,,sons ,,of ,,the ,,isles4 ,there is a spell woven by restless seas1 ,a secret charm that haunts our ,island air1 ,holding our hearts and following everywhere ,the wandering children of the ,orcades2 ,and still1 when sleep the prisoned spirit frees1 ,what dim void wastes1 what strange dark seas we dare1 ,till where the dear green ,isles shine low and fair ,we moor in dreams beside familiar quays4 ,sons of the ,isles6 though ye may roam afar1 ,still on your lips the salt sea spray is stinging1 ,still in your hearts the winds of youth are singing2 ,though in heavens grown familiar to your eyes ,the ,southern ,cross is gleaming1 for old skies ,your hearts are fain and for the ,northern ,star4 ,,duncan ,j4 ,,robertson 78,chambers's ,journal40 ,by permission47 ,illustration3 8,the wonder and the glory of all the ,north0 7p4 #fi74 ,illustration ,the ,orkney ,book ,readings for ,young ,orcadians ,compiled and ,edited by ,john ,gunn1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,sc4 ,author of 8,sons of the ,vikings10 8,the ,boys of ,hamnavoe10 etc4 ,thomas ,nelson ,sons1 ,ltd4 ,london1 ,edinburgh1 and ,new ,york ,,preface4 ,this is a book about ,orkney1 for use in ,orkney1 designed and for the most part written by natives of ,orkney4 ,it owes its origin to the ,edinburgh ,university ,orcadian ,association1 the members of which realized the desirability of preparing for use in the schools of ,orkney a book adapted to the special conditions of the ,islands4 ,educationists now recognize that ,knowledge ought1 like ,charity1 to 8begin at home30 this is true of every branch of knowledge--history1 geography1 literature1 and the rest4 ,they might even adopt with an educational reference the saying of the wise man1 8,wisdom is before him that hath understanding2 but the eyes of a fool are in the ends of the earth40 ,an attempt has accordingly been made in this book to present to the young folks of ,orkney a general view of their homeland1 some description of its past and its present1 and some knowledge of its naturalistic and its humanistic aspects1 with the object of awakening their interest in their own ,islands1 in order that from this centre their knowledge may advance the more surely to the sweep of a wider horizon4 ,for1 like ,charity again1 while ,knowledge must begin at home1 it must not remain at home4 ,while the scope of the book is wide1 the treatment of each class of subjects is necessarily suggestive rather than exhaustive4 ,all that is possible within the limits of a single small volume is to present illustrative specimens rather than a complete collection of studies4 ,hence there is abundant opportunity for the teacher to supplement the book by specializing in one direction or in another according to individual preference4 ,the aim has been rather to supply the irreducible minimum1 suitable to all1 in the hope that the book may find its way into every school in the county1 and be read by every ,orkney boy and girl before their schooldays are over4 ,the ,committee of the ,edinburgh ,university ,orcadian ,association who have superintended the issue of the book acknowledge gratefully the courtesy with which copyright material has been placed at their disposal4 ,they wish to record their obligations to the ,controller of ,his ,majesty's ,stationery ,office1 to ,messrs4 ,j4 ,m4 ,dent and ,co41 ,messrs4 ,longmans1 ,green1 and ,co41 ,messrs4 ,macmillan and ,co41 ,messrs4 ,w4 and ,r4 ,chambers1 and the ,walter ,scott ,publishing ,company1 for the use of the extracts to which their names are respectively appended1 and to ,messrs4 ,thomas ,nelson and ,sons for much copyright material1 including numerous illustrations4 ,they also desire to express their thanks to the ,honourable ,mrs4 ,john ,dundas of ,papdale1 and to ,messrs4 ,duncan ,j4 ,robertson1 ,j4 ,storer ,clouston1 and ,edmund ,selous for literary contributions which are in themselves sufficient to give a high value to the collection1 as well as to place on record their indebtedness to the late ,mr4 ,james ,tomison for the article on 8,the ,birds of ,sule ,skerry40 ,the matter contained in the unsigned articles has been contributed by many ,orcadians1 specialists in their several departments1 whose names are sufficient guarantee for accuracy--,messrs4 ,james ,w4 ,cursiter1 ,f4,s4,a4,scot41 for ,archology1 including illustrations2 ,james ,drever1 ,m4,a41 for ,norse history and language2 ,john ,tait1 ,m4,d41 ,d4,sc41 for ,zoology2 ,john ,s4 ,flett1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,sc41 for ,geology2 ,magnus ,spence1 ,f4,e4,i4,s41 for ,meteorology and ,botany2 ,john ,garrioch1 ,m4,a41 for ,seaweeds2 ,john ,w4 ,bews1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 and ,george ,w4 ,scarth1 ,m4,a41 for botanical and descriptive material2 ,robert ,c4 ,wallace1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 for descriptive material2 and ,john ,gunn 7,kirkwall7 for the list of ,orkney birds in the ,appendix4 ,as regards the artistic features of the book1 special acknowledgment is due to ,messrs4 ,thomas ,kent1 for his generosity in placing at the disposal of the ,editor the whole of his unique collection of ,orkney views1 all the photographs reproduced being from his studio1 with three or four exceptions2 ,t4 ,marjoribanks ,hay1 ,r4,s4,w41 for his drawing of ,st4 ,magnus ,church1 ,egilsay2 ,stanley ,cursiter1 for the decorative initial letters1 the title-page1 and the cover design2 and ,miss ,rose ,leith1 for the border designs of the grouped photographs2 and to ,j4 ,g4 ,bartholomew1 ,,ll4,d41 for the two-page map of the county4 ,finally1 the thanks of the ,committee are due to the generous and patriotic friends1 among whom special mention ought to be made of the ,glasgow ,orkney and ,shetland ,literary and ,scientific ,association1 whose donations of money have enabled them to produce this book1 for a volume whose circulation must necessarily be limited to a small area could be issued at so low a price only on condition of the initial cost of manufacture being met by those interested in its production4 ,the ,editor1 who must accept responsibility for the general scope and plan of the book1 as well as for the actual form and part of the contents of the unsigned articles1 desires personally to acknowledge the valuable assistance he has received from the members of the ,committee1 especially ,dr4 ,john ,tait and ,mr4 ,james ,drever1 and from the other friends who have helped by their sympathetic criticism and advice1 to all of whom1 as well as to himself1 the work has been in every sense a labour of love2 and he ventures to express the hope that the results of that work1 as here visible1 may find favour in the sight of all young ,orcadians1 and of many who are no longer young4 ,j4 ,,gunn4 ,,edinburgh1 #aiji4 ,,contents4 ,page ,part ,i4--,the ,story of the ,past4 ,prehistoric ,orkney1 #i ,the ,beginnings of our ,history1 #ah ,the ,norsemen and their ,sagas1 #bc ,the ,beginning of the ,earldom1 #cb ,the ,dark ,century1 #dj ,earl ,thorfinn and ,earl ,rognvald1 #ed ,the ,slaying of ,earl ,magnus1 #ei ,the ,founding of ,st4 ,magnus ,cathedral1 #fg ,the ,jorsalafarers1 #gd ,sweyn ,asleifson1 the ,last of the ,vikings1 #ij ,the ,decay of the ,earldom and the ,end of the ,western ,kingdom1 #ig ,the ,annexation to ,scotland1 #aje ,udal and ,feudal1 #aaj ,the ,stewart ,earls1 #aae ,the ,eighteenth and ,nineteenth ,centuries1 #abj ,part ,,ii4--,the ,isles and the ,folk4 ,a ,survey of the ,islands3 ,on ,wideford ,hill1 #abi ,among the ,north ,isles1 #acd ,among the ,south ,isles1 #adf ,round the ,mainland3 ,first ,day1 #aed ,second ,day1 #aeh ,third ,day1 #aff ,fourth ,day1 #agb ,sketches by ,hugh ,miller3 ,the ,dwarfie ,stone1 #agi ,the ,standing ,stones1 #ahd ,the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,magnus1 #aij ,a ,road in ,orcady1 #bjf ,a ,loch in ,orcady1 #bai ,among the ,kelpers1 #bbg ,a ,whale-hunt in ,orkney1 #bdb ,articles made of ,straw1 #bdh ,the ,weather of ,orkney1 #bee ,the ,place-,names of ,orkney1 #bfc ,part ,,iii4--,nature ,lore4 ,the ,story of the ,rocks3 8,sermons in ,stones10 #bga 8,books in the ,running ,brooks10 #bgf ,cliffs and ,beaches1 #bhd ,the ,age of ,ice1 #bhi ,orkney ,fossils1 #bib ,a ,peat-,moss1 #bif ,some ,common ,weeds1 #cje ,home ,life on the ,rocks3 ,guillemots1 #cab ,seals1 #cag ,shags1 #cbj ,the ,birds of ,sule ,skerry1 #cbh ,the ,residenters1 #ccj ,the ,regular ,visitors1 #ccd ,occasional ,visitors1 #cdf ,common ,seaweeds1 #ceb ,crabs1 #cfa ,hoppers and ,sholties1 #cgb ,sea-,anemones1 #cgh ,part ,,iv4--,legend and ,lay4 ,the ,old ,gods1 #chc ,a ,vanishing ,island1 #cia ,helen ,waters3 a ,legend of ,sule ,skerry1 #cif ,a ,legend of ,boray ,island1 #djc ,songs of the ,gods3 ,the ,challenge of ,thor1 #djh ,tegner's ,drapa1 #dji ,the ,song of ,harold ,harfager1 #dab ,king ,hacon's ,last ,battle1 #dad ,the ,death of ,haco1 #daf ,the ,old ,man of ,hoy1 #dbj ,orkney1 #dbb ,scenes from 8,the ,buccaneer03 ,night2 ,morning1 #dcj ,to ,orkney1 #dcb ,the ,temple of ,nature1 #dcc ,appendices4 ,appendix ,i4--,chronology of ,orcadian ,history to the ,end of the ,earldom1 with ,related ,contemporary ,events1 #dce ,appendix ,,ii4--,norse ,words in ,orkney ,place-,names1 #dci ,appendix ,,iii4--,list of ,birds found in ,orkney1 #dda ,appendix ,,iv4--,books for ,further ,study1 #ddc ,,the ,,orkney ,,book4 ,part ,i4--,the ,story of the ,past4 ,,prehistoric ,,orkney4 ,at what period of the world's history were our islands first inhabited1 and who were their first inhabitants8 ,these are questions which we cannot now answer4 ,history is always made before it is written1 and long ages must have passed in the history of these islands before any written records began to be kept4 ,yet there are some records of that dim1 forgotten past1 which patient research has gathered together1 and which can be made to tell us a few fragments of our ,island story4 ,if we look into one of the museums where relics of the past are preserved1 we may find such things as flint arrow-heads and knives1 stone axes and hammers1 bronze spear-heads1 and other tools and weapons of the early inhabitants of our islands4 ,these silent witnesses tell us a little about what manner of men they were1 and how they lived their long-forgotten lives4 ,the use of stone implements marks a very primitive stage of life1 yet one which may not be entirely savage4 ,there are tribes now living which are still in their ,stone ,age4 ,a recent traveller tells of having seen an inhabitant of the ,south ,american ,andes skin a hare very neatly with a small flint knife4 ,this knife is now in ,kirkwall1 and is precisely similar to many which have been dug up in ,orkney4 ,illustration3 ,flint ,arrow-heads and ,knives4 ,flint is not a common stone in the ,orkney ,islands4 ,it is found in occasional lumps and pebbles among the clay which has been carried from other places by the glaciers and icebergs of the ,ice ,age4 ,flint is common in the southern parts of ,great ,britain1 however1 and the arrows and knives found in our islands may have been brought from the south1 or the art of making them may have been learned from tribes among whom flint was a more common material4 ,this kind of stone1 the fine steel of the ,stone ,age1 was used for small implements over a wide area of the world4 ,illustration3 ,stone ,hammers and ,axes4 ,orkney must have had a large population in those early days4 ,the number of ancient graves which have been found seems to indicate this1 especially if we suppose that most of those graves with their heaped-up mounds are the resting-places of chiefs and great men rather than of the common people4 ,the graves which remain are of varied types1 from the simple cist of upright stones roofed with horizontal slabs and covered with earth1 to the large mound with its carefully built chambers4 ,the variety of the objects found in those graves1 from the rudest flint and bone implements to those which are carefully finished1 and finally to objects made of metal1 shows that the burials belong to different periods4 ,they tell us of long ages of increasing though now forgotten civilization4 ,some of the mounds1 indeed1 show by their contents that they cover the remains1 not of the original and unknown inhabitants1 but of the ,norse conquerors1 and thus really belong to the period whose history has come down to us in writing4 ,but in the very mound where the ,norse warrior was laid to rest1 there are sometimes also found the relics of burials of a much ruder age4 ,such mingling of the materials of our unwritten history makes the story which they tell a very difficult one to read4 ,there are few remains in our islands more striking than the chambered mounds1 or ,picts' houses1 as they are called4 ,the most complete and probably the most recent of them is that known as ,maeshowe4 ,they consist of a mound of earth heaped over a rude building1 sometimes of one apartment1 but frequently of several1 the entrance being a long1 low1 narrow passage1 through which it is necessary to stoop or crawl in order to gain an entrance4 ,possibly those ,picts' houses were built at first as houses to dwell in1 though later used as tombs4 ,it is not uncommon to-day to find buildings used for burial which were designed for other purposes4 ,if ever our race and all its records were to vanish as completely as the primitive inhabitants of the ,orkney ,islands have done1 we can imagine some future explorer of the ruins of ,st4 ,magnus ,cathedral writing a learned treatise to prove that the largest building in our islands was erected as a burial-place for our dead4 ,those mound dwellings1 or ,picts' houses1 may seem to us a very strange form of house to live in4 ,where can we find to-day houses of such a type1 and with so very inconvenient a form of entrance8 ,the ,eskimos1 as travellers tell us1 are in the habit of building just such houses with blocks of snow1 and they find this the best type in the extreme cold of their ,arctic climate4 ,possibly the ,picts' house type of dwelling was used in ,orkney and in other places for similar reasons4 ,illustration3 ,polished ,stone ,celts4 ,the brochs1 or ,pictish towers1 as they are also called1 are buildings of a different kind1 which are also fairly common in ,orkney4 ,they are probably of later date than the ,picts' houses4 ,considerable skill1 as well as co-operation in labour1 must have been required for their erection4 ,the most complete broch in existence is that of ,mousa in ,shetland4 ,of those which are found in ,orkney1 only the lower portions now remain4 ,over seventy such ruins have been examined1 the best specimens being in ,evie 7,burgar71 ,birsay 7,oxtro71 ,harray1 ,firth 7,ingashowe and ,stirlinghowe71 ,st4 ,ola 7,birstane and ,lingro71 ,st4 ,andrews 7,dingishowe and ,langskaill71 ,burray 7,east and ,west ,brough71 ,south ,ronaldsay 7,hoxa71 ,shapinsay 7,borrowston71 and ,stronsay 7,lamb ,head74 ,illustration3 ,plan of ,chambered ,mound1 ,wideford ,hill4 b1 ,entrance4 c1 ,blind ,passage4 ,illustration3 ,chambered ,mound1 ,wideford ,hill4 ,section on line a1 a of plan4 ,the typical broch is a large round tower1 fifty or sixty feet in diameter1 and probably as much in height4 ,the wall is about fifteen feet thick1 and solid at the base1 except for some vaulted chambers which are made in it4 ,higher1 the wall is hollow1 or rather consists of an outer and an inner wall1 with a space of four or five feet between them4 ,this space is divided into a number of stories or galleries by horizontal courses of long slabs of stone1 which form the roof of one story and the floor of that above it1 and at the same time bind the two walls firmly together4 ,a stairway gives access to the various stories1 and light is admitted by small windows opening into the interior space of the tower1 no windows being made in the outer wall4 ,a single door in the lower wall forms the only entrance to the inner court of the broch4 ,these towers were probably constructed for the purpose of defence1 and against a primitive enemy they would serve as well as did the castles of a later age before the invention of gunpowder4 ,indeed1 we read of the broch of ,mousa being actually used as a fort in the time of the ,norsemen4 ,who the builders of these towers were we cannot discover4 ,they are undoubtedly very ancient2 yet their builders and occupiers were by no means savages4 ,from the remains which have been found in them we learn that they were used by a people who kept domestic animals1 who cultivated the ground1 and who could spin and weave the wool of their flocks into cloth4 ,no weapons of the ,stone ,age are found in the brochs4 ,illustration3 ,broch of ,mousa1 ,shetland4 #a4 ,exterior4 #b4 ,section4 #c4 ,section with inner wall removed4 ,it is certain that they were built1 and that most of them may have fallen into ruins1 long before the ,norsemen came4 ,many of the places where they stand were named by those settlers from the broch which was found standing there4 ,the words borg1 as in ,burgar1 and howe 7haug71 as in ,hoxa 7,haug's aith1 or isthmus71 are found in many place-names4 ,it is certain1 too1 that the brochs were not then occupied1 or we should have found some account of their siege and capture in the ,sagas which tell of ,norse prowess by land and sea4 ,another type of ancient remains which is common in our islands is the standing stones4 ,these are found in many places1 either singly or in groups or circles4 ,regarding these relics of a distant past much has been written1 but little is known4 ,illustration3 ,the ,stone ,circle of ,stenness as now ,restored4 ,an upright stone is the simplest and most effective form of monument1 and is that which we most commonly use to this day to mark the resting-places of our dead4 ,to the ancient ,orcadian it was a matter of more difficulty to quarry and to transport and erect such monuments1 and doubtless they would be set up only in memory of some great event1 such as a notable victory1 or the fall of a great chieftain4 ,the great stone circles1 such as those of ,stenness and of ,brogar1 are supposed to have served a different purpose4 ,they are believed by many to have been the temples of some primitive people1 who met there to worship their gods4 ,it has also been supposed that the people who erected those circles were sun-worshippers1 as the situation of certain prominent stones seems to have been determined by the position of the rising sun at midsummer4 ,illustration3 ,fallen ,cromlech or ,table ,stone1 ,sandwick4 ,but in these matters we cannot be certain of our conclusions4 ,most of our great churches and cathedrals are placed east and west1 with the high altar towards the east1 and even the graves in our churchyards are usually similarly oriented2 but this does not prove that we are sun-worshippers1 whatever our forefathers may have been before they accepted ,christianity4 ,we may indulge in much speculation about them1 and form our own opinions as to what they originally meant1 but those hoary monoliths remain a mystery1 and the purpose of their erection we can only guess4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,our ,,history4 ,in the history of the ancient world some vague and fragmentary references are made to our islands1 but from these little real knowledge of them can be gathered4 ,as early as the time of ,alexander the ,great we come upon some notices of certain northern islands1 which must be either ,orkney1 or the ,hebrides1 or ,shetland1 or the ,faroes1 but we cannot determine which4 ,the ,phnicians1 who were the great sea-traders and explorers of the early world1 seem to have had a little knowledge of these northern archipelagoes4 ,in the time of the ,roman occupation of ,britain we have definite mention of the ,orcades1 but nothing which shows any real knowledge of them4 ,they were visited by the fleet of ,agricola after his invasion of ,scotland1 as recorded by ,tacitus4 ,about three centuries later1 the poet ,claudian sings of a victory by the ,emperor ,theodosius1 who1 we are told1 sprinkled ,orcadian soil with ,saxon blood4 ,we are not told1 however1 who the people called ,saxons really were1 or whether they were the inhabitants of the islands or not4 ,they may have been early ,viking raiders who had fled hither and been brought to bay among the group4 ,early ,church history has also some references to ,orkney4 ,after ,st4 ,columba had left the shores of ,ireland to carry the message of ,christianity to the ,picts and ,scots in ,scotland1 another ,irish missionary1 ,cormac1 went on a similar voyage among the ,orkney ,isles4 ,him1 therefore1 we may regard as the apostle to the northern heathen4 ,st4 ,adamnan1 the biographer of ,st4 ,columba1 tells the story1 and the name of ,adamnan himself is still commemorated in the name of the ,isle of ,damsay4 ,after the visit of ,cormac1 the ,culdee missionaries established themselves in various parts of ,orkney1 as the place-names given by the ,norsemen show4 ,in several of these names we find the word ppa1 a form of pope1 which was the name applied to the monks or clergy of the ,culdee ,church4 ,like ,columba himself1 who made the little island of ,iona his headquarters1 his followers seem to have preferred the seclusion of the smaller islands4 ,to this habit are due such names as ,papa ,westray and ,papa ,stronsay4 ,other ,church settlements have left their traces in names such as ,paplay and ,papdale4 ,another place-name which records an old-world mission station is that of ,deerness4 ,at first sight this name seems rather to indicate that abundance of deer were found there2 and some writers tell us1 by way of proving this1 that deer's horns have been found in that parish4 ,but as deer's horns have also been found in many other places in the county1 the proof is not convincing4 ,we must remember that the ,norse invaders were likely to name the place on account of its appearance from the sea4 ,they may1 of course1 have noticed a chance herd of deer near the cliffs2 but one thing is certain to have caught their eye--the unusual sight of a building of stone on the ,brough of ,deerness4 ,some remains of this building1 and of a later one on the same site1 still exist2 and it was long regarded as in some way a sacred place1 to which pilgrimages were made4 ,this building was in fact one of those outposts of early ,christianity--a ,culdee monastery4 ,when the ,norse invaders came1 they doubtless found it occupied by some of the ,culdee clergy--diar1 as they would be called by the strangers--and so the headland was named the ,priests' ,cape1 or ,deerness4 ,it is quite possible that deer existed in ,orkney down to the ,norse period1 but they were much more likely to be found in the hilly regions of the west ,mainland1 which was the earls' hunting-ground4 ,we read of an ,earl of ,orkney going over to ,caithness for the chase of the deer1 which seems to suggest that they were then scarce1 if not extinct1 in ,orkney4 ,among the remains of the ,culdee settlements which are still found are monumental stones with ,christian emblems inscribed on them1 or with ,irish ,ogham writing1 and ancient bells1 probably used in the churches4 ,the curious round tower which forms part of the old church of ,st4 ,magnus in ,egilsay is of a type common only in ,ireland4 ,the name of that island is probably derived from an earlier church which the ,norsemen found there1 and heard called by its ,celtic name1 ecclais4 ,it has been supposed by some that the name ,egilsay means ,egil's ,island1 so called after some man named ,egil2 but the probability is that it meant the ,church ,island4 ,all that we can learn1 then1 from the ancient relics of its first inhabitants1 and from the brief references to the islands by old historians1 amounts to very little4 ,we know that ,orkney was thickly inhabited by some ancient people1 living at first the primitive life which is indicated by the use of stone implements4 ,we may suppose that they had at one time a religion in some way connected with sun-worship4 ,we know that they built earth-houses somewhat like the snow-houses of the ,eskimos1 many of which still remain1 and that1 in some cases at least1 these have been used as places of burial by later inhabitants4 ,we know that at one period strong circular towers were built1 probably as fortresses1 by a people of some degree of civilization4 ,we know that in the time of ,st4 ,columba ,christian missionaries or monks visited the islands1 whose inhabitants were then probably of the race known as ,picts1 and whose chiefs are said to have been subject to the ,pictish king of ,northern ,scotland4 ,some at least of those ,culdees we may suppose to have been hermits rather than missionaries1 although they may have combined the two characters4 ,how many centuries of time are covered by these facts and suppositions we do not know1 but they sum up all that can be said with certainty regarding ,orkney before the coming of the ,norsemen4 ,there is one very curious fact about the beginnings of the ,norse records3 they make no mention whatever of any inhabitants being found in the islands4 ,the place-names afford evidence1 as we have seen1 of the presence of ,culdee monks1 but of other population there is no trace4 ,the new-comers seem to have settled as in an uninhabited land1 each ,viking selecting and occupying his land without let or hindrance4 ,if there had been a native population1 and if these had been either expelled or exterminated by the invaders1 we should surely have been told of it by the ,saga writers1 who would have delighted in telling such a tale4 ,it has accordingly been supposed that at the time of the ,norse settlement the islands were uninhabited save by the hermits of the ,culdee ,church4 ,when or how the former ,pictish inhabitants disappeared it is impossible to say4 ,possibly some early ,viking raids1 of which no history remains1 had resulted in the slaughter of many and the flight of the rest to the less exposed lands south of the ,pictland or ,pentland ,firth4 ,whatever the reason may be1 the chapter of our ,island history which opens with the ,norse settlement is in no way a continuation of anything which goes before1 but begins a new story4 ,illustration3 ,carved ,stone ,balls4 ,,the ,,norsemen ,,and ,,their ,,sagas4 ,it is late in the eighth century before the ,northman or ,norseman appears on the stage of history4 ,from the day when ,csar's victorious legions brought the ,gauls1 the ,germans1 and the ,britons under the sway of the imperial city1 these nations of ,western ,europe are never again entirely lost to history4 ,but ,scandinavia and the countries round the ,baltic remained unknown to ,rome and to the world for long centuries afterwards4 8,there nature ends10 one of the ,roman writers has said1 when speaking of these northern lands4 ,this brief yet expressive sentence well indicates how completely outside the ,roman world lay the countries which were the cradle of our race4 ,there is another side to all this1 which we find it difficult to picture clearly in our minds4 ,to the inhabitants of ,scandinavia and the lands round the ,baltic1 the southern parts of ,europe were equally unknown4 ,we find in a ,scandinavian writer of the ninth century a description of an expedition which was made by one of the ,viking chiefs to this unknown world4 ,in the course of his travels he came upon a city which to the ,norseman seemed mysterious and dread--a city of ,niflheim1 the under-world4 ,this city1 as we learn from contemporary ,western writers1 must have been ,paris4 ,paris1 now the gay capital of ,europe1 and even then a city of importance and of fame1 was so unknown to the ,norsemen of the early ninth century that it was deemed a part of ,niflheim1 the under-world6 ,during the period when the northern nations were hidden from the eye of history1 many changes must have been going on among them4 ,the building and management of ships could not have been learned in a day1 and even when we first catch sight of the ,norsemen they were the finest and most daring seamen in the world1 and their ships probably the most perfect hitherto seen4 ,many voyages among their own islands and in the ,baltic must have preceded the longer voyages to ,britain1 to ,iceland1 to ,greenland1 and to ,america4 ,numerous wars there must have been1 quite unknown to history1 before the northern warrior became the terrible fighter of the ,viking ,age4 ,we can imagine the delighted wonder with which the northern warriors first gazed upon the rich and fertile shores of ,south-,western ,europe4 ,we can imagine how they contrasted the fair fields and great cities of the south with the bleak and sterile shores of the north from which they came4 ,what motives first led to their leaving their native shores it is difficult to say4 ,thirst for adventure1 the pinch of poverty at home1 the desire of possessing gold and treasure1 all conspired to make them seek their fortunes in the wide and unknown lands which lay beyond the sea4 ,when the first adventurers brought home accounts of the lands which they had seen--the fruitful fields1 the great cities1 the rich merchandise1 and the yellow gold--great numbers of their fellow-countrymen would be seized with a longing to visit those wonderful shores where wealth was to be had for the taking4 ,the roving spirit once roused spread rapidly over the northern lands4 ,the storm of ,viking fury burst on the lands of ,western ,europe almost without warning4 ,in the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle1 under the date ,a4,d4 #ghg1 we read3 8,in this year ,king ,beorhtric took ,eadburh1 ,king ,offa's daughter1 to wife4 ,and in his days first came three ships of ,northmen from ,haerethaland1 and the reeve rode down to them and would drive them to the king's vill1 for he knew not what men they were1 and they there slew him4 ,these were the first ships of ,danish men that sought the land of the ,english40 ,thus we read of the first mutterings of the storm which was so soon to burst on the coasts of ,western ,europe4 ,during the succeeding two centuries and a half the ,english learned to know well what men these were who came out of the wild north-east4 ,the monks' litany1 8,from the fury of the ,northmen deliver us1 ,o ,lord60 tells us what they thought of them4 ,illustration3 ,,expeditions ,,and ,,settlements ,,of ,,the ,,norsemen ,we can trace two distinct roads which the ,viking raids followed4 ,one1 traversed chiefly by the ,danes1 led along the shores of ,northern ,europe to ,england1 the ,english ,channel1 ,france1 ,spain1 and the ,mediterranean2 the other1 traversed chiefly by the ,norsemen1 led straight across the ,north ,sea to the ,orkneys1 thence along the west coast of ,scotland1 to ,ireland and the west of ,england4 ,the islands lying off the coasts of ,scotland1 ,england1 ,ireland1 and ,france were seized by the invaders1 and from these as bases their raids extended far and wide4 ,monasteries felt the utmost fury of their attacks1 for there they knew they would find abundance of spoil4 ,at first the invaders confined themselves to plundering expeditions4 ,the ,norsemen early turned their attention to settlement and commerce2 the ,danes1 on the other hand1 remained for a longer period intent on plunder alone4 ,civil wars in ,western ,europe had rendered the nations there incapable of effective resistance to the ruthless invaders4 ,the ,vikings descended now at one point1 now at another4 ,when they met with a more stubborn resistance than usual1 they merely retired to their ships with whatever plunder they had seized1 and sailed away to make an attack somewhere else4 ,they wintered on the islands which they had seized1 and as soon as spring was come they descended once more on the devoted lands4 ,ireland suffered severely at their hands4 ,the ,orkneys and the ,hebrides became nests of ,vikings2 in fact1 colonies of them must have been established there at a very early date4 ,in these islands they were safe from all interference--a law to themselves2 for as yet there was no arm in ,europe long enough and strong enough to reach them4 ,nowhere could a more convenient base have been found for ,viking raids on the ,british and ,irish shores4 ,the first half-century of the ,viking ,age saw the ,danes settled merely in outlying parts of the east coast of ,england4 ,the ,norsemen1 on the other hand1 had already seized on ,orkney1 ,shetland1 the ,hebrides1 and large tracts of ,eastern ,ireland4 ,the first fifty years of the ,viking ,age may be called the first period of ,norse colonization in the west4 ,it would be a great mistake1 however1 to suppose that the ,norsemen were merely turbulent sea-robbers1 or that the only result of their migrations was to hinder the progress of civilization in ,western ,europe4 ,as settlers in other countries1 they brought new strength and vitality to the land of their adoption2 but instead of remaining separate colonies1 they were soon absorbed into the native population1 and had no further history of their own4 ,yet there were two great settlements abroad which left a deep mark on ,european history4 ,the one was the colonization of the north of ,france1 afterwards called ,normandy4 ,there the ,norsemen soon adopted the language and the religion of the country1 but retained so much of their native characteristics that the subsequent ,norman ,conquest of ,england may be regarded as really a ,norse inroad of a specially successful type4 ,the other settlement was that in the south of ,italy and ,sicily1 later known as the kingdom of the ,two ,sicilies1 which occupied an important place in history during the ,middle ,ages4 ,even the ,british settlements for the most part had only a brief period of separate history1 and soon became merged into the general stream of national life4 ,in ,orkney and ,shetland1 however1 where there was probably no native population at the time of the ,norse invasion1 the colony developed along its own special lines1 and has left behind it a history which for centuries remained distinct from that of the rest of ,great ,britain4 ,the history of the ,orkney ,islands during the period of the ,norse occupation is preserved for us in the ,icelandic ,sagas4 ,iceland was one of the earliest and most important ,norse colonies1 and there the old ,northern language was preserved better than anywhere else4 ,the ,sagas are stories which1 in the times of long ago1 were told around the fires in ,iceland and other ,norse colonies to while away the long winter evenings4 ,at festivals and merry-makings1 during long voyages1 or by the winter fireside1 the ,norseman listened eagerly to the recital of deeds done by his kinsmen in other times and in other lands4 ,storytelling was a popular pastime1 and the man who knew many ,sagas was ever a welcome guest4 ,many of the ,sagas have now been translated into ,english1 and all of these are well worth reading4 ,the greatest of all the ,sagas is generally thought to be the ,saga of ,burnt ,njal4 ,it is one of the noblest stories to be found in any language1 and it is besides nobly told4 ,in this ,saga we find the best account of the great battle of ,clontarf4 ,among the other great ,sagas are the ,saga of the ,settlers on the ,ayre1 the ,saga of ,laxdale1 the ,saga of ,egil the son of ,skallagrim1 the ,saga of ,grettir the ,strong1 and the ,saga of the ,volsungs4 ,the two last are mythical ,sagas2 they do not tell of real historical personages1 but are paraphrases of old songs and legends which have come down from a more distant past4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,saga of ,beowulf tells some of the same stories1 and is not a real ,saga in the sense of a true story told by the fireside4 ,the stories of the earls and chiefs of ,orkney form part of the great store of ,saga literature1 and these have come down to us in the form of the 8,orkneyinga ,saga40 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that this is merely the summary of a great number of stories which had been told long before by men who had no doubt taken part in the events related4 ,it was a ,saga-man's pride to tell the truth--at least as it was told to him--and so we may in the main rely on the ,orkney ,saga as a true account of events which happened1 although sometimes it may be exceedingly difficult to assign the correct dates4 ,the ,orkney ,saga is not usually reckoned among the great ,sagas4 ,it partakes more of the nature of a general history than of a single and complete story4 ,this ,saga is the chief source of our knowledge of the history of our islands during ,norse times4 ,the ,orkney ,saga consists of several parts1 each of which might be called a separate ,saga--the ,earls' ,saga1 ,magnus's ,saga1 and ,rognvald's ,saga4 ,the first relates the history of ,orkney from its conquest by ,king ,harald ,fairhair of ,norway down to the death of ,earl ,thorfinn1 about the time of the ,norman ,conquest of ,england4 ,the second relates the lives of ,thorfinn's sons1 ,paul and ,erlend1 but more especially of the holy ,earl ,magnus1 of his murder1 and of the wonderful things that happened afterwards through his holiness4 ,the third part tells of the earls after ,st4 ,magnus1 chiefly ,earl ,rognvald the ,second1 and the great ,viking1 ,sweyn ,asleifson of ,gairsay1 generally known as 8the last of the ,vikings40 ,the whole history given in the ,orkney ,saga includes the events of the three centuries from #ijj to #abjj4 ,in addition to what we learn from the ,orkney ,saga1 we glean a few facts about the history of our islands from other ,sagas1 such as the ,sagas of the ,kings of ,norway1 usually called the 8,heimskringla40 ,there are also many ,norse poems which scholars say must have been written in ,orkney1 or in some other of the western ,norse colonies1 and from these we can learn much about the life of the people1 their thoughts1 and their beliefs1 though very little about the actual history of the islands4 ,we do not know who were the authors of these poems1 but some of them were really great poets1 greater1 perhaps1 than any then living in any other part of ,europe4 ,finally1 there are occasional glimpses of our ,norse ancestors to be caught in the pages of the chronicles and histories of the nations4 ,unfortunately1 these references are so often distorted by fear or hatred1 or so confused through scanty and imperfect knowledge1 that they add very little to what we already know from ,norse records4 ,one good purpose1 indeed1 they serve3 they show that the ,saga-men were in the main truth-tellers1 so that we can place reliance on their stories1 even where these are not found in the records of other nations4 ,the ,saga-men also fill up many gaps in the history of those countries which the ,norsemen visited1 and thus they render our knowledge of the ,viking ,age more complete1 more detailed1 and more accurate1 even as regards countries which were to them foreign lands4 ,illustration3 ,ancient ,bronze ,spear-head2 ,horn ,mounting still preserved4 ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,earldom4 ,before our story begins1 ,norway was divided into a number of small kingdoms4 ,about the year #hij ,a4,d4 a king called ,harald1 who ruled over one of these small kingdoms1 resolved to make himself master of all ,norway4 ,he made a vow that he would not cut his hair until he was acknowledged king throughout the whole country4 ,this ambitious aim took some time to accomplish1 and as the years passed his thick locks grew long and shaggy4 ,thus he got the name of ,harald ,shockhead4 ,one after another1 however1 he subdued the smaller kingdoms1 compelling the earls and chiefs to acknowledge him as their king1 or to leave the country4 ,then began what may be called the second period of ,norse colonization in the west4 ,many of the proudest and boldest of the ,norsemen1 deeming it a disgrace to serve a king who was at best only their equal1 preferred to trust themselves and all their belongings to the ocean1 and take whatever fortune might await them4 ,those nobles who fled from ,norway1 regarding ,harald as their enemy1 soon began to spread terror along the shores of ,norway itself1 returning to plunder1 and slay1 and burn1 as their fellow-countrymen had so often done in the west4 ,their chief haunts were among the ,orkneys and the ,hebrides4 ,thither they betook themselves with their booty when winter came on4 ,there they lived and feasted all through the winter1 and when spring came they descended once more on the coasts of ,norway4 ,ireland and the west coast of ,england also suffered from these raiders1 and in ,france a determined effort to conquer the country was at this time made by the ,norsemen4 ,hrolf or ,rollo1 the ,norseman1 became master of the north of ,france1 and gave to it a new name--,normandy1 the land of the ,normans or ,norsemen4 ,the last great effort made by these ,norse nobles to break the power of ,king ,harald was foiled by their defeat at ,hafursfrith4 ,a great league had been formed against ,harald4 ,vikings from over the sea crowded back to ,norway to avenge their own injuries and to help their kinsmen4 ,the two fleets met at ,hafursfrith in the south of ,norway1 and a long and stubborn battle ended in victory for ,harald4 ,this battle had far-reaching results4 ,it was the end of the struggle for independence in ,norway4 ,harald was then left free to turn his attention to the chastisement of the ,vikings in the west4 ,the result was the foundation of the ,norse ,empire in the west1 and the colonization of ,iceland and ,greenland by those ,norsemen who still scorned to own the sway of the ,norwegian king4 ,with a large and splendidly equipped fleet1 ,harald swooped down on the ,vikings in ,orkney and the ,hebrides4 ,their resistance was feeble enough4 ,some yielded themselves to the king2 others fled before him4 ,nowhere was there anything like a pitched battle4 ,as far south as the ,isle of ,man1 ,harald pursued his career of conquest4 ,turning north once more1 he established ,norse jarldoms or earldoms in ,orkney and the ,hebrides1 to be subject henceforth to the ,norwegian crown4 ,then1 considering that his vow was fulfilled1 ,harald at last had his long hair cut1 and was afterwards known as ,harald ,fairhair4 ,one of ,harald's chief friends and supporters was ,rognvald1 ,earl of ,moeri and ,romsdal1 who was called by the men of his time1 8,the mighty and wise in council40 ,this ,rognvald was the father of ,rollo of ,normandy4 ,he had other sons named ,ivar1 ,thorir1 ,rollaug1 ,hallad1 and ,einar1 and he had a brother called ,sigurd4 ,the family makes a very large figure in the history of those times4 ,in one of ,harald's battles in the west fell ,ivar1 ,rognvald's son4 ,harald assigned to ,rognvald the newly created ,jarldom of ,orkney in order to compensate him in some measure for the loss of his son4 ,but ,rognvald had already large estates in ,norway4 ,he thought that these were quite enough for one man to govern4 ,accordingly he handed over the ,orkneys to his brother ,sigurd1 who thus became the first ,jarl or ,earl4 ,sigurd1 the first ,earl of ,orkney1 sometimes called ,sigurd the ,mighty1 was a strong and energetic ruler4 ,when ,king ,harald departed for ,norway1 the earl at once began to strengthen himself in his new dominions4 ,he first allied himself with ,thorstein the ,red1 son of the ,norse king of ,dublin1 and with the ,norsemen in the ,hebrides1 and then invaded ,scotland in an attempt to add to his earldom ,caithness and ,sutherland4 ,the ,scots naturally offered a determined resistance4 ,their leader was ,maelbride or ,melbrigda--called ,melbrigda ,tusk because he had a large projecting tooth--,earl or ,maormor of ,ross4 ,after the war had lasted for some time1 the two earls agreed to meet and settle their quarrel1 each taking forty men with him4 ,on the day fixed for the meeting1 ,sigurd1 suspecting1 as he said1 the good faith of the ,scots1 mounted two men on each of his forty horses1 and came thus to the place appointed4 ,as soon as the ,norsemen appeared in sight1 ,melbrigda saw that he had been trapped1 and turning to his men1 said1 8,we have been betrayed by ,sigurd1 for ,i see two feet on each horse's side4 ,the men must therefore be twice as numerous as the horses that bear them4 ,nevertheless let us harden our hearts and sell our lives as dearly as we can40 ,seeing the ,scots prepared to die hard in the place where they were1 ,sigurd divided his force and attacked them at once in front and in flank4 ,the battle was fierce and bloody1 but it ended in the total extermination of the small band of ,scots4 ,sigurd1 exulting over his fallen foe1 cut off ,melbrigda's head and fixed it to his saddle4 ,on his way home1 in spurring his horse his leg struck against the great projecting tooth which had given ,melbrigda his nickname1 and the tooth pierced his leg4 ,blood-poisoning followed1 and a few days later ,earl ,sigurd died in great pain on the banks of the ,dornoch ,firth4 ,he was buried at a place now called ,cyder ,hall 7,sigurd's ,howe71 near ,skibo ,castle4 ,sigurd was succeeded in the earldom by his son ,guttorm4 ,guttorm ruled the islands for one short and uneventful winter1 and then died childless4 ,for some time the earldom was without a ruler4 ,vikings once more began to make the ,orkneys their headquarters1 and to harass the more peaceful inhabitants of the islands4 ,when ,king ,harald heard that the ,orkneys were without a ruler1 he asked ,earl ,rognvald to make haste to send them another earl4 ,rognvald then had the title of ,earl of ,orkney conferred on his son ,hallad1 who sailed for the west as the third earl4 ,but ,hallad was weak and indolent4 ,the western earldom was too turbulent and difficult to govern4 ,he soon wearied of his dignity1 and at last1 deserting his earldom1 went back to ,norway4 ,after his ignominious withdrawal from the earldom1 the islands came under the rule of two ,danish ,vikings4 ,although ,hallad preferred a simple farmer's life to an earl's dignity1 there were others of ,rognvald's sons who were more ambitious4 ,einar especially was eager to redeem the family honour by the expulsion of the ,vikings from the islands4 ,accordingly ,einar was chosen as ,earl of ,orkney1 and after ,king ,harald had conferred on him the title1 he set out for his earldom4 ,the old ,earl of ,moeri had never regarded his youngest son with much favour1 and1 to tell the truth1 neither desired to see the other's face again4 ,einar was the best and greatest of the early ,norse earls4 ,in appearance he was tall and manly2 his face was somewhat disfigured by the loss of an eye1 but in spite of this he was reputed to be very sharp-sighted4 ,his father had prophesied that ,einar would never become a great chief2 yet he became the most famous of all ,earl ,rognvald's sons1 with the exception of ,rollo of ,normandy4 ,the earldom was in a state of great disorder when ,einar arrived4 ,the ,vikings had to be expelled1 the government had to be settled and established1 and the people had to learn to trust and obey their new earl4 ,all these things were accomplished in a marvellously short space of time4 ,the new earl also taught his people many useful arts4 ,wood was scarce3 ,einar knew that the people of ,scotland used peat for fuel1 and he taught the ,norsemen in the islands to do the same4 ,from this he got the name of ,torf-,einar4 ,soon a serious trouble arose4 ,king ,harald's sons had now grown up to be very turbulent and overbearing men4 ,they quarrelled with their father's chiefs and earls4 ,two of them1 ,halfdan ,highleg and ,gudrod ,bright1 attacked and slew ,rognvald1 ,earl of ,moeri4 ,harald was enraged that his sons should thus murder his best and most faithful counsellor and friend4 ,he marched against them with an army1 and ordered them to be seized and brought before him4 ,gudrod gave himself up to his father1 but ,halfdan seized a ship and sailed west to the ,orkneys4 ,halfdan's sudden arrival in the earldom caused panic for a time4 ,einar was quite unprepared for an invasion4 ,he accordingly thought it wiser to escape to ,caithness until he had time to collect his forces4 ,in the meantime ,halfdan seized the government of the isles1 taking the title of ,king of ,orkney and ,shetland4 ,the same summer saw ,einar back in the ,orkneys with a fleet and an army to regain his earldom4 ,the two fleets met somewhere off the island of ,sanday4 ,a fierce battle took place1 and ,halfdan's force was practically annihilated4 ,in the dusk of the evening he himself leaped overboard and escaped4 ,next morning the shores were searched for fugitives4 ,all who were found were slain1 but ,halfdan himself had disappeared4 ,while the search was still proceeding1 ,einar was observed to stop suddenly and gaze across the sea towards the island of ,north ,ronaldsay1 or ,rinansey1 as it was then called4 8,what see'st thou1 jarl80 asked one of his companions4 8,i know not what it is10 was the reply4 8,sometimes it appears to rise up1 and sometimes to lie down4 ,it is either a bird in the air or a man on the rocks1 and ,i will find out40 ,this object which the earl saw was ,halfdan1 who had probably just dragged his weary limbs from the water1 and was now struggling up over the rocks to the land4 ,the earl's men pursued and captured him4 ,he was at once brought before the earl1 who ordered him to be slain1 to avenge his father's murder1 and as a sacrifice to ,odin for the victory4 ,angry as ,king ,harald had been because of the murder of ,earl ,rognvald1 the death of his son at the hands of ,rognvald's son was not likely to be very agreeable to him4 ,harald therefore determined to make a second expedition to the west4 ,when ,einar heard of ,harald's intended visit to the ,orkneys1 he thought that he would be safer out of the king's way1 and accordingly he crossed the ,pentland ,firth4 ,messengers went backwards and forwards between the king and the earl for a while1 arranging terms of settlement4 ,at length the king demanded that the earldom should pay a fine of sixty marks4 ,to that ,einar agreed1 and ,king ,harald ,fairhair bade farewell to his western dominions for ever4 ,it was no easy matter for the ,orkneymen to raise the sixty marks1 and the earl called a ,thing or council to discuss the matter4 ,at length the earl offered to pay the whole fine himself1 on condition that all the freehold or udal lands of the ,orkneymen were handed over to him in pledge for the amount that each had to pay1 and to this the islanders agreed4 ,in this way the earl came into possession of all the udal lands in the ,orkneys2 and it was not till the time of ,earl ,sigurd the ,stout1 a century later1 that the udal rights were restored to the ,orkneymen4 ,earl ,einar spent the rest of his days in peace4 ,the earldom was well ruled4 ,vikings were afraid to plunder the dominions of so powerful a chief2 and after a long and honourable reign the good earl died on a sickbed--what the ,vikings called a 8straw death0--about the year #icc4 ,illustration3 ,remains of a ,viking ,ship found in ,sweden4 ,,the ,,dark ,,century4 ,the tenth century may fittingly be called the dark century of ,orcadian history4 ,we know very little of it except occasional glimpses afforded by obscure references in the ,sagas2 and the little that we do know tells of treachery and bloodshed and murder to an extent unusual even in the troubled annals of ,orkney4 ,after the death of ,torf-,einar the earldom came into the hands of his three sons1 ,thorfinn--usually called ,thorfinn ,skull-splitter--,arnkell1 and ,erlend4 ,the disturbed state of ,norway1 consequent on the death of ,harald ,fairhair about the year #ide1 caused turmoil and confusion throughout all those lands which had been conquered and settled by the ,norsemen4 ,harald left behind him a brood of wild1 reckless sons1 each of whom thought he had a right to a share of his father's dominions4 ,they filled the whole land with turbulence and bloodshed4 ,eric ,bloody-axe had been ,harald's favourite son1 and he at first took over the chief rule in ,norway4 ,he was a brave and skilful warrior1 but passionate1 avaricious1 and treacherous in his disposition4 ,the same qualities were possessed in an even greater degree by his queen1 ,gunnhilda4 ,their deeds of violence soon estranged the hearts of their subjects4 ,hakon1 ,harald's youngest son1 who had been brought up in ,england under the care of ,king ,athelstan1 came to ,norway to claim his share of his father's dominions4 ,hakon was at this time only in his fifteenth year1 but he was daring and ambitious1 and was the darling of the ,norsemen both at home and abroad4 ,eric ,bloody-axe and ,gunnhilda were1 on the other hand1 regarded everywhere with hatred and detestation4 ,when1 therefore1 ,hakon invaded ,norway and attempted to wrest the sovereignty from the hands of his elder brother1 the latter was deserted by his people and was forced to flee from the country4 ,eric crossed first to ,orkney1 where he gathered a band of followers as reckless as himself1 and then held on to ,england and began to ravage the land in the usual ,viking fashion4 ,close friendship had long existed between ,athelstan and ,harald ,fairhair4 ,athelstan professed similar friendship for ,harald's sons1 and now offered ,eric the lordship of ,northumbria4 ,eric was not so foolish as to reject this offer4 ,gunnhilda and he with their family abode in peace in ,northumbria for about a year4 ,with the death of ,athelstan fortune began once more to frown upon the exiled king4 ,king ,edmund thought it by no means desirable that the ,norsemen should hold so large a portion of his kingdom4 ,knowing the insecurity of his tenure1 ,eric's reckless spirit flashed at once into open rebellion4 ,he left ,northumbria1 sailed to ,orkney1 seized the ,earls ,arnkell and ,erlend1 forced many other ,orcadian chiefs to join him1 and made a ,viking raid on the west coast of ,england4 ,the raiders met with resistance and a battle was fought2 in this battle fell ,eric himself1 both the ,orkney earls1 and most of the other leaders4 ,when news of this disastrous expedition reached ,gunnhilda1 who had remained with her family in ,northumbria1 she in turn embarked for ,orkney4 ,she and her sons claimed the earldom1 seized the taxes1 and spread wrong and oppression over all the western colonies4 ,for a short time the islands suffered the same misgovernment as ,norway had already suffered at her hands4 ,but war now broke out between ,norway and ,denmark4 ,this seemed to afford her a chance of regaining the ,norwegian crown1 and ,gunnhilda and her family sailed eastwards once more4 ,ragnhilda1 her daughter1 was left behind in ,orkney to continue for a time her mother's acts of treachery and bloodshed4 ,there are few worse characters in history than ,ragnhilda as depicted by the ,saga4 ,she seemed to have a mania for plots and murders4 ,married first to ,arnfinn1 one of the sons of ,earl ,thorfinn1 she caused him to be murdered at ,murkle in ,caithness1 for no reason that we can find out1 and then married his brother ,havard4 ,on the death of his father ,thorfinn1 shortly afterwards1 ,havard became earl4 ,he is known in history as ,havard the ,harvest-happy1 because during his time the islands were blessed with good harvests4 ,havard also met his death at the instigation of his wife4 ,ragnhilda persuaded ,einar ,oily-tongue1 his nephew1 to murder the earl1 promising to marry him and secure for him the earldom when the deed was done4 ,einar set on ,havard in ,stenness1 and slew him after a hard struggle4 ,but it was apparently no part of ,ragnhilda's plan to marry ,einar ,oily-tongue4 ,she now professed the greatest indignation and grief at the murder of ,earl ,havard1 and called for vengeance on his murderer4 ,einar ,oily-tongue had a cousin1 also called ,einar4 ,he in turn fell a victim to the wiles of ,ragnhilda4 ,by promising or at least hinting that she would marry the man who avenged the murder of ,earl ,havard1 she succeeded in getting the second ,einar to murder the first1 and ended by marrying ,ljot1 the third son of ,earl ,thorfinn1 who was the real heir to the earldom4 ,this was by no means the end of ,ragnhilda's wickedness4 ,ljot had a brother1 ,skuli1 who was not at all satisfied that the former should have the whole earldom4 ,it was an easy matter to make trouble between the two brothers4 ,in the end ,skuli left the islands for ,scotland1 and became ,earl of ,caithness and a vassal of the ,scottish king4 ,bad feeling continued between the brothers1 and was carefully fostered by ,ragnhilda4 ,ultimately they met in arms in ,caithness1 ,skuli with a ,scottish army1 and ,ljot with the forces of the earldom4 ,the ,scots were defeated and ,skuli slain4 ,ljot now added ,caithness to his earldom1 but the ,scots again and again strove to reconquer it4 ,finally a great battle was fought at ,skidmire in ,caithness4 ,the ,norsemen gained the day1 but the earl was fatally wounded4 ,there remained one son of ,thorfinn ,skull-splitter1 named ,hlodver1 who now became earl over an earldom exhausted and impoverished by twenty years of misgovernment and bloodshed1 and embroiled in an arduous struggle with ,scotland for the possession of ,caithness4 ,the ,orkney earldom1 however1 was now on the eve of a great expansion4 ,under the son and grandson of ,hlodver1 ,sigurd the ,stout and ,thorfinn the ,mighty1 the ,norse dominion in the west attained its widest bounds1 and the earldom of ,orkney its greatest importance4 ,for more than half a century1 with little or no interference from ,norway1 the ,orkney earls helped to mould the history of ,ireland and of ,scotland2 and until the union of ,england and ,denmark took place under ,canute1 the ,norse ,earls of ,orkney were probably the most powerful chieftains in the ,british ,isles4 ,it was in the time of ,earl ,sigurd that ,christianity was first introduced among the ,norse inhabitants of ,orkney4 ,olaf1 ,tryggvi's son1 ,king of ,norway1 had embraced the new faith1 and his methods of promoting the religion which he professed were characteristic of his time and race4 ,the story of the conversion of ,earl ,sigurd and his followers is thus given in the ,saga3-- 8,olaf1 ,tryggvi's son1 sailed from the west to the ,orkneys2 but because the ,pentland ,firth was not passable1 he laid his ship up under the lee in ,osmund's ,voe1 off ,rognvald's ,isle4 ,but there in the voe lay already ,earl ,sigurd1 ,hlodver's son1 with three ships1 and then meant to go a-roving4 ,but as soon as ,king ,olaf knew that the earl was there1 he made them call him to come and speak with him4 ,but when the earl came on board the king's ship1 ,king ,olaf began his speech40 7,we pass over his long historical review of the establishment of the ,orkney earldom and its dependence upon the kings of ,norway1 and give only his closing sentences47 8#8,now1 as so it is1 ,earl ,sigurd1 that thou hast come into my power1 now thou hast two choices before thee1 very uneven4 ,one is that thou shalt take the right faith and become my man1 and allow thyself to be baptized and all thy undermen2 then shalt thou have a sure hope of honour from me1 and to have and to hold as my underman this realm1 with earl's title and full freedom as thou hast erewhile had it2 and this over and above1 which is much more worth1 to rule in everlasting bliss with all-ruling ,god--that is sure to thee if thou keepest all ,his commandments4 ,this is the other choice1 which is very doleful and unlike the first--that now on the spot thou shalt die1 and after thy death ,i shall let fire and sword ruthlessly rage over all the ,orkneys1 burn and brand homesteads and men1 unless this folk will have salvation and believe on the true ,god4444' 8,but when ,earl ,sigurd had heard so long and clever a speech of ,king ,olaf1 he hardened his heart against him1 and spoke thus3 #8,it must be told thee1 ,king ,olaf1 that ,i have firmly made up my mind that ,i will not and may not and shall not forego that faith which my kinsmen and forefathers had before me3 for ,i know no better counsel than they1 and ,i know not that that faith is better which thou preachest than this which we have now had and held all our lives4' 8,and with that the king saw the earl so stiffnecked in his error1 he seized his young son1 whom the earl had with him1 and who had grown up there in the isles4 ,this son of the earl the king bore forward on the prow and drew his sword1 and made ready to cut off the lad's head1 with these words1 #8,now mayst thou see1 ,earl ,sigurd1 that ,i will spare no man who will not serve ,almighty ,god1 or listen to my exhortations and hearken to this blessed message2 and for that ,i will now on this very spot slay this thy son before thine eyes1 with this same sword which ,i grasp1 unless thou and thy men serve my ,god2 for hence out of the isles will ,i not go before ,i have forwarded and fulfilled this ,his glorious errand1 and thou and thy son1 whom ,i now hold1 have taken on you baptism4' 8,and in the strait to which the earl was now come1 he chose the choice which the king would have1 and which was better for him1 to take the right faith4 ,then the earl was baptized1 and all the folk in the ,orkneys4 ,after that ,earl ,sigurd was made after this world's honour ,king ,olaf's earl1 and held under him lands and fiefs1 and gave him for an hostage that same son of his of whom it was spoken before2 he was called ,whelp or ,hound4 ,olaf made them christen the lad by the name of ,hlodver1 and carried him away with him to ,norway4 ,earl ,sigurd bound with oaths all their agreement1 and next after that ,olaf sailed away from the ,orkneys1 but set up there behind him priests to mend the folk's ways and teach them holy wisdom2 so they1 ,king ,olaf and ,sigurd1 parted with friendship4 ,hlodver lived but a scanty time2 but after that he was dead ,earl ,sigurd showed ,king ,olaf no service4 ,he took to wife then the daughter of ,malcolm the ,scot ,king1 and ,thorfinn was their son40 ,so does the ,saga tell this dramatic tale2 and we may notice that the earl's allegiance to the new faith was as fickle as his fidelity to the king1 for a few years later we find him fighting in the ranks of the heathen against the ,christian king1 ,brian of ,ireland1 under the shadow of his raven banner1 a flag endowed by his mother's spells with the twofold magical power of ensuring victory to those who followed it1 but death to him who bore it4 ,the story of 8,king ,brian's battle10 or the battle of ,clontarf1 is one of the most stirring in the old records1 and we give it here as told by the ,saga-man3-- 8,then ,king ,sigtrygg of ,ireland stirred in his business with ,earl ,sigurd1 and egged him on to go to the war with ,king ,brian4 ,the earl was long steadfast1 but the end of it was that he said it might come about4 ,he said he must have his mother's hand for his help1 and be king in ,ireland if they slew ,brian4 ,but all his men besought ,earl ,sigurd not to go into the war1 but it was all no good4 ,so they parted on the understanding that ,earl ,sigurd gave his word to go2 but ,king ,sigtrygg promised him his mother and the kingdom4 ,it was so settled that ,earl ,sigurd was to come with all his host to ,dublin by ,palm ,sunday4 8,then ,king ,sigtrygg fared south to ,ireland1 and told his mother1 ,kormlada1 that the earl had undertaken to come1 and also what he had pledged himself to grant him4 ,she showed herself well pleased at that1 but said they must gather greater force still4 ,sigtrygg asked whence this was to be looked for4 ,she said that there were two ,vikings lying off the west of ,man2 and they had thirty ships1 and #8they are men of such hardihood that nothing can withstand them4 ,the one's name is ,ospak1 and the other's ,brodir4 ,thou shalt fare to find them1 and spare nothing to get them into thy quarrel1 whatever price they ask4' 8,now ,king ,sigtrygg fares and seeks the ,vikings1 and found them lying outside off ,man4 ,king ,sigtrygg brings forward his errand at once2 but ,brodir shrank from helping him until he1 ,king ,sigtrygg1 promised him the kingdom and his mother1 and they were to keep this such a secret that ,earl ,sigurd should know nothing about it4 ,brodir1 too1 was to come to ,dublin on ,palm ,sunday4 ,king ,sigtrygg fared home to his mother and told her how things stood4 ,after that those brothers1 ,ospak and ,brodir1 talked together2 and then ,brodir told ,ospak all that he and ,sigtrygg had spoken of1 and bade him fare to battle with him against ,king ,brian1 and said he set much store on his going4 ,ospak said he would not fight against so good a king4 ,then they were both wrath1 and sundered their band at once4 ,ospak had ten ships and ,brodir twenty4 ,ospak was a heathen1 and the wisest of all men4 ,he laid his ships inside in a sound1 but ,brodir lay outside him4 ,brodir had been a ,christian man and a mass-deacon by consecration2 but he had thrown off his faith and become ,god's dastard1 and now worshipped heathen fiends1 and he was of all men most skilled in sorcery4 ,he had that coat of mail on which no steel would bite4 ,he was both tall and strong1 and had such long locks that he tucked them under his belt4 ,his hair was black4 8,it so happened one night that a great din passed over ,brodir and his men1 so that they all woke1 and sprang up and put on their clothes4 ,along with that came a shower of boiling blood4 ,then they covered themselves with their shields1 but for all that many were scalded4 ,this wonder lasted all till day1 and a man had died on board every ship4 ,then they slept during the day4 ,the second night there was again a din1 and again they all sprang up4 ,then swords leapt out of their sheaths1 and axes and spears flew about in the air and fought4 ,the weapons pressed them so hard that they had to shield themselves2 but still many were wounded1 and again a man died out of every ship4 ,this wonder lasted all till day4 ,then they slept again the day after4 ,the third night there was a din of the same kind4 ,then ravens flew at them1 and it seemed to them as though their beaks and claws were of iron4 ,the ravens pressed them so hard that they had to keep them off with their swords1 and covered themselves with their shields4 ,this went on again till day1 and then another man had died in every ship4 8,then they went to sleep first of all2 but when ,brodir woke up1 he drew his breath painfully1 and bade them put off the boat1 #8,for1' said he1 #8,i will go to see ,ospak4' ,then he got into the boat and some men with him4 ,but when he found ,ospak he told him of the wonders which had befallen them1 and bade him say what he thought they boded4 ,ospak would not tell him before he pledged him peace1 and ,brodir promised him peace2 but ,ospak still shrank from telling him till night fell1 for ,brodir never slew a man by night4 8,then ,ospak spoke1 and said1 #8,when blood rained on you1 therefore shall ye shed many men's blood1 both of your own and others4 ,but when ye heard a great din1 then ye must have been shown the crack of doom1 and ye shall all die speedily4 ,but when weapons fought against you1 that must forebode a battle4 ,but when ravens pressed you1 that marks the devils which ye put faith in1 and who will drag you all down to the pains of hell4' 8,then ,brodir was so wrath that he could answer never a word4 ,but he went at once to his men1 and made them lay his ships in a line across the sound1 and moor them by bearing cables on shore1 and meant to slay them all next morning4 ,ospak saw all their plan4 ,then he vowed to take the true faith1 and to go to ,king ,brian and follow him till his death-day4 ,then he took that counsel to lay his ships in a line1 and punt them along the shore with poles1 and cut the cables of ,brodir's ships4 ,then the ships of ,brodir's men began to fall aboard of one another4 ,but they were all fast asleep2 and then ,ospak and his men got out of the firth1 and so west to ,ireland1 and came to ,kincora4 ,then ,ospak told ,king ,brian all that he had learnt1 and took baptism1 and gave himself over into the king's hand4 ,after that ,king ,brian made them gather force over all his realm1 and the whole host was to come to ,dublin in the week before ,palm ,sunday4 8,earl ,sigurd1 ,hlodver's son1 busked him from the ,orkneys1 and ,flosi offered to go with him4 ,the earl would not have that1 since he had his pilgrimage to fulfil4 ,flosi offered fifteen men of his band to go on the voyage1 and the earl accepted them2 but ,flosi fared with ,earl ,gilli to the ,southern ,isles4 ,thorstein1 the son of ,hall of the ,side1 went along with ,earl ,sigurd1 and ,hrafn the ,red1 and ,erling of ,straumey4 ,he would not that ,hareck should go1 but said he would be sure to tell him first the tidings of his voyage4 ,the earl came with all his host on ,palm ,sunday to ,dublin1 and there1 too1 was come ,brodir with all his host4 ,brodir tried by sorcery how the fight would go4 ,but the answer ran thus1 that if the fight were on ,good ,friday1 ,king ,brian would fall but win the day2 but if they fought before1 they would all fall who were against him4 ,then ,brodir said that they must not fight before the ,friday4444 8,king ,brian came with all his host to the burg2 and on the ,friday the host fared out of the burg1 and both armies were drawn up in array4 ,brodir was on one wing of the battle1 but ,king ,sigtrygg on the other4 ,earl ,sigurd was in the mid-battle4 ,now1 it must be told of ,king ,brian that he would not fight on the fast-day1 and so a shieldburg was thrown round him1 and his host was drawn up in array in front of it4 ,wolf the ,quarrelsome was on that wing of the battle against which ,brodir stood4 ,but on the other wing1 where ,sigtrygg stood against them1 were ,ospak and his sons4 ,but in mid-battle was ,kerthialfad1 and before him the banners were borne4 ,now the wings fall on one another1 and there was a very hard fight4 ,brodir went through the host of the foe1 and felled all the foremost that stood there1 but no steel would bite on him4 ,wolf the ,quarrelsome turned then to meet him1 and thrust at him twice so hard that ,brodir fell before him at each thrust1 and was well-nigh not getting on his feet again4 ,but as soon as ever he found his feet1 he fled away into the wood at once4 8,earl ,sigurd had a hard battle against ,kerthialfad1 and ,kerthialfad came on so fast that he laid low all who were in the front rank1 and he broke the array of ,earl ,sigurd right up to his banner1 and slew the banner-bearer4 ,then he got another man to bear the banner1 and there was again a hard fight4 ,kerthialfad smote this man too his death-blow at once1 and so on one after the other all who stood near him4 ,then ,earl ,sigurd called on ,thorstein1 the son of ,hall of the ,side1 to bear the banner1 and ,thorstein was just about to lift the banner4 ,but then ,amundi the ,white said1 #8,don't bear the banner6 for all they who bear it get their death4' #8,hrafn the ,red6' called out ,earl ,sigurd1 #8bear thou the banner4' #8,bear thine own devil thyself1' answered ,hrafn4 ,then the earl said1 #8',tis fittest that the beggar should bear the bag2' and with that he took the banner from the staff and put it under his cloak4 ,a little after1 ,amundi the ,white was slain1 and then the earl was pierced through with a spear4 ,ospak had gone through all the battle on his wing4 ,he had been sore wounded1 and lost both his sons ere ,king ,sigtrygg fled before him4 ,then flight broke out throughout all the host4 ,thorstein1 ,hall of the ,side's son1 stood still while all the others fled1 and tied his shoestring4 ,then ,kerthialfad asked why he ran not as the others4 #8,because1' said ,thorstein1 #8,i can't get home to-night1 since ,i am at home out in ,iceland4' ,kerthialfad gave him peace4444 8,now ,brodir saw that ,king ,brian's men were chasing the fleers1 and that there were few men by the shieldburg4 ,then he rushed out of the wood1 and broke through the shieldburg1 and hewed at the king4 ,the lad ,takt threw his arm in the way1 and the stroke took it off and the king's head too2 but the king's blood came on the lad's stump1 and the stump was healed by it on the spot4 ,then ,brodir called out with a loud voice1 #8,now man can tell that ,brodir felled ,brian4' ,then men ran after those who were chasing the fleers1 and they were told that ,king ,brian had fallen2 and then they turned back straightway1 both ,wolf the ,quarrelsome and ,kerthialfad4 ,then they threw a ring round ,brodir and his men1 and threw branches of trees upon them1 and so ,brodir was taken alive4444 ,after that they took ,king ,brian's body and laid it out4 ,the king's head had grown to the trunk4444 8,this event happened in the ,orkneys1 that ,hareck thought he saw ,earl ,sigurd1 and some men with him4 ,then ,hareck took his horse and rode to meet the earl4 ,men say that they met and rode under a brae2 but they were never seen again1 and not a scrap was ever found of ,hareck40 ,from the 8,njala ,saga10 translated by ,sir ,g4 ,w4 ,dasent1 ,d4,c4,l4 7,by permission of the ,controller of ,h4,m4 ,stationery ,office47 ,illustration3 ,ancient ,bronze ,weapons and ,ornaments4 ,,earl ,,thorfinn ,,and ,,earl ,,rognvald4 ,earl ,sigurd1 as has been mentioned1 took as his second wife the daughter of ,malcolm the ,second1 ,king of ,scots4 ,they had but one son1 ,thorfinn1 called the ,mighty1 the greatest of his race1 who became the most powerful of all the ,orkney earls4 ,when he was but five winters old ,thorfinn was sent to his grandfather ,malcolm to be brought up at the ,scottish ,court1 and on his father's death he was made ,earl of ,caithness and ,sutherland4 ,einar and ,brusi1 sons of ,sigurd by his first wife1 then ruled over the islands4 ,einar was ambitious and warlike1 ,brusi mild and peaceful4 ,when they shared the earldom between them1 ,brusi was content with a third part1 while ,einar took over the remainder2 and so matters stood for a time4 ,when ,thorfinn grew up to manhood1 he was not content with his large domains in ,scotland4 ,he put forward a claim to one-third of the ,orkneys as his rightful share4 ,einar would have disputed the claim2 but ,brusi resigned his share to ,thorfinn1 and an agreement was made that when ,einar died his share should be handed over to ,brusi4 ,so peace was kept for the time4 ,but when ,einar died1 ,thorfinn seized half of the whole earldom4 ,brusi was unable to resist the great power of ,thorfinn1 so he resolved to go east to ,norway1 and ask ,olaf the king to do justice between him and his brother4 ,thorfinn also went to ,norway to plead his own cause4 ,king ,olaf1 unwilling to increase the power of a subject already too powerful1 decided in favour of ,brusi4 ,but when the two earls returned to the islands1 ,brusi found the task of ruling his dominions and defending them against the ,vikings too heavy for him1 and ,thorfinn no doubt took care that there should always be plenty of trouble for him to face4 ,at last ,brusi was glad to hand over two-thirds of the earldom to ,thorfinn1 on condition of his undertaking to defend the islands2 and this arrangement lasted till ,brusi's death4 ,in the meantime1 ,rognvald1 ,brusi's son1 had been growing up at the ,court of ,olaf1 ,king of ,norway1 and he was a close friend of ,magnus1 ,olaf's son1 who afterwards became king4 ,when ,rognvald heard that ,brusi1 his father1 was dead1 and that ,earl ,thorfinn had seized the whole earldom1 he prepared to fare westward and claim his share of the land4 ,thorfinn was now the most powerful ruler in all the western lands4 ,he had defeated the ,scots in a great sea-fight off ,deerness2 he had subdued the ,western ,isles2 he had conquered great realms in ,scotland2 and he had made himself master of the half of ,ireland4 ,at the time when ,rognvald came to the ,orkneys1 however1 ,thorfinn had wars on his hands in the ,western ,isles and in ,ireland1 and he was glad to offer ,rognvald two-thirds of the islands in return for his friendship and his help4 ,so for a time the two earls lived in friendship with each other4 ,then evil men made mischief between them1 and ,thorfinn demanded back the third of the land which had belonged to ,earl ,einar4 ,rognvald refused1 and sailed away to ,norway to ask help from ,king ,magnus4 ,with a fleet of ,norwegian ships he came back to ,orkney1 and was met in the ,pentland ,firth by the ships of ,earl ,thorfinn4 ,earl ,rognvald's ships were fewer in number1 but their larger size at first gave him the advantage4 ,earl ,thorfinn was hard pressed2 but at last he persuaded his brother-in-law1 ,kalf ,arnesson1 whose ships were lying by watching the fight1 to come to his aid and row against ,rognvald4 ,then the tide of battle turned against ,earl ,rognvald1 and only by the darkness of the night was he enabled to escape1 and once more to find his way to ,norway4 ,again ,king ,magnus came to his help2 but this time ,earl ,rognvald tried to take ,thorfinn by surprise1 so he sailed away to ,orkney in the dead of winter with only one ship4 ,before there was any news of his coming1 he surrounded the house where ,earl ,thorfinn was feasting1 and set it on fire4 ,only the women and children were allowed to go free2 but while the warriors were in confusion1 seeking some way of escape1 the great earl broke a hole through the side of the house where the smoke was thickest1 and1 carrying his wife1 ,ingibiorg1 