,,anci5t ,,rhetoric ,,& ,,poetic ,,anci5t ,,rhetoric ,,& ,,poetic ,,int]pret$ ,,f ,,repres5tative ,,works ,,by ,,*>les ,,se>s ,,baldw9 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,rhetoric ,,9 ,,columbia ,,univ]sity ,lucian ,,gl\ce/]1 ,,mass4 ,,pet] ,,smi? #aiei ,,copyright1 #aibd ,,by ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company ,,repr9t$1 #aiei ,,by ,,p]mission ,,( ,,m>%all ,w4 ,,baldw9 ,,nelson ,,gl5n ,,mccrea ,,artis ,,vtrivsqve ,,litt]ate ,,p]ito ,,hvnc ,,librvm ,,collega ,,amicvs ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,,preface ,to int]pret anci5t rhetoric & poetic afre% f typical !ory & practise is ! fir/ /ep t[>d int]pret+ ^? traditions ( criticism :i* 7 mo/ influ5tial 9 ! middle age4 ,m$ieval rhetoric & poetic 9 turn1 besides illum9at+ m$ieval lit]ature1 prep>e = cle>] compreh5sion ( ! ,r5aissance r5ewal ( allegiance to antiquity4 ,?us ! hi/orical survey ne$$ to focus _m important deta*$ /udies itself ne$s a prelim9>y volume ( exposition4 ,! influ5ces ( anci5t oratory1 drama1 & /ory _c be measur$ surely )\t m specific k ( anci5t precept & practise1 firm] grasp ( anci5t conceptions1 ?an has be5 (f]$ by any syn!sis 9 ,engli%4 ,ev5 9 o!r languages ! available comp5ds are g5]ally r dige/s1 or diction>ies ( t]ms1 ?an int]pretations ( lead+ ideas4 ,in/ead ( risk+ once m ! inadequacy & ! =c$ emphasis t beset su* a me?od1 ,i h tri$ to make ! mo/ repres5tative anci5ts speak = !mselves4 ,?\gh ! v *oice ( spokesm5 int]poses ! *oos]1 s*ol>s g5]ally1 ,i hope1 w accept ,ari/otle = ! !ory ( rhetoric z ! en]giz+ ( k1 ,cic]o = its scope & skill 9 practise1 ,qu9tilian = its tea*+1 & s on ?r\gh a li/ *os5 = repres5tative significances4 ,nor does ! plan ( spokesm5 preclude suffici5t indications ( g5]al !ory & practise4 ,x %[s 9 ,cic]o ! influ5ce n only ( ,ari/otle1 b ( ,isocrates4 ,9 poetic1 anci5t epic art is reveal$ mo/ def9itely & mo/ l>gely 9 ! neid because ,v]gil1 besides be+ "o ( ! greate/ ( poets1 0 s /udi\s a craftsman z to *oose f all ! anci5t exp]i5ce ! mo/ vital ways ( n>rative4 ,hi/orically ! ,new ,com$y seems m significant ?an ! ,old2 & ! same consid]ation has includ$ n only ,ovid1 b ev5 ,s5eca4 ,^! analyses ( anci5t a*ievem5t are made complem5t>y to anci5t !ory by be+ /rictly limit$ to composition4 ,all ! au?ors *os5 h be5 already exp\nd$ & translat$1 "s ( !m aga9 & aga91 b r z philosoph]s1 or z orators1 or z m5 ( lett]s1 or simply z ,greeks or ,romans1 ?an z writ]s on composition4 ,yet composition 0 n only "o ( ! greate/ anci5t a*ievem5ts2 x 0 a con/ant preoccupation & a consi/5t te*nic4 ,no o!r body ( te*nic is m ?or\gh & compreh5sive ?an anci5t rhetoric2 & few h be5 s g5]ally recogniz$4 ,e writ] _h x 9 m9d2 & s9ce comm5tators h (t5 _h 9 m9d some?+ else1 ,i h felt myself b\nd always to explore ! te*nical connotations ( ! orig9als1 & usually to retranslate4 ,v]ification is facilitat$ by exact citation1 & comp>ative /udy by ! indexes4 ,:at may ?us s]ve incid5tally z a book ( ref]5ce is prim>ily1 h[ev]1 a progressive exposition f ideas ?r\gh pr9ciples to details4 ,! ,greek philosophy ( rhetoric is confirm$ & appli$ 9 ! great p]iod ( ,rome by ! mo/ influ5tial orator ( hi/ory4 ,ari/otle's !ory & ,cic]o's v9dication put u 9 ! be/ position to compreh5d ! me?od & ! detail ( ,qu9tilian4 ,?is 9 turn guides appreciation ( t abundant /udy ( /yle :i* is exemplifi$ typically 9 ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus & illum9at$ by ! g5ius :o wrote ! ,de sublimitate4 ,?r\gh su* spokesm51 ) complem5t>y te*nical analysis ( anci5t a*ievem5t1 ! way seems sure/ t[>d recov]+ inductively ! anci5t arti/ic exp]i5ce4 ,?is exp]i5ce has rema9$ too long 9 abeyance = speak]s1 writ]s1 & tea*]s ( ,engli%4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?\gh composition has be5 /udi$ dur+ ! pa/ fifty ye>s m g5]ally1 p]haps1 ?an 9 any o!r c\ntry except ,france1 nei!r our !ory nor our p$agogy has appli$ v widely ! anci5t lore4 ,jesuit s*ools1 inde$1 h ma9ta9$ ! tradition ( rhetoric1 z h "s o!rs tea*+ composition consecutively ?r\gh ,lat92 b 9 g5]al ! multitude ( mod]n text-books ( ,engli% composition %[s little use ( anci5t exp]i5ce4 ,?us x has be5 possible to propose z new1 & ev5 to try1 me?ods explod$ 9 ,rome two ?\s& ye>s ago4 ,!re is no "q ( reviv+ an equally explod$ ar*aism4 ,nor ne$ we fall aga9 into ! ,cic]onianism ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,anci5t deviation1 z ,i h tri$ to %[1 is no less in/ructive ?an anci5t progress4 ,! po9t is s to compreh5d :at ! anci5ts le>n$ 9 s+ul>ly =tunate conditions z to guide our own !ory away f va9 repetition t[>d progressive realization ( our own opportunities4 ,metric1 except :]e x be>s incid5tally on prose rhy?ms1 has be5 delib]ately exclud$4 ,9 ! pres5t div]g5ce ( critical int]pretation an entire volume w\ld h>dly suffice = a really contributory syn!sis4 ,! l>g] movem5ts ( poetic1 dramaturgy & ! developm5t ( v]se n>rative1 %[ a consi/5cy t w>rants a syn!sis ( anci5t poetic2 & !re is ev5 great] consi/5cy 9 anci5t rhetoric4 ,b we may n lightly speak ( anci5t metric1 z if x 7 cont9u\s f ,greek ?r\gh ,lat94 ,nor is ! metric ( ei!r ,greek or ,lat91 significant z x is incid5tally1 necess>y to ! compreh5sion ( anci5t rhetoric or poetic4 ,! innovation ( exp\nd+ rhetoric & poetic side by side 0 sugge/$ by ! dem&s ( t hi/orical treatm5t :i* is propos$ = a lat] volume4 ,b ?\gh x 0 design$ = ?is l>g] purpose1 x has meantime facilitat$ ! imm$iate task4 ,actually ! exp]i5ce ( ! anci5ts seems to be be/ approa*$ f _! conception ( composition z tw(old4 ,logical composition & imag9ative composition are1 inde$1 di/9ct2 b ea* te*nic1 def9$ )9 its own scope1 helps to def9e ! o!r by contra/4 ,mak+ ea* m di/9ct1 ! contra/ fur!r exhibits int]relations & confusions highly significant = ! hi/ory ( bo? p$agogy & criticism4 ,n m]ely z ar*ology1 !n1 anci5t rhetoric & poetic dem& reconsid]ation1 b z ! !ory ( widely sugge/ive exp]i5ces 9 ! progressive art ( words4 ,! bibliographies at ! head ( ea* *apt] or section1 & ! notes1 are /rictly selective4 ,enum]ation ( :at ,i h read myself c\ld only emb>rass ! guidance ( read]s :o wi% to proce$ f ?is book to fur!r /udy4 ,omitt+1 !re=e1 all m]e ackn[l$gm5t ( my long & manifold indebt$ness1 omitt+ also ! obvi\s books ( ref]5ce1 :e!r hi/ories or topical dige/s1 ! app>atus directs imm$iately to int]pretations ei!r ( ! au?ors !mselves or ( ^? pr9ciples & habits ( anci5t art :i* seem mo/ significant = ! /udy1 ! practise1 & ! tea*+ ( composition4 ,= example1 ! ref]5ces are n to ,volkmann & ,*ri/-,s*mid1 b to ,he9ze1 ,rhys ,rob]ts1 ,h5drickson1 ,hubbell1 to ,s&ys ! editor r ?an to ,s&ys ! hi/orian2 & pref]5ce has be5 giv5 to works 9 ,engli%4 ,p]sonal indebt$ness beg9s ) a s*ol> :o 0 pr(essor ( ,greek be=e he became pr(essor ( ,engli%4 ,! late ,?omas ,r4 ,price reveal$ ! /udy ( composition z embrac+ all ord]$ expression f a p]iodic s5t5ce to a trag$y4 ,! work+ out ( t integrat+ conception has be5 fur!r$ by s _m colleagues t specific ackn[l$gm5t mu/ p]=ce be limit$ to ^? int]e/$ imm$iately 9 ?is volume4 ,pr(essor ,la,rue ,van,hook read my translation ( ,dio ,*ryso/om's ,oratio ,,lii2 ,pr(essor ,nelson ,gl5n ,mc,crea1 ! entire manuscript & ! pro(4 ,= criticism ( ! manuscript ,i am no less deeply indebt$ to ,pr(essors ,br&] ,mat!ws & ,a%ley ,h4 ,?orndike2 = valuable sugge/ions on ! pro(s1 to ,pr(essors ,edw>d ,d4 ,p]ry1 ,frank ,g4 ,moore1 & ,donald ,l4 ,cl>k1 & to ! ,rev4 ,pr(essor ,francis ,p4 ,donnelly1 ,s4 ,j4 ,9 #aibj ,pr(essor ,rhys ,rob]ts1 aft] %>+ 8 acute & sympa!tic s*ol>%ip 9 conv]sation on ! plan ( bo? volumes1 did me ! honor to read 9 manuscript ! fir/ draft ( ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,high appreciation ( all ?is g5]osity & a grateful s5se ( ?is fell[%ip ( lett]s at once acquit ^! s*ol>s ( all responsibility = my int]pretations & enc\rage my hope ( contribut+ t[>d a m fruitful criticism ( anci5t composition4 ,c4 ,s4 ,b4 ,,b>n>d ,,college ,,may1 #aibd ,,cont5ts ,,page ,i4 ,,rhetoric ,,& ,,poetic #a ,,ii4 ,,! ,,rhetoric ,,( ,,ari/otle #f ,book ,i #g ,book ,,ii #ag ,book ,,iii #ba ,,iii4 ,,rhetoric ,,9 ,,! ,,de ,,oratore ,,& ,,orator ,,( ,,cic]o #cg ,de ,oratore #dj ,orator #ef ,,iv4 ,,! ,,tea*+ ,,( ,,rhetoric #fb ,qu9tilian on ! ,tea*+ ( ,rhetoric 7,de in/itutione oratoria7 #fc ,declamatio 9 ,s5eca1 ,tacitus1 & ,pl9y #hg ,v4 ,,! ,,lit]>y ,,criticism ,,( ,,rhetoric #ajb ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus on ,s5t5ces #ajc ,! ,great ,unkn[n on ,imag9ative ,diction 78,long9us on ! ,sublime07 #abb ,,vi4 ,,! ,,poetic ,,( ,,ari/otle #acb ,tabul> ,view #ace ,! ,idea ( ,dramatic ,movem5t #aeh ,,vii4 ,,poetic ,,9 ,,anci5t ,,drama ,,& ,,n>rative #afg ,drama #afh ,greek ,trag$y #afh ,s5ecan ,trag$y #ahf ,lat9 ,com$y #ahh ,n>rative #aib ,! neid #aib ,! ,n>rative ,poetry ( ,ovid #baf ,! ,metamorphoses ( ,apuleius #bba ,,viii4 ,,rhetoric ,,9 ,,anci5t ,,criticism ,,( ,,poetic #bbd ,! ,p]vasiv5ess ( ,rhetoric #bbd ,criticism f ,gramm>ians #bbf ,criticism f ,pr(essional ,public ,speak]s #bbi ,dio ( ,prusa #bca ,plut>*'s ,h[ ,y\? ,%\ld ,read ,poetry #bci ,horace's ,ars ,poetica #bdb ,,tabul> ,,index ,,( ,,lat9 ,,& ,,greek ,,rhetorical ,,t]ms #bdi ,,g5]al ,,index #bec ,,*apt] ,i ,,rhetoric ,,& ,,poetic ,! two great works ( ,ari/otle on composition1 ! ,rhetoric & ! ,poetic1 presuppose an anci5t division4 ,t a philosoph] %\ld h writt5 ei!r is itself significant2 t he %\ld h writt5 bo? implies 8 ratification ( ! anci5t idea t ! art ( speak+ & writ+ is n ?r\gh\t its v>i\s phases s+le & con/ant1 b di/9ctly tw(old4 ,on ! "o h&1 ! anci5ts disc]n$ & develop$ an art ( daily communication1 especially ( public address1 1 ars oratoria1 rhetoric2 on ! o!r h&1 an art ( imag9ative appeal1 1 ars poetica1 poetic4 ,a di/9ction betwe5 ! two 9 diction1 ! idea t ! language ( poetic is m freely imag9ative1 is bo? commonplace & sup]ficial4 ,! anci5ts1 ( c\rse1 7 aw>e ( x1 & frequ5tly ?us contra/$ poetry ) oratory#a or ) hi/ory4 ,b ! di/9ction betwe5 ! diction ( public address & ! diction ( drama or epic1 betwe5 prose /yle & poetic /yle1 0 n 9 anci5t ?\ght fundam5tal4 ,r ! anci5ts saw "h common gr\nd4 ,_! discussions ( prose /yle freely draw examples f poetry2 = _! rhetoric1 m explicitly ?an mo/ mod]n rhetoric1 realiz$ t ! appeal ( public address1 9 s f> z x is an appeal ( /yle1 is l>gely imag9ative & rhy?mical4#b ,polybius1 inde$1 reproa*es ,phyl>*us = 8 eag]ness to be pa!tic & 8 habit ( visualiz+ ! t]rible1 8z d ! writ]s ( trag$ies0#c2 b z a re/riction on /yle 9 hi/ory ?is is q exceptional & w\ld involve disp>ag+ ,?ucydides4 ,! common view ( hi/ory is summ$ up playfully by ,lucian3 8,let ! hi/orian's ?\ght1 9 s f> z x too is high-s\nd+ & uplift$1 appropriate & seize some?+ ( poetic1 especially :5 x is involv$ 9 arrays & battles by l& or sea2 = !n !re w be ne$ ( a poetic w9d to fill ! sails & be> ! tall %ip ov] ! waves40#d ,9 oratory ! anci5ts specifically inculcat$ imag9ative visualization1 & taught x f ! poets4 ,_! g5]al di/9ction ( /yle betwe5 prose & v]se 0 9 ! habit ( rhy?ms4 ,no1 ! anci5t di/9ction betwe5 rhetoric & poetic is f> m ?an a diff]5tiation ( /yle4 ,! diff]5ce t ,ari/otle saw betwe5 hi/ory & poetry is f> deep]2 & p]haps ?is 0 9 ! m9d ( ,polybius :5 he w5t on to say1#e 8! end ( hi/ory is n ! same z t ( trag$y1 b ! opposite10 & compla9$ t ,phyl>*us 0 too fond ( work+ up crises 774 ,ev5 ! flippant ,lucian may h meant to imply1 ?\gh he does n c>ry out1 a deep] diff]5ce :5 he said3#f 8! und]tak+s ( ! poetic art 9 g5]al & ( poems 9 p>ticul>1 & ! appropriate rules1 are "o ?+2 ^? ( hi/ory1 q ano!r40 ,at any rate1 ! ,ari/otelian di/9ction ( hi/ory f poetry1 repeat$ by ,polybius 9 ! second c5tury ,b4,c4 & by ,lucian 9 ! second c5tury ,a4,d41 is n m]ely 9 diction1 n 9 prose or v]se1 b 9 composition4 ,s1 ev5 m evid5tly & p]vasively1 is ! broad] di/9ction betwe5 oratory & poetry4 ,rhetoric & poetic connot$ two fields ( composition1 two habits ( conceiv+ & ord]+1 two typical movem5ts4 ,! movem5t ( ! "o ! anci5ts saw z prim>ily intellectual1 a progress f idea to idea det]m9$ logically2 t ( ! o!r1 z prim>ily imag9ative1 a progress f image to image det]m9$ emotionally4 ,?is di/9ction is m fundam5tal ?an t ( s-call$ lit]>y =ms4 ,! anci5ts 7 well aw>e t a p>ticul> composition might %ift f "o movem5t to ! o!r1 a play ( ,euripides lean t[>d oratory1 an oration ( ,isocrates move = a :ile 9 ! mode ( poetry4 ,:at !y contemplat$ 9 _! division 0 n prim>ily a composition1 b composition z a g5]al habit1 ! pr$om9ant & det]m9+ way ( compos+1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! habitual movem5t ( a ,demo/h5es & t ( a ,sophocles4 ,f9d+ ^! to be di/9ct ess5tially1 z typical processes ( conceiv+1 ord]+1 & utt]+1 ,ari/otle treat$ !m sep>ately z two di/9ct te*nics1 rhetoric & poetic4#g ,t ! di/9ction betwe5 ! habitual composition1 or movem5t1 ( rhetoric & t ( poetic is n (t5] made explicitly by anci5t critics ne$ cause little surprise4 ,! di/9ction may h be5 famili> en\gh to be tacitly assum$4 ,x is1 9 fact1 (t5 assum$2 x 0 q cle> 9 ! m9d ( :oev] wrote ! ,de sublimitate2 b x is %>ply def9$ & fully c>ri$ out only by ,ari/otle4 ,we mu/ rememb] t anci5t criticism _h no second ,ari/otle1 t x 0 preoccupi$ ) rhetoric1 & t x usually discuss$ speak+ & writ+1 z mod]n criticism does no less usually1 9 t]ms ( /yle4 ,! long hi/ory ( criticism %[s few out/&+ works on composition 9 ! l>ge4 ,none ! less = ! meag]ness ( criticism1 ! active pres5ce ( ! di/9ction is se5 9 ! greate/ works ( antiquity4 ,nor is ! di/9ction unkn[n to mod]n criticism4 ,x is mis9t]pret$1 = in/ance1 at ! beg9n+ ( ,blair's ,lecture ,,xxxviii1 confirm$ by ,de ,qu9cey's di/9ction#h betwe5 lit]ature ( k & lit]ature ( p[]1 & reviv$ 9 ! division1 cit$ by ,r5>d#i f ,h4 ,balzac1 into 8criva9s d'ides & criva9s d'images40 ,b 9 spite ( significant occurr5ces & recurr5ces1 x seems n to h controll$ any consecutive movem5t ( mod]n criticism4 ,aga91 ! f\r 8=ms ( disc\rse0 widely accept$ by ,am]ican text-books naturally comb9e into exposition & argum5t "u rhetoric on ! "o h& &1 on ! o!r1 description & n>rative "u poetic4 ,b obvi\s z ?is seems1 ! old]1 simpl]1 m fundam5tal division does n widely control mod]n p$agogy4 ,none ! less its p$agogical aspect1 9 ei!r anci5t or mod]n times1 is m important ?an t ( _m m curr5t critical di/9ctions4 ,= le>n+ to write1 ! di/9ction betwe5 rhetoric & poetic is m directive ?an ! di/9ction1 = in/ance1 ( lit]>y =ms4 ,x is also m support$ & int]pret$ by psy*ology2 = x divides n m]ely :at is compos$1 b ! typical habits ( compos+4 ,?us ! exp]i5ce ( ! anci5ts ) composition1 an exp]i5ce s prolong$ & s progressive z to con/itute a full & di/9ct *apt] 9 ! hi/ory ( art1 may be approa*$ fir/ by divid+ z !y divid$4 ,ea* te*nic1 def9$ )9 its own scope1 helps to def9e ! o!r by contra/4 ,mak+ ea* m di/9ct1 ! contra/ fur!r exhibits int]relations & confusions highly significant = ! hi/ory ( bo? p$agogy & criticism4 ,rhetoric 9 ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle is ess5tially ! art ( giv+ effectiv5ess to tru?4 ,accept+ ?is !ory1 ,cic]o nev]!less feels r ! tradition ( rhetoric z ! art ( giv+ effectiv5ess to ! speak]4 ,! con/ructive review ( a great orator explor+ 8 art is ?us complem5t>y to ! analysis ( ! philosoph]4 ,ev5 aft] ,ari/otle & ,cic]o !re 0 room = a ?ird survey4 ,qu9tilian %[$ h[ rhetoric p]vad$ & l>gely direct$ anci5t education4 ,= t anci5t art :i* 0 at once useful & f9e1 an education & a c>e]1 _h great spokesm54 ,we %all beg9 be/1 & g on mo/ surely1 by lett+ !m speak3 ,ari/otle = ! function & scope ( rhetoric1 ,cic]o = its pursuit & a*ievem5ts1 ,qu9tilian = its me?od4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,qu9tilian1 = in/ance1 appreciates ,lucan z 8ard5s et concitatus et s5t5tiis cl>issimus1 et1 ut dicam quod s5tio1 magis oratoribus quam poetis imit&us40 ,in/4 ,or4 ,x4 i4 #ij4 #b ,typical ( ?is habit ( ?\ght is3 8,exigitur enim iam ab oratore etiam poeticus decor 444 ex ,horatii et ,v]gilii et ,lucani sacr>io prolatus40 ,tacitus1 ,dialogus1 #bj4 #c ,polybius1 ,,ii4 #ef4 #d ,lucian1 ,quomodo hi/oria1 #de4 #e ,polybius1 ,,ii4 #ef4 #f ,lucian1 ,quomodo hi/oria1 #h4 #g ,! t]ms rhetoric & poetic are contra/$ 9 ,lucian1 ,demo/h5is encomium1 #e-h1 #ag-ah2 ,/rabo1 ,i4 ii4 #f 7,c4 #ag1 end74 #h ,essay on ,pope4 #i ,g4 ,r5>d1 ,la m?ode sci5tifique de l'hi/oire littraire1 page #che4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,rhetoric ,,( ,,ari/otle ,! only art ( composition t conc]ns ! mass ( mank9d1 & is !re=e univ]sal 9 bo? educational practise & critical !ory1 is ! art ( effective communication by speak+ & writ+4 ,?is is :at ! anci5ts & mo/ mod]ns call rhetoric4 ,m ample & exact def9ition1 ?\gh unnecess>y = elem5t>y practise1 is dem&$ = fruitful !ory2 & ! !ory ( rhetoric has always conc]n$ s _m m p ?an ! !ory ( any o!r art z to be "p ( e p$agogy4 ,"h ! practise ( education n only may be guid$ by philosophy2 x mu/ be4 ,= any coh]5ce 9 its tea*+1 rhetoric mu/ be compreh5d$ n only 9 its imm$iate functions1 b 9 its p]vasive relations to o!r /udies4 ,x is at once ! con/ant 9 educational s*emes & ! art among sci5ces4 ,h[ we are 9 a giv5 "t & place to le>n or tea* rhetoric dep5ds on h[ we und]/& its function & scope 9 specific relations4 ,! importance ( a !ory ( rhetoric 9 ?is aspect 0 disc]n$ by ! greate/ philosoph] ( antiquity4 ,9 ,ari/otle's compreh5sive survey ( ?\ght & action rhetoric is n m]ely includ$2 x has sub/antive place4 ,ari/otle's ,rhetoric1#a ?\gh pr(ess$ly m analytical ?an con/ructive1 has a consecutive developm5t4 ,nei!r 8 e?ics nor 8 politics receives m scrut9y or %[s m p5etration & grasp4 ,z if he d>$ n slight x1 he %[s 9 ?is "w1 comp>atively brief ?\gh x is1 ! full rea* ( 8 intellig5ce4 ,9 detail x has be5 que/ion$2 b 9 conception & plan1 9 direction ( ?\ght & ord] ( pres5tation1 x has rema9$ fruitful4 ,,book ,i ,book ,i surveys by def9ition & division ! opportunity ( ! public speak]4 7i7 ,rhetoric is ! complem5t ( logic 7dialectic74 ,x is ! art ( p]suasion =mulat$ by inve/igat+ ! me?ods ( successful address2 & its object is to promote a habit ( disc]n+ :at 9 any giv5 case is ess5tially p]suasive4 ,pro( z contemplat$ by rhetoric proce$s by su* means z may be us$ 9 public address4 ,in/ead ( ! syllogism1 :i* is prop] to ab/ract logic1 rhetoric typically uses ! en?ymeme1 t approximate syllogism :i* is prop] & necess>y to ! actual concrete discussion ( public que/ions4 ,?us rhetoric s]ves z a g5]al public means 7#a7 ( ma9ta9+ tru? & ju/ice aga9/ falsehood & wrong1 7#b7 ( advanc+ public discussion :]e absolute pro( is impossible1 7#c7 ( cultivat+ ! habit ( see+ bo? sides & ( expos+ sophi/ries & fallacies1 & 7#d7 ( self-def5se4 7ii7 ,! means ( p]suasion outside ( rhetoric 7 7 are witnesses1 docum5ts1 & o!r evid5ce2 ! means )9 ! art ( rhetoric 77 are ! moral =ce ( ! speak]1 8 adaptation to ! disposition ( ! audi5ce1 & 8 argum5ts4 7iii7 ,! ?ree fields ( rhetoric are3 7#a7 delib]ative address to a popul> assembly1 discuss+ ! exp$i5cy ( a proposal = ! future2 7#b7 =5sic address to a c\rt1 discuss+ ! ju/ice ( a de$ 9 ! pa/2 & 7#c7 panegyric1 commemorat+ ! significance ( a pres5t occasion4 ,! elev5 rema9+ *apt]s ( ?is book analyze ea* ( ^! fields 9 its ma9 aspects1 or fundam5tal topics1 e4g41 weal?1 happ9ess1 gov]nm5t1 crime1 virtue1 etc4#b ,! b>e dige/ w %[ t ,ari/otle's ,rhetoric is h>dly a manual4 ,9 fact1 x is r less a manual ?an is 8 ,poetic4 ,x is a philosophical survey4 ,! scope ( rhetoric is measur$ n by any s*eme ( education1 b by ! relations ( k to conduct & affairs4 ,to be compreh5d$1 ?is great "w %\ld be read consecutively1 = x is n m]ely sy/ematic2 9 spite ( p>ts undevelop$1 x is progressive1 & its *ief significance1 p]haps1 is f its total developm5t4 ,! foll[+ discussion presupposes a fre% & consecutive read+4 ,ab\t rhetoric ,ari/otle w\ld fir/ ( all h "r ?9k+1 conceptions l>ge en\gh to be sugge/ive & di/9ct en\gh to be true4 ,s ! def9ition 9 8 fir/ *apt] is sl[ly inductive4 ,fir/ we are to di/+ui% rhetoric f logic4#c ,z modes ( ?\ght ! two are alike g5]al1 bo? applicable univ]sally1 nei!r hav+ its own subject-matt]4 ,z modes ( utt]ance !y diff] typically 9 t :ile logic is ab/ract1 rhetoric is concrete2 :ile ! "o is analytic1 ! o!r is syn!tic2 :ile ! "o is a me?od ( /udy1 ! o!r is a me?od ( communication4 ,rhetoric1 no less ?an logic1 has subject-matt] 9 e giv5 case4 ,only its p]v]t]s tea* x z m]ely an art ( deal+ ) p]sons1 ( rea*+ an audi5ce4 ,no less ?an logic1 x is a means ( br++ out tru?1 ( mak+ p see :at is true & fitt+4 ,b rhetoric contemplates hav+ tru? embrac$4 ,x is ! application ( pro( to p4 ,its di/9ction f logic is "h1 9 ! typical mode ( pro(4 ,! type 9 logic is ! syllogism2 ! type 9 rhetoric ,ari/otle calls ! en?ymeme4#d ,by ?is he means concrete pro(1 pro( applicable to human affairs1 su* argum5t z is actually available 9 curr5t discussion4 ,! en?ymeme is n inf]ior to ! syllogism2 x is m]ely diff]5t4 ,actually1 public address on curr5t public que/ions _c be c>ri$ on by syllogisms or by f9al inductions4 ,t by :i* x c be c>ri$ on1 ! /ronge/ pro( possible to actual discussion1 ,ari/otle calls en?ymeme4 ,f ?is typical mode ( rhetoric ,ari/otle ga!rs its f\rfold function3 fir/ & =emo/1 to make tru? prevail by pres5t+ x effectively 9 ! conditions ( actual communication1 to move2 second1 to advance inquiry by su* me?ods z are op5 to m5 g5]ally1 to tea*2 ?ird1 to cultivate ! habit ( see+ bo? sides & ( analyz+ sophi/ries & fallacies1 to debate2 & f9ally to def5d oneself & "o's cause4 ,t tru? does n always prevail %[s ! ne$ ( effective pres5tation4 ,! fir/ function1 !n1 ( rhetoric is to make tru? prevail among m5 z !y are4 ,tru? _c be le>n$ by ! mass ( m5 ?r\gh sci5tific inve/igation2 = t dem&s special tra9+4 ,a second direction1 !n1 ( rhetoric is to make ! results ( inve/igation g5]ally available1 to tea* tru? 9 g5]al human t]ms4 ,debate1 ,ari/otle's ?ird item1 :i* is "o :ole field ( rhetoric1 may inde$ be m]e logical f5ce1 us+ t]ms & propositions z m]e c\nt]s2 b real skill 9 debate1 ! habit ( see+ bo? sides & ( analyz+ sophi/ries & fallacies1 t5ds to make tru? em]ge f curr5t discussion4 ,! f\r? use ( rhetoric1 = self-def5se1 seems add$ m]ely = complet5ess & to rebut ! common objection t rhetoric is abus$4 ,t1 says ,ari/otle1 is no argum5t aga9/ x4#e ,! def9ition impli$ & sket*$ 9 ,*apt] ,i & =mulat$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ii1 may be summ$ up 9 ! ^w p]suasion1 if we are c>eful to speak ( p]suasion n z a*ievem5t1 b z me?od4 ,j z we ask ( m$ic9e1 n t x %all infallibly heal--a degree ( a*ievem5t impossible 9 human affairs--b t x %all disc]n & use all ! means ( heal+ available 9 ! giv5 case1 s ! true end ( rhetoric is to induce su* habitual skill z %all disc]n 9 any giv5 case ! available means ( p]suasion4#f ,z means ( p]suasion we mu/ include bo? ^? t are extr9sic & ^? t are intr9sic1#g ^? t lie outside ! art ( rhetoric 9 ! doma9s ( subject-matt] & ^? t lie )91 ! facts ( ! case & ! te*nic ( mak+ !m tell4 ,= rhetoric has to include subject-matt]1 ! =ces ( k4 ,?\gh ?is is extr9sic 9 ! s5se ( ly+ outside ! art ( rhetoric1 x is ess5tial4 ,rhetoric is an art1 z ,ari/otle is c>eful to %[2 b x diff]s f o!r arts 9 ! degree ( importance x mu/ always atta* to its subject-matt]4 ,! division "h into extr9sic means & intr9sic means z bo? necess>y to p]suasion is n m]ely ! obvi\s "o into matt] & mann]1 sub/ance & /yle2 x is a division ( ! spr+s ( composition1 ! s\rces ( effectiv5ess1 into ^? t lie outside & ^? t lie inside ( utt]ance1 or pres5tation4 ,x frankly accepts rhetoric z m ?an arti/ic1 z nev] self-suffici5t & absolute1 z always relat+ pres5tation to inve/igation4 ,equally philosophical is ! foll[+ division#h ( ! intr9sic means ( p]suasion into3 7#a7 ^? inh]5t 9 ! "* or moral pot5tiality 77 ( ! speak]1 7#b7 ^? inh]5t 9 8 actual mov+ ( ! audi5ce1 & 7#c7 ^? inh]5t 9 ! =m & phrase ( ! spee* itself4 ,t ! ?ree are n mutually exclusive is evid5t & mu/ h be5 delib]ate4 ,ari/otle is tell+ u t rhetoric z an art is to be approa*$ f ^! ?ree directions & 9 ?is ord]4 ,! division is compreh5sive n only z be+ satisfy+ psy*ologically1 b z con/itut+ an outl9e = ! :ole "w1 ! head+s ( ! developm5t 9 ?ree books3 fir/1 ! speak] himself2 secondly1 ! audi5ce2 & f9ally1 9 ! light ( ^! two1 & z ! br++ ( ! "o to be> on ! o!r1 ! spee*4 ,book ,i deals ) ! speak] z himself ! prime means ( p]suasion4 ,rhetoric1 ,ari/otle implies1 is necess>ily e?ical 9 t ev]y?+ consecutively imp>t$ or communicat$1 z di/9ct f ! ab/ractions ( geometry or logic1 is subjective4 ,moreov]1 9 mak+ ! speak] ! po9t ( dep>ture ,ari/otle admits t o!r tr5d ( classical p$agogy :i* made rhetoric a cultivation ( p]sonality4 ,book ,,ii1 proce$+ to ! second item ( ! division above1 deals ) ! audi5ce1 ) k ( human nature1 especially ( typical habits ( m9d2 = rhetoric 9 ?is aspect too is e?ical4 ,x deals ) ! int]action ( moral =ces 9 speak] & audi5ce1 & also ) ! direct ar\s+ ( emotion4 ,! spee* itself1 ! f9al utt]ance1 :i* is ! subject ( ,book ,,iii1 has ?us be5 approa*$ z ! art ( adju/+ ! subject-matt] ( a giv5 case ?r\gh ! intellig5ce & emotion ( ! speak] to ! intellig5ce & emotion ( ! audi5ce4 ,?is is ! only book ( v specific te*nic2 & x comes la/ psy*ologically4 ,ari/otle's division & its ord] are ! division & ! ord] n m]ely ( analysis1 b ( mu* ! same syn!sis z und]lies ! actual processes ( composition4 ,i beg9 ) myself2 = ! subject-matt] else is dead1 rema9+ ab/ract4 ,x beg9s to live1 to become p]suasive1 :5 x becomes my message4 ,!n only h ,i really a subject = pres5tation4 ,a subject1 = purposes ( address z di/9ct f purposes ( inve/igation1 mu/ include ! speak]4 ,x is m9e if x ar\ses me4 ,i consid] next ! audi5ce1 n = concession or compromise1 b = adaptation4 ,:at is m9e mu/ become !irs4 ,!re=e ,i mu/ "k !m1 _! & _! 4 ,my address becomes concrete ?r\gh my ef=t to br+ x home4 ,! tru? mu/ prevail--?r\gh :at8 ,aga9/ :at8 ,n only ?r\gh or aga9/ reason+1 b ?r\gh or aga9/ complexes ( g5]al moral habit & ! emotions ( ! occasion4 ,i mu/ e/abli% sympa?y1 w9 op5ness ( m9d1 in/ruct 9 su* wise z to please & awak51 r\se to action4 ,my spee* is = ^! p n[4 ,only ?us am ,i ready to consid] composition2 = only ?us c ,i "k :at argum5ts are available1 or :at ord] w be effective1 or :at /yle w tell4 ,?is is ! philosophy ( pres5tation4 ,:at is its practise8 ,rhetoric ranges = subject-matt] mo/ (t5 9 ! fields ( social e?ics & politics1 tempt+ its pr(essors1 ,ari/otle adds acutely1 to assume ! mask ( politics4#i ,x deals ) 8! ord9>y & recogniz$ subjects ( delib]ation10#aj ) matt]s /ill 9 dispute & d\bt4 ,?us deal+ ) social & political conduct1 x c nei!r proce$1 z logic does1 by absolute propositions nor arrive at logical demon/ration4 ,its premises are n univ]sals1 b g5]ally accept$ probabilities4 ,t is1 to resume 8 previ\s di/9ction1 ! mode ( rhetoric is n ! syllogism or induction prop] to logical =mulation1 b ! en?ymeme or in/ances prop] to actual pres5tation4 ,! mode ( sci5tific induction em]ges to-day 9 ! 8gas laws0 or ! =mula ( ! velocity ( light2 ! mode ( rhetoric em]ges 9 ,huxley's 8,piece ( ,*alk40 ,ab/ract d$uction is summ$ up 9 ! syllogism2#aa concrete d$uction1 9 ! en?ymeme4 ,by en?ymeme1 z ,ari/otle has n[ made fully cle>1 is meant a 8rhetorical syllogism0 9 ! s5se ( a d$uction available concretely = pres5tation1 z di/9ct f a d$uction =mulat$ ab/ractly = analysis4 ,8 en?ymeme is d$uctive me?od us$ con/ructively4 ,x is n m]e popul> reason+1 logic modifi$ = popul> consumption1 b public reason+1 su* reason+ z is available ) ! public = build+ up public op9ion & policy4 ,!re=e ! head+s1 or 8topics10 ( rhetoric are n peculi> to a p>ticul> field ( inve/igation1 b g5]al or 8common topics0 su* z ju/ice or exp$i5cy1 :i* express common human relations4 ,to deviate f ^! into ! me?od peculi> to a giv5 subject-matt]1 physics = example1 is to pass#ab f rhetorical me?od = pres5tation ov] to sci5tific me?od = analysis2 & ?is1 ( c\rse1 ! speak] mu/ d to ! ext5t ( ma/]+ 8 subject-matt] be=e he pres5ts x4 ,?\gh he mu/ n =get t 8 ultimate task is to pres5t to an audi5ce & !re=e concretely1 nei!r c he =get t :at is to be pres5t$ mu/ be acquir$4 ,9 s f> z he inve/igates he w foll[ sci5tific me?od1 ! analysis prop] to ! field1 ! 8special topics40 ,?us = 8 education he ne$s "s /udy ( ! 8special topics0 ( ^? sci5ces t furni% mo/ ( 8 subject-matt]1 ! 8special topics0 ( e?ics & politics4 ,( ^! he mu/ h1 z "p ( 8 equipm5t1 a practical or work+ k1 ! orator's equipm5t = consid]+ ea* case )9 its own field z well z 9 its g5]al relations to human nature4 ,ari/otle's di/9ction "h betwe5 g5]al & special 8topics0 co9cides ) 8 e>li] division 7page #aj7 ( ! means ( p]suasion into intr9sic & extr9sic4 ,! extr9sic means are k1 to be got by ! me?ods ( gett+2 ! intr9sic means are utt]ance1 to be giv5 by ! me?ods ( giv+4 ,at ?is po9t1 ! op5+ ( ,*apt] iii1#ac ,ari/otle makes 8 sci5tific division ( rhetoric by its fields4 ,! ?ree fields ( rhetoric are3 7#a7 ! delib]ative1 p]suasion 9 public assemblies z to matt]s ( curr5t discussion1 look+ to ! future1 urg+ exp$i5cy3 7#b7 ! =5sic1 accusation & def5se 9 c\rts1 look+ to ! pa/1 urg+ ju/ice2 & 7#c7 ! occasional1#ad praise or blame1 look+ to ! pres5t1 urg+ honor4 ,! und]ly+1 g5]al1 or 8f9al topics0 ( rhetoric1 z di/9ct f ! special topics t x uses f o!r /udies1 are ?us se5 to be exp$i5cy 7includ+ practicability71 ju/ice1 honor1 & _! opposites2 & ! special topics drawn by rhetoric f philosophy1 e?ics1 & politics may be gr\p$ 9 a speak]'s comp5d ( ^! /udies accord+ z !y apply to ! delib]ative1 ! =5sic1 or ! occasional field4 ,9 delib]ative oratory#ae ! speak] deals ) good & bad1 n 9 ! ab/ract z ! philosoph] contemplates virtue or happ9ess1 b 9 concrete matt]s ( d\bt & dispute4 ,s 8 topic ( possibility is n ab/ract1 z 9 ma!matics1 b concrete1 9 relation to human w4 ,s 9 g5]al ,ari/otle disclaims = 8 classification ( ! ord9>y subjects ( delib]ative oratory any attempt at sci5tific division or sci5tific me?od ( inve/igation4 ,^? he foll[s 9 8 o!r works2 "h ! analysis t he provides is av[$ly practical4 ,s9ce 9 politics1#af = example1 ! public speak] ne$s to "k some?+ ( f9ance1 w>1 comm]ce1 legislation1 ,ari/otle gives him a sugge/ive summ>y ( :at he %\ld le>n4 ,9 our mod]n educational sy/ems su* a summ>y has f> less importance2 b ! correlation rema9s vital4 ,p$agogically z well z philosophically1 delib]ative oratory mu/ be correlat$ ) its natural subject-matt]4 ,s to-day college c\rses 9 rhetoric dem& correlation ) college c\rses 9 hi/ory1 sociology1 economics1 & politics4 ,! pr(essors ( ^! subjects tra9 = inve/igation1 tea*+ ! sci5tific me?od prop] to ea*2 ! pr(essor ( rhetoric tra9s = pres5tation1 tea*+ g5]al me?ods1 ,ari/otle's g5]al or 8f9al topics10 = h&l+ all su* mat]ial4 ,b unless ea* me?od ( tra9+ c make use ( ! o!r1 bo? w suff]4 ,rhetoric mu/ lean ^u su* real k ( a giv5 subject-matt] z is furni%$ by ! /udies deal+ ) t subject-matt] sci5tifically1 i4e41 by its 8special topics40 ,meantime ,ari/otle's summ>y is int5d$ n to explore ^! special topics1 b to %[ :at !y are4 ,simil>ly ! /ud5t ( delib]ative oratory ne$s su* a survey ( philosophy#ag z w acqua9t him ) curr5t ideas conc]n+ happ9ess1 :e!r ( rank1 (fspr+1 weal?1 honor1 heal?1 beauty1 or /r5g?1 & conc]n+ a good old age1 fri5d%ip1 =tune1 & virtue4 ,!re=e ,ari/otle1 summ>iz+ ^! conceptions1 supplies#ah a cursory exam9ation ( good 9 g5]al & ( goods1 or good ?+s1 9 p>ticul>1 proce$+#ai bo? by def9ition & by comp>ison1 & n limit+ 8 discussion to ! delib]ative field4 ,to ! latt]1 & to politics1 he rev]ts 9 ! conclud+ *apt]#bj ( ?is section by enum]at+ briefly ! common =ms ( polity3 democracy1 olig>*y1 ari/ocracy1 & mon>*y4 ,s9ce occasional oratory#ba dem&s an equipm5t prim>ily e?ical1 ,ari/otle provides a summ>y ( moral nobility#bb by def9ition & comp>ison4 ,?is is appli$ m specifically ?an ! prec$+ section to rhetorical me?od1 9 ?is case to ! me?od ( enhanc+ or height5+ & to ! me?od ( comp>ison4 ,= =5sic oratory#bc ,ari/otle provides z a speak]'s comp5d ( philosophy a survey ( ! objects & conditions ( crime4 ,he makes no specific m5tion ( :at we n[ call crim9al t5d5cies2 & 8 division ( 8extr9sic pro(s10 i4e41 ( legal evid5ce 7laws1 witnesses1 contracts1 tortures1 ! oa?7 is = ! mod]n lawy] nei!r sci5tific nor significant4 ,,book ,,ii ,z ,book ,i is ! book ( ! speak]1 ,book ,,ii is ! book ( ! audi5ce4 ,! audi5ce is n m]ely discuss$2 x furni%es ! po9t ( view4 ,z ,book ,i consid]s ! necessities & opportunities ( ! speak]1 s ,book ,,ii consid]s ! attitude ( ! audi5ce4 ,book ,i is rhetoric z conceiv$2 ,book ,,ii is rhetoric z receiv$4 ,s9ce rhetoric is = judgm5t--= ev5 delib]ative spee*es are judg$1 & =5sic is conc]n$ entirely ) judgm5t--we mu/ see to x n only t ! spee* %all be conv9c+ & p]suasive1 b also t ! judge %all be 9 ! "r frame ( m9d4 ,= x makes a great diff]5ce to p]suasion1 especially 9 delib]ative spee*es1 b also 9 =5sic1 h[ ! speak] /rikes ! audi5ce--bo? h[ ! he>]s ?9k he reg>ds !m1 & 9 addition h[ !y are dispos$ t[>d him4 ,h[ ! speak] /rikes ! audi5ce is ( m practical conc]n = delib]ative spee*es2 h[ ! he>] is dispos$1 = =5sic4 ,! effect is n ! same on a fri5dly audi5ce z on a ho/ile "o1 on ! angry z on ! tranquil1 b ei!r diff]5t altoge!r or diff]5t 9 degree4444 ,?ree impressions con/itute p]suasiv5ess--?ree1 t is1 outside ( ! argum5ts us$3 wisdom1 virtue1 & good w i4e41 a speak]'s p]suasiv5ess1 9 ! s5se ( 8 p]sonal effect on 8 he>]s1 dep5ds on _! believ+ him to be wise1 upright1 & int]e/$ 9 !m4444 ,f :at s\rces 9 moral habits1 1 !n1 ! speak] may /rike 8 he>]s z wise & e>ne/ we mu/ ga!r f ! analysis ( ! virtues1 :e!r 8 imm$iate purpose be to make 8 audi5ce feel ?us & s or to appe> ?us & s himself2 b good w & affection we mu/ discuss n[ "u ! head ( ! emotions 774 ,by emotions ,i mean any *anges1 att5d$ by pa9 or pleasure1 t make a diff]5ce to m5's judgm5t ( a spee*2 e4g41 ang]1 pity1 fe>1 etc41 & _! opposites4 ,! consid]ation ( ea* emotion--ang]1 = in/ance--mu/ h a ?reefold division3 7#a7 h[ p are angry1 7#b7 :at !y are angry at1 & 7#c7 :y2 = if we %\ld "k only "o or two ( ^!1 n all ?ree1 x w\ld be impossible to excite ang]1 & s ) ! o!r emotions4#bd ,9 ?is way ,ari/otle proce$s to analyze1 9 ,*apt]s ii-xi1 ! common emotions3 ang]1 love1 fe>1 %ame1 b5evol5ce1 pity1 envy1 emulation1 & _! opposites4 ,! relation ( ^! to ! =mation ( "* leads to six *apt]s on "* 9 y\?1 9 age1 9 ! prime ( life1 & on ! typical dom9ant traits ( "* se5 respectively 9 p]sons ( social rank1 ( weal?1 ( p[]1 & ( good =tune4#be ,! classification "h w be m satisfy+ z psy*ology if we rememb] t x analyzes ! common types ( "* & emotion 9 a cr[d4 ,ari/otle is attempt+ nei!r an analysis ( m5tal op]ations nor a sci5ce ( human nature1 b su* a practical classification z may inculcate ! habit ( adaptation to ! feel+s ( an audi5ce4 ,! psy*ological analysis ( ! audi5ce conclud$ ) ,*apt] xvii1 ,ari/otle returns to rhetoric 9 our ord9>y s5se at ,*apt] xviii ) a recapitulation4#bf 8,! use ( p]suasive disc\rse10 he says1 resum+ ! language ( ! op5+ ( ?is book1 8is = judgm5t10 or decision2 i4e41 p]suasion connotes an audi5ce to be p]suad$4 ,aft] %[+ t ?is is true 9 all cases1 & summ>iz+ briefly ! ma9 aspects ( ,books ,i & ,,ii1 he concludes 8 transition by say+3 8x rema9s = u to g on ) ! common topics40#bg ,) ^! he actually goes on1 n m]ely ext5d+ ! treatm5t ( !m 9 ,book ,i 7see page #ad71 b consid]+ !m n[ z to _! availability1 _! effect ^u he>]s4 ,m explicit /atem5t1 h[ev]1 ( ?is di/9ction might well h made ! be>+ ( ^! latt] *apt]s cle>]4 ,! topic ( possibility#bh implies ! range ( ! argum5t f antec$5t probability 7a priori74 ,example#bi includes analogy1 bo? f hi/ory#cj & f fiction1 ) specific m5tion ( fables4 ,9 ?is wide s5se1 includ+ m]e illu/ration1 x means little m ?an vividness ( pres5tation ?r\gh ! concrete & specific2 b t its p]suasive value f> exce$s its logical cog5cy no "o d\bts :o kn[s audi5ces4 ,?is is ! angle1 too1 f :i* ,ari/otle discusses maxims4#ca 8,!y h great s]vice = spee*es because audi5ces are commonplace4 ,p are pleas$ :5 a speak] hits on a wide g5]al /atem5t ( op9ions t !y hold 9 "s p>tial or fragm5t>y =m40#cb ,! same po9t ( view controls ! fur!r discussion ( en?ymemes1#cc :i* includes a h9t ( some?+ l ,mill's ,canon ( ,concomitant ,v>iations1#cd directions = logical exclusion1 = analysis dem&+ p>ticul>s1 = dilemma1 & = r$uctio ad absurdum4 ,rem>k+ ! popul>ity ( ! refutative1 or de/ructive en?ymeme ov] ! con/ructive1 & t\*+ ! fallacies ( petitio pr9cipii & po/ hoc1 ! book concludes#ce ) me?ods ( refutation 774 ,,book ,,iii ,book ,,iii /udies ! spee* itself4 ,book ,i hav+ pres5t$ rhetoric f ! view ( ! speak]1 & ,book ,,ii f ! view ( ! audi5ce1 ,book ,,iii n[ applies x directly to ! spee*4#cf ,s9ce rhetoric mu/ treat sy/ematically ?ree ?+s3 7#a7 :at ! means ( p]suasion are to be1 7#b7 ! diction1#cg 7#c7 h[ to arrange#ch ! p>ts ( ! spee*1 444 ! fir/ has be5 discuss$4 ,we h next to speak ( ! diction4 ,= x is n en\gh to "k :at we ought to say2 we mu/ also "k h[ we ought to say x1 & ?is contributes mu* to ! effect ( ! spee*4 ,! fir/ subject ( our inquiry 7#a7 above 0 naturally t :i* comes fir/ by nature1 ! facts !mselves--9 :at aspects !y are p]suasive4 ,! second is ! expression ( ^! 9 ! diction4 ,! ?ird n 7#c7 above1 :i* is ( v great importance1 is ! deliv]y4 ,! ?reefold division sket*$ "h seems at fir/ sight to co9cide1 s f> z x goes1 ) ! "o t aft]w>d became traditional4 ,classical rhetoric z a :ole assumes a fivefold division3 7#a7 1 inv5tio1 ! ga!r+ & analysis ( ! mat]ial2 7#b7 1 dispositio1 collocatio1 ! arrangem5t1 sequ5ce1 or movem5t 9 ! l>ge2 7#c7 1 elocutio1 ! diction1 or ! *oice ( words & _! comb9ation 9 phrases1 clauses1 & s5t5ces1 ! movem5t 9 detail2 7#d7 1 pronuntiatio1 deliv]y1 or 8elocution02 7#e7 1 memoria1 memory4 ,b ,ari/otle's division nei!r corresponds to ?is nor is consi/5t ) itself4 ,! fir/ item is ! same 9 bo?4 ,ari/otle's second item is cle>ly ! same z ! lat] ?ird1 & has ! same "n 71 diction74 ,! ?ird item ( 8 op5+ s5t5ce seems equival5t to ! traditional second 771 & uses ! correspond+ v]b 772 b bel[ he makes 8 ?ird item in/ead deliv]y 771 :i* is ! f\r? item ( ! traditional division1 & !n proce$s 9 ! same *apt] to include deliv]y1 by implication1 "u diction4#ci ,9 a ^w1 ! op5+ division ( ,book ,,iii is baffl+4 ,b ! actual developm5t ( ! book is q cle>3 *apt]s i-xii on 1 diction1 or1 9 ! wide/ s5se1 /yle2 *apt]s xiii-xix1 on 1 or arrangem5t4 ,deliv]y1 aft] decl>+ x to h ! greate/ =ce 7 444 71 he dismisses 9 a few s5t5ces4 ,tantaliz+ 9 its brevity1 ?is passage is nev]!less sugge/ive2 = x sket*es an analytic division ( deliv]y into voice-plac+ & volume1 pit*1 & rhy?m2 x po9ts to ! value = public speak+ ( ! arts ( dramatic recital2 &1 mo/ important ( all1 x relates deliv]y to ! :ole idea ( /yle z concrete pres5tation v]sus ab/ract =mulation4 ,9 ?us unit+ deliv]y & diction z alike means ( effective utt]ance ,ari/otle has seem$ to "s read]s to disp>age bo?4 ,he has seem$ to express1 z 9 a simil> passage ( ,book ,i1#dj a philosophic contempt = /yle4 ,b ?is impression is n confirm$ by scrut9y4 ,n only c he h>dly be ?\ght to despise t to :i* he devotes himself cordially ?r\gh\t a l>ge "p ( 8 treatise1 b 8 words "h h>dly yield ! inf]5ce t has be5 drawn f prejudicial translation4 ,!y may be r5d]$ m precisely z foll[s3 ,an art ( deliv]y is n yet settl$2 = ev5 t ( diction em]g$ b late & seems a bore :5 reg>d$ ideally4 ,b#da s9ce ! :ole practise ( rhetoric is gaug$ to actual effect ^u he>]s 7 71 we mu/ give deliv]y our c>e1 n ( ab/ract "r1 b ( necessity4 ,ab/ract ju/ice1 inde$1 dem&s ( our spee* no?+ m ?an t x %\ld nei!r (f5d nor propitiate4 ,= ab/ractly j me?od is s to make "o's plea ) ! facts t ev]y?+ beyond exposition is sup]flu\s4 ,nev]!less deliv]y is ( great importance1 z ,i h said1 because ( ! human frailty ( ! he>]4 ,inde$1 ! consid]ation ( ! he>] is 9 a degree necess>y 9 all tea*+2 = ev5 9 explanation x makes "s diff]5ce :e!r we speak ?us or ?us--n s mu*1 h[ev] z 9 active p]suasion1 all ^! ?+s i4e41 ( diction & deliv]y be+ means ( sugge/+ images#db & gaug$ to ! he>]4 ,!re=e no "o ?us tea*es geometry4 ,t art1 !n ( deliv]y1 :5 x comes1 w produce ! same effects z act+2 & "s au?ors1 z ,?rasyma*us on ! pa!tic1 h made a slight attempt at x4 ,act+ is bo? a natural gift & less r$ucible to art2 b diction has its te*nic4 ,t is :y ^? :o h ma/]$ x take prizes regul>ly1 z d ! hi/rionic orators2#dc = writt5 spee*es prevail m by diction ?an by ?\ght4 8,no "o ?us tea*es geometry0 _c be tak5 z a slur on /yle4 ,x simply rem9ds u1 by apply+ to diction a di/9ction made ) great fulness 9 ! fir/ two *apt]s ( ,book ,i1 t rhetoric is n geometry4 ,=mulation1 z 9 geometry1 is colorless because x is ab/ract2 b any actual pres5tation1 ev5 m]e in=mation 7 71 dem&s /yle1 :e!r concret5ess or ! arts ( deliv]y1 = m]e lucidity 7 71 mu* m = any sort ( appeal4 ,= any sort ( pres5tation1 ,ari/otle is say+1 we mu/ /udy /yle2 & we mu/ include ! /udy ( deliv]y except 9 ^? writt5 addresses :i* dep5d on /yle ev5 m ?an on ?\ght4 ,! appeal ( /yle1 ,ari/otle says 9 ?is same fir/ *apt]1#dd 0 fir/ disc]n$ by ! poets4 ,! me?od ( sugge/ion1 9 o!r words1 belongs to poetic4 ,?is is m ?an a critical di/9ction2 x has an application directly p$agogical4 ,! tea*+ ( /yle1 always delicate & difficult1 may well beg9 ?r\gh poetry1 :i* 9 descriptive height5+ & 9 h>mony ( s\nd ) s5se1 especially ( pace ) mood1 mo/ pla9ly exhibits /yle z adaptation4 ,! connection ( ?is ) deliv]y1 bo? ) read+ al\d & ) dramatic recital1 ?\gh obvi\s1 is (t5 neglect$4 ,elocution 9 our mod]n s5se may1 if rightly relat$1 be "o ( ! gateways to appreciation ( /yle4#de ,*apt] ii1#df aft] glanc+ at ! fundam5tal virtue ( lucidity1 consid]s ! *oice ( words = appropriat5ess & = sugge/iv5ess1 i4e41 = _! connotation1 & especially = ! descriptive vividness ( ! concrete1 z 9 metaphors4 ,*apt] iii#dg deals ) ! inappropriat5ess aris+ f bad ta/e2#dh ,*apt] iv1#di ) ! ext5sion ( metaphor into simile4 ,*apt] v#ej passes f s+le words & phrases to _! comb9ation 9 clauses & s5t5ces4 ,! di/9ction is important1 & is kept ?r\gh\t ! classical rhetoric f ,ari/otle d[n4 ,! *oice ( words is 7electio72 ! %ap+ ( clauses & s5t5ces is 7compositio74 ,frequ5t translation ( ! latt] by our ,engli% ^w composition1 :i* has a mean+ s mu* wid] z to be q diff]5t1 misses ! specific po9t ( te*nic1 & (t5 makes ! anci5t writ]s say :at !y did n mean4#ea ,z ! prim>y virtue 9 ! *oice ( words is precision1 s ! fir/ consid]ation 9 _! comb9ation1 says ,ari/otle1 is purity1 idiom1 con=mity to usage4 ,?is assur$1 ! next consid]ations ( movem5t 9 detail are dignity1#eb :i* he pres5ts z ma9ly amplification1 & appropriat5ess4#ec ,appropriat5ess "h is n m]ely ( ! s+le ^w1 z 9 ,*apt]s ii & iii1 b ( ! movem5t1 or pace4 ,x is gaug$ bo? to ! moral habit 77 ( ! audi5ce & to ! emotion 77 ( ! occasion4 ,f ?is g5]al idea ( appropriate movem5t ,ari/otle passes#ed to specific consid]ation ( rhy?m ) 8 (t-quot$ dictum3 ,! ord]#ee ( ! diction mu/ be nei!r metrical nor unrhy?mical4 ,! =m]1 by seem+ artificial1 is unp]suasive & at ! same "t di/ract+4 ,= x makes u ?9k ( recurr5ces & wait = !m to come1 z *ildr5 anticipate ! answ] to ! h]alds' 8,:om does ! fre$man *oose z 8 attorney8 ,cleon40 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! unrhy?mical is immeasurable1 & a measure we mu/ h1 ?\gh n by metrical recurr5ce2 = ! b\ndless c be grasp$ nei!r by ! e> nor by ! m9d4 ,n[ measure 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se is numb]2#ef & numb] z appli$ to ! ord] ( ! diction is rhy?m1 ( :i* met]s are sections4 ,rhy?m1 !re=e1 ! spee* mu/ h1 b n met]1 or x w be a poem--rhy?m n too nice1 t is1 n c>ri$ too f>4 ,( ! ?ree rhy?ms ! h]oic is solemn & lack+ 9 prose h>mony4#eg ,! iambic is ! v diction ( ! cr[d2 i4e41 x is he>d (t5] ?an any o!r measure 9 spee*1 & x lacks capacity to lift & />tle4 ,! tro*aic#eh is too sugge/ive ( comic danc+1 z is evid5t 9 tro*aic tetramet]s1 :i* are a skipp+ rhy?m4 ,!re rema9s ! pan4 ,hav+ laid d[n ! pr9ciple t prose movem5t %\ld be rhy?mical1 b n metrical1 :y does ,ari/otle proce$ imm$iately to discuss x 9 t]ms ( met]s8 ,simply1 p]haps1 because ^! t]ms are famili> & def9ite4 ,h[ else1 inde$1 %all we speak ( a p>ticul> movem5t specifically8 ,p]haps also because ! consid]ation ( ! l>g]1 fre] rhy?ms ( prose is be/ op5$ ?r\gh ! fix$ rhy?ms ( v]se1 i4e41 because met] is ! gateway to appreciation ( rhy?m1 z poetry 9 a wid] s5se 7see page #bd7 is ! gateway to /yle 9 a wid] s5se4 ,= u mod]ns x is ! m significant t ! classical doctr9e ( clauses & s5t5ces deals s l>gely ) rhy?m1 s9ce our doctr9e ?r[s ! emphasis on logic4 ,t ! 1 or compositio1 %\ld be idiomatic1 dignifi$1 appropriate1 ,ari/otle has urg$ briefly2 t x %\ld be rhy?mical he proce$s to set =? 9 detail1 consecutively %[+ h[4#ei ,?us t ! diction %\ld be rhy?mical1 n unrhy?mical1 :at rhy?ms make x rhy?mical1 & 9 :at modes1 has be5 set =?4 ,n[ diction#fj 9 its s5t5ce-movem5t is connect$ ei!r loosely & only by conjunctions1 z ! preludes 9 ! di?yrambs1 or compactly1 z ! anti/rophes ( ! old poets4 ,! =m] movem5t is ! old "o1 z 9 ,h]odotus2 =1 ?\gh once univ]sal1 x is n[ exceptional4 ,by call+ x loose ,i mean t x has no end 9 itself except z its subject-matt] runs out4 ,x is unsatisfy+ to ! e> by its indef9it5ess1 s9ce we all wi% to glimpse ! end4 ,t natural desire is :y runn]s lose w9d & he>t only at ! goal4 ,!y d n give out be=e because !y are look+ ahead to ! f9i%4 ,! loose movem5t1 !n1 ( diction is ?is2 ! compact1 on ! o!r h&1 is ! "o by p]iods or def9ite units4 ,by p]iod ,i mean a diction hav+ a beg9n+ & an end 9 itself & a l5g? to be grasp$ z a :ole4 ,su* s5t5ce-movem5t is bo? satisfy+ to ! e> & easily foll[$ by ! m9d2#fa satisfy+ z be+ ! opposite ( endless & z giv+ ! he>] ! s5se ( always hav+ hold ( some?+1 because some?+ has always be5 end$ by itself1 :]eas ! unsatisfy+ is nei!r to see ahead nor to get ?r\gh2 easily foll[$1 z be+ easily held 9 m9d1 & t because p]iodic diction has numb]1 :i* is ! *ief aid to memory4 ,t is :y v]ses are m easily rememb]$ ?an loose prose1 because v]se has numb] to measure x4 ,! p]iod %\ld also be complet$ ) ! s5se1 n brok5 (f4444 ,a p]iod#fb is ei!r 9 memb]s or simple4 ,compos$ 9 memb]s1 x is su* a diction z makes a r\nd$ :ole & yet is di/9ct 9 its p>ts1 & su* z ! brea? w c>ry easily1 n by arbitr>y division1 b z a :ole4 ,a memb] is "o ( its p>ts2 & by simple p]iod ,i mean a p]iod ( "o memb]4 ,bo? memb]s & p]iods %\ld be nei!r curt#fc nor long4 ,= %ort memb]s (t5 make ! he>] /umble1 s9ce :ile he is /ill surg+ ahead1 if he is pull$ up by ! /opp+ ( ! measure t he c>ries 9 8 head z a guide1 he mu/ /umble z 9 a collision4 ,long memb]s on ! o!r h& make ! he>] feel himself left beh9d1 z by walk+ companions mak+ ! turn beyond ! usual /ret*4444 ,ov]-use ( %ort memb]s1 s9ce x precludes ! p]iodic =m1 drags ! he>] headlong4 ,9 o!r words1 ! p]iod is a s5t5ce movem5t =eca/ & fulfill$ by ! speak]1 div9$ & held by ! he>]1 z a def9ite rhy?mical & logical unit4 ,its *>act]i/ic is t conclusiv5ess :i* satisfies at once e> & m9d4 ,9 s\nd & 9 syntax x is ! opposite ( =mless aggregation1 ( ! addition ( clause to clause z by aft]?\ghts4 ,=e?\ght1 inde$1 is its v note4 ,?us its typical advantages are r = oratory ?an = n>rative4 ,oratory moves by gr\p+ ar\nd ideas2 n>rative1 by add+ image to image4 ,! /yle ( ,h]odotus is 9 ?is s5se aggregative4 ,its aim be+ to proce$ n f idea to idea 9 ?\ght1 b f fact to fact 9 "t1 x is 8loosely jo9$10 8runn+ on10 )\t o!r rhy?mical value ?an flu5cy4 ,t ,ari/otle means to disp>age ,h]odotus :5 he calls ?is movem5t old & unsatisfy+ ne$ h>dly be inf]r$4 ,old x is typically1 ! movem5t ( all e>ly prose1 ( ,h]odotus no m ?an ( ,froiss>t & ,villani4 ,unsatisfy+1 unpleas+ to ! e> 77 x is n--9 its place2 b its place is n 9 oratory1 :i* dem&s def9ite measures to m>k def9ite /ages ( ?\ght4 ,o!rwise ! audi5ce is fru/rat$ & loses ! way4 ,:at ,ari/otle means by 8 comp>ison ( ! two movem5ts is t ! =m] is unsatisfy+1 n absolutely1 b = ! purposes ( ! latt]1 i4e41 = oratory4 ,?is int]pretation is confirm$ by :at he adds conc]n+ ! l5g? ( memb]s1 or clauses4 ,t /accato habit ( %ort /atem5ts :i* 9 oratory 8drags ! he>] headlong10#fd unsatisfi$ & uncompreh5d+1 may 9 n>rative be actually sup]ior4 ,to drag ! he>] headlong is sometimes precisely :at a /ory-tell] desires4 ,examples ab\nd1 = in/ance1 9 ,victor ,hugo1 = :om ?is movem5t became a mann]ism4 ,nei!r ( ! two s5t5ce movem5ts1 :i* f ! po9t ( view ( ,ari/otle's "t we may call ! hi/orical & ! oratorical1 has rema9$ ?r\gh ! long developm5t ( prose q ! same4 ,n>rative has develop$ 9 mod]n times a movem5t m & m consci\sly poetic1 :ile hi/ory 9 our special mod]n s5se has turn$ m & m to ! consci\s gr\p-movem5t :i* he associat$ ) oratory4 ,to-day we see mu* ! same diff]5ce betwe5 our prose fiction & our expository hi/ory t he saw betwe5 ,h]odotus & ,demo/h5es4 ,b ! *ange is 9 application1 n 9 ! movem5ts !mselves4 ,x rema9s true1 & important1 t !re is on ! "o h& a prose movem5t rhy?mically & intellectually loose1 indef9ite1 & curr5t1 & on ! o!r h& a prose movem5t compact1 consci\s1 conclud$ po9t by po9t4 ,! latt]1 ! p]iodic1 rema9s ! typical movem5t ( public address2 = ! audi5ce1 9 ord] to foll[1 9 ord] 8to h hold ( some?+#fe & to get some?+ done10 dem&s def9ite measures4#ff ,hav+ laid d[n z fundam5tal ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two typical prose movem5ts1 ,ari/otle proce$s to details3 ! balance ( memb] aga9/ memb]1#fg & ! height5+ ( ! individual memb]#fh by visualiz+ metaphor4 ,8 recurr5ce "h to metaphor is unexpect$1 s9ce he has discuss$ ?is already 9 ,*apt] ii#fi "u ! *oice ( words2 b "h some?+ is add$4 ,! connotation ( figurative language is explor$ fur!r z a means to make a :ole /atem5t tell+4 ,ari/otle is inquir+ h[ su* pi?y say+s z he has j exemplifi$ 9 balance & anti!sis are made =cible#gj by o!r means2 & he implies t ! process is ess5tially poetic1 z be+ imag9ative fir/ 9 realization & secondly#ga 9 movem5t4 ,imag9ative realization 9 metaphor & simile is consid]$ "h z intellectual sugge/ion4 ,z en?ymemes1 s metaphors & similes mu/ /e] betwe5 ! obvi\s & ! subtle4 ,! be/ images1 l ! be/ en?ymemes1 /imulate ! he>] to cop]ate1 to see ! relation = himself4 ,z to s5se su* are ! popul> en?ymemes2 z to /yle !y are popul> if ! ord]1 or movem5t#gb is anti!tical4444 ,s = ! t]ms2 if metaphorical1 !y mu/ be nei!r f>-fet*$1 = !n !y are h>d to grasp1 nor trite1 = !n !y /ir no emotion2 & besides z to movem5t !y mu/ put ! ?+ be=e our eyes2 = we mu/ see x 9 action r ?an 9 int5tion 7happ5+ r ?an ab\t to happ51 pres5t r ?an future74 ,! ess5tial elem5ts1 !n1 are ?ree3 metaphor1 anti!sis1 actuality4#gc ,num]\s examples foll[#gd ( 1 or pi?y say+s1 & ,*apt] xi#ge exp&s :at is meant by 8be=e our eyes0 & h[ ?is is to be done4 ,i mean t ^? passages put ! ?+ be=e our eyes :i* %[ x 9 action4#gf ,= in/ance1 to say t a good man is 8squ>e0 is metaphor 444 b x does n %[ him 9 action1 :]eas 89 fl[]+ vigor0 does1 & s does 8at l>ge40 ,& 9 8,/raightway ! ,greeks ) b\nd+ feet0 ! 8b\nd+0 is at once actuality & metaphor4444 ,9 all ^! in/ances f ,hom] by be+ alive 7liv+1 organic7 ! subject seems to be 9 action4444 ,!y all make ! subject mov+ & liv+2 & actuality is movem5t4#gg ,ari/otle's recurr5ce1 !n1 to metaphor 9 ! mid/ ( 8 doctr9e ( s5t5ce movem5t is because metaphor has ! wid] implication4 ,x may be m ?an a s+le vivid ^w2 x %\ld ext5d to a :ole habit ( realiz+ a ?+ 9 action2 & ?is involves expression 9 a s5t5ce movem5t t %all height5 ! sugge/ion by its pace4 ,9 l mann] ! recurr5ce to aptness1 or adaptation1 is n repetition4 ,*apt]s ii#gh & iii#gi deal ) aptness ( s+le words2 *apt] xii1#hj ) aptness ( s5t5ce movem5t4 ,f ! g5]al def9ition#ha ( apt movem5t z adaptation bo? to ! moral habit ( ! audi5ce 77 & to ! emotion ( ! occasion 77 ,*apt] xii n[ proce$s to ! typical adaptations (f]$ by ! sev]al fields ( oratory3 ! delib]ative1 ! =5sic1 & ! occasional4#hb ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t "o /yle is appropriate to "o k9d ( oratory1 ano!r /yle to ano!r4 ,/yle = writ+ is n ! same z /yle = debate1 nor /yle = public debate ! same z /yle = legal plead+4 ,bo? /yle = writ+ & /yle = debate h to be kn[n3 ! latt]1 z comm& ( correct 7or idiomatic7 utt]ance2 ! =m]1 z deliv]ance f ! necessity ( keep+ sil5ce :5 "o wi%es to communicate--an inhibition :i* ^? suff] :o d n "k h[ to write4 ,/yle = writ+ is ! mo/ precise2 /yle = debate1 ! mo/ hi/rionic 7! be/ adapt$ to deliv]y74 ,! latt] is adaptation ( two sorts3 expression ( "*1 & expression ( emotion4 ,?is is :y actors also seek su* plays1 & dramati/s su* p]son z give expression to "* & emotion4 ,! di/9ction "h betwe5 /yle = writ+ 7to be read al\d7 & /yle = speak+ 7= imm$iate utt]ance7 is g5]al1 z appe>s 9 ! foll[+ ref]5ce to asyndeton & 9 ! comp>ison ( public speak+ to ! broad bru% "w ( fresco2 b x is also p>ticul>4 ,x di/+ui%es occasional1 or panegyric oratory z dem&+ a /yle m lit]>y4 8,/yle = writ+10 above1 mu/ f its context ref] to panegyric2 & bel[ ,ari/otle adds3 8,! /yle ( occasional oratory is be/ suit$ to writ+2 = its function is to be read40#hc ,! f9al section#hd ( ,book ,,iii deals ) ! l>g] p>ts ( a spee*3 exordium1 /atem5t ( facts1 pro(1 p]oration4 ,?is discussion ( 7dispositio7 is bo? meag] & p]functory1 h>dly m ?an a rehe>sal ( ^? def9itions & c\nsels :i* 7 already famili> 9 tea*+ & app>5tly 9 manuals1#he & :i* 7 to be h&$ on by lat] tradition4 ,its importance is !re=e prim>ily hi/orical4 ,x has little o!r significance1 little ( ! ,ari/otelian disc]nm5t & sugge/iv5ess4 ,:at ! mod]n tea*] ( rhetoric misses1 bo? "h & ?r\gh\t ! lat] classical discussions ( dispositio1 is "s def9ite inculcation ( consecutiv5ess4 ,t consecutiv5ess 0 a*iev$ 9 ! be/ practise !re c be no d\bt2 h[ x 0 taught we are left to guess4 ,z to movem5t 9 ?is l>g] s5se1 :at we commonly mean by composition1 ,ari/otle's ,poetic is m def9ite & m sugge/ive ?an 8 ,rhetoric4 ,he beg9s#hf by say+ t ! only ess5tial p>ts ( a spee* are proposition & pro(4 ,x is pres5tly app>5t t by 8p>ts0 "h he means compon5ts1 or elem5ts1 ( any & e sort ( spee*4 ,! /atem5t ( facts1 = in/ance1 is n a "p 9 ! s5se ( a di/9ct division except 9 =5sic2 & ,ari/otle rightly objects#hg to subdivisions by 8p>ts0 :i* are nei!r di/9ct nor applicable g5]ally4 ,ev5 refutation1 z he %[s lat]1#hh is n a di/9ct "p1 ei!r 9 function or 9 me?od or 9 place4 ,! mo/ t c be all[$ are f\r3 proposition & pro( z ess5tial1 exordium & p]oration z usual4 ,) ! same common s5se he %[s t ! fir/ function ( ! exordium#hi is to put ! he>]s 9 a position to und]/&2 its second1 to w9 _! sympa?y4#ij ,*apt] xvi#ia passes to ! recital ( facts 774 ,! common r5d]+ ( ?is t]m by n>rative has be5 widely mislead+4 ,true1 ! correspond+ ,lat9 t]m is n>ratio1 & ! ?