! tadpoles ( frogs1 toads1 & salam&]s are mu* alike4 ,9 toad's spawn ! eggs lie 9 /r+s inclos$ 9 jelly2 frogs spawn is 9 masses 7,fig4 #bdh74 ,any batra*ian may easily be pass$ ar\nd ! class aft] plac+ x 9 a tumbl] ) gauze or net ti$ ov] top4 ,x %\ld be kept 9 a box ) two in*es ( moi/ e>? on ! bottom4 ,if no live insects are obta9able = fe$+ a toad1 bits ( moi/ meat may be dangl$ f ! end ( a /r+4 ,if tadpoles are plac$ 9 a pool or tub 9 a g>d51 ! toads hat*$ w soon make de/ructive g>d5 insects become a r>ity4 ,does a frog or a salam&] h ! m primitive =m ( body8 ,:y d y ?9k s8 ,salam&]s are sometimes call$ mud puppies4 ,! absurd belief t salam&]s are poison\s is to be class$ ) ! belief t toads cause w>ts4 ,! belief among ! anci5ts t salam&]s ate fire arose p]haps f see+ !m com+ away f fires t _h be5 built ov] _! holes on riv] banks by travel]s4 ,_! moi/ sk9 protect$ !m until ! fire became v hot4 ,describe ! 8mud puppy0 %[n 9 ,fig4 #bfb4 ,9 ! ,we/ ! p\*$ goph]1 or rat 7,fig4 #cga71 is sometimes absurdly call$ a salam&]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfb4--;,,bl9d ,,salam&] 7,proteus angu9us74 4 ,f\nd 9 caves & und]gr\nd /reams 9 ,balkans4 ,gills ext]nal1 tail f9like1 legs small4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,reptilia 7,,reptiles7 ,?is class is divid$ into f\r ord]s :i* h su* m>k$ diff]5ces ( ext]nal =m t !re is no difficulty 9 di/+ui%+ !m4 ,^! ord]s are repres5t$ by ,liz>ds1 ,snakes1 ,turtles1 & ,alligators4 ,( ^!1 only ! =ms ( liz>ds & alligators h simil> proportions1 b !re is a m>k$ diff]5ce 9 _! size1 liz>ds be+1 9 g5]al1 ! smalle/1 & alligators ! l>ge/ ( ! reptiles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfc4--;,a ,,salam&]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfd4--;,a ,,liz>d4 ,comp>ison ( ,liz>ds & ,salam&]s4--,to make cle> ! diff]5ce betwe5 reptiles & batra*ians1 x w be well to comp>e ! ord]s 9 ! two classes :i* resemble ea* o!r 9 size & %ape2 namely1 liz>ds & salam&]s 7,figs4 #bfc & #bfd74 ,/ate 9 a tabul> =m _! diff]5ces 9 sk91 toe1 mann] ( brea?+1 developm5t f egg1 %ape ( tail1 habitat1 habits4 ,ea* has an elongat$ body1 two pairs ( limbs1 & a long tail1 yet !y are easily di/+ui%$4 ,are ! diff]5ces sugge/$ above valid = ! o!r batra*ians 7frogs7 & o!r reptiles 7e4g4 turtles78 ,trace ! same diff]5ces betwe5 ! toad or frog 7,fig4 #bej7 & ! 8horn$ toad10 :i* is a liz>d 7,fig4 #bfe74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfe4--8;,,horn$ ,,toad0 ,,liz>d1 ( ! ,s\?we/ 7,phrynosoma cornita74 4 ,,/udy ,,( ,a ,,turtle ,,or ,,tortoise ,,sugge/ions4--,because ( ! ease ) :i* a tortoise or turtle may be caught & _! movem5ts & habits /udi$1 x is sugge/$ t "o ( ^! be /udi$ z an example ( reptiles4 ,besides a live specim51 a skeleton ( "o species & ! %ells ( sev]al species %\ld be available4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bff4--;,,european ,,pond ,,turtle 7,emys lut>ia74 7,aft] ,brehms47 ,! body 7( a turtle or tortoise7 is divid$ di/9ctly into regions 7,fig4 #bff74 ,is !re a head8 ,neck8 ,trunk8 ,tail8 ,! trunk is inclos$ by ! s-call$ %ell1 :i* consi/s ( an upp] portion1 ! c>apace1 & a l[] portion1 ! pla/ron4 ,h[ are ! o!r regions cov]$8 ,:at is ! %ape ( ! head8 ,is ! m\? at ! front1 or on ! "u side8 ,:]e are ! no/rils8 ,are ! motions ( brea?+ visible8 ,is !re a beak or sn\t8 ,d ! jaws conta9 tee?8 ,d ! eyes project8 ,:i* is ?9n] & m movable1 ! upp] or l[] lid8 ,id5tify ! ?ird eyelid 7nictitat+ membrane74 ,x is transluc5t & comes f1 & is drawn into1 ! inn] corn] ( ! eye4 ,x cleanses ! eyeball4 ,frogs & birds h a simil> membrane4 ,! circul> e> drum is 9 a depression back ( ! angle ( ! m\?4 ,:at o!r animal /udi$ has an ext]nal e> drum8 ,! tortoise has a long]1 m flexible neck ?an any o!r reptile4 ,:y does x h ! greate/ ne$ = su* a neck8 ,is ! sk9 ov] ! neck tight or loose8 ,:y8 ,d ! legs h ! ?ree jo9ts or p>ts f\nd on ! limbs ( mo/ v]tebrates8 ,h[ is ! sk9 ( ! legs cov]$8 ,d ! toes h claws8 ,comp>e ! front & h9d feet4 ,does ! tortoise slide its body or lift x :5 walk+ on h>d gr\nd8 ,lay ! animal on its back on a *air or table at "o side ( ! room 9 view ( ! class4 ,wat* its attempts to "r itself4 ,are ! motions suit$ to accompli% ! object8 ,does ! tortoise succe$8 ,:at are ! prevail+ colors ( turtles8 ,h[ does _! coloration correspond to _! surr\nd+s8 ,:at p>ts ( ! tortoise ext5d at times beyond ! %ell8 ,are any ( ^! p>ts visible :5 ! %ell is clos$8 ,:at movem5ts ( ! %ell take place z x is clos$8 ,is ! c>apace rigid ?r\gh\t8 ,is ! pla/ron8 ,! ,skeleton 7,fig4 #bfg74--,! c>apace is cov]$ ) ?9 epid]mal plates :i* belong to ! sk94 ,! bony nature ( ! c>apace is se5 :5 ! plates are remov$1 or if its inn] surface is view$ 7,fig4 #bfg74 ,x is se5 to consi/ l>gely ( wide ribs 7h[ _m87 mu* flatt5$ & gr[n toge!r at _! edges4 ,! ribs are se5 to be rigidly atta*$ to ! v]tebr4 ,! re> projections ( ! v]tebr are flatt5$ into a s]ies ( bony plates :i* take ! place ( ! %>p ridge f\nd along ! backs ( mo/ v]tebrates4 ,%[ t ! %ell ( a turtle is n homolog\s ) ! %ells ( mollusks4 ,does ! turtle h %\ld] blades & coll> bones8 ,hip bones8 ,?igh bones8 ,%9 bone 7fibia7 & spl9t bone 7fibula78 7,fig4 #bfg47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfg4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,european ,,tortoise4 ,c1 rib plates2 ,m1 m>g9al plates2 ,b1 pla/ron2 ,h1 hum]us bone2 ,r1 radius2 ,u1 ulna2 ,fe1 femur4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfh4--,,?ree-,,*amb]$ ,,he>t ,,( ,a ,,reptile 7tortoise74 a1 ve9s2 b1 f1 "r & left auricles2 cg1 v5tricle2 d1 art]ies to lungs2 e1 ve9s f lungs2 i1 n1 two bran*es ( aorta4 ,comp>e ) ,fig4 #bfi & color$ ,fig4 #b4 ,d ! plates =m$ by ! ribs ext5d to ! edge ( ! c>apace8 ,see ,fig4 #bfg4 ,ab\t h[ _m bony plates =m ! c>apace8 ,! pla/ron8 ,d ! horny plates outside correspond to ! bony plates ( ! %ell8 ,h[ _m axial plates8 ,h[ _m co/al 7rib7 plates8 ,h[ _m bord] plates8 ,:i* plates are l>ge/8 ,smalle/8 ,d ! horny plates ov]lap l %+les1 or meet edge to edge8 ,is !re any m>k :]e !y meet on ! bony %ell8 ,bas+ x ^u =ego+ facts1 give a connect$ & complete description ( ! /ructure ( ! c>apace4 ,comp>e ! skeleton ( ! turtle ) t ( ! snake1 & correlate ! diff]5ces 9 /ructure ) diff]5ces 9 habits4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bfi4--,,plan ,,( ,,reptilian ,,circulation4 ,see arr[s4 ,draw ! tortoise se5 f ! side or above1 ) its %ell clos$1 %[+ ! arrangem5t ( ! plates4 ,place s(t or t5d] vegetable food1 lettuce1 mu%room1 roots1 b]ries1 & wat]1 also meat1 9 rea* ( ! turtle4 ,:at does x pref]8 ,h[ does x eat8 ,x has no lips2 h[ does x dr9k8 ,/udy ! movem5ts ( its eyeballs & eyelids1 & ! respiratory & o!r movem5ts already m5tion$4 ,/ate a reason = ?9k+ t no species ( l& animals exi/s t lacks ! simple p[] ( right+ itself :5 turn$ on its back4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgj4--,,reptilian ,,visc]a 7liz>d74 lr1 w9dpipe2 h1 he>t2 lu1 lungs2 le1 liv]2 ma1 /oma*2 dd1 md1 inte/9es2 hb1 bladd]4 ,tortoise1 ,turtle1 ,t]rap94--,! turtles belong to ! ord] ( reptiles call$ *elonians4 ,no "o c h any difficulty 9 kn[+ a memb] ( ?is ord]4 ,! subdivision ( ! ord] into families is n s easy1 h[ev]1 & ! popul> attempts to classify *elonians z turtles1 tortoises1 & t]rap9s h n be5 entirely successful4 ,species ) a vault$ %ell & imp]fectly webb$ toes & /rictly t]re/rial habits are call$ tortoises4 ,species ) flatt5$ %ells & /rictly aquatic habits %\ld be call$ t]rap9s 7e4g4 mud t]rap974 ,!y h ?ree in/ead ( two jo9ts 9 ! middle toe ( ea* foot4 ,! t]m turtle may be appli$ to species :i* are p>tly t]re/rial & p>tly aquatic 7e4g4 snapp+ turtle 7,fig4 #bga774 ,usage1 h[ev]1 is by no means uni=m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bga4--,,snapp+ ,,turtle 7,*elydra s]p5t9a74 ,mo/ reptiles eat animal food2 gre5 t]rap9s & "s l& tortoises eat vegetable food4 ,w\ld y judge t c>nivor\s *elonians cat* v active prey8 ,! fi]ce snapp+ turtle1 f\nd 9 ponds & /reams1 sometimes has a body ?ree feet long4 ,its head & tail are v l>ge & _c be )drawn into ! %ell4 ,x is c>nivor\s & has great /r5g? ( jaw4 ,x has be5 kn[n to snap a l>ge /ick 9 two4 ,! box tortoise is yell[i% br[n ) blot*es ( yell[1 & l its close k9sman1 ! pond turtle ( ,europe 7,fig4 #bff71 )draws itself & closes its %ell completely4 ,bo? lids ( ! pla/ron are movable1 a peculi>ity belong+ to ^! two species4 ,! giant tortoise ( ! ,galapagos ,isl&s1 accord+ to ,lyddek]1 c trot *e]fully along ) ?ree full-gr[n m5 on its back4 8,tortoise %ell0 us$ = combs & o!r articles is obta9$ f ! ov]lapp+ scales ( ! hawkbill turtle1 common 9 ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,! diamond-back t]rap91 f\nd along ! ,atlantic ,coa/ f ,massa*usetts to ,texas1 is priz$ = mak+ s\p4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgb4--;,a ,,rattlesnake4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgc a4--,,head ,,( ,,vip]1 %[+ typical triangul> %ape ( head ( v5om\s snake4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgc b4--,,side ,,view1 %[+ poison fangs2 also tongue 7=k$1 h>mless74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgd4--,,vip]',s ,,head1 %[+ poison sac at base ( fangs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bge4--,,skull1 %[+ tee?1 fangs1 & quadrate bone to :i* l[] jaw is jo9$4 ,see ,fig4 #bhd4 ,poison\s snakes ( ,unit$ ,/ates nam$ 9 ord] ( virul5ce3 #a4 ,coral snakes1 ,elaps1 ab\t sev5te5 r$ b&s bord]$ ) yell[ & black 7color$ figure #f7 7fatal74 #b4 ,rattlesnakes 7seldom fatal74 #c4 ,copp]head 7may kill a small animal size ( dog74 #d4 ,wat] moccas9 7nev] fatal74 #e4 ,gr\nd rattl]4--,effects3 ,pulse fa/1 brea?+ sl[1 blood tubes dilat$1 blood becomes /or$ 9 abdom9al blood tubes1 /upefaction & dea? f blood be+ )drawn f bra94 ,always two punctures1 ! clos] toge!r ! small] ! snake4 ,rem$ies3 ,ligature betwe5 w\nd & he>t1 lance w\nd & suck2 inject into w\nd ?ree drops ( #a p] c5t solution ( *romic acid or potassium p]manganate4 ,give /ry*n9e1 hypod]mically1 until /ry*n9e symptoms 7twit*+s7 appe>4 ,if symptoms ( collapse recur1 repeat dose4 ,digital9 or caffe9 acts l /ry*n9e2 alcohol has opposite effect4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgf4--8;,,glass ,,snake10 a liz>d )\t legs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgg4--,,skull ,,( ,,elaps4 ,see color$ ,fig4 #e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgh4--,,skull ,,( ,,lampropeltis4 ,protective ,coloration & ,mimicry4--,:5 an animal imitates ! color or =m ( its inanimate surr\nd+s x is said to be protectively color$ or =m$4 ,give an in/ance ( protective colorationor =m among liz>ds2 butt]flies2 gras%opp]s2 amphibians2 e*9od]ms4 ,:5 an animal imitates ! color or =m ( ano!r animal x is said to mimic ! animal4 ,mimicry usually enables an animal to deceive enemies into mi/ak+ x = an animal :i* = "s reason !y avoid4 ,! milkwe$ butt]fly has a ta/e t is repulsive to birds4 ,! vic]oy butt]fly is palatable to birds1 b x is left unt\*$ because ( its close resemblance to ! repulsive milkwe$ butt]fly4 ,! h>lequ9 snake 7,elaps7 ( ! ,gulf /ates is ! only deadly snake ( ,nor? ,am]ica 7,figs4 #bgg1 #bgh74 ,x is v /rik+ly color$ ) r+s ( sc>let1 yell[1 & black4 ,?is is an example ( w>n+ coloration4 ,! coral snake 7,lampropeltis7 has b&s ( sc>let1 yell[1 & black 7color$ ,fig4 #f7 ( ! same t9ts1 & x is h>dly di/+ui%able f ! h>lequ94 ,! coral snake is said to mimic ! h>lequ9 snake4 ,x also imitates ! quiet in(f5sive habits ( ! h>lequ9 snake1 :i* =tunately does n /rike except "u ! greate/ provocation4 ,! rattles ( ! less poison\s & seldom fatal rattlesnake 7,fig4 #bgb7 may be class$ z an example ( w>n+ s\nd :i* mo/ animals are quick to he$ & ?us avoid enc\nt]s :i* might be de/ructive to ei!r ! snake or its enemy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a ,,fig4 #b ,,fig #c4 ,,color$ ,,figures #a1 #b1 #c4--;,,circulation ,,9 ,,fi%1 ,,reptile1 ,,mammal4 ,9 :i* is blood f he>t all impure8 ,mix$8 ,bo? pure & impure8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,anatomy ,,( ,,c>p4 ,= description see ,fig4 #bbj1 page #aag4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,h>mless ,,coral ,,snake ,,mimics ,,! ,,deadly ,,h>lequ9 ,,snake4 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,h>lequ9 ,,snake 7,elaps74 ,,fig4 #f4--;,,coral ,,snake 7,lampropeltis74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bgi4--;,,gila ,,mon/] 7,helod]ma suspectum71 ( ,arizona4 ,if poison\s1 x is ! only in/ance among liz>ds4 ,x is heavy-built1 orange & black mottl$1 & ab\t #af in*es long4 ,comp>e x ) ! gre5 liz>d 7,fig4 #bhj74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhj4--;,,*ameleon 7,anolis71 or gre5 liz>d ( s\!rn ,u4,s4 ,f> excels ,european *ameleon 7,fig4 #bha7 & all kn[n animals 9 p[] ( *ang+ color 7gre51 gray1 yell[1 bronze1 & black74 ,survival ( ! ,fitte/4--,! two facts ( mo/ f>-rea*+ importance 9 ! hi/ory ( animals & plants are3 7#a7 ,h]$ity2 animals inh]it ! *>act]i/ics ( _! p>5ts4 7#b7 ,v>iation2 animals are n exactly l _! p>5ts4 ,! fir/ fact gives /ability1 ! second makes progress or evolution possible4 ,! climate ( ! _w is sl[ly *ang+1 & animals mu/ *ange to adapt !mselves to x4 ,a m sudd5 *ange ( environm5t 7surr\nd+s7 ( animals occurs because ( migration or isolation2 ^! 9 turn are caus$ by ! cr[d+ ( o!r animals or by ! =mation or disappe>ance ( geographical b>ri]s1 su* z des]ts1 wat]1 m\nta9 *a9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bha4--;,,*ameleon ,,( ,,s\!rn ,,europe4 ,! "y v>y 9 _m ways f _! p>5ts4 ,"s h a m protective color or =m1 %>p] claws1 swift] movem5ts1 etc4 ,! individuals possess+ su* b5eficial v>iations live long] & leave m (fspr+1 & because ( h]$ity transmit ! desirable qualities to "s ( _! "y4 ,v>iations :i* are disadvantage\s = gett+ food1 def5se1 etc41 cause %ort] life & few] (fspr+4 ,?us ! fitte/ survive1 ! unfit p]i%2 an automatic natural selection occurs4 ,d>w9 taught t v>iations are inf9itesimal & gradual4 ,rec5t exp]im5ts & obs]vations seem to %[ t _m v>iations are by sudd5 jumps1 some:at resembl+ s-call$ 8freaks ( nature40 ,z to :e!r ^! 8sports10 or individuals ) new peculi>ities1 survive1 dep5ds ^u _! fitness = _! environm5t4 8,survival ( ! fitte/0 results f ?is natural selection1 b ! selection occurs betwe5 animals ( m>k$1 n inf9itesimal1 diff]5ces1 z ,d>w9 taught4 ,d>w9's !ory is probably true = species 9 ! usual /ate ( nature2 ! new !ory 7( ,de ,vries7 is probably true = animals & plants "u dome/ication & dur+ rapid geographical *anges4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhb4--;,,embryo ,,( ,a ,,turtle1 %[+ f\r gill slits4 7,*all5g] ,report47 ,table = ,review 7= notebooks or blackbo>ds74 ,,fi% ,,tadpole ,,frog ,,turtle ,,liz>d ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,limbs1 k9d & numb] ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,are claws pres5t8 ,h[ _m8 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,cov]+ ( body ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,tee?1 k9d (1 if pres5t ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,:i* bones f\nd 9 man are lack+8 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,*amb]s ( he>t ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,respiration ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,movem5ts ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhc4--;,,big-,,head$ ,,turtle 7,platy/]num megalocephalum74 4 ,*9a4 ,?is & ,fig4 #bhb sugge/ desc5t ( turtles f a liz>dlike =m4 ,figure #bhb %[s e>li] ance/ors to h be5 gill brea!rs4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,birds ,illu/ration ,,sugge/ions4--,! dome/ic pigeon1 ! f[l1 & ! ,engli% sp>r[ are mo/ commonly )9 ! rea* ( /ud5ts4 ,! la/ bird has become a pe/ & is almo/ ! only bird ^: de/ruction is desirable4 ,! female is some:at uni=mly mottl$ ) gray & br[n 9 f9e m>k+s4 ,! male has a black ?roat ) ! o!r m>k+s ( black1 br[n1 & :ite1 9 /rong] contra/ ?an ! m>k+ ( ! female4 ,z ! diff]5t species ( birds are ess5tially alike 9 /ructural features1 ! directions & que/ions may be us$ ) any bird at h&4 ,:5 /udy+ fea!rs1 "o or m %\ld be provid$ = ea* pupil 9 ! class4 ,! feet & bills ( birds %\ld be kept = /udy4 ,does ! body ( ! bird1 l ! toad & turtle1 h a head1 trunk1 tail1 & two pairs ( limbs8 ,d ! =e & h9d limbs diff] f ea* o!r m or less ?an ! limbs ( o!r backbon$ animals8 ,does any o!r v]tebrate use !m = purposes z widely diff]5t8 ,eye4--,does ! eyeball h p>ts correspond+ to ! eyeball ( a fi% or frog2 viz41 cornea1 iris1 pupil8 ,:i* is m movable1 ! upp] or l[] eyelid8 ,are !re any la%es8 ,! bird 7l :at o!r animal87 has a ?ird eyelid1 or nictitat+ membrane4 ,comp>e its ?ickness ) t ( ! o!r lids4 ,is x drawn ov] ! eyeball f ! inn] or out] corn] ( ! eye8 ,c y see 9 ! human eye any wr9kle or gr[? :i* might be reg>d$ z rema9s1 or ve/ige1 ( su* a membrane8 ,h[ _m no/rils8 ,9 :i* m&ible are !y locat$8 ,are !y ne>] ! tip or ! base ( ! m&ible8 7,fig4 #bhd47 ,:at is _! %ape8 ,d ! nasal passages g directly d[n ?r\gh ! m&ible or d !y g backw>d8 ,is ! inn] nasal op5+ into ! m\? or into ! ?roat8 ,! beak or bill consi/s ( ! upp] & l[] m&ibles4 ,! outside ( ! beak seems to be ( :at k9d ( mat]ial8 ,exam9e ! decapitat$ head ( a f[l or ( a dissect$ bird1 & f9d if !re is a cov]+ on ! bill :i* c be cut or scrap$ (f4 ,is ! mass ( ! bill ( bony or horny mat]ial8 ,) :at "p ( ! human head are ! m&ibles homolog\s8 7,fig4 #bhd47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhd4--,,skull ,,( ,,dome/ic ,,f[l4 q1 quadrate 78f\r-sid$07 bone by :i* l[] jaw is atta*$ to skull 7want+ 9 bea/s1 pres5t 9 reptiles2 see ,fig4 #bgg74 ,e>s4--,d birds h ext]nal e>s8 ,is !re an ext]nal op5+ lead+ to ! e>8 ,9 se>*+ = x1 bl[ or pu% =w>d ! fea!rs4 ,if f\nd1 notice its location1 size1 %ape1 & :at surr\nds ! op5+4 ,!re is an owl spok5 ( z ! long-e>$ owl4 ,are its e>s long8 ,! leg has ?ree divisions3 ! upp]mo/ is ! ?igh 7call$ ! 8second jo9t0 9 a f[l72 ! middle division is ! %ank 7or 8drum/ick072 & ! l[e/1 :i* is ! sl5d] bone cov]$ ) scales1 is =m$ by ! union ( ! ankle & in/ep4 7,! bones ( ! ?ree divisions are nam$ ! femur1 tibiot>sus1 & t>sometat>sus74 ,! foot consi/s entirely ( toes1 ! bones ( :i* are call$ phalanges4 ,is !re a bone 9 ea* claw8 7,see ,fig4 #bhe47 ,supply ! num]als 9 ?is s5t5ce3 ,! pigeon has toes1 ! h9d toe hav+ jo9ts2 ( ! ?ree front toes1 ! inn] has jo9ts 7c\nt ! claw z "o jo9t71 ! middle has jo9ts1 & ! out] toe has jo9ts 7,fig4 #bhe74 ,is ! ?igh ( a bird b>e or fea!r$8 ,! %98 ,! ankle8 ,:]e is ! ankle jo9t ( a bird8 ,d y see ! rema9s ( ano!r bone 7! spl9t bone1 or fibula7 on ! %9 bone ( ! %ank8 7,fig4 #bhe or #bhf47 ,:y w\ld sev]al jo9ts 9 ! ankle be a disadvantage to a bird8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhe4--,,leg ,,bones ,,( ,,bird4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhf4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,bird4 ,rh1 v]tebr2 ,cl1 clavicle2 ,co1 coracoid2 ,sc1 scapula2 ,/1 /]num2 ,h1 hum]us2 ,r1 radius2 ,u1 ulna2 ,p1 ?umb2 ,fe1 femur2 ,t1 tibia4 ,see ,fig4 #cid4 ,que/ions3 ,:i* is ! /iffe/ portion ( ! v]tebral column8 ,h[ are ! ribs brac$ aga9/ ea* o!r8 ,:i* is long]1 ?igh bone or %98 ,comp>e %\ld] blade ) man's 7,fig4 #cii74 ,:i* is ! extra %\ld] bone8 ,comp>e tail v]tebr ) ^? ( ext9ct bird1 ,fig4 #bij4 ,! ?igh h>dly projects beyond ! sk9 ( ! trunk1 z may be notic$ 9 a pluck$ f[l4 ,! ?igh ext5ds =w>d f ! hip jo9t 7,figs4 #bhf1 #bii7 9 ord] to br+ ! po9t ( support =w>d "u ! c5t] ( weight4 ,:y are long front toes m necess>y ?an long h9d toes8 ,z ! bird mu/ (t5 br+ its head to ! gr\nd1 ! hip jo9ts are ne> ! dorsal surface & ! body sw+s betwe5 ! two po9ts ( support some:at l a silv] ice pit*] on its two pivots4 ,h5ce /oop+1 :i* makes a man s un/eady1 does n cause a bird to lose /ead9ess4 ,! w+ has ?ree divisions :i* correspond to ! upp] arm1 =e>m1 & h& ( man 7,fig4 #bhf74 ,:5 ! w+ is fold$1 ! ?ree divisions lie close alongside ea* o!r4 ,fold y\r arm 9 ! same mann]4 ,! simil>ity ( ! bones ( ! fir/ & second divisions to ! bones ( our upp] arm & =e>m is v obvi\s 7,fig4 #bhf74 ,expla94 ,! h& ( a bird is furni%$ ) only ?ree digits 7,fig4 #bhg74 ,! ?ree palm bones 7metac>pals7 are firmly unit$ 7,fig4 #bhg74 ,?is gives firmness to ! /roke 9 fly+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhg4--;,,h& ,,& ,,wri/ ,,( ,,f[l 7aft] ,p>k]74 ,,dg4 #a-c1 digits2 ,,mc4 #a-c1 metac>pals2 ,,cc4 #c1 wri/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhh4--;,,h&1 ,,wri/ 7c71 ,,=e>m1 ,,& ,,elb[ ,,( ,,"y ,,*ick 7aft] ,p>k]74 ,t ! bird is desc5d$ f animals :i* _h ! f+]s & palm bones less firmly unit$ is %[n by comp>+ ! h&s ( a *ick & ( an adult f[l 7,figs4 #bhg1 #bhh74 ,! wri/ also solidifies ) age1 ! five c>pals ( ! *ick be+ r$uc$ to two 9 ! f[l 7,figs4 #bhg1 #bhh74 ,! ?umb or fir/ digit has a sep>ate cov]+ ( sk9 f ! o!r digits1 z may be se5 9 a pluck$ bird4 ,! deg5]ate h& ( ! f[l is ( c\rse useless z a h& 7:at s]ves 9 its place87 b is well fitt$ = firm support ( ! fea!rs 9 fly+4 ,! two bones ( ! =e>m are also firmly jo9$4 ,!re are eighte5 movable jo9ts 9 our arm & h&2 ! bird has only ! ?ree jo9ts :i* enable x to fold its w+4 ,! wri/ jo9t is ! jo9t 9 ! =w>d angle ( ! w+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bhi4--;,,brea/bone ,,& ,,%\ld] ,,bones ,,( ,,cass[>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bij4--;,a ,,fossil ,,bird 7ar*opt]yx7 f\nd 9 ! rocks ( a =m] geological epo*4 ,"q3 ,f9d two resemblances to reptiles 9 ?is ext9ct bird abs5t f skeletons ( extant birds4 ,s9ce ! =e limbs are tak5 up ) locomotion1 ! grasp+ function has be5 assum$ by ! jaws4 ,h[ does _! %ape adapt !m to ?is use8 ,= ! same reason ! neck ( a bird surpasses ! necks ( all o!r animals 9 :at respect8 ,is ! trunk ( a bird flexible or inflexible8 ,!re is ?us a correlation betwe5 /ructure ( neck & trunk4 ,expla94 ,! same correlation is f\nd 9 :i* ( ! reptiles8 7,:y does rigidity ( trunk require flexibility ( neck87 ,:y does ! l5g? ( neck 9 birds correlate ) ! l5g? ( legs8 ,examples8 7,see ,figs4 #cad1 #cae1 #ccb47 ,exceptions8 7,fig4 #cbd47 ,:y does a swan or a goose h a long neck1 ?\gh its legs are %ort8 ,to make a firm support = ! w+s ! v]tebr ( ! back are immovably jo9$1 also !re are ?ree bones 9 ea* %\ld]1 ! coll> bone1 ! %\ld] blade1 & ! coracoid bone 7,fig4 #bhf74 ,! coll> bones are unit$ 7:y87 & =m ! 8wi%bone0 or 8pull+ bone40 ,to furni% surface = ! atta*m5t ( ! l>ge fly+ muscles !re is a prom95t ridge or keel on ! brea/bone 7,fig4 #bhf74 ,x is lack+ 9 mo/ birds :i* d n fly 7,fig4 #bhi74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bia4--,,quill ,,fea!r4 ,d1 d[ny portion4 ,! fea!rs are p]haps ! mo/ *>act]i/ic feature ( birds4 ,! l>ge fea!rs ( ! w+s & tail are call$ quill fea!rs4 ,a quill fea!r 7,fig4 #bia7 is se5 to consi/ ( two p>ts1 ! %aft1 or support+ axis1 & ! broad vane or web4 ,:at "p ( ! %aft is r\nd8 ,holl[8 ,solid8 ,is ! %aft /raight8 ,are ! sides ( ! vane usually equal 9 wid?8 ,c y tell by look+ at a quill :e!r x belongs to ! w+ or tail1 & :i* w+ or :i* side ( ! tail x comes f8 ,d ! quills ov]lap ) ! wide side ( ! vane above or b5ea? ! next fea!r8 ,c y cause two p>ts ( ! vane to unite aga9 by press+ toge!r ! two sides ( a split 9 ! vane8 ,does ! web sep>ate at ! same place :5 pull$ until x splits aga98 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bib4--;,i1 ,,cont\r ,,fea!r4 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,,p>ts ,,( ,,quill ,,fea!r1 enl>g$4 ,! holl[ "p ( ! %aft ( a quill fea!r is call$ ! quill4 ,! "p ( ! %aft be>+ ! vane is call$ ! ra*is 7r-kis74 ,! vane consi/s ( sl5d] b>bs :i* are bran*es ( ! %aft 7,,ii1 ,fig4 #bib74 ,z ! "n indicates 7see diction>y71 a b>b resembles a hair4 ,! b>bs 9 turn be> second>y bran*es call$ b>bules1 & ^! aga9 h %ort] bran*es call$ b>bicels 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #bib74 ,^! are sometimes b5t 9 ! =m ( hooklets 7,fig4 #bib1 ,,iii71 & ! hooklets ( neighbor+ b>bules int]lock1 giv+ firmness to ! vane4 ,:5 two b>bules are split ap>t1 & !n reunit$ by /rok+ ! vane betwe5 ! ?umb & f+]1 ! union may be s /rong t a pull ^u ! vane w cause x to split 9 a new place next "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bic4--;,a ,,d[n ,,fea!r1 enl>g$4 ,!re are f\r k9ds ( fea!rs1 7#a7 ! quill fea!rs1 j /udi$2 7#b7 ! cont\r fea!rs 7,i1 ,fig4 #bib71 :i* =m ! g5]al surface ( ! body & give x its outl9es2 7#c7 ! d[ny fea!rs 7,fig4 #bic71 abundant on ne/l+s & f\nd among ! cont\r fea!rs ( ! adult b n %[+ on ! surface2 7#d7 ! p9 fea!rs1 :i* are hair-l1 & :i* are remov$ f a pluck$ bird by s+e+4 ,! cont\r fea!rs are simil> 9 /ructure to ! quill fea!rs4 ,!y protect ! body f bl[s1 ov]lap s z to %$ ! ra91 &1 ) ! aid ( ! d[ny fea!rs reta9 ! heat1 ?us acc\nt+ = ! high temp]ature ( ! bird4 ,! d[ny fea!rs are s(t & fluffy1 z !y possess few or no b>bicels2 sometimes !y lack ! ra*is 7,fig4 #bic74 ,! p9 fea!rs are delicate horny %afts1 greatly resembl+ hairs1 b !y may h a tuft ( b>bs at ! ends4 ,a fea!r gr[s f a small projection 7or papilla7 f\nd at ! bottom ( a depression ( ! sk94 ,! quill is =m$ by be+ mold$ ar\nd ! papilla4 ,d y see any op5+ at ! tip ( ! quill = blood vessels to ent] & n\ri% ! fea!r8 ,:at is 9 ! quill8 7,fig4 #bia47 ,! ra*is8 ,a "y cont\r or quill fea!r is inclos$ 9 a delicate %ea? :i* is ca/ (f :5 ! fea!r has be5 =m$4 ,h y se5 ! %ea? incas+ a "y fea!r 9 a molt+ bird8 ,!re are consid]able areas or tracts on a bird's sk9 )\t cont\r fea!rs4 ,su* b>e tracts are f\nd along ! ridge ( ! brea/ & on ! sides ( ! neck4 ,h[ev]1 ! cont\r fea!rs lie s z to ov]lap & cov] ! :ole body p]fectly 7,fig4 #bid74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bid4--;,,dorsal ,,& ,,v5tral ,,view ,,( ,,pluck$ ,,bird1 %[+ regions :]e fea!rs gr[4 ,! %$d+ ( ! fea!rs is call$ molt+4 ,fea!rs1 l ! leaves ( trees1 are delicate /ructures & lose p]fect condition ) age4 ,h5ce ! annual r5ewal ( ! fea!rs is an advantage4 ,mo/ birds %$ twice a ye>1 & ) _m ! summ] plumage is bright] color$ ?an ! w9t] plumage4 ,:5 a fea!r is %$ on "o side1 ! correspond+ fea!r on ! o!r side is always %$ ) x4 7,:at ne$ = ?is87 ,a l>ge oil gl& is easily f\nd on ! dorsal side ( ! tail4 ,h[ does ! bird apply ! oil to ! fea!rs8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bie4--,,w+ ,,( ,,bird4 #a1 false quills 7on ?umb72 #b1 prim>ies2 #c1 second>ies2 t]ti>ies 7d>k7 are "o above ano!r at "r2 a1 b1 cov]ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bif4 ,a1 po9t divid+ prim>ies f second>ies2 ,b1 cov]ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #big4--;,,c$> ,,waxw+1 ) regions ( body m>k$4 ,s1 =ehead2 ,sc1 cr[n 7) cre/72 ,hh1 nape2 ,k1 ?roat2 ,br1 brea/2 ,ba1 l[] p>ts2 ,r1 back2 ,rt1 tail2 ,b1 tail cov]ts2 ,p1 %\ld] fea!rs 7scapul>s72 ,t1 w+ cov]ts2 ,,hs1 prim>ies2 ,,z1 second>ies2 ,al1 ?umb fea!rs4 ,9 describ+ & classify+ birds1 x is necess>y to "k ! names ( ! v>i\s ext]nal regions ( ! body & plumage4 ,^! may be le>n$ by /udy+ ,figs4 #bie1 #bif1 #big1 #bih4 ,! quills on ! h& are call$ prim>ies1 ^? on ! =e>m are ! second>ies1 ^? on ! upp] arm are ! t]ti>ies4 ,^? on ! tail are call$ ! tail quills4 ,! fea!rs at ! base ( ! quills are call$ ! cov]ts4 ,! ?umb be>s "o or m quills call$ ! spuri\s quills4 ,is ! w+ concave on ! l[] or upp] side8 ,:at advantage is ?is :5 ! bird is at re/8 ,:5 x is fly+8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bih4--,,plan ,,( ,,bird4 s1 c5t] ( gravity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bii4--,,position ,,( ,,limbs ,,( ,,pigeon4 ,control ( ,flight4--,did y ev] see a bird sitt+ on a sw++ limb8 ,:at 0 its *ief means ( balanc+ itself8 ,:5 fly+1 :at does a bird d to direct its c\rse upw>d8 ,d[nw>d8 ,is ! body level :5 x turns to ei!r side8 ,birds ) long1 po9t$ w+s excel 9 :at respect8 ,examples8 ,birds ) great w+ surface excel 9 :at k9d ( flight8 ,examples4 ,"n a common bird ) %ort w+s :i* has a labor$1 :irr+ flight4 ,is its tail l>ge or small8 ,does x avoid ob/acles & direct its flight well8 ,:y or :y n8 ,:5 a boat is to be turn$ to ! "r1 mu/ ! rudd] be pull$ to ! "r or ! left8 7,! rudd] drags 9 ! wat] & ?us pulls ! boat ar\nd47 ,:5 ! bird wi%es to g upw>d1 mu/ its tail be turn$ up or d[n8 ,h[ :5 x wi%es to g d[n8 ,:5 a buzz>d so>s = an h\r )\t flapp+ its w+s1 does x move at a uni=m rate8 ,= :at does x use ! mom5tum ga9$ :5 go+ ) ! w9d8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjj4 a1 clamb]+ foot ( *imney sweep2 b1 climb+ foot ( woodpeck]2 c1 p]*+ foot ( ?ru%2 d1 seiz+ foot ( hawk2 e1 scrat*+ foot ( pheasant2 f1 /alk+ foot ( k+fi%]2 g1 runn+ foot ( o/ri*2 h1 wad+ foot ( h]on2 i1 paddl+ foot ( gull2 k1 swimm+ foot ( duck2 l1 /e]+ foot ( cormorant2 m1 div+ foot ( grebe2 n1 skimm+ foot ( coot4 ,"q3 ,does any bird use its foot z a h&8 7,fig4 #cbj47 ,fly+4--,:5 /udy+ ! quill fea!rs ( ! w+1 y saw t ! wid] side ( ! vane is b5ea? ! fea!r next beh9d x4 ,dur+ ! d[nw>d /roke ( ! w+ ?is side ( ! vane is press$ by ! air aga9/ ! fea!r above x & ! air _c pass ?r\gh ! w+4 ,z ! w+ is rais$ ! vanes sep>ate & ! air passes ?r\gh4 ,! convex upp] surface ( ! w+ also prev5ts ! w+ f cat*+ air z x is rais$4 ,spread a w+ & bl[ /rongly aga9/ its l[] surface2 its upp] surface4 ,:at effects are notic$8 ,/udy ! scales on ! leg ( a bird 7,fig4 #cjj74 ,:y is ! leg scaly r ?an fea!r$ f ! ankle d[nw>d8 ,:i* scales are l>ge/8 7,fig4 #cjj47 ,h[ d ! scales on ! front & back diff]8 ,:at c y say ( ! scales at ! bottom ( ! foot2 at ! jo9ts ( ! toes8 ,expla94 ,h[ does ! cov]+ ( ! nails & bill comp>e 9 color1 texture1 h>dness & firmness ( atta*m5t ) ! scales ( ! leg8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cja4--;,,an ,,altrical ,,bird1 i4e4 poorly develop$ at hat*+4 ,"y pigeon1 nak$1 beak too weak = eat+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjb4--;,a ,,precocial ,,bird 7well develop$ at hat*+74 ,fea!r$1 able to run & to pick up food4 ,precocity is a sign ( in/9ctive life & l[ intellig5ce4 ,a baby is n precoci\s4 ,"q3 ,is pigeon or f[l expos$ to m dang]s 9 infancy8 ,draw an outl9e ( ! bird se5 f ! side4 ,make draw+s ( ! head & feet m detail$ & on a l>g] scale4 ,:y does a goose h m fea!rs suitable = mak+ pill[s ?an a f[l8 ,9 :at c\ntry did ! dome/ic f[l orig9ate8 7,encyclop$ia47 ,:y does a cock cr[ = day8 7,consid] animal life 9 jungle47 ,activities ( a ,bird4--,obs]ve a bird eat+4 ,does x seem to *ew or break its food be=e swall[+8 ,does x h to lift its head 9 ord] to swall[ food8 ,to swall[ dr9k8 ,:y is !re a diff]5ce8 ,aft] fe$+ ! bird1 c y feel ! food 9 ! crop1 or enl>gem5t ( ! gullet at ! base ( ! neck8 7,fig4 #cjd47 ,feel & look = any movem5ts 9 brea?+4 ,c y f9d h[ (t5 x brea!s p] m9ute8 ,place h& "u ! bird's w+4 ,:at d y ?9k ( its temp]ature2 or bett]1 :at temp]ature is %[n by a !rmomet] held "u its w+8 ,d y see any connection betwe5 ! brea?+ rate & ! temp]ature8 ,te/ 7z ) ! crayfi%7 :e!r a bird c see beh9d its head8 ,notice ! movem5ts ( ! nictitat+ membrane4 ,does x appe> to be transp>5t8 ,wat* a bird fly ar\nd a clos$ room & review ! que/ions on ,control ( ,flight4 ,b5d a bird's leg & see if x has any effect ^u its toes4 ,notice a bird 7especially a l>ge f[l7 walk to see if x b5ds its toes z ! foot is lift$4 ,pull ! re> t5don 9 a foot cut f a f[l = ! kit*54 ,does ! bird h to use muscul> ex]tion to grasp a /ick ^u :i* x sits8 ,:y1 or :y n8 ,:5 is ?is b5d+ ( ! toes by b5d+ ! legs ( special advantage to a hawk8 ,to a duck8 ,a wad+ bird8 ,:y is a f[l safe f a hawk if x /&s close to a tree8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjc4--;,,head ,,( ,,woodpeck]4 c1 tongue2 a1 b1 d1 hyoid bone2 e1 q1 w9dpipe2 f1 saliv>y gl&4 ,d y see any signs ( tee? 9 ! bird's jaws8 ,:y are duck's 8tee?0 7s call$ by *ildr57 n tee?8 ,c ! tongue ( a bird be pull$ =w>d8 7,fig4 #cjc47 ,:at is its %ape8 ,if !re is opportunity1 dissect & /udy ! sl5d]1 bony 7hyoid7 app>atus to :i* ! base ( ! tongue is atta*$ 7,fig4 #cjc71 ! op5+ ( ! w9dpipe1 or tra*ea1 ! slit-l op5+ ( w9dpipe :i* is s n>r[ z to prev5t food fall+ into ! w9dpipe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjd4--;,,anatomy ,,( ,,dove 4 bk1 keel ( brea/bone2 ,g1 g1 bra92 lr1 w9dpipe2 lu1 lung2 h1 he>t2 sr1 gullet2 k1 crop2 dr1 gl&ul> /oma*2 mm1 gizz>d2 d1 inte/9e2 n1 kidney2 hl1 uret]2 eil1 op5+s ( uret] & egg duct into cloaca1 kl4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cje4--;,,food ,,tube ,,( ,,bird4 ,p1 pancreas2 ,c1 cca4 ,"q3 ,id5tify ea* "p by means ( ,fig4 #cjd4 ,! ,int]nal ,organs1 or ,visc]a 7,figs4 #cjd & #cje74--,! visc]a 7visse-ra71 z 9 mo/ v]tebrates1 include ! food tube & its gl&s2 ! lungs1 ! he>t1 & l>g] blood vessels2 ! kidneys & bladd] & ! reproductive organs4 ,! l[] "p1 or gullet1 is enl>g$ into a crop4 ,x is l>ge/ 9 gra9-eat+ birds4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! ,v-%ap$ depression at ! angle ( ! wi%bone1 j be=e ! food tube ent]s ! ?orax4 ,! food is /or$ & s(t5$ 9 ! crop4 ,f ! crop ! food passes at int]vals into ! gl&ul> /oma*4 ,close to ?is is ! muscul> /oma*1 or gizz>d4 ,are ! places ( entrance & exit on opposite sides ( ! gizz>d1 or ne> toge!r8 7,fig4 #cjd47 ,is ! l9+ ( ! gizz>d r\gh or smoo?8 ,:y8 ,is ! gizz>d t\gh or weak8 ,:y are small /ones 9 ! gizz>d8 ,:y d n hawks & o!r birds ( prey ne$ a muscul> gizz>d8 ,! liv] & pancreas empty _! secretions into ! inte/9es by sev]al ducts a little way beyond ! gizz>d4 ,beyond ! m\?s ( two cca 7,fig4 #cje7 ! _m-coil$ inte/9e empties into ! /raight rectum1 :i* t]m9ates 9 a wid5$ "p call$ ! cloaca4 ,n only ! inte/9e1 b ! two uret]s ( ! ur9>y sy/em & ! two g5ital ducts ( ! reproductive sy/em all empty into ! cloaca 7,figs4 #cjd1 #cje74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjf4--,,position ,,( ,,lungs ,,& ,,air ,,sacs 7,pigeon74 ,tr1 w9dpipe2 ,p1 lungs2 ,lm1 sac "u clavicle ) prolongation 7,lh7 into hum]us2 ,la1 sacs 9 abdom54 ,! lungs h _! re> surfaces atta*$ to ! sp9al column & ribs 7lu1 ,fig4 #cjd74 ,!y are connect$ ) ?9-wall$1 transp>5t air sacs :i* aid 9 purify+ ! blood4 ,:5 inflat$ ) w>m air1 !y probably make ! body ( ! bird m buoyant4 ,= ! names1 location1 & %ape ( sev]al pairs ( air sacs1 see ,fig4 #cjf4 ,! connection ( ! air sacs ) holl[s 9 ! hum]us bones is also %[n 9 ! figure4 ,_m ( ! bones are holl[2 ?is adds to ! buoyancy ( ! bird4 ,! pulmon>y art]y1 z 9 man1 takes d>k blood to ! lungs to ex*ange its c>bon dioxide = oxyg54 ,( two animals ( ! same weight1 :i* exp5ds m en]gy1 ! "o t flies1 or ! "o t runs ! same di/ance8 ,does a bird require m oxyg5 or less1 9 proportion to its weight1 ?an an animal t lives on ! gr\nd8 ,are ! vocal cords ( a bird high] or l[] 9 ! w9dpipe ?an ^? ( a man8 7,fig4 #cjg47 ,! he>t ( a bird1 l a man's he>t1 has f\r *amb]s2 h5ce x keeps ! purifi$ blood sep>ate f ! impure blood4 ,s9ce pure blood rea*es ! organs ( a bird1 oxidation is m p]fect ?an 9 ! body ( any animals yet /udi$4 ,birds h high] temp]ature ?an any o!r class ( animals :atsoev]4 ,tell h[ ! jaws1 tail1 & w+s ( ! fossil bird ,ar*opt]yx diff]$ f liv+ birds 7,fig4 #bij74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjg4--,,position ,,( ,,vocal ,,cords 7/r7 ,,( ,,mammal ,,& ,,bird4 ,"q3 ,does a f[l ev] croak aft] its head & "p ( its neck are cut (f8 ,expla94 ,,sugge/ions4--,9 ! field "w1 besides seek+ ! answ]s to def9ite que/ions1 pupils may be requir$ to h& 9 a record ( ! places & times ( see+ a c]ta9 numb] ( birds 7#bj to #dj71 ) ! actions & features :i* made ea* di/+ui%able4 ,also1 & m important1 ea* pupil %\ld h& 9 a record ( a c>eful & ?or\gh outdoor /udy ( "o common species 7see bel[7 z reg>ds habits1 ne/+1 relation to environm5t1 etc4 ,field ,/udy ( a ,common ,species4--7,= writt5 report47 ,"n ( species4 ,haunts4 ,me?od ( locomotion :5 n fly+4 ,fly+ 7rate1 sail+1 accompany+ s\nd if any1 so>+74 ,:at is ! food8 ,h[ obta9$8 ,association ) birds ( its own species4 ,relation to birds ( o!r species4 ,:]e does x build its ne/8 ,:y is su* a situation select$8 ,( :at is ! ne/ built8 ,h[ is ! mat]ial c>ri$1 & h[ built into ! ne/8 ,does ! bird's body fill ! ne/8 ,describe ! eggs4 ,does ! male bird ev] sit or o!rwise assi/ female be=e hat*+8 ,does x assi/ aft] hat*+8 ,h[ long is tak5 to lay a sitt+ ( eggs8 ,h[ long be=e ! birds are hat*$8 ,:5 hat*$ are !y helpless8 ,bl9d8 ,fea!r$8 7,figs4 #cja1 #cjb47 ,d ! ne/l+s require mu* food8 ,h[ _m times is food br\ght 9 an h\r8 ,h[ di/ribut$8 ,ev5 if ! old birds sometimes eat fruit d !y take fruit to ! "y8 ,:at d !y fe$ to ! "y8 ,h[ long be=e !y leave ! ne/8 ,d ! p>5ts try to tea* !m to fly8 ,d ! p>5ts c>e = !m aft] ! ne/ is left8 ,:at songs or calls has ! bird8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cjh4--;,,european ,,tomtit',s ,,ne/4 ,:at are ! advantages ( its %ape8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cji4--,,tailor ,,bird',s ,,ne/ 7,india74 ,in/9ct = ne/ build+ highly p]fect$4 ,g5]al ,field ,/udy4--7,= writt5 report47 ,"n ! be/ & poore/ fly]s y "k2 birds t fly mo/ ( ! "t2 birds t seldom fly4 ,obs]ve birds t pair2 live 9 flocks4 ,does _! sociability v>y ) ! season8 ,d y ev] see birds qu>rel+8 ,fight+8 ,:at birds d y obs]ve :ipp+ or driv+ birds l>g] ?an !mselves8 ,:i* p>5t d "y birds mo/ resemble8 ,"n ! purposes = :i* birds s+4 ,:i* s5ses are v acute8 ,:y8 ,dull8 ,:y8 ,c y te/ y\r /atem5ts by exp]im5t8 ,a p>tridge usually sits ) #ah to #bd eggs 9 ne/4 ,ab\t h[ long aft] lay+ fir/ egg be=e sitt+ beg9s8 ,d sev]al p>tridge h5s lay 9 ! same ne/8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #caj4--;,,h\se ,,wr54 ,haunts4--,"n "s birds t are f\nd mo/ (t5 9 ! foll[+ localities3 ab\t our homes1 9 g>d5s & or*>ds1 fields & mead[s1 9 bu%es1 9 ! woods1 9 seclud$ woods1 ar\nd /reams ( wat]1 9 ?ickets1 9 p9e woods4 ,size4--,"n birds z l>ge z a rob9 or l>g]1 ne>ly z l>ge1 half z l>ge1 mu* small]4 ,colors4--,:i* sex is m brilliant8 ,:at advantage are bright colors to "o sex8 ,:at advantage are dull colors to ! o!r sex8 ,:i* h yell[ brea/s1 r$ pat* on heads1 r$ or *e/nut brea/s1 blue backs1 black all ov]8 ,habits4--,"n ! birds t walk1 jump1 swim1 live 9 flocks1 s+ :ile fly+1 fly 9 undulations1 9 circles1 h labor$ flight4 ,su* books z ,wright's 8,birdcraft0 7,macmillan1 ,n4 ,y471 ,cl>k's 8,birds ( ,lakeside & ,prairie0 7,mum=d1 ,*icago71 & ,pe>son's 8,/ories ( ,bird ,life0 7,b4 ,f4 ,johnson1 ,ri*mond71 w be ( great help4 ,! la/ book is delightfully writt51 & is "o ( ! few treat+ ( bird life 9 ! ,s\?4 ,economic ,importance ( ,birds4--,f>m]s f9d _! mo/ valuable allies 9 ! class aves1 z birds are ! deadlie/ enemies ( insects & gnaw+ animals4 ,to ! innum]able robb]s :i* deva/ate our fields & g>d5s1 nature opposes ! army ( birds4 ,!y are less num]\s ?an insects & o!r robb]s1 x is true1 b !y are skillful & zeal\s 9 pursuit1 ke5 ( eye1 quick1 active1 & rem>kably voraci\s4 ,! purely insectivor\s birds are ! mo/ useful1 b ! omnivor\s & gram9ivor\s birds d n disda9 insects4 ,! p]*]s & ! woodpeck]s %\ld be protect$ mo/ c>efully4 ,! night birds ( prey 7& ^? ( ! day to a less degree7 are v de/ructive to field mice1 rabbits1 & o!r gnaw+ animals4 ,"s ignorant f>m]s compla9 cont9ually ab\t ! h>m done by birds4 ,to de/roy !m is z unwise z x w\ld be to de/roy ! sk9 :i* protects ! human body because x has a spot ^u x6 ,x _c be repeat$ too pla9ly t to hunt useful birds is a wrong & mis*iev\s act1 & x is /upid & b>b>\s to de/roy _! ne/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #caa4--,,scree* ,,owl 7,megascops asio74 ,"q3 ,comp>e po/ure ( body1 position ( eyes1 & size ( eyes1 ) o!r birds4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cab4--;,,go%awk1 or *ick5 hawk4 ,injuri\s birds are few4 ,( c\rse birds :i* are ! enemies ( o!r birds are enemies ( mank9d1 b examples are sc>ce 7"s owls & hawks74 ,_m birds ( prey are class$ ?us by mi/ake4 ,sp>r[ hawks1 = in/ance1 d n eat birds except 9 r>e in/ances2 !y fe$ *iefly ^u insects4 ,a sp>r[ hawk (t5 keeps wat* ov] a field :]e gras%opp]s are pl5tiful & de/roys great numb]s ( !m4 ,:5 a bird is kill$ because x is suppos$ to be injuri\s1 ! crop %\ld always be exam9$1 & its cont5ts w (t5 surprise ^? :o are sure x is a h>mful bird4 ,! writ] once f\nd two frogs1 ?ree gras%opp]s1 & five beetles t _h be5 swall[$ by a 8*ick5 hawk0 kill$ by an irate f>m]1 b no sign ( birds hav+ be5 us$ = food4 ,f[ls %\ld n be rais$ 9 op5 places1 b among trees & bu%es1 :]e hawks _c swoop4 ,birds :i* live exclusively ^u fi% are1 ( c\rse1 oppos$ to human int]e/s4 ,pigeons are de/ructive to gra92 eagles fe$ *iefly ^u o!r birds4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cac4--,,road ,,runn]1 or *ap>ral bird 7,tex4 to ,cal474 ,:at ord]8 7,key1 p4 #agg47 ,if ! birds eat ! grapes1 d n kill ! birds1 b plant m grapes4 ,p ) two or ?ree fruit trees or a small g>d5 are ! only ones t lose a noticeable am\nt ( food4 ,we cut d[n ! =e/s f :i* ! birds obta9 "p ( _! food4 ,we de/roy insect pe/s at great co/ ( spray+1 etc4 ,! commission ! birds *>ge = su* "w is v small inde$4 7,see pages #agg-ahc47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cad4--,,wood ,,duck1 male 7,aix sponsa74 ,ne/s 9 holl[ trees ?r\gh\t ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,also call$ summ] duck 9 ,s\?4 ,:y8 ,! ,engli% sp>r[ is "o bird ( :i* no good ^w may be said4 ,among birds1 x holds ! place held by rats among bea/s4 ,x is crafty1 qu>relsome1 ?iev+1 & a nuisance4 ,x 0 import$ 9 #aheb to eat mo?s4 ,! results %[ h[ ignorant we are ( animal life1 & h[ sl[ we %\ld be to tamp] ) ! arrangem5ts ( nature4 ,9 ,s\!rn cities x produces five or six broods ea* ye> ) f\r to six "y 9 ea* brood4 7,notice :at x fe$s its "y47 ,x fights1 competes ) & drives away our native useful birds4 ,x also eats gra9 & preys ^u g>d5s4 ,!y h multipli$ m 9 ,au/ralia & ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?an 9 ,europe1 because !y left beh9d !m _! native enemies & _! new enemies 7cr[s1 jays1 %rikes1 etc47 h n yet develop$1 to a suffici5t ext5t1 ! habit ( prey+ ^u !m4 ,nature w1 p]haps1 aft] a long "t1 re/ore ! equilibrium de/roy$ by presumptu\s man4 ,protection ( ,birds4--#a4 ,leave z _m trees & bu%es /&+ z possible4 ,plant trees1 enc\rage bu%es4 #b4 ,d n keep a cat4 ,a m\se trap is m useful ?an a cat4 ,a tax %\ld be impos$ ^u own]s ( cats4 #c4 ,make a bird h\se & place on a pole2 remove b>k f pole t cats may n climb x1 or put a broad b& ( t9 ar\nd ! pole4 #d4 ,scatt] food 9 w9t]4 ,9 dry regions & 9 hot wea!r keep a %all[ t9 vessel conta9+ wat] on ! ro( ( an ou?\se1 or out-(-!-way place = %y birds4 #e4 ,d n we> fea!rs obta9$ by ! kill+ ( birds4 ,:at fea!rs are n s obta9$8 #f4 ,report all violators ( laws = protection ( birds4 #g4 ,de/roy ,engli% sp>r[s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cae4--;,,great ,,blue ,,h]on4 ,9 flight1 balanc+ ) legs4 ,migration4--,_m birds1 9 fact mo/ birds1 migrate to w>m] climates to sp5d ! w9t]4 ,naturali/s 7 once cont5t to speak ( ! migration ( birds z a wond]ful in/9ct1 & made no attempt to expla9 x4 ,z birds h ! w>me/ cov]+ ( all animals1 ! w9t] migration is n = ! purpose ( escap+ ! cold2 x is probably to escape />vation1 because 9 cold c\ntries food is l>gely hidd5 by sn[ 9 w9t]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! birds rema9$ 9 ! w>m c\ntries 9 summ]1 ! food f\nd 9 nor!rn c\ntries 9 summ] w\ld be unus$1 :ile !y w\ld h to compete ) ! num]\s tropical birds = food1 & !y & _! eggs w\ld be 9 dang] f snakes1 wild cats1 & o!r bea/s ( prey s num]\s 9 w>m climates4 ,^! are ! be/ reasons s f> giv5 = migration4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #caf4--;,,european ,,swall[s 7,hirundo urbica71 assembl+ = autumn flight to ,s\?4 ,! mann] & me?ods ( migration h be5 /udi$ m c>efully 9 ,europe ?an 9 ,am]ica4 ,migration is n a bl9d1 infallible in/9ct1 b ! r\te is le>n$ & taught by ! old birds to ! "y ones2 !y g 9 flocks to keep f los+ ! way 7,fig4 #caf72 ! olde/ & /ronge/ birds guide ! flocks 7,fig4 #cag74 ,! birds :i* lose _! way are "y ones ( ! la/ brood1 or mo!rs t turn aside to look = _! /ray$ "y4 ,! adult males seldom lose _! way unless scatt]$ by a /orm4 ,birds are sometimes caught 9 /orms or jo9 flocks ( ano!r species & arrive 9 c\ntries unsuit$ = !m1 & p]i%4 ,= example1 a sea or m>% bird w\ld die ( hung] on arriv+ 9 a v dry c\ntry4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cag4--;,,cranes ,,migrat+1 ) lead] at po9t ( ,v-%ap$ l9e4 ,! l&m>ks ( ! r\te are m\nta9s1 riv]s1 valleys1 & coa/ l9es4 ,?is k is h&$ d[n f "o g5]ation to ano!r4 ,x includes ! location ( c]ta9 places on ! r\te :]e food is pl5tiful & ! birds c re/ 9 security4 ,siebohm & o!rs h /udi$ ! r\tes ( migration 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,! r\te f ! ne/+ places 9 nor!rn ,europe to ,africa foll[s ! ,rh9e1 ! ,lake ( ,g5eva1 ! ,rhone1 :5ce "s species foll[ ! ,italian & o!rs ! ,spani% coa/ l9e to ,africa4 ,birds *oose ! l[e/ m\nta9 passes4 ,! ,old ,_w m>t9 travels e ye> f ! ,nor? ,cape to ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope & back aga96 ,ano!r r\te has be5 trac$ f ,egypt along ! coa/ ( ,asia ,m9or1 ! ,black ,sea & ,ural ,mts4 to ,sib]ia4 ,field ,/udy ( ,migration4--,?ree columns may be fill$ on ! blackbo>d 9 an unus$ corn]1 tak+ sev]al mon?s 9 spr+ or fall = ! "w4 ,fir/ column1 birds t /ay all ! ye>4 ,second column1 birds t come f ! s\? & are se5 9 ! summ] only4 ,?ird column1 birds t come f ! nor? & are se5 9 w9t] only4 ,exact dates ( arrival & dep>ture & flight ov]head %\ld be record$ 9 notebooks4 ,_m su* records w enable ,am]ican zoologi/s to trace ! migration r\tes ( our birds4 ,reports may be s5t to ! *ief ( ! ,biological ,survey1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cah4--;,,apt]yx1 ( ,new ,zeal&4 ,size ( a h51 w+s & tail rudim5t>y1 fea!rs hair-l4 ,molt+4--,h[ d birds arrange _! fea!rs aft] !y h be5 ruffl$8 ,d !y ev] ba! 9 wat]8 ,9 du/8 ,du/ helps to remove old oil4 ,at :at season are birds brighte/ fea!r$8 ,:y8 ,h y ev] se5 evid5ce ( ! molt+ ( birds8 ,describe ! molt+ process 7page #abj74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cai4--;,,gold51 ,,silv]1 ,,& ,,noble ,,pheasants1 males4 ,ord]8 7,key1 p4 #agg47 ,ornam5ts ( males1 brighte/ 9 season ( c\rt%ip1 are due to sexual selection 7,figs4 #cba-g-i1 #ccc74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cbj4--;,,cockatoo4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cba4--;,,bird ,,( ,,p>adise 7,asia74 ,adaptations = ,fly+4--,flight is ! mo/ difficult & en]gy-consum+ me?od ( mov+ f\nd among animals1 & c>eful adju/m5t is necess>y4 ,= balanc+1 ! heavie/ muscles are plac$ at ! l[] & c5tral portion ( ! body4 ,^! are ! fly+ muscles1 & 9 "s birds 7humm+ birds7 !y make half ( ! entire weight4 ,tee? are ! d5se/ ( animal /ructures2 tee? & ! /rong *ew+ muscles requir$ w\ld make ! head heavy & balanc+ difficult2 h5ce ! *ew+ app>atus is transf]r$ to ! heavy gizz>d ne> ! c5t] ( gravity ( ! body4 ,! bird's neck is long & excels all o!r necks 9 flexibility1 b x is v sl5d] 7al?