in his arms1 he escaped in the darkness to the seashore1 took a boat1 and rowed across to ,caithness4 ,now it seemed that ,rognvald's success was complete1 for he thought that ,earl ,thorfinn was surely dead4 ,when ,christmas-time was at hand1 he prepared to hold a great feast at ,kirkwall1 and with some of his men he took a ship to ,papa ,stronsay to bring over a cargo of malt for the brewing4 ,they stayed there for the night1 and sat long over the fire telling of all their adventures4 ,meanwhile1 however1 ,earl ,thorfinn had come back from ,caithness to seek revenge4 ,in the darkness he and his men surrounded the house where ,earl ,rognvald sat1 and set it on fire4 ,all except the earl's men were allowed to come out1 being drawn over the pile of wood which ,thorfinn's men had placed before the door4 ,while this was being done1 a man suddenly leaped over the pile1 and over the armed men beside it1 and disappeared in the darkness4 8,that must be ,earl ,rognvald10 cried ,thorfinn1 8for no one else could do such a feat40 ,then they all ran to search for ,earl ,rognvald in the darkness4 ,the barking of his dog betrayed the earl's hiding-place to his enemies1 and soon he was found and slain among the rocks upon the shore4 ,next morning ,thorfinn and his men took ,earl ,rognvald's ship and sailed to ,kirkwall4 ,and when ,rognvald's men who were in the town came1 unarmed1 expecting to meet the earl1 they were set upon by ,earl ,thorfinn's men1 and thirty of them were slain4 ,these men were of the bodyguard of ,king ,magnus1 and only one of them was allowed to go back to ,norway to tell the tidings to the king4 ,then for eighteen years ,thorfinn ruled the earldom1 till the day of his death4 ,he was by far the greatest of the ,orkney earls4 ,he built ,christ's ,kirk in ,birsay1 and in his time the ,bishopric of ,orkney was founded4 ,during his later years the islands enjoyed peace1 and many wise laws were made2 and when the great earl died there was much sorrow in the ,orkneys4 ,so the poet sings in his honour3-- 8,swarthy shall become the bright sun1 ,in the dark sea shall the earth sink1 ,finished shall be ,austri's labour1 ,and the wild sea hide the mountains1 ,ere there be in these fair islands ,born a chief to rule the people-- ,may our ,god both keep and help them-- ,greater than the lost ,earl ,thorfinn40 ,paul and ,erlend1 the two sons of ,thorfinn1 succeeded to the earldom1 and for some time they ruled in harmony together4 ,they fought for ,king ,harald ,hardradi against ,harold1 ,godwin's son1 at the battle of ,stamford ,bridge in ,yorkshire in #ajff1 but were allowed to return in peace to their earldom4 ,trouble arose between the brothers when their sons grew to manhood1 and ,magnus ,barefoot1 ,king of ,norway1 made a descent upon the islands4 ,he carried the two brothers into exile1 appointing his own son ,sigurd as 8,king0 of ,orkney1 which post he held until his father's death made him ,king of ,norway4 ,hakon1 ,paul's son1 and ,magnus1 ,erlend's son1 afterwards called ,st4 ,magnus1 then became joint earls4 ,their joint rule had the usual result1 quarrels and misunderstandings1 and was brought to an end by the murder of ,earl ,magnus in ,egilsay in #aaae4 ,the story is told in the ,saga of ,earl ,magnus1 from which the next chapter is taken4 ,,the ,,slaying ,,of ,,earl ,,magnus4 8,st4 ,magnus1 the isle earl1 was the most peerless of men1 tall of growth1 manly1 and lively of look1 virtuous in his ways1 fortunate in fight1 a sage in wit1 ready-tongued and lordly-minded1 lavish of money and high-spirited1 quick of counsel1 and more beloved of his friends than any man4 ,blithe and of kind speech to wise and good men1 but hard and unsparing against robbers and sea-rovers1 he let many men be slain who harried the freemen and landfolk4 ,he made murderers and thieves be taken1 and visited as well on the powerful as on the weak robberies and thieveries and all ill deeds4 ,he was no favourer of his friends in his judgments1 for he valued more godly justice than the distinctions of rank4 ,he was open-handed to chiefs and powerful men1 but still he ever showed most care for poor men4444 8,those kinsmen1 ,magnus and ,hakon1 held the wardship of the land for some while1 so that they were well agreed4444 ,but when those kinsmen had ruled the land some time1 then again happened1 what often and always can happen1 that many ill-willing men set about spoiling their kinship4 ,then unlucky men gathered more about ,hakon1 for that he was very envious of the friendships and lordliness of his kinsman ,magnus4 8,two men are they who are named1 who were with ,earl ,hakon1 and who were the worst of all the tale-bearers between those kinsmen1 ,sigurd and ,sighvat ,sock4 ,this slander came so far with the gossip of wicked men1 that those kinsmen again gathered forces together1 and each earl faced against the other with a great company4 ,then both of them held on to ,hrossey the ,mainland1 where the place of meeting of those ,orkneyingers was4 ,but when they came there1 then each drew up his men in array1 and they made them ready to battle4 ,there were then the earls and all the great men1 and there1 too1 were many friends of both who did all they could to set them at one again4 ,many then came between them with manliness and good-will4 ,this meeting was in ,lent1 a little before ,palm ,sunday4 ,but because many men of their well-wishers took a share in clearing up these difficulties between them1 but would stand by neither to do harm to the other1 then they bound their agreement with oaths and handsels4 ,and when some time had gone by after that1 then ,earl ,hakon1 with falsehood and fair words1 settled with the blessed ,earl ,magnus to meet him on a certain day1 so that their kinship and steadfast new-made peace should not be turned aside or set at naught4 ,this meeting for a steadfast peace and a thorough atonement between them was to be in ,easter week that spring on ,egil's ,isle ,egilsay4 ,this pleased ,earl ,magnus well1 being1 as he was1 a thoroughly whole-hearted man1 far from all doubt1 guile1 or greed2 and each of them was to have two ships1 and each just as many men3 this both swore1 to hold and keep those terms of peace which the wisest men made up their minds to declare between them4 8,but when ,eastertide was gone by1 each made him ready for this meeting4 ,earl ,magnus summoned to him all those men whom he knew to be kindest-hearted and likeliest to do a good turn to both those kinsmen4 ,he had two long-ships and just as many men as was said4 ,and when he was ready he held on his course to ,egil's ,isle4 ,and as they were rowing in calm over the smooth sea1 there rose a billow against the ship which the earl steered1 and fell on the ship just where the earl sat4 ,the earl's men wondered much at this token1 that the billow fell on them in a calm where no man had ever known it to fall before1 and where the water under was deep4 ,then the earl said1 #8,it is not strange that ye wonder at this2 but my thought is1 that this is a foreboding of my life's end1 may be that may happen which was before spoken about ,earl ,hakon4 ,we should so make up our minds about our undertaking1 that ,i guess my kinsman ,hakon must not mean to deal fairly by us at this meeting4' ,the earl's men were afraid at these words1 when he said he had so short hope as to his life's end1 and bade him take heed for his life1 and not fare further trusting in ,earl ,hakon4 ,earl ,magnus answers1 #8,we shall fare on still1 and may all ,god's will be done as to our voyage4' 8,now it must be told about ,earl ,hakon1 that he summoned to him a great company1 and had many war-ships1 and all manned and trimmed as though they were to run out to battle4 ,and when the force came together1 the earl makes it clear to the men that he meant at that meeting so to settle matters between himself and ,earl ,magnus that they should not both of them be over the ,orkneys4 ,many of his men showed themselves well pleased at this purpose1 and added many fearful words2 and they1 ,sigurd and ,sighvat ,sock1 were among the worst in their utterance4 ,then men began to row hard1 and they fared furiously4 ,havard1 ,gunni's son1 was on board the earl's ship1 a friend and counsellor of the earl's1 and a fast friend to both alike4 ,hakon had hidden from him this bad counsel1 which ,havard would surely not join in4 ,and when he knew the earl was so steadfast in this bad counsel1 then he jumped from the earl's ship and took to swimming1 and swam to an isle where no man dwelt4 8,earl ,magnus came first to ,egil's ,isle with his company1 and when they saw ,hakon coming they saw that he had eight war-ships2 he thought he knew then that treachery must be meant4 ,earl ,magnus then betook himself up on the isle with his men1 and went to the church to pray1 and was there that night2 but his men offered to defend him4 ,the earl answers1 #8,i will not lay your life in risk for me1 and if peace is not to be made between us two kinsmen1 then be it as ,god wills4' ,then his men thought that what he had said when the billow fell on them was coming true4 ,now for that he felt sure as to the hours of his life beforehand1 whether it was rather from his shrewdness or of godly foreshowing1 then he would not fly nor fare far from the meeting of his foes4 ,he prayed earnestly1 and let a mass be sung to him4 8,hakon and his men jumped up in the morning1 and ran first to the church and ransacked it1 and did not find the earl4 ,he had gone another way on the isle with two men into a certain hiding-place4 ,and when the saint ,earl ,magnus saw that they sought for him1 then he calls out to them and says where he was2 he bade them look nowhere else for him4 ,and when ,hakon saw him1 they ran thither with shouts and crash of arms4 ,earl ,magnus was then at his prayers when they came to him1 and when he had ended his prayers then he signed himself with the cross1 and said to ,earl ,hakon1 with steadfast heart1 #8,thou didst not well1 kinsman1 when thou wentest back on thy oaths1 and it is much to be hoped that thou doest this more from others' badness than thine own4 ,now will ,i offer thee three choices1 that thou do one of these rather than break thine oaths and let me be slain guiltless4' 8,hakon's men asked what offer he made4 #8,that is the first1 that ,i will go south to ,rome1 or out as far as ,jerusalem1 and visit holy places1 and have two ships with me out of the land with what we need to have1 and so make atonement for both of our souls4 ,this ,i will swear1 never to come back to the ,orkneys4' ,to this they said #8,nay' at once4 ,then ,earl ,magnus spoke3 #8,now seeing that my life is in your power1 and that ,i have in many things made myself an outlaw before ,almighty ,god1 then send thou me up into ,scotland to some of both our friends1 and let me be there kept in ward1 and two men with me as a pastime4 ,take thou care then that ,i may never be able to get out of that wardship4' ,to this they said #8,nay' at once4 ,magnus spoke3 #8,one choice is still behind which ,i will offer thee1 and ,god knows that ,i look more to your soul than to my life2 but still it better beseems thee than to take my life away4 ,let me be maimed in my limbs as thou pleasest1 or pluck out my eyes1 and set me in a dark dungeon4' ,then ,earl ,hakon spoke3 #8,this settlement ,i am ready to take1 nor do ,i ask anything further4' ,then the chiefs sprang up and said to ,earl ,hakon1 #8,we will slay now either of you twain1 and ye two shall not both from this day forth rule the lands4' ,then answers ,earl ,hakon3 #8,slay ye him rather1 for ,i will rather rule the realm and lands than die so suddenly4' ,so says ,holdbodi1 a truthful freeman from the ,southern ,isles1 of the parley they had4 ,he was then with ,magnus1 and another man with him1 when they took him captive4 8,so glad was the worthy ,earl ,magnus as though he were bidden to a feast2 he neither spoke with hate nor words of wrath4 ,and after this talk he fell to prayer1 and hid his face in the palms of his hands1 and shed out many tears before ,god's eyesight4 ,when ,earl ,magnus1 the saint1 was done to death1 ,hakon bade ,ofeig his banner-bearer to slay the earl1 but he said #8,nay' with the greatest wrath4 ,then he forced ,lifolf his cook to kill ,earl ,magnus1 but he began to weep aloud4 #8,thou shalt not weep for this1' said the earl1 #8for that there is fame in doing such deeds4 ,be steadfast in thine heart1 for thou shalt have my clothes1 as is the wont and law of men of old1 and thou shalt not be afraid1 for thou doest this against thy will1 and he who forces thee misdoes more than thou4' ,but when the earl had said this he threw off his kirtle and gave it to ,lifolf4 ,after that he begged leave to say his prayers1 and that was granted him4 ,illustration3 ,church of ,st4 ,magnus1 ,egilsay4 7,from a painting by ,t4 ,marjoribanks ,hay1 ,r4,s4,w47 8,he fell to earth1 and gave himself over to ,god1 and brought himself as an offering to ,him4 ,he not only prayed for himself or his friends1 but rather there and then for his foes and banemen1 and forgave them with all his heart what they had misdone towards him1 and confessed his own misdeeds to ,god1 and prayed that they might be washed off him by the outshedding of his blood1 and commended his soul into ,god's hand1 and prayed that ,god's angels would come to meet his soul and bear it into the rest of ,paradise4 ,when the friend of ,god was led out to slaughter he spoke to ,lifolf3 #8,stand thou before me1 and hew me on my head a great wound1 for it beseems not to chop off chiefs' heads like thieves'4 ,strengthen thyself1 wretched man1 for ,i have prayed to ,god that he may have mercy upon thee4' ,after that he signed himself with the cross1 and bowed himself to the stroke4 ,and his spirit passed to heaven4 8,that spot was before mossy and stony4 ,but a little after1 the worthiness of ,earl ,magnus before ,god was so bright that there sprung up a green sward where he was slain1 and ,god showed that1 that he was slain for righteousness' sake1 and inherited the fairness and greenness of ,paradise1 which is called the earth of living men4444 ,there had then passed since the birth of ,christ one thousand and ninety and one winters40 ,from the 8,orkneyinga ,saga10 translated by ,sir ,g4 ,w4 ,dasent1 ,d4,c4,l4 7,by permission of the ,controller of ,h4,m4 ,stationery ,office47 ,,the ,,founding ,,of ,,st4 ,,magnus ,,cathedral4 ,after the death of ,hakon1 the slayer of ,earl ,magnus1 the earldom was divided between his two sons1 ,harald the ,smooth-talker1 and ,paul the ,speechless4 ,there were many bitter quarrels between the brothers1 until the death of the former left ,paul as sole ruler4 ,that happened in this wise4 ,when they had been reconciled after one of their quarrels1 ,harald invited ,paul to a feast in his house at ,orphir4 ,on the morning before the feast1 ,earl ,harald found his mother and his aunt working at a very beautiful shirt1 which1 they said1 was a present for his brother ,paul4 8,why should such a splendid garment be given to ,paul and not to me80 asked the earl1 taking it up in his hand to look at it4 ,then before the women could prevent him1 he threw off the light cloak he was wearing and put on the gorgeous shirt4 ,no sooner had it touched his skin than he was seized with violent pains1 and with a sickness of which he died a few days later4 ,the shirt had been poisoned in order to cause ,earl ,paul's death1 but it was ,earl ,harald who fell a victim to his mother's cunning and treacherous design4 ,earl ,paul did not long reign in peace4 ,a new claimant soon appeared for part of the lands4 ,this was ,kali1 the son of ,kol and of ,gunhild1 the sister of the murdered ,st4 ,magnus1 who had been brought up at the court of ,king ,harald of ,norway4 ,he was a man of noble appearance1 bold and skilful in war1 and a born leader of men4 ,he was in addition a noted skald or poet1 and many of the songs which he made have come down to us in the ,sagas4 ,he now changed his name to ,rognvald1 which had been a popular name in the isles since the days of ,rognvald1 ,brusi's son1 and he is known in history as ,rognvald ,kali1 or ,rognvald the ,second4 ,having the promise of help from ,harald1 the ,norwegian king1 ,rognvald sent a message to ,earl ,paul1 demanding that share of the islands which ,earl ,magnus had held4 ,earl ,paul1 who was a good ruler1 and had many friends among the ,orkneymen1 replied that he would guard his inheritance while ,god gave him life4 ,rognvald then gathered ships and set sail for ,shetland1 but his fleet was destroyed in ,yell ,sound by the ships of ,earl ,paul1 and he had to escape to ,norway in a merchant vessel4 ,earl ,paul thereupon placed beacons on some of the highest hills in the islands1 in order that he might have warning of any attempt by ,rognvald to make a descent by way of ,shetland1 and the most important of these beacons was on the ,fair ,isle4 ,when ,rognvald1 angry and disappointed1 arrived in ,norway1 he took counsel with his father ,kol and with an old man named ,uni1 who was reckoned a very wise man2 and as he had many friends among the men of ,shetland1 it was decided to make a new attempt in the spring4 ,by the aid of ,king ,harald and of his friends a new fleet was then got ready4 ,when the ships were assembled1 ,rognvald stood up on the deck of his war-dragon to address his men4 8,earl ,paul and the ,orkneyingers10 he said1 8have taken my inheritance1 and refuse to give it up4 ,my grandfather1 the holy ,earl ,magnus1 was treacherously slain by ,paul's father ,hakon1 and instead of giving compensation for the wicked deed1 ,earl ,paul would wrong me still more in the matter of my inheritance4 ,however1 if it be the will of ,god1 ,i intend to fare to the ,orkneys1 and there win what is mine by right1 or die with honour40 ,all the men cheered this speech1 and when they were silent ,kol rose to speak4 ,he advised his son not to trust in his own strength for success4 8,i advise thee1 ,rognvald10 he said1 8to make a vow that if ,st4 ,magnus secures to thee thine inheritance1 thou wilt build and dedicate to him in ,kirkwall a minster of such size and splendour that it shall be the wonder and the glory of all the ,north40 ,rognvald thought this the best of advice4 ,rising once more1 he vowed to build in ,kirkwall a splendid cathedral in honour of ,st4 ,magnus1 and to remove thither with all reverence the remains of the sainted earl4 ,no sooner had this solemn vow been taken than the wind became fair for sailing4 ,the fleet at once put to sea1 and reached ,shetland in a few days4 ,now ,rognvald's real difficulties began4 ,how could he take ,earl ,paul by surprise1 as he wished to do1 with the beacon on the ,fair ,isle ready to give the alarm as soon as his ships came in sight8 ,the wisdom of ,kol and of ,uni came to his aid4 ,the former had a plan to cause the beacon to be lit on a false alarm1 and the latter to prevent its being lit when it was needed4 ,kol set sail from ,shetland towards evening with a fleet of small boats4 ,when they came in sight of the ,fair ,isle1 they hoisted their sails half way up the masts1 and with the oars the men kept back the boats so as to make them sail very slowly4 ,at the same time they gradually hoisted their sails higher and higher1 so that to those in charge of the beacon it might seem that a fleet was rapidly approaching ,when it was dark the boats returned to the land4 ,the trick was successful4 ,the ,fair ,isle beacon flared up to the sky1 those on ,north ,ronaldsay and on ,westray followed1 and soon every hilltop in the islands showed its warning light4 ,the ,orkneymen took their weapons and hurried to ,kirkwall1 where ,earl ,paul had appointed them to gather in such a case1 and all was ready to meet the enemy2 but no enemy appeared4 ,those who had charge of the beacons came with the news of a fleet approaching2 and after long waiting other men were sent to look for its coming1 but they looked in vain4 ,quarrels soon began to arise as to who was to blame for the false alarm1 for the men were angry at having been taken from their farm work to no purpose2 so the earl had to make peace among them1 and set other men to build up the beacons again and to watch them4 ,now came ,uni's turn4 ,he sailed to the ,fair ,isle with three companions1 and pretended to be an enemy of ,rognvald1 saying many hard things against him and his men4 ,his three companions went out every day to fish1 but ,uni himself stayed on shore4 ,he gradually made friends with the people of the isle1 and especially with those who had charge of the beacon4 ,at last he offered to watch it for them1 saying that he had nothing else to do1 and his offer was accepted4 ,uni then poured water on the beacon1 and kept it in such a state of dampness that it should be impossible to light it when it was needed4 ,thus by the time that ,rognvald was to set out from ,shetland1 ,uni had everything prepared4 ,as soon as his ships were seen from the ,fair ,isle1 the men who had charge of the beacon tried to light it1 but in vain4 ,there was no time to warn ,earl ,paul1 and ,rognvald landed in ,westray without any alarm being given4 ,the bishop now interfered between the rivals1 and a truce was agreed to in order that terms of peace might be arranged4 ,and now things took a strange and unexpected turn1 so that ,rognvald won the islands without any fighting4 ,while ,earl ,paul was on a visit to his friend ,sigurd of ,westness1 in ,rousay1 he went out before breakfast one morning and mysteriously disappeared4 ,sigurd sought him everywhere in vain4 ,at last they discovered that he had been seized and carried off to ,scotland by ,sweyn ,asleifson1 and he never returned4 ,earl ,paul's men gradually came over to ,earl ,rognvald1 and he became ruler over the whole earldom4 ,earl ,rognvald now set about fulfilling his vow and raising a great cathedral in ,kirkwall in honour of ,st4 ,magnus4 ,in #aacg the work was begun under the superintendence of ,kol1 but many a long year was to pass ere it should be finished4 ,as the work went on it soon became very costly to the earl4 ,in his difficulty he once more went to his father ,kol for advice4 ,kol said that ,rognvald should declare himself the heir of all landholders who died1 and that their sons should have to redeem their lands from him4 ,a ,thing was called1 and this law was passed2 but the freemen also had the choice given them of buying their lands outright1 so that the earl might not inherit them in the future4 ,most of the landholders took that plan1 and now there was once more plenty of money for the cathedral4 ,when the work was so far advanced that part of the cathedral could be roofed in1 the remains of ,st4 ,magnus1 which had already been removed from ,christ ,church in ,birsay1 were laid to rest in the new minster4 ,many great men have been laid in the same place since then4 ,earl ,rognvald himself was buried there1 and there too the remains of ,king ,hakon rested for a time before their removal to ,bergen4 ,while on a visit to ,norway1 ,earl ,rognvald made the acquaintance of a ,crusader who had returned from the ,holy ,land1 and he determined that he also would become a 8,jorsalafarer10 or pilgrim to ,jerusalem4 ,the story of this strange voyage1 in company with the ,bishop of ,orkney and many of his countrymen--half ,vikings1 half ,crusaders--is well told in the 8,saga of ,earl ,rognvald10 and in our next chapter we give part of the narrative4 ,illustration3 ,on the 8,viking ,path40 ,,the ,,jorsalafarers4 8,earl ,rongvald busked him that summer to leave the ,orkneys1 and he was rather late boun2 for they had a long while to wait for ,eindrid1 as his ship did not come from ,norway which he had let be made there the winter before4 ,but when they were boun1 they held on their course away from the ,orkneys in fifteen big ships4 8,they sailed away from the ,orkneys and south to ,scotland1 and so on to ,england1 and as they sailed by ,northumberland1 off ,humbermouth1 ,armod sang a song1-- #8,the sea was high off ,humbermouth ,when our ships were beating out1 ,bends the mast and sinks the land ',neath our lee off ,vesla-sand2 ,wave with veil of foam that rises ,drives not in the eyes of him ,who now sits at home2 the stripling ,from the meeting rideth dry4' 8,they sailed thence south round ,england and to ,france4 ,nothing is said of their voyage before that they came to that seaburg which is named ,nerbon ,there these tidings had happened1 that the earl who before had ruled the town was dead4 ,his name was ,germanus2 he left behind him a daughter young and fair1 whose name was ,ermingerd4 ,she kept watch and ward over her father's inheritance1 with the counsel of the most noble men of her kinsfolk4 ,they gave that counsel to the queen that she should bid the earl to a worthy feast1 and said that by that she would be famous if she welcomed heartily such men of rank who had come so far to see her1 and who would bear her fame still further4 ,the queen bade them see to that4 ,and when this counsel had been agreed on by them1 men were sent to the earl1 and he was told that the queen bade him to a feast with as many of his men as he chose to bring with him4 ,the earl took this bidding with thanks2 he chose out all his best men for this journey with him4 ,and when they came to the feast1 there was the best cheer1 and nothing was spared which could do the earl more honour than he had ever met before4 8,one day it happened as the earl sat at the feast that the queen came into the hall and many women with her2 she held a beaker of gold in her hand4 ,she was dressed in the best clothes1 had her hair loose as maidens wont to have1 and had put a golden band round her brow4 ,she poured the wine into the earl's cup1 but her maidens danced before them4 ,the earl took her hand and the beaker too and set her on his knee1 and they talked much that day4 8,the earl stayed there very long in the best of cheer4 ,the townsmen pressed the earl to settle down there1 and spoke out loudly about how they would give him the lady to wife4 ,the earl said he would fare on that voyage which he had purposed1 but said that he would come thither as he fared back1 and then they could carry out their plan or not as they pleased4 ,after that the earl busked him away thence with his fellow voyagers4 ,and as they sailed west of ,thrasness they had a good wind2 then they sat and drank and were very merry4 8,they fared till they came to ,galicialand in the winter before ,yule1 and meant to sit there ,yule over4 ,they dealt with the landsmen1 and begged them to set them a market to buy food2 for the land was barren and bad for food1 and the landsmen thought it hard to feed that host of men4 ,now these tidings had happened there1 that in that land sat a chief who was a stranger1 in a castle1 and he had laid on the landsmen very heavy burdens4 ,he harried them on the spot if they did not agree at once to all that he asked1 and he offered them the greatest tyranny and oppression4 ,and when the earl spoke to the landsmen about bringing him food to buy1 they made him that offer1 that they would set them up a market thenceforth on till ,lent1 but they must rid them in some way or other of the men in the castle2 but ,earl ,rognvald was to bear the brunt in return for the right of having all the goods that were gotten from them4 8,the earl laid this bare before his men1 and sought counsel from them as to which choice he should take2 but most of them were eager to fall on the castlemen1 and thought it bid fair for spoil4 ,and so ,earl ,rognvald and his host went into that agreement with the landsmen4 ,but when it drew near to ,yule1 ,earl ,rognvald called his men to a talk1 and said1-- 8#8,now have we sat here awhile1 and yet we have had nothing to do with the castlemen1 but the landsmen are getting rather slack in their dealings with us4 ,methinks they think that what we promised them will have no fulfilment2 but still that is not manly not to turn our hands to what we have promised4 ,now1 kinsman ,erling1 will ,i take counsel from you in what way we shall win the castle1 for ,i know that ye are here some of you the greatest men for good counsel2 but still ,i will beg all those men who are here that each will throw in what he thinks is likeliest to be worth trying4' 8,erling answered the earl's speech3 #8,i will not be silent at your bidding4 ,but ,i am not a man for counsel1 and it would be better rather to call on those men for that who have seen more1 and are more wont to such exploits1 as is ,eindrid the ,young4 ,but here it will be as the saying goes1 8,you must shoot at a bird before you get him40 ,and so we will try to give some counsel1 whatever comes of it4 ,we shall to-day1 if it seems to you not bad counsel or to the other shipmasters1 go all of us to the wood1 and bear each of us three shoulder-bundles of fagots on our backs under the castle2 for it seems to me as though the lime will not be trusty if a great fire is brought to it4 ,we shall let this go on for the three next days and see what turn things take4' 8,they did as ,erling bade2 and when that toil was over1 it was come right on to ,yule4 ,the bishop would not let them make their onslaught while the ,yule high feast stood over them4 8,that chief's name was ,godfrey who dwelt in the castle2 he was a wise man1 and somewhat stricken in years4 ,he was a good clerk1 and had fared far and wide1 and knew many tongues4 ,he was a grasping man and a very unfair man4 ,he called together his men when he saw ,rognvald's undertakings1 and said to them1-- 8#8,this scheme seems to me clever and harmful to us which the ,northmen have taken in hand4 ,it will befall us thus if fire is borne against us1 that the stone wall round the castle will be untrustworthy4 ,but the ,northmen are strong and brave2 we shall have to look for a sharp fight from them if they get a chance4 ,i will now take counsel with you what shall be done in this strait which has befallen us4' ,but his men all bade him see to that for them4 ,then he began to speak1 and said1 #8,my first counsel is that ye shall bind a cord round me and let me slide down from the castle wall to-night4 ,i shall have on bad clothes1 and fare into the camp of the ,northmen1 and know what ,i can find out4' 8,this counsel was taken as he had laid it down4 ,and when ,godfrey came to ,earl ,rognvald he said he was an old beggar carle1 and spoke in ,spanish2 they understood that tongue best4 ,he fared about among all the booths and begged for food4 ,he found out that there was great envy and splitting into parties amongst the ,northmen4 ,eindrid was the head of one side1 but the earl of the other4 ,godfrey came to ,eindrid and got to talk with him1 and brought that before him that the chief who held the castle had sent him thither4 #8,he will have fellowship with thee1 and he hopes that thou wilt give him peace if the castle be won4 ,he would rather that thou shouldst have his treasures1 if thou wilt do so much in return for them1 than those who would rather see him a dead man4' ,of such things they talked and much besides4 ,but the earl was kept in the dark2 all this went on by stealth at first4 ,and when ,godfrey had stayed a while with the earl's men1 then he turned back to his men4 ,but this was why they did not flit what they owned out of the castle1 because they did not know whether the storm would take place at all2 besides they could not trust the landfolk4 8,it was the tenth day of ,yule that ,earl ,rognvald rose up4 ,the weather was good4 ,then he bade his men put on their arms1 and let the host be called up to the castle with the trumpet4 ,then they drew the wood towards it1 and piled a bale round about the wall4 ,the earl drew up his men for the onslaught where each of them should go4 ,the earl goes against it from the south with the ,orkneyingers1 ,erling and ,aslag from the west1 ,john and ,gudorm from the east1 ,eindrid the ,young from the north with his followers4 ,and when they were boun for the storm they cast fire into the bale4 8,now they began to press on fast both with fire and weapons4 ,then they shot hard into the work for they could not reach them by any other attack4 ,the castlemen stood loosely here and there on the wall1 for they had to guard themselves against the shots4 ,they poured out too burning pitch and brimstone1 and the earl's men took little harm by that4 ,now it turned out as ,erling had guessed1 that the castle wall crumbled before the fire when the lime would not stand it1 and there were great breaches in it4 8,sigmund ,angle was the name of a man in the earl's bodyguard2 he was ,sweyn ,asliefson's step-son4 ,he pressed on faster than any man to the castle1 and ever went on before the earl2 he was then scarcely grown up4 ,and when the storm had lasted awhile1 then all men fled from the castle wall4 ,the wind was on from the south1 and the reek of the smoke lay towards ,eindrid and his men4 ,and when the fire began to spread very fast1 then the earl made them bring water and cool the rubble that was burned4 ,and then there was a lull in the assault4 8,after that the earl made ready to storm1 and ,sigmund ,angle with him4 ,there was then but a little struggle1 and they got into the castle4 ,there many men were slain1 but those who would take life gave themselves up to the earl's power4 ,there they took much goods1 but they did not find the chief1 and scarcely any precious things4 ,then there was forthwith much talk how ,godfrey could have got away2 and then at once they had the greatest doubt of ,eindrid the ,young1 that he must have passed him away somehow1 and that he 7,godfrey7 must have gone away under the smoke to the wood4 8,after that ,earl ,rognvald and his host stayed there a short time in ,galicialand1 and held on west off ,spain4 ,they harried wide in that part of ,spain which belonged to the heathen1 and got there much goods4 ,after that they sailed west off ,spain1 and got there a great storm1 and lay three days at anchor1 so that they shipped very much water1 and it lay near that they had lost their ships4 ,after that they hoisted their sails and beat out to ,njorfa ,sound the ,strait of ,gibraltar with a very cross wind4 ,they sailed through ,njorfa ,sound1 and then the weather began to get better4 ,and then1 as they bore out of the sound1 ,eindrid the ,young parted company from the earl with six ships4 ,he sailed over the sea to ,marseilles1 but ,rognvald and his ships lay behind at the sound2 and men talked much about it1 how ,eindrid had now himself given proof whether or not he had helped ,godfrey away4 8,nothing is told of the voyage of the earl and his men before they came south off ,sarkland1 and lay in the neighbourhood of ,sardinia1 and knew not what land they were near4 ,the weather had turned out in this wise1 that a great calm set in and mists and smooth seas--though the nights were light--and they saw scarcely at all from their ships1 and so they made little way4 ,one morning it happened that the mist lifted4 ,men stood up and looked about them4 ,then the earl asked if men saw anything new4 ,they said they saw nought but two islets1 little and steep1 and when they looked for the islets the second time1 then one of the islets was gone4 ,they told this to the earl4 ,he began to say1 #8,that can have been no islets4 ,that must be ships which men have out here in this part of the world1 which they call dromonds2 those are ships big as holms to look on4 ,but there1 where the other dromond lay1 a breeze must have come down on the sea1 and they must have sailed away2 but these must be wayfaring men1 either chapmen or faring in some other way on their business4' 8,after that the earl lets them call to him the bishop and all the shipmasters2 then he began to say3 #8,i call you together for this1 lord bishop and ,erling1 my kinsman3 see ye any scheme or chance of ours that we may win victory in some way over those who are on the dromond4' ,the bishop answers3 #8,hard1 ,i guess1 will it be for you to run your long-ships under the dromond1 for ye will have no better way of boarding than by grappling the bulwarks with a broad-axe2 but they will have brimstone and boiling pitch to throw under your feet and over your heads4 ,ye may see1 earl1 so wise as you are1 that it is the greatest rashness to lay one's self and one's men in such risk4' 8,then ,erling began to speak3 #8,lord bishop1' he says1 #8likely it is that ye are best able to see this1 that there will be little hope of victory in rowing against them4 ,but somehow it seems to me that though we try to run under the dromond1 so methinks it will be that the greatest weight of weapons will fall beyond our ships1 if we hug her close1 broadside to broadside4 ,but if it be not so1 then we can put off from them quickly1 for they will not chase us in the dromond4' 8,the earl began to say3 #8,that is spoken like a man and quite to my mind4 ,i will now make that clear to the shipmasters and all the crews1 that each man shall busk him in his room1 and arm himself as he best can4 ,after that we will row up to them4 ,but if they are ,christian chapmen1 then it will be in our power to make peace with them2 but if they are heathen1 as ,i feel sure they are1 then ,almighty ,god will yield us that mercy that we shall win the victory over them4 ,but of the war spoil which we get there1 we shall give the fiftieth penny to poor men4' ,after that1 men got out their arms and heightened the bulwarks of their ships1 and made themselves ready according to the means which they had at hand4 ,the earl settles where each of his ships should run in4 ,then they made an onslaught on her by rowing1 and pulled up to her as briskly as they could4 8,but when those who were aboard the dromond saw that ships were rowing up to them1 they took silken stuffs and costly goods and hung them out on the bulwarks1 and then made great shoutings and hailings2 and it seemed to the earl's men as though they dared the ,northmen to come on against them4 ,earl ,rognvald laid his ship aft alongside the dromond on the starboard1 but ,erling1 too1 aft on the larboard4 ,john and ,aslak1 they laid their ships forward each on his own board1 but the others amidships on both boards2 and all the ships hugged her close1 broadside to broadside4 ,and when they came under the dromond1 her sides were so high out of the water that they could not reach up with their weapons4 ,but the foe poured down blazing brimstone and flaming pitch over them4 ,and it was as ,erling guessed it would be1 that the greatest weight of weapons fell out beyond the ships1 and they had no need to shield themselves on that side which was next to the dromond1 but those who were on the other side held their shields over their heads and sheltered themselves in that way4 8,and when they made no way with their onslaught1 the bishop shoved his ship off and two others1 and they picked out and sent thither their bowmen1 and they lay within shot1 and shot thence at the dromond1 and then that onslaught was the hardest that was made4 ,then those on board the dromond got under cover1 but thought little about what those were doing who had laid their ships under the dromond4 ,earl ,rognvald called out then to his men1 that they should take their axes and hew asunder the broadside of the dromond in the parts where she was least iron-bound4 ,but when the men in the other ships saw what the earl's men were about1 they also took the like counsel4 8,now1 where ,erling and his men had laid their ship a great anchor hung on the dromond1 and the fluke was hung by the crook over the bulwark1 but the stock pointed down to ,erling's ship4 ,audun the ,red was the name of ,erling's bowman2 he was lifted up on the anchor-stock4 ,but after that he hauled up to him more men1 so that they stood as thick as ever they could on the stock1 and thence hewed at the sides as they best could1 and that hewing was by far the highest up4 ,and when they had hewn such large doors that they could go into the dromond1 they made ready to board1 and the earl and his men got into the lower hold1 but ,erling and his men into the upper4 ,and when both their bands had come up on the ship there was a fight both great and hard4 ,on board the dromond were ,saracens1 what we call ,mahomet's unbelievers4 ,there were many blackamoors1 and they made the hardest struggle4 ,erling got there a great wound on his neck near his shoulders as he sprang up into the dromond4 ,that healed so ill that he bore his head on one side ever after4 ,that was why he was called ,wryneck4 8,and when they met ,earl ,rognvald and ,erling1 the ,saracens gave way before them to the fore-part of the ship1 but the earl's men then boarded her one after another4 ,then they were more numerous1 and they pressed the enemy hard4 ,they saw that on board the dromond was one man who was both taller and fairer than the others2 the ,northmen held it to be the truth that that man must be their chief4 ,earl ,rognvald said that they should not turn their weapons against him1 if they could take him in any other way4 ,then they hemmed him in and bore him down with their shields1 and so he was taken and afterwards carried to the bishop's ship1 and few men with him4 ,they slew there much folk1 and got much goods and many costly things4 ,when they had ended the greatest part of their toil1 they sat down and rested themselves4 8,men spoke of these tidings which had happened there4 ,then each spoke of what he thought he had seen2 and men talked about who had been the first to board the dromond1 and could not agree about it4 ,then some said that it was foolish that they should not all have one story about these great things2 and the end of it was that they agreed that ,earl ,rognvald should settle the dispute1 and afterwards they should all back what he said4 8,when they had stripped the dromond they put fire into her and burnt her4 ,and when that tall man whom they had made captive saw that1 he was much stirred1 and changed colour1 and could not hold himself still4 ,but though they tried to make him speak1 he never said a word and made no manner of sign1 nor did he pay any heed to them whether they promised him good or ill4 ,but when the dromond began to blaze1 they saw as though blazing molten ore ran down into the sea4 ,that moved the captive man much4 ,they were quite sure then that they had looked for goods carelessly1 and now the metal had melted in the heat of the fire1 whether it had been gold or silver4 8,earl ,rognvald and his men sailed thence south under ,sarkland1 and lay under a seaburg1 and made a seven nights' truce with the townsmen1 and had dealings with them1 and sold them the men whom they had taken4 ,no man would buy the tall man4 ,and after that the earl gave him leave to go away and four men with him4 ,he came down the next morning with a train of men and told them that he was a prince of ,sarkland1 and had sailed thence with the dromond and all the goods that were aboard her4 ,he said1 too1 he thought that worst of all that they burnt the dromond1 and made such waste of that great wealth that it was of no use to any one4 #8,but now ,i have great power over your affairs4 ,now you shall have the greatest good from me for having spared my life and treated me with such honour as ye could2 but ,i would be very willing that we saw each other never again4 ,and so now live safe and sound and well4' ,after that he rode up the country1 but ,earl ,rognvald sailed thence south to ,crete1 and they lay there in very foul weather4 8,the earl and his men lay under ,crete till they got a fair wind for ,jewry-land1 and came to ,acreburg early on a ,friday morning1 and landed then with such great pomp and state as was seldom seen there4 ,the earl and his men stayed in ,acreburg a while4 ,there sickness came into their ranks1 and many famous men breathed their last4 ,there ,thorbjorn the ,swarthy1 a liegeman1 breathed his last4 8,earl ,rognvald and his men then fared from ,acreburg1 and sought all the holiest places in the land of ,jewry4 ,they all fared to ,jordan and bathed there4 ,earl ,rognvald and ,sigmund ,angle swam across the river and went up on the bank there1 and thither where was a thicket of brushwood1 and there they twisted great knots4 ,after that they fared back to ,jerusalem4 8,earl ,rognvald and his men fared that summer from the land of ,jewry1 and meant to go north to ,micklegarth ,constantinople1 and came about autumn to that town which is called ,imbolar4 ,they stayed there a very long time in the town4 ,they had that watchword in the town1 if men met one another walking where it was throng and narrow1 and the one thought it needful that the other who met him should yield him the path1 then he says thus1 #8,out of the way2 out of the way4' ,one evening as the earl and his men were coming out of the town1 and ,erling ,wryneck went out along the wharf to his ship1 some of the townsmen met him and called out1 #8,out of the way2 out of the way4' ,erling was very drunk1 and made as though he heard them not1 and when they ran against one another1 ,erling fell off the wharf and down into the mud which was below2 and his men ran down to pick him up1 and had to strip off every stitch of his clothes and wash him4 ,next morning when he and the earl met1 and he was told what had happened1 he smiled at it4 8,after that they fared away thence4 ,and nothing is told of their voyage before they come north to ,engilsness ,cape ,st4 ,angelo4 ,there they lay some nights and waited for a wind which would seem fair to them to sail north along the sea to ,micklegarth4 ,they took great pains then with their sailing1 and so sailed with great pomp1 just as they had heard that ,sigurd ,jewry-farer had done4 8,when ,earl ,rognvald and his men came to ,micklegarth they had a hearty welcome from the emperor and the ,varangians4 ,menelaus was then emperor over ,micklegarth1 whom we call ,manuel4 ,he gave the earl much goods1 and offered them bounty-money if they would stay there4 ,they stayed there awhile that winter in very good cheer4 ,there was ,eindrid the ,young1 and he had very great honour from the emperor4 ,he had little to do with ,earl ,rognvald and his men1 and rather tried to set other men against them4 8,earl ,rognvald set out on his voyage home that winter from ,micklegarth1 and fared first west to ,bulgarialand1 to ,dyrrachburg4 ,thence he sailed west across the sea to ,poule4 ,there ,earl ,rognvald and ,bishop ,william and ,erling1 and all the nobler men of their band1 landed from their ships1 and got them horses and rode thence first to ,rome1 and so homewards on the way from ,rome until they come to ,denmark1 and thence they fared north to ,norway4 ,there men were glad to see them1 and this voyage was most famous1 and they who had gone on it were thought to be men of much more worth after than before40 ,from the 8,orkneyinga ,saga10 translated by ,sir ,g4 ,w4 ,dasent1 ,d4,c4,l4 7,by permission of the ,controller of ,h4,m4 ,stationery ,office47 ,illustration3 ,a ,great ,viking4 7,from the picture by ,h4 ,w4 ,koekkoek47 ,,sweyn ,,asleifson1 ,,the ,,last ,,of ,,the ,,vikings4 ,the sudden disappearance of ,earl ,paul1 by which ,earl ,rognvald had been left in sole possession of the ,orkneys1 was1 as we have said1 due to a certain ,viking1 ,sweyn ,asleifson of ,gairsay4 ,this ,sweyn is one of the most remarkable men in all ,orcadian history4 ,among the ,vikings of old he was the greatest1 and he was the last4 ,of him the ,saga says3 8,he was the greatest man in the western lands1 either in old time or at the present day40 ,for the slaying of one of ,earl ,paul's men ,sweyn had had to escape out of the isles4 ,he abode for a time in the ,hebrides1 and afterwards sought refuge in the dales of ,scotland1 where ,margaret1 the daughter of ,earl ,hakon1 was married to ,maddad1 ,earl of ,athole4 ,he had promised to help ,harald1 their son1 to become ,earl of the ,orkneys1 and it was with a view to this that he kidnapped ,earl ,paul4 ,on that morning ,earl ,paul had gone out early from ,westness to hunt the otter near ,scabro ,head4 ,sweyn had sailed over from ,thurso1 keeping to the west of ,hoy and the ,mainland1 and was now rowing into ,evie ,sound1 for he had heard that ,earl ,paul was staying with ,sigurd of ,westness4 ,as they rowed near the land1 ,sweyn ordered all his men to lie hid except those at the oars1 that the ship might look like a peaceful merchant-vessel4 ,when the earl saw the ship rowing near the rocks1 he called out to the men that they should go on to ,westness with their wares for ,earl ,paul4 ,then ,sweyn1 who was lying hid1 bade his men ask where the earl was4 8,the earl is here on the rocks10 was the reply4 8,row quickly to land at a place where they will not see us10 said ,sweyn to his men2 8and let us arm ourselves1 for we have work to do40 ,the ship was rowed to the shore1 as he had said1 and ,sweyn and his men armed themselves and fell upon ,earl ,paul and his company4 ,these1 being unarmed1 were soon disposed of4 ,the earl was seized and taken aboard the ship1 and ,sweyn immediately set sail for ,scotland by the way he had come4 ,sigurd marvelled when the earl did not return from his hunting1 and men were sent out to look for him4 ,they came upon the bodies of the slain--nineteen of the earl's men and six strangers--but the earl himself had disappeared4 ,it was at first thought that ,earl ,rognvald had had something to do with his disappearance1 and it was many days before men knew what had become of the vanished earl4 ,in the meantime ,sweyn had carried ,paul to ,athole1 and placed him in the keeping of ,maddad and ,margaret4 ,his after fate is unknown4 ,the story which ,sweyn afterwards told is that ,paul did not wish to return to ,orkney1 so shameful had been the manner of his leaving it2 and that he wished it to be reported that he had been blinded or maimed1 in order that men should not seek to bring him back4 ,sweyn himself came back to ,orkney with this story2 and he acknowledged ,earl ,rognvald1 and became very friendly with him4 ,as the great ,earl of ,warwick has been called 8the king-maker0 in ,england1 so ,sweyn may be called the 8earl-maker0 in ,orkney4 ,he it was who caused ,harald1 the son of ,maddad1 to be made earl1 and he also supported ,earl ,erlend in his claims while ,earl ,rognvald was in the ,holy ,land4 ,he gained the friendship of ,david1 ,king of ,scots1 ,viking though he was1 and the terror of the ,scottish and ,irish seas4 ,many of ,sweyn's ,viking raids are told in the ,orkney ,saga1 one of the most famous being that known as ,sweyn's 8,broadcloth ,cruise40 ,the following account is given of this cruise1 and of the death of ,sweyn3-- 8,these tidings happened once on a time1 that ,sweyn ,asleifson fared away on his spring-cruise1 and ,hakon1 ,earl ,harald's son1 fared with him2 and they had five ships with oars1 and all of them large4 ,they harried about among the ,southern ,isles4 ,then the folk were so scared at him in the ,southern ,isles that men hid all their goods and chattels in the earth or in piles of rocks4 ,sweyn sailed as far south as ,man1 and got ill off for spoil4 ,thence they sailed out under ,ireland and harried there4 ,but when they came about south under ,dublin1 then two keels sailed there from off the main1 which had come from ,england1 and meant to steer for ,dublin2 they were laden with ,english cloths1 and great store of goods was aboard them4 8,sweyn and his men pulled up to the keels and offered them battle4 ,little came of the defence of the ,englishmen before ,sweyn gave the word to board4 ,then the ,englishmen were made prisoners4 ,and there they robbed them of every penny which was aboard the keels1 save that the ,englishmen kept the clothes they stood in and some food1 and went on their way afterwards with the keels2 but ,sweyn and his men fared to the ,southern ,isles and shared their war-spoil4 8,they sailed from the west with great pomp4 ,they did this as a glory for themselves when they lay in harbours1 that they threw awnings of ,english cloth over their ships4 ,but when they sailed into the ,orkneys1 they sewed the cloth on the fore-part of the sails1 so that it looked in that wise as though the sails were made altogether of broadcloth4 ,this they called the ,broadcloth ,cruise4 8,sweyn fared home to his house in ,gairsay4 ,he had taken from the keels much wine and ,english mead4 ,now when ,sweyn had been at home a short while1 he bade to him ,earl ,harald1 and made a worthy feast against his coming4 ,when ,earl ,harald was at the feast1 there was much talk amongst them of ,sweyn's good cheer4 ,the earl spoke and said3 #8,this ,i would now1 ,sweyn1 that thou wouldst lay aside thy sea-rovings2 'tis good now to drive home with a whole wain4 ,but thou knowest this1 that thou hast long maintained thyself and thy men by sea-roving2 but so it fares with most men who live by unfair means1 that they lose their lives in strife1 if they do not break themselves from it4' 8,then ,sweyn answered1 and looked to the earl1 and spoke with a smile1 and said thus3 #8,well spoken is this1 lord1 and friendly spoken1 and it will be good to take a bit of good counsel from you2 but some men lay that to your door1 that ye too are men of little fairness4' ,the earl answered3 #8,i shall have to answer for my share1 but a gossiping tongue drives me to say what ,i do4' 8,sweyn said3 #8,good1 no doubt1 drives you to it1 lord4 ,and so it shall be1 that ,i will leave off sea-roving1 for ,i find that ,i am growing old1 and strength lessens much in hardships and warfare4 ,now ,i will go out on my autumn-cruise1 and ,i would that it might be with no less glory than the spring-cruise was2 but after that my wayfaring shall be over4' ,the earl answers3 #8',tis hard to see1 messmate1 whether death or lasting luck will come first4' ,after that they dropped talking about it4 ,earl ,harald fared away from the feast1 and was led out with fitting gifts4 ,so he and ,sweyn parted with great love-tokens4 8,a little while after1 ,sweyn busks him for his roving cruise2 he had seven long-ships1 and all great4 ,hakon1 ,earl ,harald's son1 went along with ,sweyn on his voyage4 ,they held on their course first to the ,southern ,isles1 and got there little war-spoil2 thence they fared out under ,ireland1 and harried there far and wide4 ,they fared so far south as ,dublin1 and came upon them there very suddenly1 so that the townsmen were not ware of them before they had got into the town4 ,they took there much goods4 ,they made prisoners there those men who were rulers there in the town4 ,the upshot of their business was that they gave the town up into ,sweyn's power1 and agreed to pay as great a ransom as he chose to lay upon them4 ,sweyn was also to hold the town with his men and to have rule over it4 ,the ,dublin men sware an oath to do this4 ,next morning ,sweyn was to come into the town and take the ransom4 8,now it must be told of what happened in the town during the night4 ,the men of good counsel who were in the town held a meeting among themselves1 and talked over the straits which had befallen them2 it seemed to them hard to let their town come into the power of the ,orkneyingers1 and worst of all of that man whom they knew to be the most unjust man in the western lands4 ,so they agreed amongst themselves that they would cheat ,sweyn if they might4 ,they took that counsel1 that they dug great trenches before the burg-gate on the inside1 and in many other places between the houses where it was meant that ,sweyn and his men should pass2 but men lay in wait there in the houses hard by with weapons4 ,they laid planks over the trenches1 so that they should fall down as soon as ever a man's weight comes on them4 ,after that they strewed straw on the planks so that the trenches might not be seen1 and so bided the morrow4 8,on the morning after1 ,sweyn and his men arose and put on their arms2 after that they went to the town4 ,and when they came inside beyond the burg-gate1 the ,dublin men made a lane from the burg-gate right to the trenches4 ,sweyn and his men saw not what they were doing1 and ran into the trenches4 ,the townsmen then ran straightway to hold the burg-gate1 but some to the trenches1 and brought their arms to bear on ,sweyn and his men4 ,it was unhandy for them to make any defence1 and ,sweyn lost his life there in the trenches1 and all those who had gone into the town4 ,so it was said that ,sweyn was the last to die of all his messmates1 and spoke these words ere he died3 #8,know this1 all men1 whether ,i lose my life to-day or not1 that ,i am one of the ,saint ,earl ,rognvald's bodyguard1 and ,i now mean to put my trust in being there where he is with ,god4' ,sweyn's men fared at once to their ships and pulled away1 and nothing is told about their voyage before they come into the ,orkneys40 ,from the 8,orkneyinga ,saga10 translated by ,sir ,g4 ,w4 ,dasent1 ,d4,c4,i4 7,by permission of the ,controller of ,h4,m4 ,stationery ,office47 ,illustration ,,the ,,decay ,,of ,,the ,,earldom ,,and ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,western ,,kingdom4 ,after the death of ,earl ,rognvald1 the islands were ruled for almost fifty years by ,harald ,maddadson4 ,harald's later days were full of troubles4 ,with the decay of his powers the glory of the earldom also faded away4 ,in #aaid1 when ,sverrir was ,king of ,norway1 a rebellion took place1 with the object of placing ,sigurd ,erlingson on the throne4 ,sigurd's party1 known as the 8,eyjarskeggjar0 or 8,island-beardies10 had their headquarters in the ,orkneys4 ,there they collected their forces1 and there the rebellion was organized4 ,the rebels were completely overthrown in a great battle fought near ,bergen4 ,sverrir summoned ,earl ,harald before him in #aaif to answer for his share in the matter4 ,as a punishment for permitting plots against him to be hatched in ,orkney--plots which the gray-haired old earl had been powerless to prevent--the king compelled him to surrender the government of ,shetland4 ,for nearly two centuries thereafter ,orkney and ,shetland were separate1 the former ruled by the earl1 the latter by a governor appointed by the ,norwegian crown4 ,the result of this was twofold4 ,in the first place it weakened the power of the ,orkney earldom2 in the second place it caused the earldom to draw nearer to ,scotland1 and to come more and more under ,scottish influence4 ,but the aged earl's cup of sorrow was not yet full4 ,he quarrelled also with the ,scottish king4 ,as a consequence of this quarrel he was stripped of his ,scottish possessions1 and his son ,thorfinn perished miserably1 a prisoner in ,roxburgh ,castle4 ,when ,earl ,harald died in #abjf1 full of years and of sorrows1 the earldom was but the shadow of its former self4 ,after ,harald's death1 his two sons1 ,john and ,david1 succeeded to the earldom4 ,david did not live long1 and ,john was then left sole earl4 ,this earl1 the last of the old ,norse jarls1 was ,earl of ,orkney excluding ,shetland1 holding that earldom from the ,norwegian king1 and ,earl of ,caithness1 including ,sutherland1 holding that from the ,king of ,scotland4 ,matters continued in this state generally till the pledging of the islands in #adfh1 the only change being that ,shetland was again added to the ,orkney earldom in #acgi1 when ,henry1 the first of the ,st4 ,clairs1 became earl4 ,the days of ,earl ,john1 like those of his father1 were stormy1 and disaster after disaster fell upon the isles4 ,the burning of ,bishop ,adam at ,halkirk in ,caithness brought down on the earl the vengeance of ,king ,alexander the ,second of ,scotland4 ,the earl had no hand in the murder1 but he was near by1 and1 in the opinion of ,king ,alexander1 might have prevented the tragedy4 ,then a feud arose between the earl and some of the leaders of a ,norse expedition to the ,western ,isles4 ,the earl was attacked suddenly in ,thurso1 and there murdered4 ,this took place in the year #abca4 ,the murderers took refuge in the ,castle of ,weir1 where they were besieged by the earl's friends and adherents4 ,ultimately both parties agreed that the case should be submitted to the ,norwegian king4 ,the chief men of the islands embarked for ,norway to be present at the trial of the murderers1 which ended in their conviction and punishment4 ,but a terrible disaster for the ,orkney earldom followed4 ,all the leading men of the islands left ,norway in one ship1 and set sail for ,orkney late in autumn4 ,stormy weather set in shortly after their departure4 ,fears which were entertained for the safety of the ship proved to be only too well founded3 the ship was never heard of again4 ,with her went down nearly all the nobility of the earldom4 ,this disaster1 which happened in #abcb1 was irremediable4 ,well does the ,saga of ,hakon ,hakonson say1 8,many men have had to suffer for this later40 ,the earldom never recovered from the loss of its best blood1 and but for this loss the after course of events might have been very different4 ,henceforth the ,orkney earldom plays but a subordinate part in the history of the ,north4 ,in #abcb ,king ,alexander of ,scotland granted the ,earldom of ,caithness to ,magnus1 son of ,gilbride1 ,earl of ,angus4 ,magnus was at the same time confirmed in the ,earldom of ,orkney by the ,king of ,norway4 ,but ,king ,alexander made ,sutherland a separate earldom1 ,william ,friskyn being created first earl4 ,thus within a period of forty years the earldom1 which had at one time rivalled the power of ,scotland itself1 and had been at once the centre and the defence of the ,norse ,empire in the west1 was stripped of more than half its territories4 ,the ,scottish king had a deep purpose to serve in thus weakening the northern earldom4 ,he was already casting covetous eyes on the ,hebrides1 and every blow struck at the power of the ,orkney earl was a step towards the conquest of the ,western ,isles4 ,in the heyday of ,norse ascendency there was danger of the western ,norse colonies swallowing up ,scotland rather than of ,scotland swallowing up these colonies4 ,but ,hakon of ,norway was now too busy at home repressing internal disorders to give much thought to the ambitions of the ,scottish king1 and the ,orkney earl was too weak to form a serious obstacle1 besides which he was more than half ,scottish himself4 ,for many years the chiefs of the ,hebrides and the ,western ,isles had been wavering in their allegiance to the ,norwegian crown4 ,king ,alexander was also doing his utmost to undermine ,norse influence in the west4 ,while he was carrying on intrigues with the western chiefs1 he at the same time kept sending embassies to ,norway to treat with ,hakon for the purchase of these islands4 ,hakon's answer was brief and decided3 ,he was not yet so much in want of money that he needed to sell his lands for it4 ,the next ,king of ,scotland1 ,alexander the ,third1 had the same ambitions as his father1 and as resolutely pursued his schemes for the subjugation of the ,hebrides4 ,he was1 moreover1 a young1 energetic1 and warlike king4 ,he found the island chiefs very troublesome neighbours4 ,his father's policy of intrigue was too slow for him1 and he determined to take by force what he could not obtain by treaty4 ,in #abfb the ,scots invaded the ,norse dominions in the west4 ,hakon1 who had now pacified his own kingdom1 was at last roused to make a serious effort to preserve his over-sea dominions4 ,in the summer of #abfc he 8let letters of summons be sent round all ,norway1 and called out the levies both of men and stores as he thought the land could bear it4 ,he summoned all the host to meet him early in the summer at ,bergen40 ,a mighty fleet assembled in obedience to the king's command1 and1 under the leadership of ,hakon himself1 set sail from ,norway in the end of ,july #abfc4 ,after delaying through the summer in ,shetland and ,orkney1 this ill-fated expedition reached the ,firth of ,clyde in late autumn4 ,alexander the ,third1 knowing well that he could not hope to meet the ,norsemen at sea1 prepared to give them as warm a reception as possible wherever they might land4 ,in the meantime he pretended to be anxious for peace4 ,negotiations were opened between the two kings4 ,alexander temporized3 winter was approaching4 ,hakon's patience at last gave way1 and breaking off negotiations1 the ,norsemen began to harry the country1 receiving willing aid from the various half-,celtic chieftains1 who enjoyed nothing so much as an opportunity of ravaging the fertile ,lowlands4 ,but that ally whose coming ,alexander had been awaiting came at length2 on the first of ,october a great storm from the south-west arose suddenly during the night4 ,hakon's ships began to drag their anchors4 ,they fouled each other in the darkness1 and several were driven ashore on the ,ayrshire coast4 ,when morning dawned1 ,hakon found his own ship within bowshot of the shore1 while the ,scots were already plundering one which had stranded near by4 ,during a lull in the storm ,hakon managed to land a detachment of his men to protect the stranded galley4 ,but the storm increased in fury once more4 ,the ,norsemen on shore were outnumbered probably by ten to one1 and no help could be sent from the ships4 ,the ,vikings threw themselves into a circle bristling with spear-points4 ,onset after onset of the ,scots forced the ring of spears slowly back towards the shore1 but they could not break it4 ,all day long the battle raged--the ,norsemen with the angry sea behind them1 and no hope of succour from their fleet2 the ,scots determined to drive the invaders into the sea1 or slay them where they stood4 ,as evening began to fall the storm moderated1 and ,hakon was able to send reinforcements on shore4 ,the ,scots were borne backwards by the onset of the fresh warriors4 ,but night was falling1 and the ,norsemen were anxious to get back to their ships1 for the storm was not yet over4 ,they accordingly hastened to take advantage of the breathing-space which they had won1 and retired to their ships4 ,such was the famous battle of ,largs1 which both ,scots and ,norsemen claim as a victory4 ,in itself it was little more than a skirmish2 but the events of that night and day1 the storm and the battle together1 gave the death-blow to ,norse dominion in the west4 ,the heart of ,king ,hakon failed him4 ,his men also were discouraged4 ,the shattered remains of the once splendid fleet set sail for ,orkney1 and the great invasion of ,scotland was over4 ,broken in spirit and shattered in health1 ,hakon reached ,orkney only to die4 ,part of his fleet was ordered to proceed to ,norway1 and part was laid up for the winter in ,scapa ,bay and ,houton ,cove4 ,scarcely had these matters been attended to when his fatal sickness seized the king4 ,in the ,bishop's ,palace in ,kirkwall he spent his last hours4 ,here at midnight1 on ,saturday1 ,december #ae1 #abfc1 in the sixtieth year of his eventful life1 died ,hakon ,hakonson1 the last of the great sea-kings of ,norway4 ,the remains of the king were carried to the cathedral1 where they lay in state1 and were afterwards temporarily interred in the choir near the shrine of ,st4 ,magnus4 ,when spring came1 ,hakon's body was exhumed and taken to ,bergen in ,norway1 where it was finally laid to rest in the choir of ,christ ,church4 ,after the death of ,hakon1 his son ,magnus1 now ,king of ,norway1 sent ambassadors to the ,scottish king to treat for peace1 and a treaty was signed at ,perth in #abff4 ,by this treaty ,norway resigned her rights in the ,hebrides1 in consideration of ,scotland's paying down four thousand marks1 besides a tribute of one hundred marks to be paid annually in ,st4 ,magnus ,cathedral1 ,kirkwall4 ,this tribute1 called the ,annual of ,norway1 was the direct cause of the troubles which preceded the marriage of ,james the ,third of ,scotland and ,princess ,margaret of ,denmark4 ,a large proportion of ,king ,hakon's forces had to be maintained in ,orkney during the winter succeeding ,largs4 ,to provide for this1 the lands of the earldom were divided into sections1 and charged with the maintenance of the soldiers in proportion to the amount of 8skatt0 each section owed the king4 ,the ,skatt ,book of the earldom was prepared--a list of the lands therein1 and the amount of skatt which they paid4 ,it was the ,domesday ,book of the ,orkneys4 ,on this ,skatt ,book were based the ,scottish ,rentals1 which came into such prominence in the history of the ,scottish oppressions during the sixteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,ruins of the ,bishop's ,palace1 ,kirkwall4 ,,the ,,annexation ,,to ,,scotland4 ,the history of ,orkney during the two centuries which intervened between the battle of ,largs and the annexation to ,scotland contains little of interest4 ,the earldom was held by ,scottish families1 first the ,strathernes1 and then the ,st4 ,clairs4 ,the sympathies of the earls were with the ,scots1 the people were mainly ,norse1 and as a natural consequence quarrels frequently arose between the earls and their subjects4 ,another source of trouble was the fact that the earls generally held possessions in ,scotland1 and were thus subjects of ,scotland as well as of ,norway4 ,the islands were neglected by both countries1 being of little importance to ,norway as governed by foreigners1 and of little interest to ,scotland as owned by a foreign country4 ,several of the earls took a prominent part in the affairs of ,scotland1 and were men of mark and highly esteemed by the ,scottish sovereigns4 ,thus ,magnus1 the last of the ,angus line1 was one of the eight ,scottish noblemen who1 in #acbj1 subscribed the famous letter to the ,pope asserting the independence of ,scotland2 and ,henry1 the second of the ,st4 ,clairs1 was entrusted by ,king ,robert the ,third with the task of conveying the young ,prince ,james to a safe asylum in ,france1 when that prince was made prisoner by the ,english4 ,in the history of ,orkney itself the only man of note among the ,scottish earls was ,henry1 the first of the ,st4 ,clairs1 the builder of ,kirkwall ,castle4 ,henry became earl in #acgi4 ,under his rule ,orkney and ,shetland were once more united4 ,he is the only one of the ,scottish earls who can be at all compared with the old ,norse jarls of ,orkney4 ,in everything except name he was king of his island dominions1 ruling them as he pleased without much thought of either ,norway or ,scotland4 ,it was in the time of ,william1 the third of the ,st4 ,clair earls1 that the transference of ,orkney and ,shetland to ,scotland took place4 ,the circumstances which led to this important event must now be related4 ,after the battle of ,largs a treaty of peace between ,norway and ,scotland had been signed at ,perth in #abff1 ,norway resigning the ,hebrides in return for an immediate payment by ,scotland of four thousand marks1 and in addition a tribute of one hundred marks to be paid annually in ,st4 ,magnus ,cathedral1 ,kirkwall4 ,for every failure to pay this tribute--known in history as the ,annual of ,norway--,scotland was liable to a penalty of ten thousand marks4 ,this treaty was afterwards confirmed by ,hakon the ,fifth and ,robert the ,bruce at ,inverness in #acab4 ,in #acig ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,denmark were united under one sovereign4 ,when1 in #addh1 ,christian the ,first became king of the united realms1 payment by ,scotland of the ,annual of ,norway had been neglected for some forty years4 ,according to the ,treaty of ,perth1 ,scotland was therefore liable to a penalty of over four hundred thousand marks4 ,christian's exchequer was empty2 here was an opportunity of replenishing it4 ,about #adfj ,christian made a threatening demand for payment of the whole sum due4 ,the sum demanded was so large that it would have been no easy matter for ,scotland to pay it1 however willing she might be4 ,christian had concluded an alliance with ,france1 and ,france had always been the firm friend of ,scotland4 ,when a rupture between ,denmark and ,scotland seemed inevitable1 the ,french king employed all his influence to secure a compromise4 ,he suggested that a marriage should be arranged between ,prince ,james of ,scotland1 afterwards ,james the ,third1 and ,margaret1 ,christian's daughter1 trusting that the negotiations in connection with the marriage would lead to the friendly settlement of the matters in dispute4 ,prolonged negotiations took place between the two countries4 ,scotland at first demanded the remission of the ,annual of ,norway with arrears1 the cession of ,orkney and ,shetland1 and a dowry of a hundred thousand crowns4 ,to these terms ,christian refused to listen4 ,the death of ,james the ,second at the siege of ,roxburgh ,castle suspended negotiations for a time4 ,some years after the accession of ,james the ,third they were resumed4 ,the final result was the ,marriage ,treaty of #adfh1 which brought about the transference of ,orkney and ,shetland to ,scotland4 ,the main provisions of the ,marriage ,treaty were these3--7#a47 ,that the ,princess ,margaret's dowry should amount to fifty thousand florins2 ten thousand to be paid within the year1 and the islands of ,orkney to be pledged for the remaining forty thousand4--,only two thousand florins were paid1 ,shetland being pledged in the following year for the remaining eight thousand4 7#b47 ,that the rights of ,christian as ,king of ,norway should be exercised in the islands by the ,scottish king until the forty thousand florins were paid4 7#c47 ,that the islanders should enjoy their own customs and laws while under ,scottish rule4 ,christian would not consent to the permanent cession of the islands to ,scotland under any conditions4 ,in fact nothing but the direst financial straits can account for his even pledging them4 ,but he had just finished a costly war in ,sweden1 his exchequer was empty1 and the ,scottish marriage seemed to him very desirable4 ,on this ,marriage ,treaty of #adfh1 and on the agreement afterwards made with ,earl ,william1 ,scotland bases her claim to the islands of ,orkney and ,shetland4 ,it is certain that ,christian intended to redeem the islands1 and even as late as #affh the plenipotentiaries of ,europe assembled at ,breda declared that ,denmark--it ought to be ,norway--still retained the right to redeem them4 ,scottish influence in ,orkney had been increasing for many years previous to the annexation4 ,the needy dependants of the various ,scottish noblemen who held the earldom found the islands a happy hunting-ground for their avarice or for their need4 ,there was thus a strong party in ,orkney in favour of the annexation to ,scotland4 ,but the large majority of the inhabitants could not but regard the change of masters with dismay4 ,scotland was an alien power1 and had usually been a hostile one4 ,her laws and institutions had little in common with those of the northern earldom4 ,besides this1 her tenure being only temporary1 she had no inducement to promote the welfare of the islands1 but on the contrary her obvious interest was to make as much profit as possible from her opportunity4 ,from #adfh onwards1 till long after the termination of ,scottish and the beginning of ,british rule1 the lot of the islanders was far from enviable4 ,the transformation of the leading ,norse earldom into a minor ,scottish county was the work of those years4 ,the process by which this was accomplished was a long-continued series of injuries and oppressions1 the story of which forms too long a tale to be fully told here4 ,illustration3 ,knocking ,stone and ,mell4 ,,udal ,,and ,,feudal4 ,orkney and ,shetland were handed over to ,scotland1 but care was taken to secure the rights of the inhabitants of the islands by the provision in the treaty of #adfh that they should be governed according to their own laws and usages4 ,these were different from those of ,scotland in several important particulars4 ,unfortunately1 the new ,scottish rulers did not know the laws of the earldom1 and did not care to learn them4 ,with regard to the holding of land1 the laws of ,scotland were entirely different from those of ,orkney4 ,in ,scotland land was held according to the feudal system1 in ,orkney according to the udal system4 ,under the feudal system the king was nominally the owner of all the lands in the kingdom4 ,the various landlords held their lands from him as their superior1 in exchange for certain services to be rendered or payments to be made1 and by a written title1 without which they had no legal claim to the land4 ,the udal system has been described as 8the direct negation of every feudal principle40 ,the udaller held his land without any written title1 subject to no service or payment to a superior1 and with full possession and every conceivable right of ownership4 ,the udaller was a peasant noble2 he was the king's equal and not his vassal4 ,he owed king or jarl no services1 duties1 or payment for his udal lands1 which he held as an absolute possession1 inalienable from him and his race4 ,it must not be supposed that all the land in ,orkney was held udally1 or that all the inhabitants were udallers4 ,there were some udallers who held part of their land as tenants1 and many of the islanders held no udal land at all4 ,all landholders1 whether udallers or tenants1 had to pay a tax1 called 8skatt40 ,this was