+ is n>rative 9 ! s5se ( be+ sometimes1 ?\gh n always1 *ronological2 b n>rative 9 our mod]n use1 & especially 9 our mod]n text-books1 is associat$ ) objects & me?ods :i* ,ari/otle is n "h consid]+ at all1 & :i* he rightly relegat$ to poetic4 ,! ,greek t]m & ! correspond+ ,lat9 n>ratio mean exactly :at is call$ 9 a mod]n lawy]'s brief ! 8/atem5t ( facts10 z di/9ct f ! foll[+ 8argum5t40 ,x !re=e belongs prop]ly1 z a di/9ct "p hav+ a di/9ct place1 to =5sic4 ,:5 us$ 9 occasional oratory1#ib x %\ld on ! contr>y be brok5 up1 n z 9 =5sic cont9u\s4 ,9 delib]ative oratory#ic x has lea/ scope1 i4e41 x h>dly appe>s z a sep>able "p4 ,b ! recital ( facts1 ?\gh x corresponds to ! 8/atem5t0 ( a brief 9 sub/ance1 ne$ n be s limit$ 9 /yle4 ,a spee* is n a brief2 & ! plead]1 anci5t or mod]n1 mu/ make 8 facts live4#id ,speak also f ! emotions1 recit+ :at goes ) !m 7i4e41 _! physical expression71 bo? :at is famili> & :at is *>act]i/ic ( y\rself or y\r oppon5t3 8,he left me ) a sc[l02 or1 z s*9es said ( ,cratylus1 8hiss+ & %ak+ 8 fi/s40 ,su* descriptive sugge/ions are really elem5ts ( p]suasion2 = ! famili> images become tok5s ( :at y are try+ to impress4 ,_m su* expressions are to be _h f ,hom]3 8,s %e spoke1 & ! old woman cov]$ h] face ) h] h&s10 z we commonly put our h&s to our eyes :5 we beg9 to weep4 ,z to p]suasion by argum5t#ie ,ari/otle beg9s ) a m]e h9t ( t det]m9ation ( ! ma9 issue & "* ( ! case :i* 0 aft]w>d elaborat$ into ! classifi$ doctr9e ( ! 7/atus74 ,examples 1 he goes on are m suit$ to delib]ative oratory2 en?ymemes1 to =5sic4#if444 ,d n speak 9 en?ymemes s]iatim1 b mix !m 9 ) o!r means ( p]suasion2 or !y w impair "o ano!r4 ,!re is a quantitative limit4444 ,d n seek an en?ymeme = ev]y?+2 or y w write l "s philosoph]s2 444 & d n speak 9 en?ymeme :5 y\r imm$iate aim is emotional 444 or e?ical4 ,! p]oration#ig consi/s3 7#a7 ( dispos+ ! he>] well t[>d oneself & ill t[>d "o's adv]s>y2 7#b7 ( enhanc+ & disp>ag+2 7#c7 ( /irr+ ! he>] to emotion2 7#d7 & ( recapitulation4444 ,= ?is la/ function ! prim>y idea is t :at 0 promis$ has be5 giv5 9 full1 s t we mu/ tell bo? :at we h said & :y4 ,?is is told by comp>ison ( our own case ) our oppon5t's4444 ,asyndeton#ih befits ! f9al words1 t !y may be p]oration1 n oration3 8,i h spok52 y h he>d2 y h x2 judge40 ,) no less abruptness ,ari/otle's ,rhetoric /ops4 ,x c h>dly be said to conclude2 & c]ta9ly x has no p]oration4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,text1 edit$ ) notes1 comm5t>y1 & index1 ,,cope1 ,e4 ,m41 & ,,s&ys1 ,j4 ,e41 #c volumes1 ,cambridge1 #ahgg4 ,translations 7! be/ rec5t ones 9 ,engli%71 ,,welldon1 ,j4 ,e4 ,c41 ) analysis & critical notes1 ,london1 #ahhf2 ,,jebb1 ,r4 ,c41 edit$ ) introduction & supplem5t>y notes by ,,s&ys1 ,j4 ,e41 ,cambridge1 #aiji4 ,welldon's tabul> view is valuable4 ,jebb's r5d]+ ( te*nical t]ms is g5]ally m disc]n+4 ,criticism4 ,ari/otle hav+ engag$ ! att5tion ( ne>ly e important writ] on rhetoric--& ( _m q unimportant--= ov] two ?\s& ye>s1 a li/ ( ! comm5t>ies & criticisms w\ld be endless & bewild]+4 ,nor w\ld any addition "h to ! bibliographies already available be especially sugge/ive4 ,! hi/ory ( ,ari/otle's ,rhetoric w em]ge incid5tally ?r\gh\t ?is "w4 ,! be/ s+le exegesis 9 ,engli%1 especially ( ! relations ( ! ,rhetoric to ! ,ari/otelian philosophy1 rema9s ,e4 ,m4 ,cope's ,introduction to ,ari/otle's ,rhetoric1 ,london1 #ahfg4 #b ,quot$ f ! au?or's article on ,ari/otle 9 ! ,cyclop$ia ( ,education4 #c #aced a4 #d #acee a4 #e #acee b4 #f #acee b 1 or1 z ! prec$+ context puts x1 4 #g ' 4 ,cope1 ,introduction1 page #aej1 translates 8unsci5tific & sci5tific02 ,welldon1 8in>ti/ic or arti/ic02 ,jebb1 8in>tificial or artificial40 ,none ( ^! translations is satisfactory 9 connotation4 ,sci5tific1 or arti/ic1 or artificial sugge/s associations n borne out by ! context & ultimately mislead+4 ,ari/otle says simply 8means t lie outside ( ! art & means t lie )9 x40 ,! means t lie )9 are h>dly1 9 fact or 9 8 int5tion1 sci5tific4 ,!y are arti/ic 9 ! broade/ s5se ( be+ atta9able by art1 n 9 ! n>r[] s5se ( belong+ to f9e art1 nor 9 ! colloquial s5se ( be+ pretty4 ,artificial !y are n at all1 except :5 !y are misappli$4 #h #acef a4 #i #acef a4 #aj #aceg a4 #aa #acef a4 #ab #aceh a4 #ac #aceh b4 #ad ,( ! v>i\s translations ( ,ari/otle's 1 8demon/rative0 is flatly a mi/ranslation1 8oratory ( display0 is q too n>r[ a translation1 & 8epideictic0 is n a translation at all4 ,! ne>e/ ^w 9 curr5t use is 8panegyric10 :i* is "r z f> z x goes4 ,b ,engli% use1 ?\gh x lacks a s+le equival5t ^w1 is none ! less famili> ) ! ?+4 ,! k9d ( oratory t ,ari/otle means is ! oratory ( ! ,gettysburg ,address1 ( mo/ o!r commemorative addresses1 & ( _m s]mons4 ,! ,fr5* equival5t is disc\rs de circon/ance4 #ae ,*apt] iv4 #acei a4 #af #acei b-#acfj a4 #ag #acfj b-#acfa b4 #ah ,*apt] vi4 #acfb a-#acfc b4 #ai ,*apt] vii4 #acfc b4 #bj ,*apt] viii4 #acff a4 #ba ,*apt] ix4 #acff a-#acfh a4 #bb 1 treat$ aga9 9 ,book ,,ii f ! po9t ( view ( ! audi5ce4 #bc ,*apt]s x-xv4 #acfh b-#acgg b4 #bd ,*apt] i4 #acgg b4 8,9 reg>d to & 1 :i* move juries1 ! mo/ important "p is to "k h[ ^! emotions are ar\s$ & allay$4 ,?is alone1 judg+ t x is none ( _! bus9ess1 ! rhetors h n borr[$ f ,ari/otle1 ?\gh !y h borr[$ ev]y?+ else40 ,philodemus1 ,rhetorica1 trans4 ,hubbell1 ,transactions ( ! ,connecticut ,academy1 vol4 #bc 7,septemb]1 #aibj71 page #cch4 #be 8,! import ( ^! #8*>act]s1' z ( ! 9 ,i4 #h4 #f1 & ! use to :i* !y are to be appli$1 may be ?us express$ 9 o!r words4 ,c]ta9 ages & conditions ( m5 are m>k$ by diff]5t & peculi> *>act]i/ics4 ,a speak] is always liable to be confront$ ) an audi5ce 9 :i* "o or o!r ( ^! classes =ms ! prepond]at+ elem5t4 ,9 ord] to make a favorable impression ^u !m1 he mu/ necess>ily adapt 8 tone & language ,ari/otle means r 8 me?od & argum5ts to ! s5tim5ts & habits ( ?\ght prevail+ among/ !m1 & ! feel+s & motives by :i* !y are usually influ5c$4 ,& = ?is purpose he mu/ /udy _! *>act]s1 & make himself acqua9t$ ) _! ord9>y motives & feel+s & op9ions4 ,& ! foll[+ analysis w supply him ) topics = ?is purpose40 ,cope1 ,introduction1 foot-note to page #bdh4 #bf ,c]ta9 difficulties "h 9 ! text1 ) ! pr9cipal em5dations propos$1 are discuss$ by ,cope 9 8 ,introduction1 & m l>gely 9 ! ,cope & ,s&ys edition4 ,vahl5 0 s conv9c$ ( an error 9 transmission t he propos$ to re/ore :at he consid]$ ! orig9al ord] by transpos+ bodily ,*apt]s xviii-end & ,*apt]s i-xvii4 ,b 9 spite ( difficulties ( detail1 ! pres5t ord] %[s suffici5tly cle> progress if we rememb] t ^! latt] *apt]s 7xviii-end7 are writt51 z all ! re/ ( ! book is writt51 f ! po9t ( view ( ! audi5ce4 ,s view$1 :at has seem$ repetition & expansion ( ,book ,i is se5 to be di/9ct1 & n m]ely additional1 b progressive4 #bg #acia b4 #bh 4 ,*apt] xix4 #bi 4 ,*apt] xx4 #cj 4 #ca 4 ,*apt] xxi4 #cb #acie b4 #cc ,*apt]s xxii-xxiv4 #cd ,op5+ ( ,*apt] xxiii4 #ce ,*apt]s xxv-xxvi4 #cf #adjc b4 #cg 4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ,ari/otle is n "h divorc+ 8mann]0 f 8matt]40 ,book ,,iii op5s a ?ird approa*1 :i* presupposes ! prec$+ approa*es4 ,?is seems to be insuffici5tly consid]$ by ,h4 ,p4 ,breit5ba* 7,! ,de compositione ( ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! ,rhetoric ( ,ari/otle71 :o reg>ds ,book ,,iii z a deviation f ! philosophic position ( ! prec$+ books4 #ch 4 #ci ,! fif? traditional item1 memory1 he omits altoge!r4 #dj ,*apt] i1 #aced4 #da #adjd a4 #db 4 #dc ,welldon's translation 8rhetorical actors0 c h>dly /&4 ,! phrase means r act+ orators1 or1 m exactly1 orators :o practise ! art ( ! actor1 :o are skill$ 9 deliv]y4 ,_! advantage appe>s 9 _! w9n+ prizes = writt5 spee*es1 :i* c be memoriz$ & declaim$ & :i* are sometimes t\rs de =ce1 %[+ m /yle ?an ?\ght4 ,su* spee*es--,i ?9k ,ari/otle cites !m z an extreme case--%[ ! sep>able value ( /yle1 includ+ deliv]y4 #dd #adjd a4 #de ,at ! close ( ?is fir/ *apt] ,welldon's translation 8rhetorical /yle0 is mislead+4 ,ari/otle says1 z ,jebb correctly translates1 8t /yle ( :i* we are speak+10 i4e41 prose /yle1 ! /yle ( public address4 8,! o!r /yle10 he adds1 8has be5 treat$ 9 ! ,poetic40 #df #adjd b4 #dg #adjf a4 #dh 4 #di #adjf b4 #ej #adjg a4 #ea ,/yle 71 elocutio7 consi/s (3 7#a7 *oice ( ! "r ^w 71 electio72 7#b7 ! movem5t1 rhy?m1 or pace ( s5t5ces & clauses 71 compositio74 ,*apt]s v-xii deal ) 7#b74 #eb 4 ,*apt] vi1 #adjg b4 #ec ,*apt] vii1 #adjh a4 #ed ,*apt] viii1 #adjh b4 #ee ,! ,greek ^w is q g5]al1 applicable to any sort ( guid+ pr9ciple1 outl9e1 sy/em1 or plan4 ,our ,engli% words outl9e1 plan1 etc41 ?\gh o!rwise fairly equival5t1 h visual1 graphic1 /atic associations q =eign to ! context4 ,ari/otle's images = /yle are drawn n f ar*itecture or pa9t+1 b f music & o!r modes ( movem5t4 ,by ! diction he means--inde$1 he says lat]--prose diction4 #ef ,lit]ally1 8all ?+s are measur$ by numb]40 #eg 4 ,cope & ,welldon translate 8conv]sational h>mony40 ,! lit]al s5se ( ! phrase is 8spee* h>mony10 8h>mony ( diction1 or ( /yle02 b s9ce ,ari/otle c h>dly mean to say t ! h]oic measure lacks h>mony ( diction 9 v]se1 & s9ce he is talk+ ( prose1 ,i translate 8prose h>mony40 may be tak5 ei!r 9 ! g5]al or 9 ! p>ticul> 7musical7 s5se ( h>mony2 b 9 ! latt] s5se its application is re/rict$ to melody4 #eh #adji a4 #ei ,= a mod]n sci5tific discussion ( prose rhy?m see ,w4 ,m4 ,patt]son1 ,! ,rhy?m ( ,prose1 ,new ,york1 ,columbia ,univ]sity ,press1 #aiaf4 ,see also ,morris ,w4 ,croll1 ,! cad5ce ( ,engli% oratorical prose4 ,/udies 9 ,philology1 #af3a1 ,univ]sity ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,janu>y1 #aiai4 #fj ,*apt] ix1 #adji a4 #fa #adji b1 ' 4 ,! translation ( ,cope & ( ,welldon1 8easily le>nt0 is amiss2 & ,welldon's foot-note !reon ab\t le>n+ spee*es by he>t is /ill m mislead+4 ,! 7end ( #adji a71 8easily grasp$ z a :ole10 ( ! prec$+ s5t5ce does n imply writ+ & read+2 & !re is no o!r ^w 9 ! context ev5 to sugge/ ?is except ! ref]5ce to memory1 :i* 9 ! classical rhetoric is r>ely appli$ to memoriz+4 ,! translation 8easily le>nt0 is preclud$ bo? by ! g5]al tr5d ( ! passage & by ! specific figures ( walk+1 runn+1 & brea?+4 ,"h1 z ?r\gh\t ! ,rhetoric & ! ,poetic1 ,ari/otle avoids speak+ ( /yle 9 ! visual t]ms common to mod]n g5]ations ( writ]s & read]s4 ,8 t]ms1 :e!r lit]al or figurative1 are g5]ally auditory & motor4 ,:5 he uses o!rs1 x is to di/+ui% some?+ special1 z 9 ,*apt] xii 7bel[7 ! exceptional1 lit]>y opportunity ( su* compositions z ^? ( ,isocrates4 ,n only does 8 ,rhetoric deal prim>ily & g5]ally ) oral composition1 b 9 p>ticul> ?is section on 7compositio7 deals ) movem5t almo/ exclusively4 ,n until he has expla9$ ! p]iod rhy?mically does he add our mod]n def9ition t x %\ld also be conclud$ ) ! s5se1 i4e41 ) ! syntax4 ,meantime he f9ds ! p]iod sup]ior to ! loose s5t5ce--= oratory--fir/ because x satisfies ! e> by be+ he>d z a def9ite rhy?m1 & secondly because x satisfies ! m9d by be+ int5d$ & appreh5d$ z a def9ite unit ( ?\ght4 #fb #adji b4 #fc ,! admirable r5d]+ ( ,jebb4 #fd #adji b 7t[>d end74 #fe #adji b4 #ff ,= ! contra/ betwe5 ! two movem5ts 9 mod]n prose1 see my ,college ,composition1 pages #ahd-ahh2 = ! effect ( a passage ( %ort s5t5ces vs4 t ( a passage ( long s5t5ces1 pages #fi-ga4 ,?\gh ! s5t5ce unit1 9 our mod]n logical s5se1 is n always cle> f ! punctuation ( ev5 mod]n editions ( anci5t texts1 x w usually be cle> f ! conclusion ( ! rhy?m4 ,9 ! e>li] /ages ( mod]n prose1 on ! o!r h&1 x is sometimes s dubi\s z to sugge/ t x 0 n always felt di/9ctly4 ,! arti/ic developm5t ( mod]n prose1 9 o!r words1 is p>tly ! progressive di/9ction ( p]iods4 #fg ,*apt] ix1 #adaj a4 #fh ,*apt] x1 #adaj b4 #fi #adjd b4 #gj 1 lively & pleas+1 sm>t & popul>4 #ga ,*apt] xi1 bel[4 #gb 4 #gc 4 #gd #adaa a4 #ge #adaa b4 #gf 4 ,"h1 p]haps1 is ! sugge/ion = ,less+'s fam\s doctr9e 9 ! ,laokon z to ,hom]ic description4 #gg #adab a4 #gh #adjd b4 #gi #adjf a4 #hj #adac b4 #ha ,*apt] vii1 #adjh a4 #hb ,= ?is division see ,book ,i1 ,*apt] iii1 #aceh b4 #hc 7#adad a74 ,! int]v5+ ref]5ce to ,*remon1 a poet said to h be5 bett] to read ?an to he>1 z 8precise z a pr(essional spee*-writ]10 %\ld n deviate u "h into consid]ation ( spee*es writt5 out to be memoriz$4 ,= a full discussion ( ! pr(essional spee*-writ] 77 see ,cope & ,s&ys on ,book ,,ii4 xi4 #g4 ,"h ,ari/otle is discuss+ some?+ diff]5t1 ! adaptation ( occasional oratory z nic] & m lit]>y 9 s5t5ce movem5t4 ,p]haps he implies too t su* spee*es _h bett] be compos$1 z well z elaborat$1 9 writ+4 ,c]ta9ly ?is k9d ( oratory1 f ,isocrates d[n1 regul>ly includ$ _m compositions :i* we %\ld call essays & :i* 7 n ev5 int5d$ to be spok54 #hd ,*apt]s xiii-xix4 #he 4 ,see ,cope1 ,introduction1 page #cca4 #hf ,*apt] xiii1 #adad a4 #hg #adad b4 #hh #adah b4 #hi ,*apt] xiv1 #adae a4 #ij #adae b-#adaf b4 #ia #adaf b4 #ib ,*apt] xvi1 #adaf b4 ,! c\nsel is too (t5 =gott5 by panegyri/s 9 ,congress1 p]haps because !y are lawy]s4 #ic #adag b4 #id ,see above on /yle 9 g5]al 7#adjd a71 on ! vividness ( ! concrete 7#adjd b71 on visualiz+ metaphor 7#adaj b71 & on describ+ 9 action 7#adaa b74 #ie ,*apt] xvii1 #adag b4 ,= ! place ( ,*apt]s xvii & xviii 9 relation to ! :ole "w see foot-note #e to page #aig ( ,jebb's translation4 #if #adah a4 #ig 4 ,*apt] xix1 #adai b4 #ih #adbj a4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,rhetoric ,,9 ,,! ,,de ,,oratore ,,& ,,orator ,,( ,,cic]o#a ,cic]o rema9s aft] two ?\s& ye>s ! typical orator writ+ on oratory4 ,! mo/ em95t orator ( ,roman civilization1 he wrote m ?an any o!r orator has ev] writt5 on rhetoric2 & hi/orically he has be5 m ?an any o!r an ideal & model4 ,consci\s ( 8 own range & ( ! n>r[ness & l[ e/eem t seem f ! beg9n+ to h curs$ tea*]s & especially manuals ( rhetoric1 he is anxi\s 9 8 great] works1 ,de oratore & ,orator1 to appe> n z a rhetorician1 b z a philosoph]4 ,?\gh no treatm5t c\ld well be m diff]5t f ,ari/otle's1 he is at pa9s to urge ! ,academic !ory t rhetoric is a bran* ( philosophy1 & to avoid ! te*nical t]ms ( ! art :ile keep+ its traditional categories4 ,9 ?is attitude he is b ! m typically ! arti/ discuss+ 8 own art4 ,he writes z ! man ( lett]s 9 any age writes on lit]>y composition4 ,we may be annoy$ at a c]ta9 condesc5sion t[>d tea*]s--z if !y might ?9k !mselves able to imp>t any?+ l 8 skill6 ,we may be baffl$ 9 try+ to r$uce "s ( 8 elaborations to specific t]ms4 ,b r we %\ld be grateful to f9d rhetoric pres5t$1 = once at lea/1 pleasantly z well z sugge/ively1 & /ill m to f9d ! orator insi/+ t x mu/ h ! same l>ge scope z is claim$ = x by ! philosoph]4 ,:]e ,ari/otle & ,cic]o agree1 we may feel sure4 ,cic]o has be5 disp>ag$ z a mak] ( phrases4 ,t he is c]ta9ly4 8,!y write ,lat910 says ,newman#b ( o!r great au?ors2 8,cic]o writes ,roman40 ,8 own /yle is ! f9al answ] to 8 detractors4 ,he is evid5tly1 inde$1 a v consci\s man ( lett]s1 & fil$ 8 spee*es = publication2 b c we d5y vigor ( ?\ght to ! mak] ( su* vigor\s phrase )\t laps+ into ! sep>ation ( /yle f sub/ance8 ,m]e /yle is incr$ible--unless1 z no "o pret5ds ( ,cic]o1 ! /yle is bad4 ,s mu* a priori2 & 9 fact 8 works w be> analysis4 ,b he is n creative4 ,he cl>ifies ! ?\ghts ( o!rs & br+s !m to be>4 ,8 habit & skill are n at all sci5tific4 ,8 a*ievem5t is ( /yle to ! ext5t t x is an a*ievem5t ( pres5tation4 ,:at he says ( rhetoric1 = in/ance1 o!rs h said be=e him2 he says x bett]1 m cle>ly1 m vividly4 ,he says x s mu* bett]1 inde$1 t 8 phrase has a c]ta9 f9ality4 ,x witnesses n only 8 extraord9>y comm& ( diction1 b also 8 con/ant aw>5ess ( human implications4 ,8 v diffus5ess spr+s f 8 con/ant s5se ( h[ p ?9k & feel :ile !y he> & read4 ,9 all ?is he is typically ! orator4 ,,de ,,oratore ,! title ,de oratore exactly expresses ! subject4 ,cic]o is discuss+ rhetoric1 inde$2 he is writ+ de arte oratoria2 b always1 z ,ari/otle 9 8 fir/ book1 f ! po9t ( view ( ! speak]4 ,x is wor? insi/+ on t ! practition] "h co9cides ) ! philosoph]1 & bo? ) ! !ory & practise ( rhetoric 9 ! be/ days ( ! anci5t tradition4 ,! tra9+ ( ! public speak]1 ?is tradition consi/5tly repeats1 mu/ focus ! :ole tra9+ ( ! man4 ,! vice ( ! tea*+ ( rhetoric 9 its decad5ce "u ! ,empire#c 0 s to p]v]t ?is pr9ciple z to make all tra9+ subord9ate to te*nical skill 9 rhetoric2 & inde$ ! pr9ciple has ?is dang] ( mak+ ! :ole man s]ve rhetoric1 in/ead ( mak+ rhetoric br+ out ! :ole man4 ,none ! less ! pr9ciple rightly conceiv$ is fruitful2 & no "o has %[n ?is m p]suasively ?an ,cic]o4 ,! =m is obvi\sly ! ,platonic dialogue4 ,! protagoni/s are ! fam\s orators ,crassus & ,antonius1 ) ,scvola1 ,cotta1 ,catulus1 & ,sulpicius z m9or int]locutors4 ,:atev] basis !re may h be5 9 ! actual conv]sations ( ^! hi/orical p]sons1#d ! "w1 l its model1 is fiction4 ,x is dramatic 9 repres5t+ ! speak]s z p]son2 b its imag9ative realization goes no fur!r4 ,! lit]>y device ( ! dialogue is us$ only to add concret5ess to ! discussion ( :at is always dry :5 x is ab/ract4 ,! object is ! discussion1 n ev5 incid5tally ! m5 :o discuss4 ,!y talk always z orators & to promote oratory2 & z orators !y proce$ f po9t to po9t4 ,plato's p]son are realiz$ m dramatically4 ,?\gh only ,socrates is creat$ fully1 ! o!rs em]ge z individuals4 ,! movem5t ( a ,platonic dialogue is f> m conv]sational4 ,n only does its =m give ! illusion ( actual talk2 its ?\ght moves hi!r & yon1 sugge/+ r ?an conclud+1 seek+ yet o!r approa*es & dep>tures1 n m>*+ b que/+4 ,cic]o raises que/ions1 inde$1 b z !y are rais$ by ! public speak] :o has pr$et]m9$ ! answ] & ! /ages by :i* we are to rea* x4 ,= all ! ease & skill ( its dialogue1 ,de oratore proce$s by p>agraphs z def9itely z ,de lege ,manilia4 ,?\gh rhetoric is necess>y to e educat$ man = effective communication1 & especially to e aspir+ y\? 7laudis cupidus71 h[ r>e are good orators6 ,! reason is ! wide scope4 ,oratory dem&s k n only z eruditio1 b also 9 relation to human w 7animorum motus74 ,x dem&s expressiv5ess 9 a wide range ( /yle & deliv]y4 ,:at m noble8 ,! orator is a pr9cipal support] ( ! ,/ate4 ,s beg9s ,crassus 7,i4 i-viii72 b ,scvola demurs1 unwill+ to grant ei!r t /ates h be5 e/abli%$ & ma9ta9$ by orators or t ! orator is accompli%$ 9 e sort ( utt]ance & ( culture4#e ,"h ! "q is pos$1 ,is oratory a special art or a compreh5sive /udy8 ,?\gh ab/ractly x may be bo?1 ?\gh ! "o view does n exclude ! o!r absolutely1 practically ! emphasis ( ! tra9+ w be det]m9$ by a *oice betwe5 ! two4 ,z if to =e/all re/riction1 ,crassus beg9s ) ! wide/ ext5sion4 ,he w n agree to exclude#f f ! scope ( oratory public managem5t1 in/ruction1 ev5 rese>*4 ,( ! ,greeks :o urge ?is1 he says1 ,plato is a refutation ( 8 own doctr9e1 be+ himself an orator4 ,democritus1 ,ari/otle1 ,!ophra/us1 ,c>neades1 %[ ! =ce ( oratory2 ,*rysippus1 ! lack ( x4 ,s\nd )\t sub/ance is folly4#g ,ev5 legal plead+ dem&s m ?an is taught by ! rhetoricians4 ,! orator's effectiv5ess dep5ds on k ( human emotions2 & !y are a field ( philosophy4 ,?\gh he may leave x to ! philosoph]s z cognitio1 he mu/ "k x#h z appli$ to pres5tation4 ,to make philosophy effective1 y mu/ h rhetoric4 ,does ?is f9ally leave ! po9t1 :i* is t rhetoric ne$s philosophy8 8,:at ! philosoph]s dispute 9 _! corn]s )\t any urg5cy ( application1 & s 9 ?9 & feeble talk1 ! orator w set =? 9 su* a way z to please & move40#i ,socrates us$ to say#aj #8,ev]ybody is eloqu5t en\gh on :at he kn[s'2 b ! tru? is r t nei!r c any "o be eloqu5t on :at he does n "k1 nor c he be eloqu5t on :at he does "k unless he "k also ! art ( rhetoric4 8,!re=e1#aa if we seek to def9e & embrace ! =ce ( oratory z bo? g5]al & special1 he me?9ks is an orator1 wor?y ( s responsible a title1 :o w say :atev] falls to him = pres5tation ) wise =eca/ ( ! :ole1 ord]1 /yle1 memory1 & a c]ta9 dignity ( deliv]y40 ,x is disconc]t+ to arrive1 aft] all1 at ! traditional p>ts ( rhetoric4 ,= ! def9ition resolves itself into ?is3 #a4 prud5t]1 ) wise =eca/ ( ! :ole inv5tio2 #b4 composite1#ab ) skill 9 arrangem5t dispositio2 #c4 ornate1 ) comm& ( enhanc+ words elocutio2 #d4 memorit]1 ) sure memory memoria2 #e4 cum actionis dignitate1 ) dignity ( deliv]y actio4 ,b ! traditional five p>ts ( rhetoric are m ?an ! table ( cont5ts ( ! manuals 7artes74 ,!y con/itute :at we n[ call 9 college s*$ules a gr\p ( /udies2 & ,crassus is cont5d+ = ! gr\p z a :ole4 ,:at he has be5 insi/+ on is ! importance & ! scope ( t fir/ "p :i*1 9 ! long hi/ory ( rhetoric1 tea*]s h mo/ (t5 & mo/ dang]\sly neglect$1 inv5tio1 ! inve/igation1 analysis1 & grasp ( ! subject-matt]4 ,he adds#ac t ! orator1 ?\gh 9 any giv5 case he may ga!r 8 in=mation f au?orities1 w express ?is in=mation z no exp]t c express x2 & he repeats t 9 "o bran* ( k he mu/ himself be an exp]t1 namely 9 human nature4 ,! practical difficulty ( su* a conception ( oratory1 rejo9s ,antonius1#ad is t we h n leisure to realize x4 ,& if we _h1 %\ld we n bett] sp5d our "t on ! practise ( speak+8 ,! manuals1#ae he adds some:at evasively1 h no?+ to say ab\t ju/ice1 temp]ance1 etc42 !y talk ( introductions & p]orations4 ,! ma9 ?+#af is t ! orator %\ld appe> to 8 auditory to be ! sort ( man t he wi%es to appe>4 ,t is ! result ( dignity ( life1 ab\t :i* !ories ( rhetoric h no m to say ?an ab\t ! means by :i* m5 are mov$ ,crassus might h retort$ by cit+ ,ari/otle's :ole second book4 ,no rhetorician#ag 0 ev] ev5 a tol]able orator2 _m orators h nev] /udi$ rhetoric4 ,! mat]ials ( rhetoric 9 ! l>ge s5se ( mat]ial urg$ by ,crassus are too indet]m9ate#ah = an art4 8,i call him a ma/]#ai :o c speak ke5ly & cle>ly to an av]age audi5ce f ! av]age po9t ( view2 b ,i call him eloqu5t#bj :o m wondr\sly & l>gely c enhance & adorn :at he w1 & hold 9 m9d & memory all ! s\rces ( all ?+s t p]ta9 to public speak+40 ,b :at p]ta9s to public speak+8 ,h[ widely %\ld ! tra9+ = x range8 ,! def9ition ( ,antonius obvi\sly /resses elocutio4 ,:e!r he means to make ?is ! ma9 conc]n ( ! orator dep5ds on :e!r he includes among 8 8s\rces0 ! fund ( k urg$ by ,crassus4 ,! context seems to %[ t he does n4 ,to put 8 def9ition beside t ( ,crassus above is to see t its int5tion is n>r[]4 ,x specifies no m ?an /yle1 fir/ z ! amplitude & vividness t enhance a p>ticul> passage1 & secondly z ! orator's g5]al virtuosity4 ,crassus returns to ! *>ge ) a summ>y#ba ( ! actual tra9+4 ,! /ud5t %\ld practise#bb n only extempore speak+ f outl9e1 b also writ+4 ,! writ+ t he advises "h is n = ! ca/+ ( a giv5 spee* 9 a p>ticul> =m1 b = education 9 range & control ( expression4 ,to ?is end he recomm5ds also wide read+4 ,! /udy ( law1 he adds1#bc %\ld be bo? ( te*nical detail & also ( l>g] aspects & relations4 ,antonius /&s 8 gr\nd4 ,8 second def9ition ( ! orator is sub/antially a repetition ( 8 fir/1 m]ely %>p5+ ! contra/4 8,b ! orator#bd--;& he is ! subject ( our inquiry--,i d n def9e z does ,crassus1 :o has seem$ to me to include k ( all sci5ces & arts )9 ! orator's s+le function & "n4 ,i ?9k him an orator :o c use words agreeable to he> & ?\ghts 7s5t5tiis7 adapt$ to prove 9 cases bo? =5sic & delib]ative2 444 & ,i w\ld h him also skill$ 9 voice1 ge/ure1 & mann]40 ,le/ !re %\ld seem to be a begg+ ( ! "q 9 ! ^w s5t5tiis1 :i* means ?\ghts & !re=e may seem to imply ! /udies urg$ by ,crassus1 s5t5tia %\ld be und]/ood r ( ! brilliant expression ( a s+le idea ?an ( a l9e ( ?\ght or ( intellectual grasp 9 g5]al4 ,t nei!r ( ! latt] is int5d$ "h is %[n by ! context4 ,because c]ta9 orators1 ,antonius resumes1 h be5 ma/]s ( o!r ?+s ?an oratory x does n foll[ t ^! o!r ?+s belong to oratory4 ,! mo/ t c be said is t1 to atta9 em95ce 9 oratory1 "o mu/ h he>d1 se51 & read mu*4 ,nei!r an orator's k ( human nature nor 8 use ( ?is k 9 speak+ is sci5tific4 ,nor mu/ ! orator be a lawy] any m ?an he mu/ be an actor4 ,ma/]y ( law1 ( act+1 ( hi/ory1 ( o!r ?+s1 is1 inde$1 an advantage2 b x is n a necessity to oratory4 ,if ! orator is to be1 z ,crassus has describ$ him1#be "o :o c speak 9 ways adapt$ to p]suade1 he mu/ sacrifice _m o!r /udies 9 ord] to ma/] 8 own prop] art4 ,"o closes ! fir/ book ) ! idea t bo? ,crassus & ,antonius are "r4 ,! two m51 ev5 m ?an ! two views1 are complem5t>y4 ,! views are irreconcilable only :5 pu%$ to ! extreme2 & 9 extreme =m ei!r ! ext5siv5ess ( ,crassus or ! int5siv5ess ( ,antonius may become a r$uctio ad absurdum4 ,normally rhetoric is bo? ext5sive & int5sive1 bo? a compreh5sive /udy ( life & a specific art1 ev5 z ! means ( p]suasion are bo? extr9sic & intr9sic4 ,d\btless ,cic]o meant to leave ?is impression2 = he gives full weight to ! !ory ( ,antonius "h1 makes him ! m\?piece 9 ,book ,,ii = ! specific lore ( inv5tio1 :i* corresponds to ! k urg$ 9 ,book ,i by ,crassus1 & makes ,crassus 9 ,book ,,iii ! spokesman = /yle4 ,b c]ta9ly ,cic]o sympa?izes1 & wi%es u to sympa?ize1 ) ,crassus4 ,x is ,cic]o1 n m]ely ,crassus1 :o pleads t ! tea*+ ( ! orator be n ! imp>t+ ( tricks1 nor ma9ly ( te*nic 9 a wid] & wor?i] s5se1 b ! gradual br++ to be> ( ! :ole man4 ,he saw 9 ! focus+ ( rhetoric on /yle a typical dang] = tea*+4 ,! dang] 0 pres5t1 app>5tly1 9 ! tea*+ ( 8 own day2 x 0 s]i\s 9 ! "t ( ,tacitus2 x 0 epidemic 9 ! s*ools ( declamatio t spread along ! ,m$it]ranean & taught "s ( ! fa!rs ( ! ,*ur*4 ,! view ( ,antonius1 uncorrect$ by ! view ( ,crassus1 is imp]fect !oretically2 practically x leads to ! typical vices ( ! tea*+ ( composition3 hi/orically x has br&$ a /igma on ! ^w ,rhetoric & all its d]ivatives4 ,! view ( ,crassus1 too1 has its dang]s3 ! dang] ( vagu5ess & dissipation1 ! dang] ( pret5ti\sness & sometimes ( sciolism4 ,b app>5tly ^! dang]s c m readily be met & c\nt]act$1 & mu/ be risk$2 = ! hi/ory ( rhetoric seems to %[ t 8 is ! "r emphasis & ! m fruitful idea4 ,speak+ & writ+ are less a pr(ession ev5 = orators & m5 ( lett]s1 mu* less = educat$ mank9d 9 g5]al1 ?an a life4 ,?\gh ! same may be said ( eng9e]+1 ?\gh all te*nical education involves g5]al education1 yet 9 le>n+ to speak & write ! te*nic is small] 9 proportion to ! g5]al tra9+4 ,! tra9+ ( ,roman y\? 9 oratory 0 at its be/ education = lead]%ip4 ,9 ?is education composition 0 bo? end & means4 ,x has be5 s always1 x is s to-day1 9 ! h&s ( its be/ tea*]s4 ,! specific application is to op5 9 ! tea*+ ( composition manifold relations4 ,x ?rives on :at we n[ call correlation2 x dw9dles 9 segregation4 ,= we may le>n f ,cic]o to give rhetoric ! same abundant relations to human affairs z he urges 8 orator to seek 9 all 8 oratory4 ,because x has mo/ ( ! ,cic]onian message ,book ,i has be5 ! mo/ /udi$ & probably ! mo/ fruitful4 ,! division ( ,book ,,ii is conv5tional4 ,aft] glanc+ at ! fields ( oratory & ! compon5t p>ts ( a spee* & urg+ imitation1 x treats inv5tio#bf & dispositio#bg "u ! usual heads & briefly summ>izes memoria4#bh ,oratory1 says ,antonius1 is ess5tially ei!r delib]ative or =5sic2 = ,ari/otle's ?ird division1 occasional oratory1 is n s mu* a sep>ate field z a p>ticul> direction & a fundam5tal habit ( ?\ght4 ,cic]o is q unconv9c+ "h4 ,p]haps 8 own habit ( introduc+ into =5sic ! ways ( occasional oratory1 z 9 8 ,ar*ias1 bl9d$ him to ! significance ( ,ari/otle's ?ird category4 ,! traditional exordium1 n>ratio1 etc41 ,antonius f9ds to be r elem5ts ?an p>ts1 s9ce ! p>ticul> function ( ea* is n conf9$ to "o place4 ,f ?is p]functory rehe>sal we are awak5$ by sugge/ive advice to tea*]s4#bi ,^? :o really tea* rhetoric are engag$ less 9 drill ?an 9 promotion ( ! _s t w9s success4#cj 8,!re=e ,i w tra91 if ,i c1 s z fir/ to disc]n :at ! pupil c d4 ,let him be imbu$ ) lit]ature2 let him h read & he>d some?+2 let him h le>n$ ! rules2 ,i w provoke him s f> z is feasible to 8 utmo/ 9 voice1 =ce1 _s4 ,if ,i p]ceive t he c rea* ! heights1 ,i w beg him1 & if he seems also a good man1 ,i w conjure him1 to revise2 s mu* social value d ,i atta* to ?is te*nical skill = bo? ! out/&+ orator & ! good man4 ,b if1 d :at he w1 he is go+ to rema9 m$iocre1 ,i w let him d :at he w1 & especially n nag him2 if he is go+ to be positively (f5sive or ridicul\s1 ,i w tell him to close 8 lips or try some?+ else4 ,= nei!r c we ev] des]t ! /ud5t ( exceptional ability nor det] ! "o :o has at lea/ "s ability4444 8,to beg9 at home1#ca ,catulus1 ,i fir/ he>d ,sulpicius "h 9 an unimportant case :5 he 0 a /ripl+4 ,?\gh he %[$ physical equipm5t ( voice1 pres5ce1 ge/ure1 8 spee* 0 rapid1 hurri$--a matt] ( temp]am5t--& some:at eff]vesc5t & sup]abundant--a matt] ( y\?4 ,i did n scorn him4 ,i am glad to see y\? exub]ant4 ,z ) v9es1 x is easi] to prune ?an to cultivate4 ,y %\ld h se5 ! *ange 9 him :5 next ,i he>d him aft] he _h /udi$ ,crassus40 ,! fir/ specific c\nsel1 !n1 is = ! tea*] promotion2 = ! /ud5t x is imitation1 su* z ,sulpicius's ( ,crassus1 n m]e copy+ ( mann]isms1 b su* z produces#cb s*ools ( eloqu5ce f ! example ( great orators4#cc ,"u inv5tio ! fir/ task is ! inve/igation ( ! facts4 8,b f9ally#cd to br+ ! orator :om we are =m+ to actual cases 444 we w tea* him fir/--laugh if y w--to "k !m ?or\ghly & deeply4 ,?is is n taught 9 s*ool2 = ! cases assign$ to boys are easy4 ,= example3 #8,! /atute =bids a /rang] 7p]egr9us7 to climb a wall2 ?is man climb$2 he repuls$ ! enemy2 he is br\ght to trial4' ,no labor to "k a case ( ?is sort2 = rightly no?+ is taught 9 s*ool ab\t /udy+ a case4 ,b 9 ! =um "o has to "k docum5ts1 contracts & agreem5ts1 decrees1 ! lives ( ! p>ties4 ,?r\gh c>elessness 9 gett+ su* k m5 :o 9 _! anxiety to appe> mu* 9 dem& und]take too _m cases (t5 lose4#ce ,n only s1 b !y may be suspect$ ( bad fai? or ( incompet5ce4 8,= my "p1#cf ,i take pa9s to le>n ! case f ! cli5t himself1 alone1 t he may talk m freely1 & to debate aga9/ him1 t he may def5d himself & advance :atev] argum5ts he has ?\ght out4 ,:5 ,i h dismiss$ him1 ,i q dispassionately take ?ree p>ts3 my own1 my oppon5t's1 ! judge's4 ,:atev] argum5ts promise m help ?an emb>rassm5t ,i settle on1 reject+ o!rs 9 ! same way4 ,by ?is plan ,i manage to ?9k at "o "t & speak at ano!r4#cg ,"s speak]s h ! confid5ce to d bo? at once2 b ,i am sure t !y too w\ld speak some:at bett] if !y recogniz$ ! advisability ( sett+ aside "o "t = ?\ght1 ano!r = spee*40 ,?\gh ?is is a conv5tional topic1 & ?\gh its application "h is legal1 x is none ! less in/ructive g5]ally2 & x might directly improve ! tea*+ ( argum5t & ! practise ( debate 9 our colleges4 ,! second head+ "u inv5tio is also conv5tional1 ! /atus1 or det]m9ation ( ! ma9 "* ( ! case & ! ma9 issues4 ,! /atus 0 det]m9$ 9 ! classical sy/em by apply+ c]ta9 traditional que/ions4 ,! /atus legalis may be set aside z applicable only to legal plead+4 ,! /atus rationalis1 or /atus consid]$ 9 ! g5]al aspects ( reason z an affair ( common argum5t1 0 det]m9$ by ask+ oneself h[ f> ! debate h+$ 7#a7 on fact1 on :e!r su*-&-su* ?+s _h happ5$1 or 7#b7 on def9ition1 ! facts be+ g5]ally admitt$1 or 7#c7 m broadly1 on ! int]pretation ( admitt$ facts & def9itions4 ,?\gh mo/ cases ne$ to be look$ at f all ^! ?ree po9ts ( view1 9 mo/ !re w be f\nd a decid$ pr$om9ance ( "o2 & =eca/ ( ?is w direct ! emphasis ( ! :ole argum5t1 w tell :]e to ?r[ "o's weight4 ,?is "o is ! /atus ( t case4 ,9 ! ,lat9 t]ms3 7#a7 if ! ma9 "q is an sit1 ! /atus is coniectura1 or /atus coniecturalis2 7#b7 if x is quid sit1 ! /atus is f9is1 or /atus def9itivus2 7#c7 if x is quale sit1 ! /atus is qualitas1 or /atus g5]alis4 ,?\gh ,cic]o's discussion#ch is necess>ily conv5tional1 he has ke5 practical sugge/ions4 ,z to 7#b71 :i* 9 8 ord] is ?ird1 ,antonius says3 8,we are (t5 advis$ to def9e ! crucial t]m briefly2#ci b t is pu]ile4 ,:at we ne$ is n a brief or ab/ract def9ition1 z ( t]ms l law or /ate def9$ accord+ to ! rule ( nei!r too little nor too mu*4 ,9 ! case ,i h m5tion$ nei!r ,sulpicius nor ,i attempt$ def9ition ( t sort4 ,r ea* ( u dilat$ on treason ) e means ( amplification4 ,= m]e def9ition1 9 ! fir/ place1 is (t5 snat*$ out ( y\r h&s if a s+le ^w be object$ to or add$ or omitt$2 9 ! second place1 by its v nature x smacks ( tea*+ 7doctr9a7 & almo/ *ildi% practise2 & f9ally1 x _c ent] ! p]ception & m9d ( ! judge1 = be=e x is grasp$ x slips pa/40 ,b ! case mu/ be survey$ also z to its & its 4 8,!n ,i mo/ c>efully consid]#dj bo? ! appeal ( my cli5t's "* & my own & ! appeal to ! feel+s ( ^? :om ,i address4 ,s e !ory ( speak+ seeks p]suasion#da ?r\gh 7#a7 e/abli%+ ! facts1 7#b7 w9n+ ! sympa?y ( ! audi5ce1 & 7#c7 ar\s+ ^? ( :om ! case dem&s action44440 8,tea*]s1#db inde$1 h divid$ cases into sev]al k9ds & h provid$ a fund ( argum5ts = ea* k9d4 ,?is is adapt$ to ! education ( ! "y2 = z soon z a case is pos$1 !y "k :]e to f9d argum5ts = x4 ,nev]!less n only is x sl[-witt$ to pursue rivulets1 n disc]n+ ! f\nt1 b x is becom+ to our age & habit to summon :at we wi% f ! s\rce :5ce all ?+s fl[40 ,! lore ( prelim9>y analysis is conclud$ ) a brilliant summ>y "u ?ree que/ions ( ,cic]o's own3#dc 7#a7 :at k9d ( case is x 9 g5]al 7naturam caus71 i4e41 ( fact or ( int]pretation8 7#b7 on :at does x turn1 i4e41 :at is ! po9t b = :i* !re w\ld be no debate8 7quid faciat causam2 id e/1 quo sublato controv]sia />e non possit78 7#c7 :y is x disput$8 h[ does ! dispute arise 7quid v5iat 9 iudicium78 ,! transition f argum5t to ! o!r means ( p]suasion1 f prob>e or doc]e to concili>e & mov]e1 is ! caveat ( ,antonius aga9/ ! curr5t division ( cases into g5]al & p>ticul>#dd z a capital error4 ,!oretically e p>ticul> case mu/ h g5]al relations2 practically1 if oratory is n to lapse into m]e accumulation ( details1 ! orator mu/ h ! habit ( br++ ^! g5]al relations to be>4 ,antonius adds ! fur!r caveat t ! :ole sy/em ( ! /atus is m]ely analytical4 ,x is logical2 & logic %[s only h[ to judge argum5ts1 n h[ to f9d !m4#de ,! s\rces ( argum5ts 7s$es argum5torum7#df are !re=e m important4 ,z to concili>e & mov]e#dg ,cic]o says only ! usual ?+s1 p]haps because inv5tio 9 ^! aspects is r to be promot$ by exhortation ?an imp>t$ by new categories4 ,m5 take a decision (t5] ?r\gh feel+ ?an ?r\gh fact or law4#dh ,!y are mov$ by evid5ces ( "* 9 ! speak] & 9 8 cli5t4#di ,orators mu/ h a sc5t = an audi5ce1 = :at p are feel+1 ?9k+1 wait+ =1 wi%+4 ,to ar\se feel+1 ! orator mu/ h x himself4#ej ,he ne$ n feign x2 x arises naturally f 8 imag9ative sympa?y1 z on ! /age4#ea ,emotional appeal is n to be made sudd5ly2 x is to be l$ up to & d[n f2#eb & x dem&s full =ce ( deliv]y4#ec ,! only way to rebut feel+ is by feel+4 ,cic]o adds ! usual sections on wit & humor4#ed ,! treatm5t ( dispositio#ee gives little specific c\nsel t[>d ! a*ievem5t ( t sequ5ce 9 :i* ,cic]o himself excell$4 ,9 g5]al1 dispositio has to consid]3 h[ to make ! mo/ ( ! /rong] po9ts )\t seem+ to slur ! weak]2 :e!r ! case w prevail m readily ?r\gh argum5t or ?r\gh appeal1 ?r\gh direct pro( or ?r\gh refutation2 h[ to cov] retreat at ne$ by mak+ sure t ! case1 if x _c be won1 %all at lea/ n be damag$4 ,to translate ?is doctr9e into ! t]ms ( mod]n manuals1 ! fir/ g5]al consid]ation ( dispositio is emphasis1 bo? z proportion ( space & z progressive it]ation ( ma9 po9ts4 ,! traditional ord]#ef 7exordium1 n>ratio1 etc417 is natural2 b ! real problem is ! arrangem5t1 or sequ5ce1 ( ! pro( & ! weigh+ ( argum5ts r ?an ! c\nt+ ( !m4 ,?is is a practical caveat aga9/ ! tyro's idea t he c prevail by %e] =ce ( numb]s4 ,to be effective1 an argum5t mu/ be m ?an a s]ies2 x mu/ be a l9e4 ,its progression is m ?an ari?metical2 x is r geometrical4 ,appeal to feel+#eg %\ld be r p]vasive ?an locat$ 9 p>ticul> divisions4 ,! /ronge/ argum5ts %\ld be put fir/ & la/2 ! exordium compos$ aft] ! re/ ( ! spee*1 9 ord] to be ! m c>efully adapt$#eh & m ess5tially relat$ to ! pla9tiff1#ei ! def5dant1 ! case1 or ! judges4 ,! n>ratio1#fj ?\gh concise1 mu/ be ample n only = vividness1 b ev5 = cle>ness4 ,con/ructive argum5t & refutation are to be consid]$ toge!r z a :ole i4e41 debate is always at once de/ructive & con/ructive4 ,)\t mak+ panegyric#fa z a sep>ate k9d ( oratory1 we c see t delib]ative spee*es (f] m scope 9 t direction ?an =5sic4 ,cic]o adds g5]al topics = panegyric4 ,! *apt]s on memoria#fb beg9 ) ! famili> /ory ( ,simonides1 to make ! obvi\s po9t t :at fur!rs memory is ord]4 ,visual associations1 ,cic]o ?9ks1 are /ronge/1 & c be us$ to recall ev5 s5t5ces4 ,b v]bal memory is less important4 ,! orator's memory is ( ?+s4#fc ,9 ,book ,,iii ,crassus discusses /yle 7elocutio74 ,ab\t a ?ird ( ! book#fd amplifies ! !me t rhetoric is insep>able f philosophy4 ,:at foll[s is a conv5tional treatm5t ( ! *oice ( words 7electio7#fe & ! movem5t ( s5t5ces 7compositio71#ff ) a few *apt]s on deliv]y4#fg ,^! latt] topics are h&l$ s mu* m explicitly 9 ,orator t only ! fir/ "p claims analysis4 ,by /yle we mean g5]ally diction t is idiomatic1 cle>1 vivid1 & apt4#fh ,idiom & cle>ness we may take = grant$4 8,all elegance ( speak+1 ?\gh x is poli%$ by ! /udy ( gramm>1 is promot$ by read+ al\d orators & poets4#fi444 ,if !re be a c]ta9 ,roman & urban tone1 9 :i* !re is no?+ to (f5d1 to displease1 or ev5 to attract notice1 no?+ to s\nd or smell =eign1 let u foll[ ?is & le>n to flee n only c\ntry r\ghness b also =eign bravado4#gj 444 wom5 m easily keep ! pure tradition40 8,t s*eme ( ?\ght & expression & =ce ( speak+ ! anci5t ,greeks us$ to call philosophy4#ga444 ,= t anci5t tea*+ appe>s to h be5 ! preceptress alike ( liv+ rightly & ( speak+ well4 ,nor 7 ! tea*]s sep>ate2 ! same ma/]s =m$ morals & spee*40#gb ,f ! scorn ( ,socrates = rhetoric arose ! unnatural sep>ation ( rhetoric f philosophy 444 8t divorce z x 7 ( ! tongue f ! he>t 444 t "o class ( p]sons %\ld tea* u to ?9k1 ano!r to speak1 rightly40#gc ,philosophy has suff]$ by ?is sep>ation4 ,! ,cyr5aic philosophy rema9s incomplete by dissuad+ f public life4 ,! ,/oic philosophy1 ?\gh x decl>es eloqu5ce to be virtue & wisdom1 makes wisdom practically unatta9able2 & ! dry ab/ractness ( address cultivat$ by ! ,/oics is q ineffective4 ,rhetoric1 on ! o!r h&1 has suff]$ by be+ r$uc$ to maxims ( plead+4 ,9 a ^w1 tra9+ 9 rhetoric1 to be adequate1 mu/ include philosophy2 & philosophy rema9s ineffective )\t rhetoric4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is ! ideal2 b x is n practically impossible2 = we are n say+ t ! orator mu/ be a philosoph]1 only t he mu/ "k philosophy4#gd ,!re=e /yle mu/ n be conceiv$ ei!r z ! controv]sial acrimony ( ! =um or z conv5tional adornm5t borr[$ by ignorance4 ,! /yle mu/ become ! ?\ght1 n we>y ! audi5ce by display2 & ! v idea ( enhanc+ implies a /ore ( ?\ght4#ge ,! futile di/9ction made by rhetoricians betwe5 a p>ticul> case & a g5]al has ?is be>+ on /yle1 t eloqu5ce consi/s 9 br++ to be> on e "q ^? fundam5tal human aspects :i* c be exhibit$ only ?r\gh l>ge k2 = copi\sness ( /yle comes only f copi\sness ( ?\ght4 ,! ,greeks gave oratory to philosophy1 philosophy to oratory4 ,our ,roman ance/ors aspir$ to k 9 all fields t t\* civil life4 ,! greatness ( ! arts has be5 dim9i%$ by division & sep>ation4#gf ,^! tw5ty *apt]s are a brilliant in/ance ( :at ! anci5ts meant by amplification4 ,logically !y d little m ?an it]ate ! truism t /yle is insep>able f sub/ance2 b actually !y make ! truism live4 ,cic]o is an admirable example ( 8 own def9ition ( ! eloqu5t z ^? 8:o speak ) cle> di/9ctions1 lucid ord]1 amplitude1 brilliance ( matt] & mann]1 & 9 prose weave some?+ ( ! spell ( v]se--9 a ^w1 :o enhance40#gg 8,immortal gods6 said ,catulus1 :at a v>iety ( ?+s1 ,crassus1 y h embrac$6 :at =ce1 :at abundance6 & f :at pov]ty h y d>$ to lead ! orator =? & e/abli% him 9 ! k+dom ( 8 fa!rs60#gh ,,orator ,cic]o's ,de oratore1 ?\gh x cov]s all five p>ts ( rhetoric1 is mo/ ample z to inv5tio4 ,8 ,orator is complem5t>y 9 t x is l>gely devot$ to elocutio4#gi ,l ! e>li] "w1 ,orator is specifically limit$ to delib]ative & =5sic oratory4 ,occasional oratory1 or panegyric1 ?\gh he decl9es aga9 to treat x z a sep>ate field1#hj ,cic]o recognizes z ! 8nurse ( t orator :om we wi% to =m10 especially 9 s5t5ce skill4#ha ,inv5tio#hb & dispositio1#hc z dep5d+ m on =esight ?an on eloqu5ce1 are b>ely summ>iz$4 ,elocutio occupies ?ree-f\r?s ( ! discussion4#hd ,orator has be5 less attractive ?an ,de oratore = ! reason t x is m compact & m te*nical4 ,none ! less x has a cog5cy & a felicity ev5 m *>act]i/ically ,cic]onian4 ,few m5 writ+ on /yle h %[n 9 _! own /yles s mu* precision & *>m4 ,de oratore keeps ! flu5cy ( dialogue2 ,orator %[s m ( ,cic]o's own ma/]y ( ! oratorical p]iod4 ,! division ( /yle into ?ree k9ds 7g5us t5ue1 g5us m$ium1 g5us gr&e7#he has be5 mu* discuss$ z to its orig94#hf ,:atev] its orig91 x is dubi\s z philosophy & has be5 vici\s z p$agogy4 ,cic]o applies x lat]#hg to ! ?ree tasks1 or objects1 ( oratory3 to prove1 to w9 sympa?y1 to move4 ,he adds#hh t ! orator %\ld excel 9 all ?ree directions4 ,b ?is h>dly w>rants a division ( /yle into ?ree k9ds2 = actually ! tea*] too ready to classify1 or ! /ud5t too ready to ?9k ( /yle z sep>able & additional1 may !reby deviate 8 :ole /udy4 ,hi/orically ! trail ( ! ?ree /yles has be5 baneful4 ,= inculcat+ /yle p]haps ! lea/ fruitful means is classification4#hi ,b ,cic]o's discussion ( /yle1 ?\gh gr\p$ at fir/ by ?is classification1 ranges beyond x4 ,,dige/ ,,( ,,orator1 #fa-bcf1 ,,on ,,/yle#ij ,/yle 7#fa7 is ! v m>k ( ! orator4 ,! diction ( ! philosoph]s 7#fb-fc7 has nei!r ! =ce nor ! pung5cy ( oratory2 = ! philosoph]s 7#fd7 are limit$ to ab/ract discussion1 z ! sophi/s 7#fe7 to decoration1 & ! hi/orians 7#ff7 to a some:at diffuse smoo?ness4 ,! /yle ( poetry 7#fg7 diff]s n 9 spe$ or vividness1 b 9 boldness ( diction 7#fh7 & 9 sometimes be+ pursu$ = %e] values ( s\nd4 ,! ?ree /yles ( speak+#ia arise f ! orator's ?ree objects3 7#fi7 to prove1 to please1 to move4 ,aptness1 !n1 dem&s adju/m5t n only to ! speak] 7#ga7 & ! audi5ce 7#gb71 b also to ! object4 ,:at is prop] to ! pla9 /yle 7g5us t5ue1 #ge78 ,?is s\nds s ord9>y t x seems easi] ?an x is2 =1 ?\gh n /rong1 x mu/ be s\nd4 ,x is untrammel$ by cad5ces 7#gg71 is free )\t rambl+1 & nei!r fits ^w to ^w nor avoids ! pleasant neglig5ce ( "o elaborat+ matt] r ?an mann]4 ,x avoids p]iodic /ructure 7#he7 & dramatic deliv]y 7#hf72 b admits a c>eful use ( wit 7#hg-ij74 ,! m$ian /yle 7g5us m$ium1 #ib71 adju/$ to ! w9n+ ( sympa?y 7concili>e71 aim$ at ! ( ! audi5ce1 has z its *ief "* suavitas2 z its *ief expon5t1 ,demetrius ( ,phal]um4 ,! high /yle 7g5us gr&e1 #ig71 aim+ at 1 ?\gh x is ! acme1 is n to be pursu$ exclusively2 = ! p]fect orator mu/ be ma/] ( all ?ree 7#ajj72 ! ?ree may be modifi$ 7#ajc71 comb9$1 & v>i$2 & v>iety is necess>y 7#aji7 bo? 9 any giv5 spee* & z a habit4 ,aft] a summ>y1 #aac-aci1 ( ! orator's necess>y k1 especially ( ! o!r p>ts ( rhetoric1 ,cic]o passes to 8 ma9 topic1 h>mony4 ,expla9+ 7#adj-adh7 ! importance ( ?is1 he def9es x 9 its simple/ aspect ( euphony 7#adi72 negatively z ! avoidance ( hiatus1 /ops1 & o!r awkw>d comb9ations1 positively z balance1 symmetry1 ! r\nd+ out ( ! phrase by correspond5ce 7#afe74 ,! re/ ( ,orator1 ab\t "o ?ird 7l-lxxi1 #afh-bcf7 is devot$ to prose rhy?m "u f\r heads3 7a7 orig91 7b7 cause1 7c7 nature1 7d7 use4 ,"u ! fir/ ,cic]o develops a rhetorical doctr9e ( rhy?m f ,?rasyma*us1 ,isocrates1 & ,gorgias4 ,z to ! second1 its cause 7#agg-h71 he says3 8,! e>1 or ! m9d ?r\gh ! e>1 conta9s 9 itself a c]ta9 natural measure#ib ( all spok5 s\nds40 ,! ?ird head+1 ! nature ( rhy?m1 is treat$ at great] l5g? 7liii-lx1 #agi-bjc74 ,analyz+ rhy?m to %[ t x has an effect di/9ct f t ( m]e euphony1 ,cic]o goes on to exam9e :at ?is effect is 7#ahc74 ,s9ce !re is a di/9ct rhy?mical effect 9 prose1 x c be expla9$1 ?\gh x appeals to s5se1 n to reason1 & ?\gh x is less obvi\s & less ess5tial ?an 9 v]se4 ,x is lack+ 7#ahf7 9 e>li] writ]s1 ,h]odotus = example4#ic ,x has to be s\ght z a f9al grace ( prose 7#ahf74 8,if !re is 7#ahg7 prose /9t$ & concise & o!r prose dilat$ & flu5t1 ! diff]5ce mu/ arise n f ! nature ( lett]s 7litt]>um71 b f ! v>iety ( int]vals1 long & %ort2 & s9ce prose is n[ /eady1 n[ %ift+1 accord+ z x is wov5 & bl5d$ ) ^! int]vals1 ! nature ( ! diff]5ce 7or ( ?is v>iety7 mu/ reside 9 ! rhy?m 7num]is1 #ahg740id ,prose be+ unmetrical1 h[ev]1 are its rhy?ms 7#ahh7 /ill ! same z ^? ( v]se8 ,! feet mu/ be ! same2 b :at rhy?ms are available 9 prose8 ,t any foot is possible appe>s 9 t we (t5 fall c>elessly into met]4 ,prose consi/s l>gely ( iambs2 b we (t5 lapse into less famili> met]s4 ,x is pla91 !n1 t prose feet are ! same z poetic4 ,"s ?9k iambic1 z be+ mo/ l real life 7#aia71 m suit$ to simple n>rative2 dactylic1 to ! dignity ) :i* x is associat$ 9 h]oic v]se4 ,ephorus pref]s ! pan or ! dactyl to ! spondee or ! tro*ee because ! latt] are ei!r too sl[ or too rapid4 ,ari/otle1 f9d+ ! h]oic too gr& = prose1 ! iambic too colloquial 7#aib71 & ! tro*aic too tripp+1 approves 7#aic7 ! pan4 ,?is is to be pref]r$ z be+ less readily metrical 7#aif72 b x %\ld be v>i$ by o!r measures4 ,iambic is mo/ frequ5t 7#aig7 9 ! pla9 /yle1 ! pan 9 ! gr& /yle2 b all %\ld be m+l$ = v>iety4 8,?us ! he>]s w h>dly notice ! sn>+ ( _! delight 9 s\nd & ! pa9s to squ>e ! spee*4 ,^! w be ! less app>5t if ! words & ?\ghts are weighty2 = ^? :o are li/5+ to ^! & lik+ !m--! words1 ,i mean1 & ! ?\ghts--:ile _! att5tion & admiration are ?us fix$ d n notice ! rhy?m1 ?\gh !y w\ld be less pleas$ )\t x40 7#aig74 ,prose is rhy?mical n 7#aih7 by nev] v>y+--t w\ld be v]se--b by movem5t nei!r limp+ nor fluctuat+1 b ev5 & con/ant4 ,prose rhy?m1 !re=e1 is m difficult ?an v]se4 ,! rhy?m ( ! p]iod 7#aii71 9 ord] to make su* a close z ! e> desires1 mu/ be m>%all$ t way f ! />t4 ,prose rhy?m may arise1 )\t rhy?mical int5tion1 f ! h>moniz+#ie ( ! phrase4 ,! use 7#bjd7 ( rhy?m is mo/ ext5sive 9 panegyric 7#bjg72 9 ! o!r fields x ent]s :5 panegyric ent]s1 or :5 /atem5t ( facts dem&s r dignity ?an poignancy1 (t5 also 9 amplification1 & mo/ frequ5tly 9 ! p]oration 7#baj74 ,= v>iety *ange 7#baa7 f ! /atem5ts gr\p$ & r\nd$ 9 p]iods to /atem5ts deta*$ 7incisa & membra74 ,debate1 m ?an exposition1 ne$s spe$4 ,! cad5ce1 or close 7clausula1 #bae7 may be 9 any "o ( sev]al modes4 ,! di*oreus1 pref]r$ 9 ,asia 7#bab71 is admirable2 b any "o cad5ce palls4 ,a full p]iod 7#bba7 consi/s ( f\r p>ts1 or clauses 7membra71 i4e41 is ab\t ! l5g? ( f\r hexamet] v]ses2 & is held toge!r by nodi cont9uationis4 ,:5 we wi% to %ift to deta*$ %ort s5t5ces 7membratim71 z we mu/ (t5 d 9 =5sic1 we pause1 & break ! rhy?m t might sugge/ artifice4 ,b ev5 9 su* %ort] rea*es 7#bbc7 we ne$ rhy?m1 :e!r !y be incisa1 membra1 or %ort p]iods2 & ^! may be support$ by a long] p]iod1 end+ 9 a di*oreus or a spondee4 ,! %ort] rea*es dem& fre] measures4 ,!y are ( mo/ =ce 9 =5sic 7#bbe71 especially 9 pro( & refutation4 ,nor is any sort ( speak+ 7#bbf7 /rong] ?an to /rike ) two or ?ree words1 sometimes ev5 ) "o1 & !n to int]pose a rhy?mical p]iod4 ,rhy?m is n m]ely beautiful 7#bbg71 b1 l ! beautiful motions ( a?letes1 useful4 ,pursuit ( x mu/ avoid ! appe>ance ( artifice1 padd+ 7#bca7 to r\nd ! cad5ce1 ! lam+ ( ! movem5t by too _m %ort rea*es1 & monotony4 ,pro( ( ! value ( rhy?m may be made by dislocat+#if ! s5t5ce movem5t ( a good orator )\t *ang+ ! words1 or conv]sely by re>rang+ ! s5t5ces ( a c>eless orator 7#bcc74 ,^? :o affect to despise rhy?m 7#bcd7 are unable to ma/] x4 ,call+ !mselves ,attic1 !y ignore ! rhy?m ( ,demo/h5es4 ,if !y pref] a loose /yle1 let !m foll[ x if !y c %[ ev5 9 _! p>ts ! beauty t is lack+ 9 ! :ole 7#bce71 or if !y c compose 9 any o!r /yle2 b ! p]fect orator 7#bcf7 is ma/] ( all 8 art4 ,cic]o's treatm5t ( rhy?m 9 oratory1 ?\gh sometimes vague & z a :ole unsatisfy+1 is important hi/orically4 ,its v ext5t & c>e %[ t = ! orator1 no less ?an = ! !ori/1 rhy?m 9 ! classical tradition 0 a ma9 consid]ation4 ,x 0 n some?+ additional1 a f9al grace ( /yle1 b an ess5tial elem5t ( oratorical effectiv5ess4 ,moreov] x 0 a prim>y & controll+ consid]ation 9 all t revision :i* is sp5t on ! %ap+ ( s5t5ces4 ,! oral & auditory anci5ts taught s5t5ces m l>gely z movem5ts 9 "t ?an d ! writ+ & visual mod]ns4 ,!y are ?us ! m in/ructive to ^? ^: e>s writ+ & pr9t h tra9$ imp]fectly4 ,9 e case1 ( c\rse1 anci5t or mod]n1 ! unit is logical1 ! expression ( a ?\ght2 b :]eas mod]n manuals g5]ally conf9e !mselves to t]ms ( syntax1 ! anci5t rhetoric is con/antly aw>e ( ! effects ( rhy?m4 ,its analysis ( ^!1 ?\gh x leaves mu* to be desir$ 9 sci5tific accuracy1#ig s]ves at lea/ to direct att5tion & /imulate imitation2 & m ?an ! mod]n logic ( ! s5t5ce x seems to promote flu5cy4#ih ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,besides _m incid5tal ref]5ces1 ,cic]o left sev5 works deal+ ma9ly or entirely ) rhetoric3 ,de inv5tione 7ab\t #hf ,b4,c471 ,de oratore 7#ee ,b4,c471 ,p>titiones oratori 7ab\t #ed ,b4,c471 ,brutus 7#df ,b4,c471 ,orator 7#df ,b4,c471 ,de optimo g5]e oratorum 7ab\t #df ,b4,c471 ,topica 7#dd ,b4,c474 ,( ^! ! mo/ explicit & sugge/ive are ,de oratore & ,orator1 :i* are us$ z ! basis ( ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,! mo/ conv5i5t bibliographical guide to ,cic]o's rhetorical doctr9e is ,laur&1 ,l41 ,de ,m4 ,tulli ,cic]onis /udiis rhetoricis 7,univ]sity ( ,p>is !sis1 #aijg71 :i* also summ>izes lucidly its d]ivation & progress4 ,! be/ editions 9 ,engli% are3 ,wilk9s1 ,a4 ,s41 ,m4 ,tulli ,cic]onis ,de ,oratore1 ,ox=d1 #ahic 7#c;d ed471 #c volumes 7introduction1 includ+ a sket* ( ! hi/ory ( rhetoric & a tabul> analysis ( ! treatise ,ad ,h]5nium =m]ly ascrib$ to ,cic]o2 analyses1 notes1 index72 ,s&ys1 ,j4 ,e41 ,m4 ,tulli ,cic]onis ,orator 444 ,cambridge1 #ahhe 7introduction1 includ+ a sket* ( ! hi/ory ( rhetoric1 a brief analysis ( ,cic]o's rhetorical works1 a /udy & an ab/ract ( ,orator1 & a li/ ( editions1 comm5t>ies1 & translations2 notes1 indices74 ,engli% translations ( ,de oratore3 ,gu?rie1 ,w41 ,london1 #ahjh #ahdj2 ,watson1 ,j4 ,s41 ,london 7,bohn71 #ahee #ahif2 ,calv]t1 ,f4 ,b41 ,ed9burgh1 #ahgj2 ,moor1 ,e4 ,n4 ,p41 7,book ,i only71 ,london1 #aijd4 ,( ,orator ,s&ys 7page xcvii7 cites ?ree ,engli% translations1 ( :i* only ,yonge's seems to be available 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! ,fr5* translation by ,col9 7,traduction du trait de l'orateur de ,cicron1 avec des notes1 p> ,m4 l',abb ,col91 ,p>is1 #agcg71 ?\gh some:at p>aphra/ic1 is accurate s f> z ,i h us$ x4 ,ano!r accompanies ,bornecque's edition1 ,p>is1 #aiba4 ,among rec5t critical /udies ! foll[+ w be f\nd sugge/ive 9 _! sev]al directions3 ,h5drickson1 ,g4 ,l41 ,! ,p]ipatetic mean ( /yle & ! ?ree /yli/ic *>act]s1 ,am]4 ,jo4 ,philol4 xxv4 #abe 7#aijd72 ,anci5t *>act]s ( /yle1 ,am]4 ,jo4 ,philol4 xxvi4 #bdi 7#aije72 ,cic]o's ,brutus & ! te*nique ( citation 9 dialogue1 ,am]4 ,jo4 ,philol4 xxvii1 #ahd 7#aijf72 ,hubbell1 ,h4 ,m41 ,! influ5ce ( ,isocrates on ,cic]o1 ,dionysius & ,ari/ides 7,yale !sis1 #aiad72 ,nassal1 ,f41 /hetis*-rhetoris*e ,beziehung5 zwis*5 ,dionysius von ,halik>nass und ,cic]o 7,tb+5 !sis1 #aiaj74 ,= /udy ( rhetorical t]ms see ,caus]et1 ,c41 tude sur la langue de la rhtorique et de la critique dans ,cicron1 ,p>is1 #ahhf1 :i* is classifi$ by ! fivefold division1 inv5tio1 collocatio1 etc4 ,! influ5ce ( ,cic]o 9 ! middle age & ! ,r5aissance w be discuss$ 9 a lat] volume4 #b ,lit]ature1 ! second lecture on ,univ]sity ,subjects 9 ! ,idea ( a ,univ]sity4 #c ,see bel[1 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,ii4 #d ,w4 ,b4 ,ow5 9 ! introduction to 8 edition ( ,book ,i 7,bo/on1 #ahie7 makes m ( ?is ?an its importance seems to w>rant4 #e ,9 omni g5]e s]monis et humanitatis p]fectum1 ,i4 ix4 #ce #f ,i4 xi4 #g ,i4 xii4 #ea4 #h ,i4 xiii4 #ee4 #i #ef4 #aj #fc4 #aa ,i4 xv4 #fd4 ,quam ob rem1 si quis univ]sam et propriam oratoris vim def9ire complectique vult1 is orator erit mea s5t5tia1 hoc tam5 gravi dignus nom9e1 qui1 qucumque res incid]it qu sit dictione explic&a1 prud5t] et composite et ornate et memorit] dicet cum quadam actionis etiam dignitate4 #ab ,wilk9s 7note ad loc47 evid5tly takes composite 9 a g5]al s5se z ref]r+ to composition 7dispositio1 collocatio72 = he says3 8,! def9ition includes all ! five ma9 divisions ( oratory10 & dispositio is n o!rwise m5tion$4 ,b = ! app>5t int5tion to include all five p>ts1 composite w\ld m readily sugge/ compositio1 :i* is ! te*nical "n = s5t5ce movem5t1 "o ( ! subdivisions ( elocutio4 ,compositio is consi/5tly us$ 9 ?is special s5se2 b :e!r composite is s meant "h or n1 ,cic]o int5d$ f\r ( ! five p>ts1 if n five2 & t suffices to e/abli% 8 allusion to ! traditional division4 ,! issue betwe5 ,crassus & ,antonius has little to d ) dispositio2 x conc]ns ! scope ( inv5tio4 ,= ! division ( rhetoric see pages #ba1 #fe1 ! table 9 foot-note #a;a to ,*apt] ,v1 & ,wilk9s's introduction1 page #eg4 #ac ,i4 xvi4 #ad xviii4 #ae xix4 #hf4 #af #hg4 #ag xx4 #ia4 #ah #ib4 #ai dis]tus4 ,i4 xxi4 #id4 #bj ,eloqu5tem v]o qui mirabilius et magnific5tius aug]e posset atque orn>e qu vellet1 omnisque omnium r]um1 qu ad dic5dum p]t9]5t fontis animo ac memoria cont9]et4 #ba ,i4 xxv-xxxv4 #bb xxxiii4 #adi seq4 #bc xxxvi-xlvii4 #bd xlix4 #bac4 ,oratorem autem1 quoniam de eo qurimus1 equidem non facio eundem quem ,crassus1 qui mihi visus e/ omnem omnium r]um atque artium sci5tiam compreh5d]e uno oratoris (ficio ac nom9e2 atque eum puto esse qui et v]bis ad audi5dum iucundis et s5t5tiis ad prob&um accommodatis uti possit 9 causis =5sibus atque communibus3 hunc ego appello oratorem eumque esse prt]ea in/ructum voce et actione et lepore quodam volo4 #be lxi4 #bfj4 #bf xxiv-lxxi4 #bg lxxii-lxxxv4 #bh lxxxvi-lxxxviii4 #bi xx4 #hd4 #cj ,animus ac] et prs5s et acutus idem atque v]sutus invictos viros efficit4 #ca xxi4 #hh4 #cb xxii4 #cc ,tacitus 7,dial4 #cd7 says t ! old] me?od 7( ,cic]o's "t71 supplant$ 9 8 own "t by ! s*ools ( ! declamatores1 0 appr5tice%ip4 #cd xxiv4 #ii4 #ce xxiv4 #aja4 #cf #ajb4 #cg #ajc4 #ch xxiv-xxvi1 #ajd-aaj4 ,= ! m detail$ pres5tation ( ,qu9tilian see ,*apt] iv1 page #gd4 #ci xxv4 #ajh4 #dj xxvii4 #aad4 #da ,h5drickson 7,am]4 ,j\rn4 ,philol4 xxvi4 #bfj7 f9ds ?is ?reefold division fir/ "h4 ,! usual t]ms are doc]e1 concili>e1 mov]e4 #db xxvii4 #aag4 #dc xxx4 #acb4 #dd xxxi4 #acc4 #de xxxviii4 #aeg4 #df xxxix4 cf4 above1 xxvii4 #aag4 #dg xlii-lxxi4 #dh xlii4 #agh4 #di xliii4 #ahb4 #ej xlv4 #aij4 #ea xlvi4 #aia4 #eb xlix-liii4 #bac4 #ec liii4 #bad4 #ed liv-lxxi4 #ee lxxii-lxxxv4 #ef lxxvi4 #eg lxxvii4 #eh lxxviii4 #ei lxxix4 #fj lxxx4 #fa lxxxii-lxxxv4 #fb lxxxvi-lxxxviii4 #fc lxxxviii4 #cei4 v]borum memoria1 qu m9us e/ nobis necess>ia 444 r]um memoria propria e/ oratoris4 #fd xv-xxxvi4 #fe xxxviii-xlii4 #ff xliii-liv4 #fg lvi-lxi4 #fh x4 #cg4 #fi #ci4 #gj xii4 #dd4 #ga sapi5tiam4 xv4 #ef4 #gb #eg4 #gc xvi4 #fa4 #gd xvii-xxiii4 #ge xxiv-xxvii4 #gf xxviii-xxxv4 #gg xiv4 #ec4 #gh xxxii4 #abf4 #gi ,s&ys notes t ! av[$ object is 8criticism1 & n direct in/ruction40 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is "p ( ,cic]o's lit]>y me?od & ( 8 habit ( scorn+ ! manuals4 ,z to 8 ma9 topic1 elocutio1 he writes doctr9a z def9ite z t ( ,de oratore on ! o!r p>ts2 & ?