,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,bold text is denoted by equal signs4 ,underlined text is denoted by double underscores4 ,overlined text is denoted by at symbols4 ,overlines from square and cube root notations 7 and 1 respectively7 have been omitted4 ,footnote anchors are denoted by number1 and the footnotes have been placed at the end of the chapter4 ,a superscript is denoted by x or xx1 for example undr or #cfth4 ,some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book4 ,this edition of the book did not include a ,table of ,contents4 ,for the convenience of the reader one has been created here3 ,preface4 ,index4 ,part ,i4 ,arithmetic1 ,geometry1 ,drawing1 ,etc4 ,arithmetic4 ,some ,signs ,employed in ,calculations4 ,powers and ,roots4 ,proportion4 ,elements of ,practical ,geometry4 ,geometrical ,drawing4 ,drawing ,instruments4 ,geometrical ,drawings4 the ,micrometrical ,dividing ,table4 ,other ,methods of ,dividing ,into ,equal ,parts4 to ,subdivide a ,circle4 ,time4 ,part ,,ii4 ,materials ,employed in ,horology4 ,iron4 ,cast ,iron4 ,steel4 ,general ,observations4 ,special ,observations4 ,determination of the ,qualities of ,steel4 ,preparations of ,steel4 ,hardening4 ,tempering4 to ,whiten and ,blue ,steel4 ,case-hardening4 ,influence of ,foreign ,metals and ,metalloids on the ,qualities of ,iron and ,steel4 ,copper4 ,zinc4 ,brass4 ,hammer ,hardening of ,brass4 to ,anneal ,brass4 ,cast ,brass4 ,tin4 ,bronze4 ,sterro4 ,lead4 ,nickel4 ,german ,silver4 ,gold4 ,silver4 ,aluminium and ,aluminium ,bronze4 ,mercury4 ,platinum4 ,palladium4 ,characteristic ,properties of ,alloys4 ,soldering4 ,methods of ,soldering4 ,bronzing4 ,gilding4 ,acids and ,salts4 ,oil4 ,alcohol4 ,benzine1 ,etc4 ,polishing ,materials4 ,preparation of ,polishing ,materials4 ,smoothing4 ,smoothing of ,brass4 ,smoothing of ,steel4 ,polishing4 to ,polish ,steel4 ,cement1 ,wax1 ,resin1 ,etc4 ,enamel4 ,precious ,stones4 ,working in ,precious ,stones4 ,part ,,iii4 ,health and ,manipulation4 ,preservation of ,health4 the ,sight4 the ,body in ,general4 ,use of the ,file and ,graver4 to ,file ,flat and ,square ,with ,both ,hands at ,once4 to ,file ,flat ,with ,one ,hand4 to ,turn ,cylindrical ,pivots1 ,etc41 and ,square ,shoulders4 ,part ,,iv4 ,tools and ,appliances4 ,workshop ,fittings4 the ,lathe4 the ,foot ,wheel4 the ,bench4 ,idlers4 ,chucks4 the ,slide ,rest4 ,gravers and ,other ,hand-turning ,tools4 ,drills4 ,lathe ,attachments4 ,miscellaneous ,small ,tools4 ,accessories and ,miscellaneous ,operations to ,be ,performed in the ,universal ,head4 to ,center an ,object4 ,uprighting and ,drilling4 ,production of ,screw ,threads4 ,screw ,plates and ,taps4 ,taps4 ,methods of ,tapping ,holes4 ,rapid ,mode of ,making a ,screw4 ,screw-head ,tools4 ,tools ,for ,cutting and ,rounding-up the ,teeth of ,wheels4 ,wheel-cutting ,engine4 ,cutters ,for ,forming the ,teeth of ,brass ,wheels4 ,mill ,cutters ,for ,steel4 ,tool ,for ,making ,cutters4 ,tools ,for ,correcting the ,form of ,teeth4 to ,test the ,accuracy of ,certain ,tools4 ,part ,v4 ,repairing and ,examining ,watches4 ,method4 ,external ,examination of the ,watch4 to ,examine a ,geneva ,movement4 ,accessories ,for ,beginners4 ,cleaning the ,watch4 ,putting the ,watch ,together4 to ,examine ,english ,or ,american ,movements4 to ,rapidly ,time a ,watch ,or ,clock4 ,timing in ,positions4 ,horizontal and ,vertical4 ,note on the ,proportions of ,balances4 ,demagnetizing4 ,part ,,vi4 ,practical ,recipes4 the ,plate4 the ,barrel4 ,including ,arbor1 ,stopwork1 ,mainspring1 ,etc4 the ,mainspring4 the ,fusee4 ,chain4 ,wheels4 ,pinions4 ,set-hands ,square4 ,pivots4 ,bushing ,pivot ,holes1 ,etc4 ,depths4 on the ,application of the ,geometrical ,laws of ,depths to ,practice4 ,pallets4 ,cylinder4 ,balance ,spring4 ,dial ,plate4 ,metal ,dials4 ,hands4 ,glasses4 ,broaching4 ,solid and ,hollow ,squares4 to ,straighten a ,rod1 ,plate ,or ,wheel4 ,american ,watch ,tool ,co4 ,,stoney ,,batter ,,works1 ,chymistry ,district1 ,,waltham1 ,,mass4 ,illustration ,,makers ,,of ,,the ,,celebrated ,,webster-,,whitcomb ,,lathe ,,and ,,attachments4 ,do not be deceived by an 8,,imitation0 when you can get the ,genuine ,webster-,whitcomb for #cf4jj4 ,by the introduction of special and costly tools we have brought the price of ,lathes down from #hj4jj in #ahgf1 to #cf4jj in #ahid4 ,who has done more for the craft than we8 ,,send for ,price ,list and ,,note reductions4 ,remember our full address4 ,,benj4 ,,allen ,,co4 #ada-adc ,,state ,,st41 ,,chicago1 ,,ill4 ,watch ,materials1 ,tools and ,jewelers' ,supplies4 ,,the ,,most ,,complete ,,stock4 ,,lowest ,,prices4 ,,best ,,goods4 ,illustration3 ,,diamond ,,pin ,,tongues ,extra ,quality ,manufactured ,expresssly for ,,benj4 ,,allen ,,co1 #ada #adc ,state ,street ,chicago1 ,ill4 8,diamond0 ,brand ,pin ,tongues1 put up in neat box1 partitioned off1 each size separate1 warranted the best and stiffest ,pins in the market1 per gross - #a4jj4 ,all ,orders ,filled ,accurately and ,without ,delay4 ,,send ,,for ,,illustrated ,,catalogue4 ,watches1 ,clocks1 ,diamonds1 ,jewelry and ,silverware4 ,,the ,,watchmakers' ,,hand ,,book ,,intended ,,as ,a ,,workshop ,,companion ,,for ,,those ,,engaged ,,in ,,watchmaking ,,and ,,allied ,,mechanical ,,arts ,,by ,,claudius ,,saunier ,,illustrated ,,american ,,edition ,,revised ,,and ,,enlarged ,,by ,,henry ,g4 ,,abbott ,,with ,,special ,,reference ,,to ,,the ,,wants ,,of ,,american ,,workmen ,,chicago3 ,,geo4 ,k4 ,,hazlitt ,,co41 ,,publishers4 #ahid4 ,,copyrighted #ahib1 ,,by ,,geo4 ,k4 ,,hazlitt ,,co4 ,,preface4 ,m4 ,saunier's writings occupy an unique position in ,europe1 as works of reference for all who are engaged in watchmaking1 and it may not be out of place to observe that the ,american edition of his treatise promises to take a similar place among ,english-speaking communities4 ,a glance at the index will show that the information given is essentially practical in its character1 and such as will be of use to the watchmaker in his daily work4 ,the volume is thus in no sense an abridgment of the original edition1 but on the contrary1 it contains much more matter than the original work4 ,in recent years the work of the ordinary watch repairer has undergone considerable change4 ,the apprenticeship he serves1 if indeed it can be called a real apprenticeship1 is shorter than formerly4 ,the immense number of badly constructed watches that he is called upon to put in going order for a trifling remuneration1 compels him to replace the older methods of procedure by others1 whenever by so doing time can be saved4 ,from this point of view1 then1 the value of the present ,hand ,book can hardly be over-estimated1 since it contains1 in a readily accessible form1 many details as to the working of metals1 and descriptions of various practical operations1 new and improved forms of tools1 etc4 ,but the volume will be found of daily use to a wider circle of workers than those above referred to4 ,we believe that there is hardly a branch of the watchmaking trade which may not benefit by the numerous practical details that are given2 indeed1 although the work is specially designed for the use of watchmakers1 a great portion of it will be seen to be no less applicable to other mechanical arts4 ,m4 ,saunier's original works1 the ,guide-,manuel de l',horloger1 and ,recueil des ,procedes ,pratiques1 which appeared as separate volumes1 have been incorporated in this ,american edition1 a large amount of additional information being at the same time added4 ,as the second contained many details that more properly belonged to the first1 and vice versa1 it has been thought desirable to remodel the whole1 and1 as will be seen from an examination1 the six parts that constitute the work are distinct in their character4 ,with a view to further facilitate the use of this ,hand ,book as a work of daily reference1 an unusually full index has been added1 which the reader is recommended in all cases to consult1 and no effort has been spared to make the cross references in the body of the work as complete as possible4 ,it seems desirable here to give some explanation in regard to several of the practical methods described4 ,every watchmaker will at once recognize that recipes are included which are of the nature of makeshifts1 and that it would in many cases be better to replace a piece by a new one rather than to repair it in the manner indicated4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it has been felt that the work will often be appealed to by those who1 from various circumstances1 may be prevented from making or procuring a new part that will suit the watch under repair1 while those who are not so situated will have no difficulty in deciding for themselves as to which method to adopt4 ,the original work of ,m4 ,saunier1 and the ,english edition1 both had the illustrations in the back of the work1 which necessitated considerable inconvenience when consulting them4 ,in this edition we have ventured to insert the illustrations in the text that describes them4 ,the antiquated tools1 like the bow1 bow-lathe1 the turns and mandril1 have been omitted1 and the modern foot-wheel1 lathe and accessories substituted4 ,,henry ,g4 ,,abbott ,,index4 ,,note--,the references are in all cases to the pages1 not to the paragraphs4 ,a ,accuracy of tools1 to test1 #cff 0 0 rules1 to test1 #cc ,acids1 #abg ,adjusting rod1 to use1 #dcc ,agate1 #afd ,akerman on hardening1 #gg ,alcohol1 #acb 0 and glycerine on oilstones1 #aib ,alloys1 #eg 0 properties of1 #ajh 0 that melt at certain temperatures1 #hb ,alum1 #abh ,aluminium1 #ajc1 #aaj 0 bronze1 #ajd1 #aaj 0 solders1 #aac1 #aaf ,amalgams1 #aje ,american chucks1 #bbd ,ammonium1 chloride of1 #abh ,angle of cutting edges1 #bce ,angles of escapement1 to measure1 #dfe 0 measurement of1 #bf 0 to construct equal1 #dd 0 to subdivide1 #dd ,annealing brass1 #if 0 steel1 #gb ,anvil1 to harden face of1 #hh ,appliances for watchmakers1 #ahi ,aqua ,regia1 #abg ,arbor1 barrel1 to make1 #dji1 #dbj 0 0 0 repair1 #dbh 0 0 0 true1 #dbi 0 chuck for wheel-cutting1 #bbd1 #ccg 0 to straighten1 #eje 0 nut1 to drill1 #dbe 0 0 diameter of1 #dbe 0 set-hands1 to adjust1 #dea 0 0 0 tighten1 #bid ,area1 measurement of1 #be ,arithmetic1 importance of1 #ag ,arithmetical ratio1 #bb ,automatic blow-pipe1 #bja ,ayr stone1 #ace ,axis of crystallization1 #aff ,b ,back rests1 #bec ,balance1 pivots1 form of1 #djj 0 poise of1 #dja 0 protector1 #bfe 0 spring stud index1 #bhj 0 to make plain1 #dcf 0 vibrations of1 #dfj ,balances1 proportions of1 #dja ,balance spring1 action of1 #dgc 0 0 collet tool1 #bhf1 #dgd 0 0 gauge1 #dge 0 0 to center1 #cgg 0 0 0 clean1 #chd 0 0 0 draw1 #dg 0 0 0 flatten1 #dgg 0 0 0 select1 #dgh 0 0 0 weaken1 #dgg ,balance-springs1 palladium1 #ajg 0 0 platinum1 #ajg ,balas ruby1 #afb ,bands1 #bai ,barrel-arbor1 to make1 #dji1 #dbj 0 0 0 repair1 #dbh 0 0 0 true1 #dbi 0 cover1 to make1 #daj 0 going1 to put together1 #che 0 hole to bush1 #dab 0 hook1 to fix1 #daa 0 clock1 to make1 #dbj 0 to examine1 #cgi 0 0 make1 #dji 0 0 oil1 #chh 0 0 repair1 #cgi1 #dab 0 0 true1 #cgi1 #dac 0 0 upright1 #dac ,bars1 to make1 #dji ,baths for hardening1 #gh ,beaupuy burnishers and files1 #aie ,beat block1 #bff ,beginners1 aids for1 #cha ,bell-metal1 #ih ,belts for lathes1 #bai ,bench1 #ahi1 #bba ,bent pivot1 to redress1 #ded ,benzine1 #acc1 #chd ,berlioz rounding-up cones1 #cfb ,berzelius pastile1 #dih ,black polish on steel1 #aed ,bleaching silver dials1 #dhg ,blow-pipes1 #aii ,blow-pipe1 gas1 #bja 0 automatic1 #bja ,blue polishing stone1 #ace ,blueing steel1 #hf ,board1 arrangements of1 #agg1 #ahi 8,body0 of steel1 #gj ,borax as flux for soldering1 #abh ,bouchons1 movable1 #def 0 to make1 #bih1 #def 0 0 rivet1 #def ,brass1 #ij1 #aaj 0 cast1 #hf1 #aaj 0 dials1 to silver1 #dia 0 etc41 drill blade for1 #bda 0 influence of impurities on1 #ia 0 plates1 to harden1 #ib 0 rods1 to harden1 #ie 0 to anneal1 #if 0 0 bronze1 #aba 0 0 polish1 #adi 0 0 select1 #ia 0 0 smooth1 #aci 0 wheel teeth1 observations on cutting1 #cdf 0 wheels1 to polish1 #adi1 #ace ,brazing1 #aai ,breguet spring1 to set1 #dgf ,broaches1 #aii ,broaching1 #dii 0 a hole round1 #dii ,brocot method of hardening brass rods1 #ie ,broken screw extractor1 #bfb 0 0 to remove with alum1 #abh ,bronze1 #ih1 #aaj 0 aluminium1 #ajc1 #aaj 0 to render malleable1 #ih ,bronzing1 #abj ,brush1 to clean with1 #chc ,brushes1 preparation of1 #chb ,buff leather1 #acc ,burnishers1 #aih 0 ,beaupuy1 #aie 0 to re-face1 #aih ,burnishing brass wheels1 #ace1 #adi ,burnt iron1 #eh ,bushing barrel holes1 #dab 0 pivot-holes1 #def ,c ,caliper1 figure-of-#h1 #aig 0 for heights1 etc41 #aig 0 micrometer1 #bgj 0 pallet1 #dff 0 rest1 jeweling1 #bdi 0 vernier1 #bgh ,camphorated oil1 #aca ,cannon pinion1 to tighten1 #ddi ,carbon in cast iron and steel1 #fj ,carnelian1 #afd ,case hardening1 #hh ,case1 to examine1 #chi ,cast brass1 #ij 0 iron1 #fj 0 steel1 #fa ,castings1 malleable1 #fa ,catgut bands1 to join1 #bai ,cement1 application of1 #aef 0 steel1 #fb ,center of circle1 to find1 #dd ,centers1 to test truth of1 #cff 0 various1 #bff ,center wheel1 #cgi 0 0 to oil1 #chh ,centering attachments1 #bec 0 from circumference1 #cjg 0 in wax1 #aeg1 #cad 0 methods of1 #cje 0 rods1 #bhe1 #che ,chain1 fusee1 to ease1 #dcd ,chain hook1 to rivet1 #dcd ,chalk for cleaning1 #chb ,chamfering tools1 #bha1 #bhc ,charcoal for polishing1 #acc 0 used for smoothing1 #acc ,chinese bronzing1 #aba ,chloride of ammonium1 #abh 0 of zinc as flux for soldering1 #aah ,chrysolite1 #afc ,chucks1 #bbd ,circle1 divisions of1 #bd 0 sub-division of1 #eb 0 to find center of1 #dd ,circular oil stones1 #aia ,circumference1 ratio to diameter1 #be 0 to center from1 #cjg ,cleaning brushes1 #chc 0 files1 #aic 0 gold or gilt objects1 #abe 0 metal dials1 #dia 0 nickel movements1 #aja 0 rough steel1 #ge 0 watches1 #chb ,clock barrel1 to make1 #dbj 0 dials1 to clean1 #dia 0 hands1 to blue1 #hf 0 pinions1 to polish1 #ddc 0 to time rapidly1 #cid ,closing barrel holes1 etc41 #bie ,cocks1 to make1 #dji ,colcothar of vitriol1 #ace ,cold gilding without mercury1 #abb 0 hammering1 #gd1 #ib ,collet1 balance spring1 tool1 #bhf ,coloring gold dials1 #dic ,compass1 proportional1 #cg ,compasses1 #aif ,conductivity1 #aaj1 #aab ,copper1 #hi 0 alloys with gold1 #ajb 0 to bronze1 #abj ,cord of lathe1 #bai ,countershaft1 #bbj ,counting vibrations1 #cid ,cover of barrel1 groove for1 #daj 0 0 0 to make1 #daj ,crocus1 #ace ,crossing out a wheel1 #dce ,crossings of wheel1 to mark1 #bih 0 to renew broken1 #ddj ,crystallization1 axis of1 #aff ,cube root1 #bj ,curb1 to adjust1 #dae ,cutters1 to adjust form of1 #cec 0 for jewels1 #afe 0 0 making grooves1 etc41 #cab 0 0 slide rest1 #bhf 0 0 steel wheels1 #cdg 0 0 teeth1 various kinds1 #cci 0 rose and star1 #cdi 0 rounding up1 to make1 #cca 0 tool for making wheels1 #cec 0 to sharpen slide rest1 #bhg 0 wheel1 to make1 #cci ,cutting a file1 #aid 0 edge1 angles of1 #bce 0 faces of gravers1 forms of1 #bci 0 glass1 #dih 0 wheels1 observations on1 #caj1 #cdh ,cylinder escape wheel1 to test1 #bij 0 to oil1 #chh 0 0 pivot a1 #ded 0 0 polish mechanically1 #dfh ,d ,dead smoothing1 #adc 0 surface of gold1 to restore1 #abf ,decantation1 #acf ,definitions1 geometrical1 #bc ,degrees of circle defined1 #bd ,demagnetizing watches1 #djc ,density1 #ajh ,depth caliper1 #aig ,depths1 application of laws of1 #deh1 #dfj 0 in stem-wind work1 #dfb 0 theoretical and practical1 #deh1 #dfj 0 to ease1 #cfe 0 0 secure good1 #deg 0 visible and invisible1 to test1 #cgg ,depthing tool1 to test accuracy of1 #cfh ,design1 to transfer1 #cj ,dial1 enamel1 to cut hole in1 #dhd 0 0 0 drill1 #dhj 0 0 0 reduce diameter of1 #dhf 0 0 0 remove figure from1 #dhf 0 plate1 to cut1 #dgi 0 to file hole in1 #dha 0 0 remove enamel from back of1 #dhb ,dials1 enamel for1 #afj 0 fixed by feet1 #dhc 0 0 0 screws1 #dhb 0 gold1 to restore1 #dic 0 metal1 to clean1 #dia 0 silver1 to restore1 #dhg 0 to paint hours on1 #die 0 0 repair1 #afa ,diamond1 #afa 0 drill1 to use1 #afi 0 0 and gravers1 #afb1 #agc 0 for polishing1 #afb 0 powder1 drilling with1 #afh 0 0 to prepare1 #ace ,diamantine for polishing1 #acd1 #aed ,diameter1 ratio to circumference1 #be ,dies for screw-making1 #cae 0 0 wheel-making1 #dch ,dividing plate1 #bih 0 scales1 etc41 #dh 0 table1 micrometrical1 #dh ,dome1 freedom of1 #chi ,douzieme gauge1 #aif ,draw-plate1 #bih ,drawing1 geometrical1 #bh1 #dj 0 instruments1 #cb 0 scales1 #cc 0 to reduce a1 #dj ,drawn steel1 advantages of1 #ga ,drifting1 #bif1 #dae1 #ejb ,drifts1 to make1 #bif1 #dbb ,drill1 diamond1 #afb1 #agc 0 rest1 #bfg ,drilling a barrel-arbor1 #dbc 0 enamel dial1 #dhj 0 glass1 #dih 0 in the lathe1 #cjh 0 lubricants for1 #dhj 0 precautions in1 #bdb1 #bdd 0 tool1 to test accuracy of1 #cff 0 with diamond powder1 #afh ,drills for oil-cups1 #bha 0 to make1 #bdd 0 0 mount diamond1 #agc 0 various1 #bda ,duplex ruby-roller1 to make1 #agc ,e ,elasticity of steel1 #gj1 #hd ,electro-gilding1 #abd ,elements of practical geometry1 #bc ,elevation defined1 #bh ,ellipse1 to draw1 #df ,emery1 #acd 0 paper1 to make1 #acd 0 wheels and sticks1 #acd ,enamel1 #aei 0 false1 #afa 0 to apply cold1 #afj 0 0 remove from back of dial1 #dhb 0 dial1 to cut hole in1 #dhd 0 0 0 drill1 #dhj 0 0 0 erase figure from1 #dhf 0 0 0 reduce diameter of1 #dhf 0 dials fixed by feet1 #dhc 0 0 0 by screws1 #dhb ,endshake1 #cge ,endstone1 to fix1 #aei 0 0 make1 #aga ,engine1 wheel-cutting1 #ccj ,english movement1 to examine1 #chi ,engraved design1 to transfer1 #cj ,epicycloidal depths1 #dei ,equaling file1 to cut1 #aid ,erasing figure from enamel dial1 #dhf ,escapements1 action of1 #cgf 0 gauges for1 #dfe 0 play of pivots in1 #deb 0 to examine1 #cia 0 0 measure angles of1 #dfe 0 0 oil1 #chg ,escapewheel1 clip for holding1 #bhi 0 to test1 #bij 0 cock passage1 to turn1 #cab ,essences for cleaning1 #acc1 #chd ,examining watches1 #cga1 #chi ,expansion1 #aji ,extracting broken screws1 #abh1 #bfb1 #cag 0 square root of numbers1 #ba ,eyesight1 to preserve1 #age ,f ,face-plate1 #beg 0 universal1 #beg ,false ruby1 #afc ,figure-of-#h calliper1 #aig ,file1 to cut equaling1 #aid 0 0 round-up teeth with1 #cfc 0 use of1 #agh1 #aic ,files1 ,beaupuy1 #aie 0 to clean1 #aic 0 0 renew1 #aic 0 0 set in handles1 #aic ,filing block1 #bfi 0 fixture1 #bfh 0 flat1 #agi 0 rest1 #bfi 0 square by hand1 #agi1 #ahb1 #ejj ,finger-piece1 to make1 #dah ,flat filing1 #agi 0 0 device for1 #ahb 0 polishing1 tool for1 #cjb ,fletcher furnaces1 #bja ,fluxes for soldering1 #aag ,foot-wheel1 #bah ,fourth wheel1 uprighting of1 #cgi ,fraise1 ,ingold1 #cfb ,freedom of various parts1 #cgh1 #cge1 #cia ,frosted surface on steel1 to produce1 #add ,frosting silver dial1 #dhg ,furnace temperatures1 table of1 #gh ,furnaces1 wind and muffle1 #bja ,fusee1 advantages of1 #dcb 0 to adjust1 #dcc 0 0 snail1 #ade 0 watch1 to examine1 #chi ,fusion1 points of1 #aaj1 #aab ,g ,gauges1 #aif 0 for balance-springs1 #dge 0 0 escapements1 #dfe 0 movement1 table of1 #dfb 0 registering1 #bgd 0 staff1 #bge ,geneva movement1 to examine1 #cgd ,geometrical drawing1 #bh 0 proportion1 #bb 0 ratio1 #bj ,geometry1 elements of practical1 #bc 0 importance of1 #ag ,german silver1 #ajj1 #aaj ,gilding1 #abb 0 bath1 to prepare1 #abd ,gilt objects1 to clean1 #abe ,glass1 to cement1 #aeg 0 0 cut1 #dih 0 0 drill1 #dih 0 use of1 #age ,glue1 application of1 #aef ,glycerine and alcohol on oilstones1 #aia ,gold1 #aja1 #aaj 0 to clean1 #abf 0 0 deaden surface1 #abf 0 0 prepare in powder1 #abh 0 copper alloys1 #ajb 0 0 dials1 to restore1 #dic 0 solders1 #aad1 #aaf 0 springs1 #ajb1 #dgh ,graduations of scales1 etc41 #di ,grain of steel1 #fh ,graining prior to gilding1 #abe 0 steel1 #add ,grammaire1 #bih ,gravers1 diamond1 #afb 0 to mount diamond1 #afb 0 use of1 #agh 0 various1 #bch ,grinder1 traverse spindle1 #beh ,grindstone1 #aib ,groove1 circular1 to cut1 #caa 0 for barrel-cover1 to make1 #daj 0 straight1 to make1 #cab 0 to turn1 #cab ,h ,hairspring1 see ,balance spring4 0 stud index1 #bhj ,hairspringing collet tool1 #bhf ,hammer hardening1 #fh1 #gd1 #ib ,hand fitting pliers1 #bhh 0 holder1 #bhg 0 to enlarge hole in1 #bhg 0 0 set in position1 #dig 0 turning tools1 #bch ,hands1 freedom of1 #cgc 0 to blue1 #hf 0 0 to redden1 #dig 0 0 tighten1 #bhg ,handles1 to set tools in1 #aih ,hard steel1 to drill1 #bdc 0 0 0 turn1 #ahe ,hardening brass1 #ib 0 gold spring1 #dgh 0 solutions1 #gg 0 steel1 methods of1 #gg 0 0 precautions in1 #gi 0 0 temperature for1 #fh1 #ha ,hardness of jewels1 to test1 #aff 0 0 steel1 #hb 0 scale of1 #aaa ,health1 preservation of1 #age ,heat1 mode of applying1 to temper1 #hd 0 of furnaces1 table of1 #gh ,homogeneity of steel1 #fh ,hone slates1 #acd ,holder1 escape wheel1 #bhi 0 for watch-hand1 #bhg ,holes1 methods of tapping1 #cbc ,hook1 chain1 to rivet1 #dhd 0 to fix in barrel1 #daa ,hooks for catgut bands1 #bai ,hooked gravers1 #bhh ,hours1 to paint on dials1 #die 0 wheel1 freedom of1 #cgd ,hydrochloric acid1 #abg 0 0 flux for soldering1 #aah ,hydrofluoric acid1 #abg ,hydrogen in palladium1 #ajg ,i ,idlers1 #bbb ,impurities in brass1 their influence1 #ij 0 0 steel 0 01 #hh ,index1 to ease1 #dgh ,ingold fraise1 #cfb ,inks for painting dials1 #dif ,instruments1 drawing1 #hb ,involute depths1 #deh ,iridium1 alloy with platinum1 #ajg ,iron1 cast1 #fj1 #aaj 0 for soldering1 #aah 0 its properties and uses1 #eg 0 oxides of1 for polishing1 #ahe 0 to case harden1 #hh 0 0 distinguish from steel1 #eg 0 0 restore1 #ei 0 wrought1 #eg1 #aaj ,j ,jewel in pallet1 to advance1 #dfc 0 resetting tool1 #bii 0 setting1 cutters for1 #acg 0 to find axis of1 #aff 0 holes1 thickness of1 #djj 0 0 to make1 #afh 0 0 0 set1 #aga1 #bih 0 0 0 smooth and polish1 #afi ,jeweling caliper rest1 #bdi ,jewelry1 alloys used for1 #ajb 0 to clean after soldering1 #abf ,jewels1 #afa 0 to select1 #aff 0 working in1 #afe ,k ,keyless pinion1 to drift1 #ejc 0 winding depths1 #cib1 #dfb 0 0 wheel1 to make1 #dda 0 work1 need of oil1 #chc 0 0 to examine1 #cib ,l ,lamps1 #aij ,laps for jewelers1 #afe ,lathe1 #baj 0 attachments1 #bdg 0 belts1 #bai 0 care of1 #bac 0 simple form of1 #baa 0 for jewel making1 #afe 0 large size1 #baf 0 to center rods in1 #bhe1 #cje 0 band1 #bai ,lead1 #ii1 #aaj 0 use of1 in brass1 #ij ,leaves of pinions1 to polish1 #dde ,leclerre's vibration counter1 #cie ,left-handed screws1 to make1 #cbj ,lever escapement1 to examine1 #cia ,lift1 to measure1 #dfe ,lines1 to connect up1 #de 0 0 draw parallel1 #dc 0 0 subdivide1 #dc ,liquation1 #ib ,local time1 #ed ,locking stones1 to make1 #agb ,longitude1 value in time1 #ee ,lubrication of whetstones1 #aia ,m ,magnetism1 to remove1 #djc ,mainspring1 setting up1 #che 0 to blue1 #hf 0 0 make eye1 #dca 0 0 reduce height of1 #dcb 0 0 select1 #dcb ,malleability1 etc41 of steel1 #gj ,malleable bronze1 #ih 0 castings1 #fa 0 nickel1 #ajj ,materials used in horology1 #eg ,measurement1 exact1 #ch 0 of angles1 #bf 0 0 triangles1 squares1 etc41 #bf 0 0 various solid bodies #bh ,melting points1 #aaj1 #aab ,mercury1 #aje1 #aaj 0 to purify1 #ajf ,metals1 #eg 0 to cement1 #aef ,methylated spirit1 #acb ,micrometers1 #aif1 #bgj ,micrometer screw1 #ci1 #dh ,micrometrical dividing table1 #dh ,mill cutters for steel teeth1 #cdg ,milling fixture1 #beh ,minute wheel1 freedom of1 #cgd 0 0 to cut1 #caj ,mixed oils1 #aca ,mortar for making diamond powder #ach ,motion work1 to examine1 #cgd ,motive force1 effect of variations in1 #djb ,movement1 to examine ,english and ,american1 #chi ,movement1 to examine ,geneva1 #cgd ,muffle furnace1 #bja ,n ,natural steel1 #fb1 #fe ,nickel1 #ii1 #aaj 0 movements1 #ajj 0 to surface1 #adg 0 0 render malleable1 #ajj 0 silver1 #ajj1 #aaj ,nitric acid1 #abg ,o ,oil1 #abh 0 application of1 #chg 0 necessary in keyless work1 #cic 0 retention of1 at center pivots1 #cgh1 #chf 0 0 0 on acting surfaces1 #acb 0 tests of quality of1 #abi 0 to secure permanency in1 #acj ,oil-cup chamferers1 #bha ,oil-cups1 observations on1 #bhb 0 to polish1 #aec ,oilsinks1 #aca ,oilstone1 #ace1 #aij ,oilstones1 circular1 #aia ,oilstone dust1 to prepare1 #acg ,oriental chrysolite1 #afc 0 ruby1 #afb 0 sapphire1 #afc ,oxides of iron for polishing1 #ace ,p ,paillard's balance-springs1 #ajh ,painting dials1 #die ,palladium1 #ajg 0 balance-springs1 #ajh ,pallets1 #dfc ,pallet-opening calliper1 #dff 0 stone1 to alter1 #dfd 0 0 0 cement1 #aei 0 0 0 make1 #agb 0 0 0 move1 #dfc ,pallets1 verge1 to open or close1 #dfg 0 0 0 measure1 #dff ,paper used in cleaning watches1 #che ,parallel lines1 to draw1 #db ,parallelogram1 #bg ,pendulum1 counting vibrations of1 #cid 0 spring1 see ,balance-spring4 0 vibrations of1 #dfj ,permanency in oil1 to secure1 #acj ,perpendicular1 to erect1 #da ,petroleum1 use for cleaning1 #chd ,pewter1 composition of1 #ii ,physical properties of alloys1 #ajh ,pickling dials1 #dhh ,pinion1 cannon1 to tighten1 #ddi 0 hollow1 to replace pivot of1 #dec 0 leaves1 to polish1 #dde 0 riveting tool1 #bid 0 to drift keyless1 #big 0 0 increase or decrease1 #ddd ,pinions1 etc41 cutters for1 #cdi 0 high and low numbered1 #dfj 0 sizes of1 #ddc 0 to make1 #ddb ,pivot-holes1 cleaning1 #chb ,pivot polisher1 #bej 0 to bush1 #def ,pivots1 balance1 length of1 #cgg 0 0 form of1 #djj 0 center1 #cgh 0 play of1 #cgh1 #deb 0 replacing broken1 #dec 0 to polish mechanically1 #ded 0 0 redress bent1 #ded 0 0 turn1 #ahc ,pivoting a cylinder1 #ded ,plate1 watch1 to make1 #djg ,plates1 brass1 to harden1 #ib 0 for screw-making1 #cae 0 to straighten1 #ejd ,plating1 gold1 #abd 0 silver dials1 #dia ,platinum1 #ajf 0 balance-springs1 #ajh 0 to solder1 #aca ,pliers1 #aif 0 hand-fitting1 #bhh ,poise of balance1 #dja ,polish1 black1 on steel1 #aed ,polisher1 form of1 #aee ,polishing brass1 #adi 0 circular grooves1 #dbh 0 cylinder lips1 tool for1 #dfh 0 escape-wheel teeth1 #aec 0 flat objects1 #cjb 0 jewel-holes1 #afh 0 machine for pinions1 #dde 0 materials1 #acc 0 pivots in lathe1 #ded 0 powders1 to prepare1 #acf 0 ratchet teeth1 #dbg 0 sinks and oil-cups1 #aec 0 steel1 #aec 0 stones1 ,cadot's1 #acf ,positions1 timing in1 #cii ,post1 to adjust1 #dae ,powers of numbers1 #bj ,precious stones1 #afa 0 0 working in1 #afd ,preservation of health1 #age ,prime numbers1 #ah ,proportion of numbers1 #bb 0 0 balances1 #dja ,proportional compass1 #cg ,protractor1 #cc ,puddled steel1 #fb ,pulleys1 #bbb ,pumice-stone1 #ace ,punch1 centering1 #bhe 0 riveting1 #aih ,putty powder1 #ace ,r ,radius defined1 #bd ,railway time1 #ee ,ratchet1 to renew barrel-arbor1 #dbe 0 0 smooth1 #adj 0 0 snail1 #ada 0 teeth1 to cut in lathe1 #caj 0 to polish1 #dbg ,ratio1 #be ,receipts for watchmakers1 #djg ,red-stuff1 #ace ,re-facing burnishers1 #aih ,registering gauge1 #bgc ,regulating a clock1 #cih 0 0 watch1 #cif ,renewing files1 #aic ,repairing watches1 #cga ,resetting jewels1 #cjj ,resin as flux for soldering1 #aag ,resist for use in gilding1 #abe ,retention of oil on acting surfaces1 #acb ,riveting stake and punch1 #aih ,rods1 brass1 to harden1 #ie 0 to straighten1 #ejd ,roller remover1 #bfd 0 to make duplex1 #agc ,roots of numbers1 #bj ,rose cutters1 #cdi1 #ceg ,rottenstone1 #ace ,rouge1 #ace ,rough steel1 to clean1 #ge ,roughing files1 #aic ,round hole1 to broach1 #dii ,rounding-up attachment1 #bei 0 0 cones1 #cfb 0 0 cutters1 to make1 #cca 0 0 teeth by hand1 #cfc 0 0 tools1 #ccj1 #cei ,rubitine1 #acd ,ruby1 #afb 0 false1 #afc 0 roller1 to make duplex1 #agc ,rust1 to remove and to prevent1 #eh ,s ,sal-amoniac as flux for soldering1 #abh ,salts1 #abh ,sapphire1 #afc ,sapphirine1 #acd ,scale1 to remove1 from steel1 #ge ,scales used in drawing1 #cc ,scratch-brushing1 #abe ,screw dies1 #cae 0 head sinking tools1 #bfj 0 0 to smooth1 polish and slit1 #adc1 #cja 0 micrometer1 #ci 0 plates1 to make1 #caf 0 0 and taps1 #cae 0 rapid mode of making1 #cbf ,screws1 double and treble threaded1 #cha 0 left-handed1 #cbj 0 to blue1 #hf 0 0 make internal and external1 #cae 0 0 extract broken1 #abh1 #bfb1 #cag 0 tray for1 #cha ,sealing-wax as cement1 #aee ,seconds circle1 to fix1 #dhd 0 0 0 make hole for1 #dhd ,sector1 #cf ,semi-cylindrical drill1 #bde ,series of holes1 to drill1 #cji ,set-hands arbor1 to adjust1 #dea1 #bid 0 nut1 to make1 #ddi 0 square1 to make1 #dbb1 #ddi1 #ejj ,setting jewel-holes1 #aga 0 0 cutters for1 #bcf ,set-square1 to center with1 #bhf ,sharpening cutters1 #bcg ,shear steel1 #fb1 #ff ,shellac as cement1 #aee ,shoulders1 cutters for making1 #bcf 0 gravers for turning1 #bci 0 to polish square1 #aee 0 0 turn square1 #ahc ,sight1 to preserve1 #age ,signs used in calculations1 #ai ,silver1 #ajc1 #aaj 0 dial1 to restore1 #dhg 0 ,german or nickel1 #ajj1 #aaj 0 solders1 #aad 0 solution for dials1 #dij 0 for plating1 to apply1 #dib 0 0 0 0 prepare1 #dia ,sinks in watch plate1 #aca1 #bha 0 to polish1 #aec ,sinking tools1 #bha ,slates1 hone1 #acd ,slide rest1 #bcc 0 cutters1 #bcf 0 0 to sharpen1 #bcg 0 turning with1 #bcd ,sliding tongs1 #aif ,smoothing brass wheels1 #adi 0 metallic surfaces1 #aci ,snailing1 circular1 #ada 0 steel1 #ade 0 tool for1 #adf ,soap1 application of1 #chc ,solders for various metals1 #aac 0 hard and soft1 #aac ,soldering1 #aab 0 fluid1 #aah 0 fluxes used in1 #aag 0 iron1 #aah 0 methods of1 #aae 0 to clean jewelry after1 #abf ,solid content1 measurement of1 #bh 0 geometry1 #bc 0 squares1 #ejj ,specific gravity1 #aaj1 #aaa 0 heat1 #aaj1 #aaa ,spelter solders1 #aad ,spinel ruby1 #afb ,spiral1 to draw1 #dg ,split chucks1 #bbd ,spotting1 circular1 #ada 0 machine1 #ada ,spring1 balance1 #dgc ,springs1 to blue1 #hf ,square hole1 to drift a1 #ejb 0 measurement of1 #bf 0 root1 #ba 0 set hands1 to make1 #dbb1 #ddi1 #ejj 0 shoulders1 to turn1 #ahc 0 to file by hand1 #ejj 0 winding1 to renew1 #dcj ,squares1 solid and hollow1 #ejj 0 to make1 #dbb1 #ddi1 #ejj ,staff gauge1 #bge1 #bgg 0 to straighten1 #eje ,stake1 riveting1 #aih ,staking tool1 #bic ,star cutters1 #cdh1 #ceg 0 wheel1 to true1 #dag 0 0 sink1 to make1 #daj ,steel1 #fa1 #aaj 0 characteristics of good1 #fc 0 drawn1 #gj 0 drill blade for1 #bdb 0 influence of impurities on1 #hh 0 maximum elasticity of1 #hb 0 precautions in hardening1 #gi 0 preparation of1 #gb 0 to anneal1 #gb 0 0 braze1 #aai 0 0 clean rough1 #ge 0 0 determine qualities of1 experimentally1 #ff 0 0 distinguish from iron1 #eh 0 0 polish1 #aec 0 0 restore1 #ei 0 0 snail1 #ade 0 0 smooth1 #adc 0 0 temper1 #ha 0 0 turn hard1 #ahe 0 0 whiten1 #hd 0 wheels1 cutters for1 #cdg ,stem wind pinion1 to drift1 #ejc 0 0 wheels1 to make1 #dda ,stepping device1 #bbg ,sterro1 #ii1 #aaj ,stone1 pallet1 to cement1 #aei ,stones for polishing1 ,cadot's1 #acf 0 precious1 #afa 0 to make pallet1 #agb ,stool1 #aij ,stopping barrel holes1 #dab 0 pivot-holes1 #def ,stopwork1 proportions of ,geneva1 #daf 0 to examine ,english1 #chi 0 0 examine ,geneva1 #cgd ,straight groove1 to make1 #cab ,straightening rods1 etc1 #ejd ,stud index1 hairspring1 #bhj ,studs1 to remove1 #bia ,subdivision of angles1 #dd 0 0 circle1 #eb 0 0 lines1 #dc ,sulphuric acid1 #abg ,surfaces1 smoothing of metallic1 #aci ,surfacing nickel movements1 #adg ,synchrometer1 ,guilmet's1 #cih ,t ,tailstock1 #bdg ,tap1 to increase diameter of1 #cbc ,tapping holes1 various methods of1 #cbc ,taps for screw-making1 #cag 0 left-handed screw1 #cbj ,teeth1 forms of1 #cfe 0 of escape wheels1 to test1 #bij 0 0 lever escape wheel1 to polish1 #aec 0 0 to cut1 #ccj 0 precautions in cutting1 #cda1 #cdf 0 steel1 to polish1 #dbg 0 to renew in wheel1 #dci 0 0 round up1 #cfc 0 0 true1 #ddj ,temper1 as indicated by blueing1 #hg ,temperatures1 determined by melting alloys1 #hb 0 determination of furnace1 #hb 0 of furnace1 approximate1 #gc 0 of temper colors1 #hb ,tempering steel1 #hb ,tightening cannon pinions1 #bic1 #ddi 0 hands1 #bid 0 set hands arbor1 #bid ,time1 #ed 0 standard1 #ee 0 to ascertain true1 #ed ,timing in positions1 #cii 0 watches and clocks1 #cid ,tin1 #ig1 #aaj 0 solders1 #aad1 #aae 0 use of1 in brass1 #ij ,tinning surfaces1 #aai ,tool1 form of1 for turning1 #bch 0 for balance spring collet1 #bhf1 #dgd 0 0 closing barrel holes1 etc41 #bic 0 0 drifting1 #bif 0 0 flat polishing1 #cja 0 0 measuring verge pallets1 #dff 0 0 polishing cylinder lips1 #dfh 0 0 0 pinion leaves1 #dde 0 0 0 pivots1 #ded 0 0 resetting jewels1 #bii 0 0 riveting pinions1 #bic 0 0 snailing1 #adf 0 0 spotting1 #ada 0 0 tightening cannon pinions1 #bic 0 0 0 hands1 #bic 0 0 0 set hands arbor1 #bic ,tools1 ordinary small1 #bfj 0 need of good assortment1 #ahg 0 screw head1 #cbi 0 for hand-turning1 #bch 0 0 making jewels1 #afe 0 0 rounding up teeth1 #cei 0 0 sinking screw heads1 #bfj 0 0 watchmakers1 #ahi 0 to set in handles1 #aic 0 0 sharpen turning1 #bcg 0 0 test accuracy of1 #cff 0 0 0 escape wheels1 #bij ,tool set1 #bcg ,tongs1 sliding1 #aif ,topaz1 #afd ,tourmaline plates1 #afg ,tracing1 #cj 0 from dial1 #die ,train1 play of pivots of1 #cgh ,trains of watches1 usual1 #cid ,transferring1 #cj ,traverse spindle grinder1 #beh ,triangles1 #bf ,tripoli1 #ace ,trueing a barrel1 #dab 0 0 0 arbor1 #dbi 0 0 star-wheel1 #dag 0 0 wheel1 #ddj ,truth of tools1 to test1 #cff ,turning sphere1 tool for1 #bda 0 by hand1 #bch 0 tools1 forms of1 #bch 0 0 to grind1 #bcg 0 velocity in1 #bce 0 with either hand1 #ahf 0 0 slide-rest1 #bcc ,turpentine1 use of1 in drilling1 #dhj 0 ,venice1 as flux for soldering1 #aag ,tweezers1 #aif 0 for removing studs1 #bib ,u ,universal face-plate1 #bef 0 head1 #bef1cjc ,unlocking pallets1 to make1 #agb ,uprighting a barrel1 #dac 0 of center wheel1 #cgh 0 tool1 to test accuracy of1 #cfg ,v ,velocity in turning1 #bce ,verge pallets1 to measure1 #dff 0 0 0 open or close1 #dfg 0 to straighten1 #eje ,vernier1 #cg 0 caliper1 #bgh 0 gauge1 #bgh ,vibrations of balance or pendulum1 #dfj 0 to count1 #cid ,w ,watch-glass1 to reduce1 #dii 0 hand holder1 #bhg 0 0 to blue1 #hf 0 0 0 tighten1 #bic 0 plate1 to make1 #djg 0 to de-magnetize1 #djc 0 0 time rapidly1 #cid ,watches1 to clean1 #chb 0 0 put together1 #che 0 0 repair and examine1 #cga1 #chi 0 usual trains of1 #cid ,watchmakers' bench1 #bba 0 receipts1 #djg ,water1 annealing steel in1 #gc 0 of ,ayr stone1 #ace ,watered surfaces on nickel1 #adg 0 surfaces1 to produce1 #aci ,wavy surfaces1 to produce1 #aci ,wax chucks1 #aeg1 #bcj 0 to set objects in1 #aeg ,weight of balance1 #dja ,wheel1 cutters1 #beh 0 0 or punch1 #dch 0 0 tool for making1 #ced 0 0 to make1 #cdj 0 cutting engine1 #ccj 0 0 0 to divide a rule on1 #ej 0 0 0 to polish in1 #dbg 0 foot1 #bah 0 mode of holding in cutting1 #ccg 0 teeth1 to cut in lathe1 #ccf 0 tooth1 to renew1 #dci 0 to divide1 #ccc 0 0 make steel1 #dda 0 0 mark crossings of1 #bih 0 0 rough out1 #dce 0 0 straighten1 #ejd 0 0 true1 #ddj ,wheels1 arbors for cutting1 #ccg 0 identical1 #dch 0 observations on cutting1 #cdf 0 steel1 cutters for1 #cdg 0 to ease depths of1 #cfe 0 0 polish brass1 #adi 0 0 repair1 #dci ,whetstones1 #aij ,white smoothing1 #adc ,whiting1 #acf ,wind furnace1 #bja ,winding square1 to make1 #dbb 0 0 0 renew1 #dcj ,wire-drawing plate1 #bih 0 gauges1 #bgb ,work-bench1 arrangement of1 #ahi ,y ,yellow copper or brass1 #ij ,z ,zinc1 #hi ,,the ,,watchmakers' ,,hand ,,book4 ,,part ,i4 ,,arithmetic1 ,,geometry1 ,,drawing1 ,,etc4 ,,arithmetic4 #a4 ,we often hear the theory advanced that in this country1 at the present day1 it is not necessary to have a knowledge of arithmetic1 geometry1 drawing1 etc41 because our interchangeable system of manufacturing watches1 makes all knowledge in these lines superfluous1 and that without any knowledge of arithmetic or geometry a man may become a thorough master of watchmaking4 ,this is a mistake that too many of our young men make4 ,the fact that the leading watch factories of the ,united ,states have adopted the interchangeable system1 of course lessens the number of parts which the repairer will have to make and fit1 but it by no means alters the situation as regards the repairing of foreign-made watches1 nor even the changing of ,american watches from key to stem-winders4 ,without a thorough knowledge of arithmetic and1 at least1 an insight into the principles of geometry1 no young man can hope to become a first-class watchmaker in the true sense of the word4 ,without these accomplishments he will be deprived of the pleasure of reading understandingly the best literature of the day1 the works of those who are best fitted to impart knowledge to the members of the trade4 ,with a knowledge of geometry he will be able to comprehend the works of the best authors1 to ascertain the dimensions of solid bodies1 and be in a position to apply the rules that form the basis of linear drawing4 ,every watchmaker1 worthy of the name1 should be able to make and understand the drawing of any machine1 or of any horological instrument4 ,many inventors1 and even ordinary workmen1 would avoid a large amount of hard work1 often useless1 and occupying much time1 if1 instead of at once putting an idea into practice with brass and steel1 they were able as a preliminary1 to make for themselves a correct design drawn to scale4 #b4 ,it is taken for granted that the reader is familiar with the rules of arithmetic at least1 and we will touch upon some points in algebra and geometry that it will be well to mention4 ,should the reader have no knowledge of arithmetic1 algebra and geometry1 we would advise him to take up these studies during his leisure hours1 using some of the standard text books for that purpose4#a ,besides possessing a knowledge of prime numbers1 numbers which have no divisors but unity and themselves1 the watchmaker should be able to determine the greatest common measure of several numbers1 a rule which is of great importance in calculating a train of wheels that is complicated4 ,we shall confine our attention to the methods of extracting square roots and proportions1 the rules for which may have been forgotten1 owing to their being less frequently employed than the more common rules of arithmetic2 they are of frequent use in horology4 ,,some ,,signs ,,employed ,,in ,,calculations4 #c4 ,the sign of addition is an erect cross1 1 called plus1 and when placed between two quantities it indicates that the second is to be added to the first4 ,thus1 #e #c equals #h4 ,the sign of subtraction is a short horizontal line1 -1 called minus1 and when placed between two quantities it indicates that the second is to be subtracted from the first4 ,thus1 #h - #c equals #e4 ,the double sign1 1 is sometimes written before a quantity to indicate that in certain cases it is to be added and in others it is to be subtracted4 ,thus #e #c is read #e plus or minus #c4 ,the sign of multiplication1 1 when placed between two quantities indicates that the first is to be multiplied by the second4 ,thus1 #c #e equals #ae4 ,the sign of division is a short horizontal line with a point above and one below1 1 and when placed between two numbers or quantities it indicates that the first is to be divided by the second4 ,thus1 #f #b equals #c4 ,the sign of equality is two short1 horizontal1 parallel lines1 1 representing the words equal to4 ,thus1 #f #b #c4 ,inequality is denoted by the angle 1 the opening always being toward the larger number or quantity2 thus1 in #ab #g #ad1 the sign 1 indicates that the sum of #ab and #g is greater than #ad1 and the whole expression is read1 #ab plus #g is greater than #ad4 ,the expression #i #d #g is read1 #i is less than #d plus #g4 ,a parenthesis1 771 denotes that the several numbers or quantities included within it are to be considered together1 and subjected to the same operation4 ,thus1 7#aj #d7 #c indicates that both #aj and #d1 or their sum1 are to be multiplied by #c4 ,a horizontal vinculum1 ------1 placed over the numbers or quantities1 is frequently used instead of the parenthesis4 ,thus1 #b #d #f #g is equivalent to 7#b #d #f7 #g4 ,division is more usually indicated by a line between the two figures1 the dividend being written above and the divisor below the line4 ,thus1 indicates division1 the same as #af #h4 ,algebra is that branch of mathematics in which the operations are indicated by signs or symbols1 and the quantities are represented by letters4 ,the sign of ratio consists of two points like the colon1 31 placed between the quantities compared4 ,thus1 the ratio of a to b is written a 3 b4 ,the sign of proportion consists of a combination of the signs of ratio4 ,thus13 33 34 ,the first two and last two dots are read is to1 while the four in the middle are read as4 ,thus1 if a1 b1 c1 and d1 are four quantities which are proportional to each other1 we say a is to b as c is to d1 and this is expressed by writing them thus3 a 3 b 33 c 3 d4 ,,powers ,,and ,,roots4 #d4 ,the power of a number is the product formed by successive multiplication of the same number by itself4 ,thus1 #b #b #d1 the second power or square of #b4 #b #b #b #h1 the third power or cube of #b4 #b #b #b #b #af1 the fourth power of #b1 etc4 ,an exponent is a number written above a quantity1 at the right-hand1 to indicate how many times the quantity is to be taken as a factor1 as #fc #f #f #f4 ,the root of a quantity is a factor which1 multiplied by itself a certain number of times1 will produce the given quantity4 ,thus1 in the above examples #b is the square root of #d and the cube root of #h4 ,the radical sign1 1 indicates that the root of the quantity placed under it is to be taken1 and the index of the root is expressed by a little figure placed outside of the bend4 ,if a square root the index figure is usually omitted4 #d #b or #d #b and #h #b4 #e4 ,extracting the square root of whole numbers4 #b ,i4 ,point the given number off into periods of two figures each1 counting from the units place to the left4 ,for example1 we wish to find the square root of #ciidbd1 we point it off thus3 #ci1id1bd4 ,,ii4 ,find the greatest perfect square in the left-hand period1 and write its root for the first figure in the required root2 subtract the square of this figure from the first period1 and to the remainder bring down the next period for a dividend4 ,thus3 #ci1id1bd7f #cf -- #cid ,,iii4 ,double the root already found1 and write the result on the left for a divisor2 find how many times this divisor is contained in the dividend1 exclusive of the right-hand figure1 and place the result in the root and at the right of the divisor4 ,thus3 #ci1id1bd7fc #cf -- #abc #cid ,,iv4 ,multiply the divisor thus completed by the last figure of the root2 subtract the product from the dividend1 and to the remainder bring down the next period for a new dividend4 ,thus3 #ci1id1bd7fc #cf -- #abc #cid #cfi --- #bebd ,v4 ,double the right-hand figure of the last complete divisor for a new divisor1 and continue the operation as before4 ,thus3 #ci1id1bd7fcb #cf -- #abc #cid #cfi --- #abfb #bebd #bebd ,,proportion4 #f4 ,it is often convenient to express the relations of qualities in the form of a proportion and from the proportion derive an equation4 ,ratio is the quotient of one number divided by another4 ,thus the ratio of #cj to #f is 4 #g4 ,proportion is the equality of ratios3 ,thus if #e and #e then we may state that or the proportionality is usually expressed 7#c7 thus3 #cj 3 #f 33 #dj 3 #h and this constitutes what is called a geometrical proportion1 and #cj and #h are called the extremes and #f and #dj the means4 #h4 ,the product of the extremes is always equal to the product of the means4 ,thus3 #cj #h #f #dj #bdj4 ,hence it follows that if we only know three terms we can always determine the fourth1 or unknown term1 which is usually represented by the letter x4 ,thus in the proportion #ab 3 #c 33 #af 3 x we find the product of the means1 or #c #af #dh2 this product divided by #ab1 the known extreme1 gives us the value of x1 or the unknown extreme1 as equalling #d4 #i4 ,if we know the two extremes and only one of the means the same rule is applied4 ,thus in the proportion #bj 3 #e 33 x 3 #be1 we have3 #bj #be #ejj4 #ajj1 the value of x4 ,,elements ,,of ,,practical ,,geometry4 #aj4 ,the object of geometry is to measure the extent of bodies4 ,a body has three dimensions1 length1 breadth and thickness1 and one of these latter is sometimes termed weight or depth4 ,either dimension taken by itself is measured by a straight line4 ,when the extent of a body is expressed by combining any two dimensions1 it is termed area or surface1 and when three are employed we obtain the solid measure or volume4 ,plane geometry only takes cognizance of figures situated in one plane or surface1 and therefore only possessing two dimensions2 solid geometry1 however1 regards bodies as having all three dimensions4 ,two lines are parallel when their distance apart is the same at all points4 ,the same is also applicable to parallel planes4 ,two lines or planes meeting each other will form an angle4 ,the point at which they meet or intersect is termed the apex or summit of the angle4 ,a straight line is perpendicular or at right angles to another straight line1 or to a plane1 when all the angles which it makes with that line or plane are equal4 ,a circumference of a circle is a curved line l c d f 7fig4 #a17 such that all its points are equally distant from an internal point1 o1 termed the center4 ,the circle is the space enclosed by the circumference4 ,it will be noticed that in geometry these two words are distinguished1 although they are frequently referred to as identical4 ,thus1 the rim of a wheel or balance is generally termed a circle4 ,two circles 7l c d f and b r a1 fig4 #a17 described from the same center are said to be concentric4 ,when their centers do not coincide they are called excentric with regard to one another4 ,any portion of a circumference1 such as f n d1 is termed an arc of the circumference1 or1 more commonly an arc of a circle4 ,a chord is a straight line1 f d1 which unites the two extremities of an arc4 ,when the chord passes through the center of a circle it is termed a diameter4 ,the radius of a circle or circumference is a straight line drawn from the center to the circumference2 and all the radii that can be thus drawn are equal4 ,a diameter is1 then1 always double the radius1 and1 conversely1 the radius1 is always half the diameter4 ,a tangent is a straight line that only touches a circumference at one point1 as g l 7fig4 #a72 whereas a secant cuts the circle1 as i j4 ,a circumference is assumed to be divided into #cfj equal parts1 termed degrees4 ,the degree is subdivided into sixty equal parts1 or minutes1 and the minute into #fj seconds4 ,these are respectively symbolized by the marks placed at the right-hand top corner of the figure4 ,such an expression as #ah #cj #ae4e would1 then1 be read #ah degrees1 #cj minutes1 and #ae4e seconds4 #aa4 ,ratio of the circumference to the diameter4 ,the diameter of a circle is to the circumference as #g3 #bb2 or1 employing decimal fractions1 as #a3 #c4adaei 7a number which1 in algebra1 is always represented by the ,greek letter 47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,knowing a diameter 7,d71 the circumference1 x1 can be ascertained from the proportion3-- #a 3 #c4adaei 33 ,d 3 x4 ,knowing a circumference 7,c71 the diameter1 x1 can be determined from the proportion3-- #c4adaei 3 #a 33 ,c 3 x4 ,the latter proportion will also give the value of the radius1 which is half a diameter4 #ab4 ,the superficial area of a circle is equal to the circumference multiplied by half the radius1 or to the square of the radius multiplied by #c4adaei4 ,a sector is the circle enclosed between an arc and two radii bounding it1 as b ,o r k 7fig4 #a47 ,the area or surface of a sector can be ascertained by multiplying the length of the arc by half the radius4 ,a segment of a circle is the portion intercepted between an arc and its chord1 as f d n 7fig4 #a47 ,the surface of a segment1 as b k r s1 can be obtained by subtracting from the area of the sector ,o b k r1 the area of the triangle1 b r ,o 7#ae74 #ac4 ,ring4 ,to determine the surface of a flat ring1 the area of the inner circle must be subtracted from that of the outer circle2 in other words1 take the difference between the areas of the two circles that fix the inner and outer diameters of the ring4 ,the area of a flat ring can also be calculated by adding together the internal and external diameters2 then multiply the number so obtained by their difference and by the decimal fraction #j4ghed 7that is1 #c4adae_/d74 ,the product will be the required area4 #ad4 ,angles and their measurement4 ,when two lines meet one another1 they form an angle1 as we have already seen4 ,if we take the apex as the center of a circle1 the number of degrees intercepted between the two straight lines gives a measure of this angle4 ,the angle measured by a quarter of a circumference1 or #ij1 is termed a right angle4 ,an obtuse angle is greater than a right angle1 and an angle that is less is termed an acute angle4 #ae4 ,triangles1 squares1 etc41 and their measurement4 ,the triangle or plane area enclosed within three straight lines joined two and two together 7,a1 ,b1 ,c1 fig4 #b17 is said to be rectangular when one of its angles is a right angle2 it is equilateral when the three sides are equal1 under which circumstances the three angles are also equal2 and isosceles when only two sides are of equal length4 ,the sum of the three angles of a triangle is always equal to two right angles4 ,if only two of the angles are known1 it is thus easy to determine the third4 ,similar triangles are characterized by the fact that their homologous sides 7that is1 the sides opposite to equal angles7 are proportional4 ,peculiarity of the right-angled triangle4 ,the square described on the longest side1 termed the hypothenuse 7,b1 fig4 #b17 is equal to the sum of the squares described on the two other sides4 ,hence1 it follows that1 if the lengths of the two shorter sides are known1 that of the hypothenuse can be ascertained by extracting the square root of the number formed by adding together the squares formed on these two sides 7#e74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,if the hypothenuse is known and one of the shorter sides1 the third can be determined by extracting the square root of the number formed by subtracting the square of the known side from the square of the hypothenuse4 ,the surface of a triangle is determined by multiplying one of the sides by half the perpendicular height of the angle opposite to this side4 #af4 ,the surface of a square or of an oblong or rectangle 7a b c d1 fig4 #c7 is equal to the product of the base multiplied by the height4 ,the sum of the squares described on the four sides is equal to twice the square described on a diagonal4 ,this diagonal divides the rectangle into two equal rectangular triangles4 #ag4 ,the surface of a parallelogram or lozenge1 a plane figure with four sides1 opposite pairs of which are parallel 7c f g d and c i j d1 fig4 #c17 is equal to the product of one side multiplied by the perpendicular height of the figure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,the sum of the squares described on the four sides of a parallelogram is equal to the sum of the squares described on the two diagonals4 #ah4 ,measures of various solid bodies4 ,the volume of a cube of parallelopiped 7that is1 a body bounded by six four-sided figures1 every opposite two of which are parallel7 is obtained by multiplying the surface of the base by the height4 ,the volume of a straight cylinder is the product of the surface of the circle which forms its base into the height of the cylinder4 ,the area of the curved surface of a cylinder is obtained by multiplying the circumference of the circle forming its base by the height4 ,the volume of a tube or cylindrical ring of rectangular section1 such as the arbor-nut of a barrel1 or the rim of a circular balance1 etc41 is equal to the product of the plane surface of its base 7#ac7 into its height4 ,the volume of a right cone or of a regular pyramid is the product of the base into a third of the height4 ,the surface of a sphere may be determined by multiplying the square of the diameter by #c4adaf 7#aa74 ,the volume of a sphere is equal to this surface multiplied by a third of the radius4 ,,geometrical ,,drawing4 #ai4 ,an elementary knowledge of the art of drawing1 an ability to represent the outlines of objects by simple lines1 is of the first importance to the watchmaker4 ,such a design is obtained by projecting on to one plane all the visible points of the object represented4 ,projection on a vertical plane gives an elevation2 the object is looked at from one side4 ,projection on to a horizontal plane produces a plan2 the object is observed from above1 thus giving a bird's-eye view4 ,the projection of a point on a vertical or horizontal plane is the foot of the perpendicular1 from the given point on to the plane4 ,assume the line n m 7fig4 #d71 to be fixed in space2 its horizontal projection will give c d1 and its vertical projection1 r s4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,miscellaneous details4 ,when one portion of the object to be represented is found to pass behind other pieces so that it cannot be seen1 the continuation is frequently indicated by dotted lines4 ,surfaces that are situated in planes one behind the other are shaded1 the more deeply according as they are farther back4 ,this shading is produced by a number of parallel lines which may be vertical or horizontal4 ,parts that are in relief are indicated by projected shadows1 or by increasing the thickness of a line that would cast a shadow4 ,in order to distinguish the several shadings or to emphasize the lines by which they are separated1 it is a very usual1 though not invariable practice to assume the light to be coming from the left-hand upper corner4 ,when drawing a square in relief1 such as a b c d 7fig4 #c71 the lines c d b d1 will be made darkest2 but if it is a recess1 the lines a b1 a c should be brought into prominence by means of dark lines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,these several directions will be found useful when a hole1 any cavity1 a pin1 a round object etc41 has to be depicted1 as in fig4 #e4 ,as a general rule1 the thick lines should indicate the position at which a shadow would form1 the light being assumed to fall on the drawing in the manner indicated above4 ,a section shows a body as it would appear if cut in two1 and one portion removed in order to expose the interior1 as in fig4 #f4 ,a section is indicated by a series of parallel lines drawn close together and at an inclination of about #de to the vertical4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,in order to leave more room for important details1 or to show objects that are situated behind1 a piece is often broken off by an irregular line1 as shown in that drawing4 ,lines formed by a series of detached points sometimes serve as a means of associating several figures representing the same object looked as in different directions4 #bj4 ,tracing and transfering4 ,these two operations are resorted to when it is required to obtain one or more copies of a picture or design already drawn4 ,tracing consists in laying a piece of tissue or other translucent paper over the drawing and copying it by following over the lines that are visible with a pencil4 ,or ordinary paper can be used for the purpose1 providing it is not too thick1 if the picture be placed against the pane of a window or1 what is more convenient1 on a sheet of glass used as a desk and illuminated from below4 ,when either sheet of paper is too thick to allow sufficient light to pass1 one or other of the methods of transfering indicated below must be resorted to4 #ba4 ,this operation consists in reproducing a tracing on a separate sheet of paper or on metal that is to be engraved4 ,either of the following methods may be adopted3 #a4 ,the picture to be transferred is fixed to a table or drawing board if tracing paper is to be used1 or to a sheet of glass if only ordinary paper is available4 ,the lines are then traced with a black lead pencil that must not be too hard4 ,when this is finished it is laid1 face downwards1 on a sheet of white paper1 taking care that both sheets are so fixed that they shall not slip4 ,apply pressure to the upper surface by tapping with a small pad made on purpose and1 at the same time1 gently rubbing4 ,experience will very soon show how hard the pad should be4 ,now remove the tracing1 still taking care to avoid any slipping1 and a faint reproduction of the design will be found on the lower sheet of paper4 ,it is only necessary to follow over the lines with ,india ink4 ,the figures will be reversed but a transfer with it in the original direction may be obtained by inverting the picture and laying it on glass so as to make a reverse tracing4 #b4 ,lay the picture on a desk or drawing board and trace it with ink on a very transparent sheet of paper4 ,when the ink is dry1 invert the tracing and blacken the back with a ,no4 #b pencil4 ,now lay the tracing1 with the ink side uppermost1 on a sheet of clean paper1 taking care to avoid slipping1 and go over the several lines with an agate or metal style1 avoiding excessive pressure on account of the risk of tearing the paper4 ,on removing the upper sheet an impression will be found not reversed4 ,go over all the lines with ,india ink and clean the paper with ,india-rubber or stale bread4 ,observations4 ,the choice of paper and pencil is not a matter of indifference4 ,all kinds of paper do not receive an impression equally well1 neither do all pencils transfer with equal facility4 ,the ,faber pencil ,no4 #c1 will generally be found best suited to such work4 ,in preparing drawings which you desire to preserve1 as drawings of escapements1 etc41 a good quality of light weight bristol board will be found more desirable than the best drawing papers4 ,white wedding bristol1 about two-ply in thickness1 answers admirably1 and ,india ink lines drawn upon it will not spread as they often do on drawing papers4 ,the prepared liquid ,india inks now on the market are superior to any you can prepare by grinding the sticks4 #bb4 ,to transfer an engraved design4 ,this method is available when it is desired to obtain an impression1 for example1 of the engraved surface of a watch case4 ,procure some of the inks used by copper-plate engravers1 or1 in its absence1 ordinary stencil ink may be used4 ,taking a small quantity on the end of the finger1 tap it on the surface of a glass plate1 in order that the ink may be distributed1 leaving only a small quantity evenly spread over the finger3 tap with the finger thus prepared over the watch case long enough to make sure that all the surface in relief has received some ink2 take a piece of writing paper and1 after slightly moistening it1 spread it over this surface4 ,lay above this a piece of paper folded in four and pass over it in all directions any round body1 such as a small tool handle1 and with some pressure2 then raise the papers without allowing them to slide4 ,if the operation has been carefully performed a very clear impression will thus be obtained of the engraved surface4 ,the relief will be black and the hollows white1 but1 of course1 the figure is reversed like that in a looking-glass4 ,if required in the right direction it must be traced through to the other side of the paper4 ,,drawing ,,instruments4 #bc4 ,it is needless here to describe the rule1 set-square1 ,t-square1 bow-compass1 etc41 as every one knows them4 ,to verify the accuracy of a rule4 ,on a perfectly flat smooth surface carefully draw1 with the rule in question1 a fine straight line4 ,then turn the rule over1 hinging it as it were on the line just drawn2 if quite straight the edge of the rule will exactly coincide with the line1 in this new position1 throughout its entire length4 ,each edge should be thus examined4 ,to verify the accuracy of a set-square4 ,having fixed an accurate rule on a smooth surface1 place one edge of the set-square against it1 and draw a line along the edge perpendicular to the rule2 then1 having turned the set-square1 hinging it on the line just drawn1 bring it against the rule and along the line4 ,if the square is true the edge and line will coincide throughout their length4 #bd4 ,the ,protractor4 ,fig4 #g represents a common form of this instrument4 ,it is made of horn1 or1 if of metal1 the inner portion is cut away1 leaving only a base and a semicircular arc1 which is divided into #ahj equal parts or degrees2 a complete circle would therefore consist of #cfj such degree4 ,the point indicating the center of the arc1 should be very small in order to facilitate the exact setting of it at the apex of an angle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,when an angle has to be drawn with accuracy1 the protractor is unsuitable2 it will be better to adopt one of the methods described at paragraph #cg1 or trigonometrical methods4 #be4 ,drawing scales4 ,when an object is represented by a drawing1 if the dimensions are the same as those of the object itself1 or1 rather1 as they would project on to a horizontal or vertical plane1 the drawing is said to be full size2 but the object is generally represented either on an increased or diminished scale1 which is defined1 the proportions between all the parts being still1 however1 maintained the same4 ,with a view to avoid the many calculations that such a change would involve1 it is usual to employ drawing scales4 ,the following notes will sufficiently explain their construction and use4 ,let it be required to reproduce a large drawing on a small scale1 in such a proportion that the dimensions are reduced in the ratio of #aj to #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,take a straight line of indefinite length1 a b1 fig4 #h1 and mark out on it spaces equal to a #a1 which represents any measurement taken on the original object2 at c1 the #ajth division1 draw a perpendicular1 and on it measure c g equal to a #a1 or one-tenth of a c and join a g4 ,through the points indicating the divisions into tenths draw lines parallel to c g1 and you will thus have a series of triangles1 d a #a1 d a #b1 d a #c1 etc41 similar to the triangle g a c4 ,in virtue of a well-known property of such triangles 7#ae71 d #a will be one-tenth of a #a2 d #b one-tenth of a #b2 and so on4 ,thus1 if a measurement taken on the object1 or on a large drawing1 is equal to a x1 it will only be needful to turn the compass on the point x as a center1 and to observe accurately the perpendicular height1 x z1 to ascertain the corresponding measurement on the reduced scale4 ,such a scale can be employed to measure meters and decimeters1 or feet and inches 7but in this latter case1 it would have been necessary to mark off #ab instead of #aj divisions from a74 ,since a #a might be made to represent one metre2 a #b1 two meters1 etc41 in virtue of the principle of the triangle already referred to1 d #a will be the tenth of a #a1 and will therefore represent a decimeter2 d #b will represent #b decimeters1 etc4 ,the length required to represent1 say #e4c will be ascertained by taking the distance a #e1 to which the distance d #c is added4 ,similarly #f feet #b inches would be given by a #f1 to which d #b is added on a #ab-;division scale4 #bf4 ,the following description of one of these decimal scales1 which is engraved on metal or ivory1 and often included in cases of drawing instruments1 will suffice to enable any one to construct a scale on this principle1 that goes to a still further degree of accuracy1 measuring1 for example1 meters1 decimeters and millimeters1 or yards1 feet and inches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,let ,a ,b1 fig4 #i1 be a flat rectangular rule1 divided throughout its length by parallel equidistant lines into ten strips4 ,at right angles to these are the lines o o1 a a1 etc41 separated from one another by a distance of one centimeter 7doubled in the drawing in order to make the details more clear47 ,the first centimeter is subdivided along the two edges1 ,a o1 n o1 into #aj equal parts or millimeters1 and the division1 o1 on the upper edge is joined by an oblique line with the #a on the lower edge1 and the others by parallel oblique lines as shown in the figure4 ,thus c i will be one-tenth of a millimeter1 s j two-tenths1 and so on4 ,if the compass is opened so as to reach from x to z1 it will be seen that it covers a space of #af millimeters and #b-ajths of a millimeter1 for there are one large division 7or #aj mm471 #f smaller divisions 7or millimeters7 plus a fraction of a millimeter equal to s j or #b-ajths of a millimeter4 #bg4 ,sector4 ,when it is required to reduce the scale of a drawing1 subject to the condition that the dimensions shall be all diminished in the ratio of two given lines1 we may state the problem thus3 ,the longer of the two given lines is to the shorter1 as any given dimensions of the old drawing is to x4 ,the value of x thus determined will be the corresponding dimension of the new figure4 ,such a rule of three proposition would involve a considerable amount of work1 and the required result can be arrived at with greater facility by the geometrical methods which forms the basis of the scale just described1 or1 better still1 by using the sector shown in fig4 #aj4 ,it consists of two brass or ivory legs hinged about a center m which is at the apex of the angle n m c formed by two straight lines similarly divided into equal parts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,it is employed as follows3 ,let us assume that a drawing has to be reduced in the ratio of the line ,a to the line ,b2 set off the length ,a along m n1 and suppose its extremity to be at s1 where division number #e occurs4 ,open a compass to a distance equal to ,b1 and placing one point on s1 open the two legs of the scale until the second point coincides exactly with the corresponding division t1 that is1 with the #e on the other leg1 m c4 ,maintaining the scale open to this amount1 it is only needful1 after measuring a distance on the original drawing or object1 to set it off along m n1 and to measure the distance between its extremity and the corresponding point on the other leg2 this distance will be the dimension on the reduced scale4 #bh4 ,proportional compass4 ,this consists of two equal stems terminating with points1 fig4 #aa4 ,they are cut through for a portion of their length1 and provided with a slide forming a hinge1 that can be clamped by a screw a in any position4 ,graduations on the two slots and a mark on the slide indicate in what position of the slide a1 the length a b 7equal to a g7 is equal to 1 1 1 etc41 of a d2 and thus show what is the ratio of g b to c d1 a ratio which is independent of the extent to which the arms are opened4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 #bi4 ,the vernier4 ,the vernier consists of a small graduated slide which is adapted to a graduated rule or circular arc with a view to ascertain the value of small fractional parts of the divisions marked on the rule or arc4 ,let ,a ,b1 in fig4 #ab1 be a rule divided into millimeters 7the proportions are enlarged in the drawing so as to avoid confusion among the lines71 and let it be required to determine a length to within the tenth of a millimeter4 ,as the measurement is required to the tenth1 take ten less one or nine of the divisions of the scale2 they will extend from ,o to ,,ix1 and this represents the acting length of the vernier4 ,subdivide the vernier into ten equal parts2 it is manifest that each graduation of the vernier differs from the original subdivisions of the rule by #a-ajth of a graduation of the latter4 ,in other words1 unity on the vernier is equal to #i-ajths of unity on the rule4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,when the rule and vernier are placed as shown in fig4 #ab1 so that the o on both scales coincide1 the successive divisions on the rule 7marked with ,roman numerals for distinction7 will be progressively more and more in advance of the corresponding divisions on the vernier in the following proportion3-- ,the marks ,i and #a are #a-ajth apart2 the marks ,,ii and #b1 #b-ajths2 ,,iii and #c1 #c-ajths2 and so on1 the mark ,x being #aj-ajths1 or one complete division in advance of #aj1 this division being a unit on the scale4 ,thus if the vernier is caused to slide along the edge of the rule1 when #a coincides with ,i the vernier has advanced #a-ajth2 when #b coincides with ,,ii1 it has advanced #b-ajths2 and so on4 ,let it be required to determine the distance ,p d1 fig4 #ac4 ,the division #f on the vernier coincides with a division of the scale2 hence it follows that the extremity d of the vernier is at a distance of #f-ajths millimeters from ,,iii1 the next division of the scale to the left4 ,the distance between ,p and d is thus #c4f millimeters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,with a vernier showing tenths1 if two consecutive divisions of the vernier fall between two divisions on the rule1 and there does not appear to be a tendency towards one side more than towards another1 even when observed with a strong glass1 it is possible to take an approximate reading to the twentieth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,in measuring circular arcs a curved vernier is used in place of a straight one1 and its graduations are made to correspond with those on the circle as shown in fig4 #ad4 #cj4 ,micrometer screw4 ,by employing a micrometer screw it is possible to measure infinitesimal amounts1 but the screw must be perfectly accurate1 and must work without appreciable backlash or loss of time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,assume ,v1 fig4 #ae1 to be such a screw1 having a pitch of #a millimeter4 ,it will advance by this amount with each complete rotation4 ,to the head of the screw is attached a disc of such a size that its rim can be divided into a number of equal parts1 say a hundred4 ,these graduations may be marks on the edge or notches cut in it when an index is required to stop in them2 but the index is less frequently met with than a simple divided straight-edge almost in contact with the disc4 ,the divisions round the disc are numbered in ascending order as the points c and a separate1 so that zero comes under the index or rule when these points are in contact4 ,readings of the numbers will thus afford a measure of the displacement of the point of the screw4 ,when the disc is rotated the point a will move towards or from c by #a-ajjth of a millimeter for each division passing under the straight-edge1 and one millimeter for each complete rotation4 ,it is thus possible to obtain the dimensions of an object when it enters without play between the two jaws to within an error of about #a-ajjth of a millimeter if the instrument is accurately made4 ,if1 instead of passing the object between the two jaws1 it is gripped by them1 the measurement will be less exact1 as no account is taken of the pressure exerted and of the elasticity4 7#dd47 ,,geometrical ,,drawings4 #ca4 ,sketches4 ,it is advisable from an early age to accustom oneself to make rapid freehand sketches of objects as they present themselves to the eye4 ,such a sketch will help in the preparation of a more exact drawing1 which involves a knowledge of the several geometrical methods given below4 ,a drawing may be transferred1 reduced or enlarged as follows3 ,draw across the original picture a number of equidistant vertical and horizontal lines1 forming perfect squares1 and number the two sets of lines in succession4 ,then draw a similar series of lines on a clean sheet of paper1 setting the lines at an equal1 less or greater distance apart1 and copy in succession the parts of the figure that are enclosed within the several squares4 ,as it is not always possible to draw lines across a figure1 they may be replaced by a frame carrying fine threads or wires stretched in the two directions4 ,the frame is laid over the original drawing1 which can then be copied1 as above explained1 on a sheet of paper divided into squares 7fig4 #af74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,the frame may1 moreover1 afford assistance in the drawing of solid objects4 ,having placed it above or in front of the object and in contact with it1 copy on to the sectional paper the contents of each corresponding square1 taking care to look at the object perpendicularly4 ,with a little practice1 and by placing the eye in the correct position and always at the same distance from the frame 7a distance which may be regulated by a glass71 a sketch in fair proportion may easily be obtained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 #cb4 ,to erect a perpendicular on a straight line4 ,either the compass or a set-square can be employed2 the use of the latter instrument is so simple that no further reference need be made to it4 ,assume a1 fig4 #ag1 to be the point in the line n m at which a perpendicular is to be drawn4 ,on either side of a measure off equal distances a n1 a m2 from n and m1 with a radius about equal to the distance n m1 draw two circular arcs cutting one another4 ,if their point of intersection b be joined to a1 the line a b will be the required perpendicular4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 #cc4 ,to erect a perpendicular at the extremity of a line4 ,from the extremity c1 fig4 #ah1 mark off four equal parts towards s4 ,from s1 with a radius equal to five such parts1 describe a circular arc1 and from c1 with a radius of three such parts1 describe another arc cutting the first at d4 ,the line joining c and d will be perpendicular to s c4 ,for the square of #e is #be1 and this is equal to the square of #d or #af plus the square of #c or #i4 ,thus the triangle s c d must be right-angled 7#ae74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,or the following method may be adopted3 ,with any center i and radius i g 7fig4 #ai71 as large as possible1 describe a circumference passing through g4 ,from the point p1 where the circle cuts the line1 draw the diameter p i h4 ,if the point h be joined to g1 it is the required perpendicular2 for1 by a property of the semicircle1 the angle h g p is a right angle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 #cd4 ,to let fall a perpendicular on a straight line4 ,in order to let fall a perpendicular from the point a on to the line b c 7fig4 #bj71 describe from a as a center1 a circular arc sufficiently large1 cutting the straight line in two points1 b and c4 ,from these two points1 with the same opening of the compass1 draw on the under side of the line two arcs that intersect4 ,the point of intersection o joined to a gives the required perpendicular4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 #ce4 ,to draw parallel straight lines4 ,having fixed a good straight-edge over the drawing1 as many parallel lines as are required may be drawn with the aid of a set-square which is caused to slide along the rule4 ,they will be vertical1 horizontal or inclined1 according to the position of the rule1 which must be set exactly perpendicular to the direction in which the parallel lines are to be drawn 7fig4 #ba74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,to draw1 from a given point1 a line parallel to a given line4 ,let d be the given point1 and a b the given line 7fig4 #bb74 ,from d draw the circular arc a c1 and from a where it cuts a b1 with the same radius describe the arc d b4 ,from a set off on a c1 a distance equal to d b4 ,the line joining d and c is the required parallel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 #cf4 ,to subdivide a line into equal parts4 ,let it be required to divide the line p v 7fig4 #bc71 into five equal parts4 ,draw a line p q inclined at any angle1 and mark off on this line five equal parts of any length2 join q1 the extremity of the five lengths1 and v1 and through the points a1 b1 c1 d1 draw lines parallel to q v4 ,in virtue of a property of similar triangles these lines will divide p v into equal parts4 ,it is advisable that the lines p v and p q should not differ very considerably in length1 as1 otherwise the inclination of the parallel lines to p q will render it difficult to observe the exact point of intersection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,to divide a line into proportional parts4 ,the proposition can be solved in a similar manner4 ,let it be required to divide a line t r 7fig4 #bd71 into two sections that are to one another in the proportion of #e to #c4 ,on t s mark off a series of equal parts given by the addition of these numbers together1 that is #h2 and join the last point s to r4 ,then draw through c1 the fifth division1 a line parallel to s r4 ,this line c d will cut t r into two parts1 which are to one another in the proportion of #e to #c4 ,by an analogous construction a fourth proportional can be graphically obtained1 as already indicated in articles #be-bg4 #cg4 ,to construct an angle equal to a given angle4 ,the angle may be measured by means of the protractor 7#bd71 which then enables us to draw a similar angle2 but greater accuracy is obtainable by using the compass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,let it be required to construct at m on the line m p 7fig4 #be71 an angle equal to b a d4 ,with as large a radius as possible1 draw from the points a and m the arcs b d and n p4 ,measure the distance d b and mark it off with the compass from p on the arc p n4 ,a line drawn through m to the intersection of the two arcs will give the required angle equal to b a d4 #ch4 ,to subdivide an angle into #b1 #d1 or #h equal parts4 ,in addition to the use of the protractor1 the following graphic method is often given in works on geometry4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,an angle e f g being given 7fig4 #bf71 from its apex f as a center describe the arc e g1 and from its two points of intersection with the sides1 with a radius greater than half their distance apart1 draw two short arcs cutting each other at s4 ,a line drawn from f through the intersection s will divide the angle into two equal parts4 ,if four divisions are needed1 repeat the process on the two angles s f e1 s f g1 and so on for a further sub-division4 ,the line that divides the angle into two equal parts will also bisect or divide into two equal parts the chord and the arc e g4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 #ci4 ,to find the center of a circle or of a circular arc4 ,take on the circumference1 or on the arc1 three points b c r 7fig4 #bg74 ,join b to c and c to r4 ,at the middle point of each of these lines#c erect a perpendicular4 ,the point of intersection of these perpendiculars is the required center4 ,a similar method should be resorted to when it is desired to describe a circle passing through three given points4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 #dj4 ,to connect up or associate lines4 ,in order to join up a straight line1 such as i j 7fig4 #bh71 with the curve l p1 erect a perpendicular at j1 and through the middle point of a chord1 l p1 draw a second perpendicular cutting the first in k4 ,this point will be the center from which the curve uniting the two lines should be struck4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,to unite a curve a b 7fig4 #bi71 with another curve1 c x or c z1 at the point c1 first find o1 the center of the curve a b1 draw the line a o1 continuing it beyond the center2 join a and c1 and erect a perpendicular at the middle point of this chord4 ,the intersection of this perpendicular with a o1 produced if necessary1 should be taken as the center for a curve uniting b a with c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,to join up two lines inclined to each other or parallel lines of unequal length1 such as a r1 b s1 fig4 #cj1 draw midway between the two another line1 z d2 join the two extremities r and s1 and from these points let fall perpendiculars r i and s c2 then from d draw a line perpendicular to s r4 ,the point o thus obtained will be the center of the arc r d1 and c will be the center for d s4 #da4 ,to describe an ellipse4 ,let a b 7fig4 #ca71 be the major axis of the ellipse2 divide it into three equal parts1 and from the two points1 c and i1 at which it is divided1 with a radius equal to i c1 draw 7in pencil7 two circles1 intersecting in the points x and z4 ,through these points draw the lines x i g1 x c h1 z i f1 z c d4 ,with the center z describe the arc d f1 and from x draw h g2 the ellipse will be completed by the two arcs1 f b g1 d a h1 of the primitive circles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,if it be required to describe an ellipse that shall have a shorter minor axis1 divide the major axis into four equal parts1 thus obtaining three points of sub-division4 ,with each point as a center and with a radius equal to one of the spaces describe circles4 ,those to the right and left will determine the extremities of the ellipse1 and the central circle will intersect the minor axis in two points which must be taken as centers for describing the top and bottom portions of the figure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,when the length of the long and short axes are given1 proceed as follows 7fig4 #cb73 ,from the center a1 where they intersect at right angles1 mark off the distances a n1 a o1 equal to the difference in the length of two semi-axes4 ,join n o1 and add one half of n o to a o measured in the direction of a v1 thus obtaining the point k2 with the radius a k describe a circle4 ,on this circumference will lie the four centers2 k for the arc r u s1 m for the arc p v q1 t and i for the short arcs q j s1 p e r4 ,the figures obtained by the methods here given closely resemble the ellipse1 but are not of the strict mathematical form4 ,it is well to acquire some facility in drawing ellipses1 for the projection of a circle on a plane1 when the two are neither parallel nor perpendicular1 is an ellipse1 and one often has occasion to describe it4 #db4 ,the following may be added as a mode of describing an ellipse3 ,the major axis and the two foci 7points in this axis7 being known1 fix two pins in these foci4 ,then tie a piece of string into a loop and place it over the pins2 stretch it with a pencil1 the point of which is on the paper1 and on moving this around in a circular direction1 the string being maintained stretched1 an ellipse will be described4 ,when the string is so stretched that it lies along the major axis1 the length should be such that the pencil is exactly at its end4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 #dc4 ,to draw a spiral curve4 ,draw four lines forming a small square 7fig4 #cc74 ,the point o is taken as the center of the first arc1 i j2 s is the center of j k2 u of k l2 i of l n4 ,then1 to continue the curve1 o is again taken as the center for n p1 and so on4 ,this method produces a volute in which the coils are at a considerable distance apart1 such as has no special applicability to horology4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,as the balance-spring of a watch is partially concealed by other pieces1 it is generally sufficient to represent the parts that show themselves by concentric circular arcs1 or arcs described from two centers4 ,if a more accurate representation be required1 the following method may be resorted to3 when working on a small scale it involves the use of the eyeglass1 for the figure 7fig4 #cd17 here given is exaggerated in order to avoid confusion in the lines1 numbers1 letters1 etc4 ,a small circle having been described1 it is divided into an even number of equal parts1 say four2 a less number than this should never be adopted4 ,from the same center describe another circle as small as possible1 which will be cut by the two diameters drawn between opposite points of division numbered #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4 ,assuming a to represent the starting-point of the curve1 from the center #a with radius #a a draw the arc a b2 from #b with radius #b b draw the arc b c2 from #c with #c c draw c d2 from #d with #d d draw d s2 then recommencing with #a and the radius #a s draw s f1 and so on4 ,the less the radius of the small circle and the greater its number of divisions1 the closer will the successive coils be together4 ,to secure accuracy when working on a small scale1 it is advisable that the center and the several points be in a thin brass or horn plate1 which is maintained in position by steady pins4 ,,the ,,micrometrical ,,dividing ,,table4 #dd4 ,this instrument is no more than a simple application of the screw to dividing straight lines1 but it will suffice to enable the reader to understand the principles on which the more complicated instruments are based4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,a plate1 ,p1 fig4 #ce1 supports a bracket a1 in which a screw1 similar to the one described in paragraph #cj1 is engaged by means of a collet2 it rotates1 being supported between this bracket and the small bearing b1 that receives the pivot at the end of the screw4 ,the screw is fitted carefully into a nut n1 which is rigidly attached to the small plate h2 this carries a fine marker1 movable on an axis1 and terminating with a chisel edge or a fine diamond point1 according as the instrument is to be used for engraving metal or glass2 or it may be provided with a fine pencil if the object is merely to make subdivisions on a drawing4 ,this being understood1 it will be evident that1 if a rule or rod of any form be fixed by screws or otherwise between f and g1 it can be graduated by means of the marker1 the screw being made to advance2 the millimeter screw can be used for dividing into millimeters and fractions direct1 or1 with a little calculation1 into fractions of an inch4 ,each complete rotation of the head means a displacement of the marker by a millimeter2 a half turn will be half a millimeter1 etc4 ,,other ,,methods ,,of ,,dividing ,,into ,,equal ,,parts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 #de4 ,first method4 ,having fixed a sheet of drawing paper on a smooth board1 draw the line ,m ,n1 fig4 #cf1 longer than the rule which is required to be divided4 ,then1 with a compass or graduated scale1 mark off a series of equidistant points1 commencing at ,n1 equal in number to the required series on the rule1 and let ,m be the last division4 ,with the center ,n and radius ,n ,m describe the circular arc p v1 and with ,m as a center and the same radius1 describe a second arc r s1 intersecting the first at ,o4 ,join ,o with ,m and ,n4 ,assume a c to be the rule that is to be divided into equal parts2 slide it on the paper parallel to ,m ,n until the extremities1 a and c1 coincide with the lines ,o ,m1 ,o ,n1 and are equidistant from ,o4 ,this position can be easily found by the aid of a compass with one of its centers at ,o4 ,now fix the rule in position with sealing-wax1 or by some other means1 and1 with a firm upright pin1 center the brass rule ,r at ,o1 so that it can rotate round this center on the pin as a pivot4 ,it now only remains to trace a series of lines ,o k1 ,o b1 ,o d1 etc41 with the rule1 to the division points of the line ,m ,n4 ,the line a c is thus divided into as many equal parts as the line ,m ,n4 ,the graduations will be all the more exact according as the divisions of the line ,m ,n are longer4 #df4 ,second method4 ,by the side of the chuck of a wheel-cutting engine1 arrange a horizontal slide y f fig4 #cg1 that can travel easily in a direction perpendicular to a ,t4 ,a watch fusee-chain1 or a very flexible spring1 is fixed by one end to the chuck1 and by the other to the slide at d4 ,the chain or spring is kept stretched by a weight which tends to draw the slide from f towards d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,the rule to be graduated1 a1 is now fixed on the slide1 and an initial division is marked on it with a pointed rotating cutter in the position usually occupied by the wheel cutter1 or else by striking a small pointed or flat-edged chisel arranged for the purpose1 in such a manner as not to be liable to derangement4 ,rotate the table through a definite distance2 the rule a will advance through the same distance2 mark the second division2 then having moved the division-plate through a distance equal to its first displacement1 mark the third graduation1 and so on4 ,suppose1 for example1 that it be required to make #cj divisions on the rule between f and d2 select on the plate the circle corresponding to twice or thrice this amount1 so that the radius of the chuck may not be relatively too short1 and that the chain or spring may not act at a disadvantage2 take the number #fj for example3 ,the two marks at d and g on the spring indicate the length that corresponds to the straight line to be divided4 ,the chuck is placed in the lathe and reduced in diameter until the half circumference is exactly equal to the distance between these two marks on the spring1 which thus fall on a diameter1 i g1 of the chuck4 ,the spring having been fixed by its two extremities1 the slide with the rule attached is placed in position1 so that the mark g is on the line a ,t2 it will be evident from the figure that each displacement of the division-plate through one-sixtieth of its circumference will cause a to advance through one-thirtieth of the space between f and d4 ,remarks4--,knowing the relation of a diameter to the circumference 7as #a 3 #c4adaf71 we can determine the diameter of the chuck at once by calculation4 ,its form should be a true cylinder1 and it is well to place guides that will prevent the spring or chain from assuming a helical position4 ,the side that carries the rule should be strictly perpendicular to a ,t2 and the portion of the spring that is not coiled on the chuck should always be parallel to this slide4 ,the chuck and spring must be quite clean and smooth1 and the latter should be very pliable4 ,a greater weight will be needed to keep the spring stretched than will suffice for a chain1 and it must be increased as the strength of springs is greater4 ,the slide1 y f1 may simply travel over a horizontal surface between pins planted in two parallel lines4 ,but it would be preferable to adopt some other method1 for instance1 to make this piece 7,f1 fig4 #cg71 travel with a little friction along a perfectly true cylindrical rod4 #dg4 ,third method4 ,this is merely an application of the arrangement mentioned in paragraph #dd4 ,the lathe can be employed for marking off a series of equidistant points in a straight line4 ,knowing the pitch of the slide-rest screw1 determine the distance apart in1 say1 millimetres1 of the required divisions1 and fix the rule perfectly flat on the face-plate1 which must be rendered immovable by any convenient means4 ,then mark the first point with the drill-stock4 ,advance the screw by the amount previously determined upon and mark the second point4 ,after withdrawing the drill1 again advance by the same amount and mark the third point1 etc4 ,always be careful1 before making the first mark1 that the screw has already traveled some distance in the direction it will continue to move1 so as to avoid backlash1 or loss of time4 ,,to ,,subdivide ,a ,,circle4 #dh4 ,to divide the circumference into equal parts4 ,after having drawn the circle1 ,a1 fig4 #ch1 draw two diameters1 d a1 b c1 at right angles to each other1 dividing the circle into four equal parts4 ,join the points1 c a1 and divide the line1 c a1 accurately into nine equal parts4 ,draw a series of circles concentric with the first1 at distances apart equal to one of the divisions of c a1 and to the number of one1 two1 three1 etc41 according as it is required to subdivide the circle1 say for a pinion1 into seven1 eight1 nine1 etc41 equal parts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,with a fine-pointed compass1 measure off the radius of the initial circle ,a4 ,placing one point of the compass at c1 the other point will give the position of the next leaf1 and so on1 all around the circumference4 ,if the innermost circle ,a be selected for sub-division1 six divisions will be obtained1 and there will be one more division for each larger circle4 ,the operation will be facilitated by selecting the first circle1 so that the line a c contains exactly nine divisions equal to those of some scale that is accessible4 ,such a circle can be easily found1 by first drawing the two diameters1 laying the scale in the direction c a1 and determining by trial the radius for which the first and ninth divisions correspond to a and c respectively4 #di4 ,to divide a surface into rings of equal or proportional superficial area4 ,the following solution is due to ,m4 ,brocot3 ,let a d be the radius of a circle 7fig #ci71 that is required to be subdivided into four rings of equal area by concentric circles4 ,taking a d as a diameter1 draw the semicircumference1 a b d2 accurately divide a d into four equal parts1 and at each point so obtained1 erect a perpendicular4 ,through the intersections of these perpendiculars with the semicircle1 draw a series of concentric circles2 they will trace out rings1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 that have equal superficial areas4 ,if it be required to divide the surface in a given proportion1 divide the line a d1 according to that proportion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,the right-hand side of fig4 #ci gives a special application of this method to the division into two equal areas of the interior of a barrel exclusive of the space occupied by the arbor-nut4 ,if the mainspring accurately covers i c when wound up1 and i j when unwound1 it will give the greatest possible number of turns4 ,,time4 #ej4 ,solar time is taken from the revolutions of the earth1 and the watchmaker can easily get the exact solar time of any point at which he may happen to be by a little calculation from known standards4 ,these standards are3 #a4 ,the zenith4 #b4 ,the longitude of the point of observation4 #c4 ,the difference between noon at the point of observation and noon of a known meridian either east or west of the point of observation4 ,the zenith is that point in the heavens where the rays of the sun are in a plane exactly perpendicular to the surface of the earth at the point of observation1 and when the rays of sunlight are in this plane it is noon at that point4 ,the circumference of the earth is divided into #cfj degrees or meridians of longitude1 so that as the earth revolves once every twenty-four hours1 each of these meridians will pass the zenith1 or fixed point1 in that time4 ,in twenty-four hours there are #bd #fj #a1ddj minutes1 so that the interval between the passage of one meridian and the next will be #a1ddj #cfj #d minutes4 ,a degree of longitude is divided like an hour1 into minutes and seconds1 so that #a degree of longitude equals #d minutes of time4 #a minute 0 0 0 #d seconds 0 0 #a second 0 0 0 or 4#jff seconds of time4 #ea4 ,thus it happens that1 at a town one degree east of a given point the sun will be visible four minutes sooner1 and if to the west1 four minutes later than at that point4 ,the 8local10 or solar time1 therefore1 will be four minutes earlier at the first town1 and four minutes later at the second town1 than it is at the point of observation4 #eb4 ,it will be readily seen that1 having any two of the three factors given above1 the other can be readily found4 ,thus having the time of a given meridian and the local noon or meridian time1 the longitude can be readily found2 or1 having the longitude 7which can be readily obtained from a surveyor7 and the time of a given meridian1 8noon10 can be calculated1 etc4 ,the first method is followed in calculating distances at sea2 the chronometer keeping ,greenwich time1 and the local noon giving the longitude4 ,when great accuracy is necessary1 however1 a fixed star is used as a means of observing the exact time when a revolution of the earth is completed1 as the revolution of the sun in its orbit causes a slight variation during the year4 ,for further information on this point the reader is referred to works on astronomy4 ,to obviate the constantly varying time in running east or west1 the railroads use the time of a given meridian over each fifteen degrees of longitude1 and as each degree of longitude equals four minutes of time1 it follows that only the hour is changed in changing from one standard to another4 ,in ,europe the zero of longitude1 or the time of the meridian of ,greenwich is used4 ,in the ,united ,states the time of the #geth degree1 which passes through ,philadelphia1 is used from the #fgth to the #hjth degree1 which comprises the territory from ,princeton1 ,maine1 to a line drawn north and south1 passing through ,erie and ,pittsburg1 ,pa41 and is called ,eastern time4 ,the time of the #ijth meridian is used from the #hjth to the #ajb;d meridian1 and is called ,central time4 ,the time of the #ajeth meridian is used from the #ajb;d to the #aadth meridian1 and is called ,mountain time4 ,the time of the #abjth meridian is used from the #aadth meridian to the coast 7which ends at about the #abdth meridian7 and is called ,pacific time4 ,the time of the various standards is telegraphed through their various territories at noon each day1 and furnishes an accurate standard of comparison to all watchmakers4 #ec4 ,in very many cities the actual or solar noon has been discarded and the railway standard adopted1 thus making but one standard and removing the source of confusion and annoyance to many people4 ,in others1 however1 the two standards are still used1 and it becomes necessary for the watchmaker to be able to calculate both standards1 in case of accident or irregularity in his regulator4 ,hence he should calculate his longitude within one second by means of the difference between railroad and local noon1 and have the nearest surveyor correct his reckoning2 then1 by means of the accurate longitude and the railroad time1 correct the solar time2 then by means of the solar noon and the longitude calculate the railroad time4 ,when all these calculations check each other perfectly1 he possesses all the time data he needs for that place1 and can correct his standard or regulator if at any time it should become irregular4 ,the calculations are very simple1 and can be easily performed from the data given above4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,loomis' ,treatise on ,arithmetic4 ,loomis' ,treatise on ,algebra4 ,loomis' ,elements of ,geometry4 ,robinson's ,algebra and ,geometry4 #b ,adapted from ,robinson's ,algebra4 #c ,determined in the manner explained for erecting a perpendicular in par4 #cb except that intersecting arcs are described on both sides of the line 7n m1 fig4 #ag72 the perpendicular will be a line joining these points of intersection4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,materials ,,employed ,,in ,,horology4 ,,iron4 #ed4 ,iron is an elementary body1 that is to say it cannot be decomposed4 ,it is the most tenacious of the metals1 having a breaking strain of about #ge kilo4 per sq4 mm4 7or #ajf1jjj pounds per sq4 inch7 of section4 ,two pieces can be perfectly welded together when raised to a white heat4 ,in the smaller horological appliances1 the metal is not employed except after conversion into steel4 ,in common clocks it is used from motives of economy1 for forming pins1 screws1 etc4 ,in turret clocks1 however1 considerable use is made of it1 many of the parts after they are formed being cemented1 that is to say1 having their surface rendered hard in a manner subsequently indicated 7#fe74 ,such a mode of manufacture is particularly applicable to pieces that are subject to a constant succession of impacts2 their hardened1 steelified surface resists wear1 while the iron core affords security against rupture4 ,it is important to carefully distinguish the cases in which iron is preferable from those in which its substitution for steel serves merely to augment the profits of the manufacturer4 ,the fracture of a good piece of iron is characterized by long twisted fibres of a brilliant white color4 ,if heated frequently or carelessly1 the quality of the metal is impaired--it ceases to be fibrous and looses its tenacity3 in this condition it is said to be burnt4 ,it is better to work with a charcoal or gas fire1 as coal acts more rapidly in rendering the metal brittle4 ,cold hammering1 or 8hammer-hardening10 also makes it brittle and diminishes its tenacity1 but this is again restored by a suitable annealing4 ,iron dissolves slowly in dilute nitric acid2 if not diluted1 this acid rapidly oxidizes it4 ,dilute sulphuric acid dissolves the metal easily1 but if concentrated1 it has no action in the cold1 whereas1 on heating to ebullition1 the iron is dissolved with evolution of sulphurous acid gas4 ,it is also dissolved by hydrochloric acid1 or aqua regia4 ,iron is less magnetic than steel1 especially hardened steel1 which1 owing to its great coercive force1 is magnetized with greater difficulty1 but retains its magnetism for a longer period4 ,indeed1 soft iron1 if properly prepared1 can be magnetized and demagnetized instantaneously4 ,some workmen can distinguish iron from steel by the musical note emitted on striking4 ,a more certain method1 however1 consists in using dilute nitric1 or sulphuric acid4 ,if the surface remains unaltered1 or nearly so1 when touched with a drop of either acid1 the metal is iron1 but1 in the case of steel1 a black mark will be left1 owing to the liberation of carbon4 #ee4 ,to ,remove ,rust4 ,the usual mode is to rub the object with a piece of oiled rag1 or emery paper4 ,it appears that more rapid and more satisfactory results are secured by using very pure petroleum1 and wiping with a hempen or woolen rag4 #ef4 ,to ,prevent ,rust4 ,dip iron or steel articles in a mixture of equal parts of carbolic acid and olive oil1 rubbing the surface with a rag4 ,others rub the metal with a mercurial ointment1 leaving a thin layer over the entire surface4 ,it is stated that1 if iron be dipped in a solution of carbonate of potash or soda in water1 the surface will be protected against rust for a long time1 and objects can be protected for any period by burying in quicklime4 ,rubbing the surface with plumbago has a similar effect1 and ,barff has pointed out that1 by exposing iron to the action of steam1 heated above the boiling point of water1 a coating of magnetic oxide of iron is formed1 which is equally serviceable4 #eg4 ,to restore iron and steel that has been burnt1 or badly forged4 ,when iron is burnt1 or carelessly forged1 it becomes crystalline and brittle2 in order to restore it to its original condition1 a fresh and very careful forging is generally needed4 ,this can be avoided by having recourse to the following method1 suggested by ,caron3 it consists in treating the metal somewhat after the manner adopted in hardening steel4 ,he experimented with a bar of good iron1 which was easily bent when cold1 without breaking or showing any cracks4 ,it was then burnt and became brittle when cold1 the fractured surface showing brilliant shining facets4 ,prepare a boiling saturated solution of sea-salt1 heat the piece of iron to a bright redness1 and plunge it into the bath until it is of the same temperature 7about #aaj ,c4 or #bcj ,f47 ,after undergoing this operation1 it is found that the metal can be easily doubled in the cold1 exactly as it did before being burnt4 ,perret states that steel which has been deteriorated by frequent hardening can be restored as follows3 ,heat it short of dull redness and quench in melted tallow1 repeating the operation1 if necessary1 when the steel may be again hardened in the ordinary manner1 and will be nearly1 if not quite1 restored to its original condition4 ,,cast ,,iron4 #eh4 ,this is only used in the manufacture of tools and large clocks2 the employment of cast iron wheels in the striking train of such clocks has materially reduced their price4 ,like steel1 it is a compound body1 consisting mainly of iron and carbon4 ,cast iron1 however1 differs from steel in the quantity of carbon present1 for1 whereas its proportion in cast iron varies from #b per cent4 upwards1 there is never1 in steel1 an amount exceeding #a4e per cent41 and even 4#e per cent4 renders an iron hard1 converting it into 8mild0 steel4 ,cheapness is not the only argument in favor of the use of cast iron4 ,in virtue of its molecular structure1 this material offers a considerable resistance to a crushing strain1 so that the teeth of wheels1 made of carefully selected cast iron1 will work for a long time without sensible wear2 moreover1 the founder's art has made such important advances that there is no difficulty in casting1 to a constant pattern1 a wheel1 together with the pinion that it carries1 and any other projections1 etc41 that may be required2 this economizes labor to a very great extent4 ,the use of cast iron in the construction of certain classes of wheels1 and parts of tools1 presents advantages which we cannot afford to ignore2 but it must be carefully observed that this material is not suitable in cases where great accuracy in the acting parts is required1 as it cannot1 like brass and steel1 be conveniently worked by the turning tool or file4 ,in recent years1 however1 this difficulty has been overcome by the introduction of what are termed 8malleable castings10 produced as follows3 #ei4 ,malleable ,castings4 ,the object is first made of ordinary cast iron1 and the invention consists in rendering this malleable by the removal of the carbon that has served the very important purpose of rendering the metal fusible4 ,in large cast iron pots1 the castings are laid with alternating layers of powdered red hmatite1 and the whole is kept at a temperature of about #ijj ,c4 7#a1fej ,f471 or cherry-red heat1 for #gb hours4 ,on cooling1 the castings are found to consist of nearly pure iron1 and to be perfectly malleable1 and1 therefore1 workable4 ,,steel4 #fj4 ,the treatment of steel involves some of the most prolonged and delicate operations in the entire range of horology4 ,if the metal is badly selected and prepared1 the working of it will be laborious1 difficult and unsatisfactory2 the resulting object will be distorted in the hardening1 and will not harden uniformly2 in short1 it will occasion much toil and loss of time1 with very little success4 ,let the young watchmaker accustom himself from the first to study the steel that he uses1 so that he may be thoroughly cognizant of both its advantages and defects2 he will1 in the practice of his art1 be amply repaid for the brief time spent in making such an examination4 #fa4 ,steel is not an elementary body2 it is usually regarded as a carbide of iron1 that is to say a combination of carbon and iron4 ,analysis1 however1 proves other substances to be usually present in almost infinitesimal quantities2 their remarkable influence on the physical properties of the metal has not yet been fully investigated1 but much attention is being devoted to them at the present day4 ,the varieties of steel are very great4 ,what are known as puddled and natural steel are obtained by acting directly on cast iron4 ,cementation is a very old method of converting bars of malleable or pure iron into steel by enclosing them in charcoal and heating the whole for several days1 until the carbon has worked itself into the center of the bars in such quantity as to covert the iron into steel4 ,the steel obtained by the above method is very heterogeneous2 in other words1 the composition is not uniform throughout a given block or bar4 ,one part is highly carbonized1 whereas another part1 especially towards the center1 will not be sufficiently so4 ,the grain1 although very fine in one part1 will be more coarse in another2 hard particles of pure cast iron1 termed 8pins10 are to be met with that resist the action of the graver or the file and give rise to cracks in the hardening1 hammering1 etc41 and portions or sometimes even entire layers that have taken up no carbon whatever4 ,the differences in the density1 hardness1 malleability1 etc41 that can be shown to exist at different points in the same bar arise from this cause4 ,such faults can in part be corrected by shearing1 an operation which consists in binding together a number of bars in a bundle1 raising them to a red heat and beating them with sledge or steam hammers so as to weld them into one4 ,the bar thus obtained is again heated1 folded several times on itself1 again hammered1 rolled1 etc41 when it is termed shear steel4 ,if these operations are performed carefully and without a too great heat1 the quality of the steel is much improved2 it is more homogeneous and can be worked with greater facility4 #fb4 ,the discovery of the earliest method of producing cast steel1 thoroughly homogeneous1 was made by a watchmaker1 ,b4 ,huntsman1 of ,york1 and metal produced by his method is very highly prized at the present day4 ,many other methods have been since introduced1 amongst which may be mention the ,bessemer and the ,siemens-,martin processes1 and steel is now produced from iron of very varying quality1 so that the mark cast steel is now far from being a guarantee of quality4 ,the fusion of shear or cement steel will only secure a marked superiority in its quality under two principal conditions3 7#a7 ,the metal must be carefully selected1 since certain qualities do not intermingle thoroughly4 7#b7 ,very great care and skill must be devoted to all the operations1 the successive heatings1 forging1 rolling1 etc4 ,in short1 in the case of steel it is exceptionally true that we must never accept the metal merely on its own recommendation4 ,whatever maker's mark is selected1 the results obtained will never be satisfactory unless the degree of hardness1 the elasticity1 cohesive force1 etc41 are such as will suit the metal to the special purpose to which it is to be applied as well as to the working it will have to undergo4 ,experiment can alone make us fully cognizant of the qualities of a steel4 ,,general ,,observations4 #fc4 ,all steels1 if of good quality to begin with1 will deteriorate if subjected too often or too long 7according to the character of the metal7 to the action of either the fire or the hammer4 ,they will become brittle and incapable of hardening1 in the end even reverting to the condition of iron4 ,the quality of steel becomes worse as the number of flaws1 blackish filaments1 more or less carbonaceous veins1 and occasional particles of pure iron in its substance are greater2 as its surface is cindery1 that is to say spotted with minute black marks which become more prominent after polishing1 etc42 as its fracture presents an uneven grain1 etc4 ,such a metal is found to vary considerably as regards hardness1 elasticity1 etc42 not being uniformly affected in the hardening1 it becomes difficult to work with the file and almost impossible to form into a perfect cylinder in the lathe4 ,other conditions being equal1 these faults are characteristic of natural steel rather than of the two other varieties4 ,at the same time1 if well sheared1 it becomes very elastic1 and has the great advantages of not being deteriorated under the hammer and of being less ready than the other varieties to be converted into iron4 ,rolling1 wire-drawing and hammering occasion a molecular re-arrangement2 it is necessary1 therefore1 to anneal the metal from time to time1 as otherwise it becomes brittle or cracks4 ,there is a certain temperature1 corresponding to each variety of steel1 which cannot be exceeded without the metal being injuriously affected2 this temperature must1 then1 be previously determined4 ,the grain of a piece of steel that has been superheated or burnt is characterized by brilliant diamond-like particles2 the mass loses its beautiful color1 and resembles iron more or less according to the degree of heat applied4 ,some few workmen are enabled1 by long experience and a very delicate touch1 to judge approximately of the quality of a steel from its weight1 feel1 and resonance4 ,metal that is of a good quality1 homogeneous1 and very dense1 they term full4 ,,special ,,observations4 #fd4 ,natural ,steel4 ,in the case of natural steels of low quality1 the fracture is usually characterized by uneven grains1 a somewhat fibrous nature and a bluish tint4 ,the grain becomes finer and more even and the surface presents more and more the appearance of a piece of coke1 as the quality of metal improves4 ,in addition to these distinctive features a natural steel of high quality can be distinguished by the fact of its being more thoroughly hardened and less liable to break when hard4 ,in hardening it must be raised to a higher temperature than cement steel2 in other words1 steel of a low quality must be heated somewhat above bright redness1 while the better qualities should be heated to an orange-red1 or nearly so 7#gg74 #fe4 ,cement ,steel4 ,the cement steel ordinarily met with has a lamellar fracture1 the lamell varying in form and color from the center towards the circumference4 ,the grain is usually finer and more uniform than that of natural steel1 there is seldom any appearance of fibres1 veins1 or flaws4 ,the color of the fracture is greyish1 tending towards blue in the ordinary qualities4 ,the better qualities are marked by a closer grain1 a more uniform1 dull1 greyish-white color1 exhibiting neither streaks or black spots after hardening1 and by the further fact that hardening can be effected at a lower temperature4 ,if of the very best quality1 it should not require heating beyond a clear cherry-red2 often even a still less degree of heat will suffice4 #ff4 ,cast ,steel4 ,cast steel is the most homogeneous1 full1 and beautiful of the three classes4 ,several varieties exist4 ,the fracture of cast steel1 as compared with others1 is smooth1 compact1 and of a white-grey color1 resembling coke4 ,the grain is fine and very even4 ,the metal must be hardened at a temperature much lower than can be safely applied to other classes of steel1 since it is rapidly deteriorated by heat4 ,cast steel is more fusible than ordinary steel1 and will fracture with ease under the hammer when heated to a blue tint1 so that great care is essential in hammering it4 ,the metal should never be heated beyond a dull or cherry-red heat1 lest it be burnt4 ,the tenacity will be increased by forging at a low temperature or even by cold hammering4 ,the fineness in grain1 together with its high density1 afford an indication that the metal can be rendered very uniformly hard2 that very fine cutting edges and the most minute rods can be made of it2 and that1 after hardening1 it can be highly and uniformly polished2 in other words1 that it does not exhibit spots or streaks differing in color from the mass1 as is always the case with natural and cement steels4 ,for most horological purposes 7such as making pinions1 staffs1 pivots1 etc47 cast steel is preferable4 ,it is the only kind that can with certainty be highly polished1 turned perfectly round1 and that does not get distorted in the smoothing4 ,moreover1 when wear does occur it exhibits less irregularity4 ,highly-carbonized shear steel exhibits a fine1 close grain that would make it easily mistaken for cast steel4 ,they can be best distinguished by the application of dilute sulphuric acid4 ,the side of the bar when acted on by this means exhibits lines that indicate the junctions of the several layers constituting shear steel4 ,,determination ,,of ,,the ,,qualities ,,of ,,steel4 #fg4 ,it is unnecessary to observe that as we are writing mainly for the use of practical watch and clockmakers1 we shall make no reference to those elaborate systems of testing that form a remarkable feature of the engineering of the present day1 but shall confine ourselves to the tests which workmen can apply for themselves4 ,when the grain is fine1 close and homogeneous1 the fracture in even curved lines and the surface of a uniform grey aspect1 the metal is considered to be of good quality4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 unsafe to rely too much on such indications1 for a steel that has been hammered until cold will exhibit a fine close grain1 whereas the grain of the same metal will be coarse and open if it was still red hot when the hammering or rolling was concluded4 ,the grain of hardened steel1 moreover1 depends on the degree of heat to which it has been subjected4 ,when of equal quality1 even if from the same maker1 the grain will be finer in bars of small dimensions than in those that are larger4 ,cast steel even1 especially in large pieces1 is not always perfectly homogeneous1 as can be easily perceived on applying the file1 or still better1 in the lathe2 an object can with difficulty be turned perfectly round1 and loses its shape in the smoothing4 ,as a general rule it is impossible to form a reliable opinion on a specimen of steel until after it has been worked1 filed1 turned1 and tested according to the particular use to which it is to be applied2 for a steel that is excellent for making1 say1 a spring or a cutter1 may be quite unsuitable and give most unsatisfactory results if used for making staffs or fine pivots1 or the converse may be equally true4 ,as a preliminary test1 break a piece of the metal2 after having examined the fracture1 form a cutting edge1 harden to what seems to be a convenient degree1 then sharpen and employ for cutting small pieces of iron4 ,if the edge is in no way damaged by the iron1 this may be taken as a good indication that the metal possesses body and tenacity1 and that it can be hardened as much as is required for such purposes4 ,the following are methods of obtaining more complete information as to the homogeneity1 the character of grain1 the degree of hardness a given sample can attain1 as well as its malleability1 body1 elasticity1 etc4 #fh4 ,homogeneity4 ,place drops of dilute sulphuric acid equidistant along the surface of a bar4 ,if the metal is homogeneous all the drops will impart the same color4 ,cold hammer or hammer-harden1 and then fire-harden part of the bar4 ,break off the extremity in order to study the fracture2 if the result of this examination is satisfactory1 polish the hardened end carefully1 and with the aid of a glass again examine into the homogeneity of the metal4 ,the polish will be the better and more uniform according as the steel is more homogeneous4 #fi4 ,grain1 hardness and temperature of hardening4 ,all varieties of steel do not harden to the same degree1 and each requires to be heated to its own particular temperature for hardening2 moreover1 the character of the metal1 its color1 and the size of its grains vary according to the degree of heat to which it is subjected4 ,it would be difficult to draw any exact conclusions as to the character of grain and the hardness without the following practical method1 which we owe to ,reaumur3 ,at a temperature not exceeding a dull redness1 forge a piece of the steel to be tested into the form of a razor-blade1 that is to say1 leaving it thick on one edge and thin on the other1 in the direction of its length4 ,then heat the blade1 holding it by one end1 and when the other end has reached a bright red heat1 plunge the whole into water4 ,part of the steel will then be hard hardened4 ,along the entire length of the thinner edge carefully break off the metal with a hammer or otherwise1 and examine the character of grain at different points of the exposed thicker edge thus left4 ,as the form1 color1 etc41 of the grain depend on the degree of heat to which each portion was subjected1 it follows that we shall observe four types of grains3 7#a7 ,large1 white1 sparkling grains2 7#b7 ,grains that are medium sized and intermixed1 some being white and sparkling1 others white and dull2 7#c7 ,fine dull grains2 and 7#d7 ,grains that are medium sized1 but dull and ill-defined4 ,according as the third class of grains is observed to be more numerous than the second class1 so is the fineness of the steel greater1 and conversely4 ,this method of testing possesses1 moreover1 the advantage that the workman can experiment on his blade of steel with a view to determine the temperature best suited for hardening4 ,grain ,no4 #a corresponds to a white-red heat for hardening4 ,grain ,no4 #b corresponds to an orange-red heat for hardening4 ,grain ,no4 #c corresponds to some shade of cherry-red heat for hardening4 ,grain ,no4 #d corresponds to a dull red heat for hardening4 ,as there is some difficulty in remembering the exact points at which these several temperatures are reached we will complete this account of the mode of testing by the following3 #gj4 ,on a thick plate of metal1 maintained at an orange-red heat1 place three fragments of the steel under examination1 previously marking them1 so as to observe the order in which they are immersed in water2 and have three vessels of water standing near4 ,as soon as one of the pieces reaches a dull cherry-red heat1 allow it to slide into one of the vessels2 heat the second to a medium cherry1 and the third to a bright cherry-red1 introducing them in succession into the water-vessels4 ,if these pieces be examined as to the resistance they offer to breaking1 and the fracture of each be compared with the fracture at different points of the razor-blade1 the file being used to test hardness1 we shall have sufficient evidence as to the most suitable temperature for the hardening of this particular variety of steel4 #ga4 ,body4 ,a steel that possesses body is not brittle4 ,this quality may be tested in the following manner3 ,several bars of different kinds of steel1 of equal dimensions and hardened as uniformly as possible1 are bent until the breaking point is reached4 ,if all the conditions of the trial are identical1 those bars that stand the greatest angular deflection without breaking have the most body4 ,steel that possesses body does not break as easily as that which is wanting in body4 ,its fracture will be1 as it were1 bevelled off like the mouth-piece of a whistle4 ,if soft and fibrous1 it will be characterized by parts being torn asunder4 #gb4 ,elasticity4 ,the elasticity may be tested in a similar manner4 ,it is proportional to the curvature or to the weight that a rod or blade of the metal under examination can support without failing to return to its initial position as soon as the weight or obstacle is removed4 ,a sample of steel that is distorted by a weight that another specimen resists1 is evidently inferior in elasticity4 #gc4 ,malleability1 tenacity1 ductility4 ,a cold hammering1 if carefully managed1 will suffice to indicate the limits between which steel will support frequently repeated percussion1 without breaking1 cracking or flying4 ,forge a piece1 introducing it a number of times into the fire in order to ascertain whether it loses its distinctive characteristics rapidly1 and whether it can be successfully forged4 ,it is more difficult to forge1 according as it is harder and more 8steely40 ,the degree of malleability is indicated by the manner in which it supports hammering and rolling1 and by the smallness of the dimensions to which it can be brought by such operations4 ,passing the metal through a draw-plate with smooth holes1 or tapping it in a screw-plate will give useful indications as to degree of ductility and tenacity4 ,a metal is said to be malleable when it can be easily spread out under the hammer or in the laminating rolls4 ,it is called ductile when it can be reduced to very thin wire by passing through the draw-plate4 ,it would seem that these two properties1 ductility and malleability1 should always exist together1 to the same degree1 in any given metal1 but such is not the case4 ,iron can be drawn into very fine wire1 but cannot be reduced to sheets of relatively equal thinness2 tin and lead give leaves of extreme thinness1 but cannot be drawn out into very fine wires2 gold and silver are both very malleable and ductile1 and they rank highest as regards the possession of these properties4 ,steel is more fusible and malleable than iron1 but less ductile4 #gd4 ,observations4 ,formerly the makers of cylinder escapements preferred forged steel1 and their cylinders often cracked after the hardening3 modern makers employ drawn steel1 and it is much preferable4 ,at the same time they do not appear to recognize the principal reason for the difference in the two varieties of steel4 ,it seems to us to be as follows3 forged steel is malleable2 drawn steel1 which has passed well through the draw-plate1 is ductile1 and1 therefore1 tenacious4 ,but tenacity in a metal is nothing else than an exceptional resistance1 opposed by its particles to a fracture or separation2 it follows1 then that drawn steel will crack with less facility than the other4 ,,preparations ,,of ,,steel4 #ge4 ,when a variety of steel has been selected that possesses the requisite properties3 that is to say1 fibre and elasticity for springs2 body and tenacity for circular cutters1 gravers1 etc41 it must be prepared2 in other words1 it must be made so that it can be worked with ease1 for steel that is badly prepared will resist both the file1 the graver and the drill4 ,it can never be turned perfectly round1 and will harden unevenly4 #gf4 ,to anneal steel4 ,the commonest1 and at the same time best1 method consists in heating the metal to a dull1 red heat1 burying it in hot ashes and allowing it to cool slowly4 ,steel raised to a red heat in contact with air loses a portion of its carbon1 so that it is better to place the metal in a vessel of burnt clay2 this is introduced into a fire which must not be too bright at first1 and when the vessel has attained a red heat the fire is checked and left until the whole is quite cold4 ,in order to soften steel by annealing with a view to work it1 engineers entirely cover the metal with dry powdered wood charcoal or dry iron filings or turnings1 in a cast iron box or pot1 or in a crucible1 shutting up all the openings so as to protect it from the direct action of the fire and from the air4 ,the vessel is then put in a dull fire1 the heat being gradually raised until the whole has acquired the requisite temperature1 which is known by observing the color 7see the following table72 this degree of heat is maintained for about ten minutes and the fire quenched1 after which it must be allowed to gradually die out4 ,frequently the cooling is not complete for a day or two1 and even more when the crucible is of large dimensions4 ,the metal will become softer1 according as the cooling is more slowly effected4 ,it is generally heated to #hjj or #ijj ,c4 7#aejj or #afjj ,f471 a cherry-red heat4 ,when the steel is associated with brass1 as in the case of a compensation balance1 it is not safe to exceed #fjj ,c4 7#ajjj ,f47 #gg4 ,it will be useful here to give the following table1 compiled by ,pouillet1 of the temperature1 as indicated by the air-thermometer1 corresponding to various colors of a heated body3 ,incipient red heat corresponds to #ebe ,c4 7 #ihj ,f47 ,dull red 0 0 0 #gjj ,c4 7#abhj ,f47 ,incipient cherry-red 0 0 #hjj ,c4 7#adgj ,f47 ,cherry-red 0 0 #ijj ,c4 7#afej ,f47 ,clear cherry-red 0 0 #ajjj ,c4 7#ahcj ,f47 ,deep orange 0 0 #aajj ,c4 7#bjaj ,f47 ,clear orange 0 0 #abjj ,c4 7#baij ,f47 ,white 0 0 #acjj ,c4 7#bcgj ,f47 ,bright white 0 0 #adjj ,c4 7#beej ,f47 ,dazzling white 0 #aejj-afjj ,c4 7#bgcj-biaj ,f47 #gh4 ,annealing or softening in water4 ,instead of allowing a piece of steel to cool slowly1 it may be thrown into water when heated to a temperature just below that at which it would harden4 ,in this case the metal will not harden1 but1 on the contrary1 become very soft4 ,a single operation suffices for certain varieties of steel1 but with others it must be repeated4 ,the only difficulty consists in fixing upon the precise moment at which the metal has the requisite tint 7a purplish yellow or dull red71 and this is more especially felt when dealing with small pieces2 experience can alone guide the workman in this matter4 ,a skilful workman recommends the employment of water containing one-fifth of its weight of gum arabic4 ,he also recommends that the metal be wiped over with an oiled rag1 then held in the fire1 and1 as soon as the oil is converted into a thick smoke1 and is on the point of igniting1 to immerse in water4 #gi4 ,hammering steel4 ,watchmakers who are called upon to manipulate exceedingly small pieces of steel1 can somewhat increase the body and homogeneity of the metal by a cold hammering4 ,after annealing1 the object is hammered with light1 uniform blows1 again annealed1 and the same operation is repeated one or more times1 according to the degree of malleability already acquired by the metal4 ,steel thus prepared has more body2 the particles composing it are more closely pressed together2 it files and turns well1 can be heated more evenly1 and is not distorted or only very slightly in hardening1 providing the requisite precautions are taken4 #hj4 ,the hammer and anvil4 ,it is important that in these operations the surfaces of the hammer and anvil employed be perfectly smooth and even polished4 ,if they are rough or cracked1 if they are uneven or have a grained surface1 a flaw will be produced in the body of the steel or a crack on its surface4 #ha4 ,to clean rough steel4 ,the black coating known as 8scale10 which covers the surface of the metal after it has been in the fire1 will rapidly spoil gravers and files1 and1 in addition to this1 it leaves behind in them excessively hard particles that will become imbedded in the steel itself after a clean surface has been exposed4 ,it is then essential1 in order to ensure good and rapid workmanship1 to previously remove this crust from the surface4 ,this can be done in two ways3 by using a rapidly-revolving grindstone1 which instantaneously removes the oxide1 at the same time smoothing the surface of the steel2 or by leaving it for a sufficient length of time in dilute acid1 by which the superficial oxide is dissolved4 ,sulphuric acid is usually preferred2 in addition to the cleaning1 it is said to produce an effect somewhat similar to annealing4 ,on withdrawal from the acid1 the steel must be thoroughly washed with water and wiped dry with care4 #hb4 ,ordinary mode of preparing steel4 ,when the metal has been annealed by one of the methods indicated above1 its preparation is completed by 8pickling0 in acid1 after which it is hammered cold between an anvil and hammer 7#gi1 #hj74 ,when the metal has been worked1 it is heated to a bluish tint1 and after cooling slowly is ready for the hardening4 #hc4 ,m4 ,covillot's mode4 ,this author adopts a method whereby he obtains steel that is very soft to work and perfectly free from hard grains or 8pins0 of cast iron1 which are so often to be met with in steel1 causing it to crack in consequence of their inability to spread under the hammer4 ,take some garlic1 the younger the better1 mix it with sufficient good walnut-oil to cover the garlic and form into a paste2 then place it in an earthenware pot on the fire4 ,when beginning to boil1 heat the steel to dull redness and plunge it into the boiling paste4 ,withdraw it with a quantity of oil and garlic adhering2 again heat to redness and plunge into the paste4 ,this operation may be repeated two or three times4 ,then heat the steel1 while inclosed in an iron tube or box placed on the fire1 and allow the whole to cool4 ,finally1 the steel may be finished by setting it to cook 7if we may use such an expression7 for ten or twelve hours in the composition of garlic and nut-oil4 ,the last operation may be performed by setting the boiling solution over an oil-lamp1 after depressing the wick in such a manner that the paste may be kept just simmering4 ,m4 ,covillot employed the same mixture for hardening the objects2 but then1 of course1 it must be cold4 ,,hardening4 #hd4 ,it is well known that by the operation of hardening1 which consists in heating a piece of steel to a red heat and immediately chilling it1 the hardness is very materially increased4 ,hardening increases the dimensions of the object4 ,a steel collar adjusted to fit a cylinder will slide on more easily after hardening4 ,rolled steel is more liable to be distorted in the hardening than metal which has been forged or hammer-hardened4 ,as a general rule1 when steel--especially cast steel--has been carefully annealed1 cold-hammered and1 after working1 heated to a blue temper and slowly cooled1 it will not be distorted in the hardening1 providing the heating is skillfully conducted1 and if1 at the moment of introducing the object vertically into the bath1 the heat is evenly distributed throughout4 ,some practical men affirm that the mere presence of an oily layer on the surface of the water will check the tendency to distortion4 ,a workman frequently pretends that he has some exceptionally good solution for hardening1 of which a great mystery is often made2 but it is very generally admitted by those who are well-informed that these so-called secrets are a delusion and in no sense superior to pure water4 ,there is a certain amount of truth on both sides1 and the former class are somewhat justified by experiments with the various solutions enumerated below4 ,we may1 however1 lay down the three following conditions as essential to the successful conduct of the operation of hardening3 7#a7 ,the steel must previously be carefully prepared and worked2 metal that has been skillfully hammered cold or below a red heat1 for instance1 will harden better than when not so treated2 but if hammered too much or carelessly1 it will crack2 7#b7 ,the method of heating should be such that the heat is evenly distributed throughout the object2 if1 on immersion1 its temperature is not uniform1 the degree of hardness will vary2 7#c7 ,the skill of the workman must enable him to detect the exact degree of heat the variety of steel can withstand1 and this must on no account be exceeded1 for in that case the steel will lose tenacity1 will be more or less burnt1 c4 ,in the case of irregular shaped articles1 considerable skill is often needed to ensure that the several parts of the mass shall be cooled at1 approximately1 the same rate4 #he4 ,methods of hardening4 ,the baths used for hardening may be classed under three heads3 ,tough1 ,hard1 and ,glass-hard4 ,it must be understood1 however1 that these classes may be made to merge more or less into one another1 by varying the degree of temper4 #he;a4 ,the following receipts are drawn from various sources1 and the reader is recommended to select the one which he finds on trial to be best adapted to his requirements1 for1 as ,prof4 ,akerman has pointed out1 there are very many conditions exceedingly difficult of calculation that influence hardening1 and hence it follows that a workman accustomed to hardening often considers that only one method1 which he has been in the habit of employing1 can be used for a certain purpose1 while another equally skillful workman can only attain the same result by a method essentially different4 ,i4 ,tough4 ,tallow2 tepid water2 oil2 resin2 sealing-wax2 lead2 beeswax2 a solution of #c to #d parts 7by weight7 of gum arabic in #ajj parts of water2 #a part of soft soap in #ajj parts of water2 cold water with a layer of oil over it1 the thickness of which varies with the degree of hardness required2 #aj parts mutton suet1 #e parts resin1 #b parts sal-ammoniac1 and #ce parts olive oil4 ,,ii4 ,hard4 ,cold water2 water containing various salts1 such as sal-ammoniac and sea-salt2 a solution of #e parts sea-salt and #a part sal-ammoniac in #bj parts of water2 #d parts sulphuric acid1 #ej parts sea-salt1 #aj parts alcohol1 and #a1jjj parts water 7all by weight72 #d parts sulphuric acid1 #a part nitric acid1 #a part pyroligneous acid in #a1jjj parts water 7to be used very cold74 ,,iii4 ,glass-hard4--,mercury2 nitric acid2 opium2 any cyanide4 #hf4 ,as a rule it is well to employ tallow for the hardening of small objects in which hardness without brittleness is needed4 ,oil renders the surface harder than the interior1 and soapy water has the same effect4 ,saline solutions generally give great hardness4 ,very minute drills may be hardened by simply whisking them about in the air after heating the blade to redness1 and small objects may be hardened by pressing between two cold surfaces1 as those of the hammer and anvil4 ,if hardened in nitric acid1 opium1 or mercury1 the hardness of steel is so great that it will easily cut glass4 ,but such steel is brittle and all the more delicate according as the precise temperature necessary 7which is not very high7 has been exceeded4 ,for it must always be borne in mind that steel which has been heated too highly has deteriorated in quality and will remain brittle4 #hg4 ,precautions to be observed in hardening4 ,in the case of delicate pieces it is necessary to avoid the use of the blow-pipe1 as the current of air causes the surface to scale1 and1 as is well known1 the metal being unevenly heated will be distorted in the hardening1 and will not be uniformly hardened4 ,it is better to enclose the article between two pieces of ignited charcoal1 or in a metal tube1 or to bring it in contact with a sufficiently hot piece of metal1 etc4 ,an excellent plan is to heat the article in a bath of hot lead1 or of lead and tin in proportions dependent on the temperature required4 ,the heating is thus exceedingly uniform1 and1 if operating in a dark room1 the temperature can be accurately judged4 ,when it is required to harden an object without discoloring the surface or destroying the polish1 it may be placed in a tube1 and completely surrounded with powdered wood charcoal1 or1 preferably1 animal charcoal4 ,the whole after being heated is plunged in water without the steel being in any way exposed to the air4 ,the powder must be heaped up as a precaution against access of air4 ,on being taken from the water1 the steel is at once placed in alcohol1 and if at all dull it will generally be only necessary to rub the surface with a little rouge4 ,it is essential that the animal charcoal be previously heated in order to expel moisture1 as otherwise it would adhere to the surface and produce marks and even irregularity in the hardness4 ,as a rule the object must be immersed in the cooling liquid vertically in the direction of its greatest length1 and if of unequal thickness1 the stout portion should touch the surface first1 so that the metal may cool more uniformly4 ,in hardening large masses of steel1 various devices are resorted to in order to insure uniformity in the cooling1 but space prevents us from entering more fully into this interesting question4 ,the vessel must be of such a depth that the object will not reach the bottom until quite cold4 ,it is liable to distortion if introduced sideways1 or if the vessel is too shallow4 ,the method described above for protecting the surface from the action of the fire should be adopted when hardening delicate or complicated articles2 but in the case of drills1 for instance1 a simple coating of one of the following preparations is sufficient4 ,when an object is hardened in a saline solution1 it is well to cover it with a paste composed of water1 salt and flour 7some use yeast and salt for this purpose71 or a thin clay4 ,this precaution prevents any blistering or oxidation of the surface4 ,if it be desired to avoid oxidation1 and1 at the same time1 to restore to the steel the carbon it has lost owing to the action of the fire1 it must be rolled1 while still wet1 in another paste1 containing powdered horn or leather1 or some such calcined animal matter4 ,delicate parts can also be protected by a layer of beeswax and olive oil made hot4 ,in hardening small drills1 very good results are obtained by enclosing the blade in a pellet formed of prussiate of potash1 lard and ,castile soap1 and cooling in beeswax1 or the surface may be protected by a layer of soft soap4 ,steel as forged1 that is with the thin scale on1 is less liable to break in hardening than if previously brightened1 for the scale causes it to cook1 and1 therefore1 contract more slowly4 ,at the same time it should be borne in mind that when the surface is bright the hardness will be somewhat greater4 ,it will be well to warn the beginner that1 if an object is not entirely immersed in the cooling liquid1 it should never be held still1 but rapidly moved up and down1 as otherwise there is a liability to crack at that part which was level with the surface4 ,as a watchmaker only uses steels of the best quality1 he should1 in hardening never exceed a cherry-red heat1 and cherry-red comprises three distinct tints 7#gg72 incipient cherry-red1 cherry-red1 and clear cherry-red4 ,the second of these should not be exceeded in hardening cast steel1 and the third should be taken as an extreme limit in the case of shear steel4 ,ice-cold water should never be employed1 but the extreme chill should be first taken off4 ,indeed1 it is found that frosty weather interferes materially with the operation of hardening4 ,some workmen maintain that the hardening is done better if the water has been long used for the purpose without renewal4 ,,tempering4 #hh4 ,hardened steel is extremely fragile1 but its tenacity may be restored by tempering1 that is to say1 by heating it to a degree dependent on the amount by which its original softness has to be restored4 ,the color of the metallic surface will gradually change as the temperature rises1 each tint corresponding approximately to the degree of heat given in the following table 7,stodart73 #a4 ,very pale straw yellow #bbj ,c4 7#dcj ,f47 #b4 ,a shade darker yellow #bce ,c4 7#dej ,f47 ,tools for metal4 #c4 ,darker straw yellow #bde ,c4 7#dgj ,f47 ,tools for wood and #d4 ,still darker straw yellow #bee ,c4 7#dij ,f47 screws1 taps1 etc4 #e4 ,brown yellow #bfj ,c4 7#ejj ,c4 #ejj ,f47 ,hatchets1 chipping #f4 ,yellow1 tinged slightly chisels and other with purple #bgj ,c4 7#ebj ,f47 percussive tools1 #g4 ,light purple #bge ,c4 7#ecj ,f47 saws1 etc4 #h4 ,dark purple #bij ,c4 7#eej ,f47 #i4 ,dark blue #cjj ,c4 7#egj ,f47 ,springs4 #aj4 ,paler blue #caj ,c4 7#eij ,f47 #aa4 ,still paler blue #cbj ,c4 7#faj ,f47 ,too soft for the #ab4 ,still paler blue1 with tinge above purposes4 of green #cce ,c4 7#fcj ,f47 #hi4 ,it will facilitate the precise determination of these points if it be remembered that ,an alloy of #a part lead and #a part tin 7by weight7 melts at #aif ,c4 7#che ,f47 ,metallic tin 0 0 0 #bcj ,c4 7#ddf ,f47 ,an alloy of #b parts lead and #a part tin 0 #bdj ,c4 7#dfe ,f47 ,metallic bismuth 0 0 0 #bgj ,c4 7#ebj ,f47 ,an alloy of #e parts lead and #a part tin 0 #bij c4 7#eej ,f47 ,metallic cadmium 0 0 0 #caj ,c4 7#eij ,f47 ,metallic lead 0 0 0 #cbj ,c4 7#fjh ,f47 #ij4 ,before proceeding to temper an object1 at least one of its faces must be smoothed with pumice-stone1 oilstone dust1 or emery paper1 and the surface must be left perfectly clean1 care being taken to avoid contact with the fingers1 as otherwise it will be difficult to ensure the requisite tint being obtained4 ,tempered to any shade between ,nos4 #a and #f the steel will1 if previously well hardened1 be left too hard to be worked by a file or graver2 heated beyond ,no4 #aj1 it can no longer be much bent without distortion4 ,when the quality and the degree of hardness of steel differ1 the temper corresponding to a given tint will also vary4 ,as a rule1 hardened cast steel1 tempered to ,no4 #h1 will be found as soft as natural steel which has been let down to ,no4 #i1 or even to ,no4 #aj4 ,a piece of steel can be let down to the same tint several times in succession without altering its properties4 ,if a good and uniform color is desired1 the steel must be highly polished1 as the oxidation of rough parts will render the tint irregular4 ,the rouge employed must not be too dry1 and1 if the burnisher is used1 care should be taken that it acts on the entire surface4 ,metal of a bad quality1 which will not take an even polish1 can rarely be nicely blued4 ,when the object is finely smoothed with a uniform white surface1 very good results may be obtained2 but in such cases the cleaning must be carefully conducted1 as the presence of minute greasy particles will always render the color irregular1 and may even entirely prevent its appearance4 ,a uniform color can only be obtained by heating the object in such a manner that its temperature is raised evenly throughout4 ,the tempering may be performed by placing an object on the bluing tray1 a thin metallic plate1 often covered with a thick layer of fine brass filings1 which should be renewed for each operation2 or on a thick piece of metal previously heated to a sufficient degree2 on ignited charcoal covered with a layer of white ash2 in a bath of molten metal1 the temperature of which corresponds to the requisite degree of heat1 or the object may be laid on the surface of such a bath1 etc4 ,some watchmakers when letting down a piece of steel immerse it in water to check the action2 but by so doing they produce an exactly contrary effect4 ,if a piece of steel be cooled suddenly in water as soon as it assumes any given color it will be softer than if left to cool in the open air 7#gh74 ,at one of the blue tints1 steel possesses its maximum elasticity4 ,the exact shade varies with the different qualities of steel4 ,if a hardened and tempered spring has lost its initial elasticity1 this may be restored or even improved upon by gently hammer-hardening1 and after whitening with emery1 again tempering to the proper blue tint4 #ia4 ,a very convenient way of tempering a large number of small articles at a time1 heating them with absolute uniformity1 is to place them in a small vessel with sufficient tallow or cold oil to cover them2 the whole is then heated to the requisite degree1 which may be determined by a thermometer or by observing the smoke4 ,when smoke is first seen to rise1 the temper corresponds to ,no4 #b in the table 7article #hh74 ,smoke more abundant and darker corresponds to ,no4 #e4 ,black smoke still thicker1 ,no4 #g4 ,oil or tallow takes fire with lighted paper presented to it1 ,no4 #i4 ,after this the oil takes fire of itself and continues to burn4 ,if the whole of the oil is allowed to burn away1 the lowest temper in the table is reached4 ,it is often convenient to simply smear an article with oil or tallow1 and hold it over a flame or piece of hot iron4 ,the temper can then be judged in the manner just explained4 ,with a view to combine the two operations of hardening and tempering1 ,m4 ,caron suggested that the temperature of the water used for hardening be heated to a pre-determined degree4 ,thus the requisite temper may be given to gun-lock springs by heating the water in which they are hardened to #ee ,c4 7#acj ,f474 ,,to ,,whiten ,,and ,,blue ,,steel4 #ib4 ,some makers of watch-hands and balance-springs1 when they are not satisfied with the color assumed by an object in tempering1 immerse it in an acid bath1 which whitens it1 after which the bluing operation is repeated4 ,we have seen watchmakers whiten small pieces of steel with a piece of pith moistened with dilute sulphuric acid1 but the method cannot be recommended4 ,others fix fine steel work1 a watch-hand for example1 with wax on a plate1 and whiten it by means of pith and polishing rouge1 or a small stiff brush charged with the same material4 ,it is then detached1 by heating1 and cleaned in hot alcohol4 ,these methods1 if judiciously employed1 are of great service1 but it is important to remember always to thoroughly wash after the use of acid1 and then to allow the object to remain for a few minutes in alcohol4 ,sulphuric acid does not whiten well4 ,it often leaves dark shades on the surface4 ,hydrochloric acid gives better results4 #ic4 ,to blue steel uniformly4 ,in order to secure a uniform color in tempering or bluing1 it is essential that the smoothing and polishing should have been very evenly done4 ,the surface must be perfectly clean2 for otherwise parts that are greasy1 or on which the rouge has remained too long1 or has been too dry1 will not exhibit the same tint as the rest4 ,the heat must be uniformly distributed4 ,this is why1 when bluing screws in a perforated bluing pan1 it is customary to lightly strike the handle1 for the vibration and the perpetual change in the contacts ensures their receiving the heat more evenly4 ,a similar purpose is served by placing the pieces in brass filings4 ,steel must not be tempered while only in contact with bodies that are bad conductors of heat1 stone1 either in powder or block1 for example2 because1 as we have already observed1 the distribution of heat would occur unevenly throughout the metal4 ,watchmakers secure a uniform tint more easily by using an iron or copper polisher than one of any other metal4 #id4 ,to blue small pieces of steel evenly4 ,if the foregoing precautions are carefully observed1 the following methods will give satisfactory results3 ,first blue the object without any special regard to uniformity of color4 ,if it proves to be imperfect1 take a piece of dead wood that does not crumble too easily1 or of clean pith1 and whiten the surface with rouge without letting it be too dry4 ,small pieces thus prepared1 if cleaned and blued with care1 will assume a very uniform tint4 ,a clever mechanic assures us that he easily obtains a similar result by rubbing the surface1 after it has been well smoothed1 with the end of a stick that has been partly burnt in the fire4 #ie4 ,to blue a clock hand or a spring4 ,to blue a piece of steel that is of some length1 a clock hand for example2 clockmakers place it either on ignited charcoal1 with a hole in the center for the socket1 and whitened over its surface1 as this indicates a degree of heat that is approximately uniform1 or on a curved bluing tray perforated with holes large enough to admit the socket4 ,the center will become violet or blue sooner than the rest1 and as soon as it assumes the requisite tint1 the hand must be removed1 holding it with tweezers by the socket1 or by the aid of a larged-sized arbor passed through it2 the lower side of the hand is then placed on the edge of the charcoal or bluing tray1 and removed by gradually sliding it off towards the point1 more or less slowly according to the progress made with the coloring2 with a little practice1 the workman will soon be enabled to secure a uniform blue throughout the length1 and even1 if necessary1 to retouch parts that have not assumed a sufficiently deep tint4 ,instead of a bluing tray1 a small mass of iron1 with a slightly rounded surface and heated to a suitable temperature1 can be employed2 but the color must not form too rapidly1 and this is liable to occur if the temperature of the mass is excessive4 ,nor should this temperature be unevenly distributed4 ,a spring after being whitened can be blued in the same way4 ,having fixed one end1 it is stretched by a weight attached to the other end1 and the hot iron is then passed along it at such a speed that a uniform color is secured4 ,of course the hot iron might be fixed and the spring passed over it4 ,a lamp may be used1 but its employment involves more attention and dexterity4 #if4 ,bluing as an indication of temper4 ,this subject has already been very fully considered in article #hh to #ij4 ,when the color assumed by a piece of steel does not require to be preserved1 and it is only necessary to temper the object at a certain temperature1 the means best adapted to expedite the operation will naturally be sought4 ,thus1 in factories1 large numbers are tempered at once in a bath of tallow1 oil1 etc4 ,the workman1 in judging temper by color 7#hh71 must have enough experience to enable him to determine1 for a given sample of steel1 what are the successive colors as well as the temperature of the bath1 etc4 ,his success is certain2 but it depends on the experience1 and1 therefore1 on the sense of sight of the operator1 and1 we should again add1 on the knowledge he possesses of the qualities of the steel he is using4 ,,case-,,hardening4 #ig4 ,this process is often resorted to when a hard surface is required on objects of wrought iron1 for example the face of an anvil4 ,it is the exact converse of the method already described in article #ei for obtaining malleable castings1 and consists in heating the object to a red heat in contact with charcoal1 or some substance containing carbon2 this enters into the surface iron1 converting it into steel4 ,or after heating to a bright redness the object may be sprinkled over with prussiate of potash1 returned to the fire1 and after a few minutes cooled by immersion in water4 ,when a greater thickness of steel is needed1 or when dealing with large articles1 they must be enclosed in wrought-iron boxes1 and bedded in such substances as fragments of horn1 bones1 leather cuttings1 etc2 the box is then luted up and the whole maintained at a red heat for twelve hours1 after which the fire is allowed to die out4 ,articles may sometimes be case-hardened by coating with a paste of arsenious acid1 powdered leather1 horn1 or other nitrogenous body and hydrochloric acid1 and then heating them to bright redness in a muffle or other suitable furnace4 ,,influence ,,of ,,foreign ,,metals ,,and ,,metalloids ,,on ,,the ,,qualities ,,of ,,iron ,,and ,,steel4 #ih4 ,it would be impossible to give a full account of this subject in the space at our disposal1 and the reader must be referred to works on the metallurgy of iron and steel for details in regard to the remarkable influence of minute traces of phosphorus1 tungsten1 silicon1 manganese1 arsenic1 etc41 on the mechanical and chemical properties of those metals4 ,,copper4 #ii4 ,copper is an elementary body of a reddish-brown color1 which must not be confounded with brass1 occasionally termed yellow copper4 ,in tenacity it comes next below iron1 breaking with a strain of #cd kilo4 per sq4 mm4 of section 7or #dh1jjj lbs4 per sq4 inch74 ,in horology1 the only use made of the pure metal is for the construction of compensation pendulums on the gridiron principle1 and as wire in electric clocks4 ,it is also employed1 when rolled into thin sheets1 for a base to receive the enamel of watch dials1 in consequence of its expansion being about the same as that of the enamel1 which does not therefore crack in the cooling4 ,the copper of commerce is seldom pure1 and this gives rise to many of the imperfections met with in ordinary brass4 ,,zinc4 #ajj4 ,this is an elementary metallic body of a bluish white color4 ,it is used in the form of rods1 for compensation pendulums4 ,it must be obtained of great purity1 whether it is employed by itself or to alloy with another metal4 ,the presence of foreign bodies in zinc1 even in very small quantities1 has a marked influence on the physical properties of an alloy into which it enters4 ,the purer the metal the more easily will it roll1 and this fact can be taken advantage of as a test of quality4 ,although very brittle at #j ,c4 7#cb ,f47 and #bjj;,c4 7#djj ,f471 it has a maximum malleability at about #ajj ,c4 7#bab ,f471 the boiling point of water2 it should1 then1 be heated to this degree before bending1 rolling1 hammering1 etc4 ,it may be annealed in boiling water1 or by heating to such a temperature that water hisses when allowed to drop on to it4 ,it melts at #dbj ,c4 7#gij ,f47 and volatilizes if raised to a red heat4 ,a sudden cooling1 or the presence of arsenic or antimony1 will render zinc brittle4 ,it must not be melted in cast iron vessels1 as the quality of zinc is deteriorated by the small quantity of iron it takes up under such circumstances4 ,this metal possesses a great affinity for oxygen1 and therefore oxidizes very readily when fused4 ,it is usual1 before pouring zinc that is intended for rolling1 to throw some pieces of the solid metal into the molten mass1 the object being to somewhat reduce the temperature1 and thus prevent a too rapid cooling1 as1 in that case1 zinc is very brittle4 ,,brass4 #aja4 ,pure copper is difficult to work with the graver or file1 but such is not the case when this metal is alloyed with zinc2 we then obtain brass1 or1 as it is sometimes termed1 yellow copper4 ,alloys containing copper1 zinc1 and tin are termed bronzes4 ,if a small quantity of lead1 about #a per cent4 of its weight1 be added to brass1 it renders the metal less fibrous1 imparting to it a certain degree of brittleness so that it is more easily worked with the graver1 file1 drill1 or the saw4 ,when the brass is required to be hammered1 a portion of the lead is replaced by tin2 by this means the metal becomes more malleable1 or1 in terms of the workshop1 soft4 ,the color1 tenacity1 ductility1 malleability1 etc41 vary with the percentage composition of the alloy4 ,it is1 then1 of the utmost importance that a watchmaker be able to test and select the brass before employing it in his work2 metal that is excellent for wire-drawing1 for example1 would be utterly useless for making an escape wheel1 since it would become distorted in the cutting in consequence of its ductility4 ,it belongs1 in fact1 to the class of metals that will extend under the hammer without hardening 7very soft brasses74 ,the following is given as an analysis of brass very frequently employed in horology3 copper1 #ff per cent41 zinc1 #cc per cent42 and lead1 #a per cent4 ,but it must not be forgotten that this is only to be taken as a mean4 ,both the proportions and the qualities vary with different makers1 doubtless also according to the degree of purity of the metals employed in their manufacture4 #ajb4 ,to select brass4 ,by following the directions given below any watchmaker should be able to select the brass best suited to his special requirements4 ,when the copper is in excess1 zinc being proportionately reduced1 the brass is usually soft and of a beautiful golden color4 ,on the other hand1 as the proportion of zinc is increased1 the brass becomes more and more brittle1 and at the same time1 more fusible2 the color changes to a light yellow1 ultimately becoming greyish-white1 and brass of this nature is said to be 8hard40 ,very soft brass chokes the file1 and spreads without hardening under the hammer2 very hard brass1 on the other hand1 is fragile1 liable to crack when hammered cold1 and breaks in passing through the draw-plate4 ,metal of a good yellow shade1 intermediate between the golden and the pale yellow color1 passes well through the draw-plate1 spreads out slowly under the hammer1 but without cracking1 until of about half the initial thickness1 and then resists the further action of the hammer1 which rebounds from it2 such brass is usually found to be of good quality for watchwork4 ,a sheet of brass is rarely homogeneous4 ,if1 after pouring1 the metal has been allowed to cool slowly1 the interior will be crystalline1 and there will be an uneven fracture4 ,this will cause the tenacity1 etc41 to vary throughout the mass4 ,similar differences are occasionally to be observed between the two faces of the same plate1 due to the phenomenon of liquation2 that is to say1 to a tendency that characterizes certain metals when melted together to separate from one another when the cooling is not affected under proper conditions4 ,if the two surfaces of a plate be scraped clean at several points1 and drops1 as nearly equal as possible1 of very pure watch oil1 be placed on these clean surfaces1 it may be taken as a rough indication that the metals are uniformly distributed if the successive shades of color of the oil as time goes on are the same at all the points experimented upon4 ,some watchmakers heat the brass to a red heat 7which must never be exceeded71 and plunge it into nitric acid 7equal parts acid and water74 ,by this means the entire surface is cleaned1 and the above examination is facilitated4 ,,hammer ,,hardening ,,of ,,brass4 #ajc4 ,plates4 ,the selection of the metal will depend on the purpose for which it is intended1 and the thickness must be such that1 when hammered till of sufficient hardness1 it will approximately equal one dimension of the required object2 for it is advisable to remove as little of the surface metal as possible1 a plate always hardening much more at the surface than in the interior4 ,there is considerable difficulty in indicating clearly in a book the exact mode of conducting the operation of hammer-hardening1 and the assistance of a competent master is essential1 at any rate for the first few trials4 ,it must suffice to point out that the anvil1 with a slightly convex surface1 and the hammer1 of sufficient weight1 must be in very good condition and1 if possible1 polished on their faces2 the head of the latter should be rather convex1 and the pene or chisel end somewhat broad and gently rounded off in all directions1 for it will be needed as a means of bending the metal upwards2 the curvature being such that there is not a danger of starting a crack1 etc41 by its means4 ,we have already spoken of these two tools 7#gi1 #hj72 it is only necessary to add that a thick straw pad should be placed under the anvil or block4 ,when one is compelled to use brass that is too thick1 so that there is much work to be done with the hammer to reduce the thickness to what is required1 it is a good plan to commence by elongating the metal in one direction1 striking with the pene of the hammer a series of parallel blows in the direction of the required elongation2 when the thickness is two or three times that ultimately needed1 the surface is smoothed with the hammer-head and annealed2 then it is brought to the right thickness by another hammering in the manner explained below1 but it should be again pointed out that1 when possible1 metal of a suitable thickness ought to be taken in the first instance1 since too much hammering has a detrimental effect4 ,before hammer-hardening a plate1 it must be dressed1 an operation which consists in rounding off the edges very carefully in order to prevent their cracking1 and in rounding the bottom and sides of internal angles which1 without such a precaution would occasion a rupture4 ,after this is completed1 proceed to the hardening1 using a rather heavy hammer1 and giving sharp blows along lines parallel to the sides of the plate2 commence from one of the corners in the case of a square plate2 and with a round plate let the blows be in circles4 ,in the latter case1 work from the circumference towards the center1 at the same time gradually increasing the force of the blows1 since the metal opposes a greater resistance towards the center4 ,if the work is done evenly and without hurrying1 the surface will remain fairly flat1 a fact which should be verified from time to time by the aid of a metal rule4 ,round plates are sometimes hardened by commencing to hammer in the center and working towards the circumference along two radii in opposite directions2 that is along a diameter4 ,this first diameter is then crossed by another at right angles2 the intervals are filled in with other diameters that must not touch until the entire surface is covered1 always taking care to work from the center towards the circumference4 ,when the metal is thin only the hammer-head is used1 but beyond a certain thickness the pene of the hammer must be employed until about half the required thickness is reached2 the surface is planished and the hardening finished with the face4 ,blows that are irregular1 too hard or roughly given1 will cause the metal to crack4 ,hurried working will disturb the molecular grouping of the alloy2 it will at the same time be heated and therefore softened1 thus losing all the good qualities that are anticipated from hammer-hardening1 namely increased body and elasticity4 ,it was in order to avoid this heating that the old watchmakers used to hammer the brass in cold water1 an excellent precaution which is too much neglected at the present day4 ,brass that is badly hammered1 the blows being violent or irregular1 will spring out of shape on being cut and occasionally crack when gilding4 ,if during the process of hammering1 a crack is observed to be commencing at the edge1 it must be removed with a rat-tail file1 all sharp angles being rounded off2 and when cracks immediately reappear on continuing the operation1 it is an indication that the metal cannot support any further hammering cold4 ,if brass is compact or well forged it may be relied upon to preserve the oil at pivots1 etc41 better1 as oil is decomposed more rapidly in presence of a finely divided metal4 #ajd4 ,brass rods4 ,rods having a square section must only be hammered on two opposite faces4 ,a rod of square section can be hammered on all four faces but it must be first filed perfectly square2 the hammering must not be pushed too far1 and the four angles must be maintained right angles4 ,if some are made obtuse and others acute1 a flaw will be produced in the direction of a diagonal4 ,the three following methods are employed in the case of round rods3 ,the first consists in hammering over the entire surface1 the rod being at the same time rotated on the anvil by hand2 but this operation must not be much prolonged1 as the metal is liable to crack lengthwise4 ,the second method consists in reducing the diameter of an annealed brass rod to about one-half or two-thirds its initial amount by causing it to pass in succession through a number of holes of the draw-plate4 ,when the third method1 which is due to ,brocot1 is adopted1 one extremity of the brass rod is gripped in the bench vise and the other end in a hand vise1 which is then caused to rotate round the rod as an axis4 ,if the torsion be continued until the metal is on the point of breaking1 it will be found to be very effectually hardened4 ,this method is resorted to with advantage for hardening pin-wire and the metal for making pillars4 ,,to ,,anneal ,,brass4 #aje4 ,when it is necessary to considerably reduce the dimensions of a piece of brass1 either with the hammer1 rolls or draw-plate1 it must be annealed from time to time4 ,the metal should not be heated to redness2 it is supposed1 rightly or wrongly1 that such a proceedings especially if repeated1 separates a portion of the zinc1 or at least changes the mode in which it is associated with the copper4 ,brass should be heated slowly and uniformly1 in a moderate fire1 until the temperature is such that drops of water thrown onto the surface are rapidly converted into vapour1 or paper turns yellow and begins to smoke4 ,it is then withdrawn from the fire and allowed to cool4 ,brass is brittle when hot1 so that it can only be worked cold4 ,when brass is annealed1 just as when steel is tempered1 the metal should not be allowed to rest on a bad conductor of heat1 such as wood or stone1 because there will be a tendency to uneven distribution of the heat throughout the metal4 ,,cast ,,brass4 #ajf4 ,this is usually brittle1 owing to the fact that the copper employed in its manufacture consists1 as a rule1 of all sorts of scrap1 from good or bad metal2 moreover1 from motives of economy1 the proportion of zinc is generally increased and1 in pouring1 the precautions essential to avoid the effects of liquation 7#ajb71 etc41 are frequently neglected4 ,such an alloy must never be used for small objects1 it must be entirely excluded from a watch1 and in a clock only such pivots as are called upon to perform an insignificant amount of work should be allowed to run in it4 ,in order to avoid injuring the file1 or embedding in the metal any particles of the hard coating of oxide that always covers rough castings1 it is usual to dip the object in dilute nitric or sulphuric acid 7#aee71 by which the oxide is dissolved4 ,,tin4 #ajg4 ,this is an elementary body1 almost as white as silver and having a breaking strain of only #h kilo4 per sq4 mm4 of section 7or #aa1cjj lbs4 per sq4 inch47 ,watchmakers use it in making solder4 ,it is also sometimes used in the form of plates or rods for polishing with rouge1 and it is said to be much more efficient when very pure4 ,if a strip of pure tin is bent1 a crackling noise1 termed the 8crying0 of tin1 is heard4 ,after frequent bending1 the metal loses this property4 ,the degree of purity may be judged3 7#a7 ,by the loudness of the 8cry10 which is found to be greater as the tin is purer2 7#b7 ,by the relative lightness of two balls of equal size1 one of which is formed of very pure tin and used as a standard2 7#c7 ,by pouring the metal1 when just melted1 in a mould #a or #b centimetres 7about inch7 in diameter4 ,if tin is pure1 when cast into plates or ingots1 the surface will be perfectly smooth1 without exhibiting any sign of crystallization at the moment of solidification1 whereas the presence of small quantities of foreign metals causes it to be covered with a network of needle-formed crystals1 which are the more numerous according as the metal is less pure4 ,the ,banca tin is almost chemically pure2 ,english tin is also very pure2 but others contain a small percentage of copper1 lead1 iron1 or arsenic4 ,,bronze4 #ajh4 ,bronze is an alloy1 in very variable proportions1 of copper and tin1 to which may be added1 according to circumstances1 a small percentage of lead or zinc1 or even iron1 when it is desired to increase the hardness or tenacity4 ,as a rule1 this alloy is tough and hard to work2 it is especially used for parts of large machines that are subjected to considerable pressure4 ,the fusion and casting of bronze require special precautions1 for the proportion between the metals is liable to vary through oxidation of the tin1 which then goes to form a dross1 and the composition may vary throughout the mass4 ,it sometimes results from this that the bronze bearings for the pivots in large clocks are not even as good as ordinary brass1 and wear away more rapidly than the pivots4 ,bronze is also used by watchmakers for making plates or small rods for polishers1 and for the bells of clocks4 ,bell-metal contains about #gh per cent4 of copper and #bb per cent4 of tin2 it has a beautiful fracture1 and is very fusible and sonorous4 ,the addition of any other metal is rather prejudicial than otherwise2 this explains why so many clock bells are wanting in sonorousness4 ,an impediment to the use of bronze is its want of malleability2 but ,dronier has recently pointed out that such alloys may be rendered perfectly ductile and malleable by adding from to #b per cent4 of mercury4 ,these alloys are said to be less oxidizable than ordinary bronzes1 and at the same time more hard1 elastic1 resisting and sonorous4 ,,sterro4 #aji4 ,this is an alloy containing #ef per cent copper1 #da zinc1 #b tin and #a iron4 ,it resembles a reddish-colored brass1 and has been much used in ,vienna1 where it is considered superior to brass from the point of view of ductility1 tenacity and malleability4 ,an experienced horologist1 ,m4 ,grossmann1 made satisfactory lever escape-wheels of it1 and he considers it to be superior to the best brass in regard to both density and elasticity4 ,at the same time he points out that it clogs the cutter1 and the color is inferior to that of good hard brass4 ,,lead4 #aaj4 ,a metal with a brilliant bluish grey lustre1 which rapidly becomes dull when exposed to the air4 ,it is very malleable and ductile4 ,it breaks with a strain of #b4i kilo4 per sq4 mm4 section 7#d1jjj lbs4 per sq4 inch71 but possesses extreme flexibility4 ,lead is not used in horology1 except as a constituent of solders2 in these1 however1 it plays a very important part4 ,it is occasionally used in the pure state as a lap for applying polishing materials1 but more frequently alloyed with tin1 by which hardness is imparted to the metal1 the alloy being known as 8pewter40 ,,nickel4 #aaa4 ,an elementary metallic body of a greyish-white color1 resembling that of platinum4 ,with care it can be forged when hot and formed into plates2 its structure in that case is fibrous4 ,its hardness is the same as that of iron1 and nickel will take a high polish4 ,next to iron1 it is the most powerfully magnetic of all metals4 ,it can be caused to alloy with many other metals--notably iron1 cobalt1 copper1 zinc1 tin1 and antimony4 ,according to ,stodart and ,faraday1 an alloy of #cc parts iron and #a part nickel is as malleable as the former metal1 but less liable to rust4 ,fleitmann has recently shown that by the addition of about #a-ajth per cent of magnesium1 nickel is rendered perfectly malleable and ductile1 capable of being drawn into wires or rolled into sheets1 and ,garnier finds that #c-ajths per cent of phosphorus has a similar effect4 ,nickel is useful as a coating for objects that are not subjected to friction1 for preserving them from the action of the air4 ,it takes a beautiful polish1 and is not tarnished by being touched4 ,,german ,,silver4 #aab4 ,although the proportion of copper in this alloy is considerably greater than that of nickel1 watchmakers frequently apply the latter name to it1 doubtless on account of the beautiful polish of which the metal is capable and the comparative inoxidizability which it derives from the presence of nickel4 ,german silver is an alloy of copper1 nickel and zinc1 with the occasional admixture of a small proportion of iron or tin4 ,when used in the construction of objects that require soldering1 #b per cent4 of lead is added4 ,the alloy usually employed in horology is very malleable2 it has a mean composition3 copper1 #fj per cent2 nickel1 #bj per cent2 and zinc1 #bj per cent4 ,that containing #eh per cent copper1 #ad nickel1 #be zinc1 and #c iron1 is said to be highly elastic4 ,the following useful details with regard to the employment of ,german silver for watchwork are due to ,m4 ,c4 ,e4 ,jacot4 ,watch movements have been made of this alloy for the past thirty years2 it was long thought that the taste would die out1 but1 on the other hand1 the demand for 8nickel0 movements increases each year4 ,the alloy is better prepared at the present day2 it has a beautiful grayish-white colour1 it is more malleable1 and better to work than formerly1 but still not so easy as brass4 ,the latter alloy is less detrimental to the file1 and can be turned and drilled more rapidly4 ,german silver is only used for the plates1 cocks and bars4 ,the barrels and wheels are of brass1 and surfaces exposed to friction1 such as the center pivot-hole 7all other holes being jewelled7 are bushed with the same metal1 for it is observed that in presence of nickel oil is rapidly blackened and the pivots wear sooner than when working in good brass4 ,the color remains unaltered for a long time if the surface has been carefully smoothed in the first instance2 and if cleansed with soap and water1 its original freshness can be to a great extent restored4 ,some watchmakers prefer to employ chemical preparations for cleaning the metal4 ,the following is recommended as very effective for this purpose3 ,mix #ej parts alcohol1 #a part sulphuric1 and one part nitric acid4 ,allow the pieces to remain in this liquid for #aj or #ae seconds1 wash with cold water1 and subsequently with alcohol1 dry with a soft rag or in boxwood saw dust4 ,,gold4 #aac4 ,an elementary body1 the most beautiful and the most valuable of all the ordinary metals4 ,in the unalloyed state it has a pure yellow color1 and when reduced to extremely thin leaves1 appears green by transmitted light4 ,it is the most malleable and ductile of all the metals1 but its tenacity is low4 ,gold resembles platinum1 silver1 iron1 etc41 in being capable of welding1 that is to say1 two pieces of the metal can be united without previous fusion4 ,indeed1 by the application of great pressure it can be made to weld when cold4 ,it is insoluble except in aqua regia 7a mixture of #a part nitric acid and #d parts hydrochloric acid71 alkaline persulphides and selenic acid4 ,chlorine1 phosphorus1 and a few other substances can be made to combine with it by the acid of heat4 ,it is as a preservative1 that is applied in layers termed 8gilding10 that gold is principally used in watchwork1 and some details will be found on this subject under 8,gilding10 7articles #adb-aec74 ,owing to its softness the metal is not used in a pure state1 but usually alloyed with copper4 ,the principal alloys in use in this country are3 #bb parts 7carats7 gold1 #b parts 7carats7 copper1 for coin and wedding rings4 #ah parts gold1 #f parts copper1 for high-class jewelry and watch-cases4 #ae parts gold1 #i parts copper1 for ordinary jewelry4 #ab parts gold1 #ab parts copper2 and #i parts gold1 #ae parts copper1 for common jewelry4 ,the alloys used for soldering gold will be described under 8,solders0 7#abf74 ,alloys of gold with silver and copper have been employed for making watch wheels2 they wear well1 and will take a beautiful polish1 which is maintained for a longer time than in the case of brass wheels4 ,chronometer balance-springs and the suspension-springs for astronomical clocks have also been made of gold-copper or gold-silver alloys rolled and hardened 7#eia47 ,if carefully prepared1 they maintain their elasticity unimpaired for a long period1 and there is no liability to rust4 ,the dilatation for a given change of temperature is1 however1 greater than that of steel1 so that a greater compensating effect becomes necessary1 but this inconvenience is partially compensated for by its inoxidizability and the fact that it is not liable to become magnetic4 ,,silver4 #aad4 ,this metal in an unalloyed state is too soft for use in horology2 its principal use is for cases1 and as a constituent of solders4 ,houriet made watch wheels of an alloy containing #b parts silver to #a part #ah-;carat gold1 and he affirmed that this alloy became polished at the acting surfaces of the teeth4 ,jurgensen states that chronometer escape-wheels made of this alloy1 carefully hammered1 do not require oil at the points of their teeth4 ,dumesnil proposed an alloy of #b parts copper1 #a part silver1 and #a part zinc1 all perfectly pure4 ,lecocq made chronometer balances in which the brass was replaced by pure silver deposited on the surface of the steel by electrolysis1 thus avoiding the use of a fire4 ,the compensation is said to have been very efficient4 ,,aluminium ,,and ,,aluminium ,,bronze4 #aae4 ,aluminium is an extremely light elementary body1 having a density of only #b4ef2 with equal bulks1 therefore1 it will weigh only about as quarter as much as silver4 ,as its capacity for heat is very great1 this metal is observed to heat or cool more slowly than other metals4 ,pure1 or in a slightly alloyed state1 it has not been used in horology1 except for pendulum rods and large hands in regulator clocks2 in short1 it can be employed where lightness is the principal quality in view4 ,it is extremely ductile4 ,the presence of #a-ajjth part of bismuth1 however1 renders the metal somewhat brittle1 and it develops cracks under the hammer4 ,traces of iron also decrease its malleability4 ,an alloy of #e parts silver and #ie aluminium can be as easily worked as the pure metal1 but is harder and takes a better polish4 ,we would add a curious observation of ,m4 ,redier3 ,after passing a piece of aluminium several times through the draw-plate1 he observed that the elongation had only occurred at the surface2 for on cutting the wire at different points1 he noticed that1 throughout a portion of the length1 the metal was hollow1 a very fine capillary tube being thus formed4 #aaf4 ,aluminium ,bronze is an alloy of aluminium with copper4 ,a alloy of #e parts of the former to #ie of the latter has a beautiful golden color1 but if the proportion is changed to #aj and #ij parts respectively1 we obtain the most serviceable and the most easily worked alloy4 ,this bronze can be forged at a cherry-red heat1 and even near its melting point2 and its thickness can be reduced to a very small amount under the hammer4 ,it is easily filed and turned1 but does not possess any special advantage over brass1 which is less detrimental to the file2 the density is #g4g1 very little below that of brass1 #h4d4 ,it appears from a considerable number of experiments that it might be used with advantage for the bearings of axes that rotate with high velocities4 ,it resists wear better than any other metal4 ,in the experiments made by ,foucault to demonstrate the rotation of the earth by means of the pendulum1 he found that an aluminum bronze wire lasted for the longest period4 ,its tenacity is equal to that of iron4 ,it has been shown that slide-bars of locomotives made of this bronze resist wear twice as long as those formed of the ordinary bronze4 ,there would then be an advantage in using it for the bearings of foot-lathes1 etc4 ,grossman asserts that lever escape-wheels of this metal have proved satisfactory1 and he makes the following observation on the subject4 ,if aluminium bronze be reduced to three-fourths of its original thickness by hammering1 it will begin to crack4 ,this can be prevented by heating to a red heat and plunging into water2 it can then be again reduced by one-fourth of its thickness1 and again annealed1 and so on4 ,he reduced the thickness from #b4e millimeter to #j4b millimeter1 and the metal resisted for a long period repeated flexures backwards and forwards2 and he observes that no other metal1 after being so much compressed1 would possess the same marvellous degree of tenacity4 ,in order to obtain aluminium bronze of the best quality1 the copper should be absolutely pure1 and1 in the manufacture1 the alloy must be melted and forged two or three times in succession1 as by this means the strength and tenacity are increased1 and the metal can be more easily worked4 ,the beautiful golden color possessed by certain of these bronzes when polished1 has caused them to be used for cheap watch-cases1 but they always tarnish at those parts that are not subject to daily wear4 ,,mercury4 #aag4 ,this is the only metal liquid at the ordinary temperature2 it solidifies at -#dj ,c4 7-#dj ,f474 ,it possesses a high metallic lustre1 resembling silver1 but with a slightly bluish tint1 and does not oxidize at ordinary temperatures4 ,mercury alloys with many other metals1 forming amalgams1 and as small a quantity as #a-djth per cent of lead suffices to entirely alter its character4 ,the presence of such traces can be easily detected by the liquid wetting glass or china1 and therefore forming a tail when a vessel containing it is tilted4 ,the commercial metal is rarely pure1 but the greater portion of the lead1 tin1 bismuth or copper1 by which it is contaminated1 can be removed by distillation4 ,the most convenient method consists1 however1 in agitating the metal with either dilute nitric acid1 a solution of mercurous nitrate1 strong sulphuric acid1 a solution of corrosive sublimate or of perchloride of iron1 and subsequent washing with distilled water4 ,when mercury is only contaminated with mechanical impurities1 they can be very effectually removed by agitating with powdered loaf sugar4 ,this metal has many uses in the arts1 for the construction of thermometers1 barometers2 for plating1 etc42 in horology it is used for compensation pendulums1 and has also been occasionally used for compensation balances4 ,,platinum4 #aah4 ,this elementary body is almost as white as silver1 takes a brilliant polish1 and is highly ductile and malleable4 ,it is the heaviest of the ordinary metals1 the least expansive when heated1 and has a breaking strain of #dj kilo4 per sq4 mm4 section 7#ef1ejj lbs4 per sq4 inch474 ,platinum is infusible1 except at the high temperatures attainable with the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe4 ,at a white heat1 however1 it softens1 and can be forged and welded4 ,it is unacted upon by the air at any temperature1 and is insoluble in acids1 except aqua regia 7#aee71 although acted on by certain alkalies4 ,this metal is used in the construction of scientific instruments1 and for objects that are exposed to the air1 as1 for example1 sun dials4 ,alloyed with irridium1 7a rare metal of the same group7 it possesses an excellent and unalterable surface for fine engraving1 as the scales of astronomical instruments1 etc4 ,this alloy has also been adopted for the construction of international standards of length and weight4 ,platinum is much employed for chemical apparatus1 in consequence of its being unacted on by acids1 and its non-liability to melt in ordinary furnaces4 ,both the pure metal and its alloys with silver have been employed in the form of wire for bushing the pivot-holes of watches1 and in sheets for cutting out cocks and wheels1 but the results obtained were not as good as with good brass4 ,as a rule1 such wheels are found to occasion a rapid wear of pinion leaves4 ,attempts have also been made to construct balance-springs of this metal1 but we are informed that they were not found to possess any sufficient advantages4 ,it is advisable to heat platinum in a spirit lamp or ,bunsen burner2 the naked flame is objectionable1 because1 being charged with a certain amount of carbon1 it deteriorates the metal4 ,,palladium4 #aai4 ,this metal resembles silver rather than platinum1 and is almost as infusible as the latter metal4 ,it has a density of #ab4e4 ,when heated in contact with air it becomes blue1 owing to the formation of an oxide4 ,it possesses the remarkable power of absorbing 7or occluding7 about #ijj times its own volume of hydrogen1 if attached to the negative pole of a battery in acidulated water2 its bulk is increased slightly by this charge1 and1 on expelling the gas by the aid of heat1 the metal shrinks to less than its initial dimensions4 ,palladium is useful for the graduated scales of scientific instruments1 since it is not discolored by sulphurous acid4 ,it forms alloys with most of the metals and some of these can be hardened like steel4 ,if #ajj parts of steel be alloyed with #a part of this metal1 the resulting alloy is said to be excellent for making scientific instruments1 and an alloy of #bd parts palladium1 #dd silver1 #gb gold1 and #ib copper has been recommended for use in horology4 ,m4 ,paillard1 of ,geneva1 has introduced balance-springs made of an alloy1 whose composition is not given1 possessing the following advantages3 they are non-magnetic1 their tenacity is considerable1 are not tarnished by the air1 sulphurous acid1 or sea water2 nor are they distorted by heating1 and1 on cooling1 they recover their original elasticity1 which is equal to that of steel hardened and tempered to a blue color4 ,the co-efficient of expansion of this alloy is rather less than that of steel4 ,,characteristic ,,properties ,,of ,,alloys4 #abj4 ,density4 ,this is sometimes rather greater and sometimes less than that deduced from the densities of the constituent metals1#d but no exact law has been discovered in regard to this question4 ,hardness1 ,ductility1 ,tenacity4 ,alloys are usually harder1 more brittle1 and less ductile and tenacious than the most ductile and tenacious constituent metal4 ,elasticity4 ,the co-efficient of elasticity of an alloy generally approximates closely to the mean of the co-efficients of its constituent metals4 ,expansion4 ,the co-efficient of linear expansion of an alloy1 that is to say1 the number representing the proportional part of its length by which it increases for each degree rise of temperature1 may be approximately estimated as follows3 multiply the linear co-efficient of each constituent metal by the percentage of it present in the alloy1 and divide by its density4 ,add together the several numbers thus obtained4 ,multiply this sum by the density of the alloy 7which must be experimentally determined7 and divide by #ajj4 ,the resulting figure is the required linear co-efficient 7#abb74 ,fusibility4 ,alloys are always more fusible than the least fusible of their component metals1 and often more so than any one of them4 ,oxidation4 ,as a rule1 the air acts with less energy on alloys than on their constituent metals4 ,there are1 however1 cases in which the converse is the case4 ,action of acids4 ,this is generally similar to the action on the predominating metal4 ,observations4 ,alloys formed of metals that differ materially in density are rarely homogeneous1 especially if they have been allowed to cool slowly4 ,it is1 then1 essential that they be thoroughly stirred and cooled rapidly4 ,it is for this reason that alloys are frequently poured out on to a flagstone to cool1 or that they are compressed after pouring1 whereby the formation of crystals is prevented4 #aba4 ,metals and alloys4 ,the following table gives the more important physical properties of the metals and alloys generally met with1 and will be found useful for reference4 ,the precise meaning of each number may be gathered from the notes in paragraph #abb4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,specific ,degree ,linear ,expansion ,,metals4 ,gravity4 of per 7,water#a7 ,hardness #a ,fahr4 #a ,cent4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,aluminium 7#aae7 #b4ef -- #j4jjjjabc #j4jjjjbbb 0 ,bronze 7#aaf7 #g4g -- -- -- ,brass1 ,drawn 7#aja7 #h4ed -- #j4jjjjajg #j4jjjjaic 0 ,cast 7#ajf7 #h4aj -- #j4jjjjajd #j4jjjjahg ,bronze 7#ajh7 #h4dj -- #j4jjjjajj #j4jjjjahj ,copper 7#ii7 #h4id #b4e-c #j4jjjjajb #j4jjjjahc ,german ,silver 7#aab7 -- -- -- -- ,gold 7#aac7 #ai4bf #b4e-c #j4jjjjjgg #j4jjjjach ,iron1 ,wrought 7#ed7 #g4hd #d4e #j4jjjjjff #j4jjjjaai 0 ,cast 7#eh7 #f4i to #g4e -- #j4jjjjjfb #j4jjjjaab ,lead 7#aaj7 #aa4cc #a4e #j4jjjjafg #j4jjjjcja ,mercury 7#aag7 #ae4fj -- #j4jjjaja #j4jjjahb ,nickel 7#aaa7 #h4hb #e cubical cubical ,palladium 7#aai7 #aa4hj #d4e-e -- -- ,platinum 7#aah7 #ba4ej #d-d4e #j4jjjjje #j4jjjjji ,silver 7#aad7 #aj4eg #b4e-c #j4jjjjaaa #j4jjjjaij ,steel 7#fj7 #g4gb #f-g7;hard7 #j4jjjjjeg #j4jjjjajc ,sterro 7#aji7 -- -- -- -- ,tin 7#ajg7 #g4cj #b4e-c #j4jjjjaeb #j4jjjjbgc ,zinc 7#ajj7 #g4ac #b #j4jjjjabb #j4jjjjbbj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,specific ,heat ,melting ,conductivity ,,metals4 per ,degree ,point4 for ,cent4 ,heat4 ,electricity4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,aluminium 7#aae7 #j4badc #aejj ,f4 -- #ef4a 0 ,bronze 7#aaf7 -- about -- -- ,brass1 ,drawn 7#aja7 #j4jici -- -- -- 0 ,cast 7#ajf7 #ahgj -- -- ,bronze 7#ajh7 -- #afib -- -- ,copper 7#ii7 #j4jiea #bjjj #gc4e #ii4h ,german ,silver 7#aab7 -- -- -- #g4fg ,gold 7#aac7 #j4jcbd #bfaj #ec4b #gh4d ,iron1 ,wrought 7#ed7 #j4aach #bijj #aa4i #af4h 0 ,cast 7#eh7 #j4abih #aibj -- -- ,lead 7#aaj7 #j4jcad #fjh #h4e #h4c ,mercury 7#aag7 #j4jccc #ci -- -- ,nickel 7#aaa7 #j4ajhf -- -- #ac4a ,palladium 7#aai7 #j4jeic -- #f4c #ah4d ,platinum 7#aah7 #j4jcbd -- #h4d #ah4j ,silver 7#aad7 #j4jegj #ahcb #ajj4j #ajj4j ,steel 7#fj7 #j4aage #bdjj -- -- ,sterro 7#aji7 -- -- -- -- ,tin 7#ajg7 #j4jefi #ddf -- #ab4d ,zinc 7#ajj7 #j4jiee #fhj -- #bi4j ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #abb4 ,notes on the foregoing table4 ,for a complete explanation of the several properties of metals and alloys that are enumerated in the above table1 the reader must be referred to works on mechanics and physics1 but the following explanatory notes are necessary4 ,the number in brackets after the name of each metal1 etc41 refers to the article in which it is considered4 ,the specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the weight of a given bulk of that substance to the weight of the same bulk of water at a definite temperature4 ,the numbers here given can only be regarded as approximations1 as the specific gravity varies greatly with the state in which a body exists1 the hammering it may have been subjected to1 etc4 ,degree of hardness is ascertained by means of the following standard series1 observing which of them scratches the body under examination and which it is capable of scratching4 #a1 ,talc2 #b1 ,gypsum2 #c1 ,calc-spar2 #d1 ,fluor-spar2 #e1 ,apatite2 #f1 ,felspar2 #g1 ,quartz2 #h1 ,topaz2 #i1 ,sapphire2 #aj1 ,diamond4 ,linear expansion4 ,these co-efficients represent the extension in length that the several substances undergo when heated3 the first column for each degree ,fahrenheit and the second for each degree ,centigrade4 ,the extension is given per unit of length2 thus1 #a inch of copper at #cb ,f4 will become #a #j4jjjjajb1 or #a4jjjjajb inch at #cc ,f42 and #a #cj 4#jjjjajb1 or #a4jjjcjf at #cb #cj or #fb ,f4 ,superficial expansion may be obtained by multiplying the linear co-efficient by #b1 and cubical expansion by multiplying the same number by #c4 ,as in the case of specific gravity1 these data1 as well as those in succeeding columns1 can only be regarded as approximations1 depending on the condition of the metal etc4 ,specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance one degree 7the ,centigrade scale being here adopted71 that required for the same weight of water being taken as unity4 ,the corresponding numbers on the ,fahrenheit scale can be deduced from those here given by multiplying by #e and dividing by #i4 ,the melting points are given on ,fahrenheit's scale and can only be regarded as approximate on account of the difficulty experienced in determining these high temperatures4 ,different observers often vary by two or three hundred degrees in their estimates4 ,conductivity for heat and electricity are given in reference to that of silver1 which is called #ajj4 ,it surpasses all other known metals in both these properties when chemically pure1 but a trace of impurity has a very prejudicial influence on them4 ,it will be observed that in many cases the conductivities have not been determined1 a remark that applies to other columns of the table4 ,,soldering4 #abc4 ,it is well known that a solder is an alloy employed to unite1 by the aid of heat1 two metallic bodies that are placed in contact4 ,a solder1 then1 must be much more fusible than the metals it unites1 otherwise these latter would be damaged by the degree of heat applied4 ,solder is all the less tenacious1 and melts the more easily according as the proportion of the most fusible metal present is increased4 ,this fact is taken advantage of when several solderings have to be performed on the same object4 ,the alloy last employed will require to be considerably more fusible than the first1 as otherwise the heat would be so great that the earlier joints would melt4 ,in an ordinary lead-tin solder1 the fusibility is increased by increasing the proportion of the latter metal till the lead is to tin1 as #f is to #a4 ,this alloy melts at #aid ,c4 7#chj ,f471 and the melting point may be still further reduced by adding a gradually increasing proportion of bismuth4 ,as the melting point of the solder approximates to that of the metals to be united1 the risk of damaging these latter is of course increased1 but1 at the same time1 the joint will be all the stronger1 as the metal will be almost as strong there as at any other point1 and it can be forged1 etc4 ,solders are distinguished as hard or soft2 the former requires the application of a red heat1 and can therefore only be used for such metals as gold1 silver1 brass2 whereas the latter melt at very low temperature1 and can be employed for metals that have low melting points1 or when it is important not to exceed a moderate degree of heat4 ,the joint is1 however1 the more solid according as the heat employed approximates to that at which the metal will melt4 #abd4 ,composition of solders4 ,the solders ordinarily employed can be obtained from material dealers1 but it is advisable to give here the composition of some of the more important1 specifying the metal to which they are applicable4 #abe4 ,aluminium solders4 ,i4 ,zinc1 #gj parts2 copper1 #ae2 aluminium1 #ae4 ,,ii4 ,m4 ,mourey employes a series of aluminium-zinc alloys1 commencing with two per cent aluminium to #ih per cent zinc1 and progressing to #bj per cent of the former to #hj per cent of the latter metal4 #abf4 ,gold solders4 ,i4 ,gold1 #f parts2 copper1 #a part2 silver1 #b parts4 ,,ii4 ,gold1 #ae parts2 silver1 #b parts2 copper1 #a part4 ,,iii4 ,gold1 #aa4id parts2 silver1 #ed4gd parts2 copper1 #bh4ag parts2 zinc1 #e4ha parts4 ,the three first metals are melted together in a crucible1 and when they have somewhat cooled1 a rather greater proportion of zinc than is here indicated 7to allow for loss by volatilization7 is added1 and the alloy constantly stirred4 #abg4 ,silver solders4 ,i4 ,silver1 #b parts2 brass 7for pin-wire71 #a part4 ,,ii4 ,silver1 #e parts2 pin-wire brass1 #a part4 ,,iii4 ,silver1 #aj parts2 pin-wire brass1 #e parts2 pure zinc1 #a part4 #abh4 ,tin solders4 ,i4 7ordinary soft solder47 ,tin1 #b parts2 lead1 #a part4 ,,ii4 7,harder1 and known as 8,plumbers' ,sealed0 solder47 ,tin1 #a part2 lead1 #b parts4 ,,iii4 ,many other proportions of tin and lead are occasionally used1 ranging from tin1 #a part2 lead1 #be parts1 to tin1 #f parts2 lead1 #a part4 ,,iv4 7,very fusible solder1 melting in boiling water47 ,lead1 #c parts2 tin1 #e parts2 bismuth1 #h parts4 ,the fusibility is still further increased by adding mercury or cadmium4 #abi4 ,spelter solders4 7,used for brazing47 ,copper and zinc in varying proportions4 ,it becomes more fusible as the amount of zinc present is increased4 ,,methods ,,of ,,soldering4 #acj4 ,a thorough cleansing of the surfaces to be united is always needful1 but more especially so in the case of soft soldering4 ,it may be effected by means of acids1 or with a graver or scraper1 etc42 the cleansed surfaces must not be touched with the fingers1 and the soldering should be done at once4 ,if acids are employed1 the objects should be thoroughly washed after soldering1 in order to avoid rust2 and1 after drying1 they should be rinsed with alcohol4 ,the parts to be soldered are held in position with clamps1 tweezers1 pins1 or iron wire4 ,this latter1 known as binding wire1 is used for delicate objects and should be very pliable4 ,when a high degree of heat is to be applied1 all risk of the iron uniting with gold may be avoided by mixing a little sandiver with the borax employed4 7,see article #aec74 ,before heating1 if there are already parts united with solder1 they should be covered with borax to prevent softening4 ,only a moderate heat should at first be applied1 so as to melt the borax1 or sal-ammoniac without displacing it4 ,the violent frothing up1 which is very liable to displace the parts or the fragments of solder1 can thus in a great part be avoided4 ,if a naked lamp-flame is used1 or if it is directed on to the object with a blow-pipe1 it should be1 so to speak1 large and soft1 and the jet should not be directed to the point of juncture until the solder is observed to have fused4 ,in soldering brass to steel1 it is sometimes necessary to direct the flame against the brass only1 in order1 as far as possible1 to avoid softening the steel4 ,the hard solders for gold1 silver1 etc41 require a considerable degree of heat1 so that the objects must be heated to redness4 #aca4 ,to solder gold and platinum to each other or to themselves4 ,on a hard wetted surface1 marble1 for example1 rub a piece of borax until a white liquid paste is obtained 7or the powdered borax sold by chemists can be made into paste direct74 ,having prepared the borax1 the surfaces to be united are cleansed either by scraping or with dilute nitric acid 7#aee72 the acid may be previously heated to boiling1 as it will then act more rapidly2 and the surfaces are subsequently scraped4 ,they are now covered with the borax with a paint brush1 set in position1 and small pieces of solder placed on the junction4 ,as already observed1 the heating must at first be gentle to avoid displacing the solder by the frothing of the borax4 #acb4 ,to solder silver4 ,also for uniting gold to silver1 or silver1 brass1 steel to each other or to themselves4 ,proceed in the manner already explained for gold and platinum1 except that the borax paste must be sensibly thicker4 #acc4 ,to solder tin4 ,also for uniting gold1 silver1 brass to each other1 or to other metals1 such as steel1 iron1 etc4 ,clean the surface with a graver or scraper2 sulphuric or hydrochloric acid may be used1 but in this case the cleansing afterwards must not be forgotten4 ,the heating is effected as in soldering gold1 unless a soldering iron is used1 when the directions subsequently given should be followed4 #acd4 ,to solder aluminium4 ,m4 ,mourey recommends the following method4 ,one of the series of aluminium solders1 ,no4 ,,ii4 7art4 #abe71 is employed and1 as a flux1 two-thirds of balsam of copaiba1 one-third very pure ,venice turpentine1 and a few drops of the juice of a citron2 these constituents are pounded together in order to secure a perfect admixture4 ,the surfaces to be united are covered with solder 7employing a soldering iron of aluminium7 just as in the case of tinning 7#acg71 the flux just mentioned being used4 ,the two surfaces1 thus prepared1 are placed in contact and maintained in the required position1 and1 after laying on the joint particles of solder that are richer in aluminium than the one used for preparing the surfaces1 the whole is placed over a charcoal fire or heated before the blow-pipe1 pressing gently on the pieces of solder1 which will soon melt and should be distributed by means of a little tool of aluminium4 ,during this second stage of the process1 it is necessary to be very cautious in the application of the flux2 the pieces of solder should only be dipped in it before being placed in position1 for the flux is mainly for use in preparing the surfaces2 as soon as the solder has run well1 the temperature should be lowered in order not to dry up and burn the solder1 which would be apt to become brittle4 ,in preparing the solders1 the aluminium is first fused and stirred with a small iron rod2 then add the zinc and stir again2 add a little tallow and cast the solder into rods4 ,the zinc must not be too much heated1 as it will volatilize1 leaving the alloy rich in aluminium and therefore brittle4 #ace4 ,fluxes for soldering4 ,various substances can be employed as fluxes for cleansing the surfaces to be united3 ,sal-ammoniac reduced to powder and made into a paste with sweet oil1 or merely dissolved in water4 ,a paste formed of sal-ammoniac and resin1 reduced to powder1 with water or oil4 ,resin alone will suffice for the soft soldering of copper or brass4 ,venice turpentine1 which has the advantage of not causing steel to rust1 although it makes the objects sticky so that they require to be afterwards rinsed in alcohol or turpentine4 ,various acid solutions are sold for the purpose and experience will enable the watchmaker to select that which is best adapted to his requirements4 ,lastly1 saturated chloride of zinc can be recommended4 ,it is prepared as follows3 ,some dilute hydrochloric acid 7which also goes by the name of spirits of salts1 or muriatic acid7 is placed in a glass flask and strips of zinc are added one by one2 the flask must be left uncorked and the zinc added a little at a time1 lest the effervescence that occurs should break the vessel4 ,when the zinc added is not acted on by the fluid it may be concluded that the acid is saturated or 8killed10 and the fluid may then be transferred to a stoppered or corked bottle for use4 ,in using it1 a small quantity is spread over the surfaces that are to be united and the solder will be found to run with great freedom4 ,some authorities recommend the addition of sal-ammoniac to the extent of one-fourth the weight of acid taken4 ,it is well again to warn the reader that the pieces must be thoroughly washed after employing these liquids1 for1 otherwise1 they will cause tools with which they are brought in contact to rust and will rust themselves if they consist wholly or in part of iron or steel4 ,the vessel containing the fluid must be kept well away from the work-bench4 ,the liquid can be used immediately after being prepared as above explained2 but all acid reaction may be prevented by evaporating at a moderate temperature until of the consistency of oil2 it is then allowed to cool and kept in a bottle4 #acf4 ,the soldering iron with a head of copper1 such as is used by tin-plate workers1 is well known2 if made on a small scale it may occasionally be of service to the watchmaker4 ,the tool may be ,t-shaped1 one end of the horizontal portion1 the copper head1 terminating in a rather thin blade1 and the other enlarged1 so that1 when held in the flame of a lamp1 it will store up a sufficient amount of heat4 ,the upright part of the ,t corresponds1 of course1 to the handle4 ,after the iron has been heated just short of redness in the dark1 the end of the blade is moistened with soldering fluid and a small piece of solder attached to it4 ,the object to be united is gently heated and also moistened with the fluid2 the iron charged with solder is presented to it1 often with the enlarged extremity of the head maintained in the flame of a lamp1 and the solder will1 as a rule1 run without again heating the object1 although this might be done while the iron is still in contact4 ,it may be found convenient to fix the iron in a suitable position with the lamp below the large end of the head2 the object will then be brought against the iron after being moistened with the fluid4 #acg4 ,it is often advisable to tin the surfaces to be united previous to soldering them2 in order to do this they are moistened with soldering fluid1 small pieces of solder are then spread over1 and these are fused by passing the hot iron over the surface2 or the solder can be spread after fusion by means of a metallic rod charged with the liquid4 #ach4 ,brazing4 ,this operation consists in soldering iron1 steel1 brass1 or copper1 with an easily fusible brass1 which is specially prepared in the form of coarse dust1 termed spelter solder1 or cut in thin strips of convenient shape 7#abi74 ,the method resembles1 in all essential particulars1 the application of hard solders previously referred to 7#aca1 etc47 ,heat is usually applied direct by the blow-pipe1 borax being used as a flux1 and the precautions taken that are mentioned in article #acj3 it is necessary to avoid a greater degree of heat than would melt the brass1 since the object might in that case be fused4 ,for fine work1 it is better to employ silver solder4 ,on an emergency1 two pieces of steel can be united by brazing and subsequently hardened1 and we have successfully practiced this method in such a case as the following3 ,a small portion having been broken off from the quarter-piece of a repeater1 we dovetailed into it another piece of steel of the required form1 but a trifle too large at the upper side4 ,when the brass had run well into the joint1 and the piece was still at a full cherry-red heat1 it was hardened1 and afterwards cleaned and tempered to a blue color4 ,the upper surface was then brought to shape with a good file1 resting it on a wooden block against a projection1 and1 after making sure that it would act correctly1 the whole was smoothed and polished4 ,it has since worked well and does not show signs of wear4 ,,bronzing4 #aci4 ,to bronze copper4 ,the following are two methods recommended for bronzing objects of this metal1 for example1 a medal4 ,dissolve two parts of verdigris 7acetate of copper7 and one part of sal-ammoniac in vinegar4 ,boil the solution1 skim it1 and dilute with water until it no longer possesses a feebly metallic smell1 nor produces a whitish precipitate on the addition of water4 ,then let it boil again in an earthenware or porcelain vessel and transfer it1 while boiling1 into another vessel containing the perfectly clean medals1 etc41 and place the whole on the fire4 ,as soon as the medals assume the required color1 remove them1 and wash carefully in clean water4 ,the objects must not be left too long in the acid bath over the fire1 because the layer of oxide would become too thick1 and would easily scale off the surface2 whereas1 if the operation is properly conducted1 the coating adheres so firmly that it cannot be separated even by scraping4 ,of course1 it is only after a certain number of trials1 and with experience1 that the exact moment can be ascertained for removing the objects from the bath4 ,it is very necessary that the bath be not too concentrated1 as the superficial oxide becomes proportionately less adherent3 moreover1 a whitish powder is deposited on the medal1 which turns green on exposure to the air and spoils the appearance of the bronzing4 #adj4 ,chinese bronzing4 ,the ,chinese employ the following mixture for bronzing copper1 the several constituents being powdered before being incorporated together3 #b parts of verdigris1 #b parts of cinnabar1 #e of sal-ammoniac1 #e of alum1 and #b parts of the beak and of the liver of a duck4 ,a paste having been made1 with vinegar1 it is spread over the perfectly clean surface of the copper1 and the whole exposed for an instant to the fire1 then allowed to cool1 washed1 and the operation repeated as often as may be needed in order to obtain the desired tint4 ,by adding sulphate of copper to the mixture a browner shade will be obtained1 and it may be made yellower by adding borax4 ,copper thus treated is said to present a beautiful appearance1 and to be so permanent that neither air nor water has any influence against it4 #ada4 ,to bronze brass4 ,dissolve copper turnings in nitric acid until it is completely saturated4 ,immerse the brass objects to be bronzed in this solution after they have been cleaned1 smoothed with water of ,ayr stone1 and heated to such a temperature as the hand can just support2 on being placed over a charcoal fire they will assume a green color2 rub them over with rags1 repeat the immersion and heating over charcoal until the required tint is obtained4 ,the shade may be improved by oiling the finished surfaces4 ,it is asserted that by immersing copper articles in molten sulphur containing lampblack in suspension1 they assume the appearance of bronze2 and that they may even be polished without losing their color4 ,,gilding4 #adb4 ,gold gilding without the aid of mercury4 ,prepare the gold in fine powder1 as explained in the following paragraph1 or procure it from the dealers in chemical products1 who manufacture it of various tints4 ,make a mixture of this powder with pure rock salt and cream of tartar 7bitartrate of potash71 pulverized in the same manner as described in speaking of silver-plating and take the same precautions in its application4 ,the gold surface will present a dull appearance2 acid cannot be used to improve its color when operating1 for example1 on a wheel with attached pinion1 but the same result may be attained by a very simple method4 ,rub the object after plating with cream of tartar1 mixed with a large proportion of water2 then immediately wash in an abundance of warm water at not less than #dj ,c4 7#ajd ,f472 soap it thoroughly1 so as to neutralize any acid that may remain1 and finally pass through alcohol to dissolve any remaining soap4 ,the surface will be still further improved by rubbing with a very hard piece of pith1 such as is occasionally met with4 ,m4 ,robert1 in describing the above method1 adds3 8,in this manner ,i have gilded cocks1 domes1 compensation balance weights1 and even their brass rims4 ,when1 skilfully and expeditiously performed1 the pinion need not be discolored2 but1 if it is at any time slightly marked1 it may be restored by at once rubbing the surface with a soft stick and fine rouge40 #adc4 ,preparation of the gold powder4 ,as already observed this can be obtained of any desired color from the dealers in chemical products1 but the following method is given for the benefit of any one who desires to prepare it for himself3 ,place some gold in thin leaves in a dish1 and add a little honey1 thoroughly intermixing the two by the aid of a glass rod flattened at one end2 then place the paste so obtained in a glass of water containing a little alcohol1 washing it and allowing the powder to settle4 ,decant the liquid and again wash the residue1 repeating the operation until a fine brilliant powder is obtained4 ,this powder is mixed as required with rock salt and powdered cream of tartar in the manner already described4 #add4 ,second method4 ,dissolve one part by weight 7say about ten grains7 of pure gold1 rolled very thin1 in aqua regia 7#aee7 contained in a porcelain dish1 which may be gently heated on a sand-bath1 and evaporate the acid until it assumes a blood-red color4 ,add about #cj parts1 by weight1 of warm distilled water1 in which #d parts of crystallized cyanide of potassium have been previously dissolved2 thoroughly stir the mixture with a glass rod1 and filter it through a glass funnel4 #ade4 ,third ,method4 ,roseleur recommends the following solution for gilding by simple immersion4 ,distilled water1 #ag pints2 pyrophosphate of soda 7in crystals7 #bh ounces2 hydrocyanic acid1 #a-c ounce2 crystallized perchloride of gold1 #b-c ounce4 ,the pyrophosphate is added1 in small quantities at a time1 to #af pints of water1 in a porcelain vessel1 stirring with a glass rod and applying gentle heat2 then filter and cool4 ,the gold salt is dissolved in a small amount of water2 filter and add to the cold solution of pyrophosphate2 lastly1 add the hydrocyanic acid and the solution1 heated to the boiling point1 is ready for use4 ,the articles to be dipped must be thoroughly cleansed and passed through a very dilute solution of nitrate of binoxide of mercury2 they must be constantly agitated while in the bath and the best coating is obtained by dipping the articles in a nearly exhausted solution of the same kind immediately after the mercury solution4 #adf4 ,electro ,gilding4 ,but the method most usually adopted is that in which a battery is employed4 ,it is1 however1 impossible1 within the limits of this work1 to explain the precautions that are necessary in conducting the process1 managing the battery1 etc41 and the reader must be referred to works on electro-metallurgy for these details4 #adg4 ,to prepare the pieces to be plated4 ,after the surface has been stoned1 boil the object a few minutes in a solution of soda or potash1 and rinse in clean water4 ,roseleur1 in the articles already referred to1 gives very full instructions1 of which the following is an outline4 ,the reader who desires to obtain more complete information can consult his works4 ,attach the pieces to a cork and brush with a clean brush charged with water and pumice-stone powder and thoroughly rinse4 ,place them in a solution consisting of3 water1 #b gal42 nitrate of binoxide of mercury1 #a-ad oz42 sulphuric acid #a-g oz4 ,then rinse again4 #adh4 ,graining4 ,mix thoroughly with the application of moderate heat1 silver powder1 #a ounce2 pure common salt1 finely powdered1 #ac ounces2 cream of tartar #d to #e ounces4 ,make a thin paste of this mixture with water and spread with a spatula on the pieces2 having mounted them on a cork to which a rotary motion is given1 rub them in all directions with a brush with close bristles1 adding fresh paste from time to time4 ,when the desired grain is obtained1 wash and scratch-brush with revolving wire brushes4 ,three of these are often used of varying degrees of hardness and a decoction of liqorice1 weak size or stale beer is liberally applied to the surface4 #adi4 ,resist4 ,this is a composition for covering steel parts in order to protect them from the action of the acids1 etc41 in the various processes of cleaning1 graining and gilding4 ,it consists of yellow wax1 #b ounces2 clear resin1 #c ounces2 very fine red sealing-wax1 #a ounces2 finest rouge1 #a ounce2 ,melt the resin and sealing-wax in a porcelain dish1 then add the yellow wax1 and when the whole is thoroughly liquid1 gradually add the rouge1 stirring with a glass rod4 ,the parts to be coated are slightly heated and covered with the mixture4 ,to remove the resist after the gilding process is completed1 place the pieces in warm oil or turpentine1 then in a very hot soapy or alkaline solution and lastly in fresh water4 #aej4 ,when prepared as above explained1 the object may be gilt by one of the preceding methods2 of course a hot solution cannot be resorted to when the resist has been applied4 #aea4 ,to clean objects that are of gold or gilt4 ,the following method is equally applicable to pieces that are gilt1 such as cocks1 domes1 etc41 the frames and parts of timepieces and to either gold or gilt jewelry4 ,to about a tumbler of water add #bj drops of strong ammonia4 ,immerse the object several times in this mixture and brush it with a soft brush2 as soon as the operation appears to be completed 7which experience will soon enable the workman to ascertain71 wash in pure water1 then in alcohol1 and dry with a fine linen rag4 ,the original brilliancy of the gilding will then be restored4 ,when the coating is thin and has been galvanically deposited1 only very soft brushes must be used4 ,gilders1 instead of dipping in alcohol and drying with a linen rag1 usually immerse the pieces in boxwood sawdust1 leaving them long enough to become thoroughly dry2 after this treatment they merely require to be shaken and lightly rubbed with a fine brush4 ,the sawdust must be perfectly dry2 indeed it is a good plan to slightly warm it by placing the wooden box containing it for a few minutes on a hot oven or stove in the winter and exposing it to a hot sun in summer4 ,instead of ammonia1 alum 7#aef7 is sometimes boiled in water and the objects dipped two or three times in this solution1 subsequently brushing as in the previous case4 #aeb4 ,to restore the dead surface of gold or gilt objects4 ,place them for two or three minutes in chlorine water1 rinse them in clean water1 soap them and finally dry in sawdust4 ,it is advisable that parts that are polished be prevented from actual contact with the liquid as it would produce a somewhat deadened surface4 #aec4 ,to clean gold jewelry after soldering4 ,particles of binding wire are often left adhering to the surface of jewelry after soldering1 and1 on dipping the object into the dipping liquid1 a layer of oxide may be formed4 ,this can be removed without detriment to the polished surface by plunging the object for a few seconds in nitric acid 7#aee74 ,,acids ,,and ,,salts4 #aed4 ,the watchmaker has occasion to employ a few acids and salts4 ,he should never forget the advice already given to keep them away from his work-bench and always to well wash a piece of metal that has been in contact with them4 #aee4 ,acids4 ,nitric ,acid1 either in a concentrated or dilute form1 will dissolve iron1 steel1 copper1 lead1 silver1 zinc1 brass1 nickel1 mercury1 ,german silver4 ,it does not dissolve tin1 but reduces it to a white powder1 known as metastannic acid4 ,hence1 if an attempt be made to dissolve bronze which contains tin1 this metal is deposited1 and the copper and zinc pass into solution4 ,sulphuric acid will dissolve iron1 steel1 copper1 tin1 silver1 zinc1 brass1 nickel1 mercury1 ,german silver4 ,hydrochloric acid will dissolve iron1 steel1 zinc and nickel and has a slow action on copper1 tin1 brass and ,german silver4 ,aqua regia1 a mixture of about #b parts hydrochloric and #a part nitric acid1 will dissolve all the above-named metals1 and in addition1 gold and platinum1 although separately neither acid will attack these metals4 ,hydrofluoric acid attacks and dissolves all metals1 except platinum1 lead and silver with violent effervescence4 ,it is also used for etching on glass or enamel4 ,it is usually preserved in gutta-percha bottles1 and is of such a dangerous nature that no use should be made of it without a good knowledge of its properties4 ,acids are rarely employed pure by watchmakers2 they are diluted with water4 ,nitric acid of commerce has a density of about #a4d 7#ch on ,baume's hydrometer74 ,if this density is reduced by the addition of water to #a4af 7#bj ,baume71 we obtain the acid most commonly employed4 ,for cleaning metallic surfaces prior to soldering etc42 for giving a grained surface to brass1 and for whitening blue steel1 special proportions are found most convenient1 which the reader can best determine experimentally for himself1 remembering that the action of the acid should neither be too quick nor too slow4 ,when once he has ascertained the best proportion1 he can always recover it by the aid of the hydrometer4 #aef4 ,salts4 ,borax serves as a flux in soldering gold1 silver1 platinum1 etc41 7#aca72 also for the same purpose in brazing 7#ach72 it is met with in crystals or as a powder4 ,sal-,ammoniac 7also called ,chloride of ammonium71 is used for soldering tin1 either as a powder or made into a paste1 with sweet oil or with water1 or mixed with resin4 ,alum dissolved in water may occasionally be used in place of nitric acid for cleaning surfaces that have been soldered2 it attacks iron or steel more energetically than copper1 zinc1 or brass4 ,this fact is often taken advantage of for removing broken screws1 etc41 from brass plates4 ,all other steel parts are removed and the plate placed in a solution of alum1 when the steel screw is gradually eaten away by being converted into rust4 ,in #ajj parts of cold water1 only #i parts of alum will dissolve1 but if the water be boiled1 it will take up #ge parts4 ,its action will then be proportionately more energetic when boiling4 ,,oil4 #aeg4 ,the oil intended for use as a lubricant for watchwork1 etc41 should be kept away from the light1 as otherwise it would be discolored2 it is on this account that the bottles containing such oil are frequently covered with black paper4 ,only the quantity wanted for immediate use should be placed in the oil-cup4 ,two preliminary tests will afford some indication as to the quality of an oil4 ,a thick layer is placed on a small portion of the surface of a glass plate1 and side by side1 a similar layer of another oil used for comparison1 and they are exposed to the air for some time without being touched4 ,the one that is found to be sticky under the finger when the other has dried up will1 in all probability1 be preferable4 ,the second preliminary test is made on a whetstone2 it is usually found that the oil that takes the longest time to thicken is of better quality4 ,of course these tests will only suffice to afford a rough approximation1 and cannot be accepted as conclusive4 ,the mode adopted for testing either the acidity or the purity of oil will afford no evidence as to how long it will maintain its fluidity2 and very good results have at times been secured by the use of oils that were slightly acid1 or from mixtures of oils of two or more qualities4 ,many of the methods recommended for purifying oils are to a great extent illusory1 for they cannot impart to the fluid characteristics that are wanting from the beginning4 ,success depends largely on the skill of the manipulator2 and if he is not endowed with the power of judging1 mainly by the taste1 whether oil satisfies certain prescribed conditions1 he can never be certain of the result4 ,crops differ as regards degree of maturity1 etc41 from year to year2 and the animals from which oils are procured are rarely in the same condition as regards health1 age1 nourishment1 etc4 ,tests made on a whetstone1 and on a window-pane1 as well as observations made on drops of oil placed in jewel holes1 or in oil-cups in a metal plate kept for the purpose--some of the drops being exposed to the air1 while others are in closed boxes--will afford valuable indications2 and according to the observations of ,m4 ,h4 ,robert1 it is safe to consider an oil bad if1 at the end of six or eight days after being placed on a plate of good brass1 it shows a marked green tinge--especially so if a clearly defined fringe forms round the drop1 or else if the brass itself is discolored4 ,after all1 the only evidence on which the watchmaker can rely is that which he obtains by experimenting on watches which he keeps to lend to his customers while their own are undergoing repair1 and these trials should last for at least a year4 ,and there is great variety among the wearers of watches4 ,some live in constantly varying temperatures1 often dusty2 many ladies use perfumes2 some persons perspire more than others2 all these causes influence the oil1 and make it alter or evaporate more rapidly in one watch than in another4 #aeh4 ,to secure the maximum permanency in oil4 ,in the case of very many watchmakers who complain bitterly of the oils they employ1 the fault is their own and not that of the oil2 for they neglect the most simple precautions1 both in purchasing and in using it4 ,the following are a few points to which attention should be given3 ,do not buy1 from motives of economy1 bottles that have lain for years in the shop4 ,keep the oil away from the light1 and only take in the oil cup the amount required for immediate use1 as stated above4 ,ascertain that the watch-cases close well4 ,if they do not1 there will be air currents generated1 and the oil will suffer4 ,the oil in a cylinder escapement will always deteriorate very rapidly2 some watchmakers coat over the inside of the dome-joint and recommend the owner not to open it4 ,by doing so1 the oil can be maintained in good condition at the escapement for a long time4 ,lastly1 when cleaning a watch1 the work should be conscientiously done4 ,this point is very important4 ,when the parts are carelessly cleaned with soap1 or with impure benzine1 they will1 after a few months1 assume a dull colour1 in consequence of a thin layer of the materials used in cleaning having been left on the surface4 ,it has at times been noticed that steel work was preserved from rust through the perspiration of the wearer1 after being cleaned by certain fluids4 ,evidently this was due to a thin coating having been left on the surface of the metal4 ,the conclusion to be drawn is obvious3 clean carefully2 push the pivots into rather hard pith2 finish with a soft brush in proper condition1 and clear out all pivot-holes with pegwood4 #aei4 ,mixed oils3 camphorated oils4 ,good results are frequently obtained by mixing together two different kinds of oil4 ,thus1 ,american watch oil1 which is very fluid and apt to evaporate at the temperature of the pocket1 is improved by the addition of a somewhat thicker oil4 ,a mixture of real ,american oil with the ,rodanet oil has been recommended as excellent4 ,there are some who advocate the addition of a small quantity of camphor to an oil that is known to be satisfactory1 but we cannot answer for it from personal experience4 #afj4 ,sinks4 ,in cleaning1 it is important to avoid removing the gilding in the oil sinks of watches1 or the superficial oxide in the sinks of clocks that have been going for a considerable time4 ,for if it be removed1 there will be a fresh coating formed in time1 and this1 too1 at the expense of the oil4 ,in new timepieces that are not gilt1 it is well worth while polishing the sinks over their entire surface4 ,if not applied too liberally1 the oil will then be more likely to remain in contact with the end of the pivot4 ,moreover1 as the surface is smoothed and hardened1 and its pores are1 as it were1 closed by the action of the polisher1 the oil will oxidize more slowly4 ,this fact was first pointed out by ,robin4 #afa4 ,caution to be observed in applying oil4 ,the precautions to be observed in applying oil will be better considered in ,part ,v4 of this work1 where we shall describe the method of cleaning and putting a watch together4 #afb4 ,retention of oil on acting surfaces4 ,since oil is essential in order to diminish friction1 and the movement of the bodies to which it is applied tends to drive it from the surfaces of contact1 it is important1 with a view to its being constantly brought back and maintained in proximity to these surfaces1 that they be formed in accordance with certain rules based on the laws of hydrostatics4 ,,alcohol4 #afc4 ,only what is known as rectified alcohol should be used in cleaning parts of watch work4 ,the copper pan in which it is made to boil should not be too thin4 ,the handle should be so arranged that it can be fixed in the vise1 and the lamp held under the pan4 ,when1 in heating1 the alcohol ignites1 it is best not to attempt its extinction by blowing2 if the pan is held against the under side of the bench1 the flame will at once be put out1 or this can be effected by merely laying a piece of sheet metal over the pan4 ,a good plan for preventing ignition is to make a lid of wire gauze1 which is placed over the pan during the application of heat4 ,the substance known as 8methylated spirit0 is a cheap preparation of alcohol1 and of use for burning in a spirit lamp1 and for other purposes where the alcohol is not required to be pure4 ,,benzine1 ,,etc4 #afd4 ,this and other preparations of a similar nature1 such as ,essence ,lemoine1 ,essence ,genevoise1 etc41 are much used for dissolving clogged oil and other substances of a greasy nature from parts of watches in cleaning4 ,,polishing ,,materials4 #afe4 ,the following account of the materials used for polishing1 is1 for the most part1 extracted from ,holtzapffel's ,turning and ,mechanical ,manipulation1 to which the reader is referred for fuller information in regard to them1 and to their mode of application3 ,buff ,leather glued to a flat surface1 or to the edge of a revolving disc1 is used with emery1 crocus1 rottenstone and other powders4 ,charcoal is much used by steel and copper-plate engravers4 ,that made by burning elder without access of air is considered the best1 but willow and elm have also been recommended4 ,diamond1 in the form of powder1 is used by lapidaries1 seal engravers1 and watch jewel makers4 ,the latter obtain the diamond bort that is rubbed off stones in faceting1 and they separate it into various degrees of fineness1 by decantation 7#afh74 ,the mode of applying it is described in articles #bjg1 #baf4 ,diamantine1 ,sapphirine1 ,rubitine1 etc41 are names given to various chemical preparations for polishing1 to be obtained at the tool shops2 they must not be assumed to consist in any way of the jewels from which their names are derived4 ,emery4 ,at the present day1 oilstone dust is very frequently replaced by emery with oil or water1 especially in clockwork4 ,any required degree of fineness can be obtained by decantation4 ,emery dust is sometimes used in place of rouge for polishing4 ,the solid emery wheels and sticks1 that are now common in the trade1 work rapidly1 but they have the disadvantage of heating steel1 and many of them soon become pasty4 ,the heating renders them less suitable for grinding gravers1 but they are very convenient for roughly shaping steel work1 or removing the hard surface caused by the application of heat4 ,to make emery paper4 ,if occasion requires it1 this can be done as follows3 ,fix a sheet of stout rope manila paper on a board1 glueing it round the edge4 ,having put emery powder into a sifter1 the mesh of which has the requisite degree of fineness1 and rapidly covered the surface of the paper with thin hot glue1 shake the sifter lightly over the paper until it is evenly covered1 and leave to cool4 ,when dry1 detach the paper and shake it vigorously to detach loose grains4 ,cloth may be used instead of paper1 if desired4 ,hone slates4 ,under this heading are included a great variety of stones used for smoothing and polishing4 ,ayr stone1 or water of ,ayr stone1 is much used for smoothing brass work prior to gilding 7#adb71 etc4 ,it should be kept wet in order to prevent it from becoming hard4 ,blue polishing stone is much used by jewelers1 clockmakers1 and others2 it is recommended for use in spotting 7#agd7 and for polishing wheels 7#agf47 ,oilstone4 ,this forms the quickest cutting whetstone known4 ,oilstone slips are used by watchmakers after the manner of files4 ,oilstone powder1 or dust1 is much used in the earlier stages of polishing1 and is preferable to emery in that it does not leave particles embedded in the surface of the metal4 ,on pewter laps it may also be employed for polishing steel work4 ,oxides of iron4 ,under this head are included the several materials known as crocus1 rouge1 red-stuff1 colcothar of vitriol1 etc4 ,it is advisable to remove gritty particles from these materials by decantation 7#afh7 before using4 ,pumice-,stone is extensively used for polishing cut glass1 and is applicable to brass and other metal work4 ,putty ,powder is oxide of tin1 or1 more commonly1 of tin and lead in varying proportions4 ,the whitest kind1 provided it be heavy1 is considered the best4 ,rottenstone4 ,this variety of tripoli is of the greatest value for polishing brass work1 as well as for silver1 glass1 and even the hardest stones4 ,tripoli is of a greyish yellow or red color1 and consists mainly of silica4 ,its principal use is in the polishing of hard woods4 ,whiting is common chalk1 ground1 washed to remove sand1 etc41 and dried in lumps4 #aff4 ,polishing ,stones4 ,the following method is described by ,m4 ,cadot for preparing these stones1 which are very useful for polishing a wheel that is not riveted to its pinion 7see article #ahe74 ,carefully select a blue stone2 after dressing its surface1 smooth it with emery paper of gradually increasing fineness4 ,saturate the surface with oil1 and rub it with a common piece of rough sapphire1 one face of which is flat and partly smoothed1 until the surface of the stone is hardened4 ,such a stone is used dry4 ,the wheels must previously have been carefully smoothed1 since the stone does not abrade the metal4 ,if care is taken to avoid scratches1 the surface will last for a long time1 although1 of course1 it is only serviceable for gold1 brass1 nickel or metals of a similar degree of hardness4 #afg4 ,the several materials used for polishing must be kept carefully packed 7glass stoppered bottles are preferable71 as a few grains of dust1 or of foreign bodies1 will suffice to prevent the operation of polishing from being successful4 ,polishers should be filed very smooth1 with a perfectly clean file that is not quite new4 ,files that are dirty or new will deposit small hard particles of dirt1 or cause pieces off the points of their teeth to become embedded in the surface of the polisher4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,polishing ,,materials4 #afh4 ,decantation4 ,this consists in causing a material in a fine state of sub-division to fall slowly through a liquid with the view to separate coarse particles1 or various degrees of fineness1 by taking advantage of their different rates of descent4 ,the watchmaker should prepare all his smoothing and polishing materials1 etc41 by decantation4 ,he will by this means obtain them in grains that are much more uniform in size1 of any required degree of fineness and free from hard or large particles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,the operation is exceedingly simple4 ,the material having been pounded under the hammer or otherwise1 is thrown into a vessel more or less filled with a liquid1 water1 oil1 etc4 ,after being thoroughly stirred1 it is allowed to partially settle1 and the liquid is carefully poured into another vessel4 ,all the coarse heavy grains will be found as a residue in the first vessel2 they are collected and used for coarse work4 ,after again stirring and leaving to settle for a longer period1 the liquid is again poured off1 and the powder thus separated will be the second degree of fineness1 so that it may be termed ,no4 #b4 ,by successive operations1 in which a gradually increasing interval of time is allowed1 ,nos4 #c1 #d1 etc41 can be obtained2 that is to say1 a series of powders of the same material but presenting a greater degree of uniformity in the size of grains and of gradually increasing fineness4 ,it may be observed that when the powder of the requisite degree of fineness is nearly attained the mass should be left to settle until the following day1 or1 rather1 until the fluid is clear2 then decant carefully so as not to lose any of the deposit4 ,when treating a material that is soft and friable1 it should be crushed between the fingers1 as by using a hammer hard grains of foreign matter might be accidentally intermixed4 ,oil may be used for decanting diamond powder or oilstone dust for smoothing2 water for rottenstone or tripoli2 alcohol for hartshorn1 etc4 #afi4 ,to prepare diamond powder4 ,select rough diamonds of a blackish tint1 of such a size that there are four or five to a caret4 ,these are crushed in a hard steel mortar of the form indicated in fig4 #dj1 the pestle being provided with a small stuffing box that can be brought down on to the mortar to prevent the escape of diamond-dust2 but it is well to first crush one stone1 with a single blow of the hammer on the pestle2 remove all the fragments and examine the end of the pestle2 it will be found that a number of particles have bedded themselves in it2 these should be examined to select pieces to serve as drills and gravers4 ,the larger fragments serve for gravers1 and particles should be sought that are as nearly as possibly triangular prisms about inch long for making drills4 ,the other stones may be treated in similar manner till enough fragments are found4 ,now place all other pieces in the mortar1 and continue for two or three hours striking the pestle with the hammer1 turning it partly round after each few blows to prevent the powder from imbedding itself in the steel4 ,when no 8bite0 is perceived in rotating the pestle1 the diamond is sufficiently reduced2 it is shaken out of the mortar into a watch-glass containing the most limpid oil attainable1 and if necessary the fragments are released by a steel spatula1 at the same time striking the external surface of the mortar with the hammer4 ,thoroughly mix the oil and the powder1 subdividing the latter as much as possible by rubbing against the glass with a spatula2 allow the mixture to rest for an hour and pour off the liquid into a second glass1 leaving the larger particles behind4 ,leave the oil in the second glass for four hours2 then decant1 into a third glass with the same precautions2 this is left for eight hours2 the next glass sixteen hours4 ,when all the powder has settled pour off the oil1 and the several degrees are ready for use4 ,some jewelers prefer to leave the powder for two or three days in a mixture of equal nitric and sulphuric acid in order to dissolve particles of steel4 ,the acids are then much diluted with water1 left for some days and decanted4 ,then wash the powder in two fluid ounces of pure alcohol1 leave for two days1 decant and dry1 and afterwards treat with oil4 ,the operation is long and hardly necessary4 ,,smoothing4 #agj4 ,if a surface is smoothed well1 the labor of polishing will be diminished by at least one-half1 and it is an essential preliminary if a good gilding on brass is required4 ,the materials most frequently used are emery and oilstone dust for steel1 pumice and water of ,ayr stone for brass4 ,the stones should not be traversed by veins1 nor exhibit hard grains4 ,powders should be freed from large or hard grains by decantation1 and it is advisable to repeat this operation several times in order to have several degrees of fineness4 ,,smoothing ,,of ,,brass4 #aga4 ,every watchmaker knows that after finishing the object with a smooth file1 it is smoothed1 first with a blue stone or rather coarse water of ,ayr stone1 and then with one of finer grain4 ,if the brass is to be gilt1 the operation is concluded with a series of circular strokes1 so as not to leave any stri or bright spots2 if the surface is to be spotted or watered the final strokes should all be parallel4 ,a soft piece of charcoal applied with water may also be used on objects intended for gilding2 in other cases it is used with oil4 #agb4 ,wavy or watered smoothing4 ,this is done with water of ,ayr stone and oil carefully prepared1 or with a piece of wood charged with oilstone dust1 etc4 ,the oiled corner of an emery buffstick can occasionally be used4 ,to obtain wavy undulations on a smooth piece of metal1 the finger should first be placed at the point of commencement of the undulations4 ,resting the wood or stone against the finger1 it is moved a little in a straight line1 and then in a series of semicircular waved lines1 from right to left or left to right4 ,the finger is advanced through a definite distance and the operation repeated1 and so on4 ,a very good watered surface can be produced with soft charcoal4 ,with a view to increasing the regularity in the marks1 a rule may be laid on the object1 against which the charcoal is brought4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,parallel watering is usually done mechanically1 but any watchmaker can secure regularity by the following simple device4 ,fix a graduated rule t g across the cork 7fig4 #da7 and two pins ,a ,a1 to form stops for preventing the stick or stone from traveling too far4 ,a division of the rule is made to correspond with the line v v2 and1 when the first line has been traced1 advance the object by one1 two or three graduations of t g1 according to the interval that is to be left between successive undulations4 ,then trace the second wave1 and so on4 #agc4 ,wavy and curvilinear smoothing4 ,these are of two kinds2 some are entire circles1 which we shall proceed to consider2 others radiate in curves from the circumference to some other point of the circle as1 for example1 many of those that are met with on keyless ratchet wheels4 ,the latter will be discussed farther on1 when discussing the smoothing of steel1 for the process is identical for both steel and brass1 except that with the latter named metal and nickel the stick may be replaced by a strip of zinc or tin1 and coarse rouge is used4 #agd4 ,circular snailing or spotting4 ,this is produced on a special tool by which several motions can be given to the object1 but watchmakers1 as a rule1 so seldom have occasion to trace this class of ornament1 that it will suffice to explain how it can be produced by the appliances that everyone has at hand4 ,the universal mandrel may be employed for the purpose1 but1 in that case1 the operation is a very slow one1 whereas1 with the ordinary lathe1 it can be done both rapidly and well4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,adjust a rest of the form shown at s 7fig4 #db71 taking care that the height of the center is sufficient2 the small rectangular bed a a has a projecting edge1 divided by equidistant graduations4 ,to the headstock of the lathe is attached1 at b1 a piece of bluestone or wood4 ,having set the rest at a convenient height1 and holding the object to be spotted1 ,p1 on the rest1 bring in it contact with b when in rotation4 ,when the mark is made1 lean the object from b1 slide it along a a so that its edge coincides with the next division and make another mark1 and so on until an entire row is completed4 ,then raise or lower the rest and repeat the process for a second row1 and so on4 ,instead of applying oil to the acting face of b1 which would have to be renewed at each operation1 it is usual to cover the object ,p with oil1 if b is a stone1 or with oil mixed with the substance used for smoothing1 if b is of wood4 ,if this precaution is taken1 the work will progress much more rapidly4 ,when the object operated upon is of irregular shape it must first be attached to a rectangular plate and then proceed as already stated4 ,a still more simple method1 but one that is1 in certain cases quite sufficient1 consists in passing through the poppet-head a center of the form f d 7,h1 fig4 #db7 which is caused to rotate by the fingers or any other means4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,to make spottings that1 instead of being parallel1 radiate from the center to the circumference1 the rest a a must carry a disc that can rotate on a clamping screw1 and is maintained in position by a finger1 with an even number of equidistant divisions on the circumference of the disc4 ,the object to be operated upon is then fixed to the disc1 and a stick used1 the diameter of which is equal to the distance between two radii that pass through a pair of graduations on the disc2 for example1 the small circle s 7fig4 #dc74 ,a series of circular spots is then made by gradually rotating the disc4 ,now replace the rod s by one of the diameter n2 advance the support until it corresponds with the position n1 and make the second range of circular spots1 and so on4 ,the figure renders any further explanation unnecessary4 ,the watchmaker who has clearly followed what precedes will be able1 should occasion require it1 to construct a special tool acting with certainty2 but it will be well to remember that there is a great advantage in driving the spotting stick by the foot1 and bringing it down on the object by a small hand lever1 after the manner of the drilling machines used in factories4 ,,smoothing ,,of ,,steel4 #age4 ,the smoothing of a steel object is commonly done on a piece of cork1 with a large iron polisher charged with oilstone dust and oil4 ,if a flat surface1 it can be finished with a copper polisher or on a sheet of glass4 ,in the case of staffs1 arbors1 etc41 that are not intended to be polished subsequently1 a certain degree of brilliancy is given to the surface by rubbing with wood1 usually pegwood1 or with a stick covered with the finest emery paper and oil4 ,a surface that will not be subjected to friction--as1 for example1 the head of a screw--can be smoothed rapidly and well with a dry emery buffstick if little metal has to be removed1 and the polishing can then be at once proceeded with4 ,only one cleaning is in this case necessary1 for after the emery it will suffice to rub with pith and pass a brush over the surface4 ,for ordinary work1 smoothing a staff or head of a screw with dry1 fine emery and finishing by the friction of rather hard pith backwards and forwards1 will give a fairly satisfactory surface4 #agf4 ,white and dead smoothing4 ,to produce a graining1 the piece of steel must be previously smoothed in the ordinary way1 perfectly flat and free from scratches4 ,the graining is produced by rubbing the object on a sheet of ground glass with the finger1 taking very small circular strokes1 especially towards the end of the operation4 ,the degree of success depends on the quality of the oilstone dust employed4 ,it must be very fine1 and it will be a prudent precaution to decant the powder in water1 or preferably in oil1 and not to use the earlier deposits 7#afh74 ,when the oilstone dust is not very good1 it may be washed in hydrochloric acid1 which dissolves most of the hard grains1 but it will require to be thoroughly washed in water afterwards1 on account of the difficulty there is in removing the last traces of the acid4 ,of course such a method is only to be resorted to on an emergency4 ,perhaps the most difficult piece to grain is a keyless barrel ratchet1 because if the operation is at all prolonged the edge of the ratchet may become white before the center and it may even polish4 ,if this happens1 the ratchet should be held in the hand and rubbed with a piece of pith cut to a blunt point with a flat end4 ,by this means it is easy to act on the center1 avoiding the edges4 #agg4 ,dead white or frosted surface4 ,after having grained the steel in the manner above indicated1 if it is required to obtain a dead white frosted surface1 employ a mud formed of ,arkansas stone dust1 or the sticky deposit on a whetstone1 which is more easily obtained4 ,it should not be too yellow1 as the result is all the better according as a greater number of steel particles are mixed with the oil2 at least1 so we are informed by some very good workmen4 ,a large piece of elder-pith having been divided into two equal parts lengthwise1 is smoothed with a new1 clean file2 the mud is spread upon it1 and the piece of steel is moved over it with circular strokes as in producing the graining4 ,in this case the movement can be rapid4 ,if the operation be well done1 and if the oilstone dust used be of good quality1 the object will1 after being cleaned1 present a beautiful uniform white surface in which the graining is still visible4 ,experience and knack are everything in the proper conduct of such an operation1 especially in its concluding stage4 ,the surface may be cleaned in pure benzine mixed with a little sulphuric acid1 followed by a very clean buffstick1 which will impart a brilliancy to the metal4 ,m4 ,bean recommends fine ,turkey oilstone powder mixed with turpentine as the best preparation for rapidly producing a dead smooth surface on steel work4 ,workmen that are constantly engaged in graining employ a foot-wheel for the purpose4 ,the ground glass is fixed so that1 although not rotating1 a small circular motion is communicated to it4 ,the steel is then simply held against it2 indeed1 several pieces can be grained in this manner at once4 ,to the methods above described we would add the following1 which is successfully practiced by several ,english workmen3 ,they lightly fix the ratchet1 for example1 by its edge1 and finish the smoothing with a piece of pith1 more or less charged with pure charcoal powder and fine oilstone dust4 ,here also knack is mainly instrumental in insuring success4 #agh4 ,snailing4 ,to produce the snailing on a fusee or on keyless wheel-work1 the device shown in fig4 #dd can be used4 ,the ratchet or fusee is mounted between one pair of centers and driven by a cord from a foot or hand-wheel4 ,the copper or iron lap1 having a diameter equal to about three times that of the surface to be snailed1 is charged with fine emery powder and oil1 or oilstone dust1 etc41 and set in contact with the face of the steel1 which thus causes it also to rotate4 ,the direction of the snailing will be the same1 whether the rotation is to the right or left4 ,if it be required to change the direction1 the relative positions of the two pieces must be reversed4 ,it has been already observed that brass and nickel can be snailed in the same way1 employing a zinc or tin lap and coarse rouge 7#agc74 ,in some cases1 hard wood laps can be used for these softer metals4 ,in keyless steel wheels a beautiful snailing can be obtained with ,arkansas stone mud 7or1 in its absence1 the greasy mass from an oilstone7 mixed with polishing rouge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,with reference to the little tool shown in fig4 #dd1 it may be observed that1 if the axes of both the steel piece and lap were driven by bow or otherwise1 the surface would be polished and not snailed4 ,in the absence of the tool here referred to1 any one can easily construct one for the purpose which will adapt to the mandril or a foot-lathe3 in order to help him in doing so we will describe one designed by ,m4 ,cadot1 of ,paris4 #agi4 ,tool for snailing4 ,this is shown in fig4 #de1 and we would at the outset observe that it can be used equally well for polishing4 ,to a shoulder at the extremity1 ,a1 of a piece of steel rod1 ,b 7which takes the place of the slide-rest cutter7 is riveted an ,l-shaped piece c c d1 and to the point d is firmly fixed by a screw or rivet1 the upright piece d h parallel to c c2 this piece is enlarged at h so as to give a bearing to a hardened steel screw1 with a hollow point1 in the axis of ,b3 the lap is supported between this screw and a hole in the center of ,a4 ,the figure will suffice to indicate the form of this lap which is dished internally as shown by the dotted line4 ,it is made of iron or copper if intended for use with hardened steel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,the piece to be snailed is fixed to a chuck of the foot-lathe1 and1 having fixed the rod ,b in place of the cutter1 the lap is brought1 by means of the slide-rest screws1 in contact with the steel1 taking care not to set it up to the center1 as snailing that starts from the center is not so good4 ,having charged the lap with fine emery and oil1 the object is rotated and it sets the lap also in motion4 ,it was mentioned above that this tool can be employed for polishing3 for such a purpose use fine rouge1 replace the lap by one of bronze or bell-metal1 fix a ferrule at i1 and1 while the object turns in the lathe1 rotate the lap with a bow4 ,by fixing a rod at ,l instead of at ,b1 the tool is at once adapted to be used in an ordinary pair of turns1 as it can be fixed in place of the ,t-rest2 but it is not so easy to secure parallelism of the two surfaces4 #ahj4 ,to restore the watered surface in nickel movements1 etc4 ,although the following is employed for nickel 7or rather ,german silver7 it may be well to observe that it is equally applicable to all other metals4 ,as these nickel movements are not gilt subsequent to being repaired1 it frequently happens that the water marks on the surfaces do not correspond4 ,by the aid of the following device watchmakers can correct this fault1 but we must warn them that1 as in all operations involving dexterity1 they must first make experiments in order to acquire the requisite manual skill4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,on a small open frame ,c ,c1 fig4 #df1 fix several parallel bars f l1 e d1 etc41 and on two of these adjust a slide p o n m1 with two strips glued underneath so that it can travel up and down between a and b4 ,on p o n m1 fix a guide of convenient form1 as ,g2 and1 after cementing the piece1 say ,a1 that is to be watered on a board resting on the bench1 place the frame ,c ,c above it and trace the figure of the guide with a pegwood stick charged with polishing material4 ,the same figure can be reproduced in parallel rows as the guide can be moved up or down4 ,by varying the shape and position of the guides1 the water lines can take the form of waves1 festoons1 circles or ovals4 ,in the two latter cases the guide has apertures of the requisite form1 and the board that carries ,a1 not being more than half the size of the aperture1 can be moved about by hand or by a tool4 ,if preferred1 one of the bars1 as e d1 can be graduated and arrangements can be made for clamping the slide by screws in any position4 ,these explanations will suffice to enable any intelligent watchmaker1 after a few trials1 to imitate successfully any of the beautiful watered surfaces that are1 on a manufacturing scale1 produced by machinery4 ,as regards the material to be used1 first mix medium rouge and putty powder in equal proportions4 ,it will be possible to decide from the shade obtained whether more putty powder should be added1 because when there is too much rouge1 the surface does not acquire a good white color4 ,,polishing4 #aha4 ,to polish brass4 ,when it is required that a surface be maintained perfectly flat1 first dress with somewhat coarse water of ,ayr with blue stone and then go over with a softer stone4 ,next work with fine rottenstone and oil on a felt or buffstick for objects of large dimensions and on a piece of pegwood for smaller articles4 ,they are then soaped1 washed and dried in sawdust 7#aea74 ,the work can be accomplished more rapidly1 but without maintaining a perfectly flat surface1 by first employing pumice-stone and oil spread over a large piece of soft wood or felt4 ,it is then cleaned and polished with rottenstone4 ,when the form permits of it1 a tin disc charged with tripoli and rotating in a lathe can be employed4 ,observations4 ,pumice-stone is powdered fine and then sifted4 ,in using rottenstone a piece an inch or two cube is crushed between the fingers into a cup of water1 and this is decanted so as to give several degrees of fineness 7#afh74 ,the polishing can best be effected by using old wood from which the sap has dried up3 ,french chalk has but little action if the polisher with which it is applied is from the animal kingdom1 horn for example1 etc4 #ahb4 ,to polish watch wheels4 ,although the operation of polishing is extremely simple1 it is very important that a certain degree of manual skill be acquired by practice1 as otherwise the work is never of the best4 ,we will here enumerate several methods of procedure1 in order that1 after trial1 each can select the method with which he finds himself most successful4 ,smoothing4 ,the smoothing should be done carefully with very soft water of ,ayr stone1 free from veins and hard grains and perfectly flat4 ,the wheel must then be well cleaned4 ,polishing4 ,in polishing1 rods of walnut or boxwood1 of tin1 bronze or zinc are used4 ,a buffstick and burnisher are also employed4 ,the materials applicable are rottenstone 7with oil or alcohol1 being made very thin in the latter case7 tripoli1 prepared chalk1 polishing rouge1 crocus1 etc4 ,these materials have been sufficiently described in articles #afe-g4 ,workmen sometimes prefer to make mixtures of two or more substances1 but it is more usual to employ them separately4 #ahc4 ,first ,method4 ,after smoothing and cleaning the wheel1 it is polished while resting on a piece of cork1 where it is held between the fingers which cause it to rotate2 the best rottenstone is used and is applied by smooth pieces of boxwood1 about #h inches long1 which are filed to a bevel edge4 ,it is best to have the grain of the wood crosswise and the polishers should be of sufficient thickness to prevent their bending when in use4 ,the rottenstone can be replaced by tripoli and the boxwood by walnut4 ,some wheel polishers prefer a triangular stick of pure tin or zinc which is often planed to ensure perfect flatness2 rouge1 rottenstone or tripoli can be used with it4 ,the wheel1 after being well washed in soap and hot water1 is thoroughly dried and finished with a fine buffstick in good condition1 while it rests on a cork covered with smooth felt2 this operation is with a view to prepare the surface prior to using the burnisher4 ,some polishers1 instead of the dry buffstick1 prefer one charged with a little rouge1 tripoli or rottenstone moistened4 ,but such preparations must be applied very sparingly as they involve a risk of rounding the edges4 ,the burnisher is next rapidly passed over the surface of the wheel1 which rests on cork1 covered with a linen rag1 or on a piece of wood1 covered with smooth paper4 ,some give long backward and forward strokes with the tool2 others give semicircular movements4 ,it will be found sufficient to give short strokes from half an inch to an inch in length4 ,a slight motion of the wrist is all that is required and after a few trials the necessary skill will be attained4 ,we cannot say more4 ,practice must also be relied on for determining the most suitable pressure4 ,the burnisher1 about half an inch wide and four inches long1 is curved in the direction of its length4 ,a straight burnisher might be used1 but it is less safe2 the angle of the burnisher set against the pinion should be rounded off4 ,the burnisher is cleaned and restored by drawing across a large flat piece of walnut charged with rouge of very good quality and very pure4 ,after being washed1 a little white wax is passed over it1 and then it is again rubbed vigorously with a piece of cloth or a buffstick2 finally with a soft linen rag4 ,when a tendency to stick shows itself this operation must be repeated4 #ahd4 ,second process4 ,by this method the surfaces are somewhat rounded off at the edges4 ,but1 although not so pleasing to the eye1 this circumstance involves no inconvenience except that1 when burnishing1 the burnisher would not at once come in contact with the entire surface2 we need not1 however1 employ the burnisher4 ,laying the wheel on a cork1 some workmen smooth the wheel by covering it with oil and fine tripoli and rubbing with a walnut-wood stick4 ,others spread a layer of such a mixture first on the stick and then rub the wheel4 ,when no more lines are observable across the surface of the wheel it is cleaned1 placed on a fresh cork that is covered with a soft linen rag1 and polished with a fresh buff stick 7or one that has already been used for a similar purpose7 and an abundant supply of rouge or even fine rottenstone and oil may be used4 ,the buffstick receives a semicircular movement in all directions in order not to needlessly round the corners1 the edges of the teeth and the crossings4 ,it is then washed in warm water1 bathed in alcohol and dried with a fine linen rag4 #ahe4 ,third process4 ,after smoothing with a very soft stone1 rub it with a piece of the root of boxwood cut across the fibre1 on which is a layer of the following composition3 ,two-thirds rottenstone mixed with one-third castile soap1 worked into a paste with a few drops of water so that1 although not a liquid1 it can be spread out at will4 ,make the wheel move backwards and forwards between the fingers while resting on a smooth1 good cork1 without a linen rag1 and1 as the operation nears its completion1 a semicircular motion should be given to the wood4 ,wash with soap1 boil in alcohol and dry4 ,the wheel can be burnished on a cork without any linen rag and the 7curved7 burnisher should be moved with short circular strokes from the center towards the circumference1 gradually working up towards to the extremity of the burnisher2 the same portion of the burnisher should not pass twice over the wheel 7see also article #aff74 ,for common work1 fairly satisfactory results may be obtained by using ,french chalk and a piece of hard wood4 ,clock wheels are polished with a piece of felt and rottenstone4 ,they are subsequently soaped1 washed and dried in sawdust4 7#aea7 #ahf4 ,to polish lever escape-wheel teeth4 ,the ,lancashire escape-wheel makers employ a triangular frame carrying at its corners1 7#a7 a cutter to slit the teeth1 7#b7 a cutter to shape them1 and 7#c7 a revolving piece of hard leather of a section corresponding to the form of the space4 ,this latter is charged with the finest glossing stuff1 used dry1 and the sides of the teeth of six wheels at a time are polished by revolving the disc in each of the spaces in turn4 ,it is hardly necessary to observe that the operation is completed before the wheels are removed from the cutting engine4 #ahg4 ,to polish sinks or oil-cups4 ,a piece of pegwood1 rounded at the end1 is used for this purpose1 rotating it in a lathe2 the watch plate or cock should be inclined in varying directions to the stick in order to remove scratches4 ,if a very high polish is required it may be given by following with a stick1 the end of which is covered with wash-leather charged with rouge4 ,,to ,,polish ,,steel4 #ahh4 ,the polishing must always be preceded by a very thorough smoothing1 either with oilstone dust1 fine emery1 or coarse rouge4 ,if any lines are left to be erased by means of fine rouge1 the operation becomes tedious and is rarely successful4 ,the oilstone dust is applied on an iron or copper polisher4 ,when it is desired to preserve the angles sharp1 at a shoulder for example1 the polisher should be of steel4 ,when using diamantine an iron polisher1 drawn out and flattened with a hammer1 answers very well4 ,with fine rouge1 a bronze or bell-metal polisher is preferable for shoulders2 and1 for flat surfaces1 discs or large zinc or tin polishers1 although glass is preferable to either of these4 ,after each operation with oilstone dust1 coarse rouge1 etc41 the polisher1 cork1 etc41 must be changed1 and the object should be well cleaned--preferably by soaping2 perfect cleanliness is essential to success4 ,fine rouge or diamantine should be made into a thick paste with oil2 a little is then taken on the polisher or glass and worked until quite dry4 ,as the object is thus not smeared over1 a black polish is more readily obtained1 and the process gets on better if the surface is cleaned from time to time4 #ahi4 ,to get a good black polish4 ,as just pointed out1 this is mainly secured by using very little polishing material at once1 in a very little liquid on either1 the polisher or glass plate and drying up quickly4 ,if the surface does not prove satisfactory at first1 it will often be found that a final rapid and light application of dry diamantine or rouge on a piece of glass or pith will produce a brilliant black polish4 ,if operating on an axis or staff1 polish as well as possible1 first erasing the marks of the graver or file1 and then1 hold the ferrule between the fingers1 rotate it with one hand and with the other rub the axis lengthwise with a pegwood stick charged with rouge or diamantine4 ,a rod will show a black polish if it be rubbed lengthwise with emery paper of gradually increasing fineness1 oil being applied with the finest quality4 ,to polish flat surfaces4 ,place the object on a sound piece of cork covered with a clean rag and rub with1 a long strip of ground glass4 ,to polish a square shoulder4 ,fix a rod in place of the ,t-rest of the turns1 and set it in such a position that the polisher rests on this vertical rod when lying flat against the shoulder4 ,another and better method consists in cementing or otherwise fixing in the plane of the shoulder a brass disc of such dimensions that the polisher is constrained to remain flat4 ,observations4 ,the corner of the polisher that is used for polishing a shoulder should be neither right-angled nor too acute4 ,in the first case it would round off the shoulder1 and in the second it would become soon distorted and leave dull radial marks on the surface4 ,diamantine should not be used for polishing the acting surfaces of pivots1 the pallets of escapements1 etc41 since this material1 as well as emery1 is liable to leave particles embedded in the steel which occasion rapid wear4 ,,cement1 ,,wax1 ,,resin1 ,,etc4 #aij4 ,the principal uses to which the watchmaker applies cement is for fixing objects in the lathe1 pallet-stones in position1 as well as locking and unlocking pallets1 ruby-pins1 etc4 ,the selection of a cement or wax is not a matter of indifference2 fine sealing-wax causes objects to adhere firmly together1 but many of the best workmen prefer refined shellac4 ,certain kinds of wax are too dry1 the consequence being that a false stroke of the graver will often detach the piece2 others are thick and soft1 and are apt to heat rapidly under the action of the burnisher or polisher1 so that the object is displaced4 ,it is only by making a series of trials that the efficiency of the material can be ascertained4 ,some workers claim that a mixture of sealing-wax and shellac gives good results4 #aia4 ,mode of applying cements4 ,when employing wax1 resin1 cement1 etc41 for uniting two objects1 it is important to note that the mode in which it is applied has an important influence on its efficiency4 ,the following observations on this point are due to ,m4 ,sibon1 and the reader will be able to select those portions that have reference to his work4 ,when two objects are united by a cement1 this will lose much of its value if unskillfully applied1 and1 in order to use it to the best advantage1 the following practical rules should be observed4 #a4 ,the surfaces to be united must be quite clean4 #b4 ,the less cement1 wax1 etc41 that is interposed between them1 the better they will adhere4 ,this is owing to the fact that with a thick layer the object has1 at the junction1 no more rigidity than that of the cement itself2 as a rule this more fragile than the material it is employed to unite4 #c4 ,there should be perfect contact between the cement and the surfaces4 ,with a view to securing this1 the object must be first heated to a point such that the wax or cement cannot solidify without having first had time to effect a perfect union4 ,this remark is especially applicable when using sealing-wax1 mixtures of resin1 shellac1 and similar materials4 ,they will not adhere firmly unless the surfaces have been heated very nearly to the point of fusion of the cement4 ,the sealing of letters offers an example in proof of this assertion4 ,when the seal has been used several times in succession or been left too long on the wax so as to become hot1 it will adhere and cause some inconvenience if further employed4 ,with hot melted glue1 adhesion is best secured by friction or a moderate pressure4 ,sealing-wax is excellent for uniting metal to glass or stone1 providing they are sufficiently heated to melt it2 for1 if applied to cool surfaces1 it will not adhere at all4 ,by heating two pieces of glass or stoneware sufficiently to melt shellac1 a small quantity will suffice to make them adhere firmly together2 notwithstanding that every one has seen such joints1 very few succeed in making them1 for the simple reason that they do not recognize the necessity of heating a delicate piece of glass or china to the point which is essential for securing a good result4 ,in conclusion1 the principal obstacles to adhesion are air and dirt4 ,the first is always present2 the second is due to accident or carelessness4 ,all surfaces are covered with a thin layer of air that is very difficult to remove2 its influence prevents highly polished metal from being moistened when immersed in water4 ,so long as this layer of air is not displaced1 the cement cannot adhere to the surface to which it is applied1 because it cannot come into direct contact4 ,the most effective agent for displacing this air is heat4 ,metals heated to about #ge ,c4 7#agj ,f47 are immediately moistened on being plunged into water1 hence it follows that1 as regards cements that are applied in a fused state1 heat is the best means of bringing them into intimate contact with the surface4 ,we would add that1 in addition to possessing this advantage1 the application of heat also renders the surfaces more penetrable to the layer of cement1 after the manner of soldering1 and makes the interlocking of the molecules more perfect2 this explains the greater degree of tenacity of a well made joint with only a thin layer of cement4 #aib4 ,to set in wax in the lathe4 ,trace a series of concentric circles on the face of the chuck with a graver point1 after turning it true3 this will increase the adhesion of the cement4 ,then the flame of the spirit lamp is held under the rotating chuck and1 when this is hot enough1 its surface is covered with a layer of shellac or sealing-wax1 and the object is held against it4 ,holding it in position with a piece of pegwood supported on the ,t-rest1 the lamp is removed and the lathe kept rotating until the cement sets4 ,the cooling can be hastened by applying a small moist sponge1 but it should not set too suddenly4 ,if the object requires to be very exactly centered1 its position must be insured while the cement is still soft by means of a long pegwood stick in its central hole4 ,this stick is held in position until the cement sets1 steadying it between two fingers close up to the chuck4 ,the slightest eccentricity will be indicated by a motion of the free end of the stick4 ,if the object is round1 and has no central hole1 it must be centered by its circumference1 holding the pegwood in front1 or resting against a corner of a circular elevation or depression1 as1 for example1 the collet of a wheel1 or of a cylinder riveted to its balance1 etc4 ,the beginner should make a number of trials2 they will enable him both to acquire lightness of touch1 and to recognize the proper degree of softness of the cement for centering1 as well as its tenacity4 ,when it is essential that the two faces of the object be strictly parallel1 a precaution is necessary2 this consists in leaving on the face of the chuck a slightly projecting circular rim with a fine smooth edge1 and of a diameter rather less than that of the object4 ,by moving this latter backwards and forwards after applying it to the wax1 and pressing it into close contact while cooling1 the requisite parallelism will be secured4 #aic4 ,to fix a pallet-stone1 etc41 in position4 ,to fix a pallet-stone or an end-stone by means of shellac it is usual to place a small piece of the latter round the stone when in position and apply heat4 ,but very often the lac spreads unevenly or swells up2 and this1 in addition to being unsightly1 is apt to displace the stone4 ,the inconvenience can be avoided as follows3 ,the pallets are held in long sliding tongs1 and1 taking a piece of shellac1 heat it and roll it into a cylinder between the fingers2 again heat the extremity and draw it out into a fine thread4 ,this thread will break off1 leaving a point at the end of the lac4 ,now heat the tongs at a little distance from the pallets1 testing the degree of heat by touching the tongs with the shellac4 ,when it melts easily1 lightly touch the two sides of the notch with it2 a very thin layer can thus be spread over them1 and the pallet-stone can then be placed in position and held until cold enough4 ,the tongs will not lose the heat suddenly1 so that the stone can easily be raised or lowered as required4 ,the projecting particles of cement can be removed by a brass wire1 filed to an angle and forming a scraper4 ,to fix an end-stone1 the cap must be held by its edge in the sliding tongs1 and shellac carefully applied around the edge of the hollow4 ,it is advisable to hold the cap in a small tool formed of two parallel blades1 as when reversed so as to press the stone on a flat surface1 the shellac will spread over the end-stone1 from which it will be removed with difficulty4 ,,enamel4 #aid4 ,this name is applied to an opaque glass1 with which various metallic compounds1 such as oxide of tin1 phosphate of lime1 borax1 etc41 have been incorporated by fusion4 ,the color1 of course1 varies with the substance so added4 ,willis recommends the following as a good white enamel for dials3 silver sand1 #ad parts2 borax1 #aj parts2 red lead1 #ah parts2 niter1 #b parts2 oxide of tin1 #ab parts2 flint glass1 four parts2 and binoxide of manganese1 #a-ejth of a part4 ,but a good deal of care is requisite1 both in selecting the materials and preparing the enamel1 in order to insure a pure color of any desired shade2 it is1 therefore1 often desirable to purchase the enamel ready prepared4 ,in applying enamel1 regard must be had to the relative dilatation of the metal to which it is applied1 the two being so combined as to expand and contract together2 otherwise there is danger of the enamel cracking1 either at once or shortly after it has set4 ,enamel may be applied to gold or copper4 ,associated with the latter1 it forms the ordinary dials of watches and timepieces1 and1 with the former1 it serves for making enameled gold dials or cases4 ,the gold should be of #bb carat1 the #b carats of alloy consisting of equal parts of silver and copper4 ,if the gold is of a higher standard1 it will not adhere so well1 and1 if lower1 there will be a further danger of melting the metal before the enamel is fused4 ,silver is apt to cockle on the application of heat1 and enamel applied to it presents a bubbly appearance4 #aie4 ,application of enamel in the cold4 ,we are indebted for the following particulars to ,m4 ,fournier1 of ,dieppe1 a well-known enamel maker3 ,there are two kinds of false enamel for application1 when cold1 to damaged dials4 ,the first1 a mixture of white resin and white lead1 melts like sealing-wax1 which it closely resembles4 ,it is advisable1 when about to apply it1 to gently heat the dial and the blade of a knife1 and1 with this1 to cut a piece of enamel of the requisite size and lay it on the dial4 ,the new enamel must project somewhat above the old4 ,when cold1 the surface is levelled by scraping1 and a shining surface is at once produced by holding at a little distance from the flame of a spirit lamp4 ,it is necessary to be very careful in conducting this operation1 as the least excess of heat will burn the enamel and turn it yellow2 it is1 however1 preferable to the following1 although more difficult to apply1 as it is harder and does not become dirty so soon4 ,the second false enamel contains white lead mixed with melted white wax4 ,it is applied like a cement1 neatly filling up the space1 and afterwards rubbing with tissue paper to produce a shining surface2 if rubbed with a knife blade or other steel implement its surface will be discolored4 ,,precious ,,stones4 #aif4 ,the principal precious stones used in watches1 chronometers and regulator clocks1 in their order of hardness1 are3 diamond1 ruby1 sapphire1 chrysolite4 ,a watchmaker1 although he may not have had any previous experience of jewels1 can easily ascertain their relative hardness by rubbing one against the other4 ,the softer will be scratched by those that are harder1 and the stone that can be marked by a file may be thrown aside as useless4 #aig4 ,diamond4 ,we shall make a very brief reference to this stone1 as it is not used except for the end-stones for balances for chronometers and high-class watches4 ,splinters of diamond are employed for drilling materials of a less degree of hardness1 and fragments fixed at the end of a rod are used for turning very hard steel2 diamond dust is the principal material used for working precious stones1 polishing1 etc4 7see articles #afe and #afi74 #aih4 ,ruby4 ,this jewel1 of a rich1 velvetty1 red color1 exists in three principal varieties3 oriental1 spinel and balas rubies1 which differ as regards their chemical composition4 ,from a jeweler's point of view1 the value of a ruby is enhanced by its rich color and transparency2 but this is not the case in regard to its application in horology1 for which hardness and capability of taking a high polish are mainly necessary4 ,the specific gravity of the three varieties is3 oriental1 #d4b2 spinel1 #c4g2 balas1 #c4f4 ,the first of these is the best1 since it is the hardest1 both taking a better polish in the first instance and retaining it for a longer period4 ,in comparison with the other varieties1 its specific gravity is greater and it possesses a brighter color1 but will often be found to be less transparent4 ,spinel and balas rubies are frequently met with that are very beautiful to the eye1 but their hardness is inferior to that of the sapphire and even of the chrysolite4 ,they must be carefully excluded from all good work1 for1 either in consequence of the inferior hardness or the mode in which the oxide of iron1 magnesia1 etc41 is combined1 or of other causes1 oil rapidly deteriorates in contact with them1 and the moving parts1 especially if they are of steel1 soon show signs of wear4 ,the rubies themselves also suffer1 and it is by no means uncommon1 especially in the case of the duplex escapement1 to meet with such jewels quite rough and even pitted on their acting surfaces4 #aii4 ,false ruby4 ,in a certain class of watches1 a variety of stones pass for rubies that are known to jewelers as rubicelle1 rubace1 rock ruby1 ,brazil1 ,siberian or ,bohemian ruby1 rose ruby1 etc41 the hardness of which is even less than that of rock crystal4 ,pivot-holes made of these imitations of the real ruby are worth less than plain brass settings4 #bjj4 ,sapphire4 ,the color of this stone1 sometimes even milky1 passes through all the shades of blue4 ,like the ruby1 there are several varieties that differ appreciably in regard to hardness4 ,the hardness of oriental sapphire is equal to that of oriental ruby2 both consist of nearly pure alumina1 colored by a little oxide of iron2 their chemical composition thus being the same1 they only differ in regard to color4 ,it is1 then1 a great mistake on the part of watchmakers to prefer spinel or balas rubies in place of oriental sapphires4 ,the sapphire is more brittle than the ruby4 ,the other kinds of sapphire1 such as water sapphires1 are not true sapphires2 they are soft and should never be used in horology4 ,the density of the oriental sapphire is about #d4ja1 whereas that of other kinds is only #b4eh4 #bja4 ,chrysolite4 ,under this name lapidaries include a variety of stones of yellow-green1 apple-green with shades of yellow1 and other colors4 ,that known as oriental chrysolite1 which is the same as the oriental topaz1 has a beautiful pale yellow color with shades of apple-green2 it is the most highly esteemed4 ,this stone has a sufficiently high degree of hardness for use in watchmaking1 as it will scratch rock crystal4 ,its density varies from #c4gc to #c4jj4 ,the other varieties1 ordinary chrysolites1 come very low in the scale of hardness4 ,they can be scratched by quartz1 rock crystal and even by the file1 and are thus of no use for watches4 #bjb4 ,agate1 ,carnelian1 ,topaz4 ,only the varieties of the stones already considered that are termed oriental can be used for the pivot-holes or the pallets of astronomical regulators1 but for the escapements of the ordinary timepieces of commerce1 such1 for example1 as the pallets of ,brocot escapements1 the topaz1 agate or carnelian may be used4 ,when of the hardest kind1 and capable of receiving a high polish1 they will very efficiently resist the friction of brass teeth4 ,as to the softer kinds1 they are inferior to hardened polished steel for pallets4 ,,working ,,in ,,precious ,,stones4 #bjc4 ,the methods adopted for working in the precious stones are in great parts kept secret by those who practise them2 it is1 however1 well known to watchmakers that jewels are usually worked and polished with powdered diamond1 and the following details will afford all the information necessary to enable the reader to make a jewel of any required form4 ,where not otherwise stated1 the information is taken from a work published by ,n4 ,dumontier4#e #bjd4 ,tools for working jewels4 ,these are all of simple construction1 and can be made by any watchmaker if1 indeed1 he has not them already to hand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 7#a47 ,a small lathe arranged to receive chucks1 fixed to the bench or in a vise1 and driven by a foot-wheel4 ,its form resembles that shown in fig4 #dg4 7#b47 ,two circular laps of copper and one of tin about #b inches in diameter and th inch thick2 these present a flat face for grinding1 smoothing and polishing the stones1 and are adapted to the nose of the lathe4 7#c47 ,a small barrel 7that also screws into the nose of the lathe7 with six brass covers1 perforated at the center1 on which to cement the jewel-holes1 when enlarging1 smoothing and polishing their holes4 7#d47 ,a flat steel circular cutter half an inch in diameter1 for slitting stones4 ,also two similar discs1 one of copper and the other of tin1 of the same size1 and having sharp edges1 are occasionally useful4 7#e47 ,two small laps1 one of copper and one of tin1 to smooth and polish cylindrical stones4 ,these laps are mounted in place of the ,t-rest1 or in the slide-rest1 in such a manner that they can be rotated in a horizontal plane by a bow1 in a manner sufficiently indicated by fig4 #dh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 7#f47 ,two chucks adapted to the lathe1 on which to cement the jewels for drilling1 turning and polishing4 7#g47 ,a number of small broaches1 spindles with concave and convex ends1 etc41 for smoothing and polishing jewel-holes1 convex and concave surfaces4 ,there may also be added a small steel plug mortar for powdering the diamond 7#afi71 and a flat steel plate with a block for working up the powder4 #bje4 ,selection of ,stones4 ,this is of the first importance4 ,by the aid of a powerful lens1 or a microscope1 ascertain that they contain no cracks1 air cavities or black specks2 avoid stones that are milky1 preferring such as are marbled1 and in which the directions of crystalization seem to cross one another1 as they are the hardest4 ,the hardness may be tested by trying them one against the other 7#abb71 but an experienced workman needs only to note the amount of resistance it offers to the operation of cutting on the lap4 ,the density also affords a valuable means of determining the nature of stones4 7,see above notes on the several kinds47 #bjf4 ,to find the axis of crystallization of a stone4 ,it is well known that jewels differ from glass1 in that they form crystals of certain definite forms2 they are therefore termed 8crystalline10 whereas glass is 8vitreous40 ,if a jewel-hole is drilled in any direction other than the axis round which the crystal may be assumed to have been formed1 there will be difficulty experienced in the drilling and polishing2 the edges of the hole will become rough during the act of rounding them off1 and the hardness will appear to be irregular4 ,this point seems1 however1 to be ignored by the majority of jewel-hole makers1 although the determination of the most suitable direction presents no difficulty4 ,obtain1 from any optician1 two tourmaline plates cut parallel to their axis of crystallization and with their faces polished4 ,mount them in a light frame1 parallel to each other1 so that each can rotate independently of the other round the axis through their centers2 it is convenient if a light spring tends to bring the plates together so that a stone can be held when placed between them4 ,or such an arrangement can be bought ready made at most opticians3 it is known as a tourmaline polariscope4 ,if this instrument be held up between the eye and a light1 and one plate be rotated while the other remains stationary1 it will be seen that the light becomes gradually greater or less according to the direction of rotation2 and further1 if the plates be good ones1 a point will exist at which there is nearly total darkness4 ,to examine a stone1 cut and polish on it two parallel faces approximately at right angles to the axis of crystallization2 this can generally be roughly guessed at by inspection4 ,place it between the plates 7when set at their darkest position71 and not only will the light be in part restored but beautiful colored rings will be formed4 ,if they are circular1 the faces of the stone are at right angles to its axis2 if not1 incline it till the rings become so1 and the axis will then coincide with that of the instrument4 ,in case the rings are not observed at all1 the stone must again be cut at right angles to the original direction1 and the experiment repeated4 ,if they still do not appear1 the stone is unsuitable for drilling1 but may be used for pallets1 locking-stones1 ruby-pins1 etc4 ,the stones to be examined in this manner must be larger than those commonly met with1 and if cylindrical rubies can be obtained they are to be preferred1 as it is then only necessary to slice them across their axis4 ,it should perhaps be observed that these precautions can only be taken in making jewel-holes for the higher class of clocks1 chronometers and watches4 ,the cheaper class must of necessity be cut in such a manner as their figure may suggest4 #bjg4 ,making jewel-holes4 ,having selected #bj or #cj stones of about the same height1 cement them to a smooth brass or copper-plate1 heated to melt the cement4 ,hold this plate in contact with a revolving copper lap in which the coarser quality of diamond powder 7#afi7 has been embedded by means of a hard steel block2 the lap is moistened with water4 ,when one side of the stones is true1 soften the cement and1 after washing1 place them in a vessel containing spirits of wine heated by a lamp4 ,after doing the same to the plate1 again cement the stones to it with the trued sides downwards1 and grind the other faces until the desired thickness is arrived at4 ,clean the stones and smooth them on the brass lap charged in a similar manner with a finer quality of powder4 ,the stones are now ready for drilling4 ,this may be done with diamond powder1 or with the diamond drill1 both of which methods will be explained4 #bjh4 ,to drill with powder4 ,in drilling with powder1 the stone is fixed with sealing-wax or shellac on a carrier that is adapted to the tool-holder of the slide-rest1 this carrier being provided with a vertical slide1 so that by the screws in three directions the stone can be accurately centered2 it is1 moreover1 so arranged that the stone can be advanced to or from the drill by pressing with the finger axially4 ,drill a small hole in the center of the chuck and1 after fixing a piece of steel in it that has been hardened and tempered to a greyish color1 turn a point on it about twice the length of a pivot1 to serve as a drill4 ,this point must be slightly thinned backwards to prevent it from choking in the hole and its end should be flat1 so as to retain the powder4 ,when the stone is exactly centered1 place ,no4 #b diamond powder on the end of the drill1 and press the stone gently against it1 constantly releasing it from the drill for an instant at a time4 ,the hole will be perforated in from #h to #ae minutes1 according to its depth1 during which interval the powder should be renewed two or three times4 ,remove the stone and fix it on the barrel-chuck cover so as to turn true in the lathe2 then turn out the oil-cup with a diamond graver of suitable form4 ,see again that the stone is central1 and re-center it if this be found necessary4 ,this is done with the smooth conical end of a soft round broach1 or a pegwood1 a lamp being held under the chuck at the same time4 #bji4 ,to use the diamond drill4 ,having centered the stone on the chuck1 as explained in the preceding paragraph1 set it in rotation and bring a sharp-pointed diamond graver against its center1 pressing lightly and resting the handle on the ,t-rest2 a minute central mark is thus made in the stone for maintaining the drill axial4 ,selecting a diamond drill of convenient diameter1 moisten it in the mouth and present it to the mark1 applying a gentle pressure1 the amount of which can only be ascertained by practice4 ,it is to be observed that a number of stones should1 if possible1 be drilled at the same time1 for the hand is apt to lose the requisite knack1 if only one or two are perforated at a time4 #baj4 ,smoothing and ,polishing4 ,when the hole is made through1 remove the stone and invert it on the chuck4 ,the diameter being less than that ultimately required1 pass a brass broach charged with ,no4 #c powder through the hole1 giving it a gentle axial motion while the stone revolves1 and taking care to avoid pushing it so far forward as to lock in the stone1 and holding it very lightly between finger and thumb4 ,when sufficiently smooth1 clean with rotten wood or soft bread1 and treat it in a similar manner with a copper broach and ,no4 #d powder4 ,then again clean and use a tin broach and powder ,no4 #e4 ,next1 taking a small bone cone1 smooth the angles of the holes2 then use a copper wire with rounded end for smoothing the oil-cup 7with powder ,no4 #c72 follow as explained for the hole with the finer degrees4 ,using a finely pointed pegwood that passes through the hole1 marry or round off the internal angle between the hole and oil-cup 7the powder that remains in the hole being sufficient for this purpose7 and do the same to the outer circumference of the cup with a copper spindle of somewhat larger diameter4 ,round off external angles with a diamond graver followed by a copper polisher1 the end of which is cup-shaped4 ,the flat face of the stone is polished with a small copper disc and ,no4 #d powder1 pressing it lightly with the finger at the same time that a circular movement is given to it2 finish with ,no4 #e powder4 ,or the stone may be detached and the flat face polished by working on a ground glass plate1 a pegwood point being passed into the hole to form a handle4 ,re-set the stone1 inverting it1 on the chuck1 centering it4 ,the other side is then polished in the same manner1 using such tools as its form may require4 ,having thus completed the stone1 examine it carefully with a powerful glass to ascertain that the hole is highly polished and the angles rounded off1 etc4 ,it is then ready for setting4 #baa4 ,setting ,jewel-holes4 ,whether it be a plate1 cock or bushing in which the stone is to be set1 the piece must always be cemented to a chuck and the hole accurately centered4 ,turn it out to a depth corresponding to the thickness of stone1 and make a circular groove round the hole thus made with a round-pointed graver1 only leaving a very thin fillet of metal on the inside4 ,the stone should fit easily in the hole1 but without play1 and should pass in to such a depth that its surface is slightly below that of the plate1 etc41 when there is an end-stone2 in other cases it must1 of course1 often depend on the end-shake to be obtained4 ,at the same time it appears desirable that it always should be slightly below4 ,clean out the setting and place a small quantity of oil in it to prevent the stone from flying out when made to rotate2 or it may be rendered still more safe by a pointed pegwood held in the hand4 ,the stone is fixed in position with a small conical burnisher 7as1 for example1 the point of a round broach7 very carefully polished1 so as to avoid all abrading action2 if an excess of metal is forced over the surface of the stone1 it is removed with a graver4 ,the surface of the brass is finally smoothed with pith or pegwood1 and tripoli in oil1 followed with polishing rouge in spirits of wine4 ,english jewel-setters often do not turn the groove1 but leave a projecting edge round the hole1 which is pressed on to the stone with a burnisher4 #bab4 ,to ,make ,end-stones4 ,the details already given will enable any intelligent workman to make end-stones4 ,if one of diamond in a brass or steel setting is required1 take a small rose-cut stone1 turn out a hole in the chuck to receive it1 and1 after cementing in position1 turn off the corners with a diamond graver so as to be able to set it4 ,for making end-stones of ruby1 sapphire or chrysolite1 flatten a face1 using the laps ,nos4 #a1 #b1 and #c in succession1 or a plate of ground glass4 ,then cement with the flat face towards the chuck1 and turn to the requisite form with a diamond graver4 ,polish with the cup-ended brass and copper spindles1 and set1 if requisite1 in the same manner as a jewel-hole4 #bac4 ,to make pallets1 unlocking pallets1 etc4 ,this may be done on the lap1 or by using files of soft steel1 copper and tin4 ,in the first case the stones are roughed out while held by the hand1 and the required form is given them while holding them in a small carrier that fits into the ,t-rest support1 but the forms of such stones are so various that no special details can be here given4 ,the diamond powder of different degrees of fineness is used1 as in making jewel-holes4 #bad4 ,to make semi-cylindrical locking stones1 ruby-pins1 etc4 ,the stone must first be made approximately cylindrical on the lap ,no4 #a1 so that it may be turned with the diamond graver4 ,drill a hole in the chuck1 cement the stone in it and turn it in this manner4 ,when true and of the requisite length and diameter1 round off the outer end and smooth with a cup-ended spindle1 then polish with powders #c and #d successively4 ,round off the sharp corner with a cup of rather greater curvature4 ,the cylindrical surface is polished by means of a small lap carried on a vertical spindle in a frame fixed in the ,t-rest support1 and caused to rotate rapidly with a bow1 the lathe-head also revolving at the same time 7#agi74 ,the lap-carriage should have a vertical screw adjustment so that it may be brought just into contact with the stone2 it is supplied with the several degrees of powder in turn4 ,now drill a hole in another chuck of the diameter of this cylinder1 fix it in position and finish off the opposite end4 ,to form the flat face along the axis of the stone it is cemented to a support in place of the ,t-rest and brought against the revolving lap in the lathe2 or the same result may be attained by using a brass file4 #bae4 ,to make a duplex roller4 ,at the present day this operation so rarely has to be done that only a few words can be devoted to its consideration4 ,very pure rubies must be selected1 and the hole drilled as explained in #bji2 if the drill is too short it must be introduced at opposite ends1 and the two holes made to meet4 ,after smoothing the surface1 the notch is cut with the thin steel cutter referred to in article #bjd1 the roller being cemented to a support that replaces the ,t-rest4 ,when the steel disc charged with powder ,no4 #d is revolving very rapidly1 advance the roller under it by a screw4 ,the notch is polished by a small copper file of suitable form1 and its corners rounded off by a tin one of square section1 one edge of which enters the notch4 #baf4 ,to mount diamond drills and gravers4 ,drill a hole or file a notch in the end of a piece of brass wire to correspond with the fragment of diamond2 heat the end in a spirit lamp and lay on it a piece of good sealing-wax or shellac4 ,when this commences to melt1 set the diamond in position and leave the whole to cool4 ,diamond drills are very commonly mounted at the end of a pin that has had its point filed off2 mark a point on the end with a graver and drill the hole1 which should be very shallow4 ,holding the pin in a pin-vise with its point projecting about #a-ajth inch1 heat the vise in a lamp1 and proceed as above explained4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,the theoretical density of an alloy1 on the assumption that in alloying the metals do not contract or expand1 is obtained by dividing the percentage proportion of each constituent metal by its density1 adding the products so obtained together1 and dividing their sum into #ajj4 #e ,l'art de travailler les ,pierres precieuses a l'usage de l',horlogerie et de l',optique4 ,paris4 #ahdc4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,health ,,and ,,manipulation4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,health4 #bag4 ,some of the following directions may perhaps be considered to be over-minute and too restrictive2 but they are not so4 ,good habits contracted in youth are easily maintained1 and1 when the watchmaker has tried them long enough to convince him of their influence on his health1 he will experience no difficulty in keeping them up4 ,,the ,,sight4 #bah4 ,when working at any small mechanism1 such as a watch1 it is necessary to use the glass1 but this practice is apt to produce inflammation of the conjunctiva or cornea and a weakening of the eyesight2 a too frequent and prolonged use of the glass will have the same effect as using spectacles that are too strong4 ,in order to preserve his eyesight1 the watchmaker should take the following precautions3 ,he should not retain the glass at his eye by a contraction of the muscles for more than a brief interval of time4 ,the glass holder1 which can be at once set in any desired position1 has therefore much to recommend it4 ,drill a few holes in the frame of the glass to avoid or at least diminish the inconvenience that arises from the heating of the enclosed air1 as well as from the deposition of moisture on the surface of the glass4 ,do not use glasses of too great magnifying power2 they needlessly fatigue the eye4 ,only use glasses that are truly achromatic4 ,if compelled to use the ordinary simple glass1 place a ring of dead black paper inside the frame and against the lens1 which1 by diminishing the field of view1 will reduce the inconvenience due to spherical aberration4 ,it is hardly necessary to advocate the use of a green cardboard shade to the lamp1 as they are so generally used by watchmakers4 ,it should be so arranged as to protect the head and eyes from radiation1 and cardboard is preferable to metal as it radiates less heat4 ,working at night and by artificial light1 more especially by the dazzling light of gas1 fatigues the eyes much more than with ordinary daylight1 and the workman will find it a relief1 if obliged to work by artificial light on very minute objects1 to rest his eyes frequently on large stationary bodies4 ,if he can do so1 it is a great comfort to bathe the eyes in cold water4 ,it is good practice to habituate oneself to the use of either eye with the glass4 ,by adopting these simple precautions1 how many of our fellow-workers who are now only able to see objects indistinctly and suffer from incipient blindness would have preserved their sight uninjured4 ,and there is yet another precaution that has been pointed out by ,dr4 ,haltenhoff1 of ,geneva4 ,he has shown that by avoiding an excessive indulgence in alcoholic drinks or tobacco1 many old watchmakers in that town have succeeded in preserving their sight unimpaired1 and it is impossible to doubt the truth or over-estimate the importance of this fact4 ,the same authority draws attention to the necessity of taking care that1 before adopting watchmaking as a trade1 youths should ascertain that they do not suffer from progressive nearsightedness1 which is often hereditary1 as in such a case they would most certainly be compelled to abandon it in after life4 ,boys should not be set to work on such small objects as the details of a watch too early in life1 before the membranes of the eye have assumed a certain degree of rigidity4 ,mr4 ,brudenell ,carter1 a well-known ophthalmist1 is of opinion that the habitual use of the glass by watchmakers has the effect of actually developing and preserving the power of the eye4 ,,the ,,body ,,in ,,general4 #bai4 ,it is often found that an old1 or even middle-aged watchmaker is irritable1 often tired and soured4 ,this arises1 not so often from an over-excited uneasiness in regard to his trade1 an explanation that is usually urged1 as from a derangement of his digestive organs brought about by the habit of life he is compelled to adopt4 ,prolonged working at minute horological mechanism is perhaps more wearying to the mind and body than any other trade or occupation4 ,to avoid its ill effects the watchmaker should adopt the following precautions as far as possible3 ,do not use a stool with a stuffed seat1 but prefer one of cane or wood4 ,take care that the relative heights of the board and stool are such that an excessive compression of the muscles of the chest1 etc41 is avoided during any long operation that renders it necessary to maintain the body in a constrained position4 ,a stool with adjusting screw similar to a music stool is convenient from this point of view4 ,change the position as much and as often as possible1 especially when working with the file or graver4 ,with this object in view many workmen have a second board of such a height that they can work standing4 ,when using the lamp let it always be provided with a cardboard shade as already recommended4 ,a screen to protect the head from the direct heat of the flame is often found advantageous2 in fact1 the watchmaker should adopt the advice of ,boerhaave3 8,keep the head cool and the feet warm40 ,let him always remember that nothing does more harm than sitting to the bench immediately after a meal4 ,he should allow an interval of half an hour to elapse and with some temperaments1 even this is not enough2 during this period he should only do work at which it is possible to stand4 ,a little exercise1 such as a walk that is not hurried1 will be still better2 it will stimulate the circulation and stretch the muscles that have been maintained in a constrained position for a long time through the prolonged attention and slight motion that his labors involve4 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,file ,,and ,,graver4 #bbj4 ,the first operations that a watchmaker ought to learn are to file flat and square1 to turn round1 to forge1 to hammer-harden a piece of metal without deteriorating it4 ,these accomplishments are but too much neglected in the modern training of an apprentice1 an omission that is partly owing to the want of good instructors and partly to the shortness of the time he can afford to devote to learning his trade4 ,,to ,,file ,,flat ,,and ,,square ,,with ,,both ,,hands ,,at ,,once4 #bba4 ,it is a very common practice to place an old file in the hands of an apprentice1 to fix in the jaws of a vise a piece of metal1 either brass1 iron or steel1 and to set him to work rubbing and filing the surfaces with great labor1 the only result being that they are utterly mis-shapen and covered with brilliant spots4 ,this method is bad4 ,the action of the file is mechanical and the problem that has to be solved is the following3 ,to produce good work in the shortest possible time1 and with the least expenditure of force4 ,it is therefore only by very slow degrees that an apprentice can hope to acquire the requisite ability1 if he is set to work trying to shape an object in some hard metal before he knows how to maintain lines straight and surfaces flat4 ,not knowing how to proportion his effort to the resistance to be overcome1 and allowing the file to travel irregularly over the surface1 he gets confirmed in the tendency to give a rocking motion to the file1 whereby the surface is left round1 and he will find it all the more difficult to throw this habit aside4 ,it is far better to let him commence on round pieces of common wood1 filing with a rasp or coarse-cut file1 without removing too much at once4 ,by this means he may rely on learning to file flat and square by the eye alone without the aid of a straight-edge4 ,when he works well in common wood1 he can be set to file harder woods1 box for an example1 roughing with a rasp and finishing with a new bastard file4 ,he should not be allowed to have hard wood until able to file a surface so well that1 on placing a metal rule across it in any direction1 it is found to be flat4 #bbb4 ,let him then advance to brass1 which1 if cast1 should be previously dipped in acid to remove the hard surface1 as this should not be filed off4 ,the resistance it offers would cause a jerky motion of the file that would be apt to disturb the slight amount of decision the hand has already acquired4 ,as brass opposes a considerable resistance1 the pupil should be carefully watched with a view to preventing too rapid movement and an excessive pressure1 involving waste of power1 while he fancies the work is being proportionately advanced2 the manner in which the file is applied to the surface should also be observed1 taking care that little or no pressure is applied during the backward stroke4 ,the teacher should both explain and demonstrate that the main secret of success consists in a perfect equilibrium between the actions of the two hands2 one should increase as the other decreases with the horizontal motion of the file1 since the two levers in use1 namely the portions on either side of the point of contact1 are continually the one increasing and the other decreasing4 ,by filing steadily and attentively1 the hands will gradually acquire the requisite sensitiveness1 or tact1 that enables each to adjust the pressure in proportion to the other1 as well as the knack that enables them to maintain the surface flat4 ,it is important to avoid short and jerky movements4 ,practical instruction from a competent teacher must be relied on to complete the directions here given2 no written instructions can replace it4 ,it is advisable to use new1 or nearly new files in the above lessons2 the wear will have brought them into good condition for working iron or steel4 ,proceed with these metals as already explained in regard to brass1 and special attention must still be given in order to prevent hurry on the part of the pupil4 ,the files remove less metal at a time and a greater pressure is necessary1 so that he does not make such rapid progress as with brass1 and this gives rise to a tendency either to use new files1 which are soon spoilt1 or to give the stroke too suddenly1 while applying considerable pressure1 especially during the return stroke4 ,he thus heats his file1 breaks off the crests of the teeth1 which become embedded in the metal and do much to further damage the file4 ,moreover1 he will lose some of the sensitiveness of touch that his hand has already acquired4 #bbc4 ,it would perhaps be well to subdivide the day into three parts for as long as appears necessary2 the first to be devoted to filing1 the second to turning1 and the third to forging and cold hammering4 ,by this means he will be quicker in acquiring the requisite skill of hand and eye1 and1 when he has attained to this ability1 it will be time to practice himself in the management of various tools4 ,feeling certain of himself he will soon become quick in his work4 ,it is prejudicial to the true instruction of a pupil and a false economy of both time and money1 to let him commence either a clock or watch before arriving at this point4 ,he will experience difficulty in making even the simplest pieces1 which1 besides being very badly made1 will take up a long time2 he will keep forgetting as he goes on1 because1 owing to the slowness with which he works1 the construction of a machine occupies months1 or even years1 whereas it would only have occupied a few weeks1 or months1 if he had possessed sufficient manual skill to enable him to handle properly the file and graver4 ,we insist specially on the need of this preliminary training of the young horologist1 because1 with very rare exceptions1 if a pupil is set to delicate details before he is master of his tools1 he works with a want of decision1 and1 therefore1 with difficulty4 ,he will1 as a rule1 make a workman of but moderate ability1 and will soon become disgusted with his trade1 from the mere fact that he cannot work with ease and rapidity4 ,time is an element of success2 hence gratuitous apprenticeships for short terms1 that become a tax on the master if he does not soon make use of his pupil's services1 will very seldom produce good watchmakers4 ,,to ,,file ,,flat ,,with ,,one ,,hand4 #bbd4 ,when an object is to be held on a cork or wood block fixed in the vise1 with one hand1 and filed with the other hand1 special care must be taken to lay the file flat without any hesitation after each return stroke1 and the hand should be able to feel if the file is wrong in this respect1 and to at once bring it flat4 ,after the pupil has learned this1 he will very soon be able to adjust the pressure and the force exerted in moving the file horizontally1 so that it shall remove an equal amount from the entire surface operated upon4 ,it often happens that the object can conveniently be rested upon a finger of the left-hand while the right-hand holds the file4 ,the maintenance of the file flat is in that case much easier4 #bbe4 ,mechanical device for filing flat4 ,this 7the pradel7 consists in placing behind the workman a horizontal bar1 on which rests one end of the file handle1 prolonged for the purpose to about a yard in length2 thus the file has two points of support3 the bar1 adjusted at a convenient height1 behind the workman1 and the object to be filed flat fixed in the vise in front4 ,this method1 while convenient for amateurs1 may be utilized in teaching an apprentice1 letting the supports be hinged at one and press at the other end on a rather strong spring index1 which must be prolonged so as to be brought under the eye of the pupil4 ,the displacement of the index will show him every false movement of his hands1 and will guide him in adjusting them4 ,it would be best if the prolongation of the handle were as light as possible1 but rigid and arranged so that the file can be held naturally4 ,,to ,,turn ,,cylindrical ,,pivots1 ,,etc41 ,,and ,,square ,,shoulders4 #bbf4 ,just as in working with the file1 advice and demonstration by a good master are here indispensable4 ,the materials should be worked in the same order as is explained in parts #bba-d2 that is3 wood1 brass1 iron1 steel1 hardened and tempered steel2 no one sample being set aside until the student can turn it perfectly round1 flat on shoulders1 etc41 and smooth throughout4 ,he should turn for a long time1 whether it be by the lathe or bow1 exclusively with the point of a square1 or lozenge-shaped graver1 the end of which is ground off on a slope2 this is the only possible method of learning to turn true1 and it enables the workman to acquire great delicacy of touch4 ,owing to carelessness1 or to the fact that1 when first beginning1 they were set to work on metal that was too hard or rough1 most learners turn with gravers that are ground to very blunt points2 as the graver bites less1 they are obliged to apply a proportionately increased pressure1 and only succeed in tearing the metal away1 subjecting it to a kind of rolling action1 and rendering the hand heavy4 ,if a pupil will not practice turning with the graver point1 so as to preserve it intact for some time1 dependent on the nature of the metal1 he will never be able to turn perfectly true4 ,the bow should be used through its entire length1 and with a motion that is progressive1 not jerky4 ,the knack of the turner with the bow consists mainly in keeping the