a tax levied to meet the expenses of government and defence4 ,skatt was paid sometimes to the ,king of ,norway1 sometimes to the ,earl of ,orkney1 but it was legally the property of the crown4 ,hakon1 when he lay dying in ,kirkwall1 levied skatt on the landholders of ,orkney for the support of his troops during the winter4 ,in this he was only exercising the undoubted right of the crown of ,norway4 ,but the skatt was never a rent1 and never carried with it the acknowledgment of king or jarl as the real landowner4 ,when ,orkney came under ,scottish rule1 the ,king of ,scotland became entitled to the skatt4 ,some ,scottish nobleman or churchman was usually appointed to collect the revenues of the crown in the earldom4 ,this nobleman or churchman was paid a commission on what he collected1 together with any trifles he might extort 8in ony manner of way40 ,sometimes the revenues of the earldom were farmed out to the collector1 an annual sum being paid by him into the royal treasury as rent4 ,this arrangement afforded much room for extortion1 and all the more so because the crown collector was ignorant1 or could pretend to be ignorant1 of ,orkney law and of the udal system4 ,in #adga the ,scottish crown purchased from ,earl ,william all the lands and revenues which he held as ,earl of ,orkney4 ,in #adgb ,bishop ,william ,tulloch was appointed to collect the revenues of the crown in ,orkney4 ,the period of ,scottish oppression at once began4 ,the bishop was deeply imbued with feudal prejudices4 ,he had a rental drawn up1 in which he registered the lands of udaller and tenant indiscriminately1 with a studied confusion of their different rights4 ,both udal and feudal payments were exacted as rents from all holders of land4 ,the udaller had no one to whom he could appeal to right his wrongs and protect him against oppression4 ,he had no written titles4 ,the bishop ruled the bishopric as bishop1 and he ruled the earldom as representative of the crown4 ,the churches were filled with ,scottish priests subservient to his will4 ,the struggle was hopeless from the beginning1 but it took a century to reduce the peasant nobles of ,orkney to the position and rank of tenant farmers1 and in the meantime the various rulers of the islands reaped a rich harvest4 ,bishop ,tulloch's rule lasted for seven years1 and was followed by six years under ,bishop ,andrew4 ,then in #adhe ,henry ,st4 ,clair was appointed representative of the crown in ,orkney4 ,the ,st4 ,clairs had always been popular in the islands1 and the islanders rejoiced at the appointment of ,lord ,henry4 ,he redressed a number of grievances1 but the fundamental change of udal into feudal which had begun went on unchecked4 ,it was too profitable a confusion to be put right4 ,after the death of ,lord ,henry ,st4 ,clair at ,flodden1 turmoil and confusion reigned in the earldom4 ,his widow1 ,lady ,margaret ,hepburn1 held the crown lands in ,orkney for nearly thirty years1 but she was quite unable to rule the islands4 ,a report got abroad that the king intended to give ,orkney a feudal lord4 ,in #aebi the trouble came to a head4 ,james ,st4 ,clair1 the most popular of that popular family1 was made ,governor of ,kirkwall ,castle1 and put himself at the head of the discontented faction4 ,open rebellion followed4 ,lord ,william ,st4 ,clair1 son of ,lady ,margaret remained loyal1 and had to escape to ,caithness4 ,allied with the ,earl of ,caithness1 ,lord ,william invaded the islands with a considerable force4 ,the invaders were met at ,summerdale in ,stenness by the rebels under ,james ,st4 ,clair1 and were defeated with great slaughter4 ,many old stories about this battle still exist4 ,the ,caithness force landed in ,orphir1 and on their march they are said to have encountered a witch1 whom they consulted as to the omens of success4 ,she walked before them1 unwinding together two balls of thread1 one blue and the other red4 ,she asked them to choose one of the balls as the symbol of their fortune1 and they chose the red4 ,the red thread was the first to come to an end4 ,unwilling to accept this omen1 they demanded that the witch should give them yet another sign4 ,she thereupon informed the ,earl of ,caithness that whichever side lost the first man in the fight would lose the day4 ,soon afterwards a boy was met herding cattle1 and by order of the earl he was slain4 ,only after the deed was done did they discover that the boy was not an ,orcadian but a native of ,caithness4 ,already prepared for defeat by these bad omens1 the invaders came upon the ,orcadian force at ,summerdale4 ,the ,orcadians assailed them with showers of stones1 and the ,caithness force was quickly destroyed4 ,only one ,orcadian is said to have fallen4 ,he1 having dressed himself in the clothes of one of the fallen enemy1 was slain in the dusk of the evening as he returned home4 ,his mother mistook him for one of the invading force1 and felled him by a blow with a stone in the foot of a stocking4 ,such are some of the tales tradition has woven round this fight4 ,it was the last stand of the udallers1 and the last pitched battle fought on ,orcadian soil1 if we except the siege of ,kirkwall ,castle during the rebellion of the ,stewarts4 ,after the battle of ,summerdale the islands still remained in a very unsettled condition1 until in #aedj ,james the ,fifth thought his presence necessary to restore tranquillity4 ,the king stayed with the bishop in ,kirkwall1 though not in the ancient ,bishop's ,palace1 which had witnessed the death of ,king ,hakon4 ,the visit of the king led to the removal of many abuses4 ,but his death in #aedb1 and the long minority of his daughter1 ,mary ,queen of ,scots1 brought back the former evils in an aggravated form4 ,for twenty years the records of the islands are records of murder1 violence1 and oppression4 ,the udallers were now a comparatively feeble folk1 but their worst period of oppression was still to come4 ,,the ,,stewart ,,earls4 ,in #aefe began the most cruel oppression which the islands suffered under ,scottish rule4 ,lord ,robert ,stewart1 a son of ,james the ,fifth and half-brother of the ,earl of ,moray1 obtained a feu charter of ,orkney and ,shetland4 ,this grant was illegal in every way4 ,it was not sanctioned by ,parliament1 and it disposed not only of the actual property which the crown of ,scotland had acquired in the islands1 but of the lands and services of the udallers or free landowners1 which had never belonged to ,norway or ,denmark1 and could not therefore have been acquired by ,scotland4 ,in exchange for the revenues of the ,abbey of ,holyrood1 the new earl also obtained possession of the lands and revenues of the ,bishopric of ,orkney4 ,to oppress the udallers so as to compel them to accept feus from him was the unvarying object of ,earl ,robert's policy4 ,he aggravated the burdens of the islanders by making them use weights and measures of his own devising1 and increased their liabilities to him by a coinage of his own valuation4 ,he raised the rents of the tenants to the limits of endurance1 made every occasional or special payment an annual burden1 imposed parish taxes as household taxes1 and by pretended decrees of the ,thing1 or council1 evicted many udallers without a show of justice4 ,heavy tolls and duties were laid on all fishermen and traders who came to the islands1 and secret encouragement was given to pirates1 whose booty was shared by the earl4 ,the more bitter the complaints of the islanders1 the more grievous became their oppression4 ,to prevent these complaints reaching the ears of the authorities in ,edinburgh1 the earl forbade any one to cross the firths or ferries without his permission4 ,it began also to be whispered that ,earl ,robert was plotting to sever once more the connection between ,orkney and the ,scottish crown4 ,he had made additions to the old palace at ,birsay1 and on a stone over the principal gate he had caused to be inscribed3 ,,dominus ,,robertus ,,stewartus ,,filius ,,jacobi ,,quinti ,,rex ,,scotorum ,,hoc ,,opus ,,instruxit--that is1 8,earl ,robert ,stewart1 son of ,james the ,fifth1 ,king of the ,scots1 erected this building40 ,those who know a little ,latin will observe that by his using the nominative case rex1 it is ,earl ,robert himself and not ,james the ,fifth whom he describes as 8,king of the ,scots40 ,this was probably a mere mistake in the earl's ,latin1 but a much graver meaning was attached to it by the ,scottish ,king and ,parliament when the whisper of treason somehow reached their ears4 ,the complaints of the udallers might be unheeded1 but the accusation of treason was a much more serious matter4 ,the earl was summoned to ,edinburgh to answer the charges against him4 ,he was kept for some time a prisoner in ,linlithgow ,castle1 but the storm quickly blew over4 ,no trial ever took place4 ,that ordeal ,earl ,robert escaped by the help of his powerful friends and relatives2 and not only so1 but in #aeha he was once more granted the ,earldom of ,orkney and ,shetland1 with extended powers4 ,when ,robert ,stewart died1 the islands were granted to his son1 ,patrick ,stewart1 the most cruel oppressor of all4 ,skilful in tyranny and extortion as ,earl ,robert had been1 his son showed still more ability and ingenuity in his evil courses4 ,the multiplication of enactments and penalties for the most trivial offences1 confiscation1 torture1 and judicial murder--these were the additions ,earl ,patrick made to the machinery of oppression used by his father4 ,he had palaces built for him at ,scalloway and at ,kirkwall by the same forced labour that had already reared ,earl ,robert's palace in ,birsay4 ,but ,earl ,patrick's career is best described in the words of ,mackenzie3-- 8,earl ,patrick--still remembered in ,orkney tradition as #8,black ,pate'--was a man of kingly ideas1 and had his lot been cast in ,egypt instead of in ,orkney1 would have done very well as one of the ,pharaohs4 #8,heaven is high and the ,czar is far away1' says a ,russian proverb4 ,orkney is far from ,holyrood and farther from ,london1 and the earl did his own pleasure in his domain1 without having the fear of the distant king before his eyes4 8,most astounding and extraordinary was the system of tyranny and extortion which he carried on4 ,he accused one and another of the gentry of the islands of high treason1 and tried them in his own court4 ,but it was not his object to punish these gentlemen as traitors against the king4 ,in that case their forfeited estates would go to the king1 which would be no profit to the earl4 ,the earl was not so simple4 ,the frightened udallers were glad enough to compound with the formidable earl by making over to him a portion of their lands to save the remainder and their own necks4 8,the ,orkney potentate dealt in exactions of every description4 ,he extorted taxes and duties4 ,he created ferries and levied exorbitant tolls on them4 ,he compelled the people to work for him all manner of work4 ,he forced them to row his boats and man his ships1 to toil in his quarries1 to convey stones and lime for the building of his palace and park walls1 and to perform whatever other kinds of slave-labour he chose to demand1 #8without either meat or drink or hire4' 8,the ,czar though far away sometimes hears at last4 ,the doings of this tyrant of the isles attracted the attention of the law4 ,he was seized and put in ward in ,dumbarton ,castle4 ,what schemes were in his proud1 fierce head it is difficult to guess4 ,this is known1 that1 under his instructions1 his son ,robert occupied the castle of ,kirkwall with armed men1 fortified the cathedral1 and stood ready to hold his own4 8,as soon as it became known in ,edinburgh that ,orkney was in rebellion1 the king's ,secret ,council dispatched the ,earl of ,caithness to bring it under4 ,two great cannons were wheeled down from ,edinburgh ,castle and shipped at ,leith along with a strong military force4 ,the expedition landed safely within a mile and a half of ,kirkwall4 ,the great cannons were pointed against the castle4 ,they shot and got their answer in shot4 ,the siege continued about a month1 when the rebels gave in4 ,caithness returned to ,edinburgh with ,robert ,stewart and other prisoners1 and the two great cannons passed up the ,high ,street in triumph1 to the sound of drum and trumpet1 with the keys of ,kirkwall ,castle hanging at their muzzles4 8,robert ,stewart was condemned to death and hanged at the ,market ,cross along with five of his accomplices4 ,the people pitied him greatly1 for it was his father's scheming that had led him to destruction4 ,his father's execution soon followed4 ,the ministers who tried to prepare him for death1 finding him so ignorant that he could not say the ,lord's ,prayer1 asked the ,council to delay his execution for a few days1 till he could be better informed4 ,the request was granted1 and then he went his way into the great darkness40 ,the rebellion of ,earl ,patrick led to the abolition of the ,thing and the ancient laws of ,orkney and ,shetland1 but there was little change for the better in the government of the islands4 ,they were assigned to one nobleman after another1 no one having any interest in their improvement4 ,it was1 indeed1 not till the eighteenth century that any very great effort was made to give them the benefits of good government and a chance to regain somewhat of their ancient prosperity4 ,illustration3 ,pot ,querns and ,saddle ,quern4 ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,and ,,nineteenth ,,centuries4 ,during the long period of oppression by the ,scottish earls1 the state of our islands had been indeed deplorable1 and recovery was slow4 ,the spirit was crushed out of the people4 ,industry was vain when plunder was sure to follow4 ,agriculture could not advance when the alien landlord claimed all the profit4 ,an ,orkney writer of the eighteenth century gives a sad picture of the condition of the country in his day3-- 8,the inhabitants1 in general1 are very polite1 hospitable1 and kind to strangers2 but ,i am sorry to say that so little is industry encouraged in our country that no means can be assigned by which the lower class of people can get their bread4 ,by reason of having no employment they must live very wretchedly2 they become indolent and lazy to the last degree1 insomuch that rather than raise cabbage for their own use they will steal from others2 and instead of being at pains to prepare the turf1 which they have for the mere trouble of cutting up and drying1 yet1 rather than do so1 they will steal it from those who are richer or more industrious than themselves4444 ,every ,saturday1 which day they are privileged to beg1 a troop of miserable1 ragged creatures are seen going from door to door1 almost numerous enough to plunder the whole town were they to exert themselves against it in an hostile manner--at least1 if their valour was in proportion to their distress40 ,the dawn of a brighter day came slowly1 and it is difficult now to trace the steps by which the prosperity of the islands was restored4 ,agriculture remained in a very primitive state till the nineteenth century had well begun4 ,an ,orkney 8township0 had a very different appearance in those days from what we now see4 ,the farms were not divided from one another2 each patch of cultivated ground belonged to all the farmers in the township1 who shared it on the 8run-rig0 system1 each 8rig0 being worked by a different owner4 ,the only pasture was the natural grass of meadow and hill1 and this also was common property4 ,a 8hill-dyke10 usually of turf1 surrounded the corn-land1 and formed a somewhat indifferent protection against the flocks of sheep1 cattle1 horses1 and pigs which found their summer food on the 8hill40 ,the names 8,slap0 and 8,grind10 borne by farmhouses in many districts1 remind us of the gateways in these old hill dykes4 ,with the corn-land subdivided in this way1 and the pasture-land undivided1 there was no inducement for any farmer to improve his methods of agriculture4 ,farm implements were of the rudest kind4 ,the soil was scratched rather than tilled by means of wooden ploughs with only one stilt or handle1 a model of which may be seen in the museum in ,stromness4 ,there were no carts2 loads were carried pannier-fashion on the backs of horses1 along the rough tracks or bridle-paths which served for roads4 ,of the old style of farmhouse scarcely a relic now remains4 ,one entrance usually served the farmer and his cattle1 who lived under the same roof1 though in separate apartments4 ,in the kitchen1 or 8but-end10 the fireplace was simply a raised hearth in the centre of the room1 with a low wall or 8back0 against which the peat-fire was built4 ,there was no chimney1 but a large opening in the roof allowed the smoke to escape in a leisurely fashion4 ,behind the 8back0 there was often accommodation for poultry1 calves1 and other domestic animals4 ,the better class of houses had beyond the kitchen a parlour1 or 8ben-end10 which was used only on great occasions4 ,rough and primitive as was their manner of life1 yet at the beginning of last century the ,orcadians had already made a very considerable advance in prosperity4 ,a writer of the time tells us that the small farmers had more money among them than could be found among people of similar station in any other part of the ,british ,isles4 ,it was not till the second quarter of the century that the land was divided up into separate farms1 and modern methods of agriculture began to be employed1 with rotation of crops and improved implements4 ,a little later the beginning was made of the system of roads which now spreads in a network over the islands4 ,while agriculture was yet in its infancy1 the islands were much benefited by various forms of industry and occupation which have now mostly fallen into disuse1 as the need for their help has passed away4 ,one of these industries1 introduced towards the end of the eighteenth century1 was the spinning of flax and the weaving of linen4 ,flax was largely grown in the islands at one time1 and the dressing1 spinning1 and weaving of it was a common occupation4 ,about the beginning of the nineteenth century the manufacture of straw-plait was introduced1 and soon took the place of the linen industry4 ,it is said that over six thousand women and girls were at one time employed in straw-plaiting4 ,though the workers were paid but little1 and that usually not in money but in goods1 the straw-plaiting increased considerably the wealth and the trade of the county4 ,the manufacture of kelp was introduced early in the eighteenth century1 and gave occupation to many of the inhabitants4 ,large profits were made in this business1 not so much1 of course1 by the actual workers as by the landlords and other agents who exported the kelp4 ,at one time1 indeed1 it seemed as if the attention given to this industry was to prove a hindrance to the advance of agriculture1 which is the only foundation of true prosperity in these islands2 and when other substances began to take the place of kelp1 the decline of this trade was really a benefit to the islands4 ,fishing has always been an important industry in ,orkney1 but it was not till near the middle of the nineteenth century that the improvements in boats and in gear made the fisheries a really valuable asset to the islanders4 ,fishing1 however1 cannot be called one of those temporary industries which we mentioned4 ,the herring fishery and the white fishing1 as well as other branches of this industry1 have continued to increase1 and next to agriculture1 fishing is the great natural source of wealth for the people4 ,during the centuries now under our notice1 ,orkney had a closer connection with the seafaring life than it has to-day4 ,when all trade was carried on by sailing ships1 and when westerly winds were quite as common as they now are1 vessels passing through the ,pentland ,firth for ,america or elsewhere found ,stromness a convenient port of call1 and its harbour was often crowded with shipping4 ,this was especially the case during the ,french wars of the eighteenth century1 when the ,english ,channel was avoided by shipping as being too near the enemy's shores4 ,fleets of trading ships used to gather at ,stromness while waiting a convoy of men-of-war to accompany them across the ,atlantic4 ,an interesting relic of those busy times in ,stromness is the old ,warehouse and ,warehouse ,pier at the north end of that town4 ,this store was built about the middle of the eighteenth century for the convenience of the rice ships from ,america1 as being the safest place for them to discharge their cargoes4 ,before the end of the century1 however1 the ,stromness ,warehouse was deserted in favour of ,cowes in the ,isle of ,wight4 ,a writer of the time makes out a strong case in favour of ,stromness and against the ,english ,channel1 but the fact that ,cowes is nearer to ,london seems to have settled the matter in favour of that port4 ,during these prolonged naval wars1 it is said that as many as twelve thousand ,orkneymen served in the navy4 ,many of them went as volunteers1 but probably most of them served against their will1 as the pressgang was very active among the islands4 ,many a young sailor who began his voyage on a peaceful trader was soon transferred to one of ,his ,majesty's ships4 ,traditions of those troublous times are still preserved among many families in the islands4 ,hundreds of these men were never heard of again1 for those were not the days of telegraphs and war correspondents4 ,the years passed1 and the son or the brother did not return1 but when or how he fell his friends never knew4 ,it was a heavy war-tax the islands paid2 the full extent of it has never been disclosed4 ,about #agdj the ships of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company began to visit the islands1 not only to wait for a wind to start them on their annual voyage1 but to engage labourers and tradesmen to carry on the fur trade among the ,indians of the west and north of ,canada4 ,the connection thus begun is not yet quite extinct1 but in the earlier part of the nineteenth century there was a constant stream of young men flowing to the ,far ,west4 ,at one time from fifty to a hundred men left ,stromness for ,hudson ,bay every summer4 ,some remained as pioneers and colonists2 some returned after a sojourn of five years or more1 with a tidy sum of money to start them as farmers or tradesmen at home4 ,many of them who settled in the ,great ,lone ,land rose to high positions in the ,company's service4 ,the most famous of this band of empire-builders was ,dr4 ,john ,rae1 the discoverer of the fate of the ill-starred ,franklin ,expedition1 and a noted ,arctic explorer1 whose monument may be seen in the nave of ,st4 ,magnus ,cathedral4 ,the ,company then ruled over the greater portion of what is now the ,dominion of ,canada4 ,the names of ,fort ,york1 ,moose ,factory1 and ,red ,river were as familiar to the ,orkney boys of those days as ,edinburgh1 ,glasgow1 and ,aberdeen are to us to-day4 ,but ,canada changed even more than ,orkney during the latter part of the nineteenth century1 and the great ,hudson's ,bay ,company have now handed over their vast territories to the rule of the ,dominion4 ,the fur trade still exists in the ,north-,west1 and there are ,orkneymen still in the employment of the ,company2 but the days have gone by when this was one of the chief industries of the wander-loving sons of our islands4 ,after the 8,nor'-,wast10 as the ,hudson ,bay service was called1 the 8,straits0 had the next claim on our youth4 ,the ,davis ,strait whale-fishing fleet made an annual visit to our islands to complete their crews4 ,this was in the spring or 8vore10 when the crops were in the ground1 and many men1 both young and middle-aged1 looked to the annual whaling trip to the north as a means of gain1 just as their ,norse ancestors did to the annual 8vore-viking0 raid on the richer shores of the ,south4 ,this also has passed away2 the harpoon and whale-lance are rarely seen in the islands2 whales and whaling fleet alike have almost become extinct4 ,but while agriculture was still in its infancy in ,orkney1 the 8,straits0 gave much-needed employment and modest gains to many of our hardy forefathers4 ,the general tendency of life in ,orkney has been away from dependence upon the sea for a living1 and towards agriculture and the trade and commerce which it brings with it4 ,in its methods of farming and in its general prosperity the county now compares well with any other part of the kingdom4 ,but most of this progress has been made during the last half century or so4 ,it was in #ahcc that the ,aberdeen1 ,leith1 and ,clyde ,shipping ,company1 now the ,north of ,scotland and ,orkney and ,shetland ,navigation ,company1 first decided to send one of their steamers--the ,velocity--to call at ,kirkwall4 ,the call was made once a fortnight1 and only during the months of ,june1 ,july1 and ,august4 ,the mails were then carried across the ,pentland ,firth in a small boat4 ,the growth in traffic since that time is indicated by the fact that the trade and commerce of the islands now requires the weekly call of two steamers at ,kirkwall and three at ,stromness1 with a daily mail steamer to both towns1 in addition to numerous occasional trips of other steamers and sailing vessels1 especially during the fishing season1 while four smaller steamers maintain communication between the various islands4 ,the ,orkney farmer still has a somewhat niggardly soil and a stormy climate to contend with4 ,his acres are few1 and his boys will often turn to richer lands to seek their fortune4 ,but life in these islands to-day is easy and comfortable compared with what it was during any of the ten centuries whose history we have passed in brief review4 ,the boys and girls who aim at seeking wealth and fame in other lands1 though by other means than those of their ,viking ancestors1 may now set forth on their voyage as well equipped by education and otherwise as the youth of any country in the world4 ,those who remain at home will still find a worthy task in carrying on the improvement of the homeland1 as their fathers have done2 for whatever stage of progress we may attain1 it is never merely an end but also a beginning4 ,illustration3 ,old-fashioned ,fireplace ,part ,,ii4--,the ,isles and the ,folk4 ,a ,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,islands4 ,on ,wideford ,hill4 ,there is no better view-point from which to make a general survey of the ,orcadian ,archipelago than ,wideford ,hill4 ,it is less than half the height of the ,ward ,hill of ,hoy1 but it is at once more central and more easily accessible4 ,the ,ward ,hill of ,orphir exceeds it in height by nearly one hundred and fifty feet1 and affords a much finer view to the westward2 but ,wideford ,hill is more isolated from other hills1 and from its summit we can obtain a better general outlook over the islands4 ,wideford ,hill rises to a height of seven hundred and forty feet1 and1 standing within two miles of ,kirkwall1 it may be easily approached either from the main ,stromness road over the ,ayre1 or from the old road above the site of the ,lammas market4 ,if we choose the right kind of day1 when a cool northerly breeze gives us a horizon free from haze1 and when thin gray clouds veil the sun only at intervals1 we shall see from ,wideford a panorama which surpasses in loveliness and in human interest that seen from many a mountain top4 ,the charm of ,orkney scenery lies in its colour rather than its form1 in its luminous distances rather than its immediate foreground1 in its restfulness rather than its grandeur4 ,the landscape does not overwhelm the beholder with a sense of his puny insignificance1 as great mountains are apt to do2 it wins his love by suggestions of peace and of home4 ,but let us look around and note what we see4 ,far to the southward lies the silvery streak of the ,pentland ,firth1 very innocent now in its summer calm4 ,beyond it stretch the low shores of ,caithness2 and in the blue distance we see ,morven and the mountains of ,sutherland1 the 8southern land0 of the ,norsemen4 ,nearer is the green expanse of ,south ,ronaldsay1 much foreshortened to the view1 with the lighthouse towers of the ,pentland ,skerries showing beyond1 and the island of ,burray at its nearer end4 ,to the right1 over ,scapa ,flow1 rises the long brown ridge of ,hoy1 separated by streaks of shimmering sea from ,flotta1 ,fara1 ,cava1 and its other neighbours4 ,very stern and solemn look its heath-clad heights as the passing shadows fall across them4 ,the whole of the ,east ,mainland lies at our feet--,deerness1 bright and sunny1 with the ,moul ,head stretching boldly out to sea2 nearer is ,st4 ,andrews1 and ,holm1 half hidden by the ridge of high ground in the north of that parish2 and1 nearer still1 ,st4 ,ola1 deeply cut into by the ,bays of ,kirkwall and ,scapa1 which look as if they only awaited the next spring tide to join hands across the narrow isthmus1 the ,peerie ,sea lying ready to do its part4 ,illustration3 ,round about ,kirkwall4 ,kirkwall1 the 8,kirk ,voe0 of the ,norsemen1 is more worthy of its name to-day than when the little church of ,st4 ,olaf was the chief object in the landscape4 ,approach it how we may1 the great ,cathedral of ,st4 ,magnus arrests our attention4 ,seen from ,wideford ,hill the tower does not break the skyline1 as it does from the sea2 yet the mass of sombre reddish masonry asserts itself1 and dominates the pearl-gray cluster of walls and roofs that spreads around1 as it has done for nearly eight hundred years4 8,tame0 and 8uninteresting0 are the words often used to describe the appearance of our island capital4 ,it does not seem so to-day4 ,as the eye sweeps down over the purple shoulder of the hill to the green fields below1 and passes over the silver gleam of the water with broken reflections of tower and gable beyond1 it rests upon a picture filled with many charms of line1 mass1 and colour1 from which the deep cool green of tree and shrub is not wholly wanting4 ,open to the north and the south by the 8,viking path0 of the sea1 and joined to the east and the west by more modern paths1 the thin white lines of curving roadway1 ,kirkwall shows itself the natural focus of our island commerce and social life1 and the centre of a wide and fair landscape4 ,northward and westward next we turn our view4 ,kirkwall ,bay opens out into the 8,wide ,fiord10 which doubtless gave our hill its name1 and westward into the 8,aurrida ,fiord10 or ,sea-trout ,firth1 which first gave its name to the parish of ,firth1 and then received in exchange its present name1 the ,bay of ,firth4 ,its shores are low and well cultivated1 but to the north rises the dark brown ridge formed by the hills of ,firth and of ,rendall1 which hide from our view most of the parish of ,evie and parts of ,harray and ,birsay4 ,to the left of this ridge1 through the central valley of ,firth and ,stenness1 a charming vista opens out4 ,a rich and fertile sweep of low ground forms the basin of the great lochs1 and on the long peninsula between them we can distinguish the ,standing ,stones rising as needle points against the blue expanse of the ,loch of ,stenness4 ,the green mound of ,maeshowe1 too1 is clearly visible4 ,far away1 over the cultivated slopes of ,sandwick1 we see the soft shimmer of the ,atlantic1 and to the northward the undulating skyline of the ,birsay ,hills4 ,due west from where we stand the view is shut in by the long ridge of the ,keelylang ,hills and the bold outline of the ,ward ,hill of ,orphir1 and the fairest part of the ,west ,mainland1 ,stromness1 with its bays and islets1 is beyond our ken4 ,to enjoy a view of these we must take our stand upon the ,ward ,hill itself1 but this will come into the programme of another day4 ,of the island-studded sea to the north and east we have not yet spoken4 ,we can hardly disentangle the maze of sounds and bays1 of holms and promontories1 except by the aid of a map1 and if we are wise we shall have one in our pocket4 ,with this before us the maze becomes clear4 ,the bold hills of ,rousay stand clear of the ,mainland to the north1 with the lower islands of ,gairsay1 ,wyre or ,veira1 and ,egilsay near at hand4 ,westray is all but hidden1 but the blue ridge of ,eday stands boldly forth1 shutting out from view the greater portion of ,sanday and ,north ,ronaldsay4 ,the tall lighthouse pillar on the ,start1 however1 is clearly seen4 ,close to ,kirkwall ,bay1 and protecting it from the eastern sea1 lies the fertile island of ,shapinsay1 with ,balfour ,castle standing in clear view among its gardens4 ,beyond we see the bold outline of ,stronsay1 and to the south of it ,auskerry and its lighthouse4 ,now we let our eye rest on the horizon1 a sharp and clear line where we can trace the smoke of trawlers and other craft which are themselves hidden by the great curve of the ocean plain4 ,there1 right over ,balfour ,castle1 something catches our eye4 ,it might be the smoke of a passing steamer1 but it does not change its form as we look2 it stands clear and sharp1 a tiny blue pyramid showing over the horizon4 ,there is only one thing it can be--the ,fair ,isle1 distant some sixty miles from where we stand6 ,only on rare occasions is this lonely sea-girt rock so free from cloud and mist that its top is thus to be distinguished4 ,yet if we know where to look for it1 we may occasionally see it as we do to-day2 and it is useful to remember that from ,wideford ,hill its bearing is directly over ,balfour ,castle4 ,among the ,north ,isles4 ,a glance at the map of ,orkney will show that most of the important islands lie north of the ,mainland4 ,the term 8,north ,isles10 however1 is generally used to mean only the more distant of these--,stronsay1 ,eday1 ,sanday1 ,north ,ronaldsay1 and ,westray1 with the smaller islands adjacent to them4 ,these can be visited by steamer from ,kirkwall in one day1 with the exception of ,north ,ronaldsay2 and at the same time a good view can be obtained of the nearer islands--,shapinsay and ,rousay1 with the smaller group of ,egilsay1 ,wyre1 and ,gairsay4 ,north ,ronaldsay may also be seen on the far north-eastern horizon4 ,leaving ,kirkwall pier in the early morning1 we sail northwards out of the bay1 when the ,string opens on our right1 and ,shapinsay is close at hand4 ,there1 sheltered by ,helliar ,holm1 we notice the bay of ,ellwick1 where1 in #abfc1 ,king ,haco moored his hundred ships when on that ill-starred expedition which ended at ,largs4 ,west of the bay stands ,balfour ,castle1 the finest specimen of modern domestic architecture in the islands1 surrounded by its noted gardens4 ,the sea to the west of ,shapinsay is dotted with shoals and skerries2 but as we pass ,gairsay on the left and sail round ,galt ,ness1 the north-western point of ,shapinsay1 we find open water before us1 and steer north-east towards ,eday1 passing the ,green ,holms on our way4 ,eday1 the first island at which we call1 is hilly and heath-clad1 with abundance of peat4 ,ever since the days of ,torf ,einar1 no doubt1 it has yielded a supply of peat for such unprovided islands as ,sanday1 up to modern times when coal has come into more general use4 ,even yet the peat industry is considerable1 and ,eday peats have been recently seen in use for drying malt in a distillery near ,edinburgh4 ,the most interesting part of ,eday1 however1 is the north end of the island1 where our steamer will call later in the day4 ,illustration3 ,,orkney ,,islands ,from ,eday we cross to ,stronsay1 keeping to the north of that island1 and then turning southwards to the village of ,whitehall in ,papa ,sound1 protected on the north-east by the small island of ,papa ,stronsay4 ,this sheltered roadstead so near the open eastern sea has long been an important centre of the herring fishery4 ,about the middle of last century as many as four hundred ,orkney boats and many from the ,scottish mainland found anchorage in ,papa ,sound4 ,in modern times ,stronsay has again risen in importance as a fishing station4 ,stronsay is one of the best agricultural districts in ,orkney1 and is noted for the size and the excellence of its farms4 ,near ,lamb ,head1 in the extreme south-east of ,stronsay1 are the remains of a very extensive pier1 erected before the time of the ,norsemen4 ,leaving ,whitehall pier1 we next sail due north across ,sanday ,sound to ,kettletoft ,bay in ,sanday4 ,this bay and that of ,otterswick in the north afford safe anchorage2 but the low1 flat island1 with its numerous projecting points and skerries1 presents many dangers to navigation4 ,as early as #aebi a lighthouse was erected on the extreme eastern point of the island1 and was called the ,star1 from which1 it is said1 the headland derived its name1 ,start ,point4 ,long after that time1 however1 the island was noted for the number of shipwrecks which occurred on its shores4 ,sanday is emphatically the 8,sand ,island40 ,its soil is sandy and generally fertile1 and its surface is low and flat4 ,only in the south-west is there any rising ground1 where the highest point in the island reaches a height of a little over two hundred feet4 ,illustration3 ,orkney ,villages4--,i4 #a4 ,st4 ,margaret's ,hope1 ,south ,ronaldsay4 #b4 ,pierowall1 ,westray4 #c4 ,whitehall1 ,stronsay4 #d4 ,finstown1 ,firth4 ,from ,kettletoft pier our course is now south-west1 until we double ,spur ,ness1 the most southerly point of ,sanday2 then turning northwards1 we make for ,calf ,sound1 at the north end of ,eday4 ,this sheltered channel1 between ,eday and the ,calf of ,eday1 is memorable as the scene of the capture of the pirate ,gow in #agbe4 ,gow1 or ,smith1 was a native of ,stromness1 where 8,gow's ,garden10 a name given to a patch of ground on the east side of the harbour1 afterwards occupied by a shipbuilding yard1 seems to mark the site of his father's house4 ,the name ,gow1 however1 which is the ,gaelic equivalent of ,smith1 indicates a ,scottish rather than an ,orcadian descent4 ,in #agbd ,gow was sailing as second mate on board the ,george1 an ,english vessel of two hundred tons1 mounting eighteen guns1 and trading on the ,barbary coast4 ,he and several others of the crew mutinied1 murdered the captain1 and started on what proved to be a very brief career of piracy4 ,after a few months' cruising1 ,gow carried his ship1 now named the ,revenge1 into ,stromness to refit2 but as he soon made the place too hot for safety1 he put to sea in ,february #agbe4 ,having sailed north round ,westray1 he turned south towards ,eday1 and in beating through ,calf ,sound ran his ship aground on the ,calf1 opposite ,carrick ,house1 then occupied by ,mr4 ,james ,fea of ,clestran4 ,to him ,gow applied for help to get his ship off the rocks2 but the opportunity was too good to be missed1 and ,fea by various stratagems succeeded in making prisoners of ,gow and his crew4 ,they were handed over to the authorities1 and afterwards suffered the penalty of their crimes in ,london4 ,nearly a century later1 in #ahad1 ,sir ,walter ,scott made his memorable visit to ,orkney and ,shetland1 and the legends which he collected regarding ,gow formed a centre round which he wove his well-known story1 8,the ,pirate40 ,illustration3 ,noltland ,castle4 ,carrick was at one time the site of a thriving manufacture of salt1 but that too is now a tale of the past4 ,on leaving ,carrick our steamer passes out of ,calf ,sound between the ,red ,head on the west and the ,grey ,head on the east1 so named from the colour of their sandstone cliffs4 ,the stone of the former has been much in favour for building purposes1 as ,st4 ,magnus ,cathedral can testify1 and has on occasion found its way as far south as ,london4 ,a north-westerly course now brings us to ,pierowall in ,westray1 our last port of call4 ,the long1 low island guarding it on the north-east1 fertile and well cultivated1 is ,papa ,westray4 ,towards its south end is a small lake1 on a holm in which are the ruins of a chapel dedicated to ,st4 ,tredwall1 a place of great sanctity in former days1 and a special shrine for such pilgrims as suffered from sore eyes4 ,long after the ,reformation1 indeed1 we are told that the minister of the island had much difficulty in preventing his flock from resorting thither to pay their devotions to the saint before assembling in the church4 ,illustration3 ,noup ,head ,lighthouse4 ,the chief point of interest in ,westray is ,noltland ,castle1 now roofless indeed1 but scarcely yet a ruin4 ,it was built early in the fifteenth century by ,bishop ,tulloch1 and afterwards passed into the hands of ,sir ,gilbert ,balfour1 ,master of the ,household to ,mary ,queen of ,scots4 ,after the escape of the unfortunate queen from ,lochleven ,castle1 he was ordered to prepare ,noltland for her reception4 ,had the ill-fated ,mary turned northwards instead of southwards when the day went against her at ,langside1 and had she sought shelter among these northern islands instead of trusting to the tender mercies of her cousin and rival1 ,queen ,elizabeth1 what a romantic chapter might have been added to the history of ,orkney6 ,illustration3 ,north ,ronaldsay ,lighthouse4 ,westray contains much good arable land1 and supports a large population4 ,on the west side the scenery is bold and romantic2 and from ,fitty ,hill1 which is over five hundred and fifty feet in height1 the view extends to ,foula in ,shetland and the ,fair ,isle4 ,the cliffs facing the ,atlantic are lofty and picturesque4 ,about a mile south of ,noup ,head1 the western extremity of the island1 is the ,gentlemen's ,cave1 where five ,orcadian adherents of 8,prince ,charlie0 are said to have found shelter for several months after the 8',forty-five40 ,from ,fitty ,hill we may obtain a distant view of ,north ,ronaldsay1 the most northerly and perhaps the most verdant island of the group4 ,separated from its nearest neighbour1 ,sanday1 by the wild and stormy ,north ,ronaldsay ,firth1 the crossing of which in the usual open boat is often dangerous1 even when possible1 this island impresses the visitor as being very much cut off from the world4 ,but in such matters all depends upon comparison1 and doubtless there are many who regard the whole of our islands as similarly remote and inaccessible4 ,a stone dyke surrounds the island of ,north ,ronaldsay1 outside which a number of native sheep pick up a living on the 8banks0 and even in the 8ebb40 ,on the most northerly point1 near ,dennis ,head1 stands one of the finest of our lighthouses2 for ,north ,ronaldsay1 like ,sanday1 has been the scene of many a shipwreck4 ,our return from ,westray to ,kirkwall is made direct1 and we now keep to the west of ,eday1 passing ,faray and its ,holm1 and having the heath-clad hills of ,rousay clear in view to the westward4 ,rousay far surpasses the other islands of the northern group in its hill and cliff scenery1 its highest elevation reaching eight hundred and twenty feet1 and its western shore presenting many romantic effects in stack and cave4 ,among its other attractive features are the ,loch of ,wasbister1 in the north2 the ,burn of ,westness and ,westness ,house1 overlooking the sacred isle of ,eynhallow and the tumultuous ,roost of ,burgar2 and the modern mansion of ,trumbland1 looking out on the calm sound and the green island of ,veira or ,wyre4 ,nearer our course1 however1 lies the long1 low stretch of ,egilsay1 the 8,church ,island0 of the ,norsemen1 where the saintly ,earl ,magnus was done to death4 ,the present ruined church1 with its far-seen round tower1 though of later date1 doubtless occupies the site of that earlier church which was the scene of his murder4 ,wyre1 too1 soon opens out to view1 with its ruined chapel1 and the mound which marks the traditional site of 8,cubbie ,roo's ,castle10 the home of the once formidable ,kolbein ,hruga1 whose name is even yet used to terrify into good behaviour some obstreperous youngster1 in the awful threat1 8,cubbie ,roo'll get thee60 ,illustration3 ,westness1 ,eynhallow1 and ,costa ,head4 ,gairsay1 with its rounded hill over three hundred feet high1 next claims our attention1 and the name of ,sweyn ,holm1 lying off its eastern shore1 recalls to us ,sweyn ,asleifson and the great drinking-hall which he built on the island when he made it his winter home3 the summer home of the stout old ,viking was on board his long-ship4 ,but now the tower of ,st4 ,magnus rising ahead reminds us that our day's sail is at an end1 and we are shortly alongside ,kirkwall pier once more4 ,among the ,south ,isles4 ,for a visit to the ,south ,isles of ,orkney1 ,stromness is our best starting-point4 ,it is the natural centre of communication for this group--or rather for the western division of the group1 for ,south ,ronaldsay and ,burray may be visited equally well from ,kirkwall by way of ,scapa ,bay4 ,the small steamer which makes the regular round of the islands will serve us for the beginning of our tour1 but we must soon branch off from the ordinary route if we are to see much of interest4 ,illustration3 ,stromness ,harbour4 ,the green island of ,graemsay1 with its beach of gleaming white sand1 looks very attractive as we sail out of ,stromness harbour4 ,its chief attraction to visitors is the lofty tower of the ,east ,lighthouse1 which serves1 along with the lower ,west ,lighthouse1 to guide ships through the swift tideway of ,hoy ,sound4 ,the official name1 indeed1 for these lights is not ,graemsay1 but ,hoy4 ,illustration3 ,graemsay ,east ,lighthouse4 ,graemsay is separated from ,hoy by ,burra ,sound1 and here we shall leave our steamer1 landing at ,linksness1 the best starting-point for the long walk and climb which we have before us4 ,hoy is next to the ,mainland in size1 but little of its surface is cultivated1 and roads are few and far between4 ,so we strike westward1 and1 leaving cultivation behind1 make for the ,meadow of the ,kame1 keeping the ,ward ,hill and its neighbour the ,cuilags on our left4 ,there is a famous echo here1 which we may stop to test before beginning the climb to the ,kame itself--a long ridge some twelve hundred feet high1 which runs from the ,cuilags to the sheer precipice on the north4 ,the coast-line we now reach is one of the loftiest in the ,british ,isles1 rising at ,st4 ,john's ,head to a perpendicular height of #a1adj feet4 ,with due care we may approach the edge and look down this fearful and giddy height1 but it is not a place for foolhardy daring4 ,the view of this stupendous cliff1 with the white surges breaking a thousand feet below in a slow and strangely noiseless movement1 and the seagulls flitting like midges in their mazy dance midway between us and the blue water1 is something which cannot be described and cannot be forgotten4 ,beyond ,st4 ,john's ,head the ground falls to half the height or less1 and a couple of miles brings us to the far-famed ,old ,man of ,hoy4 ,this wonderful pillar stands well out from the cliff1 on a ledge of rock which connects with the land near sea-level4 ,the height of the pillar is four hundred and fifty feet2 that of the cliff on which we stand is about fifty feet less4 ,tradition tells us that the ,old ,man of ,hoy has suffered considerably from the battering of wind and wave even within recent times4 ,it is said that he formerly stood on two legs1 but that many years ago part of the divided base fell before the ,atlantic breakers1 and left him standing on one leg1 as we now see him4 ,doubtless time and the weather will one day lay him low1 but in the meantime he looks fairly solid and durable4 ,another mile or more and we reach ,rora ,head1 the most westerly point of ,orkney1 and turn southeastward towards ,rackwick ,bay1 and now one of the finest views in all the islands meets our gaze4 ,beyond the deep glen at our feet stretches the great western sea-wall1 gleaming red in the sunshine4 ,in the bay below us the rollers are breaking in ceaseless foam over a strip of shining sand and gravel4 ,the little township of ,rackwick is a patchwork of green and gold1 contrasting strangely with the dark glen and the towering hills behind4 ,illustration3 ,the ,old ,man of ,hoy4 ,the glen itself1 we find as we make the descent into it1 is a bit of true highland scenery--the only bit1 indeed1 which ,orkney has to show4 ,its rugged1 lonely grandeur is unique in these islands4 ,heather and bracken1 wild rose and honeysuckle1 juniper1 dwarf birch1 and willow mingle in such luxuriance as to suggest a more favoured latitude4 ,the glen of ,berriedale1 which opens out of the main valley to the west1 is sometimes called the 8,garden of ,orkney10 but it is a garden of nature's own4 ,hoy is for the most part of a sterner aspect1 as we shall quickly find if we cross the valley and dare to attack the ,ward ,hill4 ,the only risk we shall run in doing so will be that of stiff limbs for several days to come1 unless1 indeed1 a sudden descent of cloud or mist should find us unprovided with a guide who knows the 8lay of the land40 ,the sturdy luxuriance of the heather is likely to be our chief difficulty in the climb4 ,standing at last on the summit of the ,ward ,hill1 we find ourselves at a height of #a1efd feet above the sea1 on a somewhat bare and stony plateau1 and not far from the highest point there is1 curiously enough1 an excellent spring of water4 ,a very clear day is necessary if we are to enjoy the sight of all that this elevation commands4 ,we shall then see the whole archipelago spread out before us as on a map--a marvellous panorama of sea and land4 ,even the ,fair ,isle shows its conical head above the north-eastern horizon4 ,the north coast of ,scotland stretches out westward to ,cape ,wrath1 and in the blue distance to the southwards many a peak of the ,northern ,highlands can be distinguished4 ,if we descend the hill on its southern slope1 we shall find a short though a steep way to the next point of interest in ,hoy--the ,dwarfie ,stone4 ,the description of this curious relic of the industry of some unknown workman has been well given by ,hugh ,miller1 whose name may still be read carved on its bare interior1 while the legendary interest may best be gathered from ,sir ,walter ,scott in his notes to 8,the ,pirate40 ,south of the valley in which the ,dwarfie ,stone lies1 the ground rises to a long stretch of moorland1 broken only by burns and lochs1 till it dips down to the fringe of low1 cultivated ground round ,longhope1 in the parish of ,walls4 ,this part of the island1 however1 is too distant to be included in our day's excursion1 and may be visited direct by steamer from ,stromness some other day4 ,longhope1 as we shall then see1 is a sheltered bay nearly four miles long and about one mile in average width1 and forms a magnificent natural harbour4 ,before the days of steam as many as a hundred and fifty vessels might be seen at anchor here1 sheltered from the westerly gales which barred their passage through the ,pentland ,firth4 ,the martello towers on either side of the entrance remind us of a time when storms were not the only danger to our shipping4 ,protection of a kind more necessary to-day is afforded by the strong revolving light on ,cantick ,head1 and on occasion by the ,longhope lifeboat1 the heroism of whose hardy crew has often shown itself in deeds of noble daring such as no sea-roving ,viking of the ancient days could have surpassed4 ,at the western extremity of ,longhope stands the mansion house of ,melsetter1 with its extensive gardens4 ,on the farther side of the bay is ,south ,walls1 a peninsula which is literally 8almost an island10 as the waters of ,aith ,hope almost meet those of ,longhope across a narrow 8aith0 or isthmus4 ,opposite the entrance to ,longhope1 whence we start on our return journey to ,stromness1 we pass the island of ,flotta1 the 8flat island0 of the ,norsemen1 thriving and well cultivated1 especially towards the east1 where it curves round ,pan ,hope4 ,to the south of it lies the green island of ,switha1 to the north-east the tiny ,calf of ,flotta1 and to the north-west1 off ,mill ,bay1 the island of ,faray4 ,farther north1 and close to the shore of ,hoy1 lies ,risa1 or ,risa ,little1 a favourite nesting-place of many of our sea-birds4 ,the last island we notice on our homeward sail is ,cava1 a couple of miles eastward of which we see the beacon which marks a skerry known as the ,barrel of ,butter4 ,the eastern group of the ,south ,isles is more closely connected with the ,east ,mainland1 being divided from ,holm by ,holm ,sound1 where lie the two green islets of ,lamb ,holm and ,glims ,holm4 ,immediately to the south is ,burray1 the ,borgarey of the ,norsemen1 so called1 doubtless1 from the two brochs or borgs whose ruins still exist in the north of the island4 ,to the west of ,burray lies the peat-covered islet of ,hunda4 ,south of ,burray1 across the narrow channel of ,water ,sound1 lies the large and populous island of ,south ,ronaldsay4 ,at the head of the little bay of the same name stands the neat and thriving village--almost a town--of ,st4 ,margaret's ,hope1 pleasantly situated among its fertile gardens and fields1 and with a substantial pier to accommodate its increasing traffic4 ,westward from 8,the ,hope0 lies ,hoxa1 a peninsula cut off by ,widewall ,bay on the south4 ,on the narrow isthmus or 8aith0 stands a green mound1 the 8haug10 or howe1 from which the name of ,haugseith or ,hoxa is derived4 ,on the shores of ,widewall ,bay at low water we may see the submerged peat-moss and decaying remains of large trees which mark a bygone stage in the climate of the islands1 and likewise tell of gradual subsidence of the land4 ,from south to north1 ,south ,ronaldsay measures about seven miles4 ,the surface is well cultivated1 and the highest point1 the ,ward ,hill1 is only some three hundred and sixty feet high4 ,the bay of ,burwick1 in the south-west corner of the island1 was formerly the landing-place for the south mails1 which were carried across the ,pentland ,firth in an open boat4 ,some of the rock scenery in the southern part is very fine1 especially 8,the ,gloup10 near ,halcro ,head1 an open pit near the shore into which the sea enters by a subterranean channel4 ,to the south-west we see the lonely1 storm-swept island of ,swona with its half-dozen or so of houses1 and to the south rise the twin lighthouse towers on the ,pentland ,skerries1 only one of which is now used as a light4 ,here we reach the southern extremity of the county1 some forty miles in a straight line from ,north ,ronaldsay1 the extreme northern point4 ,,round ,,the ,,mainland4 ,first ,day4 ,the best way to see the ,mainland1 and the only way to appreciate its extent and the variety of its scenery1 is to make use of the excellent roads by which it is now traversed and encircled4 ,on this tour the bicycle will be our best conveyance2 and if we can secure the company of a congenial friend1 we may spend a few days very pleasantly and profitably on a ride round the ,mainland4 ,we shall begin with the ,east ,mainland4 ,leaving ,kirkwall by the ,deerness road1 we shortly afterwards find ourselves skimming down the long brae of ,wideford--not ,wideford ,hill1 but the farm of ,wideford1 about two miles south-east of the town4 ,on our left is the wide expanse of ,inganess ,bay1 with its beach of sand and shingle1 where we can recall seeing on one memorable occasion a school of whales stranded after a great whale hunt3 that was in our early school days1 now rapidly becoming a part of the time known as 8long ago40 ,illustration3 ,orkney ,villages4--,,ii4 #a4 ,st4 ,mary's1 ,holm4 #b4 ,orphir4 #c4 ,kettletoft1 ,sanday4 #d4 ,finstown4 #e4 ,balfour ,village1 ,shapinsay4 #f4 ,evie4 ,we next pass the long1 low peninsula of ,tankerness1 which lies between ,inganess ,bay and ,deer ,sound4 ,on its south side1 between the loch and the shore1 stands the ,hall of ,tankerness1 its position marked out by one of those rare patches of dark green which indicate that trees may still be made to grow in ,orkney under intelligent fostering care4 ,the cliffs near ,rerwick ,head are worth a visit4 ,there are several caves1 one of which1 tradition affirms1 gave refuge for weeks to one of the ,covenanters who were shipwrecked at ,deerness in #afgi4 ,after passing through the parish of ,st4 ,andrews1 we reach that of ,deerness4 ,deerness is literally a peninsula--very nearly an island indeed4 ,the isthmus which joins it to the ,mainland is not only narrow but low and sandy1 and in former days mariners approaching from the south sometimes overlooked its existence when making for shelter1 and came to grief accordingly4 ,on this narrow neck of land is found an ancient mound or haug1 which bears the name of ,dingishowe4 ,deerness is on the whole flat1 the highest point in the peninsula1 the ,ward1 being only #bhe feet above the sea4 ,yet the view from the road1 which crosses the centre of the parish1 is very extensive4 ,to the south we notice the island of ,copinsay1 formerly much frequented for gathering sea-birds' eggs1 and its 8,horse10 a steep black rock rising high out of the water4 ,if time permits1 it will be worth our while to cycle to ,sandside1 and thence walk along the cliffs to the ,moul ,head4 ,the scenery here is fine1 and we shall find the ,broch1 with its ancient ruined chapel1 specially interesting4 ,a church existed here before the ,norse period1 and was doubtless the cause of the name ,deir-ness1 or the ness of the ,culdee priests1 being given to the district4 ,not far distant we see another object which recalls priestly memories--a gray stone pillar erected to commemorate the shipwreck by which two hundred ,covenanters lost their lives when on their way to be sold as slaves in the ,american ,colonies or 8,plantations40 ,the story is a dark and tragic one4 ,there is some reason to believe that the shipwreck was not entirely an accident2 it is said that the ship was not even provisioned for so long a voyage1 and that the fate designed for the unhappy prisoners was not slavery but death by shipwreck whenever circumstances favourable for such an 8accident0 should arise4 ,on returning to the ,st4 ,andrews road we may strike off towards the south and make our way homewards through the parish of ,holm4 ,the most fertile part of this parish lies in a broad valley sloping towards the south1 where the crops ripen early4 ,as we descend into this valley1 the mellow light of an autumn afternoon reveals to us a view of rare sweetness and charm4 ,amid the river-like tidal stream of ,holm ,sound lie the green islets of ,glims ,holm and ,lamb ,holm or ,laman1 with ,burray and the darker ,hunda1 and the imposing stretch of ,south ,ronaldsay beyond4 ,to the westward1 ,hoy rises in deep-blue shadow1 reflected in the still surface of ,scapa ,flow4 ,over the gleam of the ,pentland ,firth we see the flat shores of ,caithness1 while the more distant peaks of the ,sutherland mountains rise sharp and clear above the horizon4 ,but there are a few miles of road yet to cover1 so we hold on our way towards the seashore1 where the steep-gabled mansion of ,graemeshall stands beside its pretty reed-fringed loch4 ,a mile beyond lies the village of ,st4 ,mary's1 with its pier and its line of cottages stretching along the beach2 and after taking a passing glance at this well-known fishing-station1 we turn our faces northwards4 ,we have a long hilly ride in front of us here1 and by the time we reach the end of it our interest in the charming views is not so keen as it was4 ,then comes the welcome change of gradient2 we spin down the 8,distillery ,brae10 and soon our circuit of the ,east ,mainland is completed4 ,second ,day4 ,our second day's circuit will take us round the central part of the ,mainland1 which is divided from the ,east ,mainland by the isthmus of ,scapa1 and from the larger mass of the ,west ,mainland by the lochs of ,stenness and ,harray and the wide isthmus between the latter and the ,bay of ,firth4 ,we leave ,kirkwall by the 8,head of the ,town0 and keep to the old ,scapa road for about a mile1 when we turn sharp to the right and soon begin the long ascent of nearly three hundred feet to ,greenigo4 ,this is followed by a corresponding dip down to the valley of ,kirbuster1 whose loch lies on our right2 but as fishing is not our programme at present we keep to the road as it ascends once more1 and soon find ourselves entering upon the broad fertile slope which forms the most thickly inhabited part of the parish of ,orphir4 ,westward we see the road stretching across this well-cultivated district1 dotted with houses large and small1 which gather here and there in groups and clusters almost ranking as villages4 ,time does not press1 and we are out for the purpose of seeing all we can1 so we decide to leave the main road here and take a by-road to the right which skirts the east side of the ,ward ,hill4 ,it is fairly steep1 and the riding cannot be called good1 but it has the advantage of bringing us within a mile of the ,ward ,hill itself1 the top of which we shall find a pleasant halting-place4 ,illustration3 ,orphir4 ,leaving our bicycles by the roadside1 we face a pretty stiff climb through luxuriant heather and bracken1 and soon find ourselves on the highest of a group of hilltops1 #hhj feet above the sea4 ,if we are favoured with a clear atmosphere1 the scene before us will amply repay the labour of our ascent4 ,the view from the ,ward ,hill is supplementary to that from ,wideford ,hill4 ,parts of the landscape to the east and north are shut out by ,wideford ,hill itself1 by the long ,keelylang ridge1 and by the broad-backed mass between ,harray and ,evie4 ,to the south the scene is somewhat similar to that seen from ,wideford ,hill2 to the westward1 however1 the panorama now before us is unique4 ,ireland1 or ,ayre-land1 as it once was1 sloping gently downwards to its bay1 lies at our feet1 a patchwork of farms and fields in varying tints of green and yellow and brown4 ,beyond it1 the picturesque 8western capital10 ,stromness1 fringes its landlocked harbour1 secure in the shelter of the protecting hills behind4 ,to the left lies ,graemsay with its lighthouses1 an 8emerald set in a sapphire sea10 and beyond it the frowning cliffs and the purple ridge of ,hoy dominate the scene4 ,away towards the west the horizon line1 more than thirty miles distant as we now see it1 cuts sharp and straight against the soft blue sky4 ,if we have a good glass1 we may make out on this line1 just above the town of ,stromness1 the ,stack of ,suleskerry4 ,illustration3 ,stromness from the east4 ,but our day's ride is yet mostly before us1 so we descend from the ,ward or 8watch-tower10 mount our bicycles1 regain the main road1 and continue our way through the smiling landscape which lies in front of us4 ,orphir was an important district in the old ,norse days1 and a residence of the ,orkney ,earls stood on the seashore near the parish church2 and adjoining that church may still be seen part of a much earlier church1 one of the few circular temples in this country which were built in the time of the ,crusades on the model of the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre at ,jerusalem4 ,in the little cove sheltered by the ,head and the ,holm of ,houton1 some of ,king ,hakon's ships found shelter during the winter after the battle of ,largs1 while the king himself lay dying in the ancient palace at ,kirkwall4 ,illustration3 ,ruins of circular church1 ,orphir4 ,after a particularly stiff ride over ,scorriedale1 we enter upon a long and somewhat uninteresting stretch of road through ,clestran and ,ireland1 and at last reach the main road from ,kirkwall to ,stromness1 close to the ,bridge of ,waith1 which crosses the narrow strait between the ,loch of ,stenness and the sea4 ,we can see just above this bridge the traces of a still older one1 and the name ,waith probably indicates that this was originally a 8wading-place0 or ford at low tide4 ,but we are not to cross the bridge to-day2 we turn back towards ,kirkwall to complete our tour of the ,central ,mainland4 ,the road runs along the side of the loch1 through the pretty district of ,clouston1 and past the comfortable hotel which has been erected there for the convenience of such summer visitors as are attracted by the trout-fishing of the loch4 ,the largest trout ever seen was caught in the ,loch of ,stenness1 and if the proverb is true that 8there are as good fish in the sea as ever came out of it10 the same may yet be proved true of this loch4 ,we halt only long enough to obtain a welcome cup of tea1 and then continue our ride4 ,less than a mile brings us to the road which leads over the ,bridge of ,brogar to the ,standing ,stones1 and we decide on making a brief pilgrimage to this the most ancient shrine in the islands--if1 indeed1 it was a shrine4 ,but as the afternoon is wearing towards evening1 and we have been here several times before1 we merely sit down on the short heather beside the circle long enough to let the mystery and 8eeriness0 of the scene sink into our minds and set us wondering silently what it all meant in the far-off days when it was new4 ,we need not wait here in the hope of finding out1 so we ride back past the tall 8sentinel0 stone and the smaller circle of ,stenness to the main road4 ,another mile brings us abreast of ,maeshowe1 and with the spirit of the past upon us we stop once more4 ,we obtain the key of this famous chambered mound from the farmhouse opposite1 in order that we may spend a few minutes more in 8wondering40 ,there is nothing about ,maeshowe1 or even about the ,standing ,stones1 to attract the superficial mind1 but to those who 8wonder10 and who can see things which vanished from outward view many centuries ago1 those places are almost holy ground4 ,they embody and embalm some of the deepest thoughts of a long-vanished people2 and though we can hardly guess what these thoughts were1 the monuments are sacred relics to us4 ,they are milestones1 we may say1 marking early stages in the long advance of our race4 ,illustration3 ,the ,sentinel ,stone1 ,stenness4 ,after leaving ,maeshowe we face an incline just heavy enough to recall our thoughts to the present1 and soon we are passing through the pretty glen which opens on the ,bay of ,firth4 ,the patches of shrubbery and trees round ,binscarth on our left give a pleasing variety to the scenery1 and show us once more the possibilities and the limitations of our islands as regards the cultivation of woods4 ,the village of ,finstown1 the half-way house between ,kirkwall and ,stromness1 has a beautiful situation1 which can be better appreciated from the hillside above it than from the road1 and it is well placed for attracting a share of the ordinary business of the districts around4 ,it has a prosperous look1 and its name reminds us that it claims to be more than a mere village4 ,illustration3 ,maeshowe4 ,before us on our left lies the wide1 shallow ,bay of ,firth1 or 8,the ,firth10 as it might more correctly be called1 which gives its name to the surrounding district4 ,to the ,norsemen it was the 8,sea-trout ,firth10 and must have been important for its fishing4 ,in more recent times it had a famous oyster-fishery2 but that too has become a thing of the past1 though by the exercise of a little foresight and public spirit it could easily be restored4 ,in the bay lie the ,holm of ,grimbister and the island of ,damsay1 or 8,st4 ,adamnan's ,isle40 ,the latter1 as its name indicates1 was the site of a ,culdee monastery1 and is mentioned in the later ,saga story4 ,damsay has also its share of the legendary tales which are connected with many of the old ecclesiastical centres in the island4 ,on our right the old ,kirkwall road branches off1 passing over the southern shoulder of ,wideford ,hill2 and beside it1 on a rising ground1 we see the manse of ,firth1 the home of the soldier-poet ,malcolm1 whose father was minister of the parish4 ,soon our road bears to the left to avoid the steep1 dark mass of ,wideford ,hill2 we cross the broad stretch of ,quanterness1 and a bend to the right brings us once more in view of ,kirkwall1 lying beyond the ,peerie ,sea1 whose still waters mirror the dark mass of ,st4 ,magnus1 now gleaming with a dusky red in the glow of sunset4 ,third ,day4 ,our third day's tour is of a different character2 we are to make our way through ,rendall and ,evie to ,birsay4 ,as we shall spend the night there1 our bicycles must be loaded with a few necessary articles2 but old campaigners always march light1 and our baggage is reduced to its absolute minimum4 ,the first stage of our journey takes us to ,finstown1 along the main ,stromness road which we traversed yesterday4 ,then we turn sharp to the right1 and cross the bridge over the mouth of the 8,oyce10 which reminds us of the ,peerie ,sea and its ,ayre4 ,the district in front of us1 the 8,north ,side0 of ,firth1 consists of a broad slope1 almost a plain1 fringing the bay1 and the steep escarpment of a long range of hills on our left4 ,most of this range is #ejj feet in height1 and parts exceed #gjj feet4 ,there is a certain monotony about the road1 due to its straightness2 but there is really no reason why it should turn either to the right hand or to the left1 so we pedal away1 mile after mile4 ,when opposite the ,bay of ,isbister we pass a very pleasing valley1 that of ,settascarth1 through which a road crosses the long ridge into the parish of ,harray4 ,then we reach the parish of ,rendall1 and find a long ascent in front of us1 as the road runs straight up the 8dale0 whence the name of the parish arises4 ,we pass between the high1 steep ridge on the left and a group of hills on the right which lie between us and the sea1 forming a broad peninsula between the ,bay of ,isbister and ,woodwick4 ,when we reach the summit of this rise1 we are quite ready to halt for a while and enjoy the new panorama which opens out to the northward4 ,the inner group of the ,north ,isles--,rousay1 ,egilsay1 ,wyre1 and ,gairsay--lie at our feet1 as it seems2 and the more distant members of the group can be easily made out4 ,rousay is the dominant feature in the landscape1 and its steep brown hills1 descending in step-like 8hammars10 make an impressive background to the green fringe of farmland and the liquid blue of the sea4 ,as we resume our way along an undulating road1 we pass through a district which1 despite its northerly exposure1 seems able to support a large population1 and numerous tidy cottages cluster here and there along the roadside4 ,by-and-by the cultivated strip becomes narrower1 the sandy beach of ,aikerness gives place to the rocky shores of ,burgar1 and the road turns inland with a steep incline to dip down on the other side of the ridge towards the ,loch of ,swannay4 ,here we shall find it well worth our while to make a somewhat longer halt than before1 and1 leaving our bicycles1 we turn to climb ,costa ,hill1 and to view the wild cliffs at ,costa ,head4 ,from the hill we look down upon the mysterious green islet of ,eynhallow1 the 8,holy ,island10 where the ruins of an ancient monastery have been traced1 and round which more than the usual crop of legends has sprung up4 ,a fair contrast it offers to the bold1 rocky cliffs of ,rousay just beyond4 ,if it happens to be the time of spring tides1 and the ebb is running out1 we shall see at this place one of the most impressive sights which our coasts present4 ,however calm be the sea1 as soon as the tide begins to gather strength1 the channels on either side of ,eynhallow for some distance out to sea become a mass of heaving1 foaming billows1 reminding one of the long stretch of boiling rapids below the ,falls of ,niagara4 ,and that is just what this 8roost0 is--rapids on the course of the tidal river which is now sweeping westward through ,eynhallow ,sound4 ,when we look at our pocket map1 we see that on each side of the islet the depth of water is only about five fathoms4 ,in about a quarter of a mile it becomes ten fathoms1 and within a mile of the west end of the island twenty fathoms4 ,thus the tidal river first passes over a ridge on each side of ,eynhallow1 where it is less than thirty feet deep1 and then plunges down a slope which dips nearly one hundred feet in a mile4 ,if there is a long swell rolling in from the ,atlantic1 as there often is on our western shores1 the turmoil is increased1 and the boiling fury of ,burgar ,roost1 as it is called1 is a sight which it is worth going far to see4 ,the roost which is formed in ,hoy ,sound with a strong ebb-tide is due to similar causes but there the dip in the sea-bottom is not so steep4 ,when the tide turns1 the change seems almost magical1 and in a short time there may be not a ripple on the water to mark the scene of this mad dance of the billows4 ,illustration3 ,birsay1 the ,barony4 ,the cliffs at ,costa ,head are the highest on the ,mainland1 but we can only see them from above1 and thus we lose much of their wild grandeur4 ,we enjoy1 however1 an impressive view of the cave-pierced shores of ,rousay1 and of the stern ramparts of ,noup ,head1 in ,westray1 with its sentinel lighthouse4 ,sooner or later we must return to our bicycles1 and now we coast rapidly down to the ,loch of ,swannay1 sweep round its northern shore1 and1 crossing the burn1 climb the opposite slope towards the part of ,birsay quaintly named1 8,abune the ,hill10 or 8,above the ,hill10 as the map-makers have it4 ,instead of following the road which strikes southward through the centre of the parish1 we turn towards the west1 and by means of an older road make our way to the ,barony of ,birsay1 where we shall find accommodation for the night4 ,but we have still a long evening before us1 and after due rest and refreshment we shall find time to explore our surroundings4 ,the place is full of historical interest4 ,the old name of ,birgisharad1 in which we may trace the names of ,birsay and ,harray1 indicates that here was the chief hunting-ground of the ,norse ,jarls4 ,the mixture of hill and loch and stream1 the valleys being then perhaps furnished with coverts of brushwood where now there is only pasture or crops1 made this northern part of the ,mainland the best hunting-ground in the county4 ,birsay may be said to have been the capital of the ,earldom at one time4 ,it was the favourite residence of the ,earls1 and it was also the ecclesiastical centre1 and the residence of the first bishop of the islands4 ,when the sainted ,earl ,magnus was slain1 it was in ,christ's ,kirk in ,birsay that his body first found burial4 ,on the ,brough we may still see the ruins of a very ancient chapel dedicated to ,st4 ,peter4 ,the ,stewart ,earls1 of dishonoured memory1 found ,birsay an attractive locality4 ,they raised on the site of its old ,norse castle a palace built after the plan of ,holyrood in ,edinburgh1 the ruins of which still form one of the chief features in the landscape4 ,the whole district1 in short1 is full of those remains which we have called milestones of the past1 marking stages in the history of our race4 ,the shore near the ,barony is interesting4 ,we may walk to the ,brough at low water1 but we must take care not to be caught and imprisoned by the returning tide4 ,the cliffs rise to the southward1 and in ,marwick ,head reach a height of nearly three hundred feet4 ,illustration3 ,the ,brough of ,birsay4 ,the chief attraction for tourists is the ,loch of ,boardhouse and its trout fishing4 ,this loch receives the drainage of a wide stretch of country1 its chief feeder being the ,hillside ,burn1 which rises in the hills between ,rendall and ,harray1 flows north-west for some five miles to the ,loch of ,hundland1 and under the name of the ,burn of ,kirbuster reaches the larger loch in about another mile4 ,this drainage basin is next in importance and area to that of the 8,great ,lakes0 of ,orkney1 the ,lochs of ,stenness and ,harray4 ,if we have time and energy left to climb ,ravie ,hill1 on the south side of the loch1 we shall get an excellent idea of the 8lay of the land10 and the relation of these two loch basins4 ,we may notice in particular that the ,harray basin extends northward almost to the hill on which we stand1 and includes a number of small lochs near it which look as if they ought to belong to the ,boardhouse or ,birsay system4 ,if scenery rather than geography is our study1 we shall be equally well repaid for this walk4 ,from its isolated position1 ,ravie ,hill commands a very extensive view1 despite its moderate elevation4 ,the panorama of hill and valley and plain1 of land and lake and sea1 which is spread out around us1 is really one of the finest in ,orkney1 and we can quite understand how the picturesque ,barony came to occupy so important a place in the past4 ,even at the present day its rich soil and pleasant situation give it some right to be called the 8,garden of ,orkney40 ,but meantime we must make our way back to our inn1 for the sun is dipping in the western sea1 and to-morrow will bring us fresh tasks to perform4 ,fourth ,day4 ,our fourth and last day's exploration will be confined to the western shore of the ,mainland1 between ,birsay and ,stromness4 ,as we leave the ,barony and ride along the south side of the loch we are tempted to stop and view once more the landscape from ,ravie ,hill1 before we finally turn our back upon this