\gh 8 head+s are n all conv5tional1 8 outl9e & ord] are ?or\ghly sy/ematic4 #hj #cg1 seq4 #ha #dj1 v]ba iunxisse2 cf4 #gg1 v9culis num]orum2 #bjh4 #hb #dd1 seq4 #hc #ej1 seq4 #hd #fa-bcf4 #he #bj-bc4 #hf ,see ! articles by ,h5drickson cit$ 9 ! fir/ foot-note to ?is *apt]4 #hg #fi4 #hh #ajj4 #hi ,"o c\ld wi% t ,cic]o _h be5 cont5t ) 8 tw(old division 9 ,brutus1 xxiii4 #hi3 cum du summ s9t 9 oratore laudes1 una subtilit] disput&i ad doc5dum1 alt]a gravit] ag5di ad animos audi5tium p]mov5dos4 #ij ,! dige/ ( ! :ole ,orator at pages lxxiv-lxxvi ( ! edition ( ,s&ys ne$ be nei!r repeat$ nor revis$4 ,assum+ ?is1 ,i h add$ "h c]ta9 significant rhetorical details1 translation ( "s important passages1 & ! connection ( ! topics4 #ia ,see above4 #ib ,m5sionem1 #agg4 ,! ^w 9 a simil> passage at #fg is m5sura4 #ic ,because1 says ,s&ys1 _! /yle is unp]iodic1 & !re c h>dly be rhy?m )\t p]iods4 ,he cites ! fam\s passage f ,ari/otle discuss$ above at page #bg1 & notes ,qu9tilian's demur z to ,h]odotus4 ,?is is a fair inf]5ce f ,cic]o's context2 &1 inde$1 ! anci5ts g5]ally consid]$ prose rhy?m z oratorical rhy?m4 ,! n>rative rhy?ms ( imag9ative prose 7 naturally n mu* discuss$ sep>ately 9 a "t :5 prose fiction 0 undevelop$4 ,! ne>e/ approa* to ^! 9 oratory 0 9 panegyric4 ,b ,dionysius ) m disc]nm5t praises ! compositio ( ,h]odotus4 7,see bel[1 ,*apt] v47 #id ,! translation is clos] to t ( ,col9 ?an to t ( ,s&ys4 ,! po9t--& if x is obvi\s1 x is (t5 =gott5--seems to be t v>iety 9 prose dep5ds on rhy?m4 #ie conc9nitas 7#bja74 ,cic]o does n say explicitly :at ,i h summ>iz$ 9 ! la/ s5t5ce above2 b ,i ?9k he implies x4 ,he does n h9t :at ,/ev5son br+s out 9 ,"s ,te*nical ,elem5ts ( ,/yle 9 ,lit]ature1 t subconsci\s rhy?mical pr$ilection may be a cause1 or a det]m9+ factor1 9 adaptation4 #if ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus exhibits ?is specifically ) tell+ effect 9 ! fir/ "p ( ,de compositione v]borum4 ,see bel[1 ,*apt] v4 #ig ,= sci5tific analysis1 ) a succ9ct review ( previ\s inve/igations1 see ,w4 ,m4 ,patt]son1 ,! ,rhy?m ( ,prose1 ,new ,york1 ,columbia ,univ]sity ,press1 #aiaf4 ,= ! clausula 9 p>ticul> see ! summ>y ( ,ziel9ski 9 ,s&ys1 ,companion to ,lat9 ,/udies1 #fee2 ,qu9tilian bel[1 page #gi2 & ,m4 ,w4 ,croll1 ,! cad5ce ( ,engli% oratorical prose4 ,/udies 9 ,philology1 #af3a1 ,univ]sity ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,janu>y1 #aiai4 #ih ,t ! classical rhetoric has s little to say ( n>rative rhy?ms is due n s mu* to ! limit$ scope ( anci5t n>rative z to ! fact t ^! rhy?ms are consid]$ prop]ly 9 poetic4 ,see page #cj4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,tea*+ ,,( ,,rhetoric ,! p$agogy ( rhetoric1 m con/ant & m p]vasive ?an t ( mo/ subjects /ill taught1 dem&s hi/orical int]pretation1 & ?us ext5sive & consecutive survey4#a ,summ>y ( its hi/ory has convey$ little ( its vitality2 b analysis ( two c>d9al docum5ts w %[1 fir/1 :at ! con/ant tradition ( tea*+ 0 typically ?r\gh\t ! great classical c5turies1 & secondly :at ! tea*+ ( rhetoric 0 de/9$ to become1 ) almo/ equal con/ancy & p]vasiv5ess1 dur+ ! c5turies ( decad5ce4 ,= ea* ( ^! traditions !re is =tunately1 besides mu* o!r te/imony1 a typical text4 ,qu9tilian1 writ+ long aft] rhetoric _h ceas$ to function z an in/rum5t ( assembly gov]nm5t1 nev]!less compreh5ds its be/ old] tradition & ! :ole scope ( its classical developm5t 9 a great "w ( p$agogy1 ,de in/itutione oratoria 7ab\t #ie ,a4,d474 ,s5eca ! ,eld]1 :o di$ ab\t ! "t ( ,qu9tilian's bir?1 _h already record$ f memory & notes 9 8 ,controv]si t p>ticul> application ( ! anci5t s*ool+ :i* 9 ! g5]ation be=e ,qu9tilian 0 already infect+ ! old rhetoric1 & ?r\gh :i* ! tea*+ ( bo? ,greek & ,roman s*ools 0 to be dw>f$ & p]v]t$4 ,qu9tilian1 ?\gh writ+ lat] ?an ,s5eca1 pres]ves anci5t rhetoric z a ripe :ole2 ,s5eca1 ?\gh e>li]1 isolates ! g]m ( its decay4 ,i4 ,,qu9tilian ,,on ,,! ,,tea*+ ,,( ,,rhetoric 7,,de ,,in/itutione ,,oratoria7#b ,a4 ,,tabul> ,,view#c #a4 prelim9>y /udies 71 ,i-,,ii4 x7 a4 e>lie/ lessons 9 spee* ,i4 i-iii b4 /udies ) grammaticus 7ante (ficium rhetoris7 7#a7 9 diction z usage iv-vii 7#b7 0 0 0 /yle viii 7a7 lectures on poetry 7prlectio71 ) read+ al\d 7lectio7 7#c7 9 composition ix 7a7 retell+ ( fables 7b7 p>aphrase ( poetry 7c7 =mal amplification ( maxims 7*ria1 7 7#d7 9 contributory subjects 7music1 geometry1 a/ronomy7 x 7#e7 9 enunciation 7lessons f an actor7 xi c4 /udies ) rhetor 7prima apud rhetorem elem5ta7 7#a7 le>n+ f 8 example ,,ii4 i-iii 7#b7 ex]cises 9 composition iv 7a7 rehe>sal ( ev5ts 7x7 summ>y ( ! plot ( a trag$y or com$y 7fabula1 argum5tum7 7y7 summ>y ( hi/orical ev5ts 7hi/oria7 7b7 elem5t>y analysis ( /atem5ts ( fact 7x7 analysis ( leg5ds 7y7 analysis ( hi/ory 7c7 elem5t>y panegyric 7laudatio7 & p>allel 7comp>atio7 7d7 amplification ( typical propositions 7loci communes1 !ses7 7#c7 rhetor's analysis ( models 7prlectio7 v 7#d7 spee*es f assign$ outl9e 7pr=mata mat]ia7 vi1 vii 7#e7 advice to tea*]s on correction & promotion viii1 ix 7#f7 spee*es on hypo!tical cases 7declamatio7 x 7a7 delib]ative 7suasori7 7b7 =5sic 7controv]si7 #b4 def9ition ( rhetoric 7,,ii4 xi-,,iii4 v7 a4 function & scope xi-xxi b4 orig9 & e>li] developm5t ,,iii4 i1 ii c4 ! five p>ts ( rhetoric iii 7#a7 inve/igation 7inv5tio1 1 discuss$ ,,iii4 vi-,,vi4 v7 7#b7 plan 7dispositio1 1 discuss$ 9 ,,vii7 7#c7 /yle 7elocutio1 1 discuss$ 9 ,,viii1 ,,ix7 7#d7 memory 7memoria1 1 discuss$ 9 ,,xi4 ii7 7#e7 deliv]y 7pronuntiatio1 actio1 1 discuss$ 9 ,,xi4 iii7 d4 ! ?ree fields ( oratory iv 7#a7 occasional1 panegyric 7demon/rativum1 2 see *apt] vii7 7#b7 delib]ative 7delib]ativum1 2 see *apt] viii7 7#c7 =5sic 7iudiciale1 2 see *apt]s ix-xi7 e4 ! ?ree aims ( oratory v 7#a7 to in=m 7doc]e7 7#b7 to w9 sympa?y 7concili>e1 delect>e7 7#c7 to move 7mov]e7 #c4 inve/igation & h&l+ ( mat]ial 7inv5tio1 1 ,,iii4 vi-,,vi4 v2 dispositio1 1 ,,vii7 a4 ! nature ( ! case 7/atus1 7 7#a7 9 law 7/atus legalis7 7#b7 9 reason 7/atus rationalis7 z hav+ = its ma9 issue 7a7 fact 7an sit1 /atus coniecturalis1 coniectura1 7 7b7 def9ition 7quid sit1 /atus def9itivus1 f9is1 7 7c7 morals or policy 7quale sit1 /atus g5]alis1 qualitas1 7 b4 ! p>ts ( plead+ 7,,iv4 i-,,vii7 7#a7 compon5ts 7a7 exordium 77 ,,iv4 i 7b7 /atem5t ( facts 7n>ratio1 7 ii 7c7 excursus1 proposition1 division iii-v 7d7 pro( 7confirmatio1 2 z includ+ appeal1 7 7x7 evid5ce ,v4 i-vii 7y7 argum5t viii-xi 7z7 ord] xii 7e7 refutation 7refutatio1 7 xiii 7x7 de/ructive en?ymeme 7f7 p]oration 7p]oratio1 7 xiv 7#b7 p]vasive elem5ts ,,vi4 i 7a7 appeal 7x7 imag9ative ii 7y7 humor\s iii 7b7 debate 7alt]catio7 iv 7c7 judgm5t 7iudicium1 consilium7 v 7#c7 plan 7dispositio1 7 ,,vii #d4 /yle 7elocutio1 1 ,,viii1 ,,ix7 a4 *oice ( words 7electio1 1 includ+ figures7 ,,viii4 i-,,ix4 iii b4 s5t5ce-movem5t 7compositio1 7 ,,ix4 iv #e4 tra9+ = facility 7firma facilitas1 ,x1 ,,xi7 a4 read+ to fo/] speak+ ,x4 i b4 imitation ii c4 writ+ = practise iii d4 revision iv e4 translation & o!r ex]cises v f4 prep>+ ! spee* vi g4 speak+ ! spee* vii 7#a7 adaptation ,,xi4 i 7#b7 memory ii 7#c7 deliv]y iii #f4 ! orator himself a4 moral =ce & philosophy ,,xii4 i1 ii b4 k ( law & hi/ory iii1 iv c4 physique v1 vi d4 deal+s ) cli5ts vii-ix e4 /yles ( oratory x f4 :5 to leave ! plat=m xi ,b4 ,,! ,,t]ms ,qu9tilian's survey is 9 ! traditional t]ms ( classical rhetoric4 ,^! dem& ! m att5tion because translation has (t5 miss$ ! specific mean+s atta*$ to recogniz$ te*nical t]ms4 8,in/itutes ( ,oratory10 nev] precisely r5d]+ 8 title1 is n[ almo/ mean+less4 ,in/itutio ,oratoria means ,! ,tea*+ ( ,rhetoric & ann\nces n s mu* a manual = /ud5ts z a survey = tea*]s4 ,( ! p$agogical t]ms1 grammatica & grammaticus may /ill be r5d]$ 8gramm>0 & 8gramm>ian0 only if !y are und]/ood to h wid] scope4 ,prlectio 7,i4 viii7 describes ! habitual introductory exposition ( a passage ( poetry by grammaticus1 or less commonly ( a passage ( oratory by rhetor 7,,ii4 v74 ,mat]ia1 mean+ g5]ally 8mat]ial10 means (t5 te*nically 7,,ii4 vi4 vii7 a prescrib$ outl9e1 z ,fr5* matire /ill does 9 p$agogical use4 ,declamatio 7,,ii4 x7 0 q diff]5t f 8declamation40 ,x 0 speak+1 usually extempore1 on an assign$ hypo!tical case1 & grew1 z w appe> bel[1 f an ex]cise = boys to an exhibition ( virtuosity by m54 ,( ! five traditional p>ts ( rhetoric 7,,iii4 iii71 ! fir/1 inv5tio1 does n mean 8inv5tion02 x means1 9 ,ari/otelian language1 ! discov]y ( all ! extr9sic means ( p]suasion1 or m simply1 survey ( ! mat]ial & =eca/4 ,dispositio 7collocatio7 ref]s n to ! arrangem5t ( details1 b to ! plan ( ! :ole4 ,elocutio means 8elocution0 9 ! s5se borne by t ^w be=e ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,x is suffici5tly r5d]$ by 8/yle0 & is always conceiv$ 9 two aspects3 7#a7 electio1 ! *oice ( words1 includ+ 8figures ( spee*02 & 7#b7 compositio1 ! arrangem5t ( words 9 clauses & s5t5ces1 includ+ rhy?m & h>mony--9 a ^w1 s5t5ce-movem5t4 ,compositio does n mean1 ?\gh x is (t5 translat$1 8composition0 9 ! wide s5se n[ curr5t4 ,= ! latt] ! t]m is dispositio4 ,memoria ranges f> beyond memoriz+4 ,x embraces ! speak]'s :ole comm& ( 8 mat]ial 9 ! ord] ( 8 con/ructive plan & 9 relation to rebuttal1 & 0 mo/ /ress$ = spee*es unwritt54 ,pronuntiatio & actio cov] ! :ole field ( deliv]y1 includ+ all t is n[ (t5 call$ 8elocution10 f ! plac+ ( ! voice to ! h&l+ ( ! body4 ,9 detail1 /atus 7,,iii4 vi71 mean+ g5]ally & simply 8/atus10 ref]s te*nically to a classify+ sy/em = det]m9+ 8! nature ( ! case0 7see #c4 a1 9 ! tabul> view above74 ,( its ?ree divisions1 coniectura1 hav+ no?+ to d ) 8conjecture10 d5otes a ma9 issue ( fact2 f9is1 a ma9 issue ( def9ition2 qualitas1 a m g5]al issue ( morals or policy4 ,n>ratio 7,,iv4 ii7 means nev] 8n>ration0 9 ! s5se assign$ by rec5t text-books1 always ei!r 8/atem5t ( ! facts0 or1 m g5]ally1 8exposition40 ,^! & o!r te*nical t]ms h be5 gu>d$1 9 ! tabul> view above & 9 ! int]pretations bel[1 by add+ ! ,lat9 orig9als4 ,c4 ,,typical ,,doctr9e 7#a7 ,elem5t>y ,ex]cises ,! tradition ( grammatica z hav+ ! tw(old function ( =m+ "r spee* & ( exp\nd+ poetry#d cont9u$ = c5turies4#e ,traditional also are ! fir/ ex]cises 9 composition4#f ,a *apt] 7x7 on ! concurr5ce ( o!r /udies t[>d a r\nd$ education1#g & "o on elocution 7xi71 close a prelim9>y p$agogy s sugge/ive z to be /ill /udi$ to-day4 7#b7 ,declamatio ,! c\nsels to rhetor 7,,ii7 imply a w>m atmosph]e ( promotion & a g5]al habit ( collaboration4 8,! tea*] himself %\ld speak some?+--nay1 _m ?+s a day--= auditory memory4 ,?\gh read+ al\d may supply a pl5ty ( examples to imitate1 nev]!less ! liv+ voice gives ampl] n\ri%m5t1 especially ! voice ( ! tea*]1 :om ! pupils1 if !y be rightly taught1 at once love & respect4444 ,?us :ile ma/]y comes ?r\gh writ+1 critical faculty w come ?r\gh he>+40 ,,ii4 ii4 ,! tea*] %\ld frankly & fully %[ h[4 ,8 criticism %\ld bew>e ( sett+ up inhibitions4 ,to be promotive1 he %\ld f9d some?+ to praise1 &1 besides expla9+ :y he w\ld h ?is out or t *ang$1 %\ld illum9ate by int]pos+ some?+ ( 8 own4 ,sometimes x w be helpful to give :ole treatm5ts :i* ! boy may imitate )\t los+ fai? 9 8 own 7,,ii4 iv74 ,9 %ort1 ! tea*]'s declamatio %\ld be a model = 8 /ud5ts 7,,ii4 v74 8,9 ?is tea*]s h %[n a div]g5ce ( me?od4 ,"s ( !m w\ld develop orally ! outl9es t !y gave _! pupils to speak f1 n cont5t to guide by ! assign$ division4 ,n only w\ld !y amplify argum5tatively1 b also emotionally4 ,o!rs1 giv+ only a sket*1 w\ld aft] ! pupils' spee*es treat :at ea* "o _h scant$4 ,"s topics1 inde$1 !y w\ld elaborate ) no less c>e ?an :5 !y !mselves 7 ! orators4 ,ei!r me?od is useful2 nei!r1 ,i ?9k1 %\ld be sep>at$ f ! o!r2 b1 if !re mu/ be a *oice betwe5 ! two1 x w m avail to h %[n ! "r way 9 advance ?an to recall f _! error ^? :o h already fall540 ,,ii4 vi4 #a-b4 ,! same promotive guidance appe>s 9 ! assign+ ( outl9es 7mat]i71 less & less ample z ! pupils advance1 = writt5 composition 7,,ii4 vi74 ,?is writ+ 0 g5]ally = practise1 n = ca/+ a p>ticul> spee* 9 =m to be memoriz$4 ,sometimes1 says ,qu9tilian1 ! boys may recite :at !y h writt5 out2 b g5]ally le>n+ by he>t is bett] sp5t on ! orators & hi/orians ?an on _! own "w 7vii74 ,! declamatio recomm5d$ by ,qu9tilian is speak+ f outl9e on hypo!tical cases4 ,! m elem5t>y assignm5ts1 = delib]ative spee*es1 7 call$ suasori2 ! m advanc$1 = =5sic spee*es1 controv]si4 ,bo? he treats only z s*ool ex]cises4 ,)9 ^! limits he recomm5ds declamatio z an important p$agogical discov]y4 8,s soon z ! y\? is well taught & suffici5tly ex]cis$ 9 ^! fir/ tasks1 !mselves n small1 b z x 7 memb]s & p>ts ( great] ones1 let ! "t dem& ! essay+ ( delib]ative speak+ & =5sic on assign$ outl9es4 ,be=e ,i g into ! me?od ( ^!1 ,i mu/ tell briefly :at declamatio has z its idea1 :i* is at once ! mo/ rec5t discov]y & f> ! mo/ useful4 ,= x at once embraces almo/ all ! ex]cises j discuss$ & (f]s ! ne>e/ lik5ess to actuality4 ,!re=e x has become s popul> z to be 9 ! op9ion ( _m suffici5t ( itself to develop eloqu5ce4 ,nor c !re be f\nd any ma/]y 9 consecutive disc\rse :i* is n relat$ to ?is ex]cise 9 speak+4 ,true1 ! actual practise has s decl9$ by ! fault ( tea*]s t among ! *ief causes corrupt+ eloqu5ce h be5 ! lic5se & ignorance ( declamatores2 b we may use well :at is ess5tially good4 8,let ! outl9es ( ! fictiti\s cases assign$ be !re=e z l z possible to actuality2 & let ! declamatio1 s f> z possible1 imitate ^? pleas = :i* x 0 inv5t$ to prep>e4 ,wiz>ds1 pe/il5ce1 oracles1 /epmo!rs m cruel ?an ^? ( trag$y1 & o!r topics ev5 m imag9>y1 we seek 9 va9 among real law cases4 ,:at1 !n8 ,are we nev] to p]mit a "y man to elaborate !mes outside ( /ati/ics1 ev5 poetical ones1 su* inde$ z ,i myself h m5tion$1 t he may h room1 take "s pleasure 9 ! assignm5t1 & ent] z x 7 into ! body ( ! p>ty he def5ds8 ,t us$ to be all v well2 b at lea/ let su* ex]cises be gr& & swell+ )\t be+ silly & to critical eyes ridicul\s40 ,,ii4 x4 #a-f4 ,evid5tly ! declamatio t ,qu9tilian recomm5ds is n ! declamatio t he he>d ab\t him4 ,he wi%es to recall to its orig9al purpose :at 0 already out ( h&4 ,orig9ally1 he implies1 x def9$ t g5]al practise 9 debat+ :i* mu/ h be5 z common 9 ! anci5t tea*+ z 9 mod]n univ]sities4 ,b already1 z he also admits by implication1 x _h become q diff]5t4 ,already x 0 e/abli%$ bo? z a special ex]cise & z a special =m ( public speak+4 ,) ! n>r[+ ( ! field ( public discussion1 ! l>ge old rhetoric survey$ by ,qu9tilian _h be5 n>r[$ m & m t[>d an artificial comb9ation ( =5sic +5uity ) dramatic imag9ation4 ,in/ead ( tra9+ y\? to lead 9 public policy & to secure ju/ice = individuals1 declamatio _h become an end 9 itself1 ! rhetor's own k9d ( oratory4 ,z an exhibition ( skill x 0 8 easie/ means ( w9n+ pupils1 & ( hold+ !m by lett+ !m exhibit !mselves4 ,! inh]5t vice ( artificiality1 :i* ,qu9tilian admits by implication1 he nev]!less assigns entirely to p]v]t$ educational practise4 ,he w\ld recall declamatio f inv5tion to actuality1 & f display to ex]cise4 ,t 8 w>n+ 0 already too late is evid5t f ,s5eca 7see section ,,ii ( ?is *apt]74 ,meantime "o ( ! *ief opportunities = p]v]sion w be f\nd 9 ! prosopopi describ$ next4 ,! p]vasive classical inculcation ( appropriat5ess 7see also ,,xi4 i7 0 c>ri$ into declamatio ?r\gh specific ex]cises kn[n g5]ally z prosopopi 774 ,_! idea 0 an imag9ative ent]+ into ! "*1 ! emotional z well z ! intellectual habit1 ( ! p]son = :om "o 0 speak+ 7fict ali5>um p]son>um orationes1 ,,vi4 i4 #be74 ,9 m elem5t>y =m1 sometimes call$ e?opi 77 !y bade ! /ud5t say :at ,priam mu/ h said to ,a*illes1 or ,sulla on r5\nc+ ! dictator%ip1 or "s o!r "* ( hi/ory or fiction on a critical occasion2 & !y began ev5 ) ! boy's amplification ( fables & my?s4#h ,z appli$ to declamatio 7suasori & controv]si7 !y are ?us describ$ by ,qu9tilian3 8,!re=e prosopopi seem to me f> ! mo/ difficult1 s9ce !y add to ! o!r tasks ( delib]ative declamatio 7suasoria7 ! difficulty ( *>act]ization 7p]sona74 ,= ! same argum5ts mu/ be urg$ 9 "o way by ,cs>1 9 ano!r by ,cic]o1 9 ano!r by ,cato4 ,b ! practise is mo/ useful1 ei!r z a tw(old task or z ( ! greate/ int]e/ to poets also or to future hi/orians4 ,to orators x is ev5 necess>y4 ,= ! _m orations compos$ by ,greeks or ,lat9s to be deliv]$ by o!rs _h to adapt :at 0 to be said to ! speak]'s habit ( life4 ,did ,cic]o ?9k 9 ! same way1 or assume ! same "*1 :5 he wrote = ,pompey z :5 he wrote = ,ampius & o!rs8 ,did he n1 disc]n+ ! =tune1 ! rank1 ! de$s ( ea* ( !m1 express ! v image ( e "o to :om he 0 giv+ voice1 s t !y seem$ to speak beyond !mselves1 inde$1 b /ill z !mselves8 ,nor is a spee* less faulty = deviat+ f ! p]son ?an f ! case to :i* x %\ld be adapt$4 ,admirably1 !re=e1 ,lysias1 9 :at he wrote = ! untra9$1 is se5 to h be5 fai?ful to _! actual /yle4 8,b declamatores#i especially h to consid] :at befits ea* "*2 = ! =5sics 7controv]si7 t !y speak z advocates d are v few4 ,usually !y become sons or fa!rs1 ri*1 old1 h>%1 mild1 av>ici\s1 ev5 sup]/iti\s1 timid1 or mock+1 s t ev5 com$y actors h>dly conceive m ways ( life on ! /age ?an !y on ! plat=m4 ,all ^! ex]cises may be reg>d$ z prosopopi4 ,i h br\ght !m "u ! head ( suasori because ! only diff]5ce is 9 ! assumption ( "*1 al?\gh ! ex]cise is sometimes ext5d$ also to controv]si40#aj ,,iii4 viii4 #di-eb4 7#c7 ,/atus ,qu9tilian's *apt] 7,,iii1 vi7 on /atus is "o ( 8 mo/ important1 bo? z specific doctr9e & z typical ( anci5t me?od4 ,he has simplifi$ a p$agogical device :i*1 :ile x _h be5 hamp]$ by too analytical subdivision1 _h long v9dicat$ itself z "o ( ! mo/ effective applications ( ! anci5t !ory ( sy/ematic guidance4 ,/atus1 mean+ ! ess5tial "* ( ! case z x appe>$ to prelim9>y survey ( all ! mat]ial & all ! be>+s1 _h come to d5ote a uni=m sy/em = det]m9+ t ess5tial "* by lead+ que/ions4 ,to gauge ! suffici5cy ( 8 prep>ation & ! l9e ( 8 argum5t1 to br+ to be> n only 8 p>ticul> inve/igation1 b ! :ole fund ( 8 exp]i5ce1 ! /ud5t 0 to ask himself :at ! case meant to him z a :ole4 ,he mu/ int]pret x z re/+ ma9ly on "o ( ?ree issues3 7#a7 ( fact 7an sit72 7#b7 ( def9ition 7quid sit72 or 7#c7 ( g5]al consid]ations1 z ( "r or exp$i5cy 7an recte sit74 ,! fir/ 0 call$ /atus coniecturalis1 or coniectura2 ! second1 /atus def9itivus1 or f9is2 ! ?ird1 /atus g5]alis1 or qualitas4#aa ,ev5 if two ( ^! ent]$1 or all ?ree1 "o mu/ always be ! focus4 ,! fir/ /atus 7coniecturalis1 an sit7 is mo/ frequ5tly det]m9+ 9 crim9al cases at law2 b x may be det]m9+ 9 any debate involv+ hi/ory1 = in/ance on ! "q ( ! recognition ( ,anglican ord]s by ! ,roman or ! ,ea/]n ,*ur*1 or on ! "q ( ! hi/orical ju/ification ( ! fifte5? am5dm5t to ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,:e!r x is to be det]m9+ mu/ usually be =eca/ by exp]im5t2 = ! anci5t sy/em presupposes t all ?ree /atus w be tri$ 9 prep>ation be=e "o is *os54 ,actually _m argum5ts aga9/ ! validity ( ,anglican ord]s h int]pret$ ! /atus z coniecturalis2 i4e41 !y rely ma9ly on e/abli%+ c]ta9 facts ( ! ,engli% ,re=mation4 ,o!rs h *os5 /atus def9itivus4 ,?\gh nei!r excludes ! o!r1 "o1 accord+ to ! anci5t sy/em & by ! v conditions ( public address1 w always be = t p>ticul> spee* ! /atus4 ,!re c be no cog5cy )\t unity4 ,ersk9e's def5se ( ,"l ,george ,gordon 9 a trial = treason 0 bas$ on ! second /atus 7def9itivus1 quid sit74 ,! facts alleg$ he admitt$4 ,t ,gordon 0 conc]n$ 9 a riot he did n *all5ge4 ,/atus coniecturalis he simply waiv$4 ,he organiz$ 8 case to %[ t :at ,gordon admitt$ly did c\ld n be con/ru$ z com+ )9 ! t]m treason4 ,9 ! def5ce ( ,ore/es1 a famili> anci5t assignm5t1 ! /atus c\ld n1 except by m]e +5i\s p]v]sion1 be coniecturalis4 ,! facts ( 8 kill+ ( ,clytemne/ra & ( h] previ\s kill+ ( ,agamemnon _h to be admitt$4 ,! /atus might1 inde$1 be def9itivus = "s "o :o c>$ to split hairs ab\t :at we n[ call murd] or homicide2 b naturally x 0 ! ?ird 7g5]alis1 an recte sit74 ,ore/es 0 ju/ifi$ on ! gr\nd ( ! sacr$ duty to av5ge ! murd] ( 8 fa!r4 ,! issue 0 :e!r ev5 a crim9al "m %\ld be execut$ by h] own son4 ,college debat]s def5d+ ! ma9t5ance ( ! ,monroe ,doctr9e settl$ on ! ?ird /atus4 ,! =c+ ( ! second by _! oppon5ts !y f\nd !mselves prep>$ to rebut4 ,! issues ( democracy1 protection1 peace seem$ to !m vital z (f]+ valid argum5ts = & aga9/1 i4e41 z be+ real cla%es ( actual op9ion2 & all ^! issues fell "u /atus g5]alis4 ,/atus coniecturalis c\ld nev] be made det]m9+4 ,/atus def9itivus w\ld lead to quibbl+ co/ly = oppon5ts :o %\ld raise x4 ,/atus g5]alis held ! issue4 ,?is sort ( =eca/1 survey+ ! :ole tr5d1 ! anci5ts reg>d$ z s vital t !y r$uc$ x to a sy/em4 ,! classifi$ /atus is typical ( _! p$agogy ( rhetoric4 ,_! tea*+ ( inv5tio did n /op ) inve/igation2 x promot$ reflection directly & guid$ x s sy/ematically t no ess5tial aspect c\ld be ignor$4 ,su* que/ion+ = focus & l9e 9 our day ( /ati/ical accumulation is n less1 b m valuable4 7#d7 ,! ,p>ts ( a ,spee* ,! traditional p>ts ( an oration ,qu9tilian discusses 7,,iv-,,vi7 "u _! traditional subdivisions4 ,! exordium 7,,iv4 i71 = in/ance1 may be drawn f ! case1 f ! p]sons1 f ! occasion1 or f rebuttal ( "o's oppon5t2 & its ?reefold aim is to remove prejudice1 to w9 att5tion1 & to op5 ! way = und]/&+4#ab ,b ,qu9tilian (t5 con/ructively recomb9es ! traditional items1 & (t5 int]prets !m f tea*+ exp]i5ce4 ,! /atem5t ( facts 7n>ratio1 ,,iv4 ii7 is n limit$ to pure exposition2 ev5 rehe>sal may contribute to p]suasion4 ,its c>d9al virtue ( cle>ness he reass]ts 9 rebuke ( ^? /ud5ts :om an it* to be always impressive makes impati5t ( ! obligation4 8,:5 !y h exp]i5c$ ! :ole range1 !y w f9d no?+ 9 eloqu5ce m difficult ?an to say :at e he>] ?9ks he w\ld h said himself1 because x seems to him n good1 b true40 ,,iv4 ii4 #ch4 ,t ! /atem5t ( facts %\ld be brief does n p]mit its be+ ei!r abrupt or meag]4 ,t x %\ld s\nd true implies t x %\ld be 9 "*1 i4e41 t x %\ld be dramatically consi/5t & conv9c+1 & also t x %\ld lead into ! argum5t4 ,simil>ly practical are ! w>n+s aga9/ mak+ ! division 7,,iv4 v7 too m9ute & aga9/ lett+ x hamp] emotional appeal or int]rupt progressive coh]5ce4 ,to 8 conspectus ( ! anci5t classification ( pro( 7,v7 ,qu9tilian adds 7xiii7 ! foll[+ %rewd maxims = rebuttal3 ,def5se dem&s m skill ?an attack4 ,! sy/em ( /atus has "o ( its ma9 uses 9 refutation4 ,rebuttal (t5 consi/s l>gely 9 break+ d[n analogies4 ,nev] rebut :at y\r oppon5t did n say4 ,nei!r be too anxi\s nor fight ov] e item4 ,p]oration %\ld be m ?an recapitulation2 x %\ld take occasion f ! adv]s>y4 ,,vi4 i4 7#e7 ,plan ,qu9tilian's discussion ( dispositio 7,,vii7 is l t ( o!r anci5t treatises 9 conf9+ itself to plan 9 g5]al4 ,)\t specific doctr9e = ! promotion ( cog5cy z progressive coh]5ce1 x c>ries =w>d ! sy/em ( /atus z det]m9+ ! ma9 l9e ( argum5t4 ,t ! anci5ts appreciat$ & practis$ :at is n[ taught 9 ,am]ican s*ools & colleges z ! lore ( p>agraphs is evid5t 9 _! be/ composition1 notably 9 ! orations ( ,cic]o4 ,! decl9e f su* progressive coh]5ce among ! lat] declamatores is "o ( ! m>ks ( decad5ce 7see section ,,ii1 bel[74 ,b h[ ! lore 0 taught we are left to inf]4 ,! elem5t>y work+ out ( :at is n[ un=tunately call$ a deta*$ p>agraph1 i4e41 ( a s+le %ort composition1 is prescrib$ 9 ! *ria 7,i4 ix7 mu* z 9 mod]n manuals2 b t does n t\* ! art ( compos+ a su/a9$ spee* by p>agraphs4 ,9 ! cog5cy ( m\nt+ by /ages we miss ! typical sy/ematic in/ruction4 ,"s ( ?is mu/ h be5 inculcat$ ?r\gh assign$ outl9e 7mat]ia1 page #fg above71 "s ( x by ! rhetor's oral tea*+4 ,qu9tilian's in/ruction z to ! close ( ! exordium is a cle> h9t ( :at is n[ taught z p>agraph emphasis4 8,! proem %\ld put la/ t to :i* ! beg9n+ ( :at foll[s c mo/ conv5i5tly be l9k$40 ,,iv4 i4 #gf4 ,!re are1 inde$1 o!r h9ts2 b t s important an aspect ( composition %\ld n be a di/9ct topic ev5 9 ,qu9tilian's con/ructive p$agogy leaves ! anci5t lore ( dispositio too analytical to be suffici5t = mod]n tea*]s4 7#f7 ,/yle ,analyz$ ,qu9tilian's long discussion ( /yle 7elocutio1 ,,viii-,,xi7 op5s ) "o ( 8 be/ say+s1 8let c>e 9 words be solicitude = ?+s02#ac & ! :ole introduction is an admirable answ] to ! old quibble ab\t =m & sub/ance4 ,if he !reupon proce$s = two books by ! usual categories1 he at lea/ avoids ! subdivision t _h become excessive1 & provides a conv5i5t guide to ! volum9\s classical lore ( elocutio4#ad ,typical is 8 introduction1 "u s5t5ce-movem5t 7compositio1 ,,ix4 iv71 to ! doctr9e ( s5t5ce close 7clausula74 8,?\gh rhy?m mu/ be p]vasive x is m dem&$ 9 clos+ cad5ces 79 clausulis7 & m obvi\s2 fir/1 because e ?\ght has its own conclusion & dem&s a natural pause to sep>ate x f ! beg9n+ ( ! "o t foll[s2 & fur!rmore1 because ! e>1 hav+ foll[$ an oral sequ5ce1 hav+ be5 guid$ by ! curr5t ( fl[+ prose1 is m critical :5 t movem5t /ops & gives "t to consid]4 ,nei!r h>d1 !re=e1 nor abrupt %\ld be ! place :]e ! att5tion takes brea? & is r5ew$4 ,"h is ! dwell+-place ( prose2 "h is ! po9t to :i* ! audi5ce looks =w>d2 "h speaks ! orator's :ole m]it40 ,,ix4 iv4 #fa-fb4 7,! text ( ! la/ s5t5ce is dubi\s2 b ! g5]al int5tion ( exalt+ ! importance ( ! clausula is cle>47 7#g7 ,/yle ,promot$ ,hav+ foll[$ ! usual analysis ( /yle1 ,qu9tilian proce$s 7,x7 to con/ructive promotion1 to ! ways ( ga9+ secure control 7firma facilitas2 see ! tabul> view1 page #ff74 8,we :o contemplate oratorical p[]1 n m\ntebank volubility1 h to inculcate bo? range & discrim9ation0 7copia cum iudicio1 ,x4 i4 #h74 ,s ! vivid impressions t come ?r\gh ! e> %\ld be supplem5t$ by critical read+4 ,! read+ ( poetry promotes concrete realization1 height5+ ( /yle1 emotional appeal1 & aptness 9 *>act]ization4#ae ,f imitation ,qu9tilian passes 7,x4 iii7 to writ+ = practise 9 /yle4 ,s9ce ?is1 l deep pl[+1 is = a bett] yield1 he goes into specific c\nsels4 ,repeat :at y h j writt51 bo? = connection & to w>m up afre%4 ,flu5cy comes f habit1 n f ha/e4 ,y w n le>n to write well by writ+ rapidly2 y w le>n to write rapidly by writ+ well4 ,loll+ & look+ at ! ceil+ w n answ]2 y mu/ foll[ a plan 7ratio74 ,rapid extempore draft 7silva7 has ?is disadvantage1 t subsequ5t revision1 ?\gh x may am5d words & rhy?m1 is likely to leave ! sup]ficiality 7levitas7 t has aris5 f ha/y cr[d+4 ,bett] ex]cise prevision1 & s conduct y\r "w 7opus duc]e7 f ! beg9n+ t revision %all be poli%+1 n entirely mak+ ov]4 ,dictation1 by ei!r urg+ or delay+ ! natural pace ( composition1 leads to crude1 r&om1 or inept expression4 ,x is nei!r writ+ nor speak+2 = x has nei!r ! accuracy ( ! "o nor ! impetus ( ! o!r4 ,incid5tally x precludes ^? motor activities :i* help compos+ :5 "o is alone4#af ,?\gh solitude is be/--night1 ! clos$ door1 ! s+le light--s9ce y _c always h x1 le>n ab/raction4 ,x4 iii4 #c-bh1 p>aphras$4 ,9 transition ,qu9tilian obs]ves t m$itation 7cogitatio1 ,x4 vi7 = speak+ )\t writ+ c g s f> z to fix n only ! ord] ( po9ts1 :i* is en\gh1 b ev5 ! connection ( words4 ,! value to ! speak] ( practise 9 writ+ is to make *annels 7=m7 = su* m$itation4 ,s9ce m$itation mu/ always leave a m>g9 = improvisation1 ! plan mu/ be su* z may be easily left & resum$4 ,9 o!r words1 to give ! speak] secure control1 ! plan mu/ be progressive4 ,it]at+ ?is 9 ! next *apt]1#ag ,qu9tilian adds t ! o!r ma9 means to extempore p[] is concrete realization4#ah ,writ+ gives speak+ precision2 speak+ gives writ+ ease 7,x4 vii4 #bi74 ,f ?is summ>y ( _! g5]al relations 9 education1 ,qu9tilian passes to ! use ( writ+ 9 ! prep>ation ( a p>ticul> spee*4 8,busy plead]s commonly write ! mo/ ess5tial p>ts & ! beg9n+s i4e41 ( p>agraphs1 s z to be readi] to pick up ! con/ructive patt]n aft] weav+ 9 rebuttal impromptu4 ,! re/ ( _! prep>$ matt] !y grasp by m$itation3 & :at arises sudd5ly !y meet extempore40 ,x4 vii4 #cj4 ,brief notes to be held 9 ! h& are admissible1 b n :at is advis$ by ,lnas1 to write out ! :ole spee* & !n sum x up 9 outl9e4#ai ,x4 vii4 #cb1 p>aphras$4 ,! secure control t ,qu9tilian seeks to promote1 t firma facilitas :i* is ! subject ( ! :ole t5? book1 is evid5tly q diff]5t f m]e flu5cy4 ,) ! gift ( gab 9 boys he has long ago express$ 8 impati5ce4 8,impromptu g>rulity1 )\t ! m$itation t ! ma/] int5ds1 almo/ )\t hesitation 9 ris+ to speak1 is really ! brag ( a m\ntebank0 7,,ii4 iv4 #ae74 ,he n only presupposes1 he specifically inculcates1 mo/ c>eful prep>ation4 7#h7 ,memory ,9 ?is prep>ation ! importance t he gives to writ+1 n only = g5]al practise1 b = ! composition ( a p>ticul> spee*1 may seem great] ?an is w>rant$ by exp]i5ce4 ,ev5 s he is f> f support+ ^? :o repres5t classical oratory z hav+ be5 g5]ally writt5 & memoriz$4#bj ,t ! urg5cies ( public address c\ld be met by t me?od is a priori a difficult assumption2 & ev5 ! spread ( ! oratory ( display 9 8 "t1 & 8 own pr(essorial fondness = f9i% ( /yle1 did n lead ,qu9tilian to urge memoriz+ g5]ally & unres]v$ly4 ,r :at he (f]s "u memoria 7,,xi4 ii7 has ! usual wide anci5t scope4 ,x %\ld be read 9 its connection ) :at he has already taught 7,x4 vi4 vii1 page #hj above7 ab\t cogitatio4 8,all tra9+ re/s ^u memory4444 ,x is ! p[] t makes available funds ( examples1 laws1 decisions1 op9ions1 prec$5ts1 funds :i* ! orator ought to h 9 abundance & at comm&4 ,rightly is x call$ ! treasury ( eloqu5ce4 8,^? :o plead mu* ought n only to reta9 surely1 b to disc]n be>+s quickly1 n only to grasp :at has be5 writt5 by read+ x ov] & ov]1 b to foll[ ! sequ5ce ( po9ts & words 9 :at has be5 m]ely ?\ght out1#ba to rememb] ! po9ts made on ! o!r side1 &1 in/ead ( rebutt+ !m s]iatim1 to br+ !m 9 :]e !y w be opportune4 ,nay1 extempore speak+ seems to me to re/ ^u no less vigor ( m9d4#bb ,= :ile we are say+ "o ?+1 we h to be consid]+ :at we are go+ to say4 ,s :ile ?\ght 7cogitatio7 is always que/+ beyond :at is actually on ! c>pet1 :atev] x f9ds meantime x deposits1 s to speak1 9 ! memory2 & ! memory1 z x 7 a ?ird h&1 transmits :at x has receiv$ f =eca/ 7inv5tione7 to expression 7elocutioni740 ,,xi4 ii4 #a-c4 ,devices & ex]cises = tra9+ & apply+ su* a faculty 7,,xi4 ii4 #h-ce7 are summ$ up 7#cf7 "u ! two pr9ciples ( divisio & compositio1 def9it5ess ( outl9e & def9it5ess ( s5t5ce movem5t4 ,! =m] is ?us it]at$ = ! ?ird "t 7see ,x4 vi4 vii7 z ess5tial4 ,! importance ( ! latt] lies 9 ! fact t ! m9d m readily reta9s settl$ rhy?ms 7#ci74 ,z v]se is easi] to memorize ?an prose1 s p]iodic rhy?ms ?an unp]iodic4#bc ,?us ,qu9tilian faces f9ally ! "q ( le>n+ by he>t4 ,t x 0 a "q1 ev5 = ,qu9tilian1 %[s t classical practise 0 divid$1 z mod]n practise is1 by diff]5ces bo? 9 tal5t & 9 ! field ( habitual ex]cise4 8,f ?is div]sity ( tal5ts arises ! "q :e!r ! prep>ation ( a spee* %\ld g s f> z le>n+ by he>t 7ad v]bum sit edisc5dum dicturis71 or only f> en\gh to grasp ! =ce ( ea* po9t & ! ord] 7an vim modo r]um atque ord9em complecti satis sit74 ,z to ?is d\btless no rule c be proclaim$ z univ]sal4 ,) a memory /rong en\gh1 & ) "t en\gh1 ,i %\ld l to hold e syllable4 ,o!rwise x is idle to write ! spee* out4 ,su* p[] is to be secur$ especially 9 boyhood1 & memory to be tra9$ to t habit1 le/ we le>n to excuse ourselves4 ,!re=e to be prompt$ or to ref] to notes is a fault1 because x enc\rages slackness1 & !re is no secure hold )\t "s anxiety n to lose4 ,by prompt+ or ! use ( notes ! impetus ( deliv]y is int]rupt$1 ! spee* halt+ & abrupt2 & he :o speaks z if he 7 recit+ =feits ! :ole *>m ev5 ( :at he has writt5 well by betray+ t x has be5 writt5 i4e41 memoriz+1 to be effective1 mu/ be p]fect4 8,memory c ev5 give su* an impression ( impromptu tal5t t we seem n to h br\ght ! spee* f home1 b to h laid hold ( x on ! spot2 & t is a great advantage bo? to ! orator & to 8 case4444 8,b if memory is less tractable1 or if "t does n suffice1 ty+ oneself to words w be useless1 s9ce ! =gett+ ( a s+le "o may lead to awkw>d hesitation1 or ev5 to sil5ce4 ,x is f> saf]1 hav+ firmly grasp$ ! sub/ance1 to give oneself fre$om ( expression40 ,,xi4 ii4 #dd-dh4 ,d4 ,,scope ,,& ,,plan ,! compreh5sive program ann\nc$ by ,qu9tilian 9 8 proem is c>ri$ ?r\gh4 ,no o!r anci5t treatise is s exhau/ive4#bd ,includ+ all ! traditional topics1 he proce$s ^u ! classical !ory ( sy/ematic guidance1 b makes ! important contribution ( p$agogical ord]4 ,= 8 plan is progressive4 ,?\gh sometimes anxi\sly analytical 9 subdivision1 he is con/ructive 9 mak+ 8 ma9 l9e n ! survey ( ! subject1 b ! developm5t ( ! /ud5t4 ,! traditional five p>ts ( rhetoric /& out cle>ly2 b !y cov] only ab\t half ( ! space1 & !y d n det]m9e ! plan4 ,r ,qu9tilian proce$s f less to m1 f boyhood ?r\gh adolesc5ce to manhood4 ,8 idea is to wid5 & deep5 ! practise ( public speak+ z x op5s m & m to ! gr[+ speak]4 ,ari/otle's philosophy ( rhetoric beg9s ) ! speak] z !oretically ! effici5t cause2 ,qu9tilian's p$agogy ends ) ! speak] z practically ! effici5t result4 ,s1 be=e ent]+ ^u def9itions1 he devotes two books to practical ex]cises1 beg9n+ n ) ! subject1 b ) ! boy4#be ,s1 aft] he has def9$ ! field & scope1 he exp\nds inv5tio z 9 practise x exp&s1 & l9ks x ) dispositio4 ,s ! two books 9 :i* elocutio is traditionally analyz$ are foll[$ by ! two t %[ practically h[ x may be a*iev$2 & ^! two are ! culm9ation1 ! f9al application ( all ! prec$+ doctr9e4 ,8 ,in/itutio is fai?fully :at its title proposes1 a p$agogy ( rhetoric4 ,t x keeps its place 9 ! hi/ory n only ( rhetoric1 b ( education is due1 ( c\rse1 to ,qu9tilian's cog5cy2 x is due also to ! l>g5ess ( ! subject4 ,rhetoric1 = ! =tunate few :o alone c\ld aspire to lead]%ip1 compris$ mo/ ( ! high] sy/ematic education4 ,! scope s brilliantly v9dicat$ by ,cic]o#bf is tak5 by ,qu9tilian z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,?us 8 "w is 9 m ?an "o aspect a g5]al p$agogy4 ,?us also rhetoric itself1 to fulfil 8 dem&s & foll[ 8 me?ods1 mu/ keep 8 conception ( br++ to be> ! :ole man4 ,! n>r[+ ( rhetoric 9 practise arose f ! n>r[+ ( public life & meant ! n>r[+ ( education4 ,,ii4 ,,declamatio ,,9 ,,s5eca1#bg ,,tacitus1 ,,& ,,pl9y ,a4 ,,declamatio ,! declamatio exhibit$ by ,s5eca1 ?\gh already e/abli%$1 0 fairly new at ,rome4#bh ,cic]o1 writ+ ab\t ! "t ( ,s5eca's bir?1 /ill uses declam>e1 declamatio1 & controv]sia#bi 9 _! old] g5]al s5ses4 ,8 approval ( practise speak+ on hypo!tical cases 0 app>5tly ( some?+ l our mod]n 8moot c\rts40 ,controv]si ( ! ,s5ecan sort he knew only 9 _! incipi5cy4#cj ,tacitus1 writ+ 8 ,dialogus de oratoribus ab\t #ha ,a4,d41 a few ye>s be=e ,qu9tilian's ,in/itutio1 %[s cle>ly t ! specializ$ controv]si1 f be+ common1 _h become p]vasive almo/ to ! ext5t ( monopoly4 ,f ! old]1 ,cic]onian position ( compreh5sive tra9+ 8 ,messalla d]ides declamatio & all its works4 8,z to ?is education ( an orator ! great m5 ( ! pa/ _h made up _! m9ds4 ,to br+ x ab\t !y disc]n$ ! ne$ n ( declamatio 9 ! s*ools ( ! rhetors1 nor ( ex]cis+ tongue & voice 9 imag9>y controv]si )\t specific relation to actuality1 b ( fill+ ! m9d by ! te*nic 7artibus7 ( discuss+ 7disputatur1 i4e41 discuss+ aft] ! mann] ( ! philosoph]s7 good & evil1 honor & di%onor1 ju/ice & inju/ice2 = ?is is ! orator's subject matt] 7subiecta ad dic5dum mat]ia740 ,tacit4 ,dial4 #ca1 #a4 ,! dialogue1 :i* ( c\rse gives m ?an "o po9t ( view1 b none ! less cle>ly %[s ! position ( ,tacitus1 proce$s f su* g5]al /udies to ! old cu/om ( appr5tic+ oneself to an exp]i5c$ orator 7#ca-cd71 & !n contra/s ! mod]n habit z foll[s4 8,b n[ our /ripl+s are drawn (f into ! s*ools ( ^? :o are call$ rhetors4 ,h[ little1 j be=e ,cic]o's "t1 ^! tea*]s pleas$ our ance/ors is evid5t f ! fact t ! c5sors ,crassus & ,domitius bade !m close1 z ,cic]o puts x1 _! #8s*ools ( impud5ce4' ,well1 z ,i />t$ to say1 ! boys are drawn (f into s*ools 9 :i* x w\ld be h>d to say :e!r ! place itself1 or _! fell[ /ud5ts1 or ! sort ( ex]cise1 is likely to d _! tal5ts m h>m4 ,! place has no respect1 s9ce e "o is equally unskill$2 ! fell[ /ud5ts give no impetus to progress1 s9ce boys among boys & y\?s among y\?s speak & are he>d ) equal c>elessness2 b ! ex]cises are 9 great "p positively ?w>t+4 ,= two sorts ( !mes are h&l$ ) ! rhetors3 suasori & controv]si4 ,( ^! ! suasori1 z be+ easi] & dem&+ less =esight 7prud5tia71 are left to ! boys2 ! controv]si are assign$ to ^? ( m p[]4 ,my ^w6 :at assignm5ts6 & h[ incr$ibly compos$6 ,x foll[s1 moreov]1 t declamatio may be appli$ to an assignm5t f> remov$ f actuality4 ,s x comes to pass t !y pursue ) great words rew>ds = tyrannicides1 or ! *oice to be made by ravi%$ maid5s1 or ince/s ( matrons1 or :atev] is argu$ z (t5 9 s*ool z seldom 9 ! =um4 ,:5 !y come be=e real judges--0 444 ,tacit4 ,dial4 #ce1 #a-g4 ,:at ,qu9tilian deplores1 !n1 9 ! practise ( declamatio ,tacitus %[s to h be5 none ! less common4 ,all ! m significant is ! slight & z x 7 unwill+ consid]ation t ,qu9tilian gives to ^! fa%ionable aspects4 ,ev5 :ile he insi/s on ! value ( declamatio = g5]al tra9+1 he deprecates t wide dep>ture f actual plead+ 9 !mes1 conception1 & /yle :i* ,s5eca records z a matt] ( c\rse & ,tacitus d]ides z habitual4 ,! use ( declamatio by mature speak]s n = ex]cise1 b = exhibition1 he passes ov] incid5tally 9 a few s5t5ces z a p]v]sion4 ,its und\bt$ preval5ce he admits sadly z some?+ t a s]i\s tea*] %\ld ignore4#ca ,bo? ! scorn ( ! hi/orian & ! res]vations ( ! tea*] spr+ f ! old]1 l>g] tradition ( rhetoric4 ,to ?is bo? ,tacitus & ,qu9tilian disc]n$ 9 declamatio a m5ace4 ,h[ f> _! fe>s 7 ju/ifi$ w appe> 9 lat] n>r[+ & p]v]sion4 ,meantime !y h suppli$ = int]pret+ ! collection ( ,s5eca n only ! anci5t /&>d1 b also ! necess>y in=mation4 ,b4 ,,"* ,,& ,,scope ,,( ,,s5eca',s ,,collection ,s5eca's ,controv]si#cb is a collection ( ! declamationes made by celebrat$ rhetors4 ,?\gh ,s5eca may well h us$ publi%$ mat]ial1 8 ext5sive reports1 z x 7 v]batim1#cc at once atte/ ! grasp ( ! anci5t memoria & sugge/1 amid consid]able v>iety1 a fund ( /ock cases4 ,to exhibit ! rhetors' skill by competition1 8 plan is to %[ side by side diff]5t treatm5ts ( ! same !me4 ,he int]polates specific1 &1 9 ! prefaces to ! sev]al books1 g5]al criticism4 ,?\gh he does n (f] 8 collection ( models explicitly z a compreh5sive guide1 8 p]vasive implication is t declamatio exhibits ! c>d9al virtues4 ,rhetoric might ) m safety t5d to monopolize education s long z x _h its old compreh5siv5ess2 b z x 0 n>r[$1 x t5d$ to put ! c>t be=e ! horse4 8,give y\r m9d to eloqu5ce10 says ,s5eca2 8f ?is y c range easily into all arts40#cd ,! idea is almo/ opposite educationally to ,cic]o's view t eloqu5ce is n\ri%$ by all /udies2 & ! eloqu5ce exhibit$ by ,s5eca is itself mu* small] ?an t int5d$ by ,cic]o4 7#a7 ,subjects = ,suasori ,suasori 7 delib]ative2 controv]si1 =5sic4 ,?\gh 9 actual practise ! "o field ( oratory seems z difficult z ! o!r1 9 p$agogical use suasori 7 g5]ally assign$ z elem5t>y ex]cises1 ! boy's fir/ ext5d$ compositions ) ! rhetor4#ce ,! sev5 surviv+ specim5s ( ,s5eca's collection are on ! foll[+ !mes3-- #a4 ,alex&] debates :e!r to emb>k on ! ocean4 #b4 ,! ?ree hundr$ ,sp>tans s5t aga9/ ,x]xes debate1 aft] ! flight ( ! exp$ition>y =ces f ! re/ ( ,greece1 :e!r !y too %all flee4 #c4 ,agamemnon debates :e!r to sacrifice ,iphig5ia1 :5 ,cal*as has decl>$ t ! ,trojan exp$ition _c o!rwise set sail ) ! cons5t ( ! gods4 #d4 ,alex&] ! ,great debates ! entry into ,babylon aft] ! auguries h w>n$ t dang] lurks = him !re4 #e4 ,! ,a!nians debate :e!r to remove ! monum5ts ( _! victories ov] ! ,p]sians1 ,x]xes hav+ ?reat5$ to come back unless !y d s4 #f4 ,cic]o debates :e!r to appeal to ,antonius = m]cy4 #g4 ,cic]o debates :e!r to burn 8 writ+s1 ,antonius hav+ (f]$ him immunity on ?is condition4#cf ,t ! subjects seem to h be5 always hi/orical rem9ds u t ,roman delib]ative oratory 0 b>r$ f its natural field ( ! liv+ pres5t4 ,?us re/rict$1 x is meag] ev5 = a s*ool ex]cise4 7#b7 ,subjects = ,controv]si ,! cases assign$ = ! controv]si ( old] /ud5ts1 ?\gh m v>i\s1 7 ev5 m remov$ f actuality4 ,! li/ ( ^? us$ by ,s5eca to exhibit ! skill ( ! rhetors !mselves fully ju/ifies ! exclamation ( ,tacitus1#cg quales1 p] fidem6 ,pos$ z available = argum5t on ei!r side--a rhetor w\ld sometimes esp\se n[ "o side1 n[ ! o!r--!y are difficult1 subtle1 s5sational1 (t5 s dubi\s z to preclude quotation1 always remote4 ,on _! face !y 7 *os5 & it]at$ by m5 :o desir$ s5sation1 priz$ +5uity1 & _h turn$ ! art ( p]suasion to adv]tisem5t4 ,a ,dis9h]it+ ,uncle 7,i4 #a7 8,*ildr5 :o refuse support to _! p>5ts are liable to imprisonm5t40 ,two bro!rs qu>rel$4 ,! son ( "o ( !m1 9 spite ( 8 fa!r's prohibition1 support$ 8 uncle1 :o _h fall5 into pov]ty4 ,dis9h]it$ on ?is acc\nt1 he made no legal prote/4 ,he 0 adopt$ by 8 uncle4 ,?r\gh a legacy ! uncle became ri*4 ,! fa!r began to be 9 want4 ,! son support$ him 9 spite ( ! uncle's prohibition4 ,he 0 dis9h]it$4 ,speak = ei!r ! "y man or ! dis9h]it+ uncle4 ,! ,pirate ,*ief's ,daught] 7,i4 #f7 ,a "y man captur$ by pirates wrote to 8 fa!r = ransom4 ,he 0 n ransom$4 ,! pirate *ief's daught] induc$ him to promise m>riage if he got 8 fre$om4 ,he promis$4 ,%e left h] fa!r to foll[ him4 ,he has return$ to 8 fa!r & has m>ri$ h]4 ,an orphan heiress comes along4 ,8 fa!r bids him repudiate ! pirate *ief's daught] & m>ry ! heiress4 ,:5 he refuses1 he is dis9h]it$4 ,def5d ei!r ! fa!r or ! son4 ,an ,oa? ( ,husb& & ,wife 7,,ii4 #b7 ,a husb& & a wife made an oa? t if any?+ happ5$ to ei!r1 ! o!r w\ld die4 ,! husb&1 travel+ abroad1 s5t a mess5g] to 8 wife to ann\nce t h] husb& _h di$4 ,%e ?rew h]self f a cliff4 ,hav+ recov]$1 %e is bidd5 by h] fa!r to leave h] husb&4 ,%e refuses4 ,%e is dis9h]it$4 ,speak = ei!r ! wife or h] fa!r4 ,poison ,giv5 to a ,maniac ,son 7,,iii4 #g7 ,a fa!r has giv5 poison to a son :o 0 rag+ mad & did viol5ce to himself4 ,! "m br+s action = cruelty4 ,speak = ei!r ! fa!r or ! "m4 ,crucifixion ( a ,slave :o ,refuses ,poison to 8 ,ma/] 7,,iii4 #i7 ,a sick man has ask$ 8 slave to give him poison4 ,! slave has n giv5 x4 ,! ma/] provides 9 8 w t 8 heirs %all crucify ! slave4 ,! slave appeals to ! tribunes4 ,speak = ei!r ! appellant or ! respond5t4 ,an ,exil$ ,fa!r ,exclud$ f 8 ,l&s 7,,vi4 #b7 8,aid+ an exile ) %elt] or food is prohibit$40 8,! p5alty = homicide %all be exile = five ye>s40 ,! fa!r ( a son & a daught] 0 f\nd guilty ( homicide & exil$4 ,he us$ to come to "o ( 8 prop]ties ne> ! fronti]4 ,! son le>n$ ?is & puni%$ ! ov]se]4 ,! ov]se] exclud$ ! fa!r4 ,! fa!r began to g to 8 daught]'s4 ,tri$ = h>bor+ an exile1 %e 0 acquitt$ on ! plea ( h] bro!r4 ,! five-ye> p]iod hav+ expir$1 ! fa!r dis9h]its ! son4 ,speak = ei!r ! fa!r or ! son4 ,aga9/ su* subjects1 aga9/ o!rs equally subtle & unreal1 ev5 indec5t & p]v]t$1 bo? ,tacitus & ,qu9tilian prote/ 9 ! "n ( education4 ,tra9+ = actual plead+1 !y urge1 is n to be _h f tyrannicide1 rape1 ince/1 wiz>ds1 pe/il5ce1 & /epmo!rs4 ,s5eca leaves no d\bt t su* subjects 7 typical2 b he expressly repudiates ! assumption t controv]si %\ld be ex]cises to tra9 = ! b>4#ch ,t declamatio 0 q diff]5t n only 9 8 view1 b 9 fact1 !re is no room to d\bt4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 :at ,tacitus & ,qu9tilian urge on pr9ciple & :at !y !mselves1 z well z ,s5eca & ,pl9y1 record z practise is decisively %>p4 ,x is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! old rhetoric & ! new4 ,ev5 9 ,s5eca's "t1 mu* m 9 t ( ,qu9tilian1 declamatio 0 measur$ z a special =m ( public speak+4 ,z su* ,s5eca seems to reg>d x ) complac5cy4 ,t he ?9ks x self-suffici5t & self-ju/ify+ seems evid5t f 8 pa9s to give its oral triumphs ! p]man5ce ( writt5 record4 ,declamatio might be curs$ by ! old] tradition z bad education1 or ju/ifi$ z orig9ally good by ignor+ :at x _h become4 ,none ! less x _h gone q out f ! old rhetoric1 & _h be5 accept$ & widely applaud$ z an end 9 itself4 ,t x p]v]t$ s*ool+1 z ,tacitus compla9s1 0 p>tly due to its inevitable t5d5cy to turn ! s*ool into an auditorium4 ,! rhetor rema9$1 inde$1 a tea*]2 b ev5 9 tea*+ he (f]$ himself z a model4#ci ,! transition 0 easy to (f]+ himself to ! public z an orator 9 ! late/ /yle ( oratory4 ,:ile ?is 0 "o ( ! few ways left "u ! ,empire = appeal to a l>ge audi5ce1 x 0 also "o ( 8 *ief means ( publicity4 ,:at ! rhetor 0 ?us to become ?r\gh\t ! ,roman ,empire may be cle>ly =eca/ f ,pl9y's acc\nt ( ,isu4 7#c7 ,pl9y on ,isu ,great z is ! reputation t _h prep>$ me = ,isu1 ,i f\nd him great]4 ,he has 9 ! highe/ degree ma/]y1 abundance1 f]tility4 ,he speaks always extempore1 b z if he _h long writt54 ,! diction is ,greek1 nay ,attic2 ! prelude1 neat1 simple1 w9some1 or grave & l(ty4 ,he asks = sev]al controv]si1 & lets ! audi5ce *oose1 (t5 ev5 ! side4 ,he rises2 8 robe is "r2 he beg9s4 ,in/antly ev]y?+ is ready1 & ready almo/ equally4 ,deep ?\ghts respond at once & words1 b :at words6 *os5 & ref9$4 ,f 8 impromptus gleam mu* read+ & mu* writ+4 ,he introduces aptly1 /ates ! case lucidly1 argues ke5ly1 sums up /rongly1 9 /yle is sup]b4 ,9 a ^w1 he in/ructs1 *>ms1 moves2#dj & :i* he does be/ y h>dly "k4 ,! en?ymemes are frequ5t1 & s are ! t]se & f9i%$ syllogisms1 an a*ievem5t difficult ev5 = writ+4 ,8 memory is incr$ible4 ,he resumes :at he has spok5 extempore1 & does n slip on a s+le ^w4 ,su* control he has atta9$ by /udy & practise2 = day & night he does no?+ else1 he>s no?+ else1 says no?+ else4 ,pa/ 8 sixtie? ye>1 he is /ill only a s*oolman2 & no?+ is m +5u\s ?an t sort ( man1 or m unsophi/icat$1 or bett]4 ,we :o are cr[d$ at ! b> & 9 real cases le>n1 ev5 aga9/ our w1 mu* cunn+4 ,! s*ool & ! auditorium1 ) _! made-up cases1 are in(f5sive & innocu\s--& none ! less happy1 = old m5 especially4 ,= :at is happi] 9 old age ?an :at is pleasante/ 9 y\?8 ,!re=e ,i acc\nt ,isu n only mo/ eloqu5t1 b also mo/ ble/2 & if y h no desire to "k him1 y are made ( /one & iron4 ,s come1 if n = o!r reasons1 if n on my acc\nt1 at lea/ to he> him4 ,h y ev] read ( ! man ( ,gades :o 0 s /irr$ by ! "n & fame ( ,livy t he came f ! ends ( ! e>? to see him &1 once hav+ se5 him1 =?) w5t 8 way8 ',tis crass1 uncultur$1 /upid1 almo/ base1 to ?9k no m highly ( an exp]i5ce ?an :i* no?+ is pleasant]1 or pretti]1 or m ref9$4 ,y w say1 8,i c read no less eloqu5t orators "h40 ,yes2 b !re is always a *ance to read1 n always to he>4 ,besides1 ! liv+ voice1 z ! phrase goes1 is f> m mov+4 ,= ?\gh :at y read may be m vehem5t1 yet :at is fix$ by ! deliv]y1 ! mi51 ! be>+1 ! v ge/ure ( a speak] abides deep] 9 ! m9d4 ,else we give ! lie to ! /ory ( s*9es1 :o :5 he _h read al\d to ! ,rhodians a spee* ( ,demo/h5es1 & e "o 0 admir+ x1 is said to h add$3 8,:at if y _h he>d ! bea/ himself80 ,& s*9es1 on ! te/imony ( ,demo/h5es1 _h a mo/ brilliant deliv]y4 ,none ! less he admitt$ t ! man :o _h begott5 t spee* deliv]$ x f> bett]4 ,all ?is goes to prove t y %\ld he> ,isu1 if only to say t y h he>d him4 ,pl9y1 ,epi/4 ,,ii4 #c4 ,9 ess5tials ?is description applies to ! controv]si pres]v$ by ,s5eca4 ,! ,greek rhetor ,isu :om ,pl9y he>d at ! end ( ! fir/ c5tury is recognizably l ! ,roman rhetors :om ,s5eca he>d "s hundr$ ye>s be=e4#da ,a c5tury _h only fix$ ! type z a di/9ct =m ( oratory1 & ext5d$ its vogue4 ,succe$+ c5turies repeat$ x1 9 ,greek & 9 ,lat91 ?r\gh\t ! ,roman _w4 ,meantime ,t>sus may h taught declamatio to its mo/ fam\s citiz54 ,c]ta9ly ,/4 ,j]ome knew x well4 8,we h be5 rhetoricat$10 he says ) grim humor1 8& h play$ a bit 9 ! way ( ! declamatores40#db ,inde$1 ! rhetoric t came fir/ & mo/ actively to ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur* mu/ h come ?r\gh declamatio4#dc ,its influ5ce z late z ! f\r? c5tury on ,/4 ,augu/9e ?r[s into %>p relief 8 ignor+ ( x 9 8 rhetoric = prea*]s1 ! f\r? book ( ,de doctr9a *ri/iana4 ,) su* real "w ( oratory declamatio has no?+ to d4 ,c4 ,,s5eca',s ,,classification ,,& ,,treatm5t ,in/ead ( giv+ 8 specim5s entire1 ,s5eca divides !m by a ?reefold critical classification3 7#a7 s5t5ti1 7#b7 divisio1 7#c7 colores4 ,! treatm5ts ( ! same case by diff]5t declamatores are ?us comp>$ specifically z to 7#a7 ! significances1 7#b7 ! analysis1 7#c7 ! imag9ative h&l+4 7#a7 ,! t]m s5t5ti might imply su* int]pretations z 7 significant because !y 7 lead+4 ,tak5 ?us1 x sugge/s ! sali5ces :i* m>k1 /age by /age1 ! developm5t ( a s+le1 controll+ int]pretation4 ,b s5t5ti 0 us$ famili>ly ( su* int]pretations z 7 valuable r sep>ately ?an toge!r1 = !mselves r ?an = ! fur!r+ ( a progressive developm5t--9 a ^w1 aphorisms1 or epigrams4 ,! latt] s5se _h become ! m common1 & 9 fact is :at ,s5eca exhibits4 ,8 declamatores seem m conc]n$ to /rike n[ & /rike aga9 ?an to urge on4 ,?\gh !y /ill di/+ui% ! =mal p>ts 7proem1 /atem5t1 etc471#dd !y are no long] preoccupi$ ) ! onw>d m>* ( ! old] tradition4 ,= ! cog5cy ( progressive developm5t !y h sub/itut$ ! mom5t>y effectiv5ess ( /rik+ summ>ies4 7#b7 ,s5eca's divisio1 ! analysis ( ! case1 %[s simil>ly n ! /ages ( a consecutive ord]1 b m]ely ! compon5ts ( an arbitr>y classification4 ,giv5 su* cases z 7 pos$1 ev5 ! divisio call$ = +5uity4 ,its prelim9>y qu/iones sometimes sugge/ an +5i\s & p]v]t$ application ( ! traditional /atus4#de 7#c7 ,"u colores#df ,s5eca exhibits ! imag9ative developm5t4 ,mean+ g5]ally ! tone1 or ca/--9 a l>ge s5se1 ! /yle1 colores means specifically 9 ,s5eca's collection 7#a7 descriptive amplification1 & 7#b7 dramatic *>act]ization4 ,ev5 ! descriptions 7 m ?an concrete realization ( ! facts2 !y 7 imag9ative elaborations4 ,qu9tus ,hat]ius1 on ! side ( ! fa!r 9 ! case ( ! pirate *ief's daught]1 above1 page #ib evok$ a v f9e picture4 ,9 ! abrupt /yle habitual ) him he began to describe1 z if he he>d ! tumult1 h[ ev]y?+ 0 laid wa/e & ravag$1 ! f>ms giv5 to ! flames1 ! peasants' flight2 &1 :5 he _h amplifi$ ! t]ror1 he add$3 8,:y %udd]1 "y man8 ',tis ! arrival ( y\r fa!r-9-law40 ,s5eca1 ,controv]si1 ,i4 #f4 #ab4 ,fabianus 0 apt] at suasori4 ,! local color ( places1 ! c\rses ( riv]s1 ! sites ( cities & ! habits ( _! peoples1 no "o describ$ m amply4 ,nev] did he pause = lack ( a ^w4 ,8 soo?+ spee* w\ld fl[ ab\t ev]y?+ ) swifte/ & easie/ c\rse4 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 prf4 #c4 ,m boldly & +5i\sly imag9ative 0 ! *>act]ization4 ,! case itself be+ fictiti\s1 ! treatm5t might g ! :ole l5g? ( fiction4 ,at lea/ ! declamatio mu/ s ent] into ! motives1 & especially ! emotions1 ( ! p>ties z to make !m dramatis p]son2 at mo/ he might g s f> z to supply 8 imag9>y dialogues ) a plot4#dg ,?us a guilty son is /ag$ 9 dialogue ) 8 fa!r3 ,i %all die4 ,i %all die4 ,p]haps4 ,i %all n weep4 ,he>t1 :y quiv]e/ ?\8 ,tongue1 :y tremble/8 ,eyes1 :y are ye dull$8 ,x is n yet ! ?irtie? day4 ,y beg = life8 ,i gave x2 & y h lo/ x4 ,x is y\r w t y\r son %\ld die4 ,my w8 ,no1 y\r madness1 y\r bl9d & ra% desire1 yes1 & h] fa!r1 too soon ov]borne by y\r pray]s4 ,s5eca1 ,controv]si1 ,,ii4 #c4 #a4 ,t su* dramatization is obvi\sly an ext5sion ( ! s*ool prosopopi#dh %[s h[ p]vasive 0 ! preoccupation ) imag9ative developm5t4 8,as9ius ,pollio us$ to say t ! color 0 to be exhibit$ 9 ! /atem5t ( facts1 & c>ri$ out 9 ! argum5ts40#di ,:at 0 left ( ! old rhetoric8 ,! int]pretations dem&$ by s5t5ti & divisio 7 at lea/ intellectual2 b ! ma9 int]pretation1 ! goal & measure ( skill1 0 imag9ative4 ,! sure/ way to fame 0 ?r\gh colores4 ,?r\gh colores :at _h once be5 useful z a s*ool ex]cise 0 artificially ext5d$1 & =5sic 0 turn$ into a =m ( occasional oratory4 ,s5t5ti1 divisio1 colores1 epigrams1 +5i\s analysis1 imag9ative developm5t1 seem a poor sub/itute = ! traditional five p>ts ( rhetoric4 ,especially impov]i%+ 0 ! re/riction ( ! anci5t inv5tio4 ,) inve/igation supplant$ by fiction1 debate lo/ its typical tra9+ & its typical p[]4 ,) ! %ift ( emphasis to imag9ation1 rhetoric 0 confus$ ) poetic1#ej to ! impair+ ( bo?4 ,nor 0 dispositio fur!r$ by s5t5ti & divisio4 ,sali5ce1 in/ead ( be+ us$ to fur!r consecutiv5ess1 became an end 9 itself4 ,! :ole 0 sacrific$ to ! p>ts4 ,elocutio1 ?us left to itself1 t5d$ inevitably t[>d an art ( display4 ,! hi/ory ( rhetoric has no m /rik+ pro( t /yle1 :5 cultivat$ 9 artificial isolation1 goes bad4 ,s wide a dep>ture sugge/s a div]g5ce 9 conception1 a div]g5ce old] & deep] ?an ! p>ticul> innovations ( declamatio4 ,beside ,ari/otle's conception ( rhetoric z ! art ( giv+ effectiv5ess to tru? !re _h p]si/$ ! conception ( x z ! art ( giv+ effectiv5ess to ! speak]4 ,?\gh ! two conceptions are n mutually exclusive1 ! dom9ance ( ! "o or ( ! o!r t5ds ei!r to give rhetoric ^? manifold relations & t con/ant answ] to reality :i* m>k its great anci5t a*ievem5ts1 or on ! o!r h& to n>r[ x t[>d virtuosity & display4 ,! l>ge p$agogy ( ,qu9tilian is animat$ by ! ,ari/otelian conception4 ,! o!r conception1 brilliant 9 ,gorgias & 8 l1 _h already animat$ n only ! declamatores at ,rome1 b t l>g] 8second sophi/ic0#ea :i* became p]vasively ! rhetoric ( ! imp]ial c5turies1 9 ,greek & 9 ,lat91 ?r\gh\t ! ,roman _w4 ,anci5t rhetoric (f]s ! hi/oric example1 !n1 ( a div]g5ce t has rema9$ typical4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,hi/orical /udies are relegat$ to a lat] volume4 #b ,! long & wide influ5ce ( ,qu9tilian w be discuss$ 9 a lat] volume4 ,x is briefly indicat$ by ,s&ys1 ,hi/ory ( ,classical ,s*ol>%ip1 vol4 ,i1 & trac$ m specifically by ,*4 ,fi]ville 9 8 admirable ,fr5* edition ( ,book ,i 7,p>is1 #ahij71 :i* also (f]s ! be/ biography & bibliography4 ,mu* ( ! introduction 9 ,w4 ,pet]son's edition ( ,book ,x 7,ox=d1 #ahia7 is devot$ to ,qu9tilian's lit]>y criticism4 ,! two mod]n ,engli% translations are 7#a7 by ,j4 ,s4 ,watson 9 ! ,bohn ,libr>y 7,ox=d1 #ahia1 & probably e>li]71 & 7#b7 by ,h4 ,e4 ,butl] 9 ! ,loeb ,classical ,libr>y 7,london1 #aiba-b74 ,bo? occasionally miss ! significance ( te*nical t]ms4 ,! =m]1 provid+ summ>ies & _m ( ! valuable notes ( ,spald+ & ,capp]oni]1 is ! m useful4 #c ,s9ce ,qu9tilian's survey includes all ! c>d9al t]ms ( classical rhetoric1 ! correspond+ ,greek t]ms h be5 add$ = conv5i5ce ( ref]5ce4 ,comp>e ! valuable analysis ( ! treatise ,ad ,h]5nium 7curr5t 9 ! middle age z ,cic]o's7 9 ! introduction to ,wilk9s's edition ( ,cic]o's ,de oratore1 vol4 ,i1 pages #ef-fd4 #d recte loqu5di sci5tiam et poet>um en>rationem1 ,i4 iv4 #b4 ratio loqu5di et en>ratio auctorum1 qu>um illam me?odic51 hanc hi/oric5 vocant1 ,i4 ix4 #a4 #e ,john ( ,salisbury1 = in/ance1 discusses x ab\t #aaei 9 ,metalogicus1 ,migne1 #hej ,c4 ,d4 #f 4 ,! widely us$ comp5d ( !m by ,h]mog5es 7late second c5tury7 includes my?1 tale1 *ria1 prov]b1 analysis de/ructive & con/ructive1 commonplace1 encomium1 comp>ison1 *>act]ization 771 description 771 !sis1 & ! proposal ( a bill4 #g orbis ille doctr9 quam ,grci vocant1 ,i4 x4 #a4 #h ,?us ,h]mog5es on ! ex]cise ( retell+ my?s3 8,my?s are sometimes to be exp&$1 sometimes to be told concisely4 ,h[8 ,by n[ tell+ 9 b>e n>rative1 & n[ by feign+ ! words ( ! giv5 *>act]s4 ,= example1 #8! monkeys 9 c\ncil delib]at$ on ! necessity ( settl+ 9 h\ses4 ,:5 !y _h made up _! m9ds to ?is & 7 ab\t to set to "w1 an old monkey re/ra9$ !m1 say+ t !y w\ld m easily be captur$ if !y 7 caught )9 enclosures4' ,?us if y are concise2 b if y wi% to exp&1 proce$ 9 ?is way4 #8,! monkeys 9 c\ncil delib]at$ on ! f\nd+ ( a city2 & "o com+ =w>d made a spee* to ! effect t !y too mu/ h a city4 8,= see10 said he1 8h[ =tunate 9 ?is reg>d are m54 ,n only does ea* ( !m h a h\se1 b all go+ up toge!r to public meet+ or !at] delight _! s\ls ) all mann] ( ?+s to see & he>40' ,g on ?us1 dwell+ on ! incid5ts & say+ t ! decree 0 =mally pass$2 & devise a spee* = ! old monkey40 1 ed4 ,rabe1 #b-c4 ,! ex]cise is /ill us$ 9 ,fr5* s*ools1 & = old] pupils is c>ri$1 z by ! anci5ts1 into a sort ( hi/orical fiction4 #i ,?\gh ! ^w seems to ref] r to ! ma/]s ?an to ! pupils1 ! :ole passage none ! less cle>ly indicates ! nature & scope ( ! ex]cise = /ud5ts4 ,! dramatic skill ( a declamator is describ$ aga9 9 simil> t]ms at ,x4 i4 #ga2 ! use ( prosopopia 9 ! p]oration ( legal plead+1 at ,,vi4 i4 #be-bg4 #aj ,suasori & controv]si1 ,qu9tilian adds1 %\ld n be treat$ z ess5tially diff]5t4 ,s f> z prosopopia goes1 !y diff] h>dly at all2 & o!rwise !y diff] ma9ly 9 degree1 controv]si be+ m difficult4 ,besides ! consecutive discussion ( declamatio 9 *apt] x ( ,book ,,ii1 mu* ( :i* is quot$ above1 ,qu9tilian has _m incid5tal ref]5ces & allusions4 ,at ,,iv4 ii4 #bi1 he def9es declamatio z =5sium actionum m$itatio1 8ex]cise 9 plead+01 & he implies ! same def9ition 9 ad declam&um ficta mat]ia 7,i4 x4 #cc7 & 9 fictas ad imitationem =i consiliorumque mat]ias 7i4e41 controv]sias suasoriasque1 ,,ii4 iv4 #da74 ,/eadfa/ly ignor+ its use z a =m ( public speak+1 he consi/5tly treats x z a s*ool ex]cise4 ,he implies t declamatio embrac$ a l>ge "p ( actual tea*+ :5 he compla9s 7,,ii4 i4 #h7 t x is =eca/ by grammaticus1 & calls rhetor 7,,ii4 i4 #c7 declam&i magi/]4 ,he says repeat$ly t x dep5ds l>gely on imag9ative realization ( "* & emotion 7,,vi4 i4 #be-bg2 ,x4 i4 #ga2 & ! passage on prosopopi quot$ above74 ,he admits ! use ( x z an exhibition ( virtuosity 79 o/5tationem1 ,,ii4 x4 #aj71 b satirizes ?is 7,,ii4 xx4 #c7 by ! anecdote commemorat+ ! futile skill ( a man :o c\ld ?r[ gra9s ?r\gh ! eye ( a ne$le4 ,?\gh he reg>ds x z a gymna/ic pr(itable = mature speak]s 9 provid+ v>iety & relief 7,x4 v4 #ag71 he has no pati5ce ) ! common practise ( keep+ up indef9itely :at is prop]ly a s*ool ex]cise 7,,xii4 xi4 #ae74 ,f9ally he repeats explicitly & implicitly 8 w>n+ t declamatio %\ld be kept close to actuality2 & 9 a long passage 7,v4 xii4 #ag-bb7 conclud+ 8 discussion ( ! s$es argum5torum1 he indignantly condemns its p]v]sion into prett9ess z an emasculation ( oratory4 ,lucian1 ^: satire does n sp>e rhetors1 makes specific m5tion n[ & !n ( declamatio1 us+ ! t]m or 3 ,demonax1 #cc1 #cf2 ,rhetorum prceptor1 #ag4 ,"o passage is v l ,qu9tilian's 9 ! text above3 8,b ! *ief ex]cise & ! aim ( ! art ( danc+1 z ,i said1 is act+1 :i* is practis$ 9 ! same way by rhetors1 especially by ^? :o cultivate ! s-call$ declamationes4 ,_! art is ! m applaud$ = its adaptation to ! assign$ *>act]s & = its consonance ) ! p]sons introduc$1 :e!r pr9ces1 tyrannicides1 poor m51 or f>m]s40 ,de saltatione1 #fe4 ,"s ( 8 satires1 e4g41 ,tyrannicida1 ,abdicatus1 & "s ( ! encomia1 s\nd l mock declamationes4 #aa ,watson's 7,bohn7 translation quotes 7foot-notes to pages #bab-ac ( volume ,i7 ,capp]oni]'s tabul> summ>y ( ! doctr9e ( /atus f\nd 9 ,qu9tilian1 ,cic]o1 ! treatise ,ad ,h]5nium1 & ,h]mog5es4 ,= ,cic]o see also pages #di-ea above4 ,jneke's ,leipzig diss]tation 7#aijd7 ,de /atuum doctr9a ab ,h]mog5e tradita comp>es by tabul> view 7pages #bc-d1 #abj-a7 ! sy/em ( ,h]magoras1 z x is inf]r$ f ,cic]o1 ,qu9tilian1 & ,/4 ,augu/9e1 ) t ( ,h]mog5es4 #ab ,! maxim 0 r$d]e auditores b5evolos1 att5tos1 dociles4 ,! classical lore on ! ?ird ( ^! functions is survey$ by ,f4 ,p4 ,donnelly1 ,s4 ,j41 9 ,a function ( ! classical exordium1 ,classical ,weekly1 ,v4 #bjd-g1 ,new ,york1 ,may #aa1 #aiab4 #ac ,curam ergo v]borum r]um volo esse solicitud9em4 ,,viii1 proem1 #bj4 ,! passage goes on3 8,= g5]ally ! be/ words are insep>able f _! ?+s1 & are disc]n$ by _! own light4 ,b we look = !m z if !y 7 always lurk+ & hid+4 ,s1 =gett+ t !y mu/ be ne> ! subject-matt]1 we seek !m else:]e &1 :5 we h f\nd !m1 lay hold ( !m by =ce4 ,a high] _s is ne$$ = essay+ eloqu5ce2 = if %e is 9 s\nd heal? ?r\gh\t h] frame1 %e w n ?9k h] c>e %\ld be sp5t on manicur+ & hairdress+40 ,fronto1 on ! contr>y1 praises ! "y ,m>cus ,aurelius = digg+ up words1 8ut v]bum ex alto eruas et ad signific&um adcommodes10 ed41 ,ha9es1 ,i4 #f4 #ad ,= ,ari/otle's treatm5t see above page #bd2 = ,cic]o's1 pages #ec1 #eg2 = ^? ( ,dionysius & 8,long9us10 ,*apt] ,v4 #ae 9 rebus spiritus et 9 v]bis sublimitas et 9 affectibus motus omnis et 9 p]sonis decor4 ,x4 i4 #bg4 #af ,= an int]e/+ note on dictation z practis$ by a pr(essional orator1 see ,h4 von ,arnim1 ,leb5 und ,w]ke des ,dio von ,prusa1 page #adj4 #ag via1 ,x4 vii4 #e2 int5d5dus animus 444 usque ad ultimum1 ,x4 vii4 #af4 #ah imag9es1 ,x4 vii4 #ae4 #ai ,! int]pretation is sub/antially t ( ,luigi ,valmaggi3 8,insomma il precetto di ,qu9tiliano que/o1 *e occorre o recit>e a memoria o improvvis>e sia pure su appunti presi m$it&o il discorso1 ma d'uopo evit>e assolutam5te una miscela dei due si/emi40 ,oss]vazioni sul libro x di ,qu9tiliano1 9 ,atti della reale accademia delle sci5ze di ,tor9o1 #cg3bbh4 #bj ,our mod]n habits ( writ+ & read+ h9d] our compreh5sion ( ! speak+ & li/5+ anci5t _w4 ,especially are we liable to mis9t]pretation ( ! idea ( writ+ 9 ! anci5t rhetoric4 ,?is contemplat$ prim>ily g5]al tra9+ 9 /yle4 ,x also includ$ "s writt5 prep>ation = a p>ticul> spee*1 & f9ally ! writ+ out ( "s spee*es1 especially spee*es on occasion1 9 full4 ,b t ?is la/ 0 ! g5]al anci5t practise has nev] be5 suffici5tly support$ & is a priori improbable4 ,! writ+ out ( spee*es aft] !y _h be5 spok51 & ! common anci5t practise ( writ+ spee*es = o!r m5 to le>n & deliv]1 are n 9 po9t1 & mu/ be kept ap>t f ! "q ( writt5 prep>ation4 ,! traditional qu>rel betwe5 ! anci5t oratory :i* reli$ m & t :i* reli$ less on writ+ is admirably summ$ up by ,van ,hook1 ,alcidamas v]sus ,isocrates2 ! spok5 v]sus ! writt5 ^w1 9 ! introduction to 8 translation ( ! attack ( ,alcidamas ,on ^? :o write writt5 spee*es1 ,classical ,weekly1 ,,xii1 #hi-id1 ,new ,york1 ,jan4 #bj1 #aiai4 ,?\gh !re is gr\nd = diff]5ce ( op9ion 9 int]pret+ :at we c le>n ( ! habit ( ,demo/h5es or ( ,cic]o1 !re is no gr\nd = assum+ t ! anci5t c\nsels ( c>e 9 prep>ation g5]ally imply writ+ out4 ,qu9tilian1 :o leans t[>d writt5 prep>ation1 is by himself almo/ suffici5t te/imony to ! contr>y4 #ba ,cogitatis1 ) obvi\s ref]5ce to cogitatio 9 ,x4 vi4 vii4 #bb ,note t memoria is vigor ( m9d1 & t x is fir/1 z (t51 appli$ to extempore speak+4 #bc ,= ,ari/otle on ?is aspect ( ! p]iod 7,rhetoric1 iii1 #adji b71 see #bg above4 #bd ,see ! tabul> view above 7page #fc1 ) foot-note #c7 & ,qu9tilian's own review & =eca/ 9 ! proem to ,book ,,viii4 #be ,h[ delib]ate & consi/5t is 8 ord] appe>s1 = in/ance1 at ! op5+ ( ,,ii4 xi1 :]e ! def9itions beg93 ,iam hic ergo nobis in*o&a e/ ea p>s artis ex qua cap]e initium sol5t qui priora omis]unt4 #bf ,see ,*apt] ,,iii1 pages #ch1 #df4 #bg ,! be/ edition is ,snque le rhteur1 controv]ses et suasoires1 traduction n\velle 7) expository introduction71 texte revu 79 f9e pr9t at ! bottom ( ea* page71 ,h5ri ,bornecque 7,lille71 #b volumes1 ,p>is 7,g>ni]71 #aijb4 ,! be/ discussion is also by ,bornecque1 ,les dclamations et les dclamateurs d'aprs ,snque le pre1 ,travaux et mmoires de l',univ]sit de ,lille1 n\velle srie1 ,i4 ,droit1 ,lettres--fascicule #a1 ,lille1 au sige de l',univ]sit1 #aijb 7bibliography1 index ( au?ors cit$ o!r ?an ,s5eca1 catalogue raisonn ( declamatores74 ,incid5tal & m g5]al discussion w be f\nd 9 /&>d treatises on ,roman lit]ature ( ! ,empire1 9 ,g4 ,boissi]'s ,la f9 du paganisme1 & 9 8 ,tacite1 pages #bjj-bdj4 ,pet]son's translation ( ! ,dialogus ( ,tacitus is publi%$ 9 ! ,loeb ,classical ,libr>y4 #bh ,= a summ>y ( ! e>li] ,greek hi/ory see ,bornecque1 ,dclam41 #dj4 #bi ,e4g4 ,de orat4 ,i4 #adj4 #cj ,comm5tab> declamitans--sic enim nunc loquuntur4 ,brutus1 #caj4 ,on ?is po9t ,s5eca has no d\bt3--,declamabat autem ,cic]o non quales nunc controv]sias dicimus1 ne tales quidem quales ante ,cic]onem dicebantur1 quas !sis vocabant4 ,hoc enim g5us maxime1 quo nos ex]cemur1 adeo novum e/1 ut nom5 quoque ejus novum sit4 ,s5eca1 ,controv]si1 ,i4 prf4 #ab4 #ca ,see above1 pages #gj-gc & foot-note #aj4 ,! objection ( ,petronius1 ,satyricon i4 #b1 is less specific4 #cb ,s5eca ! ,eld] 7sometimes call$ ! ,rhetor1 circ4 #ef ,b4,c4-#ci ,a4,d47 made ! collection 9 8 la/ ye>s4 #cc ,bornecque1 ,dclam4 #be1 ?9ks t ! ,controv]si may be tak5 z sub/antial reproductions4 #cd ,controv4 ,,ii1 prf4 #c4 ,j4 ,w4 ,h4 ,wald5 quotes a simil> c\nsel f ,libanius1 ,ep4 #bdh3 4 ,! ,univ]sities ( ,anci5t ,greece1 page #gh1 foot-note4 ,bornecque1 ,dclam4 #ace1 sums up ! situation z foll[s3 8la rhtorique1 dev5ue l'tude unique1 p]d1 du mme c\p1 le contact avec la ralit 444 et elle dp\ille peu prs t\te valeur comme moy5 d'ducation oratoire et gnral40 #ce ,tacitus1 ,dial4 #ce-e1 quot$ above1 page #hh4 ,qu9tilian1 ,,ii4 iv4 #be4 #cf ,c4 ,t4 ,cruttwell translates ! second ( ^! at page #cce ( 8 ,hi/ory ( ,roman ,lit]ature4 ,! subjects m5tion$ incid5tally by ,qu9tilian are simil>3--,delib]ant ,patres conscripti an /ip5dium militi con/ituant4 ,,iii4 viii4 #ah4 ,delib]ant ,patres conscripti an ,fabios d$ant ,gallis bellum m9itantibus4 #ai4 ,delib]at ,c4 ,cs> an p]sev]et 9 ,g]maniam ire1 cum milites passim te/am5ta fac]5t4 #ai4 ,pompeius delib]avit ,p>?os1 an ,africam1 an gyptum pet]et4 #cc4 ,delib]at ,cs> an ,britanniam impugnet4 ,,vii4 iv4 #b4 #cg ,dial4 #ce4 #e1 quot$ above1 page #hh4 #ch ,de9de res ipsa div]sa e/3 totum aliud e/ pugn>e1 aliud v5til>e4 ,hoc ita semp] habitum e/1 s*olam quasi ludum esse1 =um ar5am4 ,,iii4 prf4 #ac4 ,! same po9t ( view is tak5 by ,pl9y 9 ! lett] 7,epi/4 ,,ii4 #c7 quot$ bel[4 ,! foll[+ controv]sia 0 assign$ to ! "y ,m>cus ,aurelius by 8 ma/] ,fronto3 8,i h s5t y an outl9e2 ! case is s]i\s4 ,a consul ( ! ,roman p1 lay+ aside 8 robes1 has donn$ a coat ( mail & among ! "y m5 at ! fea/ ( ,m9]va has sla9 a lion 9 ! sight ( ! ,roman p4 ,he is d5\nc$ be=e ! ,c5sors4 ,put into %ape & develop40 ,correspond5ce ( ,fronto1 ed41 ) a translation1 ,c4 ,r4 ,ha9es1 ,london & ,new ,york 7,loeb ,classical ,libr>y71 #aiai1 vol4 ,i1 page #baj 7see ! fur!r correspond5ce on ?is !me1 pages #bab1 #bad74 #ci ,see above1 page #fi4 #dj ,= all its in=mality1 ,pl9y's lett] runs1 z x 7 inevitably1 into ! traditional *annels ( ! =mal p>ts ( a spee* 7promiatur1 n>rat1 pugnat7 & ! ?ree ends ( oratory 7docet1 delectat1 afficit74 ,inde$1 x %[s ?r\gh\t a famili>ity ) rhetorical te*nic1 & assumes a l famili>ity on ! "p ( its recipi5t4 #da ,h4 ,keil's editio maior ( ,pl9y's ,lett]s 7,leipzig1 #ahgj7 dates ! second book ,a4,d4 #ig-ajj1 )9 a few ye>s ( ,qu9tilian's ,in/itutio4 ,= ,isu see ,philo/ratus1 ,vit4 ,soph4 i4 #bj1 & ,juv5al's satirical phrase 8,iso torr5tior0 7,i4 iii4 #gd74 #db 8,rhetoricati sumus1 et 9 morem declamatorum paululum lusimus10 quot$ by ,labriolle1 ,hi/oire de la littrature lat9e *rti5ne1 ,p>is1 #aibj1 page #dgj4 ,lusimus corresponds to ,s5eca's description ( declamatio z ludus 7foot-note #ch above74 #dc ,! hi/ory ( declamatio z a direct & an indirect influ5ce is res]v$ = a lat] volume4 ,x is summ>iz$ sugge/ively by ,bornecque 9 bo? ! introduction to 8 edition ( ,s5eca & 8 treatise cit$ 9 foot-note #bg4 ,wald5's ample summ>ies ( ! "w ( ,libanius 7#d? c5tury7 9 8 ,univ]sities ( ,anci5t ,greece corroborate :at ,bornecque says ( ,/4 ,augu/9e4 #dd ,see ,pl9y's lett] on ,isu above4 #de ,e4g41 ,i4 prf4 #ba2 ,,ii4 iii4 #aa4 ,see also ,bornecque1 ,dclam4 #ea4 ,= /atus see above1 page #gd4 #df ,! long & intricate hi/ory ( colores1 ext5d+1 ) t ( its ,romance cognates1 ?r\gh ! middle ages1 mu/ be po/pon$2 b its int]e/ may be div9$ by m]ely glanc+ at ! successive uses record$ 9 a few diction>ies4 ,! importance ( explor+ ! t]m has be5 urg$ aga9 by ,flet*] 9 8 8,true ,mean+0 ( ,dante's ,vita ,nuova1 ,romanic ,review1 ,,xi4 #aai4 #dg ,= ! lit]>y influ5ce ( ?is habit ( oral fiction see ,bornecque1 ,dcl4 #dh ,see above1 page #ga4 #di ,s5eca1 ,controv]si1 ,,iv4 iii4 #c4 ,d\btless ,qu9tilian _h su* p]v]sion ( n>ratio 9 m9d :5 he wrote3 8,! n>ratio %\ld be nei!r dry & />v$ 444 nor aga9 w9d+ & s$uctive ) f>-fet*$ descriptions1 into :i* _m are l$ by imitation ( ! lic5se ( poetry40 ,,ii4 iv4 #c4 #ej ,see ! section on ,ovid 9 ,*apt] ,,vii bel[4 ,bornecque sums up ! t5d5cy acutely z 8pntration rciproque de la posie et de la dclamation10 ,dclam4 #aae4 #ea ,! developm5t ( ?is hi/ory is res]v$ to a lat] volume4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,lit]>y ,,criticism ,,( ,,rhetoric ,criticism is inevitably a "p ( tea*+4 ,! tea*]'s hold+ up ( models involves bo? analysis ( !m & appreciation4 ,! diff]5tiation ( ! critic f ! tea*] is r\ghly t 8 judgm5ts are n appli$ imm$iately to tasks ( composition1 t he r def9es or ext5ds !ory ?an promotes practise4 ,8 e/imate ( ! pr(essional writ] is n directly br\ght to be> on ! advancem5t ( ! amateur4 ,he /ops ) appreciation2 ! tea*] tries to c>ry ?is ov] into imitation4 ,b ! diff]5tiation ( ! two functions has nev] be5 complete2 & 9 classical times x w5t only a little way4 ,qu9tilian1 :o 0 typically ! tea*]1 is includ$ ) respect 9 hi/ories ( criticism4 ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus classifies 8 acute appreciations ( orators & poets "u text-book head+s1 & puts =? 8 treatise on /yle1 z does ! great unkn[n 8,on ! ,sublime10 = in/ruction4 ,bo? are :at we n[ call critics4 ,! classification ( ,dionysius does n h9d] 8 critical appreciation2 ! classification ( ! great unkn[n m]ges into a k9dl+ en?usiasm4 ,probably mo/ ( ! lit]>y criticism curr5t 9 ! la/ ye>s ( ! ,republic & ! fir/ c5turies ( ! ,roman ,empire came f gramm>ians & rhetoricians4#a ,x is wor? :ile1 nev]!less1 to consid] sep>ately f ! manuals & me?ods ( in/ruction ^? treatises :i* 7 writt5 r to educate appreciation ?an to fur!r ! tasks ( ! s*ools4 ,out/&+ among ^! are ! ,brutus ( ,cic]o & ! ,dialogus ( ,tacitus2 b ! two mo/ specific & significant 9 doctr9e are ! ones m5tion$ above3 ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus on ,s5t5ces 7,de ,compositione ,v]borum71 & ! unkn[n au?or on ! ,height5+ ( ,language 7,de ,sublimitate74 ,9 "s respects complem5t>y1 ! two toge!r (f] a cle> view ( /yle 9 ! classical conception4 ,a4 ,,dionysius ,,( ,,halic>nassus ,,on ,,s5t5ces ,! mo/ specific & sy/ematic rhetorical treatise ( ,dionysius#a;a deals ) s5t5ce movem5t1 or compositio#b 7see pages #be1 #ec1 #fg1 #gi74 ,?is1 he makes bold to say 9 8 second p>agraph1#c is ! aspect ( composition mo/ pr(itable = ! /udy ( y\?4 ,!re is ne$ 444 ( ov]sight & guidance 444 = a *oice ( words at once pure & noble 444 & a s5t5ce movem5t comb9+ *>m ) dignity4444 ,! *ief heads "u :i* ,i propose to treat ! subject are ! foll[+3 :at is ! nature ( s5t5ce movem5t & :at =ce x has2 :at are its aims & h[ x atta9s !m2 :at are its g5]ic v>ieties1 & :at is ! di/9ctive feature ( ea*1 & :i* ( !m ,i believe to be be/2 & /ill fur!r1 :at is t poetical some?+1 bo? pleasant on ! tongue & sweet to ! e>1 :i* naturally accompanies ! s5t5ce movem5t ( prose1 & :]e9 lies ! =ce ( t poetical me?od :i* imitates unpoetical spee* & succe$s ?or\ghly 9 ! imitation1 & by :at me?od ea* ( ^! two may be atta9$4#d ,s5t5ce movem5t1 moreov]1 ,dionysius ?9ks to be m important ?an ! *oice ( words4#e ,he supports ?is ass]tion fir/ by analyz+ a passage f ! ,odyssey4#f ,ev]ybody w\ld1 ,i am sure1 te/ify t ^! l9es ca/ a spell ( en*antm5t on ! e>1 & rank second to no poetry :atsoev]1 h[ev] exquisite x may be4 ,b :at is ! secret ( _! fasc9ation1 & :at causes !m to be :at !y are8 ,is x ! *oice ( words or ! s5t5ce movem5t8 ,no "o w say 8! *oice02 ( t ,i am conv9c$4 ,= ! diction consi/s1 w>p & wo(1 ( ! mo/ ord9>y1 ! humble/ words1 su* z might h be5 us$ (f-h& by a f>m]1 a seaman1 an artisan1 or anybody else :o takes no acc\nt ( elegant spee*4 ,y h only to break up ! met]1 & ^! same l9es seem commonplace & unwor?y ( admiration4 ,= !y conta9 nei!r noble metaphors nor hypallages nor cata*reses nor any o!r figurative language2 nor yet _m unusual t]ms1 nor =eign or new-co9$ words4 ,:at alt]native1 !n1 is left b to attribute ! beauty ( ! /yle to ! s5t5ce movem5t8 ,9 l mann] he urges conc]n+ a passage f ,h]odotus3#g ,"h aga9 no "o c say t ! grace ( ! /yle is due to ! impressiv5ess & ! dignity ( ! words4 ,^! h n be5 pick$ & *os5 ) /udi\s c>e2 !y are simply ! labels affix$ to ?+s by ,nature4 ,inde$1 x w\ld p]haps h be5 out ( place to use o!r & gr&] words4 ,i take x1 9 fact1 to be always necess>y1 :5ev] ideas are express$ 9 prop] & appropriate language1 t no ^w %\ld be m dignifi$ ?an ! nature ( ! ideas4 ,t !re is no /ately or gr&iose ^w 9 ! pres5t passage1 any "o :o likes may prove by simply *ang+ ! h>mony4 ,!re are _m simil> passages 9 ?is au?or1 f :i* x c be se5 t ! fasc9ation ( 8 /yle does n aft] all lie 9 ! beauty ( ! words1 b 9 _! comb9ation4 ,n cont5t ) analysis1 ,dionysius proce$s#h to en=ce 8 po9t by g>bl+4 ,f9e passages ( v]se & ( prose1 )\t any *ange ( words1 are dislocat$ to %[ t _! =ce resides n 9 ^! words tak5 s+ly1 b 9 ! s5t5ce ord]1 or movem5t4 ,! me?od is +5i\s4 ,x is ev5 tell+4 ,any tea*] :o %all ?us put side by side a f9e passage ( ,engli% prose & ! same words 9 a diff]5t ord] w make 8 /ud5ts aw>e ( lit]>y effects to :i* !y %\ld n rema9 deaf4#i ,! connotation ( pace & tune may be fur!r exemplifi$ by comp>+1 = in/ance1 a tale ( ,*auc]'s ) ! v]sion made by ,dryd54#aj ,! me?od is int]e/+1 /rik+1 to "s ext5t reveal+4 ,:at does x reveal8 ,t sugge/iv5ess is n only ?r\gh ! imag]y ( s+le words1 b ?r\gh _! s\nd 9 comb9ation2 t a l>ge "p ( ! connotation :i* we call /yle is s5t5ce pace4 ,?is is g5]ally s little disc]n$ t ,dionysius may be p>don$ = magnify+ x2 & he fur!r gu>ds himself by record+ 8 int5tion ( writ+ a treatise also on ! *oice ( words4 ,occupi$ 9 ! pres5t treatise exclusively ) _! comb9ation1 he naturally br+s out ! importance ( ?is z vividly z possible4 ,is ! effectiv5ess ( /yle 9 ! *oice ( words1 or 9 _! comb9ation8 ,"h he seems to answ]1 8,9 _! comb9ation40#aa ,b effectiv5ess ( expression resides prim>ily 9 nei!r electio nor compositio1 second>ily 9 bo?4 ,prim>ily x is ! writ]'s ke5 s5se ( ! ways ( nature & ( man1 8 receptivity & insight4 ,!n x is concrete expression1 ! *oice ( words ( s5sation1 ! speak+ 9 t]ms ( light1 s\nd1 color1 motion1 attitude1 ge/ure4 ,su* words1 :e!r figurative 9 ! te*nical s5se or lit]al1 may be call$ imag]y4 ,or1 9 o!r fields ( composition1 x is an illum9at+ precision4 ,f9ally1 t effectiv5ess :i* we call /yle comes f apt & beautiful rhy?ms1 f t compositio :i* is ! subject ( ?is treatise4 ,9 a ^w1 /yle is a complex4 ,t compositio is an important elem5t ,dionysius does well to %[1 = ?is is n obvi\s & is commonly neglect$2 b t compositio is ! cause1 or ev5 t x is g5]ally m important ?an ! o!r elem5ts1 c h>dly be demon/rat$4 ,und\bt$ly ,hom]'s v]se weaves mu* ( 8 spell2#ab b surely 8 words1 ?\gh (t51 z ,dionysius says1 ord9>y1 h none ! less t specific concret5ess :i* *>act]i/ically makes epic vivid4 ,9 ! foll[+ passage t he quotes f ,h]odotus1 :]e ! sep>able *>m ( ! s5t5ce movem5t is made m obvi\s by play+ z x 7 9 ! wrong tempo1 he might claim ev5 m4 ,surely ! dialogue me?od is important = vividness & economy1 & ?is too is a matt] ( compositio4 ,b is ! compositio1 = all its *>m1 ! ma9 cause8 ,:o %all det]m9e8 ,! impression is a complex 9 :i* ea* elem5t c\nts--! *oice ( details1 ! *oice ( words1 ! arrangem5t or movem5t--& 9 :i* we c h>dly assign an exact proportion to any "o4 ,c]ta9ly ! beat & tune ( prose are "p ( its connotation1 its effect on ! read]4 ,d\btless also--?\gh "h we lack sci5tific analysis to confirm our impression#ac--!y are dem&$ subconsci\sly by ! compos+ emotion ( ! au?or z he speaks or writes4 ,nev]!less ,dionysius is an e>ly in/ance ( a dang] lurk+ 9 /ati/ical analysis ( lit]ature1 p]haps also ( a dang] lurk+ 9 ! treatm5t ( /yle--mu* m ( a s+le elem5t ( /yle--z a sep>ate entity4 ,be+ a tea*]1 ,dionysius d\btless ?\ght t !re 0 little dang] 9 ov]-emphasiz+ ! importance ( pace ) "y /ud5ts4 ,!y are too likely to be q unaw>e ( x to be corrupt$ by p$agogical exagg]ation4 ,t 8?9 & bloodless talk0 ) :i* ,cic]o#ad taxes ! philosoph]s ,dionysius ?9ks to be due to defective compositio4 ,! ma9 diff]5ce betwe5 poet & poet1 orator & orator1 is 9 aptness ( s5t5ce movem5t4 ,almo/ all ! anci5ts gave ?is mu* /udy2 & consequ5tly _! poems1 _! songs1 & _! disc\rses are ?+s ( beauty4 ,b among _! successors1 ) few exceptions1 ?is 0 no long] s4 ,9 "t x 0 at la/ entirely =gott52 & no "o ?\ght x to be indisp5sable or ev5 contributory to beauty ( disc\rse4#ae ,hav+ e/abli%$ ! importance ( adapt+ s5t5ce movem5t1 ,dionysius proce$s to %[ t su* adaptation is little h9d]$ by a priori consid]ation ( logic4 ,i us$ to ?9k t we ought to foll[ nature z f> z possible 9 adju/+ ! p>ts ( a disc\rse 444 = in/ance1 to put n\ns be=e v]bs 444 ! ess5tial be=e its modifi]s4444 ,?is idea is plausible2 b ,i came to ?9k x 0 n true4#af ,does ,dionysius mean t logic (f]s no norm = ! ord] ( words8#ag ,h>dly4 ,r he %[s by 8 in/ances t ^w ord] has little to d ) philosophical or logical classification4 ,! ord] 9 a giv5 s5t5ce is n det]m9$ ab/ractly by ! logical idea ( putt+ ! subject be=e ! pr$icate1 or ! sub/ance be=e ! accid5t4 ,x is guid$ p>tly by rhy?m2 & x is widely v>iable4 ,! v>iability t he %[s 9 ! ,greek ^w ord] is wid] ?an 9 ,engli%4 ,9 bo? languages x is controll$ by usage1 by :at is habitual & !re=e expect$2 & ?is fact seems to be ignor$ by ,dionysius4 ,ev5 a ,greek c\ld n %ape a s5t5ce at 8 own w )\t ref]5ce to ! habit ( ! language4 ,b 9 ?is respect ,greek usage1 because ! ,greek c\ld rely on %[+ s5t5ce relations by inflection1 0 less re/rictive ?an ,engli% usage4 ,= ,engli%1 !n1 x is n true to say t !re is no s5t5ce norm1 no normal or natural ord]4 ,t ! norm is n det]m9$ by logic 9 ! s5se ( ab/ract analysis is true = ei!r1 or any1 language2 b 9 mod]n languages1 mu* m ?an 9 ,greek1 x is re/rict$ by usage4 ,e c>eful translator has f\nd 8 ef=ts to convey ,greek /yle hamp]$ by ! inf]ior v>iability ( mod]n s5t5ce habits4 ,tak5 m g5]ally1 h[ev]1 ! cont5tion ( ,dionysius is s\nd & sugge/ive4 ,x is t ! ord] ( words 9 a s5t5ce is n pr$et]m9$ by logic1 t x is freely adaptable1 & t ?is adaptation con/itutes a l>ge elem5t 9 effectiv5ess4 ,hav+ ?us v9dicat$ ! "r ( ! speak] or writ] to deal ) ! ord] ( 8 words arti/ically1 unfett]$ by logic1 ,dionysius proce$s to inquire 9 :at arti/ic %ap+ consi/s4 ,! functions ( compositio ! tasks ( s5t5ce movem5t seem to me to be ?ree3 7#a7 to disc]n :at goes naturally ) :at to make a beautiful & satisfy+ comb9ation2 7#b7 to "k h[ to make sy/ematically out ( ^! pot5tial agreem5ts a bett] h>mony2 7#c7 if revision is /ill necess>y1 :e!r abridgem5t1 expansion1 or alt]ation1 to "k h[ to "w out ! adaptation z ! pot5tial values dem&4 ,! scope ( ea* ( ^! ,i w expla9 m cle>ly by us+ c]ta9 analogies f ! indu/rial arts ) :i* all are famili>3 h\se-build+1 %ip-build+1 & ! l4 ,:5 a build] has provid$ himself ) ! mat]ial f :i* he int5ds to con/ruct a h\se--/ones1 timb]s1 til+1 & all ! re/--he !n puts toge!r ! /ructure f ^!1 /udy+ ! foll[+ ?ree ?+s3 :at /one1 timb]1 & brick c be unit$ ) :at o!r /one1 timb]1 & brick2 next1 h[ ea* piece ( ! mat]ial t is be+ s unit$ %\ld be set1 & on :i* ( its faces2 ?irdly1 if any?+ fits badly1 h[ t p>ticul> ?+ c be *ipp$ & trimm$ & made to fit exactly4 ,& ! %ipwright proce$s 9 j ! same way4 ,s1 ,i say1 !y also %\ld "w ^: task is to compose s5t5ces well4#ah ,to simplify ! language ( ,dionysius by borr[+ f music a metaphor :i*1 ?\gh x does n cov] 8 :ole int5tion1 is true s f> z x goes1 ! ?ree tasks ( ! %ap] ( s5t5ces are3 7#a7 to he> ! tune1 7#b7 to foll[ ! tune1 7#c7 to correct ! tune4 ,! fir/ dep5ds on ! speak]'s aw>5ess1 8 s5sitiv5ess to words2 ! second dep5ds on 8 te*nical ability to c>ry out :at is ?us sugge/$1 to su/a9 & enhance2 ! ?ird1 m specifically te*nical1 is to revise 9 detail4 ,on its face ?is division is new4 ,n only has x no?+ to d ) o!r divisions :i* apply to /yle 9 g5]al1 be+ limit$ to s5t5ce movem5t1 b x also diff]s f e>li] divisions ( ?is item by be+ syn!tic4 ,its po9t ( view is n t ( a critic analyz+ :at has be5 already compos$1 b ( a speak] or writ] compos+4 ,x is practical4 ,is x practicable8 ,at ! v outset ( ! exposition ! analogy ( ! build+ arts is disconc]t+4 ,ev5 :5 all[ances are made = ! /rict limitation to build+1 ! exclusion ( all t we n[ call ar*itecture1 ! description /ill seems h>dly exact4 ,&1 its exactness assum$1 is x applicable8 ,is ! analogy s\nd8 ,bo? ! ,rhetoric & ! ,poetic ( ,ari/otle 9 speak+ ( s5t5ces g5]ally avoid analogies f ! /atic arts4 ,! ,poetic ev5 rules !m out at ! />t by its classification ( ! arts2 & ,ari/otle's analogies = s5t5ces are drawn n f build+1 b f walk+1 runn+1 & brea?+4#ai ,dionysius bo? assumes & ass]ts ! same po9t ( view3 8,! sci5ce ( public speak+ is1 aft] all1 a sort ( musical sci5ce1 diff]+ f vocal & in/rum5tal music 9 degree1 n 9 k9d40#bj ,& g5]ally 8 discussion1 l ,ari/otle's1 is 9 t]ms ( rhy?m4 ,:y1 !n1 ?is analogy ) arts t ,ari/otle reg>d$ z ly+ 9 q ano!r field8 ,! fam\s analogy 9 ! ,de ,sublimitate#ba ( build+ ) solid blocks is n1 9 its context1 s rem>kable2 = x is appli$ less re/rictively to compositio4 ,is a %ap] ( s5t5ces l a build]8 ,is he l a build] 9 ! process t ,dionysius puts fir/1 ! disc]n+ ( inh]5t compatibilities 9 8 mat]ial8 ,! "q is n ( ! subject-matt] or conception ( a :ole "w1 b ( compon5t p>ts or details4 ,d\btless an au?or may be some:at vaguely consid]$ z disc]n+ pot5tialities 9 ?is mat]ial2 b :at is ! mat]ial8 ,is x words 9 ! s5se t ! build]'s is /one or wood8 ,c an au?or f9d inh]5t compatibility 9 words z a build] 9 ! /r5g?1 texture1 %ape1 or color ( 8 /one8 ,8 mat]ial is ideas & images4 ,8 *oice ( p>ticul> words = ^! is d\btless affect$ by connotations ( s\nd2#bb b mu/ x n be prim>ily sugge/$ & f9ally det]m9$ by ! s5se8 ,c ^w comb9ations be consid]$ z 9 !mselves beautiful & satisfy+1 z really hav+ compatibilities ( s\nd8 ,an au?or :o foll[$ ,dionysius lit]ally might laun* himself into melliflu\s nons5se4 ,dionysius is speak+ figuratively2 b is 8 figure really sugge/ive8 ,we may well rememb] t m mod]n analogies drawn f ! /atic arts ( mass & l9e h be5 mislead+ = ! consecutive art ( words4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ,dionysius's two rema9+ items may seem slight until we rememb] t ! division is n analytical into elem5ts1 b syn!tic into processes t are consecutive 9 "t4 ,giv5 ! prim>y & g5]al equipm5t ( s5sitiv5ess1 ! writ] may enhance :ile he is writ+ & !n aft]w>d revise4 ,9 fact1 !re is a typical diff]5ce betwe5 foll[+ ! fl[ ( ?\ght & imag]y & s\nd1 & !n correct+ x1 betwe5 compos+ & revis+4 ,t ! two %\ld be di/9ct1 & t bo? %\ld be guid$ p>tly by s\nd1 is c\nsel practically helpful4 ,9 fact1 once he proce$s to apply 8 second & ?ird head+s 9 detail1 ,dionysius is m conv9c+4 ,! right+#bc ( a s5t5ce by transpos+ phrases or clauses is 9 practise1 & %\ld be 9 !ory1 a fir/ c\nsel ( s5t5ce emphasis4 ,a defect ( mod]n text-books is to set =? ?is important process z if x 7 purely logical4 ,dionysius foll[s ! anci5t tradition 9 mak+ x rhy?mical2 & he also cl>ifies x by specific in/ances4 ,he proce$s#bd to ! v>y+ ( ! rhy?m by l5g!n+ or %ort5+4 ,"h 8 preoccupation ) rhy?m t5ds to obscure o!r consid]ations4 ,t a s5t5ce is a logical unit1 & t a giv5 /atem5t is left s+le or comb9$ ) its neighbor accord+ to its logical be>+ on ! :ole passage1#be he seems to ignore or take = grant$4 ,aga91 ! l5g!n+ ( a clause to fill out ! rhy?m risks bomba/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "s ( ! additions t he quotes z unnecess>y to ! idea are n sup]flu\s = ! image2 _! value is n ma9ly rhy?mical4 ,b s f> z x goes ?is *apt] is sugge/ive4 ,di/+ui%+#bf *>m 77 f beauty 7 71 ,dionysius f9ds#bg t !y arise f f\r qualities3 melody1 rhy?m1 v>iety1 aptness4 ,melody is an affair ( pit* & inflection4 ,! passage1#bh besides be+ a preci\s h9t z to ! ,greek scale1 is a useful rem9d] t ,engli%--& especially ,am]ican--spee* too (t5 ignores v>iety ( pit*4 ,simil>ly ! treatm5t ( rhy?m z quantitative#bi %\ld rem9d u t 9 our own habit x is pr$om9antly acc5tual4 ,^! diff]5ces 9 habit ( spee*1 :ile !y sugge/ res\rces unus$1 %\ld none ! less w>n u aga9/ transf]r+ ! di/9ctions & c\nsels ( ,dionysius bodily f ,greek to ,engli%4 ,( ^? t are equally applicable to bo? languages is ! g5]al advice#cj to seek v>iety & aptness less 9 ! *oice ( words1 :]e !re c be little latitude1 ?an 9 _! comb9ation4 ,inde$1 x is h>dly too mu* to say t aptness ( /yle1 ?\gh ab/ractly x includes precision & imag]y 9 ! s+le ^w1 is m l>gely ?an mo/ ( u realize an effect ( rhy?m1 & t v>iety1 except :5 9 oral utt]ance x includes pit*1 consi/s 9 rhy?m exclusively4 ,di/+ui%+#ca ! lett]s z v[els or consonants1 ,dionysius f9ds ,greek spee* s\nds to be nei!r m nor less ?an tw5ty-f\r4 ,8 phonetic analysis ( ^! is specifically accord+ to ! position ( ! vocal organs 9 utt]ance4 ,! foll[+ discussion#cb ( ! quality ( syllables 9 comb9ation1 ( effects h>d1 smoo?1 or sweet 9 s\nd ap>t f s5se1 is doctr9e (t5] accept$ z an idea ?an te/$4#cc ,syllables1 :i* are comb9ations or int]weav+s ( lett]s1 pres]ve at once bo? ! individual prop]ties ( ea* compon5t & ! jo9t prop]ties ( all1 :i* spr+ f _! fusion & juxtaposition4 ,! s\nds ?us =m$ are s(t or h>d1 smoo? or r\gh1 sweet to ! e> or h>% to x2 !y make u pull a wry face1 or cause our m\?s to wat]1 or br+ ab\t any ( ! c\ntless o!r physical conditions t are possible4 ,^! facts ! greate/ poets & prose-writ]s h c>efully not$1 & n only d !y c>efully arrange _! words & weave !m into appropriate patt]ns1 b (t51 ) curi\s & lov+ skill1 !y adapt ! v syllables & lett]s to ! emotions :i* !y wi% to repres5t4 ,passages f ,hom] are quot$ z examples4 ,su* l9es are to be f\nd )\t numb] 9 ,hom]1 repres5t+ l5g? ( "t1 hug5ess ( body1 /ress ( emotion1 immobility ( position1 or simil> effects1 simply by ! manipulation ( ! syllables4 ,conv]sely o!rs are fram$ to give ! impression ( abruptness1 spe$1 hurry1 & ! l4#cd ,t su* associations are natural is obvi\s1 ,dionysius ?9ks1 f onomatopia1 ! e>lie/ & simple/ =m ( s\nd-connotation 9 words4 ,b he does n %r9k f pu%+ 8 doctr9e f> beyond ?is to ! conclusion t s\nd effects bo? subtle & v>i\s may be a*iev$1 & %\ld be consci\sly s\ght1 by lit]>y art4 ,! conclusion is inevitable1 t /yle is beautiful :5 x conta9s beautiful words1 t beauty ( words is due to beautiful syllables & lett]s1 t language is r5d]$ *>m+ by ! ?+s t *>m ! e> 9 virtue ( aff9ities 9 words1 syllables1 & lett]s4444 ,if1 !n1 x 7 possible t all ! p>ts ( spee* by :i* a giv5 subject is to be express$ %\ld be euphoni\s & elegant1 x w\ld be madness to seek out inf]ior ones4 ,b if ?is be out ( ! "q1 z 9 _m cases x is1 !n we mu/ endeavor to mask ! natural defects ( ! inf]ior lett]s by int]weav+ & m+l+ & juxtaposition4#ce ,! foll[+ in/ances ( poetic effects ga9$ by apt comb9ations ( prop] names t h no su* sugge/ions s+ly w rem9d ,engli% read]s ( c]ta9 sonor\s passages 9 ,milton4#cf ,t ! connotation ( su* comb9ations is due to _! syllabic quality1 h[ev]1 z di/9ct f _! rhy?m1 ,dionysius h>dly succe$s 9 e/abli%+4 ,! doctr9e is flatly d5i$ by ,lewis4 ,a c]ta9 le>n$ & well-kn[n /ud5t ( v]se says t 7= example7 gutturals & sibilants express 8amazem5t1 affright1 indignation1 contempt10 & he cites z an illu/ration a passage f ,p>adise ,lo/4 ,out ( my sight1 ?\ s]p5t2 t "n be/ ,befits !e ) him leagu$1 ?yself z false ,& hateful2 no?+ wants b t ?y %ape ,l 8 & color s]p5t9e may %[ ,?y inw>d fraud4 ,"o objection to ?is k9d ( doctr9e is t x makes p ?9k !y h no e> = v]se1 = aft] c>eful read+ !y are /ill unc]ta9 :e!r !y c detect ! effect describ$4 ,ano!r objection to x is t x is n true4 ,comp>e ) ! l9es quot$ ?is little song f ,br[n+'s ,pippa ,passes3 ,! ye>'s at ! spr+1 ,& day's at ! morn2 ,morn+'s at sev52 ,! hill-side's dew-pe>l$2 ,! l>k's on ! w+2 ,! snail's on ! ?orn2 ,god's 9 8 heav5-- ,all's "r ) ! _w4 ,?is is %ort] by f\r syllables ?an ! passage f ,milton1 b x has ! same numb] ( gutturals & two m sibilants2 yet fancy describ+ x z an expression ( 8amazem5t1 affright1 indignation1 contempt60 ,= ano!r illu/ration1 9 "o ( ! /&>d manuals ( v]sification x is po9t$ out t ! surd mutes 7p1 k1 t7 8help to convey ! idea ( littl5ess1 delicacy1 & sprightl9ess10 & t ! %ort v[el i is fitt$ to express 8joy1 gaiety1 triviality1 rapid movem5t1 & physical littl5ess40 ,to illu/rate bo? ass]tions1 ,m]cutio's acc\nt ( ,que5 ,mab is cit$3 ,%e comes ,9 %ape no bigg] ?an an agate /one1 444 ,drawn by a team ( little atomies4 ,"h ! effect is p]haps easi] to recognize1 & ev5 an obtuse read] ?9ks he foll[s ! reason+2 b comp>e ,br[n+'s l9es3 ,! wro? sea's waves are edg$ ,) foam1 :ite z ! bitt5 lip ( hate4 ,! 8bitt5 lip0 has z _m surd mutes & %ort i's z ! 8little atomies02 b x fails to express sprightl9ess1 gaiety1 or triviality4444 ,! fact is1 ( c\rse1 t all ?is analysis ( s\nds proce$s ^u a false assumption4 ,:5 y say ,titan y mean some?+ big1 & :5 y say tittle y mean some?+ small2 b x is n ! s\nd ( ei!r ^w t means ei!r bigness or littl5ess1 x is ! s5se4 ,if y put toge!r a great _m simil> consonants 9 "o s5t5ce1 !y w attract special att5tion to ! words 9 :i* !y occur1 & ! significance ( ^? words1 :atev] x may be1 is !reby int5sifi$2 b :e!r ! words are 8a team ( little atomies0 or 8a triumphant t]rible ,titan10 x is n ! s\nd ( ! consonants t makes ! significance4#cg ,rhy?m is discuss$ 9 ! same ord]1 fir/#ch by classify+ feet z iambs1 tro*ees1 dactyls1 etc41 !n#ci by analyz+ _! effects s+ly & 9 comb9ation4 8,a simple rhy?m or foot has n less ?an two syllables nor m ?an ?ree40#dj ,?is is commonly accept$ = met]2 b does x hold = ! rhy?ms ( prose8 ,moreov] t ! foot is ! rhy?mical unit1 :e!r 9 ,greek or 9 o!r languages1 is (t5] assum$ ?an prov$4 ,rhy?mical effects1 9 ,engli% at lea/1 seem to be n s mu* ( feet z ( measures1 :e!r v]ses or clauses4 ,unless ! foot is actually a unit1 = ! compos] or = ! he>]--& ?is is at lea/ d\btful--su* analysis z t ( a noble passage f ! fun]al spee* 9 ! second book ( ,?ucydides#da lays too mu* /ress on ! compon5ts--spondees1 anape/s1 etc4--& n en\gh on ! compositio1 or pace ( ! s5t5ce4 ,by way ( contra/ to ,?ucydides1 ,plato1 & ,demo/h5es1 ,dionysius pillories ,hegesias ( ,magnesia4#db ,v>iety ( rhy?m#dc is discuss$ m g5]ally1 )\t in/ances1 & z an introduction to rhy?m 9 prose4 ,prose diction has full lib]ty & p]mission to div]sify ! compositio by :atev] *anges x pleases4 ,a /yle is f9e/ ( all :5 x has ! mo/ frequ5t re/s & *anges ( h>mony2 :5 "o ?+ is said )9 a p]iod1 ano!r )\t x2 :5 "o p]iod is =m$ by ! int]weav+ ( a l>g] numb] ( clauses1 ano!r by t ( a small]2 :5 among ! clauses !mselves "o is %ort1 ano!r long]1 "o r\ghly wr\ght1 ano!r m f9i%$2 :5 ! rhy?ms take n[ "o =m1 n[ ano!r1 & ! figures are ( all k9ds1 & ! voice-pit*es--! s-call$ 8acc5ts0--are v>i\s1 & skillfully avoid satiety4#dd ,aptness1#de or appropriat5ess to ! actors & ! action1 is analyz$ r z imitative smoo?ness or r\ghness 9 detail ?an z ! spe$ ( ! :ole /anza or p>agraph4 ,dionysius says no?+1 = in/ance1 ( ! /accato effect ( frequ5t pr$ication4 ,8 text is ! fam\s /one ( ,sisyphus f ! elev5? book ( ! ,odyssey4 ,f9ally#df ,dionysius classifies s5t5ce movem5t into ?ree typical modes3#dg ! r\gh 771 ! smoo? 77 or florid 771 & ! bl5d$ 774 ,c]ta9 accid5tal lik5esses to ! famili> ?reefold classification ( /yle#dh %\ld n obscure ! fact t we h "h some?+ diff]5t1 a classification n ( /yle 9 g5]al1 b ( compositio4 ,! fir/ mode ,dionysius def9es z seek+ r ! =ce ( ea* "p ?an ! h>mony ( ! :ole4 ,! words /& out sep>ately1 )\t fe> ( hiatus or o!r cla%+ ( s\nds1 & )\t c>e = p]iods4#di ,! aim is r a direct /irr+ ( emotion 77 ?an a p]vasive sugge/ion ( "* 774 ,?is /]n]1 eld] mode1 q diff]5t f 8! %[y & decorative prett9ess ( our day10#ej he exemplifies1 ) 8 usual m9ute analysis1 f ,p9d> & ,?ucydides4 ,! second1 or smoo? mode#ea is p]iodic 9 its s5t5ces & nicely articulat$ 9 its clauses & phrases4 ,x tries to comb9e & int]weave its compon5t p>ts1 & ?us give1 z f> z possible1 ! effect ( "o cont9u\s utt]ance4 ,?is result is produc$ by s nicely adju/+ ! junctures t !y admit no appreciable "t-int]val betwe5 ! words4#eb ,aim+ at ! easie/ transitions )9 ! p]iod1 x is c>eful to di/+ui% betwe5 p]iods4 ,! p>ts coalesce2 ! units /& out4#ec ,?is is 9 l9e ) ! doctr9e ( ,ari/otle1#ed & is admirably exemplifi$ by ! practise ( ,cic]o4 ,dionysius's in/ances are ,sappho & ,isocrates4 ,! ?ird1 or bl5d$ mode#ee ,dionysius labors 9 va9 to di/+ui% f ! o!r two4 ,+5i\s z are 8 analyses ( ! ?ree modes1 ev5 sometimes sugge/ive1 !y fail to e/abli% ! reality ( ! classification4 ,we c disc]n 9 ! di/9ction betwe5 8 fir/ two a c>ry+ out--p]haps an undue ext5sion--( ,ari/otle's di/9ction betwe5 ! unp]iodic /yle & ! p]iodic4#ef ,8 ?ird mode seems to be n a mode at all1 b m]ely a rem9d] t nei!r ( ! o!r two c be us$ exclusively or pu%$ to excess4 ,z to ! di/9ction ( prose rhy?ms f v]se#eg ,dionysius quotes ) approval ,ari/otle's dictum#eh t prose %\ld be rhy?mical )\t becom+ metrical4 ,x seems pla9 none ! less t 8 own ta/e is = r m>k$ rhy?ms ev5 9 prose1 & t he w\ld enc\rage /ud5ts to g a long way t[>d met]4 ,be=e he closes 8 book ^u ?is consid]ation1 he raises q frankly ! "q ( h[ f> its analyses h practical value4 ,i h a pres5tim5t t an onslaught w be made on ^! /atem5ts by p :o are de/itute ( g5]al culture & practise ! me*anical p>ts ( rhetoric unme?odically & unsci5tifically4444 ,_! argum5t w d\btless be3 8,0 ,demo/h5es1 !n1 s poor a creature t1 :5ev] he 0 writ+ 8 spee*es1 he w\ld "w 9 met]s & rhy?ms aft] ! fa%ion ( clay-modell]s1 & w\ld try to fit 8 clauses into ^! m\lds1 %ift+ ! words to & fro1 keep+ an anxi\s eye on 8 longs & %orts1 & frett+ himself ab\t cases ( n\ns1 moods ( v]bs1 & all ! accid5ts ( ! p>ts ( spee*8 ,s great a man w\ld be a fool inde$ 7 he to /oop to all ?is niggl+ & p$dl+40 ,if !y sc(f & je] 9 ^! or simil> t]ms1 !y may easily be c\nt]$ by ! foll[+ reply3 8,fir/1 x is n surpris+ aft] all t a man :o is held to des]ve a great] reputation ?an any ( 8 pr$ecessors :o 7 di/+ui%$ = eloqu5ce 0 anxi\s1 :5 compos+ et]nal works & submitt+ himself to ! scrut9y ( all-te/+ envy & "t1 n to admit ei!r subject or words at r&om1 & to att5d c>efully to bo? arrangem5ts ( ideas & beauty ( words3 p>ticul>ly z ! au?ors ( t day 7 produc+ disc\rses :i* sugge/$ n writ+1 b c>v+ & *as+--^? ,i mean ( ! sophi/s ,isocrates & ,plato4444 ,:at wond]1 !n1 if ,demo/h5es also 0 c>eful to secure euphony & melody & to employ no r&om or unte/$ ^w or ?\ght80#ei ,! def5se is suffici5t ab/ractly1 ?\gh x does n q meet ! fact t 9 practise bo? tea*]s & /ud5ts ( rhetoric h n infrequ5tly fritt]$ away mu* "t 9 m9ute analysis ( compositio4 ,su* analysis easily becomes ov]-m9ute1 easily deviates f ! p>am\nt consid]ation ( ! idea or ! image4 ,t x is prop]ly ! "w ( revision1 n ( ! fir/ draft1 ,dionysius (t5 implies1 b might well h /at$ explicitly4 ,s appli$1 giv5 common s5se & ! hone/ det]m9ation to say :at "o means1 analysis ( prose rhy?ms is di/9ctly valuable & (t5 necess>y4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,= ,cic]o1 see ,*apt] ,,iii1 = ,qu9tilian & ,tacitus1 ,*apt] ,,iv2 = ,dio ,*ryso/om & ,apuleius1 ,*apt] ,,viii4 #a;a ,= biography & bibliography ( ,dionysius see ,rob]ts1 ,w4 ,rhys1 ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus1 ! ,?ree ,lit]>y ,lett]s1 ,cambridge1 #aija1 pages #a-ej1 #bji-bai4 ,to ! latt] %\ld be add$3 ,egg]1 ,max1 ,essai sur la critique littraire et la rhtorique *ez les grecs au sicle d',augu/e1 ,p>is1 #aijb2 ,mtzke1 ,k>l1 ,de ,d4 ,h4 ,isocratis imitatore1 ,wratislaw1 #aijf2 ,krem]1 ,emil1 ,ueb] das rhetoris*e sy/em des ,d4 von ,h41 ,/rassburg1 #aijg2 ,geig5mll]1 ,paul1 ,qu/iones ,dionysian de vocabulis artis critic1 ,leipzig1 #aijh2 ,nassal1 ,franz1 /hetis*-rhetoris*e ,beziehung5 zwis*5 ,d4 von ,h4 und ,cic]o1 ,tb+51 #aiaj2 ,hubbell1 ,h4 ,m41 ,! ,influ5ce ( ,isocrates on ,cic]o1 ,dionysius1 & ,ari/ides1 ,yale ,univ]sity ,press1 #aiad4 ,! be/ edition ( ! ,de compositione v]borum is t by ,rob]ts1 ,w4 ,rhys1 ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus on ,lit]>y ,composition 7text1 introduction1 translation1 notes1 gloss>y1 app5dices71 ,london1 #aiaj4 ,a curr5t summ>y ( ! ,de compositione w be f\nd 9 ,rob]ts1 ,?ree ,lit]>y ,lett]s1 pages #h-ai2 a m detail$ summ>y1 ) a tabul> analysis1 9 8 edition1 pages #a-aj2 a comm5t$ summ>y 9 ,egg]1 pages #fg-aaa4 ,! rhetorical sy/em ( ,dionysius is tabulat$ f all 8 works by ,ammon1 ,george1 ,de ,d4 ,h4 librorum rhetoricorum fontibus1 ,mona*ii1 #ahhi4 ,9 ,engli% equival5ts1 ! p]t95t p>ts ( 8 analysis are z foll[s3 ,a4 subject-matt] ,i4 inve/igation 7inv5tio7 selection 7iudicium7 ,,ii4 arrangem5t 7dispositio7 #a4 division #b4 ord] #c4 revision & elaboration ,b4 /yle ,i4 *oice ( words 7electio7 #a4 precision #b4 imag]y ,,ii4 s5t5ce movem5t 7compositio7 #a4 nature #b4 =ce #c4 processes a4 9 phrases b4 9 clauses c4 9 p]iods #d4 *>m & beauty a4 melody b4 rhy?m c4 v>iety d4 aptness #e4 k9ds a4 /rong b4 smoo? c4 bl5d$ #f4 v]se & prose ,krem] 7see above71 ^: analysis1 ?\gh less detail$1 is sub/antially ! same1 collates f all ! writ+s ( ,dionysius 8 doctr9e on ! sev]al topics & gives foot-note ref]5ces to ,ari/otle1 ,cic]o1 & o!rs4 ,nassal 7see above71 po9t+ out t ,dionysius & ,cic]o agree /rik+ly 9 _m po9ts1 argues t !y h = common s\rce 9 ^! cases a ,greek treatise writt5 dur+ ! ye>s betwe5 ! "t ( ! ,lysias ( ,dionysius & ( ! ,de ,oratore ( ,cic]o & ! "t ( ! ,demo/h5es ( ,dionysius & ( ! ,orator ( ,cic]o1 & t ?is common s\rce is v probably ,ccilius ( ,calacte4 ,geig5muell] 7see above7 supplies a collation ( critical t]ms ) valuable comp>isons4 ,nassal 7page #aa7 quotes f ,doxopat] a def9ition ( rhetoric ascrib$ to ,dionysius3 8,rhetoric is ! arti/ic ma/]y ( p]suasive disc\rse 9 communal affairs1 hav+ z its end to speak well40 7,us5]1 ,fragm5t ,i47 ,! def9ition is s\nd & /rik+1 b = ! lame & impot5t conclud+ phrase4 ,z report$ by ,maximus ,planudes 7quot$ by ,ammon1 page #a71 ! def9ition is sub/antially ! same1 b has amplifi$ ?is conclud+ phrase ) a clumsy twi/ f ,ari/otle4 ,:e!r ! def9ition belongs to ,dionysius or n1 ! tradition %[s 8 fame z a rhetorician4 #b ,t x deals ) ?is exclusively1 n ) composition 9 g5]al1 is cle> f bo? ! ,greek title & ! ,lat94 ,! t]ms & compositio are te*nically specific4 ,!y d n mean /yle 9 g5]al1 :i* 9 ! classical treatises includes also *oice ( s+le words 71 electio74 ,mu* less d !y mean composition 9 our l>g] mod]n s5se1 = :i* ! anci5t t]m is dispositio1 collocatio1 or m g5]ally 4 ,dionysius makes ! di/9ction q cle> at ! op5+ ( 8 treatise1 & holds to x ?r\gh\t4 ,9 ?is s5se is to be tak5 ! title ( ! admirable translation ( ,rhys ,rob]ts1 ,lit]>y ,composition1 z is %[n by 8 r5d]+ else:]e ,! ,arrangem5t ( ,words 7page #h ( 8 edition ( ,?ree ,lit]>y ,lett]s74 #c i4 #ff4 ,! ,roman num]als 9 ^! foot-notes ref] to *apt]s2 ! ,arabic1 to ! pages ( ! ,rhys ,rob]ts text4 ,! ,rhys ,rob]ts translation is us$ ) modifications4 #d i4 #fh-gj4 #e iii4 #gd4 #f iii4 #gf-gh 7,odyssey1 xvi4 #a-af74 #g iii4 #hd 7,h]odotus i4 #h-aj74 #h iv4 #hd4 #i ,see1 = example1 my ,writ+ & ,speak+1 pages #cgf-cgh2 ,college ,composition1 pages #ahd-ahh4 #aj ,t ?is sort ( analysis may be c>ri$ ev5 fur!r is sugge/$ by ,r4 ,l4 ,/ev5son's ,"s ,te*nical ,elem5ts ( ,/yle 9 ,lit]ature1 :i* is p>tly along ! l9es foll[$ by ,dionysius4 #aa ,t ?is is g5]ally m important he explicitly affirms 9 8 ,demo/h5es1 *apt] li4 ,review+ ! traditional five p>ts ( rhetoric1 he puts 7dispositio7 above 7inv5tio71 & 7compositio7 above 7electio74 #ab ,rhys ,rob]ts's use ( imitative r5d]+s to make ?is po9t is ( c\rse necess>y2 b read]s unfamili> ) ,greek rhy?ms %\ld bew>e ( inf]5ces bas$ on an assumption ( equival5ce betwe5 ,greek metrical habits & ,engli%4 #ac ,?is is ! cont5tion ( ,/ev5son 9 ,"s ,te*nical ,elem5ts ( ,/yle 9 ,lit]ature4 #ad ,de ,oratore1 ,i4 xiii4 #eg4 #ae iv4 #ib4 #af v4 #ih4 #ag ,h5ri ,weil's classic essay on ! ord] ( words 9 ! anci5t languages has be5 translat$ into ,engli% by ,c4 ,w4 ,sup]1 ,bo/on1 #ahhg4 ,! rationale ( ^w-ord] is discuss$ 9 ,sp5c]'s ,philosophy ( ,/yle4 #ah vi4 #ajd4 #ai ,see above1 pages #bh1 #bi4 #bj xi4 #abd4 #ba ,section x4 #bb ,see above1 page #fj & foot-note #ie4 #bc vii4 #bd ix4 #be ,see my ,college ,composition1 page #fi4 #bf x4 ,! same di/9ction is made 9 8 ,demo/h5es1 xlvii4 #bg xi4 #bh xi4 #abf4 #bi xi4 #abh4 #cj xii4 #acj4 #ca xiv4 #cb xv-xvi4 #cc ,9 ,engli% x is urg$ specifically by ,/ev5son 9 ,"s ,te*nical ,elem5ts ( ,/yle 9 ,lit]ature4 #cd xv4 #aed-aef4 #ce xvi4 #afj1 #aff4 #cf ,x may rem9d "s eld] read]s also ( a /ory once curr5t conc]n+ a pi\s old lady :o 9 read+ h] ,bible f\nd emotional satisfaction 9 ! 8bless$ ^w ,mesopotamia40 #cg ,*>lton ,m4 ,lewis1 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,engli% ,v]se1 ,new ,york1 #aijf1 page #aca4 #ch xvii4 #ci xviii4 #dj xvii4 #agf4 #da xviii4 #agh4 #db ,/ev5son makes simil> use ( ,macaulay4 #dc xix4 #dd xix4 #aif4 #de 1 xx4 #df xxi4 #dg ,dionysius uses ! same classification 9 8 ,demo/h5es1 xxxvi4 #dh ,see above1 page #ef4 #di xxii4 #bab4 ,"o ?9ks ( ,c>lyle4 #ej xxii4 #baf4 #ea xxiii4 #eb xxiii4 #bcd4 #ec xxiii4 #bcf4 #ed ,rhetoric ,,iii4 ix4 #adji a4 ,see above1 page #bh4 ,ari/otle's may h sugge/$ ! ( ,dionysius4 #ee xxiv4 #ef ,rhetoric1 ibid4 #eg xxv1 xxvi4 #eh ,rhetoric1 ,,iii4 viii4 #adjh b4 ,see above1 page #bf4 #ei xxv4 #bfb4 ,b4 ,,! ,,great ,,unkn[n ,,on ,,imag9ative ,,diction 8,long9us on ! ,sublime0#a w = _m ye>s cont9ue to "n ! mo/ captivat+ ( anci5t treatises1 ?\gh its au?or1 :oev] he 01 0 n ! rhetorician ,long9us1 & ?\gh its subject is wid] ?an our ^w sublime4 ,! ,lat9 sublimitas translates precisely en\gh ! ( ! ,greek title2 b our words sublime & sublimity are res]v$ = special application to su* l(ty passages z we quote f ,dante & ,milton4 ,sappho's love poem1 quot$ by ! au?or z a typical in/ance1 ?\gh we feel at once its vivid beauty1 we %\ld n call sublime4 ,! ,greek ^w is m g5]al4 ,mean+ lit]ally height1 x includes 9 ?is treatise all su* effects ( /yle z lift u1 z move u beyond compreh5sion or ass5t to sympa?y or resolve4 ,b ?\gh ! mean+ is cle>1 an equival5t ,engli% t]m is /ill to seek4 ,elevation has un=tunate sugge/ions ( ! rhetorical2 height is too vague2 height5+1 ?\gh ne>]1 is n g5]ally us$ 9 ?is s5se4 ,fall+ back on su* a p]iphrasis z height5+ ( /yle1 we become aw>e t our ^w /yle1 z us$ g5]ally & unte*nically1 is n f> f ! au?or's int5tion4 ,?\gh 9 text-books & works ( criticism x is (t5 ext5d$1 9 ord9>y p>lance x means t v height5+1 or lift1 :i* is discuss$ by ! ,great ,unkn[n4 ,s we %all convey 8 int5tion z fairly z seems feasible by translat+ 8 title ,/yle4 ,9 ! foll[+ dige/ ,roman num]als indicate ! *apt]s1 or sections4 ,! heights ( /yle are su* passages z please always & please all4 7i7 ,! heights ( au?or%ip are se5 9 em95ce & excell5ce ( words4 ,exp]i5ce 9 subject-matt] 7inv5tio7 & cog5cy ( ord] 7dispositio7 are effects ( ! :ole2 b ! orator's p[] fla%es 9 8 happy mom5ts ( /yle 7elocutio74 7ii7 ,nor because we see g5ius "h are we to ?9k t /yle is beyond art4 7iii1 iv7 ,contra/ ! turgid1 ! pretty1 ! frigid1 7v7 faults aris+ f ! se>* = novelties4 7vi7 ,?\gh judgm5t ( /yle is ! f9al fruit ( mu* exp]i5ce1 we mu/ attempt def9ition ( height5+4 7vii7 ,c\nt ^? passages :olly beautiful & true in/ances ( ! heights ( /yle :i* please always & please all4 ,! fir/ s\rce ( height 9 /yle is intellectual p[] ( conception4 7viii7 ,( su* height5+ 7#a7 ! fir/ & /ronge/ s\rce is intellectual p[] ( conception2 7#b7 ! second1 emotion4 ,^! are native2 ! rema9+ ?ree are acquir$3 7#c7 h&l+ ( figures1 7#d7 noble diction1 & 7#e71 :at includes ! o!r two1 s5t5ce movem5t 7compositio74 7ix7 ,! =ce ( ! fir/ 7i4e41 conception71 & also its wan+1 we feel 9 ,hom]1 ^: ,odyssey lapses into n>rative f ! dramatic p[] ( ! ,iliad4 7x7 ,! realization ( ?is fir/ s\rce 9 actual composition means compression1 ! br++ toge!r ( significances ) no insignificances to int]rupt4 7xi7 ,oratorical amplification1 :i* is complem5t>y to ?is1 ( itself nev] rises to ! heights4 7xii7 ,height5+ ( /yle is s+le & int5sive1 z 9 poetry or 9 ! orations ( ,demo/h5es2 amplification is it]ative & ext5sive1 z 9 ,plato or ,cic]o4 7xiii7 ,plato1 h[ev]1 %[s ! way to ma/]y--imitation1 7xiv7 a way :i* ev5 we may foll[4 ,! second s\rce is emotion4 7,?is is n treat$ "h 9 its place z a sep>ate section1 b is impli$ ?r\gh\t :at foll[s47 ,! ?ird s\rce is h&l+ ( figures4 7xv7 ,= weight1 gr&eur1 & en]gy ! "r language is imag]y4 ,9 oratory ! purpose ( ?is typically is intellectual2 9 poetry1 emotional2 b oratory too may use x = emotional effect4 xvi-xxix4 ,discussion ( figures4 7xxx-xxxi7 ,beautiful words are ess5tially ! light ( ?\ght2 & homely words h _! expressiv5ess4 7xxxii7 ,abundance ( figurative language may proce$ f emotion & k9dle x4 ,ev5 ext5d$ & detail$ metaphor may be /imulat+4 ,! f\r? s\rce1 noble diction1 means m ?an con/ant excell5ce4 7xxxiii7 ,bett] em95ce ) "s faults ?an a l[] plane )\t !m3 ,hom] ?an ,apollonius1 ,ar*ilo*us ?an ,erato/h5es1 ,p9d> ?an ,bac*ylides1 ,sophocles ?an ,ion1 7xxxiv7 ,demo/h5es ?an ,hyp]ides1 7xxxv7 ,plato ?an ,lysias1 &1 9 g5]al1 =ce ?an elegance4 7xxxvi7 ,b ?\gh ! a*ievem5t due to art is typically t ( ! l[] plane1 ! success ( nev] fail+1 ! assurance ( te*nical ma/]y1 /ill ?is does n make art ! less important4 xxxvii-xxxviii4 ,fur!r on figures3 metaphor1 hyp]bole4 ,! fif? s\rce is s5t5ce movem5t 7compositio74 7xxxxix7 ,! fif? ( ! elem5ts t comb9e to give height is compositio4 ,hav+ already 9 two o!r treatises gone exhau/ively into ! !ory ( compositio1 ,i w treat x "h only 9 g5]al4 ,! p]vasive emotional effect ( rhy?m ne$ only be insi/$ on2 x is too evid5t to require pro(4 7xl7 ,t x is sep>ately di/+ui%able z a cause ( height5+ c be se5 9 _m au?ors1 mo/ /rik+ly 9 ,euripides1 :o is a poet r ( compositio ?an ( ?\ght4 7xli-xlii7 ,conv]sely1 a wrong rhy?m may drag d[n or di/ract1 7xliii7 z may also a descriptive detail t int]rupts or j>s4 ,t orators r>ely atta9 ! heights ( /yle means t !y live unwor?ily4 7xliv7 ,:y h we n[ few au?ors t rea* ! heights8 ,is ! cause political1 ! decay ( democracy8 ,r x is moral2 x is our mat]ialism4 ,comp>$ ) ! ord]ly a priori progress ( ,dionysius1 ?is treatm5t seems at once less sy/ematic2 & ?\gh ! manuscripts %[ gaps1 "s app>5tly ( consid]able l5g?1 we h en\gh ( ! treatise to conclude t ! :ole 0 r sugge/ive ?an logically divid$ & consecutive4 ,b ?r\gh x all runs ! controll+ idea t ! high] rea*es ( /yle are1 9 cause & 9 effect1 imag9ative4 ,discuss+ oratory1 ! au?or is all ! :ile draw+ in/ances f poetry2 & ?is means m ?an 9 ! treatise ( ,dionysius4 ,! scope is l>g]4 ,n only does he range f> beyond compositio1 :i* occupies only five ( 8 *apt]s2 he is look+ 9 g5]al less to te*nic & m to motive4 ,:at lifts ! orator1 & makes him lift 8 he>]s1 is fir/ intellectual p[] ( conception1 !n emotional p[] ( sympa?y4 ,^! are ! spr+s4 ,!y "w out 9 imag9ative diction & rhy?mical pace2 b t few orators lift u by ^! means is due fundam5tally to a g5]al lack ( idealism4 ,! contribution1 !n1 ( ?is unkn[n critic consi/s 9 illum9at+ ! be>+ ( poetic on rhetoric1 ! importance ( imag9ative realization ev5 = purposes ( p]suasion4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 rhetoric & poetic he nev] blurs2 9 fact he contra/s ! two explicitly2 b he br+s out1 m cle>ly ?an any o!r anci5t au?or1 _! int]dep5d5ce4 ,fir/1 he precludes any undue sep>ation ( ?\ght f emotion by mak+ conception1 9 ,hom] z well z 9 ,demo/h5es1 intellectual4 ,8 ^w rem9ds "o t ,ari/otle conv]sely br+s rhetoric into poetic by mak+ ?\ght1 1#b "o ( ! elem5ts ( trag$y4 ,!n fur!r he %[s ?r\gh\t t /yle at its height1 9 ,demo/h5es z well z 9 ,hom]1 is imag9ative realization1 t :]e we feel 1 sublimitas1 ev5 9 ! field ( rhetoric1 we f9d ! typical language ( poetic4 ,su* passages1 he says 9 8 fir/ *apt]1 d n m]ely p]suade u2 !y c>ry u out ( ourselves4 ,?is is cle>e/ 9 *apt]s x-xv1 :i* %[ h[ p[] ( conception works out 9 ! typical movem5t 7x7 ( poetic1 !n 7xi-xiv7 9 t ( rhetoric1 & !n 7xv7 9 _! common gr\nd ( diction4 ,^! *apt]s1 ! core ( ! treatise1 confirm by arti/ic div9ation ! philosophical analysis ( ,ari/otle1 & range beyond diction into composition4 ,h[1 he inquires1 are we to lift oratory to ! heights8 ,ev5 z ,sappho1 he answ]s1 makes u 9 a s+le poem feel love2 t is1 by select+ ^? *>act]i/ic actions :i* are mo/ sali5t & ga!r+ !m into a s+le body4 8,d y n m>vel h[ %e seeks to ga!r s\l & body into "o1 he>+ & tongue1 eyes & mi51 all disp]s$ & /rang]s be=e80#c ,poetry gives u ! tru? ( life by br++ into organic cont9uity :at is reveal+ & significant4 ,:at life disp]ses & int]rupts1 poetry focuses & br+s into emotional sequ5ce & mom5tum4 ,its ess5tial processes are to realize ^! sali5ces imag9atively & to unify !m4 8,x is survey ( ! high po9ts1 & composition 77 = unity40#d ,a simple mod]n in/ance is ,br[n+'s 8,meet+ at ,night40 ,?is1 ! treatise goes on 7xi-xii71 is ! typical me?od ( poetic4 ,! p>allel 77 me?od ( rhetoric is ! conv]se2 x is amplification4 ,poetry sugge/s 9 a fla%2 oratory it]ates & enl>ges4 ,! "o is int5sive2 ! o!r1 ext5sive4 ,! "o is compress$2 ! o!r1 cumulative4 ,n[ none ( ! _m & well-kn[n means ( amplification is self-suffici5t4 ,!y all fall %ort )\t :at we h call$ height5+4 ,true1 amplification & height ( /yle may seem 7xii7 to am\nt to ! same ?+1 s9ce ! object ( bo? is by def9ition to inve/ ! subject ) greatness2 b !y diff] 9 me?od4 ,height means direct lift 772 amplification implies multitude4 ,!re=e ! =m] is (t5 9 a s+le idea 771 :]eas ! latt] always implies quantity & abundance4444 ,s ,cic]o diff]s f ,demo/h5es 9 gr& passages4 ,! =ce ( ! "o is 9 %e] height2 ( ! o!r1 9 volume4444 ,! fire ( ! "o is l lightn+ 444 ( ! o!r1 l a conflagration4#e ,s mu* = height z proce$+ f ! :ole conception & movem5t4 ,to return n[ to diction3 ,weight1 gr&eur1 & en]gy are fur!rmore mo/ readily a*iev$ by images 771 or1 z "s call !m1 body+s-=?4444 ,by ^! t]ms are meant specifically ^? cases 9 :i*1 mov$ by en?usiasm & passion1 y seem to see ! ?+s ( :i* y speak1 & to put !m "u ! eyes ( y\r he>]s4 ,z imag]y means "o ?+ ) ! orators & ano!r ) ! poets1 y mu/ h obs]v$ t ) ! latt] its function is vivid sugge/ion2 ) ! =m]1 precision4#f ,nev]!less bo? uses ( imag]y appeal to emotion4 ,euripides 9 a passage quot$ f ,ore/es1 #bee saw ! ,furies himself1 & :at 0 imag$ 9 8 m9d he almo/ compell$ 8 he>]s to see4 ,9 ano!r passage1 f ! lo/ ,pha?on w\ld y n say t ! s\l ( ! writ] m\nts ! c> ) ! driv]1 takes ! risk ) him1 & ) ! horses has w+s8#g ,imag9ative diction1 !n1 is n prim>ily a trick ( words2 x is a visualiz+ habit ( ?\ght4 ,x is sympa!tic insight1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( feel+ ) ,pha?on's horses _! w+s4 ,9 poetry imag]y may ev5 range beyond :at is conv9c+2 b 9 oratory x is always be/ :5 x holds to reality & v]isimilitude 7 74444 ,:at1 !n1 c ! image d 9 oratory8 ,mu* else1 d\btless1 x c add to spee*es 9 en]gy & emotion2 b infus$ into argum5ts drawn directly f facts x n only p]suades ! he>]1 b also makes him its slave4 ,in/ances f ,demo/h5es & ,hyp]ides ,:ile he is argu+ f ! facts1 ! orator has express$ !m 9 images4 ,he has giv5 8 v premise 77 a =ce beyond p]suasion4 ,z by a law ( nature1 9 all su* cases we always he> ! /rong]4 ,s we are drawn away f ! argum5tative value to t :i* is imag9atively /rik+1 9 :i* ! facts z m]e evid5ce disappe> 9 excess ( light4#h ,imag9ative realization ( facts1 ! au?or is say+1 :i* is ess5tially poetic1 has its use also 9 rhetoric4 ,t use is normally intellectual1 = precision1 = mak+ an idea lum9\s4 ,b !re is a fur!r use t is emotional4 ,besides mak+ ideas cle>1 imag]y 9 oratory1 z well z 9 poetry1 makes facts live4 ,?us x is n m]ely /yli/ic beauty2 x has its function at ! v base ( oratory1 9 ! subject-matt]1 9 ! v facts4 ,make ! audi5ce visualize ^! facts1 see !m1 he> !m1 live 9 !m by imag9ation1 & y h done some?+ m effective ?an m>%al+ !m z evid5ce & urg+ y\r inf]5ces4 ,by ! imag9ative illusion ( actuality ! audi5ce is n m]ely conv9c$2 x is captur$4 ,9 su* passages1 r ?an 9 reason+1 oratory rea*es its heights4#i ,! foll[+ *apt]s 7xvi-xxxviii7 on figures1 c>ry+ into detail ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( imag9ative realization1 are h&l$ less orig9ally & less sugge/ively ?an ! pr9ciple itself4 ,p]haps we are ! less pati5t ) ! details ( imag]y because we h be5 made to see vividly ! scope ( imag9ation4 ,classification ( imag]y1 :i* seems inevitably to produce ! mo/ t$i\s *apt]s 9 rhetorics1 lacks = u mod]ns :at is mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ?is ard5t & orig9al _s1 con/ructive sugge/ion4 ,b at lea/ he ab/a9s f c>ry+ x into m9ute analysis4 ,ev5 ^! 8 mo/ te*nical *apt]s are illum9at$ by t g5ius = appreciation :i* br\ght toge!r "o ( ! mo/ significant ( all collections ( lit]>y models4 ,8 own /yle1 too1 fla%es 9 memorable s5t5ces3 ,a figure seems be/ :5 x is n notic$ z a figure 7xvii74 ,:at is hurri$ & r\gh5$ by emotion1 if y smoo? out to a level by conjunctions1 loses its spur & fire 7xxi74 ,beautiful words are ess5tially ! v light ( ?\ght 7xxx74 ,occasional oratory 77 be+ recogniz$ by ! anci5ts z ! mo/ lit]>y ( ! ?ree fields1#aj "o might expect ?is treatise to dwell on x especially4 ,b ! au?or's object is n special2 x is g5]al4 ,?is & ! contagion ( 8 en?usiasm h made 8 book1 ev] s9ce its recov]y 9 ! ,r5aissance1#aa a p[]ful influ5ce4 ,its promotive quality sets x above ! s*ematic analysis ( ev5 s disc]n+ a critic z ,dionysius4 ,milton mu/ h felt 9 x 8 own creative attitude t[>d read+4 ,nor does x ne$ to dwell on ! s*ool ( ,isocrates :5 its own mo/ *>act]i/ic passages h !mselves ! v mood & me?od ( occasional oratory4 ,:at1 !n1 did ^? immortals see :o rea*$ at ! greate/ ?+s 9 writ+ & scorn$ unv>y+ nicety8 ,besides _m o!r ?+s1 ?is1 t nature meant u m5 to be no l[ species nor ignoble2 b lead+ u1 z into a great pageant1 into life & ! :ole ord] ( ?+s1 to be spectators ( all t %e %[s & conte/ants eag] = honor1 %e implant$ =?) 9 our s\ls inv9cible passion = all t is p]man5tly great & 9 our eyes m div9e4#ab ,:]e has be5 m nobly express$ ! ma9spr+ ( int]e/ 9 lit]ature8 ,great au?ors satisfy our long+ to ent] ! human sc5e fully1 to exp]i5ce vic>i\sly & to %>e 9 imag9ation passions & de$s great] ?an ^? ( our e day4 ,!y t\* ! heights ( /yle :o "k ! heights ( life4 ,to br+ oratory into ?is company is at once to claim = x lit]>y height & to insi/ on ! relation ( rhetoric to morality4 ,! moral implications ( rhetoric are /ress$ aga9 9 ! la/ *apt] 7xliv7 t rema9s4 ,ari/otle _h recogniz$ !m explicitly4 ,/4 ,augu/9e1 at ! end ( ! anci5t _w1 mu/ reaffirm !m = ,*ri/ian prea*+4 ,b aga9/ ! sophi/ic t _h always ?reat5$ ?is ideal no antidote is m effective ?an ! great unkn[n's s5se ( mission4 ,ari/otle's !ory ( rhetoric det]m9es its function4 ,cic]o dignifies ev5 its conv5tional tasks z tra9+ = lead]%ip4 ,qu9tilian surveys x z a compreh5sive p$agogy4 ,dionysius analyzes its art4 ,b ! great unkn[n moves u to %>e t art ourselves4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,! edition ( ,w4 ,rhys ,rob]ts 7,cambridge1 #ahii2 second edition1 #aijg71 be>+ ?is traditional title1 has1 besides text & translation1 an introduction on ! au?or%ip1 cont5ts1 & "*1 & sev]al valuable app5dices3 ,a4 textual2 ,b4 l+ui/ic 7beg9n+ ?is s*ol>'s collation ( ,greek rhetorical t]ms72 ,c4 lit]>y 7) a table ( cont5ts & a li/ ( quotations locat$ & arrang$ alphabetically by au?ors72 ,d4 bibliographical4 ,o!r mod]n ,engli% translations are3 by ,h4 ,l4 ,havell1 ) an introduction by ,&rew ,lang 7,london1 #ahij2 repr9t$ by ,lane ,coop] 9 ,!ories ( ,/yle1 ,new ,york1 #aijg72 by ,a4 ,o4 ,prick>d1 ) a brief introductory essay on ! au?or%ip & "*1 a dige/ by *apt]s1 & f\r app5dices3 ,i4 ,specim5 ,passages ,translat$ f ,greek ,writ]s ( ! ,roman ,empire on ,lit]>y ,criticism2 ,,ii4 ,! ,treatise on ,sublimity & ,lat9 ,critics2 ,,iii4 ,passages ,translat$ f ,bi%op ,l[?'s ,ox=d ,lectures on ,hebrew ,poetry2 ,,iv4 ,additional ,note on ,p>aphones4 #b ,poetic1 #adej a4 #c x4 #d xi1 at ! end4 ,! ( ?is p>5!sis 9 xi ref]s to x4 #e xii4 ,a simil> comp>ison is made by ,qu9tilian1 ,x4 i4 #ajf4 #f ,9 ,engli% ! famili> contra/ is betwe5 ,%aksp]e's figures & ,bacon's4 #g xv4 #h xv4 #i ,! be>+ ( deliv]y on ?is1 ( ! art ( ! actor on ! art ( ! orator1 is glanc$ at 9 ! op5+ *apt] ( ,ari/otle's ,rhetoric1 ,book ,,iii 7see above1 page #bd71 a meag] passage illum9$ by ?is doctr9e ( ! ,great ,unkn[n4 #aj ,ari/otle1 ,rhetoric1 ,,iii4 xii4 #adad a4 ,see ! discussion ( ?is passage above1 page #cc4 #aa ,see ! bibliography 9 ! edition ( ,rhys ,rob]ts4 #ab xxxv4 ,beside ?is may be set = contra/ ! bitt] satire ( ,lucian's ,rhetorum prceptor1 :i* decl>es ! practical equipm5t = success 9 oratory to be effront]y1 a l\d voice1 a /ore ( /range words1 /ock allusions1 & %e] gab4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,poetic ,,( ,,ari/otle#a ,v5]ation ( ,ari/otle has be5 impati5tly class$ ) 8o!r m$ival sup]/itions10 bo? by ^? :o dislik$ au?ority & by ^? :o revolt$ aga9/ ! inlay+ & ov]lay+ ( 8 text ) c5turies ( int]pretations4 ,s9ce ! ,r5aissance ! ,poetic has1 inde$1 f>$ 9 ?is reg>d some:at z ! ,bible2 & 9 bo? cases ^? deviations f ! orig9al int5tion are wide/1 p]haps1 :i* h aris5 f 8private int]pretation10 f mission>y zeal m anxi\s to read into ! text ?an to read 9 x4 ,:at may be call$ on ! o!r h& communal int]pretation1 ! cons5ti5t application ( ,ari/otle's ideas to ! typical problems ( a :ole gr\p or p]iod1 con/itutes an important guide 9 ! hi/ory ( criticism4 ,bo? k9ds ( int]pretation imply 9 ! orig9al an extraord9>y f]tility4 ,?is vitality1 x is also cle>1 is ( pr9ciples1 ( ideas set =? n only z classify+1 b z con/ructive4 ,! pr9ciples h be5 f "t to "t cry/alliz$ 9 rules2 & "s ( ! rules1 hav+ be5 f\nd re/rictive or ev5 inhibitory1 h !reupon be5 flung aside4 ,b aga9 & aga9 a return to ,ari/otle's ,poetic = ori5tation ( practise & ( criticism has v9dicat$ x z con/ructive4 ,x is n :at ,pr(essor ,dewey has lately call$ a 8clos$ sy/em40#b ,x has exceptionally little ( t ma!matically ab/ract me?od :i* ,b]gson#c f\nd unsatisfy+ = survey ( human activities 9 "t4 ,r its me?od is inductive4 ,x exam9es h[ imag9ative conceptions h be5 s compos$ & s express$ z to k9dle1 direct1 & su/a9 ! imag9ation ( an audi5ce2 & its =mulation is typically l :at mod]n sci5ce calls an hypo!sis1 t is a g5]alization int]pret+ facts s f> z !y are kn[n1 & fruitful 9 _! fur!r inve/igation4 ,to re9t]pret ! ,poetic 9 #aibd1 !re=e1 %\ld be n m]ely to reconsid] ! drama & ! epic ( ,ari/otle's "t1 valuable z ?is is hi/orically1 b accord+ to ,ari/otle's int5tion to consid] :at makes drama1 our own z well z 81 & :at vitally moves x to possess an audi5ce4 ,ea* int]pretation ( s fundam5tal a "w mu/ h its own preoccupations4 ,! ,fr5* int]pretations ( ! sev5te5? c5tury _h an emphasis diff]5t f t ( ! ,italian ( ! sixte5?2 & we 9 turn mu/ see ) our own eyes4 ,b ! correction t !re=e becomes necess>y1 le/ we make ,ari/otle say :at we wi%1 lies 9 ! text itself4 ,=tunately ! ,poetic is %ort en\gh to be read att5tively 9 two h\rs2 & its t]ms1 ?\gh translat$ some:at v>i\sly1 sometimes imp]fectly1 n[ & !n p]v]sely1 really dem& n s mu* erudition z pati5ce1 att5tion to ! context1 & "s acqua9tance ) ! processes ( art4 ,! ,poetic %\ld be read consecutively z a :ole & !n scrut9iz$ 9 its p>ts4 ,int]rupt$ ?\gh x is "h & !re1 9 "s few places ev5 fragm5t>y1 x nev]!less progresses z a :ole4#d ,z to its t]ms1 ! be/ precaution is to rememb] t !y mean to express ! processes ( actual composition & ! results ( ! actual repres5tation ( drama or ( ! actual recitation ( epic4 ,9 ?is s5se ! book is practical4 ,x is n1 z ,bywat] implies1#e ! less !oretical2 b x deals ) ! compos+ z well z ) ! ?+ compos$4 ,t ,ari/otle's survey ( human expression includ$ a ,poetic z well z a ,rhetoric is our *ief witness to a division#f (t5] impli$ 9 anci5t criticism ?an /at$ explicitly4 ,rhetoric meant to ! anci5t _w ! art ( in/ruct+ & mov+ m5 9 _! affairs2 poetic ! art ( %>p5+ & exp&+ _! vision4 ,to borr[ a ,fr5* phrase1#g ! "o is composition ( ideas2 ! o!r1 composition ( images4 ,9 ! "o field life is discuss$2 9 ! o!r x is pres5t$4 ,! type ( ! "o is a public address1 mov+ u to ass5t & action2 ! type ( ! o!r is a play1 %[+ u 9 action mov+ to an end ( "*4 ,! "o argues & urges2 ! o!r repres5ts4 ,?\gh bo? appeal to imag9ation1 ! me?od ( rhetoric is logical2 ! me?od ( poetic1 z well z its detail1 is imag9ative4 ,to put ! contra/ ) broad simplicity1 a spee* moves by p>agraphs2 a play moves by sc5es4 ,a p>agraph is a logical /age 9 a progress ( ideas2 a sc5e is an emotional /age 9 a progress controll$ by imag9ation4 ,bo? rhetoric & poetic inculcate ! art ( progress2 b ! progress ( poetic is di/9ct 9 k9d4 ,its l>g] %ap+ is n controll$ by consid]ations ( inv5tio & dispositio1#h nor its detail by ! cad5ces ( ! p]iod4#i ,9 great "p1 ?\gh n altoge!r1 x has its own te*nic4 ,! te*nic ( drama 9 ,ari/otle's day 0 already mature & 0 actively develop+4 ,! te*nic ( n>rative1 9 epic d]iv$ f ! great example ( ,hom]1 9 8mime0 & dialogue /ill exp]im5tal1 0 less def9ite4 ,to set =? ! :ole te*nic1 ! pr9ciples ( imag9ative composition1 9 a s+le survey is ! object ( ,ari/otle's ,poetic4 ,,tabul> ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,poetic ,,( ,,ari/otle#aj ,! fir/ section moves f def9ition ( poetic 9 g5]al to ! mode ( drama 7*apt]s i-v47 ,*apt] ,i4 ,! art ( poetry ,a4 is "o ( ! arts t imitate m5 9 action #a4 belong+ ) in/rum5tal music & danc+ ii a4 z us+ rhy?m & melody besides words ,b4 has two typical modes iii #a4 n>rative #b4 drama a4 trag$y b4 com$y ,c4 develop$ hi/orically iv #a4 f ! in/9cts ( imitation & rhy?m #b4 t[>d a4 idealiz+ :at m5 may be 7#a7 z 9 epic & trag$y b4 satiriz+ :at m5 are 7#a7 z 9 lampoons & com$y c4 diff]5tiation ( =m 7#a7 drama t5d+ t[>d unity ( plot v 7a7 ?r\gh ! successive improvem5ts ( s*ylus & ,sophocles 7#b7 b keep+ v>iety 9 v]se4 ,! second section discusses plot z ! ma9spr+ ( trag$y 7*apt]s vi-xviii7 ,,ii4 ,9 ! mode ( drama1 trag$y ,a4 7def9ition7 is an imitation ( an action vi #a4 s]i\s #b4 det]m9ate #c4 9 language enhanc$ by rhy?m1 melody1 & song #d4 by action1 n by n>rative #e4 issu+ 9 emotional ca?>sis ,b4 is prim>ily plot #a4 ! subsidi>y elem5ts be+ "*1 diction1 ?\ght1 spectacle 7includ+ make-up71 & song #b4 7def9ition7 ,plot is a c\rse ( action plann$ to move causally f a beg9n+ ?r\gh a middle to an end vii #c4 ,plot is ?us animat$ a4 n m]ely by "o ma9 p]son viii b4 b by su* consi/5cy 7#a7 z arises f tru?1 z di/9ct f facts ix 7#b7 z is oppos$ to ! episodic 7#c7 z is necess>y to ! ca?>sis #d4 ,plot may be complicat$ by rev]sal or recognition x a4 aris+ causally f ! plot itself xi b4 & has z a ?ird elem5t emotion & suff]+ #e4 ,plot is ! consi/5t work+ out1 9 an illu/ri\s p]sonage1 ( "s human error to its issue a4 ,prologue1 episode1 etc41 are m]ely =mal p>ts xii b4 ,plot is n m]e rev]sal ( =tune 9 a "* altoge!r good or bad xiii 7#a7 = consi/5cy1 plot %\ld be s+le1 n divid$ by rev]sal to make a 8happy end+0 7a7 z 9 inf]ior trag$ies 7b7 & 9 com$y c4 ,plot a*ieves ca?>sis by its own consi/5cy xiv 7#a7 n by spectacul> means 7#b7 = ! effect ( fe> & pity arises f ! cla% ( motive ) circum/ance d4 ,plot imposes consi/5cy also on *>act]ization xv 7#a7 g5]ally consi/5cy ) 7a7 goodness 7b7 ! moral habit ( ! class 7c7 ! receiv$ idea ( ! p>ticul> p]son 7d7 itself2 i4e41 actions mu/ be cle>ly motivat$ 7#b7 p>ticul>ly consi/5cy ) ! causal weav+ ( ! plot 7a7 exclud+ ! deus ex ma*9a e4 ,plot is ! true measure ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( recognition xvi 7#a7 ,! lea/ arti/ic is recognition by bodily m>ks 7#b7 ,no bett] is m]e disclosure 7#c7 ,a ?ird1 by recollection1 arises f "s incid5t 9 ! plot 7#d7 ,a f\r? is ?r\gh ! inf]5ce ( ! p]son 7#e7 ,b ! be/ ( all is t :i* arises causally f ! c\rse ( ! action #f4 ,plot1 9 ! actual process ( playwrit+ a4 dem&s a habit ( visualiz+ xvii 7#a7 fur!r$ by ! dramati/'s act+ out ( 8 own sc5es b4 beg9s 9 ! dramati/'s m9d ) a sc5>io 7#a7 = ! amplify+ incid5ts mu/ be few] ?an 9 epic c4 is work$ out z complication & solution xviii 7#a7 ,?is is ! te*nical po9t 9 :i* trag$ies are simil> or dissimil> 7#b7 ,! f\r typical k9ds ( trag$y1 i4e41 7a7 ^? t dep5d ma9ly on rev]sal & recognition1 7b7 on emotion1 7c7 on "*1 7d7 on spectacle1 %[ ! f\r elem5ts ( int]e/ :i* ! dramati/ %\ld seek to comb9e d4 precludes ! ext5siv5ess ( epic e4 involves mak+ ! *orus "o ( ! actors 7#a7 n a m]e s+] ( int]ludes ,c4 ,! subsidi>y elem5t ( ?\ght1 ! rhetorical elem5t 9 trag$y1 includes ! effects produc$ directly by p]suasive spee*1 z di/9ct f ^? produc$ by action xix ,d4 ,! subsidi>y elem5t ( diction1 to set aside :at belongs "u deliv]y1 includes lett]s1 syllables1 connectives1 n\ns & v]bs 7) _! inflection71 & ^w-comb9ations xx #a4 ,words may be classifi$ z xxi a4 s+le or d\ble b4 ord9>y or extraord9>y 7figurative1 co9$1 etc47 c4 mascul9e or fem99e #b4 ,virtue 9 ! *oice ( words consi/s 9 be+ cle> )\t be+ colorless xxii a4 ,?\gh extreme or habitual deviation f ord9>y use is a fault1 occasional deviation is necess>y to di/9ction b4 ,?\gh x is a great ?+ to use v>iations ( diction ) propriety1 ! greate/ ?+ is to be ma/] ( metaphor4 ,! ?ird section def9es epic & comp>es x ) trag$y 7*apt]s xxiii-xxvi74 ,,iii4 ,9 ! mode ( n>rative1 epic ,a4 has "s g5]al lik5ess to trag$y xxiii #a4 9 t its compon5t /ories %\ld be s+le1 complete1 hav+ beg9n+1 middle1 & end a4 giv+ ! pleasure ( a liv+ :ole b4 n foll[+ ! me?od ( hi/ory 7#a7 z inf]ior poets d1 b n ,hom] #b4 9 t x may be simple or complex1 emphasize ei!r "* or emotion1 & has "s ( ! same elem5ts z trag$y xxiv ,b4 diff]s 9 l5g? & 9 met] #a4 ,its *>act]i/ic advantages are scope & v>iety #b4 ,! respective met]s are ! result ( exp]i5ce 9 appropriat5ess ,c4 %[s 9 ,hom] ! sup]iority ( mak+ ! *>act]s reveal !mselves )\t explanation ,d4 c make fre] use ( ! m>vel\s #a4 by vividness ( description #b4 f ! fact t ! causal s5se is weak] 9 read+ or m]ely li/5+ ?an 9 witness+ /age repres5tation ,e4 may be def5d$ aga9/ ! typical *>ges t x is impossible1 improbable1 corrupt+1 contradictory1 or arti/ically incorrect xxv ,f4 is inf]ior to trag$y xxvi #a4 ,! *>ge t trag$y is m vulg> & exagg]at$ applies n to trag$y1 b to act+ #b4 ,x has few] elem5ts ( appeal a4 lack+ music & spectacle #c4 ,x is less vivid ?an trag$y read mu* less ?an trag$y act$ #d4 ,x is less conc5trat$ & s less int5se a4 lack+ dramatic unity4 ,i ,! pr9ciple ( poetic art is imitation4 ,its two k9ds are drama 9 sev]al =ms & t o!r k9d :i* ranges f epic to dialogue & :i* has no s+le g5]ic "n4 ,all its =ms 9 bo? k9ds--trag$y1 com$y1 di?yramb 9 ! "o2 epic1 mime1 dialogue 9 ! o!r--are gr\p$ ) ! arts ( ! flute1 ! lyre1 & ! dance1 & ap>t f ^? ( pa9t+ & s++4 ,?us beg9s ,ari/otle's ,poetic ) t *apt] ( def9ition :i*1 z 9 ! ,rhetoric1 op5s & illum9ates ! :ole subject4 ,z to poetic art#aa ,i propose to discuss :at x is 9 itself & 9 ! capacity ( ea* ( its species1 h[ plots mu/ be organiz$ if ! poem is to succe$1 fur!rmore ! numb] & nature ( ! p>ts1 & simil>ly :atev] else falls )9 ! same inquiry1 beg9n+ sy/ematically ) fir/ pr9ciples4#ab ,epic & trag$y1 com$y also & ! dramatic#ac art ( ! di?yramb1 & mo/ ( ! art ( ! flute & ( ! lyre are all1 tak5 toge!r1 imitations4 ,!y diff] "o f ano!r 9 ?ree respects3 9 ! means ( imitation1 9 ! object1 or 9 ! mode i4e41 all are ess5tially imitation2 9 imitation !y are g5]ally alike1 & 9 imitation !y are specifically diff]5t4 ,= z !re are ^? :o by colors & outl9es imitate v>i\s objects 9 _! portrayals1 :e!r by art or by practise1 & o!rs :o imitate ?r\gh ! voice1 s also 9 ! arts m5tion$ above4 ,all ^! make _! imitation by rhy?m1 by language1 & by music1 :e!r s+ly or 9 comb9ation4 ,?us only rhy?m & music are us$ 9 ! art ( ! flute1 ( ! lyre1 & 9 su* o!r arts1 simil> 9 capacity1 z t ( ! pipes4 ,rhy?m itself1 )\t music1 suffices = ! art ( ! danc]s2 = by ord]$ rhy?ms !y imitate bo? "* & emotion & action i4e41 danc+ compasses ! :ole scope ( repres5tation4 ,words alone1 :e!r prose or v]se ( :atev] k9d1 are us$ by an art :i* is to ?is day )\t a "n4 ,we h no common "n = ! mime ( ,sophron or ,x5>*us & ! ,socratic dialogue4 ,nor %\ld we h "o if ! imitation 7 9 trimet]s or elegiacs or "s o!r k9d ( v]se4444 ,= x is n v]se1 ,ari/otle goes on to say1 t makes poetry1 b imitation4 ,s mu* = diff]5tiation4 ,!re are "s arts t use all ! means m5tion$ above1 i4e41 rhy?m1 music1 & v]se1 e4g41 di?yrambic & nomic poetry & also bo? trag$y & com$y2 b !y diff] 9 t ! fir/ two use all ! means 9 comb9ation1 :]eas ! latt] use n[ "o1 n[ ano!r4 ,!re=e ,i diff]5tiate ^! arts by _! respective means ( imitation4 ,to proce$ surely f ?is op5+ *apt]1 x is evid5tly necess>y to grasp :at ,ari/otle means fir/ by imitation1 secondly by t nameless art :i* uses only words1 ?irdly by classify+ ! art ( poetry ) t ( music & t ( ! dance4 ,by imitation ,ari/otle means j :at ! ^w means mo/ simply & usually1 b also & m l>gely ! foll[+ ( ! ways ( human nature1 ! repres5tation or ! sugge/ion ( m5's *>act]s1 emotions1 & actions4#ad ,at its l[e/1 imitation is mimicry2 at its highe/1 creation4 ,! latt] is (t5 impli$ 9 ! ,greek ^w poetic4#ae ,poetic is "o ( ! f9e arts4 ,by :atev] means1 9 :atev] =ms1 x is a direct %[+ ( life1 z di/9ct f any acc\nt ( life ?r\gh exp]im5t or reason+4 ,! arti/ enhances our impressions ( life by ! sugge/ions ( music or ( /ory1 ! repres5tations ( dance or ( drama4 ,all ^! ways are call$ by ,ari/otle imitation because !y foll[ ! movem5ts ( human life4 ,x is notewor?y t he pres5ts imitation prim>ily z a con/ructive or progressive pr9ciple4 ,! m obvi\s imitation a*iev$ by a s+le phrase1 a s+le melody1 or a s+le dance-movem5t is res]v$ = lat] discussion ( detail4#af ,! poet is a mak]1 z inde$ he 0 call$ by our ,elizabe?ans z well z by ! ,greeks1 9 ! s5se t he is creative4 ,poet1 poetry1 poetic1 all are us$ by ,ari/otle ) ?is broad implication ( creative composition1#ag ( 8imitat+ m5 9 action40 ,secondly1 ,ari/otle specifies z k9ds ( ! poetic art trag$y & com$y1 :i* belong toge!r z drama1 & on ! o!r h& epic1 mime1 dialogue1 :i* also belong toge!r1 b h no common "n4 ,we lack1 he says1 a g5]ic "n = ^? =ms ( poetic art :i*1 h[ev] v>i\s1 are alike 9 hav+ = _! sole means ( imitation words4 ,! g5]ic "n t ,ari/otle desir$ to cov] all prose & all metrical compositions 9 :i* ! imitation is ?r\gh words alone is /ill to seek4 ,yet t ! g5us is di/9ct ?r\gh _m v>ieties ( =m is ev5 cle>] to-day ?an 9 8 "t4 ,! imitation ( danc+ & ( all =ms ( drama is ?r\gh repres5tation2 ! imitation ( music )\t words is ?r\gh sugge/ion4 ,n[ s is ! imitation ( words )\t music4 ,true1 ! words 9 ! latt] case c>ry some?+ besides imitation2 !y convey ideas2 b 9 s f> z !y a*ieve imitation1 !y d s by sugge/ion1 & x is ?is sugge/ive imitation t makes !m poetic4 ,:at is ne$$1 !n1 is a t]m to cov] all composition 9 words t proce$s by sugge/ion4 ,p]haps ! ne>e/ t]m 9 mod]n ,engli% is n>rative4 ,us+ n>rative widely en\gh to include1 z 9 common mod]n use x (t5 does include1 dialogue & description1 we h ! t]m t ,ari/otle desir$4 ,/ory w\ld s]ve if x 7 n (t5 us$ ( ! plot ( a play or ( an acc\nt 9 a newspap]4 ,n>rative usually connotes a di/9ct me?od4 ,a di/+ui%+ g5]ic t]m is m important to-day ?an 9 ! "t ( ,ari/otle4 ,mod]n au?ors h develop$ n>rative 9 directions little explor$ by ! anci5ts4 ,we h ?us a v>iety ( n>rative =ms :i* 0 q unkn[n to ,ari/otle4 ,/ill1 ?r\gh all ?is v>iety1 runs :at he disc]n$ z a common controll+ me?od1 ! me?od ( sugge/ion4 ,9 ?is fundam5tal ,gulliv]'s ,travels & ! ,s5tim5tal ,j\rney & ,! ,lady ( ! ,lake1 to take examples z diff]5t z possible1 belong toge!r2 & toge!r !y belong ap>t f ,o!llo4 ,?irdly1 :at is ! significance ( gr\p+ all ^! =ms ( poetic art ) music & danc+8 ,pa9t+1 :i* ev5 9 ,ari/otle's day 0 a f9e art1 is m5tion$ only z an analogy f ano!r gr\p4 ,s++1 or *ant+1 also is only m5tion$ = analogy1 p]haps because x is n creative4 ,ar*itecture may h be5 omitt$ z be+ prim>ily at t "t a useful art2 b sculpture 0 bo? a f9e art &1 p]haps mo/ obvi\sly ( all arts1 imitative4 ,?\gh we ne$ n assume t ,ari/otle int5d$ "h a compreh5sive classification ( ! arts1 x is cle> t he int5d$ to gr\p poetic art ) ! arts ( music & danc+4 ,nor is 8 pr9ciple ( division f> to seek4 ,cle>ly he reg>ds poetic z "o ( ! arts ( movem5t 9 "t1 & z di/9ct f ! /atic arts ( l9e & color1 balance1 mass1 & pose4 ,true1 music & dance ent]$ l>gely into e>ly ,greek drama & 7 /ill pres5t 9 ! drama ( ,ari/otle's "t2 b t fact does n expla9 ! gr\p+ toge!r ( 8epic1 trag$y1 com$y1 di?yramb1 flute-play+1 & lyre-play+10 ) ! lat] inclusion ( danc+4 ,ari/otle does n say t ^! occur toge!r2 & ! m5tion ( epic precludes any su* int]pretation4 ,he says t !y are alike4 ,he saw all poetic art1 especially drama1 z prim>ily an art ( movem5t4 ,:at is impli$ "h 9 ! op5+ *apt] is c>ri$ out consi/5tly1 9 doctr9e & 9 t]ms1 ?r\gh ! :ole book4 ,no "o %\ld d5y a c]ta9 fundam5tal lik5ess among all ! arts2 b ! lik5ess is n 9 te*nic except among ^? arts :i* h l 8means0 ( expression1 su* z 8rhy?m1 language1 & music40 ,mod]n application ( t]ms f ar*itecture & pa9t+ to drama & /ory has spread no little confusion4 ,ari/otle w h u ?9k along "r l9es2 &1 z 9 8 ,rhetoric1 ! fir/ *apt] is ! mo/ important ( all4 ,we are to ?9k ( poetic composition n z /ructure1 b z movem5t4 ,*apt] ii diff]5tiates ! epic & ! tragic art1 :i* idealize 8m5 9 action0 by seek+ high] types ( manhood & exhibit+ m5's aspirations1 f ! comic art1 :i* exagg]ates human fail+s4 ,*apt] iii diff]5tiates ! two typical modes ( poetic imitation z ! n>rative & ! dramatic4 ,*apt]s iv & v1 />t+ f ! common impulses t[>d imitation1 t[>d music1 & t[>d rhy?m1 summ>ize ! hi/ory ( trag$y & ( com$y4 ,! conclusion is t trag$y diff]s f epic n only 9 proce$+ by repres5tation in/ead ( n>rative1 b by be+ focus$ on a %ort p]iod ( "t1 normally tw5ty-f\r h\rs2 9 a ^w1 by be+ int5sive4 ,?us we arrive at ! fam\s analysis ( ! ess5tials & ! elem5ts ( trag$y4 ,a trag$y1#ah !n1 is an imitation ( an action t is 7#a7 s]i\s &1 7#b7 z to size1 complete1 7#c7 9 language enhanc$ z may be appropriate to ea* "p1 7#d7 9 ! =m ( action1 n ( n>rative1 7#e7 ?r\gh pity & fe> effect+ its ca?>sis ( su* emotions4444 ,e trag$y1#ai !re=e1 mu/ h six con/itu5ts1 accord+ to :i* we e/imate its quality3 plot1 "*1 diction1 ?\ght1 spectacle1 & music4 ,! greate/ ( ^! is ! plan ( ! actions 7! plot72 = trag$y is an imitation n ( m51 b ( action & life 444 & ! end = :i* we live is a c]ta9 =m ( action1 n a quality4 ,by _! *>act]s m5 are :at !y are2 b by _! actions !y are happy or ! rev]se4 ,9 a play !re=e !y d n act 9 ord] to imitate "*2 !y include "* = ! sake ( ! actions4 ,h5ce ! actions & _! plot are ! end ( trag$y2 & ! end is greate/ ( all4 ,fur!rmore1 )\t action !re may n be trag$y2 )\t "* !re may be4444 ,by /r++ toge!r spee*es expressive ( "* & well made z to diction & ?\ght y w n a*ieve ! tragic function4 ,mu* r is x a*iev$ by a trag$y :i*1 h[ev] defici5t 9 ^!1 has plot & plan ( actions4 ,besides1 ^? ?+s by :i* trag$y moves u mo/1 sc5es ( rev]sal & ( discov]y1 are p>ts ( ! plot4 ,a fur!r pro( is t novices 9 dramaturgy c put a f9e po9t on diction & *>act]ization be=e !y compose de$s2 & x is ! same ) ne>ly all ! e>ly dramati/s4 ,! pr9ciple &1 z x 71 ! s\l ( trag$y is plot4 ,second is "*4444 ,?ird#bj is ?\ght1 i4e41 ! ability to say :at is necess>y & appropriate1 :i* 9 public address is ! function ( politics & rhetoric4444 ,*>act]ization is :at %[s habit ( m9d4444 ,?\ght appe>s 9 =mal reason+4 ,f\r? is diction1 i4e41 ! expression ( mean+ 9 words1 :i* is ess5tially ! same 9 v]se z 9 prose4 ,( ! rema9+ elem5ts1 melody is ! greate/ ( enhancem5ts2 & spectacle1 ?\gh mov+1 is 9 g5]al ! lea/ arti/ic & 9 p>ticul> has ! lea/ to d ) ! art ( ! drama4 ,! hi/ory ( criticism involv$ 9 ! successive int]pretations ( ?is mu* discuss$ section & ! foll[+ may be po/pon$4 ,! imm$iate conc]n is ! mean+ ( ! def9ition & ! division = dramaturgy1 i4e41 = ! actual composition ( a trag$y & = ! analysis ( trag$y 9 t]ms ( composition4 ,ari/otle beg9s ) ! subject-matt]4 ,! !me itself mu/ be tragic1 & is s if x is fir/ s]i\s & secondly complete )9 its own ext5t4 ,a playwright consid]+ ! possibilities ( su*-&-su* mat]ial is to ask fir/ :e!r x is s]i\s4 ,! ,greek ^w#ba means n solemn 9 ! s5se ( sad1 b su* z to int]e/ ! compos] & ! audi5ce by its importance4 ,x might be r5d]$ humanly significant4 ,! "q1 ,is !re drama "h8 becomes1 !n1 fir/ ( all1 ,is !re action "h t w engage emotional p>ticipation8 ,t is ! fir/ "q2 = x is fundam5tal4 ,secondly1 is ?is action dramatically manageable z to ext5t8 ,w x f9i% )9 ! "t ( a drama1 come to its issue1 focus2 or is its int]e/ su* z to dem& m ext5sive developm5t 9 "t2 9 a ^w1 is x a drama plot or an epic plot8 ,! epic ( 8mu*-endur+ ,odysseus0 dem&s ext5t ( "t2 ! trag$y ( dipus1 compression ( "t4 ,complete#bb "h means conclud$1 i4e41 susceptible1 )9 dramatic limits1 ( a conclusion emotionally satisfy+4 ,to be dramatic1 ! action mu/ be self-consi/5t & self-det]m9+4 ,trag$y is *>act]i/ically int5sive4#bc ,s f> our trag$y has no words2 x may ev5 d )\t !m4 ,nev]!less 9 its high] ranges x expresses itself also ?r\gh sugge/ive language4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 !n1 trag$y uses ! :ole range ( 8enhanc$ utt]ance10 i4e41 rhy?m1 & occasionally music & song4 ,9 conception a trag$y mu/ be significant & complete2 9 expression x may be v>i\sly sugge/ive4 ,! f\r? di/9ction ( trag$y is its *>act]i/ic movem5t1 :i* is act+1 n n>rative4 ,! process ( drama is repres5tation2 ! process ( /ory is sugge/ion4 ,drama %[s m5 & wom5 do+2 /ory tells :at !y did4 ,t is ess5tially dramatic1 !n1 :i* is be/ br\ght home by actual repres5tation4 ,9 ?is reg>d imag9ative conceptions ( human life diff] ess5tially4 ,"s are be/ convey$ by ! indirect b abundant sugge/ions ( n>rative2 o!rs h _! poignancy only ?r\gh ! few direct /rokes ( visible action4 ,f9ally1 trag$y is def9$ by its effect1 ! tragic ca?>sis4 ,trag$y 8?r\gh pity & fe> a*ieves its purgation ( su* emotions40#bd ,x is complete1 !n1 n only 9 action1 b 9 emotion4 ,emotion is n m]ely ar\s$2 x is satisfi$2 x is c>ri$ ?r\gh to a release4 ,trag$y is ?us ?or\ghly emotional1 m emotional ?an any o!r =m ( art4 ,x is emotional n incid5tally1 b ess5tially2 = x (f]s n m]ely emotional excitem5t1 b emotional satisfaction4 ,z all art enhances by imitation our impressions ( life1 s trag$y reveals our motives & moves u onw>d ?r\gh vic>i\s exp]i5ce4 ,we ye>n t[>d our fell[s mov$ z we are1 only m deeply2 we fe> 9 "s great crisis :at obscurely ?reat5s u all day by day2 & we "k ! inevitable end n ) our m9ds1 b ) our awak5$ he>ts4 ,f def9ition ( trag$y by its ess5tial *>act]i/ics ,ari/otle proce$s to enum]ation ( its con/itu5ts4 ,( ^! ! s9e qua non is plot4 ,! insi/5ce on ?is is s ample & s conv9c+ z h>dly to ne$ int]pretation4 ,*>act]ization comes second4 ,?ird is ! expression ( ?\ght1 z di/9ct f ! expression ( emotion or ( "*4 ,! p]sons ( ! play n only reveal _! individualities2 !y h also occasion to exp\nd or p]suade1 & "h poetic leans on rhetoric4 ,= drama1 ?\gh its movem5t is imag9ative1 ?\gh x prim>ily expresses emotion & "*1 _c disp5se ) logic4 ,f\r? is diction4 ,"h aga9 x is notewor?y t ,ari/otle puts ?is f\r?1 ?\gh tyros1 he says1 c ma/] x be=e !y c manage plot4 ,:e!r ! diction be v]se or prose he reg>ds z negligible at ?is po9t4 ,) ! same brevity he enum]ates f9ally musical & sc5ic accompanim5ts4 ,:at he enl>ges ^u is plot & *>act]ization1 & ^u plot z ! ess5tial & det]m9+ factor4 ,^! di/9ctions made1 let u !reupon discuss ( :at sort ! plan ( ! actions 7! plot7 mu/ be1 s9ce ?is is bo? ! fir/ & ! greate/ con/itu5t ( trag$y4 ,we h %[n trag$y to be imitation ( an action complete & :ole :i* has a c]ta9 magnitude4 ,?\gh !re is su* a ?+ z a :ole )\t any appreciable magnitude1 we mean by a :ole t :i* has beg9n+1 middle1 & end4 ,a beg9n+ is t :i* does n itself foll[ any?+ by causal necessity1 b aft] :i* some?+ else naturally is or comes to be4 ,an end1 on ! contr>y1 is t :i* itself naturally foll[s "s o!r ?+1 ei!r by causal necessity or z a rule1 b has no?+ foll[+ x4 ,a middle is t :i* foll[s some?+ z "s o!r ?+ foll[s x4 ,plots t are well plann$1 !re=e1 are su* z d n beg9 or end at haphaz>d1 b con=m to ! types j describ$4#be ,plot1 !n1 is :at makes a play 8complete & :ole02 x is a plann$ sequ5ce ( actions4 ,ari/otle's t]ms connote1 n space & /ructure1 b "t & causal movem5t4 ,! beg9n+ is ! po9t at :i* ! cause is set 9 motion2 ! end is ! result2 ! middle is ! c\rse f ! "o to ! o!r4 ,plot is ?us a significant c\rse ( action det]m9$ by p]man5t impulses2 x imitates1 n ! m]e surface movem5ts ( life1 b its und]curr5ts4 ,x is n a 8slice ( life10 su* z ! exp]i5ce ( ?is day or t1 b a c\rse ( life1 mov+ f a 8s]i\s0 crisis ( det]m9+ emotions1 ?r\gh actions t c>ry ^! emotions out1 to ! f9al action 9 :i* !y are se5 to issue4 ,plot gives u :at we (t5 miss 9 actual exp]i5ce1 & consequ5tly seek 9 ! vic>i\s exp]i5ce ( drama1 a s5se ( progress to completion4 ,exp]i5ce is int]rupt$ & complicat$2 drama moves /eadily on a s+le c\rse4 ,plot is ! means by :i* dramatic art simplifies life1 9 ord] f ! facts ( life to extract ! tru?4 ,fur!rmore1 plot means te*nically managem5t ( a significant c\rse ( action )9 a practicable "t4 ,! trag$y mu/ be long en\gh to %[ ! action z progressive1 yet %ort en\gh to be grasp$ z a s+le :ole4 8,beg9n+1 end1 middle0 are ?us v practical consid]ations4 ,e playwright consid]s e plot 9 ?is aspect4 ,:]e is he to take hold 9 ord] to make ! situation cle>8 ,:at f9al action is1 = 8 conception1 ! inevitable end8 ,:at are ! /ages betwe51 lead+ "o to ano!r1 9 :i* ! action w be/ be se5 z a progressive c\rse8 ,)\t limit+ 8 consid]ation to ! "t-rules ( ! actual dramatic competitions ( 8 day1 ,ari/otle seeks ! limit det]m9$ by ! v nature ( ! act2 ! great]1 )9 ! limits ( cle>ness1 ! f9] by its scope4 ,to def9e r\ghly1 t scope is suffici5t )9 :i* ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts accord+ to probability or necessity may *ange f ill =tune to good1 or f good to ill4#bf ,:at ,ari/otle f9ds necess>y is "t en\gh to make ! action conv9c+1 to c>ry out ! dramatic consequ5ces to _! conclusion4 ,compress$ )9 too %ort a "t-lapse1 ! plot may rema9 fragm5t>y2 /ret*$ out too long1 x may sag or trail4 8,beg9n+1 end1 middle10 !n1 con/itute a =mula = plot4 ,a plot does n ga9 unity by be+1 z "s ?9k1 all ab\t "o p]son4444 ,= z 9 ! o!r imitative arts1 ! imitation is unifi$ by be+ ( "o ?+1 s also ! plot1 s9ce x is an imitation ( an action1 mu/ be ! imitation ( an action :i* is "o & entire & ^: p>ts are s compos$ ( acts t ! transposition or omission ( any "p w\ld disjo9 & dislocate ! :ole ,t1 inde$ is :at we mean by a "p2 = a ?+ ^: pres5ce or abs5ce makes no visible diff]5ce is no "p ( ! :ole4 ,f :at has n[ be5 said x is pla9 t ! function ( a poet is ?is1 to tell n ! ?+s t h happ5$1 b su* ?+s z may happ51 ?+s possible z be+ probable or necess>y4 ,! hi/orian & ! poet diff] n by writ+ 9 v]se or 9 prose4 ,! "w ( ,h]odotus might be put into v]se1 & none ! less x w\ld be hi/ory1 ) v]se or )\t4 ,no1 ! diff]5ce is 9 ?is1 t ! "o tells ! ?+s t h happ5$2 ! o!r1 su* ?+s z may happ54#bg ,consi/5cy ( plot1 consi/5cy ( *>act]ization also1 z ,ari/otle goes on to %[1 imply t ! poet int]prets4 ,he is n m]ely a record]4 ,! acts 77 ( 8 p]son are n /ati/ics2 !y are p>ts ( ! consi/5t pres5tation ( a s+le :ole4 ,e "o ( !m1 q diff]5tly f ! acts ( real life1 is se5 to be significant4 ,9 ?us includ+ ! significant & exclud+ ! insignificant1 ! poet int]prets accord+ to 8 conception ( ! spr+s ( action4 ,he simplifies life accord+ to 8 view ( causes & motives1 8accord+ to probability or necessity40 ,9 ?is ! poet diff]s f ! hi/orian m g5]ally4 ,trag$y is true to life n by rehe>s+ :at m5 h done1 b by reveal+ 9 significant action :at m5 d1 :at !y mu/ d1 be+ ! m5 t ! dramati/ %[s !m to be4 ,hi/ory records a man's de$s1 & reasons f ?is evid5ce2 drama directly repres5ts ! do] do+ :at he %\ld d 8accord+ to probability or necessity40 ,plot1 !n1 implies actions %ap$ to a unify+ consi/5cy4 ,x imitates life3 b x imitates by creative int]pretation4 ,!re=e poetry is some?+ m philosophical & m s]i\s ?an hi/ory2 = poetry speaks r 9 univ]sals1 hi/ory 9 s+ul>s4 ,by univ]sal ,i mean :at su* or su* a man w say or d accord+ to probability or necessity4444 ,x is evid5t f ^! consid]ations t ! poet mu/ be r a poet ( plots ?an ( v]ses4 ,he is a poet by virtue ( imitation2 & :at he imitates are actions4 ,ev5 if he *ance to make#bh hi/ory1 none ! less = t is he a poet2 = no?+ h9d]s "s hi/orical ev5ts f be+ j :at !y %\ld be accord+ to probability or possibility1 & x is only 9 t aspect ( !m t he is _! poet4#bi ,t dramatic composition is ?us prim>ily ! devis+ ( a conv9c+ sequ5ce is se5 conv]sely :5 ! sequ5ce is defective4 ,( all plots & actions ! episodic are ! wor/4 ,by an episodic plot ,i mean "o 9 :i* ! sequ5ce ( ! episodes is n det]m9$ by probability or necessity4 ,actions ( ?is sort are compos$ by bad poets ?r\gh _! own fault1 & by good ones on acc\nt ( ! play]s2 = z !y compose = competitive pres5tation1 & /ret* a plot beyond its capacity1 !y are (t5 compell$ to twi/ ! sequ5ce4#cj ,! ess5tial dramatic =ce1 !n1 is sequ5ce1 /eady onw>d movem5t to a conv9c+ issue4 ,sc5es m]ely episodic1 h[ev] vivid or clev] ea* may be 9 itself1 weak5 ?is ess5tial =ce4 ,! episodic fault1 :e!r x arise f weakness 9 ! compos] or f an actor's insi/5ce on hav+ a 8"p0 to suit himself r ?an to suit ! play1 makes ! wor/ plays because x is a fault at ! s\rce4 ,f9ally on cog5cy ( plot dep5d ! tragic pity & fe>4 ,! ca?>sis dep5ds on our feel+ ! issue to be inevitable4 ,unexpect$ to ! actors x may be1 & mo/ /rik+ly2 b x _c be =tuit\s4 ,:ile x is surpris+ to !m1 x mu/ be satisfy+ to u z ! outcome ( _! action4 ,consid]+ ! imitation z n only ( a complete action1 b also ( ev5ts ar\s+ fe> & pity1 we f9d ^! too at _! height :5 !y are at once unexpect$ by ! dramatis p]son & consequ5tial4 ,= s we %all be m /ruck ?an by :at happ5s ( itself or by *ance4#ca 8,rev]sal#cb0 or 8recognition10#cc ,ari/otle goes on 9 *apt]s x & xi1 if ! plot is s f> complicat$1 mu/ arise f ! plot itself1 n be m]ely add$4 ,two p>ts ( ! plot1 !n1 rev]sal & discov]y1 are su* z has be5 %[n2 a ?ird is actual suff]+ 444 action de/ructive or pa9ful1 su* z dea?s on ! /age1 tortures1 w\nds1 & ! l4#cd ,?is latt] passage is tantaliz+ly brief4 ,s f> z ! context %[s1 suff]+ is us$ "h to d5ote s+le sc5es ( unusually viol5t action4 ,:y %\ld su* a sc5e be call$ a 8"p ( ! plot08 ,! ^w is us$ g5]ally--& 9 ! plural x is us$ repeat$ly ?r\gh\t ! e>li] *apt]s ( ?is "w--to mean emotion4 ,emotion is n a "p ( ! plot 9 ! s5se t rev]sal or recognition may be a "p4 ,r x is a p]vasive pr9ciple & an object4 ,suff]+1 to translate ! s+ul> n\n s1 may be reg>d$ z a "p ( ! plot 9 ! s5se t x may be an elem5t ( trag$y4 ,s tak+ x1 we may suppose ,ari/otle to c\nt5ance "h su* sc5es ( viol5ce z 7 m famili> on ! ,elizabe?an /age ?an on ! ,greek4#ce ,at any rate1 ,ari/otle "h ins]ts a *apt]#cf on ! =mal p>ts 7prologue1 episode1 exodus1 etc471 be=e proce$+ ) ! me?ods by :i* ! plot may be work$ out4 ,*apt] xiii insi/s t ! vital pr9ciple ( plot is causal consi/5cy4 ,?is rules out m]e rev]sal4 ,a turn+-po9t 77 is1 inde$1 *>act]i/ic ( drama4 ,!re is usually & typically a crisis1 9 :i* ! h]o's =tunes turn f good to bad2 b ?is rev]sal w n suffice by itself4 ,! m]e turn ( =tune does n a*ieve ! ca?>sis ( pity & fe>4 ,!re rema9s1 !n1 ! h]o betwe5 ! typically virtu\s man & ! typically deprav$1 a man nei!r exceptional 9 virtue & righte\sness nor fall+ into adv]sity by vice & depravity1 b by "s error1 a man among ^? :o live 9 r5[n & prosp]ity1 su* z dipus or ,?ye/es or o!r illu/ri\s m5 ( su* families4 ,! p]fect tragic plot1 !re=e1 mu/ be s+le1 n1 z "s say1 d\ble2#cg ! *ange ( =tune n f adv]sity to prosp]ity1 b on ! contr>y f prosp]ity to adv]sity2 n ?r\gh depravity1 b ?r\gh great error on ! "p ( a man ei!r su* z we h describ$ or r bett] ?an worse4#ch ,:y ?is insi/5ce on "* 9 ! mid/ ( ! discussion ( plot8 ,:y ! it]ation ( 8n ?r\gh depravity1 b ?r\gh error08 ,because1 z ,ari/otle %[s bel[1#ci plot implies consi/5cy ( *>act]ization1 b m fundam5tally because consi/5cy ( plot has = its v beg9n+ & ma9spr+ ! realization ( a c5tral figure l ourselves progressively w9n+ our sympa?y4 ,! ess5ce ( plot is motivation4 ,:at moves u is nev] m]e luck1 nev] m]e surprise1 b ! causation t spr+s f human w4 ,consi/5cy ( plot means cle> causation2 & causation 9 drama is ! work+ ( w4 ,s ! fir/ consid]ation is ! title rle1 ! ma9 8"p40 ,he or %e %\ld be illu/ri\s because ! action is !reby conspicu\s & p>tly kn[n 9 advance2 b 8 c\rse ( action mu/ be mov$ by spr+s t we feel 9 ourselves4 ,macbe? is a w>rior ( an eld] day & a k+2 b we1 ?\gh nei!r w>riors nor k+s1 feel ! p]v]sion ( 8 manhood z l en\gh to our own to purify u ?r\gh pity & fe>4 ,fe> & pity may1 inde$1 be ar\s$ by m]e spectacle1 b !y may also be ar\s$ f ! v plan ( ! actions1#dj & ! latt] is sup]ior & %[s a bett] dramati/4 ,?is is ! second consid]ation ( consi/5cy4 ,fir/1 ! be/ trag$y spr+s f a great p]sonal w gone wrong2 secondly1 x spr+s f a compell+ progress ( actions1 f ! plot itself4 ,x dep5ds n on ! %ock ( ?is viol5t de$ or t1 b on ! causal movem5t ( ! :ole4 ,"* is discuss$ 9 *apt] xv z a di/9ct topic1 b /ill ) ref]5ce to plot4 ,= ?r\gh\t ?is section1 especially f *apt] xiii on1 ! topic is consi/5cy4#da ,consi/5cy1 ?\gh x ref]s prim>ily to plot1 mu/ also include *>act]ization4 ,9 g5]al1 *>act]ization mu/ be consi/5t ) ! morality ( ! individual purpose1 ) ! moral habit ( ! social gr\p1 ) ! receiv$ idea ( ! p]son1 & f9ally ) itself4#db ,9 p>ticul>1 x is necess>y 9 ! *>act]s1 z 9 ! plan ( ! actions1 to seek always ! inevitable or ! probable1 s t ! say+ or do+ ( su*-&-su* ?+s by su*-&-su* a p]son1 j z ! happ5+ ( ?is ev5t aft] t1 %all be inevitable or probable4 ,evid5tly1 !re=e1 ! solutions also z well z ! complications ( plots mu/ come ab\t f ! plot itself1 & n1 z 9 ! ,m$ea 444 by ! deus ex ma*9a4#dc ,9 a ^w1 consi/5cy ( *>act]ization is "p ( ! causal weav+ ( ! plot4 ,*apt] xvi applies ! pr9ciple ( consi/5cy to 8recognitions10 or 8discov]ies40#dd ,be/ discov]y ( all1 h[ev]1 is t :i* arises f ! actions !mselves1 :5 ! surprise comes z a natural result1 z 9 ! dipus ( ,sophocles & 9 ! ,iphig5ia4#de ,*apt]s xvii & xviii turn to ! actual processes ( dramaturgy1 to ! "w ( ! playwright4 ,?is is conc]n$ ma9ly ) plot2 b fir/ ,ari/otle urges ! fundam5tal necessity ( visualiz+4 ,"o mu/ compose plots & "w !m out 9 ! 8l9es0 by putt+ ! sc5es be=e 8 eyes 444 & z f> z possible by act+ out1 ev5 ) ! ge/ures4#df444 ,8 /ories1 :e!r already made or ( 8 own mak+1 he mu/ fir/ set out 9 g5]al 7i4e41 make a sc5>io71 !n put 9 ! incid5ts & c>ry out4#dg444 ,e trag$y has bo? complication & solution1 ! ev5ts t prec$e ! op5+ sc5e & (t5 "s ( ^? )9 ! play con/itut+ ! complication1 & ! re/ ! solution4 ,by complication ,i mean all f ! beg9n+ to t sc5e :i* is j be=e ! *ange 9 ! h]o's =tunes2 by solution1 all f ! beg9n+ ( ! *ange to ! end ( ! play4#dh444 ,x is necess>y to rememb] :at ,i h said (t5 & n make a trag$y an epic sy/em--by epic ,i mean aggregative--z if "o %\ld dramatize ! :ole /ory ( ! ,iliad4#di444 ,! *orus too %\ld be reg>d$ z "o ( ! actors1 be a "p ( ! :ole & %>e 9 ! action1 be n z 9 ,euripides1 b z 9 ,sophocles4#ej ,visualiz+ actively at e /age1 ! playwright is to compose 8 plot be=e he works out 8 l9es4 ,he is to det]m9e 8 play by ! me?od ( solution1 to avoid ! ext5siv5ess ( epic1 & to make ev5 ! *orus contributory to ! plot4 ,! be>+ ( ! meag] obs]vations on ! logical elem5t & on diction 7xix-xxii7 w be cle> f ! tabul> view4#ea ,!y are n di/9ctive except 9 ! say+ 8! greate/ is ! be+ metaphorical02#eb & !y h surpris+ly little on dramatic rhy?ms4 ,! ?ird section ( ! ,poetic 7xxiii-xxvi7 def9es epic & comp>es x ) trag$y4 ,z to metrical n>rative1 its plots sev]ally %\ld h ! movem5t ( drama 9 focus+ on an action :ole & complete ) beg9n+1 middle1 & end1 t ea* may give its prop] pleasure z an organic unity1 & n be compos$ z hi/ory1 :i* has to exhibit n a s+le action1 b a s+le "t1 :atev] *anc$ to happ5 9 ?is p]iod to "o p]son or to m4#ec ,! g5]al lik5ess ( epic to drama1 !n1 is 9 int]pretative focus1 z di/9ct f ! *ronicle me?od ( hi/ory4 ,/ory1 z well z drama1 selects 9 ord] to unify4 ,moreov] 7xxiv7 /ory1 too1 z well z drama1 has its crises1 its recognitions1 its emotional outbur/s4 ,! epic poet1 if he h some?+ ( ,hom]'s skill1 c make 8 *>act]s express !mselves )\t intrud+ 8 explanations4 ,^! are g5]al lik5esses ?r\gh\t ! :ole poetic field4 ,= *>act]i/ic diff]5ces1 epic has ! advantages ( scope & v>iety4 ,x ga9s f ! m>vel\s1 :i* c g5]ally be sugge/$ bett] ?an x c be repres5t$4#ed ,^! po9ts are z significant to-day z 9 ! "t ( ,ari/otle4 ,n s ! def5se 7xxv7 ( epic aga9/ c]ta9 typical objections :i* smack m ( ! s*oolma/] ?an ( ! critic4 ,to argue :e!r a giv5 epic /ory 7 possible or probable or promotive ( good morals 0 9 fact "o ( ! regul> elem5t>y ex]cises ( ! lat] s*ools4 ,! clos+ exaltation ( drama ov] epic#ee is summ>y1 inde$2 b t is natural1 s9ce ! po9ts1 hav+ be5 made be=e1 are "h simply review$ comp>atively4 ,! idea ( int5sity ?r\gh unity is a logical conclusion ( ! ,poetic z a :ole4 ,,ii ,f ,ari/otle's introductory gr\p+ ( drama ) music & dance1 ?r\gh\t 8 long discussion ( plot1 runs ! idea ( movem5t4 ,! dramatic mode ( imitation is to set human life 9 motion be=e u & to height5 our s5se ( liv+ by c>ry+ x ?r\gh to a significant issue4 ,has ?is idea animat$ o!r drama ?an ! ,greek8 ,is its vitality %[n by its p]man5ce8 ,is x ess5tial8 ,z all art height5s our impressions ( life & our s5se ( liv+1 s ! art ( ! dramati/ 9 p>ticul> height5s & ext5ds our s5se ( human life by vic>i\s exp]i5ce4 ,its object is to make u feel human exp]i5ce m widely & m int5sely4 ,all ! te*nic ( ! /age1 :e!r anci5t or mod]n1 :e!r simple or elaborate1 has = its ma9 object ?is sort ( creative imitation4 ,! dramati/ tries to induce & to hold ! illusion ( actual exp]i5ce4 ,9 s f> z he succe$s1 we =get t we are 9 ! !at]2 we imag9e t we are see+ a reality m real ?an we c piece out ( our fragm5t>y glimpses at m5 & wom52 & 9 8 greate/ successes we almo/ pass f spectators to actors4 ,t[>d ?is result h[ important is ,ari/otle's idea ( movem5t1 8 doctr9e t plot is a progressive syn!sis ( actions1 unifi$ b nev] /atic8 ,^? :o h sup]ficially ?\ght ( ,greek drama z /atic1 :o may ev5 h pictur$ x z /atuesque1 c h>dly h /udi$ ! great play ( ,sophocles t ,ari/otle (f]s z an example1 dipus ! ,k+4 ,laius1 ,k+ ( ,!bes1 & 8 wife ,joca/a ca/ out _! infant son dipus to die4 ,b ! %eph]d commission$ to d away ! *ild gave x in/ead to a /rang]1 :o c>ri$ x to ,cor9?4 ,!re ! little dipus1 fo/]$ by a ,cor9?ian c\ple1 0 br\ght up z _! son4 ,9 ! /r5g? ( 8 manhood sett+ =? to make 8 own way1 he met 9 a n>r[ pass ano!r travel] :o haughtily bade him yield passage4 ,! dispute w>m$ to bl[s4 dipus kill$ him4 ,x 0 8 own fa!r ,laius4 ,proce$+ to ,!bes1 dipus f\nd ! ?rone vacant & ! city 9 t]ror ( ! mon/] ,sph9x4 ,he sil5c$ ! ,sph9x1 &1 hail$ by ! p z _! deliv]]1 he became _! k+ & m>ri$ ! wid[$ que5 ,joca/a1 8 own "m4 ,b ,apollo hav+ 9 "t s5t a pe/il5ce ^u ,!bes1 dipus 0 bes\ght by ! p to be once m _! savior4 ,8 emiss>y to ! oracle1 ,creon 8 bro!r-9-law1 br\ght back ^w t ,!bes mu/ put away ! unclean p]son :o _h sla9 ,laius4 ,by se>*+ inve/igation dipus discov]$ t he himself 0 ! pollution1 t he _h sla9 8 own fa!r & m>ri$ 8 own "m1 t n only he b 8 *ildr5 7 accurs$1 t ! outlawry :i* he _h invok$ ^u ! guilty fell ^u 8 own head4 ,!reupon he put out 8 eyes 9 an agony ( horror1 aft] ,joca/a _h kill$ h]self1 & grop$ 8 way f ,!bes l$ by 8 wret*$ daught]s4 ,?is is ! leg5d4 ,its ev5ts ext5d ov] _m ye>s4 ,:i* ( !m %all be *os5 = ! /age z hav+ mo/ dramatic value8 ,:i* to an audi5ce c be made mo/ significant2 & h[ %all ^! vital sc5es be arrang$ 9 su* cont9u\s & progressive movem5t z w convey1 & at ! same "t enhance1 our s5se ( ! movem5t ( life8 ,sophocles ) 8 own dramatic skill1 b 9 ! =m typical ( all ! be/ ,greek trag$y1 arrang$ 8 :ole action )9 ! compass ( its la/ poignant h\rs4 ,omitt+ no?+ t is emotionally ess5tial1 no?+ t is ess5tial to cle> und]/&+1 he yet relegat$ "s ev5ts to ! backgr\nd 9 ord] to repres5t fully ! great crisis4 ,he ga!rs toge!r ! :ole visible action into an h\r & a half on ! /age & a half-doz5 p]sons2 & 9 ?is brief compass he unfolds t action ) increas+ int5sity by mak+ e sc5e move f ! la/ & to ! next1 on to ! awful close4 ,! ,!ban p1 repres5t$ by ! *orus supplicat+ _! savior k+1 rehe>ses 8 great a*ievem5ts = _! deliv]ance4 dipus 9 ! /rong confid5ce ( 8 p[] & 8 mission /&s be=e 8 palace l a god4 ,at ! end ( ! play he is l$ sl[ly f t palace a brok5 man4 ,b ! composition ( ! play is n m]e rev]sal = contra/4 ,betwe5 ! fir/ sc5e & ! la/1 action moves )\t ha/e1 b )\t delay or int]ruption4 ,! vigor\s & self-reliant k+ *afes at ! cryptic response br\ght f ! oracle by ,creon2 he is indignant1 !n furi\s1 at ! tragic sil5ce ( ! se] ,tiresias4 ,8 quick intellig5ce sc5ts a plot betwe5 ! two4 ,break+ ?r\gh ! int]position ( ,joca/a1 he w9s f h] false hopes :ile he gives h] no less unwitt+ly ! premonition ( doom4 ,once suspect+1 h[ev] d>kly1 he mu/ "k1 he w "k1 he kn[s a dreadful "p1 he kn[s m1 he kn[s all4 ,s ?is great play1 ?\gh x is focus$ on a s+le day1 ?\gh x excludes all ! pa/ hi/ory & ! developm5t ( "*1 is nev] /atic4 ,x is nev] = a mom5t tableau4 ,because ( its compression x moves n less1 b m4 ,= t is :y ,ari/otle insi/s t ! dramatic action %\ld be self-consi/5t1 limit$ 9 scope4 ,! object ( dramatic unity is n b>5ess1 b fulness & cont9uity4 ,x is to give "t = full & int5se realization ( :at actual life m]ely h9ts int]rupt$ly4 ,x is to give u human life undi/urb$ & un9t]rupt$1 s t we may see x cle>ly & :ole4 ,we are to h ! illusion ( actual exp]i5ce1 yes1 b ( l>g] & deep] exp]i5ce ?an we c get f ! m]e reproduction ( facts or f ! cross-curr5ts ( life itself4 ,l e o!r art1 drama is a simplification ( life because x is an int]pretation4 ,! dramatic simplification is se5 by ,ari/otle to consi/ ess5tially 9 mov+ f reveal+ crisis to reveal+ crisis up to a f9al revelation4 ,x excludes all ! accid5tal & ! irrelevant t emb>rass our actual movem5ts2 x tells :at has happ5$ ?r\gh :at is happ5+2 x cuts to ! quick4 ,x takes ^? mom5ts only 9 :i* a man is himself1 suppress+ ^? 9 :i* he is indi/+ui%able f o!r m54 ,b x does n leap or halt betwe52 x br+s out our real sequ5ces4 ,x reveals life to u by %[+ ! emotional connection ( its great mom5ts4 ,t su* dramatic unity became sometimes a bondage 9 sev5te5?-c5tury ,fr5* classical drama 0 due n to any defect ( ! ,ari/otelian pr9ciple1 b p>tly to mak+ ! practise too rigidly a code1 & /ill m to /iff5+ ! movem5t into tableau4 ,! classical ,fr5* application ( ! pr9ciple ( dramatic unity is n1 z has (t5 be5 po9t$ out1 altoge!r ,ari/otelian4 ,lea/ ( all is x ,ari/otelian :5 x h9d]s dramatic movem5t4 ,fr5* classical trag$y :5 x is cold--& to ?9k ( x z g5]ally cold is a prejudice--is /atic2 x is feeble 9 movem5t4 ,! free movem5t1 n to say ! loose movem5t1 ( ,elizabe?an plays1 :i* 0 hail$ by ,hugo & o!r ,romantici/s z a deliv]ance f ! classical code1 is inde$ bett] ?an tableau2 b x is compatible ) bad playwrit+4 ,he w\ld be ra% :o %\ld ass]t t ,elizabe?an plays are 9 g5]al m effective dramatically ?an ,fr5* classical plays4 ,r1 s9ce ! two traditions br+ out diff]5t dramatic values1 ea* has some?+ to le>n f ! o!r4 ,b x is pla9 t ! progress ( ! ,elizabe?ans 9 dramaturgy 0 9 ! direction ( unity1 ( m highly organiz$ movem5t4 ,to see ?is we ne$ g no f>!r ?an ,%aksp]e4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 8 e>li] plays & ,o!llo is l>gely a diff]5ce 9 unification4 ,o!llo by itself is suffici5t pro( ( ! value ( dramatic unity = dramatic int5sity4 ,& ) or )\t unity1 ) ! ,greek & ! ,fr5* focus ( "t or ! ,elizabe?an lapse ( ye>s1 drama dem&s movem5t f sc5e to sc5e4 ,! value ( unity is only to height5 ?is s5se ( movem5t4 ,drama1 ( c\rse1 has its diff]5ces ( age & ( race4 ,we are n to ?9k t at its be/ x mu/ always be ,greek4 ,"o ( ! l>ge diff]5ces betwe5 anci5t drama & mod]n is1 inde$1 a diff]5ce ( emphasis4 ,anci5t drama relies m on plot1 mod]n drama on *>act]ization4 ,! anci5t playwright _h above all1 = 8 !at]1 to realize ! emotional values ( a situation by see+ t 8 play 0 well put toge!r2 ! mod]n playwright has sometimes1 9 a !atre giv+ opportunity = facial expression1 reli$ f> m on realiz+ 8 p]sons1 on writ+ :at ! actor calls a good "p4 ,nev]!less1 ?\gh playwrit+ does n always ne$ ! compactness ( ,greek =m1 _m mod]n plays h *os5 ?is compactness1 ?is closely organiz$ movem5t1 = int5sity4#ef ,und\bt$ly su* dramatic composition dem&s ( ! playwright def9it5ess ( int]pretation4 ,8 selection1 8 limit+ ( "t & place1 8 lead+ f sc5e to sc5e1 are only ! te*nical means ( realiz+ 8 emotional int5tion4 ,he is try+ to %[ u human life1 n 9 r&om & int]rupt$ glimpses1 n 9 ! jumble & discord ( its surface1 n 9 aimless & fru/rat$ movem5ts1 b 9 ! animat+ emotions ( its crises4 ,9 ord] to repres5t crises1 he is compell$ to %[ u :]e9 !y are critical2 9 ord] to give to emotion full expression1 he mu/ make x significant4 ,r x is ?is significance :i* fir/ caught 8 att5tion1 :i* gave him ! conception ( 8 play & guid$ 8 realization4 ,if 8 dramatic movem5t halts or lapses1 ! reason may lie deep] ?an te*nic 9 unc]ta9ty ( int5tion2 & if on ! o!r h& he is able to su/a9 x & c>ry x ?r\gh1 ! fundam5tal reason is t 8 conception ( its issue is /rong & cle>4#eg ,?is presumption has m ?an once be5 *all5g$4 ,:y mu/ ! dramati/ h an int5tion1 a !me8 ,:y may he n simply repres5t life8 ,repres5t life he n only may1 b mu/1 to ! ext5t t he mu/ reflect life1 n reflect on x2 b :at is repres5t$8 ,life 9 its multitud9\s complexity1 its unfulfill$ int5tions1 life z x :irls pa/ & escapes u8 ,t is a task beyond drama4 ,no playwright has ev] repres5t$ life except z he saw x1 or made 8 repres5tation intelligible )\t int]pretation4 ,& z ! dramati/ has to int]pret 9 ord] to compose1 s ! audi5ce wi%es to be l$ up to "s issue4 ,we desire n m]e emotional excitem5t1 b emotional release4 ,else ! pity & fe>1 to use ,ari/otle's words1 w n br+ u purgation4 ,a play %[s u life 9 critical mom5ts1 & ^! are moral mom5ts1 mom5ts ( ! cla% ( wills4 ,drama assumes free w1 & its movem5t is by motives4 ,motivation1 on :i* ,ari/otle s mu* insi/1 is to make ! issue conv9c+4 ,! dramatic repres5tation ( life is creative imitation l>gely 9 proportion z x ?us moves to an end2 & ! typically dramatic end is n bl9d fate1 b poetic ju/ice4 ,poetic ju/ice sums up :at ,ari/otle means by say+ t 8poetry is some?+ m philosophical & m s]i\s ?an hi/ory40 ,x means ! tru? reveal$ b5ea? facts1 ! real cause & effect mov+ b5ea? ! surface4 ,an audi5ce1 desir+ deep] emotional exp]i5ce ?an x a*ieves ?r\gh daily obs]vation1 desires especially to see h[ its %>p] conflicts issue4 ,x asks ( ! dramati/ n only sight1 b insight4 ,x is n satisfi$ ) 8m]e rev]sal40 8,! m]e spectacle ( a virtu\s man br\ght f prosp]ity to adv]sity moves nei!r pity nor fe>2 x m]ely %ocks u40 ,! same criticism is impli$ 9 ,/ev5son's objection to ,m]$i?'s ,ri*>d ,fev]el1 t x 8began to end well0 & !n *eat$ u4 ,! conv9c+ close1 express+ ! playwright's int5tion & result+ f ! :ole c\rse ( action1 is ?us a fair measure ( :at us$ to be call$ problem plays4 ,x measures h[ f> !y are 9 ,ari/otle's s5se s]i\s1 h[ f> !y are p5etrative & significant1 9 a ^w h[ f> !y are tragic4 ,ea* disclosure1 ea* critical sc5e ( ! dramatic progress1 hav+ its full emotional value sep>ately & = itself1 leads on to ! next4 ,su* plann+ = mom5tum is n only ,ari/otelian2 x is p]man5tly dramatic4 ,creative imitation ( human life1 ?us mov+ u along t c\rse ( actions :i* is bo? ! means & ! measure ( creative p[]1 makes drama ( all ! arts mo/ poignant4 ,:e!r x is1 z x has always seem$ to its devotees1 ! highe/ =m ( poetic1 at lea/ its appeal is at once ! l>ge/ & ! mo/ direct4 ,9 ! v p]sons ( m5 & wom5 x speaks to u by face & ge/ure1 by ! message1 ! imag]y1 & ! rhy?m ( words1 mo/ ( all by ! ord] ( its actions4 ,plato1 inde$1 w\ld h u draw f ?is ! moral t our own lives %\ld be ord]$ poetically1 t is creatively1 t we %\ld control & direct our lives to h>moni\s movem5t4 ,= we are ourselves accord+ to our p[] poets ( a trag$y at once faire/ & be/4 ,e social ord]#eh becomes = u an arti/ic creation#ei ( ! faire/ & be/ life1 :i* we say to be ess5tially ! true/ trag$y4#fj ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,! be/ rec5t editions ( ! ,poetic = ,engli% read]s are3 7#a7 ,s4 ,h4 ,but*]1 ,ari/otle's ,!ory ( ,poetry & ,f9e ,art1 text1 translation1 notes1 essays1 ,london1 #ahie1 #d? edition1 #aiaa 7text ) translation issu$ sep>ately72 7#b7 ,+ram ,bywat]1 ,ari/otle on ! ,art ( ,poetry1 text1 translation1 introduction1 comm5t>y1 ,ox=d1 #aiji4 ,= o!r translations & = a select bibliography see ,but*]4 ,lane ,coop] has add$ to 8 8amplifi$ v]sion ) supplem5t>y illu/rations = /ud5ts ( ,engli%10 ,bo/on1 #aiac1 an essay 7#aibc7 on ,mean+ & ,influ5ce4 #b ,recon/ruction 9 ,philosophy1 ,new ,york1 #aibj1 *apt] iii4 #c ,l'volution cratrice1 *apt] i4 #d ,i say ?is )\t =gett+ t ! ,poetic z we h x is probably b a "p4 ,if a "p1 x is /ill self-consi/5t1 z ,i h tri$ to %[ 9 ! tabul> view bel[4 #e viii1 #bjf1 #bcb4 #f ,see ,*apt] i4 #g ,see page #d4 #h ,see page #db4 #i ,see page #bg4 #aj ,?is analysis is int5d$ to supplem5t1 & 9 "s cases to em5d1 ! outl9es ( ,but*] & ( ,bywat] by br++ out ! significance ( ! p>ts 9 relation4 #aa 4 ,! adjective means g5]ally active1 productive1 creative1 effici5s1 z commonly 9 ,ari/otle's philosophy1 9 ,dionysius & ,demetrius1 & 9 ,plot9us4 ,specially x means poetic1 z ( diction4 ,! n\n 7) und]/ood7 includes all imag9ative composition 9 words4 #ab ,bywat] 7page vii71 prote/+ aga9/ too g5]aliz+ int]pretations1 goes to ! o!r extreme ( undue re/riction4 ,t ! treatm5t is philosophical & int5ds to sugge/ l>ge inf]5ces appe>s f bo? its plan & its language4 ,c]ta9ly ! ,poetic is te*nical2 b no less c]ta9ly x is !oretical4 #ac ,! int]pretation ( ,bywat]4 #ad 1 #addg a1 :]e ,ari/otle is speak+ ( danc+4 #ae ,see foot-note #aa above4 #af ,9 ,*apt] ix1 #adea b1 ,ari/otle says3 8,x is evid5t f ! above t ! poet %\ld be r ! poet ( 8 plots ?an ( 8 v]ses1 inasmu* z he is a poet by virtue ( 8 imitation1 & x is actions t he imitates40 #ag ,but*] 7pages #aaj-abd7 9 po9t+ out t ! ,greek phrase = ! f9e arts is imitative arts 7 or 71 says t ,ari/otle applies x specifically only to poetry & music4 ,9 ?is op5+ *apt] ( ! ,poetic he evid5tly means to include danc+4 ,t ,ari/otle _h no ?\ght ( 8b>e imitation10 ( t reproductive copy+ :i* ,rusk9 confus$ ) arti/ic tru?1 has be5 rem>k$ also by o!r critics4 ,but*] adds sugge/ively1 ?\gh n ) /rict ref]5ce to ! text1 t to imitate nature 0 = ,ari/otle n to evoke ! m]e backgr\nd :i* romanticism has taught u to spell ) a capital ,n1 b to "w 9 nature's ways4 ,nature 77 9 ,ari/otle is n ! s5sible _w1 b 8! creative =ce1 ! productive pr9ciple40 ,s ! imm$iate objects ( poetic imitation are human *>act]s1 emotions1 & actions1 n z objective ph5om5a1 b z expressions ( human w4 8,! common orig9al10 ,but*] concludes1 8is human life 444 ess5tial activity ( ! s\l40 ,?\gh ?is is true to ! und]ly+ idea ( ! ,poetic1 ,ari/otle does n use any s+le phrase correspond+ to 8imitation ( nature40 #ah #addi b4 #ai #adej a4 #bj #adej b4 #ba 1 :i* ( p]sons means e>ne/2 ( ?+s1 :at we mean by s]i\s 9 su* phrases z a s]i\s proposal & s]i\s consid]ation4 #bb ,bywat] makes "o item1 8z hav+ magnitude1 complete 9 itself40 ,but*] makes two items1 8complete1 & ( a c]ta9 magnitude40 ,! =m] seems clos] to ! ,greek text &1 on ! :ole1 m consi/5t ) ! context2 b bo? r5d]+s give mu* ! same mean+ ultimately4 #bc ,! di/9ction has lately be5 po9t$ by ,mr4 ,h>dy's ,dyna/s4 ,?is1 :atev] else may be ?\ght ( x1 is n 8complete z to size10 b indet]m9ate4 ,d\btless t is :y x is /yl$ an 8epic-drama40 ,c]ta9ly1 = all its 8enhanc$ utt]ance0 & occasionally /rik+ dialogue1 x is n1 by any def9ition1 a drama4 #bd ,bywat]1 pages #aeb-afa1 has discuss$ ?is phrase amply1 & 9 an app5dix1 #cfa-cfe1 has compil$ ) _! dates ! successive critical translations4 #be vii4 #adej b4 #bf #adea a4 #bg viii-ix1 #adea a-#adea b4 #bh ,! v]b "h translat$ make corresponds to ! n\n poet4 ,! insi/5ce br\ght ab\t by ! repetition w be made cle> by r5d]+ ! words italiciz$ creator & create1 or1 to revive an old] use1 mak] & make4 #bi ix4 #adea b4 #cj ix4 #adea b4 #ca ix4 #adeb a4 #cb 4 #cc 4 #cd xi4 #adeb b4 #ce ,bo? ,but*] & ,bywat] s int]pret2 b ,but*]'s r5d]+ 8tragic incid5t0 seems h>dly to meet ! context4 ,bywat]'s r5d]+ 8suff]+0 seems pref]able if we may v5ture to int]pret x z mean+1 m g5]ally ?an ,bywat] sugge/s1 ! work+ out ( ! plot to its full emotional expression4 ,s tak51 x corresponds to ! climax ( pity & fe>1 z 8rev]sal0 & 8recognition0 correspond to ! prec$+ complication4 #cf xii4 #adeb b4 ,?is has be5 *all5g$ z an int]polation4 ,x is at lea/ meag] &1 z x 71 impati5t1 z is ! correspond+ section 9 ! ,rhetoric 7,,iii4 xiii4 #adad b7 on ! =mal p>ts ( an oration4 #cg 4 ,! context seems to %[ t ?is means divid$ 9 int]e/ & issue1 insuffici5tly focus$4 ,ari/otle does n mean t ! plot %\ld n be complicat$2 = at ! op5+ ( ?is *apt] he says t ! plot ( ! p]fect trag$y is n simple1 b complicat$ 7 74 ,:at he adds "h is t ! complication %\ld n be su* z to divide our sympa?y4 ,! plot %\ld n1 inde$1 be simple2 b x %\ld be s+le4 #ch xiii4 #adec a4 #ci xv4 #dj xiv4 #adec b4 4 #da ,see ! tabul> view1 page #acf4 #db ,i foll[ ,bywat]'s note1 pages #bbg-bbh4 #dc #aded b4 #dd 4 #aded b4 8,?is & ! next two *apt]s =m a sort ( ,app5dix2 !y discuss a s]ies ( special po9ts & rules ( con/ruction :i* _h be5 omitt$ 9 ! sket* ( ! g5]al !ory ( ! 40 ,bywat]1 page #bcc4 ,i am n conv9c$ ( an int]ruption "h4 ,:at seems to me ! be>+ ( ?is *apt] & ! foll[+ on ! discussion ( consi/5cy f ,*apt] xiii on is indicat$ 9 ! tabul> view on page #acf4 #de #adee a4 #df xvii4 #adee a4 #dg xvii4 #adee b4 #dh xviii4 #adee b4 #di xviii4 #adef a4 #ej xviii4 #adef a4 #ea ,page #ach4 ,z to :e!r xx is an int]polation1 see ,bywat]4 #eb xxii4 #adei a4 #ec xxiii4 #adei a4 #ed ,a mo/ /rik+ exemplification ( ?is is ,p>adise ,lo/4 #ee ,sa9te-,beuve1 tude sur ,virgile1 vii4 page #aea1 disputes ! sup]iority ( drama to epic4 #ef ,! mo/ famili> in/ances are c]ta9 plays ( ,ibs54 ,( plays rec5tly on ! /age1 ,b]n/e9's ,voleur1 ,mirbeau's ,les affaires sont les affaires1 ,besi]'s ,don1 ,k5yon's ,k9dl+1 %[ t ?is type ( dramatic movem5t is n conf9$ to any p>ticul> s*ool4 ,( plays t on ! contr>y disp5se ) ?is & rely ma9ly on *>act]ization ! mo/ famili> to ,am]icans is ! dramatization ( ,rip ,van ,w9kle us$ by ,joseph ,jeff]son4 #eg ,! p>agraph is adapt$ f ! au?or's ,college ,composition1 page #bdh4 #eh 4 #ei 4 #fj ,laws #hag b2 quot$ by ,bywat] on ,ari/otle's ,poetic1 #adej a4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,poetic ,,9 ,,anci5t ,,drama ,,& ,,n>rative ,! classical practise ( poetic 9 ! two modes di/+ui%$ by ,ari/otle1 dramatic & n>rative1 has a tw(old significance4 ,x has ! claim ( all great art = its own beauty2 & x reveals c]ta9 fundam5tals ( lit]>y =m & lit]>y influ5ce4 ,classical influ5ces on lat] art h be5 def9$ sometimes vaguely1 sometimes amiss1 = lack ( cle> grasp ( classical practise4 ,yet ! vitality ( classical poetic art is h>dly m prov]bial ?an its def9it5ess4 ,)\t circumscrib+ 9 =mulas its creative v>iety1 we c disc]n q cle>ly its arti/ic habits 9 ^! two endur+ modes4 ,into su* a survey rec5t que/ions z to lit]>y =ms ne$ n ent]4 ,h[ f> a lit]>y =m may be modifi$ or ext5d$ )\t los+ its "*1 h[ sugge/ive a recogniz$ =m is to ! compos+ imag9ation1 are que/ions important r = ^? mod]n times 9 :i* ! arti/ is mu* conc]n$ ) individual self-expression ?an = ! c5turies 9 :i* he 0 m ! spokesman ( a community4 ,ev5 if ,brunetire's transf]5ce ( ! ^w g5re f biology to lit]ature be only analogy1 ev5 if ,croce's d5ial t a lit]>y =m is directive ( ! arti/ be ju/ifi$1 we mu/ /ill use ! t]ms drama & epic4 ,f ,ari/otle d[n1 criticism has us$ !m n only = conv5i5ce1 b because 9 fact !re 7 two typical ways ( ext5sive imag9ative composition 9 words1 v>y+ 9 detail b con/ant ess5tially1 & always %>ply di/9ct4 ,:e!r ^! %\ld r be call$ types or modes ?an =ms is a "q = lat] consid]ation4 ,= ! purposes ( ! pres5t review ! t]ms drama & epic connote only habits ( composition univ]sally recogniz$4 ,! two discuss$ by ,ari/otle z types are 9 fact se5 z types to p]si/4 ,! habits ( drama h rema9$ typically di/9ct f ^? ( n>rative1 & h *ang$ f> less4 ,to add ,s5ecan trag$y to its ,greek prototype1 & to m>k ! di/9ctive traits ( ,lat9 com$y1 w bo? fill out ,ari/otle's summ>y & %[ 9 :at =ms classical influ5ces came fir/ to mod]n drama4 ,n>rative 9 ! anci5t _w develop$ along few l9es4 ,its poetic art long rema9$ epic4 ,?is art 0 at once foll[$ by ,v]gil & recreat$4 ,! neid is ! great exempl> ( all t is fruitful 9 lit]>y influ5ce4 ,! ,hell5i/ic art t ,v]gil reject$ 0 cultivat$ by ,apuleius & ran to se$ 9 ! ,greek prose romances4 ,meantime x 0 practis$ ) facile brilliancy by ! ,lat9 poet :om ! middle ages knew bett] ev5 ?an !y knew ,v]gil--,ovid4 ,sett+ aside1 !n1 all m9or =ms1 & 9 ! two major =ms all b :at is typical1 we may v5ture to survey anci5t poetic1 fir/ 9 ,greek trag$y1 ) ,s5ecan trag$y = contra/ & ,lat9 com$y = supplem5t1 !n 9 ,v]gilian epic1 ) ,ovidian n>rative = contra/ & ,apuleius = div]g5ce4 ,i4 ,,drama ,a4 ,,greek ,,trag$y#a ,at fir/ glance ,greek trag$y /rikes ! mod]n /ud5t z f9i%$4 ,its hi/orical p]iod is def9ite4 ,x grew2 x matur$2 x di$4 ,its /rictly dramatic influ5ce appe>s to be %>ply limit$4 ,inop]ative z a mode ( repres5tation1 inde$ almo/ unkn[n1 9 ! middle ages & ! e>ly ,r5aissance1 x seems at fir/ to h be5 reviv$ 9 mod]n times only = ar*ological reproduction1 z ! models ( ,greek ar*itecture 9 museums4 ,ev5 if su* a view 7 j--& x is n--,greek trag$y w\ld compel att5tion by %e] arti/ic em95ce4 ,x c no m be ignor$ ?an ,go?ic ar*itecture4 ,x is "o ( ! great arti/ic a*ievem5ts ( ! human _s4 ,b no su* arti/ic a*ievem5t is ev] f9i%$ 9 ! s5se ( be+ relegat$ to a museum4 ,its em95ce con/itutes a presumption ( vitality4 ,go?ic ar*itecture1 ?\gh held 9 abeyance & ev5 =gott5 = c5turies1 is aga9 op]ative4 ,x compels att5tion to-day n only 9 reproductions1 b 9 creation4 ,greek trag$y has pr(\ndly influ5c$ mod]n playwrit+4 ,its increas+ reappe>ance to-day 9 revivals1 & ! di/9ction ( c]ta9 imitations su* z ,samson ,agoni/es1 are less important ?an its influ5ce on mod]n dramaturgy1 z 9 ,rac9e & aga9 9 ,ibs5 & f9ally 9 c]ta9 /rik+ plays ( our own "t4 ,?is vitality implies t ! ,greek exp]i5ce1 9 especially happy conditions ( /age & audi5ce1 ?r\gh a p]iod ( extraord9>y arti/ic competition1 0 fruitful n m]ely 9 skilful adaptation to ^? conditions1 b 9 dramatic pr9ciples4 7#a74 ,!at] & ,audi5ce ,! emotions t are enhanc$ by repres5tation be=e a cr[d are typically su* z are be/ felt by ! cr[d toge!r1 su* z are communal4#b ,greek drama began1 accord+ to tradition1 9 ! rites celebrat$ by ! :ole village to honor ,dionysus1 ! god ( f]tility & en?usiasm4 ,9 ! %\t+1 s++ *orus !re 7 at fir/ no actors 9 ! mod]n s5se2 b t 0 because 9 a broad] s5se all 7 actors4 ,!re 0 rude1 impromptu mimic action4 ,!re 0 probably a good deal ( improvis$ v]se by individuals1 & probably a good deal ( recurr+ refra9 by ! :ole cr[d4 ,out ( ?is communal imp]sonation ( ! /ory ( ,dionysus grew v naturally individual imp]sonations ( ! god & ( 8 m prom95t my?ical att5dants1 ! cr[d respond+ ) impromptu v>iations ( ! famili> refra94 ,e cr[d produces a lead]4 ,! lead] ( ! ,greek *orus became an actor 9 ! mod]n s5se ( tak+1 a fix$ "p4 ,9 "t o!r fix$ p>ts 7 assign$ to individuals1 till ! mimic action _h a def9ite dialogue2 b ! *orus p]si/$ z repres5tative ( ! :ole community4 ,!n1 z always1 came ! individual g5ius to disc]n ! capacity ( :at _h gr[n up among ! p1 to reveal & enl>ge t capacity1 & to fix a great =m ( art4 ,! %ap+ ( drama by s*ylus & its developm5t by ,sophocles & by ,euripides express$1 inde$1 individual g5ius2 b no less !y express$ ! ideals ( ! ,greek race & rema9$ answ]able to ! orig9al popul> impulse4 ,! ,greek audi5ce dur+ ! great p]iod ( drama felt n only t ! *orus *ant+ 9 ! or*e/ra 0 its repres5tative1 b t x 0 itself z a body assi/+ at a communal celebration4 ,always ! enact+ ( leg5d or hi/ory kn[n to e spectator by he>t1 ! drama 0 always judg$ /]nly n only by its poetic beauty1 b by its fai?fulness to communal beliefs & feel+s4 ,its success 0 measur$ by ! feel+ ( ! community4 ,s ! great op5-air ,greek !at] 0 made = ! community4 ,x sup]s$$ ! unfurni%$ hillside z ! community pass$ m & m f p>ticipants to spectators2 b x rema9$1 to a degree r>ely realiz$ 9 mod]n times1 communal4 ,= ,greek trag$y1 ev5 at its height1 nev] lo/ its rem9isc5ces ( ritual4 ,e repres5tation be+ an act ( religion1 ! !at] cr[d1 unit$ by a common rite1 0 ! m s5sitive to common sympa?ies4 ,t ! !at] is = ! cr[d1 n = ! individual1 has be5 realiz$ by playwrights ( e age2 b ! fir/ great age ( drama op5$ ?is peculi> opportunity ( dramaturgy wide/ because its cr[d 0 unifi$4 ,! communal s5se ( tradition 0 focus$ by religion4 7#b74 ,diction ,remembrance ( ?is fact has l$ _m mod]n read]s :o h nev] se5 a ,greek play to conceive ,greek trag$y z =mal & rigid4 ,?is is mu* ! same error z supposes ,greek ar*itecture & /atu>y to h be5 :ite4 ,x is an illusion ( "t4 ,greek build+s & /atues became :ite :5 no h&s 7 left to re/ore _! colors4 ,greek trag$ies became =mal & rigid :5 !y pass$ f ! /age to ! closet1 :5 !y lo/ ! rhy?ms ( dance & ( phrase4 ,) e revival ( !m ^u ! mod]n /age ! illusion is dispell$4 ,inde$1 x c be brok5 by m]ely read+ !m al\d4 ,nev]!less1 ?\gh !y %[ to an exceptional degree t l>g] movem5t :i* ,ari/otle f\nd to be a dramatic ess5tial1 !y 7 /ately 9 ge/ure & 9 l9es4 ,ev5 )\t ! associations ( religion1 ! v size ( ! !at] w\ld h preclud$ ! facial play t is a ma9 reliance ( mod]n act+1 & induc$ 9 ! op5 air a deliv]y sometimes oratorical & always l>ge4 ,! tragic mask & co?urnus 7 adaptations to a great op5-air space4 ,to ! same physical conditions 7 adapt$ ! r5dition & ! l9es !mselves4#c ,! diction ( ,greek trag$y1 ?\gh v>y+ widely ( c\rse f poet to poet1 has c]ta9 recognizable con/ants4 ,x is g5]ally sonor\s1 s5t5ti\s1 &1 to a degree nev] surpass$1 direct4 ,x realizes fully ! emotional appeal ( rhy?m2 = ?\gh its dialogue has less rhy?mical v>iety ?an ,%aksp]e's1 x r>ely lapses into monotony1 & x is reliev$ by ! abundant imag]y & metrical v>iety ( ! *orus4 ,greek tragic dialogue is typically au/]e4 ,x r>ely amplifies1 = x is poetry1 n oratory2#d b x makes e ^w c\nt dramatically4 ,! ideal ( economy is felt ev5 9 ! diction4 ,passages ( n>rative1 su* z ^? ( mess5g]s1 are made dramatically effective n only by situation1 b by v>iations ( tone & tempo4 ,effects ( /yle may seem to h preoccupi$ criticism too mu* unless we rememb] t ! ,a!nian audi5ce 0 habitually s5sitive to rhy?m1 & t x 0 nev] di/ract$ by novelty ( /ory f att5tion to ! dramati/'s art4 ,t ! f9al t\* ( ?is art 0 ! rhy?mical f9i%+ ( ! l9es !re c be no d\bt4 ,nor is dramatic v]se a m]e traditional conv5tion4#e ,obvi\sly x is appropriate to hi/orical dignity2 b beyond ?is we become aw>e1 ev5 f read+1 mu* m f he>+1 t ! v]se subtly & con/antly enhances ! emotion by enri*+ ! connotation4 ,x is n m]ely rhy?m add$ to =ce1 ?\gh h[ mu* rhy?m1 ev5 9 prose1 is wor? dramatically e good actor kn[s4 ,x is n ev5 poetry add$ to drama4 ,x is an elem5t p]meat+ & integral4 ,good dramatic v]se1 to say no?+ ( ! be/1 is n a lyrical addition1 n a decoration1 b z truly a dramatic means z ! o!r means ( *>act]ization4 ,t is :y ! tradition ( e great /age1 su* z ! ,comdie ,franaise1 lays di/9ct /ress on rhy?mical r5dition2 & t is :y ! dramatic rhy?ms ( ,greek trag$y are /ill inspir+4 ,nor is ev5 ?is ! f9al value ( v]se 9 ,greek trag$y4 ,su* v]se enhances ! *>act]ization n only 9 detail by wid5+ ! opportunity ( ! actor to convey mood & emotion1 b g5]ally by enhanc+ ! poetry4 ,! typical me?od ( ,greek tragic *>act]ization is to idealize4 ,! mighty figures ( ! pa/1 remote f ! urg5cies ( our confus+ pres5t1 confirm our fai? t man may dom9ate & direct 8 _w = good1 or1 :5 !y too fail1 reveal ) l>g] tru? ! tragic flaws ( humanity & ! hope ( its reg5]ation4 ,mod]n hi/ory plays1 z well z anci5t1 are poetic 9 diction ultimately because !y are poetic 9 conception1 z ,greek drama 0 at once tradition & poetry4 ,! ^w audi5ce1 :i* 9 its etymological sugge/ions has seem$ inappropriate to a mod]n cr[d ga!r$ r = see+ ?an = he>+1 is entirely appropriate to ! ,greek !at]4 ,! visual values ( repres5tation 71 inde$1 realiz$ 9 ge/ure & pose1 ?\gh less 9 sc5]y & spectacle2 !y 7 realiz$ z nev]1 p]haps1 s9ce 9 gr\p movem5ts2 b ! auditory values1 ! s\nd+ l9e1 ! phrase h>mony ( ! *ant1 always enhanc$ repres5tation by /rong rhy?mical sugge/ion4 ,a ,greek trag$y 0 9 a real s5se1 ?\gh its music 0 simply melodic1 a symphony4 7#c74 ,*orus ,! symbol ( ! communal import ( ,greek trag$y & ( its *>act]i/ic =m is ! *orus4 ,f be+ almo/ ! :ole ! *orus dw9dl$ dramatically to a subord9ate "p4 ,! inf]5ce1 h[ev]1 t x 0 outgr[n1 t except = hi/orical /udy x is negligible1 is unw>rant$4 ,ev5 ,euripides us$ ! *orus dramatically2 & ,ari/otle urges1 n t x be aboli%$1 b t x be made an integral "p1 "o ( ! actors4 ,nor 7 ! practise & ! !ory m]e concession to ,greek conv5tion4 ,! *orus 0 9 fact dramatic4#f ,too readily conceiv+ x 9 t]ms ( our meag] mod]n exp]i5ce1 z 9 op]a1 critics (t5 seem to h =gott5 t ! ,greek *orus furni%$ n prim>ily tableau or gr\p+ or ev5 pageantry 9 a wid] s5se1 b *ant+ & danc+4 ,t danc+ may be highly dramatic we h b rec5tly r$iscov]$4 ,ari/otle#g knew dance z compass+ ! :ole range ( bodily expression4 ,f> f be+ m]ely a lyric int]lude1 ! *orus (f]$ di/9ct dramatic possibilities4 ,to beg9 )1 ! comb9ation ( *oral dance & *ant+ has a direct appeal to ! simpl] emotions t are communal2 & 9 ,greek drama x enhances ! idealiz+ ( communal fe>s & beliefs & aspirations4 ,! idealism ( ,greek trag$y is convey$ l>gely by ! *orus4 ,!n ! *orus is us$ to enhance ! emotion ( a prec$+ sc5e by it]at+ x sympa!tically1 or by recoil+ 9 prote/1 or by reflect+ on x sub specie t]nitatis4 ,?us are a*iev$ ! relief ( v>iety & also an int]m$i>y effect1 ! effect ( spectators ( ! action itself int]pret+ to ! spectators ( ! play4 ,! v>iety br\ght ab\t by ! *oral ?rong 0 ! m m>k$ because ! actors 7 few4 ,9 ! *orus 7 _m opportunities = repres5tation ( ! human _w ab\t ^! isolat$ individuals1 & = dramatic symbolism ?r\gh ! gr\p movem5ts ( ! dance4 ,! *oral dance1 always symbolic1 _h be5 develop$ f simple1 primitive =ms to a f9e art4 ,! prelim9>y to e dramatic production 0 ! public grant+ ( a *orus2 & ! tra9+ ( ?is *orus by ! dramati/ himself 0 a ma9 "p ( rehe>sal4 ,! *orus is associat$ 9 e "o's ?\ght ( ,greek trag$y inevitably & fitly4 ,x is n m]ely an ar*aic conv5tion2 x is n m]ely a lyric accessory to drama2 x has dramatic possibilities :i* may yet1 if l>ge op5-air !at]s w9 aga9 a place 9 communal life1 be reviv$4 7#d74 ,!mes & ,p]son ,! rhy?mical effects ( diction & ( *oral dance are h>dly m *>act]i/ic ( ,greek trag$y ?an its unv>y+ use ( leg5d>y !mes & p]sons4 ,euripides is ?\ght to h *af$ )9 ^! conf9es1 to h be5 hamp]$ by ! conv5tional prescription ( old bottles = 8 new w9e4 ,9 any age ! playwright :o insi/s on ideas 9 advance ( 8 cr[d !reby sacrifices some?+ ( ! communal appeal4 ,b ev5 ,euripides kept outw>dly ! unwritt5 law1 & ,ari/otle#h accept$ x z "p ( 8 !ory4 ,x is evid5t t su* !mes & su* p]sons 7 a tragic conv5tion2 b ! conv5tion 0 /ill recogniz$ 9 ! middle ages2#i x 0 accept$ by ! ,r5aissance2 x 0 =mally adopt$ by ! ,fr5* sev5te5? c5tury2 & its be+ a conv5tion does n prove x any ! less dramatic4 ,)\t disp>ag+ ! ga9 to mod]n trag$y f ! wid5+ ( ! tragic field we may take acc\nt ( ! typical values ( ! field ( tradition4 ,! field ( tradition is ipso facto ! field ( communal memories & aspirations &1 ev5 9 mod]n times1 ( my?4 ,?\gh ! re-creation ( my? may be artificial & remote1 t x ne$ n be s1 t x may on ! contr>y orig9ally express bo? ! poet & ! conceptions ( 8 audi5ce1 has be5 prov$ _m times1 & v conv9c+ly 9 our own "t by ,william ,vaughn ,moody's ,fire-br+]4 ,! fire ( ,prome!us is !re se51 ev5 aft] s*ylus1 ev5 aft] ,%elley1 to be undy+4 ,! mod]n sci5ce ( an?ropology1 inde$1 gives good gr\nd = ?9k+ bo? t my? is con/antly human & t by its v p]si/5ce1 z ( a primitive trait1 x op5s opportunities = drama4 ,! mod]n /udy ( folklore1 by recov]+ "s lo/ e*oes 9 ,greek trag$y1 has enhanc$ its significance4 ,folk sup]/itions1 ?\gh !y retire f public gaze be=e m sophi/icat$ conv5tions1 are sl[ to die4 ,^? :i* h become m]e curi\s lore are ( c\rse dead dramatically2 b ^? :i* express p]si/5t human ye>n+s may be all ! m vital dramatically because !y are primitive4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 is ! folk-tale ( ! fairy mi/ress1 ! woman ( une>?ly beauty :o has ! magic to enri* ! man %e loves ) joy & p[]4 ,widespread ov] we/]n ,europe 9 ! middle ages1 x has roots 9 remote antiquity4 ,euripides made x1 n z ! m$ieval writ]s ! /ory ( ! delusion ( ! man1 b ! trag$y ( ! woman4 ,9 v>y+ =ms x has recurr$ aga9 & aga94 ,9 ,walt] ,map's amaz+ tale ( ,g]b]t#aj x concludes ^u p5ance & r5unciation4 ,9 ,f\qu's ,und9e its native =ce is dissipat$ 9 s5tim5t4 ,a dead sup]/ition1 on ! o!r h&1 has no dramatic appeal4 ,?\gh we admire ! /eadfa/ piety t agonizes ov] ! unburi$ body ( a bro!r1 we c no long] appreciate ! situation ( ,antigone z fully tragic2 = we h lo/ irrevocably ! anci5t sup]/ition f :i* x spr+s4 ,b ,m$ea ) h] p[] to bless & ban h] lov]1 & ) h] une>?ly capacity = suff]+1 :o w v5ture to say t %e is dead8 ,t %e is primitive gives h] only ! m p[] to walk ! /age to-morr[4 ,my?ical idealiz+ is readily symbolic4 ,b 9 ,greek trag$y direct symbolism1 except 9 ! *orus1 is n common4 ,r ?an z symbolical1 ! leg5d>y figures appe> z typical4 ,x is z typical t ! 8illu/ri\s p]sons0 are recomm5d$ by ,ari/otle & repres5t$ by ! dramati/s t he exp\nds4 ,prome!us1 ,h]acles1 ,agamemnon1 ,m$ea1 are *os5 z em95t n 9 rank1 z "s ,fr5* dramati/s are accus$ ( ?9k+1 b 9 typically human traits4 ,!y %[ gr&ly & conspicu\sly :at obscurely is suff]$ by u all4 8,!re y & ,i & all ( u fell d[n40 ,!y are race h]oes2 we communally feel 9 !m ! race gho/4 ,& ! m my?ical !y are1 ! m we c feel ! /ruggle ( all human k9d4 ,= ! v limitations on !mes sets ,greek trag$y 9 %>p] relief aga9/ mod]n z exhibit+ ! dramatic vitality ( leg5d4 ,p]sonages s fix$ d1 inde$1 t5d to preclude bo? novelty & subtlety ( *>act]ization4 ,9 ?is reg>d ,euripides1 especially 9 8 ,m$ea1 is sometimes exceptional4 ,g5]ally ! *>act]ization ( ,greek trag$y is broad & simple4 ,! p]son are tak5 full-bl[n1 at "s reveal+ crisis4 ,b mod]n exp]i5ce ) plays & ) novels confirms ! impression t broad *>act]ization is g5]ally m effective be=e an audi5ce2 subtle1 m9ute1 or cumulative1 ) an individual read]4 ,9 ?is application1 too1 we may take ,ari/otle's say+ t plot is m important 9 drama1 "* 9 epic4 ,b le/ we sep>ate "* f plot unduly1 we mu/ rememb] t ! movem5t ( ,greek trag$y is n m]ely ( ev5ts1 b ( human w4 ,w is ! exhibition ( "* 9 action4 ,x is ! ma9spr+ ( e tragic crisis4 ,at once ! simple/ & ! /ronge/ expression ( "*1 x animates ,greek trag$y because x animates almo/ all trag$y4#aa s*ylus 9 ,prome!us ,b\nd promises ! victory ( h]oic =titude4 ,sophocles 9 ,k+ dipus conveys ! agony ( ass]tive individuality at f9d+ ! /ruggle = self-fulfillm5t va91 & br+s ev5 innoc5t willfulness to wreck4 ,euripides sees ! tragic conflict ( ! traditional bloodwite ) rev]5ce to a "m z lead+ to madness4 ,)9 ! compass ( ! few dramas left to u f ! ,greek /age ! trag$ies ( human w 9 a few typical p]sonages are se5 to be z v>i\s z !y are conv9c+4 ,ev5 ! ri* v>iety ( ! great ,elizabe?an p]iod does n make !m seem meag]4 ,r !y exhibit ! dramatic ri*ness ( ! typical4 ,by ! v fact ( be+ embodi$ 9 fle% & blood any 8illu/ri\s p]son0 beg9s to be real4 ,ev5 ! allegorical figure ( ,ev]yman 9 ! m$ival morality--& ! ,greek dramatis p]son 7 nev] allegorical--has held mod]n audi5ces because ea* spectator recogniz$ himself ) 8 secret foes & fri5ds4 ,t ! p]sons ( ! ,greek /age 7 few & famili>1 !n1 0 n ( itself a disadvantage4 ,! trag$ies ( a few fam\s families c /rike pity & fe> into all families :o "k ! bitt]ness ( hate4 ,moreov]1 ! re/riction to famili> !mes1 ! exclusion ( novelty f plot1 focus$ att5tion ^u conception & movem5t4 ,playwright & audi5ce alike look$ = orig9ality n 9 subject1 b 9 art4 ,comp>ison ( play ) play 0 readi] & m specific2 & ! competition ( ! /age 0 almo/ purely arti/ic4 7#e74 ,plot ,plot 9 ,greek trag$y1 ! movem5t ( ! :ole play1 is discuss$ s ext5sively by ,ari/otle t little ne$ be add$4 ,= 8 preoccupation ) ,sophocles h>dly makes 8 exposition ! less compreh5sive4 ,lat] criticism has g5]ally accept$ ,sophocles z hi/orically midway betwe5 ! occasional ar*aism ( s*ylus & ! occasional mod]nism ( ,euripides1 z typical ( ,greek dramatic habits1 & z ! greate/ ,greek ma/] ( plot4 ,sophocles1 z has be5 (t5 po9t$ out1 int5sifi$ drama by mak+ 8 unit n ! trilogy1 b ! s+le play1 by develop+ a s+le !me ) a cle> conflict1 & by mak+ its int]action self-suffici5t ?r\gh ! use ( a ?ird actor4 ,euripides1 on ! o!r h&1 seems to c>e less = totality1 ?\gh he a*ieves x 9 "s plays1 notably 9 ! ,m$ea4 ,8 use ( a sep>able prologue in/ead ( dramatic exposition )9 ! play has be5 condemn$ z impati5t2#ab & ! vividness ( 8 l9es1 especially 9 description1 has be5 disp>ag$ z di/ract+4 ,9 all ?is ! art ( ,sophocles is no m em95t ?an x is typical4 ,he is ! %9+ example ( ,greek arti/ic economy4 ,?is *>act]i/ic economy ( ,greek tragic art makes x p]man5tly inspir+ to playwrights4 ,mod]n audi5ces1 be+ less consci\s ( art1 may f9d ! economy sometimes too close2 b playwrights disc]n 9 x bo? a triumph ( te*nic & an example4 ,= ! revolt aga9/ ev5 ! 8unities0 ( ! ,fr5* classic /age sp5t its =ce long ago4 ,meantime ! w> ( ! romantici/s aga9/ ! classici/s %\ld make cle>1 :at ! greate/ dramati/s h always und]/ood1 t unity 9 drama is valuable only z a means to coh]5ce4 ,its only raison d'tre is to cle> ! way = /eady movem5t & to lead t movem5t to a conv9c+ issue4 ,n[ 9 ?is compell+ =ce ( movem5t ,greek drama1 especially 9 ! h&s ( ,sophocles1 rema9s by common cons5t a model ( tragic art4 ,t ev5 audi5ces habituat$ to v>iety & tol]ant ( loos5ess w /ill feel ?is =ce is sugge/$ by revivals ( increas+ frequ5cy1 by ! em95ce1 ev5 9 a p]iod ( v diff]5t dramatic habits1 ( su* plays z ,o!llo1 & by ! delib]ate pref]5ce ( "s rec5t dramati/s#ac = ! ,greek model4 ,b :e!r s+le1 /eady movem5t ?r\gh a limit$ "t be a p]man5t dramatic pr9ciple or n1 at lea/ x is *>act]i/ically ,greek4 ,:at "o editor says ( ! ,antigone ( ,sophocles might be said ( ,greek trag$y g5]ally3 8!re is no halt+ 9 ! m>* ( ! drama40#ad ,?is effect is br\ght ab\t te*nically by focus+ on a s+le sc5e & a cont9u\s critical p]iod4#ae ,! :ole trag$y1 z has be5 qua9tly said1 is compress$ )9 ! fif? act2 or1 to speak 9 /ill m mod]n t]ms1 ! ,greeks compos$ _! trag$ies z long "o-act plays4 ,su* a play diff]s f ,h5ry ,,iv or ,a ,w9t]'s ,tale ess5tially2 x diff]s f ,o!llo only 9 removable accid5ts4 ,! *>act]i/ic is n brevity1 nor ev5 unity1 b cont9uity4 ,t ! habit ( cont9uity 0 fo/]$ by ,greek /age conditions1 ! habit ( discont9uity by ,elizabe?an1 !re c be no d\bt2 b nei!r c !re be any d\bt t ! ,greek /age conditions 7 modifi$ m ?an once by a dramati/1 or t ! ,elizabe?an /age conditions did n det]m9e ! gr[? ( ,%aksp]e's art4 ,9 bo? great ages a dramati/ took ! /age z he f\nd x1 b built up 8 dramatic te*nic z he *ose4 ,! cont9uity ( ,greek trag$y is n m]ely a fact ( ar*ology2 x is an a*ievem5t ( te*nic4 ,! limit+ to a s+le place & "t has be5 object$ to z =c+ (f-/age "s ev5ts t ! audi5ce w\ld l to see1 & z unnaturally cr[d+ ! action4 ,9 a ^w1 ! "o-act =m1 = an action ( "s magnitude1 has be5 call$ artificial4 ,any =m may seem artificial if x is realiz$ imp]fectly2 & ! limits ( ?is =m impose m]ely a high] degree ( ! difficulty inh]5t 9 any dramatic =m1 ! difficulty ( focus4 ,ev5 a five-act play imposes limits1 prescribes selection1 by ! v conditions ( ! /age itself4 ,! peculi> opportunity aris+ f ! /age conditions ( ! ,greek !at] 0 disc]n$ to be emotional int5sity4 ,int5sity has ev5 be5 urg$ z ! *>act]i/ic opportunity ( all drama4 ,:e!r ?is be grant$ or n1 und\bt$ly ! ,greeks conceiv$ drama s1 & develop$ _! te*nic accord+ly4 ,!y work$ = int5sity4 ,?\gh !y 7 n cont5t ) two actors1 !y 7 cont5t ) "o /age set & ) "o p]iod ( "t4 ,n only s1 b ! difficulties ( _! =m /imulat$ _! art4 ,9 ^! conditions playwrights height5$ int5sity by a te*nic ( progressive cont9uity4 ,s mu* = ! idea beh9d ! objections4 ,! p>ticul> *>ges seem h>dly to hold4 ,:at is =c$ (f ! /age ( ,greek drama1 or ( any drama8 ,surely no?+ t ! dramati/ wi%es to h on-/age1 or 8 art is imp]fect4 ,t ! frequ5t murd]s are only he>d1 n se51 is due n to any exig5cies ( =m1 b to social conv5tion & to ! idea t dy+ is less tragic ?an dea?4 ,= ! re/1 to put %ift+ human life on a fix$ /age1 ev5 ) lib]ty to repres5t m ?an "o place & "t1 always involves =e%ort5+4 ,art _c h ! diffus5ess ( life4 ,x works by selection4 ,! ,greek tragic arti/s *ose to c>ry selection to ! highe/ degree4 ,t ?is ev5t or t ( ! tragic /ory is report$ by a mess5g]1 n enact$ be=e our eyes1 is n a h9drance to ! tragic m>*1 n ! make%ift conc$$ to an intractable =m4 ,let ! spee* ( a ,greek mess5g] be read al\d1 or bett]1 let x be act$2 & x w no long] be call$ undramatic4#af ,add its dramatic value 9 context1 its relation to ! sc5e t x ent]s2 & no d\bt w rema94 ,! possibilities ( n>rative on ! /age1 ?\gh !y seem to h be5 =gott5 by _m ,engli% playwrights1 are cle>4 ,b ! ,greek dramati/ did make a virtue ( necessity4 ,he sometimes us$ a mess5g]1 dramatically inde$1 b p]=ce4 ,:at we he> f a mess5g] we c\ld n see )\t *ange ( sc5e4 ,?is 0 ! dramati/'s sacrifice1 n to =malism1 b to cont9uity4 ,to t end he w\ld h made ev5 great] sacrifice4 ,! spe$+ ( ! action beyond ! normal pace ( life is n conf9$ to ?is =m4 ,x is a condition ( all drama4 ,nor does ,greek drama seem ei!r cr[d$ or hurri$4 ,?\gh ev5ts may foll[ ?ick & fa/1 ! ,greek movem5t is typically unhurri$4 ,x has /ead9ess f c>eful prep>ation2 x ga9s mom5tum z x advances2 x culm9ates swiftly2 x dim9i%es to a sl[ & quiet close4 ,t trag$y %\ld h a full close1 c>ry+ ! action ?r\gh to a 1 or /ate ( re/1 mu/ h be5 ) ! ,greeks a pr9ciple2 = x 0 an almo/ inv>iable habit4 ,?\gh ! trag$ies ( o!r & lat] nations d n always end s1 !y too h ! full close (t5 en\gh to sugge/ t audi5ces g5]ally desire x4#ag ,:e!r or n ?is is true ( audi5ces1 x seems true ( playwrights 9 proportion z !y "w1 z ! ,greeks work$1 = s+l5ess4 ,9 ,greek trag$y ! end cr[ns ! "w 9 ! s5se t ! close completes ! int]pretation4 ,! close ( ! action is ! issue ( ! *>act]ization4 ,*>act]ization 9 ,greek trag$y1 m consi/5tly ?an 9 any o!r1 is motivation4 ,9 "s ,greek plays x (f]s h>dly any?+ else4 ,! *>act]s are drawn = ! play1 n = !mselves4 ,! 8"p0 is subord9at$ to ! !me4 ,:5 we see t ?is is true ev5 = ,m$ea1 a 8"p0 to be covet$ by any mod]n actress1 we realize t ! significance ( ! :ole play 0 habitually 9 ! ,greek conception ! ma9 object4 ,?is expla9s ! full close z ! goal ( a /eady movem5t1 & z ! f9al /age ( ! idealization :i* habitually %ap$ bo? *>act]s & plot4 ,& :]e a mod]n playwright has work$ ) ! same int5tion1 we f9d aga9 & aga91 z 9 ,o!llo1 ! same full close4 ,! ultimate te*nical "q1 !n1 is ,:at is cont9uity wor?8 ,euripides compos$ sometimes z if x 7 wor? less ?an sali5ce4 ,he has ev5 be5 call$ romantic2 & ! influ5ce ( ,greek trag$y1 s9ce x 0 ov]:elm+ly 8 among ! ,romans & 9 ! middle ages1 may seem aft] all to be h>dly ! influ5ce ( ,sophoclean movem5t4 ,b ! great influ5ce ( ,euripides is l>gely ( 8 poetry ap>t f 8 dramaturgy4 ,x reigns ?r\gh a "t :5 trag$y 0 wan+1 & ?r\gh a lat] "t :5 !re 0 h>dly any drama at all4 ,he is /ill ! mo/ int]e/+ ( ,greek dramati/s to read4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ^? ( 8 plays :i* are n[ mo/ effective z /age p]=mances h ! typical ,greek cont9uity2 nor does he (t5 dep>t f ! type v f>4 ,t ! type has a controll+ idea ( cont9uity is evid5t4 ,to ! ,greek dramati/s g5]ally cont9uity seem$ to be wor? mu* te*nical labor & ev5 mu* sacrifice4 ,! cr[n ( _! te*nical skill 0 to c>ry ! !me1 to develop x1 to fulfill x at ! la/4 ,beh9d ?is te*nic is an ideal ( s+l5ess4 ,! sacrifice to cont9uity spr+s f t ascesis :i* has be5 rem>k$ 9 o!r fields ( ,greek art4 ,x has ar\s$--x w always ar\se--! prote/ ( ! romantics4 ,an art ( s+l5ess1 lucidity1 cog5cy1 seems to !m1 z p]haps x seem$ already to ,euripides1 too f> remov$ f life4 ,& n ! romantici/s only1 b aft] !m ! reali/s1 h dem&$ a drama m l life itself1 fre]1 m v>i\s1 less compos$4 ,p]haps !re is no ultimate reconciliation1 or p]haps ! two conceptions are complem5t>y2 b ! ,greek trag$ians seem to answ] f _! plays3 art is n life2 x is idealization4 ,b4 ,,s5ecan ,,trag$y#ah ,h[ f> ! ,lat9 trag$y ( ! actual /age foll[$ ! great ,greeks we c only speculate f a few fragm5ts & f ! ref]5ces ( critics4 ,t ! lo/ ,m$ea ( ,ovid 0 ,greek 9 m ?an "n ! habit ( composition se5 9 ! ,h]oides leaves mu* d\bt4 ,c]ta9ly ! trag$ies ( ,s5eca1 :ile !y revive ! great names ( ,agamemnon1 ,hippolytus1 & ,m$ea1 nev] ent] ! great art ( ,a!ns4 ,inde$1 _! relevance at ?is juncture is = contra/4 ,a ,s5ecan prologue is n only a sep>able prefix2 x may be a summ>y ( ! :ole plot1 z ! prologue ( ,lat9 com$y4 ,sep>able ! ,s5ecan *orus is always 9 provid+ lyric int]ludes4 ,x w\ld !reby int]rupt ! action if ! trag$y _h ! ,greek onw>d c\rse2 b in/ead ,s5eca's viol5t sc5es are !mselves sep>able1 & 8 dialogue is sometimes a collection ( spee*es4 ,s5eca wrote tragic sc5es & spac$ !m ) lyric pauses2#ai he did n ga!r mom5tum = a total impression4 ,he made 8 p]son utt] _! feel+s2 he did n make !m int]act4 ,! famili> names1 ! famili> /ories1 only height5 ! contra/4 ,s5ecan trag$y is l ,greek trag$y only 9 non-ess5tials4 ,! ess5tials ( ,greek dramatic composition are n "h4 ,:at is "h is n poetic1 b rhetoric4 ,t ^! pieces 7 writt5 = recitation1 n = act+1 ! ext]nal evid5ce is /rong1 ?\gh n conclusive1#bj b ! int]nal evid5ce is abundant4#ba ,mo/ significant is ! feebl5ess ( plot4 ,m obvi\s is ! rhetorical me?od ( *>act]ization by typical traits1#bb ! me?od ( ! "* sket*es 77 9 s*ools = boys z x 0 exp&$ 9 ! s*ools = m5 "u ! ma/]s ( declamatio4 ,a me?od ess5tially oratorical1 x develop$ "u ! declamatores ( ! ,empire n creative conception1 b inv5tive +5uity & a preoccupation r ) /rik+ expression ?an ) consi/5cy4 ,mo/ obvi\s ( all1 writt5 l>ge on e page1 is ! swell+ rhetoric ( ! /yle4 ,n = no?+ did ?is poet be> ! "n ( ,s5eca4#bc ,to d5y t su* writ+ has a c]ta9 =ce is to =get :at x might become 9 ! m\? ( a tra9$ speak] & be=e an audi5ce taught to admire its di/9ctive effects2 to =get also h[ eag]ly ,s5eca 0 appropriat$ fifte5 c5turies lat]2 to =get f9ally t oratory 9 ! !at] has n yet lo/ all its appeal4 ,b :ile we grant to rhetoric "s %>e 9 ! poetic art1 we _c put ,s5ecan trag$y beside ! trag$y ( ,a!ns )\t see+ unmi/akably t su* art z x has is n ! di/9ctive art ( drama4 ,c4 ,,lat9 ,,com$y ,! plays ( ,plautus & ,t]5ce keep ! dramaturgy kn[n z ! ,new ,com$y1#bd ! com$y ( ,m5&]4 ,its figures1 alike 9 ,greek & 9 ,lat91 are types4 ,su* individualiz+ z may be disc]n$1 9 ! ,m5*mi = in/ance1 or ! ,self-torm5tor1 /&s out z exceptional4 ,com$y1 p]haps1 t5ds m ?an trag$y to ! typical4 ,at any rate1 ,lat9 com$y has a set ( p]son q fix$3#be two fa!rs1 two sons 9 love & 9 debt1 two daught]s ( romance or ( pleasure1 & two slaves to /ir ! intrigue4 ,!re might be a matron1 a slave-trad]1 & a bragg>t soldi]2 & !re w\ld be pretty surely a p>asite4 ,/ock figures involve conv5tionality also 9 plot4 ,"o ( !m may h a d\ble1#bf & ! plot may consi/ l>gely ( mi/ak+ "o = ! o!r2 or ! long-lo/ daught]1 z 9 ! declamationes & ! ,greek romances1 may h be5 kidnapp$ by pirates4 ,typical is ! plot ( ,t]5ce's ,phormio3 ,"o ,*remes _h a bro!r ,demipho1 :o wi%+ = "s cause abroad to g1 _h left 8 son "y ,antipho at home at ,a!ns1 :ile x pleas$ him ?us to roam4 ,?is ,*remes _h a wife & daught] too 9 ,lemnos domicil$1 t no "o knew2 ano!r "o at ,a!ns1 & an heir t desp]ately lov$ a h>p] fair4 ,f ,lemnos came ! "m ) ! maid to ,a!ns1 & !re di$4 ,! daught] paid ! la/ sad rites 7n[ ,*remes 0 away74 ,& s x came ab\t t on t day "y ,antipho ! orphan *ild espi$1 fell deep 9 love & took h] = 8 bride4 7'twas ?r\gh a p>asite 'twas br\ght ab\t74 ,! bro!rs com+ home ) rage broke out1 gave ?irty m9 to ! p>asite to take h] (f & m>ry h] outright4 ,) ?is !y buy ! girl t ,phdria priz$2 ! o!r keeps 8 bride n[ recogniz$4#bg ,9 ess5tials ?is is ! plot ( any ,lat9 com$y4 ,t ! ,greek orig9als ( ! ,new ,com$y 7 less cry/alliz$ is sugge/$ by l>g] fragm5ts recov]$ rec5tly2 & t ,m5&] 0 a creator ( plots may be inf]r$ f ! say+ report$ by ,plut>*3 8,i h made my com$y2 = ! plan is arrang$1 & ,i h only to write v]ses = x40#bh ,ev5 ) s few situations z 9 ,lat9 com$y !re is room = v>iety ( h&l+4 ,e>ly comm5tators di/+ui% ! modus motorius1#bi ! k9etic mode1 f ! /at>ius1 or /atic1 & f9d t ,t]5ce1 except 9 ! ,phormio1 t5ds to ! latt]4 ,b ev5 ! movem5t ( ,plautus is r bu/le & g ?an onw>d progress4 ,dramatic movem5t w h>dly be compell+ :]e motivation is s mu* f circum/ances & s little f "*4 ,modus motorius seems to imply r livel9ess ?an sequ5ce4 ,to ! l>ge1 miscellane\s1 & turbul5t ,roman audi5ce1 x has be5 plausibly sugge/$1 !re w\ld h be5 little appeal 9 cog5cy ( plot4 ,a c]ta9 dulness 9 ! audi5ce is sugge/$ by ! fact t ,t]5ce 0 reproa*$ = comb9+ two ,greek plots 9 "o ,lat9 play4 ,he prote/s1 naturally1 t ?is is 8 "r2 & ! ,phormio %[s 8 ability to weave an intrigue cle>ly & attractively4 ,! dramatic lack mi/ak5ly ascrib$ to 8 /ories is r ( sali5ce1 especially ( visibly significant action be=e our eyes4 ,t ?is c vivify ev5 conv5tional *>act]s 9 a conv5tional plot is ! *ief dramatic message ( ,plautus4 ,he tru/s ! intellig5ce ( 8 audi5ce s little z to make 8 prologue an oral program1 a catalogue raisonn1 explicit to ! la/ degree4#cj ,) ,t]5ce he resorts to ! aside1 ! soliloquy1 & ! conv5tion ( p on ! /age toge!r :o d n see ea* o!r--all ^! :5 !y c\ld be obviat$ by a little dramatic +5uity4 ,:]e ,plautus sp5ds 8 +5uity is on lively realism ( detail1 on abundance ( /age 8bus9ess40 ,he holds a sc5e1 turn+ & return+ a situation1 until he has us$ its :ole value4 ,?\gh ?is is sometimes tiresome = read+1 x %[s good !atrical s5se ( ! actual audi5ce4 ,he may h le>n$ x f act+4 ,no?+ is m in/ructive to playwrights ?an ?is fill+ ( a simple outl9e4 ,! habit is almo/ ! opposite ( ! compression ( ,greek trag$y1 & ! ,new ,com$y is d\btless inf]ior to trag$y 9 e po9t ( plot2 b none ! less x v9dicates cle>ly ! value & ! ,plaut9e me?od ( imag9ative amplification4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,all ! l>g] hi/ories ( ,greek lit]ature appraise ,greek trag$y1 trace its hi/ory1 & cite monographs = special /udy4 ,! /udy ( ,greek trag$y z drama %\ld beg9 ) ! plays !mselves4 ,^! %\ld be read--& ) happily increas+ frequ5cy !y may ev5 be se5--be=e read+ fur!r ab\t !m2 = !y are n[ available n only 9 _m editions1 b also 9 _m translations4 ,translation1 ?\gh x mu/ fall %ort or g wide ( ! orig9al diction1 conveys ! l>g] dramatic movem5t1 ! *>act]i/ic dramaturgy2 & ,sir ,gilb]t ,murray's translation ( ,ari/otle's ma9 example1 dipus ,rex1 seeks especially ! dramatic values4 ,v in/ructive comp>isons may be made by read+ all eight trag$ies pres5t+ ! /ory ( ,ore/es & 8 h\se1 ! 8,ore/eia03 ! ,agamemnon1 ,*oephor1 & ,eum5ides ( s*ylus1 ! only extant trilogy2 ! ,electra ( ,sophocles2 & ! ,ore/es1 ,electra1 ,iphig5ia 9 ,aulis1 & ,iphig5ia 9 ,tauris ( ,euripides4 ,beside ! dipus ,rex ( ,sophocles mo/ critics w\ld place 8 ,antigone2 & beside ! ,m$ea1 ! mo/ popul> play ( ,euripides1 8 ,alce/is & 8 ,trojan ,wom54 ,b x is no great task to read all extant ,greek trag$ies4 ,! g5]al "* ( ,greek dramaturgy & its hi/orical place are outl9$ at once concisely & sugge/ively by ,br&] ,mat!ws 9 8 ,developm5t ( ! ,drama 7,new ,york1 #aijc71 *apt] ii1 to :i* may be add$ *apt]s iii1 v1 viii1 ix1 & xiii ( 8 ,/udy ( ! ,drama 7,new ,york1 #aiaj74 ,t4 ,d4 ,goodell's ,a!nian ,trag$y 7,new ,hav51 #aibj7 is admirable4 ,gilb]t ,murray's ,euripides & ,8 ,age 7,london & ,new ,york1 #aiac7 discusses ,greek dramaturgy g5]ally 9 *apt]s iii1 viii1 & ix4 ,m inclusive works = ,engli% read]s are ,a4 ,e4 ,haigh's ,! ,attic ,!atre1 #c;d edition revis$ by ,a4 ,w4 ,pick>d-,cambridge 7,ox=d1 #aijg71 & ,r4 ,c4 ,flick+]'s ,! ,greek ,!atre & ,its ,drama 7,*icago1 #aiah74 ,^! few books are select$ z specifically in=m+ & sugge/ive = dramaturgy4 ,a long] selective li/ w be f\nd 9 ,l4 ,van,hook's ,greek ,life & ,?\ght 7,new ,york1 #aibc71 pages #caj-cab4 ,a compreh5sive bibliography1 s _m are ! hi/orical significances ( ,greek trag$y1 w\ld fill a volume4 #b ,?is p>agraph & ! foll[+ are adapt$ f ! au?or's ,writ+ & ,speak+1 pages #dab-dae4 #c 8,! words are s compos$ t _! full effect c be appreciat$ only ?r\gh ! cle> & rhy?mical enunciation ( an actor :o relies ma9ly on 8 voice40 ,j4 ,t4 ,%epp>d1 ,! dipus ,tyrannus ( ,sophocles translat$ & expla9$1 ,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 #aibj1 page ix4 #d ,see pages #abf1 #abg above on ! di/9ction made by pseudo-,long9us 7xi-xii7 betwe5 poetry & oratory4 #e ,p>ts ( ?is p>agraph & ! foll[+ are tak5 f ! au?or's ,a ,note on ! ,hi/ory ,play1 9 ,%akesp]ian ,/udies1 ,columbia ,univ]sity ,press1 #aiaf4 #f ,?is has n[h]e be5 bett] exp\nd$ ?an 9 ! n9? *apt] ( ,gilb]t ,murray's ,euripides & ,8 ,age1 ,london & ,new ,york 7,home ,univ]sity ,libr>y71 #aiac4 #g ,poetic1 #addg a4 ,see above1 pages #adj1 #adc4 #h ,poetic1 #adec a4 ,see above1 pages #ace1 #add1 #aee4 #i ,= in/ance1 ,*auc]'s ,monk says 9 8 prologue3 ,trag$ie is to seyn a c]teyn /orie1 ,z olde bokes mak5 u memorie1 ,( him t /ood 9 greet prosp]itee ,& is yfall5 out ( heigh degree ,into mis]ie1 & ende? wret*$ly4 ,cant]bury ,tales1 ,b4 #cafc4 #aj ,de ,nugis ,curialium1 ,,iv4 xi4 ,map's collection conta9s sev]al o!r =ms ( ! same /ory or ( relat$ /ories4 #aa ,brunetire's po9t 7,annales du ,?tre1 #ahic7 is well int]pret$ by ,br&] ,mat!ws1 ,! ,developm5t ( ! ,drama1 page #bj1 & aga9 9 ,a ,/udy ( ! ,drama1 *apt] v4 #ab ,z to ?is see ,gilb]t ,murray1 ,euripides & ,8 ,age1 page #bje4 #ac ,see above1 page #afc4 #ad ,e4 ,s4 ,%uckburgh's edition ( ! ,antigone1 ,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 #aijh1 page xvii4 #ae ,n t !re 7 nev] lapses ( "t or %ifts ( place 7see ,mat!ws1 ,a ,/udy ( ! ,drama1 ,*apt] xiii1 & ,goodell1 page #hb71 b t ,greek trag$ies move habitually )\t "t-break & 9 a s+le /age-sett+4 #af ,murray1 op4 cit41 page #bab4 #ag ,see above1 pages #adg1 #adi1 #aej1 #afa4 #ah ,! plays ascrib$ to ,l4 ,annu ,s5eca 7di/+ui%$ z 8! y\ng]0 or 8! philosoph]10 circ4 #d ,b4,c4-#fe ,a4,d47 are dipus1 ,phniss1 ,m$ea1 ,h]cules ,fur5s1 ,hippolytus 7or ,phdra71 ,h]cules tu1 ,?ye/es1 ,troades1 ,agamemnon4 ,_! au?or%ip is discuss$ by ,e4 ,c4 ,*ick]+ 9 ,an introduction to ,octavia ,prtexta1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj 7,columbia diss]tation71 :i* also conta9s a brief acc\nt ( ,roman trag$y1 reviews ! "q ( ! /age production ( ,s5eca1 & discusses 8 rank z trag$ian4 ,ella ,i4 ,h>ris's ,two trag$ies ( ,s5eca1 ,m$ea & ! ,daught]s ( ,troy1 r5d]$ into ,engli% v]se1 ,bo/on1 #ahih 7all t51 ,new ,york1 #aijd71 summ>izes ,s5ecan influ5ce on ,engli% drama4 ,see fur!r ,j4 ,w4 ,cunliffe's ,! influ5ce ( ,s5eca on ,elizabe?an trag$y1 ,new ,york1 #ahic4 ,all ! ,s5ecan trag$ies are includ$ 9 ,! trag$ies ( ,s5eca translat$ into ,engli% v]se1 to :i* h be5 app5d$ comp>ative analyses ( ! correspond+ ,greek & ,roman plays 444 by ,f4 ,j4 ,mill]1 introduc$ by an essay on ! influ5ce ( ! trag$ies ( ,s5eca ^u e>ly ,engli% drama by ,j4 ,m4 ,manly1 ,*icago1 #aijg4 ,mill]'s translation is publi%$ also 9 ! ,loeb ,classical ,libr>y4 #ai ,*ick]+ sugge/s 7page #de7 a resemblance to gr& op]a4 #bj ,x is review$ by ,*ick]+4 #ba 8,ce sont des ex]cices de dclamation1 des recueils factices de morceaux de brav\re crits p\r la lecture40 ,g4 ,mi*aud1 ,le gnie lat91 ,p>is1 #aijj1 page #aaf4 #bb ,see above1 pages #ga-b & foot-note #h4 8,quant aux c>actres c'e/ du /oicisme dc\p en p]sonnages40 ,e4 ,nageotte1 ,hi/oire de la littrature lat9e1 page #dfi4 #bc ,s5eca 8! eld]10 or ! rhetorician1 9 8 collection ( ,controv]si1 is ! *ief s\rce ( our k ( declamatio4 ,see ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,ii4 #bd ,see ,legr&1 ,p4 ,e41 ,tableau de la comdie grecque p5dant la priode dite n\velle-- 2 translat$ z ,! ,new ,greek ,com$y by ,james ,loeb1 ) introduction by ,john ,williams ,:ite1 ,london & ,new ,york1 #aiag4 ,an e>li] /udy quot$ bel[ is ,lalli]1 ,r41 ,la comdie n\velle1 introduction l'tude du ?tre de ,tr5ce 7leon d'ouv]ture71 ,t\l\se1 #ahgf4 ,rec5t ,engli% translations ( ,plautus are3 by ,paul ,nixon 9 ! ,loeb ,classical ,libr>y 7#b volumes issu$72 by ,e4 ,h4 ,sugd5 ( ,amphitruo1 ,as9>ia1 ,aulul>ia1 ,bac*ides1 ,captivi1 ,london1 #ahic2 by ,h4 ,o4 ,sibley & ,f4 ,smalley ( ,tr9ummus1 ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahie2 by ,b4 ,h4 ,cl>k ( ,m5*mi1 ,new ,york1 #aiae4 ,w4 ,h4 ,d4 ,r\se has repr9t$ ,william ,w>n]'s ,elizabe?an translation ( ,m5*mi ) ! ,lat9 text = ! /udy ( ,%aksp]e's ,com$y ( ,errors1 ,london1 #aiab4 ,a second edition ( ,f4 ,leo's ,plaut9is*e ,=s*ung5 zur ,kritik und ,ges*i*te d] ,komdie appe>$ 9 ,b]l91 #aiab4 ,m rec5t /udies are3 ,brasse1 ,m41 ,quat5us 9 fabulis ,plaut9is et loci et temporis unitatibus species v]itatis neglegatur 444 ,greifswald1 #aiad 7,breslau !sis72 ,s*ild1 ,eri*1 ,die dramaturgis*e ,rolle d] ,sklav5 bei ,plautus und ,t]5z1 ,basel 7!sis71 #aiag2 ,blanck1 ,w4 ,w41 ,! dramatic values 9 ,plautus1 ,g5eva1 ,n4 ,y41 #aiah 7,p5nsylvania !sis72 ,cole1 ,mrs4 ,h4 ,e41 ,deception 9 ,plautus1 a /udy 9 ! te*nique ( ,roman com$y1 ) bibliography1 ,bo/on1 #aibj 7,bryn ,mawr !sis74 ,a complete translation ( ,t]5ce 0 privately pr9t$ = ! ,roman ,society1 #aijj1 #b volumes1 ) brief notes & p>tial bibliography4 ,! mo/ useful available translation is t ( ! ,phormio by ,m4 ,h4 ,morgan1 ,cambridge1 ,mass41 #ahid1 ) ! ,lat9 text & reproductions ( ! ,vatican m9iatures ( co/umes4 ,?is play has be5 translat$ also by ,cl>k1 ,b4 ,h41 ,new ,york1 #aiae2 ,! ,self-torm5tor1 by ,%uckburgh1 ,e4 ,s41 ,cambridge1 #ahfi1 & by ,ricord1 ,f4 ,w41 ,new ,york1 #ahhe4 ,! ,loeb ,classical ,libr>y publi%es ! translation ( ,john ,s>geaunt 9 #b volumes4 ,see also ,mi*aut1 ,g41 ,sur les trteaux lat9s 7hi/oire de la comdie roma9e71 ,p>is1 #aiab2 ,knapp1 ,c41 ,ref]5ces 9 ,plautus & ,t]5ce to plays1 play]s & playwrights1 ,classical ,philology1 xiv1 numb] #a 7,jan41 #aiai72 & a *>m+ popul> /udy by ,lematre1 ,j41 8,tr5ce et ,molire10 9 ,impressions de ?tre1 vi 7#ahih7 #ae-bg4 ,! bett] to def9e anci5t conceptions ( com$y1 ,lane ,coop] recon/itutes ,an ,ari/otelian ,!ory ( ,com$y1 ) an adaptation ( ! ,poetics & a translation ( ! #8,tractatus ,coisl9ianus1' ,new ,york1 #aibb4 #be ,see ! quotation f ,apuleius on page #bbh4 ,! ,onoma/icon ( ,julius ,pollux enum]ates #dd masks suffici5t = all ! rles & all ! situations ( ! ,new ,com$y3 #aj = old m51 #aj = "y m51 #g = slaves1 #c = old wom51 #ad = "y wom54 ,!re are ev5 /ock names1 e4g41 ,davos & ,*remes4 ,miles gloriosus 0 tak5 ov] by ,lat9 com$y & aga9 by ,fr5* sev5te5?-c5tury com$y1 ?\gh 9 fact nei!r society _h ?is ,a!nian type4 ,ov] aga9/ him is ! p>asite1 (t5 ! mov] ( ! intrigue4 ,! slave & he are ! mo/ active ( ! p]son4 7,?is note is d]iv$ f ,lalli]47 #bf ,! extreme case is ! ,amphitruo ( ,plautus ) its two ,amphitryos & two ,sosias4 ,9 ,m5*mi ! s]vants are d\bl$2 9 ,bac*ides1 ! c\rtesans4 #bg ,gre5\gh's translation ( ! argum5t1 prefac+ ,morgan's translation ( ! play4 #bh ,plut>*1 ,mor41 ,de gloria ,a!ni5sium1 #cdg ,f4 #bi ,mi*aut 7#aci7 cites ,evan?ius ,de ,fabula ,,iv4 #d & ,donatus4 ,/at>ius seems to be us$1 9 ! prologue to ! ,adelphi & 9 a passage cit$ by ,mi*aut f ,cic]o's ,brutus xxx4 #aaf1 ( act+4 ,knapp cites ! prologue to ! ,self-torm5tor4 #cj 8,qui sim1 cur ad vos v5iam paucis eloqu>10 prol4 to ,bac*ides2 & ! play op5s ) bo? ladies toge!r on ! /age1 s t !re c be no mi/ake4 ,t]5ce1 :o devotes 8 prologue usually to rebuttal ( detraction1 sometimes devotes 8 :ole fir/ act to exposition4 ,,ii4 ,,n>rative ,a4 ,,! ,,neid 7#a74 ,epic ,epic is n[ (t5 divid$ into 8primitive10 8au!ntic10 or 8popul>0 epic1 su* z ! ,iliad1 & 8arti/ic10 or 8lit]>y0 epic1 su* z ! neid4 ,( ! =m] ! great example is ,hom]4 ,! ,iliad & ! ,odyssey rema91 = u z = ! anci5ts1 supreme4 ,meantime ! we/]n ,european nations em]g+ 9 ! e>ly middle age express$ !mselves 9 epics ( orig9al native =ce3 ! ,rol&1 ! ,be[ulf1 ! ,nibelung5li$1 & "s ( ! ,norse sagas4 ,to put ^! beside ,hom] is to become aw>e ( specific diff]5ces )9 a g5]al lik5ess4 ,hom] is bo? m ample & m f9i%$4 ,primitive he c]ta9ly is n 9 any s5se n[ recogniz$ by an?ropology4 ,ev5 ! ^w popul> has = u implications q inapplicable to ! circulation ( 8 day4 ,! classification ( c]ta9 epics z primitive1 au!ntic1 or popul> is bas$ on ! idea t ^! are *>act]i/ically communal1 express+ m ! emotions ( a :ole homog5e\s community1 less ^? ( ! individual poet4 ,x has ev5 be5 held#a t su* epic began 9 aggregation ( tribal lays1 & t ev5 ! =m 9 :i* x has come d[n to u is less ! creation ( any individual ?an ! f9al arti/ic %ap+ ( successive anonym\s v]sions4 ,! !ory ( communal composition1 9 ?is lit]al & extreme s5se1 has be5 %>ply *all5g$4 ,)\t d5y+ ! use ( traditional mat]ial & =m1 "o may rema9 conv9c$ t ! ,iliad or ! ,odyssey is ! "w ( a s+le man1 :om we may z well cont9ue to call ,hom]1 & t he 0 n m]ely ! m\?piece ( a community1 b a consci\s & skilful arti/4 ,t 8 art 0 n wa/$ on 8 community1 t ?is community 0 f> f primitive1 !re is ample evid5ce 9 ! rema9s ( its o!r arts4 ,! same direction ( /udy leads to a simil> conclusion = ! lat] epics ( ?is class4 ,! m we "k ( ! middle ages1 ! less w>rant we f9d = call+ ^! epics primitive4 ,true1 !y are less f9i%$ ?an ! ,iliad2 true1 !y %[ cle>] traces ( old w>-songs2 b nei!r _! art nor ! society = :i* x 0 %ap$ c accurately be call$ primitive4 ,alike ! lit]>y conv5tions ( ! poems !mselves & ! social conv5tions ( _! times rule su* a *>act]ization out4 ,! 8,go?ic night0 fanci$ by sup]cili\s eighte5?-c5tury critics1 ! 8d>k ages0 ( imp]fect hi/orians1 are f\nd to h _h consid]able illum9ation4 ,nev]!less ! tw(old classification ( epic1 9 spite ( ! inaccuracy ( its t]ms1 has "s significance4 ,e>li] epic1 :at we might call prim>y epic1 is 9 fact m directly answ]able to a homog5e\s community4 ,its unkn[n poets evid5tly felt !mselves to be spokesm5 ( communal emotions & a*ievem5ts2 & ! _w t !y saw !y express$ ) less int]v5tion4 ,z if !y 7 transmitt]s r ?an creators1 !y express$ n !mselves s mu* z _! p4 ,?is p1 too1 0 9 t /age ( civilization 9 :i* =ay & w>f>e by small gr\ps br\ght out individual h]oes & kept life prec>i\s & simple4 ,booty & food1 a f9e sword & a f9e web1 /ill _h imm$iate appeal2 & ! physical s5sations ( battle-/ra9 & sweat1 ( ceaseless surf & d>k5+ deep1 7 /ill common exp]i5ce4 ,?us prim>y epic1 communal & objective1 has ! directness ( imm$iacy4 ,aris+ f ^? simpl] emotions :i* we all feel toge!r1 primitive p]haps 9 t s5se1 & express+ !m 9 t]ms ( famili> physical s5sations1 x has its own inimitable flavor4 ,lat]1 or second>y1 epic is n ! transmission ( leg5ds /ill active1 b ! re-creation ( a pa/ already remote4 ,/ill appeal+ to a communal s5se ( ! h]oic1 x adapts ! old epic mode to an audi5ce m sophi/icat$ n only 9 life1 b 9 poetic art4 ,! poet is ?us at once m imitative & m orig9al4 ,he b9ds himself by traditions ( subject-matt]1 ( =m1 & ( /yle2 b )9 ?is recogniz$ mode he composes ) m individual fre$om & to a m def9ite end4 ,rely+ less on sc5es 9 a s]ies1 he selects & manipulates t[>d m arti/ic sequ5ce4 ,s9ce 8 descriptions mu/ be less imm$iate1 he develops ! art ( n>rative4 ,endeavor+ to rema9 ! spokesman ( 8 p--= o!rwise he mu/ =feit ! communal ma9spr+ ( epic--he int]prets _! pa/ by 8 own message = _! future4 ,?us he may be all ! m a poet1 or mak]4 ,he _c hope = ! fre% imm$iacy ( prim>y epic2 b 9 comp5sation he has great] opportunity to move 8 p by 8 own vision4 ,milton's conception1 va/ z is its scope1 is ess5tially ! same4 ,he int]prets ! ,bible z ! epic ( mank9d 9 t]ms ( a ,puritan !ocracy4 ,tasso re-creates a dep>t$ *ivalry to animate a vision ( devotion & r$emption4 ,v]gil1 ! great example ( second>y epic1 makes ( ! ,trojan /ory1 ( ,roman leg5d1 ( my? & cult & drama & hi/ory1 ( all t enri*$ ! ,roman pa/1 a progressive vision ( ,roman de/9y4 ,prim>y epic & second>y epic1 ?\gh ?us di/+ui%able1 are bo? epic4 ,!y are complem5t>y4 ,!y reveal diff]5t capacities ( a s+le arti/ic mode4 ,epic is con/ant4 ,x 02 x 0 aga92 x is2 = aught t we c see1 x w be4 ,ext5d$ poetic n>rative ( great de$s = communal inspiration1 ?\gh x has nev] be5 common1 has nev] be5 ext9ct4 ,prim>y epic seems inevitable4 ,! m9/rel 9 ! hall ( ,hro?g> is poetically id5tical ) ! m9/rel 9 ! hall ( ,alc9\s4#b ,bo? h9t to u ( :at epic 0 made1 & h[2 bo? %[ u its con/ancy4 ,?is prim>y =m ( epic c nev]1 ( c\rse1 recur4 ,x has be5 civiliz$ away4 ,b meantime x has e/abli%$ a poetic art t is p]man5t4 ,! ^w epic /ill connotes a di/9ct mode4 ,to ?is ,v]gil delib]ately con=m$1 & ,milton4 ,second>y epic is /ill epic4 ,:at1 !n1 are se5 to be 9 anci5t practise ! ess5tials ( epic8 ,fir/1 its inspiration & its appeal are communal4 ,by contra/ ! mod]n novel1 :i* is also ext5d$ n>rative & also )9 ,ari/otle's def9ition ( poetic1 is se5 to be individual2 or1 :]e 9 exceptional cases x is broad] & simpl]1#c is (t5 di/+ui%$ by criticism z hav+ epic appeal4 ,!n1 epic is 9 /yle objective4 ,x n>rates habitually )\t int]position1 by images visual1 auditory1 motor4 ,its sc5]y is m]ely ! backgr\nd ( h]oic activity4 ,its spee*es are 9 prim>y epic = *>act]ization1 n = plot4 ,!re is no plot 9 ! dramatic s5se = ! :ole2 & su* z !re is = compon5t p>ts is only to br+ out p]sons4 ,! object ( epic be+ p]sons1 its commone/ descriptive details are ( p]sonal activity3 attitude1 movem5t1 spee*1 ge/ure4 ,! me?od is to sugge/ t h]oic life by its physical s5sations1 to make ! *>act]s1 z ,ari/otle says1#d reveal !mselves4 ,epic gives few reflections4 ,x does n comm5t ev5 on ,hel5's com+ to ! ,scan gates1 or on ,hector's p>t+ f ,&roma*e2 x m]ely describes4 ,?is objectivity is a ma9 means ( epic directness4 ,! *>act]i/ic =m ( epic#e is = scope & v>iety4 ,drama is int5sive2 epic is ext5sive4 ,x has "t to give u a s5se ( ! fulness ( life2 & its movem5t does n preclude excursions4 ,we meet _m p & see !m 9 v>i\s aspects4 ,we c l+] ov] a sc5e = itself )\t be+ urg$ =w>d4 ,cont9uity may be b leisurely succession f sc5e to sc5e4 ,a sc5e may )9 itself h dramatic progress2 b ! movem5t ( ! :ole has n ! dramatic causal compulsion4 ,drama has its *>act]i/ic =ce ?r\gh unity4 ,unity 9 epic is nei!r compell+ nor compulsory4 ,9 fact1 to /ret* ! t]m unity ov] epic t5ds to deprive x ( all =ce4 ,no epic poet has ev] compos$ m c>efully ?an ,v]gil1 or ) ke5] aw>5ess ( ! ways ( drama4 ,! neid 0 compos$ z a :ole2 its p>ts 7 c>efully adju/$ to a plan1 & its plan 0 controll$ by a s+le idea4 ,epic has nev] gone fur!r t[>d unity2 & ,hom] nev] dream$ ( go+ s f>4 ,b ev5 su* dramatization ( epic z ,v]gil's has "t = ! fun]al games1 & does n sacrifice to ! /ory ( ,rome ! /ory & ! p]son ( ,dido4 ,9 poetic1 unity means no?+ unless x means unity ( =m4 ,?is epic _c h z a :ole4 ,nor does any "o regret ! lack1 or ?9k x a fault4 ,! unity ( drama is = int5sity2 ! object ( epic is ! realization n ( a crisis1 b ( great p]sons 9 a long & v>i\s c\rse4 ,s ! /yle ( epic is typically sonor\s & high4 ,height ( /yle may be atta9$ by simplicity1 & epic is simple (t51 b n always4 ,to speak ( epic z *>act]i/ically simple is to belie mu* ( ,hom] & mo/ ( ,v]gil & ,milton4 ,epic is n *>act]i/ically1 nor ev5 usually1 simple4 ,x may be v elaborate4 ,x beg9s by assum+ a language recogniz$ z on a high] plane ?an t ( ord9>y spee*4 ,! epi!ts ( ! ,iliad or ! ,be[ulf are a poetical conv5tion2 & ! /yle ( epic proce$s always by consci\s art4 ,"h is ! poet :o1 d>+ to s+ great de$s1 means to s+ !m greatly4 ,t ! ef=t may end 9 frigidity or bomba/ means only t !re is bad epic z well z good2 x does n mean t epic %\ld be simple4 ,epic poets h nev] ?\ght s4 ,! poets ( prim>y epic1 no less ?an ,v]gil or ,milton1 7 occupi$ ) /yle4 ,= ! t]m epic has always impli$ greatness4 ,x is a ^w ( praise4 ,x means a /ory ( greatness told greatly4 ,hom] 0 = ! anci5t ,greek _w1 & ,v]gil became = ! ,roman _w1 a ,bible ( /yle4 ,bo? 7 conn$ 9 s*ool n only = ! examples ( _! great p]sons1 b = ! /udy ( language4 ,t _! connotation 0 immeasurably enri*$1 _! 8sublimity0 height5$1 n only by rhy?m1 b by v]se1 no "o w d5y4 ,x is ev5 possible to feel 9 ,milton's v]se a beauty sep>able f t ( 8 ideas1 & great]1 lift+ 8 n>r[ & political !ology to wid] import4 ,ari/otle#f rem>ks ^u ! appropriat5ess to epic ( ! ,greek dactylic hexamet]4 ,dionysius#g ev5 f9ds control ( rhy?ms to be ,hom]'s ma9 poetic means4 ,we are m incl9$ to admit ?is view = ,milton2 b ! ultimate tru? is t we %\ld n1 except = analysis1 sep>ate v]se f ! o!r elem5ts ( /yle4 ,t e great epic poet has be5 a ma/]ly metri/ means r t = 8! height ( ?is great argum5t0 he felt ! ne$ ( all t v]se c add ( sugge/iv5ess4 ,?\gh prose epic1 z ,ari/otle admits by implication1 is q conceivable1 x has to move on a l[] plane4 ,! ,norse sagas are m direct ev5 ?an ,hom]1 />k] 9 n>rative =ce z if /ripp$ = action1 equally expressive ( communal emotions1 equally vivid 9 *>act]ization4 ,!y h all ! epic means b "o4 ,t s+le lack does n1 inde$1 relegate !m to a diff]5t class2 b x %[s by contra/ t = its full realization epic dem&s v]se4 7#b74 ,! ,conception & ,scope ( ! neid ,! :ole poetic art ( anci5t epic is exhibit$ 9 ! neid4 ,sett+ aside ^? int]e/+ hi/orical que/ions ( epic orig9s1 gr[?1 & transmission :i* 9 ! /udy ( ,hom] c h>dly be ignor$1 & on ! o!r h& includ+ ! :ole range ( epic1 second>y z well z prim>y1 we c le>n be/ f ! great poet :o devot$ 8 mature ye>s to conceiv+1 plann+1 & re%ap+ ! epic ( ,rome4 ,! arti/ic scope ( ! neid1 z well z its arti/ic em95ce1 long secure beyond cavil1 has be5 reaffirm$ by rec5t criticism4 ,sa9te-,beuve calls ,v]gil 8le pote de la ,lat9it t\t entire40#h ,mackail1 ^: /udies h be5 prim>ily ,greek1 exalts ! neid afre%4#i ,woodb]ry1 ^: criticism has be5 ma9ly ( ,engli% lit]ature1 says3 8,! di/9ctive feature ( ! #8neid' is ! arc ( "t x cov]s1 ! burd5 ( "t x supports10 & aga91 8,! #8neid' is1 ,i ?9k1 ! greate/ s+le book writt5 by man because ( its inclusiv5ess ( human life1 ( life long liv$ 9 ! ?+s ( life40#aj ,! idea ( ,roman de/9y1 animat+ ! neid ?r\gh\t1 is some?+ l>g] ?an ! nationalism ( o!r epics4 ,x is imp]ialism1 & ( a _s g5]\s en\gh to w9 ! sympa?y ( ,dante4 ,x has n ! occasional "* ( su* a nationali/ /ory1 = in/ance1 z ,ge(frey ( ,monm\?'s ,hi/oria ,regum ,britanni4 ,9 a "t ( corrupt politics x is above political opportunism4 ,its ,rome is n m]ely ! ?rone ( ,augu/us2 x is ! gov]nm5t ( ! _w4 ,its ,romanism is less political ?an religi\s4 8,pius neas0 is m typical ?an 8mu*-endur+ ,odysseus0 ( ! /ruggle ( man = an abode ( ju/ice & peace4 ,?is1 m ?an ! p]sonal glory t humanism c5turies aft]w>d read f ! classics1 is ! conception ( ! neid4 ,! de/9y ( ,rome reveals ! hope ( mank9d2 & ! neid has ! :ole epic scope4 ,h>dly less ?an ,milton1 ,v]gil ju/ifies ! ways ( ,god to man4 7#c74 ,! ,n>rative ,movem5t ( ! neid#aa ,t ! neid has a controll+ idea implies t x is arti/ically %ap$ to /rict] cont9uity ?an appe>s 9 ! ,hom]ic model4 ,! ,iliad & ! ,odyssey are ev]y:]e fre]4 ,hom] writes a sc5e = itself2 ,v]gil also = its significance 9 a progress4#ab ,sali5ce is s\ght by c>eful subord9ation4 ,! ,c>?ag9ians1 = in/ance1 are n elaborat$ z are ! ,italian tribes4#ac ,! slaught] ( ! la/ night ( ,troy is conf9$ to a few vivid sc5es4 ,us+ ,hell5i/ic v]sions & evid5tly /udi\s ( _! art1 ,v]gil delib]ately rejects _! decorative detail & s5tim5tal dilation4 ,he r$uces ! mat+ ( neas ) ,dido to a grave summ>y1#ad 9 ord] to give sali5ce to ^? o!r emotions :i* = ! neid z a :ole 7 lead+4 neas does1 inde$1 9 ! f\r? book yield 8 position z protagoni/ to ! que5 :o among ,v]gil's p]son is ! great individual2 b ev5 s /rong an impulse ( creative inspiration does n drive ! poet f 8 ma9 purpose4 ,"o ( ! few great love-/ories1 ! f\r? book is /ill held1 z x 7 by =ce1 to ! l>g] /ory ( mission4 ,! same art deals ) ! gods4 ,!y 7 = ,v]gil necess>y to epic2 !y embodi$ at once ! traditional s5se ( sup]natural response 9 natural =ces & ,v]gil's own s5se ( div9e guidance4 ,b !y r>ely int]pose1 & nev] int]rupt4 ,!y "w ?r\gh m52 & ! c\rse ( ev5ts is always amply expla9$ by human motive4 ,! f\ndations ( ,troy 7 %ak5 by div9e wra?2 b we see !m dislocat$ by human ag5cy4 ,! rev5gefulness ( ,juno1 ! protection ( ,v5us1 seem ! m plausible because !y op]ate ?r\gh ! passion ( ,dido4 ,! "o yields 9 ! end1 & ! o!r prevails1 because neas realizes 8 mission4 ,olympus1 n[ ord]$ )9 itself "u a calm & absolute rul]1 expresses & animates1 n int]rupts1 ! progress ( human ord]4 ,?us ,v]gil's gods are m ?an 8epic ma*9]y10 & m ?an p]sonification4 ,! ?\ghts ( m5 are n m]ely express$ conv5tionally 9 ar*aic p]sonal %apes2 !y are se5 at once z det]m9+ ea* decisive action & z inspir$ by div9e purpose4 ,= n only has ! neid a m consi/5t !ology ?an ! ,iliad2 x is also m religi\s4 ,! mo/ frequ5t examples ( ,v]gil's subord9ation are 9 8 f9e art ( description4 ,picturesque ) brilliant color1 z well z ) ! ,hom]ic light & motion1#ae & z precise z !y are vivid1 8 descriptions are r>ely sep>able4 ,n only are !y contributory to ! action2 !y are also inwov54#af ,v]gil's s5sitiv5ess to ! details ( nature transpires 9 a s5t5ce1 ev5 9 s+le words1#ag :i* describe :ile !y n>rate4 ,"h he disc]n$ ! arti/ic rightness by :i* ,hom] describes e ?+ movable z 9 motion1#ah & appli$ ! pr9ciple ) m c>eful att5tion to n>rative cont9uity4 ,he disp5ses ) ,hom]'s sup]flu\s me*anism ( transition4#ai ,memorable z are ! descriptions--& no?+ 9 ! neid is bett] rememb]$--v few c be deta*$ f ! context = sep>ate admiration4#bj ,! detail+ ( ar*itecture & decoration1 ?\gh x unduly seiz$ ! fancy ( ! middle ages1 is h>dly an exception4 ,! ,c>?ag9ian pictures ( ,troy1 ! palace ( ,lat9us1 are !re n = sc5e-pa9t+1 b = hi/oric sugge/ion4 ,!y s]ve ! /ory4 ,?us ,v]gil's descriptive art is at once less ample ?an ,hom]'s & m specifically subsidi>y4 ,! ,hell5i/ic tableau-- is its om9\s "n--appe>s 9 ! glitt]+ conv5tional pauses ( ,ovid4 ,v]gil _h put x aside4 ,?is is ! m rem>kable because ! anci5ts seem g5]ally to h reg>d$ c]ta9 sc5es--battle1 = in/ance1 conflagration1 /orm1 ?w>t$ love--z r description ?an n>ration4#ba ,v]gil1 :ile he works ev5 m ?an ,hom] to make u realize a sc5e by %>+ 9 x z actors1#bb works also to avoid int]ruption ( ! /ory4 ,simil> is ! con/ant c>e to avoid int]ruption ( "t or place4#bc ,v]gil's unremitt+ prevision & revision h obviat$ any "t-lapse t is insignificant = ! action4 ,! ,hom]ic device ( br++ 9 antec$5t action by retrospective n>rative is us$ m arti/ically4 ,:ile x cov]s gr\nd1 ext5d+ ! "t-lapse beyond ! /age1 ! n>rative ( neas height5s ! love ( ,dido be=e our eyes4 ,%e lov$ me = ! dang]s ,i _h pass$2 ,& ,i lov$ h] t %e did pity !m4 ,x is a l>g] a*ievem5t1 "o ( ! greate/1#bd to height5 epic by sugge/+ va/ rea*es ( "t1 f tribal w&]+s ?r\gh w>s ( conque/ to ! reign ( law4 ,"h is ! arti/ic significance ( ! visit 9 ,book ,,vi to ! _w ( ! dead & ! unborn1 :i*1 z ,mackail says1 8slips 9 ! key/one40 ,to comp>e ! visit ( ,odysseus to ! %ades is to see ,v]gil's high] art ( composition4 ,b ! sugge/ion ( ! great loom ( "t 7tot volv]e casus7 is n conf9$ to a s+le arti/ic device2 x is p]vasive f ! op5+ words ?r\gh a hundr$ c>eful allusions2 & x makes ! neid wid] ?an ! ,iliad or ! ,odyssey by mak+ x con/antly sugge/ive ( ! :ole /ruggle ( hi/ory4 ,x reveals m explicitly ! /ruggles ( h]oic m5 z ! /ruggle ( man4 ,?us ! (t-repeat$ objection t ! neid breaks into halves is sup]ficial4 ,! break w\ld n h be5 ?\ght ( if ,v]gil _h n be5 se5 to be work+ = a cont9uity /rict] ?an ,hom]'s4 ,/at$ baldly by ,tyrrell1 ! idea t ! neid is an ,odyssey plus an ,iliad presupposes a sort ( imitation to :i* ,v]gil %[s himself ev]y:]e sup]ior4 ,x w\ld be z ne> ! tru? to reply t ! neid is nei!r an ,odyssey nor an ,iliad4 ,b prototypes aside1 h[ & h[ f> is ! neid held toge!r8 ,surely by ! mo/ c>eful articulation ev] se5 9 epic1 b surely n to ! degree ( drama4 ,among ! evid5ces ( revision are indications t ! plan = ! w&]+s ( neas 0 fir/ a*iev$#be :5 mu* ( ! poem 0 already writt54 ,! adju/m5t ( ?is "p to ! :ole c\rse1 a te*nic h>dly explor$ by ,hom]1 & ! abbreviations ( ! w&]+s by c>eful selection1 are ( a piece ) ! consi/5t connection by repetition ( ! !me1 f ! op5+ l9es1 ,troj qui primus ab oris ,italiam1 fato pr(ugus1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole poem4 ,true1 ! sev5? book invokes ,erato = sc5es ( battle4 ,maior r]um mihi nascitur ordo2 ,maius opus moveo4 ,! foll[+ sc5es are diff]5t1 b n ! !me4 ,! art t delib]ately avoid$ ,hom]'s succession ( battles by int]pos+ su* sc5es z ,ev&]'s a*iev$ m ?an v>iety4 ,x sugge/s aga9 & aga9 :at ! battles 7 =4 ,! close ^u ! tragic dea? ( ,turnus becomes m ?an ! p]sonal victory ( ! h]o2 x is ! triumph1 ov] viol5tia1 ov] su* individual pr[ess z ,hom] glorifi$1 ov] p]sonal ambition ?w>t+ ! /ate1 ( =titude br++ 9 religion & law4 ,b to ask !re=e t ! :ole movem5t ( ! neid %\ld be unifi$ is at once to recognize ,v]gil's art ( cont9uity & to dem& = epic ! /rictness ( drama4 ,t ,v]gil und]/ood drama1 t 8 art le>n$ n only f ,greek epic1 b f ,greek trag$y1 0 po9t$ out by ,nettle%ip & is important to rememb]4 ,b he is too great a ma/] ( 8 *os5 =m to sacrifice epic scope4 ,h[1 !n1 is ! neid dramatic8 ,9 ! composition ( ! :ole only by su* prep>ations & recurr5ces z add to ! vividness ( p>ts sugge/ions ( _! be>+4 ,hav+ plann$ a progress ( ev5ts1 n m]ely a s]ies1 ,v]gil m>ks t progress by su* articulation z _h be5 us$ to ?is ext5t only 9 drama4 ,9 ! composition ( ! p>ts s+ly 8 art is m dramatic4 ,! neid z a :ole is n dramatically unifi$1 & c\ld n be4 ,:at is unifi$ is ea* book4#bf ,= purposes ( recitation1 epic _h to be compos$1 :e!r z a :ole or n1 9 di/9ct p>ts4 ,( ?is necessity ,v]gil made a virtue4 ,he advanc$ ! n>rative art ( situation by apply+ "s ( ! te*nic ( drama4 ,?is is conspicu\s 9 8 frequ5t use ( p]ipety4 ,aga91 ! memorable & well rememb]$ ,laokon sc5e is int]pos$ betwe5 ! ,s9on sc5es4 ,ea* is made to height5 ! o!r1 & bo? to give fir/ susp5se & !n compell+ motive to ! br++ 9 ( ! fatal horse4 ,aga9 & aga9 ,v]gil w be f\nd ?us to int5sify 8 n>rative by ! te*nic ( drama4 ,! mo/ obvi\s in/ance is ! di/9ct gr\p ( sc5es at ,c>?age4 ,! entrance ( ,dido is 9 ! dramatic s5se & by dramatic me?ods prep>$4 ,fir/1 neas he>s ( h] f 8 goddess "m1 & is k9dl$ by h] hav+ a*iev$ 8 own epic mission--dux fem9a facti4 ,foll[s 8 view ( ! city1 big already 9 a*ievem5t1 big also to e ,roman li/5] ) m5ace4 ,!n ! decorative pictures at once review ! trag$y ( ,troy & reveal 9 ?is /rong que5 a propiti\s sympa?y4 ,^u all ?is1 z to a wait+ /age & a wait+ audi5ce1 ent] ,dido4#bg ,moreov] 9 ! ,dido sc5es1 in/ead ( cont5t+ himself ) t m]e /rife ( emotions :i* 0 famili> 9 ,hell5i/ic poetry#bh & became a rhetorical commonplace ) ,ovid1 ,v]gil advances & height5s ! lead+ emotion /eadily1 z 9 a play1 up to its tragic close4 ,! close is ! inevitable result ( some?+ m ?an ?w>t$ passion because ,dido has be5 pres5t$ dramatically1 )\t concession to ! ,hell5i/ic n>rative dilation1 by :at %e said & did4 ,v]gil's ,dido is a creation e way beyond ! ,m$ea ( ,apollonius4 ,%e mu/ be plac$ beside ! ,m$ea ( ,euripides4 ,9 h] consi/5t tragic nobility1 9 ! high] morality ( h] appeal1 p]haps %e mu/ be plac$ above4 ,= ! f\r? book ( ! neid1 z fully z ! ,antigone1 is tragic 9 its purgation ( pity & fe>4 ,?us to apply drama to n>rative )\t sacrific+ ! typical epic opportunities ( fulness & scope is among ! greate/ a*ievem5ts ( poetic4 ,x is an art s f> beyond any o!r anci5t n>rative z to rema9 solit>y until ,dante2 & ,dante's guide 0 ,v]gil4 ,x guid$ also ! creative h& ( ,milton4 ,& n = epic only1 b = all imag9ative /ory1 ! art ( ! neid rema9s a te/ & a guide4 ,9 ?is s5se he :o became = m$ieval ,lat9i/s ! poet1 z ,cic]o 0 ! orator1 rema9s ,ma/] ,v]gil4 7#d74 ,*>act]ization 9 ! neid ,to turn f ! n>rative movem5t to ! p]sons is to desc5d4 ,at once we feel t ! a*ievem5t is less & t ! me?od is less fruitful = n>rative art because x is less di/9ctively poetic4 ,v]gil's n>rative composition has univ]sal validity2 b 8 *>act]ization1 = ! mo/ "p1 is only ,lat94 ,x _h none ! less influ5ce on ! middle ages--p]haps all ! m2 b x _h ! less inspiration = lat] creations4 ,to e/imate ,v]gil's *>act]ization fairly1 x is necess>y fir/ to remove c]ta9 misconceptions4 ,he has be5 reproa*$ = leav+ 9 our m9ds few out/&+ figures3 ,turnus1 ,ev&]1 ,mez5tius1 ,pallas1 ,nisus & ,euryalus4 ,"s ( ^!1 l ! ,camilla :om ,dante rememb]s1 are only sket*$2 & mo/ ( !m are second>y4 ,n[ ?\gh ?is is paucity beside ! popul\s pages ( ,hom]1 we mu/ rememb] t ,v]gil's :ole ro/] ( h]oes is small] delib]ately because1 mu* m ?an ,hom]'s1 !y are dramatis p]son4 ,he makes ! dramatic innovation ( focus+ on a few & ( subord9at+ ! developm5t ev5 ( ^! to ! developm5t ( ! !me4 ,a m frequ5t objection is t ?r\gh\t ! latt] "p ( ! poem ! h]o is no long] neas1 b ,turnus4 ,?is is to use ! ^w h]o 9 a s5se t ,v]gil w\ld h>dly h und]/ood4 ,see+ ,turnus ?r\gh c5turies ( romance1 we are s occupi$ ) 8 brav\re z readily to =get t ,v]gil's neas is n meant to h ! int]e/ or ! significance ( ,k+ ,ar?ur4 ,nor1 we %\ld add1 is he meant to h ! int]e/ ( ,a*illes4 ,8 individual pr[ess is only incid5tal to 8 dom9ant =titude4 ,! a*ievem5t ( p]sonal glory is beh9d him4 8,he has outliv$ 8 p]sonal life40#bi ,8 "w is to f\nd ! ,roman p4 ,! *>act]ization ( neas1 moreov]1 %[s a c]ta9 developm5t4#cj ,he %[s m gr[? ?an 8mu*-endur+ ,odysseus40 ,! battle fr5zy ( ! return to ! doom$ city 7arma am5s capio71 ! vacillation at ,c>?age1 are put =ev] beh9d4 ,he becomes progressively m /eadfa/4 ,always pius1 he enl>ges 8 pietas into calm assurance ( mission4 ,z = ! /ory1 s = ! *>act]ization ( ! h]o1 ! six? book is ! critical /age ( a progress4 ,! creative p[] ( ,v]gil is amply v9dicat$ by ,dido4 ,"o may feel t %e is too vivid = h] function1 t %e takes ! /age1 z actors say1 away f neas1 t ?r\gh h] ! nice plann+ ( ! :ole is q w>p$4 ,we %all d\btless nev] be able to judge ?is z ,romans4 ,p]haps ev5 !y 7 m absorb$ ?an ,v]gil int5d$ 9 8 tragic que54#ca ,p]haps ,v]gil himself 0 sw]v$ by 8 own creation4 ,b all ?is only re9=ces ! te/imony to a compell+ *>act]ization4 ,!re may be diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ,dido's "p 9 ! /ory2 !re c be none z to ,dido h]self4 ,b our e/imates ?us duly correct$1 we _c b feel t ,dido /&s out among ! figures ( ! neid because %e is exceptional4 ,we feel h] to be drawn n only bett]1 b (t5 diff]5tly4 ,& ?is %\ld lead to scrut9y ( ,v]gil's habitual me?od4 ,to beg9 )1 x is ev]y:]e app>5t t he c>es less ?an ,hom] = individuality4 ,a c]ta9 expansiv5ess 9 ,hom]ic dialogue (t5 keeps ! /ory wait+ to give ! individual 8 say4 ,v]gil %ifts ! proportions4 ,he rejects long dialogues because he is m int]e/$ 9 n>rative economy ?an 9 p]sonal expressiv5ess4 ,fur!r1 ! spee*es are (t5 m reason$ ?an ,hom]'s1 m ord]ly1 less l conv]sation & m l oratory4#cb ,s9on's are v naturally elaborate pieces ( special plead+1 & ! rhetoric ( ,drances aga9/ ,turnus is appropriate 9 a delib]ative assembly2 b ! mak+ ( successive po9ts1 & ! c>eful adaptation ( /yle n only to ! speak]1 b to ! he>]1 are habitual1 z ev5 9 ! spee* ( ,allecto to ,turnus4 ,9 ?is reason$ ord]1 r ?an 9 any m]e elaboration1 ,he9ze f9ds ,v]gil to be rhetorical4 ,in/ead ( foll[+ ! pace ( emotional utt]ance1 abrupt & disjo9t$1 he sometimes holds ev5 viol5t emotion to a /eady c\rse4 ,by ?us compos+ emotional expression he sometimes sacrifices directness ( *>act]ization4#cc ,inde$1 ,v]gil is g5]ally less conc]n$ ?an ,hom] ) creat+ individuals1 & m conc]n$ ) %[+ 8 p]sons z types4 ,:e!r ! loss 9 individual di/9ctness is comp5sat$ by a ga9 9 common cons5t op5s a long debate4 ,mod]n ta/e incl9es r to ,hom] ?an to ,v]gil2 b betwe5 /ret* c5turies ( ,lat9 habit1 & t habit1 be/ exemplifi$ 9 ,v]gil1 is to *>act]ize typically4 ,?is me?od ( idealization may 9 ,v]gil's case h ,/oic preoccupations2#cd b m g5]ally x is rhetorical4 ,to *>act]ize by age1 sex1 race1 occupation1 etc41 is a prescription ( rhetoric#ce fix$ 9 recipes & s*ool ex]cises4 ,x 0 dilat$ into +5i\s fictions by ! declamatores4 ,ovid's *>act]ization h>dly rises above ! s*ools4 ,v]gil 0 too great to move on t level2 b ev5 he is preoccupi$ ) t ideal & g5]ally cont5t ) t me?od4 ,he c>ri$ ! me?od z f>1 p]haps1 z x w g4 ,t except 9 subord9ate sket*es he dep>t$ f x only 9 "o surpass+ in/ance is d\btless ! fundam5tal reason = our f9d+ 8 *>act]ization inf]ior to 8 composition4 7#e74 ,epic ,diction ,g5]ations h felt 9 ! neid1 fir/ ( all1 high & con/ant beauty4 ,no o!r great poem has seem$ m infallibly beautiful4 ,! beauty has sometimes1 inde$1 be5 ackn[l$g$ ) a c]ta9 disp>agem5t1 z if x impli$ ! less /r5g?2 b s p]v]se an anti!sis _c delay att5tion except to ! fact t ,v]gil is beautiful ev5 to 8 detractors4 ,! wor/ t has be5 said ( 8 /yle is t x is sometimes inappropriately elaborate4#cf atque arida circum ,nutrim5ta d$it1 rapuitque 9 fomite flammam4 ,tum ,c]]em corruptam undis ,c]ealiaque arma ,exp$iunt fessi r]um2 frugesque receptas ,et torr]e p>ant flammis et frang]e saxo4 ,i4 #age4 ,?is1 x mu/ be admitt$1 seems comp>atively remote & unreal beside simil> meals 9 ,hom]1 & absolutely too high a /yle = camp cook]y4 ,nor is x safe to urge t ,v]gil is hold+ 8 /yle to ! epic level2 = t plea op5s ! way to su* m]e etiquette z c5turies lat] q deviat$ ! discussion ( epic f its ma9 issues1 &1 besides1 ,v]gil himself does n ?us describe ,d>es & ,entellus4 ,no1 ! plea mu/ be r ( confession & avoidance4 ,su* passages are n beautiful1 & _! /yle is n epic2 b !y are s few t to call !m *>act]i/ic is q unfair4 ,nor are !y to be ascrib$ to preoccupation ) rhetoric4 ,v]gil is1 inde$1 sometimes m oratorical#cg ?an we wi%2 b he is n1 9 our mod]n s5se rhetorical1 & 8 rhetoric1 no less ?an 8 poetic1 mu/ h f\nd su* passages inf]ior4 ,r we may ?9k t ^! few 8rubs & bot*es 9 ! "w0 7 :at l$ him to wi% x burn$2 = aft] all 8 revision he 0 acutely consci\s t x 0 unf9i%$4 ,unf9i%$ 9 =m x c]ta9ly is n4 ,unf9i%$ 9 /yle x is "h & !re4 ,b :at a s5se ( beauty _h ! arti/ :o c\ld n be> ev5 s few blemi%es6 ,n elaborat5ess1 !n1 is *>act]i/ic ( ,v]gil's /yle1 b c]ta9ly elaboration4 ,8 tireless revision is te/ifi$ by ! tradition t he compos$ fir/ 9 prose1 & t he sp5t on ! neid t5 ye>s4#ch ,no /yle is m highly *>g$4 ,x is made to sugge/ at once vivid descriptive imag]y & ! sanctions ( hi/ory & religion4 ,n only ! /ory1 b ! diction1 is full ( ,rome4 ,8 use ( ! language ( ,roman ritual#ci is *>act]i/ic ( an expression pi\sly pres]vative ( cult4 8,by in/9ct & temp] a rituali/10#dj he is cont9ually sugge/+ ! significance ( traditional =ms4 ,! ,iliad & ! ,odyssey are 9 a special dialect4 ,! ,fa]y ,que5e has a language ( its own4 ,to a*ieve su* sugge/ions 9 ! neid ) b ! slighte/ resort to ar*aism is 9 itself a great a*ievem5t ( language2 b x is only "p ( a consi/5t allusiv5ess1 an extraord9>y connotation1 rang+ ! :ole gamut f %>p physical s5sations to spiritual significance4 ,a /yle em95tly classic 9 precision & h>mony is yet felt to be above all ri*4 ,no o!r poet seems m ne>ly infallible ) ! "r ^w2 no o!r s well to h *>g$ classic re/ra9t ) romantic exub]ance by ! en]gy ( 8 expressiv5ess4 ,! influ5ce ( ,v]gil1 imm$iate1 wide1 & long1 is indubitably ! influ5ce ( 8 /yle4 ,lat] ages1 unappreciative ( ! poetic art ( 8 composition1 felt ! spell ( 8 imag]y & rhy?m almo/ z an incantation4 8,virgil is t poet ^: v]se has _h mo/ p[] 9 ! _w40#da 7#f74 ,orig9ality 9 ,imitation ,! notion t imitation mu/ be subv]sive ( orig9ality betrays a crude conception ( bo?4 ,yet x l+]s 9 su* criticism z ?9ks ! neid to be a ,lat9 ,iliad & ,odyssey4 ,to measure x s is to miss n only ! art ( a s+le great poem1 b mu* ( all poetic art4 ,= s9ce all art works 9 =ms receiv$ & recogniz$1 less by inv5tion ?an by trans=mation1 x is ( c>d9al significance to di/+ui%1 9 a poem conspicu\sly imitative & conspicu\sly orig9al1 j :at arti/ic imitation is4 ,!re=e :at has be5 impli$ 9 ! prec$+ sections may "h be drawn toge!r 9 summ>y4 ,imitation is always ( movem5t or /yle2 x has no?+ to d ) mat]ial4 ,to preface ?is %\ld be sup]flu\s2 b _m que/s = 8s\rces0 h left "s confusion4 ,v]gil took mu* ( ! ,trojan /ory f ,hom]4 ,to be sure1 he us$ o!r s\rces too4 ,no?+ is m rem>kable 9 ! neid ?an ! weal? & v>iety ( its mat]ial4 ,its s\rces are beyond ! dreams ( ,hom]4 ,b ev5 if ,v]gil's mat]ial 7 all ,hom]ic1 he w\ld n on t acc\nt be ! m imitative4 ,anci5t lit]ature1 & m$ival too1 g5]ally make fre] ) prec$+ /ories ?an mod]n4 ,! mat]ial is n ?\ght to be any "o's prop]ty4 ,9 ?is respect ,v]gil is s+ul>ly indep5d5t4 ,he uses m s\rces2 he is m selective2 & :at he adopts is (t5 a composite4 ,he works 9 ! mod]n way r ?an 9 ! anci5t2 b he is n on t acc\nt ei!r m or less imitative4 ,"s ( ,%aksp]e's plays d]ive _! plots f s+le s\rces2 "s are 9 plot composite2 b all are alike orig9al4 ,a mod]n ,fr5* trag$y took ! plot n only ( an anci5t /ory1 b ( ! be/ kn[n ( all anci5t plays4 ,x is none ! less orig9al2 & its imitation1 z all arti/ic imitation1 is ( ! anci5t te*nic4 ,imitation 9 art1 !n1 means foll[+ c]ta9 arti/ic ways4 ,to beg9 )1 ,v]gil evid5tly set out to write an epic1 & und\bt$ly look$ to ,hom]ic epic z a type4 ,?is is important n only 9 8 case1 b ?r\gh\t lit]>y hi/ory4 ,?\gh its importance may be exagg]at$ 9 ,brunetire's volution des g5res1 evid5tly epic meant some?+ controll+ to ,v]gil because ( ,hom]1 & has meant some?+ wid] ev] s9ce because ( ,v]gil4 ,to any poet1 to ,tasso & ,milton z to ,v]gil1 epic necess>ily implies a patt]n4 ,x directs & limits p]son & diction2 b x does n hamp] arti/ic progress1 = x does n limit int]pretation4 ,v]gil remade n only ! epic mat]ial1 b ! epic =m1 to a new end4 ,8 ,s9on#db is a typical in/ance ( arti/ic reh&l+4 ,drawn d\btless f sev]al anci5t s\rces1 he has become ?r\gh 8 new function & motivation creatively orig9al4 ,battles !re mu/ be 9 epic1 ev5 battles ( ! ,hom]ic sort2 b ,v]gil does n rely on ! g5]al mle2 he modifies x subtly 9 ! direction ( ! m organiz$ ,roman fight+1 & he *anges ! ,hom]ic s]ies into a progress4 ,9 %ort1 ev5 :]e he is p]=ce mo/ dep5d5t on ,hom]1 8 imitation is nev] repetition4 ,imitation is creative :5 x adapts ! art ( ! pa/ to ! int]pretation ( ! pres5t4 ,! neid is n a ,lat9 ,iliad2 x is a ,roman epic4 ,v]gil's adaptation ( ! epic movem5t involves a dep>ture f ,hom] 9 ! direction ( drama4#dc ,h[1 & h[ f>1 imitation ( drama c s]ve ext5d$ n>rative we le>n fully f him because he imitates selectively4 ,he does n try to make 8 /ory a play1 or m]ely a s]ies ( plays2 he f9ds h[ f> epic c be conduct$ dramatically )\t sacrific+ its epic appeal4 ,no less selectively he rejects ! ,hell5i/ic te*nic ( ,apollonius4#dd ,epic diction1 he disc]ns1 9 ord] to h ! old communal appeal1 mu/ s\nd traditional2 b e*o ( ,hom]ic /yle w\ld make x s\nd m]ely conv5tional4 ,he gives x traditional connotation by means ( 8 own4 ,8 diction1 !re=e1 is f> less imitative ?an 8 composition4 ,9 fact1 x is r>ely imitative at all4 ,9 ! limits1 no less ?an 9 ! me?od1 ( 8 imitation 8 art runs true4 ,?r\gh t ob$i5ce :i* great arti/s yield to ! art t !y inh]it he %[s ! way to imag9ative fre$om4 ,b4 ,,! ,,n>rative ,,poetry ,,( ,,ovid ,among ! ,lat9 poets ,v]gil has ! siege p]il\s4 ,he a*iev$ t high poetic emprise beside :i* o!rs mu/ seem less4 ,9 comp>ison no "o suff]s m ?an ,ovid4#de ,yet he :o pres5t$ ! gods )\t see+ _! div9ity1 & retold ! my?s in/ead ( recreat+ !m1 has lit]>y qualities n only /rik+1 b at once typical ( 8 "t & v widely influ5tial4 ,v]gil has be5 rev]$2 b ,ovid has be5 imitat$ & absorb$4 ,)\t attempt+ to measure 8 brilliancy1 x is necess>y to di/+ui% ! *>act]i/ic habits ( a poetic ^: influ5ce spread ov] we/]n ,europe4 ,t poetic is se5 at once to be unfail+ly exp]t 9 e arti/ic detail4 ,its metrical facility1 prov]bial#df f ! fir/ & in/ructive ( ! v]se ( _m c5turies & _m l&s1 is only ! mo/ obvi\s skill ( a man :o lov$ /yle4 ,?\gh he does n make a habit ( ! elegiac t5d5cy to rime1 he plays v>i\sly ^u allit]ation & o!r consonance2#dg & 8 use ( refra9 sugge/s ^? /anza patt]ns set c5turies lat] by ,fr5* c\rtly mak]s 9 rondel#dh & ballade4#di ,= ?\gh he kn[s ! subtle/ spells ( s\nd1 ,ovid is nev] neglectful ( su* notes z mu/ cat* ! e>4 ,8 v]se is m ?an popul>2 b x is popul>1 & _m a ,spani>d1 ,gaul1 & ,briton has be5 grateful to feel its music runn+ 9 8 head4 ,equally obvi\s is ,ovid's decorative description4 ,its b5t is n t[>d epic sugge/ion ( "* by attitude1 ge/ure1 & action1 b t[>d picturesqu5ess4 ,bright imag]y g>ni%es ! famili>4 ,groves & /reams & _! tutel>y nymphs1 m51 wom51 & gods1 are n individualiz$2 !y are m]ely realiz$4 ,b :at exub]ance ( sugge/ion6 ,to op5 dull eyes & spur jad$ feel+s1 to vivify a leg5d>y sc5e1 to dilate a conv5tional mood1 to r$ecorate an old l&scape1 ,ovid _h an inexhau/ible fund4 ,= he elevat$ poetic conv5tion to a f9e art4 ,a /orm at sea#ej lacks none ( ! prop]ties2 a fa9t+ h]o9e or h]o1#ea no appropriate ge/ure4 ,! pallor ( love c move once m1#eb & ! gold5 age#ec make ! ov]-civiliz$ p5sive4 8,mortal art ?\1 or div9e80 0 said by ,odysseus to ,nausikaa :5 gods walk$ ) m52 b ,ovid _h ! art to repeat x#ed :5 ! gods 7 dead4 ,repeat8 ,he himself became ! patt]n ( ^! ?+s = c5turies4 ,n only is he =ev] ! poet ( 8,ga!r ye roses :ile ye may10 b 8,/ay1 dawn2 :y mu/ ?\ ha/e80#ee e*o$ across ,europe1#ef 0 he>d 9 ! cry ( ,*auc]'s ,troilus#eg & ,%aksp]e's ,juliet1#eh & /ill rev]b]ates4 ,! ,alex&rian#ei dilation ( su* description#fj appe>s also 9 ! long-drawn emotions ( soliloquy4#fa ,! fix+ ( ?is z a lit]>y type mu/ h be5 promot$ by ! preval5ce ( ! s*ools ( declamatio1#fb :]e ,ovid _h /udi$4 ,practis$ 9 elem5t>y =m ev5 by ,roman s*oolboys1 develop$ by declamatores 9 exhibitions ( virtuosity1 ! fiction ( :at s-&-s mu/ h said on su*-&-su* an occasion is /ill a rhetorical ex]cise4 ,z an ex]cise x has "s value 9 promot+ poetic appreciation2 b x seems h>dly ! way t[>d poetic creation4 ,ovid1 at any rate1 h>dly creates p]sons4 ,! address ( ,sol1 = in/ance1 to ,pha?on1#fc is only a m ext5d$ & m pr(essional s*ool !me2 & ! mixture ( allegorical p]sonification ) my?#fd %[s him r z a rhetorician#fe ?an z a poet4 ,t he is n a my?-mak]1 only a my?-tell]1 may be se5 by putt+ any ( 8 demigods beside ! ,prome!us ( s*ylus--or ev5 ! ,prome!us ( ,%elley4 ,= re-creation ,ovid lack$ :at ! ,great ,unkn[n#ff ?\ght to be ! prim>y s\rce ( expression1 intellectual vigor ( conception4 ,?us 8 my?ical p]sons1 ?\gh always appropriate & sometimes vivid1 are n alive4 ,m has be5 claim$ = 8 /ory-tell+4 ,cruttwell#fg says ( ! ,metamorphoses3 8,! skill ) :i* diff]5t leg5ds are wov5 into ! fabric ( ! composition is z m>vell\s z ! frivol\s dilettantism :i* c\ld treat a long h]oic poem 9 su* a way40 ,! skill ( ! weav+ is indisputable2 b is x m ?an an art ( transition8 ,to call ! ,metamorphoses a long h]oic poem sugge/s a cruel comp>ison ) ! neid1 & p>tly begs ! "q4 ,:at ,ovid seems to h int5d$1 & :at he a*iev$1 is a deftly articulat$ collection4 ,x is n a s+le poem 9 ! s5se ( hav+ emotional progress or totality1 nor is any o!r ( ,ovid's collections4 ,8 di/9ctively n>rative art1 !re=e1 is to be s\ght n 9 ! connection betwe5 /ories1 b 9 ! composition ( ea* "o4 ,x is ev5 probable t ?is art 0 ! m popul> because x (f]$1 n a long su/a9$ n>rative1 b _m sep>able %ort tales4 ,! 8vivid inv5tiv5ess0 & 8unflagg+ animation0 urg$ by ,ow5#fh z *>act]i/ic ( ,ovidian n>rative may be accept$ )\t discussion1 & %\ld n be und]valu$4 ,inv5tiv5ess 0 ov]valu$1 inde$1 9 ! melodramatic fictions ( declamatio1 & implies an art r facile ?an creative2 b x is none ! less sure ( popul>ity4 ,z = animation1 :atev] else a /ory may be1 x may n be dull4 ,"h ,ovid (t5 w9s by 8 v levity4 ,he makes no dem&s4 ,no "o c be foll[$ m easily2 = he moves on ! surface4 ,:]e he skates on ?9 ice1 he does s q simply = excitem5t4 ,!re is none ( ! mod]n pret5se ( exploration4 ,8 problems are purely arti/ic1 problems n ( motive1 b ( int]e/+ mood & attitude1 ( appropriate & v>i\s utt]ance4 ,8 animation1 p>tly rhy?mical1 p>tly descriptive1 is m l>gely unflagg+ expressiv5ess4 ,always expressive1 8 p c always be und]/ood )\t ef=t4 ,he holds att5tion )\t provok+ ?\ght4 ,! 8rapid movem5t0 claim$ by ,ow5 is (t5 m]e succ9ctness1 r>ely ! spe$ ga9$ by mod]n n>rative use ( dramatic te*nic4 ,= t he usually has too mu* sep>able description1 too mu* soliloquy1 too little motivation4 ,he seeks int5sity less (t5 ?an expansiv5ess4 ,nev]!less1 ?\gh he pauses delib]ately = description or tirade1 he does n lag4 ,!re is no clumsy pros+ or deviation4 ,he has ! art1 m valu$ 9 anci5t & m$ieval times ?an 9 mod]n1 ( lucid1 flu5t n>rative1 ! art ( ! tale4 ,t he does n foll[ x (t5] is due to 8 read]s' fondness1 & 8 own1 = dilation4 ,! onw>d movem5t ( poetic is ?us sacrific$ to rhetoric4 ,! p>ts become m important ?an ! :ole4 ,= ,ovid 0 a rhetorician1 n only br$ 9 ! s*ools1 b habitually ?9k+ ( poetry less z compos$ movem5t ?an z lucid & brilliant1 z ample & h>moni\s /yle4 ,c4 ,,! ,,metamorphoses ,,( ,,apuleius ,sight+ f ! ,metamorphoses ( ,ovid ?r\gh ! ,metamorphoses ( ,apuleius1#fi "o cle>ly disc]ns ! com+ ( ! ,greek ,romances4 ,s runs ! ,alex&rian n>rative l9e f decorative description & expansive emotion1 ?r\gh excit+ incid5t & uncontroll$ v>iety1#gj to %e] viol5ce4 ,ovid's /ories are sometimes l dreams2 ! ,greek ,romances are nightm>es4 ,apuleius1 betwe5 ! two1 already seeks ! viol5t & ! biz>re4 ,8 metamorphoses are no long] my?ical1 nor 9 ! lea/ allegorical2 !y are m]e sorc]y4 ,! appetite ( 8 "t = horrors & o!r excitem5t _h be5 bo? f$ & :ett$ by declamatio4#ga ,ovid1 too1 knew declamatio2 b ,apuleius1 himself a rhetor1 0 less re/ra9$ by e>li] lit]>y /&>ds f giv+ re9 to ! s5sational4 ,?\gh ! bulk ( 8 extant "w is n>rative1 ,apuleius devotes no att5tion to onw>d n>rative movem5t4 ,sup]ficially cont9u\s1 8 ,metamorphoses are nev]!less (t5 q sep>able1 z is evid5t 9 ! mo/ fam\s ( !m1 ,cupid & ,psy*e4 ,su* c\rse ( plot z !re is eddies 9 h>angues1 tirades & decorative descriptions4 ,! abundant dialogue is uncontroll$ by dramatic concision4 ,ev]y:]e ,apuleius is orally expansive4 ,a rhetor tell+ /ories1 he goes little beyond ! poetic ( ! plat=m3 "w = excitem5t1 rely+ on lu/ & wit*craft2 exp& :at is %[y1 emphasiz+ ea* "p )\t reg>d to sequ5ce2 use dialogue = v>iety1 lett+ prosopopia suffice = *>act]ization2 & if nev]!less ! tale lags or becomes confus$1 make a fre% />t by br++ on brig&s4 ,?is habit ( m9d1 & n ! incid5tal satire1 expla9s ! n>rative loos5ess4 ,apuleius is no ,rabelais2 he is only a facile second-c5tury rhetor c>ry+ ! rhetorical fiction ( 8 "t to great] l5g?4 ,9 /yle1 ?\gh habitually diffuse1 he is sometimes *>m+ & (t5 lively2 b 9 composition he m]ely ext5ds a m]etrici\s conv5tion4 ,dur+ 8 lifetime ,iambli*us wrote ! ,babylonica1 or ,rhodanes & ,s9onis 7#aff-ahj72 &1 soon aft]1 ,*>iton ( ,aphrodisias ! ,*reas & ,calirrhoe 7be=e #bjj74gb ,?us 0 e/abli%$ ! mode foll[$ lat] by ,heliodorus & ,a*illes ,tatius1 ! p]v]t$ n>rative kn[n z ! ,greek ,romances4 ,any "o :o has ! pati5ce = ^! phantasmagoria ( passion1 horror1 & adv5ture w see _! lik5ess to ! ,metamorphoses ( ,apuleius1 & w probably reproa* him ! m = ignor+ t onw>d causal movem5t )\t :i* ! art ( n>rative seems to lapse4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,see ,f4 ,b4 ,gumm]e's ,beg9n+s ( ,poetry4 ,! controv]sy :i* 0 spread by ! ,hom]ic /udies ( ,wolf1 has lately %ift$ to ! popul> ballad4 ,see ,g4 ,l4 ,kittr$ge's introduction to 8 "o-volume selection ( ! ,engli% & ,scotti% ,popul> ,ballads f ! collection ( ,*ild1 ,bo/on1 #aijd1 & ! rec5t /udies ( ,pr(essor ,l\ise ,p\nd4 ,j4 ,a4 ,scott ma9ta9s ,! ,unity ( ,hom] 9 8 ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia ,lectures1 #aiba4 #b ,c4 ,s4 ,baldw91 ,introduction to ,engli% ,m$ieval ,lit]ature1 ,new ,york1 #aiad1 pages #af-ah4 #c ,z ,i write1 ,knut ,hamson's ,! ,gr[? ( ! ,soil has j be5 call$ epic4 #d ,poetic1 xxiv4 #e ,ari/otle1 ,poetic1 xxiv4 ,see page #aeh above4 #f ,poetic1 xxiv4 #g ,see above1 page #ajf4 #h ,op5+ ( ! tude sur ,virgile4 #i ,lectures on ,poetry1 ,london1 #aiaa4 #aj 8,v]gil10 9 ,great ,writ]s1 ,new ,york1 #aiab4 #aa ,w4 ,y4 ,sell> 9 ,! ,roman ,poets ( ! ,augu/an ,age1 ,virgil1 ,ox=d 7#c;d edition71 #aijh1 analyzes "u conv5i5t head+s ,v]gil's position 9 ,lat9 lit]ature4 ,h5ry ,nettle%ip's discussions 9 ,lectures & ,essays1 ,ox=d1 #ahge1 #ahhe1 h n be5 sup]s$$1 ?\gh !y h evid5tly be5 sugge/ive to m rec5t critics4 ,sa9te-,beuve's tude sur ,virgile1 ,p>is1 n4 d41 & ,t4 ,r4 ,glov]'s ,virgil1 ,london1 #aijd 7#d? edition1 #aibj71 appeal m to ! g5]al read]4 ,r4 ,y4 ,tyrrell's *apt] 9 8 ,lat9 ,poetry1 ,bo/on1 #ahie1 is unsympa!tic ) ,v]gil ! arti/4 ,mo/ ( ! innum]able editions ( ! neid h little to say ( 8 poetic art4 ,?is is specifically ! subject ( ,m4 ,m>jorie ,crump's ,! ,gr[? ( ! neid1 ,ox=d1 #aibj1 :i*1 ?\gh little develop$1 is a di/9ct contribution to te*nical /udy4 ,b ! book on ,v]gilian epic is ! exhau/ive "w ( ,ri*>d ,he9ze1 ,virgils epis*e ,te*nik1 ,leipzig1 #aijb 7#b;d edition4 #aijh1 #c;d edition1 #aiae74 ,ref]5ces are to pages ( ! ?ird edition4 #ab ,he9ze1 #cai1 comp>es 9 ?is aspect ! ,hom]ic duel ( ,p>is & ,m5elaus ) neid xii4 ,typically1 he po9ts out1 ,v]gil's 8,h&lung =ts*reitet10 & ! composition is 8sz55haft40 #ac ,paul ,le,jay1 ,l'nide1 ,p>is1 #aiai1 page lix4 ,he9ze1 #cha1 %[s ! m9ut5ess ( ?is c>e 9 cases :]e two sc5es are *ronologically p>allel4 ,"o ( ! two is always subord9at$2 & ! fir/ to be pres5t$ is always c>ri$ to a /ate ( re/ be=e turn+ to ! second4 #ad ,he9ze1 #cfa4 #ae ,! exactness1 brilliancy1 & range ( ,v]gil's color words are /udi$ by ,t4 ,r4 ,price1 ,! ,color-,sy/em ( ,v]gil1 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,philology1 volume #d1 numb] #ac 7#ahhb74 ,see ! m ext5sive "w ( ,hugo ,blmn]1 ,die ,f>b5bezei*nung5 bei d5 rmis*5 ,di*t]n1 ,b]l9] ,/udi51 volume #ac 7#ahia74 #af ,?is is ! te*nical secret ( ! di/9ction t ,sa9te-,beuve expresses z 8sobrit 444 ri5 que le ncessaire10 tude sur ,virgile1 #ic4 #ag ,glov]1 #af1 repeats ,h5ry's praise ( ,quale p] inc]tam lunam sub luce maligna4 ,,vi4 #bgj4 ,sur*>g$ precision int5sifies ,lucet via longo ,ord9e flamm>um1 et late discrim9at agros4 ,,xi4 #adc4 ,b ! same di/9ctness1 at once precise & picturesque1 may be f\nd almo/ any:]e 9 ! neid2 x is ,v]gil's habit1 & x is nev] obtrusive4 #ah ,less+1 ,laokon1 especially *apt]s xvi & xvii4 #ai ,he9ze1 #djf4 #bj ,! fam\s description ( ! h>bor "u ! cliffs 7,e/ 9 secessu longo locus4 ,i4 #aei7 is really less *>act]i/ic ?an ,adspirant aur 9 noctem1 nec c&ida cursus ,luna negat2 spl5det tremulo sub lum9e pontus4 ,,vii4 #h4 #ba ,he9ze1 #cif4 #bb ,he9ze1 #cgd4 #bc ,he9ze cites ! h&l+ ( ,fama 9 ,,iv1 & ( ,allecto 9 ,,vii4 #bd ,see above1 page #aii4 #be ,he9ze1 #id4 ,miss ,crump analyzes ! probable *anges ( revision4 ,h] !ory t ,book ,,iii survives f an e>li] plan 9 :i* x /ood fir/1 & t ,v]gil probably int5d$ to revise x entirely1 has grave difficulties4 #bf ,paul ,le,jay1 ,l'nide1 lxviii2 ,he9ze1 #bfc4 ,= ! detail ( ! composition ( s+le books & gr\ps see also ,he9ze1 #ahj1 #ddh1 #dec4 ,= in/ances ( p]ipety1 see ,he9ze1 #bbc1 #cbc4 #bg ,he9ze1 #abj1 is h>dly extravagant 9 ma9ta9+ t ?is is beyond any o!r anci5t a*ievem5t ( ! k9d4 #bh ,he9ze1 #acc4 #bi ,woodb]ry1 #acb4 ,see also ,j4 ,r4 ,gre51 8neas1 a ,virgilian ,/udy0 9 ,/ray ,/udies f ,engl& & ,italy1 #bbg4 #cj ,he9ze1 #bga seq42 ,w4 ,w>de ,f[l]1 ,! ,religi\s ,exp]i5ce ( ! ,roman ,p1 lecture xviii4 #ca ,ovid 7,tri/ia1 ,,ii4 #ece7 says t ! f\r? book 0 ! mo/ popul>4 #cb ,sell>1 #cie4 ,= c>eful discussion ( ?is :ole aspect ( ,v]gil's diction1 see ,he9ze1 #daj-dbg4 #cc ,t ev5 ,dido's desp]ate plea1 z well z ! calm reply ( neas1 proce$s f po9t to po9t1 n all read]s w agree ) ,he9ze 7#dbe-f1 on neid ,,iv4 #cje74 ,! v>iations ( rhy?m 9 ?is passage w\ld surely be us$ by a sympa!tic recit] to sugge/ agitation4 ,b ,v]gil's g5]al neglect ( ! famili> means ( asyndeton & hyp]baton 7see1 = example1 ,de sublimitate1 xxi-xxii7 to sugge/ emotional disord] %[s a *>act]i/ic di/ru/ ( incoh]5ce4 #cd ,he9ze1 #bgi4 #ce ,h[ freely ,lat9 au?ors transf]r$ x to poetic may be se5 9 ,horace's ,ars ,poetica 7see bel[1 ,*apt] viii74 ,comp>e ,plut>*1 ,quomodo adolesc41 x1 bel[1 page #bdd4 #cf ,sell>1 #aja1 quotes ,comp>etti3 8an elaboration ( language :i* disda9s or is unable to say a pla9 ?+ 9 a pla9 way40 #cg ,see above1 page #baj4 #ch 8,dur+ all ! ye>s 9 :i* ,virgil brood$ ov] x & wr\ght ^u x1 he kept 8 mat]ial 444 9 fusion1 n cry/alliz$ & h>d5$ into f9al %ape0 7,mackail1 #gh72 i4e41 he cont9u$ to adju/4 #ci ,eximios tauros1 f>re pio1 etc41 not$1 among o!r critics1 by ,e4 ,nageotte1 ,hi/oire de la littrature lat9e1 #ccd4 ,apropos ( ,v]gil's incomp>able comm& ( ! res\rces ( 8 language1 ,nageotte adds happily t a 8ta*e de r\ille antique a son effet prvu dans la gamme des c\leurs environnantes0 7#cbd74 #dj ,woodb]ry1 #abe4 #da ,woodb]ry1 #aaa4 #db ,see above1 page #bjf4 #dc ,see above1 page #bje4 #dd ,see above1 page #bjc4 #de ,ovid has a l>ge place 9 e compreh5sive hi/ory ( ,lat9 lit]ature 7e4g41 9 ,w4 ,y4 ,sell>'s volume on ,horace & ! ,elegiac ,poets 9 8 ,roman ,poets ( ! ,augu/an ,age1 ,ox=d1 #ahib71 & is discuss$ at lea/ briefly 9 ! comp5ds 7e4g41 ,c4 ,t4 ,cruttwell's ,hi/ory ( ,roman ,lit]ature1 ,am]ican edition1 ,new ,york1 #ahij74 ,! la/ edition ( ! ,encyclop$ia ,britannica has an ext5sive appreciation by ,s4 ,g4 ,ow51 ^: critical edition ( ,tri/ia provides a bibliography ( ,ovidiana4 ,( ,engli% translations ! mo/ accessible are ^? 9 ! ,loeb ,classical ,libr>y3 ( ,h]oides & ,amores by ,grant ,%[]man1 ( ,metamorphoses by ,f4 ,j4 ,mill]1 bo? ) introductions & bibliographical notes4 #df ,sponte sua c>m5 num]os v5iebat ad aptos1 ,et quod t5tabam dic]e v]sus erat4 ,tri/ia1 ,,iv4 x4 #be4 is almo/ z famili> z 8lisp$ 9 numb]s1 = ! numb]s came40 #dg ,morsque m9us pn quam mora mortis habet4 ,h]oides1 x4 #hb4 #dh ,ilia1 pone metus2 tibi regia no/ra patebit1 ,teque col5t amnes4 ,ilia1 pone metus4 ,tu c5tum plures int] dom9ab]e nymphas2 ,nam c5tum aut plures flum9a no/ra t55t4 ,amores1 iii4 #f1 #fa4 ,rime 9 ,lat9 elegiac poetry is well summ>iz$ by ,k4 ,p4 ,h>r+ton 9 8 volume ( edit$ selections1 ,! ,roman ,elegiac ,poets1 ,new ,york1 #aiad1 page #fa4 #di ,e4g41 at ! close ( ,h]oides1 ix1 ,impia quid dubitas ,deianira mori8 9 l9e #adf is repeat$ 9 l9es #aeb1 #aeh1 #afd1 i4e41 9 e six? l9e4 #ej ,e4g41 ,metam4 xi4 #did4 #ea ,metam4 vii4 #hbf4 #eb ,ars ,amat4 i4 #gbi4 #ec ,metam4 i4 #hi1 ,amores1 iii4 #h1 #ce4 #ed ,metam4 iv4 #cbj4 #ee ,amores1 i4 #ac4 #c4 #ef ,see1 = example1 ,rudolph ,s*evill1 ,ovid & ! ,r5asc5ce 9 ,spa91 ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia ,publications 9 ,mod]n ,philology1 vol4 #d1 numb] #a 7,novemb]1 #aiac71 pages #bd & #ie4 #eg ,troilus & ,criseyde1 iii4 #adae-adgj4 #eh ,romeo & ,juliet1 ,,iii4 v4 #ei ,ow5 9 ,encyclop$ia ,britannica speaks ( ,ovid z 8! mo/ brilliant repres5tative ( ,roman ,alex&r9ism40 #fj ,a typical is 8dira lues0 9 ,metam4 vii4 #ebc4 #fa ,e4g41 ,byblis 9 ,metam4 ix4 #dgd1 ,myrrha 9 ,metam4 x4 #cbj4 #fb ,discuss$ above 9 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,ii4 ,cruttwell says ( ! ,h]oides3 8,!y are erotic suasori1 bas$ on ! declamations ( ! s*ools40 ,hi/ory ( ,roman ,lit]ature1 #cjf2 & ,he9ze1 8die ,gattung d] poetis*5 declamatio inauguri]te40 ,virgils epis*e ,te*nik1 #dcd4 ,cf4 ,sell>1 #cca1 #cef2 ,c>l ,brck1 ,de ,ovidio s*ola/ic>um declamationum imitatore1 ,muni*1 #aiji4 #fc ,metam4 ii4 #cc4 #fd ,iris1 ,tisiphone1 ,luctus1 ,pavor1 ,t]ror4 ,metam4 iv4 #dhj4 ,! me?od se5 m l>gely 9 ,invidia 7,metam4 ii4 #gfj71 ess5tially a s*ool ex]cise1 pass$ ?r\gh ! ,roman de la ,rose into m$ieval habit4 #fe ,he9ze discusses m g5]ally ! rhetorical habit ( ,ovid 9 ,virgils epis*e te*nik1 #dcd4 #ff ,see above1 page #abf4 #fg ,hi/ory ( ,roman ,lit]ature1 #cji4 #fh ,encyclop$ia ,britannica4 #fi ,apuleius1 born ab\t #abe ,a4,d41 & probably educat$ at ,c>?age1 :]e he pass$ mu* ( 8 life1 became a rhetor at ,rome ab\t #aej1 & soon !reaft] publi%$ ! ,metamorphoses4 ,florida is ! title giv5 to a collection ( exc]pts f :at we %\ld call 8 lectures 7see ,*apt] ,,viii1 #bcj74 ,nettle%ip 79 an essay on ,nonius ,m>cellus1 ,lectures & ,essays1 #bhb7 calls him 8a v /rik+ repres5tative ( 8 age40 ,?\gh 8 "w is l>gely translation or compilation1 he has caught ! fancy ( sev]al ,engli% lit]ati1 & 0 made by ,pat] "o ( ! p]son 9 ! tw5tie? *apt] ( ,m>ius ! ,epicurean4 ,adl+ton's translation 7#aeff7 ( ! ,metamorphoses has be5 repr9t$ ) an introduction by ,seccombe1 & revis$ = ! ,loeb ,classical ,libr>y by ,gaselee4 ,! sep>able ,cupid & ,psy*e *apt]s 7,books ,,iv-,,vi71 (t5 translat$1 appe> 9 ! fif? *apt] ( ,pat]'s ,m>ius1 & h be5 aga9 translat$ by ,purs] 7,london1 #aiaj71 ) a sugge/ive introduction on ,apuleius z a rhetor4 ,butl] has translat$ also ! ,florida4 #gj 8,l'art de composition faiblit1 comme il arrive t\j\rs qu& la s9crit du s5tim5t dim9ue2 c> c'e/ la proccupation s9cre d'une ide dom9ante qui ma9ti5t d'un b\t l'autre l'unit de ton et l'h>monie2 qu& le bel esprit l'emporte1 il s'amuse aux dtails1 il s'atta*e au #8morceau1' et n'a plus la =ce de li] l'ensemble40 ,croiset1 ,hi/oire de la littrature grecque1 vol4 ,v 7,priode ,alex&r9e71 page #aeh4 #ga ,see ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,ii4 #gb ,^! dates are tak5 f ,wolff's admirable summ>y ( ! ,greek ,romances z an ,alex&rian d]ivative 9 ! op5+ *apt] ( 8 ,greek ,romances 9 ,elizabe?an ,fiction 7,new ,york1 #aiab1 ,columbia ,univ]sity ,press74 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,rhetoric ,,9 ,,anci5t ,,criticism ,,( ,,poetic ,a4 ,,! ,,p]vasiv5ess ,,( ,,rhetoric ,! ,ari/otelian di/9ction ( poetic f rhetoric has be5 sometimes blurr$1 sometimes ignor$1 by criticism4 ,su* confusion z ?us arises became m common 9 anci5t criticism ) ! wan+ ( anci5t art2 x 0 widespread 9 ! middle age2 x has reappe>$ _m times s9ce ! ,r5aissance4#a ,= consi/5t developm5t ( poetic z a te*nic di/9ct f rhetoric is beyond ! occasion ( mo/ criticism1 :e!r anci5t or mod]n4 ,at an ebb tide ( creation especially1 ! av]age critic is likely to conf9e 8 obs]vations to /yle2 & !re ! two te*nics h mu* common gr\nd4 ,ev5 9 criticism ( composition we h se5 (t5 9 our own "t su* famili> t]ms z unity1 emphasis1 & coh]5ce re/rict$ to _! rhetorical def9itions1 & yet impos$ 9 ^! s5ses on composition ^: actual control 0 q diff]5t4 ,! unity ( ! ,anci5t ,m>9]1 = in/ance1 has be5 int]pret$ z ! logical control ( ! proposition 8,he praye? be/ :o love? be/10 ?\gh surely t composition 0 unifi$ q o!rwise4 ,or ! t]m coh]5ce is p]mitt$ to sugge/ t ! progress ( ,burke's spee* on ,conciliation f p>agraph to p>agraph is l ! progress ( ,o!llo f sc5e to sc5e1 ?\gh ! two te*nics h little resemblance4 ,su* w>p+ ( poetic has sometimes be5 ev5 urg$ by anci5t or mod]n s*oolma/]s & text-books4 ,x has seem$ ?rifty to make ,molire1 = in/ance1 exhibit ^? pr9ciples ( composition :i* pupils mu/ use 9 writ+ essays ^u him4 ,b ev5 )\t su* p$agogical p]v]sion x is easy to ?9k ( poetic 9 t]ms ( rhetoric2 = rhetoric is 9 ev]ybody's head4 ,x 0 s mu* m a preoccupation ( anci5t ?\ght t ! conception ( poetic z a di/9ct movem5t seems to h become less & less active4 ,?\gh a few critics1 ev5 "u ! ,empire1 held ! ,ari/otelian di/9ction1 g5]ally anci5t poetic 0 m & m w>p$ t[>d rhetoric4 ,) rhetoric det]m9+ education1 ) ev5 ,cic]o & ,tacitus discuss+ poetic z contributory1 ) ! lat] declamatores habitually bl5d+ ! two1 ) ev5 poets yield+ to ! common t5d5cy1 poetic c\ld h>dly be conceiv$ (t5 z a di/9ct movem5t ( composition4 ,:ile ,v]gil's art reveal$ a critical conception unkn[n to ,s5eca & ,lucan1 ,horace c\ld repeat ,ari/otle )\t foll[+ 8 di/9ctive idea4 ,cic]o & ,tacitus1 be/ ( ,lat9 critics1 naturally contemplate 9 poetic r its imag]y ?an its movem5t2#b & ,qu9tilian1#c ev5 m naturally1 explores only its treasures available = orators4 ,t anci5t criticism nev] lo/ ! ,ari/otelian di/9ction altoge!r appe>s 9 ! anonym\s & undat$ ,de sublimitate#d & 9 a few ( ! _m words ( ,dio ,*ryso/om2#e b ,plut>*'s poetic is indi/+ui%able f rhetoric4 ,b4 ,,criticism ,,f ,,gramm>ians ,! ov]:elm+ prepond]ance ( rhetoric 9 anci5t critical ?\ght foll[$ naturally f ! dom9ance ( rhetoric 9 education4#f ,=mal s*ool+ 9 poetic1 :at we n[ call prim>y in/ruction 9 lit]ature1 began ) grammaticus1#g & he 0 committ$ 9 advance to prep>+ 8 boys = _! /udies 9 rhetoric4 ,) 8 task ( inculcat+ correctness 9 read+1 speak+1 & writ+ 7 associat$ 8 lectures 7prlectiones7 on ! poets4 ,?\gh ^! may (t51 giv5 ! highly select$ gr\p ( /ud5ts1 h done mu* = appreciation ( lit]ature1 !y c h>dly h rang$ f> 9 poetic4 ,grammaticus probably conf9$ himself 9 mo/ cases to :at is kn[n 9 ,fr5* s*ools z explication des textes4 ,)9 its limits ?is is admirable2 b giv5 ! age ( ! pupils & _! specific object1 x _c (t5 h gone beyond words & s5t5ces into ! poetic composition ( ! :ole4 ,criticism ad hoc1 ! detail$ /udy ( a p>ticul> poem passage by passage1 is a me?od n only necess>y = s*ool+1 b valuable m widely4 ,by %e] preval5ce x mu/ always be influ5tial2 illum9ation mu/ 9 fact h come (t5] f su* int]pretation ?an f a sy/ematic treatise on poetry4 ,none ! less x ne$s m correction & ext5sion f o!r =ms ( criticism ?an 0 usually possible 9 ! anci5t _w4 ,by itself x t5ds t[>d a p$e/rian analysis ( diction & t[>d emphasis on ^? aspects ( poetic :i* are available = rhetoric4 ,criticism by labels1 ! classify+ ( au?ors by accept$ adjectives1 is n1 un=tunately1 conf9$ ei!r to antiquity or to gramm>ians4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( criticism1 app>5tly1 mu/ always be devot$ to tell+ p :at !y ought to say4 ,b ! classify+ habit seems to h be5 especially preval5t 9 anci5t criticism4 ,at any rate1 ! labels affix$ by gramm>ians 7 widely repeat$4 ,ev5 s disc]n+ a critic z ,qu9tilian ?us makes 8 t5? book a conv5i5t 8survey40 ,! satisfaction ( an audi5ce 9 neat & recognizable *>act]ization is giv5 by ,apuleius4 8,any spee* compos$ by ,avitus w be f\nd ev]y:]e s consi/5tly p]fect t ,cato w\ld n miss 9 x 8 dignity1 nor ,laelius 8 smoo?ness1 nor ,grac*us 8 vehem5ce1 nor ,cs> 8 w>m?1 nor ,hort5sius 8 cle> plan1 nor ,calvus 8 subtleties1 nor ,sallu/ 8 concis5ess1 nor ,cic]o 8 ri*ness40 ,apuleius1 ,apologia4 ,ea* orator has ! "r label1 z 9 a cram-book2 & ! same classify+ neatness disposes ( ! poetic ( ,philemon4 8,y :o are suffici5tly acqua9t$ ) 8 tal5t1 he> briefly ( 8 end4 ,or w y he> some:at also ( 8 tal5t8 ,?is ,philemon 0 a poet1 a writ] ( ! ,middle ,com$y4 ,he wrote pieces = ! /age 9 ! "t ( ,m5&]1 & 9 competition ) him1 p]haps n z an equal1 b c]ta9ly z a rival4 ,9 ^! conte/s1 ,i am sorry to say1 he 0 (t5 ! w9n]4 ,at any rate1 y w f9d 9 him mu* t is piquant1 plots neatly wov51 recognitions cle>ly unfold$1 *>act]s adequate to ! action1 ?\ghts approv$ by exp]i5ce1 humor n too l[ = com$y1 s]i\sness n involv+ trag$y4 ,s$uctions 9 8 plays are r>e2 ev5 legitimate loves are treat$ z ab]rations4 ,none ! less he %[s ! p]jur$ pimp1 ! passionate lov]1 ! %rewd slave1 ! deceiv+ mi/ress1 ! int]f]+ wife1 ! indulg5t "m1 ! scold+ uncle1 ! conniv+ crony1 ! bellicose soldi]1 n to m5tion gre$y p>asites1 /+y fa!rs1 & voluble h>lots40 ,apuleius1 ,florida1 ,,xvi4 ,nor 0 ! habit conf9$ to rhetors4 ,x 0 widespread 9 ! 8?ree /yles0#h ( oratory1 9 ! t5 canonical ,attic orators1 9 8,asianism0 v]sus 8,atticism10 9 ! bias ( ev5 ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus#i t[>d classification4 ,true1 x appe>s g5]ally 9 criticism ( rhetoric1 & is common en\gh 9 mod]n times2 b 9 anci5t criticism x am\nts to a preoccupation1#aj & is m readily c>ri$ ov] into poetic4 ,gramm> 9 ^? wid] rea*es n[ compreh5d$ 9 ! t]m philology has mu* to contribute to ! criticism ( old] poets4 ,!on1 = in/ance1 ^: manual ( s*ool ex]cises 7#aa7 has come d[n to u f ! "t ( ,augu/us1 annotat$ ) s*olia ! tragic & ! comic poets4 ,! tradition ( ! ,alex&rian gramm>ians includ$1 besides syntax & exegesis1 textual criticism4 ,b su* criticism dep5ds = mu* ( its value on sci5ce little explor$ by ! anci5ts2 & typically x makes little contribution to poetic4#ab ,by no good =tune1 !n1 8philology & poetry w5t h& 9 h& 9 ! anci5t & classical lit]ature ( ,italy40#ac ,! result ( ?is companion%ip 0 n1 inde$1 always nor necess>ily s arid & conf9$ z ! criticism ( ! second-c5tury lexicograph] ,aulus ,gellius2#ad b at mo/ x _h little range4 ,c4 ,,criticism ,,f ,,pr(essional ,,public ,,speak]s ,n only did ! preval5ce ( rhetoric make poetic g5]ally subsidi>y1 b ! preval5ce ( declamatio#ae 9 lat] tea*+ & practise t5d$ actually to confuse ! two4 ,?is rhetoric 0 itself l>gely poetic1 l>gely an art ( appeal by description4 ,sometimes c>ry+ descriptive dialogue into a sort ( oral fiction1 x _h no occasion = poetic movem5t4 ,! patt]n ( a spee* suffic$ z well z ano!r :]e ! opportunity 0 less ( ! :ole ?an ( ! p>ts4#af ,imm$iate popul> oral effects 7 !n1 z n[1 ga9$ r by /++ epigrams & dramatic realizations ?an by any onw>d c\rse4 ,! poetic t %all w9 a cr[d on ! spot is m likely ?an ! poetic t %all be savor$ by individual read]s to be s5sational4 ,s5sational 9 fact x 0 commonly1 to judge by examples rang+ all ! way f ,s5eca's ,controv]si well into ! ,*ri/ian c5turies4 ,ev5 ^? rhetors :o 7 n s5sational 9 _! own practise 7 little m likely1 9 a "t ( su* preoccupations1 to conceive poetic di/9ctively2 & rhetors purvey$1 among o!r ?+s1 lit]>y criticism4 ,besides tea*+ & exhibit+ at home1 ! m popul> rhetors travel$ z occasional orators & lectur]s4 ,?\gh _! spee*es 7 (t5e/1 ( c\rse1 occasional1 &1 :5 !y 7 r lectures1 7 commonly 9 ! fields ( philosophy & e?ics1 /ill pr(essional public speak]s mu/ h purvey$1 at home & on _! j\rneys1 a good deal ( ! curr5t lit]>y criticism4 ,:]e ?is 0 incid5tal1 x ne$ n be tak5 too s]i\sly4 ,no device ( public speak+ is m p]si/5t ?an ! flatt]+ ( an audi5ce by lit]>y allusions & accept$ adjectives ( admiration4#ag ,su* passages1 9 anci5t spee*es or 9 mod]n1 %[ m]ely :at is reg>d$ z ! "r ?+ to say1 & are almo/ always limit$ to /yle4 ,b :]e a rhetor develops a lit]>y topic1 ev5 = a p>agraph or two1 he may be z significant z any o!r lit]>y critic4 ,! p>ticul> rhetor might be a tea*] ( rhetoric prim>ily1 or second>ily1 or h>dly at all4 ,?\gh he h>dly rank$ z a philosoph]1#ah yet he 0 an active purveyor ( philosophy4 ,an exp]t 9 public address1 he pr(ess$ a v>iety ( consid]able range4 ,occasional oratory ( itself invites rang+ 9 bo? emotion & ?\ght4 ,conv5tional z he appe>s :5 consid]$ m]ely z "o ( a num]\s class1 he might nev]!less be an out/&+ individual2 & ev5 z a type he 0 at lea/ accompli%$ & influ5tial4 ,apuleius1 lively & d>+ en\gh 9 8 n>rative1#ai seems 9 ! exc]pts pres]v$ f 8 oratory q conv5tional4 ,! ,florida %[ c]ta9 typical encomia1 two passages ( critical labels1 ?ree long pieces on philosophy1 & sev]al ( ^? exordia :i* travel+ lectur]s prep>$1 & /ill prep>e1 = extempore adaptation4 ,if ! ,great ,unkn[n's ,de sublimitate#bj 0 a public address--& its sugge/iv5ess is /rongly oral--its au?or rose q above ! type )\t los+ ! typical opportunity ( oral criticism4 ,"o may fancy ! close ( t noble appeal e*o+ long 9 ! e>s ( a rapt audi5ce4 ,b )\t any flight ( fancy "o may read ! possibilities ( anci5t oral criticism 9 c]ta9 ( ! orations ( ,dio ( ,prusa1 (t5 call$ ,dio ,*ryso/om4#ba 7#a74 ,dio ( ,prusa ,dio's spee* kn[n z ! ,olympic1 & hav+ = subtitle ,! ,prim>y ,conception ( ,god1 op5s ) a proem *>act]i/ic ( ! =m1 an introduction sep>able1 adju/able1 o/5sibly impromptu1 b none ! less foll[+ a type4 ,a fable ( ! owl--occasional oratory seems inevitably to beg9 ) a /ory--leads to o!r prov]bs1 to hi/orical allusions1 to ! speak]'s pr(ession ( mode/y1 s9c]ity1 & homel9ess4 8,i am j come f ! ,get4 ,%all ,i tell y ab\t ?is int]e/+ p80 ,a rhetor's (f]+ ! *oice ( !me to ! audi5ce might be m]ely conv5tional2 = ,dio effectively recalls x by add+3 8,"h at ,olympia1 beside y\r wondr\s /atue ( ! ,olympian1 %all ,i n r speak ( ,zeus himself80 ,s is approa*$ a disc\rse ^u embodim5ts ( deity 9 poetry & 9 sculpture1 a lecture c>efully conduct$ f po9t to po9t1 & deliv]$ d\btless 9 ^! words1 c]ta9ly by ?is plan1 9 m ?an "o welcom+ city4 ,su* a prep>$ address ne$$ only ! adju/m5t ( ! proem to ! place & ! occasion4#bb ,! lecture itself rema9$ sub/antially ! same4 ,?is "o makes fir/ ! foll[+ po9ts4 ,! k ( ,zeus comes ?r\gh nature2 m5 become aw>e ( him z ! n\ri%] ( !m all4 ,to su* realization is add$ t ( poetry1 ( cult1 & f9ally ( ! arts ( pa9t+ & sculpture1 n to m5tion ! !ories ( ! philosoph]s4 ,limit+ ourselves to poetry & sculpture1 let u beg9 7#di7 ) ,phidias1 ^: m>vel\s /atue "h compels our admiration4 ,does ?is /atue embody deity truly8 ,t "q 0 answ]$ to ! ,a!nians ( ! same g5]ation q diff]5tly1 by a speak] less diff]5t ?an 8 conclusion1 a ,roman ,jew ( ,t>sus1 "o ,paul4 ,dio goes on1 aft] an encomium ( ,phidias3 ,phidias might well reply t x is true to tradition z t is conceiv$ & def9$ by ! poets 7#ee-eg71 t s9ce we ye>n = a p]sonal div9e1 ! human body is its be/ expression1 & t ,hom] too 7#fb7 made 8 gods human4 ,!re foll[s a comp>ison ( sculpture ) poetry 7#gj74 ,?\gh ?is /resses unduly1 p]haps1 ! m]e range ( v]bal sugge/ion1 x make none ! less cle>ly a fundam5tal di/9ction4 8,aga91 besides ?is1 ! v conditions ( work+ out a conception 9 sculpture impose "o =m = ea* /atue1 a =m immovable & p]man5t1 yet su* z to compreh5d 9 itself ! god's :ole nature & p[]2 b poets may easily include 9 _! poetic _m =ms & all sorts ( %apes1 = !y add su* movem5ts or repose z !y ?9k appropriate to ea* mom5t1 actions too1 words1 & f9ally1 ,i ?9k1 ! illusion ( "t40 ,s 7,phidias is suppos$ to g on7 my ,zeus1 embody+ 9 a s+le repres5tation ! typical ,greek conception 7#gd7 ( ! rul] ( an ord]$ _w1 %[s him z g5tle1 grave1 s]5e1 z giv]1 fa!r1 savior1 protector1 & yet does n exclude 8 o!r aspects 7#ge74 ,h[ c\ld ,i repres5t him 7#gh7 cont9ually hurl+ ! ?und]bolt1 s5d+ ra9 or /ret*+ ! ra9b[1 r5ew+ battle-lu/8 ,our art is adju/$ to ! imm$iate & cle> te/ ( actual see+ 7#gi74 ,an encomium ( ,phidias1 a disc\rs de circon/ance1 has be5 made to involve two l>ge pr9ciples ( arti/ic !ory4 ,! fir/ is e?ical1 express+ a fundam5tal relation ( art to human life4 ,art1 & especially poetry1 is a revelation to u ( :at we vaguely feel to be div9e2 x int]prets communal exp]i5ce z communal vision4 ,! second is /hetic1 d]iv+ a diff]5ce ( te*nic f ! fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 /imulat+ m5tal images by successive v]bal sugge/ions1 visual1 auditory1 motor1 & actually repres5t+ to ! eye alone all toge!r & all at once4 ,:ile poetry ranges ?r\gh successive sugge/ions1 sculpture focuses /atically by typical repres5tation4 ,?\gh x is easy to read into ^! pr9ciples f mod]n criticism m ?an ,dio int5d$1 !y c h>dly be reg>d$ z less ?an p5etrative & fundam5tal4 ,! fir/1 (t5 reaffirm$ 9 mod]n times & sometimes app>5tly r$iscov]$1 is (t5 impli$ 9 anci5t criticism4 ,dio's contribution is to =mulate x explicitly1 & to express x ) unusual w>m?4 ,! second is cle>1 ?\gh less explicit1 9 ,ari/otle's ,poetic4 ,x is ignor$ by bo? ,horace & ,plut>*4#bc ,z ,dio's words w5t d[n ! anci5t w9d1 s ,less+'s almo/ id5tical di/9ction#bd has n preclud$ mu* bl& mod]n confusion ( ! arts4 ,m & m a morali/ z 8 life advanc$1 turn+ f rhetor into prea*]1 ,dio nev]!less ma9ta9s a v>iety rem9d+ u t ?is =m ( oratory _h great range4 ,! prelude ( 8 ,euboica1 ext5sively descriptive ( simple fronti] life1 is almo/ a %ort /ory4 ,q diff]5t f ! conv5tional expatiation1 :i* ,dio else:]e does n despise1 x %[s him exp]t n only 9 ! !ory ( n>rative1 b also 9 its practise4 ,"s ( 8 disc\rses are less spee*es ?an :at we %\ld call essays4 ,! "o on ,practise 9 ,speak+#be is 9 topics1 plan1 & /yle q conv5tional4 ,! rem>kable "o on ,greek drama is z x /&s an essay 9 lit]>y criticism4 ,by ! ins]tion ( recit$ passages x c\ld easily & effectively h be5 exp&$ into a lecture2 b ev5 )\t ^! x is bo? su/a9$ & sugge/ive4 ,,dio ,,*ryso/om1 ,,oratio ,,lii ,,s*ylus1 ,,sophocles1 ,,& ,,euripides1 ,,or ,,! ,,b[ ,,( ,,philoctetes #a4 ,i rose e>ly1 walk$1 m$itat$1 pray$1 ex]cis$1 ba!d1 breakfa/$4 #b4 ,i *anc$ ^u c]ta9 trag$ies ( ! ma/]s1 s*ylus1 ,sophocles1 & ,euripides1 all ^u ! same !me4 ,x is t ( ! !ft ( ! b[ & arr[s ( ,philoctetes--p]haps "o %\ld say ! seizure4 ,at any rate1 ,philoctetes 0 depriv$ ( 8 arms by ,odysseus1 & himself br\ght to ,troy1 l>gely ( 8 own free w1 p>tly also by ! p]suasion ( necessity1 s9ce he 0 b]eft ( ! arms :i* provid$ at once 8 liv+ on ! isl&1 8 c\rage 9 su* disease1 & 8 glory4 #c4 ,well1 ,i fea/$ on ! spectacle1 & ,i reflect$ t ev5 if ,i _h be5 at ,a!ns 9 _! "t1 ,i c\ld n h se5 all ?ree great m5 9 competition4 ,"s1 inde$1 did see ! competition ( ! "y ,sophocles ) ! old s*ylus1 & ( ! old] ,sophocles ) ! y\ng] ,euripides2 b ,euripides 0 q outside ( ! g5]ation ( s*ylus1 & compet$ ) him seldom1 if ev]1 9 ! same drama4 ,my hav+ all ?ree to read toge!r seem$ a revel1 & a fre% consolation = my inability to see !m4 #d4 ,well1 ,i imag9$ myself putt+ ! plays on q spl5didly1 & tri$ to fix my att5tion z a judge ( ! fir/ tragic *oruses4 ,b ?\gh ,i _h tak5 my oa?1 ,i c\ld n h giv5 a decision2 nor1 = all me1 w\ld any ( ^? ma/]s h be5 held inf]ior4 ,! greatness ( m9d 9 s*ylus & 8 s5se ( tradition1 z well z 8 au/]ity ( ?\ght & expression1 seem$ appropriate to trag$y & to ! anci5t h]oic e?ics--no?+ contriv$ or glib or l[4 #e4 ,ev5 ,odysseus he introduc$ z %rewd & crafty 9 ! way ( t "t1 a way s f> remov$ f ! bas5ess ( to-day t :at is really traditional 9 s*ylus seems beyond ^? :o n[ try to be simple & high-m9d$4 ,:5 ,a!na trans=ms him1 no?+ m is ne$$ to keep ,philoctetes 9 ignorance ( :o he is4 ,s ,hom] made ! /ory1 & aft] him ,euripides4 ,!re=e1 if "s unfri5dly critic %\ld accuse s*ylus ( tak+ no c>e z to h[ ,odysseus %all be conv9c+ )\t be+ recogniz$ by ,philoctetes1 7#f7 8 def5se1 ,i ?9k1 w\ld be z foll[s4 ,:ile ! "t 0 n1 p]haps1 s great t ! "* c\ld n be su/a9$ 7i4e41 ?r\gh t5 ye>s71 yet ! disease ( ,philoctetes1 8 mis]y1 & 8 hav+ pass$ ! int]im 9 a des]t are suffici5t to make plausible 8 n recogniz+ ,odysseus4 ,= _m h exp]i5c$ ! same lapse1 "s f weakness1 "s f mis=tune4 ,no1 ! *orus _h no ne$1 z 9 ,euripides1 to excuse !mselves to him4 #g4 ,bo? poets repres5t$ ! *orus z compos$ ( ,lemnians4 ,euripides has made !m at once apologize = _! =m] neglect because = s _m ye>s !y _h n come to ,philoctetes or help$ him at all4 s*ylus simply br\ght on ! *orus--a me?od f> m tragic z well z simpl]1 :]eas t ( ,euripides is m oratorical & precise4 ,if dramati/s c\ld escape all absurdities 9 _! trag$ies1 p]haps !re w\ld be reason = n neglect+ ?is2 b actually !y make _! h]alds accompli% 9 "o day sev]al days' j\rney4 #h4 ,n[ ! case 0 n q t none ( ! ,lemnians came to him or gave him any c>e4 ,probably he w\ld n h pass$ t5 ye>s )\t f9d+ any help at all4 ,probably he did f9d x1 ?\gh r>ely & ( no great acc\nt2 & no "o *ose to take him 9 & t5d him because ( ! loa?som5ess ( 8 disease4 ,euripides1 =soo?1 out ( 8 own head introduces ,actor1 "o ( ! ,lemnians1 z an acqua9tance :o w5t out to ,philoctetes & (t5 help$ him4 #i4 ,nei!r does x seem to me t any "o c ju/ly f9d fault ) mak+ ,philoctetes n>rate to ! *orus1 z if !y did n "k x1 8 ab&onm5t by ! ,a*ans & ev]y?+ else t happ5$ to him2 = an un=tunate is wont to rec\nt 8 mi%aps (t51 ev5 to ^? :o "k !m 9 detail1 & we>ies ^? :o h no ne$ to he> 8 woes by tell+ !m ov] & ov] aga94 ,moreov] ! deceit ( ,odysseus t[>d ,philoctetes1 & ! argum5ts by :i* he induces him1 are n only m 9 "*1 su* z befit a h]o & unlike ! pleas ( ,eurybatus or ,patcion1 b also1 ,i ?9k1 m conv9c+4 #aj4 ,= :at ne$ 0 !re ( manifold art & device ) a sick man1 & a b[man at t1 ^: /r5g? became useless s soon z "o b /ood ne>8 ,& ! ann\nc+ ( ! mi%aps ( ! ,a*ans1 t ,agamemnon 0 dead1 t ,odysseus 0 to blame mo/ disgracefully1 t ! army _h p]i%$ utt]ly--all ?is is n only useful = putt+ ,philoctetes 9 a good humor & dispos+ him to accept ! spee* ( ,odysseus1 b is n 9 any wise improbable1 consid]+ ! l5g? ( ! campaign & :at _h happ5$ n long be=e ?r\gh ! wra? ( ,a*illes1 :5 ,hector almo/ w5t to burn ! bea*$ %ips4 #aa4 ,! intellig5ce ( ,euripides1 t unfail+ c>e :i* nei!r leaves any?+ unconv9c+ or unprovid$ nor simply uses actions b uses !m ) all =ce 9 ! expression1 is z x 7 ! conv]se ( ! habit ( s*ylus1 be+ mo/ oratorical1 mo/ rhetorical1 mo/ available = ! use ( debat]s4 ,at ! v beg9n+1 = in/ance1 ,odysseus has be5 repres5t$ 9 ! prologue z revolv+ 9 8 m9d political en?ymemes & at fir/ d\btful ( himself1 le/ :ile he seems to ! cr[d to be wise & di/+ui%$ 9 intellig5ce1 he may be ! opposite4 #ab4 ,x is op5 to him to live unfrett$ & inactive2 b 8 wi% is to be always 9 de$s & dang]s4 ,! cause ( ?is1 he says1 is 8 emulation ( m5 goodly & noble4 ,= ^! :o are b5t on good report & univ]sal fame will+ly und]take ! greate/ & mo/ difficult toils4 8,no?+ is born s pr\d z man40 ,!n sapi5tly & precisely he discloses ! plot ( ! drama & :y he has come to ,lemnos4 #ac4 ,he says he has be5 trans=m$ by ,a!na s t :5 he meets ,philoctetes he %all n be recogniz$4 7,euripides imitates ,hom] 9 ?is2 = ,hom] _h ,odysseus trans=m$ by ,a!na :5 he met n only o!rs1 b ev5 ,eumu & ,p5elope47 ,he says an embassy is ab\t to come f ! ,trojans to ,philoctetes1 to ask t he (f] !m himself & 8 arms 9 return = ! k+%ip ( ,troy4 ,?us ,euripides makes ! action m v>i\s & inv5ts occasions = ! argum5ts by :i*1 :5 he turns !m ! o!r way ar\nd1 ,odysseus seems mo/ res\rceful & mo/ suffici5t = any?+4 #ad4 ,he has repres5t$ ,odysseus z arriv+ n alone1 b ) ,diom$ 7,hom]ic ?is1 too74 ,all 9 all1 z ,i said1 ?r\gh all ! drama1 he displays ! greate/ intellig5ce & plausibility 9 action1 extraord9>y & m>vell\s =ce 9 ! spee*es1 dialogue at once sapi5t & natural & oratorical1 & lyrics t n only please1 b also /rongly move to virtue4 #ae4 ,sophocles seems to be betwe5 ! two1 hav+ nei!r ! au/]ity & s+l5ess ( s*ylus nor ! precision & %>pness & oratorical ca/ ( ,euripides1 b a grave & magnific5t poetic embrac+ all t is mo/ tragic & mo/ eloqu5t1 unit+ ! greate/ *>m ) sublimity & gravity4 ,= 8 action he has us$ ! be/ & mo/ conv9c+ plan1 repres5t+ ,odysseus z arriv+ ) ,neoptolemus1 s9ce x 0 fat$ t ,troy %\ld be tak5 by ,neoptolemus & by ,philoctetes us+ ! b[ ( ,h]cules4 ,he has ,odysseus conceal$1 b ,neoptolemus s5d+ to ,philoctetes & advis+ him :at to d4 ,he has made ! *orus n1 z s*ylus & ,euripides1 ,lemnians1 b %ipmates ( ,odysseus & ,neoptolemus4 #af4 ,! *>act]s are m>vell\sly grave & free4 ,t ( ,odysseus is mu* g5tl] & m s+le ?an ,euripides has made x2 t ( ,neoptolemus1 surpass+ly s+le & high-br$1 fir/ :5 he wi%es to get ! bett] ( ,philoctetes n by craft & deceit1 b by =ce & 9 ! op51 !n :5 at ! in/ance ( ,odysseus he has deceiv$ him & got possession ( ! weapons4 ,:5 ,philoctetes becomes aw>e & urges a *eat$ man's reproa*es1 ,neoptolemus is s mov$ t he is ab\t to give !m back2 & ev5 :5 ,odysseus int]v5es1 /ill at la/ he gives !m1 & z he gives !m tries by argum5t to make ,philoctetes g to ,troy ( 8 own free w4 #ag4 ,:5 ,philoctetes w 9 no wise yield nor be p]suad$1 b begs ,neoptolemus to keep 8 promise ( tak+ him back to ,greece1 he und]takes t & is ready to d x1 till ! int]v5tion ( ,h]cules w9s ! cons5t ( ,philoctetes to emb>k = ,troy4 ,! lyrics h n s mu* ( ! s5t5ti\s & hortatory z ^? ( ,euripides1 b a m>vell\s *>m & magnific5ce4 ,n at r&om ,ari/ophanes said ( him3 8,! m\? ( ,sophocles is ano9t$ ) honey1 z if he _h lick$ ! box40 ,conv5tional z ?is is 9 mak+ ! usual contra/ betwe5 s*ylus & ,euripides1 ) ,sophocles z a gold5 mean1 x def9es ^! di/9ctions afre% ) sugge/ive precision4 ,moreov]1 ! essay is free f ! usual preoccupation ) diction4 ,:at is said on t po9t1 ?\gh n orig9al1 is t]sely subord9at$4 ,if ! manuscript is complete1 !re=e1 ! close ^u ! quotation f ,ari/ophanes gives a false emphasis2 = ! criticism z a :ole is q diff]5t f ! usual comp>ison ( /yle ) /yle4 ,plot1 inde$1 is n develop$ ext5sively z a sep>ate item2 b x is cle>ly impli$ 9 ! treatm5t ( *>act]ization4 ,! con/ant !me is motivation1 ! br++ out ( "* ?r\gh ! movem5t ( ! plot1 ! dramatic managem5t ( p]sons ?r\gh int]action4 ,?us ,dio has made 8 criticism s+ul>ly consi/5t4 ,in/ead ( m]ely appreciat+ "o dramati/ aft] ! o!r1 he has made 8 comp>ison progressive4 ,! oral criticism utt]$ by ,greek & ,roman rhetors ( ! ,empire1 we may guess f :at has surviv$ 9 manuscript1 0 n (t5 ei!r s su/a9$ or s free f ! bias ( rhetoric4 ,p]haps ,dio's unusual grasp came f 8 mission>y s5se ( ! tradition ( ,hell5ism4 ,d4 ,,plut>*',s ,,h[ ,,y\? ,,%\ld ,,read ,,poetry#bf ,lit]>y criticism has (t5 tak5 direction f philosophy4 ,9 anci5t criticism su* a slant 0 habitual4 ,mo/ anci5t critics %[ def9ite preoccupation ) "s s*ool ( philosophy4#bg ,= example1 !re 0 a ,/oic !ory ( /yle2 & 8! /hetic !ories ( ,pantius are reproduc$ 9 ! fir/ book ( ,cic]o's ,de (ficiis40#bh ,su* cases are typical ev5 to ! involv+ ( /hetics ) e?ics2 = anci5t lit]>y criticism1 m g5]ally & av[$ly ?an mod]n1 is e?ical4 ,ari/otle is almo/ alone 9 propos+ = poetic pr9ciples frankly /hetic4 ,! g5]al t5d5cy ( anci5t criticism is to give poetic a moral color4 ,?is e?ical direction ( critical ?\ght confirm$ ! t5d5cy to conceive poetic 9 t]ms ( rhetoric4 ,n only are ! implications ( rhetoric inevitably moral1 b ! !ories ( rhetoric associat$ ) anci5t !ories ( morals 7 (t5 ext5d$ to include ev5 poetic expression4 ,anci5t poetic 0 ?us rhetoricat$ p>tly by be+ moraliz$4 ,an extreme in/ance ( ?is anci5t habit is ,plut>*'s ,greek treatise ( ! fir/ c5tury1 ,h[ ,y\? ,%\ld ,read ,poetry4 ,"h ! famili> idea t poetry is a means ( e?ical education is s exp\nd$ z to reveal ! limits ( ,plut>*'s conception4 ,he is n m]ely1 z grammaticus comm5t+ ,hom] 9 s*ool1 (f]+ poetry z a propdeutic to philosophy2 he is repeat+ a n>r[ & commonplace /hetic4 ,8 treatm5t ( imitation1 ignor+ ,ari/otle's use ( t t]m1#bi has 9 m9d fai?fulness to fact4 ,ignor+ also ! ,ari/otelian idea ( poetic movem5t1 he repeats ! commonplace & mislead+ analogy f pa9t+#cj ) a b>r5 lit]alness4 8,we %all /ill m ?or\ghly gr\nd ! "y man1 if1 on introduc+ him to poetry1 we expla9 to him t x is an imitative art & ag5t1 analog\s to pa9t+4 ,n only mu/ he be made acqua9t$ ) ! common say+ t poetry is vocal pa9t+1 & pa9t+ sil5t poetry1 b we mu/ also tea* him t :5 we see a pa9t+ ( a liz>d1 an ape1 or ! face ( ,!rsites1 our pleasure & surprise are occasion$1 n by ! beauty ( ! object1 b by ! lik5ess ( ! pa9t+ to x4444 ,9 su* in/ances x is especially important t ! "y man come to und]/& t we d n praise ! action imitat$1 b ! art1 provid$ ! subject is treat$ accurately40#ca ,poetry is pictorial 9 ?is s5se n to au?ors ^: creative b5t is di/9ctively dramatic or n>rative1 b to ! describ]s & expatiators1 n to ,v]gil1 b to ,ovid4 ,= ?is n>r[ conception ( poetic tru? ,plut>*'s recurr+ t]ms#cb are n m]ely n>r[2 !y are di/9ctly rhetorical4 ,!y are ! v ones commonly us$ by rhetoricians to describe success 9 prosopopia1#cc or *>act]ization accord+ to type4 ,t ,plut>* means !m s is cle> 9 section x on *>act]ization 9 ,hom]4 8,x is wor? :ile1 9 ?is connection1 to notice ! conduct ( ,agamemnon2 = he passes ,/h5elus by )\t notic+ him1 yet he does n neglect ,odysseus1 b answ]s him1 #8see+ h[ he 0 wro?1 & took back 8 say+4' ,_h he apologiz$ to all1 he w\ld h appe>$ undignifi$ & s]vile1 & _h he disda9$ all1 arrogant & unreasonable4444 ,x is also a good idea to take notice ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ways 9 :i* a discreet man & a pomp\s soo?say] addresses a cr[d4 ,?us ,cal*as4444 ,"o %\ld notice z well ! diff]5ces 9 racial *>act]i/ics4 ,= example1 ! ,trojans ru% f]oci\sly to battle ) savage cries1 b ! ,greeks #89 sil5ce fe>$ _! capta9s'2 = to fe> (fic]s 9 ! pres5ce ( ! enemy is ! m>k ( h]oism & ob$i5ce4444 ,h5ce =esight is ,grecian & civil2 ra%ness1 b>b>ic & rude2 ! "o to be emulat$1 ! o!r to be avoid$40 ,9 a ^w1 ,plut>*'s moraliz+ ( poetic is def9itely rhetorical4 ,= ! s*ools ( philosophy g5]ally poetic 0 incid5tal to ! consid]ation ( diction2 = him x 0 indi/+ui%able 9 me?od4 ,e4 ,,horace',s ,,ars ,,poetica ,t ! unsy/ematic epi/ol>y reflections ( a ,lat9 poet on poetry %\ld = c5turies h influ5c$ criticism ( poetic m ?an ! se>*+ analysis & consecutive syn!sis ( ! greate/ ,greek philosoph] has seem$ /range to ! po9t ( irony4 ,n only 0 ,horace quot$ :ile ,ari/otle 0 =gott51 b ev5 aft] ! recov]y ( ! ,poetic he 0 quot$ /ill4 ,he is quotable4 ,he ab\nds 9 s5t5ti2 & !y h a long life4 ,?\gh he w\ld h be5 himself ! fir/ to smile at ! putt+ ( 8 epi/le to ! ,pisos beside ,ari/otle's ,poetic1 he knew none ! less ! sort ( criticism t p l4 ,we h be5 (t5 rem9d$ t ,ars ,poetica is nei!r ,horace's title nor accurately descriptive4 ,b x is a title naturally giv5 by gramm>ians :o h>dly conceiv$ poetic z a di/9ct te*nic1 & naturally accept$ by read]s :o f\nd ,horace's epigrams no less sugge/ive because !y 7 deta*$4 ,c]ta9ly ! epi/le is n an ars2 b c]ta9ly its criticism has en\gh %rewdness1 lucidity1 brilliancy1 adaptability to ! %ort flights ( ord9>y ?9k+ on ! subject1 to expla9 all its popul>ity4 ,"o ne$ n be cynical to ?9k t ! poetic ( a ,horace w usually be m popul> ?an ! poetic ( an ,ari/otle4 ,at ! risk ( wrong+ ,horace1 8 editors & o!r critics h tri$ to brief ?is epi/le4 ,wickham1#cd = in/ance1 f9ds ?ree p>ts3 7#a7 #a-aah1 8! orig9al pr9ciples ( poetry1 unity ( conception1 *oice ( words1 /yle ( diction20 7#b7 #aai-bhd1 *>act]ization 9 drama1 ! ,greek practise ( drama2 7#c7 #bhe-;end1 8! two aims ( poetry1 ! necessity ( excell5ce40 ,b ?is is n a division at all4 ,wilk9s1#ce admitt+ difficulties ( sequ5ce1 ev5 digressions & repetitions1 nev]!less f9ds 8?ree ma9 sections03 7#a7 #a-gb1 unity ( /yle & conception2 7#b7 #gc-bhh1 application ( 8^! g5]al pr9ciples 444 to ! v>i\s k9ds ( poetry1 & especially to ! drama02 7#c7 #ahi-dgf1 requisites = cultivat+ poetry1 & difficulties4 ,none ( ^! co9cides ) any ( ,wickham's4 ,plessis#cf m cauti\sly says3 8,8 pr9cipal c\nsels are ?ree3 ! importance ( composition & ( ! h>mony ( ! p>ts1 ! supremacy ( ta/e1 p]fection ( craftsman%ip40 ,?ree aga91 & aga9 n ! same ?ree4 ,c\ld !re be cle>] pro( t ! epi/le is n logical1 nor ev5 consecutive8 ,s9ce x is 9 fact "o ( ! lea/ consecutive ( ,horace's epi/les1 s exp]t a compos] mu/ h meant x to be tak51 z x has be5 tak51 n z a logical progress1 b z a collection ( s5t5ti4 ,^!1 :atev] _! p>ticul> s\rce or s\rces1#cg may safely be tak5 z g5]ally curr5t 9 ,grco-,roman lit]>y circles4 ,?us !y h ! m significance2 = ,horace's orig9ality is h>dly 9 conception4 ,8 contribution to criticism1 l ,cic]o's1 is 9 f9ality ( phrase4 ,! maxims t h e*o$ s (t5 d[n ! corridors ( criticism h ! c>ry+ p[] ( simplicity4 ,d5ique sit quodvis1 simplex dumtaxat et unum 7#bc74 ,lucidus ordo 7#da74 ,non satis e/ pul*ra esse poemata2 dulcia sunto 7#ii74 ,si vis me fl]e1 dol5dum e/ ,primum ipsi tibi 7#ajb74 ,qualis ab incepto process]it1 et sibi con/et 7#abg74 ,difficile e/ proprie communia dic]e 7#abh74 ,p>turi5t montes1 nascetur ridiculus mus 7#aci74 ,semp] ad ev5tum fe/9at et 9 m$ias res ,non secus ac notas auditorem rapit 7#adh74 ,aut prodesse volunt aut delect>e poet1 ,aut simul et iucunda et idonea dic]e vit 7#ccc74 ,omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci 7#cdc74 ,ut pictura poesis 7#cfa74 ,m$iocribus esse poetis ,non hom9es1 non di1 non concess]e column 7#cgb74 ,commonplaces "s ( ^! mu/ h be5 ev5 9 ,horace's "t2 b !y h p]si/$ 9 criticism because he /amp$ !m4 ,! "o t is mo/ cle>ly a di/9ctive pr9ciple ( poetic is ! famili> 8,semp] ad ev5tum fe/9at10 etc4 7#adh74 ,! idea ( s adju/+ ! "t ( ! plot z to insure a significant beg9n+ & a cont9u\s & accel]at$ movem5t up to an issue is c5tral 9 ,greek drama4 ,t ,horace applies x to epic ev9ces no %>p discrim9ation ( te*nic4 ,ut pictura poesis 7#cfa7 is n1 z 9 ,plut>*1#ch a comp>ison ( ! te*nic ( poetry ) t ( pa9t+2 x m]ely insi/s t a poem1 z a picture1 be judg$ accord+ to its k9d1 accord+ to its specific object4 ,horace may1 inde$1 imply a v9dication ( 8 own poems beside ^? ( long] rea* & m su/a9$ p[]2 or he may be m]ely repeat+ 8 dom9ant idea ( appropriat5ess2 b 9 ei!r case he is n =mulat+ a pr9ciple ( poetic4 ,! rule ( five acts 7#ahi71 :]ev] he got x1 is n vital4 ,?\gh he sp5ds m "t on drama ?an on any o!r mode1 ?\gh he uses ,ari/otle1 he does n c>ry out ! pr9ciple ( dramatic movem5t4 ,! conception ( *>act]ization is cle>ly rhetorical1 8,x w matt] mu* :e!r a god speak or a h]o1 ripe age or ! ardor ( budd+ y\?1 a matron ( au?ority or an anxi\s nurse1 a travel+ m]*ant or a f>m] b\nd to 8 field1 a ,col*ian or an ,assyrian1 a ,!ban or an ,argive4 ,foll[ tradition1 or inv5t :at fits ea* "*4 ,if p]*ance y\r poem revives "t-honor$ ,a*illes1 let ! active1 t\*y1 /ubborn1 fi]ce h]o ?9k t laws 7 n made = him1 & re/ 8 claim on arms4 ,let ,m$ea be cruel & unconqu]$1 ,ino te>ful1 ,ixion fai?less1 ,ore/es gloomy40 7#aad-abd47 8,ea* "t ( life dem&s y\r /udy ( its habits4 ,z natures & ye>s move on1 y mu/ assign to ea* :at is appropriate4 ,! boy :o is old en\gh to answ] :5 he is spok5 to1 & /eps (f firmly1 ye>ns to play ) 8 mates1 takes (f5se z quickly z he lays x by1 & *anges f h\r to h\r4 ,! be>dless y\?44440 7#aef-agh47 & s on ?r\gh ,horace's sev5 ages ( man4 ,?us /ripp$ ( _! /yle1 ^! c\nsels might h come f any classical rhetoric4 ,no?+ 0 m firmly fix$ 9 ! tradition ( ! s*ools ?an *>act]ization accord+ to age1 sex1 race1 occupation4 ,su* *>act]ization by type suffices = prosopopia 9 s*ool1 = ! fa!rs & sons & pirates ( declamatio1 = ev5 ! sp5d?rifts & slaves & p>asites ( ,lat9 com$y2 x does n suffice = dipus or ,neoptolemus1 = ,m$ea or ,dido4 ,nor is ! diff]5ce m]ely 9 degree2 x is 9 ! di/9ctively poetic habit ( creat+4 ,poetic movem5t1 if ,horace inde$ glimpses x z di/9ct f t ( rhetoric1 he does n fully def9e2 poetic *>act]ization he seems n to reg>d z di/9ct at all4 ,inde$1 mo/ ( ! ,ars ,poetica applies equally to ars rhetorica4 ,aut prodesse volunt aut delect>e poet1 ,aut simil et iucunda et idonea dic]e vit 7#ccc-d74 ,if oratores be sub/itut$ = poet we h ! famili> doc]e1 delect>e ( rhetoric1 z we h x 9 ! summ>y miscuit utile dulci 7#cdc72 & ) ,horace ! mov]e t rema9s h>dly sugge/s a diff]5t te*nic4 ,si vis me fl]e1 dol5dum e/ 7#ajb7 w be f\nd 9 ,cic]o & ,qu9tilian4 ,! c\nsel ( congruity ) :i* he beg9s1 & to :i* he rev]ts aga9 & aga91 is a preoccupation ( anci5t rhetoric4 ,no bett] phrase has be5 f\nd = ! progress ( a spee* ?an lucidus ordo 7#da72 & ! iunctura 7#dg7 to :i* x is imm$iately appli$ is a t]m ( compositio4 ,9 ! ?\ght ( ,horace's circle ! di/9ction betwe5 rhetoric & poetic z two movem5ts1 two ways ( compos+1 seems to h be5 inactive4 ,r ,horace seems to ?9k ( composition z g5]ally con/ant ?r\gh\t v>i\s =ms1 & z involv+ ma9ly ! control ( conception by congruity & plan1 ( expression by adaptation & f9i%4 ,t su* ideas 7 salut>y :5 declamatio _h begun to ?reat5 bo? rhetoric & poetic1 & t !y are salut>y /ill1 no "o %\ld d5y2 b !y make no contribution to ! di/9ctive developm5t ( poetic4 ,gramm>ians1 rhetors1 philosoph]s1 m5 ( lett]s seem ?us to conv]ge "u ! ,empire t[>d a poetic /rongly t+$ ) rhetoric1 no long] di/9ct z a movem5t hav+ its own te*nic4 ,! inf]5ce1 ?\gh n conclusive1 is sugge/ive z an hypo!sis4 ,less conclusive1 b /ill sugge/ive1 is ! fur!r inf]5ce t ?is habit ( critical ?\ght 0 int5sifi$ 9 ! specifically ,lat9 tradition4 ,9 su/a9$ emotional movem5t ! neid is solit>y2 & ev5 :ile x 0 rev]$1 its poetic seems less influ5tial ?an t ( ,ovid4 ,v]gil _h turn$ = 8 poetic f ! new] ,greek ways adopt$ by 8 c\ntrym5 to ! tradition int]pret$ by ,ari/otle4 ,t old] tradition is no long] active 9 ! poetic desc5d+ f ! ,roman ,empire ?r\gh ! ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,! anci5t exp]i5ce ) rhetoric & ) poetic is se5 9 retrospect z typical4 ,! !ory ( rhetoric z ! en]giz+ ( k & ! humaniz+ ( tru? is explicitly ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle & implicitly t ( ,cic]o1 ,tacitus1 ,qu9tilian4 ,:at ! lat] anci5t pr(essors ( rhetoric _h r 9 m9d is ! tra9+ ( imm$iate p]sonal effectiv5ess2 & ?is !ory ( rhetoric z ! art ( ! speak] is at once z old z ! o!r & z p]man5t4 ,its "n is sophi/ic4 ,ari/otle deprecat$ x 9 8 fir/ *apt]2 ,/4 ,augu/9e turn$ 8 back on x at ! end ( ! anci5t _w2 b meantime x _h be5 = c5turies1 & x has be5 aga9 & aga91 a popul> p$agogy4 ,fur!r discussion ( ^! traditions1 & ( su* details z ! p]si/5ce ( classical metric aft] ! beat ( m popul> /ress rhy?ms _h become insi/5t1 is prop]ly hi/orical4 ,hi/orical int]pretation ( ! anci5t lore ( composition & ( its influ5ce 9 ! middle ages is relegat$ to ano!r volume4 ,! expository task ( ?is "o concludes naturally ) ! completion ( ! anci5t exp]i5ce4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,see ,d4 ,l4 ,cl>k1 ,rhetoric & ,poetry 9 ! ,r5aissance1 ,new ,york1 #aibb 7,columbia ,univ]sity ,/udies 9 ,engli% & ,comp>ative ,lit]ature74 #b ,s1 e4g41 does ,petronius1 ,satyricon1 #aah4 #c ,see above1 page #hj4 #d ,see above1 ,*apt] ,v4 ,b4 #e ,section ,c4 #a1 bel[4 #f ,to :at has already appe>$ f ! prec$+ *apt]s may be add$ ! op9ion ( ,george ,conv]se ,fiske3 8f ! ,hell5i/ic p]iod on1 & ?r\gh\t ! ,roman _w ( lett]s1 ! /udy ( rhetoric 0 a pr]equisite = lit]>y composition 9 e field40 ,! ,pla9 ,/yle 9 ! ,scipionic ,circle1 page #fb 7,univ]sity ( ,wiscons9 ,/udies 9 ,language & ,lit]ature1 numb] #c1 #aiai74 #g ,see above1 page #fh4 #h ,see above1 pages #ef1 #eg4 #i ,see above1 page #ajb4 ,:at ,alfr$ ,croiset says ( him seems true r ( ! habit ( 8 "t3 8que/ions arrtes d'avance et t\j\rs les mmes2 c'e/ dress] son signalem5t suivant un =mulaire1 qu'il s'agit simplem5t de remplir40 ,hi/4 de la litt4 grecque1 ,v4 #cfh4 #aj ,nettle%ip1 ,lit]>y ,criticism 9 ,lat9 ,antiquity 7,lectures & ,essays1 ,second ,s]ies74 #aa ,see above1 page #fc4 #ab ,see ! scornful comm5t ( ,croiset1 ,v4 #ceh4 #ac ,nettle%ip1 ,lectures & ,essays1 ,i4 #agf 7on ,horace's ,ars ,poetica74 #ad ,see ,nettle%ip1 op4 cit41 #bdh4 ,sa9tsbury1 ,loci ,critici1 #gd1 quotes 8 ,noctes ,attic xvii4 #aj1 on ,v]gil's neid1 ,,iii4 #egj4 #ae ,see pages #fh-gc1 #id-ig4 #af ,see foot-note #ej to ,*apt] ,,iv1 foot-note #gj to ,*apt] ,,vii4 #ag ,see ! quotations f ,apuleius 9 ! prec$+ section4 #ah ,= ! v>y+ relations ( ! 8second sophi/ic0 to rhetoric on ! "o h& & to philosophy on ! o!r see ! introduction to ,h4 von ,arnim's ,leb5 und ,w]ke des ,dio von ,prusa1 mit e9] ,e9leitung1 ,sophi/ik1 ,rhetorik1 ,philosophie 9 ihrem ,kampf um die ,jug5dbildung1 ,b]l91 #ahih2 &1 = lat] p]iods1 ,a4 ,b\lang]1 lius ,ari/ide et la sophi/ique 444 au ,i,ie sicle1 ,p>is1 #aibc2 ,w4 ,c4 ,wright1 ,philo/ratus & ,eunapius1 ! ,lives ( ! ,sophi/s1 ,london & ,new ,york 7,loeb ,libr>y71 #aibb1 introduction2 ,l4 ,mridi]1 ,l'influ5ce de la seconde sophi/ique sur l'uvre de ,grgoire de ,nysse1 ,p>is1 #aijf1 *apt] i4 ,philo/ratus1 ,vit4 ,soph4 ii 7,wright1 p4 #cd71 says t ,hippias ( ,elis disc\rs$ 77 on pa9t+ & sculpture4 #ai ,see page #bba4 #bj ,see ,*apt] ,v4 ,b4 #ba ,! def9itive discussion ( ,dio is t ( ,h4 von ,arnim cit$ above 9 foot-note #ah4 ,! late/ complete edition is t ( ,j4 de ,arnim1 ,b]l91 #ahic4 ,a translation by ,w4 ,e4 ,wat]s is ann\nc$ = ! ,loeb ,classical ,libr>y4 ,meantime ,pr(essor ,wat]s's translation ( ,oratio ,,xii 7discuss$ bel[7 is pr9t$ 9 ,volume ,,xiv 7#aiai-aibb7 ( ! ,colonnade1 publi%$ by ! ,&iron ,club ( ,new ,york ,univ]sity1 #aibb1 pages #ahc-bja4 ,! translation bel[ ( ,oratio ,,lii is my own4 #bb ,h4 von ,arnim 7op4 cit4 #aga7 f9ds manuscript evid5ce ( sev]al su* adju/able preludes4 ,comp>e ^? pres]v$ 9 ! ,florida ( ,apuleius1 e4g4 page #bbg1 above4 #bc ,see ! foll[+ sections4 #bd ,= ! significance ( ! well-kn[n passage 9 ! ,laokon1 & ( ! psy*ological =mulation ( ,lematre1 see my ,college ,composition1 page #ahc4 ,= fur!r discussion ( ?is oration1 see ,ehemann1 ,die ,,xii ,r$e von ,dio ,*ryso/om1 ,kais]slaut]n1 #ahie4 ,see also ,w4 ,a4 ,montgom]y1 ,dio ,*ryso/om z a ,hom]ic ,critic1 ,baltimore1 #aija 7,johns ,hopk9s diss]tation74 #be 1 ,oratio ,,xviii1 de ,arnim1 ,,ii1 page #bej4 #bf ,quomodo adolesc5s poetas audire debeat1 9 ! collection g5]ally entitl$ ,moralia4 ,= ,engli% translations ( ! ,morals see ! preface to ,f4 ,m4 ,padel=d's mod]n translation ( ?is p>ticul> essay1 ,essays on ! ,/udy & ,use ( ,poetry by ,plut>* & ,basil ! ,great1 ,new ,york1 #aijb 7,yale ,/udies 9 ,engli%1 ,,xv74 ,padel=d has add$ a concise & sugge/ive introduction on ,plut>*'s !ory ( poetry4 #bg ,?is bald /atem5t may be confirm$ by ! m compreh5sive hi/ories ( ,lat9 lit]ature4 #bh ,g4 ,c4 ,fiske1 ,! ,pla9 ,/yle 9 ! ,scipionic ,circle1 ,univ]sity ( ,wiscons9 ,/udies 9 ,language & ,lit]ature1 #c1 page #fb4 #bi ,see above1 page #ada4 #cj ,see ,nettle%ip1 ,lectures & ,essays1 ,second ,s]ies1 page #di 7on ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus74 ,= ! pictorial habit ( mu* anci5t description see above1 page #bag1 on ,ovid1 & comp>e ,croiset1 ,hi/4 de la litt4 grecque1 ,v4 pages #gga & foll[+4 #ca ,,iii1 9 ,padel=d's translation1 :i* is foll[$ 9 ?is & ! o!r quotations4 #cb 1 1 1 4 ,padel=d1 page #bd1 po9ts out _! n>r[ness4 #cc ,see above1 pages #ga-gc1 & also pages #ii1 #bah4 #cd ,! ,works ( ,horace1 ,ox=d1 #ahia1 ,volume ,,ii1 page #chd4 #ce ,! ,epi/les ( ,horace1 ,london1 #ahhi1 page #ccd4 #cf ,la posie lat9e1 ,p>is1 #aiji1 page #cbj4 #cg ,nettle%ip's hypo!sis1 t ,horace1 8writ+ ) a ,greek treatise be=e him1 0 us+ x = practical application to ! p>ticul> circum/ances ( 8 own "t10 & t ! ,greek treatise 0 probably by ,neoptolemus ( ,p>ium 7,lectures & ,essays1 ,i4 #afh71 is reject$ by ,wickham 7page #che74 #ch ,see above1 section ,d4 ,,tabul> ,,index ,,( ,,lat9 ,,& ,,greek ,,rhetorical ,,t]ms ,! ref]5ces are to pages4 ,! t]ms are also includ$ alphabetically 9 ! ,g5]al ,index1 & may be explor$ 9 ! indexes ( ! ,cope & ,s&ys ,ari/otle1 ! ,wilk9s ,cic]o1 ! ,rhys ,rob]ts ,dionysius1 & ! o!r editions cit$ 9 ! bibliographical notes at ! head ( ea* section4 ,! plan is g5]ally t ( ,qu9tilian 7see pages #fc-ff74 ,! ,greek t]ms ( drama & epic may be f\nd 9 ! ,g5]al ,index &1 ?r\gh ! tabul> view ( ,ari/otle's ,poetic on pages #ace-aci1 9 ! ,greek index ( ,bywat]'s edition4 ,i4 1 #fc1 #fh1 #bbh ,a4 grammatica1 #ff1 #fh1 #gc1 #ajb1 #bbf-bbi1 #bdj #a4 prlectio1 #fc1 #fd1 #ff1 #bbf #b4 1 *ria1 1 1 etc41 #fc1 #fh1 #gb #c4 pronuntiatio 7see ,,vii bel[7 ,b4 rhetorica1 #fd1 #fh1 #ga1 #gc1 #hh1 #ij1 #id 7see sub-head+s7 #a4 fabula1 argum5tum1 hi/oria1 #fd #b4 laudatio1 2 comp>atio1 1 #fd1 7#bcd-bch7 #c4 mat]ia1 #ff1 #fi1 #gc1 #gh1 #hh #d4 amplificatio1 exagg]atio1 1 #be1 #dd1 #ee1 #fd1 #ih1 #abd1 #abg #e4 e?opia1 1 #fh1 #ga1 #ahg2 prosopopia1 1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc1 #ii1 #bah1 #bbb1 #bda1 #bde #f4 declamatio1 1 #df1 #dh1 #fh-gd1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #id-ig1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ahg1 #aij1 #baj1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbe1 #bbi1 #bde1 #bdf 7a7 suasori1 #fd1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #bah 7b7 controv]si1 #fb1 #fd1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia-if ,,ii4 g5]a dic5di1 #h1 #ad1 #ae1 #ce1 #fd ,a4 delib]ativum1 ,b4 iudiciale1 1 #ic1 #ajj ,c4 demon/rativum1 1 #cc1 #acj1 #bcj-bch ,,iii4 ratio dic5di ,a4 doc]e1 1 1 #bd1 #ea1 #ef1 #ie1 #bdf 7,cic]o7 ,b4 concili>e1 delect>e1 #ea-eb1 #eh1 #abj2 cf4 1 #aa1 #ab1 #ah1 #ej 7,cic]o7 ,c4 mov]e1 #ea-eb1 #eh1 #fe1 #abj1 #bdf2 cf4 1 #ab1 #ah1 #be1 #cb1 #ej 7,cic]o7 ,a4 s5t5ti1 #a1 #de1 #ig1 #ii1 #ajj 7,s5eca7 ,b4 divisio1 #hc1 #ig1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajj 7,s5eca7 ,c4 colores1 #ig-ajj 7,s5eca7 #a4 1 #fh1 #bjc1 #bah ,,iv4 inv5tio1 1 #ba1 #db1 #dc1 #dg-ea1 #fd1 #fe1 #fg1 #gf1 #he1 #ajj1 #ajd1 #abc1 #ace ,a4 /atus1 1 #cf1 #di-ea1 #fe1 #fg1 #gd-gf1 #gg1 #ih #a4 coniectura1 /atus coniecturalis1 #b4 f9is1 /atus def9itivus1 #c4 qualitas1 /atus g5]alis1 ,b4 1 #h1 #aj1 #df #a4 #b4 7a7 1 1 #ej 7& see above "u ,,iii7 7b7 1 #ad1 #ae1 #bj2 s$es argum5torum1 #ea1 #gd 7c7 confirmatio 7see bel[ "u ,v7 ,v4 dispositio1 collocatio1 1 1 #bb1 #cc1 #cd1 #db1 #dg1 #eb1 #fd1 #fe1 #gg1 #he1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #ajg1 #abc1 #ace 7cf4 1 #abg7 ,a4 exordium1 1 #cc1 #dg1 #ec1 #fe1 #gf1 #gh1 #ie ,b4 propositio1 2 p>titio1 #cd1 #fe ,c4 n>ratio1 1 #cd1 #ce1 #dg1 #ec1 #fe1 #fh1 #gf1 #ie1 #ii ,d4 confirmatio1 1 #fe 7= sub-head+s see ,qu9tilian ,v7 #a4 1 #cf #b4 1 #bj1 #cf ,e4 refutatio1 1 #bj1 #fe #a4 petitio pr9cipii1 po/ hoc1 r$uctio ad absurdum1 #bj #b4 alt]catio1 #fe ,f4 p]oratio1 1 #cf1 #fe ,,vi4 elocutio1 1 #ba-cc1 #db1 #dd1 #ec-ee1 #ef1 #fd1 #gh-hb1 #ajj1 #ajb-aca ,a4 g5]a1 #ef1 #eh1 #ei #a4 t5ue #b4 m$ium #c4 gr&e 7a7 sublimitas1 1 #abb-aca 7cf4 vs4 1 #abg7 ,b4 electio1 1 #be1 #ec1 #fe1 #ajc1 #ajd #a4 proprietas1 #ec #b4 p]spicuitas1 #bd1 #ec #c4 ornatus 7a7 imag9es1 1 #bc1 #bd1 #ha1 #abg 7b7 tropi1 7= classification ( tropes see ,qu9tilian ,,viii4 vi7 7c7 figur1 7= classification ( figures see ,qu9tilian ,,ix7 ,c4 compositio1 1 #be-cc1 #ec1 #eh-fa1 #fe1 #fg1 #gi1 #hc1 #ajb-abb1 #abe1 #bjb1 #baj1 #bdf #a4 num]us1 1 #be-ca1 #ef1 #eh-fa 7a7 p]iodus1 ambitus1 circuitus1 1 #bg-cj1 #fj 7#a7 membra1 1 #bh1 #fj 7#b7 incisa1 1 #bh1 #fj 7b7 clausula1 #bg1 #bh1 #fj1 #fa1 #gi #b4 decorum1 1 #be1 #cb1 #aai1 #bda #c4 1 #ca1 #cb #d4 3 1 1 1 #aai ,d4 facilitas1 #ff1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 #ie #a4 cogitatio1 m$itatio1 #gc1 #hj1 #hc #b4 silva1 #hj ,,vii4 pronuntiatio1 actio1 1 #ba-bd1 #db1 #dh1 #ec1 #fd1 #fg ,,viii4 memoria1 1 #db1 #ec1 #ff1 #fg1 #hb-hd1 #ij1 #ie ,,g5]al ,,index ,! ref]5ces are to pages4 ,a p>5!sis indicates t ! ,lat9 or ,greek t]m occurs 9 ! orig9al ( ! translation or summ>y on t page4 ,a*illes ,tatius1 #bbb act+1 #bb1 #bc1 #gc1 #adg1 #aef1 #agc1 #age1 #agf1 #ahg1 #aia actio1 7#ba-bd71 #db1 #fd1 #fg1 7#aef71 7#agc71 7#agd7 action1 #adj1 #ada1 #ade1 #adg1 #aea1 #afa1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #aib adaptation1 #h1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #bd1 #cb1 #ec1 #ff1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd1 #gf1 #ajd1 #aad1 #aae1 #aai1 #bde1 #bdf neid1 #aib1 #aie1 #aig-bae1 #baf1 #bai1 #bbe1 #bda1 #bdg s*ylus1 #afi1 #aga1 #agg1 #ahj1 #bai1 #bch 1 #bi ,alcidamas1 #hb ,alex&rian1 #bah1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbh allegory1 #ahj1 #bah1 #bba allit]ation1 #baf allusion1 #bjd1 #bab1 #bac alt]catio1 #fe ,ammon1 ,g41 #ajd amplification1 #be1 #ci1 #dd1 #ee1 #fd1 #ih1 #abd1 #abg1 #agc1 #aib1 #bja1 #bji1 #bag1 #bbj1 #bbb 1 7#aej71 7#aea71 7#aeb71 7#aee7 7see causation7 1 7#ade71 #aeb1 #aef 7see recognition7 analogy1 #bj 1 #aai anti!sis1 #ca 1 7confirmatio71 #fe ,apollonius1 #bjg1 #bae appropriat5ess1 #bd1 #aai1 #ade1 #bde1 #bdf 7see adaptation7 a priori1 #bj ,apuleius1 #bba-bbc1 #bbg-bbh1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bcb ,ar*ilo*us1 #abd argum5t1 #cf1 #fe1 #abh argum5tum1 #fd ,ari/otle1 ,rhetoric1 #b1 #d1 #e1 #f-cf1 #ch1 #dj1 #dc1 #eh1 #ei1 #fg1 #gi1 #hc1 #ajj1 #aab1 #abj1 #abf1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca1 #bdg2 ,poetic1 #aab1 #acb-afh1 #agb1 #age1 #agf1 #agi1 #ahj1 #aif1 #aih1 #bbe1 #bcd1 #bdj1 #bdb1 #bde1 #bdg 1 #bf ,arnim1 ,h4 von1 #hj1 #bcj1 #bcb ,ars ,poetica 7,horace71 #baj1 #bbe1 #bcd1 #bdb-bdg articulation1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bai artificiality1 #ga1 #baa1 #bag 1 #ahe1 #bcd ,attic1 #fa1 #bbh audi5ce1 #aa1 #ab1 #ag-bj1 #bc1 #afd1 #aga1 #agd1 #ahd1 #aia1 #aib ,augu/9e1 ,/41 #ge1 #ig1 #aca1 #bdg ,aulus ,gellius1 #bbi 7amplificatio71 #abg 1 #aai ,bac*ylides1 #abd ,bacon1 #abh balance1 #ca1 #eh ,baldw91 ,c4 ,s41 #h1 #cj1 #ajg1 #aad1 #bcd ,be[ulf1 #aib1 #aie1 #aig ,blair1 #d ,boissi]1 #hg ,bornecque1 ,h41 #cg1 #hg1 #hi1 #ij1 #ig1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajj ,b\lang]1 ,a41 #bcj ,br[n+1 #aag1 #abg ,brunetire1 #afg1 #agi1 #bad ,but*]1 ,s4 ,h41 #acb1 #ace1 #ada1 #adb1 #aec ,bywat]1 ,i41 #acb1 #acd1 #ace1 #adj1 #adf1 #adg1 #aec1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aff ,cad5ce1 #bg1 #bh1 #ei-fa1 #gi ,ccilius ( ,calacte1 #aje ,capp]oni]1 #gd ,c>lyle1 #aai ca?>sis1 #ade1 #adg1 #aeb1 #aed1 #aee1 #afd causation 9 drama1 #adh-aeb1 #aed1 #aee1 #aig1 #bjg ,caus]et1 ,c41 #ch "* 9 an audi5ce1 #ah1 #ai *>act]ization 9 oratory1 #ga1 #gb1 #gf1 #ih1 #ii2 9 drama1 #acd1 #ada1 #ade1 #adh1 #aed-aef1 #afa1 #afc1 #agd1 #agf-ahj1 #ahd1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aia1 #bci2 9 ,v]gil1 #bjg-baa2 9 ,ovid1 #bai2 9 ,apuleius1 #bbb2 by types1 #baj-baa 7see prosopopia7 ,*>iton1 #bbb ,*auc]1 #ajg1 #agf1 #bah ,*ick]+1 ,e4 ,c41 #ahf1 #ahg *orus1 #aeg1 #agc1 #agd-agf1 #ahf *ria1 #fc1 #fh1 #gh ,cic]o1 #e1 #cg-fa1 #ge1 #gh1 #hg1 #hh1 #ij1 #ajc1 #aje1 #aji1 #abj1 #abd1 #abg1 #aia1 #bjg1 #bbe1 #bci1 #bdd1 #bdf1 #bdg ,cl>k1 ,d4 ,l41 #bbd clauses1 #ba1 #bh-ca1 #eh1 #fj1 #aad1 #aah1 #aai1 #abj clausula1 #bg1 7#bh71 #fj1 #fa1 #gi close 7see conclusion7 cogitatio1 #hj1 #hc coh]5ce 7see consecutiv5ess7 ,col91 l',abb1 #cg1 #ei collocatio 7see dispositio7 colores1 #ig1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajj com$y1 #adj1 #add2 --,lat91 #ahh-aib2 --,new1 #ahh1 #aij communal1 #agj-agb1 #agd-agf1 #agg1 #aib-aif1 #bcc comp>atio1 #fd comp>ison & p>allel1 #fd1 #bcd-bch complication1 ( plot1 #aef compositio1 7#be-cc71 #ec1 7#eh-fa71 #fe1 #fg1 #gi1 #hc1 7#ajb-abb71 7#abd71 #abe1 7#agc71 7#bjb71 7#baj71 #bdf concili>e 7"o ( ! ?ree tasks ( oratory71 #ea-eb1 #eh1 #fe conclusion1 #adf1 #adg1 #aej1 #aeb1 #aeh1 #afj1 #afa1 #afd1 #afe1 #aha1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #aid1 #bjg1 #bdd 7see p]oration1 7 concrete = vividness1 #ab1 #bj1 #bb1 #bd1 #ce1 #dj1 #ha1 #abh1 #abi1 #aid1 #bjb1 #bab-bac confirmatio1 #fe coniectura 7/atus coniecturalis1 see /atus7 connotation1 #agc1 #aih1 #bjc1 #bab-bac 7see allusion1 concrete1 rhy?m1 v]se7 consecutiv5ess1 #cd1 #eb1 #gg1 #gh1 #ih1 #abg1 #acd1 #ace1 #adi1 #aej1 #aeb1 #afj-afb1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahg1 #aid1 #bjj1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bje1 #bai1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbi1 #bdd1 #bdf consi/5cy1 #aej1 #aea1 #aed1 #aee1 #aef1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjd cont9uity 7see consecutiv5ess7 controv]si1 #fb1 #fd1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia-id1 #ie1 #if conv5tion1 #bag-bah1 #bcd ,coop]1 ,lane1 #abb1 #acb1 #ahi ,cope1 ,e4 ,m41 #f1 #g1 #aj1 #ai correlation1 #f1 #i1 #aa1 #ad1 #af1 #dj1 #fh creation1 #ada1 #adb1 #adc1 #aea1 #aei1 #afd1 #aid-aie1 #bji1 #bae1 #bbj1 #bdf crisis1 #b1 #aed1 #aeh1 #afj1 #afa1 #afd1 #bjd1 #bji 7see 7 criticism1 #ef1 #ajb1 #acj1 #bbd-bdg2 --by classification1 #bbg1 #bbh2 --( texts1 #bbh ,croce1 ,b41 #afg ,croiset1 ,a41 #bba1 #bbh1 #bdj ,croll1 ,m4 ,w41 #bg1 #fa ,cruttwell1 ,c4 ,t41 #ia1 #baf1 #bah1 #bai ,dance1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #adc1 #add1 #aeh1 #age1 #agf ,dante1 #aii1 #bjg1 #bjh debate1 #i1 #fe1 #ajj declamatio1 #df1 #dh1 #fd1 #fg1 #fh-gc1 #gd1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #id-ig1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ahg1 #aij1 #baj1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbe1 #bbi1 #bde1 #bdf def9ition 7see /atus7 delib]ative oratory1 #h1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ah1 #ce1 #cf1 #fd1 #ij1 #baj deliv]y 9 oratory1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #dh1 #ec1 #eh1 #fc1 #ff2 --9 drama1 #aef1 #agc1 #agd1 #ahg demon/rativus1 #fd ,demo/h5es1 #cj1 #fa1 #aah1 #aba1 #abd1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh dnom5t 7see solution7 ,de ,qu9cey1 ,t41 #d description1 #fh1 #ih1 #aid1 #bja-bjc1 #bab1 #bag1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbi1 #bcd1 #bda ,de ,sublimitate1 #d1 #abb-aca deus ex ma*9a1 #aef1 #bja dialectic 7see logic7 dialogue1 #dj1 #ace1 #aci1 #ahg1 #bji1 #bbb 1 #abf 7#ade7 1 #abg dictation1 #hj diction1 #a1 #b1 #ba-cc1 #eg1 #ade1 #adh1 #aeg1 #agb-agd1 #baa-bac1 #bae 7see /yle7 7n>ratio71 7#cc71 #cd1 #ce1 #fe 7iudicialis71 #h1 #ae1 #ce1 #fd ,dio ,*ryso/om1 or ,dio ( ,prusa1 #bbe1 #bcj-bci ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus1 #ba1 #ajb-abb1 #abe1 #acj1 #aca1 #aih1 #bbh discov]y 7see recognition7 dispositio1 #ba1 #cc1 #cd1 #db1 #dg1 #eb1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #gg1 #he1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #abc1 #ace di?yramb1 #adj1 #add divisio1 #hc1 #ig1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajj doc]e 7"o ( ! ?ree tasks ( oratory71 #ea1 #ef1 #fe1 #ie1 #bdf ,donnelly1 ,f4 ,p41 #gf ,doxopat]1 #aje drama1 #acc-aib1 #bje-bjg1 #bjh1 #bae1 #bbi1 #bde dramatis p]son 7see p]son7 ,economy1 #aha1 #ahe1 #bjb1 #bji criva9s d'ides et criva9s d'images1 #d1 #acd ,egg]1 ,m41 #ajc 1 7#aej71 7#aea71 7#aeb71 7#aee71 #bda 7electio71 #be1 #fe1 #ajc 1 #fh1 #bjc1 #bah elaboration1 #baa-bab electio1 #be1 #ec1 #fe1 #fg1 #ajc1 #ajd ,elizabe?an drama1 #ada1 #aec1 #afb1 #agi elocutio1 #ba1 #db1 #dd1 #ec-ee1 #ef1 #fd1 #fe1 #fg1 #gh-hb1 #ajj1 #ajb-aca emotion1 #c1 #ac1 #ah1 #ai1 #cb1 #ce1 #eb1 #ec1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf1 #abh1 #adj1 #ada1 #ade1 #adg1 #adh1 #afc1 #afe1 #age1 #baj emphasis1 #ajj1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjh1 #bbb2 --( s5t5ces1 #aac-aad 1 #abh 1 #abh 1 #ca enhanc+1 #ag1 #dd1 #adg1 #agc1 #bjg 7see /yle7 1 #cf en?ymeme1 #g1 #i1 #ac1 #bj1 #ca1 #cf1 #fe 1 7#aeb7 epic1 #acd1 #ace1 #aci1 #adj1 #add1 #adf1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afh1 #aib-aih1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bjg1 #baj1 #baa1 #bac-bae1 #bdd 7demon/rativus71 #h1 #ad1 #cc1 #ce1 #fd1 #acj 7p]oratio71 #cf1 #fe episodic1 #aeb e?ics 7see morals7 e?opia1 #fh1 #ga 1 #aai 1 #bg euphony1 #bd1 #fd1 #fe 7inv5tio71 #ba1 #fd1 #fe ,euripides1 #c1 #abh1 #aef1 #afi1 #aga1 #age1 #agf1 #agg1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahj1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #bjg1 #bch 1 #bh1 #abj ,evan?ius1 #aia ,ev]yman1 #ahj exordium1 #cc1 #dg1 #ec1 #fe1 #gf1 #gh extempore1 #fg1 #fi1 #hj1 #ha1 #hc1 #ie 1 #fh1 #ga1 #ahg 1 #aa1 7#ac71 #ah1 #be1 #cb1 #ej1 #eh1 #abj1 #ada ,fable1 #bj1 #fc1 #gb fabula1 #fd facilitas1 #ff1 #gi1 #ha fairy mi/ress leg5d1 #agg-agh ,fi]ville1 ,*41 #fc fiction 9 oratorical n>rative1 #gb1 #ii1 #ajj1 #bbj1 #bbb1 #bbi figures1 #bd1 #ca1 #abd1 #abh1 #abi1 #bja1 #bea4 ,,vi4 ,b4 7see concrete7 f9is 7/atus def9itivus1 see /atus7 ,fiske1 ,g4 ,c41 #bbf1 #bci ,flick+]1 ,r4 ,c41 #afi folklore 7see leg5d7 =5sic1 #h1 #ad1 #ag1 #ah1 #ce1 #cf1 #fj1 #fd1 #ga1 #ij1 #ajj =ms ( disc\rse1 #d =ms ( lit]ature1 #c1 #e1 #afg ,f\qu1 #agh ,f[l]1 ,w4 ,w41 #bjh ,fr5* classical trag$y1 #afb1 #agg1 #agh1 #aha ,froiss>t1 #bi ,fronto1 #gi1 #id ,g5us t5ue1 g5us m$ium1 g5us gr&e1 #ef-ei 1 #aai ,glov]1 ,t4 ,r41 #bjj1 #bjb 1 #bj ,goodell1 ,t4 ,d41 #afi1 #ahb ,gorgias1 #eh1 #aja gramm>1 #ff1 #bbf-bbi grammatica1 #ff1 #fh1 7#bbf-bbi7 grammaticus1 #ff1 #gc1 #ajb1 #bbf1 #bdj 1 #cc ,greek ,romances1 #bba-bbc ,greek trag$y1 #afh-ahf ,gumm]e1 ,f4 ,b41 #aic ,haigh1 ,a4 ,e41 #afi ,ha9es1 ,c4 ,r41 #id ,h>dy1 ,t41 #adf h>mony1 #eh1 #fg1 #aaa1 #aac1 #aai1 #agd1 #bac 7see rhy?m1 clausula7 ,h>r+ton1 ,k4 ,p41 #bag ,h>ris1 ,ella ,i41 #ahf ,havell1 ,h4 ,l41 #abb ,he9ze1 ,ri*>d1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 #bah1 #bai ,heliodorus1 #bbb ,hell5i/ic1 #bja1 #bjf1 #bae 7see ,alex&rian7 ,h5drickson1 ,g4 ,l41 #ch1 #ea1 #ef ,h]5nium1 ,rhetorica ad1 #cg1 #fc1 #ge ,h]mog5es1 #fh1 #gb1 #ge h]o1 tragic1 #aed-aee1 #agf-agg1 #agh2 --epic1 #aif1 #bjh-bji ,h]odotus1 #bg1 #bi1 #cj1 #eh1 #ajf1 #aej hiatus1 #eh1 #aai hi/ory & oratory1 #eg1 #ff2 --& poetry1 #a1 #b1 #aej1 #aeg1 #afe ,hom]1 #aje1 #ajh1 #aae1 #aai1 #abd1 #abf1 #ace1 #aeh1 #aib1 #aic1 #aie-aih1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjb-bjd1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 #bac-bae1 #bdj ,horace 7see ,ars ,poetica7 ,hubbell1 ,h4 ,m41 #ch1 #ajc ,hugo1 ,v41 #cj1 #afb ,hyp]ides1 #abd1 #abh ,iambli*us1 #bbb ,ibs51 ,h41 #afc1 #agj idealiz+1 #add1 #agd1 #age1 #ahf idiom1 #be1 #ec1 #ed1 #aaj imag]y1 #bj1 #bd1 #ca1 #ce1 #ha1 #abh1 #abi1 #acd1 #aid1 #bjb1 #bab1 #bac 7see concrete7 imag9ative composition1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #dj1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb1 #ih1 #ajj1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf1 #abh1 #acd1 #ace1 #aci1 #adj-bbc1 #bcb-bdg2 --diction1 #bd1 #ce1 #abi 7see concrete1 /yle7 imago 771 #ha imitation = /udy1 #dh1 #ff1 #fh1 #fi1 #hj1 #ajb2 --z a pr9ciple ( drama1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #adg1 #adi1 #aej1 #aei1 #afd2 --9 epic1 #aid1 #bjd1 #bac-bae2 --z conceiv$ by ,plut>*1 #bdj incisum1 #fj int5sification1 #abg1 #add1 #adf1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afc1 #ahc1 #aig int]action1 #ahj1 #ahg1 #bjc1 #bci int]pretation1 #aea1 #aeg1 #afa1 #afc-aff1 #ahd1 #bad introduction 7see exordium7 inv5tio1 #ba1 #db1 #dc1 #dg-ea1 #fd1 #fe1 #fg1 #gf1 #he1 #ajj1 #ajd1 #abc1 #ace inve/igation 7see inv5tio7 ,isu1 #ie1 #if ,isocrates1 #c1 #cc1 #eh1 #hb1 #ajc1 #abj1 #aba1 #acj ,jebb1 ,r4 ,c41 #f1 #bd1 #bh ,j]ome1 ,/41 #if ,john ( ,salisbury1 #fh ,julius ,pollux1 #ahi iunctura1 #bdf ,juv5al1 #if 7#ade7 1 1 #aad 1 #ahd 7see conclusion7 ,kittr$ge1 ,g4 ,l41 #aic ,knapp1 ,c41 #ahi1 #aia ,lalli]1 ,r41 #ahh1 #ahi ,laur&1 ,l41 #cg leg5d1 #aid-aie ,legr&1 ,p4 ,e41 #ahh ,less+ 7,laokon71 #cb1 #bjb1 #bcd ,le,jay1 ,p41 #bjj1 #bjf 1 #bf l5g? ( s5t5ces & ( clauses1 #aad ,leo1 ,f41 #ahh ,lewis1 ,c4 ,m41 #aaf-aah 7elocutio71 #ba-cc1 #fd1 #fe1 7#ade7 1 #abh logic1 #g1 #h1 #ac1 #aji1 #aaj1 #adh logical exclusion1 #bj 1 #cc 8,long9us on ! ,sublime10 #ajb1 #abb-aca1 #bai1 #bbe1 #bca loose s5t5ce1 #bg-bi ,lucan1 #a1 #b1 #bbe ,lucian1 #b1 #c1 #gd1 #acj ludus1 #if 7refutatio71 #bj1 #fe ,lysias1 #gc1 #abd ,mackail1 ,j4 ,w41 #aii1 #bjd1 #bab mat]ia1 #ff1 #fi1 #gc1 #gh1 #hh mat]ial & art1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #di1 #aac1 #adf1 #bac-bad ,mat!ws1 ,br&]1 #afi1 #agi1 #ahb maxims1 #bj1 #fc m$itatio1 #gc 7see cogitatio7 1 #gd 7see declamatio7 melody1 #bf1 #aad1 #ada1 #ade 7see music7 1 7#ade7 membrum1 #fj memoria1 #ba1 #db1 #ec1 #fd1 #ff1 #fg1 #hb-hd1 #ij1 7#ie7 memory1 #bh1 #fi 7see memoria7 ,m5&]1 #ahh1 #aij m5sio1 #eh m5sura1 #eh ,mridi]1 ,l41 #bcj mess5g] 9 ,greek trag$y1 #agc1 #ahc-ahd metaphor1 #bd1 #ca1 #cb1 #abd1 #aeg 7see figure1 imag]y7 met]s 9 prose1 #bf1 #bg1 #ei1 #fj1 #aah1 #aba1 #adj ,mi*aut1 ,g41 #ahi1 #aia ,mill]1 ,f4 ,j41 #ahf1 #baf ,mill's ,canons1 #bj ,milton1 #aaf1 #abb1 #acj1 #aeh1 #agj1 #aie1 #aig1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bjg1 #bad mime1 #ace1 #aci1 #adj 1 #adb1 7#add71 7#ade71 7#adh71 #aff 7see imitation 9 drama1 9 epic7 1 #adb 1 #ba1 #fd 7see memoria7 modus motorius1 #aia modus /at>ius1 #aia ,montgom]y1 ,w4 ,a41 #bcd ,moody1 ,william ,vaughn1 #agg moral appeal1 #aa1 #ab1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #cb1 #ej1 #ea1 #eb1 #adh1 #aie1 #bjj1 #bje1 #bcc morals 9 lit]>y criticism1 #bci1 #bdj1 #bdb ,morgan1 ,m4 ,h41 #ahi motivation1 #aed1 #aee1 #afd1 #ahd1 #aia1 #bja1 #bjg1 #bbj1 #bci movem5t1 #add1 #adi1 #aeh-afb1 #afe1 #agb1 #aia1 #bbj1 #bbb1 #bbi1 #bci1 #bdj1 #bdf 7see consecutiv5ess1 s5t5ce-movem5t7 mov]e 7"o ( ! ?ree tasks ( oratory71 #ea1 #eb1 #eh1 #fe ,murray1 ,gilb]t1 #afi1 #age1 #aha1 #ahc 7#fh1 #gb1 see leg5d1 my?7 music1 #bf1 #aaa1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #adc1 #add1 #ade1 #adh1 #aeh1 #agd1 #age my?1 #fh1 #gb1 #agf-agh1 #aie1 #baf1 #bah1 #bba ,nageotte1 ,e41 #bab n>ratio1 #ce1 #dg1 #ec1 #fe1 #fh1 #gf1 #ii n>rative1 #cj1 #ada1 #adb1 #adc1 #ade1 #adf1 #aeg-aeh1 #afg1 #afh1 #agc1 #ahc1 #aib-bbc1 #bcd 7see epic7 ,nassal1 ,f41 #ch1 #ajc1 #aje ,nettle%ip1 ,h41 #bjj1 #bje1 #bba1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bdj1 #bdc ,nibelung5li$1 #aib 1 #abg 1 #abf num]us1 #ef1 #ei ,occasional oratory1 #h1 #ad1 #cc1 #ce1 #ec1 #ef1 #fd1 #ajj1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bcc1 #bcd 1 #be 1 #ajc1 #ajg 1 #bda onomatopia1 #aaf orbis doctr91 #fh ord] 7see consecutiv5ess1 movem5t7 orig9ality1 #bac-bae 7f9is71 #fe ,ovid1 #ahf1 #bjc1 #bjg1 #bji1 #baj1 #baf-bbj1 #bba1 #bda1 #bdg ,ow51 ,s4 ,g41 #baf1 #bah1 #bai 7#ade7 ,padel=d1 ,f4 ,m41 #bci1 #bda pa9t+1 #adc1 #add1 #bdj1 #bda1 #bdd 1 #ab1 #ah1 #be1 #cb1 #ej1 #eh1 #abj1 #ada1 #aec panegyric 7see occasional oratory7 1 #bj1 #cf p>ts ( a play1 #aec2 --( a spee*1 #cc-ce1 #dg1 #fe1 #gf-gg1 #ie1 #ig2 --( rhetoric1 #ba1 #bb1 #db1 #ff1 #he1 #ajj1 #ajg ,patt]son1 ,w4 ,m41 #bg1 #fa ,paul1 ,/41 #if1 #bcb p]iod1 #bg-cj1 #fj1 #hc1 #ajd1 #aai1 #abj1 #ace 1 #bg-cj 1 #abj 1 #b1 7#ade71 #aeb1 #aed 7see rev]sal7 p]ipety 7see rev]sal7 p]oration1 #cc1 #cf1 #fe1 #gg p]son1 #dj1 #da1 #gb1 #ii1 7#adh71 #aea1 7#aed71 7#aga71 #agf-ahj1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #bja1 #bjh p]sonality1 #e1 #ab1 #he1 #ajj1 #acj p]suasion1 #g1 #h1 #aj1 #ag1 #bj1 #ba1 #bf1 #ea1 #gg1 #ib1 #abf ,pet]son1 ,w41 #fc1 #hg petitio pr9cipii1 #bj ,petronius1 #hi1 #bbe ,philodemus1 #ah ,philo/ratus1 #if1 #bcj 1 #aj1 #bda ,p9d>1 #abj1 #abd 1 #fe2 --1 #h1 #aj 7#df7 pit*1 #bb1 #aad pity & fe>1 #ade1 #aeb1 #aed1 #afd 7see ca?>sis7 plan1 #gg1 #gh1 #hj1 #ha1 #hc1 #aig1 #bje-bjf 7see plot7 ,plato1 #dj1 #da1 #aah1 #aba1 #abd1 #adj ,plautus1 #ahh-ahi1 #aib ,plessis1 ,f41 #bdc ,pl9y1 #ic1 #id-if plot1 #ade1 #adh-aeh1 #afc1 #agi-ahf1 #ahg1 #aia1 #bje-bjf1 #bci ,plot9us1 #aci ,plut>*1 #aij1 #baj1 #bbe1 #bcd1 #bci-bdb1 #bdd poetic1 #a-e1 #acb-bdg2 --9 rhetoric1 #ajj1 #abe-abf1 #bbi poetic ju/ice1 #afd-afe poetry & oratory1 #abf1 #abg1 #agc poetry & sculpture1 #bcb-bcd 7see pa9t+7 poetry 9 prose1 #a1 #b1 #ca1 #ff1 #gj1 #abh 7#aea71 7#aff71 7#aie7 1 #a1 #aci1 #ada1 7#aea7 7qualitas71 #fe ,polybius1 #b1 #c po/ hoc1 #bj ,p\nd1 ,l\ise1 #aic prlectio1 #fc1 #fd1 #ff1 #bbf 1 #ada1 7#ade7 prep>ation1 dramatic1 #bje-bjf 1 #aai1 #bda ,price1 ,t4 ,r41 #bjb ,prick>d1 ,a4 ,o41 #abb 1 #fc1 #fh1 #bbh 7proposition71 7#cd7 prologue1 #ahj1 #ahf1 #aia pronuntiatio1 #ba-bd1 #dh1 #ec1 #fg pro(1 #g1 #cc1 #fe1 #gg 1 #fe proposition1 #cd prosopopia1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc1 #ii1 #bah1 #bbb1 #bda1 #bde 1 #ga 7see prosopopia7 ,qu/io1 #ih qualitas 7/atus g5]alis1 see /atus7 ,qu9tilian1 #a1 #e1 #eh1 #fa1 #fb-hg1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #id1 #ii1 #aja1 #ajb1 #abg1 #aca1 #bbe1 #bbg1 #bdf1 #bdg ,rac9e1 #agj read+ al\d1 #ff1 #hj rebuttal 7see refutation7 recognition 9 trag$y1 #ade1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aef1 #aeh recurr5ce1 #bf1 #bje1 #baf-bag r$uctio ad absurdum1 #bj refutatio1 #fe refutation1 #bj1 #ec1 #fe1 #gg1 #hc repres5tation1 #acd1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #adg1 #aeh1 #afd1 #agd1 #bcc rev]sal 7p]ipety71 #ade1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aed1 #afj1 #afe1 #bjf revision1 #fa1 #ff1 #abb1 #bjc1 #bab rhetor1 #fd1 #ff1 #fh1 #ga1 #gc1 #hh1 #ij1 #id1 #bbi-bcj rhetoric1 def9ition1 #a-aj1 #da1 #dd-dg1 #ajj-aja1 #acd1 #ade2 --relations1 #f1 #h1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ae1 #af1 #dj1 #dd1 #de2 --scope1 #da1 #dd-dg1 #ed1 #he1 #hf1 #ij2 --?ree fields1 #h1 #dg2 --?ree tasks1 #ea2 --9 poetic1 #ahg1 #bjf1 #bji-bab1 #bbj1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #bbg1 #bdj-bdb1 #bde-bdg rhy?m1 #b1 #be-ca1 #eh-fa1 #fg1 #gi1 #hc1 #ajd1 #ajh1 #aad1 #aah1 #aai1 #abj1 #adj1 #add1 #adg1 #agc1 #agd1 #aih ritual1 #aga1 #bab ,rob]ts1 ,w4 ,rhys1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #ajh1 #abb1 #acj ,rol&1 ,*anson de1 #aib romantic1 #afb1 #aha1 #ahe1 #bjh ,sagas1 #aib1 #aih ,sa9te-,beuve1 #aeh1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjb sali5ce 7see emphasis7 sapi5tia1 #ed ,s&ys1 ,j4 ,e41 #f1 #cg1 #ef1 #eh1 #fa1 #fc ,sappho1 #abj1 #abf sc5>io1 #aef sc5]y1 #adh1 #agd sc5es1 #acd1 #aej1 #aeb1 #afa-afe ,s*evill1 ,r41 #bah sculpture & poetry1 #adc1 #bcb-bcd s$es argum5torum1 #ea1 #gd ,sell>1 ,w4 ,y41 #bjj1 #bji1 #baa1 #baf ,s5eca 7rhetor71 #fb1 #ga1 #hg1 #hi-aja1 #bbe1 #bbi ,s5eca 7dramati/71 #ahf-ahh s5sational1 #ib1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbi s5t5ce-movem5t1 #ba-cc1 #ec1 #eh-fa1 #fe1 #fg1 #gi1 #hc1 #ajb-abb1 #bjb1 #baj1 #bac s5t5tia1 #a1 #de1 #ig1 #ii1 #ajj 7#bbi71 #bdb1 #bdc sequ5ce 7see consecutiv5ess7 s]i\s 7( dramatic !me71 #add1 #adf1 #adi ,%aksp]e1 #aag1 #abh1 #aee1 #afb1 #agc1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahe1 #bjc1 #bad1 #bah ,%elley1 #agg1 #bai significance1 #abf1 #adf1 #aea1 #aeh1 #afj1 #afc silva1 #hj simplicity1 #aig-aih soliloquy1 #bah1 #bbj solution1 #aef 7see conclusion7 song1 #ade1 #adg 7see music7 ,sophi/ic1 #aja1 #bcj1 #bdg ,sophocles1 #abd1 #aef1 #aei-afa1 #afi1 #aga1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahe1 #bch s\nd1 connotation (1 #aae-aah speak+ 7see deliv]y1 writ+ & speak+7 spectacle1 #ade1 #agd 7#add71 #adf /anza1 #baf-bag 1 #cf1 #fe 7see /atus7 /atem5t ( facts1 #cc1 #fh1 #gg /atus1 #cf1 #di-ea1 #fe1 #fg1 #gd-gf1 #gg1 #ih ,/ev5son1 ,r4 ,l4 7,"s ,te*nical ,elem5ts ( ,/yle 9 ,lit]ature71 #ajg1 #aji1 #aae1 #aah ,/oic1 #baj1 #bci 7coniectura71 #fe ,/rabo1 #c /yle1 #a1 #b1 #ba-cc1 #ci1 #dd1 #ec-fa1 #fe1 #fg1 #gh-hb1 #ajj1 #ajb-aca1 #agc1 #ahg1 #aid1 #aig-aih1 #baa-bac1 #baf1 #bbd1 #bcj suasori1 #fd1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #bah sublimitas1 #ajc1 #abb1 #abc sugge/ion1 #ada1 #adb1 #adg1 #aeh1 #bcb1 #bcc 7see connotation7 1 7#bch7 7delib]ativus71 #h1 #ad1 #ae1 #ce1 #fd symbolism1 #agf1 #agh 1 #be1 7#eh-fa71 #fe1 #ajc1 7#bjb71 7#baj71 7see compositio7 1 #abg 7#ade71 #aee 7see plot7 syllogism1 #g1 #i1 #ac 1 #be ,tacitus1 #b1 #hg-hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #id1 #ajc1 #bbe ,tasso1 #aie1 #bad 7dispositio71 #ba1 #bb1 #cc1 #fd1 #fe ,t]5ce1 #ahh-aia !at]1 ,greek1 #agb1 #agd ,!on1 #bbh ,?rasyma*us1 #eh ?ree fields ( oratory1 #ad-ae1 #acj ?ree /yles1 #ef1 #eg-ei1 #bbh ,?ucydides1 #b1 #aah1 #abj "t 9 drama1 #adi1 #aej1 #aeg1 #afj-afb1 #ahb2 --9 epic1 #aii1 #bjd 1 loci communes1 s$es argum5torum1 #ad1 #ae1 #bj tradition1 #agd1 #agg1 #aid1 #aie1 #aii1 #bab1 #bae trag$y1 #adj1 #adb1 #add-aeg1 #aei-afa1 #afh-ahh transition1 #bjb1 #bai transposition 9 s5t5ces1 #aac-aad ,tyrrell1 ,r4 ,y41 #bjj1 #bjd ,unity1 #abg1 #adi1 #aej1 #aea1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afa-afb1 #ahj-ahe1 #aig1 #bje-bjf 1 #ba-bd1 #fd1 7#aef71 7#agc71 7see actio7 usage1 #aaj 1 #abb1 #abf ,valmaggi1 ,l41 #ha ,van,hook1 ,l41 #hb1 #afi v>iety1 #ei1 #fj1 #ajd1 #aad1 #aae1 #aai1 #aeh1 #agc1 #bba1 #bbb ,v]gil 7see neid7 v]se1 dramatic1 #agc2 --epic1 #aih 7see met]7 ,villani1 #bi ,wald51 ,j4 ,w4 ,h41 #ij1 #ig ,wat]s1 ,w4 ,e41 #bca ,watson1 ,j4 ,s41 #cg1 #fc1 #gd ,weil1 ,h41 #aaj ,welldon1 ,j4 ,e4 ,c41 #f1 #aj1 #bc1 #bd ,wickham1 ,e4 ,c41 #bdc ,wilk9s1 ,a4 ,s41 #cg1 #db1 #dc1 #fc1 #bdc ,wolff1 ,s4 ,l41 #bbb ,woodb]ry1 ,g4 ,e41 #aii1 #bjh1 #bab1 #bac ,wright1 ,w4 ,c41 #bcj writ+ & speak+1 #bc1 #cb1 #cc1 #dd1 #ff1 #fi1 #gj1 #gb1 #ha1 #hb-hd 1 #bc1 #abg 1 #adb 1 #fc1 #fh1 #gh 1 #be