,,little ,,blue ,,book ,,no4 #fjh       
,edit$ by ,e4 ,haldeman-,julius         
,! ,orig9 &                             
,developm5t (                           
! ,atomic ,!ory                         
,mayn>d ,%ipley                         
,,haldeman-,,julius ,,company           
,,gir>d1 ,,kansas                       
,copyright1 #aibd                       
,haldeman-,julius ,company              
,,pr9t$ ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,(     
,,am]ica                           ,,!  
,,orig9 ,,& ,,developm5t ,,(            
,,! ,,atomic ,,!ory          ,,cont5ts  
,,page   ,,*apt] ,i--,,! ,,py?agorean   
,,atomi/s                        #e     
,,*apt] ,,ii--,,! ,,mat]iali/ic         
,,atomi/s3       ,,leucippus ,,&        
,,democritus                            
#bb   ,,*apt] ,,iii--,,! ,,eleatic      
,,view                             #cg  
,,*apt] ,,iv--,,epicurus ,,& ,,lucretius
                        #ea   ,,*apt]   
,v--,,po/-,,classical ,,atomism         
#ei                      ,,! ,,orig9 ,,&

 ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,atomic ,,!ory   
,,*apt] ,i                           ,,!
 ,,py?agorean ,,atomi/s                 
,,! ,,significance ,,( ,,! ,,atomic     
,,!ory      ,x is safe to say t !re is  
no m romantic /ory 9 ! hi/ory  ( sci5ce 
?an t ( ! orig9 & developm5t ( ! atomic 
!ory ( matt]4 ,dr4 ,rob]t ,a4 ,millikan 
has said t ! physical  pr9ciples laid   
d[n by ,leucippus 9 ! fif? c5tury be=e  
our era  might1 ) a few modifications & 
omissions1 8almo/ pass mu/]  today0 78,!
 ,electron10 ,page #g74 ,! importance to
 mod]n /ud5ts (  s\nd k ( ! tea*+s ( !  
anci5t ,atomi/s 0 emphasiz$  by ,sir    
,william ,osl] 7#ahbi-aiai71 :o ev5 w5t 
s f> z to say t  8! /ud5t ( physics may 
"k ,crookes' tubes & _! relation to     
,ro5tg51 b he _c h a true conception ( !
 atomic !ory  )\t a k ( ,democritus2 & !
 expon5t ( ,madame ,curie &  ( ,sir ,j4 
,j4 ,?omson w f9d 8 happie/ illu/rations
 f !  writ+s ( ,lucretius0#a--! ,roman  
expon5t ( ,epicurus 7#cdb-bgj ,b4  ,c471
 :o reviv$ ! atomic !ory ( ,leucippus & 

,democritus1 despite  ! adv]se          
criticisms hurl$ at ?is doctr9e by !    
great ,ari/otle4    ,le ,sage obs]v$ t  
8if ,epicurus _h _h b a "p ( !          
geometrical k ( 8 contempor>y ,euclid1 &
 conceptions (  cosmogony ! same z _m !n
 liv+1 he might h discov]$ !  laws (    
univ]sal gravity1 & n only ! laws1 b1   
:at 0 !  despair ( ,newton1 its         
me*anical cause0 78,lucrce ,newtoni510  
,b]l9 ,academy1 #aghb74    ,writ+ ( !   
value to sci5ce & mod]n ?\ght ( ! atomic
 !ory  ( ! e>ly ,greek philosoph]s1     
,pr(essor ,walt] ,t4 ,m>v91 ( ,rutg]s   
,college1 po9ts out t a !ory c be       
significant 9 at lea/ ?ree  ways1       
namely3--87#a7 by de/roy+ or inhibit+   
o!r beliefs2 7#b7 by  ar\s+ int]e/ 9 new
 problems & by sugge/+ new me?ods (     
inve/igation2 7#c7 by :at x itself      
enables u to expla9 correctly4  ,?is    
!ory 0 mo/ significant 9 de/roy+ old    
beliefs or1 to  adopt a mu* us$         
expression1 9 #8enlight5+' ! cultur$    
,greeks4 ,a ?\ghtful ,greek c\ld h>dly  

believe t ! univ]se is  a cl\d ( atoms  
mov+ ab\t 9 accordance ) necess>y       
me*anical  laws1 & at ! same "t cont9ue 
to believe ! primitive traditions  &    
sup]/itions ( 8 p4 ,! wor%ip ( ! gods & 
! old  magical rites & c]emonies mu/    
ne$s seem to him utt]ly ineffective  &  
useless1 valuable cu/oms no d\bt = _!   
purely psy*ological  influ5ce ^u !      
ignorant & unruly masses b ( c\rse      
absurdities  = ! cultur$ & discipl9$    
man4 ,h5ce no wond] t ! spread  ( ?is & 
! prec$+ cosmological !ories w\ld       
result1 9  a society su* z t ( ! ,greek 
_w 9 ! six? & fif?  c5turies ,b4 ,c41 9 
a radical enlight5m5t4 ,no wond] t  _!  
spread 0 oppos$ by m5 ( cons]vative     
t5d5cies4 ,9 ?is  fir/ respect e>ly     
,greek sci5ce & 9 p>ticul> ! atomic !ory
  7 ( great hi/orical significance40#b  
,,! ,,atomic ,,!ory ,,( ,,!             
,,py?agoreans    ,9 ! anci5t ,sanskrit  
lit]ature ( ,india 7writt5 prior to #ejj
 ,b4  ,c471 an atomic !ory ( matt] is   
=mulat$ by ,kanada 7lit]ally  8atom     

eat]0--a t]m ( d]ision71 f\nd] ( !      
,nyaga sy/em (  philosophy1 & said to h 
be5 a pupil ( ,buddha4 ,he /ates t !    
atoms are et]nal & t ! ultimate atom is 
simple4    ,kapila1 ! lead+ expon5t ( ! 
,sankhya philosophy1 speaks (  8five    
subtle0 k9ds ( p>ticles 7atoms71 & a    
sub/ance ak9 to our  lum9if]\s e!r--!   
five p>ticles be+1 no d\bt1 ! 8five     
elem5ts0 ( ! ,laws ( ,m5u2 viz41 e>?1   
wat]1 w9d 7air71 fire &  e!r--?is la/ ! 
p>5t1 s to speak1 ( all ! o!r elem5ts1  
?r\gh a process ( successive            
trans=mations4    ,9 ! 8,angut>ra       
,nikaja10 consci\sness 7m9d7 is m5tion$ 
z a six?  elem5t1 also atomic 9         
/ructure4    ,9 8 8,hi/ory ( ,h9du      
,*emi/ry10 ,sir ,p4 ,c4 ,ray expresses !
  op9ion t ! atomic !ory ( ! anci5t     
,greeks 0 d]iv$  directly f ! m anci5t  
,h9du doctr9e--a view upheld by !  great
 ,g]man ,sanskrit s*ol>1 ,dr4 ,max      
,mll]1 z also by "s ,greek  s*ol>s4     
,! atomic !ory1 ! e>lie/ kn[n to h be5  
work$ out 9  detail1 is t ( ! ,greek    

philosoph] ,leucippus1 ( ,miletus1      
,ionia2  ?\gh ! mantle ( honor has fall5
 mo/ly on ! %\ld]s ( 8  f> bett] kn[n   
pupil1 ,democritus ( ,abd]a1 ,?race4    
,b ! ,py?agoreans also 7 expon5ts ( a =m
 ( atomic !ory1  & x seems probable t   
,py?agoras1 a native ( ! isl& ( ,samos1 
0 ! fir/ ,greek to advance ! doctr9e ( !
 discont9uity (  matt]4 ,at lea/1 none (
 8 disciples ev] claim$ to h be5 !      
orig9ator ( ?is doctr9e1 & ,py?agoras 0 
born "s "t betwe5  #ehj & #egj ,b4 ,c41 
:ile ! ,atomic ,s*ool ( ,leucippus 0 n  
f\nd$  until "s "t aft] #ejj ,b4 ,c4    
,un=tunately1 ,py?agoras did n  commit 8
 doctr9es to writ+1 ?\gh a few ( !      
s-call$ 8,gold5  ,s5t5ces0 may h be5    
writt5 by him4 ,mo/ ( !m1 h[ev]1 are    
probably no old] ?an ! f\r? c5tury ( our
 era4 ,moreov]1 ^!  ?r[ no light on !   
subject "u discussion4    ,! fir/ writt5
 exposition ( ! ,py?agorean atomic !ory 
0 put  =w>d by ,philolaus1 a native (   
,t>5tum1 ,s\? ,italy4 ,only fragm5ts  ( 
8 "w h surviv$1 & ( ^? ascrib$ to him "s

 are  und\bt$ly spuri\s4 ,b all ( !m are
 v old & conta9 valuable  in=mation     
conc]n+ ,py?agorean doctr9es4           
,porphyry 7#bcc-cjd8 ,a4 ,d471 a ,syrian
 ,neo-,platoni/1 resid+ = "s  ye>s 9    
,alex&ria1 wrote a 8,life ( ,py?agoras10
 & a few ye>s  lat] ano!r 8,life0 ( ?is 
philosoph] appe>$1 ?is "t f  ! p5--or   
/ylus--( ano!r ,syrian & ,neo-,platoni/1
 ,iambli*us4  ,b ^! works conta9 mu* t  
is :olly my?ical conc]n+  ,py?agoras4#c 
,our be/ s\rces ( in=mation are ,plato  
7,timaeus71 ,ari/otle  7,metaphysica &  
,physica1 ,de ,anima & ,de ,caelo71     
,diog5es ,la]tius  7,de ,vitis7 &       
,/obaeus 7,eclog>um physic>um et        
e?ic>um74 ,f  ^! au?orities we le>n t1  
accord+ to ! ,py?agoreans1 !  cosmos 0  
at a c]ta9 /age ( its 7cyclic7 *anges a 
compact1 in]t1  sph]ical mass ( lifeless
 matt]1 hav+ no di/+ui%able p>ts4  ,aft]
 a long p]iod ( quiesc5ce ! 8void0--i4  
e41 ! limitless  out] air--broke 9 ^u ! 
_w1 ent]+ into 8! heav5 itself0  z if   
x--! heav5--7 brea?+4 ,! result ( ?is   

cosmic  inhalation 0 8a c]ta9 sep>ation 
& def9ition ( ?+s t  lie toge!r0        
7,ari/otle1 ,physica1 iv1 #f7--t is1 a  
sep>ation (  ! homog5e\s mass into      
diff]5t 8elem5ts40 ,^! fragm5ts 7       
ev5tually gr\nd into an all b inf9ite   
numb] ( inf9itesimal  p>ticles1 or      
8monads10 analog\s to ! 8atoms0 (       
,leucippus &  ,democritus4    ,n[1      
,philolaus 0 a fam\s geometrician z well
 z an em95t  physician & a/ronom]4 ,h5ce
 he--& presumably ,py?agoras be=e       
him--?\ght ( ^! p>ticles 7or atoms7 n 9 
t]ms ( v>i\s  qualities1 *emically      
consid]$1--z ,anaxagoras 7#ejj-dbh ,b4  
,c471 :o  0 n a ,py?agorean1 _h done    
be=e ,philolaus wrote--b 9 t]ms  ( =m   
7%ape7 & numb]4 ,ea* ( ! v>i\s sub/ances
 kn[n to  ! anci5t _w z                 
8elem5ts0--g5]ally recogniz$ z comp\nds 
(  ! real elem5ts s9ce ! eighte5? c5tury
 only--0 reg>d$ z  made up ( p>ticles ( 
a c]ta9 geometrical configuration4      
,philolaus  expla9$ t ! 8elem5t0 e>? 0  
compos$ ( cubical p>ticles1  fire (     

tetrah$ra 7pyramidal =ms71 & ! 8e!r0 0  
id5tifi$  ) ! dodecah$ron 7p>ticles hav+
 twelve plane faces1 or twelve  regul>  
p5tagons74 ,9 ! ,timaeus ( ,plato we f9d
 ?is  conception fur!r develop$1 br++   
all ! five regul> solids into  ! !ory4  
,?us1 ! octah$ron 0 n[ assign$ to air1 &
 !  icosah$ron 7a figure hav+ tw5ty     
equilat]al triangul> faces7 to  wat]4   
,v int]e/+ 9 ?is connection is ! fact t 
! positions (  ! electrons 9 atoms 7!   
real elem5ts7 are be+ ref]r$ to today  9
 t]ms simil> to ^? employ$ by !         
,py?agoreans4 ,take1 =  example1 !      
foll[+ passage f ,sci5ce ,progress      
7,london71  ,july1 #aibb 7,no4 #fe71    
,pages #ba-bb3     8,! modifications    
propos$ 9 ! expressions = electric &    
magnetic =ces all[ ( ! electrons 9 ,sir 
,j4 ,j4 ,?omson's   model atoms to take 
up positions at re/ at ! corn]s ( c]ta9 
well-kn[n polyh$ra1 su* z ! tetrah$ron1 
! cube1 ! rhombic   dodecah$ron1 !      
cubo-octah$ron2 & s 9 ! %>+ ( electrons 
betwe5 atoms & ! consequ5t fitt+ toge!r 