romantic corner of the ,mainland4 ,while we watch the people at work in the fields1 and listen to the restful sounds of country life1 it is hard to picture the past whose relics stand yonder1 plain in our view4 ,if ,birsay were to display before our eyes this morning a pageant of her past history1 the procession would be a varied one4 ,the hunting-parties of the ,norse ,earls1 the coming of the first bishop to teach the new faith1 the building of the first ,norse church1 the burial of ,earl ,magnus1 the procession of pilgrims seeking miraculous healing at his tomb1 the removal of the sacred relics to the church of ,st4 ,olaf at ,kirkwall to await the building of a more magnificent shrine1 the ruinous favour of the ,scottish ,earls1 the raising of a second ,holyrood in the old ,barony whose stately splendour was the measure of the robbery and extortion suffered by the people1 the passing of this incongruous pomp and the return of welcome obscurity and quiet--truly a long and picturesque procession6 ,we resume our journey1 however1 and soon reach ,twatt1 where the road divides4 ,the branch to the left leads to the important district of ,dounby1 on the borders of the three parishes of ,birsay1 ,harray1 and ,sandwick1 and then passes through the whole length of ,harray to join the ,kirkwall and ,stromness road4 ,harray is an interesting parish4 ,it is the only parish in ,orkney which does not touch the sea4 ,its soil is on the whole fertile1 the surface being diversified by moraines brought down by glaciers from the steep hills to the east4 ,the farms are generally small1 but the farmers are mostly in the happy position of being owners as well as occupiers1 and the number of 8lairds0 in this parish has long been proverbial in ,orkney4 ,we decide1 however1 on taking the road to the right1 as we wish to see something of the famous 8west shore40 ,three or four miles brings us to the head of the ,harray ,loch2 but instead of descending to the mill of ,rango we turn to the right at the cross-roads1 and shortly reach the hamlet of ,aith1 beside the ,loch of ,skaill1 our charming 8,loch in ,orcady40 ,here we turn once more to the right1 following a road which skirts the loch and leads us almost to the shores of the ,bay of ,skaill1 a fine sweep of sandy beach1 but exposed to the full fury of the ,atlantic4 ,illustration3 ,marwick ,head1 ,birsay4 ,at its southern corner we examine a large 8,pict's ,house10 now opened up--the 8,weem of ,scarabrae40 ,then we decide to climb the slope beyond and visit the 8,hole o' ,roo10 a famous cave piercing a bold headland1 which from the horizontal lie of the rock strata looks as if it had been built of gigantic flagstones by a race of ,titans4 ,we are now entering on the finest stretch of cliff scenery in the islands1 with the exception of ,hoy1 and from here to ,stromness1 a distance of some eight miles1 the walk is one to remember and to repeat4 ,but now for the first time we find our bicycles a hindrance instead of a help1 and we are at a loss what to do with them4 ,we may decide to turn back to the main road1 ride to ,stromness1 and1 leaving them there1 explore the coast on foot1 which is the most satisfactory plan4 ,if we decide to take them on with us1 we shall find that considerable stretches of the ground are level enough to permit of a rough ride on the turf1 and for the last three miles of the distance there is a fair road4 ,illustration3 ,the ,castle of ,yesnaby4 ,the next point of interest after leaving ,row ,head is the ,noust of ,bigging1 sheltered by its ,brough1 an excellent place from which to watch the ,atlantic breakers when a heavy sea is running4 ,a little way to the south is the ,castle of ,yesnaby1 one of those isolated stacks of rock which have withstood the battering of the ocean while the cliffs around have crumbled and fallen4 ,its slender base1 however1 proclaims that its fate is only a matter of time4 ,in another mile and a half1 after passing ,lyre ,geo and ,inganess ,geo1 two impressive examples of how rocks decay1 we reach the ,castle of ,north ,gaulton1 a singularly slender and graceful pillar of rock4 ,then we cross a stretch of low ground1 after which there is a steep climb up to the summit of the ,black ,craig4 ,the height of the hill is #cfj feet1 and that of the cliff little less1 while its sheer plunge down into the waves makes it look higher than it really is4 ,as we descend towards the south we pass over a district which is sacred in the eyes of geologists1 for it was here that ,hugh ,miller discovered the fossil remains of the ,asterolepis or 8star-scale0 fish1 a monster of the ancient days when the rocks of this hill were being laid down as mud and sand on the bottom of a primeval lake4 ,the great geologist describes this district as 8the land of fish10 and the rock strata fairly swarm with fossils4 ,the shore in front is now low and tame1 but the whole district from hill to sea is fertile and well peopled4 ,that it was so in the past also we see sufficient proof4 ,for there1 on the shore of ,breckness1 stand the ruins of a mansion built by ,bishop ,graeme1 who knew well where to build2 and a mile beyond it1 in the lonely churchyard by the lonely sea1 rises a fragment of an ancient church4 ,there stood the church of ,stromness in former days1 and there also the manse2 while the names of ,innertown and ,outertown doubtless refer to their relative nearness to this centre of parish life4 ,illustration3 ,round about ,stromness4 #a4 ,dundas ,street4 #b4 ,church ,road4 #c4 ,victoria ,street4 #d4 ,from the ,south ,end4 #e4 ,from the ,harbour4 #f4 ,from the ,hill4 ,but times have changed1 and it is no longer fertility of soil but convenience for trade which draws men together in close neighbourhood1 and so the modern ,stromness arose on the shore of that romantic little bay which spreads out beneath us as we cross the ridge to the left4 ,that landlocked sea1 and not the rocky hillside1 was the source of its life and growth2 and as we note the frequent steamships and the clustered fishing-fleet we realize that it is still the sea which brings prosperity to the little gray town4 ,here1 then1 our circuit of the ,mainland fitly ends1 for in the opinion of many the town of ,stromness1 the 8ness of the tide-stream10 is the fairest spot in all the islands4 ,however this may be1 it is indeed fair1 and the ,stromness boy will wander far and sail over many seas ere he will find a fairer scene than his island home2--fair when it lies before him under the pearl-gray light of its northern sky2 fairer still1 perchance1 when the golden haze of memory gilds the landscape1 and the joyous vision of the outward eye has given place to the wistful retrospect of the imagination4 ,illustration3 ,the ,black ,craig4 ,,sketches ,,by ,,hugh ,,miller4 ,the ,dwarfie ,stone4 ,we landed at ,hoy1 on a rocky stretch of shore composed of the gray flagstones of the district4 ,they spread out here in front of the tall hills composed of the overlying sandstone1 in a green1 undulating platform1 resembling a somewhat uneven esplanade spread out in front of a steep rampart4 ,with the upper deposit a new style of scenery commences1 unique in these islands4 ,the hills1 bold and abrupt1 rise from fourteen to sixteen hundred feet over the sea-level2 and the valleys by which they are traversed--no mere shallow inflections of the general surface1 like most of the other valleys of ,orkney--are of profound depth1 precipitous1 imposing1 and solitary4 ,the sudden change from the soft1 low1 and comparatively tame to the bold1 stern1 and high serves admirably to show how much the character of a landscape may depend upon the formation which composes it4 ,a walk of somewhat less than two miles brought me into the depths of a brown1 shaggy valley1 so profoundly solitary that it does not contain a single human habitation1 nor1 with one interesting exception1 a single trace of the hand of man4 ,as the traveller approaches by a path somewhat elevated1 in order to avoid the peaty bogs of the bottom1 along the slopes of the northern side of the dell1 he sees1 amid the heath below1 what at first seems to be a rhomboidal piece of pavement of pale ,old ,red ,sandstone1 bearing atop a few stunted tufts of vegetation4 ,there are no neighbouring objects of a known character by which to estimate its size4 ,the precipitous hill-front behind is more than a thousand feet in height2 the greatly taller ,ward ,hill of ,hoy1 which frowns over it on the opposite side1 is at least five hundred feet higher2 and dwarfed by these giants it seems a mere pavier's flag1 mayhap some five or six feet square by some eighteen inches to two feet in depth4 ,it is only on approaching it within a few yards that we find it to be an enormous stone1 nearly thirty feet in length by almost fifteen feet in breadth1 and in some places1 though it thins wedgelike towards one of the edges1 more than six feet in thickness--forming altogether such a mass as the quarrier would detach from the solid rock to form the architrave of some vast gateway or the pediment of some colossal statue4 ,a cave-like excavation1 nearly three feet square1 and rather more than seven feet in depth1 opens on its gray and lichened side4 ,the excavation is widened within1 along the opposite walls1 into two uncomfortably short beds1 very much resembling those of the cabin of a small coasting vessel4 ,one of the two beds is furnished with a protecting ledge and a pillow of stone hewn out of the solid mass2 while the other1 which is some five or six inches shorter than its neighbour1 and presents altogether more the appearance of a place of penance than of repose1 lacks both cushion and ledge4 ,an aperture1 which seems to have been originally of a circular form1 and about two and a half feet in diameter1 but which some unlucky herd-boy1 apparently in the want of some better employment1 has considerably mutilated and widened1 opens at the inner extremity of the excavation to the roof1 as the hatch of a vessel opens from the hold to the deck2 for it is by far too wide in proportion to the size of the apartment to be regarded as a chimney4 ,a gray1 rudely-hewn block of sandstone1 which1 though greatly too ponderous to be moved by any man of ordinary strength1 seems to have served the purpose of a door1 lies prostrate beside the opening in front4 ,illustration3 ,the ,dwarfie ,stone4 ,and such is the famous ,dwarfie ,stone of ,hoy1 as firmly fixed in our literature by the genius of ,sir ,walter ,scott as in this wide valley by its ponderous weight and breadth of base1 and regarding which--for it shares in the general obscurity of the other ancient remains of ,orkney--the antiquary can do little more than repeat somewhat incredulously what tradition tells him--namely1 that it was the work many ages ago of an ugly1 malignant goblin1 half earth1 half air1 the elfin ,trolld--a personage1 it is said1 that even within the last century used occasionally to be seen flitting about in its neighbourhood4 ,i was fortunate in a fine1 breezy day1 clear and sunshiny1 save where the shadows of a few dense1 piled-up clouds swept dark athwart the landscape4 ,in the secluded recesses of the valley all was hot1 heavy1 and still2 though now and then a fitful snatch of a breeze1 the mere fragment of some broken gust that seemed to have lost its way1 tossed for a moment the white cannach of the bogs1 or raised spirally into the air1 for a few yards1 the light beards of some seeding thistle1 and straightway let them down again4 ,suddenly1 however1 about noon a shower broke thick and heavy against the dark sides and gray scalp of the ,ward ,hill and came sweeping down the valley4 ,i did what ,norna of the ,fitful ,head had1 according to the novelist1 done before me in similar circumstances--crept for shelter into the larger bed of the cell1 which1 though rather scant1 taken fairly lengthwise1 for a man of five feet eleven1 ,i found1 by stretching myself diagonally from corner to corner1 no very uncomfortable lounging-place in a thunder-shower4 ,some provident herd-boy had spread it over1 apparently months before1 with a littering of heath and fern1 which now formed a dry1 springy couch2 and as ,i lay wrapped up in my plaid1 listening to the raindrops as they pattered thick and heavy atop or slanted through the broken hatchway to the vacant bed on the opposite side of the excavation1 ,i called up the wild narrative of ,norna and felt all its poetry4 ,the ,dwarfie ,stone has been a good deal undervalued by some writers1 such as the historian of ,orkney1 ,mr4 ,barry2 and1 considered simply as a work of art or labour1 it certainly does not stand high4 ,when tracing1 as ,i lay abed1 the marks of the tool1 which in the harder portions of the stone are still distinctly visible1 ,i just thought how that1 armed with pick and chisel1 and working as ,i was once accustomed to work1 ,i could complete such another excavation to order in some three weeks or a month4 ,but then ,i could not make my excavation a thousand years old1 nor envelop its origin in the sun-gilt vapours of a poetic obscurity1 nor connect it with the supernatural through the influence of wild1 ancient traditions1 nor yet encircle it with a classic halo borrowed from the undying inventions of an exquisite literary genius4 ,the pillow ,i found littered over with the names of visitors2 but the stone--an exceedingly compact red sandstone--had resisted the imperfect tools at the command of the traveller1 usually a nail or a knife1 and so there were but two of the names decipherable--that of an 8,h4 ,ross1 #agce10 and that of a 8,p4 ,folster1 #ahcj40 ,the rain still pattered heavily overhead1 and with my geological chisel and hammer ,i did1 to beguile the time1 what ,i very rarely do--added my name to the others1 in characters which1 if both they and the ,dwarfie ,stone get but fair play1 will be distinctly legible two centuries hence4 ,in what state will the world then exist1 or what sort of ideas will fill the head of the man who1 when the rock has well-nigh yielded up its charge1 will decipher the name for the last time1 and inquire1 mayhap1 regarding the individual whom it now designates1 as ,i did this morning when ,i asked1 8,who was this ,h4 ,ross1 and who this ,p4 ,folster808 ,i remember when it would have saddened me to think that there would in all probability be as little response in the one case as in the other2 but as men rise in years they become more indifferent than in early youth to 8that life which wits inherit after death10 and are content to labour on and be obscure4 ,the sun broke out in great beauty after the shower1 glistening on a thousand minute runnels that came streaming down the precipices1 and revealing through the thin1 vapoury haze the horizontal lines of strata that bar the hillsides1 like courses of ashlar in a building4 ,i failed1 however1 to detect1 amid the general many-pointed glitter by which the blue1 gauze-like mist was bespangled1 the light of the great carbuncle for which the ,ward ,hill has long been famous--that wondrous gem1 according to ,sir ,walter1 8that1 though it gleams ruddy as a furnace to them that view it from beneath1 ever becomes invisible to him whose daring foot scales the precipices whence it darts its splendour40 ,the ,standing ,stones4 ,illustration3 ,the ,standing ,stones--,the ,ring of ,brogar4 ,the ,standing ,stones--second in ,britain1 of their kind1 only to those of ,stonehenge--occur in two groups2 the smaller group 7composed1 however1 of the taller stones7 on the southern promontory1 the larger on the northern one4 ,rude and shapeless1 and bearing no other impress of the designing faculty than that they are stuck endwise in the earth1 and form1 as a whole1 regular figures on the sward1 there is yet a sublime solemnity about them1 unsurpassed in effect by any ruin ,i have yet seen1 however grand in its design or imposing in its proportions4 ,their very rudeness1 associated with their ponderous bulk and weight1 adds to their impressiveness4 ,when there is art and taste enough in a country to hew an ornate column1 no one marvels that there should be also mechanical skill enough in it to set it up on end2 but the men who tore from the quarry these vast slabs1 some of them eighteen feet in height over the soil1 and raised them where they now stand1 must have been ignorant savages unacquainted with machinery1 and unfurnished1 apparently1 with a single tool4 ,the consideration1 too1 that these remains--eldest of the works of man in this country--should have so long survived all definite tradition of the purposes which they were raised to serve1 so that we now merely know regarding them that they were religious in their uses--products of that ineradicable instinct of man's nature which leads him in so many various ways to attempt conciliating the ,powers of another world--serves greatly to heighten their effect4 ,the appearance of the obelisks1 too1 harmonizes well with their great antiquity and the obscurity of their origin4 ,for about a man's height from the ground they are covered thick by the shorter lichens--chiefly the gray-stone parmelia--here and there embroidered by the golden-hued patches of the yellow parmelia of the wall2 but their heads and shoulders1 raised beyond the reach alike of the herd-boy and of his herd1 are covered by an extraordinary profusion of a flowing beard-like lichen of unusual length--the lichen calicarus 7or1 according to modern botanists1 ,ramalina scopulorum71 in which they look like an assemblage of ancient ,druids1 mysteriously stern and invincibly silent and shaggy as the ,bard of ,gray1 when 8,loose his beard and hoary hair ,streamed like a meteor on the troubled air40 ,the day was perhaps too sunny and clear for seeing the ,standing ,stones to the best possible advantage4 ,they could not be better placed than on their flat promontories1 surrounded by the broad plain of an extensive lake1 in a waste1 lonely1 treeless country1 that presents no bold competing features to divert attention from them as the great central objects of the landscape2 but the gray of the morning or an atmosphere of fog and vapour would have associated better with the misty obscurity of their history1 their shaggy forms1 and their livid tints than the glare of a cloudless sun1 that brought out in hard1 clear relief their rude outlines1 and gave to each its sharp1 dark patch of shadow4 ,gray-coloured objects1 when tall and imposing1 but of irregular form1 are seen always to most advantage in an uncertain light--in fog or frost-rime1 or under a scowling sky1 or1 as ,parnell well expresses it1 8amid the livid gleams of night40 ,they appeal1 if ,i may so express myself1 to the sentiment of the ghostly and the spectral1 and demand at least a partial envelopment of the obscure4 ,burns1 with the true tact of the genuine poet1 develops the sentiment almost instinctively in an exquisite stanza in one of his less-known songs4 8,the ,posie10-- 8,the hawthorn ,i will pu'1 wi' its locks o' siller gray1 ,where1 like an aged man1 it stands at break o' day40 ,scott1 too1 in describing these very stones1 chooses the early morning as the time in which to exhibit them1 when they 8stood in the gray light of the dawning1 like the phantom forms of antediluvian giants1 who1 shrouded in the habiliments of the dead1 come to revisit1 by the pale light1 the earth which they had plagued with their oppression1 and polluted by their sins1 till they brought down upon it the vengeance of the long-suffering heaven40 ,on another occasion he introduces them as 8glimmering1 a grayish white1 in the rising sun1 and projecting far to the westward their long1 gigantic shadows40 ,and ,malcolm1 in the exercise of a similar faculty with that of ,burns and of ,scott1 surrounds them1 in his description1 with a somewhat similar atmosphere of partial dimness and obscurity3-- 8,the hoary rocks1 of giant size1 ,that o'er the land in circles rise1 ,of which tradition may not tell4 ,fit circles for the wizard's spell1 ,seen far amidst the scowling storm1 ,seem each a tall and phantom form1 ,as hurrying vapours o'er them flee1 ,frowning in grim obscurity1 ,while1 like a dread voice from the past1 ,around them moans the autumnal blast40 ,there exist curious analogies between the earlier stages of society and the more immature periods of life--between the savage and the child2 and the huge circle of ,stennis seems suggestive of one of these4 ,it is considerably more than four hundred feet in diameter2 and the stones which compose it1 varying from three to fourteen feet in height1 must have been originally from thirty-five to forty in number1 though only sixteen now remain erect4 ,a mound and fosse1 still distinctly traceable1 run round the whole2 and there are several mysterious-looking tumuli outside1 bulky enough to remind one of the lesser moraines of the geologist4 ,but the circle1 notwithstanding its imposing magnitude1 is but a huge child's house after all--one of those circles of stones which children lay down on their village green1 and then1 in the exercise of that imaginative faculty which distinguishes between the young of the human animal and those of every other creature1 convert1 by a sort of conventionalism1 into a church or dwelling-house1 within which they seat themselves and enact their imitations of the employments of their seniors1 whether domestic or ecclesiastical4 ,the circle of ,stennis was a circle1 say the antiquaries1 dedicated to the sun4 ,the group of stones on the southern promontory of the lake formed but a half-circle1 and it was a half-circle dedicated to the moon4 ,to the circular sun the great rude children of an immature age of the world had laid down a circle of stones on the one promontory2 to the moon1 in her half-orbed state1 they had laid down a half-circle on the other2 and in propitiating these material deities they employed in their respective enclosures1 in the exercise of a wild1 unregulated fancy1 uncouth1 irrational rites4 ,,hugh ,,miller 78,rambles of a ,geologist407 ,,the ,,cathedral ,,of ,,st4 ,,magnus4 ,you would hardly expect to find an ancient cathedral up in those ,orkney ,islands that one usually sees huddled away in a spare corner of the map1 and made to look even smaller than they are by the exigencies of space4 ,it is curious to think of3 once1 long ago1 strange ships with monstrous figure-heads and painted sides1 full of the northern actors of history1 crawled with their lines of oars into the sounds and bays of these islands1 till for centuries they became the stage for dramatic events and stirring personages4 ,some of the players bore names that any history book tells of4 ,harald ,hardrada1 old ,king ,haco1 ,bothwell1 and ,montrose have all played their parts4 ,and there are others1 earls and prelates1 and northern kings1 and old sea-rovers1 who were really far better worth knowing than half the puppets with more familiar labels4 ,then1 gradually the lights went out and the audience turned away to look at other things1 and the ,orkneymen were left to observe the ,sabbath and elect a ,county ,council4 ,one by one the old buildings toppled down1 and the old names changed1 and the old customs faded1 till the place of the islands in history became their place upon the map2 but time and men have spared one thing--this old cathedral church of ,st4 ,magnus in ,kirkwall4 ,illustration3 ,in ,kirkwall4 #a4 ,earl's ,palace4 #b4 ,bridge ,street4 #c4 ,albert ,street4 #d4 ,bishop's ,palace4 ,on the ancient houses of the little borough and the winding slit of a street1 the old red church still looks down benignly1 and sometimes 7of a ,sunday1 ,i think1 especially7 a little humorously4 ,over the gray roofs and the tree-tops in sheltered gardens1 and the black mites of people passing on their business1 its lustreless ,gothic eyes see a wide expanse of land and a wider and brighter sweep of sea4 ,the winding sounds and broadening bays join and divide and join again1 through and through its island dominions4 ,backwards and forwards1 twice a day1 the flood tide pours from the open ,atlantic1 and each channel becomes an eastward flowing river2 and then from the ,north ,sea the ebb sets the races running to the west4 ,everywhere is the sight or the sound of the sea--rollers on the western cliffs1 salt currents among the islands1 quiet bays lapping the feet of heathery hills4 ,out of the two great oceans the wind blows like the blasts of an enormous bellows1 and on the horizon the clouds are eternally gathering4 ,it is over this land of moor and water and vapour that the cathedral watches the people2 and though from the difficulty of passing through so narrow a street it has never moved from the spot where it first arose1 and has never seen1 one would suppose1 the greater part of its territories1 yet it knows--none better--the stories and the spirit of all the islands4 ,crows and gulls cruise round the tower familiarly1 and perhaps bring gossip2 but eyes so long and narrow1 and of so inhuman an anatomy1 may very likely see through a hill or a heart for themselves4 ,the country is like a fleet at sea1 and the old spirit of the people came from the deep4 ,at first that spirit was only restless and fierce and free2 in time it began to think1 and at odd moments to be troubled1 and they called it pious4 ,then it looked for a fitting house where it might live when it could no longer find a home in the people4 ,so it built the red cathedral1 and there it silently dwells to-day4 ,there is something in their church that none of the respectable townsfolk have the slightest suspicion of--something alive that vibrates to the cry of the wind and the breaking of the sea1 and the little human events that happen in the crow-stepped houses4 ,on the wild autumn afternoons when the hard north-east wind is driving rain and sleet through the town1 the old church begins to remember4 ,the wind and the sleet coming over the sea stir the quick spirit so sharply that every angle is full of sighing noises4 ,as the shortened day draws to an end1 and lights begin to twinkle in the town1 and the showers become less frequent1 and the clouds are rolled up and gathered off the sky1 then the people come out into the streets and see the early stars above the gable-ends and high cathedral tower4 ,they think it cold1 and walk quickly1 but a personage of sandstone takes little note of the temperature4 ,the cathedral merely feels refreshed4 ,when the clear1 windy night draws in1 the people go to rest1 and one by one the lights are put out till only the stars and the lighthouses are left4 ,looking over a darkened town and an empty night1 with the air moving fresh from ,norway1 the memories come thick upon the old church which shelters so many bones4 ,it is like digging up the soil of those lands from which the sea has for centuries receded1 and where the ribs of ships and the skeletons of sailors lie deep beneath the furrows of the plough4 ,kirkwall must have been a strange little town before the cathedral's memory begins1 when there was no red tower above the narrow street and the little houses1 in the days when ,rognvald1 the son of ,kol1 had vowed to dedicate a splendid minster to his uncle1 ,st4 ,magnus1 should he come by his own and call himself ,earl of ,orkney2 and when the islanders waited to see what aid the blessed saint would furnish to this enterprise4 ,it is one of the island tragedies--the saga of how the evil ,earl ,hakon slew his cousin1 ,earl ,magnus1 outside the old church of ,egilsay with that high round tower that you can see over ,kirkwall ,bay from the cathedral parapet1 and how the grass grew greener where he fell1 and miracles multiplied1 and they made him a saint in time4 ,though all these events happened before a stone of the cathedral was laid1 they may help to give the meaning of its story1 and on that account they are worth1 perhaps1 a rough telling here4 ,earl ,hakon had died1 and his son ,paul ruled in his stead4 ,he was a silent1 brave1 unlucky man1 upright and honourable in his dealings1 but the shadow of his father's crime lay over the land4 ,it brought old age and prosperity and repentance to the doer of the deed2 and on his son the punishment fell4 ,illustration3 ,st4 ,magnus ,cathedral1 interior4 #a4 ,south aisle4 #b4 ,north aisle4 #c4 ,nave4 ,rognvald claimed the half of the earldom4 ,paul answered that there was no need for long words1 8,for ,i will guard the ,orkneys while ,god grants me life so to do40 ,and then the contest began4 ,rognvald attacked from north and south4 ,paul vanquished the southern fleet1 and hurrying north drove his rival back to ,norway2 and so the winter came on1 and the peace that in those days men kept in winter4 ,all had gone well with ,paul1 but his luck was to change with a little thing4 ,he was keeping ,yule with his friends and kinsmen1 when upon a winter's evening1 a man1 wet with the spray of the ,pentland ,firth1 came out of the dusk and knocked upon the door4 ,he was hardly the instrument1 one would think1 a departed saint would choose to build a cathedral with--a ,viking with his sword ever loose in its sheath1 and his lucky star obscured1 coming here for refuge1 from the ashes of his father and his home4 ,he was known as ,sweyn ,asleifson 7a name to be famous in the islands71 and was welcomed for his family's sake2 they brought him in to the feast1 and the drinking went on4 ,in a little while there arose a quarrel over the cups2 ,sweyn killed his man1 and fled into the night again4 ,he was a landless outlaw this time1 for the dead man had been high in favour1 and the earl was stern4 ,meanwhile men went on drinking over the hall fires2 but ,paul's luck had departed1 and ,st4 ,magnus had a weapon in his hand4 ,in the spring the war began again1 and suddenly in the midst of it ,earl ,paul disappeared--his bodyguard cut down upon the beach1 himself spirited clean away4 ,sweyn ,asleifson had come for him1 and carried him to a fate that was never more than rumoured4 ,so ,rognvald won the earldom1 and the first stones of his church were laid4 ,the saint had certainly struck for him4 ,that is the true story of the vow and the building of the cathedral1 a tale too old for even the venerable church to remember4 ,but all the long history of the seven centuries since it knows2 and indeed it has played such a part in scene after scene and act after act1 that a memory would have to be of some poorer stuff than hewed sandstone to forget a past so stirring4 ,and who can be so far behind every scene as the house which during men's lives listens to their prayers1 and at last upon a day takes them in for ever8 ,when it first began to look down from its windows upon those men going about their business in the sunshine or the rain1 it saw among the little creatures some that were well worth remembering1 though there be few but the cathedral to remember them now4 ,there was ,rognvald himself1 that cheerful1 gallant earl who made poetry and war1 and sailed to ,jerusalem with all his chiefs and friends1 fighting and rhyming all the way1 and riding home across the length of ,europe1 and who1 when he fell by an assassin's hand1 was laid at last beneath the pavement of this cathedral he had founded4 ,and then1 most memorable of all the great odallers who followed him in war and sat at his ,yule feasts1 there was the ,viking1 ,sweyn ,asleifson1 he who kidnapped ,paul1 and afterwards became the lifelong and1 on the whole1 faithful friend of ,rognvald1 and the faithless enemy of almost every one else2 the most daring1 unscrupulous1 famous1 and--judging by the way he always obtained forgiveness when he needed it--the most fascinating man in all the northern countries4 ,he was the luckiest1 too1 till the day he fell in an ambush in the streets of ,dublin1 exclaiming with his last breath1 in most remarkable contrast to the tenor of his life3 8,know this1 all men1 that ,i am one of the ,saint ,earl ,rognvald's bodyguard1 and ,i now mean to put my trust in being where he is1 with ,god40 ,may he rest in peace wherever his bones lie1 even though his reformation came something late1 the turbulent1 terrible old ,viking1 whom the ,saga writers called the last of that profession4 ,the generation who built it had passed away1 when on a summer's day1 after it had weathered nearly a century of storm and shine1 the cathedral saw the greatest sight it had yet beheld4 ,haco of ,norway had come with his fleet to conquer the ,western ,isles of ,scotland1 the ,norse kings' old inheritance4 ,the pointed windows watched ship after ship sail by with coloured sails and shining shields1 bearing the ,norsemen to their last battle in southern lands2 and then the islands waited for the news that in those days was brought by the men who had made the story4 ,month upon month went by2 men wondered and rumours flew2 the days grew shorter1 and the gales came out upon all the seas4 ,at last1 when winter was well upon the islands1 what were left of the battered ships began to struggle home4 ,they brought back stories that the cathedral remembers1 though six centuries have rolled them out of the memories of the people--tales of lee-shores and westerly gales1 of anchors dragging under the ,cumbraes1 and ,scottish knights charging down upon the beach where the ,norwegian spears were ranked on the edge of the tide2 then of more gales and whirlpools in the ,pentland1 until at length they carried their old sick king ashore1 to die in the bishop's palace at ,kirkwall4 ,illustration3 ,st4 ,magnus ,cathedral1 exterior4 #a4 ,west doorway1 nave4 #b4 ,east window4 #c4 ,doorway1 south transept4 #d4 ,doorway1 north aisle4 #e4 ,doorway1 south aisle4 ,he lay for two months in that ancient building--now a roofless shell1 standing just beyond the churchyard wall--his most faithful friends beside him1 the restless ,orkney wind without1 and the voice of the ,saga reader by the bed4 ,first they read to him in ,latin1 till he grew too sick to follow the foreign words2 and then in ,norse1 through the ,sagas of the saints1 and after of the kings4 ,they had come down to his own father1 ,sverrir1 and then1 in the words of the old historian1 8,near midnight ,sverrir's ,saga was read through1 and just as midnight was past ,almighty ,god called ,king ,hakon from this world's life40 ,they buried him in the great red church that had stood sentinel over the sick-chamber2 and as the race of ,vikings died with ,sweyn1 so the roving1 conquering kings of ,norway passed away with ,haco1 and never again came south to trouble the seaboards4 ,the ,orkneys1 however1 were not yet out of the current of affairs4 ,they cut1 indeed1 but a small figure compared with the ,orkney of the great ,earl ,thorfinn in the century before ,rognvald founded his cathedral--he who owned nine earldoms in ,scotland and all the ,southern ,isles1 besides a great realm in ,ireland4 ,but there was still a bishop in the palace and an earl with powers of life and death in his dominion1 and an armed following that counted for something in war2 and the cathedral was still the church of a small country rather than of a little county4 ,the sun cast the shadows of dignitaries in the winding street1 and the bones they were framed of were laid in time beneath the flags of ,st4 ,magnus's church4 ,when one comes to think of it1 the old cathedral must hold a varied collection of these1 for here lie the high and the low of two races1 and no man knows how many chance sojourners and travellers4 ,at last1 upon a dark day for the islands1 their era of semi-independence and ,vikingism and ,norse romance came to a most undignified end4 ,a needy king of the north pledged them to ,scotland for his daughter's dowry1 as a common man might pledge his watch4 ,east to ,norway was no longer the way to the motherland1 and the open horizon meeting the clouds1 the old highroad1 led now to a foreign shore4 ,henceforth they belonged to the long coast with its pale mountain peaks far away over the cliffs1 which had once1 so far as the eye could see1 belonged to them4 ,it was a transaction intended for a season1 but the season has never ran to its limit yet4 ,now1 it is to be hoped1 it never will2 but for centuries it would have been better for the ,orkneys if they had gone the way of some volcanic islet and sunk quietly below the gray ,north ,sea4 ,one might think that1 when they had ceased to be a half-way house between their sovereign and his neighbours of ,europe1 and were become instead a geographical term applied to the least accessible portion of their new lord's dominions1 their history and their troubles would soon have ceased1 and the islanders been left to fish and reap late crops and try to keep out the winter weather4 ,but there was no such good luck for many a day to come4 ,alas for themselves1 they were too valuable an asset in the ,scotch king's treasury4 ,orkney too valuable6 ,that collection of windy1 treeless islands1 where great ponds of rain-water stand through the fields for months together1 and a strawberry that ripens is shown to one's friends6 ,the plain truth is that1 measured by a ,scotch standard of value in those days1 it would have been hard to find a pocket not worth the picking4 ,the rental of ,orkney was more than twice that of the kingdom of ,fife1 and ,fife1 ,i suppose1 was an ,el ,dorado compared with most provinces of its impecunious country4 ,so north they came1 ,scotch earls and bishops and younger sons1 to make what they could before the pledge was redeemed4 ,and to the old cathedral was flung the shame of standing as the symbol of oppression4 ,it was not its fault1 and every stone must have silently cried to ,heaven for forgiveness4 ,but a cathedral meant a bishop1 and an ,orkney bishop meant the refinement of roguery and exaction4 ,when these prelates in their turns came to inhabit permanently their minster1 and they could at last hear the voice of its spirit that loves the land it watches1 demanding an account of their stewardship1 what could they say8 ,the old excuse--8,we must live08 ,i can hardly think the church perceived the necessity4 ,that monument which the old sailors and fighters of the north had built1 that they might link a better world with the rough and warring earth1 had to stand immovable for century upon century1 watching the trouble of their sons4 ,it saw them make their stand at ,summerdale in the old fashion1 with sword and halbert and a battle-cry on their lips1 and march back again to the town in a glimpse of triumph4 ,but that quickly faded1 and the weight of new laws and evil rulers gradually broke the high spirit entirely4 ,it saw the proud odallers reduced to long-suffering 8peerie lairds10 and all their power and romance and circumstance of state pass over to the foreigner1 until after a time it was hard to believe that1 some pages further back1 there was a closed chapter of history which read quite differently from this4 ,down below the parapet of the tower the narrow streets were full of the most splendid-looking people1 all in steel and the ,stewart arms4 ,earls ,robert and ,patrick of that royal name1 each1 through his scandalous life1 made the island the home of a prince's court2 and out among the moors and the islands the old race wondered whose turn it should be for persecution next1 and how long ,heaven would let these things be4 ,the downfall of the ,stewarts' rule came at last1 violently as was fit1 but to the end they used the old church on behalf of the wrong4 ,the tower was wrapped in the smoke of the rebels' musketry when old ,earl ,patrick lay by the heels in ,edinburgh awaiting his doom as a traitor1 and his son held ,kirkwall against what might1 by comparison1 be termed the law1 and it was only at the point of the pike that they turned the last ,stewart out of the sepulchre of ,st4 ,magnus4 ,then the long windows watched the shadows of all manner of persons1 who are well forgotten now1 darken the prospect for a while1 and pass away to let other clouds gather2 and in all that time there cannot have been many whom a critical edifice can recall with pride4 ,the bishops were sent about their business1 and the ,solemn ,league and ,covenant was solemnly sworn4 ,the troopers of ,cromwell stalked through the old pillars with their wide hats the firmer set on4 ,the ,covenant was unsworn1 and the bishops came back and acquired emoluments for a little while longer1 till at last they went altogether1 and in good1 sober ,presbyterian fashion the awakened people set about purifying their temple4 ,poor old church6 they did it thoroughly4 ,away went carving and stained glass1 and ancient tombs and bones1 and everything that the austere taste of ,heaven is supposed by man to dislike4 ,they made it clean with a kind of yellowish whitewash1 and divided it by a sanitary deal screen impervious to draught4 ,in this shameful guise the cathedral has watched the advent of quiet days and the slow healing of time4 ,to-day the greatest clamour it hears is made by the rooks4 ,no earl's men or bishop's men quarrel in the streets2 no one either fears or harries the islanders2 the history of ,orkney is written and closed and laid upon the shelf4 ,the hands of the clock move evenly round1 and the seasons change by the almanac4 ,but there stands the old red church1 silently remembering and arranging in their due perspective all these things remarkable and true4 ,the worst of it is that it makes no comment that a mortal can understand1 so that no one can say what a seasoned1 well-mortared observer of seven centuries of affairs thinks of changing dynasties and creeds1 and whether it is disposed to take them more seriously than so many moultings of feathers1 and if one can retain any optimism through a course of whitewash and draught-proof screens4 ,it is pleasant to think1 for the old minster's sake1 that it heeds the rubs of fortune very little1 and regards material changes just as so many shifts of plumage4 ,its people are still flesh and blood1 and its islands rock and turf and heather1 and it will take more than pails and paint-brushes1 and pledges and covenants to make them otherwise4 ,the winter days are as bleak as ever1 and the summer evenings as long and light1 and the sun rises out of the ,north ,sea among the flat green islands1 and sinks in the ,atlantic behind the western heather hills2 and it is likely enough that from the height of the cathedral tower many other most serious events look surprisingly unimportant4 ,j4 ,,storer ,,clouston4 78,macmillan's ,magazine40 ,by permission47 ,illustration3 ,kirkwall in winter4 ,a ,,road ,,in ,,orcady4 ,in southern lands--and most lands are southern to us--the road runs between fragrant hedgerows or under shady trees2 but in ,orcady trees and hedges are practically unknown4 ,yet the road lacks not its charm1 for this is a world of compensations4 ,if we never breathe the fragrance of the may or hear the whisper of the wind-stirred branches1 we have1 on the other hand1 nothing to shut out from our eyes the wide expanse of land and sea or to hide the blue sky over us1 no fallen timber after a gale to block our way and make of our progress an involuntary obstacle race1 and no thorns to puncture our cycle tyres4 ,the lover of the highway may miss here much of the bird-life that enlivens the roads of the south2 but our road has a life and traffic of its own quite apart from the trickling stream of men and horses which flows fitfully along its white channel4 ,flowers and flies1 birds and beasts1 the road has something for each and all of them4 ,even by day they use it1 but from dusk to dawn they claim it as their very own4 ,illustration3 ,by the ,roadside--8,peerie ,hooses40 #a4 ,holm4 #b4 ,harray4 #c4 ,birsay4 #d4 ,tankerness4 #e4 ,orphir4 ,i do not remember that ,stevenson1 who so loved the road1 has written anywhere of its little life--of the birds and beasts1 the shy living things1 that haunt it4 ,in the treeless isles of ,orcady1 at least1 the furred and feathered creatures seem to think that man makes the road for their especial delectation4 ,for all creatures of beach and bog1 hill and meadow1 it has its charms2 and hence it is ever beat upon by soft1 soundless feet and shadowed by swiftly moving wings1 and many a little comedy or tragedy is played out upon its stage4 ,we walk upon it in spring and summer through an air fragrant with the perfume of innumerable small1 sweet flowers1 with the music of birds and bees about us1 and ever1 under and behind all song1 the voice of the great sea1 full of indefinable mystery as of a half-remembered dream4 ,the engineer who makes the road unwittingly plans it in such fashion as to be of service to the folk of moor and marsh1 of shore and furrow4 ,in ,orcady every road1 sooner or later1 leads to the sea4 ,in former days the sea itself was the great highway1 and therefore close to its shores are found the old kirks and kirkyards4 ,for by sea men came to worship ,god1 and by sea they were carried to their long home4 ,the kirks and kirkyards being beside the sea1 the road comes thither to them4 ,it comes down also to the piers1 the slips1 and jetties1 which play so important a part in the lives of the islanders4 ,thus the road passes within a few yards of the haunts of all the divers1 swimmers1 and waders that frequent our shores4 ,also in making a road the aim of the man who plans it is to avoid1 so far as possible1 all ascents and descents4 ,in carrying out this aim he raises the road on embankments where it passes through low and marshy grounds1 and makes cuttings through the higher lands4 ,where it runs through such a cutting the roadside ditches catch and keep a little store of water in a dry season1 and thither plover1 snipe1 redshanks1 and dotterel bring their velvet-clad birdlings to drink4 ,if the season be wet1 the road raises above the marsh a comparatively dry platform1 on which the birds may rest when not feeding1 and the roadside dykes offer a shelter from wind and sun4 ,but our road draws feet and wings to it in many other ways4 ,it passes now through cultivated fields1 with dry stone dykes fencing it on either side2 now it runs unfenced through the open moorland1 and again along the very margin of the sea4 ,here it is bordered by marshes and there by a long reach of black peat-bog1 and everywhere it woos with varied wiles the living things of earth and air4 ,before the dykes have seen many seasons they begin to deck themselves with velvet mosses1 and to the miniature forests of moss come insects of the lesser sorts1 flying and creeping things1 red and brown and blue4 ,in pursuit of these small deer come the spiders1 which lurk in crevices of the walls and spread their cunning snares across the mouths of culverts where farm roads branch off from the highway4 ,long-legged water-skaters dart to and fro among the floating weeds on the surface of the stagnant ditches2 and over these ditches the midges weave their fantastic dances on summer evenings4 ,the litter of passing traffic brings hurrying1 busy1 burnished beetles1 which find harbourage in the loosely piled banks of ditch scrapings that form the boundary between highway and moorland4 ,where the road1 with its generous grassy margin1 runs like a white ribbon with green borders through the brown moors1 wild flowers that are choked or hidden in the heather spread themselves to the sunshine--primroses and daisies1 clover red and white1 milkwort and tormentil1 hawkweed and violets1 thyme and crowfoot3 their very names read like a poem4 ,the number of small wild flowers that grow in our roadside ditches and within reach of the road is amazing when one begins to reckon them4 ,here the steep grassy bank is gorgeous with rose-campion and with the purple and gold of the vetches1 and all the air is sweet with the perfume of wild mustard1 which with the pale yellow of its blossoms almost hides the green in that field of springing barley4 ,this wet meadow1 on either hand all aglow with the pink blossoms of the ragged robin1 a little earlier in the year had its wide and shallow ditches glorified by the broad green leaves and exquisite feathery blooms of the bog-bean1 while its drier grounds were starred with the pale cups of grass of ,parnassus4 ,in spring the vernal squills shone on yonder hillocks with a blue glory as of the sea in summer4 ,on this long flat stretch of peat-bog these are not untimely snowdrifts but nodding patches of cotton-grass4 ,in autumn1 when a strong wind blows from that quarter1 all the road will be strewn with the silvery1 silken down that makes so brave a show among the purple heather of the bog4 ,later still in the year the same bog will glow ruddy as with a perpetual sunset1 when the long1 coarse grass reddens4 ,passing this way on some gray afternoon the wayfarer will find it hard to believe that the 8charmed sunset0 has not suddenly shone out through the clouds 8low adown in the red west40 ,and the peat-moss on which the road is built has other glories--green moss and moss as red as blood1 fairy cups of silver lichen with scarlet rims1 and long reaches of bog-asphodel1 shining like cloth-of-gold and sweetening the winds with their faint1 delicate perfume4 ,here1 where our road runs on a firmer foundation1 grow the wild willows1 all low-growing and all adding a beauty to the year in their catkins4 ,when the daisies have hardly ventured to thrust their heads into a cold world the catkins gleam in silky silver1 changing as the days lengthen to yellow gold4 ,later on some of them are covered with an exquisite white down which floats their seeds about the land4 ,the little burns which our road bridges ripple and chatter through miniature forests of ferns and meadow-sweet1 the foxglove shakes its bells above the splendour of the gorse1 and the yellow iris hides the young wild-duck that are making their way by ditch and brooklet to the sea4 ,these are but a few of the flowers with which the road garlands and bedecks herself to welcome the little peoples who love her4 ,to the flowers come all day long in summer the humble-bees4 ,these little reddish-yellow fellows1 hot and angry-looking1 have their byke or nest in some mossy bank or old turf dyke1 to which they carry wax and honey for the fashioning of a round1 irregular1 dirty-looking comb4 ,the chances are that they will be despoiled of their treasure by some errant herd-boy before ,july is half over4 ,their great cousins in black velvet striped with gold prefer to live solitary in some deserted mouse-hole2 but they cannot1 for all their swagger and fierce looks1 save their honey from ,boy the ,devourer4 ,though there are no wasps in ,orcady1 the roadside blossoms have visitors other than the bees4 ,here come the white and brown butterflies1 and those dainty little blue creatures whose wings are painted and eyed like a peacock's tail4 ,and at night moths1 white1 yellow1 and gray1 flit like ghosts above the sleeping flowers1 or dance mysteriously in the dusk on silent wings4 ,where the insects come1 there follow the insect-eaters4 ,on a ,june evening there are parts of the road where one may see kittiwakes and black-headed gulls hawking for moths4 ,wheatears and starlings1 larks and pipits1 and1 more rarely1 thrushes1 blackbirds1 and wrens1 with an occasional stonechat1 all come to prey on the insect life of the road4 ,swallows there are none in ,orcady1 but the ubiquitous sparrow is there4 ,to his contented mind the road offers a continual feast4 ,when the birds set up housekeeping in spring1 many of them choose their nesting-places in the near neighbourhood of the road4 ,it seems almost as if they argued that here1 under the very eye of man1 they run less risk of discovery than further afield1 where he may expect to find their treasures4 ,from crannies of the loosely-built walls that bound the road you may hear the hungry broods of starlings1 sparrows1 and wheatears chirping on every side as you pass in ,may4 ,i have seen a nestful of young larks gape up with their foolish yellow throats from a tuft of grass on the very edge of a roadside ditch1 and have found a grouse's nest in the heather not fifty yards from the most man-frequented part of the road4 ,yellow-hammers1 too1 and other buntings often nest in the long grass by the ditchside4 ,here1 in a hedge of whin or gorse which crosses the road at right angles1 are the nests of the thrush1 the blackbird1 and the wren4 ,if you drive along our road in spring you shall see the male pewit1 in all the glory of his wedding garments1 scraping1 a few yards from the roadside1 the shallow1 circular hollow in which his young are to be hatched2 and a little later you shall see his patient spouse look up at you fearlessly from her eggs1 or even1 if your passing be at noonday1 you may watch her slip off the nest as her mate comes up behind to relieve her in her domestic duties4 ,for these birds have learned that man on wheels is not to be feared1 though man on foot is one of their most dreaded enemies4 ,in ,orcady there are not many four-footed wild things1 but those that dwell among us are drawn to the road as surely as the birds are4 ,in the gloaming rabbits come down to the roadside clover where the bees have gathered honey all day4 ,great brown hares1 too1 come loping leisurely along the road--moving shadows that melt into the dusk at the least alarm4 ,hares always like to make their forms near a road of some sort1 for it affords them a swift and ready means of flight when they are pursued4 ,they must be hard pressed indeed before they will dive like rabbits into roadside drains or culverts1 but these refuges are not to be despised when greyhound or lurcher is close upon their heels4 ,mice1 voles1 and rats find shelter in the banks of road-scrapings or in the walls and drain-mouths2 and the sea-otter does not despise the road when he makes a nocturnal expedition inland4 ,it is not long since a man who was early afoot on a summer morning met a pair of otters almost on the street of our sleeping island capital4 ,seals1 of course1 cannot use the road1 but where it runs by the sea-marge their shining heads rise up from the water to watch the passers-by1 and he who is abroad before dawn may find them on the beaches within a few yards of the roadway4 ,the deer1 roe1 foxes1 badgers1 stoats1 weasels1 wild-cats1 and moles of ,orcady are even as the snakes of ,iceland4 ,tame cats ran wild1 however1 we do not lack1 and they take their tithe from the road as surely as do the hawks and falcons4 ,neither snakes1 lizards1 nor frogs are found in the isles1 but on a damp autumn evening the road is dotted with toads of all sizes1 which sit gazing into infinity or hop clumsily from before the passing wheel4 ,in pursuit of beetles1 mice1 and small birds1 hawks and owls come to the road4 ,the kestrel of all hawks loves it the most4 ,he sits upon the humming telegraph wires or hangs poised1 like ,mahomet's coffin1 in mid-air1 ever watchful and ready to swoop down upon his prey4 ,the same wires which give him a resting-place often furnish him with food1 ready killed or disabled4 ,when man first set up his posts along the road and threaded them with an endless wire1 sad havoc was wrought among the birds4 ,plover--green and golden--snipe1 redshanks1 and grouse dashing across the road in the dusk1 struck the fatal wires and fell dead or maimed by the wayside4 ,i have seen a blackbird fly shrieking from a prowling cat1 and strike the wire with such force that his head1 cut clean off1 dropped at my very feet4 ,the older birds appear to have learned a lesson from the misfortunes of their fellows1 but every autumn young birds1 new to their wings1 pay their tribute of victims to the wires4 ,more especially is this the case with the plovers1 and though the kestrel rarely touches so big a bird when it is whole and sound1 he feasts upon their wounded4 ,the hen-harrier skims to and fro along the roadside ditches1 but he is a wary and cautious fowl1 and is never within gunshot of the road when a man comes down that way4 ,the merlin1 that beautiful miniature falcon1 glides swift and low across the moors and meadows1 flashes suddenly over the roadside dyke1 and before the small birds have time to realize that their enemy is upon them1 he is gone again--only a little puff of feathers floating slowly down the air showing where he struck his prey4 ,the peregrine wheels high overhead1 but is too proud and shy a bird to hunt upon man's roads4 ,nor has the road any charm for the raven1 who goes croaking hoarsely over it on his way from shore to hill4 ,the little short-eared owls hide all day among the heather near our road1 and come flapping up in the gloaming on noiseless wings to take their share of its good things4 ,in the treeless islands the kestrel is not the only bird that sits upon the wires4 ,there the starling sings his weird love song1 mingling with his own harsh notes the calls of every other bird that the islands know2 and the buntings chant their lugubrious and monotonous ditties there4 ,the telegraph wires are not the only mysterious works of man which have disturbed and interfered with the feathered life so near to and yet so far apart from his4 ,what a mystery must he be to those fellow-creatures who watch him1 with his continual scratching and patching of the breast of kindly ,mother ,earth6 ,not wholly does he yield the road to them between sunset and sunrise2 but when he goes abroad in the dark it is often in the guise of a rumbling dragon with great eyes of flame4 ,once1 to the writer's knowledge1 a gannet swooped down in valiant ignorance on such a horrid creature of the night4 ,he flashed suddenly1 white out of the darkness1 into the circle of light of a doctor's gig lamps4 ,that bold bird his fellows saw no more2 and one may fancy that with his disappearance a new terror was added to the fiery-eyed creatures that roam the roads by night4 ,he died1 though not without a fierce fight for his life2 and his skin1 cunningly filled out with wire and straw1 stands under a glass case in his slayer's home even unto this day4 ,it is in spring and summer that the road sets forth its choicest lures for its lovers1 yet even in 8winter and rough weather0 it has its beauties for the seeing eye4 ,the puddles and cart-ruts shine like dull silver when the clouds are heavy and gray overhead4 ,when the rain cloud blows over and the sky clears1 these same shallow pools and channels gleam with a cold1 clear blue1 more exquisite than that of the heavens they reflect2 and at night the stars besprinkle them with diamonds4 ,again1-- 8,autumnal frosts enchant the pool1 ,and make the cart-ruts beautiful40 8,when daisies go0--and of all roadside blossoms they linger latest and reappear earliest 7,i have seen them lifting their modest crimson-tipped heads in ,december and opening their yellow eyes before the coltsfoot stars begin to shine7--but even when they are gone the gray stone dykes have still a glory of green moss1 of gray and golden lichens4 ,when all the land is soaked and sodden with heavy rains1 the road1 where it climbs that low brown hill1 will suddenly shine out across the intervening miles like a sword flung down among the heather4 ,when the winter rains have given place to the first snowfall of the year1 go out early in the morning1 before hoofs and wheels have blotted out the traces of the night1 and you shall learn1 as nothing else save long and close observation can teach you1 how great is the nocturnal traffic of birds and beasts upon the road4 ,like fine lacework you shall find their footprints1 to and fro1 round and across1 up the middle and down again4 ,hares and rabbits1 rats and mice1 gulls and plovers1 thrushes and larks1 water-hens and water-rails--these and many more have been busy here while you slept4 ,and even now bright eyes are watching you1 themselves unseen--those unsuspected eyes which are ever upon us as we follow the road on our daily round of duty or pleasure4 ,do they look on us with fear or wonder1 with contempt or admiration1 or with a mingling of all these feelings8 ,that we can never know while the great barrier of silence stands between us and them4 ,we blunder across their lives1 doing them good and evil indiscriminately1 but we understand them no more than they can understand us4 ,now in winter1 new birds come to our road4 ,great flocks of snow-buntings1 circling and wheeling with marvellous precision1 at one moment almost invisible--a dim1 brown1 moving mist--and the next flashing a thousand points of silver to the level rays of the wintry sun4 ,scores of greenfinches1 which we never see in summer1 rise from the road edges to circle a little way and settle again4 ,the 8spink spink0 of the chaffinch1 also unknown to us in summer1 may now be heard2 fieldfares spring chuckling through the air far overhead1 and red-winged thrushes hop among the stubbles4 ,down this shallow pass between the low hills come in the gloaming the lines of the wild swans1 flying from the upland lochs to the sea4 ,their trumpet call rings far through the frosty air1 and as we hear them there stir within us vague thoughts and dreams of the white north whence they came4 ,as if answering the thought1 the wet road shines with a new1 faint1 unearthly light1 as flickering up the northern sky come the pale shifting streamers of the aurora borealis4 ,of the human life that pulses intermittently along our road there is not space now to write4 ,boy and girl1 youth and maiden1 man and woman1 day by day1 year in1 year out1 they follow the winding line1 till for each in turn the day comes when it leads them to the kirkyard or to the sea1 and the roads of ,orcady know them no more4 ,,duncan ,j4 ,,robertson4 78,longman's ,magazine40 ,by permission47 ,illustration3 ,kirkwall ,pier--a midnight photograph4 ,a ,,loch ,,in ,,orcady4 ,it is one among many1 in an island where the lochs lie scattered like fragments of the sky fallen among the hills--one among many1 and one of the least known of them all4 ,on it the fisherman casts no fly1 or casts it in vain1 for fish have never prospered in its waters4 ,it can never be an ideal trout loch1 for it is not fed1 like its sister lochs1 by the innumerable small burns that channel our low hills4 ,one surface-fed streamlet indeed flows into it1 a streamlet hardly worthy of the courtesy-title it bears2 but for the most part its waters are drawn from the secret sources of the springs4 ,its placid surface mirrors no hillsides purple with heather and green with waving fern1 but from its margin the land rolls back in low billows1 squared with fields that year by year darken under the plough and smile again in due season with the homely crops of the isles4 ,yet the little loch has charms of its own for those who know it--charms that its wilder and more romantic sisters cannot boast4 ,not a quarter of a mile from its western shore the ,atlantic billows boom and thunder upon the cliffs1 or roll in1 great and green1 to burst and spread in a whirling smother of foam upon the sands2 and the quiet of the inland water is thrice welcome to eye and ear when these are dazzled and wearied by the ceaseless turmoil and tumult of the sea4 ,the valley in which lies the loch runs down to a deeply curved bay1 swept and scoured out by the sea1 where there is a breach in the great cliff rampart that guards our island's western coast4 ,up this valley the wind has1 through the ages1 heaped a huge sandhill which rolls and ripples under its greensward down to the lip of the bay4 ,between the sand and the clay lies the loch1 narrowed by the rising slope of sand that forms its northern bank4 ,at its eastern end is the germ of a village4 ,a little shop1 a post office1 the long1 low building which was a school before these days of school boards--these and a few cottages stand between the loch and the sunrise4 ,close to the water's edge runs the highroad leading from a steep little seaport town1 away through the quiet country1 luring men to the sea and the great world of adventure beyond it4 ,for with us isles-folk the tune that sings itself in the dreams of youth is not 8,over the hills10 but 8,over the seas and far away40 ,along the northern shore1 as close as may be to the water1 runs another road--a road that leads to the kirk and the kirkyaird1 and1 incidentally1 to the laird's house4 ,yet because men1 who made the road1 must preserve an apparent sobriety and straightness of purpose1 while ,nature1 who laid the line between land and water1 need care nothing for her reputation1 there runs between the road and the water a grassy margin4 ,here it is of the narrowest1 and there it spreads out into miniature capes and peninsulas1 where teal love to rest in the early morning1 and rabbits come down to nibble the juicy water-plants long before man is afoot4 ,illustration3 ,some 8,big ,hooses40--,i4 #a4 ,skaill1 ,sandwick4 #b4 ,binscarth4 #c4 ,hall of ,tankerness4 #d4 ,westness1 ,rousay4 #e4 ,holodyke1 ,harray4 ,on the other side of the road the sandbank rises steep and green1 a cliff of sandy sward sometimes attaining a height of full twenty feet4 ,there the rabbits have their outposts4 ,the green turf is splotched with the scattered sand from their burrows1 and their white tails bob and flutter among the mounds they have made4 ,this is but the flank of the sandhill4 ,farther to the west1 where man has never ploughed the sand1 the loch is bounded by low1 green links which swarm with rabbits4 ,bunkers and hazards there are to delight the soul of the golfer2 yet hither that lover of links comes but seldom4 ,the rabbits and the birds have it all to themselves1 save where some little fields are set amid the links1 and one or two houses of men4 ,out of the turf of the bank projects a great stone1 gray with lichen1 and looking like the broken and petrified shaft of a mighty spear flung by one of the giants who of old waged a titanic warfare from isle to isle4 ,yet if a vague legend be true1 the great stone is rather some bewitched living creature waiting the breaking of spells2 for1 so they say1 there is a certain night in each year when it leaves its sandy bed and goes down to quench its thirst in the waters of the loch4 ,yet the birds do not fear it4 ,the wheatear jerks and bobs upon its topmost edge as we gaze and wonder how and when he came hither4 ,then with a flirt of his tail he is off to repeat his cheerful1 tuneless call upon the nearest mound4 ,at its western end the loch widens and is divided into two little bays1 a bay of sand and a bay of mud4 ,in the more northerly of these bays there is being fought a long skirmish in the great1 slow1 endless war between land and water2 and now victory leans towards the land1 for the sand1 blowing up day by day from the sea1 settles here in the shallow water and drives it back4 ,twenty years ago1 between the loch's edge and the links lay a field of shining yellow sand1 to which the golden plover were wont to come down in great flocks of an autumn evening4 ,once the sand had established itself1 the advance of grass and flowers began4 ,pushing forward a vanguard of reeds and rushes1 they pursued their steady march down to the water's edge2 and now1 where the sands were1 is a grassy meadow1 starred in its season with the pale blooms of the grass of ,parnassus1 its landward side meshed by rabbit tracks1 the tiny rivulets winding through it beset with scented beds of wild peppermint and haunted by snipe1 and its outer margin giving cover to duck and coots1 to water-hens and dabchicks4 ,there are little islets beyond the meadow1 some grass-grown1 some still of bare sand1 and a little sandy beach at one place1 where redshanks and ringed plover run in the shallows4 ,thither too come the dunlin and the sandpiper1 and rarer birds--knots and ruffs1 greenshanks with their triple call1 and whimbrels1 the 8summer whaups0 of the isles-folk4 ,here you may wade1 knee-deep in clear water1 to the very outer edge of the reeds and find all the way a footing on hard sand4 ,and the reeds will yield their secrets4 ,on this heaped pyramid the little grebe is hatching her eggs1 and that reedy platform is a coot's nest4 ,or at a later season you may chance1 if the ,fates be kind1 to catch a glimpse of scurrying dusky ducklings vanishing among the green stems1 while their mother flutters off1 making-believe to have a broken wing4 ,a wide1 shallow ditch divides the marsh from the fields on the south1 and where the ditch ends an old stone wall begins1 marches a little way towards the water1 and then breaks off to run round the bay of mud1 and so up along the south shore of the loch4 ,where it turns off1 this wall seems at one time to have meditated an advance into the water1 and in its retreat has left a tumbled straggle of stones which runs out along a little cape4 ,here at twilight come great gray herons1 shouting hoarsely1 to sit gazing into the waters4 ,here1 too1 curlews are wont to gather1 keeping well out of gunshot from wall or ditch4 ,the southern bay--the bay of mud--holds a great reed-bed1 where shelter many water-fowl4 ,the swans breed there1 with coot and water-hen and grebe4 ,there1 too1 come the wild duck after their kind1 mallard and teal1 pochard and scaup1 golden-eye and merganser4 ,but the bottom there is muddy and treacherous1 and it is a very doubtful pleasure to follow the wild-fowl through their haunts in the reeds4 ,about the inner margin of the reed-bed1 among the grassy tussocks and muddy pools1 is a favourite feeding-ground for snipe4 ,there1 too1 the pewits gather1 and gulls of many kinds1 while redshanks rise screaming from the water's edge4 ,out in the middle of the loch is a small islet or holm4 ,this islet is nested on every summer by a colony of black-headed gulls4 ,there1 too1 the terns breed1 and there the great white-breasted cormorants1 which come up after the eels of the loch1 sit with black wings widespread in the sunlight4 ,the circling1 screaming cloud of gulls which hovers over the islet is a sight never to be forgotten1 and the very thought of the sound of their calling brings back those wonderful summer days when all the world was young1 and a brighter sun shone in a bluer sky4 ,there are men scattered here and there about the world who look back to the loch and its environs as to an earthly paradise2 and ever in their dreams the loch1 the links1 the shore are but a beloved and beautiful background to one central figure--a boy with a gun4 ,the seasons may change and mingle1 as seasons do in dreams1 but the boy treads again the familiar places1 and renews his old disappointments and triumphs4 ,each man sees different pictures and a different boy1 but a boy with a gun is always there4 ,it is strange to think that there may be other boys to-day who hold the loch and all its pleasant places in fee as we hold it by the tenure of our memories4 ,stranger still to think of all the vanished boys1 back through the years1 the generations1 the centuries1 who have loved our little loch1 hunted by its margins1 and dreamed strange dreams among the sunny hollows of the links4 ,could they return to-day1 islesman born1 ,norseman1 ,pict1 or ,scot1 they would find many changes2 for man is ever busy improving and altering the face of his kindly ,mother ,earth3 yet the loch they would see but little changed4 ,the waters shine as of old under the same sunlight1 or ruffle into miniature white-capped billows with the autumn winds1 and by night they mirror the unchanging stars4 ,the splendour of the sandhills in summer1 when they robe themselves like kings with the purple and gold of crowfoot and thyme2 the hot scent of wild peppermint crushed under foot2 the trumpet call of the wild swans ringing through the frosty air on winter nights2 the pipings and flutings of the water-fowl among the summer reeds2 the screaming of falcons and croaking of ravens from the cliffs2 and overhead1 from dawn to dusk1 in the long days of the northern summer1 the myriad music of the larks2--all these things they would find unchanged4 ,and though the little fences and fields1 the roads1 the byres and barns of men have changed the nearer scene1 yet man has not altered the 8beloved outline of familiar hills10 nor silenced the deep music of the eternal sea4 ,,duncan ,j4 ,,robertson4 78,longman's ,magazine40 ,by permission47 ,illustration ,,among ,,the ,,kelpers4 ,in the end of ,march and the beginning of ,april1 when the isles rise brown from a steel-gray1 wind-ruffled sea1 their bare unloveliness is veiled by pale blue smoke-drifts1 which cast over the low1 sloping shores a certain charm of remoteness and of mystery4 ,later in the year1 when the summer seas are only less blue than the skies above them1 and every island shines like an emerald1 white jets and spirals as from many altars rise round all the shores4 ,for spring and summer are the kelper's seasons1 and long1 dry days1 which scorch and wither the young crops1 are welcome to the crofter who has secured a good stock of 8tangles0 in winter and a big share in a 8brook of ware10 now that 8burning weather0 has come4 ,until recently no kelp was burned after ,lammas--that is1 ,august #b--;but of late years1 when the season has been dry1 the fires have been burned even so late as ,october4 ,the kelper's year may be reckoned from mid-,november4 ,then he is paid for his work in the year that is ended4 ,then the gales sweep up from north or west1 tearing from its deep sea-bed the red-ware1 of which the long supple stems are known to the islesmen as 8tangles40 ,should the wind freshen to a gale during the night1 the diligent kelper is up and out before the first glimmer of dawn4 ,buffeted by the wind and lashed by the stinging spray1 he peers through the darkness1 watching for those shadows against the white surf of the breaking waves which he knows to be rolling masses of seaweed and wrack4 ,he is armed with a 8pick10 an implement resembling a very strong hayfork1 but with the prongs set1 like those of a rake1 at right angles to the handle4 ,with this pick1 struggling often mid-thigh deep in the rushing waters1 he grapples the tumbling seaweed and drags it up the beach1 out of reach of the waves4 ,for the wind may change1 and the 8brook10 as he calls a drift of weed1 if not secured at once1 may be carried out to sea again1 or even worse1 to some other strand where it will be lost to him4 ,of course1 the winds and waves often do this work alone1 and pile the tangles in huge1 glittering rolls along the beaches4 ,when the brook is fairly on the strand1 the work of the kelper is only begun4 ,he has to carry the tangles from the beach to the seabanks above1 in carts where that is possible1 and where no carts can pass1 then laboriously on hand-barrows4 ,i know of one strand on which the great gale of ,november #ahic landed a brook of tangles which kept the kelpers busy for three months4 ,once on the banks1 the tangles are stacked in great heaps on 8steiths10 or foundations built of sea-rounded stones arranged in such fashion as to give free ingress to the air4 ,there they lie till spring1 when by the action of wind and sun they have become hard1 dry1 and wrinkled--brands ready for the burning4 ,illustration3 ,some 8,big ,hooses40--,,ii4 #a4 ,trumbland1 ,rousay4 #b4 ,graemeshall1 ,holm4 #c4 ,melsetter4 #d4 ,balfour ,castle4 #e4 ,smoogro1 ,orphir4 ,only the tangles can be dried in winter2 but the softer parts--the foliage1 one may call it--of the red-ware is not lost1 but goes to manure the fields1 and until a sufficient quantity has been obtained for that purpose none is made into kelp4 ,each proprietor in the islands has right1 generally under a charter from the ,crown1 to the weed cast up on his shores4 ,each ware-strand1 or beach where drift-weed comes to land1 is set apart for a certain number of tenants on the estate to which it belongs1 and each brook of ware as it comes ashore is divided among these tenants1 usually in proportion to their rents4 ,the general custom is1 that it is decided by lot from which portion of the brook each man shall draw his share4 ,the middle is generally considered the best part1 as there the weed is in its greatest bulk1 and less rolled and beaten by the sea than at the ends2 but it may happen that one end is near the only part of the beach where the ware can be carried up1 and then the man who draws his lot there is saved much labour4 ,the sharing of the ware is a fertile seed of dispute and an inexhaustible source of quarrel4 ,the 8kelp grieve10 or overseer who acts for the proprietor1 generally settles all disputes2 and each kelper1 with the aid of his family1 carries up his share of the brook1 and spreads it on the drying-greens4 ,these are most frequently links that know not cleek or driver1 and upon them in the early morning the ware is spread1 as thinly as may be1 to be dried on the short1 crisp grass by sun and wind4 ,to the man whose daily life is built about with stone and lime1 the summer work of the kelpers shines tempting as the waters to ,tantalus4 ,he thinks not of that kelper in winter1 plunging and struggling with the slippery tangles amid the turmoil of the surf1 but dreams only of quiet summer days and the gray glimmer of sunlit waters seen through a veil of drifting smoke4 ,illustration3 ,kelp-burning4 ,the links roll down in long1 green billows from the ruins of an old feudal castle1 where the brown rabbit is the door-ward1 and in whose towers the starling nests unscared--roll down to a little bay1 