simultaneous actions of the two hands quite distinct2 one drawing the bow downwards1 while the other depresses the point of the graver supported on the ,t-rest1 and these two movements of the hands must be performed at the same time1 but quite independently4 ,irregular and sudden depressing of the graver point1 or engaging it too deeply1 causes its frequent rupture4 ,this also sometimes arises from the fact that the point is not removed with sufficient rapidity1 so that on raising the bow the metal catches it while traveling in the reverse direction2 the graver is thus drawn slightly towards the work1 and its point will be found too close in when the bow again descends4 ,as has been already observed1 the bow1 which must not be too short1 should be used to its full length with a regular1 but not rapid motion4 ,afterwards1 when the hand has learnt how to manage the graver1 the speed can be gradually augmented4 ,there is always a danger of losing time1 teaching1 and1 therefore1 money1 if pupils are too much hurried in their lessons4 ,before trying to work quickly1 they should1 at any rate1 know how to work fairly well4 ,short and sudden movements of the bow will make the object turned jerk2 it will be heated1 and the sharp angles of the graver will jamb in the metal2 thus there is less work done1 although there is more noise1 and this is done badly4 #bbg4 ,when sufficient experience has been gained in turning with the graver point1 and a trial is made with the cutting edge1 do not attempt to remove much at a time by pressing heavily1 but take the metal sideways so as to remove a continuous thread1 using all the points of the edge in succession and the entire length of the bow4 ,the metal will thus be removed as a thin ribbon or shaving4 ,when the hand has had some experience1 it will be found easy to remove long strips1 and the work can be done quickly1 although there be no hurrying in the movement of the bow4 ,these remarks are equally applicable to turning with a lathe4 #bbh4 ,hardened steel that has been let down to a blue temper requires certain precautions4 ,if the graver is found not to cut cleanly1 it must at once be sharpened1 and no attempt should be made to remove more metal by increasing the pressure of the hand1 because the steel will burnish and become hard under a point or edge that is blunt1 and the portions thus burnished are sometimes so hard as to resist the best gravers4 ,the only way of attacking them is to begin at one side with a fine graver point which must be sharpened for each stroke2 at times it becomes necessary to temper the metal afresh before it will yield4 ,it is asserted that by moistening the point of the graver with petroleum it becomes more able to attack hard substances1 and that a mixture of two parts petroleum and one part turpentine enables it to turn very hard steel with comparative ease4 ,indeed1 for all turning it is a common practice to moisten the graver with oil1 water1 turpentine1 or simply by introduction into the mouth4 ,we have frequently seen apprentices1 and even watchmakers1 themselves1 careless as to the proper sharpening of their gravers and thinking that they could hasten their work by the application of considerable pressure2 they thus produced bright spots that required several hours of work before they could be removed4 ,there is one essential condition for ensuring good work with the lathe1 and this consists in the perfect roundness of the points or holes of the runners or centers1 and of the holes or points that are supported in them2 this perfect truth is nevertheless very rarely met with1 for it is noticeable that barely one watchmaker in ten knows at the present day how to roll such a point4 ,we shall subsequently indicate the precautions to be observed in order to secure this accuracy4 ,the diameter of ferrule is also to be considered2 if it is too small1 the bow will slip and the object will only rotate by jerks2 if too large1 it loads the object unnecessarily and the velocity of rotation is reduced1 since for the same stroke of the bow the ferrule must make a less number of turns4 ,moreover1 if it is of large diameter1 only a light bow must be used1 because otherwise the force applied would be excessive4 ,swiss workmen--at least the great majority of them--turn with the right or left-hand indifferently4 ,this is a very useful accomplishment easily acquired when young4 ,the working of various tools1 such as the ,english or ,geneva mandrel1 and any lathe driven by a treadle1 will be a great help in developing the sense of touch and in making it more certain4 ,but it must not be forgotten that1 in order to turn well1 the lathe must be well made and planned2 without this1 no accurate work can be done4 ,the lathe is the first and most important of tools1 and a great number of very serviceable accessories can be added to it1 which1 unfortunately1 but few watchmakers know how to make properly4 ,as a rule they content themselves with a simple pair of finishing turns on which but a comparatively small amount of work can be done4 ,without committing the mistake of having a too great multiplicity of tools1 let the pupil rest certain that a well-planned set of tools in good condition both facilitates and abridges his work and renders it more perfect4 ,,part ,,iv4 ,,tools ,,and ,,appliances4 ,,workshop ,,fittings4 #bbi4 ,before proceeding to describe the various forms of lathes and the several small tools that the watchmaker should make for himself as occasion offers1 either during his apprenticeship or immediately after1 with a view to increase his manual skill or to extend his experience1 it will be well that he take note of the principal conditions that should be satisfied by the ordinary tools that he will have to buy1 as well as the precautions to be observed in their use and some improvements of which they are capable4 #bcj4 ,the bench or board4 ,this should be fixed in front of a large window that affords a good light4 ,the various hooks1 recesses1 etc41 for holding files1 hammers1 etc41 as well as the drawers1 should be well in sight1 not only in order that the hand can at once take hold of whatever tool is required1 but also to enable the workman to restore them to their place immediately after use4 ,by doing so he will have no occasion to retain on the bench any but those tools that are very frequently or continuously used4 ,it is an excellent habit1 conducive both to well-planned and rapid work1 and which can be easily acquired by a little attention during an apprenticeship1 to always place the same tools in the same places1 as the bench will then never be encumbered4 ,by this means loss of time in turning over a number of objects in order to find one that may be small is frequently avoided4 ,this observation is of minor importance to specialists who require but a small number of tools2 but it is of the first importance to a workman that is engaged in the repair of watches4 #bca4 ,the stool4 ,those with cane seats are to be preferred4 ,the height of the bench and stool should be so related that the muscles of the chest are not too much cramped1 especially if the workman is engaged on an operation that occupies a long time and obliges him to maintain a stooping position4 ,the stool with a screw is advantageous in this respect4 #bcb4 ,the lamp4 ,certain precautions in regard to artificial light have already been indicated in article #bah4 #bcc4 ,oilstones4 ,it is impossible to maintain the points of gravers in good condition if care is not taken to keep clean and flat the surface of the stone on which they are set2 if it has suffered irregular wear1 the level may be restored by rubbing the stone on a flat1 smooth board1 covered with a thin paste of fine sand and water4 ,most kinds of oil thicken on the surface rapidly1 when the graver will slide over without being ground down at all1 turning around in the hand and thus destroying the flat face and wearing the softer parts of the stone1 rendering it uneven4 ,a strong solution of potash or soda is very effective for removing this gummy mass2 benzine is also recommended for the same purpose4 ,various substitutes for common oil are used2 such as the mineral lubricating oils or petroleum4 ,dr4 ,latteux advocates the use of a mixture of alcohol and glycerine1 the proportion of the latter decreasing as the extent of metallic surface in contact with the stone at once increases4 ,thus1 for example1 in setting a razor the stone will bite better if alcohol be in excess2 but for a graver1 of which only a small surface touches the stone1 the amount of glycerine present should be relatively much greater4 #bcd4 ,circular oilstones4 ,circular oilstones will be found very convenient for sharpening drills1 gravers and other cutting tools1 where it is desirable to have exact angles4 ,an ,arkansas or ,turkey stone dressed down to circular form1 and say #a inches in diameter1 when mounted for the lathe will be found very useful4 ,apply the lubricant to the stone the same as you would to a flat one1 and hold your graver or drill at the exact angle you wish the cutting edges to be and turn at a moderate speed4 ,truer angles and better work can be produced in this manner than by any other4 ,emery or corundum wheels can be mounted in a similar manner4 ,small circular stones can be obtained from material dealers and dental supply houses1 in sizes varying from to #c inches4 ,they can be mounted similar to ,fig4 #di1 by turning down a piece of ,no4 #cj ,stubb's steel wire to the size of the opening in your wheel and riveting the wheel firmly upon it4 ,the best sizes for watchmakers' use are inch1 #a inch and #a inch in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 #bce4 ,small grindstones4 ,when it is necessary to remove a good deal from the face of a graver1 the operation will take too long on the oilstone1 and there would be considerable difficulty in maintaining the flat face2 recourse must then be had to the grindstone1 but it should be remembered that care is needful when using it4 ,the grindstone must always be thoroughly wet in order to avoid heating the graver1 as its cutting power would then be destroyed4 ,the emery wheels described in paragraph #afe can be used for this purpose1 but they are1 for the most part1 inconvenient on account of the rapid increase they occasion in the temperature of the metal4 ,some forms of emery wheel can1 however1 be moistened just as the grindstone4 ,when the cylindrical surface is rendered irregular by use1 take a piece of sheet-iron1 the tail of an old file or a cold chisel1 and hold it with one hand firmly on a support against the edge of the stone1 which is rotated by the other hand4 ,the surface can thus be made smooth and true1 providing it is only attacked gradually and the handle is not turned too rapidly4 ,an excessive velocity will heat the iron1 which is then less effective and is more rapidly worn down2 whereas1 with a slow motion1 the iron will relatively wear little and the stone more4 ,a rough diamond mounted at the extremity of a steel rod1 affords an excellent means of trimming a grindstone1 and is at the present day generally used in factories4 #bcf4 ,glasses4 ,some particulars have already been given in regard to these simple microscopes in article #bah4 #bcg4 ,files4 ,a new file should never be used for steel2 it is best to employ it for some time at first on brass1 taking care not to use it too roughly4 ,if employed to steel at once1 or if sharp1 quick strokes are applied1 the cutting edges of the file will chip off1 and the hard particles will be embedded in the metal operated upon2 the work will thus be bad1 and the file itself deteriorated4 ,a file that has been carefully used1 and has passed gradually from brass to steel1 will last four or five times as long1 and will always work well4 ,watchmakers often fit files into handles by driving them firmly into round holes in the handles2 this practice frequently leads to the handles being cracked1 and the following method is preferable3 ,take an old worn out file or a piece of iron of the same form as the tail of the file to be fitted2 heat it several times to bright redness and drive it1 when so heated1 into the handle1 taking care to maintain it perpendicular4 ,a hole will thus be made of the required form1 in which the file will hold without there being any occasion to apply excessive force in fixing it in position4 ,when the surface of a file is choked with particles of iron1 copper1 wood1 etc41 while the cutting edges are yet good1 it can be cleaned as follows3 ,place the file for a few seconds in a hot lye of potash in water1 and on withdrawal1 dry it before the fire and brush the surface with a stiff brush4 #bch4 ,to renew the cutting edges of files1 either of the following methods can be adopted3 #a4 ,first clean the file with potash or soda dissolved in water1 if greasy or resinous substances have to be removed2 with hydrochloric acid if it is rusty2 and by rubbing with a metallic brush or piece of coke if particles of iron1 brass1 lead1 copper or tin have to be removed4 ,the file is now immersed in a mixture of #a part nitric acid1 #c parts sulphuric acid1 and #g parts water4 ,as the action of the acids become less energetic owing to the combination with iron1 the temperature of the mixture must be raised1 since rapidity is a condition of success4 ,the time during which the file should remain in this bath varies from #aj seconds to #ajj or more1 the roughening of fine-cut files being far more rapid than when they are of a coarser cut4 ,on removal from the bath1 immerse in lime wash1 dry1 and then cover them with a mixture of oil and turpentine by means of a brush1 after which they are ready for use4 #b4 ,after being cleaned1 as explained above1 the file is supported in a dish full of water1 resting on two cross wires1 so that all its surface is in contact with the liquid4 ,now add strong nitric acid in the proportion of #a part to #h of the water1 mix it thoroughly and allow it to remain for #be minutes4 ,remove the file1 and1 after washing in water and rubbing with a hard brush1 place it again in the bath1 to which a second eighth part of acid is now added1 and leave it for #ej minutes4 ,again remove and brush the file1 add a sixteenth part of concentrated sulphuric acid1 and replace the file in the bath4 ,then wash successively in pure water and in lime wash 7to remove the last traces of acid71 and dry4 ,the file will be found to possess both the qualities and the appearance of a new one4 #bci4 ,to cut an equaling file4 ,it often happens that a workman is called upon to modify the shape of1 for example1 the bottom of a rectangular notch1 and he is not provided with a file of suitable shape4 ,in such a case he can adopt one of the following methods of extemporizing a file3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 #a4 ,clamping the small steel strip1 ,l1 ,fig4 #ej1 in a vice1 cut the notches with a chisel1 n1 as follows3 ,holding n a little inclined1 cut the first notch1 i4 ,this will slightly raise the metal1 presenting a rounded face at the back4 ,to make the next cut1 hold the chisel with its edge on ,l and1 after drawing it backward until arrested by the back of i1 incline it to the requisite amount and give a second blow with the hammer1 then continue the operation till the whole is finished4 ,a few trials will enable any workman to make a small file with sufficient accuracy for his purpose4 #b4 ,employ an arrangement similar to that of the micrometer divider 7#dd7 only more rigid4 ,a study of this article and examination of the corresponding figure will afford all the information that is necessary4 #c4 ,this is identical with the method of dividing a rule described in #df1 except that the divisions are closer together and the tracer is replaced by a revolving cutter with its axis a little inclined1 to give the requisite slope to the teeth of the file4 ,this cutter is supported in a hinged frame and provided with a washer of ivory or other such substance1 as seen at s1 ,fig4 #ej1 to determine the depth of cut4 #bdj4 ,beaupuy files and burnishers4 ,most watchmakers are acquainted with the files and burnishers that ,m4 ,beaupuy has introduced for rapidly forming conical pivots1 the main characteristic of which is that the corner presented to the pivot is rounded to the desired form and roughed2 they do their work rapidly and well1 but some skill is necessary in their management4 ,to the instructions which accompany them we would add the following3 ,they must never be used when quite new on a pivot that is to be employed in a watch2 it will be reduced too rapidly4 ,the freshness must be worn off the cutting edges of the teeth by preliminary use4 ,the pressure must only be applied perpendicularly to the surface of the staff as in making a square-shouldered pivot2 the file is held against the flat surface without pressure4 ,a lateral force will have the effect of straining the pivot and causing it to break4 #bda4 ,pliers1 tweezers1 etc4 ,it is advisable to have a considerable number of these1 as their strength should always be proportional to the force that has to be applied to them4 ,for example1 if a pair of sliding tongs is used when a hand-vise is needed1 the former will be strained beyond its limit of elasticity and the tool becomes nearly useless4 ,the same might occur with any other form of pliers or tweezers4 ,in the hands of a good workman they will last for a long time1 but if used unintelligently1 without proportioning the size of tool to the force that has to be applied1 taking up the first that comes to hand1 all the tools will soon become unsatisfactory and the work itself will suffer4 ,it is very desirable to have one or more pairs of brass pliers and tweezers for handling metal work without the risk of scratching4 #bdb4 ,compasses1 gauges1 micrometers1 etc4 ,the common compass for measuring thickness1 the douzieme gauge1 is not always strictly accurate in its indications4 ,the douzieme proper1 has a scale divided into twelfths1 though some patterns are now made that have a scale divided into tenths and hundreds of an inch and again there are others that measure the fractions of a millimeter4 ,the greater majority of these tools on the ,american market are correctly divided1 but we sometimes come across those of foreign make that are divided incorrectly and care should be used in selecting4 ,in the inaccurate tools the objection is that the opening of the jaws gives a measure of a chord whereas the displacement of the index measures the arc of a circle4 ,it follows from this1 that1 if the index is first arrested when pointing to #ae1 for example1 and again when at #cj1 the interval between the jaws in the second case will not be exactly double the first4 ,before purchasing1 it is well to test the gauge for accuracy in this regard by some reliable standard4 #bdc4 ,caliper for mainspring height1 depth of sink1 etc4 ,a simple instrument for taking such measurements is shown at ,g1 ,fig4 #ea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,the finger a travels over a graduated arc whenever the rod c is pressed inwards2 b is a fixed stop1 with its extremity in the plane of n4 ,any movement of a below o measures the space traversed by c within the line b n4 ,laying a coiled mainspring1 for example1 on a plane surface1 stand the base n of the caliper upon it1 and the end c pressing on the table will be forced upwards and move the needle4 ,to take the depth of a barrel1 press c on the bottom1 allowing b to rest on the edge of the cover recess4 ,it will be evident1 from the figure1 that a and c are connected by a spring passing around drums at corresponding axes4 ,the smaller j is1 the more sensitive will the instrument become4 #bdd4 ,figure #h caliper4 ,for ordinary work1 the calipers to be bought at material stores will suffice2 but when it is required to verify escape wheels1 balances1 etc41 there is some risk of accidents in consequence of the variableness of the friction at the joint4 ,to remove this source of danger1 true the rubbing surfaces in the mandril and replace the brass discs at the center by similar discs of steel1 then carefully re-make the rivet that forms a hinge1 after oiling all the acting surfaces4 ,the arms will now move with a uniform degree of stiffness1 so that there need be no danger of jerks4 #bde4 ,riveting stake and punch4 ,the holes in a riveting stake are made to increase downwards1 so as to avoid any accident occurring through the oscillation of the axis4 ,the riveting punches made of a plain steel rod1 with a hole drilled at one end in the direction of the axis1 are the best4 ,those that are perforated transversely like the lanterns of screw-point tools1 do not produce such good riveting1 since the parts of the end1 from behind which metal has been removed1 are more or less elastic4 #bdf4 ,burnishers4 ,burnishers will not remain in good condition unless their surfaces are prepared1 from time to time2 in the case of those used for very fine work1 by passing over a buffstick charged with polishing rouge or very fine emery1 and other kinds on an emery stick more or less fine1 according to the degree of roughness the burnisher is required to possess4 #bdg4 ,to re-face a burnisher4 ,pivot burnishers are usually re-faced by a lapidary2 a watchmaker can1 however1 do it for himself very effectually in the following manner3 ,prepare a dry1 smooth piece of wood1 rather thick1 and of a width equal to the length of the burnisher4 ,on this board carefully glue a piece of emery paper1 of a fineness corresponding to the degree of cut required1 stretching it as even as possible1 and turning the edges down towards the under side4 ,then lay the board on a firm smooth surface1 resting a weight upon it1 and allow it to dry4 ,in using this lap1 it is fixed or allowed to rest against the side of the bench2 holding the burnisher with two hands at its extremities1 the workman places himself at one end of the board1 and draws the burnisher along it towards him1 maintaining the surface quite flat and applying considerable pressure4 ,on reaching the nearer end1 raise it1 and after again placing it on the farther end1 draw towards the body1 and so on4 ,by proceeding in this manner and always in the same direction1 placing the burnisher so that the acting edge is farthest away from the operator1 all risk of rounding this angle will be avoided4 #bdh4 ,broaches4 ,great care is needed in adapting handles to broaches4 ,resting the point against a finger of one hand and causing the handle to rotate by two fingers of the other hand1 the broach itself should be seen to remain true4 ,it is a good precaution1 suggested by ,m4 ,h4 ,robert1 to gently draw a piece of iron1 charged with rouge1 along the edges of pivot broaches in order to remove the thread of metal from them4 ,minute particles of this thread would otherwise remain in the holes1 and occasion wear of the pivots4 ,these fine broaches are not fixed in handles1 but a piece of sealing-wax is melted on to the upper end2 then1 holding the broach between the fingers1 with its stem downwards1 it is rotated while held to a flame1 so that the sealing-wax forms a regular1 oblong handle4 #bdi4 ,blow-pipes4 ,in order that a long even flame may be obtained1 the hole should be of moderate size and perfectly clean around the edge2 otherwise the jet cannot be straight and sharp4 ,difficulty will always be experienced by anyone who has not learned to breathe without interrupting the continuity of the blast4 ,where a supply of gas is available1 the gas blow-pipe presents advantages from the point of view of convenience4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,fig4 #eb shows a gas blow-pipe for jewelers1 which is simple and convenient4 ,it consists of a blow-pipe of the ordinary form1 having a gas pipe inserted in the lower half1 and a threaded hood or sleeve at the lower end1 which changes the shape of the flame by screwing in or out1 so as to vary the influence of the current of air upon the flame4 ,a ring adapted to slip over the finger while working1 is soldered to the middle joint of the pipe1 and the quantity of gas is controlled by the stop-cock and spring lever shown in the cut1 the gas being supplied to the pipe by a rubber tube connecting it to the nearest gas jet in the usual way4 ,thus having the shape of the flame under control and the quantity variable at will1 the workman is in position to accomplish the desired end speedily and effectually4 ,to use to the best advantage1 set the jamb-nut so that with the valve lever in its normal position1 the flame at the end of the pipe will just keep alight4 ,the blow-pipe can then be laid down temporarily and again used without the trouble of turning off the gas or relighting4 ,when used as a mouth blow-pipe1 the most convenient way to hold it is with the third finger through the ring4 ,for bellows work it is better to pass the ring over the index finger4 ,the ring also serves1 with the valve-lever1 as a rest to hold the flame-nozzle away from the table when the blow-pipe is laid down temporarily4 ,to produce an oxy-hydrogen flame1 connect the air-pipe with a cylinder of nitrous oxide1 opening the cylinder-valve carefully1 so as to permit the escape of only sufficient nitrous oxide to produce with the illuminating gas a very small flame4 ,regulate the illuminating gas flow with the thumb-screw or with the finger on the lever of the blow-pipe valve4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,fig4 #ec shows an automatic hand blow-pipe for use with a foot blower4 ,one of the rubber tubes shown is connected with the blower and the other to the gas supply4 ,it is self adjusting for both gas and air1 requiring only a slight motion of the lever1 shown under the thumb1 to obtain instantly any flame1 from the smallest to the largest2 so that these pipes have all the delicacy of the best mouth blow-pipe1 used with the utmost skill1 together with the power and advantages obtained with a mechanical blower4 #bej4 ,small gas furnaces4 ,the workman will frequently have occasion to anneal pieces of steel or to raise to a red heat objects that are too large for the blow-pipe2 an ordinary open fire aided by bellows is often resorted to in such a case4 ,a better plan1 however1 is to use any small portable gas furnace1 provided with a hood that completely closes it at the top4 ,fig4 #ed shows a gas melting furnace1 which is kept by material and supply houses4 ,it is powerful enough to melt gold1 silver1 brass and copper1 but is not recommended for cast iron4 ,it can be used for scorifying and cupelling4 ,the lid can be pushed sideways sufficiently to give access to the interior of the furnace4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,the following points in the management of a gas furnace will be of service to all novices in their use4 ,the power and speed are practically without limit1 depending only on the gas and air supply1 and are under perfect control4 ,allowing five cubic feet of gas for heating up1 it requires about four feet of gas for every pound of cast iron melted4 ,for small work it is as cheap as a coke furnace1 and not one-quarter the trouble4 ,the quantity of air required depends upon the gas supply4 ,one must be equal to the other1 so that perfect combustion will take place1 and that entirely within the furnace4 ,an excess of either gas or air renders a high temperature an impossibility4 ,see that all gas taps have a large clear way through4 ,high temperatures and rapid working require a free supply of gas4 ,to adjust a new furnace to its highest power1 connect both gas and air supply with the burner4 ,turn on the full gas supply1 light the gas1 the air-way being full open1 work the foot blower and then put the gauze nozzle of the burner tight against the hole in the casing1 so that no flame escapes around it4 ,if the flame comes out of the lid about two inches1 the adjustment is right4 ,if the flame is longer1 open the air check until the proper flame is obtained1 or reduce the gas supply4 ,if smaller1 or not visible1 close the air check until the flame appears4 ,the cap-nut1 which will be found at the throat of the horizontal 8mixing tube10 where the air enters and mixes with the gas1 is used for changing the size of the orifice from which the gas escapes4 ,when the escape is from a large orifice1 a smoky1 yellow1 or 8reducing0 flame is the result4 ,by contracting the orifice by screwing the cap-nut on to the gas delivery tube1 a blue or oxidizing flame will be obtained4 ,adjustment for the proper flame should first be made by this nut1 and the size of the flame regulated afterwards by means of a cock at the gas main4 ,a slightly yellow flame gives the best results when a high heat is desired4 ,the arrangement above described is clearly shown at the left-hand lower corner of the sectional illustration above4 ,a chimney or stove-pipe #h or #aj feet high may be used as a fixture1 and the draft partially stopped by the damper or slide when lower temperatures are required1 the gas being turned down in proportion2 the guide for the proper adjustment being that ,,under ,,all ,,circumstances ,,the ,,flame ,,must ,,just ,,cover ,,the ,,crucible ,,or ,,muffle1 but not extend into the chimney so as to make it red hot4 ,when the flame covers the crucible or muffle1 the gas is doing its extreme duty under the most favorable circumstances1 without waste4 ,keep all fluxes away from the furnace jacket1 as they are injurious to fire clay1 and are liable to cause the lids1 etc41 to stick to the furnace4 ,a thin layer of quick lime on the bottom of the furnace will prevent the crucible adhering to it when very hot4 ,when using a furnace for high temperatures1 care should be taken not to use a fire clay casing1 as it melts at a temperature a little above that of cast iron2 plumbago or asbestos only should be used when very high temperatures are required4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,fig4 #ee represents a small gas furnace1 which is extremely useful for small meltings1 experimental work1 etc4 ,it consists of a pot made of a mixture of fire clay and asbestos1 bound with rivetted iron hoops1 and having a hole in the side at which the flame enters4 ,a lid pierced by a central hole permits the escape of the products of combustion1 and the crucible is placed in the center so that the flame surrounds it4 ,it is worked with gas and a foot blower4 ,gas from a -inch supply pipe will work it efficiently4 ,about ten cubic feet of gas per hour is sufficient for most purposes4 ,the casing holds the heat so perfectly that the most refractory substances can be fused with ease1 using a ,fletcher foot blower4 ,half a pound of cast iron requires from seven to twelve minutes for perfect fusion2 the time depending on the gas supply and pressure of air from the foot blower4 ,the crucible will hold about ten ounces of gold4 ,the power which can be obtained is far beyond what is required for most purposes1 and is limited only by the fusibility of the crucible and casing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,fig4 #ef represents a small apparatus1 which1 owing to its speed and economy of operation1 has a very extended use in the jewelry and silversmithing trades4 ,with this apparatus a sound two-ounce ingot of gold or silver can be moulded in two minutes4 ,a crucible of moulded carbon is supported by a sheet-iron slide1 or plate1 which is clamped to an ingot mould by a clamp which swivels in the ,u-shaped cast iron stand4 ,the metal to be melted is placed in the crucible1 and the flame of the blow-pipe directed on it until it is perfectly fused4 ,the whole is then tilted over by means of the upright handle at the back of the mould4 ,the waste heat serves to make the ingot mould hot4 ,no flux should be used with the carbon crucibles4 ,for the smaller operations1 such as making small quantities of colored golds1 for electroplating solutions1 testing ingots1 and the smaller operations of the jeweler and plater1 it is invaluable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,the air pressure used in operating gas furnaces varies from one to four pounds per square inch1 though the latter is seldom required except for the severest work in large furnaces2 as a general rule it is less than two pounds in the operations of the gold and silversmith4 ,the pressure must be arranged so that the air supply equals that of the gas used4 ,this can be readily seen by the color of the flame1 as noted in instructions for handling the furnaces4 ,for small operations foot blowers are used4 ,these consist of a powerful bellows having a hemispherical pressure chamber on one side1 and adapted to work either by the hand or foot2 see ,fig4 #eg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,the perfect combustion of the gas is secured by mingling equal quantities of gas and air in a mixing chamber1 and then igniting the mixture4 ,in the larger furnaces this is accomplished by a mixing chamber placed under the furnace1 so as to heat the mixture before ignition1 and no pressure supply of air is necessary4 ,in the smaller apparatus1 this mixing is done in the burner1 which consists of an inner tube carrying an air supply1 surrounded by a gas tube1 and the whole surmounted by a sliding nozzle for changing the shape of the flame4 ,the mixing chamber being so small1 the air and gas pass through it so rapidly that considerable pressure of air must be provided to prevent it from being excluded by the normal pressure of the gas2 hence the necessity for a blower when using small burners4 ,when it is not desirable to use gas1 for pecuniary1 or other reasons1 melting may be carried on by means of a gasoline gas flame1 which is noisy1 but otherwise little inferior to coal gas4 ,the furnaces for gasoline differ but little in construction from the others1 as will be seen by ,figs4 #eh and #ei4 ,the only difference being that the burners are applied from the side and no air pressure tubes are needed1 while the furnace is supported on legs to insure safety from fire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,the burner for gasoline is radically different from that for gas1 being1 in fact1 a small gas machine1 ,fig4 #fj4 ,in ,fig4 #fj ,p is an ordinary force pump1 at the bottom of which1 at ,a1 is a valve which closes automatically upon releasing the pressure from the pump1 ,c is a check valve which closes the inlet to the tank ,t completely2 ,f is a filling screw for introducing gasoline4 ,v is a vent screw for letting off the pressure when through2 ,h is a pipe leading from the tank to the burner ,d2 ,e is the burner regulator1 terminating in a fine point1 closing the orifice of the burner2 ,s ,s are packing boxes4 ,upon opening ,c and pumping a few strokes a pressure is created in the tank and on top of the fluid1 forcing it through the tubes of the burner1 which being previously heated1 vaporizes the gasoline4 ,this issues from the orifice at the end of ,e as a highly heated gas and burns as such in the form of a powerful blast1 ,fig4 #fa4 ,after being once started the heat of the flame passing through the burner1 vaporizes the fluid in the tubes1 and hence the apparatus is automatic4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,the air which is forced in is not consumed1 so that to keep up the blast it only requires a few strokes of the pump occasionally to maintain the pressure lessened by the consumption of the fluid4 ,to operate the blow-pipe3 close ,e2 unscrew ,f1 and introduce from two quarts to one gallon of gasoline of #gf according to the capacity of the tank4 ,replace ,f and close ,v2 open ,c one or two turns and give three or four full strokes of pump ,p1 and close ,c4 ,heat the burner by burning some of the fluid in a suitable vessel placed under the burner2 when hot enough apply a match and open ,e gradually1 until the action is more or less uniform4 ,if no spray or liquid issues from the orifice1 the burner is hot enough2 if not hot enough1 burn slowly until no liquid or spray issues4 ,when sufficiently heated the blast can be made of any intensity desired1 by the use of the pump as above4 ,to stop its action1 shut the regulator ,e1 or open screw ,v1 or both4 ,when not in use the vent ,v should invariably be kept open4 ,the mouth of the burner ,d1 should be two or three inches from the inlet of the furnace1 or there will not be perfect combustion4 ,for very high temperatures and muffle work1 light the burner as above and heat the inside of the furnace to a bright red2 then place the burner against the inlet of the furnace2 turn out the burner by means of the cock ,e1 and immediately turn it on again without lighting it1 when if the furnace is hot enough1 the gas will ignite inside the furnace4 ,the heat can be regulated as in the first method of burning4 ,when burning inside of the furnace1 there must be no flame in the burner tube2 it should all be inside the furnace1 and the tube of the burner must be close to the fire hole1 or there will not be enough heat in the tubes4 ,use a drop or two of sperm oil on the piston of the pump occasionally1 also on leather washer at ,f1 otherwise the apparatus will be apt to leak1 corrode and work badly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 #bea4 ,muffle ,furnace4 ,this consists of a fire-clay furnace1 mounted upon a powerful gas burner and containing an oven1 also of fire-clay or plumbago1 so placed as to receive the full heat of the flame1 without permitting the direct action of the flame upon any object placed within it4 ,the objects are placed in and withdrawn from the muffle1 or oven1 through the door shown in the cut4 ,this door is made of two pieces so that the upper one may be removed to watch the progress of the work without chilling the contents of the muffle by too great an entrance of cold air4 ,they are extensively used for assaying1 annealing1 etc41 and for many other purposes where an exact temperature is required4 ,the illustration shown in ,fig4 #fb1 is of a gas muffle1 but they are also made to be used with the gasoline burner previously described4 ,,the ,,lathe4 #beb4 ,of all the tools and machinery employed by the watchmaker1 the lathe is the most important4 ,very poor work is often turned out by those possessing a first-class lathe1 but there are very few persons who can turn out good1 true work1 from a poor1 cheap lathe1 and if it is untrue it is utterly impossible to turn out good work4 ,wonders can be accomplished by the ingenious mechanic who thoroughly understands the capabilities of the lathe4 ,by patient skill of manipulation1 the ,chinese and ,japanese turn out some truly wonderful work2 they succeed in turning sphere after sphere1 one inside the other1 from a solid piece of ivory1 the opening from one to another being comparatively small4 ,the earliest form of the lathe in the trade was the dead center3 that is1 a lathe whose parts did not revolve1 the object to be operated on being placed between centers and made to revolve by means of the bow4 ,this form of lathe was succeeded by the live spindle or live mandril pattern1 although there were many good points about it that must be acknowledged4 ,it contained one great element that many modern appliances1 termed lathes1 lack1 i4 e41 the element of truth4 ,no matter how coarsely or crudely constructed1 this truth was not eliminated1 except by the ignorance of the artisan1 for the centers must remain the same relatively1 whatever may be their position in relation to the lathe bed4 ,with the introduction of the live spindle lathe in this country1 the verge1 ,jacot and other lathes and tools of that type were rapidly abandoned4 ,in ,europe1 however1 the live spindle lathe did not meet with such a cordial reception1 and it has taken many years1 in some localities1 to overcome the prejudice against them2 in fact1 there are still many workmen there who cling to the dead center patterns4 ,the all-important point in lathes of the live spindle type is accuracy of fitting1 and particularly in regard to the spindle and its bearings1 for unless a certain degree of perfection is attainable in this particular1 it is worse than useless1 as it not only does not do the work1 but leads the artisan astray4 ,the workman1 sometimes1 through motives of economy1 purchases foreign made lathes1 that closely resemble the ,american in outline and finish4 ,these lathes1 as a usual thing1 are not accurate1 and in the greater majority of cases the chucks which accompany them are worse than nothing1 and yet these lathes1 in nearly all cases1 are declared to be as good as the ,american4 ,there are some foreign lathes that are very carefully made1 and are quite as true as the best ,american1 but they are the exception and not the rule4 ,the workman who buys one of these lathes cannot1 of course1 tell whether it is right or wrong until he has placed it on his bench and tested it1 and even then he cannot be sure1 for although when a certain chuck is placed in the spindle and tested it may apparently show no deviation from truth1 there may still be untruth in the spindle or chuck or both1 as the errors in one may be counteracting the errors in the other1 and if the chuck be turned or an absolutely true chuck placed in the spindle1 the error will be made quite apparent4 ,if an ,american lathe1 by any possibility1 is allowed to pass the inspector1 and finds its way upon the market1 the maker is only too glad to replace it with a perfect one1 for his reputation is at stake2 but if one of the imitation pattern proves untrue you will have to do the best you can4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,there are ,american made lathes upon the market that are as inferior in many respects as the imitations1 and the watchmaker will do well to do without a lathe until such time as he can afford to purchase one of known reputation4 ,among the first-class ,american lathes upon the market may be mentioned the ,webster-,whitcomb1 shown in ,fig4 #fc2 the ,moseley1 shown in ,fig4 #fd2 the ,hopkins1 shown in ,fig4 #fe1 and the ,rivett1 shown in ,fig4 #ff1 and others4 ,an excellent lathe for the heavier work of watchmakers and jewelers1 such as cannot be performed with satisfaction on the watchmaker's lathe1 is the ,no4 #d ,barnes1 which is shown in ,fig4 #fg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,for screw-cutting1 the manufacture of watchmaker's tools1 fishing reels1 repairs on tower clocks1 in fact1 all the heavier work of the trade1 it is admirably fitted4 #bec4 ,care of the ,lathe4 ,the ,american lathe of to-day is a marvel of completeness in its parts1 and how many hours1 yea months1 of study and experiment have been bestowed upon it by its projectors and makers to acquire these points of utility and excellency8 ,what a vast amount of care has been exercised for the production of a perfect lathe6 ,must this care cease at the moment it passes into the hands of the watchmaker8 ,it is a very easy matter at any time to wipe off the dust and oil that may accumulate1 but does this alone constitute due care8 ,there may be a nice glass case to cover it and keep off the dust1 and a very good idea it is1 if faithfully used2 but if a counter shaft is on the bench1 or much lathe work is to be done1 it soon falls into blissful desuetude1 or finishes its usefulness by being broken4 ,then1 often1 a cloth is wrapped about the lathe1 which soon gets soiled and looks badly1 let alone the poor protection it affords4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,dust is omnipresent1 and the greatest enemy to all active machinery2 it insidiously makes its way into every crease and crevice1 and if not promptly removed will cause untold damage4 ,we cannot get rid of it and must 7like the industrious housewife7 wage a constant warfare against it4 ,the care necessary to be given to a fine lathe differs from most other tools2 it is not confined alone to the removal of dust and keeping clean1 but the fitting properly of the several parts as used4 ,there should be no overstraining when tightening screws1 chucks1 etc41 or when fitting articles in both wire and wheel chucks1 and so on through the list4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,the face of the lathe bed when it comes from the makers is 7or should be7 perfectly true from end to end1 in order that head and tail stocks will meet on a direct line of centers1 even should they be changed end for end1 and a good lathe will meet those requirements4 ,now1 it is obvious to any thinking mind that if this face becomes injured by neglect1 whereby the nickeling is removed in spots or portions1 they will1 in all probability1 become rusty2 this rust will then eat away and throw off more1 and soon the face presents an uneven surface1 which will tend to destroy the line of centers between head and tail stocks4 ,the head stock1 usually occupying one position1 causes less wear at this point or place1 while the hand-rest and tail stock are constantly being shifted1 so where there is more motion or action there must be more wear1 especially if dust1 chips1 or grit be allowed to accumulate beneath them1 and though the wear is seemingly imperceptible1 it nevertheless is there1 and will sooner or later manifest itself1 and this is a signal that the level of the bed is becoming impaired1 and1 necessarily1 the truth4 ,thus too much care and attention cannot be exercised in guarding against chips and dust when sliding hand-rest back and forth on the bed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,at the end of the bed1 where the tail stock takes position1 many watchmakers have the tail stock off1 and this portion is more exposed to atmospheric action1 also receiving perspiration from the hands when they come in contact4 ,again1 others let the tail stock remain in position1 only removing when it comes in the way4 ,in the former case1 it is well to devise some means for the protection of the bed2 this is easily done by making a sheath of chamois skin to slip tightly over the bed2 it can be removed and replaced readily1 and when it becomes soiled1 can be washed4 ,this sheath should be fully two-thirds the length of bed1 or reaching from tail end up to hand-rest when it is close to head stock4 ,it preserves the bed from dampness1 which is considerable in some climates1 also the perspiration of the hand and flying chips and dust4 ,in the second case1 if the tail stock is allowed to remain on the lathe1 or1 if removed and placed on the bench1 it is subjected to all the evils the bed is in the former4 ,our opinion is1 the tail stock should be kept in its compartment in a tight-fitting drawer1 away from dust and accidental knocks of other tools on the bench2 the tail spindle not being nickeled1 is more liable to rust if left exposed1 and should be kept in a sheath of oiled paper4 ,this may seem superfluous and too much bother1 yet it is taking proper care which tells in the end4 ,the bottom of tail stock should always be brushed off before placing in position1 not only for its protection1 but for fear some particle of grit may be adhering1 thereby throwing it out of truth1 and screwing it down tight only adds injury to the lathe if allowed to remain4 ,the head stock demands close attention2 the spindle should run freely without end-shake1 and about once a week should be speeded1 meanwhile administering oil until it leaves the bearings clean1 and then wiped off4 ,a little oil should be added every day4 ,see that the mouth of the spindle is kept bright and clean2 thrust a piece of cloth clear through spindle every now and then1 that all dust and dirt may be removed4 ,wire and wheel chucks should often be washed in gasoline to remove gummy dirt and oil which is constantly adhering1 and it is even well each time a chuck is used1 to wash off first1 then wipe dry4 ,a little dirt on the mouth of spindle1 or on the chuck1 often throws it out of truth1 and consequently the article fastened therein also4 ,when fitting head or tail stocks1 or in fact any attachment1 do so carefully4 ,do not bang it in place as if you held a grudge against it1 and when in position see that they are tightly screwed in place4 ,having too much end-shake on live spindle1 especially in soft lathes1 causes uneven wear in its bearings1 besides not being reliable for true pivoting or any such work4 ,when the cost of a lathe is taken into consideration1 it goes to prove that it is not easily replaced4 ,where is the jeweler with a stock of goods who would retire without first seeing that his valuables were in the safe1 but how many are there that think of giving this protection to their lathes8 ,some do1 but the greater per cent do not4 ,it is a good plan to see that the head stock1 the tail stock1 and attachments are in the safe and should a fire break out that endangers the store1 and no chance to save it1 the feeling of satisfaction is great to know the lathe is safe1 that is1 the most expensive parts1 for the bed can be purchased at a nominal cost compared to the attachments4 ,,the ,,foot ,,wheel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 #bed4 ,in the selection of a foot-wheel the workman must be governed by his own experience and taste1 for the variety that exactly suits one person is very distasteful to another4 ,the swing treadle pattern shown in ,fig4 #fh is a very popular one with ,american workmen4 ,these swing treadles are made in various ways by the different manufacturers1 but the methods of using them are alike4 ,there are workmen1 however1 who prefer the heel and toe motion and others that prefer the up and down motion4 ,this is all a matter of taste and it matters but little what form of lathe wheel is used provided the motion is steady and the exertion is light4 ,as a general rule a heavy wheel1 say forty pounds in weight1 will be found1 on the whole1 much better than a light one and the motion will be more uniform4 #bee4 ,driving ,bands and ,belts4 ,most foot-wheels are so constructed that either a flat or round belt may be used in transmitting the power to the countershaft or lathe1 as the case may be4 ,many watchmakers use a flat belt between foot-wheel and countershaft and a round leather belt1 or cord1 between countershaft and lathe4 ,if we may judge by appearances1 this is the favorite fitting4 ,others use round leather belts in both instances1 while others again use cotton or hemp cord or gut4 ,all things considered1 the round leather belt seems to possess advantages over all others4 ,it does not slip as easily as cotton cord1 is more elastic than gut and throws less strain on the bearings1 absorbs less power and works much smoother4 ,the ends are fastened together by means of an ,s hook and the cord may be readily tightened by giving it an additional twist or two4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 #bef4 ,the ,countershaft4 ,the countershaft is indispensable in using milling tools1 wheel cutters and pivot polishers4 ,the pattern shown in ,fig4 #fi is but one of many on the market4 ,in some of the patterns the uprights extend through the top of the bench and are held securely in place by means of thumb screws or wing nuts4 ,the pattern shown in the illustration is mounted on a solid metal base which is intended to be fastened to the bench by means of screws4 ,the advantages of using a countershaft are three fold3 ,first1 you are able to regulate your speed perfectly without changing the motion of the foot from fast to slow or vice versa2 second1 your belt is carried to the back of the bench1 where it is out of the way1 instead of coming down in front of the head2 and third1 you obviate the necessity of having holes in your bench on each side of the lathe1 that small articles are liable to drop through4 ,fig4 #gj illustrates the favorite arrangement of foot wheel1 countershaft and belts4 ,,the ,,bench4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 #beg4 ,as previously suggested 7#bcj7 it is of the utmost importance in doing good work1 and doing it rapidly1 that your bench be kept orderly and clean at all times1 and that all your tools and devices be in their proper places1 exactly where you can put your hand on them at a moment's notice4 ,an excellent arrangement for a watchmaker's bench is shown in ,fig4 #gj4 ,this bench was designed by ,g4 ,w4 ,laughlin1 and is complete in every detail4 ,benches can be purchased ready made from material dealers1 both with and without curtain tops1 but there are many watchmakers that prefer to make1 or have made for them1 a bench varying from the usual pattern4 ,the bench illustrated is made of black walnut1 veneered with ,french walnut and bird's eye maple4 ,the top is #ba inches wide by #da long and is #cc inches from the floor4 ,the drawers on the right-hand side are #aj inches wide4 ,in the center are two shallow drawers1 while the left-hand side is entirely boxed in4 ,,idlers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 #beh4 ,idlers are especially valuable for use on slide rest tools1 such as pivot polishers1 milling attachments1 wheel cutters1 etc41 and with traverse spindle tailstocks1 traverse spindle drivers1 etc41 to give a vertical direction to the belts4 ,idlers are constructed in various forms1 some of them being mounted on upright posts1 fastened to the bench just back of the lathe1 as shown in ,fig4 #ga2 others consist of steel rods terminating in a ball1 and socket joint1 where it is fastened to the bench1 as shown in ,fig4 #gb1 while in other patterns the rod is fastened by means of a wing nut to a brace running from one to the other of the supports of the countershaft and may be placed at any desired angle4 ,the idler shown in ,fig4 #gc can be used in this way4 ,some watchmakers prefer to place their idlers on an overhead countershaft1 which is usually fastened just back of the bench and about two and a half or three feet above it4 ,the idler shown in ,fig4 #gb can be screwed to the bench or to the wall above the bench1 in the latter case it will extend out horizontally over the lathe and is out of the way of the watchmaker when not in use4 ,in the forms shown in ,figs #ga1 #gb and #gc the belt passes from the countershaft over the idler and one long belt only is used4 ,this style is sometimes varied by using two separate belts one from the countershaft to the idler and another from the idler down to the lathe4 ,if in the latter style1 a cone pulley of rubber is used on the countershaft and also for the corresponding pulley on the idler and a plain pulley for the down belt4 ,of course in this form the idler stand must be in the form of a countershaft1 as the pulley must be fast on the shaft and the shaft itself must revolve4 ,in the styles shown above1 the shaft is rigid and the pulleys revolve upon it4 ,the advantage of using the cone pulley style is that the speed of the cutter or other attachment may be varied at will without in any way increasing or decreasing the speed of the wheel4 ,,chucks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 #bei4 ,true chucks are the most important adjuncts to a watchmaker's outfit4 ,a true lathe with poor1 untrue chucks is almost useless4 ,chucks hold the work truest that comes the nearest to fitting the holes in them4 ,if you try to hold work in a chuck that is too large or too small1 you will soon get the chucks out of true and you will soon become dissatisfied with your chucks1 your work and your lathe4 ,care should always be taken to select a chuck that will take the work without straining it open and yet is not so large that undue pressure will have to be used in holding it4 ,the ,american split chuck1 when true1 will hold almost any piece of work with the greatest precision as regards truth2 but the split chuck is a delicate attachment and will not stand hard knocks and rough treatment4 ,after using them1 you should clean them in benzine to remove all dirt1 rinsing them in alcohol and drying with a soft linen rag1 and see that no small chips of metal are left in the openings that may throw the work out of truth the next time they are used4 ,fig4 #gd illustrates the regular pattern split chucks that accompany ,american lathes4 ,fig4 #ge is a conoidal wire chuck1 so called because the shape of the mouth of the chuck is conoidal in lieu of the shoulder usually left on wire chucks for the bend in the spindle4 ,fig4 #gf is an arbor chuck4 ,this is a solid chuck on the end of which is a threaded arbor for the reception of saws1 laps1 wheels1 etc41 which are held firmly in position by means of the nut on the threaded arbor4 ,fig4 #gg is a screw chuck4 ,this is a solid steel chuck having a threaded hole in the end for the reception of cement brasses1 etc4 ,fig4 #gh is a shoulder chuck4 ,it is a split chuck with a large opening in the end with square shoulders for the work to rest upon4 ,fig4 #gi is a taper chuck1 which is solid and has a large opening for the reception of tapers1 centers1 laps1 etc4 ,fig4 #hj is a step or wheel chuck1 which usually comes in sets of five1 and as each chuck has nine steps1 a set of them will accommodate forty-five different sizes of work4 ,these chucks are useful for holding mainspring barrels when fitting in the cap1 should it become out of true2 for trueing up the barrel of ,english lever watches that are damaged by the breaking of a mainspring and for holding almost any wheel in a watch1 such as the fitting of a center wheel to a pinion1 or in making sure that hole in the wheel is in the center4 ,these chucks will the hold wheels from #e to #b4be4 ,the chucks mentioned above are the most common ones in every day use and usually accompany the ,american lathe in combination sets4 ,as intimated1 these chucks are delicate and as a usual thing they do not receive the care they should1 when their cost and the delicate exactitude demanded of them is considered4 ,the watchmaker who prides himself on his good work and the orderly condition of his tools1 attachments and bench generally will purchase or make for himself a nice chuck box with a glass or wooden cover to exclude all dust and flying chips4 ,you cannot expect to do good true work with a chuck that is thrown carelessly into a drawer containing an assortment of files1 a hammer1 staking block1 oilstone1 screw driver1 sliding tongs1 etc41 and yet how many watchmakers take just this kind of care of their chucks1 and complain of their untruth1 and declare that a wax chuck is the only thing that can be absolutely relied upon for truth4 ,fig4 #ha illustrates a neatly arranged chuck box made by the ,faneuil ,watch ,tool ,company4 ,in it all the various chucks may be arranged and the whole may be covered with a glass shade to keep out all dirt4 ,a wooden cover might be used and perhaps would be preferable to many as it is less liable to be broken and occupies less space and therefore admits of the box being placed in a drawer1 leaving more room on the bench for the necessary tools and attachments4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,a chuck box should be well soaked in oil so that the wood will absorb no moisture and thus tend to rust the chucks4 ,a small envelope made of tissue paper and filled with quicklime will1 if placed in the chuck box1 take up the moisture in the air and prevent the chucks from rusting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 #bfj4 ,the chuck stepping device1 invented and patented by ,mr4 ,moseley1 is a valuable attachment for the lathe4 ,in this device1 shown in ,fig4 #hb1 a rests in chuck slightly less than diameter of work2 b tightens in rear end of draw-in spindle1 and turning c regulates the depth of step4 ,by the use of this tool any wire chuck will accurately serve as a step chuck4 ,it is a device of great service to the watchmaker when used and understood4 ,it enables him to make a step in any wire chuck of any depth he may desire1 and will push out the work at any time when he so desires4 ,it is very useful many times for a stop for marking or cutting off when you want a number of pieces of the same length or kind4 ,many object to the stepped chuck for general use4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 #bfa4 ,in addition to the regular chucks which usually accompany ,american lathe combinations may be mentioned some others which from time to time have been placed upon the market by manufacturers of watchmakers' tools4 ,these chucks were devised for holding work which it was found in practice could not be held by the ordinary chucks4 #bfb4 ,the bezel chuck1 shown in ,fig4 #hc1 was originally made with a view of holding bezels only1 but is now made so that it will hold watch plates1 coins1 etc41 and is adjustable to any size4 ,it can be fitted to any lathe and it requires but very little practice to use it1 as it is extremely simple and any one who uses a lathe can make or repair bezels in a workmanlike manner4 ,it holds the work as in a vise1 and no amount of turning or jarring will loosen the jaws1 while it may be opened or closed instantly by simply turning the milled nut behind the face plate1 thus enabling the operator to turn and fit a bezel perfectly1 by trying on the case as many times as necessary4 ,it holds the bezel by either groove1 so that the recess may be turned out when too shallow or too small for the glass1 or the bezel may be inverted and turned down when it rests too hard against the dial4 ,it will be found especially useful in turning out the inevitable lump of solder from the recess of the bezel after soldering1 and in fitting to case1 as the process of soldering generally makes the bezel shorter1 and consequently it will not fit the case4 ,it also renders the operation of polishing bezels1 after soldering1 the work of but a few moments4 ,in turning out the recess for glass in bezels1 especially those of the heavy nickel variety1 it will prove a friend indeed4 ,when1 for instance1 you look through your stock of flat glasses and find none to fit1 but have one that is just too large4 ,any watchmaker knows that if the groove in the bezel is imperfect1 it is very apt to break the glass4 ,this chuck is also useful as a barrel closer1 holding work while engraving1 and many other uses that will present themselves to the watchmaker4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 #bfc4 ,the ,hopkins' patent adjustable chuck1 shown in ,fig4 #hd1 is designed to grip and hold firmly and accurately any size of work1 from the smallest staff to the largest pinion1 watch wheels of all sizes1 mainspring barrels and other large work1 and can be adjusted to any make of lathe1 by simply placing it friction tight on a plug chuck fitted properly to the lathe4 ,in using this chuck for staffs1 pinions1 wire1 etc41 fasten a ,v-piece1 #g1 of proper size1 in the hole of attachment #f1 taking care that both the ,v and the seat in which it rests1 are free from chips1 dirt1 etc4 ,then lay your work in the ,v and fasten it there by means of the sliding jaw above it4 ,this done1 place the attachment on the face of the chuck body1 with the disc slipped under the heads of the two spring bolts1 and then spin the work to center the same as when using wax4 ,after centering thus1 fasten the disc to place by tightening the nuts on the back ends of the spring bolts4 ,for holding work by the web of the wheel1 place the wheel under the screw cap1 on the face attachment #h1 and screw the cap down firmly on it1 with the staff or pinion projecting outward through the center hole4 ,this done1 proceed the same as when using attachment #f4 ,for mainspring barrels and like work1 use attachment #aa1 and place a bit of broken mainspring between the work and the ends of the three binding screws1 and tighten the screws down on this instead of directly on the work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 #bfd4 ,the ,spickerman patent cement chuck1 shown in ,figs4 #he and #hf1 holds and centers accurately any wheel in a watch while drilling1 polishing or fitting new staffs or pinions1 and all danger of injuring the wheels is obviated4 ,it will fit all kinds of ,american or ,swiss lathes4 ,the holder shown in ,fig4 #hf at a1 is turned down to nearly the size of the screw for the lathe1 and the screw is cut so the holder will set as close as possible to the lathe4 ,the face of the holder is then turned perfectly true4 ,put the wheel to be centered in cap c1 as near to the center as convenient1 and then screw on b4 ,then place the cemented face of chuck b against the face of holder a on the lathe1 and with a lamp warm the cement between the surfaces1 holding the chuck by means of a pegwood against the pivot of the wheel in the cap c1 and it will move to an exact center as soon as warmed sufficiently4 ,new cement should be added occasionally between the surfaces1 as the old cement hardens and burns away1 and does not center as well as when new4 ,fig4 #he shows chuck with wheel inside ready for centering and drilling4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 #bfe4 ,the gem patent pivoting chuck1 shown in ,figs4 #hg and #hh1 is intended as a substitute for wax when performing pivoting and like work4 ,by the means of the ball b1 placed between the two sliding sockets c1 c1 with the several other parts as represented in ,fig4 #hg1 a combination of sliding and ball and socket movements1 in connection with a spring pump-center is obtained4 ,a set of ten or more supplementary chucks g1 with different sizes of center holes1 and attachment n for all sizes of wheels1 are furnished with each chuck4 ,the supplementary chuck g1 in the form of a small split chuck1 is made to fit into a hole with taper mouth1 in the center of the ball b1 and is drawn into place and the work fastened firmly in it by means of the binding nut m1 which screws on to a projection extending outward from the front of the ball4 ,to use this chuck1 proceed as follows3 ,remove the nut m1 and give freedom to the working parts by loosening the large back nut k4 ,then to bring the hole through the ball b into line1 spin the ball to center1 first at the base of the projecting screw and then at the mouth of the hole through it1 and in this position again fasten the parts1 by tightening the nut k4 ,then give freedom to the pump-center by slightly loosening the set screw j4 ,when doing this1 hold your finger against the front of the chuck1 to prevent the center rod from shooting out of its place when freed4 ,then having placed a supplementary chuck g1 of proper size1 in its place in the chuck1 and your work in it1 with its back end resting properly in the countersink in the end of the pump-center1 fasten it there by screwing the cap m down snugly over it1 using a small lever pin when necessary for the purpose1 but not with undue force4 ,then again loosen the nut k1 and spin the work to center at its outer end2 and then tighten both the nut k and set screw j4 ,in tightening the set screw j1 make sure it is so tightened as to prevent the pump-center from slipping from place when working4 ,if from tightening the screw j1 it is found that the work has been thrown in any degree away from true center1 loosen the nut k1 leaving the pump-center fast1 and again spin to center and fasten as before4 ,after a little practice this can all be done in a few seconds1 and the work brought to absolute center4 ,in using attachment n1 for wheels1 the nut m and chuck g are removed1 and n is substituted therefor2 the work being held on the face of the attachment by flat-headed screws that grip the arms of the wheel4 ,for cylinder escape wheels a special attachment n is furnished4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 #bff4 ,fig4 #hi illustrates a crown chuck1 which is used for holding crowns while undergoing repairs4 ,the ,dale chuck shown in ,fig4 #hi is made on the lines of the ordinary split wire chuck1 a large recess being turned in the end for the reception of the crown4 ,the ,johanson chuck is illustrated in ,fig4 #ij1 and is quite different in construction1 a ball-shaped cap with right hand thread screwing down onto the body of the chuck1 thus holding the crown from the outside1 while a screw-center with left hand thread1 holds it firmly from the inside4 ,this chuck is made in two patterns1 one for use in a ,no4 #dj wire chuck1 as shown in ,fig4 #ij1 and the other is mounted on a regular chuck and is ready to insert into the lathe-head the same as an ordinary wire chuck4 ,,the ,,slide ,,rest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4 #bfg4 ,the slide rest is an expensive but very useful adjunct to the lathe4 ,it is used so extensively in this country1 however1 that a full description of it seems superfluous4 ,fig4 #ia is a fair example of a modern slide rest for the ,american lathe4 ,the tool-holder varies with the different makers1 but the rests proper are all made on the same general principles1 that of two sliding beds working at right angles to each other1 and carrying a tool-holder1 capable of being raised or lowered or set at any desired angle4 #bfh4 ,brass is easily turned with the slide-rest in an ordinary lathe arranged for the purpose1 but the turning of steel demands more care in setting the cutter so as to obtain the best cutting edge as well as in determining the point of application of the tool4 ,preliminary trials must be made1 and the following remarks will be of service as a guide4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 #bfi4 ,engineers use a hooked tool to a very great extent for both planing and turning4 ,both experience and reasoning point to the conclusion that a tool of the form b or d ,fig4 #ib1 possesses many recommendations1 and numerous designs of hooked tools more or less resembling these figures are employed with advantage2 the tool occupies the best possible position in reference to the surface it is required to cut1 and the cutting edge is both sharp and solid4 ,it will be evident that a certain relation exists between the cutting angle and the point of application of the tool to the cylindrical object that is being turned1 and this it is necessary to determine4 ,with a hooked tool1 as with the ordinary slide-rest cutter1 a cutting angle which is too acute will wear away rapidly2 when too obtuse1 the tool scrapes and will only act when considerable pressure is applied4 ,in conclusion1 it is clear that in forming or re-grinding any tool for cutting a surface1 it must be so arranged that its edge makes the least possible angle with the surface that is consistent with the securing of a sufficient degree of resistance to the cohesion and the hardness of metal operated upon2 in other words1 the end of the tool must be almost tangential to the circumference of the object1 and the angle of the cutting edge must be obtained by removing metal from the top face of the tool4 ,these principles are applicable to all tools for metals2 to the blades of drills as well as to the cutting edges of gravers1 etc4 #bgj4 ,the angle of the cutting edge of the tool used in the slide rest for steel should be less than that employed for operating on brass4 ,according to ,holtzapffel1 it may vary in the former case from #fj to #hj and1 in the latter case1 #gj to #ij1 according as the tool is required for rough turning or finishing4 #fj and #hj may1 however1 be taken as convenient angles in the cases respectively4 ,simple methods of ensuring that the cutting edge has any required angle are described in article #cif4 ,the velocity with which the lathe revolves should also be less when turning steel1 and care must be taken that both the tool and object are constantly moistened with oil4 ,it is sometimes desirable to arrange a small dropping-can for the purpose of keeping up the supply2 this may be easily done by placing a can containing the fluid above the level of the work and allowing a piece of lamp-wick1 previously moistened1 to hang from it so as to almost touch the work3 a continuous series of drops will fall1 owing to the influence of capillarity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 #bga4 ,when roughing out work it is best that the cutter first travel perpendicular to the object1 from a towards b1 ,fig4 #ic1 and then in the direction of the arrow4 ,the corner a should only be used for finishing an internal angle or for roughing it out1 and1 in this latter case1 the cutter must advance along a b and be withdrawn from the metal in the direction of the arrow4 ,the small face at the end1 a c1 should be narrow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 #bgb4 ,forms of slide-rest cutters4 ,the usual forms of cutters for use in the slide-rest are shown in ,figs4 #id and #ie4 ,a and ,a are respectively the plan and side view of the most common form4 ,two inclined planes i n and d c are formed on the left-hand and under sides4 ,the point on which they terminate is cut off square1 a cutting edge1 which is more or less acute according to the metal to be operated upon1 being obtained by a third incline c n4 ,the width of the square cutting edge1 indicated at n in figure ,a1 varies according to the metal to be operated upon1 as well as this incline c n4 ,it is advisable to be provided with at least half-a-dozen cutters of this form1 with edges of varying width and inclination1 and even this number is often found insufficient2 cutters for steel should never be used in turning brass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,a cutter may be sharpened in the usual manner for ordinary work2 but if it is desired to produce very smooth sinks1 etc41 one that has been carefully polished must be used for the final cut4 ,the blade should cut with both its edges2 the straight edge will serve to form right-angled corners of sinks1 while the other edge will form bevels4 ,it is hardly necessary to add that1 when a square corner formed by the first of these edges requires to be beveled by the second1 the lathe must rotate in the opposite direction and the cutter be passed over to the opposite side of the center4 #bgc4 ,c1 in the same figure1 is a rounded cutter for making circular grooves4 ,f1 ,fig4 #ie1 is for cutting the groove that receives a barrel-cover4 ,j and ,v are for forming the 8tallow-drop0 shoulders of pivot-holes1 etc4 ,it will doubtless be observed that these cutters would form nipples that are dome-shaped and relatively somewhat high1 and1 for small pivot-holes1 the blade would require to be narrower and of a shape that corresponds with the nipple it is desired to produce4 ,l is for rounding off angles4 ,s is a convenient shape for smoothing the bottom of a barrel without damage to the hook4 ,t has a square point2 it is used narrow for cutting1 for example1 the passage under the escape-wheel cock in a cylinder watch1 and1 when made wider1 will serve to cut the settings for jewels4 ,in the latter case it may either be square at the end or a little rounded at the corners4 ,in addition to the use indicated above1 ,v can be employed for raising the edge of a jewel setting4 #bgd4 ,sharpening slide-rest tools4 ,a flat surface turned in the lathe will never be even unless the cutting face n in ,a ,fig4 #id1 is smooth1 and indeed polished1 and its edge parallel to the face-plate4 ,some care is therefore necessary in sharpening this face4 ,the requisite parallelism can be secured by the following method4 #bge4 ,sharpen the tool while it is held in the tool represented in ,fig4 #if4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,on a thick brass plate l and parallel to its plane at one extremity b1 a plate p is pivoted4 ,the inclination of p to l can be varied and it is fixed in any required position by the curved arc passing under the clamping screw j4 ,a small bar c is fixed to l with its edge set accurately at right angles to the line at b in which the two planes intersect4 ,an examination of the figure will suffice to indicate the manner in which such a tool is used4 ,having set p so that it makes with l the angle to be given to the cutting face1 the cutter b is held against the bar c1 where it may be fixed with a screw v1 or in any convenient manner1 taking care to leave the portion of the cutter that is to be removed projecting beyond the face of p as shown at b4 ,now pass a piece of smooth oilstone or disc of steel charged with oilstone dust over the face of p until the projecting portion is removed2 if a polished face is required1 this must be succeeded by a bronze or ground glass disc charged with rouge4 ,if the plate p is of sufficient dimensions1 it will not be distorted1 even though only made of hammered brass2 but it would of course be better made of steel1 hardened if possible4 #bgf4 ,if the watchmaker will make a rectangular holder to fit in his tool post1 with a square groove planed in its upper side that will fit some particular size of tool steel1 say one-fourth or three-sixteenths of an inch1 he can then buy bar steel of that size and make his cutters by simply cutting off a piece from the bar and grinding one end to the desired shapes and angles1 thus saving a vast amount of time and labor in the preparation of his tools1 facilitating their rapid interchange in the tool post1 when working1 and securing the greatest possible rigidity of the tool1 as the cutting edge projects from the holder only far enough to allow the holder to clear the work4 ,,gravers ,,and ,,other ,,hand-,,turning ,,tools4 #bgg4 ,hooked gravers4 ,it is needless to do more than mention the gravers that some watchmakers are in the habit of making of worn-out files1 of various forms to suit their special requirements2 but we would remind learners that care is essential in fixing the position of the rest and the inclination that has to be given to the tool so as to obtain a smooth surface1 and at the same time a rapid removal of metal4 ,the most usual forms of the hooked graver are shown in ,fig4 #ig4 ,a will serve to hollow out a plate1 barrel1 etc42 ,b for turning the bottom of a barrel without touching the hook2 ,c for forming a barrel-cover groove after it has been roughed out with an ordinary graver4 ,the bottom of a barrel can also be turned with a graver of the form ,d held on the ,t-rest at right angles to the bottom1 and a slide-rest cutter can be made of this form with advantage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,some workmen incline the end cutting face of ,a slightly backwards from the perpendicular to d d1 fearing lest1 in sharpening1 it should accidentally be made to incline in the other direction1 and so make it difficult to form internal square corners4 #bgh4 ,gravers for turning square shoulders1 etc4 ,very few watchmakers are able to finish off a square shoulder by using a graver with the usual point2 as a rule1 when they are smoothing the surface of the pivot they allow the point to cut a ring in the shoulder1 and if1 instead of being sharp1 the point is dull1 a rough groove is the result4 ,to avoid such a fault it is a common practice to employ gravers with very short faces1 but their inconvenience is evident4 ,it is much better to retain the long lozenge-shaped face1 but with the point modified1 as indicated by ,b or ,c1 ,fig4 #ih4 ,the ordinary point1 shown at ,a1 can be used for cutting the back slope of a shoulder1 ,b for forming the square-shouldered pivot1 and ,c for beveled shoulders4 ,the inclination of the face e d of ,b may vary1 the angle e being more or less acute1 according as more or less use is required to be made of the point4 ,this form of graver has the double advantage that a pivot can be turned and smoothed at one operation1 very little polishing being needed4 ,moreover1 the point is less fragile1 and such a graver combines the advantages of those with pointed and square ends4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,the length of this small face depends on the work required of it1 thus for making a cylinder pivot it may be about a third the length of the pivot2 this is found convenient for ensuring that the pivot shall be of uniform diameter4 ,the direction to be given to the face is indicated by the dotted line e d1 and a lozenge-shaped graver is preferable to one of square section for this purpose4 ,this direction e d is very important1 and frequent trials should be made so as to ensure its being always produced4 ,the form ,c for beveling off a shoulder does not call for explanation4 ,although of less importance than when turning with the slide-rest1 the cutting angle of the graver should correspond with the nature of the metal operated on4 ,in reference to this question see article #bgj4 #bgi4 ,spherical turning tool4 ,a very simple and convenient tool for forming a sphere of metal may be made by taking a hardened steel tube whose internal diameter is less than that of the sphere to be produced4 ,this is ground square and flat at one end1 and sharpened by rubbing this flat end on an oilstone4 ,the tool is moved about over the surface of the ball1 previously roughed out1 and a perfect sphere will soon be obtained1 the metal being removed by the internal edge of the tube4 ,if a steel tube is not accessible it will be enough to drill a hole in the end of a softened worn-out file1 subsequently hardening it4 ,,drills4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4 #bhj4 ,the forms ordinarily adopted for the blades of drills are shows at ,a and ,c1 ,fig4 #ii4 ,the form ,c is best suited for perforating brass and other metals having a similar degree of hardness4 ,the blade must not be too thick1 as1 if it were1 there would not be a sufficient cutting edge4 ,as the hardness of the metal operated on is greater1 the thickness of the blade must proportionately increase1 or what amounts to the same1 the two slopes that give the cutting edges must have a less degree of inclination4 ,if this condition of sufficient thickness be satisfied by a drill of the form ,c1 it will perforate steel very well1 but its point will rapidly wear4 ,when operating on this metal1 therefore1 the form ,a is preferable1 especially when the steel is at all hard4 ,such a drill with the corners rounded off and sharpened will last for a long time1 if the cutting angles are not too acute4 ,if the metal is not hard1 more rapid progress may be made by adopting a blade less flattened than ,a1 that is to say1 something intermediate between ,a and ,c4 ,a drill may be asserted to be good if it satisfies the following conditions3 the point must be in the middle of the blade2 it must be made of good steel that is carefully hardened1 without being heated beyond the proper temperature2 lastly1 it must be quite true--in other words1 in rotating it must run with sufficient truth throughout its entire length1 so that it withstands the end pressure required to cause it to bite1 and does not bend4 #bha4 ,it must not be forgotten that3 7#a7 if a drill is driven too rapidly it will heat1 and thus become softened as though too much tempered2 it is with a view to prevent this that1 when operating upon iron or steel1 many workmen now and then dip the drill into a cold liquid 7turpentine is good for this purpose71 dry it1 and recommence drilling1 the hole being liberally supplied with oil2 7#b7 when the blade is left too hard1 the cutting edge too acute1 or if a feather edge has been left by the oilstone1 small hard particles that are detached from the drill will embed themselves in the hole1 and this will be especially the case if it is worked too rapidly or with jerks2 such particles render the operation of drilling very slow and difficult4 #bhb4 ,to drill steel of a blue temper4 ,at first not much difficulty will be experienced2 but when the drill reaches a certain depth and the metal seems to oppose a gradually increasing resistance1 the operation must at once be stopped4 ,if the blade of the drill be now examined with a glass1 it will be easy to see which points have ceased to cut1 producing instead a series of bright rings at the bottom of the hole that are very difficult to remove4 ,exchange the drill for one of a different form or1 without reducing its width1 change the form of the blade2 if it was arrow-headed for example1 make it a semicircle1 or semi-oval1 or chisel-shaped with sloping edges4 ,all that is essential is that the form be so changed that the bright portions of the surface shall be gradually removed1 and that no attempt be made to act on the whole bright surface at once4 ,until this hard portion is removed1 the blade will require frequent sharpening4 ,some authorities recommend that the hole be moistened from time to time with dilute nitric acid1 which is then washed off1 and renewed when a shiny surface is produced4 ,oil can with advantage be replaced by turpentine as a lubricant for the drill blade4 ,the formation of hard shining surfaces is attributed to three causes3 7#a7 to the cutting edge being rounded1 rolling as it were and hardening the surface of the metal against which it continues to move2 7#b7 to the drill being made of bad steel or imperfectly hardened1 so that small particles break off and are embedded in the metal operated upon2 and 7#c7 to a deficiency in the supply of oil1 or an excessive velocity of rotation of the drill4 ,these difficulties may usually be avoided by observing the following precautions3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 #bhc4 ,blade of the drill4 ,this should be neither as thin nor as acute as is used for drilling brass4 ,its angle should never be less than #ajj and the incline should be at about #de4 ,the forms generally employed are shown in ,fig4 #ajj1 at ,a1 ,b and ,c4 ,at first the form ,a is used1 and1 as the operation progresses1 it is modified with an oilstone slip4 #bhd4 ,drilling slowly with considerable pressure4 ,if the drill rotates too rapidly or there is not sufficient oil1 the surfaces of contact will be heated and shining rings will form4 ,it is well to practice slightly1 varying the speed of the wheel1 in accordance with the pressure applied2 the speed should be more decided when the pressure is1 for the instant comparatively great4 ,with continuous rotation1 considerable pressure should be applied with moderate velocity4 ,constantly remove the drill to sharpen1 clean the hole and have an abundant supply of oil4 ,whatever liquid is most effective in maintaining the drill cool will probably be the best2 turpentine is better than oil1 since it has the additional advantage of increasing the 8bite0 of the drill4 #bhe4 ,the part against which the drill acts should be very rigid4 ,for example1 if a hole is being made for a pivot in a cylinder plug which is not provided with a shellac backing1 and is1 therefore1 flexible1 the operation will be more tedious than when the cylinder is filled with shellac4 ,the firmness is usually greater when the object is centered about the point to which the drill is applied4 #bhf4 ,making the drill4 ,the very best steel should be used1 and the precautions indicated in article #hg should be taken in the hardening4 ,if the steel is burnt in this process1 no satisfactory results are to be expected of it4 ,to avoid such a danger it is often advisable to leave the blade nearly round and thicker than is required1 finishing with a piece of oilstone4 ,although somewhat more tedious1 this method has the advantage of ensuring that1 after hardening1 all the metal that is most liable to have been burnt is removed4 ,the drill must be short1 the blade being thick and not much reduced at the shoulder1 in order to stand pressure when in use4 ,a drill that has been several times hardened is rarely good4 #bhg4 ,finished drills4 ,we would here draw the attention of watchmakers to some beautifully made drills that have been introduced and are known in the trade as 8finished0 drills1 in contra-distinction to the well known pivot drills that are always sold in the rough4 ,they are of two forms1 corresponding to ,a and ,c1 ,fig4 #ii1 for steel and brass respectively2 they are made of the best steel1 carefully hardened and tempered to the requisite degree2 and a principal recommendation consists in the fact that1 while being moderate in price1 they are of definite graduated sizes1 extending from #j4a mm4 to #b4e mm4 7#j4jjd to #j4a inch71 a range which comprises #cg distinct sizes4 #bhh4 ,semi-cylindrical drills4 ,these drills give excellent results when driven by a wheel1 and1 although they have been long in use by engineers1 they are hardly known to watchmakers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,the simplest form is a cylindrical rod rounded at its end and then filed down to a trifle less than half its thickness1 as seen at b d and l i1 ,fig4 #aja4 ,the length of the point is greater or less according to the nature of the metal to be operated upon1 but under no circumstances must the point itself be sharp4 ,with the form shown at b d1 some of the rod that is left cylindrical must be partially filed away2 a better shape is indicated by the dotted lines1 all the metal being removed that is outside the line i l4 ,with such a drill the hole is smoothed immediately after it is made by one or the other cutting edge of the portion i l4 ,it should be sharpened on the round1 not on the flat surface 7or at any rate very slightly71 because the thickness would be rapidly reduced and the blade made smaller4 ,when such a drill does not turn true the back of the blade can be reduced1 starting from the cutting edge1 it being observed that1 with the continuous motion of the wheel1 only one edge acts4 ,after a few trials it will be found easy to use this form of drill4 ,it possesses this very great advantage3 when fixed in a drill-chuck1 it can be turned exactly round1 of the required diameter and finished2 so that1 whenever replaced in the chuck1 one can be certain beforehand that the hole drilled will be of a definite diameter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 #bhi4 ,fig4 #ajb1 shows1 at ,c and ,d1 another form of semi-cylindrical drill2 the first1 ,c1 is a front and the second a side view4 ,the angle a is formed by a sloping semicircle and the stem of the drill is of less diameter than the head1 as indicated by the shoulder j4 ,the angle t s r and the one between the face ,d and the plane b a must not be too acute4 ,this drill works evenly1 but two conditions must be satisfied2 it must be maintained perfectly true by the chuck1 and1 in commencing1 both sides of the blade must engage against the sides of a conical opening that forms the beginning of a hole which has to be enlarged4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 #bij4 ,at ,f and ,n ,m1 ,fig4 #ajc1 are seen front and side views of another form of drill4 ,while acting in a similar manner to the others described above1 it differs from them in that the blade also cuts with its two sides2 the edges1 p1 i1 i1 o1 are sloped off backwards to form cutting angles4 ,the shape is indicated to the right of ,m1 this portion being the exact inverse of the side ,n4 ,as with the drills previously considered1 a few trials must be made to decide upon the best slopes for the cutting angles1 etc41 according to the metal operated upon4 ,they may be retained as left by the lathe1 or very slightly inclined1 on the faces p and i4 ,all these forms of drills require to be mounted so as to run very true4 ,the point o must be accurately central4 ,a hole that has been already drilled small can be rapidly enlarged by such a drill as this last1 the pin o1 having the same diameter as the one originally drilled4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 #bia4 ,the ,twist ,drill4 ,the ,morse twist drill1 shown in ,fig4 #ajd1 is rapidly coming into favor with watchmakers for the heavier classes of work1 and is very desirable when drilling deeply1 as this form of drill heats slowly and the particles are carried to the surface of the work4 ,a large range of sizes in these drills are now carried in stock by the material dealers4 ,,lathe ,,attachments4 #bib4 ,tailstocks4 ,besides the regular tailstock which accompanies the ,american lathe there are several other varieties made for use on special kinds of work4 ,fig4 #aje illustrates the half open tailstock which is cut away so that the spindles can be laid in1 instead of being passed through the holes4 ,the fixture will be found exceedingly convenient when several spindles are to be used for drilling1 counterboring and chamfering4 ,fig4 #ajf illustrates the screw tailstock1 an attachment which is very convenient for all kinds of heavy drilling1 the spindle being moved by a screw with hand-wheel attached4 ,fig4 #ajg illustrates the traverse spindle tailstock1 which will be found very convenient for straight drilling and especially where the watchmaker has considerable drilling to do4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 #bic4 ,jeweling ,caliper ,rest4 ,although this tool was invented and manufactured for the purpose of cutting jewel settings it may be used to great advantage in countersinking for screw heads1 opening wheels for pinions or bushings1 etc4 ,the sliding jaws of the calipers should be so adjusted that when the swinging part is brought back snugly against them1 the front cutting edge of the cutter in the sliding spindle will exactly line with the center of the lathe spindle4 ,then if the calipers are at the right height1 when a jewel or jewel setting is placed in the jaws of the caliper it will move the edge of the cutter outward from the lathe center just half the diameter of the jewel then in the caliper and the cutting made at that distance from the center will exactly coincide with the size of the jewel to be set4 ,if however1 when set and worked as above1 it is found that the hole cut is too large for the jewel1 it will indicate that the calipers are too low down and should be raised1 provision for which is made in the construction of the tool4 ,upon the other hand1 if the cutting is found too small to fit1 it will indicate the calipers should be lowered4 ,the final cutting for the jewel seat should be made by running the center straight inward from the face of the plate2 the adjustable stop screw on the back end of the sliding spindle1 serving to gauge the depth of the cutting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4 #bid4 ,pivot ,polishers4 ,the pivot polisher is used for grinding and polishing conical and straight pivots and shoulders4 ,it is also used for drilling1 polishing or snailing steel wheels1 milling out odd places in plate or bridge1 where only a part of a circle is to be removed1 etc4 ,in the style shown in ,fig4 #aji1 the ,american ,watch ,tool ,co4's polisher1 and ,fig4 #aaj1 the ,moseley pattern1 the circular base is graduated to degrees and the fixture can be set at any angle4 ,the spindle has a taper hole for drill chucks1 which makes the fixture very useful for drilling either in the center or eccentric and by using the graduations on the pulley of the headstock an accurately spaced circle of holes may be drilled4 ,fig4 #aaa illustrates the polisher made by the ,faneuil ,watch ,tool ,company1 and is intended to be mounted on the slide rest4 ,fig4 #aab illustrates the ,johanson pivot polisher and in general principle is like the others4 ,this style is made both for use on the slide rest and also for the hand rest4 ,when used in the latter1 a stud1 shown in ,fig4 #aac1 is screwed into the base plate and supports the tool in the hand rest1 so as to be readily adjustable in any direction4 ,when used in the slide rest1 this stud is removed and the plate clamped between two hollow cylindrical supports by a stud which is slipped into the groove of the slide rest and fasted by a nut at the top1 the whole forming a turret-like mount of great strength and upon which the machine can be readily swiveled in any direction4 ,in general1 polishers are used as follows3 ,after the pivot is turned to proper shape1 put on your polisher1 with the lap back of the pivot1 usually the cast iron lap first4 ,a square-cornered lap for square shoulders and a round-cornered lap for conical pivots4 ,the laps for conical pivots can be readily cornered with a fine file1 and cross-ground with fine oilstone to remove any lines made by graver or files4 ,lines on the end can be removed the same way1 or by means of the fingers often rubbing them on a piece of ground glass which has on it a paste of oilstone powder and oil1 well mixed4 ,oilstone powder and oil used on the lap1 or ,no4 #a crocus will rough out the work well4 ,when roughed out to your liking1 wipe off the oilstone powder or crocus and with a little oil touch the pivot gently2 repeat the second time4 ,then change lap for one of boxwood or brass and use crocus ,no4 #d1 very fine1 and ground down to a paste4 ,proceed as with the first lap1 being careful at all times to keep the lap properly oiled and not pressed too hard against the work1 particularly in the last operation4 ,be sparing of your grinding and polishing material as a little will accomplish as much work as a large quantity and do it better4 ,bring the lap up carefully against the work until spread all the way around1 then proceed1 bearing in mind that grinding is not polishing1 and that to polish nicely the work and lap must be very nearly the same shape4 ,fig4 #aad illustrates the ,hardinge pivot polisher1 which is a hand polisher and much more simple in construction and use than those mentioned above4 ,it is attached to the lathe bed the same as the ,t or hand rest4 ,polishing and grinding slips are furnished with this attachment1 as with the others4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4 #bie4 ,centering ,attachments or ,back ,rests4 ,these attachments are very useful in rapidly bringing work to an accurate center1 when pivoting1 staffing1 etc41 and particularly where a large number of pieces have to be centered successively4 ,fig4 #aae illustrates the ,potter patent self-centering lathe attachment which is made to fit any pattern of ,american lathe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,it consists principally of the slide bed pieces ,r and ,d1 the upright plate ,a and the reversible anti-friction sliding jaws ,o ,u ,v ,x4 ,the upright plate ,a is attached to the slide ,d in such a way that it may be readily raised or lowered1 or adjusted in any other direction at pleasure2 and may be set with either side facing the lathe-head4 ,the sliding jaws are made of phosphor bronze anti-friction metal and four sets1 of three in a set1 are furnished with each attachment1 as shown at ,o1 ,u1 ,v1 ,x1 the forms differing so they may be adapted to the various kinds of watch work1 and they are operated in radial grooves in the upright plate ,a by means of the rotating lever ,l1 which moves the three jaws in and out1 to and from the center1 or opens and closes them in perfect unison4 ,one set of jaws may be withdrawn and another set substituted therefor in a few moments4 ,with each change of the jaws1 however1 the plate ,a requires readjustment1 but this too1 may be done in a few moments1 as follows3 ,having previously provided yourself with a bit of straight wire or a small steel rod1 turned to run perfectly true in your lathe1 and having fastened this in your chuck in the lathe1 loosen the nuts ,c ,c1 so as to give freedom of movement to the plate ,a2 then bring the attachment to proper position on the lathe bed and fasten it there1 after which move the sliding jaws inward until they bind tightly on the piece of straight wire held in the chuck and in this position again tighten the nuts ,c ,c4 ,once adjusted to accurate center in this way1 no further adjustment1 whatever the size of the work to be operated upon1 is required1 until you make another change of jaws4 ,in use1 the end of the work to be operated upon is placed in an accurate split chuck in the lathe1 and the chuck tightened on it1 just sufficiently to hold it in place and to rotate it1 the other end being supported in the central bearing1 formed by the sliding jaws4 ,in this position the jaws may be opened or closed as often as desired1 and each time they will bring the work to accurate center4 ,a similar attachment to the one above described is extensively used by machinists and is known as the back rest4 ,in principle it is very similar1 but is more simple in construction1 and ambitious workmen can make them without difficulty4 ,this attachment1 which is shown in ,fig4 #aaf1 differs in its mode of fastening to the lathe bed and the jaws cannot be opened and closed at one time as in the ,potter attachment4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,the illustration shows the rest in position on the lathe bed1 looking from the right-hand end of bed2 m shows the base1 looking from above1 in direction of arrow k2 d shows bolt for binding it to the lathe bed4 ,it does not seem as though it needed much explanation1 as it will be readily seen that the head d of bolt1 passes up through the longitudinal slot in the lathe bed1 through the round hole in base of back rest and is slipped back into slot m1 when about half a turn of nut g binds it firmly to the bed4 ,the washer h1 on the end of the binding screw1 is riveted or soldered in place and should be close enough to nut g to allow only about half a turn to loosen the bolt1 as that is sufficient1 and more space would occasion a loss of time in running the nut back and forth to bind or loosen the rest4 ,it will be seen that when the nut g is slackened1 it binds against the washer h1 and it will stay there1 and be just where you want it when you are ready to use it again4 ,the jaws are of hard brass2 about three sets1 with points of different widths1 will cover a large range of work4 ,those shown in ,fig4 #aaf are suitable for such work as pivoting small ,french clock pinions1 etc4 ,it will be observed that the jaws are so made that they may be changed by slightly loosening the screws4 ,the screw heads should have thin steel washers under them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4 #bif4 ,universal ,head4 ,the universal head has entirely superseded the clumsy universal mandrel in this country4 ,the example shown in ,fig4 #aag is more accurate1 less clumsy and complicated and will perform all the work that can be performed on the universal mandrel4 ,the face-plate is #c inches in diameter1 but by the use of the two crescent-shaped slots it will hold anything in size and shape of watch work4 ,the pump center is operated from the back by the rubber knob and can be used either with or without a spring4 ,the jaws1 which will pass the center1 are held in position on face of plate by springs and are fastened from the back4 ,peep holes are provided in these heads in order that the workman may examine the back of the work at all times4 ,in the ,moseley head1 shown in ,fig4 #aag1 these holes are of taper form4 ,fig4 #aah shows a universal face-plate to be used in a chuck in the lathe4 ,it is smaller and less expensive than the universal head and answers very well for some work1 especially that of the lighter kind1 but cannot be recommended as highly as the universal head1 as it is not so accurate4 ,the pump center is used to center1 from the back1 any object confined in the jaws1 but it sometimes becomes necessary to mount the object1 by means of wax1 upon a plate1 and hold the plate in the jaws4 ,in such a case the work must necessarily be centered from the front4 ,this can be done accurately by means of a piece of pegwood1 as ordinarily done on the lathe1 by placing the point in the center hole and the pegwood resting on the ,t-rest and observing if the free end of the pegwood remains stationary4 #big4 ,traverse ,spindle ,grinder4 ,this tool will be found very useful for grinding cutters1 lathe centers1 pump centers1 reamers1 countersinks1 squaring up barrel arbors after hardening1 or work on any hardened steel tool4 ,in the hands of an ingenious workman1 it will be found exceedingly useful1 as by its aid a great variety of work can be performed that cannot be accomplished without it4 ,fig4 #aai is intended to be attached to the slide rest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4 #bih4 ,milling ,fixture4 ,this attachment1 which is shown in ,fig4 #abj is designed to be fitted to the slide rest and holds the wire chuck vertically under the center of the lathe1 so that articles held in the chucks can be fed under mills or saws held in the saw arbor in the lathe-head4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4 #bii4 ,wheel ,cutters4 ,the wheel cutter is a valuable addition to the lathe4 ,several different styles of these attachments are made1 each possessing points of merit4 ,they are designed for cutting all kinds of wheels and pinions used in key and stem-wind watches4 ,when the cutter spindle is vertical the belt runs directly to it from the countershaft1 but when horizontal1 the belt passes over idler pulleys held above the lathe4 ,one style of wheel-cutting attachment is shown in ,fig4 #aba1 while another style is shown in ,fig4 #ga4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 #cjj4 ,rounding-up ,attachment4 ,the ,webster rounding up attachment1 shown in ,fig4 #abb1 is a very useful adjunct to the lathe4 ,it is attached to the top of the slide-rest4 ,to operate1 a pointed taper chuck is put in the lathe spindle4 ,the wheel to be rounded up is put into the fixture and the wheel adjusted vertically so that the point of the lathe center will be at the center of the thickness of the wheel1 after which the lower spindle of the fixture should not be moved4 ,now remove the wheel1 also the taper chuck1 and put the saw arbor1 with the rounding-up center1 in the lathe spindle1 and adjust the longitudinal slide of the slide-rest so that the rounding-up cutter will be back of and in line with the center of the rounding-up fixture1 after which the longitudinal slide of the slide-rest should not be moved4 ,now put the wheel and supporting collet in place1 and proceed with the rounding-up4 ,,miscellaneous ,,small ,,tools4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4 #cja4 ,screw ,head ,sink ,cutter4 ,this is usually made in the form of an arbor terminating in a cutting edge similar to the rose-cutter1 but having a projecting pin from its center4 ,this tool will be found especially useful in replacing broken end-stones4 ,the jewel being set in brass1 is held by two screws1 on opposite sides1 the screw heads being let in or sunk even with the surface1 half of the screw head projecting over on the end-stone4 ,the end-stones furnished by the watch companies are not sunk for these screw heads1 but are round and of the proper diameter4 ,these cutters will cut away from the jewel setting the space to be occupied by the screw head in a very few moments and in a very perfect manner4 ,all of the watch companies do not use the same diameter of screw head in the cock and potance1 consequently you will be compelled to make separate tools for the different makes of watches4 ,with a set of five or six of these cutters you can fit any ,american watch4 ,after you have completed your set1 of say five or six cutters1 select a small brass plate and bore five or six small holes in a row1 in which the guide pins of the cutters will enter1 and then cut with the tools a number of sinks1 numbering these holes in the plate and also the arbors of the tools with corresponding numbers4 ,you will then have a plate similar to ,fig4 #abc which can then be used as a gauge for measuring the heads of screws4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,these cutters are easily made as follows3 cut off a piece of wire of the required diameter1 about one inch long1 and place it in a chuck that fits it snugly and turn one end to a center1 about #dj2 now reverse the wire in the chuck and be sure it is true2 select a drill that will pass through the screw hole in the cock or potance freely and proceed to drill a hole in the center of the end of the wire1 about of an inch deep4 ,remove from the lathe and with a sharp file and graver1 proceed to cut a series of teeth as equal and even as possible4 ,use a good strong glass while working and be sure you have every tooth sharp and perfect1 as upon this depends the quick and nice work you expect from the tool4 ,when this is well done1 proceed to temper fairly hard and polish up the outside to make it look workmanlike4 ,now select a piece of steel pivot wire1 of a size that will almost fit in the hole drilled in the end of the tool and polish down to the proper size to drive in the hole tightly4 ,allow the wire to project about of an inch1 taper the point and polish4 ,the tool is now complete and will resemble ,fig4 #abd4 ,select an end-stone of a diameter to fit tightly in the cock or potance1 as maybe required2 set the hole jewel in place and then the end-stone pressed down tightly against the hole jewel4 ,place your cutter in a chuck that fits it true2 select a smaller medium sized drill rest and place it in the tail stock spindle4 ,hold the cock1 or potance1 with the jewels in place1 against the drill rest1 level1 and proceeding to run the lathe at a fair speed1 slowly feed the cock or potance to the cutter1 the projecting pivot in the end of the cutter passing through the screw hole and acting as a guide to keep the cutter in the center of the hole4 ,caution must be exercised1 or you will cut the recess for the screw heads too deep1 as these little cutters are very deceiving and cut much faster than you would suppose4 ,in fitting an end-stone1 select one that is more than flush when the jewel hole and end-stone are in the proper position1 and after sinking the screw head as described1 turn off on the lathe almost flush or level4 ,make a small dot on one side of the end-stone as a mark or guide in replacing it4 ,remove the end-stone and proceed to polish the top of the setting on a plate glass polisher4 #cjb4 ,screw ,extractors4 ,the ,bullock ,screw ,extractor1 shown in ,fig4 #abe1 is a simple yet very valuable tool to the watchmaker who finds he has a plate in which a screw has been broken off4 ,to use this tool1 first fasten it in your vise1 then bring one end of the broken or rusted-in screw against screw center and the broken screw head against screw driver2 turn the washers so as to hold the broken screw firmly in place2 turn the plate gently and the broken screw will follow the screw driver point out of the plate4 ,it may be necessary in some instances to turn the screw driver point against the broken head with a good deal of force in order to start the screw4 ,a little benzine or kerosene applied to the screw will help to loosen it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,the ingenious workman can1 with the expenditure of a little time1 make an attachment for removing broken screws1 somewhat similar to the above4 ,take two common steel watch keys having hardened and tempered pipes--size1 four or five--having care that the squares in each are of the same size and of good depth4 ,cut off the pipes about half an inch from the end2 file up one of these for about one-half its length1 on three equal sides1 to fit one of the large split chucks of the lathe4 ,drill a hole in one of the brass centers of the lathe of sufficient size and depth1 into which insert the other key-pipe1 and fasten with a little solder4 ,soften a piece of ,stubbs' wire1 to work easily in the lathe1 and turn down for an eighth of an inch from the end to a size a little smaller than the broken screw in the plate2 finish with a conical shoulder1 for greater strength1 and cross-file the end with a fine slot or knife-edge file1 that the tool may not slip on the end of the broken screw2 cut off the wire a half inch from the end and file down to a square that will fit closely in one of the key-pipes4 ,make a second point like the first one and fit it to the other key-pipe2 harden in oil1 polish1 and temper to a dark straw color4 ,fit the brass center into the tail stock4 ,to use1 put the tools in place in the lathe1 place the broken end of the screw against the end of the point in the lathe-head2 slide up the back center and fasten the point firmly against the other end of the screw1 that it may not slip or turn2 revolve the plate slowly1 and the broken screw1 being held fast between the two points will be quickly removed4 ,to remove a broken pillar screw1 place the broken screw against the point in the lathe-head1 holding the plate firmly with the right-hand1 the pillar on a line with the lathe center2 turn the lathe-head slowly backward with the left-hand1 and the screw will be removed4 ,should the tool slip on the broken screw1 and fail to draw it out1 drill a hole in the lower or dial side of pillar1 down to the screw point 7if the size of the pillar will admit of it71 and with the second point in the back center1 remove the screw in the same manner as in the first process4 ,five or six sizes of these points will be found sufficient for the majority of these breakages that may occur4 ,it sometimes happens that a screw gets broken off in a watch plate in such a manner that it is impossible to remove it with tools without marring the plate4 ,in such an event proceed as follows3 ,put enough rain water in a glass tumbler to thoroughly cover the plate and add sulphuric acid1 until the water tastes a little sharp4 ,place the plate in the solution and allow it to remain a few hours1 when the screw will partially dissolve and drop out4 ,remove from the solution1 wash thoroughly in clean water1 then in alcohol and dry in saw dust4 ,the solution will not injure the brass plate or gilding in the slightest1 but care must be taken to remove all other screws or cemented jewels1 previous to immersion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4 #cjc4 ,roller ,remover4 ,there are numerous designs in the way of roller removers upon the market1 some of them good but many of them weak and liable to bend where the roller is very tight on the staff4 ,all points being considered1 the ,hardinge remover1 shown in ,fig4 #abf1 is perhaps the strongest and best on the market and is built on true mechanical principles4 ,the nose in the center and top of the illustration is drilled up so as to receive a balance pivot without bearing on its point1 and can be moved towards or from the two bent prongs by means of the thumb nut at the bottom of the tool4 ,the prongs can be spread apart or drawn together1 and are secured in place by means of the binding screws at the sides4 ,in using the remover the feet of the two prongs are brought under the roller and secured by the binding screws4 ,the nose is now advanced against the shoulder of the bottom pivot and the staff can be driven out without damage to either roller or staff4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4 #cjd4 ,balance ,protectors4 ,these are of two kinds and for entirely different operations4 ,the ,arrick protector1 shown in ,fig4 #abg1 is used for protecting balances while working upon the pivots while in the lathe4 ,no matter how careful a person may be1 accidents will happen1 and the least accident to a compensation balance gives the workman considerable trouble4 ,the least slip of the graver1 polisher or hand rest and great damage is the result4 ,the staff is passed through the hole in the protector1 and held in a wire chuck1 and the protector is secured to the arms of the balance by two screws4 ,the ,bullock protector1 shown in ,fig4 #abh1 is designed to protect the balance and other wheels from heat while drawing the temper from staff or pinion for the purpose of pivoting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4 #cje4 ,beat ,block4 ,this simple device obviates the necessity of marking the balance to see that it is in beat4 ,before taking off the hair spring lay it on the block1 shown in ,fig4 #abi1 turn the balance so the roller pin hits on the side the arrow points1 then turn the table so that the line comes under the stud4 ,in replacing the balance put the stud over the line and it will then beat the same as before4 ,by using this tool you also avoid getting the balance out of true4 #cjf4 ,female ,centers4 ,centers are of two kinds11 male and female4 ,the ordinary centers that accompany the lathe1 which are male centers1 are familiar to all watchmakers4 ,female centers1 however1 are not so well known among watchmakers1 and they can be used to great advantage in many operations where other and less simple attachments and means are usually resorted to4 ,you should have at least six pairs of female centers1 the largest being one-fourth of an inch in diameter1 which will accommodate as large a piece as you will wish to handle on your watch lathe1 viz3 winding arbors for clocks4 ,these female centers are made from steel tapers1 the same as male centers are made1 but instead of turning the end to a sharp point they are countersunk1 ,fig4 #acj4 ,first place the taper in a chuck and turn off the outside and end true2 drill a small hole in the center of the taper1 while the lathe is running1 and deep enough so the countersink will not reach the bottom of the hole1 or one-eighth of an inch deeper than the countersink4 ,harden the end only1 and after tempering polish off the bluing4 ,after you have made all the sizes you require1 test all of them in your lathe to make sure they did not get out of true in tempering4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,these female centers are very useful for holding or suspending any article in the lathe that is too large to be held in the split chucks4 ,pivots of clocks can be turned and polished very quickly and accurately in these centers4 ,almost any kind of large work can be done on a medium sized watchmaker's lathe by fitting to it a face plate one and three-fourths inches in diameter1 with four slots1 and fitted to a chuck with a standard taper hole to receive both male and female centers interchangeably4 ,with two styles of dogs1 almost any kind of large clock work can be readily handled4 ,these centers prove very useful for many odd jobs4 ,as an example3 ,it is a very common occurrence to hear an ,american clock beat irregularly1 caused by the escape wheel being out of round4 ,select a pair of female centers that will admit the ends of the pivots of the escape wheel snugly2 place one center in the taper chuck and the other in the tail stock spindle1 and suspend the escape pinion in these centers2 fasten on a dog1 run the lathe at a high speed and hold a fine sharp file so it will touch the teeth of the 'scape wheel slightly1 and in a moment the wheel will be perfectly round1 after which sharpen up the teeth that are too thick4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4 #cjg4 ,drill ,rest4 ,in using the lathe for drilling1 a great saving in both time and drills can be effected by using a drill rest similar to that shown in ,fig4 #aca4 ,it is well to have a half dozen different sizes1 starting at inch and increasing by inch1 for various classes of work4 ,these rests are not kept by material dealers1 but can be made by the watchmaker4 ,saw from a piece of rolled sheet brass1 say #a-af inch thick1 the circles required1 leaving metal enough to finish nicely4 ,place a steel taper plug in the taper chuck of your lathe and turn down a recess1 leaving a shoulder on the taper4 ,drill a hole through the brass plate to fit the steel taper tightly4 ,place the end of the taper on a lead block and proceed to rivet the brass plate1 on the taper1 making sure that it is true replace the taper in the lathe chuck and proceed to turn the face and edge of the brass plate perfectly true and to the proper size4 ,those who have tried to drill a straight hole through an object by holding it in the fingers know just how difficult it is to do1 but by placing one of these drill rests in the spindle of the tail stock1 placing the article to be drilled against it and bringing it up against the drill1 you can drill the hole perfectly upright and avoid all danger of breaking the drill4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4 #cjh4 ,filing ,fixture or ,rest4 ,these rests will be found very convenient in squaring winding arbors1 center squares1 etc4 ,there are several makes of these tools1 but they are all built upon the same principle1 that of two hardened steel rollers on which the file rests1 and ,fig4 #acb is a fair example4 ,one pattern is made to fit in the hand rest after the ,t is removed1 while the other is attached to the bed of the lathe in the same manner as the slide rest4 ,the piece to be squared is held in the split or spring chuck in the lathe1 and the index on the pulley is used to divide the square correctly4 ,any article can be filed to a perfect square1 hexagon or octagon as may be desired4 ,the arm carrying the rollers can be raised or lowered as required for adjustment to work of various sizes4 #cji4 ,filing ,block4 ,a contrivance made to take the place of the filing rest1 which was made of box wood or bone4 ,ide's filing fixture1 shown in ,fig4 #acc1 consists of a cylinder of hardened steel1 riveted upon a staff which in turn enters a split socket4 ,the surface of the steel cylinder is grooved with various sizes of grooves for the different sizes of wire1 or to suit any work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,fig4 #acd illustrates ,melotte's revolving bench block1 which combines both anvil and filing block4 ,no4 #a is a steel anvil which may be instantly revolved and stopped on quarters4 ,no4 #b is a rubber block1 held by friction on its arm1 and can readily be turned to any position4 ,this rubber1 being slightly elastic1 makes a very suitable filing bed for small articles of any material and may be used without risk of scratching or defacing polished surfaces4 ,no4 #c is a wooden block1 held on to its arm by a spring friction device1 which also allows it to be turned around to any desired position4 ,the three-armed hub is revolved by pulling out slightly and is automatically held perfectly firm and solid in any of the three positions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4 #caj4 ,micrometer ,caliper4 ,fig4 #ace is a full size cut of the ,brown ,sharp ,mfg4 ,co4's micrometer caliper4 ,it measures from one-thousandth of an inch to one-half inch4 ,it is graduated to read to thousandths of an inch1 but one-half and one-quarter thousandths are readily estimated4 ,this instrument is also graduated to the hundredths of a millimeter1 but when so graduated the table of decimal equivalents is omitted4 ,they are also made to read to ten thousandths of an inch4 ,the edges of the measuring surfaces are not beveled1 but are left square1 as it is more convenient for measuring certain classes of work4 ,it will gauge under a shoulder or measure a small projection on a plain surface4 ,watchmakers will especially appreciate micrometers of this form4 ,this tool will be found very useful for gauging mainsprings1 pinions1 etc4 ,in the caliper1 shown by cut1 the gauge or measuring screw is cut on the concealed part of the spindle ,c1 and moves in the thread tapped in the hub ,a2 the hollow sleeve1 or thimble ,d is attached to the spindle ,c and covers and protects the gauge screw4 ,by turning the thimble1 the screw is drawn back and the caliper opened4 ,the pitch of the screw is #dj to the inch4 ,the graduation of the hub ,a1 in a line parallel to the axis of the screw1 is #dj to the inch1 and is figured #j1 #a1 #b1 etc41 every fourth division4 ,as the graduation conforms to the pitch of the screw1 each division equals the longitudinal distance traversed by the screw in one complete rotation1 and shows that the caliper has been opened #a-djth or 4#jbe of an inch4 ,the beveled edge of the thimble ,d is graduated into #be equal parts1 and figured every fifth division #j1 #e1 #aj1 #ae1 #bj4 ,each division when passing the line of graduation on hub ,a1 indicates that the screw has made #a-beth of a turn1 and the opening of the caliper increased #a-beth of #a-djth1 or a thousandth of an inch4 ,hence1 to read the caliper1 multiply the number of divisions visible on the scale of the hub by #be1 and add the number of divisions on the scale of the thimble1 from zero to the line coincident with the line of graduation on hub4 ,for example3 ,as the caliper is set in the cut1 there are three whole divisions visible on the hub4 ,multiply this number by #be1 and add the number of divisions registered on the scale of the thimble1 which is #j in this case1 the result is seventy-five thousandths of an inch4 7#c #be #ge #j #ge74 ,these calculations are readily made mentally4 ,differences between ,wire ,gauges in ,decimal ,parts of an ,inch4 ,key3 ,a - ,no4 of ,wire ,gauge4 ,b - ,american or ,brown ,sharpe4 ,c - ,birmingham or ,stubs'4 ,d - ,washburn ,moen ,manufacturing ,co41 ,worcester1 ,mass4 ,e - ,trenton ,iron ,co41 ,trenton1 ,n4,j4 ,f - ,new ,british4 ,g - ,old ,english from ,brass ,mfrs4 ,list4 ,h - ,no4 of ,wire4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,h ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #jjjjjj ---- ---- 4#df ---- ---- ---- #jjjjjj #jjjjj ---- ---- 4#dc 4#de ---- ---- #jjjjj #jjjj 4#df 4#ded 4#cic 4#d 4#d ---- #jjjj #jjj 4#djifd 4#dbe 4#cfb 4#cf 4#cgb ---- #jjj #jj 4#cfdh 4#ch 4#cca 4#cc 4#cdh ---- #jj #j 4#cbdie 4#cd 4#cjg 4#cje 4#cbd ---- #j #a 4#bhic 4#c 4#bhc 4#bhe 4#c ---- #a #b 4#begfc 4#bhd 4#bfc 4#bfe 4#bgf ---- #b #c 4#bbidb 4#bei 4#bdd 4#bde 4#beb ---- #c #d 4#bjdca 4#bch 4#bbe 4#bbe 4#bcb ---- #d #e 4#ahaid 4#bb 4#bjg 4#bje 4#bab ---- #e #f 4#afbjb 4#bjc 4#aib 4#ai 4#aib ---- #f #g 4#addbh 4#ah 4#agg 4#age 4#agf ---- #g #h 4#abhdi 4#afe 4#afb 4#af 4#af ---- #h #i 4#aaddc 4#adh 4#adh 4#ade 4#add ---- #i #aj 4#ajahi 4#acd 4#ace 4#ac 4#abh ---- #aj #aa 4#jijgdb 4#ab 4#ab 4#aage 4#aaf ---- #aa #ab 4#jhjhjh 4#aji 4#aje 4#aje 4#ajd ---- #ab #ac 4#jgaifa 4#jie 4#jib 4#jibe 4#jib ---- #ac #ad 4#jfdjhd 4#jhc 4#jh 4#jh 4#jh 4#jhc #ad #ae 4#jegjfh 4#jgb 4#jgb 4#jg 4#jgb 4#jgb #ae #af 4#jejhb 4#jfe 4#jfc 4#jfa 4#jfd 4#jfe #af #ag 4#jdebeg 4#jeh 4#jed 4#jebe 4#jef 4#jeh #ag #ah 4#jdjhjc 4#jdi 4#jdg 4#jde 4#jdh 4#jdi #ah #ai 4#jceci 4#jdb 4#jda 4#jci 4#jd 4#jd #ai #bj 4#jcaifa 4#jce 4#jce 4#jcd 4#jcf 4#jce #bj #ba 4#jbhdfb 4#jcb 4#jcb 4#jc 4#jcb 4#jcae #ba #bb 4#jbecdg 4#jbh 4#jbh 4#bg 4#jbh 4#jbie #bb #bc 4#jbbega 4#jbe 4#jbe 4#jbd 4#jbd 4#jbg #bc #bd 4#jbja 4#jbb 4#jbc 4#jbae 4#jbb 4#jbe #bd #be 4#jagi 4#jb 4#jb 4#jai 4#jb 4#jbc #be #bf 4#jaeid 4#jah 4#jah 4#jah 4#jah 4#jbje #bf #bg 4#jadaie 4#jaf 4#jag 4#jag 4#jafd 4#jahge #bg #bh 4#jabfda 4#jad 4#jaf 4#jaf 4#jadh 4#jafe #bh #bi 4#jaabeg 4#jac 4#jae 4#jae 4#jacf 4#jaee #bi #cj 4#jajjbe 4#jab 4#jad 4#jad 4#jabd 4#jacge #cj #ca 4#jjhibh 4#ja 4#jace 4#jac 4#jaaf 4#jabbe #ca #cb 4#jjgie 4#jji 4#jac 4#jab 4#jajh 4#jaabe #cb #cc 4#jjgjh 4#jjh 4#jaa 4#jaa 4#ja 4#jajbe #cc #cd 4#jjfcjd 4#jjg 4#ja 4#ja 4#jjib 4#jjie #cd #ce 4#jjefad 4#jje 4#jjie 4#jji 4#jjhd 4#jji #ce #cf 4#jje 4#jjd 4#jji 4#jjh 4#jjgf 4#jjge #cf #cg 4#jjddec ---- 4#jjhe 4#jjgbe 4#jjfh 4#jjfe #cg #ch 4#jjcife ---- 4#jjh 4#jjfe 4#jjf 4#jjege #ch #ci 4#jjceca ---- 4#jjge 4#jjege 4#jjeb 4#jje #ci #dj 4#jjcadd ---- 4#jjg 4#jje 4#jjdh 4#jjde #dj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4 #caa4 ,registering ,gauge4 ,the registering gauges shown in the illustrations are two of the best examples of this class of tools4 ,they are manufactured by ,a4 ,j4 ,logan1 ,waltham1 ,mass41 and are very accurate and nicely finished4 ,fig4 #acf is an upright and jaw gauge1 and ,fig4 #acg is designed as a jaw and depth gauge4 ,they are both made to gauge one-thousandth of a centimeter or one-thousandth of an inch4 ,fig4 #acg shows the piece of work marked ,a being gauged1 while ,b represents a sliding spindle to get the depth of a hole or recess1 or the thickness of any piece of work1 which will be indicated on the dial4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,another form of registering gauge is shown in ,fig4 #ach4 ,it is an ,english gauge and but little used in this country4 ,the principle of its construction1 however1 is good1 and any ingenious watchmaker can make it4 ,the back of the dial is recessed and arranged as in ,fig4 #aci4 ,one limb is fixed2 the other is pivoted1 and has a few rack teeth meshing into a center pinion4 ,the pinion carries the hand1 which should make a revolution in closing the calipers4 ,the spiral spring attached to the pinion is to keep it and the hand banked in one direction for shake4 ,the spring s is to keep the jaws open4 ,the milled headed screw and the clamp c are to fix the jaws in case it is required to do so4 ,a cover is snapped into the recess1 and takes the back pivot of the pinion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4 #cab4 ,staff ,gauge4 ,the tool shown in ,fig4 #adj is designed for measuring the height of the balance staff from the balance seat to the end of the top pivot4 ,the illustration is enlarged to give more distinctness4 ,e ,e is a piece of curved steel about of an inch thick1 and of an inch wide4 ,on the lower side from ,e to the end1 the arm is filed down in width and thickness to correspond to an ordinary balance arm2 ,c is a slot in the upper arm ,e1 which allows ,a1 ,b1 ,d1 ,a to be moved backward and forward4 ,d ,d is a round brass post drilled and tapped4 ,the part ,d has a thread cut on it1 and the part shown in the slot ,c fits with easy friction4 ,b is a lock-nut1 drilled and tapped to fit the thread on ,d4 ,it is for the purpose of clamping ,d ,d against the arm ,e4 ,a ,a is a small steel screw with milled head1 and is made to fit the tapped hole in ,d ,d4 ,mr4 ,beeton describes his method of using this tool as follows3 ,take your measurement of the distance the balance seat is to be from the end of the top pivot1 as follows3 remove the end-stone in balance-cock1 and screw the cock on the top of the top plate 7#ah-size full plate movement72 then taking the plate in your left-hand1 and tool 7shown in ,fig4 #aci7 in your right1 place ,h in position1 so that the end of the screw ,a rests on the jewel in the balance cock1 and notice the position of the arm ,e which corresponds to the balance arm1 between the top plate and under side of the balance-cock4 ,if the distance between the arm ,e and end of screw ,a is too great1 the arm ,e will be too low and touch the plate2 if not enough1 it will be too high and touch the regulator pins4 ,therefore1 all that is necessary to do is to move the screw ,a ,a up or down as the case may be1 sufficiently to ensure that the arm ,e will assume the position the arm of the balance is to have4 ,take an #ah-size balance with oversprung hairspring1 the arm is at the bottom of the rim2 in that case1 when measuring1 the screw ,a is adjusted so as to bring the arm ,e close to the plate1 when ,a is resting on the balance jewel2 if the balance is old style with undersprung hairspring1 the balance arm is at top of rim1 in which case ,a is adjusted so that the arm ,e is close to the balance cock2 if the balance arm is in the center of the rim1 as in some ,english and ,swiss balances1 the screw ,a is adjusted so that the arm ,e is midway between the plate and cock4 ,the reason the part ,a1 ,b1 ,d1 ,a are arranged to move laterally in slot ,c is1 because all balance shoulders are not the same distance from the center1 and where1 in some cases1 the screw ,a would be in a line with the center of the staff when the arm ,e was resting on the balance seat1 in other cases it would reach past the center1 of course1 short of it2 and1 therefore1 it is made adjustable to suit all cases4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4 #cac4 ,staff or ,cylinder ,height ,gauge4 ,the obvious advantage of this tool1 which is shown at ,fig4 #ada1 is the automatic transfer of the measurement so that it may be readily applied to the work in hand4 ,the tool1 as the illustration shows1 consists of a brass tube terminating in a cone-shaped piece4 ,to the bottom of this cone is attached a disc through which a needle plays4 ,around the upper end of the tube is a collar upon which is fixed a curved steel index finger4 ,a similar jaw1 which is free to move1 works in a slot in the tube4 ,the movable jaw is tapped and is propelled by a screw that terminates in the needle point4 ,this tool is very useful in making the necessary measurements required in putting in a staff4 ,to use it in this work1 set the pivots of the gauge through the foot hole1 and upon the end-stone project the needle such a distance as you wish the shoulder to be formed above the point of the pivot4 ,next set the gauge in the foot hole as before1 and elevate the disc to a height that shall be right for the roller1 which is done by having the lever in place1 the little disc showing exactly where the roller should come4 ,finish the staff up to that point2 then take the next measurement from the end-stone to where the shoulder should be1 for the balance to rest upon4 ,this point being marked1 the staff can be reversed and measurements commenced from the upper end-stone1 by which to finish the upper end of the staff4 ,distances between the shoulders for pinions and arbors can be obtained with the same facility1 a little practice being the only requisite4 #cad4 ,vernier ,caliper4 ,fig4 #adb is an illustration of the ,vernier ,caliper1 a light1 convenient and valuable instrument for obtaining correct measurements4 ,the side represented in the illustration is graduated upon the bar to inches and fiftieths of an inch1 and by the aid of a ,vernier is read to the thousandths of an inch 7see description below74 ,the opposite side is graduated to inches and sixty-fourths of an inch4 ,the outside of the jaws are of suitable form for taking inside measurements1 and when the jaws are closed1 measure two hundred and fifty thousandths of an inch in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4 ,these instruments can be furnished with millimeters 7in the place of sixty-fourths of an inch71 and provided with a ,vernier to read to one-fiftieth of a millimeter4 ,on the bar of the instrument is a line of inches numbered #a1 #b1 #c1 each inch being divided into tenths1 and each tenth into five parts1 making fifty divisions to one inch4 ,upon the sliding jaw is a line of divisions 7called a ,vernier1 from the inventor's name71 of twenty parts1 figured #j1 #e1 #aj1 #ae1 #bj4 ,these twenty divisions on the ,vernier correspond to extreme length with nineteen parts1 or nineteen-fiftieths on the bar1 consequently each division on the ,vernier is smaller than each division on the bar by one-thousandth of an inch4 ,if the sliding jaw of the caliper is pushed up to the other1 so that the line #j on the ,vernier corresponds with #j on the bar1 then the next two lines on the left will differ from each other one-thousandth of an inch1 and so the difference will continue to increase one-thousandth of an inch for each division till they again correspond on the twentieth line on the ,vernier4 ,to read the distance the caliper may be open1 commence by noticing how many inches1 tenths and parts of tenths the zero point on the ,vernier has been moved from the zero point on the bar4 ,then count upon the ,vernier the number of divisions until one is found which coincides with one on the bar1 which will be the number of thousandths to be added to the distance read off on the bar4 ,the best way of expressing the value of the divisions on the bar is to call the tenths one hundred thousandths 74#ajj7 and the fifths of tenths1 or fiftieths1 twenty thousands 74#jbj74 ,referring to the accompanying cut1 it will be seen that the jaws are open one-tenth of an inch1 which is equal to one hundred thousandths 74#ajj74 ,suppose now1 the sliding jaw was moved to the left1 so that the first line on the ,vernier would coincide with the next line on the bar1 this would then make twenty thousandths 74#jbj7 more to be added to one hundred thousandths 74#ajj71 making the jaws then open one hundred and twenty thousandths 74#abj7 of an inch4 ,if but half the last described movement was made1 the tenth line on the ,vernier would coincide with a line on the bar1 and would then read1 one hundred and ten thousandths 74#aaj7 of an inch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4 #cae4 ,hair ,spring ,stud ,index4 ,fig4 #adc illustrates ,johanson's hair spring stud index4 ,the engraving shows the full size of the tool1 which consists of a steel plate mounted on feet1 and pierced with a number of holes for the reception of screws1 when taking down a watch4 ,in the center of the index is a hole for the staff1 and an oblong slot for the reception of the roller jewel4 ,to get any ,american movement in beat1 proceed as follows3 ,in front of ,no4 #ajj is a small spring2 push same towards ,no4 #aj2 then place the balance on top of the stand1 with staff in center and roller jewel in the oblong hole2 let the spring back gently2 the balance will then take its own position4 ,set degree hand in front of the desired degree1 as per direction on index table2 place hair spring stud in front of degree hand1 and push on the collet4 ,,index ,,table ,,for ,,hair ,,spring ,,studs4 ,size4 ,degree4 ,columbus #ah ,open ,face ,breguet #bc ,columbus #f ,open ,face ,breguet ,elgin #ah ,open ,face ,breguet #ff ,elgin #af ,open ,face ,breguet #eb ,elgin #af ,flat ,hair ,spring #eb ,elgin #aj ,flat ,hair ,spring #ej ,elgin #f and #h ,flat ,hair ,spring #ej ,elgin #j ,flat ,hair ,spring ,illinois #ah ,open ,face ,breguet #cc ,illinois #ah ,hunting #hd ,illinois #ah ,open ,face ,flat #hi ,illinois #af ,illinois #f ,hunting #eb ,illinois #d ,hampden #ah ,dueber ,hunting #hj ,hampden #ah ,open ,face #ge ,hampden #af ,hampden #f ,hunting #ej ,howard #ah ,old ,model #e ,howard #ah ,new ,model #bc ,howard #af ,howard #f ,rockford #ah #bg ,rockford #f ,waltham #ah ,key ,flat ,hair ,spr'g #dh ,waltham #ah ,o4 ,f4 ,hair ,spring #fa ,waltham #ah ,breguet #ej ,waltham #ad-af #db ,waltham #d-f #ej ,waltham #a #db ,seth ,thomas #ah ,open ,face #ej ,seth ,thomas #ah ,hunting #eb #caf4 ,oil-cup ,drills or ,chamfering ,tools4 ,the reservoirs that contain a supply of oil at the ends of pivot holes are made in the lathe with a semi-cylindrical drill1 or by hand with a chamfering tool of the form shown at ,b or ,c1 ,fig4 #add4 ,a drill gives a clean cut1 but necessitates a subsequent polishing of the hole2 as to the chamfering tool here referred to1 some inconvenience will be experienced in its use1 owing to the point being apt to jump out of the hole and make irregular scratches on the brass1 which are difficult to remove4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4 ,the best shapes of drills for making1 or at any rate for re-forming or finishing oil-cups1 are shown at ,d and ,f1 ,fig4 #add1 and in ,fig4 #ade4 ,d and ,f are two drill-blades that terminate in non-cutting circular arcs4 ,the flat curved end is more and more inclined from the top towards the corner1 from i towards the side e2 the angle at i becoming more acute1 and at e more obtuse towards the corners4 ,the drill will1 of course1 only cut when rotating in one direction2 in the other direction the obtuse angles and the reverse sides of the cutting angles will act as burnishers4 ,thus if the angles on either side are well formed and the blade has been polished1 the surface of the oil-cup will be clean cut and polished4 ,f is similar to ,d1 but made from a steel rod4 #cag4 ,observations on making the oil-cups4 ,reservoirs that are made with a drill1 or with a chamfering tool by hand1 will often be found to be eccentric1 and1 when a pivot-hole is bushed and re-drilled1 it proves to be struck from a different center from the oil-cup4 ,in such cases watchmakers often give themselves endless trouble without securing a cup of good form and well centered4 ,this difficulty can be avoided by using the tool in a lathe driven by a wheel2 then1 holding the plate in one hand square against a drill rest in tail stock1 advance the tail stock with the other hand so as to bring the plate in contact with the drill4 ,when it is only required to correct the form of an oil-cup1 the drill may be replaced by a rod with file cuts on its rounded extremity 7,h1 ,fig4 #add74 ,the reader will find no difficulty in making such a cutter for himself1 drawing a file with both hands over the rounded end1 but always in the direction of the file-cuts4 ,after covering the surface with lines in this manner1 rotate the cutter through a right angle and form a number of cross cuts4 ,or roughen the surface with a chisel of the form shown at ,h2 after making a few cuts parallel to each other1 turn the chisel through an angle and repeat the operation4 #cah4 ,chamfering ,tool4 ,as is well known1 this is used for removing the roughness that a drill leaves at the edge of a hole1 or to take off the cutting edge around a screw head sink1 etc41 thus forming a bevel edge4 ,the tool commonly has a flat semicircular blade1 the diameter of which depends on size of hole to be made2 this semicircle is ground to a cutting edge like a drill1 as shown at ,a1 ,fig4 #add4 ,chamfering tools are also made pyramidal1 with flat faces1 as at ,b and ,c2 the angle at the apex is more or less acute1 according to the depth of chamfer required4 ,the oil-cup drills ,d and ,f are also used for chamfering the edge of a hole4 ,a cone formed at the extremity of a piece of pinion wire with a cutting edge on each leaf and hardened will be found very useful for this purpose4 #cai4 ,the two forms of chamfering tool first described leave a series of undulations on the bevel edge1 so that1 instead of being conical1 it presents a number of small facets4 ,this inconvenience can be avoided by using the tool shown at ,z1 ,fig4 #ade4 ,a small disc of hardened steel is pivoted within a recess formed at the end of a rod1 the pin on which it rotates being at right angles to the direction of the rod4 ,as is seen in the figure to right of ,z1 the section of this roller is a rectangle1 and the surface is carefully polished1 the edges being left sharp4 ,clockmakers make use of a tool for forming oil-cups that only differs from the one above described in two particulars3 7#a7 ,the disc is fixed on its axis2 and 7#b7 the edge1 instead of being square to the two faces1 is inclined as shown at j and at the same time is slightly rounded crosswise4 ,a few trials will be found necessary before the most convenient thickness and inclination of edge are arrived at4 #cbj4 ,hollow ,chamfering ,tools4 ,these1 as is well known1 are used for removing the angles at the ends of cylindrical rods1 of steady-pins1 etc41 or for rounding them off4 ,three forms are shown at ,o1 ,q1 ,n1 ,fig4 #adf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4 ,o is a round rod1 the flat end of which has been filed across with the corner of a triangular file4 ,four cutting edges are thus produced which will act on the end of any object that rotates within them1 or vice versa4 ,if it be required to form a very acute angle1 two slits must be cut with a screw-head file and the sides afterwards inclined to the required extent with a flat file4 ,this tool will serve a double purpose3 7#a7 to chamfer off the edge of a rod2 and1 7#b7 by prolonging this operation to form a point at the end4 ,as a rule1 when it is desired to round off1 say1 a pillar of a clock after reducing its length or from any other cause1 a hollow chamfering tool of very open angle is used1 a rocking motion being imparted to it round the axis of the spindle2 it is better to use a tool of the shape shown at ,n or ,q4 ,the latter1 ,q1 is easily formed by strokes of a rat-tail file at right angles across its end2 the other1 ,n1 is cut internally with a shaped chisel or with a small rotating cutter to which different inclinations are given during the cutting1 as is also done when using the chisel4 #cba4 ,the tool shown at ,o1 ,fig4 #adf1 has been modified as follows by ,m4 ,roze4 ,the two notches at right angles are replaced by three equidistant notches of equal depth4 ,to make these in a piece of round steel it should be divided on the circumference into six equal parts2 then cut the three notches as follows3 ,calling the points marked on the circumference #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 one notch will lie parallel to the line joining #a1 #c1 and equidistant between this line and the point #e2 a second will be parallel to #c1 #e1 and midway between that line and point #a1 and the third will be parallel to #e1 #a1 and midway between this and the point #c4 ,in a hollow chamfering tool thus constructed it will be found that only the three long sides #a1 #c1 #e1 actually cut1 and at #b1 #d and #f are short sides that are set back4 ,but when a file is laid on the face joining two of the former sides1 say #a1 #c1 the short faces #d1 #f1 will protect the cutting edge #e from contact with the file4 #cbb4 ,tool for ,centering ,rods4 ,these appliances are well known to watchmakers1 who often employ them for marking the position of the hole in the brass wire when making bushings4 ,it is advisable to have such a tool somewhat large1 about a third as large again as that shown at s r1 ,fig4 #adg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,the head of the centering punch or drill is filed flat on either side1 and this flattened portion passes into a notch in the spring r1 which maintains it in position and prevents rotation when the triangular-pointed blade is pressed against the end of this rod1 this rod being caused to rotate in the hollow cone of s4 ,instead of a spring such as r1 a helical spring is often used2 but it then becomes necessary to fix a pin in the drill that slides in a groove in s1 so as to prevent the drill from rotating4 #cbc4 ,centering with a ,set-,square4 ,the set square may be used for centering round rods1 and the following is a very simple mode of applying it3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4 ,on one arm of the square ,r1 ,fig4 #adh1 a triangular plate c d is screwed or riveted so that its edge c d exactly bisects the right angle1 that is1 divides it into two equal angles4 ,the flat end of a round rod is held within the angle and against the plate1 a line being traced on it along c d2 it is then turned through about a right angle and a second line traced4 ,the intersection of these two lines gives the axis of the rod4 #cbd4 ,tool for ,roughing ,out ,points4 ,this is merely the inverted chamfering tool of which two forms are described in paragraphs #cbj-ba1 one of them being also shown at ,o1 ,fig4 #adf4 ,it will be evident that when the end of a rod is caused to rotate in this hollow cone it will take its form4 ,in some cases it may be found convenient to place such a tool in the tail stock of the lathe4 ,if the bottom of the cone at the end of ,o were prolonged by continuing the cuts farther down with a thin flat file1 the point of the rod might be formed like a conical-headed screw before it is tapped4 #cbe4 ,balance-spring ,collet ,tool4 ,this convenient little tool for rotating the balance-spring collet is commended almost as much by its simplicity and facility of construction as by its usefulness4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4 ,a steel rod n1 ,fig4 #adi1 is fixed in a handle ,t2 it terminates in a cone a and is drilled with a fine hole as indicated by the dotted lines4 ,a thin wing b1 pointed at its extremity1 is also attached to the handle4 ,holding the balance between the fingers of the left hand and the tool in the right1 the blade b is introduced into the slit in the collet while a rests on the balance staff shoulder1 the pivot being within the hole n4 ,now rotate to the right or left until the stud is opposite to the mark on the balance rim1 and this may be done without danger1 providing the tool is held firmly and vertical4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej4 #cbf4 ,watch-hand ,holder4 ,a very convenient form of tool1 in which to clamp a hand while enlarging the center hole is represented in ,fig4 #aej4 ,two brass plates1 f and g1 are hinged at m like a sector4 ,a collar1 a b1 surrounding the two is pivoted at a and has a clamping-screw b by which the two plates can be forced together4 ,several circular sinks of different sizes and equally divided between the two plates1 are cut of a depth varying from one-half to two-thirds that of the plates1 and they must be made to increase in diameter as they get deeper1 thus resembling the internal groove that receives a barrel cover4 ,the plate a is cut away along the portion c d and grooves are formed to leave passages open between this surface and the bottom of the sinks in g and f4 ,when it is required to enlarge the hole of a watch-hand1 place it1 inverted1 in the hole of suitable size1 as shown at c of the figure1 and tighten the screw b4 ,held round the whole or greater part of its circumference1 the hand is thus firm and its center hole can be enlarged without risk1 either with a drill or broach2 the hand will not show marks due to the pressure with which it has been held4 #cbg4 ,common ,hand fitting ,pliers4 ,the sliding tongs with large flat head1 perforated with a number of holes in which the head of a hand is clamped when the opening requires to be enlarged1 are often useful1 but we feel them to be less so than the holder just described4 ,it is desirable that the inner faces of their jaws1 which are usually left rough1 be at least smoothed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4 #cbh4 ,another form of ,watch-hand ,holder4 ,m4 ,fiquemont has devised the simple little tool shown in ,fig4 #aea4 ,it consists of a short brass rod ,r1 perforated lengthwise and having a thread cut externally on the surface a b4 ,it should be reduced in thickness below this tapped portion4 ,the rod1 shown also in longitudinal section at ,p1 is cut into four quarters by two slits from a to b1 which are at right angles and leave the points as indicated apart at d4 ,the elasticity of these four quarters should make them take the form of a reversed cone when holding a hand1 so that the ascent of the screw c shall tighten them4 ,within the head a of the tool is formed a circular recess1 so that1 if the reversed head of a watch-hand be placed within it and the screw made to ascend1 it will be held very firmly by the circumference1 as seen in the figure4 ,the hand will thus be perfectly free to adjust in any way that is needed for fitting it while held at the end of the tool1 and without being removed before the work is complete4 ,three or four sizes will suffice for all ordinary watch-hands4 ,a tool may be made in a similar manner1 except that the screw is not divided by the longitudinal slits1 and the hand is held against the point by a lantern 7similar to those of a screw-point tool71 which must be cut away in the manner indicated in ,fig4 #aej1 explained above 7#cbf74 ,an assortment of three or four lanterns will render the tool serviceable for all sizes of hands4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4 #cbi4 ,clip for ,holding ,escapewheels while ,cleaning4 ,a mere inspection of ,m1 ,fig4 #aeb1 will make the arrangement of this little tool evident4 ,the fork is made of a piece of brass rod and its two arms are elastic1 a handle being screwed into the lower extremity4 ,two small steel jaws are fixed to the upper ends inclined towards each other1 and1 in using the tool1 it is only necessary to press with two fingers on the heads of the screws1 when the jaws will open4 ,having placed the escape wheel pinion between them1 the wheel will be firmly held so that its teeth can be easily cleaned1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aec4 #ccj4 ,the appliance shown in ,fig4 #aec can be used for a similar purpose1 and is further especially serviceable for holding an escape-wheel that is not riveted to its pinion4 ,it consists of two parts1 a handle ,t1 shown separate at t1 which is drilled throughout its length and tapped externally at the portion t1 and a collar or nut ,d1 the end of which is traversed by two cuts at right angles that resemble the letter ,t in section4 ,if the tool is intended for holding escape-wheels that have three instead of four arms1 this cross must be replaced by three radiating grooves of similar section4 ,the position occupied by the wheel is indicated by the dotted lines r r1 and it will be evident that1 when the flat end of ,t is screwed up against this wheel1 after dropping it into the cross and slightly turning round the axis as in a bayonet joint1 it may be firmly held4 ,the safest mode of introducing the wheel is by holding it on a broach1 which is subsequently removed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4 #cca4 ,tool for ,testing the ,truth of a ,cylinder ,escapewheel4 ,the small tool shown at ,d1 ,fig4 #aed1 can be advantageously used in place of the plain arbor commonly employed for testing the equality of the spaces in such a wheel4 ,the plate ,d1 which may be mounted on three feet1 is traversed at its center by the smooth conical portion f of the screw f v1 tapped somewhat tightly into a cock fixed to the other side of the plate4 ,there is a radial slot1 a c1 cut in the plate large enough to allow an escape-wheel pinion to move freely4 ,an inspection of the figure will make evident the manner in which the tool is to be used3 a wheel being placed as shown1 or with reverse side upwards1 is made to slide towards the center1 gradually raising the screw until the largest space is found to admit f with contact at both sides4 ,all the smaller spaces are then carefully opened until they admit the cone in the same manner as the largest4 #ccb4 ,novel tool for the same purpose4 ,when the spaces are adjusted in the manner explained above1 or if the length of the teeth is measured in a narrow gauge plate1 there will nearly always remain a certain degree of irregularity in the teeth4 ,a more efficient means would be for the gauge to embrace both a tooth and space1 and this condition is satisfied by the following appliance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4 ,the slide k k1 ,fig4 #aee1 is dovetailed into a plate1 level with its surface1 so that k k can be moved in a vertical direction by a screw2 it is perforated with a series of holes of gradually decreasing diameter4 ,to the same plate are also fixed3 7#a7 a smooth tongue1 b1 with a foot and screw2 and 7#b7 a second tongue1 j1 terminating in an index x n1 which is movable about a pivot1 x1 and held against a pin in the plate by a light straight or spiral spring4 ,the extremity1 n1 traverses a graduated arc4 ,having introduced the pinion of the wheel1 or the arbor on which it is held1 into a hole of the slide that it fits without shake1 and brought this hole to the position indicated in the figure1 apply a slight pressure to the wheel in the direction of its rotation4 ,with one tooth resting against b the tongue j will be held by the spring against the next and the reading of the index is to be noted accurately4 ,withdraw the wheel slightly1 and1 placing the succeeding tooth against b1 take a second reading1 and so on around the entire circumference4 ,of course1 the delicacy of the instrument will be increased by lengthening x n in comparison with x j4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4 #ccc4 ,tool for ,removing ,studs4 ,fig4 #aef represents a small tool which may be employed for this purpose4 ,it consists of a thick strip of metal1 ,c1 spreading out like the letter ,t at the end which is not shown1 so as to form two feet1 the screw1 j1 being a third1 so arranged that the ,t rests horizontally4 ,the disc1 d 7shown also in plan71 rotates on the screw1 j1 and is partially enclosed in a horizontal slot4 ,around the circumference of d are four rectangular notches of different sizes4 ,the holes indicated by black dots on the plan receive the point of the screw1 v1 which clamps the disc when the notch corresponding in size with the stud to be removed has been brought under the small cone projecting from the spring1 b2 the other end of b is fixed to the ,t-shaped piece1 ,c4 ,the mode of using this little instrument will at once be evident4 ,resting the right arm on the bench1 and1 with the left-hand1 bringing the wing of the cock above the notch in d1 the other hand presses upon the milled button of b1 forcing the conical pin against the stud and thus removing it from the cock4 ,the screw1 a1 can be adjusted so as to prevent too great force being applied4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4 #ccd4 ,tweezers for ,removing ,studs4 ,one form is shown in ,fig4 #aeg4 ,the upper arm1 ,h1 is bent downwards as indicated at g4 ,the lower arm is shorter and carries a separate piece1 n m1 which slides under two screws1 s1 and is pressed forward by a spring1 r4 ,the action will be easily understood2 the extremity1 m1 rests against the stud1 and m n is forced backwards until the point1 g1 is exactly over the stud pin4 ,a simple pressure of the finger will then suffice to remove the stud4 ,a still more simple pair of tweezers for this purpose may be made by filling a square notch in the end of one prong of an ordinary pair with broad noses1 and setting a pin opposite to its center in the end of the other prong4 #cce4 ,staking ,tool4 ,the modern staking tool will perform the same work as the last two tools described and many other operations4 ,it consists of a shifting table1 around which holes of various sizes are arranged in a circle1 so that any desired hole may be brought under a suitable punch moving in a vertical holder4 ,usually twenty-four tempered steel punches and four stumps are provided1 which will be found sufficient to cover all the operations in the ordinary run of watch repairs1 and the ingenious workman can from time to time add to these by making punches in his spare moments1 if he finds from experience that he is in need of punches of a different shape4 ,fig4 #aeh illustrates the ,johanson combination staking tool1 on the front end of which a hairspring stud indicator is arranged4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4 #ccf4 ,the staking tool can be used as a cannon pinion tightener by making a punch for it having a blunt chisel edge4 ,when a cannon pinion is placed on a stump which is slightly dished in that portion of its face opposite to the punch1 and the punch gently struck with a hammer1 it will be sufficiently contracted to insure the requisite adherence to the set-hands arbor4 ,if fears are entertained lest the pinion should be cracked with the blow1 it may be placed loosely on an arbor and held in position4 #ccg4 ,it may also be used to advantage for tightening the set-hands arbor in the center or cannon pinion1 but care must be exercised or the arbor may be bent so that the minute hand which it carries passes nearer the dial at one place than another4 ,an arbor that is too loose is introduced into a suitable stump and at the top and bottom of the slack portion two punch marks are made opposite one another4 ,the punch having a conical or three-sided point1 will occasion an expansion of the metal round each mark2 if a smooth file be passed over the surface so as to remove the burr1 which would not offer any permanent resistance1 sufficient projecting metal will be left to secure a sound and lasting friction when a little oil is applied4 ,if the arbor is well supported immediately beneath the punch1 it will not be distorted by any moderate impact4 ,it is advisable before operating on the metal to ascertain its degree of hardness4 #cch4 ,it may also be used as a pinion riveting tool4 ,the pinion1 with its wheel in position1 is placed on the hardened steel stump1 the end to be riveted being upwards4 ,the riveting is then struck with the polished end of a hollow punch4 ,if it be required to spread the riveting1 a punch must first be used that is rounded from within outwards1 to be followed with a perfectly flat punch4 ,a little practice will at once enable a workman to select the best form of punch4 ,the stump should be very hard and polished1 funnel-shaped downwards and carefully fitted to the bed1 so as to be firm and central with the punch4 ,if these precautions are not taken the pinion will spring and the riveting will be imperfect4 #cci4 ,the staking tool may also be used for closing up barrel holes1 screw-holes1 etc4 ,in repairing watches it is often found that the screws hold badly or not at all1 and the holes at times cannot be satisfactorily bushed4 ,in such cases it becomes necessary to close them1 an operation which any intelligent workman can perform very well in the following manner3 ,make a stump rounded at the top and provided with a pump-center4 ,this can be merely a pointed steel rod that passes through the stump from below with slight friction1 and is forced upwards by a light spring fixed by a screw1 so that1 on undoing the screw1 the rod can be removed4 ,the one pump-center can be used for various stumps as the openings are funnel-shaped downwards4 ,center the hole to be closed by means of the pump-center1 then bring down the hollow punch and strike it as in riveting a pinion4 ,a small circular groove will be formed around the hole1 which1 if the punch is in good order1 will be perfectly even4 ,the form of the punch is very important2 the watchmaker must decide for himself by trial as to the most convenient shape4 ,the thickness of the ring of metal may be modified2 it is rounded off in a semicircle by some1 and curved inwards or outwards by others4 ,instead of a pump-center below we have used punches that were themselves provided with a pump center and helical spring4 ,either form gives satisfactory results4 ,the holes of barrels can be closed with a punch that is only depressed at its center enough to avoid the point of the pump-center4 ,when the face is more or less rounded the hole will be closed by forming a cup as with a chamfering tool4 ,the tool may then be enlarged if requisite with a round broach or an arbor covered with white wax4 ,it will thus be hardened1 and the cup-shaped recess will serve to retain the oil1 while the somewhat thinner hole will probably be in a condition to resist friction as long as formerly4 ,when the hole is of moderate thickness1 and it does not require much reduction in diameter1 this method will be found satisfactory2 barrels that have been thus treated have been found to stand ten years without appreciable wear4 ,when the metal is thicker1 however1 the spreading inwards is very slight1 and there is some danger1 in using a round broach to do it1 of straining the metal or detaching the central ring of the barrel or its cover4 ,it should be observed that the methods explained above are absolutely useless for closing pivot-holes1 and should only be resorted to for barrels1 on an emergency4 #cdj4 ,drifting ,tool4 ,this appliance1 shown in ,fig4 #aei1 is very useful for making holes of round1 oval or square1 or1 indeed1 any required form4 ,it takes the place of a punching machine for light work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4 ,the punch1 or 8drift10 is screwed into the stock ,c ,c4 ,a pin1 p1 fixed in ,c ,c prevents its rotation while allowing an end motion along the slot m n4 ,the end ,c is hollowed out to receive the point of a screw1 ,b1 and a pin1 shown near ,c1 is received in a groove turned in ,b1 thus enabling it to draw the stock in the direction ,c ,c4 ,the part ,h is gripped in the jaws of a vise1 and a strong handle1 ,e1 is used to advance the screw ,b ,b4 ,with a tool about three times the size of the figure there is no difficulty in punching the eyes of mainsprings1 square holes in stop fingers1 etc41 and it can be made by an apprentice4 ,of course its strength depends on the pitch of the screw and the radius of the handle ,e4 #cda4 ,for heavier work it will be necessary to resort to the punching machine4 ,there are several constructions in use1 but the most usual is essentially the same as that of the tool just described4 ,the screw works vertically in a strong bridge that is fixed to the bed in which the counterpart of the punch is held4 ,great use is made of this machine in factories at the present day1 almost every part of a watch being in the first instance roughly shaped by its means4 ,indeed1 thin metal is often left as it comes from the punch1 and very perfect crossings of wheels1 etc41 are thus produced4 ,steel does not cut well in the press unless it is soft and homogeneous1 and the final dimensions of the object can be more nearly approached according as these conditions are satisfied4 ,attempts have been made to cut levers1 etc41 of the exact dimensions required1 but it is better to leave a slight excess of metal to be afterwards removed by a mill cutter or other means4 ,the crossings of steel lever and cylinder escape-wheels are punched out1 but the metal used is of special excellence4 ,before introducing a piece of steel into the press it is advisable to remove any scale1 etc41 by pickling1 or with a file4 #cdb4 ,draw-,plate4 ,every watchmaker should possess a plate for drawing round wire so as to be able to obtain it of any required diameter4 ,they are to be had at all material houses4 ,in bushing holes in a brass plate1 it not unfrequently happens that the brass used for the bushing is not of the same color as the plate4 ,to avoid such a difference cut off a piece from a plate of the same color and round it by hand1 making one end to taper4 ,fixing the draw-plate in the vise1 pass this end through one of its holes1 and1 gripping it in the hand-vise1 pull the brass through the plate4 ,continue this operation through successive holes until the requisite thickness is attained4 ,no special precautions are necessary1 further than keeping the holes well greased and annealing the brass from time to time so as to counteract the hardening caused by the operation4 ,such a plate can also be used for steel wire1 and plates with holes of special form1 for example those for drawing click and pinion wire1 are well known in the trade4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4 #cdc4 ,the ,grammaire1 or ,dividing ,plate4 ,this tool is shown in ,fig4 #afj4 ,to mark out the crossings of a wheel1 etc41 fix it by the conical-headed screw t to the middle of the plate1 on which are traced a series of concentric circles 7not shown7 divided into #f1 #h1 #aj and #ab equal parts4 ,by laying the little ruler r r over the wheel blank and using these division marks as a guide1 #c1 #d1 #e or #f radii can be drawn to serve as guides for cutting out the arms4 ,if it is desired to indicate the width of the arms instead of a mere central line1 a series of holes must be drilled at the division marks and screws with tapered points tapped into them from below4 ,resting the ruler against these cones1 the arms can be drawn of any required width1 according to the distance to which the screws project4 ,no further explanation is necessary1 for the figure shows3 7#a7 a grammaire adapted to mark out a four-armed wheel1 these arms being indicated by the dotted lines2 and 7#b7 the small ruler r r cut away at the middle so as to avoid coming into contact with the conical-headed screw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4 #cdd4 ,jewel-resetting ,tools4 ,hopkins' patent jeweling and staking tool1 shown in ,fig4 #afa1 is an ingenious device1 and one that will be found very useful to the watch repairer4 ,as the spindle1 or handle1 to which the cutters and burnishers ,p ,p ,p are attached1 is sustained in upright position when in use1 by the long bearings through which it passes in the upright ,f1 independently of the lower center1 the hole to be cut may be centered either from above or below as preferred2 and the depth to which it is desired the cutter shall work is regulated by adjustment of the sliding collar ,e1 and this being a correct uprighting1 as well as jeweling tool1 with it a pivot hole1 or a jewel setting1 the correct center 7upright7 of which has been lost1 may readily be corrected1 or its true center again found1 and1 what in some cases would be a very desirable consideration1 by careful manipulation with the cutter1 which is under perfect control of the operator1 the position of jewel settings may be changed so as to alter the depth of locking of the wheels to any desired extent4 ,to regulate the depth to which it is desired a cutter shall work below the surface of a plate1 lower the spindle ,d until1 when moved out sufficiently far1 the end of the cutter will rest down on the top of the plate to be operated upon1 and fasten it there by lightly tightening the screw ,k2 this done adjust and fasten the collar ,e on the spindle ,d1 to the same height above the top of the upright ,f as it is desired the cutter shall work below the surface of the plate on which it now rests4 ,this1 when the spindle ,d has been again set free by loosening the screw ,k1 will of course allow the cutter to sink into the hole to be operated upon to the exact distance the collar ,e had been set above top of ,f4 ,in adjusting the collar1 ,e1 the graduated wedge ,no4 #d1 or the jewel to be set1 as preferred1 may be used as a gauge4 ,the burnishers1 ,no4 #i1 are used both for opening and closing settings2 the same burnisher1 having chosen one of proper size1 is used for both purposes2 the side being used for opening the setting1 and the beveled and rounded end for burnishing it down again over the jewel4 ,the pieces #ac and #ad are made to fit in the lower end of the spindle ,d 7the cutter ,p having been removed71 same as an ordinary drill-stock1 and are used for burnishing the edges of a jewel setting down flat over the jewel1 countersinking screw heads1 giving end-shake to wheels1 etc42 and being easily made1 any one owning the tool can make these for himself1 of forms and sizes to suit the particular work in hand4 ,for uprighting purposes1 withdraw the spindle ,d and substitute ,no4 #e1 the rings1 ,no4 #c1 being intended for laying the work on1 on the tool bed4 ,for upright drilling through watch plates1 mark the place to be drilled 7prick punch it slightly7 with the cone point of ,no4 #e2 which done turn the spindle ,no4 #e upside down and rest the upper end of the drill in the countersink in its end1 the drill being operated with a fiddle bow acting on a collet placed on its shank for the purpose4 ,for cutting off bushings level with a watch plate1 either a cutter of the ,no4 #ac or #ad class1 or one of the ,p cutters can be used4 ,for staking or riveting wheels upright on their pinions1 lay the stake ,no4 #g level on the tool bed 7the center ,m having been fastened down out of the way71 and with ,no4 #e center accurately the hole to be used in the stake1 and fasten it there by means of the clamps ,n2 then remove the cone end of ,no4 #e1 and place a punch with a hole in its end of the required size1 on the part m1 and proceed as in an ordinary upright staking tool4 #cde4 ,tool for ,flat ,polishing4 ,a thick brass plate is provided with three strong screws arranged in triangular form 7,g1 ,fig4 #afb71 and far enough apart to ensure that1 if the plate is reversed and rests on their heads1 it will remain flat when moved by hand over a polishing surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4 ,the screws should fit tightly or be provided with lock-nuts4 ,we believe that every watchmaker must be acquainted with this little tool4 ,the object to be smoothed or polished is fixed with shellac or sealing-wax to the middle of the triangle formed by the screws2 the level is then adjusted so that1 when resting on a flat surface1 the object to be polished coincides exactly with it4 ,the polisher 7for example1 a sheet of ground glass7 is charged with oilstone dust or polishing rouge1 and the object is passed over it until perfectly flat and smooth4 #cdf4 ,for smoothing1 it is best to use a large sheet of iron or steel4 ,for polishing1 copper or bronze is preferred4 ,ground glass may be employed for both operations2 it must be hard and perfectly flat4 ,a disc rotating in the lathe or mandril1 etc41 is often used4 ,the tool may be inverted and rest firmly on a cork1 the polisher being then moved backwards and forwards by hand1 and always in contact with the three screws4 ,it is best to use pith for cleaning the polished surface2 in its absence use soap1 then wash and dry with a soft linen rag4 ,the object is detached by heating the tool1 and is cleaned by boiling in alcohol2 afterwards pass through pure alcohol at the ordinary temperature and dry4 #cdg4 ,this tool can be employed for polishing small surfaces1 such as the end of a rod1 of a barrel-arbor or a screw-head1 as well as for those of greater extent4 ,but it appears needless to enter into further detail4 ,instead of three screws some workmen only use two1 at some distance apart4 ,the object to be polished1 being placed at the third corner of the triangle1 takes the place of the remaining screw4 ,lastly1 if a band be fitted to one side of the brass plate1 as shown at b1 ,fig4 #afb1 and held by two screws1 it will often be of service as a clamp for fixing the object1 as at s4 #cdh4 ,flat pieces can be polished on a revolving lap worked by the foot1 being simply held in the hand or in a piece of soft leather2 but a certain amount of practice is needed in order to do this successfully4 ,,accessories ,,and ,,miscellaneous ,,operations ,,to ,,be ,,performed ,,in ,,the ,,universal ,,head4 #cdi4 ,with a view to simplify the work1 we will here give1 in a collected form1 a number of operations that may be performed in the mandril1 or universal head1 among which the practical watchmaker will easily be able to distinguish those that can be done in the ordinary lathe2 we will also describe numerous accessories that the workman should make for himself1 if he is desirous of making his mandril or universal head still more generally useful4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4 #cej4 ,prepare a number of chucks of the form shown in ,fig4 #afc4 ,some of these carry a small bar with screws1 by which an object may be clamped firmly to the chuck1 an arrangement which is also shown at ,a1 ,fig4 #afc2 others have a hole drilled through their axis2 others again have a projecting arbor1 etc4 ,they may also be made with a flat face on which to cement objects in the ordinary manner4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4 ,as it is often necessary to have a considerable surface to cement1 for example1 a watch-plate1 one or more may be made of the form shown at ,t1 ,fig4 #afd4 ,the lower plate being clamped in the dogs1 the disc e will be free4 ,if this disc be made of bronze or steel it may be used as a lap2 if of brass1 it may be turned true and used as a wax chuck1 etc4 ,the chucks should1 as far as possible1 be well made1 so that they can be truly centered by means of the pump-center4 ,,to ,,center ,,an ,,object4 #cea4 ,when there is a hole at the center on the side towards the face-plate1 in the universal head1 as is usually the case1 it is only necessary to place this hole over the point of the pump1 pressing it inwards1 and then to clamp the object in the dogs2 the pump is then drawn within the body of the arbor4 ,very often1 however1 there is no central hole1 or there is only a mark on the face that is towards the cutter2 in such a case it becomes necessary to center from the front or by the circumference4 #ceb4 ,to ,center from the ,front4 ,if the object is held by wax on a plate1 it may be centered as in the ordinary lathe while the plate is hot1 by resting a piece of pegwood on the ,t-rest with a point placed in the central hole1 and observing whether its free end remains stationary4 ,after the plate has cooled1 the accuracy of the centering should be tested by means of a long piece of pegwood which rests on the ,t-rest brought close up to the object4 ,the pegwood is held parallel to the lathe-bed1 and1 if the centering is satisfactory1 its outer end will not move4 ,the detection of any slight movement is greatly facilitated by placing some fixed object close to the free end of the pegwood4 ,if a motion is still observed the centering is imperfect1 and must be corrected in the manner explained below 7#ced74 #cec4 ,perrelet's method of ,centering4 ,in principle1 this is identical with the one just described2 but the pegwood index is replaced by the small apparatus shown in ,fig4 #afe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4 ,a hollow cylinder1 of which a c c a is a section1 is firmly held by friction by its portion a b b a in the tailstock4 ,in the front of this cylinder is fixed a steel ring that is thick at the circumference and tapers inward1 so that the central hole has a cutting edge4 ,the two black triangles represent a section of this ring4 ,the rod r n passes without play through this hole1 and carries a projecting ring at s to determine the distance to which it enters the collar c c2 there is also a small key that corresponds with a nick in c c1 and thus prevents rotation4 ,an inspection of the figure will show that1 when s rests against c c1 if the finger be placed on r and communicate motion to it1 the rod n r will be able to oscillate in any direction1 and to an extent limited by the diameter of the hole in the cylinder4 ,the error in the centering at r will be multiplied at n in the proportion of n s to s r2 thus if n s is ten times s r1 the motion at n will be ten times as great as the actual error at r4 #ced4 ,the instrument is used as follows3 ,the object to be centered being placed between the jaws1 having the centering spindle in position in tailstock4 ,slide tailstock towards the face-plate until the point r of the rod enters the hole1 or central mark of the object1 and1 setting the ,t-rest close to the point n1 rotate the face-plate4 ,if the centering is exact1 the point n will remain stationary4 ,if n moves to and fro1 give a gentle blow against the edge of the object1 which should not be held firmly in the dogs2 the blow must be on the side opposite to that at which n shows the greatest deviation from the point of reference4 ,repeat the process until the centering is perfect or sufficiently accurate2 then clamp the dogs firmly1 taking care not to disturb anything4 ,in centering from a jewel hole1 an aluminium rod n s may be employed on account of its lightness1 and it may be terminated in an ivory cone at r4 #cee4 ,there is one precaution to be observed1 as it facilitates the use of this appliance2 it is advisable that the portion a b b a of the cylinder be somewhat long and well made1 in order that1 while being in the first instance inserted in tailstock up to the shoulder1 the cylinder may be partially withdrawn and still held firmly4 ,the reason for this is as follows3 ,when the tailstock is pushed along1 a considerable amount of friction resists its motion1 and1 as the hand cannot always control this motion1 it may happen that r comes up against the object with some force4 ,to avoid this1 bring the point near the hole and then rotate the collar in the tailstock so as to gently withdraw it to the requisite amount4 ,the cylinder may1 if desired1 be fixed by a small screw after the point r has been set in position4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4 #cef4 ,another ,centering ,device4 ,the centering indicator shown in ,fig4 #aff will also be found useful for testing for exact center4 ,the body of the indicator is made of sheet brass1 and should be about five inches long by two inches in width at the larger end4 ,the shank ,c is made to fit in rest holder1 and is either riveted or soldered to the body2 ,r is steel or copper wire sharpened to a fine point1 and balances on a pivot at #a2 ,b is a clock hand pivoted to the body at #a2 #b and #b are pivot joints only1 and do not go through the body2 ,c will perhaps give a better idea of the end ,r4 ,to center with this tool1 unscrew your rest and remove it1 then place the shaft ,c in rest holder and adjust it till the needle point ,r touches the top of hole1 as shown at ,a4 ,the index hand will then note the variations as the head revolves4 ,if too low1 the hand will point above center1 and if high1 vice versa4 #ceg4 ,to ,center from the ,circumference4 ,two cases may occur3 ,either the entire rim of the object is exposed1 as when the teeth are to be cut in a wheel blank2 or the rim can only be used as a means of determining the center1 as when a barrel has been bushed with an undrilled bushing4 #ceh4 ,the tool shown in ,fig4 #aff may also be used for the test if the short end of arm ,r rests against the under side of the object that it is desired to center4 #cei4 ,when it is required to drill or merely to center the hole in a wheel1 barrel1 etc41 that does not run true1 clamp a piece of sheet brass in the dogs and turn out a sink that will exactly receive the wheel1 etc41 but allowing it to project slightly4 ,now unscrew one dog and advance it a little1 so as to grip the edge of the object as well as the plate2 move the other dogs inwards in succession1 and it will only remain to drill or true the hole with a suitable drill4 ,,uprighting ,,and ,,drilling4 #cfj4 ,when the ,lathe is ,provided with a ,tailstock4 ,let it be required to mark and drill a pivot-hole in the cock when the plate-hole is accurately centered by means of the pump-center4 ,place the tailstock in position on the lathe-bed1 and mark the position of the hole with a center1 as in an ordinary uprighting tool2 then1 if the hole is to be very fine1 make it with an ordinary pivot-drill4 ,if the hole to be drilled is somewhat large1 it may be drilled with the twist drill1 the bed of the lathe being1 as usual1 horizontal4 #cfa4 ,when the ,lathe is not ,provided with a ,tailstock4 ,in such a case it is possible to upright and drill by using fine drills1 and making points so formed as to take the place of the cutter4 ,or a stock may be made to receive drills1 points1 etc41 and it may be well here to remark that stocks of the same form are convenient for receiving chamfering or sinking tools4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4 ,this stock is shown in ,fig4 #afg4 ,an inspection of ,e c will suffice to show its form1 and it may be used for holding either a drill or a marking point1 or a small hollow center in which to support a pivot drill4 ,the following method should be adopted for securing accuracy in the adjustment of these stocks3 ,there must be no shake of the stock in the tool-holder2 it is especially important to avoid any displacement during the act of clamping4 ,if there is any reason for doubt on this point1 drill a hole at the foot of the cutter in which an index1 y1 can be temporarily inserted2 any displacement can be detected by its deviation from a fixed mark4 ,as a rule1 however1 there will be no occasion for doubt if the plate that is screwed down upon the stock is parallel to the bed of the tool-holder4 ,the cutter is then replaced by a stock of the form shown at ,e1 in which a hole has been previously drilled to receive the drill or other bit1 but somewhat smaller than it is required finally to be4 ,the pump-center must now be replaced by an accurately fitting piece ,b that terminates in a short semi-cylindrical drill4 ,it will be evident that if the mandrel be revolved1 and1 at the same time1 the tool-holder advanced towards this drill1 the hole in the stock ,e will be enlarged and smoothed1 and its axis will accurately coincide with that of ,b4 ,any drill1 chamfering tool1 etc41 that has been turned true1 will1 therefore1 on being inserted in the stock1 prove to be strictly in the axis of the lathe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4 #cfb4 ,to ,drill a ,series of ,holes4 ,mount on a stock similar to that just described1 a small frame carrying a drill-stock1 as shown in ,fig4 #afh4 ,if this be fixed in the slide-rest in place of the cutter1 it can be used for drilling a hole or a series of holes previously marked out1 or1 if the pitch of the transverse screw of the slide-rest is known1 for a series of equidistant holes in a horizontal line4 ,when it is required to drill a series of holes in a circle1 as1 for example1 in the escape-wheel of the pin-escapement1 bring the point of the drill onto the circumference and then proceed as when using the ordinary wheel-cutting engine provided with a vertical drill-holder1 taking care to fix the face-plate by means of an index4 ,this index should have a means of slightly modifying its length1 so that the point of the drill may always be brought into exact coincidence with the points that have been previously marked on the object4 ,it will be observed that1 if the drill were replaced by a round milling tool1 the ,u's of a cylinder escape-wheel might be polished1 or1 indeed1 cut1 the concave ends of the teeth of the star-wheel in a ,geneva stopwork could be corrected1 etc4 ,but it is unnecessary further to insist upon the many uses to which this form of tool can be applied4 #cfc4 ,to ,cut the ,teeth of a ,ratchet1 ,minute-,wheel1 ,etc4 ,when the face-plate is divided on the circumference1 it is easy to cut the teeth of an ordinary wheel of a timepiece1 escape-wheel1 barrel ratchet1 to cut or true a star-wheel for the stopwork1 etc4 ,after mounting the wheel on a chuck and carefully centering it1 replace the cutter by a small revolving cutter-frame after the model of that shown in ,fig4 #afh4 ,the stock d1 shown in both plan and elevation1 carries a piece c at right angles1 which has a slot cut throughout its length4 ,in this slot a ,u-shaped support can be clamped by a nut in any position4 ,the ,u portion forms a bearing for a cutter1 such as is shown at f in the figure1 and the axis projects so as to receive a ferrule for rotating the cutter4 ,it will be evident that1 with such an arrangement1 the height of the cutter can be adjusted in accordance with the teeth to be cut4 #cfd4 ,to ,cut a ,circular or ,elliptic ,groove4 ,for this purpose no special accessory is needed2 an ordinary cutter will suffice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4 ,let a b c d1 ,fig4 #afi1 be the form of the required groove4 ,mark a series of centers so that circles struck from them will just overlap one another1 and at the same time nearly reach the edge of the groove4 ,then turn out all the circular sinks1 indicated by shaded lines1 to the required depth4 ,center the plate by the point o from which the arc a b is struck2 now bring the cutter to such a position that its outer cutting edge coincides with the arc a b1 and bring it against the plate2 set the face-plate in motion1 not1 however1 by using the treadle1 but by the hand at its circumference1 and traverse the arc from b to a2 then withdraw the cutter4 ,by this means the projecting angles1 left white in the figure1 will be removed1 and a clean edge will be left to the groove4 ,as an operation of this description will not present any difficulty1 further explanation appears unnecessary2 for the information above given will enable any watchmaker to make curved grooves of the kind indicated4 ,if it is required to smooth the surface of the groove1 replace the cutter by a pegwood stick that can be rotated with friction1 and the end of which just fits into the groove1 charging it with pumice or other stone and oil4 ,one hand moves the face-plate backwards and forwards1 while the other rotates the stick4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4 #cfe4 ,to ,cut the ,cylinder ,escape-,wheel ,cock ,passage4 ,as a rule the cock is cemented1 inverted1 to a wax chuck1 and the passage cut or enlarged on the lathe4 ,it is more expeditious to use a plate provided with a clamping bridge1 as shown at ,fig4 #agj4 ,the face-plate should be made to oscillate backwards and forwards by hand1 and not rotated by the wheel4 #cff4 ,to ,make a ,straight ,groove4 ,first method4 ,the tool devised by ,m4 ,chopard1 director of the school of horology at ,besanon1 and shown in ,fig4 #aga1 is used for this purpose4 ,as will be seen1 it consists of a small lathe which is adapted to the slide-rest as follows3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4 ,two pins1 a a1 are planted in the top of the tool-holder1 the cutter together with the plate by which it is clamped having been first removed4 ,holes drilled in the frame f f fit accurately onto these pins1 while a screw1 h1 passing through an intermediate hole1 affords a means of firmly fixing the apparatus to the tool-holder ,m4 ,this tool should satisfy the following conditions3 ,the arbor ,c should fit into a recess that receives a cutter1 but without coming into contact with it2 this arbor should be parallel to the bed of the lathe2 and1 lastly1 the axis of ,c should be on a line with the lathe center4 #cfg4 ,having set this little appliance in position1 trace on the watch-plate two lines indicating the directions of the sides of the groove as well as lines fixing its length4 ,now place the plate in the dogs1 setting the point of the pump-center anywhere on the line drawn along the middle of the groove4 ,turn the plate so that this line is horizontal1 and fix it in any way that is convenient4 ,the arbor ,c carries a revolving cutter k1 which can be changed as desired1 and is held in position by the clamping screw d4 ,assume that the diameter of this cutter corresponds exactly with that of the required groove2 advance it towards the plate1 turning the wheel rapidly1 the cord being round the ferrule b2 a circular sink will thus be formed in the plate of the same diameter as k4 ,when this has been cut to a sufficient depth1 the tool is moved parallel to the face-plate1 and the cutter k1 continuing its movement of rotation1 will now cut1 not with its extremity i1 but with its sides4 ,it will thus form a straight groove of any desired length4 #cfh4 ,the cutter is a three-sided prism1 or it may have four sides with four cutting edges on the sides1 and only one cutting edge at the extremity i4 ,if it is preferred to retain only the two acting edges that start from either end of the cutting edge i1 they may be made more acute1 and the other pair reduced by means of a file4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4 #cfi4 ,second method4 ,this is simpler than the one just considered4 ,at the end of a rod ,g1 ,fig4 #agb1 which takes the place of the cutter in the slide-rest1 a plate p is fixed4 ,a line is drawn across the face of this plate in such a position that1 when ,g is clamped in the tool-holder1 this line is horizontal1 and in the plane that contains the axis of the pump-center4 ,let it be required to cut a straight groove in the piece of brass l4 ,wax it to the plate p so that the axis of the required groove is over the line traced on the plate4 ,now fix ,g in the tool-holder and replace the pump-center by a rod ,d1 the extremity of which is formed into a cutter of a diameter equal to the width of the required groove2 the rod ,d should be fixed in the hollow arbor by a screw4 ,it is then only necessary to set the cutter in motion1 forcing the piece l against the revolving cutter1 until the requisite depth is attained4 ,then1 by making the tool-holder travel parallel to the face-plate1 the groove will be elongated until of the desired length4 #cgj4 ,the cutter may be of the form shown in ,fig4 #aga1 or it may be as shown at b in ,fig4 #agb1 since the movement is always in the same direction4 ,the cutting edges are each formed by two small inclined faces1 one pair of which is shown at b2 they occupy half the diameter of the cutter4 ,at the back of this pair the cutter presents the appearance of the lower half shown in the figure and vice versa4 ,it will be evident that the two sides of this cutter will act while its motion is continuous in one direction4 ,besides the numerous operations that can be performed on the lathe as we have hitherto indicated1 it may be employed1 if divided on the head stock1 for tracing out angles1 marking the crossings of a wheel1 a balance1 etc41 and for other purposes1 many of which are referred to in the course of this work4 ,,production ,,of ,,screw ,,threads4 ,,screw ,,plates ,,and ,,taps4 #cga4 ,the lathes employed in the manufacture of screws are of two kinds2 those intended for polishing and1 where necessary1 modifying the form of screw-heads1 much used by watch examiners and repairers1 and those specially designed for cutting the threads1 which are mainly in use in factories4 ,before discussing them1 however1 we will give some account of the screw-plates and taps in ordinary use4 #cgb4 ,common ,hand ,screw-plates4 ,the use of these is much facilitated by providing a second plate perforated with holes of such sizes that a spindle which just passes into a hole of any given number will be of the size most convenient for forming a screw in the hole of the same number in the screw-plate4 ,for a long time we have made use of two ,latard screw-plates so made that a rod which would enter one hole without play was of the most convenient size for forming a screw in the next smaller hole but one 7thus the plate perforated with plain holes can be replaced by a second screw-plate1 or by using the successively larger holes on a single plate as gauges74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4 ,in order to form a screw that is clean-cut and even1 with the least possible straining of the metal1 the holes in the screw-plate should have notches cut as shown at ,f1 ,fig4 #agc2 they should be carefully hardened and well polished on each side of the notch1 and this system is now even applied in the case of the smallest jewel screws4 #cgc4 ,screw ,dies4 ,the ordinary plate1 in which notches are not cut at the sides1 squeezes up and strains the metal4 ,this effect is less marked when separate dies are used1 and disappears entirely if only a small quantity of metal is removed at a time1 and the cutting edges of the dies are smooth and in good order4 ,in addition to possessing other advantages1 this form of screw-plate enables us to obtain at will screws of the same thread and different diameters or of the same diameter and different threads4 ,the dies must be carefully fitted to the slides that receive them4 ,dies cannot be employed for cutting very small screws4 #cgd4 ,fine-threaded ,screw-plates4 ,at the present day these can always be obtained at the material stores2 but thirty years ago it was not so1 and the watchmaker was obliged to make them for himself4 ,the following method was adopted3 ,take a screw formed with an ordinary plate1 in which the thread is broad as compared with the hollow4 ,if the screw does not satisfy this condition it must be modified thus3 ,having ascertained that it runs true1 and that it is larger than will be ultimately required1 insert it in a chuck in your lathe4 ,the ,t-rest must carry a smooth horizontal rod of hardened steel4 ,rotating the screw1 hold a slitting file in the hollow2 the file should fit into this hollow accurately1 and should be smoothed on its two sides1 only cutting with one edge4 ,the bar of hardened steel will determine the depth to which the file is allowed to cut4 ,by this means a screw is obtained that has a thread thick at the bottom4 ,with the graver remove the top of this thread1 round off its corners1 and harden the screw1 filing three facets along its entire length1 that make it taper4 ,the tap1 having been thus prepared1 is employed for cutting a thread in a piece of steel1 not too thick1 that has been previously annealed1 and in which a hole is drilled of the proper size4 ,the thread of this internal screw will be thin and the hollow proportionately broad4 ,the plate is now hammered cold with care until the thickness is so far diminished that the thread and hollow are as nearly as possible of equal thickness4 ,harden it and chamfer the ends of the hole with a conical steel point and oilstone dust4 ,then clean it and cut a thread on a piece of soft steel which may be formed into a tap4 ,if the operation has been properly conducted1 this tap will satisfy the prescribed conditions1 and1 when hardened1 it is to be employed to cut a thread in a second steel plate1 which will be employed as a screw-plate2 for that first formed must1 in consequence of the hammering to which it was subjected1 present irregularities in the hole1 and can only be used to cut one or two taps cautiously4 ,it is useless for making screws or tapping brass4 7,see also #cgh47 #cge4 ,to ,clear a ,stopped ,hole in a ,screw-,plate4 ,drill a hole through the center of the piece of metal that fills up the hole1 taking care to maintain it central1 and to employ a drill that is sufficiently small to avoid all risk of contact with the screw threads4 ,pass a broach through this hole and1 after tightening it with a few gentle blows with the hammer1 turn it in such a direction that it tends to unscrew the broken screw1 which will in nearly every case1 be removed without difficulty by this means4 ,,taps4 #cgf4 ,screw-cutting comprises two distinct operations--the formation of a spiral thread on the circumference of a cylindrical spindle1 and of a spiral groove within a cylindrical hole to receive this thread4 ,taps are made either by means of a screw-plate or in the lathe2 we shall presently refer to this second method4 ,every watchmaker may be supposed to have received1 early in his career1 instruction as to the cutting of a tap with a screw-plate4 ,great caution is necessary in the hardening1 for if the tap is not true or the metal burnt it will cut badly and be apt to break4 ,taps are cleaned after hardening with a piece of wood in the lathe or between two hard pieces of pith covered with oilstone dust1 and either three or four cutting facets may be made4 ,it is important to avoid the production of a burr in making these facets2 a good plan is to make them while the metal is still soft1 and to pass the tap through the plate subsequently1 as a sharp cutting edge is thereby produced4 ,the facets should be carefully smoothed1 and the use of coarse rouge is an advantage4 ,a tap with three facets gives the cleanest cut and leaves the most space to receive the metal that is removed1 but with four facets the roundness of the hole is more certain to be maintained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4 ,we have seen taps formed as represented at ,m1 ,fig4 #agd1 so that the object in which a thread is being cut is loose at the part o1 when the direction of movement of the tap is reversed4 ,they are also at times made semi-cylindrical1 as at ,g1 and work well in the lathe for tapping brass1 but we have not tried this form with steel4 #cgg4 ,to ,cut a ,tap when of ,considerable ,length4 ,the following precautions must be observed in order to ensure that a long screw shall be both round and true4 ,the steel must be of very goad quality1 and loose dies should be used in preference to a screw-plate4 ,it is a good practice to employ two pairs of dies 7or even more72 one to rough out the screw1 leaving the thread somewhat larger than it will finally be1 and the other to finish after having trued it1 and even sometimes lightly turned the surface in places4 ,very little metal must be removed at a time1 the dies should have sharp cutting edges1 and a rather large number of threads4 ,a screw can be made in the ordinary manner in a screw-plate rather larger than is required1 then reduced to the requisite diameter1 and finished with a plate in which the holes are of the form shown at ,f1 ,fig4 #agc1 or in a screw-cutting lathe2 in either case1 however1 care must be taken to avoid straining the metal in its passage through the first plate1 on account of the tendency which it then possesses to become distorted in the hardening4 ,if a micrometer screw is required1 that is1 a screw of absolutely uniform pitch1 it is necessary to apply to makers of astronomical and other similar instruments of precision4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4 #cgh4 ,to ,cut a ,screw of any ,desired ,pitch and ,diameter4 ,let it be required to cut a thread on the stem ,b1 ,fig4 #age1 of any pre-determined pitch that already exists in a screw-plate4 ,turn down the portion d to such a diameter that a screw can be cut on it in this hole1 and fit two runners to the lathe of the form shown at ,g and ,h4 ,the end of ,h is drilled and tapped so that d turns freely in it1 and a hole is drilled in ,g to receive the stem ,b freely1 but without sensible play1 and a fine notch is cut at a4 ,it will be obvious that if now the ferrule r is caused to rotate1 while a fine saw or file is inserted in the notch a1 a screw will be formed on ,b of the same pitch as that on d1 although there may at the same time be a very considerable difference in their diameters4 ,this method may be adopted in place of that explained in article #cgd for obtaining a fine-threaded screw4 #cgi4 ,left-handed ,screw ,taps4 ,the manner in which these are made in the screw-cutting lathe will be subsequently explained2 in its absence the watchmaker may adopt one of the following methods3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4 ,first method4 ,if1 when an internal screw has been cut with a right-handed tap1 ,b1 ,fig4 #agf1 it be required to tap a second hole in the reverse direction1 the following plan may be resorted to3 ,file the original tap ,b on two opposite sides1 so as to give it the flattened shape shown at ,a in the same figure4 ,insert the end into the hole to be tapped and turn the tap to the left with the application of considerable pressure1 so as to force the tap to bite4 ,when the tap has been passed in and withdrawn there will be found to be a left-handed thread cut in the hole4 ,for1 if the tap is turned towards the right1 the thread f passes into the groove already formed by the thread a2 but1 if turned towards the left1 f will originate a groove into which b will pass1 traveling in an inverse direction to that previously given to it4 ,the finer the thread of the screw1 the better is the chance of success1 and with a wide thread it is often necessary to recommence two or three times4 ,if a plate or pair of dies be cut in this manner and hardened1 they will serve to cut an even left-handed tap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4 ,second method4 ,attach a comb to one or two sides of a cylinder1 as indicated at ,f1 ,fig4 #agg4 ,this can be used to cut a thread in the piece of metal ,s1 that is either right or left-handed according to the direction of rotation of ,f1 sufficient pressure being at the same time applied to force it into the plate4 ,the pitch of the thread will depend on the amount of pressure applied4 ,this plan is only a modification of the one described above1 and1 as in that case1 success can only be guaranteed when a means is adopted for securing a definite relative amount of motion in ,f around its axis and ,s vertically4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4 ,third method4 ,a tap of unhardened steel is filed into a triangular form1 ,c1 ,fig4 #agh1 and twisted so as to bring the angles b1 f1 towards a1 d1 etc42 we thus obtain a tap which will serve1 throughout a certain portion of its length1 to cut a left-handed thread1 but the part that is not so adapted1 at the extremities1 will require to be removed before hardening4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4 #chj4 ,to ,make a ,left-handed ,tap by ,means of a ,right-handed ,tap4 ,a portion of the right-handed tap is filed off on three faces to the section shown at b1 ,fig4 #agi1 and firmly set in the die d so as to be held in the frame for screw-cutting dies4 ,a second die1 f made of brass and having a semi-cylindrical recess opposite b is fitted to the frame4 ,the diameter of this semi-cylinder should be the same as that of the rod on which a left-handed thread is to be cut4 ,now grip this rod as shown at a by means of the screw g1 so that it is held between the die f and the block b1 and rotate the frame or the rod a towards the left2 a spiral groove will thus be cut by the thread on b4 ,it is sometimes an advantage to cut this thread lengthwise in the manner indicated at b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,this method enables us to cut a given thread on a rod of any given diameter4 ,from an examination of ,figs4 #agi and #ahj1 it will be seen that a simple comb of the form of ,c or ,d1 carefully made by hand and fixed in the place of b1 can be employed to cut a right or left-handed thread on any given rod2 it is advisable1 however1 that the teeth of the comb be inclined to the axis of the screw1 like the thread of an ordinary tap1 as otherwise the operation becomes more difficult and success less certain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4 ,the method may be simplified by taking a brass plate1 ,d1 ,fig4 #aha1 of sufficient thickness1 and firmly setting in it the right-handed tap1 v1 having only filed away two opposite faces before hardening4 ,the rod to be tapped is then introduced with considerable pressure into the hole j1 and1 if rotated towards the left1 it will receive a left-handed thread of the same pitch4 ,the notch shown at b1 ,fig4 #agi1 will facilitate the operation1 as a cutting action will take the place of compression4 #cha4 ,m4 ,gontard has suggested a modification of this arrangement1 which consists in forming the die f1 ,fig4 #agi1 so that the original right-handed tap can be embedded in a hole previously tapped in it and filed away on the side towards b so as to expose a cutting edge2 and he points out that1 by suitably inclining the frame with reference to the axis of the rod to be tapped1 the appliance can be used to cut a double or even a triple-threaded screw1 right or left-handed4 ,he further draws attention to the fact that in a screw formed in this manner the sides of the thread are smooth and polished1 a condition which cannot be secured when either a plate or dies are used4 #chb4 ,to ,increase the ,diameter of a ,tap4 ,it sometimes happens that a screw will not penetrate to a sufficient depth1 or fits too tightly into its hole1 owing to the tap employed being of a less diameter1 either in consequence of the hardening1 polishing or wear1 or through having been formed in a different screw-plate4 ,in such a case the following expedient may be resorted to3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,make a fresh tap in soft steel and file away two opposite sides so as to give it the section shown at ,a or ,b1 ,fig4 #ahb3 after measuring the diameter at several points in its length1 hammer gently on the flattened sides4 ,with a little care and by using a micrometer at intervals for testing the alteration in diameter1 it will be found that the required increase can be obtained without much difficulty4 ,the tap is then hardened and polished1 etc42 indeed1 it is best to make a fresh tap4 ,,methods ,,of ,,tapping ,,holes4 #chc4 ,it is needless to refer to the method of tapping by hand1 as it is well known to all practical men4 #chd4 ,tapping in the ,lathe4 ,the plate of a watch is gripped in the dogs of a face-plate1 the hole to be tapped being centered by means of the pump-center1 which is then withdrawn1 and a tap held to the hole2 the face-plate is then caused to rotate either by the hand resting on its circumference1 a slight backward motion being given after each advance1 or the motion may be continuous and be given by the wheel4 ,in the latter case1 however1 the tap must have a good cutting edge and only be held in the hand with the degree of force required to make it cut1 so that it may rotate without breaking in case the resistance opposed becomes too great4 ,the tap may be steadied on the ,t-rest4 #che4 ,to ,tap with a ,mainspring ,winder4 ,the ordinary mainspring winder will1 if the click work is removed1 be found very convenient for tapping holes1 and indeed1 for forming the external thread on screws4 ,having removed the winding arbor1 replace it by a tap carefully centered2 then introduce its coned end into the hole in the plate1 which must be pressed forward while the handle is turned1 a short backward motion being given to it at frequent intervals4 ,when the tap is engaged sufficiently in the hole it is merely necessary to maintain the plate at right angles without applying pressure4 #chf4 ,to ,tap with a ,bow4 ,instead of the mainspring winder1 one of the small drill-stocks to be driven by a bow1 consisting of an arbor1 with a coned hole at one end and ferrule at the other1 supported in a frame that is clamped in the vise1 may be used4 ,they are to be obtained at any tool-shop4 ,the bow being on the ferrule and the tap properly centered in the arbor1 the hole is held against the coned end and the bow worked with an alternate forward and backward movement2 but if the tap has a good cutting edge and the bow is strong 7of steel or cane71 a hole may be tapped with a single stroke of the bow4 ,after a few trials the method will be found very easy and certain4 ,a regular and rather slow motion should be given to the bow1 which should be long and strong4 ,it is well to ascertain the number of revolutions of the ferrule that correspond to a stroke of the bow1 so as to ensure that the tap is not introduced to a greater depth than is required4 ,if it is desired that the screw work easily in the hole1 the tap should be moved several times backwards and forwards4 #chg4 ,the little turns here referred to1 some of which are perforated throughout their entire length and others only at one end1 are very cheap and will often be found useful2 they can be adapted to receive drills1 broaches1 taps1 etc4 #chh4 ,to ,tap in an ,ordinary ,lathe4 ,in factories it is a common practice to tap the holes in plates1 etc41 and even to cut the threads of screws in a lathe specially arranged for the purpose4 ,the tools adapted for such work are of two kinds3 in some the tap enters to the required depth1 when it is immediately arrested1 disconnected1 and then rotated in an opposite direction2 in others1 the tap advances to a definite point1 and is immediately withdrawn4 ,as a rule1 however1 the tap remains stationary and the object is caused to rotate4 #chi4 ,beillard ,lathe for ,tapping ,screws4 ,the axis ,f ,m1 ,fig4 #ahc1 is perforated throughout its length4 ,at ,f1 the screw-plate ,g is dovetailed into it4 ,the inner end of the hole in this plate is slightly coned to facilitate the insertion of the brass wire ,d1 and it must be exactly in the axis of ,f ,m4 ,a guide ,b sliding on two rods c1 c1 is traversed by the rod ,d which can be clamped in it by the screw a4 ,by pushing ,d against the screw-plate at the same time that the handle ,n is rotated1 a thread will be traced on it and it will emerge at k4 ,when ,b has advanced to the point m1 the screw a is released1 ,b is drawn back1 and a again clamped4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,when a long screw1 such as ,x x has to be tapped1 the screw-plate is fixed at m1 and the guide ,b is fastened on to the portion ,x4 ,of course the hole in the screw-plate must always be abundantly provided with oil4 ,if the screw-plate ,f is replaced by a plate perforated with a round or square hole1 a drill1 broach or tap may be substituted for k1 being clamped by the screw h1 and the tool is at once available for drilling1 broaching or tapping any given hole4 ,,rapid ,,mode ,,of ,,making ,a ,,screw4 #cij4 ,the methods ordinarily adopted by watchmakers are too well known to need description2 we will therefore at once proceed to give a special plan recommended by ,m4 ,vissiere4 ,an eccentric poppet-head with boring-plate1 ,fig4 #ahe1 is fitted to the bed of the lathe1 the eccentricity being such that the axis of the centers is at the point a on the circumference of the circle a y4 ,the conical hole1 having a center at a1 is cut away towards the rim of the plate to the degree indicated in the figure1 and its center is so placed that the vertical line f and the radius d are inclined at #abj4 ,the position of the ,t-rest is shown at s1 and by bringing it into actual contact with the disc the steadiness of both is increased4 ,the fixed headstock of the lathe is provided with a runner of the form ,b1 ,fig4 #ahd1 terminating in a point m at one end and a hollow cone or funnel n at the other end4 ,having filed the ends of a rod ,t1 of any required diameter1 square and fitted a ferrule1 support it between the two cones1 a of the boring-plate and n of the runner4 ,near the end a cut a hollow r sufficiently small to allow the stem to pass through the notch in the hole a1 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,after passing it through1 the rod will be supported as shown at ,h1 ,fig4 #ahd1 so that the rim e i rests against the cone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,further explanation is hardly necessary2 after removing the portion c g with a graver1 turn down to a point p4 ,when making a screw1 turn out a second hollow o o2 it then only remains to turn off the disc at the extremity1 and the screw will be roughed out of the form c p g v4 ,if it is preferred to work with a point at the left-hand end of ,b1 remove the rod after the point v has been turned1 replace m ,b n by a common runner1 reverse ,b1 and recommence the operation4 ,it would be difficult to devise a method for roughing out a screw and making a point that would be more expeditious than the one here described4 ,,screw-,,head ,,tools4 #cia4 ,these are of various kinds3 some work by hand and others by a bow4 ,the jaws are brought together sometimes by a sliding ring1 and at others by a milled head placed between them and rigidly attached to a pin tapped with right and left-handed threads that engage in the jaws4 ,but neither of these plans is good2 the screws are not held firmly and they are rarely well centered2 owing to the slight displacements of the jaws4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,a better plan is to arrange1 either in the lathe or in the jaws of the screw-head tool 7when driven by a bow71 a series of chucks of the form shown at ,t1 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,they are easily made and tapped1 the hole i serving to remove the metal from the inner end of the hole that has to be tapped2 such chucks occupy very little space1 and1 if numbered to correspond with the size of screw1 any chuck required can be found without trouble4 ,if the hole becomes too large owing to frequent use1 a larger size of tap can be passed through the hole and its number changed4 #cib4 ,a set of such chucks is almost indispensable at the present day to the watchmaker who wishes to repair watches well2 for he rarely makes his own screws1 as they are to be obtained well made and very cheap at the material dealers1 whereby a great saving of time is effected4 ,but their heads are seldom of the proper size to fit the original sinks1 and by being provided with such a series of chucks the watchmaker can at once overcome this difficulty1 as he can turn the heads down with a graver4 #cic4 ,r1 ,fig4 #ahg1 is an arbor for a screw-head tool that is driven by a bow1 and is adapted to receive such chucks1 or it can be used in an ordinary lathe1 d being supported on a pointed center1 and g in a boring-plate1 ,fig4 #ahh1 or in a cone-plate center4 #cid4 ,in this form of screw-head tool the portion ,a is sometimes perfectly cylindrical1 so that the piece ,v can slide on to it1 being clamped by the screw b4 ,this tube ,v is cut away through about half its length with a notch1 as indicated in the figure2 bent pieces of hardened steel c and n are screwed to either side of the notch4 ,screws1 h and f1 provided with lock-nuts1 determine the distance between these plates1 and when ,v is in position on ,a the ends of c1 n1 will rest on the screw-head1 leaving just sufficient space between them for inserting the file that cuts the slit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,hard steel caps of the form shown at ,m may also be fitted to ,a1 a notch being cut in them to receive the screw b4 ,these will be found useful as guides for filing or polishing screw-heads1 or the ends of arbors flat1 reducing the heads of several screws to the same height1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4 #cie4 ,the tool for forming the ,u-spaces in a cylinder escape-wheel can be easily be converted into a screw-head tool with laps4 ,a glance at ,fig4 #ahi will at once make this evident4 ,a number of chucks are adapted to the arbor ,a1 and in the tube c c either a ,t-rest or a spindle carrying a lap is fixed4 ,it will also serve as a tool for drilling2 a drill-chuck with drill1 f1 being adapted to ,a1 and the object to be perforated at b resting against a plate that projects at right angles from a slide d d1 which may be advanced by a screw g4 #cif4 ,the modern watchmaker has so little call to cut screws that it does not pay him to purchase a screw-cutting lathe2 for a very small sum he can have screws of any thread or diameter cut by those who make a specialty of such work1 always provided that he cannot find what is wanted in the material stores4 ,the same thing also applies to fuzees4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,,tools ,,for ,,cutting ,,and ,,rounding-,,up ,,the ,,teeth ,,of ,,wheels4 ,,wheel-,,cutting ,,engine4 #cig4 ,the machine for dividing the circumference of a wheel1 termed the wheel-cutting engine1 and one form of which is shown in ,fig4 #aij1 is well known to nearly all workmen4 ,the wheel is fixed to a chuck at ,b by wax or screws1 or by the pressure of a hollow cone or 8sugar loaf0 of steel1 to the apex of which pressure is applied by the arm ,d1 or in other ways4 ,the wheel may be centered either by a pump-center within the chuck or by an appliance such as is shown in ,fig4 #aia1 except that the arm b is curved and its index much longer4 ,this little addition may be fixed to the frame of the engine in any convenient position4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4 ,the chuck ,b that carries the wheel is rigidly connected with a large brass plate ,a ,a1 on which are concentric circles of divisions1 and the whole can be maintained stationary by setting the point of the index ,c ,c in any desired hole on the division-plate4 ,the cutter is carried on an arbor 7shown separate at ,l7 between horizontal bearings in the frame ,j1 and is caused to revolve by means of the pulley ,k4 ,the several parts lettered ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 are for bringing the cutter against the wheel and modifying the direction in which it moves1 so that the machine can cut straight or inclined teeth1 bevel or crown wheels1 etc4 ,it should be added that the engine here represented is more complex than those ordinarily used for cutting watch wheels1 although the principle on which it acts is the same4 ,the teeth may be cut by circular cutters of the nature of files1 by a small straight cutter1 similar to those used in a slide-rest projecting from a rotating axis1 or by several such cutters mounted on a disc which is caused to rotate4 ,for the sake of distinction it will be well to refer to the first of these as file or mill cutters1 while the second and third may be termed respectively single and multiple blade or composite cutters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4 ,watchmakers rarely possess a sufficiently large assortment of file-cutters for making all the various forms of teeth that are met with in horology2 but this deficiency can be supplied by making them for themselves to any required pattern in the manner subsequently described4 #cih4 ,observations4 ,the wheel-cutting engine in which the plate is caused to rotate by means of a tangent screw is usually the most accurate4 ,if the pitch of the screw is fine it will give all the subdivisions of a circle that are required for ordinary work1 but it is essential that a good form of counter be attached to the screw1 and a certain amount of calculation is always needful4 ,the engine that has a division-plate with conical holes arranged concentrically over its surface is simpler and better adapted for rapid work4 ,the larger this plate1 the greater is its chance of being correct and1 at the same time1 it affords room for a larger number of divisions4 ,it is preferable that the cutter frame rise and fall in a vertical dovetail1 for when the arbor is carried in an ,h shaped arm pivoted on two screws1 the teeth are always slightly dished4 ,the entire apparatus should be somewhat heavily constructed and supported on a solid bed2 so as to prevent the vibration of the cutter-arbor from being distributed over the entire machine4 ,the highest numbers on the plate should be used whenever it is possible1 so as to diminish the error due to irregularities in the sub-division4 ,for example1 in cutting a wheel of #cj teeth1 use the #ij or #abj circles1 taking every third or fourth hole4 ,these remarks will probably be sufficient to enable any watchmaker who possesses a wheel-cutting engine to employ it with success2 we will1 however1 add the description of a few appliances or processes that have a bearing on this question4 #cii4 ,to ,divide a ,wheel so that it has one ,tooth more or less than any given number on the ,division-plate4 ,it is to be observed that neither this nor the following method is mathematically exact1 but if it is practiced with care and the division-plate is of sufficient diameter1 the error may as a rule be neglected4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4 ,let ,p1 ,fig4 #aib1 be a division plate that has a #cj circle1 but not one of #bi or #ca divisions4 ,divide the circumference of a disc d1 seen on edge1 into a large number of parts in the engine1 #cfj for example1 and fix it to the end of the index1 at the same time attaching a finger1 i1 to the support s4 ,now advance the screw of the index through a distance corresponding to the angle l ,p k included between the two successive points of the #cj-;division circle4 ,to measure this distance a pointer should be previously fixed to the frame to correspond with the middle point of a hole in the circle under consideration1 and the motion should be arrested when it coincides with the next succeeding hole4 ,assume that this amount of displacement has required three complete turns of the screw2 #a1jhj divisions on the disc have thus passed under the finger i4 ,dividing this number by #ca1 we obtain #cd4hc4 ,after observing the division on d that coincides with the pointer i1 cut the first space of the wheel2 then cause #cd4hc divisions to pass under i1 in such a direction that the plate is drawn with the arrow1 and transfer the index to the next hole of the circle1 rotating this time opposite to the arrow2 the second space can now be cut1 and so on4 ,with a view to diminish errors arising from the omission of fractions1 since #ca does not divide evenly into #cfj1 a number of multiples of the number #cd4hc should be determined4 ,thus #d times #cd4hc is #aci4cb1 so that1 when the fourth space is cut1 the pointer i must be at this number of divisions from its initial position4 ,the index should be so situated that1 when half the arc l k has been traversed1 as explained above1 s a is at right angles to the radius ,p r of the division-plate4 ,if it is desired to move d in a reverse direction1 it must be moved backwards to a considerable distance and then forward up to the required point so as to avoid error due to backlash4 ,the screw of the index should fit the support s firmly and without any shake4 #djj4 ,to ,cut a ,wheel with any ,given ,number of ,teeth4 ,when the given number does not occur on the division plate1 proceed as follows3 ,take a strip of metal1 for example a pliant piece of soft steel1 and cut in it a series of equal and equidistant notches as shown at ,b1 ,fig4 #aic4 ,cut the band to such a length that it has the same number of pairs of teeth and spaces as the wheel is required to have teeth4 ,now turn a lead disc of a diameter that the strip of metal will exactly enclose2 fix this strip round the circumference with pins1 screws1 or in any convenient manner1 as is shown at ,c4 ,we thus obtain a temporary division plate which can replace the permanent one or be attached to its upper or under surface1 and1 when an index has been adapted to it1 the wheel can be divided into the requisite number of parts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4 ,when employing an engine the division plate of which is worked by a tangent screw1 the above affords an easy means of making the divided head for the screw with any desired number of divisions4 #dja4 ,with a view to insure accuracy1 it is advisable to employ a disc of large diameter as the errors of division are thereby rendered less important and the metallic blade can be made to lie closer to the rim4 ,the blade is subdivided by a saw to which a guide is attached as indicated at ,h1 ,fig4 #aic1 or the saw can with advantage be replaced by a file that only cuts on its edge and not on either face1 or by a pair of mills or revolving cutters united together as shown at ,s4 ,the following plan1 however1 appears to be more expeditious and to involve less trouble to ensure accuracy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4 ,a hole a1 ,fig4 #aid is drilled in a metallic band by means of a semi-cylindrical drill fixed in the chuck of a lathe or in a wheel-cutting engine1 etc4 ,it will be convenient if the drill can be set vertical4 ,beneath it is a brass bed-plate in which are fixed two pins equal in diameter to the hole a2 this hole having been placed over one pin b1 the band is held firmly against the other1 while the second hole is drilled4 ,this is then transferred to the pin1 and so on4 ,in the absence of a suitable tool1 a well made measure can be employed for marking a series of points with the aid of an eyeglass2 the holes are then drilled with the bow or in any other manner4 #djb4 ,to ,cut a ,wheel1 ,ratchet or ,pinion on an ,ordinary ,lathe4 ,when only a moderate degree of accuracy is required1 the ordinary lathe can be adapted for cutting the teeth of minute wheels1 ratchets1 pinions1 etc41 by making the following appliance3 ,the piece ,b1 ,fig4 #aie1 provided with a stud at p1 slides on two horizontal and parallel cylindrical rods fixed to the slide ,c1 or it may move in a dovetail4 ,the cannon d1 carrying a ferrule k and a file-cutter f1 rotates on the foot at p without shake2 and the cord of a wheel or bow passes round k4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4 ,r1 the wheel to be cut1 is supported between the runners1 the divided plate ,v1 which may even be an old wheel with the required number of teeth1 being fixed to the axis of ,r4 ,v is held stationary during the operation of cutting1 by the index l4 ,the mode of action hardly requires explanation3 while f is rotating1 advance ,b until it is arrested by the stop t2 then draw ,b back1 advance l to the next division on the plate1 and so on4 #djc4 ,we have said enough on this subject to enable any watchmaker to make such a tool1 modifying it or completing it according to his requirements4 ,we would only remark that3 7#a7 ,if a cannon of the form d is used1 the stud should be diminished in diameter at its middle part for about three-quarters of its length1 so that friction occurs only at extremities2 and 7#b7 if a wheel is used to rotate k1 there should be an idle pulley at m supported on a fixed arm independent of ,b1 either attached to the lathe-bed or bench1 or fixed in the vise1 so that the ferrule k can move backwards or forwards without altering the tension of the cord1 in the manner indicated at ,y4 #djd4 ,wheel-cutting ,arbor-chucks4 ,these appliances are specially useful in making wheels that are required to be rigorously true1 such1 for example1 as escape wheels4 ,the form is represented in ,fig4 #aif4 ,it is simply the arbor of an ordinary lathe1 formed in two pieces1 b a and b c1 the body b d being very accurately fitted into the conical hole in the plate of the wheel-cutting engine4 ,if now a wheel is fixed with wax on the extremity z and turned in the lathe to the required form1 it is only necessary to unscrew b c and introduce b d into the socket of the wheel-cutting engine2 then having cut the teeth1 the piece b c is replaced1 and the whole is set in the lathe1 if required to test its truth1 without the wheel having been displaced from the chuck4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,it will1 of course1 be evident that the two parts must be accurately fitted together2 the tapped hole and the screw must be true with the axis4 ,m4 ,millot1 with whom we have seen this form of arbor in use1 has not been able to detect any eccentricity1 although he often employs them4 #dje4 ,they might be formed in one piece1 as a d b1 with a point at p4 ,a boxwood ferrule is then fitted onto the portion b d1 where it is clamped by two screws1 and these can be released when it is desired to insert the chuck into the wheel-cutting engine4 ,the points of these screws should be received in recesses in order to avoid the production of any roughness on the surface of b d4 ,wheel-cutting engines have been made to receive these arbor-chucks without removing the pulley4 ,the point c is placed in a hole and the upper end is enclosed in a collar1 which is tightened by means of a screw4 ,the arbor used by ,m4 ,millot had a lantern chuck1 and this is very convenient in making objects that require to be measured during the progress of the work4 #djf4 ,modification of the ,ordinary ,arrangement for ,holding the ,wheel ,while ,cutting4 ,in the wheel-cutting engine as usually met with1 the wheel 7when not mounted on an axis7 is held against the chuck by a hollow steel cone1 on which presses an arm that slides on a vertical pillar and can be clamped in any position4 ,the hole at the end of this arm does not always1 therefore1 correspond with the point of the cone1 and1 as a consequence1 the wheel often gets displaced during cutting4 ,this inconvenience can be avoided by adopting the following device1 which we have seen in use with several watchmakers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aig4 ,the pillar with its sliding arm is replaced by an iron or steel piece of the form ,g1 ,fig4 #aig4 ,the point a is received by the central hole at the lower end of the division-plate axis1 while the screw b presses on the point of the cone1 clamping it firmly4 ,further explanation seems unnecessary2 we would only add that the piece ,g must be made strong and perfectly rigid4 ,,cutters ,,for ,,forming ,,the ,,teeth ,,of ,,brass ,,wheels4 #djg4 ,for making the teeth of the wheels of a train1 a special form of cutter1 set to revolve on an axis1 is employed1 and it may be constructed on either of three distinct systems4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4 7#a7 ,a single cutter mounted on an arbor1 as at ,a1 ,b1 ,figs4 #aih and #aii2 this may be termed a single cutter4 7#b7 ,a circular cutter1 formed of a series of such single cutters1 which will be termed a multiple blade or composite cutter4 ,two specimens are shown at ,f1 ,j1 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4 7#c7 ,the pinion1 or steel wheel cutter or mill1 formed of a single piece of metal1 as seen in ,figs4 #bja1 #bjb and #bjc4 ,these may be described as mill or file cutters4 #djh4 ,to ,make a ,single ,cutter4 ,the form shown at ,a1 ,fig4 #aih1 is roughed out to as nearly as possible the required form in good steel4 ,some makers1 possessed of exceptional skill1 make them entirely by hand1 and they make very beautiful teeth by this means2 but as a rule watchmakers cannot look for such success1 so that it is better to complete the formation of the cutter in a specially arranged tool4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bja4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,the two sides may be made in the wheel-cutting engine1 with the same mill cutter1 which is inclined when used to undercut the acting edge2 but this operation is not as easy as it appears at first sight1 and the watchmaker will find it to his advantage to make the following device3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,a spindle1 b d1 ,fig4 #bjd1 supported between the runners1 t1 v1 serves as an axis for the arm f g h1 which is bent at g so as to afford a support to a conical cutter a1 driven on the ferrule c4 ,the descent of this arm is limited by an adjustable stop1 fixed to the bed of the turns4 ,having removed the ,t-rest1 replace it by the rod ,n1 to which the cutter is clamped by a screw k1 after being roughed out so as to reduce the work required of the cutter4 ,place ,n so that the conical cutter occupies the position indicated at z1 and1 if a slight pressure be applied at h while a is caused to revolve1 both the straight and curved portion of the side will be formed1 and the side will1 at the same time1 be bevelled to an angle corresponding with that of the cone4 ,the curved portion of the side will be more or less undercut1 according as the arm h is depressed below the horizontal plane passing through the axis of the lathe4 ,the opposite side is formed by inverting the piece f g h4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,in smoothing or polishing it is only requisite to replace the cutter by a smooth conical roller1 and to work as before4 #dji4 ,the cutter is sometimes fixed in the arbor as shown in ,fig4 #aih4 ,the arbor itself is thick and perforated with a round hole in which the tail of the cutter accurately fits1 a slight pressure applied by the screw m being sufficient to make it steady4 ,for cutting the escape-wheels of clocks the arbor should have a velocity of about #bjj turns a second4 ,m4 ,peupin1 a skilful watchmaker who adopts the practice here given1 having observed that with a sharp cutting edge he did not obtain a sufficiently smooth surface1 succeeded in obviating the difficulty by drawing a polisher with rouge along the cutting edge1 maintaining it at right angles to the plane of the cutter4 ,this operation1 if carefully executed1 will serve to remove the feather-edge1 to make the edge even and yet not dull1 and to secure a highly polished cut surface4 ,the sides of the teeth will present a proportionately better surface1 according as the portion c a 7,m1 ,fig4 #aih17 approximates towards the dotted line c d4 ,his escape-wheel teeth are cut in successive stages4 ,the last stroke of the cutter is given by advancing it against the side of the wheel1 so that the cutter axis remains in the plane of the wheel4 #daj4 ,triangular ,cutters4 ,when a cylindrical or conical mill is not available for finishing and sloping the sides of a cutter1 it may be replaced by a triangular cutter 7,t or ,c1 ,fig4 #bje17 and when the application of much force is required there may be a pointed bearing2 but this is seldom necessary4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bje4 ,if carefully hardened and set1 such a cutter gives a clean cut2 of course it will not act for as long a period as the conical form above described1 but this is of comparatively little importance1 since the blank cutters are always roughed out previously to nearly the requisite shape4 #daa4 ,to ,make ,several ,cutters at ,once4 ,by adopting the following method1 it is possible to make several such cutters in one operation4 ,turn a steel disc of the form of an ordinary mill cutter1 as shown at l p1 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,to finish it1 giving the same curvature to the two sides1 take a piece of steel1 ,c1 and shape the corner r to exactly correspond with the side of the point or ogive of a tooth1 bevelling it so as to give a cutting edge at the upper surface2 then harden and smooth it with care4 ,having fixed it in position in the tool that carries the arbor a and the roughed out disc 7whether this be the lathe1 wheel or pinion-cutting engine1 or a special device7 in the required position1 one side of the disc may be finished4 ,the arbor a is then reversed and the other side finished in the same manner1 so that both sides have the same curvature in opposite directions4 ,of course the tool ,c may be advanced against l p1 either sideways from r towards l1 or radially in the direction l p1 as is most convenient4 ,or the tool might remain fixed and the disc advance against it radially or laterally4 ,the traverse slide in a lathe is usually provided with a stop2 it would then be very easy to form one side of the disc in such a tool1 afterwards reversing the arbor and forming the other side4 ,if a very good cutting edge is desired1 the sides should be smoothed and1 when the disc is completed1 it may be divided into pieces similar to ,b1 ,fig4 #aii1 each of which will serve as a cutter4 ,it will be noticed that the acting edge is not undercut behind2 it is thus necessary to slope the cutter a little as shown at ,b1 as otherwise the rim will choke in the spaces of the wheel1 straining it without cutting4 #dab4 ,composite ,cutter ,formed of a ,succession ,of ,single ,cutters4 ,by mounting a series of identical single cutters round the circumference of a disc1 a circular cutter can be formed in the manner indicated in ,fig4 #bjf4 ,the upper portion represents the arrangement of the pieces while they are being turned1 and the lower portion shows their positions when the cutter is ready to be used4 ,m4 ,a4 ,croutte1 to whom we are indebted for several of the details here given1 was much surprised that this form of cutter is not better known1 since it possesses certain special advantages2 we will summarize his remarks on the subject4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,the separate cutters b1 g1 etc41 ,fig4 #bjf1 are not undercut from the acting edge backward2 they are merely reversed1 so that this acting edge is towards the front1 in other words it lies along the radius4 ,these separate pieces possess a special advantage in that they can be used until the steel is quite worn out by the setting2 in this respect differing from the undercut cutters1 for they are not altered either in form or thickness by setting4 ,as a set-off against this important advantage1 they are characterized by the inconvenience of requiring that the two sides of the blade be exactly in a plane at right angles to the axis1 and that the slide carrying the cutter-arbor shall move in a direction parallel to this plane4 ,and even when this double condition is satisfied1 there will be friction of the two sides above the dotted line i j1 ,fig4 #aii1 against the sides of the teeth2 and if the above named conditions are not satisfied1 the cutter1 being presented edgeways1 will be choked with brass1 and the results will be unsatisfactory4 #dac4 ,in order to ascertain whether such a fault exists1 it is only necessary to notice whether the cutter becomes brass-colored on one side towards the point1 and on the other more inwards1 and the sides of the teeth exhibit stri or scores in opposite directions1 as indicated at ,e1 ,fig4 #bjg4 ,the white strip1 #a1 #a1 corresponds to the bottom of a space between two teeth2 #b1 #b1 and #c1 #c1 the two sides of this space1 spread out like an open book4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjg4 ,by examining the marks with care1 and noticing the direction in which they are inclined1 it will be possible to ascertain both whether the separate cutters are out of place1 and in which direction the arbor should be moved in order to correct any error4 ,we must1 then1 repeat that all the cutters must satisfy this condition1 because if only one is wrong it will produce the scores here referred to4 ,the necessity of these precautions in the use of such a composite cutter1 and the fact that the friction of the portion above the line i j1 ,fig4 #aii1 renders it difficult to obtain a polished cut 7which is essential for such delicate depths as those of watches71 have doubtless prevented its use becoming general4 ,for work that is somewhat larger or rough1 it will be found to give satisfactory results and will last longer than a single cutter4 ,a lubricant1 such as glycerine or oil1 should be applied to it4 #dad4 ,composite ,cutters with the ,cutting ,edges ,undercut4 ,an old ,paris clockmaker1 ,brisson1 used a cutter of the form ,f1 ,fig4 #bjj1 for the teeth of his wheels4 ,he undercut the two sides of the blades by means of a small special tool4 ,strictly speaking1 the operation can be performed by hand4 ,in order to ensure that the curves that form the ogives of teeth are alike on the two sides of a cutter1 he made a series of templates or standards of the form ,c1 ,fig4 #bjf1 in which were two holes1 ,c and c1 of equal diameter4 ,the upper one1 which might be funnel-shaped so as to give a cutting edge1 was half cut away1 and1 after being hardened and set1 could be used to give a final stroke to the circumference of two discs of equal diameter4 ,these two discs1 or one cut through a diameter would suffice1 having been brought by a file to the form ,h1 and joined as shown at r s1 can be mounted eccentrically so as to present a cutting edge to the roughed out cutter ,a2 the two sides can thus be made even4 ,the disc may then be finished by cutting away the metal so as to give the form shown at ,f1 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,by the aid of the standards he could easily reproduce the same forms of teeth when required4 ,fig4 #bjj comprises1 at ,j1 a cutter for the teeth of watch wheels of the form employed successfully by ,m4 ,a4 ,phillippe4 ,the figure will explain itself4 ,we have known a ,geneva wheel cutter who employed these composite cutters with advantage in making duplex wheels4 ,the principal difficulty he experienced arose from the distortion of the metal in hardening1 because the acting portion naturally lengthened a little4 ,this form of composite cutter certainly demands careful workmanship1 but1 if the construction1 hardening and polishing are good1 it will produce fine work and will last a long time4 #dae4 ,general ,observations on ,cutting the ,teeth of ,brass ,wheels with a ,single or ,compound ,cutter4 ,high-class ,english watches1 the movements for which are made at ,prescot1 in ,lancashire1 have the wheel teeth made by a composite cutter after the wheels are riveted to their pinions4 ,we have remarked that these watches make less noise when running down than those in which the teeth have been formed with a mill or continuous action cutter4 ,success in forming teeth with cutters depends mainly on the securing of a good form as regards the cutting edge1 and on its being maintained in good condition2 on the steadiness of the entire machine1 so as to avoid vibration2 on the weight of the wheel1 and on the velocity of the cutter being sufficient4 ,a cutter ought never to assume a brassy color except when it requires setting2 if it does so1 and this is not the case1 it proves that the metal is being strained or scraped with friction4 ,the velocity must be very considerable2 greater with a single cutter than with one that is composite4 ,the velocity is limited by that point at which the heat generated would cause the oil to evaporate1 soften the cutter1 distort1 and sometimes even displace1 the wheel operated on4 ,the engagement of the cutter with the metal must be very slight1 and should never be increased suddenly4 ,attempts have been made to enclose the arbor bearings in horn1 but it is liable to be distorted by the heat4 ,before dividing the disc into cutters it is essential that the two edges be carefully smoothed1 and this without their being distorted4 ,this can easily be done in an old depthing tool1 using an arrangement like that shown in ,fig4 #bjh4 ,the lap must be of hard wood1 and its right-hand corner rounded off so as to resemble the side of a tooth2 it is set to engage with one side of the cutter4 ,we say the right-hand corner1 because a lateral pressure can then be applied4 ,it is important that the surface as left by the graver be clean cut1 because if the smoothing is too much prolonged1 it will deform the cutter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjh4 #daf4 ,in some factories it is usual to use discs about #b inches in diameter1 for cutting the teeth of brass wheels in timepieces4 ,the single cutters are arranged round the circumference as follows3 ,one forms a space between two teeth2 the one immediately preceding forms the right-hand side of the ogive1 and that which follows forms the left-hand side4 ,by adopting such an arrangement of separate cutters1 if their side that lies against the disc is slightly inclined backwards it is no longer necessary to bevel off the cutting edge4 ,,mill ,,cutters ,,for ,,steel4 #dag4 ,pinions1 ,keyless ,wheels1 ,etc4 ,the cutters that last for the longest period when used for cutting steel are those formed like a file2 but a watchmaker is not always in a position to make them himself2 we will1 therefore1 here only speak of those he can make1 the description of the first few being taken from a work by ,m4 ,a4 ,phillippe1 of ,geneva1 ,les montres sans clefs 7keyless watches74 #dah4 ,cutter for ,forming the ,inclined ,teeth of ,winding ,pinions4 ,fig4 #bja shows at ,s a section along the axis of such a cutter1 and at ,p a side view4 ,when it is believed to be of the required form1 rest a piece of lead on the ,t-rest of the lathe and press it against the rotating disc4 ,the impression made in the lead will afford a means of ascertaining both whether the form is correct1 and whether the surfaces are smooth enough4 ,this last point is important4 ,the cutting edges are formed by merely making a number of notches around the circumference with a tool for cutting ratchet teeth4 ,then advance this ratchet cutter so that it may engage with the convex edge of the cutter operated upon1 and against the back of the teeth of this cutter2 the ratchet cutter is then in a position to form a second face1 o i1 by which the teeth of the cutter are undercut at the back1 but in such a manner that a small flat surface o a is left in order to retain the form4 ,when a cutter made in this way will no longer bite1 it may be set by passing a hard slip of whetstone over the faces of the teeth4 ,the ratchet cutter employed for making this cutter should never be pressed against it heavily4 #dai4 ,cutter for ,ordinary ,wheel ,teeth4 ,we will now pass to the consideration of cutters for forming teeth of the usual shape1 of intermediate steel wheels1 set-hands wheels1 pinions1 etc4 ,they may be made as follows3 ,the rim is indented with small fine ratchet teeth1 b d1 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,any burr produced on the sides is then carefully removed1 and the cutter is placed in the wheel-cutting engine1 and notches1 c1 c1 c1 c1 etc41 are formed on either side with a flat square-edged cutter of such a thickness that the circumference is about equally divided into hollows and prominences4 ,it is important to note that the right side of the teeth must be but slightly roughed1 not more than is required in order to raise a slight burr1 all that is necessary to form the cutting edge of this portion of the disc4 ,in roughing these sides1 at least one out of every two of the small ratchet teeth on the circumference should be left untouched1 so as to ensure the required thickness being maintained4 ,the cutter shown in section and elevation at ,s and ,p1 ,fig4 #bja1 might be cut on the side n in the manner here explained1 and the convex portion k might be indented with a fine ratchet-toothed cutter1 carried in the hinged cutter-frame of the wheel-cutting engine4 ,the degree of penetration may be determined by fixing an ivory disc against the cutter and concentric with it1 the two differing in diameter by the depth the cuts are to be made4 ,the teeth will be rather too square towards the circumference1 but their form can be carefully corrected by hand4 ,it is obvious that the very greatest caution is necessary in hardening cutters4 #dbj4 ,rose-,cutters or ,forming ,pinion ,cutters4 ,as the edges of pinion cutters are rounded1 they can be made in the manner suggested by ,thevenin4 ,supporting the roughed out cutter in the cutter-frame of a wheel-cutting engine1 he fitted in the axis of the division-plate a kind of rose-cutter1 ,n1 ,fig4 #bje4 ,its extremity1 n1 instead of being flat1 is hollowed out as indicated by the dotted line1 and1 by presenting the cutting edge thus obtained endwise to the grooved edge of the cutter1 the correct form can be given to it4 ,with a mushroom-headed piece of steel and oilstone dust1 the cutting edge of the rose-cutter can be made more or less acute by modifying the angle of this steel lap4 #dba4 ,other ,forms of ,pinion ,cutter4 ,when a cutter is merely required for a special piece of work1 and not for continuous use1 it will often be sufficient to make it as shown at ,a1 ,fig4 #bjc2 this is made by grooving the disc 7c71 or forming its edges as at d1 after which a series of teeth are cut on the periphery with a revolving cutter1 taking care to leave no more burr on one side than on the other4 ,then pass a smooth worn file 7or a worn flat cutter7 over the faces of the teeth1 applying oil at the same time1 so as to produce a slight burr on the edges2 if the file is not allowed to bite too much and is well managed1 these minute ridges will be uniform4 ,after hardening1 the cutter is ready for use4 ,if the faces were smoothed without subsequently applying the file1 the cutter would not bite2 for its action depends on the slight projection of metal that corresponds to the file-cuts4 ,the cutter is nothing more than a circular file1 with two cuts per tooth4 ,if the corners are turned over evenly by means of a very hard burnisher the same effect will be produced2 but this operation is delicate1 as the amount of metal turned over must be the same in every case4 ,when a cutter does not bite1 it must be softened and restored to its initial condition4 #dbb4 ,or the following method may be adopted when it is required to make a cutter for a special purpose4 ,proceed at first in the manner just described1 but the periphery is divided into a greater number of teeth with a flat cutter1 and to a rather greater depth1 as at ,e1 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,bend backward each tooth to a distance equal to about half a space by any convenient method2 for example1 by a lever resting at the bottom of each space and pressing against the corner of the tooth1 etc4 ,before bending the first tooth introduce a piece of brass into the space behind it1 of a thickness equal to about half this space1 so as to avoid bending too far2 for succeeding teeth the thickness must be about equal to a space2 thus ,e will become ,e4 ,an inspection of ,fig4 #bjc will suffice to make the operation evident2 it amounts to bending back a series of separate cutters4 ,the disc is then hardened1 and the faces of the teeth are smoothed when they do not cut well2 or merely smooth those that are the first to become dull4 ,it is important to employ soft steel that has previously been well annealed4 #dbc4 ,cutter for ,making ,square ,spaces4 ,the teeth of such a cutter can be easily formed with a file1 as shown at ,l1 ,fig4 #bji1 the edge of the cutter1 f1 being passed backwards and forwards in the direction of the arrows1 applying considerable pressure and at the same time slowly rolling f around4 ,or the cutter may be set up on a short arbor between the centers of the lathe2 then pass the file backwards and forwards across the edge until the cuts are formed1 slowly advancing the file in the meanwhile1 so as to form the cuts around the circumference without once raising the file4 ,the cutter must then1 of course1 be hardened4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4 #dbd4 ,forming ,cutters with a ,milling ,tool4 ,the roughing of a round-edged1 or even of a square cutter1 can also be effected with the aid of a milling or 8nurling0 tool1 proceeding in the same manner as when milling the heads of screws1 etc4 ,the tool must be in good condition1 well provided with oil1 and applied with considerable pressure against very soft steel4 ,if necessary1 the workman can make the mill for himself2 it is shown at ,m1 ,fig4 #baj4 ,f shows the method of applying it to the cutter1 and by partly turning the mill 7of course carried in a strong holder7 around its point of contact with the cutter1 as indicated by the dotted lines1 the rim of ,f will be evenly roughed all around4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4 ,with good steel fairly satisfactory results are obtained in this manner1 but it is needless to observe that such cutters never bite as well as those made in the usual manner4 #dbe4 ,general ,observations4 ,when cutters are used with steel they must be driven at a less velocity than when cutting brass1 and1 as ,m4 ,a4 ,phillippe has observed1 it is best to make the cutters for steel of small diameter 7about half an inch74 ,they are more easily made and are less distorted in the hardening4 ,the velocity should diminish as the diameter increases2 for too great a velocity1 especially when the diameter is great1 will dull the cutter and soften it1 owing to the heat produced4 ,cutters must be turned very true3 it is advisable to give them a last stroke with the graver after they are fitted to the cutter-arbor that will subsequently carry them4 ,when operating on steel it is best that the cutter frame of the wheel-cutting engine be advanced by a screw so as to give it a slow and easy motion2 the results obtained are more satisfactory than when it is advanced by hand or with a lever4 ,the following practice is not uncommon in factories when it is desired to reproduce the exact form of a cutter4 ,a notch is made with the cutter in the edge of a piece of steel1 ,x1 ,fig4 #baa1 or a series of notches o o1 etc41 can be made by several cutters in the circumference of a disc ,z 7same figure74 ,after being hardened and sharpened at the cutting edge1 this disc is fixed at the center of the division-plate of a wheel-cutting engine1 and can then be used to complete the grooving of any cutter that is set in position on the cutter-arbor before hardening4 ,the positions opposite to which the notches were cut should be marked on the chuck1 so that they may always be set-square to the cutter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baa4 #dbf4 ,besides the forms of cutter above described for operating on steel1 we may mention that circular cutters may be used in which all the notches around the circumference have been polished1 thus removing the burr1 and preventing them from acting in the manner of a file4 ,but while1 with the former kind1 a somewhat rapid rotation is necessary 7although not so rapid as when cutting brass71 with this latter class the movement must be comparatively slow1 and produced by means of a hand-wheel2 otherwise they will not cut1 since the action depends rather on the application of pressure1 and resembles that of a slide-rest cutter4 ,the distance apart and width of the teeth of the cutter1 as well as their inclination1 are of importance2 if too far apart they occasion a waste of time2 if too large the machine will act in a jerky manner1 and when too narrow1 an excessive pressure will be needed in order to make the cutter bite the steel1 which1 it is to be observed1 must always be thoroughly annealed4 ,the edge must be well supplied with oil or soapy water when in action4 ,it is generally found best to advance the cutter against the edge of the steel rather than across it4 ,,tool ,,for ,,making ,,cutters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bab4 #dbg4 ,the instruments usually employed for making cutters for the teeth of wheels and pinions are complicated and expensive1 but the author has designed one for his own use that is comparatively simple1 and can be made by any watchmaker4 ,when the reader has grasped the principle on which it acts he will be able1 without difficulty1 to modify it so as to suit his requirements4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4 ,the frame ,b ,b b1 ,figs4 #bab and #bac1 consists of the body of the tool1 ,b ,b1 and a bar b b1 which is attached to it by screws4 ,between the two the division-plate ,p rotates on an axis ,e ,r4 ,the end ,e of this axis is formed as a chuck to receive the cutter f1 which is clamped by a screw t4 ,the support ,s s ,j is held with friction in the lower part of this frame1 to carry the cutter-holder ,a ,l ,m4 ,this cutter-holder is hinged at n1 so that it can receive a double motion1 revolving about a horizontal axis ,j1 and about an inclined axis n4 ,the portion ,a ,l of the cutter-holder carries a perforated arbor a c1 with a ferrule c that receives the tail of the small rose-cutter1 which will presently be described4 ,the end ,m rests against a guide ,g1 held by a vane o z1 which is pivoted on a pillar z1 and can be clamped in either of the directions z y1 z x1 or by one of the screws o1 o4 #dbh4 ,we will now consider the mode of action of the machine4 ,having set the little arbor c a in rotation1 rest the end ,m of the arm against the guide1 and gradually advance the rose-cutter towards f2 the edge of d will form the first notch in the grooved rim of the cutter1 and then will be raised from contact with it1 owing to the influence of the guide ,g4 ,after moving the tool-holder back to its initial position1 advance the wheel ,p by a tooth1 repeat the operation1 and so on4 #dbi4 ,if the cutter f has to be notched on both sides1 it must be reversed on the chuck2 turn the guide so as to point in the direction z x1 corresponding exactly to z y2 then having set the cutter-holder in the line z h1 recommence operations4 ,the two grooves of the cutter will then necessarily be of similar form4 ,teeth can be cut on the rim of f by using a cutter of the form ,f1 ,fig4 #bad1 and holding ,m against a straight vertical guide4 ,with a given divided wheel1 ,p1 the teeth can be brought nearer together by reducing the diameter of the cutter1 and vice versa4 ,it is well to have some change wheels1 but a better plan is to advance the division plate by the aid of a tangent screw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4 #dcj4 ,to ,make the ,several ,accessories4 ,form of the rose or star-cutter4 ,the rose-cutter is formed of a mushroom-headed piece of steel4 ,such a conical cutter is shown at ,c and ,r1 ,fig4 #bae1 and at ,f1 ,fig4 #bad4 ,f and ,c are cut in the same way that conical cutters are always made1 and ,r is a small triangular prism that only cuts by its three corners1 a1 a1 a4 ,as it is necessarily very small when employed in making the cutters for watch pinions1 it must1 in such a case1 be supported at the neck by a little fork4 ,moreover1 it must be brought gradually against the steel to be operated upon1 so as only to engage a very little at a time4 ,with a view to this1 it is advisable that the cutter-holder be advanced by a screw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4 ,the star-cutter1 shown at ,e1 ,fig4 #baf1 is at times substituted for the rose-cutter4 ,it cuts with the corners e1 e1 etc41 whether it be going to the right or left indifferently4 ,or a triangular cutter like ,t1 ,fig4 #baf1 can be used in its place2 but its angles are fewer and less acute1 so that they become dull more rapidly4 ,a few trials will be needed in order to determine the most convenient rate of movement of the several parts2 and the edge of the cutter f must always be liberally supplied with oil4 ,a little can may be so arranged as to allow oil to fall drop by drop on to the cutter d1 ,fig4 #bac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4 #dca4 ,to make the guide4 ,having mounted a plate1 ,g1 on the vane o z1 trace out the approximate form of the cutter with the point of ,m2 then cut off the superfluous metal1 leaving a slight margin4 ,this excess is necessary because the curvature of the guide is not the same as that of the cutter1 for the indentations as they spread out from the center 7t7 become gradually deeper4 ,the guide should be tested from time to time by operating on a blank brass disc fixed in place of the cutter f and the guide must be modified as experience shows to be requisite4 ,its edge must be saddle-shaped so that the middle may correspond exactly with the two dotted lines z x1 z y1 ,fig4 #bac4 ,the position of the disc on the chuck t must be brought to correspond with the guide by carefully turned washers placed behind it4 #dcb4 ,driving attachment4 ,fig4 #bag shows one system that may be adopted for connecting the ferrule ,c with a driving wheel4 ,all that is required is that the instrument be set in such a position that this ferrule is placed as indicated in the figure with reference to the distributor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag4 #dcc4 ,cutters of uneven thickness at the circumference4 ,it is well-known that the edges of the cutters of rounding-up tools 7#dce7 are made to taper off around the periphery4 ,in order to indent such a cutter1 the guide must be mounted on a slide1 so that it may be gradually displaced while the operation is in progress1 by an amount previously determined upon4 ,the desired result can be obtained with sufficient accuracy by moving the guide backwards by successive stages with a screw4 ,the end k of the arm ,m1 ,fig4 #bac1 is slightly tapered1 so that a gradual depression of ,m occurs1 and each cut is deeper than that which preceded it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bah4 #dcd4 ,modification in the construction4 ,this instrument may be modified as follows3 ,the disc to be operated upon is fitted to the chuck of the division-plate ,d1 ,fig4 #bah1 which is vertical1 and the entire system is capable of a movement of rotation round the axis of the base ,p4 ,having set the disc in the plane a b1 as shown in the figure1 clamp ,p2 then1 by traversing the cutter-holder1 the teeth on the side of the cutter towards a b are made4 ,this cutter frame having now been removed1 the base ,p is turned until the cutter is in the plane c n1 such that it is equally inclined on the opposite side of the axis of the cutter frame2 the teeth on that side may then be made1 the star-cutter being rotated in an opposite direction4 ,it is unnecessary to prolong our explanations of the instrument1 as the details already given will suffice for any intelligent workman4 ,,tools ,,for ,,correcting ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,teeth4 #dce4 ,rounding-up ,tools4 ,in ,europe it is the practice1 in making watch wheels1 to first notch the circumference by means of a flat circular cutter in a wheel cutting engine1 thus forming a number of square teeth4 ,they are subsequently rounded off to the usual form1 after the wheels are riveted to their pinions1 in a special tool4 ,the apparatus employed for this purpose is termed a rounding up tool1 and its principal feature is a mill cutter ,f1 ,fig4 #bai1 the portion a b of whose circumference is cut away and replaced by a guide g f made of steel spring1 and so fixed as to coincide with the edge of the cutter at f1 and incline at g in order to compel the cutter to pass1 at each rotation1 into consecutive spaces of the wheel4 ,two screws are provided1 the one f for setting the guide opposite the edge of the cutter1 and g for placing the free end of the guide opposite to a space4 ,this tool acts with great rapidity1 a fact which has led to its being very extensively used in the factories of ,france and ,switzerland1 although the ordinary system of wheel cutting is preferred in ,england for all the better class of work4 ,for it should be noted that the rounding up tool does not correct any errors that are due to bad dividing2 for example1 if a wheel is found to have some of its teeth larger than others1 the tool can not be relied upon to correct them2 on the other hand1 if a wheel is exactly divided it is improbable that the employment of this tool will occasion irregularity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bai4 ,the instrument we are discussing is1 however1 not much used by watch repairers1 although they are frequently called upon to touch up the teeth of wheels1 or to slightly reduce the diameters of their pitch circles1 operations which cannot be done by hand with much chance of success4 ,the limited use to which rounding-up tools have been put is owing1 in great part1 to their high price1 but cheaper tools on this principle are now coming into use4 #dcf4 ,one of these is shown in ,fig4 #bbj4 ,the wheel to be operated upon is held against a small table at ,d between two vertical runners with guard-pivot centers1 and a cutter of the form shown at ,fig4 #bai1 is fixed at ,c to a suitable chuck of a small lathe-head ,b2 this is caused to revolve by the hand-wheel ,a1 a supplementary pulley ,k taking all strain off the axis4 ,the three milled-headed nuts seen at ,e1 ,f1 and ,g are for adjusting the instrument2 ,e for moving the lathe-head1 so that the cutter is in the same plane as the axis of the runners1 a position which is determined by the pointer ,i2 ,f for advancing the wheel against this cutter2 and ,g for setting the plane of the wheel to pass through the axis of the lathe-head as indicated by the index ,h4 ,the instrument is accompanied by a number of cutters to suit the various sizes of teeth ordinarily met with1 as well as of tables to support wheels of different dimensions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4 #dcg4 ,ingold ,fraise or ,cutter4 ,rounding-up ,cones4 ,either the cutters devised by ,m4 ,ingold1 or the rounding-up cones of ,m4 ,berlioz1 may be used for correcting the form of wheel teeth4 ,the ,ingold fraise is a small steel cylinder perforated through the axis so as to be mounted on an arbor1 and having a number of longitudinal notches on its circumference which makes it resemble a pinion1 the points of whose leaves have been ground off4 ,the spaces of the fraise are of the exact form required to be given to the teeth of the wheel1 and their surfaces are covered with fine file cuts so as to enable them to remove metal from the wheel operated on4 ,having mounted the arbor that carries it between two centers of a depthing tool 7made especially strong for the purpose71 the wheel is supported by its axis between the second pair of centers 7with guard-pivot points74 ,if now the fraise be advanced by the screw until its teeth engage with those of the wheel1 and either be caused to rotate1 it will drive the other1 and the fraise will thus shape the teeth to a pre-determined form1 the faces of each notch acting the part of a minute file introduced between the teeth4 ,it will be observed that such an instrument is preferable to the ordinary rounding-up tool1 in that it may be relied upon to bring all the teeth to the same shape1 but1 on the other hand1 the latter tool has an advantage in being available for slightly reducing the diameter of a wheel when a depth is found to be too strong4 #dch4 ,an objection has been urged against the ,ingold fraises on the ground of expense1 as each dimension of tooth evidently requires a cylinder specially adapted to it4 ,this fact has led to the introduction of 8rounding-up cones0 the invention of ,m4 ,berlioz1 which act on precisely the same principle1 but are conical instead of cylindrical1 so that each fraise evidently takes the place of a number of ,ingold fraises4 ,the total number being proportionately reduced4 ,but great dexterity is required in their use1 so that they cannot be successfully employed until after numerous trials4 #dci4 ,exact ,rounding-up ,tool4 ,the author has devised an instrument for giving to the teeth of wheels the exact form determined upon by theory1 but as it is of too elaborate a nature to come into general use1 we shall not do more than here refer to it4 ,it is rather of a nature to be used for scientific work1 but might be found of considerable value for accurately forming the blades of cutters that are used in grooving the circular cutters employed for cutting the teeth of wheels4 #ddj4 ,to ,round ,up ,teeth ,by ,hand4 ,we have seen a country watchmaker proceed somewhat as follows3 ,his method was only effective1 however1 for ensuring the verticality of the file1 and did not maintain it straight1 nor could the curvature of all the teeth be relied upon to be the same2 these two conditions are satisfied by the system here explained4 ,formerly watchmakers possessed very considerable skill in this kind of work1 as the teeth were always formed by hand2 but at the present day1 for want of practice1 there is not one to be found in a hundred competent to round up a wheel properly by hand alone4 ,recourse may be had to the following expedient in an emergency2 it necessitates the construction of a small special tool1 but this is so simple that it can be made in a few hours by an apprentice4 #dda4 ,take a bar of metal or hard wood1 made smooth on its faces and square at the corners 7,r1 ,fig4 #bba71 and adapt to it a slide1 c c1 through the center of which a slot is cut to receive a clamping screw2 it slides between the four pins indicated in the figure4 ,an arbor a is supported by c c1 parallel to ,r1 having a plate at its end on which a wheel to be operated on can be fixed by three screws and a loose plate4 ,it is centered by the circumference before clamping these screws1 rotating a with a bow1 and it may be well to place a piece of tissue paper under and over the wheel in order to avoid scratches4 ,v is a tongue that can be introduced into the space between two teeth in order to prevent the wheel from moving4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bba4 ,two arms1 p p1 screwed to the bar ,r ,r1 support the handle of the rounding-up file l1 which consists of a large cylinder t1 t1 that slides in the arms p1 p4 ,the cylinder ,t must be exactly parallel to the arbor a1 and the longer it is the better4 ,the file-holder s1 also shown detached at ,y1 ,fig4 #bbb1 is merely driven onto the rod t4 ,the distance between the center of the axis t and the face of the file 7b b1 ,fig4 #bbb7 is equal to the radius of the circle that embraces the external curves of two or more teeth1 as will be explained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,the several parts being arranged as shown in ,fig4 #bba1 and the bar clamped in a vise at ,e1 it will be obvious that1 if the wheel is held in two fingers of the left-hand so as to prevent it from being displaced1 while the rod ,t is moved up and down1 at the same time rotating it with the right-hand1 the curves of two teeth will be adjusted to correspond with the arc o o o 7,z1 ,fig4 #bbc71 and1 by transferring the tongue ,v to the next succeeding space1 the curve i i i can be struck4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbc4 #ddb4 ,observations4 ,the curvature of the point of a tooth coincides very closely with a circular arc described from a certain definite center1 and comprising either two or three teeth4 ,in order to realize these conditions in practice1 the slide c c is so adjusted that the axis of ,t passes just within the circle that passes through o1 o1 o1 etc4 7,z1 ,fig4 #bbc71 at which the points of the teeth commence2 by making trials with two or three file-holders that differ in regard to the distance b b 7,y1 ,fig4 #bbc71 it will be easy to select the most suitable for producing the required curve4 ,after operating on all the teeth in succession1 advance the wheel by means of the screw ,d1 and again work around the circumference1 and so on4 ,the progress of the work should be frequently examined with the glass4 ,it is possible to dispense with the tongue ,v1 and to merely steady the wheel by hand2 the work is thus done more rapidly1 but must be examined with very great care4 ,we would insist that the lengths of the two axes are an element of success4 ,in operating on watch wheels ,t should not be less than six inches long4 ,by suppressing the tongue the motion of the two axes may be co-ordinated so as to form any theoretical curve2 ,this is the case in the exact rounding-up tool already referred to1 but it of course renders the instrument more complicated4 #ddc4 ,to ,ease a ,train of ,wheels4 ,in very many of the cheaper watches and timepieces now met with in commerce the teeth are rough and badly cut1 and the pinions but little polished1 so that watchmakers are constantly complaining of the difficulty of securing even a moderately good depth4 ,in such cases they have a simple method to adopt in addition to those already referred to1 namely1 to polish the teeth with a piece of charcoal4 ,a piece of smooth1 even charcoal1 with regular fibre1 is moistened with oil or water1 and passed across the teeth individually2 first with the fibres lying in the direction of motion1 and afterwards with them at right angles to that direction4 ,if the charcoal is carefully selected and lightly applied for a sufficient length of time and no more1 the ogives will be found to be nicely smoothed1 and the depth will run far more easily than it did previously4 ,it is dangerous to use quick-cutting charcoal1 as it is apt to deform the teeth4 ,smoothing with a brush charged with charcoal powder cannot be regarded as anything more than cleaning2 if the action is too much prolonged the form of the teeth will be spoilt4 ,,to ,,test ,,the ,,accuracy ,,of ,,certain ,,tools4 #ddd4 ,drilling ,tool4 ,first center the runner in the lathe1 and ascertain that it is straight1 cylindrical1 and exactly centered2 then fit a ring to it so as to slide with friction to 7temporarily7 limit the descent of this runner in the vertical stock of the tool4 ,after placing it in position1 adapt to its lower end a collar1 provided with a long index of soft brass1 which is bent so as almost to touch the plate at its circumference4 ,rotate the runner and it will be shown to be perpendicular to the plate if the point of the index remains at the same distance from the plate4 ,as a confirmatory test the runner may be drawn up in the stock1 and the trial repeated after bending the index nearly to touch the plate4 #dde4 ,uprighting ,tool4 ,if the two stocks or tubes that receive the runners are exactly in line1 a runner should move easily through the two at once4 ,setting the points in contact in various positions in a vertical line1 observe whether they coincide1 both when at rest and when rotated together or independently4 ,first ascertain that the table is at right angles to the axis in the manner already explained for the drilling tool1 making the necessary tests with the two runners independently4 ,then support between their points a short arbor carrying a soft brass index4 ,the position of the lower runner being maintained constant by means of a collar as above explained1 rotate the upper one by hand2 its friction will carry the index and arbor around1 the point of this latter being set close to the plate4 ,repeat the operation by raising the pair of runners and bending the index down to the same amount4 ,if in these various positions the point remains at the same distance from the table1 it affords evidence that the tool is accurate4 ,an uprighting tool consists of two parts3 the table carrying the lower stock1 and the bridge that forms the upper stock4 ,the base of this latter is a ring turned flat and co-axial with the stock1 and is fitted accurately into a square groove surrounding the table1 where it is fixed by screws4 ,any watchmaker understanding this mode of construction will easily perceive when he has tested the tool in the manner above indicated1 both what are its faults and how far he can correct them4 #ddf4 ,the ,english uprighting and drilling tools1 and some of foreign construction1 are combined on the same stand1 and a good arrangement1 made by ,boley1 is shown in ,fig4 #bbd4 ,it will be seen that the drill can be set in motion by a hand or foot-wheel2 the table is fixed in a vise and provided with two dogs for clamping the object4 ,the drilling spindle is perforated throughout its length so that the drill can be held by an ,american split chuck4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd4 #ddg4 ,depthing ,tool4 ,as the value of a depth depends essentially on the overlapping of the teeth being the exact amount required by theory1 it is specially important that the tool used for determining the distance between the centers of the wheels and pinions should be of the utmost attainable accuracy4 ,first ascertain that the spindle which serves as an axis for the two halves of the tool does not change position when they have been several times separated and brought together4 ,for1 if this were to happen1 and a runner were uneven or the hinge not smoothed within1 the parallelism of the two pairs of runners would be impaired4 ,the runners must be of equal thickness throughout1 and should pass with ease from one head to that opposite4 ,their points and center holes must be seen to be in good condition1 and1 on placing them in their turns1 they must be found to be both true and cylindrical4 ,having restored them to their places with the points together1 move the pair lengthwise from one head to the other1 examining the points in successive positions to ascertain that they coincide accurately1 both when the runners are loose and when clamped4 ,when the adjustment has been carelessly done the runners will be found to bend under pressure1 causing the points to be displaced4 ,having set two runners side by side and level1 describe with them circular arcs on a smooth piece of brass from centers previously marked1 first with the points just projecting from the heads and then projecting more and more4 ,these tests may be made both within and without the tool2 so that there will be four sets of tests in all4 ,it is very important in making the last-named trials1 that the tool be maintained at right angles to the plate on which the circular arcs are traced2 this condition can easily be satisfied by a special device1 or by merely causing the compass to slide along a set-square4 ,it may be added that the series of arcs should be drawn end to end1 in order that it may be easier to observe their agreement or difference when examining with the glass4 #ddh4 ,when this series of tests has been gone through1 and the points have been examined so as to make sure that there is no burr which bends over while tracing the arcs1 it is possible to determine the value of the tool2 we know whether it is perfect or not1 and what corrections are required4 ,as a rule there are two points mainly at fault2 the holes in the heads are not exactly continuations the one of the other1 so that they need to be broached out afresh and new runners have to be made4 ,a careful and intelligent workman who is provided with suitable tools will be able1 from the information given in this work1 to correct1 or at least improve1 a defective depthing tool2 but1 as a rule1 it will be better done by the maker4 ,,part ,v4 ,,repairing ,,and ,,examining ,,watches4 ,,method4 #ddi4 ,expedition and certainty in watchmaking and repairing are primarily secured by proceeding on a definite system1 both in details of construction or repairing4 ,the best watchmakers1 and practical men generally1 take their work in a certain order1 from which any departure is exceptional4 ,by this means they avoid the necessity of doing work twice over and of frequently taking up the same piece2 a circumstance that often occurs with young watchmakers1 owing to forgetfulness or to a want of sequence in their ideas4 ,they should from the first exercise themselves in working methodically on a definite system4 ,it must1 however1 be understood that no method can be inflexible1 nor can it be equally advantageous for different individuals1 because men differ in regard to manual dexterity1 goodness of eyesight and of memory1 power of associating their ideas1 etc4 ,a system that is suitable to a person of unexcitable temperament will have to be modified by one is oppositely disposed4 ,everyone will be able to decide for himself as to the best system to adopt and the order in which to take his daily work4 ,these preliminary observations appear necessary because the method explained below of examining a ,geneva watch has been regarded by some as too long and minute4 ,we would urge any young watchmaker that hears such ideas advanced to assure himself that it is a mistake1 because the system here explained is only put forward subject to the modifications that experience suggests2 and it is to be observed that many of the operations given can be performed more rapidly than they are described4 ,when a watchmaker experiences a great loss of time1 does it not usually arise from the fact that he is obliged to take a watch to pieces1 or nearly so1 after its repairing and examination were thought to have been completed2 or when a watch that has been repaired is brought back to be examined before the ordinary period of cleaning has elapsed8 ,let him add together the numerous hours spent in this kind of thankless work1 let him sum up the worries experienced1 and the discredit1 etc41 to which he has been subjected1 and he will see that systematic work would have saved him both loss of money and loss of credit4 ,,external ,,examination ,,of ,,the ,,watch4 #dej4 ,in the following paragraphs1 when the manner in which a given fault manifests itself is not indicated at once1 it should be sought in the index of this volume1 either under the name of the operation or under that of the object to which it relates4 ,the reader will see for himself which passages refer exclusively to the ,english or ,american and which to the ,geneva watch4 #dea4 ,case1 ,glass1 ,dial1 ,dome4 ,glance at the case in order to ascertain that it has not received a blow or been subjected to pressure2 that the joints and fly springs work well2 and that the hands in rotating touch neither the glass nor dial4 ,by laying the nail on the surface of the glass1 it will be easy to see whether there is sufficient freedom between the socket of the hand and the glass4 ,in case of doubt1 place a small piece of paper on the hand1 close the bezel and tap the glass with the finger while the watch is in an inclined position4 ,if free1 the paper will be displaced4 ,the set-hands square should be rounded at the end and a trifle below the level of any accidental bending of the back of the watch1 and the dome must not press on the balance-cock wing or the central dust cap 7if present74 ,the above remark also applies to the winding square of a fusee watch4 ,there must also be sufficient freedom between the going-barrel teeth and the banking-pin of the balance on the one hand1 and the internal rim of the case1 the fly-springs1 and the joints on the other4 ,otherwise there is danger of contacts when the case is closed which occasion irregularity and stoppage often difficult to detect4 #deb4 ,the dome must be at a sufficient distance from all parts of the movement1 more especially the balance-cock4 ,if there is any occasion for doubt on this point put a thin layer of rouge on the parts that are most prominent4 ,close the case and holding it in one hand to the ear1 apply a pressure at all parts of the back with a finger of the other hand1 listening attentively in order to ascertain whether the vibrations are interfered with4 ,if the interval is insufficient1 a trace of rouge will be found on the inside of the dome4 ,in such a case1 if the dome cannot be raised nor hollowed slightly in the lathe 7when formed of metal71 lower as far as possible the index work and the balance-cock wing and fix in the plate1 close to the balance1 one or two screws with mushroom heads that will serve to raise the dome4 ,ascertain that the hands stand sufficiently far apart2 that the hour hand does not rub against the hole in the dial2 and that the minute hand does not come nearer to the dial in one place than in another1 a fault which may arise either from the dial not being flat or from the center-wheel being badly planted4 ,remove the movement from its case1 after making sure that it is held steadily by the locking screws2 take off the hands1 and see that the hour wheel has the right amount of play2 this freedom may be diminished if required by laying on the wheel small discs of tinsel cut out with a punch4 ,if the dial presses against any part of the movement1 or is not flat or comes so near to any of the pivot-holes as to draw off the oil1 it must be ground away until a sufficient amount of freedom is obtained4 ,,to ,,examine ,a ,,geneva ,,movement4 #dec4 ,although the following remarks refer in the main to foreign watches with a ,lepine movement1 very many are also applicable to the ,english and ,american watches2 further observations specially bearing on them will be found in articles #dgg-hj4 #ded4 ,the ,motion ,work and ,hands4 ,rotate the wheels connecting the hour and minute-hands by the aid of a key and a glance will suffice to show whether the several depths1 which should be light1 are satisfactory4 ,the wheels should not rub against one another1 the plate1 barrel1 or stopwork4 ,the barrel should have been previously examined to ascertain that it is not inclined to one side1 as if it were1 an error would probably be made in estimating the degree of freedom4 ,the set-hands arbor 7the square of which should be a trifle smaller than that of the barrel-arbor7 must turn rather stiffly in the center pinion1 and the cannon pinion must be held on the arbor sufficiently tight to avoid all chance of its rising and so becoming loose2 for this would alter the play of the hands and motion work4 ,if any fault is found in the adjustment correct it at once1 so as to avoid doing so after the movement has been cleaned4 ,if it has not been already done1 slightly round the lower end of cannon pinion and the steel shield1 care being taken to avoid forming a burr on the pinion leaves4 ,these two pieces ought to rest on the ends of the center pinion pivots1 and at the same time be some distance removed from the plate and bar respectively4 #dee4 ,freedom and ,endshake4 ,observe that there is sufficient clearance between the plate and barrel2 the barrel and center-wheel2 the several wheels in succession both between themselves1 their cocks1 and sinks2 between the balance on the one hand and its cock1 the center-wheel1 fourth wheel cock1 the balance-spring coils and stud on the other4 ,the fourth wheel is frequently found to pass too near to the jewel forming the lower pivot-hole of the escape-wheel4 ,the end-shake of the wheels may be tested by taking hold of an arm of each with tweezers and lifting it4 ,this may also be done in the case of the escape-wheel1 but1 when the cock is slight1 it will be sufficient to press gently upon it with a pegwood stick1 then releasing it1 and observing the apparent increase in the length of pivot4 ,at the same time ascertain that the width and height of the passage in the cock is enough to allow the teeth1 when carrying oil1 to pass with the requisite freedom4 ,holding the watch on a level with the eyes1 lightly raise the balance with a pegwood point several times1 each time allowing it to fall4 ,the variation observed in the space between the collet and cock will indicate the end-shake of the balance-staff4 #def4 ,action of the ,escapement4 ,the side play of the balance pivots in their holes can be easily estimated by touch1 or this may be done by the eye1 attentively watching the upper pivot through the end-stone with a powerful glass1 while the watch lies flat and the lower pivot in the same manner with the watch inverted4 ,if the end-stones are not clear enough1 although such a case is rare1 remove first one end-stone and examine the pivot2 then replace it and remove the other4 ,it should be possible to rotate the balance until the banking pin comes against its stop1 without causing the escape wheel to recoil at all1 or allowing a tooth to catch outside the cylinder behind the small lip4 ,the banking-pin sometimes passes too near to the fourth wheel staff4 ,the ,u-arms should rest nearly in the middle of the banking slot of the cylinder3 they should be as far from the upper as from the under edge of this slot1 so that the end-shakes may have free play in all positions of the watch4 ,ascertain that the balance-spring is flat2 that it coils and uncoils regularly without constraint2 that it does not touch the center wheel1 the stud1 or the inner curb-pin 7with its second coil74 ,the rapid examination of the escapement may now be regarded as completed if the watch in hand is merely being cleaned after having previously gone well4 ,but if engaged on a watch that has not gone well previously1 or if examining a new one1 the action of the escapement must be thoroughly tested4 #deg4 ,visible ,depths4 ,while the train is in motion through the force of the mainspring or the pressure of a finger against the barrel teeth1 examine with a glass all the depths that are visible4 ,that of the escapement1 for example1 can be easily seen through the jeweled pivot-hole when this is flat1 the watch being laid horizontal and a powerful glass used4 ,when the action cannot be seen in this manner with sufficient distinctness1 hold the watch up against the light and look through it4 ,depths that cannot be clearly seen1 or about which any doubt exists1 must be subsequently verified by touch4 7#deh47 ,if examining a new watch1 it may be found necessary to form inclined notches at the edge of the cocks or near the center hole of the plate so to see the action of the depths4 ,but it is important that the settings of the jewels are not disturbed1 and indeed that enough metal is left around these holes to admit of their being re-bushed if necessary4 #deh4 ,invisible and ,doubtful ,depths4 ,these must be tested by touch1 and the requisite corrections applied after having re-polished the pivots1 etc41 as may be necessary4 ,we would observe that holes a trifle large are less inconvenient than those which afford too little play2 providing the depths are in good condition4 #dei4 ,length of ,balance ,pivots3 ,centering the ,balance-,spring4 ,remove the end-stone from the chariot and see that the pivot projects enough beyond the pivot-hole when the plate is inverted4 ,then remove the cock and detach it from the balance4 ,take off the balance-spring with its collet from this latter and place it on the cock inverted1 so as to see whether the collet is central when the outer coil is midway between the curb-pins4 ,remove the cock end-stone and end-stone cap1 place the top balance pivot in its hole and see that it projects a little beyond the pivot-hole4 ,place the balance in the figure-of-#h calliper to test its truth1 and1 at the same time1 to see that it is sufficiently in poise2 it must be remembered1 however1 that the balance is sometimes put out of poise intentionally4 #dfj4 ,play of ,train-,wheel ,pivots4 ,allow the train to run down3 if it does so noisily or by jerks1 it may be assumed that some of the depths are bad in consequence either of the teeth being badly formed1 or the holes too large1 etc4 ,to test the latter point1 cause the wheels to revolve alternately in opposite directions by applying a finger to the barrel or center-wheel teeth1 at the same time noting the movement of each pivot in turn in its hole2 a little practice1 comparing several watches together1 will soon enable the workman to judge whether the play is correct4 ,the running down of the train will also indicate whether any pivots are bent4 ,now remove the barrel-bar with its several attachments4 #dfa4 ,center-,wheel3 ,bad ,uprighting4 ,remove the third wheel1 and1 if necessary1 test the uprighting of the center-wheel by passing a round broach or taper arbor through it1 and setting the plate in rotation about this axis1 holding a card near the edge while doing so4 ,this will indicate at once whether the axis of the wheel is at right angles to the plate4 ,when a marked deviation is detected1 or the holes are found to be too large1 they must be re-bushed and uprighted again4 ,when1 however1 the error is but slight the axes may be set vertical by bending the steady pins a little1 in doing which proceed as follows3 ,set the bar in its place alone1 the screw or screws being a little unscrewed1 and rest the side of the bar opposite to that towards which it is to be bent against a piece of brass held in the vise1 and strike the farther edge of the plate one or two sharp blows with a small wooden mallet4 ,experience alone can teach the workman to proportion the blow so as to obtain a given amount of deviation1 and must enable him to ascertain whether it is desirable or not to pass a broach through the steady-pin holes before operating as above explained4 ,some discretion is essential in practising the method4 ,it is important that the center pivots project beyond the holes in the plate and bar4 ,a circular recess is turned around the outer end of each of these holes so as to form reservoirs for oil4 ,owing to the neglect of these simple precautions1 which are so easy to take1 many watches1 especially those that are thin1 come back for repair with their center pivots in a bad state1 because the oil could not be applied in sufficient quantity1 and has been drawn away by the cannon pinion or the steel shield4 ,if the watch has a seconds hand1 ascertain by means of the calliper that its wheel is upright4 ,finally1 examine each jewel to see that it is neither cracked nor rough at the edges of the hole4 #dfb4 ,the ,barrel3 to ,take ,down and ,repair4 ,the side spring1 which must not be too strong1 should reach with certainty to the bottom of the spaces between the teeth of the ratchet1 and this latter should be held steadily in position by the cap4 ,it is a good plan after making the extensive repairs here spoken of to again test the barrel and center pinion depth1 either by touch of by drilling a hole for observation4 ,the screw of the star-wheel must not project within the cover nor rub against the dial2 it must be reduced if either case presents itself4 ,the action of the stopwork must be well assured1 especially when the actual stop occurs4 ,it is a good plan to1 as it were1 8round-up0 the star-wheel and finger-piece1 with an emery stick1 supporting them on arbors4 ,there must be no possibility of friction between the finger and the bottom of its sink4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbe4 #dfc4 ,to ,test the ,stopwork4 ,take up the winding square of an arbor1 with the barrel1 etc41 in position1 in a pair of sliding tongs or a ,birch key2 hold the tongs between the last three fingers and the palm of the left hand1 the first finger and thumb being applied to the circumference of the barrel so as to rotate it1 first in one direction and then in the other4 ,during this movement1 take a pegwood point in the right-hand1 and try to turn the star-wheel against the direction in which it would be impelled by the finger2 the position is indicated by ,b in ,fig4 #bbe4 ,the tooth that is just going to engage with the finger will thus be caused to take up the worst possible position for being turned1 and thus1 if the action proves to be satisfactory for each tooth1 we may rest content as to the future2 providing1 of course1 that the engagement takes place square1 and there is no tendency to cause distortion of the metal4 ,when the corner of ,c is stopped against the convex tooth of the star-wheel1 the finger should be free in a space1 and directed towards the center of ,a4 ,by holding the sliding tongs in a vise both hands can be kept at liberty4 ,for details in regard to the examination and repair of keyless mechanism1 see article #dha4 ,,accessories ,,for ,,beginners4 #dfd4 ,to facilitate the work by securing order in taking to pieces and cleaning1 preventing the screws from being mixed1 etc41 it is a good practice to prepare beforehand one or more boards1 in which grooves and holes are made in positions to correspond with those of the several pieces on the plate of the watch1 as indicated by ,fig4 #bbf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbf4 ,the round holes receive the cock and bar screws1 which may be cleaned while the other parts are in the benzine solution4 7,two holes are shown side by side for each bar and cock1 so that the same plate will serve for a large and small watch74 ,the oval or circular hollows at a and around m receive the cap screws1 and m the shield2 c1 c1 c1 hold the screws of the side spring and star-wheel and the finger-piece pin2 j is for the screws of the top end-stone1 and n for those of the bottom end-stone1 etc4 ,it may be well here to mention the very convenient divided boxes for holding the several parts of a watch when taken to pieces that are in general use by watchmakers4 ,they measure about six inches by four1 and one inch in depth1 thus being large enough to contain all the parts of any ordinary watch4 ,at first every young watchmaker will find the advantage of noting on paper1 bearing the number of the watch1 the successive operations that have to be done4 ,he will then merely have to strike them out one by one as the work progresses4 ,as he becomes more practiced he can dispense with this auxiliary4 ,,cleaning ,,the ,,watch4 #dfe4 ,whatever system of cleaning is adopted it is essential that it be concluded by passing a pegwood point into each of the holes4 ,brilliancy is given to the surfaces of cleaned pieces by passing a carefully kept fine brush over them4 ,a brush that is greasy can only be cleaned by soap and water1 and a new brush is prepared for use by passing an inclined cutting edge over the ends of its bristles so as to taper them off to fine points1 and to remove knots due either to hard parts or to bristles becoming united4 ,this preliminary treatment is completed by charging the brush with ,french chalk1 and rubbing it vigorously on a dry crust of bread until the brush can be passed over a gilded surface without scratching it4 ,the bristles are maintained in good condition by the same treatment4 ,billiard chalk is also very effective for this purpose1 and the greater number of cavities there are in the crust the better it will act4 ,a burnt bone is an excellent substitute for the crust1 and has the advantage of causing the brush to impart a very brilliant appearance to objects to which it is applied4 #dff4 ,to ,clean with a ,brush4 ,this method is less used now than formerly1 as it can be adopted with safety with the old-fashioned gilding1 but is too severe for the thin galvanic coats that are applied at the present day4 ,it may1 however1 be resorted to for getting up the surface of polished brass wheels1 for example4 ,put some ,french chalk or powdered sal-ammoniac 7which can be bought at a chemist's7 in pure alcohol4 ,shake the mixture1 and with a fine paint brush coat the object with a small quantity of it1 subsequently brushing the surface with a brush that is in very good condition4 ,polished wheels may be made to present a very brilliant appearance by this means1 but their teeth and the leaves of pinions must be afterwards carefully cleaned4 ,the ,french chalk and sal-ammoniac are all the more effective according as they have remained a longer time in the alcohol2 doubtless owing to the fact that the hard grains met with in them are then more completely dissolved4 #dfg4 ,soaping4 ,it is advisable to use a soap that quickly produces a good lather2 and the object is held in the hand and cleaned by rubbing with a soft brush charged with this lather2 then immerse first in clean water1 and subsequently in alcohol1 moving it about in each3 it may be left for a few seconds in this latter1 and1 on being removed1 is dried with a fine linen rag or soft muslin4 ,a stroke with a soft brush in good condition will give brilliancy to the surface4 ,as water sometimes dissolves the soap very slowly1 it is desirable that it be employed warm4 ,if about to soap polished wheels1 the surface must be first got up with a buffstick and rouge1 or by brushing with sal-ammoniac4 ,the balance spring may be cleaned by laying it on a linen rag doubled1 and tapping it gently with a brush charged with lather2 then dipping in water and alcohol in succession4 ,the alcohol may be used hot or cold2 its action is1 however1 more rapid and effective in the former case4 ,but there is no occasion to use hot alcohol except when dealing with substances such as wax1 that resist its action4 #dfh4 ,essences and ,benzine4 ,the employment of essences in cleaning watches is becoming more general every day4 ,they are to be obtained at all material dealers1 together with full instructions in regard to their use4 ,a few observations may nevertheless not be out of place here4 ,the objects are left in the solution for a few minutes in order to allow all adhering matter to dissolve1 but they must not remain too long1 as certain qualities of benzine1 etc41 are apt to leave stains4 ,dry the pieces on removing them1 and finish by passing over a fine brush that has been charged with chalk and subsequently been rubbed on a hard crust or burnt bone2 as has already been observed1 this will produce a brilliant surface on either gilding or polished brass4 ,the following composition1 the ingredients of which can be obtained at any chemist's1 has been strongly recommended to us by a clever watchmaker3 #ij parts by weight of refined petroleum4 #be 0 0 sulphuric ether4 ,the objects are immersed for several minutes2 indeed1 they may remain for a longer period without danger1 and on removal from the bath are found to be clean and bright4 ,it must not be forgotten that many of these essences are liable to ignite with the mere proximity of a lamp4 ,,putting ,,the ,,watch ,,together4 #dfi4 ,the three following rules must be observed in arranging a system of putting the watch together3 7#a7 avoid taking up the same piece two or more times2 7#b7 hold it lightly1 as any pressure will produce a mark2 7#c7 keep it as short a time as possible in the fingers4 ,any linen rags used must be free from fluff1 but rags of all kinds should as far as possible be replaced by certain kinds of tissue paper4 ,the best kind will be that which1 while securing a given degree of pliability1 will best prevent heat and moisture from passing through4 ,blue-shaded tissue paper should be avoided1 as it is often found to encourage the formation of rust on steel work4 #dgj4 ,the following order is adopted by some excellent watchmakers in putting together the ordinary form of ,geneva watch2 it may be adopted exactly or modified as experience dictates4 ,commence by putting the several parts of the barrel together1 attaching it to the bar and observing the directions given farther on 7#dgd7 in regard to the distribution of oil4 ,owing to the position of the stop-finger1 it is sometimes found that the mainspring must be set up either one-quarter or three-quarters of a turn4 ,very often one-quarter is not sufficient1 and in such cases it is necessary1 before putting together1 to ascertain that the spring admits of at least #e or #e turns in the barrel4 ,if it will not allow this amount1 and yet has to be set up three-quarters of a turn1 too great a strain will come upon the eye of the spring in winding4 ,fix the chariot with its end-stone on the under side of the plate4 ,replace the fourth wheel1 making sure that it is free and has no more than the requisite end-shake and is upright4 ,then the escape-wheel1 testing it in a similar manner4 ,see that the teeth have sufficient freedom on both sides of the cock passage1 then make the two wheels run together with a pair of tweezers of pegwood1 in all positions of the plate1 to make sure of everything being free4 #dga4 ,after attaching the index and end-stone to the balance-cock and the balance-spring to the balance 7observing that the center of the stud is against the dot on the balance rim71 place some oil in both the balance pivot-holes 7#dgf72 adjust the balance to the cock after placing a drop of oil in the cylinder 7though a much better plan is that given in article #dgf71 and set in position on the plate4 ,some workmen apply a drop of oil to the top of the escape-wheel pivot-hole before setting the balance-cock in its place1 but others prefer only to add the oil after the escapement has been tested4 ,placing a small piece of paper first between the balance and cock1 and then between the balance and plate1 ascertain whether the escape-wheel occupies its correct position in reference to the cylinder1 in order that the escapement may act properly4 ,this test is especially necessary in dealing with very thin watches or those in which the cylinder banking slot is exceptionally narrow4 ,the barrel bar is now fixed to the plate4 #dgb4 ,set the third wheel in its place1 and lastly the center wheel1 after putting a little oil on the shoulder of its bottom pivot4 ,before putting the bar over it1 apply oil to the top pivot in a similar manner2 then screw it down4 ,after this is done screw on the third wheel cock4 ,now apply a small quantity of oil to the two center pivots1 and very lightly to the others that have not already been oiled2 give a turn to the key and listen to the tick of the watch in all positions4 ,this should always be done before replacing it in the case4 ,after passing the slightly-oiled set-hands arbor through the center pinion1 and adapting the cannon pinion to its end1 reverse the watch1 passing the end of the center arbor through a hole in the riveting stake1 so that the watch is supported on the end of the cannon pinion2 a light blow of the hammer on the square end of this arbor will then suffice to drive the cannon pinion home4 ,some do this before replacing the movement in its case1 and some after4 ,add a little oil to such pivots as have not already received enough1 and fix in their places the remaining parts of the motion work1 the dial and hands3 the watch then only requires to be timed4 #dgc4 ,precautions to be ,observed in ,applying ,oil4 ,the method of distributing and applying the oil is of more importance than might be thought1 and has a very marked influence on both the time of going and the rate4 ,oil that is very fluid may be used for the escapement and fine pivots1 where only a small quantity is needed and the pressure is slight2 but it is not suitable in other places on account of its tendency to spread1 and thus leave the rubbing surfaces4 ,if too much oil is applied the effect is the same as if there had been too little2 it runs away1 and only a minute quantity is left where it is wanted4 #dgd4 ,barrel4 ,it is not enough to apply oil to the coils of the spring2 some must also be placed on the bottom of the barrel4 ,before putting on the cover1 moisten the shoulder of the arbor-nut that comes in contact with it with oil2 by doing so1 when oil is applied to the pivot1 after the cover is in its place1 this oil will be retained at the center of the boss in the cover4 ,moreover1 it will not then be drawn away by the finger-piece1 passing from this to the star-wheel4 ,the oil applied to the upper surface of the ratchet to reduce its friction against the cap must not be in such quantity as to spread on to the winding square4 ,it is a good plan to round off the lower corner of this cover4 #dge4 ,center-wheel4 ,the observation made above in reference to the oil applied to the barrel-cover may be repeated here4 ,by proceeding as explained in article #dgb1 and adopting the precautions mentioned at the end of article #dfa1 it is possible to make sure of the pivots lasting for a long period4 #dgf4 ,escapement pivots3 ,cylinder4 ,when the drop of oil is introduced into the oil-cup of the balance pivot-hole1 insert a very fine pegwood point1 so as to cause the descent of the oil2 a small additional quantity may then be applied4 ,when this precaution is not taken1 it frequently happens that in inserting the balance pivot its conical shoulder draws away some of the oil1 and there is a deficiency both in the hole and on the end-stone4 ,as has been already noticed 7#dga71 some workmen place a single drop of oil within the cylinder1 and when the escape-wheel advances each tooth takes some up4 ,this method is unsatisfactory1 because the earlier teeth receive such a quantity of oil that it runs down the pillars1 where it is useless and merely tends to increase the weight of the wheel4 ,a much better plan is to put a very small quantity in the cylinder1 and on the flat of each tooth or every second or third tooth4 ,it will thus be evenly distributed1 and will not tend to flow away4 ,the escape-wheel pivots require but a small quantity of oil4 ,it often happens1 however1 that1 owing to carelessness1 the workman applies too much1 and it runs down to the pinion4 ,the leaves will thus become greasy and stick1 while the pivots are running dry4 ,,to ,,examine ,,english ,,or ,,american ,,movements4 #dgg4 ,as has been already observed in article #dec1 many of the remarks made in speaking of the ,geneva movement are equally applicable to that of ,english or ,american construction1 and any intelligent watchmaker1 on reading articles #dej-dfc1 will be able to select for himself whatever has a bearing on the ,english watch1 without difficulty4 ,it will be well1 however1 to supplement it by the special directions contained in the four following articles3 #dgh4 ,case1 ,glass1 ,dial1 ,cap1 ,dome4 ,in addition to the points specified in articles #dea-deb1 the following require attention4 ,see that the position of dial is not altered by closing down the bezel1 that the fuzee dust cap does not touch the dome or cap1 and that the diamond end-stone or other jeweling of the balance-cock is free of the case4 ,in -plate watches the chain is occasionally found to rub against the edge of the case1 or the top-plate to press against the bottom edge of the same1 causing the train to bind4 ,see that the balance and chain and the fuzee great wheel are free of the cap1 where one exists2 the chain is especially liable to rub after the breaking of a strong spring1 which may cause the barrel to bulge1 when it may also rub against the potence4 ,ascertain that none of the dial-plate feet or pins touch the train1 that the hour wheel is clear of the third and fourth wheel bar1 and the minute wheel out of contact with the dial-plate and not pressed by the dial4 ,see that the third wheel is free in its hollow1 and that the balance1 more especially in oversprung watches1 is clear of the barrel4 #dgi4 ,movement4 ,the regulator or index must be tested1 especially in watches that are undersprung1 at several points between 8fast0 and 8slow10 to see that it nowhere approaches too near to the spring1 is held with sufficient firmness1 and that it never comes near enough to the guard pin for contact to occur4 ,see that the potence screw and steady-pins do not project1 and that the barrel does not touch the name-plate1 balance-cock1 top-plate hollowing or great wheel4 ,before taking off the top-plate1 notice the position of the detent in the steel wheel1 and the amount of its end-shake2 the wear of the holes1 and freedom of the train wheels2 the position of the third pinion with respect to the center wheel1 and that of the escape wheel to the lever2 see that the banking pins are not loose or bent2 that the guard pin1 which protects the balance staff when the chain breaks1 is near enough to the barrel and the potence4 ,when the watch is taken to pieces1 any loose pillars or joints must be secured1 pivots examined to see whether worn or bent1 and those working on end-stones that they come through the holes4 ,the fourth wheel pinion must be free in the hollow of the pillar plate and the center wheel in its hollow2 a similar examination also must be made of the collet and pin which secure the great wheel to the fusee4 ,if a chain is broken near the barrel end1 the stopwork is probably defective or the spring too strong4 ,the following faults may be met with in the ,english stopwork4 ,the stop may come opposite the fusee snail too soon or too late1 allowing one turn too few or too many of the fusee2 or the back of the snail may butt against the stop1 and thus stop the watch after going for a few hours4 ,overwinding sometimes occurs in consequence of the stop-spring being locked between the shoulder of the stop and its brass stud2 and the blade of the snail or the end of the stop may be worn or bent in cleaning4 ,in -plate fusee watches1 see that the balance does not come too near to the fusee1 fourth wheel1 center wheel1 and sometimes the escape-wheel4 ,it is to be observed that the breaking of a mainspring sometimes causes certain teeth of the great wheel to be strained4 #dhj4 ,escapement4 ,it may be well to note the few following particulars that should always be attended to4 ,see that ruby-pin and pallet stones are firmly set1 that neither pallets nor roller is loose on its staff1 and that the lever and pallets are rigidly fixed together4 ,the guard pin must be firm1 the balance well riveted to its collet1 the spring collet sufficiently tight and the curb pins firm4 ,if there is a compensation balance1 ascertain that each screws tight4 ,the precautions to be observed in regard to the balance-spring are given in article #def4 #dha4 ,keyless ,work4 ,so great a variety of arrangements of the mechanism for winding watches at the pendant is met with at the present day that it would be impossible to give detailed directions in regard to their examination2 the following general remarks1 however1 mainly taken from the work of ,m4 ,a4 ,philippe on ,keyless ,watches1#f will be found of value in directing attention to the points which most require it1 and will suffice for any intelligent workman4 ,is should be observed at the outset1 however1 that the adjustment of keyless work is almost entirely a question of depths1 and the workman who has thoroughly mastered this subject will rarely experience any difficulty in dealing with keyless mechanism4 ,carefully observe each depth1 etc41 in succession1 to make sure that no prejudicial friction occurs either between teeth or by contiguous parts coming in contact4 ,all springs should act solely in the direction in which pressure is required of them4 ,special attention should be given to the intermediate steel wheel for communicating motion to the cannon pinion1 when this exists1 as it is permanently in gear with the train1 so that any unevenness of the depth will effect the rate3 if the minute wheel have too much end-shake or play on its stud1 it is apt to ride on the intermediate steel wheel4 ,the friction of the cannon pinion on the set-hands arbor must not be excessive1 since it would involve too great a strain on the teeth of the minute wheel1 nor too slight1 since the hands would be liable to be displaced on releasing the set-hands stud4 ,if the intermediate wheel has too much end-shake1 limit this by an eccentric screw overlapping its edge4 ,test the spring of the set-hands stud1 to see that it is not too strong nor too weak and that it moves parallel with the plate4 ,failure in this latter particular might lead to its rising on to the rocking-bar or other pieces on which its acts4 ,the winding pinion depth must be examined to see that it is neither too deep nor shallow4 ,the set-hands stud-spring must be strong enough to resist any accidental pressure on the stud1 but1 on the other hand1 the strength must not be excessive1 as the spring will then be all the more liable to break1 besides causing inconvenience when setting the hands4 ,the course of the spring should be banked at the point which gives a good depth between the winding and intermediate wheels4 ,the minute-wheel stud must be firm in the plate1 as any accidental binding might otherwise unscrew it1 occasioning the breakage of the dial4 ,when the minute hand is carried by the set-hands arbor1 and not by the cannon pinion1 care is necessary in fitting this latter1 for if too loose it will rotate in setting the hands without carrying the minute hand round1 and the minute and hour hand will cease to agree4 ,it is important that attention be paid to the application of oil to keyless work1 as1 in its absence1 rust rapidly forms1 and the mechanism becomes bound4 ,of course1 all bearing surfaces1 such as the interior of the pendant1 intermediate and minute wheel studs1 studs or screws of the rocking bar or other surfaces on which wheels rotate1 must be lubricated2 an equally important point is to liberally oil the teeth of the winding pinion and the bevel or crown wheel that engages with it4 ,the application of a little oil inside and outside the cannon pinion must not be forgotten4 ,,to ,,rapidly ,,time ,a ,,watch ,,or ,,clock4 #dhb4 ,it seems desirable to supplement the information here given by a few details1 since we have observed that1 either from want of patience or method1 many watchmakers are not always successful in counting the vibrations4 #dhc4 ,to ,practice ,counting ,vibrations4 ,at the outset it is to be observed that to each vibration to the right there is a corresponding one to the left1 so that it is only necessary to observe those in one direction1 or else to count one for each two impacts of the escapement1 in a minute 7or half-minute71 in order to ascertain the number of vibrations4 #ad1djj vibrations per hour correspond to #d per second2 that is #bdj per minute1 or #abj per half-minute1 and the half of this number is #fj4 ,similarly1 a #af1bjj train would give #d vibrations per second2 or #bgj in a minute1 the half of which number is #ace4 ,an #ah1jjj train giving #e vibrations per second1 or #aej per half-minute1 would count #ge in this interval of time4 ,this being understood1 the required number of vibrations is to be ascertained as follows3 ,the movement is placed in such a position that the light is reflected from an arm of the balance1 so that1 by reference to some fixed point1 7such as the side of the balance-cock1 the stud1 etc471 each return of the balance can be noted and counted4 ,a very little practice will remove any difficulty that may be experienced in doing this4 ,when the requisite skill has been acquired1 one can listen to the impacts of the escapement while continuing to count1 and in order to determine with greater facility the correspondence of the position of the balance with successive pairs of vibrations1 close the eyes from time to time while still counting4 ,on opening them1 the accuracy of the coincidence can be at once tested by the sight1 and1 with a little patience1 it is possible to count the double vibrations with certainty in this manner1 both by the eye and ear2 it is only necessary when nearing the end of the minute or half-minute to continue counting aloud1 while keeping the eye on the regulator3 for the ear will guide the voice1 which will thus accurately reflect the motions of the watch4 ,the above explanations will be sufficient to enable any watchmaker of average intelligence to acquire the power of counting vibrations1 either in the manner here recommended1 or by modifying it in any manner that may suit his temperament4 ,this power1 when once acquired1 will be of very great assistance in his daily work1 for before taking a watch to pieces that requires repair1 he can in one or two minutes ascertain the number of vibrations it should make2 he will thus be enabled to regulate the watch almost instantaneously when the necessary repairs have been completed4 ,we would again observe that the main point is to educate the ear to ignore each alternate vibration1 and thus to count only the intervals of the balance being in the same position and the same phase of its motion4 #dhd4 ,vibration ,counter4 ,leclerre's ,vibration ,counter is shown in ,fig4 #bbg4 ,r is a ratchet wheel with #cj teeth1 mounted on a vertical plate1 so that it can rotate freely4 ,a pawl1 v1 prevents its movement except when forced forward one tooth at a time by depressing the spring gathering-click1 p1 a finger being applied to the button1 o1 each time the word 8ten0 is uttered4 ,the number of teeth advanced thus affords a record of the vibrations without there being any necessity to go into higher figures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbg4 #dhe4 ,to ,regulate a ,watch4 ,place the movement near to a regulator or watch indicating seconds1 in such a position that the eye can easily observe the periodical return of an arm of the balance1 as already explained1 and commence to count1 always starting from the instant at which the seconds hand points to zero4 ,then count steadily #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 etc41 until this hand reaches #cj seconds4 ,assume1 as is very commonly the case1 that the balance should make #ah1jjj vibrations in an hour1 or #aej in a half-minute1 and that1 on counting its vibrations1 we find #fe double vibrations1 or #acj beats1 whereas it should give #aej4 ,it is thus #bj beats slow4 ,advance the index1 and repeat the operation2 and so on till the regulation is effected4 ,a greater degree of accuracy will be secured by counting for a longer period1 say one1 two1 or three minutes2 but when this is done1 it is advisable1 in order to avoid confusion1 to recommence at one after each #cj or #ej have been counted1 because all that is required is the final deviation4 ,remarks4 #a4 ,all men are not equally quick of perception1 so that1 in counting and uttering the word one1 it will be found to correspond with the end of the first beat in the case of some observers1 and its commencement with others4 ,by practicing on a well regulated watch1 a watchmaker can determine to which of these classes he belongs4 ,if to the second1 he should double the one at starting2 in other words1 he should count thus3 #a1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 etc4 #b4 ,advantage may be taken of the principle of the sounding-board by placing the watch on a sonorous body which will make the vibrations louder1 or by placing between the plate of the watch and the ear a rod that is a good conductor of sound4 ,by either or both of these means1 the operation is rendered very easy1 especially if the vibration counter recording the tens is employed4 #dhf4 ,another ,method of ,regulating a ,watch4 ,when the movement is in going order1 arrest the balance and make a mark with rouge on one arm of the escape-wheel4 ,release the balance when the seconds hand of the regulator crosses #fj4 ,observing the number of revolutions that should be made by the escape-wheel in a given time 7it would be six turns per minute with an ordinary #ah1jjj train71 count its revolutions while the fourth wheel makes one complete turn2 indeed1 even this counting may be avoided by making a rouge mark on its edge where it corresponds with the mark already made on the escape-wheel4 ,if after two or three minutes these two marks are found to occupy similar positions at the instant the seconds hand of the regulator crosses #fj1 the watch is to time4 ,if there is any difference it is easy to ascertain whether this indicates a gain or a loss1 and the index is moved accordingly4 #dhg4 ,to ,regulate a ,clock4 ,the timing of timepieces by counting vibrations is much more easy than that of watches4 ,before removing the pendulum count the number of its vibrations during two or three minutes4 ,this time will be sufficient to afford a guide in regulating the clock after it has been repaired4 ,in most modern timepieces the escape wheel makes #abj revolutions in an hour1 or two in a minute4 ,hence we have two modes of timing4 7#a74 ,having made a light mark on the circumference of this wheel opposite to a fixed point1 observe if the coincidence is maintained after intervals of two or three4 7#b74 ,multiply the number of the escape-wheel teeth by #b1 and the product by #abj4 ,this gives the number of oscillations the pendulum should make in an hour4 ,thence deduce the number it should make in two minutes1 or the number per minutes can be obtained by multiplying the first product by #b1 and it only remains to count the number actually performed in any definite interval4 #dhh4 ,guilmet's ,synchrometer4 ,when a clock is to time1 its pendulum makes a certain definite number of oscillations per minute1 dependent on the train4 ,if1 therefore1 before taking it to pieces a comparison pendulum be set to make the same number of oscillations as that of the clock1 or if the former be set to make the number which the train shows that the clock pendulum should perform1 it can be used as a term of comparison for setting the clock to time after it has been cleaned4 ,this is the principle on which the synchrometer is based4 ,a pendulum is lightly supported on a frame1 and has an adjustable rod sliding in a tube1 and graduated so that it can be firmly set without difficulty to give the various periods of oscillation commonly met with in timepieces4 ,the pendulum is hung freely without any train to drive it1 and continues to oscillate for two or three minutes1 quite long enough to ascertain whether agreement is maintained between the two pendulums4 #dhi4 ,other ,methods of ,regulating a ,clock4 ,various plans have been recently proposed for rapidly timing a clock1 all based upon one idea3 namely1 the temporary addition of a seconds hand for purposes of observation4 ,that suggested by ,m4 ,jacomin is recommended by its simplicity4 ,having removed the pin and washer that maintain the minute hand in position in an ordinary timepiece1 replace them by a light brass cap that can be fixed by a screw or in any convenient manner1 so that a fine steel pin projecting from it shall be accurately in the axis of the minute wheel4 ,part of a watch movement1 comprising only the center1 third and fourth wheels with seconds hand attached1 is supported in front of the clock dial1 so that this pin can be inserted in place of the set-hands arbor1 and it is evident that1 if the clock is to time1 the seconds hand should perform one revolution per minute as it will form part of the clock train4 ,the length of pendulum must then be varied until this condition is found to be satisfied4 ,,timing ,,in ,,positions4 ,,horizontal ,,and ,,vertical4 #dij4 ,to adjust a watch so that it has the same rate when first placed in a horizontal and then in a vertical position is a delicate and often difficult operation2 thus it is seldom found to be properly done in ordinary watches4 ,the rates in a vertical and horizontal position are made identical or nearly so by equalizing the resistances that interfere with the motion of the balance in the two cases1 and by taking advantage of the displacement of the center of gravity of the balance spring4 ,satisfactory results will be obtained in most cases by employing the following methods1 either separately1 or two or more together1 according to the results of experiments or the rates1 the experience and the judgment of the workman3 #a4 ,flatten slightly the ends of the balance pivots so as to increase their radii of friction2 when the watch is lying flat the friction will thus become greater4 #b4 ,let the thickness of the jewel-holes be no more than is absolutely necessary4 ,it is sometimes thought sufficient to chamfer the jewel hole so as to reduce the surface on which friction occurs2 but this does not quite meet the case1 since an appreciable column of oil is maintained against the pivot4 #c4 ,reduce the diameters of the pivots1 of course changing the jewel-holes4 ,the resistance due to friction1 when the watch is vertical1 increases rapidly with any increase in the diameters of pivots4 #d4 ,let the balance spring be accurately centered1 or it must usually be so placed that the lateral pull tends to lift the balance when the watch is hanging vertical4 ,in this and the next succeeding case it would sometimes be advantageous to be able to change the point at which it is fixed2 but this is seldom possible4 #e4 ,replace the balance spring by one that is longer or shorter but of the same strength2 this is with a view to increase or diminish the lateral pressure in accordance with the explanation given in the last paragraph4 #f4 ,set the escapement so that the strongest impulse corresponds with the greatest resistance of the balance4 #g4 ,replace the balance4 ,a balance that is much too heavy renders the timing for position impossible4 #h4 ,lastly1 when these methods are inapplicable or insufficient1 there only remains the very common practice of setting the balance 8out of poise40 ,if there is a gain in the vertical hanging position of the watch1 slightly reduce the lower side of the balance2 the oscillation will increase somewhat in extent1 and there will be a losing rate in this position4 ,the converse must be done in the opposite case4 ,when the vibration exceeds a whole turn1 the changes will be the reverse of those above indicated4 ,this fact must not be forgotten1 especially in regard to the duplex and lever escapements1 which may at first make a vibration of more than a turn1 and subsequently less1 according to the state of the oil4 ,we would again observe that the timing of a watch for position presents some difficulty1 and it will only be after making a number of trials that the watchmaker will be able to accomplish it with certainty4 ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,proportions ,,of ,,balances4 #dia4 ,two very important elements in the timing are the weight and dimensions of the balance2 it is1 then1 necessary that a watchmaker should practice himself in observing their relative values1 and the effect of increasing one at the expense of the other on timing1 and more especially on timing for positions4 ,the sensibility of a balance to variations in the motive force1 and the time that elapses between the initial short vibration and the first that is of normal extent1 a time that is approximately constant will serve as criteria4 ,a balance that is very sensitive to variations in the motive force is generally too small2 and one that attains to the normal arc of vibration almost instantaneously is1 as a rule1 too light4 ,the converse effects would indicate that the size and weight were excessive4 ,in order that he may be able to practically apply these remarks1 the workman should gain experience by making observations on several watches whose rate is known to be good1 in the following manner4 ,in regard to weight3 ,stop the balance at the position of rest of its spring1 then release it and count the number of vibrations up to the point at which the normal arc is attained2 the extent of this must have been previously recorded on the plate with rouge marks4 ,record the number thus obtained in a table opposite to the dimensions of the balance1 and1 by comparing these dimensions with those of another balance of equal size1 the weight can be ascertained and also recorded4 ,in regard to size3 ,pass through the center pinion a kind of short screw arbor carrying a large thin ferrule1 on which a cord supporting a weight is coiled4 ,fixing the movement in a movement holder1 set it in a vertical plane and observe the extent of the vibrations of the balance with different weights attached to the cord4 ,these arcs should also be recorded in the table opposite to the dimensions of the balance4 ,with sufficient practice the watchmaker will be enabled to judge at a glance whether the weight and size are well proportioned4 ,,demagnetizing4 #dib4 ,the following method of removing the magnetism from a watch that has been accidentally brought under the influence of a powerful magnet is proposed by ,professor ,a4 ,l4 ,mayer4 ,we shall not here enter more fully into the subject than is necessary to indicate the manner in which a watchmaker may restore the steel work to its original condition4 ,take a delicately suspended magnetic needle1 say a mariner's compass1 the length of which is about equal to the diameter of the watch1 and lay it on a table4 ,now place the watch to be operated on1 which should not be going1 on the table close to the needle and on either the east or west side of it1 having previously turned the box around until the needle points to zero4 ,taking care not to vary the distance between the centers of the watch and compass1 observe the number of graduations to which the north end of the needle is deflected with each figure on the dial brought in succession nearest to the compass2 it is also necessary to note whether the deflection is towards the east or west4 ,for example1 assume that the watch is on the east side1 and that1 with noon nearest to the compass1 the north end of the needle is turned #ab to the east1 that is1 towards the watch4 ,this shows that some point in the watch in the neighborhood of the number ,,xii on the dial possesses what is known as 8north polarity10 and if the deflection had been to the west the polarity would have been 8south40 #dic4 ,to take an example4 ,let the results of a series of trials with the several hours in succession towards the compass be as given in the following table3 ,hour nearest to the ,i ,,ii ,,iii ,,iv ,v ,,vi ,compass ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,angle of ,deflection #e #ah #gb #ef #bb #e ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,direction of ,deflection ,e ,w ,w ,w ,w ,e ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,hence ,polarity is ,n ,s ,s ,s ,s ,n ,hour nearest to the ,,vii ,,viii ,,ix ,x ,,xi ,,xii ,compass ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,angle of ,deflection #ag #af #af #bj #bd #bj ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,direction of ,deflection ,e ,e ,e ,e ,e ,e ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,hence ,polarity is ,n ,n ,n ,n ,n ,n ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,it will be seen that the greatest deflection westward corresponds to three o'clock1 and1 in the easterly direction1 to eleven o'clock4 ,this shows that the strongest south and north polarity are respectively in these directions4 ,the first thing to be done is1 then1 to eliminate this particular magnetism4 ,placing a bar magnet in a horizontal direction1 approach the watch to its south-seeking end in such a manner that a line ,x ,x1 ,fig4 #bbh1 through the axis of the magnet1 will pass through the center ,c of the watch1 the figure ,,xi1 which marks the point of extreme north polarity1 being nearest to the bar magnet4 ,now cause the watch to oscillate so that it alternately takes up the two positions ,a and ,b1 and1 when this has been several times repeated1 bring ,,iii in a similar manner near the north-seeking pole of the bar magnet1 oscillating the watch in the same way4 ,again try the watch with the compass1 repeating the above operations if necessary until the readings are somewhat as follows3 ,hour nearest to the ,i ,,ii ,,iii ,,iv ,v ,,vi ,compass ---------------------------------------- --------- ,angle of ,deflection #e #d #j #e #h #b ---------------------------------------- --------- ,direction of ,deflection ,e ,e ,w ,w ,w ---------------------------------------- --------- ,hence ,polarity is ,n ,n ,s ,s ,s ,hour nearest to the ,,vii ,,viii ,,ix ,x ,,xi ,,xii ,compass ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,angle of ,deflection #d #d #b #a #j #b ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,direction of ,deflection ,e ,e ,e ,e ,e ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,hence ,polarity is ,n ,n ,n ,n ,n ,these figures show that1 in counteracting the polarity at ,,iii and ,,xi1 the magnetic action of the watch in all other positions has1 as might indeed have been anticipated1 materially diminished4 ,such a condition of things will1 of course1 not be attained at once1 and it may even happen that the polarity at the two points ,,iii and ,,xi is reversed2 in such a case it is only necessary to oscillate the ,,iii in front of the south-seeking pole instead of the north4 ,the last table shows that a maximum south polarity is now at ,v1 and north at ,i4 ,these points must therefore be operated upon in the same manner1 and1 by proceeding in this manner1 and successively eliminating the worst points1 the magnetism may be effectually removed4 ,as proving the efficiency of the above method1 ,prof4 ,mayer mentions a case in which a watch lost one hour in six in consequence of magnetism1 and yet after the above treatment1 it resumed its original rate of about a second per day4 #did4 ,another ,method4 ,a second method of procedure has recently been described by ,h4 ,s4 ,maxim4 ,he employs a specially arranged apparatus1 based on the principle that if a watch or other object be subjected to rapid alterations of magnetism1 while gradually withdrawing it from the influence of the magnetic poles1 the distance ultimately becomes so great that the reversals are inappreciable1 when the watch is found to be demagnetized4 ,a bar magnet is arranged to revolve in a horizontal plane around a vertical axis2 the watch being placed in a small pocket opposite to the magnet1 is caused to rotate in an ever-shifting vertical plane1 while the frame supporting it rotates in a horizontal plane4 ,while these movements continue the watch carrier is gradually moved away from the magnet by the action of a long horizontal screw1 and it is stated that watches that have been completely spoiled can be rendered perfectly free from magnetism by such an apparatus4 ,,footnotes3 #f ,les ,montres sans ,clefs 7,geneva74 ,,part ,,vi4 ,,practical ,,recipes4 #die4 ,the practical operations of the watchmaker are numerous and of a very varied character4 ,detailed instructions in regard to the proper conduct of a large number of them will be given in this part of the work1 and frequent references will be made to former parts of this volume1 whenever by so doing repetition can be avoided4 ,the operations herein discussed are often of so dissimilar a nature that it has been found impossible to classify them in such a manner that will always ensure the reader finding the information he requires without waste of time2 and any risk of this would seriously impair the value of such a hand-book as the present4 ,a very full index has therefore been added1 and when seeking for details concerning any particular operation1 this should in all cases be first consulted4 ,,the ,,plate4 #dif4 ,to ,make a ,plate4 ,the sheet of brass having been prepared in the manner explained in article #ajc1 roughly rounded and smoothed on one face1 is cemented to the chuck of a lathe4 ,turn out the other face of the plate very flat1 and make the circumference square4 ,when using a lathe the face must first be roughed out1 and then the plate is to be cemented to a perforated plate1 so that it can be centered and finished4 ,smooth the exposed face with a well-set cutter and turn the inside and outside of the edge2 then make sure that the whole is concentric by a light cut with a cylindrical drill in the center hole4 ,after removing and cleaning the plate it is set up in the dogs1 and the face that has hitherto been untouched is gently dressed with the graver4 ,there will thus be left a narrow ring at the edge that is not touched by the graver3 this may be levelled with a smooth-cut file1 and the whole surface then smoothed as explained in article #aga4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4 ,if a lathe is not available1 the plate must be cemented to an arbor of the form shown at ,y1 ,fig4 #bbi4 ,the heel of this is received in a runner of the turns1 while the point of the opposite runner is received by the hole in the center of the plate1 which is thereby held in close contact with the plate of ,y1 the revolution being1 of course1 produced by a bow4 ,while the cement is still hot1 a stick resting on the ,t-rest will serve to ensure the concentricity of the plate until it is set4 ,this setting may be rendered more rapid by the application of cold water4 ,turn out the plate with a hooked graver made of a worn out file1 and1 if the upper or under side does not run true1 turn the portion that projects beyond the chuck with a graver1 and1 when the plate is removed1 face the surface1 taking the flat ring produced by the graver as a guide1 and taking care to avoid altering any portion of it4 ,the smaller sinks can also be made in the same primitive manner1 to which we have only drawn attention for the sake of watchmakers who are ill-provided with tools4 ,but we would at the same time point out that1 at the present day1 there should not be a single one who does not know how to extemporize a lathe-head4 #dig4 ,cocks and ,bars4 ,if it is required to make all the cocks and bars of a watch1 prepare a false plate1 the thickness of which is a trifle greater than that of the highest cock or bar2 then turn on the under side a series of sinks to correspond with the thin portions of the cocks and bars4 ,cut the several parts out of this plate with a fine saw1 and it only remains to shape their contours with a file4 ,the same method may be adopted if a number of identical cocks have to be made at a time4 ,,the ,,barrel4 ,,including ,,arbor1 ,,stopwork1 ,,mainspring1 ,,etc4 #dih4 ,to ,make a ,barrel4 ,having trued both faces of the brass1 and drilled a central hole rather less than that finally required and exactly perpendicular to the faces1 turn away the brass from the inside 7leaving a considerable excess of metal at the center to form the shoulder71 and form the ring on which the teeth are to be cut1 if it is a going-barrel1 in the ordinary lathe on a wax chuck4 ,then fasten the plane surface1 which must be quite true1 to a smooth plate that is of uniform thickness and has a hole in the center to permit the passage of the pump-center4 ,having fixed the plate by the mandrel dogs1 finish with well-set gravers3 #a the inside2 #b the external cylindrical surface both of the barrel and of the ring left for the teeth2 #c the barrel-cover groove2 and #d with a fine-pointed cutter slightly enlarge the central hole4 ,by this means it is possible to ensure that the barrel will turn true and in the flat4 ,smooth the inside1 more especially the groove1 the corner of which must always be carefully smoothed and polished4 ,the cutting of the recess in the barrel-cover 7of a ,swiss or ,french watch7 that gives freedom to the motion work1 as well as the recesses for the stopwork1 will not present any difficulty when the workman is provided with a lathe with or without a slide-rest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,when there is no slide-rest1 the tool shown at ,d1 ,fig4 #bcj1 can be used for making the groove4 ,a strip of metal of rectangular section has a small cutter clamped in a slot in its surface at a slight inclination4 ,by releasing the two screws of the clamp1 this cutter can be advanced to any required extent1 and in the strip of metal are two or three slots having different degrees of inclination1 so that the one can be selected that corresponds with the depth of the groove4 #dii4 ,to ,make the ,star-,wheel ,sink4 ,this is easy on the lathe1 the requisite degree of eccentricity being given to the barrel-cover by means of the pump-center4 #ejj4 ,the ,cover3 ,form of the ,groove4 ,as in making the barrel1 a thick ring must be left at the middle of the cover to be afterwards removed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca4 ,fig4 #bca is an enlarged figure to show the mode in which a cover is held in its groove4 ,the two are so formed that the cover shall pass into the recess with the least possible resistance1 and yet be held firmly without a risk of rotation4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 a good precaution to fix a pin in the rim so that it shall prevent such an accident4 #eja4 ,barrel ,hook4 ,it is necessary to observe that a certain amount of caution must be exercised in regard to the barrel hook1 for at least three-quarters of those met with are badly made4 ,a large hook1 projecting far into the barrel1 as often occurs1 occupies a needless amount of space1 and at times occasions the breaking of the spring4 ,one that is badly formed or does not project sufficiently allows the spring to escape4 ,a hook should project rather beyond the thickness of the spring2 if too thick the spring will be weakened at its eye2 if too thin1 it is liable to give when the pull of the mainspring is exerted on it4 ,the circumference of the barrel must be drilled through exactly midway between the bottom and the groove1 in a direction that is slightly inclined1 so as to resist the pull of the mainspring4 ,a thread is cut in this hole with a conical tap1 arresting its advance just before the full threads are reached1 in order to make sure that the brass screw to be subsequently inserted shall hold firmly4 ,then tap the brass wire from which a hook is to be made4 ,allowing a length to project beyond the screw-plate equal to about one and a half times the thickness of the mainspring1 file the two sides flat1 round off the point1 inclining it slightly backwards1 and form the hook with a fine screw-head slitting or other suitable file2 then remove the wire from the screw-plate and hold it in a pin vise4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcb4 ,the angle a 7,c1 ,fig4 #bcb7 is now filed down so as not to project within the barrel2 any burr that might interfere with its introduction is also removed and the hook is then screwed into its place4 ,it will be easy to ascertain whether the various heights1 etc41 are correct before screwing it tight home4 ,then screw the hook into position so that it requires the application of some force in doing so and cut off the external portion level with the surface of the barrel1 employing a sharp cutting file4 ,but if it appears necessary to withdraw the hook to make any alteration1 this should be done before bringing it to the final position4 ,some watchmakers do not take such precautions2 they fit a piece of hard brass wire to the hole1 beveling off the end that is to form the hook1 then cut off the wire nearly flush with the outer surface of the drum and1 resting the back of the hook against a piece of steel1 give a blow with the hammer so as to bend the point of the hook4 ,but this method1 although expeditious1 is not the best and it does not always succeed4 #ejb4 ,to ,repair a ,barrel4 ,when the play or the end shake of the pivots is considerable1 bush the holes with bushings turned on a smooth taper arbor4 ,they must not be riveted roughly1 as there is a danger of distorting the bushing or of causing the bottom of the barrel to 8cockle40 ,if there is any fear that the bushing will be thus distorted or that the barrel will not run true after the operation1 it will be well to employ large bushings in which the hole is less than that ultimately required4 ,then center from the circumference and enlarge the hole1 at the same time truing it4 ,some practical watchmakers1 if the bottom of the barrel is thin1 or if special solidity is requisite1 fear that the bushing may become loose2 they1 therefore1 enlarge the barrel-hole and make it square2 then bush it with a piece of plain brass1 and having centered the barrel by its circumference in the lathe1 drill a central hole4 ,it is hardly necessary to observe that1 when the holes in both barrel and cover require to be operated upon1 a pin should be fixed so as to prevent the latter from rotating in its groove2 so that before finally removing the barrel from the lathe1 the cover can be put in position to have its center accurately adjusted with a long pointed graver4 #ejc4 ,a ,barrel ,that ,does ,not ,run ,true4 ,the remedy for this has just been indicated3 enlarge the holes and rivet in them bushings that are either plain or have only very small holes4 ,the two holes can then be accurately centered with a slide-rest and cutter of the requisite form4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,it is a very simple process1 and yet there are some workmen who1 either from not possessing a lathe or ignorance as to how it should be used1 set the barrel on a screw arbor1 and1 after having topped the teeth1 round by hand those teeth which have been touched4 ,this method of procedure is longer than the former and gives results that are worse2 moreover1 since the screw-arbors are rarely themselves true1 especially in regard to the cones1 which will be found to have a play on the axis1 it is far better to set the barrel in cement on an arbor of the form ,c1 ,fig4 #bcc1 on the center pin of which the barrel-hole fits without play2 the middle of plate ,c must not be too thickly coated with cement4 #ejd4 ,barrel ,out of ,upright4 ,several methods may be resorted to for adjusting a barrel that does not turn flat on its axis4 ,assume that the holes are not too large1 for it has just been shown that by bushing the holes and truing them on the lathe1 it is always possible to ensure that a barrel shall be true on its axis4 ,to true it without renewing the holes1 first try turning the cover round in its groove by successive short stages1 and test its truth each time2 the arbor being clamped in a pair of sliding tongs and a card held close to the teeth4 ,if1 after the entire circumference has been tested1 no point is found that satisfies the requisite conditions1 the edge of the cover must be gently hammered 7a piece of silver paper being first laid on the anvil so as to avoid marking the gilding7 on the side at which the teeth pass farthest from the card and the effect of the operation must be tested4 ,this hammering should be done very carefully and little at a time1 and if too great a strain is put on the cover to force it into the groove1 some metal must be removed from the side opposite to that at which the hammering occurred4 ,hence1 if the one side is too much extended in the first instance1 so that a large amount of metal has to be removed from the opposite side1 the operation is liable to be unnecessarily long and difficult4 ,it is hardly necessary to observe that we are here referring to the modern form of going-barrel1 in which the cover is on the opposite side to the teeth2 in the older form1 where the reverse is the case1 the opposite edge of the cover must be hammered4 ,sometimes a barrel that runs true on its arbor is found to incline when mounted on the plate3 such a fault is due either to the barrel holes being too large or to the sink that receives the ratchet not being parallel to the plate4 ,this sink must be trued in the lathe while in position1 screwed to the plate of the watch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd4 #eje4 ,to ,adjust a ,post or ,curb in ,position4 ,make a small punch1 a front and side elevation of which are shown at p p1 ,fig4 #bcd2 harden it and let it down to a yellow temper at the point4 ,now fix a flattened ball of lead in the vise1 the upper surface of which is so formed that the portion of the barrel that is to receive the hole for the post may rest securely4 ,there is no necessity for the entire barrel to rest on the lead4 ,place a small piece of mainspring1 q1 within the barrel against the circumference1 where it will be maintained by the punch p1 which will also hold the barrel steady on the lead block4 ,then give a moderate blow with a heavy hammer on the head of the punch1 forcing its point through the barrel4 ,a burr will be produced outside the barrel1 while there will be a corresponding depression within1 especially in front of the hole4 ,to secure clean edges1 pass a file over the external projection1 but only sufficiently to remove its crest1 and1 resting the inside of the barrel on a lead block1 drive inwards the metal that projects2 then pass the punch through in a direction opposite to the first and of course with less force4 ,remove the burrs and repeat the operation first on one side and then on the other with gentle blows of the hammer1 removing the punch by hand4 ,finish with a very fine file1 which will entirely remove any external burr round the hole1 and one cut with a slide-rest cutter in the inside1 followed by charcoal and oil4 ,a watchmaker that has never performed this operation will do well to experiment with the punch on a small plate of brass1 or1 still better1 on a worn-out barrel4 ,to insert the post1 coil up the mainspring in the winder so as to be able to introduce a slightly conical piece of steel or brass between the two last turns of the spring and near to the hole4 ,place the post in position and hold it and the spring while the wedge that keeps the coils apart is removed4 ,if the opening thus secured was found to be insufficient1 it might be increased by introducing a screwdriver1 which is held down until the post is inserted4 ,the making of this curb1 shown at b1 ,fig4 #bcd1 will offer no difficulty4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bce4 #ejf4 ,stopwork4 ,if the pitch circles of the finger-piece and star-wheel of several ,geneva stops be measured1 it will be seen that three different proportions may exist 7,fig4 #bce71 in which the former is less than1 equal to1 and greater than the latter respectively4 ,when the finger-piece has a greater diameter1 as at d1 it will oppose an increased resistance to the hand in winding1 but the direction of its pressure against the stop will be much below the center of rotation of the star-wheel1 because the finger is necessarily very short4 ,when the finger-piece is very small1 as at a1 there will be less resistance opposed owing to any want of freedom of the star-wheel1 and the pressure against the stop will be more nearly tangential1 the finger being relatively long2 but more care will be required in the construction and1 for a given force applied to the key in winding1 there will be a proportionately increased pressure against the star-wheel axis4 ,inconveniences thus increase in proportion as either piece is enlarged as compared with the other1 and the best proportion is secured by making the two diameters equal1 as shown at c b4 ,the stud on which the star-wheel rotates should be cut square or1 preferably1 slightly conical downwards4 #ejg4 ,to ,true a ,star-,wheel4 ,the form of a star-wheel can be adjusted on the lathe1 on the tool shown in ,fig4 #bjh1 using a cylindrical mill-cutter and adding a stop so that the branches of the tool are always brought to the same distance apart4 ,star-wheels can be bought of the material dealers1 but they are not always equally divided2 indeed1 some exist that have been merely punched in the punching press4 ,hence it follows that many of them are characterized by at least one of the following faults3 teeth of unequal length1 or with their concavities of unequal form4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcf4 ,when the teeth are well formed and finished at their ends1 but of unequal length1 this arises from the star-wheel having been badly centered during the operation of cutting2 it must then be re-centered4 ,take a small brass plate ,h1 ,fig4 #bcf1 and drill a hole at its center1 with a notch at the edge1 a1 to receive the convex tooth without shake4 ,now place the plate in the lathe and turn out a sink to receive the star-wheel and hold it firmly4 ,the convex tooth will then drop into the notch and the wheel should project a little above the face of the plate4 ,now release one dog1 and1 having gripped with it one tooth of the wheel1 take a fine-pointed graver and true the central hole and the sink that receives the screw head1 taking care only to remove a small quantity of metal at a time4 ,if the workman has not considerable experience in using the lathe and fears a derangement in releasing and again tightening the dog1 he had better remove the plate1 cement the star-wheel in position and replace it1 when it can be re-centered with the pump-center4 #ejh4 ,to ,make a ,finger-,piece4 ,after having drifted the square hole in the center of a steel disc of suitable dimensions1 and traced out a line to mark the circumference of the disc and the end of the finger1 drill two holes a little beyond this line1 leaving such a space between them as to ensure that the base of the finger shall possess sufficient strength2 but these holes should be drilled so far in towards the center of the disc that freedom is left for the corners of the star-wheel teeth during its rotation4 ,the head of the finger is at first left so as to exactly fit the spaces of the wheel without play1 this being subsequently given with a fine file and in the smoothing4 ,file the circumference all round so as just not to touch the line traced out2 then1 putting the disc on an arbor1 hold a fine barrette file against the edge1 and cause the arbor to oscillate backwards and forwards1 the file coming in contact alternately with each side of the finger4 ,this smoothing of the rim will materially facilitate and abridge the final work with the graver4 ,the corner of the rim on one side of the finger having been finished off with the graver edge1 reverse the arbor between its centers to treat the other corner in a similar manner4 ,a finger-piece made as here explained will be found to be very true4 ,some watchmakers1 when it is possible1 finish the circumference after it has been adjusted on the barrel-arbor itself2 but as a rule this is not necessary4 ,the slit that receives the pin may be cut as follows3 ,file a square piece of brass to fit the hole in the finger-piece1 cut a notch across the end with a screw-head file1 and insert it in the square hole4 ,having centered a flat cutter1 the thickness of which is equal to that of the slit to be cut1 on a taper arbor1 place this in the lathe2 resting the brass horizontally on the ,t-rest 7which had better be at the back of the lathe1 so that the progress of the operation may be more easily observed7 and present the notch to the cutter4 #eji4 ,it will be understood that the foregoing details relate to the method to be adopted in making the finger-piece by hand1 but it is very easy to arrange an addition to the ordinary lathe1 with or without a throw1 for rounding or truing the circumference with great rapidity4 ,having mounted a circular mill-cutter on an arbor in a chuck1 as seen at ,r1 ,fig4 #bcc1 replace the ,t-rest by an upright that has a shoulder1 and is truly cylindrical1 and of a diameter to fit the support without shake2 the finger-piece1 ,d1 is fixed to its upper end by a cone and nut1 as in the screw-arbor1 or by any other means4 ,a lever l is adapted to the vertical rod1 so that it can be rotated between two stops on the lathe-bed2 such stops are1 however1 not always needed1 because by employing a thick cutter that is smooth on the face there is no danger of damage to the finger4 ,at the same time1 if there are no stops1 considerable care is requisite in the smoothing and polishing to prevent the sides of the lap touching the finger4 ,this can be polished afterwards in a very short time by using a lap that has been turned on the edge to fit the notch4 ,it is useless to enter into further particulars1 as the little appliance or one of an analogous description can be easily made4 ,the apparatus shown in ,fig4 #aie1 and described in article #djb1 could be employed for such a purpose4 #eaj4 ,to ,make a ,clock ,barrel4 ,a strip of soft brass1 thicker than the circumference of the drum is intended to be1 is coiled into a circle rather less in diameter than the required barrel1 on a cylinder of hard wood1 either by pressure between the jaws of a vise1 or with a mallet or hammer4 ,the two edges1 after being carefully cleaned1 are soldered with silver solder or brazed1 while they are held in position by a piece of binding wire wound round the drum4 ,placing this ring on the nose of a beak-iron1 harden it by gentle blows1 so as not only to harden the brass1 but also to increase the diameter and make a true cylinder4 ,chuck it on a cylinder of hard wood in order to turn the two ends square1 and form the edge that is received in a groove cut in the bottom of the barrel2 the bottom is then soft soldered in position4 ,in the older barrels that contained very strong springs1 it was often the practice to leave tongues projecting round the drum that entered holes in the bottom and were riveted on the other side4 ,the barrel may be cemented to a large wax chuck that has as its center a short arbor tapped and provided with a washer and nut1 or it may be gripped by its base in the universal head1 and the surfaces1 etc41 finished4 ,some of the details given in regard to a watch barrel are applicable here4 ,the drum is now no longer made by bending a strip of brass1 except in country towns1 because brass tubing is always to be obtained in cities at metal warehouses1 which only needs to be cut into rings of the requisite length4 #eaa4 ,to ,make a ,barrel-,arbor4 ,if the metal is in the rough and has the scale on1 it must be cleaned either on the stone or with acid4 ,the following method of procedure has been proved in practice to be expeditious3 ,when the arbor has been turned to shape with the graver1 smoothed1 and almost polished1 it is placed in the barrel and should rotate when in position1 but with considerable friction4 ,then make the two squares as explained below 7#eac72 and1 after smoothing that which receives the finger-piece1 set this latter in position on the arbor and see that it does not descend quite to the shoulder4 ,then replace it by a worn out finger-piece1 or by a copper disc that is cut so as to allow of the insertion of the pin in exactly the same position as is required by the finger-piece to be definitively used4 ,it is then easy to drill the pin-hole from either side of the square and to smooth it with a fine broach4 ,each time that the arbor has to be inserted in the barrel1 great care must be taken to remove any burr1 as it might damage the barrel holes4 ,before hardening the arbor1 cut in it two grooves of moderate depth at the points at which the ends must be broken off4 ,such a practice has two advantages3 #a4 ,the two waste points of the arbor can be removed and each end partly formed without employing a file1 an arrangement whereby it is possible to maintain in the arbor a maximum of hardness1 at least at the winding end4 #b4 ,if the arbor is distorted1 it will not be in the body1 but from the points at which these cuts are made4 ,if any distortion occurs1 the blow-pipe jet can be directed on the points1 which are then removed with a file before the final polishing4 #eab4 ,to harden the arbor1 place it in an iron tube and surround it with powdered charcoal which is pressed down1 having previously been well dried4 ,when the whole has been heated to the requisite temperature1 throw it into water1 and1 if the precautions already explained under hardening are adopted1 the arbor will be found to be smooth and clean and without either scales or blisters on its surface4 ,clean and polish it2 this latter operation will give the proper freedom to the pivots1 although it often happens that a touch with a broach is required in the two holes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,the bevelled groove within the ratchet teeth is polished by rotating the arbor while a small steel plate1 perforated at its center and of the form shown in plan and section at ,z1 ,fig4 #bcg1 is held by the hand against the groove4 ,the shoulders can be easily and rapidly polished in the tool represented in ,fig4 #dd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bch4 #eac4 ,to ,make the ,squares4 ,to ,make ,drifts4 ,the tool shown in ,fig4 #bch is used4 ,on the plate ,p1 which is at right angles to the foot ,s1 is fixed a frame that carries two hard steel rollers1 c and d1 the edges of which are extended to form a guide4 ,a bent finger b is hinged on a screw on the side of the plate1 and has a hole j drilled in it1 which is continued for a short distance into the plate ,p4 ,the following is the method of using the appliance3 ,fix to the arbor a disc1 indicated by dotted lines1 in the circumference of which are four equidistant notches to receive the nose of the finger b4 ,the rod ,s takes the place of the ,t-rest and the arbor is placed between the centers of the lathe4 ,as ,s can be raised or lowered to any position and the runners can be moved laterally1 it is easy to bring the point at which the square should commence to correspond with the line n n4 ,the finger b having been inserted in one of the notches of the division-plate1 reduce the arbor with the file ,l4 ,move b to the next notch1 and repeat the operation1 and so on with the other two sides4 ,if there is any danger of the finger not maintaining a sufficiently firm hold of the plate1 a tight-fitting pin can be inserted in the hole j4 ,at first the arbor should be filed away less than is actually required1 and the only adjustment necessary to ensure this is the raising of ,s to a suitable height4 ,no difficulty need be experienced in this1 but1 if any doubt is entertained1 a screw may be supported from the bed of the lathe1 terminating in a rod that passes through the plate ,p1 as indicated at t for example1 thus securing perfect regularity in the upward and downward motion of the system4 ,if a tapered square is required1 it will be sufficient to slightly incline the frame by means of two screws v i1 placed near its left-hand edge with their ends resting on the plate ,p4 #ead4 ,to ,drill ,exactly ,through the ,center of the ,arbor4 ,of course1 if the old arbor-nut is available1 it will afford the best guide for performing this operation1 and1 if the arbor is tapped1 such a hole will not be required4 ,but when neither of these conditions is satisfied1 the workman will have two slight difficulties to overcome3 the drilling of the arbor and its nut exactly in the center and parallel to the plane of the ratchet4 ,by adopting the following method1 he can easily satisfy these conditions3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4 #eae4 ,take a brass disc ,d1 ,fig4 #bci1 turned smooth on its two faces4 ,enlarge its central hole until the barrel-arbor enters it to such a distance that a blow of a mallet will drive it up against the ratchet where it should hold firmly4 ,this disc is chucked on the lathe and a groove is formed that passes exactly through the center4 ,ascertain by means of a douzieme or a thickness gauge whether the thickness of the disc1 measuring from the bottom of the groove to the under side1 is equal to the space between the shoulder of the arbor that corresponds to the outside edge of the barrel hole1 and the point at which the hole should be drilled4 ,if the thickness is excessive1 diminish it from the under side2 if1 on the other hand1 it is not sufficient1 fit some thin discs on the arbor1 and then force the brass disc to the position thus determined upon4 ,it is hardly necessary to add that when this is done1 holes must be drilled to some depth on either side of the arbor1 using a drill that does not shake about in the groove although quite free and inclining slightly downwards so that the hole shall not be above the point determined upon1 namely1 the bottom of the groove4 ,continue the drilling until the two holes meet1 the drill being maintained1 during this part of the operation1 parallel to the face of the ratchet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdj4 #eaf4 ,if the workman is not provided with a tool for cutting the groove exactly in the axis of the disc1 the accuracy that is so essential can be ensured as follows3 ,a brass rod ,g1 ,fig4 #bdj1 is divided into four at the end as near the center as possible by means of a fine saw or a file that only cuts with its edge1 which will be used to form the groove4 ,set the rod ,g in the lathe1 a center of the form f being inserted at b where the slits cross1 and turn down the rod ,g b1 although only a little metal should need to be removed1 until it enters the hole in the brass disc and projects a short distance on the other side4 ,it then only remains to insert in one of the notches of ,g b the cutting file or the saw previously used1 to form a groove on the surface of the disc that passes exactly through its center2 it is to be remembered that the saw1 etc41 must only cut with its edge1 and should enter the notch with a very slight friction1 sufficient to indicate that it fits without play4 #eag4 ,the ,arbor-,nut4 ,the usual practice is to make the diameter of the nut equal to one-third that of the inside of the barrel4 ,with thick springs of but slight flexibility it must be larger so as to avoid overstraining the innermost coil1 and1 conversely1 with a very thin spring it is diminished1 rendering the employment of a longer spring possible4 ,when the nut is too small the spring must be made long1 and1 by setting up the stopwork1 a coil of the spring can be maintained always on the nut4 #eah4 ,to drill the nut along a diameter4 ,by means of the rod ,g1 ,fig4 #bdj1 draw a straight line to indicate a diameter of the nut4 ,this line will serve as a guide for marking two points opposite to one another on the circumference1 round which a circle has previously been traced with a graver4 ,the points should be marked so deeply as to ensure that the drill does not displace itself in the initial stages of the drilling2 with a little caution1 and using a glass1 very little difficulty will be experienced in ensuring that the points are in a right line4 ,one of the two following methods may be employed for drilling the nut3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bda4 #a4 ,prepare a brass block of the form shown at f p f1 ,fig4 #bda1 the space ,a being cut away1 and the end p provided with large-headed screws1 shown at v1 v1 in the plan4 ,the two faces1 f1 f1 must be parallel to each other1 and at right angles with the face p1 a condition which can be easily satisfied by means of the lathe1 the face f1 for example1 being turned towards the headstock1 and the dogs introduced into the space ,a2 the opposite face f is then trued with the slide rest4 ,in the vertical face a a make a round hole1 through which a pointed center passes1 being pressed forward by a spiral or other spring1 and the point corresponding exactly with the line a a traced on the face of the brass2 of course the axis of this center must be at right angles to the same line4 ,a small block may be inserted within the space ,a to prevent any flexure of the arms4 ,an inspection of the figure will make clear the manner in which this little tool is to be used4 ,having fixed the nut on the face p by the screws v v1 so that the two points on its circumference coincide with the line a a1 the whole is placed in the drilling tool with the dogs pressing either on the upper external face or in the space ,a4 ,after the block is fixed1 ascertain by rotating the uprighting spindle that its point coincides in all positions with the top mark on the edge of the nut1 and drill as usual4 ,drill one side1 invert the block1 and proceed in a similar manner to drill the other4 ,the little appliance above described might be simplified by being made of the form shown at ,e1 which would require to be reversed when the second hole is about to be drilled4 #eai4 ,to ,polish the ,inclined ,faces of ,ratchet ,teeth4 ,set the ratchet in slow rotation by means of the foot-wheel1 and bring a strip of spring covered with coarse rouge and oil against it from the side1 resting the strip on the ,t-rest4 ,in a very short time the teeth will be rounded and polished4 ,this process is similar to that adopted at the present day for polishing the inclines of cylinder escape wheels in the lathe4 ,the position of the polishing spring and its inclination must be determined upon by trial1 so as to make sure that the entire surface of the tooth is acted on4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdb4 #ebj4 ,another method is to make a small boxwood lap1 and arrange it as shown at ,m1 ,fig4 #bdb1 so that1 when caused to revolve on its axis1 which may be more or less inclined1 it is brought into contact with the ratchet wheel with its axis1 as indicated by the figure4 ,the teeth will cut into the wood1 and trace out a helix1 as seen at ,m1 and the lap1 passing successively into the ratchet teeth1 will cause it to revolve rapidly4 ,when the groove is deep enough1 apply some coarse polishing rouge to the surface of the drum2 after a few rotations the faces will be found to be polished4 ,the arbor and lap may be arranged in either of two ways4 ,mount the lap between the centers that carry the cutter in a wheel-cutting engine and support the barrel-arbor opposite to it in a vertical direction between the chuck and the bent arm or 8gallows0 used to fix a wheel while cutting its teeth4 ,a watchmaker who is not provided with this tool must chuck the lap in the lathe1 then mount the barrel-arbor in such a carrier as is shown at p p1 ,fig4 #bdb1 and1 resting its base on the ,t-rest1 hold the ratchet against the lap1 determining the most suitable height and inclination by trial2 this1 he will find1 can be easily done4 #eba4 ,to ,polish the ,circular ,groove in the ,ratchet4 ,it takes a long time to accomplish this by using first1 an iron polisher with oilstone dust1 then one of copper with rouge and oil4 ,the operation can be performed more expeditiously by using an iron runner1 as shown at ,b1 ,fig4 #bdc4 ,the end is rounded to correspond with the groove2 and the hole1 which is indicated by dotted lines1 should be large and funnel-shaped1 so as to avoid contact with the corners of the winding square when a see-saw motion is given to ,b in the polishing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdc4 ,the arbor being cemented to a chuck in a lathe1 hold the end o1 charged with oilstone dust or rouge1 in the groove1 and1 while the arbor revolves1 rotate the spindle ,b in the hand1 at the same time giving it a see-saw motion as above mentioned4 ,a very little practice will be required to do this4 #ebb4 ,repairing a ,barrel-,arbor4 ,cement the arbor a a1 ,fig4 #bdd1 to the lathe chuck1 turn down the ratchet1 removing its teeth and thus diminishing its diameter by about a third1 as shown at n n2 then reduce the thickness to a half1 turning it down on the side next to the winding square1 and continue this square down to the flat disc that remains1 taking care that no shoulder is left at the angle between the two4 ,the arbor is now in a condition to receive the new ratchet which has to be fitted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdd4 ,adjust a flat ratchet r r like those used on the barrel-arbor of a fusee watch1 which must be of the thickness and diameter of the original ratchet1 so that it exactly fits the winding square2 turn a sink in it1 as shown by the dotted line1 to receive the disc already formed2 and1 if the hole fits the winding square freely but without play1 and this square is carried down to the disc1 the dust cap c c will maintain the ratchet in its position as effectually as though it formed one with the arbor4 ,by adopting the above method1 which does not occupy much time1 it is often possible to avoid making a new arbor when all but the ratchet is sound2 and if this portion should again wear out1 the necessary repair is still further simplified4 ,we are assured that arbors repaired in the above manner showed no signs of wear after fifteen years1 except that the square in the ratchet was a trifle enlarged1 though not sufficiently to interfere in any way with the efficiency2 moreover1 in modern watches1 the winding square is generally long1 so that the ratchet can be left somewhat thicker at the center and a corresponding sink cut in the under side of the dust cap to receive it4 #ebc4 ,to ,true a ,barrel-,arbor that is ,coned ,inwards or too ,large4 ,cement the arbor firmly to a chuck as shown at ,c1 ,fig4 #bde4 ,with care it will be easy to make the part e run true4 ,as a rule1 but very little metal requires to be removed to make e cylindrical or conical in any desired direction1 and it will generally be sufficient to finish by polishing with an iron polisher and oilstone dust or coarse rouge and oil4 ,use a narrow polisher that only bears on the end of e1 giving it a double movement1 straight forward and in a half circle towards one side2 or else use a broader polisher1 supporting it on the ,t-rest4 ,by inclining this1 the iron can be prevented from touching e1 except near its extremity4 ,it is unnecessary to add that when the arbor has been made cylindrical or coned in a given direction a suitable polisher1 bearing on the entire length of e1 can be used4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bde4 ,either of the two following methods can be adopted in the place of that above explained3 ,support the winding square end of the barrel-arbor in an eccentric runner2 let the opposite end run in a small coned hole in the end of a steel runner1 which must be polished and hardened so as to prevent the corners of the square that receives the stop-finger from wearing it away2 now apply coarse rouge until the fault no longer exists and follow with fine rouge to complete the polishing4 ,if not provided with an eccentric runner1 it will be sufficient to take a tight-fitting key1 drive it on with a blow of a hammer and file a point at the tapped end so as to be in the axis of the barrel-arbor4 ,having attached a ferrule to this key1 place the whole between the runners and proceed as explained above4 #ebd4 ,to ,renew a ,worn ,winding ,square4 ,the best plan is to make an entirely new arbor2 but when this cannot be done1 as1 for example1 on the ground of expense1 the following method of repair may be attempted3 ,direct the blow-pipe flame on to the square while holding the body of the arbor in a pair of pliers1 so as to prevent its being over-heated2 and round off the corners of the square1 leaving the diameter no greater than is necessary for strength1 and tap it with a screw-plate4 ,now drill a hole at the end of a piece of round steel of somewhat greater diameter than the original square1 and form an internal screw by means of a tap made in the same hole of the screw-plate as was used for the arbor2 the end of the tap should be tapered and with good cutting edges4 ,if the arbor is the full length allowed by the case1 reduce the length slightly and screw on the small steel spindle1 tapped to the right depth4 ,it must not be screwed quite down to the ratchet1 although intended ultimately to come into actual contact4 ,after having thus tested it1 form the square1 which will naturally be rather larger than the original1 and cut a deep groove with the graver at the point where the square is to be broken off1 but1 before breaking it1 harden and let down to a blue or violet temper2 then smooth1 polish1 and screw finally on to the arbor4 ,if this last operation does not result in the square breaking away1 grip the spindle in a vise1 and1 taking the square in a pair of long-nosed pliers1 break it with a sharp blow4 ,it only remains to finish off the end in a screw-head tool4 ,,the ,,mainspring4 #ebe4 ,a free and uniform action of the mainspring is one of the primary conditions that have to be satisfied for ensuring a continuously good rate4 #ebf4 ,to make the eye in a ,mainspring4 ,every watchmaker knows that this is commonly done by means of a mainspring punch2 but in its absence a hole can be made by hammering a pointed punch one or more times through the end of the spring after it has been softened1 and1 after filing away the projecting metal1 the hole is broached out or enlarged with the point of a graver and finished with a rat-tail file1 taking care that the corners are rounded off so as to avoid the risk of cracks4 #ebg4 ,to reduce the height of a ,mainspring4 ,this and the following method are only to be resorted to when a new spring cannot be obtained4 ,introduce the spring into a barrel of less height than itself and wear the steel away by rubbing it on a hard surface charged with oilstone dust1 keeping it constantly rotated between the fingers4 ,when the reduction is sufficient remove the spring and draw-file it1 so as to round off the two edges2 then clean the entire surface4 #ebh4 ,selecting a ,mainspring3 ,adapting it to a ,fusee4 ,the spring that is characterized by the most uniform uncoiling and the least difference between the force exerted when fully and only partially wound up will generally secure the most constant rate4 ,in selecting one for a going-barrel watch1 or in adapting to a fusee1 the adjusting rod1 shown in ,fig4 #bdf1 and described in article #ecj1 is used4 ,,the ,,fusee4 #ebi4 ,at the outset1 we would state the three characteristic properties of a fusee that have led to its adoption and retention in high-class watches and marine chronometers3 #a1 it equalizes the motive force2 #b1 it enables us to use a tapered mainspring1 in which the uncoiling takes place in the most advantageous manner possible2 and1 #c1 it secures a longer period of going4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdf4 #ecj4 ,to ,adjust a ,fusee to ,its ,mainspring4 ,set the barrel and fusee in position in the frame1 with the mainspring and chain carefully hooked in their places1 and the former set up about half a turn1 and grip the fusee square in the clamp1 d n1 of the adjusting rod1 shown in ,fig4 #bdf2 then wind up the mainspring by rotating this lever with the hand until arrested by the stopwork4 ,now slide the weight m1 which is held by friction and a light spring1 along the rod until a point is reached at which the lever just neutralizes the force of the mainspring1 so that the whole rests in equilibrium when left to itself4 ,rotate the rod backwards by half turns at a time4 ,if equilibrium is maintained to the end1 the fusee is well adjusted4 ,but when this is not the case1 it will be found that the weight of the lever is too great or too small2 showing that the radius of the fusee is either too small or too great4 ,adjust the lever so that it balances with the radius of the fusee1 which is thus shown to be most deficient1 and at all other points along the thread of the fusee more metal must be removed to an extent indicated by the experiment4 ,when not provided with a fusee engine1 it is a common practice to use the ordinary lathe1 and an equaling file smoothed on its two faces2 or a templet might be adapted to the ,t-rest of such lathe4 ,if the irregularity observed is but slight1 it is advisable not to touch the fusee2 because1 in the great majority of cases1 an equipoise can be arrived at by altering the degree to which the spring is set up4 ,thus1 if the weight is too heavy for the lower coils of the spring1 set it up more1 so as to increase its tension2 in the converse case1 of course1 it must be let down4 ,by trying several springs1 especially if they are of different manufacture1 it will very often be found possible to secure a sufficient degree of uniformity without there being any occasion to re-cut the fusee4 ,,chain4 #eca4 ,to ,ease a ,chain4 ,when the links are rusty or not sufficiently supple1 the chain should be placed in oil and left there for some hours at least4 ,round off the edge of a boxwood block1 cut a groove across this edge1 and clamp the block in a vise2 then place the chain like a saddle in the groove1 so that it hangs down on either side4 ,applying oil liberally to the wood1 take an end of the chain in each hand1 and pull it backwards and forwards in the groove1 renewing the supply of oil at intervals4 ,when perfectly flexible1 the chain must be cleaned with benzine1 or1 after soaping1 wash it in water and leave for some minutes in alcohol4 ,after being dried1 it is dipped in fine oil and dried in a clean linen rag free from fluff1 pressing the rag against the edge4 ,a chain treated in this manner will be found to remain supple for a long time1 and it will not be liable to rust4 #ecb4 ,riveting a ,hook1 ,etc4 ,when riveting either a hook or link to a chain1 it is very necessary that the end of the rivet be cut or filed quite square2 for1 otherwise1 the blow of the hammer will bend the rivet1 so that the chain will not be square on the barrel1 neither will the riveting be firm4 ,,wheels4 #ecc4 ,to ,rough ,out a ,wheel4 ,the sheet brass having been prepared in the manner indicated in article #ajc1 one face is smoothed with a file1 followed by oilstone dust2 the plate is then set up in the lathe1 to true the other face with the slide rest4 ,on the smoothed face trace out the rim and the crossings4 ,these latter can best be marked out on the dividing plate1 or grammaire1 already explained in article #cdc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdg4 ,after drilling the small holes1 a1 c1 etc41 ,fig4 #bdg1 at the corners1 cement the wheel to a plate that is perforated to permit the use of the pump center1 and remove the metal between the crossings by first turning the sinks indicated by the shaded disc s with the slide rest1 and subsequently cut the groove i i4 ,now center the wheel in the lathe1 and trace the arcs a c with a fine graver1 moving the face-plate backwards and forwards in the manner referred to in article #cfd4 ,remove the wheel from the plate1 and finish off the spaces with a file4 ,two files will be needed for forming the angles2 one a flat barrette file1 with the corner beveled off and smoothed to nearly a right angle1 to go against the rim of the wheel2 and the other a taper file1 with faces of the same curvature as the inside of the rim1 its two edges being inclined at rather more than a right angle and smoothed carefully4 ,if these simple precautions are not taken1 there is a risk of cutting through the arms or making them too narrow4 ,many of the details in the following article1 although specially relating to a balance1 will be found applicable to the construction of other wheels4 #ecd4 ,to ,make a ,plain ,balance4 ,the round plate of which the balance is to be made must be hammered with the greatest possible care1 and of a thickness but little greater than that of the finished balance 7#ajc74 ,smooth one face and cement it either to a perforated plate through which the pump center can reach the balance 7if the universal head is to be used71 or on the chuck of an ordinary lathe1 or on the wax chuck ,c1 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,hollow the middle portion with the slide rest cutter or hook tool1 according to the kind of lathe used2 but1 whichever it be1 it must be very well set1 and only remove a small portion at a time4 ,the application of an excessive pressure will produce a kind of rolling action1 which will induce a tendency in the arms to bend4 ,remove the metal between the rim and boss until its thickness is diminished by about a third2 smooth this surface carefully1 finishing with a piece of charcoal4 ,the disc is now ready for crossing out4 ,place it on the dividing plate 7see article #cdc7 to mark out the three arms1 and remove the metal between them1 either in the lathe1 as explained above1 or by drilling a series of holes parallel to the arms and rim4 ,these holes should be so arranged that they can be enlarged with a fine-pointed graver 7while the balance rests on a flat wooden block or is cemented to it71 and a turn with a sharp edged broach1 or the passage of a thin rat-tail file should be sufficient to separate the useless metal4 ,as a rule1 the series of holes is drilled with the disc held against a wooden block1 but the burrs produced on the under side by the drill prevent it from being maintained flat1 unless they are removed after each hole is drilled1 and this might occasion a distortion of the disc4 ,it would1 perhaps1 be better to cement the rough balance to a sheet of zinc2 the color of the shavings would suffice to indicate whether the hole was through4 ,the arms and rim must be made smooth and even with nicely formed crossing files1 the edges of which are smoothed to the most convenient angle1 as already indicated4 ,in filing the crossings the balance should rest against a small block in the vise1 and they are rounded while resting in a groove at the edge of a similar block1 specially shaped for the purpose4 ,this block is also useful as a support in finishing the angles between crossings and rim4 ,the under face of the balance is smoothed with oilstone dust2 and the arms by drawing the polisher along them while the balance rests on a flat block2 it is then cleaned and fitted on a very true arbor1 as ,a1 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,this should pass through the center hole of the balance without play after a broach has slightly enlarged it1 and the balance is clamped by a cap and three screws1 j4 ,it only remains to set the arbor in the lathe and polish the rim1 first turning it to a half oval if desired4 ,in the latter case the rim1 after being smoothed1 is polished first with coarse rouge on hard pith1 and subsequently with fine rouge on softer pith4 #ece4 ,if the arms of a balance are found to be too long1 so that they curve1 the rim must be lengthened by hammering with the greatest possible care2 the inside and outside of it must then be trued on an arbor of the form ,a4 ,the boss at the center will be found thicker than is desirable2 its height can be reduced with the balance merely adjusted on a smooth taper arbor1 but it is necessary to observe that the balance and arbor must not be adjusted to each other by pressing or by rotating the balance with the rim held in the fingers4 ,it must be pushed on or off the arbor by applying pressure at the center of the boss on one side or the other with a piece of hard wood resting firmly against the ,t-rest1 while you cause the arbor to rotate4 ,instead of the form of arbor shown at ,a1 a screw arbor might be used1 with its cone pressing against a cap1 but the balance must always be carefully adjusted on the arbor1 and this latter must run perfectly true4 #ecf4 ,to ,make a ,number of ,identical ,wheels4 ,if it is desired to make a number of brass wheels of the same size and shape1 the workman will find it much to his advantage to employ the punching machine4 ,by adopting the following method he can make his own punches and bed-plates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdh4 ,with a view to secure same length in the matrices that are used for forming the crossings1 without augmenting the difficulty of construction1 proceed thus3 ,each of the pieces ,v1 ,v1 ,fig4 #bdh1 consists of two parts3 #a4 ,the star-piece1 a c b d1 of three1 four1 five or six arms1 according to the number of crossings of the wheel4 #b4 ,the collar1 ,v4 ,the star-piece is of the same length as the collar1 and is made in the wheel-cutting engine in the same manner as the leaves of a pinion4 ,the punches1 of which one is shown at ,p1 are fitted by hand to the recesses of the star-piece1 and then cemented in position2 the whole is then chucked in the lathe and turned as one piece1 so that its diameter is slightly greater than the interior of the collar4 ,now harden the star-piece1 and temper it to a blue color4 ,when cold harden the collar ,v v1 and temper it to the same degree1 but1 while expanded by the heat in tempering1 introduce the cold star-piece and drive it home4 ,by proceeding in this manner1 no subsequent hand fitting will be required4 ,v n must not be hardened4 ,tools for punching the crossings of wheels are sometimes made on this system in which the disc of brass is fixed to a support that can be made to revolve by quarters of a revolution at a time1 and a single punch serves to remove the metal by four separate operations4 ,but as a rule it is better to use four punches together4 #ecg4 ,to ,repair ,wheels4 ,when the teeth of a wheel are damaged1 the only possible remedy is to provide a new one4 ,if1 however1 a single tooth is broken1 the following method can be adopted1 on an emergency1 for inserting a new one3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdi4 #ech4 ,to insert a new tooth in a wheel4 ,cut a small notch in the rim of the wheel1 shown at a1 ,fig4 #bdi1 which should be dovetailed if possible1 and the two sides spread out slightly from the upper towards the under side1 as indicated at c c4 ,cut a small piece of well-hammered brass1 of the form ,b1 so that the part d d fits exactly into the notch in the rim4 ,now invert the wheel and grip it near to a in a pair of long-nosed pliers1 which must be held in the vise4 ,moisten the inner faces of the notch with soldering fluid and1 placing ,b in position1 put particles of solder round its edge2 holding the lamp beneath the nose of the pliers1 the solder will presently melt1 and a drop of the fluid should be added to facilitate its running into the joint4 ,cool the wheel and wash thoroughly1 first with water and subsequently with alcohol4 ,it only remains to file both faces smooth and level with the rim of the wheel2 then shape the tooth carefully4 ,by introducing ,b from the side opposite to that which is visible in the watch1 and sloping the faces d d1 to a less degree than a1 the inverted wheel will present a recess to receive the solder2 so that1 on looking at the upper surface1 at which the edges fit very closely1 the joint will be scarcely visible4 #eci4 ,to true a wheel4 ,when the teeth are found to be in good condition1 but the wheel does not run true1 or one or more of its arms are strained1 the fault can be corrected1 in a case of absolute necessity1 as follows3 ,remove the pinion from its wheel4 ,enlarge the central hole in the lathe and rivet or solder in it a brass ring that is slightly thicker than the wheel1 and perforated with a smaller hole than that required for the riveting4 ,now center the wheel from its circumference2 increase the central hole with the slide-rest cutter1 and turn down the two faces of the ring level with the wheel4 ,rivet the pinion in its place1 after testing the truth of its riveting neck1 when the wheel should be found to turn both true and flat4 ,if the wheel under repair is likely to be subjected to much force1 at least two small notches should be left in the enlarged hole in the wheel to receive corresponding projections in the brass ring4 #edj4 ,if the crossings of a wheel are broken and the wheel cannot be replaced1 it must be chucked in the lathe and the arms turned out with a graver1 the inner edge of the rim being at the same time turned circular1 and a step turned on this edge where the metal is to be left of half its original thickness4 ,take another wheel of the same size and thickness1 or a plain disc1 and turn it of the same diameter as the outer ridge of the step2 reduce its thickness at the edge by one-half and a disc will thus be obtained with a ridge round the edge corresponding exactly with that of the wheel1 and the one will fit in the other4 ,they are1 of course1 soldered in this position1 care being taken to prevent the solder from reaching the teeth1 and the old wheel will thus be provided with a new interior4 ,if the disc is made to fit closely on the upper side1 a wedge-shaped ring being left to receive the solder in the manner explained in article #ecg1 the joint will be scarcely perceptible on the exposed face1 even with a glass4 ,in repairing delicate wheels in any way it is a good precaution to cement the rim to the edge of a hole in a brass plate1 so that only the arms or other part to be operated upon is exposed4 #eda4 ,to ,make a ,stem-,wind ,wheel4 ,we will suppose that the old wheel is available as a pattern2 if it is not1 the several dimensions must be ascertained by calculation in accordance with the laws of depths4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bej4 ,prepare a thick plate1 and drill a central hole1 fitting a steel pin into it as shown at o d1 ,fig4 #bej4 ,the diameter of d must be exactly the same as that of the pump-center in the universal head4 ,fit the wheel-blank ,r to the pin o without play1 and cement it to the plate4 ,remove the pump-center and insert d in its place1 clamping the plate ,p firmly against the face-plate by the dogs4 ,by using well-sharpened gravers or cutters1 the wheel may be rapidly shaped4 ,the pin might be forced in from the under side to the level of that face of the plate2 and if it were perforated as shown by the dotted lines1 it might be centered by means of the pump4 ,or the plate ,p might be made circular and centered from its circumference4 #edb4 ,to cut the teeth on the circumference the wheel need only be fixed on the chuck of the wheel-cutting engine as usual by means of the steel cone4 ,the crown teeth are cut while the wheel is firmly cemented to a pin-chuck like that used in turning it4 ,other keyless wheels can be made on the same principle1 and such modifications as may be necessary experience will suggest4 ,sufficient information in regard to wheel-cutting has already been given in #cig and following articles4 ,,pinions4 #edc4 ,to ,make a ,pinion4 ,at the present day pinions of all sizes can be obtained of the material dealers1 so that it is very seldom that a watchmaker is obliged to make one for himself4 ,in an emergency1 however1 he can adopt the following method for making one out of the ordinary drawn steel2 but it should be added that1 in all probability1 some practice will be needed before success is arrived at4 ,cut a length of steel wire of suitable diameter about two-thirds as long as the files that are to be used for shaping the teeth4 ,turn it down to form the axis1 leaving a block near each end equal in length to the required pinion1 as if three pinions were to be made on the same staff4 ,then cut and round leaves on all1 keeping the file always in contact with a leaf of each pinion4 ,by proceeding thus the sides and roundings of the leaves will be maintained parallel to the axis1 and there will be no risk of the pinion being barrel-shaped1 as is nearly always the case when a short pinion is held in the fingers or rested on a block in the vise4 ,proceed in the same manner in smoothing and polishing1 using pieces of some close-grained wood1 such as walnut4 ,it is much easier to make the pinion of the required form by means of a revolving cutter in the lathe1 if the workman is not provided with a special tool for the purpose3 the arrangement of the lathe is described in article #djb4 ,in some factories the leaves are cut in two operations3 a cutter with plain fine saw teeth divides the circumference into the requisite number of equal parts1 the leaves being subsequently made of the correct shape by a special cutter1 the method of making which has already been very fully explained in articles #dag-dce4 #edd4 ,to ,determine the ,size of a ,pinion4 ,the following table is usually employed for this purpose4 ,see also #efb and the following articles4 ,to give the approximate diameter of a pinion1 the pinion caliper should include3 ,for #af leaves1 #f full teeth2 that is to say1 measuring the distance between the two external faces2 0 #ae 0 rather less than #f teeth1 or #e teeth1 and just beyond the point of the sixth2 0 #ad 0 #f teeth1 measuring at the points4 0 #ab 0 #e teeth1 measuring at the points 7or rather #d teeth72 for a clock-wheel1 #e full teeth2 0 #aj 0 #d full teeth2 for a clock-wheel1 #d squared teeth2 ,for #i leaves rather less than #d full teeth1 or #c full teeth to the point of the fourth2 0 #h 0 #d teeth1 measured at the points1 minus a quarter of a space2 0 #g 0 rather less than #c full teeth2 for a clock-wheel1 #c full teeth1 plus a quarter of a space2 0 #f 0 #c teeth1 measured at the points1 or rather more2 for a clock-wheel1 #c full teeth4 ,it is important to notice that these measures can only be regarded as a first approximation1 and it is only by actual trial in a depth-tool that we can be certain that a pinion is correctly sized4 ,by taking the measures in a micrometer1 or other accurately divided gauge provided with a vernier1 the work of selecting will be much abridged2 but how long will it be before the generality of watchmakers will make use of these convenient appliances8 ,the well-known wheel and pinion sector1 although convenient1 is not equal to them in point of accuracy1 and is affected by an error in measuring a chord1 not a true diameter of the wheel or pinion4 #ede4 ,to ,increase or ,decrease a ,pinion4 ,the pitch circle of a pinion may be increased by reducing the thickness of the leaves in such a manner that their flat faces are continued further on to the rounding2 conversely1 a pinion may be decreased by carrying this rounding farther down towards the base of the leaf4 #edf4 ,to ,decrease a ,pinion ,without ,removing the ,wheel4 ,some watchmakers recommend that the wheel be removed from the pinion1 and1 after the necessary reduction has been effected and the leaves re-polished1 again riveted on the pinion-neck4 ,very few workmen1 however1 can do this well1 so that after the operation the wheel is seldom found to run true4 ,if a new pinion cannot be procured1 the old one must be reduced4 ,when a pinion that is too large is replaced by one that is smaller1 it is necessary to take care that the hole in the wheel is well centered and not too large2 in either of these cases it must be enlarged and bushed after being centered by the circumference4 #edg4 ,to ,polish ,pinion ,leaves ,mechanically4 ,it was formerly the custom to polish the leaves of a pinion1 holding it on a block or between two fingers and traversing a strip of metal with oilstone dust backwards and forwards in each space for the smoothing1 and a similar strip of walnut wood 7with rouge7 for polishing4 ,this method has long been abandoned in factories1 where all pinions are polished in a machine4 ,we will proceed to explain a simple arrangement for polishing pinions in the ordinary lathe1 but it is advisable first to describe one form of tool that is actually in use on the large scale for this purpose4 ,the two only differ in their dimensions4 #edh4 ,pinion-polishing ,machine4 ,a frame ,b ,b1 ,fig4 #bea1 supports at its upper end an ,h-shaped piece1 of the same form as the cutter-holder in an ordinary wheel-cutting engine2 but the arbor1 instead of carrying a cutter1 is provided with a wooden drum ,r4 ,on the base of the frame is a plate ,p1 which can be fixed by the screw ,e1 and carries a second plate p to serve as a bed for the slide1 which supports the pinion to be polished freely between two brackets a1 a4 ,the plate p can be set a little oblique and clamped by the screw v4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bea4 ,the machine acts as follows3 ,present a corner of a pinion-leaf to the circumference of ,r 7which is caused to revolve by a cord passing round the pulley n n71 the axis of the pinion being not quite at right angles with that of the drum1 in order that the groove formed in the soft wood may resemble the thread of a screw1 and so cause the pinion to revolve4 ,when the groove is of sufficient depth1 apply rouge if operating on a small pinion1 and emery for a large one3 after a few turns of ,r1 the slide carrying the pinion being at the same time moved backwards and forwards1 the pinion will be found to be polished4 ,a better surface can be obtained by using flour emery4 ,the steel wheels of keyless work can be polished in the same manner4 #edi4 ,the spindle of the screw ,e passes through a rectangular slot in ,b in order that the slide and its support can be moved parallel to the axis of ,r4 ,the grain of the wood must be at right angles to the axis of rotation of the drum1 and a wood that is non-fibrous is preferable4 ,it must evidently not be too hard1 and1 if too soft1 the thread formed on its circumference will get rough1 and often will suddenly change position4 ,when the entire surface has been worn it must be re-turned smooth and cylindrical4 ,the larger a roller is1 the quicker it will polish and the less it will wear4 ,moreover1 it will render a proportionately less amount of motion of the slide necessary4 ,the root of the walnut tree is especially sought after1 but1 when this cannot be obtained1 other woods can be used4 ,in factories where clock pinions are made1 thin discs are employed in place of the drums4 ,they are at least a decimetre 7#d inches7 in diameter1 and very narrow at the edge1 and can be re-turned with a graver when worn without being removed from the tool1 if a ,t-rest be fixed in some convenient position4 ,the screw d is for limiting the descent of the drum1 but some workmen prefer to dispense with it1 and1 instead1 hold the frame ,c ,c in the hand1 pressing it gently against the pinion4 ,they urge that the wood is never of the same degree of hardness round its circumference1 and therefore must of necessity wear irregularly2 by holding ,c ,c in the hand the pressure on the pinion can be more evenly adjusted1 as it is possible to feel at once whether the drum is polishing or scratching4 ,the inclination of the slide to a plane at right angles to the axis of ,r is measured by the pitch of the screw formed on the drum4 ,but in practice no special precautions are taken1 and it is only necessary to incline the slide slightly to the right or left1 until the pinion is found to revolve freely4 ,the drum may be from two to three inches in diameter1 and1 in order to ensure the same degree of hardness throughout the entire circumference1 it is a good plan to make the drum of a series of wedges cut so that the grain in all radiates from the center4 ,beautiful polished surfaces are obtained in this manner4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beb4 #eej4 ,to polish a pinion in the ordinary lathe4 ,various methods may be adopted1 but the following is one of the commonest3 ,support the pinion between the two centers b1 d1 of the pinion-carrier shown in ,fig4 #beb1 the form of which will be evident without explanation4 ,rest this carrier by the portion ,m against the ,t-rest1 pressing it against the drum at the same time with one finger4 ,rotating the drum first by hand1 make the pinion cut a groove varying the inclination until it is found to be correct1 and1 when sufficiently deep1 charge with polishing material1 and rotate it with wheel1 at the same time moving the pinion-carrier backwards and forwards endwise4 ,a little experience will give the requisite skill4 ,if the pinion is not held at a sufficient inclination it will scrape and will not revolve4 ,if too much inclined1 only the roundings of the leaves will be polished1 the sides being left untouched4 ,a well-formed groove will last for a long time4 #eea4 ,to ,tighten a ,cannon ,pinion4 ,if it is simply slack it will be sufficient to increase the diameter of the set-hands arbor as described in article #ccf4 ,but if the cannon pinion is in the habit of working off this arbor when setting the hands1 the arbor can be tapered a little downwards2 or proceed as follows3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bec4 ,drill a hole in the square that receives the minute hand in the position shown at a1 ,fig4 #bec1 and also indicated by dotted lines at c s2 now turn a groove round the arbor1 also shown by dotted lines1 at the point n1 to correspond with the hole a4 ,insert a pin in this hole1 filing it off smooth with the surface at the side at which it enters1 and nearly level at the other side1 to be hammered over just sufficiently to prevent the pin from working its way out4 ,the cannon pinion will now be found to turn with the requisite degree of friction1 and without any tendency to work up4 ,it will last all the longer if both the pin and the groove in which it works are polished4 ,,set-,,hands ,,square4 #eeb4 ,to ,make a ,set-,hands ,nut4 ,this is a small square nut pinned to the pivot of a solid cannon pinion that projects beyond the top-plate in some watches after passing through a hollow center pinion4 ,this construction has been latterly discontinued1 but it may be well to explain the mode in which such a nut can be renewed when necessary4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bed4 ,take a rod of soft steel of a diameter half as large again as that of the square to be made4 ,drill a hole along its axis rather less in diameter than the set-hands arbor and cut off the ends a little longer than the square is required to be4 ,put this nut on an arbor and turn it flat on each end 7although still a little long7 and truly cylindrical4 ,having inserted a loose fitting coned brass wire of oval section into the nut1 hold it on its side on an anvil4 ,with a sharp blow of the hammer cause the cylinder to assume an oval form1 so that the round hole is as seen at ,a1 ,fig4 #bed1 this being the section of the end of the set-hands arbor itself4 ,if the work has been carefully performed up to this point1 the steel nut should now pass a short distance on to the arbor on applying a moderate pressure1 and it will suffice to slightly alter the form of this latter in order to ensure a perfect fit4 ,as there should be no shake1 it is advisable that this adjustment be made after the nut is hardened4 ,file the two faces d and f parallel to each other and to the axis of the oval1 reducing the total thickness very nearly to the amount ultimately required1 then holding the nut in the pincers by these two faces firmly1 but without scratching them 7or it may be held by a rod fitted to the oval hole71 form the square1 removing all the metal that is beyond the two vertical lines in the figure4 ,then set it on an oval arbor and turn the corners down to the exact diameter required2 pass the graver over the two ends so as to adjust the length4 ,it will then be easy to finish off the square and round the lower end1 holding the nut on a steel rod in a pin-vise4 ,drill the hole for a pin after marking its two ends on the nut as explained in article #eah1 then1 holding the nut so that it rests on its lower face1 form a recess with a chamfering tool held in its axis2 the form of this can be modified if required with the rounded end of a rod and oilstone dust4 ,harden the square and temper it to a blue color2 then smooth its faces and ends1 and fit the square to the set-hands arbor4 ,the hole for the pin must now be made through this arbor1 taking care not to allow the square to rise out of its place during the operation4 ,it only remains to polish the recess formed in the nut with a rod rounded at one end and rotated with a ferrule1 and finish off the corners with a burnisher and rouge2 the lower end is finished in the same manner as the head of a screw4 #eec4 ,we have here considered the case of a new arbor1 but1 if fitting a nut to one that is already drilled1 proceed as follows3 ,make the nut rather longer than necessary and drill a hole higher than the point at which measurement shows it ought to be2 then remove metal from the lower face until the two holes coincide4 ,the work is simplified if the nut be made of the correct height at once and1 instead of drilling a hole1 a slit be formed as in the head of a screw1 the bottom of which must correspond with the lower edge of the hole in the arbor4 #eed4 ,to fit the ,set-hands ,arbor to the ,center or cannon pinion4 ,we have pointed out in article #cfd1 the objections to hammering the set-hands arbor so as to secure sufficient friction to make it hold in either of the pinions through which it passes in the ordinary form of watch4 ,tracing a spiral line on its surface is not much better1 as the metal thus caused to project soon wears off4 ,a better method is explained in article #ccg1 but1 when only a slight increase of diameter is needed1 the following will suffice3 ,roll the arbor on a hard flat wood surface with a file of medium cut1 applying considerable pressure so that the arbor is forced against the file4 ,if the pressure is sufficient and maintained long enough1 a dead rough surface will be formed on it which will increase its diameter so that it will retain a small quantity of oil4 ,it is well to roughen the surface rather more than necessary1 subsequently passing a burnisher lightly over it until the arbor fits the pinion with sufficient friction4 ,as to the making of a set-hands arbor1 it will present no difficulty to a watchmaker of even average skill in turning and filing4 ,,pivots4 #eee4 ,the ,play ,of ,pivots4 ,it may be accepted as an approximate rule that the play of escapement pivots in their holes should be as follows3 ,in the cylinder escapement1 about one-sixth the diameter of pivot4 ,in the duplex escapement1 about one-tenth the diameter of pivot4 ,in the lever escapement1 about one-eighth the diameter of pivot4 ,a large hole causes the pitching of the depths to vary with position1 and a deficient play renders the escapement more sensitive to thickening of the oil4 ,the depth of a pivot-hole or the length of its cylindrical acting surface may be taken to vary inversely with its hardness4 ,thus a ruby hole is made less deep than one of brass4 #eef4 ,to ,replace the ,pivot of a ,hollow ,pinion4 ,it often happens that the pivot of a hollow center pinion is so deeply cut that it cannot be re-polished1 in consequence of the careless manner in which too many examiners finish the center holes 7#dfa74 ,if the pinion itself is found to be still in good condition1 it can be made serviceable as follows3 ,cement the pinion1 with its wheel attached1 firmly to the chuck of a lathe after having removed the two worn pivots1 and1 when it is accurately centered1 increase the hole by means of a drill that is a trifle larger than the original pivots 7see article #bhb72 in the hole thus enlarged and carefully smoothed insert a close fitting steel tube that has been hardened and tempered to a blue color1 which must be smoothed and run true4 ,the portion of this tube that projects on either side is then adjusted to the proper length1 and it only remains to polish the pivots4 ,if only one pivot requires renewal1 ascertain whether there would be sufficient hold with the hole enlarged through half its length1 and proceed as already explained4 ,we have assumed that the shoulders of the original pivots can be made to serve again1 but it often happens that the shoulders do not possess sufficient substance1 in consequence of the hollows being cut too deep4 ,in such a case it is hardly necessary to observe that the hole must be drilled larger1 so that1 after the tube has been adjusted1 new shoulders can be turned on it4 #eeg4 ,to ,redress a ,bent ,pivot4 ,for this purpose some workmen merely use a pair of pliers or tweezers2 others place the pivot in a slot of the ,jacot tool1 and press on it with a burnisher that has little or no cut1 at the same time causing the staff to rotate4 ,either of the two following methods may be adopted3 ,drill a number of straight holes in a plate exactly at right angles to its surface4 ,now introduce the pivot into a hole that it fits with very little play1 and redress it by causing the staff to rotate1 at the same time holding the plate in the hand4 ,caution is necessary since there is some risk of bending the pivot too far4 #eeh4 ,pivoting a ,cylinder1 etc4 ,this operation will not present any difficulty if the several heights are properly taken4 ,see also the articles on ,beaupuy files 7#bdj71 and on compasses for measuring heights1 etc4 7#bdc74 #eei4 ,polishing ,pivots in the ,lathe4 ,pivots are as a rule polished by metal polishers provided with suitable materials1 and held in the hand2 in ,fig4 #bee1 however1 is given the design of a machine by which this work can be accomplished when the pivoting is done in the chuck-lathe1 the pivot itself being free and unsupported by a runner4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bee4 ,the bed ,p of the instrument carries a wheel ,r which engages with a pinion on the axis of the polishing lap m4 ,the wheel ,r is mounted on a clock stud passing through a slot and fixed by a nut1 so that the pitching of the two mobiles may be modified2 motion is communicated to the lap by simply placing the finger against the teeth of ,r4 ,the bed can move in a vertical plane1 being pivoted on two screws1 v1 v1 and the block that receives the points of these is riveted to the disc d d1 which can be made to rotate1 with friction1 on the second disc n n4 ,this latter is riveted to a plate e fixed at the end of a cylindrical rod ,f4 ,it will be evident that if the rod ,f is inserted in the ,t-rest support1 the plate ,p extending towards the back of the lathe1 this plate can be raised or lowered1 and moved towards the right and left1 so that the flat face of the lap can always be brought in contact with the pivot that is to be polished4 ,this latter is caused to rotate by a foot-wheel while one hand holds the raised plate by the button a1 and a finger of the other hand is applied to the teeth of ,r1 causing the lap to rotate4 ,the upward motion of ,p may be limited by the edge of the top s of the button s k1 which is tapped so as to rotate with stiff friction on the pillar ,h4 ,the stop l is to prevent the polisher from traveling too far towards the left and thus removing too much from the shoulder that is to be polished4 ,the screw x1 giving motion to the slide y1 is for securing parallelism between the pivot and the surface of the lap1 according as the former is cylindrical or conical in shape4 ,for fine pivots it is advisable to introduce an additional wheel and pinion4 ,the finger will then be better able to appreciate the degree of resistance opposed1 and1 owing to the increased velocity1 it will be useless to use oilstone dust1 but rouge can be applied directly after the turning4 ,at e is a steady-pin for maintaining the position of the instrument4 ,,bushing ,,pivot ,,holes1 ,,etc4 #efj4 ,every watchmaker knows how to proceed in adjusting an ordinary perforated bushing or stopping4 ,we would make a few remarks on the subject of bushings generally4 ,the tapped bushing is very firm1 but1 in order that it may be well centered1 it is essential that its thread fits exactly the tube of the tool 7#cbb71 and that the pointed rod is exactly central4 ,a turned bushing1 especially when a broach can be passed into it after it is in position1 is more easily made central 7see article #cdb74 ,when bushing holes that are rather large with solid bushings1 after the hole has been marked with the pointer it must be drilled with a small drill1 a larger one being subsequently passed through1 so as to increase it4 ,otherwise there is great danger of the hole turning to one side4 ,if a hole1 such as that of the center wheel1 is bushed with a perforated bushing1 it will often be found to incline towards the barrel or fusee1 so that the hole is displaced4 ,such an inconvenience may be avoided by using a bushing with a hole smaller than is ultimately required1 afterwards enlarging it with the plate centered in the lathe4 #efa4 ,riveting of ,bushings4 ,some watchmakers have found considerable advantage in replacing the sudden and irregular impacts of a hammer by gradual pressure1 without shock1 obtained by a small press worked by hand on the principle of a punching machine4 ,with a well made bushing1 the flat end of which is slightly rounded1 and the inside of the hole in the plate finished with a rat-tail rather than with a cross file1 it is found that the riveting is always perfect4 ,others employ an ordinary pair of sliding tongs1 the noses of which are drilled to receive two punches1 one flat and the other rounded1 as in the mainspring punch4 ,three pairs of punches suffice for all sizes of bushings1 and the same tool can be used for closing up screw-holes1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bef4 #efb4 ,movable ,bushings4 ,these are for use in regulator clocks and others of large dimensions1 and a few words must suffice for their description4 ,they are the invention of ,m4 ,alleaume1 and will be understood from ,fig4 #bef4 ,it is always desirable1 with a view to prevent wear1 that when metal pivot-holes are used1 the pivot should bear on a length equal to about three times its diameter2 but for such a condition to be satisfied1 it is essential that the axes of both holes and pivots be absolutely parallel4 ,the figures will at once show in what manner such parallelism is secured4 ,c ,c is the plate1 in section1 in which a hole is made of the form indicated by the lines that bound the cross-hatchings4 ,the movable bushing ,a is held against a shoulder1 and prevented from rotating by a screw1 the point of which enters a small hole in the bushing4 ,the pivot of ,b passes into ,a1 and this latter is capable of such slight motion as will insure contact between the surfaces throughout their length4 ,,depths4 #efc4 ,to ,secure a ,good ,depth4 ,the least skillful of watchmakers can1 without much difficulty1 place a wheel in the depthing tool in conjunction with a pinion1 and change this latter until the two are found to run easily together4 ,but there are comparatively few that are sufficiently acquainted with the subject of depths to be able to select a pinion whose proportions are such as to satisfy the greatest number of the conditions to be fulfilled by a good depth4 ,this unsatisfactory state of things is due in great measure to the employment1 without any correction1 of tables of the sizes of pinions 7#edd71 according to which these sizes are determined by a measurement on the teeth of the wheel1 taken with a pinion caliper4 ,this method1 although sufficient for ascertaining the size approximately1 and even for securing a depth that runs more or less easily1 cannot be accepted as an unvarying rule4 ,far from resting on any mathematical law1 as ignorant men urge in their attempt to instruct others1 it is only true for a particular number and form of tooth in regard to the wheel1 and a definite thickness of leaf and shape of the rounding in regard to the pinion4 ,it ceases to be true if applied to other numbers of teeth1 or to pinions that have their leaves thicker or thinner1 or the roundings different from those of the pinion first determined upon4 #efd4 ,theoretical and practical depths4 ,the fundamental principle of every depth is as follows3 ,to determine what curvature should be given to the teeth of the wheel which drives1 in order that the tooth that follows 7whether its side be straight or formed according to a pre-determined curve7 shall be driven in such a manner as to secure the best transmission of force1 a transmission which is in part influenced by the uses to be made of the machine4 #efe4 ,teeth formed like the involute of a circle have very marked advantages1 but they cannot be adopted in practice1 especially in the case of the leaves of pinions4 ,the epicycloid can be realized very approximately in the teeth of wheels in horology1 and such teeth can be used in conjunction with pinion leaves having straight faces1 the construction of which does not present any difficulty4 ,this explains why the epicycloidal form has been adopted by watchmakers2 but1 although it is more easily drawn than the majority of other curves1 there are still some obstacles in the way of its general application1 mainly dependent on industrial requirements4 ,the difficulty is usually got over by forming the tooth according to a circular arc1 nearly identical with the epicycloidal curve1 see articles 7#ddj-db74 #eff4 ,when two mobiles are of the same diameter1 the theoretical depth will be characterized by having teeth and spaces of equal width2 but1 since in practice the friction with such an arrangement would be excessive1 owing to its taking place on both sides of the tooth1 the teeth of the wheel that are driven are so far reduced in thickness as to secure the necessary freedom4 #efg4 ,when the two mobiles are very highly numbered1 the lead is short1 so that the tooth of the wheel may be a trifle broader or narrower than the space without inconvenience4 ,but when using pinions of low number 7from #f to #aj leaves71 this is not the case4 ,in proportion as the width of the wheel tooth is reduced1 its ogive becomes shorter1 and the most advantageous portion of the lead 7that beyond the line of centers7 becomes less4 ,and1 besides this1 account must be taken of the slipping towards the end of the lead1 and the reduction in the difference between the geometrical and the total diameters of the wheel4 #efh4 ,to secure a good depth with low numbered pinions1 the leaves should not be more than half the thickness of the space4 ,if they are thicker than this1 it may be found necessary to reduce the width of the wheel teeth1 when the pitching is insufficient2 but the most serious objection lies in the fact that the pitch circle of the pinion will be diminished in diameter4 ,let there be two pinions with circular roundings and of the same total diameter1 but having leaves of different thicknesses--that with the leaves thick will be found to be too small1 etc4 #efi4 ,to ,calculate the ,vibrations of a ,pendulum or ,balance4 ,multiply together the numbers of teeth of the wheels1 starting with the one that carries the minute hand 7which therefore makes one revolution in an hour71 but exclude the escape-wheel4 ,multiply together the numbers of leaves of the pinions1 commencing with the one that engages with the center-wheel4 ,if the first product be divided by the second1 the number obtained gives the number of revolutions of the escape-wheel in an hour4 ,multiply this figure by twice the number of teeth of the escape-wheel1 and the product is the number of single vibrations performed by the balance or pendulum in one hour4 ,,on ,,the ,,application ,,of ,,the ,,geometrical ,,laws ,,of ,,depths ,,to ,,practice4 #egj4 ,it has been urged that when the geometrical forms of the leaves and teeth1 as given in scientific treatise1 are accurately carried out in practice1 the depths are found to be unsatisfactory and liable to cause occasional stoppage2 and these facts are brought forward as evidence that theory and practice are at variance4 ,on the contrary1 theory and practice are in perfect accord3 the apparent disagreement arises from an error in the application of the geometrical laws4 ,in copying the theoretical forms of the teeth of wheels and leaves of pinions1 it would be necessary to ascertain that they were mathematically exact1 and this is impracticable4 ,two conditions must be borne in mind3 #a4 ,theory shows that the mobile which drives should be made a trifle larger than the geometrical size1 so as to counteract imperfections in the workmanship4 #b4 ,a pinion is never made of the exact mathematical proportions1 in consequence of the processes that have to be adopted for cutting1 polishing1 centering1 etc4 ,if a number of pinions be taken1 and if the several dimensions of each be determined by means of a micrometer measuring to hundredths of a millimeter 7or from two to three-thousandths of an inch71 differences that are1 comparatively speaking1 large will be found in the diameters1 measuring between corresponding leaves2 in the thickness of leaves2 in the diameters of the circles at which the roundings join the straight faces1 and the general truth of the pinion will nearly always leave something to be desired4 ,it should be added that these faults will be more marked according as the leaves have been more quickly made4 ,the teeth of wheels will be found to be characterized by similar faults1 although they are less marked4 #ega4 ,it follows from these facts that1 in watches and timepieces1 the pinion is always a little smaller than theory would require2 thus the epicycloid should be struck with a somewhat smaller generating circle1 and the ogive of the tooth will be proportionately reduced4 ,the practical conclusion at which we arrive1 then1 is as follows3 ,as it is impossible to secure absolute perfection in the teeth of small horological mechanisms1 their ogives must be slightly more rounded at the points than the designs given in scientific treatises indicate1 since these latter are drawn exactly in accordance with the geometrical laws4 ,these remarks are of the greatest possible importance to the manufacturers of both watches and timepieces2 they point to the fact that not only the ogives of all wheel teeth should be lower than theory indicates1 but also that1 in commoner work1 they must be still lower1 according as the pinions are of more inferior quality4 #egb4 ,to ,alter a ,stem ,winding ,pinion ,depth4 ,the depth of the ,stem ,winding ,wheel and ,pinion often occasions considerable inconvenience1 and its adjustment requires to be accurately made3 when the depth is too deep1 its alteration is easy1 as the roundings of the pinion leaves can be reduced1 or the stud or other piece that carries the winding wheel can have its base a little reduced on one side1 so as to set the wheel a trifle out of upright 7but so slightly as not to be perceptible to the eye1 and taking care that the teeth remain on a level with those of the barrel-arbor wheel74 ,a shallow depth is somewhat more difficult to correct4 ,if a sufficient change cannot be made by altering the support of the winding wheel1 one of the following methods must be resorted to3 #a4 ,reset the pendant of the case4 #b4 ,make a new winding pinion of greater diameter1 increasing the number of its leaves by one1 to correspond to this change4 #c4 ,alter the position of the movement in the case4 ,the two first methods are more especially applicable to new work1 while the third is more convenient for repairers1 although of course it can only be resorted to with advantage when the pinion has a bearing in the pendant4 ,the requisite change in the position of the movement can be produced by raising the rim of the case that supports the plate1 or by soldering two thin strips of metal on this rim1 producing a similar effect2 one on either side of the pendant will suffice1 except when a considerable change is necessary1 in which case they should be set at intervals around the rim to avoid an obvious inclination of the dial4 ,or four holes can be drilled at equal distances apart around the edge of the plate and in its plane1 so that their edges overlap the position occupied by the rim of the case2 pins are then set in these holes and filed away until they produce the requisite amount of elevation4 ,or1 again1 flat-headed screws may be fitted around the edge with their axes at right angles to the plane of the plate and their heads on the dial side4#g ,the depth will then be adjusted by screwing these screws more or less into the plate4 ,it is advisable to ascertain that the dial is not forced too near the glass1 as such is occasionally found to be the case1 necessitating the bevelling of the edge of the former4 ,,pallets4 #egc4 ,to ,advance a 7visible7 ,jewel in a ,pallet4 ,workmen that have had much experience of escapement making do this without any difficulty by holding the pallet arm in a pair of tweezers that have been slightly warmed1 but ordinary repairers will not succeed with such a method3 they can however1 effect the required change as follows4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beg4 ,make a small brass plate1 ,e1 fig4 #beg1 with a piece c projecting upwards1 which the screw v traverses with stiff friction4 ,a saddle b is fitted to the edge of the plate by screws4 ,a glance at the figure will suffice to show the mode of using it2 the pallet arm whose jewel is to be adjusted is clamped under b with the jewel just opposite the screw v4 ,now turn this screw until it stands at the distance from the impulse face of a through which the jewel is to be advanced2 taking the plate in a pair of long-nosed pliers1 hold them over a small lamp flame1 and press with a small screwdriver lightly against the point a so as to advance the stone by the requisite amount as soon as the shellac is sufficiently soft4 ,a particle of shellac is placed at a1 if any cavity forms during the process1 and the plate is laid on some cool body1 avoiding contact with the pallet-staff4 ,if the stone projects below the lower surface of the pallets1 a small washer must be placed underneath before clamping the screws of b1 of such a thickness that the stone is just on the level with the surface ,e4 #egd4 ,to ,alter the ,form of a ,pallet ,face4 ,workmen that possess the requisite skill and steadiness of hand can alter the form of a pallet jewel1 when it is necessary to modify the height or form of the impulse face1 by simply using a copper polisher charged with diamond powder4 ,the polishing material employed is always decanted in very pure oil1 as otherwise it is apt to scratch instead of polish4 ,the coarser quality is first used when a material change has to be effected1 but if only a very slight alteration is necessary1 and the adjustment has to be very exact1 only the finest quality must be used1 as there is a danger of making scratches that would be very difficult to erase4 ,we would also add that this operation requires some skill and patience4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beh4 #ege4 ,to ,measure the ,lift and all other ,angles1 etc4 of the ,lever ,escapement4 ,a very simple instrument for measuring these angles was designed by ,curzon1 one which any watchmaker can arrange for himself1 and is quite sufficient for all practical purposes4 ,this is shown in ,fig4 #beh1 and consists of an ordinary depth tool to which a scale is added4 ,a hand adapted to the pallet-staff supported between one pair of runners of the depth tool gives motion to a curved rack 7shown by dotted lines71 and this causes a pinion carrying a second index to rotate1 the radii being so related that the movement of the staff is magnified four times on a scale which can be observed while the glass is at the eye examining the pallets4 ,the index which travels over the shorter scale to the left 7divided up to #aj on either side of zero7 is connected with the pallet-staff by a fork and a short arm passing through the circular groove2 it affords a convenient means of moving the pallets while testing them1 and gives a measure1 in degrees1 of their motion4 ,the graduated arc shown at the top is for measuring the lever and roller4 #egf4 ,verge ,pallets3 to ,measure their ,opening4 ,the little instrument shown in ,fig4 #bei may be used for this purpose2 its mode of action will be easily understood from an inspection of the figure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bei4 ,one of the pallets being held with its flat face against the base of the graduated semicircle by the lever and spring ,b1 so that the axis of the verge is at right angles to the plane of the instrument through the point n1 an index previously fixed to the other pallet will show by the graduations the number of degrees of opening4 ,this index1 shown at ,p1 ,fig4 #afj1 must be very light4 ,it is formed in two parts1 the body c d1 and the small spring z z4 ,the pallet when held in the notch c1 must have its face held flat against c d by the spring z z4 ,the face c d of the index must be quite smooth and straight1 so as to avoid any error in the reading of the scale4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfj4 ,the pressure-block ,c1 ,fig4 #bei 7shown in plan and elevation at ,c1 ,fig4 #bfj71 is movable on its center1 and this center1 which by an engraver's error is represented on the line n r1 should be a little to the right of that line4 #egg4 ,to ,open or ,close ,verge ,pallets4 ,some workmen cut a notch at the end of a small rod in which the verge is inserted1 the two arms of the fork being then drawn together by a screw2 then1 holding each pallet in a pair of long-nosed pliers1 one in each hand1 the rod is held in the flame of a lamp and1 as soon as the body of the verge becomes blue1 it is gently twisted to the right or left according as the pallets require to be opened or closed4 ,this method is not always convenient1 and the following may be recommended3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfa4 ,support the verge by its shoulders between two cone-plate centers in a pair of finishing turns1 as seen in ,fig4 #bfa4 ,a carrier b is screwed to the upper pallet1 and prevents the verge from rotating2 c is a rod through which heat is conducted2 a1 shown both in plan and elevation1 is another rod1 which is much longer than c1 and has a notch cut at the end1 so that it can be forced on to the lower pallet4 ,the end d is free1 and the ,t-rest shown dotted at s1 must be brought nearly into contact with it1 the distance between them corresponding to the angle to which it is required to alter the opening of the pallets4 ,now hold a lamp under the free end of c and1 as soon as the body of the verge changes color1 d will descend by its own weight until arrested by s1 the opening will thus be increased or diminished to the requisite extent4 ,the operation will be accomplished more quickly by directing the blow-pipe flame against the verge body4 ,of course when diminishing the opening1 the verge must be held in the reverse direction to that shown in the figure4 ,,cylinder4 #egh4 ,to ,polish the ,cylinder ,lips ,mechanically4 ,the polishing of the lips of a cylinder is one of the most delicate operations that can be undertaken by a watchmaker2 we have1 therefore1 endeavored to devise an instrument by which this can be done mechanically1 and which should at the same time be so simple and so easily made that any watchmaker should be able to construct it for himself4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfb4 #egi4 ,it consists of two distinct parts which take their place in an ordinary pair of finishing turns4 #a4 ,the plate ,p1 ,fig4 #bfb1 supported on a rod ,t1 to take the place of the ,t-rest4 #b4 ,the frame ,e1 whose axis replaces one of the runners4 ,this much being clearly understood from the figure1 there will be but little difficulty in understanding the following details4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfc4 ,on the plate ,p is mounted a bracket1 b b b1 held by a screw and washer4 ,it has a slot cut lengthwise1 so that on loosening the screw it can be made to slide towards the right or left4 ,the vertical portion b supports a fork-shaped piece1 d c1 a front view of which is given in ,fig4 #bfc1 pivoted on a collet-screw1 f1 and this may be fixed by a pin passing through its end like a bolt4 ,the upper end of the fork-piece is provided with teeth for a purpose that will be presently apparent4 ,the long spindle1 g h1 turns between the two supports1 k1 l1 fixed to the plate ,p1 under the action of the handle ,m4 ,this axis carries two eccentric cams1 q and ,r4 ,when it rotates1 the eccentric ,r causes the fork d c to rise and fall1 thus occasioning an oscillating movement of the rack d1 at the same time the other eccentric q presses against the back of the slide i n1 which moves freely in the guide s1 and is always held against the cam by a helical spring j2 the slide thus has an oscillating motion in the direction of its length4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfd4 ,all the details in regard to the slide and its guide will be easily gathered from the plan in ,fig4 #bfb1 and the side elevation in ,fig4 #bfd4 ,a small iron polisher is adapted to the slide n i4 ,being pivoted on a pin at one extremity1 serving as an axis1 its end u is pressed downward by the light spring v 7,figs4 #bfb and #bfd71 which might be replaced by a spiral spring below the polisher if preferred4 #ehj4 ,this being understood1 we will pass to the frame ,e4 ,the rod that carries it is formed of thick drawn steel pinion wire1 the diameter of which is less than that of the hole in the poppet-head of the turns4 ,this spindle is provided with brass collars at y and z of such an external diameter as to be received in the poppet-head1 in which the rod can rotate freely4 ,by adopting this arrangement1 not only is the frictional surface diminished1 without reducing the accuracy of the adjustment1 but the apparatus can be easily adapted to any pair of turns4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfe4 ,to the right-hand side of the frame is fixed1 by two screws1 the cylinder carrier x shown at ,x1 ,fig4 #bfe4 ,it must be removed in order to set the cylinder in position by cementing its balance to the surface2 care is necessary to make sure that the back of the cylinder shall be towards the side e of the frame when the carrier is again screwed in position4 ,after having thus replaced it1 set the rack d to engage with the pinion wire z1 in such a manner that1 when the eccentric cam ,r occupies the position indicated in ,fig4 #bfc1 the small iron polisher rests at the middle point of the cylinder lip4 ,now finally clamp the screw that fixes the support ,t4 ,the mode of action of the machine will be easily understood4 ,if1 after charging the polisher with polishing rouge the handle ,m is rotated1 the cam ,r will impart an oscillating angular movement to the frame ,e through its axis y z1 and the cam q will1 at the same time1 cause the polisher to move backwards and forwards1 always in contact with the surface of the lip during its movement4 #eha4 ,the work will be performed more rapidly1 and the polish will be better if the iron have a slight lateral motion as well as that in the direction of its length4 ,it is1 however1 more simple to communicate a longitudinal oscillating movement to the cylinder1 and this answers the same purpose2 it is only necessary to make two small additions1 the spiral spring o and the little cock a4 ,the latter is fixed to d in an inclined position 7as indicated at ,a71 and this inclination can be varied by merely turning the left-hand screw4 ,it will be evident that when d is ascending1 the cock will push the spindle y z forward2 and when d descends1 the spindle will be brought back to its initial position by the pressure of the spring o1 which is simply placed over the end of the opposite runner4 ,this longitudinal movement must be but slight1 and it can be made as little as desired since it depends solely on the inclination of a4 #ehb4 ,observations4 #a4 ,the angular motion of the frame ,e must be sufficient to enable the polisher to act on the entire surface of the lip4 ,the extent of this movement is determined by the size and the degree of eccentricity of the cam ,r4 ,the greatest motion will occur when the spindle passes through the hole #a 7,fig4 #bfc71 and it will gradually become less as the holes #b1 #c1 etc41 are used4 ,the cam q should also have two or three holes for varying its eccentricity4 ,these cams may be made of hard wood1 ivory1 etc4 #b4 ,the iron polisher may be replaced by a piece of flexible spring fixed by a screw to the slide2 but its pressure is less uniform4 #c4 ,the bent arm w1 ,figs4 #bfb and #bfe1 is clamped to the plate ,p by a screw d1 and the long arm b1 ,fig4 #bfe1 bears against the back of the poppet-head1 and thus ensures the steadiness of ,p4 ,to insure steadiness by its means1 b is drawn back in the direction of the arrow1 then hooked behind the poppet-head and clamped by the screw d4 ,the firmer the support is the better4 #d4 ,the machine may be arranged so that the two lips can be polished at the same time1 but it then becomes more complicated4 ,in the tool here described1 as soon as one lip is polished the cylinder carrier is unscrewed1 turned around1 and screwed against the left arm of the frame ,e1 in which are two screw-holes opposite to those in the right-hand arm4 ,unscrewing the slide b b1 the ,t-rest carrier is moved along the lathe bar until the polisher is over the lip2 b b having been set in position is clamped1 and1 after seeing that w has a bearing1 the second lip may be polished4 #e4 ,the cylinder carrier shown at ,x1 ,fig4 #bfe1 is used when the balance is in position4 ,for a plain cylinder without its balance another form of carrier is employed that has at the edge of its central hole a small but solid projecting shell to which the cylinder is cemented4 #ehc4 ,methods of ,obtaining ,continuous ,motion4 ,rapid work is not possible when a single handle1 as shown at ,m1 is used for working the apparatus2 recourse may1 however1 be had to one of the following methods3 #a4 ,mount a small pinion with a square hole at its center1 and make it engage with a large wheel driven by a handle4 ,this wheel1 having a great number of teeth1 will proportionately increase the rate of motion4 #b4 ,take a powerful clock movement and connect up its center arbor with the axis g h2 having wound up the main spring1 allow it to run down so long as it possesses sufficient power to drive the mechanism4 #c4 ,fix a ferule at h1 and drive it by the aid of a foot-wheel4 ,,balance ,,spring4 #ehd4 ,to ,select a ,balance ,spring4 ,various methods are adopted for this purpose4 ,the most common1 by which the strength is ascertained from the length of cone formed by hanging the balance from the inner coil of the spring while the outer is held in a pair of tweezers4 ,a more exact method1 based on the same principle1 is to employ the small gauge shown in ,fig4 #bff4 ,illustration3 ,fig #bff4 ,a vertical pillar n n is fixed on a smooth plate ,b1 and the slide ,c is held by friction in any position on n n4 ,place ,c so that the distance between c and ,b is equal to the distance between the end of the lower balance-staff pivot and the balance-spring collet4 ,having now fitted the spring in this collet1 raise the balance1 by tweezers holding the outer coil1 until the lower pivot just rests on ,b4 ,the graduations on ,c will then afford a measure of the extension of the spring1 and this extension should about equal the radius of the balance measured on the same scale4 ,when the number of vibrations performed in an hour is known1 a spring may be selected by fitting it to the balance and1 while holding the outer coils in the tweezers1 supporting the lower pivot on a hard smooth surface2 the balance is then made to vibrate and the vibrations are counted4 ,the spring need not be pinned into the collet1 but may be attached by wax to the top pivot4 #ehe4 ,to ,fix a ,balance-,spring to its ,collet4 ,a common way of doing this is to put the collet on a wire or broach which is held in one hand while the other presents the inner end of the spring1 held in tweezers1 to the hole in the collet2 subsequently fixing it with a pin4 ,the following is a more convenient method3 ,at the middle of a brass plate is a boss tapped through a vertical hole in its center to receive a small screw with flat head4 ,when the collet is fixed by this screw passing through it1 the operation of setting the spring in position and pinning it will be much facilitated1 and the plate will at the same time afford a means of testing its parallelism4 ,two or three screws with heads of various sizes should be provided1 and1 in order that they may be always available1 they should be screwed into holes at a corner of the plate4 ,this tool might be made of further use by adding an arrangement for holding the stud while drilling it1 with a view to ensure that the hole is at the proper height4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfg4 #ehf4 ,balance-,spring ,gauge4 ,a back view and side elevation of this are shown in ,fig4 #bfg2 it can be made without difficulty by any watchmaker4 ,through the middle of the plate passes a staff a b lightly pivoted between the cock p and the plate1 and projecting on the left-hand side as far as the point a4 ,between the cock and plate it carries the collet of the spiral spring s and the stop-finger d c1 and at the point z is a light finger y z that passes over the graduations on the dial4 ,when the stop-finger d c is free it stands in the direction of the dotted line i2 on rotating the staff1 by taking hold of the pivot a1 in the direction of the arrow i1 the extremity c of the finger will be brought round till it presses against the inclined plane r1 which it will force back and1 on coming against the stop near c1 it will be held fast in the notch of the small bent lever that terminates at r4 ,a spring maintains this lever always against a pin set in the plate4 ,the index finger y z will now be standing over the zero of the scale1 and will be maintained in that position until the finger d c is released by a momentary pressure of the hand on the push-piece n1 when it will fly back to the initial position corresponding to the dotted line i4 #ehg4 ,the instrument is used as follows3 ,the small sliding holder ,h1 which is shown in section at ,e1 7both of these figures being much enlarged since it is extremely fine and light71 has a hole through its center that fits on to the axis at a4 ,having set a balance spring in the clip as indicated at ,e1 place ,h on the pivot a1 tightening the slide so that it can be used to rotate a b1 and bring the stop-finger round to the position d c4 ,holding the outer coil of the spring in tweezers at v1 its inner coil being held in the clip1 release the bent arm by means of the push-piece n4 ,the point on the dial at which the finger y z is arrested will give a measure of the force of the balance spring v4 ,it will be evident that a spring can now be easily selected of the same strength as v1 or stronger or weaker within definite limits which will become well known when some use has been made of the instrument4 ,the entire mechanism is enclosed within a box that is covered by a glass1 through the middle of which a hole is made for the passage of a4 ,the spring s is of about the strength ordinarily used for #ah-line watches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfh4 #ehh4 ,to ,set a ,breguet ,spring in ,position4 ,to test the strength of a flat spiral spring that is to be formed into a ,breguet spring1 it must first be attached by its collet to the balance-staff4 ,as the outer coil cannot be held in the stud owing to its being so near to the pivot hole1 it must be held in the clip b of the little appliance shown at ,s1 ,fig4 #bfh4 ,holding the watch-plate between a and c1 the arm ,d can rise or fall on the rod h1 and b can be brought to such a position that it grips the spring at a point just beyond the stud1 so that1 when the spring is turned inward1 the point held may be brought up to the stud4 ,the springing of the watch can thus be proceeded with1 and springs tried until one of the required strength is obtained4 ,it then only remains to give the spring the double curvature1 and to take care that the end of the overcoil is brought sufficiently near to the center4 ,since the action of a ,breguet spring is more free than that of an ordinary flat spring1 the watch may be found to lose slightly2 it is advisable therefore to time the watch before making the bend1 so as to show a gain4 ,a little experience will enable the watchmaker to avoid being much out1 and any trifling error that there may be is corrected either by a displacement of bend or by altering the central coil4 ,if the latter method is to be resorted to1 it is better that the watch should lose rather than gain a little4 #ehi4 ,to ,flatten an ,ordinary ,balance ,spring4 ,remove the collet and stud1 and clamp the spring by a central screw between two plates1 which are then placed on a blueing tray and gently heated4 ,a small piece of whitened steel is laid on the plate in order to see that the heat does not exceed what is needed to give a blue temper4 ,allow the plates to cool and separate them4 ,ordinary springs being made of rolled steel and subsequently coiled1 always open out on heating2 it is therefore necessary before resorting to the above method1 to coil up the spring1 as otherwise the outer turn will be found to have opened beyond the stud4 #eij4 ,to ,diminish the ,strength of a ,balance ,spring4 ,scraping the end or the entire length always renders the spring defective4 ,dipping in acid is very little better4 ,it is preferable to embed the spring in cork or soft pith1 and work it over a ground glass plate covered with oil stone dust that is fine and smooth4 ,this method might be resorted to for reducing the height of a mainspring4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfi4 ,if the cork or pith is hard and only a little metal has to be removed1 the operation is successful2 but it is apt to result in more metal being removed from the edges than from the center4 ,when much has to be removed1 the spring must be cemented to the polishing plate 7shown at ,g1 ,fig4 #bfi1 and described in article #cde7 with fine wax1 thoroughly liquid1 so that on pressing the spring all its coils may come in contact with the plate2 it must be held thus until cold4 ,now adjust the leveling screws1 so that the whole surface bears flat on the glass2 rub it as long as is considered necessary1 and detach the spring as soon as the plate is sufficiently heated2 boil in alcohol to clean its surface4 #eia4 ,to ,harden ,gold ,springs4 ,gold detent1 thermometer1 suspension and balance-springs can be obtained of a high degree of elasticity4 ,rolling hardens them1 but renders them very brittle4 ,they can be made supple and elastic1 not by hardening1 as in the case of steel1 but by annealing1 care being taken not to exceed a certain degree of heat4 ,the spring may be coiled on a block and placed in a tube that has a smooth steel lid1 then heat the tube in the flame of a spirit lamp1 and as soon as the steel is of a blue temper1 remove the flame and allow the whole to cool4 ,others anneal by keeping the spring in boiling oil for a definite period4 ,the hardness of a gold spring increases with the proportions of alloy it contains1 and1 if well annealed1 it will be very elastic and will break when bent too far1 as in the case of steel4 #eib4 ,to ,ease an ,index on ,its ,endstone ,cap4 ,it is a common but bad practice among watchmakers to scrape the inside of the ring of the index or to cut it through4 ,a better method is as follows3 ,resting the index on a cork1 cover the inside of its ring with oil stone dust and make the cap rotate in its seat by means of a pinion calliper1 the two points of which are inserted in the screw-holes4 ,the operation is repeated as often as may be required4 ,,dial ,,plate4 #eic4 ,to ,cut the ,large ,hole in the ,timepiece ,dial ,plate4 ,some workmen cut the hole in the dial-plate of a timepiece by means of a strong pair of compasses1 one leg of which terminates in a bullet-nose that is supported in a central hole1 while the other is provided with a hardened cutting point that serves to scrape out a groove4 ,others use a rule that revolves on a conical point and carries a slide with a tracing point which can be replaced by a sharp-pointed cutter4 ,proceed in exactly the same manner as when using the compass1 but a greater force can be applied1 because1 while one hand steadies the center1 the full force of the other is applied to the cutter4 ,a third and still simpler plan is adopted by some clockmakers4 ,a rod of the diameter of the central hole1 and a cutter of which only the cutting point projects1 are gripped in a vise at a distance apart equal to the radius of the hole to be made4 ,then passing the rod through the central hole and holding the plate in both hands1 rotate it1 at the same time applying pressure so as to cause the cutter to form a groove4 ,when a moderate depth has been attained1 invert the plate and cut one on the opposite side4 ,care is necessary when the grooves are on the point of uniting2 on the removal of the center1 smooth the edge with a half round file4 ,some workmen consider it more convenient to set the cutter and rod in a thick piece of wood that is rounded at the top and made flat on its two sides towards the bottom1 so as to be firmly held in the vise4 #eid4 ,to ,drill an ,enamel ,dial4 ,take a hard1 well-sharpened graver and moisten it with turpentine or turpentine that contains camphor in solution1 or in the following mixture1 which is still better3 ,turpentine #fb parts by weight4 ,oxalate of potassium #d 0 0 ,camphor #d 0 0 ,the two latter substances are reduced to powder and dissolved in the turpentine1 and two parts by weight of sandal wood may be added4 ,the graver point is placed on the dial at the point at which a hole is required and the graver is rotated backwards and forwards between the fingers4 ,practice1 acquired by drilling a few holes in broken dials1 will soon indicate the degree of pressure that can be applied without fear of accident4 ,some workmen prefer only to apply the maximum pressure while the graver rotates in one direction1 reducing it during the opposite movement2 others hold the handle or tang in one hand and rotate the graver with the other1 always in the same direction4 ,the operation is continued1 frequently arresting it1 however1 in order to set the graver and moisten it1 until the copper-plate and back enamel are perforated4 ,as soon as this point is reached1 take an iron or steel spindle1 pointed at one end4 ,the point must be more obtuse than the hole already formed in the dial4 ,charge this end with emery or oilstone dust1 and place in the chuck in your lathe2 when the spindle is caused to revolve the enamel on the contour of the hole will be rapidly removed4 ,when the copper disc is reached1 a fine-pointed and sharp graver must be used to remove the metal that is exposed as well as that which is covered with only a thin layer of enamel2 then renew the operation with the spindle1 occasionally drawing a file along the surface of the acting cone4 ,or the cones of solid emery to be obtained at material stores can be used for this purpose4 ,a workman must be very careless or unskilful to fail in rapidly drilling a hole in a dial by this method without accident1 and he may carry on the process easily until the hole is large enough to permit the introduction of a rat-tail file4 #eie4 ,to ,enlarge a ,dial-,hole ,with a ,rat-,tail ,file4 ,as an extra precaution the contour of the hole on either side may be coned with a spindle as explained above1 so as to reduce the thickness of enamel to be acted upon by the file2 but a watchmaker that has had any experience can dispense with such a preliminary1 which we would at the same time recommend4 ,the file must enter the hole freely4 ,if only the point can do this1 the file must be held very short1 so that the finger may come in contact with the dial before the larger diameter of the file locks in the hole1 as this would almost certainly crack the enamel4 ,some workmen avoid such an accident by forcing on to the file a rather long cork of small diameter4 ,with a view to avoid scratching the face of the dial in case the file is drawn out of the hole in its backward movement1 it is well to round off and polish its point4 ,during the forward movement a slight circular motion is given to the file1 and in returning no pressure is to be applied2 the file must merely slide over the surface4 ,it is dipped from time to time in the liquid mentioned in the last article4 ,when the hole is large enough1 a conical spindle should be used to smooth its edges as in the earlier stages of the process4 #eif4 ,to ,remove ,enamel from the ,back4 ,to remove portions of the enamel from the back when it touches part of the motion work1 etc41 various methods are adopted4 ,the little spindles of solid emery that may be obtained at material stores may be used for the purpose4 ,some watchmakers use a flattened lead ball perforated at its center and carried on a taper arbor1 forming a kind of small grindstone1 rounded across its rim4 ,the arbor is held in a chuck and the edge of the lead disc is moistened with water1 and emery powder sprinkled over it2 when set in rotation the surface to be removed is held against the lead1 the necessary pressure being applied by the finger against the other face4 ,water must be frequently sprinkled on the surface so as to avoid heating1 and to maintain the emery in its place1 and the dial is washed occasionally to examine the progress of the work4 ,in place of lead1 some use emery formed into a solid block with shellac or various kinds of cement2 it is centered on a large taper arbor1 and should be at least a quarter of an inch thick and rounded at its edge4 ,such a disc is very hard when cold2 it is used in the manner explained in the last paragraph1 but wears more rapidly than the lead disc1 if the latter is well made and supplied with emery of the right degree of coarseness1 in sufficient abundance and evenly distributed4 #eig4 ,dials ,fixed by ,screws through the ,edges4 ,the screw-holes at the edge are drilled in the manner already explained in article #eid1 and the center hole is enlarged as there described1 if this is found to be necessary in order to permit the free passage of the hour wheel4 ,the diameter of a dial may be reduced if it is too large in the manner explained in article #fjj4 ,when it has been thus prepared1 place it in position1 the ,,xii being exactly opposite the pendant1 with the movement in the case1 and close the bezel4 ,if the dial is found to shake under the bezel it should be fixed with three or four small wedges of pegwood1 care being taken that they do not subject the dial to much pressure4 ,the accuracy of the position may be tested by holding a stretched piece of cord over the dial1 and observing whether it passes at the same time through the middle of the pendant1 the center hole1 the ,,xii and the ,,vi4 ,when the dial is thus found to be properly placed1 mark one of screw-holes on the watch-plate through a dial-hole4 ,some care is necessary in doing this lest the hole is marked eccentrically or the dial is displaced by pressure against one side of the hole in it1 which might result in the dial being cracked by the screw4 ,now remove the plate from its case and drill its screw hole in the drilling tool2 tap it and fit the screw4 ,replace the plate in the case1 and1 after fixing the dial to it with the one screw thus fitted1 carefully mark the second hole1 etc4 ,some workmen expedite the operation by marking and drilling the two holes at the same time2 but if at first they do not succeed in making them in the required position they materially increase the time occupied1 as one hole at least requires to be bushed1 etc4 #eih4 ,dials ,held in ,position by ,feet4 ,if the dial has feet1 and it is required to adapt them to the plate1 they must be first carefully bent straight2 then take a piece of stiff card board of moderate thickness1 and laying it on a piece of lead1 punch out with a sharp-edged punch1 or other means1 a round hole of the diameter of a foot4 ,having inserted one foot in this hole1 and placed the card on a flat surface with the dial uppermost1 apply a slight pressure to this latter so as to mark the position of the second foot4 ,then punch out a second similar hole at the point thus indicated4 ,if the operation has been properly conducted the two feet will enter the holes easily1 but at the same time without constraint or shake1 and they should project on the opposite side4 ,it now only remains to cut out the cardboard to the size of the plate1 and1 after making a central hole and a mark to exactly correspond with noon1 to place it in position in the frame and under the bezel1 as though it were the actual dial4 ,then mark the two holes for the dial feet1 using a sharp-pointed chamferer that just fits the hole1 held vertical and rotated by one hand1 while pressure is applied by a finger of the other hand4 ,some workmen merely prick holes in the card with some sharp-pointed instrument1 or even force the feet through it at all risks2 hence it happens that feet are often bent out of the vertical1 and1 in order to be able to bend them into the required position1 it becomes necessary to enlarge the holes in the plate and bend the dial feet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgj4 #eii4 ,to ,cut a ,large ,hole in a ,dial4 ,to set a ,seconds ,dial4 ,this operation is performed in the ordinary lathe4 ,the hole is cut by a ring of thin iron or copper cut with saw-like teeth round its edge1 as shown at ,v1 ,fig4 #bgj1 kept in rotation and charged with fine emery and oil or water or1 what is better1 turpentine4 ,the mixture described in article #eid will secure a still more rapid action4 ,it is advisable that the thickness of the ring be made to gradually diminish from e towards i1 as indicated by the section at ,s1 so as to prevent it from choking and probably cracking the dial4 ,the following arrangement may be adopted3 ,prepare a strong ring with a projecting internal ridge1 shown in section at ,a ,b ,c2 cement the dial1 g d1 to this ridge1 or fix it by any convenient means1 and attach this supporting ring to a chuck that rotates in a direction opposite to that of the cutter1 but much less rapidly4 ,on reaching the copper disc1 reverse ,a ,b ,c and repeat the above process on the back enamel4 ,the copper is thus exposed on the two sides4 ,on filling the deeper groove with dilute nitric acid the metal will gradually be eaten away1 and the acid should be renewed as often as may be needed4 ,it then only remains to smooth the edge1 beveling it on the front side1 and to cement the seconds dial in position4 ,the use of acid may be avoided and the cutter passed through the copper1 but greater care must be exercised1 because the work is more difficult when operating on metal4 ,it will1 however1 not be difficult after a few trials4 ,willis recommends that the dial be cut straight through1 commencing at the back and using emery and oil1 the dial being cemented on a brass block immediately below the cutter1 and rather less in diameter than the hole produced4 ,he mounts the cutter on a stock that is provided with a pump center1 the point of which is maintained throughout the operation in the small hole or point that marks the center of the hole4 ,the great advantage of this method is that the taper of the hole is in the required direction and no filing is necessary4 #fjj4 ,to ,reduce the ,diameter of a ,dial4 ,resting the dial in an inclined position against a block1 file its edge with a smooth or half-smooth file1 which must only be allowed to act while advancing1 and is at the same time displaced sideways and turned so as to follow the contour of the dial4 ,the file should be dipped occasionally in turpentine1 and when sufficient enamel has been removed1 pass a new emery stick over it to remove the file marks4 #fja4 ,to ,remove a ,figure or ,name from a ,dial4 ,oil of spike lavender may be employed for erasing a letter or number4 ,enamel powder made into a paste with water1 oil1 or turpentine1 is also used for this purpose4 ,it should be previously decanted so as to obtain several degrees of fineness4 ,the powder used for re-polishing the surface where an impression has been removed must be extremely fine4 ,it is applied on a piece of pegwood1 although some use ivory4 ,the last and best system is to use diamond powder4 ,take a little of the powder1 made into a paste with fine oil1 on the end of a copper polisher1 the surface of which has been freshly filed and slightly rounded4 ,on rubbing the marks they will be seen to rapidly disappear4 ,the surface is left a little dull2 it may be rendered bright by rubbing with the same powder mixed with a greater quantity of oil and applied with a stick of pegwood4 ,watchmakers will do well to try several degrees of fineness of the diamond powder on old dials4 ,,metal ,,dials4 #fjb4 ,to ,restore a ,silver ,dial4 ,we proceed to describe several methods of doing this1 but would at once observe that when the earlier ones are adopted1 the hours1 if they are painted1 necessarily disappear2 whereas they can be retained by resorting to the last method although great caution must in that case be taken2 moreover1 it is much more difficult to accomplish than the others4 #fjc4 ,first ,method4 ,this is the most expeditious system1 and at the same time the most certain of success4 ,if the hours are in enamel1 there need be no fear2 if engraved and filled with black composition1 this will disappear1 but it can be replaced without difficulty4 ,there remains the case of painted hours to be considered4 ,first make thin marks with a fine point along the lines of all the figures1 taking care not to pass beyond their ends3 and do the same for the dots and lines that indicate the seconds4 ,by using a glass and following the instructions given in article #fai1 no difficulty will be experienced in doing this1 and the fine lines and dots thus made will afford sufficient guide for re-marking the hours4 ,begin by cleaning the dial with a brush and fine pumice-stone so as to remove spots and slight scratches4 #fjd4 ,to ,frost the ,surface4 ,in order to frost the surface of the dial1 take a spirit lamp with large wick1 and direct a blow-pipe flame from it against the under side of the dial1 which is held by one hand with a hooked support4 ,if the flame is gently directed over the entire surface of the back1 a good dead surface is obtained that resists a moderate degree of friction either in soaping with a fine sponge1 or washing in a large quantity of water1 or in applying soft bread and oil of spike lavender to erase irregularities or marks made in painting the figures4 ,the application of the flame is several times repeated1 so as to obtain a decisive and even frosting2 but it is necessary1 with a view to avoid buckling the thin metal1 to place an iron or copper washer behind the dial4 ,the flame oxidizes the surface of the metal2 that is to say1 it causes the oxygen of the air to combine with the copper which is alloyed with silver4 #fje4 ,pickling or ,bleaching the ,dial4 ,introduce sufficient warm water into a suitable flat vessel to completely cover the dial1 and gently pour into it a few drops of sulphuric acid 7oil of vitriol71 so that the two liquids are in the proportion of about #a to #aj2 then lay the dial in this dilute acid for a period that varies from half to one or two minutes4 ,the frosting will first become yellow and then of a beautiful white color4 ,wash it in a large quantity of water1 wipe with a fine linen rag1 and apply the flame momentarily to the back in order to prevent the formation of spots on the surface4 ,when several dials have to be operated upon1 the acid is put in a porcelain dish and boiled by a lamp4 ,then place each dial for a moment in it1 wash in an abundant suppl of water1 and dry by tapping with a fine linen rag4 #fjf4 ,second ,method4 ,for the benefit of such as care to experiment with it1 we add the following method3 ,brush the dial with a coarse brush and pumice-stone reduced to an impalpable powder until no scratches are visible4 ,make it red-hot and allow to cool4 ,then dip for two or three seconds in a porcelain vessel containing dilute sulphuric acid2 on removal it will be found to be white1 but rather dull4 ,in order to produce a clear frosted surface1 place the dial in a mixture of #f parts by weight of nitric acid of #a4bb sp4 gr4#h #ba 0 0 sulphuric acid4 #ej 0 0 water4 ,allow the metal to remain in this acid until no more globules are seen to form on its surface1 then withdraw it and immediately place in cold water4 ,the dial will be observed to be nearly black2 it is then pickled as above explained 7#fje71 washed well1 heated red-hot and1 when cold1 again pickled2 the operation is concluded by thoroughly washing its surface4 #fjg4 ,third ,method4#i ,cover the surface of the dial with a thin layer of soap1 and brush it over1 taking care to avoid touching the hours if these are not enamelled4 ,this can best be done with a fine brush and pumice stone reduced to an impalpable powder4 ,when the dial has been made as clean as possible by this means1 wash it carefully with water and tartrate of potash 7cream of tartar71 then plunge it immediately in the hot solution of nitrate of silver 7#fjh7 attaching it to the silver wire which is fastened to the zinc and copper discs #fji2 in two or three minutes the surface of the metal will be perfectly frosted1 and1 if each operation has been cautiously performed1 the hours will remain intact4 ,each time the zinc and copper discs are used they should be cleaned with nitric acid1 and rubbed over with pumice stone4 ,as soon as the dial is clean1 immerse it in the solution2 the least delay is apt to cause the surface to become oxidized through contact with the air4 #fjh4 ,to ,prepare the ,silver ,solution4 ,dissolve an ounce#aj of solid nitrate of silver 7lunar caustic7 in a small quantity of water2 filter the solution and add twice its volume of liquid ammonia4 ,in a separate vessel dissolve #f ounces of yellow prussiate of potash and #d ounces of crystallized carbonate of soda in #fj ounces of water1 contained in a vessel of enamelled iron1 which must be placed on the fire4 ,when near the boiling point add the concentrated solution of nitrate of silver1 and allow the mixture to boil for an hour1 taking care to add hot water in sufficient quantity to make up for that lost by evaporation2 then filter the resulting solution4 #fji4 ,to ,prepare the ,discs and to ,plate4 ,in order to use this solution for restoring a dial or plating any other object1 take two discs about the size of a half dollar1 one made of zinc and the other of copper1 and1 after making a small hole in each1 unite them with a copper wire1 or1 preferably1 with one of silver4 ,after having attached the dial or other object to this connecting wire1 immerse the entire system in a glass or earthenware vessel1 and pour over it a sufficient quantity of the solution1 previously made hot4 ,if the object operated upon is perfectly clean1 bright and free from all greasy or oily matter1 its surface will be found in two or three minutes to be covered with a firmly adherent layer of silver4 ,when only a small piece is treated it will suffice to immerse it in the hot liquor1 and rub it with the finger2 a bright silvered surface will thus be obtained4 #faj4 ,to ,clean ,metal ,dials of ,clocks4 ,when the hours are neither enamelled nor engraved1 it is necessary to first trace out the several lines and dots in a manner similar to that explained in article #fai4 #faa4 ,ordinary ,mode of ,cleaning the ,dial4 ,very often it is possible to make a silver or plated dial of either watch or clock sufficiently clean by merely brushing with powdered cream of tartar worked into a paste with water1 carefully rubbing around any painted figures with a fine stiff brush4 ,then wash with clean water1 dry by gently tapping with a fine linen rag1 and expose to a slight heat4 7,this is in part the same method as is described in article #fjg2 the two may be combined74 ,if the dial is tarnished1 it must be silvered as explained below4 #fab4 ,to ,plate a ,brass ,dial4 ,preparing the ,silver4 ,place in a glass flask from #ajj to #aej grains of pure silver made into thin strips by means of a hammer or rolling mill4 ,add five or six times the weight of dilute nitric acid so as to completely cover the silver1 and warm the vessel1 taking care to avoid breathing the fumes or admitting them to the workshop4 ,the metal will be dissolved1 and1 on continuing the application of heat until all the liquid is evaporated1 crystals will be found at the bottom4 ,when cool fill the flask with warm water and1 as soon as all the crystals are dissolved1 pour the solution into a porcelain dish1 previously half filled with water4 ,place in it a sheet of clean copper of about the size of three fingers1 and allow it to remain for the night4 ,on the following day all the silver will be found attached to the plate1 and it can be collected by immersing this in water4 ,carefully pour off the water from the fine powder thus obtained1 and wash it once or twice with an abundant supply of pure water2 then dry thoroughly with the application of very moderate heat4 ,if the silver thus obtained is not required for immediate use1 it should be kept in a dark blue bottle to avoid the influence of light and moisture4 #fac4 ,to ,prepare the ,surface of the ,dial4 ,it must be quite smooth1 thoroughly washed and dried4 ,m4 ,robert recommends that the smoothing be accomplished by using soft water of ,ayr stone1 rubbing in all directions1 in order remove scratches4 ,or pegwood charcoal can be used1 sloped at one end like a whistle1 and applied with water4 ,others employ pumice-stone powder and very fine emery paper4 #fad4 ,to ,apply the ,silver4 ,take equal parts of rock-salt and cream of tartar1 pound them together1 and when well mixed1 take about #fj or #hj grains of the mixture1 and add to it #ae or #bj grains of silver1 prepared as above described1 and add a few drops of water to form a thick paste1 which must be well mixed and worked up on a ground glass plate by means of a horn spatula to remove all grits4 ,a glass pestle may be used for this purpose4 ,the dial having been prepared1 take up some of the paste with a perfectly clean and rather stiff brush1 and spread it over the surface of the dial1 rubbing quickly and somewhat harshly4 ,the brush should be worked about in all directions1 so as to avoid scratches1 until the silver is found to adhere firmly to the dial4 ,according to ,m4 ,robert1 this rubbing is to be continued until the required grain is obtained2 but ,m4 ,fournier states that it should be arrested when the surface possesses a lead-grey color2 the dial is then well washed1 dried1 and the operation re-commenced exactly as before except that the brush used is softer4 ,a good surface will thus be formed1 and it will be whiter if the proportion of silver in the paste is increased4 ,the result attained in great part depends on the skill of the operator1 and this can only be acquired by experience4 #fae4 ,observations4 ,if the mixture contains too much of the salt or too little silver1 the latter will adhere with difficulty1 and will come off in lumps or scales2 moreover1 it will not have so white a color4 ,as the proportion of silver is increased1 the white becomes gradually better2 but1 on the other hand1 if it is in excess the surface will be coarse and uneven4 ,too much or too little water will have nearly the same effect4 ,the color is worse if the dial has been imperfectly smoothed1 and when several days or even hours are allowed to elapse between the cleaning and silvering4 ,it is essential that the rock-salt and the cream of tartar be perfectly pure2 if they contain any earthy matter it will scratch the surface and impair its whiteness4 ,as soon as the operation is completed1 the dial must be washed in an abundant supply of pure water2 any neglect in this particular will cause it to blacken4 ,this washing may be performed with an ordinary watch-brush1 charged with cream of tartar4 ,then rinse the dial1 and dry1 tapping gently with a fine linen rag1 and finish by slightly warming it4 #faf4 ,gold ,dials4 ,it will not be necessary to say much on this subject4 ,in order to restore the color to a gold or gilt dial1 it may be dipped for a few seconds in the following mixture3 ,half an ounce of cyanide of potassium is dissolved in a quart of hot water1 and two ounces of strong ammonia mixed with half an ounce of spirits of wine and added to the solution4 ,on removal from this bath1 the dial is immediately immersed in warm water2 then brush with soap1 rinse1 and dry in hot boxwood dust4 ,or it may be simply immersed in dilute nitric acid1 but in that case any painted figures will be destroyed4 #fag4 ,another ,receipt4 ,the following is the method ordinarily adopted for coloring gold dials2 but it is to be observed at the outset that1 although apparently characterized by extreme simplicity1 a good deal of skill is needed to ascertain when the mixture is of the right consistency1 and when the dial has been sufficiently exposed to its action4 ,make a mixture of #d oz4 saltpetre1 #b oz4 alum and #b oz4 common salt 7the purest attainable71 with a very little water4 ,on placing this in a blacklead crucible over the fire it will become limpid1 and must be allowed to boil until somewhat pasty and of a pale yellow color1 stirring all the while with a stick4 ,now take two dials1 back to back1 that have been cleaned and blackened by annealing1 and pass a platinum wire through their centers so that they hang horizontally1 resting on a loop at its end2 immerse the dials in the hot color crucible1 and1 after holding it for a short time1 withdraw them and immediately immerse in a vessel of nearly boiling water standing close by4 ,the 8color0 will then be washed1 and the progress of the work can be observed4 ,the dials are again dipped in the crucible if necessary1 and will probably require about three minutes' immersion in all4 ,it is advisable that the 8color0 be thick rather than thin1 as in the latter case the dials are apt to be clouded4 #fah4 ,to ,re-,paint the ,hours on a ,dial4 ,the following system has reference to metallic dials1 but the reader will be able to select without difficulty the parts that are applicable to altering and retouching the figures on an enamel dial4 ,we can answer from experience for its being successful1 but would at once observe that it cannot be practised hastily1 because some skill is essential in addition to patience and care3 with them1 success is certain4 #fai4 ,first ,method4 ,before removing the hour figures and the divisions for minutes1 mark them with a fine steel point1 using a lens and proceeding with great caution4 ,these marks will remain1 so that after the dial has been colored or otherwise treated1 it will only be necessary to trace over them with a fine brush charged with ink4 ,the short horizontal lines at the top and bottom of each figure1 termed serifs1 as well as the two circles that enclose the minute divisions1 can be drawn with a sharpened point of the screw-bar compass4 #fbj4 ,second ,method4 ,lay on the dial to be treated1 or on another of the same dimensions that has the hours well marked1 a piece of tracing paper1 so that neither it nor the dial can be displaced1 and1 using ,india ink and a fine drawing pen1 accurately trace the hour figures and the minute divisions4 ,when the ink is dry1 invert the paper and trace the figures1 etc41 thus obtained on the other side of the paper1 this time using a pencil instead of ink4 ,laying the paper on the dial so that neither can slip1 pass with a rounded point of some soft metal over all the figures and divisions4 ,now remove the paper without permitting it to rub against the dial4 ,if the pencil has been selected of a suitable degree of hardness1 and the operation skilfully conducted1 the marks showing the hours and minutes will be clearly visible1 although faint1 and1 holding the glass to the eye1 the several marks must be traced over with a fine brush or pencil4 ,if this operation is performed carefully1 the dial will present a very good appearance4 #fba4 ,third ,method4 ,place the dial within a kind of large barrel that has at its center a thick pivot projecting4 ,the three rules1 ,d1 ,f1 ,j1 ,fig4 #bga1 can be fitted on to this by their central holes so as to rotate on it4 ,being supported by the rim of the barrel1 they will pass very near to the surface of the dial without rubbing against it4 ,from an inspection of the figures it will be evident that ,d is used for forming the bars of an ,x1 ,f for those of a ,v1 and ,j for that of an ,i4 ,of course the serifs at either end of a numeral are made with the compass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bga4 ,it is unnecessary to observe that if the edge of the rim be graduated1 and the rules terminated by any convenient arrangement for arresting their motion at the graduations1 the hours can be traced on a dial from which all marks have been erased4 ,it then only remains to paint them in with ink4 #fbb4 ,inks for ,painting the ,hours4 ,work up some clean lampblack in oil of spike lavender4 ,then add a small quantity of spirit varnish1 and thoroughly mix the whole4 ,this is applied with a fine brush1 and the success of the operation depends very much on the selection of this latter4 #fbc4 ,another ,recipe4 ,mix together ivory black1 pure wax1 and turpentine2 the more the turpentine is in excess1 the more will the ink be colored4 ,it is best adapted for filling in the figures engraved in dials1 and a gentle heat should be applied to impart a smooth surface4 ,any irregularities in the painting may be erased by the aid of oil of spike lavender and soft bread4 ,,hands4 #fbd4 ,to ,set a ,watch-,hand in ,position4 ,the most delicate part of this operation is the enlarging of the center hole of a minute hand and the closing of the hour hand socket when necessary4 ,set the hand in cement on a brass plate that has a hole passing through at the point corresponding to the socket4 ,the hole must then be enlarged with a semi-cylindrical drill to a diameter such that it will only be necessary to gently pass the broach through afterwards4 ,the drill must not be worked too rapidly1 and the plate may require to be immersed occasionally in water1 so as to avoid heating the cement and thus loosening the hand4 ,when the hole in a watch-hand is too large1 it may generally be sufficiently reduced by means of the staking tool4 #fbe4 ,to ,redden ,watch-,hands4 ,make into a paste 7while holding over a lamp7 a mixture of two parts carmine1 two parts chloride of silver1 and one part ,japan varnish4 ,having spread some of this over the hands1 lay them face upwards on a sheet of copper1 applying heat until the desired tint is produced4 ,,glasses4 #fbf4 ,to ,drill ,glass4 ,a hole can be rapidly made in a piece of glass by using a steel spindle ground at the extremity to a point with three or four faces1 and hardened in mercury4 ,this spindle may be chucked in the lathe1 or rotated between the finger and thumb1 the point being moistened from time to time with turpentine or the mixture mentioned in article #eid4 ,the glass operated upon should be held against the blade with the thumb or a pad immediately behind it1 and should receive a gentle rocking motion so as to prevent the drill from choking in the hole formed2 and as soon as the point appears on the other side1 the drilling should be re-commenced from that side4 ,it is a good precaution to mark the point at which the hole is required with a diamond or the steel point before commencing1 and the pressure applied while drilling must be but slight4 #fbg4 ,to ,cut ,glass4 ,it is possible to cut a sheet of glass roughly to any required shape with an ordinary pair of scissors1 if the operation is performed under water4 ,of course a smooth edge cannot be obtained by such means1 but it will often be found sufficient4 ,a more exact method is to use a piece of ignited charcoal or the pastile mentioned below1 first making a scratch as a starting-point and holding the heated substance a little in advance of the crack3 this will follow the direction in which the hot body is moved4 ,the method is available for dividing glass tubes or other objects in irregular shape4 ,what is known as the 8,berzelius pastile0 for cutting glass is formed of the following mixture3 ,gum arabic1 #f parts2 gum tragacanth1 #b parts2 benzoin1 #b parts2 lampblack1 #ah parts2 and the requisite quantity of water4 ,mix the gum tragacanth with water and leave it to swell up for some hours2 dissolve the gum arabic in a sufficiency of water1 and powder the benzoin finely4 ,mix the three1 forming a paste of such a consistency as to be moulded1 the lampblack and a little water being also added4 ,the pastiles are then formed by rolling between two plates4 ,the diameter of a watch-glass can be reduced by centering it in a lathe1 chucking it between two pieces of cork or a pair of cork arbors1 and applying a moistened piece of glass to the edge1 or an emery stick4 ,when the desired diameter is attained1 polish the edge with pumice-stone followed by putty powder applied on a wet cork4 ,,broaching4 #fbh4 ,to ,broach a ,hole ,vertically4 ,a hole in a plate1 as for example1 that in a barrel1 is seldom maintained at right angles to the surface by young watchmakers when they have occasion to employ a broach4 ,by adopting the following very simple method1 success may be assured3 ,take along cork of a diameter rather less than that of the barrel or other object operated upon1 and make a hole in the length of the cork through which the broach can be passed4 ,when the cork has been turned quite true on its end and edge1 the broach is pushed through and used to enlarge the hole2 by pressing against the back of the cork it is kept always against the barrel1 and the vertically of the broach is thus maintained4 #fbi4 ,to ,broach and ,maintain the ,hole ,round4 ,many workmen either use bad broaches or work them in a jerky manner so as to make stri within the hole4 ,to avoid such distortion when uncertain of the hand1 draw the broach somewhat out of the hole and insert in the space thus left one or two pieces of hard wood1 forming a kind of jacket1 so that at least two cutting edges of the broach may be prevented from acting2 the broach forcing its way into the pieces of wood1 will carry them round with it4 ,a few trials will enable a workman to employ this method4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgb4 ,when operating on holes that are rather large it is a good practice to use broaches that are semi-cylindrical or triangular1 their sections being as shown at ,c1 ,a1 or ,d1 ,fig4 #bgb4 ,c and ,d are excellent for smoothing a hole1 but remove very little metal2 ,a does more work in a given time and1 if well handled1 will maintain the hole very round4 ,when operating on a large hole1 these broaches can be rotated in a brace2 but1 in the case of small or medium size holes1 it is much better to mount them in a drilling headstock like those used by case-makers for the joint holes1 and the tools can be revolved by the aid of a hand or foot-wheel4 ,only one precaution need be noted1 namely1 the necessity of avoiding the application of too much pressure1 so that the broach jams in the hole4 ,,solid ,,and ,,hollow ,,squares4 #fcj4 ,to ,file an ,arbor or ,drift ,square by ,hand4 ,the most expeditious mode of making a square1 as1 for example1 that of a barrel-arbor1 is by using the tool described in article #eac1 or one of analogous construction2 but in their absence the square must be made by hand4 ,soften the jaws of a hand-vise and make four flat faces on them1 forming an exact square1 either by filing or by attaching pieces by rivets4 ,having clamped the steel on which a square is to be formed in the vise1 hold this in one hand and rest it in a recess in a wood block2 with the other hand hold the file1 determining its position by laying it on the upper face of the square before applying it to the arbor4 ,after giving one or two strokes1 test the truth of the face formed by again laying the file on the upper face of the vise4 ,then turn the vise through a quarter of a circle and proceed in the same manner2 and so on for the other two faces4 ,before finishing the square and while there still remains a slight excess of metal on each face1 ascertain1 by examining the end and measuring the lengths of the faces1 whether the square is accurately formed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgc4 ,put in the lathe and draw with flat file in the direction of the axis along each face4 ,if the square is to be polished after hardening1 proceed in the same manner1 using an iron polisher in place of the file1 to which longitudinal1 transverse1 and circular movements may be given4 ,after hardening1 the square may be tempered to some shade between pale yellow and a deep blue1 according to the purpose for which it is intended4 #fca4 ,another ,method4 ,let it be required to fit a square to the hole in a keyless winding pinion1 the diagonal of which is a b1 ,fig4 #bgc4 ,turn the end c d of the rod down until it exactly enters the square hole4 ,measure with a tapered strip of brass whose edges are filed sharp the diagonal a b2 this will give the diameter a b of the larger portion of the rod1 as will be gathered from the figure a d b c4 ,turn down the portions of the rod on which the square is to be made and file four faces1 each time arresting the action of the file when it is on a level with the smaller cylindrical portion1 maintaining the angles equal by observing that the four portions of the circumference retain their equality while gradually diminishing4 ,by a little care and using the square-headed hand-vise described above1 success may be assured4 #fcb4 ,to ,drift a ,square ,hole in ,steel of ,moderate ,thickness4 ,the steel in which it is required to make a square hole must be very soft and thoroughly annealed1 otherwise it is sure to crack under the action of the drift or when hammered4 ,to make the hole in the center of a stop-finger1 for example1 the hole must first be drilled of a diameter less than the side of the final square3 the drift is then inserted1 liberally supplied with oil4 ,on removing the drift1 the square is enlarged by means of a fine square file acting on each of its corners2 then with slightly larger drifts the hole is gradually increased to the required size4 ,they are driven with a rather heavy hammer1 care being taken to maintain them vertical and with each change of drift a file should be passed over the surface to remove the metal that collects at the corners4 #fcc4 ,to ,drift a ,stem ,winding ,pinion4 ,for this purpose the methods explained above are insufficient1 on account of the great thickness of metal1 which we repeat1 must always be very soft4 ,nevertheless1 by using drifts that are very slightly conical1 short1 and roughed like a file in an inclined direction1 and by using a number that succeed one another of gradually increasing diameter1 steel of considerable thickness can be treated in the above manner2 but it is far less expeditious than the method explained below4 ,the piece of steel with a hole drilled through it should be from a third to half as large again in diameter as it is finally required to be4 ,after turning the surface true and the two ends flat1 the tube is driven on to a long drift of suitable temper1 well oiled and of nearly the diameter of the hole to be made4 ,clamping this drift in a hand-vise or sliding tongs1 rest the steel tube on an anvil with its axis and one face of the drift parallel to the surface1 and forge the tube with a medium size hammer4 ,turn the drift through a quarter of a circle1 again forge the tube1 and so on4 ,care should be taken that the drift is forced further into the tube from time to time1 oil being at the same time applied4 ,a punching machine is also very serviceable for the purpose of drifting4 ,sometimes the attempt is made to forge the metal red-hot1 but this is much more difficult on account of the rapidity that is needed in threading the hot steel1 hammering and removing it4 ,moreover1 the steel has to be heated several times and is apt to be burnt4 ,if the method above explained1 in which the metal is kept cold1 is carefully performed1 it succeeds very well1 but it must be observed that steel is often met with that is irregular in composition and cracks4 ,,to ,,straighten ,a ,,rod1 ,,plate ,,or ,,wheel4 #fcd4 ,a ,steel ,rod4 ,when the rod is short use a large pair of sliding tongs or a hand-vise1 the jaws of which have been softened in order to make a groove in each parallel to their edge4 ,placing the rod in the cylindrical recess thus formed between the jaws1 fix one side of the hand-vise in a bench vise1 holding a spirit lamp near the jaws and1 as the steel changes its color1 tighten the slide or screw of the former4 ,when the metal assumes a blue color and the jaws are as tight as possible1 remove the lamp1 allowing the whole to cool slowly or by applying water4 ,the jaws should be formed so as to bend the rod rather more than is ultimately required1 because steel on being released is apt to partially recover its initial curvature4 ,when the rod is long grip its two ends in the frame of a fret-saw1 which should be somewhat strong4 ,then hold a lamp under the rod1 at the same time stretching the rod more and more1 and allow the steel to remain stretched until quite cold4 ,if it has been sufficiently stretched the metal will be rendered perfectly straight4 #fce4 ,a ,plate1 ,escape-,wheel or ,stem ,wind ,wheel4 ,in the middle of a square plate that is moderately thick1 fit a strong screw with a large and long head2 this screw must pass freely through a disc that is perfectly flat and fits easily into the upper side of the escape-wheel4 ,now fix the plate between the jaws of a bench-vise1 and1 placing the wheel between this plate and the disc with a moderate pressure applied by the screw1 hold a lamp to the under side1 gradually tightening the screw as the steel changes color so as to obtain a maximum pressure when a blue temper is reached4 ,leave the whole to cool in position4 #fcf4 ,a ,verge1 ,small ,arbor or ,pinion ,staff4 ,when steel is sufficiently tempered1 it may be laid flat on a smooth piece of copper held in the vise and flattened by hammering as in the case of an ordinary rod2 but if it is hard the blade of the hammer must be used4 ,every watchmaker knows1 for example1 that a verge is straightened by striking with the blade against its concave side1 while the convex side rests flat on a smooth anvil4 ,by the action of the hammer the side that is struck becomes a little longer1 thus straightening the staff1 ,it is not usually necessary to remove the marks left by the hammer1 but if this has to be done the operation should be continued beyond what is necessary to straighten the metal1 then temper it to a blue color and allow it to cool4 ,a small smooth taper arbor or pinion staff1 can be straightened by resting it on a wood block1 and rubbing the concave side lengthwise with a worn file of medium cut1 applying considerable pressure1 the arbor being firmly supported below to avoid breakage4 ,the result is the same as with the blows of a hammer1 but the marks left are barely visible4 ,,footnotes3 #g ,it may be well to point out that the above details relate to the case in which the stem-wind work is on the top plate4 ,when it is under the dial1 of course the corrections here given for a deep and shallow depth will be reversed4 #h ,this contains about #a part of pure acid and #b parts of water4 #i ,taken from ,m4 ,h4 ,robert's ,etudes sur diverses questions d'horlogerie4 #aj ,if a greater or less quantity of the solution is required1 all these quantities must1 of course1 be increased or diminished proportionately4 ,,clock ,,hairsprings4 ,repairers' ,assortment4 ,best ,quality1 ,colletted1 carefully arranged1 box containing #ej1 fifteen kinds1 by mail1 #a4ej ,same ,assortment1 box containing #ajj1 #b4ej ,one ,dozen for any make of clocks1 4#ej ,one-,half ,dozen for any make of clocks1 4#cj ,single ,springs1 4#aj ,if your jobber doesn't keep them send and get them direct1 postpaid4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,manross1 ,manufacturer of every description of ,clock and ,gauge ,hairsprings4 ,,forestville1 ,,conn4 ,the ,american ,jeweler ,,chicago1 ,,ill4 ,a ,monthly ,journal for ,watchmakers and ,jewelers4 ,as an advertising medium it is unsurpassed4 ,advertising ,rates mailed on application4 ,has more paid subscribers than any other journal in the trade4 ,if in search of a situation or if you want a watchmaker1 place your want ad4 in ,the ,american ,jeweler4 #a4jj per ,year4 ,send for ,sample ,copy4 ,,geo4 ,k4 ,,hazlitt ,,co4 444,,publishers444 #ia ,plymouth ,place1 ,,chicago1 ,,ill4 ,eureka ,mainspring ,winder1 ,,for ,,watchmakers' ,,use4 ,illustration3 ,patented ,may #be1 #ahhf4 ,this instrument is always ready for use1 and will instantly wind any watch spring into coils to fit any ,american or ,swiss ,barrel4 ,it is simple and durable4 ,price1 ,nickel ,plated1 #a4be4 ,the trade will find it to their advantage to send us their orders1 as we have the most experienced men1 and all orders are filled with the best quality goods1 the same day as order is received1 and at the lowest market prices4 ,,green ,,bros4 ,importers and ,jobbers of ,watchmakers1 ,jewelers and ,engravers ,fine ,grade ,tools1 ,materials and ,general ,supplies4 #aa ,maiden ,lane1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,the ,,hartung ,,company1 #baa ,,state ,,st41 ,,chicago4 ,watchmakers and ,jewelers ,,for ,,the ,,trade ,,exclusively4 ,fine ,watch ,repairing of all kinds our ,specialty4 ,demagnetizing4 ,changing key wind watches to stem wind4 ,watch case and jewelry repairing4 ,all work promptly and carefully executed4 ,our reputation is of a good and long standing4 ,we will be pleased to send price list and information on demand4 ,,crucible ,,furnace ,for ,manufacturing ,jewelers4444 ,no4 #ae4 ,crucible ,furnace4 ,this will take crucibles up to #dc inches1 holding about six pounds when full1 and with inch gas pipe1 and a pressure of gas supplying about #ej feet per hour1 will melt a crucible of gold1 silver or brass in about #cj minutes1 and the same quantity of cast iron in about #fj minutes from the time the gas is first lighted4 ,it is made in a very substantial manner1 and is recommended as a first-rate furnace for manufacturing jewelers1 reducing photo waste1 etc4 ,the lid can be lifted away by a handle provided for the purpose4 ,prices on ,application4 ,,manufactured ,,only ,,by ,,buffalo ,,dental ,,mfg4 ,,co #ehg-ehi ,main ,street1 ,,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ae4 ,patented ,may #ah1 #ahhj4 ,watchmaking ,if you want to become a thorough practical watchmaker1 you can do so at less expense and in less time at this school than any other place4 ,students received at any time4 ,send for catalogue and samples of engraving4 ,address3 ,hutchinson's ,practical ,school for ,watchmakers1 ,j4 ,l4 ,,hutchinson1 ,la ,porte1 ,ind4 ,,superintendent4 ,anything and ,everything in the shape of ,dials ,made to ,order from our own ,design or from ,yours4 ,illustration ,dials with ,portraits1 ,monograms1 ,landscapes1 ,yachting1 ,hunting1 ,fishing1 ,polo1 ,base ,ball1 ,tennis1 ,cricket1 or in fact any design4 ,,society ,,designs ,a ,,specialty4 ,complete ,stock of ,plain and ,fancy ,dials always on hand4 ,l ,h4 ,,keller ,,co4 ,watchmakers and ,jewelers ,tools and ,materials ,,of ,,every ,,description4 #fd ,,nassau ,,street ,,new ,,york4 ,the ,chicago ,watchmakers' ,institute ,a ,modern ,trade ,school4 ,best in ,america4 ,illustration ,scientific and ,practical ,in all its ,methods4 ,,teaches ,watchmaking and ,repairing1 ,jewelry ,work and ,engraving1 and gives a ,thorough ,course in ,optics4 ,call and see our school and its work1 or send for catalogue4 ,,geo4 ,d4 ,,parsons1 ,,principal4 #iac ,d1 ,masonic ,temple1 ,,chicago1 ,,ill4 ,,when ,,you ,,need ,,the ,,best ,pivot ,polishers1 ,gear ,cutters1 ,idler ,pulleys1 ,hairspring ,stud ,index1 ,crown ,chucks1 ,turning ,tools1 ,roller ,removers1 ,tempering ,compound1 ,staking ,tools1 ,pivot ,drills1 ,pump ,drills1 ,illustration ,or any of the tools you need daily2 and when you want the best and most practical tools1 those that have been designed by practical workmen and proved by them2 when you want the latest1 best and cheapest tools2 send for circulars and prices to ,a4 ,w4 ,,johanson1 ,manufacturer of ,watchmakers' and ,jewelers' ,tools1 #cbf ,wells ,street ,,chicago1 ,,ill4 ,,practical ,,books 4444,,for4444 ,watchmakers ,,and ,jewelers4 ,,for ,,sale ,,by ,,geo4 ,k4 ,,hazlitt ,co41 #ia ,,plymouth ,,place1 ,,chicago4 ,staff ,making and ,pivoting4 ,practical directions for making new staffs from raw material4 ,by ,eugene ,e4 ,hall4 ,chapter ,i4 ,the raw material2 the gravers2 the roughing out2 the hardening and tempering4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,kinds of pivots2 their shape2 capillarity2 the requirements of a good pivot4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,the proper measurements and how obtained4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,the gauging of holes2 the side shake2 the position of the graver4 ,chapter ,v4 ,the grinding and polishing2 the reversal of the work2 the wax chuck4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,another wax chuck2 the centering of the work4 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,the finishing of the staff2 pivoting2 making pivot drills3 hardening drills2 the drilling and fitting of new pivots4 ,illustrated with #bd engravings4 #dh pages4 ,paper covers #be ,watch ,repairing4 ,by ,n4 ,b4 ,sherwood4 ,contents3 ,the ,bench and its ,accessories2 ,the ,vise and ,oilstone2 ,lathe ,appliances2 ,the ,jacot ,lathe2 ,depthing ,tool2 ,expanding the ,web of a ,wheel2 ,the ,spreading ,tool and its ,use2 ,the ,rounding-,up ,tool2 ,stud ,remover2 ,opening the ,regulator2 ,roller ,remover2 ,replacing ,broken ,teeth2 ,graining ,polishing ,blocks2 ,polishing ,steel ,work2 ,polishing ,pivots2 ,superiority of ,conical ,pivots2 ,the ,cutting ,engine2 ,to ,cut ',scape ,wheels2 ,replacing ,broken ,arbors3 ,hardening and ,tempering4 ,illustrated4 ,price #ce ,the ,watchmakers' and ,jewelers' ,practical ,hand ,book4 ,a guide to the student and a workshop companion for the practical watchmaker4 ,hundreds of valuable suggestions from private formulas and the best authorities1 together with hints on making certain repairs4 ,an invaluable book for the workman4 ,the most valuable book for the money ever offered to the trade4 ,fifth ,edition1 ,revised and ,enlarged4 ,edited and compiled by ,henry ,g4 ,abbott4 ,illustrated with #aed zinc etchings4 #aah ,pages4 ,flexible muslin1 #ej cents4 ,paper covers #ce ,prize ,essay on the ,detached ,lever ,escapement for watches and timepieces4 ,a practical and theoretical treatise1 by ,moritz ,grossman1 to which the first prize was awarded by adjudicators appointed by the ,british ,horological ,institute1 ,london4 #aah pages1 bound in paper covers1 with #bj full page plates1 bound in a separate volume4 ,two volumes1 price1 #a #ej ,acme ,record of ,watches ,bought and ,sold4 ,a complete record for dealers in watches1 by which they can at all times tell what watches have been sold1 by whom bought1 price paid1 profit made1 etc41 and in case of the watch being imperfect1 the dealer can readily ascertain from whom he purchased it1 or if stolen he has a full description of them which should materially aid in their recovery4 ,books of #c1jjj ,entries1 substantially bound #a #jj ,the ,acme ,record of ,watch ,repairs4 ,a simple and economical method of recording watch repairs4 ,book of #a1jjj entries1 substantially bound #a #jj ,the ,acme ,record of ,jewelry ,repairs4 ,a simple and economical method of recording jewelry and miscellaneous repairs4 ,book of #a1jjj entries1 substantially bound #a #jj ,the ,acme ,watch ,guarantee ,book4 ,if you desire to increase your watch repair business1 purchase an ,acme ,guarantee ,book1 and advertise the fact that you 8give a written guarantee with all work turned out40 ,these books are printed with a stub so that you may keep a record of all guarantees made1 with date1 name of owner1 description of movement and case1 repairs1 etc4 ,they are bound in heavy1 substantial covers printed on good paper and perforated all around so they can be easily torn out4 ,books of #bjj ,guarantees #a #jj ,books of #cjj ,guarantees #a #ej ,books of #ejj ,guarantees #b #eb ,illustration ,abbott's ,americas ,watchmaker and ,jeweler4 ,by ,henry ,g4 ,abbott4 ,an ,encyclopedia for the ,horologist1 ,jeweler1 ,gold and ,silversmith4 ,containing ,hundreds of ,private ,receipts and ,formulas1 ,compiled from the ,most ,reliable ,sources4 ,complete ,directions for ,using all the ,latest ,tools1 ,attachments and ,devices for ,watchmakers and ,jewelers4 ,among other things contained in this volume may be mentioned a thorough explanation of adjustments1 both to positions and isochronism2 directions for making all the alloys used by a watchmaker1 jeweler and metalworker2 a review of all the escapements1 their action1 construction and proportion1 together with diagrams of each escapement2 an exhaustive treatise on balances1 their expansion and contraction1 auxiliaries1 sizes and weights and direction for poising2 the balance staff1 and full and complete directions for making and replacing new staffs1 together with the use of the graver in turning and the manipulation of measuring instruments2 directions for making twenty different cements of great value to the watchmaker and jeweler1 including lathe wax2 directions for cleansing1 pickling and polishing all kinds of metals3 magnetism and the use of the various demagnetizers2 electroplating1 bronzing and staining all metals2 gauges of all kinds1 and directions for using2 soldering and directions for making all kinds of hard and soft solder and fluxes2 steel1 its treatment in annealing1 hardening1 tempering1 etc42 watch cleaning1 repairing1 etc43 a treatise on wheels and pinions3 directions for using all modern tools and appliances2 and hundreds of miscellaneous receipts1 formulas and hints on all kinds of work1 of great value to every workman4 ,this edition contains forty-four pages more than former editions1 and each page contains one-third more matter than the pages of former editions4 ,an alphabetical list of over five hundred ,european watchmakers who manufactured watches prior to #ahjj1 with years in which they carried on business1 from which the watchmaker can easily establish the age of any movement that a customer may desire to know about2 an alphabetical list of all books on horology published in the ,english or ,french language prior to #ahej2 portraits and sketches of all the celebrated watchmakers of the world from #afjj to #ahid4 #ced pages4 ,illustrated with #bhh engravings4 ,paper covers1 #a #be4 ,fine muslin #a #ej ,illustration ,a ,simple and ,mechanically ,perfect ,watch4 ,by ,moritz ,grossmann4 ,a ,prize ,essay on the ,construction of a ,simple yet ,perfect ,watch4 ,written in a masterly manner by one of the greatest of ,horological ,authors4 ,illustrated with many engravings4 ,from the standpoint of the practical man at the bench this is one of the most exhaustive essays ever written on the subject and no practical workman can fail to appreciate it4 #if pages #ch diagrams4 ,paper1 #ge;c4 ,fine muslin #a #jj ,the ,watchmakers' ,library4 ,this book consists of a collection of the best articles from the various trade journals of this country and ,europe1 among the authors being ,moritz ,grossmann1 ,m4 ,kessels1 ,chas4 ,spiro1 ,chas4 ,reiss1 ,herman ,horrman1 ,p4 ,m4 ,youlen1 ,m4 ,sandoz1 ,herman ,grosch1 ,james ,u4 ,poole1 ,e4 ,sordet and ,vincent ,lauer4 ,the papers are all of a practical nature and of great value to the practical watchmaker1 the whole forming a volume of #bij pages and index4 ,in ,paper ,covers #a #jj ,prize ,essay on the ,balance ,spring and its ,technical ,adjustments 7,baroness ,burdett ,coutt's ,prize74 ,by ,m4 ,immisch4 ,a description of the invention of the balance spring1 its effect upon the art of watchmaking2 the effects of inertia of the balance2 resistance of the air2 balance adjustment by means of turning screws and washers2 proportions of spring and balance2 nature of spirals2 lengths of balance vibrations and their effect upon the timing2 pinning in equal and unequal coils2 the ,breguet spring2 making its curves1 pinning2 regulating isochronal springs1 etc4 ,fully illustrated with numerous engravings and diagrams4 ,cloth4 ,price #a #jj ,repairing ,repeating ,watches4 ,by ,c4 ,t4 ,etchells4 ,a practical treatise on the subject and the only one in print4 ,fully illustrated4 ,the most vexatious repairs that come to the watchmaker are those on repeating watches--and yet they are the most profitable if you know just how to make them4 ,not every watchmaker can make them1 and that is just why they are profitable4 ,do you know how8 ,if not1 why not8 ,you are never too old to learn4 ,paper covers #ce ,the ,escapements4 ,their ,action1 ,construction and ,proportion4 ,all watch and clock escapements thoroughly illustrated and described ,illustrated with twenty diagrams4 ,paper ,covers ,price #ej ,same in cloth binding #ge ,prize ,essay on ,watch ,cleaning and ,repairing4 ,by ,f4 ,c4 ,ries4 ,this work took the first prize1 7offered by ,the ,american ,jeweler7 in competition with thirty-six other writers4 ,contents3 ,examination of the ,movement2 ,taking ,down2 ,fitting the ,dial2 ,fitting ,center ,pivot and ,bridge2 ,bushing2 ,endshake2 ,worn ,center ,pinions2 ,truing the ,barrel2 ,repairing the ,ratchet2 ,putting on ,square on a ,fusee2 ,examination of ,mainspring2 ,stemwind ,mechanism2 ,examination of ,train2 ,imitation ,gilding2 ,pivots2 ,making ,balance ,staff2 ,the ,hairspring2 ,jeweling2 ,cleaning in ,general4 ,price #be ,watch and ,chronometer ,jeweling4 ,by ,n4 ,b4 ,sherwood4 ,a complete treatise on this subject and the only one in print4 ,contents3 ,peculiarities of ,gems used in ,making ,jewels2 ,requisite ,tools and ,how to ,use ,them2 ,shaping and ,polishing the ,jewel2 ,opening the ,jewel2 ,setting the ,jewel2 ,the ,endshake ,tool2 ,general ,hints to the ,repairer4 ,illustrated4 ,price #ce ,illustration ,general ,letter ,engraving4 ,by ,g4 ,f4 ,whelpley1 the acknowledged authority on engraving4 ,his latest and best work4 ,contents3 ,general ,hints to ,beginners2 ,lines and ,curves2 ,originality2 ,practice ,material2 ,position of ,graver2 ,treatment of ,gravers2 ,correct ,spacing2 ,coffin ,plate ,engraving2 ,necessary ,tools2 ,laying out the ,work ,preparation of ,plate2 ,use of ,gravers2 ,methods of ,cutting2 ,slope and ,height of ,letters2 ,inclination of ,graver2 ,transfering2 ,letters ,appropriate for ,long and ,short ,names2 ,harmony in ,laying ,out2 ,touching ,up2 ,difficult ,materials and their ,treatment2 ,tools and ,materials2 ,sharpening ,gravers2 ,choice of ,tools2 ,engraving in ,rings2 ,gravers for ,same3 ,engraving ,blocks and ,stands3 ,ciphers1 their ,formation and ,ornamentation2 ,inscriptions2 ,best ,manner of ,cutting2 ,ciphers as ,compared with ,monograms2 ,monograms and their ,treatment2 ,figure ,monograms or ,cipheroids2 ,intertwining1 ,complex ,monograms2 ,general ,treatment4 ,copiously ,illustrated4 #aab pp4 ,paper #a4jj4 ,cloth #a #be ,the ,watchmakers' and ,jewelers' ,practical ,receipt ,book4 ,a workshop companion1 comprising full and practical formula and directions for solders and soldering1 cleaning1 pickling1 polishing1 bronzing1 coloring1 staining1 cementing1 etching1 lacquering1 varnishing1 general directions for finishing all metals1 hundreds of miscellaneous receipts and processes of great value to all practical watchmakers and jewelers4 ,this is the only book on the market to-day that gives full and complete directions for etching names1 portraits1 etc41 in the bowls of souvenir spoons and silver articles in general4 ,this so-called trade secret is sold by certain persons at #e4jj4 ,dozens of other 8trade secrets0 that are advertised for sale in trade papers at from #a4jj to #e4jj can be found in this book4 ,worth its weight in gold to any practical watchmaker and jeweler4 #acb pages1 illustrated4 ,paper covers1 #a4jj4 ,fine ,english muslin binding #a #be ,poising the ,balance4 ,an ,essay of unusual merit4 ,by ,j4 ,l4 ,finn #be ,hairspringing4 ,a complete treatise on the art of hairspringing4 ,by ,a4 ,z4 ,price #be ,adjustments to ,positions1 ,isochronism and ,compensation4 ,the only work on the subject in print4 #ej pp4 ,illustrated4 ,price #be ,repairing ,watch-,cases4 ,a practical treatise on the subject4 ,by ,w4 ,schwanatus4 ,contents3 ,repairing the ,pendant2 ,lining ,pendant ,holes2 ,work at the ,joints2 ,soldering the ,bezel2 ,the ,closing of the ,case2 ,taking ,out the ,dents4 #dj pp4 ,price4 #be ,jewelers' ,practical ,receipt ,book4 ,contains a mass of most valuable receipts1 formulas and information1 gathered from the best and most reliable sources4 ,fifth edition1 revised and enlarged4 #dh pp4 ,price #ae ,prize ,essay on the ,balance ,staff and ,cylinder4 ,by ,p4 ,w4 ,eigner4 ,this essay took the first prize offered by the ,american ,horological ,society4 ,gives methods for turning1 grinding and polishing1 from staff to pivots4 ,illustrated with numerous engravings4 ,paper covers #be ,compensating ,pendulums and ,how to ,make ,them4 ,a practical treatise on the construction of mechanically perfect ,pendulums1 for the use of watchmakers4 ,by ,j4 ,l4 ,finn and ,s4 ,riefler4 ,illustrated4 ,paper covers1 ,price #ce ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,illustrations in this e,book have been positioned between paragraphs4 ,in versions of this e,book that support hyperlinks1 the references to illustrations lead to the corresponding illustrations4 ,links to articles have been provided where they are referenced in other sections4 ,the index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,some hyphens in words have been silently removed1 some added1 when a predominant preference was found in the original book4 ,except for those changes noted below1 all misspellings in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,pg #ae3 removed redundant 8to0 in 8,teeth1 to true04 ,pg #bh3 8horisontal0 replaced with 8horizontal04 ,pg #bi3 8emphacise0 replaced with 8emphasize04 ,pg #bi3 8an0 replaced with 8in0 ind 8one portion removed in order04 ,pg #cf3 8faciliy0 replaced with 8facility04 ,pg #db3 ,caption 8,fid4 #bj0 replaced with 8,fig4 #bj04 ,pg #eh3 8acqua0 replaced with 8aqua04 ,pg #ei3 8deterorated0 replaced with 8deteriorated04 ,pg #gh3 ,duplicate section 8#hh0 appeared between sections #he and #hf4 ,this has been renumbered 8#he;a04 ,pg #ajb3 8phosporus0 replaced with 8phosphorus04 ,pg #ajb3 ,reference to paragraph 8#fff0 replaced with 8#eia04 ,pg #aaf3 8cleasing0 replaced with 8cleansing04 ,pg #aag3 8cautions0 replaced with 8cautious04 ,pg #aah3 8choride0 replaced with 8chloride04 ,pg #abd3 8imposible0 replaced with 8impossible04 ,pg #aca3 8camporated0 replaced with 8camphorated04 ,pg #ach3 ,added the word 8be0 to 8,the other stones may be treated in similar manner04 ,pg #aci3 8dimished0 replaced with 8diminished04 ,pg #adc3 8necessary0 replaced with 8unnecessary04 ,pg #ade3 8keylesss0 replaced with 8keyless04 ,pg #adg3 8expriments0 replaced with 8experiments04 ,pg #adi3 8degress0 replaced with 8degrees04 ,pg #aej3 8throughly0 replaced with 8thoroughly04 ,pg #aeb3 ,replaced 8the0 with 8to0 in 8working up towards to the extremity04 ,pg #aec3 8sucessful0 replaced with 8successful04 ,pg #aee3 8escapments0 replaced with 8escapements04 ,pg #aee3 ,replaced 8too0 with 8to0 in 8sealing-wax causes objects to adhere04 ,pg #aef3 8bebstween0 replaced with 8between04 ,pg #aef3 8especiably0 replaced with 8especially04 ,pg #afj3 8magnanese0 replaced with 8manganese04 ,pg #afj3 8iatter0 replaced with 8latter04 ,pg #afg3 ,removed extra 8as0 in 8it is known as a tourmaline04 ,pg #agj3 8rottten0 replaced with 8rotten04 ,pg #agf3 8dazzing0 replaced with 8dazzling04 ,pg #agg3 ,original text unclear1 inferred 8taking0 in 8necessity of taking care04 ,pg #ahj3 8aquired0 replaced with 8acquired04 ,pg #ahi3 8ltttle0 replaced with 8little04 ,pg #aig3 8calliper0 replaced with 8caliper04 ,pg #aii3 8operatar0 replaced with 8operator04 ,pg #bjd3 ,removed extra 8be0 in 8#aj feet high may be used as a fixture04 ,pg #bjf3 ,replaced 8varries0 with 8varies04 ,pg #bjh3 ,removed duplicate 8is0 in 8,h is a pipe04 ,pg #bji3 8ot0 replaced with 8not04 ,pg #bah3 ,replaced 8to0 with 8too0 in 8,having too much end-shake04 ,pg #bcd3 8obstuse0 replaced with 8obtuse04 ,pg #bcg3 ,removed duplicate 8the0 in 8raising the edge of a jewel04 ,pg #bdg3 8cuting0 replaced with 8cutting04 ,pg #bea3 ,replaced 8ase0 with 8are0 in 8polishers are used04 ,pg #bha3 ,replaced 8,illinos0 with 8,illinois04 ,pg #bha3 ,replaced 8,bregeut0 with 8,breguet04 ,pg #ccd3 ,replaced 8idex0 with 8index04 ,pg #cda3 ,replaced 8portio0 with 8portion04 ,pg #cde3 ,replaced 8templets0 with 8templates04 ,pg #cdh3 ,replaced 8cuttter0 with 8cutter04 ,pg #ceg3 ,removed duplicate 8is0 in 8,it is well to have some change wheels04 ,pg #ceh3 ,replaced 8,it0 with 8,its0 in 8,its edge must be saddle-shaped04 ,pg #cfg3 ,replaced 8late0 with 8plate04 ,pg #cdg3 ,replaced 8appplicable0 with 8applicable04 ,pg #chi3 ,replaced 8make0 with 8made0 in 8remarks made in speaking04 ,pg #djd3 ,replaced 8mannner0 with 8manner04 ,pg #daj3 ,corrected caption 8,fig4 #bd0 to 8,fig4 #bca04 ,pg #dah3 ,replaced end of line 8dur-0 with 8during04 ,pg #dbb3 ,corrected caption from 8,fig4 #cch0 to 8,fig4 #bch04 ,pg #dcb3 ,replaced 8characacteristic0 with 8characteristic04 ,pg #dcc3 ,original text unclear1 inferred 8not to0 in 8advisable not to touch the fusee04 ,pg #ded3 ,correction caption from 8,fig4 #bea0 to 8,fig4 #bee04 ,pg #dfc3 ,removed duplicate 8the0 from 8their heads on the dial side04 ,pg #dfc3 ,replaced 8escapment0 with 8escapement04 ,pg #dgj3 8acuracy0 replaced with 8accuracy04 ,pg #dga3 8longtitudinal0 replaced with 8longitudinal04 ,pg #ejf3 8d'horologerie0 replaced with 8d'horlogerie04 ,pg #eaa3 ,added 8know0 in 8,do you know how80 ,pg #eab3 ,replaced 8,fuzee0 with 8,fusee04