,the ,world of ,art ,series ,,arts ,,and ,,crafts ,,of ,,old ,,japan ,,by ,,stewart ,,dick ,illustration ,t4 ,n4 ,,foulis1 #c ,,frederick ,,street1 ,,edinburgh2 #ce ,,leicester ,,square1 ,,london 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,mdccccvi4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,rainy ,,landscape ,from a ,kakemono by ,,sansetsu 7,british ,museum7 ,,preface ,this little book is intended not for the collector or the connoisseur1 but merely for those who require an introduction to a field of art hitherto little explored but which will well repay further study4 ,for fuller information on the subject many sources are available1 but a word of caution is necessary4 ,a bibliography of works on ,japanese art would be misleading rather than useful1 for much of what has been written regarding it is1 as criticism1 quite valueless4 ,on ,japanese painting the most important1 indeed the only sound work1 is contained in a series of articles contributed by ,mr ,arthur ,morrison to ,the ,monthly ,review1 #aijb-c4 ,the writings of ,mr ,e4 ,f4 ,strange deal fully and adequately with ,colour ,printing2 ,captain ,brinkley is a good authority on ,keramics1 and ,mr ,josiah ,conder on ,landscape ,gardening and ,flower ,arrangement4 ,the ,transactions of the ,japan ,society contain many interesting and well-illustrated articles on ,japanese minor arts1 and the charm of ,japanese life is nowhere reflected more pleasantly than in the writings of ,sir ,edwin ,arnold and ,mr ,lafcadio ,hearn4 ,to the custodians of public and the owners of private collections ,i am indebted for many courtesies1 and especially to ,mr ,m4 ,tomkinson1 ,franche ,hall1 ,kidderminster1 for permission to reproduce several of the illustrations in the sumptuous catalogue of his collection4 ,s4 ,d4 ,october #aijd4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,introductory #a ,,ii4 ,,painting #af ,,iii4 ,,colour ,,printing #df ,,iv4 ,,sculpture ,,and ,,carving #fc ,v4 ,,metal ,,work #gg ,,vi4 ,,keramics #if ,,vii4 ,,lacquer #aba ,,viii4 ,,landscape ,,gardening ,,and ,,the ,,arrangement ,,of ,,flowers #ach ,illustration3 ,stylized ,chrysanthemum ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,painting -- ,a ,rainy ,landscape1 by ,sansetsu ,frontispiece ,flying ,ducks1 by ,korin ,to face page #d ,fukurokujiu and ,crane1 by ,korin #ab ,arhat and ,lion1 by ,cho ,densu #ah ,an ,impressionist ,landscape1 by ,sesson #bb ,a ,landscape in the ,chinese ,style1 by ,sesshiu #cj ,shoriken crossing the ,sea on his ,sword1 by ,motonobu #cd ,kwannon1 the ,goddess of ,mercy1 by ,tanyu #cf ,bird and ,pine ,branch1 by ,naonobu #ch ,flower ,panel1 by ,korin #dj ,monkeys and ,plum ,blossom1 by ,sosen #db ,a ,peacock1 by ,ippo #dd ,,colour ,,prints -- ,a ,figure ,group1 by ,utamaro #eb ,a ,figure ,study1 by ,toyokuni #ef ,one of the ,thirty-six ,views of ,fuji1 by ,hokusai #fj ,a ,landscape1 by ,hiroshig #fb ,,sculpture ,,and ,,carving -- ,colossal ,bronze ,image of a ,bodhisatwa #ff ,portrait of ,senno ,rikiu1 carved in ,wood and ,lacquered #gj ,a ,group of ,netsuks #gd ,,metal ,,work -- ,two ,bowls ,cast in ,bronze #gh ,eagle in ,cast and ,hammered ,iron #hb ,a ,group of ,tsubas #ij ,,keramics -- ,a ,group of ,porcelain #ajd ,vase1 ,satsuma ,faience #ajh ,a ,group of ,various ,wares #aad ,,lacquer -- ,lid of ,suzuri-bako or ,writing-case #abd ,a ,group of ,inro #acj ,a ,group of ,inro1 by ,korin #acd ,,flower ,,arrangement -- ,a ,flower ,composition #adh ,,tailpieces -- ,equestrian ,figures from the ,mangwa of ,hokusai2 ,fans from ,korin ,hiakuzu2 and ,crests4 ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,in coming to the study of ,japanese art we must remember that we are entering a strange world1 where life and language1 and even modes of thought1 run on other lines than ours4 ,when ,japan1 only fifty years ago1 was thrown open to the ,western nations1 in our ignorance and folly we were at first inclined to treat the ,japanese as a barbaric people4 ,but never was there a greater mistake4 ,for the truth is that their civilisation is not only older than ours but in some respects has advanced much further than we have ever attained4 ,in an sthetic sense the people of ,japan are cultured to a degree far beyond our ,western standards2 their arts are full of beauties which are too subtle1 too refined1 for our comprehension4 ,here1 in the most civilised of all ,western nations1 one is dubbed a visionary and a dreamer if he hopes to see the day when the pleasures of art shall be the solace of the poor as well as the luxury of the rich4 ,but this happy state has existed in ,japan for ages4 ,one of the chief characteristics of the people is their love for beauty both in nature and in art4 ,on the public highways are notices indicating to the wayfarer the points from which the most beautiful prospects may be obtained4 ,the artisan mother in the city carries her babe out into the public parks at the festival of the cherry blossom1 that its infant mind may be permeated by the beauty and fragrance of the flowers4 ,and1 loving beauty1 they can also express it1 for to learn to write in ,japan is in itself a course of training in drawing4 ,in art the ,european requires that everything should be stated with the utmost fulness of a tedious realism before he can grasp its meaning1 but to the more cultured ,japanese a mere hint or slight suggestion is sufficient4 ,the leading characteristic of ,japanese art is1 perhaps1 that it leaves so much unsaid4 ,for the ,philistine1 who bulks so largely in the ,west1 and has to be considered and propitiated at every turn1 seems to be quite unknown in ,japan4 ,what wonder1 then1 that1 with such a public1 their art should be somewhat above our heads4 ,doubtless the canons of ,european art differ widely from those of the ,far ,east1 but these things are not essentials4 ,all art is based on convention1 in the terms of which its meaning is expressed4 ,if we would understand ,japanese art we must accept its conventions2 we must learn the language of their art and see things with their eyes4 ,it is the fault of too many critics of ,japanese art that they fail to approach it in this sympathetic attitude1 and by such it is quite misunderstood4 ,the mystic and beautiful ,buddhist figures are tried by rules of anatomy1 and the dreamlike ,chinese landscapes by the laws of perspective4 ,the materialist weighs the spiritual in the balance and finds it wanting4 ,but we seem to be improving in these matters2 perhaps we are becoming more humble4 ,of late years some of our leading artists are beginning to acquire the qualities which ,japanese art has shown so long4 ,who shall say that the work of such an one as ,whistler1 in its sensitive feeling for balance1 in its grace of line1 in the unerring instinct which marks its spacing1 and in the delicate harmony of its colour1 is not essentially ,japanese in style8 ,whether these qualities were knowingly borrowed from the ,japanese1 or whether the artist evolved them from his own inner consciousness1 matters little4 ,the important fact is that the qualities which mark the work of one of the greatest of our modern painters1 and distinguish it from that of the vast body of his contemporaries1 are just the qualities which for centuries have marked the art of ,japan4 ,but we know that ,whistler was an enthusiastic admirer of ,japanese art1 and1 doubtless1 he would have been the first to acknowledge his debt4 ,with the younger school ,japanese influence has been all-powerful4 ,one might safely say that1 but for the ,japanese colour print1 there would have been no modern poster school1 working so daringly in bold outline and broad1 flat tints2 and recent black and white work is equally indebted to the ,japanese woodcuts1 with their beautiful1 flowing line and dexterous use of solid masses of black4 ,illustration3 ,,wild ,,ducks ,by ,,korin 7,from a ,woodcut in the ,korin ,hiakuzu7 ,the difference of mental attitude is not the only reason for the wide divergence in methods and ideals of ,japanese art from that to which we are accustomed4 ,there are other physical and material causes of great importance which have helped to decide its course4 ,the basis of all pictorial and applied art is architectural1 and here we find one starting-point of difference between the styles of the ,east and the ,west4 ,the frequency of earthquakes in ,japan has rendered impossible the erection of buildings of the stately proportions and massive grandeur of other climes4 ,the old ,buddhist temples1 which are the chief buildings1 cannot vie in importance with those of ,india or ,china4 ,in the ,japanese house the walls are but paper screens1 the whole weight of the roof being supported by the four corner posts1 which1 in their turn1 are not sunk in the ground but stand on four large stones4 ,this lightness of construction has to a great extent dictated the course taken by the arts of ,japan4 ,the ,japanese picture1 instead of being enclosed in a massive frame1 is placed on a light mount of silk brocade1 and when not in use is rolled up as we roll a map4 ,and the field of applied art is similarly restricted4 ,the temples contain most of the larger and more important works2 there is no place for such in the house4 ,the household furniture is reduced to a minimum4 ,a few mats to sit on1 for the ,japanese use no chairs2 one or two paper screens dividing the house into separate chambers at will2 a charcoal brazier2 a few cooking utensils and articles of pottery2 some lacquered vessels1 fans1 mirrors1 and other ornaments2 articles of dress1 weapons1 and a few personal belongings1 form the whole field which is open to the craftsman4 ,so in ,japan we have no rooms crowded with a profusion of heavy ornament4 ,reticence is the keynote2 but what ornament there is must be of exquisite quality4 ,before dealing in detail with the different branches of ,japanese art it will be well to glance for a little at the history of the nation1 in the light of which knowledge we shall better understand the social system under which these arts arose and the mental qualities which they embody4 ,the civilisation of ,japan was the slow growth of many centuries4 ,for more than two thousand years1 if we may believe the ancient records1 the ,mikado and his forefathers have been absolute rulers of ,japan1 the present dynasty stretching back in unbroken line to the ,emperor ,jimmu1 who flourished about #fjj ,b4,c4 ,but1 as written history did not exist till some centuries after the beginning of the ,christian era1 the records of those early days are of a more or less legendary character1 as one might surmise from the fact that the ,emperor ,jimmu was reported to be the grandson of the ,sun ,goddess herself4 ,the origin of the ,japanese race is shrouded in mystery4 ,little is known of them except that1 somewhere between two and three thousand years ago1 they invaded ,japan1 and drove out the ,ainos1 who still survive in the island of ,yezo4 ,a ,mongolian race1 no one can say positively whether the invaders came from ,china or ,korea1 from the ,malay peninsula or ,siam1 or whether1 indeed1 they were an offshoot from the wild ,huns against whom ,china raised the ,great ,wall4 ,one thing tending to show that they were not a branch of the ,chinese race is that1 even at that early date1 ,china was the abode of an advanced civilisation2 while the ,japanese were certainly little removed from barbarism1 and1 indeed1 hardly more civilised than the ,ainos whom they displaced4 ,but the ,japanese character has always been receptive1 and just as their new civilisation is borrowed from ,europe1 so for the foundations of the old they are indebted to ,china4 ,when they first came into contact with influences from the mainland it is hard to tell4 ,it is said that the use of ,chinese characters was introduced as early as #aeg ,b4,c41 and the early records give a full account of an invasion of ,korea by the ,empress ,jingo about #bjj ,a4,d4 ,after this victorious expedition many captives are said to have been brought back1 who laid the foundations of ,chinese learning and culture4 ,the real civilising of ,japan1 however1 began with the coming of the ,buddhist priests from ,korea in the middle of the sixth century4 ,buddhism became the chief religion of the country1 largely absorbing1 though it never quite superseded1 the collection of myths and superstitions known as ,shintoism4 ,for ,shintoism was hardly a religion in the usual sense of the term4 ,as a ,japanese writer admits1 it had no moral code2 but1 he adds naively3 8,morals were invented by the ,chinese because they were immoral people2 whereas in ,japan there was no necessity for a system of morals1 as everyone acted rightly if he only consulted his own heart40 ,the chief centres of the new culture which spread over the land were the great ,buddhist monasteries4 ,just as our own medival cathedrals and monasteries were the nurseries of the arts1 so in ,japan arose a race of artist priests4 ,their work at first applied solely to religious purposes1 but afterwards widened out till1 along with the sacred1 there existed also a secular school4 ,for three or four hundred years under these benign and mellowing influences the country grew and prospered4 ,the quiet and peaceful times from the eighth to the tenth century especially marked a period of great literary activity1 several of the most famous poets of ,japan1 whose writings still live in old tradition1 flourishing during this period4 ,as time went on1 however1 the horizon became overcast1 and from the twelfth to the end of the sixteenth centuries ,japanese history is one long record of strife and civil war4 ,the ,mikado became more and more only the nominal ruler2 the real power lay in the hands of the warrior nobles4 ,in the twelfth century arose the terrible struggle between the two rivals1 the ,taira and ,minamoto families1 each supporting its own candidate for the throne--a war which gave to legend and story one of its chief heroes--,yoshitsun1 the ,bayard of ,japan4 ,a hundred years later ,japan1 for the only time in her history1 had to repel a foreign invader1 a huge ,tartar armada threatening her shores2 but1 as in the case of ,england1 the elements fought for the islanders4 ,a terrific storm played havoc with the ,tartar fleet1 and of all the invading forces it is said that only three men escaped alive1 and were sent home to tell the tale4 ,then in the fourteenth century the bitter wars of the ,ashikaga period once more bathed the country in blood4 ,those long years of war set their stamp on the nation1 hardened its fibre1 and brought out its sterner virtues4 ,a military class--the ,samurai--arose1 and these trained warriors were maintained by the local ,daimios1 or princes1 to whom they owed feudal obedience4 ,bushido1 the way of the warrior1 a stern but lofty creed of valour and devotion to duty1 became the real moral code of the nation4 ,for the annals of ,japanese knighthood are full of tales of dauntless heroism--tales still told in every cottage in ,japan1 and retold a hundred times in ,japanese art4 ,in those warlike days there was little place for the gentler arts of peace4 ,but the ,buddhist temples still stood--quiet sanctuaries where1 undisturbed by the turmoil and strife around them1 the gentle1 priestly philosophers pursued the even tenor of their way1 and kept the lamp of art burning bright and clear4 ,in the outer world the military arts alone flourished1 and the swordmaker was the king of craftsmen4 ,in the fifteenth century1 however1 during a period of peace1 a second wave of ,chinese influence gave a new impetus to art4 ,the ,court of the retired ,shogun ,yoshimasa was a circle of artists and learned men1 culture once more reached a high level1 and one of the most brilliant periods of ,japanese art began4 ,the sixteenth century saw a gradual consolidation of the empire4 ,the ,mikado for long had been little more than the nominal ruler1 the chief power lying in the hands of the ,shogun1 who controlled the whole executive of the state2 but the local ,daimios gave little more than a mere formal submission to the central authority--each was practically absolute king in his own province4 ,in #afjc ,iyeyasu1 the first of the ,tokugawa ,shoguns1 for in his family the office became hereditary1 came into power4 ,a man of great ability1 he set himself to complete the work of subjugation which his predecessors ,nobunaga and ,hideyoshi had begun1 and finally reduced the turbulent nobles to the state of vassals1 owing feudal obedience to the ,mikado4 ,under his wise rule the country settled down to a prolonged period of peace1 unbroken for two hundred and fifty years1 in which art and industry developed greatly4 ,the ,tokugawa period1 #afjc-ahfg1 especially in its earlier stages1 is pre-eminently the period of the minor arts1 which then reached a perfection which has not been attained before or since4 ,the force of the nation formerly expended on war was turned into these more peaceful channels4 ,the ,daimios of the various provinces carefully fostered the local arts1 specimens of which were sent yearly to the ,shogun and the ,mikado1 and a keen rivalry existed between the different districts4 ,illustration3 ,,fukurokujiu ,,and ,,crane ,by ,,korin 7,from a ,woodcut in the ,korin ,hiakuzu7 ,often the local lord would establish a kiln on his private estate1 where articles of pottery and porcelain were manufactured solely for his own use4 ,in the shelter of his castle1 too1 the artist in metal or in lacquer worked peacefully1 freed from all sordid cares4 ,time was no object to him1 the final result everything4 ,he had to consult no demands of popular taste1 his work was always the best he could produce1 and often years of labour went to the making of one perfect piece4 ,as time went on1 however1 gradually the work lost its first freshness and originality4 ,it became richer and more elaborate but tamer and less vigorous1 and by the beginning of the nineteenth century only echoed faintly its former glories4 ,for the burden of feudalism was pressing on the country with more and more weight4 ,the military classes1 their employment gone1 gradually sank into luxury and indolence2 the only sign of life was the gradual rise of a more democratic feeling among the people4 ,the later schools of painting were more or less of the nature of a revolt from the traditions of the older styles1 and the art of colour printing saw the rise of a school of democratic artists4 ,the soil was already prepared1 some change was inevitable1 and the change came when the country was thrown open to the nations of the ,west1 feudalism finally abolished1 and a democratic government established in its place4 ,but contact with ,western ideas and ,western methods seemed to give the deathblow to ,japanese art4 ,in painting1 the ,european standards have played havoc with the charming and beautiful conventions of old ,japan4 ,aniline dyes have spoilt the soft harmonies of the colour prints4 ,in metal1 in carving1 and in lacquer the new work is vastly inferior to the old4 ,what the ,european market clamoured for was not quality but cheapness1 and so1 adaptive as ever1 the ,japanese turn out by the hundred superficial and mechanical imitations of the beautiful old work4 ,modern commercial methods have little to do with art1 and in this case seemed at once to turn the artist into a trader4 ,japan is now a modern nation1 ,western in its civilisation1 in its methods1 and seemingly in its ideals--destined to become a great industrial state4 ,perhaps1 as she has done so often before1 she may absorb the new influences1 and without loss of individuality follow out her own course4 ,perhaps1 phnix-like1 from the ashes of the old1 new arts as brilliant may arise4 ,but1 again1 some say that art belongs only to the more youthful stages of the world1 and that in these days of science never again can the artist be more than a mere survival of an earlier age--one who still keeps green within him the youth which in others has long since withered and died4 ,illustration3 ,rider on ,horseback ,,chapter ,,ii ,,painting ,in a general survey of the arts of ,japan it will be best to begin with the art of painting4 ,in a land of paradoxes there is this paradox regarding ,japanese art1 that while their pictorial art is the most decorative of all pictorial arts1 yet their decorative art is the most pictorial of all decorative arts4 ,for the ,japanese decorative artist rarely or never uses ornament merely as ornament2 it almost invariably represents something more than mere beauty of line1 mass1 or colour2 there is usually some pictorial motive attached4 ,the lacquerer1 for instance1 rarely uses purely conventional forms1 but flowers1 birds1 figures1 even landscapes1 make up his schemes of decoration4 ,it follows1 then1 that the decorative arts of ,japan are dominated by1 and indeed are based upon1 its pictorial art1 and1 therefore1 the necessary preliminary to their consideration is a study of the art of painting4 ,the ,european's introduction to the study of ,japanese art is apt to be rather misleading1 for in all probability the first specimens which come under his notice are the colour prints and paintings of the naturalistic and decorative schools of the last century4 ,his first shock of surprise overcome1 for both the medium and the style of presentment are new and strange1 he speedily discovers in them real beauties4 ,harmonies of line and colour1 finer and more subtle than any we have to show1 arouse his enthusiasm1 and he thinks that he has penetrated the mysteries of ,japanese art1 and that all its treasures lie before him4 ,even were it so the boon would be no small one2 but1 as a matter of fact1 he merely stands upon the threshold4 ,the real glories of ,japanese painting are the works of hundreds of years ago4 ,as well could one judge of the glories of ,english literature from the ephemeral periodicals of the day as of the painting of old ,japan from the products of the more materialistic schools of recent years4 ,to know ,english literature one must read the classics2 to realise its full glory we must go back to ,spenser1 ,shakespeare1 and ,milton4 ,and so with ,japanese art1 we must go back to the works of the old masters--to ,cho ,densu with his amazing power1 to ,sesshiu with his wonderful dream landscapes--ere we realise its grandeur4 ,then we feel that1 beautiful pieces of decoration though the modern works are1 here we breathe a purer and a finer air2 we are in another world1 a nobler and a greater one4 ,the finest landscapes in the world are those painted by the old ,chinese and ,japanese artists2 monochromes1 slight and shadowy as morning mist1 but breathing the very poetry of nature4 ,illustration3 ,,arhat ,,and ,,lion ,from a ,kakemono by ,,cho ,,densu 7,british ,museum7 ,the art of painting was borrowed by ,japan from ,china1 the first teachers being the ,buddhist priests who crossed over from ,korea in the sixth century4 ,this origin1 and also the nature of the materials used in the art1 stamped it at the outset with qualities which have ever since distinguished it4 ,the ordinary instrument for writing in ,china and ,japan was the brush1 dipped in ,indian ink1 and to form the native characters was in itself an exercise in drawing4 ,caligraphy1 indeed1 as penmanship in the old days of medival ,europe1 was reckoned as one of the fine arts2 or rather1 from the ,chinese point of view1 painting was reckoned one of the branches of caligraphy4 ,this caligraphic basis is the root of most of the conventions of ,chinese and ,japanese painting1 and in the quality of the brush work are to be discovered many of its beauties4 ,for by means of line alone1 not a pen line1 thin and hard1 but the supple1 swelling line of the brush1 the artist not only renders the outlines and shapes of things but suggests modelling1 chiaroscuro1 even the different planes of distance1 in a manner indefinable in its subtlety4 ,colour1 except in the later and more naturalistic schools1 is used in flat tints only4 ,this absence of chiaroscuro is often quoted as a defect of ,japanese art2 but if all that can be said has been expressed by line why add light and shade8 ,one has only to study the work of one of their masters in the use of the brush1 such an one as ,motonobu1 of the ,kano school1 to understand not only how unnecessary it would be but how impossible4 ,we would as soon wish to see filled in one of the exquisite outlines of ,flaxman4 ,it is like setting a beautiful poem to music3 you may exchange one melody for another1 but both cannot exist together4 ,and we must remember that all use of line is a convention1 for line does not exist in nature1 and ,japanese art1 after all1 only differs in this respect from ,european art in having used this convention with greater freedom and more consummate mastery4 ,the simplicity of the means at the artist's disposal--a brush or two1 ,indian ink1 a few liquid colours1 and a sheet of paper or silk--tended to produce directness and simplicity of effect1 and this tendency was increased by another influence4 ,the ,buddhist priests1 then as now1 were of a type of mind essentially idealistic4 ,their religion taught them to regard the spiritual essence of things as the great fact and the outward and visible world as merely a temporary and changing phase1 and so in their art1 for they were the first painters1 they aimed not at a literal transcription of nature but at an expression of its inner significance4 ,and this training has always affected the attitude of ,japanese art4 ,directness1 reticence1 and restraint are its main characteristics4 ,to present the essential quality of a scene1 not its mere outward appearance1 and that with the least possible obtrusion of the material1 was its object4 ,even in later days1 in their more naturalistic studies1 the ,japanese artist never dreamt of drawing direct from nature as we do4 ,his system1 the system by which children still learn to draw in ,japan1 was to look steadily at the object to be depicted until it was learned by heart and could be reproduced at will4 ,in painting the artist seats himself on the floor1 the sheet of silk or paper before him4 ,for a while he gazes abstractedly1 till the whole picture is clear to his mental vision4 ,then with the first touch the central point of interest--the eye of a bird1 say--is indicated4 ,swiftly and surely1 with a full brush1 the rest of the subject is filled in4 ,there is no niggling1 no retouching1 for the delicate1 absorbent surface of the silk will not stand repeated workings4 ,each stroke is placed on the picture direct as it is to remain1 and1 though the result may be a masterpiece1 the work1 in many cases1 is that of a few minutes4 ,the technique of the brush has1 indeed1 been carried to a degree of perfection by the ,japanese artist otherwise unheard of4 ,he fills it1 or it may be in the case of a large brush each part of it1 with just as little or as much ink or colour as he desires1 carefully arranges the hairs in a certain way1 for the preparation and loading of the brush is often as important as the actual brush stroke1 and then with one single sweep obtains the whole effect he requires4 ,many are the wonderful tales of the feats which the old masters could perform with one stroke of the brush4 ,a word may here be said as to the forms which pictorial art assumes in ,japan4 ,the first and most common form is the kakemono1 or hanging picture1 formed of a sheet of silk or paper1 richly mounted on brocade of various colours4 ,it is furnished with rollers like a map1 and is rolled up tightly when not in use4 ,this is bad for the surface of the painting1 cracks being inevitable if much body colour has been used1 but it is a great protection against the fires which are so frequent in the light wooden houses of ,japan2 for1 as there is a considerable space between the picture and the top of the mount1 several layers of brocade and tough mounting paper are thus tightly wound round the painting4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,impressionist ,,landscape ,from a ,makimono by ,,sesson 7,british ,museum7 ,the two ribbons1 which so pleasantly break the monotony of the upper part of the mount1 are not merely ornamental4 ,when the moving screens forming the side of the house have been moved back for coolness1 and the kakemono hangs in the open air1 the futai1 as these ribbons are called1 flap in the breeze1 and prevent birds from alighting on the upper roller4 ,the makimono1 or horizontal roll1 is largely used for historical scenes or for landscape sketches1 the series1 many feet long1 often forming one continuous composition4 ,it is not hung up but laid on the floor1 and unrolled and examined bit by bit1 as we would look at the pictures in a book4 ,originally the kakemono was exclusively used for sacred1 and the makimono for secular1 subjects1 but this distinction has long since ceased to exist4 ,a third form1 gaku1 is stretched on a frame1 after the manner of our pictures1 but is little used4 ,screens1 both folding and sliding1 were greatly used for the longer and more important pictures4 ,sometimes a screen of five or six panels will be so treated that while the whole forms one composition yet each panel taken separately also forms a complete picture4 ,books1 each page stiff and opening on a hinge like a miniature screen1 are also used4 ,lastly1 mural decorations on wood or plaster1 and the dainty little paintings on fans1 complete the forms of pictorial art most in vogue in ,japan4 ,some time about the end of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth century the ,buddhist priests crossed over from ,korea1 and formed the first ,japanese school of painting1 devoted almost entirely to the sacred subjects which were used to decorate the ,buddhist shrines4 ,very beautiful and dignified are many of these old ,butsugwa paintings1 recalling in their rich1 full colour and their lavish use of gold the illuminations and early paintings of our ,european monasteries4 ,in most cases they are unsigned1 the holy man deeming it unfitting that objects intended for such sacred uses should be contaminated by earthly associations4 ,the ,british ,museum collection contains several fine specimens1 which1 though faded and sadly blackened with incense fumes1 show these early works worthy to compare1 for elevation of tone and religious fervour1 with the finest works of ,christian art4 ,for many years this ,buddhist school of painting continued1 its traditions lasting without a break until the fifteenth century4 ,and here at the outset it will be well to call attention to a difficulty which arises in any attempt to give a brief and clear account of the history of painting in ,japan4 ,the matter is complicated by the fact that1 though the different schools of painting are evolved one from the other1 the later did not supersede the earlier form1 but usually both continued to exist contemporaneously4 ,many artists painted in the styles of more than one school1 the manner often being decided by the choice of subject1 and latterly it was part of the training of ,japanese artists to go through all the schools4 ,then1 again1 some of the greatest masters1 especially those of the last two centuries1 formed their styles by adopting and combining what appeared to them best in each school4 ,to follow out logically the growth of the various schools1 and at the same time to treat of the different artists in a chronological order1 is1 therefore1 a matter of some difficulty4 ,the oldest picture in ,japan of which there is any authentic record was painted1 probably by a ,korean priest in the beginning of the seventh century1 on the plaster wall of the ,buddhist temple ,horiuji at ,nara1 a storehouse filled with treasures of ancient art4 ,for three hundred years little more is known--the names of a few priests and one or two priceless paintings are all that remain2 but by the ninth century civilisation had reached an advanced stage1 the country was rich and prosperous1 and entered into a great literary and artistic epoch4 ,the poets ,narihira and ,komachi1 still ranked among the immortals1 were contemporaries of ,kos no ,kanaoka1 the first great secular painter of ,japan1 and1 if the double evidence of popular legend and the verdict of critics and artists of his own and later days is to be believed1 the greatest of all ,japanese artists4 ,about a dozen examples1 said to be by ,kanaoka1 exist1 but1 one by one1 the genuineness of each has been questioned by experts4 ,perhaps the most authentic is the portrait of ,shotoku ,daishi at the ,ninnaji temple in ,kioto1 which has been reproduced in colours in the ,kokkwa1 the ,japanese ,government publication4 ,although nearly all the existing pictures attributed to him are ,buddhistic figure pieces1 ,kanaoka's popular reputation was based on his paintings of secular subjects1 portraits1 landscapes1 and animals4 ,he was especially famous as a painter of horses4 ,the story goes that in a certain temple hung a painting by ,kanaoka of a magnificent black steed4 ,the peasants in the neighbourhood were much annoyed by the ravages of some wild animal1 which nightly raided their gardens1 eating the herbs and trampling the flowers4 ,at last they lay in wait1 and found to their surprise that the intruder was a huge black horse4 ,on their pursuing it disappeared into the temple1 but when they followed the building was empty4 ,as they stood below the picture great drops of sweat fell down1 and there was ,kanaoka's horse all hot and steaming4 ,then one of them had a happy idea4 ,seizing a brush he rapidly painted in a rope tethering it to a post1 and the gardens were no more invaded by the nocturnal visitor4 ,the work of the immediate followers of ,kanaoka seemed to be chiefly ,buddhistic in style1 but this may only mean that the only specimens which have survived the ravages of time are those sacred pieces which were safely stored in the temples1 and that1 like ,kanaoka1 they were equally at home in secular subjects4 ,in the tenth century ,kasuga no ,motomitsu founded the first purely native school1 called the ,yamato school1 which afterwards1 under the name of the ,tosa school1 became the recognised style for the treating of historical subjects4 ,the eleventh1 twelfth1 and thirteenth centuries formed a period of great literary and artistic activity4 ,buddhism was then in the height of its power1 and there is no greater period than this in the history of ,japanese art1 but of these old masters we know little more than the names4 ,in the twelfth century we have ,takuma ,shoga1 ,sumiyoshi ,keion1 and ,toba ,sojo1 the last a marvellous animal painter1 but examples of their work are practically unknown out of ,japan4 ,in the thirteenth century we have ,fujiwara no ,nobuzan1 of whose ,buddhistic work the ,british ,museum has a fine specimen2 and a hundred years later ,kos no ,korehisa1 renowned as the greatest military painter of ,japan4 ,in #acea was born a truly great artist1 ,meicho1 or ,cho ,densu1 whom some rank as the equal of ,kanaoka himself4 ,a ,buddhist priest1 he was famed for his sanctity1 and the bulk of his works are of a religious nature1 to which field he did much to bring new life and vigour1 for the school had relapsed into the dull repetition of cut-and-dry formulas4 ,but in secular subjects he was equally great4 ,the ,british ,museum is fortunate enough to possess a masterpiece by ,cho ,densu--a figure of an ,arhat seated with a lion at his feet4 ,the whole picture is presented with extraordinary force4 ,the attention is seized and held by the eyes of the figure as they stare fixedly at the lion1 which1 with head thrown back and gums bared1 glares savagely in return4 ,the drawing is superb in its easy power1 the colour rich and sombre1 its highest note in the bright red of the lion's jaws4 ,a new influence arose with the ,chinese renaissance of the fifteenth century1 and we come to the times of the great landscape painters4 ,nothing could be further removed from the attitude of the modern ,european landscapist than that of these old ,chinese and ,japanese masters4 ,their object was not to depict a scene in a naturalistic manner but to convey its inmost spirit4 ,in speaking of a painter of a later day a ,japanese critic writes3 8,but in his landscape there is less success1 as he was so particular about ensuring correctness of forms that they were lacking in high ideas and deep spirit4 ,for a landscape painting is not loved because it is a facsimile of the natural scene but because there is something in it greater than mere accurate representation of natural forms1 which appeals to our feelings1 but which we cannot express in words40 ,it is this deeper and inner art which the old landscapists give us4 ,in monochrome1 or with a few sombre tints added1 they suggest the beauty1 the repose1 and the dignity of nature in a way that1 to my mind1 no landscape painters have done before or since4 ,one little ,chinese landscape especially lingers in my memory1 though it was not the original ,i saw1 only one of the delicate collotypes which can only be produced in ,japan4 ,it was called 8,the ,evening ,bell40 ,on the strip of soft1 brown-tinted silk is faintly touched a range of peaks against the sky2 nearer is a grove of trees4 ,mist lies in the hollows and softens the forms1 and in the distance1 amid the tree-tops1 peeps out a temple roof4 ,nothing could be slighter or yet more complete4 ,the old ,chinese style1 so strongly marked in the work of the old painter priests1 had gradually fallen into disuse before the more popular ,tosa style1 when ,josetsu1 a ,chinese painter1 settled in ,japan early in the fifteenth century4 ,little is known of ,josetsu's own work2 but his influence soon began to make itself felt1 and he gathered round him a band of pupils4 ,of these the most famous is ,shiubun1 a ,buddhist priest1 still regarded as one of the greatest of ,japanese landscape painters4 ,the ,british ,museum contains a very fine painting attributed to him1 though expert criticism rather inclines to assign it to a somewhat later period4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,landscape ,,in ,,the ,,chinese ,,style ,by ,,sesshiu 7,british ,museum7 ,shiubun had two brilliant pupils1 ,oguri ,sotan and ,no-ami1 the first a priest1 a fine landscapist1 and a wonderful painter of birds and flowers2 the second a brilliant and versatile man of the world1 courtier1 poet1 caligraphist1 critic1 and painter4 ,in the last capacity he was especially renowned for his paintings of tigers4 ,no-ami had a son ,gei-ami and a grandson ,so-ami1 both of whom1 especially the latter1 became famous landscapists of the ,chinese school4 ,but the most famous of all the masters of the ,chinese renaissance is ,sesshiu1 born #adbj1 died #aejf1 one of the greatest of all ,japanese painters4 ,as a youth he entered a ,buddhist temple1 but his thoughts were often far away from his religious duties4 ,the story goes that once1 as a punishment for some fault1 he was tied to a pillar of the temple4 ,with tears for ink1 and using his toe as a brush1 he sketched some rats on the floor1 and as each was completed it sprang up1 and began to gnaw through the rope that bound him4 ,on the approach of the chief priest they scampered away2 but the good monk was so impressed by the miracle that the youthful artist was henceforth allowed to follow his own bent4 ,at the age of forty ,sesshiu1 satisfied that he had learned all he could from the artists of his native country1 went to ,china to study under the masters there1 but to his surprise and discouragement he found none there who could teach him more than he already knew4 ,then said he3 8,nature shall be my teacher2 ,i shall go to the woods1 the mountains1 and the streams and learn from them40 ,so for some time he travelled in ,china painting and studying nature4 ,his fame soon spread through the land1 and the ,chinese artists1 frankly acknowledging him as their master1 came to him for instruction4 ,by the ,emperor himself he was commissioned to paint a series of panels on the walls of the palace at ,pekin1 and on one of these1 to mark his ,japanese origin1 the artist has placed a view of ,fujisan4 ,it is by his landscapes that ,sesshiu is best known1 and never was the grandeur and the dignity of nature more fully expressed2 but his figure subjects1 notably the magnificent painting of ,jurojin1 the god of longevity1 reproduced in the ,kokkwa1 and1 in the ,british ,museum collection1 a wonderful study of ,hotei1 the god of contentment1 frolicking with some children1 must be seen before his full scope and great power can be realised4 ,for he was in every sense a great painter2 in each department his work is marked by lofty conception1 great breadth of treatment1 and an absolute certainty and ease of execution4 ,his brushwork is very distinctive1 and even by the novice may be recognised at a glance4 ,strong and vigorous1 but angular and jagged like forked lightning1 it often seems rude and clumsy when examined closely1 but it never so asserts itself when we step back and look at the picture1 but expresses exactly the effect intended4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses several very fine specimens of ,sesshiu's work4 ,even of the most famous of his pupils--,shiugetsu1 ,sesson1 and ,keishoki--space will not permit us to deal4 ,mention must be made1 however1 of a makimono by ,sesson4 ,it consists of eight views in monochrome roughly dashed off4 ,nothing could be more sketchy than the treatment or yet more vigorous4 ,it is a veritable tour de force of caligraphic impressionism4 ,a secondary result of the ,chinese renaissance was the foundation of the ,kano school1 which1 based on the broad1 caligraphic methods of the ,chinese masters1 gradually adapted them to their own use1 evolving a freer and looser style of handling distinctly ,japanese4 ,the founder of the school was ,kano ,masanobu4 ,when the artist ,oguri ,sotan died1 in #adfi1 he was engaged in the decoration of the walls of the temple of ,kinkakuji at ,kioto1 and1 on ,sesshiu's recommendation1 ,masanobu1 then only known as an amateur1 was engaged to finish the work4 ,illustration3 ,,shoriken ,,crossing ,,the ,,sea ,,on ,,his ,,sword ,from a ,kakemono by ,,motonobu 7,british ,museum7 ,masanobu's son ,motonobu was even more famous1 and to him is due the credit of forcing the new school into public favour4 ,born in #adgg1 in his youth he wandered over the country1 carrying little but his brushes1 painting everything he saw1 and paying his way with the results4 ,but those lean years of poverty and study stood him in good stead4 ,fortune smiled at last1 and he became the most popular painter of his day4 ,goto ,yujo1 the famous metal worker1 adopted his designs for sword ornaments1 his painted fans were chosen as ceremonial gifts to the ,mikado and ,shogun1 and1 to crown all1 ,mitsushig1 the head of the exclusive and aristocratic ,tosa school1 gave him the hand of his daughter in marriage4 ,he died1 full of years and honours1 in #aeei4 ,for landscape1 birds1 and figure subjects he is equally famous1 and as a master of the brush he is unsurpassed4 ,in the work of the ,chinese schools the quality of line1 though often striking1 is used in a more reticent way1 entirely as a means to an end2 but in the ,kano school the line becomes a thing of beauty and life1 almost an end in itself4 ,the astonishing power and sweep of ,motonobu's line may be seen to perfection in the ,shoriken in the ,british ,museum4 ,during the sixteenth century the ,kano school numbered many famous names4 ,yeitoku1 a grandson of ,motonobu1 became the favourite painter of the ,shogun ,hideyoshi4 ,kaihoku ,yusho was noted for his beautiful misty effects2 and more famous1 perhaps1 than either is ,kimura ,sanraku4 ,sanraku was at first a page in the service of ,hideyoshi1 who1 discovering his talent1 sent him to study under ,yeitoku4 ,his work has all the dash and swing of the ,kano style1 and his colouring is rich and harmonious1 while his line is almost worthy to rank with that of ,motonobu4 ,sanraku's adopted son ,sansetsu carried on the tradition of the family1 though his work has more of the restrained quality of ,sesshiu and his followers than the dash of his more immediate predecessors4 ,the ,british ,museum has a beautiful rainy landscape by ,sansetsu1 slight in treatment--only some dim hills drenched in misty rain1 with the suggestion of a bridge and a stream and a fisherman's cottage--but everything1 even the cottage roof1 looks wet4 7,see frontispiece47 ,in the beginning of the seventeenth century the ,kano school took a new lease of life with the advent of the three brothers1 grandsons of ,yeitoku1 ,tanyu1 ,naonobu1 and ,yasunobu4 ,of the three1 ,tanyu is the most famous1 and is recognised as one of the greatest masters of the ,kano school4 ,he is distinctly a painter's painter1 and delights in what we should call fireworks4 ,handling his brush with careless ease he makes a smudge1 a few blots1 and a swirl1 and behold a landscape6 ,a very ,japanese ,whistler2 but it marks the difference between the two publics that1 while ,whistler is with us still 8caviare to the general10 the ,japanese substitute is one of the most popular of all their painters4 ,his two large pictures of ,kwannon1 however1 in the ,british ,museum1 stamp him as no mere swaggerer but a great and serious artist4 ,in the private collection of ,mr ,arthur ,morrison are two magnificent sixfold landscape screens1 which show him to rank with the first of ,japanese landscape painters1 and1 among other unique examples of his work1 a dainty little study of birds and convolvulus1 touched with the utmost lightness and delicacy4 ,illustration3 ,,kwannon1 ,,the ,,goddess ,,of ,,mercy ,from a ,kakemono by ,,tanyu 7,british ,museum7 ,naonobu1 the second brother1 died at an early age1 and from this cause1 and from the fact that he seemed to spend much of his time in hunting out and destroying his earlier work1 his paintings are rarer than ,tanyu's4 ,there could hardly be a greater contrast than the work of the two brothers--the first exulting in its strength1 and full of a superb recklessness and dash2 the second restrained and quiet1 though not lacking in force1 and full of a soft1 liquid quality4 ,some charming examples of his work are in the ,british ,museum4 ,the third brother1 ,yasunobu1 was known chiefly for his landscapes1 full of delicacy and feeling1 and recalling the work of ,sesshiu and ,sansetsu4 ,naonobu's son ,tsunenobu1 born in #afcf1 was a worthy successor1 and1 in the opinion of many1 is worthy to be ranked with ,tanyu and the other great men of the ,kano school4 ,then we have one of the most striking personalities among ,japanese painters--,hanabusa ,itcho1 the last of the great ,kano painters4 ,a born humorist1 his faculty for practical joking was always getting him into trouble4 ,indeed1 on more than one occasion he found himself in prison owing to liberties he had taken in the pictorial representation of those in high authority4 ,but he is no mere caricaturist4 ,his drawings are pictures first and humorous afterwards1 and as a colourist he ranks high even in ,japan4 ,another pupil of ,yasunobu was ,sotatsu1 one of the greatest flower painters of ,japan4 ,he also studied under ,sumiyoshi ,jokei1 a ,tosa painter1 but can hardly be classed with either of these schools4 ,it must not be supposed1 however1 that with the coming of the ,sesshiu and ,kano schools the old ,tosa style had been driven out4 ,it continued to exist alongside the newer schools1 and many artists changed from one style to the other according to subject4 ,the ,tosa school at this time was distinguished by a minuteness of detail1 and also by a richness of colour which gradually came to affect the ,kano artists1 whose work became much brighter in colour as time went on4 ,sesshiu1 ,masanobu1 and ,motonobu worked chiefly in monochrome1 using colour sparingly2 but ,sanraku's work1 a hundred years later1 is full of fresh1 bright tints4 ,a curious convention of the ,tosa painters in their historical subjects was to leave out the roof of a house in order to expose the interior to view4 ,illustration3 ,,bird ,,and ,,pine ,,branch ,from a ,kakemono by ,,naonobu 7,british ,museum7 ,we now come to ,ogata ,korin1 one of the most individual of all ,japanese artists4 ,born in #affa1 he is said to have studied under ,yasunobu1 and the influence of ,sotatsu seems to appear in his work2 but he can be classed with no existing school1 striking out an entirely new line for himself4 ,a wonderful draughtsman1 ,korin possessed in the highest degree the ,japanese faculty for spacing and balance4 ,slight1 and often almost bizarre1 as his compositions are1 one feels that it would be impossible to alter a line4 ,he is more frankly decorative than any of his predecessors1 and is even more famous as a lacquerer than a painter4 ,indeed1 often in his painting1 especially in the enamel-like quality of his colour effects1 one sees the hand of the lacquerer rather than the painter4 ,japan1 perhaps1 possesses one or two greater artists1 but none more original1 or whose work exercises a more subtle fascination4 ,to commemorate the centenary of his death his follower ,hoitsu issued several volumes of woodcuts from the master's designs4 ,slight as these are they are never trivial1 nothing is expressed but what is necessary1 the non-essentials are absolutely ignored1 and the results are masterly in their telling arrangements of black and white4 ,we must now retrace our steps a little and return to the beginning of the seventeenth century1 when ,iwasa ,matabei founded the style which was known as the ,ukioy1 or 8pictures of the passing world0 school1 and which soon became the great popular school of painting4 ,the distinction between the ,ukioy and the older classical schools1 however1 was not one merely of subject4 ,many of the earlier men had turned to the scenes of everyday life for their subjects4 ,toba ,sojo1 ,sanraku1 and ,itcho1 to name but a few1 and1 on the other hand1 the ,ukioy painters1 frequently treated of classical subjects4 ,the real difference is one of treatment1 not of subject1 and the starting-point of variance was the mental attitude of the painter4 ,it was a departure from the subjective attitude of the older men4 ,the ,ukioy and later schools took the standpoint of the poet3 8,the earth--that is sufficient2 ,i do not want the constellations any nearer0--and their works are frankly decorative or frankly naturalistic4 ,materialists1 in a sense1 they turn from the beauties of the ideal world to show us the beauties of the natural world around us4 ,this does not necessarily mean that their treatment was what we term realistic2 but1 while with the classical schools one looked through the picture1 as it were1 to the thought beyond1 in this case one looks at the picture for the beauty which it presents1 and which is inherent in the subject itself4 ,the fact that the rise of the ,ukioy school was more or less a popular revolt against the old classical traditions which had governed the art for a thousand years will help to explain to us why its masters were hardly esteemed as highly by the cultured classes in ,japan as1 by their undoubtedly fine qualities1 they deserved to be4 ,on the other hand1 we must admit that they never attain to the power and dignity of the older schools4 ,illustration3 ,,flower ,,panel ,by ,,korin 7,from a ,woodcut in the ,korin ,hiakuzu7 ,the works of ,matabei are excessively rare4 ,he was a fine draughtsman1 his figures of dancing girls being particularly graceful in line and of quiet1 harmonious colouring4 ,the next great artist of the school was ,hishigawa ,moronobu1 who flourished during the latter part of the seventeenth century4 ,formerly a designer of embroideries1 the inexhaustible fancy with which he adorns the costumes of his figures adds a special charm to his work1 and his drawing of the figure is marked by a wonderful lightness and grace4 ,he was the first artist of importance to devote himself to the production of the woodcut prints which afterwards attained such popularity1 and during the next two hundred years became a separate branch of art industry4 ,during the eighteenth century the school obtained many adherents1 whom1 for lack of space1 we can do no more than name4 ,torii ,kiyonobu1 the first of the ,torii artists1 noted for their treatment of theatrical subjects2 ,miyagawa ,choshun1 ,nishikawa ,sukenobu1 ,okumura ,masanobu1 ,nishimura ,shigenaga1 and ,suzuki ,harunobu are but a few4 ,but as most of these painters of the ,ukioy school were more famous as producers of colour prints we shall leave their further consideration to the next chapter4 ,illustration3 ,,monkeys ,,and ,,plum ,,blossom ,from a ,kakemono by ,,sosen 7,british ,museum7 ,a great painter of the eighteenth century who did not follow the ,ukioy or older schools1 but1 like ,korin1 struck out a line of his own1 was ,tani ,buncho1 who was born in #agfc and died in #ahda4 ,as a painter of landscapes1 figures1 birds1 and flowers he was equally a master4 ,another artist who struck out for himself is ,maruyama ,okio1 #agcc-agie1 sometimes regarded as the founder of the ,shijo or naturalistic school4 ,according to the old critics1 8the art of painting may be pursued according to either of two systems3 the one in which the spirit of nature is expressed2 the other in which its outward forms are copied40 ,okio broke away from the old traditional method1 and instead of endeavouring to interpret ,nature endeavoured to so present ,nature that she should deliver her own message4 ,his favourite subjects were birds1 fish1 and flowers1 and in their naturalistic treatment are more akin to ,european work than that of his predecessors1 though in grace and elegance they are still essentially ,japanese4 ,in the hands of his followers the ,shijo or naturalistic school soon became popular4 ,even more famous than ,okio was ,mori ,sosen1 #agdg-ahba1 now recognised as one of the world's greatest animal painters4 ,he is especially noted for his paintings of monkeys1 whose habits he studied for years1 often living in the woods for months at a time4 ,he has two styles3 one rough and bold1 generally on paper2 the other on silk1 and often of extraordinary delicacy and fineness4 ,that his abilities were not by any means confined to the depicting of monkeys may be seen from his exquisite studies of deer and other animals4 ,to landscape ,mori ,ippo applied the principles of the ,shijo school1 employing a much more naturalistic colouring than had hitherto been the custom1 and ,hoyen depicted birds1 flowers1 and insects with charming delicacy and refinement4 ,in #agdi was born another great independent artist--,ganku1 who founded a school of his own1 combining with the naturalism of the new something of the suavity and dignity of the older styles4 ,though treating of him more fully in the next chapter mention must be made here of the great ,hokusai--in ,whistler's words1 8the greatest pictorial artist since ,vandyke40 ,to ,european ears his name is more familiar than that of any other ,japanese artist4 ,as a draughtsman he ranks with the very first1 and as a painter his brushwork was bold and free and often masterly1 though lacking just the grace and finish of the old ,kano masters1 and1 at its best1 his colour is superb4 ,some of his figure subjects have the grandiose quality of a ,velasquez4 ,his versatility was extraordinary1 every style of subject coming within the range of his brush4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,peacock ,from a ,kakemono by ,,ippo 7,british ,museum7 ,of nineteenth century painters the greatest is ,kikuchi ,yosai1 the last of the great painters of ,japan4 ,in his youth he studied in all the schools1 and afterwards made a tour through the country studying the great pictures stored in the various temples4 ,his own style is strongly individual1 combining the dignity of the older schools with the realism and rich colouring of the modern4 ,a fine example in the ,british ,museum is his painting of ,fukurokujiu1 the god of longevity--an old1 old man with worn1 wrinkled features4 ,it is said to be a portrait of the artist1 and was painted in his eighty-fifth year4 ,he had many pupils but no successors2 and on his death1 in #ahgh1 the only painters worthy of mention are ,zeshin1 better known as a lacquerer1 who died in #ahia2 and ,kawanab ,kiosai1 a humorous draughtsman of remarkable dexterity1 who died in #ahhi4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,colour ,,printing ,the art of colour printing1 which1 as pointed out in the previous chapter1 was an offshoot of the ,ukioy school of painting1 is one of the most interesting of the minor arts of ,japan4 ,it was the colour prints that first aroused the interest of the ,european in ,japanese art1 and it is from them that in most cases he still receives his first impressions4 ,and though1 indeed1 these impressions require largely to be corrected in the light of further knowledge1 yet on the whole this is the most natural introduction2 for1 fantastic though these prints may at first appear to the unaccustomed eye1 yet in their frankly decorative feeling they approach more nearly the ,western standpoint than the earlier and more ideal schools of ,japanese art4 ,in the colour prints1 which we may buy for a few shillings1 there are obvious beauties of line1 of composition1 and of colour which cannot fail to appeal to us2 however strange or bizarre they may otherwise appear we at once recognise them as charming pieces of decoration4 ,and though on further acquaintance with the subject of ,japanese art we find that those who produced this beautiful work were but the journalists of art1 and that the real classics stand on another and higher plane1 yet on their own merits we cannot grudge them unstinted praise4 ,they have not the noble elevation of the old schools1 they do not climb the misty heights of the ideal1 but they realise with exquisite feeling and refinement the beauty of the passing world that lies around them4 ,and while ,japanese paintings1 especially of the older schools1 are almost unknown except to the connoisseur1 and are only to be seen in a few isolated collections1 the colour print is more or less familiar to all who take an interest in matters artistic4 ,hardly a studio but possesses a print or two1 and it would be difficult to over-estimate their influence on the work which goes on around them4 ,but the art of the colour printer has this additional interest for us3 it was a truly democratic art1 its followers men of the artisan class1 its customers the common people4 ,and at a time when the upper classes of society were suffering from a gradual degeneration1 when the arts became less and less alive and more and more a repetition of outworn conventions1 this growth from below of a school of living art shows that the popular masses were beginning to stir1 and that even two hundred years ago the bonds of feudalism were getting weaker1 and the growth of a popular art was only one manifestation of the tendencies which finally overthrew the old system and substituted for it a democratic government4 ,the colour print artists were1 for the most part1 ignored by the cultured upper classes4 ,they were men of little or no education4 ,toyokuni ,i4 was the son of a maker of puppets2 ,kunisada was at one time the keeper of a ferry-boat2 and ,hokkei was a fish-hawker before he found his vocation4 ,then there was another reason for this social boycotting--the subjects of which they treated in their pictures4 ,a large proportion of these were representations of actors in character4 ,now1 in ,japan the fondness for the theatre was an overwhelming passion with the common people1 but by the nobility and aristocracy the stage was utterly tabooed4 ,no person of good family dared openly to attend a theatrical performance4 ,actors1 therefore1 were ranked in the social scale as the lowest of the low--beneath even the humblest artisans4 ,even the colour print artists1 who earned their living by depicting them1 would never dream of associating with them on terms of equality4 ,then another favourite subject was the delineation of the famous beauties of the ,yoshiwara and the tea-houses4 ,it is evident that the nature of the subject in this case also would be sufficient to damn the prints in the eyes of the better classes4 ,but1 with the alien1 8where ignorance is bliss1 'tis folly to be wise02 and where the educated ,japanese would see vulgarity and coarseness--where1 perhaps1 such was even intended--we1 happily1 see only a beautiful decorative effect4 ,so in ,japan the colour print was the picture of the poorer classes4 ,costing a mere trifle1 it occupied in their humble homes the place of the more expensive kakemono4 ,it is a matter of surprise to the cultured ,japanese to find how these despised objects are prized by ,european collectors2 and1 valuing them little themselves1 they have exported them wholesale1 till comparatively few remain in ,japan1 the bulk of fine prints being now in ,europe or ,america4 ,though far surpassing in delicacy and beauty the colour prints of ,europe and elsewhere1 the ,japanese prints are produced by means wonderfully simple1 and depend for their fine qualities entirely on the wonderful skill of the craftsman4 ,the process is as follows3--,the drawing is first made by the artist1 with brush and ,indian ink1 on a sheet of thin paper4 ,after being oiled to make it transparent this paper is pasted1 face downwards to ensure the necessary reversal1 on a block of soft cherry-wood4 ,the engraver now proceeds to outline the picture with a knife4 ,then with gauge and chisel the superfluous wood is boldly cut away1 and the result is a key block in line4 ,from proofs coloured by the artist a further series of blocks are cut1 one for each colour used4 ,it may be mentioned here that the cherry-wood blocks are not cut across the grain1 as in the case of the boxwood blocks we use for wood engraving1 but in a line with the grain4 ,then comes the work of a third craftsman1 the printer4 ,he mixes his colours for each printing1 and applies them carefully to the block with a brush4 ,then the paper is damped and laid on the block4 ,no press is used1 but with a rubber or baren1 made of a bunch of twisted fibre in a sheaf of bamboo leaf1 the impression is carefully rubbed off4 ,and so each block is used in succession until the picture is complete1 accuracy of register being obtained in the most wonderful manner by rough guiding marks cut on the blocks4 ,sometimes metallic dusts are used in printing1 and again a kind of embossing or high relief is obtained by pressure on an uninked block4 ,it is said that this pressure is often applied by using the point of the elbow as a rubber4 ,the prints were issued by publishers chiefly in ,yedo1 the engraver and printer being simply workmen in the publisher's employment4 ,sometimes the artist1 too1 was employed entirely by him1 living in his house1 and occupying a position somewhat equivalent to that of a designer for a commercial firm4 ,the first ,japanese artist to make drawings for the wood engraver was ,hishigawa ,moronobu 7#afcg-agad74 ,these1 however1 were not colour prints but merely woodcuts in black and white4 ,he illustrated quite a number of books during the latter half of the seventeenth century4 ,a further development was the colouring of the prints by hand1 which was introduced largely by ,torii ,kiyonobu 7#affd-agbi71 the founder of the long line of ,torii artists who devoted themselves almost entirely to theatrical subjects4 ,it is among the immediate successors of ,torii ,kiyonobu that the art of printing in colours direct from the blocks appears to have arisen--at first only one or two tints being used4 ,the perfecting of the process is due to ,suzuki ,harunobu1 who1 going beyond a few tints on the main objects1 filled in the whole picture with colour4 ,and1 though the first of the great colour print artists1 in many respects his work has never been surpassed4 ,most of his prints are small in size1 containing only a single figure1 exquisitely poised1 and characterised by extreme elegance and grace of line4 ,his colour schemes were quiet and refined--grey1 a pale red1 one or two tints of olive green1 being the components of some of his most delicate harmonies4 ,his prints are rare1 and his signature has been paid the doubtful compliment of being more extensively forged than that of any of his fellow-artists4 ,his style1 however1 was more difficult to reproduce4 ,many of his successors fell under his influence1 but even in their most successful efforts they never quite caught his peculiar elegance and charm4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,figure ,,group ,from a ,colour ,print by ,,utamaro ,of his contemporaries the most noteworthy was ,koriusai4 ,less delicate and refined than ,harunobu1 he worked in a bolder style1 his drawing being particularly vigorous4 ,his bird studies are very fine2 and ,south ,kensington ,museum contains some excellent examples of his work--notably one1 a clever contrast of a crow and a white heron against a grey-green background4 ,reflecting ,harunobu more decidedly is ,shunsho1 who became the master of the great ,hokusai4 ,his studies of female figures are particularly graceful and of charming colour1 and his prints of theatrical subjects vigorous and striking4 ,he died in #agij1 at the age of sixty-seven4 ,contemporary with ,shunsho was ,torii ,kiyonaga1 an artist who not only did fine work himself but exercised a great influence on the artists who followed him4 ,working with fuller colour than his predecessors he increased the number of blocks considerably1 and his charming drawings of the gorgeously-dressed beauties of the ,yoshiwara set the fashion afterwards so largely followed4 ,we now come to one of the chief of the colour print artists--,kitagawa ,utamaro1 next to ,hokusai the most famous of all4 ,his female studies were something quite new and distinctive1 superb in line and composition1 the heavy masses of black being used with consummate ease and mastery4 ,there is an exquisite quality in his drawing1 too2 the features are delineated with the utmost fineness and delicacy4 ,indeed1 to distinguish a forgery from a genuine ,utamaro1 one has only to examine the drawing of the hands and the face4 ,his colour is delightful1 and beautifully subtle--lavender1 pink1 green1 and grey--but always saved from weakness by the dexterous use of the masses of solid black4 ,besides his female figures we have a few landscapes and flower studies1 and a particularly fine little volume of insect drawings4 ,it is related by his father in the preface of this book that1 when a child1 ,utamaro was continually catching and examining insects1 till he was afraid that the boy might acquire a habit of killing the harmless creatures4 ,the book1 however1 is not entirely devoted to harmless insects1 one of the drawings being a masterly study of a snake4 ,a touch of mica used in the printing gives it a slimy sheen1 and the long1 coiling body1 every inch of it alive and moving1 is a wonderful piece of drawing4 ,to rival it one would require to turn to the work of another ,japanese artist--the netsuk carver4 ,yeishi1 ,yeizan1 and ,kiyomine1 who followed immediately after1 adopted his style and followed his methods closely2 but rich though their effects are1 and full of detail1 they lack the dignity and simplicity of the earlier workers4 ,one of the most characteristic of all the great artists1 and worthy to rank with ,harunobu and ,utamaro1 is ,toyokuni ,i41 born in #agfi4 ,his work also was at first affected by the ornate style of ,kiyonaga2 and among his earlier prints are studies of gorgeously-dressed ladies1 a riot of rich colour and elaborate detail1 but later he turned his attention to theatrical prints1 and evolved the style1 distinctively his own1 which became afterwards the recognised method of treating such subjects4 ,in his lines the grace and suavity of the earlier masters become hardened to a certain severity1 but what was lost in grace was gained in strength4 ,the violent action in some of his prints is an illustration of the forcible manner in which the truth can be conveyed by a judicious exaggeration2 and again1 in repose1 his figures have a dignity which is monumental4 ,this effect is heightened1 too1 by the reticence and restraint with which he uses colour--full1 strong tints1 but few1 and laid on in broad masses4 ,breadth of effect was what he aimed at and secured4 ,in ,japan he was more popular than any of his contemporaries1 ,utamaro not excepted2 and1 whereas their followers were limited to a few immediate successors1 he was the founder of a regular school4 ,of these the best is ,kunisada1 known as ,toyokuni ,,ii41 whose early work especially was almost worthy to rank with that of his master4 ,but the greatest master of all the colour print artists1 and one who by ,european critics has been acclaimed as worthy to rank with the great artists of the world1 was ,hokusai4 ,it is a mark of the power of his personality that1 though he lived and died in poverty and obscurity1 the facts of his life are recorded with some degree of fulness2 while1 as a rule1 little record is left of his contemporaries but their work4 ,born in #agfj1 he was apprenticed at the age of eighteen to ,shunsho1 but was too original in his methods1 and too independent1 to remain in that position long4 ,for some years he drifted about1 being reduced at one time to hawking red pepper1 calendars1 and other small wares in the streets of ,yedo1 but all the time he was getting more and more command over his art4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,figure ,,study ,from a ,colour ,print by ,,toyokuni ,in the preface to the 8,hundred ,views of ,fuji0 he thus summarises his life3 8,from the age of six ,i had a mania for drawing the forms of things4 ,by the time ,i was fifty ,i had published an infinity of designs2 but all ,i have produced before the age of seventy is not worth taking into account4 ,at seventy-three ,i have learned a little about the real structure of nature1 of animals1 plants1 trees1 birds1 fishes1 and insects4 ,in consequence1 when ,i am eighty1 ,i shall have made still more progress4 ,at ninety ,i shall penetrate the mystery of things2 at a hundred ,i shall certainly have reached a marvellous stage2 and when ,i am a hundred and ten everything ,i do1 be it but a dot or a line1 will be alive4 ,i beg those who live as long as ,i to see if ,i do not keep my word4 ,written at the age of seventy-five by me1 once ,hokusai1 to-day ,gwakio ,rojin1 the old man mad about drawing40 ,and1 indeed1 this was no idle boast1 for he lived to a great age1 and steadily gained power4 ,when finally stricken down the old man's lively spirit is still unsubdued1 and he writes playfully to a friend3 8,king ,yemma the ,japanese ,pluto1 being very old1 is retiring from business1 so he has built a pretty country house1 and asks me to go and paint a kakemono for him4 ,i am thus obliged to leave1 and when ,i go shall carry my drawings with me4 ,i am going to take a room at the corner of the street1 and shall be happy to see you whenever you pass that way40 ,to the end his mind was absorbed by his art4 ,on his death-bed he was heard to murmur3 8,if ,heaven could only grant me ten more years40 ,then a moment after3 8,if ,heaven had only granted me five more years ,i should have become a real painter40 ,he died on the #ajth of ,may #ahdi1 in his ninetieth year4 ,on his tomb is inscribed this little verse1 composed1 according to the national custom1 during his last hours3 8,my soul1 turned ,will-o'-the-wisp1 ,can come and go at ease over the summer fields40 ,all his life beset with poverty1 unhappy in his domestic life1 his dauntless spirit sustained him1 and his incessant industry never flagged4 ,he lived for the most part with one daughter1 an artist also1 in a bare room1 with little or no furniture beyond his painting materials4 ,when the room became unbearably dirty--and they were not squeamish--they changed to another house4 ,always poor1 dressed like a pauper1 ascetic in his mode of life1 he had an utter contempt for money4 ,when he received payment for his work the money lay uncounted at his side1 and when importuned by a creditor he threw him one of the unopened packets and went back to his work4 ,in #ahag he published the first volume of the 8,mangwa10 a collection of rough sketches1 which1 in its fifteen volumes1 forms a veritable encyclopdia of ,japanese life and industries1 and is sufficient alone to establish him as one of the great draughtsmen of the world4 ,these sketches were printed from woodblocks in a scheme of black1 grey1 and light red1 and included studies of every kind--street scenes1 architecture1 birds1 beasts1 flowers1 and insects4 ,the 8,hundred ,views of ,fuji10 similar in style1 added still further to his reputation4 ,but even more striking and distinctive is the great series of colour prints illustrating the landscape of his country--the waterfalls1 the bridges1 and the 8,thirty-,six ,views of ,fuji10 which are something quite new in ,japanese art1 not conventional landscapes of the old ,chinese style1 abstract and ideal scenes1 but pictures of certain places1 each with its individuality strongly stamped upon it4 ,they are1 however1 equally far from the ,western realistic standpoint1 each picture being an audacious decorative arrangement both as regards line and colour4 ,most daring of all are the waterfalls1 superb in their boldness of conception and rich1 full colour1 but equally fascinating are the quieter harmonies of the 8,thirty-,six ,views of ,fuji40 ,to study such pictures is to be lifted out of the commonplace view of things and to look at nature through the temperament and with the eyes of a poet4 ,but1 while so highly esteemed by ,european connoisseurs1 ,hokusai is by no means so highly thought of in ,japan4 ,and this is not entirely due to the fact that he was a man of the people1 a painter of the vulgar and the commonplace4 ,though it is hardly possible for us to overrate the magnitude of his genius1 still1 the more we learn of the great painters of the older schools the more we see the reason of the ,japanese verdict1 for even we would hesitate to place his work alongside that of ,cho ,densu1 of ,sesshiu1 and of the great ,kano masters4 ,the fact is that no man1 however great1 can afford to do as ,hokusai did--to set aside altogether the accumulated benefits of centuries of experience and work absolutely fresh from the beginning4 ,the greatness of his achievement shows the power of his personality1 but the greatest results of all are built on the foundations of others4 ,and in spite of its amazing originality and its force we must recognise that in ,hokusai's style there is a lack of the dignified reticence and grace--the culture1 in fact--of the best work of the classic schools4 ,illustration3 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,thirty-,,six ,,views ,,of ,,fuji ,from a ,colour ,print by ,,hokusai ,but the distinction lies even deeper4 ,his outlook1 keen and marvellously accurate to catch any passing phase1 has not the deep seriousness of the older masters4 ,he was a modern of the moderns--materialistic1 humorous1 somewhat flippant--while they were mystics1 striving to pierce through the veil and discover the truths lying beyond4 ,each represents the spirit of his time1 and1 though the comparison is interesting and needful1 it is due more in justice to the older men than to ,hokusai1 whose reputation1 it is safe to say1 will in ,europe mount higher and higher1 while the qualities of the old classic painters will appeal to but a few kindred spirits4 ,one other colour printer of the first rank remains--,hiroshig ,i41 worthy to rank with ,harunobu1 ,utamaro1 ,toyokuni1 and ,hokusai4 ,his landscape prints are particularly charming in their delicate renderings of effects of atmosphere and light1 and no one could portray better the peaceful effects of quiet evening light4 ,but the art which culminated in the work of these great men entered now into a period of decline4 ,the latest artists brought nothing that was new2 and1 charming though much of their work was1 it merely repeated1 with continually lessening effect1 what had been said before4 ,with the opening of the country to ,european influence came the final degradation--the introduction of violent aniline dyes to take the place of the old soft ,japanese tints4 ,since #ahhj a slight revival of the art has taken place1 but it has1 as yet1 produced nothing to rival the productions of even fifty years ago4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,landscape ,from a ,colour ,print by ,,hiroshig ,,chapter ,,iv ,,sculpture ,,and ,,carving ,like the sister art of painting1 the art of sculpture arose in ,japan with the coming of the ,buddhist priests from ,korea in the sixth century4 ,but though both existed together in the great ,buddhist monasteries the latter seemed for the first few hundred years to entirely eclipse the former1 for the first great products of ,buddhist art in ,japan were seen in the figures carved in wood or cast in bronze which adorned the shrines of the temples4 ,time1 too1 has dealt less severely with these relics1 or rather1 less perishable in their nature1 they have been better able to survive the dangers that so often swept away the frailer kakemonos of the painter1 and in many of the old temples are preserved the works of these early sculptors4 ,such statues were rarely or never in stone1 but either of wood--which material always seems as plastic as clay in the hands of the ,japanese craftsman--or cast in bronze4 ,why this should have been it is difficult to say4 ,perhaps the lack of a suitable stone at hand1 and the difficulty of transporting large and heavy blocks long distances in a rough and hilly country1 had something to do with the matter4 ,in any case1 wood and bronze were at first entirely used for the work4 ,some centuries later a fine grey clay1 found at ,nara1 mixed with vegetable fibre1 like the bricks of ,egypt1 and1 like them1 hardened without baking1 came into use4 ,another interesting method of working was the covering over with thin lacquer1 mixed with powdered bark1 a model made of coarse cloth stiffened with glue4 ,works in both these last styles were frequently gilded or painted4 ,arising in ,india1 ,buddhist art spread northward with the spread of the creed through ,china to ,korea1 and as it went farther north its characteristics were largely altered and moulded by the different types of the northern ,buddhists4 ,the ,hindu sensitiveness gave place to a ,chinese solidity1 which1 again1 was mellowed and softened by the gentler influences of ,korea4 ,the early ,buddhist altar-pieces of ,japan are marked by a sweet and dignified serenity4 ,unlike the great ,greek sculptures1 they do not represent the ideal of the natural human form1 but rather endeavour to express in terms of the human form an abstract or spiritual beauty4 ,their figures are personifications of abstract qualities--,reason1 ,pity1 ,charity1 ,fortitude1 ,beauty1 ,divine ,love1 for the northern ,buddhist doctrine was a gentle one2 the world was not a hopeless dream1 as in the ,hindu form1 but a storehouse of forms to be idealised4 ,the temple of ,horiuji at ,nara1 the first ,buddhist temple built in ,japan1 is one of the richest of all in art treasures1 and contains many fine examples of the old work4 ,one of the earliest known specimens there is a life-sized seated figure of ,kwannon1 said to be the work of ,prince ,shotoku himself1 and1 in any case1 dating from about the end of the sixth century4 ,the figure is nude from the waist upwards1 and is modelled with great severity of style1 so that the anatomical forms are almost lost2 but this1 with the simplicity of the drapery1 only concentrates the attention on the serene dignity of the expression1 and adds to the power and impressiveness of the statue4 ,during the seventh century there arose at ,nara a school of bronze casters1 who produced a number of beautiful altar-pieces1 more than a hundred of which still exist4 ,they are of small size1 varying from six inches to three feet in height1 and in delicacy of modelling and elegance of style they far surpass any of the ,indian1 ,chinese1 or ,korean work4 ,the triumph of the school is seen in a little group of three at ,horiuji3 a seated ,buddha with two standing figures1 backed by a richly-wrought folding screen4 ,it is a beautiful piece of work1 the lines graceful and flowing1 the modelling subtle and of exquisite finish4 ,perhaps the finest part of all is the openwork halo1 pierced with a floral design1 behind the head of the central figure4 ,in its own way this group1 executed about #fhj ,a4,d41 is one of the gems of ,japanese art4 ,towards the end of the seventh century a wave of ,greek feeling1 which had slowly spread from ,india and had produced what was known as the ,greco-,buddhist art1 reached ,japan1 and its influence is seen in a certain ampler sense of human dignity and proportion absent in the earlier works4 ,in #fie ,a4,d4 an attempt was made to cast three large bronze figures of about twelve feet high1 but it was a failure4 ,in #gae ,a4,d41 however1 ,giogi1 who ranks among ,japan's greatest sculptors1 successfully cast an altarpiece for the temple of ,yakushiji1 ,nara1 of even greater dimensions--a trinity of a seated ,buddha and two standing figures4 ,in the opinion of many this work represents the culmination of the art of bronze casting in ,japan4 ,for largeness of conception1 easy grace and elegance of pose1 richness and beauty of finish1 it has never been surpassed4 ,illustration3 ,,colossal ,,bronze ,,image ,,of ,a ,,bodhisatwa 7,south ,kensington ,museum7 ,but a still more astonishing development was yet to come in the colossal bronzes1 which exceed in size any other pieces of casting the world has seen4 ,the largest of all1 a seated ,buddha1 is at ,nara1 and1 no less than fifty-three feet in height1 is the greatest bronze statue that has ever been cast4 ,a figure of great dignity1 it has1 however1 suffered much by the lapse of years4 ,the head was damaged by an earthquake in #hee ,a4,d41 and later by a fire1 and was finally replaced by another in the sixteenth century4 ,much finer as a work of art1 though slightly smaller1 being forty-nine feet seven inches in height1 is the ,daibutsu1 or ,great ,buddha1 at ,kamakura1 which is considerably later in date1 the best judges placing it at #abeb4 ,the seated figure1 with hands folded in contemplation1 is of almost oppressive dignity and power4 ,the modelling is simple and severe1 the drapery hangs in large ample folds1 and the face bears an expression of profound and majestic calm4 ,in the history of art we have met such an expression before2 there is something akin to it in the strange1 inscrutable smile of the ,sphinx4 ,but the calm of the ,buddha has a deeper and more spiritual quality3 it is the calm of perfect knowledge2 it speaks of the conquest of human passions and a spiritual peace elevated far above all earthly things4 ,the statue was originally surrounded by a building fifty yards square1 the roof supported by sixty-three massive pillars2 but this shelter was swept away by a tidal wave in #acfi1 and again in #adid4 ,since the latter date it has not been rebuilt1 though the stone foundations may still be seen4 ,in the rather irreverent phrase of the ,japanese1 the ,daibutsu has become a 8wet god40 ,the process of casting these colossal bronzes is not known in detail4 ,in all probability a full-sized model was first built up1 and from it the mould made in several pieces4 ,the ,kamakura ,daibutsu is formed of sheets of bronze1 each cast separately1 then brazed together1 and finished on the outside with the chisel4 ,with the decline of this old ,buddhist work in bronze appeared another phase of the sculptor's art1 which continued to a much later date1 and exhibited a different side of the national character4 ,i refer to the grotesque figures of gods or demons which are so characteristic of early ,japanese carving4 ,these vary in size from a few inches to between twenty and thirty feet in height1 and are chiefly executed in wood1 several pieces being joined together in the larger works4 ,the most famous exponent of the school was ,unkei1 who lived at the end of the twelfth1 and beginning of the thirteenth century4 ,at the gateway of the temple of ,to-,dai-ji at ,nara stood a pair of ,nio1 or ,temple ,guardians--huge figures of sinister aspect and terrific power1 hewn out of wood--the one by ,unkei1 the other by ,kwaikei1 his contemporary4 ,it is said that after ,unkei's death the king of the nether world objected that1 whereas the sculptor had many times endeavoured to depict him1 he had never succeeded in doing him justice4 ,accordingly1 ,unkei was sent back to the earth that1 having seen the god himself1 he might carve his portrait faithfully4 ,though on a small scale1 only standing two and a half feet high1 a pair of little wooden demons by ,koben1 the third son of ,unkei1 exhibit the same grotesqueness1 combined with an almost terrible power4 ,the masterly representation of the straining muscles shows clearly that the ,japanese artist could model the human figure realistically when he pleased1 and that when he conventionalised he did so knowingly1 and for a given purpose1 as has been the custom of the decorative artist from time immemorial4 ,the third phase1 which marks the early sculptures1 is the series of portrait statues1 chiefly carved in wood1 and it is curious to know that most of these extremely realistic studies were executed during the highly idealistic ,buddhist period4 ,the statues of two saints1 for instance1 ,asanga and ,vasubandhu1 in ,kofukuji1 which are said to date from the eighth century1 are absolutely realistic in style4 ,the drapery certainly is treated in a broad and simple manner1 but the face and expression is obviously a portrait1 a study of an individual4 ,many of these portraits exist1 dating chiefly from the eighth to about the thirteenth century1 and are all strong and characteristic presentments of actual men--speaking likenesses4 ,illustration3 ,,portrait ,,of ,,senno ,,rikiu1 ,,carved ,,in ,,wood ,,and ,,lacquered 7,british ,museum7 ,towards the end of the thirteenth century the sculptor's art gradually fell into disuse1 the traditions of the craft only surviving in the beautiful carving which adorned the temple buildings1 but which was looked on not as the work of an artist but merely as that of a carpenter4 ,the legitimate successor of the old sculptors appeared some hundreds of years later1 and not as the maker of colossal images and life-sized portraits1 but as the netsuk carver1 the greatest master of the art of multum in parvo that the world has seen4 ,in the narrow field of a cubic inch or so the sculptor1 for he is no less1 combines a largeness of conception with a breadth and vigour of execution which are absolutely astonishing4 ,but there is between the old ,buddhist sculptor and the netsuk and okimono carver the same difference which divides the painter of the old classic schools from the more modern exponent of the ,ukioy-,riu--the change from the ideal point of view to the material4 ,the art of the netsuk carver1 often bold and vigorous1 sometimes elaborately finished1 is always frankly realistic4 ,the netsuk 7pronounced netsk7 is a toggle or button varying in size1 but often little larger than a marble4 ,the ,japanese gentleman in native costume has no pockets other than his wide sleeves1 and so his pipe and tobacco pouch1 his inro or medicine-box1 and other small objects1 are carried slung by a cord to his girdle1 like a chatelaine4 ,at the end of the cord was the netsuk1 which prevented the objects from slipping to the ground4 ,it is said that the use of the netsuk dates from the fifteenth century1 but the great majority have been made within the last two hundred years4 ,in the opinion of the expert the finest specimens date from the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries4 ,as the nineteenth century advanced a loss of breadth in the treatment is observable1 with a greater elaboration of detail1 and this tendency caused the gradual degeneration of the art1 until it became little more than a wonderful exhibition of perfect manual skill1 lacking the life which breathed in the older work4 ,the netsuk is made of various materials1 of which the two chief are wood and ivory1 and is pierced with one or more holes for the passage of the cord4 ,in the eyes of the connoisseur the wooden specimens are generally the most valuable2 and justly so1 for not only are the ,japanese most masterly artists in wood1 but the material lends itself to a freer and bolder style of work than the harder and unsympathetic ivory1 retaining the slightest impression of the artist's individuality4 ,between the two there is much the same difference as between the free and spontaneous clay sketch of the sculptor1 recording the very print of his fingers1 and the coldly severe and more pretentious marble4 ,still1 it must be admitted that even in ivory the ,japanese carver attained in a wonderful degree the qualities of freshness and ease which we are accustomed to look for only in more ductile materials4 ,the shape and size of the netsuk is regulated by the purpose for which it is intended4 ,it must be large enough not to slip through the girdle1 and we usually find that they range from about the size of a walnut to nearly three times that size4 ,any excrescences or projections would1 of course1 be liable to snap off1 and so1 especially in the older specimens1 the outline is generally rounded1 and without sharp angles4 ,the holes through which the cord passes are often ingeniously made to form part of the design4 ,the fact that many netsuks were also used as seals1 and also that so many early examples are of triangular form1 so as to stand firmly on their base1 is looked on by some authorities as evidence that the netsuk was evolved from the seal4 ,often the wood used was coloured1 lacquered1 and gilt4 ,sometimes wood and ivory were combined1 often ivory and metal1 but almost every material was used on occasion4 ,porcelain netsuks were not uncommon1 and gold1 silver1 jet1 coral1 and enamel were all applied to the ornamentation of the netsuk4 ,the ,kagami-buta were buttons of metal with a shank at the back4 ,this was enclosed in a circular hollow dish of ivory or wood1 which had a hole in the back through which the cord attached to the shank passed4 ,these examples are often very beautiful1 the combination of the metal centre1 often chased and adorned with gold and silver1 with the plain outer ring of ivory being very pleasing in effect4 ,the ,manju netsuk1 a round1 flattened disc1 so called from its resemblance to a ,manju1 or rice cake1 is another well-known form4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,netsuk,s 7,british ,museum7 ,as to subject1 the whole field of ,japanese mythology1 history1 and literature is recorded in their netsuk4 ,perhaps the finest of all are the miniature representations of the masks used in the ,no dance--sometimes beautiful1 sometimes comical1 often grotesque1 but always artistic4 ,then we have the beautifully finished carvings of insects2 snakes twisted in lifelike coils2 a goose with its bill caught in a closed clam shell1 and vainly flapping its wings2 fishes1 tortoises1 mice--all varieties of animal life3 it is a veritable illustrated natural history4 ,then in lifelike groups we have the whole world of legendary folklore laid before us4 ,the ,tongue-cut sparrow1 ,motomoro the peach child1 and many other old fairy tales1 are here retold2 while men and women in all the occupations of their trades and callings give an epitome of contemporary ,japanese life4 ,the names of the famous netsuk carvers are too numerous to record here4 ,one of the most celebrated was ,shuzan1 who lived early in the eighteenth century1 a volume of whose designs was published in #agha4 ,of late years1 since the use of the netsuk has begun to die out1 the carver has turned his attention to okimono--small pieces not pierced for the cord1 and intended merely as cabinet ornaments4 ,many of these little ivories are exquisitely beautiful4 ,european work1 even of the best1 looks weak and poor beside them2 and even the best ,chinese carving1 though perhaps equally dexterous in manipulation1 seems dull and mechanical contrasted with their never-failing fertility of imagination4 ,illustration3 ,rider on ,horseback ,,chapter ,v ,,metal ,,work ,we have already treated1 with some fulness1 of the beautiful bronze statues which adorned the old ,buddhist temples2 but though his highest achievement1 these represent only a small part of the work of the ,japanese bronze caster4 ,the old temple bells1 the incense burners1 the great temple lanterns1 all were of exquisite workmanship4 ,and the art was also applied to domestic uses1 the ordinary cooking utensils1 the more ornamental vases1 and the dainty bronze mirrors being but a few of its products4 ,one of the finest and oldest bells is at the temple of ,to-,dai-ji at ,nara4 ,cast in #gcb ,a4,d41 it stands #ac feet #f inches high1 the diameter across the rim is #i feet #a inch1 while the weight of metal is over forty tons4 ,the method of ringing such a bell is different from that to which we are accustomed4 ,instead of a loose tongue hung inside1 a heavy swing beam is mounted outside the bell1 which it strikes on the rim4 ,the vibrations of each stroke are allowed to die away ere the next is struck1 and the great waves of sound go pealing for miles over the quiet countryside4 ,the casting of a temple bell was made the occasion of a great religious festival4 ,a large kiln was built1 worshippers attended from all the surrounding country1 women casting their ornaments into the melting-pot4 ,the priests announced with a loud voice the successful accomplishment of each stage of the work1 and the concluding operations took place amid scenes of great rejoicings4 ,at ,to-,dai-ji is also a very fine specimen of a temple lantern1 ornamented with beautiful openwork panels2 while at the temple of ,kofukuji1 ,nara1 is a masterly piece of bronze in the shape of a musical instrument1 a sort of gong1 called the ,kwagen-,kei1 surrounded by four twining dragons--a most fantastic but vigorous piece of modelling4 ,the mirrors of polished bronze are said to have been first cast in the reign of ,keiko1 about #ajj ,a4,d4 ,they are of two kinds--the first fitted with a handle1 or with a stand of metal or carved wood2 and the second much smaller1 often not more than four inches in diameter1 with a hole at the back through which a cord passed4 ,the face was burnished1 and the back beautifully wrought in designs of great delicacy4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,bowls ,,of ,,cast ,,bronze 7#ah,,th ,,century7 7,south ,kensington ,museum7 ,the method of casting employed in these and similar articles1 which is still characteristic of ,japanese work1 was as follows3--,an exact model of the object1 with the ornamentation complete as in the finished article1 was made in wax4 ,a slip was then prepared with very fine sand1 clay1 and water1 and the model carefully coated with the mixture1 special care being taken to run it into all the hollow places1 so that a complete skin covered the wax at every part4 ,when the first coat dried another was added1 and another and another1 a slightly thicker paste being used for each successive coat4 ,a coarser and stronger mixture was used for the outer layers1 till the model was encased in a hard1 solid crust4 ,vent holes were then drilled and the wax melted out4 ,after being carefully heated the moulds were ready to receive the molten metal1 which was then poured in4 ,when the casting was cold the moulds were broken off and the metal exposed to view4 ,this system not only ensured individuality in the work1 a fresh mould being made for each piece1 but allowed of a depth of modelling and under-cutting which would have been impossible had the mould been in pieces to be drawn apart and afterwards used again4 ,the metal work of ,japan may be conveniently grouped in three classes4 ,first1 the early work characterised by extreme elegance1 ornament being used sparingly1 though with great taste and often marvellous vigour4 ,then comes a middle period1 dating from the coming of the ,tokugawa dynasty at the end of the sixteenth century1 when a class of work highly ornamented and rich in detail came into vogue4 ,and1 lastly1 we have the more modern naturalistic school1 wonderful in technique1 but lacking the inspiration of the older styles1 and beside it appearing dull and commonplace4 ,south ,kensington ,museum is particularly rich in ,japanese metal work1 especially bronzes1 of all these styles4 ,there are several fine temple lanterns1 notably one pair1 standing about eight feet high1 of very elegant design1 and ornamented with great reticence and taste4 ,a smaller pair1 evidently later in date1 contain some wonderful casting1 but in their more ornate quality lack the dignity of the first pair4 ,a piece much esteemed by some critics is the large ,koro1 or incense burner1 of quite modern work1 cast in #ahgh--;a life-sized study of peacocks1 doves1 and sparrows4 ,it is certainly a wonderful piece of realism4 ,the poses are natural1 the texture of the feathers is imitated in the unyielding metal with marvellous fidelity1 single plumes standing out in full relief2 but1 placed beside the best old work1 the whole thing seems trivial and even vulgar4 ,the birds are lifelike to just this extent3 if they were only coloured we should think they were stuffed specimens4 ,but from the true artist we get more than this camera-like reproduction of nature2 he can also give us the spirit4 ,turn from this case to the ,miochin eagle beside it4 ,as a piece of realism it is worthy to compare with the other1 but how much more it conveys4 ,there is a marvellous poise about the bird1 a vigour and sweep of line that makes it live and breathe the intense ferocity of its nature4 ,it is alive1 while the other merely irritates by its close resemblance to life4 ,of iron1 partly cast and partly made up of hammered plates1 it is the work of ,miochin ,muneharu1 a member of the famous ,miochin family of armourers1 and dates from the sixteenth century4 ,the smaller pieces in the collection--the vases1 trays1 bowls1 and candlesticks--are also well worthy of study1 and illustrate the same tendency--the older work charming by its stately simplicity1 and sometimes also by its vigorous treatment of the grotesque2 the modern apt to become a mass of exquisitely executed decorations of a highly naturalistic but rather trivial nature4 ,but in the early years of ,japan the implements of war chiefly occupied the attention of the metal worker1 and during the bitter civil wars that devastated the country the swordsmith and the armourer became persons of great importance4 ,the famous family of ,miochin has been associated with the making of arms and armour as far back as records extend4 ,an authentic member of the family1 ,masuda ,munemori1 wrought helmets and armour in #ge ,a4,d42 and1 further back still1 there is the legendary founder of the line1 who is said to be the grandson of the god ,takara himself1 who taught him the art of working in metals4 ,from the twelfth to the eighteenth centuries they held the position of armourers to the ,court4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,miochin ,,eagle ,cast and ,hammered ,iron1 #afth century 7,south ,kensington ,museum7 ,the armour of the ,miochins was formed of thin iron plates1 very light1 but wonderfully strong4 ,one specimen1 a helmet of the sixteenth century1 though #ab inches in length1 #aj in width1 and #h in height1 only weighs #b lbs4 #b oz4 ,the usual shape of helmet was a domelike headpiece1 strengthened with ridges of iron plates1 while flaps formed of a number of narrow plates hung at the sides1 and covered the back of the neck4 ,from the centre1 just above the forehead1 rose two curious curved horns1 called tsunomoto1 and between them was worn the crest of the warrior4 ,in a famous suit of ,miochin armour of the twelfth century the helmet has a dragon worked in repouss coiling round it1 the head1 with open mouth1 glaring from between the tsunomoto1 while the tail forms the spike on the top4 ,although wrought in so hard a metal as iron the dragon's head stands up in relief at least an inch from the background4 ,similar work in repouss adorns the breastplate and armpieces4 ,but much of the finest work of the ,japanese metal worker is found in the two-handed swords1 which were the chief weapon of the soldiers1 and which1 in feudal times1 became the distinctive mark of the ,samurai1 the aristocratic military class4 ,the ,japanese blades are unsurpassed by the most famous swords of ,damascus1 ,india1 and ,persia1 and the craft of the swordsmith was looked on as the most honourable of all handicrafts4 ,men of aristocratic birth often took up its duties1 and the famous swordmakers had the highest titles conferred upon them4 ,the name of the greatest of them all--,masamun--passed into the language as a term signifying supreme excellence1 for a ,masamun blade was unequalled1 and would sever a floating hair carried against its edge by the gentle current of a stream1 or cleave through a solid bar of iron4 ,the sword1 indeed1 was the centre of the old military life of ,japan4 ,to know its history1 its etiquette1 was part of the education of all ,samurai youths1 and it was a grand moment for them when1 at the age of fifteen1 they entered on man's estate and girded on the coveted weapon4 ,a fine sword was handed down from father to son as an heirloom2 it was their most cherished possession1 and especially in the more peaceful times which followed the establishment of the ,tokugawa dynasty it was enriched with the finest work that art could produce4 ,the forging of a sword was conducted with almost the solemnity attending a religious rite4 ,the katanya1 or swordsmith1 fasted for days before1 and when all was prepared he went to the temple and prayed for a blessing on his work4 ,in the forge was hung a consecrated rope of straw and clippings of paper to drive away evil spirits2 and1 having first propitiated the five elements--fire1 water1 wood1 metal1 and earth--the smith donned the ceremonial robes of a ,court noble1 and1 binding back the wide sleeves1 was ready to take hammer in hand4 ,first a strip of steel is welded to a bar of iron1 which serves as a handle2 other strips are placed upon it1 and it is wrought into a bar of the required dimensions4 ,carefully coated with a paste of clay and ashes1 and never touched with the naked hand1 this bar is heated in the charcoal furnace1 notched in the middle with a chisel1 doubled over1 and then beaten out to its former size and shape4 ,this folding process is repeated fifteen times1 then four such bars are welded together1 and the doubling and welding repeated five more times1 so that if each bar consisted first of all of four flakes this has now been increased to #af1ggg1baf layers of metal4 ,many different textures are obtained by flattening the bar in different manners1 some giving the appearance of a grain as in wood4 ,the preparatory welding being finished1 the blade is then drawn out to its full length1 shaped1 and roughly ground4 ,but the most critical part of the process1 the tempering of the steel1 is now to come4 ,and the peculiar combination required--an extremely hard edge1 with the rest of the blade soft and tough--the ,japanese swordsmith1 unlike others1 produces in one operation instead of two4 ,the blade is coated with a mixture of fine clay and powdered charcoal4 ,this covering is then scraped away along the edge1 leaving exposed a strip of metal about a quarter of an inch wide4 ,raised in the furnace to the required heat1 the blade glowing dull red while the edge is white hot1 the sword is then plunged into a bath of water at a certain temperature1 and the operation is finished4 ,the process of tempering was always conducted by the forger himself1 no one else being allowed to enter the precincts of the forge1 so jealously were his professional secrets guarded4 ,it is said that a famous swordsmith paid for this knowledge by the loss of his hand4 ,he had learned all but the heat of the tempering bath1 and this vital secret his master refused to impart to him1 so at the critical moment he burst into the forge and plunged his hand into the water4 ,the furious master struck off his hand with one blow of the unfinished sword1 but the apprentice had learned his secret4 ,the old smiths used to sing while tempering a blade1 and the spirit of the music was said to enter into the metal4 ,masamun chanted a refrain3 8,tenku1 taihei1 taihei0--8,peace be on earth1 peace0--and his swords never failed their owner1 but always bore him to victory4 ,but the blades of his saturnine pupil ,muramasa always brought trouble with them4 ,their owners were ever in quarrels1 and1 once unsheathed1 the sword was never satisfied without blood1 so that it could not even be handled with safety4 ,the reason for this was that1 as he tempered the blades1 ,muramasa sang grimly3 8,tenku tairan1 tenku tairan0--8,trouble in the world1 trouble in the world40 ,after tempering1 the blade was slowly ground on a series of whetstones1 getting finer and finer1 finishing with a careful polishing with stone-powder1 and oil4 ,a volume might be written on the decoration of the sword4 ,the tsuba or guard1 the handle of the ko-katana or little knife1 carried in the side of the scabbard2 the fuchi and kashira1 or mounts of the handle1 especially were marked by the most exquisite ornamentation4 ,in his knowledge of the properties of different metals and their alloys1 and in his combinations of these for one general effect1 the ,japanese metal worker is unique4 ,many of the alloys used by him were quite unknown to us1 and were chosen chiefly for their colours4 ,for the metal workers' designs were in reality colour studies1 and in metal he possessed a palette of really astonishing variety4 ,for black he had shakudo1 a rich1 deep tint1 flashing in some lights a violet blue4 ,oxidised iron gave a very dark brown1 almost black1 and also a rich chocolate colour4 ,light browns1 running from coffee colour to saffron yellow1 were obtained from different kinds of bronze4 ,copper gave a deep ruddy tint1 coban and other combinations of gold and silver a pale greenish yellow1 gold a rich1 full yellow1 shibu-ichi a dull grey1 while white was obtained by the use of silver or polished steel4 ,in ,south ,kensington there is a vase1 a very fine specimen of this work in colours4 ,the vase itself1 beautifully shaped1 is of iron1 a warm chocolate brown4 ,on this is inlaid a graceful design of birds and flowers1 gleaming and sparkling in gold and silver1 copper colour1 green1 blue1 and violet4 ,in sword mountings this style of decoration was extensively used1 and effects of great richness and beauty were obtained4 ,the tsuba1 or sword guard1 is a flat plate of metal1 usually circular or slightly elliptical in form2 but other styles1 such as diamonds1 squares1 octagons1 and irregular shapes decided by the exigencies of the design1 are not uncommon4 ,in size they vary from three to four inches in diameter1 according to the size of the sword1 and weigh from two to three ounces4 ,the tsuba usually contains three openings--the central one wedge-shaped1 through which the tang of the blade passes1 and two other smaller openings1 one on each side1 to allow for the passage of the kozuka and kogai to their sheaths in the sides of the scabbard4 ,the earliest guards were made entirely of iron1 and in many later tsuba this still forms the basis4 ,but bronze in its various forms was also much used as a ground for ornamentation2 and an alloy1 sentoku1 containing copper1 zinc1 tin1 and lead1 and of a soft yellow tint like brass1 was another favourite material4 ,in the latest periods other substances1 such as bone1 ivory1 tortoiseshell1 wood1 leather1 and papier-mach1 the last three being coated with lacquer1 were sometimes used4 ,one of the earliest methods of ornamenting the iron tsuba was what is known as kebori1 or hair-line chasing4 ,this was not executed with a graving tool but with a small chisel held in the left hand1 and driven towards the worker with blows from a light hammer4 ,this style of ornament reached its height during the sixteenth century1 and may be seen in great perfection in the work of ,goto ,yujo4 ,a development of this style was the hira-zogan4 ,in this lines were first engraved to a uniform depth and then undercut4 ,soft gold or silver wire was then hammered in1 the wedge-shaped opening retaining it firmly without the use of any solder4 ,kebori-zogan was a combination of the two styles4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,tsubas 7,from the ,collection of ,mr ,m4 ,tomkinson7 ,the kata-kiri-bori style depended for its effect not on the inlay of different metals but on designs in relief or intaglio4 ,often the design was defined by piercing1 and the detail brought out by chasing and modelling in relief4 ,in most cases the work was entirely that of the chisel and the hammer1 untouched by any subsequent grinding or polishing4 ,in the kata-kiri-bori-zogan style--figured1 sculptured1 and encrusted work--we find the latest and most elaborate productions of the more modern schools1 enamels being also used to add richness to the effect4 ,the iron1 which forms the most usual material1 is of exceedingly fine quality and of unusual softness4 ,in many cases it was left rough from the hammer and punch1 the marks1 seemingly so careless1 forming essential parts of the decoration4 ,etching with acids was sometimes adopted to bring out into greater prominence the twists and foldings of the wrought iron4 ,in some cases1 also1 a surface grained like wood was obtained by welding together many strips of iron of different qualities and then treating with acid1 which1 of course1 affected more strongly the softer layers4 ,it is doubtful when the tsuba first began to be an object of art1 no specimens of an earlier date than the fourteenth century existing even in representations4 ,most of the tsubas on the older swords are much more modern than the blades to which they are attached4 ,in the olden times1 when the ,samurai fell into evil days1 he sometimes stripped off and sold the rich embellishments of his sword1 retaining only the trusty blade4 ,kaneiye1 who worked about the end of the fourteenth century1 is regarded as the first maker of tsubas artistically ornamented4 ,in the fifteenth century were produced many iron tsubas decorated with saw-cut silhouettes of birds1 leaves1 or animals1 and with hammer or punch marks4 ,those last were probably the work of armourers1 as in the case of ,nobuiye of the ,miochin family1 whose iron tsubas were greatly valued4 ,some of these are of openwork1 some with heads or masks in relief1 others with punch marks4 ,another of the most famous workers in iron is ,umetada1 who lived about the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,another of the fathers of the art was ,goto ,yujo1 the founder of the ,goto school1 who lived between #adcd and #aeab1 and often worked from the designs of the painter ,kano ,motonobu4 ,by this school1 it is said1 was introduced the peculiar ground of raised dots known as manako1 or fish roe ground1 and also the free use of gold1 the excess of which marred so much their later work4 ,to the sixteenth century belong most of the beautiful specimens of saw-cut work in iron1 chrysanthemums1 kiri1 and other crests being the favourite motives1 though a number of conventional floral designs showing a strong ,portuguese influence are also found4 ,in the early part of the seventeenth century the use of enamel in the ornament of the tsuba was introduced by ,hirata ,donin1 and continued to be characteristic of the work of the ,hirata family till the present century4 ,the time which produced much of the finest work of all is known as the ,joken-in period1 #afha-agjh--the rule of the ,shogun ,tokugawa ,tsuneyoshi--perhaps the most famous artist being ,somin1 who worked largely from the designs of the ,kano painter ,hanabusa ,itcho4 ,about this time the wonderful palette of colours in metal came into full use1 and the range of subjects became more and more varied4 ,as in the case of netsuk1 so in tsuba one may read the whole history1 legends1 and mythology of ,japan4 ,but the art had now passed its zenith1 and a gradual degeneration set in1 the work produced in later years being rich and ornate1 but lacking the distinction of the earlier schools4 ,a few words must be said of the kozuka1 the handle of the small knife1 called the ko-katana1 which is sheathed in the scabbard of the wakizashi1 or short sword4 ,the kozuka contains much beautiful ornamentation1 and from its more sheltered position this is often of greater delicacy than that applied to the tsuba4 ,the manner in which the problem of filling the long1 narrow field is solved is a perpetual source of charm to the student of design4 ,the fuchi1 or ferule1 at the lower end of the handle of the sword1 and the kashira1 its lozenge-shaped cap1 are also finely ornamented1 the two combined usually forming one design4 ,south ,kensington ,museum has a varied collection of sword furniture1 including many fine specimens1 but1 unfortunately1 probably from lack of space1 the objects are arranged in tall cases placed so closely face to face as to render the study of their contents almost impossible without the help of a candle4 ,illustration3 ,rider on ,horseback ,,chapter ,,vi ,,keramics ,though the golden period of ,japanese ,keramic art was attained during the ,tokugawa dynasty1 #afjc-ahfh1 yet its origin is lost in the mists of antiquity4 ,an interesting passage in an old ,japanese chronicle shows that in the times of the ,emperor ,suwinin1 about the beginning of the ,christian era1 the craft of the potter was the recognised industry of certain tribes4 ,after giving an account of the death and burial of the ,mikado's brother the record proceeds3 8,on this they assembled those who had been in his immediate service1 and buried them all upright round his sepulchre alive4 ,for many days they died not1 but day and night wept and cried4 ,at last they died and rotted4 ,dogs and crows assembled and ate them4 ,the ,mikado1 hearing the sound of their weeping and crying1 felt saddened and pained in his heart4 ,he commanded all his high officers saying3 #8,it is a very painful matter to force those whom we have loved during life to follow us in death1 and though it is an ancient custom why follow it if it be bad8 ,from now and henceforth plan so as to stop causing men to follow the dead4' ,on the death of the ,empress1 some time afterwards1 the ,emperor called his advisers together1 and asked them3 #8,what shall be done in the case of the present burying8' ,thereupon ,nomi-no-,sukune advanced1 and said3 #8,it is not good to bury living men standing at the sepulchre of a prince1 and this cannot be handed down to posterity4 ,i pray leave now to propose a convenient plan1 and to lay this before the sovereign4' ,and he sent messengers to summon up a hundred of the clay-workers' tribe of the country of ,idzumo1 and he himself directed the men of the clay-workers' tribe in taking clay and forming shapes of men1 horses1 and various things1 and presented them to the ,mikado1 saying3 #8,from now and henceforth let it be the law for posterity to exchange things of clay for living men1 and set them up in sepulchres4'0 ,the result of ,mr ,w4 ,gowland's excavations of the dolmens1 or burial mounds1 which date from about #bjj ,b4,c4 to #fjj ,a4,d41 has been the discovery of a great deal of the ancient pottery--coarse ware unglazed and unpainted1 and decorated only with simple patterns of lines incised in the clay while soft4 ,the shapes1 however1 are often graceful and pleasing4 ,in the dolmens were also found the rude terra-cotta figures of men above referred to4 ,for many centuries the art of the potter remained in very much the same primitive condition4 ,a coarse ware sufficed for the domestic utensils of the common people1 and lacquered vessels supplied the wants of the more luxurious4 ,there is1 indeed1 mention of ,korean potters having been brought over to ,japan after the ,empress ,jingo's victorious campaign1 and it is said that the art of glazing was practised at ,hizen in the eighth century4 ,little real advance1 however1 was made till the thirteenth century1 when ,kato ,shirazayemon1 better known as ,toshiro1 a native of ,seto in ,owari1 and the father of ,japanese pottery1 appears4 ,dissatisfied with the results of the native kilns he visited ,china in #abbc to study the methods practised there1 and after six years' absence returned to ,seto4 ,his pottery is a brown stoneware of firm and dense texture1 and is covered with a glaze of a deep rich brown1 sometimes mottled1 altogether a great advance on the previous product of the country4 ,the vessels made by him1 mostly cha-ire1 or tea-jars1 used in the tea ceremony1 are now valued at fabulous prices by the ,japanese dilettante4 ,a certain authority states that ,japanese history has been denominated by three factors3 the sword1 the tea-cup1 and the paper house4 ,the effects of the first and the last have been already indicated1 and a few words here as to the second may not be out of place4 ,legend ascribes a supernatural origin to the tea-plant4 ,the ,buddhist saint ,daruma1 he who sat wrapt in meditation for eight long years so that he quite lost the use of his lower limbs1 once at his devotions was overpowered by sleep4 ,on awakening1 filled with shame at his frailty1 he took a pair of scissors1 and1 snipping off the offending eyelids1 cast them indignantly from him4 ,they took root where they fell1 and from them sprang a plant whose leaves had the magic quality of driving away sleep from weary eyes4 ,in the temples it was much valued by the holy men1 and a certain degree of ceremony or ritual attended its use4 ,it was in the time of ,yoshimasa1 in the fifteenth century1 that the cha-no-yu1 or tea ceremony1 began to assume public importance4 ,in his peaceful retirement1 surrounded by artists and philosophers1 it was practised by the ex-,shogun4 ,the priest ,shuko drew up a code of its rules1 characterised by a severe and dignified simplicity4 ,the room used was small1 and plain to bareness1 the utensils were unornamented1 but1 though to the ordinary eye crude and rough1 were much prized by the connoisseur4 ,indeed1 ,yoshimasa often rewarded important services not by a grant of land but by the gift of a valued tea-jar4 ,a hundred years later ,hideyoshi revived the ceremony1 and its rules were revised by the famous philosopher ,rikiu1 the greatest of all the ,cha-jin1 or tea professors4 ,rikiu considered that the essentials of the tea ceremony were3 8,purity1 peacefulness1 reverence1 and abstraction40 8,it was important for the guest to come with clean hands1 but much more so with a clean heart40 ,social rank was ignored3 those present took rank according to their standing and reputation as ,cha-jin4 ,the most perfect courtesy and politeness governed all the proceedings4 ,frivolous or worldly talk was forbidden1 and the conversation chiefly turned on the merit of the kakemono adorning the room1 the flower decoration hanging before it1 and the implements used in the ceremony4 ,a special ware was used for the tea bowls termed ,raku ware4 ,it is said first to have been made by a ,kioto potter ,ameya from a design by ,rikiu1 and so delighted ,hideyoshi that he presented the maker with a gold seal1 with the characters 8,raku0 7enjoyment7 inscribed upon it1 with permission to use it as a stamp4 ,the ware is soft and porous1 and covered with a thick1 soft glaze4 ,not turned on the wheel but shaped by hand1 it is rough and uneven in shape1 and usually bears no ornamentation4 ,coarse and unsightly and rough as it may appear to the uninitiated1 to the eye of the connoisseur it possesses many beauties2 its irregular shape is comfortable to the hand1 its soft glaze pleasant to the lips1 and is said even to impart a flavour to the tea4 ,as the relaxation of the most cultured of the land1 the tea ceremony had effects of far-reaching importance4 ,as a corrective to the military spirit its glorification of the gentler virtues was invaluable1 and to it in no small degree it is said the ,japanese owe their character as the most courteous nation in the world4 ,in art1 though most strongly felt in the field of ,keramics1 its influence extended widely1 affecting to no small extent the various branches of the minor decorative arts1 and dominating1 almost in a sense creating1 the arts of landscape gardening and flower arrangement4 ,with ,hideyoshi's revival of the tea ceremony1 and the importation of ,korean potters1 the real history of ,japanese ,keramic art begins4 ,kilns were founded in many different parts of the country1 and as each produced its own distinctive ware the development of these local art industries can best be traced separately4 ,the province of ,hizen1 lying in the south of the island of ,kiushu1 and the nearest point of the ,korean mainland being only some two hundred miles away1 it is natural that here the borrowed industry should first take root4 ,the most ancient kiln was erected at ,karatzu as early as the seventh century1 and a hundred years later glazing was there used for the first time in ,japan4 ,so famous did the ,karatzu ware become that ,karatzu-mono1 8things of ,karatzu10 became the current name for all sorts of pottery4 ,the ,old ,karatzu ware1 however1 was coarse and rough in quality1 though some of its rich brown glazes were not without beauty4 ,in the sixteenth century ,gorodayu ,shonzui visited ,china and learned the art of making porcelain1 and on his return to ,japan brought a quantity of the clay with him4 ,on the supply being exhausted1 however1 the manufacture stopped4 ,after ,hideyoshi's invasion of ,korea1 towards the end of the century1 many captives were brought back1 including a ,korean potter1 ,risampei1 who discovered on the hills of ,hizen a clay suitable for the making of porcelain4 ,kilns were erected1 and the new manufacture started in earnest4 ,when the ,dutch traders dealt with the port of ,nagasaki the chief article of their export was the porcelain ware of ,arita--known as ,imari ware1 from which port it was shipped to ,nagasaki4 ,it is this ware that was distributed through ,europe and gave the first and totally erroneous idea of the ,keramic art of ,japan4 ,for the 8,old ,japan0 ware1 as it is called1 was deliberately manufactured to suit the vulgar taste of the barbarous foreigner1 who demanded copious and crowded decoration4 ,it is almost ludicrous to compare it with the ware manufactured at the same time for home use4 ,the one1 the work of the artist ,kakiyemon1 is decorated with dainty and graceful designs1 which in their reticence and simplicity are the embodiment of good taste2 the other is quite un-,japanese in style1 the ornament crowded and overloaded with colour1 and often a mere gaudy jumble4 ,but the 8,old ,japan0 ware formed the models for half the factories of ,europe1 and we only need to turn to the ,old ,crown ,derby porcelain to find its atrocities repeated with ludicrous fidelity4 ,in #affj ,prince ,nabeshima established a kiln at ,okawachi4 ,it was reserved for the finest porcelain only1 which was made for his private use1 the sale being prohibited4 ,beautiful ware with a fine blue under the glaze was the chief product1 and at a later date fragile imitations of flowers were made1 of wonderful delicacy4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,porcelain 7,british ,museum7 #a4 ,large ,plate1 ,kutani ware 7purple1 blue1 and green1 on yellow ground7 #b4 ,plate1 ,imari ware 7design by ,kakiyemon1 red1 blue1 green1 and yellow1 on white ground7 #c4 ,plate1 ,nabeshima ware 7blue1 on white ground7 ,another famous factory of ,hizen is that at ,mikawachi1 where the ,hirado ware1 perhaps the finest of all ,japanese porcelains1 was produced4 ,the factory was founded towards the end of the sixteenth century1 and its first manufacture was an earthenware covered with a blue-grey glaze4 ,in #agab1 however1 the discovery of fine porcelain stone was made in the vicinity1 and in #agea ,matsura1 the feudal chief of ,hirado1 took the kiln under his patronage1 and for the next hundred years the ware may be assigned the first place among ,japanese porcelains2 for not only is the ground a pure and clear white1 but the pat1 free from gritty particles1 is of a fineness of texture which is not possessed by other similar wares4 ,with rare exceptions blue is the only colour used in its decoration1 not the deep ,chinese blue nor yet the rather weak tint of ,nabeshima1 but a delicate shade between the two4 ,the favourite decorative motive was a scene with pine-trees and children at play4 ,in ware of the finest quality seven children were introduced1 in the second quality five1 and in the third three4 ,many charming pieces were also made in plain white ware with pierced patterns or designs in relief1 and at a later date the factory became famous for a delicate blue-and-white eggshell porcelain4 ,since #ahcj1 however1 the wares of the factory have declined greatly in quality4 ,until within the last forty years the ,keramic arts of ,japan were only known to ,europe by their porcelain1 and only crude and inferior specimens of that1 but the pottery and faience which merited even more attention were utterly unheard of4 ,since then matters have changed very much1 and the faience of ,satsuma is now the most sought after of all ,japanese wares4 ,but though ,old ,satsuma ware has become almost a household word1 and there are few collections but boast of a specimen or two1 the bulk of these objects are more or less clever imitations of a later date1 excellent often in themselves1 but not the rare and wonderful old ,satsuma with its soft1 ivory tint and its almost imperceptibly crackled glaze4 ,the original kiln appears to have been founded by ,prince ,shimazu ,yoshihiro1 chief of ,satsuma1 on his return from the ,korean expedition1 from which he brought back seventeen skilled ,korean potters4 ,in #aeih a kiln was opened close to his castle at ,chosa1 in the neighbouring province of ,hiuga1 which manufactured chiefly objects for the tea ceremony not unlike those previously made at ,seto2 but the glazes were of many varieties and very beautiful1 some of them being exceedingly rich and brilliant4 ,prince ,yoshihiro took great interest in the manufactory1 settling handsome annuities on the most skilful potters1 and stamping the finest pieces of work with his own seal4 ,in the year #afah ,boku1 one of the original seventeen ,korean potters1 discovered in ,satsuma a fine white clay or sand and other materials suitable for the manufacture of a finer quality of faience1 and the result was a great improvement in the ware4 ,in #afcj the kilns were removed to ,nawashiro1 and by #afge the ware had reached a high degree of excellence4 ,about this time ,tangen1 a pupil of the great ,kano painter ,tanyu1 was employed to paint or furnish designs for the potters1 and ,satsuma ,tangen now constitutes one of the greatest treasures of the ,japanese connoisseur4 ,the decoration of such pieces as remain is slight and sketchy1 the designs usually landscape1 bird1 and floral subjects1 and the colours few and simple1 often a reddish brown only being used4 ,towards the end of the eighteenth century two ,satsuma potters1 ,hoko of the ,tatsumonji factory and ,chiubei of the ,tadeno factory1 were sent by ,shimazu ,tomonobu1 the chief of the clan1 to travel all over ,japan1 visiting the different factories and learning the processes used in each4 ,they visited ,hizen1 ,kioto1 ,bizen1 ,owari1 and other places1 and particularly seem to have profited by their insight into the methods used in the production of the enamelled faience of ,awata1 for after their return1 in #agie1 may be dated a large increase in the manufacture of enamelled ,satsuma faience1 ,nishiki-de1 and it is this faience that is so widely known and valued as ,old ,satsuma4 ,the characteristics of this beautiful ware may be briefly noted4 ,the pat is close as pipeclay and almost as firm and hard as porcelain4 ,the chalky1 porous nature of the newer work at once proclaims its late date4 ,the old glaze is soft1 lustrous1 and mellow1 with an exceedingly fine crackle4 ,the decoration is simple1 chiefly diapers and floral subjects in comparatively few colours1 and the pieces are invariably small--tripod incense burners of about seven inches high being1 perhaps1 the largest objects4 ,the large examples profusely decorated with human figures1 peacocks1 and other designs1 are all of later date belonging to the period of forgeries which set in with the great increase of ,european trade after #ahfh4 ,illustration3 ,,vase ,,in ,,form ,,of ,,lotus1 ,,satsuma ,,faience 7#ah,,th ,,century7 7,from the ,collection of ,mr ,m4 ,tomkinson7 ,of imitations there are many varieties4 ,but first it may be mentioned that1 prior to #ahfh1 undecorated white faience was largely made at ,satsuma1 which was afterwards decorated at ,tokio1 but the refiring necessary completely takes away1 in most cases1 the distinctive and beautiful qualities of the crackled glaze4 ,the rarity of ,old ,satsuma ware may be judged from the fact that the average number of genuine pieces offered for sale in ,japan during the last fifteen years has probably not been more than ten1 and not more than half of these have left the country4 ,though the ,satsuma faience has the distinction of being the most beautiful ware produced in ,japan1 it is in association with the ,kioto factories that we find most of the great names of ,japanese ,keramics--,ninsei1 ,kenzan1 and ,hozen4 ,the wares of ,kioto may be divided into three classes3 first1 the ,old ,raku ware used in the tea ceremony2 second1 the decorated faience of ,awata and the neighbouring kilns2 and third1 the porcelain which was the product of the early part of the nineteenth century4 ,during the civil wars which preceded the ,tokugawa period the city of ,kioto1 though the seat of the ,imperial ,court1 dwindled rapidly in importance2 even the ,mikado and his ,kug1 or ,court nobles1 lived in dire poverty4 ,its tide of prosperity did not turn until the seventeenth century1 and it is with the advent of ,nomura ,seisuke 7also called ,seiyemon and ,seibei7 that the great period begins4 ,his native place was ,ninnaji1 near ,kioto1 and1 taking the first syllable of that name and adding to it the first syllable of his own1 he adopted the name ,ninsei1 with which he stamped his work4 ,as already described1 the porcelain makers at ,hizen had learned the secret of vitrifiable enamels as early as #afbj1 but it was guarded by them most jealously4 ,it is said1 however1 that between #afej and #afee ,kurobei1 a ,kioto dealer in porcelain1 obtained the precious secret from an ,aritu potter1 ,aoyama ,koemon4 ,the miserable man was immediately put to death by his irate lord2 but the secret was out1 and passed from the dealer to ,ninsei1 to the great future benefit of ,japan4 ,he applied it to the decoration of faience with the most excellent results1 for his taste and skill as a decorative artist were unrivalled among his contemporaries1 and to his influence may be traced many of the most charming developments of later years4 ,a man of birth1 he was not actually a potter by profession1 and had1 therefore1 no fixed workshop1 working at the factories of ,awata1 ,iwakura1 and ,mizoro4 ,he seems to have made no secret of the processes he had mastered1 but gladly imparted them to those with whom he came in contact1 and to this fact is doubtless due the rapid rise in the quality and increase in the output of the ,kioto ware4 ,a word as to the ,kioto kilns1 which were all within a radius of a few miles1 may be here advisable4 ,the best known were ,awata1 ,iwakura1 and ,mizoro2 the others were grouped together under the general term ,kyomizu4 ,ninsei's faience is almost worthy to compare with the best ware of ,satsuma1 but is marked by a slightly darker colour1 and is a trifle fragile in appearance1 lacking the firm solidity of the ,satsuma ware4 ,its crackle is fine and beautifully regular1 giving the appearance of a covering of fine netting4 ,his glazes range from a metallic black to a pearl white1 through which a pink flush seems to spread4 ,his designs for decoration are simple and chaste1 and the clear1 pale greens and blues and rich reds of his enamels are of exquisite quality4 ,after ,ninsei's death the next great name at ,awata is that of ,ogata ,shinsei1 or ,kenzan1 a younger brother of the still more famous ,ogata ,korin1 painter and lacquerer1 perhaps the greatest decorative artist ,japan has produced4 ,kenzan was also a decorator of great power and originality4 ,in complete contrast to the delicate harmonies of ,ninsei1 his designs are rough and bold1 but his colour is superb and his decorative sense unerring4 ,his work was at first confined to the coarser wares of the cha-no-yu1 and here the singular force of his decoration harmonises well with the rude shapes1 rough earthenware1 and rich glazes1 so that the ,kenzan ,raku ware is indeed a thing of beauty4 ,but in faience he had equally great success4 ,once seen1 his style can be recognised anywhere2 a rough sketch of a landscape1 a branch in blossom1 a flight of birds1 or the conventional shape of a flower1 dashed in with seeming carelessness1 but each touch placed in exactly the right spot for decorative fitness4 ,a very fine specimen of his work--a brown pot decorated with an extremely rich design of peacock's feathers1 blue-green and purple--may be seen in the ,british ,museum4 ,the third great name of the ,kioto group is that of ,nishimura ,zengoro1 by ,keramists known as ,hozen4 ,born towards the end of the eighteenth century1 he was one of a long line of potters4 ,in #ahja-c he studied at the ,awata factory1 and soon his celadon and blue-and-white porcelain became celebrated4 ,his fame attracted the notice of the feudal chief of ,kiushu1 who1 in #ahbg1 invited him to his province1 and built a kiln for him in his private park1 at which he produced the well-known ware called1 from its stamp1 ,kairaku-en ware4 ,zengoro had made a special study of glazes1 and the great beauty of this ware is the rich harmony of purple1 blue1 and yellow glazes which he obtained4 ,his versatility is shown by another ware which has an equally high reputation--the 8,eiraku10 or ,kinrande 7scarlet and gold brocade style74 ,this is a porcelain ware of great delicacy and beauty1 and usually made only in small pieces4 ,the ground is of a soft coral red1 upon which is traced a wealth of decoration in gold1 with here and there a mass of rich blue4 ,of the many other well-known names remaining among the ,kioto potters only passing mention can be made4 ,in many families the same stamp was used by one generation after another1 rendering it difficult to distinguish their individual work4 ,the ,kinkozan1 ,hozan1 ,taizan1 and ,tanzan families carried the traditions of ,ninsei in ,awata faience right down to the present day2 while in the beginning of the nineteenth century the ,dohachi family and the ,kyomizu potter ,rokubei followed in their decoration the newer naturalistic school4 ,mention must also be made of ,shuhei and ,kantei1 potters of the end of the eighteenth century1 who are regarded as the most eminent masters of the little ,japanese tea-pot1 or kuisu1 and also of their contemporary ,mokubei1 a potter of so great ability that it is a pity he confined himself almost entirely to imitations of ,chinese and other wares4 ,the history of the founding of the ,kaga factories1 which turned out the ,kutani ware1 is interesting and curious4 ,maeda ,toshiharu1 feudal lord of ,daishoji1 having discovered a bed of fine porcelain stone near ,kutani1 established a kiln about #afej1 under the charge of two well-known potters--,tamura ,gonzaemon and ,goto ,saijiro2 but the venture was not a success owing to the lack of knowledge of the workers4 ,not to be outdone1 ,saijiro went to ,hizen to learn there the secrets of porcelain making4 ,the only way in which he was able to do this was by becoming a permanent member of the community4 ,the manner in which he accomplished this was peculiar4 ,he took service in the house of a potter1 married a woman of the district1 and worked there for several years4 ,when he had learned all there was to learn he calmly deserted wife and family1 and fled home to ,kaga1 where he imparted the needed information4 ,shortly after this time1 about #affd1 the ,kutani potters were turning out wares of great beauty and individuality4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,various ,,wares 7,british ,museum7 #a4 ,tea-,jar1 by ,toshiro ,i4 #b4 ,tea ,bowl--,raku ,ware4 #c4 ,tea ,bowl after ,ninsei4 #d4 ,tea ,bowl--,omuru1 ,kioto4 #e and #f4 ,tea ,bowls1 by ,kenzan4 #g4 ,kairaku-en ,ware4 #h4 ,kioto ,ware4 #i4 ,soma ,ware4 #aj4 ,yatsushiro ,ware4 #aa4 ,bizen ,ware4 #ab4 ,banko ,ware4 ,of these there were several kinds--the first1 ,ao-,kutani1 was so called from the deep green glaze 7ao green7 which was largely used in its decoration2 and other glazes--yellow1 purple1 and soft ,prussian blue--made up a rich1 low-toned harmony of great beauty4 ,in the second class of ware the ,arita style of decoration was followed1 except that the ,kutani potter used blue under the glaze very seldom1 and only in subordinate positions4 ,their chief colours were red--a soft1 dull1 rich colour varying from ,indian red to a russet brown--and yellow1 purple1 and blue1 supplemented by silver and gold4 ,their designs were largely made by ,morikaga1 a pupil of ,tanyu-- landscapes1 birds1 and flowers being the chief subjects4 ,a third famous ware of ,kutani1 which may be termed the red ,kutani as distinguished from the green1 had a ground of rich red1 with diapers or medallions decorated in yellow1 green1 purple1 and red enamels4 ,another style had the ground entirely of red1 to which designs were applied in silver and gold1 light green1 and sometimes yellow and purple enamels4 ,for some reason the activity of the ,kutani factory only continued for about sixty years1 and during the next hundred years there followed a period of inaction4 ,in the middle of the nineteenth century the manufacture was revived1 both the red and the green ,old ,kutani wares being imitated1 but with doubtful success4 ,the modern colours1 especially in the case of the red1 lack the softness of the old1 and are1 comparatively speaking1 harsh and glaring4 ,in #ahbg1 at ,edamachi ,kanazawa1 a kiln was founded which produced a beautiful faience known as ,ohi-yaki1 which is characterised by enamelled decoration of great delicacy and refinement4 ,the foregoing are the most important of the old ,keramic arts1 for the most distinguished products of the pre-,meji days may be summed up as the porcelain of ,hizen and ,kutani and the faience of ,satsuma and ,kioto4 ,a number of wares of lesser importance remain1 chief among these being the ,owari wares4 ,it will be remembered that it was to ,seto in ,owari that ,toshiro returned after his visit to ,china in the thirteenth century1 and founded the industry which entitles him to the name of 8,the ,father of ,japanese ,pottery40 ,but from that time till the beginning of the nineteenth century little change took place in the character of the ,seto wares1 which continued to be stoneware and earthenware vessels1 and little else4 ,about #ahja1 however1 a ,seto potter visited ,hizen1 and after studying in the factories there returned1 and founded a porcelain manufactory in ,seto4 ,soon they attained great proficiency in the production of a blue-and-white ware which rivalled the products of ,hizen4 ,their large pieces were particularly fine examples of firing1 the technical difficulties to be overcome being enormous4 ,the quality1 however1 of this ware rapidly deteriorated after #ahej4 ,at about the same time a soft-crackled faience was made at ,nagoya by a potter called ,toyosuke4 ,it is a soft-crackled faience of the ,raku type1 covered on the inside with a greenish white glaze decorated with bold floral designs1 and on the outside with a thin coat of lacquer4 ,and now1 for the remaining smaller branches of the industry a passing mention must suffice4 ,in the province of ,bizen was manufactured a curious hard stoneware of a bluish grey colour1 which chiefly took the form of vigorously modelled figures of gods1 men1 animals1 and birds4 ,indeed1 in the ,bizen stoneware you find repeated in another form1 but with the same vigour and originality1 the achievements of the netsuk carver and the tsuba worker--,hotei1 the pot-bellied god of contentment1 being a favourite subject for treatment4 ,at ,ise a wealthy amateur named ,gozayemon founded a kiln in #agcf1 executing a ware which was known as ,ko ,banko4 ,in the beginning of the nineteenth century a potter1 ,mori ,yusetsu1 conceived the idea of imitating this old ware4 ,the imitator1 however1 was a much better artist than his prototype1 and soon the new ,banko ware was both widely different from1 and of a much finer quality than1 the old4 ,this ware was worked on a mould1 which was placed inside the article1 and the clay pressed in with the fingers1 the mould being afterwards removed in sections4 ,the decoration was vigorous and artistic1 consisting often of dragons1 storks1 etc41 in relief4 ,in ,higo a very beautiful ware called ,yatsushiro was made4 ,it is a dense faience coated with a film of pale grey clay by immersion in slip2 the design1 usually a delicate diaper1 is then engraved and the lines filled in with white clay--the whole being covered with a finely-crackled glaze4 ,mention must be made also of the beautiful eggshell ware of ,mino--delicate little sak cups and other vessels encased in envelopes of bamboo basket-work2 and also of the ,fujina ware of ,idzumo--a faience decorated with beautifully executed designs of insects4 ,at ,nakamura1 in ,iwaki1 a kiln was opened in #afej1 and here the ware known as ,soma ware was produced4 ,it is said that the ,kano painter ,naonobu1 drew as a crest for ,soma ,yoshitane the galloping horse which in varying forms is seen on almost every piece of this ware4 ,other lesser kilns are too numerous to mention1 and existed in almost every province4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses a good and varied collection of ,japanese ,keramic ware1 but1 unfortunately1 the lack of a catalogue and the absence of any systematic arrangement1 or even of proper labelling1 takes away much from its usefulness to the student4 ,illustration3 ,a ,japanese ,fan ,,chapter ,,vii ,,lacquer ,the most wonderful of all ,japanese arts is their lacquer-work1 and1 perhaps1 in this more completely than in any other medium does the peculiar genius of ,japan find expression4 ,for the combination of qualities required for the production of a piece of fine lacquer are such as could have been found in no other people4 ,and it comes to us with a shock of surprise that this work1 so free and spontaneous and yet so delicate1 is wrought in1 perhaps1 the most difficult and intractable material ever used by man1 and built up slowly and by infinitesimal stages1 layer by layer1 through weeks and months of labour4 ,even were the same brilliant faculty of design the gift of the ,european1 the amazing and unfaltering precision of hand1 and the limitless patience and unceasing care required by the technical processes1 place lacquer-work far beyond his scope4 ,it is only the ,eastern who can combine the imagination of the artist with the technical powers and steady perseverance of the ant or the bee4 ,for1 indeed1 in examining one of these marvellous ,japanese works1 so full of exquisite detail1 so perfect in every part1 one is irresistibly reminded of the honeycombs which form the monument of the humble insect worker2 but where the one is the repetition of a single design fixed unalterably the other is free and spontaneous1 the product of an ever-varying fancy4 ,it is difficult to imagine anything more perfect than a piece of really fine lacquer--the smooth1 translucent surface pleasant even to the sense of touch2 the design simple and slight1 and sensitively placed so as to cause the blank spaces to form essential parts of the composition2 and the whole glowing with soft gold of varying tints1 or1 perhaps1 relieved with a boldly inlaid piece of mother-of-pearl1 flashing with its brilliant irridescent hues4 ,to one who has seen specimens of the finest work--the glorious lacquer of old ,japan--the words of the ,french critic1 ,m4 ,louis ,gonse1 exaggerated though they may seem to the uninitiated1 appear no more than a mere statement of fact3 8,japanese lacquered objects10 he says1 8are the most perfect works that have ever issued from the hands of man40 ,but specimens of really fine lacquer are rarely to be seen outside ,japan1 where they are treasured in the collections of the wealthy4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses hardly anything which is really fine1 ,south ,kensington only a few small pieces4 ,the bulk of the fine lacquer in this country is divided between a few private collections1 chief among which is that of ,mr ,m4 ,tomkinson at ,franche ,hall1 near ,kidderminster--a marvellous collection1 rich in examples of all periods1 and containing many exquisite pieces of work4 ,though tradition says that lacquer-work was known in ,japan as early as #cib ,b4,c4 it is supposed that the art1 like others1 came originally from ,china4 ,at first its uses were purely utilitarian4 ,drinking-vessels were coated with lacquer to render them water-tight1 and as the surface was hard as glass1 and withstood considerable heat1 it was also used largely for cooking and other household utensils4 ,indeed1 this explains the slow development of the potter's art in ,japan1 for where we would use glass or earthenware the ,japanese used lacquered vessels4 ,the armour of an old ,japan warrior was often leather coated with lacquer2 the sword was in a lacquered scabbard4 ,he ate off a lacquered tray1 drank out of a lacquered cup1 and rode in a lacquered carriage4 ,the lac is a natural product--the gum exuded by the urushi-tree 7rhus vernicifera71 a species of sumach4 ,the finest lac of all was obtained from very old trees2 but1 as the tapping and drawing of the sap resulted in the death of the tree1 the supply had to be continually renewed1 and so in medival times landowners were compelled by law to plant annually a certain number of trees1 and the export of lac was strictly forbidden4 ,even the ,dutch traders of ,nagasaki were not allowed to include it in their shiploads of porcelain and other wares1 with the exception of a few pieces of inferior quality1 specially manufactured1 like the ,imari ware1 for the ,european market4 ,it is safe to say that until the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahfg no really fine lacquer had ever been seen in ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,outside ,,of ,,lid ,,of ,,suzuri-,,bako ,,or ,,writing-,,case ,in ,green1 ,gold1 and ,silver1 on ,black ,ground4 ,koma1 ,early #ahth ,century 7,from the ,collection of ,mr ,m4 ,tomkinson7 ,at what date lacquer began first to be ornamented is unknown4 ,the earliest known examples are preserved in the ,todaiji and ,shosoin temples at ,nara1 and date from the sixth and eighth centuries1 and by the tenth century some very fine work had been produced4 ,it was not1 however1 until the seventeenth century1 when the country1 under the firm hand of the ,tokugawa ,shogun ,iyeyasu1 after centuries of turmoil and civil war1 had settled down to a peaceful existence that the period of the great lacquer workers set in4 ,for in lacquer1 as in many of the minor arts1 the ,tokugawa period marked the highest point of excellence4 ,in the households of the wealthy ,daimios the artist was freed from the more sordid cares of life4 ,he need take no thought for the morrow1 what he should eat or what he should drink1 but could give his whole life to his art4 ,and it was by the quality of his work1 and not by the quantity1 that he was judged4 ,he had no idea of increasing his output in order to double his returns1 but would spend months of labour on an object no larger than a few inches square4 ,the larger pieces of work1 exquisitely wrought outside and inside1 the more delicate work being reserved for the inside1 as there less liable to damage1 in many cases represent the work of years4 ,for the process is long and tedious1 and bristling with technical difficulties4 ,first the wooden foundation for the box or other object to be lacquered is made of specially selected wood1 generally a hard wood called by the ,japanese hi-no-ki1 which is not liable to warp1 and admits of a very fine finish4 ,these wooden objects are examples of beautiful cabinet making1 often little thicker than cardboard1 but fitting with great exactness4 ,this foundation is strengthened with a layer of thin hempen cloth1 and after laying on one or two preliminary coatings of a sort of paste mixed with lacquer1 and carefully grinding down on a whetstone to ensure a perfectly smooth and even surface1 the object is ready for the lacquering proper4 ,with a flat1 short-haired brush--the hair used being generally human hair--the coating of lacquer is laid on in a thin1 even layer1 and the object set aside to dry1 the period required for this varying from twelve hours to several days4 ,lacquer has this peculiar quality1 that it dries best in a damp atmosphere1 the moisture in the air seeming to draw out that in the lacquer4 ,the articles are1 therefore1 placed to dry in a damp cupboard4 ,on removal from the cupboard the surface is then carefully smoothed and polished by rubbing with charcoal4 ,coating after coating is added in this way1 the final polishings being made with a fine ash of calcined deer's horn1 applied with the fingers4 ,such are the complicated processes in the production of a piece of plain1 unornamented black lacquer--the number of separate operations being no fewer than thirty-three1 each one requiring the greatest skill and care2 while for the production of one of the more elaborately ornamented pieces the number may extend to sixty or more1 for the methods of decoration are many and varied1 several being frequently applied to the same piece of work4 ,first of all we have the varieties of carved lacquer4 ,there was the old ,kamakura lacquer1 in which the wood was first carved1 then covered with a foundation of black lacquer1 to which a red surface was added4 ,in tsuishu and tsuikoku1 carved red and black lacquer respectively1 the article was first thickly coated with lacquer and afterwards carved4 ,the process is said to have been invented by a ,kioto workman in the fifteenth century1 and in the time of ,iyeyasu an artist1 ,heijuro1 so excelled in it that he took the name ,tsuishu ,heijuro4 ,chinkinbori is a form of incised lacquer1 generally on a black ground4 ,the lines are engraved with a rat's tooth1 as being less easily blunted than a metal tool1 and are usually filled in with gold4 ,ninomya ,johei1 a physician of ,yedo in the eighteenth century1 was especially famed for this work4 ,raden is a form of lacquer in which mother-of-pearl and other shells1 either in irregular or shaped pieces1 are largely used1 the colour effects obtained being of great brilliancy4 ,a form of raden called aogai1 a mosaic of green or purple irridescent shell crushed small1 is especially used for the decoration of sword scabbards4 ,togidashi is a style in which no rigid outline is used1 but the forms left soft and blurred1 being brought out by a series of rubbings4 ,the greatest masters of this class of work were ,yamamoto ,shunsho and ,koma ,kiuhaku4 ,a curious and interesting form is guri lacquer4 ,here many layers of different coloured lacquers are applied1 and the surface is then carved with conventional designs1 in deep ,v-shaped incisions1 exposing the different layers of colour4 ,the most gorgeous of all1 however1 is gold lacquer1 the generic term for which is makiye1 but this includes many varieties4 ,in the same piece the gold will vary from solid masses standing up in relief to a dim1 impalpable dust blending imperceptibly into the rich black ground4 ,when the decoration is smooth and level with the ground it is termed hiramakiye1 when in relief takamakiye4 ,kirikane is an inlay of small squares1 hirakane or hirame an inlay of small pieces made from filings of gold flattened on an anvil4 ,in okibirame1 another inlay1 the pieces are not dusted on but inserted singly by hand4 ,giobu is a variety in which gold leaf is laid down on an irregular ground4 ,this is covered with a deep red lacquer coloured with 8dragon's blood40 ,after drying the surface is rubbed down flat1 and the gold is visible below1 taking different tints according to its varying depth from the surface4 ,nashiji 7pear ground71 one of the most famous styles1 is a rich ground of powdered gold with the quality and texture of the rind of a ripe pear1 and is largely used in conjunction with other forms of decoration4 ,a silver ground is also often used with charming effect4 ,in ,mr ,tomkinson's collection two very fine pieces of silver lacquer by ,goshin1 a lacquerer of the eighteenth century1 deserve special mention4 ,the ground is of a dim1 misty grey1 and on this is depicted a landscape with fir-trees on black lacquer4 ,the nearest trees stand out bold and clear1 those farther off seem embedded in the mist4 ,another style largely used for sword scabbards was sam-nuri1 shark-skin lacquer4 ,the skin of a species of ray was stretched over the surface1 the rough nodules filed down partially1 and the whole covered with black lacquer4 ,on the lacquer being rubbed down smooth and polished the nodules show as white discs on a ground of black4 ,such are a few of the leading styles of lacquer2 but numberless variations exist1 and one piece often includes work in several different styles4 ,as already pointed out1 the use of lacquer was at first entirely utilitarian2 its adaptation to the purposes of ornament belongs to a later date4 ,perhaps the first ornamental lacquer was that applied to sword scabbards1 horse furniture1 and other warlike trappings4 ,with the growth of a more peaceful civilisation came its application to the arts of peace4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,inro 7,from the ,collection of ,mr ,m4 ,tomkinson7 #a4 ,cock and ,flowers 7in gold and shell on brown ground74 ,kajikawa1 #ahth century4 #b4 ,flowers and ,paper ,packets for ,perfumes 7ivory and gold1 on black ground74 ,kajikawa1 #aith century4 #c4 ,pier of ,bridge 7in gold and shell1 on black ground74 ,by ,kwoyetsu 7,korin's master74 #d4 ,well overshadowed by ,tree 7gold and shell on black ground74 ,kajikawa1 #ahth century4 ,a very favourite object for the lacquerer is the inro or medicine-box--a little box made in three or four separate sections and hung from the girdle by a cord4 ,on the small surface here available he lavished all the resources of his art1 and in inro we find many of the finest specimens of lacquer-work4 ,indeed1 few things are more beautiful than a fine inro1 with its rich but exquisitely judged ornamentation1 for the ,japanese artist possesses in a marvellous degree the power of working on a small field without loss of power or dignity4 ,even a specimen in plain black lacquer1 unornamented1 is a thing of beauty1 pleasing to touch and to handle1 and so perfectly made that the divisions between the sections are often invisible until they are pulled apart4 ,this perfection of fitting is one of the tests by which the work of the old masters can be distinguished from that of their modern imitators4 ,of the larger pieces of work the chief is the suzuri-bako1 or set of writing materials4 ,then we have the jisshu kobako1 or implements of the perfume game1 comprising a cabinet containing the koro or miniature brazier1 the kobako or perfume-box1 fuda-bako or counter-box1 and several other articles2 and the sag-ju1 or portable picnic case1 containing boxes1 trays for sweetmeats1 sak bottle1 and so on4 ,japanese authorities divide the history of lacquer into four eras--that of ,nara1 prior to #ghd ,a4,d42 ,heian1 #ghd-aahe2 ,nanbokucho and ,ashikaga1 #acig-aehg2 ,toyotomi and ,tokugawa1 #aeig-ahfg4 ,of the earlier lacquerers little is known4 ,in the fifteenth century1 during the reign of the ,ashikaga ,shoguns1 fine work was produced by ,igarashi1 the first of a line of lacquerers of that name4 ,little progress was made1 however1 until the beginning of the seventeenth century1 when1 after years of strife1 the turbulent ,daimios were finally subdued by ,iyeyasu1 the first of the ,tokugawa ,shoguns1 and the country entered on a period of peaceful development4 ,towards the end of the seventeenth century began to rise the first of the great lacquerers1 whose works are still the envy and wonder of their successors4 ,as in other branches of art1 the traditions of this craft were handed down from father to son1 and certain families became famed for lacquer4 ,two stand out especially as masters in the art--the ,koma and the ,kajikawa families4 ,the ,komas were ,court lacquerers for more than two hundred years1 the first of the family1 ,koma ,kiui1 who died in #affc1 being lacquerer to the ,shogun ,iyemitsu1 and the line lasted until the nineteenth century4 ,the rise of the ,kajikawa family was somewhat later2 the first1 ,kajikawa ,kujiro1 one of the most excellent artists in lacquer1 and famous for his giobu nashiji1 lived about the end of the eighteenth century4 ,he also was followed by a line of famous artists4 ,both the ,koma and the ,kajikawa families were especially famous as inro-makers1 and in this branch of the art it is difficult to say which was the greater4 ,the ,koma were remarkable for their coloured decorations1 in which the design looked at by oblique light appears to be of gold but by direct light shows in brilliant colour4 ,one of the earliest lacquerers of whom there is any record is ,honami ,koyetsu1 #aeij-afcg4 ,korin is said to have founded his style on that of ,koyetsu1 whose work certainly resembles to some extent that of the later and more famous artist4 ,in ,mr ,tomkinson's collection are two inros by ,koyetsu and ,korin respectively1 each decorated with the same design--the pier of a bridge in mother-of-pearl and gold--and treated in an almost identical manner4 ,the greatest of all names in lacquer is that of ,ogata ,korin1 born #affj1 died #agaf4 ,as a painter he is entitled to a place among the highest1 but as a lacquerer he stands alone4 ,his absolute originality and boldness of conception1 his masterly instinct in design1 and his splendid draughtsmanship are seen equally in his lacquer as in his paintings1 but it is in his lacquer only that his unrivalled decorative powers find their fullest scope4 ,if the ,japanese decorative artist has a fault it is that he is too pictorial in his methods1 that he is almost invariably endeavouring to tell a story4 ,but ,korin does not lacquer like a painter1 he paints like a lacquerer4 ,he is first of all boldly and frankly decorative--the literary appeal is secondary4 ,and though to one not thoroughly in sympathy with the artist there is much in his work that appears obscure or unintelligible1 to the eye of the enthusiast these 8obscurities0 are splendid and triumphant pieces of decoration4 ,mere prettiness appealed little to ,korin1 but his work has on this account the greater dignity4 ,even when at first sight it startles and almost repels it soon grows on one2 the longer one looks the stronger is its fascination4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,inro ,,by ,,korin 7,from the ,collection of ,mr ,m4 ,tomkinson7 #a4 ,deer 7in lead on gold ground7 #b4 ,biwa in the ,waves 7gold and shell on black ground7 #c4 ,fukurokujiu 7lead and shell on gold ground7 #d4 ,storks and bamboo 7in pearl and lead on gold ground7 ,the breadth of his treatment is the amazing thing about ,korin's work1 large masses of mother-of-pearl1 the body of a bird1 for instance1 being laid in boldly in one piece1 as in the inro with cranes here reproduced4 ,metals also1 such as lead and pewter1 were used just as daringly4 ,but in the refinements of his art ,korin was equally great4 ,his gold mat grounds were especially famous1 and were imitated by many of his successors4 ,they are characterised by a steady1 rich1 full tint with a glow in it1 and vary from a silvery to a deep copper hue1 and in texture from an impalpable dust to an inlay of square dice4 ,then from the solid mat the gold will thin out into the lacquer till lost in its depths4 ,his bolder work earned the same sincere flattery of imitation1 but the imitator can easily be detected4 ,mr ,tomkinson's collection is especially rich in fine specimens of ,korin's work1 and through his courtesy ,i reproduce one or two characteristic examples4 ,ritsuo1 a pupil and contemporary of ,korin1 was born in #affc4 ,like his master1 he was celebrated in many branches of art2 not only a lacquerer1 he was a skilful metal worker1 a carver1 a potter1 and a painter4 ,in his more richly decorated lacquer1 that known as hiaku-ho-kan 7a hundred precious things inlaid71 he often introduced pieces of his own pottery4 ,his work is very distinctive1 bold1 and strong1 with firm modelling and rich1 full colouring4 ,in his suzuri-bako he appears to special advantage2 the outside of the box rough and bold1 the inside enriched with work full of delicacy and refinement4 ,one fine example in ,mr ,tomkinson's collection has the outside in rough wood1 the grain being made more prominent by the soft parts having been eaten out with acid4 ,in the centre the wood is cut away1 and a figure of ,daruma1 in pottery1 is inlaid4 ,the inside of the lid is a complete contrast to the rudeness of the exterior1 and is wrought with the utmost delicacy and beauty of finish4 ,ritsuo's pupil ,hanzan also did very fine work in a similar manner4 ,south ,kensington ,museum possesses a very beautiful little inro from his hand1 inlaid with fish in rose-tinted mother-of-pearl4 ,of modern masters the most famous is ,zeshin1 born in #ahjg1 died in #ahia1 and both as a lacquerer and painter he was worthy to rank with his great predecessors4 ,zeshin is almost the only one of the moderns whose work could at all compare with that of the old masters1 but he lived and died in poverty and obscurity4 ,modern industrial conditions hardly admit of the same patient workmanship--months1 and perhaps years1 being expended on one article4 ,speedier results are required1 and this causes the use of inferior but quicker drying lac1 which has neither the beauty nor the durability of the finer quality4 ,a proof of this was given after the ,vienna ,exhibition of #ahgb4 ,the vessel which was taking back a number of pieces of lacquer1 old and new1 was wrecked off the coast of ,japan4 ,eighteen months after the pieces were recovered1 the new utterly ruined1 but the old work entirely unharmed1 bright and untarnished1 as if fresh from the maker's hands4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,landscape ,,gardening ,,and ,,the ,,arrangement ,,of ,,flowers ,no review of ,japanese art1 however superficial1 can pass over without mention one of the most interesting of all its phases--the application of its conventions to the living and plastic forms of nature in the sister arts of landscape gardening and the arrangement of flowers4 ,and here1 as in other departments1 the ,japanese artist does not seek dully and slavishly to copy nature1 but by a frank and dexterous use of these conventions he endeavours to suggest its spirit4 ,by this departure from mere literal truth he attains a wider fidelity to nature4 ,in the limited space at his disposal he knows that he cannot transplant a piece of natural scenery--he must work to scale--but his miniature rocks1 trees1 hills1 and streams are so exquisitely proportioned as to express within the area of a few yards the breadth and expanse of nature4 ,so1 too1 in flower arrangement1 the master secures the appearance of naturalness by the most careful and daring manipulation4 ,twigs and stems are twisted and broken1 leaves and petals even shaped and cut1 to produce the effect apparently so spontaneous1 so free from artificiality4 ,and the reason is obvious4 ,the defect or incongruity that would pass unnoticed amid the wealth and profusion of the living plant1 balanced with superb ease by countless other points of interest so that the eye could not dwell on the deformity1 when transferred to the narrower field of the flower vase1 stands out with awful distinctness1 and assumes an importance which formerly it did not possess4 ,the artist dare not take the liberties which ,nature allows herself4 ,her keyboard is limitless1 but his harmonies must be built up of a few carefully selected chords4 ,the rise of both arts dates from that wonderful period of awakening--the coming of the ,buddhist priests in the sixth century4 ,the first gardens were those of the old ,buddhist temples2 the first flower arrangements were placed as offerings before their shrines4 ,among the earliest examples of landscape gardening were the temple groves of ,biodo-,in at ,uji1 and ,todaiji and ,kofukuji at ,nara1 and this old style of temple garden1 simple and severe1 was called ,shinden-,shiki1 but little is known regarding the details of its arrangement4 ,with the ,kamakura period1 from the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries1 we come to more familiar ground4 ,then the landscapes took a freer form--hills and valleys1 lakes1 streams1 and waterfalls being represented4 ,a curious form was the ,kare-sansui1 or dried-up water scenery1 where the bed of a stream or the hollow of a lake was shown dry1 as if in time of drought1 and this style was usually combined with a bare mountain or moorland scene4 ,but a great impetus was given to the art when1 in the fifteenth century1 ,yoshimasa1 retiring from active life1 and surrounded by a group of artists and sages1 revived the ancient tea ceremony1 and made it the nucleus of so many forms of art4 ,the wide-reaching effects of this quaint ceremonial on art generally have already been indicated in a previous chapter4 ,a special form of garden was devoted to its use2 while also the art of flower arrangement flourished for long merely as an adjunct of the cha-no-yu4 ,in the first group of ,cha-jin1 or tea professors1 were ,shuko 7the teacher of ,yoshimasa71 ,showo1 and the famous artists ,no-ami and ,oguri ,sotan2 while a little later we have the names of ,gei-ami1 ,so-ami1 and later still ,senno ,rikiu and ,enshiu4 ,so-ami was one of the greatest masters of landscape gardening1 and in his quiet and dignified compositions one sees the hand that produced the delicate landscape paintings of misty hill and lake4 ,examples of his gardens exist to this day1 the best known being that of the ,silver ,pavilion at ,ginkakuji1 which was laid out about the year #adhj4 ,a hundred years later ,enshiu was the founder of a new school1 which afterwards became very popular4 ,one of his greatest works was a palace garden near ,kioto1 through which flowed the river ,katsura1 and so highly esteemed was this garden that for one hundred and fifty years after his death not a stone or shrub was altered4 ,during the luxurious ,tokugawa period it became the custom for the wealthy ,daimios to have their gardens laid out by well-known artists2 and the art grew still more in importance1 a modern style being introduced by ,asagori ,shimanosuke of ,fushimi in the early part of the nineteenth century4 ,the training of the landscape gardener was long and arduous1 for it was by no means the same thing to compose an actual landscape as to paint one4 ,the novice was sent direct to nature to sketch and study natural forms1 not1 as in painting1 from one point of view only1 but so as to realise how a scene would appear from all sides4 ,in designing a garden the first step was a careful survey of the site2 its drainage1 levels1 size1 and shape had all to be taken into consideration4 ,the aspect then was chosen1 and this was generally south or south-east1 so as to be sheltered from the cold west wind1 though near ,tokio a vista to the west was always left open commanding a view of ,mount ,fuji4 ,then the style of the garden had to be decided4 ,was it to be a hill garden or flat plain land8 ,was it to follow the 8,rocky ,ocean10 the 8,wide ,river10 the 8,mountain ,torrent0 or the 8,lake ,wave0 style8 ,the character of the surrounding country would largely determine the answer to this question1 for a garden was designed to fill harmoniously its place in the natural scene4 ,the artist also1 while endeavouring to obtain a result that would look well from any point1 had to bear in mind that the best view of all should be from the house itself4 ,a striking characteristic of ,japanese gardens is that water1 in the form of cascade1 lake1 or stream1 is almost universally present1 its cool and refreshing properties being considered well-nigh indispensable4 ,the main levels fixed1 the hills and valleys modelled1 the next important feature consisted of the rocks and stones which represent the crags and precipices of nature4 ,great care is taken in the selection of these1 which are termed the bones of the garden4 ,certain stones1 which are highly valued are often brought great distances1 the larger ones sometimes carefully split to render carriage more easy1 and pieced together again on their arrival4 ,fancy prices were paid for such stones2 and1 indeed1 to such a height did this form of extravagance attain1 that early in the nineteenth century an edict was issued limiting the price to a certain sum4 ,the size of the garden1 which varied from about fifty square yards to a few acres1 gave the scale of the stones1 and these again in their turn fixed the size of the shrubs1 the trees1 the fences1 and other furnishings of the garden4 ,in a large garden there were no less than one hundred and thirty-eight of these stones1 each with its special name and purpose assigned to it4 ,in the arrangement of the trees1 shrubs1 and flowers a regular or symmetrical arrangement was avoided1 the growths and forms of nature were carefully followed1 and the result made to appear as free and unstudied as possible4 ,contrasts of form and line1 and of colour in the foliage1 were sought after4 ,no garden was deemed complete without maple-trees1 so placed that the light of the setting sun would enhance the richness of its crimson leaves4 ,deciduous trees were not so largely used as evergreens on account of their bareness in winter2 but exceptions were made in the case of the plum and the cherry1 so highly prized for the beauty of their blossom4 ,flowers were chiefly grouped round the house1 and were sparingly distributed among the foliage2 but here again we have exceptions in the case of the iris and the lotus1 which were used in large masses with gorgeous effect4 ,miniature pagodas appeared among the trees in the larger gardens1 little bridges crossed the streams1 and large stone lanterns cast a dim and mysterious light over the scene when darkness had fallen4 ,but now let us turn to the sister art4 ,the love of flowers has long been a characteristic of the ,japanese people4 ,as long ago as the ninth century the ,emperor ,saga held garden parties during the flowering of the cherry blossom1 at which the literati of the day composed verses in honour of the flowers2 and now1 after the lapse of ten centuries1 the transient glory of the cherry blossom is still a national festival1 observed alike by the rich and the poor4 ,nowhere but in ,japan has the flower motive been so extensively used in art or with such grace and charm4 ,the ,japanese flower paintings stand in a class by themselves1 beside which all others seem clumsy and coarse1 alike in conception and execution1 but it is in the applied arts that their fancy is allowed to run riot4 ,in lacquer floral designs are wrought wonderfully in gold or inlaid in mother-of-pearl2 in metal they appear in chasing1 embossing1 inlaying1 and many other forms2 they form the chief decorations of pottery and porcelain2 but it is perhaps in the textile fabrics of ,japan1 in the gorgeous silk brocades1 that they are seen in their greatest glory4 ,this being so1 need we be surprised that in ,japan the arranging of living flowers has for hundreds of years been recognised as a fine art1 has had its schools1 its laws1 and its traditions1 and has numbered among its exponents such great artists as ,so-ami1 ,oguri ,sotan1 and ,korin8 ,the flower artist1 they say1 8must be thoroughly imbued with a sympathetic feeling for the character1 habits1 virtues1 and weaknesses of the members of the floral kingdom from which he seeks his material1 till he possesses the same love and tenderness for their qualities as for those of human beings40 ,and so to the arrangement of flowers the ,japanese bring an enthusiasm1 a delicacy1 and a refinement of dainty pedantry that1 even in its most stilted and artificial forms1 is full of charm1 for the spirit underlying the formality and giving life to the most mannered productions is this genuine and reverential love for the beauties of nature4 ,it is related of ,rikiu1 the famous flower artist and philosopher1 that he once observed a fence covered with a beautiful growth of convolvulus4 ,after standing for a while rapt in admiration he plucked one flower and one leaf1 which he carefully arranged in a vase4 8,why so humble10 asked his friends and pupils1 8when the whole plant is there at your disposal80 8,nay10 answered the master2 8it is impossible to rival nature in magic of design1 and so any artificial arrangement should be marked by modesty and simplicity4 ,but even one leaf and one flower are sufficient to call for admiration40 ,the ,japanese art of the arrangement of flowers deals not only with blooms but also with many non-flowering plants characterised by a graceful habit of growth4 ,the effects aimed at are pre-eminently those of line and balance1 colour being more or less subordinated to these qualities4 ,the earliest flower studies1 placed as offerings before the shrines in the temples1 followed a style of erect composition known as the ,rikkwa school1 and with their vertical central mass and supporting side groups approached more nearly to symmetry than is usual in ,japanese art4 ,in the later styles symmetry was carefully avoided1 and1 perhaps1 to no department of art does the style of asymmetrical yet balanced composition seem more suited than to those delightful arrangements of freely growing natural forms4 ,the most popular school is that of ,enshiu1 which groups the essentials under three heads4 ,first1 the quality of giving feeling and expression to compositions1 for the ,japanese artist is no mere copyist of nature2 each group must mean something1 must convey some idea4 ,second1 truth to nature in the sense of presenting correctly the style of growth of the plants used2 and third1 truth to nature in the strict observance of the laws of season and locality4 ,the different parts of the composition have each a special name1 as also have many of the faults into which the novice is liable to fall4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,flower ,,composition ,nagashi1 the arrangement of long1 streaming sprays on each side of a group1 is1 as approaching the symmetrical1 especially to be avoided4 8,window-making10 the crossing of stalks in such a manner as to give the appearance of loopholes1 and 8lattice-making10 where the crossing suggests lattice-work1 are both grave faults1 as is also any suspicion of parallelism in the main lines4 ,it is not sufficient either that the finished study should look well from the front4 ,it must bear the test of examination from all points of view4 ,there are also distinct rules regarding the vessels employed to hold the compositions4 ,sometimes beautifully wrought bowls of bronze are used1 sometimes vessels of wood or porcelain1 sometimes a simple wicker basket4 ,the shallow bronze bowl is the most usual1 as in it little vices of wood may be conveniently fixed across to hold together the stems1 and metal crabs1 dragons1 tortoises1 and frogs are often used to hold the cuttings in position1 and at the same time form part of the design4 ,sometimes the vessel is made in the shape of a boat1 a style said to be first inaugurated by ,so-ami1 and since forming a class of composition by itself4 ,a favourite combination is a rough wooden tub used for horses to drink from and a bronze horse's bit4 ,its use dates back to a time when a famous general of old1 during one of the duller intervals of a campaign1 employed his leisure in composing a flower study1 using as vessel and vice the only articles at his disposal4 ,holders of bamboo are used in various forms1 as many as forty-two different methods of cutting and notching the hollow stem being recognised4 ,some of the names of these are delightfully expressive--such as 8lion's mouth10 8singing mouth10 8flute10 8stork's neck10 8conch shell10 and1 most imposing of all1 8cascade-climbing-dragon's form40 ,the plants themselves are grouped in many grades4 ,seven--the chrysanthemum1 the narcissus1 the maple1 the wisteria1 and the evergreen rhodea--are of princely rank1 and form a veritable aristocracy of flowers4 ,the iris1 also1 is of equal rank with the foregoing1 but1 owing to its purple colour1 must never be used at a wedding4 ,then1 again1 within the same species1 the flowers take rank according to their colour1 in most cases the white bloom ranking highest4 ,among chrysanthemums1 however1 the yellow takes precedence1 with the peach and cherry pale pink1 and with the camellia and peony red4 ,certain plants1 also1 must never be used1 and this 8,index ,expurgatorius0 includes all strong-smelling or poisonous plants1 and a long list comprising the aster1 the poppy1 the orchid1 the rhododendron1 and many others4 ,male and female attributes are also applied to plants in many ways4 ,the front of leaves is male1 the back female2 red1 purple1 pink1 or variegated flowers are male2 blue1 yellow1 and white female4 ,so that a flower composition in ,japan1 apart from its intrinsic beauty1 bears a wealth of symbolic meaning4 ,in all important rooms there is an ornamental alcove or recess1 called the toko-no-ma1 with raised floor polished and lacquered1 and a handsome corner pillar of rare wood4 ,on the back wall is hung the kakemono1 or in some cases a pair1 or set of three1 and on the dais before it1 or suspended from above1 is placed the flower study4 ,in this recess are displayed1 one at a time1 the choicest art treasures of the house1 and in front of it is the place of the honoured guest4 ,there is an etiquette even in looking at flower studies1 and in praising them only appropriate epithets should be used1 always softly expressed4 ,white flowers are 8elegant10 blue 8fine10 red 8charming10 yellow 8splendid10 and purple 8modest40 ,but the greatest compliment that can be paid to a guest on such an occasion is to ask him to make an extempore arrangement himself4 ,and here the ceremonial is delightful in its graceful formality4 ,the host brings a tray with vase1 cut blooms and sprays1 scissors1 knife1 and a little saw4 ,if the vessel brought be a very valuable one the guest modestly protests that he can produce nothing worthy of so fine a setting1 but1 on being pressed by his host1 should comply with his wishes4 ,the host then removes the kakemono1 for to allow it to remain would impose upon the artist the task of designing his group in harmony with it1 and with the rest of the company withdraws to an adjoining room until1 the work being completed1 the guest summons them1 having placed the scissors beside his composition as a silent request for the correction of its faults4 ,when his host enters he apologises for the imperfections of his work1 and begs that the whole may be removed4 ,the host in his turn assures him that in beauty it is all that could be desired1 and so the delicate interchange of compliments goes on4 ,not the least attractive feature of this gentle art is the evanescent nature of its charms4 ,the painter1 the sculptor1 the artist in lacquer or in metal1 works for posterity3 hundreds of years hence his fame may be greater far than it is to-day4 ,but the artist in flowers can hope for no such permanence in his work1 its creations are verily but 8the lilies of a day10 his modest task but to give sweetness and beauty to the passing hour4 ,illustration3 ,a ,japanese ,fan ,,the ,,world ,,of ,,art ,,series ,edited by ,,stewart ,,dick ,small ,quarto4 #cs4 #f;d4 net ,i4 ,,arts ,,and ,,crafts ,,of ,,old ,,japan4 ,by ,,stewart ,,dick4 #cj ,full-,page and other ,illustrations ,,in ,,preparation ,,ii4 ,,arts ,,and ,,crafts ,,of ,,ancient ,,egypt ,,iii4 ,,arts ,,and ,,crafts ,,of ,,medi,,val ,,england ,,iv4 ,,celtic ,,art ,new ,illustrated ,catalogue may be had1 ,post ,free1 from the ,publisher ,t4 ,n4 ,,foulis #c ,,frederick ,,street1 ,,edinburgh #ce ,,leicester ,,square1 ,,london4 ,,printed ,,by ,,neill ,,and ,,company1 ,,limited1 ,,edinburgh4 ,,transcribers' ,,notes ,missing or incorrect punctuation1 as well as obvious spelling errors 7e4g41 #8stonger' #8stronger'71 have been silently corrected4 ,the original spellings of ,japanese names 7people1 places1 and things7 have been retained and have not been updated to reflect modern orthography4 ,in this text version1 80 was used to indicate words which were in italics in the original text and all small caps have been replaced with capital letters4