where the long waves of the ,atlantic come up unceasingly1 curving in great1 green arches1 before they break in thunder of white foam on the brown rocks and yellow sand4 ,where the grass is thin and scant the sand shines through1 and this makes a bad drying-green1 as kelp is of less value when mixed with sand4 ,but here is a short1 close turf1 nibbled upon by rabbits1 a racing-ground for lambs1 where the thrift or sea-pink meets the meadow-clover1 and thyme and crowfoot break in ripples of purple and gold to sweeten all the summer air4 ,than this a better drying-green cannot be found4 ,on one side of the bay a long stretch of flat rocks runs down from the grass to the sea1 and they too are utilized1 when tides allow1 to dry the seaweed4 ,here1 in ,may and ,june1 the whole air tingles with the song of larks innumerable4 ,long before sunrise1 before the last stars have faded in the west1 they are up1 weaving a magical garment of song over all the green land4 ,all day and far into the dim twilight that is our northern night they sing without ceasing4 ,larks are everywhere4 ,in that tuft of grass at our feet is a nest with four of the dusky-brown eggs which hold next year's music4 ,there1 in the ditch by the roadside1 is another nest1 from which the featherless young raise feeble necks to gape for food1 showing their yellow tongues with the three black spots1 which children here are told will appear on the tongue of that child who takes the laverock's nest4 ,again1 a fledgeling1 speckled like a toad1 rises suddenly from the clover and flies a few yards1 while its anxious parents circle close overhead with little tremulous bursts of song1 or flutter with trailing wing along the grass4 ,that pretence of a broken wing1 which now seems to be an instinct1 must surely at first have been arrived at by a process of reasoning4 ,there must have been long since a broken wing1 and a boy1 or a dog1 or a snake to chase the fluttering sufferer1 and some wise observer among the mother-birds of that forgotten day to see and make a note of the chase1 and with the heart-leap of a happy inspiration to find in it a new method of protecting her eggs and tender young1 and to hand down the lesson she learned to our blithesome bird of the wilderness4 ,but this summer world1 so thrilled with lark music1 is not held by the lark alone in fee4 ,from every dry-stone wall young starlings are calling1 8,chirr6 chirr6 chirr60 and the old birds hurry to and fro between their nests and the brown fields1 soon to wave with oats and bere1 where they gather the insects and grubs their younglings love4 ,their bronze feathers gleam in the sunshine as they pass1 and at their harsh note of warning as they see strangers near their homes the tumult of the young birds among the stones is instantly hushed4 ,the farmer owes these cheerful and busy birds a heavy debt of gratitude1 as the number of his insect enemies which they destroy is incalculable4 ,on the smooth turf the dried ware is piled in conical heaps1 like giant molehills1 to preserve it from the heavy night dews and from possible rain1 and among the brown hillocks the wheatear bobs up and down1 flirting his tail and repeating his cheerful 8,tchk6 tchk6 chek-o6 chek-o60 ,at times the rapture of summer and of his love inspire him with a vain desire of song4 ,up he goes1 as if he were in very deed the skylark he takes as his model1 uttering harsh and unmelodious notes--a feeble travesty of the golden rain of song that falls from the blue above him4 ,but his flight extends upwards only a yard or two1 and he sinks down again1 chuckling to himself1 as pleased with his song as any minor poet4 ,as the day wears down to afternoon the corncrakes begin to call from the young grass1 and all night long they answer each other from field to field4 ,speak of them to the kelpers1 and everywhere one hears the same story of their hibernation in old walls4 ,that landrails migrate has been proved beyond question1 but equally beyond question does it seem that some few sleep out the winter here4 ,any kelper will tell how he1 or if not he himself then some one of his neighbours1 once in winter found a corncrake in some old dyke1 to all appearance dead4 ,he carried it home1 and1 laying it before the fire1 watched the death-like trance slowly melt into life and motion4 ,as to the winter sleep ,i can only speak at second-hand2 but ,i have seen the birds in summer run like rats into the dry-stone dykes with which our crofters so love to encumber and adorn their land4 ,that these dykes can be meant only for ornament is evident to the most casual observer in this land where ponies1 cows1 sheep1 ay1 and the very geese1 are ofttimes tethered by the leg4 ,yet if the dykes serve no other purpose1 they provide nesting-places for the starling and the wheatear1 for the rock-pipit and the sparrow1 which save the crops of the crofter from destruction by grub and fly4 ,mice also shelter in them1 and rats in those islands where rats are found4 ,in the happy isle of which ,i write no rat can live4 ,they come ashore time and again from vessels touching at the little pier near the village1 but where they go or what fate awaits them none can tell--only this1 that they are seen no more on the green lap of the world4 ,but we have left the ware too long in the sun4 ,should rain come1 the kelper sees much of his profit melt away1 for the salt which it causes to crystallize on the dried weed wastes1 and what is left makes inferior kelp4 ,all along the edges of the drying-greens are the burning pits or kilns--hollows for all the world like huge plovers' nests in shape1 lined with flat blue stones from the beach4 ,they are about two feet deep and some five feet in diameter4 ,when the ware is ready to be burned a smouldering peat or a handful of lighted straw is laid in the bottom of the pit4 ,over this dry ware is piled1 slowly at first till the fire catches1 and ever more rapidly as the red core of smouldering flame waxes4 ,sometimes ware and tangles are burned separately1 but more frequently the kelper burns them together4 ,the tangles make the stronger and better kelp4 ,the pit is filled1 and the ware or tangles are piled on till the mass rises two feet or more above the level of the earth4 ,then for six or eight hours it must be carefully watched and tended1 and ever new fuel piled on to prevent a burst of flame4 ,when tangles are being burnt alone1 the kelper finishes off his pit with dried ware1 as otherwise the tougher knots and lumps of the latest burned tangles would not be thoroughly consumed4 ,each pit holds about half a ton1 and takes the best part of a summer day to burn1 the actual time depending on the state of the wind and the condition of the weed4 ,when at last it smoulders low1 it is 8raked0 before being left to cool4 ,one man takes a spade with a very small blade and a handle fully seven feet long1 the lower half being of iron2 two other workers1 as often women as men1 have 8rakes10 implements not unlike a rough caricature of a golfer's iron1 but with handles as long as that of the spade4 ,with these rakes the kelp is mixed and smoothed1 while the spadesman turns it up from the bottom of the pit4 ,hard work it is and hot1 great jets of flame shooting out under the spade from what looks like gray crumbling earth mingled with black ashes and white quartz2 for the kelp assumes so many colours and forms that to describe it accurately were impossible4 ,as the kelper turns and tosses the glowing mass on a warm ,june evening1 he knows he has come near the end of that labour which began in the gray winter dawn1 when the rolls of red-weed lashed about him amid the roaring backwash of the waves4 ,when the kelp has been sufficiently mixed1 the pit is levelled and smoothed over1 all the outlying ashes are swept in with a handful of dry ware1 and it is left to cool and harden4 ,then1 as the kelpers turn homewards1 the white sea fog creeps up by the rocks where all day long the kelp smoke drifted4 ,such is the work of the kelper1 and such the places of his toil4 ,an easy and a pleasant life it is compared to that of the men who labour in the bowels of the earth or in the great manufactories of smoke-darkened cities4 ,he has the green turf under his foot and the clear sky over him1 the sea makes music for him unceasingly1 and the salt winds bring him health and strength4 ,the furred and feathered folks share his land with him1 and gather their harvest on the same shores4 ,as he goes to his work in the morning1 through the silver mists of dawn1 a flock of blue rock-doves with great clatter of wings flash off through the clear air4 ,the redshank pipes shrilly at him from the copestone of the nearest wall1 and over the ploughed fields where their precious eggs are lying the pewits wheel and scream4 8,pewit-weet6 pee-weet60--their note has in it for the isles folk1 to whom the cuckoo is but a name1 the very voice of spring and hope and love4 ,the ringed plover stands motionless on his three-toed yellow feet1 calling with his sweet1 low note1 and invisible save to the keenest eye until he makes a little run and betrays himself4 ,linnets swing and sing on the swaying thistles and among the heather4 ,on the blue waters of the bay a little fleet of eider ducks is afloat1 and their curious1 hoarse1 barking chuckle rolls up over the waters4 ,perhaps a seal raises his round head1 shining like a bottle1 and gazes with mild eyes at the men upon the beaches2 while overhead gulls and terns swing past1 cleaving the strong air with careless wing4 ,far out to sea the white gannets hawk to and fro4 ,suddenly one poises in mid-air for a moment1 then drops like a stone into the water1 a fountain of white spray flashing up in the sunlight as he disappears4 ,your kelper will tell you how in his younger days he caught the solan geese by means of a herring fastened to a board and sunk a few inches below the surface of the water4 ,the bird sees the fish1 poises1 and swoops down only to drive his mighty bill through the board and break his neck4 ,nearer shore than the gannets the kittiwakes are fishing1 when suddenly there glides among them a dusky skua1 who forces the luckiest fisher to drop his spoil1 which the ravager catches in mid-air and bears off4 ,a true pirate of the air is the skua1 and reminds me always of those low1 dark feluccas so dreadful and so dear to the sailor on the high seas of romance4 ,far up in the blue ether a peregrine falcon sweeps round1 circling wide on motionless1 outspread wings1 or a raven goes croaking from the cliffs to seek a prey1 as he may have done for years unnumbered4 ,if the tradition of his longevity may be believed1 that dark corbie who flies croaking over the kelpers toiling in the morning sunlight1 and sees the white smoke rise from their harmless kilns--what fires may he not have seen upon these beaches1 and what strange smoke of sacrifice go up from forgotten altars to the unchanging heavens8 ,give him even a shorter lease of life than that which tradition assigns him1 and still he may remember the blazing beacons leap up to carry from isle to isle a warning of the coming of ,norse invaders4 ,allow him only two short centuries1 and yet he must have watched the smoke of many a burning homestead in the days when the followers of the 8,wee1 wee ,german ,lairdie0 avenged their private wrongs in the name of their king4 ,the older men among the kelpers still tell tales of the ,jacobite lairds who lay hid like conies in the clefts of the rocks till these calamities were overpast4 ,the old stories--the folk-tales of the isles--linger fragmentary among the kelping people4 ,one may hear from them how all the fairies were seen to leave some island riding on tangles1 and how they all went down in the windy firth1 never to be seen again of mortals4 ,here is a man1 bowed and crippled by rheumatism1 who will tell how he was shot in the back by a 8hill-ane0 when ploughing4 ,he saw not his assailant1 but only the shadow of him on the earth4 ,another old man remembers having his side hurt as a boy1 and going to a 8wise woman0 to be cured4 ,she told him he had been 8forespoken0--that is1 bewitched--by a woman then dead1 and made him drink water mixed with earth from the 8fore-speaker's0 grave4 ,she then put a hoop covered with a sheep's skin on his head1 a basin of water on that1 and poured melted lead through the head of a key into the water1 giving the patient a piece of the lead in the form of a heart as a charm4 ,the cure wrought by this modern ,norna was not1 however1 effectual4 ,there are many quaint and even beautiful turns of speech among these hard-working crofters4 ,their faces shine on my memory red like setting suns through the white reek of the kelp pits4 ,here is one whose fathers fled from ,perthshire after 8the '#de10 and who thinks that some day he would like to go back to see the old place again--the 8old place0 which none of his have looked upon for one hundred and forty years6 ,he toils night and day in summer cultivating his croft1 fishing for lobsters1 and making kelp4 ,his rent is perhaps seven or eight pounds4 ,books1 you would think1 must be unknown to him2 yet he will tell you he has 8always been a great reader of ,sir ,walter ,scott's works10 and under the spell of that mighty wizard his hard life has budded and wreathed itself with romance4 ,at the next pit is a man of a very different type4 ,quiet and slow1 this man has led an honest life1 with an eye ever to the main chance4 ,pressed once for an answer to some question important to the settling of a kelp dispute1 after vain attempts at evasion1 he burst out1 8,gie me time1 ,mr4 ,blank1 to wind up me mind40 ,across the bay the pits are watched by an old bachelor--a rara avis among the kelpers--a little1 clean-shaven1 mouse-like man1 who has 8money in the bank40 ,he holds a croft where his ancestors have dwelt longer than the memory of man extends4 ,the peat fire smouldering on his hearth has1 to his certain knowledge1 burned unquenched for two hundred years4 ,how much longer ago it was kindled tradition recordeth not4 ,every night his last work is to 8rest0 that precious fire1 and every morning it claims his earliest care4 ,all his life he has toiled1 gathering a harvest both from land and sea1 and a harvest of content and happiness as well1 such as few crofters know how to reap4 8,when ,i come oot on a fine simmer morning at four o'clock wi' never anither reek but me ain1 ,i'm laird o' a' the land as far as ,i can see40 ,he has the secret of the lordship of the eye1 which can give to a penniless man more profit of the pleasant earth than to the greatest lord of land among them all4 ,look at this fellow1 gaunt1 black1 and shaggy2 he might be one of ,punch's ,scotch elders4 ,asked if he remembered some event of thirty years ago--8,no1 sir10 he said4 8,ye see1 ,i wasna at hame then2 ,i was divin' in the face o' the sea for a livin'40 ,he had been a fisherman1 and quite naturally chose to say so in this poetic phrase4 ,these are only a few from among the many typical kelpers whose friendship ,i am proud to own4 ,but if the types among them are many and various1 in one thing they are all alike--their capacity for hard work4 ,that work does not cease with the smoothing over of the smouldering pits4 ,when the kelp has cooled it is broken up and lifted out of the pit in great lumps which look like gray slag1 with streaks of white1 blue1 and brown running through it4 ,should it be exposed to rain its quality is much deteriorated1 and to avoid this danger storehouses are built by the lairds1 to which the kelp is carted4 ,the kelp grieve weighs each man's quantity as it is brought in1 and he is paid a fixed sum per ton4 ,when a sufficient quantity is gathered in the store a vessel is chartered1 and where there is a pier the kelp is carted alongside4 ,in islands where there is no pier it must be taken off in small boats4 ,the kelpers themselves provide the carriage4 ,then the sails are spread1 and the produce of the year's work is carried off to chemical works far over sea1 where1 by processes unknown to me1 iodine is extracted from it4 ,the kelper receives about two pounds ten shillings for each ton of kelp he manufactures1 and the importance and benefit of the industry to these crofters cannot be overestimated4 ,i have known a man paying a rent of eight pounds receive thirty-four pounds for his kelp in one year4 ,nor is the actual price he receives the only benefit the crofter derives from kelp4 ,were it not for the share of the profit falling to the laird1 he too often could not1 in these days1 afford to assist his tenants in improving either their houses or their land4 ,on the whole1 then1 the kelper's lot is not an unhappy one4 ,his work lies in pleasant places1 and it is eminently healthy1 and his days1 as a rule1 are long in the land and on the sea4 ,,duncan ,j4 ,,robertson4 78,longman's ,magazine40 ,by permission47 ,a ,,whale-,,hunt ,,in ,,orkney4 8,whales in the bay so soon in the season60 exclaimed the clergyman1 starting to his feet4 8,come away10 he continued1 8you have yet another day before you2 we imitate the great of old1 who entertained their guests with tournaments40 ,the manse garden commanded a fine view of ,mill ,bay1 and on rushing out into the open air we saw a long dark line of boats1 some with sails and some with oars1 stretching across the blue waters of the broad voe1 upwards of a mile from the shore4 ,the practised eye of my host caught the gleam of dorsal fins in front of the boats1 and we immediately hurried down to the beach1 scarcely drawing breath till we stood on the bank above the sands of ,mill ,bay4 ,the inmates of the neighbouring cottages had already assembled in eager groups on the grassy downs1 and other islanders still came flocking from remoter farms and cabins to the shore4 ,several of the men were armed with harpoons1 while farm lads flourished over their shoulders formidable three-pronged 8graips0 and long-hafted hayforks4 ,many of the matrons had their heads encased in woollen 8buities10 and this peculiar headdress imparted a singular picturesqueness to the excited groups on the sea-bank4 ,other boats with skilled hands on board put off from various points along the shore1 and the fleet of small craft in the bay was rapidly increased by the arrival of fresh yawls4 ,the crowd of urchins on the beach1 who 8thee'd0 and 8thou'd0 each other like little ,quakers in the ,orcadian vernacular1 cheered lustily as boat after boat hove in view round the headlands1 swelling the fleet of whalers4 ,the line of boats was now little more than a quarter of a mile from the beach4 ,the bottle-nosed or ca'ing whales1 showing their snouts and dorsal fins at intervals1 seemed to advance slowly1 throwing out skirmishers and cautiously feeling their way4 ,as the beach was smooth and sandy1 with a gentle slope1 the boatmen in pursuit were endeavouring to drive the 8school0 into the shallows1 where harpoons1 hayforks1 and other weapons could be used to advantage4 ,the excitement of the spectators on land increased as the long line of the sea-monsters drew closer inshore4 ,from the boats there came wafted across the water the sound of beating pitchers and rattling rowlocks1 and the hoarse chorus of shouting voices4 ,this babel of noises1 which the water mellowed into a wild war-chant with cymbal accompaniment1 was meant to scare the 8school0 and hasten the stranding of the whales4 ,but an incident occurred that changed the promising aspect of affairs1 turned the tide of battle1 and gave new animation to the scene4 ,eager to participate in the expected slaughter1 two or three farm lads1 whose movements had escaped notice1 suddenly shot off from the shore in a skiff rowing right in front of the advancing line4 ,the glitter and splash of oars alarmed the leaders1 and the entire 8school10 seized with a sudden panic1 wheeled round and dashed at headlong speed into the line of pursuing boats4 ,a shout rose from the shore as the flash of tail-fins1 the heaving of the boats1 and the rapid strokes of the boatmen showed all too plainly the escape of the whales1 and the success of their victorious charge4 ,away beyond the broken line of the fleet they plunged in wild stampede1 striking the blue waters into spangles of silver foam4 ,arches of spray1 blown into the air at wide distances apart1 served to indicate the size of the 8school0 and the speed of the fugitives4 8,whew60 exclaimed my reverend friend1 8that was a gallant charge1 and deserved to succeed2 but ,i hope our brave lads will yet put salt upon their tails4 ,the boatmen have toiled hard for their share of the fish1 and great would be the pity if the whales made right off to the open sea4 ,it is not every day that a #8drave' a hundred strong visits our shores1 and there they go round the head of ,odness in full career40 ,a commotion among the crowd at a short distance along the beach here arrested our attention4 ,the exciting spectacle of the grand charge and wild flight of the whales had so absorbed our gaze that we failed to notice a mishap which was fortunately more ludicrous than alarming4 ,the three youths who foolishly rowed off from the shore and caused the stampede had suffered for their rashness by getting their skiff capsized when the sea-monsters wheeled round to the charge4 ,on gaining the outskirts of the crowd1 we found the three luckless whale-hunters already beached4 ,bonnetless1 dripping1 and disconsolate1 they were the objects of mirth to some1 of commiseration to others4 ,at last they made off1 and we immediately set out in the direction of ,odness to catch a sight of the whales1 which had quite disappeared from the bay4 ,the boats had turned in pursuit when the 8school0 escaped1 and they were now making all haste to double the headland4 ,on gaining the top of the cliffs1 we were glad to observe that the whales1 recovered from their fright1 drifted leisurely along the coast1 giving way at times to eccentric gambols4 8,all right60 cried my friend1 handing me back my binocular2 8they are coasting away famously round ,lamb ,head1 and they are almost certain to take a snooze in ,rousholm ,bay1 which is the best whale-trap ,i know in ,orkney4 ,let us sit down here on the top of the cliffs till the boats come abreast1 and then we shall take a nearer way to ,rousholm than following the coast40 ,the summit of the rocks1 softly carpeted with grass1 moss1 and wild flowers1 afforded a pleasant resting-place1 and commanded a picturesque prospect4 ,to eastward there was a wide expanse of sea1 stretching away without a break to the ,norwegian fiords4 ,the whale-hunting fleet1 composed of all varieties of small craft1 was soon well abreast of our resting-place4 ,a fine and favourable breeze had sprung up1 and fishing-yawls1 with their brown sails outspread1 coasted briskly along4 ,the rearguard of the fleet consisted of row-boats manned by patient and determined boatmen1 who pulled hard at the oars in the prospect of winning some share of the spoil4 ,we remained a short time on the moss-crowned cliffs gazing on the animated scene1 and listening to the voices of the boatmen1 the plash of the waves below1 and the plaint of restless sea-birds4 ,on leaving our lair we dropped down upon a neighbouring farmhouse1 where a couple of 8shelties0 were placed at our disposal1 and away we trotted along field-paths and rough tracks to the head of ,rousholm ,bay1 on the south side of the island4 ,from all the cottages and farms in the district the islanders were flocking to the shore of the bay1 and we thus had good hope that a portion of the school at least had run blindfold into the whale-trap of ,rousholm4 ,on nearing the shore we were delighted to find that our hope was fulfilled4 ,a large detachment of the whales1 supposed to number one hundred and fifty1 had entered the bay1 while the rest of the school had disappeared amid the reaches of the ,stronsay ,firth4 ,rounding the point of ,torness1 and stretching across the mouth of the bay1 the fleet of small craft again hove into view1 and pressed upon the rear of the slowly advancing and imprisoned whales4 ,among the onlookers there was now intense excitement1 the greatest anxiety being manifested lest the detached wing should follow the main army1 and again break the line of boats in a victorious charge4 ,the shoutings and noise of the boatmen recommenced1 and echoed from shore to shore of the beautiful and secluded bay4 ,a fresh alarm seized the monsters1 but instead of wheeling about and rushing off to the open sea as before1 they dashed rapidly forwards a few yards1 pursued by the boats1 and were soon floundering helplessly in the shallows4 ,the scene that ensued was of the most exciting description4 ,fast and furious the boatmen struck and stabbed to right and left2 while the people on the shore1 forming an auxiliary force1 dashed down to assist in the massacre1 wielding all sorts of weapons4 ,the wounded monsters lashed about with their tails1 imperilling life and limb1 and the ruddy hue of the water along the stretch of shore soon indicated the extent of the carnage4 ,some of the larger whales displayed great tenacity of life2 but the unequal conflict closed at last1 and no fewer than a hundred and seventy carcasses were dragged up on the beach4 ,one or two slight accidents occurred1 but to me it seemed marvellous that the boatmen did not injure each other as much as the whales amid the confusion and excitement of the scene4 ,the carcasses1 as ,i was informed1 would realize between #cjj and #djj2 and grateful were the people that ,providence had remembered the island of ,stronsay1 by sending them a wonderful windfall of bottle-noses fresh from the confines of the ,arctic ,circle4 ,,daniel ,,gorrie 78,summers and ,winters in the ,orkneys407 ,illustration3 ,wreck at ,burgh ,head1 ,stronsay4 ,,articles ,,made ,,of ,,straw4 ,the ,orkney peasantry of two centuries ago lived in a poor country--a country ground down by the tyranny of greedy and unscrupulous rulers2 a country whose inhabitants had neither the raw materials from which to construct many necessary utensils nor the money to purchase them4 ,it is interesting to note some of the ways in which our forefathers overcame the circumstances in which they were placed4 ,one of the most notable is the ingenious use of straw for the construction of many domestic utensils4 ,the materials from which articles of straw were made were principally bent and the straw of black oats4 ,the bent1 after being cut1 was loosely bound into rough sheaves and left to dry and wither4 ,it was then bound into neat sheaves called beats1 the legal size of which used to be two spans in circumference4 ,each beat was carefully pleated at the upper end1 gradually tapering upwards into a cord which served to bind two beats together4 ,the pair of beats so fastened was called a 8band of bent10 twelve of which formed a 8thrave40 ,from this bent were made the cords1 always called bands1 which were used in the manufacture of straw4 ,during the long winter evenings each ploughman was required to wind into bands one beat of bent4 ,the cord was spun or twisted by the fingers1 the two strands being each twisted singly1 and at the same time laid into each other in such a way that the tendency of the strands to untwist was the means of keeping the two firmly twisted together4 ,the straw used was that of the common ,orkney black oats1 which was at once tougher and more flexible than that of other cultivated kinds4 ,the straw to be used was not threshed with the flail1 which would have spoiled it1 but was selected from the sheaves1 held in a bunch between the hands1 and beaten on some hard edge to remove the grain4 ,such straw was called gloy4 ,from those two materials1 bent bands and gloy1 a very wide variety of indispensable articles were manufactured by the ,orkney farmer4 ,these articles may be divided into three classes--flexible1 semi-flexible1 and inflexible4 ,of the flexible type1 the most simple and primitive article was the sookan1 or1 to give it a still older name1 the wislin4 ,this was simply straw twisted loosely into a thick cord of one strand1 for temporary use4 ,if not at once used to tie round something1 it had to be wound into a clew to preserve its twist4 ,a very common use of sookans in the winter-time was to form what were known as 8straw boots40 ,a loop of the sookan was passed round the instep1 over the shoe or rivlin1 the thick straw cord being then wound round the ankles and the lower part of the leg4 ,when the snow was deep1 such straw boots formed a very comfortable part of the peasant's attire4 ,less than a century ago1 on a ,sunday when the snow lay deep on the ground1 more than forty men wearing straw boots were seen in one ,orkney church4 ,it must be added that on the way home some of them were severely reproved by a neighbour for having performed this unnecessary labour on the ,sabbath day6 ,next in order comes simmans4 ,this was a strong straw rope made of two strands1 also twisted by hand1 and rolled into great balls or clews1 the size of which was the width of the barn door4 ,the main use of simmans was to thatch the corn stacks1 and also the roofs of the cottages4 ,a newly-thatched cottage1 with the bright warm colour of the new straw ropes1 was a pleasing object in an ,orkney landscape4 ,the sombre colour given when the simmans were twisted of brown heather was less cheerful1 but ,nature did her best even here by her decoration of the low walls with bright yellow and green lichens4 ,most of the ropes and cordage required by the ,orkney farmer were made either of hair or of bent4 ,the bent bands already noticed were made into ropes on a rude machine called a tethergarth1 and were used for tethering cattle and sheep1 and for 8boat tethers0 for small fishing-boats4 ,finer bent ropes were applied to a great many uses1 such as flail 8hoods10 sheep shackles1 and all parts of horse harness4 ,a very important part of this1 the collar or wazzie1 was formed by twisting four thick folds of straw together2 and1 when properly made1 ,i suspect the wazzie was much cooler for the horse than the modern collar with its absurd cape4 ,even the plough-traces were made of bent ropes1 which1 if quickly worn1 were easily replaced4 ,for bringing in the crop1 a large net made of bent cord1 and called a mazie1 was put round a bundle of sheaves1 and suspended1 one on each side of the horse1 from the horns of the clibber1 a rough kind of wooden pack-saddle4 ,flackies1 or mats made of straw bound together with bent cord1 were used for many purposes4 ,small ones were used as door-mats1 and large ones were hung up as an apology for an inner door4 ,horse flackies were laid over the back of the horse to protect it from the friction of the clibber1 and his sides from the load which it supported4 ,flackies were also fixed on the rafters1 under the straw1 when thatching house roofs4 ,we next come to what ,i have called the semi-flexible class of straw articles4 ,the first to be noticed is the kaesie1 which1 in various shapes and sizes1 was put to a great number of uses4 ,it was made of straw1 bound by bent cord1 like the flackie1 but was of a closer texture1 and it was usually in the shape of a basket4 ,the meils-kaesie was so called because it was made to hold a 8meil0 of corn--that is1 a little over a hundredweight4 ,it was in these meils-kaesies that the corn was carried to the mill1 and the meal brought back from it2 for carts were unknown1 and roads were but paths or tracks4 ,each horse carried a full kaesie on either side4 ,the horses travelled in single file1 the head of each being tied to the tail of the one in front4 ,a man was in charge of each pair of horses1 to attend to the proper balancing of their loads4 ,a train of twenty or thirty horses marching in this way was a picturesque sight4 ,on arriving at the mill1 the burdens were removed1 and the head of the foremost horse was tied to the tail of the hindmost1 which prevented their moving away until their drivers were ready to return home4 ,next may be mentioned the corn-kaesie1 which was used to hold dressed grain4 ,these were shaped somewhat like a barrel1 and were made in various sizes4 ,then comes the common kaesie1 used for carrying burdens on the back4 ,these also were of different sizes4 ,in form they were narrow and rounded at the bottom1 and widened gradually towards the top1 which was finished by a stiff circular rim called the fesgar1 to give firmness to the basket4 ,to the fesgar were fastened the ends of a bent rope of suitable length1 called the fettle1 by which the kaesie was suspended from the shoulders of the bearer4 ,to the same class as the kaesies belong the cubbies1 the names and uses of which are legion4 ,these were smaller than the former1 and firmer in texture1 while the shapes showed more variety1 as might be needed for their special uses4 ,we need only mention a few4 ,the windo' or winnowing cubbie was used to pour out the corn gently on the barn floor1 while the wind blowing in at one door and out at the other carried away the chaff4 ,the sawin' or sowing cubbie carried the seed corn in spring4 ,the horse cubbie was used as a muzzle for a horse when necessary4 ,the hen cubbie was suspended as a nest for the domestic fowls4 ,the use of the spoon cubbie1 which hung by the side of the fire1 needs no explanation4 ,the bait cubbie and the sea cubbie must close our list1 the former used for carrying bait1 and the latter for the catch of fish4 ,a cubbie was always carried by the beggars who swarmed before the introduction of the poor law1 and to 8tak' the cubbie and the staff0 was a phrase meaning to be forced to beg one's bread4 ,we now come to what ,i have called inflexible articles4 ,here we may mention first the luppie1 once in universal use for holding all sorts of dry materials1 such as meal1 burstin1 eggs1 and the like4 ,luppies were round and barrel-shaped1 close in texture1 and as firm as a board4 ,they varied much in size1 being made from about ten inches to three feet in height4 ,they had a rim round the lower end to protect the bottom1 and two 8lugs0 at the top4 ,those of the smallest size were used by housewives as work-baskets4 ,the work on these luppies1 and on the straw stools to be mentioned next1 was considered the finest and most durable4 ,small coils or gangs of straw were firmly and closely laced over one another4 ,the lacing cord was of the strongest bent1 and the projecting ends of the bent were carefully clipped off4 ,these bands were known as stool bands4 ,we now come to the straw stools or chairs1 which were mainly of three kinds4 ,the first was a sort of low1 round stool without any back4 ,such a stool could be easily lifted to or from the fireside1 and on an emergency could be instantly converted into a luppie by simply being turned upside down4 ,the next was called the low-backed stool1 having a semi-circular back reaching to the shoulders of the sitter4 ,last comes the high-backed or hooded stool1 which was the easy-chair of the ,orkney cottage4 ,in later times the seat was always made of wood1 in the form of a square box1 with a slightly projecting top4 ,strips of wood were used to support the front edges of the back1 and to form elbow rests in front of these4 ,the seat box usually contained a drawer1 in which the goodman kept his supply of snuff1 and perhaps the few books which made up the cottage library4 ,this form of chair1 which is now regarded as the orthodox one1 was invented in the middle of the eighteenth century by a native of ,north ,ronaldsay1 as the construction of the seat of wood took far less time than working it all in straw2 but the older form1 with its circular straw seat1 and the side slips and elbow rests entirely covered with straw and bent cords1 was much more elegant in the lines of its form4 ,,walter ,,trail ,,dennison4 7,adapted from 8,orcadian ,papers407 ,illustration3 ,making a straw-backed chair4 ,,the ,,weather ,,of ,,orkney4 ,a foreign writer has said that ,englishmen grumble more at their weather than at anything else1 while it is really the only thing about their country of which they might be proud4 ,his meaning is that1 compared with other regions of the world1 the climate of ,great ,britain is singularly free from disagreeable extremes of heat or cold1 and of drought or flood4 ,and if this is true of ,great ,britain as a whole1 it is especially true of ,orkney4 ,in summer we rarely suffer from heat1 and in winter we are equally free from extreme cold4 ,the mean temperature of the whole year in ,orkney 7#ded7 is little below that of ,aberdeen 7#dfc71 of ,alnwick in ,northumberland 7#dfc71 or of ,kew near ,london 7#did74 ,the equability of our temperature1 or its freedom from all extremes of heat and cold1 is due to the influence of the sea4 ,the temperature of the ocean varies only about #ac during the year2 it is lowest in ,february1 being #daf1 while that of the air is #chf1 and is highest in ,august1 being #ede1 while that of the air is #ed4 ,the smallness of the difference between the annual mean temperature of ,orkney and that of ,kew is really due to the mildness of our winters4 ,taking the mean of the three winter months1 we find that of ,orkney to be almost the same as that of ,kew1 and slightly higher than that of ,alnwick4 ,for the three summer months1 however1 ,orkney is three degrees colder than ,alnwick and eight degrees colder than ,kew4 ,the hottest day in ,orkney during the last thirty years only reached #gf1 while at ,kew #ib was recorded4 ,the extent to which the sea influences our climate can best be seen by comparing it with that of an inland or continental station of similar latitude4 ,winnipeg1 in the province of ,manitoba1 formerly well known to ,orkney men as ,fort ,garry in the ,red ,river ,settlement1 lies in nearly the same latitude as ,london4 ,its mean temperature1 however1 during the three winter months is only #ji1 or thirty-one degrees below freezing-point1 and thirty-eight degrees lower than that of ,orkney2 in summer it is #ff1 or thirteen degrees above that of ,orkney4 ,not only is our climate ruled by the sea2 it is ruled by a sea whose waters are themselves somewhat warmer than their latitude might lead us to expect4 ,the temperature of the ocean is often affected by currents1 bringing water either from warmer or from colder regions4 ,in the case of the ocean waters round our coasts1 the movement is from the south-west4 ,this movement is due at first to the ,gulf ,stream1 which carries a great mass of warm water from the ,gulf of ,mexico into the ,north ,atlantic1 and afterwards to a surface drift caused by the prevailing south-westerly winds4 ,our coast waters are therefore somewhat warmer than they would be if there were no such movement1 and much warmer than if there were a current in the opposite direction1 sweeping along the shores of ,norway from the northern ocean4 ,if we compare our climate with that of ,nain1 in ,labrador1 which lies in nearly the same latitude1 and is also on the ,atlantic coast1 we shall see how much depends upon the ocean currents4 ,the cold ,arctic current which washes the ,labrador coast1 bringing with it melting icebergs1 snow1 and fog1 reduces the mean annual temperature of ,nain to less than #bf1 more than nineteen degrees below that of ,orkney4 ,while the climate of oceanic islands is benefited by the equable temperature of the ocean1 it is often marked by excessive moisture and rainfall4 ,yet even in this matter we shall see that ,orkney has little to complain of1 while1 of course1 serious droughts are practically unknown4 ,scotland1 though small in area1 shows great inequality in the distribution of its rainfall1 due to the diversity of its surface and to the fact that most of its rain is brought by westerly winds4 ,districts near the west coast1 especially if mountainous1 have a much greater rainfall than those towards the east1 which are also on the whole less elevated4 ,thus considerable portions of the ,west ,highlands have an annual rainfall of over #hj inches1 ,ben ,nevis recording over #aej4 ,many parts of the eastern ,lowlands1 on the other hand1 have only #cj inches or less2 and ,cromarty1 which is the driest station in ,scotland1 has only #bc inches4 ,compared with the mainland of ,scotland1 then1 it does not seem that the climate of our islands gives us much cause for grumbling1 for our annual rainfall varies from #cgg inches at ,sandwick to #cjg at ,start ,point in ,sanday4 ,our wettest months are ,october1 ,november1 and ,december1 during which we receive from one-third to one-half of our yearly rainfall2 our driest months are ,april1 ,may1 and ,june1 which together give us only one-eighth of the total4 ,one fact about rain is sometimes overlooked3 in cool climates rain brings heat4 ,this may not be noticeable at the time1 but its general effect can be observed4 ,just as it requires heat to turn water into vapour1 and as evaporation always produces cold1 so the change back again from vapour into water sets free some of this heat1 raising the temperature of the air1 of the rain itself1 and of the land on which it falls4 ,much of the warming effect of our westerly winds is due not to the direct warmth of the ,gulf ,stream1 as used to be supposed1 but simply to the fact that these winds are rain-carrying winds4 ,they thus bring to us the benefit of that solar heat which far away to the south-west caused the vapour to rise from the surface of the ocean4 ,the chief difference between our weather and that of ,scotland is1 perhaps1 the greater prevalence of high winds in ,orkney4 ,the land being low1 our islands are swept by the full force of the gales so common in the ,north ,atlantic4 ,when speaking of winds1 it may be useful to remember the classification which is recognized by the ,meteorological ,office4 ,a wind moving at the rate of thirteen miles an hour is called a light breeze2 forty miles represents the velocity of a moderate gale1 and fifty-six miles a strong gale2 seventy-five miles an hour is the speed of a storm1 and ninety miles that of a hurricane4 ,we have the record of only one hurricane1 on ,november #ag1 #ahic1 with a velocity of ninety-six miles4 ,several gales of over eighty miles have been experienced1 and one summer gale of seventy-five miles in the year #ahij4 ,during the fifteen years #ahij to #aijd three hundred gales were recorded in ,orkney1 while ,alnwick experienced only one hundred and fifty-seven1 and ,valencia1 on the west coast of ,ireland1 one hundred and thirty for the same period4 ,fleetwood1 on the coast of ,lancashire1 however1 had a record of three hundred and six gales during those years4 ,every ,orcadian must have noticed a type of weather which is common all the year round1 but especially so in winter4 ,on a blue sky wisps of cirrus or 8mare's-tail0 cloud appear in patches4 ,gradually these increase till they form a continuous haze1 in which a lunar halo or 8broch10 and occasionally solar halos or 8sun-dogs10 may be seen4 ,then the wind1 which was light and probably westerly1 backs to the southward and eastward1 and the sky becomes threatening4 ,the wind increases1 perhaps to a moderate gale1 and rain falls heavily4 ,the wind then shifts towards the south and south-west1 increasing in force1 sometimes quite suddenly1 or it may change still further round towards the north4 ,meantime the barometer1 which has been low and falling1 begins to rise briskly1 and the weather clears4 ,to understand how this common series of weather changes comes about1 a little knowledge of cyclones is necessary4 ,a cyclone is a movement in the air resembling a whirlwind2 the cyclones of the ,indian ,ocean and the ,china seas1 indeed1 are real whirlwinds of the most violent and destructive type4 ,in the ,north ,atlantic they exist for the most part as enormous eddies in the great air-ocean1 often several hundreds of miles in diameter1 probably rotating with the force of a gale near the centre1 and at the same time moving forward as a whole at a moderate speed4 ,a cyclone has been known to keep company with one of our ,atlantic liners during its whole voyage1 but the rate of progress is often less than this4 ,a cyclone owes its origin to some local excess of heat1 such as might arise from a heavy rainfall1 the heat causing an upward movement in the air4 ,the inrush of cool air which then follows begins a circular or whirling motion4 ,the moist air in front of the cyclone gives up its moisture with the fall in temperature1 causing the rains that are invariably found in front of such a movement4 ,the air after the rainfall is dry and warmer1 and its ascent keeps up a partial vacuum or area of low pressure1 which is the centre or vent of the cyclone4 ,it is really the rainfall in front of the cyclonic system that causes its forward movement1 assisted by the rotation of the earth4 ,each space relieved of its moisture forms in its turn the new centre4 ,a coast-line1 or an anti-cyclonic movement of the air in front of a cyclone1 will alter its course4 ,when one reaches the shores of ,europe1 it soon spends itself for want of the moisture-laden winds in front to keep up the system4 ,in the northern hemisphere the direction of rotation of a cyclone is opposite to the movement of the hands of a watch2 in the southern hemisphere it is in the same direction as the movement of the hands of a watch4 ,this is the effect of the rotation of the earth1 as will be clear after a little thought on the matter4 ,in the ,north ,atlantic the forward motion of a cyclone is always from the westward to the eastward2 hence the 8storm warnings0 which reach us from the ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,diagram of a typical ,atlantic cyclone4 ,our islands lie in the most common track of those ,atlantic cyclones1 and the centre of the whirl often passes over or near the ,orkneys4 ,now if you will look at the chart or diagram of a typical cyclone as given here1 and suppose it to be moving slowly from south-east to north-west1 or suppose yourself to be moving through it in the opposite direction while it remains still1 you will see how the changes of wind and weather which we have described must result from this movement4 ,during the greater part of the year our weather is mainly due to a constant procession of those ,atlantic cyclones1 great and small1 and hence arises the changeableness of our winds and our weather4 ,but in the spring we often have weather of a different type4 ,our winds are then often cold1 sometimes dry1 and frequently easterly or northerly in direction for several days together4 ,such weather is due to anti-cyclones--that is1 areas of high pressure1 from which the air flows downwards and spreads outwards in every direction4 ,an anti-cyclone is the opposite of a cyclone in almost every respect4 ,its supply of dry air often comes from the ascending air in the centre of a cyclone1 which has deposited its moisture4 ,at the meteorological station on ,ben ,nevis it was sometimes noticed that when an anti-cyclone was stationed over the south of ,england1 and a cyclone was crossing the north of ,scotland1 there was an upper air-current travelling from the latter to the former1 and no doubt supplying the dry air of the anti-cyclone4 ,this is a type of movement which is usually found over land rather than sea1 and it has not the regular forward movement of the cyclone4 ,the last point which we may notice about our weather is the amount of sunshine which we receive4 ,at every well-equipped observatory1 such as that of ,deerness1 there is an instrument which records the duration of sunshine1 hour by hour and day by day1 all the year round4 ,in the matter of sunshine1 ,orkney is not so badly treated as we may sometimes think4 ,the average number of hours of sunshine each year recorded at ,deerness is #a1agg1 while ,edinburgh enjoys only #a1aff4 ,london is a little better1 with #a1bfj1 while ,hastings1 on the more favoured south coast of ,england1 has an average record of #a1ghj hours4 ,our brightest month is ,may1 with an average of #agh hours of sunshine1 and our gloomiest month is naturally ,december1 with only #bjf hours4 ,,the ,,place-,,names ,,of ,,orkney4 ,orkney place-names form an attractive subject of study4 ,there is always some reason why a certain place received its own particular name1 though that reason may often be difficult to discover4 ,the use of a name is1 of course1 to distinguish one place from other places of a similar class1 and the most obvious way of doing so is to refer to some special feature or peculiarity of the place4 ,in this way arise such names as the ,red ,head1 the ,north ,sea1 the ,muckle ,water1 and ,green ,holm4 ,houses and farms and islands are often named after the owner4 ,when people of a different race and language settle in a country1 or when the language changes1 as happened in ,orkney after its annexation to ,scotland1 the old names may still be used1 although when their meaning is unknown or has been forgotten they are apt to be changed in various ways4 ,people rarely take the trouble of inventing a new name for a place if they can find out the name already given to it4 ,thus if there had been any ,celtic or ,pictish inhabitants left in ,orkney when the ,norsemen settled there1 the ,celtic names of the islands and hills and bays would have been handed down from them to us4 ,but all the old place-names in ,orkney are ,norse1 and the only ,celtic elements found in them refer to the settlements and churches of the ,culdees1 as we have already mentioned4 ,the ,norse place-names are usually descriptive1 based either on the appearance or the situation of the place1 or on the name of its occupier4 ,such names have an interest which is entirely wanting in the modern names given to farms or houses1 names which are often selected for absurd or trivial reasons4 ,there is little need for inventing any new names in a land which has been so fully supplied with them already4 ,for it is not only the various islands and their most prominent physical features that bear descriptive ,norse names2 hillock and meadow1 field and spring1 rock1 geo1 and skerry--all have been named by our forefathers with names of which the form as well as the meaning is now in many cases forgotten4 ,those names should be regarded as relics entrusted to our care1 and we ought to learn them from the old people by whom they are still remembered1 and preserve them from alteration or oblivion1 as the material relics of our romantic history are now being preserved from destruction and decay4 ,orkney1 the general name of the island group1 is partly ,celtic and partly ,norse4 ,pliny1 the ,roman geographer1 mentions ,cape ,orcas1 probably ,duncansby ,head in ,caithness1 and calls the islands ,orcades4 ,the ,celtic ,scots called them the ,orc ,islands1 and southern writers use the form ,orcanig4 ,the root of the name is supposed to be orc1 which meant the bottlenose whale4 ,the ,norse visitors added the termination -ey1 meaning 8island40 ,when the ,norsemen settled in these islands1 they gave to each a name in their own language1 and these names have been preserved with little alteration1 though their meaning has generally been forgotten4 ,some were named from their configuration or appearance1 as ,hoy 7,ha-ey71 the high island2 ,flotta 7,flat-ey71 the flat island2 ,sanday1 the sand island2 ,eday1 the island of the eith or isthmus2 ,burray 7,borgar-ey71 the islands of the 8brochs40 ,some were named from their position1 as ,westray1 the west island2 ,auskerry1 the east skerry4 ,some were named after persons as ,rousay1 ,rolf's island2 ,gairsay 7,gareksey71 ,garek's island2 ,graemsay 7,grimsey71 ,grim's island2 ,copinsay1 ,kolbein's island4 ,the name ,rinansey1 the island of ,st4 ,ninian1 often called ,ringan1 was afterwards changed to ,ronaldsay1 with 8,north0 prefixed to distinguish it from the original ,rognvald's island1 now ,south ,ronaldsay4 ,a few were named from their uses1 as ,faray1 the sheep island2 and ,hrossey1 the horse island1 an old name for the ,mainland 7,meginland71 or principal island of the group4 ,it is very odd to find in books and on maps the ,latin name ,pomona applied to this last island--,pomona1 the ,roman goddess of harvest-plenty1 whose name was also used to indicate the fruits of the earth4 ,the explanation seems to be that a mistake was made by ,george ,buchanan1 the greatest ,latin scholar whom ,scotland ever produced1 in quoting a passage from ,solinus1 an old ,latin writer4 ,solinus1 speaking of some island which he calls ,thyl or ,thul1 says that it is five days' sail from the ,orcades1 and that it is large and rich in the constant yield of its harvests 7pomona74 ,buchanan1 who knew much of ,latin but little of either ,thul or the ,orcades1 takes this to mean that 8,thul is large and ,pomona is rich and fertile10 and he concludes from this that ,pomona must be the chief island of the ,orcades4 ,thus by a mere blunder the name 8,pomona0 was given to the ,mainland2 but there is no good reason why we should perpetuate this blunder4 8,mainland0 is the name which every intelligent ,orcadian should use4 ,it is believed by some that the use of the word pomona itself is due to another blunder1 the mistake of a copyist1 and that what ,solinus really wrote was a contracted form of a word which simply meant fruit4 ,our place-names have suffered much from the blunders of surveyors and map-makers who knew nothing of the ,norse language4 ,whenever they found a name which bore some resemblance to an ,english word1 they immediately changed it into what they supposed to be its correct ,english form4 ,a good example of a name thus 8corrected0 for us is that of the place now called 8,walls40 ,the proper name of the district is ,waas1 and this is the name which it should bear on the map4 ,but the intelligent surveyors no doubt knew that there is an ,english word 8walls0 which is pronounced 8wa's0 in ,scotland1 and so they assumed that the ,norse place-name 8,waas0 ought to be written and pronounced 8,walls40 ,this is of course an absurd error4 8,waas0 is a form of 8,voes10 a name which is admirably suited to the district1 the land of the voes or bays4 ,the name of our county town1 ,kirkwall1 has been similarly disguised by the well-meaning reforms of ignorant persons4 ,old people in the islands still call it 8,kirkwaa10 and this is the correct form of the name4 ,the ,peerie ,sea was called the 8,kirk-voe0 long before ,st4 ,magnus ,cathedral was built1 the name being derived from the old church of ,st4 ,olaf1 whose doorway still exists1 and this name1 applied to the town1 naturally changed into 8,kirkwaa40 ,it would probably be impossible now to restore the old name2 we can only be grateful that our map-makers did not also turn 8kirk0 into the ,english form 8church40 ,we may suspect that the parish name ,holm has been similarly tampered with4 ,the local pronunciation1 which is 8,ham10 indicates that the name may be derived from hafn1 a harbour1 as in 8,hamnavoe0 7,hafnarvagr7 and other cases1 but has no connection with holm1 which means a small island4 ,when the meaning of hafn had been forgotten1 and the local pronunciation was ignored1 the name was naturally supposed to be connected with the holms which lie off the shore4 ,a similar intrusion of the letter l is found in ,pierowall1 and also in ,noltland1 in ,westray4 ,the latter is sometimes1 and more correctly1 written as 8,notland40 ,the ,norse name was ,nautaland1 the pasture for 8nowt0 or cattle4 ,the word ,pentland must be our last example of such blunders4 ,to the ,norsemen the ,scottish mainland was ,pettland1 the land of the ,picts2 and even at the present day ,orcadians1 who have not been misled by books and maps1 still speak of the 8,pettland ,firth40 ,the names of farms or small districts are often very interesting4 ,a common termination in these is -bister1 which represents the ,norse bolstadr1 a farmsteading1 the first part of the name usually being derived from the name of the original owner1 as in 8,grimbister0 and 8,swanbister10 the farm of ,grim and of ,sweyn4 ,the word is connected with bol1 a dwelling1 which still exists in our local dialect in the form 8beul10 meaning a stall in a byre or stable4 ,two ,norse words1 bu and br1 meaning a home or a household1 give rise respectively to the common farm name ,bu1 and to several names ending in -by1 as ,houseby and ,dounby4 ,the termination -ster or -setter1 which is also very common1 represents the ,norse word setr2 the name saeter is still used in ,norway for a summer pasture among the hills at some distance from the farm4 ,several of our farms bear the name of ,seatter1 and the number of compounds of this word is too large to need illustration4 ,garth1 which meant an enclosure1 is akin to the ,english words yard and garden1 and is found in numerous farm names1 sometimes alone1 but more frequently in compounds1 where it appears as the termination -ger1 the g being sounded hard4 ,other names for enclosed land were quoy 7kvi7 and town 7tun71 and in almost every district we find farm names in which these words appear4 ,the ,norse skali1 a hall1 appears as skaill1 either alone or as an element in compound names4 ,there are other common terminations which might be mentioned1 all of them significant and worthy of study1 but these may suffice to illustrate how full of meaning and interest our common place-names really are4 ,we have said that the ,norse word for 8island0 now appears as the termination -ay or -a4 ,this termination1 however1 has in some cases a different origin1 especially where the name does not refer to an island4 ,thus in the names ,scapa and ,hoxa the -a is a contraction of eith1 meaning an isthmus4 ,scapa was ,skalpeith1 the ship-isthmus1 and ,hoxa was ,haugseith1 the isthmus of the haug or howe4 ,in the name of the island of ,sanday1 the termination means 8island20 in the name ,sanday applied to several places round ,deer ,sound1 the reference is to the 8,sand aith0 or isthmus already mentioned4 ,in names of places such as ,birsay and ,swannay1 where a large burn is found1 we may conclude that the -ay represents the ,norse -a1 meaning a river1 as the o does in ,thurso4 ,as we should expect from a seafaring race1 the ,norsemen have left us a very liberal heritage of names for the various natural features of our shores4 ,projecting points of land are called 8ness0 or 8moul0 or 8taing10 according to their configuration1 and even the less prominent rocks are still known as 8clett0 or 8skerry10 or bear other names which were originally simple descriptions of their peculiar forms4 ,in the same way descriptive names were applied to the water features1 and every 8voe0 and 8sound10 every 8hope0 and 8geo0 have names which offer us a fine field for study4 ,in dealing with this last class of names1 there are two ,norse words which may cause us some trouble--hella1 a flat rock1 and hellir1 a cave1 both of which appear in place-names as hellya1 while a third word helgr1 holy1 sometimes assumes the same form4 ,it is impossible to determine what the original form and meaning of a name have been unless we examine the place as well as its name4 ,in studying our place-names1 we ought to remember that the correct names are those that are used by the old people who live in the district1 not those that are found on the map1 or are used by people who adopt the pronunciation suggested by the spelling4 ,by means of the knowledge of a few dozen common ,norse roots1 and a careful examination of the places to which the names belong1 most of our old-fashioned place-names may be made to yield up their ancient meanings1 and to throw some light upon the past condition of the islands4 ,when studied in this way1 our place-names are seen to be fragments of fossil history1 organic remains of an early stratum of society1 as eloquent of the past as are the geological fossils of the early ages of plant and animal life4 ,illustration3 ,at the quern4 ,part ,,iii4--,nature ,lore4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,rocks4 8,sermons in ,stones40 ,a stone quarry is a common enough object in ,orkney--so common1 indeed1 that we may never have taken any interest in it4 ,yet this common quarry is a place where we may learn some strange facts about the making of our islands1 if we visit it in the spirit of one who 8,finds tongues in trees1 books in the running brooks1 ,sermons in stones1 and good in everything40 ,the quarrymen begin their work by clearing away the 8redd0 from the rock beneath4 ,first they remove the soil4 ,this is dark in colour1 not very rich or deep1 perhaps1 and not so black as the more fertile soils of other lands4 ,yet it contains the plant-food which nourishes our crops1 and thus nourishes ourselves4 ,the particles are fine and loose1 and the soil is traversed everywhere by the small rootlets of plants4 ,the dark colour is due to the decayed substance of past crops of plants1 which largely consists of carbon4 ,we must try to find out how this soil1 which is so precious to the farmer1 has been formed4 ,every one knows the difference between the appearance of a new house and that of an old one3 in the former the stones of the walls are clean and sharp1 in the latter they have a weathered1 time-worn look4 ,in graveyards the headstones recently put up have their inscriptions sharp and clear2 the older stones have their surfaces pitted1 and the letters carved on them are indistinct4 ,compare the old carvings and tracery on the outer walls of our cathedral1 made hundreds of years ago1 with the clean-cut masonry of new buildings which stand near it1 and you will see that stones decay with time and moulder away2 they crumble into dust under the winter's frost and rains and the heat of the summer sun4 ,so it is with all the rocks of which the surface of our islands is made up4 ,year by year they moulder away4 ,the dust or earth into which they break down forms a soil in which plants take root and grow4 ,the plants push their root fibres downwards1 helping to open up the cracks in the rock2 and when these roots die and decay their substance mingles with the soil1 giving it that black colour which marks old fertile soils that have long been cultivated4 ,under the soil lies the subsoil--that is1 rock which is half decayed and partly broken up4 ,in course of time it will become as fine as the soil itself2 for the subsoil gradually changes into soil4 ,in wet weather the rain1 and in dry weather the wind1 carry away the fine particles of earth from the surface of the fields1 and would sooner or later take away all the fertile soil2 but the continual action of the weather on the subsoil supplies fresh material4 ,hence1 while the old soil is constantly being removed1 new soil is forming to take its place4 ,as we see in the quarry1 under the soil and the subsoil there is rock4 ,this is true of all parts of our country2 there is a rocky skeleton beneath the thin layer of fertile soil which supports the plants and animals4 ,in the rocky skerries which are common along the shores we see the nature of the rock-built framework of the islands4 ,if the soil and subsoil were swept away1 as the waves have swept it from the skerries1 it would be plainly seen that the islands are built up of rocks4 ,all the rocks of our islands1 almost without exception1 were laid down under water4 ,they consist of three different substances4 ,one is sand1 in small rounded white or yellow grains4 ,another is clay1 dark gray in colour1 very close grained and soft4 ,the third is lime4 ,a rock which consists mostly of sand is called sandstone4 ,the ,eday freestone1 which is much used for putting round the doors and windows of shops and large buildings1 is a sandstone4 ,the common blue flagstone contains clay mixed with more or less sand4 ,the sandy beds are coarse1 gritty1 and hard2 the fine-grained flags contain more clay1 and are darker in colour1 softer1 and smoother on the surface4 ,nearly all the fine flags contain lime2 often it is seen in white shining crystals on the joint-faces of the stones used in building4 ,the presence of lime in a soil improves it considerably4 ,in different parts of ,orkney the rocks differ much in appearance4 ,in one place we find yellow and red sandstone1 in another blue and gray flags1 in another pudding-stone and granite4 ,what is the meaning of this8 ,it shows that while the whole area of our islands was covered with water1 gravel was being laid down at one place1 sand or muddy silt at another1 and so on4 ,we can even make out the order in which the different layers or strata were laid down4 ,it is done in this way3--,usually the beds of rock are not now flat but tilted1 and show their edges turned up in a more or less sharp slope4 ,if we walk along any bare rocky shore we shall find that bed succeeds bed1 each resting on the top of all those which underlie it4 ,no place could be found to show this better than the shore of ,hoy ,sound from ,stromness to ,breckness4 ,we go on and on1 crossing over bed after bed of rock1 till we have passed over the edges of a pile of flagstone which must be several thousand feet thick4 ,the same thing can be seen to the east of ,kirkwall1 or1 in fact1 almost anywhere in the islands4 ,sometimes the beds dip or slant in different directions at different parts of the shore4 ,then again they may be broken by cracks or faults which bring different kinds of rock up against one another4 ,if one could visit the whole of ,orkney and examine all the rocks1 making out in what order they follow one another1 how often they are interrupted or repeated by faults1 and what is their inclination or dip1 one could tell exactly the order in which the rocks of each district were laid down on the bottom of the old lake where they were formed4 ,this is one of the tasks which the geologist undertakes2 and though it looks very difficult1 yet in ,orkney it is quite possible to do so with pretty fair accuracy4 ,what is the result8 ,at the bottom of the whole we place the granite of ,stromness and ,graemsay4 ,this represents part of the floor of the old lake on which the gravel and sand and mud were laid down--a part which stood up above the water as an island4 ,next to this we find a thin layer of pudding-stone4 ,this is formed of the old gravel which gathered on the beaches and shores around the granite island as it was slowly covered over4 ,above that were laid down the flagstones of the ,west ,mainland2 then those of ,kirkwall1 the ,east ,mainland1 and the ,north ,isles2 then the yellow and red sandstones of ,eday1 ,shapinsay1 the ,head of ,holland1 ,deerness1 and ,south ,ronaldsay4 ,illustration3 ,cliff showing horizontal strata4 ,the whole series of these rocks must be thousands of feet thick1 and how long they took to form we cannot conceive4 ,then there is a gap in the series4 ,this means that for a time the lake was dry land and instead of mud and sand being laid down1 the rocks which had been formed were partly washed away by rain and streams4 ,after a long time had passed1 another lake was formed1 and in it were laid down the yellow sandstones of ,hoy1 which are quite different from the other yellow sandstones of ,orkney4 ,when you think that each thin flagstone or layer of sandstone in our quarry was once a sheet of mud and sand1 and that it took months1 no doubt1 or even years1 to gather on the lake bottom1 you can understand how vast a space of time is represented by the old red sandstone of ,orkney4 8,books in the ,running ,brooks40 ,let us now take a stroll along one of the little burns which flow between their green or heathery banks in any of the valleys of our native islands4 ,these little burns are very small in comparison with the mighty rivers of the world1 yet they are quietly performing a great task1 and in the long past ages the amount of work which they have done is far greater than you have ever imagined4 ,it is summer1 and the burn runs shallow and slow2 the pebbles and sand show clearly in the pools4 ,the burn enters a little bay1 and as it flows across the shore it breaks up into several streamlets1 each working its way through the gravel4 ,brackish water plants grow here2 the shore is muddy1 and the seaweed is often soiled with fine sediment4 ,the burn has brought this down1 and has dropped it where it enters the sea4 ,we follow the channel upwards1 through flat1 rich meadows1 which may be tilled1 and covered with corn and other crops4 ,in the meadow the burn winds to and fro1 and in each loop the outer side is steep1 often overhanging3 under the grassy bank the trout lie hid4 ,the inner side of the bend is shallow1 slopes gradually down to the water1 and is covered with small broken stones and gravelly pebbles4 ,we can see that the current is eating away the steep outer bank by undermining it1 while on the inner side the small stones are gathering4 ,the meadow through which we are passing is flat1 and covered with wiry grasses which love wet situations4 ,the stuff of which it is made can be seen on the banks of the burn4 ,it is a soft1 dark-brown earth1 almost without stones1 or with here and there a layer of pebbles4 ,how has this meadow been formed8 ,the stream has done it4 ,to find out how the stream made the meadow we must visit it in winter after several days of heavy rain4 ,then a sheet of water covers the meadow1 making it a shallow lake4 ,the water is very still except near the channel of the burn2 it is brown and full of mud4 ,for some days the lake remains1 then the water begins to fall4 ,the stream is clearer now1 though still dark with mud2 good water this for the trout-fisher4 ,a few days more and the lake has vanished2 the stream keeps within its banks1 though it is still full4 ,now look at the meadow4 ,it is covered with a very thin film of grayish-brown mud4 ,in spring the grasses will grow quickly1 and will be greener than ever4 ,the meadow is a little--ever so little--higher for the new sheet of mud it has acquired4 ,winter after winter this goes on4 ,the brown earth which forms the meadow is flood mud4 ,its flat configuration is due to its being laid down in a little temporary lake4 ,let us follow the stream still farther1 and leave the meadow behind4 ,the channel gets steeper1 and the water flows along quite merrily1 faster than in the level meadow below4 ,the bends in the burn disappear4 ,it is in a hurry here and flows straight2 in the flat meadow below it loiters and swings lazily to and fro4 ,the channel is shallow1 and there are few pools4 ,the banks are often bare rock1 or the stony clay which is produced by the weathering of rock4 ,the stream is washing away the clay2 it even attacks the hard rocks4 ,to see how this is done you must come when the burn is swollen with heavy rains4 ,then you will hear it rolling the stones along4 ,they grind on one another1 and thus they get their rounded shape1 or are broken up into small fragments4 ,as they are rolled along they wear away the rocks and deepen the bed of the stream4 ,loose pieces are swept away1 soft layers are planed down4 ,many of the cracks and joints are opened and loosened1 ready for fresh attacks during the floods of next winter4 ,this is where the gravel comes from4 ,in the lower part of its course the stream cannot move large stones1 but in floodtime the smaller pebbles are carried downwards4 ,the big stones lie in the upper stream2 they must be broken smaller before they can be carried away4 ,after rainy weather you will often find that a rapid branch stream has shot a big heap of pebbles into the main stream4 ,when the floods rise above the surface of the meadow they may strew sheets of little stones here and there over the grass4 ,after a big flood1 if you know the stream well1 you will find many changes4 ,here a bank of gravel has been carried away2 there a new one has gathered4 ,at every bend the bank shows undermining1 and pieces have been swept away4 ,the fine stuff makes mud3 part of this is laid down on the meadow1 but much of it is carried right out to sea4 ,that running water will wash away sand1 gravel1 and mud is not new to you4 ,you have often seen it on the roads and in the roadside ditches1 in the little runnels around the farmhouses1 or in the ploughed fields4 ,the burn is always doing the same thing1 according to its powers4 ,in dry weather it does little1 for its current is weak2 in floods it works rapidly4 ,for perhaps two dozen days in a year every burn is in great strength1 and is a powerful agent in changing the form of the land4 ,this leads you to grasp the fact that the stream has dug out its own channel1 and that it carries rock material to lower levels1 and at last to the sea4 ,if you know some of our burns well1 and study and watch them closely1 you will find a world of interest in them4 ,every feature of their channels is due to the work the flowing water is doing1 and shows the manner in which it is done4 ,but what of the wide valley in which the burn flows8 ,other agencies have been at work here besides the water3 ice has left its mark on every part of our valleys4 ,but the burn has done most4 ,on either side it is joined by branches4 ,each of these is cutting its own channel1 and thus gradually deepening the valley4 ,each branch has its lesser branches2 together they cover the whole valley with an intricate system of water channels4 ,between these channels1 heather and grass are growing in the stony soil4 ,the soil1 as you have learned already1 is due to the decay of the rocks4 ,frost and rain begin the work1 and the growth of plants hastens and helps it4 ,over the whole of the sloping valley sides the rocks are being broken up into finer and finer particles4 ,when heavy rain comes it washes away the smaller particles1 and little runnels appear which carry away the surface water4 ,every year a portion of the soil is swept away to the meadows1 or to the mud sheets which floor the shallow sea below4 ,none of this ever comes back2 it is sheer loss--a little at a time1 but if the time be long enough it amounts to a very great quantity4 ,every day since that burn began to flow it has carried downwards a greater or smaller burden of soil4 ,it took a long time for people to grasp the fact that running water is a great earth-shaping agent4 ,every valley you have ever seen was made in this way4 ,other things helped1 but the stream was the main cause4 ,a valley is only a great groove eaten out of the rock4 ,it is not due to any earthquake or rending apart of the rocks2 it is not an original feature of the country4 ,there was a time when there was no valley there2 but from the day the stream first began to trickle over the rocks it has gone on deepening its channel and excavating the valley1 and it is still doing so4 ,the stream not only made the valley2 it shaped the hills also4 ,we sometimes speak of 8the everlasting hills40 ,no doubt the hills are very old1 and will last a long time4 ,yet the little stream is older and mightier than they4 ,it shaped them and brought them into being2 in time it will remove them and level them with the plain4 ,let us climb the side of a hill1 and see what we can learn about it by patient observation and inference4 ,any one of our flat-topped1 round-shouldered ,orkney hills will do4 ,they were all formed in the same way1 and teach the same lessons4 ,illustration3 ,the ,ward ,hill1 ,hoy4 ,the ascent is gentle at first as we leave the plain or the bottom of the valley4 ,then it gets steeper and steeper4 ,often it is like a series of great steps--a sharp rise for a little1 then a flat ledge2 another sharp rise1 followed by a gentle slope1 and so on4 ,these terraces are formed of beds of hard stone1 which weather down very slowly4 ,the softer rocks crumble fast1 and form the steep slope4 ,all our flagstone hills show these steps or terraces4 ,they prove that the slope of the hillside is determined largely by the rate at which the different rock beds wear away4 ,after our stiff climb we get near the top4 ,many of our hills are broad-backed4 ,when we get above the steep part we find a flat top1 and it is often difficult to say where the actual summit is4 ,in many places there are great groups of hills1 all of about the same height1 but separated by valleys4 ,the ,orphir1 ,firth1 and ,harray hills1 the ,rousay1 ,evie1 and ,birsay hills1 and the hills of ,walls are all of this kind4 ,even the ,hoy hills show the same feature1 though less clearly4 ,in all these cases the hilltops look like the remains of one continuous stretch of high ground1 which has been cut up into pieces by the digging out of the valleys4 ,the hills are the remnants of a plateau4 ,this is not a mere supposition1 but can be proved quite clearly4 ,in many ,orkney hills there are beds of rock which can be identified by the geologist by certain marks4 ,they may contain peculiar fossils1 or they may be of a special colour or structure4 ,in ,firth and ,orphir1 for example1 there is a band of flagstone which yields roofing slabs4 ,you can follow this band from hill to hill for several miles1 often by the quarries in which it was extensively worked in former years4 ,it occurs at much the same level in all the different hills1 though sinking somewhat to the north according to the dip or slope of the rock bed4 ,it is found on both sides of the valleys1 as1 for example1 at ,finstown1 at much the same height4 ,illustration3 ,the ,hills of ,orkney4 ,photographed from a ,relief ,model based on the ,ordnance ,survey4 ,the ,orkney hills1 then1 consist of a great pile of beds of flagstone which once spread unbroken over the whole country4 ,out of this great mass of flagstones and sandstones the running water of the burns has carved the valley systems4 ,the hills are the remnants which the streams have not yet removed4 ,as time goes on the valleys deepen and broaden1 and the hills get less and less4 8,the hills are shadows1 and they flow ,from form to form1 and nothing stands40 ,it has taken vast ages to do this work1 and the work is still going on4 ,it is very slow4 ,the oldest man hardly notices any visible change in the configuration of the country4 ,but wind1 rain1 frost1 and running water are ever at work4 ,every day sees some loss1 some material swept away never to return4 ,what becomes of it8 ,it reaches the sea1 and there forms mud and sand4 ,time will change these into solid rock again1 and may ultimately use them in building new continents4 ,the hills crumble into dust1 but it is 8the dust of continents to be40 ,cliffs and ,beaches4 ,on looking at a map of ,orkney or ,shetland we are struck with the irregularity in the shape of the islands and the winding nature of the coast line4 ,there must be some reason for this1 and a little reflection will bring it to light4 ,if you look at the larger valleys you will notice that most of them end in salt-water bays1 while the hills or ridges between the valleys run out into points or 8nesses40 ,this is especially the case in ,shetland2 but in ,orkney1 too1 there are many instances of it4 ,the shape of the land extends beneath the water--the deep bay continues the land valley1 the point and the skerry mark the position of the watersheds4 ,we have seen that the valleys were eaten out by running streams4 ,at one time the land stood higher1 and the burns flowed where now the salt water covers the bottom of the bay4 ,thus the land was shaped4 ,then the ground sank a little1 and the sea flooded the lower grounds4 ,the hilltops remained above water as islands2 the valleys and flat grounds were changed into bays and sounds and firths4 ,think what would happen if the land sank another hundred feet4 ,many of the present islands would become shoals1 and new islands would be made where the sea flowed round the higher ground1 winding out and in among them in narrow sounds and straits1 just as it does among the islands of the present day4 ,long ago ,orkney and ,shetland were much larger than they are at present4 ,most of the ,north ,sea was dry land1 covered with trees4 ,in several parts of ,orkney we can see trunks and roots of trees uncovered after heavy storms have shifted the sand on the beach4 ,these trees did not grow beneath the sea1 of course2 but the land sank1 and the salt water covered the site of the old forest4 ,our wild animals1 such as hares and rabbits1 mice1 voles1 and shrews1 were not imported in boats4 ,they were here probably before man arrived1 and they walked in on their own feet when the sea bottom was still part of the dry land of ,europe4 ,those who have studied this question think the land is still sinking1 or at any rate has not yet begun to rise4 ,if it were rising1 we should find gravels and shells and sea-beaches above the level of the present shores4 ,such raised beaches are found in many parts of ,scotland1 but not in ,orkney or ,shetland4 ,the shores are always changing1 and every part of them bears evidence of constant alterations4 ,where there are high banks or cliffs1 you will often find that pieces have fallen down2 this is especially the case where the bank consists of clay4 ,our ,orkney rocks are very hard and our cliffs very lasting1 but in some parts of ,england there are villages and churches now standing on the very edge of the cliffs which a few centuries ago were at a considerable distance from the sea4 ,it is the sea that wears away the cliffs by hammering at the rocks2 during storms the big stones on exposed beaches are rounded and worn by the billows tossing them about and driving them against the rocks4 ,on the west coasts of our islands the great winter waves have enormous power2 no breakwater could resist them1 and a ship which is driven ashore soon goes to pieces4 ,the cliffs are undermined at their base by the formation of caves2 the soft parts are eaten out into geos4 ,frost and rain open the seams of the rocks and great masses tumble down2 these are then tossed to and fro until they are converted into heaps of boulders4 ,the boulders get less and less1 and become pebbles2 last of all they are ground down to fine shingle and sand4 ,every kind of rock has its own characteristic type of cliff scenery4 ,when pieces are detached they separate along natural cracks which are called 8joints10 and these joints have a different arrangement in sandstone1 in granite1 in serpentine1 and in schist4 ,weathering then acts on the exposed surface1 and1 if the rock is bedded1 some beds are eaten away more rapidly than others4 ,there is much to interest us in our cliffs2 there is not a detail in their form which has not a meaning4 ,illustration3 ,a sandstone cliff4 ,on wild shores where storm-waves are high we find large boulders2 the smaller ones are washed away and swept out to sea4 ,sometimes there is no beach1 but the cliff plunges down into deep water1 for there the waves are so powerful that they clear away all the broken rock4 ,on sheltered beaches we find small rounded pebbles4 ,if we look at the stones on the shore of a small fresh-water loch we find them scarcely rounded at all1 for the little waves cannot toss them about and rub them against one another4 ,the tear and wear of pebbles produces sand1 and the sand is driven to and fro by currents and by storms4 ,it rests for a time in some of the bays1 but is not a fixture4 ,a high wind drives some of it ashore to cover the grass of the sandy links4 ,a heavy storm may drag a great deal of it out to sea4 ,unless it is held fast by bent or other plants1 sand is always moving4 ,even the stones travel along the shore1 driven by the beat of the waves in bad weather4 ,there are stone beaches common in ,orkney and ,shetland which are often called ayres1 and which have behind them a salt lagoon or oyce4 ,the oyce opens to the sea at one end of the ayre1 and a strong tidal current flows out and in through the opening4 ,an ayre is really an army of stones on the march1 constantly moving forward4 ,in every bay there is one direction from which the biggest waves come1 and the stones of the ayre have come from that direction4 ,the opening of the oyce is at the other end of the ayre4 ,at first there was a bay with a shallow inner end4 ,when the big waves reach shallow water they turn over and have their speed checked4 ,stones carried along the shore are dropped at the edge of the shallow water1 forming a bar4 ,the bar goes on stretching across the bay as the storms fetch more stones1 and in time the oyce is nearly walled in4 ,but as the opening gets narrower and narrower the tidal flow gets stronger and stronger ,there is a combat between the tidal currents and the storm currents1 and in time things are adjusted so that the speed of the outflow is just enough to keep the opening from being closed up4 ,the ,age of ,ice4 ,along the burns and the seashores1 and in stone quarries1 we often see banks of clay4 ,usually this clay is full of stones4 ,in some places the clay is merely the softened1 crumbling top of the rock1 and the stones in it are of the same kind as the solid rock below4 ,in other places the clay contains stones which are quite unlike any rocks in the neighbourhood4 ,sometimes these stones are very large1 and they must have been carried from some distant place1 for they are of a kind of rock which is not found in the islands4 ,what is the history of this clay with travelled stones1 or 8boulder clay10 as it is called8 ,boulder clay may be recognized by several marks4 ,it is tough and sticky2 it shows no bedding or layers2 and it may be only a few inches thick1 or it may form cliffs thirty or forty feet high4 ,pick a few stones out of it3 you will notice that they are not all of the same kind4 ,wash them carefully in the sea or the burn4 ,their ends are blunt and worn1 but they are not rounded like sea-pebbles4 ,their surfaces are smooth1 and are covered with fine scratches1 as if some one had drawn a needle or the point of a knife along them4 ,nowhere except in this clay will you see stones with these curious scratches4 ,if you find the place where the bottom of the clay rests on the hard rock1 you should carefully remove a little of the clay and lay bare the rock surface beneath4 ,wash it with a little water1 and you will see that it is covered with fine scratches exactly like those on the stones4 ,now this smoothing and scratching of the stones and of the rock might be explained by imagining that the clay at one time was in motion1 pushed forward by some immense force1 and that the stones rubbing on one another and on the rocky floor produced these scratches4 ,among the ,alps1 in ,norway1 in ,greenland1 and in other places where there are high snow-clad mountains or a very cold climate1 the snow gathers in the valleys till it forms thick masses1 and is compressed by its own weight into ice3 these masses are known as glaciers4 ,glaciers are really slow-moving rivers of ice2 they slip very slowly down the valley slopes1 travelling usually only a few inches in a day4 ,when they reach the warmer region at the base of the mountains1 they melt away1 leaving behind them heaps of clay which they have swept down from the hills4 ,the stones in this clay are worn and smoothed and scratched exactly like those in the boulder clays of ,orkney and ,shetland1 and the rocks over which the glaciers have moved are smoothed and scratched likewise4 ,the boulder clay1 then1 is clearly a glacial deposit1 formed at a time when our islands were covered with moving sheets of ice4 ,these ice sheets were travelling from the ,north ,sea towards the ,atlantic1 in a west or north-west direction1 for the scratches on the rock surface always have that trend4 ,we can often prove also that the boulders found in the clay have travelled from the south-east4 ,thus at the ,mont1 near ,kirkwall1 the boulder clay is full of red sandstone from the ,head of ,holland and ,inganess ,bay4 ,in ,shetland stones have been carried from the east side of the mainland right over the hills to the west shores4 ,when we piece together all the evidence about this ,ice ,age or ,glacial ,period1 not only in ,orkney and ,shetland but in all the north-west of ,europe1 we learn that it lasted a very long time1 and that the ,north ,sea was filled with a great sheet of ice which must have been several thousand feet thick4 ,this ice was pushed out of the basin of the ,north ,sea westwards into the ,atlantic by the pressure of the deep snow-cap which covered the mountains of central ,europe1 and on its way it passed over ,orkney and ,shetland4 ,the broken stones and rubbish which gathered below it formed the boulder clay4 ,this may seem a very strange tale1 but every kind of evidence that is needed to prove its truth has been found by those who have studied the boulder clay and the scratched rocks beneath it4 ,after the great ice sheet melted1 the climate was still cold1 and there were times when snow and ice gathered on our hilltops and little glaciers flowed down the valleys4 ,these also have left traces behind by which you can know where they were4 ,in every one of the higher glens in the ,orkney hills you will find mounds of clay and stones1 often forming a crescent or bow running from side to side of the valley4 ,they are very well seen in ,harray1 ,birsay1 ,orphir1 and ,hoy2 but even in the ,east ,mainland the hills1 though low1 gave rise to little glaciers4 ,in ,shetland they are almost as common as in ,orkney4 ,in many parishes there are clusters of large and small mounds1 some of them grassy and others covered with heather1 lying near the mouths of the main valleys4 ,when these mounds have been cut into by streams or by roads1 we see that they are not rocky hillocks but consist only of clay and stones1 and that the stones are often scratched like those in the stiff boulder clay4 ,these mounds are the 8dumps0 or moraines where the glaciers which filled the valleys melted and dropped their rubbish4 ,at that time our islands must have resembled ,spitzbergen1 where to-day most of the hills have an ice-cap and nearly all the valleys are filled with glaciers1 some of which reach the sea and give birth to icebergs1 while others melt away and deposit lumpy moraines over the valley bottoms4 ,orkney ,fossils4 ,you cannot examine many of our ,orkney flagstones carefully without finding fossils4 ,the most common are scales and bones of fishes4 ,in the rock these often appear as coal-black specks4 ,when a fossil has weathered for a long time1 as in a stone dyke or on the seashore1 it often becomes bright blue1 like a splash of blue paint4 ,sometimes whole fishes are found in the gray flagstones1 with every fin and every scale perfect4 ,of course you will not find these every day or every year1 but there are many quarries in ,orkney where you may get them occasionally4 ,when the quarryman uncovers a bed of rock1 he often finds it sprinkled over with great numbers of fossil fishes4 ,we can picture to ourselves that1 at some time long gone by1 when these flagstones were being laid down in the old ,orcadian lake as sheets of sandy and muddy silt1 the fishes were suddenly killed by a volcanic eruption1 or by a period of drought1 and their dead bodies covered the muddy bottom for miles4 ,fresh mud then came down and buried them1 and preserved their remains4 ,in process of time their bones and scales were changed into the pitch-black substance which we now find in the rocks4 ,but we can still see that these specks and scales are really parts of fishes4 ,if we examine them under the microscope1 we find that they have all the marks of structure that the same parts of certain fishes have at the present day4 ,in almost every parish in ,orkney there is at least one quarry which contains good fossils1 and there must be many others which we do not yet know of4 ,but no person who knows what a bit of fossil fish is like need search very long among the flagstones of the shore without finding a scale1 a jaw bone1 a tooth1 or other relic of the fishes which lived in ,orkney at the time the flagstone muds were gathering4 ,a heap of stones thrown down by the roadside1 for building a dyke or for mending the roads1 often contains fragments of dozens of fishes4 ,it is not difficult for us to picture what these fishes were like when alive4 ,some of them were about the size of sillocks or herrings1 others were as large as a big cod4 ,they had scales all over their bodies1 and fins1 supported by bony rays1 just like living fishes4 ,but though many of them were of the same shape and general outline as a trout or a herring1 they differed from these in many ways4 ,their scales were often hard and bony1 with a smooth1 shining outer layer of enamel like that which covers a tooth4 ,those fishes are called ganoids4 ,on their heads they had bony plates with the same hard covering1 often showing ridges and furrows1 knobs1 and other markings4 ,you may see these beautifully preserved in many of the fossil bones which occur in the gray and blue flagstones4 ,those fishes belong to species which are no longer living on the earth's surface1 but closely allied kinds of fish are still found in a few rivers in ,africa1 ,america1 and ,europe4 ,the royal sturgeon is one of these4 ,none of the fishes which are common in our seas at the present day are ever found as fossils in rocks as old as the ,orcadian flagstones4 ,the water of the ,orcadian lake was fresh water4 ,we know this because we find no marine shells1 and no crabs or cuttle-fishes in the flagstones1 though these kinds of animals peopled the sea at that time1 and would have been preserved as fossils if they had inhabited the lake4 ,some of the fishes in the lake were very grotesque and oddly-shaped creatures4 ,one of them had two curious bony arms or wings which stuck out from its sides4 ,it is not very common in ,orkney1 but is sometimes found in quarries near ,stromness1 and a smaller fish of much the same shape may be got in ,deerness occasionally4 ,they are called 8winged fishes10 and are quite unlike any fishes now living4 ,so strange is this fossil that when first found it was thought to be a curious beetle4 ,another strange fish was of great size2 its head bones are a foot or more in length4 ,pieces of the head of this fish may be seen in many parts of ,orkney1 but the bones of the body were soft and rotted away after the fish died4 ,the back of its head was somewhat like a shovel in shape1 and the bones are often half an inch in thickness4 ,there were two great holes for the eyes near the corners of this shield4 ,the back of the neck was protected by another large plate4 ,a specimen of this fossil can be seen in the ,stromness museum2 it was called by ,hugh ,miller the ,asterolepis1 or 8star-scale fish10 of ,stromness4 ,besides the fishes1 other fossils occur in the flagstones1 but not of many kinds4 ,at ,pickaquoy1 near ,kirkwall1 and in several other places1 very small shells1 like tiny mussel shells1 often cover the surface of the beds of rock4 ,pieces of wood may also be seen in the flagstones2 they are flattened out and form black strips of a coaly substance1 but as they must have drifted a long distance from land1 and sunk to the bottom only when they became water-logged1 they do not tell us much about the nature of the plants which clothed the islands and the shores of the lake4 ,yet we know that there were no flowers then1 no grasses1 or sedges1 or trees like those that now live1 but only great reeds and tree-like plants belonging to the same groups as the horse-tail that grows in watery places and along roadsides1 and the little green scaly club moss that creeps through the heather1 sending up its fruit-bearing spikes4 ,there were also many kinds of ferns4 ,in the forests and swamps there were land-snails and insects1 but no frogs or lizards1 still less any birds or other warm-blooded creatures4 ,the fishes are the highest types that then existed2 they were the 8lords of creation0 in that day4 ,illustration3 8,winged fish0 7,pterichthys74 ,a ,,peat-,,moss4 ,earl ,einar it was1 as the story goes1 who first taught the ,orkneyman to make the turf into peats--,torf ,einar1 as he was called in memory of this fact4 ,if the story is true1 he did a great work for the islands1--not quite treeless in his day1 perhaps1 but yet in a bad way for fuel in the long winter evenings1--and he deserves a monument almost as splendid as that of ,earl ,magnus4 ,the wood fires went out long ago1 and the peat fires will1 no doubt1 follow in due time4 ,true1 the peat-mosses are not yet exhausted1 but year by year they recede1 and the road to 8the hill0 grows longer4 ,there is less time to spare now for peat-cutting than there used to be1 for our modern methods of farming require more constant labour4 ,but through our trade with other lands money is circulating more freely1 and coal can be bought to take the place of peat4 ,the change means more money and less time1 and that is just the great difference between this century and those which have gone by4 ,but the peat-moss is not yet deserted1 and in the early summer it is still a busy scene in many places4 ,harvest has ever been a time of joy1 and peat-cutting is the harvest of the moss4 ,the flaying-spade and the tuskar are not mere toys1 nor is 8taking out0 the newly-cut peats a holiday task2 but there are few scenes where more cheerfulness and wholesome mirth can be seen than at many an ,orkney peat-cutting4 ,let us approach one of these familiar 8peat-banks10 not necessarily to share in the fun1 and certainly not to take part in the labour1 but to find out what we can about the substance which we call peat4 ,here is a bank where the moss is deep enough to give three lengths of peat1 one above the other1 besides the surface layer1 which is cut off and thrown down on the old peat ground4 ,this top layer1 we see1 is1 like ordinary turf1 full of the roots of growing plants--heather1 rushes1 sedges1 and grasses of various kinds4 ,filling up the spaces between them is a tangled mass of spongy mosses4 ,these mosses are the most important plants of all in the formation of peat4 ,the most common of the bog-mosses is the ,sphagnum1 a small branching plant with thin1 scaly leaves4 ,where there is plenty of light it is of a vivid green1 and the tops of the sprays look like tiny emerald stars4 ,lower1 where less light comes1 the plant looks yellow and sickly1 while still lower it is black and decaying4 ,the black substance which we call peat is really a mass of decayed sphagnum moss4 ,the upper part of our peat-bank1 just below the turf which has been cut away1 is more loose and fibrous than the under part4 ,the roots of the larger plants may still be seen in it4 ,the second and especially the third peat are much closer in texture and of a deeper black colour4 ,the vegetable matter is more completely decayed1 and if we were to compress it sufficiently it would look very like coal4 ,at one part of the face of the bank we notice a layer of a different kind4 ,we find the roots and parts of the stems and branches of small trees embedded in the moss4 ,there has been a wood here at one time--how long ago1 we cannot tell4 ,that layer of moss which now lies above the remains of the trees may have taken centuries to form4 ,in many places we find more than one such layer of wood1 separated as well as covered by thick layers of moss4 ,some of the trees have been of considerable size1 too2 the trunk of one found in the parish of ,stenness measured about five feet in circumference1 while the moss near it was thickly studded with the nuts which had fallen from it year after year4 ,the trees whose remains have been found in our mosses include the poplar1 pine1 mountain ash1 birch1 hazel1 alder1 and willow4 ,one very interesting fact is that the silver fir is also found1 a tree which does not now grow in ,scotland1 and is not found in ,scottish peat-mosses1 but which is common in ,norway4 ,what curious tales those peat-mosses tell of the changes of climate which have passed over our islands6 ,at the present day it is only in our deepest glens1 as in ,hoy1 that we can find even small trees and bushes growing wild4 ,yet at one time our islands must have been well wooded1 though it is only in the mosses that the remains have been preserved for us to see4 ,the sphagnum1 again1 has another story to tell4 ,it requires abundant moisture for its growth1 and at present it can find this only in flat and boggy ground4 ,it is therefore only in such places that peat is now being formed4 ,yet we find peat on most of our hillsides and even hilltops4 ,this tells of a time when our climate was much wetter than it now is1 and when sphagnum flourished everywhere4 ,one more story of a different kind can be read from the peat-moss4 ,here and there1 as at ,deersound and ,widewall ,bay1 when the tide is out1 we may find peat-moss1 and the remains of large trees among it1 far down on the beach1 many feet below the level of high water1 and most of it covered to a considerable depth with the sand and gravel which form the upper beach and the land near it4 ,this tells clearly of a gradual sinking of the land in the neighbourhood4 ,when that moss was being formed1 and when those trees were growing1 the shallow bay must have been dry land4 ,the plants and flowers which grow on our mosses are worth more than a passing glance4 ,let us look at some of them4 ,the sphagnum we have already mentioned2 it belongs to the class of flowerless plants4 ,the others we shall mention are flowering plants4 ,best known of all1 perhaps1 is what we call heather4 ,this name is used for at least four different plants in ,orkney4 ,two of these bear that common but beautiful flower the heather-bell4 ,one bears bells of a pale1 rose-coloured1 waxy appearance2 the other1 which is more common1 has bells of a darker and often purplish red4 ,the former is the cross-leaved heath1 with its little green leaves arranged in whorls of four2 the latter has its leaves in whorls of three1 and is known as the fine-leaved heath4 ,the most common kind of heather is the ling1 which flowers somewhat later than the heaths4 ,it is this plant whose spikes of tiny rose-coloured flowers make our hillsides a purple glory in the early autumn1 and whose leaves and stems give them their familiar brown tint during the rest of the year4 ,a white variety is also found1 the 8white heather0 which is supposed to bring good luck to the finder4 ,another kind of heather is that which bears the small black berries so well known to every young ,orcadian4 ,this plant is not a heath at all2 it is really the black crowberry4 ,the berry is preceded by a tiny purplish flower1 which probably few of the berry-gatherers have ever seen4 ,the 8rashes0 or rushes are a common feature of our moors4 ,two kinds may be noticed1 one with its flower-tuft more closely packed together than the other4 ,these rushes were of some use in former days4 ,the white pith was extracted and dried for winter use as wicks in the old oil-burning 8crusies10 before the introduction of paraffin4 ,there are many smaller plants of a similar type1 one of which1 the bog asphodel1 ought to be well known2 its pretty1 yellow1 star-like flowers1 grouped on a stalk some eight inches high1 often make patches of our moorlands glow with the shimmer of gold4 ,the cotton-grass is probably more familiar4 ,there are two kinds found in ,orkney1 one bearing a single tuft of white down on each stem when seeding1 the other a group or cluster of tufts4 ,this plant is not a grass1 and has no connection with the cotton plant2 but the name is a good one for all that1 and no one can mistake the plant to which it applies4 ,illustration3 ,plants of the peat-moss4 #a4 ,common ling 7,calluna vulgaris74 #b4 ,cross-leaved heath 7,erica tetralix74 #c4 ,black crowberry 7,empetrum nigrum74 #d4 ,cotton grass 7,eriophorum polystachion74 #e4 ,grass of ,parnassus 7,parnassia palustris74 #f4 ,bog asphodel 7,narthecium ossifragum74 ,one of our most beautiful moorland plants is that which bears the attractive name1 8grass of ,parnassus40 ,this also is not a grass1 and does not in the least resemble one4 ,it is well worth looking for and looking at when found4 ,from a group of dark-green1 glossy1 heart-shaped leaves rises a slender stem four or five inches high1 with one leaf growing on it midway up its height4 ,this stem bears a single cup-shaped flower as large as a common buttercup1 with five white petals marked with darker veins4 ,the central parts of the flower are yellowish-green4 ,round the stigma stand the five stamens1 and between these and opposite the petals are five curiously shaped nectaries or honey vessels4 ,they are fringed with a row of white hairs1 each ending in a yellow knob1 and look like a tiny golden crown placed in the centre of the flower-cup4 ,the name of the flower is said to be taken from ,mount ,parnassus in ,greece1 the home of the ,muses4 ,certainly the flower itself is dainty enough to be a favourite with the poets4 ,illustration3 ,butterwort4 ,some plants have developed the curious habit of eating1 or1 at any rate1 digesting and absorbing the juices of insects4 ,two of those insectivorous plants may be found in our peat-moss4 ,in certain places we may notice that the thick carpet of moss is dotted with little rosettes of bright yellowish green1 which look like vegetable star-fishes scattered over a beach of moss4 ,that is one of our 8plants of prey40 ,it is called the butterwort4 ,from the centre of the rosette rises a slender stalk of two or three inches1 bearing a small dusky purple flower somewhat like a dog-violet4 ,the green leaves which form the rosette are stiff1 and lie close to the ground1 as if to keep a clear space among the other plants4 ,they curl up at the edges1 and look as if they did not want to mingle with their kindred round about2 and indeed they do not1 for they have other game in view4 ,attracted by this bright green star1 a small insect comes in search1 perhaps1 of honey4 ,he finds the leaf covered with a sticky fluid1 and his touch causes more of the fluid to come out of little pores in the leaf4 ,the insect is held fast1 and the gum clogs up the pores of his body so that he cannot breathe4 ,he soon dies4 ,then the plant pours out an acid liquid1 which dissolves all the soft parts of the captured insect1 and leaves only the skeleton4 ,at the same time this dissolved or digested food is sucked in by the pores of the leaf4 ,the acid juice of the butterwort is so like the juice of the animal stomach1 that in ,lapland the people used to pour warm milk over butterwort leaves1 and thus changed it into a curd1 just as we do by adding to the milk some rennet1 made from the stomach of a calf4 ,illustration3 ,sundew4 ,on this same patch of moor we may find another flesh-eating plant4 ,this is smaller than the last1 and less easily found4 ,it has a slender flower-stalk with a spike of small whitish flowers rising from the centre of a curious group of leaves4 ,the leaves lie flat on the ground2 they are small and round1 no larger than split peas1 and covered with bright red hairs that look like tiny red pins stuck in a tiny green pin cushion4 ,each of these hairs carries at its tip a bead of clear fluid1 which glitters in the sun2 hence the plant is called the sundew4 ,let any thirsty insect come to drink this dew1 and a strange thing happens4 ,he finds his feet held fast by the sticky dewdrops1 and the more he struggles the more of these does he rub against4 ,he is held fast until he is suffocated1 and then he is digested and absorbed by the leaf4 ,when the fly alights on the plant1 the hairs begin to bend in towards the centre of the leaf4 ,even those hairs which have not been touched bend over until all of them are helping to hold fast the prey and dissolve it with their liquid4 ,if the insect alights near the edge of the leaf1 he is thus carried towards the centre and held fast1 while the leaf itself bends so as to form a cup for the acid that pours from the hairs4 ,if two insects alight on the same leaf1 the hairs form into two groups1 those near each animal curving towards him1 so that the leaf acts as if it had two hands4 ,in this way all the insects that come are attended to4 ,there are many other curious plants to be found in the peat-moss1 but those we have mentioned will suffice to show how much of interest there is in our bleak mosses and moors4 ,,some ,,common ,,weeds4 ,what is a weed8 ,we may best describe it1 perhaps1 as a plant growing in the wrong place4 ,a weed is not necessarily ugly1 or harmful1 or even useless4 ,many common weeds are very beautiful1 and some of them are very useful2 but if they are growing where we wish something else to grow1 we call them 8weeds10 and root them out1 or try to do so4 ,grass in our hayfields and meadows is a valuable plant2 grass in our flower-borders or turnip-fields is a weed4 ,so when we speak of weeds1 we do not mean any special class of plants1 but only those which force themselves upon our notice by springing up where we wish something else to grow4 ,many of our common weeds are very interesting plants to the botanist4 ,they have to fight for their lives2 and the way in which they scatter their seeds1 and the power of those seeds to lie dormant for years waiting a chance to grow1 are well worth study4 ,it is a war between the farmer and wild nature1 and when we look over our fields and pastures in spring and summer we see clearly enough that the farmer is not always the victor4 ,in many a cornfield the oat crop seems to be merely incidental1 while the hardier children of nature flourish in spite of its intrusion4 ,this is not as it ought to be4 ,even if they are otherwise harmless1 the weeds use up a large part of the plant food in the soil1 and they rob the young oats of the necessary light and air4 ,in this way weeds prove an expensive crop to the farmer4 ,it pays him to study their life-history so as to learn how they may be eradicated1 and to spend some labour in the task of doing so4 ,a common pest in the ,orkney cornfields is the 8runcho0 or 8runchic10 known elsewhere by the name of charlock or wild mustard4 ,its pale-yellow flowers overtop the growing oats1 and their unwelcome gleam makes some fields conspicuous for miles around4 ,the form of the flower shows that the charlock belongs to the same family as the turnip and the cabbage and the fragrant wallflower of our gardens4 ,the flower has four petals1 and the cross-like arrangement of its six stamens1 four long and two short1 has given them their name of ,crucifer1 or cross-bearers4 ,the seed-vessels1 like those of the turnip1 are in the form of a long1 narrow pod with a partition running down the middle4 ,the seeds are small and hard1 and they grow only in a freshly-stirred soil with plenty of light and air4 ,when a field is laid down in grass they make no sign of life1 but when it is ploughed for the next crop of oats they spring up once more1 and make it as gay as a flower-bed4 ,two kinds of this plant are found--the one1 charlock1 of a light yellow colour1 common in peaty and clayey ground2 and the other1 wild mustard1 of a deeper yellow1 found in sandy soil4 ,illustration3 ,some common weeds4 #a4 ,false oat grass4 #b4 ,chickweed4 #c4 ,ragwort4 #d4 ,prunella4 #e4 ,wild mustard 7,brassica ,sinapis74 #f4 ,charlock 7,raphanus ,raphanistrum74 #g4 ,corn spurrey4 #h4 ,sheep's sorrel4 #i4 ,common sorrel4 ,another showy weed is the yellow corn-marigold4 ,this handsome flower seems more dainty in its choice of soil1 and in some districts it is not common4 ,a glance at the open flower shows its kinship to the 8wee1 modest1 crimson-tipped0 daisy4 ,the so-called flower is not one1 but a host of tiny flowers or florets growing upon a broad green disc called the receptacle4 ,this compound or composite type of flower is found in a large number of common plants1 named on this account ,composit4 ,many of them are found in ,orkney1 and they are a very interesting as well as a numerous family4 ,one of the best known is the dandelion1 a more beautiful flower than many which we grow in our gardens1 and only its abundance prevents our admiring it4 ,if we examine the florets of the dandelion1 we see that each of them has a corolla forming a long yellow ribbon on the side farthest from the centre of the flower4 ,in the corn-marigold only the outer florets have this ribbon1 which forms a halo of rays round the central portion4 ,in the daisy these rays are white1 with the tips pink1 especially underneath4 ,a well-known feature of the dandelion is the white down which it produces when in seed--a wonderfully beautiful arrangement for spreading its seeds far and wide to find room to grow4 ,this is a common method of broadcast sowing among the ,composit family4 ,the thistles1 which form a well-known section of that family1 depend largely on their floating seeds in their struggle against the farmer4 ,some farmers seem to forget this fact1 for1 crowded in some corner of an old pasture1 or in serried ranks by roadside and ditchside1 we may see those armed foes allowed to blossom and send forth thousands of winged seeds to overrun the neighbouring fields1 and even the neighbouring farms4 ,a few hours' work with a scythe would prevent the mischief4 ,there might well be laws to prevent the careless spreading of weeds as there are to prevent the spreading of infectious disease among animals4 ,one of the ,composit family is a common weed in ,orkney pasture fields--the 8tirsac0 or ragwort4 ,this is a coarse1 vigorous plant1 with a tough stalk about two feet in height1 crowned with a spreading tuft of yellow daisy-shaped flowers4 ,in fields where this weed is allowed to grow and multiply1 it soon comes to occupy a large proportion of the whole area1 and this means a considerable loss in the grazing value of the pasture4 ,the large family of the grasses includes some of the plants most useful to the farmer4 ,all the grain crops1 such as wheat1 barley1 and oats1 are cultivated grasses1 as are also the plants which are used for pasture and for hay4 ,there are some wild grasses1 however1 which are very persistent and troublesome weeds4 ,some of these1 like couch grass1 spread more by creeping underground stems than by seeds4 ,a common grass in ,orkney is that known as 8swine-beads10 from the knotted form of its underground stems4 ,its common name is false oat grass4 ,it resembles small black oats1 but is much taller4 ,cartloads of its beaded stems may be gathered from some fields when being prepared for turnips1 and by so doing much trouble may be saved4 ,when a field is laid down in turnips or potatoes1 the weeds have a hard struggle for life4 ,those of slow growth are checked by the ploughing and grubbing and harrowing1 and later by the hoe and the scuffler4 ,yet there are a few which in a moist season spring up quickly and soon cover the drills4 ,the common spurrey1 with its narrow1 sticky leaves growing in whorls1 and its tiny white flowers which open only in the sun1 is perhaps the best known4 ,the chickweed is another common weed in such fields4 ,these1 however1 if kept down at first by the hoe1 are of too feeble growth to injure the crop among which they strive to find a living4 ,sheep's sorrel and common sorrel1 both commonly known as 8sooricks10 were more harmful half a century ago than they are at present4 ,cultivation and the rotation of crops have reduced their quantity1 but their enormous power of spreading can be witnessed in a poor1 thin1 or peaty soil1 where the crops1 especially grass1 are meagre4 ,there they spread1 and sometimes with such vigour that they push every other plant aside4 ,both kinds of sorrel are common4 ,the one with arrow-shaped leaves is called common sorrel2 that with spear-shaped leaves1 sheep's sorrel4 ,their leaves1 which have a very acid taste1 often turn reddish4 ,another common and pretty little flower is prunella or self-heal4 ,whorls of green bracts and violet flowers form a dense1 short spike4 ,it grows from four to six inches high1 and is to be met with on dry soils1 and although fairly common in oats1 flourishes best in second year's grass4 ,it is one of the large order of ,labiates1 a group which includes the dead-nettle and the hemp-nettle1 and when abundant it is a clear indication of the exhaustion of some ingredients of the soil--often lime4 ,when fields are brought to a high state of cultivation1 or are near enough the seashore to get an abundant supply of sand1 it almost disappears2 but when they are impoverished1 it soon returns4 ,these are only a few of the weeds which every farmer knows well4 ,they are worth study1 for it is only when we know how they grow and spread that we are able to prevent their increase4 ,the cultivation and manuring of the soil and the sowing of seeds are only one side of the farmer's work2 he has to remove the wild growth as well as to promote the growth of what he sows4 ,otherwise his fields will bear two crops at a time1 one of nature's sowing and one of his own1 and of these two the natural crop is likely to be the more flourishing4 ,illustration ,,home ,,life ,,on ,,the ,,rocks4 ,guillemots4 ,nothing is more interesting than to look down from the summit of some precipice on to a ledge at no great distance below1 which is quite crowded with guillemots4 ,roughly speaking1 the birds form two long rows1 but these rows are very irregular in depth and formation1 and swell here and there into little knots and clusters1 besides often merging into or becoming mixed with each other1 so that the idea of symmetry conveyed is of a very modified kind1 and may be sometimes broken down altogether4 ,in the first row a certain number of the birds sit close against and directly fronting the wall of the precipice1 into the angle of which with the ledge they often squeeze themselves4 ,several will be closely pressed together1 so that the head of one is often resting against the neck or shoulder of another1 which other will also be making a pillow of a third1 and so on4 ,others stand here and there behind the seated ones1 each being1 as a rule1 close to his or her partner4 ,there is another irregular row about the centre of the ledge1 and equally here it is to be remarked that the sitting birds have their beaks pointed towards the cliff1 whilst the standing ones are turned indifferently4 ,there are generally several birds on the edge of the parapet1 and at intervals one will come pressing to it through the crowd in order to fly down to the sea1 whilst from time to time others also fly up and alight on it1 often with sand-eels in their beaks4 ,on a ledge of perhaps a dozen paces in length there may be from sixty to eighty guillemots1 and as often as they are counted the number will be found to be approximately the same4 ,illustration3 ,guillemot4 ,most of the sitting birds are either incubating or have young ones under them1 which1 as long as they are little1 they seem to treat very much as though they were eggs4 ,much affection is shown between the paired birds4 ,one that is sitting either on her egg or her young one--for no difference in the attitude can be observed--will often be very much cosseted by the partner who stands close behind or beside her4 ,with the tip of his long1 pointed beak he1 as it were1 nibbles the feathers 7or1 perhaps1 scratches and tickles the skin between them7 of her head1 neck1 and throat2 whilst she1 with her eyes half closed1 and an expression as of submitting to an enjoyment--a 8,well1 ,i suppose ,i must0 look--bends her head backwards1 or screws it round sideways towards him1 occasionally nibbling with her bill also amidst the feathers of his throat1 or the thick white plumage of his breast4 ,presently she stands up1 revealing the small1 hairy-looking chick1 whose head has from time to time been visible just peeping out from under its mother's wing4 ,upon this the other bird bends its head down and cossets in the same way--but very gently1 and with the extreme tip of the bill--the little tender young one4 ,the mother does so too1 and then both birds1 standing side by side over the chick1 pay it divided attentions1 seeming as though they could not make enough either of their child or of each other4 ,it is a pretty picture1 and here is another one4 ,a bird--we will think her the female1 as she performs the most mother-like part--has just flown in with a fish--a sand-eel--in her bill4 ,she makes her way with it to the partner1 who rises and shifts the chick that he has been brooding over from himself to her4 ,this is done quite invisibly1 as far as the chick is concerned1 but you can see that it is being done4 ,the bird with the fish1 to whom the chick has been shifted1 now takes it in hand4 ,stooping forward her body1 and drooping down her wings1 so as to make a kind of little tent or awning of them1 she sinks her bill with the fish in it towards the rock and then raises it again1 and does this several times before either letting the fish drop or placing it in the chick's bill--for which it is ,i cannot quite see4 ,it is only now that the chick becomes visible1 its back turned to the bird standing over it1 and its bill and throat moving as though swallowing something down4 ,then the bird that has fed it shifts it again to the other1 who receives it with equal care1 and bending down over it1 appears--for it is now invisible--to help or assist it in some way4 ,it would be no wonder if the chick had wanted assistance1 for the fish was a very big one for so small a thing1 and it would seem as if he swallowed it bodily4 ,after this the chick is again treated as an egg by the bird that has before had charge of him--that is to say1 he is sat upon1 apparently1 just as though he were to be incubated4 ,on account of the closeness with which the chick is guarded by the parent birds1 and the way in which they both stand over it1 it is difficult to make out exactly how it is fed2 but ,i think the fish is either dropped at once on the rock1 or dangled a little for it to seize hold of4 ,it is in the bringing up and looking after of the chick that one begins to see the meaning of the sitting guillemots being always turned towards the cliff1 for from the moment that the egg is hatched one or other of the parent birds interposes between the chick and the edge of the parapet4 ,of course ,i cannot say that the rule is universal1 but ,i never saw a guillemot incubating with its face turned towards the sea1 nor did ,i ever see a chick on the seaward side of the parent bird who was with it4 ,i observed that the chick--even when1 as ,i judged by its tininess1 it had only been quite recently hatched--was as alert and as well able to move about as a young chicken or partridge2 but whilst possessing all the power1 it appeared to have little will to do so4 ,its lethargy--as shown by the way in which1 even when a good deal older1 it would sit for hours without moving from under the mother--struck me as excessive2 and it would certainly seem that on a bare1 narrow ledge1 to fall from which would be certain death1 chicks of a lethargic disposition would have an advantage over others who were fonder of running about4 ,the young guillemot is fed with fish which are brought from the sea in the parent's bill1 and not--as in the case of gulls--disgorged for them after having been first swallowed4 ,it is1 however1 a curious fact that the fish when thus brought in are1 sometimes at any rate1 headless4 ,the reason of this ,i do not know1 but with the aid of glasses ,i have made quite certain of it1 and each time it appeared as though the head had been cleanly cut off4 ,moreover1 on alighting on the ledge the bird always has the fish 7a sand-eel1 whenever ,i saw it7 held lengthways in the beak1 with the tail drooping out to one side of it1 and the head part more or less within the throat--a position which seems to suggest that it may have been swallowed or partially swallowed--whereas puffins and razor-bills carry the fish they catch crosswise1 with head and tail depending on either side4 ,illustration ,i have once or twice thought that ,i saw a bird which just before had no fish in its bill all at once carrying one4 ,but ,i may well have been mistaken2 and it does not seem at all likely that the birds should usually carry their fish1 and thus subject themselves to persecution1 if they could disgorge it without inconvenience4 ,with regard to the occasional absence of the head1 perhaps this is sometimes cut off in catching the fish4 ,seals4 ,quite near to where ,i watch the guillemots there is a little iron-bound creek or cove1 walled by precipice1 guarded by mighty 8stacks10 and divided for some way into two by a long rocky peninsula running out from the shore4 ,on the rocks in one of these alcoves were lying eight seals1 which were afterwards joined by another1 making nine1 whilst in the adjoining one were four--also1 as it happened1 joined by another1 as ,i watched--making fourteen in all3 such a sight as ,i had never seen before4 ,illustration3 ,common seal4 ,i watched these seals of mine on this1 my first meeting with them1 for a considerable time from the top of the cliffs--the glasses giving me a splendid view--and soon knew more about them than ,i had done before1 and got rid of some popular errors4 ,for instance1 ,i had always imagined that seals had one set attitude for lying on the rocks--namely1 flat on their bellies--a delusion which every picture of them in this connection had helped to foster4 ,imagine my surprise and delight when it burst upon me that only some three or four were in this attitude1 and that even these did not retain it for long4 ,no2 instead of being in this state of uninteresting orthodoxy1 they lay in the most delightful free-thinking poses1 on their sides1 showing their fine1 portly1 columnar bellies in varying degrees and proportions2 whilst one utter infidel was right and full upon his broad back1 yet looked like the carved image of some old ,crusader on the lid of his stone sarcophagus4 ,every now and then they would give themselves a hitch1 and bring their heads up1 showing their fine round foreheads and large mild eyes2 a very human--mildly human--and extremely intelligent appearance they had1 looking down upon them from above4 ,again1 they had the oddest or oddest-appearing actions1 especially that of pressing their two hind feet or flippers together1 with all their five-webbed toes spread out in a fan1 with an energy and in a manner which suggested the fervent clasping of hands4 ,then they would scratch themselves with their fore feet lazily and sedately1 raising their heads the while1 looking extremely happy1 having sometimes even a beatific expression4 ,and then again they would curl themselves a little and roll more over1 seeming to expatiate and almost lose themselves in large1 luxurious ease--more variety and expression about them lying thus dozing than one will see in many animals awake and active4 ,even in this little time ,i learnt that they were animals of a finely touched spirit1 extremely playful1 with a grand sense of humour1 and filled 8from the crown to the toe1 top-full0 of happiness4 ,thus one that came swimming up the little quiet bay1 in quest of a rock to lie upon1 seemed to delight in pretending to find first one and then another too steep and difficult to get up on 7for obviously they were not71 and would fling himself from off them in a sort of little sham disappointment1 gambolling and rolling about1 twisting himself up with seaweed1 and generally having a most lively1 solitary romp4 ,a piece of bleached spar1 some four or five feet long1 happened--and ,i am glad that it happened--to be floating in the water at quite the other side of the creek and1 espying it1 this delightful animal swam over to it1 and began to play with it as a kitten might with a reel of cotton or a ball of worsted4 ,more frolicsome1 kitten-hearted1 and withal intelligent play ,i never saw4 ,he passed just underneath it1 and1 coming up on the opposite side1 rolled over upon it1 cuffed it with one fore foot1 again with the other1 flipped it then with his footy tail as he dived away1 and returning1 in a fresh burst of rompiness1 waltzed round and round with it1 embracing it1 one might almost say4 ,at last1 going off1 he swam to a much steeper rock than any he had made-believe to find so difficult1 and1 scrambling up it with uncouth ease1 went quietly to sleep in the best possible humour4 ,what intelligence all this shows6 ,much more1 ,i think1 than the sporting of two animals together4 ,this seal was alone1 saw the floating spar at a distance1 and swam to it with the evident intention of amusing himself in this manner4 ,later1 another seal played with this same spar in much the same way2 yet both of them seemed to be quite full-grown animals4 ,then ,i saw something which looked like a spirit of real humour1 as well as fun4 ,three seals were lying on a slab of rock together1 and one of them1 raising himself half up1 began to scratch the one next him with his fore foot4 ,the scratched seal--a lady1 ,i believe--took it in the most funny manner1 a sort of serio-comic remonstrance1 shown in action and expression3 8,now do leave off1 really4 ,come now1 do leave me alone0--and when this had reached a climax the funny fellow left off and lay still again2 but as soon as all was quiet1 he heaved up and began to scratch her again4 ,this he did--and she did the other--three times1 at the least1 and if not to have a little fun with her ,i can hardly see why4 ,shags4 ,now ,i have found a nest with the bird on it1 to see and watch4 ,it was on a ledge1 and just within the mouth of one of those long1 narrowing1 throat-like caverns into and out of which the sea1 with all sorts of strange1 sullen noises1 licks like a tongue4 ,the bird1 who had seen me1 continued for a long time afterwards to crane about its long neck from side to side or up and down over the nest1 in doing which it had a very demoniac appearance1 suggesting some evil being in its dark abode4 ,illustration3 ,shag4 ,as it was impossible for me to watch it without my head being visible over the edge of the rock ,i was on1 ,i collected a number of loose flat stones that lay on the turf above1 and1 at the cost of a good deal of time and labour1 made a kind of wall or sconce with loopholes in it1 through which ,i could look and yet be invisible4 ,presently the bird's mate came flying into the cavern1 and wheeling up as it entered1 alighted on a sloping slab of the rock just opposite to the nest4 ,for a little both birds uttered low1 deep1 croaking notes in weird unison with the surroundings and the sad sea-dirges1 after which they were silent for a considerable time1 the one standing and the other sitting on the nest vis--vis to each other4 ,at length the former1 which ,i have no doubt was the male1 hopped across the slight space dividing them on to the nest1 which was a huge mass of seaweed4 ,there were now some more deep sounds1 and then1 bending over the female bird1 the male caressed her by passing the hooked tip of his bill through the feathers of her head and neck1 which she held low down the better to permit of this4 ,the whole scene was a striking picture of affection between those dark1 wild birds in their lonely wave-made home4 ,the male bird now flies out to sea again1 and after a time returns carrying a long piece of brown seaweed in his bill4 ,this he delivers to the female1 who takes it from him and deposits it on the heap1 as she sits4 ,meanwhile the male flies off again1 and again returns with more seaweed1 which he delivers as before2 and this he does eight times in the space of one hour and forty minutes1 diving each time for the seaweed with the true cormorant leap4 ,sometimes the sitting bird1 when she takes the seaweed from her mate1 merely lets it drop on the heap1 but at others she places and manipulates it with some care4 ,all takes place in silence for the most part1 but on some of the visits the heads are thrown up1 and there are sounds--hoarse and deeply guttural--as of gratulation between the two4 ,the nest of the shag is continually added to by the male1 not only while the eggs are in process of incubation1 but after they are hatched1 and when the young are being brought up4 ,in a sense1 therefore1 it may be said to be never finished1 though for all practical purposes it is so before the female bird begins to sit4 ,that up to this period the female as well as the male bird takes part in the building of the nest ,i cannot but think1 but from the time of my arrival on the island ,i never saw the two either diving for or carrying seaweed together4 ,once ,i saw a pair of birds together high up on the cliffs1 where some tufts of grass grew in the niches4 ,one of these birds only pulled out some of the grass1 and flew away with it1 accompanied by the other4 ,it is not only seaweed that is used by these birds in the construction of the nest4 ,in many that ,i saw grass alone was visible1 though ,i have no doubt seaweed was underneath it2 and one in particular had quite an ornamental appearance1 from being covered all over with some land plant having a number of small blue flowers2 and this ,i have observed in other nests1 though not to the same extent4 ,i think it was on this same nest that ,i noticed the picked and partially bleached skeleton--with the head and wings still feathered--of a puffin4 ,it had1 to be sure1 a sorry appearance to the human--at least to the civilized human--eye1 but if it had not been brought there for the sake of ornament1 ,i can think of no other reason2 and brought there or at least placed upon the nest by the bird it must almost certainly have been4 ,the brilliant beak and saliently-marked head of the puffin must be here remembered4 ,again1 fair-sized pieces of wood or spar1 cast up by the sea and whitened by it1 are often to be seen stuck amongst the seaweed1 and on one occasion ,i saw a bird fly with one of these to its nest and place it upon it4 ,in all this1 as it seems to me1 the beginnings of a tendency to ornament the nest are clearly exhibited4 ,both the sexes share in the duty and pleasure of incubation1 and 7as in some other species7 to see them relieve each other on the nest is to see one of the prettiest things in bird life4 ,the bird that you have been watching has sat patiently the whole morning1 and once or twice1 as it rose in the nest and shifted itself round into another position on the eggs1 you have seen the gleam of them as they lay there 8as white as ocean foam in the moon40 ,at last1 when it is well on in the afternoon1 the partner bird flies up and stands for some minutes preening itself2 while the one on the nest1 who is turned away1 throws back the head towards it1 and opens and shuts the bill somewhat widely1 as in greeting1 several times4 ,the new-comer then jumps and waddles to the farther side of the nest1 so as to front the sitting bird1 and sinking down against it with a manner and action full both of affection and a sense of duty1 this one is half pushed1 half persuaded to leave1 finally doing so with the accustomed grotesque hop4 ,it has all been done nearly in silence1 only a few low1 guttural notes having passed between the birds whilst they were close together4 ,just in the same way the birds relieve each other after the eggs have been hatched1 and when the young are being fed and attended to4 ,a shag is sitting on her nest with the young ones1 whilst the male stands on a higher ledge of the rock a yard or so away4 ,he now jumps down and stands for a moment with head somewhat erected and beak slightly open4 ,then he makes the great pompous hop which ,i have described before1 coming down right in front of the female1 who raises her head towards him1 and opens and closes the mandibles several times in the approved manner4 ,the two birds then nibble1 as it were1 the feathers of each other's necks with the ends of their bills1 and the male takes up a little of the grass of the nest1 seeming to toy with it4 ,he then very softly and persuadingly pushes himself against the sitting bird1 seeming to say1 8,it's my turn now10 and thus gets her to rise1 when both stand together on the nest over the little ones4 ,the male then again takes up a little of the grass of the nest1 which he passes towards the female1 who also takes it1 and they toy with it a little together before allowing it to drop4 ,the insinuating process now continues1 the male in the softest and gentlest manner pushing the female away1 and then sinking down into her place1 where he now sits1 whilst she stands beside him on the ledge4 ,as soon as the relieving bird has settled itself amidst the young1 and whilst the other one is still there--not yet having flown off to sea--it begins to feed them4 ,their heads--very small1 and with beaks not seeming to be much longer in proportion to their size than those of young ducks--are seen moving feebly about1 pointing upwards1 but with very little precision4 ,very gently1 and seeming to seize the right opportunity1 the parent bird takes first one head and then another in the basal part1 or gape1 of his mandibles1 turning his own head on one side in order to do so1 so that the rest of the long bill projects sideways beyond the chick's head without touching it4 ,in this connection1 and while the chick's head is quite visible1 little1 if any1 more than the beak being within the gape of the parent bird1 the latter bends the head down and makes that particular action as of straining so as to bring something up which one is familiar with in pigeons4 ,this process is gone through several times before the bird standing on the ledge flies away1 to return again in a quarter of an hour with a piece of seaweed1 which is laid on the nest4 ,as the chicks become older they thrust the head and bill farther and farther down the throat of the parent bird1 and at last to an astonishing extent4 ,always1 however1 it appeared to me that the parent bird brought up the food into the chicks' bills in some state of preparation1 and was not a mere passive bag from which the latter pulled fish in a whole state4 ,there were several nests all in unobstructed view1 and so excellent were my glasses that1 practically1 ,i saw the whole process as though it had been taking place on a table in front of me4 ,the chicks1 on withdrawing their heads from the parental throat1 would often slightly open and close the mandibles as though still tasting something1 in a manner which one may describe as smacking the bill2 but on no occasion did ,i observe anything projecting from the bill when this was withdrawn1 as one would expect sometimes to be the case if unmodified fish were pulled up4 ,always1 too1 the actions of the parent bird suggested that particular process which is known as regurgitation1 and which may be observed with pigeons1 and also with the night-jar4 ,young shags are at first naked and black1 also blind1 as ,i was able to detect through the glasses4 ,afterwards the body becomes covered with a dusky gray down1 and then every day they struggle more and more into the likeness of their parents4 ,they soon begin to imitate the grown-up postures1 and it is a pretty thing to see mother and young one sitting together with their heads held stately upright1 or the little woolly chick standing up in the nest and hanging out its thin little featherless wings1 just as mother is doing1 or just as it has seen her do4 ,at other times the chicks lie sprawling together either flat or on their sides4 ,they are good tempered and playful1 seize hold playfully of each other's bills1 and will often bite or play with the feathers of their parent's tail4 ,in fact1 they are a good deal like puppies1 and the heart goes out both to them and to their loving1 careful1 assiduous mother and father4 ,when both birds are at home1 the one that stands on the rock1 by or near the nest1 is ready to guard it from all intrusion4 ,should another bird fly on to the rock and alight1 in his opinion1 too near it1 he immediately advances towards him1 shaking his wings1 and uttering a low grunting note which is full of intention4 ,finding itself in a false position1 the intruding bird flies off2 but it sometimes happens that when two nests are not far apart1 the sentinels belonging to each are in too close a proximity and begin to cast jealous glances upon one another4 ,in such a case neither bird can retreat without some loss of dignity1 and1 as a result1 there is a fight4 ,i have witnessed a drama of this nature4 ,the two locked their beaks together1 and the one which seemed to be the stronger endeavoured with all his might to pull the other towards him1 which the weaker bird1 on his part1 resisted as desperately1 using his wings both as opposing props and to push back with4 ,this lasted for some while1 but the pulling bird was unable to drag the other up the steeply-sloping rock1 and finally lost his hold4 ,instead of trying to regain it1 he turned and shuffled excitedly to the nest2 and when he reached it1 the bird sitting there stretched out her neck towards him1 and opened and shut her beak several times in quick succession4 ,it was as if he had said to her1 8,i hope you observed my prowess4 ,was it well done80 and she had replied1 8,i should think ,i did observe it4 ,it was indeed well done40 ,on the worsted bird's ascending the rock to get to his nest1 the victorious one ran1 or rather waddled1 at him1 putting him to a short flight up it4 ,this bird was also cordially received by his own partner1 who threw up her head and opened her bill at him in the same way1 as though sympathizing1 and saying1 8,don't mind him2 he's rude40 ,in such affairs1 either bird is safe as soon as he gets within close distance of his own nest2 for it would be against all precedent1 and something monstrous1 that he should be followed beyond a charmed line drawn around it4 ,,edmund ,,selous4 7,from 8,bird ,watching0 and 8,the ,bird-,watcher in the ,shetlands40 ,j4 ,m4 ,dent and ,co4 ,by permission47 ,,the ,,birds ,,of ,,sule ,,skerry4 ,sule ,skerry is a tiny1 barren1 surf-bleached islet1 lying far out in the open ocean1 thirty-two miles west from ,hoy ,head1 about the same distance from ,cape ,wrath1 and thirty miles from the nearest land1 ,farrid ,head1 in ,sutherlandshire4 ,the ,skerry1 roughly rhomboidal in outline1 is about half a mile in length and a quarter of a mile in its greatest width1 and attains a height of only forty-five feet in its central part4 ,all round the shore is a belt of bare1 jagged rock1 where the wash of the great ,atlantic waves prevents any vegetation from finding a foothold1 and of the thirty-five acres or so which form the entire area of the island only some twelve are covered with a mossy1 vegetable soil4 ,lying1 as it does1 right in the track of trading vessels1 this low islet1 together with the ,stack1 which rises to a height of more than a hundred feet some four and a half miles to the south-westward1 formed a death-trap to many a ship1 which was1 no doubt1 afterwards merely reported as 8missing10 and its shores when visited were rarely found without some stranded wreckage to tell of the unrecorded tragedies of the winter seas4 ,it was not till the year #ahib that steps were taken to mark this dangerous rock1 but three years later saw the completion of ,sule ,skerry ,lighthouse1 a massive tower of a hundred feet in height1 with a powerful light visible for a distance of eighteen miles4 ,sule ,skerry is no longer either a dangerous or a lonely islet when compared with its former state4 ,the three lightkeepers who are always on duty1 together with their goats1 poultry1 and rabbits1 give quite an inhabited air to the place--probably too much so for the comfort of the original occupants1 the flocks of birds which find on it either a permanent home or a temporary dwelling-place4 ,sule ,skerry is an ideal place for observation of the birds which frequent our islands1 both from the immense numbers of them which nest there1 and from the absence of high cliffs or inaccessible rocks4 ,luckily for us1 one of the lightkeepers formerly on this station1 ,mr4 ,tomison1 a native of ,orkney1 was a man unusually well qualified for such observation1 and he has recorded much that is of interest regarding the bird life of the ,skerry4 ,from one of his papers on this subject we quote the following interesting pages4 ,illustration3 ,sule ,skerry ,lighthouse4 ,the ,residenters4 ,the birds of ,sule ,skerry may be divided into three classes--the residenters1 the regular visitors1 and the occasional visitors4 ,the class of residenters is represented by the great black-backed gull1 the herring gull1 the shag or green cormorant1 and the meadow pipit4 ,illustration3 ,great black-backed gull4 ,the great black-backed gull is one of the handsomest birds of the gull family1 but owing to its destructive propensities amongst small birds1 rabbits1 and occasionally young lambs1 a continual warfare has been waged against it for years by farmers and gamekeepers1 until now it is almost entirely banished to the outlying parts of the country4 ,before the lighthouse was erected on ,sule ,skerry1 large numbers of this species frequented the island2 but the lightkeepers found them such arrant thieves that they reduced their numbers considerably4 ,there are still about twenty pairs resident on the island all the year round1 and they seem to find plenty of food either on land or at sea4 ,their breeding-time is in ,may1 and sometimes as late as ,june4 ,when the young are hatched the parents are continually on the lookout for food1 and ,i have often seen them swoop down and seize young rabbits4 ,frequently they make desperate efforts to capture the old rabbits1 but never successfully4 ,they lay three eggs in a nest composed of withered grass1 and the process of incubation lasts about four weeks4 ,illustration3 ,herring gull4 ,a small colony of herring gulls stays on the island all the year round1 but in summer vast flocks of them are in evidence when the herrings are on the coast4 ,only the residents remain to breed1 and about a dozen pairs annually rear their young and spend their whole time in the vicinity4 ,some of the young must emigrate to a more genial climate1 for although rarely disturbed their numbers are not increasing4 ,they lay three eggs early in ,may1 and sit about four weeks4 ,when hatched1 the young immediately leave the nest1 and are so like the surrounding rocks in colour that when they lie close it is almost impossible to discover them4 ,when hunting for food for their offspring1 these gulls are almost as great a pest as their cousins1 the great black-backed1 and are more audacious thieves4 ,the most numerous of the residenters are the scarfs4 ,in summer and winter they are always on the island1 and apparently there is an abundant supply of suitable food in the vicinity1 for they never go far away4 ,during winter they congregate on the rocks in large flocks or colonies1 and they have become so accustomed to man's presence that they fly only when one approaches within a few yards of them4 ,in very stormy weather they seek refuge in some sheltered spot1 far enough away from the coast-line to be safe from the encroaching waves1 and only when frightened by any one approaching too near do they choose what is1 in their opinion1 the lesser of two evils1 and seek safety in flight4 ,with the advent of spring they1 like all other birds1 turn their thoughts to love4 ,their comparatively homely winter dress gradually changes to one more appropriate to this sentiment and more in harmony with the imposing surroundings4 ,early in the year their plumage assumes a greener tint1 and the graceful tuft or crest on the top of the head becomes more and more prominent4 ,this crest practically disappears about the end of ,june1 and seems to be a decoration in both sexes only during the nuptial season4 ,usually they manage to get through with their love-making and selecting of partners by the middle of ,march1 after which the operations of nest-building are undertaken4 ,in ,orkney we associate a scarf's nest with some almost inaccessible cliff1 but such is not the case on ,sule ,skerry1 for the simple reason that there are no cliffs4 ,the nests are built all over the island1 but principally near the coast-line2 and the sociableness of the bird's disposition shows itself in this fact1 that they tend to crowd their nests together in certain selected spots1 to which they return year after year4 ,one place in particular1 a patch of rough1 rocky ground from forty to fifty yards square1 ,i have named the scarf colony on account of its numerous population during the breeding season4 ,here in #ahih ,i counted fifty-six nests4 ,as to the materials used for nest-building1 these are principally seaweed and grass1 but the scarf is not very particular as to details1 and uses anything that will suit the purpose4 ,i have found pieces of ordinary rope1 even wire rope1 and small pieces of wood used1 and a very common foundation is the skeleton of a rabbit which has died during the winter4 ,during building operations ,i have observed that one bird builds and the other brings the materials4 ,after all has been completed1 three1 four1 and sometimes five eggs are laid4 ,three is the most common number2 five is rare4 ,during incubation the one bird relieves the other periodically4 ,it is a common sight to see one come in from the sea1 sit down at the edge of the nest1 and hold a long palaver with its mate4 ,the sitting bird then gets up and flies out to sea1 the other taking its place4 ,when the young come out of the egg they are entirely naked1 of a dark sooty colour1 and particularly ugly4 ,towards the end of the first week of their existence a coating of down begins to grow1 followed by feathers in about three weeks4 ,as near as ,i can judge from observation1 the bird is fully fledged in five weeks from the time of hatching4 ,illustration3 ,meadow-pipit4 ,the only other residenter is the meadow-pipit1 tit-lark1 or moss-cheeper4 ,it is the only small bird that remains on the island all the year round4 ,it nests generally in ,may1 and lays five or six eggs4 ,it is said that two broods are raised in the season1 but ,i have never noticed that here4 ,towards the end of summer they are to be seen in considerable numbers1 but in ,september and ,october the island is visited by kestrels1 who soon thin them down4 ,the ,regular ,visitors4 ,the regular visitors are puffin1 razor-bill1 common guillemot1 black guillemot1 oyster-catcher1 tern1 eider duck1 kittiwake1 stormy petrel1 curlew1 snipe1 turnstone1 and sandpiper4 ,in this list ,i have advisedly placed first the puffin1 or tammynorie1 or bottlenose1 or coulterneb1 or pope1 or sea-parrot1 for it is a well-known and well-named bird4 ,in point of interest it undoubtedly takes the first place among all our feathered friends4 ,its remarkable appearance1 its activity1 its assertive disposition1 and the regularity of its habits1 compel the attention of the most careless observer4 ,illustration3 ,puffin4 ,at one time puffins were much in demand for food4 ,an old history of the ,scilly ,islands tells us that in #acde the rent of these islands was three hundred puffins4 ,in #ahdh1 on account of the bird having got scarcer1 and consequently more valuable1 the rent was fifty puffins4 ,we are also led to understand that the young birds1 being plump and tender1 were more highly esteemed than their more elderly and tougher relatives4 ,the most remarkable feature of this curious bird is its beak1 the peculiarities of which are its enormous size compared with the size of the body1 and its brilliant colours--blue1 yellow1 and red4 ,for a long time it was a puzzle that occasional dead specimens found washed ashore in winter had a beak very much smaller and destitute of bright colours4 ,it has now been ascertained that the outer sheath is moulted annually1 being shed on the approach of winter and replaced at the return of the breeding season4 ,to give any idea of their numbers on ,sule ,skerry is an almost impossible task1 for when they are on the island they are hardly ever at rest4 ,the air is black with them1 the ground is covered with them1 every hole is tenanted by them1 the sea is covered with them4 ,they are here1 there1 and everywhere4 ,they first make their appearance early in ,april1 and spend from eight to twelve days at sea before landing1 coming close in round the island in the forenoon and disappearing at night4 ,before landing they fly in clouds round the place1 and after having made a survey to see that all is right1 they begin to drop in hundreds1 till in half an hour every stone and rock is covered4 ,they do not waste time1 but start at once to clear out old holes and make new ones1 and for burrowing they can easily put a rabbit in the shade4 ,those who are not engaged in digging improve the shining hour by fighting1 and for pluck and determination they are hard to beat4 ,they are so intent on their work that ,i have often seized the combatants1 and even then they were unwilling to let go their hold of each other2 but when they do1 it is advisable for the person interfering to let go also1 if he would avoid a rather unpleasant handshake4 ,after spending a few hours on the island they all disappear1 and do not usually land again for two days2 but when they do come back the second time there is no ceremony about their landing4 ,they come in straggling flocks from all points of the compass1 and resume their digging and fighting4 ,they continue in this manner1 never remaining ashore all night till the first week of ,may4 ,they spend very little time on the construction of their nests1 which consist merely of a few straws4 ,the greater number burrow in the dry1 peaty soil1 and their holes will average at least three feet underground2 but there are also an immense number that lay amongst loose rocks and stones on the north side of the island4 ,the eggs laid there are always clean and white until the young bird is hatched2 but those laid underground in a day or two become as brown as the soil1 and seem more like a lump of peat than an egg4 ,during the time of incubation1 which lasts a month1 those not engaged in hatching spend their time in fishing and resting on the rocks1 and as a pastime indulge in friendly sparring matches4 ,one easily knows when the young are hatched by seeing the old birds coming in from sea with herring fry or small sand-eels1 which are carried transversely in their bills1 from six to ten at a time4 ,the sole work of the parent birds for the next three or four weeks is fishing and carrying home their takes to the young4 ,very little time is given to nursing4 ,they remain in the hole just long enough to get rid of their burden1 and then go to sea again4 ,as the young ones grow1 the size of the fish brought home increases4 ,at first it is small sand-eels from one and a