( su* models we   h ! explanation (     
c]ta9 facts ( cry/allography40    ,b we 
"k n[ t 8fire0 is n an 8elem5t0 compos$ 
( tetrah$ral  atoms2 b ! combu/ible     
portion ( coal & wood is ! real elem5t  
c>bon--& ! c>bon molecule is (          
tetrah$ral =m4  7,see ,bragg1 ,sir ,w4  
,h4 & ,w4 ,l41 8,x-,rays & ,cry/al      
,spectra407    ,on ! ,py?agorean !ory--z
 on t ( ,leucippus1 & on ! late/  !ories
 ( today--matt] is brok5 up into p>ts   
7atoms7 t are 9  !mselves               
un*angeable--ap>t f radioactivity--b    
produce by _!  *anges ( position 9      
relation to "o ano!r all ! sub/ances (  
e>? & ( liv+ organisms4    ,to illu/rate
 ?is pr9ciple 9 t]ms ( mod]n sci5ce3    
,add f\r  electrons 7two positive & two 
negative7 to ! hydrog5 atom1 &  y h !   
elem5t li?ium2 knock out ( ! li?ium atom
 7compos$  ( ?ree positive & ?ree       
negative electrons7 "o positive &  "o   
negative electron1 & y h "o atom (      
helium 7compos$ (  two positive & two   
negative electrons47 ,& electrons are   

all  alike1 except t "s c>ry a *>ge (   
positive electrification  & "s a        
negative *>ge--ea* k9d 7species7 ( atom 
hav+ an  equal numb] ( positive &       
negative *>ges1 ?us atta9+ /able        
equilibrium4 7,see ,soddy1 ,!           
,int]pretation ( ,radium1 #aibb47       
,until q rec5tly x 0 believ$ t atoms    
c\ld be disrupt$  only by temp]atures   
high] ?an ^? obta9able 9 our physical   
laboratories1 or by bomb>dm5t by        
electrons & helium atoms  spontane\sly  
expell$ 7always ) enorm\s velocities7 f 
radioactive sub/ances4 ,b ?is is n[ kn[n
 to be an errone\s  assumption4 ,x 0    
lately discov]$ by ,p4 ,m4 ,basset1     
eng9e] (  ! ,sp]ry ,gyroscope ,company1 
& ,dr4 ,l\is ,bell1 t :5 c>bon  is      
br\ght to a temp]ature ( #e1jjj ,c41 9  
an arc-light us$ 9  connection ) _!     
amaz+ly p[]ful se>*light1 alpha p>ticles
  7helium atoms7 are lib]at$4 ,su*      
discov]ies may "s day lead to  !        
transmutation ( 8! bas] metals into     
gold10 ?us fulfill+ !  dream ( !        

al*emi/s ( old4    ,q rec5tly1 ,drs4    
,millik5 & ,b[5 n only develop$ a me?od 
= 8/ripp+0 planet>y 7val5ce7 electrons  
"o by "o f atoms1  b ^! inve/igations   
also prov$ t ,bohr's 7simple7 !ory  (   
electron orbits--:i* includes ! /atem5t 
t ! en]gy  develop$ :5 an electron jumps
 f "o orbit to ano!r is exactly         
proportional to ! frequ5cy 7or          
wave-l5g?7 emitt$--is correct4          
,pr(essor ,somm]feld's !ory expla9+ !   
cause ( d\ble l9es  9 ! spectrum (      
hydrog5 & o!r elem5ts 0 also v]ifi$     
exp]im5tally4 7,see ,! ,sci5tific       
,mon?ly1 ,pages #ffe-ffi1  ,june1       
#aibd74    ,an atom ( m]cury1 = example1
 conta9s #hj positive *>ges  7electrons7
 on its nucleus1 & #hj negative outly+  
electrons4 ,7  we able to expel two (   
its protons 7positive electrons71 x     
w\ld in/antly become ! metal plat9um4   
,if a negative 78planet>y07  electron 7 
also tak5 f x1 ! m]cury atom w\ld !n h  
lo/ two positive *>ges 7electrons7 & "o 
negative2 t is1 "o  positive *>ge on !  

:ole3 & h5ce x w\ld reta9 #gi positive  
*>ges on ! nucleus & #gi outly+ negative
 electrons--& ?us  become gold6    ,?us1
 "o elem5t diff]s f ano!r only 9 ! numb]
 ( electrons  compos+ its atom4 ,& ?is  
is only a m precise /atem5t ( !         
ess5tial doctr9e ( ! anci5t ,greek      
atomi/s4    ,p>m5ides1 ! ,eleatic       
philosoph]1 :o 0 at ! height ( 8  fame  
ab\t #dge ,b4 ,c41 decl>$ t bo? motion &
 *ange (  sub/ance 7 illusory--t no     
sub/ances ev] trans=m f "o  to ano!r4 ,!
 ,py?agoreans & ! ,s*ool ( ,leucippus   
admitt$  t !re 01 inde$1 an elem5t (    
elem5ts t knew no *ange1  no            
trans=mations2 & !y decl>$ t ?is primal 
elem5t 0  ! /uff t all atoms are made (4
 ,today we believe 8  primal elem5t     
7atom7 to be hydrog5--z 0 sugge/$ by !  
,engli%  physician1 ,william ,pr\t1 9   
#ahae4 ,9 o!r words1 we are be+ =c$  by 
! ma!matical & exp]im5tal data to       
conclude t all (  ! #hg kn[n species (  
atoms 7or elem5ts7 are b comp\nds ( !   
orig9al 7simple/7 hydrog5 atom1 consi/+ 

( "o positively *>g$  nucle> electron & 
"o outly+ negative electron4 ,h[ev]1 !re
  is gr\nd = diff]5ce ( op9ion on ?is   
"q1 z %[n by ,sir  ,oliv] ,lodge 9 8    
rec5t article1 8,)9 ! ,atom10 ,sci5tific
  ,am]ican1 ,novemb]1 #aibc4            
8,?\ght10 comm5ts ,pr(essor ,alfr$ ,web]
 78,hi/ory ( ,philosophy10  ,pages      
#dc-dd71 8discov]s 9 ! atomi/ic hypo!sis
 ! middle  t]m t unites ,p>m5ides1 :o   
d5ies ! great empirical fact (  g5]ation
 & *ange1 & ,h]aclitus1 :o sacrifices   
be+ & its  p]man5ce to becom+1--!reby   
comb9+ ! two rival sy/ems  into a high] 
syn!sis1--& lays ! f\ndation = e        
rational  explanation ( ! process (     
becom+4 ,h5ce=? philosophy no  long]    
reg>ds matt] z a cont9u\s mass1 !       
ess5tial prop]ties  ( :i* are           
incessantly trans=m$4 ,x breaks !m up   
into p>ts  t are 9 !mselves immutable1 b
 :i* cont9ually *ange _!  relative      
positions4 ,z a consequ5ce1 !re c be bo?
 p]petual  *ange 9 ! aspects ( matt]    
7bodies7 & p]man5ce 9 ! ess5ce  &       

prop]ties ( matt]4 ,all *ange is r$uc$  
to *ange ( place3  me*anism40           
,,! ,,fi]y 8,,monads0 7,,atoms7         
8,fire10 ) ! ,py?agoreans1 z ) ! foll[]s
 ( ,h]aclitus (  ,ephesus 7#ece-dge ,b4 
,c471 is ! elem5t p> excell5ce2  &1 z   
previ\sly /at$1 0 reg>d$ by !m z made up
 (  excessively m9ute p>ticles (        
tetrah$ral 7pyramidal7 =m  7,philolaus74
 ,?is 8subtile elem5t0 0 look$ ^u z !   
symbol  ( ! div9e pr9ciple 9 nature4 ,!y
 taught t ?is 8fire0 is  conc5trat$ 9 a 
c5tral sun1 8! he>? ( ! univ]se10 8"m  (
 ! gods10 8citadel ( ,zeus10 etc41 ar\nd
 :i* revolve ! e>?  & ! o!r heav5ly     
bodies4#d ,! s\l ( man is a portion ( ! 
_w-s\l1 a sp>k ( ! cele/ial fire1 & 9   
?is s5se mat]ial4    ,ari/otle /ates    
7,de ,anima1 i1 #b7 t "s ( !            
,py?agoreans  held ! sol> corpuscles    
7atoms7 to be s\ls1 :ile o!rs ref]r$  to
 t :i* set !m 9 motion z ! s\l4         
,s*lottman's read+ (  ?is passage is3   
8,! sol> corpuscles are mov$ by a s\l1 &
 !  s\l is1 g5]ally speak+1 ! mov+      

pr9ciple40    ,pr(essor ,burnet calls   
att5tion to ! s+ul> p[] exhibit$ by  !  
,py?agoreans 9 adapt+ _! !ories to      
conditions2 & among  c]ta9 radical      
*anges 9 _! po9t ( view1 he ?9ks ! mo/  
rem>kable is ! way ! religi\s side ( !  
doctr9e 0 gradually  dropp$4 8,! ef=t 0 
made to cle> ! "n ( ,py?agoras himself  
f ! imputation ( my/icism4 ,we h ! e*o (
 ?is 9 !  rema9s ( ,ari/ox5os &         
,dikair*os1 b x mu/ be old]2 = 9  _! day
 sci5tific ,py?agoreans _h ceas$ to     
exi/4 ,! /atem5t  t ,hippasos (         
,metapontium 0 guilty ( publi%+ a my/ic 
disc\rse #8) ! view ( misrepres5t+      
,py?agoras' 7,diog5es1  viii1 #g7 mu/ g 
back to ?is g5]ation ( ! s*ool2 = at a  
lat]  date no "o w\ld h any int]e/ 9    
mak+ x40#e    ,accord+ to ,/obaeus      
7,eclog>um physic>um et e?ic>um1 i1     
#cjh71 ,ecphantus--an imm$iate successor
 ( ,py?agoras1 accord+ to  ,r?--0 ! fir/
 philosoph] to expla9 ! ,py?agorean     
monads  7atoms7 z some?+ corporeal4 ,b  
?is view is reg>d$ by mo/  au?orities z 

be+ contr>y to ! doctr9e ( !            
,py?agoreans4  ,:ile ,ecphantus is      
includ$ among ! disciples ( ! ,s*ool1 8 
doctr9e ( mat]ial atoms z ! orig9al     
con/itu5ts ( !  ,py?agorean 8numb]s10 z 
well z ( matt]1 _c1 accord+ to  ,zell]1 
h be5 d]iv$ f 8 reput$ ma/]4 ,unlike !  
foll[]s  ( ,leucippus1 ,ecphantus       
believ$1 ) ,anaxagoras 7#ejj-dbh ,b4    
,c471  t ! movem5t ( ! atoms 7or        
monads71 z well z ! =mation  ( !        
univ]se1 0 produc$ by m9d or s\l4       
,atoms1 accord+ to  ,ecphantus1 diff]   
among !mselves 9 size1 =m & =ce4 ,x  is 
int]e/+ to note t ?is philosoph] _h n   
only accept$ z  true ! affirmation (    
,py?agoras t ! e>? is a sph]e1 b he     
knew also t x rotat$ ^u its axis        
7,s*iap>elli1 8,i ,precursori  di       
,cop]nico nell',anti*ita10 9 ,memorie   
del ,reale ,in/ituto  ,lomb>di1 xii74   
,"h1 !n1 p>adoxically en\gh1 we f9d 9 ! 
tea*+s ( !  ideali/ic ,py?agoreans !    
roots ( our mod]n !ories ( cosmogony  & 
! atomic !ory ( matt]4 ,_! 8p>ticles0   

are qualitatively  all alike1 diff]+    
only 9 =m4 ,by *anges 9 _! numb] &      
position ^! qualitatively homog5e\s     
atoms =m all ! v>i\s  sub/ances ( e>?1  
sea & sky4                     ,,!      
8,,se$s0 ,,( ,,anaxagoras 7#ejj-dbh ,b4 
,c47    ,! 8se$s0 7or g]ms7 (           
,anaxagoras mu/ also1 9 a s5se1 be      
consid]$ 8atoms40 ,b1 s f> f be+ all    
alike fundam5tally1  = him ea* sub/ance 
0 suppos$ to be compos$ ( its own       
peculi>  p>ticles1 !re be+ z _m k9ds (  
8se$s0 z !re are k9ds (  sub/ances4     
,:5ce came ?is m or less novel doctr9e8 
,0 x :olly orig9al  ) ! sage (          
,clazom5i8 ,leucippus1 ! f\nd] ( 8!     
mat]iali/ic0 atomic !ory1 0 a           
contempor>y ( ,anaxagoras1 &  bo? liv$  
aft] ! "t ( ,py?agoras1 & may h be5     
indebt$  ei!r to him or to sugge/ions f 
,india = _! fundam5tal  physical        
conceptions1 f9d+ !m1 inde$1 fully      
accordant )  ! prim>y po/ulates ( ! old]
 ,ionian physici/s--,anaxim9es          
7#ebd-ejh ,b4 ,c471 ,anaxim&] 7#faa-edg 