\gh app>5tly heavy71 be+ inclos$ 9 a loose1 fea!r$ sk94 ,a cone is ! be/ %ape to enable ! body to p5etrate ! air1 & a small neck w\ld de/roy ! conical =m4 ,! int]nal organs are compactly arrang$ & re/ 9 ! cavity ( ! brea/ bone4 ,! bell[s-l air sacs fill$ ) w>m air light5 ! bird's weight4 ,! bones are holl[ & v ?94 ,! l>ge tail quills are us$ by ! bird only 9 guid+ its flight up & d[n1 or balanc+ on a limb4 ,! feet also aid a fly+ bird 9 balanc+4 ,! w+ is s con/ruct$ z to pres5t to ! air a rem>kably l>ge surface comp>$ ) ! small bony support 9 ! w+ skeleton4 ,are tubes ev] resort$ to by human ar*itects :5 lightness comb9$ ) /r5g? is desir$8 ,:i* quills 9 ! w+ s]ve to l5g!n x8 7,fig4 #bif47 ,to broad5 x8 ,is flight m difficult = a bird or a butt]fly8 ,:i* ( !m d ! fly+ ma*9es m closely resemble8 ,c any bird fly = a long "t )\t flapp+ its w+s8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cbb4--;,,h]r+ ,,gull4 7,ord]87 ,ex]cise 9 ! ,use ( ! ,key4--,copy ?is li/ & write ! "n ( ! ord] to :i* ea* ( ! birds belongs4 7,key1 page #agg47 ,cockatoo 7,fig4 #cbj7 ,sacr$ ,ibis 7,fig4 #cbh7 ,scree* ,owl 7,fig4 #caa7 ,night+ale 7,fig4 #cbe7 ,top-knot ,quail 7,fig4 #cbi7 ,wr5 7,fig4 #caj7 ,apt]yx 7,fig4 #cah7 ,lyre bird 7,fig4 #cbg7 ,road ,runn] 7,fig4 #cac7 ,o/ri* 7,fig4 #ccb7 ,p5gu9 7,fig4 #ccj7 ,pheasant 7,fig4 #cai7 ,wood ,duck 7,fig4 #cad7 ,jacana 7,fig4 #cbd7 ,sea ,gull 7,fig4 #cbb7 ,h]on 7,fig4 #cae7 ,hawk 7,fig4 #cab7 ,,key1 ,,or ,,table1 ,,= ,,classify+ ,,birds 7,class ,aves7 ,,into ,,ord]s ,,ord]s ,a ,w+s n suit$ = flight1 #b or #c toes ,,runn]s ,a ,w+s suit$ = flight 7except ! p5gu97 ,b ,toes unit$ by a web = swimm+1 legs %ort ,c ,feet plac$ f> back2 w+s %ort1 tip n ,,div]s rea*+ to base ( tail 7,fig4 #cjj7 ,c ,bill flatt5$1 horny plates "u m>g9 ( ,,bill-,,/ra9]s upp] bill 7,fig4 #cbc7 ,c ,w+s long & po9t$1 bill sl5d] ,,sea-,,fli]s ,c ,all f\r toes webb$1 b>e sac "u ?roat ,,gorg]s ,b ,toes n unit$ by web = swimm+ ,c ,?ree front toes1 neck & legs long1 tibia ,,wad]s 7%91 or 8drum/ick07 p>tly b>e ,c ,?ree front toes1 neck & legs n long ,d ,claws %ort & blunt 7e1 ,fig4 #cjj7 ,e ,feet & beak /\t1 "y fea!r$1 ,,scrat*]s base ( h9d toe elevat$ ,e ,feet & beak weak1 "y nak$ ,,mess5g]s ,d ,claws long1 curv$ & %>p1 bill hook$ ,,robb]s & %>p ,d ,claws long1 slightly curv$1 bill ne>ly ,,p]*]s /raight ,c ,two front & two h9d toes 7,fig4 #cjj7 ,d ,bill /raight1 feet us$ = climb+ ,,foot-,,climb]s ,d ,bill hook$1 bo? bill & feet us$ = ,,bill-,,climb]s climb+ ,! ,food ( ,birds4--,extracts f ,bullet9 ,no4 #ed 7,unit$ ,/ates ,dept4 ( ,agriculture71 by ,f4 ,e4 ,l4 ,beal4 ,! practical value ( birds 9 controll+ insect pe/s %\ld be m g5]ally recogniz$4 ,x may be an easy matt] to ext]m9ate ! birds 9 an or*>d or gra9 field1 b x is an extremely difficult "o to control ! insect pe/s4 ,x is c]ta91 too1 t ! value ( our native sp>r[s z we$ de/roy]s is n appreciat$4 ,we$ se$ =ms an important item ( ! w9t] food ( _m ( ^! birds1 & x is impossible to e/imate ! imm5se numb]s ( noxi\s we$s :i* are ?us annually de/roy$4 ,if cr[s or blackbirds are se5 9 numb]s ab\t cornfields1 or if woodpeck]s are notic$ at "w 9 an or*>d1 x is p]haps n surpris+ t !y are accus$ ( do+ h>m4 ,c>eful inve/igation1 h[ev]1 (t5 %[s t !y are actually de/roy+ noxi\s insects2 & also t ev5 ^? :i* d h>m at "o season may comp5sate = x by eat+ insect pe/s at ano!r4 ,insects are eat5 at all times by ! majority ( l& birds4 ,dur+ ! bre$+ season mo/ k9ds subsi/ l>gely on ?is food1 & re> _! "y exclusively ^u x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cbc4--;,,head ,,( ,,duck4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cbd4--;,,jacana4 7,mexico1 ,s\?we/ ,texas1 & ,florida47 ,que/ions3 ,:at appe>s to be ! use ( su* long toes8 ,:at peculi>ity ( w+8 head8 ,p>tridges4--,speak+ ( #ac birds :i* he %ot1 ,dr4 ,judd says3 ,^! #ac _h tak5 we$ se$ to ! ext5t ( #fc p] c5t ( _! food4 ,?irty-eight p] c5t 0 ragwe$1 #b p] c5t tick trefoil1 p>tridge pea1 & locu/ se$s1 & #bc p] c5t se$s ( miscellane\s we$s4 ,ab\t #ad p] c5t ( ! quail's food = ! ye> consi/s ( animal matt] 7insects & _! allies74 ,prom95t among ^! are ! ,colorado potato beetle1 ! /rip$ squa% beetle1 ! cottonboll-weevil1 gras%opp]s4 ,z a we$ de/roy] ! quail has few1 if any1 sup]iors4 ,moreov]1 its habits are su* t x is almo/ con/antly on ! gr\nd1 :]e x is br\ght 9 close contact ) bo? we$ se$s & gr\nd-liv+ insects4 ,x is a good rang]1 &1 if undi/urb$1 w patrol e day all ! fields 9 its vic9ity z x se>*es = food4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cbe4--,,night+ale1 4 ,,fig4 #cbf4--,,skyl>k1 4 ,two celebrat$ ,european song/]s4 ,doves4--,! food ( ! dove consi/s ( se$s ( we$s1 toge!r ) "s gra94 ,! exam9ation ( ! cont5ts ( #bcg /oma*s %[s t ov] #ii p] c5t ( ! food consi/s :olly ( vegetable matt]4 ,cuckoos4--,an exam9ation ( ! /oma*s ( #df black-bill$ cuckoos1 tak5 dur+ ! summ] mon?s1 %[$ ! rema9s ( #ijf cat]pill>s1 #dd beetles1 #if gras%opp]s1 #ajj sawflies1 #cj /9k bugs1 & #ae spid]s4 ,( ! yell[-bill$ cuckoos1 or 8ra9-cr[10 #aji /oma*s collect$ f ,may to ,octob]1 inclusive1 7 exam9$4 ,! cont5ts consi/$ ( #a1hfe cat]pill>s1 #ic beetles1 #bdb gras%opp]s1 #cg sawflies1 #fi bugs1 #f flies1 & #hf spid]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cbg4--,,lyre ,,bird1 male4 ,woodpeck]s4--,c>eful obs]v]s h notic$ t1 except+ a s+le species1 ^! birds r>ely leave any conspicu\s m>k on a heal?y tree1 except :5 x is affect$ by wood-bor+ l>v1 :i* are accurately locat$1 dislodg$1 & dev\r$ by ! woodpeck]4 ,( ! flick]s' or yell[-hamm]s' /oma*s exam9$1 ?ree 7 completely fill$ ) ants4 ,two ( ! birds ea* conta9$ m ?an #c1jjj ants1 :ile ! ?ird bird conta9$ fully #e1jjj4 ,^! ants belong to species :i* live 9 ! gr\nd4 ,x is ^! insects = :i* ! flick] is rea*+ :5 x runs ab\t 9 ! grass4 ,! yell[-belli$ woodpeck] or sapsuck] 7,sphyrapicus v>ius7 0 %[n to be guilty ( peck+ holes 9 ! b>k ( v>i\s =e/ trees1 & sometimes 9 t ( apple trees1 & ( dr9k+ ! sap :5 ! pits became fill$4 ,x has be5 prov$1 h[ev]1 t besides tak+ ! sap ! bird captures l>ge numb]s ( insects :i* are attract$ by ! sweet fluid1 & t ^! =m a v consid]able portion ( its diet4 ,! woodpeck]s seem ! only ag5ts :i* c successfully cope ) c]ta9 insect enemies ( ! =e/s1 &1 to "s ext5t1 ) ^? ( fruit trees also4 ,= ?is reason1 if = no o!r1 !y %\ld be protect$ 9 e possible way4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cbh4--,,sacr$ ,,ibis4 7,ord]87 ,! night hawk1 or 8bull bat10 may be se5 mo/ (t5 so>+ high 9 air 9 ! aft]noon or e>ly ev5+4 ,x ne/s ^u rocks or b>e knolls & flat city ro(s4 ,its food consi/s ( insects tak5 on ! w+2 & s gre$y is ! bird t :5 food is pl5tiful1 x fills its /oma* almo/ to bur/+4 ,ants 7except work]s7 h w+s & fly z !y are prep>+ to propagate4 ,9 de/roy+ ants night hawks rank next to1 or ev5 )1 ! woodpeck]s1 ! ackn[l$g$ ant-eat]s among birds4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cbi4--,,top-,,knot ,,quail1 or ,cali=nia ,p>tridge4 7,we/ ,texas to ,cali=nia47 ,! k+bird1 or m>t91 is l>gely insectivor\s4 ,9 an exam9ation ( #fb /oma*s ( ?is bird1 great c>e 0 tak5 to id5tify e insect or fragm5t t _h any resemblance to a honeybee2 z a result1 #cj honeybees 7 id5tifi$1 ( :i* #bi 7 males or drones & #a 0 a work]4 ,blue ,jay4--,9 an inve/igation ( ! food ( ! blue jay #cjj /oma*s 7 exam9$1 :i* %[$ t animal matt] compris$ #bd p] c5t & vegetable matt] #gf p] c5t ( ! bird's diet4 ,! jay's favorite food is ma/ 7i4e4 acorns1 *e/nuts1 *9quap9s1 etc471 :i* 0 f\nd 9 #bjj ( ! #cjj /oma*s1 & am\nt$ to m ?an #db p] c5t ( ! :ole food4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ccj4--,,p5gu9 ,,( ,,patagonia4 ,w+s us$ z flipp]s = swimm+4 ,cr[4--,t he does pull up spr\t+ corn1 de/roy *ick5s1 & rob ! ne/s ( small birds has be5 repeat$ly prov$4 ,nor are ^! all ( 8 s9s4 ,he is kn[n to eat frogs1 toads1 salam&]s1 & "s small snakes1 all h>mless creatures t d "s good by eat+ insects4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n t !y may be prev5t$ f pull+ up "y corn by t>r+ ! se$1 :i* n only saves ! corn b =ces !m to turn _! att5tion to insects4 ,may beetles1 8dorbugs10 or ,june bugs1 & o!rs ( ! same family con/itute ! pr9cipal food dur+ spr+ & e>ly summ]1 & are f$ to ! "y 9 imm5se quantities4 ,ricebird4--,! annual loss to rice gr[]s on acc\nt ( bobol9ks has be5 e/imat$ at #b1jjj1jjj4 ,mead[ ,l>k4--,next to gras%opp]s1 beetles make up ! mo/ important item ( ! mead[ l>k's food1 am\nt+ to ne>ly #ba p] c5t4 ,may is ! mon? :5 ! dread$ cut-worm beg9s its deadly c>e]1 & !n ! l>k does "s ( its be/ "w4 ,mo/ ( ^! cat]pill>s are gr\nd fe$]s1 & are ov]look$ by birds :i* habitually frequ5t trees1 b ! mead[ l>k f9ds & dev\rs !m by ?\s&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cca4--,umbrella hold+ ! ne/s ( social weav] bird ( ,africa2 polygam\s4 ,sp>r[s4--,exam9ation ( _m /oma*s %[s t 9 w9t] ! tree sp>r[ fe$s entirely ^u se$s ( we$s4 ,probably ea* bird consumes ab\t "o f\r? ( an ounce a day4 ,f>!r s\? ! tree sp>r[ is replac$ 9 w9t] by ! :ite-?roat$ sp>r[1 ! :ite-cr[n$ sp>r[1 ! fox sp>r[1 ! song sp>r[1 ! field sp>r[1 & sev]al o!rs2 s t all ov] ! l& a va/ numb] ( ^! se$ eat]s are at "w dur+ ! cold] mon?s r$uc+ next ye>'s crop ( worse ?an useless plants4 ,rob94--,an exam9ation ( #ejj /oma*s %[s t ov] #db p] c5t ( its food is animal matt]1 pr9cipally insects1 :ile ! rema9d] is made up l>gely ( small fruits or b]ries4 ,vegetable food =ms ne>ly #eh p] c5t ( ! /oma* cont5ts1 ov] #dg p] c5t be+ wild fruits1 & only a little m ?an #d p] c5t be+ possibly cultivat$ v>ieties4 ,cultivat$ fruit am\nt+ to ab\t #be p] c5t 0 f\nd 9 ! /oma*s 9 ,june & ,july1 b only a trifle 9 ,augu/4 ,wild fruit1 on ! contr>y1 is eat5 9 e mon?1 & con/itutes dur+ half ! ye> a /aple food4 ,que/ions4--,:i* ( ^! birds are common 9 y\r neighborhood8 ,:i* ( !m accord+ to ! =ego+ report are pla9ly injuri\s8 ,cle>ly b5eficial8 ,d\btful8 ,:i* are great de/roy]s ( we$ se$s8 ,wood-bor]s8 ,ants8 ,gra98 ,:y is ! de/ruction ( an ant by a night hawk ( great] b5efit ?an ! de/ruction ( an ant by a woodpeck]8 ,"n ! only woodpeck] t injures trees4 ,if a bird eats two ounces ( gra9 & "o ounce ( insects1 has x probably done m good or m evil8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ccb4--;,,african ,,o/ri*1 4 7,ord]87 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,mammals 7,,bea/s ,,& ,,man7 ,,sugge/ions4--,a tame rabbit1 a h\se cat1 or a pet squirrel may be tak5 to ! s*ool & obs]v$ by ! class4 ,dome/ic animals may be obs]v$ at home & on ! /reet4 ,a /udy ( ! tee? w give a key to ! life ( ! animal1 & ! tea*] %\ld collect a few mammalian skulls z opportunities (f]4 ,! pupils %\ld be requir$ to id5tify !m by means ( ! *>t ( skulls 7p4 #aid74 ,if "s en?usia/ic /ud5ts fond ( anatomy %\ld dissect small mammals1 ! specim5s %\ld be kill$ ) *lor(orm1 & ! directions = dissection usual 9 laboratory works on ?is subject may be foll[$4 ,!re is a brief guide on page #bbc4 ,! foll[+ outl9e = ! /udy ( a live mammal w apply almo/ z well to ! rabbit or squirrel z to ! cat4 ,! ,cat4--,! h\se cat 7,felis dome/ica7 is probably desc5d$ f ! ,nubian cat 7,felis maniculata1 ,fig4 #ccc7 f\nd 9 ,africa4 ,! wild species is ab\t half aga9 z l>ge z ! dome/ic cat1 grayi% br[n ) d>k] /ripes2 ! tail has d>k r+s4 ,! lynx1 or wild cat ( ,am]ica 7,lynx rufus71 is q diff]5t4 ,comp>e ! figures 7#ccc1 #cce7 & /ate ?ree obvi\s diff]5ces4 ,to :i* ,am]ican species is ! h\se cat clos] ak91 ! lynx 7,fig4 #cce7 or ! ocelot 7,fig4 #ccd78 ,! dome/ic cat is f\nd among all nations ( ! _w4 ,:at is conclud$1 z to its ne>e/ relatives1 f ! fact t ! ,indians _h no cats :5 ,am]ica 0 discov]$8 ,x 0 consid]$ sacr$ by ! anci5t ,egyptians1 & aft] dea? its body 0 embalm$4 ,! body ( ! cat is v flexible4 ,x may be divid$ into five regions1 ! head1 neck1 trunk1 tail1 & limbs4 ,its eyes h ! same p>ts z ! eyes ( o!r mammals4 ,:i* "p ( its eye is mo/ peculi>8 7,fig4 #ccc47 ,:at "p is lack+ t is pres5t 9 birds8 ,h[ are ! eyes especially adapt$ = see+ at night8 ,does ! pupil 9 ! light ext5d up or d[n or across ! iris8 ,does x ev] become r\nd8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ccc4--,,wild ,,cat ,,( ,,africa 7,felis maniculata71 4 ,:at is ! %ape & position ( ! e>s8 ,are !y l>ge or small comp>$ ) ^? ( mo/ mammals8 ,!y are fitt$ be/ = cat*+ s\nd f :at direction8 ,:at is ?us indicat$ 9 reg>d to ! cat's habits8 7,comp>e ) e>s ( rabbit47 ,t\* ! :isk]s ( ! cat4 ,:at result8 ,0 x volunt>y or involunt>y motion8 ,are ! no/rils relatively l>ge or small comp>$ ) ^? ( a c[8 ,( man8 ,is ! neck long or %ort8 ,animals t h long =e legs usually h :at k9d ( a neck8 ,^? ) %ort legs8 ,:y8 ,h[ _m toes on a =e foot8 ,h9d foot8 ,:y is ?is arrangem5t bett] ?an ! rev]se8 ,"s mammals are sole walk]s 7plantigrade71 "s are toe walk]s 7digitigrade74 ,to :i* k9d does ! cat belong8 ,does x walk on ! ends ( ! toes8 ,does x walk ) all ! jo9ts ( ! toes on ! gr\nd8 ,:]e is ! heel ( ! cat8 7,fig4 #ccd47 ,! wri/8 ,to make sure ( ! location ( ! wri/1 beg9 above3 f9d ! %\ld] blade1 ! upp] arm 7"o or two bones871 ! l[] arm 7"o or two bones871 ! wri/1 ! palm1 & ! f+]s 7,fig4 #ccg74 ,is ! heel bone prom95t or small8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ccd4--,,ocelot 7,felis p>dalis71 ( ,texas & ,mexico1 4 ,9 :at direction does ! knee ( ! cat po9t8 ,! heel8 ,! elb[8 ,! wri/8 ,comp>e ! front & h9d leg 9 l5g?2 /raightness2 heav9ess2 numb] & position ( toes2 %>pness ( ! claws4 ,:at makes ! dog's claws dull] ?an a cat's8 ,:at diff]5ces 9 habit g ) ?is8 ,judg+ f ! toe t has become useless on ! =e foot ( ! cat1 :i* toe is lack+ 9 ! h9d foot8 ,is x ! cat's ?umb or little f+] t does n t\* ! gr\nd8 7,fig4 #ccg47 ,locate on y\r own h& ! p>ts correspond+ to ! pads on ! =efoot ( a cat4 ,( :at use are s(t pads on a cat's foot8 ,"s animals h %ort1 s(t fur & long1 co>se ov] hair4 ,does ! cat h bo?8 ,is ! cat's fur s(t or co>se8 ,does ! fur h a color ne> ! sk9 diff]5t f t at ! tip8 ,:y is hair bett] suit$ z a cov]+ = ! cat ?an fea!rs w\ld be8 ,scales8 ,:]e are long1 /iff bri/les f\nd on ! cat8 ,_! l5g? sugge/s t !y w\ld be ( :at use to a cat 9 go+ ?r\gh n>r[ places8 ,:y is x necess>y = a cat to be noiseless 9 its movem5ts8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cce4--,,lynx 7,lynx rufus74 ,! 8,bob-tail$ cat0 7,nor? ,am]ica74 ,obs]ve ! movem5ts ( ! cat4--,:y _c a cat come d[n a tall tree head =emo/8 ,did y ev] see a cat cat* a bird8 ,h[ does a cat approa* its prey8 ,"n a jump+ insect t has long h9d legs2 an amphibian2 sev]al mammals 7,figs4 #cfb1 #cgd74 ,does a cat ev] trot8 ,gallop8 ,does a cat *ase its prey8 ,:5 does ! cat move ) its heel on ! gr\nd8 ,! claws ( a cat are )drawn by means ( a t5don 7see ,fig4 #cch74 ,does a cat seize its prey ) its m\? or its feet8 ,h[ does a cat make ! purr+ s\nd8 7,d ! lips move8 ,! sides87 ,h[ does a cat dr9k8 ,d a cat & dog dr9k exactly ! same way8 ,is ! cat's tongue r\gh or smoo?8 ,h[ is ! tongue us$ 9 gett+ ! fle% (f close to ! bone8 ,c a cat clean a bone entirely ( meat8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ccf4--;,,jagu>1 ( tropical ,am]ica4 ,9 :at /ate ( developm5t is a newly born kitt58 ,) :at does ! cat n\ri% its "y8 ,"n t5 animals ( v>i\s k9ds ^: "y are simil>ly n\ri%$4 ,:at is ?is class ( animals call$8 ,:y does a cat b5d its back :5 x is fright5$ or angry8 ,does a cat or a dog eat a great] v>iety ( food8 ,:i* refuses to eat an animal f\nd dead8 ,w ei!r bury food = future use8 ,:i* is sometimes tr\blesome by digg+ holes 9 ! g>d58 ,expla9 ?is in/9ct4 ,:i* liv$ a solit>y life :5 wild8 ,:i* _h a def9ite haunt1 or home8 ,:y are dogs m sociable ?an cats8 ,a dog is m devot$ to 8 ma/]4 ,:y8 ,a cat is m devot$ to its home1 & w return if c>ri$ away4 ,:y8 ,:y does a dog turn ar\nd be=e ly+ d[n8 7,consid] its orig9al environm5t47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ccg4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,cat4 ,! ,skeleton 7,fig4 #ccg74--;,comp>e ! sp9al column ( a cat 9 =m & flexibility ) ! sp9al column ( a fi%1 a snake1 & a bird4 ,! skull is jo9$ to ! sp9al column by two knobs 7or condyls71 :i* fit into sockets 9 ! fir/ v]tebra4 ,comp>e ! jaws ) ^? ( a bird & a reptile4 ,!re is a prom95t ridge 9 ! temple to :i* ! p[]ful *ew+ muscles are atta*$4 ,!re is also a ridge at ! back ( ! head :]e ! muscles :i* support ! head are atta*$ 7,fig4 #cdh74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cch4--;,,claw ,,( ,,cat 7#a7 retract$ by ligam5t1 & 7#b7 drawn d[n by muscle atta*$ to l[] t5don4 ,c\nt ! ribs4 ,are !re m or few] ?an 9 man8 ,! brea/bone is 9 a numb] ( p>ts1 jo9$1 l ! v]tebr1 by c>tilages4 ,comp>e x ) a bird's /]num2 :y ! diff]5ce8 ,! %\ld] girdle1 by :i* ! front legs are atta*$ to ! trunk1 is h>dly to be call$ a girdle1 z ! coll> bones 7clavicles7 are rudim5t>y4 7,!y (t5 escape notice dur+ dissection1 be+ hidd5 by muscles47 ,! %\ld] blades1 ! o!r bones ( ?is girdle1 are l>ge1 b relatively n s broad t[>d ! dorsal edge z human %\ld] blades4 ,! clavicles are t9y because !y are useless4 ,:y does ! cat n ne$ z movable a %\ld] z a man8 ,! pelvic1 or hip girdle1 to :i* ! h9d legs are atta*$1 is a rigid girdle1 complet$ above by ! sp9al column1 to :i* x is immovably jo9$4 ,?us ! p[]ful h9d legs are jo9$ to ! mo/ rigid portion ( ! trunk4 ,mammals4--,! cat belongs to ! class ,mammalia or mammals4 ,! *>act]i/ics ( ! class are t ! "y are n hat*$ f eggs1 b are born alive1 & n\ri%$ ) milk 7h5ce h lips71 & ! sk9 is cov]$ ) hair4 ,! milk gl&s are situat$ v5trally4 ,! position ( ! class 9 ! animal k+dom 0 %[n :5 ! c[ 0 classifi$ 7p4 #i74 ,_! c>e = ! "y1 _! intellig5ce1 & _! ability to survive :5 9 competition ) o!r animals1 causes ! mammals to be consid]$ ! highe/ class 9 ! animal k+dom4 ,accord+ to ^! te/s1 :at class ( v]tebrates %\ld rank next to mammals8 ,comp>e ! he>t1 lungs1 blood1 & p>5tal devotion ( ^! two highe/ classes ( animals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cci4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,lion 7cat family74 ,! fir/ mammals1 :i* 7 some:at l small opossums1 appe>$ millions ( ye>s ago1 :5 ! _w 0 inhabit$ by giant reptiles4 ,^! reptiles occupi$ ! wat]1 ! l&1 & ! air1 & _! great /r5g? & f]ocity w\ld h prev5t$ ! mammals f multiply+ 7= at fir/ !y 7 small & weak71 b ! mammals c>ri$ _! "y 9 a p\* until able to c>e = !mselves1 :ile ! reptiles laid eggs & left !m unc>$ =4 ,! fir/ mammals us$ reptilian eggs = food1 ?\gh !y c\ld n cont5d ) ! great reptiles4 ,because birds & mammals are bett] p>5ts ?an reptiles1 !y h conqu]$ ! e>?1 & ! reptiles h be5 =c$ into subord9ation1 & h become small] & timid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cdj4--,,walrus 7,tri*e*us rosm>us74 ,classification ( ,mammals4--,:i* two h ! close/ resemblances 9 ! foll[+ li/s3 ,horse1 c[1 de]4 ,:y8 ,cat1 c[1 be>4 ,:y8 ,monkey1 man1 %eep4 ,:y8 ,rat1 monkey1 squirrel4 ,:y8 ,giraffe1 leop>d1 camel4 ,:y8 ,walrus1 cat1 c[4 ,:y8 ,*eck ! five mammals 9 ! foll[+ li/s t =m a gr\p resembl+ ea* o!r mo/ closely3 ,lion1 be>1 pig1 dog1 squirrel1 cat1 camel1 tig]1 man4 ,/ate y\r reasons4 ,giraffe1 leop>d1 de]1 c[1 rat1 camel1 hy5a1 horse1 monkey4 ,/ate reasons4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cda4--,,weasel1 9 summ]2 9 ,canada 9 w9t] x is all :ite b tip ( tail4 ,tee? & toes are ! basis = subdivid+ ! class mammalia into ord]s4 ,al?\gh ! brea?+1 circulation1 & int]nal organs & processes are simil> 9 all mammals1 ! ext]nal organs v>y greatly because ( ! v>y+ environm5ts ( diff]5t species4 ,! int]nal /ructure enables u to place animals toge!r :i* are ess5tially alike2 e4g4 ! :ale & man are bo? mammals1 s9ce !y resemble 9 brea?+1 circulation1 & multiplication ( "y4 ,! ext]nal organs guide u 9 sep>at+ ! class into ord]s4 ,! tee? v>y accord+ to ! food eat54 ,! feet v>y accord+ to use 9 obta9+ food or escap+ f enemies4 ,?is w expla9 ! diff]5ce 9 ! l5g? ( legs ( lion & horse1 & ( ! =ms ( ! tee? 9 cat & c[4 ,make a c>eful /udy ( ! tee? & limbs z %[n 9 ! figures & 9 all specim5s accessible4 ,write out ! d5tal =mulas z indicat$ at ! top ( page #aid4 ,! num]als above ! l9e %[ ! numb] ( upp] tee?2 ^? bel[ ! l9e %[ ! numb] ( l[] tee? 9 "o half ( ! jaw4 ,!y are designat$ z foll[s3 ,i1 incisors2 ,c1 can9e2 ,m1 mol>s4 ,multiply+ by two gives ! total numb]4 ,:i* skulls 9 ! *>t h ! l>ge/ can9es8 ,:y8 ,! smalle/1 or none at all8 ,:y8 ,comp>e ! mol>s ( ! c[1 ! hog1 & ! dog4 ,expla9 _! diff]5ces4 ,9 :i* skulls are "s ( ! mol>s lack+8 ,rudim5t>y8 ,:y are ! tee? t d n t\* usually mu* small] ?an ^? t d8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cdb4--;,,foot ,,( ,,be> 7,plantigrade74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cdc4--,,pol> ,,be> 7,ursus m>itimus74 ,,key1 ,,or ,,table1 ,,= ,,classify+ ,,mammals 7class ,mammalia7 ,,into ,,ord]s ,ord]s ,a ,imp]fect ,mammals1 "y hat*$ or prematurely born ,b ,jaws a birdlike beak1 egg-lay+ ,monotremes ,b ,jaws n beaklike1 "y c>ri$ 9 p\* ,m>supials ,a ,p]fect ,mammals1 "y n hat*$1 nor prematurely born ,c ,front "p ( bo? jaws lack tee? ,ed5tates ,b ,c ,tee? ) %>p po9ts = ,digits pi]c+ %ells ( insects ,insectivors ) claws ,c ,can9es v long1 mol>s suit$ = te>+ ,c>nivors ,c ,can9es lack+1 incisors v l>ge ,rod5ts ,b ,c ,head l>ge2 c>nivor\s ,cetaceans ,digits n ,c ,head small2 h]bivor\s ,sireneans di/9ct ,c ,five toes1 nose prolong$ into a sn\t ,proboscideans ,c ,toes odd numb]1 less ?an five ,equ9es ,b ,digits ,c ,toes ev5 numb]1 upp] front ,un- ) tee? lack+1 *ew ! cud ,rum9ants gu- nails or lates ho(s ,c ,toes ev5 numb]1 upp] front tee? pres5t1 n cud-*ew]s ,sw9e ,c ,all limbs hav+ h&s ,quadrumans ,c ,two limbs hav+ h&s ,bimans ,ex]cise 9 ,classification4--,copy ! foll[+ li/1 & by ref]5ce to figures write ! "n ( its ord] aft] ea* mammal3-- ,ape 7,figs4 #dje1 #djf7 ,rabbit 7,fig4 #cde7 ,dog 7,figs4 #cef1 #djh7 ,hog 7,figs4 #ceg1 #cic7 ,bat 7,figs4 #cdg1 #cgj7 ,cat 7,figs4 #ccg1 #cdh7 ,armadillo 7,figs4 #cdi1 #cfe7 ,c[ 7,figs4 #cdd1 #chf7 ,walrus 7,fig4 #cdj7 ,monkey 7,figs4 #ceb1 #dja7 ,horse 7,figs4 #cee1 #cie7 ,ant-eat] 7,figs4 #ced1 #cfd7 ,antelope 7,fig4 #cia7 ,mole 7,figs4 #cfg1 #cfh7 ,beav] 7,figs4 #cgb1 #cgc7 ,duckbill 7,fig4 #cei7 ,tapir 7,fig4 #chd7 ,dolph9 7,figs4 #cgi1 #cig7 ,use *>t ( skulls & ,figs4 #cha1 #chb1 #cie-djj 9 work+ out ?is ex]cise4 ,*>t ( ,mammalian ,skulls 7,illu/rat$ ,/udy7 #e #a #b ,man's d5tal =mula is 7,m -1 ,c -1 ,i -7 #cb4 #e #a #b ,9 l mann] fill out =mulas bel[3-- ,c[ 7,m - ,c - ,i -7 #cb ,rabbit 7,m - ,c - ,i -7 #bh ,walrus 7,m - ,c - ,i -7 #cd ,bat 7,m - ,c - ,i -7 #cd ,cat 7,m - ,c - ,i -7 #cj ,armadillo 7,m - ,c - ,i -7 #bh ,horse 7,m - ,c - ,i -7 #dj ,:ale 7,m - ,c - ,i -7 #j ,am4 ,monkey 7,m - ,c - ,i -7 #cf ,slo? 7,m - ,c - ,i -7 #ah ,ant-eat] 7,m - ,c - ,i -7 #j ,dog 7,m - ,c - ,i -7 #db ,hog 7,m - ,c - ,i -7 #dd ,%eep 7,m - ,c - ,i -7 #cb ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cdd4--,skull & front ( l[] jaw ( ,,c[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cde4--,,rabbit4 ,a1 ,b1 incisors2 ,c1 mol>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cdf4--,,walrus 7see ,fig4 #cda74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cdg4--;,,bat4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cdh4--;,,cat4 ,*>t ( ,mammalian ,skulls ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cdi4--;,,armadillo4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cej4--;,,horse 7front ( jaw74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cea4--;,,gre5l& ,,:ale4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ceb4--;,,am]ican ,,monkey4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cec4--,,slo? 7,fig4 #cfc74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ced4--;,,ant-,,eat] 7,fig4 #cfd74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cee4--;,,horse4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cef4--;,,dog4 ,upp] 7,a7 & l[] 7,b7 jaw4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ceg4--;,,hog4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ceh4--,,%eep4 ,! l[e/ ord] ( mammals conta9s only two species1 ! duckbill & ! porcup9e ant-eat]1 bo? liv+ 9 ! ,au/ralian region4 ,d y judge t ! duckbill ( ,tasmania 7,fig4 #cei7 lives *iefly 9 wat] or on l&8 ,:y8 ,is x probably active or sl[ 9 movem5t8 ,x dabbles 9 mud & slime = worms & mussels1 etc4 ,h[ is x fitt$ = do+ ?is8 ,:i* feet are m>k$ly webb$8 ,h[ f> does ! web ext5d8 ,! web c be fold$ back :5 n 9 use4 ,x lays two eggs 9 a ne/ ( grass at ! end ( a burr[4 ,trace resemblances & diff]5ces betwe5 ?is animal & birds4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cei4--;,,duckbill 7,orni?orhyn*us p>adoxus74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cfj4--,,sp9y ,,ant-,,eat] 7,e*idna aculeata74 ,view ( "u surface to %[ p\*4 7,aft] ,haacke47 ,! porcup9e ant-eat] has num]\s quill-l sp9es 7,fig4 #cfj7 int]sp]s$ ) its hairs4 7,use87 ,describe its claws4 ,x has a long preh5sile tongue4 ,x rolls into a ball :5 attack$4 ,comp>e its jaws ) a bird's bill4 ,x lays "o egg1 :i* is c>ri$ 9 a fold ( ! sk9 until hat*$4 ,s9ce x is p\*$ x c\ld be class$ ) ! p\*$ mammals 7next ord]71 b x is egg-lay+4 ,suppose ! two animals 9 ?is ord] did n n\ri% _! "y ) milk aft] hat*+1 w\ld !y mo/ resemble mammals1 birds1 or reptiles8 ,write ! "n ( ?is ord]4 7,see ,table1 p4 #aic47 ,:y d y place !m 9 ?is ord] 778 7,see p4 #aic47 ,! "n ( ! ord] comes f two ,greek words mean+ 8"o op5+10 because ! ducts f ! bladd] & egg gl&s unite ) ! l>ge inte/9e & =m a cloaca4 ,:at o!r classes ( v]tebrates are simil> 9 ?is8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cfa4--,,opossum 7,didelphys ,virg9ianus74 ,p\*$ ,mammals4--,^! animals1 l ! la/1 are num]\s 9 ! ,au/ralian region1 b are also f\nd 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ?us indicat+ t a bridge ( l& once connect$ ! two regions4 ,! opossum is ! only species :i* has p5etrat$ to ,nor? ,am]ica 7,fig4 #cfa74 ,are its jaws sl5d] or %ort8 ,:at k9%ip is ?us sugge/$8 ,z %[n by its gr9n+1 its lips are n well develop$4 ,does ?is mean a l[ or a well-develop$ mammal8 ,:]e does x h a ?umb8 7,fig4 #cfa47 ,does ! ?umb h a nail8 ,is ! tail hairy or b>e8 ,:y8 ,d y ?9k x pref]s ! gr\nd or ! trees8 ,/ate two reasons = y\r answ]4 ,x hides 9 a cave or bank or holl[ tree all day1 & seeks food at night4 ,c x run fa/ on ! gr\nd8 ,x feigns dea? :5 captur$1 & wat*es = a *ance = /eal?y escape4 ,! kang>oo 7,fig4 #cfb71 l ! opossum1 gives bir? to imp]fectly develop$ "y4 7,k9%ip ) :at classes is ?us indicat$87 ,aft] bir?1 ! "y 7ab\t ?ree f\r?s ( an in* long7 are c>ri$ 9 a v5tral p\* & suckl$ = sev5 or eight mon?s4 ,!y beg9 to rea* d[n & nibble grass be=e leav+ ! p\*4 ,comp>e =e legs ) h9d legs1 front half ( body ) la/ half4 ,describe tail4 ,:at is x us$ = :5 kang>oo is at re/8 ,9 jump+1 w\ld x be useful = propell+ & also = balanc+ ! body8 ,describe h9d & =e feet4 ,ord] 4 ,:y8 4 ,see key1 page #aic4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cfb4--;,,giant ,,kang>oo4 ,imp]fectly ,too!d ,mammals4--,^! animals live *iefly 9 ,s\? ,am]ica 7slo?1 armadillo1 giant ant-eat]7 & ,africa 7pangol974 ,! slo? 7,fig4 #cfc7 eats leaves4 ,its movem5ts are rem>kably sl[1 & a vegetable gr[? resembl+ moss (t5 gives its hair a gre5 color4 7,:at advantage87 ,h[ _m toes has x8 ,h[ are its nails suit$ to its mann] ( liv+8 ,does x save ex]tion by hang+ f ! bran*es ( trees in/ead ( walk+ ^u !m8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cfc4--,,slo? ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cfd4--;,,giant ,,ant-,,eat] ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 7,see ,fig4 #ced47 ,f9d evid5ces t ! ed5tates are a deg5]ate ord]4 ,describe ano!r ant-eat] 7,fig4 #cfj74 ,judg+ f ! figures 7#cfc1 #cfd1 #cfe71 are ! memb]s ( ?is ord] bett] suit$ = attack1 active resi/ance1 passive resi/ance1 or concealm5t :5 cont5d+ ) o!r animals8 ,! ant-eat]'s claws 7,fig4 #cfd7 on ! =e feet seem to be a h9drance 9 walk+2 = :at are !y useful8 ,:y are its jaws s sl5d]8 ,:at is probably ! use ( ! enorm\s bu%y tail8 ,! n9e-b&$ armadillo 7,fig4 #cfe7 lives 9 ,mexico & ,texas4 ,x is omnivor\s4 ,to escape its enemies1 x burr[s into ! gr\nd ) surpris+ rapidity4 ,if unable to escape :5 pursu$1 its h>d1 /\t tail & head are turn$ "u to protect ! l[] side ( ! body :]e !re are no scales4 ,! ?ree-b&$ species 7,fig4 #cff7 lives 9 ,arg5t9a4 ,comp>e ! e>s & tail ( ! two species2 give reasons = diff]5ces4 ,:y are ! eyes s small8 ,! claws s l>ge8 ,ord] 4 ,:y8 4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cfe4--,,n9e-,,b&$ ,,armadillo ( ,texas & ,mexico4 7,dasypus novemc9ctus47 ,x is increas+ 9 numb]s2 x is v useful1 z x digs up & de/roys insects4 7,see ,fig4 #cdi47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cff4--,,?ree-,,b&$ ,,armadillo 7,tolypeutes tric9ctus74 ,insect ,eat]s4--,! s(t int]ior & cru/y cov]+ ( insects makes x unnecess>y = animals t prey ^u !m to h flat-topp$ tee? = gr9d+ !m to p[d]1 or long cusps = te>+ !m to pieces4 ,! tee? ( insect eat]s1 ev5 ! mol>s 7,fig4 #cfh71 h _m %>p tub]cles1 or po9ts1 = hold+ insects & pi]c+ ! cru/y out] skeleton & r$uc+ x to bits4 ,z mo/ insects dig 9 ! gr\nd or fly 9 ! air1 we are n surpris$ to le>n t "s insect-eat+ mammals 7! bats7 fly & o!rs 7! moles7 burr[4 ,are ! memb]s ( ?is ord] fri5ds or competitors ( man8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cfg4--,,! ,,mole4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cfh4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,mole4 7,%\ld] blade is turn$ upw>d47 ,:y does ! mole h v small eyes8 ,small e>s8 ,comp>e ! %ape ( ! body ( a mole & a rat4 ,:at diff]5ce8 ,:y8 ,comp>e ! front & ! h9d legs ( a mole4 ,:y are ! h9d legs s small & weak8 ,be>+ 9 m9d t ! body mu/ be arrang$ = digg+ & us+ n>r[ tunnels1 /udy ! skeleton 7,fig4 #cfh7 9 respect to ! foll[+3 ,bones ( arm 7l5g? & %ape71 f+]s1 claws1 %\ld] bones1 brea/bone 7:y ) ridge l a bird871 v]tebr 7:y are ! fir/ two s l>ge871 skull 7%ape74 ,!re are no eye sockets1 b !re is a sn\t gri/le2 = ! long1 s5sitive sn\t mu/ s]ve 9 place ( ! small & almo/ useless eyes hidd5 deep 9 ! fur4 ,is ! fur sleek or r\gh8 ,:y8 ,close or ?98 ,x s]ves to keep ! mole clean4 ,! muscles ( neck1 brea/1 & %\ld]s are v /rong4 ,:y8 ,! mole eats e>?worms z well z insects4 ,x injures plants by break+ & dry+ out _! roots4 ,exp]im5ts %[ t ! ,we/]n mole w eat moi/ gra91 ?\gh x pref]s insects4 ,if a mole is caught1 repeat ! exp]im5t1 mak+ a c>eful record ( ! food plac$ )9 its rea*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cfi4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,bat4 ,z ) ! mole1 ! skeletal adaptations ( ! bat are mo/ rem>kable 9 ! h&4 ,h[ _m f+]s8 7,fig4 #cfi47 ,h[ _m nails on ! h&8 ,use ( nail :5 at re/8 ,:5 creep+8 7,fig4 #cfi47 ,in/ead ( fea!rs1 ! fly+ organs are made ( a pair ( ext5d$ folds ( ! sk9 support$ by elongat$ bones1 :i* =m a framework l ! ribs ( an umbrella or a fan4 ,h[ _m digits are prolong$8 ,does ! fold ( ! sk9 ext5d to ! h9d legs8 ,! tail8 ,are ! f+] bones or ! palm bones m prolong$ to =m ! w+ skeleton8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cgj4--,,vampire 7,phyllo/oma spectrum7 ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 4 ,! sk9 ( ! w+ is ri* 9 blood vessels & n]ves1 & s]ves1 by its s5sitiv5ess to ! slighte/ curr5t ( air1 to guide ! bat 9 ! ?icke/ d>kness4 ,w\ld y judge t ! bat has %>p sight8 ,acute he>+8 ,! moles d n hib]nate2 ! bats d4 ,give ! reason = ! diff]5ce4 ,if bats are ar\s$ out ( a trance-l condition 9 w9t]1 !y may die ( />vation4 ,:y8 ,! "m bat c>ries ! "y ab\t ) h]1 s9ce1 unlike birds1 %e has no ne/4 ,h[ are ! "y n\ri%$8 ,ord] 4 ,:y8 4 7,key1 p4 #aic47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cga4--,,p\*$ ,,goph] 7,geomys burs>ius7 1 a l>ge1 burr[+ field rat1 ) *eek p\*es = c>ry+ gra94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cgb4--;,h9d foot a1 =e foot b1 tail c1 ( ,,beav]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cgc4--;,,beav]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cgd4--,,position ,,( ,,limbs ,,9 ,,rabbit4 ,! ,gnaw+ ,mammals4--,^! animals =m ! mo/ num]\s ord] ( mammals4 ,!y lack can9e tee?4 ,inf]5ce8 ,! incisors are f\r 9 numb] 9 all species except ! rabbits1 :i* h six 7see ,fig4 #cde74 ,!y are readily recogniz$ by _! l>ge incisors4 ,^! tee? gr[ ?r\gh\t life1 & if !y are n con/antly worn away by gnaw+ ^u h>d food1 !y become inconv5i5tly long1 & may prev5t clos+ ( ! m\? & cause />vation4 ,! h>d enamel is all on ! front surface1 ! d5t9e 9 ! re> be+ s(t]2 h5ce ! incisors %>p5 !mselves by use to a *isel-l edge4 ,! mol>s are set close toge!r & h _! upp] surfaces level ) ea* o!r4 ,! ridges on !m run crosswise s z to =m a cont9u\s filelike surface = r$uc+ ! food /ill f9] aft] x has be5 gnaw$ (f 7,fig4 #cde74 ,! l[] jaw fits into grooves 9 place ( sockets4 ,?is all[s ! jaw to "w back & =? in/ead ( sidewise4 ,! rabbits & "s squirrels h a h>e lip2 i4e4 ! upp] lip is split4 ,:at advantage is ?is 9 eat+8 ,9 ,engl& ! species t burr[ are call$ rabbits2 ^? t d n are call$ h>es4 ,"n six enemies ( rabbits4 ,:y does a rabbit usually sit motionless unless approa*$ v close8 ,d y usually see "o be=e x da%es (f8 ,a rabbit has f ?ree to five litt]s ( f ?ree to six "y ea* ye>4 ,squirrels h few] & small] litt]s4 ,:y mu/ ! rabbit multiply m rapidly ?an ! squirrel 9 ord] to survive8 ,engli% rabbits h increas$ 9 ,au/ralia until !y are a plague4 ,%eep rais+ is int]f]$ ) by ! loss ( grass4 ,! ,au/ralians n[ %ip !m to ,engl& 9 cold /orage = food4 ,rabbits & mo/ rod5ts lead a wat*ful1 timid1 & al]t life4 ,an exception is ! porcup9e1 :i*1 because ( ! def5se ( its b>b$ quills1 is dull & sluggi%4 ,! common rod5ts are3-- squirrels rabbits rats mice beav]s muskrats porcup9es gu9ea pig p\*$ goph] prairie dog prairie squirrel *ipmunk gr\nd hog field m\se ,:i* ( ! above rod5ts are comm]cially important8 ,:i* are injuri\s to an important degree8 ,:i* h long tails8 ,:y8 ,%ort tails8 ,:y8 ,long e>s8 ,:y8 ,%ort e>s8 ,:y8 ,:i* are aquatic8 ,:i* dig or burr[8 ,:i* are l>gely nocturnal 9 habits8 ,:i* are arboreal8 ,:i* are protect$ by coloration8 ,:i* escape by runn+8 ,by seek+ holes8 ,economic ,importance4--,rabbits & squirrels de/roy ! eggs & "y ( birds4 ,are rabbits useful8 ,d !y de/roy useful food8 ,! use ( beav] & muskrat sk9s z furs w probably soon lead to _! ext9ction4 ,millions ( rabbits' sk9s are us$ annually1 ! hair be+ made into felt hats4 ,!re are also millions ( squirrel sk9s us$ 9 ! fur trade4 ,! hairs ( ! tail are made into f9e pa9t bru%es4 ,! sk9s ( common rats are us$ = ! ?umbs ( kid gloves4 ,ord] 4 ,:y8 4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cge4--;,,fly+ ,,squirrel 7,pt]omys volucella74 4 ,elephants4--,elephants1 /range to say1 h sev]al notewor?y resemblances to rod5ts4 ,l !m1 elephants h no can9e tee?2 _! mol> tee? are few1 & m>k$ by transv]se ridges & ! incisors pres5t are prom95tly develop$ 7,figs4 #cgf1 #cgg74 ,in/ead ( f\r incisors1 h[ev]1 !y h only two1 ! enorm\s tusks1 = !re are no incisors 9 ! l[] jaw4 ,elephants & rod5ts bo? subsi/ ^u plant food4 ,bo? h peaceful dispositions1 b "o ord] has f\nd safety & ability to survive by atta9+ enorm\s size & /r5g?2 ! o!r 7e4g4 rats1 squirrels7 has f\nd safety 9 small size4 ,expla94 ,suppose y 7 to obs]ve an elephant = ! fir/ "t1 )\t kn[+ any ( its habits4 ,h[ w\ld y "k t x does n eat meat8 ,t x does eat plant food8 ,t x c def5d itself8 ,:y w\ld y make ! mi/ake ( ?9k+ t x is v clumsy & /upid8 ,:y is its sk9 nak$8 ,?ick8 ,:y mu/ its legs be s /raight8 ,:y mu/ x h ei!r a v long neck or a sub/itute = "o8 7,fig4 #cgf47 ,are ! eyes l>ge or small8 ,! e>s8 ,! bra9 cavity8 ,:at anatomical feature correlates ) ! long proboscis8 ,is ! proboscis a new organ n f\nd 9 o!r animals1 or is x a specialization ( "o or m old ones8 ,reasons8 ,:at s5ses are especially active 9 ! proboscis8 ,h[ is x us$ 9 dr9k+8 ,9 grasp+8 ,:at evid5ce t x is a developm5t ( ! nose8 ,! upp] lip8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cgf4--;,,head ,,( ,,african ,,elephant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cgg4--,,mol> ,,too? ,,( ,,african ,,elephant4 ,! tusks are ( use 9 uproot+ trees = _! foliage & 9 digg+ s(t roots = food4 ,c ! elephant graze8 ,:y1 or :y n8 ,!re is a f+]-l projection on ! end ( ! sn\t :i* is useful 9 delicate manipulations4 ,! feet h pads to prev5t j>r+2 ! nails are %ort & h>dly t\* ! gr\nd4 ,ord] 4 ,:y8 4 ,key1 page #aic4 ,:ales1 ,porpoises1 ,dolph9s4--,z ! absurd mi/ake is sometimes made ( confus+ :ales ) fi%1 ! pupil may comp>e !m 9 ! foll[+ respects3 eggs1 n\ri%m5t ( "y1 f9s1 sk91 eyes1 size1 brea?+1 temp]ature1 skeleton 7,figs4 #bji1 #cgi1 & #cig74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cgh4--;,,h>poon+ ,,gre5l& ,,:ale 7see ,fig4 #cea74 ,porpoises & dolph9s1 :i* are small] species ( :ales1 live ne> ! %ore & eat fi%4 ,expla9 ! expression 8bl[ l a porpoise40 ,!y d n exce$ five or eight feet 9 l5g?1 :ile ! deep-sea :ales are f ?irty to sev5ty-five feet 9 l5g?1 be+ by f> ! l>ge/ animals 9 ! _w4 ,! size ( ! elephant is limit$ by ! weight t ! bones & muscles support & move4 ,! :ale's size is n s limit$4 ,! :ale be>s "o "y 7r>ely tw9s7 at a "t4 ,! "m c>efully att5ds ! "y = a long "t4 ,! blubb]1 or ?ick lay] ( fat b5ea? ! sk91 s]ves to reta9 heat & keep ! body up to ! usual temp]ature ( mammals 9 spite ( ! cold wat]4 ,x also s]ves1 along ) ! imm5se lungs1 to give lightness to ! body4 ,:y does a :ale ne$ l>ge lungs8 ,! tail ( a :ale is horizontal in/ead ( v]tical1 t x may /e] upw>d rapidly f ! dep?s :5 ne$+ to brea!4 ,! tee? ( "s :ales d n cut ! gum1 b are reabsorb$ & are replac$ by horny plates ( 8:alebone10 :i* act z /ra9]s4 ,give evid5ce1 f ! flipp]s1 lungs1 & o!r organs1 t ! :ale is desc5d$ f a l& mammal 7,fig4 #cig74 ,comp>e ! :ale ) a typical l& mammal1 z ! dog1 & enum]ate ! specializations ( ! :ale = liv+ 9 wat]4 ,:at *ange took place 9 ! g5]al =m ( ! body8 ,x is believ$ t on acc\nt ( sc>city ( food ! l& ance/ors ( ! :ale1 hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s ago1 took to liv+ ^u fi%1 etc41 &1 gradually becom+ swimm]s & div]s1 lo/ ! p[] ( locomotion on l&4 ,ord] 4 ,:y8 4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cgi4--;,,dolph94 ,elephants are rapidly becom+ ext9ct because ( ! value ( _! ivory tusks4 ,:ales also furni% valuable products1 b !y w probably exi/ mu* long]4 ,:y8 ,! manatees & dugongs 7sea c[s7 are a closely relat$ ord] liv+ ^u wat] plants1 & h5ce liv+ close to %ore & 9 ! m\?s ( riv]s4 ,ord] 4 ,:y8 4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #chj4--,,manatee1 or sea c[2 x lives ne> ! %ore & eats seawe$4 7,florida to ,brazil47 ,ho($ ,mammals4--,all ! animals 9 ?is ord] walk on ! tips ( _! toes1 :i* h be5 adapt$ to ?is use by ! claws hav+ develop$ into ho(s4 ,! ord] is subdivid$ into ! odd-to$ 7su* z ! horse ) "o toe & ! rh9oc]os ) ?ree7 & ! ev5-to$ 7z ! ox ) two toes & ! pig ) f\r74 ,all ! ev5-to$ =ms except ! pig & hippopotamus *ew ! cud & are giv5 ! "n ( rum9ants4 ,horse & ,man ,comp>$ 7,figs4 #cha1 #cii74--,to :i* f+] & toe on man's h& & foot does ! toe ( a horse's foot correspond8 ,has ! horse kneecaps8 ,is its heel bone l>ge or small8 ,is ! fetlock on toe1 in/ep1 or ankle8 ,does ! "p ( a horse's h9d leg t is mo/ elongat$ correspond to ! ?igh1 calf1 or foot 9 man8 ,on ! =e leg1 is ! elongat$ "p ! upp] arm1 =e>m1 or h&8 ,does ! mo/ elongat$ "p ( ! =e foot correspond to ! f+]1 palm1 or wri/8 ,on ! h9d foot is x toe1 in/ep1 or ankle8 ,is ! fetlock at ! toe1 in/ep1 or heel8 7,fig4 #che47 ,is ! hock at ! toe1 in/ep1 heel1 or knee8 ,ord] 4 ,:y8 4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cha4--,left leg ( man1 left h9d leg ( dog & horse2 homolog\s p>ts lett]$ alike4 ,specializations ( ! ,mammals4--,! e>ly mammals1 ( :i* ! pres5t m>supials are believ$ to be typical1 _h five toes provid$ ) claws4 ,!y 7 n v rapid 9 motion nor dang]\s 9 fight1 & probably ate bo? animal & vegetable food4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #chb4--,,skeletons ,,( ,,feet ,,( ,,mammals4 ,p1 horse2 ,d1 dolph92 ,e1 elephant2 ,a1 monkey2 ,t1 tig]2 ,o1 auro*s2 ,f1 slo?2 ,m1 mole4 ,"q3 ,expla9 h[ ea* is adapt$ to its specializ$ function4 ,accord+ to ! usual rule1 !y t5d$ to increase fa/] ?an ! food supply1 & !re 7 cont9ual conte/s = food4 ,^? ^: claws & tee? 7 %>p] drove ! o!rs f ! food1 or prey$ ^u !m4 ,?us ! specialization into ! bold fle% eat+ bea/s ( prey & ! timid vegetable fe$]s began4 ,:i* ( ! fle% eat]s has already be5 /udi$ at l5g?8 ,! insectivora escap$ _! enemies & f\nd food by le>n+ to burr[ or fly4 ,! rod5ts accompli%$ ! same result ei!r by acquir+ great agility 9 climb+1 or by liv+ 9 holes1 or by runn+4 ,! proboscidians acquir$ enorm\s size & /r5g?4 ,! ho($ animals f\nd safety 9 flight4 ,illu/ration3 ,equus ,protohippus ,pliohippus ,miohippus ,mesohippus ,orohippus ,,fig4 #chc4--;,feet ( ! ance/ors ( ! horse4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #chd4--,,tapir ,,( ,,s\? ,,am]ica 7,tapirus am]icanus74 4 ,que/ions3 ,h[ does x resemble an elephant8 7,fig4 #cgf47 ,a horse8 7p4 #baj47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #che4--;,,horse1 desc5d$ f a small wild species /ill f\nd 9 ,we/]n ,asia4 ,ungulates1 z ! horse1 ne$ no o!r protection ?an _! great spe$1 :i* is due to l5g!n+ ! bones ( ! legs & ris+ ^u ! v tip ( ! l>ge/ toe1 :i*1 to support ! weight1 develop$ an enorm\s toe-nail call$ a ho(4 ,! cattle1 n hav+ develop$ su* spe$ z ! horse1 usually h horns = def5se4 ,if a calf or c[ bell[s ) di/ress1 all ! cattle 9 ! neighborhood ru% to ! rescue4 ,?is unselfi% in/9ct to help o!rs 0 an aid to ! survival ( wild cattle liv+ 9 regions infe/$ ) bea/s ( prey4 ,:i* ( sop's fables is bas$ ^u ?is in/9ct8 ,! habit ( rapid graz+ & ! correlat$ habit ( *ew+ ! cud 7 also ( great value1 z x enabl$ cattle to obta9 grass hurri$ly & retire to a safe place to *ew x4 ,rudim5ts ( ! upp] incisors are pres5t 9 ! jaw ( ! calf1 %[+ ! desc5t f animals :i* _h a complete set ( tee?4 ,! rudim5ts are absorb$ & ! upp] jaw ( ! c[ lacks incisors entirely1 z !y w\ld be useless because ( ! c['s habit ( seiz+ ! grass ) h] r\gh tongue & cutt+ x ) ! l[] incisors z ! head is j]k$ =w>d4 ,?is is a m rapid way ( eat+ ?an by bit+4 ,:i* leaves ! grass %ort] aft] graz+1 a c[ or a horse8 ,:y8 ,grass is v sl[ ( dige/ion1 & ! ungulates h an alim5t>y canal tw5ty to ?irty times ! l5g? ( ! body4 ,?or\gh *ew+ is necess>y = su* co>se food1 & ! ungulates :i* *ew ! cud 7rum9ants7 are able1 by leisurely & ?or\gh *ew+1 to make ! be/ use ( ! woody fib] 7cellulose7 :i* is ! *ief sub/ance 9 _! food4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #chf4--,,skeleton ,,( ,,c[4 ,comp>e ) horse 7,fig4 #cie7 z to legs1 toes1 tail1 mane1 dewlap1 e>s1 body4 ,rum9ants h f\r divisions to ! /oma*4 ,_! food is fir/ swall[$ into ! roomy paun* 9 :i*1 z 9 ! crop ( a bird1 ! bulky food is tempor>ily /or$4 ,x is n dige/$ at all 9 ! paun*1 b aft] be+ moi/5$1 portions ( x pass successively into ! honeycomb1 :i* =ms x into balls to be bel*$ up & gr\nd by ! l>ge mol>s z ! animal lies ) eyes half clos$ "u ! %ade ( a tree4 ,x is !n swall[$ a second "t & is act$ ^u 9 ! ?ird division 7or manyplies7 & ! f\r? division 7or re$74 ,next x passes into ! inte/9e4 ,:y is ! paun* ! l>ge/ comp>tm5t8 ,9 ! figure d y recognize ! paun* by its size8 ,! honeycomb by its l9+8 ,:y is x r\nd8 ,! la/ two ( ! f\r divisions may be kn[n by _! direct connection ) ! inte/9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #chg4--;,food trac$ ?r\gh /oma*s ( c[4 7,foll[ arr[s47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #chh4--,section ( c['s /oma*s4 ,id5tify ea*4 7,see text47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #chi4--,,okapi4 ,?is w probably prove to be ! la/ l>ge mammal to be discov]$ by civiliz$ man4 ,x 0 f\nd 9 ! =e/s ( ! ,kongo 9 #aijj4 ,que/ions3 ,x %[s aff9ities 7f9d !m7 ) giraffe1 de]1 & zebra4 ,x is a rum9ant ungulate 7expla9 mean+--see text74 ,! true ga/ric juice is secret$ only 9 ! f\r? /oma*4 ,s9ce ! cud or un*ew$ food is bel*$ up 9 balls f ! r\nd 8honeycomb10 & s9ce a ball ( hair is sometimes f\nd 9 ! /oma* ( rum9ants1 "s ignorant p make ! absurd mi/ake ( call+ ! ball ( hair ! cud4 ,?is ball accumulates 9 ! paun* because ( ! fri5dly cu/om c[s h ( comb+ ea* o!r's hair ) _! r\gh tongues1 ! hair sometimes be+ swall[$4 ,expla9 ! say+ t if a c[ /ops *ew+ ! cud %e w die4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cij4--;,,african ,,camel 7,camelus drom$>ius74 ,does a c['s l[] jaw move sidewise or back & =?8 ,d ! ridges on ! mol>s run sidewise or l5g?wise8 ,is a c['s horn holl[8 ,does x h a bony core8 7,fig4 #cdd47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cia4--,,prong-,,horn$ ,,antelope 7,anteloc>pa ,am]icana74 ,we/]n /ates4 ,! p]man5t holl[ horns ( ! c[ & ! solid decidu\s horns ( ! de] are typical ( ! two k9ds ( horns possess$ by rum9ants4 ,! prong-horn$ antelope 7,fig4 #cia7 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 h[ev]1 is an int]m$iate =m1 z its horns are holl[1 b are %$ ea* ye>4 ,! holl[ horns are a modification ( hair4 ,d solid or holl[ bones bran*8 ,:i* are possess$ by bo? sexes8 ,:i* are po9t$8 ,:i* are bett] suit$ = fight+8 ,:y w\ld ! de] h less ne$ to fight ?an ! cattle8 ,de] are polygam\s1 & ! males use _! horns mo/ly = fight+ ea* o!r4 ,! %>p ho(s ( de] are also dang]\s weapons4 ,! :ite-tail de] 7probably ! same species z ! ,virg9ian r$ de]7 is ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ ( ! ,am]ican de]4 ,x keeps to ! l[l&s1 :ile ! black-tail$ de] pref]s a hilly c\ntry4 ,! moose1 l ! de]1 br[ses on twigs & leaves4 ,! elk1 l cattle1 eats grass4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cib4--,,rocky ,,m\nta9 ,,%eep 7,ovis montana74 4 ,! native %eep ( ,am]ica is ! big horn1 or ,rocky ,m\nta9 %eep 7,fig4 #cib74 ,! belief is false t !y alight ^u _! horns :5 jump+ d[n precipices4 ,!y po/ s5t9els & are v w>y4 ,!re is also a native goat1 a :ite species1 liv+ high on ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s ne> ! sn[4 ,!y are r /upid animals4 ,! bison once roam$ 9 h]ds ( c\ntless ?\s&s1 b1 ) ! exception ( a few protect$ 9 p>ks1 x is n[ ext9ct4 ,its %aggy hide 0 useful to man 9 w9t]1 s x has be5 well-nigh de/roy$4 ,= ga9 man is l$ to ext]m9ate elephants1 seals1 rod5ts1 armadillos1 :ales1 birds1 de]1 mussels1 lob/]s1 =e/s1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cic4--,,pecc>y 7,dicotyles torquatus7 ( ,texas & ,mexico4 4 ,our only native hog is ! pecc>y1 f\nd 9 ,texas 7,fig4 #cic74 ,9 contra/ ) ! heavy dome/ic hog1 x is sl5d] & active4 ,x is fe>less1 & its great tusks are dang]\s weapons4 ,! sw9e are ! only ungulates t are n /rictly vegetable fe$]s4 ,! habit ( fatt5+ 9 summ] 0 useful to wild hogs1 s9ce sn[ hid mo/ ( _! food 9 w9t]4 ,! habit has be5 pres]v$ "u dome/ication4 ,are ! small toes ( ! hog useless8 ,are ! 8dew claws0 ( cattle useless8 ,w !y probably become l>g] or small]8 ,ord]8 ,illu/ration3 ,illu/rat$ ,/udy ,,fig4 #cid4--;,,bird4 ,,fig4 #cie4--;,,horse4 ,,fig4 #cif4--,,ox4 ,,fig4 #cig4--;,,dolph94 ,,fig4 #cih4--;,,fi%4 ,illu/ration3 ,illu/rat$ ,/udy ,,fig4 #cii4--,,man4 ,,fig4 #djj4--;,,*impanzee4 7,see ,fig4 #djf47 ,illu/rat$ ,/udy ( ,v]tebrate ,skeletons3 ,tak+ man's skeleton z complete1 :i* ( ^! sev5 skeletons is mo/ incomplete8 ,reg>d+ ! fi% skeleton z ! orig9al v]tebrate skeleton1 h[ has x be5 modifi$ = 7#a7 walk+1 7#b7 walk+ on two legs1 7#c7 fly+8 ,:i* skeleton is probably a deg5]ate rev]sion to orig9al type8 7p4 #bji47 ,h[ is ! horse specializ$ = spe$8 ,d all h tail v]tebr1 or v]tebr beyond ! hip bones8 ,does ea* h %\ld] blades8 ,comp>e 7#a7 =e limbs1 7#b7 h9d limbs1 7#c7 jaws ( ! sev5 skeletons4 ,:i* has relatively ! %orte/ jaws8 ,:y8 ,:at seems to be ! typical numb] ( ribs8 limbs8 digits8 ,does flipp] ( a dolph9 h same bones z arm ( a man8 ,h[ _m ?umbs has *impanzee8 ,:i* is m specializ$1 ! foot ( a man or a *impanzee8 ,is ! foot ( a man or a *impanzee bett] suit$ = support+ weight8 ,h[ does its con/ruction fit x = ?is8 ,:i* has a bett] h&1 a man or a *impanzee8 ,:at is ! diff]5ce 9 _! arms8 ,does diff]5ce 9 /ructure correspond to diff]5ce 9 use8 ,:i* ( ! sev5 skeletons be>s ! mo/ complex brea/bone8 ,:i* skeleton be>s no neck 7or c]vical7 v]tebr8 ,:i* be>s only "o8 ,are all ! classes ( v]tebrates repres5t$ 9 ?is *>t8 7p4 #abe47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dja4--,,sacr$ ,,monkey ,,( ,,india 7,semnopi!cus entellus74 4 ,monkeys1 ,apes1 & ,man4--,/udy ! figures 7#cii1 #djj72 comp>e apes & man & expla9 ea* ( ! diff]5ces 9 ! foll[+ li/3 7#a7 feet1 ?ree diff]5ces2 7#b7 arms2 7#c7 bra9 case2 7#d7 jaws2 7#e7 can9e tee?2 7#f7 backbone2 7#g7 di/ance betwe5 ! eyes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #djb4--,,lemur 7,lemur ,mongoz74 4 ,:i* digit be>s a claw8 ,a h&1 unlike a foot1 has "o ( ! digits1 call$ a ?umb1 plac$ opposite ! o!r f\r digits t x may be us$ 9 grasp+4 ,two-h&$ man & f\r-h&$ apes & monkeys are usually plac$ 9 "o ord]1 ! ,primates1 or 9 two ord]s 7see table1 page #aic74 ,! l[e/ memb]s ( ?is ord] are ! lemurs ( ! old _w4 ,because ( _! h&s & feet be+ true grasp+ organs1 !y are plac$ among ! primates1 not)/&+ ! long muzzle & expressionless1 foxlike face4 7,fig4 #djb47 ,next 9 ord] are ! tail$ monkeys1 :ile ! tailless apes are ! highe/ next to man4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #djc4--;,,broad-,,nos$ ,,monkey4 4 ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #djd4--,,n>r[-,,nos$ ,,monkey4 4 ,old ,_w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dje4--;,,gorilla4 7,size ( a man47 ,! primates ( ! ,new ,_w are all monkeys ) long tails & broad noses4 ,!y are f\nd f ,p>aguay to ,mexico4 ,! monkeys & apes ( ! ,old ,_w h a ?9 p>tition betwe5 ! no/rils1 & are ?us di/+ui%$ f ! monkeys ( ! ,new ,_w1 :i* h a ?ick] p>tition & h a broad] nose4 7,figs4 #djc1 #djd47 ,! monkeys ( ,am]ica all h six mol> tee? 9 ea* half jaw 7,fig4 #ceb72 ! monkeys & apes ( ! ,old ,_w h ?irty-two tee? :i* agree bo? 9 numb] & arrangem5t ) ^? ( man4 ,:i* ( ! primates figur$ 9 ?is book appe> to h ! arm long] ?an ! leg8 ,:i* h ! eyes direct$ =w>d in/ead ( sideways1 z ) cats or dogs8 ,ne>ly all ! primates are =e/ dwell]s1 & inhabit w>m c\ntries1 :]e ! b\ghs ( trees are nev] cov]$ ) ice or sn[4 ,_! ability 9 climb+ s]ves greatly to protect !m f bea/s ( prey4 ,_m apes & monkeys are able to assume ! upright position 9 walk+1 b !y t\* ! gr\nd ) _! knuckles e few /eps to aid 9 pres]v+ ! balance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #djf4--;,,*impanzee4 ,! ,simians are ! highe/ family ( primates bel[ man1 & include ! gorilla1 *impanzee1 orang1 & gibbon4 ,"s ( ! simians weave toge!r bran*es 9 ! treetops to =m a rude ne/1 & all are v affectionate & devot$ to _! "y4 ,h[ are apes mo/ readily di/+ui%$ f monkeys8 7,figs4 #dja1 #djf47 ,! /udy ( man z relat$ to 8 environm5t w be tak5 up 9 detail 9 ! "p call$ ,human ,biology4 ,we w !re exam9e ! effect ^u man's body ( ! rapid *anges s9ce em]g+ f savag]y t he has made 9 food eat51 air brea!d1 clo?+1 & habits ( life4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #djg4--;,,anatomy ,,( ,,rabbit4 a1 incisor tee?2 b1 b1 b1 saliv>y gl&s2 k1 l>ynx2 l1 w9dpipe2 c1 gullet2 d1 diaphragm 7possess$ only by mammals72 e1 /oma*2 g1 small inte/9e2 h1 h1 l>ge inte/9e2 f1 junction ( small & l>ge inte/9e2 g1 g1 ccum1 or bl9d sac f f 7corresponds to ! %runk5 rudim5t>y v]mi=m app5dix 9 man72 m1 c>otid art]ies2 n1 he>t2 o1 aorta2 p1 lungs2 q1 end ( /]num2 r1 sple52 s1 kidney2 t1 uret]s 7f kidney to bladd] v74 #b bra9 ( rabbit3 a1 olfactory n]ves2 b1 c]ebrum2 c1 midbra92 d1 c]ebellum4 ,table = ,review ,,fi% ,,frog ,,turtle ,,bird ,,cat ,,horse ,,man ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,names ( limbs ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,acute/ s5se ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,digits on =e & h9d limb ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,locomotion ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,k9d ( food ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,c>e ( "y ,illu/ration3 ,/4 ,b]n>d ,eskimo ,poodle ,da*%und ,g]man ma/iff ,engli% bloodh\nd ,po9t] ,bulldog ,greyh\nd ,newf\ndl& ,%eph]d ,spitz ,,fig4 #djh4--;,,artificial ,,selection4 ,its effects 9 caus+ v>ieties 9 "o species4 ,:i* ( ! dogs is specializ$ = spe$8 ,driv+ cattle8 ,/opp+ cattle8 ,trail+ by sc5t8 ,f9d+ game8 ,draw+ vehicles8 ,go+ into holes8 ,h\se pet8 ,cold wea!r8 ,9 ,mexico !re is a hairless dog specializ$ = hot climates4 ,! widely diff]+ environm5ts "u v>i\s =ms ( dome/ication cause 8sports0 :i* bre$]s are quick to take advantage ( :5 wi%+ to develop new v>ieties4 ,pr(essor ,de ,vries by cultivat+ ,am]ican ev5+ primroses 9 ,europe has %[n t a sudd5 *ange ( environm5t may cause n only v>ieties b new species to arise4 ,,human ,,biology ,,*apt] ,i ,,introduction ,to :i* bran* ( animals does man belong8 ,to :i* class & ord] 9 t bran*8 7,animal ,biology1 pages #abe1 #aic47 ,!re is no o!r animal species 9 ! same g5us or ord] ) man4 ,?is %[s a wide physical diff]5ce betwe5 man & o!r animals1 b man's m9d isolates him among ! o!r animals /ill m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,facial ,,angles ( ,caucasian 7ne>ly #ij7 & ,e?iopian 7ab\t #gj74 ,! angle betwe5 l9es cross+ at front ( upp] jaw ne> base ( nose1 "o l9e drawn f mo/ prom95t "p ( =ehead1 ! o!r ?r\gh hole ( e>4 ,! human species is divid$ into five v>ieties or races3 #a4 ,caucasian 7,fig4 #a74 ,sk9 fair1 hair wavy1 eyes oval4 7,europe except ,f9ns & ,lapps1 ,we/]n ,asia1 ,am]ica47 #b4 ,mongolian4 ,sk9 yell[1 hair /raight & black1 face flat1 nose blunt1 almond eyes4 7,c5tral ,asia1 ,*9a1 ,japan1 ,lapps & ,f9ns ( ,europe1 ,eskimos ( ,nor? ,am]ica47 #c4 ,am]icans4 ,sk9 copp] r$1 hair /raight1 nose /raight or ar*$4 7,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica47 #d4 ,malay4 ,sk9 br[n1 face flat1 hair black4 7,au/ralia & ,isl&s ( ,pacific47 #e4 ,e?iopian 7,fig4 #a74 ,sk9 d>k1 hair woolly1 nose broad1 lips ?ick1 jaws & tee? prom95t1 =ehead retreat+1 great toe %ort] ?an next toe & sep>ate4 7,africa1 ,am]ica47 ,!re is a /ruggle betwe5 ! races = ! possession ( diff]5t l&s4 ,! ,caucasian is ga9+ 9 ,au/ralia1 ,africa1 & ,am]ica4 ,) difficulty ! ,mongolians are kept f ! we/]n %ores ( ,am]ica4 ,! ,e?iopian 9 ,am]ica %[s a less5$ rate ( increase e decade2 ?is may be due to ! t5d5cy ( ! race to cr[d into cities & ! /ra9 ( sudd5ly *ang+ f jungle life 9 less ?an two c5turies4 ,civilization is a /ra9 ^u any race4 ,x is de/roy+ ! ,am]ican ,indian4 ,! ,mongolian & ,caucasian survive civilization be/1 b insanity is increas+ rapidly among ! latt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,indian ,,weapons3 ,,lance ,,& ,,arr[ ,,heads4 ,f a bank ( mussel %ells 7rema9s ( savage fea/7 at ,keyport1 ,n4,j4 ,man's ,orig9al ,environm5t4--,primitive man liv$ )\t ! use ( fire or weapons o!r ?an /icks or /ones4 ,8 fir/ home 0 9 ! tropics1 :]e 8 ne$s 7 readily suppli$1 & probably 9 ,asia4 ,_m nations h a tradition ( a home 9 a g>d5 7,greek1 p>adisos74 ,8 food 0 *iefly tree fruits & nuts4 ,:5 because ( cr[d+ he left nature's g>d51 he acquir$ skill 9 hunt+ & fi%+ & ! use ( fire t fle% might supplem5t ! meag] fruits ( cold] climates4 ,8 weapons 7 ( r\gh 7*ipp$7 /one at fir/--9 ! old /one age4 ,9 ?is age ! mammo? liv$4 ,he le>n$ to poli% implem5ts 9 ! new /one age4 ,! ,indians 7 9 t /age :5 ,columbus came to ,am]ica 7,figs4 #b1 #c74 ,! cultivation ( gra9 & ! dome/ication ( animals probably began 9 ?is age4 ,! bronze & iron ages foll[$ ! /one age4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,indian ,,tomahawk4 ,poli%$ ,/one4 ,keyport1 ,n4,j4 ,! ,reaction betwe5 ,man & 8 ,environm5t4--,! e/imates by v>i\s geologi/s ( ! "t man has exi/$ z a species v>y f #bj1jjj to #bjj1jjj ye>s4 ,! active life out ( doors :i* man l$ = ages 7,fig4 #d7 has ?or\ghly adapt$ 8 body only = su* a life4 ,n[ /eam & o!r =ces "w = him1 & 8 muscles dw9dle2 8 lungs are seldom fully exp&$1 & ! unus$ portions become uns\nd2 he lives 9 tight h\ses1 & ! impure air makes 8 blood impure & 8 sk9 delicate2 he eats s(t conc5trat$ food1 & 8 tee? decay & 8 too roomy food tube becomes sluggi%4 ,8 n]ves & bra9 are fully active & !y become uns\nd f ov]work & impure blood4#c #c ,x has be5 prophesi$ t ! future man w be a br[nie-l creature ) ne>-sight$ eyes1 %runk5 body1 slim little legs & arms1 l>ge hairless head1 too?less gums1 a /oma* us+ only pr$ige/$ food1 muscles suit$ only to pu% an electric button or pull a lev]1 & m9d v active4 ,b ?is disreg>ds ! indisp5sable ne$ ( a s\nd m9d = a s\nd body4 ,!re _c ev5 be a play ( emotion )\t a *ange 9 ! circulation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,primitive ,,man1 %[+ clo?+ & weapons ( *ase & w>4 ,deg5]ation ( ,unus$ ,p>ts4--,sev]al facts j /at$ illu/rate ! biological law t disuse causes deg5]ation4 ,man's ,modification ( 8 ,environm5t4--,! en]gy ( ! _w1 :e!r ( coal1 wat]fall1 oil1 =e/1 or ri* soil1 has ! sun z its s\rce4 ,all ( ^! are be+ de/roy$ by man1 (t5 ) recklessness & wantonness4 ,! promis$ l& :i* 8fl[$ ) milk & honey0 is n[ almo/ a des]t4 ,o!r examples are ,italy1 ,c>?age1 ,spa94 ,! de/ruction ( =e/s causes floods :i* wa% away ! soil4 ,x is e/imat$ t !re are only "o f\r? z _m song birds 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates z !re 7 fifte5 ye>s ago4 ,insects & we$s or des]ts replace ri* soil1 noble quadrup$s1 s++ birds1 & /ately trees4 ,_m f>m]s1 h[ev]1 pres]ve ! f]tility ( ! soil4 ,to ! erect po/ure is due man's free use ( 8 h&s & ! cop]ation ( h&s & s5ses4 ,?is has giv5 man 8 intellectual developm5t4 ,! erect position has giv5 great] fre$om to ! *e/4 ,man uses few] organs ( locomotion ?an any o!r animal4 ,! opossum has two h&s1 b !y are on ! h9d limbs4 ,! ape has f\r h&s1 b mu/ use !m all 9 locomotion4 7,:at is a h&87 ,! erect position1 h[ev]1 makes sp9al de=mity easi] to acquire1 & ! :ole weight be+ ^u "o hip at ea* /ep man is liable to hip-jo9t diseases4 ,9 ! horizontal trunk ! organs lie "o beh9d ano!r2 9 man !y lie "o ^u ano!r1 & are m liable to cr[d+ & displacem5t4 ,! prone position 9 sickness helps to re/ore !m4 ,l>ge blood vessels at neck1 armpits1 & gro9s1 :i* occupy protect$ positions 9 quadrup$s1 are held to ! front & expos$ to dang]4 ,! op5 end ( ! v]mi=m app5dix & ( ! w9dpipe are upw>d 9 ! erect trunk ( man4 ,valves are lack+ 9 "s v]tical ve9s & pres5t :]e little ne$$ 9 horizontal ve9s4 ,b ! fre$om ( ! h&s m ?an makes up = all ! disadvantages ( erectness4 ,! ,survival ( ! ,fitte/4--,^? :o d n "w deg5]ate4 ,^? :o ov]work1 or "w ) only a few organs1 z ! bra9 & n]ves1 deg5]ate4 ,! work]s survive & increase 9 numb]s1 ! idle p]i% & leave few desc5dants4 ,:at rate ( adju/m5t to new environm5t is possible = man8 ,?is has n be5 asc]ta9$2 x is probably mu* sl[] ?an has be5 g5]ally imag9$4 ,! natives ( ,tasmania1 ,new ,zeal&1 & _m ( ! ,pacific ,isl&s became ext9ct 9 less ?an a c5tury aft] adopt+ clo?+ & copy+ o!r habits f ,europeans4 ,life 9 ! c\ntry 9 civiliz$ l&s diff]s less f ! environm5t ( primitive man ?an does life 9 cities4 ,cities h be5 lik5$ to ! lion's cave 9 ! fable1 to :i* _m tracks l$1 b f :i* none l$4 ,! c>e ( heal? 9 cities is n[ mak+ rapid /rides along ! biological basis ( pur] air1 m op5 space1 less noise1 simple food1 & pure wat]4 ,biology1 by supply+ z a /&>d ! conditions :i* mold$ man's body = ages1 furni%es a simple & sure basis = hygi5e4 ,to m5tion "o in/ance among _m1 man blund]$ = c5turies 9 attempt+ ! cure ( consumption1 & well-nigh gave up 9 despair4 ,yet x has rec5tly be5 %[n t if ! suff]] returns only 9 a measure to ! op5-air habits ( 8 remote ance/ors1 tub]culosis is "o ( ! mo/ curable ( diseases4 ,! biological guide to heal? is sur] & simpl] ?an t9k]+ ) drugs1 fuss+ ) dietetics1 & avoid+ exposure4 ,man is ( all animals lea/ ?or\ghly adju/$ to 8 environm5t1 because ( 8 cont9ual & rapid progress4 ,disease may be def9$ z ! process by :i* ! body adapts1 or attempts to adapt1 itself to s sudd5 a *ange ( environm5t t "s organ has fail$ to "w 9 h>mony ) ! o!rs4 ,by disease ! body comes into adju/m5t ) ! new condition1 or attempts to d s4 ,protoplasm4--,! life & gr[? ( man's body1 z ! life & gr[? ( all animals & plants1 dep5d ^u ! activity ( ! liv+ sub/ance call$ protoplasm1 z manife/$ 9 m9ute bodies call$ cells4 ,9 fact1 protoplasm _c exi/ outside ( cells4 ,! cells ( ! human body & _! relation to ! body z a :ole w next be consid]$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,an ,,ameba1 highly magnifi$4 nu1 nucleus2 psd1 false foot4 ,! ,ameba4--,( all ! animal k+dom1 ! m9ute creatures t c be se5 only ) a microscope are mo/ diff]5t f man4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ( ^! is ! a-meba 7,fig4 #e2 spell$ also amba1 see ,animal ,biology1 ,*ap4 ,,ii74 ,a ?\s& ( !m plac$ 9 a r[ w\ld h>dly rea* an in*4 ,"s may d\bt :e!r ! ameba is a complete animal4 ,/udy ! figures ( x1 & no head1 or arms1 or legs1 or m\? c be f\nd4 ,x appe>s1 :5 /ill1 to be m]ely a lump ( jelly4 ,b ! ameba c pu% out any "p ( its body z a foot1 & move sl[ly by roll+ its body into ! foot4 ,x c put out any "p ( its body z an arm1 & take 9 a speck ( food2 or1 if ! food happ5s to be ne>1 ! ameba c make a m\? 9 any "p ( its body1 & swall[ ! food by clos+ ar\nd x 7,animal ,biology1 ,fig4 #ab74 ,! ameba has no lungs1 b brea!s ) all ! surface ( its body4 ,any "p ( its body c d any?+ t ano!r "p c d4 ,:5 ! ameba gr[s to a c]ta9 size1 x multiplies by squeez+ toge!r ne> ! middle 7,animal ,biology1 ,fig4 #ac7 & divid+ into two p>ts4 ,amebas h n be5 obs]v$ to die ( old age2 />vation & accid5t aside1 !y are immortal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,a ,,:ite ,,blood ,,cell1 magnifi$2 =ms notic$ at int]vals ( "o m9ute4 ,! ,ameba & ,man ,comp>$4--,! microscope %[s u t ! sk91 ! muscles1 ! blood1--9 fact1 all p>ts ( ! body1--conta9 numb]less small p>ts call$ cells4 ,^! cells are cont9ually *ang+ ) ! activities ( ! body4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ k9ds ( cells we %all f9d to be ! :ite blood cells1 or corpuscles4 ,"o is %[n 9 ,fig4 #f1 ) ! *anges t x _h und]gone at int]vals ( "o m9ute4 ,! ?\ght readily occurs t ^! cells1 al?\gh "p ( man's body1 resemble ! ameba t lives an indep5d5t life4 ,a man or a horse or a fi%--9 fact any animal n a protozoan--has some?+ ( ! nature ( a colony1 or collection1 ( "o-cell$ animals4 ,we are n[ prep>$ to und]/& a little z to h[ ! body gr[s1 & h[ a cut 9 ! sk9 is repair$4 ,! cells take ! n\ri%m5t br\ght by ! blood1 use x1 & gr[ & multiply l ! ameba4 ,?us new tissue is =m$4 ,all animals & vegetables--t is to say1 all liv+ ?+s--are made ( cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,,diagram ,,( ,a ,,cell4 p1 protoplasm2 n1 nucleus2 n1 nucleolus4 ,a liv+ cell always conta9s a /ill small] body call$ a nucleus 7,fig4 #g74 ,!re is sometimes a small dot 9 ! nucleus1 call$ ! nucleolus4 ,! ma9 body ( ! cell consi/s ( ! liv+ sub/ance call$ protoplasm1 conta9+ nitrog54 ,usually1 b n always1 !re is a wall surr\nd+ ! cell1 call$ ! cell wall4 ,work]s ) ! microscope f\nd long ago t animals & plants are con/ruct$ ( little *amb]s :i* !y call$ cells4 ,x 0 f\nd lat] t ! s(t cont5ts 9 ! little *amb]s is ( m importance ?an ! walls :i* ! protoplasm builds ar\nd itself4 ,a liv+ cell is n l a cell 9 a honeycomb or a prison4 ,9 biology we def9e a cell z a bit ( protoplasm conta9+ a nucleus4 ,no small] "p ( liv+ matt] c live alone4 ,! protoplasm ( ! nucleus is call$ nucleoplasm2 ! re/ ( ! protoplasm is call$ cytoplasm4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,a ,,cell 7f involunt>y muscle71 s sl5d] t x is call$ a fib]4 ,a fib] is ?readlike1 & is ei!r a sl5d] cell 7,fig4 #h71 a sl5d] r[ ( cells 7,fig4 #aj71 or a bran* ( a cell4 ,a tissue is def9$ z a network ( fib]s or a mass ( simil> cells s]v+ ! same purpose1 or do+ ! same "w4 ,a membrane is a ?9 %eetlike tissue4 ,! ,nature ( ! ,human ,body4--,! human body is a community ( cells1 & may be comp>$ to a community ( p4 ,x is a cr[d$ community1 = all ! citiz5s live side by side z !y "w4 ,!y are s small t x takes sev]al hundr$ ( !m to make a l9e an in* long4 ,we %\ld nev] h suspect$ ! exi/5ce ( cells _h x n be5 = ! microscope2 b n[ we "k t !y eat & brea! & "w & divide into "y cells :i* take ! place ( ! old ones4 ,a *ild t is born 9 a community ( p may become a railroad man & c>ry food & o!r freight f place to place2 s1 9 ! great community ( cells 7see ,fig4 #i7 mak+ up ! human body1 ! r$ blood cells1 l ! railroad man1 are employ$ 9 c>ry+ mat]ial f place to place4 ,b ! community is old-fa%ion$1 = ! citiz5s build canals in/ead ( railroads = _! comm]ce 7see ,fig4 #hd74 ,j z a *ild may gr[ up to be a f>m] & aid 9 ! conv]sion ( crude soil into ?+s suitable = ! use ( man1 s ! dige/ive cells take ! food we eat & *ange x into mat]ial ) :i* ! cells c build tissue4 ,"s ( ! citiz5s ( a community mu/1 at times1 take ! "p ( soldi]s & policem51 & protect ! community aga9/ ! attacks ( enemies4 ,! :ite blood cells1 already ref]r$ to1 may be call$ ! soldi]s2 = !y g to any "p attack$ by injuri\s g]ms1 a p>ticle ( poison1 or o!r enemy1 & try to de/roy ! enemies by dev\r+ or dige/+ !m4 ,at o!r times !y help to repair a break 9 ! sk94 ,if a spl9t] gets into ! sk91 ! :ite blood cells =m a :ite pus ar\nd ! spl9t] & remove x4 ,9 fact1 ! :ite blood cell has be5 ref]r$ to z a k9d ( ,jack-at-all-trades4 ,9 ! human community !re are c]ta9 p]sons :o rea* ! positions ( tea*]s1 lawmak]s1 & gov]nors2 !y in/ruct & direct ! o!r memb]s ( ! community4 ,j s1 9 ! community ( cells1 !re are c]ta9 cells call$ n]ve cells 7see ,fig4 #aa7 t h ! duty ( gov]n+ & direct+ ! o!r cells4 ,! n]ve cells are mo/ abundant 9 ! bra94 ,l>ge cities mu/ h scav5g]s4 ,likewise 9 ! human body1 a community compos$ ( millions ( cells1 !re are c]ta9 cells 9 ! sk9 & ! kidneys :i* h ?is duty4 ,!y are cont9ually remov+ impurities f ! body4#d #d ,f ,coleman's 8,hygi5ic ,physiology10 ,! ,macmillan ,co41 ,n4,y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,v>i\s ,,cells ( ! body4 7,jegi47 ,t9y citiz5s ( ! bodily community4 ,division ( ,labor4--,!re is a great advantage 9 ea* cell ( ! human body hav+ its special "w1 in/ead ( hav+ to d ev]y?+ = itself1 z ea* ameba cell mu/ d4 ,"u ?is sy/em ea* cell c d its own "w bett] ?an a cell ( any o!r k9d c d x4 ,among wild tribes !re is v little division ( labor4 ,ea* man makes 8 own weapons1 ea* kn[s h[ to weave co>se clo?1 h[ to cook1 h[ to f>m1 etc4 ,savages d n h z good weapons z d p :o leave ! mak+ ( weapons to c]ta9 m5 ^: special bus9ess x is4 ,:at k9d ( pocketknives or p5cils d y ?9k ! boys ( ?is c\ntry w\ld h if ea* boy _h to make 8 own pocketknife or p5cil8 ,:at k9d ( scissors & ?read w\ld ! girls h if ea* girl _h to make !m h]self8 ,our muscle cells c contract bett] ?an ! ameba2 ! cells 9 ! lungs c absorb oxyg5 bett] ?an ! ameba4 ,we h j z great an advantage 9 dige/ion1 feel+1 & o!r processes2 = ! ameba eats )\t a m\?1 dige/s )\t a /oma*1 feels )\t n]ves1 brea!s )\t lungs1 & moves )\t muscles4 ,division ( labor betwe5 ! sexes also occurs among ! high] animals4 ,^? :o desire t man & woman %\ld h ! same education & "w w\ld violate ! biological law ( 8progress by specialization10 :i* c\ld only cause race deg5]ation4 ,a "p ( ! body :i* is some:at di/9ct f surr\nd+ p>ts1 & has special "w to d1 is call$ an organ2 ! special "w :i* ! organ does is call$ its function4 ,! eye is ! organ ( sight4 ,! sk9 is an organ2 its function is to protect ! body4 ,?is book w treat ( 7#a7 ! /ructure1 appe>ance1 & position ( ea* organ1 or anatomy2 7#b7 ! function ( ea* organ1 or physiology2 7#c7 ! conditions ( heal? = ea* organ1 or hygi5e2 7#d7 ! conditions "u :i* ea* organ work$ 9 ! primitive life ( ! race2 7#e7 ! effects ( *ange ( environm5t2 7#f7 ! anatomy ( man comp>$ ) ! l[] animals4 7#e7 belongs to ! sci5ce ( ,ecology4 ,^! sci5ces are p>ts ( ! sci5ce ( ,biology4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,?ree ,,muscle ,,fib]s f ! he>t 7%[+ ! nuclei ( six cells74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,n]ve ,,cells1 %[+ _! bran*es int]lac+4 ,! ,tissues4--,z ! organs h diff]5t functions1 !y mu/ h diff]5t /ructures t !y may be adapt$ to _! "w4 ,j z a h\se mu/ h brick = ! *imney1 %+les = ! ro(1 & nails to hold ! timb]s & o!r p>ts toge!r1 s ! body has v>i\s tissues to s]ve diff]5t purposes4 ,! bones mu/ n be con/ruct$ l ! muscles1 & ! muscles _c be l ! sk94 ,! *ief "w ( ! cells is to con/ruct ! tissues & repair !m4 ,dur+ life *anges are con/antly go+ on4 ,c>eful little workm5 are keep+ wat* ov] e "p ( ! body2 ?rifty little build]s are busy 9 repair+ & re/or+4 ,no soon] is "o p>ticle remov$ ?an ano!r takes its place4 ,9 "o direction ! cells1 act+ z und]tak]s1 are hurry+ away matt] :i* is dead2 9 ! o!r direction ! unse5 build]s are fill+ ! vacant places ) matt] t is liv+4 ,! ,sev5 ,tissues4--,!re are sev5 k9ds ( tissues4 ,two ( !m1 ! muscul> & n]v\s tissues1 are call$ ! ma/] tissues1 s9ce !y control & exp5d ! en]gies ( ! body4 ,! o!r five tissues are call$ ! support+ tissues1 s9ce !y supply ! en]gy to ! ma/] tissues1 support !m 9 place1 n\ri% & protect !m4 ,! ,ma/] ,tissues4--,! muscul> tissue consi/s *iefly ( r[s ( cells plac$ end to end 7,fig4 #aj74 ,^! cells h ! rem>kable prop]ty ( becom+ broad] & %ort] :5 /imulat$ by impulses f n]ve cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,,connective ,,tissue ,,cells1 remov$ f among ! fib]s ( ,fig4 #ac4 n1 c1 nucleus2 p1 bran*es4 ,! n]ve tissue consi/s ( cells ) long1 spid]like bran*es 7,fig4 #aa74 ,"s n]ve cells h bran*es sev]al feet long1 s long t !y g f ! backbone to ! foot4 ,! bran*es are call$ n]ve fib]s 7,fig4 #adb74 ,n]ve fib]s :i* c>ry impulses to ! n]ve cells are call$ s5sory fib]s4 ,! n]ve fib]s :i* c>ry impulses f ! n]ve cells are call$ motor fib]s4 ,! organs are set to "w by impulses ?r\gh ! motor fib]s4 ,besides ^! two ma/] tissues !re are five support+ tissues4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,,connective ,,tissue ,,fib]s4 a1 b1 bundles ( :ite fib]s2 c1 a yell[ fib]4 ,connective tissue1 l all o!r tissues1 conta9s cells 7see ,fig4 #ab71 b x consi/s *iefly ( f9e fib]s4 ,^! fib]s are ( two k9ds1--v f9e :ite fib]s :i* are inela/ic1 & l>g] yell[ fib]s :i* are v ela/ic 7see ,fig4 #ac74 ,connective tissue is f\nd 9 e organ1 b9d+ toge!r ! o!r tissues & cells4 ,x is int]wov5 among ! muscle cells1 & ! t5dons at ! ends ( ! muscles are compos$ almo/ :olly ( x4 ,if e o!r tissue 7 remov$1 ! connective tissue w\ld /ill give a p]fect model ( all ! organs4 ,h[ abundant ?is tissue is 9 ! sk9 may be kn[n f ! fact t lea!r consi/s entirely ( x4 ,fatty 7,adipose7 ,tissue4--,fatty tissue is =m$ by ! deposit ( oil 9 connective tissue cells 7see ,fig4 #ad74 ,fat is held 9 me%es ( connective tissue fib]s4 ,t fatty tissue consi/s n alone ( fat1 b ( fib]s also1 is %[n :5 hog fat is r5d]$ into l>d1 c]ta9 t\gh p>ts call$ 8crackl+s0 be+ left4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 beef fat & tall[8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,,fatty ,,tissue4 ,five fat cells1 held 9 bundles ( connective tissue fib]s4 a is a l>ge oil drop2 m1 cell wall2 nucleus 7n7 & protoplasm 7p7 h be5 pu%$ aside by oil drop 7a74 ,epi!lial tissue consi/s ( "o or m lay]s ( di/9ct cells pack$ close toge!r 7see ,fig4 #ae74 ,x conta9s no connective tissue or o!r fib]s1 & is ! simple/ ( ! tissues4 ,epi!lial tissue =ms ! out] lay] ( ! sk91 call$ ! epid]mis1 & ! muc\s membrane l9+ ! int]ior ( ! body4 ,x conta9s no blood vessels1 ! epi!lial cells obta9+ _! n\ri%m5t f ! wat]y portion ( ! blood :i* soaks ?r\gh ! und]ly+ tissues4 ,epi!lial cells are usually transp>5t2 = in/ance1 ! blood is visible b5ea? ! muc\s membrane ( ! lips4 ,! f+] nails are made ( epi!lial cells1 & !y are ne>ly transp>5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,,epi!lial ,,tissue 7epid]mis ( sk91 magnifi$74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,,epi!lial ,,tissue2 cells =m+ two gl&s 9 wall ( /oma*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,six ,,gl& ,,cells3 at left1 %runk5 aft] activity2 at "r1 re/$1 full ( granules4 ,!re are two classes ( epi!lial cells2 "o class =ms protective cov]+s 7,fig4 #ae72 ! o!r class =ms ! l9+ ( gl&s 7,fig4 #af74 ,gl&s are cavities ^: l9+ ( epi!lial cells 7,fig4 #ag7 =m ei!r useful fluids call$ secretions to aid ! body 9 its "w1 or h>mful fluids call$ excretions to be ca/ out1 or excret$4 ,mo/ gl&s empty _! fluids ?r\gh tubes call$ ducts4 ,c>tilagin\s tissue is t\gh1 yet ela/ic4 ,c>tilage or gri/le may be readily felt 9 ! e>s1 ! w9dpipe1 & ! l[] half ( ! nose4 ,?is tissue consi/s ( c>tilage cells emb$d$ 9 an int]cellul> sub/ance ?r\gh :i* run connective tissue fib]s 7see ,fig4 #ah74 ,if yell[ fib]s pr$om9ate1 ! c>tilage is yell[ & v ela/ic1 z 9 ! e>2 if :ite fib]s pr$om9ate1 x is :ite & less ela/ic1 z 9 ! pads ( gri/le betwe5 ! bones ( ! sp9al column4 ,c>tilage is to prev5t j>s1 &1 9 movable jo9ts1 to less5 friction4 ,bony 7,osse\s7 ,tissue4--,solid bone is se5 "u ! microscope to conta9 _m m9ute cavities 7,fig4 #ai74 ,9 ^! cavities ! bone cells lie self-imprison$ 9 walls ( /one2 = ^! cells h =m$ ! bone by deposit+ lime/one & phosphate ( lime ar\nd !mselves4 ,!re are m9ute canals 7#c1 ,fig4 #ai71 h[ev]1 ?r\gh :i* n\ri%m5t comes to ! cells4 ,! wat]y portion ( ! blood passes ?r\gh ^! small canals f ! blood vessels t fl[ ?r\gh ! l>g] canals 7#a1 ,fig4 #ai74 ,bone cells may live = ye>s1 al?\gh "s ( ! o!r cells ( ! body live only a few h\rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,c>tilag9\s ,,tissue4 ,a ?9 slice highly magnifi$4 a1 b1 c1 gr\ps ( cells2 m1 int]cellul> sub/ance4 ,new cells to repair ! tissues are =m$ by subdivision ( ! cells1 z ) ! ameba4 ,unlike protozoans1 _m-cell$ animals are mortal because ! out] cells prev5t ! deep] cells f purify+ !mselves p]fectly & obta9+ pure food & oxyg54 ,ev5 ! art]ies ( an old man become h>d5$ by ! deposit ( m9]al matt] :i* ! body has be5 unable to excrete4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,bony ,,tissue4 ,?9 slice across bone1 z view$ ?r\gh microscope4 ,l>g] blood tubes pass ?r\gh ! l>ge holes 7#a72 ! cavities conta9+ bone cells lie 9 circles1 & are connect$ by f9e tubes 7#c7 ) ! l>g] tubes4 ,! body is kept alive & w>m by burn+1 or oxidation4 ,"o fif? ( ! air is oxyg5 gas4 ,we brea! x dur+ e m9ute ( our exi/5ce4 ,x is c>ri$ by ! blood to all ! tissues4 ,n "o ( ! cells c\ld "w )\t oxyg54 ,)\t x ! body w\ld soon be cold & dead1 = oxyg5 keeps ! body alive & w>m by unit+ 9 ! cells ) sug>1 fat1 & all o!r sub/ances 9 ! body except wat] & salt4 ,oxyg5 burns or consumes ! sub/ances ) :i* x unites1 & ! process is call$ oxidation4 ,h5ce ! cells h to be cont9ually gr[+ & multiply+ to repair ! tissue & replace ! mat]ial us$ up by oxidation4 ,sug> & fl\r & fat oxidize1 or burn1 outside ( ! body1 z well z 9 x1 z c be prov$ by ?r[+ !m into a fire4 ,wat] & salt are two foods t d n burn4 ,h5ce !y c furni% no heat or en]gy to ! body4 ,wat] puts out a fire in/ead ( help+ x1 & s does salt4 ,?r[ salt into a fire or on a /ove2 x w pop l s&1 b w n burn4 ,! cells ne$ ! oxyg5 ( fre% air2 !y ne$ food = ! oxyg5 to unite )1 b !y are injur$ by _m sub/ances call$ poisons4 ,ars5ic de/roys ! r$ blood cells4 ,/ry*n9e attacks ! n]ve cells 9 ! sp9al cord4 ,alcohol attacks ! epi!lial cells l9+ ! /oma* &1 :5 x is absorb$1 attacks ! n]ve cells & o!r cells4 ,morph9e attacks ! n]ve cells4 ,,writt5 ,,ex]cises4--,draw a s]ies ( sev5 pictures to %[ ! sev5 tissues 7,figs4 #aj1 #ad1 #ae1 #ah1 #ai74 ,write ! 8,autobiography0 ( a ,:ite ,blood ,cell 7see also pages #ei & #fh74 ,! ,rew>ds ( ,c>+ = ! ,heal?4 ,heal? & ! ,disposition4 ,:i* is m important1 a ,?or\gh ,k ( ,geography or ( ,physiology8 ,five ,?+s :i* p ,value above ,heal? 7& lose heal? to obta974 ,! ,bless+s t foll[ ,good ,heal?4 ,! ,tissues ,comp>$ 7function1 proportion ( cells1 int]cellul> mat]ial & fib]s1 activity1 rate ( *ange74 ,see also pages #ej1 #aaf4 ,pupils %\ld *oose _! own subjects4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,sk9 ,,note ,,to ,,tea*]4--,! exp]im5ts %\ld be assign$ 9 turn to ! pupils z ea* *apt] is rea*$3 e4g4 ?is set ( #ac w leave #c pupils 9 a class ( #ci to /& responsible = ea* exp]im5t4 ,ea* pupil %\ld d ! "w sep>ately & cr$it may be giv5 = ! be/ results4 ,enc\rage 7or require7 ea* pupil to try e exp]im5t & record !m 9 a note book4 ,exp]im5t #a4 7,at home or 9 class47 ,alb9ism4--,/udy a :ite rabbit z an example ( alb9ism4 ,does alb9ism affect only ! sk98 ,:at evid5ce t its blood is ( normal color8 ,exp]im5t #b4 ,use ( ,hairs on ! ,sk94--,let "o pupil re/ 8 h& ^u ! desk beh9d him :ile ano!r t\*es a hair on 8 h& ) a p5cil4 ,he %\ld speak at ! mom5t1 if x is felt4 ,d ! hairs increase ! s5sitiv5ess ( ! sk98 ,:at 0 _! use ) primitive man8 ,are ! h&s ( all y\r acqua9tances equally hairy8 ,are ! hairs to be class$ z rudim5t>y8 ,w !y disappe>8 ,w ! race become baldhead$8 ,exp]im5t #c4 7,home or s*ool47 ,invisible ,p]spiration4--,hold a piece ( cold glass ne> ! h& or place ! *eek ne> a cold w9d[ pane & notice = evid5ce ( moi/ure4 ,its s\rce8 ,exp]im5t #d4--;,effect ( ,evaporation on ,temp]ature4--,read a !rmomet] & cov] its bulb ) a moi/ clo?4 ,read aga9 aft] tw5ty m9utes4 ,repeat exp]im5t 9 breeze4 ,exp]im5t #e4 ,moi/5 "o h& & all[ x to dry4 ,t\* ! o!r h& ) x4 ,expla9 result4 ,exp]im5t #f4 ,absorb+ ,p[] ( ,fabrics4--,wet ! h&s & dry !m ^u a piece ( cotton clo?4 ,repeat ) wool51 l951 & silk4 ,arrange 9 li/ accord+ to read9ess 9 absorb+ wat]4 ,exp]im5t #g4 ,rates ( ,dry+4--,imm]se ! clo?s 9 wat] & hang !m up to dry4 ,te/ _! rates ( dry+ ) dry p[d] or by t\*4 ,exp]im5t #h4 ,te/ ,loos5ess ( ,weave ( above clo?s by measur+ ! di/ance pieces ( equal l5g? w /ret*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,color$ ,,figure #a4--,,section ,,( ,,sk9 7diagram1 enl>g$ #be times74 ,on ! left ! connective tissue fib]s ( ! true sk9 are %[n4 ,9 cutis 7c71 or d]mis1 f9d capill>ies1 n]ve fib]s1 fat cells1 two sweat gl&s & ducts1 f\r oil gl&s 7two 9 section71 two hairs1 ?ree n]ve papill1 five papillae conta9+ capill>ies1 two muscles = erect+ hairs4 ,9 epid]mis f9d flat cells1 r\nd cells1 & pigm5t cells4 ,,fig4 #b4--,,:]e ,,! ,,food ,,is ,,absorb$ 7villus ( inte/9e74 ,,fig4 #c4--,,:]e ,,! ,,food ,,is ,,us$ 7cells ) lymph spaces74 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,ideal ,,section ,,( ,,mammal4 ,comp>e ) organs ( man 7color$ ,fig4 #f74 j1 j1 jaws2 ol1 n]ve ( smell2 op1 n]ve ( sight2 b1 bra92 t1 tongue2 ep1 epiglottis2 oe1 gullet2 ?1 ?ymus gl&2 lg1 lung2 h1 he>t2 l1 liv]2 g1 /oma*2 s1 sple52 p1 pancreas2 k1 kidney2 d1 diaphragm2 m1 muscle2 u1 bladd]2 *1 sp9al cord2 v1 v]tebr4 ,exp]im5t #i4 ,does ,cotton or ,wool protect bett] f ,radiant ,heat8--,lay a !rmomet] 9 ! sun = t5 m9utes1 fir/ cov]+ x ) a wool5 clo?4 ,note *ange 9 read+4 ,aft] x rega9s fir/ read+1 repeat1 cov]+ x ) a cotton clo? ( same weight & texture4 ,conclusion8 ,expose wri/s or arms to sun = five m9utes1 "o protect$ by ! cotton1 ! o!r by ! wool4 ,result8 ,conclusion8 ,exp]im5t #aj4 ,rates ( ,heat ,absorption & ,radiation by ,diff]5t ,colors4--,expose !rmomet] to sunlight1 cov]$ successively by pieces ( clo? ( same ?ickness1 mat]ial1 & texture4 ,use black1 blue1 r$1 yell[1 & :ite clo?4 ,note rise ( temp]ature = equal times 9 ea* case2 also ! fall ( temp]ature = equal times aft] removal to %ade4 ,exp]im5t #aa4 ,effects ( ,dry ,p[d]s4--,prep>e two squ>es f ! same piece ( lea!r 7e4g4 an old %oe74 ,moi/5 !m bo?1 & apply face p[d] to "o4 ,:i* dries m quickly8 ,repeat aft] oil+ !m4 ,p[d] a portion ( ! face or arm daily = a week & comp>e ) ! clean portion4 ,exp]im5t #ab4 ,dissect ! kidney ( an ox or %eep1 mak+ out ! p>ts m5tion$ 9 ! text1 p4 #bf4 ,exp]im5t #ac4 7,9 class47 ,em]g5cy ,drill4--,h "o pupil wet an imag9>y burn on ! arm ( ano!r1 treat x ) fl\r or soda1 & b&age4 7,see text47 ,! ,sk9 has ,two ,lay]s4--,! out] lay] is call$ ! epid]mis2 x is ?9n]1 m transp>5t1 & less ela/ic ?an ! inn] lay]1 or d]mis4 ,! epid]mis is compos$ ( epi!lial cells pack$ close toge!r 7see color$ ,fig4 #a74 ,! d]mis1 or inn] lay]1 is a closely wov5 %eet ( connective tissue 7color$ ,fig4 #a7 conta9+ a great numb] ( sweat & oil gl&s1 roots ( hairs1 blood vessels1 absorb5t vessels 7lymphatics71 & n]ves 7color$ ,fig4 #a74 ,! d]mis is sometimes call$ ! true sk9 because x is ( great] importance ?an ! epid]mis4 ,x is unit$ loosely to ! und]ly+ organs by a lay] ( connective tissue4 ,x is 9 ?is lay] t fat is /or$4 ,! upp] surface ( ! d]mis rises into a multitude ( projections 7see color$ ,fig4 #a7 call$ papill 7s+ul>1 papilla74 ,! epid]mis fits closely ov] !m & completely levels up ! spaces betwe5 !m except on ! palms & ! soles4 ,"h ! papill are 9 r[s1 & !re is a f9e ridge 9 ! sk9 above ea* r[ ( papill 7,fig4 #bd74 ,9 ! papill are small loops ( blood vessels & sometimes a n]ve fib] 7color$ ,fig4 #a74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,,epid]mis ,,( ,,e?iopian4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,,epid]mis ,,( ,,caucasian4 ,! epid]mis is compos$ ( a mass ( cells held toge!r by a cem5t resembl+ ! :ite ( an egg4 ,! cells ne> ! surface are h>d & flatt5$2 ^? deep] d[n ne> ! d]mis are r\nd & s(t 7see ,fig4 #ba74 ,^! cells are liv+ cells4 ,!y are kept alive by ! n\ri%m5t 9 ! wat]y portion ( ! blood :i* soaks ?r\gh f ! blood tubes 9 ! neighbor+ papill4 ,h5ce ^! cells are gr[+ cells2 !y subdivide :5 !y rea* a c]ta9 size1 & replace ^? we>+ away at ! surface1 ?us con/antly repair+ ! epid]mis4 ,! dry out] cells we> away rapidly4 ,!y h no nuclei & are dead cells4 ,! new cells =m+ b5ea? pu% !m s f> away f ! d]mis t n\ri%m5t no long] rea*es !m1 & !y die4 ,pigm5t4--,! cells 9 ! l[] lay]s ( ! epid]mis conta9 gra9s ( color+ matt]1 or pigm5t4 ,all o!r cells ( ! epid]mis are transp>5t2 ! pigm5t has ! function ( absorb+ & arre/+ light4 ,alb9os or animals entirely )\t pigm5t h pallid sk9s & p9k eyes 7,exp4 #a74 ,immigrants f a ,cl\dy to a ,sunny ,climate4 ,adaptation4--,! cells ( ! deep] tissues c readily be exhau/$ by ! /imulation ( too mu* light4 ,! sunni] ! climate1 ! great] ! ne$ ( pigm5t2 h5ce ! d>k sk9 ( ! negro & ! blonde sk9 & hair ( ! ,norwegian4 ,european immigrants to sunny ,am]ica w gr[ d>k]4 ,! ,indian's sk9 is bett] suit$ to our climate ?an is a fair sk94 ,brunettes h a bett] *ance = adaptation ?an blondes4 ,! ,am]ican type :5 develop$ w d\btless be brunette4 ,! hair gr[s f a pit or follicle 7,fig4 #bb74 ,blood vessels & a n]ve fib] g to ! root or bulb f :i* a hair gr[s4 ,! hair w gr[ until ?is papilla1 or bulb1 is de/roy$ 7,exp4 #b74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,,developm5t ,,( ,a ,,hair ,,& ,,two ,,oil ,,gl&s4 ,adaptation ( ! scalp to a tight w>m cov]+ is accompli%$ ?r\gh ! %$d+ ( ! hair r5d]$ useless by ! cov]+4 ,x is impossible to /op ! gr[? ( sup]flu\s hair unless ! hair papill are de/roy$ ) an electric ne$le1 su* is ! vitality ( hair2 yet _m m51 by ov]heat+ ! head & cutt+ (f ! circulation ) tight hats1 de/roy mu* ( ! hair be=e rea*+ middle age4 ,! heal? ( ! hair c be re/or$ & its loss be /opp$ by go+ b>ehead$ except 9 ! hot sun or 9 extremely cold wea!r4 ,?is frees ! circulation2 cold air & light /imulate ! cells ( ! scalp4 ,"s m5 we> hats1 ev5 at night 9 summ]4 ,! bra9 ne$s ! protection ( ! hair4 ,be>d protects ! l>ynx or voice box1 :i* is l>ge & expos$ 9 man4 ,x 0 also a protection 9 hunt+ wild bea/s & 9 w>4 ,comp>e mane ( lion1 n possess$ by lioness4 8,goose-fle%0 aft] a cold ba? is caus$ by ! contraction ( small muscles 7color$ ,fig4 #a71 rais+ ! n[ t9y hairs 9 an absurdly useless ef=t to keep ! body w>m4 ,! nails are d5se1 ?ick plates ( epid]mis gr[+ f a numb] ( papill situat$ 9 a groove1 or fold1 ( ! sk92 !re are _m f9e papill along ! b$ f :i* ! nail gr[s4 ,s9ce x gr[s f its "u side z well z f ! little fold ( sk9 at its root1 ! nail is ?ick] at ! end ?an ne> ! root4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,a1 ,,developm5t ,,( ,,sweat ,,gl&2 ,b1 ,,sweat ,,tube ,,develop$4 ,! oil gl&s empty into ! hair follicles 7color$ ,fig4 #a74 ,!y =m an oil f ! blood t keeps ! hair glossy & ! surface ( ! sk9 s(t & flexible by prev5t+ excessive dry+4 ,hair oil %\ld nev] be us$ ^u ! hair1 z ! oil soon becomes rancid1 & besides causes du/ & dirt to /ick to ! hair4 ,! sweat gl&s 7,fig4 #bc71 l ! hair bulbs1 are deep 9 ! l[e/ "p ( ! d]mis4 ,a sweat gl& has ! =m1 ( a tube coil$ into a ball 7color$ ,fig4 #a74 ,?is tube cont9ues z a duct ?r\gh ! two lay]s ( sk91 & its op5+ at ! surface is call$ a pore 7,fig4 #bd74 ,! p]spiration evaporates z fa/ z x fl[s out ?r\gh ! pores1 if ! secretion is sl[2 b if p\r$ out rapidly1 x ga!rs into drops 7,exp4 #c74 ,! p]spiration is *iefly wat]1 conta9+ 9 solution sev]al salts1 includ+ common salt & a trace ( a :ite1 cry/all9e sub/ance call$ urea4 ,! mat]ial = ! p]spiration is furni%$ by ! blood fl[+ ar\nd ! gl& 9 a network ( f9e tubes4 ,! am\nt ( ! p]spiration is controll$ 9 two ways3 by n]ves t regulate ! activity ( ! epi!lial cells l9+ ! gl&1 & by n]ves t regulate ! size ( ! blood vessels supply+ ! gl& 7,fig4 #be74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,pores on ridges 9 palm ( h&4 ,,?\ght ,,que/ions4--,freckles1 ,w>ts1 ,moles1 ,sc>s1 ,pr\d ,fle%1 ,pimples1 ,blackheads4 ,use ^! names 9 ! prop] places bel[3-- ,a r\gh prom95ce =m$ by sev]al papill gr[+ ?r\gh ! epid]mis at a weak spot & enl>g+ is call$ a 4 ,small pat*es ( pigm5t develop+ on ! h&s & face f mu* exposure to ! sun are call$ 4 ,! gr[? ( expos$ d]mis spr\t+ ?r\gh an op5+ 9 ! epid]mis due to accid5t is call$ 4 7,?is %\ld be scrap$ (f & caut]iz$ to aid ! epid]mis to gr[ ov] x aga947 ,sometimes a cut heals 9 su* a way t no epid]mis & !re=e no pigm5t cells cov] ! place ( injury1 :i* is occupi$ only by :ite fibr\s tissue 7cicatricial tissue7 ( ! true sk94 ,9 ?is case ! m>k left is call$ a cicatrice or 4 ,if pores or ! op5+s ( oil gl&s become clogg$1 b n enl>g$1 little swell+s call$ may result4 ,an enl>g$ pore fill$ ) oil & dirt is call$ a 4 ,a spot pres5t s9ce bir?1 d>k ) pigm5t1 & (t5 conta9+ hairs & blood vessels1 is call$ a 4 ,regulation ( ,temp]ature4--,z is well kn[n1 rapid runn+ or viol5t ex]cise ( any k9d causes pr(use p]spiration4 ,! sweat gl&s are connect$ ) ! bra9 by means ( n]ves1 & :5 ! body has too mu* heat1 a n]ve impulse f ! l[e/ "p ( ! bra9 causes ! sweat gl&s to =m sweat m rapidly4 ,heat & ex]cise may cause ! activity ( ! sweat gl&s to increase to =ty times ! usual rate4 ,! evaporation ( ! sweat cools ! body1 = a l>ge am\nt ( heat is requir$ to evaporate a small am\nt ( wat] 7,exp4 #d & #e74 ,?is is %[n by ! cool+ effect ( spr9kl+ wat] on ! floor on a w>m day4 ,by fann+ we ha/5 ! cool+ ( ! body 7,exp4 #d74 ,ex]cise t5ds to heat ! body1 b x also causes u to brea! fa/] & causes mu* blood to fl[ ?r\gh ! sk94 ,bo? ( ^! effects aid 9 cool+ ! body1 = ! cool air is drawn into ! lungs1 becomes w>m1 & takes away heat :5 x leaves2 & ! w>m blood fl[+ 9 ! sk9 loses "s ( its heat to ! cool air 9 contact ) ! sk94 ,effects ( ,alcohol ^u ! ,sk94--,! m blood goes to ! sk91 ! m blood is cool$4 ,! body z a :ole may be cool]1 b we feel w>m] :5 !re is m blood 9 ! sk9 because ( ! effect ( ! w>m blood ^u ! n]ves ( temp]ature4 ,!re are no n]ves = p]ceiv+ temp]ature except 9 ! sk9 & muc\s membrane1 & ! body has practically no s5sation ( heat or cold except f ! sk9 or muc\s membrane4 ,t alcoholic dr9ks make ! sk9 r$ is commonly notic$4 ,(t5 ! sk9 is flu%$ by "o dr9k2 ! blood%ot eyes & purple nose ( ! top] are ! results ( habitual use4 ,c y expla9 :y alcohol br+s a deceptive feel+ ( w>m?8 ,:y does alcohol increase ! dang] ( freez+ dur+ exposure 9 v cold wea!r8 ,dur+ ! *ill :i* prec$es a fev]1 ! body 7except ! sk97 is really w>m] ?an usual4 ,ex]cise w relieve int]nal conge/ion & s5d ! blood to ! sk9 bett] ?an alcohol4 ,?is is ! effect s\ght by s$5t>y p :o use x to replace ex]cise4 ,! long & sad exp]i5ce ( ! race ) alcohol proves t ! attempt to adapt ! body to its use %\ld be giv5 up4 ,,?\ght ,,que/ions4 ,! ,functions ( ! ,sk94--#a4 ,/ate a fact :i* %[s t ! sk9 is a protection2 gives (f (f5sive sub/ances2 regulates ! temp]ature4 #b4 ,:at is lack+ 9 ! sk9 :5 x cracks or *aps8 ,:y does ?is occur m (t5 9 cold wea!r8 ,:5 ! h&s are ba!d ) great frequ5cy8 ,effects ( ,indoor & ,outdoor ,life4--,^? :o live mu* out ( doors1 expos$ to sunlight & pure1 cold air1 are robu/ & h>dy2 :ile ^? ^: occupations keep !m con/antly indoors1 especially if no physical labor is necess>y1 %[ by _! pale sk9s1 _! fat & flabby1 or _! ?9 & emaciat$ bodies1 ! weak5+ effect ( su* a life4 ,we are desc5d$ f ance/ors :o liv$ 9 ! op5 air1 & x is impossible = a human be+ to live mu* indoors )\t deg5]ation ( ! body & %ort5+ ( life4 ,a ,well-tra9$ ,sk94--,we he> a great deal ab\t tra9+ ! muscles1 ! bra91 ! eye1 ! h&2 yet we may fail to realize t ! sk9 also c be tra9$ & its p[]s develop$1 or x c be all[$ to become weak & p[]less4 ,s\ndness ( ! sk9 is z ess5tial to heal? z s\ndness ( any o!r organ4 ,a rosy color indicates good heal? because ( a well-balanc$ circulation4 ,pal5ess (t5 means int]nal conge/ion & great liability to indige/ion1 colds1 etc4 ,h5ce we ?9k a rosy sk9 beautiful & a pale sk9 ugly4 ,) ! sk9 9 a heal?y condition1 ! dang] ( tak+ mo/ diseases is remov$4 ,*>act]i/ics ( a ,vigor\s ,sk94--,a p]son :o readily takes cold1 :o is fe>ful ( drafts ( air at all times1 has a weak sk94 ,to "o :o has a heal?y sk9 drafts are dang]\s only :5 ! sk9 is moi/ ) p]spiration1 & ! body is inactive2 cold drafts may !n d h>m4 ,cold air & cold wat] are ! be/ means ( t\gh5+ a t5d] sk94 ,a ba? is to ! sk9 :at gymna/ic ex]cises are to ! muscles4 ,! muscle fib]s 9 ! walls ( ! blood vessels & ! n]ves controll+ !m ne$ ex]cise z well z ! re/ ( ! body 7,fig4 #be74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,,blood ,,vessels1 ) ! ,,vaso-,,motor ,,n]ves :i* accompany & control !m4 ,importance ( ,ba?+4--,if we foll[$ ! outdoor life & wore ! scanty clo?+ ( savage races1 ! ra9s1 ! cool air1 & ! sunlight w\ld keep our sk9s vigor\s & s\nd4 ,b want ( ex]cise to induce p]spiration all[s ! sweat gl&s to become /opp$ up4 ,! we>+ ( clo!s is a v uncleanly cu/om4 ,clo!s make ! sk9 inactive1 yet conf9e ! impurities :i* ! weak5$ sk9 may /ill be able to excrete4 ,?ick & heavy clo?+ & ov]heat$ rooms prev5t ! n]ves f be+ /imulat$ by cold air & sunlight4 ,! be/ way to c\nt]act ^! weak5+ conditions is by frequ5t cool or cold ba?s4 ,an air ba?1 :i* consi/s ( expos+ ! b>e sk9 to ! air = half an h\r or m be=e dress+ 9 ! morn+1 may take ! place ( a cold ba?4 ,ev5 ! l[] animals ba!3 birds1 dogs1 & _m l[] animals ba! 9 ! riv]s4 ,an elephant sometimes takes a ba? by %[]+ wat] ov] 8 back ) 8 trunk4 ,treatm5t ( ,burns4--,wet ! burn ) a little wat] & spr9kle common bak+ soda or fl\r ?ickly on x4 ,b9d ) a n>r[ b&age4 ,= deep] burns soak a small squ>e ( clo? 9 a /rong solution ( bak+ soda1 b&age x on w\nd1 & keep x wet ) ! solution4 ,olive1 cotton se$1 & l9se$ oils are excell5t = burns 7,exp4 #ac74 ,hygi5e ( ,ba?+4--,a ba? %\ld n be tak5 )9 an h\r aft] a meal4 ,cold ba?s 7#a7 %\ld nev] be tak5 9 a cold room nor :5 ! sk9 is cold2 7#b7 are m b5eficial 9 summ] & 9 w>m climates1 b are necess>y 9 w9t] = ^? :o live 9 ov]heat$ h\ses or dress v w>mly2 7#c7 %\ld be foll[$ 9 w9t] by vigor\s rubb+ & a gl[+ reaction2 7#d7 %\ld usually n la/ long] ?an "o m9ute 9 w9t]4 ,w>m ba?s 7#a7 are m cleans+ ?an cold ba?s2 7#b7 %\ld n be us$ alone b %\ld always be foll[$ by a da% ( cold wat]2 7#c7 are bett] ?an cold ba?s if ! body is greatly fatigu$2 7#d7 are m b5eficial :5 go+ to b$ ?an ^u ris+4 ,cold ba?s & v hot ba?s are bo? /imulants to ! n]v\s sy/em & cause an exp5diture ( n]v\s en]gy4 ,= "o ^: n]v\s en]gy is at a v l[ ebb cold ba?s may be weak5+ if prolong$ beyond a few seconds4 ,= "o ) sk9 relax$ & body sluggi% f indoor life1 cool ba?s ar\se activity1 tone up ! body1 & may be z b5eficial z outdoor ex]cise 9 re/or+ vigor\s heal?4 ,z ) e hygi5ic measure1 ea* p]son mu/ f9d out by exp]i5ce :at suits him be/4 ,clo?+ 0 fir/ employ$ = ornam5t4 ,9 cold climates x aids 9 ma9ta9+ ! uni=m temp]ature ( ! body2 to x man owes 8 di/9ction ( be+ ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ ( animal species4 ,clo?+ prev5ts rapid escape ( bodily heat by conf9+ air1 a non-conductor ( heat1 9 its me%es4 ,h5ce1 ! effect ( clo?+ v>ies ) ! weave2 likewise ) ! t5d5cy ( its fib]s to keep dry1 = if wat] replaces air 9 ! me%es1 ! body loses heat rapidly4 ,= cool clo?+ ! weave %\ld be h>d & tight1 = w>m clo?+ x %\ld be s(t & loose4 ,! w>m? ( clo?+ is affect$ m by its weave ?an by its weight4 ,! weave may be te/$ by /ret*+2 ! fabric ) s(te/ weave w /ret* ! mo/ 7,exp4 #h74 ,l95 makes ! coole/ ( all clo?+ because x weaves h>d ) small me%es2 silk ranks next 9 coolness4 ,:5 w>m? is desir$1 l95 or cotton g>m5ts %\ld be made ( fabrics wov5 l /ock+s4 ,l95 & cotton bo? absorb wat] rapidly & dry rapidly 7,exp4 #f72 if wool5 did also1 x w\ld make ! w>me/ ( all clo?+1 b x dries s sl[ly 7,exp4 #g7 t x cools ! body aft] ! activity is ov] in/ead ( dry+ rapidly &1 z ) l95 & cotton1 keep+ ! body cool dur+ ! ex]tion 7,exp4 #e74 ,wool5 weaves ) ! l>ge/ air me%es ( all mat]ials2 h5ce its w>m? increases p]spiration1 b wool5 removes p]spiration mo/ sl[ly & t5ds to relax ! sk9 if ! we>] has an active sk9 or makes active ex]tion4 ,wool5 is be/ = und]clo?+ dur+ extreme cold only or = p]sons :o nev] make su* vigor\s muscul> ex]tion z to p]spire4 ,9 g5]al1 cotton or l95 is be/ = und]we>4 ,!y possess ! add$ advantages ( less co/ & ( n %r9k+ out ( size & %ape :5 wa%$4 ,a mixture ( cotton & silk or ( cotton & wool is m durable ?an ei!r alone4 ,cotton & l951 unlike wool51 are n attack$ by insect pe/s4 ,x is bett] to dep5d m ^u out] clo?+ ?an und]clo?+ = w>m?4 ,9 ! ,gulf /ates ! we>+ ( wool5 out] clo?+ indoors dur+ w>m wea!r 7:i* la/s eight mon?s7 is unheal?ful & uncleanly because ( ! p]spiration absorb$2 ?is is z absurd z to we> cotton out] clo?+ 9 ,nor!rn /ates dur+ ! eight cold mon?s4 ,black clo?+ absorbs twice1 blue almo/ twice1 r$ & yell[ almo/ "o & a half times1 z mu* heat z :ite clo?+ 7,exp4 #aj74 ,:i* mat]ial protects be/ f radiant heat8 7,exp4 #i47 ,because l>ge blood vessels are ne> ! surface at ! neck1 wri/s1 & ankles v ?9 or no cov]+ at ^? po9ts aids greatly 9 keep+ ! body cool4 ,high coll>s1 long sleeves1 & high %oes are unheal?ful 9 w>m climates & 9 summ]4 ,:at objection to black %oes 9 summ]8 ,pat5t lea!r8 ,%[ h[ wom5 dress m s5sibly 9 hot wea!r ?an m54 ,! kidneys are locat$ on ea* side ( ! sp9al column 9 ! 8small ( ! back0 & ext5d slightly above ! level ( ! wai/4 ,!y are bean-%ap$ organs ab\t f\r in*es long 7,fig4 #bf74 ,! kidneys ( a %eep or ox closely resemble ^? ( man4 ,!y are outside ( ! p]itoneum 7,fig4 #ii7 & atta*$ to ! re> wall ( ! abdom54 ,a l>ge art]y 7#ab1 color$ ,fig4 #e7 goes to ea* kidney & divides into _m capill>ies :i* surr\nd tubules 9 ! kidneys 7,fig4 #bg74 ,! secretion1 conta9+ nitrog5\s impurities ( ! blood1 is cont9ually be+ deposit$ 9 ! tubules1 :i* take x to a funnel-%ap$ cavity at ! inn] edge ( ! kidney 7,fig4 #bf74 ,f ?is cavity a :ite tube call$ ! uret] leads d[n to a /orage organ 9 ! pelvis call$ ! bladd]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,section ,,( ,,kidney4 ,,ra1 r5al art]y2 ,py1 pyramids surr\nd+ holl[ space f :i* ! uret] 7,u7 leads ! secretion to ! bladd]4 ,*anges 9 ,blood 9 ! ,kidneys4--,! wat] hold+ ! nitrog5\s wa/e v>ies 9 am\nt ) ! am\nt ( wat] drunk & ) ! activity ( ! sk91 be+ less 9 summ] :5 ! p]spiration is great4 ,! lungs aid ! sk9 & kidneys 9 dispos+ ( sup]flu\s moi/ure4 ,! kidneys h almo/ ! entire responsibility ( reliev+ ! body ( c]ta9 m9]al salts & a :ite cry/all9e solid call$ urea4 ,?is is v injuri\s if reta9$1 caus+ heada*es1 rheumatism1 & o!r tr\bles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,plan ,,( ,a ,,ur9>y ,,tubule1 ,tb1 ) art]y ,a1 & ,v 9 p,v4 ,,?\ght ,,que/ions4 ,hygi5e ( ! ,sk94--#a4 ,:at k9d ( a sc> is n affect$ by freckles or tan8 #b4 ,c a sc> on a negro be :ite8 #c4 ,does a sc> on a *ild gr[ 9 size8 #d4 ,:y is heat mo/ oppressive 9 moi/ wea!r8 #e4 ,h[ d y acc\nt = ! %ape & location ( ! usual bald spot8 #f4 ,h[ does ! we>+ away ( ! out] cells ( ! epid]mis contribute to ! cleanl9ess ( ! body8 #g4 ,:y does ! palm ( ! h& absorb wat] m rapidly ?an ! back ( ! h&8 #h4 ,is x m necess>y = m5tal work]s to ba! (t5 or *ange _! clo!s (t58 ,= physical work]s8 #i4 ,is cotton or wool5 clo?+ m liable to /ret* or %r9k out ( %ape or size8 ,to cat* fire8 ,to make ! sk9 clammy ) moi/ure8 ,to co/ m8 ,to be eat5 by mo?s8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,! ,,skeleton4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,skeleton ,exp]im5t #a4 7,at home47 ,is ! ,ar* ( ! ,foot ,ela/ic8--,wet ! foot 9 a bas9 ( wat] &1 :ile sitt+1 place ! foot flat ^u a piece ( pap]4 ,draw ! outl9e ( ! track4 ,repeat1 b /& ) y\r :ole weight ^u ! foot4 ,draw track4 ,conclusion8 7,take sket*es to s*ool4 ,:i* sket* %[s ! flatte/ foot87 ,devise a me?od = measur+ ! l5g? ( ! foot ) & )\t ! weight ( ! body ^u x4 ,:at diff]5ce8 ,conclusion8 ,exp]im5t #b4 ,composition ( ,bone4--,place a bone 9 a hot fire & let x rema9 = ?ree or f\r h\rs4 ,x w keep its %ape h[ev] long y burn x2 b unless y h&le x c>efully :5 y take x out1 x w crumble to pieces4 ,if n ?or\ghly burn$1 ! bone w be black f ! c>bon ( ! animal matt] /ill left 9 x4 ,exp]im5t #c4 ,obta9 a sl5d] bone l ! rib ( a hog or ! leg bone ( a f[l1 & put ! raw bone into a vessel conta9+ /rong v9eg> or two ounces ( muriatic acid & a p9t ( wat]4 ,leave x !re = f\r days4 ,:5 ! bone is tak5 out1 x c be ti$ into a knot4 ,! acid may be wa%$ (f1 & ! bone pres]v$ 9 a bottle ( alcohol or glyc]9e4 ,exp]im5t #d4 ,! ,=ms ( ,jo9ts4--,obta9 ! disjo9t$ bones ( a f[l or small mammal & place !m "o at a "t 9 _! sockets & /udy ! fit & motion ( ! jo9ts4 ,exp]im5t #e4 ,pivot ,jo9ts4--,?r\gh :at fraction ( a circle d ! pivot jo9ts 9 ! =e>m & neck all[ ! h& & head to rotate8 ,review ,que/ions4--,:]e are ! bone cells8 ,h[ does n\ri%m5t rea* !m8 ,h[ has ! m9]al "p ( ! bones be5 deposit$8 ,h[ long may bone cells live8 ,"n animals ) outside skeletons4 ,inside skeletons4 ,no skeleton4 ,=ms & ,uses ( ,bones4--,! ?ree *ief uses ( bones are protection1 motion1 & support4 ,9 ord] to fulfill ^! purposes1 ! bones mu/ h diff]5t sizes1 %apes1 & positions4 ,! bones are class$ by %ape1 z long1 flat1 & irregul>4 ,^? ^: *ief use is to protect are broad & flat4 ,! bones :i* furni% support are ?ick & solid2 ^? design$ to aid 9 motion are long & /raight4 ,includ+ six small bones 9 ! e>1 !re are two hundr$ & six bones 9 ! adult skeleton4 ,gross ,/ructure ( ,bones4--,! /ructure ( a long bone is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bi4 ,x has a long1 holl[ %aft ( h>d1 compact bone1 & enl>g$ ends compos$ ( spongy bone4 ,! holl[ 9 ! %aft is fill$ ) yell[ m>r[1 :i* is compos$ ( blood vessels & fat1 & aids 9 n\ri%+ ! bone4 ,! long bones are f\nd 9 ! limbs 7,fig4 #bh74 ,! ribs & o!r flat bones & ! irregul> bones conta9 no yell[ m>r[2 !y are spongy inside1 & h>d & compact ne> ! surface4 ,!re is a r$ m>r[ 9 ! cavities 9 ! spongy p>ts ( bones 7,fig4 #bi74 ,new r$ blood cells are =m$ 9 ?is m>r[4 ,! bones h a close-cl++1 fibr\s cov]+ compos$ ( connective tissue & blood vessels4 ,x is call$ p]io/eum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,,femur1 saw$ l5g?wise4 ,! r$ blood cells are =m$ 9 ! r$ m>r[ ( ! spongy "p4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,,front ,,view ,,( ,,"r ,,femur4 ,*emical ,composition ( ,bone4--,exp]im5ts 7#b & #c7 %[ t ! bones conta9 a m9]al or e>?y sub/ance1 :i* makes !m h>d & /iff1 & a c]ta9 am\nt ( animal matt]1 call$ gelat9e1 :i* b9ds ! m9]al matt] toge!r & makes ! bones t\gh & some:at ela/ic4 ,! fire burn$ out ! animal matt] ( ! fir/ bone1 & ! acid dissolv$ out ! m9]al matt] ( ! second bone4 ,! m9]al matt] is *iefly lime1 & makes up ab\t two ?irds ( ! weight ( ! bone4 7,:y is m m9]al ?an animal matt] ne$$87 ,! animal gelat9e is a gri/ly sub/ance4 ,z ! body gr[s old1 ! animal matt] ( ! bones decreases1 & !y become light]4 ,!y are m easily brok5 & d n heal s readily z ! bones ( "y p]sons4 ,! skeleton is subdivid$ into ! bones ( ! head1 trunk1 & limbs4 ,! bones ( ! trunk are ^? ( ! sp9e1 ! *e/1 ! %\ld] blades1 coll> bone1 & hip bones4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,v]tebral ,,column4 ,side view4 ,! sp9al or v]tebral column is made up ( tw5ty-six bones 7,fig4 #ca74 ,x is ! axis ( ! human skeleton1 to :i* all o!r bones are directly or indirectly atta*$4 ,animals ) inside skeletons h ?is column1 & are call$ v]tebrates4 ,fi%1 reptiles1 birds1 bea/s1 apes1 & man are v]tebrates4 ,! sp9e1 z ?is column is sometimes call$1 is n only ! ma9 connect+ /ructure & support ( ! body1 b x =ms a *annel ?r\gh :i* passes ! sp9al cord4 ,fig4 #cb %[s a v]tebra1 or "o ( ! bones t compose ! column4 ,! ?ree project+ po9ts or processes are = ! atta*m5t ( ligam5ts & muscles4 ,! ma9 body ( ea* v]tebra is = support+ ! weight transmitt$ by ! column above4 ,j beh9d ?is ?ick body is a half r+ 7,fig4 #cb71 :i* ) ! half r+s on ! o!r v]tebrae =m ! *annel = ! sp9al cord4 ,betwe5 ! v]tebrae are ?ick pads ( gri/le1 or c>tilage1 :i* act z cu%ions to prev5t j>s1 & by compression all[ b5d+ ( ! sp9al column 9 all directions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,side ,,& ,,"u ,,view ,,( ,a ,,v]tebra4 ,! ,*e/ 7see ,fig4 #ge74--,! twelve pairs ( ribs are atta*$ to ! sp9al column beh9d1 & ext5d ar\nd t[>d ! front ( ! body1 some:at l hoops4 ,! fir/ sev5 pairs1 call$ true ribs1 are atta*$ directly to ! flat brea/bone1 or /]num4 ,ea* ( ! next ?ree pairs1 call$ false ribs1 is atta*$ to ! pair above x4 ,! la/ two pairs1 call$ float+ ribs1 are free 9 front4 ,! ,%\ld] ,girdle4--,! coll> bones 7,fig4 #bh7 c be trac$ f ! %\ld]s until !y ne>ly meet on ! brea/bone at ! top ( ! *e/4 ,! coll> bone is %ap$ l ! italic lett] f2 x helps to =m ! %\ld] jo9t & holds ! %\ld] blade out f ! *e/ t ! motions ( ! arm may be free4 ,! flat1 triangul> %\ld] blade 7,fig4 #ge7 c be felt by rea*+ ) ! "r h& ov] ! left %\ld]4 ,x spreads ov] ! ribs l a fan4 ,its edges c be made out1 especially if ! %\ld] is mov$ :ile x is be+ felt4 ,! high ridge :i* runs across ! bone c be felt ext5d+ to ! top ( ! %\ld]4 ,! ,pelvic ,girdle4--,! edges ( ! hip bones c be felt at ! sides ( ! hips 7,fig4 #bh74 ,! hip bones1 ) ! base ( ! sp9e1 =m a k9d ( bas9 call$ ! pelvis4 ,! skull 7,fig4 #cc7 rocks1 or nods1 on ! top v]tebra4 ,x consi/s ( ! cranium1 or bra9 case1 & ! bones ( ! face4 ,! %apes & names ( ! bones ( ! skull are %[n 9 ,fig4 #cc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,,human ,,skull1 disjo9t$4 ,adaptations ( ! ,skull = ,protection4--,its ar*$ =m is be/ = resi/+ pressure & turn+ aside bl[s4 ,l all flat bones1 ! skull has a spongy lay] ( bone betwe5 ! lay]s ( compact bone =m+ ! out] & inn] surfaces2 h5ce x is ela/ic & n easily crack$4 ,! nose1 br[1 & *eek bones project ar\nd ! eye = its protection4 ,! delicate portions ( ! e> are emb$d$ 9 ! /ronge/ portion ( ! skull4 ,! bran*es ( ! n]ves ( smell end 9 ! l9+ ( ! bony nasal *amb]s4 ,! sp9al cord re/s securely 9 ! sp9al canal4 ,! arms & legs h bones t closely correspond to ea* o!r4 ,! ,lat9 names ( ^! bones1 z well z ( all ! o!r bones1 are giv5 9 ,fig4 #bh4 ,!re are #cj bones 9 ea* arm & #cj 9 ea* leg 7,fig4 #cd74 ,"h is a li/ ( ! bones ( ! arm1 foll[$ by ! names 9 brackets ( ! correspond+ leg bones3 upp] arm bone ?igh bone1 #b =e>m bones %9 bone & spl9t bone1 #h wri/ bones #g ankle bones1 #e palm bones #e bones ( in/ep1 #ad f+] bones #ad toe bones4 ,! %9 bone is ! l>g] bone betwe5 knee & ankle4 ,! long1 sl5d] spl9t bone & ! %9 bone are b\nd side by side4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,,bones ,,( ,,arm ,,& ,,leg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,sutures ,,( ,,skull4 ,diff]5ces betwe5 ,arm & ,leg4--,!re is a sauc]-l bone1 call$ ! kneecap1 emb$d$ 9 ! l>ge ligam5t :i* passes ov] ea* knee4 ,!re is no su* bone 9 ! elb[4 ,!re is "o less bone 9 ! ankle ?an 9 ! wri/1 h5ce !re are ! same numb] ( bones 9 ! arm & leg4 ,! %\ld] jo9t is m freely movable ?an ! hip jo9t4 ,! f+]s are long] & m movable ?an ! toes2 ! ?umb moves f> m freely ?an ! big toe4 ,! in/ep is mu* /rong] ?an ! palm2 = ea* in/ep mu/ support1 unaid$1 ! weight ( ! :ole body at ea* /ep1 ) any o!r weight t ! p]son may be c>ry+4 ,! palm is ne>ly flat1 b ! in/ep is ar*$ to prev5t j>s4 ,:5 ! weight ( ! body is ?r[n on ! foot at ea* /ep1 ! top ( ! ar* is press$ d[nw>d1 mak+ ! foot long] ?an be=e4 ,! ar* spr+s up :5 ! weight is remov$ 7,exp4 #a74 ,,illu/rat$ ,,/udy4 ,! ,%apes ( ,bones4--,write ,l1 ,f1 or ,i aft] ^! names 7see ,fig4 #bh1 etc471 accord+ z ! bones are long1 flat1 or irregul>3 face1 cranium1 v]tebra1 hip1 rib1 brea/bone1 coll> bone1 %\ld] blade1 upp] arm bone1 l[] arm bones1 wri/1 palm1 f+]s1 ?igh bone1 %9 bone1 spl9t bone1 ankle1 in/ep1 toes1 kneecap4 ,/ructure ( ,jo9ts4--,! meet+ ( two bones =ms a jo9t 7,exp4 #d74 ,"s ( ! jo9ts are immovable4 ,! skull bones jo9 9 zigzag l9es call$ sutures1 =m$ by ! int]lock+ ( sawlike projections 7,fig4 #ce74 ,^! immovable jo9ts are necess>y = ! protection ( ! bra91 :i* is ! mo/ delicate ( ! organs4 ,! bra9 atta9s almo/ its full size by ! sev5? ye> ( life2 its bony case ne$s to gr[ v little aft] t4 ,! jo9ts ( ! pelvis are also immovable4 ,all movable jo9ts h two c>tilages1 & z ! bones turn1 "o c>tilage slips ov] ! o!r4 ,!re is an int]m$iate class ( jo9ts f\nd betwe5 ! v]tebr & :]e ! ribs jo9 ! brea/bone4 ,^! jo9ts dep5d = _! motion ^u ! flexibility & compressibility ( _! c>tilages4 ,!y are call$ mix$1 or ela/ic1 jo9ts1 & all[ slight motion4 ,su* a jo9t has only "o c>tilage4 ,k9ds ( ,movable ,jo9ts4--,! movable jo9ts are f\nd *iefly 9 ! limbs4 ,:5 "o end ( ! bone is r\nd$ & fits into a cuplike holl[1 ! jo9t all[s motion 9 all directions1 & is kn[n z a ball-&-socket jo9t4 ,! hip jo9ts & %\ld] jo9ts are examples4 ,a h+e jo9t all[s motion 9 only two 7opposite7 directions2 = example1 ! to-&-fro motion ( ! elb[4 ,a pivot jo9t all[s a rot>y motion2 examples1 ! fir/ v]tebra on ! second1 "o bone ( =e>m ^u ! o!r4 ,a glid+ jo9t consi/s ( sev]al bones t slide ^u "o ano!r1 z at ! wri/s & ankles4 ,! ,f\r ,features pres5t$ by a ,movable ,jo9t 7,fig4 #cf74--;,if n held 9 place1 ! bones w\ld slip out ( _! sockets1 h5ce !re are ligam5ts1 or t\gh b&s1 to b9d ! bones toge!r4 ,sudd5 jolts w\ld j> ! bones & injure !m2 %ocks are prev5t$ by a lay] ( ela/ic c>tilage ov] ! end ( ea* bone4 ,! mov+ ( "o bone ov] ano!r 9 b5d+ a jo9t w\ld we> ! bone ) friction unless ! c>tilages 7 v smoo? & lubricat$ ) a fluid call$ ! synovial fluid4 ,! synovial fluid w\ld be con/antly escap+ into ! surr\nd+ tissues except = ! coll>like ligam5t call$ ! capsule1 :i* surr\nds ! jo9t & is atta*$ to ea* bone entirely ar\nd ! jo9t 7,fig4 #cf74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,,diagram ,,( ,a ,,jo9t4 ,,?\ght ,,que/ions4 ,! ,k9ds ( ,jo9ts4--,write ,b1 ,h1 ,g1 ,e1 ,p1 or ,i aft] ^! names accord+ to ! k9d ( jo9t 7ball-&-socket1 h+e1 glid+1 ela/ic1 pivot1 immovable73 betwe5 bones ( skull1 head nodd+1 head turn+1 v]tebr1 l[] jaw1 ribs to brea/bone 7,fig4 #ge71 %\ld]1 elb[1 wri/1 f+]s1 hip1 knee1 ankle1 toes4 ,gr[? ( ,bones4--,! blood vessels pass into ! bones f ! p]io/eum4 ,if ! p]io/eum is remov$1 ! l>g] blood vessels are tak5 away & ! bone b5ea? x p]i%es4 ,if ! und]ly+ bone is remov$ & ! p]io/eum left1 ! bone w be replac$4 ,a curi\s pro( ( ! active circulation 9 ! bone is furni%$ :5 madd] is mix$ ) ! food ( pigs4 ,9 a few h\rs ! bones become a d>k] p9k ?an usual2 & if ! madd] is f$ to ! pigs = a few days1 _! bones become r$4 ,a *ild gr[s 9 height *iefly dur+ ?ree or f\r mon?s 9 spr+ & summ]2 b its body broad5s & becomes heavi] dur+ autumn4 ,heal? ( ! ,bones4--,x is pla9 t a /rong & free circulation ( pure blood contributes to ! heal? & /r5g? ( ! bones2 good food & pure air make pure blood4 ,cases ( 8delay$ union10 or sl[ m5d+ ( brok5 bones1 occur m (t5 ) intemp]ate ?an ) sob] p4 ,?is is because ! vitality ( ! bone cells has be5 weak5$ by ! use ( alcohol4 ,_m surgeons dislike to op]ate on an old drunk>d4 ,po/]ior ,curvature ( ! ,sp9e4--,! sp9e 7see ,figs4 #bh1 #ca7 has two backw>d curves 7opposite *e/ & hips7 & two =w>d curves 7at lo9s & neck74 ,! de=mity call$ po/]ior curvature is *iefly an exagg]ation ( ! upp] po/]ior curve4 ,r\nd %\ld]s is ! slighte/1 & hun*back ! mo/ m>k$1 degree ( ?is de=mity4 ,causes3 #a1 b5d+ ov] ! "w :ile ei!r /&+ or sitt+2 #b1 slipp+ d[n 9 ! seat1 z 9 ,figure #ea2 #c1 work+ habitually ) ! "w l[ 9 front1 z read+ & writ+ at too l[ a desk 7,fig4 #di71 or b5d+ ov] :ile hoe+1 sitt+ on ! floor 7,japanese & ,*9ese72 #d1 weak muscles 9 ! back2 #e1 we>+ %oes ) high heels2 #f1 b9d+ ! ribs d[n ) tight clo?+2 #g1 walk+ ) ! head droop$ =w>d or ! *e/ flat2 #h1 we>+ susp5d]s )\t a pulley1 or lev]1 at ! back2 #i1 c>ry+ ! h&s 9 ! pockets4 7,sw+ ! arms to keep ! h&s out ( ! pockets & break ! habit72 #aj1 we>+ a coat or ve/ t is tight at ! back ( ! neck4 ,?is de=mity is br\ght ab\t by /ret*+ ! ligam5ts at ! back side ( ! sp9e1 & by compress+ ! c>tilages until !y become w$ge-%ap$1 ) ! ?9 "p ( ! w$ge 9 front4 ,! flexibility ( ! sp9e is a great advantage1 b x increases ! risk ( de=mity4 ,"o ( ! mo/ s]i\s evils ( po/]ior curvature is a flat *e/ & re/rict$ brea?+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,,incorrect ,,po/ure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,correct ,,po/ure1 b /ra9$ & /iff4 ,lat]al ,curvature ( ! ,sp9e4--,a p]fect sp9e curves to nei!r side 7,fig4 #dg71 b is p]fectly erect4 ,! lea/ habitual lat]al curvature is de=mity4 ,causes3 #a1 writ+ at a desk t is too high2 #b1 habitually c>ry+ a book1 sat*el1 or o!r weight 9 ! same h&2 #c1 c>ry+ ! head on "o side 7,fig4 #df72 #d1 habitually /&+ ) ! weight on ! same foot2 #e1 a c]ta9 defect ( vision 7a/igmatism1 ,*ap4 ,,ix74 ,to ov]come ,sp9al ,de=mities4--,! "w1 or ! mann] ( do+ ! "w1 %\ld be s *ang$ z to give extra labor to ! neglect$ muscles4 ,avoid ! habits m5tion$ above z caus+ de=mity4 ,sit & /& 9 ! mann] describ$ 9 ! next p>agraph4 ,sleep+ on ! back ^u a h>d mattress )\t a pill[ t5ds to cure po/]ior curvature & flat *e/4 ,! correct position 9 /&+ is3 *e/ =w>d1 *9 91 hips back 7,figs4 #ch1 #ci74 ,to sit correctly1 sit f> back 9 ! *air 7,figs4 #di1 #ej1 #ea7 ) ! body erect & balanc$4 ,9 y\? ! bones are s(t & gr[+2 !y w readily gr[ into p]fect %ape1 & w almo/ z readily gr[ de=m$4 ,spra9s4--,imm]se ! "p 9 hot wat] = half an h\r1 !n b&age to keep ! "p at re/4 ,use ! limb z little z possible4 ,x may be necess>y = a physician to apply a pla/] dress+ to a v bad spra9 :]e ! ligam5t is torn f ! bone4 ,brok5 ,bones4--,to prev5t bone f cutt+ fle% & sk91 d n move ! p]son until a tempor>y spl9t has be5 provid$ by ty+ /icks or umbrellas ar\nd ! limb ) h&k]*iefs4 ,,practical ,,que/ions4 ,! ,skeleton4--#a4 ,:at k9d ( a *air back causes "o to slide =w>d 9 ! seat8 #b4 ,:at fault 9 sitt+ is made necess>y by us+ a *air ) s l>ge a seat t ! front edge /rikes ! occupant beh9d ! knee8 #c4 ,:y is ! %\ld] m (t5 dislocat$ ?an ! hip8 #d4 ,high pill[s may cause :at de=mity8 #e4 ,f9d ?ree bones 9 ! body n atta*$ to o!r bones4 ,f9d tw5ty-five bones atta*$ to o!r bones by "o end only 7,figs4 #bh & #ci74 #f4 ,:at de=mities may result f urg+ a "y *ild to /& or walk8 #g4 ,:i* bone is mo/ (t5 brok5 by fall+ ^u ! %\ld]8 #h4 ,:]e 9 bones is fat /or$ = future use8 #i4 ,ligam5ts gr[ v sl[ly4 ,:y is recov]y f a spra9 (t5 t$i\s8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,,! ,,human ,,skeleton ,,9 ,,action4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,muscles ,x has already be5 /at$ t !re are at lea/ two muscles atta*$ to a bone to move x 9 opposite directions4 ,s9ce !re are two hundr$ & six bones1 y are n surpris$ to le>n t to move ! bones & accompli% ! v>i\s purposes j /at$1 !re are five hundr$ & tw5ty-six 7#ebf7 skeletal muscles4 ,two ,k9ds ( ,muscles4--,all muscles are controll$ by means ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,"s ( !m are direct$ by p>ts ( ! bra9 t "w consci\sly2 o!rs are controll$ by ! sp9al cord & ! p>ts ( ! bra9 t "w unconsci\sly4 ,^? ( ! fir/ k9d are usually controll$ by ! w1 b !y sometimes act involunt>ily4 ,!y are call$ volunt>y muscles4 ,!y move ! bones & are locat$ 9 ! limbs & ne> ! surface ( ! trunk 7,fig4 #dd74 ,! o!r k9d ( muscles are nev] controll$ by ! w1 & are call$ involunt>y muscles4 ,we _c cause !m to act1 nor c we prev5t !m f act+4 ,!y contract m sl[ly ?an ! volunt>y muscles4 ,mo/ ( !m are tubul> & f\nd 9 ! cavity ( ! trunk4 ,! involunt>y muscles belong to ! int]nal organs1 & relieve ! w ( ! responsibility & tr\ble ( ! activity ( ^! organs2 o!rwise1 ! m9d w\ld h no "t = volunt>y actions4 ,gross ,/ructure ( ,volunt>y ,muscles4--,a beef/eak is se5 to be *iefly r$1 al?\gh p>ts ( x are :ite or yell[i%4 ,! :ite or yell[i% fle% is fat2 ! r$1 lean fle% is volunt>y muscle4 ,if a piece ( beef is ?or\ghly boil$1 x may be easily sep>at$ into bundles ! size ( l>ge cords4 ,^! bundles may1 by ! use ( ne$les1 be pick$ ap>t & sep>at$ into ?readlike fib]s 7,fig4 #dj74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,muscle ,,bundles b\nd toge!r by connective tissue %ea?s4 ,microscopic ,/ructure ( ,muscles4--,^! ?readlike fib]s may1 "u a magnify+ glass1 be sep>at$ into f9e /r&s call$ fibrils4 ,^! la/ are ! true muscle cells2 !y are %[n by ! microscope to be cross$ by _m d>k l9es 7,fig4 #dh74 ,h5ce volunt>y muscles are call$ /riat$ or /rip$ muscles4 ,prolong$ boil+ & pati5t pick+ ) a ne$le are ne$$ to dissect muscle1 because ! bundles are held toge!r by ?91 gli/5+ %eets ( connective tissue by :i* !y are surr\nd$4 ,?is connective tissue surr\nds & holds 9 place ! sep>ate fib]s ( ea* bundle 7,fig4 #dj74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,,two ,,muscle ,,fib]s ,,( ,,he>t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,,involunt>y ,,muscle ,,cells 7or fib]s74 ,! fibrils ( involunt>y muscles are sp9dle-%ap$ 7see ,fig4 #db74 ,!re are no cross l9es on ! fibrils2 h5ce involunt>y muscles are call$ smoo? or un/rip$ muscles4 ,! he>t fib]s are exceptional2 !y are ! only involunt>y muscle fib]s t are /rip$ 7,fig4 #da74 ,,?\ght ,,que/ions4 ,classification ( ,"s ( ! ,muscles4--,copy ! foll[+ li/ & m>k ,i = involunt>y & ,v = volunt>y aft] ! appropriate muscles4 ,muscles = *ew+4 ,muscles ( gullet4 ,muscles ( ! he>t4 ,muscles t move arms4 ,muscles = brea?+4 ,muscles 9 ! sk9 t cause ! hair to /& on end4 ,muscles t move eyelids4 ,muscles t contract pupil ( eye4 ,muscles = talk+4 ,muscles t contract & exp& ! art]ies 79 blu%+ & turn+ pale74 ,muscles t move eyeball4 ,muscles t give expression to ! face4 ,t5dons4--,! connective tissue :i* b9ds ! fib]s ( muscles into bundles1 & =ms %ea?s = ! bundles1 ext5ds beyond ! ends ( ! muscles & unites to =m t\gh1 inela/ic :ite cords call$ t5dons4 ,"s muscles are )\t t5dons1 & are atta*$ directly to bones4 ,/udy ! figures & f9d examples ( ?is 7see ,figs4 #dd1 #ge74 ,to realize ! t\ghness ( t5dons1 feel ! t5dons "u ! b5t knee or elb[1 :]e !y feel almo/ z h>d z wires4 ,! t5dons save space 9 places :]e !re is n room en\gh = ! muscles1 & p]mit ! bulky muscles to be locat$ :]e !y are out ( ! way4 ,:]ev] ! t5dons w\ld rise out ( position :5 a jo9t is b5t1 z at ! wri/ & ankle1 !y are b\nd d[n by a ligam5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--7;,= blackbo>d47 ,,biceps relax$ & contract$4 ,arrangem5t ( ,volunt>y ,muscles4--,circul> muscles1 call$ sph9ct] muscles1 are f\nd ar\nd ! m\? & eyes4 ,muscles t ext5d /raight along ! limb ei!r b5d x & are call$ flexors1 or /raight5 x & are call$ ext5sors4 ,mo/ ( ! volunt>y muscles are arrang$ 9 pairs & cause motion 9 opposite directions2 !y are said to be antagoni/s4 ,! biceps 7,fig4 #dc7 b5ds ! arm4 ,its antagoni/ is ! triceps on ! back ( ! arm4 ,by feel+ !m swell & h>d5 z !y %ort51 locate on y\r own body ! muscles m5tion$ 9 ,fig4 #dd4 ,h[ a ,muscle gr[s ,/rong]2 its ,blood ,supply4--,nature has provid$ t any "p ( ! body %all receive m blood :5 x is work+ ?an :5 x is re/+4 ,:5 x works ! h>de/1 ! blood tubes exp& ! mo/ & its blood supply is greate/4 ,s :5ev] a muscle is us$ a great deal1 an unusual am\nt ( mat]ial is c>ri$ to x by ! blood1 ! cells enl>ge & multiply1 & ! muscle gr[s4 ,! walls ( ! capill>ies are s ?9 t ! food :i* is 9 ! blood readily passes f !m to ! muscle4 ,because ( ! oxidation tak+ place1 a work+ muscle is w>m] ?an "o at re/4 ,by use a muscle gr[s l>ge1 firm1 & ( a d>k] r$2 by disuse1 x becomes small1 flabby1 & pale4 ,b if muscles are work$ too con/antly1 especially 9 y\?1 _! cells d n h "t to assimilate food & oxyg51 & _! gr[? is /unt$4 ,unless ! meal has be5 a v light "o1 vigor\s ex]cise %\ld n be tak5 aft] eat+1 z ! blood w be drawn f ! food tube to ! muscles & ! secretion ( ! dige/ive fluids w be h9d]$4 ,p]sons ^: entire circulation is weak may f9d t light ex]cise aft] a meal1 su* z walk+ sl[ly1 may help circulation & dige/ion4 ,:y ! ,muscles "w 9 ,h>mony4--,:5 a boy ?r[s a /one1 almo/ e "p ( ! body is conc]n$ 9 ! action4 ,8 arms1 8 legs1 8 eyes1 ! brea?+1 ! beat+ ( ! he>t1 are all modifi$ to assi/ 9 ! ef=t4 ,z ! boy wills to ?r[ ! /one1 n]ve impulses are s5t to all ! organs t c assi/1 & !y are excit$ to j ! am\nt ( action ne$$4 ,illu/ration3 ,illu/rat$ ,/udy ( ,muscul> ,function ,draw a dott$ l9e f ea* function m5tion$ on m>g9 to ! muscle or muscles hav+ t function4 ,b[s ! head8 ,/raight5s ! elb[8 ,/raight5s ! f+]s8 ,sw+s leg outw>d8 ,b5ds ! knee8 ,/raight5s ! knee8 ,crosses ! leg8 ,/raight5s toes8 ,draws %\ld] back8 ,lifts ! :ole arm outw>d & upw>d8 ,draws :ole arm d[nw>d & =w>d8 ,b5ds ! elb[8 ,b5ds ! f+]s8 ,raises ! body on ! toes8 ,raises toes8 ,,fig4 #dd4--,,sup]ficial ,,muscles ,,aft] ,,! ,,/atue ,,( 8,,! ,,digg]0 7,lami74 ,! ,n]ve ,impulse & ! ,contraction4--,ea* n]ve t goes to a muscle is compos$ ( _m fib]s2 ! fib]s soon sep>ate & g to all p>ts ( ! muscle1 & ea* muscle fib] receives its n]ve fib] 7see ,fig4 #de74 ,9 ! bra9 ea* fib] is /imulat$ at once1 & all ! fib]s %ort5 & ?ick5 toge!r4 ,?is *ange is spok5 ( z contraction2 b s9ce ! muscle does n become small]1 ! ^w may be mislead+4 ,:5 ! muscle %ort5s1 x ?ick5s 9 proportion & occupies z mu* space z x did :5 relax$4 ,:]e does ,muscul> ,en]gy come f8--,! n]ve does n furni% ! en]gy :i* ! muscle uses :5 contract+4 ,! muscle cells h already /or$ up en]gy f ! food & oxyg5 br\ght to !m by ! blood1 & ! process call$ oxidation sets free ! en]gy4 ,activity ( muscle may increase ! c>bon dioxid output fivefold4 ,m5tal "w has practically no effect ^u x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,,motor ,,n]ve ,,fib]s1 end+ among fibrils ( volunt>y muscle4 ,comp>e ) ,fig4 #dh4 ,h[ a ,muscle /ays ,contract$4--,! muscle relaxes at once aft] contraction2 & 9 ord] to keep x contract$1 n]ve impulses mu/ be s5t 9 quick succession1 caus+ 9 fact _m contractions2 ! effect ( ?is is sometimes visible1 z ! trembl+ ( ! muscle4 ,figure #dg %[s an easy /&+ po/ure4 ,:at causes ,fatigue4--,fatigue or exhau/ion is due to ! us+ up ( ! liv+ mat]ial 9 ! n]ve cells & muscle cells by oxidation4 ,re/ is necess>y to give cells opportunity to repair !mselves4 ,:y is x less fatigu+ to walk = an h\r ?an to /& p]fectly /ill = t5 m9utes8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,,improp] ,,position2 causes sp9e to curve to side2 raises "o hip & %\ld] above ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,,be/ ,,position2 *e/ is free to exp&1 & weight is easily %ift$ f "o foot to o!r4 ,deg5]ation ( ,muscles beg9s ) habitual disuse4 ,we d>e n furni% a sub/itute = ! "w ( a muscle1 if we wi% ! muscle to rema9 s\nd4 ,a belt or a /ay at ! wai/ w cause ! muscles ( ! trunk to become flabby & ! abdom5 to relax & protrude4 ,h[ ,muscul> ,activity helps ! ,heal?4--,life is *ange1 /agnation is dea?4 ,muscul> activity uses up ! food1 gives a good appetite1 & sets ! dige/ive organs to "w2 x uses up ! oxyg5 & sets ! lungs to "w2 b mo/ ( all1 e contraction ( a muscle helps ! blood to fl[4 ,z a muscle contracts1 x presses ^u ! ve9s & lymphatics1 &1 by ?is pressure1 =ces ! blood & lymph along 7,fig4 #dh74 ,9 any ord9>y activity1 doz5s ( muscles are be+ us$4 ,t ! effect ^u ! circulation is v p[]ful1 is %[n by ! rosy sk91 deep brea?+1 & rapid he>t beat4 ,! _m b5efits ( an active circulation ( ! blood & lymph w be discuss$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,see page #fg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,,capill>ies among fib]s ( volunt>y 7cross /rip$7 muscle4 7,peabody47 ,a grave dang] f a?letics is t ( develop+ ! muscles1 includ+ ! he>t1 to an enorm\s ext5t by tra9+2 !n :5 tra9+ ceases ! muscles und]go fatty deg5]ation f disuse4 ,he>t disease & o!r diseases may foll[4 ,_m a?letes die "y1 kill$ by try+ to turn _! bodies into m]e ma*9es = runn+1 box+1 or r[+1 in/ead ( liv+ complete lives4 ,! a?letic ideal is n ! highe/ ideal ( heal?2 g5]al activity1 resembl+ ! occupations ( hunt+ & f>m+ by :i* ! e>ly race support$ itself1 is be/ = heal?4 ,_m k9ds ( factory "w use only "o set ( muscles4 ,! savage did n lead a monoton\s life1 & monotony is bad = bo? muscles & n]ves4 ,advantages ( ,"w & ,play ov] ,gymna/ic ,ex]cises4--,! int]e/ t comes f do+ some?+ useful1 makes muscul> ex]tion d\bly b5eficial to ! heal?4 ,! lift+ ( dumbbells1 ,indian clubs1 & pulley weights1 & lett+ !m d[n aga91 t5ds to become v irksome1 ev5 ?\gh done ) ! k t ! ex]cise w b5efit ! heal?4 ,useful labor & games place def9ite objects 9 view & d n require s great an ef=t ( ! w nor exhau/ ! n]ves s mu* z m]e ex]cise4 ,! int]e/ 9 ! "w or ! game s]ves to ar\se all ! n]ves & muscles to "w 9 h>mony4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,,desk ,,too ,,l[4 7,jegi47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,,correct ,,position4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,slipp+ ,,d[n ,,9 ,,seat4 ,an ,advantage ( ,gymna/ics ov] ,"w & ,play4--,gymna/ics c furni% any requir$ v>iety ( ex]cises & c develop exactly ! muscles t ne$ developm5t & leave ^? idle t h become ov]develop$ by do+ con/antly "o k9d ( "w or play+ cont9ually ! same game4 ,! de=mity ( a flat *e/ 7& r\nd %\ld]s :i* always accompany x7 does n s (t5 indicate a weak *e/ or small lungs z x indicates weak or relax$ muscles ( ! back & ! habit ( sitt+ 9 a relax$ position at "w 7,figs4 #di1 #ej1 #ea74 ,gymna/ic ex]cise is n :olly an artificial cu/om4 ,cats /ret* !mselves1 /ret*+ ea* leg 9 succession2 _m animals gambol & play4 ,a gymna/ic drill1 tak5 to music & ) l>ge numb]s ( pupils 9 ! drill1 is int]e/+ z "w or play1 & %\ld n be neglect$ = any /udy1 h[ev] important4 ,environm5t ( ,e>ly ,man & ,mod]n ,man4--,a well-develop$ man ( "o hundr$ & fifty p\nds weight %\ld h sixty p\nds ( muscles4 ,! proportion is (t5 diff]5t 9 ! puny bodies ( ! av]age civiliz$ m51 su* z cl]ks1 m]*ants1 lawy]s1 & o!r m5 ) s$5t>y occupations2 _! bodies are z likely to be lean & scrawny or fat & flabby z to be correctly proportion$4 ,:y does a normal man h sixty p\nds ( muscles in/ead ( tw5ty p\nds ( puny /r+s su* z w\ld h suffic$ = a cl]k1 /ud5t1 or a writ]8 ,?is is because1 9 8 native condition1 he _h to seek 8 food by roam+ ?r\gh ! =e/1 cont5d+ ) wild bea/s or ) o!r savage m51 (t5 travel+ _m miles a day1 climb+ trees1 etc4 ,too ,rapid ,*ange ( ,environm5t2 ,de/ructive ,t5d5cies ( ,civilization4--,x is impossible = ! human body to *ange greatly 9 a few hundr$ ye>s4 ,! body ( man s]v$ him = _m ages = ! mann] ( life outl9$ above4 ,x 0 suit$ = ^! conditions1 & ! muscles & ! organs t support !m _c accommodate !mselves to *ang$ conditions 9 a few g5]ations4 ,x has only be5 a few hundr$ ye>s s9ce ! ance/ors ( ! ,britons & ,g]mans1 = in/ance1 7 runn+ wild 9 ! ,g]man =e/s1 clad 9 ! sk9s ( wild bea/s4 ,yet civiliz$ man lets 8 muscles fall into disuse1 he takes a trolley c> or horse vehicle to g half a mile1 an elevator to climb to ! height ( ?irty feet4 ,he neglects all 8 muscles except ^? t move ! tongue & ! f+]s ( ! "r h&4 ,he nev] makes en\gh ex]tion to cause him to draw a deep brea?1 & 8 lungs contract & %rivel4 ,he seldom looks at any?+ f>!r ?an a few in*es f 8 nose1 & 8 eyes become weak4 ,at ! same "t t he neglects 8 muscles & 8 lungs1 he ov]works 8 bra9 & 8 /oma*2 yet he expects 8 body to und]go ! rapid *anges to suit ! dem&s ( 8 life4 ,su* rapid *anges 9 ! human race are impossible4 ,a man t does n see t s\nd heal? is ! mo/ valuable ?+ 9 ! _w1 except a cle> consci5ce1 is 9 dang] bo? ( wreck+ 8 own happ9ess & ( fail+ 9 8 duty to o!rs4 ,,?\ght ,,que/ions4 ,%oes4--#a4 ,:at ! faults ( %oes may be 9 size2 %ape2 sole2 heel2 toe2 in/ep4 #b4 ,"n de=mities result+ to sk9 ( foot2 nails2 jo9ts2 ar*2 ankle2 sp9e4 #c4 ,/ate effects ( uncom=table %oes on muscul> activity2 m9d & disposition4 #d4 ,/ate effect ( av]sion to walk+ on muscles2 circulation4 #e4 ,if a %oe is too loose1 x slips up & d[n at ! heel & *afes ! sk9 !re2 if too tight1 !re is pressure on ! toes1 :i* causes a corn or +r[+ nail4 ,h y\r %oes be5 correct1 or h !y be5 too loose or too tight8 ,accord+ to ?is te/1 :at proportion ( p we> %oes t are too tight8 #f4 ,h[ _m spra9$ ankles h y kn[n among boys2 girls8 #g4 ,:y is x t p :o gr[ up 9 w>m climates h high1 ar*$ in/eps1 & %ort1 broad1 ela/ic feet1 b p ( ! same race :o pass _! *ildhood 9 cold climates (t5 h long n>r[ feet ) l[ ar*es & sometimes h ! de=mity call$ 8flat foot08 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,,ar* ,,( ,,foot4 ,x =ms an ela/ic spr+4 ,in/9ct z a ,guide = us+ ! ,muscles4--,! in/9ctive feel+ call$ fatigue tells u :5 to re/4 ,!re is also a re/less1 uneasy feel+ t comes ov] a normal human be+ :5 conf9em5t & re/ra9t ( ! muscles h rea*$ an unheal?y limit4 ,?is feel+ %\ld n be repress$ = long at a "t4 ,_m1 rul$ by av>ice1 ambition1 int]e/ 9 s$5t>y "w1 a silly notion ( respectability1 or a false conception ( duty1 h repress$ ?is feel+ & h lo/ x4 ,!re is !n a feel+ ( languor1 & a dis9cl9ation to ! v activity :i* heal? dem&s4 ,an unhe$$ in/9ct is z useless z an al>m clock t has be5 habitually disreg>d$4 ,ex]cise & ,climate4--,9 our w>me/ /ates & 9 ! tropics1 "o h\r's vigor\s physical labor a day1 comb9$ ) ! ord9>y activities ( life1 w keep a p]son 9 good condition4 ,9 ! cold] /ates1 muscul> ex]tion = sev]al h\rs is ne$$ daily4 ,complete ,liv+4--,numb]less p h devot$ !mselves to an intellectual occupation1 & plann$ to keep _! bodies s\nd by gymna/ics & special ex]cises4 ,because ( ! monotony ( ex]cises1 !y are soon giv5 up 9 ne>ly e in/ance4 ,! safe/ way is nev] to all[ all ! en]gies to be devot$ to a "o-sid$ occupation1 b s to plan "o's life & "w t a "p ( ! "t is devot$ to "s physical "w1 :e!r x be 9 a g>d51 work%op1 or or*>d2 9 walk+ a long di/ance to ! (fice2 at bookb9d+1 cook+1 wood c>v+1 or any "o ( v>i\s o!r useful occupations4 ,! result ( manual tra9+ %[s t n only /r5g? ( body1 b /r5g? ( m9d1 is promot$ by physical labor4 ,problems ( w> & ( ! *ase kept active bo? ! body & m9d ( ! savage4 ,h5ce he l$ a m ne>ly complete life ?an 8 civiliz$ desc5dants1 & 8 body 0 /rong accord+ly4 ,we %\ld admit ! hopelessness ( hav+ p]man5t good heal? )\t muscul> activity & %\ld det]m9e t muscul> ex]tion %all be z mu* a habit & pleasure z eat+ & sleep+4 ,alcohol & ,muscul> ,/r5g?4--,b5jam9 ,frankl91 "o ( ! wise/ & greate/ ( ,am]icans1 0 a pr9t] :5 he 0 a "y man4 ,9 8 autobiography he gives an acc\nt ( 8 exp]i5ce z a pr9t] 9 ,london4 ,he says3 8,i drank only wat]2 ! o!r workm51 fifte5 9 numb]1 7 great dr9k]s ( be]4 ,on occasion ,i c>ri$ up & d[n /airs a l>ge =m ( types 9 ea* h&1 :5 o!rs c>ri$ b "o 9 bo? h&s4 ,!y wond]$ to see1 f ?is & sev]al in/ances1 t ! ,wat]-,am]ican1 z !y call$ me1 0 /rong] ?an !mselves1 :o drank /rong be]4 ,my companion at ! press drank e day a p9t be=e breakfa/1 a p9t at breakfa/ ) 8 bread & *eese1 a p9t betwe5 breakfa/ & d9n]1 a p9t at d9n]1 a p9t 9 ! aft]noon ab\t #f o'clock1 & ano!r :5 he _h done 8 day's "w4 ,i ?\ght x a dete/able cu/om1 b x 0 necess>y1 he suppos$1 to dr9k /rong be] t he might be /rong to labor40 ,,ex]cises ,,9 ,,writ+4--,! ,"r & ! ,wrong ,way to ride a ,bicycle4 ,pay ,day at a ,factory4 ,a ,graceful ,=m3 h[ ,acquir$2 h[ ,lo/4 ,a ,dr9k+ ,eng9e] & a ,railway ,wreck4 ,,practical ,,que/ions4--#a4 ,c we always control ! volunt>y muscles8 ,d we %iv] ) ! volunt>y or involunt>y muscles8 #b4 ,if a man _h absolute control ov] 8 muscles ( respiration1 :at might he d t he _c n[ d8 #c4 ,:y is "o :o uses alcoholic dr9ks n likely to be a good m>ksman8 #d4 ,:y %\ld a y\? :o wi%es to excel 9 a?letic conte/s ab/a9 f ! use ( tobacco8 #e4 ,is !re any relation betwe5 ! am\nt ( bodily ex]tion necess>y = a p]son's heal? & ! am\nt ( weal? or ! am\nt ( intellig5ce he possesses8 #f4 ,c y relax ! *ew+ muscles s t ! l[] jaw w sw+ loosely :5 ! head is %ak58 ,c y relax y\r arm s t x falls l a rope if ano!r p]son raises x & lets x fall8 #g4 ,! av]age man has sixty p\nds ( muscle & two p\nds ( bra92 "o half ( ! blood goes ?r\gh ! muscles & less ?an "o fif? goes ?r\gh ! bra94 ,:at inf]5ce may y draw z to ! k9d ( life we %\ld lead8 #h4 ,:y is a sl[ walk ( little value z ex]cise8 #i4 ,h[ c we be/ prove t we h admiration & respect = our wond]ful bodies8 #aj4 ,:y is ! ability to relax ! muscles ?or\ghly ( great b5efit to ! heal?8 ,h[ is ?is ability te/$8 7,"q #f47 #aa4 ,:y is x z correct to say t ! muscles support ! skeleton z ! rev]se8 ,illu/ration3 ,,color$ ,,figure #e4 ,,diagram ,,( ,,circulation4 #a4 ,head art]ies 7c>otid74 #b4 ,nameless art]ies 7innom9ate74 #c4 ,coll> bone 7subclavian7 art]y4 #d4 ,great b5d ( ! aorta4 #e4 ,pulmon>y art]ies4 #f4 ,?oracic aorta4 #g1 #aj4 ,abdom9al aorta4 #h4 ,art]y to liv] 7hepatic74 #i4 ,art]y to sple5 7spl5ic74 #aa4 ,art]y to inte/9e 7mes5t]ic74 #ab4 ,art]y to kidney 7r5al74 #ac4 ,desc5d+ v5a cava4 #ad4 ,nameless ve9 7innom9ate1 #ae & #af be=e bran*+74 #ae4 ,coll> bone ve9 7subclavian74 #af4 ,jugul> ve94 #ag4 ,pulmon>y ve94 #ah4 ,asc5d+ v5a cava4 #ai4 ,ve9 f liv] 7hepatic74 #bj4 ,ve9 f /oma* 7ga/ric74 #ba4 ,ve9 f sple54 #bb4 ,ve9 f inte/9e4 #bc4 ,ve9 to liv] 7portal74 #bd4 ,ve9 f kidney4 #be4 ,"r auricle4 #bf4 ,left auricle4 #bg4 ,"r v5tricle4 #bh4 ,left v5tricle4 #bi4 ,?oracic duct4 #cj4 ,/oma*4 #ca4 ,sple54 #cb4 ,liv]4 #cc4 ,kidneys4 #cd4 ,duod5um4 #ce4 ,asc5d+ colon4 #cf4 ,desc5d+ colon4 #cg4 ,lymphatic gl&s ( mes5t]y4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,circulation ,exp]im5t #a4 ,anatomy ( ,mammalian ,he>t4--,get a %eep's or beef's he>t f ! but*]4 ,get ! :ole he>t1 n simply ! v5tricles 7z usually sold74 ,note ! blood vessels1 f\r *amb]s1 ?ickness ( diff]5t walls1 valves1 cords1 op5+s4 ,exp]im5t #b4 ,does ,gravity affect ! ,blood ,fl[8--,hold ! "r h& above ! head = a few m9utes4 ,at ! same "t let ! left h& hang /raight d[n4 ,!n br+ ! h&s toge!r & see :i* is ( a d>k] r$ because ( conta9+ m blood4 ,n[ rev]se ! position ( ! h&s = a few m9utes1 & f9d :e!r ! effect is rev]s$4 7,entire class47 ,exp]im5t #c4 ,/udy ( ,human ,blood4--,exam9e a drop ( blood "u ! microscope1 fir/ dilut+ x ) a little saliva4 ,see ,fig4 #fj4 ,exp]im5t #d4 ,! ,circulation 9 a ,frog4--,wrap a small frog 9 a moi/ clo?1 lay on a slip ( glass1 place "u ! microscope1 & /udy ! circulation 9 ! web ( its foot4 ,exp]im5t #e4 7,entire class47 ,effect ( ,ex]cise ^u ! ,pulse4--,tap a bell z ! second h& ( a wat* beg9s a m9ute & let ! pupils c\nt ! pulse at ! radial art]y on ! wri/ above base ( ?umb4 ,repeat /&+1 or aft] gymna/ics or recess4 ,result8 ,exp]im5t #f4 ,! ,action ( ! ,valves 9 ! ,ve9s4--,place ! tip ( ! middle f+] on "o ( ! l>ge ve9s ( ! wri/2 ) ! =ef+] !n /roke ! ve9 t[>d ! elb[ s z to pu% ! blood f a portion ( x1 keep+ bo? f+]s 9 place4 ,! ve9 rema9s empty betwe5 ! f+]s4 ,lift ! f+] ne>] ! he>t & no blood ent]s ! ve92 !re is a valve above :i* holds x back4 ,lift ! o!r f+] & ! ve9 fills in/antly4 ,/roke a ve9 t[>d ! h&1 & notice t ! ve9s swell up into little knots :]e ! valves are4 ,/roke 9 ! rev]se direction4 ,result8 ,exp]im5t #g4 ,f9d+ ! ,capill>y ,pressure4 ,?is is f\nd by press+ a glass plate or tumbl] ^u a r$ "p ( ! sk94 ,:5 ! sk9 becomes pale ! capill>y pressure is c\nt]balanc$4 ,exp]im5t #h4 ,em]g5cy ,drill4--,let "o pupil come =w>d1 m>k ) blue *alk or p5cil ! position on 8 arm ( a suppos$ly cut ve94 ,let ano!r pupil use means to /op ! imag9$ blood fl[4 ,exp]im5t #i4 ,let ano!r pupil /op ! fl[ f an imag9>y cut art]y m>k$ r$4 ,see text4 ,exp]im5t #aj4 ,9 a case ( nose ble$ d n let pupil lean ov] a b[l4 7,:y87 ,cause him to /& r ?an lie4 7,:y8 ,see ,exp4 #b47 ,apply cold wat] to contract art]ies to nose1 also h pupil hold a small roll ( pap] or a co9 "u upp] lip 7to make muscul> pressure on art]ies to nose74 ,exp]im5t #aa4 ,let "o pupil treat ano!r = a bruise 7see p4 #fb74 ,exp]im5t #ab4 ,em]g5cy drill1 re/oration f fa9t+ 7see p4 #eg74 ,! ,cells h a ,liquid ,home4--,! cells 9 ! body ( man1 l ! ameba1 live 9 a wat]y liquid4 ,?is liquid is call$ lymph4 ,! cells _c move ab\t z ! ameba does to obta9 food1 s ! blood br+s ! food ne> !m & x soaks ?r\gh ! blood tubes into ! lymph spaces next to ! cells 7see color$ ,fig4 #c74 ,! ameba gives (f wa/e mat]ial into ! wat]2 ! cells ( ! body give x (f into ! lymph to be c>ri$ (f by ! circulation4 ,! blood1 !n1 has two functions3 7#a7 to take n\ri%m5t to ! tissues2 7#b7 to take away wa/e mat]ial f !m4 ,! ,organs ( ,circulation4--,^! are ! he>t1 :i* propels ! blood2 ! art]ies1 :i* take blood away f ! he>t2 ! ve9s1 :i* take ! blood back to ! he>t2 & ! capill>ies 7,fig4 #ec71 :i* take ! blood f ! art]ies to ! ve9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,,capill>ies1 connect+ art]y 7b7 ) ve9 7a74 ,! he>t is a cone-%ap$ organ ab\t ! size ( its own]'s fi/4 ,x lies 9 a diagonal position beh9d ! brea/bone1 ) ! small end ( ! cone ext5d+ t[>d ! left4 ,! small] end 7,exp4 #a7 taps or beats aga9/ ! *e/ wall at a po9t betwe5 ! fif? & six? ribs on ! left side4 ,! brea/bone & ribs protect x f bl[s4 ,an inclos+ membrane call$ ! p]ic>dium secretes a s]\s fluid & less5s ! friction f its beat+4 ,:y ! ,he>t is ,d\ble4--,!re mu/ be a pump to move ! impure blood f ! body to ! lungs to get oxyg5 f ! air1 & !re mu/ be ano!r pump to s5d ! pure blood f ! lungs back to ! body4 ,h5ce !re are two pumps b\nd toge!r into "o he>t1 beat+ at ! same "t l two m5 keep+ /ep1 or l two c>p5t]s keep+ "t ) _! hamm]s4 ,!re are valves 9 ! he>t1 z 9 o!r pumps4 ,^! valves are s arrang$ t :5 any "p ( ! he>t contracts & =ces ! blood onw>d1 ! blood _c return aft] t "p ( ! he>t relaxes4 ,are ! pumps plac$ "o beh9d ! o!r8 ,or is "o above ! o!r8 ,nei!r2 !y are side by side1 ) a fle%y p>tition betwe5 !m 7,fig4 #ed74 ,! pump on ! "r moves ! impure blood f ! body to ! lungs1 & ! "o on ! left moves ! pure blood f ! lungs to ! body4 ,!re is no direct connection betwe5 ! "r & left sides ( ! he>t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,he>t4 ,notice ! two d>k spots 9 ! "r auricle1 & f\r d>k spots 9 left auricle1 :]e ! ve9s ent]4 ,does ! aorta pass 9 front (1 or beh9d1 ! pulmon>y art]y8 ,to trace "o complete circuit ( ! blood 7,fig4 #ed71 let u beg9 ) ! blood 9 ! capill>ies ( ! out] tissues1 su* z ! sk9 or muscles4 ,! blood goes ?r\gh small ve9s :i* unite into two l>ge ve9s1 ?r\gh :i* x ent]s ! receiv+ *amb]1 or "r auricle1 goes ?r\gh ! tricuspid valve into ! expell+ *amb]1 or "r v5tricle1 !n ?r\gh a semilun> valve into ! pulmon>y art]y lead+ to ! lungs4 ,becom+ purifi$ :ile pass+ ?r\gh ! capill>ies ( ! lungs1 ! blood goes ?r\gh ! pulmon>y ve9s to ! left auricle 7,fig4 #ed71 !n ?r\gh ! bicuspid or mitral valve1 to ! left v5tricle1 :5ce x is =c$ ?r\gh a semilun> valve into ! l>ge/ art]y ( ! body1 call$ ! great aorta 7,fig4 #ed74 ,!nce x goes to ! small] art]ies1 & !n to ! capill>ies ( ! tissues 9 g5]al1 ?us complet+ ! circuit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,,! ,,left ,,side ,,( ,,he>t 7plan71 %[+ ! left v5tricle at ! mom5t :5 relax+ & receiv+ ! blood f ! auricle2 & ! same at ! beg9n+ ( contraction to s5d blood into aorta4 ,notice action ( ! valve4 ,/ructure ( ,ve9s & ,art]ies4--,se5 "u ! microscope ! art]ies & ve9s %[ t !y are made ( ?ree k9ds ( tissues arrang$ 9 ?ree coats 7,fig4 #ef73 a tissue resembl+ epi!lial tissue 7,*ap4 #a71 z a l9+ to less5 friction2 an out] connective tissue 7,*ap4 #a71 to give ela/icity2 & a middle coat ( muscul> tissue to enable ! vessels to *ange 9 size4 ,let u see :y blood vessels mu/ h ^! ?ree prop]ties4 ,:y ! ,blood ,vessels mu/ be ,ela/ic4--,! aorta & its bran*es are always full ( blood4 ,:5 ! left v5tricle ) its /rong1 muscul> walls contracts1 ! blood 9 ! aorta & small blood tubes _c move =w>d fa/ en\gh to make room = ! new supply s sudd5ly s5t out ( ! v5tricle4 ,:]e c ?is blood g8 ,if a cup is full1 x _c become m full2 n s ) an art]y4 ,! ela/ic connective tissue all[s x to exp& z a rubb] hose does "u pressure4 ,! fir/ "p ( ! aorta hav+ exp&$ to receive ! incom+ blood1 ! /ret*$ walls contract because ( ! ela/icity ( ! out] connective tissue coat & =ce blood into ! portion ( ! aorta j ahead1 =c+ x to exp& 9 turn4 ,?us a wave ( expansion travels along ! art]ies4 ,?is wave is call$ ! pulse4 ,! ,pulse may be mo/ easily felt 9 ! wri/s & neck4 ,z ! art]y /ret*es & spr+s back1 "o beat ( ! pulse is felt4 ,9 m5 !re are ab\t sev5ty he>t beats or pulse beats a m9ute4 ,9 wom5 ! rate is ab\t eighty a m9ute4 ,x is sl[e/ :5 "o is ly+ d[n1 fa/] :ile sitt+1 /ill fa/] :5 /&+1 & fa/e/ ( all dur+ runn+ or viol5t ex]cise4 7,exp4 #e47 ,x %\ld n be ?\ght t ! muscul> or middle lay] ( ! art]y actively contracts & helps to s5d along ! pulse wave2 = ?is wave is simply ! passive /ret*+ & contract+ ( ! out] connective coat1 & travels l a wave cross+ a pond :5 a /one is dropp$ into ! wat]4 ,! =ce ( ! pulse is furni%$1 n by ! muscle fib]s 9 ! art]y1 b by ! beat ( ! he>t2 ! out]1 or connective tissue1 coat enables ! pulse to travel4 ,:y mu/ !re be a middle1 or muscul>1 coat = v>iation 9 size8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,,section ,,( ,,art]y1 ,a1 ,,& ,,ve91 ,v1 %[+ inn] coat1 e 7endo!lial72 middle coat1 m 7muscul>72 & ?ird coat1 a 7connective tissue74 ,use ( ! ,middle ,coat2 ,quantity ( ,blood & its ,di/ribution4--,! body ( an adult conta9s ab\t five qu>ts ( blood4 ,! blood furni%es ! n\ri%m5t ne$$ = ! activity ( ea* organ4 ,! m vigor\s ! "w ( any organ1 ! great] is ! am\nt ( blood ne$$4 ,! :ole am\nt ( blood 9 ! body _c be sudd5ly increas$1 b ! muscul> coat ( ! art]ies go+ to ! work+ organ relaxes1 & all[s ! art]ies to become enl>g$ by ! pressure f ! he>t4 ,consequ5tly1 m blood goes to ! active organ1 & ! o!r organs get along ) less blood = ! "t4 ,:5 we are /udy+1 our bra9s get m blood2 :5 runn+1 ! leg muscles get m2 aft] a he>ty d9n]1 ! /oma* & inte/9es get m ?an any o!r "p ( ! body4 ,:y is x difficult to d ! be/ /udy+ & dige/ a meal at ! same "t8 ,we see t ! muscul> coat ( ! art]ies is a v useful coat1 = x enables ! supply ( blood to be increas$ 9 any organ :i* is 9 tempor>y ne$ ( x4 ,:y ! ,blood ,vessels mu/ be ,smoo?4--,! inn] coat ( ! he>t & o!r blood vessels is made ( tissue l ! epi!lial tissue :i* =ms ! epid]mis & ! smoo? l9+ ( ! m\? & o!r organs4 ,! purpose ( ?is l9+ is to less5 friction1 & ?us save ! "w ( ! he>t4 ,! friction is greate/ 9 ! capill>ies because ( _! small size4 ,! inn] coat ( smoo? cells is ! only coat t is prolong$ to =m ! capill>ies 7see ,fig4 #eg74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,,capill>ies ,,magnifi$1 ,,%[+ ,,cells =m+ _! walls4 ,notice t ea* cell has a nucleus & ?ree bran*es4 ,! capill>ies are small1 ?91 %ort1 & v num]\s4 ,!y are v small s t !y may g 9 betwe5 ! cells ( ! tissues4 ,! capill>ies are v ?9 s t ! n\ri%m5t f ! blood may pass readily into ! tissues1 & ! wa/e mat]ial pass readily into ! blood4 ,!y are v %ort s t ! friction may be less2 & !y are v num]\s s t all p>ts ( ! tissues may be suppli$ ) blood1 & t ! blood may fl[ v sl[ly ?r\gh !m4 ,because ( ! numb] ( ! capill>ies1 _! total volume is sev]al hundr$ times l>g] ?an ! volume ( ! art]ies t empty into !m1 or ( ! ve9s t fl[ f !m4 ,h5ce ! blood fl[s sl[ly ?r\gh ! capill>ies1 z wat] fl[s sl[ly ?r\gh a lake along ! c\rse ( a riv]4 ,all ! *anges betwe5 ! blood & ! lungs1 & betwe5 ! blood & ! tissues1 take place 9 ! capill>ies1 & ! object ( ! o!r p>ts ( ! circulation is m]ely to move ! blood cont9ually ?r\gh ! capill>ies4 ,! effect ( gravity is to ret>d ! fl[ 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! body & aid ! fl[ 9 o!r p>ts1 accord+ to ! position ( ! body 7,exp4 #b74 ,fa9t+ is usually due to lack ( blood 9 ! bra91 :i* 9 turn results f a weak5+ ( ! he>t beat4 ,s9ce ! bra9 _c "w )\t fre% blood1 fa9t+ is accompani$ by unconsci\sness4 ,recov]y f fa9t+ is aid$ by loos5+ ! clo?+ at ! neck & by plac+ ! head ( ! pati5t a little l[] ?an ! body s t ! weight ( ! blood may aid ! fl[ to ! bra94 ,da%+ a little cold wat] 9 ! face %ocks ! n]ves & ar\ses ! he>t to /rong] beats4 ,! ve9s h valves plac$ frequ5tly along _! c\rse 7,fig4 #eh74 ,^! valves are pockets made by a fold 9 ! inn] coat ( ! wall ( ! ve94 ,:5 a boy places 8 h& 9 8 pocket1 ! pocket swells out2 b if he rubs 8 h& on ! outside ( ! pocket f ! bottom t[>d ! top1 x flatt5s d[n4 ,s ) ! action ( ! blood ^u ! valves 9 ! ve9s4 7,repeat ,exp4 #f 9 class47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,valves ,,9 ,,ve9s4 7,jegi47 ,h[ ,muscul> ,ex]cise aids ! ,he>t4--,:5 a muscle contracts1 x h>d5s & presses ^u a ve9 :i* goes ?r\gh ! muscle1 & ! blood is press$ out ( ! ve9 7see ,fig4 #eh74 ,! blood _c g t[>d ! capill>ies1 = ! valves fill & close :5 x />ts t way2 s x mu/ all g out t[>d ! he>t4 ,:5 ! muscle relaxes1 ! blood t has be5 press$ =w>d _c g back because ( ! valves1 b ! valves ne>] ! capill>ies op51 & ! ve9s are fill$ f ! capill>ies 7,fig4 #ec74 ,:5 ! muscle contracts aga91 ! same effect on ! blood movem5t is repeat$4 ,we see1 !re=e1 t e contract+ muscle conv]ts into a pump ! ve9 runn+ ?r\gh x1 & :5 a p]son works or ex]cises1 _m little pumps are work+ all ov] ! body1 aid+ ! he>t 9 its function4 ,?is aid makes ! blood fl[ fa/] & relieves ! he>t ( "p ( its "w1 s t x beats fa/]1 j z a horse might trot fa/] if ano!r horse help$ to draw ! load 7,exp4 #c74 ,! pressure ( a contract+ muscle ^u an art]y does n aid ! blood fl[ 9 ! art]y because ! latt] is de/itute ( valves4 ,h[ ,brea?+ aids ! ,he>t4--,brea?+ is a blood-pump+ process z well z an air-r5ew+ process4 ,:5 ! *e/ exp&s1 blood is drawn into x4 ,:5 ! *e/ contracts1 ! fl[ ( blood away f x is aid$4 ,z ! *e/ exp&s1 ! d[nw>d pressure ( a great1 broad muscle1 ! diaphragm 7,fig4 #gd7 compresses ! liv]1 /oma*1 & o!r abdom9al organs1 & =ces ! v5\s blood upw>d into ! exp&+ *e/1 ?us help+ x on its way to ! he>t4 ,b if ! abdom9al wall is weak5$ by tight lac+ or by ! pressure ( belts & b&s :i* support ! clo?+1 ! weak abdom9al wall yields to ! d[nw>d pressure ( ! diaphragm1 & no compression ( ! liv] or aid to ! circulation w result4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,,! ,,v5tricles ,,( ,a ,,dog',s ,,he>t relax$ 7above71 & contract$ 7bel[74 ,h[ ! ,blood ,vessels are ,controll$4--,evid5tly ! blood vessels are n regulat$ by ! w4 ,we _c volunt>ily increase ! beat+ ( ! he>t1 or cause x to slack5 its action4 ,ev5 an actor _c cause 8 face to turn pale or to blu% at w4 ,?is is because ! t9y muscles 9 ! walls ( ! blood vessels are involunt>y muscles4 ,!y are controll$ by n]ves ( ! sympa!tic sy/em call$ vaso-motors4 ,!y are n subject to ! w 7see ,fig4 #be74 ,! n]ve c5t] :i* controls ! blood vessels is locat$ 9 ! top ( ! sp9al cord at ! base ( ! bra94 ,:5 cold air /rikes ! sk9 ! n]ves ne> ! art]ies are /imulat$1 ! art]ies 9 ! sk9 contract1 & ! sk9 turns :ite4 ,:5 ! heat f a hot fire /rikes ! sk91 ! n]ves are soo!d1 ! art]ies relax1 & ! face becomes r$4 ,:5 ! /oma* is fill$ ) food1 ! he>t beats fa/] & s5ds m blood to aid 9 dige/ion4 ,:5 we run fa/1 ! he>t beats fa/ to supply m blood to ! muscles1 b x sl[s d[n z sleep comes on1 t ! body & bra9 may re/4 ,p>ts ( ! ,blood4--,! blood :i* fl[s f a cut f+] seems to be a bright r$ ?r\gh\t4 ,:5 a drop ( x is look$ at ?r\gh a microscope1 h[ev]1 ! liquid itself is se5 to be almo/ z cle> z wat]4 ,?is liquid is call$ ! plasma4 ,float+ 9 x are millions ( biconcave disks conta9+ a pigm5t 7hemoglob97 :i* gives ! r$ color to ! blood4 ,! disks are call$ r$ corpuscles 7,fig4 #fj74 ,a few irregul>ly %ap$ bodies1 nucleat$ & almo/ transp>5t1 & call$ :ite corpuscles1 are also f\nd 9 ! blood4 ,! r$ corpuscles g only :]e ! plasma c>ries !m 7,exps4 #c1 #d74 ,! :ite corpuscles sometimes leave ! blood vessels entirely4 ,at times "o may be se5 %ap$ l a dumb-bell1 half ( x ?r\gh ! wall ( ! blood vessel & half /ill 9 ! blood vessel4 ,aft] ! corpuscle is out1 no hole c be f\nd to acc\nt = its my/]i\s passage4 ,! :ite corpuscles consi/ ( protoplasm4 ,! r$ corpuscles conta9 no protoplasm4 ,h5ce ! latt] are n really alive4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,,human ,,blood ,,cells 7magnifi$ #dj1jjj areas71 %[+ _m r$ cells & a s+le :ite blood cell on left1 l>g] ?an r$ cells4 7,peabody47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,,side ,,& ,,front ,,views ,,( ,,frog',s ,,& ,,man',s ,,r$ ,,corpuscles1 drawn to same scale4 ,comp>e outl9e1 concavity1 diamet]s4 ,! ,use ( ,ea* ,"p ( ! ,blood4--,! plasma keeps ! blood 9 a liquid /ate1 s t x may fl[ readily2 ! plasma also transports ! food t has be5 eat5 & dige/$1 & c>ries c>bon dioxid to ! lungs & o!r wa/e mat]ial to ! kidneys4 ,! r$ corpuscles transport ! oxyg5 f ! lungs to ! tissues4 ,! :ite corpuscles dev\r & de/roy irritat+ p>ticles1 su* z drugs1 poisons1 & g]ms4 ,!y are ( great importance 9 purify+ ! blood & z a protection aga9/ disease4 ,"o is %[n 9 ,fig4 #fj4 ,! s\nds ( ! he>t beat may be he>d by apply+ ! e> to ! *e/4 ,!y are two1 a long1 dull s\nd & a %ort1 cle> "o4 ,! fir/ comes f ! vibration ( ! bicuspid valve toge!r ) an unexpla9$ tone aris+ f l>ge contract+ muscles1 9 ?is case ! walls ( ! v5tricles4 ,! second1 or %ort1 cle> s\nd1 is produc$ by ! sudd5 clos+ & vibration ( ! semilun> valves4 ,*anges 9 ! ,composition ( ! ,blood z x passes ?r\gh ! ,v>i\s ,organs4--,:5 ! blood is =c$ out by ! he>t1 "p ( x goes to ! /oma* & inte/9es ?r\gh art]ies :i* divide into capill>ies4 ,^! capill>ies absorb all k9ds ( food f ! alim5t>y canal except ! fats 7see p4 #fd71 & unite to =m ! portal ve91 :i* takes ! absorb$ food to ! liv]4 ,9 ! liv] "s ( ! impurities ( ! blood are burn$ up & *ang$ into bile4 ,! blood1 purifi$ & lad5 ) food1 is c>ri$ f ! liv] to ! he>t1 :]e x rent]s ! g5]al blood /ream4 ,! blood fl[ f ! food tube ?r\gh portal ve9 & liv] to ! he>t1 z j describ$1 is call$ ! ,portal circulation4 ,r5al circulation4 ,two bran*es f ! aorta c>ry blood to ! kidneys4 ,!re ! urea & a l>ge am\nt ( wat] are tak5 out1 & ! purifi$ blood is empti$ into ! l>ge ve9 t leads up to ! he>t4 ,pulmon>y circulation 7,fig4 #fg74 ,?is is ! circulation ?r\gh ! lungs4 ,dur+ ?is circulation c>bon dioxid gas is remov$ f ! blood & oxyg5 is add$ to x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,,blood ,,clot sep>at$ f s]um4 ,"s impurities & a l>ge am\nt ( wat] escape f ! blood z x passes ?r\gh ! sk94 ,coagulation4--,s long z blood is 9 an un9jur$ blood vessel x rema9s a liquid4 ,9 a few m9utes aft] x fl[s f a blood vessel1 x =ms into a /iff1 jellylike mass call$ a clot 7,fig4 #fb74 ,! process ( =m+ ! clot is call$ coagulation1 & x is br\ght ab\t by ! album9\s sub/ance call$ fibr91 :i* is always 9 ! plasma ( heal?y blood4 ,on exposure to air ! fibr9 =ms into a network ( f9e ?reads ?r\gh\t ! mass 7,fig4 #fc7 & ! corpuscles become entangl$ 9 ! me%es4 ,! clot consi/s ( ! fibr9 ( ! plasma & corpuscles2 ! wat]y portion ( ! plasma1 call$ ! s]um1 sep>ates f ! clot 7,fig4 #fb74 ,! prop]ty ( coagulat+ is a great safegu>d1 z a clot (t5 plugs up a cut blood vessel4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 s]um & plasma8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,network ,,( ,,fibr9 ,,9 ,,human ,,blood 7enl>g$74 ,ve9s & ,art]ies comp>$4--,! ve9s h ?91 s(t walls & ! art]ies h ?ick1 t\gh1 ela/ic walls4 ,:5 a ve9 is cut1 x may usually be clos$ by p9*+ ! walls ( ! end toge!r4 ,if an art]y is cut1 ! walls w n readily /ick toge!r1 b (t5 /& op5 until ! end ( ! art]y is ti$4 ,= ?is reason1 & because an art]y is subject to ! direct pressure ( ! he>t1 a cut art]y is m dang]\s to life ?an a cut ve94 ,because ( ! t\ghness ( ! art]ies1 & because !y are locat$ close to ! bones1 !y are less likely to be cut ?an ! ve9s1 :i* are s(t] & ne>] ! surface4 ,! ve9s beg9 9 capill>ies & empty into ! auricles2 ! art]ies beg9 at ! v5tricles & empty into capill>ies2 & !re is a semi-lun> valve at ! orig9 ( ea* art]y4 ,cuts & ,bruises4--#a4 ,wa% a cut "u runn+ wat]4 #b4 ,/op ! ble$+4 ,! wa%+ 9 cold wat] may d ?is4 ,elevat+ an injur$ arm or leg w aid ! blood greatly 9 =m+ a clot at ! op5+4 #c4 ,b&age firmly ) a /rip ( clo? & sew ! end4 ,keep wet ! "p ( ! b&age :]e ! cut is2 ?is l[]s ! temp]ature ( ! w\nd4 ,x may be necess>y to hold a gap+ w\nd clos$ ) /rips ( surgeon's pla/] plac$ across ! cut4 ,a h&k]*ief fold$ fir/ into a triangle & !n into a n>r[ b&age is (t5 useful4 ,a cut art]y may be kn[n f a cut ve9 by ! bright] color ( ! blood1 & by ! fl[ be+ /rong] at ea* he>t beat1 :ile ! fl[ f a ve9 is uni=m4 ,pressure to /op ! fl[ ( blood f an art]y %\ld be appli$ betwe5 ! cut & ! he>t2 b :5 ! blood comes f a ve91 ! pressure %\ld be appli$ to ! side ( ! cut f>!/ f ! he>t4 ,apply hot wat] imm$iately = sev]al m9utes to a bruise4 ,ei!r a bruise or a cut may be wa%$ ) a weak solution ( "s antiseptic su* z c>bolic acid4 ,aft] wa%+ a bruise x may be b\nd ) a clo? soak$ 9 wit* hazel or arnica4 ,,! ,,lymphatic ,,sy/em ,?is sy/em conta9s & conveys a liquid call$ ! lymph4 ,x consi/s ( lymph spaces1 lymph tubes1 7lymphatics71 & lymphatic gl&s4 ,lymph corresponds ne>ly to ! blood )\t ! r$ corpuscles4 ,x is ! famili> liquid se5 9 a bli/]1 or ooz+ out :]e ! sk9 has be5 graz$ )\t break+ a blood vessel4 ,necessity = ,lymph & ,lymph ,spaces4--,! body _c be n\ri%$ ) ! album91 sug>1 oxyg51 & o!r dige/$ food 9 ! blood1 until ?is food passes out ( ! blood vessels4 ,! food leaves ! blood ?r\gh ! ?9 walls ( ! capill>ies4 ,_m ( ! cells d n t\* ! capill>ies1 & ! lymph p5etrates ! spaces betwe5 ! cells to rea* !m 7see color$ ,fig4 #c74 ,if !re 7 no lymph spaces1 ^! cells c\ld n get any food4 ,! lymph ba!s ! cells1 & ! cells absorb :at !y want f ! n\ri%+ fluid4 ,! r$ corpuscles be>+ ! oxyg5 _c pass ?r\gh ! capill>y walls4 ,oxyg51 be+ a gas1 readily passes ?r\gh ! walls & rea*es ! cells ?r\gh ! lymph 9 ! lymph spaces4 ,! wa/e mat]ials mu/ g back into ! blood2 c>bon dioxid passes back ?r\gh ! capill>y walls & is tak5 to ! lungs2 h[ ! o!r wa/e mat]ials =m$ 9 ! cells pass back w soon be expla9$4 ,ne$ ( ,lymphatics4--,! plasma cont9ually passes into ! tissues1 b x _c return directly into ! blood4 ,! lymph conta9s wa/e mat]ial :i* mu/ be remov$1 & also mu* unus$ food :i* nature1 l an economical h\sekeep]1 w (f] to ! tissues aga94 ,!re are vessels call$ lymphatics t take ! lymph back into ! blood 7see ,fig4 #fd74 ,! ,lymphatic ,circulation 7,fig4 #fd74--,! blood fl[ does n beg9 nor end1 b makes a nev] end+ circle4 ,! c\ntless lymphatics beg91 ) op5 ends1 9 ! lymph spaces betwe5 ! cells 7color$ ,fig4 #c74 ,! small] lymphatics unite into l>g] ones until f9ally !y all unite into two l>ge ones t empty into ! l>ge ve9s "u ! coll> bones1 ne> ! neck4 ,! "o t empties "u ! left coll> bone 7#c1 ,fig4 #ff7 is call$ ! ?oracic duct because x goes up ?r\gh ! ?orax j 9 front ( ! sp9al column 7#a1 ,fig4 #ff74 ,! o!r at ! "r side ( ! neck is call$ ! "r lymphatic duct 7see ,figs4 #fd1 #fe74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,,surface ,,lymphatics ,,( ,,h&4 ,9 p]sons ) ! dropsy1 ! lymph accumulates 9 ! lymph spaces & is n dra9$ away by ! lymph fl[4 ,dropsy usually %[s itself fir/ by swell+ ( ! feet & ! leg bel[ ! knee4 7,:y8 ,see ,exp4 #b47 ,!re is a set ( lymphatics call$ lacteals1 situat$ 9 ! abdom51 :i* h ! function ( absorb+ dige/$ fats f ! inte/9e 7,figs4 #ff1 #ajj1 & color$ figure #b74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--;,,diagram ,,to ,,%[ ,,! ,,two ,,p>ts ,,( ,,! ,,body ,,dra9$ ,,by ,,! ,,two ,,lymph ,,ducts4 ,:at makes ! ,lymph ,fl[8--,! he>t does n1 = its pressure is n transmitt$ beyond ! blood tubes4 ,! successive pressures ( a work+ muscle move ! lymph =w>d 9 ! lymphatics 9 ! same way t ! blood is mov$ =w>d 9 ! ve9s1 & ! valves keep x f mov+ back4 ,:5 rid+ a trott+ horse1 or 9 a jolt+ vehicle1 ! lymph is mov$ beyond ! valves at e jolt 7,fig4 #fd74 ,)\t ex]cise ! lymph /agnates1 & ! body becomes poison$ by its own wa/es4 ,at e expansion ( ! lungs lymph is drawn into ! *e/2 & x is =c$ out ( ! *e/ at e contraction4 ,deep brea?+ is z great a b5efit to ! body 9 mov+ /agnant lymph z x is 9 purify+ ! blood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;,,*ief ,,lymphatic ,,vessels ,,& ,,gl&s ( trunk4 #a1 #c1 ,?oracic duct 7empty+ at #c72 #b1 receptacle = *yle 7lacteals bel[ x74 ,! lymphatic gl&s are k]nel-l enl>gem5ts along ! lymphatics1 & !y conta9 a great _m lymph cells :i* purify ! lymph z x passes ?r\gh !m4 ,! lymphatic gl&s are num]\s 9 ! armpits & ! gro9s4 ,! cells 9 ! lymph gl&s multiply1 & "s ( !m are c>ri$ by ! lymph into ! blood to become ^? rem>kable little bodies1 ! :ite corpuscles4 ,,hygi5e ,,( ,,! ,,circulation ,effects ( ,"w1 ,fre% ,air1 & ,re/ on ,corpuscles & ,plasma4--,"w uses up ! nutriti\s elem5ts 9 ! blood4 ,a few h\rs aft] food is eat5 ! nutriti\s mat]ials 9 ! blood are f\nd to be increas$4 ,by ! brea?+ ( fre% air ! c>bon dioxid 9 ! plasma is dim9i%$ & ! oxyg5 9 ! color$ corpuscles is increas$1 *ang+ ! blood to a bright] r$4 ,sleep gives "t = ! exhau/$ cells & deplet$ blood to be repl5i%$4 ,loss ( sleep means long] h\rs ( activity & great] consumption ( nutrim5t ) %ort] h\rs = replac+ ! nutrim5t4 ,! pale sk9 ( "o :o has lo/ sleep tells ( ! exhau/$ condition ( ! blood4 ,h[ ! ,muscles help ! ,circulation4--,! imp]ative ne$ ( muscul> ex]cise to keep ! body s\nd exi/s because ( ! lack ( o!r means to cause movem5t 9 ! ve9s & lymphatics4 ,good food1 pure air1 & pl5ty ( ex]cise are necess>y = heal?y blood4 ,_m s-call$ 8blood purifi]s0 are adv]tis$ to entrap ! ignorant4 ,x is impossible to imag9e h[ 8blood purifi]s0 c aid ! blood4 ,! blood is purifi$1 n by putt+ any?+ into ! blood1 b by some?+ go+ out ( x z x passes ?r\gh ! sk91 kidneys1 liv]1 & lungs4 ,^! organs all s5d out impurities br\ght to !m by ! blood4 ,! "o great hygi5ic effect ( muscul> ex]cise is an active circulation1 & f an active circulation n9e *ief effects may be trac$4 ,! effects ^u ! body w be giv5 9 ord]1 beg9n+ ) ! surface--sk91 fat1 muscles1 bones2 & ! effects ^u ! int]nal organs are giv5 9 ord] ( position1 beg9n+ ) ! highe/--bra91 lungs1 he>t1 dige/ive organs4 ,effects ( ,ex]cise & ,improv$ ,circulation4--#a4 ,! sk9 is made fre%1 p9k1 & smoo? f ! flu%+ ( ! capill>ies2 x is purifi$ by ! p]spiration & ! r5ewal ( cells4 #b4 ,if ! fat is too great 9 am\nt1 x is burn$ up2 if x is too small 9 am\nt1 ! bett] n\ri%m5t br\ght by ! blood increases x4 #c4 ,! muscles are bett] f$ 7see ,fig4 #dh7 & gr[ firm1 /rong1 & l>ge4 #d4 ,! skeleton is held 9 prop] position by ! /rong] muscles1 & de=mity is prev5t$4 #e4 ,! bra94 ,! pure1 fre% blood1 load$ ) oxyg5 f exp&$ lungs1 flu%es e capill>y ( ! bra91 cle>s ! m9d1 & d\bles or trebles its p[] to "w4 #f4 ,! lungs are exp&$ by deep brea?+ if ! ex]cise be rapid & vigor\s4 ,a sl[ /roll or saunt] is n ( value4 #g4 ,! circulation4 ,e contract+ muscle aids ! he>t 9 its "w4 ,! deep brea?+ moves /agnant lymph4 #h4 ,! /oma*4 ,ex]cise burns up ! food & increases ! appetite4 #i4 ,g5]al effects4 ,ex]cise promotes good humor1 decreases loaf+1 cig>ette smok+1 gossip+1 & o!r vices4 ,! effect ( tobacco on ! he>t1 if cig>ettes or cig>s are us$1 is sometimes to cause attacks ( irregul> beat+2 ! he>t flutt]s fa9tly = a :ile1 !n palpitates /rongly1 !n flutt]s aga94 ,?is condition is call$ tobacco he>t1 or trott+ he>t4 ,effect ( ,alcohol ^u ! ,circulation4--,aft] a p]son has tak5 an alcoholic dr9k 8 face & sk9 are likely to become flu%$1 & p]haps 8 he>t beats fa/]4 ,mo/ inve/igators h f\nd t ! alcohol itself does n directly increase or /r5g!n ! action ( ! he>t4 ,h5ce x is probably wrong to call alcohol a he>t /imulant4 ,! flu%+ ( ! sk9 is believ$ to be due to ! relax+ effect ( alcohol4 ,x relaxes1 x p>alyzes1 ! vasomotor n]ves :i* control ! little muscle fib]s 9 ! walls ( ! blood vessels4 ,! relax+ & enl>g+ ( ! blood vessels decreases ! resi/ance to ! blood fl[1 & ! he>t beats fa/] "u its light] load4 ,! n>cotic effect ( alcohol is mu* m p[]ful ?an its irritat+ or /imulat+ effect4 ,! effect ( alcohol 9 caus+ fatty deg5]ation ( ! muscles (t5 weak5s ! he>t & o!r blood vessels4 ,climate & ,bra9 ,"w4--,9 go+ to sleep ! vessels 9 ! sk9 dilate & blood is drawn f ! bra9 to ! sk94 ,x is difficult to g to sleep :5 cold1 = cold s5ds ! blood to ! bra9 & keeps ! m9d active4 ,on ! same pr9ciple1 m5tal "w is difficult 9 v w>m wea!r because ( ! enl>g$ capill>ies 9 ! sk9 & ! )drawal ( blood f ! bra9 to ! sk94 ,?is increases ! p]spiration & keeps ! temp]ature ( ! body d[n to normal1 b x deprives ! bra9 ( blood ne$$ = good m5tal "w4 ,m5tal work]s 9 w>m wea!r & 9 w>m climates %\ld seek e condition favor+ coolness4 ,b5jam9 ,frankl9 0 accu/om$ to /rip himself almo/ entirely ( clo?+ :5 he 0 writ+ & want$ 8 bra9 to "w at its be/4 ,! we>+ ( b>efoot s&als & ! ?9ne/ cotton clo?+1 light 9 color1 helps to prev5t m5tal in]tia 9 hot wea!r4 ,9 ! ,gulf /ates 9 summ] & 9 our tropical isl&s ! be/ m5tal "w c be done by ris+ at dawn & work+ be=e ! hot "p ( ! day beg9s4 ,"s ( ! greate/ ?9k]s 9 ! _w h liv$ 9 w>m climates 7,greece & ,india71 b !y wore v few clo!s & ate mod]ately ( ! simple/ food 7see p4 #dd74 ,conge/ion is a swell+ ( ! blood vessels ( "s "p1 ) ! accumulation ( blood !re94 ,conge/ion is active :5 a rapid fl[ ( blood di/5ds ! capill>ies4 ,example1 flu%+ ( face :5 runn+4 ,conge/ion is passive :5 !re is a n>r[+ ( ! outlet ( ! capill>ies1 ! blood moves sl[ly & p>tly /agnates 9 ! swoll5 vessels4 ,example1 :5 ! nose feels /opp$ up dur+ a cold4 ,if a syr+e is work$ s fa/ t ! rubb] tube swells1 ?is is l active conge/ion2 if ! end ( ! tube is p9*$ toge!r s t mod]ate pump+ causes x to swell1 ?is is l passive conge/ion4 ,inflammation is conge/ion :]e ! vessels ( any "p are /ra9$ & injur$4 ,:ite corpuscles collect !re to repair ! vessels & dev\r ! blood t escapes & /agnates !re4 ,!y also de/roy g]ms t h usually f\nd lodgm5t & begun to multiply4 ,! s]um ( ! blood also de/roys ! g]ms by ! antitox9s 9 x4 ,inflammatory tr\bles are3 colds1 rheumatism1 di>rha1 & all diseases ) "n end+ 8itis40 ,an inflam$ "p is r$1 swoll51 hot1 & pa9ful4 ,prev5tion & ,c>e ( ,colds4--,a cold is an inflammation ( a muc\s membrane4 ,colds are prev5t$ by s liv+ z to enc\rage a free1 vigor\s circulation1 & especially by n coddl+ ! body s t5d]ly t ! circulation becomes d]ang$ by ! lea/ exposure4 ,! circulation may be d]ang$ by ov]heat+ z well z by *ill+ ! body2 usually x w\ld be m appropriate to say t ! p]son caught 8a hot0 ?an 8a cold40 ,at ! fir/ sign ( a cold vigor\s ex]cise1 a cold ba?1 or go+ outdoors into cold air may aid 9 s5d+ fre% blood to remove ! /agnation & /op ! inflammation4 ,a w>m foot ba? & hot dr9ks may relieve by draw+ blood f ! conge/$ muc\s membrane4 ,aft] ! cold has become fix$ su* measures w n help1 b ! cure is aid$ by help+ ! sk9 to keep its full %>e ( blood4 ,! cold mu/ run its c\rse4 ,! cells w be giv5 e *ance to repair ! injury & de/roy ! g]ms 7if any7 by avoid+ h>d "w1 eat+ mod]ately ( dige/ible food1 avoid+ drugs1 especially infallible drugs adv]tis$ 9 newspap]s1 ev5 if recomm5d$ by o!rwise intellig5t p4 ,repeat$ colds t5d to become a disgu/+ disease call$ *ronic cat>rh4 ,con/rict+ ! blood vessels ( ! sk9 causes conge/ion ( ! 7int]nal7 muc\s membranes4 ,a sk9 t5d]ly protect$ con/ricts m readily ?an "o accu/om$ to cold4 ,cold is ! be/ prev5tive ( cold4 ,cold ba?s1 pure air1 light clo?+1 free brea?+1 mod]ate eat+1 w>d (f colds4 ,fuss+ ) sprays1 g>gles1 & drugs w n2 = ! ma9 factor 9 br++ on a cold is n g]ms1 nor temp]ature1 b ! /ate ( ! sy/em itself4 ,p]sons :o h suff]$ mu* ) colds h f\nd t aft] sub/itut+ cotton und]we> = wool51 colds became v r>e4 ,l95 w h a simil> effect1 b x is n z durable1 s(t1 or heat-reta9+ z cotton 7see p4 #af74 ,,practical ,,que/ions4--#a4 ,?r\gh :at k9d ( sk9 d ! blue ve9s 9 ! wri/ %[ mo/ pla9ly8 #b4 ,:i* is m compressible1 a ve9 or an art]y8 #c4 ,:y are ^? :o take little ex]cise likely to h cold feet8 7p4 #eg47 #d4 ,:]e does ! s-call$ v5\s blood fl[ ?r\gh an art]y8 #e4 ,:at ve9 beg9s & ends 9 capill>ies8 7,! portal ve91 color$ ,fig4 #e47 #f4 ,to :at purify+ organ1 aft] leav+ ! lungs1 does ! he>t s5d "p ( ! blood = fur!r purification8 7,color$ ,fig4 #e47 #g4 ,:at keeps ! blood mov+ betwe5 ! beats ( ! he>t8 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,respiration ,exp]im5t #a4 7,home47 ,/udy ( ! ,?roat4--,sit ) ! back to ! light4 ,/udy ! op5 m\? & ?roat ) a mirror & make out ! uvula1 tonsils1 & o!r p>ts %[n 9 ,fig4 #fh4 ,exp]im5t #b4 ,anatomy ( ,lungs4--,/udy fre% lungs ( %eep1 hog1 f[l1 or frog4 ,w !y float8 ,w !y contract :5 exp&$ by air bl[n 9 ?r\gh a quill or o!r tube8 ,:at is ! /ructure ( ! w9dpipe8 ,c y di/+ui% ! art]ies f ! ve9s by ! /iffness ( _! walls8 ,:i* conta9 pure blood8 ,/udy bran*+ ( air tubes4 ,make a sket*4 ,exp]im5t #c4 ,te/s ( ,expir$ ,air4--,brea! ^u a mirror1 bright knife blade1 or cold w9d[ pane4 ,result8 ,/ate y\r conclusion4 ,exp]im5t #d4--;,c>bon dioxid add$ to limewat] w cause a :ite cl\d consi/+ ( p>ticles ( lime/one4 ,brea! ?r\gh a tube or /raw or ! holl[ /em ( a re$ into cle> limewat]4 ,result8 ,conclusion8 7,limewat] may be _h at druggi/'s or made by p\r+ wat] ^u a lump ( unslack5$ lime & dra9+ x (f :5 lime has settl$47 ,exp]im5t #e4 ,brea! = sev]al m9utes ^u ! bulb ( a !rmomet]4 ,result8 ,conclusion8 ,exp]im5t #f4 ,brea! a few times into a l>ge1 c>efully clean$ pickle j>1 or a bottle4 ,cork x tightly1 & set x 9 a w>m place = sev]al days4 ,!n uncork & smell ! air 9 x4 ,result8 ,conclusion8 ,exp]im5t #g4 ,pi]ce a small hole 9 a c>d1 place c>d ov] a wide-m\!d bottle1 & brea! into bottle ?r\gh a tube1 lemonade /raw1 or holl[ re$4 ,pull out /raw4 ,place bottle1 m\? d[nw>d1 on table1 & slip out c>d4 ,slide bottle to edge ( table & lift light$ c&le into bottle4 ,result8 ,exp]im5t #h4 ,place bottle ( fre% air ov] light$ c&le4 ,result8 ,conclusion8 7,see ,animal ,biology1 p4 #d47 ,exp]im5t #i4 7,s*ool47 ,te/+ ! ,air ( a ,room4--,fill a fruit j> or l>ge bottle ) wat]1 & take x into a room conta9+ _m p4 ,p\r out ! wat]4 7,?is insures t all ! air n[ 9 ! j> is air obta9$ 9 ! room to be te/$47 ,seal ! j> if te/ is n to be made at once4 ,te/ by p\r+ 9 two tablespoonfuls ( cle> limewat] & %ake4 ,if ! limewat] turns milky1 ! v5tilation is bad4 ,exp]im5t #aj4 7,home & s*ool47 ,homemade ,curr5t ,detector4--,dangle a bit ( pap] by means ( a spid] web or ?read f ! end ( a walk+ /ick or rul]4 7,or te/ ) ! flame ( a c&le47 ,hold x ne> cracks ( w9d[1 above & bel[ doors1 & especially be=e op5+s int5d$ = entry & exit ( air1 & te/ if air moves z desir$4 ,exp]im5t #aa4 ,v5tilation ( ! ,s*oolroom4--,let ! :ole class rise1 & ) ! f+]s te/ cracks ar\nd doors & w9d[s4 ,:]ev] ! air feels cold to ! h& ! air is ent]+4 ,exp]im5t #ab4 ,du/4--,) a mirror cause a sunbeam to play l a se>* light into a clos$ room sev]al h\rs aft] x has be5 swept4 ,result8 ,d ! same 9 a room :]e e w9d[ & door 7 op5 dur+ sweep+ & left op5 aft]w>ds4 ,result8 ,conclusion8 ,note also ! am\nt ( du/ on ! furniture ( ea* room4 ,exp]im5t #ac4 ,/udy ( ,habitual ,quiet ,brea?+4--,)\t any m di/urbance ( ! brea?+ ?an c be help$1 direct y\r att5tion to y\r brea?+ :ile sitt+ quietly4 ,record motions ( any p>ts ( *e/ & abdom9al walls t may be noticeable4 ,if necess>y1 lay ! h&s successively aga9/ diff]5t p>ts ( ! wall to te/ = motion4 ,?9k ( ano!r subject1 & lat] repeat obs]vations4 ,exp]im5t #ad4 ,/udy ( ,deep ,brea?+4--,place y\r h&s successively ^u ! front & sides ( y\r *e/1 wai/1 & abdom51 :ile draw+ 9 & s5d+ out deep brea?s4 ,:at motions ( ! sev]al p>ts are obs]v$ at ea* /age8 ,exp]im5t #ae4 ,/udy ( ,ela/icity z a ,factor 9 ,brea?+4--7#a7 ,notice :e!r 9 quiet brea?+ !re is an ela/ic reb\nd z ! brea? goes ei!r 9 or out4 ,if s1 x is due to ! ela/icity ( ! c>tilages or air cells ( lungs1 or bo?4 7#b7 ,brea! by inflat+ ! lungs /rongly at ea* brea?4 ,is ! air !n =c$ out )\t ef=t8 7#c7 ,brea! by flatt5+ ! *e/ & abdom5 z mu* z possible at ea* brea?4 ,does ! air !n ru% 9 )\t ef=t8 ,exp]im5t #af4 ,*e/ ,brea?+4--,try to brea! :olly by deep expansions & contractions ( *e/ wall4 ,:at motions1 if any1 are notic$ 9 abdom9al wall z brea? goes 98 ,z x goes out8 7,te/ motions ) h&47 ,exp]im5t #ag4 ,abdom9al ,brea?+4--,try to hold ! *e/ walls /ill & brea! by /rong contraction & expansion ( abdom54 ,d ! *e/ walls move at all8 ,nei!r 8*e/ brea?+0 nor 8abdom9al brea?+0 is ! normal way4 ,see text4 ,exp]im5t #ah4 ,full ,brea?+4--,try brea?+ by outw>d & inw>d movem5t ( walls ( *e/1 wai/1 & abdom54 ,d y succe$8 ,?is is normal brea?+4 ,is ! motion great] at ! front or ! sides ( ! wai/8 ,put a belt ar\nd ! wai/ tight en\gh to /ay 9 place & repeat4 ,is ! wai/ motion int]f]$ )8 ,exp]im5t #ai4 ,h[ ! ,ribs are ,lift$4--,make a model-l sket* to repres5t backbone1 brea/bone1 & two ribs1 us+ p9s to make jo9ts loose at corn]s4 ,use cords = diagonals4 ,:at happ5s :5 cord ac is pull$8 ,:5 cord bd is pull$8 ,! cords correspond to ! two sets ( muscles betwe5 ! ribs4 ,illu/ration ,exp]im5t #bj4 ,/udy ( ,laugh+4--,place ! h&s ^u ! wai/ & abdom5 :5 laugh+4 ,:at motion occurs at ea* s\nd ( laugh8 ,draw 9 ! abdom9al wall ) a j]k4 ,:at is ! effect ^u ! brea?8 ,exp]im5t #ba4 ,modifications ( ! ,brea?4--,write ,i1 ,e1 or ,,ie aft] ea* ^w 9 ?is li/1 accord+ z inspiration1 expiration1 or bo?1 are involv$ 9 ! action4 7,te/ ) %am acts if possible47 ,sigh+1 sobb+1 cry+ 7( a *ild71 c\gh+1 laugh+1 yawn+1 sneez+1 hicc\gh+1 snor+4 ,exp]im5t #bb4 ,effects ( ,ex]cise4--,c\nt & record ! rates ( brea?+ be=e & aft] vigor\s ex]cise4 ,exp]im5t #bc4 ,comp>ative ,/udy4--,obs]ve & record ! rate & mann] ( brea?+ ( c[1 horse1 dog1 cat1 etc4 ,is ! air drawn 9 or s5t out m quickly8 ,is !re a pause8 ,if s1 aft] :i* /age ( brea?+8 ,exp]im5t #bd4 ,em]g5cy ,drill4--,resuscitation f dr[n+1 etc4 ,see ,coleman's 8,elem5ts ( ,physiology10 page #cef4 ,necessity = ,brea?+ & = ,specializ$ ,organs ( ,brea?+4--,! body is a self-regulat+ ma*9e :i* possesses en]gy4 ,?is en]gy1 l t ( /eam eng9es1 arises f oxidation :i* takes place cont9ually1 b at a v>y+ rate4 ,food = fuel is tak5 at int]vals1 b oxyg5 mu/ be tak5 9 cont9ually4 ,man brea!s ab\t eighte5 times p] m9ute4 ,! blood 9 ! tissues soon becomes d>k because ( loss ( oxyg5 & absorption ( c>bon dioxid4 ,x is !n pump$ ?r\gh ! he>t to ! organ :i* has ! function ( absorb+ oxyg5 & giv+ (f c>bon dioxid 7,fig4 #fg74 ,9 "s animals1 z ! ameba & ! e>?worm1 ! surface ( ! body suffices = brea?+4 ,?is cell brea?+ is ! true ess5tial respiration2 x is univ]sal among liv+ ?+s1 bo? plants & animals4 ,to supply ! deep] cells l>ge animals require a brea?+ surface great] ?an ! area ( ! sk94 ,?is is suppli$ by hav+ ! oxyg5-absorb+ surface fold$ inw>d to =m folds1 tubes1 & cavities ( great complexity4 ,if ! lungs ( a man 7 unfold$ & all _! tubes & cavities spread ^u "o surface1 an area ( m ?an "o hundr$ squ>e feet 7or t5 feet squ>e7 w\ld be cov]$4 ,ea* respiration1 or brea?1 consi/s ( ! pass+ 9 ( ! air1 or inspiration1 s5d+ x out1 or expiration1 & a pause aft] "o b n aft] bo? ( ! o!r /ages4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,,circulation ,,?r\gh ,,lungs 7s*ematic73 8v5\s0 blood 79 pulmon>y art]y7 black2 8art]ial0 blood 79 pulmon>y ve9s7 :ite4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,,op5 ,,m\?1 %[+ palate & tonsils4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,,lungs1 ,p2 ) tra*ea1 ,,ta2 ?yroid gl&1 ?2 l>ynx1 ,l2 & hyoid bone1 ,h4 ,! ,air ,passages4--,! air usually passes 9 at ! nose & returns by ! same way1 except dur+ talk+ or s++4 ,obs]ve y\r m\? ) a mirror 7,fig4 #fh72 at ! back "p1 an ar* is se5 :i* is ! re> b\nd>y l9e ( ! m\? 7,exp4 #a74 ,j above ! ar* is likewise ! re> b\nd>y l9e ( ! nasal passages4 ,! funnel-%ap$ cavity beyond1 into :i* bo? ! m\? & nasal passages op51 is call$ ! ph>ynx 7f>inks71 or ?roat 7see ,fig4 #fh1 also ,fig4 #hc74 ,bel[1 two tubes op5 f ! ph>ynx4 ,"o is ! tra*ea 7trkea7 or w9dpipe1 ! o!r is ! esophagus or gullet4 ,at ! top ( ! tra*ea is ! c>tilag9\s l>ynx1 or voice box4 ,if ! f+] is plac$ ^u ! l>ynx or ,adam's apple1 x is pla9ly felt to move up & d[n :5 swall[+4 ,! op5+ into ! l>ynx is provid$ ) a lid ( c>tilage1 ! epiglottis4 ,inside ! l>ynx1 ! vocal cords are /ret*$ f front to back4 ,j bel[ ! l>ynx comes ! tra*ea prop]1 :i* is a tube ab\t ?ree f\r?s ( an in* 9 diamet] & ab\t f\r in*es long 7,fig4 #fi74 ,x consi/s ( hoops ( c>tilage 7,fig4 #fi7 :i* are n complete circles1 b are %ap$ some:at l ! lett] ,c1 be+ complet$ at ! re> by involunt>y muscul> tissue1 ^: function is to draw ! ends toge!r at times 7= in/ance1 dur+ c\gh+7 & r$uce ! size ( ! tube4 ,! function ( ! hoops ( c>tilage is to keep ! w9dpipe op5 at all times4 ,if x %\ld be clos$ by pressure1 life might be lo/4 ,^! r+s ( c>tilage may be felt 9 ! neck4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,,lobule ,,( ,,lung4 ,! l[] end ( ! tra*ea is j beh9d ! upp] end ( ! brea/bone2 !re x divides into two l>ge tubes4 ,^! subdivide into a great numb] ( small] bran*es call$ bron*ial tubes4 ,c>tilage is f\nd 9 ! walls ( all b ! smalle/ ( ! tubes4 ,! subdivision cont9ues1 some:at l ! bran*+ ( a tree1 until ! :ole lung is p5etrat$ by bron*ial tubes4 ,ea* t9y tube f9ally ends 9 a wid] funnel-%ap$ *amb] call$ a lobule 7,fig4 #gj71 into :i* s _m dilat$ sacs1 call$ air cells1 op51 t ! walls ( ! t]m9al *amb] or lobule may be said to consi/ ( t9y cups1 or air cells1 plac$ side by side4 ,! lobules1 or clu/]s ( air cells1 are *iefly ne> ! surface ( ! lung4 7,! ^w 8cell0 is "h us$ 9 its orig9al s5se to d5ote a cavity or *amb]1 & n 9 ! s5se ( a protoplasmic cell47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,,capill>ies ,,ar\nd ,,air ,,sacs ,,( ,,lungs 7enl>g$ #cj diamet]s74 ,air sacs 9 :ite spaces4 ,d>k l9es are capill>ies4 7,peabody47 ,! air cells are ela/ic & enl>ge by /ret*+ z ! *e/ exp&s2 h5ce1 ! cells mu/ h _m ( ! yell[ ela/ic fib]s ( connective tissue 9 _! walls4 ,!y are l9$ ) an exce$+ly ?9 membrane ( epi!lial cells ?r\gh :i* oxyg5 & c>bon dioxid are ex*ang$4 ,9 ! walls ( ! air cells !re is a network ( capill>ies 7,fig4 #ga74 ,! d>k r$ blood comes into ^! capill>ies f ! pulmon>y art]ies1 & is *ang$ to a bright r$ by ! "t x leaves !m to ent] ! pulmon>y ve9s4 ,! air leaves ! lungs w>m]1 moi/]1 & conta9+ m c>bon dioxid ?an :5 x ent]$4 ,mo/ ( ! muc\s membrane l9+ ! air passages has a surface lay] ( ciliat$ cells4 ,cilia are t9y ?read-l projections 7,fig4 #gb7 :i* cont9ually wave to & fro1 ! quick] /roke always be+ outw>d2 = _! function is to remove p>ticles ( du/ & g]ms t may f9d entrance to ! air passages4 ,:5 ! mucus conta9+ ! du/ is rais$ ne>ly to ! l>ynx1 x may be ?r[n out by c\gh+4 ,ne> ! op5+ ( ! no/rils are plac$ _m hairs1 hundr$s ( times l>g] ?an cilia1 ?r\gh :i* ! air is /ra9$ z x ent]s ! nose4 ,hairs are multicellul>2 cilia are p>ts ( cells4 ,see ,animal ,biology1 ,fig4 #ad4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,,ciliat$ ,,cells1 l9+ ! air passages4 ,! ,lungs4--,! entire *e/ cavity is occupi$ by ! lungs except ! space occupi$ by ! he>t1 ! l>g] blood vessels1 & ! gullet4 ,! "r lung has ?ree lobes1 or divisions1 & ! left lung has two lobes4 ,! lungs are light p9k 9 e>ly life1 b become grayi% & d>k] z age advances4 ,?is *ange is m m>k$ 9 ^? :o dwell 9 cities1 or :]ev] ! atmosph]e is smoky & du/y4 ,! lungs are cov]$ & inclos$ by a smoo? membrane call$ ! pleura4 ,?is membrane turns back & l9es ! *e/ wall1 s t :5 ! *e/ exp&s1 ! two sleek membranes glide ov] ea* o!r ) f> less friction ?an w\ld be ! case if ! lungs & *e/ wall 7 t\*+ 7,exp4 #b74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,,v]tical ,,section ,,( ,,trunk1 %[+ diaphragm1 cavities ( ?orax & abdom54 ,! ,respiratory ,muscles4--7,repeat ,exps4 #ac1 #ad1 #ae47 ,! *ief brea?+ muscles are ! diaphragm 7see ,figs4 #gc & #gd71 ! muscles =m+ ! abdom9al walls 7see ,fig4 #dd71 & two sets ( %ort muscles 7an int]nal & an ext]nal set71 betwe5 ! ribs4 ,!y are call$ int]co/als4 7,!y are ! fle% eat5 :5 eat+ pork ribs47 ,! diaphragm1 :i* is %ap$ l a b[l turn$ upside d[n1 r\nds up "u ! base ( ! lungs some:at l a dome & sep>ates ! *e/ f ! abdom54 ,its holl[ side is t[>d ! abdom5 & its edges are atta*$ to ! l[e/ ribs & ! v]tebra ( ! lo9s4 ,inspiration is br\ght ab\t by ! ris+ ( ! ribs & ! desc5t ( ! diaphragm4 ,expiration takes place :5 ! ribs desc5d1 ! abdom9al walls draw 91 & ! transmitt$ pressure lifts ! relax$ diaphragm4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,,diaphragm 7or midriff71 se5 f bel[4 7,cunn+ham47 ,! c5tral portion 7light7 is t5d9\s4 ,z ! diaphragm desc5ds1 x acts l ! pi/on ( a great pump & ! blood is =c$ up ?r\gh ! v5a cava1 & ! lymph ?r\gh ! ?oracic duct 7,fig4 #ff74 ,inspiration4--,to cause inspiration ! diaphragm contracts1 x flatt5s & desc5ds1 s9ce its edges are atta*$ l[] ?an its middle 7,fig4 #gc72 ! lungs desc5d ) x1 ?us l5g!n+ ! *e/ f top to bottom2 at ! same "t ! ribs are rais$ upw>d & outw>d 7,fig4 #gf7 by ! contraction ( ! out] set ( muscles betwe5 ! ribs4 ,?us ! *e/ is made long]1 broad]1 & deep] f front to back4 ,! lungs exp& :5 ! *e/ exp&s1 & ! air ru%es 94 ,:y is ?is8 ,! lungs conta9 no muscles & _c exp& !mselves2 ! air _c be pull$ 91 = its p>ts d n /ick toge!r4 ,! true reason is t ! air has weight4 ,! atmosph]e has a height ( _m miles1 & ! air above is press+ on t bel[4 ,:5 ! *e/ walls are rais$ !re w\ld be an empty space or vacuum betwe5 ^! walls & ! lungs1 did n ! pressure ( ! outside air pu% air ?r\gh ! w9dpipe into ! lungs & exp& !m 7,exp4 #ai74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,,framework ,,( ,,*e/4 ,expiration4--,9 v active brea?+ ! abdom9al walls actively contract s t !y press /rongly ^u ! dige/ive organs1 :i* 9 turn press ! diaphragm up4 ,! ribs are also drawn d[n & 94 ,?us ! *e/ becomes small] & =ces ! air to fl[ out ?r\gh ! w9dpipe 7,exps4 #bj & #ba74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,,blackbo>d ,,sket*1 to %[ h[ ! *e/ is exp&$ :5 ! ribs move upw>d & outw>d4 ,,?\ght ,,que/ions4--,:y brea?+ ) ! wai/ is easi] ?an brea?+ ) ! upp] *e/4 ,effects ( conf9+ ! wai/4 #a4 ,!re are two pairs ( ribs bel[1 :ile !re are none above4 #b4 ,!re are ?ree pairs ( ribs bel[1 :ile !re are none above1 b all ribs ( ! upp] *e/ are ribs4 #c4 ,! l[] ( ! jo9ts betwe5 ! sev5 pairs ( true ribs & ! /]num are m flexible ?an ! upp] jo9ts because 4 7,obs]ve ! jo9ts 9 ,fig4 #ge47 #d4 ,! walls ( ! wai/ sw+ & 1 :ile ! walls ( ! upp] *e/ mu/ move & 4 #e4 ,! bones ( ! re/ ^u ! upp] *e/4 ,9 upp] *e/ brea?+ _! weight1 & ! weight ( bo? ( ! mu/1 !re=e1 be lift$4 7,fig4 #bh47 ,te/ by try+ x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,,female ,,figure ,,encas$ ,,9 ,,corset4 ,expansion at ! wai/ is "h impossible & ! brea?+ is call$ 8coll>-bone brea?+40 ,,fig4 #gh4--,,male ,,figure4 ,"h1 ow+ to pressure ( clo?+ & faulty position1 expansion ( *e/ is h9d]$ & brea? is tak5 by ! 8abdom9al me?od40 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,,figure ,,prop]ly ,,pois$ ,,& ,,free4 ,"h ! entire ?orax c move freely1 & natural brea?+ is ! result4 7,= blackbo>d47 ,f ,latson4 ,hygi5ic ,habits ( ,brea?+4--,*e/ brea?+ uses *e/ *iefly1 abdom9al brea?+ uses abdom5 *iefly1 full brea?+ uses bo?4 ,^! ?ree =ms dep5d ^u :e!r ! brea?+ is c>ri$ on by us+ ! muscles ( 7#a7 ! *e/1 7#b7 ! abdom51 or 7#c7 bo? 7see ,figs4 #gg1 #gh1 #gi74 ,!re has be5 mu* debate among physicians1 surgeons1 & s+]s z to :i* ( ^! me?ods is be/4 ,probably ?is "q w\ld n h be5 rais$ b = ! conf9+ & de=m+ effect ( clo?+ ^u ! wai/4 ,full brea?+ is us$ by *ildr5 ( all races1 by bo? m5 & wom5 ( wild tribes1 & by m5 ( civiliz$ c\ntries4 ,x is und\bt$ly ! natural way1 z well z ! easie/ & mo/ effective way 7,exps4 #af1 #ag1 #ah74 ,brea?+ ) ! upp] *e/ is exhau/+ because ( ! /iffness ( ! upp] "p ( ! bony cage 7see ,fig4 #ge72 = x is inclos$ by true ribs fix$ to ! brea/bone by %ort c>tilages4 ,! ribs 9 ! wai/ 7,fig4 #ge7 are ei!r float+ 9 front or fix$ by long c>tilages to ! ribs above4 ,9 pure abdom9al brea?+ ! diaphragm mu/ contract m ?an 9 full brea?+ 9 ord] to desc5d1 because its edges h be5 drawn toge!r & fix$ by b9d+ ! ribs at ! wai/4 ,9 full brea?+ ! float+ & false ribs at ! wai/ 7five pairs 9 all7 float 9 & out z nature provid$4 ,z !y move out1 ?is broad5s & deep5s ! *e/1 & aids ! flatt5+ ( ! diaphragm by mov+ its edges f>!r ap>t4 ,^? p]sons1 p]haps "o 9 a ?\s&1 :o volunt>ily de=m ! body ) tight clo?+ are b5ea? contempt4 ,b s uni=m is ! pressure ( tight clo!s & %oes t ! we>] soon becomes unconsci\s ( !m1 & s p[]ful are ! effects t n "o p]son 9 a ?\s& escapes de=mity & injury4 ,*ildr5's clo?+ %\ld be support$ by ! %\ld]s1 & adults' clo?+ by bo? %\ld]s & hips1 b by ! wai/1 nev]4 ,cellul> ,respiration4--,! *emical activities )9 ! cells & _! ne$ ( oxyg51 n ! am\nt ( oxyg5 9 ! lungs or blood1 det]m9e h[ mu* oxyg5 ! cells absorb f ! blood4 ,oxyg5 _c be =c$ ev5 into ! blood beyond ! requir$ am\nt4 ,deep brea?+ movem5ts1 h[ev]1 help ! fl[ ( ! blood & lymph4 ,c>ri$ to excess1 !y tire ! w & exhau/ ! n]ves4 ,*anges 9 ,blood :ile 9 ! ,lungs4--,! color+ matt] 7or hemoglob97 ( ! corpuscles absorbs oxyg5 7& becomes oxy-hemoglob974 ,c>bon dioxid is giv5 (f f ! plasma4 ,! blood becomes a bright] r$4 ,*anges 9 ,air 9 ! ,lungs4--,! air ent]+ ! lungs consi/s ( ab\t "o fif? oxyg5 & f\r fif?s nitrog54 ,?is nitrog5 is ( no use to ! body1 & is exhal$ un*ang$4 ,a "p ( ! oxyg5 inspir$ is tak5 up by ! blood1 & c>bon dioxid is s5t out 9 its place4 ,ab\t half a p9t ( wat] is giv5 (f ?r\gh ! lungs 9 a day4 ,m9ute quantities ( injuri\s animal matt] are also giv5 (f 9 ! brea? f ev5 ! s\nde/ p]son4 ,! air leaves ! lungs w>m]1 damp]1 & ) m c>bon dioxid ?an :5 x ent]$ 7,exps4 #c to #i74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,,v5tilation ,,( ,,/ove-,,heat$ ,,room4#e ,h[ are ! inlet & outlet situat$ ) ref]5ce to ! /ove8 #e ,f ,coleman's ,elem5ts ( ,physiology 7#djj pp474 ,! ,macmillan ,co41 ,n4,y4 ,p]sons ) decay$ tee?1 cat>rh1 indige/ion1 diseas$ lungs1 or o!r uns\ndness give (f /ill m ( ?is mat]ial4 ,:5 _m p are assembl$ 9 a badly v5tilat$ room1 ! am\nt ( injuri\s animal matt] 9 ! air is mu* increas$1 & is call$ 8cr[d poison40 ,its odor is /rong & repulsive to "o :o j ent]s ! room1 b ! s5se ( smell becomes dull to x 9 a few m9utes4 ,x w\ld seem t nature gives a fair w>n+ aga9/ h>m2 b if we disreg>d ! w>n+ x soon ceases4 ,p :o are really ,unclean4--,nature's plan seems to be = u to live out ( doors4 ,air once brea!d is impure4 ,x is j z unfit to ent] our bodies z muddy wat] or decay$ food4 ,yet _m :o call !mselves cleanly & ref9$1 & w n all[ a speck ( dirt to rema9 on _! clo!s1 nor use a spoon j us$ by ano!r1 d n object to brea?+ into _! lungs1 ov] & ov] aga91 ! ca/-(f air f ! lungs ( o!rs4 ,if a w9d[ is op5$ = v5tilation1 !y are horror-/rick5 = fe> ( drafts4 ,drafts are injuri\s only to p]sons p]spir+1 or to ^? :o h coddl$ ! sk9 by cont9ually ov]heat+ x4 ,!re are ?\s&s ( s*ools1 *ur*es1 & !at]s all ov] ! l& :i* reek daily ) ! malodor\s p>ticles f ! lungs ( _! occupants4 ,al?\gh ! air 9 !m is odorless to ^? :o occupy !m1 x is disgu/+ to any "o :o ent]s f ! fre% air4 ,figure #hj %[s ! correct v5tilation ( a /ove-heat$ s*oolroom4 ,du/ causes cat>rh ( ! bron*ial tubes & *ronic inflammation ( ! lungs2 x prep>es = consumption1 by gradually weak5+ ! lungs ( ^? :o brea! x4 ,intellig5ce & common s5se are necess>y to prev5t x f accumulat+ 9 ! h\se4 ,! *ief purpose ( ! h\se clean+ %\ld be n only to remove bits ( pap] f ! floor1 :i* d no h>m ev5 to ! %oes1 b to remove impurities f ! air4 ,x does no good to /ir up ! du/ & all[ x to settle d[n aga9 7,exp4 #ab74 ,9 _m h\ses du/ is ?us all[$ to accumulate = mon?s4 ,exp]im5ts %[ t du/ & g]ms float+ 9 ! air are n dim9i%$ to a great ext5t by a g5tle draft ?r\gh ! room4 ,! w9d[s mu/ be op5 & sweep+ done 9 ! direction ( ! air curr5ts2 ! w9d[s %\ld be left op5 = a long :ile aft] ! sweep+4 ,a w9dy day is be/ = sweep+4 ,! habit "s h\sekeep]s h ( buy+ furni%+s & bric--brac = ! home until x looks l a retail /ore or junk %op1 makes x almo/ impossible to clean _! h\ses4 ,a few articles1 c>efully select$1 adorn a home m ?an _m b\ght at r&om1 & !y d n litt] ! h\se & s]ve z traps = du/4 ,) all precautions "s du/ may settle d[n4 ,?is %\ld n simply be /irr$ up aga9 ) a fea!r du/]1 b ! du/+ %\ld be done ) a damp clo?4 ,a%es %\ld be spr9kl$ be=e !y are mov$4 ,c>pet sweep]s1 b nev] brooms1 %\ld be us$ ^u c>pets4 ,c>pets & lace curta9s are truly du/ traps1 9 :i* du/ w accumulate )\t limit4 ,^? :o value ! heal? w n use su* uncleanly abom9ations1 at lea/ 9 b$rooms4 ,?\gh l9oleum1 b>e floors ) movable rugs1 oil$ & pa9t$ floors1 may n look s com=table z a fix$ c>pet1 !y br+ f> m com=t 9 ! end4 ,! weak5+ effect ( ord9>y du/ is "o ( ! *ief causes ( lung diseases1 & prep>es a f]tile soil = ! consumptive g]m4 ,! sputum c\gh$ up by consumptives falls ^u ! floor or /reet1 soon dries1 & ! g]ms are driv5 ab\t by ! w9d4 ,9 _m cities !re is a law aga9/ spitt+ 9 public places1 & ! /reets are flu%$ ) wat] be=e !y are swept4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,! air ent]s ?r\gh a special inlet & is w>m$ z x passes ?r\gh hood surr\nd+ ! /ove4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,*imney ) a passage beh9d fireplace1 or grate1 9 :i* ! air is w>m$ z x ent]s4 ,v5tilation pres5ts no difficulties 9 ! summ] "t or 9 w>m climates4 ,! reason t x is a difficult "q 9 cold wea!r is because ! air furni%$ mu/ be n only pure1 b w>m4 ,to keep cold air out (t5 means to keep f\l air 94 ,heat+ ) hot air1 by :i* sy/em pure air is pass$ ov] a furnace1 & fre% air con/antly admitt$1 may be a good me?od 7,figs4 #hj1 #ha71 b is (t5 a dismal failure because x dries out ! air1 :i* 9 turn dries out ! sk94 ,to prev5t ?is1 wide vessels ( wat] %\ld be set at ! inlets4 ,dry air is cool+4 ,:y8 ,dr4 ,b>nes prov$ t moi/ air at #fe is z com=table z dry air at #ga4 ,air saturat$ ) vapor at #fj w only be #ej p] c5t saturat$ at #hj4 ,su* air dries out ! muc\s membrane ( eyes1 nose1 & ?roat4 ,heat+ by hot wat] circulat+ 9 pipes1 or by /eam1 gives no means ( introduc+ fre% air1 & is likely to cause worse v5tilation ?an any o!r me?od4 ,! radiators %\ld /& close to w9d[s or o!r fre%-air inlet1 t ! air may be heat$ z x ent]s1 & ! outlet = air %\ld be f>!/ f ! radiators4 ,! same rules apply to heat+ by /oves4 ,an oil /ove = heat+ is an inconceivable iniquity to any b a p]son d5sely ignorant ( hygi5e4 ,heat+ by fireplaces 7,fig4 #hb7 is ! mo/ heal?ful ( all me?ods1 = !re is a con/ant removal ( air ?r\gh ! *imney1 & ?is air w be replac$2 ev5 if all doors & w9d[s are clos$1 x w come 9 ?r\gh t9y cracks4 ,radiant heat travels 9 /raight l9es f a fireplace & w>ms solid objects1 b n ! air pass$ ?r\gh4 ,h5ce an op5 fire w keep ! body w>m ) ! room at a l[ temp]ature4 ,fireplaces1 h[ev]1 d n af=d suffici5t heat 9 sev]e climates4 ,/oves are n z heal?ful z fireplaces1 = !re is n s mu* air remov$ ?r\gh ! pipe z ?r\gh ! *imney4 ,c>bon monoxid1 unlike c>bon dioxid1 is an active poison caus+ ! blood corpuscles to %rivel4 ,x passes ?r\gh r$-hot iron or a crack$ /ove or furnace4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,,blackbo>d ,,sket*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,facial expression 9 m\? brea?+1 & brea?+ ?r\gh ! nose4 ,reasons = ,brea?+ ?r\gh ! ,nose 7,fig4 #hc74--7a7 ,! _m blood vessels 9 ! muc\s membrane l9+ ! nasal passages s heat ! air t x does n irritate ! bron*ial tubes4 7#b7 ,! hairs 9 ! no/rils /ra9 ! air & cat* du/2 ! cilia ( ! nasal passages also d ?is4 7#c7 ,a m\?-brea!r (t5 swall[s food be=e *ew+ x suffici5tly1 because he _c hold 8 brea? long]4 7#d7 ,! nasal muc\s membrane ( an habitual m\?-brea!r dries & %r9ks & ob/ructs ! circulation1 br++ on cat>rh ( ! nose4 7#e7 ,m\? brea?+ causes an unpleasant expression ( c\nt5ance 7see ,fig4 #hd74 7#f7 ,! brea? does n come ?r\gh ! nose z quickly z ?r\gh ! m\?2 ! lungs are kept m exp&$1 & "o does n get 8out ( brea?0 s quickly4 7#g7 ,! voice ( ! m\? brea!r has a h>d twang1 n a full1 resonant tone z :5 ! no/rils are op54 7#h7 ,flavors & odors are bett] appreciat$4 ,sometimes ! s5se ( smell is almo/ lo/ by m\? brea!rs4 ,if "o _c brea! ?r\gh ! nose1 ev5 = a %ort "t1 !re is probably an ad5oid1 or tonsil-l1 gr[? 9 nose or ph>ynx1 & a physician %\ld be consult$4 8,ad5oids0 are gl&ul> or grapelike 9 =m4 ,diseases ( ! ,respiratory ,organs4--,a cold or cat>rh is an inflammation ( a muc\s membrane4 ,if ! inflammation is 9 ! nasal passages1 x is call$ a cold 9 ! head2 if x is 9 ! ph>ynx1 x is call$ a sore ?roat2 if x is 9 ! l>ynx or voice box1 !re is ho>s5ess2 if x is 9 ! bron*ial tubes1 x is bron*itis2 f9ally1 if x is 9 ! air cells1 x is pneumonia4 ,if ! air is cut (f f access to ! air cells1 !re is an attack ( ! pa9ful disease call$ a/hma1 :i* is accompani$ by a feel+ ( suffocation4 ,"s believe t a/hma is caus$ by ! muc\s membrane l9+ ! f9e/ bron*ial tubes becom+ inflam$ & swoll51 & clos+ ! tubes2 o!rs ?9k t ! muscles 9 ! l>ge bron*ial tubes contract & close ! tubes4 ,pleurisy is inflammation ( ! pleura & makes brea?+ pa9ful4 ,if mu* fluid =ms betwe5 ! pleuras1 ! inn] pleura may press ^u ! lungs & int]f]e ) brea?+4 ,alcohol n only weak5s ! blood vessels ne> ! surface1 b ! blood vessels 9 g5]al4 ,weak5$ & conge/$ blood vessels 9 ! lungs make !m m liable to pneumonia & o!r conge/ive diseases4 ,cont9ual conge/ion causes an abnormal gr[? ( connective tissue fib] 9 ! walls ( ! cells4 ,?is dim9i%es ! capacity ( ! lungs & int]f]es ) ! ex*ange ( c>bon dioxid & oxyg54 ,tobacco4--,x is (t5 ask$ :y cig>ettes are s mu* m injuri\s to ! heal? ?an pipes & cig>s4 ,! nature ( ! pap] ( cig>ettes & v>i\s o!r absurd reasons h be5 assign$4 ,! true reason is t ! cig>ette smok] usually inhales ! tobacco smoke4 ,cig> smoke1 if drawn into ! lungs1 w\ld usually be c\gh$ up at once4 ,cig>ette smoke is weak]--x is s weak t ! smok] is n cont5t simply to absorb ! nicot9e ?r\gh ! muc\s membrane ( ! m\?2 he draws x into ! lungs4 ,! v mildness ( ! smoke leads to inhalation4 ,h5ce1 z ! surface ( ! lungs is a hundr$ times great] ?an ! surface ( ! m\?1 & its l9+ mu* ?9n]1 cig>ette smok+ is f> m injuri\s ?an cig> smok+4 ,! poison accumulates 9 ! b[l ( a pipe2 h5ce an old pipe is v injuri\s4 ,! irritation ( tobacco smoke (t5 sets up a *ronic dry cat>rh ( ! air passages2 r>ely x causes canc] ( lips or tongue4 ,sir ,h5ry ,?ompson says3 8,! only p]sons :o enjoy smok+ & f9d x tranquilliz+ at times are ^? :o smoke 9 great mod]ation4 ,m5 :o are r>ely se5 )\t a cig> betwe5 ! lips1 h long ceas$ to enjoy smok+4 ,!y are confirm$ 9 a habit1 & are m]ely mis]able :5 ! cig> is abs5t40 ,!y d n smoke = pleasure1 b to escape mis]y :i* wis] m5 escape by avoid+ tobacco altoge!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,,fig4 #he4--;,,flatt5$ ,,*e/ & wai/ organs sunk5 f we>+ tight clo?+ s9ce ! age ( f\rte54 ,su* wom5 (t5 walk ) bodies b5t =w>d to hide ! prom95t abdom54 ,,fig4 #hf4--;,a ,,natural ,,woman4 ,,practical ,,que/ions4--#a4 ,/ate h[ 9 ! case ( a p]son ) r\nd %\ld]s a gradual remold+ ( c>tilages 7:i* ones871 ! /r5g!n+ ( ! muscles 7:i* ones871 & ! practice ( deep brea?+ may ea* contribute t[>d acquir+ an erect & p]fect figure4 #b4 ,%\ld a hat be well v5tilat$8 7,a pun* = mak+ ! holes co/s a dime47 ,%\ld a hat be /iff or s(t8 #c4 ,"n habits t impair ! p[] ( ! lungs4 #d4 ,h[ c\ld y conv9ce a p]son t a b$room %\ld be op5 :ile & aft] x is swept8 ,t x %\ld be v5tilat$ at night8 #e4 ,:i* is ! m injuri\s to o!rs1 tobacco *ew+ :i* causes ! gr\nd to be unclean1 or smok+ :i* r5d]s ! air impure8 #f4 ,:y d ^? :o /& /raight up to hoe n get tir$ half s quickly z ^? :o b5d or 8hump0 ov]8 7,*ap4 ,,vi47 #g4 ,:y d /ud5ts :o sit 9 rock+ *airs1 or f o!r causes lean ! head =w>d :5 !y /udy1 (t5 f9d t !y recov] f dr[s9ess if !y sit erect1 or sit 9 a /raight *air8 #h4 ,h[ are high coll>s a fruitful s\rce ( bad colds8 #i4 ,if ! draft up ! *imney ( ! fireplace1 :5 ! fire is burn+1 takes up a volume ( air suffici5t = _m p1 :y is x unnecess>y to op5 a w9d[8 #aj4 ,:y does cold impure air make a p]son cold] ?an cold pure air8 7p4 #ad47 #aa4 ,d ! mod]n cu/oms ( uni=mity 9 dress = all classes & climates1 %ipp+ foods f great di/ances1 "o section or nation imitat+ ! ways ( ano!r section or nation1 lead t[>d heal? or disease8 ,d su* cu/oms violate or con=m to ! great biological law t life is a process ( adaptation to environm5t8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,,susp5d]s %\ld h a pulley or lev] at ! back1 t ! /rap on "o side may loos5 :5 "o %\ld] is rais$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,color$ ,,figure #f4--,,organs ,,( ,,! ,,trunk4 cb1 coll> bone2 r1 ribs2 z1 tongue bone 7hyoid72 k1 k1 c>tilages ( l>ynx2 l1 w9dpipe2 s1 ?yroid gl&2 rv1 "r v5tricle2 lv1 left v5tricle2 ru1 "r auricle2 lu1 left auricle2 a1 aorta2 ka1 art]y to head 7c>otid72 sa1 subclavian art]y2 la1 pulmon>y art]y2 oh1 sup]ior v5a cava2 hv1 jugul> ve92 lu1 lungs2 f1 diaphragm2 lb1 liv]2 g1 gall bladd]2 s1 /oma*2 x1 sple52 n1 mes5t]y ) vessels2 d1 small inte/9e2 gd1 l>ge inte/9e2 b1 ccum2 w1 v]mi=m app5dix2 h1 bladd]4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,food ,,& ,,dige/ion ,exp]im5t #a4 ,te/s = ,acid1 ,alkal9e1 & ,neutral ,sub/ances4--,repeat te/s describ$ 9 ,g5]al ,introduction4#f #f ,see also ,peabody's 8,laboratory ,ex]cises 9 ,physiology10 ,holt1 ,n4,y4 ,exp]im5t #b4 ,te/ = ,/>*4--,see ,g5]al ,introduction4 ,exp]im5t #c4 ,te/ = ,grape ,sug>4--,see ,g5]al ,introduction4 ,exp]im5t #d4 ,te/ = ,proteid4--,see ,g5]al ,introduction4 ,exp]im5t #e4 ,te/ = ,fats4--,see ,g5]al ,introduction4 ,exp]im5t #f4 ,human ,tee?4--,/udy ! =m ( tee? f e "p ( ! m\?4 ,get a h&ful f a d5ti/4 ,break "s ( ! tee? to make out _! /ructure4 ,classify !m4 ,draw section1 enl>g$4 ,exp]im5t #g4 ,/udy ( ! ,tee?4 7,at home47--,sit ) ! back to ! light & look into a mirror1 ) ! m\? wide op54 ,d y see ! f\r k9ds ( tee? nam$ 9 text8 ,:i* are fitt$ = cutt+8 ,:i* = gr9d+8 ,are any suit$ = te>+8 ,are any ( ! tee? po9t$8 ,:at is ! diff]5ce 9 ! bicuspids & mol>s8 ,are !re any decay$ places8 ,are ! tee? clean8 ,are ! s-call$ can9e tee? s long t !y project beyond ! l9e ( ! o!r tee?1 z !y d 9 a dog8 ,d ! edges ( ! upp] & l[] incisors meet :5 ! m\? is clos$1 or d !y miss ea* o!r l ! blades ( scissors8 ,h[ _m roots has ea* l[] too?8 7,see ,fig4 #ib474 ,:i* too? has ! longe/ root8 ,exp]im5t #h4 ,/ructure ( ,mammalian ,/oma*4--,get a piece ( tripe f ! m>ket4 ,/udy its sev]al coats4 ,! velvety inn] coat is cov]$ ) muc\s membrane4 7,photomicrograph1 ,fig4 #ie47 ,exp]im5t #i4 ,model ( ,human ,food ,tube4--,make a model ( ! food tube out ( yell[ cambric1 giv+ to ea* organ its correct size4 ,foll[ ! dim5sions giv5 9 text4 ,necessity = ,foods4--,gr[+ plants & gr[+ animals ne$ new mat]ial to enable !m to increase 9 size or gr[4 ,plants nev] cease to gr[ :ile !y live2 mo/ mammals atta9 _! full size 9 "o fif? ( ! "t occupi$ by _! :ole lives4 7,by ?is rule h[ long ought man to live87 ,animals1 moreov]1 move f place to place1 & "w ) _! muscles4 ,! en]gy = ?is comes f ! food !y eat4 ,plants d n use food = ?is purpose4 ,ano!r ne$ = food comes f ! necessity = heat 9 all liv+ ?+s4 ,! activities ( animals cause ! tissues to we> out1 or break d[n1 & food furni%es mat]ial ) :i* new liv+ matt] is built up by ! cells & ! tissues repair$4 ,we h already /at$ ! rle ( oxyg5 9 sett+ free en]gy 9 ! liv+ sub/ance ( ! cell by oxidiz+ x4 ,!re is no furnace 9 ! body z 9 an eng9e1 b ! oxidation occurs 9 ! cells !mselves & ! fuel is built up into liv+ matt] by ! cells be=e x is oxidiz$4 ,plants mu/ lift m9]al f ! inorganic to ! organic _w be=e x c be food = animals4 ,plants c assimilate m9]als2 animals _c4 ,! body _c make bone out ( limewat]4 ,! iron 9 iron tonics _c be us$4 ,iron makes ! gra9 br[n1 & ! pea* r$4 ,!re is t5 times z mu* iron 9 our food z ! body ne$s4 ,/ate f\r reasons :y animals ne$ food4 ,:i* ( ^! reasons is v p[]ful ) plants8 ,lea/ p[]ful8 ,abs5t altoge!r8 ,:y is con/ant brea?+ necess>y = life8 ,:5 is brea?+ m rapid8 ,:y8 ,p :o lead :at k9d ( lives usually h poor appetites8 ,good appetites8 ,:y8 ,:at 0 ! fir/ di/9ct organ evolv$ by animals8 7,animal ,biology1 ,*ap4 ,,iv47 ,! ,body is a ,ma*9e = transf]r+ ,en]gy4--,en]gy _c be de/roy$1 b x c be transf]r$ & *ang$ 9 =m4 ,:5 a co9 is rubb$ on ! table1 muscul> en]gy1 suppli$ by oxidation 9 ! muscle1 produces ! motion4 ,friction may *ange motion into heat1 & ! co9 w become v hot4 ,! unit+ ( food & oxyg5 9 ! cells ( ! body gives ! heat & motion 7en]gy7 ( ! body4 ,only sub/ances :i* w oxidize1 or burn1 are true foods4 ,wat]1 salt1 & c>bon dioxid w n burn2 h5ce1 !y _c give rise to en]gy 9 ! body4 ,b ! sun en]gy1 act+ 9 ! gre5 leaf1 te>s ap>t ! c>bon f ! oxyg5 7,plant ,biology1 ,*ap4 ,,xiii71 sets free ! oxyg51 & ! c>bon is /or$ 9 />* = future burn+4 ,sun%9e is en]gy 7light & heat74 ,! sun su/a9s ! life ( plants & ?r\gh !m ! life ( animals4 ,! oxidation 9 ! body is s sl[ t x c h>dly be call$ a burn+1 b x is fa/] ?an ! oxidation ( iron 9 ru/+ or ( wood 9 rott+1 & is ab\t equal to ! cont9ual burn+ ( two c&les4 ,! ,f\r ,k9ds ( ,nutri5ts1 or ,food ,/uffs4--,! k9ds ( food :i* we eat seem to be numb]less1 b !y conta9 only f\r k9ds ( food /uffs1--/>*es1 fats1 proteids1 & m9]als4 ,_m foods conta9 all f\r classes ( food /uffs4 ,milk conta9s sug> 7a *ang$ =m ( />*71 cream 7a fat71 curd 7a proteid71 & wat] 7a m9]al74 ,oatmeal conta9s />*1 oil1 glut51 & wat]4 ,,uses ,,( ,,! ,,nutri5ts1 ,,or ,,food ,,/uffs #a4 ,proteids4 ,! tissue-build+ foods 7also ( value z fuel74 #b4 ,/>*es 7& sug>s7 ,en]gy & heat 7fuel7 & fat produc+ foods4 #c4 ,fats 7& oils7 #d4 ,m9]als 7wat]1 salt74 ,important aids 9 us+ o!r foods4 ,relative ,fuel ,value4--,a p\nd ( fat produces z mu* heat 9 ! body z #b4c lb4 ( proteid or #b4c lb4 ( />*1 ! la/ two hav+ equal fuel value 9 ! body4 ,/>* & ! sug>s are closely relat$2 />* readily *anges into sug>4 ,!y conta9 mu* c>bon & are call$ c>bohydrates4 ,/>* is especially abundant 9 gra9s1 se$s1 & fle%y roots 7,fig4 #hh74 ,! sug> 9 ripe fruit & 9 honey is call$ fruit sug>4 ,milk sug> is f\nd 9 sweet milk4 ,grape sug> is f\nd 9 grapes & honey2 ! small gra9s se5 9 rais9s consi/ ( grape sug>2 x c also be prep>$ artificially f />*4 ,cane sug> is f\nd 9 cane1 9 sap ( ! maple1 & 9 ! sug> beet 7,exps4 #b1 #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,a ,,t9y ,,bit ,,( ,,potato1 highly magnifi$1 %[+ cells fill$ ) gra9s ( />*4 ,cook+ bur/s ^! cells4 ,fats include ! fats & oils f\nd 9 milk1 fle%1 & plants4 ,a fat1 su* z tall[1 is solid at ! ord9>y temp]ature2 :ile an oil1 su* z olive oil1 is liquid at ! same temp]ature4 ,tall[ 0 oil :ile x 0 9 ! w>m body ( ! ox4 ,sug> is trans=m$ into fatty tissue z readily z is fatty food itself4 ,proteids are ! only foods t conta9 ! tissue-build+ nitrog54 ,protoplasm _c be =m$ )\t nitrog54 ,we d n (t5 see a pure proteid food1 = ?is food /uff is n s readily sep>at$ f foods conta9+ x z are />*1 sug>1 & fat4 ,album51 or :ite-(-egg1 is proteid unit$ ) f\r times its weight ( wat]4 ,pure proteid is also call$ album94 ,coagulation by heat is "o te/ = proteid 7,exp4 #d74 ,^! are ! names ( proteids1 or album9s1 f\nd 9 sev]al common foods3 case91 ! curd or *eesy "p ( milk2 myos9 ( lean meat2 fibr9 9 blood2 legum9 9 beans & peas2 glut51 or ! /icky "p ( wet fl\r2 gelat9 9 bones4 ,proteid is valuable to ! body z fuel z well z a tissue build]4 ,we c\ld burn beans & peas z well z ! /rictly fuel foods1 />* & fat1 9 an eng9e1 & get heat to move ! eng9e4 ,if "o takes up a?letics or h>d physical labor1 he %\ld increase ! am\nt ( fats & c>bohydrates eat51 b n ( proteid4 ,muscul> activity increases ! c>bon wa/e b n ! nitrog5 wa/e ( ! body4 ,m9]als4--,! iron ( ! blood & ! m9]al salts 9 bone 7c>bonate & phosphate ( lime7 mu/ ent] ! body 9 organic =m 9 ord] to be us$4 ,wat] & salt are m9]al foods4 ,! body is ab\t two ?irds wat]4 ,! cells mu/ d _! "w "u wat]4 ,!y _c live :5 dri$4 ,wat] enables ! blood to fl[2 & ! blood is n only ! fe$]1 b also ! wa%] & cleans] ( ! tissues4 ,"s p]sons get out ( ! habit ( dr9k+ pl5ty ( wat]1 & _! heal? suff]s !reby4 ,9 su* a case dr9k+ pl5ty ( wat] w be saf] & m effective ?an tak+ poison\s drugs to re/ore heal?4 ,adult]ation ( ,food4--,sometimes *eap] mat]ials1 ( little or no value z food b ( no great injury to heal?1 are add$ to foods4 ,examples3 wat] add$ to milk1 sawdu/ to gr\nd spices1 *icory to c(fee1 glucose to maple syrup4 ,o!r =ms ( adult]ation n only *eat ! purse b t5d to de/roy heal?1 or actually d s4 ,examples3 ,boracic acid or =mal9 add$ to milk to prev5t s\r+1 copp] to cann$ peas1 etc41 to give a bright gre5 color2 salicylic acid or borax us$ 9 m9ute quantities z a pres]vative ) cann$ corn1 tomatoes1 etc42 acids add$ to 8apple0 v9eg>2 dri$ fruit treat$ ) sulphur to prev5t a dull color4 ,pure food laws t5d to repress ^! evils4 ,x is be/ to buy foods 9 _! orig9al =m4 ,= in/ance1 lemons are m reliable ?an v9eg>4 ,a bit ( lemon at ea* plate1 9 h\seholds t c af=d x1 is f> pref]able to v9eg>4 ,we %\ld always buy f neighbors :5 possible4 ,f>m]s & g>d5]s %\ld d _! own dry+ & cann+4 ,= purity ( wat]1 see ,*ap4 ,x4 ,! ,daily ,ration4--,a qu>t] ( a p\nd 7#d oz47 ( proteid foods & "o p\nd 7#af oz47 ( fuel foods 7total #bj oz4 ( wat]-free foods7 are ne$$ to replace ! daily wa/e ( ! body4 ,h5ce a balanc$ ration has proteid & fuel food 9 ! ratio ( #d to #af1 or #a to #d4 ,b rec5t exp]im5ts at ,yale ,univ]sity indicate t #b oz4 ( proteid daily are m /r5g!n+ ?an f\r4 ,appetite is a p]fect guide = ^? :o lead an active life & eat sl[ly ( simple food4 ,highly season$ food & complex mixtures deprave ! appetite2 x !n leads a/ray1 in/ead ( guid+ safely4 ,( c\rse ! appetite _c guide "o to eat ! "r k9d & quantity ( food at a table :]e ! food lacks any ( ! f\r necess>y food /uffs1 or :]e innutriti\s or indige/ible food is provid$4 ,x is well to select "o food = a meal because x is ri* 9 proteids1 ano!r because x is ri* 9 fat1 & ! ?ird because x is ri* 9 />* or sug>4 7,see table1 p4 #ie47 ,intellig5ce 9 reg>d to diet enables a h\sekeep] to provide n\ri%+ food = less money ?an an ignorant h\sekeep] (t5 pays = food defici5t 9 n\ri%+ qualities4 ,a ,balanc$ ,ration4--,a defici5cy ( />* may be suppli$ by an excess ( fat or sug>4 ,x is mo/ ess5tial to provide proteid z x _c be replac$ by any o!r food /uff4 ,an excess ( proteid is mo/ h>mful4 ,an excess ( />* or fat is oxidiz$ into wat] & c>bon dioxid1 :i* are h>mless wa/e products2 an excess ( proteid is *ang$ into urea :i* may become h>mful by ov]work+ ! liv] & kidneys :i* excrete x4 ,,composition ,,( ,,"o ,,ounce ,,( ,,v>i\s ,,foods ,,9 ,,fractions ,,( ,,an ,,ounce ,,c>bo- ,,m9- ,,pro- ,,hy- ,,eral,,woody ,,teids ,,fats ,,drates ,,wat] ,,salts,,fib] ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,daily ,ration #d oz4#b oz4#ad oz4#b qt4 #j ,i4 ,,nuts4 ,pecan 4#ajc 4#gjh 4#adc 4#jc 4#jag ,walnut 4#aeh 4#egd 4#af 4#jc 4#jad ,almonds 4#bce 4#ec 4#ab 4#jgh ,cocoanut 4#jef 4#ea 4#ce 4#jd ,*e/nut 4#jcg 4#jb 4#ch 4#ed 4#jji 4#jb ,,ii4 ,,fruits4 ,sug> ,pea* 4#jjg 4#jde 4#he 4#jjg 4#jd ,apple 4#jjd 4#jgb 4#hd 4#jje 4#je ,blackb]ry 4#jje 4#jdj 4#hf 4#jjd 4#ja ,*]ry 4#jje 4#aj 4#hd 4#jjg 4#jb ,grape 4#abe 4#ae 4#gj 4#jje ,fig 7dri$7 4#jdj 4#jad 4#ej ,banana 4#jej 4#bj 4#ge ,,iii4 ,,animal ,,food4 ,lean beef 4#bj 4#jce 4#jji 4#ge 4#jaf ,fat pork 4#jih 4#dhi 4#cij 4#jbc ,smok$ ham 4#be 4#cfe 4#bgh 4#aja ,:itefi% 4#aha 4#jbi 4#ghj 4#jaj ,p\ltry 4#baj 4#jch 4#gdj 4#jab ,oy/]s 4#age 4#jje 4#hjj 4#jae ,c['s milk 4#jce 4#jdj 4#jdj 4#hgj 4#jjg ,eggs 4#abe 4#abj 4#gce 4#jaj ,*eese 4#cce 4#bdc 4#cfh 4#jed ,butt] 4#jjc 4#iaj 4#jfj 4#jba ,,iv4 ,,pods ,,or ,,legumes4 ,/>* ,beans 4#be 4#jbj 4#eb 4#abe 4#jce 4#jfj ,peas 4#bag 4#jai 4#egg 4#ab 4#jbh 4#jcb ,peanuts 4#bidg 4#dfe 4#afb 4#jb 4#jbh 4#jdc ,v4 ,,gra9s4 ,:eat fl\r 7:ite7 4#aaj 4#jbj 4#gjc 4#aej 4#jag 4#jjc ,:eat bread 4#jhj 4#jae 4#dij 4#djj 4#jab 4#jjc ,oatmeal 4#abf 4#jef 4#fcj 4#aej 4#jcj 4#jaf ,maize 7corn7 4#ajj 4#jfg 4#gjf 4#ace 4#jad 4#jae ,rice 4#jej 4#jjh 4#hcb 4#ajj 4#jje 4#jdj ,,vi4 ,,vegetables4 ,potatoes 4#jab 4#jja 4#bje 4#gfg 4#jji 4#jjf ,cabbage 4#jb 4#jcj 4#jeh 4#iaj 4#jjg 4#jae ,/udies bas$ on ,table4--,:at nuts are ri* 9 proteids8 ,:at fruits8 ,:at animal foods8 ,:at legumes8 ,:at gra9s8 ,:at foods are ri* 9 fats8 ,:at are ri* 9 c>bohydrates8 ,:i* gra9s h mu* />*8 ,:i* nut8 ,:i* fruits h mu* sug>8 ,a family 0 liv+ *iefly on corn bread1 potatoes1 syrup1 cakes1 & sweetmeats3 :at two ( ! f\r food /uffs 7 defici5t 9 _! diet8 ,ano!r family liv$ *iefly on fat pork1 bread1 rice1 vegetables1 & fruit3 :i* food /uff 0 defici5t8 ,a doz5 eggs weigh #a lb4 ,:i* give *eap] n\ri%m5t1 eggs at #ae c5ts a doz5 or beef at #ae c5ts a p\nd8 ,:i* is *eape/ among ! foods ab\nd+ 9 proteid8 ,fat8 ,c>bohydrates8 ,:i* is *eap] food1 a p\nd ( beef at #bj c5ts or a p\nd ( pecans at ! same price8 7,fig4 #aja47 ,:at food conta9s mo/ wat]8 ,lea/ wat]8 ,:i* ( ! foods ab\nd+ 9 proteid is co/lie/8 ,*eape/8 ,notice t ne>ly all foods conta9+ mu* proteid are co/ly4 ,wat] & woody fib] are n c\nt$ z nutrim5t4 ,:at weight ( nutrim5t 9 #a oz4 ( c['s milk8 ,if a qu>t ( :ole milk co/s #ab cts41 :at is a qu>t ( skimm$ milk wor?8 ,h[ ! ,"r ,proportions ( ,fuel ,foods & ,proteid are rea*$ by ,diff]5t ,nations4--,milk has an excess ( nitrog51 & oatmeal an excess ( c>bon2 oatmeal & milk =m a popul> food ) ! ,scot*4 ,potatoes are mo/ly />* & wat]1 & an ,iri%man :o tri$ to live on potatoes alone w\ld h to eat sev5 p\nds a day to get en\gh proteid4 ,! ,iri% peasant keeps a c[ & *ick5s2 by eat+ milk & eggs he gets along on half ! am\nt ( potatoes nam$ above4 ,! ,mexicans eat bread made ( corn meal1 & supply ! proteid by us+ beans z a con/ant article ( diet4 ,hundr$s ( millions ( p 9 ,asia 7! ,h9dus1 ,*9ese1 & o!rs7 subsi/ ma9ly on rice1 :i* conta9s only five p] c5t ( proteid & no fat2 ! *ief addition !y make is butt]1 or o!r fat1 & beans1 :i* conta9 vegetable proteid4 ,outl9e ( ,dige/ion4--,! food is made soluble 9 ! alim5t>y canal & is absorb$ by ! blood vessels & lymphatics 9 its walls4 ,?is canal is ab\t ?irty feet long 7,figs4 #hi1 #ij7 & consi/s (-- 7#a7 ,! m\?1 :]e ! food rema9s ab\t a m9ute1 :ile x is *ew$ & mix$ ) ! saliva2 ! saliva *anges a portion ( ! />* to malt sug>4 7#b7 ,! gullet1 a tube n9e in*es long1 runn+ f m\? to /oma* & ly+ 9 front ( ! sp9al column4 ,illu/ration3 ,illu/rat$ ,/udy ( ,food ,tract4 ,,fig4 #hi4--,,organs ,,( ,,trunk f ! side4 ,l1 l>ynx2 ?1 ?yroid gl&2 ,t1 tra*ea2 ,/1 brea/bone2 ,c1 he>t2 ,d1 diaphragm2 ,f1 liv]2 ,e1 /oma*2 ,i1 inte/9e2 ,co1 colon2 ,r1 rectum2 ,v1 bladd]4 ,"q3 ,p>ts ( :i* organs are f>!r back ?an sp9al column8 ,comp>e ?is figure ) color$ ,fig4 #f4 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,,dige/ive ,,organs1 f ! front 7liv] turn$ up74 #a1 gullet2 #b1 /oma*2 #c1 sple52 #d1 pancreas2 #e1 liv] 7turn$ upw>d72 #f1 gall bladd]2 #g1 #h1 #i1 small inte/9e2 #i1 junction ( small ) l>ge inte/9e2 #aj1 caecum 7bl9d sac72 #aa1 v]mi=m app5dix2 #ab1 #ab1 #ab1 asc5d+1 transv]se1 & desc5d+ colon2 #ac1 rectum 7/raight7 j bel[ ,s-%ap$ flexure ( colon4 ,"q3 ,comp>e ) ,fig4 #hi1 & color$ ,fig4 #f4 7#c7 ,! /oma*1 a l>ge p\* :]e ! food is /or$1 & f :i* x passes 9 ! c\rse ( sev]al h\rs1 hav+ become semi-liquid1 & ! proteids hav+ be5 p>tly dige/$ by ! ga/ric juice1 an acid secretion f ! small gl&s 9 ! /oma* walls4 7#d7 ,! small inte/9e1 a n>r[ tube m ?an tw5ty feet long1 :]e ! fats are act$ ^u = ! fir/ "t1 & :]e ! />*es & proteids are also act$ ^u1 & :]e1 aft] ab\t t5 h\rs1 ! dige/ion ( ! ?ree classes ( foods is complet$ by pancreatic juice f ! pancreas1 & bile f ! liv]4 7#e7 ,! l>ge inte/9e1 ab\t five feet long1 :]e ! la/ remnant ( nutrim5t is absorb$1 & ! indige/ible mat]ials 9 ! food are ga!r$ toge!r 7,exp4 #i74 ,! ,tee?4--,! ma9 body ( ! too? consi/s ( bone-l d5t9e1 or ivory4 ,h>d1 %9+ enamel protects ! cr[n1 or visible portion4 ,! "p ( ! too? b5ea? ! gum is call$ ! neck1 & ! "p 9 ! bony socket1 is call$ ! root4 ,! enamel ends j b5ea? ! gum1 :]e x is ov]lapp$ by cem5t ( ! root4 ,!re is a pulp cavity 9 e too? 7,fig4 #ia72 x conta9s pulp made up ( connective tissue1 ) n]ves & blood vessels :i* ent] at ! tip ( ! root 7,exp4 #f74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--;,,can9e ,,too? ,,cut ,,l5g?wise4 ,! tempor>y set ( tee? is complet$ at ab\t two ye>s ( age & consi/s ( tw5ty tee?4 ,! tee? _c gr[ z ! jaw gr[s1 & soon a l>g] & p]man5t set />ts to gr[+ deep] 9 ! jaw4 ,at ! age ( twelve or ?irte5 ye>s all ! p]man5t set h appe>$ except ! f\r wisdom tee?1 :i* appe> betwe5 ! ages ( sev5te5 & tw5ty-five4 ,! second set n only replaces ! tw5ty ( ! fir/ set1 b to fill ! l>g] jaws twelve mol>s are add$1 ?ree at ! back 9 ea* half jaw1 mak+ ?irty-two tee? 9 ! second set 7,exp4 #g74 ,! tee? 9 ea* qu>t] ( ! m\?1 nam$ 9 ord] f ! front1 are3 two incisors1 "o can9e1 two premol>s1 ?ree mol>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,,! ,,p]man5t ,,tee? 9 "r half ( l[] jaw4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,,upp] ,,jaw ,,) ,,tee?4 ,c>e ( ! ,tee?4--,! be/ way to c>e = ! tee? is to keep ! dige/ion p]fect4 ,p]fect dige/ion t5ds to pres]ve ! tee?1 & s\nd tee? t5d to keep ! dige/ion p]fect4 ,! tee? %\ld be wa%$ regul>ly4 ,prep>$ *alk is ! be/ d5tifrice4 ,d n rub across1 b f gums to tee?1 to prev5t rubb+ ! gums loose f ! tee?4 ,an unclean bru% may h>bor g]ms4 ,too?picks & d5tal floss are useful4 ,if "o eats only s(t food1 9 :i* ! mill & ! cook+ /ove h left no "w = ! tee?1 ! tee? w decay2 = x seems to be a law ( nature t useless organs are remov$4 ,! pressure f *ew+ h>d food is an aid to ! tee? by help+ ! circulation & n]ves 9 ! pulp4 ,to take a v hot or v cold dr9k into ! m\? may cause ! enamel to crack4 ,if a too? a*es1 or a small decay$ place is f\nd 9 x1 a d5ti/ %\ld be consult$ at once4 ,a too? is s valuable to ! heal? t no too? %\ld be extract$ :5 x c be sav$4 ,! process ( dige/ion consi/s 9 liquefy+ ! food t x may pass ?r\gh ! walls ( ! food tube into ! blood1 & ?r\gh ! walls ( ! blood vessels into ! tissues4 ,x is accompli%$3 7#a7 by me*anical means1 includ+ ! *ew+ muscles1 ! tee?1 & ?ree lay]s ( muscles 9 ! walls ( ! food tube2 7#b7 by *emical means1 or ! action ( alkalies & acids ^u ! food2 7#c7 by organic ag5cy1 or ! action ( f]m5ts4 ,a f]m5t 7or enzyme7 is a vegetable sub/ance :i* has ! p[] ( produc+ a *emical *ange 9 l>ge quantities ( sub/ance br\ght 9 contact ) x1 )\t be+ itself *ang$4 ,!re is "o f]m5t secret$ 9 ! m\?1 two 9 ! /oma*1 & ?ree 9 ! small inte/9e4 ,dige/ion 9 ! ,m\?4--,saliva is =m$ by six gl&s3 "o 9 ! *eek 9 front ( ea* e>1 "o at ! angle ( ea* l[] jaw1 & "o pair is b5ea? ! tongue4 ,ea* gl& op5s into ! m\? by a duct4 ,saliva is ropy because x is mix$ ) mucus =m$ by ! muc\s membrane l9+ ! m\?2 x usually conta9s air bubbles4 ,!re is a f]m5t 9 ! saliva call$ ptyal91 :i* has ! p[] ( *ang+ />* to malt sug>4 ,if a bit ( bread is *ew$ = a long "t1 x becomes sweet1 because "s ( ! />* is *ang$ to sug>4 ,! fl[ ( saliva is caus$ by *ew+1 or by ! sight1 or ev5 ! ?\ght1 ( agreeable food4 ,dryness ( food is by f> m p[]ful ?an any?+ else 9 caus+ ! saliva to fl[4 ,saliva is secret$ only "o f\r? z fa/ :5 eat+ oatmeal & milk z :5 eat+ dry toa/ 7,fig4 #id74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--;,,cells ,,( ,a ,,saliv>y ,,gl& ,a1 aft] re/1 full ( granules2 ,b1 aft] %ort activity2 ,c1 aft] prolong$ activity1 cells %rivel$ & granules lo/4 ,/>*y gra9s & fruits 7 eat5 by e>ly man )\t cook+1 & requir$ m *ew+ ?an sweet1 ripe fruits or oils or proteids4 ,h5ce ! saliva 0 giv5 ! p[] ( act+ ^u ! />*1 = x mu/ rema9 9 ! m\? long]4 ,! saliva is alkal9e2 & if ! food is n ?or\ghly mix$ ) x1 ! /oma* dige/ion w also be imp]fect1 = ! alkal9e saliva is necess>y to excite an abundant fl[ ( ga/ric juice 9 ! /oma* 7,exp4 #a74 ,eat+ sl[ly is difficult because ( ! gr9d+ & cook+ ( food2 h5ce ! common practice ( ov]eat+4 ,to eat sl[ly 7#a7 d n take l>ge m\?fuls2 7#b7 d n take a second morsel until ! fir/ has be5 swall[$2 7#c7 sit erect or lean back aft] putt+ food into ! m\?2 7#d7 ! h&s %\ld lie idle mo/ ( ! "t4 ,to lean =w>d & keep food travel+ to ! m\? l coal into a *ute means ov]eat+ ) all its bad effects4 ,*ew+ gum is a co>se & impolite habit1 & wa/es ! saliva1 besides weak5+ ! gl&s & irritat+ ! /oma* by ! saliva t is cont9ually swall[$4 ,*ew+ tobacco has sev]al ( ^! disadvantages1 besides all[+ ! poison 9 ! tobacco to be absorb$ by ! muc\s l9+ ( ! m\?4 ,! ph>ynx 7f>inks71 or ?roat1 is a muscul> bag susp5d$ beh9d ! nose & m\?4 7,see ,fig4 #hi1 also ,fig4 #hc47 ,!re are sev5 op5+s into ! ph>ynx3 two f ! no/rils1 two f ! e>s1 "o ea* f ! m\?1 l>ynx1 & gullet4 ,:i* ( ^! op5+s are d[nw>d8 ,=w>d8 ,lat]al8 ,! gullet 7or esophagus7 is a muscul> tube ab\t n9e in*es long4 7,see ,fig4 #hi47 ,l ! re/ ( ! food tube1 x is l9$ ) muc\s membrane4 ,x has two lay]s ( muscles 9 its walls1 ! fib]s ( "o lay] runn+ l5g?wise1 & ! fib]s ( ! o!r lay] be+ circul>4 ,9 swall[+1 ! food does n fall d[n ! gullet ( its own weight1 b ! circul> b&s ( muscle 9 front ( ! food relax1 & ^? beh9d x contract & pu% x on into ! /oma*4 ,?is wavelike motion is call$ p]i/alsis4 ,! /oma*1 ! greate/ enl>gem5t ( ! food tube1 is l a l>ge bag ly+ sideways4 ,x lies to ! left side ( ! abdom54 ,! walls ( ! /oma* consi/ *iefly ( muscul> fib]s :i* run l5g?wise1 crosswise1 & slantwise1 mak+ ?ree coats 7,exp4 #g1 also ,fig4 #ie74 ,z soon z ! food rea*es ! /oma*1 ! lay]s ( muscles beg9 to contract1 *ang+ ! size ( ! /oma*1 fir/ 9 l5g?1 !n 9 bread?1 ?us *urn+ ! food to & fro1 & mix+ x ) ! ga/ric juice1 a fluid m active ?an ! saliva4 ,= z ! food ent]s ! /oma*1 ! muc\s membrane l9+ x turns a bright r$1 & _m little ga/ric gl&s 9 ! l9+ beg9 to secrete ga/ric juice4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,,muscul> ,,& ,,o!r ,,lay]s ,,9 ,,wall ,,( ,,/oma*4 #a1 muc\s l9+2 #b1 lay] ( blood vessels & connective tissue2 #c1 muscul> lay]s 7involunt>y muscles72 #d1 connective-tissue fib]s4 7,peabody47 ,dige/ion 9 ! ,/oma*4--,! /oma* *urns ! food f two to f\r h\rs aft] ! meal1 accord+ to ! k9d ( food eat51 ! way x has be5 cook$1 & ! ?or\ghness ) :i* x has be5 *ew$4 ,! ga/ric juice is *iefly wat]1 & conta9s two f]m5ts call$ peps9 & r5n91 & a small quantity ( hydro*loric acid4 ,r5n9 acts ^u ! curd ( milk1 & is abundant only dur+ infancy4 ,hydro*loric acid kills g]ms t may ent] ! /oma*1 & *anges ! food :i* has be5 made alkal9e by ! saliva into an acid condition 7,exp4 #a74 ,?is enables ! peps9 to act ^u ! proteid "p ( ! food1 = peps9 w n act :ile ! food is alkal9e4 ,ga/ric juice dige/s lean meat1 :i* is a proteid food1 by fir/ dissolv+ ! connective tissue t holds ! fib]s 9 place1 & !y fall ap>t2 x !n acts ^u ! fib]s sep>ately & makes !m soluble4 ,l human fatty tissue 7,fig4 #ad71 fat meat consi/s ( cells fill$ ) fat & held toge!r by ?reads ( connective tissue4 ,! cell walls & ! ?reads1 bo? be+ proteid1 are soon dissolv$ by ! ga/ric juice1 & ! free fat is melt$ into oil1 b /ill undige/$4 ,! food is r$uc$ 9 ! /oma* to a creamy1 half-fluid mass call$ *yme4 ,:]e ! /oma* op5s into ! small inte/9e1 !re is a fold+ 9 or n>r[+ ( ! tube s z to =m a k9d ( valve call$ ! pylorus4 ,aft] ! food has be5 *ang$ to *yme1 ?is fold relaxes e m9ute or two1 & all[s "s ( ! *yme to escape into ! inte/9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--;,a ,,portion ,,( ,,small ,,inte/9e cut op5 to %[ ! folds 9 its l9+4 ,! small inte/9e is ab\t "o in* 9 diamet] & tw5ty feet long1 ) _m coils & turns 9 its c\rse 7,fig4 #ij74 ,its muc\s l9+ is wr9kl$ into num]\s folds 9 ord] to increase ! secret+ & absorb+ surface 7,fig4 #if74 ,on & betwe5 ! folds are ?\s&s ( little ?readlike projections call$ villi 7,fig4 #ig74 ,9 ea* villus are f\nd f9e capill>ies & a small lymphatic call$ a lacteal 7color$ ,fig4 #b74 ,! villi are s ?ick t !y make ! l9+ ( ! inte/9e l velvet1 & enorm\sly increase ! absorb+ surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,,l9+ ,,( ,,small ,,inte/9e1 magnifi$1 %[+ villi & m\?s ( inte/9al gl&s4 ,dige/ion 9 ! ,small ,inte/9e4--,?is is by f> ! mo/ active & important ( ! dige/ive organs4 ,! m\? dige/s a small "p ( ! />*1 & ! /oma* dige/s a small "p ( ! proteid2 ! small inte/9e dige/s mo/ ( ! />*1 mo/ ( ! proteid1 & all ( ! fats4 ,! food is 9 ! m\? a few m9utes1 & 9 ! /oma* two or ?ree h\rs2 x is 9 ! small inte/9e t5 or twelve h\rs4 ,!re are ?\s&s ( small gl&s call$ inte/9al gl&s t op5 betwe5 ! villi 7,fig4 #ig7 & secrete ! inte/9al juice1 :i* dige/s cane sug>4 ,besides ^!1 !re are two v l>ge & active gl&s1 ! pancreas & liv]1 :i* empty into ! inte/9e by ducts4 ,! ,pancreas4--,! small inte/9e is ! mo/ important ( ! dige/ive organs1 *iefly because x receives ! secretion f ! pancreas1 ! mo/ important ( dige/ive gl&s4 ,! pancreas is a long1 flat1 p9ki% gl& situat$ beh9d ! /oma* 7see ,fig4 #ij74 ,! pancreatic juice conta9s ?ree p[]ful f]m5ts1 "o ( :i* 7amylops97 dige/s ! />*es1 ano!r 7tryps97 dige/s proteids1 & ! ?ird 7/eaps971 ) ! aid ( ! bile1 breaks up ! fats into t9y globules4 ,fat 9 small globules float+ 9 a liquid is call$ an emulsion2 fre% milk is an emulsion ( cream 7,fig4 #ih74 ,fat is n *ang$ to ano!r sub/ance by dige/ion1 b x is emulsifi$1 & 9 ?is condition x readily passes ?r\gh ! walls ( ! inte/9es & is absorb$ by ! lymphatics call$ lacteals 7color$ ,fig4 #e7 f\nd 9 ! villi4 ,x !n asc5ds ?r\gh ! ?oracic duct to a l>ge ve9 at ! left side ( ! neck 7,fig4 #ajj74 ,! dige/$ proteid1 />*1 & sug> pass into ! capill>ies ( ! portal ve91 & g to ! liv] on _! way to ! g5]al circulation 7,fig4 #ajj74 ,! portal circulation empties into ! l>ge asc5d+ ve9 lead+ to ! "r auricle 7,fig4 #ajj74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--;,,junction ,,( ,,l>ge ,,& ,,small ,,inte/9e4 ,! ,liv]4--,?is l>ge1 *ocolate-color$ gl& is locat$ j b5ea? ! diaphragm on ! "r side 7,fig4 #ij1 color$ ,fig4 #f74 ,x is on a level ) ! /oma*1 :i* x p>tly ov]laps 9 front4 ,! liv] has ?ree important functions3 7#a7 ,x is a /or]oom2 dige/$ sug> & />* are /or$ 9 x z a sub/ance call$ liv] />* 7or glcog574 7#b7 ,x is a gu>dian1 & de/roys poison\s sub/ances :i* may be swall[$1 & :i* w\ld o!rwise ent] ! blood4 ,twice z mu* morph9e or o!r poison is necess>y to kill a man :5 x is tak5 by ! m\? & passes ?r\gh ! liv] z :5 x is inject$ ?r\gh ! sk94 ,alcohol1 morph9e1 c(fee1 & drugs are p>tly burn$ up 9 ! liv]4 7#c7 ,x is a gl&1 & secretes bile4 ,! bile is made *iefly f wa/e products & impurities 9 ! blood2 x is an excretion4 ,al?\gh an excretion1 x is ( use on its way out ( ! body4 ,x is alkal9e & helps to neutralize ! acid 9 ! *yme2 x excites ! p]i/alsis1 or wavelike motion1 ( ! inte/9es1 & x aids ! pancreatic juice to emulsify ! fats4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,trunk to %[ ! _m folds ( ! ,,p]itoneum support+ ! liv]1 /oma*1 & inte/9es4 ,! l>ge inte/9e1 or colon1 is ab\t two & "o half in*es 9 diamet] & five feet long4 ,! small inte/9e jo9s x 9 ! l[] "r side ( ! abdom5 7,fig4 #ij74 ,!re is a fold1 or valve1 at ! juncture1 & j bel[ ! juncture !re is a tube atta*$ to ! l>ge inte/9e1 call$ ! app5dix1 :i* sometimes becomes inflam$1 caus+ a disease call$ app5dicitis 7,figs4 #ij1 #ih74 ,! app5dix is a ve/igial 7ve/igium1 trace7 or rudim5t>y organ1 long s9ce useless4 ,absorption ( ! wat]y "p ( ! food cont9ues 9 ! colon1 b ! colon secretes no dige/ive fluid4 ,! undige/$ & innutriti\s p>ts ( ! food are regul>ly ca/ out ( ! colon4#g ,! p]itoneum is a membrane ) _m folds t supports ! food tube 7,fig4 #ii74 #g ,no truly ref9$ p]son w all[ bus9ess1 pleasure1 ha/e1 or neglect to int]f]e ) regul> att5tion to empty+ ! colon4 ,?is is m necess>y = real cleanl9ess ?an regul> ba?s4 ,absorption4--,! way 9 :i* ! v>i\s dige/$ foods are absorb$ has be5 /at$ 9 sev]al prec$+ topics4 ,:at is ! "n ( ! organs ( absorption 9 ! small inte/9e8 ,:i* ( ! foll[+ pass into ! lacteals1 & :i* into ! capill>ies ( ! portal ve93 sug>1 dige/$ proteid1 emulsifi$ fats8 ,wat] & salt ne$ no dige/ion1 & are absorb$ all along ! food tube1 ! absorption beg9n+ ev5 9 ! m\?4 ,:at reasons c y give = ! absorption ( food be+ _m times great] 9 ! small inte/9e ?an 9 ! /oma*8 ,?r\gh :at l>ge tube is ! fat c>ri$ 9 pass+ f ! lacteals to ! ve9s8 ,into :at l>ge ve9 d all ! capill>ies t take "p 9 absorption empty8 7,color$ ,fig4 #e47 ,:at is ! provision = /or+ ! sug> s t x w n pass sudd5ly into ! blood aft] a meal1 b may be giv5 to ! blood gradually8 ,food is assimilat$1 or *ang$ into liv+ matt] 7protoplasm71 9 ! cells4 ,blood & lymph 7except ! :ite corpuscles7 are n liv+ matt]4 7,fig4 #ajj47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--,,! ,,two ,,pa?s ,,( ,,food ,,absorption4 ,?oracic duct 7= fats72 ?r\gh ! portal ve9 & liv] 7= all o!r foods74 ,,?\ght ,,que/ions4 ,! ,dige/ive ,organs4--#a4 ,9 :i* ( ! dige/ive organs is only "o k9d ( secretion furni%$ by gl&s8 #b4 ,9 :i* organ are ?ree k9ds ( secretions furni%$ by gl&s8 #c4 ,:i* class ( food goes ?r\gh ! lymphatics8 #d4 ,:i* classes ( foods g ?r\gh ! liv]8 #e4 ,:i* classes ( foods are dige/$ 9 only "o organ8 #f4 ,:i* classes ( foods are dige/$ 9 two organs8 #g4 ,:i* division ( ! food tube is longe/8 ,broade/8 ,lea/ active8 ,mo/ active8 #h4 ,s\p is absorb$ quickly2 :y does eat+ x at ! beg9n+ ( a meal t5d to prev5t ov]eat+8 ,hygi5ic ,habits ( ,eat+4--,9 hot wea!r mu* blood goes to ! sk9 & little to ! food tube1 & dige/ion is less vigor\s4 ,he>ty eat]s suff] f heat 9 summ] because ( mu* fuel1 & because ! blood is kept away f ! sk9 :]e x w\ld become cool & !n cool ! :ole body4 ,"s p]sons believe t ! /oma* %\ld be humor$ & giv5 no?+ t x dige/s ) difficulty2 o!rs believe t x %\ld be gradually tra9$ to dige/ any nutriti\s food4 ,"s believe t no animal food %\ld be eat52 o!rs believe t animal food is z valuable z any4 ,"s believe t all food %\ld be eat5 raw1 b ?is w\ld irritate a delicate /oma*4 ,x is d\btless be/ to use no /imulant1 ei!r tea or c(fee1 pepp] or alcohol4 ,"s eat fa/ & dr9k freely at meals2 x is bett] to eat sl[ly & dr9k v little or none at all :ile eat+1 nor soon aft]w>ds4 ,"s eat five meals a day1 & betwe5 meals if any?+ t ta/es good is (f]$ !m2 o!rs eat only two or ?ree meals a day1 & nev] betwe5 meals1 ?us all[+ ! dige/ive organs "t to re/4 ,"s omit breakfa/ & "s omit supp]4 ,"s prep>e mo/ ( ! food ) grease2 ?is is a tax ^u dige/ion4 ,physical work]s (t5 believe 9 eat+ ! peel+s & se$s ( fruits1 & p>tak+ freely ( we$y vegetables1 su* z cabbage1 turnip tops1 /r+ beans4 ,m5tal work]s usually try to reject all woody fib] & indige/ible pulp f ! food be=e swall[+ x4 ,"s eat l>ge quantities ( food & dige/ a small portion2 o!rs eat little b dige/ ne>ly all4 ,! ,p[] ( ,adaptation ( ! ,dige/ive ,organs4--,( c\rse "s habits ( eat+ are bett] = ! heal? ?an o!rs1 yet ! undesirable ways (t5 br+ s little injury t !y are n discont9u$4 ,?is %[s t ! food tube has great p[]s ( adaptation to diff]5t conditions4 ,b !re are limits to ?is adaptation2 !re is an old say+ t :at is "o man's meat is ano!r man's poison4 ,a bra9 work] _c foll[ ! same diet z a field h& )\t work+ at a disadvantage4 ,an irritable /oma* may be injur$ by co>se food t w\ld furni% only a heal?ful /imulus to a less s5sitive "o4 ,a bus9ess man :o has little leisure at noon %\ld take ! heavie/ meal aft] bus9ess h\rs4 ,9 g5]al1 x may be said t x does n make s mu* diff]5ce :at is eat5 z h[ x is eat51 & h[ mu* is eat54 ,!re is a common t5d5cy to exagg]ate ! importance ( dietetics4 ,,?\ght ,,que/ions4 ,indige/ion4--,i4 ,a ,fetid ,brea?4 #a4 ,"n ?ree causes ( bad brea?4 #b4 ,let u inve/igate :e!r indige/ion c\ld cause a bad brea?4 ,9 :at k9d 7two qualities7 ( wea!r does meat spoil ! quicke/8 #c4 ,suppose t meat or o!r food is put into a /oma* ) its ga/ric gl&s exhau/$ & its muscul> walls tir$ out1 :at w be ! rate ( dige/ion1 & :at might happ5 to ! food8 #d4 ,odor\s cont5ts ( ! /oma* 7e4g4 onion7 c be tak5 by ! blood to ! lungs :]e x w ta9t ! brea?4 ,aft] answ]+ ! above que/ions1 write 9 a few words h[ indige/ion may cause a bad brea?4 ,,ii4 ,a ,coat$ or ,f\l ,tongue4 #a4 ,:5 ! doctor visits y1 at :at does he fir/ look8 #b4 ,:at sometimes =ms on old bread8 7p4 #aeh47 #c4 ,d y ?9k su* a gr[? possible on undige/$ bread 9 ! /oma*8 #d4 ,! microscope %[s ! coat+ on ! bread to be a gr[? ( mold4 ,if x =ms on ! walls ( ! /oma*1 x may ext5d to :at8 ,,iii4 ,/oma* ,a*e4 #a4 ,h[ c y tell :e!r fruit pres]v$ 9 a seal$ glass j> is f]m5t+8 #b4 ,:at connection is !re betwe5 bel*+ aft] eat+ too freely ( sweet or />*y food1 & ! obs]vation above8 #c4 ,a muscle gives pa9 :5 x is /ret*$4 ,:y does bel*+ sometimes give relief to an uneasy /oma*8 #d4 ,c y1 by us+ ^! facts1 expla9 a cause ( /oma* a*e8 ,= :at ,k9d ( ,man 7 ! ,human ,dige/ive ,organs creat$8--,t food is be/ to :i* ! food tube has be5 longe/ accu/om$4 ,x w\ld be ( ! greate/ value z a guide to diet if we knew ! food eat5 by e>ly man dur+ ! _m ages :5 he l$ a wild life 9 ! op5 air4 ,! organs ( e>ly man 7 d\btless p]fectly adapt$ to ! life he l$4 ,! food tube is adapt$ to ! ne$s ( ^? long ages1 = a few c5turies ( civilization _c *ange ! nature ( ! dige/ive organs2 yet "s p disreg>d natural appetites & try to =ce ! dige/ive organs to und]go great] *anges 9 a few mon?s ?an c5turies c\ld br+ ab\t4 ,to te/ :e!r an ,article ( ,food belong$ to ,man's ,orig9al ,diet4--,sci5ti/s agree t ! human race began 9 a w>m c\ntry2 t e>ly man 0 )\t gri/mills1 /oves1 or fire1 & ate 8 food raw4 ,if an article ( food is pleasant to ! ta/e 9 its raw1 pure /ate1 !re is little d\bt t x1 or a simil> food1 0 eat5 by primitive man be=e he knew ! use ( fire 9 prep>+ 8 food4 ,apply ?is te/ to ! foll[+ foods1 und]l9+ ^? foods t pass ! te/3 apples1 bananas1 lettuce1 turnip gre5s1 turnips1 fruits1 nuts1 beef1 f[ls1 eggs1 oy/]s1 gre5 corn1 cabbage1 pork1 wat]melons1 gra9s1 crabs1 fi%1 :ite or ,iri% potatoes1 yams1 tomatoes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--;,,blackbo>d ,,diagram4 ,am\nt ( n\ri%m5t 7black7 & wa/e 7:ite7 9 sev]al foods4 7,aft] ,latson47 ,! ,ord] 9 :i* ,man increas$ 8 ,bill ( ,f>e4--,fle%-eat+ animals h a %ort food tube1 z _! food is dige/$ quickly2 !y h long1 po9t$ tee? = te>+1 %>p claws = hold+1 & a r\gh tongue = rasp+ meat f ! bones4 ,man's ev5 tee?1 long food tube1 s(t & smoo? tongue1 & flatt5$ nails1 indicate t he is suit$ = a diet l>gely vegetable 7see ,table1 p4 #aaa74 ,! race at fir/ probably ate tree fruits1#h bo? nuts & fle%y fruits 7,fig4 #aja74 ,because ( fam9e1 or aft] migration to cold] climates1 & aft] le>n+ ! use ( fire1 ! race probably began to use fle% = food4 ,aft]w>d ! hunt]s became f>m]s & le>n$ to cultivate gra91 :i* =m$ a mo/ important addition to ! food supply1 & made possible a d5se population4 ,co>se1 woody foods1 l ! leaves & /ems ( h]bs1 7 probably add$ la/ ( all4 ,woody fib] 7cellulose7 c be dige/$ by cattle1 b x _c be dige/$ by man4 #h ,see ,g5esis i4 #bi4 ,"s raw food %\ld be eat5 daily4 ,pecans are ! mo/ dige/ible ( all nuts4 ,a half doz5 or m eat5 regul>ly = breakfa/ w prev5t con/ipation or cure x 9 t5 days or less4 ,! ,natural ,guide 9 ,eat+ is ,ta/e4 ,man %\ld pres]ve 8 ta/e uncorrupt$ z1 next to 8 consci5ce1 8 wise/ c\nselor & fri5d4 ,x has be5 develop$ & transmitt$ ?r\gh c\ntless ages z a preci\s h]itage4 ,simple food is m delici\s to p ) natural ta/es ?an ! mo/ artificial concoctions are to ^? ) p]v]t$ ta/e4 ,animal ,food4--,! fle% ( animals furni%es proteid & fat 7,fig4 #ajb74 ,z cook+ coagulates & h>d5s album91 raw or half-cook$ meat is said to be m dige/ible ?an cook$ meat2 b meat t is n ?or\ghly cook$ is dang]\s because x may conta9 tri*9 78,animal ,biology10 p4 #ej7 & o!r p>asites4 ,lean meats conta9 mu* proteid4 ,"s p]sons :o _c easily dige/ />* & sug> because ( f]m5tation eat fat = a fuel food4 ,beef tea & beef extracts conta9 b a small "p ( ! proteid 9 meat & all ( ! wa/e matt]1 includ+ urea4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--;,,diagram ,,%[+ ,,cuts ,,( ,,beef4 #a4 sirlo9 #b4 lo9 #c4 rump #d4 r\nd #e4 top sirlo9 #f4 prime ribs #g4 blade #h4 *uck #i4 neck #aj4 brisket #aa4 cross-rib #ab4 plate #ac4 navel #ad4 flank #ae4 %\ld] #af4 leg ,,mammals ,,c>nivora1 ,,or,,h]bivora1 ,,or,,omnivora1 ,,or ,,frugivora1 ,,or ,,comp>$ ,,fle%-,,eat]s ,,h]b-,,eat]s ,,all-,,eat]s ,,fruit-,,eat]s ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,examples4 ,cat1 dog1 ,c[1 horse4 ,hog1 pecc>y4,man1 monkey4 lion4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,l5g? ( #c times #cj times #aj times #ab times food tube4 l5g? ( l5g? ( l5g? ( l5g? ( body4 body4 body4 head-trunk4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,tee?4 ,po9t$ = ,lay]s ( ,cutt+ tee?,tee? ev51 te>+ enamel & project4 close fle%4 ,can9ed5t9e ,can9es =m toge!r4 tee? long4 =m+ tusks4 ,can9es n ridges4 project+4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,digits4 ,%>p claws4 ,ho(s4 ,ho(s4 ,flatt5$ nails4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,colon4 ,smoo?4 ,sacculat$4 ,smoo?4 ,sacculat$4 ,milk ( c[s is improp]ly call$ a p]fect food by "s writ]s4 ,al?\gh x conta9s ! f\r classes ( food /uffs1 ! proteid is 9 excess1 ! fuel food be+ defici5t4 ,butt]milk is m dige/ible ?an sweet milk4 ,butt]milk & sug> =m a valuable food = infants4 ,skimm$ milk /ill conta9s ! proteid1 ! mo/ nutriti\s "p ( ! milk4 ,s\r milk1 or 8clabb]10 & curds press$ into 8cottage *eese0 are m dige/ible ?an sweet milk4 ,cream is m easily dige/$ ?an butt]1 :i* is a solid fat4 ,*eese is a v conc5trat$ proteid food1 & %\ld be eat5 sp>+ly4 ,eggs are a valuable food4 ,is !re m proteid or fat 9 eggs8 7,see ,table47 ,pork & veal are ! mo/ indige/ible ( meats4 ,fi% is ne>ly z nutriti\s z meat4 ,!re us$ to be a supposition t fi% n\ri%$ ! bra9 because x conta9s phosphates2 b !re are m phosphates 9 meat ?an 9 fi%1 & m 9 gra9s ?an 9 meat4 ,gra9s conta9 consid]able proteid 7glut571 b !y especially ab\nd 9 />*4 ,:eat fl\r conta9s m glut5 ?an corn meal1 h5ce x is m /icky1 & reta9s ! bubbles ( gas s t ! d\gh rises well 9 bread mak+4 ,eggs are sometimes add$ to corn meal to make x /icky & cause x to rise well4 ,:i* gra9 has ! l>ge/ p]c5tage ( oil8 7,see ,table47 ,( />*8 ,( glut58 ,:i* is poore/ 9 glut58 ,gra9s may be made to resemble fruit by long cook+ at a high temp]ature 7#cjj ,fahr471 = _! />* is ?us *ang$ to dextr91 a sub/ance resembl+ sug>4 ,y le>n$ t ! />* ( fruit is turn$ into sug> z ! sun rip5s x4 ,dextr9 is yell[ & gives ! d>k color to toa/$ bread4 ,x is *ang$ to sug> almo/ in/antly :5 br\ght 9 contact ) saliva4 ,x is us$ z a pa/e on po/age /amps4 ,vegetables conta9 mu* wat] & woody fib]4 ,:ite potatoes are und]gr\nd /ems & are "o fif? />*4 ,yams1 or sweet potatoes1 resemble roots1 & conta9 bo? />* & sug>4 ,beans & peas are v nutriti\s4 ,!y h be5 call$ 8! lean meat ( ! vegetable k+dom40 ,!y require boil+ = sev]al h\rs4 ,if ! sk9s are remov$ by press+ !m ?r\gh a col&]1 !y are v easy ( dige/ion4 ,?is pure ( beans makes delici\s s\p4 8,hull-less beans0 & 8split peas0 are also sold by groc]s4 ,,practical ,,que/ions4--#a4 ,clo?+ & %elt] = man or bea/ economize :at k9d ( food8 #b4 ,:y %\ld bread rema9 long] 9 ! m\? ?an meat8 #c4 ,9 sn[ball+1 :at is ! appe>ance ( ! h&s :5 !y it* f cold8 ,extreme cold irritates & conge/s ! /oma* m quickly ?an x does ! h&s4 ,:y is x t ice wat] does n satisfy ! ?ir/1 b (t5 produces a crav+ to dr9k m wat]8 #d4 ,%\ld biscuits hav+ a yell[ t9t or d>k spots due to soda be eat5 or ?r[n away8 #e4 ,:y1 dur+ an epidemic1 are ^? :o h us$ alcohol z a bev]age usually ! fir/ to be attack$8 #f4 ,d y buy m wood 7cellulose7 :5 y buy beans or :5 y buy nuts8 7p4 #ie47 #g4 ,d y buy m wat] :5 y buy bread or :5 y buy meat8 #h4 ,:y d p :o live 9 ov]heat$ rooms (t5 h poor appetites8 7p4 #ij47 #i4 ,expla9 h[ ! /oma* may be weak5$ by ! eat+ ( pr$ige/$ foods4 #aj4 ,:y are deep brea?+ & ex]cises t /r5g!n weak abdom9al walls bett] = ! liv] ?an are drugs8 7,see p4 #eh47 #aa4 ,sixty /ud5ts at ! ,univ]sity ( ,miss\ri f\nd by do+ )\t supp] t _! p[] to "w 0 great]1 _! heal? bett]1 & _m ( !m ga9$ 9 weight4 ,s !y ate only two meals !reaft]4 ,if sixty pl[boys tri$ ! exp]im5t1 w\ld ! result probably h be5 ! same8 #ab4 ,if a p]son began to eat less at ea* meal1 or only ate "o meal a day1 yet ga9$ 9 weight1 %\ld he agree ) a fri5d :o told him he 0 />v+ himself8 ,%\ld he agree if1 in/ead ( ga9+1 he lo/ weight8 #ac4 ,:y is half-raw or soggy bread h>d] to dige/ ?an ! raw gra9 itself8 ,:i* w\ld be ?or\ghly *ew$ & cause a great fl[ ( saliva8 #ad4 ,ask a fat p]son :e!r he dr9ks mu* wat]4 ,a lean p]son4 #ae4 ,:y is "o ^: wai/ measures m ?an 8 *e/ a bad life insurance risk8 #af4 ,:at *anges 9 habits t5d to make a rheumatic middle-ag$ p]son m y\?ful8 #ag4 ,h[ is ! +5i\s 8fireless cook]0 con/ruct$8 ,atwat]'s ,exp]im5ts ) ,alcohol4--,a few ye>s ago ,pr(essor ,atwat] prov$ t if alcohol is tak5 9 small quantities1 x is s completely burn$ 9 ! body t n ov] two p] c5t is excret$4 ,he inf]r$ t x is a food1 s9ce x gives heat to ! body & possibly gives en]gy also4 ,8 exp]im5ts did n %[ :e!r any organ 0 weak5$ or injur$ by its use4 ,z alcohol is *iefly burn$ 9 ! liv]1 x probably _c supply en]gy z is ! case ) food burn$ 9 n]ve cell & muscle cell4 ,! heat suppli$ by its burn+ is l>gely lo/ by ! ru% ( blood to ! sk9 usually caus$ by dr9k+ ! alcohol4 ,dr4 ,beebe1 unlike ,pr(essor ,atwat]1 exp]im5t$ ^u p]sons :o _h nev] tak5 alcohol1 & ^: bodies _h n _h "t to become tra9$ to resi/ its evil effects4 ,he f\nd t x caus$ an increas$ excretion ( nitrog54 ,:5 ! body became us$ to x1 ?is decreas$1 b ! proteid excret$ by ! kidneys conta9$ an abnormal am\nt ( a h>mful mat]ial call$ uric acid4 ,uric acid1 a sub/ance :i* is pres5t 9 rheumatism & o!r diseases1 is usually de/roy$ by ! liv]4 ,z ! burd5 ( de/roy+ ! alcohol falls *iefly ^u ! liv]1 x is n surpris+ to f9d t x is s weak5$ & injur$ by alcoholic dr9k t x _c fully p]=m its important functions4 ,bright's disease & o!r diseases accompani$ by uric acid are m frequ5t among p]sons :o use alcoholic dr9ks4 ,def9ition ( ,food4--,a food is any?+ :i*1 aft] be+ absorb$ by ! body1 n\ri%es ! body )\t injur+ x4 ,does alcohol or tobacco come )9 ?is def9ition8 ,advantages ( ,good ,cook+4--,ta/e & flavor may be develop$2 p>asites are kill$2 ta/e may be improv$ by comb9+ foods2 />* gra9s are bur/ & ! food s(t5$4 ,?us dige/ion is aid$4 ,disadvantages ( ,bad ,cook+4--,proteid foods are h>d5$2 flavors may be driv5 (f2 too _m k9ds ( food may be mix$2 cook$ vegetables are m likely to f]m5t ?an raw vegetables2 palatable food may be made ta/eless or soggy or greasy2 soda & o!r indige/ible +r$i5ts may be add$2 food may be s highly season$ z to cause cat>rh ( ! /oma*2 x may s /imulate ! appetite t s mu* is eat5 z to ov]load ! /oma*4 ,food may be made s s(t t x _c be *ew$ & is eat5 too rapidly2 = in/ance1 bread %ort5$ ) mu* grease4 ,! ,five ,modes ( ,cook+4--,food may be cook$ 7#a7 by heat radiat+ f gl[+ coals or a flame1 z 9 broil+2 7#b7 by hot air1 z bak+ 9 a hot ov52 7#c7 by boil+ 9 hot wat] or grease1 z fry+2 7#d7 by hot wat]1 n boil+1 z 9 /ew+2 7#e7 by /eam+4 ,radiant ,heat4--,toa/+ bread & broil+ meat are examples4 ,! meat %\ld be turn$ ov] e t5 seconds to s5d its juices back & =?1 ?us prev5t+ _! escape1 & broil+ ! meat 9 ! heat ( its own juices4 ,roa/+ is an example ( ?is me?od comb9$ ) ! second me?od4 ,! fire %\ld be hot at fir/ 9 ord] to se> ! outside ( ! meat & prev5t ! escape ( its juices4 ,if ! piece roa/$ is small1 ! hot fire may be kept up2 b if x is l>ge1 a long] "t is requir$1 & ! fire %\ld be decreas$1 o!rwise ! outside w be scor*$ be=e ! c5tral "p becomes heat$4 ,:ite1 or ,iri%1 potatoes roa/$ ) _! sk9s on be/ reta9 _! flavor z well z valuable m9]al salts 7pota%1 etc474 ,cook+ by hot air c only be us$ ) moi/ foods4 ,bak+ is an example4 ,foods only slightly moi/ are made h>d1 dry1 & unpalatable if cook$ by ?is me?od4 ,cook+ by ,boil+4--,to boil potatoes s z to make !m mealy in/ead ( soggy1 ! wat] %\ld be boil+ :5 !y are put 91 & aft] !y are cook$ ! wat] %\ld be p\r$ (f & ! pot set on ! back ( ! /ove = ! potatoes to dry4 ,boil+ onions drives (f ! acrid1 irritat+ oil4 ,rapid boil+ ( vegetables gives less "t = ! wat] to dissolve out ! nutri5ts4 7,see ,/eam+47 ,raw cabbage is treat$ by ! /oma* z a =eign sub/ance1 & s5t promptly to ! inte/9e2 cabbage boil$ ) fat may rema9 9 ! /oma* = five h\rs4 ,in/ead1 x %\ld be boil$ 9 cle> wat] = tw5ty m9utes4 ,beans & peas require sev]al h\rs' boil+4 ,cook+ 9 hot liquid bel[ ! boil+ po9t is bett] ?an boil+4 ,9 fry+ meat1 x %\ld be put 9 hot grease t a cru/ may be =m$ to prev5t ! grease f soak+ 94 ,grease mu* above boil+ po9t becomes decompos$ into fatty acids & o!r indige/ible products4 ,h5ce butt] is m dige/ible ?an cook$ fats4 ,9 :atev] way meat is cook$1 x %\ld nev] be salt$ until ! cook+ is f9i%$ or ! salt w draw out ! juices :i* flavor x4 ,eggs may be cook$ by plac+ !m 9 boil+ wat] & sett+ ! kettle (f ! /ove at once to cool4 ,a f9ely m9c$ h>d-boil$ egg is z dige/ible z a s(t-boil$ egg4 ,s9ce boil+ = m ?an a v few m9utes coagulates & h>d5s album91 !re is no su* ?+ z boil+ meat )\t mak+ x t\gh & lea!ry ?r\gh\t4 ,x may be /ew$1 a process :i* belongs to ! next me?od4 ,9 /ew+ meat1 x may be plung$ into boil+ wat] = a few m9utes2 ?is coagulates ! album9 on ! surface4 ,! fire %\ld !n be r$uc$1 or ! vessel set on ! cool] "p ( ! /ove1 or a metal plate %\ld be plac$ b5ea? x1 t ! wat] may b>ely simm]4 ,! wat] %\ld %[ a temp]ature ( #ahe or #aij if te/$ ) a !rmomet]4 ,a piece ( meat cook$ 9 ?is way is t5d] & juicy4 ,cook+ by /eam requires a d\ble vessel or a vessel ) a p]=at$ second bottom above ! wat]1 ?r\gh :i* ! /eam may rise to ! food t is to be /eam$4 ,/eam$ vegetables h a bett] flavor & are m nutriti\s ?an ^? cook$ 9 any o!r way4 ,a /eam] is diff]5t f a d\ble boil]4 ,oatmeal %\ld be cook$ = at lea/ =ty m9utes1 & x is m dige/ible if /eam$ = sev]al h\rs until x is a jelly4 ,to d ?is1 x may be cook$ dur+ ! prep>ation ( two meals4 ,cook+ t leaves x lumpy & /icky is a disadvantage1 & makes x m likely to f]m5t ?an if eat5 raw4 ,,?\ght ,,que/ions4 ,cook+4--,meat4 #a4 ,9 mak+ s\p1 :y %\ld ! meat be put 9 :ile ! wat] is cold8 #b4 ,9 roa/+ meat1 :y %\ld ! ov5 be hot at fir/1 & m mod]ate aft]w>d8 ,h[ %\ld y regulate ! temp]ature 9 boil+ or /ew+ meat8 #c4 ,:at happ5s to salt or any?+ salty on a cl\dy1 damp day8 ,?is is because ! salt attracts 4 ,?is %[s t meat %\ld n be salt$ until aft] x has be5 cook$1 because if salt$ be=e 4 #d4 ,v t\gh meat %\ld be bed or /ed4 #e4 ,meat may be prev5t$ f becom+ grease-soak$ :5 fry+ by hav+ ! grease v 1 use v 1 simply greas+ ! 4 #f4 ,bread4 ,bread cru/ causes ! to be us$ m & cleans !m4 ,x w n toge!r 9 ! /oma* l ! crumb4 ,x increases ! quantity ( ! 1 & is m dige/ible ?an ! crumb1 s9ce ! has be5 *ang$ by sl[ heat to 7p4 #aab74 ,!re=e loaves or biscuit %\ld be 7l>ge or small87 & !y %\ld 7t\* or be sep>at$87 9 a pan4 #g4 ,h[ c y tell :e!r ! ov5 has be5 too hot :ile ! bread 0 bak+8 #h4 ,:y c y tell be/ ab\t ! dige/ibility ( bread :5 y are slic+ x8 #i4 ,regulat+ ! heat is ! greate/ art ( ! cook4 ,h[ may ! temp]ature ( ! ov5 be l[]$ by means ( ! damp]8 ,! draft8 ,! fuel8 ,,ex]cises ,,9 ,,writ+4--,/ory ( a ,savage :o w5t to dwell 9 a ,city 78 tr\ble ) artificial ways74 ,is x easi] to le>n ,physiology or to practice x8 ,h[ to make ,bread4 ,describe ,p se5 9 an ,audi5ce 7tell :at _! appe>ance sugge/s74 ,a ,sc5e at a ,d9n] ,table4 ,?\ghts ( a ,physician on 8 ,r\nd ( ,visits4 ,a ,good ,cook4 ,a ,bad ,cook4 ,is ,cook+ a ,great] ,accompli%m5t ?an ,piano ,play+8 ,common ,causes ( ,illness4 ,! ,influ5ce ( ,imp]fect ,dige/ion ^u ! ,o!r ,organs4 ,effect ( ,lack ( ,muscul> ,activity4 ,! ,way ( ! ,transgressor is ,h>d4 ,:at ,fools we ,mortals be6 ,heal? ,fads4 ,temp]ance 9 all ,?+s4 ,! ,"r ,way ! ,easie/4 ,look+ ,back4 ,look+ ,=w>d4 ,hygi5e ( ! ,s*oolroom4 ,pat5t ,m$ic9es4 ,microbes4 ,m9d ,cure4 ,n]v\s ,wom54 ,dissipat$ ,m54 ,h[ a ,fri5d ( m9e lo/ 8 ,heal?4 ,:y a ,fri5d ( m9e is ,s\nd & ,/rong4 ,tobacco4 ,x nev] pays to neglect ! ,heal?4 ,:i* does m ,h>m1 an ,ignorant ,cook or an ,ignorant ,janitor8 ,a ,visit to a ,sick ,room4 ,alcohol & ,crime4 ,natural ,in/9cts & ,appetites2 h[ pres]v$1 h[ lo/4 ,a ,lesson ab\t ,alcohol bas$ ^u ! ,morn+ ,news4 ,effects ( ,alcohol ^u ! ,greatness ( our ,c\ntry 7workm51 vot]s1 soldi]s1 *ildr574 ,adam's ,apo!c>y ,%op4 ,adam's ,ale 7wat]74 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em ,review ,que/ions introduc+ ?is ,subject4--,:at is a cell8 ,:at are ! five support+ tissues8 ,:at are ! two ma/] tissues8 ,:y are !y s call$8 ,:at k9d ( cells h _m bran*es8 ,does ! food ev] come 9 contact ) ! saliv>y gl&s8 ,:5 y look at a basket ( apples1 ! sight 8makes y\r m\? wat]40 ,is !re a connection betwe5 ! eye & ! m\?8 ,:at two tissues enable ! sk9 to blan* & to blu%8 ,d ! diff]5t organs %>e ! blood 9 ! same proportions at all times8 ,h[ c ?is proportion be *ang$8 ,h[ is ! bra9 protect$ f injury8 ,h[ is ! sp9al cord protect$8 ,is ! hole = ! sp9al cord ?r\gh ! ma9 body ( ! v]tebra1 or beh9d ! ma9 body8 ,h>moni\s ,activity4--,/rike sudd5ly at ! eye ( ano!r1 & ! lids fall to protect x1 & ! h&s rise to w>d (f ! bl[4 ,if a gra9 ( du/ gets into ! eye1 ! te> gl&s =m te>s to wa% x out4 ,if y t\* ! h& unexpect$ly to a hot iron1 ! muscles ( ! arm j]k ! h& away4 ,if ! foot ( a sleep+ p]son is tickl$1 ! muscles ( ! leg pull x away4 ,_m muscles cop]ate 9 ! act ( runn+4 ,if ! human be+ 7 m]ely an assemblage ( work+ organs1 ! organs might act indep5d5tly1 & !re w\ld be su* confusion t ! body w\ld be p[]less1 & life c\ld n be ma9ta9$4 ,! n]v\s sy/em enables ! organs to "w toge!r = ! common good4 ,:y does an ameba n ne$ a n]v\s sy/em8 ,! ,ne$ ( ,n]ve ,c5t]s z well z ,n]ves4--,if !re 7 no c5tral (fice 9 a telephone sy/em ( "o ?\s& subscrib]s1 !n e subscrib]1 9 ord] to communicate ) e o!r subscrib]1 w\ld ne$ "o ?\s& wires runn+ into 8 h\se2 all toge!r1 !re w\ld h to be sev]al hundr$ ?\s& 7to be exact1 #dii1ejj7 wires4 ,) a c5tral (fice only "o ?\s& are ne$$4 ,z a telephone sy/em has c5tral (fices1 s ! n]v\s sy/em has n]ve c5t]s4 ,n]ve c5t]s conta9 n]ve cells4 ,al?\gh !re are "s subord9ate n]ve c5t]s 9 ! sp9al cord1 ! greate/ collection ( n]ve c5t]s 9 our bodies is 9 ! skull1 & is call$ ! bra94 ,fi%es 7 ! l[e/ animals /udi$ 9 animal biology f\nd to possess a true bra94 ,! n]v\s sy/em1 unlike a telephone sy/em1 has o!r duties besides all[+ communication4 ,x enables u to ?9k1 &1 aft] reflection1 to w & to act by controll+ ! v>i\s organs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,%[+ a ,,neuron1 ,a1 or n]ve cell ) all its p>ts--d5drites1 cell body1 & axon2 ,b1 a portion ( a :ite fib] highly magnifi$4 7,jegi47 ,! ,units ( :i* ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em is ,con/ruct$4--,a n]ve cell ) all its bran*es1 or fib]s1 is call$ a neuron 7see ,fig4 #ajc72 "s neuron bran*es are sev]al feet long4 ,neurons are ! units t compose ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,! liv+ sub/ance 9 cells is call$ protoplasm4 ,! protoplasm 9 n]ve cells possesses ! mo/ m>vel\s & v>i$ p[]s ( any kn[n sub/ance1 = ! n]ve cells are ! seat ( ! m9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,,l>ge ,,n]ve ,,trunk1 su* z supplies ! muscles4 ,cross-section 7magnifi$ #f diamet]s71 %[+ bundles ( n]ve fib]s4 7,peabody47 ,n]ve ,cells & ,fib]s4--,! _m bran*es ( n]ve cells make !m ! mo/ rem>kable ( all cells = irregul>ity 9 %ape4 ,s9ce ! protoplasm ( ! cell cont9ues into ! fib]s1 x is pla9ly wrong to consid] ! n]ve cell z some?+ ap>t f its fib]s4 ,x is n a complete cell )\t !m4 ,a cell usually has _m %ort bran*es call$ d5drons or d5drites 7see ,fig4 #ajc7 = communicat+ ) ne>-by cells1 & "o long bran* call$ an axn 7,fig4 #ajc7 = communicat+ ) di/ant p>ts4 ,! axons =m ! fib]s t g to ! sk91 muscles1 & o!r organs4 ,a ,n]ve4--,^! long bran*es1 or axons1 ( n]ve cells g all ov] ! body & are (t5 b\nd toge!r into visible cords call$ n]ves1 or n]ve trunks 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--;c1 a :ite fib] ) its fatty %ea? 7d>k72 d1 two gray fib]s 7)\t %ea?74 ,:ite & ,gray ,fib]s 7,fig4 #aje74--,"s fib]s h a fatty cov]+ surr\nd+ ! ?read ( protoplasm2 !y are :ite & gli/5+1 & are call$ :ite fib]s4 ,o!rs are )\t ?is fatty cov]+1 & are call$ gray fib]s4 ,bo? k9ds ( fib]s h connective tissue on ! outside to /r5g!n !m4 ,if we let a lead p5cil repres5t a :ite fib]1 ! lead corresponds to ! axis ( protoplasm2 ! wood corresponds to ! :ite1 %9y fat t surr\nds x2 & ! v>ni% corresponds to connective tissue on ! surface ( ! fib]4 ,a numb] ( :ite fib]s toge!r makes a :ite mass t is call$ :ite matt]4 ,! axis ( a :ite fib]1 ( c\rse1 is n :ite4 ,a mass ( cells or ( gray fib]s is call$ gray matt]4 ,! oxidation ( ! gray matt]1 or protoplasm1 9 neurons gives rise to n]ve en]gy4 ,feel+ ,cells & ,work+ ,cells4--,n]ve cells are divid$ into two classes3 s5sory cells1 :i* feel or receive impressions2 & motor cells1 :i* s5d out impressions to ! work+ organs4 ,^? fib]s :i* c>ry impressions to ! receiv+ cells are call$ s5sory fib]s2 ^? :i* c>ry impulses f ! cells to ! work+ organs are call$ motor fib]s4 ,ganglia & ,n]ve ,c5t]s4--,n]ve cells are n scatt]$ uni=mly 9 n]v\s tissue1 b are ga!r$ into gr\ps4 ,a gr\p ( n]ve cells is call$ a ganglion 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,"o or m ganglia hav+ a s+le function1 su* z to control ! muscles ( brea?+1 =m :at is call$ a n]ve c5t]4 ,! bra9 consi/s ( a numb] ( n]ve c5t]s ) _! connect+ fib]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--;,a ,,ganglion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--;,,cross-,,section ,,( ,,sp9al ,,cord1 %[+ area ( gray matt] 7d>k74 ,gross ,/ructure ( ! ,sp9al ,cord4--,! n]ve fib]s f ne>ly all ov] ! body lead to cells situat$ 9 a l>ge cord 9 ! sp9al column call$ ! sp9al cord4 ,! sp9al cord is sep>at$ by a deep fissure almo/ into halves 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,! cells are situat$ 9 ! c5tral portion ( ea* half1 & ! two masses ( gray matt] ?us =m$ are connect$ by a n>r[ i/hmus ( gray matt]4 ,! out] "p ( ! cord consi/s *iefly ( :ite fib]s4 ,! :ite matt] is ?us on ! outside ( ! cord 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,! bra91 unlike ! cord1 has ! gray matt] on ! outside & ! :ite matt] on ! inside4 ,= microscopic /udy ( ! sp9al cord1 see ,fig4 #ajh4 ,! ,"w ( ! ,sp9al ,cord4--,!re are two functions ( ! cord3 reflex action & transmission ( impulses f ! body to ! bra94 ,reflex action is action t takes place )\t ! aid ( ! w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,section ,,( ,,sp9al ,,cord1 %[+ n]ve cells 7l>ge black spots7 ) _! bran*es 7black dots & l9es74 ,five bundles ( n]ve fib]s are %[n ne> upp] m>g94 7,peabody47 ,reflex action nev] beg9s 9 ! cord1 b at ! out] end ( a s5sory fib]1 usually locat$ 9 ! sk94 ,! impression goes to ! cord along a s5sory fib]4 ,x is receiv$ 9 a s5sory cell & transf]r$ by d5drons to a motor cell :i* s5ds back an impulse along a motor fib] to a muscle2 ! muscle contracts & ! action is complete4 ,at lea/ two n]ve cells are necess>y = reflex action4 ,! actions ( ! l[e/ animals are almo/ entirely reflex4 ,reflex ,action1 ,consci\sness1 & ,w4--,usually n all ( ! =ce ( ! impulse is transf]r$ to ! motor cell4 ,! s5sory cell by means ( ano!r ( its _m bran*es may transf] "p ( ! impulse to a cell :i* s5ds x to ! bra94 ,h5ce a reflex act is n necess>ily an unconsci\s "o4 ,if y un9t5tionally t\* ! h& to a hot /ove pipe1 y may be consci\s ( ! pa9 & ! involunt>y j]k+ away ( ! h& at ! same "t4 ,reflex ,action & ! ,w4--,! w may inhibit1 or prev5t1 an expect$ reflex act4 ,yet _m reflex acts occur 9 spite ( ! ef=t ( ! w to prev5t !m4 ,"o _c always keep f clos+ ! eyes be=e a ?reat5$ bl[ ev5 if f ! o!r side ( a plate glass w9d[1 & x is kn[n !re is no dang]4 ,sneez+ is a reflex act & _c always be prev5t$4 ,! =m+ ( saliva & o!r secretions are reflex acts4 ,reflex acts are quick] ?an volunt>y acts4 ,an eigh? ( a second is ab\t ! "t requir$ = a p]son to press an electric button aft] see+ a signal2 a reflex act may occur 9 a %ort] "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--;,,bra9 ,,& ,,sp9al ,,cord4 ,! ,bra9 consi/s ( ,?ree ,*ief ,p>ts4--7#a7 ,!re is an enl>gem5t at ! top ( ! sp9al cord call$ ! m$ulla1 or ! m$ulla oblongata4 ,x may be reg>d$ z ! "p ( ! sp9al cord )9 ! skull 7see ,figs4 #aji1 #aaj1 #aad74 7#b7 ,above ! m$ulla is ! c]ebellum1 or little bra94 7#c7 ,! c]ebrum1 or l>ge bra91 fills all ! skull except ! small "p occupi$ by ! m$ulla & c]ebellum4 ,! c]ebrum cov]s ! c]ebellum4 7,fig4 #aaj47 ,is ?is true ( ! monkey's bra98 7,see ,fig4 #aac47 ,! "w ( ! m$ulla is *iefly to control ! vital functions 7see ,figs4 #aaj1 #aad74 ,"h are locat$ ! c5t]s = regulat+ ! brea?+1 ! he>t beat1 ! size ( ! blood vessels 7?us regulat+ nutrition71 & also ! less important c5t]s t control swall[+1 secretion ( saliva1 & vomit+4 ,! c5t] = brea?+ is sometimes call$ ! vital knot1 because al?\gh ! c]ebrum & c]ebellum may be remov$ f an animal )\t caus+ imm$iate dea?1 ! slighte/ injury to ! vital knot kills ! animal at once4 ,9 cases ( hang+1 dea? is caus$ by injury to ?is c5t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,,! ,,bra9 7c]ebrum1 c]ebellum1 m$ulla74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--;,,association ,,fib]s1 connect+ cells )9 ! c]ebrum4 7,jegi47 ,automatic ,action4--,! c5t] call$ ! vital knot is said to regulate ! brea?+ automatically1 n reflexly4 ,reflex acts />t 9 ! sk92 automatic acts />t 9 ! int]ior ( ! body4 ,! condition ( ! blood regulates ! brea?+ automatically dur+ sleep1 & p>tly regulates x dur+ wak+4 ,if too mu* c>bon dioxid accumulates 9 ! blood ?is excites ! vital knot1 :i* s5ds out /rong] impulses to ! respiratory muscles4 ,deep] brea?+ foll[s1 :i* purifies ! blood1 & ! brea?+ is !n %all[ or sl[ until c>bon dioxid accumulates aga94 ,! ,f\r ,k9ds ( ,n]ve ,action & ! ,c5t]s t control !m4--,! cord controls *iefly reflex action2 ! m$ulla controls *iefly automatic action2 ! c]ebellum controls *iefly cord9ate1 or h>moniz+1 action2 ! c]ebrum controls ! purely volunt>y acts1 = x is ! seat ( consci\sness & ?\ght4 ,! m$ulla1 l ! cord1 has ! gray matt] on ! inside 7,fig4 #aji74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--,,s5sory ,,& ,,motor ,,fib]s4 7,jegi47 ,/ructure ( ! ,c]ebellum4--,! c]ebellum1 l ! c]ebrum1 has ! gray matt] or cells on ! outside4 ,! gray matt] is fold$ into furr[s t are n ne>ly s w9d+ z ! folds 9 ! c]ebrum 7see ,fig4 #aae74 ,! fib]s go+ to ! surface cells h a bran*$ arrangem5t call$ ! arbor vit1 or tree ( life1 :i* is %[n :]e ! c]ebellum is cut4 ,! c]ebellum1 l ! c]ebrum1 is deeply cleft & ?us divid$ into halves1 call$ hemisph]es1 connect$ by a b& ( :ite matt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--;,,bra9 ,,( ,a ,,monkey4 ,num]als %[ location ( motor c5t]s4 7,see ,fig4 #aae47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--,,! ,,lobes ,,( ,,! ,,"r ,,side ,,( ,,bra9 & _! functions4 7,jegi47 ,! spee* c5t] is true only = left-h&$ p]sons4 ,m$ulla is m>k$ 8,bulb40 ,! "w ( ! c]ebellum is to aid ! c]ebrum 9 controll+ ! muscles4 ,x cord9ates ! muscul> movem5ts2 t is1 x makes ! muscles act at ! "r "t & ) due =ce 9 complex acts1 su* z /&+1 walk+1 talk+4 ,a man c\ld /rike j z h>d )\t ! action ( ! c]ebellum1 b he w\ld n be likely to hit :at he aim$ at4 ,a drunk5 man /agg]s & fails to control ! muscles 9 walk+ because ! alcohol has caus$ ! blood to collect & conge/ ar\nd ! c]ebellum & press ^u x4 ,"o ^: c]ebellum has be5 injur$ by accid5t /agg]s l a drunk5 man4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,,motor ,,& ,,s5sory ,,areas ,,( ,,left ,,hemisph]e4 ,spee* c5t] m>k$ 8,lips40 ,9 :at region are ! motor c5t]s8 ,! s5sory c5t]s8 ,cov]+s ( ! ,bra94--,l9+ ! skull & cov]+ ! c]ebrum are f\nd two membranes :i* inclose a lymph-l fluid4 ,?us a k9d ( wat] b$ is made :i* surr\nds ! s(t & delicate c]ebrum & protects x f j>s4 ,a membrane\s net1 or me%work1 ( blood vessels cov]s ! c]ebrum & pl5tifully supplies x ) blood4 ,/ructure ( ! ,c]ebrum4--,! gray matt]1 or cell mass ( ! c]ebrum1 =ms a surface lay]1 call$ ! cortex 78b>k071 ab\t "o eigh? ( an in* ?ick4 ,?is gray lay] is deeply fold$1 ! folds1 or convolutions1 be+ sep>at$ by deep furr[s1 "s ( !m an in* deep 7see ,fig4 #aaj74 ,?us ! area ( ! surface lay] is increas$ to sev]al times :at x w\ld be if smoo?4 ,intellig5ce increases ) increase 9 ! numb] & dep? ( ! convolutions4 ,! great] "p ( ! c]ebrum is :ite matt]4 ,?is consi/s l>gely ( associational fib]s 7,fig4 #aaa7 :i* connect ! cells 9 ! gray matt] ) ea* o!r & ) important int]ior ganglia at ! base ( ! c]ebrum 7,fig4 #aab74 ,^! basal ganglia are ! l>ge/ p>ts ( ! bra9s ( ! l[] v]tebrates 7,animal ,biology1 ,figs4 #bbb1 #bei74 ,:y d ^! animals n ne$ l>ge c]ebrums8 ,! human c]ebrum comprises ne>ly sev5 eigh?s ( ! weight ( ! bra94 ,a deep fissure divides x into ! "r & left c]ebral hemisph]es4 ,a b& ( :ite matt] connects ! hemisph]es4 ,functions ( ! ,c]ebrum4--,! c]ebrum is ! seat ( consci\sness & ?\ght1 & ( all activity controll$ by ! w4 ,x also directs ! "w ( ! l[] n]ve c5t]s 9 ! sp9al cord1 m$ulla1 & c]ebellum4 ,x receives s5sory messages f all p>ts ( ! sk9 & ?r\gh ! special s5ses4 ,x s5ds out motor messages to all ! volunt>y muscles1 & m indirectly to ! involunt>y muscles4 ,! c]ebral fib]s are ( ?ree k9ds3 s5sory1 associational 7connect+ cells 9 c]ebrum71 & motor 7,figs4 #aaa1 #aab74 ,x is e/imat$ t ! c]ebrum alone conta9s #i1bjj1jjj1jjj cells4 ,sp9al & ,cranial ,n]ves4--,! n]ves f ! sp9al cord g out ?r\gh not*es betwe5 ! v]tebr4 ,s9ce !re are ?irty-"o pairs ( sp9al n]ves 7,fig4 #aji7 & only tw5ty-f\r v]tebr1 "s ( ! n]ves g out ?r\gh holes 9 ! sacrum4 ,! cranial n]ves 7to eyes1 e>s1 tongue1 nose1 face1 etc47 leave ! bra9 ?r\gh holes 9 ! cranium1 or skull4 ,!re are twelve pairs ( !m4 ,relation ( ! ,c]ebrum to ! ,l[] ,c5t]s4--,z already /at$1 n]ve activities are ( f\r k9ds1--reflex1 automatic1 cord9ate1 & volunt>y4 ,a manufactory has m complex "w ?an a %op4 ,a man ) a %op may enl>ge x into a factory & leave tra9$ assi/ants 9 *>ge ( ! diff]5t %ops1 keep+ only ! g5]al managem5t = himself4 ,if he %\ld cease to control 8 assi/ants entirely1 ! "w ( ! factory w\ld soon be 9 disord]4 ,if ! manag] %\ld try to direct ev]y?+1 he w\ld become exhau/$4 ,s ! c]ebrum1 ! seat ( ! w & ! reason1 leaves ! reflex c5t]s 9 ! sp9al cord1 m$ulla1 & c]ebellum to d mo/ ( ! "w4 ,if ! m9d wi%es ! h& to move & grasp ! h& ( a fri5d1 ! motor c5t] 9 ! c]ebrum s5ds a message to ! c]ebellum2 & if ! c]ebellum has be5 well tra9$1 ! act is accurately p]=m$4 ,a less imp]fect wisdom ?an t ( ! m9d is 9 ! l[] n]ve c5t]s4 ,! reason & w control ! l[] c5t]s ?r\gh ! c]ebrum1 b ! control is v limit$4 ,x is well t ?is is s1 n only = ! relief ( ! c]ebrum1 b = ! safety ( ! body4 ,c y *ange ! rate ( ! he>t beat by ! ex]cise ( ! w8 ,c y blu% at w1 or prev5t ! flu%+ ( ! capill>ies :5 y are emb>rass$1 or :5 y g close to a hot fire8 ,x is impossible = a p]son to commit suicide by hold+ ! brea?4 ,:at *ange 9 ! blood w\ld soon =ce a brea? to be tak58 ,repeat ! two examples ( reflex action triumph+ ov] ! w :i* h already be5 giv54 ,we %all next take up a sy/em ( n]ves almo/ indep5d5t ( ! w4 ,! ganglionic or sympa!tic portion ( ! n]v\s sy/em controls ! visc]a 7viss-ra71 or int]nal organs1 e4g4 p]i/alsis ( food tube1 tone ( art]ies4 ,! n]ves t g to ! visc]a bran* (f f ! sp9al n]ves n f> f ! sp9al column1 & ent] a r[ ( ganglia on ea* side ( ! sp9e 7see ,fig4 #aae74 ,ea* ganglion is connect$ by n]ves ) ! "o above & bel[ x1 s t !y appe> l two knott$ cords susp5d$ "o on ea* side ( ! sp9al column & ti$ toge!r bel[2 = bo? *a9s ( ganglia end 9 ! same ganglion 9 ! pelvis4 ,"s ( ! fib]s f ! sp9al cord pass ?r\gh ^! ganglia on _! way to ! visc]a1 los+ _! :ite %ea?s 9 ! ganglia & em]g+ z gray fib]s4 ,! sp9al cord & bra9 ) ! fib]s :i* d n pass ?r\gh ! d\ble *a9 ( ganglia are call$ ! c]ebro-sp9al sy/em4 ,! d\ble *a9 ( ganglia & ! fib]s :i* g ?r\gh !m are call$ ! ganglionic or sympa!tic sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,,diagram ,,( ,,sympa!tic ,,sy/em %[+ d\ble *a9 ( ganglia2 also plexus at he>t & sol> plexus4 ,:y ^! ,n]ves are call$ ! ,sympa!tic ,sy/em4--,^! n]ves1 aft] leav+ ! d\ble *a9 ( ganglia1 =m _m intricate networks ( ganglia & fib]s4 ,ea* network is call$ a plexus 7,fig4 #aaf74 ,! l>ge/ ( ! plexuses is j back ( ! /oma*1 & is call$ ! sol> plexus4 ,a bl[ ^u ! /oma* may p>alyze ?is plexus & cause sudd5 dea?4 ,! plexuses & fib]s connect ! visc]a s p]fectly t "o organ _c suff] )\t ! o!rs *ang+ _! activity1 or sympa?iz+ ) x4 ,an ov]load$ /oma* causes ! he>t to beat fa/] & s5d x m blood2 a loss ( appetite usually accompanies illness & all[s ! /oma* to re/4 ,?is sympa?y is necess>y1 = if "o organ is diseas$1 ! o!rs d n cont9ue to "w & tax ! /r5g? ( ! ail+ organ4 ,h[ ! ,sympa!tic & ,c]ebro-sp9al ,n]ves ,diff]4--,! ganglionic n]ves 7#a7 conta9 mo/ly gray fib]s2 7#b7 pass ?r\gh ganglia aft] leav+ ! sp9al cord2 7#c7 control ! unconsci\s activities ( ! body2 7#d7 pass to organs :i* conta9 sl[-act+ involunt>y muscles1 n to s5se organs & quick-act+ volunt>y muscles2 7#e7 transmit impulses sl[ly 7ab\t #bj ft4 in/ead ( #ajj ft4 p] second74 ,crawfi% & insects h h>dly m ?an ! ganglionic sy/em ( n]ves 7,animal ,biology1 ,figs4 #ib1 #acb1 #aig74 ,examples ( ! ,sup]visory ,functions ( ! ,sympa!tic ,sy/em4--,regulation ( ! he>t beat & ( ! size ( ! blood vessels2 secretion ( sweat gl&s2 contraction ( pupils ( eyes 9 a bright light2 p]i/alsis4 ,examples ( ,sympa!tic ,n]ve ,impulses rea*+ ,consci\sness4--,pa9 9 colic & cramps2 8he>tburn0 7pa9 9 /oma* f indige/ion72 backa*e 7f n]ves 9 organs prolaps$ by tight clo?+ pull+ ^u _! atta*m5ts at sp9e72 hung]2 ?ir/4 ,! ,m9d & ,heal?4--,a cont5t$ or peaceful m9d is indisp5sable to s\nde/ heal?4 ,worry causes difficult brea?+ ) bat$ brea?4 ,happ9ess br+s full1 easy brea?+4 ,biological /udy ( physiology %[s ! futility ( mak+ heal? a c>e or anxiety1 & tea*es 8no m$dl+0 ) ! body1 :e!r by /imulat+ x1 drugg+ x1 de=m+ x1 ov]heat+ x1 half smo!r+ x 9 close rooms1 cultivat+ artificial in/9cts1 etc4 ,if ! body deg5]ates ?r\gh wrong liv+1 & disease ensues1 a new way ( liv+ is ne$$1 n "s quick & wond]ful rem$y4 ,! new life w r5ew ! body & no?+ else c4 ,,hygi5e ,,( ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em ,necessity ( ,food1 ,fre% ,air1 & ,re/ = ,s\nd ,n]ves4--,! heal? ( ! n]ves dep5ds ^u a free supply ( pure1 nutriti\s blood4 ,ne>ly "o fif? ( ! blood goes to ! bra94 ,x is cle> t ! bra9 _c give out en]gy until x has fir/ receiv$ x2 ! blood supplies en]gy to ! bra94 ,! blood 9 turn receives ! n\ri%m5t f food & pure air4 ,a re/$ cell is full ( n\ri%m5t2 a tir$ cell is %rivel$ 7see ,fig4 #aag74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--;,,effects ,,( ,,fatigue ,,on ,,n]ve ,,cells4 ,a1 re/+ cell1 ,b1 fatigu$ cell1 ) its body & nucleus %runk54 ,sleep4--,dur+ wak+ h\rs en]gy is us$ up fa/] ?an x is /or$ 9 ! cells1 & protoplasm is oxidiz$ fa/] ?an ! cells c replace x4 ,dur+ sleep ! opposite is true2 repair is m rapid ?an wa/e4 ,dur+ sleep ! muscles are /r5g!n$1 ! brea?+ is less1 ! he>t beats m sl[ly1 less heat is produc$1 dige/ion is sl[]1 less blood goes to ! bra94 ,:y is x necess>y to be m w>mly protect$ by clo?+ or b$ cov]+ :5 asleep ?an :5 awake8 ,above all1 ! n]v\s sy/em has an opportunity to recup]ate f ! con/ant activity ( wak+ h\rs4 ,! eye & ! e> are re/$ by d>kness & sil5ce4 ,sleep caus$ by morph9e or o!r drug is n normal sleep & br+s little refre%m5t4 ,practical ,sugge/ions4--,sleep is deepe/ dur+ ! second h\r aft] go+ to sleep1 & a great] %ock is giv5 to ! n]v\s sy/em by wak+ a sleep] dur+ t h\r ?an at ano!r "t4 ,an al>m clock is a v unheal?ful device4 ,"o :o _c tru/ to nature ev5 to awak5 has great presumption4 ,if "o does n rise promptly ^u wak+ naturally1 ! in/9ct to awake :5 en\gh sleep has be5 tak5 w be lo/1 & ! habit ( sleep+ too mu* w be =m$1 & ! bra91 l ! muscles1 w become weak f inactivity4 ,infants sleep mo/ ( ! "t1 & x is injuri\s to !m to be wak$4 ,adults usually require ab\t eight h\rs ( sleep4 ,!re is a risk 9 go+ to sleep 9 a w>m room1 = ! b$ cov]+ :i* is com=table !n may n be en\gh to prev5t tak+ cold :5 ! fire goes out4 ,sleep usually comes m promptly to "o :o goes to b$ at ! same h\r ea* night4 ,! muscles are relax$ 9 sleep1 & relax+ !m p]fectly ^u ly+ d[n & brea?+ sl[ly1 t5ds to br+ sleep4 ,"o :o is sleepless usually f9ds t he is brea?+ fa/ & is hold+ ! head /iff on ! %\ld]s1 ! tee? cl5*$1 & ! muscles contract$1 ev5 ?\gh he is ly+ d[n4 ,excitem5t & worry dur+ ! day1 b especially j be=e retir+1 t5d to produce sleeplessness4 ,"o :o ov]works 8 m9d by too great att5tion to bus9ess is invit+ ru94 ,a /ud5t :o loses sleep :ile prep>+ = an exam9ation w probably fail4 ,re/$ bra9 cells & pure blood are ne$$ = good "w4 ,rules = ,prev5t+ ,sleep9ess4--7#a7 ,d n sit close to /ove or especially a fireplace or 9 v w>m room1 & d n we> v w>m clo?+ 9 ! h\se4 7#b7 ,let 9 fre% air freely4 7#c7 ,d n sit 9 rock+ *air nor ) *e/ flatt5$4 7#d7 ,make ! la/ meal a v light "o4 ,habits4--,our habits ( do+ & ?9k+ & feel+ really con/itute our *>act]s4 ,?is %[s ! importance ( "r habits4 ,by gradually *ang+ our habits we c /r5g!n our *>act]s & =m !m some:at z we wi%4 ,:5 a muscle contracts 9 a c]ta9 way1 ?is act makes x easi] = ! muscle to contract 9 t way ! next "t2 ?us great muscul> /r5g? may be develop$4 ,:5 a n]ve cell acts1 ! circulation ar\nd ! cell is increas$1 ! fib]s develop by use1 & ! act is easi] ! next "t4 ,we _c entirely get rid ( our habits1 because we _c get rid ( our bra9s4 ,heal?y fatigue is caus$ by ! accumulation ( wa/e products result+ f ! oxidation ( sub/ances 9 n]ve1 muscle1 & gl& cells4 ,! pres5ce ( wa/e 9 ! tissues affects ! n]ves4 ,we are re/$ & /rong :5 ^! wa/es are remov$ & ! tissues are suppli$ ) fre% food & oxyg54 ,"w causes ! accumulation ( c>bon dioxid1 :i* is nature's n>cotic4#i ,! dr[sy feel+ t ensues is m pleasant ?an ! dr[sy feel+ f alcohol or opium4 ,^? :o d n employ nature's n>cotic b free !mselves ( x by hurri$1 anxi\s brea?+ become re/less & crave artificial n>cotics4 #i ,x has be5 f\nd t x is injuri\s to rebrea! expir$ air conta9+ "o p] c5t ( c>bon dioxid1 b a f> great] p]c5tage is h>mless if introduc$ into fre% air1 ?us indicat+ t ! injury f poor v5tilation comes *iefly f ! 8cr[d poison10 or organic p>ticles ?r[n (f4 ,fatigue )\t "w occurs ) p :o are idle4 ,! oxidation 9 _! cells is n complete1 & poison\s products ( ! incomplete burn+ result4 ,?is is kn[n z self-poison+ 7auto-toxemia74 ,! poisons are tak5 by ! blood to ! n]ves & bra91 & give a tir$ feel+ z effectually z does h>d "w2 or ! food may f]m5t 9 ! food tube & =m poisons :i* increase ! tir$ feel+4 ,su* p]sons are usually irritable1 :ile p]sons :o are fatigu$ by useful labor are likely to be dull & dr[sy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,,! ,,situation ,,( ,,heada*es ) ref]5ce to _! causes4 ,heada*es are caus$ by poisons 9 ! blood or by pressure ( blood conge/$ 9 ! head4 ,l all o!r pa9s !y %\ld be a s\rce ( b5efit 9 t !y %[ u ways ( liv+ to be %unn$ 9 ! future4 ,_m p]sons1 h[ev]1 n only d]ive no pr(it f a heada*e1 b by unwise ef=ts to cure ! pa91 br+ p]man5t injury to !mselves 9 addition to ! suff]+ ( ! heada*e4 ,bromides1 opium1 & o!r poisons dead5 & weak5 ! n]v\s sy/em :ile prev5t+ ! heada*e f be+ felt4 ,heada*e p[d]s1 ph5acet91 acetanelid1 antikamnia1 & o!r vile poisons made f coal t>1 %ock & weak5 ! he>t & r$uce ! vital activities s t ! heada*e is no long] felt4 ,9 consequ5ce ( %ocks f repeat$ doses ( su* drugs1 ! he>t w n "w s well1 & may give way "s "t 9 ! future :5 an ef=t or /ra9 makes unusual dem&s ^u x4 ,_! use has made he>t disease m preval5t4 ,! liv] & kidney cells & ! :ite corpuscles h to de/roy & remove ! drugs4 ,_m p are fooli% en\gh to injure _! bodies & risk dea? r ?an suff] pa9 or avoid pa9 by prud5t liv+4 ,sick heada*es are =etold by a dull feel+1 sleep9ess aft] eat+1 a coat$ tongue1 & con/ipation4 ,x w\ld be bett] to remove ! undige/$1 spoil$ food f ! /oma* 7f\r glasses ( wat] w cause vomit+7 ?an to take a drug4 ,at ! fir/ indication ( tr\ble1 ab/a9 f eat+1 or use a fruit diet = tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & dr9k wat] freely4 ,?is w enable ! body to dispose ( ! excess ( wa/e matt]4 ,! ,highe/ ,liv+ ,m$ical ,au?ority on ,drugs4--,dr4 ,osl]1 =m]ly ( ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity & n[ ( ,ox=d ,univ]sity1 says3 8,b ! new s*ool does n feel itself "u obligation to give any m$ic9es :atev]1 :ile a g5]ation ago n only c\ld few physicians h held _! practice unless !y did1 b few w\ld h ?\ght x safe or sci5tific4 ,( c\rse !re are /ill _m cases :]e ! pati5t or ! pati5t's fri5ds mu/ be humor$ by adm9i/]+ m$ic9e1 or alleg$ m$ic9e1 :]e x is n really ne$$1 & inde$ (t5 :]e ! buoyancy ( m9d1 :i* is ! real curative ag5t1 c only be creat$ by mak+ him wait hopefully = ! expect$ action ( m$ic9e2 & "s physicians /ill _c unle>n _! old tra9+4 ,b ! *ange is great4 ,! mod]n treatm5t ( disease relies v greatly on ! old s-call$ natural me?ods1 diet & ex]cise1 ba?+ & massage1 9 o!r words giv+ ! natural =ces ! fulle/ scope by easy & ?or\gh nutrition1 increas$ fl[ ( blood1 & removal ( ob/ructions to ! excretory sy/ems or ! circulation 9 ! tissues4 ,"o notable example is typhoid fev]4 ,at ! outset ( ! n9ete5? c5tury x 0 treat$ ) 8rem$ies0 ( ! extreme/ viol5ce1--ble$+ & bli/]+1 vomit+ & purg+1 antimony & calomel1 & o!r h]oic rem$ies4 ,n[ ! pati5t is ba!d & nurs$ & c>efully t5d$1 b r>ely giv5 m$ic9e4 ,?is is ! result p>tly ( ! rem>kable exp]im5ts ( ! ,p>is & ,vi5na s*ools into ! action ( drugs :i* h %ak5 ! /\te/ fai?s2 & p>tly ( ! con/ant & reproa*ful object lesson ( homeopa?y4 ,no regul> physician w\ld ev] admit t ! homeopa?ic 8inf9itesimals0 c\ld d any good z direct curative ag5ts2 & yet x 0 p]fectly c]ta9 t homeopa?s lo/ no m ( _! pati5ts ?an o!rs4 ,!re 0 b "o conclusion to draw1 t mo/ drugs _h no effect :atev] on ! diseases = :i* !y 7 adm9i/]$40--8,encyclopdia ,am]icana10 ,vol4 ,x4 7,munn ,co41 ,new ,york47 ,apply+ ,hygi5ic ,te/s ,sy/ematically4--,! cause ( ill heal? 7e4g4 a heada*e7 %\ld be s\ght ) sy/em & ?or\ghness1 apply+ ! te/s 9 rotation to e function ( ! body3 ,lungs4 ,is ! air habitually brea!d fre% & free f du/8 ,is ! body held up1 & is ! *e/ or wai/ cramp$ by clo?+8 ,muscles4 ,is en\gh physical ex]tion made to cause deep brea?s to be drawn8 ,food4 ,is x simple1 dige/ible1 & eat5 prop]ly8 ,dr9k4 ,is ! wat] pure8 ,cleanl9ess1 ,"w & ,re/1 ,clo?+1 ,v5tilation1 & ,m5tal ,/ate may be inquir$ into until ! s\rce ( tr\ble is f\nd & ! cause ( ill heal? remov$4 ,to give drugs & leave ! cause ( ill heal? unt\*$1 is to fail4 ,!re are signs ( com+ weakness or illness :i*1 if he$$ & ! ways ( liv+ improv$1 w usually prev5t illness4 ,among ^! signs are heada*es1 pal5ess1 s5sitiv5ess to cold1 heavy feel+ or pa9 aft] meals1 con/ipation4 ,huxley says t "y p %\ld s le>n physiology & s und]/& _! bodies t !y w he$ ! fir/ sign ( nature's displeasure1 & n wait = a box on ! e>4 ,n]v\s ,*ildr54--,a report on ! heal? ( ! s*ool *ildr5 9 "o ( our l>ge cities %[s t "o ?ird ( ! *ildr5 9 ^? s*ools h "s disord] ( ! n]ves4 ,n]v\sness 7weak5$ control ( ! n]ves7 may %[ itself by sluggi%ness ( m9d1 great irritability ( temp]1 frequ5t spells ( ! 8blues10 or by involunt>y movem5ts ( a j]ky or fidgety k9d4 ,s\nd developm5t ( city *ildr5's n]ves is h9d]$ because ( ! con/ant noise 9 cities bo? day & night2 by %ort5+ ( ! h\rs ( sleep2 by excessive use ( sug> = food2 by liv+ mu* among p ) no *ance to be alone & let ! n]ves re/1 & among boys by ! use ( cig>ettes4 ,h[ to ,prev5t ! ,s*ool f injur+ ,*ildr54--7#a7 ,v5tilation is ( fir/ importance4 ,brea?+ ! brea? ( fifty o!r *ildr5 does f> m h>m ?an ov]/udy4 7#b7 ,! "t devot$ to "w %\ld n be long1 especially 9 ! l[] grades 7no /udy out ( s*ool74 7#c7 ,! "w %\ld be div]sifi$2 n only pr9t$ words1 b pictures1 natural objects1 & ! outdoor _w %\ld be /udi$4 7#d7 ,! tea*] & p>5t %\ld see t ! habitual poise ( ! *ild is favorable to heal?4 7#e7 ,! *ildr5 %\ld be enc\rag$ to play4 ,runn+ games at recess are ( ! greate/ value1 & are z indisp5sable to ! heal? ( a boy or girl z ( a colt4 7#f7 ,physical ex]cise %\ld be provid$ at %ort int]vals betwe5 lessons1 especially /ret*+ ex]cises & movem5ts t /raight5 ! sp9e & hips & elevate ! *e/4 ,! ,effect ( ,alcohol ^u ,n]ve ,function4--,9 attack+ ! n]ve c5t]s1 alcohol beg9s ) ! c]ebrum1 ! highe/1 & proce$s t[>d ! l[e/4 ,h5ce z a man becomes drunk he fir/ talks fooli%ly 7c]ebrum affect$71 !n he /agg]s 7c]ebellum affect$71 & he f9ally goes to sleep & brea!s v h>d 7m$ulla affect$7 9 a drunk5 /upor4 ,x r>ely happ5s t ! brea?+ c5t] is completely disabl$ & ! man dies f ! /rong poison4 ,! greate/ evil ( alcohol is se5 9 ! case ( /eady dr9k+4 ,?is gradually de/roys ! s\ndness ( ! n]v\s sy/em & weak5s self-control4 ,! t5d5cy ) ne>ly all dr9k]s is to increase ! am\nt tak54 ,n ,total ,ab/a9]s1 b ! ,advocates ( ,univ]sal ,mod]ation are ! ,vision>ies4--,! evil results f alcohol are s great z to be almo/ incr$ible4 ,! pla9e/ /atem5ts ( its effects are sometimes d5\nc$ z unsci5tific by p]sons prejudic$ 9 its favor4 ,a "p ( ! two billion doll>s annually paid = liquors is us$ 9 influ5c+ public op9ion ?r\gh ! press4 ,,practical ,,que/ions4--#a4 ,:y does travel (t5 cure a sick p]son :5 all else fails8 #b4 ,:y is work+ m heal?ful ?an 8tak+ ex]cise08 7p4 #dg47 #c4 ,is x bett] = *ildr5 to play or to take ex]cise8 #d4 ,:y c "o walk & c>ry on a conv]sation at ! same "t8 7p4 #abg47 #e4 ,h[ does indige/ion cause a heada*e8 7p4 #acc47 #f4 ,does p]fectly com=table clo?+ f head to foot help to make "o at ease 9 company8 ,does uncom=table clo?+ t5d to make "o awkw>d8 #g4 ,:y is x z important to h ! %oes & clo!s p]fectly com=table :5 go+ out z :5 /ay+ at home8 #h4 ,:5 "o's f+] is cut1 :]e is ! pa98 #i4 ,9 :at two ways may op5+ a w9d[ :5 a /ud5t is becom+ dull & dr[sy at 8 books enable him to wake up & /udy ) ease8 #aj4 ,:at k9ds ( cells %rivel l a bak$ apple :5 !y become fatigu$8 7,fig4 #aag47 #aa4 ,a n]ve or n]ve fib] c h>dly become tir$ or fatigu$1 = ! n]ve cell supplies ! en]gy4 ,:at d we mean :5 we say ! n]ves are worn out8 7,fig4 #aag47 #ab4 ,:y d y ?r[ cold wat] ^u a fa9t+ p]son8 #ac4 ,:y does con/ant1 mod]ate dr9k+ und]m9e ! heal? m ?an occasional intoxication8 #ad4 ,:y does /oppage ( ! circulation cause "o to fa9t8 7,see ,*ap4 ,,vi47 #ae4 ,:y is graz+ ! sk9 (t5 m pa9ful ?an cutt+ x8 7,color$ ,fig4 #a47 #af4 ,:y d ! l[] animals always act ^u sudd5 impulse8 ,:at "p ( ! bra9 enables man to reta9 s5sations & n act ^u !m until lat]8 #ag4 ,does 8n]v\sness0 m probably indicate a bright m9d or a high temp]8 #ah4 ,:at is ! effect ( a cold ba? ^u ! n]ves8 7,*ap4 ,,ii47 #ai4 ,did y ev] "k a cig>ette smok] ^: h& trembl$8 #bj4 ,ne$ !re be any fe> ( a sobb+ *ild hold+ its brea? until x dies8 #ba4 ,:y is muscle tone great] 9 cold wea!r8 ,! ,true ,function ( ,/imulants4--,"o ^: he>t has ne>ly giv5 out because ( exposure to sev]e wea!r may be tempor>ily reviv$ by alcohol4 ,x w n be wise to d s unless x is c]ta9 t a w>m fire & protection w be rea*$ be=e ! reaction comes4 ,mu* less w\ld be necess>y to revive an ab/a9] ?an a drunk>d4 ,habitually di/urb+ ! body ) /imulants makes !m ineffective 9 a "t ( em]g5cy4 ,a cup ( c(fee w n keep a wat*] awake if he is us$ to c(fee4 ,def9itions3 ,/imulant1 ,n>cotic1 ,poison4--,a /imulant is any?+ t excites ! body to activity1 b is ( no help or ( insignificant help1 9 replac+ ! /r5g? us$ up4 ,a n>cotic is any?+ t dead5s or dulls ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,x comes f a ^w mean+ 8to b5umb40 ,poisons are active sub/ances1 :i*1 tak5 9 quantities1 z man takes food1 de/roy life2 9 small] quantities !y injure ! body & may de/roy life4 ,alcohol is a poison4 ,w9e1 be]1 :isky1 conta9 v>y+ quantities ( x4 ,! ,n>cotic & ,/imulant ,effects ( ,poisons4--,examples ( poisons are alcohol1 nicot91 opium1 ars5ic1 /ry*n94 ,poisons excite ! body :5 tak5 9 small doses1 :ile 9 l>ge doses !y produce p>alysis & dea?4 ,! irritat+ or /imulat+ effect is due to d]angem5t ( ! functions or to ! ef=ts ( ! cells to free ! body ( ! de/ructive sub/ance4 ,! n>cotic effect is due to ! poison hav+ s b5umb$ ! n]ves & injur$ ! cells t _! activities cease1 or become less = a "t4 ,y readily see h[ ! same poison c be bo? a /imulant & a n>cotic3 ! /imulat+ effect always comes fir/1 foll[$ by ! /upefy+ effect4 ,if ! dose is v small1 ! /imulat+ effect w la/ long]2 if x is l>ge1 ! n>cotic effect is great] & felt m quickly4 ,a habit ( us+ /imulants is an inv>iable sign ( weakness4 ,! fir/ dose ( morph9e or coca9e may be ! fir/ /ep 9 a lifelong blight ( /r5g? & happ9ess4 ,if physicians ^: treatm5t ( a case results 9 leav+ a pati5t ) a drug or alcohol habit 7 su$ = malpractice1 !y w\ld be less reckless4 ,! annual consumption ( morph9e is e/imat$ at tw5ty-sev5 gra9s p] capita 9 ,*9a1 & fifty gra9s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,reaction4--,?is is ! depress$ & exhau/$ condition t comes on aft] a p]iod ( unnatural activity4 ,x foll[s ! excit+ effects ( a /imulant4 ,natural ,/imulants4--,if !re 7 no?+ to ar\se activity1 life w\ld be impossible4 ,a cold w9d is a natural /imulant4 ,! activity ar\s$ by a cold w9d is j en\gh to help ! body )/& ! cold2 artificial /imulants cause an exp5diture hav+ no relation to ! ne$s ( ! body4 ,h5ce !re is a great wa/e ( en]gy4 ,feel+s may /imulate1 z love = 8 family may /imulate a man to labor4 ,! desire = k may /imulate a boy to /udy4 ,hung] may /imulate a man to eat4 ,hung] is a natural /imulant1 & is n likely to make him eat to excess2 tea1 c(fee1 pepp]1 etc41 ar\se a false appetite4 ,^! ?+s are us$ *iefly = _! /imulant effect1 = !y conta9 little or no n\ri%m5t4 ,we w n[ /udy ab\t artificial /imulants4 ,su* /imulants always cause an unregulat$ & unheal?y action1 & are always foll[$ by reaction4 ,h[ mu* ,/r5g? is /or$ 9 ! ,body8--,dr4 ,tann] ( ,m9nesota believ$ t mo/ p eat too mu*4 ,ano!r physician said t no human be+ c\ld g =ty days )\t food4 ,dr4 ,tann] made ! exp]im5t4 ,he lo/ ?irty-six p\nds 9 weight1 b he weigh$ #aba p\nds & _h consid]able /r5g? at ! end ( ! =ty days4 ,! fir/ ?+ he ate at ! close ( 8 fa/ 0 ! juice ( a ripe wat]melon4 ,once "s m9]s 7 %ut 9 by ! cav+ ( a "p ( a m9e4 ,b1 unlike ! case j describ$1 !y 7 )\t wat] z well z food4 ,:51 by digg+1 ! rescu]s rea*$ !m sev5 days aft]1 sev]al 7 /ill f\nd alive1 al?\gh mo/ ( !m _h di$4 ,! m9]s1 no d\bt1 _h n\ri%m5t 9 _! bodies = "s weeks m ( life1 b ! body lack$ wat] to dissolve x & br+ x )9 ! rea* ( ! cells mo/ ne$+ x4 ,a ,/up5d\s ,fact4--,^! incid5ts %[ h[ wisely ! body is made1 & prove t ! cells /ore up n\ri%m5t = weeks ahead4 ,! l>ge am\nt ( n\ri%m5t /or$ 9 ! human body is "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ & important facts ) :i* ! sci5ce ( physiology has to deal1 & x %\ld be borne 9 m9d1 or we may make great mi/akes ab\t "s v simple matt]s & especially 9 reg>d to ! effects ( /imulants4 ,fooli% ,ra%ness4--,did y ev] get s tir$ t y _h to give up & /op1 h[ev] mu* y w\ld h lik$ to cont9ue at "w or play8 ,to re/ 0 ! wise ?+ to d4 ,because y "k !re is mu* en]gy /or$ 9 ! body1 ?is ne$ n tempt y to g on until y almo/ break d[n4 ,probably y "k p :o are conceit$ ab\t _! bodies & say !y are 8made ( ca/ iron02 t no?+ c hurt !m4 ,su* conceit w be almo/ sure to get its possessor into tr\ble4 ,h[ a ,safegu>d may be brok5 d[n4--,x is a v wise arrangem5t t1 "u ord9>y conditions1 we _c get at ! surplus en]gy we h4 ,c>bon dioxid & o!r wa/es accumulate 9 ! tissues & p>alyze ! n]ves4 ,fatigue & o!r feel+s compel u to be provid5t1 z x 72 yet /imulants & n>cotics1 by irritat+ ! n]ve cells1 ar\se !m & cause u to exp5d "s ( ?is res]ve en]gy4 ,?us man is enabl$ to get at ?is preci\s /ore :i* he %\ld save = em]g5cies1 :5 he is sick & _c dige/ food1 or :5 he is mak+ "s mighty ef=t4 ,a weak1 ill man :o has eat5 v little = weeks1 :5 deliri\s is sometimes s p[]ful t x takes sev]al /rong m5 to hold him 9 b$4 ,b ! deliri\s mania (t5 uses up ! little en]gy left1 & co/s ! man 8 life4 ,! only s\rce ( en]gy = man's body is ! union ( food & oxyg52 he mu/ get 8 en]gy f ! same s\rce t ! eng9e does2 & ?is is f 8 food1 :i* s]ves z fuel1 & ! oxyg5 :i* burns x4 ,if "o has be5 work+ h>d prep>+ = exam9ations1 or ga!r+ hay1 or 9 att5d+ to "s important bus9ess1 or has be5 "u ! excitem5t ( "s pleasure trip1 & feels 8blue0 & worn out1 !n let him be> ! result l a man1 or l a true boy or girl1 z ! case may be4 ,giv+ up = a :ile1 or 8t\gh+ x out0 ) ! blues1 or los+ a little "t f bus9ess1 w n hurt1 b w re/ore /r5g?1 :ile a /imulant w leave him less ( a man ?an be=e4 ,n]v\sness4--,! attempt to divide ! race into bra9 work]s1 muscle work]s1 & loaf]s1 :e!r m5 or wom51 is a p[]ful factor 9 race deg5]ation4 ,leon>d ,hill says3 8,hy/]ia & n]v\s exhau/ion are ! fruits n ( ov]work1 b ( lack ( v>i$ & int]e/+ employm5t4 ,! absurd op9ion t h>d "w is m5ial & l[1 leads to mo/ p]nici\s consequ5ces4 ,! girl :o1 turn+ f bra9 "w to manual labor1 c cook1 scrub1 wa%1 & g>d51 invites ! bloom ( heal? to h] *eeks2 :ile ! f9e d-no?+ lady loses h] good looks1 suff]s f ! blues1 & is a nuisance to h] fri5ds & a mis]y to h]self40 ,a ,japanese lady holds views simil> to ^? ( ,dr4 ,hill4 ,read footnote4#aj #aj ,/atem5t by ,madame ,toyi ,niku ( ,y$do1 ,japan1 aft] a six mon?s' visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--8,worry & inactivity1 x seems to me1 %>ply m>k ! wom5 ( y\r middle classes4 ,i did n attempt to /udy y\r lead]s ( society1 = !y are mu* alike ! _w ov]--! same fuss1 ! same display ( jewels & f9]y1 ! same sc&als1 ! same uselessness4 ,y\r wom5 d n div]sify en\gh4 ,if !y are good cooks1 !y /op !re2 p]haps ano!r is a good h\sekeep]1 ano!r c sew f9ely2 b do+ "o ?+ makes n>r[-m9d$ness4 ,9 ,japan we /rive to d _m ?+s4 ,! worry tr\bles ( y\r wom51 x seems to me1 come l>gely f improp] eat+ & ov]eat+4 ,i h sat at _m ( y\r tables & !re is too mu* food on !m & too mu* v>iety4 ,fir/1 wom5 ov]eat1 !n !y doctor1 !n !y />ve1 & !n !y become n]v\s4 ,a woman's diet1 especially a "m's1 %\ld always be simple4 ,cut d[n eat+ & increase v>iety ( labor & ex]cise4 ,my own p live t way ) a result t we h bett] fem99e bodies1 bett] sk9s1 & bett] temp]s ?an y\r wom54 ,i l ! brightness ( y\r "y wom54 ,p]haps y w take ! hide\s hats (f !m "s day1 f9d a sub/itute = ! bad corset1 & let !m we> clo!s t are loose1 yet are s(t & cl++4 ,!y are b\nd up 9 _! clo!s too mu* n[ & _! judgm5t ( colors & comb9ations is n good4 ,_! clo?+ is ei!r g>i% or v dull 9 hue4 ,! simple/ girl 9 ,japan kn[s h[ to h>monize color ) h]self40--,"m's ,magaz9e1 ,novemb]1 #aijg4 ,,subjects ,,= ,,debate4--7#a7 ,does ! ,*9ese woman de=m h] body less ?an ! ,caucasian woman & suff] less f x8 7#b7 ,does z mu* disease orig9ate 9 ! d9+ room z ! b>room8 7#c7 ,are drugs a necess>y evil8 7#d7 ,does pride cause z mu* illness z ignorance8 7#e7 ,is x ev] "r to neglect ! heal?8 7#f7 ,does ! m9d or ! way ( liv+ h m effect ^u ! heal?8 ,disuse & ,deg5]ation4--,_m p]sons 9 civiliz$ c\ntries *]i% a va9 hope ( hav+ s\nd muscles )\t habitual use ( !m1 pure blood )\t deep brea?+1 a /rong circulation 9 an inactive body1 a fre% sk9 )\t keep+ ! body s\nd1 a he>ty appetite )\t en\gh physical labor to use ! food already eat51 /eady n]ves ) a "p ( ! body ov]work$ & a "p /agnat+ f disuse4 ,_! flabby muscles1 pale sk9s1 highly season$ food to ar\se appetite1 n>cotics to dead5 irritable n]ves1 & ! wide use ( drugs z a fanci$ sub/itute = "r liv+ all %[ ! attempt to be a mis]able failure4 ,if ! p>5ts lead+ su* a life escape ) fairly good heal? & av]age l5g? ( life1 !y leave a few unheal?y *ildr5 9 :om physical deg5]ation is pla94 ,complete1 balanc$ liv+ only prev5ts deg5]ation4 ,al?\gh !re are cases ( illness :i* are n necess>ily a disgrace1 disease usually orig9ates 9 weakness ( "* or lack ( common s5se4 ,! snob :o ?9ks himself above physical labor1 ! dupes :o at ! bidd+ ( av>ici\s fa%ion mong]s ?9k m ( clo!s ?an ( a free body1 ! n>r[1 unbalanc$ man1 :o conc5trates all 8 en]gies on "o ambition1 ! %ort-sight$ "o :o worries1 all gr[ into a diseas$ /ate4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,s5ses ,exp]im5t #a4 ,:]e are ! ,n]ves ( ,t\* mo/ ,abundant8--,op5 a pair ( scissors s t ! po9ts are "o eigh? ( an in* ap>t1 & t\* bo? po9ts to ! tip ( ! f+]4 ,are !y felt z "o or z two po9ts8 ,f9d h[ f> !y mu/ be sep>at$ to be felt z two po9ts :5 appli$ to ! back ( ! neck4 ,record results4 ,caution3 ,! p]son %\ld be bl9dfold$1 or %\ld look away :ile ! te/s are be+ made4 ,two p9s /uck 9 a cork w be m conv5i5t to use ?an scissors4 ,exp]im5t #b4 ,n]ves ( ,temp]ature1 or ,!rmic ,n]ves4--,draw ! end ( a cold wire along ! sk94 ,does ! wire feel cold all ! "t8 ,repeat ) a hot wire4 ,d y conclude t temp]ature is felt only 9 spots8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--8;,,cold0 ,,spots 7light %ad+74 8,,hot0 ,,spots 7d>k71 sk9 ( ?igh4 ,muscul> ,s5se4--,exp]im5t #c4 ,make te/s ( ! ability to di/+ui% ! weight ( objects weigh+ ne>ly ! same1 :5 laid by ano!r 9 out/ret*$ h&2 also by lay+ !m 9 ! h& :ile x re/s ^u a table4 ,:i* te/ %[$ m delicate di/9ctions8 ,9 :i* 7 muscles br\ght into use8 ,exp]im5t #d4 ,close ! eyes & let "s "o move y\r left arm to a new position2 !n see if y c ) ! =ef+] ( ! "r h& t\* ! =ef+] ( ! left h& 9 its new position at ! fir/ attempt4 ,exp]im5t #e4 ,functions ( ! ,sev]al ,p>ts ( ! ,tongue4--,te/ ! tip1 edges1 & back ( ! tongue ) sug>1 v9eg>1 qu99e1 & salt4 ,:]e is ! ta/e ( ea* mo/ acute8 ,record results4 ,flavors4--,exp]im5t #f4 ,bl9dfold a memb] ( ! class1 & :ile he holds 8 no/rils firmly clos$ by p9*+ !m1 h him place successively ^u 8 tongue a bit ( potato & ( onion4 ,c he di/+ui% !m8 ,exp]im5t #g4 ,m>k ,f aft] ea* ( ! foll[+ foods t h a flavor 7see text73 vanilla1 apple1 lemon1 beef1 pea*es1 grapes1 c(fee1 onion1 potato1 c9namon4 ,exp]im5t #h4 ,a ,smell+ ,conte/4--,place ! foll[+ & o!r ?+s hav+ ta/e 9 vials ar\nd :i* pap] has be5 pa/$ to conceal _! cont5ts3 pepp] sauce1 v9eg>1 k]os5e1 flavor+ extracts 7dilut$71 sev]al p]fumes1 iod9e1 bits ( banana1 lemon1 apple1 etc4 ,numb] ! vials & h pupils te/ & write results 9 a li/4 ,correct ! li/s & ann\nce pupil hav+ ke5e/ s5se ( smell4 ,exp]im5t #i4 ,a ta/+ conte/ may be arrang$ 9 a simil> way4 ,smell+ & ta/+ te/s %\ld be made quickly z ^! s5ses are soon dull$ by repeat+ a s5sation4 ,exp]im5t #aj4 ,advantage ( ,two ,eyes ov] ,"o4--,try to t\* =ef+] to some?+ held by ano!r at arm's l5g? f y1 br++ ! f+] 9 f ! side3 7#a7 ) "o eye clos$2 7#b7 ) bo? eyes op54 ,result8 ,conclusion8 ,we tell ! di/ance ( an object by ! am\nt ( conv]g5ce ( ! eyeballs ne$$ to look at x4 ,exp]im5t #aa4 ,duration ( ,impression4--,:irl a /ick ) a gl[+ coal on "o end 7see ,fig4 #abc74 ,exp]im5t #ab4 ,color ,bl9dness4--,provide a numb] ( y>ns ( diff]5t t9ts1 & ! same t9ts4 ,te/ color bl9dness by hav+ ea* pupil mat* t9ts & assort ! y>ns4 ,exp]im5t #ac4 ,fatigue ( ,optic ,n]ve4--,gaze long & /eadily at a mod]ately bright object1 !n close ! eyes4 ,result8 ,conclusion8 ,exp]im5t #ad4 ,dissection ( ,eye4--,! eye ( an ox is an int]e/+ subject = dissection4 ,! l5s is l a cle> cry/al4 ,make out all p>ts nam$ 9 ! text 7see ,fig4 #abb74 ,exp]im5t #ae4 ,image =m$ by a ,convex ,l5s4--,= a few c5ts obta9 f a jewel] a convex l5s1 or use a /rong pair ( spectacles worn by an old p]son4 ,hold ! l5s a few feet f a w9d[ 7d>k5 any o!r w9d[s ne>74 ,a little beyond ! l5s hold a :ite c>d or book op5 at a blank page to cat* ! image4 ,h "s "o walk be=e ! w9d[4 ,exp]im5t #af4 ,"w ( ,iris4--,notice ! size ( ! pupils4 ,cov] "o eye ) ! h& = a few m9utes4 ,uncov] & look 9 a mirror4 ,gaze at bright w9d[ & look aga9 9 ! mirror4 ,conclusion8 ,d ! two pupils /ill keep ! same size :5 "o eye is %ad$8 ,exp]im5t #ag4 ,accommodation4--,by hold+ y\r f+] or a p5cil 9 l9e ) writ+ on ! blackbo>d1 y f9d t y _c see bo? f+] & blackbo>d di/9ctly at ! same "t--fir/ "o & !n ! o!r is di/9ct4 ,expla9 7see text74 ,exp]im5t #ah4 ,a/igmatism 7effect ( unequal curvature ( cornea or l5s along c]ta9 l9es74 ,) end ( crayon draw ab\t twelve /raight1 ev5 l9es cross+ at "o po9t on ! blackbo>d4 ,h ! l9es ( equal di/9ctness4 ,h[ _m pupils report t ! l9es 9 c]ta9 directions are blurr$8 ,inquire :e!r ^! pupils h frequ5t heada*es f eye /ra94 ,exp]im5t #ai4 ,c ,s\nd rea* ! ,e> ?r\gh ! ,bones8--,hold a wat* betwe5 ! lips & notice its tick+4 ,close ! tee? d[n ^u x & notice any *ange 9 ! s\nd4 ,cov] "o1 !n bo? e>s1 & note ! result4 ,exp]im5t #bj4 ,te/ ke5ness ( he>+ by hav+ pupils walk away f a tick+ wat* until x becomes inaudible4 ,te/ ea* e>4 ,a 8/op0 wat* is pref]able4 ,exp]im5t #ba4 ,advantage ( ,two ,e>s ov] ,"o4--,h ! class /& 9 a circle4 ,bl9dfold "s "o & place him 9 ! middle ( ! circle4 ,let v>i\s pupils clap ! h&s z ! tea*] po9ts to ea*4 ,c ! bl9dfold$ "o po9t 9 ! direction :5ce ! s\nd comes8 ,/op "o e> ) a h&k]*ief & repeat4 ,result8 ,conclusion8 ,f :at two po9ts 9 ! circle does ! s\nd fall ^u bo? e>s alike8 ,exp]im5t #bb4 ,! ,cause ( ,nasal ,tones4--,let a pupil g to ! back ( ! room & read a p>agraph1 & hold 8 nose until p>tly ?r\gh ! read+4 ,or ! tea*] may read ) 8 face & h& hidd5 by a l>ge book4 ,let ! o!r pupils raise _! h&s :5 !y notice a *ange 9 ! quality ( ! read]'s voice4 ,does ! exp]im5t %[ t a 8nasal0 tone comes p>tly ?r\gh ! nose or ?r\gh ! m\? only8 ,does /oppage ( ! no/rils by cat>rh cause a nasal tone8 ,five ,diff]5ces betwe5 ,special & ,g5]al ,s5sation4--,fir/1 ! n]ves ( special s5se all end 9 special organs at ! surface2 = in/ance1 ! t\* corpuscles are = t\*1 ! eye is = sight1 etc4 ,!re are _m n]ves 9 ! body t d n end 9 special organs2 ^! n]ves give :at is call$ g5]al s5sation4 ,a second diff]5ce is t g5]al s5sation tells ( ! condition ( ! int]ior ( ! body1 :ile special s5sations tell u ( ! condition ( ! surface ( ! body & ( ! outside _w4 ,?ird1 g5]al s5sations are n s exact z ! reports ( ! special s5ses4 ,"o c locate a po9t on ! sk9 t has be5 t\*$ mu* m accurately ?an he c locate an int]nal pa94 ,a f\r? diff]5ce is t ! mean+ ( ea* special s5sation mu/ be le>n$ 7usually 9 infancy72 b ! mean+ ( g5]al s5sations is inh]it$4 ,?is inh]it$ k ( :at g5]al s5sations mean is also call$ in/9ct4 ,fif?1 ! sympa!tic n]ves usually br+ g5]al s5sations2 ! sp9al & cranial n]ves usually br+ special s5sations4 ,examples ( g5]al s5sations are hung]1 ?ir/1 satiety1 nausea1 fa9tness1 gidd9ess1 fatigue1 weight1 a*+1 %udd]+1 re/lessness1 blues1 creepy feel+1 t+l+1 sleep9ess1 pa91 illness4 ,any n]ve c convey ! g5]al s5sation ( pa91 if injur$ along its c\rse4 ,if a n]ve ( t\* is cut1 !re is no s5sation ( t\*1 b ( pa94 ,t\* s5sations come only f ! ends ( ! n]ves4 ,g5]al s5sations are ( _m k9ds4 ,we are only half consci\s ( "s ( !m2 _m ( !m are h>d ev5 to describe4 ,hygi5e ( ! ,g5]al ,s5sations4--,g5]al s5sation is an invaluable aid to ! heal?4 ,)\t x z a guide1 ! body c\ld n rema9 alive a s+le day4 ,pa9 %\ld be he$$ z our be/ fri5d1 & n kill$ ) poison\s drugs z if x 7 our wor/ enemy4 ,we %\ld n dead5 ! /oma* a*e ) an aft]-d9n] cig>4 ,if we d n g to b$ :5 sleepy1 ! desire = sleep may leave u1 & we w und]go untold suff]+ f sleeplessness4 ,?ir/ %\ld be satisfi$ ) cool wat]1 :i* qu5*es x ! be/2 he :o makes 8 tee? a*e ) ice wat] w inflame 8 /oma* & be cont9ually ?ir/y4 ,he :o does n /op eat+ :5 8 hung] is satisfi$1 w di/5d 8 /oma* ) food1 & ! /ret*$ organ w be h>d] to satisfy !reaft]2 9 fact1 eat+ aft] a feel+ ( satiety may cause indige/ion s t ! cells w n get ! food4 ,a dyspeptic is always hungry1 = ! cells are />v+4 ,fatigue ( body or m9d gives u wise c\nsel2 b ?is feel+ may be dead5$ by alcohol or tobacco1 & "w cont9u$ until ! body is injur$4 ,we %\ld he$ ! w>n+ ( pa9 or fatigue or re/lessness z promptly z an eng9e] he$s a r$ flag on ! railway track4 ,"o :o uses n>cotics acts l a reckless eng9e] :o removes ! dang] signal & goes ahead1 hop+ by good luck to escape an accid5t4 ,mo/ ( ! n]ves ( t\* end 9 papill ( ! d]mis z microscopic1 egg-%ap$ bodies 7,fig4 #abj74 ,!re are also _m 9 ! int]ior ( ! m\?1 especially on ! tongue4 ,on ! palms !y are arrang$ 9 curv$ l9es1 & on ! tips ( ! f+]s !y are 9 circul> l9es1 ) "o papilla 9 ! c5t]4 ,! delicacy ( ! s5se ( t\* v>ies v mu* 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! sk94 ,?is delicacy ref]s to two ?+s3 ! ability to feel ! slighte/ pressure & ! ability to tell ! exact po9t ( ! sk9 t is t\*$4 ,a light] pressure c be felt on ! =ehead & temples ?an ) any "p ( ! body4 7,:y is x be/ = ?is to be ! case87 ,! greate/ delicacy 9 locat+ ! po9t ( ! sk9 t\*$ is f\nd to be locat$ 9 ! tip ( ! tongue1 ! lips1 & ! ends ( ! f+]s 7,exp4 #a74 7,:y is x be/ t ?is is s87 ,?is delicacy is lea/ 9 ! middle ( ! back4 ,! delicacy v>ies ) ! numb] ( t\* corpuscles 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! sk94 ,! s5se ( t\* is capable ( great cultivation1 z 9 ! case ( ! bl9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--;,,diff]5t ,,k9ds ,,( ,,t\* ,,bodies ,,at ,,ends ,,( ,,n]ves4 ,a1 f cornea ( ! eye2 ,b1 f ! tongue ( a duck2 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 f ! sk9 ( ! f+]s4 7,jegi47 ,! temp]ature s5se is giv5 by special n]ves call$ ! !rmic n]ves 7,exp4 #b74 ,t ! !rmic n]ves are easily fatigu$ is notic$ soon aft] ent]+ a ba? ( hot wat]2 x is also %[n by ! fact t 9 cold c\ntries ! nose or e>s ( a p]son may freeze )\t 8 feel+ x4 ,! ,muscul> ,s5se4--,! special s5se ( t\* gives "s s5se ( weight4 ,a weight ^u ! sk9 mu/ be increas$ by "o ?ird be=e x feels heavi]1 b by lift+ an object s z to br+ into action ! muscul> s5se resid+ 9 n]ves end+ 9 ! muscles an increase ( only "o sev5te5? ( ! orig9al weight c be notic$ 7,exp4 #c74 ,?is s5se gives u a cont9ual acc\nt ( ! position ( ! limbs 7,exp4 #d74 ,! end organs ( ta/e are locat$ 9 ! papill ( ! tongue4 ,! tongue has a fuzzy look because ( ! num]\s papill4 ,! pr9cipal ta/es are only f\r2 namely1 sweet 7ta/$ *iefly by tip ( tongue71 s\r & sal9e 7sides ( tongue71 bitt] 7ta/$ on ! back ( tongue7 7,exp4 #e74 ,! n]ves ( smell end 9 ! muc\s membrane ( ! upp] half ( ! two nasal *amb]s2 ! fib]s are spread ov] ! upp] proportion ( ! walls4 ,! direct curr5t ( air does n pass z high z ^! n]ve end+s2 h5ce sniff+ aids ! p]ception ( odors4 ,?is s5se is able to br+ up ! associations ( e>ly life m p[]fully ?an any ( ! s5ses4 ,! odor ( a fl[] l "o t grew 9 an old g>d5 c almo/ re/ore ! consci\sness ( ! pa/4 ,we smell gases only2 solids & liquids _c affect ?is pair ( n]ves 7,exp4 #h74 ,flavors4--,! ta/es t we call flavors are really smells4 ,we confuse !m ) ta/e1 because !y accompany food t is 9 ! m\?4 ,"n "s foods t seem 8ta/eless0 :5 "o has a sev]e cold 9 ! head4 ,:y is ?is8 ,"s ( ! mo/ repulsive drugs c be easily swall[$ if ! nose is held 7,exp4 #f & #g74 ,hygi5e ( ! ,s5ses ( ,ta/e & ,smell4--,a savage or a bea/ uses ! s5ses ( ta/e & smell to f9d out :e!r ?+s are good to eat or n4 ,if a civiliz$ man's s5ses are n p]v]t$1 & he eats only simple foods t h a pleasant ta/e1 !y w n injure him or cause him sickness4 ,?+s t are poison\s usually h unpleasant ta/es & (t5 h unpleasant odors4 ,^! s5ses are naturally ( wond]ful delicacy4 ,!y c be cultivat$ to a /ill m rem>kable degree1 or !y c be blunt$ & almo/ de/roy$4 ,*ronic cat>rh dulls or de/roys ! s5se ( smell4 ,! loss or ev5 ! weak5+ ( ! p]ception ( flavors is an injury to ! work+ ( ! closely relat$ s5se ( ta/e4 ,:5 a p]son loses ! enjoym5t ( delicate flavors1 he wants food to h /rong season+ & m decid$ ta/e to prev5t x f be+ insipid4 ,ev]y?+ mu/ be ei!r v greasy or v sweet or v salty or v s\r1 to please 8 deg5]ate s5ses4 ,:eat1 corn1 & o!r gra9s h ea* its own pleasant ta/e1 yet su* p]sons mu/ h l>d 9 _! bread because !y are n capable ( appreciat+ any?+ ) a delicate ta/e4 ,9 ,engl&1 butt] is n salt$ & its delicate ta/e is enjoy$2 9 ,am]ica1 salt is add$ to pres]ve x1 & mo/ p h come to pref] ! /rong ta/e ( salty butt] to ! delicate ta/e ( pure butt]1 & d n l x unless its true ta/e is p>tly hidd5 by ! ta/e ( salt 7,exp4 #i74 ,deceiv+ ! ,s5se ( ,ta/e4--,! habit ( us+ n>cotics l tea & c(fee is usually begun by conceal+ ! repulsive bitt] ta/e ( ! sub/ance by mix+ sug>1 cream1 & o!r agreeable ?+s ) x4 ,licorice is sometimes mix$ ) tobacco to weak5 its bit+ ta/e4 ,pure alcohol w\ld nev] be drunk by any "o :o _h ! lea/ respect = ! s5se ( ta/e1 b ! agreeable flavor ( grapes1 apples1 & o!r fruit :i* /ill rema9s 9 w9e1 cid]1 & br&y1 conceals ! repulsive ta/e ( ! alcohol4 ,be] has ! insipid ta/e ( gra9 :i* has und]gone decomposition or p>tial rott+1 & hops are add$ because ! /rong bitt] ta/e ( hops is ne$$ to hide ! /ale1 rancid ta/e ( ! rott$ gra94 ,eggnog is made ( eggs1 a n\ri%+ food2 sug>1 :i* has an agreeable ta/e2 wat]1 a refre%+ dr9k1 & alcohol1 a fi]y poison4 ,a v good eggnog is (t5 made )\t alcohol1 b a good "o c\ld h>dly be made ) any ( ! pleasant +r$i5ts left out4 ,! be/ eggnog is made by us+ ! fre% juice ( lemon1 orange1 or grape1 in/ead ( alcohol4 ,effect ( ,n>cotics4--,tobacco1 alcohol1 opium1 & o!r n>cotics dull ! s5ses ( ta/e & smell & prev5t ! enjoym5t ( delicate flavors4 ,!y accompli% ?is z mu* by _! effect ^u ! bra9 z ^u ! n]ves !mselves4 ,x is ,wrong to eat ,food t is n ,reli%$4--,unpalatable food is n likely to be well dige/$4 ,x is a law ( ! body t ! food :i* is enjoy$ ! mo/ is dige/$ ! be/4 ,?is applies to a hungry p]son eat+ food ) its own hone/ ta/e1 n to food disguis$ by ! ta/e ( some?+ else4 ,! rule does n apply to a ta/e p]v]t$ by hav+ be5 =c$ to become accu/om$ to poison\s ?+s4 ,p :o mun* _! food sl[ly enjoy ! pleasures ( ta/e ! mo/1 & dige/ _! food ! be/4 ,! n]ves ( ta/e & smell easily become fatigu$4 ,! fir/ :iff f a cologne bottle is ! /ronge/4 ,highly flavor$ foods %\ld be eat5 mod]ately1 if we w\ld obta9 ! greate/ enjoym5t f !m4 ,,?\ght ,,que/ions4--#a4 ,int]f]+ ) ! ,body4 ,:at is ! natural direction ( gr[? ( ! big toe8 #b4 ,?9k ( six evil results1 direct or indirect1 :i* w foll[ f displac+ x by tight %oes 7p4 #dh74 #c4 ,:i* "p ( ! sp9al column1 design$ 9 inf9ite wisdom to be mo/ flexible1 d "s p try to make ! mo/ inflexible8 #d4 ,! mobility ( ! false & float+ ribs 0 int5d$ z a bless+4 ,"s p int]pret ! bless+ z an opportunity to d :at8 #e4 ,"n six articles :i* w>n u to avoid !m by _! bitt]1 burn+1 or nauseat+ ta/es1 yet :i* are us$ by man4 #f4 ,"n six feel+s :i* are int5d$ z w>n+s = our guidance1 b :i* are commonly disreg>d$4 ,! eyes on ! rays ( ! />fi% are m]e spots ( pigm5t4 ,insects h l5ses 9 _! eyes4 ,! eyes ( v]tebrates are all =m$ on ! same g5]al plan z ! human eye4 ,! eyeballs are globes ab\t an in* 9 diamet]4 ,!y are plac$ 9 deep1 bony sockets1 call$ orbits1 9 ! front "p ( ! skull4 ,! optic n]ve1 o!r n]ves1 & sev]al l>ge blood vessels pass to ! eye ?r\gh a hole 9 ! back ( ! orbit4 ,a s(t cu%ion ( fat is 9 ! orbit beh9d ! eyeball4 ,a pressure ^u ! eyeball causes ! eye to s9k into ! socket1 = ! fat yields to ! pressure4 ,?is is a protection to ! eye4 ,! eyelids protect ! eyes f du/1 & at times f ! light4 ,!y are aid$ 9 ?is by ! eyela%es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--,,te> ,,gl&s ,,& ,,ducts ( "r eye4 7,jegi47 ,! te>s are =m$ by te> gl&s situat$ above ! eyeball 9 ! portion ( ! orbit f>!/ f ! nose1 j b5ea? ! bony br[ :]e x feels ! %>pe/ 7,fig4 #aba74 ,!y are ab\t ! size ( almonds4 ,a salti% liquid is cont9ually ooz+ f ! te> gl&s & pass+ ov] ! eyeball2 x is c>ri$ into ! nose ?r\gh ! nasal duct 7,fig4 #aba74 ,! te>s rea* ?is duct ?r\gh two small canals1 :i* op5 into ! eye 9 ! little fle%y elevation at ! inn] corn]s ( ! eye 7,fig4 #aba74 ,! op5+ ( "o ( ! canals may be se5 by look+ into a mirror4 ,sometimes ^! canals are /opp$ up1 & :at is call$ a 8weep+ eye0 results4 ,a tempor>y /oppage may occur dur+ a cold 9 ! head4 ,te>s prev5t friction betwe5 eye & lid4 ,w9k+ applies ! te>s to ! ball4 ,small gl&s along ! edges ( ! lids =m a k9d ( oil :i* usually prev5ts ! te>s f fl[+ ov] ! lids4 ,sometimes ?is oily secretion is s abundant1 especially dur+ sleep1 z to cause ! lids to /ick toge!r4 ,! muc\s membrane ( ! eyelids cont9ues z a transp>5t membrane 7! conjunctiva7 :i* passes ov] ! front ( ! ball4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--,,! ,,anatomy ,,( ,,! ,,eye4 ,! globe ( ! eye consi/s ( its out] wall & ! s(t cont5ts 7,fig4 #abb74 ,! wall has ?ree lay]s or coats4 ,! out] coat is ! t\gh scl]otic 7,greek1 skl]os1 h>d71 compos$ ( d5se connective tissue 7,exp4 #ad74 ,x gives /r5g? & firmness to ! eyeball4 ,x %[s betwe5 ! lids z ! 8:ite ( ! eye40 ,x is :ite & opaque except 9 front2 !re x bulges out to =m ! transp>5t cornea4 ,?is cle> portion ( ! wall may be se5 by look+ at ! eye ( ano!r f ! side4 ,! second coat1 call$ ! *oroid1 consi/s ( blood vessels & a loose connective tissue conta9+ _m d>k br[n or black pigm5t granules4 ,! *oroid absorbs sup]flu\s light4 ,cats' eyes %9e at night because ?is coat 9 _! eyes reflects "s light4 ,! *oroid sep>ates f ! scl]otic t[>d ! front ( ! eye & =ms ! color$ iris4 ,! iris makes ! eyes beautiful1 & x also s]ves ! useful purpose ( regulat+ ! am\nt ( light4 ,! hole 9 ! iris is call$ ! pupil 7,exp4 #ae74 ,! ?ird & inn]mo/ coat1 ! s5sitive p9ki% lay] call$ ! ret9-a1 is ! mo/ important & *>act]i/ic tissue 9 ! eye4 ,x receives ! light rays1 & reta9s ! image = a fraction ( a second 7,exp4 #aa74 ,h5ce ! pictures 9 a k9etoscope 7,fig4 #abc7 appe> z "o mov+ picture4 ,! ret9a is made *iefly ( ! fib]s ( ! optic n]ve4 ,?is n]ve conta9s ab\t five hundr$ ?\s& fib]s1 & ent]s at ! back ( ! ball4 ,! spot :]e x ent]s conta9s no n]ve end+s & is n s5sitive to light4 ,x is call$ ! bl9d spot4 ,! spot :]e ! light mo/ (t5 falls is mo/ s5sitive to light4 ,x is ! yell[ spot 7,fig4 #abb74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,/roboscope1 ! orig9al ( ! k9etoscope4 ,! obs]v] looks ?r\gh ! slits ( a rapidly revolv+ disk & a new image falls on ! ret9a be=e ! la/ image has fad$4 ,comp>e ! pictures 9 ! figure4 ,te/ = ! ,bl9d ,spot4--,9 ?is exp]im5t %ut ! "r eye & be c>eful n to let ! left eye wav]4 99 ,read ?is l9e sl[ly4 ,c y see ! /> all ! "t8 7,if s1 hold ! book f>!r or clos] & repeat47 ,)9 ! coats ( ! ball1 l ! pulp )9 ! r9d ( an orange1 are ! s(t cont5ts1 divid$ into ?ree p>ts4 ,! fir/ is a wat]y liquid 9 front1 :i* s]ves to keep ! cornea bulg$ out 7,fig4 #abb74 ,x is call$ ! aque-ous humor4 ,! ma9 cavity ( ! ball is occupi$ by a cle>1 jellylike sub/ance call$ ! vitre-ous humor1 :i* s]ves to keep ! ball di/5d$4 ,back ( ! iris1 & sep>at+ ! two humors j nam$1 is ! crystal-l9e l5s1 a beautiful cle> l5s1 convex or r\nd$ out on bo? sides 7,exp4 #ad74 ,x s]ves to br+ ! light to a focus on ! ret9a1 !reby =m+ images ( outside objects4 ,! eye1 l a cam]a1 has a d>k l9+1 ! *oroid2 ! ret9a corresponds to ! s5sitive plate1 & ! l5s br+s ! rays to a focus on x & =ms ! image4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--;,,cross+ ,,( ,,optic ,,n]ves %[+ t "o n]ve rea*es same half ( bo? eyes4 ,! ,pa? ( ,light 9 ! ,eye4--,! light ent]s ?r\gh ! transp>5t cornea & passes ?r\gh ! aque\s humor4 ,z x goes ?r\gh ! pupil1 ! iris %uts (f all ! light t is n ne$$4 ,! cry/all9e l5s receives ! light t has be5 all[$ to pass1 & s b5ds ! rays t by ! "t !y h pass$ ?r\gh ! vitre\s humor !y fall ^u ! ret9a 9 j ! "r way to =m a t9y image ( any?+ outside 7,exp4 #aa74 ,! *oroid absorbs any light t passes ! ret9a4 ,! iris & *oroid ( alb9os h no pigm5t2 h5ce alb9os squ9t _! eyes to %ut out "s ( ! light4 ,accommodation4--,9 ord] to focus ! light ^u ! ret9a1 ! l5s mu/ *ange %ape = e *ange 9 ! di/ance ( ! object look$ at 7see ,fig4 #abe74 ,! %ape ( ! l5s c be readily *ang$1 = x is ela/ic & has muscul> fib]s ar\nd its edges 7,exp4 #ag74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--;,*ange ( l5s 9 accommodation4 7,jegi47 ,defects 9 ! ,eye4--,"s eyeballs are too long1 & ! l5s br+s ! rays to a focus be=e !y rea* ! ret9a4 ,su* eyes are ne>sight$ 7,fig4 #abf7 & require glasses t r\nd inw>d 7concave74 ,"s eyeballs are too flat1 & ! rays are n br\ght to a focus soon en\gh4 ,su* eyes are f>sight$ & require glasses t r\nd outw>d 7convex74 ,see ,fig4 #abg4 7,repeat ,exp4 #ae47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--7a7 ,,ne>sight$ ,,eye 7ball too long71 :i* only focuses rays = ne> objects 7#b7 :5 concave glasses are us$ 7#c74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--;,,f>sight$ ,,eye 7ball too %ort7 :i* ne$s convex l5s to focus rays ^u ret9a4 ,c>e ( ! ,eyes4--,because ! eyes c d a l>ge am\nt ( "w )\t giv+ pa91 !y are (t5 abus$4 ,:5 read+ or do+ intricate "w1 turn ! eyes f ! "w occasionally & look at "s di/ant object2 /op "w be=e ! eyes are tir$4 ,twilight ( e>ly ev5+ has ru9$ _m good eyes4 ,y %\ld always /op "w be=e ! twilight beg9s1 = ! light fades s gradually t y w surely be /ra9+ ! eyes be=e y "k x4 ,d n "w ) ! light 9 front2 ! gl>e ( ! light makes objects appe> dim4 ,! light %\ld come f above1 & 7= "r-h&$ p7 f ! left4 ,d n read pap]s or books pr9t$ 9 f9e type4 ,we %\ld n read :5 convalesc+ f illness2 ) ! head b5t d[n2 :5 ! eyes are sore2 9 jolt+ c>s4 ,heat+ ! eyes by a burn]1 or dry+ ! eyeballs 9 a dry1 /ove-heat$ atmosph]e1 us+ a light )\t a %ade1 cause tr\ble ) /ud5ts' eyes4 ,( :at are blood-%ot eyes (t5 a sign8 ,our eyes are be/ suit$ = see+ at a di/ance because primitive man _h no h\ses1 books1 sew$ clo!s4 ,ef=t is requir$ to %ape ! l5s = see+ ne> objects4 ,mo/ cases ( ne>sight$ness beg9 :5 *ildr5 are taught to read "u eight ye>s old4 ,! eyes are sometimes injur$ by ! use ( tobacco4 ,,?\ght ,,que/ions4 ,! ,eye4--#a4 ,! eye is %ield$ f bl[s by bony projections ( 1 1 & 4 #b4 ,! hairs ( ! eyebr[s lie incl9$ t[>d 1 9 ord] to turn f ! 4 #c4 ,i f9d by try+ x t ,i 7c or _c87 see ! position ( a w9d[ ) my eyes clos$4 #d4 ,! pupil appe>s to be black1 because no is f ! int]ior wall ( ! eye4 ,i "k t ! iris is p>tly muscle1 because x ! size ( ! 4 ,s\nd4--,any?+ t is s5d+ (f s\nd does s by vibrat+1 or %ak+ to & fro1 v rapidly4 ,= in/ance1 a vibrat+ viol9 /r+ sets e p>ticle ( air ne> x sw++ to & fro4 ,! ne>e/ p>ticles ( air /rike ! next ones & b\nce back1 ^! 9 turn /rike aga9/ o!rs1 & ?us vibrations call$ s\nd waves are s5t ?r\gh space 9 all directions f ! s\nd+ body4 ,we feel ^! waves ) ! e>4 ,! e> consi/s ( ?ree portions3 ! ext]nal e>1 ! middle e> 7or drum71 & ! int]nal e> 7or labyr9?1 see ,fig4 #abh74 ,! cranial n]ve connect+ ! e> ) ! bra9 is call$ ! auditory n]ve4 ,! out] & middle e> pass on ! vibrations ( air to ! ends ( ! fib]s ( ! auditory n]ve 9 ! int]nal e>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--,,middle ,,& ,,int]nal ,,e> 7greatly enl>g$74 ,! ext]nal e> consi/s ( a l>ge wr9kl$ c>tilage on ! ext]ior ( ! head & a canal lead+ f x1 call$ ! meatus4 ,?is passage is clos$ at its inn] end by ! drum membrane or drum sk94 ,x is (t5 call$ ! drum1 b ?is "n is prop]ly appli$ to ! :ole middle e>4 ,a trial w %[ t ! drum sk9 _c be se5 ev5 ) ! aid ( a bright light1 = ! passage is slightly curv$ 7see ,fig4 #abh74 ,h5ce a missile or a fly+ insect _c g /raight aga9/ ! e> drum4 ,! sk9 l9+ ?is passage conta9s wax gl&s1 :i* secrete a bitt] /icky wax1 :i* helps to keep ! passage flexible4 ,?is wax cat*es du/ & usually /ops insects t may ent]4 ,if an insect ent]s ! e>1 x may (t5 be coax$ out by a bright light held close to ! e>4 ,! e> wax 9 a heal?y e> dries ) du/ & scales ( epid]mis & falls out 9 flakes1 ?us cleans+ ! e>4 ,x is unwise to probe into ! e> ) a h>d object or ev5 ) ! corn] ( a t[el4 ,x is n necess>y to ins]t ! f+] 9 ! meatus to cleanse x2 x is "o in* long1 b only ab\t "o f\r? in* across4 7,h[ l>ge is ! little f+]87 ,! c>tilag9\s e>s on ! sides ( ! head %\ld be c>efully wa%$ because ( _! _m crevices4 ,if e> wax is deposit$ too fa/1 x w cause tempor>y deafness & e>a*e4 ,x may be syr+$ out ) w>m wat]4 ,e>a*e is usually caus$ by a small boil :i* requires "t to relieve itself by bur/+4 ,w>m wat] p\r$ into ! upturn$ e>1 or hot flannels or compresses appli$ to ! side ( ! head w less5 ! suff]+4 ,ea* e> has ?ree muscles = mov+ x4 ,once !y 7 d\btless useful to all1 b l ! scalp muscle !y h become s weak5$ by disuse z to be useless to mo/ p4 ,!y are ve/igial organs4 ,! middle e>1 or drum *amb]1 conta9s air 7,fig4 #abh74 ,x is sep>at$ f ! out] e> by ! drum membrane4 ,x conta9s ?ree bones :i* /ret* across x & conduct ! s\nd waves f ! drum membrane to ! inn] e>4 ,/ate ! ord] 9 :i* !y are plac$ 7see ,fig4 #abh74 ,! middle e> is connect$ ) ! ph>ynx by a tube 7! ,eu/a*ian tube2 pron\nc$ yoo-/akee-an1 see ,fig4 #abh74 ,?is tube is op5$ e "t we swall[4 ,x all[s ! air f ! ?roat to ent] ! middle e> & keep ! air pressure equal on ea* side ( ! drum sk94 ,?is tube & ! middle e> are l9$ ) muc\s membrane4 ,a cold 9 ! head or a sore ?roat may ext5d ?r\gh ?is tube to ! middle e> & affect ! he>+4 ,?is occurs because ! tube is clos$ by conge/ion ( its l9+2 ! air ( ! middle e> may be p>tly absorb$1 & ! pressure ( ! outside air may cause ! drum membrane to bulge inw>d1 & to be /ret*$ s tight t x _c vibrate freely4 ,! inn] e> is call$ ! labyr9?1 because ( its w9d+ passages4 ,!re is a spiral passage call$ ! snail %ell & ?ree simpl] passages call$ ! loops 7,fig4 #abh74 ,! inn] e> is fill$ ) a limpid liquid :i* conveys ! vibrations to ! ends ( ! auditory n]ve f\nd 9 ! snail %ell4 ,if ! auditory n]ve or labyr9? becomes diseas$1 ! deafness is probably incurable4 ,qu99e & o!r drugs may cause deafness4 ,s5se ( ,equilibrium4--,"s fib]s ( ! auditory n]ve end 9 ! loops & are n believ$ to be us$ 9 he>+4 ,x is believ$ t ea* loop acts l a c>p5t]'s level1 & ! v>y+ pressure ( ! fluid ^u ! n]ves 9 ! loops tells u ! position ( ! body & con/itutes ! s5se ( equilibrium4 ,!re are h[ _m ( ^! loops 9 ea* e>8 7,fig4 #abh47 ,,*apt] ,x ,,bact]ia ,,& ,,sanitation ,exp]im5t #a4 ,yea/ ,plants4--,) a microscope exam9e a drop f a glass ( wat] 9 :i* y h wa%$ grapes or apples 7,fig4 #abi74 ,exp]im5t #b4 ,f]m5tation4--,put a tablespoonful ( sug> into ?is wat] & set ! glass 9 a w>m place = a day or two4 ,d y see any bubbles ( gas8 ,h ! odor & ta/e *ang$8 ,does ! microscope %[ t ! yea/ plants are n[ m abundant8 ,by f]m5tation1 or ! gr[? ( yea/ 9 sug>1 sug> is *ang$ into c>bon dioxid1 a gas1 & alcohol1 a liquid4 ,exp]im5t #c4 ,a ,sanit>y ,map4--,con/ruct a sanit>y map ( ! community4 ,indicate h\ses :]e consumption1 typhoid fev]1 or o!r transmissible diseases h occurr$1 ) numb] ( cases4 ,m>k location ( /agnant wat]s :]e mosquitoes bre$1 m>k g>bage dumps1 unclean /reets4 ,sugge/ :]e improvem5ts may be made 9 dra9age1 du/1 noises1 sun%9e1 %ade1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,,yea/ ,,cells magnifi$ #bjj diamet]s1 or #dj1jjj areas4 ,yea/ plants multiply by budd+4 ,notice small cells gr[+ on l>g] & old] ones4 ,bact]ia1 or microbes1 ! smalle/ liv+ ?+s1 are visible only "u a microscope ( high p[]4 7,see 8,plant ,biology10 p4 #ahb47 ,!y obta9 food ei!r f dead tissue or f deg5]ate tissue ( liv+ plants & animals4 ,! gre5 plants & ! animals n[ ^u ! e>? h prov$ _! fitness to survive by successfully resi/+ ^! "o-cell$ vegetable g]ms1 or bact]ia4 ,microbe diseases attack only ! weak] individuals ( ! human species1 or ^? :o h gone to regions :]e !re are microbes :i* _! bodies h n yet acquir$ ! p[] ( resi/+4 ,usefulness ( ,bact]ia4--,_! *ief "w is to de/roy dead tissue & return x to ! soil & air = ! use ( gre5 plants aga91 o!rwise ! e>? w\ld be fill$ ) c>casses1 etc4 ,!y are indisp5sable 9 soil =mation4 ,!y give ! agreeable flavors to butt] & *eese1 & cause milk to s\r4 ,a rod-%ap$ bact]ium is call$ a bacillus 7,fig4 #acj72 a sph]ical "o is a coccus4 ,multiplication ( ,bact]ia4--,?is is by division or fission4 ,sometimes1 in/ead ( divid+1 a little r\nd$ mass kn[n z a spore appe>s4 ,! spore breaks out & ! bact]ium itself p]i%es4 ,species :i* d n produce spores are readily de/roy$1 b spores h a h>d1 t\gh %ell1 & !y may be dri$ or heat$ ev5 to boil+ )\t be+ kill$4 ,spores float ?r\gh ! air & />t new colonies4 ,mo/ common bact]ia gr[ be/ betwe5 #gj & #ie ,f4 ,!y r5d] x difficult to pres]ve foods1 especially proteid foods 7*eese1 lean meat1 eggs1 etc474 ,food decays sl[ly if at all bel[ #gj & above #abe4 ,direct sunlight1 or ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat] 7#bab ,f47 kills bact]ia b n spores4 ,pantries1 kit*51 & sickrooms %\ld h bright walls & all ! light possible4 ,boil+ wat] %\ld be p\r$ into ! s9k1 & di% clo?s %\ld be ?or\ghly wa%$ 9 boil+ wat]4 ,diseases due to ,bact]ia4--,a g]m disease is usually due p>tly or :olly to sub/ances call$ tox9s produc$ by ! bact]ia4 ,mo/ disease g]ms attack a s+le organ ( ! body4 ,diph!ria is caus$ by a species 7,fig4 #acj7 t gr[s on ! muc\s membrane ( ! ?roat2 ?is g]m produces a p[]ful tox94 ,! g]ms ( typhoid fev] 7,fig4 #aca7 & ,asiatic *ol]a multiply 9 ! small inte/9e4 ,9 bo? ^! diseases ! s\rce ( infection is ! di>rhal dis*>ges f ! alim5t>y canal4 ,flies may c>ry ! g]ms on _! feet f ! dis*>ge to food4 ,sometimes typhoid fev] cases occur ?r\gh\t a t[n because ! wat] supply has become contam9at$ by sewage4 ,cases may occur only 9 families t buy milk f a c]ta9 dairy1 because ! milk cans h be5 wa%$ 9 contam9at$ wat]4 ,9 c>+ = a typhoid pati5t all suspici\s mat]ial %\ld be dis9fect$ or burn$4 ,g]ms ( tub]culosis 7call$ consumption if ! disease is 9 ! lungs7 may float ?r\gh ! air4 ,rec5t inve/igations indicate1 h[ev]1 t infection usually occurs ?r\gh ! alim5t>y canal1 ! g]ms be+ swall[$1 !n absorb$ & tak5 to ! lungs 9 ! blood or lymph4 ,to prev5t a pati5t f re9fect+ himself 9 new p>ts ( ! lungs or else:]e1 he %\ld c>efully cleanse 8 tee?1 m\?1 & ?roat 7by g>gl+ ) =mal or lysol7 be=e eat+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--;,,bacillus ,,( ,,diph!ria4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--;,,bacillus ,,( ,,typhoid ,,fev]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--;,,culex ,,or ,,common ,,mosquito1 above 7possibly c>ries d5gue fev]74 ,,anopheles ,,or ,,mal>ial ,,mosquito1 bel[ 7n always infect$74 ,body ( mal>ial mosquito is nev] held p>allel to ! support+ surface 7unless a leg is miss+72 x has five long app5dages to ! head1 ! culex 7above7 has only ?ree4 7,draw47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--,,protective ,,:ite ,,corpuscle 7phagocyte7 dige/+ a microbe4 ,mosquito ,fev]s4--,mal>ia1 yell[ fev]1 & probably d5gue are transmitt$ ea* by a diff]5t g5us ( mosquito 7,fig4 #acb74 ,a mosquito ( ! mal>ial g5us may bite a pati5t & suck into its body blood-corpuscles conta9+ spores ( ! mal>ial p>asite 7a protozoan animal1 see 8,animal ,biology10 p4 #g74 ,aft]w>ds a spore 79 ano!r /age7 may be transmitt$ by ?is mosquito :5 x bites ano!r p]son4 ,! g]m ent]s a r$ corpuscle1 gr[s1 & f9ally divides into _m little spores4 ,at ?is mom5t ! corpuscle itself breaks up1 sett+ free 9 ! blood ! spores & tox9 =m$4 ,?is causes ! *ill & fev]4 ,?is developm5t usually takes =ty-eight h\rs1 h5ce ! fev] occurs e o!r day4 ,^! mosquitoes beg9 to fly at dusk4 ,h[ are !y recogniz$8 7,fig4 #acb47 ,!y %\ld be kept out ( h\ses by scre5s or f ! b$s by nett+4 ,k]os5e %\ld be p\r$ on bre$+ places at ! rate ( "o ounce = fifte5 squ>e feet ( /&+ wat]4 ,?is %\ld be repeat$ twice a mon?4 ,cactus mac]at$ 9 wat] may be us$1 & =ms a p]man5t film on ! wat]4 ,/agnant pools may be fill$ or dra9$ 7,exp4 #d74 ,mal>ial pati5ts %\ld !mselves be scre5$1 z ! *ief s\rce ( dang] to o!rs2 = only mosquitoes :o suck ! blood ( mal>ial pati5ts w transmit ! disease4 ,ev5 !n x is only transmitt$ to ^? ^: :ite blood corpuscles are unable to protect !m 7,fig4 #acc74 ,fur!r ,means ( ,protection aga9/ ,disease ,g]ms4--,! be/ protection is physical vigor4 ,!re are c]ta9 sub/ances call$ opson9s :i* exi/ 9 ! plasma ( ! blood ( disease-resi/+ p]sons2 ^! opson9s give ! :ite corpuscles ! p[] to dev\r disease g]ms4 ,! s]um ( ! blood also develops antitox9s :i* neutralize ! tox9s =m$ 9 disease4 ,n only c ! :ite corpuscles & s]um kill bact]ia1 b mo/ ( ! secretions ( ! heal?y body 7ga/ric juice1 nasal secretions1 etc47 are bact]ia-kill+ z well4 ,p]sons 9 a l[ /ate ( heal? mo/ readily succumb to disease4 ,excess 9 eat+ may less5 ! g]micidal p[] ( ga/ric juice & inactivity t ( ! lymph4 ,! same g]m disease does n usually attack ! same p]son twice1 z ! body becomes immune2 t is1 an opson91 or an antitox91 is develop$ :i* cures ! fir/ attack & rema9s to protect ! body 9 future4 ,! p]iods ( qu>ant9e or isolation = sev]al common g]m diseases are giv5 9 ! foll[+ table3-- ,,f ,,exposure ,,"n ,,( ,,till ,,fir/ ,,pati5t ,,is ,,infecti\s ,,disease ,,symptoms ,,to ,,o!rs ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,diph!ria #b days #ad days aft] membrane disappe>s4 ,mumps #aj-bb days #ad days f comm5cem5t4 ,sc>let fev] #d days ,until all scal+ has ceas$4 ,smallpox #ab-ag days ,until all scabs h fall54 ,measles #ad days #c days be=e eruption till scal+ & c\gh cease4 ,typhoid fev] #aa days ,until di>rha ceases4 ,:oop+ c\gh#ad days #c weeks be=e until #c weeks aft] beg9n+ to :oop4 ,wat] ,supply4--,bact]ia are m abundant 9 fl[+ /reams ?an 9 wat] /&+ 9 lakes or res]voirs 7contr>y to ! usual belief74 ,!y are mo/ abundant 9 riv]s t fl[ ?r\gh popul\s regions4 ,!y are comp>atively sc>ce 9 dry1 s&y soils1 & v num]\s 9 moi/1 loamy soils4 ,! wat] ( cities %\ld nev] be tak5 f a /ream or lake into :i* sew]age fl[s unless x is ?or\ghly filt]$4 ,filt]s are con/ruct$ ?us3 fir/ a lay] ( small /ones1 next a lay] ( co>se s&1 la/ly a lay] ( v f9e s& on top1 ! total ?ickness be+ f\r or five feet4 ,b5eficial microbes live ^u ! gra9s ( s& & de/roy all1 or ne>ly all1 ( ! dang]\s microbes z ! wat] sl[ly soaks ?r\gh4 ,! con/ruction ( su* wat]works is left to sanit>y eng9e]s1 ( c\rse1 & ! av]age citiz5 does n ne$ to "k ! details4 ,! dep>tm5t ( /reet clean+ %\ld receive ! will+ cop]ation ( all citiz5s4 ,banana peel+s1 pap]1 etc41 %\ld n be ?r[n ^u ! /reet or s*ool gr\nds4 ,g>bage1 a%es1 & rubbi% %\ld be plac$ 9 sep>ate cans1 z ! rules provide4 ,g>bage cans1 if n ?or\ghly clean$1 acquire unpleasant odors & bre$ flies & bact]ia4 ,!y %\ld be ?or\ghly wa%$ ) v hot wat] & sal soda & scald$ ) boil+ wat] & scrubb$ ) an old broom4#aa #aa ,! *ief ,dis9fectants are3 fre% air1 sun%9e1 heat1 =maldehyde1 etc4 ,air+ & sunn+ w de/roy "s g]ms 9 b$d+ & clo?+ z effectually z *emicals4 ,boil+ & /eam+ are ! be/ ways ( apply+ heat4 ,=maldehyde is a volatile liquid4 ,aft] room is seal$ & /rips ( pap] pa/$ all ov] cracks1 a specially con/ruct$ g5]ator is appli$ to keyhole1 & room kept clos$ = #ab h\rs4 ,m]curic *loride 7corrosive sublimate7 is us$ #a "p to #ajjj p>ts ( wat] = dis9fect+ soil$ clo?+1 t[els1 ut5sils1 surgeon's in/rum5ts1 & w\nds4 ,9 place ( ?is1 c>bolic acid1 #e p] c5t solution1 may be us$1 b x is n s good a g]micide4 ,! *ief duties ( ! ,heal? ,dep>tm5t are3 qu>ant9e isolation & dis9fection1 ) ! purpose ( prev5t+ or controll+ contagi\s & infecti\s diseases2 inspection ( dairies1 slaught]h\ses1 & o!r sanit>y "w2 inspection ( milk#ab & o!r food /uffs2 ! dep>tm5t ga!rs vital /ati/ics2 x en=ces ! rules = dis9fection ( public build+s4 #ab ,milk may be /]iliz$ by boil+1 b boil$ milk is n dige/ible nor nutriti\s4 ,milk may be ,pa/euriz$ by imm]s+ bottles ( milk 9 wat] :i* is kept ne>ly 7b n q7 at boil+ po9t 7#afj ,f47 = five m9utes4 ,b ?is makes ! milk less valuable ?an fre% milk1 & de/roys b5efic5t microbes4 ,butt]milk has _m su* microbes1 :i* kill injuri\s microbes & purify ! /oma*4 ,cleanl9ess1 or an aseptic condition1 is f> pref]able to antiseptics4 ,importance ( ,cop]ation ) ! ,heal? ,dep>tm5t4--,only an ignorant & %ort-sight$ p]son w\ld fail to cop]ate promptly & *e]fully ) local or /ate heal? (fic]s4 ,x is = ! b5efit & protection ( e "o t ! tru? conc]n+ contagi\s diseases be report$ promptly4 ,only 9 ?is way may outbreaks ( disease be prev5t$ & _m lives sav$4 ,he is a bad citiz5 & a public enemy :o w conceal a case ( disease dang]\s to ! community4 ,outbreaks ( fatal diseases may be easily prev5t$ or /amp$ out if ! heal? (fic] is su/a9$ & 8 directions c>ri$ out4 ,,index ,i1 ,v1 ,x1 etc4 ,introduction3 ,p ,plant ,biology3 ,a ,animal ,biology3 ,h ,human ,biology4 ,aboral surface1 ,a #ce4 ,abort$ se$s1 ,p #aff4 ,absorption1 ,h #ajf4 ,abutilon1 ,p #aef4 ,accessory fruit1 ,p #afd1 #afi4 ,accommodation 9 eye1 ,h #adc1 #aec4 ,acephala1 ,a #ajg4 ,acid1 ix4 ,adaptation to environm5t1 ,p #f1 ,a #adh1 #ahe1 #bja1 #bje1 #bjg1 ,h #ai1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj4 ,ad5oid gr[?s1 ,h #hf4 ,adipose tissue1 ,h #ab4 ,adult]ation ( food1 ,h #ic4 ,adv5titi\s roots1 ,p #cf2 buds1 ,p #aad4 ,a]ial roots1 ,p #cd4 ,aggregate fruit1 ,p #afh4 ,air cells1 ,h #ge4 ,air plants1 ,p #ce4 ,ak5es1 ,p #afe4 ,alb9ism1 ,h #af1 #ah4 ,album51 ,h #ib4 ,album91 ,h #ib4 ,alcohol & circulation1 ,h #fg2 & f]m5tation1 ,h #aeh2 & food1 ,h #aac2 & muscles1 ,h #ej2 & n]ves1 ,h #ace2 & sk91 ,h #bj4 ,alg>1 ,p #agi1 #ahc1 #aie4 ,alkal9e1 ix4 ,alt]nation ( g5]ation1 ,p #agi1 ,a #cj1 #ca4 ,ambulacral1 ,a #cf4 ,ameba1 ,a #aj4 ,am]icans1 ,h #a4 ,anadon1 ,a #ih4 ,anatomy1 ,h #i4 ,anemophil\s1 ,p #adi4 ,animal food1 ,h #ie1 #aaj4 ,annual plant1 ,p #ag4 ,antelope1 ,a #bae4 ,ant5n1 ,a #fh1 #hg4 ,an!r1 ,p #ace1 #add1 #ahj4 ,an!ridium1 ,p #agh1 #ahf1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bjb1 #bjc4 ,ant-eat]1 giant1 ,a #aii2 sp9y1 ,a #aif4 ,ant-lion1 ,a #ia4 ,ape1 ,a #bbj4 ,apical dehisc5ce1 ,p #aff4 ,app5dicitis1 ,h #ajf4 ,app5dix1 v]mi=m1 ,h #ajf4 ,appetite1 ,h #id1 #aaj4 ,apt]a1 ,a #hb4 ,apt]yx1 ,a #agd4 ,aqu>ium1 ,a #ag4 ,ar*egonium1 ,p #agh1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bjb1 #bjc4 ,argonaut1 pap]1 ,a #ajg4 ,arm1 ,h #cc4 ,armadillo1 ,a #bjj4 ,arr[head1 ,h #b4 ,art]ies1 ,h #ea1 #ec1 #ed1 #fa4 ,ar?ropoda1 ,a #i1 #abe4 ,arum family1 ,p #adj4 ,a%1 ,p #ib4 ,asiatic *ol]a1 ,h #afj4 ,assimilation1 ,p #ig1 ,h #ij4 ,association fib]s1 ,h #abc1 #abf4 ,a/hma1 ,h #hf4 ,a/igmatism1 ,h #add4 ,a?letics1 ,h #df1 #dg4 ,atwat]'s exp]im5ts1 ,h #aac4 ,auricle1 ,h #ec4 ,automatic action1 ,h #abc4 ,axil1 ,p #aab4 ,axis1 plant1 ,p #ae4 ,axon1 ,h #aai4 ,bacillus1 ,h #aeh1 #aei4 ,bact]ia1 ,p #ci1 #aji1 #ahb1 ,h #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa4 ,b&age1 ,h #fb4 ,b>b]ry1 ,p #aeg1 #aic4 ,b>k1 ,p #ed1 #ff1 #fg4 ,b>k-b\nd trees1 ,p #ed4 ,ba/1 ,p #fa1 #ff4 ,bat1 ,a #bjb4 ,ba?s1 ,h #bc1 #bd4 ,batra*ia1 ,a #abf4 ,bean1 ,p #bj1 #bh1 #ci1 #aid1 ,h #ie1 #if1 #aab4 ,beav]1 ,a #bjd4 ,b$bug1 ,a #ib1 #ic4 ,bee1 bumble1 ,a #hi2 honey1 ,a #hh4 ,beebe's exp]im5ts1 ,dr41 ,h #aac4 ,beef1 ,h #aaa2 tea1 ,h #aaa4 ,beetle1 ,a #ij1 #ia4 ,b]ry1 ,p #afg4 ,bi5nial plant1 ,p #ag4 ,big-head$ turtle1 ,a #adi4 ,bilat]al1 ,a #cd1 #di1 #ih4 ,bile1 ,h #aje4 ,bill ( bird1 ,a #aea4 ,biology def9$1 ,a #a1 ,h #i4 ,birds1 ,a #aej4 ,bl9d spot1 ,h #aea4 ,blood1 ,h #eh2 quantity (1 ,h #ee2 ( insects1 ,a #gh4 ,blood vessels1 ,h #eb2 control (1 ,h #eh4 ,bo>d ( ,heal?1 ,h #afc4 ,boll weevil1 ,a #ie1 #if4 ,boll worm1 ,a #ie1 #if4 ,bones1 ,h #bi2 composition (1 ,h #ca2 gr[? (1 ,h #ad1 #cf2 =ms (1 ,h #bh1 #bi1 #cd2 /ructure (1 ,h #cj4 ,bony tissue1 ,h #ac4 ,borax1 ,h #ic4 ,brace cells1 ,p #fg4 ,bracts1 ,p #acd4 ,bra91 ,h #abb2 cov]+s (1 ,h #abe2 ( fi%1 ,a #aah4 ,bran*1 ,p #aaa1 ,a #i4 ,brea?+1 =ms (1 ,h #hj2 ( bird1 ,a #afa2 ( insect1 ,a #gf2 ?r\gh m\?1 ,h #he4 ,bre$+1 plant1 ,p #g1 #h4 ,bron*ial tubes1 ,h #ge4 ,bruises1 ,h #fb4 ,bryophytes1 ,p #aha4 ,bud propagation1 ,p #aba4 ,budd+1 ,p #abg1 #abh4 ,buds1 ,p #gb1 #hb1 #hg1 #aaa2 fl[]1 ,p #aae2 fruit1 ,p #aae4 ,bureau ( entomology1 ,a #ie4 ,burns1 ,h #bd4 ,burs1 ,p #agb1 #agd4 ,bu%es1 ,p #aia1 ,a #aga4 ,butt]fly1 ,a #hc4 ,cabbage1 ,p #aac1 ,h #ie4 ,cabbage butt]fly1 ,a #hd1 #hf1 #hg4 ,callus1 ,p #ef4 ,calyx1 ,p #acc4 ,cambium1 ,p #fc1 #fe4 ,camel1 ,a #bad4 ,c&le1 xv1 ,a #e4 ,cane sug>1 ,h #ib1 #ajd4 ,capill>ies1 ,h #eb1 #ec1 #ef4 ,capsule1 ,p #afe4 ,c>bohydrate1 ,p #ie1 ,h #ia1 #ie4 ,c>bon1 vii1 xviii1 ,p #ib4 ,c>bon1 dioxid1 ,a #bd1 ,p #bb1 #ic1 #ajf1 ,h #fj1 #gf1 #ha1 #acb2 monoxid1 ,h #he4 ,c>nivor\s1 ,p #ii1 ,h #aaa4 ,c>p1 ,a #aab1 #aag1 #abc4 ,c>pel1 ,p #acf4 ,c>tilage1 ,h #ac1 #ce4 ,ca/or bean1 ,p #bd4 ,cat1 ,a #ahd4 ,cat]pill>1 t5t1 ,a #hd4 ,catk91 ,p #aeh4 ,caucasian1 ,h #a1 #b4 ,caulicle1 ,p #bj1 #bb1 #be4 ,c$> apple1 ,p #aid4 ,cell1 ,p #db1 #fc1 #ade1 #agf1 ,a #f1 #g1 ,h #e1 #f4 ,celom1 ,a #df4 ,cephalopod1 ,a #ajf4 ,c]ebellum1 ,h #abb1 #abd4 ,c]ebro-sp9al sy/em1 ,h #abh1 #abi4 ,c]ebrum1 ,h #abb1 #abe1 #abf4 ,*elonia1 ,a #adc4 ,*emi/ry1 xv4 ,*emical symbols1 xv4 ,*e/1 ,h #cb4 ,*ew+1 ,h #ij1 #aja4 ,*impanzee1 ,a #bai1 #bba4 ,*irp+1 ,a #ff4 ,*it91 ,a #gg4 ,*lorophyll1 ,p #hf1 #id1 #aja1 #ahc1 #ahf4 ,*ol]a1 ,h #afj4 ,*oroid1 ,h #aej1 #aeb4 ,*yme1 ,h #ajc4 ,cig>ettes1 ,h #fg1 #hf4 ,cilia1 ,a #ad1 #bj1 #aja1 #ajc1 ,h #gf4 ,ciliat$ *amb]1 ,a #ag4 ,cion1 ,p #abe4 ,circulation1 ,h #ea2 & brea?+1 ,h #eh2 & ex]cise1 ,h #fg2 hygi5e (1 ,h #fh2 9 ameba1 ,a #ab2 9 insect1 ,a #gg2 9 fi%1 ,a #aag2 portal1 ,h #fj1 #aje2 pulmon>y1 ,h #fj2 r5al1 ,h #fj4 ,city1 ,h #d4 ,cladophylla1 ,p #ajj4 ,clam1 h>d%ell1 ,a #ajd2 s(t%ell1 ,a #ajd4 ,class1 ,a #i4 ,classification1 ( animals1 ,a #h1 #abe2 ( birds1 ,a #agg2 insects1 ,a #hb2 mammals1 ,a #aic4 ,cleft graft1 ,p #abf4 ,cleft leaf1 ,p #ge4 ,clei/ogam\s1 ,p #aea4 ,click-beetle1 ,a #ia4 ,climate1 & clo?+1 ,h #be2 & bra9 "w1 ,h #fh2 & e>ly man1 ,h #b4 ,climb+ plants1 ,p #abi4 ,clitellum1 ,a #dc1 #dg4 ,cloaca1 ,a #ah4 ,clot1 ,h #fa4 ,clo!s mo?1 ,a #hd1 #ib1 #ic4 ,clo?+1 ,h #af1 #be4 ,clov]1 ,p #ci4 ,club mosses1 ,p #bjc4 ,clu/]1 fl[]1 ,p #aee1 #aei2 c5trifugal1 ,p #aef1 #aei2 c5tripetal1 ,p #aef2 indet]m9ate1 ,p #aef4 ,coagulation1 ,h #fa4 ,cockroa*1 ,a #ga4 ,cocoon1 ,a #hd4 ,codl+ mo?1 ,a #hd1 #hf1 #hg1 #ie4 ,cl5t]ata1 ,a #bh4 ,colds1 c>e (1 ,h #fi1 #hf4 ,coleopt]a1 ,a #hb4 ,collect+ insects1 ,a #gb4 ,colon1 ,h #ajf1 #aaa4 ,colonies1 plant1 ,p #aa4 ,colorado beetle1 ,a #ij1 #ia4 ,coloration1 w>n+1 ,a #hd1 #adf2 protective1 ,a #cd1 #cg1 #di4 ,colors ( fl[]s1 ,a #he4 ,comp>ative /udy1 ,a #he1 #ajh1 #abb1 #bbc2 mo? & butt]fly1 ,a #he4 ,composite fl[]s1 ,p #adj4 ,compositions1 subjects =1 ,h #ae1 #ej1 #aaf1 #ada4 ,comp\nd sub/ance1 vii4 ,conge/ion1 ,h #fh4 ,conjugation1 ,p #ahe4 ,conjunctiva1 ,h #aej4 ,connective tissue1 ,h #aa1 #ed1 #abj4 ,consumption1 ,h #aei4 ,convolution1 ,h #abf4 ,cook+1 ,h #aad4 ,cord9ation1 ,h #abd4 ,copp] head1 ,a #ade4 ,coral1 ,a #ca4 ,corall9e1 ,a #ca4 ,coral snake1 ,a #ade1 #adf4 ,cork1 ,p #ff1 #fg4 ,corn1 ,p #c1 #be1 #bf4 ,cornea1 ,h #aej4 ,corolla1 ,p #acc2 funnel =m1 ,p #ach2 labiate1 ,p #ach2 p]sonate1 ,p #aci2 rotate1 ,p #ach2 salv] =m1 ,p #ach4 ,corpuscles1 orig9 (1 ,h #cj2 r$1 ,h #ei2 :ite1 ,h #ei1 #fj1 #fe1 #fh4 ,corset1 ,h #eh1 #hj1 #hg4 ,cortex1 ,p #dd4 ,corymb1 ,p #aei4 ,cotton plant1 ,p #g1 ,a #ie4 ,cotyl$on1 ,p #bj4 ,cricket1 ,a #ga4 ,cross-f]tilization1 ,a #be4 ,cr[d poison1 ,h #hb4 ,cryptogam1 ,p #agf1 #ahj1 #ahc-bjd4 ,cuckoo1 ,a #agi4 ,currant1 ,p #aeg4 ,cutt+s1 ,p #aba1 #abc1 #abd4 ,cuttlefi%1 ,a #ajg4 ,cyme1 ,p #aei1 #afj4 ,cypra1 ,a #ajd4 ,cy/s1 ,a #ac4 ,cytoplasm1 ,h #f4 ,d>w91 ,a #dh1 #adh4 ,debates1 subjects =1 ,h #ada4 ,decidu\s1 ,p #hb4 ,decumb5t1 ,p #ej4 ,deg5]ation1 ,h #c1 #d1 #ada4 ,dehisc5ce1 ,p #add1 #afd4 ,deliquesc5t1 ,p #ea4 ,d5dron1 ,h #aai4 ,dep5d5t plants1 ,p #ajf4 ,d]mis1 ,h #ag4 ,devil's horse1 ,a #ga4 ,de ,vries1 ,a #adh1 #bbd4 ,dextr91 ,h #aab4 ,diaphragm1 ,h #gg1 #gh4 ,di*ogamy1 ,p #add4 ,dicotyl$on1 ,p #bj4 ,dicotyl$on\s /ems1 ,p #fa4 ,dige/ion1 ,p #ie1 ,h #hi1 #if1 #ajj4 ,digitate1 ,p #gd4 ,digits1 ,a #bbb1 ,h #aaa4 ,dimorph\s1 ,p #add4 ,dici\s1 ,p #ach1 #agj4 ,diph!ria1 ,h #afj4 ,dipt]a1 ,a #hb4 ,disease1 def9$1 ,h #e4 ,dis9fection1 ,h #afc4 ,disp]sal ( se$s1 ,p #agb4 ,dissection1 ,p #cj4 ,division ( labor1 ,a #bg1 #bi1 ,h #h4 ,dodd]1 ,p #ce1 #ajf4 ,dog1 ,a #bbd4 ,dolph91 ,a #bji4 ,doodle bug1 ,a #ia4 ,dorsal1 ,a #dc4 ,dove1 ,a #agi4 ,dragon fly1 ,a #ic4 ,dra9age1 ,h #aeh1 #afa4 ,dropsy1 ,h #fd4 ,drugs1 ,h #fj1 #acj1 #acc4 ,drupe1 ,p #afh4 ,drupelet1 ,p #afh4 ,duckbill1 ,a #aif4 ,du/1 ,h #hb1 #aeh4 ,e>1 ( bird1 ,a #aea2 ( 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,poll9ation1 ,p #add1 #ade2 artificial1 ,p #aec4 ,polyp1 ,a #i1 #bb1 #abe4 ,polypetal\s1 ,p #acd4 ,polysepal\s1 ,p #acd4 ,polytri*um1 ,p #aii4 ,pome1 ,p #afi4 ,portal ve91 ,h #aje4 ,portuguese man-o'-w>1 ,a #bh4 ,po/]ior curvature ( sp9e1 ,h #cg4 ,potato1 ,h #ib1 #ie1 #aab2 bug1 ,a #ij4 ,practical que/ions1 ,h #ej1 #fi1 #hg1 #aab1 #acf4 ,primates1 ,a #bbj4 ,primitive man1 ,h #c4 ,primrose1 ,p #adi4 ,proboscis1 ( butt]fly1 ,a #hc1 #hg2 elephant1 ,a #bjg4 ,prolegs1 ,a #hd1 #hg4 ,propagation by buds1 ,p #aba4 ,prop-roots1 ,p #cf4 ,protection ( birds1 ,a #aga4 ,protective resemblance1 ,a #cd1 #adf4 ,proteid1 xi1 ,h #hh1 #ia1 #ib1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #ajd4 ,prot]&r\s1 ,p #adf4 ,prot]ogyn\s1 ,p #adf4 ,pro?allus1 ,p #agh1 #bjb4 ,protoplasm1 xiv1 ,p #db1 #id1 #ig1 #ahe1 ,a #f1 #aa1 ,h #e1 #f1 #ei1 #ajf1 #aah4 ,protozoa1 ,a #g1 #i1 #aa1 #abe4 ,prun+1 ,p #aje4 ,pseud-annual1 ,p #ag4 ,pseudoneuropt]a1 ,a #hb4 ,pseudopod1 ,a #aa4 ,pt]idophytes1 ,p #aha1 #bja1 #bjc4 ,ptyal91 ,h #ajj4 ,puffball1 ,p #aid4 ,pulse1 ,h #ee4 ,pure food law1 ,h #ic4 ,pylorus1 ,h #ajc4 ,pyxis1 ,p #aff4 ,qu>ant9e1 ,h #afc4 ,qu>t]-saw$1 ,p #gj4 ,quill1 ,a #aef4 ,rabbit1 ,a #bje1 #bbc4 ,radial symmetry1 ,a #cd1 #abe4 ,ration1 daily1 ,h #id1 #if4 ,rattlesnake1 ,a #ade4 ,reaction1 ,h #aea1 #aeb4 ,receptacle1 ,p #acd1 #afc4 ,rectum1 ,a #acd1 ,h #ig4 ,reflex action1 ,h #aba4 ,reg5]ation ( lo/ p>ts1 ,a #cg4 ,r5n91 ,h #ajc4 ,reproduction1 ,a #ab1 #ae1 #bj1 #be1 #cg1 #df1 #abj4 ,reptiles1 ,a #aci4 ,respiration1 cellul>1 ,h #ha2 human1 ,h #gj2 hygi5e (1 ,h #hj2 9 plants1 ,p #ig1 #ajc4 ,re/+ spore1 ,p #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahi1 #aia1 #aib4 ,ret9a1 ,h #aea1 #aeb4 ,rhizome1 ,p #eb1 #bjb4 ,rhizopoda1 ,a #af4 ,road runn]1 ,a #afi4 ,rob91 ,a #ahc4 ,root cap1 ,p #dd4 ,root climb]1 ,p #abi4 ,root hairs1 ,p #da1 #db1 #df4 ,rootlet1 ,p #da4 ,root pressure1 ,p #ii1 #ajd4 ,roots1 & air1 ,p #da2 =ms (1 ,p #cb2 function1 ,p #ch2 /ructure1 ,p #ch1 #dc2 sy/ems1 ,p #cb4 ,rotif]1 ,a #di4 ,r\nd worm1 ,a #di4 ,rum9ant1 ,a #bac4 ,ru/1 ,p #aib4 ,salam&]1 ,a #acd1 #ach1 #aci4 ,saliva1 ,h #if1 #ajj1 #aab4 ,salt1 x1 ,h #ic4 ,sam>a1 ,p #afd4 ,s&1 xiii4 ,s&worm1 ,a #di4 ,sanit>y map1 ,h #aeh4 ,san ,jos scale1 ,a #ie4 ,sap1 ,p #fg4 ,saprophyte1 ,p #ajg1 #ajh4 ,scab 9 %eep1 ,a #ie4 ,scales1 ( bird1 ,a #afa2 fi%1 ,a #aaj2 mo?1 ,a #hi4 ,scallops1 ,a #ajd4 ,scape1 ,p #afa4 ,sc>ab1 ,a #ij1 #ia4 ,s*ool & heal?1 ,h #ace4 ,scl]otic1 ,h #aej4 ,sc\r+ ru%1 ,p #bjc4 ,scrambl]s1 ,p #abi4 ,sea anemone1 ,a #cc4 ,sea fan1 ,a #cb4 ,sea horse1 ,a #abd4 ,sea ur*91 ,a #ch4 ,se$1 ,p #bj1 #afc1 #ahj2 coat1 ,p #ba4 ,selag9ella1 ,p #bjd4 ,selection1 natural1 ,p #h2 artificial1 ,p #h4 ,s5se1 muscul>1 ,h #adc2 !rmic1 ,h #adb4 ,s5ses ( insects1 ,a #gf4 ,s5sory1 cell1 ,h #abj2 fib]1 ,h #abj1 #aba4 ,sepal1 ,p #acc1 #afi4 ,septicidal capsule1 ,p #aff4 ,s]um1 ,h #fa4 ,sessile1 ,p #gg4 ,set1 ,a #dc1 #dh4 ,sexual selection1 ,a #agd4 ,%>k1 ,a #aba4 ,%elf fungus1 ,p #aid4 ,%oes1 ,h #dh4 ,%\ld]1 ,h #cb4 ,%rub1 ,p #ai4 ,sick heada*e1 ,h #acc4 ,sieve tubes1 ,p #ff4 ,silicle1 ,p #afg4 ,silique1 ,p #afg4 ,silkworm1 ,a #hd1 #hf1 #ie4 ,silv] scale1 ,a #hc4 ,siphon1 ,a #aja4 ,siphonopt]a1 ,a #hb4 ,skeleton1 ( bird1 ,a #aeb2 cat1 ,a #ahh2 frog1 ,a #aca2 ( fi%1 ,a #aac2 man1 ,h #bh2 *>t (1 ,a #bah4 ,sk91 ,h #af4 ,skull1 ,h #fc2 mammalian1 ,a #aid4 ,sleep1 ,h #acj4 ,slipp] animalcule1 ,a #ac4 ,slo?1 ,a #aii4 ,slug1 ,a #aje4 ,smell1 ,h #adg4 ,snail1 ,a #aje4 ,societies1 ,p #i4 ,soil1 ,p #dj1 #dg1 ,a #dh4 ,sor$ia1 ,p #aif4 ,sori1 ,p #agg1 #aib4 ,s\r+ ( milk1 ,h #aeh4 ,spadix1 ,p #adj4 ,sp>r[1 ,a #ahb2 ,engli%1 ,a #agj4 ,spa!1 ,p #ach1 #adj4 ,specialization1 ,a #bj1 #bg1 #ff1 #baj1 ,h #h4 ,species1 ,a #h4 ,sp]m>y1 ,a #be1 #bg4 ,sp]matophytes1 ,p #ahj4 ,spicule1 ,a #ah4 ,spid]1 ,a #id4 ,spike1 ,p #aeg4 ,sp9al cord1 ,h #abj1 #aba4 ,sp9al de=mities1 ,h #cg4 ,sp9e1 ,h #ca4 ,spiracle1 ,a #gg1 #hg4 ,spirogyra1 ,p #ahd4 ,sponges1 ,a #ag1 #abe2 glass1 ,a #ai2 horny1 ,a #ai2 limy1 ,a #ai4 ,spontane\s combu/ion1 xiii4 ,sporangium1 ,p #agg1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #bja1 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,spore1 ,p #agf1 #agh1 #aha1 #ahd1 ,h #aei4 ,sporophyll1 ,p #ahj1 #bja4 ,sporophyte1 ,p #agg4 ,sports1 ,a #adh1 #bbd4 ,spra91 ,h #ch4 ,squa% bug1 ,a #ic1 #ie4 ,squid1 ,a #ajf4 ,/am51 ,p #ace4 ,/>*1 x1 ,p #ie1 #aja1 ,h #hh1 #ia4 ,/>vation1 ,h #ach4 ,/em1 ,p #di2 endog5\s1 ,p #ei2 exog5\s1 ,p #fa2 k9ds (1 ,p #di4 ,/]iliz+ w\nds1 ,h #afc4 ,/ickleback1 ,a #aai4 ,/igma1 ,p #ace1 #add1 #ade4 ,/imulant def9$1 ,h #acg4 ,/ipule1 ,p #gf1 #hd4 ,/ock1 ,p #abe4 ,/omate1 ,p #hg4 ,/one age1 ,h #b4 ,/one fruit1 ,p #afh4 ,/orage ( food1 ,p #ii4 ,/reet clean+1 ,h #afc4 ,/ruggle to live1 ,p #d1 #f1 ,a #adg1 ,h #d4 ,/udy1 comp>ative1 ,a #hb1 #adi1 #bbc4 ,/yle1 ,p #ace1 #afc4 ,sug>1 ,h #ia1 #ajj4 ,sulphur1 vii4 ,summ]-spore1 ,p #aia4 ,sun en]gy1 ,p #ie1 ,a #b1 ,h #ia4 ,sunlight1 ,a #b1 ,h#ah4 ,survival ( fitte/1 ,p #g1 ,a #adg1 ,h #d1 #ada4 ,sutures1 ,h #ce4 ,sw>m-spores1 ,p #ahf4 ,sweat gl&1 ,h #bj4 ,symbiosis1 ,p #aif4 ,sympa!tic sy/em1 ,h #abg1 #abi4 ,syng5esi\s1 ,p #ada4 ,synovial fluid1 ,h #cf4 ,tadpole1 ,a #abf1 #acd4 ,tann]1 ,dr41 ,h #ach4 ,tapeworm1 ,a #di4 ,t>antula1 ,a #id4 ,ta/e1 ,h #aaj1 #adc1 #adf4 ,te> gl&1 ,h #adi4 ,tee?1 ,h #hh1 #ih1 #ii1 #aaa2 ( frog1 ,a #acj4 ,teleutospores1 ,p #aib4 ,temp]ature1 ,h #ba2 n]ves (1 ,h #adb1 #adf4 ,t5don1 ,h #da4 ,t5dril1 ,p #aja4 ,t]rap91 ,a #adc1 #add4 ,?allophyte1 ,p #aha1 #ahd4 ,?allus1 ,p #ahd1 #aig4 ,?ompson1 ,sir ,h5ry1 on smok+1 ,h #hg4 ,?oracic duct1 ,h #fd1 #fe1 #aje4 ,?orns1 ,p #aja4 ,?\ght que/ions1 ,h #bj1 #bg1 #gi1 #ajg1 #aji1 #aaf4 ,?yrse1 ,p #afj4 ,?yroid gl&1 ,h #ig4 ,till&sia1 ,p #aaj4 ,timb]1 decay (1 ,p #aie4 ,tissue1 ,h #g1 #aj1 ,p #fj1 #fb4 ,toad1 ,a #acg4 ,toad/ool1 ,p #aid4 ,tobacco1 & he>t1 ,h #fg2 & lungs1 ,h #hf2 & ta/e1 ,h #adh2 :5 enjoyable1 ,h #hg4 ,tortoise1 ,a #adj1 #adc1 #add4 ,torus1 ,p #acd1 #afi4 ,t\*1 ,h #ade1 ,a #aai4 ,tox91 ,h #afj1 #afa4 ,toyi ,niku1 ,madame1 quot$1 ,h #ada4 ,tra*ea1 ,h #gd4 ,tra*eid1 ,p #fe4 ,transpiration1 ,p #ih1 #ajc4 ,trap-door spid]1 ,a #id4 ,tube feet1 ,a #ce4 ,tub]culosis1 ,h #e1 #afj4 ,tumble bug1 ,a #ij1 #ia4 ,turtle1 ,a #adj1 #adc1 #add4 ,tw9]s1 ,p #abi1 #aca4 ,typhoid fev]1 ,h #aei4 ,umbel1 ,p #aei4 ,umbo1 ,a #ih4 ,und]gr[?1 ,p #ab4 ,ungulate1 ,a #bab4 ,urea1 ,h #id4 ,uric acid1 ,h #aad4 ,ur9>y tubule1 ,h #bg4 ,vacuole1 ,a #aa1 #ab1 #ad4 ,valve1 ,p #afd1 ,h #ea1 #ec1 #eg4 ,vampire1 ,a #bjc4 ,v>iation1 ,a #adg1 ,p #b4 ,v>iety1 ,a #h4 ,vaso-motor n]ves1 ,h #bc1 #fh4 ,vau*]ia1 ,p #ahf4 ,vegetables1 ,h #ie1 #aab4 ,v5om\s snakes1 ,a #adc4 ,v5t1 ,a #db4 ,v5tilation1 ,h #ga1 #hb1 #hc4 ,v5tral1 ,a #dc4 ,v5tricle1 ,h #ec4 ,v]mes1 ,a #i1 #abe4 ,v]mi=m app5dix1 ,h #d1 #ajf4 ,v]tebra1 ,h #ga1 #hb1 #hc4 ,v]tebrates1 ,a #i1 #abe4 ,v]tebrate skeletons1 ,a #bah4 ,v]ticellate1 ,p #hd4 ,ve/igial organs1 ,h #ajf4 ,villi1 ,h #ajd4 ,v9eg>1 ,h #id4 ,visc]a1 ,h #abg2 ( bird1 ,a #afc4 ,vitre\s humor1 ,h #aeb4 ,volunt>y act1 ,h #abb1 #abd4 ,w>n+ s\nd1 ,a #adg4 ,wasps1 digg+1 ,a #hi4 ,wat]-pore1 ,p #hh4 ,wat]works1 ,h #afc4 ,weevil1 ,a #ij1 #ia1 #if4 ,:ale1 ,a #bjh4 ,:eat ru/1 ,p #aib4 ,:ite corpuscles1 ,h #ei2 orig9 (1 ,h #fa2 "w (1 ,h #fj1 #afa1 #afb4 ,:ite we$1 or ox-eye daisy1 ,p #aee4 ,:orl$1 ,p #hd4 ,will[ mildew1 ,p #aij4 ,w9d travel]s1 ,p #agc4 ,w+s1 ( gras%opp]1 ,a #fg2 ( bird1 ,a #aec1 #aeh4 ,woodpeck]1 ,a #ahj4 ,woody fib]1 ,p #ag4 ,worms1 ,a #db4 ,w\nds ( plants1 ,p #ef4 ,writt5 ex]cises1 ,h #ae1 #ej1 #aaf4 ,yea/ plants1 ,p #aij1 ,h #aeh4 ,yell[ fev]1 ,h #afj4 ,yell[ spot1 ,h #aea4 ,zoology def9$1 ,a #a4 ,zoophytes1 ,a #cc4 ,zygnema1 ,p #ahe4 ,zygospore1 ,p #ahe1 #ahi1 #aij4 ,,lessons ,,9 ,,hygi5ic ,,physiology ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,,coleman4 x #bga pages4 #aih illu/rations 7#af color$1 #ac full-page plates74 #fj c5ts net4 ,9 ,lessons 9 ,hygi5ic ,physiology ! /udy ( physiology is simplifi$ )\t weak5+ ! pres5tation ( its ?ree ess5tial pr9ciples--! biological pr9ciple ( environm5t1 ! *emical pr9ciple ( oxidation1 & ! physical pr9ciple ( en]gy4 ,! subject is approa*$ ?r\gh\t f ! /&po9t ( heal?1 because ?is is ! mo/ useful z well z ! mo/ int]e/+ po9t ( view4 ,! "q ( temp]ance is treat$ fully1 b at ! same "t 9 a cons]vative mann]4 ,! book is fully illu/rat$1 "o hundr$ & n9ety-eight figures be+ furni%$1 sixte5 ( :i* are color$4 ,! ,lessons is suit$ to ! ne$s ( tea*]s :o may f9d ! ,elem5ts some:at too advanc$ = _! classes4 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,physiology ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,,coleman4 xii #cfd pages4 ,a v full c\rse 9 ,physiology & ,hygi5e4 ,pr(usely illu/rat$ 9 black & :ite & 9 colors4 #ij c5ts net4 ,?is book has an exceptionally l>ge numb] ( illu/rations--two hundr$ & =ty-eight1 ( :i* eight are full-page color$ plates4 ,! ne$ = a comp\nd microscope is l>gely obviat$ by sixty microscopic views ( cells & tissues4 ,! ,elem5ts is provid$ ) a ,color$ ,manik9 arrang$ to %[ e important organ 9 its natural position ) ref]5ce to ! organs be=e x1 beh9d x1 & ar\nd x4 ,s9ce e pupil has ! manik9 :ile /udy+ ea* lesson1 x is really m s]viceable ?an ! manik9s usually f\nd 9 s*ools4 ,?is book conta9s tw5ty-five ,?\ght ,lessons ( ab\t t5 que/ions ea*1 logically develop+ diff]5t l9es ( ?\ght2 also ?ree hundr$ que/ions 9 ,appli$ ,physiology4 ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company ,sixty-f\r & ,sixty-six ,fif? ,av5ue1 ,new ,york ,,botany ,an ,elem5t>y ,text = ,s*ools4 ,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey1 ,director ( ! ,college ( ,agriculture1 & ,pr(essor ( ,rural ,economy 9 ,cornell ,univ]sity4 ,revis$ & enl>g$4 ,illu/rat$4 #abmo4 ,half lea!r4 xiv #cee pages4 #a4aj net4 ,! subjects treat$ are f\r 9 numb]3 ! nature ( ! plant itself1 ! relation ( ! plant to its surr\nd+s1 ! m9ute /ructures ( plants1 & ! det]m9ation ( ! k9ds ( plants4 ,ea* ( ^! subjects is practically di/9ct1 s t ! tea*] may beg9 :]e he w4 ,! five hundr$ illu/rations 9 ! book are an important z well z an attractive feature4 ,!y are n pictures m]ely--!y are illu/rations ( ! subject-matt]2 _m ( !m are reproductions ( photographs4 ,a flora conta9+ descriptions ( m ?an six hundr$ common wild & cultivat$ plants1 ) keys to ! natural ord]s1 completes ! book4 ,,lessons ,,) ,,plants ,sugge/ions = ,see+ & ,int]pret+ ,"s ( ! ,common ,=ms ( ,vegetation4 ,by ,pr(essor ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 ,illu/rat$4 #abmo4 ,half lea!r4 xxxi #dia pages4 #a4aj net4 ,! book is bas$ ^u ! idea t ! prop] way to beg9 ! /udy ( plants is by means ( plants1 in/ead ( =mal ideas or def9itions4 ,in/ead ( a def9ition z a model tell+ ! pupil :at he is to see1 ! plant %[s him :at !re is to be se51 & ! def9ition foll[s4 ,9 ?is way ! pupil soon beg9s to g5]alize1 & ! conclusion rea*$ is ! true def9ition4 ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company ,sixty-f\r & ,sixty-six ,fif? ,av5ue1 ,new ,york ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,inconsi/5t & obsolete spell+1 hyph5ation1 etc4 h be5 reta9$1 except z li/$ bel[4 ,dep5d+ on ! h>d- & s(tw>e us$ to read ?is text & _! sett+s1 n all elem5ts may display z int5d$4 ,scales & factors ( enl>gem5t or r$uction z giv5 9 illu/ration captions are n necess>ily correct4 ,page ,p #fe1 leg5d ) ,fig4 #gh3 ref]5ce lett] f does n appe> 9 ! illu/ration4 ,page ,p #ajg1 7b1 ,fig #acb73 ref]5ce lett] b does n appe> 9 ! illu/ration4 ,page ,p #aaa3 ! text ref]s to an apple bud 9 ,fig4 #acg1 ! illu/ration caption ref]s to an apricot bud4 ,page ,a #af-;,a #ag3 !re is no ,fig4 #bj 9 ! s\rce docum5t4 ,page ,a #if3 !re is no caption or o!r explanation ) ! ?ird illu/ration 7hazelnut leaf1 fruit & insect74 ,page ,h #h1 444 canals in/ead ( railroads = _! comm]ce 7see ,fig4 #hd73 x is n cle> :i* illu/ration is ref]r$ to2 ,fig4 #hd does n %[ ?is di/9ction4 ,page ,h #aa1 444 call$ n]ve fib]s 7,fig4 #adb73 !re is no ,fig4 #adb1 nor is x cle> to :i* figure %[+ n]ve fib]s ?is phrase ref]s4 ,page ,h #hh1 ,practical ,"q #f3 ! ref]5ce to ,*apt] ,,vi is includ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,page ,h #aje1 444 fre% milk is an emulsion ( cream 7,fig4 #ih73 ,fig4 #ih %[s some?+ unrelat$4 ,page ,h #afa1 ,page ,h #afa3 ,/agnant pools may be fill$ or dra9$ 7,exp4 #d73 !re are only ?ree exp]im5ts ) ?is *apt]2 ,exp]im5t #c m5tions /agnant wat]4 ,*anges made3 ,footnotes1 tables & illu/rations h be5 mov$ out if text p>agraphs4 ,"s m9or typographical errors & miss+ or extrane\s punctuation h be5 correct$ sil5tly2 :]e relevant1 illu/ration captions h be5 /&>dis$4 ,blanks to be fill$ out h be5 /&>dis$ to a s]ies ( und]scores4 ,! p>ts ( ! book h be5 includ$ 9 ! page numb]+3 l[] case ,roman num]als = ! index1 prefixes ,i1 ,p1 ,a & ,h = ! ,introduction & ! p>ts on plants1 animals1 & humans respectively4 ,page ,i ix3 page numb] ,p #a ins]t$ 9 ,table ( ,cont5ts = ,"p ,i ,*apt] #a4 ,page ,i xi3 page numb] ,h #bi 7section ,! ,skeleton7 *ang$ to ,h #bh4 ,page ,i xvii3 ,see also exp]im5ts ) c&le & brea?1 9 ,introduction to ,human ,biology4 & relat$ hyp]l9ks *ang$ to ,see also exp]im5ts ) c&le & brea?1 9 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,biology4 & relevant hyp]l9ks4 ,page ,p#ca3 ,fig4 ,b has be5 rotat$ #ij4 ,page ,p #hi3 444 at _! middles on ei!r side ! op5+1 444 *ang$ to 444 at _! middles on ei!r side ( ! op5+1 4444 ,page ,p #ia3 444 ! table on page #hh 444 *ang$ to 444 ! table on page #hh 4444 ,page ,a#h3 7,fig4 #chi47 *ang$ to 7,fig4 #cij47 ,page ,a #db3 444 a te/ ) live worm 444 *ang$ to 444 a te/ ) a live worm 4444 ,page ,a #ia3 ,p>5!sis delet$ f 444 ,:]e does a ,sc>ab 7or sacr$ beetle 4444 ,page ,a#ic3 ,illu/ration caption ,fig4 #agg add$4 ,page ,a #id3 p>5!sis delet$ f 7,does ! size ( its n]ve ganglia 4444 ,page ,a #adc1 caption ) ,fig4 #bgj3 444 lr1 liv] 444 *ang$ to 444 le1 liv] 4444 ,page ,a #agd3 ,describe ! molt+ process 7page #abj7 *ang$ to ,describe ! molt+ process 7page #aeg74 ,page ,a #agg3 ,d ,bill hook$1 444 *ang$ to ,d ,bill hook$1 4444 ,page ,a #aic3 ,c ,head l>ge2 444 *ang$ to ,c ,head l>ge2 4442 ,c ,five toes1 444 *ang$ to ,c ,five toes1 4442 ,dolph9 7#cgi1 #cig7 *ang$ to ,dolph9 7,figs4 #cgi1 #cig74 ,page ,a #bjj3 7,see ,fig4 #cdg47 *ang$ to 7,see ,fig4 #cdi47 ,page ,h #ag3 "q m>k delet$ f 444 a cotton clo? ( same weight & texture8 ,page ,h #be3 444 keep+ ! body cool dur+ ! ex]tion 7,exp4 o7 *ang$ to 444 keep+ ! body cool dur+ ! ex]tion 7,exp4 #e74 ,pahe ,h #ch3 444 sit f> back 9 ! *air 7,figs4 #fj1 #fa1 #fb7 444 *ang$ to 444 sit f> back 9 ! *air 7,figs4 #di1 #ej1 #ea7 4444 ,page ,h #ed3 444 blood vessels mu/ h ^! ?ree prop]ties8 *ang$ to 444 blood vessels mu/ h ^! ?ree prop]ties4 ,page ,h #ef3 ,fig4 #eg rotat$ #ahj4 ,page ,h #gj3 7,see ,animal ,biology1 p4 #ad47 *ang$ to 7,see ,animal ,biology1 p4 #d47 ,page ,h #gb3 ,make a model l sket* 444 *ang$ to ,make a model-l sket* 4444 ,page ,h #aaj1 ,fig4 #aja3 individual elem5ts rotat$ #ij clockwise4 ,page ,h #adj 7footnote73 clos+ quote m>k ins]t$ aft] 444 h[ to h>monize color ) h]self4 ,page ,h #aeh3 p>5!sis delet$ aft] 444 #bjj diamet]s1 or #dj1jjj areas74 ,index3 "s page numb]s correct$ & book 7,i1 ,p1 ,a or ,h1 see above7 lett]s add$4