half to two inches long1 but at the end of a fortnight small herrings and moderate-sized sand-eels are the usual feeding4 ,i noticed an old bird fly into a hole one day with a bigger fish than usual1 and1 to see what it was1 ,i put in my hand and pulled out both birds4 ,the tail of the fish was just disappearing down the young one's throat1 but ,i made him disgorge his prey1 and found it to be a sand-eel eight inches long4 ,how that small bird could find room for such a dinner was really wonderful4 ,at first the young are covered with a thick coating of down1 and probably their appearance at this stage has given rise to the name 8puffin10 meaning a 8little puff40 ,in a fortnight the white feathers on the breast begin to show1 and the birds are fully fledged in four weeks1 when they at once take to the water4 ,as soon as they go afloat1 young and old leave the place1 and about the middle of ,july one can easily see that their numbers are decreasing1 the end of ,august usually seeing the last of them4 ,illustration3 ,razor-bill4 ,there is a considerable colony of razor-bills on the island4 ,their time of arrival is about the same as that of the puffin1 but they make no commotion when they come4 ,they seem to slip ashore1 and always keep near the coast-line1 ready to fly to sea when any one approaches4 ,they begin laying towards the end of ,may1 and lay one egg on the bare rock1 usually under a stone1 but in some cases on an exposed ledge4 ,during incubation one bird relieves the other1 for if the egg were left exposed and unprotected the black-backed gull would very soon appropriate it4 ,some authorities say that the male bird brings food to its mate2 but ,i have never observed this1 though ,i have watched carefully to see if such were the case ,the young remain in the nest1 or1 to speak more correctly1 on the rock1 for about two weeks if not disturbed1 and ,i have seen a young one remain ashore until covered with feathers1 which would mean about four weeks from the time of hatching4 ,they all1 young and old1 leave early in ,august4 ,i am sorry to say they are becoming scarcer every year1 chiefly on account of their shyness and fear of man4 ,the common guillemots are scarce4 ,their great haunt in this vicinity is the ,stack4 ,there they are to be seen in myriads on the perpendicular side of the rock facing the west4 ,only two or three pairs take up their abode on the island2 in fact their numbers scarcely entitle them to be called ,sule ,skerry birds4 ,the few young ones ,i have seen are carried to the water as soon as they are hatched--at least they disappear the same day4 ,black guillemots or tysties are plentiful4 ,their time of arrival is about the middle of ,march1 but they are rarely seen ashore before the end of ,april4 ,their nests are to be found in out-of-the-way crevices or under stones1 and are not easily discovered on account of the extraordinary watchfulness of the birds and their care not to be caught on or near their nests4 ,they lay two eggs1 and the young are fully feathered before going afloat4 ,they remain about the island till the end of ,september4 ,illustration3 ,oyster-catcher4 ,the first of all the visitors to arrive are the oyster-catchers4 ,they first put in an appearance about the end of ,february1 when their well-known cry denotes that the long1 dreary winter is over4 ,they spend their time till the end of ,march chiefly feeding along the coast-line2 but after that time they pair1 and are seen all over the island4 ,about the end of ,may they lay three eggs in a nest composed of a few small stones2 and when the young are hatched the noise of the old birds is perfectly deafening on the approach of an intruder1 and even when no one is annoying them the clamour they make almost amounts to a nuisance4 ,on calm1 quiet nights it is hardly possible to sleep for them1 and one feels inclined to get out of bed and shoot them down wholesale4 ,the young leave the nest as soon as hatched1 and are rarely seen1 for on hearing the warning cry of the parent bird they at once hide among the long grass or under stones1 and on one occasion ,i found a pair some distance underground in a rabbit's hole4 ,they all leave the island during the first half of ,september4 ,next to the puffins in numbers are the terns--the ,arctic terns4 ,they are also like the puffins in the regularity of their arrival at the island4 ,when first seen they are flying high up1 and they continue doing so for a day or two1 only resting at night4 ,there are several varieties of terns scattered all over the ,british ,isles1 but in the north the most numerous are the ,arctic and the common tern4 ,the latter rarely visits the island4 ,illustration3 ,arctic tern4 ,there are certain localities where the terns take up their abode1 and they stick closely to the same ground year after year1 never by any chance making a nest twenty yards outside their usual breeding ground4 ,they begin to lay in the first week of ,june1 but ,i have found eggs on the last day of ,may4 ,they lay two eggs1 and sometimes three4 ,when the young are hatched the parents are kept busy supplying them with food1 which consists chiefly of sand-eels and herring fry4 ,their method of fishing is to hover over the water1 not unlike the way a hawk hovers when watching its prey1 and when they see a fish to make a dart on it1 rarely if ever failing to make a haul4 ,they also prey on worms when it is too stormy for fishing at sea4 ,on a wet evening1 when the worms are having an outing1 the terns are to be seen in hundreds all over the island1 hovering about six feet above the ground1 every now and again making a dart down1 and1 when successful1 flying home with their catch to the young4 ,no time is lost1 for the old bird seldom alights when handing over the worm4 ,it swoops down to where the young ones are standing with outstretched necks and bills gaping1 screaming out to let their whereabouts be known1 and then flies off again for more4 ,when the young are able to fly they accompany their parents over the island1 and occasionally do a little hunting on their own account4 ,about the first of ,august the young are fully fledged4 ,young and old then assemble from all parts of the island to a piece of bare rocky ground on the north-east corner1 which they make their headquarters for about ten days1 flying out to sea for food1 but always returning at night4 ,about the fifteenth of ,august they all disappear1 and are seen no more till the following ,may4 ,illustration3 ,stormy petrel4 ,the island is the headquarters of a large colony of stormy petrels4 ,it is not an easy matter to fix the exact date of their arrival1 for they are never seen during the day1 and only come out of their holes at night4 ,they are first seen in the latter end of ,june1 when on a fine clear night one can see them flitting about close to the ground1 very like swallows in their movements4 ,they begin to lay in ,july1 and their nests are to be found under stones and in rabbits' holes4 ,almost the only way to find them is to listen for their peculiar cry1 which they keep up at intervals the whole night through4 ,if captured during the day1 they seem quite dazed when released1 and at once fly into some dark place4 ,the date of their departure1 like that of their arrival1 is not easily fixed1 but ,i think it is during ,september4 ,young birds have been got on the lantern at night as late as the end of ,september1 but never in ,october4 ,illustration3 ,eider duck 7male74 ,the eider duck is a regular visitor1 and a considerable flock make ,sule ,skerry their headquarters for about eight months in the year4 ,they are first seen in ,march fishing off the island1 but they very rarely land before the end of ,april4 ,in ,may they may be seen ashore every day1 but always near the water1 ready to pop in if alarmed4 ,they are very shy and difficult to approach4 ,in ,june the duck and the drake both come ashore and select a place for their nest1 and that is the only occasion on which the drake takes a part in the hatching process4 ,so far as my observation goes1 ,i have never seen him approach his mate during the month of incubation4 ,the nest is built sometimes on a bare rock1 but more commonly among grass1 and consists of coarse grass for a foundation1 the famous down being added only as the eggs are laid4 ,five or six is the common number found in one nest4 ,from the time it begins to sit until incubation is completed1 the duck never leaves the nest unless disturbed1 and will only fly to sea if driven off4 ,if approached quietly1 it will allow one to stroke it1 and does not seem afraid4 ,there are always one or two nests close to the house1 and though ,i have watched them closely at all hours1 night and day1 ,i have never seen the birds go away for food1 nor have ,i seen their undutiful spouses bring any to them4 ,i will not venture to say that the duck lives a month without sustenance1 but ,i am strongly inclined to that belief4 ,when frightened away1 it goes only a short distance1 and returns immediately as soon as the cause of its fright has been removed4 ,illustration3 ,eider duck on nest4 ,the whole inside of the nest is lined with down1 which seems to be intended only for the purpose of keeping the eggs warm4 ,it is certainly not intended to form a cosy nursery for the young1 as they leave for the sea a few hours after birth and do not return4 ,unless the down is removed before the young are hatched it is useless1 for it gets mixed up with the egg-shells1 which are always broken into very small pieces4 ,after leaving the nest the young birds rarely come ashore again1 but remain afloat1 feeding along the edge of the rocks on mussels and crustaceans4 ,the old birds disappear in ,october1 but some young ones remain till the end of ,november4 ,illustration3 ,kittiwake4 ,few kittiwake gulls visit the island1 but these come regularly1 and take up their abode on the same ground year after year4 ,they arrive in ,april1 and about the first of ,may begin nest-building1 a work which keeps them employed for about three weeks4 ,they begin laying about the end of ,may1 and lay three eggs4 ,the young are fully grown before leaving the nest1 and are fed by both the parent birds4 ,they all leave the island about the end of ,august1 and not even a straggler is seen till the following spring4 ,illustration3 ,curlew or whaup4 ,i have now gone over all the birds that breed on ,sule ,skerry1 and come next to the regular winter visitors1 consisting of the curlew1 the snipe1 the turnstone1 and the common sandpiper4 ,about a dozen curlews or whaups make the island their home for about nine months of the year4 ,they leave about the end of ,may and return in ,august1 remaining on the island all winter4 ,their number always keeps about the same--twelve or fifteen4 ,they have the same characteristics as those found elsewhere--their extraordinary alertness and their peculiar cry--but they are distinctly less shy than is usually the case in other parts of the country4 ,they are never disturbed in any way1 and the result is that1 if any one wished1 it would be an easy matter to get within gunshot of them4 ,their chief food is worms and insects1 of which there is a plentiful supply on the island4 ,when the curlews leave the island1 a few whimbrels take their place1 and remain about six weeks4 ,they breed in ,orkney and ,shetland1 but though they remain on the island most of the breeding season ,i have never yet found a nest4 ,i have spent many an hour watching them from the light-room with the glass to see if they were sitting1 and have gone over the ground where they are most frequently seen1 but could never find an egg or any attempt at nest building4 ,they are very much like the curlew in general appearance1 only much smaller4 ,illustration3 ,snipe4 ,the snipe leaves the island in ,may1 and is absent about four months1 usually returning in ,october4 ,none1 so far1 have ever nested on ,sule ,skerry1 and they all go elsewhere for that purpose4 ,there is a considerable number of them resident during the winter1 larger in some years than in others4 ,they sometimes get killed by dashing against the lantern at night1 but it is not often they fly so high4 ,illustration3 ,turnstone4 ,the turnstone always spends the winter on the island1 arriving about the end of ,august or the first of ,september1 and from then on till ,april it spends its time feeding on insects4 ,on ,sule ,skerry it is in no way afraid of man1 but rather the opposite1 for it depends a good deal on the lightkeepers for its livelihood in stormy weather4 ,whenever the lightkeepers go to feed their hens1 the turnstones gather from all parts of the island and sit round at a respectful distance--about a dozen yards--waiting for their share1 which they receive regularly every day1 and they seem to enjoy it very much4 ,the lightkeepers often turn over big stones to enable the hens to feed on the insects which are there in immense quantities4 ,the turnstones have learned the meaning of this operation1 and whether the hens are present or not1 they soon gather round for a feast when one retires a short distance4 ,a few specimens of the common sandpiper always accompany them1 but they feed more amongst the seaweed along the coast-line1 and are more afraid of the approach of man4 ,illustration3 ,sandpiper4 ,occasional ,visitors4 ,we now come to the third class1 the occasional visitors4 ,these are the wild goose1 the mallard or stock duck1 the teal1 the widgeon1 the ,iceland gull1 the ,sclavonian grebe1 the heron1 the kestrel1 the hooded crow1 the rook1 the lapwing1 the golden plover1 the redshank1 the corncrake1 the water rail1 the fieldfare1 the redwing1 the snow-bunting1 the starling1 the song thrush or mavis1 the blackbird1 the water-wagtail1 the stonechat1 the woodcock1 the skylark1 the twite or mountain linnet1 the robin1 the swallow1 the black-headed gull1 and the little auk4 ,wild geese pass the island on their way south in ,october1 but very rarely rest4 ,occasionally a flock will hover round for some time1 but the sight of a human habitation scares them away1 and they continue on their way in the direction of ,cape ,wrath4 ,last ,october half a dozen were seen resting on the island one morning about eight o'clock4 ,they seemed to be feeding in one of the fresh-water pools1 but all they would find there would not fatten them4 ,sule ,skerry is a very likely place for them to call at1 as it is right in their track when on the way to and from ,iceland and ,faroe1 but perhaps the island being inhabited causes them to give it a wide berth4 ,at any rate very few of them ever honour it with a visit4 ,illustration3 ,mallard4 ,the mallard pays the island frequent visits during the winter1 two and three at a time4 ,they never stay long1 for there is very little feeding for them4 ,they are particularly shy1 resting only on the most outlying parts1 and seeming continually on the watch4 ,teal and widgeon are not common4 ,of the former one sees a specimen or two every winter1 while of the latter only two have visited the island1 and that was in ,march #ahig1 when they stayed a few days4 ,in ,november #ahie an ,iceland gull arrived on the island1 and remained to the end of ,february following4 ,it became fairly tame1 sitting the greater part of the day near the house on the watch for any scraps of meat that were thrown out4 ,hopes were entertained that it intended remaining permanently on the island1 but on the approach of the breeding season it departed4 ,in #ahih one stayed for a week in ,november2 in the following year another was seen on the #bcrd of ,november4 ,this one was fishing in company with some common gulls1 and occasionally flew over the island quite close to the tower2 but ,i did not see it alight1 nor was it seen again on any of the following days4 ,illustration3 ,heron4 ,the common heron every year spends a day or two on the island1 generally in ,october or ,november1 but it never seems at home4 ,they wander about in search of food1 but apparently do not find very much4 ,when leaving the island they always1 without exception1 fly in the direction of ,cape ,wrath1 but where they come from ,i cannot say1 never having noticed them arriving4 ,the hooded crow is an annual visitor1 generally in ,november1 and it sometimes comes for a short visit in ,april4 ,two or three is the common number at one time4 ,there is1 however1 not much food for them1 and on that account their visit is soon over4 ,a few rooks call about the same time4 ,every year in ,april the lapwings make the island a resting-place1 staying from a week to a fortnight4 ,the place does not seem to suit them for nesting purposes1 for ,i have never seen them make any attempt at nest-building4 ,after resting and renewing their strength1 they seek out some more hospitable part of the country4 ,small flocks of the golden plover also rest on the island on their passage north in ,march and ,april1 and again on their way south in ,october and ,november1 staying from eight to twelve days4 ,there are also a few straggling visitors during the winter4 ,the common redshank is a frequent visitor1 staying perhaps a week at a time1 but it never nests on the island4 ,in #ahif a corncrake's well-known song was heard during the greater part of ,june4 ,it was heard again the following season1 but never since4 ,the bird1 however1 is occasionally seen in summer4 ,the only way ,i can account for its silence is that the goats and rabbits never allow the grass to grow to any length1 and thus there is no cover for it4 ,i think most ornithologists are now satisfied that this bird migrates to a warmer climate every year on the approach of winter4 ,whether such is the case or not ,i do not feel prepared to say1 but from my experience of ,sule ,skerry ,i am quite satisfied it is only a summer visitor there1 and does not remain on the island all winter4 ,the water-rail pays the island a visit every winter1 but ,i do not think there is any danger of its being mistaken for the corncrake4 ,they are a little like one another in shape1 but they are two distinct species1 and easily recognized4 ,illustration3 ,water-rail4 ,in ,october and ,november the island is visited annually by considerable numbers of fieldfares1 redwings1 blackbirds1 rock-thrushes1 starlings1 and woodcocks4 ,they generally stay from a week to a fortnight1 and are more numerous some years than others4 ,water-wagtails are rare visitors1 seen at various times of the year4 ,stonechats are also rare visitors1 only staying a few days in ,may4 ,the skylark1 so common everywhere else1 is a very rare visitor1 and is only seen or heard once or twice during the summer months4 ,robin redbreast is always seen in the autumn1 and generally stays a few weeks if the weather is moderate4 ,the twite or mountain linnet pays an occasional visit in summer1 and stays for some time2 but ,i have never yet found a nest1 and cannot say if it breeds on the island4 ,in ,june every year a few sparrows spend a fortnight on ,sule ,skerry4 ,snow-buntings almost deserve the name of regular winter visitors1 for from ,october to ,march they are seldom long absent4 ,last ,september ,i got a bird which ,i knew to belong to the grebe family1 but ,i could not be sure of its proper name1 and ,i sent it to ,mr4 ,harvie ,brown for identification4 ,he informed me it was a ,sclavonian grebe1 a bird not very common in this part of the country4 ,in ,november #ahig ,i found a dead specimen of the little auk4 ,illustration3 ,solan goose4 ,though not a ,sule ,skerry bird1 the solan goose deserves notice in this paper4 ,the ,stack1 distant four and a half miles1 has been their chief breeding place in ,orkney for ages1 and every year it is tenanted by immense numbers4 ,the rock is #adj feet high1 rising perpendicularly on the west1 but sloping gradually from the water to the summit on the east side4 ,it is on this slope that the solans congregate1 and no other bird is allowed to trespass on their preserves4 ,in ,may1 ,june1 ,july1 and ,august their numbers are so vast that any one seeing the rock at a distance would imagine it was painted white or composed of chalk4 ,sule ,skerry1 however1 is too far distant to allow of one forming any idea of their numbers1 but looking at them with the glass one sees the rock simply covered1 and apparently as many flying about as resting4 ,lewis men visit the place annually in ,august1 and carry away a boatload of young birds4 ,last year they came up to the rock1 but there was too much surf for a landing1 and as the weather was threatening they headed for the ,sutherlandshire coast4 ,that night the wind blew half a gale1 and fears were entertained that it would prove too much for them1 for their boat was small and hardly powerful enough to be so far from home2 but a few days later they again approached the rock4 ,they again failed to negotiate it1 and after waiting for about an hour they made sail for home1 and did not return4 ,the weather certainly favoured the solans on these occasions4 ,i have never seen a solan resting on ,sule ,skerry2 they even carefully avoid flying across the island1 though they fish in immense numbers all round1 and sometimes within forty or fifty yards of the shore4 ,they usually begin to arrive in the vicinity about the end of ,january1 and their numbers continue to increase until the end of ,april1 when they take possession of the rock1 and from then until the end of ,august their name is legion4 ,when the young are fledged1 they gradually disappear1 and from the first of ,december till the last days of ,january they are not to be seen4 ,thus they go on year after year1 a fraction of that great feathered multitude which has come and gone since the earliest ages1 and will probably continue to come and go as long as the world lasts1 some arriving and departing in silence1 others heralding their coming and going with the wildest clamour4 ,on this subject1 and speaking of the northern isles1 ,thomson the poet says3-- 8,where the ,northern ,ocean1 in vast whirls1 ,boils round the naked melancholy isles ,of farthest ,thule1 and the ,atlantic's surge ,pours in amongst the stormy ,hebrides2 ,who can recount what transmigrations there ,are annual made8 what nations come and go8 ,and how the living clouds on clouds arise1 ,infinite wings6 till all the plume-dark air ,and rude resounding shore are one wild cry80 ,j4 ,,tomison 78,orcadian ,papers407 ,illustration ,,common ,,seaweeds4 ,a severe storm has been raging for several days on our shores1 and no ship has dared to cross the ,pentland4 ,to-day a great calm has fallen upon the face of the waters1 and the sun shines clear in the sky4 ,a walk by the seashore on such a morning will afford an excellent opportunity for collecting specimens of our seaweeds1 and for studying their life-history4 ,here they lie in all their varied colours1 strewn on the beach like autumn leaves in a forest4 ,now is our chance to secure some of those rare and beautiful weeds that grow in the deeper water1 and have been torn off and driven ashore by the waves4 ,if pressed and dried with care1 they will remain things of beauty for long4 ,for this purpose we use squares of stiff paper or card1 on which we spread them out carefully under water4 ,when pressed1 they will adhere to the paper by means of the mucilage which they contain4 ,illustration3 ,common seaweeds4--,i4 ,a1 ,sargassum 7,gulf-weed71 ,b1 ,cladophora4 ,c1 ,enteromorpha4 ,d #a1 ,fucus vesiculosus4 ,d #b1 ,receptacle of same1 with eggs and sperms4 ,d #c1 ,egg1 with sperms4 ,e1 ,polysiphonia4 ,the delicate fern-like or feathery fronds of those red seaweeds will compare in beauty with the best of our flowering plants4 ,this is all the more wonderful when we consider their lowly origin4 ,for the family of the ,alg1 to which the seaweeds belong1 is the oldest and most primitive of all the families of plants4 ,to the ,alg most likely belonged the first forms of life which appeared on the earth4 ,if we are fortunate to-day we may find a specimen of the famous ,gulf-weed 7,sargassum71 which gives its name to the ,sargasso ,sea1 and which is said to have cheered ,columbus on his celebrated voyage of discovery4 ,in the tropical ,atlantic it covers immense areas of the ocean1 and it is occasionally cast ashore on the ,orkney coasts1 drifted hither by the ,gulf ,stream and the westerly winds4 ,it is easily recognized by its numerous little round air-bladders1 each on a separate branch4 ,now let us turn our attention to the seaweeds which we find growing on the beach around us4 ,in many a rock pool in the 8ebb0 we may see a miniature forest of tiny weeds of beautiful colours and forms1 a veritable ocean garden4 ,near high-water mark we find here and there in the pools pretty green alg1 some with broad1 flat fronds1 such as the sea-lettuce 7,ulva71 and others with slender branching feathery filaments 7,cladophora74 ,many of the green alg1 however1 prefer to live in fresh water4 ,if you make an aquarium1 you will find the sea-lettuce and the sea-grass 7,enteromorpha7 of great value in keeping the water pure1 owing to the amount of oxygen which they give out4 ,farther down on the beach the rocks are covered thickly with alg of an olive-brown colour4 ,the rocks1 indeed1 would fare much worse in a storm if the seaweeds were not there to protect them1 as the grass protects the soil of the fields4 ,look more closely at those big brown sea-wracks and you will notice that the most common kind 7,fucus vesiculosus7 has little globular air-bladders arranged in pairs along its flat1 smooth-edged fronds4 ,each blade has a distinct midrib1 and where it divides1 like all the ,fucus group1 it splits into two equal branches4 ,on some of the little end branches you may see a yellowish swelling dotted over with minute knobs and pores4 ,these swellings are receptacles for holding the eggs and sperms1 which are contained in tiny cavities under each projecting knob4 ,many seaweeds produce their fruit in winter1 when the land plants are sleeping and the fields are bare4 ,the microscopic sperms correspond to the pollen and the eggs to the ovules of the flowering plants4 ,but there is one wonderful difference4 ,the sperms of the ,fucus can move about freely by means of two little projecting threads or cilia4 ,when the tide is out1 both eggs and sperms come to the door of their little houses by the help of the mucilage in which they float2 and when the sea comes back swarms of these sperms swim away and wriggle about1 till one of them comes in contact with an egg4 ,it adheres to and fuses with the egg1 which thus becomes fertilized1 and is then able to give rise to a young plant4 ,a similar process goes on in all the plants of the ,fucus group4 ,here is one with notched or serrated edges 7,fucus serratus71 and without air-bladders2 there another well known to every schoolboy as the 8bell tang0 7,fucus nodosus71 with large air-bladders in the centre line of the frond1 and yellow fruit-bodies each on a branch of its own1 without any trace of midrib4 ,the air-bladders of the seaweeds are natural buoys1 by means of which the plants are kept erect in the water4 ,the mucilage which makes them so slippery to walk over is of the utmost importance1 as it protects them from drought when they are left uncovered by the tide4 ,seaweeds are very simple in their structure1 and have no true roots1 stems1 or leaves4 ,they do not need such organs1 for every part of their body is in contact with the water which contains their food-supply4 ,what are those tufts of reddish-brown threads growing all over the fronds of this ,fucus8 ,that is a red seaweed 7,polysiphonia71 which often makes its home under the shelter of a more hardy plant4 ,in the red alg the sperms have no cilia1 and cannot move about of themselves1 but the eggs have each a long thread1 corresponding to the stigma of the higher plants1 and against this thread the sperms are driven by currents of water4 ,the little ,fucus known as 8teeting tang0 7,fucus canaliculatus7 ought not to be passed unheeded4 ,it is often much relished by sheep and cattle4 ,you may know it by its greenish-brown colour and by the distinct groove on one side all along its length4 ,it is found only in the upper part of the 8ebb04 ,another interesting plant of this group may be found on the large rocks nearer low-water mark4 ,it is called the 8sea-thong0 7,himanthalia lorea71 because its fructification grows out from a button-shaped base into long1 forked1 thong-like branches4 ,illustration3 ,common seaweeds4--,,ii4 ,f1 ,fucus canaliculatus4 ,g1 ,himanthalia lorea4 ,h1 ,laminaria digitata4 ,i1 ,rhodymenia4 ,k1 ,chondrus crispus4 ,l1 ,porphyra4 ,if the tide is far out1 we shall be able to see the tops of the 8red-ware0 standing out of the water1 and some of the tangles will be quite dry4 ,these tangles belong to the ,laminaria group1 the giants among the seaweeds4 ,they contain a large amount of iodine in their composition1 and that is why they are used for the manufacture of kelp4 ,notice how firmly they cling to the sea-bottom by their strong holdfasts1 which have weathered many a storm4 ,an interesting feature in this group is their manner of growth4 ,the growing region lies at the junction of the stalk with the blade4 ,you will often find a specimen in which the old blade is being pushed away on the end of the young one1 ready to be broken off and cast adrift by the waves4 ,the stalk itself is perennial1 but in some kinds of ,laminaria 7,laminaria digitata1 for example7 the blade is usually torn into shreds before it is thrown off4 ,a well-known ally of the tangles is the 8merkal10 also called 8honey-ware40 ,you can tell it by the prominent midrib and the broad1 thin wing on each side1 running all its length4 ,this is one of the edible seaweeds4 ,do you see this bright red palmate plant growing under the shelter of the tangles8 ,it is the common dulse 7,rhodymenia palmata71 which may often be seen for sale on the streets of our cities4 ,examine it well and taste it1 and you will be able to recognize it in future1 however much it may vary in form or colour4 ,but do not eat too much of it1 for it is said to be somewhat indigestible4 ,another edible seaweed which has been widely used as an invalid food may be found in the lower part of the 8ebb10 often under the shelter of larger plants4 ,this is the ,irish moss or carrageen 7,chondrus crispus74 ,it is fleshy and pink in colour4 ,a jelly is made from it which is considered a great delicacy4 ,the purple laver 7,porphyra7 is perhaps the most valuable of the seaweeds as a food1 and is said to sell at a high price in ,yokohama4 ,in form it resembles the sea-lettuce4 ,many other marine alg have been used as food1 and none of them are poisonous4 ,in ,north ,ronaldsay the sheep seem to esteem them highly as food4 ,the most important use of seaweed is to serve as food for various kinds of molluscs1 crustaceans1 and fishes4 ,the 8plankton0 of the sea-surface--minute one-celled alg--are very important in this way4 ,what grass is to the land animals1 the marine alg are to the living creatures of the sea4 ,when driven ashore by the waves1 or when cut down by the once familiar 8hook10 the larger seaweeds are much used as manure for field crops4 ,they thus repay the debt they owe for any portion of their food that may have come originally from the dry land4 ,before returning from our walk let us haul down this small boat from its 8noust0 and take a bird's-eye view of the seaweeds in their natural habitat4 ,through the clear water beneath us we can see the strange shapes of the submerged vegetation1 dense and tangled1 with here and there a lazy sea-urchin on the broad red-ware1 and the sillocks actively swimming around4 ,but our oars are entangled in the 8drew0 7,chorda filum71 so full of annoyance and even of danger to the swimmer4 ,look at one of those long threads4 ,it is covered with hairs2 it tapers towards both ends1 and its fructification extends along its whole surface4 ,in structure it is a hollow tube divided into many chambers4 ,what a variety of colours and shades we see as we look down on this wonderful submarine scenery6 ,we notice that near high-water mark green is the predominant colour1 and that the lower belt is mostly brown1 while here at low-water mark and beyond it1 as well as under the shelter of the sea-wracks and tangles1 shades of red prevail4 ,beyond the depth of thirty or forty fathoms seaweeds are extremely rare1 owing to the want of light at the sea-bottom3 seaweeds1 like other plants1 cannot take in their food in darkness4 ,notwithstanding their varied tints1 the fundamental colour of all seaweeds is green1 as you can prove for yourselves by boiling a few brown specimens1 or soaking them for some time in fresh water4 ,you will find that the other colouring matters are dissolved out1 and only the green is left4 ,the red or brown pigments are probably of use in aiding or in protecting the green colouring matter1 chlorophyll1 in its important work of assimilating the food material4 ,illustration ,,crabs4 ,when ,i was a boy at school we frequently amused ourselves by catching crabs4 ,the scene of our operations was the ,peerie ,sea1 where a wall had been built along the shore4 ,here we used to gather1 armed with a piece of string and bait of some kind1 and we often spent a whole long evening perched on the wall1 fishing for crabs4 ,the ,peerie ,sea was a receptacle for all kinds of refuse1 and formed a happy hunting-ground for swarms of crabs4 ,when one thinks of catching crabs1 one may naturally imagine an excursion to the shore during ebb-tide1 and much turning over of stones and seaweed4 ,our method was quite different4 ,we made the crabs come to us4 ,our bait was a piece of fish or anything of an animal nature1 provided it was fairly tough4 ,no hook was necessary2 we simply tied the end of the string round the bait4 ,the baited line was let down into the water1 preferably in the vicinity of a crab1 and drawn slowly along the bottom4 ,if the animal was timid1 and not very hungry1 he often scuttled off in a fright4 ,usually1 however1 he was both hungry and fearless1 and seized the bait at once1 trying to drag it in among seaweed or into a hole4 ,now came the exciting part of the business4 ,our object was to haul him up before he quitted his hold4 ,the wall was high1 and he required careful management4 ,sometimes when he was drawn up out of the water he would let go1 and fall back with a flop into the sea again2 sometimes he would hold on till he was drawn up over the wall1 and then we shook him off on the pavement behind4 ,illustration3 ,common shore crab4 ,occasionally when we had no bait we would manage to land a crab with a small stone or a cinder4 ,so long as the stone lies motionless on the bottom he pays no attention to it4 ,as soon as it begins to move1 drawn along by the string1 the crab rushes at it and seizes it with his claws1 and it is some time before he finds out his mistake4 ,not infrequently he will allow himself to be drawn quite out of the water1 clinging to his find4 ,it is very amusing to see the crab worrying a hard stone1 then dropping it when he has discovered it is not eatable1 and then seizing it again as it begins to move away from him1 just like a kitten with a ball of wool4 ,apparently he cannot resist the idea that movement means life4 ,the commonest kind of crab in ,orkney is the green shore-crab4 ,he is on the whole a bold animal1 but when frightened he runs away with great speed4 ,he moves sideways1 and thus meets with less resistance from the water than if he were to move directly forward4 ,usually1 however1 he does not walk fast1 but creeps over the bottom in a leisurely fashion4 ,when seizing his food he comes up to it 8head on10 his nipping claws held wide apart2 when he is near enough1 he suddenly brings them together1 and begins to tear up the food in little bits and pack it into his mouth4 ,his eyes are placed on the tip of movable projections1 so that they command a wide view4 ,he cannot see behind him1 however1 or under his body1 and he usually keeps his eyes fixed in the direction in which he is going4 ,when he is resting1 his eyes are ever on the watch4 ,every little movement on the beach near him he notices at once4 ,the crab has a peculiar method of feeding4 ,his mouth is just under his head1 and the opening is guarded by two flat jointed plates1 one on each side of his mouth4 ,if you pull these two plates apart--after having arranged with a friend to hold his pincers--you can see where his mouth is1 and you may notice two strong things which look like teeth4 ,these are really his jaws2 they move from side to side1 and not up and down like our jaws4 ,to see how he feeds1 you must put him into a glass jar1 and look up from below while he is eating a bit of fish4 ,he tears it up with his pincers1 and puts little bits into his mouth1 the parts of which move from side to side as he eats4 ,he is not very particular as to what he eats4 ,he is1 indeed1 a cannibal1 and will eat the crushed leg of another crab as readily as anything else4 ,he is one of the most useful animals on the beach1 however1 and has been called the scavenger of the shore4 ,in fact1 if one wishes to get the flesh cleaned off the skeleton of any large animal1 there is no easier method than to lay it on the beach1 well below high-water mark1 and build stones around it1 leaving spaces between them to admit crabs4 ,as we have already said1 the crab is bold and fearless4 ,he is safe in his coat of armour1 and his pincers are powerful weapons of offence and defence4 ,when fighting he rears himself up and throws his nipping legs far apart with the pincers wide open4 ,he then looks a formidable animal2 and he really is formidable1 for with these legs he can protect almost any part of his body1 and the strength of his grip is considerable4 ,take up a dead crab and examine his biting leg4 ,the different parts are joined by hinges4 ,each hinge allows of motion only in one plane1 but the various planes are so adjusted that the limb can be moved in almost any direction4 ,only one part of his body cannot be touched by his pincers1 and that is his back4 ,if you wish to grasp a live crab with impunity1 seize him across the back just where his walking legs join the body4 ,he may struggle as he pleases1 but he cannot nip you4 ,it is quite a common thing to find a shore crab with one or more legs wanting1 or with one large pincer and one small one4 ,what is the reason of this8 ,it means that at one time or other the crab has had a limb torn off in a fight1 for the males are continually fighting with one another4 ,when a limb is lost it is not a very serious matter1 for a new limb soon begins to grow on again1 and after a time becomes as large as the lost one4 ,there are times1 however1 when the crab is by no means pugnacious4 ,one sometimes finds under a stone a crab which has hardly enough spirit to lift his pincers in self-defence4 ,on touching him one finds that he is quite soft4 ,what has happened to him8 ,he has recently been casting his coat2 for1 as the animal goes on growing within his shell1 he becomes too big for it1 and the only thing he can do is to burst the shell and come out of it1 and then wait for a bigger one to grow4 ,when he is thus moulting1 he is glad to crawl away and hide till he is able to face the world again4 ,many of the empty crab shells that one picks up on the beach are the old cast-off clothes of crabs still alive and vigorous4 ,by examining one of these we can see how thorough the process of moulting is2 not only are the shells of his back and his legs thrown off1 but the covering of his eyes1 his feelers1 his mouth parts1 and even the inside lining of his stomach1--for1 strange to say1 the wall of his stomach is lined with the same kind of shell as the outside of his body4 ,the crab is formed for living in water1 but he can stand long exposure to the air4 ,if you cover him with damp garden soil or peat mould he will survive for days4 ,the reason is that so long as his gills are kept damp he can breathe and live quite well4 ,the lobster breathes in exactly the same way1 and when lobsters are being shipped for the southern markets they are put in boxes with layers of wet seaweed to keep them alive4 ,have you ever seen the beautiful set of gills which the crab has8 ,if you find a dead crab that has been lying on the beach for some little time1 you can easily remove the upper shell1 leaving the soft parts of the body with the legs attached4 ,just above the attachment of the legs there is a series of brown feathery-looking things which seem to cover the whole side of the body4 ,these are the gills4 ,they lie in a special chamber1 occupying about half of the whole space inside the shell4 ,while the crab is alive1 the gills are continually bathed in a current of water1 which is pumped in through a small hole at the side of his mouth and drawn out at another hole near it4 ,if the gills become dry the animal soon dies4 ,there is a curious pointed flap folded tightly across the crab's body underneath1 which is commonly called its 8purse40 ,it used to be a schoolboy belief that the crab carries its money here4 ,the fact simply is that the purse is kept closed for the sake of protection1 as the skin underneath it is soft and might easily be injured in a fight4 ,you have all seen the long tail of the lobster1 with its broad flaps at the end4 ,by suddenly bending its tail underneath its body the lobster is able to propel itself backwards through the water at a great rate4 ,the crab and the lobster are1 as you may know1 closely related1 and the purse of the former corresponds to the tail of the latter4 ,the purse or tail of the crab1 however1 is always tucked up under the body1 and is never used for swimming4 ,both animals carry their eggs on this part of their body1 and you may occasionally find a crab with its purse so full of eggs that it cannot be closed4 ,these eggs have a curious history4 ,when they are hatched1 it is not a small crab that comes out1 but a funny little creature not in the least like its parent4 ,it has a rounded body and a long thin tail1 and swims actively about4 ,at this stage it is called a za4 ,by-and-by the creature settles down to the sea-bottom and casts its shell4 ,its back is now broader and its tail shorter1 and it is provided with claws2 but it is still quite unlike a crab1 and swims freely about4 ,it is now known as a megalopa4 ,swarms of these may be found clustered round seaweed and other floating substances1 both near the shore and in deep water4 ,as it grows it again casts its shell1 but it now tucks in its tail and settles down in life as a real crab1 though of course a very small one as yet3 you may find scores of them on the beach not much bigger than a split pea4 ,besides the green crab there are others which are common on the sea-beach4 ,one of these is the edible crab or 8partan40 ,this crab lives in somewhat deeper water than the other1 and is of a dark reddish or purplish hue on the back1 while its under parts are white4 ,it is not nearly so quick and active in its movements as the green crab1 but when it does get hold of anything it has a stronger bite4 ,in deep water it grows to a giant size1 and it is regularly caught in creels and sold for food1 as its flesh is firm and good to eat4 ,the flesh of the green crab1 on the other hand1 is much softer and less abundant1 and it is not used for eating4 ,strangely enough1 all crabs turn red when boiled1 whatever their colour when alive4 ,another curious crab is sometimes found in weedy pools on the beach4 ,this animal is of a spidery form1 and is much more difficult to see than an ordinary crab1 for he is elaborately disguised4 ,his back and legs are grown over with hairy brown seaweed1 and as he always lies among a mass of similar weed it is impossible to detect him so long as he remains at rest4 ,when he does move1 his movements are extremely slow4 ,if you take him out of the water1 he looks a most uncouth creature as he feebly sprawls about4 ,place him back in the bunch of seaweed from which he was taken1 and he immediately adjusts himself so as to become invisible4 ,this is his mode of escaping observation1 for he is too slow and weak to be able to defend himself4 ,still another odd-looking crab may be found in deep water4 ,this animal has rather thin legs1 while its back is somewhat pear-shaped1 the pointed end being directed forwards4 ,it is1 however1 a much more active animal than the last mentioned1 and we may often see it from a boat as it climbs about on the broad blades of the tangles4 ,it is rarely found on the beach1 but the cast-off shell of the animal may be found on almost any part of our shores4 ,one of the most interesting of our crabs is known as the hermit-crab4 ,he belongs to the family of soft-tailed crabs1 and in shape is more like the lobster than the other crabs we have mentioned4 ,the hinder part of his body being without armour1 he is forced to seek an artificial defence1 and this he finds in the empty shell of a whelk or 8buckie10 into the spiral coils of which he inserts his unprotected tail4 ,these creatures are generally called hermit-crabs1 because each lives in his own separate habitation1 like a hermit in his cell or like ,diogenes in his tub2 but unlike these in their habits1 they are so pugnacious that they are also known as soldier-crabs4 ,illustration3 ,hermit-crab 7with anemone on shell74 ,hermit-crabs may be found plentifully on the shores1 of various sizes1 and inhabiting any kind of shell that they find to suit their size4 ,if we look into a shallow sand-bottomed rock-pool1 we may see some of these shells moving about at a rate to which they were quite unaccustomed during the life of their builder and original occupier3 we know at once that each of these shells has now as a tenant one of those interesting crabs4 ,by means of an apparatus at the extremity of his tail the hermit holds firmly to his temporary abode1 and he flattens himself closely against the shell1 leaving exposed only the one large pincer which is specially fitted to bar the door against intruders4 ,it is difficult to seize the creature at all2 and even when a grasp of any portion can be secured1 the hold of the tail is so firm that the animal runs some risk of being torn apart rather than leave his shell4 ,a well-known writer on ,natural ,history1 the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood1 has given an interesting account of the hermit-crab1 from which we quote the following paragraphs3-- 8,the combative propensities of these creatures are wonderful4 ,if two hermits of fairly equal size are placed in an aquarium1 they are not content with appropriating different portions of the vessel to themselves1 but must needs travel over it and fight whenever they meet4 ,this struggle is constantly renewed1 until one of them discovers his inferiority and makes way whenever the victor comes near4 ,when they fight they do so in earnest1 tumbling over each other1 and flinging about their legs and claws with great energy4 ,they are not at all particular about diet so long as it is of an animal substance1 and will eat molluscs1 raw meat1 or even their own species4 ,more than once when a hermit has died ,i have dropped the body into the water so as to bring it within view of another hermit4 ,the little cannibal caught the descending body in one of his claws very dexterously1 and holding it firmly with one claw he picked it to pieces with the other1 and put each morsel into his mouth in a rapid and systematic manner that was highly amusing40 8,when a hermit desires to change his habitation1 he goes through a curious series of performances4 ,a shell lies on the ground1 and the hermit seizes it with his claws and his feet and twists it about with wonderful dexterity1 as if testing its weight2 and after having examined every portion of its exterior1 he proceeds to satisfy himself about its interior4 ,for this purpose he pushes his fore legs as far into the shell as they will reach1 and probes every spot that can be touched4 ,if this examination satisfies him1 he whisks himself into the new shell with such rapidity that he seems to have been acted upon by a spring4 ,such a scene as this will not be witnessed in the sea unless the hermit is forcibly deprived of his shell1 but when hermits are placed in a tank or vase they seem to be rather fond of #8flitting4'0 ,illustration ,,hoppers ,,and ,,sholties4 ,of the great multitude of different animals which live on the seashore possibly the most numerous are the little creatures known as 8sholties0 or 8,shetland sholties40 ,they are to be found on almost every beach4 ,their peculiar shape1 flattened on the sides1 their habit of hiding in crowds under stones or seaweed1 their intense alarm when they are suddenly exposed1 and their vigour in escaping into a new hiding-place1 are known to every schoolboy4 ,they look very different from their pugnacious relatives1 the crabs2 they are feeble creatures1 more ready to escape from danger than to offer fight4 ,yet they are most interesting little animals1 and the more one watches their ways the more one comes to understand their wonderful adaptation to their surroundings4 ,though their general appearance is quite familiar1 it is not so commonly known that there are many different varieties of these creatures4 ,as a matter of fact1 there are scores of different kinds1 some living on the beach1 some just below extreme low-water mark1 and others in the deep sea4 ,we shall concern ourselves here only with those that live on the beach4 ,there are three common kinds which every one ought to know4 ,two of these1 curiously enough1 though beach animals are not really sea animals4 ,they are hardly ever in the water2 they live on the fringe of beach which lies just above high-water mark4 ,the sea reaches them but rarely1 and they never voluntarily seek the water4 ,these two kinds are known as the shore-hopper 7,orchestia7 and the sand-hopper 7,talitrus71 the latter being found mostly on sandy beaches1 where they make little burrows in which to hide1 and the former living under stones or among the decaying seaweed on stony beaches4 ,they both get their name of 8hopper0 from their habit of leaping or springing into the air1 by means of which they often avoid capture by enemies4 ,french people call them 8sea-fleas40 ,illustration3 ,shore-hopper 7,orchestia74 ,sand-hopper 7,talitrus74 ,sholtie 7,gammarus74 7,all magnified about three times47 ,the third variety1 which is probably best known of all1 and to which the name of 8sholtie0 is here more especially applied1 is that which occurs farther down on the beach in places which are constantly wet with sea-water4 ,this animal 7,gammarus7 is much narrower in the body than the other two1 and some of its legs are bent backwards along its side1 so that by means of them it can run or crawl on its side4 ,indeed1 when out of the water this creature in quite unable to walk back uppermost2 whenever by any chance it does succeed in raising itself into what is for most animals the normal attitude1 it immediately topples over on its side again4 ,it can be readily distinguished from the other two forms by having two pairs of long1 delicate feelers or antenn in front of its head2 the hoppers have only one long pair of antenn and one short pair4 ,all these animals1 in spite of their small size1 are near allies of the crabs and lobsters4 ,a naturalist would tell you that they belong to the group of the ,crustacea1 this name being applied to all animals of the crab tribe on account of the firm1 crackly skin or shell which surrounds them4 ,the ,crustacea are marked by other features in addition to the possession of this hard exterior4 ,they are all jointed animals1 their body being built up of a series of segments1 each of which carries a pair of legs or appendages of some kind1 these appendages also being jointed4 ,in the crab and the lobster a number of segments have become fused or welded together to form the front part or body of the animal4 ,in the group of animals to which the sholties belong the segments are all distinct4 ,to understand something of the structure and the general habits of the sholtie1 all that we require to do is to collect a few specimens from the beach and put them in a saucer with a little sea-water4 ,they will swim about in a very active fashion1 the swimming being performed by means of little fan-like appendages attached to the under part of the animal just where the swimmerets are in the lobster4 ,by the vigorous strokes of these appendages the animal forces its way through the water4 ,these appendages are1 however1 of use in another way2 the gills of the animal are attached to them4 ,even when it is lying almost dry1 or in water too shallow for swimming1 these appendages can be seen to work regularly and rhythmically with a gentle flapping movement4 ,sometimes they stop working for a little and then begin again1 but they are never long at rest4 ,in this way currents of water are made to bathe the gills continually1 and the flapping of the appendages is really a breathing movement4 ,the walking legs are attached to the fore part of the body4 ,some of them point backwards1 as has already been mentioned1 and the animal prefers to crawl or run on its side4 ,as a rule1 too1 it propels itself over the ground by jerking movements of its body1 its tail being alternately curled up and then suddenly straightened out again4 ,it is in this way that it wriggles over the stones and escapes into a place of safety when exposed4 ,one of the most characteristic points about the sholtie is its habit of clinging to objects1 especially if they afford a cover from the light4 ,drop a bit of seaweed into the dish where they are swimming1 and in two or three minutes the sholties will all be found clinging to the under surface of the weed4 ,we might indeed imagine that they had escaped from the saucer4 ,they cluster like swarming bees round the smallest blade of seaweed1 and it is only by turning over the weed that we can make sure that they are there4 ,when exposed to full daylight they seem uncomfortable1 and keep swimming about trying to find a hiding-place4 ,it is only when they find something to cling to and to hide under that they really rest and feel at ease4 ,but we have not yet examined the hoppers4 ,though externally so like the sholties1 they are very different in constitution and habits4 ,to understand the difference between the two classes of animals1 the best plan is to put either a shore-hopper or a sand-hopper into some water along with a sholtie4 ,the latter is an active little animal in the water1 capable of moving about like a fish4 ,the hopper1 on the other hand1 is obviously out of his element2 he sinks to the bottom of the dish and there works his way along in lumbering fashion4 ,his breathing organs can be seen waving backwards and forwards in rhythmical fashion1 but they are too feeble to be used for swimming4 ,the shore-hopper can breathe quite well in water1 and may live in it for days4 ,it is said that sand-hoppers do not stand long-continued immersion1 and die of drowning4 ,on land1 however1 the hopper is at home1 provided he gets just sufficient moisture to keep his gills damp4 ,not only can he crawl about back uppermost--a feat which the ,gammarus would attempt in vain--but as he crawls he keeps his tail curled up under his body1 and by suddenly straightening this out he can throw himself into the air with considerable vigour4 ,in this way he often not merely escapes from an enemy1 but even drives terror into the heart of the pursuer4 ,it takes some little time to realize that hoppers can be handled with impunity1 and are harmless for all their sudden jerky movements4 ,why do these animals live on the upper fringe of beach1 and what do they find there to eat8 ,the answer is simple4 ,they live on the cast up refuse of the sea2 they are the scavengers of the jetsam4 ,naturalists who are collecting the skeletons of small animals often put the carcases which they wish to have cleaned under some decaying weed on the beach4 ,after a week or a fortnight the bones are found to be picked absolutely clean4 ,in order to tell the sand-hopper from the shore-hopper we have only to look at his front feet4 ,if they are all thin and slender1 the animal is a sand-hopper2 if one pair of the front feet are clubbed at the end and armed with a claw1 we know that he is a shore-hopper4 ,illustration ,,sea-,,anemones4 ,when the tide ebbs and leaves the rocks exposed we may find here and there a few soft1 rounded objects attached to the bare rock1 often bright red in colour1 and looking like strawberries or ripe cherries4 ,they are found especially on the sheltered sides of high rocks and in the angles formed by slight ridges and clefts4 ,we do not seem to have any local name for these objects1 although they are so common and conspicuous2 one wonders why our name-inventing forefathers did not bestow on them some descriptive title4 ,their ,english name is 8sea-anemone10 a term derived from their resemblance to the anemone flower4 ,it is only when they are covered by the water1 however1 that they deserve the name of anemone1 for then they open out like a bud and spread out circles of leaf-like projections1 much as an opening daisy or dandelion does4 ,they usually remain open during the whole time that the tide is up2 when the water goes back again these leaves all curl in towards the middle of the anemone and are folded up inside1 leaving only a little dimple on the top to indicate where they have disappeared4 ,sea-anemones1 however1 are by no means flowers4 ,their jelly-like consistency and their habits would lead us to classify them as animals1 and this they undoubtedly are4 ,though they seem to be rooted to one spot1 and to open and close like a plant1 their real habits are those of an animal4 ,as a matter of fact1 they are carnivorous animals2 they first kill their victims by poisoning them1 and afterwards devour them4 ,if they had the power of moving rapidly in pursuit of prey1 they would be as deadly to the general population of the beach as are the most venomous snakes to the creatures on land4 ,as it is1 they account for a very considerable number of the beach inhabitants by simply lying in wait and grasping the little animals that happen to stray within their reach4 ,illustration3 ,sea-anemones4 ,the beautiful circles of leaflets which we see so regularly arranged are really active grasping tentacles1 armed with whole batteries of little poisonous stings4 ,with these tentacles they seize hold of any little creature1 such as a 8sholtie0 or a young crab1 that happens to move over them4 ,the poor animal is held fast in spite of all its struggles1 tentacle after tentacle is brought up by the anemone to grasp it1 while hundreds of fine stinging darts discharge into it their poison1 and the victim1 its struggles gradually becoming more and more feeble1 is ultimately drawn into the centre of the animal1 where lie its mouth and its stomach4 ,then the tentacles are all closed in over the prey1 and remain thus closed for a time--a day or several days1 according to the size of the animal caught4 ,during this time the process of digestion is going on1 and when it is completed the skeleton and useless parts of the animal are discharged by the same opening as that by which it was taken in1 and the anemone once more spreads its tentacles to wait for its next victim4 ,it is not only living animals that the anemone will devour4 ,anything of animal nature1 dead or alive1 is grist to its mill2 and though it has no eyes1 it can quite well distinguish what is good for food4 ,a waving branch of seaweed borne towards it by currents in the water is quite ignored1 while a bit of flesh is never allowed to come in contact with the tentacles without an effort being made to secure it4 ,by some natural power1 whether by the sense of smell or of taste or by some other sense unknown to us1 the creature distinguishes unfailingly what it needs4 ,it is great fun to feed it with small portions of limpet or of whelk1 and by doing so one can see exactly how the process of feeding is carried on4 ,one might imagine that the anemone would easily fall a prey to larger and stronger animals4 ,it has no hard skin or shell to protect it1 and its beautiful jelly-like appearance would suggest to any hungry fish or crab that it is not only easy to demolish but would form a juicy morsel4 ,yet it does not seem to be in any danger from such enemies4 ,i was once amusing myself by throwing little pieces of bait into the sea among a crowd of sillocks4 ,along with the bait1 which consisted of limpet and fish1 ,i threw in a morsel of one of these red anemones4 ,a bold young sillock immediately snapped it up4 ,then something seemed to go wrong1 for the poor young fish suddenly shot the anemone out of its mouth and swam off without so much as looking at the other bait which ,i threw all round about it4 ,the piece of anemone was less palatable than it looked4 ,strangely enough an anemone is not much inconvenienced by being cut into bits4 ,the individual pieces if put into the sea again close up and grow into new animals4 ,no doubt the piece which the sillock swallowed was fully alive1 and stung the mouth and throat of its captor so severely that the fish was only too glad to be rid of it4 ,all anemones are not red in colour like those of which we have been speaking4 ,there is a great number of different kinds of these creatures round our shores1 but most of them are only to be found by careful searching4 ,some are found in rock-pools2 these are generally coloured more or less like the seaweeds in the pools4 ,others are found only in dark places2 under large stones or boulders near low-water mark they grow in all attitudes--upright1 sideways1 and upside down--attached by their base to the surface of the stone4 ,the greatest variety of them ,i ever saw was found among the stones of a little jetty or pier1 which was being taken down to make room for a larger pier4 ,the under surface and the sides of the stones on this pier were simply covered with anemones of all sizes1 shapes1 and colours4 ,the various kinds of anemone differ not only in colour but also in size and shape4 ,some are minute things1 with a thin body or stalk crowned at the top with long1 fine tentacles1 which they wave about actively through the water in search for small prey4 ,others again are large1 and one kind1 known as the dahlia1 which is common in ,orkney1 attains to gigantic proportions2 when its tentacles are expanded it is as wide across the top as the mouth of a large breakfast cup4 ,the dahlia is variously coloured1 sometimes dark crimson1 the tentacles being marked with broad rings of crimson and white1 sometimes green with red markings4 ,the outside of its body is usually covered with bits of gravel and broken shells1 so that when the animal closes up there is nothing to be seen but a rounded heap of gravel4 ,when open it is a magnificent creature1 and its broad1 tapering tentacles shine with an iridescent light4 ,illustration3 ,dahlia anemone4 ,part ,,iv4--,legend and ,lay4 ,,the ,,old ,,gods4 ,in the north of ,europe there lived long ago that race of people whom we know as the ,norsemen--tall1 fair-haired men1 strong and warlike1 and as much at home on sea as on land4 ,they came to ,britain in great numbers at different times1 and many of them settled there4 ,we read of them sometimes as ,vikings1 sometimes as ,danes1 and sometimes as ,normans4 ,the ,saxon settlers of a still earlier time were of the same kindred4 ,we have already told the story of their settlement in ,orkney1 and of the earldom which they established there4 ,everything that we can find out about this wonderful race of sea-rovers and warriors is of interest to us2 for while most of the lowland dwellers of ,scotland and ,england have some ,norse blood in their veins1 we who live in these northern islands regard ourselves as the lineal descendants of those ,vikings4 ,before the ,norsemen became ,christians1 they believed in many gods and goddesses4 ,they had gods of the sky and of the sea1 of spring and of summer1 of thunder and lightning1 of frost and of storm4 ,many a strange tale they told of the doings of their gods1 and most of those tales are really pictures of the processes that take place in nature--of the wars between wind and sea1 between light and darkness1 and between sun and frost4 ,in the beginning1 they believed1 there was the great ,spirit1 the ,creator4 ,of him they have no tales to tell4 ,then the world was made--or rather the worlds1 for the ,norsemen thought that besides this world of men there were a world of the gods1 a world of the giants1 and other worlds4 ,between ,asgard1 the home of the gods1 and ,midgard1 the world of men1 a beautiful bridge was built1 which we call the rainbow4 ,odin was the highest of the gods4 ,he was the god of wisdom and of victory1 and the friend of heroes4 ,men spoke of him as tall and strong1 with long1 flowing hair and beard1 and wearing a wide blue mantle flecked with white1 as the blue sky is flecked with fleecy clouds4 ,on his shoulders sat two ravens1 ,thought and ,memory4 ,they roamed over the world every day1 and came back at night to whisper in his ear all they had seen and heard4 ,at his feet crouched two wolves1 which he fed with his own hand4 ,odin had three palaces in ,asgard4 ,one of these was ,valhalla1 the home of heroes2 and hither came at their death all the brave men ,odin loved so well4 ,he sent forth beautiful maidens to hover over every field of battle1 and to carry home to ,valhalla those who fell in the fight4 ,in ,valhalla the brave lived for ever4 ,they spent their days in fighting1 as they had loved to do on earth2 but every evening the warriors returned to the hall of feasting1 unhurt1 and the best of friends4 ,such was the ,norsemen's idea of a heaven for heroes4 ,odin gave men wisdom as well as courage4 ,only through suffering1 however1 did he become the god of wisdom4 ,it happened on this wise4 ,far below the world of the giants was a crystal spring which watered the roots of the tree of life--a great tree reaching up to heaven4 ,this well was the fountain of wisdom1 and whoever drank of it became wise4 ,it was guarded by a giant called ,mimir1 or ,memory4 ,mimir was older than the gods1 and wiser than they1 for he remembered all things4 ,odin went down below the world of the giants one day1 and he said to ,mimir1 8,give me a drink of the clear water of your well40 8,ah10 said ,mimir1 8this water is never given to any except at a great price4 ,you must be willing to give up the most precious thing you possess before you can drink at ,mimir's fountain40 8,be it so10 replied ,odin2 8,i will give whatever you ask40 ,mimir looked at him1 admiring his courage1 and at length replied1 8,if you would drink1 you must leave with me one of your eyes40 ,this was a great price to pay1 but ,odin did not flinch4 ,he drank of the fountain1 and came back to ,asgard with only one eye1 but he had won the wisdom he desired4 ,thor was the god of thunder2 he was the champion of the gods1 and defended ,asgard against the giants4 ,his was the largest palace in ,asgard2 it had five hundred and forty halls and many great doors1 and was called by a name which means ,lightning4 ,thor wore a crown of stars upon his head1 and rode in a chariot drawn by two goats1 from whose hoofs and teeth flashed sparks of fire4 ,to ,thor belonged three very precious things4 ,the first was his mighty hammer1 with which he fought the frost giants4 ,the second was his belt of strength3 when he girded himself with this his strength was doubled4 ,the third was his iron gauntlet3 with this he grasped his famous hammer1 which he made red-hot when he fought the giants4 ,loki was the spirit of evil and mischief4 ,having been banished from ,asgard for his wickedness1 he lived many years in giant-land1 rejoicing in his evil deeds4 ,he had three children1 each as full of evil as himself4 ,so much mischief did they work that ,odin looked down from ,asgard with a grave countenance4 8,this must not be10 he said2 8,loki's children will fill the world with evil40 ,so ,odin fared forth to giant-land4 ,one of the evil brood he sent to the under world of darkness1 and one he threw into the sea4 ,the third1 ,fenris the wolf1 was so strong that ,odin spared him4 8,if he were to live with the gods10 he said1 8his strength might be turned to good instead of ill40 ,so he took ,fenris the wolf up to ,asgard1 to see whether he would learn goodness with his strength4 ,who among the gods would care for the wolf-spirit8 ,brave ,tyr was ready with the answer4 8,father ,odin10 he cried1 8,i delight in strength4 ,let me have the charge of this fierce fellow2 ,i care not if the task be hard and dull40 ,so ,fenris became his charge4 ,he fed him with sheep and oxen1 and took him with him upon his journeys4 ,but ,fenris did not learn the ways of the gods4 ,his muscles were like iron1 and his teeth stronger than steel1 but his heart remained savage and cruel4 ,one night ,odin called the gods together4 8,sons10 he said1 8,i have looked upon ,fenris1 and seen his cruel strength4 ,there is no love in his eyes1 and no thought of good in his heart4 ,day by day he becomes stronger for evil4 ,we must bind him1 or he will destroy us40 ,they listened1 and saw that the counsel of ,odin was good4 8,come with me10 said ,thor the mighty2 8,i will forge a chain that will hold him fast40 ,all night long the gods watched ,thor toiling at his anvil1 dealing great blows upon the glowing iron1 and sending sparks like shooting-stars through the darkness4 ,when morning came the massive chain was finished4 8,come1 ,fenris10 called ,thor1 8you are strong2 let us see you break this chain which ,i have made40 ,fenris allowed them to bind him with the heavy links3 when they had done so1 he stretched his huge limbs1 and the thick iron snapped like a thread of silk4 ,the gods kept silence as ,fenris walked away4 ,again ,thor led them to his forge2 again he toiled all night1 hammering and shaping great bars of steel4 ,when morning came1 another chain was ready1 ten times stronger than the first4 ,but this chain also snapped like a spider's thread before the might of ,fenris4 ,the gods once more sat in council1 and ,odin's face was grave4 8,great indeed is the power of evil10 said the ,all-wise1 8but the power of good must be greater still4 ,sons1 let us call to our aid the skill of the dwarfs4 ,tyr shall tell them of our need1 and they will help us to bind the enemy40 ,like an arrow from the bow1 ,tyr sped from ,asgard to the cave of the dwarfs1 the skilful workers in gold and gems1 and gladly they lent their aid to ,father ,odin4 ,three nights they toiled in the darkness1 and then they brought to ,tyr a delicate chain which might have been spun from a cobweb4 8,here is thy chain1 ,o ,tyr10 they said4 8,fierce ,fenris cannot escape from its bands40 ,when ,tyr came back to ,asgard1 ,fenris was called once more to test his strength4 ,he looked on the delicate thread1 and he trembled2 yet he would not seem to be afraid4 8,if one of you will place his hand in my mouth1 so that there may be fair play1 ,i will let you bind me10 he replied4 ,the gods looked in one another's faces4 ,who would dare the power of the wolf8 ,brave ,tyr stepped forward and put his arm between the wolf's jaws4 ,the tiny chain was wound round ,fenris4 ,he rose to stretch himself and shake it off1 but it held him fast4 ,with a wild howl he gnashed his teeth together1 and ,tyr stood before the gods without his strong right arm4 ,then a great shout arose in ,asgard1 8,hail to ,tyr6 he has given his right hand to save the world from evil40 ,it was echoed from the hills1 and rang through the caves of the dwarfs4 8,the chain of the dwarfs is mighty10 they said1 8but stronger is the brave heart of ,tyr40 ,so wisdom and goodness together were more than a match for strength and evil4 ,baldur was the god of light4 ,he was the fairest of all that dwelt in ,asgard1 the best beloved of gods and men4 ,wherever he went he carried with him that kindness and love which is to the heart of man what light is to the sky4 ,every one loved him but ,loki2 the spirit of evil hated the goodness that was in ,baldur4 ,baldur's palace was the home of all that was bright and pure4 ,it was built of the blue of the sky and the clear crystal of running water4 ,here he lived in peace1 for no evil thing could enter4 ,but ,baldur became sad and troubled1 for he dreamed that his life was in danger4 ,then his mother went abroad over the whole world1 and made everything promise not to hurt ,baldur4 ,who would harm the beautiful god8 ,earth1 air1 and water1 beasts and birds1 and plants and flowers--all things promised never to hurt him4 ,so his mother returned to ,asgard with joy1 but still ,baldur was sad4 ,then the gods invented a kind of game to cheer his heart4 ,they made him stand in the midst while they threw at him weapons and all hurtful things1 to show that nothing could do him harm2 and thus they amused themselves many days4 ,in the meantime ,loki disguised himself as an old woman1 and went to ,baldur's mother4 ,he said he marvelled that ,baldur was not hurt1 and then the mother told him of the promise which all things had made never to harm her son4 8,what6 have all things promised this80 asked ,loki4 8,yes10 was the reply2 8all things have promised except one weak little plant1 the mistletoe1 which grows far away1 and which ,i did not think it worth while to ask40 ,loki rejoiced in his evil heart when he heard this4 ,he hurried to the place where the mistletoe grew1 and plucked a twig of it1 which by his magic he made into a spear4 ,then he came back to ,asgard1 where the gods were playing their game of throwing spears at ,baldur4 8,why do you not join in the game80 he asked one of the gods4 8,because ,i am blind10 he replied4 8,for the honour of ,baldur you should throw a spear at him10 ,loki went on4 8,i have no spear to throw10 answered the blind god4 ,then ,loki put into his hand the mistletoe spear1 and helped him to aim it4 ,the spear pierced ,baldur through the heart1 and he fell dead4 ,then there were grief and anger in ,asgard2 weeping and mourning were heard for the first time among the gods4 ,odin sent a message to the daughter of ,loki1 who ruled over the world of the dead1 and asked her to set ,baldur free4 ,she replied that he would be set free if every living thing would weep for him2 but if a single creature refused to weep1 he could not return4 ,then the gods went through all the earth1 and prayed all things living to weep for ,baldur4 ,one old woman alone refused1 and so ,baldur could not be set free4 ,the old woman was no other than ,loki1 who had taken this form in order to hide himself4 ,after the death of ,baldur came a gloomy time in ,asgard4 ,the gods had fierce wars with the frost-giants1 and were defeated4 ,this time is called 8the twilight of the gods40 ,but even then they looked forward to a better time which was to come1 when ,baldur should return1 and all should be light and joy and peace4 ,thus the old ,norsemen gave us the beautiful tale of ,baldur1 the sun-god4 ,when the days are short in winter1 the time of the mistletoe1 ,baldur is dead2 but when spring returns1 the war with the frost-giants is over1 and ,baldur returns with light and joy to the northern lands4 ,a ,,vanishing ,,island4 ,eynhallow--the 8holy island0--lies in the middle of the fierce tideway that separates the ,orcadian mainland from ,rousay1 the ,hrolfsey of the ,sagas4 8,eynhallow frank1 ,eynhallow free1 ,eynhallow stands in the middle of the sea2 ,with a roaring roost on every side1 ,eynhallow stands in the middle of the tide40 ,so runs an old island rhyme1 and surely never was there an island so beaten upon and shouted round by the angry tides4 ,it sets a black front of jagged rocks to the ,atlantic on the west1 and the great billows1 rushing on the rocks1 send spouts of spray high in the air1 to whirl eastward over the gradual slope of the isle4 ,all day long the tide sweeps past on either side1 boiling and eddying like a swift and deep river4 ,when the wind is in the north-west and a strong ebb-tide is running1 then is the time to see the roosts in all their glory2 for the inrolling ocean swell meets the outrushing tide in the narrow channels1 and the white waves leap and roar as if some 8wallowing monster spouted ,his foam fountains in the sea40 ,to see this mad turmoil of the roost on a wild winter day is strange and terrible2 but when the white breakers shout and toss themselves in the sunlight of a still ,june morning there is a paradoxical charm in the sudden outburst of leaping1 sparkling foam amid the blue waters1 unruffled of any wind1 that the wildest storm of winter can never claim4 ,there is an even stronger fascination in the swift1 dark1 silent rush of the tides1 ceaseless along the shores1 sweeping in with the flood and whirling out again with the ebb1 and with the little green isle in their midst setting its steep front to the angry ocean1 but sheltering with its two long eastward points a quiet sandy bay where no current ever comes4 ,all along the coast1 on either