,b4 ,c47 & ,?ales 7#fbd8-edh8  ,b4 ,c474
 ,all ( ^! believ$ t all elem5ts are b  
comp\nds or  trans=mations ( "o         
primitive elem5t4    ,x is natural to   
inquire "h h[ su* 8sugge/ions f ,india0 
c\ld  h rea*$ ,greece4 ,pr(essor        
,gomp]tz1 :ile he does n discuss  !     
possible ,indian orig9 ( ! atomic !ory1 
w\ld h an answ]  to ?is "q4 ,he admits t
 ! ,greeks 8owe to ! ,ori5t !  elem5ts (
 mat]ial civilization0 & mu* ( _!       
sci5ce1 art &  religion to old]         
civilizations4 ,h[ 7 ^! transf]r$ to    
,greece8  ,?is "q1 he recalls1 br+s up a
 /rik+ p>allel f !  lit]>y hi/ory (     
m$ival ,europe4 8,practically ! entire  
fairy-lore  ( ! ,occid5t is d]iv$ f     
,india4 ,no "o10 he goes on to say1     
8disputes ?is ass]tion today02 yet1 on !
 o!r h&1 8no "o z yet  c give a         
completely cle> acc\nt ( ! ways & means 
by :i* its  j\rney 0 accompli%$0        
78,greek ,?9k]s10 ,page #ie74           
,,footnotes3    ,footnote #a3 8,/udies 9
 ! ,hi/ory & ,me?od ( ,sci5ce10 edit$ by

  ,dr4 ,*>les ,s+]1 ,ox=d1 #aiag4       
,footnote #b3 8,! ,hi/ory ( ,european   
,philosophy10 ,page #aje1 ,new ,york1   
#aiag4    ,footnote #c3 ,cf4 ,nauck1    
,a41 ,porphyrii ,opusculati ,selecta1   
ed4  #b1 ,leipsic1 #ahhf2 & ,iambli*i   
,de ,vita ,py?agorica ,lib]1 ed4        
,nauck1 ,petrograd1 #ahhd2 ,*aignet1    
8,py?agore et la ,philosophie           
,py?agorici5ne10 ,p>is1 #ahgc4 ,see also
 ,cantor1 8,vorlesung5  ub] die ,ge%i*te
 d] ,ma!matik10 ,i1 #abd ff4            
,footnote #d3 ,?us lay+ ! f\ndation = ! 
true helioc5tric  !ory1 introduc$ by    
,ari/>*us ( ,samos ab\t #bhj ,b4 ,c4--a 
!ory  accept$ & develop$ by ,seleucus ( 
,seleucia 9 ,babylonia1 b  reject$ 9 !  
foll[+ c5tury by ! greate/ ( ! ,greek   
a/ronom]s1 ,hipp>*us ( ,nica1 discov]] (
 ! 8precession ( !  equ9oxes10 & au?or (
 a catalogue ( #ajjj fix$ />s4          
,footnote #e3 ,burnet1 ,pr(essor ,john1 
8,greek ,philosophy10 ,vol4 ,i1 #gj1    
,page #hg1 ,london1 #aiad4 ,see also1 by
 ! same au?or1 8,e>ly ,greek            

,philosophy10 #b ed41 #ach sq4          
,,*apt] ,,ii             ,,!            
,,mat]iali/ic ,,atomi/s3 ,,leucippus ,,&
 ,,democritus                           
,,s\rces ,,( ,,our ,,in=mation          
,:ile ! ,atomic ,!ory is usually        
id5tifi$ ) ! "n (  ,democritus1 its real
 f\nd] 0 ,leucippus1 z is atte/$ by bo? 
,ari/otle 7#chd-cbb ,b4 ,c47 & 8        
successor1 ,!ophra/us4 ,diog5es         
,la]tius1 :o fl\ri%$ ab\t #bcj ( our    
era1 ref]s to ,leucippus 7,de  ,vitis1  
ix1 #df7 z ! au?or ( 8,! ,great         
,diakosmos0 7or 8,! ,great  ,ord] ( !   
,univ]se071 9 :i* 7 set =? ! pr9ciples  
^u  :i* he bas$ 8 atomic !ory4 ,a       
treatise 8,on ! ,m9d0 is also  m5tion$1 
:i* appe>s to h conta9$ 9 outl9e !      
psy*ology (  ! mat]iali/ic ,atomi/s4    
,( ! works ( ,leucippus !re rema9s b "o 
extant fragm5t1 9  :i* ,leucippus lays  
d[n 9 cle> t]ms ?is univ]sal rule3      
8,no?+  happ5s )\t a cause1 b ev]y?+ ) a
 cause & by necessity0  7,aetius1       
,doxograph]s #cba ,b4 #aj74    ,foll[+ 9

 ! foot/eps ( 8 ma/]1 ,democritus also  
wrote a book  8,on ! ,ord] ( !          
,univ]se10 adh]+1 x w\ld seem1 v closely
  to ! views ( ,leucippus4 ,! works ( 8 
ma/] ! great ,milesian1  7 incorporat$  
ev5tually 9 ! collect$ works (          
,democritus4    ,no writ]1 subsequ5t to 
,!ophra/us 7born at ,lesbos ab\t #cij   
,b4  ,c41 di$ 9 #bhf ,b4 ,c471 pupil ( &
 successor to ,ari/otle z head  ( !     
fam\s ,lyceum at ,a!ns1 attempt$ to     
di/+ui% ! tea*+  ( ,leucippus f t ( 8 m 
brilliant disciple4 ,zell] rem>ks  t 8! 
"w & ev5 ! "n ( ,leucippus seems to h   
be5 pretty  e>ly =gott5 by mo/ writ]s 9 
comp>ison ) ! rip] & m  exhau/ive       
a*ievem5ts ( 8 disciple4 ,! p]si/5ce )  
:i* he  is ignor$ by ,epicurus1 ! reviv]
 ( ! ,atomi/ic philosophy1 & by  mo/ ( !
 ,epicureans1 may h contribut$ to ?is4#f
    ,( ! once num]\s writ+s (           
,democritus himself1 only fragm5ts      
rema91 b ^! are highly important4 ,!    
*ief collector ( !  extant fragm5ts 0   
,mulla*1#g :o places ,democritus fir/ on

  ! li/ ( ,greek philosoph]s = g5ius &  
k1 & ?9ks  x probable t ! great         
,ari/otle himself may owe mu* ( 8       
reputation = le>n+ to dilig5t p]usal ( !
 words ( ! sage (  ,abd]a4 ,says he3    
87,democritus71 al?\gh 9 o!r ?+s        
dissimil>1 9  8 equal /udy ( all ! arts 
0 mo/ l ! fam\s ,ari/otle4 ,&  ,i       
sc>cely "k :e!r ! ,/agirite did n owe to
 8 read+ ( !  works ( ,democritus 8     
erudition1 :i* surpass$ t ( all o!r     
philosoph]s40    ,ari/otle & "s lat]    
hi/orians make frequ5t ref]5ces to 8    
tea*+s1 & accord+ to ,zell]1 8)         
respect40 ,gomp]tz says t  ,ari/otle    
conf]s 8a cr[n ( eulogy0 ^u ,democritus 
8at ! exp5se  ( ,plato40    ,pr(essor   
,lange rem>ks1 h[ev]1 t 8he cites him1 =
 ! mo/  "p1 only :5 he attacks him1 &   
?is he by no means always does  ) a     
fitt+ objectivity & fairness4 ,h[ (t5 he
 has borr[$ f  him )\t nam+ him we d n  
"k4 ,plato speaks ( him n[h]e1  ?\gh x  
is a matt] ( dispute :e!r1 9 "s places1 
he has n  controv]t$ 8 op9ion )\t m5tion

 ( 8 "n0 78,hi/ory (  ,mat]ialism10 page
 #ah74    ,x seems to be q possible t   
,plato knew little or no?+ (  ! writ+ ( 
,democritus4 ,at any rate1 !y 7 n well  
kn[n  9 ,a!ns be=e ,ari/otle's          
discussion ( 8 !ories4 ,an extant       
,democritean fragm5t /ates t 8,i w5t to 
,a!ns & no "o knew me40  ,pr(essor      
,burnet says3 8,x is n cle> t ,plato    
knew any?+ ab\t  ,democritus1 = ! few   
passages 9 ! ,timu & else:]e :]e he     
seems to be reproduc+ him are easily    
expla9$ by ! ,py?agorean  influ5ces t   
affect$ !m bo?4 ,ari/otle1 on ! o!r h&1 
kn[s  ,democritus well2 = he too 0 an   
,ionian f ! nor?4    8,x is c]ta91      
nev]!less1 t ! ,democritean corpus 7:i* 
includ$ ! works ( ,leucippus & o!rs z   
well z ^? (  ,democritus7 cont9u$ to    
exi/2 = ! s*ool ma9ta9$ itself at       
,abd]a & ,teos d[n to ,hell5i/ic times4 
,x 0 !re=e possible  = ,?rasyllos 9 !   
reign ( ,tib]ius to produce an edition (
 !  works ( ,democritus arrang$ 9       
tetralogies j l 8 edition (  ,plato's   

dialogues4 ,ev5 t did n suffice to      
pres]ve !m40#h    ,besides be+ !        
favorite pupil ( ,leucippus1 ,democritus
 7accord+  to ,glaubus ( ,rhegion1 a    
contempor>y7 _h also ,py?agoreans =     
tea*]s1 includ+ ! a/ronom]1 geometrician
 & physician1  ,philolaus1 :o 0 exil$ f 
,italy 9 ! fir/ half ( ! fif?  c5tury   
,b4 ,c4 because ( 8 memb]%ip 9 !        
,py?agorean ,ord]4  ,burnet ?9ks t ?is  
acc\nts n only = ,democritus'           
geometrical  k b also 8= o!r features ( 
8 sy/em40                            ,,!
 ,,physics ,,( ,,democritus    ,we "k t 
bo? ,leucippus & ,democritus reg>d$ !   
atoms compos+  ! v>i\s sub/ances ( ! _w 
z be+ homog5e\s--i4e41 all  alike f a   
*emical /&-po9t1 b diff]+ f "o ano!r 9  
po9t ( size & 9 ri* v>iety ( =m4 ,unlike
 ! m9ute p>ticles  7homom]ies7 (        
,anaxagoras1 :i* 7 assum$ to be         
inf9itely  divisible z well z           
qualitatively diff]5t = ea* sub/ance1 ! 
atoms ( ,leucippus & ,democritus 7      
consid]$ indivisible2 h5ce  ! "n atoma  

7atoms7 7p>ticles :i* _c be cut1 or     
fur!r divid$74    ,b :ile ! atoms are   
describ$ z 8indivisible10 because !re is
  no vacuum 9 !m1 ?is does n mean t !y 7
 reg>d$ by  ,leucippus & ,democritus z  
m]e ma!matical po9ts1 l ! atoms  (      
,boscovi*#i or ! 8po9t *>ges0           
7electrons7 ( "s mod]n  physici/s4 ,!y 7
 bodies ( a def9ite magnitude1 "s l>g]1 
o!rs small]1 b nev] ( visible size      
7,sextus1 ,ma!matica1  vii1 #aci71 mu*  
less1 z ass]t$ by ,/obu 7,eclag>um      
physic>um  et e?ic>um1 i1 #cdh7 8z l>ge 
z a _w40 ,accord+ to  ,simplicius       
7,physica1 #ah a71 ,democritus taught t 
! atoms  7 physically indivisible1 b he 
did n claim t !y 7  ma!matically        
indivisible4    ,! v>iety ( sub/ances & 
organisms se5 on e h& is due  entirely1 
accord+ to ,democritus--& also to       
,leucippus1 ^: views  are express$ by   
,democritus--to ! inf9ite v>iety ( !    
atoms  9 =m1 size & arrangem5t 9 space )
 ref]5ce to "o  ano!r--an anticipation (
 mod]n /]eo*emi/ry 7! arrangem5t  ( !   

atoms ( a molecule 9 space7 & ! "w (    
van't ,h(f  7#aheb-aiaa74aj ,9 all o!r  
respects ! atoms are alike1 & act on  "o
 ano!r only by pressure or collision4   
,,! ,,atomic ,,!ory ,,( ,,k    ,man's   
s5se impressions--color1 s\nd1          
bitt]ness1 sweetness1 etc4--are  m]ely !
 effect ( ! impact ( atoms ^u a p>ticul>
 gr\p+  or arrangem5t ( physically v>i$ 
b ess5tially 7*emically7  homog5e\s     
atoms1 con/itut+ our s5se organs4 ,h5ce 
^! s5se  qualities h no exi/5ce 9       
!mselves--are m]e deceptive             
8appe>ances40 8,only 9 op9ion consi/s   
sweetness1 bitt]ness1 cold1  color2 9   
tru? !re is no?+ b ! atoms & empty      
space10 says  ,democritus4    ,! great  
,protagoras 7born ab\t #ejj ,b4 ,c471   
also ( ,abd]a1 a  contempor>y (         
,leucippus & ,democritus1 _h taught t   
all  s5sations are equally true = !     
s5ti5t subject--i4e41 if a  sub/ance    
ta/es sweet to a giv5 p]son1 x is sweet4
 ,= ,democritus  sweetness & bitt]ness  
did n reside z su* 9 ! sub/ance  ta/$1 b

 7 m]ely subjective effects produc$ on !
 palate  ( ! consum]4 ,ta/e is p>tly    
dep5d5t ^u ! %ape ( !  atoms compos+ !  
food 7!y held7 & p>tly ^u ! p>ticul>    
ta/e-s5se ( ! individual4 ,?us to !     
normal 7or av]age7 p]son  honey has a   
sweet ta/e1 :]eas ! same honey to a     
jaundic$ p]son  has a bitt] ta/e4       
,p>m5ides _h already decl>$ t ta/e1     
colors1 s\nd & ! l  7 only names1 /&+ = 
no objective qualities4 ,democritus     
agre$  t s5sations repres5t no?+ ext]nal
 to ourselves1 ?\gh  !y are caus$ by    
some?+ outside u4 ,= example1 :at we    
call pung5cy1 t>tness1 bitt]ness1       
salt9ess1 etc41 7 impressions  produc$  
on ! palate by atoms ( a c]ta9          
%ape--%>p1 r\gh1  po9t$ or hook$        
p>ticles ( matt] produc+ an effect (    
pung5cy  or acidity4 ,atoms ) smoo?     
surfaces =m sub/ances :i* ord9>ily      
impress ! s5ses agreeably4 ,f ?is we    
le>n ! effect ^u our  palates ( c]ta9   
sub/ances1 b ^! s5sations tell u no?+ ( 
! true nature ( ! sub/ances ta/$4       

8,by ! s5ses10 says ,democritus1 8we 9  
tru? "k no?+ sure1  b only some?+ t     
*anges accord+ to ! disposition ( !     
body & ( ! ?+s t ent] into x or resi/ x0
 7,fragm5t #i74  ,true reality lies     
beyond s5se impressions2 8tru? is 9 !   
dep?s0  7,fragm5t #aa74 ,our ideas      
repres5t our impressions1 & are n direct
  reproductions ( ! ext]nal objects     
!mselves1 8! inn] ess5ce (  :i* is      
conceal$ f u40    ,?is anci5t !ory ( !  
diff]5ces ( ta/e dep5d+ on  diff]5ces 9 
! %apes--or r\ghness or smoo?ness--( !  
p>ticles  compos+ sub/ances prevail$ ev5
 well into ! eighte5? c5tury  ( our own 
era2 diction>ies ( ! p]iod /ill def9+   
acidity1  = example1 z due to %>p1 po9t$
 p>ticles4 ,today we /ill admit  t atoms
 are qualitatively homog5e\s--b by      
8atoms0 we n[ mean  electrons1 !        
con/itu5t electrical *>ges :i* make up !
 8atoms0  ( ! *emi/4 ,diff]5ces 9 !     
numb] ( electrons 9 atoms conf]  ^u !m  
qualitative 7*emical7 diff]5ces1 ?\gh   
all atoms ( any  "o elem5t are *emically

 alike--are homog5e\s4 ,diff]5ces 9 !   
numb] ( spatial arrangem5t ( ^! atoms 79
 gr\ps or 8molecules07  con/itute bo?   
physical & *emical diff]5ces 9          
sub/ances1 i4e41  9 comp\nds4 ,q diff]5t
 sub/ances are produc$ by comb9ations  (
 precisely ! same k9ds ( atoms1 b 9     
diff]5t  proportions4    ,take f a      
molecule ( c]ta9 sub/ances "o s+le atom1
 & !y  may be *ang$ f a comp\nd necess>y
 to life & gr[? into a  deadly poison4  
,phosphorus is an elem5t1 & ?us conta9s 
b "o k9d  ( atoms2 b "s 7common7        
phosphorus is yell[ & "s 7amorph\s7  is 
r$1 v>y+ ) ! spatial di/ribution ( !    
atoms 9 !  molecules compos+ !          
phosphorus4    ,b ! prop]ties 7or       
quality7 ( a comp\nd are n m]ely !  sum 
( ! qualities ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( atoms  
compos+  its molecules 7a molecule be+ !
 smalle/ possible quantity ( a  giv5    
sub/ance or comp\nd74 ,wat]1 = example1 
is n m]ely !  addition ( ! qualities (  
"o atom ( oxyg5 to ^? ( two atoms  (    
hydrog5 7,h,o74 ,x is some?+ q diff]5t f

 ei!r (  ^! two elem5ts4 ,& j s ! color 
( blue sulphate ( copp]  is n a m]e     
mixture ( ! colors ( sulphuric acid &   
copp]4  ,aga91 ! exp]im5ts ( ,dr4 ,p4   
,w4 ,bridgman#aa %[$ t :ile  !          
application ( ord9>y pressures to ice   
causes x to melt1 !  application ( high 
pressures to wat] causes x to freeze1 & 
t  8!re are at lea/ five diff]5t k9ds ( 
ice1 only "o ( :i* we  are ord9>ily     
famili> )0 7,page #aib74 ,p>aff91 "u    
pressures z  high z #bj1jjj atmosph]es1 
8becomes m rigid ?an s(t /eel0 7,page   
#ahh74 ,wat]1 h]et(ore reg>d$ z         
absolutely incompressible1 0  f\nd to   
decrease 9 volume ab\t tw5ty p] c5t ) a 
pressure "u  #ab1jjj atmosph]es4        
,pr(essor ,w4 ,t4 ,m>v9 c\ld well say1 9
 consid]+ ! %ortcom+s  ( anci5t atomic  
!ories1 t 8ev5 ) our weal? ( physical   
in=mation we _c yet expla9 by a rigor\s 
atomi/ic me*anics  wat] trans=m+ into   
ice or a /ick ( wood burn+1 n to m5tion 
! ph5om5a ( liv+ organisms40    ,mod]n  
sci5ce recognizes t n only diff]5t      

results  may be obta9$ "u diff]5t       
conditions1 b t absolutely  new         
qualities em]ge at critical mom5ts1 bo? 
9 ! doma9 (  *emi/ry & 9 ! ph5om5a (    
biology4 ,we talk n[ ( em]g5t           
evolution4 8,we live 9 a _w 9 :i* !re   
seems to be an  ord]ly sequ5ce (        
ev5ts4444 ,b ! ord]ly sequ5ce1          
hi/orically  view$1 appe>s to pres5t1 f 
"t to "t1 some?+ g5u9ely  new4444 ,if   
!re be only regr\p+ ( pre-exi/+ ev5ts & 
no?+  m--!n !re is no em]g5t            
evolution40#ab    ,9 ! gradual          
transition f non-liv+ to liv+ matt]1 an 
entirely  new & peculi> type (          
en]gy--8biotic en]gy0 em]ges1 :i*  is n 
explicable m]ely on ! gr\nds ( increas+ 
complexity (  atomic /ructure4 8,we call
 ?+s liv+ because ( ! en]gy  *anges !y  
exhibit1 & n because !y are complex     
*emically  or physically40 ,a dead      
animal is j z complex z a liv+          
organism4 ,:at is miss+ is 8biotic      
en]gy0--! =m ( en]gy  :i* gives rise to 
! di/9ctive en]gy-trans=mations 8:i* we 

aggregate toge!r "u ! t]m life40 ,!     
recognition (  ?is fact1 h[ev]1 does n  
commit u to ! outworn doctr9e (         
8vitalism0 or to ! ,ari/otelian         
8entele*y40#ac    ,leucippus &          
,democritus1 ( c\rse1 7 n tr\bl$ ) !    
problems rais$ by su* ph5om5a z we h j  
be5 consid]+1  s9ce !y knew no?+ ab\t   
!m4 ,= ! f\nd]s ( ,atomism1 a           
multiplicity ( sub/ances1 liv+ matt]1 & 
consci\sness c\ld  readily be acc\nt$ = 
by ! v>i$ comb9ation ( v>i\sly =m$      
atoms1 physically consid]$4 ,:at w\ld be
 _! a/oni%m5t to le>n  t t5s ( ?\s&s (  
diff]5t sub/ances are actually compos$  
( only f\r k9ds ( atoms--viz41 hydrog51 
oxyg51 nitrog5 &  c>bon6 ,yet = !m "o   
elem5t1 qualitatively consid]$1 0       
suffici5t to produce all t is--includ+ !
 8s\l0--provid$ ?is  primal matt] exi/$ 
9 an inf9ite numb] ( %apes & sizes (    
atomic dim5sions4                       
,,democritean ,,color ,,!ory    8,we h  
no exact in=mation10 says ,pr(essor     
,gomp]tz1 8z to  :i* bodies 9 ! !ory (  

,democritus 7 simple & :i*  7 complex10 
b he adduces evid5ces to %[ t 8! inf9ite
  multiplicity :i* ,democritus recogniz$
 9 ! sizes & %apes (  atoms did n arise 
f 8 incompet5ce to p]ceive or to        
conjecture  a complex 9 an app>5tly     
simple body40    ,he rem>ks t !         
,democritean !ory ( color />t$ f !      
assumption ( f\r prim>y colors--:ite1   
black1 r$ & gre54 8,^!1  ) ! exception (
 gre51 :i* _h tak5 ! place ( yell[1 7   
likewise ! prim>y colors 9 ! s*eme (    
,emp$ocles40 ,b all  o!r colors 87      
designat$ z mix$1 & we see t all !      
num]\s bodies :i* 7 n equipp$ ) "o ( !  
f\r prim>y  colors mu/ h be5 ( a        
composite nature4 ,t is to say1 !y mu/  
h includ$ o!r ?an m]ely homog5\sly      
elem5t>y p>ticles4444  ,! /atem5ts ab\t 
! atomic =ms und]ly+ ! sev]al ta/es     
give rise at fir/ impression 7to ! idea 
t7 ea* ( ! c\ntless  #8juices' or       
mat]ials ( ta/e is compos$ ( homog5e\s  
atoms  possess+ ! size & %ape requir$ = 
! purpose4    8,b ?is1 we pla9ly        

p]ceive1 0 n ! op9ion ( ,democritus4  ,8
 own view ( ! mix$ colors cries aga9/ x4
 ,! homog5eity  ( ! atoms 0 admissible 9
 ! case ( :ite salt1 b x 0 n  admissible
 9 t ( yell[-gold honey or (            
br[ni%-yell[ human  bile4 ,x is true t  
he mu/ h ref]r$ ! sweetness ( ! "o  & ! 
bitt]ness ( ! o!r to ! pres5ce ( !      
atomic =ms by  :i* ^! impressions 7     
produc$4 ,b yell[ & br[n 7 mix$  colors 
9 8 !ory1 & he mu/ accord+ly h inf]r$ t 
honey  & bile alike conta9$ atoms ( o!r 
=ms z well40    ,pr(essor ,gomp]tz !re=e
 concludes t 8! true mean+ ( ^?         
/atem5ts %\ld !re=e be express$ z       
foll[s3 #8,9 all sub/ance  ( mix$ colors
 at lea/ ! k9d ( atoms :i* l5ds !m _!   
specific ta/e is m]ely ! pr$om9ant &    
prepond]ant k9d1 &  )\t wa/+ m words on 
?is subject1 ,!ophra/us1 :o is our  be/ 
au?ority = ,democritus' !ory ( s5sation1
 relates t ?is  doctr9e 0 expressly     
taught by him'40#ad      ,,footnotes3   
,footnote #f3 ,zell]1 ,dr4 ,edw>d1      
8,pre-,socratic ,philosophy10 ,vol ,i4  

,page  #bji1 ,london1 #ahhc4 7,engli%   
translation by ,s4 ,f4 ,alleyne & ,o4   
,j4  ,rei*el47    ,footnote #g3         
,democriti ,abd]itae op]um fragm5ta1    
,b]l91 #ahdc4  ,cf4 ,liepmann1 ,hugo    
,k>l1 8,die ,me*anik d]                 
leucipp-democrit's*5  ,atome10 ,b]l91   
#ahhe2 & ,li>d1 ,de ,democrito          
philosopho1  ,p>is1 #ahgc2 ,lassewitz1  
8,ges*i*te d] ,atomi/ik10 ,hamburg1     
#ahij4    ,footnote #h3 8,greek         
,philosophy10 ,vol4 ,i1 ,pages #aic-aid1
 ,london1 #aiad4    ,footnote #i3       
,boscoyi%1 ,rog] ,joseph4 ,!oria        
,philosophae  ,naturalis1 etc41 ,vi5na1 
#ageh4 ,a ,lat9-,engli% edition ( ?is "w
  has be5 issu$ f ! press ( ! ,op5 ,c\rt
 ,publi%+ ,company1  ,*icago1 #aibc4    
,footnote #aj3 ,van't ,h(f 0 fir/ to    
expla9 ! cause ( a kn[n  diff]5ce 9 _!  
behavior t[>d a beam ( pol>iz$ light (  
two di/9ct sub/ances--bo? ( :i* are     
call$ amyl alcohol--!  *emical =mation (
 :i* is id5tical 7i4 e41 compos$ ( !    
same  numb] & k9ds ( atoms7--by a       

diff]5ce 9 ! ord] 9 :i*  ! f\r diff]5t  
gr\ps ( molecules are arrang$ 9 space   
ab\t  ! c5tral c>bon atom2 ! arrangem5ts
 9 ! two cases be+  su* t "o molecule   
has ! same arrangem5t z ! mirror image  
( ! o!r--equival5t to ! diff]5ce betwe5 
a "r-h& &  a left-h& glove4 ,democritus 
c\ld1 possibly1 on 8 !ory1 h  arriv$ at 
su* an explanation2 :]eas ,ari/otle1 on 
8 !ory (  ! elem5ts1 c\ld n possibly h  
done s--any m ?an c\ld  ,emp$ocles      
7#die-dcf ,b4 ,c47 h done s ) 8 8f\r    
elem5ts40    ,z = ! primal sub/ance     
78air07 ( ,anaxim9es 7#ehh-ed ,b4 ,c47  
& ! 8fire0 ( ,h]aclitus 7#ece-dge ,b4   
,c471 ,dr4 ,gomp]tz cont5ds  t ^! 7     
implicitly recogniz$ z be+ compos$ (    
8m9ute1  imp]ceptible p>ticles0 78,greek
 ,?9k]s01 ,vol4 ,i1 ,page #cbc74        
,footnote #aa3 8,on ! ,prop]ties (      
,matt] "u ,high ,pressure40 ,annual     
,report ( ! ,smi?sonian ,in/itution1    
#aiah4    ,footnote #ab3 ,morgan1       
,pr(essor ,c4 ,lloyd1 8,em]g5t          
,evolution10 ,pages  #a-b1 ,london1     

#aibc4 ,cf4 ,mill1 ,j4 ,s41 8,logic10   
,book ,,iii1 ,*apt] ,,vi1 #b2  ,lewes1  
,g4 ,h41 8,problems ( ,life & ,m9d10    
,vol4 ,,ii1 ,problem ,v1 ,*apt]  ,,iii1 
,page #dab4    ,footnote #ac3 ,see on   
?is po9t ,moore1 ,dr4 ,b5jam91          
8,bio*emi/ry--,a  ,/udy ( ! ,orig91     
,reactions & ,equilibria ( ,liv+        
,matt]10  especially ,*apt] ,,ix1 ,pages
 #abe-acg1 ,london1 #aiba4    ,footnote 
#ad3 ,gomp]tz1 ,opus citum1 ,pages      
#ccc-ccd4 ,au?oriz$ ,engli%             
translation1 f ! ,g]man edition ( #ahif1
 by ,laurie ,magnus1 ,m4 ,a4  7,oxon471 
,london1 #aijf4                         
,,*apt] ,,iii                           
,,! ,,eleatic ,,view      ,"o ( !       
problems t e>ly p]plex$ ! human m9d 0 t 
(  motion4 ,p>m5ides1 ( ! ,eleatic      
s*ool1 c\ld n conceive (  movem5t (     
bodies )\t vacu\s space1 & = him !re    
c\ld be no  vacuum1 s9ce ! univ]se is a 
pl5um--! ,all1 ! ,"o4 ,h5ce  !re c\ld be
 no motion1 movem5t ( bodies & physical 
*anges be+  m]e delusive appe>ances4    

,leucippus grant$ t he1 likewise1 c\ld n
 conceive ( ! motion  ( bodies unless   
!re 0 empty space = !m to move 94 ,b    
motion  he recogniz$ z a fact ( nature1 
z a reality4 ,! ,eleatics mu/1  !re=e1  
he said1 be 9 error 9 support+ ! premise
 t 8!re  is no vacuum40 ,giv5 empty     
space1 motion foll[$4    ,nei!r         
,p>m5ides nor ,leucippus introduc$ !    
conception ( !  vacuum4 ,x 0 a pre-exi/+
 doctr9e f]v5tly attack$ by ,p>m5ides  &
 support$ on logical gr\nds by          
,leucippus4 8,nor10 says ,pr(essor      
,gomp]tz ( ,leucippus1 8did he d m ?an  
to ref9e & to raise to  ! dignity ( a   
self-su/a9$ sy/em ! atomic !ory :i*     
exi/$  be=e him1 ?\gh 9 a rude1         
rudim5t>y & imp]fect %ape40    ,giv5    
atoms ( v>i\s sizes & =ms1 _! movem5t 9 
vacu\s  space 0 tak5 z mu* = grant$ z _!
 exi/5ce4 ,j z matt]  itself _h no      
beg9n+1 & c h no end+1 s ! natural &    
orig9al condition ( atoms 0 a /ate (    
motion4 ,! /ate ( re/  0 no m 8natural0 
to ! ,atomi/s ?an 0 ! /ate ( motion4    

,!y knew no?+ ( ! doctr9e :i* reg>ds    
matt] z an 8in]t  mass40 ,matt] = !m 0  
ess5tially active & non-quiesc5t1 z x  0
 c5turies lat] = ,bruno1 ,bacon1        
,leibnitz1 ,sp9oza1 & z x is  9 our own 
times = all physici/s4 ,= en]gy is      
synonym\s  ) motion1 & matt] itself is b
 a collection ( en]gy  units 79 con/ant 
motion74                                
,,democritus' ,,!ory    ,accord+ to     
,democritus ! atoms fall ) v>y+ degrees 
(  rapidity1 ! heavi] p>ticles fa/]1 !  
light] ) less spe$1  ! heavi] ov]tak+ & 
/rik+ aga9/ ! light] ones4 ,to quote    
,lange's succ9ct /atem5t3    8,z ! atoms
 are ( v>i\s %apes1 & ! collision w n   
take place 9 ! c5t] ( ! atoms1 !n1 ev5  
accord+ to !  pr9ciples ( mod]n         
me*anical sci5ce1 revolutions ( ! atoms 
on _! axes & lat]al motions w be set up4
 ,:5 once set up1  ^! lat]al motions mu/
 ev] become m & m complicat$1 &  z !    
collision ( con/ant new atoms ) a lay] (
 atoms already  9 lat]al motion         
con/antly imp>ts new =ces1 s we may     

suppose  t ! motion w cont9ually        
increase4 ,f ! lat]al motions  9        
connection ) ! rotation ( ! atoms are !n
 easily produc$  cases ( retrogressive  
movem5t4 ,if n[1 9 a lay] ( atoms s     
involv$1 ! heavi]--i4 e41 ! l>g]--atoms 
cont9ually receive a  /rong] impetus    
d[nw>ds1 !y w f9ally be collect$ bel[1  
:ile  ! light ones w =m ! upp]          
/ratum40#ae    ,ari/otle said t if !re  
c\ld be su* a condition z space  devoid 
( sub/ance 7matt]71 !n 9 su* a vacuum   
all bodies1 light  or heavy1 w\ld fall )
 equal velocity1 :i* he consid]$ an     
absurdity4 ,= him ! diff]5ces 9 ! spe$ (
 fall+ bodies are  entirely dep5d5t ^u  
diff]5ces 9 ! d5sity ( ! m$ium--air  or 
wat]--?r\gh :i* !y fall t[>d ! c5t] ( ! 
e>?4  ,epicurus agre$ ) ! ,/agirite on !
 po9t ( equal velocities 9  a non-resi/+
 m$ium4 ,b ,ari/otle n only d5i$ !      
possibility  ( ! exi/5ce ( a void       
any:]e1 b ass]t$ t 9 su* a  void--7 a   
vacuum possible--no motion c\ld take    
place6    ,epicurus believ$ t all atoms1

 ( :atev] weight1 w\ld fall )  equal    
velocity 9 a vacuum1 9 simple p>allel   
l9es4 ,!y are 9  ev]la/+ movem5t1       
orig9ally a p]petual1 equable fall+     
?r\gh  ! b\ndless inf9ity ( vacu\s      
space1 ) an incomp>ably great]  spe$ ?an
 t ( light-rays2 ?\gh he believ$ t ^!   
trav]se  ! di/ance f sun to e>? 9 an    
in/ant4#af    ,:ile x is true t 9       
inf9ite space !re is nei!r an 8up0 nor  
a 8d[n10 ! fact rema9s1 z ,epicurus 9   
effect obs]v$1 t man  consid]s 8 head   
8up0 & 8 feet 8d[n10 & a body z be+     
relatively di/ant f1 or z ne> or on or  
)91 ! e>?4 ,s !  atoms d conv]ge at !   
e>?1 fall+ d[nw>ds unless met by bodies 
:i*1 by a p>ticul> movem5t & weight1    
drive !m to "o side or  upw>ds1 or 9 a  
spiral or :irl+ motion--8! comm5cem5t ( 
!  =mation ( worlds40 ,b if ! movem5t ( 
atoms is 9 /raight  p>allel l9es1 & all 
move 9 ! vacuum ) equal velocity1 h[    
c\ld "o atom drive ano!r 8to "o side or 
upw>ds08    ,j "h is :]e ! weakness 9 ! 
atomic !ory is introduc$ by  ,epicurus4 

,democritus acc\nt$ = ! collision &     
reb\nd ( atoms  "u law1 by a cause1 n by
 *ance4 ,epicurus ?rew away !  cause &  
introduc$ 8*ance collisions40 ,b no atom
 0 ev] deviat$  f its flight 9 p>allel  
l9es by 8*ance0--9 ?is case a :olly     
metaphysical inv5tion4 ,no worlds1 no   
suns or planets c\ld be built up  on !  
!ory ( p>ticles fall+ ?r\gh inf9ite     
space 9 p>allel  rectil9e> pa?s4 ,!re   
mu/ be collision & recoil ( atoms 9 ord]
  t ! lat]al & :irl+ movem5ts1 or       
vortices1 %\ld be set up1  :i* 7 suppos$
 to cause ! atoms to comb9e accord+ to  
_!  %ape1 size1 & weight1 ! heavi] =m+ !
 d5s] portions ( !  e>?1 ! light]       
con/itut+ ! atmosph]e4    ,?is          
difficulty did n escape ! a/ute m9d (   
,lucretius4 ,b  9 attempt+ to solve :at 
is really an insoluble problem--!       
developm5t ( worlds "u ! conditions     
/at$--! great ,roman poet  only made bad
 matt]s worse4 ,= "h he introduc$ !     
dogma ( free  w appli$ to ! fall+ atoms4
 ,!y 7 made to deviate f  _! p>allel    

l9es by a volunt>y movem5t6    ,& x     
appe>s t ?is 0 done on ! au?ority (     
,epicurus himself3  8,9 ^! errors10 says
 ,lange1 8,democritus probably _h no    
%>e2  & yet we %all judge !m m l5i5tly  
if we reflect t1 ev5  to our own day1 ! 
ess5ce ( ! doctr9e ( ! fre$om ( !  w1 ) 
:atev] metaphysical subtlety x is       
elaborat$1 consi/s  simply ( ! unc]ta9ty
 & p]plexity ( ph5om5al appe>ances40    
,aga93 8,:il/1 !re=e1 x is "o ( ! mo/   
important ef=ts (  rec5t mat]ialism to  
d$uce ! :ole mass ( volunt>y movem5ts  f
 me*anical causes1 we f9d ,epicurus     
adopt+ a q incalculable  elem5t into 8  
sy/em40#ag    ,= ,democritus a 8*ance0  
occurr5ce w\ld be a causeless ev5t1 &   
?is he c\ld n all[ "u 8 law (           
8necessity40 ,an effici5t  cause        
produces always appropriate & calculable
 results "u  giv5 conditions1 & ^!      
results are always uni=m1 pr$ictable    
occurr5ces1 giv5 k ( ! me*anical factors
 involv$4    ,to ! e>li] ,atomi/s x     
seem$ cle> t p>ticles :i* are alike  9  

weight & 9 =m w\ld 8naturally10 :5 :irl$
 ab\t 9 a  vortex1 be br\ght to ! same  
location2 & because ( _! peculi>  %ape1 
become entangl$ "o ) ano!r4 ,s9ce "s    
atoms 7  suppli$ ) hooks or ev5 ) balls 
& sockets1 "s ) mortice  or dovetail1   
o!rs ) %>p1 r\gh or involut$ edges1 :at 
m  8natural0 ?an t gr\ps or comb9ations 
( atoms %\ld be =m$1  ev5 to ! cohesion 
( "s atoms 9 places n suitable to _!    
nature1 result+ 9 ! =mation ( comp\nd   
bodies8    ,"s atoms1 inde$1 7          
8unsociable10 hav+ no means ( mutual    
atta*m5t2 h5ce _! comb9ation 0 effect$  
by enclos+ !m 9  a %ell =m$ by !        
8social0 p>ticles4 ,"s atoms _h means = 
atta*m5t at two po9ts1 :i* acc\nts1 9   
"p1 = ! great] or  less mobility ( !    
v>i\s atoms4 ,! s\l consi/s ( ! f9e/  & 
smoo!/ atoms1 ak9 to ^? ( fire2 & s9ce  
!y p5etrate  ! :ole body1 _! motions    
give rise to ! ph5om5a ( life4  ,all    
objects project into space images (     
!mselves1 compos$ (  atoms1 :i* /rike   
aga9/ ! s5ses1 & are p]ceiv$ by simil>  

atoms--8l atoms are p]ceiv$ by l40      
,^! assumptions 7 :olly unacceptable to 
! critical m9d  ( ,ari/otle1#ah z well z
 to 8 di/+ui%$ disciple1 ,/rato  (      
,lampsacus1 tea*] ( ,ptolemy            
,philadelphus4 ,! ,roman ,/oic1  ,cic]o1
 reg>d$ ! ,democritean !ory ( cohesion &
 comp\nd+  ( sub/ances z :olly          
fanta/ic4#ai ,yet ! critics (           
,democritus  _h no bett] !ory to (f] 9  
its place1 s9ce !y1 l !  ,atomi/s       
!mselves1 _h no conception ( !          
electrical1 *emical or  gravitational   
attraction ( bodies = ea* o!r1 or ( !   
fact t  ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e causes 
! asc5t ( fire1 vapor &  heat$ molecules
 9 g5]al4    ,to ! =ego+ objections1    
o!rs might be (f]$1 b we add only  t 9  
mod]n t]ms1 ! impact ( indivisible &    
inde=mable atoms  ^u "o ano!r c\ld n    
produce ! requir$ movem5t ( elem5t>y    
masses4 ,= 8if ! atoms are rigid1       
transmission ( motion ?r\gh  impact is  
impossible2 if !y are ela/ic1 !y are !n 
de=mable  & compos$ ( p>ts1 :i* is      

contr>y to ! hypo!sis & implies  =ces ( 
cohesion & ela/icity40#bj               
,democritus1 ?\gh he 0 ! greate/        
physici/ ( 8 age1 c\ld  n1 ( c\rse1 be  
expect$ to anticipate our mod]n         
objections to 8  doctr9e--or 8 ma/]'s   
doctr9e4 ,! immortal ,newton            
7#afdb-agbg7  himself1 ev5 ,dalton      
7#agff-ahdd71 f\nd] ( ! mod]n *emical   
atomic !ory 7z di/+ui%$ f ! physical    
atomic  !ories ( 8 pr$ecessors71 c\ld n 
anticipate ! advances t  h made possible
 ! rel5tless criticism ( mod]n physics &
  *emi/ry4 ,newton1 ,boyle & ,huyg5s _h 
no idea t ! 8atoms0 (  _! conceptions 7 
occupi$ mo/ly by 8empty space0 7us+ ?is 
phrase 9 its popul> mean+--mod]n sci5ce 
recogniz+ no actually  empty space3 =   
all space conta9s a gravitational 8e!r0 
if n an  electromagnetic field ( en]gy74
    ,?us ! 8atom0 ( ! *emi/ is a highly 
ela/ic body--highly  resili5t4 ,moreov]1
 ?anks to ! g5ius ( ,pr(essor ,fr$]ick  
,soddy1  ( ,ox=d1 & ( ,sir ,f4 ,w4      
,a/on1 we n[ "k t :at we consid]$  b    

?ree ye>s ago to be a homog5e\s         
elem5t--e4g41 lead1 *lor9e1  c>bon1     
iron1 etc4--is 9 _m cases--if n 9 all   
cases except+  hydrog5 & helium--a      
comp\nd body conta9+ p>ticles ( diff]5t 
weights 7atomic mass74 ,on ! o!r h&1 z  
previ\sly /at$1 we are  rev]t+ to !     
,democritean !ory t all atoms are       
compos$ ( b  "o primitive elem5t1 !     
hydrog5 atom4 ,& ! hydrog5 atom 9  turn 
is compos$ (--en]gy2 & en]gy itself is  
app>5tly (  atomic /ructure4 ,all en]gy 
is1 9 ! la/ analysis1 electrical 9      
nature1 ! /uff t lightn+1 ! />s1 fire1  
rocks & metals1  ! bodies ( plants &    
animals--p]haps ! m9d ( man--are all    
made  (4    ,) ^! facts 9 m9d1 let u    
return to ,democritus1 ^:  errors--!    
errors ( 8 age--we may n[ reg>d ) due   
all[ances4                              
8,,s\l ,,atoms0    ,) ,democritus1 z )  
,py?agoras & ,h]aclitus1 fire _h a      
special  importance1 ?\gh x 0 n1 z      
ass]t$ by "s ( ! anci5t  writ]s1 reg>d$ 
by him z an elem5t4 ,! primitive        

sub/ance1 !  s\rce ( all ?+s1 :e!r fire1
 e>?1 air or wat]1 0 ! _w  ( homog5e\s  
atoms1 et]nal1 un*angeable4 ,fire1      
compos$ ( m9ute1  r\nd1 smoo? atoms1 01 
on acc\nt ( its mobility1 ! liv+ &  mov+
 pr9ciple ( nature1 ?\gh n ! direct     
cause (  motion4 ,b because ( ! fi]y1   
mobile nature ( its atoms1 !y  become a 
second>y cause ( additional motion1 f _!
 impact )  & recoil f less mobile atoms4
 ,s5sation & consci\sness are  possible 
because ( ! extreme mobility ( ! fi]y   
atoms4 ,!y are  ! 8s\l atoms10 b        
s5sibility & consci\sness arise only z !
  result ( relatively l>ge aggregations 
( ^! excessively m9ute  bodies4         
8,,efflu5ces0    ,9 ord] to acc\nt = !  
mutual action or influ5ce ( bodies ^u   
"o ano!r1 :5 sep>at$ by space1--!       
void1--! ,atomi/s _h  rec\rse to !      
,emp$oclean !ory ( 8efflu5ces10 or      
emanations1  :i* 7 suppos$ to be emitt$ 
by all bodies 7,ari/otle1  ,g5]atio et  
,corruptio1 i1 #h74 ,p5etrat+ ! organs (
 s5se1  !y excite ! appropriate         

s5sation1 &1 9 ! case ( ! bra91  !y     
produce images or ideas ( ?+s4 ,h5ce    
s5sation is ! only  possible s\rce ( k1 
! orig9 ( all ?\ght be+ !  passage ?r\gh
 ! s5se organs ( 8efflu5ces0 f ext]nal  
objects  or organisms1 act+ me*anically1
 by contact4    ,b :ile affirm+ t       
s5sation is ! s\rce ( all k1            
,democritus1 nev]!less1 agrees ) !      
,py?agoreans & ,socrates 9  reject+     
s5sation z su* z a s\rce ( k4 ,he       
di/+ui%es  betwe5 a 8ba/>d0 7skotie7 k  
obta9$ ?r\gh !  special s5ses & a       
true-born 7gnesie7 k1 obta9$ by         
direct-contact ( ext]nal atoms ) !      
body's 8s\l atoms40 ,^!  are n          
conc5trat$ 9 ! bra9 nor are !y dep5d5t  
^u !  organs ( s5se4 ,!y are diffus$    
?r\gh\t ! entire organism1 &  come into 
direct contact1 )\t ! int]v5tion ( !    
deceptive  s5se organs1 ) ! reality     
outside our body4    8,poor ,m9d10 he   
makes ! s5ses say 7,fragm5t #abe71 8x is
 f u  ?\ ha/ got ! pro(s to ?r[ u )4 ,?y
 ?r[ is a fall40#ba    ,z ,burnet po9ts 

out1 ! 8true-born k is ( ! same nature  
z ! 8ba/>d10 & 8,democritus refus$1 l   
,socrates1 to make an  absolute         
sep>ation betwe5 s5se & ?\ght10 ! =m]   
be+1  #8aft] all1 n ?\ght1 b a sort (   
inn] s5se1 & its objects are  l !       
#8common s5sibles' ( ,ari/otle4' ,9 !   
8ba/>d0 k1  ,democritus includ$ sight1  
he>+1 smell1 ta/e1 t\*4 8,true-born0  k 
0 obta9$ directly by ! diffus$ s\l atoms
 f !  ext]nal objects1 & ?us made !m    
kn[n z !y really are4 ,all  ph5om5a (   
life & m9d are due to ! motion ( !      
mobile fi]y  atoms4 ,ev5 :]e ,democritus
 speaks ( 8! ,div9e10 he means m]ely  ! 
fi]y s\l atoms2 n a p]sonal be+ ( any   
k9d4    ,:]e !re is a l>ge aggregation (
 ! s\l atoms1 !re reason  appe>s1 itself
 a physical ph5om5on4 ,democritus       
recogniz$ no  ,n\s 7,anaxagoras7 or     
,_w-,s\l 7,plato71 or ,deity            
7,ari/otle74  ,! only motive =ce ( ! _w 
is gravity1 ! s\l be+ a  second>y cause 
( motion only by virtue ( ! fi]y atoms' 
be+ mo/  easily mov$ by pressure &      

contact4 8,_s0 is 8only "o sub/ance     
mov+ side by side ) o!rs40#bb    ,e act 
( ! individual1 e occurr5ce 9 nature1   
has its  effici5t cause f :i* x foll[s  
by necessity--or1 z we %\ld  say1 "u    
natural law4 ,all *ange 9 ?+s mu/ be    
r$uc$ to an  alt]$ comb9ation (         
atoms--to new =ms & arrangem5ts 9 space1
  "u ! law ( 8necessity40    ,! s\l is  
mat]ial & disappe>s ) ! dis9tegration ( 
!  body1 ?\gh !re exi/ invisible be+s   
all ar\nd u 9 ! air4  ,b ^! invisible   
be+s are mat]ial bodies also1 compos$ ( 
!  f9e/ atoms4 ,at times !y project     
images ( !mselves :i* affect  our s\l   
atoms1 r5d]+ ^! a]ial be+s1 = ! "t1     
visible  bodies4      ,,footnotes3      
,footnote #ae3 ,lange1 ,fr$]ick ,alb]t4 
8,hi/ory ( ,mat]ialism10 ,vol4  ,i1     
,page #be1 ,london1 #ahib4    ,footnote 
#af3 ,t #dih seconds1 ov] eight m9utes1 
are requir$ =  ?is transmission ( light 
is a discov]y ( ! eighte5? c5tury4      
,footnote #ag3 ,lange1 ,op4 cit41 ,page 
#adb4    ,footnote #ah3 ,de ,caelo1 iii1

 #d2 ,g5]atio et ,corruptio1  i1 #ba2 & 
else:]e4    ,footnote #ai3 ,academica1  
ii1 #ch1 #aba4    ,footnote #bj3 ,r\gi]1
 ,l\is1 8,philosophy & ! ,new ,physics10
 ,pages  #g-h1 ,london1 #aibb4          
,footnote #ba3 ,burnet1 ,dr4 ,john1 ,op4
 cit41 ,page #aec2 & ,note #b1  ,page   
#aac4 ,dr4 ,burnet is ,pr(essor ( ,greek
 at ,/4 ,&rews ,univ]sity1  ,scotl&4    
,footnote #bb3 ,zell]1 ,op4 cit41 ,vol4 
,,ii1 ,page #bec4                       
,,*apt] ,,iv                            
,,epicurus ,,& ,,lucretius              
,,atoms ,,n ,,inf9ite ,,9 ,,v>iety      
,epicurus 7#cda-bgj ,b4 ,c47 agre$ )    
,democritus 9 assum+ t !  atoms are     
inf9ite 9 numb]1 b he d5i$ t !y 7       
inf9itely  v>i\s 9 %ape1 ?\gh _! v>iety 
( =m 0 conc$$ to be  v great1 "s smoo? &
 r\nd--l ! s\l atoms & ^? (  fire--"s   
r\gh & po9t$1 o!rs aga9 bran*$ or hook$4
 ,:ile  ! numb] ( =ms is limit$1 !re is 
an unlimit$ numb] ( ea*  =m4 ,none ( ^! 
v>i\sly =m$ atoms 0 ev] creat$1 & none  
c ev] be ei!r creat$ or de/roy$4 8,out (

 no?+1 no?+  comes40                    
,,_m ,,inhabit$ ,,worlds    ,s9ce space 
is inf9ite 9 ext5t & ! atoms inf9ite 9  
numb] z  well z v>i$ 9 %ape & weights1  
!re mu/ also be innum]able  inhabit$    
worlds 7z ass]t$ by ,democritus71       
display+ ! greate/  div]sity2 yet "s (  
!m may nev]!less be exactly alike1 s9ce 
l causes act+ ^u l bodies or complexes  
mu/ inevitably  produce l effects4      
,metrodorus1 ( ,*ios1 decl>$ t 8a s+le  
e> ( corn on a  wide-spread+ *ampaign   
w\ld n be m wond]ful ?an a s+le  cosmos 
9 ! inf9itude ( space40                 
,,man',s ,,greate/ ,,enemy    ,/udy (   
,democritus conv9c$ ,epicurus t !       
greate/ enemy (  mank9d is sup]/ition1  
fe> ( imag9>y gods & ( puni%m5t         
h]eaft]1 mak+ ( man a m5tal slave4      
,epicurus 0 n a lov]  ( sci5ce =        
sci5ce's sake4 ,he reg>d$ its pursuit z 
hav+ no  great] ju/ification ?an t ?r\gh
 reason+ & obs]vation x  w\ld free      
mank9d f ! fett]s ( sup]naturalism1 ?us 
leav+  an op5 road to peace & happ9ess4 

,pleasure is ! highe/ good1 &  ! highe/ 
=m ( pleasure is d]iv$ f cultivation (  
our m5tal  faculties4    8,protect$ z x 
0 by ! emp]ors1 ! 7,epicurean7 s*ool    
de/roy$  :at rema9$ ( ! crumbl+ edifice 
( poly!ism1 & at ! same  "t attack$ !   
new religion & ! sup]natural            
,*ri/ian40#bc                           
,,on ,,! ,,gods    ,9 support+ 8 atomic 
!ory ( cosmology1 biology & e?ics1 9    
refutation ( ! !ological hypo!ses ( !   
,platoni/s & !  ,/oics1 bas$1 !y claim$1
 ^u 8a /udy ( nature & ! laws  ( logic10
 ,epicurus (f]$ :at he reg>d$ z logical 
evid5ce  aga9/ ! doctr9e t ! _w 0 ev]   
creat$ or t x is !  product ( b5efic5t  
design4 ,pr(essor ,web] summ$ up !      
doctr9e  ( ,epicurus1 z d]iv$ f ! writ+s
 ( ! ,poet1 ,lucretius2  ! biograph]1   
,diog5es ,la]tius2 & o!r au?ors ( lives 
( !  philosoph]s ( anci5t ,greece1 9 !  
foll[+ words 7translat$  by ,dr4 ,frank 
,?illy1 ,pr(essor ( ,philosophy 9 !     
,univ]sity (  ,miss\ri73    8,! absolute
 creation & absolute de/ruction ( ! _w  

are  accord+ to bo? ,democritus &       
,epicurus out ( ! "q4  ,creation 9 !    
prop] s5se ( ! t]m is impossible4 ,9    
ord] to  conv9ce ourselves t ! _w is n !
 "w ( ! gods1 we h  simply to consid] ! 
nature ( its alleg$ creators1 on ! "o   
h&1 & its imp]fections1 on ! o!r4 ,:y   
%\ld su* p]fect &  supremely happy be+s1
 :o are self-suffici5t & h no ne$ (     
any?+1 burd5 !mselves ) creat+ ! _w8 ,:y
 %\ld !y  und]take ! difficult task (   
gov]n+ ! univ]se8    8,let u1 h[ev]1    
suppose = a mom5t t ! _w is _! product4 
,if !y h creat$ x1 !y h creat$ x ei!r   
et]nally or 9  "t2 9 ! =m] case1 ! _w is
 et]nal2 9 ! latt] we h  two            
possibilities3 ei!r creation is a       
condition ( div9e happ9ess1  & !n ! gods
 7 n supremely happy = an entire        
et]nity1  inasmu* z !y did n create ! _w
 until aft] ! lapse ( an  et]nity (     
inaction2 or1 x is n1 & 9 t case1 !y h  
act$  contr>y to _! inn]mo/ ess5ce4     
,moreov]1 :at c\ld h be5  _! purpose 9  
mak+ x8 ,did !y desire a habitation8 ,t 

w\ld  be equival5t to say+ t !y _h no   
dwell+-place = a :ole  et]nity1 or at   
lea/1 none wor?y ( !m4 ,did !y create x 
= !  sake ( man8 ,if !y made x = ! few  
sages :om ! _w conta9s1  _! "w 0 n wor? 
! tr\ble2 if !y did x 9 ord] to  create 
wick$ m51 !n !y are cruel be+s4 ,h5ce x 
is absolutely  impossible to hold t     
creation is ! "w ( ! gods4    8,let u   
exam9e ! matt] f ! /&-po9t ( ! _w4 ,h[ c
  we assume t a _w full ( evils is !    
creation ( ! gods8 ,:at  h we8 ,b>r5    
des]ts1 arid m\nta9s1 deadly m>%es1     
un9habitable  arctic zones1 regions     
scor*$ by ! s\!rn sun1 bri>s & ?orns1   
tempe/s1 hail/ones & hurricanes1 f]oci\s
 bea/s1 diseases1  premature dea?s2 d !y
 n all prove t ! ,deity has no h&  9 !  
gov]nm5t ( ?+s8 ,empty space1 atoms &   
weight1 9 %ort1  me*anical causes1      
suffice to expla9 ! _w2 & x is n        
necess>y = metaphysics to h rec\rse to !
 !ory ( f9al  causes40#bd    ,j z       
a/rologi/s blame ! />s = ! individual's 
%ort-com+s--:ile at ! same "t hold+ on  

to ! doctr9e  ( free w1 by assur+ u t 8!
 />s incl9e b d n  compel0--& cr$it !   
a/ral bodies = 8 good traits &          
successes1 exactly s ! anci5t ,greeks   
plac$ responsibility  = man's           
d]elictions & mis=tunes--z well z = 8   
happy  a*ievem5ts--on ! gods4 ,m9]va's  
influ5ce end[$ ! individual  )          
intellig5ce2 ,v5us infus$ ! passion (   
love2 ,apollo  disp]s$ manly beauty1    
heal? & happ9ess2 ,m>s involv$ peoples  
9 w>s2 :ile ,m]cury 0 ! god ( ma!matics1
 inv5tions1  bus9ess transactions1 etc4 
,)\t d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( !  gods1          
,epicurus1 z we h se51 did seek to %[ t 
! ,olympian  div9ities 7 n 9 any way    
conc]n$ ) t]re/rial affairs4#be    ,?\gh
 ! gods are dead1 we _c yet say1 )      
,h5ley1        ,i am ! capta9 ( my s\l1 
,i am ! ma/] ( my fate4    ,= mod]n man 
has )9 8 own physiological 8_w0 real    
sub/itutes = ! imag9>y gods ( ,olympus1 
:i* really 8incl9e0  if !y 8d n compel10
 8behavior40 ,:ile ! gods h be5 all  b  
=gott51 & ! 8fateful0 />s h be5 r$uc$ to

 va/  inc&esc5t masses ( helium1        
hydrog51 calcium1 iron1 etc41 !         
endocr9e 7ductless7 gl&s /ill l>gely    
control or alt] p]sonality2  ?\gh ^!    
bodies are b con/ellations ( atomic     
sy/ems1 )  electrons = sun & planets1   
ea* revolv+ 9 an all b inscrutable      
cosmos ( its own4    ,^! /ill my/]i\s   
gl&s are today ! real 8a/ral            
influ5ces0--act+ "u 8necessity0--:i*    
conf] ^u u manly  beauty & intellig5ce1 
or1 p]haps1 a dw>f$ body & an imbecilic 
bra94 ,! pituit>y body1 orig9at+ t5s (  
millions ( ye>s ago  9 ! ro( ( ! m\? (  
"s l[ly *ordate 7lancelet /age71  9     
,cambrian times1 & n[ atta*$ to ! base (
 man's bra91 has  tak5 ! place ( ,m9]va 
& ,apollo2 ! gonads & ! ?ymus  h absorb$
 ! functions ( ,v5us2 ! adr5als1 !      
combative  8influ5ce0 ( ,m>s2 :ile !    
?yroid makes ( u--or 8incl9es0 u to     
become--poets1 radicals1                
8up-lift]s10--or maybe1 m]e lov]s ( !   
lime light6#bf    ,surely ?is "*-build+ 
8by necessity0 w\ld h delight$ !  s\l ( 

,democritus & br\ght joy to ! he>t ( 8  
great disciple  ,epicurus1 :o introduc$ 
an elem5t ( *ance into ,atomism only to 
bridge :at 0 to him an impassable gulf  
betwe5 ! laws ( me*anics  & obs]v$      
ph5om5a4    ,?is insi/5ce ( ! anci5t    
,atomi/s on ! necessity ( attempt+  to  
acc\nt = all natural ph5om5a z ! result 
( uni=m1  immutable1 univ]sal           
8necessity0 or law is "o ( ! greate/    
conceptions h&$ d[n to u f antiquity--a 
monum5t to !  human m9d equall$ only by 
! attempt to correlate all qualitative  
diff]5ces ( sub/ances 7atoms7 )         
diff]5ces ( size1 %ape &  position 9    
space 7) relation to "o ano!r7 & )      
movem5t4    ,gomp]tz does n hesitate to 
decl>e t ?is gr& "w ( !  anci5t ,atomi/s
 8is de/9$ to survive all *anges (      
op9ion &  ?\ght40 ,fur!rmore1 all exact 
k ( nature 8re/s entirely  on ?is       
attempt to r$uce qualities to           
quantities1 or1 to speak m  precisely1  
to e/abli% fix$ relations betwe5 ! two4 
,ma!matical  physics 0 conta9$ !re z 9 a

 g]m1 & mod]n rese>* took  its />t+-po9t
 !nce4 ,galileo1 ,desc>tes1 ,huyg5s1--!y
 all  foll[$ ! same pa?4 #8,i d n       
believe1' decl>$ ,galileo1 #8t  any?+   
else is requir$ ?an magnitudes1 %apes1  
quantities1 & sl[  movem5ts or swift1 to
 produce 9 u ta/es1 smell1 s\nds4'0#bg  
,,footnotes3    ,footnote #bc3 ,web]1   
,alfr$1 8,hi/ory ( ,philosophy10 ,page  
#aci4    ,footnote #bd3 ,web]1 ,op4     
,cit41 ,pages #acf-acg4 ,epicurus 0 !   
au?or ( ab\t ?ree hundr$ writ+s1 accord+
 to ,diog5es ,la]tius1  b only 8        
,lett]s1 pres]v$ by ?is hi/orian1 &     
fragm5ts ( a  "w discov]$ at ,h]culaneum
 rema94 ,= ! re/ we are dep5d5t  on !   
resume pres5t$ by ,lucretius & !        
quotations f\nd  9 ,greek au?ors4 ,z    
,web] rem>ks 7,page #ace71 8nei!r       
poly!ism nor  ,*ri/ianity _h any int]e/ 
9 pres]v+ 8 num]\s writ+s40    ,footnote
 #be3 ,lange express$ ! op9ion t        
,epicurus really believ$  9 ! exi/5ce ( 
! gods1 rev]5c$ !m = _! p]fection3  8^! 
c>eless & pa9less gods did 9 fact       

repres5t1 z x 71  an inc>nat$ ideal ( 8 
philosophy0 7,op4 ,cit41 ,vol4 ,i1 ,page
  #aja47    ,footnote #bf3 ,see ,b]man1 
,dr4 ,l\is1 8,! ,gl&s ,regulat+         
,p]sonality10 ,new ,york1 #aibb2        
,cunn+ham1 ,j4 ,t41 8,hormones &        
,h]$ity10 ,london4 #aibb4    ,footnote  
#bg3 ,gomp]tz1 ,op4 cit41 ,page #cdi4   
,,*apt] ,v                              
,,po/-,,classical ,,atomism      ,! two 
pr9cipal l9ks 9 ! *a9 :i* b9ds ! _w ( ! 
anci5t ,greek 7& "o ,roman7 ,atomi/s )  
^? ( our own  times are ,desc>tes       
7#aeif-afej7 & ,gass5di 7#aeib-afee74   
,gass5di  reviv$ & ably support$ !      
atomic !ory ( ,epicurus2 :ile  ,desc>tes
 resuscitat$ ! me*ani/ic conceptions ( !
 ,greek  ,atomi/s on ! basis ( a        
corpuscul> !ory ( matt]1 correspond+  9 
_m respects to ! doctr9e ( ,democritus4 
,! "w ( ,leucippus connects ?r\gh       
,desc>tes & ,gass5di1 ,huyg5s1  ,boyle &
 ,newton1 directly ) t ( ,higg9s &      
,dalton1 f\nd]s (  ! mod]n *emical      
atomic !ory4    ,dalton _h already      

adopt$ a physical atomic !ory1 bas$ no  
d\bt on  ! "w ( 8 illu/ri\s pr$ecessors1
 & ^u 8 own ?or\gh  /udy ( ! gases ( !  
atmosph]e1 be=e he =mulat$ 8 *emical    
atomic hypo!sis4 ,he oppos$ ! prevail+  
belief t ! v>i\s  gases exi/ 9 !        
atmosph]e 9 a /ate ( *emical comb9ation1
  ass]t+ t ! atmosph]e is a physical    
mixture4    ,9 #ahje1 he ext5d$ 8 atomic
 hypo!sis to ! explanation (  *emical   
ph5om5a4 ,8 fir/ po/ulate 01 ( c\rse1 t 
all  matt] is made up ( small p>ticles2 
^! he f\nd possess$ !  p[] ( attract+ 7&
 hold+7 o!r p>ticles4 ,he !re=e         
conclud$ t ^! invisible p>ticles nev]   
subdivide 9 tak+ "p  9 *emical *anges1 &
 t all atoms ( any "o elem5t mu/ be     
alike4 ,b ! atoms ( ! diff]5t elem5ts   
v>y 9 weight1 =m &  comb9+ p[]4 ,he     
e/abli%$ ! rule1 already assum$ by      
,william  ,higg9s 7#aghi71 t diff]5t    
atoms t5d to comb9e 9 ! proportion  (   
atom to atom4    ,:5 a comp\nd 0 compos$
 ( two elem5ts only1 x 0 presum$ to  be 
b9>y2 t is1 s9ce wat]1 = example1 0 kn[n

 to be compos$  ( hydrog5 & oxyg51 x 0  
suppos$ by ,dalton t x mu/  consi/ ( "o 
atom ( ea* ( ^! elem5ts2 z 0 also assum$
 9  ! case ( ammonia1 :i* he knew to be 
a comb9ation ( hydrog5 &  nitrog54 ,n[  
we "k t "o atom ( hydrog5 comb9$ ) "o   
atom  ( oxyg5 =ms1 n wat]1 b oxide (    
hydrog52 :ile ! comb9+  ( two atoms (   
hydrog5 ) "o atom ( oxyg5 =ms wat]4     
,dalton e/abli%$ ! fact t elem5ts comb9e
 only 9 def9ite  proportions--e4g41 t   
oxyg5 & hydrog5 w comb9e only 9  !      
proportion ( #h to #a4 ,_h ,dalton kn[n 
t a molecule  ( wat] conta9s two atoms (
 hydrog51 & "o (  oxyg51 he w\ld h kn[n 
t "o atom ( oxyg5 mu/ weigh  sixte5     
times--in/ead ( eight times--z mu* z "o 
atom (  hydrog54 ,"o "p ( hydrog5 by    
weight does comb9e  ) eight p>ts by     
weight ( oxyg51 b ?is does n prove  t ! 
portion ( hydrog5 9 wat] conta9s only "o
 atom4 ,s9ce  x conta9s two atoms1      
in/ead ( "o1 !n1 9 ord] to pres]ve !    
relative comb9+ 7or 8equival5t07 weights
 ( ! two sub/ances1  we mu/ assume t !  

atomic weight ( oxyg5 is #af1 =  !      
comb9+ weights ( elem5ts repres5t !     
relative 7n  actual7 weights ( ! atoms4 
,& ea* elem5t has its own fix$  comb9+  
weight1 asc]ta9$ by exp]im5t4    ,wat]1 
!n1 is n a m]e mixture or comb9ation (  
hydrog5 &  oxyg51 9 ! s5se t a p\nd (   
hydrog5 & eight & a  half p\nds ( oxyg5 
w1 :5 explod$1 produce #i p\nds (  wat]4
 ,comb9ation w\ld inde$ be effect$1 b   
!re w\ld be a  residue 9 ! conta9] ( j  
"o-half p\nd ( oxyg54 ,! mass (  oxyg5 t
 has comb9$ w weigh exactly eight times 
z mu* z !  hydrog52 & n[ we "k t ! wat] 
=m$ w conta9 exactly  twice z _m atoms (
 hydrog5 z !re are oxyg5 atoms pres5t 9 
! comb9ation1 unit+ n only 8"o by "o10  
b1 9 ?is case1 two  to "o4 ,:at ! law ( 
def9ite proportions proves is t *emical 
comb9ations always take place betwe5    
atoms4    ,b !re is also a law (        
multiple proportions4 ,x is  f\nd t :5  
"o elem5t =ms m ?an "o comp\nd ) a      
second elem5t1 ! quantities ( ! fir/    
elem5t :i* comb9e  ) ! comb9+ weight ( !

 second elem5t are always simple        
multiples--nev] fractions--( ! comb9+   
weight ( ! fir/  elem5t4    ,we h se5 t 
! atomic weight ( oxyg5 is #af--;i4e41  
#af  times heavi] ?an ! lighte/ elem5t1 
hydrog51 :i* is !re=e  7on ! relative   
scale ( atomic weights7 #a4 ,b ! comb9+ 
weight ( oxyg5 is #h--;i4e41 eight p>ts 
( oxyg5 w comb9e  ) s _m p>ts 7comb9+   
weight7 ( "s o!r elem5t4 ,suppose  we   
take = example nitrog54 ,n[ ! comb9+    
weight (  nitrog5 is #ad1 & its atomic  
weight is also #ad4 ,f\rte5 p>ts  (     
nitrog5 w comb9e !re=e ) eight p>ts (   
oxyg54 ,b  f\rte5 p>ts ( nitrog5 w also 
comb9e ) f\r simple multiples  ( eight  
p>ts ( oxyg51 =m+ 9 all five diff]5t    
comp\nd  sub/ances4 ,= example3     #ad 
p>ts ( nitrog5 comb9e ) #af or #bx#h    
p>ts ( oxyg54     #ad p>ts ( nitrog5    
comb9e ) #bd or #cx#h p>ts ( oxyg54     
#ad p>ts ( nitrog5 comb9e ) #cb or #dx#h
 p>ts ( oxyg54     #ad p>ts ( nitrog5   
comb9e ) #dj or #ex#h p>ts ( oxyg54     
,john ,dalton advanc$ a !ory            

satisfactorily to expla9 :y 9           
successive comp\nds ! am\nt ( oxyg5 goes
 up 9 jumps1 & :y  ?is jump 9 ea* case  
is equival5t to ! comb9+ weight ( oxyg54
  ,! regul> jumps 9 ! case ( ! five     
nitrog5 comp\nds simply  mean t "o m    
atom has ent]$1 9 ea* successive case1  
into  comb9ation4 ,^! comb9+ weights1 z 
we h se51 simply repres5t  ! relative   
weights ( ! v>i\s elem5ts4 8,atomic     
weight0 is m]ely  ! "n giv5 by ,dalton  
to ! relative comb9+ weights ( !  atoms4
 ,he _h no in=mation z to h[ _m atoms   
actually comb9e 9  mak+ a comp\nd1 mu*  
less ( ! actual weight ( ! s+le atoms  (
 ! elem5ts4    ,nor did he "k :y atoms  
comb9e at all1 9 any proportions1  b1   
be+ a ?or\gh-go+ ,newtonian1 bo? 8      
physical !ory &  8 *emical !ory h a     
common basis 9 ,newton's doctr9e (      
mutually repulsive atoms4 ,if an elem5t 
,a unites ) an elem5t ,b1 !  repulsion (
 ! atoms ( ,b f "o ano!r mu/ t5d1 he    
?\ght1 to  ! =mation ( a b9>y comp\nd4  
8,b9>y comp\nds mu/ fir/ be  =m$1 !n    

t]n>y1 & s on1 till ! repulsion ( !     
atoms ( ,b  refuses to admit any m40#bh 
,:ile we h travel$ q a di/ance 9 atomic 
& *emical !ory  s9ce ! days ( ,john     
,dalton 7#agff-ahdd71 x is to ! ev]la/+ 
cr$it ( ?is 7at ! "t7 obscure &         
pov]ty-/rick5 tea*]  ( ma!matics &      
physics t he gave u1 9 #ahjh1 8,a new   
,sy/em  ( ,*emical ,philosophy0 :i*     
unites ! atomic !ory ( mod]n  sci5ce1   
fir/ advanc$ by 8 admir]s &             
contempor>ies1 ,b>on ,j4 ,j4  ,b]zelius 
7#aggi-ahdh7 & ,sir ,humphrey ,davy     
7#aggh-ahbi74    ,little did ,dalton    
dream t ! 8atomic weight0 ( ! elem5ts is
  equival5t to ! numb] ( electrons 9 ea*
 atom ( a giv5  sub/ance6#bi ,or t !    
atomic numb] ( an elem5t1 arrang$       
7successively7 9 ! ord] ( _! atomic     
weights1 f #a  7hydrog57 to #ib         
7uranium71 is an index to ! numb] (     
positive  electrical *>ges on ! atomic  
nucleus1 ar\nd :i* revolve  9 8planet>y 
orbits0 an equival5t numb] ( negatively 
*>g$  electrons--! real build+-/ones ( !

 ,univ]se4      ,,footnotes3            
,footnote #bh3 ,ni*olson's ,j\rnal1 #bi1
 #adg1 #ahaa4    ,footnote #bi3 ,on ?is 
po9t1 see ,lodge1 ,sir ,oliv]1 8,)9 !   
,atom10  ,sci5tific ,am]ican1 ,novemb]1 
#aibc4                                  
,,transcrib]',s ,,notes      ,simple    
typographical errors h be5 sil5tly      
correct$2 unbalanc$  quotation m>ks 7   
rem$i$ :5 ! *ange 0 obvi\s1 &  o!rwise  
left unbalanc$4    ,punctuation1        
hyph5ation1 spell+ & ligatures 7 made   
consi/5t  :5 a pr$om9ant pref]5ce 0 f\nd
 9 ! orig9al book2 o!rwise  !y 7 n      
*ang$4    ,! v]ses ( ! ,invictus poem h 
be5 left z !y are 9 !  pr9t$ v]sion4 ,a 
,table ( ,cont5ts has be5 add$4