side of ,eynhallow ,sound1 are low green mounds1 marking the places where once were the homes of the prehistoric ,orcadians1 that ,celtic or ,pictish race which the conquering ,norsemen destroyed so completely that there is not in all the place-names of the isles any trace of their forgotten tongue4 ,amidst such surroundings1 one has only to look at ,eynhallow to know that it must have gathered legend and tradition in the long years4 ,in ,rousay there still lingers a tale of the breaking of the spell that held ,eynhallow sea-bound2 for 8once upon a time0 the isle was enchanted1 and visible to human eyes only at rare intervals4 ,it would rise suddenly out of the sea1 and vanish as suddenly before any mortal could reach it4 ,and if any one should feel inclined to doubt this tale1 can we not point him to the isle of ,heather-,bleather1 which is still held by the spell of the sea-folk1 and appears and disappears even unto this day8 ,when ,eynhallow was still a vanishing island1 it became known in ,rousay that if any man1 seeing the isle1 should hold steel in his hand and1 taking boat1 go out through the tides1 never looking at aught but the island1 nor ever letting go the steel till he leaped on to its virgin shore1 that man should break the spell and win the isle from the sea-folk for his own people4 ,after many failures--and who can tell how many a brave heart went down the tide to the sea-trows in that perilous venture8--there came at last the hour and the man2 the vanishing isle was won from the waters1 and left standing 8in the middle of the tide40 ,if there be yet any man brave enough to try the adventure of the vanishing island1 ,heather-,bleather awaits his coming4 ,i have never met any person who would confess to having seen that mysterious isle1 but many of the dwellers by the roosts have spoken to those who saw it rise green out of the waters4 ,this island is the home of the ,fin-men or ,sea-men 7not to be too rashly identified with the sea-trows71 a race of beings who play a prominent part in ,orcadian folk-lore4 ,in ,rousay they tell of a maiden mysteriously rapt from the hillside over the sea1 and sought in vain by her kindred4 ,long years after1 8when grief was calm and hope was dead10 the lost girl's father and brothers were at sea in their fishing-boat1 when there rolled down upon them one of those dense banks of sea-fog so common in the ,north in summer4 ,the fishermen knew not where they were1 but sailed on until their boat grounded on an island which at first they took to be ,eynhallow4 ,they soon found1 however1 that they were on an island they had never seen before1 and on going up to a 8white house0 they found in the 8guid-wife0 who admitted them their long lost daughter and sister4 ,she welcomed them1 and in a little time her husband and his brother came in from the sea in 8wisps0 7the local name for great rolls of heather 8simmons10 or ropes1 used in thatching houses74 ,others say that they came in the guise of seals1 and cast off their skins4 ,be that as it may1 they treated their human connections well and hospitably4 ,when the time came for the men to leave for home1 the woman refused to accompany them1 but she gave her father a knife1 and told him that so long as he kept it he could come to the isle of the waters whenever he pleased4 ,just as the boat put to sea the knife slipped from the old man's hand into the water2 in a moment the fog swallowed the island1 and no man has set foot on it since4 ,in summer and autumn evenings1 when the sea-fog comes rolling up in great banks from the ,atlantic1 and the westering sun fills the hollows between with fantastic lights and shadows--when the islands seem all to shift and change1 appearing and disappearing among the huge masses of white vapour1 it requires no very strong imagination to see once more the green isle of ,heather-,bleather riding the waters1 real and solid as its sister of ,eynhallow1 won so long since from the sea-folk4 ,of its old enchantment the isles-folk say that ,eynhallow still retains some small part4 ,no steel or iron stake1 such as are used for tethering cattle1 will remain in its soil after sunset4 ,of their own motion they leap from the ground at the moment when the sea swallows the sun4 ,then1 again1 no rat or mouse can live upon the island1 and it is not long since it was usual to bring boatloads of earth from ,eynhallow to lay under the foundations of new houses1 and under the corn-stacks in the farmyard4 ,it was firmly believed that through the charmed earth no mouse or rat could pass4 ,,duncan ,j4 ,,robertson 7,the ,scots ,magazine74 ,by ,permission4 ,since the preceding article first appeared1 a very interesting discovery has been made on ,eynhallow1 which may help to explain both the name of the island--the 8,holy ,isle0--and the existence of so many supernatural legends regarding it4 ,references are made in the ,sagas to a monastery in ,orkney in ,norse times1 and it is recorded that an abbot from this monastery was appointed to that of ,melrose in #aage4 ,many probable sites were suggested as having been occupied by this monastery1 but no remains could be found1 and some doubt was felt as to whether it ever really existed in ,orkney at all4 ,in the year #aijj1 however1 ,professor ,dietrichson1 a ,norwegian1 examined the ruins on ,eynhallow1 and was able to show that they are the long-sought remains of the lost monastery--small in size1 but complete in all the details of a ,cistercian monastery of the period referred to in the ,sagas4 ,,helen ,,waters3 ,a ,,legend ,,of ,,sule ,,skerry4 ,the mountains of ,hoy1 the highest of the ,orkney ,islands1 rise abruptly out of the ocean to an elevation of fifteen hundred feet1 and terminate on one side in a cliff1 sheer and stupendous as if the mountain had been cut down through the middle and the severed portion of it buried in the sea4 ,immediately on the landward side of this precipice lies a soft green valley1 embosomed among huge black cliffs1 where the sound of the human voice or the report of a gun is reverberated among the rocks till it gradually dies away into soft and softer echoes4 ,the hills are intersected by deep and dreary glens1 where the hum of the world is never heard1 and the only voices of life are the bleat of the lamb and the shriek of the eagle4 ,the breeze wafts not on its wings the whisper of the woodland1 for there are no trees on the island2 the roar of the torrent stream and the sea's eternal moan for ever sadden those solitudes of the world4 ,the ascent of the mountain is in some parts almost perpendicular1 and in all exceedingly steep2 but the admirer of ,nature in her grandest and most striking aspects will be amply compensated for his toil1 upon reaching their summits1 by the magnificent prospect which they afford4 ,towards the north and east1 the vast expanse of the ocean1 and the islands1 with their dark heath-clad hills1 their green vales1 and gigantic cliffs1 expand below as far as the eye can reach4 ,the view towards the south is bounded by the lofty mountains of ,scaraben and ,morven1 and by the wild hills of ,strathnaver and ,cape ,wrath1 stretching towards the west4 ,in the direction of the latter1 and far away in mid-ocean1 may be seen1 during clear weather1 a barren rock called ,sule ,skerry1 which superstition in former days had peopled with mermaids and monsters of the deep4 ,this solitary spot had long been known to the ,orcadians as the haunt of sea-fowl and seals1 and was the scene of frequent shooting excursions1 though such perilous adventures have been long since abandoned4 ,it is associated in my mind with a wild tale1 which ,i have heard in my youth1 though ,i am uncertain whether or not the circumstances which it narrates are yet in the memory of living men4 ,on the opposite side of the mountainous island of which ,i speak1 and divided from it by a frith of several miles in breadth1 lie the flat serpentine shores of the principal island or ,mainland1 where1 upon a gentle slope1 at a short distance from the sea-beach1 may still be traced the site of a cottage1 once the dwelling of a humble couple of the name of ,waters1 belonging to the class of small proprietors4 ,their only child ,helen1 at the time to which my narration refers1 was just budding into womanhood2 and though uninitiated into what would now be considered the indispensable requisites of female education1 was yet not altogether unaccomplished for the simple times in which she lived1 and1 though a child of nature1 had a grace beyond the reach of art4 ,henry ,graham1 the accepted lover of ,helen ,waters1 was the son of a small proprietor in the neighbourhood2 and being of the same humble rank with herself1 and1 though not rich1 removed from poverty1 their views were undisturbed by the dotage of avarice or the fears of want1 and the smiles of approving friends seemed to await their approaching union4 ,in the ,orkneys it was customary for the bridegroom to invite the wedding guests in person2 for which purpose1 a few days previous to the marriage1 young ,graham1 accompanied by a friend1 took a boat and proceeded to the island of ,hoy in order to request the attendance of a family residing there2 which done1 on the following day they joined a party of young men upon a shooting excursion to ,rackwick1 a village romantically situated on the opposite side of the island4 ,they left the house of their friends on a bright1 calm autumnal morning1 and began to traverse the wild and savage glens which intersect the hills1 where their progress might be guessed at by the reports of their guns1 which gradually became fainter and fainter among the mountains1 and at last died away altogether in the distance4 ,that night and the following day passed1 and they did not return to the house of their friends2 but the weather being extremely fine1 it was supposed they had extended their excursion to the opposite coast of ,caithness1 or to some of the neighbouring islands1 so that their absence created no alarm whatever4 ,the same conjectures also quieted the anxieties of the bride1 until the morning previous to that of the marriage1 when her alarm could no longer be suppressed4 ,a boat was manned in all haste1 and dispatched to ,hoy in quest of them1 but did not return that day nor the succeeding night4 ,the morning of the wedding day dawned at last bright and beautiful1 but still no intelligence arrived of the bridegroom and his party2 and the hope which lingered to the last1 that they would still make their appearance in time1 had prevented the invitations from being postponed1 so that the marriage party began to assemble about midday4 ,while the friends were all in amazement1 and the bride in a most pitiable state1 a boat was seen crossing from ,hoy1 and hope once more began to revive2 but1 when her passengers landed1 they turned out to be the members of the family invited from that island1 whose surprise at finding how matters stood was equal to that of the other friends4 ,meantime all parties united in their endeavours to cheer the poor bride1 for which purpose it was agreed that the company should remain1 and that the festivities should go on--an arrangement to which the guests the more willingly consented1 from a lingering hope that the absentees would still make their appearance1 and partly with a view to divert in some measure the painful suspense of the bride2 while she1 on the other hand1 from feelings of hospitality1 exerted herself1 though with a heavy heart1 to make her guests as comfortable as possible1 and by the very endeavour to put on an appearance of tranquillity acquired so much of the reality as to prevent her from sinking altogether under the weight of her fears4 ,meantime the day advanced1 the festivities went on1 and the glass began to circulate freely4 ,the absence of the principal actor of the scene was so far forgotten that at length the music struck up1 and dancing commenced with all the animation which that exercise inspires4 ,things were going on in this way when1 towards night1 and during one of the pauses of the dance1 a loud rap was heard at the door1 and a gleam of hope was seen to lighten every face1 when there entered1 not the bridegroom and his party1 but a wandering lunatic named ,annie ,fae1 well known and not a little feared in all that countryside4 ,her garments were little else than a collection of fantastic and parti-coloured rags1 bound close around her waist with a girdle of straw1 and her head had no other covering than the dark tangled locks that hung1 snake-like1 over her wild and weather-beaten face1 from which peered forth her small1 deep1 sunk eyes1 gleaming with the light of insanity4 ,before the surprise and dismay excited by her sudden and unwelcome appearance had subsided1 she addressed the company in the following wild and incoherent manner1-- 8,hech1 sirs1 but here's a merry meeting indeed4 ,plenty o' gude meat and drink here1 and nae expense spared6 ,aweel1 it's no a' lost neither2 this blithe bridal will mak' a braw burial1 and the same feast will do for baith4 ,but ,i'll no detain you langer1 but jog on upon my journey2 only ,i wad juist hint that1 for decency sake1 ye suld stop that fine fiddling and dancing40 ,having thus spoken1 she made a low curtsy1 and hurried out of the house1 leaving the company in that state of painful excitement which1 in such circumstances1 even the ravings of a poor deranged wanderer could not fail to produce4 ,in this state we too may leave them for the present1 and proceed with the party who had set off on the preceding day in search of the bridegroom and his friends4 ,the latter were traced to ,rackwick2 but there no intelligence could be gained1 except that some days previous a boat1 having on board several sportsmen1 had been seen putting off from the shore1 and sailing away in the direction of ,sule ,skerry4 ,the weather continuing fine1 the searching party hired a large boat1 and proceeded to that remote and solitary rock1 upon which1 as they neared it1 they could discover nothing1 except swarms of seals1 which immediately began to flounder towards the water's edge4 ,a large flock of sea-fowl arose from the centre of the rock with a deafening scream2 and upon approaching the spot1 they beheld1 with dumb amazement and horror1 the dead bodies of the party of whom they had come in search1 but so mangled and disfigured by the sea-fowl that they could barely be recognized4 ,it appeared that these unfortunates upon landing had forgotten their guns in the boat1 which had slipped from her fastenings1 and left them upon the rock1 where they had at last perished of cold and hunger4 ,fancy can but feebly conceive1 and still less can words describe1 the feelings with which the lost men must have beheld their bark drifting away over the face of the waters1 and found themselves abandoned in the vast solitude of the ocean4 ,with what agony must they have gazed upon the distant sails1 gliding over the deep1 but keeping far aloof from the rock of desolation4 ,how must their horrors have been aggravated by the far-off view of their native hills1 lifting their lonely peaks above the wave1 and awakening the dreadful consciousness that they were still within the grasp of humanity1 and yet no arm was stretched forth to save them2 while the sun was riding high in the heavens1 and the sea basking in his beams below1 and ,nature looking with reckless smiles upon their dying agonies6 ,as soon as the stupor of horror and amazement had subsided1 the party placed the dead bodies in their boat1 and1 crowding all sail1 stood for the ,orkneys4 ,they landed at night upon the beach1 immediately below the house where the wedding guests were assembled2 and there1 while debating in what manner to proceed1 they were overheard by the insane wanderer1 the result of whose visit has already been recorded4 ,she had scarcely left the house1 when a low sound of voices was heard approaching4 ,an exclamation of joy broke from the bride4 ,she rushed out of the house with outstretched arms to embrace her lover1 and the next moment1 with a fearful shriek1 fell upon his corpse6 ,with that shriek reason and memory passed away for ever4 ,she was carried back delirious1 and died towards morning4 ,the bridal was changed into a burial1 and ,helen ,waters and her lover slept in the same grave6 ,,john ,,malcolm4 7,adapted47 7,native of ,firth1 ,orkney2 #agie-ahde47 ,a ,,legend ,,of ,,boray ,,island4#a ,in the far-off ,northern ,islands1 ,where the wild waves ever flow1 ,i have heard a wondrous legend ,of the days of long ago4 ,there1 amid the circling waters1 ,boray ,isle lies all alone1 ,silent ever1 save at nightfall ,on the eve of good ,st4 ,john4#b ,those who in the faith of ,odin ',neath the waves have sunk for aye1 ,are as sea-beasts doomed to wander ,till the dawn of ,judgment ,day4 ,once a year on ,boray ,island ,they revisit scenes of earth1 ,and1 their ancient forms resuming1 ,hold their wild unhallowed mirth4 ,on the shore their sealskins leaving1 ,they in revels pass the time1 ,till the midnight hour resoundeth ,from ,st4 ,magnus' distant chime4 ,at the solemn knell the dancers ,in wild haste their guise regain1 ,and as seals once more appearing ,plunge below the waves again4 ,long ago a ,northern fisher ,in a storm was left alone1 ,and to ,boray ,isle was driven ,on the eve of good ,st4 ,john4 ,there saw the ghostly revels-- ,music wild fell on his ear2 ,and he snatched a cast-off sealskin1 ,and he hid in mortal fear4 ,all the evening long he watched them1 ,till he heard ,st4 ,magnus' chime-- ,twelve deep tones proclaimed the hour ,when was o'er the fated time4 ,at the solemn knell the dancers ,in wild haste their guise regain-- ,all save one2 a fair sea-maiden1 ,seeking for her robe in vain4 ,all the others plunged and left her1 ,and no more could ,eric bide1 ,but his friendly shelter leaving1 ,hurried to the maiden's side4 ,flung his fisher mantle round her2 ,with the ,cross he signed her o'er2 ,and with loving words addressed her1 ,bidding her to fear no more4 8,fairest one6 no longer fated ,as a wild sea-beast to roam1 ,come and be my bride1 my treasure1 ,mistress of my hearth and home4 8,thou shalt be a christened woman ,by the help of good ,st4 ,john1 ,and at blessed ,magnus' altar ,holy ,church shall make us one40 ,so he spake1 and so he won her1 ,and he took her to his home2 #8,margaret' was the name they gave her1 #8,pearl' cast up from ,ocean's foam4 ,three bright years they dwelt together1 ,love and joy around her grew2 ,every day he blessed the tempest ,that his bark on ,boray threw4 ,but when spring three times had circled1 ,margaret's cheek was thin and white2 ,day by day her strength departed1 ,and she faded in his sight4 ,then she spoke1 and thus she bade him3 8,death's cold touch is on my heart1 ,but in peace from this dear homestead ,soul and body cannot part 8,till ,i know my fate for certain-- ,if the holy water shed ,on my christened brow will save me ,from the doom of ,odin's dead4 8,row me in your skiff1 my husband1 ,on the eve of good ,st4 ,john2 ,take me back to ,boray ,island1 ,lay me on the sands adown4 8,clasping fast the ,cross of ,jesus1 ,i must meet the dead alone2 ,if they still have power o'er me1 ,ere day breaks ,i shall be gone4 8,all alone you needs must leave me2 ,pass in fast and prayer the time2 ,and return when o'er the waters ,peals ,st4 ,magnus' midnight chime4 8,and if ,cross and ,chrism guard me ,from the sway of spirits foul1 ,then1 my husband1 know for certain ,christ will save my ransomed soul40 ,all her bidding he accomplished1 ,though his heart was sad and sore3 ,on the fated eve he took her1 ,laid her down on ,boray shore2 ,went where he no more could see her1 ,to the islet's farthest bound4 ,soon he heard the ghostly dancers ,with wild cries his wife surround4 ,all the evening long they tried her1 ,tempting her to turn again1 ,with weird strains of love or threatening1 ,to her life below the main4 ,sadly ,eric watched and waited1 ,passed in fast and prayer the time1 ,till at last1 o'er rippling water1 ,pealed ,st4 ,magnus' midnight chime4 ,then he rose1 and hastened to her2 ,found her on the lonely sands1 ,lying with the ,cross of ,jesus ,claspd in her folded hands4 ,to the ,islands of the ,blessed ,margaret's ransomed soul had fled1 ,and a smile of victory lingered ,on her lips1 though cold and dead4 ,,alice ,l4 ,,dundas 7,the ,honourable ,mrs4 ,john ,dundas74 #a ,boray ,island1 or ,holm of ,boray1 off ,millburn ,bay in ,gairsay4 #b ,midsummer ,eve4 ,illustration ,,songs ,,of ,,the ,,gods4 ,the ,challenge of ,thor4 ,i am the ,god ,thor1 ,i am the ,war ,god1 ,i am the ,thunderer6 ,here in my ,northland1 ,my fastness and fortress1 ,reign ,i for ever6 ,here amid icebergs ,rule ,i the nations4 ,this is my hammer1 ,milner the mighty2 ,giants and sorcerers ,cannot withstand it6 ,these are the gauntlets ,wherewith ,i wield it ,and hurl it afar off4 ,this is my girdle2 ,whenever ,i brace it ,strength is redoubled6 ,the light thou beholdest ,stream through the heavens ,in flashes of crimson ,is but my red beard ,blown by the night-wind1 ,affrighting the nations6 ,jove is my brother2 ,mine eyes are the lightning2 ,the wheels of my chariot ,roll in the thunder1 ,the blows of my hammer ,ring in the earthquake6 ,force rules the world still1 ,has ruled it1 shall rule it2 ,meekness is weakness1 ,strength is triumphant1 ,over the whole earth ,still is it ,thor's ,day6 ,thou art a ,god too4 ,o ,galilean6 ,and thus single-handed ,unto the combat1 ,gauntlet or ,gospel1 ,here ,i defy ,thee6 ,,longfellow4 ,tegner's ,drapa4#c ,i heard a voice that cried1 8,balder the ,beautiful ,is dead1 is dead60 ,and through the misty air ,passed like the mournful cry ,of sunward sailing cranes4 ,i saw the pallid corpse ,of the dead sun ,borne through the ,northern sky4 ,blasts from ,niffelheim ,lifted the sheeted mists ,around him as he passed4 ,and the voice for ever cried1 8,balder the ,beautiful ,is dead1 is dead60 ,and died away ,through the dreary night1 ,in accents of despair4 ,balder the ,beautiful1 ,god of the summer sun1 ,fairest of all the ,gods6 ,light from his forehead beamed1 ,runes were upon his tongue1 ,as on the warrior's sword4 ,all things in earth and air ,bound were by magic spell ,never to do him harm2 ,even the plants and stones-- ,all save the mistletoe1 ,the sacred mistletoe6 ,hder1 the blind old ,god1 ,whose feet are shod with silence1 ,pierced through that gentle breast ,with his sharp spear1 by fraud ,made of the mistletoe1 ,the accursed mistletoe6 ,they laid him in his ship1 ,with horse and harness1 ,as on a funeral pyre4 ,odin placed ,a ring upon his finger1 ,and whispered in his ear4 ,they launched the burning ship6 ,it floated far away ,over the misty sea1 ,till like the sun it seemed1 ,sinking beneath the waves4 ,balder returned no more6 ,so perish the old ,gods6 ,but out of the sea of ,time ,rises a new land of song1 ,fairer than the old4 ,over its meadows green ,walk the young bards and sing4 ,build it again1 ,o ye bards1 ,fairer than before6 ,ye fathers of the new race1 ,feed upon morning dew1 ,sing the new ,song of ,love6 ,the law of force is dead6 ,the law of love prevails6 ,thor1 the ,thunderer1 ,shall rule the earth no more1 ,no more1 with threats1 ,challenge the meek ,christ4 ,sing no more1 ,o ye bards of the ,north1 ,of ,vikings and of ,jarls6 ,of the days of ,eld ,preserve the freedom only1 ,not the deeds of blood4 ,,longfellow4 #c ,the ,song of ,tegner1 a ,swedish poet4 ,,the ,,song ,,of ,,harold ,,harfager4 ,the sun is rising dimly red1 ,the wind is wailing low and dread2 ,from his cliff the eagle sallies1 ,leaves the wolf his darksome valleys2 ,in the mist the ravens hover1 ,peep the wild-dogs from the cover-- ,screaming1 croaking1 baying1 yelling1 ,each in his wild accents telling1 8,soon we feast on dead and dying1 ,fair-haired ,harold's flag is flying40 ,many a crest in air is streaming1 ,many a helmet darkly gleaming1 ,many an arm the axe uprears1 ,doomed to hew the wood of spears4 ,all along the crowded ranks1 ,horses neigh and armour clanks1 ,chiefs are shouting1 clarions ringing1 ,louder still the bard is singing1 8,gather1 footmen--gather1 horsemen1 ,to the field1 ye valiant ,norsemen6 8,halt ye not for food or slumber1 ,view not vantage1 count not number2 ,jolly reapers1 forward still2 ,grow the crop on vale or hill1 ,thick or scattered1 stiff or lithe1 ,it shall down before the scythe4 ,forward with your sickles bright1 ,reap the harvest of the fight-- ,onward1 footmen--onward1 horsemen1 ,to the charge1 ye gallant ,norsemen6 8,fatal choosers of the slaughter1 ,o'er you hovers ,odin's daughter2 ,hear the choice she spreads before ye-- ,victory1 and wealth1 and glory2 ,or old ,valhalla's roaring ,hail1 ,her ever-circling mead and ale1 ,where for eternity unite ,the joys of wassail and of fight4 ,headlong forward1 foot and horsemen1 ,charge and fight1 and die like ,norsemen60 ,,sir ,,walter ,,scott4 ,illustration3 ,a woodland path1 ,binscarth4 ,,king ,,hacon',s ,,last ,,battle4 ,all was over2 day was ending ,as the foemen turned and fled4 ,gloomy red ,glowed the angry sun descending2 ,while round ,hacon's dying bed ,tears and songs of triumph blending ,told how fast the conqueror bled4 8,raise me10 said the king4 ,we raised him-- ,not to ease his desperate pain2 ,that were vain6 8,strong our foe was--but we faced him3 ,show me that red field again40 ,then with reverent hands we placed him ,high above the battle plain4 ,sudden on our startled hearing ,came the low-breathed1 stern command1-- 8,lo6 ye stand8 ,linger not--the night is nearing2 ,bear me downwards to the strand1 ,where my ships are idly steering ,off and on1 in sight of land40 ,every whispered word obeying1 ,swift we bore him down the steep1 ,o'er the deep1 ,up the tall ship's side1 low swaying ,to the storm-wind's powerful sweep1 ,and his dead companions laying ,round him--we had time to weep4 ,but the king said1 8,peace6 bring hither ,spoils and weapons1 battle-strown-- ,make no moan2 ,leave me and my dead together2 ,light my torch1 and then--begone40 ,but we murmured1 each to other1 8,can we leave him thus alone80 ,angrily the king replieth2 ,flashed the awful eye again ,with disdain3 8,call him not alone who lieth ,low among such noble slain2 ,call him not alone who dieth ,side by side with gallant men40 ,slowly1 sadly we departed2 ,reached again that desolate shore1 ,never more ,trod by him1 the brave1 true-hearted1 ,dying in that dark ship's core6 ,sadder keel from land ne'er parted1 ,nobler freight none ever bore6 ,there we lingered1 seaward gazing1 ,watching o'er that living tomb1 ,through the gloom-- ,gloom which awful light is chasing-- ,blood-red flames the surge illume6 ,lo6 ,king ,hacon's ship is blazing2 ',tis the hero's self-sought doom4 ,right before the wild wind driving1 ,madly plunging--stung by fire-- ,no help nigh her-- ,lo6 the ship has ceased her striving6 ,mount the red flames higher1 higher1 ,till1 on ocean's verge arriving1 ,sudden sinks the ,viking's pyre-- ,hacon's gone6 ,,lord ,,dufferin4 ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,haco4 ,the summer is gone1 ,haco1 ,haco2 ,the yellow year is fled2 ,and the winter is come1 ,haco1 ,that numbers thee with the dead6 ,when the year was young1 ,haco1 ,haco1 ,and the skies were blue and bright1 ,thou didst sweep the seas1 ,haco1 ,like a bird with wings of might4 ,with thine oaken galley1 proudly1 ,and thy gilded dragon-prow1 ,o'er the bounding billows1 ,haco1 ,like a sea-god thou didst go4 ,with thy barons gaily1 gaily1 ,all in proof of burnished mail1 ,in the voes of ,orkney1 ,haco1 ,thou didst spread thy prideful sail2 ,and the sturdy men of ,caithness1 ,and the land of the ,mackay1 ,and the men of ,stony ,parf1 ,haco1 ,knew that ,norway's king was nigh4 ,and the men of utmost ,lewis1 ,haco1 ,and ,skye1 with winding kyles1 ,and ,macdougall's country1 ,haco1 ,knew the monarch of the isles4 ,and the granite peaks of ,arran1 ,and the rocks that fence the ,clyde1 ,saw thy daring ,norsemen1 ,haco1 ,ramping o'er the ,scottish tide4 ,but scaith befell thee1 ,haco1 ,haco6 ,thou wert faithful1 thou wert brave2 ,but not truth might shield thee1 ,haco1 ,from a false and shuffling knave4 ,the crafty ,king of ,scots1 ,haco1 ,who might not bar thy way1 ,beguiled thee1 honest ,haco1 ,with lies that bred delay4 ,and hasty winter1 ,haco1 ,haco1 ,came and tripped the summer's heels1 ,and rent the sails of ,haco ,and swamped his conquering keels4 ,woe is me for ,haco1 ,haco6 ,on ,lorn and ,mull and ,skye ,the hundred ships of ,haco ,in a thousand fragments lie6 ,and thine oaken galley1 ,haco1 ,that sailed with kingly pride1 ,came shorn and shattered1 ,haco1 ,through the foaming ,pentland tide4 ,and thy heart sunk1 ,haco1 ,haco1 ,and thou felt that thou must die1 ,when the bay of ,kirkwall1 ,haco1 ,thou beheld with drooping eye4 ,and they led thee1 ,haco1 ,haco1 ,to the bishop's lordly hall1 ,where thy woe-struck barons1 ,haco1 ,stood to see the mighty fall4 ,and the purple churchmen1 ,haco1 ,stood to hold thy royal head1 ,and good words of hope to ,haco ,from the ,holy ,book they read4 ,then out spake the dying ,haco1 8,dear are ,god's dear words to me1 ,but read the book to ,haco ,of the kings that ruled the sea40 ,then they read to dying ,haco ,from the ancient saga hoar1 ,of ,holden and of ,harold1 ,when his fathers worshipped ,thor1 ,and they shrove the dying ,haco1 ,and they prayed his bed beside2 ,and with holy unction ,haco ,drooped his kingly head and died4 ,and in parade of death1 ,haco1 ,they stretched thee on thy bed1 ,with a purple vest for ,haco1 ,and a garland on his head4 ,and around thee1 ,haco1 ,haco1 ,were tapers burning bright1 ,and masses were sung for ,haco ,by day and eke by night4 ,and they bore thee1 ,haco1 ,haco1 ,to holy ,magnus' shrine1 ,and beside his sainted bones1 ,haco1 ,they chastely coffined thine4 ,and above thee1 ,haco1 ,haco1 ,to deck thy dreamless bed1 ,all crisp with gold for ,haco1 ,a purple pall they spread4 ,and around thee1 ,haco1 ,haco1 ,where the iron sleep thou slept1 ,through the long1 dark winter1 ,haco1 ,a solemn watch they kept4 ,and at early burst of springtime1 ,when the birds sang out with glee1 ,they took the body of ,haco ,in a ship across the sea-- ,across the sea to ,norway1 ,where thy sires make moan for thee1 ,that the last of his race was ,haco1 ,who ruled the ,western ,sea4 ,and they laid thee1 ,haco1 ,haco1 ,with thy sires on the ,norway shore1 ,and far from the isles of the sea1 ,haco1 ,that know thy name no more4 ,,john ,,stuart ,,blackie4 7,from 8,lays of the ,highlands and ,islands40 ,by permission of the ,walter ,scott ,publishing ,company47 ,illustration3 ,a modern war-fleet in ,kirkwall ,bay4 ,,the ,,old ,,man ,,of ,,hoy4 ,the ,old ,man of ,hoy ,looks out on the sea1 ,where the tide runs strong and the wave rides free2 ,he looks on the broad ,atlantic sea1 ,and the ,old ,man of ,hoy ,hath this great joy1 ,to hear the deep roar of the wide blue ocean1 ,and to stand unmoved 'mid the sleepless motion1 ,and to feel o'er his head ,the white foam spread ,from the wild wave proudly swelling2 ,and to care no whit ,for the storm's rude fit1 ,where he stands on his old rock-dwelling-- ,this rare ,old ,man of ,hoy4 ,the ,old ,man of ,hoy ,looks out on the sea1 ,where the tide runs strong and the wave rides free2 ,he looks on the broad ,atlantic sea1 ,and the ,old ,man of ,hoy ,hath this great joy1 ,to look on the flight of the wild seamew1 ,with their hoar nests hung o'er the waters blue2 ,to see them swing ,on plunging wing1 ,and to hear their shrill notes swelling1 ,and with them to reply ,to the storm's war-cry1 ,as he stands on his old rock-dwelling-- ,this rare ,old ,man of ,hoy4444 ,the ,old ,man of ,hoy ,looks out on the sea1 ,where the tide runs strong and the wave rides free2 ,he looks on the broad ,atlantic sea1 ,and the ,old ,man of ,hoy ,hath this great joy1 ,to think on the pride of the sea-kings old-- ,harolds and ,ronalds and ,sigurds bold-- ,whose might was felt ,by the cowering ,celt ,when he heard their war-cry yelling4 ,but the sea-kings are gone1 ,and he stands alone1 ,firm on his old rock-dwelling-- ,this stout ,old ,man of ,hoy4 ,but listen to me1 ,old ,man of the ,sea1 ,list to the ,skulda that speaketh by me3 ,the ,nornies are weaving a web for thee1 ,thou ,old ,man of ,hoy1 ,to ruin thy joy1 ,and to make thee shrink from the lash of the ocean1 ,and teach thee to quake with a strange commotion1 ,when over thy head ,and under thy bed ,the rampant wave is swelling2 ,and thou shalt die ',neath a pitiless sky1 ,and reel from thy old rock-dwelling-- ,thou stout ,old ,man of ,hoy6 ,,john ,,stuart ,,blackie4 7,from 8,lays of the ,highlands and ,islands40 ,by permission of the ,walter ,scott ,publishing ,company47 ,,orkney4 ,the parting beam of autumn smiles ,a farewell o'er these lonely isles2 ,capped with its fire1 the mountains soar ,like lighted beacons on the shore1 ,while far beneath1 in depth profound1 ,the tides roll through each darksome sound-- ,those passes where the troubled sea ,hurries with roar and revelry2 ,where waves dash on in headlong haste1 ,by a wide world of waters prest4 ,here ruined hall and nodding tower ,hint darkly at departed power1 ,their domeless walls1 time-worn and gray1 ,give dimly back the evening ray1 ,like gleams from days long past away4 ,saint ,magnus6 pile of ages fled1 ,thou temple of the quick and dead6 ,while they who raised thy form sublime ,have faded from the things of time2 ,while hands that reared1 and heads that planned1 ,have passed into the silent land1 ,still hath thy mighty fabric stood ',mid sweeping blast and sheeted flood4 ,above thy tower and turrets tall ,the thunder-cloud hath spread its pall1 444 ,and muttered o'er thine airy height ,its bursting accents to the night3 ,though oft the wild and wintry storm ,hath reeled around thy towering form1 ,the mighty pile still proudly rears ,its head above the wreck of years4 ,as through thy pillared aisles ,i tread1 ,where rest the gone forgotten dead1 ,each step a mournful echo calls ,to wander through the dreary walls2 ,the sullen sounds they backward throw1 ,which falter into whispers low4 ,each tombstone's frail and crumbling frame ,preserves not e'en an airy name2 ,the lines by ,friendship's fingers traced1 ,now touched by ,time's1 are half effaced2 ,the few faint letters lingering still ,are all the dead man's chronicle4 ,how often have the guests who ranged ,thy sacred labyrinths been changed6 ,of crowds1 who sang their anthems here1 ,how still each tongue--how deaf each ear6444 ,but thou like them must pass away ,beneath the hand of pale decay2 ,even now thy towering turrets feel ,the weight of ages o'er them steal2 ,thy summit in its airy waste ,rocks to the rude and rushing blast2 ,when years that wander o'er thee call ,thy time-struck fabric to its fall1 ,thy mouldering columns lone and gray ,shall shelter then the bird of prey2 ,each worshipless recess shall be ,place for their frightful revelry2 ,the raven's hoarse and funeral note ,shall o'er sepulchral ruins float4444 ,still doth the ruined palace stand1 ,a crumbling relic in the land--,tenantless fabric1 huge and high1 ,and proud in ruined majesty2 ,the verdant ivy robes thy wall1 ,weeds are the dwellers in thy hall1 ,and in the wind the tufted grass ,waves o'er thy dim and mouldering mass1 ,and freshly each returning spring ,blooms o'er thy mortal withering4 ,on darkening piles1 and waning wrecks1 ,a gay green garment oft is spread2 ,for ruin1 as in mockery1 decks ,the faded victims she hath made4 ,with time and tempest thou art bent1 ,a drear1 neglected monument1 ,lorn as some frail and aged one ,who lives when all his friends are gone6-- ,where is thy voice of music8--where ,the strains that hushed the midnight air1 ,when ,beauty woke her witching song1 ,and spellbound held the festive throng8-- ,a narrow and a nameless grave ,hath closed upon the fair and brave1 ,and all around is deadly still1 ,save when1 from some high pinnacle1 ,the raven's croak1 or owlet's wail1 ,blends with the sighing of the gale4444 ,the hoary rocks1 of giant size1 ,that o'er the land in circles rise1 ,of which tradition may not tell1 ,fit circles for the wizard's spell1 ,seen far amidst the scowling storm1 ,seem each a tall and phantom form1 ,as hurrying vapours o'er them flee1 ,frowning in grim society1 ,while like a dread voice from the past ,around them mourns the autumnal blast4444 ,yet not the works of man alone1 ,though hallowed by long ages gone1 ,charm us away in musing mood2 ,bear witness each grim solitude1 ',mid ,hoy's high shadowy mountain walls ,where mournfully the twilight falls3 ,there bosomed in a deep recess ,sleeps a dim vale of loneliness1 ,the circling hills1 all bleak and wild1 ,are o'er its slumbers darkly piled1 ,save on one side1 where far below ,the everlasting waters flow1 ,and round the precipices vast ,dance to the music of the blast4444 ,there rocks of ages sternly throw ,their shadows o'er a world below1 ,and fierce and fast each dark-brown flood ,careering comes in maddening mood3 ,o'er the sheer cliffs the waters flash1 ,and down in whitest columns dash1 ,till1 far away1 we scarce can hear ,their dying falls and murmurs drear1 ,as1 bursting o'er the dizzy verge1 ,they melt into the boiling surge4 ,here1 when1 perchance1 the voice of men ,is heard within the fairy glen1 ,deep muttering echoes start around1 ,and rocks of gloom fling back the sound1 ,while from their fragments1 rent and riven1 ,a thousand airy dwellers driven1 ,send forth a wild and dreary scream4 ,like such as breaks a fearful dream ,when ,conscience to the sleeper's gaze ,holds up the view of other days4444 ,when1 by ,night's mantle hooded o'er1 ,the heaving hills are seen no more1 ,oft blended with the torrent's dash ,are heard the thunder's startling crash1 ,and burst of billows on the shore1 ,like cannon's deep and distant roar1 ,by echoes answered loud and fast1 ,that gallop on the midnight blast1 ,as if the ,spirit of the vale ,heard in his cave the stormy wail1 ,and to the tempest rolling by ,shrieked loud his frightful mockery4444 ,where cairns of slumbering chiefs are piled1 ,and frown above the waters wild1 ,rear their hoar heads1 forlorn and dim1 ,upon the ocean's lonely brim1 ,there the fierce storm and maddening surge ,howl loud and long the warrior's dirge1 ,and blended there together rave ,through many a deep and dreary cave1 ,and waken from their sullen lair ,sea-monsters1 darkly slumbering there4 ,seen from those death-towers of the flood1 ,the ocean's mighty solitude ,widens through boundless space around1 ,vast1 melancholy1 lone1 profound2 ,so vast that thought with weary wing ,droops o'er its distant wandering1 ,and1 left behind1 again returns ,to muse upon the mouldering urns4444 ,as the rude brush of evening's wind ,leaves not a lingering trace behind ,of landscapes living in the stream1 ,like the dim scenery of a dream ,called up by ,fancy's wizard wand1 ,when ,sense is sealed by ,slumber's hand2 ,so ,time's drear blast hath swept along ,alike from record and from song ,their very names1 who now lie hid ,beneath each dusky pyramid2 ,and all that hint of them are graves ,where the green flag of ruin waves1 ,or crumbling remnant of the past ,that ivy shelters from the blast1 ,and clings to still when others flee1 ,like true love in adversity4 ,on ,noltland's solitary pile ,the last blush of the dying day ,plays like a melancholy smile ,and hectic glow on pale decay 444 ,the moss of years is on the wall1 ,and fitfully the night-winds start ,through ,bothwell's roofless ruined hall1 ,like sobs of sorrow from the heart2 ,upon each floor of cold1 damp sod ,the clustering weeds like hearse-plumes nod2 ,through chambers desolate and green ,hoots the gray owl at evening's close4 ,meant for far other guests1 ,i ween-- ,where wave-worn ,beauty might repose1 ,and find that bliss in ,love's caress ,which hallows scenes of loneliness4 ,see ,hoy's ,old ,man1 whose summit bare ,pierces the dark-blue fields of air1 ,based in the sea1 his fearful form ,glooms like the spirit of the storm1 ,an ocean ,babel1 rent and worn ,by time and tide--all wild and lorn-- ,a giant that hath warred with heaven1 ,whose ruined scalp seems thunder-riven1 ,whose form the misty spray doth shroud1 ,whose head the dark and hovering cloud1 ,around his dread and lowering mass1 ,in sailing swarms the sea-fowl pass1 ,but when the night-cloud o'er the sea ,hangs like a sable canopy1 ,and when the flying storm doth scourge ,around his base the rushing surge1 ,swift to his airy clefts they soar1 ,and sleep amidst the tempest's roar1 ,or with its howling round his peak ,mingle their drear and dreamy shriek4 ,the dying day has had its rest ,upon the mountain's lofty crest2 ,now1 o'er the ocean it has fled1 ,and to the past is gathered2 ,from stunted shrubs of foliage bared ,the farewell melodies are heard2 ,the twilight spreads a duskier veil ,upon the deep and lonely dale1 ,and1 moaning to the evening star1 ,the mountain stream is heard afar4 ,the twilight fades and night again ,claims from our time her portioned reign2 ,earth sets1 and leaves us to admire ,yon vaulted canopy of fire1 ,those burning glories of the sky1 ,those 8sparks of immortality10 ,which shed from high their living light1 ,and blaze through the blue depths of night4444 ,at such an hour1 should music stray ,soft from some isle1 far1 far away1 ,it seems to charm to silent sleep ,the murmurs of the mighty deep2 ,the torrent1 as it speeds along1 ,stills its dark waters to the song1 ,and the full bosom feels relief1 ,soothed by the mystic 8joy of grief20 ,upon the heart-chords stealing slow1 ,it hallows every cherished woe1 ,and wakes sensations in the mind1 ,wild1 beautiful1 and undefined1 ,as tones that harp-strings give the wind4 ,oh6 at such soul-inspiring strain ,the wondrous links of memory's chain1 ,though scattered far1 unite again1 ,and ,time and ,distance strive in vain4 ,again ,youth's fairy visions pass ,in morning glow o'er ,memory's glass1 ,at every magic melting fall ,they come like echoes to their call1 ,and with the dreams of vanished years ,steal forth again our smiles and tears4 ,,john ,,malcolm4 ,,scenes ,,from 8,,the ,,buccaneer40 ,night4 ,night walked in beauty o'er the peaceful sea1 ,whose gentle waters spake tranquillity2 ,with dreamy lull the rolling billow broke ,in hollow murmurs on the distant rock2 ,the sea-bird wailed along the airy steep2 ,the creak of distant oar was on the deep4 ,so still the scene1 the boatman's voice was heard2 ,the listening ear could almost catch each word2 ,from isles remote the house-dog's fitful bay ,came floating o'er the waters far away2 ,and homeward wending o'er the silent hill1 ,the lonely shepherd's song and whistle shrill2 ,the lulling murmur of the mountain flood1 ,that sung its night-hymn to the solitude2 ,the curlew's wild and desolate farewell1 ,as slow she sailed adown the darksome dell2 ,the heathcock whirring o'er the heathy vale2 ,the mateless plover's far-forsaken wail2 ,the rush of tides that round the islands ran1 ,and danced like maniacs in the moonlight wan1-- ,all formed a scene so wild1 and yet so fair1 ,as might have wooed the heart from dreams of care1 ,if aught had charms to soothe1 or balm to heal1 ,the pangs that guilt is ever doomed to feel4444 ,morning4 ,day dawns1 and from the main the mist is furled1 ,the night-cloak of a solitary world2 ,and slow emerging from the fleecy cloud ,the mountains soar like giants from the shroud4 ,high o'er the rest1 and towering to the storm1 ,glooms o'er the ocean ,hoy's majestic form2 ,from his lone head1 as roll the clouds away1 ,behold ,creation bursting into day1 ,as first it broke from night and nothingness1 ,when the ,great ,spirit brooded o'er the abyss4 ,how calm and clear the boundless waters seem1 ,as if awakening from a heavenly dream2 ,the little isles within their bosom lie1 ,like dwellers in a bright infinity2 ,the crag terrific beetling o'er the west ,beholds the heaven reflected in their breast4 ,the dark-brown hills embrace each silent bay ,that loves amid their solitude to stray2 ,and far beneath1 with low sepulchral sound1 ,moans the dark torrent through the dell profound2 ,and from the thunder-throne1 the mountain cairn1 ,shrieks to the waste the solitary erne4444 ,scenes of my song1 of earliest smiles and tears1 ,ye wake the memories of departed years6 ,the distant murmur of your mountain streams ,steals o'er my spirit with departed dreams1 ,with many a tale and recollected lay1 ,which1 like the twilight of an autumn day1 ,faint on your shores1 of wonderful and wild1 ,meet for the musing moods of ,fancy's child4 ,there have ,i roamed o'er many a soaring steep ,when the last day-gleam died along the deep1 ,and o'er the still and solitary land1 ,the distant music of the reaper band ,came soft and mournful on the pensive soul1 ,as mermaid's siren song o'er ocean's roll4 ,there have ,i gazed upon the pathless seas1 ,as on the gates of two eternities-- ,far east1 where future days shall gild the wave1 ,and west1 where all the past hath found a grave4 ,,john ,,malcolm4 ,,to ,,orkney4 ,land of the whirlpool1 torrent1 foam1 ,where oceans meet in maddening shock2 ,the beetling cliff1 the shelving holm1 ,the dark1 insidious rock2 ,land of the bleak1 the treeless moor1 ,the sterile mountain1 seared and riven2 ,the shapeless cairn1 the ruined tower1 ,scathed by the bolts of heaven2 ,the yawning gulf1 the treacherous sand2-- ,i love thee still1 my native land6 ,land of the dark1 the ,runic rhyme1 ,the mystic ring1 the cavern hoar1 ,the ,scandinavian seer1 sublime ,in legendary lore2 ,land of a thousand sea-kings' graves-- ,those tameless spirits of the past1 ,fierce as their subject ,arctic waves1 ,or hyperborean blast2 ,though polar billows round thee foam1 ,i love thee6--thou wert once my home4 ,with glowing heart and island lyre1 ,ah6 would some native bard arise ,to sing1 with all a poet's fire1 ,thy stern sublimities-- ,the roaring flood1 the rushing stream1 ,the promontory wild and bare1 ,the pyramid where sea-birds scream ,aloft in middle air1 ,the ,druid temple on the heath1 ,old even beyond tradition's breath4 ,though ,i have roamed through verdant glades1 ,in cloudless climes1 'neath azure skies2 ,or plucked from beauteous ,orient meads ,flowers of celestial dyes2 ,though ,i have laved in limpid streams ,that murmur over golden sands1 ,or basked amid the fulgent beams ,that flame o'er fairer lands2 ,or stretched me in the sparry grot1-- ,my country6 thou wert ne'er forgot4 ,,david ,,vedder4 7,native of ,deerness2 #agij-ahed47 ,,the ,,temple ,,of ,,nature4 ,talk not of temples2 there is one1 ,built without hands1 to mankind given4 ,its lamps are the meridian sun ,and all the stars of heaven2 ,its walls are the cerulean sky2 ,its floor the earth so green and fair2 ,the dome is vast immensity1-- ,all nature worships there6 ,the ,alps1 arrayed in stainless snow1 ,the ,andean ranges yet untrod1 ,at sunrise and at sunset glow ,like altar-fires to ,god6 ,a thousand fierce volcanoes blaze1 ,as if with hallowed victims rare2 ,and thunder lifts its voice in praise1-- ,all nature worships there6 ,the ocean heaves resistlessly1 ,and pours his glittering treasures forth2 ,his waves1 the priesthood of the sea1 ,kneel on the shell-gemmed earth1 ,and there emit a hollow sound1 ,as if they murmured praise and prayer2 ,on every side 'tis hallowed ground1-- ,all nature worships there6 ,the grateful earth her odours yield ,in homage1 ,mighty ,one1 to ,thee1 ,from herbs and flowers in every field1 ,from fruit on every tree2 ,the balmy dew1 at morn and even1 ,seems like the penitential tear1 ,shed only in the sight of ,heaven1-- ,all nature worships there6 ,the cedar and the mountain pine1 ,the willow on the fountain's brim1 ,the tulip and the eglantine1 ,in reverence bend to ,him2 ,the song-birds pour their sweetest lays ,from tower1 and tree1 and middle air2 ,the rushing river murmurs praise1-- ,all nature worships there6 ,then talk not of a fane1 save one1 ,built without hands1 to mankind given4 ,its lamps are the meridian sun ,and all the stars of heaven2 ,its walls are the cerulean sky2 ,its floor the earth so green and fair2 ,the dome is vast immensity1-- ,all nature worships there6 ,,david ,,vedder4 ,,appendix ,i4 ,,chronology ,,of ,,orcadian ,,history ,,to ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,earldom1 ,,with ,,related ,,contemporary ,,events4 ,certain historians assign earlier dates than those given below to the events before #icc4 ,the chronology adopted here is that which harmonizes best with the dates of events in other lands during that period4 ,approximate dates are marked 8c0 7circa72 events not directly connected with the ,earldom are in square brackets1 and their dates in lighter type4 ,a4,d4 #gh 7c47 ,agricola's visit to ,orkney4 #efc4 ,columba in ,scotland4 #ehj 7c47 ,cormac's missionary journey to ,orkney4 #eig4 ,augustine in ,england4 #ghg4 ,first recorded appearance of ,vikings in ,england4 #hjj 7c47 ,first period of ,norse colonization begins4 #hda4 ,rouen taken by the ,norsemen4 #heb4 ,norse kingdom established in ,dublin4 #hfb4 ,rurik founds the ,norse line in ,russia4 #hga4 ,alfred the ,great ,king of ,england4 #hhe4 ,siege of ,paris by the ,norsemen4 #ijj4 ,battle of ,harfursfirth--,second period of ,norse colonization begins4 -- ,iceland colonized by ,norsemen4 #ija 7c47 ,harald ,fairhair in ,orkney--,earldom established4 -- ,sigurd ,i4 earl4 #ije 7c47 ,battle with ,maelbrigda of ,ross--,sigurd's death4 -- ,guttorm1 ,sigurd's son1 earl4 #ijg 7c47 ,hallad1 son of ,rognvald1 ,earl of ,moeri1 earl4 #iaj4 ,einar ,i4 7,torf ,einar71 ,rognvald's son1 earl4 #iab4 ,rolf or ,rollo1 ,rognvald's son1 ,duke of ,normandy4 #icc4 ,arnkell1 ,erlend ,i41 and ,thorfinn ,i41 ,einar's sons1 joint-earls4 #iej4 ,king ,eric 7,bloody axe7 expelled from ,norway4 #ied4 ,eric and ,earls ,arnkell and ,erlend fall at battle of ,stainsmoor4 #ifc4 ,arnfinn1 ,havard1 ,ljot1 and ,hlodve1 ,thorfinn's sons1 joint-earls4 #ihj4 ,sigurd ,,ii4 7the ,stout71 ,hlodve's son1 earl4 #ihj4 ,discovery of ,greenland by the ,norsemen4 #ihf4 ,discovery of ,america 7,vinland7 by the ,norsemen4 #iie4 ,conversion of ,sigurd to ,christianity by ,olaf ,tryggvason4 #iih4 ,olaf ,tryggvason1 ,king of ,norway4 #ajad4 ,battle of ,clontarf--,death of ,earl ,sigurd4 -- ,sumarlid1 ,einar ,,ii41 ,brusi1 and 7later7 ,thorfinn ,,ii41 ,sigurd's sons1 joint-earls4 #ajae4 ,olaf the ,saint ,king of ,norway4 #ajae4 ,death of ,earl ,sumarlid4 #ajag4 ,knut 7,canute7 ,king of ,england4 #ajbj4 ,murder of ,einar ,,ii4 #ajbg4 ,norse kingdom established in ,southern ,italy4 #ajcj4 ,battle of ,sticklestad--,death of ,st4 ,olaf4 #ajca4 ,death of ,earl ,brusi--,thorfinn ,,ii4 sole earl4 -- ,rognvald1 ,brusi's son1 claims a share of the earldom4 #ajde4 ,battle in the ,pentland ,firth between ,rognvald and ,thorfinn4 #ajdf4 ,murder of ,rognvald in ,papa ,stronsay4 #ajef4 ,malcolm ,canmore ,king of ,scotland4 #ajeg4 ,christ's ,kirk in ,birsay founded4 #ajfd4 ,death of ,thorfinn2 his sons ,paul ,i4 and ,erlend ,,ii4 joint-earls4 #ajff4 ,harald ,hardradi visits ,orkney4 -- ,harold1 ,godwin's son1 ,king of ,england4 -- ,battle of ,stamford ,bridge4 -- ,invasion of ,duke ,william of ,normandy--,battle of ,hastings4 #ajhg4 ,moorish ,empire established in ,spain4 #ajif4 ,first ,crusade4 #ajih4 ,magnus 7,barefoot71 ,king of ,norway1 sends the ,orkney earls to ,norway1 and makes his son ,sigurd 8,king0 of ,orkney4 #aajc4 ,death of ,magnus--,sigurd ,king of ,norway4 #aajc4 ,hakon1 ,paul's son1 and ,magnus1 ,erlend's son1 joint-earls4 #aaae4 ,murder of ,earl ,magnus 7,st4 ,magnus7 in ,egilsay4 #aabb4 ,death of ,earl ,hakon2 his sons ,harald ,i4 and ,paul ,,ii4 joint-earls4 #aabg4 ,death of ,harald--,paul sole earl4 #aabi4 ,rognvald ,,ii4 7,kali7 appointed joint-earl by ,king ,sigurd4 #aace4 ,rognvald's first expedition to claim the earldom4 -- ,st4 ,magnus ,church1 ,egilsay1 founded4 #aacf4 ,rognvald's second expedition--,earl ,paul kidnapped by ,sweyn ,asleifson4 #aacg4 ,st4 ,magnus ,cathedral founded4 #aaci4 ,harald ,,ii4 7,maddadson7 joint-earl4 #aaea4 ,crusaders winter in ,orkney4 #aaeb4 ,earl ,rognvald's ,crusade to ,jerusalem4 #aaed4 ,erlend ,,iii4 joint-earl4 #aaef4 ,death of ,erlend ,,iii4 #aaeh4 ,earl ,rognvald killed4 #aaga4 ,sweyn ,asleifson's last cruise and death at ,dublin4 #aaga4 ,english invasion of ,ireland4 #aage4 ,abbot ,laurentius transferred from ,orkney 7,eynhallow7 to ,melrose4 #aaid4 ,battle of ,floravoe1 near ,bergen2 defeat of the 8,island-beardies40 #aaif4 ,shetland separated from the ,orkney earldom4 #aaig4 ,harald ,,iii4 7the ,young71 grandson of ,rognvald1 joint-earl4 #aaih4 ,death of ,harald the ,young4 #abjf4 ,death of ,earl ,harald ,,ii4 7,maddadson72 his sons ,david and ,john joint-earls4 #abad4 ,death of ,earl ,david4 #abad4 ,alexander ,,ii4 ,king of ,scotland4 #abae4 ,magna ,charta granted in ,england4 #abbb4 ,burning of ,bishop ,adam in ,caithness4 -- ,death of ,bjarne1 the poet-bishop of ,orkney4 #abca4 ,death of ,john1 the last earl of the ,norse line4 #abcb4 ,magnus ,,ii41 the first of the ,angus line1 earl4 -- ,loss of ship carrying the chief men of the ,isles from ,norway4 #abci4 ,gilbride ,i4 earl4 8 ,gilbride ,,ii4 earl4 #abdi4 ,alexander ,,iii4 ,king of ,scotland4 #abef4 ,magnus ,,iii4 earl4 #abfc4 ,king ,hakon's expedition--,battle of ,largs--,death of ,hakon at ,kirkwall4 #abff4 ,treaty of ,perth--8,annual of ,norway0 established4 #abgf4 ,magnus ,,iv4 earl4 #abhd4 ,john ,,ii4 earl4 #abhf4 ,death of ,alexander ,,iii4 of ,scotland--,margaret of ,norway heiress to the crown4 #abib4 ,death of ,margaret the 8,maid of ,norway40 #acjf4 ,robert ,bruce ,king of ,scotland4 ,according to a tradition1 the credibility of which is supported by various lines of evidence1 ,bruce passed the winter of #acjf-g in ,orkney1 not in the island of ,rathlin4 #acaj4 ,magnus ,v4 earl4 #acab4 ,treaty of ,perth confirmed at ,inverness4 #acad4 ,battle of ,bannockburn4 #acbe4 ,death of ,earl ,magnus ,v42 end of the ,angus line4 -- ,malise of ,stratherne earl4 #acec4 ,erngisl earl4 #acgi4 ,death of ,earl ,erngisl2 end of the ,stratherne line4 -- ,henry ,i4 7,st4 ,clair7 earl--,shetland restored to the earldom4 -- ,union of ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,denmark 7,union of ,calmar74 #adjj4 ,henry ,,ii4 7,st4 ,clair7 earl4 #adjf4 ,prince ,james of ,scotland captured by the ,english when on his way to ,france4 #adbj4 ,bishop ,william ,tulloch1 commissioner in ,orkney for the ,crown of ,norway4 #adbc4 ,david ,menzies of ,wemyss commissioner4 #adcd4 ,william ,st4 ,clair earl1 the last earl under ,norse rule4 #adec4 ,constantinople taken by the ,turks4 #adfh4 ,orkney and ,shetland pledged to the ,scottish ,crown4 -- ,marriage of ,james ,,iii4 of ,scotland to ,margaret of ,denmark4 #adga4 ,lands and revenues of ,earl ,william purchased by the ,scottish ,crown4 #adgb4 ,bishop ,william ,tulloch appointed to collect ,crown revenues4 #adhe4 ,henry ,st4 ,clair representative of the ,crown4 #adib4 ,first voyage of ,columbus4 #adig4 ,voyage of ,cabot to ,labrador4 #aeac4 ,battle of ,flodden--,death of ,henry ,st4 ,clair4 #aebd4 ,union of ,calmar dissolved4 #aebi4 ,battle of ,summerdale4 #aedj4 ,james ,v4 of ,scotland visits ,orkney4 #aedb4 ,mary ,queen of ,scots born4 #aefe4 ,lord ,robert ,stewart obtains a feu charter of ,orkney and ,shetland4 #aefg4 ,mary ,queen of ,scots deposed--,james ,,vi4 proclaimed--,flight of ,bothwell to ,orkney and ,shetland4 #aefh4 ,the ,islands resumed by the ,crown of ,scotland4 #aeha4 ,lord ,robert ,stewart earl4 #aehh4 ,the ,armada4 #aeib4 ,earl ,patrick ,stewart obtains the ,islands4 #afjc4 ,union of the ,crowns of ,scotland and ,england4 #afad4 ,execution of ,earl ,patrick4 ,,appendix ,,ii4 ,,norse ,,words ,,in ,,orkney ,,place-,,names4 ,the following is a list of the ,norse words most commonly found in place-names in ,orkney1 with their meaning4 ,the forms in which they now appear1 as names or parts of names1 are given in italic1 except where the old form is preserved with little change4 #a4 ,,land ,,features4 ,ass1 ridge2 -house4 ,bjarg1 rocky hill2 -berry1 -ber4 ,bratt1 steep2 brett-4 ,brekka1 slope2 -breck4 ,dal1 valley2 -dale1 -dall4 ,fjall1 hill2 -fell1 -fea1 -fiold4 ,gil1 narrow glen2 -gill4 ,grjot1 gravel2 grut-4 ,hals1 neck1 col2 hass4 ,hammar1 crag4 ,haug1 mound2 howe1 hox-4 ,hlith1 slope2 -lee4 ,hvll1 hll1 hill2 hol-1 hool-4 ,hvamm1 small valley1 grassy slope2 quholm4 ,kamb1 ridge or crest2 kame4 ,knapp1 hilltop1 knob4 ,kuml1 burial mound2 cumla-4 ,leir1 clay2 ler-4 ,mel1 sandbank1 sandy downs4 ,mor1 pl4 mos1 moor2 mous-1 -mo4 ,myri1 wet meadow2 -mire4 ,skal1 soft rock1 shale2 skel-4 ,thufa1 mound2 -too4 ,varthi1 watch-tower2 ward1 wart4 ,voll1 valley2 vel-1 -wall4 #b4 ,,fresh ,,water4 ,a1 o1 or1 burn4 ,brun1 well2 -burn4 ,fors1 waterfall2 furs-4 ,kelda1 spring4 ,oss1 burn-mouth2 oyce4 ,tjrn1 small lake2 -shun4 ,vatn1 water2 watten4 #c4 ,,shore ,,features4 ,bakki1 banks2 -back4 ,barth1 projecting headland 7edge of a hill1 beak of a ship1 etc474 ,berg1 mass of rock2 -ber1 -berry4 ,bringa1 breast2 bring4 ,eith1 isthmus2 aith1 -ay1 -a4 ,ey1 island2 -ey1 -ay1 -a4 ,eyrr1 gravel beach2 ayre4 ,fles1 flat skerry2 flashes4 ,gnp1 peak2 noup4 ,hella1 flat rock2 -hellya4 ,hellir1 cave2 -hellya4 ,hlm1 small island4 ,klett1 low rock2 -clett4 ,muli1 muzzle1 lip2 mout4 ,nef1 nv1 nose2 nevi4 ,nes1 nose2 -ness4 ,oddi1 sharp point2 od4 ,sker1 skerry4 ,stakk1 pillar rock2 stack4 ,tangl1 tongue2 -taing4 #d4 ,,sea ,,features4 ,brim1 surf4 ,efja1 backwater1 eddy2 evie4 ,fjrth1 firth2 firth1 -ford4 ,gja1 chasm1 creek2 geo4 ,glup1 throat2 gloup4 ,hafn1 harbour2 ham1 hamn-4 ,hp1 shallow bay4 ,straum1 tide-stream2 strom-4 ,vag1 narrow bay2 voe1 -wall4 ,vath1 wading-place1 ford2 waith4 ,vik1 bay2 -wick4 #e4 ,,farms ,,and ,,houses4 ,bolstadr1 dwelling2 -buster1 -bister1 -bist4 ,br1 bridge2 bro-4 ,bu1 br1 farm2 bu1 -by4 ,bygging1 building1 from byggja1 to settle1 to build2 -biggin4 ,garth1 enclosure1 dyke2 -garth1 -ger4 ,grind1 gate4 ,hagi1 enclosed pasture2 hack-4 ,hus1 house4 ,kr1 sheepfold2 -croo4 ,kv1 cattle pen2 -quoy4 ,rett1 sheepfold2 -ret4 ,sel1 8saeter0 hut2 selli-4 ,setr1 saetr1 out-pasture2 seatter1 -setter1 -ster4 ,skali1 hall1 house2 -skaill4 ,skipti1 dividing1 boundary2 skippi-4 ,stadr1 homestead2 -ster1 -sta4 ,stofa1 room1 house2 stove4 ,thopt1 plot1 site of a house2 -toft1 -taft4 ,tn1 enclosure1 hedge2 -ton1 -town4 #f4 ,,miscellaneous4 ,djup1 deep2 deep-1 jub-4 ,faer1 sheep2 far-4 ,flat1 flat2 flot-4 ,gra1 gray4 ,graenn1 green4 ,ha1 high2 ho-4 ,helgr1 holy2 hellya4 ,hest1 horse4 ,hrafn1 raven2 ram-1 ramn-4 ,hross1 horse2 russ-4 ,hund1 dog4 ,hvit1 white2 wheetha-4 ,ling1 heather4 ,mykill1 great2 muckle4 ,raud1 red2 ro-4 ,skalp1 ship2 scap-4 ,skip1 ship4 ,svart1 black2 swart-4 ,,appendix ,,iii4 ,,list ,,of ,,birds ,,found ,,in ,,orkney4 ,local names are given in brackets4 ,an asterisk 7997 indicates that the bird is not known to breed in the islands4 ,when any bird not in this list is found1 it will usually be worth while to put the fact on record4 99,auk1 ,little 7,rotchie74 ,blackbird 7,blackie74 ,bunting1 ,corn 7,chirlie ,buntling74 99,bunting1 ,snow 7,snowflake74 ,chaffinch--rare4 ,coot 7,snaith74 ,cormorant 7,palmer1 ,scarf74 ,crow1 ,hooded 7,craa1 ,hoodie ,craa1 ,grayback74 ,cuckoo--rare4 ,curlew 7,whaup74 99,diver1 ,black-throated--rare4 99,diver1 ,great ,northern 7,immer ,goose74 ,diver1 ,red-throated4 99,dotterel--rare4 ,dove1 ,ring 7,wood-pigeon7--rare4 ,dove1 ,rock4 ,dove1 ,stock4 ,duck1 ,eider 7,dunter74 99,duck1 ,golden-eye--rare4 ,duck1 ,long-tailed 7,calloo7--rare4 99,duck1 ,scaup--rare4 ,duck1 ,sheld 7,sly-goose74 ,duck1 ,teal4 ,duck1 ,tufted4 ,duck1 ,wild 7,stock ,duck74 ,dunlin 7,plover-page1 ,plover-pagick74 ,falcon1 ,peregrine4 99,fieldfare4 ,gannet or ,solan ,goose4 99,goose1 ,bernacle--rare4 99,goose1 ,brent4 99,goose1 ,graylag--rare4 ,grebe1 ,little4 ,greenfinch 7,green ,lintie74 ,grouse1 ,red 7,muirhen74 ,guillemot1 ,black 7,tyste74 ,guillemot1 ,common 7,aak74 ,gull1 ,black-headed4 ,gull1 ,common 7,white-maa74 ,gull1 ,greater ,black-backed 7,baakie74 ,gull1 ,herring 7,white-maa74 ,gull1 ,lesser ,black-backed4 ,hen ,harrier 7,goose-haak74 ,heron1 ,common4 ,jackdaw 7,jackie1 ,kae74 ,kestrel 7,moosie ,haak74 ,kittiwake 7,kittie1 ,kittick1 ,kittiwaako74 ,lapwing 7,teeack1 ,teewhup74 ,linnet 7,lintie1 ,lintick74 ,merganser1 ,red-breasted 7,sawbill1 ,harl1 ,rantick74 ,merlin4 ,moorhen 7,waterhen74 ,owl1 ,long-eared--rare4 ,owl1 ,short-eared 7,cattie-face74 ,oyster ,catcher 7,skeldro74 ,petrel1 ,fulmar4 ,petrel1 ,stormy 7,sea-swallow74 ,phalarope1 ,red-necked4 ,pipit1 ,meadow 7,teeting74 ,pipit1 ,rock 7,tang ,sparrow1 ,tang ,teeting74 ,plover1 ,golden4 ,plover1 ,ringed 7,sandlark1 ,sinlack74 ,pochard4 ,puffin 7,tammie-norrie74 ,quail--rare4 ,rail1 ,land 7,corncrake74 ,rail1 ,water--rare4 ,raven 7,corbie74 ,razor-bill 7,cooter-neb74 ,redbreast 7,robin ,redbreast74 ,redshank4 99,redwing4 ,rook4 99,sanderling--rare4 ,sandpiper1 ,common4 99,scoter1 ,common4 99,scoter1 ,surf--rare4 99,scoter1 ,velvet4 ,shag 7,scarf74 ,shearwater1 ,manx 7,lyrie74 ,shoveller--rare4 ,skua1 ,richardson's 7,scootie-allan74 ,skylark 7,laverock1 ,lavro74 99,smew--rare4 ,snipe 7,snippick1 ,horse-gowk74 ,sparrow1 ,hedge4 ,sparrow1 ,house 7,sprug74 ,starling 7,stirling1 ,strill74 99,stint1 ,little--rare4 ,stonechat--rare4 99,swan1 ,hooper--rare4 ,tern1 ,arctic 7,pickie-terno1 ,rit-tick74 ,tern1 ,common 7,pickie-terno1 ,rit-tick74 ,tern1 ,sandwich--rare4 ,thrush 7,mavis74 99,turnstone--rare4 ,twite 7,heather ,lintie74 ,wagtail1 ,pied 7,willie-wagtail74 ,warbler1 ,sedge--rare4 ,wheatear 7,chackie1 ,stonechat74 ,whimbrel 7,little ,whaup1 ,summer ,whaup7--rare4 ,whinchat--rare4 ,widgeon4 ,woodcock--rare4 ,wren 7,wirenn1 ,jenny ,wren74 ,wren1 ,gold-crested--rare4 ,yellowhammer 7,yallow ,yarling74 ,,appendix ,,iv4 ,,books ,,for ,,further ,,study4 ,the subjoined list of books is given as a guide to further study by those who may wish to extend their knowledge of ,orkney in any of the aspects suggested in this book4 ,it is not in any sense a complete list of works relating to the ,islands1 nor does it1 on the other hand1 confine itself to such works in subjects where general study is the best foundation for local research4 ,the books marked 99 are now out of print1 and can only be obtained from libraries1 or bought1 when occasion offers1 from dealers in second-hand books4 ,as regards books still current1 the list may be helpful to those who are building up school or parish libraries in the ,islands4 ,the most complete bibliography of ,orkney and ,shetland is the ,list of ,books and ,pamphlets relating to ,orkney and ,shetland1 by ,james ,w4 ,cursiter1 ,f4,s4,a4,scot4 7,wm4 ,peace and ,son1 ,kirkwall1 #ahid47 ,archology and ,early ,history4 99,orkneyinga ,saga4 ,translated by ,hjaltalin and ,goudie4 ,edited1 with ,notes1 by ,anderson4 7,edinburgh1 #ahgc47 ,the historical introduction by ,dr4 ,joseph ,anderson is of special value4 ,the ,orkneyingers' ,saga4 ,translated by ,sir ,g4 ,w4 ,dasent4 7,london1 #ahid2 ,rolls ,edition47 ,a very fine spirited rendering into ,english1 as may be seen from the extracts given in the first part of this book4 ,the ,saga of ,hacon1 and a fragment of the ,saga of ,magnus4 ,translated by ,sir ,g4 ,w4 ,dasent4 7,london1 #ahid2 ,rolls ,edition47 ,this gives the ,norse account of the battle of ,largs1 and events leading up to it4 ,the ,icelandic text of the two preceding books is published in separate volumes in the same series4 ,the ,story of ,burnt ,njal4 ,by ,sir ,g4 ,w4 ,dasent4 7,edinburgh1 #ahfa2 also a later and cheaper edition47 ,this is the finest of the ,icelandic sagas4 ,it deals mainly with life in ,iceland1 but contains several references to ,orkney under ,earl ,sigurd the ,stout1 and the fine description of the battle of ,clontarf quoted in this book4 ,the ,war of the ,gaedhil with the ,gaill2 or1 ,the ,invasion of ,ireland by the ,danes and other ,norsemen4 ,irish text1 with translation and introduction by ,jas4 ,h4 ,todd4 7,london1 #ahfg2 ,rolls ,edition47 ,this gives an account from the ,irish point of view of the ,norse invasions of ,ireland up to and including the battle of ,clontarf4 ,the ,heimskringla2 or1 ,chronicles of the ,kings of ,norway4 ,translated by ,samuel ,laing4 7#c vols41 ,london1 #ahdd2 new edition1 edited by ,dr4 ,r4 ,b4 ,anderson1 #d vols41 ,london1 #ahhi47 ,heimskringla ,saga4 ,the ,saga ,library ,edition4 ,translated by ,wm4 ,morris and ,eirikr ,magnusson4 7#d vols41 ,london1 #ahic-aije47 ,the sagas included in the ,heimskringla form a history of the early kings of ,norway1 and contain frequent references to ,orkney4 ,snorri ,sturlason1 the author1 ranks among the greatest of historians4 ,corpus ,poeticum ,boreale4 ,by ,gudbrand ,vigfusson and ,f4 ,york ,powell4 7#b vols41 ,oxford1 #ahhc47 ,this is an almost complete collection of old ,norse ,eddic and ,court poetry1 including poems by ,torf ,einar1 ,arnor the ,earl's poet1 ,earl ,rognvald1 and ,bishop ,bjarni4 ,in a valuable introduction ,vigfusson shows that many of the ,eddic lays were written in the western ,norse colonies in the ,british ,isles1 and some of them presumably in the ,orkney earldom4 ,icelandic ,primer4 ,by ,henry ,sweet4 7,oxford1 #ahhf47 ,icelandic ,prose ,reader4 ,by ,g4 ,vigfusson and ,f4 ,york ,powell4 7,oxford1 #ahgi47 ,icelandic-,english ,dictionary4 ,by ,r4 ,cleasby4 ,edited by ,g4 ,vigfusson1 with appendix by ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat4 7,london1 #ahgd47 ,the preceding three books form the best equipment for studying the language of the ,norse period4 ,the ,dialect and ,place-,names of ,shetland4 ,by ,j4 ,jakobsen4 7,lerwick1 #ahig47 ,many of the place-names explained occur in ,orkney4 ,the ,vikings in ,western ,christendom1 by ,c4 ,f4 ,keary 7,london1 #ahia71 gives an interesting account of the early ,viking age1 from #ghi to #hhh ,a4,d4 ,saga ,time1 by ,j4 ,fulford ,vicary 7,london1 #ahhg71 gives a popular description of society from the ninth to the eleventh century4 ,orcades1 seu ,rerum ,orcadensium ,historia4 ,by ,thormodus ,torfaeus1 ,icelandic historian 7#afig74 ,translated by ,alexander ,pope1 minister of ,reay4 7,wick1 #ahff47 ,only a partial translation4 99,account of the ,danes and ,norwegians in ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland4 ,by ,j4 ,j4 ,a4 ,worsaae2 translation4 7,london1 #aheb47 ,a standard work4 ,monumenta ,orcadica3 the ,norsemen in the ,orkneys and the ,monuments they have left1 with a ,survey of the ,celtic ,pre-,norwegian and ,scottish ,post-,norwegian ,monuments in the ,islands4 ,by ,l4 ,dietrichson4 7,christiania1 #aijf47 ,the most recent and most scientific account of the ,norse remains in ,orkney1 written in ,norwegian1 but with a very full summary--almost equivalent to a translation--in ,english4 ,of special interest is the account of the newly-discovered monastery in ,eynhallow4 ,the ,viking ,age4 ,by ,paul du ,chaillu4 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahhi47 ,an account of the manners and customs1 as well as the history1 of the ,viking period2 well illustrated1 but not accurate or authoritative4 ,the ,early ,kings of ,norway4 ,by ,thomas ,carlyle4 7,london1 #ahge47 ,a short account of the period from #hfj to #acig2 of no great historical value4 ,norse ,mythology4 99,northern ,mythology4 ,by ,benjamin ,thorpe4 7#c vols41 ,london1 #ahea47 ,the best and most complete work on the subject4 ,northern ,antiquities4 ,by ,p4 ,mallet2 translation4 7,london1 #aggj2 edition in ,bohn's ,series47 ,the ,mythology of the ,eddas4 ,by ,c4 ,f4 ,keary4 7,london1 #ahhb47 ,norse ,mythology3 the ,religion of our ,forefathers4 ,by ,r4 ,b4 ,anderson4 7,chicago1 #ahge47 ,asgard and the ,gods3 a ,manual of ,norse ,mythology4 ,by ,dr4 ,w4 ,wgner4 7,london1 #ahhj47 ,the best popular book on the subject4 ,the ,tragedy of the ,norse ,gods4 ,by ,r4 ,j4 ,pitt4 ,heroes and ,hero-,worship4 ,by ,thomas ,carlyle4 7,london1 #ahda47 ,the ,earthly ,paradise4 ,by ,william ,morris4 7,london1 #ahfh-gj47 ,sigurd the ,volsung4 ,by ,william ,morris4 7,london1 #ahgg47 ,epic and ,romance4 ,essays on ,medival ,literature by ,w4 ,p4 ,ker4 7,london1 #aijh47 ,an authoritative and very readable account of the old ,icelandic literary art4 ,later ,history4 99,history of the ,orkney ,islands4 ,by the ,rev4 ,george ,barry4 7,edinburgh1 #ahje2 reprinted1 with prefatory account of the ,islands1 ,kirkwall1 #ahfg47 ,one of the standard works dealing with the history of the ,islands4 99,odal ,rights and ,feudal ,wrongs4 ,by ,david ,balfour of ,balfour4 7,edinburgh1 #ahfj74 99,oppressions of the ,sixteenth ,century in the ,islands of ,orkney and ,zetland4 7,edinburgh1 #ahei2 ,abbotsford and ,maitland ,clubs publications47 ,the above two books give an account of ,orkney under ,scottish rule4 99,monteith's ,description of the ,islands of ,orkney and ,zetland4 7,edinburgh1 #agaa2 reprinted #ahde47 99,general ,view of the ,agriculture of the ,orkney ,islands4 ,by ,john ,shirreff4 7,edinburgh1 #ahad47 ,an exceedingly interesting account of the state of the ,islands in the early nineteenth century4 ,description of the ,isles of ,orkney4 ,by the ,rev4 ,james ,wallace 7minister of ,kirkwall74 ,published by his son4 7,edinburgh1 #afic2 reprinted1 with notes by ,john ,small1 ,m4,a41 ,edinburgh1 #ahhc47 ,the ,present ,state of the ,orkney ,islands ,considered4 ,by ,james ,fea 7,surgeon74 7,edinburgh1 #agge2 reprinted1 ,edinburgh1 #ahhd47 ,orkney and ,shetland ,old-,lore ,series4 ,a miscellany issued quarterly by the ,viking ,club1 ,london2 contains numerous articles of historical interest4 ,descriptive4 99,the ,orkneys and ,shetland4 ,by ,john ,r4 ,tudor4 7,london1 #ahhc47 ,the best descriptive work on the county2 at once popular and systematic4 ,kirkwall in the ,orkneys4 ,by ,b4 ,h4 ,hossack4 7,kirkwall1 #aijj47 ,an extremely full and detailed descriptive and historical account of the town of ,kirkwall4 99,history of the ,orkney ,islands1 by the ,rev4 ,george ,barry 7,kirkwall edition1 #ahfg71 contains a well-written description of the ,islands4 99,summers and ,winters ,in the ,orkneys4 ,by ,daniel ,gorrie4 7,kirkwall1 ,n4,d47 ,a valuable series of sketches of ,orcadian scenery and the conditions of life about the middle of last century4 ,rambles ,in the ,far ,north4 ,by ,r4 ,m4 ,fergusson4 7,paisley1 #ahhd47 ,our ,trip ,north4 ,by ,r4 ,m4 ,fergusson4 7,london1 #ahib47 ,handbook to the ,orkney ,islands4 7,w4 ,peace and ,son1 ,kirkwall47 ,full of interest4 ,orkney and ,shetland4 ,by ,m4 ,j4 ,b4 ,baddeley1 ,b4,a4 ,thorough ,guide ,series4 7,thomas ,nelson and ,sons1 ,london47 ,the best tourist guide to the ,islands4 ,orkney and ,shetland ,almanac and ,county ,directory 7,w4 ,peace and ,son1 ,kirkwall2 issued annually7 contains statistical and other material of value4 ,the ,north ,sea ,pilot4 ,part ,i4 7,london1 #ahid47 ,a ,government publication for the use of mariners4 ,of much value to ,orcadians interested in boating or in navigation4 ,tour through the ,islands of ,orkney and ,shetland4 ,by the ,rev4 ,george ,low1 with introduction by ,dr4 ,joseph ,anderson4 7,kirkwall1 #ahgi47 ,an interesting account of the appearance of the ,islands at the end of the eighteenth century4 ,geology4 ,there is no book dealing specifically with the geology of ,orkney4 ,recourse must be had either to books dealing with the science generally1 or to those dealing with the ,islands in which their geology is included4 ,the ,orkneys and ,shetland 7,tudor7 contains an account of the geology of the islands1 written by ,drs4 ,peach and ,horne1 with a useful geological map4 ,the most recent and complete geological survey of ,orkney is that by ,dr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,flett1 an account of which is contained in two papers in the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh4 ,some of ,hugh ,miller's works1 such as ,the ,testimony of the ,rocks1 ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 ,rambles of a ,geologist1 and ,footprints of the ,creator1 contain numerous references to the geology of ,orkney4 ,robert ,dick1 by ,dr4 ,samuel ,smiles1 is an interesting account of a ,thurso baker who devoted his life to the study of geology in ,caithness1 where the rook formation is the same as that of ,orkney4 ,among general works in geology suitable for beginners may be mentioned ,huxley's ,physiography and ,sir ,archibald ,geikie's ,outlines of ,field ,geology1 his ,class-book of ,geology1 and his ,scenery of ,scotland4 ,botany4 ,the ,orkneys and ,shetland 7,tudor7 contains a list of the rarer ,british plants found in ,orkney1 compiled by ,w4 ,i4 ,fortescue4 ,volume xviii4 of the ,transactions of the ,botanical ,society of ,edinburgh contains a complete list of ,orkney plants by ,prof4 ,j4 ,w4 ,h4 ,traill4 ,another list is in preparation by ,mr4 ,magnus ,spence4 ,the ,marine ,alg of the ,orkney ,islands1 by ,g4 ,w4 ,traill 7,edinburgh1 #ahij71 contains a list of the seaweeds of ,orkney4 ,the following are some general works on botany which may be of service to the beginner3--,open-air ,studies in ,botany1 by ,r4 ,l4 ,praeger 7,london1 #ahig71 a study of wild flowers in their homes1 with illustrations2 ,flowering ,plants1 their ,structure and ,habitat1 by ,c4 ,l4 ,laurie1 illustrated 7,london1 #aijc72 ,nature ,studies1 by ,g4 ,f4 ,scott-,elliot 7,london1 #aijc72 ,a ,plant ,book for ,schools1 by ,o4 ,v4 ,darbyshire1 illustrated 7,london1 #aijh72 ,flowers of the ,field1 by ,c4 ,a4 ,johns 7,london1 #ahid74 ,common ,objects of the ,seashore1 by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood 7,london1 #ahff71 contains good descriptions and illustrations of the seaweeds4 ,for identification of plants perhaps the best books are the ,british ,flora1 by ,bentham and ,hooker 7,london1 #aijd71 and ,illustrations to ,bentham and ,hooker's ,british ,flora1 by ,fitch and ,smith 7,london1 #aije74 ,for mosses1 the best book is ,dixon and ,jameson's ,student's ,handbook of ,british ,mosses4 ,zoology4 ,for a general introduction to natural history the best books are--,life and her ,children 7,london1 #ahhj71 and ,winners in ,life's ,race 7,london1 #ahhb71 by ,miss ,a4 ,b4 ,buckley 7,mrs4 ,fisher71 and ,professor ,arthur ,j4 ,thomson's fascinating ,study of ,animal ,life1 which gives a list of other books on zoology4 ,the animals of the seashore are dealt with in ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood's ,common ,objects of the ,seashore and ,fresh and ,salt ,water ,aquarium2 ,seaside ,studies1 by ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes2 ,the ,aquarium1 by ,p4 ,h4 ,gosse2 and ,the ,aquarium1 its ,inhabitants1 ,structure1 and ,management1 by ,j4 ,e4 ,taylor4 ,gosse's ,manual of ,marine ,zoology for the ,british ,isles 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahef7 still remains the best book for the identification of marine animals4 ,for the study of birds the best works are the following3--,the ,birds of ,shetland1 by ,h4 ,l4 ,saxby 7,edinburgh1 #ahhd72 ,the ,birds of the ,west of ,scotland1 by ,robert ,gray2 ,bird-,watching and ,the ,bird-,watcher in the ,shetlands1 by ,edmund ,selous4 ,saunders's ,manual of ,british ,birds 7,london1 #ahhi7 is the best single book for the identification of birds1 each species being illustrated4 ,the ,vertebrate ,fauna of the ,orkney ,islands1 by ,j4 ,a4 ,harvie ,brown and ,t4 ,e4 ,buckley 7,edinburgh1 #ahia71 is in greater part a list of the birds of ,orkney1 with a short account of each4 ,orcadian ,papers3 being ,selections from the ,proceedings of the ,orkney ,natural ,history ,society from #ahhg to #aijd4 ,edited by ,m4 ,m4 ,oharleson1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,scot4 7,stromness1 #aije47 ,the selections are not confined to natural history1 but include historical and other contributions4 ,fiction1 ,poetry1 etc4 ,the ,pirate4 ,by ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,poems1 etc4 ,by ,david ,vedder4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,gilfillan4 7,kirkwall1 ,n4,d47 ,poems1 ,tales1 and ,sketches4 ,by ,lieutenant ,john ,malcolm1 with introduction by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,gilfillan4 7,kirkwall1 ,n4,d47 99,the ,orcadian ,sketch-,book4 ,by ,walter ,traill ,dennison4 7,kirkwall1 #ahhj47 ,a unique collection of stories and poems written in the 8,north ,isles0 dialect of the ,orkney vernacular4 ,orcadian ,sketches4 ,by ,w4 ,t4 ,dennison4 ,with introduction by ,j4 ,storer ,clouston4 7,kirkwall1 #aijd47 ,a selection from the preceding4 ,the ,pilots of ,pomona4 ,by ,robert ,leighton4 7,london1 #ahib47 ,sons of the ,vikings4 ,by ,dr4 ,j4 ,gunn1 ,m4,a4 7,edinburgh1 #ahic4 ,cheaper edition1 #aiji47 ,the ,boys of ,hamnavoe4 ,by ,dr4 ,j4 ,gunn1 ,m4,a4 7,edinburgh1 #ahid47 ,vandrad the ,viking4 ,by ,j4 ,storer ,clouston4 7,edinburgh1 #ahig47 ,garmiscath4 ,by ,j4 ,storer ,clouston4 7,cheaper edition1 ,london1 #aijd47 99 99 99 99 99 ,in addition to the material available in book form1 much excellent literature in prose and in verse1 with more or less direct relation to ,orkney1 has appeared in various magazines above the names of ,duncan ,j4 ,robertson1 ,j4 ,storer ,clouston1 and others1 specimens of which are included in the pages of this volume4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain4