,,ancient ,,rhetoric ,,and ,,poetic ,,ancient ,,rhetoric ,,and ,,poetic ,,interpreted ,,from ,,representative ,,works ,,by ,,charles ,,sears ,,baldwin ,,professor ,,of ,,rhetoric ,,in ,,columbia ,,university ,lucian ,,gloucester1 ,,mass4 ,,peter ,,smith #aiei ,,copyright1 #aibd ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,reprinted1 #aiei ,,by ,,permission ,,of ,,marshall ,w4 ,,baldwin ,,nelson ,,glenn ,,mccrea ,,artis ,,vtrivsqve ,,litterate ,,perito ,,hvnc ,,librvm ,,collega ,,amicvs ,d4 ,d4 ,d4 ,,preface ,to interpret ancient rhetoric and poetic afresh from typical theory and practise is the first step toward interpreting those traditions of criticism which were most influential in the middle age4 ,medieval rhetoric and poetic in turn1 besides illuminating medieval literature1 prepare for clearer comprehension of the ,renaissance renewal of allegiance to antiquity4 ,thus the historical survey needed to focus many important detached studies itself needs a preliminary volume of exposition4 ,the influences of ancient oratory1 drama1 and story cannot be measured surely without more specific knowledge of ancient precept and practise1 firmer grasp of ancient conceptions1 than has been offered by any synthesis in ,english4 ,even in other languages the available compends are generally rather digests1 or dictionaries of terms1 than interpretations of leading ideas4 ,instead of risking once more the inadequacy and the forced emphasis that beset such a method1 ,i have tried to make the most representative ancients speak for themselves4 ,though the very choice of spokesmen interposes the chooser1 scholars generally1 ,i hope1 will accept ,aristotle for the theory of rhetoric as the energizing of knowledge1 ,cicero for its scope and skill in practise1 ,quintilian for its teaching1 and so on through a list chosen for representative significances4 ,nor does the plan of spokesmen preclude sufficient indications of general theory and practise4 ,it shows in ,cicero the influence not only of ,aristotle1 but of ,isocrates4 ,in poetic1 ancient epic art is revealed most definitely and most largely in the neid because ,vergil1 besides being one of the greatest of poets1 was so studious a craftsman as to choose from all the ancient experience the most vital ways of narrative4 ,historically the ,new ,comedy seems more significant than the ,old2 and the same consideration has included not only ,ovid1 but even ,seneca4 ,these analyses of ancient achievement are made complementary to ancient theory by being strictly limited to composition4 ,all the authors chosen have been already expounded and translated1 some of them again and again1 but rather as philosophers1 or as orators1 or as men of letters1 or simply as ,greeks or ,romans1 than as writers on composition4 ,yet composition was not only one of the greatest ancient achievements2 it was a constant preoccupation and a consistent technic4 ,no other body of technic is more thorough and comprehensive than ancient rhetoric2 and few have been so generally recognized4 ,every writer had it in mind2 and since commentators have often had in mind something else1 ,i have felt myself bound always to explore the technical connotations of the originals1 and usually to retranslate4 ,verification is facilitated by exact citation1 and comparative study by the indexes4 ,what may thus serve incidentally as a book of reference is primarily1 however1 a progressive exposition from ideas through principles to details4 ,the ,greek philosophy of rhetoric is confirmed and applied in the great period of ,rome by the most influential orator of history4 ,aristotle's theory and ,cicero's vindication put us in the best position to comprehend the method and the detail of ,quintilian4 ,this in turn guides appreciation of that abundant study of style which is exemplified typically in ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus and illuminated by the genius who wrote the ,de sublimitate4 ,through such spokesmen1 with complementary technical analysis of ancient achievement1 the way seems surest toward recovering inductively the ancient artistic experience4 ,this experience has remained too long in abeyance for speakers1 writers1 and teachers of ,english4 ,in the ,united ,states1 though composition has been studied during the past fifty years more generally1 perhaps1 than in any other country except ,france1 neither our theory nor our pedagogy has applied very widely the ancient lore4 ,jesuit schools1 indeed1 have maintained the tradition of rhetoric1 as have some others teaching composition consecutively through ,latin2 but in general the multitude of modern text-books of ,english composition shows little use of ancient experience4 ,thus it has been possible to propose as new1 and even to try1 methods exploded in ,rome two thousand years ago4 ,there is no question of reviving an equally exploded archaism4 ,nor need we fall again into the ,ciceronianism of the ,renaissance4 ,ancient deviation1 as ,i have tried to show1 is no less instructive than ancient progress4 ,the point is so to comprehend what the ancients learned in singularly fortunate conditions as to guide our own theory away from vain repetition toward progressive realization of our own opportunities4 ,metric1 except where it bears incidentally on prose rhythms1 has been deliberately excluded4 ,in the present divergence of critical interpretation an entire volume would hardly suffice for a really contributory synthesis4 ,the larger movements of poetic1 dramaturgy and the development of verse narrative1 show a consistency that warrants a synthesis of ancient poetic2 and there is even greater consistency in ancient rhetoric4 ,but we may not lightly speak of ancient metric1 as if it were continuous from ,greek through ,latin4 ,nor is the metric of either ,greek or ,latin1 significant as it is incidentally1 necessary to the comprehension of ancient rhetoric or poetic4 ,the innovation of expounding rhetoric and poetic side by side was suggested by the demands of that historical treatment which is proposed for a later volume4 ,but though it was designed for this larger purpose1 it has meantime facilitated the immediate task4 ,actually the experience of the ancients seems to be best approached from their conception of composition as twofold4 ,logical composition and imaginative composition are1 indeed1 distinct2 but each technic1 defined within its own scope1 helps to define the other by contrast4 ,making each more distinct1 the contrast further exhibits interrelations and confusions highly significant for the history of both pedagogy and criticism4 ,not merely as archology1 then1 ancient rhetoric and poetic demand reconsideration1 but as the theory of widely suggestive experiences in the progressive art of words4 ,the bibliographies at the head of each chapter or section1 and the notes1 are strictly selective4 ,enumeration of what ,i have read myself could only embarrass the guidance of readers who wish to proceed from this book to further study4 ,omitting1 therefore1 all mere acknowledgment of my long and manifold indebtedness1 omitting also the obvious books of reference1 whether histories or topical digests1 the apparatus directs immediately to interpretations either of the authors themselves or of those principles and habits of ancient art which seem most significant for the study1 the practise1 and the teaching of composition4 ,for example1 the references are not to ,volkmann and ,christ-,schmid1 but to ,heinze1 ,rhys ,roberts1 ,hendrickson1 ,hubbell1 to ,sandys the editor rather than to ,sandys the historian2 and preference has been given to works in ,english4 ,personal indebtedness begins with a scholar who was professor of ,greek before he became professor of ,english4 ,the late ,thomas ,r4 ,price revealed the study of composition as embracing all ordered expression from a periodic sentence to a tragedy4 ,the working out of that integrating conception has been furthered by so many colleagues that specific acknowledgment must perforce be limited to those interested immediately in this volume4 ,professor ,la,rue ,van,hook read my translation of ,dio ,chrysostom's ,oratio ,,lii2 ,professor ,nelson ,glenn ,mc,crea1 the entire manuscript and the proof4 ,for criticism of the manuscript ,i am no less deeply indebted to ,professors ,brander ,matthews and ,ashley ,h4 ,thorndike2 for valuable suggestions on the proofs1 to ,professors ,edward ,d4 ,perry1 ,frank ,g4 ,moore1 and ,donald ,l4 ,clark1 and to the ,rev4 ,professor ,francis ,p4 ,donnelly1 ,s4 ,j4 ,in #aibj ,professor ,rhys ,roberts1 after sharing his acute and sympathetic scholarship in conversation on the plan of both volumes1 did me the honor to read in manuscript the first draft of ,chapter ,,ii4 ,high appreciation of all this generosity and a grateful sense of this fellowship of letters at once acquit these scholars of all responsibility for my interpretations and encourage my hope of contributing toward a more fruitful criticism of ancient composition4 ,c4 ,s4 ,b4 ,,barnard ,,college ,,may1 #aibd ,,contents ,,page ,i4 ,,rhetoric ,,and ,,poetic #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,rhetoric ,,of ,,aristotle #f ,book ,i #g ,book ,,ii #ag ,book ,,iii #ba ,,iii4 ,,rhetoric ,,in ,,the ,,de ,,oratore ,,and ,,orator ,,of ,,cicero #cg ,de ,oratore #dj ,orator #ef ,,iv4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,rhetoric #fb ,quintilian on the ,teaching of ,rhetoric 7,de institutione oratoria7 #fc ,declamatio in ,seneca1 ,tacitus1 and ,pliny #hg ,v4 ,,the ,,literary ,,criticism ,,of ,,rhetoric #ajb ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus on ,sentences #ajc ,the ,great ,unknown on ,imaginative ,diction 78,longinus on the ,sublime07 #abb ,,vi4 ,,the ,,poetic ,,of ,,aristotle #acb ,tabular ,view #ace ,the ,idea of ,dramatic ,movement #aeh ,,vii4 ,,poetic ,,in ,,ancient ,,drama ,,and ,,narrative #afg ,drama #afh ,greek ,tragedy #afh ,senecan ,tragedy #ahf ,latin ,comedy #ahh ,narrative #aib ,the neid #aib ,the ,narrative ,poetry of ,ovid #baf ,the ,metamorphoses of ,apuleius #bba ,,viii4 ,,rhetoric ,,in ,,ancient ,,criticism ,,of ,,poetic #bbd ,the ,pervasiveness of ,rhetoric #bbd ,criticism from ,grammarians #bbf ,criticism from ,professional ,public ,speakers #bbi ,dio of ,prusa #bca ,plutarch's ,how ,youth ,should ,read ,poetry #bci ,horace's ,ars ,poetica #bdb ,,tabular ,,index ,,of ,,latin ,,and ,,greek ,,rhetorical ,,terms #bdi ,,general ,,index #bec ,,chapter ,i ,,rhetoric ,,and ,,poetic ,the two great works of ,aristotle on composition1 the ,rhetoric and the ,poetic1 presuppose an ancient division4 ,that a philosopher should have written either is itself significant2 that he should have written both implies his ratification of the ancient idea that the art of speaking and writing is not throughout its various phases single and constant1 but distinctly twofold4 ,on the one hand1 the ancients discerned and developed an art of daily communication1 especially of public address1 1 ars oratoria1 rhetoric2 on the other hand1 an art of imaginative appeal1 1 ars poetica1 poetic4 ,a distinction between the two in diction1 the idea that the language of poetic is more freely imaginative1 is both commonplace and superficial4 ,the ancients1 of course1 were aware of it1 and frequently thus contrasted poetry with oratory#a or with history4 ,but the distinction between the diction of public address and the diction of drama or epic1 between prose style and poetic style1 was not in ancient thought fundamental4 ,rather the ancients saw here common ground4 ,their discussions of prose style freely draw examples from poetry2 for their rhetoric1 more explicitly than most modern rhetoric1 realized that the appeal of public address1 in so far as it is an appeal of style1 is largely imaginative and rhythmical4#b ,polybius1 indeed1 reproaches ,phylarchus for his eagerness to be pathetic and his habit of visualizing the terrible1 8as do the writers of tragedies0#c2 but as a restriction on style in history this is quite exceptional and would involve disparaging ,thucydides4 ,the common view of history is summed up playfully by ,lucian3 8,let the historian's thought1 in so far as it too is high-sounding and uplifted1 appropriate and seize something of poetic1 especially when it is involved in arrays and battles by land or sea2 for then there will be need of a poetic wind to fill the sails and bear the tall ship over the waves40#d ,in oratory the ancients specifically inculcated imaginative visualization1 and taught it from the poets4 ,their general distinction of style between prose and verse was in the habit of rhythms4 ,no1 the ancient distinction between rhetoric and poetic is far more than a differentiation of style4 ,the difference that ,aristotle saw between history and poetry is far deeper2 and perhaps this was in the mind of ,polybius when he went on to say1#e 8the end of history is not the same as that of tragedy1 but the opposite10 and complained that ,phylarchus was too fond of working up crises 774 ,even the flippant ,lucian may have meant to imply1 though he does not carry out1 a deeper difference when he said3#f 8the undertakings of the poetic art in general and of poems in particular1 and the appropriate rules1 are one thing2 those of history1 quite another40 ,at any rate1 the ,aristotelian distinction of history from poetry1 repeated by ,polybius in the second century ,b4,c4 and by ,lucian in the second century ,a4,d41 is not merely in diction1 not in prose or verse1 but in composition4 ,so1 even more evidently and pervasively1 is the broader distinction between oratory and poetry4 ,rhetoric and poetic connoted two fields of composition1 two habits of conceiving and ordering1 two typical movements4 ,the movement of the one the ancients saw as primarily intellectual1 a progress from idea to idea determined logically2 that of the other1 as primarily imaginative1 a progress from image to image determined emotionally4 ,this distinction is more fundamental than that of so-called literary forms4 ,the ancients were well aware that a particular composition might shift from one movement to the other1 a play of ,euripides lean toward oratory1 an oration of ,isocrates move for a while in the mode of poetry4 ,what they contemplated in their division was not primarily a composition1 but composition as a general habit1 the predominant and determining way of composing1 the difference between the habitual movement of a ,demosthenes and that of a ,sophocles4 ,finding these to be distinct essentially1 as typical processes of conceiving1 ordering1 and uttering1 ,aristotle treated them separately as two distinct technics1 rhetoric and poetic4#g ,that the distinction between the habitual composition1 or movement1 of rhetoric and that of poetic is not oftener made explicitly by ancient critics need cause little surprise4 ,the distinction may have been familiar enough to be tacitly assumed4 ,it is1 in fact1 often assumed2 it was quite clear in the mind of whoever wrote the ,de sublimitate2 but it is sharply defined and fully carried out only by ,aristotle4 ,we must remember that ancient criticism had no second ,aristotle1 that it was preoccupied with rhetoric1 and that it usually discussed speaking and writing1 as modern criticism does no less usually1 in terms of style4 ,the long history of criticism shows few outstanding works on composition in the large4 ,none the less for the meagerness of criticism1 the active presence of the distinction is seen in the greatest works of antiquity4 ,nor is the distinction unknown to modern criticism4 ,it is misinterpreted1 for instance1 at the beginning of ,blair's ,lecture ,,xxxviii1 confirmed by ,de ,quincey's distinction#h between literature of knowledge and literature of power1 and revived in the division1 cited by ,renard#i from ,h4 ,balzac1 into 8crivains d'ides and crivains d'images40 ,but in spite of significant occurrences and recurrences1 it seems not to have controlled any consecutive movement of modern criticism4 ,again1 the four 8forms of discourse0 widely accepted by ,american text-books naturally combine into exposition and argument under rhetoric on the one hand and1 on the other1 description and narrative under poetic4 ,but obvious as this seems1 the older1 simpler1 more fundamental division does not widely control modern pedagogy4 ,none the less its pedagogical aspect1 in either ancient or modern times1 is more important than that of many more current critical distinctions4 ,for learning to write1 the distinction between rhetoric and poetic is more directive than the distinction1 for instance1 of literary forms4 ,it is also more supported and interpreted by psychology2 for it divides not merely what is composed1 but the typical habits of composing4 ,thus the experience of the ancients with composition1 an experience so prolonged and so progressive as to constitute a full and distinct chapter in the history of art1 may be approached first by dividing as they divided4 ,each technic1 defined within its own scope1 helps to define the other by contrast4 ,making each more distinct1 the contrast further exhibits interrelations and confusions highly significant for the history of both pedagogy and criticism4 ,rhetoric in the philosophy of ,aristotle is essentially the art of giving effectiveness to truth4 ,accepting this theory1 ,cicero nevertheless feels rather the tradition of rhetoric as the art of giving effectiveness to the speaker4 ,the constructive review of a great orator exploring his art is thus complementary to the analysis of the philosopher4 ,even after ,aristotle and ,cicero there was room for a third survey4 ,quintilian showed how rhetoric pervaded and largely directed ancient education4 ,for that ancient art which was at once useful and fine1 an education and a career1 had great spokesmen4 ,we shall begin best1 and go on most surely1 by letting them speak3 ,aristotle for the function and scope of rhetoric1 ,cicero for its pursuit and achievements1 ,quintilian for its method4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,quintilian1 for instance1 appreciates ,lucan as 8ardens et concitatus et sententiis clarissimus1 et1 ut dicam quod sentio1 magis oratoribus quam poetis imitandus40 ,inst4 ,or4 ,x4 i4 #ij4 #b ,typical of this habit of thought is3 8,exigitur enim iam ab oratore etiam poeticus decor 444 ex ,horatii et ,vergilii et ,lucani sacrario prolatus40 ,tacitus1 ,dialogus1 #bj4 #c ,polybius1 ,,ii4 #ef4 #d ,lucian1 ,quomodo historia1 #de4 #e ,polybius1 ,,ii4 #ef4 #f ,lucian1 ,quomodo historia1 #h4 #g ,the terms rhetoric and poetic are contrasted in ,lucian1 ,demosthenis encomium1 #e-h1 #ag-ah2 ,strabo1 ,i4 ii4 #f 7,c4 #ag1 end74 #h ,essay on ,pope4 #i ,g4 ,renard1 ,la mthode scientifique de l'histoire littraire1 page #che4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,rhetoric ,,of ,,aristotle ,the only art of composition that concerns the mass of mankind1 and is therefore universal in both educational practise and critical theory1 is the art of effective communication by speaking and writing4 ,this is what the ancients and most moderns call rhetoric4 ,more ample and exact definition1 though unnecessary for elementary practise1 is demanded for fruitful theory2 and the theory of rhetoric has always concerned so many more people than the theory of any other art as to be part of every pedagogy4 ,here the practise of education not only may be guided by philosophy2 it must be4 ,for any coherence in its teaching1 rhetoric must be comprehended not only in its immediate functions1 but in its pervasive relations to other studies4 ,it is at once the constant in educational schemes and the art among sciences4 ,how we are in a given time and place to learn or teach rhetoric depends on how we understand its function and scope in specific relations4 ,the importance of a theory of rhetoric in this aspect was discerned by the greatest philosopher of antiquity4 ,in ,aristotle's comprehensive survey of thought and action rhetoric is not merely included2 it has substantive place4 ,aristotle's ,rhetoric1#a though professedly more analytical than constructive1 has a consecutive development4 ,neither his ethics nor his politics receives more scrutiny or shows more penetration and grasp4 ,as if he dared not slight it1 he shows in this work1 comparatively brief though it is1 the full reach of his intelligence4 ,in detail it has been questioned2 but in conception and plan1 in direction of thought and order of presentation1 it has remained fruitful4 ,,book ,i ,book ,i surveys by definition and division the opportunity of the public speaker4 7i7 ,rhetoric is the complement of logic 7dialectic74 ,it is the art of persuasion formulated by investigating the methods of successful address2 and its object is to promote a habit of discerning what in any given case is essentially persuasive4 ,proof as contemplated by rhetoric proceeds by such means as may be used in public address4 ,instead of the syllogism1 which is proper to abstract logic1 rhetoric typically uses the enthymeme1 that approximate syllogism which is proper and necessary to the actual concrete discussion of public questions4 ,thus rhetoric serves as a general public means 7#a7 of maintaining truth and justice against falsehood and wrong1 7#b7 of advancing public discussion where absolute proof is impossible1 7#c7 of cultivating the habit of seeing both sides and of exposing sophistries and fallacies1 and 7#d7 of self-defense4 7ii7 ,the means of persuasion outside of rhetoric 7 7 are witnesses1 documents1 and other evidence2 the means within the art of rhetoric 77 are the moral force of the speaker1 his adaptation to the disposition of the audience1 and his arguments4 7iii7 ,the three fields of rhetoric are3 7#a7 deliberative address to a popular assembly1 discussing the expediency of a proposal for the future2 7#b7 forensic address to a court1 discussing the justice of a deed in the past2 and 7#c7 panegyric1 commemorating the significance of a present occasion4 ,the eleven remaining chapters of this book analyze each of these fields in its main aspects1 or fundamental topics1 e4g41 wealth1 happiness1 government1 crime1 virtue1 etc4#b ,the bare digest will show that ,aristotle's ,rhetoric is hardly a manual4 ,in fact1 it is rather less a manual than is his ,poetic4 ,it is a philosophical survey4 ,the scope of rhetoric is measured not by any scheme of education1 but by the relations of knowledge to conduct and affairs4 ,to be comprehended1 this great work should be read consecutively1 for it is not merely systematic2 in spite of parts undeveloped1 it is progressive1 and its chief significance1 perhaps1 is from its total development4 ,the following discussion presupposes a fresh and consecutive reading4 ,about rhetoric ,aristotle would first of all have right thinking1 conceptions large enough to be suggestive and distinct enough to be true4 ,so the definition in his first chapter is slowly inductive4 ,first we are to distinguish rhetoric from logic4#c ,as modes of thought the two are alike general1 both applicable universally1 neither having its own subject-matter4 ,as modes of utterance they differ typically in that while logic is abstract1 rhetoric is concrete2 while the one is analytic1 the other is synthetic2 while the one is a method of study1 the other is a method of communication4 ,rhetoric1 no less than logic1 has subject-matter in every given case4 ,only its perverters teach it as merely an art of dealing with persons1 of reaching an audience4 ,no less than logic1 it is a means of bringing out truth1 of making people see what is true and fitting4 ,but rhetoric contemplates having truth embraced4 ,it is the application of proof to people4 ,its distinction from logic is here1 in the typical mode of proof4 ,the type in logic is the syllogism2 the type in rhetoric ,aristotle calls the enthymeme4#d ,by this he means concrete proof1 proof applicable to human affairs1 such argument as is actually available in current discussion4 ,the enthymeme is not inferior to the syllogism2 it is merely different4 ,actually1 public address on current public questions cannot be carried on by syllogisms or by final inductions4 ,that by which it can be carried on1 the strongest proof possible to actual discussion1 ,aristotle calls enthymeme4 ,from this typical mode of rhetoric ,aristotle gathers its fourfold function3 first and foremost1 to make truth prevail by presenting it effectively in the conditions of actual communication1 to move2 second1 to advance inquiry by such methods as are open to men generally1 to teach2 third1 to cultivate the habit of seeing both sides and of analyzing sophistries and fallacies1 to debate2 and finally to defend oneself and one's cause4 ,that truth does not always prevail shows the need of effective presentation4 ,the first function1 then1 of rhetoric is to make truth prevail among men as they are4 ,truth cannot be learned by the mass of men through scientific investigation2 for that demands special training4 ,a second direction1 then1 of rhetoric is to make the results of investigation generally available1 to teach truth in general human terms4 ,debate1 ,aristotle's third item1 which is one whole field of rhetoric1 may indeed be mere logical fence1 using terms and propositions as mere counters2 but real skill in debate1 the habit of seeing both sides and of analyzing sophistries and fallacies1 tends to make truth emerge from current discussion4 ,the fourth use of rhetoric1 for self-defense1 seems added merely for completeness and to rebut the common objection that rhetoric is abused4 ,that1 says ,aristotle1 is no argument against it4#e ,the definition implied and sketched in ,chapter ,i and formulated in ,chapter ,,ii1 may be summed up in the word persuasion1 if we are careful to speak of persuasion not as achievement1 but as method4 ,just as we ask of medicine1 not that it shall infallibly heal--a degree of achievement impossible in human affairs--but that it shall discern and use all the means of healing available in the given case1 so the true end of rhetoric is to induce such habitual skill as shall discern in any given case the available means of persuasion4#f ,as means of persuasion we must include both those that are extrinsic and those that are intrinsic1#g those that lie outside the art of rhetoric in the domains of subject-matter and those that lie within1 the facts of the case and the technic of making them tell4 ,for rhetoric has to include subject-matter1 the forces of knowledge4 ,though this is extrinsic in the sense of lying outside the art of rhetoric1 it is essential4 ,rhetoric is an art1 as ,aristotle is careful to show2 but it differs from other arts in the degree of importance it must always attach to its subject-matter4 ,the division here into extrinsic means and intrinsic means as both necessary to persuasion is not merely the obvious one into matter and manner1 substance and style2 it is a division of the springs of composition1 the sources of effectiveness1 into those that lie outside and those that lie inside of utterance1 or presentation4 ,it frankly accepts rhetoric as more than artistic1 as never self-sufficient and absolute1 as always relating presentation to investigation4 ,equally philosophical is the following division#h of the intrinsic means of persuasion into3 7#a7 those inherent in the character or moral potentiality 77 of the speaker1 7#b7 those inherent in his actual moving of the audience1 and 7#c7 those inherent in the form and phrase of the speech itself4 ,that the three are not mutually exclusive is evident and must have been deliberate4 ,aristotle is telling us that rhetoric as an art is to be approached from these three directions and in this order4 ,the division is comprehensive not only as being satisfying psychologically1 but as constituting an outline for the whole work1 the headings of the development in three books3 first1 the speaker himself2 secondly1 the audience2 and finally1 in the light of these two1 and as the bringing of the one to bear on the other1 the speech4 ,book ,i deals with the speaker as himself the prime means of persuasion4 ,rhetoric1 ,aristotle implies1 is necessarily ethical in that everything consecutively imparted or communicated1 as distinct from the abstractions of geometry or logic1 is subjective4 ,moreover1 in making the speaker the point of departure ,aristotle admits that other trend of classical pedagogy which made rhetoric a cultivation of personality4 ,book ,,ii1 proceeding to the second item of the division above1 deals with the audience1 with knowledge of human nature1 especially of typical habits of mind2 for rhetoric in this aspect too is ethical4 ,it deals with the interaction of moral forces in speaker and audience1 and also with the direct arousing of emotion4 ,the speech itself1 the final utterance1 which is the subject of ,book ,,iii1 has thus been approached as the art of adjusting the subject-matter of a given case through the intelligence and emotion of the speaker to the intelligence and emotion of the audience4 ,this is the only book of very specific technic2 and it comes last psychologically4 ,aristotle's division and its order are the division and the order not merely of analysis1 but of much the same synthesis as underlies the actual processes of composition4 ,i begin with myself2 for the subject-matter else is dead1 remaining abstract4 ,it begins to live1 to become persuasive1 when it becomes my message4 ,then only have ,i really a subject for presentation4 ,a subject1 for purposes of address as distinct from purposes of investigation1 must include the speaker4 ,it is mine if it arouses me4 ,i consider next the audience1 not for concession or compromise1 but for adaptation4 ,what is mine must become theirs4 ,therefore ,i must know them1 their and their 4 ,my address becomes concrete through my effort to bring it home4 ,the truth must prevail--through what8 ,against what8 ,not only through or against reasoning1 but through or against complexes of general moral habit and the emotions of the occasion4 ,i must establish sympathy1 win openness of mind1 instruct in such wise as to please and awaken1 rouse to action4 ,my speech is for these people now4 ,only thus am ,i ready to consider composition2 for only thus can ,i know what arguments are available1 or what order will be effective1 or what style will tell4 ,this is the philosophy of presentation4 ,what is its practise8 ,rhetoric ranges for subject-matter most often in the fields of social ethics and politics1 tempting its professors1 ,aristotle adds acutely1 to assume the mask of politics4#i ,it deals with 8the ordinary and recognized subjects of deliberation10#aj with matters still in dispute and doubt4 ,thus dealing with social and political conduct1 it can neither proceed1 as logic does1 by absolute propositions nor arrive at logical demonstration4 ,its premises are not universals1 but generally accepted probabilities4 ,that is1 to resume his previous distinction1 the mode of rhetoric is not the syllogism or induction proper to logical formulation1 but the enthymeme or instances proper to actual presentation4 ,the mode of scientific induction emerges to-day in the 8gas laws0 or the formula of the velocity of light2 the mode of rhetoric emerges in ,huxley's 8,piece of ,chalk40 ,abstract deduction is summed up in the syllogism2#aa concrete deduction1 in the enthymeme4 ,by enthymeme1 as ,aristotle has now made fully clear1 is meant a 8rhetorical syllogism0 in the sense of a deduction available concretely for presentation1 as distinct from a deduction formulated abstractly for analysis4 ,his enthymeme is deductive method used constructively4 ,it is not mere popular reasoning1 logic modified for popular consumption1 but public reasoning1 such reasoning as is available with the public for building up public opinion and policy4 ,therefore the headings1 or 8topics10 of rhetoric are not peculiar to a particular field of investigation1 but general or 8common topics0 such as justice or expediency1 which express common human relations4 ,to deviate from these into the method peculiar to a given subject-matter1 physics for example1 is to pass#ab from rhetorical method for presentation over to scientific method for analysis2 and this1 of course1 the speaker must do to the extent of mastering his subject-matter before he presents it4 ,though he must not forget that his ultimate task is to present to an audience and therefore concretely1 neither can he forget that what is to be presented must be acquired4 ,in so far as he investigates he will follow scientific method1 the analysis proper to the field1 the 8special topics40 ,thus for his education he needs some study of the 8special topics0 of those sciences that furnish most of his subject-matter1 the 8special topics0 of ethics and politics4 ,of these he must have1 as part of his equipment1 a practical or working knowledge1 the orator's equipment for considering each case within its own field as well as in its general relations to human nature4 ,aristotle's distinction here between general and special 8topics0 coincides with his earlier division 7page #aj7 of the means of persuasion into intrinsic and extrinsic4 ,the extrinsic means are knowledge1 to be got by the methods of getting2 the intrinsic means are utterance1 to be given by the methods of giving4 ,at this point1 the opening of ,chapter iii1#ac ,aristotle makes his scientific division of rhetoric by its fields4 ,the three fields of rhetoric are3 7#a7 the deliberative1 persuasion in public assemblies as to matters of current discussion1 looking to the future1 urging expediency3 7#b7 the forensic1 accusation and defense in courts1 looking to the past1 urging justice2 and 7#c7 the occasional1#ad praise or blame1 looking to the present1 urging honor4 ,the underlying1 general1 or 8final topics0 of rhetoric1 as distinct from the special topics that it uses from other studies1 are thus seen to be expediency 7including practicability71 justice1 honor1 and their opposites2 and the special topics drawn by rhetoric from philosophy1 ethics1 and politics may be grouped in a speaker's compend of these studies according as they apply to the deliberative1 the forensic1 or the occasional field4 ,in deliberative oratory#ae the speaker deals with good and bad1 not in the abstract as the philosopher contemplates virtue or happiness1 but in concrete matters of doubt and dispute4 ,so his topic of possibility is not abstract1 as in mathematics1 but concrete1 in relation to human will4 ,so in general ,aristotle disclaims for his classification of the ordinary subjects of deliberative oratory any attempt at scientific division or scientific method of investigation4 ,those he follows in his other works2 here the analysis that he provides is avowedly practical4 ,since in politics1#af for example1 the public speaker needs to know something of finance1 war1 commerce1 legislation1 ,aristotle gives him a suggestive summary of what he should learn4 ,in our modern educational systems such a summary has far less importance2 but the correlation remains vital4 ,pedagogically as well as philosophically1 deliberative oratory must be correlated with its natural subject-matter4 ,so to-day college courses in rhetoric demand correlation with college courses in history1 sociology1 economics1 and politics4 ,the professors of these subjects train for investigation1 teaching the scientific method proper to each2 the professor of rhetoric trains for presentation1 teaching general methods1 ,aristotle's general or 8final topics10 for handling all such material4 ,but unless each method of training can make use of the other1 both will suffer4 ,rhetoric must lean upon such real knowledge of a given subject-matter as is furnished by the studies dealing with that subject-matter scientifically1 i4e41 by its 8special topics40 ,meantime ,aristotle's summary is intended not to explore these special topics1 but to show what they are4 ,similarly the student of deliberative oratory needs such a survey of philosophy#ag as will acquaint him with current ideas concerning happiness1 whether of rank1 offspring1 wealth1 honor1 health1 beauty1 or strength1 and concerning a good old age1 friendship1 fortune1 and virtue4 ,therefore ,aristotle1 summarizing these conceptions1 supplies#ah a cursory examination of good in general and of goods1 or good things1 in particular1 proceeding#ai both by definition and by comparison1 and not limiting his discussion to the deliberative field4 ,to the latter1 and to politics1 he reverts in the concluding chapter#bj of this section by enumerating briefly the common forms of polity3 democracy1 oligarchy1 aristocracy1 and monarchy4 ,since occasional oratory#ba demands an equipment primarily ethical1 ,aristotle provides a summary of moral nobility#bb by definition and comparison4 ,this is applied more specifically than the preceding section to rhetorical method1 in this case to the method of enhancing or heightening and to the method of comparison4 ,for forensic oratory#bc ,aristotle provides as a speaker's compend of philosophy a survey of the objects and conditions of crime4 ,he makes no specific mention of what we now call criminal tendencies2 and his division of 8extrinsic proofs10 i4e41 of legal evidence 7laws1 witnesses1 contracts1 tortures1 the oath7 is for the modern lawyer neither scientific nor significant4 ,,book ,,ii ,as ,book ,i is the book of the speaker1 ,book ,,ii is the book of the audience4 ,the audience is not merely discussed2 it furnishes the point of view4 ,as ,book ,i considers the necessities and opportunities of the speaker1 so ,book ,,ii considers the attitude of the audience4 ,book ,i is rhetoric as conceived2 ,book ,,ii is rhetoric as received4 ,since rhetoric is for judgment--for even deliberative speeches are judged1 and forensic is concerned entirely with judgment--we must see to it not only that the speech shall be convincing and persuasive1 but also that the judge shall be in the right frame of mind4 ,for it makes a great difference to persuasion1 especially in deliberative speeches1 but also in forensic1 how the speaker strikes the audience--both how the hearers think he regards them1 and in addition how they are disposed toward him4 ,how the speaker strikes the audience is of more practical concern for deliberative speeches2 how the hearer is disposed1 for forensic4 ,the effect is not the same on a friendly audience as on a hostile one1 on the angry as on the tranquil1 but either different altogether or different in degree4444 ,three impressions constitute persuasiveness--three1 that is1 outside of the arguments used3 wisdom1 virtue1 and good will i4e41 a speaker's persuasiveness1 in the sense of his personal effect on his hearers1 depends on their believing him to be wise1 upright1 and interested in them4444 ,from what sources in moral habits1 1 then1 the speaker may strike his hearers as wise and earnest we must gather from the analysis of the virtues1 whether his immediate purpose be to make his audience feel thus and so or to appear thus and so himself2 but good will and affection we must discuss now under the head of the emotions 774 ,by emotions ,i mean any changes1 attended by pain or pleasure1 that make a difference to men's judgment of a speech2 e4g41 anger1 pity1 fear1 etc41 and their opposites4 ,the consideration of each emotion--anger1 for instance--must have a threefold division3 7#a7 how people are angry1 7#b7 what they are angry at1 and 7#c7 why2 for if we should know only one or two of these1 not all three1 it would be impossible to excite anger1 and so with the other emotions4#bd ,in this way ,aristotle proceeds to analyze1 in ,chapters ii-xi1 the common emotions3 anger1 love1 fear1 shame1 benevolence1 pity1 envy1 emulation1 and their opposites4 ,the relation of these to the formation of character leads to six chapters on character in youth1 in age1 in the prime of life1 and on the typical dominant traits of character seen respectively in persons of social rank1 of wealth1 of power1 and of good fortune4#be ,the classification here will be more satisfying as psychology if we remember that it analyzes the common types of character and emotion in a crowd4 ,aristotle is attempting neither an analysis of mental operations nor a science of human nature1 but such a practical classification as may inculcate the habit of adaptation to the feelings of an audience4 ,the psychological analysis of the audience concluded with ,chapter xvii1 ,aristotle returns to rhetoric in our ordinary sense at ,chapter xviii with a recapitulation4#bf 8,the use of persuasive discourse10 he says1 resuming the language of the opening of this book1 8is for judgment10 or decision2 i4e41 persuasion connotes an audience to be persuaded4 ,after showing that this is true in all cases1 and summarizing briefly the main aspects of ,books ,i and ,,ii1 he concludes his transition by saying3 8it remains for us to go on with the common topics40#bg ,with these he actually goes on1 not merely extending the treatment of them in ,book ,i 7see page #ad71 but considering them now as to their availability1 their effect upon hearers4 ,more explicit statement1 however1 of this distinction might well have made the bearing of these latter chapters clearer4 ,the topic of possibility#bh implies the range of the argument from antecedent probability 7a priori74 ,example#bi includes analogy1 both from history#cj and from fiction1 with specific mention of fables4 ,in this wide sense1 including mere illustration1 it means little more than vividness of presentation through the concrete and specific2 but that its persuasive value far exceeds its logical cogency no one doubts who knows audiences4 ,this is the angle1 too1 from which ,aristotle discusses maxims4#ca 8,they have great service for speeches because audiences are commonplace4 ,people are pleased when a speaker hits on a wide general statement of opinions that they hold in some partial or fragmentary form40#cb ,the same point of view controls the further discussion of enthymemes1#cc which includes a hint of something like ,mill's ,canon of ,concomitant ,variations1#cd directions for logical exclusion1 for analysis demanding particulars1 for dilemma1 and for reductio ad absurdum4 ,remarking the popularity of the refutative1 or destructive enthymeme over the constructive1 and touching the fallacies of petitio principii and post hoc1 the book concludes#ce with methods of refutation 774 ,,book ,,iii ,book ,,iii studies the speech itself4 ,book ,i having presented rhetoric from the view of the speaker1 and ,book ,,ii from the view of the audience1 ,book ,,iii now applies it directly to the speech4#cf ,since rhetoric must treat systematically three things3 7#a7 what the means of persuasion are to be1 7#b7 the diction1#cg 7#c7 how to arrange#ch the parts of the speech1 444 the first has been discussed4 ,we have next to speak of the diction4 ,for it is not enough to know what we ought to say2 we must also know how we ought to say it1 and this contributes much to the effect of the speech4 ,the first subject of our inquiry 7#a7 above was naturally that which comes first by nature1 the facts themselves--in what aspects they are persuasive4 ,the second is the expression of these in the diction4 ,the third not 7#c7 above1 which is of very great importance1 is the delivery4 ,the threefold division sketched here seems at first sight to coincide1 so far as it goes1 with the one that afterward became traditional4 ,classical rhetoric as a whole assumes a fivefold division3 7#a7 1 inventio1 the gathering and analysis of the material2 7#b7 1 dispositio1 collocatio1 the arrangement1 sequence1 or movement in the large2 7#c7 1 elocutio1 the diction1 or the choice of words and their combination in phrases1 clauses1 and sentences1 the movement in detail2 7#d7 1 pronuntiatio1 delivery1 or 8elocution02 7#e7 1 memoria1 memory4 ,but ,aristotle's division neither corresponds to this nor is consistent with itself4 ,the first item is the same in both4 ,aristotle's second item is clearly the same as the later third1 and has the same name 71 diction74 ,the third item of his opening sentence seems equivalent to the traditional second 771 and uses the corresponding verb 772 but below he makes his third item instead delivery 771 which is the fourth item of the traditional division1 and then proceeds in the same chapter to include delivery1 by implication1 under diction4#ci ,in a word1 the opening division of ,book ,,iii is baffling4 ,but the actual development of the book is quite clear3 chapters i-xii on 1 diction1 or1 in the widest sense1 style2 chapters xiii-xix1 on 1 or arrangement4 ,delivery1 after declaring it to have the greatest force 7 444 71 he dismisses in a few sentences4 ,tantalizing in its brevity1 this passage is nevertheless suggestive2 for it sketches an analytic division of delivery into voice-placing and volume1 pitch1 and rhythm2 it points to the value for public speaking of the arts of dramatic recital2 and1 most important of all1 it relates delivery to the whole idea of style as concrete presentation versus abstract formulation4 ,in thus uniting delivery and diction as alike means of effective utterance ,aristotle has seemed to some readers to disparage both4 ,he has seemed to express1 as in a similar passage of ,book ,i1#dj a philosophic contempt for style4 ,but this impression is not confirmed by scrutiny4 ,not only can he hardly be thought to despise that to which he devotes himself cordially throughout a large part of his treatise1 but his words here hardly yield the inference that has been drawn from prejudicial translation4 ,they may be rendered more precisely as follows3 ,an art of delivery is not yet settled2 for even that of diction emerged but late and seems a bore when regarded ideally4 ,but#da since the whole practise of rhetoric is gauged to actual effect upon hearers 7 71 we must give delivery our care1 not of abstract right1 but of necessity4 ,abstract justice1 indeed1 demands of our speech nothing more than that it should neither offend nor propitiate4 ,for abstractly just method is so to make one's plea with the facts that everything beyond exposition is superfluous4 ,nevertheless delivery is of great importance1 as ,i have said1 because of the human frailty of the hearer4 ,indeed1 the consideration of the hearer is in a degree necessary in all teaching2 for even in explanation it makes some difference whether we speak thus or thus--not so much1 however as in active persuasion1 all these things i4e41 of diction and delivery being means of suggesting images#db and gauged to the hearer4 ,therefore no one thus teaches geometry4 ,that art1 then of delivery1 when it comes1 will produce the same effects as acting2 and some authors1 as ,thrasymachus on the pathetic1 have made a slight attempt at it4 ,acting is both a natural gift and less reducible to art2 but diction has its technic4 ,that is why those who have mastered it take prizes regularly1 as do the histrionic orators2#dc for written speeches prevail more by diction than by thought4 8,no one thus teaches geometry0 cannot be taken as a slur on style4 ,it simply reminds us1 by applying to diction a distinction made with great fulness in the first two chapters of ,book ,i1 that rhetoric is not geometry4 ,formulation1 as in geometry1 is colorless because it is abstract2 but any actual presentation1 even mere information 7 71 demands style1 whether concreteness or the arts of delivery1 for mere lucidity 7 71 much more for any sort of appeal4 ,for any sort of presentation1 ,aristotle is saying1 we must study style2 and we must include the study of delivery except in those written addresses which depend on style even more than on thought4 ,the appeal of style1 ,aristotle says in this same first chapter1#dd was first discerned by the poets4 ,the method of suggestion1 in other words1 belongs to poetic4 ,this is more than a critical distinction2 it has an application directly pedagogical4 ,the teaching of style1 always delicate and difficult1 may well begin through poetry1 which in descriptive heightening and in harmony of sound with sense1 especially of pace with mood1 most plainly exhibits style as adaptation4 ,the connection of this with delivery1 both with reading aloud and with dramatic recital1 though obvious1 is often neglected4 ,elocution in our modern sense may1 if rightly related1 be one of the gateways to appreciation of style4#de ,chapter ii1#df after glancing at the fundamental virtue of lucidity1 considers the choice of words for appropriateness and for suggestiveness1 i4e41 for their connotation1 and especially for the descriptive vividness of the concrete1 as in metaphors4 ,chapter iii#dg deals with the inappropriateness arising from bad taste2#dh ,chapter iv1#di with the extension of metaphor into simile4 ,chapter v#ej passes from single words and phrases to their combination in clauses and sentences4 ,the distinction is important1 and is kept throughout the classical rhetoric from ,aristotle down4 ,the choice of words is 7electio72 the shaping of clauses and sentences is 7compositio74 ,frequent translation of the latter by our ,english word composition1 which has a meaning so much wider as to be quite different1 misses the specific point of technic1 and often makes the ancient writers say what they did not mean4#ea ,as the primary virtue in the choice of words is precision1 so the first consideration in their combination1 says ,aristotle1 is purity1 idiom1 conformity to usage4 ,this assured1 the next considerations of movement in detail are dignity1#eb which he presents as mainly amplification1 and appropriateness4#ec ,appropriateness here is not merely of the single word1 as in ,chapters ii and iii1 but of the movement1 or pace4 ,it is gauged both to the moral habit 77 of the audience and to the emotion 77 of the occasion4 ,from this general idea of appropriate movement ,aristotle passes#ed to specific consideration of rhythm with his oft-quoted dictum3 ,the order#ee of the diction must be neither metrical nor unrhythmical4 ,the former1 by seeming artificial1 is unpersuasive and at the same time distracting4 ,for it makes us think of recurrences and wait for them to come1 as children anticipate the answer to the heralds' 8,whom does the freedman choose as his attorney8 ,cleon40 ,on the other hand1 the unrhythmical is immeasurable1 and a measure we must have1 though not by metrical recurrence2 for the boundless can be grasped neither by the ear nor by the mind4 ,now measure in the most general sense is number2#ef and number as applied to the order of the diction is rhythm1 of which meters are sections4 ,rhythm1 therefore1 the speech must have1 but not meter1 or it will be a poem--rhythm not too nice1 that is1 not carried too far4 ,of the three rhythms the heroic is solemn and lacking in prose harmony4#eg ,the iambic is the very diction of the crowd2 i4e41 it is heard oftener than any other measure in speech1 and it lacks capacity to lift and startle4 ,the trochaic#eh is too suggestive of comic dancing1 as is evident in trochaic tetrameters1 which are a skipping rhythm4 ,there remains the pan4 ,having laid down the principle that prose movement should be rhythmical1 but not metrical1 why does ,aristotle proceed immediately to discuss it in terms of meters8 ,simply1 perhaps1 because these terms are familiar and definite4 ,how else1 indeed1 shall we speak of a particular movement specifically8 ,perhaps also because the consideration of the larger1 freer rhythms of prose is best opened through the fixed rhythms of verse1 i4e41 because meter is the gateway to appreciation of rhythm1 as poetry in a wider sense 7see page #bd7 is the gateway to style in a wider sense4 ,for us moderns it is the more significant that the classical doctrine of clauses and sentences deals so largely with rhythm1 since our doctrine throws the emphasis on logic4 ,that the 1 or compositio1 should be idiomatic1 dignified1 appropriate1 ,aristotle has urged briefly2 that it should be rhythmical he proceeds to set forth in detail1 consecutively showing how4#ei ,thus that the diction should be rhythmical1 not unrhythmical1 what rhythms make it rhythmical1 and in what modes1 has been set forth4 ,now diction#fj in its sentence-movement is connected either loosely and only by conjunctions1 as the preludes in the dithyrambs1 or compactly1 as the antistrophes of the old poets4 ,the former movement is the old one1 as in ,herodotus2 for1 though once universal1 it is now exceptional4 ,by calling it loose ,i mean that it has no end in itself except as its subject-matter runs out4 ,it is unsatisfying to the ear by its indefiniteness1 since we all wish to glimpse the end4 ,that natural desire is why runners lose wind and heart only at the goal4 ,they do not give out before because they are looking ahead to the finish4 ,the loose movement1 then1 of diction is this2 the compact1 on the other hand1 is the one by periods or definite units4 ,by period ,i mean a diction having a beginning and an end in itself and a length to be grasped as a whole4 ,such sentence-movement is both satisfying to the ear and easily followed by the mind2#fa satisfying as being the opposite of endless and as giving the hearer the sense of always having hold of something1 because something has always been ended by itself1 whereas the unsatisfying is neither to see ahead nor to get through2 easily followed1 as being easily held in mind1 and that because periodic diction has number1 which is the chief aid to memory4 ,that is why verses are more easily remembered than loose prose1 because verse has number to measure it4 ,the period should also be completed with the sense1 not broken off4444 ,a period#fb is either in members or simple4 ,composed in members1 it is such a diction as makes a rounded whole and yet is distinct in its parts1 and such as the breath will carry easily1 not by arbitrary division1 but as a whole4 ,a member is one of its parts2 and by simple period ,i mean a period of one member4 ,both members and periods should be neither curt#fc nor long4 ,for short members often make the hearer stumble1 since while he is still surging ahead1 if he is pulled up by the stopping of the measure that he carries in his head as a guide1 he must stumble as in a collision4 ,long members on the other hand make the hearer feel himself left behind1 as by walking companions making the turn beyond the usual stretch4444 ,over-use of short members1 since it precludes the periodic form1 drags the hearer headlong4 ,in other words1 the period is a sentence movement forecast and fulfilled by the speaker1 divined and held by the hearer1 as a definite rhythmical and logical unit4 ,its characteristic is that conclusiveness which satisfies at once ear and mind4 ,in sound and in syntax it is the opposite of formless aggregation1 of the addition of clause to clause as by afterthoughts4 ,forethought1 indeed1 is its very note4 ,thus its typical advantages are rather for oratory than for narrative4 ,oratory moves by grouping around ideas2 narrative1 by adding image to image4 ,the style of ,herodotus is in this sense aggregative4 ,its aim being to proceed not from idea to idea in thought1 but from fact to fact in time1 it is 8loosely joined10 8running on10 without other rhythmical value than fluency4 ,that ,aristotle means to disparage ,herodotus when he calls this movement old and unsatisfying need hardly be inferred4 ,old it is typically1 the movement of all early prose1 of ,herodotus no more than of ,froissart and ,villani4 ,unsatisfying1 unpleasing to the ear 77 it is not--in its place2 but its place is not in oratory1 which demands definite measures to mark definite stages of thought4 ,otherwise the audience is frustrated and loses the way4 ,what ,aristotle means by his comparison of the two movements is that the former is unsatisfying1 not absolutely1 but for the purposes of the latter1 i4e41 for oratory4 ,this interpretation is confirmed by what he adds concerning the length of members1 or clauses4 ,that staccato habit of short statements which in oratory 8drags the hearer headlong10#fd unsatisfied and uncomprehending1 may in narrative be actually superior4 ,to drag the hearer headlong is sometimes precisely what a story-teller desires4 ,examples abound1 for instance1 in ,victor ,hugo1 for whom this movement became a mannerism4 ,neither of the two sentence movements1 which from the point of view of ,aristotle's time we may call the historical and the oratorical1 has remained through the long development of prose quite the same4 ,narrative has developed in modern times a movement more and more consciously poetic1 while history in our special modern sense has turned more and more to the conscious group-movement which he associated with oratory4 ,to-day we see much the same difference between our prose fiction and our expository history that he saw between ,herodotus and ,demosthenes4 ,but the change is in application1 not in the movements themselves4 ,it remains true1 and important1 that there is on the one hand a prose movement rhythmically and intellectually loose1 indefinite1 and current1 and on the other hand a prose movement compact1 conscious1 concluded point by point4 ,the latter1 the periodic1 remains the typical movement of public address2 for the audience1 in order to follow1 in order 8to have hold of something#fe and to get something done10 demands definite measures4#ff ,having laid down as fundamental the distinction between the two typical prose movements1 ,aristotle proceeds to details3 the balance of member against member1#fg and the heightening of the individual member#fh by visualizing metaphor4 ,his recurrence here to metaphor is unexpected1 since he has discussed this already in ,chapter ii#fi under the choice of words2 but here something is added4 ,the connotation of figurative language is explored further as a means to make a whole statement telling4 ,aristotle is inquiring how such pithy sayings as he has just exemplified in balance and antithesis are made forcible#gj by other means2 and he implies that the process is essentially poetic1 as being imaginative first in realization and secondly#ga in movement4 ,imaginative realization in metaphor and simile is considered here as intellectual suggestion4 ,as enthymemes1 so metaphors and similes must steer between the obvious and the subtle4 ,the best images1 like the best enthymemes1 stimulate the hearer to coperate1 to see the relation for himself4 ,as to sense such are the popular enthymemes2 as to style they are popular if the order1 or movement#gb is antithetical4444 ,so for the terms2 if metaphorical1 they must be neither far-fetched1 for then they are hard to grasp1 nor trite1 for then they stir no emotion2 and besides as to movement they must put the thing before our eyes2 for we must see it in action rather than in intention 7happening rather than about to happen1 present rather than future74 ,the essential elements1 then1 are three3 metaphor1 antithesis1 actuality4#gc ,numerous examples follow#gd of 1 or pithy sayings1 and ,chapter xi#ge expands what is meant by 8before our eyes0 and how this is to be done4 ,i mean that those passages put the thing before our eyes which show it in action4#gf ,for instance1 to say that a good man is 8square0 is metaphor 444 but it does not show him in action1 whereas 8in flowering vigor0 does1 and so does 8at large40 ,and in 8,straightway the ,greeks with bounding feet0 the 8bounding0 is at once actuality and metaphor4444 ,in all these instances from ,homer by being alive 7living1 organic7 the subject seems to be in action4444 ,they all make the subject moving and living2 and actuality is movement4#gg ,aristotle's recurrence1 then1 to metaphor in the midst of his doctrine of sentence movement is because metaphor has the wider implication4 ,it may be more than a single vivid word2 it should extend to a whole habit of realizing a thing in action2 and this involves expression in a sentence movement that shall heighten the suggestion by its pace4 ,in like manner the recurrence to aptness1 or adaptation1 is not repetition4 ,chapters ii#gh and iii#gi deal with aptness of single words2 chapter xii1#hj with aptness of sentence movement4 ,from the general definition#ha of apt movement as adaptation both to the moral habit of the audience 77 and to the emotion of the occasion 77 ,chapter xii now proceeds to the typical adaptations offered by the several fields of oratory3 the deliberative1 the forensic1 and the occasional4#hb ,it must not be forgotten that one style is appropriate to one kind of oratory1 another style to another4 ,style for writing is not the same as style for debate1 nor style for public debate the same as style for legal pleading4 ,both style for writing and style for debate have to be known3 the latter1 as command of correct 7or idiomatic7 utterance2 the former1 as deliverance from the necessity of keeping silence when one wishes to communicate--an inhibition which those suffer who do not know how to write4 ,style for writing is the most precise2 style for debate1 the most histrionic 7the best adapted to delivery74 ,the latter is adaptation of two sorts3 expression of character1 and expression of emotion4 ,this is why actors also seek such plays1 and dramatists such person as give expression to character and emotion4 ,the distinction here between style for writing 7to be read aloud7 and style for speaking 7for immediate utterance7 is general1 as appears in the following reference to asyndeton and in the comparison of public speaking to the broad brush work of fresco2 but it is also particular4 ,it distinguishes occasional1 or panegyric oratory as demanding a style more literary4 8,style for writing10 above1 must from its context refer to panegyric2 and below ,aristotle adds3 8,the style of occasional oratory is best suited to writing2 for its function is to be read40#hc ,the final section#hd of ,book ,,iii deals with the larger parts of a speech3 exordium1 statement of facts1 proof1 peroration4 ,this discussion of 7dispositio7 is both meager and perfunctory1 hardly more than a rehearsal of those definitions and counsels which were already familiar in teaching and apparently in manuals1#he and which were to be handed on by later tradition4 ,its importance is therefore primarily historical4 ,it has little other significance1 little of the ,aristotelian discernment and suggestiveness4 ,what the modern teacher of rhetoric misses1 both here and throughout the later classical discussions of dispositio1 is some definite inculcation of consecutiveness4 ,that consecutiveness was achieved in the best practise there can be no doubt2 how it was taught we are left to guess4 ,as to movement in this larger sense1 what we commonly mean by composition1 ,aristotle's ,poetic is more definite and more suggestive than his ,rhetoric4 ,he begins#hf by saying that the only essential parts of a speech are proposition and proof4 ,it is presently apparent that by 8parts0 here he means components1 or elements1 of any and every sort of speech4 ,the statement of facts1 for instance1 is not a part in the sense of a distinct division except in forensic2 and ,aristotle rightly objects#hg to subdivisions by 8parts0 which are neither distinct nor applicable generally4 ,even refutation1 as he shows later1#hh is not a distinct part1 either in function or in method or in place4 ,the most that can be allowed are four3 proposition and proof as essential1 exordium and peroration as usual4 ,with the same common sense he shows that the first function of the exordium#hi is to put the hearers in a position to understand2 its second1 to win their sympathy4#ij ,chapter xvi#ia passes to the recital of facts 774 ,the common rendering of this term by narrative has been widely misleading4 ,true1 the corresponding ,latin term is narratio1 and the thing is narrative in the sense of being sometimes1 though not always1 chronological2 but narrative in our modern use1 and especially in our modern text-books1 is associated with objects and methods which ,aristotle is not here considering at all1 and which he rightly relegated to poetic4 ,the ,greek term and the corresponding ,latin narratio mean exactly what is called in a modern lawyer's brief the 8statement of facts10 as distinct from the following 8argument40 ,it therefore belongs properly1 as a distinct part having a distinct place1 to forensic4 ,when used in occasional oratory1#ib it should on the contrary be broken up1 not as in forensic continuous4 ,in deliberative oratory#ic it has least scope1 i4e41 it hardly appears as a separable part4 ,but the recital of facts1 though it corresponds to the 8statement0 of a brief in substance1 need not be so limited in style4 ,a speech is not a brief2 and the pleader1 ancient or modern1 must make his facts live4#id ,speak also from the emotions1 reciting what goes with them 7i4e41 their physical expression71 both what is familiar and what is characteristic of yourself or your opponent3 8,he left me with a scowl02 or1 as schines said of ,cratylus1 8hissing and shaking his fists40 ,such descriptive suggestions are really elements of persuasion2 for the familiar images become tokens of what you are trying to impress4 ,many such expressions are to be had from ,homer3 8,so she spoke1 and the old woman covered her face with her hands10 as we commonly put our hands to our eyes when we begin to weep4 ,as to persuasion by argument#ie ,aristotle begins with a mere hint of that determination of the main issue and character of the case which was afterward elaborated into the classified doctrine of the 7status74 ,examples 1 he goes on are more suited to deliberative oratory2 enthymemes1 to forensic4#if444 ,do not speak in enthymemes seriatim1 but mix them in with other means of persuasion2 or they will impair one another4 ,there is a quantitative limit4444 ,do not seek an enthymeme for everything2 or you will write like some philosophers2 444 and do not speak in enthymeme when your immediate aim is emotional 444 or ethical4 ,the peroration#ig consists3 7#a7 of disposing the hearer well toward oneself and ill toward one's adversary2 7#b7 of enhancing and disparaging2 7#c7 of stirring the hearer to emotion2 7#d7 and of recapitulation4444 ,for this last function the primary idea is that what was promised has been given in full1 so that we must tell both what we have said and why4 ,this is told by comparison of our own case with our opponent's4444 ,asyndeton#ih befits the final words1 that they may be peroration1 not oration3 8,i have spoken2 you have heard2 you have it2 judge40 ,with no less abruptness ,aristotle's ,rhetoric stops4 ,it can hardly be said to conclude2 and certainly it has no peroration4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,text1 edited with notes1 commentary1 and index1 ,,cope1 ,e4 ,m41 and ,,sandys1 ,j4 ,e41 #c volumes1 ,cambridge1 #ahgg4 ,translations 7the best recent ones in ,english71 ,,welldon1 ,j4 ,e4 ,c41 with analysis and critical notes1 ,london1 #ahhf2 ,,jebb1 ,r4 ,c41 edited with introduction and supplementary notes by ,,sandys1 ,j4 ,e41 ,cambridge1 #aiji4 ,welldon's tabular view is valuable4 ,jebb's rendering of technical terms is generally more discerning4 ,criticism4 ,aristotle having engaged the attention of nearly every important writer on rhetoric--and of many quite unimportant--for over two thousand years1 a list of the commentaries and criticisms would be endless and bewildering4 ,nor would any addition here to the bibliographies already available be especially suggestive4 ,the history of ,aristotle's ,rhetoric will emerge incidentally throughout this work4 ,the best single exegesis in ,english1 especially of the relations of the ,rhetoric to the ,aristotelian philosophy1 remains ,e4 ,m4 ,cope's ,introduction to ,aristotle's ,rhetoric1 ,london1 #ahfg4 #b ,quoted from the author's article on ,aristotle in the ,cyclopedia of ,education4 #c #aced a4 #d #acee a4 #e #acee b4 #f #acee b 1 or1 as the preceding context puts it1 4 #g ' 4 ,cope1 ,introduction1 page #aej1 translates 8unscientific and scientific02 ,welldon1 8inartistic or artistic02 ,jebb1 8inartificial or artificial40 ,none of these translations is satisfactory in connotation4 ,scientific1 or artistic1 or artificial suggests associations not borne out by the context and ultimately misleading4 ,aristotle says simply 8means that lie outside of the art and means that lie within it40 ,the means that lie within are hardly1 in fact or in his intention1 scientific4 ,they are artistic in the broadest sense of being attainable by art1 not in the narrower sense of belonging to fine art1 nor in the colloquial sense of being pretty4 ,artificial they are not at all1 except when they are misapplied4 #h #acef a4 #i #acef a4 #aj #aceg a4 #aa #acef a4 #ab #aceh a4 #ac #aceh b4 #ad ,of the various translations of ,aristotle's 1 8demonstrative0 is flatly a mistranslation1 8oratory of display0 is quite too narrow a translation1 and 8epideictic0 is not a translation at all4 ,the nearest word in current use is 8panegyric10 which is right as far as it goes4 ,but ,english use1 though it lacks a single equivalent word1 is none the less familiar with the thing4 ,the kind of oratory that ,aristotle means is the oratory of the ,gettysburg ,address1 of most other commemorative addresses1 and of many sermons4 ,the ,french equivalent is discours de circonstance4 #ae ,chapter iv4 #acei a4 #af #acei b-#acfj a4 #ag #acfj b-#acfa b4 #ah ,chapter vi4 #acfb a-#acfc b4 #ai ,chapter vii4 #acfc b4 #bj ,chapter viii4 #acff a4 #ba ,chapter ix4 #acff a-#acfh a4 #bb 1 treated again in ,book ,,ii from the point of view of the audience4 #bc ,chapters x-xv4 #acfh b-#acgg b4 #bd ,chapter i4 #acgg b4 8,in regard to and 1 which move juries1 the most important part is to know how these emotions are aroused and allayed4 ,this alone1 judging that it is none of their business1 the rhetors have not borrowed from ,aristotle1 though they have borrowed everything else40 ,philodemus1 ,rhetorica1 trans4 ,hubbell1 ,transactions of the ,connecticut ,academy1 vol4 #bc 7,september1 #aibj71 page #cch4 #be 8,the import of these #8characters1' as of the in ,i4 #h4 #f1 and the use to which they are to be applied1 may be thus expressed in other words4 ,certain ages and conditions of men are marked by different and peculiar characteristics4 ,a speaker is always liable to be confronted with an audience in which one or other of these classes forms the preponderating element4 ,in order to make a favorable impression upon them1 he must necessarily adapt his tone and language ,aristotle means rather his method and arguments to the sentiments and habits of thought prevailing amongst them1 and the feelings and motives by which they are usually influenced4 ,and for this purpose he must study their characters1 and make himself acquainted with their ordinary motives and feelings and opinions4 ,and the following analysis will supply him with topics for this purpose40 ,cope1 ,introduction1 foot-note to page #bdh4 #bf ,certain difficulties here in the text1 with the principal emendations proposed1 are discussed by ,cope in his ,introduction1 and more largely in the ,cope and ,sandys edition4 ,vahlen was so convinced of an error in transmission that he proposed to restore what he considered the original order by transposing bodily ,chapters xviii-end and ,chapters i-xvii4 ,but in spite of difficulties of detail1 the present order shows sufficiently clear progress if we remember that these latter chapters 7xviii-end7 are written1 as all the rest of the book is written1 from the point of view of the audience4 ,so viewed1 what has seemed repetition and expansion of ,book ,i is seen to be distinct1 and not merely additional1 but progressive4 #bg #acia b4 #bh 4 ,chapter xix4 #bi 4 ,chapter xx4 #cj 4 #ca 4 ,chapter xxi4 #cb #acie b4 #cc ,chapters xxii-xxiv4 #cd ,opening of ,chapter xxiii4 #ce ,chapters xxv-xxvi4 #cf #adjc b4 #cg 4 ,it should be observed that ,aristotle is not here divorcing 8manner0 from 8matter40 ,book ,,iii opens a third approach1 which presupposes the preceding approaches4 ,this seems to be insufficiently considered by ,h4 ,p4 ,breitenbach 7,the ,de compositione of ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus considered with reference to the ,rhetoric of ,aristotle71 who regards ,book ,,iii as a deviation from the philosophic position of the preceding books4 #ch 4 #ci ,the fifth traditional item1 memory1 he omits altogether4 #dj ,chapter i1 #aced4 #da #adjd a4 #db 4 #dc ,welldon's translation 8rhetorical actors0 can hardly stand4 ,the phrase means rather acting orators1 or1 more exactly1 orators who practise the art of the actor1 who are skilled in delivery4 ,their advantage appears in their winning prizes for written speeches1 which can be memorized and declaimed and which are sometimes tours de force1 showing more style than thought4 ,such speeches--,i think ,aristotle cites them as an extreme case--show the separable value of style1 including delivery4 #dd #adjd a4 #de ,at the close of this first chapter ,welldon's translation 8rhetorical style0 is misleading4 ,aristotle says1 as ,jebb correctly translates1 8that style of which we are speaking10 i4e41 prose style1 the style of public address4 8,the other style10 he adds1 8has been treated in the ,poetic40 #df #adjd b4 #dg #adjf a4 #dh 4 #di #adjf b4 #ej #adjg a4 #ea ,style 71 elocutio7 consists of3 7#a7 choice of the right word 71 electio72 7#b7 the movement1 rhythm1 or pace of sentences and clauses 71 compositio74 ,chapters v-xii deal with 7#b74 #eb 4 ,chapter vi1 #adjg b4 #ec ,chapter vii1 #adjh a4 #ed ,chapter viii1 #adjh b4 #ee ,the ,greek word is quite general1 applicable to any sort of guiding principle1 outline1 system1 or plan4 ,our ,english words outline1 plan1 etc41 though otherwise fairly equivalent1 have visual1 graphic1 static associations quite foreign to the context4 ,aristotle's images for style are drawn not from architecture or painting1 but from music and other modes of movement4 ,by the diction he means--indeed1 he says later--prose diction4 #ef ,literally1 8all things are measured by number40 #eg 4 ,cope and ,welldon translate 8conversational harmony40 ,the literal sense of the phrase is 8speech harmony10 8harmony of diction1 or of style02 but since ,aristotle can hardly mean to say that the heroic measure lacks harmony of diction in verse1 and since he is talking of prose1 ,i translate 8prose harmony40 may be taken either in the general or in the particular 7musical7 sense of harmony2 but in the latter sense its application is restricted to melody4 #eh #adji a4 #ei ,for a modern scientific discussion of prose rhythm see ,w4 ,m4 ,patterson1 ,the ,rhythm of ,prose1 ,new ,york1 ,columbia ,university ,press1 #aiaf4 ,see also ,morris ,w4 ,croll1 ,the cadence of ,english oratorical prose4 ,studies in ,philology1 #af3a1 ,university of ,north ,carolina1 ,january1 #aiai4 #fj ,chapter ix1 #adji a4 #fa #adji b1 ' 4 ,the translation of ,cope and of ,welldon1 8easily learnt0 is amiss2 and ,welldon's foot-note thereon about learning speeches by heart is still more misleading4 ,the 7end of #adji a71 8easily grasped as a whole10 of the preceding sentence does not imply writing and reading2 and there is no other word in the context even to suggest this except the reference to memory1 which in the classical rhetoric is rarely applied to memorizing4 ,the translation 8easily learnt0 is precluded both by the general trend of the passage and by the specific figures of walking1 running1 and breathing4 ,here1 as throughout the ,rhetoric and the ,poetic1 ,aristotle avoids speaking of style in the visual terms common to modern generations of writers and readers4 ,his terms1 whether literal or figurative1 are generally auditory and motor4 ,when he uses others1 it is to distinguish something special1 as in ,chapter xii 7below7 the exceptional1 literary opportunity of such compositions as those of ,isocrates4 ,not only does his ,rhetoric deal primarily and generally with oral composition1 but in particular this section on 7compositio7 deals with movement almost exclusively4 ,not until he has explained the period rhythmically does he add our modern definition that it should also be concluded with the sense1 i4e41 with the syntax4 ,meantime he finds the period superior to the loose sentence--for oratory--first because it satisfies the ear by being heard as a definite rhythm1 and secondly because it satisfies the mind by being intended and apprehended as a definite unit of thought4 #fb #adji b4 #fc ,the admirable rendering of ,jebb4 #fd #adji b 7toward end74 #fe #adji b4 #ff ,for the contrast between the two movements in modern prose1 see my ,college ,composition1 pages #ahd-ahh2 for the effect of a passage of short sentences vs4 that of a passage of long sentences1 pages #fi-ga4 ,though the sentence unit1 in our modern logical sense1 is not always clear from the punctuation of even modern editions of ancient texts1 it will usually be clear from the conclusion of the rhythm4 ,in the earlier stages of modern prose1 on the other hand1 it is sometimes so dubious as to suggest that it was not always felt distinctly4 ,the artistic development of modern prose1 in other words1 is partly the progressive distinction of periods4 #fg ,chapter ix1 #adaj a4 #fh ,chapter x1 #adaj b4 #fi #adjd b4 #gj 1 lively and pleasing1 smart and popular4 #ga ,chapter xi1 below4 #gb 4 #gc 4 #gd #adaa a4 #ge #adaa b4 #gf 4 ,here1 perhaps1 is the suggestion for ,lessing's famous doctrine in the ,laokon as to ,homeric description4 #gg #adab a4 #gh #adjd b4 #gi #adjf a4 #hj #adac b4 #ha ,chapter vii1 #adjh a4 #hb ,for this division see ,book ,i1 ,chapter iii1 #aceh b4 #hc 7#adad a74 ,the intervening reference to ,chremon1 a poet said to have been better to read than to hear1 as 8precise as a professional speech-writer10 should not deviate us here into consideration of speeches written out to be memorized4 ,for a full discussion of the professional speech-writer 77 see ,cope and ,sandys on ,book ,,ii4 xi4 #g4 ,here ,aristotle is discussing something different1 the adaptation of occasional oratory as nicer and more literary in sentence movement4 ,perhaps he implies too that such speeches had better be composed1 as well as elaborated1 in writing4 ,certainly this kind of oratory1 from ,isocrates down1 regularly included many compositions which we should call essays and which were not even intended to be spoken4 #hd ,chapters xiii-xix4 #he 4 ,see ,cope1 ,introduction1 page #cca4 #hf ,chapter xiii1 #adad a4 #hg #adad b4 #hh #adah b4 #hi ,chapter xiv1 #adae a4 #ij #adae b-#adaf b4 #ia #adaf b4 #ib ,chapter xvi1 #adaf b4 ,the counsel is too often forgotten by panegyrists in ,congress1 perhaps because they are lawyers4 #ic #adag b4 #id ,see above on style in general 7#adjd a71 on the vividness of the concrete 7#adjd b71 on visualizing metaphor 7#adaj b71 and on describing in action 7#adaa b74 #ie ,chapter xvii1 #adag b4 ,for the place of ,chapters xvii and xviii in relation to the whole work see foot-note #e to page #aig of ,jebb's translation4 #if #adah a4 #ig 4 ,chapter xix1 #adai b4 #ih #adbj a4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,rhetoric ,,in ,,the ,,de ,,oratore ,,and ,,orator ,,of ,,cicero#a ,cicero remains after two thousand years the typical orator writing on oratory4 ,the most eminent orator of ,roman civilization1 he wrote more than any other orator has ever written on rhetoric2 and historically he has been more than any other an ideal and model4 ,conscious of his own range and of the narrowness and low esteem that seem from the beginning to have cursed teachers and especially manuals of rhetoric1 he is anxious in his greater works1 ,de oratore and ,orator1 to appear not as a rhetorician1 but as a philosopher4 ,though no treatment could well be more different from ,aristotle's1 he is at pains to urge the ,academic theory that rhetoric is a branch of philosophy1 and to avoid the technical terms of the art while keeping its traditional categories4 ,in this attitude he is but the more typically the artist discussing his own art4 ,he writes as the man of letters in any age writes on literary composition4 ,we may be annoyed at a certain condescension toward teachers--as if they might think themselves able to impart anything like his skill6 ,we may be baffled in trying to reduce some of his elaborations to specific terms4 ,but rather we should be grateful to find rhetoric presented1 for once at least1 pleasantly as well as suggestively1 and still more to find the orator insisting that it must have the same large scope as is claimed for it by the philosopher4 ,where ,aristotle and ,cicero agree1 we may feel sure4 ,cicero has been disparaged as a maker of phrases4 ,that he is certainly4 8,they write ,latin10 says ,newman#b of other great authors2 8,cicero writes ,roman40 ,his own style is the final answer to his detractors4 ,he is evidently1 indeed1 a very conscious man of letters1 and filed his speeches for publication2 but can we deny vigor of thought to the maker of such vigorous phrase without lapsing into the separation of style from substance8 ,mere style is incredible--unless1 as no one pretends of ,cicero1 the style is bad4 ,so much a priori2 and in fact his works will bear analysis4 ,but he is not creative4 ,he clarifies the thoughts of others and brings them to bear4 ,his habit and skill are not at all scientific4 ,his achievement is of style to the extent that it is an achievement of presentation4 ,what he says of rhetoric1 for instance1 others have said before him2 he says it better1 more clearly1 more vividly4 ,he says it so much better1 indeed1 that his phrase has a certain finality4 ,it witnesses not only his extraordinary command of diction1 but also his constant awareness of human implications4 ,his very diffuseness springs from his constant sense of how people think and feel while they hear and read4 ,in all this he is typically the orator4 ,,de ,,oratore ,the title ,de oratore exactly expresses the subject4 ,cicero is discussing rhetoric1 indeed2 he is writing de arte oratoria2 but always1 as ,aristotle in his first book1 from the point of view of the speaker4 ,it is worth insisting on that the practitioner here coincides with the philosopher1 and both with the theory and practise of rhetoric in the best days of the ancient tradition4 ,the training of the public speaker1 this tradition consistently repeats1 must focus the whole training of the man4 ,the vice of the teaching of rhetoric in its decadence under the ,empire#c was so to pervert this principle as to make all training subordinate to technical skill in rhetoric2 and indeed the principle has this danger of making the whole man serve rhetoric1 instead of making rhetoric bring out the whole man4 ,none the less the principle rightly conceived is fruitful2 and no one has shown this more persuasively than ,cicero4 ,the form is obviously the ,platonic dialogue4 ,the protagonists are the famous orators ,crassus and ,antonius1 with ,scvola1 ,cotta1 ,catulus1 and ,sulpicius as minor interlocutors4 ,whatever basis there may have been in the actual conversations of these historical persons1#d the work1 like its model1 is fiction4 ,it is dramatic in representing the speakers as person2 but its imaginative realization goes no further4 ,the literary device of the dialogue is used only to add concreteness to the discussion of what is always dry when it is abstract4 ,the object is the discussion1 not even incidentally the men who discuss4 ,they talk always as orators and to promote oratory2 and as orators they proceed from point to point4 ,plato's person are realized more dramatically4 ,though only ,socrates is created fully1 the others emerge as individuals4 ,the movement of a ,platonic dialogue is far more conversational4 ,not only does its form give the illusion of actual talk2 its thought moves hither and yon1 suggesting rather than concluding1 seeking yet other approaches and departures1 not marching but questing4 ,cicero raises questions1 indeed1 but as they are raised by the public speaker who has predetermined the answer and the stages by which we are to reach it4 ,for all the ease and skill of its dialogue1 ,de oratore proceeds by paragraphs as definitely as ,de lege ,manilia4 ,though rhetoric is necessary to every educated man for effective communication1 and especially to every aspiring youth 7laudis cupidus71 how rare are good orators6 ,the reason is the wide scope4 ,oratory demands knowledge not only as eruditio1 but also in relation to human will 7animorum motus74 ,it demands expressiveness in a wide range of style and delivery4 ,what more noble8 ,the orator is a principal supporter of the ,state4 ,so begins ,crassus 7,i4 i-viii72 but ,scvola demurs1 unwilling to grant either that states have been established and maintained by orators or that the orator is accomplished in every sort of utterance and of culture4#e ,here the question is posed1 ,is oratory a special art or a comprehensive study8 ,though abstractly it may be both1 though the one view does not exclude the other absolutely1 practically the emphasis of the training will be determined by a choice between the two4 ,as if to forestall restriction1 ,crassus begins with the widest extension4 ,he will not agree to exclude#f from the scope of oratory public management1 instruction1 even research4 ,of the ,greeks who urge this1 he says1 ,plato is a refutation of his own doctrine1 being himself an orator4 ,democritus1 ,aristotle1 ,theophrastus1 ,carneades1 show the force of oratory2 ,chrysippus1 the lack of it4 ,sound without substance is folly4#g ,even legal pleading demands more than is taught by the rhetoricians4 ,the orator's effectiveness depends on knowledge of human emotions2 and they are a field of philosophy4 ,though he may leave it to the philosophers as cognitio1 he must know it#h as applied to presentation4 ,to make philosophy effective1 you must have rhetoric4 ,does this finally leave the point1 which is that rhetoric needs philosophy8 8,what the philosophers dispute in their corners without any urgency of application1 and so in thin and feeble talk1 the orator will set forth in such a way as to please and move40#i ,socrates used to say#aj #8,everybody is eloquent enough on what he knows'2 but the truth is rather that neither can any one be eloquent on what he does not know1 nor can he be eloquent on what he does know unless he know also the art of rhetoric4 8,therefore1#aa if we seek to define and embrace the force of oratory as both general and special1 he methinks is an orator1 worthy of so responsible a title1 who will say whatever falls to him for presentation with wise forecast of the whole1 order1 style1 memory1 and a certain dignity of delivery40 ,it is disconcerting to arrive1 after all1 at the traditional parts of rhetoric4 ,for the definition resolves itself into this3 #a4 prudenter1 with wise forecast of the whole inventio2 #b4 composite1#ab with skill in arrangement dispositio2 #c4 ornate1 with command of enhancing words elocutio2 #d4 memoriter1 with sure memory memoria2 #e4 cum actionis dignitate1 with dignity of delivery actio4 ,but the traditional five parts of rhetoric are more than the table of contents of the manuals 7artes74 ,they constitute what we now call in college schedules a group of studies2 and ,crassus is contending for the group as a whole4 ,what he has been insisting on is the importance and the scope of that first part which1 in the long history of rhetoric1 teachers have most often and most dangerously neglected1 inventio1 the investigation1 analysis1 and grasp of the subject-matter4 ,he adds#ac that the orator1 though in any given case he may gather his information from authorities1 will express this information as no expert can express it2 and he repeats that in one branch of knowledge he must himself be an expert1 namely in human nature4 ,the practical difficulty of such a conception of oratory1 rejoins ,antonius1#ad is that we have not leisure to realize it4 ,and if we had1 should we not better spend our time on the practise of speaking8 ,the manuals1#ae he adds somewhat evasively1 have nothing to say about justice1 temperance1 etc42 they talk of introductions and perorations4 ,the main thing#af is that the orator should appear to his auditory to be the sort of man that he wishes to appear4 ,that is the result of dignity of life1 about which theories of rhetoric have no more to say than about the means by which men are moved ,crassus might have retorted by citing ,aristotle's whole second book4 ,no rhetorician#ag was ever even a tolerable orator2 many orators have never studied rhetoric4 ,the materials of rhetoric in the large sense of material urged by ,crassus are too indeterminate#ah for an art4 8,i call him a master#ai who can speak keenly and clearly to an average audience from the average point of view2 but ,i call him eloquent#bj who more wondrously and largely can enhance and adorn what he will1 and hold in mind and memory all the sources of all things that pertain to public speaking40 ,but what pertains to public speaking8 ,how widely should the training for it range8 ,the definition of ,antonius obviously stresses elocutio4 ,whether he means to make this the main concern of the orator depends on whether he includes among his 8sources0 the fund of knowledge urged by ,crassus4 ,the context seems to show that he does not4 ,to put his definition beside that of ,crassus above is to see that its intention is narrower4 ,it specifies no more than style1 first as the amplitude and vividness that enhance a particular passage1 and secondly as the orator's general virtuosity4 ,crassus returns to the charge with a summary#ba of the actual training4 ,the student should practise#bb not only extempore speaking from outline1 but also writing4 ,the writing that he advises here is not for the casting of a given speech in a particular form1 but for education in range and control of expression4 ,to this end he recommends also wide reading4 ,the study of law1 he adds1#bc should be both of technical detail and also of larger aspects and relations4 ,antonius stands his ground4 ,his second definition of the orator is substantially a repetition of his first1 merely sharpening the contrast4 8,but the orator#bd--;and he is the subject of our inquiry--,i do not define as does ,crassus1 who has seemed to me to include knowledge of all sciences and arts within the orator's single function and name4 ,i think him an orator who can use words agreeable to hear and thoughts 7sententiis7 adapted to prove in cases both forensic and deliberative2 444 and ,i would have him also skilled in voice1 gesture1 and manner40 ,lest there should seem to be a begging of the question in the word sententiis1 which means thoughts and therefore may seem to imply the studies urged by ,crassus1 sententia should be understood rather of the brilliant expression of a single idea than of a line of thought or of intellectual grasp in general4 ,that neither of the latter is intended here is shown by the context4 ,because certain orators1 ,antonius resumes1 have been masters of other things than oratory it does not follow that these other things belong to oratory4 ,the most that can be said is that1 to attain eminence in oratory1 one must have heard1 seen1 and read much4 ,neither an orator's knowledge of human nature nor his use of this knowledge in speaking is scientific4 ,nor must the orator be a lawyer any more than he must be an actor4 ,mastery of law1 of acting1 of history1 of other things1 is1 indeed1 an advantage2 but it is not a necessity to oratory4 ,if the orator is to be1 as ,crassus has described him1#be one who can speak in ways adapted to persuade1 he must sacrifice many other studies in order to master his own proper art4 ,one closes the first book with the idea that both ,crassus and ,antonius are right4 ,the two men1 even more than the two views1 are complementary4 ,the views are irreconcilable only when pushed to the extreme2 and in extreme form either the extensiveness of ,crassus or the intensiveness of ,antonius may become a reductio ad absurdum4 ,normally rhetoric is both extensive and intensive1 both a comprehensive study of life and a specific art1 even as the means of persuasion are both extrinsic and intrinsic4 ,doubtless ,cicero meant to leave this impression2 for he gives full weight to the theory of ,antonius here1 makes him the mouthpiece in ,book ,,ii for the specific lore of inventio1 which corresponds to the knowledge urged in ,book ,i by ,crassus1 and makes ,crassus in ,book ,,iii the spokesman for style4 ,but certainly ,cicero sympathizes1 and wishes us to sympathize1 with ,crassus4 ,it is ,cicero1 not merely ,crassus1 who pleads that the teaching of the orator be not the imparting of tricks1 nor mainly of technic in a wider and worthier sense1 but the gradual bringing to bear of the whole man4 ,he saw in the focusing of rhetoric on style a typical danger for teaching4 ,the danger was present1 apparently1 in the teaching of his own day2 it was serious in the time of ,tacitus2 it was epidemic in the schools of declamatio that spread along the ,mediterranean and taught some of the fathers of the ,church4 ,the view of ,antonius1 uncorrected by the view of ,crassus1 is imperfect theoretically2 practically it leads to the typical vices of the teaching of composition3 historically it has branded a stigma on the word ,rhetoric and all its derivatives4 ,the view of ,crassus1 too1 has its dangers3 the danger of vagueness and dissipation1 the danger of pretentiousness and sometimes of sciolism4 ,but apparently these dangers can more readily be met and counteracted1 and must be risked2 for the history of rhetoric seems to show that his is the right emphasis and the more fruitful idea4 ,speaking and writing are less a profession even for orators and men of letters1 much less for educated mankind in general1 than a life4 ,though the same may be said of engineering1 though all technical education involves general education1 yet in learning to speak and write the technic is smaller in proportion to the general training4 ,the training of ,roman youth in oratory was at its best education for leadership4 ,in this education composition was both end and means4 ,it has been so always1 it is so to-day1 in the hands of its best teachers4 ,the specific application is to open in the teaching of composition manifold relations4 ,it thrives on what we now call correlation2 it dwindles in segregation4 ,for we may learn from ,cicero to give rhetoric the same abundant relations to human affairs as he urges his orator to seek in all his oratory4 ,because it has most of the ,ciceronian message ,book ,i has been the most studied and probably the most fruitful4 ,the division of ,book ,,ii is conventional4 ,after glancing at the fields of oratory and the component parts of a speech and urging imitation1 it treats inventio#bf and dispositio#bg under the usual heads and briefly summarizes memoria4#bh ,oratory1 says ,antonius1 is essentially either deliberative or forensic2 for ,aristotle's third division1 occasional oratory1 is not so much a separate field as a particular direction and a fundamental habit of thought4 ,cicero is quite unconvincing here4 ,perhaps his own habit of introducing into forensic the ways of occasional oratory1 as in his ,archias1 blinded him to the significance of ,aristotle's third category4 ,the traditional exordium1 narratio1 etc41 ,antonius finds to be rather elements than parts1 since the particular function of each is not confined to one place4 ,from this perfunctory rehearsal we are awakened by suggestive advice to teachers4#bi ,those who really teach rhetoric are engaged less in drill than in promotion of the spirit that wins success4#cj 8,therefore ,i will train1 if ,i can1 so as first to discern what the pupil can do4 ,let him be imbued with literature2 let him have read and heard something2 let him have learned the rules2 ,i will provoke him so far as is feasible to his utmost in voice1 force1 spirit4 ,if ,i perceive that he can reach the heights1 ,i will beg him1 and if he seems also a good man1 ,i will conjure him1 to revise2 so much social value do ,i attach to this technical skill for both the outstanding orator and the good man4 ,but if1 do what he will1 he is going to remain mediocre1 ,i will let him do what he will1 and especially not nag him2 if he is going to be positively offensive or ridiculous1 ,i will tell him to close his lips or try something else4 ,for neither can we ever desert the student of exceptional ability nor deter the one who has at least some ability4444 8,to begin at home1#ca ,catulus1 ,i first heard ,sulpicius here in an unimportant case when he was a stripling4 ,though he showed physical equipment of voice1 presence1 gesture1 his speech was rapid1 hurried--a matter of temperament--and somewhat effervescent and superabundant--a matter of youth4 ,i did not scorn him4 ,i am glad to see youth exuberant4 ,as with vines1 it is easier to prune than to cultivate4 ,you should have seen the change in him when next ,i heard him after he had studied ,crassus40 ,the first specific counsel1 then1 is for the teacher promotion2 for the student it is imitation1 such as ,sulpicius's of ,crassus1 not mere copying of mannerisms1 but such as produces#cb schools of eloquence from the example of great orators4#cc ,under inventio the first task is the investigation of the facts4 8,but finally#cd to bring the orator whom we are forming to actual cases 444 we will teach him first--laugh if you will--to know them thoroughly and deeply4 ,this is not taught in school2 for the cases assigned to boys are easy4 ,for example3 #8,the statute forbids a stranger 7peregrinus7 to climb a wall2 this man climbed2 he repulsed the enemy2 he is brought to trial4' ,no labor to know a case of this sort2 for rightly nothing is taught in school about studying a case4 ,but in the forum one has to know documents1 contracts and agreements1 decrees1 the lives of the parties4 ,through carelessness in getting such knowledge men who in their anxiety to appear much in demand undertake too many cases often lose4#ce ,not only so1 but they may be suspected of bad faith or of incompetence4 8,for my part1#cf ,i take pains to learn the case from the client himself1 alone1 that he may talk more freely1 and to debate against him1 that he may defend himself and advance whatever arguments he has thought out4 ,when ,i have dismissed him1 ,i quite dispassionately take three parts3 my own1 my opponent's1 the judge's4 ,whatever arguments promise more help than embarrassment ,i settle on1 rejecting others in the same way4 ,by this plan ,i manage to think at one time and speak at another4#cg ,some speakers have the confidence to do both at once2 but ,i am sure that they too would speak somewhat better if they recognized the advisability of setting aside one time for thought1 another for speech40 ,though this is a conventional topic1 and though its application here is legal1 it is none the less instructive generally2 and it might directly improve the teaching of argument and the practise of debate in our colleges4 ,the second heading under inventio is also conventional1 the status1 or determination of the main character of the case and the main issues4 ,the status was determined in the classical system by applying certain traditional questions4 ,the status legalis may be set aside as applicable only to legal pleading4 ,the status rationalis1 or status considered in the general aspects of reason as an affair of common argument1 was determined by asking oneself how far the debate hinged 7#a7 on fact1 on whether such-and-such things had happened1 or 7#b7 on definition1 the facts being generally admitted1 or 7#c7 more broadly1 on the interpretation of admitted facts and definitions4 ,though most cases need to be looked at from all these three points of view1 in most there will be found a decided predominance of one2 and forecast of this will direct the emphasis of the whole argument1 will tell where to throw one's weight4 ,this one is the status of that case4 ,in the ,latin terms3 7#a7 if the main question is an sit1 the status is coniectura1 or status coniecturalis2 7#b7 if it is quid sit1 the status is finis1 or status definitivus2 7#c7 if it is quale sit1 the status is qualitas1 or status generalis4 ,though ,cicero's discussion#ch is necessarily conventional1 he has keen practical suggestions4 ,as to 7#b71 which in his order is third1 ,antonius says3 8,we are often advised to define the crucial term briefly2#ci but that is puerile4 ,what we need is not a brief or abstract definition1 as of terms like law or state defined according to the rule of neither too little nor too much4 ,in the case ,i have mentioned neither ,sulpicius nor ,i attempted definition of that sort4 ,rather each of us dilated on treason with every means of amplification4 ,for mere definition1 in the first place1 is often snatched out of your hands if a single word be objected to or added or omitted2 in the second place1 by its very nature it smacks of teaching 7doctrina7 and almost childish practise2 and finally1 it cannot enter the perception and mind of the judge1 for before it is grasped it slips past40 ,but the case must be surveyed also as to its and its 4 8,then ,i most carefully consider#dj both the appeal of my client's character and my own and the appeal to the feelings of those whom ,i address4 ,so every theory of speaking seeks persuasion#da through 7#a7 establishing the facts1 7#b7 winning the sympathy of the audience1 and 7#c7 arousing those of whom the case demands action44440 8,teachers1#db indeed1 have divided cases into several kinds and have provided a fund of arguments for each kind4 ,this is adapted to the education of the young2 for as soon as a case is posed1 they know where to find arguments for it4 ,nevertheless not only is it slow-witted to pursue rivulets1 not discerning the fount1 but it is becoming to our age and habit to summon what we wish from the source whence all things flow40 ,the lore of preliminary analysis is concluded with a brilliant summary under three questions of ,cicero's own3#dc 7#a7 what kind of case is it in general 7naturam caus71 i4e41 of fact or of interpretation8 7#b7 on what does it turn1 i4e41 what is the point but for which there would be no debate8 7quid faciat causam2 id est1 quo sublato controversia stare non possit78 7#c7 why is it disputed8 how does the dispute arise 7quid veniat in iudicium78 ,the transition from argument to the other means of persuasion1 from probare or docere to conciliare and movere1 is the caveat of ,antonius against the current division of cases into general and particular#dd as a capital error4 ,theoretically every particular case must have general relations2 practically1 if oratory is not to lapse into mere accumulation of details1 the orator must have the habit of bringing these general relations to bear4 ,antonius adds the further caveat that the whole system of the status is merely analytical4 ,it is logical2 and logic shows only how to judge arguments1 not how to find them4#de ,the sources of arguments 7sedes argumentorum7#df are therefore more important4 ,as to conciliare and movere#dg ,cicero says only the usual things1 perhaps because inventio in these aspects is rather to be promoted by exhortation than imparted by new categories4 ,men take a decision oftener through feeling than through fact or law4#dh ,they are moved by evidences of character in the speaker and in his client4#di ,orators must have a scent for an audience1 for what people are feeling1 thinking1 waiting for1 wishing4 ,to arouse feeling1 the orator must have it himself4#ej ,he need not feign it2 it arises naturally from his imaginative sympathy1 as on the stage4#ea ,emotional appeal is not to be made suddenly2 it is to be led up to and down from2#eb and it demands full force of delivery4#ec ,the only way to rebut feeling is by feeling4 ,cicero adds the usual sections on wit and humor4#ed ,the treatment of dispositio#ee gives little specific counsel toward the achievement of that sequence in which ,cicero himself excelled4 ,in general1 dispositio has to consider3 how to make the most of the stronger points without seeming to slur the weaker2 whether the case will prevail more readily through argument or through appeal1 through direct proof or through refutation2 how to cover retreat at need by making sure that the case1 if it cannot be won1 shall at least not be damaged4 ,to translate this doctrine into the terms of modern manuals1 the first general consideration of dispositio is emphasis1 both as proportion of space and as progressive iteration of main points4 ,the traditional order#ef 7exordium1 narratio1 etc417 is natural2 but the real problem is the arrangement1 or sequence1 of the proof and the weighing of arguments rather than the counting of them4 ,this is a practical caveat against the tyro's idea that he can prevail by sheer force of numbers4 ,to be effective1 an argument must be more than a series2 it must be a line4 ,its progression is more than arithmetical2 it is rather geometrical4 ,appeal to feeling#eg should be rather pervasive than located in particular divisions4 ,the strongest arguments should be put first and last2 the exordium composed after the rest of the speech1 in order to be the more carefully adapted#eh and more essentially related to the plaintiff1#ei the defendant1 the case1 or the judges4 ,the narratio1#fj though concise1 must be ample not only for vividness1 but even for clearness4 ,constructive argument and refutation are to be considered together as a whole i4e41 debate is always at once destructive and constructive4 ,without making panegyric#fa as a separate kind of oratory1 we can see that deliberative speeches offer more scope in that direction than forensic4 ,cicero adds general topics for panegyric4 ,the chapters on memoria#fb begin with the familiar story of ,simonides1 to make the obvious point that what furthers memory is order4 ,visual associations1 ,cicero thinks1 are strongest1 and can be used to recall even sentences4 ,but verbal memory is less important4 ,the orator's memory is of things4#fc ,in ,book ,,iii ,crassus discusses style 7elocutio74 ,about a third of the book#fd amplifies the theme that rhetoric is inseparable from philosophy4 ,what follows is a conventional treatment of the choice of words 7electio7#fe and the movement of sentences 7compositio71#ff with a few chapters on delivery4#fg ,these latter topics are handled so much more explicitly in ,orator that only the first part claims analysis4 ,by style we mean generally diction that is idiomatic1 clear1 vivid1 and apt4#fh ,idiom and clearness we may take for granted4 8,all elegance of speaking1 though it is polished by the study of grammar1 is promoted by reading aloud orators and poets4#fi444 ,if there be a certain ,roman and urban tone1 in which there is nothing to offend1 to displease1 or even to attract notice1 nothing to sound or smell foreign1 let us follow this and learn to flee not only country roughness but also foreign bravado4#gj 444 women more easily keep the pure tradition40 8,that scheme of thought and expression and force of speaking the ancient ,greeks used to call philosophy4#ga444 ,for that ancient teaching appears to have been the preceptress alike of living rightly and of speaking well4 ,nor were the teachers separate2 the same masters formed morals and speech40#gb ,from the scorn of ,socrates for rhetoric arose the unnatural separation of rhetoric from philosophy 444 8that divorce as it were of the tongue from the heart 444 that one class of persons should teach us to think1 another to speak1 rightly40#gc ,philosophy has suffered by this separation4 ,the ,cyrenaic philosophy remains incomplete by dissuading from public life4 ,the ,stoic philosophy1 though it declares eloquence to be virtue and wisdom1 makes wisdom practically unattainable2 and the dry abstractness of address cultivated by the ,stoics is quite ineffective4 ,rhetoric1 on the other hand1 has suffered by being reduced to maxims of pleading4 ,in a word1 training in rhetoric1 to be adequate1 must include philosophy2 and philosophy remains ineffective without rhetoric4 ,this1 of course1 is the ideal2 but it is not practically impossible2 for we are not saying that the orator must be a philosopher1 only that he must know philosophy4#gd ,therefore style must not be conceived either as the controversial acrimony of the forum or as conventional adornment borrowed by ignorance4 ,the style must become the thought1 not weary the audience by display2 and the very idea of enhancing implies a store of thought4#ge ,the futile distinction made by rhetoricians between a particular case and a general has this bearing on style1 that eloquence consists in bringing to bear on every question those fundamental human aspects which can be exhibited only through large knowledge2 for copiousness of style comes only from copiousness of thought4 ,the ,greeks gave oratory to philosophy1 philosophy to oratory4 ,our ,roman ancestors aspired to knowledge in all fields that touch civil life4 ,the greatness of the arts has been diminished by division and separation4#gf ,these twenty chapters are a brilliant instance of what the ancients meant by amplification4 ,logically they do little more than iterate the truism that style is inseparable from substance2 but actually they make the truism live4 ,cicero is an admirable example of his own definition of the eloquent as those 8who speak with clear distinctions1 lucid order1 amplitude1 brilliance of matter and manner1 and in prose weave something of the spell of verse--in a word1 who enhance40#gg 8,immortal gods6 said ,catulus1 what a variety of things1 ,crassus1 you have embraced6 what force1 what abundance6 and from what poverty have you dared to lead the orator forth and establish him in the kingdom of his fathers60#gh ,,orator ,cicero's ,de oratore1 though it covers all five parts of rhetoric1 is most ample as to inventio4 ,his ,orator is complementary in that it is largely devoted to elocutio4#gi ,like the earlier work1 ,orator is specifically limited to deliberative and forensic oratory4 ,occasional oratory1 or panegyric1 though he declines again to treat it as a separate field1#hj ,cicero recognizes as the 8nurse of that orator whom we wish to form10 especially in sentence skill4#ha ,inventio#hb and dispositio1#hc as depending more on foresight than on eloquence1 are barely summarized4 ,elocutio occupies three-fourths of the discussion4#hd ,orator has been less attractive than ,de oratore for the reason that it is more compact and more technical4 ,none the less it has a cogency and a felicity even more characteristically ,ciceronian4 ,few men writing on style have shown in their own styles so much precision and charm4 ,de oratore keeps the fluency of dialogue2 ,orator shows more of ,cicero's own mastery of the oratorical period4 ,the division of style into three kinds 7genus tenue1 genus medium1 genus grande7#he has been much discussed as to its origin4#hf ,whatever its origin1 it is dubious as philosophy and has been vicious as pedagogy4 ,cicero applies it later#hg to the three tasks1 or objects1 of oratory3 to prove1 to win sympathy1 to move4 ,he adds#hh that the orator should excel in all three directions4 ,but this hardly warrants a division of style into three kinds2 for actually the teacher too ready to classify1 or the student too ready to think of style as separable and additional1 may thereby deviate his whole study4 ,historically the trail of the three styles has been baneful4 ,for inculcating style perhaps the least fruitful means is classification4#hi ,but ,cicero's discussion of style1 though grouped at first by this classification1 ranges beyond it4 ,,digest ,,of ,,orator1 #fa-bcf1 ,,on ,,style#ij ,style 7#fa7 is the very mark of the orator4 ,the diction of the philosophers 7#fb-fc7 has neither the force nor the pungency of oratory2 for the philosophers 7#fd7 are limited to abstract discussion1 as the sophists 7#fe7 to decoration1 and the historians 7#ff7 to a somewhat diffuse smoothness4 ,the style of poetry 7#fg7 differs not in speed or vividness1 but in boldness of diction 7#fh7 and in sometimes being pursued for sheer values of sound4 ,the three styles of speaking#ia arise from the orator's three objects3 7#fi7 to prove1 to please1 to move4 ,aptness1 then1 demands adjustment not only to the speaker 7#ga7 and the audience 7#gb71 but also to the object4 ,what is proper to the plain style 7genus tenue1 #ge78 ,this sounds so ordinary that it seems easier than it is2 for1 though not strong1 it must be sound4 ,it is untrammeled by cadences 7#gg71 is free without rambling1 and neither fits word to word nor avoids the pleasant negligence of one elaborating matter rather than manner4 ,it avoids periodic structure 7#he7 and dramatic delivery 7#hf72 but admits a careful use of wit 7#hg-ij74 ,the median style 7genus medium1 #ib71 adjusted to the winning of sympathy 7conciliare71 aimed at the of the audience1 has as its chief character suavitas2 as its chief exponent1 ,demetrius of ,phalerum4 ,the high style 7genus grande1 #ig71 aiming at 1 though it is the acme1 is not to be pursued exclusively2 for the perfect orator must be master of all three 7#ajj72 the three may be modified 7#ajc71 combined1 and varied2 and variety is necessary 7#aji7 both in any given speech and as a habit4 ,after a summary1 #aac-aci1 of the orator's necessary knowledge1 especially of the other parts of rhetoric1 ,cicero passes to his main topic1 harmony4 ,explaining 7#adj-adh7 the importance of this1 he defines it in its simplest aspect of euphony 7#adi72 negatively as the avoidance of hiatus1 stops1 and other awkward combinations1 positively as balance1 symmetry1 the rounding out of the phrase by correspondence 7#afe74 ,the rest of ,orator1 about one third 7l-lxxi1 #afh-bcf7 is devoted to prose rhythm under four heads3 7a7 origin1 7b7 cause1 7c7 nature1 7d7 use4 ,under the first ,cicero develops a rhetorical doctrine of rhythm from ,thrasymachus1 ,isocrates1 and ,gorgias4 ,as to the second1 its cause 7#agg-h71 he says3 8,the ear1 or the mind through the ear1 contains in itself a certain natural measure#ib of all spoken sounds40 ,the third heading1 the nature of rhythm1 is treated at greater length 7liii-lx1 #agi-bjc74 ,analyzing rhythm to show that it has an effect distinct from that of mere euphony1 ,cicero goes on to examine what this effect is 7#ahc74 ,since there is a distinct rhythmical effect in prose1 it can be explained1 though it appeals to sense1 not to reason1 and though it is less obvious and less essential than in verse4 ,it is lacking 7#ahf7 in earlier writers1 ,herodotus for example4#ic ,it has to be sought as a final grace of prose 7#ahf74 8,if there is 7#ahg7 prose stinted and concise and other prose dilated and fluent1 the difference must arise not from the nature of letters 7litterarum71 but from the variety of intervals1 long and short2 and since prose is now steady1 now shifting1 according as it is woven and blended with these intervals1 the nature of the difference 7or of this variety7 must reside in the rhythm 7numeris1 #ahg740id ,prose being unmetrical1 however1 are its rhythms 7#ahh7 still the same as those of verse8 ,the feet must be the same2 but what rhythms are available in prose8 ,that any foot is possible appears in that we often fall carelessly into meter4 ,prose consists largely of iambs2 but we often lapse into less familiar meters4 ,it is plain1 then1 that prose feet are the same as poetic4 ,some think iambic1 as being most like real life 7#aia71 more suited to simple narrative2 dactylic1 to the dignity with which it is associated in heroic verse4 ,ephorus prefers the pan or the dactyl to the spondee or the trochee because the latter are either too slow or too rapid4 ,aristotle1 finding the heroic too grand for prose1 the iambic too colloquial 7#aib71 and the trochaic too tripping1 approves 7#aic7 the pan4 ,this is to be preferred as being less readily metrical 7#aif72 but it should be varied by other measures4 ,iambic is most frequent 7#aig7 in the plain style1 the pan in the grand style2 but all should be mingled for variety4 8,thus the hearers will hardly notice the snaring of their delight in sound and the pains to square the speech4 ,these will be the less apparent if the words and thoughts are weighty2 for those who are listening to these and liking them--the words1 ,i mean1 and the thoughts--while their attention and admiration are thus fixed do not notice the rhythm1 though they would be less pleased without it40 7#aig74 ,prose is rhythmical not 7#aih7 by never varying--that would be verse--but by movement neither limping nor fluctuating1 but even and constant4 ,prose rhythm1 therefore1 is more difficult than verse4 ,the rhythm of the period 7#aii71 in order to make such a close as the ear desires1 must be marshalled that way from the start4 ,prose rhythm may arise1 without rhythmical intention1 from the harmonizing#ie of the phrase4 ,the use 7#bjd7 of rhythm is most extensive in panegyric 7#bjg72 in the other fields it enters when panegyric enters1 or when statement of facts demands rather dignity than poignancy1 often also in amplification1 and most frequently in the peroration 7#baj74 ,for variety change 7#baa7 from the statements grouped and rounded in periods to statements detached 7incisa and membra74 ,debate1 more than exposition1 needs speed4 ,the cadence1 or close 7clausula1 #bae7 may be in any one of several modes4 ,the dichoreus1 preferred in ,asia 7#bab71 is admirable2 but any one cadence palls4 ,a full period 7#bba7 consists of four parts1 or clauses 7membra71 i4e41 is about the length of four hexameter verses2 and is held together by nodi continuationis4 ,when we wish to shift to detached short sentences 7membratim71 as we must often do in forensic1 we pause1 and break the rhythm that might suggest artifice4 ,but even in such shorter reaches 7#bbc7 we need rhythm1 whether they be incisa1 membra1 or short periods2 and these may be supported by a longer period1 ending in a dichoreus or a spondee4 ,the shorter reaches demand freer measures4 ,they are of most force in forensic 7#bbe71 especially in proof and refutation4 ,nor is any sort of speaking 7#bbf7 stronger than to strike with two or three words1 sometimes even with one1 and then to interpose a rhythmical period4 ,rhythm is not merely beautiful 7#bbg71 but1 like the beautiful motions of athletes1 useful4 ,pursuit of it must avoid the appearance of artifice1 padding 7#bca7 to round the cadence1 the laming of the movement by too many short reaches1 and monotony4 ,proof of the value of rhythm may be made by dislocating#if the sentence movement of a good orator without changing the words1 or conversely by rearranging the sentences of a careless orator 7#bcc74 ,those who affect to despise rhythm 7#bcd7 are unable to master it4 ,calling themselves ,attic1 they ignore the rhythm of ,demosthenes4 ,if they prefer a loose style1 let them follow it if they can show even in their parts the beauty that is lacking in the whole 7#bce71 or if they can compose in any other style2 but the perfect orator 7#bcf7 is master of all his art4 ,cicero's treatment of rhythm in oratory1 though sometimes vague and as a whole unsatisfying1 is important historically4 ,its very extent and care show that for the orator1 no less than for the theorist1 rhythm in the classical tradition was a main consideration4 ,it was not something additional1 a final grace of style1 but an essential element of oratorical effectiveness4 ,moreover it was a primary and controlling consideration in all that revision which is spent on the shaping of sentences4 ,the oral and auditory ancients taught sentences more largely as movements in time than do the writing and visual moderns4 ,they are thus the more instructive to those whose ears writing and print have trained imperfectly4 ,in every case1 of course1 ancient or modern1 the unit is logical1 the expression of a thought2 but whereas modern manuals generally confine themselves to terms of syntax1 the ancient rhetoric is constantly aware of the effects of rhythm4 ,its analysis of these1 though it leaves much to be desired in scientific accuracy1#ig serves at least to direct attention and stimulate imitation2 and more than the modern logic of the sentence it seems to promote fluency4#ih ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,besides many incidental references1 ,cicero left seven works dealing mainly or entirely with rhetoric3 ,de inventione 7about #hf ,b4,c471 ,de oratore 7#ee ,b4,c471 ,partitiones oratori 7about #ed ,b4,c471 ,brutus 7#df ,b4,c471 ,orator 7#df ,b4,c471 ,de optimo genere oratorum 7about #df ,b4,c471 ,topica 7#dd ,b4,c474 ,of these the most explicit and suggestive are ,de oratore and ,orator1 which are used as the basis of the following chapter4 ,the most convenient bibliographical guide to ,cicero's rhetorical doctrine is ,laurand1 ,l41 ,de ,m4 ,tulli ,ciceronis studiis rhetoricis 7,university of ,paris thesis1 #aijg71 which also summarizes lucidly its derivation and progress4 ,the best editions in ,english are3 ,wilkins1 ,a4 ,s41 ,m4 ,tulli ,ciceronis ,de ,oratore1 ,oxford1 #ahic 7#c;d ed471 #c volumes 7introduction1 including a sketch of the history of rhetoric and a tabular analysis of the treatise ,ad ,herennium formerly ascribed to ,cicero2 analyses1 notes1 index72 ,sandys1 ,j4 ,e41 ,m4 ,tulli ,ciceronis ,orator 444 ,cambridge1 #ahhe 7introduction1 including a sketch of the history of rhetoric1 a brief analysis of ,cicero's rhetorical works1 a study and an abstract of ,orator1 and a list of editions1 commentaries1 and translations2 notes1 indices74 ,english translations of ,de oratore3 ,guthrie1 ,w41 ,london1 #ahjh #ahdj2 ,watson1 ,j4 ,s41 ,london 7,bohn71 #ahee #ahif2 ,calvert1 ,f4 ,b41 ,edinburgh1 #ahgj2 ,moor1 ,e4 ,n4 ,p41 7,book ,i only71 ,london1 #aijd4 ,of ,orator ,sandys 7page xcvii7 cites three ,english translations1 of which only ,yonge's seems to be available in this country4 ,the ,french translation by ,colin 7,traduction du trait de l'orateur de ,cicron1 avec des notes1 par ,m4 l',abb ,colin1 ,paris1 #agcg71 though somewhat paraphrastic1 is accurate so far as ,i have used it4 ,another accompanies ,bornecque's edition1 ,paris1 #aiba4 ,among recent critical studies the following will be found suggestive in their several directions3 ,hendrickson1 ,g4 ,l41 ,the ,peripatetic mean of style and the three stylistic characters1 ,amer4 ,jo4 ,philol4 xxv4 #abe 7#aijd72 ,ancient characters of style1 ,amer4 ,jo4 ,philol4 xxvi4 #bdi 7#aije72 ,cicero's ,brutus and the technique of citation in dialogue1 ,amer4 ,jo4 ,philol4 xxvii1 #ahd 7#aijf72 ,hubbell1 ,h4 ,m41 ,the influence of ,isocrates on ,cicero1 ,dionysius and ,aristides 7,yale thesis1 #aiad72 ,nassal1 ,f41 sthetisch-rhetorische ,beziehungen zwischen ,dionysius von ,halikarnass und ,cicero 7,tbingen thesis1 #aiaj74 ,for study of rhetorical terms see ,causeret1 ,c41 tude sur la langue de la rhtorique et de la critique dans ,cicron1 ,paris1 #ahhf1 which is classified by the fivefold division1 inventio1 collocatio1 etc4 ,the influence of ,cicero in the middle age and the ,renaissance will be discussed in a later volume4 #b ,literature1 the second lecture on ,university ,subjects in the ,idea of a ,university4 #c ,see below1 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,,ii4 #d ,w4 ,b4 ,owen in the introduction to his edition of ,book ,i 7,boston1 #ahie7 makes more of this than its importance seems to warrant4 #e ,in omni genere sermonis et humanitatis perfectum1 ,i4 ix4 #ce #f ,i4 xi4 #g ,i4 xii4 #ea4 #h ,i4 xiii4 #ee4 #i #ef4 #aj #fc4 #aa ,i4 xv4 #fd4 ,quam ob rem1 si quis universam et propriam oratoris vim definire complectique vult1 is orator erit mea sententia1 hoc tamen gravi dignus nomine1 qui1 qucumque res inciderit qu sit dictione explicanda1 prudenter et composite et ornate et memoriter dicet cum quadam actionis etiam dignitate4 #ab ,wilkins 7note ad loc47 evidently takes composite in a general sense as referring to composition 7dispositio1 collocatio72 for he says3 8,the definition includes all the five main divisions of oratory10 and dispositio is not otherwise mentioned4 ,but for the apparent intention to include all five parts1 composite would more readily suggest compositio1 which is the technical name for sentence movement1 one of the subdivisions of elocutio4 ,compositio is consistently used in this special sense2 but whether composite is so meant here or not1 ,cicero intended four of the five parts1 if not five2 and that suffices to establish his allusion to the traditional division4 ,the issue between ,crassus and ,antonius has little to do with dispositio2 it concerns the scope of inventio4 ,for the division of rhetoric see pages #ba1 #fe1 the table in foot-note #a;a to ,chapter ,v1 and ,wilkins's introduction1 page #eg4 #ac ,i4 xvi4 #ad xviii4 #ae xix4 #hf4 #af #hg4 #ag xx4 #ia4 #ah #ib4 #ai disertus4 ,i4 xxi4 #id4 #bj ,eloquentem vero qui mirabilius et magnificentius augere posset atque ornare qu vellet1 omnisque omnium rerum1 qu ad dicendum pertinerent fontis animo ac memoria contineret4 #ba ,i4 xxv-xxxv4 #bb xxxiii4 #adi seq4 #bc xxxvi-xlvii4 #bd xlix4 #bac4 ,oratorem autem1 quoniam de eo qurimus1 equidem non facio eundem quem ,crassus1 qui mihi visus est omnem omnium rerum atque artium scientiam comprehendere uno oratoris officio ac nomine2 atque eum puto esse qui et verbis ad audiendum iucundis et sententiis ad probandum accommodatis uti possit in causis forensibus atque communibus3 hunc ego appello oratorem eumque esse prterea instructum voce et actione et lepore quodam volo4 #be lxi4 #bfj4 #bf xxiv-lxxi4 #bg lxxii-lxxxv4 #bh lxxxvi-lxxxviii4 #bi xx4 #hd4 #cj ,animus acer et prsens et acutus idem atque versutus invictos viros efficit4 #ca xxi4 #hh4 #cb xxii4 #cc ,tacitus 7,dial4 #cd7 says that the older method 7of ,cicero's time71 supplanted in his own time by the schools of the declamatores1 was apprenticeship4 #cd xxiv4 #ii4 #ce xxiv4 #aja4 #cf #ajb4 #cg #ajc4 #ch xxiv-xxvi1 #ajd-aaj4 ,for the more detailed presentation of ,quintilian see ,chapter iv1 page #gd4 #ci xxv4 #ajh4 #dj xxvii4 #aad4 #da ,hendrickson 7,amer4 ,journ4 ,philol4 xxvi4 #bfj7 finds this threefold division first here4 ,the usual terms are docere1 conciliare1 movere4 #db xxvii4 #aag4 #dc xxx4 #acb4 #dd xxxi4 #acc4 #de xxxviii4 #aeg4 #df xxxix4 cf4 above1 xxvii4 #aag4 #dg xlii-lxxi4 #dh xlii4 #agh4 #di xliii4 #ahb4 #ej xlv4 #aij4 #ea xlvi4 #aia4 #eb xlix-liii4 #bac4 #ec liii4 #bad4 #ed liv-lxxi4 #ee lxxii-lxxxv4 #ef lxxvi4 #eg lxxvii4 #eh lxxviii4 #ei lxxix4 #fj lxxx4 #fa lxxxii-lxxxv4 #fb lxxxvi-lxxxviii4 #fc lxxxviii4 #cei4 verborum memoria1 qu minus est nobis necessaria 444 rerum memoria propria est oratoris4 #fd xv-xxxvi4 #fe xxxviii-xlii4 #ff xliii-liv4 #fg lvi-lxi4 #fh x4 #cg4 #fi #ci4 #gj xii4 #dd4 #ga sapientiam4 xv4 #ef4 #gb #eg4 #gc xvi4 #fa4 #gd xvii-xxiii4 #ge xxiv-xxvii4 #gf xxviii-xxxv4 #gg xiv4 #ec4 #gh xxxii4 #abf4 #gi ,sandys notes that the avowed object is 8criticism1 and not direct instruction40 ,this1 however1 is part of ,cicero's literary method and of his habit of scorning the manuals4 ,as to his main topic1 elocutio1 he writes doctrina as definite as that of ,de oratore on the other parts2 and though his headings are not all conventional1 his outline and order are thoroughly systematic4 #hj #cg1 seq4 #ha #dj1 verba iunxisse2 cf4 #gg1 vinculis numerorum2 #bjh4 #hb #dd1 seq4 #hc #ej1 seq4 #hd #fa-bcf4 #he #bj-bc4 #hf ,see the articles by ,hendrickson cited in the first foot-note to this chapter4 #hg #fi4 #hh #ajj4 #hi ,one could wish that ,cicero had been content with his twofold division in ,brutus1 xxiii4 #hi3 cum du summ sint in oratore laudes1 una subtiliter disputandi ad docendum1 altera graviter agendi ad animos audientium permovendos4 #ij ,the digest of the whole ,orator at pages lxxiv-lxxvi of the edition of ,sandys need be neither repeated nor revised4 ,assuming this1 ,i have added here certain significant rhetorical details1 translation of some important passages1 and the connection of the topics4 #ia ,see above4 #ib ,mensionem1 #agg4 ,the word in a similar passage at #fg is mensura4 #ic ,because1 says ,sandys1 their style is unperiodic1 and there can hardly be rhythm without periods4 ,he cites the famous passage from ,aristotle discussed above at page #bg1 and notes ,quintilian's demur as to ,herodotus4 ,this is a fair inference from ,cicero's context2 and1 indeed1 the ancients generally considered prose rhythm as oratorical rhythm4 ,the narrative rhythms of imaginative prose were naturally not much discussed separately in a time when prose fiction was undeveloped4 ,the nearest approach to these in oratory was in panegyric4 ,but ,dionysius with more discernment praises the compositio of ,herodotus4 7,see below1 ,chapter v47 #id ,the translation is closer to that of ,colin than to that of ,sandys4 ,the point--and if it is obvious1 it is often forgotten--seems to be that variety in prose depends on rhythm4 #ie concinnitas 7#bja74 ,cicero does not say explicitly what ,i have summarized in the last sentence above2 but ,i think he implies it4 ,he does not hint what ,stevenson brings out in ,some ,technical ,elements of ,style in ,literature1 that subconscious rhythmical predilection may be a cause1 or a determining factor1 in adaptation4 #if ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus exhibits this specifically with telling effect in the first part of ,de compositione verborum4 ,see below1 ,chapter v4 #ig ,for scientific analysis1 with a succinct review of previous investigations1 see ,w4 ,m4 ,patterson1 ,the ,rhythm of ,prose1 ,new ,york1 ,columbia ,university ,press1 #aiaf4 ,for the clausula in particular see the summary of ,zielinski in ,sandys1 ,companion to ,latin ,studies1 #fee2 ,quintilian below1 page #gi2 and ,m4 ,w4 ,croll1 ,the cadence of ,english oratorical prose4 ,studies in ,philology1 #af3a1 ,university of ,north ,carolina1 ,january1 #aiai4 #ih ,that the classical rhetoric has so little to say of narrative rhythms is due not so much to the limited scope of ancient narrative as to the fact that these rhythms are considered properly in poetic4 ,see page #cj4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,rhetoric ,the pedagogy of rhetoric1 more constant and more pervasive than that of most subjects still taught1 demands historical interpretation1 and thus extensive and consecutive survey4#a ,summary of its history has conveyed little of its vitality2 but analysis of two cardinal documents will show1 first1 what the constant tradition of teaching was typically throughout the great classical centuries1 and secondly what the teaching of rhetoric was destined to become1 with almost equal constancy and pervasiveness1 during the centuries of decadence4 ,for each of these traditions there is fortunately1 besides much other testimony1 a typical text4 ,quintilian1 writing long after rhetoric had ceased to function as an instrument of assembly government1 nevertheless comprehends its best older tradition and the whole scope of its classical development in a great work of pedagogy1 ,de institutione oratoria 7about #ie ,a4,d474 ,seneca the ,elder1 who died about the time of ,quintilian's birth1 had already recorded from memory and notes in his ,controversi that particular application of the ancient schooling which in the generation before ,quintilian was already infecting the old rhetoric1 and through which the teaching of both ,greek and ,roman schools was to be dwarfed and perverted4 ,quintilian1 though writing later than ,seneca1 preserves ancient rhetoric as a ripe whole2 ,seneca1 though earlier1 isolates the germ of its decay4 ,i4 ,,quintilian ,,on ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,rhetoric 7,,de ,,institutione ,,oratoria7#b ,a4 ,,tabular ,,view#c #a4 preliminary studies 71 ,i-,,ii4 x7 a4 earliest lessons in speech ,i4 i-iii b4 studies with grammaticus 7ante officium rhetoris7 7#a7 in diction as usage iv-vii 7#b7 0 0 0 style viii 7a7 lectures on poetry 7prlectio71 with reading aloud 7lectio7 7#c7 in composition ix 7a7 retelling of fables 7b7 paraphrase of poetry 7c7 formal amplification of maxims 7chria1 7 7#d7 in contributory subjects 7music1 geometry1 astronomy7 x 7#e7 in enunciation 7lessons from an actor7 xi c4 studies with rhetor 7prima apud rhetorem elementa7 7#a7 learning from his example ,,ii4 i-iii 7#b7 exercises in composition iv 7a7 rehearsal of events 7x7 summary of the plot of a tragedy or comedy 7fabula1 argumentum7 7y7 summary of historical events 7historia7 7b7 elementary analysis of statements of fact 7x7 analysis of legends 7y7 analysis of history 7c7 elementary panegyric 7laudatio7 and parallel 7comparatio7 7d7 amplification of typical propositions 7loci communes1 theses7 7#c7 rhetor's analysis of models 7prlectio7 v 7#d7 speeches from assigned outline 7prformata materia7 vi1 vii 7#e7 advice to teachers on correction and promotion viii1 ix 7#f7 speeches on hypothetical cases 7declamatio7 x 7a7 deliberative 7suasori7 7b7 forensic 7controversi7 #b4 definition of rhetoric 7,,ii4 xi-,,iii4 v7 a4 function and scope xi-xxi b4 origin and earlier development ,,iii4 i1 ii c4 the five parts of rhetoric iii 7#a7 investigation 7inventio1 1 discussed ,,iii4 vi-,,vi4 v7 7#b7 plan 7dispositio1 1 discussed in ,,vii7 7#c7 style 7elocutio1 1 discussed in ,,viii1 ,,ix7 7#d7 memory 7memoria1 1 discussed in ,,xi4 ii7 7#e7 delivery 7pronuntiatio1 actio1 1 discussed in ,,xi4 iii7 d4 the three fields of oratory iv 7#a7 occasional1 panegyric 7demonstrativum1 2 see chapter vii7 7#b7 deliberative 7deliberativum1 2 see chapter viii7 7#c7 forensic 7iudiciale1 2 see chapters ix-xi7 e4 the three aims of oratory v 7#a7 to inform 7docere7 7#b7 to win sympathy 7conciliare1 delectare7 7#c7 to move 7movere7 #c4 investigation and handling of material 7inventio1 1 ,,iii4 vi-,,vi4 v2 dispositio1 1 ,,vii7 a4 the nature of the case 7status1 7 7#a7 in law 7status legalis7 7#b7 in reason 7status rationalis7 as having for its main issue 7a7 fact 7an sit1 status coniecturalis1 coniectura1 7 7b7 definition 7quid sit1 status definitivus1 finis1 7 7c7 morals or policy 7quale sit1 status generalis1 qualitas1 7 b4 the parts of pleading 7,,iv4 i-,,vii7 7#a7 components 7a7 exordium 77 ,,iv4 i 7b7 statement of facts 7narratio1 7 ii 7c7 excursus1 proposition1 division iii-v 7d7 proof 7confirmatio1 2 as including appeal1 7 7x7 evidence ,v4 i-vii 7y7 argument viii-xi 7z7 order xii 7e7 refutation 7refutatio1 7 xiii 7x7 destructive enthymeme 7f7 peroration 7peroratio1 7 xiv 7#b7 pervasive elements ,,vi4 i 7a7 appeal 7x7 imaginative ii 7y7 humorous iii 7b7 debate 7altercatio7 iv 7c7 judgment 7iudicium1 consilium7 v 7#c7 plan 7dispositio1 7 ,,vii #d4 style 7elocutio1 1 ,,viii1 ,,ix7 a4 choice of words 7electio1 1 including figures7 ,,viii4 i-,,ix4 iii b4 sentence-movement 7compositio1 7 ,,ix4 iv #e4 training for facility 7firma facilitas1 ,x1 ,,xi7 a4 reading to foster speaking ,x4 i b4 imitation ii c4 writing for practise iii d4 revision iv e4 translation and other exercises v f4 preparing the speech vi g4 speaking the speech vii 7#a7 adaptation ,,xi4 i 7#b7 memory ii 7#c7 delivery iii #f4 the orator himself a4 moral force and philosophy ,,xii4 i1 ii b4 knowledge of law and history iii1 iv c4 physique v1 vi d4 dealings with clients vii-ix e4 styles of oratory x f4 when to leave the platform xi ,b4 ,,the ,,terms ,quintilian's survey is in the traditional terms of classical rhetoric4 ,these demand the more attention because translation has often missed the specific meanings attached to recognized technical terms4 8,institutes of ,oratory10 never precisely rendering his title1 is now almost meaningless4 ,institutio ,oratoria means ,the ,teaching of ,rhetoric and announces not so much a manual for students as a survey for teachers4 ,of the pedagogical terms1 grammatica and grammaticus may still be rendered 8grammar0 and 8grammarian0 only if they are understood to have wider scope4 ,prlectio 7,i4 viii7 describes the habitual introductory exposition of a passage of poetry by grammaticus1 or less commonly of a passage of oratory by rhetor 7,,ii4 v74 ,materia1 meaning generally 8material10 means often technically 7,,ii4 vi4 vii7 a prescribed outline1 as ,french matire still does in pedagogical use4 ,declamatio 7,,ii4 x7 was quite different from 8declamation40 ,it was speaking1 usually extempore1 on an assigned hypothetical case1 and grew1 as will appear below1 from an exercise for boys to an exhibition of virtuosity by men4 ,of the five traditional parts of rhetoric 7,,iii4 iii71 the first1 inventio1 does not mean 8invention02 it means1 in ,aristotelian language1 the discovery of all the extrinsic means of persuasion1 or more simply1 survey of the material and forecast4 ,dispositio 7collocatio7 refers not to the arrangement of details1 but to the plan of the whole4 ,elocutio means 8elocution0 in the sense borne by that word before the nineteenth century4 ,it is sufficiently rendered by 8style0 and is always conceived in two aspects3 7#a7 electio1 the choice of words1 including 8figures of speech02 and 7#b7 compositio1 the arrangement of words in clauses and sentences1 including rhythm and harmony--in a word1 sentence-movement4 ,compositio does not mean1 though it is often translated1 8composition0 in the wide sense now current4 ,for the latter the term is dispositio4 ,memoria ranges far beyond memorizing4 ,it embraces the speaker's whole command of his material in the order of his constructive plan and in relation to rebuttal1 and was most stressed for speeches unwritten4 ,pronuntiatio and actio cover the whole field of delivery1 including all that is now often called 8elocution10 from the placing of the voice to the handling of the body4 ,in detail1 status 7,,iii4 vi71 meaning generally and simply 8status10 refers technically to a classifying system for determining 8the nature of the case0 7see #c4 a1 in the tabular view above74 ,of its three divisions1 coniectura1 having nothing to do with 8conjecture10 denotes a main issue of fact2 finis1 a main issue of definition2 qualitas1 a more general issue of morals or policy4 ,narratio 7,,iv4 ii7 means never 8narration0 in the sense assigned by recent text-books1 always either 8statement of the facts0 or1 more generally1 8exposition40 ,these and other technical terms have been guarded1 in the tabular view above and in the interpretations below1 by adding the ,latin originals4 ,c4 ,,typical ,,doctrine 7#a7 ,elementary ,exercises ,the tradition of grammatica as having the twofold function of forming right speech and of expounding poetry#d continued for centuries4#e ,traditional also are the first exercises in composition4#f ,a chapter 7x7 on the concurrence of other studies toward a rounded education1#g and one on elocution 7xi71 close a preliminary pedagogy so suggestive as to be still studied to-day4 7#b7 ,declamatio ,the counsels to rhetor 7,,ii7 imply a warm atmosphere of promotion and a general habit of collaboration4 8,the teacher himself should speak something--nay1 many things a day--for auditory memory4 ,though reading aloud may supply a plenty of examples to imitate1 nevertheless the living voice gives ampler nourishment1 especially the voice of the teacher1 whom the pupils1 if they be rightly taught1 at once love and respect4444 ,thus while mastery comes through writing1 critical faculty will come through hearing40 ,,ii4 ii4 ,the teacher should frankly and fully show how4 ,his criticism should beware of setting up inhibitions4 ,to be promotive1 he should find something to praise1 and1 besides explaining why he would have this out or that changed1 should illuminate by interposing something of his own4 ,sometimes it will be helpful to give whole treatments which the boy may imitate without losing faith in his own 7,,ii4 iv74 ,in short1 the teacher's declamatio should be a model for his students 7,,ii4 v74 8,in this teachers have shown a divergence of method4 ,some of them would develop orally the outlines that they gave their pupils to speak from1 not content to guide by the assigned division4 ,not only would they amplify argumentatively1 but also emotionally4 ,others1 giving only a sketch1 would after the pupils' speeches treat what each one had scanted4 ,some topics1 indeed1 they would elaborate with no less care than when they themselves were the orators4 ,either method is useful2 neither1 ,i think1 should be separated from the other2 but1 if there must be a choice between the two1 it will more avail to have shown the right way in advance than to recall from their error those who have already fallen40 ,,ii4 vi4 #a-b4 ,the same promotive guidance appears in the assigning of outlines 7materi71 less and less ample as the pupils advance1 for written composition 7,,ii4 vi74 ,this writing was generally for practise1 not for casting a particular speech in form to be memorized4 ,sometimes1 says ,quintilian1 the boys may recite what they have written out2 but generally learning by heart is better spent on the orators and historians than on their own work 7vii74 ,the declamatio recommended by ,quintilian is speaking from outline on hypothetical cases4 ,the more elementary assignments1 for deliberative speeches1 were called suasori2 the more advanced1 for forensic speeches1 controversi4 ,both he treats only as school exercises4 ,within these limits he recommends declamatio as an important pedagogical discovery4 8,so soon as the youth is well taught and sufficiently exercised in these first tasks1 themselves not small1 but as it were members and parts of greater ones1 let the time demand the essaying of deliberative speaking and forensic on assigned outlines4 ,before ,i go into the method of these1 ,i must tell briefly what declamatio has as its idea1 which is at once the most recent discovery and far the most useful4 ,for it at once embraces almost all the exercises just discussed and offers the nearest likeness to actuality4 ,therefore it has become so popular as to be in the opinion of many sufficient of itself to develop eloquence4 ,nor can there be found any mastery in consecutive discourse which is not related to this exercise in speaking4 ,true1 the actual practise has so declined by the fault of teachers that among the chief causes corrupting eloquence have been the license and ignorance of declamatores2 but we may use well what is essentially good4 8,let the outlines of the fictitious cases assigned be therefore as like as possible to actuality2 and let the declamatio1 so far as possible1 imitate those pleas for which it was invented to prepare4 ,wizards1 pestilence1 oracles1 stepmothers more cruel than those of tragedy1 and other topics even more imaginary1 we seek in vain among real law cases4 ,what1 then8 ,are we never to permit a young man to elaborate themes outside of statistics1 even poetical ones1 such indeed as ,i myself have mentioned1 that he may have room1 take some pleasure in the assignment1 and enter as it were into the body of the party he defends8 ,that used to be all very well2 but at least let such exercises be grand and swelling without being silly and to critical eyes ridiculous40 ,,ii4 x4 #a-f4 ,evidently the declamatio that ,quintilian recommends is not the declamatio that he heard about him4 ,he wishes to recall to its original purpose what was already out of hand4 ,originally1 he implies1 it defined that general practise in debating which must have been as common in the ancient teaching as in modern universities4 ,but already1 as he also admits by implication1 it had become quite different4 ,already it was established both as a special exercise and as a special form of public speaking4 ,with the narrowing of the field of public discussion1 the large old rhetoric surveyed by ,quintilian had been narrowed more and more toward an artificial combination of forensic ingenuity with dramatic imagination4 ,instead of training youth to lead in public policy and to secure justice for individuals1 declamatio had become an end in itself1 the rhetor's own kind of oratory4 ,as an exhibition of skill it was his easiest means of winning pupils1 and of holding them by letting them exhibit themselves4 ,the inherent vice of artificiality1 which ,quintilian admits by implication1 he nevertheless assigns entirely to perverted educational practise4 ,he would recall declamatio from invention to actuality1 and from display to exercise4 ,that his warning was already too late is evident from ,seneca 7see section ,,ii of this chapter74 ,meantime one of the chief opportunities for perversion will be found in the prosopopi described next4 ,the pervasive classical inculcation of appropriateness 7see also ,,xi4 i7 was carried into declamatio through specific exercises known generally as prosopopi 774 ,their idea was an imaginative entering into the character1 the emotional as well as the intellectual habit1 of the person for whom one was speaking 7fict alienarum personarum orationes1 ,,vi4 i4 #be74 ,in more elementary form1 sometimes called ethopi 77 they bade the student say what ,priam must have said to ,achilles1 or ,sulla on renouncing the dictatorship1 or some other character of history or fiction on a critical occasion2 and they began even with the boy's amplification of fables and myths4#h ,as applied to declamatio 7suasori and controversi7 they are thus described by ,quintilian3 8,therefore prosopopi seem to me far the most difficult1 since they add to the other tasks of deliberative declamatio 7suasoria7 the difficulty of characterization 7persona74 ,for the same arguments must be urged in one way by ,csar1 in another by ,cicero1 in another by ,cato4 ,but the practise is most useful1 either as a twofold task or as of the greatest interest to poets also or to future historians4 ,to orators it is even necessary4 ,for the many orations composed by ,greeks or ,latins to be delivered by others had to adapt what was to be said to the speaker's habit of life4 ,did ,cicero think in the same way1 or assume the same character1 when he wrote for ,pompey as when he wrote for ,ampius and others8 ,did he not1 discerning the fortune1 the rank1 the deeds of each of them1 express the very image of every one to whom he was giving voice1 so that they seemed to speak beyond themselves1 indeed1 but still as themselves8 ,nor is a speech less faulty for deviating from the person than from the case to which it should be adapted4 ,admirably1 therefore1 ,lysias1 in what he wrote for the untrained1 is seen to have been faithful to their actual style4 8,but declamatores#i especially have to consider what befits each character2 for the forensics 7controversi7 that they speak as advocates do are very few4 ,usually they become sons or fathers1 rich1 old1 harsh1 mild1 avaricious1 even superstitious1 timid1 or mocking1 so that even comedy actors hardly conceive more ways of life on the stage than they on the platform4 ,all these exercises may be regarded as prosopopi4 ,i have brought them under the head of suasori because the only difference is in the assumption of character1 although the exercise is sometimes extended also to controversi40#aj ,,iii4 viii4 #di-eb4 7#c7 ,status ,quintilian's chapter 7,,iii1 vi7 on status is one of his most important1 both as specific doctrine and as typical of ancient method4 ,he has simplified a pedagogical device which1 while it had been hampered by too analytical subdivision1 had long vindicated itself as one of the most effective applications of the ancient theory of systematic guidance4 ,status1 meaning the essential character of the case as it appeared to preliminary survey of all the material and all the bearings1 had come to denote a uniform system for determining that essential character by leading questions4 ,to gauge the sufficiency of his preparation and the line of his argument1 to bring to bear not only his particular investigation1 but the whole fund of his experience1 the student was to ask himself what the case meant to him as a whole4 ,he must interpret it as resting mainly on one of three issues3 7#a7 of fact 7an sit72 7#b7 of definition 7quid sit72 or 7#c7 of general considerations1 as of right or expediency 7an recte sit74 ,the first was called status coniecturalis1 or coniectura2 the second1 status definitivus1 or finis2 the third1 status generalis1 or qualitas4#aa ,even if two of these entered1 or all three1 one must always be the focus4 ,the first status 7coniecturalis1 an sit7 is most frequently determining in criminal cases at law2 but it may be determining in any debate involving history1 for instance on the question of the recognition of ,anglican orders by the ,roman or the ,eastern ,church1 or on the question of the historical justification of the fifteenth amendment to the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,whether it is to be determining must usually be forecast by experiment2 for the ancient system presupposes that all three status will be tried in preparation before one is chosen4 ,actually many arguments against the validity of ,anglican orders have interpreted the status as coniecturalis2 i4e41 they rely mainly on establishing certain facts of the ,english ,reformation4 ,others have chosen status definitivus4 ,though neither excludes the other1 one1 according to the ancient system and by the very conditions of public address1 will always be for that particular speech the status4 ,there can be no cogency without unity4 ,erskine's defense of ,lord ,george ,gordon in a trial for treason was based on the second status 7definitivus1 quid sit74 ,the facts alleged he admitted4 ,that ,gordon was concerned in a riot he did not challenge4 ,status coniecturalis he simply waived4 ,he organized his case to show that what ,gordon admittedly did could not be construed as coming within the term treason4 ,in the defence of ,orestes1 a familiar ancient assignment1 the status could not1 except by mere ingenious perversion1 be coniecturalis4 ,the facts of his killing of ,clytemnestra and of her previous killing of ,agamemnon had to be admitted4 ,the status might1 indeed1 be definitivus for some one who cared to split hairs about what we now call murder or homicide2 but naturally it was the third 7generalis1 an recte sit74 ,orestes was justified on the ground of the sacred duty to avenge the murder of his father4 ,the issue was whether even a criminal mother should be executed by her own son4 ,college debaters defending the maintenance of the ,monroe ,doctrine settled on the third status4 ,the forcing of the second by their opponents they found themselves prepared to rebut4 ,the issues of democracy1 protection1 peace seemed to them vital as offering valid arguments for and against1 i4e41 as being real clashes of actual opinion2 and all these issues fell under status generalis4 ,status coniecturalis could never be made determining4 ,status definitivus would lead to quibbling costly for opponents who should raise it4 ,status generalis held the issue4 ,this sort of forecast1 surveying the whole trend1 the ancients regarded as so vital that they reduced it to a system4 ,the classified status is typical of their pedagogy of rhetoric4 ,their teaching of inventio did not stop with investigation2 it promoted reflection directly and guided it so systematically that no essential aspect could be ignored4 ,such questioning for focus and line in our day of statistical accumulation is not less1 but more valuable4 7#d7 ,the ,parts of a ,speech ,the traditional parts of an oration ,quintilian discusses 7,,iv-,,vi7 under their traditional subdivisions4 ,the exordium 7,,iv4 i71 for instance1 may be drawn from the case1 from the persons1 from the occasion1 or from rebuttal of one's opponent2 and its threefold aim is to remove prejudice1 to win attention1 and to open the way for understanding4#ab ,but ,quintilian often constructively recombines the traditional items1 and often interprets them from teaching experience4 ,the statement of facts 7narratio1 ,,iv4 ii7 is not limited to pure exposition2 even rehearsal may contribute to persuasion4 ,its cardinal virtue of clearness he reasserts in rebuke of those students whom an itch to be always impressive makes impatient of the obligation4 8,when they have experienced the whole range1 they will find nothing in eloquence more difficult than to say what every hearer thinks he would have said himself1 because it seems to him not good1 but true40 ,,iv4 ii4 #ch4 ,that the statement of facts should be brief does not permit its being either abrupt or meager4 ,that it should sound true implies that it should be in character1 i4e41 that it should be dramatically consistent and convincing1 and also that it should lead into the argument4 ,similarly practical are the warnings against making the division 7,,iv4 v7 too minute and against letting it hamper emotional appeal or interrupt progressive coherence4 ,to his conspectus of the ancient classification of proof 7,v7 ,quintilian adds 7xiii7 the following shrewd maxims for rebuttal3 ,defense demands more skill than attack4 ,the system of status has one of its main uses in refutation4 ,rebuttal often consists largely in breaking down analogies4 ,never rebut what your opponent did not say4 ,neither be too anxious nor fight over every item4 ,peroration should be more than recapitulation2 it should take occasion from the adversary4 ,,vi4 i4 7#e7 ,plan ,quintilian's discussion of dispositio 7,,vii7 is like that of other ancient treatises in confining itself to plan in general4 ,without specific doctrine for the promotion of cogency as progressive coherence1 it carries forward the system of status as determining the main line of argument4 ,that the ancients appreciated and practised what is now taught in ,american schools and colleges as the lore of paragraphs is evident in their best composition1 notably in the orations of ,cicero4 ,the decline from such progressive coherence among the later declamatores is one of the marks of decadence 7see section ,,ii1 below74 ,but how the lore was taught we are left to infer4 ,the elementary working out of what is now unfortunately called a detached paragraph1 i4e41 of a single short composition1 is prescribed in the chria 7,i4 ix7 much as in modern manuals2 but that does not touch the art of composing a sustained speech by paragraphs4 ,in the cogency of mounting by stages we miss the typical systematic instruction4 ,some of this must have been inculcated through assigned outline 7materia1 page #fg above71 some of it by the rhetor's oral teaching4 ,quintilian's instruction as to the close of the exordium is a clear hint of what is now taught as paragraph emphasis4 8,the proem should put last that to which the beginning of what follows can most conveniently be linked40 ,,iv4 i4 #gf4 ,there are1 indeed1 other hints2 but that so important an aspect of composition should not be a distinct topic even in ,quintilian's constructive pedagogy leaves the ancient lore of dispositio too analytical to be sufficient for modern teachers4 7#f7 ,style ,analyzed ,quintilian's long discussion of style 7elocutio1 ,,viii-,,xi7 opens with one of his best sayings1 8let care in words be solicitude for things02#ac and the whole introduction is an admirable answer to the old quibble about form and substance4 ,if he thereupon proceeds for two books by the usual categories1 he at least avoids the subdivision that had become excessive1 and provides a convenient guide to the voluminous classical lore of elocutio4#ad ,typical is his introduction1 under sentence-movement 7compositio1 ,,ix4 iv71 to the doctrine of sentence close 7clausula74 8,though rhythm must be pervasive it is more demanded in closing cadences 7in clausulis7 and more obvious2 first1 because every thought has its own conclusion and demands a natural pause to separate it from the beginning of the one that follows2 and furthermore1 because the ear1 having followed an oral sequence1 having been guided by the current of flowing prose1 is more critical when that movement stops and gives time to consider4 ,neither hard1 therefore1 nor abrupt should be the place where the attention takes breath and is renewed4 ,here is the dwelling-place of prose2 here is the point to which the audience looks forward2 here speaks the orator's whole merit40 ,,ix4 iv4 #fa-fb4 7,the text of the last sentence is dubious2 but the general intention of exalting the importance of the clausula is clear47 7#g7 ,style ,promoted ,having followed the usual analysis of style1 ,quintilian proceeds 7,x7 to constructive promotion1 to the ways of gaining secure control 7firma facilitas2 see the tabular view1 page #ff74 8,we who contemplate oratorical power1 not mountebank volubility1 have to inculcate both range and discrimination0 7copia cum iudicio1 ,x4 i4 #h74 ,so the vivid impressions that come through the ear should be supplemented by critical reading4 ,the reading of poetry promotes concrete realization1 heightening of style1 emotional appeal1 and aptness in characterization4#ae ,from imitation ,quintilian passes 7,x4 iii7 to writing for practise in style4 ,since this1 like deep plowing1 is for a better yield1 he goes into specific counsels4 ,repeat what you have just written1 both for connection and to warm up afresh4 ,fluency comes from habit1 not from haste4 ,you will not learn to write well by writing rapidly2 you will learn to write rapidly by writing well4 ,lolling and looking at the ceiling will not answer2 you must follow a plan 7ratio74 ,rapid extempore draft 7silva7 has this disadvantage1 that subsequent revision1 though it may amend words and rhythm1 is likely to leave the superficiality 7levitas7 that has arisen from hasty crowding4 ,better exercise prevision1 and so conduct your work 7opus ducere7 from the beginning that revision shall be polishing1 not entirely making over4 ,dictation1 by either urging or delaying the natural pace of composition1 leads to crude1 random1 or inept expression4 ,it is neither writing nor speaking2 for it has neither the accuracy of the one nor the impetus of the other4 ,incidentally it precludes those motor activities which help composing when one is alone4#af ,though solitude is best--night1 the closed door1 the single light--since you cannot always have it1 learn abstraction4 ,x4 iii4 #c-bh1 paraphrased4 ,in transition ,quintilian observes that meditation 7cogitatio1 ,x4 vi7 for speaking without writing can go so far as to fix not only the order of points1 which is enough1 but even the connection of words4 ,the value to the speaker of practise in writing is to make channels 7form7 for such meditation4 ,since meditation must always leave a margin for improvisation1 the plan must be such as may be easily left and resumed4 ,in other words1 to give the speaker secure control1 the plan must be progressive4 ,iterating this in the next chapter1#ag ,quintilian adds that the other main means to extempore power is concrete realization4#ah ,writing gives speaking precision2 speaking gives writing ease 7,x4 vii4 #bi74 ,from this summary of their general relations in education1 ,quintilian passes to the use of writing in the preparation of a particular speech4 8,busy pleaders commonly write the most essential parts and the beginnings i4e41 of paragraphs1 so as to be readier to pick up the constructive pattern after weaving in rebuttal impromptu4 ,the rest of their prepared matter they grasp by meditation3 and what arises suddenly they meet extempore40 ,x4 vii4 #cj4 ,brief notes to be held in the hand are admissible1 but not what is advised by ,lnas1 to write out the whole speech and then sum it up in outline4#ai ,x4 vii4 #cb1 paraphrased4 ,the secure control that ,quintilian seeks to promote1 that firma facilitas which is the subject of the whole tenth book1 is evidently quite different from mere fluency4 ,with the gift of gab in boys he has long ago expressed his impatience4 8,impromptu garrulity1 without the meditation that the master intends1 almost without hesitation in rising to speak1 is really the brag of a mountebank0 7,,ii4 iv4 #ae74 ,he not only presupposes1 he specifically inculcates1 most careful preparation4 7#h7 ,memory ,in this preparation the importance that he gives to writing1 not only for general practise1 but for the composition of a particular speech1 may seem greater than is warranted by experience4 ,even so he is far from supporting those who represent classical oratory as having been generally written and memorized4#bj ,that the urgencies of public address could be met by that method is a priori a difficult assumption2 and even the spread of the oratory of display in his time1 and his own professorial fondness for finish of style1 did not lead ,quintilian to urge memorizing generally and unreservedly4 ,rather what he offers under memoria 7,,xi4 ii7 has the usual wide ancient scope4 ,it should be read in its connection with what he has already taught 7,x4 vi4 vii1 page #hj above7 about cogitatio4 8,all training rests upon memory4444 ,it is the power that makes available funds of examples1 laws1 decisions1 opinions1 precedents1 funds which the orator ought to have in abundance and at command4 ,rightly is it called the treasury of eloquence4 8,those who plead much ought not only to retain surely1 but to discern bearings quickly1 not only to grasp what has been written by reading it over and over1 but to follow the sequence of points and words in what has been merely thought out1#ba to remember the points made on the other side1 and1 instead of rebutting them seriatim1 to bring them in where they will be opportune4 ,nay1 extempore speaking seems to me to rest upon no less vigor of mind4#bb ,for while we are saying one thing1 we have to be considering what we are going to say4 ,so while thought 7cogitatio7 is always questing beyond what is actually on the carpet1 whatever it finds meantime it deposits1 so to speak1 in the memory2 and the memory1 as it were a third hand1 transmits what it has received from forecast 7inventione7 to expression 7elocutioni740 ,,xi4 ii4 #a-c4 ,devices and exercises for training and applying such a faculty 7,,xi4 ii4 #h-ce7 are summed up 7#cf7 under the two principles of divisio and compositio1 definiteness of outline and definiteness of sentence movement4 ,the former is thus iterated for the third time 7see ,x4 vi4 vii7 as essential4 ,the importance of the latter lies in the fact that the mind more readily retains settled rhythms 7#ci74 ,as verse is easier to memorize than prose1 so periodic rhythms than unperiodic4#bc ,thus ,quintilian faces finally the question of learning by heart4 ,that it was a question1 even for ,quintilian1 shows that classical practise was divided1 as modern practise is1 by differences both in talent and in the field of habitual exercise4 8,from this diversity of talents arises the question whether the preparation of a speech should go so far as learning by heart 7ad verbum sit ediscendum dicturis71 or only far enough to grasp the force of each point and the order 7an vim modo rerum atque ordinem complecti satis sit74 ,as to this doubtless no rule can be proclaimed as universal4 ,with a memory strong enough1 and with time enough1 ,i should like to hold every syllable4 ,otherwise it is idle to write the speech out4 ,such power is to be secured especially in boyhood1 and memory to be trained to that habit1 lest we learn to excuse ourselves4 ,therefore to be prompted or to refer to notes is a fault1 because it encourages slackness1 and there is no secure hold without some anxiety not to lose4 ,by prompting or the use of notes the impetus of delivery is interrupted1 the speech halting and abrupt2 and he who speaks as if he were reciting forfeits the whole charm even of what he has written well by betraying that it has been written i4e41 memorizing1 to be effective1 must be perfect4 8,memory can even give such an impression of impromptu talent that we seem not to have brought the speech from home1 but to have laid hold of it on the spot2 and that is a great advantage both to the orator and to his case4444 8,but if memory is less tractable1 or if time does not suffice1 tying oneself to words will be useless1 since the forgetting of a single one may lead to awkward hesitation1 or even to silence4 ,it is far safer1 having firmly grasped the substance1 to give oneself freedom of expression40 ,,xi4 ii4 #dd-dh4 ,d4 ,,scope ,,and ,,plan ,the comprehensive program announced by ,quintilian in his proem is carried through4 ,no other ancient treatise is so exhaustive4#bd ,including all the traditional topics1 he proceeds upon the classical theory of systematic guidance1 but makes the important contribution of pedagogical order4 ,for his plan is progressive4 ,though sometimes anxiously analytical in subdivision1 he is constructive in making his main line not the survey of the subject1 but the development of the student4 ,the traditional five parts of rhetoric stand out clearly2 but they cover only about half of the space1 and they do not determine the plan4 ,rather ,quintilian proceeds from less to more1 from boyhood through adolescence to manhood4 ,his idea is to widen and deepen the practise of public speaking as it opens more and more to the growing speaker4 ,aristotle's philosophy of rhetoric begins with the speaker as theoretically the efficient cause2 ,quintilian's pedagogy ends with the speaker as practically the efficient result4 ,so1 before entering upon definitions1 he devotes two books to practical exercises1 beginning not with the subject1 but with the boy4#be ,so1 after he has defined the field and scope1 he expounds inventio as in practise it expands1 and links it with dispositio4 ,so the two books in which elocutio is traditionally analyzed are followed by the two that show practically how it may be achieved2 and these two are the culmination1 the final application of all the preceding doctrine4 ,his ,institutio is faithfully what its title proposes1 a pedagogy of rhetoric4 ,that it keeps its place in the history not only of rhetoric1 but of education is due1 of course1 to ,quintilian's cogency2 it is due also to the largeness of the subject4 ,rhetoric1 for the fortunate few who alone could aspire to leadership1 comprised most of the higher systematic education4 ,the scope so brilliantly vindicated by ,cicero#bf is taken by ,quintilian as a matter of course4 ,thus his work is in more than one aspect a general pedagogy4 ,thus also rhetoric itself1 to fulfil his demands and follow his methods1 must keep his conception of bringing to bear the whole man4 ,the narrowing of rhetoric in practise arose from the narrowing of public life and meant the narrowing of education4 ,,ii4 ,,declamatio ,,in ,,seneca1#bg ,,tacitus1 ,,and ,,pliny ,a4 ,,declamatio ,the declamatio exhibited by ,seneca1 though already established1 was fairly new at ,rome4#bh ,cicero1 writing about the time of ,seneca's birth1 still uses declamare1 declamatio1 and controversia#bi in their older general senses4 ,his approval of practise speaking on hypothetical cases was apparently of something like our modern 8moot courts40 ,controversi of the ,senecan sort he knew only in their incipiency4#cj ,tacitus1 writing his ,dialogus de oratoribus about #ha ,a4,d41 a few years before ,quintilian's ,institutio1 shows clearly that the specialized controversi1 from being common1 had become pervasive almost to the extent of monopoly4 ,from the older1 ,ciceronian position of comprehensive training his ,messalla derides declamatio and all its works4 8,as to this education of an orator the great men of the past had made up their minds4 ,to bring it about they discerned the need not of declamatio in the schools of the rhetors1 nor of exercising tongue and voice in imaginary controversi without specific relation to actuality1 but of filling the mind by the technic 7artibus7 of discussing 7disputatur1 i4e41 discussing after the manner of the philosophers7 good and evil1 honor and dishonor1 justice and injustice2 for this is the orator's subject matter 7subiecta ad dicendum materia740 ,tacit4 ,dial4 #ca1 #a4 ,the dialogue1 which of course gives more than one point of view1 but none the less clearly shows the position of ,tacitus1 proceeds from such general studies to the old custom of apprenticing oneself to an experienced orator 7#ca-cd71 and then contrasts the modern habit as follows4 8,but now our striplings are drawn off into the schools of those who are called rhetors4 ,how little1 just before ,cicero's time1 these teachers pleased our ancestors is evident from the fact that the censors ,crassus and ,domitius bade them close1 as ,cicero puts it1 their #8schools of impudence4' ,well1 as ,i started to say1 the boys are drawn off into schools in which it would be hard to say whether the place itself1 or their fellow students1 or the sort of exercise1 is likely to do their talents more harm4 ,the place has no respect1 since every one is equally unskilled2 the fellow students give no impetus to progress1 since boys among boys and youths among youths speak and are heard with equal carelessness2 but the exercises are in great part positively thwarting4 ,for two sorts of themes are handled with the rhetors3 suasori and controversi4 ,of these the suasori1 as being easier and demanding less foresight 7prudentia71 are left to the boys2 the controversi are assigned to those of more power4 ,my word6 what assignments6 and how incredibly composed6 ,it follows1 moreover1 that declamatio may be applied to an assignment far removed from actuality4 ,so it comes to pass that they pursue with great words rewards for tyrannicides1 or the choice to be made by ravished maidens1 or incests of matrons1 or whatever is argued as often in school as seldom in the forum4 ,when they come before real judges--0 444 ,tacit4 ,dial4 #ce1 #a-g4 ,what ,quintilian deplores1 then1 in the practise of declamatio ,tacitus shows to have been none the less common4 ,all the more significant is the slight and as it were unwilling consideration that ,quintilian gives to these fashionable aspects4 ,even while he insists on the value of declamatio for general training1 he deprecates that wide departure from actual pleading in themes1 conception1 and style which ,seneca records as a matter of course and ,tacitus derides as habitual4 ,the use of declamatio by mature speakers not for exercise1 but for exhibition1 he passes over incidentally in a few sentences as a perversion4 ,its undoubted prevalence he admits sadly as something that a serious teacher should ignore4#ca ,both the scorn of the historian and the reservations of the teacher spring from the older1 larger tradition of rhetoric4 ,to this both ,tacitus and ,quintilian discerned in declamatio a menace4 ,how far their fears were justified will appear in later narrowing and perversion4 ,meantime they have supplied for interpreting the collection of ,seneca not only the ancient standard1 but also the necessary information4 ,b4 ,,character ,,and ,,scope ,,of ,,seneca',s ,,collection ,seneca's ,controversi#cb is a collection of the declamationes made by celebrated rhetors4 ,though ,seneca may well have used published material1 his extensive reports1 as it were verbatim1#cc at once attest the grasp of the ancient memoria and suggest1 amid considerable variety1 a fund of stock cases4 ,to exhibit the rhetors' skill by competition1 his plan is to show side by side different treatments of the same theme4 ,he interpolates specific1 and1 in the prefaces to the several books1 general criticism4 ,though he does not offer his collection of models explicitly as a comprehensive guide1 his pervasive implication is that declamatio exhibits the cardinal virtues4 ,rhetoric might with more safety tend to monopolize education so long as it had its old comprehensiveness2 but as it was narrowed1 it tended to put the cart before the horse4 8,give your mind to eloquence10 says ,seneca2 8from this you can range easily into all arts40#cd ,the idea is almost opposite educationally to ,cicero's view that eloquence is nourished by all studies2 and the eloquence exhibited by ,seneca is itself much smaller than that intended by ,cicero4 7#a7 ,subjects for ,suasori ,suasori were deliberative2 controversi1 forensic4 ,though in actual practise the one field of oratory seems as difficult as the other1 in pedagogical use suasori were generally assigned as elementary exercises1 the boy's first extended compositions with the rhetor4#ce ,the seven surviving specimens of ,seneca's collection are on the following themes3-- #a4 ,alexander debates whether to embark on the ocean4 #b4 ,the three hundred ,spartans sent against ,xerxes debate1 after the flight of the expeditionary forces from the rest of ,greece1 whether they too shall flee4 #c4 ,agamemnon debates whether to sacrifice ,iphigenia1 when ,calchas has declared that the ,trojan expedition cannot otherwise set sail with the consent of the gods4 #d4 ,alexander the ,great debates the entry into ,babylon after the auguries have warned that danger lurks for him there4 #e4 ,the ,athenians debate whether to remove the monuments of their victories over the ,persians1 ,xerxes having threatened to come back unless they do so4 #f4 ,cicero debates whether to appeal to ,antonius for mercy4 #g4 ,cicero debates whether to burn his writings1 ,antonius having offered him immunity on this condition4#cf ,that the subjects seem to have been always historical reminds us that ,roman deliberative oratory was barred from its natural field of the living present4 ,thus restricted1 it is meager even for a school exercise4 7#b7 ,subjects for ,controversi ,the cases assigned for the controversi of older students1 though more various1 were even more removed from actuality4 ,the list of those used by ,seneca to exhibit the skill of the rhetors themselves fully justifies the exclamation of ,tacitus1#cg quales1 per fidem6 ,posed as available for argument on either side--a rhetor would sometimes espouse now one side1 now the other--they are difficult1 subtle1 sensational1 often so dubious as to preclude quotation1 always remote4 ,on their face they were chosen and iterated by men who desired sensation1 prized ingenuity1 and had turned the art of persuasion to advertisement4 ,a ,disinheriting ,uncle 7,i4 #a7 8,children who refuse support to their parents are liable to imprisonment40 ,two brothers quarreled4 ,the son of one of them1 in spite of his father's prohibition1 supported his uncle1 who had fallen into poverty4 ,disinherited on this account1 he made no legal protest4 ,he was adopted by his uncle4 ,through a legacy the uncle became rich4 ,the father began to be in want4 ,the son supported him in spite of the uncle's prohibition4 ,he was disinherited4 ,speak for either the young man or the disinheriting uncle4 ,the ,pirate ,chief's ,daughter 7,i4 #f7 ,a young man captured by pirates wrote to his father for ransom4 ,he was not ransomed4 ,the pirate chief's daughter induced him to promise marriage if he got his freedom4 ,he promised4 ,she left her father to follow him4 ,he has returned to his father and has married her4 ,an orphan heiress comes along4 ,his father bids him repudiate the pirate chief's daughter and marry the heiress4 ,when he refuses1 he is disinherited4 ,defend either the father or the son4 ,an ,oath of ,husband and ,wife 7,,ii4 #b7 ,a husband and a wife made an oath that if anything happened to either1 the other would die4 ,the husband1 traveling abroad1 sent a messenger to his wife to announce that her husband had died4 ,she threw herself from a cliff4 ,having recovered1 she is bidden by her father to leave her husband4 ,she refuses4 ,she is disinherited4 ,speak for either the wife or her father4 ,poison ,given to a ,maniac ,son 7,,iii4 #g7 ,a father has given poison to a son who was raging mad and did violence to himself4 ,the mother brings action for cruelty4 ,speak for either the father or the mother4 ,crucifixion of a ,slave who ,refuses ,poison to his ,master 7,,iii4 #i7 ,a sick man has asked his slave to give him poison4 ,the slave has not given it4 ,the master provides in his will that his heirs shall crucify the slave4 ,the slave appeals to the tribunes4 ,speak for either the appellant or the respondent4 ,an ,exiled ,father ,excluded from his ,lands 7,,vi4 #b7 8,aiding an exile with shelter or food is prohibited40 8,the penalty for homicide shall be exile for five years40 ,the father of a son and a daughter was found guilty of homicide and exiled4 ,he used to come to one of his properties near the frontier4 ,the son learned this and punished the overseer4 ,the overseer excluded the father4 ,the father began to go to his daughter's4 ,tried for harboring an exile1 she was acquitted on the plea of her brother4 ,the five-year period having expired1 the father disinherits the son4 ,speak for either the father or the son4 ,against such subjects1 against others equally subtle and unreal1 even indecent and perverted1 both ,tacitus and ,quintilian protest in the name of education4 ,training for actual pleading1 they urge1 is not to be had from tyrannicide1 rape1 incest1 wizards1 pestilence1 and stepmothers4 ,seneca leaves no doubt that such subjects were typical2 but he expressly repudiates the assumption that controversi should be exercises to train for the bar4#ch ,that declamatio was quite different not only in his view1 but in fact1 there is no room to doubt4 ,the difference between what ,tacitus and ,quintilian urge on principle and what they themselves1 as well as ,seneca and ,pliny1 record as practise is decisively sharp4 ,it is the difference between the old rhetoric and the new4 ,even in ,seneca's time1 much more in that of ,quintilian1 declamatio was measured as a special form of public speaking4 ,as such ,seneca seems to regard it with complacency4 ,that he thinks it self-sufficient and self-justifying seems evident from his pains to give its oral triumphs the permanence of written record4 ,declamatio might be cursed by the older tradition as bad education1 or justified as originally good by ignoring what it had become4 ,none the less it had gone quite out from the old rhetoric1 and had been accepted and widely applauded as an end in itself4 ,that it perverted schooling1 as ,tacitus complains1 was partly due to its inevitable tendency to turn the school into an auditorium4 ,the rhetor remained1 indeed1 a teacher2 but even in teaching he offered himself as a model4#ci ,the transition was easy to offering himself to the public as an orator in the latest style of oratory4 ,while this was one of the few ways left under the ,empire for appeal to a large audience1 it was also one of his chief means of publicity4 ,what the rhetor was thus to become throughout the ,roman ,empire may be clearly forecast from ,pliny's account of ,isus4 7#c7 ,pliny on ,isus ,great as is the reputation that had prepared me for ,isus1 ,i found him greater4 ,he has in the highest degree mastery1 abundance1 fertility4 ,he speaks always extempore1 but as if he had long written4 ,the diction is ,greek1 nay ,attic2 the prelude1 neat1 simple1 winsome1 or grave and lofty4 ,he asks for several controversi1 and lets the audience choose1 often even the side4 ,he rises2 his robe is right2 he begins4 ,instantly everything is ready1 and ready almost equally4 ,deep thoughts respond at once and words1 but what words6 chosen and refined4 ,from his impromptus gleam much reading and much writing4 ,he introduces aptly1 states the case lucidly1 argues keenly1 sums up strongly1 in style is superb4 ,in a word1 he instructs1 charms1 moves2#dj and which he does best you hardly know4 ,the enthymemes are frequent1 and so are the terse and finished syllogisms1 an achievement difficult even for writing4 ,his memory is incredible4 ,he resumes what he has spoken extempore1 and does not slip on a single word4 ,such control he has attained by study and practise2 for day and night he does nothing else1 hears nothing else1 says nothing else4 ,past his sixtieth year1 he is still only a schoolman2 and nothing is more ingenuous than that sort of man1 or more unsophisticated1 or better4 ,we who are crowded at the bar and in real cases learn1 even against our will1 much cunning4 ,the school and the auditorium1 with their made-up cases1 are inoffensive and innocuous--and none the less happy1 for old men especially4 ,for what is happier in old age than what is pleasantest in youth8 ,therefore ,i account ,isus not only most eloquent1 but also most blest2 and if you have no desire to know him1 you are made of stone and iron4 ,so come1 if not for other reasons1 if not on my account1 at least to hear him4 ,have you ever read of the man of ,gades who was so stirred by the name and fame of ,livy that he came from the ends of the earth to see him and1 once having seen him1 forthwith went his way8 ',tis crass1 uncultured1 stupid1 almost base1 to think no more highly of an experience than which nothing is pleasanter1 or prettier1 or more refined4 ,you will say1 8,i can read no less eloquent orators here40 ,yes2 but there is always a chance to read1 not always to hear4 ,besides1 the living voice1 as the phrase goes1 is far more moving4 ,for though what you read may be more vehement1 yet what is fixed by the delivery1 the mien1 the bearing1 the very gesture of a speaker abides deeper in the mind4 ,else we give the lie to the story of schines1 who when he had read aloud to the ,rhodians a speech of ,demosthenes1 and every one was admiring it1 is said to have added3 8,what if you had heard the beast himself80 ,and schines1 on the testimony of ,demosthenes1 had a most brilliant delivery4 ,none the less he admitted that the man who had begotten that speech delivered it far better4 ,all this goes to prove that you should hear ,isus1 if only to say that you have heard him4 ,pliny1 ,epist4 ,,ii4 #c4 ,in essentials this description applies to the controversi preserved by ,seneca4 ,the ,greek rhetor ,isus whom ,pliny heard at the end of the first century is recognizably like the ,roman rhetors whom ,seneca heard some hundred years before4#da ,a century had only fixed the type as a distinct form of oratory1 and extended its vogue4 ,succeeding centuries repeated it1 in ,greek and in ,latin1 throughout the ,roman world4 ,meantime ,tarsus may have taught declamatio to its most famous citizen4 ,certainly ,st4 ,jerome knew it well4 8,we have been rhetoricated10 he says with grim humor1 8and have played a bit in the way of the declamatores40#db ,indeed1 the rhetoric that came first and most actively to the ,fathers of the ,church must have come through declamatio4#dc ,its influence as late as the fourth century on ,st4 ,augustine throws into sharp relief his ignoring of it in his rhetoric for preachers1 the fourth book of ,de doctrina christiana4 ,with such real work of oratory declamatio has nothing to do4 ,c4 ,,seneca',s ,,classification ,,and ,,treatment ,instead of giving his specimens entire1 ,seneca divides them by a threefold critical classification3 7#a7 sententi1 7#b7 divisio1 7#c7 colores4 ,the treatments of the same case by different declamatores are thus compared specifically as to 7#a7 the significances1 7#b7 the analysis1 7#c7 the imaginative handling4 7#a7 ,the term sententi might imply such interpretations as were significant because they were leading4 ,taken thus1 it suggests the saliences which mark1 stage by stage1 the development of a single1 controlling interpretation4 ,but sententi was used familiarly of such interpretations as were valuable rather separately than together1 for themselves rather than for the furthering of a progressive development--in a word1 aphorisms1 or epigrams4 ,the latter sense had become the more common1 and in fact is what ,seneca exhibits4 ,his declamatores seem more concerned to strike now and strike again than to urge on4 ,though they still distinguish the formal parts 7proem1 statement1 etc471#dd they are no longer preoccupied with the onward march of the older tradition4 ,for the cogency of progressive development they have substituted the momentary effectiveness of striking summaries4 7#b7 ,seneca's divisio1 the analysis of the case1 shows similarly not the stages of a consecutive order1 but merely the components of an arbitrary classification4 ,given such cases as were posed1 even the divisio called for ingenuity4 ,its preliminary qustiones sometimes suggest an ingenious and perverted application of the traditional status4#de 7#c7 ,under colores#df ,seneca exhibits the imaginative development4 ,meaning generally the tone1 or cast--in a large sense1 the style1 colores means specifically in ,seneca's collection 7#a7 descriptive amplification1 and 7#b7 dramatic characterization4 ,even the descriptions were more than concrete realization of the facts2 they were imaginative elaborations4 ,quintus ,haterius1 on the side of the father in the case of the pirate chief's daughter1 above1 page #ib evoked a very fine picture4 ,in the abrupt style habitual with him he began to describe1 as if he heard the tumult1 how everything was laid waste and ravaged1 the farms given to the flames1 the peasants' flight2 and1 when he had amplified the terror1 he added3 8,why shudder1 young man8 ',tis the arrival of your father-in-law40 ,seneca1 ,controversi1 ,i4 #f4 #ab4 ,fabianus was apter at suasori4 ,the local color of places1 the courses of rivers1 the sites of cities and the habits of their peoples1 no one described more amply4 ,never did he pause for lack of a word4 ,his soothing speech would flow about everything with swiftest and easiest course4 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 prf4 #c4 ,more boldly and ingeniously imaginative was the characterization4 ,the case itself being fictitious1 the treatment might go the whole length of fiction4 ,at least the declamatio must so enter into the motives1 and especially the emotions1 of the parties as to make them dramatis person2 at most he might go so far as to supply his imaginary dialogues with a plot4#dg ,thus a guilty son is staged in dialogue with his father3 ,i shall die4 ,i shall die4 ,perhaps4 ,i shall not weep4 ,heart1 why quiverest thou8 ,tongue1 why tremblest8 ,eyes1 why are ye dulled8 ,it is not yet the thirtieth day4 ,you beg for life8 ,i gave it2 and you have lost it4 ,it is your will that your son should die4 ,my will8 ,no1 your madness1 your blind and rash desire1 yes1 and her father1 too soon overborne by your prayers4 ,seneca1 ,controversi1 ,,ii4 #c4 #a4 ,that such dramatization is obviously an extension of the school prosopopi#dh shows how pervasive was the preoccupation with imaginative development4 8,asinius ,pollio used to say that the color was to be exhibited in the statement of facts1 and carried out in the arguments40#di ,what was left of the old rhetoric8 ,the interpretations demanded by sententi and divisio were at least intellectual2 but the main interpretation1 the goal and measure of skill1 was imaginative4 ,the surest way to fame was through colores4 ,through colores what had once been useful as a school exercise was artificially extended1 and forensic was turned into a form of occasional oratory4 ,sententi1 divisio1 colores1 epigrams1 ingenious analysis1 imaginative development1 seem a poor substitute for the traditional five parts of rhetoric4 ,especially impoverishing was the restriction of the ancient inventio4 ,with investigation supplanted by fiction1 debate lost its typical training and its typical power4 ,with the shift of emphasis to imagination1 rhetoric was confused with poetic1#ej to the impairing of both4 ,nor was dispositio furthered by sententi and divisio4 ,salience1 instead of being used to further consecutiveness1 became an end in itself4 ,the whole was sacrificed to the parts4 ,elocutio1 thus left to itself1 tended inevitably toward an art of display4 ,the history of rhetoric has no more striking proof that style1 when cultivated in artificial isolation1 goes bad4 ,so wide a departure suggests a divergence in conception1 a divergence older and deeper than the particular innovations of declamatio4 ,beside ,aristotle's conception of rhetoric as the art of giving effectiveness to truth there had persisted the conception of it as the art of giving effectiveness to the speaker4 ,though the two conceptions are not mutually exclusive1 the dominance of the one or of the other tends either to give rhetoric those manifold relations and that constant answer to reality which mark its great ancient achievements1 or on the other hand to narrow it toward virtuosity and display4 ,the large pedagogy of ,quintilian is animated by the ,aristotelian conception4 ,the other conception1 brilliant in ,gorgias and his like1 had already animated not only the declamatores at ,rome1 but that larger 8second sophistic0#ea which became pervasively the rhetoric of the imperial centuries1 in ,greek and in ,latin1 throughout the ,roman world4 ,ancient rhetoric offers the historic example1 then1 of a divergence that has remained typical4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,historical studies are relegated to a later volume4 #b ,the long and wide influence of ,quintilian will be discussed in a later volume4 ,it is briefly indicated by ,sandys1 ,history of ,classical ,scholarship1 vol4 ,i1 and traced more specifically by ,ch4 ,fierville in his admirable ,french edition of ,book ,i 7,paris1 #ahij71 which also offers the best biography and bibliography4 ,much of the introduction in ,w4 ,peterson's edition of ,book ,x 7,oxford1 #ahia7 is devoted to ,quintilian's literary criticism4 ,the two modern ,english translations are 7#a7 by ,j4 ,s4 ,watson in the ,bohn ,library 7,oxford1 #ahia1 and probably earlier71 and 7#b7 by ,h4 ,e4 ,butler in the ,loeb ,classical ,library 7,london1 #aiba-b74 ,both occasionally miss the significance of technical terms4 ,the former1 providing summaries and many of the valuable notes of ,spalding and ,capperonier1 is the more useful4 #c ,since ,quintilian's survey includes all the cardinal terms of classical rhetoric1 the corresponding ,greek terms have been added for convenience of reference4 ,compare the valuable analysis of the treatise ,ad ,herennium 7current in the middle age as ,cicero's7 in the introduction to ,wilkins's edition of ,cicero's ,de oratore1 vol4 ,i1 pages #ef-fd4 #d recte loquendi scientiam et poetarum enarrationem1 ,i4 iv4 #b4 ratio loquendi et enarratio auctorum1 quarum illam methodicen1 hanc historicen vocant1 ,i4 ix4 #a4 #e ,john of ,salisbury1 for instance1 discusses it about #aaei in ,metalogicus1 ,migne1 #hej ,c4 ,d4 #f 4 ,the widely used compend of them by ,hermogenes 7late second century7 includes myth1 tale1 chria1 proverb1 analysis destructive and constructive1 commonplace1 encomium1 comparison1 characterization 771 description 771 thesis1 and the proposal of a bill4 #g orbis ille doctrin quam ,grci vocant1 ,i4 x4 #a4 #h ,thus ,hermogenes on the exercise of retelling myths3 8,myths are sometimes to be expanded1 sometimes to be told concisely4 ,how8 ,by now telling in bare narrative1 and now by feigning the words of the given characters4 ,for example1 #8the monkeys in council deliberated on the necessity of settling in houses4 ,when they had made up their minds to this and were about to set to work1 an old monkey restrained them1 saying that they would more easily be captured if they were caught within enclosures4' ,thus if you are concise2 but if you wish to expand1 proceed in this way4 #8,the monkeys in council deliberated on the founding of a city2 and one coming forward made a speech to the effect that they too must have a city4 8,for see10 said he1 8how fortunate in this regard are men4 ,not only does each of them have a house1 but all going up together to public meeting or theater delight their souls with all manner of things to see and hear40' ,go on thus1 dwelling on the incidents and saying that the decree was formally passed2 and devise a speech for the old monkey40 1 ed4 ,rabe1 #b-c4 ,the exercise is still used in ,french schools1 and for older pupils is carried1 as by the ancients1 into a sort of historical fiction4 #i ,though the word seems to refer rather to the masters than to the pupils1 the whole passage none the less clearly indicates the nature and scope of the exercise for students4 ,the dramatic skill of a declamator is described again in similar terms at ,x4 i4 #ga2 the use of prosopopia in the peroration of legal pleading1 at ,,vi4 i4 #be-bg4 #aj ,suasori and controversi1 ,quintilian adds1 should not be treated as essentially different4 ,so far as prosopopia goes1 they differ hardly at all2 and otherwise they differ mainly in degree1 controversi being more difficult4 ,besides the consecutive discussion of declamatio in chapter x of ,book ,,ii1 much of which is quoted above1 ,quintilian has many incidental references and allusions4 ,at ,,iv4 ii4 #bi1 he defines declamatio as forensium actionum meditatio1 8exercise in pleading01 and he implies the same definition in ad declamandum ficta materia 7,i4 x4 #cc7 and in fictas ad imitationem fori consiliorumque materias 7i4e41 controversias suasoriasque1 ,,ii4 iv4 #da74 ,steadfastly ignoring its use as a form of public speaking1 he consistently treats it as a school exercise4 ,he implies that declamatio embraced a large part of actual teaching when he complains 7,,ii4 i4 #h7 that it is forecast by grammaticus1 and calls rhetor 7,,ii4 i4 #c7 declamandi magister4 ,he says repeatedly that it depends largely on imaginative realization of character and emotion 7,,vi4 i4 #be-bg2 ,x4 i4 #ga2 and the passage on prosopopi quoted above74 ,he admits the use of it as an exhibition of virtuosity 7in ostentationem1 ,,ii4 x4 #aj71 but satirizes this 7,,ii4 xx4 #c7 by the anecdote commemorating the futile skill of a man who could throw grains through the eye of a needle4 ,though he regards it as a gymnastic profitable for mature speakers in providing variety and relief 7,x4 v4 #ag71 he has no patience with the common practise of keeping up indefinitely what is properly a school exercise 7,,xii4 xi4 #ae74 ,finally he repeats explicitly and implicitly his warning that declamatio should be kept close to actuality2 and in a long passage 7,v4 xii4 #ag-bb7 concluding his discussion of the sedes argumentorum1 he indignantly condemns its perversion into prettiness as an emasculation of oratory4 ,lucian1 whose satire does not spare rhetors1 makes specific mention now and then of declamatio1 using the term or 3 ,demonax1 #cc1 #cf2 ,rhetorum prceptor1 #ag4 ,one passage is very like ,quintilian's in the text above3 8,but the chief exercise and the aim of the art of dancing1 as ,i said1 is acting1 which is practised in the same way by rhetors1 especially by those who cultivate the so-called declamationes4 ,their art is the more applauded for its adaptation to the assigned characters and for its consonance with the persons introduced1 whether princes1 tyrannicides1 poor men1 or farmers40 ,de saltatione1 #fe4 ,some of his satires1 e4g41 ,tyrannicida1 ,abdicatus1 and some of the encomia1 sound like mock declamationes4 #aa ,watson's 7,bohn7 translation quotes 7foot-notes to pages #bab-ac of volume ,i7 ,capperonier's tabular summary of the doctrine of status found in ,quintilian1 ,cicero1 the treatise ,ad ,herennium1 and ,hermogenes4 ,for ,cicero see also pages #di-ea above4 ,jneke's ,leipzig dissertation 7#aijd7 ,de statuum doctrina ab ,hermogene tradita compares by tabular view 7pages #bc-d1 #abj-a7 the system of ,hermagoras1 as it is inferred from ,cicero1 ,quintilian1 and ,st4 ,augustine1 with that of ,hermogenes4 #ab ,the maxim was reddere auditores benevolos1 attentos1 dociles4 ,the classical lore on the third of these functions is surveyed by ,f4 ,p4 ,donnelly1 ,s4 ,j41 in ,a function of the classical exordium1 ,classical ,weekly1 ,v4 #bjd-g1 ,new ,york1 ,may #aa1 #aiab4 #ac ,curam ergo verborum rerum volo esse solicitudinem4 ,,viii1 proem1 #bj4 ,the passage goes on3 8,for generally the best words are inseparable from their things1 and are discerned by their own light4 ,but we look for them as if they were always lurking and hiding4 ,so1 forgetting that they must be near the subject-matter1 we seek them elsewhere and1 when we have found them1 lay hold of them by force4 ,a higher spirit is needed for essaying eloquence2 for if she is in sound health throughout her frame1 she will not think her care should be spent on manicuring and hairdressing40 ,fronto1 on the contrary1 praises the young ,marcus ,aurelius for digging up words1 8ut verbum ex alto eruas et ad significandum adcommodes10 ed41 ,haines1 ,i4 #f4 #ad ,for ,aristotle's treatment see above page #bd2 for ,cicero's1 pages #ec1 #eg2 for those of ,dionysius and 8,longinus10 ,chapter ,v4 #ae in rebus spiritus et in verbis sublimitas et in affectibus motus omnis et in personis decor4 ,x4 i4 #bg4 #af ,for an interesting note on dictation as practised by a professional orator1 see ,h4 von ,arnim1 ,leben und ,werke des ,dio von ,prusa1 page #adj4 #ag via1 ,x4 vii4 #e2 intendendus animus 444 usque ad ultimum1 ,x4 vii4 #af4 #ah imagines1 ,x4 vii4 #ae4 #ai ,the interpretation is substantially that of ,luigi ,valmaggi3 8,insomma il precetto di ,quintiliano questo1 che occorre o recitare a memoria o improvvisare sia pure su appunti presi meditando il discorso1 ma d'uopo evitare assolutamente una miscela dei due sistemi40 ,osservazioni sul libro x di ,quintiliano1 in ,atti della reale accademia delle scienze di ,torino1 #cg3bbh4 #bj ,our modern habits of writing and reading hinder our comprehension of the speaking and listening ancient world4 ,especially are we liable to misinterpretation of the idea of writing in the ancient rhetoric4 ,this contemplated primarily general training in style4 ,it also included some written preparation for a particular speech1 and finally the writing out of some speeches1 especially speeches on occasion1 in full4 ,but that this last was the general ancient practise has never been sufficiently supported and is a priori improbable4 ,the writing out of speeches after they had been spoken1 and the common ancient practise of writing speeches for other men to learn and deliver1 are not in point1 and must be kept apart from the question of written preparation4 ,the traditional quarrel between the ancient oratory which relied more and that which relied less on writing is admirably summed up by ,van ,hook1 ,alcidamas versus ,isocrates2 the spoken versus the written word1 in the introduction to his translation of the attack of ,alcidamas ,on those who write written speeches1 ,classical ,weekly1 ,,xii1 #hi-id1 ,new ,york1 ,jan4 #bj1 #aiai4 ,though there is ground for difference of opinion in interpreting what we can learn of the habit of ,demosthenes or of ,cicero1 there is no ground for assuming that the ancient counsels of care in preparation generally imply writing out4 ,quintilian1 who leans toward written preparation1 is by himself almost sufficient testimony to the contrary4 #ba ,cogitatis1 with obvious reference to cogitatio in ,x4 vi4 vii4 #bb ,note that memoria is vigor of mind1 and that it is first1 as often1 applied to extempore speaking4 #bc ,for ,aristotle on this aspect of the period 7,rhetoric1 iii1 #adji b71 see #bg above4 #bd ,see the tabular view above 7page #fc1 with foot-note #c7 and ,quintilian's own review and forecast in the proem to ,book ,,viii4 #be ,how deliberate and consistent is his order appears1 for instance1 at the opening of ,,ii4 xi1 where the definitions begin3 ,iam hic ergo nobis inchoanda est ea pars artis ex qua capere initium solent qui priora omiserunt4 #bf ,see ,chapter ,,iii1 pages #ch1 #df4 #bg ,the best edition is ,snque le rhteur1 controverses et suasoires1 traduction nouvelle 7with expository introduction71 texte revu 7in fine print at the bottom of each page71 ,henri ,bornecque 7,lille71 #b volumes1 ,paris 7,garnier71 #aijb4 ,the best discussion is also by ,bornecque1 ,les dclamations et les dclamateurs d'aprs ,snque le pre1 ,travaux et mmoires de l',universit de ,lille1 nouvelle srie1 ,i4 ,droit1 ,lettres--fascicule #a1 ,lille1 au sige de l',universit1 #aijb 7bibliography1 index of authors cited other than ,seneca1 catalogue raisonn of declamatores74 ,incidental and more general discussion will be found in standard treatises on ,roman literature of the ,empire1 in ,g4 ,boissier's ,la fin du paganisme1 and in his ,tacite1 pages #bjj-bdj4 ,peterson's translation of the ,dialogus of ,tacitus is published in the ,loeb ,classical ,library4 #bh ,for a summary of the earlier ,greek history see ,bornecque1 ,dclam41 #dj4 #bi ,e4g4 ,de orat4 ,i4 #adj4 #cj ,commentabar declamitans--sic enim nunc loquuntur4 ,brutus1 #caj4 ,on this point ,seneca has no doubt3--,declamabat autem ,cicero non quales nunc controversias dicimus1 ne tales quidem quales ante ,ciceronem dicebantur1 quas thesis vocabant4 ,hoc enim genus maxime1 quo nos exercemur1 adeo novum est1 ut nomen quoque ejus novum sit4 ,seneca1 ,controversi1 ,i4 prf4 #ab4 #ca ,see above1 pages #gj-gc and foot-note #aj4 ,the objection of ,petronius1 ,satyricon i4 #b1 is less specific4 #cb ,seneca the ,elder 7sometimes called the ,rhetor1 circ4 #ef ,b4,c4-#ci ,a4,d47 made the collection in his last years4 #cc ,bornecque1 ,dclam4 #be1 thinks that the ,controversi may be taken as substantial reproductions4 #cd ,controv4 ,,ii1 prf4 #c4 ,j4 ,w4 ,h4 ,walden quotes a similar counsel from ,libanius1 ,ep4 #bdh3 4 ,the ,universities of ,ancient ,greece1 page #gh1 foot-note4 ,bornecque1 ,dclam4 #ace1 sums up the situation as follows3 8la rhtorique1 devenue l'tude unique1 perd1 du mme coup1 le contact avec la ralit 444 et elle dpouille peu prs toute valeur comme moyen d'ducation oratoire et gnral40 #ce ,tacitus1 ,dial4 #ce-e1 quoted above1 page #hh4 ,quintilian1 ,,ii4 iv4 #be4 #cf ,c4 ,t4 ,cruttwell translates the second of these at page #cce of his ,history of ,roman ,literature4 ,the subjects mentioned incidentally by ,quintilian are similar3--,deliberant ,patres conscripti an stipendium militi constituant4 ,,iii4 viii4 #ah4 ,deliberant ,patres conscripti an ,fabios dedant ,gallis bellum minitantibus4 #ai4 ,deliberat ,c4 ,csar an perseveret in ,germaniam ire1 cum milites passim testamenta facerent4 #ai4 ,pompeius deliberavit ,parthos1 an ,africam1 an gyptum peteret4 #cc4 ,deliberat ,csar an ,britanniam impugnet4 ,,vii4 iv4 #b4 #cg ,dial4 #ce4 #e1 quoted above1 page #hh4 #ch ,deinde res ipsa diversa est3 totum aliud est pugnare1 aliud ventilare4 ,hoc ita semper habitum est1 scholam quasi ludum esse1 forum arenam4 ,,iii4 prf4 #ac4 ,the same point of view is taken by ,pliny in the letter 7,epist4 ,,ii4 #c7 quoted below4 ,the following controversia was assigned to the young ,marcus ,aurelius by his master ,fronto3 8,i have sent you an outline2 the case is serious4 ,a consul of the ,roman people1 laying aside his robes1 has donned a coat of mail and among the young men at the feast of ,minerva has slain a lion in the sight of the ,roman people4 ,he is denounced before the ,censors4 ,put into shape and develop40 ,correspondence of ,fronto1 ed41 with a translation1 ,c4 ,r4 ,haines1 ,london and ,new ,york 7,loeb ,classical ,library71 #aiai1 vol4 ,i1 page #baj 7see the further correspondence on this theme1 pages #bab1 #bad74 #ci ,see above1 page #fi4 #dj ,for all its informality1 ,pliny's letter runs1 as it were inevitably1 into the traditional channels of the formal parts of a speech 7promiatur1 narrat1 pugnat7 and the three ends of oratory 7docet1 delectat1 afficit74 ,indeed1 it shows throughout a familiarity with rhetorical technic1 and assumes a like familiarity on the part of its recipient4 #da ,h4 ,keil's editio maior of ,pliny's ,letters 7,leipzig1 #ahgj7 dates the second book ,a4,d4 #ig-ajj1 within a few years of ,quintilian's ,institutio4 ,for ,isus see ,philostratus1 ,vit4 ,soph4 i4 #bj1 and ,juvenal's satirical phrase 8,iso torrentior0 7,i4 iii4 #gd74 #db 8,rhetoricati sumus1 et in morem declamatorum paululum lusimus10 quoted by ,labriolle1 ,histoire de la littrature latine chrtienne1 ,paris1 #aibj1 page #dgj4 ,lusimus corresponds to ,seneca's description of declamatio as ludus 7foot-note #ch above74 #dc ,the history of declamatio as a direct and an indirect influence is reserved for a later volume4 ,it is summarized suggestively by ,bornecque in both the introduction to his edition of ,seneca and his treatise cited in foot-note #bg4 ,walden's ample summaries of the work of ,libanius 7#dth century7 in his ,universities of ,ancient ,greece corroborate what ,bornecque says of ,st4 ,augustine4 #dd ,see ,pliny's letter on ,isus above4 #de ,e4g41 ,i4 prf4 #ba2 ,,ii4 iii4 #aa4 ,see also ,bornecque1 ,dclam4 #ea4 ,for status see above1 page #gd4 #df ,the long and intricate history of colores1 extending1 with that of its ,romance cognates1 through the middle ages1 must be postponed2 but its interest may be divined by merely glancing at the successive uses recorded in a few dictionaries4 ,the importance of exploring the term has been urged again by ,fletcher in his 8,true ,meaning0 of ,dante's ,vita ,nuova1 ,romanic ,review1 ,,xi4 #aai4 #dg ,for the literary influence of this habit of oral fiction see ,bornecque1 ,dcl4 #dh ,see above1 page #ga4 #di ,seneca1 ,controversi1 ,,iv4 iii4 #c4 ,doubtless ,quintilian had such perversion of narratio in mind when he wrote3 8,the narratio should be neither dry and starved 444 nor again winding and seductive with far-fetched descriptions1 into which many are led by imitation of the license of poetry40 ,,ii4 iv4 #c4 #ej ,see the section on ,ovid in ,chapter ,,vii below4 ,bornecque sums up the tendency acutely as 8pntration rciproque de la posie et de la dclamation10 ,dclam4 #aae4 #ea ,the development of this history is reserved to a later volume4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,literary ,,criticism ,,of ,,rhetoric ,criticism is inevitably a part of teaching4 ,the teacher's holding up of models involves both analysis of them and appreciation4 ,the differentiation of the critic from the teacher is roughly that his judgments are not applied immediately to tasks of composition1 that he rather defines or extends theory than promotes practise4 ,his estimate of the professional writer is not directly brought to bear on the advancement of the amateur4 ,he stops with appreciation2 the teacher tries to carry this over into imitation4 ,but the differentiation of the two functions has never been complete2 and in classical times it went only a little way4 ,quintilian1 who was typically the teacher1 is included with respect in histories of criticism4 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus classifies his acute appreciations of orators and poets under text-book headings1 and puts forth his treatise on style1 as does the great unknown 8,on the ,sublime10 for instruction4 ,both are what we now call critics4 ,the classification of ,dionysius does not hinder his critical appreciation2 the classification of the great unknown merges into a kindling enthusiasm4 ,probably most of the literary criticism current in the last years of the ,republic and the first centuries of the ,roman ,empire came from grammarians and rhetoricians4#a ,it is worth while1 nevertheless1 to consider separately from the manuals and methods of instruction those treatises which were written rather to educate appreciation than to further the tasks of the schools4 ,outstanding among these are the ,brutus of ,cicero and the ,dialogus of ,tacitus2 but the two most specific and significant in doctrine are the ones mentioned above3 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus on ,sentences 7,de ,compositione ,verborum71 and the unknown author on the ,heightening of ,language 7,de ,sublimitate74 ,in some respects complementary1 the two together offer a clear view of style in the classical conception4 ,a4 ,,dionysius ,,of ,,halicarnassus ,,on ,,sentences ,the most specific and systematic rhetorical treatise of ,dionysius#a;a deals with sentence movement1 or compositio#b 7see pages #be1 #ec1 #fg1 #gi74 ,this1 he makes bold to say in his second paragraph1#c is the aspect of composition most profitable for the study of youth4 ,there is need 444 of oversight and guidance 444 for a choice of words at once pure and noble 444 and a sentence movement combining charm with dignity4444 ,the chief heads under which ,i propose to treat the subject are the following3 what is the nature of sentence movement and what force it has2 what are its aims and how it attains them2 what are its generic varieties1 and what is the distinctive feature of each1 and which of them ,i believe to be best2 and still further1 what is that poetical something1 both pleasant on the tongue and sweet to the ear1 which naturally accompanies the sentence movement of prose1 and wherein lies the force of that poetical method which imitates unpoetical speech and succeeds thoroughly in the imitation1 and by what method each of these two may be attained4#d ,sentence movement1 moreover1 ,dionysius thinks to be more important than the choice of words4#e ,he supports this assertion first by analyzing a passage from the ,odyssey4#f ,everybody would1 ,i am sure1 testify that these lines cast a spell of enchantment on the ear1 and rank second to no poetry whatsoever1 however exquisite it may be4 ,but what is the secret of their fascination1 and what causes them to be what they are8 ,is it the choice of words or the sentence movement8 ,no one will say 8the choice02 of that ,i am convinced4 ,for the diction consists1 warp and woof1 of the most ordinary1 the humblest words1 such as might have been used off-hand by a farmer1 a seaman1 an artisan1 or anybody else who takes no account of elegant speech4 ,you have only to break up the meter1 and these same lines seem commonplace and unworthy of admiration4 ,for they contain neither noble metaphors nor hypallages nor catachreses nor any other figurative language2 nor yet many unusual terms1 nor foreign or new-coined words4 ,what alternative1 then1 is left but to attribute the beauty of the style to the sentence movement8 ,in like manner he urges concerning a passage from ,herodotus3#g ,here again no one can say that the grace of the style is due to the impressiveness and the dignity of the words4 ,these have not been picked and chosen with studious care2 they are simply the labels affixed to things by ,nature4 ,indeed1 it would perhaps have been out of place to use other and grander words4 ,i take it1 in fact1 to be always necessary1 whenever ideas are expressed in proper and appropriate language1 that no word should be more dignified than the nature of the ideas4 ,that there is no stately or grandiose word in the present passage1 any one who likes may prove by simply changing the harmony4 ,there are many similar passages in this author1 from which it can be seen that the fascination of his style does not after all lie in the beauty of the words1 but in their combination4 ,not content with analysis1 ,dionysius proceeds#h to enforce his point by garbling4 ,fine passages of verse and of prose1 without any change of words1 are dislocated to show that their force resides not in these words taken singly1 but in the sentence order1 or movement4 ,the method is ingenious4 ,it is even telling4 ,any teacher who shall thus put side by side a fine passage of ,english prose and the same words in a different order will make his students aware of literary effects to which they should not remain deaf4#i ,the connotation of pace and tune may be further exemplified by comparing1 for instance1 a tale of ,chaucer's with the version made by ,dryden4#aj ,the method is interesting1 striking1 to some extent revealing4 ,what does it reveal8 ,that suggestiveness is not only through the imagery of single words1 but through their sound in combination2 that a large part of the connotation which we call style is sentence pace4 ,this is generally so little discerned that ,dionysius may be pardoned for magnifying it2 and he further guards himself by recording his intention of writing a treatise also on the choice of words4 ,occupied in the present treatise exclusively with their combination1 he naturally brings out the importance of this as vividly as possible4 ,is the effectiveness of style in the choice of words1 or in their combination8 ,here he seems to answer1 8,in their combination40#aa ,but effectiveness of expression resides primarily in neither electio nor compositio1 secondarily in both4 ,primarily it is the writer's keen sense of the ways of nature and of man1 his receptivity and insight4 ,then it is concrete expression1 the choice of words of sensation1 the speaking in terms of light1 sound1 color1 motion1 attitude1 gesture4 ,such words1 whether figurative in the technical sense or literal1 may be called imagery4 ,or1 in other fields of composition1 it is an illuminating precision4 ,finally1 that effectiveness which we call style comes from apt and beautiful rhythms1 from that compositio which is the subject of this treatise4 ,in a word1 style is a complex4 ,that compositio is an important element ,dionysius does well to show1 for this is not obvious and is commonly neglected2 but that compositio is the cause1 or even that it is generally more important than the other elements1 can hardly be demonstrated4 ,undoubtedly ,homer's verse weaves much of his spell2#ab but surely his words1 though often1 as ,dionysius says1 ordinary1 have none the less that specific concreteness which characteristically makes epic vivid4 ,in the following passage that he quotes from ,herodotus1 where the separable charm of the sentence movement is made more obvious by playing as it were in the wrong tempo1 he might claim even more4 ,surely the dialogue method is important for vividness and economy1 and this too is a matter of compositio4 ,but is the compositio1 for all its charm1 the main cause8 ,who shall determine8 ,the impression is a complex in which each element counts--the choice of details1 the choice of words1 the arrangement or movement--and in which we can hardly assign an exact proportion to any one4 ,certainly the beat and tune of prose are part of its connotation1 its effect on the reader4 ,doubtless also--though here we lack scientific analysis to confirm our impression#ac--they are demanded subconsciously by the composing emotion of the author as he speaks or writes4 ,nevertheless ,dionysius is an early instance of a danger lurking in statistical analysis of literature1 perhaps also of a danger lurking in the treatment of style--much more of a single element of style--as a separate entity4 ,being a teacher1 ,dionysius doubtless thought that there was little danger in over-emphasizing the importance of pace with young students4 ,they are too likely to be quite unaware of it to be corrupted by pedagogical exaggeration4 ,that 8thin and bloodless talk0 with which ,cicero#ad taxes the philosophers ,dionysius thinks to be due to defective compositio4 ,the main difference between poet and poet1 orator and orator1 is in aptness of sentence movement4 ,almost all the ancients gave this much study2 and consequently their poems1 their songs1 and their discourses are things of beauty4 ,but among their successors1 with few exceptions1 this was no longer so4 ,in time it was at last entirely forgotten2 and no one thought it to be indispensable or even contributory to beauty of discourse4#ae ,having established the importance of adapting sentence movement1 ,dionysius proceeds to show that such adaptation is little hindered by a priori consideration of logic4 ,i used to think that we ought to follow nature as far as possible in adjusting the parts of a discourse 444 for instance1 to put nouns before verbs 444 the essential before its modifiers4444 ,this idea is plausible2 but ,i came to think it was not true4#af ,does ,dionysius mean that logic offers no norm for the order of words8#ag ,hardly4 ,rather he shows by his instances that word order has little to do with philosophical or logical classification4 ,the order in a given sentence is not determined abstractly by the logical idea of putting the subject before the predicate1 or the substance before the accident4 ,it is guided partly by rhythm2 and it is widely variable4 ,the variability that he shows in the ,greek word order is wider than in ,english4 ,in both languages it is controlled by usage1 by what is habitual and therefore expected2 and this fact seems to be ignored by ,dionysius4 ,even a ,greek could not shape a sentence at his own will without reference to the habit of the language4 ,but in this respect ,greek usage1 because the ,greek could rely on showing sentence relations by inflection1 was less restrictive than ,english usage4 ,for ,english1 then1 it is not true to say that there is no sentence norm1 no normal or natural order4 ,that the norm is not determined by logic in the sense of abstract analysis is true for either1 or any1 language2 but in modern languages1 much more than in ,greek1 it is restricted by usage4 ,every careful translator has found his efforts to convey ,greek style hampered by the inferior variability of modern sentence habits4 ,taken more generally1 however1 the contention of ,dionysius is sound and suggestive4 ,it is that the order of words in a sentence is not predetermined by logic1 that it is freely adaptable1 and that this adaptation constitutes a large element in effectiveness4 ,having thus vindicated the right of the speaker or writer to deal with the order of his words artistically1 unfettered by logic1 ,dionysius proceeds to inquire in what artistic shaping consists4 ,the functions of compositio the tasks of sentence movement seem to me to be three3 7#a7 to discern what goes naturally with what to make a beautiful and satisfying combination2 7#b7 to know how to make systematically out of these potential agreements a better harmony2 7#c7 if revision is still necessary1 whether abridgement1 expansion1 or alteration1 to know how to work out the adaptation as the potential values demand4 ,the scope of each of these ,i will explain more clearly by using certain analogies from the industrial arts with which all are familiar3 house-building1 ship-building1 and the like4 ,when a builder has provided himself with the material from which he intends to construct a house--stones1 timbers1 tiling1 and all the rest--he then puts together the structure from these1 studying the following three things3 what stone1 timber1 and brick can be united with what other stone1 timber1 and brick2 next1 how each piece of the material that is being so united should be set1 and on which of its faces2 thirdly1 if anything fits badly1 how that particular thing can be chipped and trimmed and made to fit exactly4 ,and the shipwright proceeds in just the same way4 ,so1 ,i say1 they also should work whose task is to compose sentences well4#ah ,to simplify the language of ,dionysius by borrowing from music a metaphor which1 though it does not cover his whole intention1 is true so far as it goes1 the three tasks of the shaper of sentences are3 7#a7 to hear the tune1 7#b7 to follow the tune1 7#c7 to correct the tune4 ,the first depends on the speaker's awareness1 his sensitiveness to words2 the second depends on his technical ability to carry out what is thus suggested1 to sustain and enhance2 the third1 more specifically technical1 is to revise in detail4 ,on its face this division is new4 ,not only has it nothing to do with other divisions which apply to style in general1 being limited to sentence movement1 but it also differs from earlier divisions of this item by being synthetic4 ,its point of view is not that of a critic analyzing what has been already composed1 but of a speaker or writer composing4 ,it is practical4 ,is it practicable8 ,at the very outset of the exposition the analogy of the building arts is disconcerting4 ,even when allowances are made for the strict limitation to building1 the exclusion of all that we now call architecture1 the description still seems hardly exact4 ,and1 its exactness assumed1 is it applicable8 ,is the analogy sound8 ,both the ,rhetoric and the ,poetic of ,aristotle in speaking of sentences generally avoid analogies from the static arts4 ,the ,poetic even rules them out at the start by its classification of the arts2 and ,aristotle's analogies for sentences are drawn not from building1 but from walking1 running1 and breathing4#ai ,dionysius both assumes and asserts the same point of view3 8,the science of public speaking is1 after all1 a sort of musical science1 differing from vocal and instrumental music in degree1 not in kind40#bj ,and generally his discussion1 like ,aristotle's1 is in terms of rhythm4 ,why1 then1 this analogy with arts that ,aristotle regarded as lying in quite another field8 ,the famous analogy in the ,de ,sublimitate#ba of building with solid blocks is not1 in its context1 so remarkable2 for it is applied less restrictively to compositio4 ,is a shaper of sentences like a builder8 ,is he like a builder in the process that ,dionysius puts first1 the discerning of inherent compatibilities in his material8 ,the question is not of the subject-matter or conception of a whole work1 but of component parts or details4 ,doubtless an author may be somewhat vaguely considered as discerning potentialities in this material2 but what is the material8 ,is it words in the sense that the builder's is stone or wood8 ,can an author find inherent compatibility in words as a builder in the strength1 texture1 shape1 or color of his stone8 ,his material is ideas and images4 ,his choice of particular words for these is doubtless affected by connotations of sound2#bb but must it not be primarily suggested and finally determined by the sense8 ,can word combinations be considered as in themselves beautiful and satisfying1 as really having compatibilities of sound8 ,an author who followed ,dionysius literally might launch himself into mellifluous nonsense4 ,dionysius is speaking figuratively2 but is his figure really suggestive8 ,we may well remember that more modern analogies drawn from the static arts of mass and line have been misleading for the consecutive art of words4 ,the distinction between ,dionysius's two remaining items may seem slight until we remember that the division is not analytical into elements1 but synthetic into processes that are consecutive in time4 ,given the primary and general equipment of sensitiveness1 the writer may enhance while he is writing and then afterward revise4 ,in fact1 there is a typical difference between following the flow of thought and imagery and sound1 and then correcting it1 between composing and revising4 ,that the two should be distinct1 and that both should be guided partly by sound1 is counsel practically helpful4 ,in fact1 once he proceeds to apply his second and third headings in detail1 ,dionysius is more convincing4 ,the righting#bc of a sentence by transposing phrases or clauses is in practise1 and should be in theory1 a first counsel of sentence emphasis4 ,a defect of modern text-books is to set forth this important process as if it were purely logical4 ,dionysius follows the ancient tradition in making it rhythmical2 and he also clarifies it by specific instances4 ,he proceeds#bd to the varying of the rhythm by lengthening or shortening4 ,here his preoccupation with rhythm tends to obscure other considerations4 ,that a sentence is a logical unit1 and that a given statement is left single or combined with its neighbor according to its logical bearing on the whole passage1#be he seems to ignore or take for granted4 ,again1 the lengthening of a clause to fill out the rhythm risks bombast4 ,on the other hand1 some of the additions that he quotes as unnecessary to the idea are not superfluous for the image2 their value is not mainly rhythmical4 ,but so far as it goes this chapter is suggestive4 ,distinguishing#bf charm 77 from beauty 7 71 ,dionysius finds#bg that they arise from four qualities3 melody1 rhythm1 variety1 aptness4 ,melody is an affair of pitch and inflection4 ,the passage1#bh besides being a precious hint as to the ,greek scale1 is a useful reminder that ,english--and especially ,american--speech too often ignores variety of pitch4 ,similarly the treatment of rhythm as quantitative#bi should remind us that in our own habit it is predominantly accentual4 ,these differences in habit of speech1 while they suggest resources unused1 should none the less warn us against transferring the distinctions and counsels of ,dionysius bodily from ,greek to ,english4 ,of those that are equally applicable to both languages is the general advice#cj to seek variety and aptness less in the choice of words1 where there can be little latitude1 than in their combination4 ,indeed1 it is hardly too much to say that aptness of style1 though abstractly it includes precision and imagery in the single word1 is more largely than most of us realize an effect of rhythm1 and that variety1 except when in oral utterance it includes pitch1 consists in rhythm exclusively4 ,distinguishing#ca the letters as vowels or consonants1 ,dionysius finds ,greek speech sounds to be neither more nor less than twenty-four4 ,his phonetic analysis of these is specifically according to the position of the vocal organs in utterance4 ,the following discussion#cb of the quality of syllables in combination1 of effects hard1 smooth1 or sweet in sound apart from sense1 is doctrine oftener accepted as an idea than tested4#cc ,syllables1 which are combinations or interweavings of letters1 preserve at once both the individual properties of each component and the joint properties of all1 which spring from their fusion and juxtaposition4 ,the sounds thus formed are soft or hard1 smooth or rough1 sweet to the ear or harsh to it2 they make us pull a wry face1 or cause our mouths to water1 or bring about any of the countless other physical conditions that are possible4 ,these facts the greatest poets and prose-writers have carefully noted1 and not only do they carefully arrange their words and weave them into appropriate patterns1 but often1 with curious and loving skill1 they adapt the very syllables and letters to the emotions which they wish to represent4 ,passages from ,homer are quoted as examples4 ,such lines are to be found without number in ,homer1 representing length of time1 hugeness of body1 stress of emotion1 immobility of position1 or similar effects1 simply by the manipulation of the syllables4 ,conversely others are framed to give the impression of abruptness1 speed1 hurry1 and the like4#cd ,that such associations are natural is obvious1 ,dionysius thinks1 from onomatopia1 the earliest and simplest form of sound-connotation in words4 ,but he does not shrink from pushing his doctrine far beyond this to the conclusion that sound effects both subtle and various may be achieved1 and should be consciously sought1 by literary art4 ,the conclusion is inevitable1 that style is beautiful when it contains beautiful words1 that beauty of words is due to beautiful syllables and letters1 that language is rendered charming by the things that charm the ear in virtue of affinities in words1 syllables1 and letters4444 ,if1 then1 it were possible that all the parts of speech by which a given subject is to be expressed should be euphonious and elegant1 it would be madness to seek out inferior ones4 ,but if this be out of the question1 as in many cases it is1 then we must endeavor to mask the natural defects of the inferior letters by interweaving and mingling and juxtaposition4#ce ,the following instances of poetic effects gained by apt combinations of proper names that have no such suggestions singly will remind ,english readers of certain sonorous passages in ,milton4#cf ,that the connotation of such combinations is due to their syllabic quality1 however1 as distinct from their rhythm1 ,dionysius hardly succeeds in establishing4 ,the doctrine is flatly denied by ,lewis4 ,a certain learned and well-known student of verse says that 7for example7 gutturals and sibilants express 8amazement1 affright1 indignation1 contempt10 and he cites as an illustration a passage from ,paradise ,lost4 ,out of my sight1 thou serpent2 that name best ,befits thee with him leagued1 thyself as false ,and hateful2 nothing wants but that thy shape ,like his and color serpentine may show ,thy inward fraud4 ,one objection to this kind of doctrine is that it makes people think they have no ear for verse1 for after careful reading they are still uncertain whether they can detect the effect described4 ,another objection to it is that it is not true4 ,compare with the lines quoted this little song from ,browning's ,pippa ,passes3 ,the year's at the spring1 ,and day's at the morn2 ,morning's at seven2 ,the hill-side's dew-pearled2 ,the lark's on the wing2 ,the snail's on the thorn2 ,god's in his heaven-- ,all's right with the world4 ,this is shorter by four syllables than the passage from ,milton1 but it has the same number of gutturals and two more sibilants2 yet fancy describing it as an expression of 8amazement1 affright1 indignation1 contempt60 ,for another illustration1 in one of the standard manuals of versification it is pointed out that the surd mutes 7p1 k1 t7 8help to convey the idea of littleness1 delicacy1 and sprightliness10 and that the short vowel i is fitted to express 8joy1 gaiety1 triviality1 rapid movement1 and physical littleness40 ,to illustrate both assertions1 ,mercutio's account of ,queen ,mab is cited3 ,she comes ,in shape no bigger than an agate stone1 444 ,drawn by a team of little atomies4 ,here the effect is perhaps easier to recognize1 and even an obtuse reader thinks he follows the reasoning2 but compare ,browning's lines3 ,the wroth sea's waves are edged ,with foam1 white as the bitten lip of hate4 ,the 8bitten lip0 has as many surd mutes and short i's as the 8little atomies02 but it fails to express sprightliness1 gaiety1 or triviality4444 ,the fact is1 of course1 that all this analysis of sounds proceeds upon a false assumption4 ,when you say ,titan you mean something big1 and when you say tittle you mean something small2 but it is not the sound of either word that means either bigness or littleness1 it is the sense4 ,if you put together a great many similar consonants in one sentence1 they will attract special attention to the words in which they occur1 and the significance of those words1 whatever it may be1 is thereby intensified2 but whether the words are 8a team of little atomies0 or 8a triumphant terrible ,titan10 it is not the sound of the consonants that makes the significance4#cg ,rhythm is discussed in the same order1 first#ch by classifying feet as iambs1 trochees1 dactyls1 etc41 then#ci by analyzing their effects singly and in combination4 8,a simple rhythm or foot has not less than two syllables nor more than three40#dj ,this is commonly accepted for meter2 but does it hold for the rhythms of prose8 ,moreover that the foot is the rhythmical unit1 whether in ,greek or in other languages1 is oftener assumed than proved4 ,rhythmical effects1 in ,english at least1 seem to be not so much of feet as of measures1 whether verses or clauses4 ,unless the foot is actually a unit1 for the composer or for the hearer--and this is at least doubtful--such analysis as that of a noble passage from the funeral speech in the second book of ,thucydides#da lays too much stress on the components--spondees1 anapests1 etc4--and not enough on the compositio1 or pace of the sentence4 ,by way of contrast to ,thucydides1 ,plato1 and ,demosthenes1 ,dionysius pillories ,hegesias of ,magnesia4#db ,variety of rhythm#dc is discussed more generally1 without instances1 and as an introduction to rhythm in prose4 ,prose diction has full liberty and permission to diversify the compositio by whatever changes it pleases4 ,a style is finest of all when it has the most frequent rests and changes of harmony2 when one thing is said within a period1 another without it2 when one period is formed by the interweaving of a larger number of clauses1 another by that of a smaller2 when among the clauses themselves one is short1 another longer1 one roughly wrought1 another more finished2 when the rhythms take now one form1 now another1 and the figures are of all kinds1 and the voice-pitches--the so-called 8accents0--are various1 and skillfully avoid satiety4#dd ,aptness1#de or appropriateness to the actors and the action1 is analyzed rather as imitative smoothness or roughness in detail than as the speed of the whole stanza or paragraph4 ,dionysius says nothing1 for instance1 of the staccato effect of frequent predication4 ,his text is the famous stone of ,sisyphus from the eleventh book of the ,odyssey4 ,finally#df ,dionysius classifies sentence movement into three typical modes3#dg the rough 771 the smooth 77 or florid 771 and the blended 774 ,certain accidental likenesses to the familiar threefold classification of style#dh should not obscure the fact that we have here something different1 a classification not of style in general1 but of compositio4 ,the first mode ,dionysius defines as seeking rather the force of each part than the harmony of the whole4 ,the words stand out separately1 without fear of hiatus or other clashing of sounds1 and without care for periods4#di ,the aim is rather a direct stirring of emotion 77 than a pervasive suggestion of character 774 ,this sterner1 elder mode1 quite different from 8the showy and decorative prettiness of our day10#ej he exemplifies1 with his usual minute analysis1 from ,pindar and ,thucydides4 ,the second1 or smooth mode#ea is periodic in its sentences and nicely articulated in its clauses and phrases4 ,it tries to combine and interweave its component parts1 and thus give1 as far as possible1 the effect of one continuous utterance4 ,this result is produced by so nicely adjusting the junctures that they admit no appreciable time-interval between the words4#eb ,aiming at the easiest transitions within the period1 it is careful to distinguish between periods4 ,the parts coalesce2 the units stand out4#ec ,this is in line with the doctrine of ,aristotle1#ed and is admirably exemplified by the practise of ,cicero4 ,dionysius's instances are ,sappho and ,isocrates4 ,the third1 or blended mode#ee ,dionysius labors in vain to distinguish from the other two4 ,ingenious as are his analyses of the three modes1 even sometimes suggestive1 they fail to establish the reality of the classification4 ,we can discern in the distinction between his first two a carrying out--perhaps an undue extension--of ,aristotle's distinction between the unperiodic style and the periodic4#ef ,his third mode seems to be not a mode at all1 but merely a reminder that neither of the other two can be used exclusively or pushed to excess4 ,as to the distinction of prose rhythms from verse#eg ,dionysius quotes with approval ,aristotle's dictum#eh that prose should be rhythmical without becoming metrical4 ,it seems plain none the less that his own taste is for rather marked rhythms even in prose1 and that he would encourage students to go a long way toward meter4 ,before he closes his book upon this consideration1 he raises quite frankly the question of how far its analyses have practical value4 ,i have a presentiment that an onslaught will be made on these statements by people who are destitute of general culture and practise the mechanical parts of rhetoric unmethodically and unscientifically4444 ,their argument will doubtless be3 8,was ,demosthenes1 then1 so poor a creature that1 whenever he was writing his speeches1 he would work in meters and rhythms after the fashion of clay-modellers1 and would try to fit his clauses into these moulds1 shifting the words to and fro1 keeping an anxious eye on his longs and shorts1 and fretting himself about cases of nouns1 moods of verbs1 and all the accidents of the parts of speech8 ,so great a man would be a fool indeed were he to stoop to all this niggling and peddling40 ,if they scoff and jeer in these or similar terms1 they may easily be countered by the following reply3 8,first1 it is not surprising after all that a man who is held to deserve a greater reputation than any of his predecessors who were distinguished for eloquence was anxious1 when composing eternal works and submitting himself to the scrutiny of all-testing envy and time1 not to admit either subject or words at random1 and to attend carefully to both arrangements of ideas and beauty of words3 particularly as the authors of that day were producing discourses which suggested not writing1 but carving and chasing--those ,i mean of the sophists ,isocrates and ,plato4444 ,what wonder1 then1 if ,demosthenes also was careful to secure euphony and melody and to employ no random or untested word or thought80#ei ,the defense is sufficient abstractly1 though it does not quite meet the fact that in practise both teachers and students of rhetoric have not infrequently frittered away much time in minute analysis of compositio4 ,such analysis easily becomes over-minute1 easily deviates from the paramount consideration of the idea or the image4 ,that it is properly the work of revision1 not of the first draft1 ,dionysius often implies1 but might well have stated explicitly4 ,so applied1 given common sense and the honest determination to say what one means1 analysis of prose rhythms is distinctly valuable and often necessary4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,for ,cicero1 see ,chapter ,,iii1 for ,quintilian and ,tacitus1 ,chapter ,,iv2 for ,dio ,chrysostom and ,apuleius1 ,chapter ,,viii4 #a;a ,for biography and bibliography of ,dionysius see ,roberts1 ,w4 ,rhys1 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 the ,three ,literary ,letters1 ,cambridge1 #aija1 pages #a-ej1 #bji-bai4 ,to the latter should be added3 ,egger1 ,max1 ,essai sur la critique littraire et la rhtorique chez les grecs au sicle d',auguste1 ,paris1 #aijb2 ,mtzke1 ,karl1 ,de ,d4 ,h4 ,isocratis imitatore1 ,wratislaw1 #aijf2 ,kremer1 ,emil1 ,ueber das rhetorische system des ,d4 von ,h41 ,strassburg1 #aijg2 ,geigenmller1 ,paul1 ,qustiones ,dionysian de vocabulis artis critic1 ,leipzig1 #aijh2 ,nassal1 ,franz1 sthetisch-rhetorische ,beziehungen zwischen ,d4 von ,h4 und ,cicero1 ,tbingen1 #aiaj2 ,hubbell1 ,h4 ,m41 ,the ,influence of ,isocrates on ,cicero1 ,dionysius1 and ,aristides1 ,yale ,university ,press1 #aiad4 ,the best edition of the ,de compositione verborum is that by ,roberts1 ,w4 ,rhys1 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus on ,literary ,composition 7text1 introduction1 translation1 notes1 glossary1 appendices71 ,london1 #aiaj4 ,a current summary of the ,de compositione will be found in ,roberts1 ,three ,literary ,letters1 pages #h-ai2 a more detailed summary1 with a tabular analysis1 in his edition1 pages #a-aj2 a commented summary in ,egger1 pages #fg-aaa4 ,the rhetorical system of ,dionysius is tabulated from all his works by ,ammon1 ,george1 ,de ,d4 ,h4 librorum rhetoricorum fontibus1 ,monachii1 #ahhi4 ,in ,english equivalents1 the pertinent parts of his analysis are as follows3 ,a4 subject-matter ,i4 investigation 7inventio7 selection 7iudicium7 ,,ii4 arrangement 7dispositio7 #a4 division #b4 order #c4 revision and elaboration ,b4 style ,i4 choice of words 7electio7 #a4 precision #b4 imagery ,,ii4 sentence movement 7compositio7 #a4 nature #b4 force #c4 processes a4 in phrases b4 in clauses c4 in periods #d4 charm and beauty a4 melody b4 rhythm c4 variety d4 aptness #e4 kinds a4 strong b4 smooth c4 blended #f4 verse and prose ,kremer 7see above71 whose analysis1 though less detailed1 is substantially the same1 collates from all the writings of ,dionysius his doctrine on the several topics and gives foot-note references to ,aristotle1 ,cicero1 and others4 ,nassal 7see above71 pointing out that ,dionysius and ,cicero agree strikingly in many points1 argues that they have for common source in these cases a ,greek treatise written during the years between the time of the ,lysias of ,dionysius and of the ,de ,oratore of ,cicero and the time of the ,demosthenes of ,dionysius and of the ,orator of ,cicero1 and that this common source is very probably ,ccilius of ,calacte4 ,geigenmueller 7see above7 supplies a collation of critical terms with valuable comparisons4 ,nassal 7page #aa7 quotes from ,doxopater a definition of rhetoric ascribed to ,dionysius3 8,rhetoric is the artistic mastery of persuasive discourse in communal affairs1 having as its end to speak well40 7,usener1 ,fragment ,i47 ,the definition is sound and striking1 but for the lame and impotent concluding phrase4 ,as reported by ,maximus ,planudes 7quoted by ,ammon1 page #a71 the definition is substantially the same1 but has amplified this concluding phrase with a clumsy twist from ,aristotle4 ,whether the definition belongs to ,dionysius or not1 the tradition shows his fame as a rhetorician4 #b ,that it deals with this exclusively1 not with composition in general1 is clear from both the ,greek title and the ,latin4 ,the terms and compositio are technically specific4 ,they do not mean style in general1 which in the classical treatises includes also choice of single words 71 electio74 ,much less do they mean composition in our larger modern sense1 for which the ancient term is dispositio1 collocatio1 or more generally 4 ,dionysius makes the distinction quite clear at the opening of his treatise1 and holds to it throughout4 ,in this sense is to be taken the title of the admirable translation of ,rhys ,roberts1 ,literary ,composition1 as is shown by his rendering elsewhere ,the ,arrangement of ,words 7page #h of his edition of ,three ,literary ,letters74 #c i4 #ff4 ,the ,roman numerals in these foot-notes refer to chapters2 the ,arabic1 to the pages of the ,rhys ,roberts text4 ,the ,rhys ,roberts translation is used with modifications4 #d i4 #fh-gj4 #e iii4 #gd4 #f iii4 #gf-gh 7,odyssey1 xvi4 #a-af74 #g iii4 #hd 7,herodotus i4 #h-aj74 #h iv4 #hd4 #i ,see1 for example1 my ,writing and ,speaking1 pages #cgf-cgh2 ,college ,composition1 pages #ahd-ahh4 #aj ,that this sort of analysis may be carried even further is suggested by ,r4 ,l4 ,stevenson's ,some ,technical ,elements of ,style in ,literature1 which is partly along the lines followed by ,dionysius4 #aa ,that this is generally more important he explicitly affirms in his ,demosthenes1 chapter li4 ,reviewing the traditional five parts of rhetoric1 he puts 7dispositio7 above 7inventio71 and 7compositio7 above 7electio74 #ab ,rhys ,roberts's use of imitative renderings to make this point is of course necessary2 but readers unfamiliar with ,greek rhythms should beware of inferences based on an assumption of equivalence between ,greek metrical habits and ,english4 #ac ,this is the contention of ,stevenson in ,some ,technical ,elements of ,style in ,literature4 #ad ,de ,oratore1 ,i4 xiii4 #eg4 #ae iv4 #ib4 #af v4 #ih4 #ag ,henri ,weil's classic essay on the order of words in the ancient languages has been translated into ,english by ,c4 ,w4 ,super1 ,boston1 #ahhg4 ,the rationale of word-order is discussed in ,spencer's ,philosophy of ,style4 #ah vi4 #ajd4 #ai ,see above1 pages #bh1 #bi4 #bj xi4 #abd4 #ba ,section x4 #bb ,see above1 page #fj and foot-note #ie4 #bc vii4 #bd ix4 #be ,see my ,college ,composition1 page #fi4 #bf x4 ,the same distinction is made in his ,demosthenes1 xlvii4 #bg xi4 #bh xi4 #abf4 #bi xi4 #abh4 #cj xii4 #acj4 #ca xiv4 #cb xv-xvi4 #cc ,in ,english it is urged specifically by ,stevenson in ,some ,technical ,elements of ,style in ,literature4 #cd xv4 #aed-aef4 #ce xvi4 #afj1 #aff4 #cf ,it may remind some elder readers also of a story once current concerning a pious old lady who in reading her ,bible found emotional satisfaction in the 8blessed word ,mesopotamia40 #cg ,charlton ,m4 ,lewis1 ,the ,principles of ,english ,verse1 ,new ,york1 #aijf1 page #aca4 #ch xvii4 #ci xviii4 #dj xvii4 #agf4 #da xviii4 #agh4 #db ,stevenson makes similar use of ,macaulay4 #dc xix4 #dd xix4 #aif4 #de 1 xx4 #df xxi4 #dg ,dionysius uses the same classification in his ,demosthenes1 xxxvi4 #dh ,see above1 page #ef4 #di xxii4 #bab4 ,one thinks of ,carlyle4 #ej xxii4 #baf4 #ea xxiii4 #eb xxiii4 #bcd4 #ec xxiii4 #bcf4 #ed ,rhetoric ,,iii4 ix4 #adji a4 ,see above1 page #bh4 ,aristotle's may have suggested the of ,dionysius4 #ee xxiv4 #ef ,rhetoric1 ibid4 #eg xxv1 xxvi4 #eh ,rhetoric1 ,,iii4 viii4 #adjh b4 ,see above1 page #bf4 #ei xxv4 #bfb4 ,b4 ,,the ,,great ,,unknown ,,on ,,imaginative ,,diction 8,longinus on the ,sublime0#a will for many years continue to name the most captivating of ancient treatises1 though its author1 whoever he was1 was not the rhetorician ,longinus1 and though its subject is wider than our word sublime4 ,the ,latin sublimitas translates precisely enough the of the ,greek title2 but our words sublime and sublimity are reserved for special application to such lofty passages as we quote from ,dante and ,milton4 ,sappho's love poem1 quoted by the author as a typical instance1 though we feel at once its vivid beauty1 we should not call sublime4 ,the ,greek word is more general4 ,meaning literally height1 it includes in this treatise all such effects of style as lift us1 as move us beyond comprehension or assent to sympathy or resolve4 ,but though the meaning is clear1 an equivalent ,english term is still to seek4 ,elevation has unfortunate suggestions of the rhetorical2 height is too vague2 heightening1 though nearer1 is not generally used in this sense4 ,falling back on such a periphrasis as heightening of style1 we become aware that our word style1 as used generally and untechnically1 is not far from the author's intention4 ,though in text-books and works of criticism it is often extended1 in ordinary parlance it means that very heightening1 or lift1 which is discussed by the ,great ,unknown4 ,so we shall convey his intention as fairly as seems feasible by translating his title ,style4 ,in the following digest ,roman numerals indicate the chapters1 or sections4 ,the heights of style are such passages as please always and please all4 7i7 ,the heights of authorship are seen in eminence and excellence of words4 ,experience in subject-matter 7inventio7 and cogency of order 7dispositio7 are effects of the whole2 but the orator's power flashes in his happy moments of style 7elocutio74 7ii7 ,nor because we see genius here are we to think that style is beyond art4 7iii1 iv7 ,contrast the turgid1 the pretty1 the frigid1 7v7 faults arising from the search for novelties4 7vi7 ,though judgment of style is the final fruit of much experience1 we must attempt definition of heightening4 7vii7 ,count those passages wholly beautiful and true instances of the heights of style which please always and please all4 ,the first source of height in style is intellectual power of conception4 7viii7 ,of such heightening 7#a7 the first and strongest source is intellectual power of conception2 7#b7 the second1 emotion4 ,these are native2 the remaining three are acquired3 7#c7 handling of figures1 7#d7 noble diction1 and 7#e71 what includes the other two1 sentence movement 7compositio74 7ix7 ,the force of the first 7i4e41 conception71 and also its waning1 we feel in ,homer1 whose ,odyssey lapses into narrative from the dramatic power of the ,iliad4 7x7 ,the realization of this first source in actual composition means compression1 the bringing together of significances with no insignificances to interrupt4 7xi7 ,oratorical amplification1 which is complementary to this1 of itself never rises to the heights4 7xii7 ,heightening of style is single and intensive1 as in poetry or in the orations of ,demosthenes2 amplification is iterative and extensive1 as in ,plato or ,cicero4 7xiii7 ,plato1 however1 shows the way to mastery--imitation1 7xiv7 a way which even we may follow4 ,the second source is emotion4 7,this is not treated here in its place as a separate section1 but is implied throughout what follows47 ,the third source is handling of figures4 7xv7 ,for weight1 grandeur1 and energy the right language is imagery4 ,in oratory the purpose of this typically is intellectual2 in poetry1 emotional2 but oratory too may use it for emotional effect4 xvi-xxix4 ,discussion of figures4 7xxx-xxxi7 ,beautiful words are essentially the light of thought2 and homely words have their expressiveness4 7xxxii7 ,abundance of figurative language may proceed from emotion and kindle it4 ,even extended and detailed metaphor may be stimulating4 ,the fourth source1 noble diction1 means more than constant excellence4 7xxxiii7 ,better eminence with some faults than a lower plane without them3 ,homer than ,apollonius1 ,archilochus than ,eratosthenes1 ,pindar than ,bacchylides1 ,sophocles than ,ion1 7xxxiv7 ,demosthenes than ,hyperides1 7xxxv7 ,plato than ,lysias1 and1 in general1 force than elegance4 7xxxvi7 ,but though the achievement due to art is typically that of the lower plane1 the success of never failing1 the assurance of technical mastery1 still this does not make art the less important4 xxxvii-xxxviii4 ,further on figures3 metaphor1 hyperbole4 ,the fifth source is sentence movement 7compositio74 7xxxxix7 ,the fifth of the elements that combine to give height is compositio4 ,having already in two other treatises gone exhaustively into the theory of compositio1 ,i will treat it here only in general4 ,the pervasive emotional effect of rhythm need only be insisted on2 it is too evident to require proof4 7xl7 ,that it is separately distinguishable as a cause of heightening can be seen in many authors1 most strikingly in ,euripides1 who is a poet rather of compositio than of thought4 7xli-xlii7 ,conversely1 a wrong rhythm may drag down or distract1 7xliii7 as may also a descriptive detail that interrupts or jars4 ,that orators rarely attain the heights of style means that they live unworthily4 7xliv7 ,why have we now few authors that reach the heights8 ,is the cause political1 the decay of democracy8 ,rather it is moral2 it is our materialism4 ,compared with the orderly a priori progress of ,dionysius1 this treatment seems at once less systematic2 and though the manuscripts show gaps1 some apparently of considerable length1 we have enough of the treatise to conclude that the whole was rather suggestive than logically divided and consecutive4 ,but through it all runs the controlling idea that the higher reaches of style are1 in cause and in effect1 imaginative4 ,discussing oratory1 the author is all the while drawing instances from poetry2 and this means more than in the treatise of ,dionysius4 ,the scope is larger4 ,not only does he range far beyond compositio1 which occupies only five of his chapters2 he is looking in general less to technic and more to motive4 ,what lifts the orator1 and makes him lift his hearers1 is first intellectual power of conception1 then emotional power of sympathy4 ,these are the springs4 ,they work out in imaginative diction and rhythmical pace2 but that few orators lift us by these means is due fundamentally to a general lack of idealism4 ,the contribution1 then1 of this unknown critic consists in illuminating the bearing of poetic on rhetoric1 the importance of imaginative realization even for purposes of persuasion4 ,the distinction between rhetoric and poetic he never blurs2 in fact he contrasts the two explicitly2 but he brings out1 more clearly than any other ancient author1 their interdependence4 ,first1 he precludes any undue separation of thought from emotion by making conception1 in ,homer as well as in ,demosthenes1 intellectual4 ,his word reminds one that ,aristotle conversely brings rhetoric into poetic by making thought1 1#b one of the elements of tragedy4 ,then further he shows throughout that style at its height1 in ,demosthenes as well as in ,homer1 is imaginative realization1 that where we feel 1 sublimitas1 even in the field of rhetoric1 we find the typical language of poetic4 ,such passages1 he says in his first chapter1 do not merely persuade us2 they carry us out of ourselves4 ,this is clearest in chapters x-xv1 which show how power of conception works out in the typical movement 7x7 of poetic1 then 7xi-xiv7 in that of rhetoric1 and then 7xv7 in their common ground of diction4 ,these chapters1 the core of the treatise1 confirm by artistic divination the philosophical analysis of ,aristotle1 and range beyond diction into composition4 ,how1 he inquires1 are we to lift oratory to the heights8 ,even as ,sappho1 he answers1 makes us in a single poem feel love2 that is1 by selecting those characteristic actions which are most salient and gathering them into a single body4 8,do you not marvel how she seeks to gather soul and body into one1 hearing and tongue1 eyes and mien1 all dispersed and strangers before80#c ,poetry gives us the truth of life by bringing into organic continuity what is revealing and significant4 ,what life disperses and interrupts1 poetry focuses and brings into emotional sequence and momentum4 ,its essential processes are to realize these saliences imaginatively and to unify them4 8,it is survey of the high points1 and composition 77 for unity40#d ,a simple modern instance is ,browning's 8,meeting at ,night40 ,this1 the treatise goes on 7xi-xii71 is the typical method of poetic4 ,the parallel 77 method of rhetoric is the converse2 it is amplification4 ,poetry suggests in a flash2 oratory iterates and enlarges4 ,the one is intensive2 the other1 extensive4 ,the one is compressed2 the other1 cumulative4 ,now none of the many and well-known means of amplification is self-sufficient4 ,they all fall short without what we have called heightening4 ,true1 amplification and height of style may seem 7xii7 to amount to the same thing1 since the object of both is by definition to invest the subject with greatness2 but they differ in method4 ,height means direct lift 772 amplification implies multitude4 ,therefore the former is often in a single idea 771 whereas the latter always implies quantity and abundance4444 ,so ,cicero differs from ,demosthenes in grand passages4 ,the force of the one is in sheer height2 of the other1 in volume4444 ,the fire of the one is like lightning 444 of the other1 like a conflagration4#e ,so much for height as proceeding from the whole conception and movement4 ,to return now to diction3 ,weight1 grandeur1 and energy are furthermore most readily achieved by images 771 or1 as some call them1 bodyings-forth4444 ,by these terms are meant specifically those cases in which1 moved by enthusiasm and passion1 you seem to see the things of which you speak1 and to put them under the eyes of your hearers4 ,as imagery means one thing with the orators and another with the poets1 you must have observed that with the latter its function is vivid suggestion2 with the former1 precision4#f ,nevertheless both uses of imagery appeal to emotion4 ,euripides in a passage quoted from ,orestes1 #bee saw the ,furies himself1 and what was imaged in his mind he almost compelled his hearers to see4 ,in another passage1 from the lost ,phathon would you not say that the soul of the writer mounts the car with the driver1 takes the risk with him1 and with the horses has wings8#g ,imaginative diction1 then1 is not primarily a trick of words2 it is a visualizing habit of thought4 ,it is sympathetic insight1 even to the extent of feeling with ,phathon's horses their wings4 ,in poetry imagery may even range beyond what is convincing2 but in oratory it is always best when it holds to reality and verisimilitude 7 74444 ,what1 then1 can the image do in oratory8 ,much else1 doubtless1 it can add to speeches in energy and emotion2 but infused into arguments drawn directly from facts it not only persuades the hearer1 but also makes him its slave4 ,instances from ,demosthenes and ,hyperides ,while he is arguing from the facts1 the orator has expressed them in images4 ,he has given his very premise 77 a force beyond persuasion4 ,as by a law of nature1 in all such cases we always hear the stronger4 ,so we are drawn away from the argumentative value to that which is imaginatively striking1 in which the facts as mere evidence disappear in excess of light4#h ,imaginative realization of facts1 the author is saying1 which is essentially poetic1 has its use also in rhetoric4 ,that use is normally intellectual1 for precision1 for making an idea luminous4 ,but there is a further use that is emotional4 ,besides making ideas clear1 imagery in oratory1 as well as in poetry1 makes facts live4 ,thus it is not merely stylistic beauty2 it has its function at the very base of oratory1 in the subject-matter1 in the very facts4 ,make the audience visualize these facts1 see them1 hear them1 live in them by imagination1 and you have done something more effective than marshaling them as evidence and urging your inferences4 ,by the imaginative illusion of actuality the audience is not merely convinced2 it is captured4 ,in such passages1 rather than in reasoning1 oratory reaches its heights4#i ,the following chapters 7xvi-xxxviii7 on figures1 carrying into detail the fundamental principle of imaginative realization1 are handled less originally and less suggestively than the principle itself4 ,perhaps we are the less patient with the details of imagery because we have been made to see vividly the scope of imagination4 ,classification of imagery1 which seems inevitably to produce the most tedious chapters in rhetorics1 lacks for us moderns what is most characteristic of this ardent and original spirit1 constructive suggestion4 ,but at least he abstains from carrying it into minute analysis4 ,even these his most technical chapters are illuminated by that genius for appreciation which brought together one of the most significant of all collections of literary models4 ,his own style1 too1 flashes in memorable sentences3 ,a figure seems best when it is not noticed as a figure 7xvii74 ,what is hurried and roughened by emotion1 if you smooth out to a level by conjunctions1 loses its spur and fire 7xxi74 ,beautiful words are essentially the very light of thought 7xxx74 ,occasional oratory 77 being recognized by the ancients as the most literary of the three fields1#aj one might expect this treatise to dwell on it especially4 ,but the author's object is not special2 it is general4 ,this and the contagion of his enthusiasm have made his book1 ever since its recovery in the ,renaissance1#aa a powerful influence4 ,its promotive quality sets it above the schematic analysis of even so discerning a critic as ,dionysius4 ,milton must have felt in it his own creative attitude toward reading4 ,nor does it need to dwell on the school of ,isocrates when its own most characteristic passages have themselves the very mood and method of occasional oratory4 ,what1 then1 did those immortals see who reached at the greatest things in writing and scorned unvarying nicety8 ,besides many other things1 this1 that nature meant us men to be no low species nor ignoble2 but leading us1 as into a great pageant1 into life and the whole order of things1 to be spectators of all that she shows and contestants eager for honor1 she implanted forthwith in our souls invincible passion for all that is permanently great and in our eyes more divine4#ab ,where has been more nobly expressed the mainspring of interest in literature8 ,great authors satisfy our longing to enter the human scene fully1 to experience vicariously and to share in imagination passions and deeds greater than those of our every day4 ,they touch the heights of style who know the heights of life4 ,to bring oratory into this company is at once to claim for it literary height and to insist on the relation of rhetoric to morality4 ,the moral implications of rhetoric are stressed again in the last chapter 7xliv7 that remains4 ,aristotle had recognized them explicitly4 ,st4 ,augustine1 at the end of the ancient world1 must reaffirm them for ,christian preaching4 ,but against the sophistic that had always threatened this ideal no antidote is more effective than the great unknown's sense of mission4 ,aristotle's theory of rhetoric determines its function4 ,cicero dignifies even its conventional tasks as training for leadership4 ,quintilian surveys it as a comprehensive pedagogy4 ,dionysius analyzes its art4 ,but the great unknown moves us to share that art ourselves4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,the edition of ,w4 ,rhys ,roberts 7,cambridge1 #ahii2 second edition1 #aijg71 bearing this traditional title1 has1 besides text and translation1 an introduction on the authorship1 contents1 and character1 and several valuable appendices3 ,a4 textual2 ,b4 linguistic 7beginning this scholar's collation of ,greek rhetorical terms72 ,c4 literary 7with a table of contents and a list of quotations located and arranged alphabetically by authors72 ,d4 bibliographical4 ,other modern ,english translations are3 by ,h4 ,l4 ,havell1 with an introduction by ,andrew ,lang 7,london1 #ahij2 reprinted by ,lane ,cooper in ,theories of ,style1 ,new ,york1 #aijg72 by ,a4 ,o4 ,prickard1 with a brief introductory essay on the authorship and character1 a digest by chapters1 and four appendices3 ,i4 ,specimen ,passages ,translated from ,greek ,writers of the ,roman ,empire on ,literary ,criticism2 ,,ii4 ,the ,treatise on ,sublimity and ,latin ,critics2 ,,iii4 ,passages ,translated from ,bishop ,lowth's ,oxford ,lectures on ,hebrew ,poetry2 ,,iv4 ,additional ,note on ,paraphones4 #b ,poetic1 #adej a4 #c x4 #d xi1 at the end4 ,the of this parenthesis in xi refers to x4 #e xii4 ,a similar comparison is made by ,quintilian1 ,x4 i4 #ajf4 #f ,in ,english the familiar contrast is between ,shakspere's figures and ,bacon's4 #g xv4 #h xv4 #i ,the bearing of delivery on this1 of the art of the actor on the art of the orator1 is glanced at in the opening chapter of ,aristotle's ,rhetoric1 ,book ,,iii 7see above1 page #bd71 a meager passage illumined by this doctrine of the ,great ,unknown4 #aj ,aristotle1 ,rhetoric1 ,,iii4 xii4 #adad a4 ,see the discussion of this passage above1 page #cc4 #aa ,see the bibliography in the edition of ,rhys ,roberts4 #ab xxxv4 ,beside this may be set for contrast the bitter satire of ,lucian's ,rhetorum prceptor1 which declares the practical equipment for success in oratory to be effrontery1 a loud voice1 a store of strange words1 stock allusions1 and sheer gab4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,poetic ,,of ,,aristotle#a ,veneration of ,aristotle has been impatiently classed with 8other medival superstitions10 both by those who disliked authority and by those who revolted against the inlaying and overlaying of his text with centuries of interpretations4 ,since the ,renaissance the ,poetic has1 indeed1 fared in this regard somewhat as the ,bible2 and in both cases those deviations from the original intention are widest1 perhaps1 which have arisen from 8private interpretation10 from missionary zeal more anxious to read into the text than to read in it4 ,what may be called on the other hand communal interpretation1 the consentient application of ,aristotle's ideas to the typical problems of a whole group or period1 constitutes an important guide in the history of criticism4 ,both kinds of interpretation imply in the original an extraordinary fertility4 ,this vitality1 it is also clear1 is of principles1 of ideas set forth not only as classifying1 but as constructive4 ,the principles have been from time to time crystallized in rules2 and some of the rules1 having been found restrictive or even inhibitory1 have thereupon been flung aside4 ,but again and again a return to ,aristotle's ,poetic for orientation of practise and of criticism has vindicated it as constructive4 ,it is not what ,professor ,dewey has lately called a 8closed system40#b ,it has exceptionally little of that mathematically abstract method which ,bergson#c found unsatisfying for survey of human activities in time4 ,rather its method is inductive4 ,it examines how imaginative conceptions have been so composed and so expressed as to kindle1 direct1 and sustain the imagination of an audience2 and its formulation is typically like what modern science calls an hypothesis1 that is a generalization interpreting facts so far as they are known1 and fruitful in their further investigation4 ,to reinterpret the ,poetic in #aibd1 therefore1 should be not merely to reconsider the drama and the epic of ,aristotle's time1 valuable as this is historically1 but according to ,aristotle's intention to consider what makes drama1 our own as well as his1 and what vitally moves it to possess an audience4 ,each interpretation of so fundamental a work must have its own preoccupations4 ,the ,french interpretations of the seventeenth century had an emphasis different from that of the ,italian of the sixteenth2 and we in turn must see with our own eyes4 ,but the correction that therefore becomes necessary1 lest we make ,aristotle say what we wish1 lies in the text itself4 ,fortunately the ,poetic is short enough to be read attentively in two hours2 and its terms1 though translated somewhat variously1 sometimes imperfectly1 now and then perversely1 really demand not so much erudition as patience1 attention to the context1 and some acquaintance with the processes of art4 ,the ,poetic should be read consecutively as a whole and then scrutinized in its parts4 ,interrupted though it is here and there1 in some few places even fragmentary1 it nevertheless progresses as a whole4#d ,as to its terms1 the best precaution is to remember that they mean to express the processes of actual composition and the results of the actual representation of drama or of the actual recitation of epic4 ,in this sense the book is practical4 ,it is not1 as ,bywater implies1#e the less theoretical2 but it deals with the composing as well as with the thing composed4 ,that ,aristotle's survey of human expression included a ,poetic as well as a ,rhetoric is our chief witness to a division#f oftener implied in ancient criticism than stated explicitly4 ,rhetoric meant to the ancient world the art of instructing and moving men in their affairs2 poetic the art of sharpening and expanding their vision4 ,to borrow a ,french phrase1#g the one is composition of ideas2 the other1 composition of images4 ,in the one field life is discussed2 in the other it is presented4 ,the type of the one is a public address1 moving us to assent and action2 the type of the other is a play1 showing us in action moving to an end of character4 ,the one argues and urges2 the other represents4 ,though both appeal to imagination1 the method of rhetoric is logical2 the method of poetic1 as well as its detail1 is imaginative4 ,to put the contrast with broad simplicity1 a speech moves by paragraphs2 a play moves by scenes4 ,a paragraph is a logical stage in a progress of ideas2 a scene is an emotional stage in a progress controlled by imagination4 ,both rhetoric and poetic inculcate the art of progress2 but the progress of poetic is distinct in kind4 ,its larger shaping is not controlled by considerations of inventio and dispositio1#h nor its detail by the cadences of the period4#i ,in great part1 though not altogether1 it has its own technic4 ,the technic of drama in ,aristotle's day was already mature and was actively developing4 ,the technic of narrative1 in epic derived from the great example of ,homer1 in 8mime0 and dialogue still experimental1 was less definite4 ,to set forth the whole technic1 the principles of imaginative composition1 in a single survey is the object of ,aristotle's ,poetic4 ,,tabular ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,poetic ,,of ,,aristotle#aj ,the first section moves from definition of poetic in general to the mode of drama 7chapters i-v47 ,chapter ,i4 ,the art of poetry ,a4 is one of the arts that imitate men in action #a4 belonging with instrumental music and dancing ii a4 as using rhythm and melody besides words ,b4 has two typical modes iii #a4 narrative #b4 drama a4 tragedy b4 comedy ,c4 developed historically iv #a4 from the instincts of imitation and rhythm #b4 toward a4 idealizing what men may be 7#a7 as in epic and tragedy b4 satirizing what men are 7#a7 as in lampoons and comedy c4 differentiation of form 7#a7 drama tending toward unity of plot v 7a7 through the successive improvements of schylus and ,sophocles 7#b7 but keeping variety in verse4 ,the second section discusses plot as the mainspring of tragedy 7chapters vi-xviii7 ,,ii4 ,in the mode of drama1 tragedy ,a4 7definition7 is an imitation of an action vi #a4 serious #b4 determinate #c4 in language enhanced by rhythm1 melody1 and song #d4 by action1 not by narrative #e4 issuing in emotional catharsis ,b4 is primarily plot #a4 the subsidiary elements being character1 diction1 thought1 spectacle 7including make-up71 and song #b4 7definition7 ,plot is a course of action planned to move causally from a beginning through a middle to an end vii #c4 ,plot is thus animated a4 not merely by one main person viii b4 but by such consistency 7#a7 as arises from truth1 as distinct from facts ix 7#b7 as is opposed to the episodic 7#c7 as is necessary to the catharsis #d4 ,plot may be complicated by reversal or recognition x a4 arising causally from the plot itself xi b4 and has as a third element emotion and suffering #e4 ,plot is the consistent working out1 in an illustrious personage1 of some human error to its issue a4 ,prologue1 episode1 etc41 are merely formal parts xii b4 ,plot is not mere reversal of fortune in a character altogether good or bad xiii 7#a7 for consistency1 plot should be single1 not divided by reversal to make a 8happy ending0 7a7 as in inferior tragedies 7b7 and in comedy c4 ,plot achieves catharsis by its own consistency xiv 7#a7 not by spectacular means 7#b7 for the effect of fear and pity arises from the clash of motive with circumstance d4 ,plot imposes consistency also on characterization xv 7#a7 generally consistency with 7a7 goodness 7b7 the moral habit of the class 7c7 the received idea of the particular person 7d7 itself2 i4e41 actions must be clearly motivated 7#b7 particularly consistency with the causal weaving of the plot 7a7 excluding the deus ex machina e4 ,plot is the true measure of the various kinds of recognition xvi 7#a7 ,the least artistic is recognition by bodily marks 7#b7 ,no better is mere disclosure 7#c7 ,a third1 by recollection1 arises from some incident in the plot 7#d7 ,a fourth is through the inference of the person 7#e7 ,but the best of all is that which arises causally from the course of the action #f4 ,plot1 in the actual process of playwriting a4 demands a habit of visualizing xvii 7#a7 furthered by the dramatist's acting out of his own scenes b4 begins in the dramatist's mind with a scenario 7#a7 for the amplifying incidents must be fewer than in epic c4 is worked out as complication and solution xviii 7#a7 ,this is the technical point in which tragedies are similar or dissimilar 7#b7 ,the four typical kinds of tragedy1 i4e41 7a7 those that depend mainly on reversal and recognition1 7b7 on emotion1 7c7 on character1 7d7 on spectacle1 show the four elements of interest which the dramatist should seek to combine d4 precludes the extensiveness of epic e4 involves making the chorus one of the actors 7#a7 not a mere singer of interludes ,c4 ,the subsidiary element of thought1 the rhetorical element in tragedy1 includes the effects produced directly by persuasive speech1 as distinct from those produced by action xix ,d4 ,the subsidiary element of diction1 to set aside what belongs under delivery1 includes letters1 syllables1 connectives1 nouns and verbs 7with their inflection71 and word-combinations xx #a4 ,words may be classified as xxi a4 single or double b4 ordinary or extraordinary 7figurative1 coined1 etc47 c4 masculine or feminine #b4 ,virtue in the choice of words consists in being clear without being colorless xxii a4 ,though extreme or habitual deviation from ordinary use is a fault1 occasional deviation is necessary to distinction b4 ,though it is a great thing to use variations of diction with propriety1 the greatest thing is to be master of metaphor4 ,the third section defines epic and compares it with tragedy 7chapters xxiii-xxvi74 ,,iii4 ,in the mode of narrative1 epic ,a4 has some general likeness to tragedy xxiii #a4 in that its component stories should be single1 complete1 having beginning1 middle1 and end a4 giving the pleasure of a living whole b4 not following the method of history 7#a7 as inferior poets do1 but not ,homer #b4 in that it may be simple or complex1 emphasize either character or emotion1 and has some of the same elements as tragedy xxiv ,b4 differs in length and in meter #a4 ,its characteristic advantages are scope and variety #b4 ,the respective meters are the result of experience in appropriateness ,c4 shows in ,homer the superiority of making the characters reveal themselves without explanation ,d4 can make freer use of the marvelous #a4 by vividness of description #b4 from the fact that the causal sense is weaker in reading or merely listening than in witnessing stage representation ,e4 may be defended against the typical charges that it is impossible1 improbable1 corrupting1 contradictory1 or artistically incorrect xxv ,f4 is inferior to tragedy xxvi #a4 ,the charge that tragedy is more vulgar and exaggerated applies not to tragedy1 but to acting #b4 ,it has fewer elements of appeal a4 lacking music and spectacle #c4 ,it is less vivid than tragedy read much less than tragedy acted #d4 ,it is less concentrated and so less intense a4 lacking dramatic unity4 ,i ,the principle of poetic art is imitation4 ,its two kinds are drama in several forms and that other kind which ranges from epic to dialogue and which has no single generic name4 ,all its forms in both kinds--tragedy1 comedy1 dithyramb in the one2 epic1 mime1 dialogue in the other--are grouped with the arts of the flute1 the lyre1 and the dance1 and apart from those of painting and singing4 ,thus begins ,aristotle's ,poetic with that chapter of definition which1 as in the ,rhetoric1 opens and illuminates the whole subject4 ,as to poetic art#aa ,i propose to discuss what it is in itself and in the capacity of each of its species1 how plots must be organized if the poem is to succeed1 furthermore the number and nature of the parts1 and similarly whatever else falls within the same inquiry1 beginning systematically with first principles4#ab ,epic and tragedy1 comedy also and the dramatic#ac art of the dithyramb1 and most of the art of the flute and of the lyre are all1 taken together1 imitations4 ,they differ one from another in three respects3 in the means of imitation1 in the object1 or in the mode i4e41 all are essentially imitation2 in imitation they are generally alike1 and in imitation they are specifically different4 ,for as there are those who by colors and outlines imitate various objects in their portrayals1 whether by art or by practise1 and others who imitate through the voice1 so also in the arts mentioned above4 ,all these make their imitation by rhythm1 by language1 and by music1 whether singly or in combination4 ,thus only rhythm and music are used in the art of the flute1 of the lyre1 and in such other arts1 similar in capacity1 as that of the pipes4 ,rhythm itself1 without music1 suffices for the art of the dancers2 for by ordered rhythms they imitate both character and emotion and action i4e41 dancing compasses the whole scope of representation4 ,words alone1 whether prose or verse of whatever kind1 are used by an art which is to this day without a name4 ,we have no common name for the mime of ,sophron or ,xenarchus and the ,socratic dialogue4 ,nor should we have one if the imitation were in trimeters or elegiacs or some other kind of verse4444 ,for it is not verse1 ,aristotle goes on to say1 that makes poetry1 but imitation4 ,so much for differentiation4 ,there are some arts that use all the means mentioned above1 i4e41 rhythm1 music1 and verse1 e4g41 dithyrambic and nomic poetry and also both tragedy and comedy2 but they differ in that the first two use all the means in combination1 whereas the latter use now one1 now another4 ,therefore ,i differentiate these arts by their respective means of imitation4 ,to proceed surely from this opening chapter1 it is evidently necessary to grasp what ,aristotle means first by imitation1 secondly by that nameless art which uses only words1 thirdly by classifying the art of poetry with that of music and that of the dance4 ,by imitation ,aristotle means just what the word means most simply and usually1 but also and more largely the following of the ways of human nature1 the representation or the suggestion of men's characters1 emotions1 and actions4#ad ,at its lowest1 imitation is mimicry2 at its highest1 creation4 ,the latter is often implied in the ,greek word poetic4#ae ,poetic is one of the fine arts4 ,by whatever means1 in whatever forms1 it is a direct showing of life1 as distinct from any account of life through experiment or reasoning4 ,the artist enhances our impressions of life by the suggestions of music or of story1 the representations of dance or of drama4 ,all these ways are called by ,aristotle imitation because they follow the movements of human life4 ,it is noteworthy that he presents imitation primarily as a constructive or progressive principle4 ,the more obvious imitation achieved by a single phrase1 a single melody1 or a single dance-movement is reserved for later discussion of detail4#af ,the poet is a maker1 as indeed he was called by our ,elizabethans as well as by the ,greeks1 in the sense that he is creative4 ,poet1 poetry1 poetic1 all are used by ,aristotle with this broad implication of creative composition1#ag of 8imitating men in action40 ,secondly1 ,aristotle specifies as kinds of the poetic art tragedy and comedy1 which belong together as drama1 and on the other hand epic1 mime1 dialogue1 which also belong together1 but have no common name4 ,we lack1 he says1 a generic name for those forms of poetic art which1 however various1 are alike in having for their sole means of imitation words4 ,the generic name that ,aristotle desired to cover all prose and all metrical compositions in which the imitation is through words alone is still to seek4 ,yet that the genus is distinct through many varieties of form is even clearer to-day than in his time4 ,the imitation of dancing and of all forms of drama is through representation2 the imitation of music without words is through suggestion4 ,now so is the imitation of words without music4 ,true1 the words in the latter case carry something besides imitation2 they convey ideas2 but in so far as they achieve imitation1 they do so by suggestion1 and it is this suggestive imitation that makes them poetic4 ,what is needed1 then1 is a term to cover all composition in words that proceeds by suggestion4 ,perhaps the nearest term in modern ,english is narrative4 ,using narrative widely enough to include1 as in common modern use it often does include1 dialogue and description1 we have the term that ,aristotle desired4 ,story would serve if it were not often used of the plot of a play or of an account in a newspaper4 ,narrative usually connotes a distinct method4 ,a distinguishing generic term is more important to-day than in the time of ,aristotle4 ,modern authors have developed narrative in directions little explored by the ancients4 ,we have thus a variety of narrative forms which was quite unknown to ,aristotle4 ,still1 through all this variety1 runs what he discerned as a common controlling method1 the method of suggestion4 ,in this fundamental ,gulliver's ,travels and the ,sentimental ,journey and ,the ,lady of the ,lake1 to take examples as different as possible1 belong together2 and together they belong apart from ,othello4 ,thirdly1 what is the significance of grouping all these forms of poetic art with music and dancing8 ,painting1 which even in ,aristotle's day was a fine art1 is mentioned only as an analogy from another group4 ,singing1 or chanting1 also is only mentioned for analogy1 perhaps because it is not creative4 ,architecture may have been omitted as being primarily at that time a useful art2 but sculpture was both a fine art and1 perhaps most obviously of all arts1 imitative4 ,though we need not assume that ,aristotle intended here a comprehensive classification of the arts1 it is clear that he intended to group poetic art with the arts of music and dancing4 ,nor is his principle of division far to seek4 ,clearly he regards poetic as one of the arts of movement in time1 and as distinct from the static arts of line and color1 balance1 mass1 and pose4 ,true1 music and dance entered largely into early ,greek drama and were still present in the drama of ,aristotle's time2 but that fact does not explain the grouping together of 8epic1 tragedy1 comedy1 dithyramb1 flute-playing1 and lyre-playing10 with the later inclusion of dancing4 ,aristotle does not say that these occur together2 and the mention of epic precludes any such interpretation4 ,he says that they are alike4 ,he saw all poetic art1 especially drama1 as primarily an art of movement4 ,what is implied here in the opening chapter is carried out consistently1 in doctrine and in terms1 through the whole book4 ,no one should deny a certain fundamental likeness among all the arts2 but the likeness is not in technic except among those arts which have like 8means0 of expression1 such as 8rhythm1 language1 and music40 ,modern application of terms from architecture and painting to drama and story has spread no little confusion4 ,aristotle will have us think along right lines2 and1 as in his ,rhetoric1 the first chapter is the most important of all4 ,we are to think of poetic composition not as structure1 but as movement4 ,chapter ii differentiates the epic and the tragic art1 which idealize 8men in action0 by seeking higher types of manhood and exhibiting men's aspirations1 from the comic art1 which exaggerates human failings4 ,chapter iii differentiates the two typical modes of poetic imitation as the narrative and the dramatic4 ,chapters iv and v1 starting from the common impulses toward imitation1 toward music1 and toward rhythm1 summarize the history of tragedy and of comedy4 ,the conclusion is that tragedy differs from epic not only in proceeding by representation instead of narrative1 but by being focused on a short period of time1 normally twenty-four hours2 in a word1 by being intensive4 ,thus we arrive at the famous analysis of the essentials and the elements of tragedy4 ,a tragedy1#ah then1 is an imitation of an action that is 7#a7 serious and1 7#b7 as to size1 complete1 7#c7 in language enhanced as may be appropriate to each part1 7#d7 in the form of action1 not of narrative1 7#e7 through pity and fear effecting its catharsis of such emotions4444 ,every tragedy1#ai therefore1 must have six constituents1 according to which we estimate its quality3 plot1 character1 diction1 thought1 spectacle1 and music4 ,the greatest of these is the plan of the actions 7the plot72 for tragedy is an imitation not of men1 but of action and life 444 and the end for which we live is a certain form of action1 not a quality4 ,by their characters men are what they are2 but by their actions they are happy or the reverse4 ,in a play therefore they do not act in order to imitate character2 they include character for the sake of the actions4 ,hence the actions and their plot are the end of tragedy2 and the end is greatest of all4 ,furthermore1 without action there may not be tragedy2 without character there may be4444 ,by stringing together speeches expressive of character and well made as to diction and thought you will not achieve the tragic function4 ,much rather is it achieved by a tragedy which1 however deficient in these1 has plot and plan of actions4 ,besides1 those things by which tragedy moves us most1 scenes of reversal and of discovery1 are parts of the plot4 ,a further proof is that novices in dramaturgy can put a fine point on diction and characterization before they compose deeds2 and it is the same with nearly all the early dramatists4 ,the principle and1 as it were1 the soul of tragedy is plot4 ,second is character4444 ,third#bj is thought1 i4e41 the ability to say what is necessary and appropriate1 which in public address is the function of politics and rhetoric4444 ,characterization is what shows habit of mind4444 ,thought appears in formal reasoning4 ,fourth is diction1 i4e41 the expression of meaning in words1 which is essentially the same in verse as in prose4 ,of the remaining elements1 melody is the greatest of enhancements2 and spectacle1 though moving1 is in general the least artistic and in particular has the least to do with the art of the drama4 ,the history of criticism involved in the successive interpretations of this much discussed section and the following may be postponed4 ,the immediate concern is the meaning of the definition and the division for dramaturgy1 i4e41 for the actual composition of a tragedy and for the analysis of tragedy in terms of composition4 ,aristotle begins with the subject-matter4 ,the theme itself must be tragic1 and is so if it is first serious and secondly complete within its own extent4 ,a playwright considering the possibilities of such-and-such material is to ask first whether it is serious4 ,the ,greek word#ba means not solemn in the sense of sad1 but such as to interest the composer and the audience by its importance4 ,it might be rendered humanly significant4 ,the question1 ,is there drama here8 becomes1 then1 first of all1 ,is there action here that will engage emotional participation8 ,that is the first question2 for it is fundamental4 ,secondly1 is this action dramatically manageable as to extent8 ,will it finish within the time of a drama1 come to its issue1 focus2 or is its interest such as to demand more extensive development in time2 in a word1 is it a drama plot or an epic plot8 ,the epic of 8much-enduring ,odysseus0 demands extent of time2 the tragedy of dipus1 compression of time4 ,complete#bb here means concluded1 i4e41 susceptible1 within dramatic limits1 of a conclusion emotionally satisfying4 ,to be dramatic1 the action must be self-consistent and self-determining4 ,tragedy is characteristically intensive4#bc ,so far our tragedy has no words2 it may even do without them4 ,nevertheless in its higher ranges it expresses itself also through suggestive language4 ,in the third place1 then1 tragedy uses the whole range of 8enhanced utterance10 i4e41 rhythm1 and occasionally music and song4 ,in conception a tragedy must be significant and complete2 in expression it may be variously suggestive4 ,the fourth distinction of tragedy is its characteristic movement1 which is acting1 not narrative4 ,the process of drama is representation2 the process of story is suggestion4 ,drama shows men and women doing2 story tells what they did4 ,that is essentially dramatic1 then1 which is best brought home by actual representation4 ,in this regard imaginative conceptions of human life differ essentially4 ,some are best conveyed by the indirect but abundant suggestions of narrative2 others have their poignancy only through the few direct strokes of visible action4 ,finally1 tragedy is defined by its effect1 the tragic catharsis4 ,tragedy 8through pity and fear achieves its purgation of such emotions40#bd ,it is complete1 then1 not only in action1 but in emotion4 ,emotion is not merely aroused2 it is satisfied2 it is carried through to a release4 ,tragedy is thus thoroughly emotional1 more emotional than any other form of art4 ,it is emotional not incidentally1 but essentially2 for it offers not merely emotional excitement1 but emotional satisfaction4 ,as all art enhances by imitation our impressions of life1 so tragedy reveals our motives and moves us onward through vicarious experience4 ,we yearn toward our fellows moved as we are1 only more deeply2 we fear in some great crisis what obscurely threatens us all day by day2 and we know the inevitable end not with our minds1 but with our awakened hearts4 ,from definition of tragedy by its essential characteristics ,aristotle proceeds to enumeration of its constituents4 ,of these the sine qua non is plot4 ,the insistence on this is so ample and so convincing as hardly to need interpretation4 ,characterization comes second4 ,third is the expression of thought1 as distinct from the expression of emotion or of character4 ,the persons of the play not only reveal their individualities2 they have also occasion to expound or persuade1 and here poetic leans on rhetoric4 ,for drama1 though its movement is imaginative1 though it primarily expresses emotion and character1 cannot dispense with logic4 ,fourth is diction4 ,here again it is noteworthy that ,aristotle puts this fourth1 though tyros1 he says1 can master it before they can manage plot4 ,whether the diction be verse or prose he regards as negligible at this point4 ,with the same brevity he enumerates finally musical and scenic accompaniments4 ,what he enlarges upon is plot and characterization1 and upon plot as the essential and determining factor4 ,these distinctions made1 let us thereupon discuss of what sort the plan of the actions 7the plot7 must be1 since this is both the first and the greatest constituent of tragedy4 ,we have shown tragedy to be imitation of an action complete and whole which has a certain magnitude4 ,though there is such a thing as a whole without any appreciable magnitude1 we mean by a whole that which has beginning1 middle1 and end4 ,a beginning is that which does not itself follow anything by causal necessity1 but after which something else naturally is or comes to be4 ,an end1 on the contrary1 is that which itself naturally follows some other thing1 either by causal necessity or as a rule1 but has nothing following it4 ,a middle is that which follows something as some other thing follows it4 ,plots that are well planned1 therefore1 are such as do not begin or end at haphazard1 but conform to the types just described4#be ,plot1 then1 is what makes a play 8complete and whole02 it is a planned sequence of actions4 ,aristotle's terms connote1 not space and structure1 but time and causal movement4 ,the beginning is the point at which the cause is set in motion2 the end is the result2 the middle is the course from the one to the other4 ,plot is thus a significant course of action determined by permanent impulses2 it imitates1 not the mere surface movements of life1 but its undercurrents4 ,it is not a 8slice of life10 such as the experience of this day or that1 but a course of life1 moving from a 8serious0 crisis of determining emotions1 through actions that carry these emotions out1 to the final action in which they are seen to issue4 ,plot gives us what we often miss in actual experience1 and consequently seek in the vicarious experience of drama1 a sense of progress to completion4 ,experience is interrupted and complicated2 drama moves steadily on a single course4 ,plot is the means by which dramatic art simplifies life1 in order from the facts of life to extract the truth4 ,furthermore1 plot means technically management of a significant course of action within a practicable time4 ,the tragedy must be long enough to show the action as progressive1 yet short enough to be grasped as a single whole4 8,beginning1 end1 middle0 are thus very practical considerations4 ,every playwright considers every plot in this aspect4 ,where is he to take hold in order to make the situation clear8 ,what final action is1 for his conception1 the inevitable end8 ,what are the stages between1 leading one to another1 in which the action will best be seen as a progressive course8 ,without limiting his consideration to the time-rules of the actual dramatic competitions of his day1 ,aristotle seeks the limit determined by the very nature of the act2 the greater1 within the limits of clearness1 the finer by its scope4 ,to define roughly1 that scope is sufficient within which the sequence of events according to probability or necessity may change from ill fortune to good1 or from good to ill4#bf ,what ,aristotle finds necessary is time enough to make the action convincing1 to carry out the dramatic consequences to their conclusion4 ,compressed within too short a time-lapse1 the plot may remain fragmentary2 stretched out too long1 it may sag or trail4 8,beginning1 end1 middle10 then1 constitute a formula for plot4 ,a plot does not gain unity by being1 as some think1 all about one person4444 ,for as in the other imitative arts1 the imitation is unified by being of one thing1 so also the plot1 since it is an imitation of an action1 must be the imitation of an action which is one and entire and whose parts are so composed of acts that the transposition or omission of any part would disjoin and dislocate the whole ,that1 indeed is what we mean by a part2 for a thing whose presence or absence makes no visible difference is no part of the whole4 ,from what has now been said it is plain that the function of a poet is this1 to tell not the things that have happened1 but such things as may happen1 things possible as being probable or necessary4 ,the historian and the poet differ not by writing in verse or in prose4 ,the work of ,herodotus might be put into verse1 and none the less it would be history1 with verse or without4 ,no1 the difference is in this1 that the one tells the things that have happened2 the other1 such things as may happen4#bg ,consistency of plot1 consistency of characterization also1 as ,aristotle goes on to show1 imply that the poet interprets4 ,he is not merely a recorder4 ,the acts 77 of his person are not statistics2 they are parts of the consistent presentation of a single whole4 ,every one of them1 quite differently from the acts of real life1 is seen to be significant4 ,in thus including the significant and excluding the insignificant1 the poet interprets according to his conception of the springs of action4 ,he simplifies life according to his view of causes and motives1 8according to probability or necessity40 ,in this the poet differs from the historian more generally4 ,tragedy is true to life not by rehearsing what men have done1 but by revealing in significant action what men do1 what they must do1 being the men that the dramatist shows them to be4 ,history records a man's deeds1 and reasons from this evidence2 drama directly represents the doer doing what he should do 8according to probability or necessity40 ,plot1 then1 implies actions shaped to a unifying consistency4 ,it imitates life3 but it imitates by creative interpretation4 ,therefore poetry is something more philosophical and more serious than history2 for poetry speaks rather in universals1 history in singulars4 ,by universal ,i mean what such or such a man will say or do according to probability or necessity4444 ,it is evident from these considerations that the poet must be rather a poet of plots than of verses4 ,he is a poet by virtue of imitation2 and what he imitates are actions4 ,even if he chance to make#bh history1 none the less for that is he a poet2 for nothing hinders some historical events from being just what they should be according to probability or possibility1 and it is only in that aspect of them that he is their poet4#bi ,that dramatic composition is thus primarily the devising of a convincing sequence is seen conversely when the sequence is defective4 ,of all plots and actions the episodic are the worst4 ,by an episodic plot ,i mean one in which the sequence of the episodes is not determined by probability or necessity4 ,actions of this sort are composed by bad poets through their own fault1 and by good ones on account of the players2 for as they compose for competitive presentation1 and stretch a plot beyond its capacity1 they are often compelled to twist the sequence4#cj ,the essential dramatic force1 then1 is sequence1 steady onward movement to a convincing issue4 ,scenes merely episodic1 however vivid or clever each may be in itself1 weaken this essential force4 ,the episodic fault1 whether it arise from weakness in the composer or from an actor's insistence on having a 8part0 to suit himself rather than to suit the play1 makes the worst plays because it is a fault at the source4 ,finally on cogency of plot depend the tragic pity and fear4 ,the catharsis depends on our feeling the issue to be inevitable4 ,unexpected to the actors it may be1 and most strikingly2 but it cannot be fortuitous4 ,while it is surprising to them1 it must be satisfying to us as the outcome of their action4 ,considering the imitation as not only of a complete action1 but also of events arousing fear and pity1 we find these too at their height when they are at once unexpected by the dramatis person and consequential4 ,for so we shall be more struck than by what happens of itself or by chance4#ca 8,reversal#cb0 or 8recognition10#cc ,aristotle goes on in chapters x and xi1 if the plot is so far complicated1 must arise from the plot itself1 not be merely added4 ,two parts of the plot1 then1 reversal and discovery1 are such as has been shown2 a third is actual suffering 444 action destructive or painful1 such as deaths on the stage1 tortures1 wounds1 and the like4#cd ,this latter passage is tantalizingly brief4 ,so far as the context shows1 suffering is used here to denote single scenes of unusually violent action4 ,why should such a scene be called a 8part of the plot08 ,the word is used generally--and in the plural it is used repeatedly throughout the earlier chapters of this work--to mean emotion4 ,emotion is not a part of the plot in the sense that reversal or recognition may be a part4 ,rather it is a pervasive principle and an object4 ,suffering1 to translate the singular noun so1 may be regarded as a part of the plot in the sense that it may be an element of tragedy4 ,so taking it1 we may suppose ,aristotle to countenance here such scenes of violence as were more familiar on the ,elizabethan stage than on the ,greek4#ce ,at any rate1 ,aristotle here inserts a chapter#cf on the formal parts 7prologue1 episode1 exodus1 etc471 before proceeding with the methods by which the plot may be worked out4 ,chapter xiii insists that the vital principle of plot is causal consistency4 ,this rules out mere reversal4 ,a turning-point 77 is1 indeed1 characteristic of drama4 ,there is usually and typically a crisis1 in which the hero's fortunes turn from good to bad2 but this reversal will not suffice by itself4 ,the mere turn of fortune does not achieve the catharsis of pity and fear4 ,there remains1 then1 the hero between the typically virtuous man and the typically depraved1 a man neither exceptional in virtue and righteousness nor falling into adversity by vice and depravity1 but by some error1 a man among those who live in renown and prosperity1 such as dipus or ,thyestes or other illustrious men of such families4 ,the perfect tragic plot1 therefore1 must be single1 not1 as some say1 double2#cg the change of fortune not from adversity to prosperity1 but on the contrary from prosperity to adversity2 not through depravity1 but through great error on the part of a man either such as we have described or rather better than worse4#ch ,why this insistence on character in the midst of the discussion of plot8 ,why the iteration of 8not through depravity1 but through error08 ,because1 as ,aristotle shows below1#ci plot implies consistency of characterization1 but more fundamentally because consistency of plot has for its very beginning and mainspring the realization of a central figure like ourselves progressively winning our sympathy4 ,the essence of plot is motivation4 ,what moves us is never mere luck1 never mere surprise1 but the causation that springs from human will4 ,consistency of plot means clear causation2 and causation in drama is the working of will4 ,so the first consideration is the title rle1 the main 8part40 ,he or she should be illustrious because the action is thereby conspicuous and partly known in advance2 but his course of action must be moved by springs that we feel in ourselves4 ,macbeth is a warrior of an elder day and a king2 but we1 though neither warriors nor kings1 feel the perversion of his manhood as like enough to our own to purify us through pity and fear4 ,fear and pity may1 indeed1 be aroused by mere spectacle1 but they may also be aroused from the very plan of the actions1#dj and the latter is superior and shows a better dramatist4 ,this is the second consideration of consistency4 ,first1 the best tragedy springs from a great personal will gone wrong2 secondly1 it springs from a compelling progress of actions1 from the plot itself4 ,it depends not on the shock of this violent deed or that1 but on the causal movement of the whole4 ,character is discussed in chapter xv as a distinct topic1 but still with reference to plot4 ,for throughout this section1 especially from chapter xiii on1 the topic is consistency4#da ,consistency1 though it refers primarily to plot1 must also include characterization4 ,in general1 characterization must be consistent with the morality of the individual purpose1 with the moral habit of the social group1 with the received idea of the person1 and finally with itself4#db ,in particular1 it is necessary in the characters1 as in the plan of the actions1 to seek always the inevitable or the probable1 so that the saying or doing of such-and-such things by such-and-such a person1 just as the happening of this event after that1 shall be inevitable or probable4 ,evidently1 therefore1 the solutions also as well as the complications of plots must come about from the plot itself1 and not1 as in the ,medea 444 by the deus ex machina4#dc ,in a word1 consistency of characterization is part of the causal weaving of the plot4 ,chapter xvi applies the principle of consistency to 8recognitions10 or 8discoveries40#dd ,best discovery of all1 however1 is that which arises from the actions themselves1 when the surprise comes as a natural result1 as in the dipus of ,sophocles and in the ,iphigenia4#de ,chapters xvii and xviii turn to the actual processes of dramaturgy1 to the work of the playwright4 ,this is concerned mainly with plot2 but first ,aristotle urges the fundamental necessity of visualizing4 ,one must compose plots and work them out in the 8lines0 by putting the scenes before his eyes 444 and as far as possible by acting out1 even with the gestures4#df444 ,his stories1 whether already made or of his own making1 he must first set out in general 7i4e41 make a scenario71 then put in the incidents and carry out4#dg444 ,every tragedy has both complication and solution1 the events that precede the opening scene and often some of those within the play constituting the complication1 and the rest the solution4 ,by complication ,i mean all from the beginning to that scene which is just before the change in the hero's fortunes2 by solution1 all from the beginning of the change to the end of the play4#dh444 ,it is necessary to remember what ,i have said often and not make a tragedy an epic system--by epic ,i mean aggregative--as if one should dramatize the whole story of the ,iliad4#di444 ,the chorus too should be regarded as one of the actors1 be a part of the whole and share in the action1 be not as in ,euripides1 but as in ,sophocles4#ej ,visualizing actively at every stage1 the playwright is to compose his plot before he works out his lines4 ,he is to determine his play by the method of solution1 to avoid the extensiveness of epic1 and to make even the chorus contributory to the plot4 ,the bearing of the meager observations on the logical element and on diction 7xix-xxii7 will be clear from the tabular view4#ea ,they are not distinctive except in the saying 8the greatest is the being metaphorical02#eb and they have surprisingly little on dramatic rhythms4 ,the third section of the ,poetic 7xxiii-xxvi7 defines epic and compares it with tragedy4 ,as to metrical narrative1 its plots severally should have the movement of drama in focusing on an action whole and complete with beginning1 middle1 and end1 that each may give its proper pleasure as an organic unity1 and not be composed as history1 which has to exhibit not a single action1 but a single time1 whatever chanced to happen in this period to one person or to more4#ec ,the general likeness of epic to drama1 then1 is in interpretative focus1 as distinct from the chronicle method of history4 ,story1 as well as drama1 selects in order to unify4 ,moreover 7xxiv7 story1 too1 as well as drama1 has its crises1 its recognitions1 its emotional outbursts4 ,the epic poet1 if he have something of ,homer's skill1 can make his characters express themselves without intruding his explanations4 ,these are general likenesses throughout the whole poetic field4 ,for characteristic differences1 epic has the advantages of scope and variety4 ,it gains from the marvelous1 which can generally be suggested better than it can be represented4#ed ,these points are as significant to-day as in the time of ,aristotle4 ,not so the defense 7xxv7 of epic against certain typical objections which smack more of the schoolmaster than of the critic4 ,to argue whether a given epic story were possible or probable or promotive of good morals was in fact one of the regular elementary exercises of the later schools4 ,the closing exaltation of drama over epic#ee is summary1 indeed2 but that is natural1 since the points1 having been made before1 are here simply reviewed comparatively4 ,the idea of intensity through unity is a logical conclusion of the ,poetic as a whole4 ,,ii ,from ,aristotle's introductory grouping of drama with music and dance1 throughout his long discussion of plot1 runs the idea of movement4 ,the dramatic mode of imitation is to set human life in motion before us and to heighten our sense of living by carrying it through to a significant issue4 ,has this idea animated other drama than the ,greek8 ,is its vitality shown by its permanence8 ,is it essential8 ,as all art heightens our impressions of life and our sense of living1 so the art of the dramatist in particular heightens and extends our sense of human life by vicarious experience4 ,its object is to make us feel human experience more widely and more intensely4 ,all the technic of the stage1 whether ancient or modern1 whether simple or elaborate1 has for its main object this sort of creative imitation4 ,the dramatist tries to induce and to hold the illusion of actual experience4 ,in so far as he succeeds1 we forget that we are in the theater2 we imagine that we are seeing a reality more real than we can piece out of our fragmentary glimpses at men and women2 and in his greatest successes we almost pass from spectators to actors4 ,toward this result how important is ,aristotle's idea of movement1 his doctrine that plot is a progressive synthesis of actions1 unified but never static8 ,those who have superficially thought of ,greek drama as static1 who may even have pictured it as statuesque1 can hardly have studied the great play of ,sophocles that ,aristotle offers as an example1 dipus the ,king4 ,laius1 ,king of ,thebes1 and his wife ,jocasta cast out their infant son dipus to die4 ,but the shepherd commissioned to do away the child gave it instead to a stranger1 who carried it to ,corinth4 ,there the little dipus1 fostered by a ,corinthian couple1 was brought up as their son4 ,in the strength of his manhood setting forth to make his own way1 he met in a narrow pass another traveler who haughtily bade him yield passage4 ,the dispute warmed to blows4 dipus killed him4 ,it was his own father ,laius4 ,proceeding to ,thebes1 dipus found the throne vacant and the city in terror of the monster ,sphinx4 ,he silenced the ,sphinx1 and1 hailed by the people as their deliverer1 he became their king and married the widowed queen ,jocasta1 his own mother4 ,but ,apollo having in time sent a pestilence upon ,thebes1 dipus was besought by the people to be once more their savior4 ,his emissary to the oracle1 ,creon his brother-in-law1 brought back word that ,thebes must put away the unclean person who had slain ,laius4 ,by searching investigation dipus discovered that he himself was the pollution1 that he had slain his own father and married his own mother1 that not only he but his children were accursed1 that the outlawry which he had invoked upon the guilty fell upon his own head4 ,thereupon he put out his eyes in an agony of horror1 after ,jocasta had killed herself1 and groped his way from ,thebes led by his wretched daughters4 ,this is the legend4 ,its events extend over many years4 ,which of them shall be chosen for the stage as having most dramatic value8 ,which to an audience can be made most significant2 and how shall these vital scenes be arranged in such continuous and progressive movement as will convey1 and at the same time enhance1 our sense of the movement of life8 ,sophocles with his own dramatic skill1 but in the form typical of all the best ,greek tragedy1 arranged his whole action within the compass of its last poignant hours4 ,omitting nothing that is emotionally essential1 nothing that is essential to clear understanding1 he yet relegated some events to the background in order to represent fully the great crisis4 ,he gathers together the whole visible action into an hour and a half on the stage and a half-dozen persons2 and in this brief compass he unfolds that action with increasing intensity by making every scene move from the last and to the next1 on to the awful close4 ,the ,theban people1 represented by the chorus supplicating their savior king1 rehearses his great achievements for their deliverance4 dipus in the strong confidence of his power and his mission stands before his palace like a god4 ,at the end of the play he is led slowly from that palace a broken man4 ,but the composition of the play is not mere reversal for contrast4 ,between the first scene and the last1 action moves without haste1 but without delay or interruption4 ,the vigorous and self-reliant king chafes at the cryptic response brought from the oracle by ,creon2 he is indignant1 then furious1 at the tragic silence of the seer ,tiresias4 ,his quick intelligence scents a plot between the two4 ,breaking through the interposition of ,jocasta1 he wins from her false hopes while he gives her no less unwittingly the premonition of doom4 ,once suspecting1 however darkly1 he must know1 he will know1 he knows a dreadful part1 he knows more1 he knows all4 ,so this great play1 though it is focused on a single day1 though it excludes all the past history and the development of character1 is never static4 ,it is never for a moment tableau4 ,because of its compression it moves not less1 but more4 ,for that is why ,aristotle insists that the dramatic action should be self-consistent1 limited in scope4 ,the object of dramatic unity is not bareness1 but fulness and continuity4 ,it is to give time for full and intense realization of what actual life merely hints interruptedly4 ,it is to give us human life undisturbed and uninterrupted1 so that we may see it clearly and whole4 ,we are to have the illusion of actual experience1 yes1 but of larger and deeper experience than we can get from the mere reproduction of facts or from the cross-currents of life itself4 ,like every other art1 drama is a simplification of life because it is an interpretation4 ,the dramatic simplification is seen by ,aristotle to consist essentially in moving from revealing crisis to revealing crisis up to a final revelation4 ,it excludes all the accidental and the irrelevant that embarrass our actual movements2 it tells what has happened through what is happening2 it cuts to the quick4 ,it takes those moments only in which a man is himself1 suppressing those in which he is indistinguishable from other men4 ,but it does not leap or halt between2 it brings out our real sequences4 ,it reveals life to us by showing the emotional connection of its great moments4 ,that such dramatic unity became sometimes a bondage in seventeenth-century ,french classical drama was due not to any defect of the ,aristotelian principle1 but partly to making the practise too rigidly a code1 and still more to stiffening the movement into tableau4 ,the classical ,french application of the principle of dramatic unity is not1 as has often been pointed out1 altogether ,aristotelian4 ,least of all is it ,aristotelian when it hinders dramatic movement4 ,french classical tragedy when it is cold--and to think of it as generally cold is a prejudice--is static2 it is feeble in movement4 ,the free movement1 not to say the loose movement1 of ,elizabethan plays1 which was hailed by ,hugo and other ,romanticists as a deliverance from the classical code1 is indeed better than tableau2 but it is compatible with bad playwriting4 ,he would be rash who should assert that ,elizabethan plays are in general more effective dramatically than ,french classical plays4 ,rather1 since the two traditions bring out different dramatic values1 each has something to learn from the other4 ,but it is plain that the progress of the ,elizabethans in dramaturgy was in the direction of unity1 of more highly organized movement4 ,to see this we need go no farther than ,shakspere4 ,the difference between his earlier plays and ,othello is largely a difference in unification4 ,othello by itself is sufficient proof of the value of dramatic unity for dramatic intensity4 ,and with or without unity1 with the ,greek and the ,french focus of time or the ,elizabethan lapse of years1 drama demands movement from scene to scene4 ,the value of unity is only to heighten this sense of movement4 ,drama1 of course1 has its differences of age and of race4 ,we are not to think that at its best it must always be ,greek4 ,one of the large differences between ancient drama and modern is1 indeed1 a difference of emphasis4 ,ancient drama relies more on plot1 modern drama on characterization4 ,the ancient playwright had above all1 for his theater1 to realize the emotional values of a situation by seeing that his play was well put together2 the modern playwright has sometimes1 in a theatre giving opportunity for facial expression1 relied far more on realizing his persons1 on writing what the actor calls a good part4 ,nevertheless1 though playwriting does not always need the compactness of ,greek form1 many modern plays have chosen this compactness1 this closely organized movement1 for intensity4#ef ,undoubtedly such dramatic composition demands of the playwright definiteness of interpretation4 ,his selection1 his limiting of time and place1 his leading from scene to scene1 are only the technical means of realizing his emotional intention4 ,he is trying to show us human life1 not in random and interrupted glimpses1 not in the jumble and discord of its surface1 not in aimless and frustrated movements1 but in the animating emotions of its crises4 ,in order to represent crises1 he is compelled to show us wherein they are critical2 in order to give to emotion full expression1 he must make it significant4 ,rather it is this significance which first caught his attention1 which gave him the conception of his play and guided his realization4 ,if his dramatic movement halts or lapses1 the reason may lie deeper than technic in uncertainty of intention2 and if on the other hand he is able to sustain it and carry it through1 the fundamental reason is that his conception of its issue is strong and clear4#eg ,this presumption has more than once been challenged4 ,why must the dramatist have an intention1 a theme8 ,why may he not simply represent life8 ,represent life he not only may1 but must1 to the extent that he must reflect life1 not reflect on it2 but what is represented8 ,life in its multitudinous complexity1 its unfulfilled intentions1 life as it whirls past and escapes us8 ,that is a task beyond drama4 ,no playwright has ever represented life except as he saw it1 or made his representation intelligible without interpretation4 ,and as the dramatist has to interpret in order to compose1 so the audience wishes to be led up to some issue4 ,we desire not mere emotional excitement1 but emotional release4 ,else the pity and fear1 to use ,aristotle's words1 will not bring us purgation4 ,a play shows us life in critical moments1 and these are moral moments1 moments of the clash of wills4 ,drama assumes free will1 and its movement is by motives4 ,motivation1 on which ,aristotle so much insist1 is to make the issue convincing4 ,the dramatic representation of life is creative imitation largely in proportion as it thus moves to an end2 and the typically dramatic end is not blind fate1 but poetic justice4 ,poetic justice sums up what ,aristotle means by saying that 8poetry is something more philosophical and more serious than history40 ,it means the truth revealed beneath facts1 the real cause and effect moving beneath the surface4 ,an audience1 desiring deeper emotional experience than it achieves through daily observation1 desires especially to see how its sharper conflicts issue4 ,it asks of the dramatist not only sight1 but insight4 ,it is not satisfied with 8mere reversal40 8,the mere spectacle of a virtuous man brought from prosperity to adversity moves neither pity nor fear2 it merely shocks us40 ,the same criticism is implied in ,stevenson's objection to ,meredith's ,richard ,feverel1 that it 8began to end well0 and then cheated us4 ,the convincing close1 expressing the playwright's intention and resulting from the whole course of action1 is thus a fair measure of what used to be called problem plays4 ,it measures how far they are in ,aristotle's sense serious1 how far they are penetrative and significant1 in a word how far they are tragic4 ,each disclosure1 each critical scene of the dramatic progress1 having its full emotional value separately and for itself1 leads on to the next4 ,such planning for momentum is not only ,aristotelian2 it is permanently dramatic4 ,creative imitation of human life1 thus moving us along that course of actions which is both the means and the measure of creative power1 makes drama of all the arts most poignant4 ,whether it is1 as it has always seemed to its devotees1 the highest form of poetic1 at least its appeal is at once the largest and the most direct4 ,in the very persons of men and women it speaks to us by face and gesture1 by the message1 the imagery1 and the rhythm of words1 most of all by the order of its actions4 ,plato1 indeed1 would have us draw from this the moral that our own lives should be ordered poetically1 that is creatively1 that we should control and direct our lives to harmonious movement4 ,for we are ourselves according to our power poets of a tragedy at once fairest and best4 ,every social order#eh becomes for us an artistic creation#ei of the fairest and best life1 which we say to be essentially the truest tragedy4#fj ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,the best recent editions of the ,poetic for ,english readers are3 7#a7 ,s4 ,h4 ,butcher1 ,aristotle's ,theory of ,poetry and ,fine ,art1 text1 translation1 notes1 essays1 ,london1 #ahie1 #dth edition1 #aiaa 7text with translation issued separately72 7#b7 ,ingram ,bywater1 ,aristotle on the ,art of ,poetry1 text1 translation1 introduction1 commentary1 ,oxford1 #aiji4 ,for other translations and for a select bibliography see ,butcher4 ,lane ,cooper has added to his 8amplified version with supplementary illustrations for students of ,english10 ,boston1 #aiac1 an essay 7#aibc7 on ,meaning and ,influence4 #b ,reconstruction in ,philosophy1 ,new ,york1 #aibj1 chapter iii4 #c ,l'volution cratrice1 chapter i4 #d ,i say this without forgetting that the ,poetic as we have it is probably but a part4 ,if a part1 it is still self-consistent1 as ,i have tried to show in the tabular view below4 #e viii1 #bjf1 #bcb4 #f ,see ,chapter i4 #g ,see page #d4 #h ,see page #db4 #i ,see page #bg4 #aj ,this analysis is intended to supplement1 and in some cases to emend1 the outlines of ,butcher and of ,bywater by bringing out the significance of the parts in relation4 #aa 4 ,the adjective means generally active1 productive1 creative1 efficiens1 as commonly in ,aristotle's philosophy1 in ,dionysius and ,demetrius1 and in ,plotinus4 ,specially it means poetic1 as of diction4 ,the noun 7with understood7 includes all imaginative composition in words4 #ab ,bywater 7page vii71 protesting against too generalizing interpretations1 goes to the other extreme of undue restriction4 ,that the treatment is philosophical and intends to suggest large inferences appears from both its plan and its language4 ,certainly the ,poetic is technical2 but no less certainly it is theoretical4 #ac ,the interpretation of ,bywater4 #ad 1 #addg a1 where ,aristotle is speaking of dancing4 #ae ,see foot-note #aa above4 #af ,in ,chapter ix1 #adea b1 ,aristotle says3 8,it is evident from the above that the poet should be rather the poet of his plots than of his verses1 inasmuch as he is a poet by virtue of his imitation1 and it is actions that he imitates40 #ag ,butcher 7pages #aaj-abd7 in pointing out that the ,greek phrase for the fine arts is imitative arts 7 or 71 says that ,aristotle applies it specifically only to poetry and music4 ,in this opening chapter of the ,poetic he evidently means to include dancing4 ,that ,aristotle had no thought of 8bare imitation10 of that reproductive copying which ,ruskin confused with artistic truth1 has been remarked also by other critics4 ,butcher adds suggestively1 though not with strict reference to the text1 that to imitate nature was for ,aristotle not to evoke the mere background which romanticism has taught us to spell with a capital ,n1 but to work in nature's ways4 ,nature 77 in ,aristotle is not the sensible world1 but 8the creative force1 the productive principle40 ,so the immediate objects of poetic imitation are human characters1 emotions1 and actions1 not as objective phenomena1 but as expressions of human will4 8,the common original10 ,butcher concludes1 8is human life 444 essential activity of the soul40 ,though this is true to the underlying idea of the ,poetic1 ,aristotle does not use any single phrase corresponding to 8imitation of nature40 #ah #addi b4 #ai #adej a4 #bj #adej b4 #ba 1 which of persons means earnest2 of things1 what we mean by serious in such phrases as a serious proposal and serious consideration4 #bb ,bywater makes one item1 8as having magnitude1 complete in itself40 ,butcher makes two items1 8complete1 and of a certain magnitude40 ,the former seems closer to the ,greek text and1 on the whole1 more consistent with the context2 but both renderings give much the same meaning ultimately4 #bc ,the distinction has lately been pointed by ,mr4 ,hardy's ,dynasts4 ,this1 whatever else may be thought of it1 is not 8complete as to size10 but indeterminate4 ,doubtless that is why it is styled an 8epic-drama40 ,certainly1 for all its 8enhanced utterance0 and occasionally striking dialogue1 it is not1 by any definition1 a drama4 #bd ,bywater1 pages #aeb-afa1 has discussed this phrase amply1 and in an appendix1 #cfa-cfe1 has compiled with their dates the successive critical translations4 #be vii4 #adej b4 #bf #adea a4 #bg viii-ix1 #adea a-#adea b4 #bh ,the verb here translated make corresponds to the noun poet4 ,the insistence brought about by the repetition will be made clear by rendering the words italicized creator and create1 or1 to revive an older use1 maker and make4 #bi ix4 #adea b4 #cj ix4 #adea b4 #ca ix4 #adeb a4 #cb 4 #cc 4 #cd xi4 #adeb b4 #ce ,both ,butcher and ,bywater so interpret2 but ,butcher's rendering 8tragic incident0 seems hardly to meet the context4 ,bywater's rendering 8suffering0 seems preferable if we may venture to interpret it as meaning1 more generally than ,bywater suggests1 the working out of the plot to its full emotional expression4 ,so taken1 it corresponds to the climax of pity and fear1 as 8reversal0 and 8recognition0 correspond to the preceding complication4 #cf xii4 #adeb b4 ,this has been challenged as an interpolation4 ,it is at least meager and1 as it were1 impatient1 as is the corresponding section in the ,rhetoric 7,,iii4 xiii4 #adad b7 on the formal parts of an oration4 #cg 4 ,the context seems to show that this means divided in interest and issue1 insufficiently focused4 ,aristotle does not mean that the plot should not be complicated2 for at the opening of this chapter he says that the plot of the perfect tragedy is not simple1 but complicated 7 74 ,what he adds here is that the complication should not be such as to divide our sympathy4 ,the plot should not1 indeed1 be simple2 but it should be single4 #ch xiii4 #adec a4 #ci xv4 #dj xiv4 #adec b4 4 #da ,see the tabular view1 page #acf4 #db ,i follow ,bywater's note1 pages #bbg-bbh4 #dc #aded b4 #dd 4 #aded b4 8,this and the next two chapters form a sort of ,appendix2 they discuss a series of special points and rules of construction which had been omitted in the sketch of the general theory of the 40 ,bywater1 page #bcc4 ,i am not convinced of an interruption here4 ,what seems to me the bearing of this chapter and the following on the discussion of consistency from ,chapter xiii on is indicated in the tabular view on page #acf4 #de #adee a4 #df xvii4 #adee a4 #dg xvii4 #adee b4 #dh xviii4 #adee b4 #di xviii4 #adef a4 #ej xviii4 #adef a4 #ea ,page #ach4 ,as to whether xx is an interpolation1 see ,bywater4 #eb xxii4 #adei a4 #ec xxiii4 #adei a4 #ed ,a most striking exemplification of this is ,paradise ,lost4 #ee ,sainte-,beuve1 tude sur ,virgile1 vii4 page #aea1 disputes the superiority of drama to epic4 #ef ,the most familiar instances are certain plays of ,ibsen4 ,of plays recently on the stage1 ,bernstein's ,voleur1 ,mirbeau's ,les affaires sont les affaires1 ,besier's ,don1 ,kenyon's ,kindling1 show that this type of dramatic movement is not confined to any particular school4 ,of plays that on the contrary dispense with this and rely mainly on characterization the most familiar to ,americans is the dramatization of ,rip ,van ,winkle used by ,joseph ,jefferson4 #eg ,the paragraph is adapted from the author's ,college ,composition1 page #bdh4 #eh 4 #ei 4 #fj ,laws #hag b2 quoted by ,bywater on ,aristotle's ,poetic1 #adej a4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,poetic ,,in ,,ancient ,,drama ,,and ,,narrative ,the classical practise of poetic in the two modes distinguished by ,aristotle1 dramatic and narrative1 has a twofold significance4 ,it has the claim of all great art for its own beauty2 and it reveals certain fundamentals of literary form and literary influence4 ,classical influences on later art have been defined sometimes vaguely1 sometimes amiss1 for lack of clear grasp of classical practise4 ,yet the vitality of classical poetic art is hardly more proverbial than its definiteness4 ,without circumscribing in formulas its creative variety1 we can discern quite clearly its artistic habits in these two enduring modes4 ,into such a survey recent questions as to literary forms need not enter4 ,how far a literary form may be modified or extended without losing its character1 how suggestive a recognized form is to the composing imagination1 are questions important rather for those modern times in which the artist is much concerned with individual self-expression than for the centuries in which he was more the spokesman of a community4 ,even if ,brunetire's transference of the word genre from biology to literature be only analogy1 even if ,croce's denial that a literary form is directive of the artist be justified1 we must still use the terms drama and epic4 ,from ,aristotle down1 criticism has used them not only for convenience1 but because in fact there were two typical ways of extensive imaginative composition in words1 varying in detail but constant essentially1 and always sharply distinct4 ,whether these should rather be called types or modes than forms is a question for later consideration4 ,for the purposes of the present review the terms drama and epic connote only habits of composition universally recognized4 ,the two discussed by ,aristotle as types are in fact seen as types to persist4 ,the habits of drama have remained typically distinct from those of narrative1 and have changed far less4 ,to add ,senecan tragedy to its ,greek prototype1 and to mark the distinctive traits of ,latin comedy1 will both fill out ,aristotle's summary and show in what forms classical influences came first to modern drama4 ,narrative in the ancient world developed along few lines4 ,its poetic art long remained epic4 ,this art was at once followed by ,vergil and recreated4 ,the neid is the great exemplar of all that is fruitful in literary influence4 ,the ,hellenistic art that ,vergil rejected was cultivated by ,apuleius and ran to seed in the ,greek prose romances4 ,meantime it was practised with facile brilliancy by the ,latin poet whom the middle ages knew better even than they knew ,vergil--,ovid4 ,setting aside1 then1 all minor forms1 and in the two major forms all but what is typical1 we may venture to survey ancient poetic1 first in ,greek tragedy1 with ,senecan tragedy for contrast and ,latin comedy for supplement1 then in ,vergilian epic1 with ,ovidian narrative for contrast and ,apuleius for divergence4 ,i4 ,,drama ,a4 ,,greek ,,tragedy#a ,at first glance ,greek tragedy strikes the modern student as finished4 ,its historical period is definite4 ,it grew2 it matured2 it died4 ,its strictly dramatic influence appears to be sharply limited4 ,inoperative as a mode of representation1 indeed almost unknown1 in the middle ages and the early ,renaissance1 it seems at first to have been revived in modern times only for archological reproduction1 as the models of ,greek architecture in museums4 ,even if such a view were just--and it is not--,greek tragedy would compel attention by sheer artistic eminence4 ,it can no more be ignored than ,gothic architecture4 ,it is one of the great artistic achievements of the human spirit4 ,but no such artistic achievement is ever finished in the sense of being relegated to a museum4 ,its eminence constitutes a presumption of vitality4 ,gothic architecture1 though held in abeyance and even forgotten for centuries1 is again operative4 ,it compels attention to-day not only in reproductions1 but in creation4 ,greek tragedy has profoundly influenced modern playwriting4 ,its increasing reappearance to-day in revivals1 and the distinction of certain imitations such as ,samson ,agonistes1 are less important than its influence on modern dramaturgy1 as in ,racine and again in ,ibsen and finally in certain striking plays of our own time4 ,this vitality implies that the ,greek experience1 in especially happy conditions of stage and audience1 through a period of extraordinary artistic competition1 was fruitful not merely in skilful adaptation to those conditions1 but in dramatic principles4 7#a74 ,theater and ,audience ,the emotions that are enhanced by representation before a crowd are typically such as are best felt by the crowd together1 such as are communal4#b ,greek drama began1 according to tradition1 in the rites celebrated by the whole village to honor ,dionysus1 the god of fertility and enthusiasm4 ,in the shouting1 singing chorus there were at first no actors in the modern sense2 but that was because in a broader sense all were actors4 ,there was rude1 impromptu mimic action4 ,there was probably a good deal of improvised verse by individuals1 and probably a good deal of recurring refrain by the whole crowd4 ,out of this communal impersonation of the story of ,dionysus grew very naturally individual impersonations of the god and of his more prominent mythical attendants1 the crowd responding with impromptu variations of the familiar refrain4 ,every crowd produces a leader4 ,the leader of the ,greek chorus became an actor in the modern sense of taking1 a fixed part4 ,in time other fixed parts were assigned to individuals1 till the mimic action had a definite dialogue2 but the chorus persisted as representative of the whole community4 ,then1 as always1 came the individual genius to discern the capacity of what had grown up among the people1 to reveal and enlarge that capacity1 and to fix a great form of art4 ,the shaping of drama by schylus and its development by ,sophocles and by ,euripides expressed1 indeed1 individual genius2 but no less they expressed the ideals of the ,greek race and remained answerable to the original popular impulse4 ,the ,greek audience during the great period of drama felt not only that the chorus chanting in the orchestra was its representative1 but that it was itself as a body assisting at a communal celebration4 ,always the enacting of legend or history known to every spectator by heart1 the drama was always judged sternly not only by its poetic beauty1 but by its faithfulness to communal beliefs and feelings4 ,its success was measured by the feeling of the community4 ,so the great open-air ,greek theater was made for the community4 ,it superseded the unfurnished hillside as the community passed more and more from participants to spectators2 but it remained1 to a degree rarely realized in modern times1 communal4 ,for ,greek tragedy1 even at its height1 never lost its reminiscences of ritual4 ,every representation being an act of religion1 the theater crowd1 united by a common rite1 was the more sensitive to common sympathies4 ,that the theater is for the crowd1 not for the individual1 has been realized by playwrights of every age2 but the first great age of drama opened this peculiar opportunity of dramaturgy widest because its crowd was unified4 ,the communal sense of tradition was focused by religion4 7#b74 ,diction ,remembrance of this fact has led many modern readers who have never seen a ,greek play to conceive ,greek tragedy as formal and rigid4 ,this is much the same error as supposes ,greek architecture and statuary to have been white4 ,it is an illusion of time4 ,greek buildings and statues became white when no hands were left to restore their colors4 ,greek tragedies became formal and rigid when they passed from the stage to the closet1 when they lost the rhythms of dance and of phrase4 ,with every revival of them upon the modern stage the illusion is dispelled4 ,indeed1 it can be broken by merely reading them aloud4 ,nevertheless1 though they show to an exceptional degree that larger movement which ,aristotle found to be a dramatic essential1 they were stately in gesture and in lines4 ,even without the associations of religion1 the very size of the theater would have precluded the facial play that is a main reliance of modern acting1 and induced in the open air a delivery sometimes oratorical and always large4 ,the tragic mask and cothurnus were adaptations to a great open-air space4 ,to the same physical conditions were adapted the rendition and the lines themselves4#c ,the diction of ,greek tragedy1 though varying widely of course from poet to poet1 has certain recognizable constants4 ,it is generally sonorous1 sententious1 and1 to a degree never surpassed1 direct4 ,it realizes fully the emotional appeal of rhythm2 for though its dialogue has less rhythmical variety than ,shakspere's1 it rarely lapses into monotony1 and it is relieved by the abundant imagery and metrical variety of the chorus4 ,greek tragic dialogue is typically austere4 ,it rarely amplifies1 for it is poetry1 not oratory2#d but it makes every word count dramatically4 ,the ideal of economy is felt even in the diction4 ,passages of narrative1 such as those of messengers1 are made dramatically effective not only by situation1 but by variations of tone and tempo4 ,effects of style may seem to have preoccupied criticism too much unless we remember that the ,athenian audience was habitually sensitive to rhythm1 and that it was never distracted by novelty of story from attention to the dramatist's art4 ,that the final touch of this art was the rhythmical finishing of the lines there can be no doubt4 ,nor is dramatic verse a mere traditional convention4#e ,obviously it is appropriate to historical dignity2 but beyond this we become aware1 even from reading1 much more from hearing1 that the verse subtly and constantly enhances the emotion by enriching the connotation4 ,it is not merely rhythm added to force1 though how much rhythm1 even in prose1 is worth dramatically every good actor knows4 ,it is not even poetry added to drama4 ,it is an element permeating and integral4 ,good dramatic verse1 to say nothing of the best1 is not a lyrical addition1 not a decoration1 but as truly a dramatic means as the other means of characterization4 ,that is why the tradition of every great stage1 such as the ,comdie ,franaise1 lays distinct stress on rhythmical rendition2 and that is why the dramatic rhythms of ,greek tragedy are still inspiring4 ,nor is even this the final value of verse in ,greek tragedy4 ,such verse enhances the characterization not only in detail by widening the opportunity of the actor to convey mood and emotion1 but generally by enhancing the poetry4 ,the typical method of ,greek tragic characterization is to idealize4 ,the mighty figures of the past1 remote from the urgencies of our confusing present1 confirm our faith that man may dominate and direct his world for good1 or1 when they too fail1 reveal with larger truth the tragic flaws of humanity and the hope of its regeneration4 ,modern history plays1 as well as ancient1 are poetic in diction ultimately because they are poetic in conception1 as ,greek drama was at once tradition and poetry4 ,the word audience1 which in its etymological suggestions has seemed inappropriate to a modern crowd gathered rather for seeing than for hearing1 is entirely appropriate to the ,greek theater4 ,the visual values of representation were1 indeed1 realized in gesture and pose1 though less in scenery and spectacle2 they were realized as never1 perhaps1 since in group movements2 but the auditory values1 the sounding line1 the phrase harmony of the chant1 always enhanced representation by strong rhythmical suggestion4 ,a ,greek tragedy was in a real sense1 though its music was simply melodic1 a symphony4 7#c74 ,chorus ,the symbol of the communal import of ,greek tragedy and of its characteristic form is the chorus4 ,from being almost the whole the chorus dwindled dramatically to a subordinate part4 ,the inference1 however1 that it was outgrown1 that except for historical study it is negligible1 is unwarranted4 ,even ,euripides used the chorus dramatically2 and ,aristotle urges1 not that it be abolished1 but that it be made an integral part1 one of the actors4 ,nor were the practise and the theory mere concession to ,greek convention4 ,the chorus was in fact dramatic4#f ,too readily conceiving it in terms of our meager modern experience1 as in opera1 critics often seem to have forgotten that the ,greek chorus furnished not primarily tableau or grouping or even pageantry in a wider sense1 but chanting and dancing4 ,that dancing may be highly dramatic we have but recently rediscovered4 ,aristotle#g knew dance as compassing the whole range of bodily expression4 ,far from being merely a lyric interlude1 the chorus offered distinct dramatic possibilities4 ,to begin with1 the combination of choral dance and chanting has a direct appeal to the simpler emotions that are communal2 and in ,greek drama it enhances the idealizing of communal fears and beliefs and aspirations4 ,the idealism of ,greek tragedy is conveyed largely by the chorus4 ,then the chorus is used to enhance the emotion of a preceding scene by iterating it sympathetically1 or by recoiling in protest1 or by reflecting on it sub specie ternitatis4 ,thus are achieved the relief of variety and also an intermediary effect1 the effect of spectators of the action itself interpreting to the spectators of the play4 ,the variety brought about by the choral throng was the more marked because the actors were few4 ,in the chorus were many opportunities for representation of the human world about these isolated individuals1 and for dramatic symbolism through the group movements of the dance4 ,the choral dance1 always symbolic1 had been developed from simple1 primitive forms to a fine art4 ,the preliminary to every dramatic production was the public granting of a chorus2 and the training of this chorus by the dramatist himself was a main part of rehearsal4 ,the chorus is associated in every one's thought of ,greek tragedy inevitably and fitly4 ,it is not merely an archaic convention2 it is not merely a lyric accessory to drama2 it has dramatic possibilities which may yet1 if large open-air theaters win again a place in communal life1 be revived4 7#d74 ,themes and ,person ,the rhythmical effects of diction and of choral dance are hardly more characteristic of ,greek tragedy than its unvarying use of legendary themes and persons4 ,euripides is thought to have chafed within these confines1 to have been hampered by the conventional prescription of old bottles for his new wine4 ,in any age the playwright who insists on ideas in advance of his crowd thereby sacrifices something of the communal appeal4 ,but even ,euripides kept outwardly the unwritten law1 and ,aristotle#h accepted it as part of his theory4 ,it is evident that such themes and such persons were a tragic convention2 but the convention was still recognized in the middle ages2#i it was accepted by the ,renaissance2 it was formally adopted by the ,french seventeenth century2 and its being a convention does not prove it any the less dramatic4 ,without disparaging the gain to modern tragedy from the widening of the tragic field we may take account of the typical values of the field of tradition4 ,the field of tradition is ipso facto the field of communal memories and aspirations and1 even in modern times1 of myth4 ,though the re-creation of myth may be artificial and remote1 that it need not be so1 that it may on the contrary originally express both the poet and the conceptions of his audience1 has been proved many times1 and very convincingly in our own time by ,william ,vaughn ,moody's ,fire-bringer4 ,the fire of ,prometheus is there seen1 even after schylus1 even after ,shelley1 to be undying4 ,the modern science of anthropology1 indeed1 gives good ground for thinking both that myth is constantly human and that by its very persistence1 as of a primitive trait1 it opens opportunities for drama4 ,the modern study of folklore1 by recovering some lost echoes in ,greek tragedy1 has enhanced its significance4 ,folk superstitions1 though they retire from public gaze before more sophisticated conventions1 are slow to die4 ,those which have become mere curious lore are of course dead dramatically2 but those which express persistent human yearnings may be all the more vital dramatically because they are primitive4 ,such1 for instance1 is the folk-tale of the fairy mistress1 the woman of unearthly beauty who has the magic to enrich the man she loves with joy and power4 ,widespread over western ,europe in the middle ages1 it has roots in remote antiquity4 ,euripides made it1 not as the medieval writers the story of the delusion of the man1 but the tragedy of the woman4 ,in varying forms it has recurred again and again4 ,in ,walter ,map's amazing tale of ,gerbert#aj it concludes upon penance and renunciation4 ,in ,fouqu's ,undine its native force is dissipated in sentiment4 ,a dead superstition1 on the other hand1 has no dramatic appeal4 ,though we admire the steadfast piety that agonizes over the unburied body of a brother1 we can no longer appreciate the situation of ,antigone as fully tragic2 for we have lost irrevocably the ancient superstition from which it springs4 ,but ,medea with her power to bless and ban her lover1 and with her unearthly capacity for suffering1 who will venture to say that she is dead8 ,that she is primitive gives her only the more power to walk the stage to-morrow4 ,mythical idealizing is readily symbolic4 ,but in ,greek tragedy direct symbolism1 except in the chorus1 is not common4 ,rather than as symbolical1 the legendary figures appear as typical4 ,it is as typical that the 8illustrious persons0 are recommended by ,aristotle and represented by the dramatists that he expounds4 ,prometheus1 ,heracles1 ,agamemnon1 ,medea1 are chosen as eminent not in rank1 as some ,french dramatists are accused of thinking1 but in typically human traits4 ,they show grandly and conspicuously what obscurely is suffered by us all4 8,there you and ,i and all of us fell down40 ,they are race heroes2 we communally feel in them the race ghost4 ,and the more mythical they are1 the more we can feel the struggle of all human kind4 ,for the very limitations on themes sets ,greek tragedy in sharper relief against modern as exhibiting the dramatic vitality of legend4 ,personages so fixed do1 indeed1 tend to preclude both novelty and subtlety of characterization4 ,in this regard ,euripides1 especially in his ,medea1 is sometimes exceptional4 ,generally the characterization of ,greek tragedy is broad and simple4 ,the person are taken full-blown1 at some revealing crisis4 ,but modern experience with plays and with novels confirms the impression that broad characterization is generally more effective before an audience2 subtle1 minute1 or cumulative1 with an individual reader4 ,in this application1 too1 we may take ,aristotle's saying that plot is more important in drama1 character in epic4 ,but lest we separate character from plot unduly1 we must remember that the movement of ,greek tragedy is not merely of events1 but of human will4 ,will is the exhibition of character in action4 ,it is the mainspring of every tragic crisis4 ,at once the simplest and the strongest expression of character1 it animates ,greek tragedy because it animates almost all tragedy4#aa schylus in ,prometheus ,bound promises the victory of heroic fortitude4 ,sophocles in ,king dipus conveys the agony of assertive individuality at finding the struggle for self-fulfillment vain1 and brings even innocent willfulness to wreck4 ,euripides sees the tragic conflict of the traditional bloodwite with reverence to a mother as leading to madness4 ,within the compass of the few dramas left to us from the ,greek stage the tragedies of human will in a few typical personages are seen to be as various as they are convincing4 ,even the rich variety of the great ,elizabethan period does not make them seem meager4 ,rather they exhibit the dramatic richness of the typical4 ,by the very fact of being embodied in flesh and blood any 8illustrious person0 begins to be real4 ,even the allegorical figure of ,everyman in the medival morality--and the ,greek dramatis person were never allegorical--has held modern audiences because each spectator recognized himself with his secret foes and friends4 ,that the persons of the ,greek stage were few and familiar1 then1 was not of itself a disadvantage4 ,the tragedies of a few famous families can strike pity and fear into all families who know the bitterness of hate4 ,moreover1 the restriction to familiar themes1 the exclusion of novelty from plot1 focused attention upon conception and movement4 ,playwright and audience alike looked for originality not in subject1 but in art4 ,comparison of play with play was readier and more specific2 and the competition of the stage was almost purely artistic4 7#e74 ,plot ,plot in ,greek tragedy1 the movement of the whole play1 is discussed so extensively by ,aristotle that little need be added4 ,for his preoccupation with ,sophocles hardly makes his exposition the less comprehensive4 ,later criticism has generally accepted ,sophocles as historically midway between the occasional archaism of schylus and the occasional modernism of ,euripides1 as typical of ,greek dramatic habits1 and as the greatest ,greek master of plot4 ,sophocles1 as has been often pointed out1 intensified drama by making his unit not the trilogy1 but the single play1 by developing a single theme with a clear conflict1 and by making its interaction self-sufficient through the use of a third actor4 ,euripides1 on the other hand1 seems to care less for totality1 though he achieves it in some plays1 notably in the ,medea4 ,his use of a separable prologue instead of dramatic exposition within the play has been condemned as impatient2#ab and the vividness of his lines1 especially in description1 has been disparaged as distracting4 ,in all this the art of ,sophocles is no more eminent than it is typical4 ,he is the shining example of ,greek artistic economy4 ,this characteristic economy of ,greek tragic art makes it permanently inspiring to playwrights4 ,modern audiences1 being less conscious of art1 may find the economy sometimes too close2 but playwrights discern in it both a triumph of technic and an example4 ,for the revolt against even the 8unities0 of the ,french classic stage spent its force long ago4 ,meantime the war of the romanticists against the classicists should make clear1 what the greatest dramatists have always understood1 that unity in drama is valuable only as a means to coherence4 ,its only raison d'tre is to clear the way for steady movement and to lead that movement to a convincing issue4 ,now in this compelling force of movement ,greek drama1 especially in the hands of ,sophocles1 remains by common consent a model of tragic art4 ,that even audiences habituated to variety and tolerant of looseness will still feel this force is suggested by revivals of increasing frequency1 by the eminence1 even in a period of very different dramatic habits1 of such plays as ,othello1 and by the deliberate preference of some recent dramatists#ac for the ,greek model4 ,but whether single1 steady movement through a limited time be a permanent dramatic principle or not1 at least it is characteristically ,greek4 ,what one editor says of the ,antigone of ,sophocles might be said of ,greek tragedy generally3 8there is no halting in the march of the drama40#ad ,this effect is brought about technically by focusing on a single scene and a continuous critical period4#ae ,the whole tragedy1 as has been quaintly said1 is compressed within the fifth act2 or1 to speak in still more modern terms1 the ,greeks composed their tragedies as long one-act plays4 ,such a play differs from ,henry ,,iv or ,a ,winter's ,tale essentially2 it differs from ,othello only in removable accidents4 ,the characteristic is not brevity1 nor even unity1 but continuity4 ,that the habit of continuity was fostered by ,greek stage conditions1 the habit of discontinuity by ,elizabethan1 there can be no doubt2 but neither can there be any doubt that the ,greek stage conditions were modified more than once by a dramatist1 or that the ,elizabethan stage conditions did not determine the growth of ,shakspere's art4 ,in both great ages a dramatist took the stage as he found it1 but built up his dramatic technic as he chose4 ,the continuity of ,greek tragedy is not merely a fact of archology2 it is an achievement of technic4 ,the limiting to a single place and time has been objected to as forcing off-stage some events that the audience would like to see1 and as unnaturally crowding the action4 ,in a word1 the one-act form1 for an action of some magnitude1 has been called artificial4 ,any form may seem artificial if it is realized imperfectly2 and the limits of this form impose merely a higher degree of the difficulty inherent in any dramatic form1 the difficulty of focus4 ,even a five-act play imposes limits1 prescribes selection1 by the very conditions of the stage itself4 ,the peculiar opportunity arising from the stage conditions of the ,greek theater was discerned to be emotional intensity4 ,intensity has even been urged as the characteristic opportunity of all drama4 ,whether this be granted or not1 undoubtedly the ,greeks conceived drama so1 and developed their technic accordingly4 ,they worked for intensity4 ,though they were not content with two actors1 they were content with one stage set and with one period of time4 ,not only so1 but the difficulties of their form stimulated their art4 ,in these conditions playwrights heightened intensity by a technic of progressive continuity4 ,so much for the idea behind the objections4 ,the particular charges seem hardly to hold4 ,what is forced off the stage of ,greek drama1 or of any drama8 ,surely nothing that the dramatist wishes to have on-stage1 or his art is imperfect4 ,that the frequent murders are only heard1 not seen1 is due not to any exigencies of form1 but to social convention and to the idea that dying is less tragic than death4 ,for the rest1 to put shifting human life on a fixed stage1 even with liberty to represent more than one place and time1 always involves foreshortening4 ,art cannot have the diffuseness of life4 ,it works by selection4 ,the ,greek tragic artists chose to carry selection to the highest degree4 ,that this event or that of the tragic story is reported by a messenger1 not enacted before our eyes1 is not a hindrance to the tragic march1 not the makeshift conceded to an intractable form4 ,let the speech of a ,greek messenger be read aloud1 or better1 let it be acted2 and it will no longer be called undramatic4#af ,add its dramatic value in context1 its relation to the scene that it enters2 and no doubt will remain4 ,the possibilities of narrative on the stage1 though they seem to have been forgotten by many ,english playwrights1 are clear4 ,but the ,greek dramatist did make a virtue of necessity4 ,he sometimes used a messenger1 dramatically indeed1 but perforce4 ,what we hear from a messenger we could not see without change of scene4 ,this was the dramatist's sacrifice1 not to formalism1 but to continuity4 ,to that end he would have made even greater sacrifice4 ,the speeding of the action beyond the normal pace of life is not confined to this form4 ,it is a condition of all drama4 ,nor does ,greek drama seem either crowded or hurried4 ,though events may follow thick and fast1 the ,greek movement is typically unhurried4 ,it has steadiness from careful preparation2 it gains momentum as it advances2 it culminates swiftly2 it diminishes to a slow and quiet close4 ,that tragedy should have a full close1 carrying the action through to a 1 or state of rest1 must have been with the ,greeks a principle2 for it was an almost invariable habit4 ,though the tragedies of other and later nations do not always end so1 they too have the full close often enough to suggest that audiences generally desire it4#ag ,whether or not this is true of audiences1 it seems true of playwrights in proportion as they work1 as the ,greeks worked1 for singleness4 ,in ,greek tragedy the end crowns the work in the sense that the close completes the interpretation4 ,the close of the action is the issue of the characterization4 ,characterization in ,greek tragedy1 more consistently than in any other1 is motivation4 ,in some ,greek plays it offers hardly anything else4 ,the characters are drawn for the play1 not for themselves4 ,the 8part0 is subordinated to the theme4 ,when we see that this is true even for ,medea1 a 8part0 to be coveted by any modern actress1 we realize that the significance of the whole play was habitually in the ,greek conception the main object4 ,this explains the full close as the goal of a steady movement1 and as the final stage of the idealization which habitually shaped both characters and plot4 ,and where a modern playwright has worked with the same intention1 we find again and again1 as in ,othello1 the same full close4 ,the ultimate technical question1 then1 is ,what is continuity worth8 ,euripides composed sometimes as if it were worth less than salience4 ,he has even been called romantic2 and the influence of ,greek tragedy1 since it was overwhelmingly his among the ,romans and in the middle ages1 may seem after all to be hardly the influence of ,sophoclean movement4 ,but the great influence of ,euripides is largely of his poetry apart from his dramaturgy4 ,it reigns through a time when tragedy was waning1 and through a later time when there was hardly any drama at all4 ,he is still the most interesting of ,greek dramatists to read4 ,on the other hand1 those of his plays which are now most effective as stage performances have the typical ,greek continuity2 nor does he often depart from the type very far4 ,that the type has a controlling idea of continuity is evident4 ,to the ,greek dramatists generally continuity seemed to be worth much technical labor and even much sacrifice4 ,the crown of their technical skill was to carry the theme1 to develop it1 to fulfill it at the last4 ,behind this technic is an ideal of singleness4 ,the sacrifice to continuity springs from that ascesis which has been remarked in other fields of ,greek art4 ,it has aroused--it will always arouse--the protest of the romantics4 ,an art of singleness1 lucidity1 cogency1 seems to them1 as perhaps it seemed already to ,euripides1 too far removed from life4 ,and not the romanticists only1 but after them the realists1 have demanded a drama more like life itself1 freer1 more various1 less composed4 ,perhaps there is no ultimate reconciliation1 or perhaps the two conceptions are complementary2 but the ,greek tragedians seem to answer from their plays3 art is not life2 it is idealization4 ,b4 ,,senecan ,,tragedy#ah ,how far the ,latin tragedy of the actual stage followed the great ,greeks we can only speculate from a few fragments and from the references of critics4 ,that the lost ,medea of ,ovid was ,greek in more than name the habit of composition seen in the ,heroides leaves much doubt4 ,certainly the tragedies of ,seneca1 while they revive the great names of ,agamemnon1 ,hippolytus1 and ,medea1 never enter the great art of ,athens4 ,indeed1 their relevance at this juncture is for contrast4 ,a ,senecan prologue is not only a separable prefix2 it may be a summary of the whole plot1 as the prologue of ,latin comedy4 ,separable the ,senecan chorus is always in providing lyric interludes4 ,it would thereby interrupt the action if the tragedy had the ,greek onward course2 but instead ,seneca's violent scenes are themselves separable1 and his dialogue is sometimes a collection of speeches4 ,seneca wrote tragic scenes and spaced them with lyric pauses2#ai he did not gather momentum for a total impression4 ,he made his person utter their feelings2 he did not make them interact4 ,the familiar names1 the familiar stories1 only heighten the contrast4 ,senecan tragedy is like ,greek tragedy only in non-essentials4 ,the essentials of ,greek dramatic composition are not here4 ,what is here is not poetic1 but rhetoric4 ,that these pieces were written for recitation1 not for acting1 the external evidence is strong1 though not conclusive1#bj but the internal evidence is abundant4#ba ,most significant is the feebleness of plot4 ,more obvious is the rhetorical method of characterization by typical traits1#bb the method of the character sketches 77 in schools for boys as it was expanded in the schools for men under the masters of declamatio4 ,a method essentially oratorical1 it developed under the declamatores of the ,empire not creative conception1 but inventive ingenuity and a preoccupation rather with striking expression than with consistency4 ,most obvious of all1 written large on every page1 is the swelling rhetoric of the style4 ,not for nothing did this poet bear the name of ,seneca4#bc ,to deny that such writing has a certain force is to forget what it might become in the mouth of a trained speaker and before an audience taught to admire its distinctive effects2 to forget also how eagerly ,seneca was appropriated fifteen centuries later2 to forget finally that oratory in the theater has not yet lost all its appeal4 ,but while we grant to rhetoric some share in the poetic art1 we cannot put ,senecan tragedy beside the tragedy of ,athens without seeing unmistakably that such art as it has is not the distinctive art of drama4 ,c4 ,,latin ,,comedy ,the plays of ,plautus and ,terence keep the dramaturgy known as the ,new ,comedy1#bd the comedy of ,menander4 ,its figures1 alike in ,greek and in ,latin1 are types4 ,such individualizing as may be discerned1 in the ,menchmi for instance1 or the ,self-tormentor1 stands out as exceptional4 ,comedy1 perhaps1 tends more than tragedy to the typical4 ,at any rate1 ,latin comedy has a set of person quite fixed3#be two fathers1 two sons in love and in debt1 two daughters of romance or of pleasure1 and two slaves to stir the intrigue4 ,there might be a matron1 a slave-trader1 and a braggart soldier2 and there would be pretty surely a parasite4 ,stock figures involve conventionality also in plot4 ,one of them may have a double1#bf and the plot may consist largely of mistaking one for the other2 or the long-lost daughter1 as in the declamationes and the ,greek romances1 may have been kidnapped by pirates4 ,typical is the plot of ,terence's ,phormio3 ,one ,chremes had a brother ,demipho1 who wishing for some cause abroad to go1 had left his son young ,antipho at home at ,athens1 while it pleased him thus to roam4 ,this ,chremes had a wife and daughter too in ,lemnos domiciled1 that no one knew2 another one at ,athens1 and an heir that desperately loved a harper fair4 ,from ,lemnos came the mother with the maid to ,athens1 and there died4 ,the daughter paid the last sad rites 7now ,chremes was away74 ,and so it came about that on that day young ,antipho the orphan child espied1 fell deep in love and took her for his bride4 7'twas through a parasite 'twas brought about74 ,the brothers coming home with rage broke out1 gave thirty min to the parasite to take her off and marry her outright4 ,with this they buy the girl that ,phdria prized2 the other keeps his bride now recognized4#bg ,in essentials this is the plot of any ,latin comedy4 ,that the ,greek originals of the ,new ,comedy were less crystallized is suggested by larger fragments recovered recently2 and that ,menander was a creator of plots may be inferred from the saying reported by ,plutarch3 8,i have made my comedy2 for the plan is arranged1 and ,i have only to write verses for it40#bh ,even with so few situations as in ,latin comedy there is room for variety of handling4 ,early commentators distinguish the modus motorius1#bi the kinetic mode1 from the statarius1 or static1 and find that ,terence1 except in the ,phormio1 tends to the latter4 ,but even the movement of ,plautus is rather bustle and go than onward progress4 ,dramatic movement will hardly be compelling where motivation is so much from circumstances and so little from character4 ,modus motorius seems to imply rather liveliness than sequence4 ,to the large1 miscellaneous1 and turbulent ,roman audience1 it has been plausibly suggested1 there would have been little appeal in cogency of plot4 ,a certain dulness in the audience is suggested by the fact that ,terence was reproached for combining two ,greek plots in one ,latin play4 ,he protests1 naturally1 that this is his right2 and the ,phormio shows his ability to weave an intrigue clearly and attractively4 ,the dramatic lack mistakenly ascribed to his stories is rather of salience1 especially of visibly significant action before our eyes4 ,that this can vivify even conventional characters in a conventional plot is the chief dramatic message of ,plautus4 ,he trusts the intelligence of his audience so little as to make his prologue an oral program1 a catalogue raisonn1 explicit to the last degree4#cj ,with ,terence he resorts to the aside1 the soliloquy1 and the convention of people on the stage together who do not see each other--all these when they could be obviated by a little dramatic ingenuity4 ,where ,plautus spends his ingenuity is on lively realism of detail1 on abundance of stage 8business40 ,he holds a scene1 turning and returning a situation1 until he has used its whole value4 ,though this is sometimes tiresome for reading1 it shows good theatrical sense of the actual audience4 ,he may have learned it from acting4 ,nothing is more instructive to playwrights than this filling of a simple outline4 ,the habit is almost the opposite of the compression of ,greek tragedy1 and the ,new ,comedy is doubtless inferior to tragedy in every point of plot2 but none the less it vindicates clearly the value and the ,plautine method of imaginative amplification4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,all the larger histories of ,greek literature appraise ,greek tragedy1 trace its history1 and cite monographs for special study4 ,the study of ,greek tragedy as drama should begin with the plays themselves4 ,these should be read--and with happily increasing frequency they may even be seen--before reading further about them2 for they are now available not only in many editions1 but also in many translations4 ,translation1 though it must fall short or go wide of the original diction1 conveys the larger dramatic movement1 the characteristic dramaturgy2 and ,sir ,gilbert ,murray's translation of ,aristotle's main example1 dipus ,rex1 seeks especially the dramatic values4 ,very instructive comparisons may be made by reading all eight tragedies presenting the story of ,orestes and his house1 the 8,oresteia03 the ,agamemnon1 ,choephor1 and ,eumenides of schylus1 the only extant trilogy2 the ,electra of ,sophocles2 and the ,orestes1 ,electra1 ,iphigenia in ,aulis1 and ,iphigenia in ,tauris of ,euripides4 ,beside the dipus ,rex of ,sophocles most critics would place his ,antigone2 and beside the ,medea1 the most popular play of ,euripides1 his ,alcestis and his ,trojan ,women4 ,but it is no great task to read all extant ,greek tragedies4 ,the general character of ,greek dramaturgy and its historical place are outlined at once concisely and suggestively by ,brander ,matthews in his ,development of the ,drama 7,new ,york1 #aijc71 chapter ii1 to which may be added chapters iii1 v1 viii1 ix1 and xiii of his ,study of the ,drama 7,new ,york1 #aiaj74 ,t4 ,d4 ,goodell's ,athenian ,tragedy 7,new ,haven1 #aibj7 is admirable4 ,gilbert ,murray's ,euripides and ,his ,age 7,london and ,new ,york1 #aiac7 discusses ,greek dramaturgy generally in chapters iii1 viii1 and ix4 ,more inclusive works for ,english readers are ,a4 ,e4 ,haigh's ,the ,attic ,theatre1 #c;d edition revised by ,a4 ,w4 ,pickard-,cambridge 7,oxford1 #aijg71 and ,r4 ,c4 ,flickinger's ,the ,greek ,theatre and ,its ,drama 7,chicago1 #aiah74 ,these few books are selected as specifically informing and suggestive for dramaturgy4 ,a longer selective list will be found in ,l4 ,van,hook's ,greek ,life and ,thought 7,new ,york1 #aibc71 pages #caj-cab4 ,a comprehensive bibliography1 so many are the historical significances of ,greek tragedy1 would fill a volume4 #b ,this paragraph and the following are adapted from the author's ,writing and ,speaking1 pages #dab-dae4 #c 8,the words are so composed that their full effect can be appreciated only through the clear and rhythmical enunciation of an actor who relies mainly on his voice40 ,j4 ,t4 ,sheppard1 ,the dipus ,tyrannus of ,sophocles translated and explained1 ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #aibj1 page ix4 #d ,see pages #abf1 #abg above on the distinction made by pseudo-,longinus 7xi-xii7 between poetry and oratory4 #e ,parts of this paragraph and the following are taken from the author's ,a ,note on the ,history ,play1 in ,shakesperian ,studies1 ,columbia ,university ,press1 #aiaf4 #f ,this has nowhere been better expounded than in the ninth chapter of ,gilbert ,murray's ,euripides and ,his ,age1 ,london and ,new ,york 7,home ,university ,library71 #aiac4 #g ,poetic1 #addg a4 ,see above1 pages #adj1 #adc4 #h ,poetic1 #adec a4 ,see above1 pages #ace1 #add1 #aee4 #i ,for instance1 ,chaucer's ,monk says in his prologue3 ,tragedie is to seyn a certeyn storie1 ,as olde bokes maken us memorie1 ,of him that stood in greet prosperitee ,and is yfallen out of heigh degree ,into miserie1 and endeth wretchedly4 ,canterbury ,tales1 ,b4 #cafc4 #aj ,de ,nugis ,curialium1 ,,iv4 xi4 ,map's collection contains several other forms of the same story or of related stories4 #aa ,brunetire's point 7,annales du ,thtre1 #ahic7 is well interpreted by ,brander ,matthews1 ,the ,development of the ,drama1 page #bj1 and again in ,a ,study of the ,drama1 chapter v4 #ab ,as to this see ,gilbert ,murray1 ,euripides and ,his ,age1 page #bje4 #ac ,see above1 page #afc4 #ad ,e4 ,s4 ,shuckburgh's edition of the ,antigone1 ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #aijh1 page xvii4 #ae ,not that there were never lapses of time or shifts of place 7see ,matthews1 ,a ,study of the ,drama1 ,chapter xiii1 and ,goodell1 page #hb71 but that ,greek tragedies move habitually without time-break and in a single stage-setting4 #af ,murray1 op4 cit41 page #bab4 #ag ,see above1 pages #adg1 #adi1 #aej1 #afa4 #ah ,the plays ascribed to ,l4 ,annus ,seneca 7distinguished as 8the younger0 or 8the philosopher10 circ4 #d ,b4,c4-#fe ,a4,d47 are dipus1 ,phniss1 ,medea1 ,hercules ,furens1 ,hippolytus 7or ,phdra71 ,hercules tus1 ,thyestes1 ,troades1 ,agamemnon4 ,their authorship is discussed by ,e4 ,c4 ,chickering in ,an introduction to ,octavia ,prtexta1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj 7,columbia dissertation71 which also contains a brief account of ,roman tragedy1 reviews the question of the stage production of ,seneca1 and discusses his rank as tragedian4 ,ella ,i4 ,harris's ,two tragedies of ,seneca1 ,medea and the ,daughters of ,troy1 rendered into ,english verse1 ,boston1 #ahih 7all ten1 ,new ,york1 #aijd71 summarizes ,senecan influence on ,english drama4 ,see further ,j4 ,w4 ,cunliffe's ,the influence of ,seneca on ,elizabethan tragedy1 ,new ,york1 #ahic4 ,all the ,senecan tragedies are included in ,the tragedies of ,seneca translated into ,english verse1 to which have been appended comparative analyses of the corresponding ,greek and ,roman plays 444 by ,f4 ,j4 ,miller1 introduced by an essay on the influence of the tragedies of ,seneca upon early ,english drama by ,j4 ,m4 ,manly1 ,chicago1 #aijg4 ,miller's translation is published also in the ,loeb ,classical ,library4 #ai ,chickering suggests 7page #de7 a resemblance to grand opera4 #bj ,it is reviewed by ,chickering4 #ba 8,ce sont des exercices de dclamation1 des recueils factices de morceaux de bravoure crits pour la lecture40 ,g4 ,michaud1 ,le gnie latin1 ,paris1 #aijj1 page #aaf4 #bb ,see above1 pages #ga-b and foot-note #h4 8,quant aux caractres c'est du stoicisme dcoup en personnages40 ,e4 ,nageotte1 ,histoire de la littrature latine1 page #dfi4 #bc ,seneca 8the elder10 or the rhetorician1 in his collection of ,controversi1 is the chief source of our knowledge of declamatio4 ,see ,chapter ,,iv4 ,,ii4 #bd ,see ,legrand1 ,p4 ,e41 ,tableau de la comdie grecque pendant la priode dite nouvelle-- 2 translated as ,the ,new ,greek ,comedy by ,james ,loeb1 with introduction by ,john ,williams ,white1 ,london and ,new ,york1 #aiag4 ,an earlier study quoted below is ,lallier1 ,r41 ,la comdie nouvelle1 introduction l'tude du thtre de ,trence 7leon d'ouverture71 ,toulouse1 #ahgf4 ,recent ,english translations of ,plautus are3 by ,paul ,nixon in the ,loeb ,classical ,library 7#b volumes issued72 by ,e4 ,h4 ,sugden of ,amphitruo1 ,asinaria1 ,aulularia1 ,bacchides1 ,captivi1 ,london1 #ahic2 by ,h4 ,o4 ,sibley and ,f4 ,smalley of ,trinummus1 ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y41 #ahie2 by ,b4 ,h4 ,clark of ,menchmi1 ,new ,york1 #aiae4 ,w4 ,h4 ,d4 ,rouse has reprinted ,william ,warner's ,elizabethan translation of ,menchmi with the ,latin text for the study of ,shakspere's ,comedy of ,errors1 ,london1 #aiab4 ,a second edition of ,f4 ,leo's ,plautinische ,forschungen zur ,kritik und ,geschichte der ,komdie appeared in ,berlin1 #aiab4 ,more recent studies are3 ,brasse1 ,m41 ,quatenus in fabulis ,plautinis et loci et temporis unitatibus species veritatis neglegatur 444 ,greifswald1 #aiad 7,breslau thesis72 ,schild1 ,erich1 ,die dramaturgische ,rolle der ,sklaven bei ,plautus und ,terenz1 ,basel 7thesis71 #aiag2 ,blanck1 ,w4 ,w41 ,the dramatic values in ,plautus1 ,geneva1 ,n4 ,y41 #aiah 7,pennsylvania thesis72 ,cole1 ,mrs4 ,h4 ,e41 ,deception in ,plautus1 a study in the technique of ,roman comedy1 with bibliography1 ,boston1 #aibj 7,bryn ,mawr thesis74 ,a complete translation of ,terence was privately printed for the ,roman ,society1 #aijj1 #b volumes1 with brief notes and partial bibliography4 ,the most useful available translation is that of the ,phormio by ,m4 ,h4 ,morgan1 ,cambridge1 ,mass41 #ahid1 with the ,latin text and reproductions of the ,vatican miniatures of costumes4 ,this play has been translated also by ,clark1 ,b4 ,h41 ,new ,york1 #aiae2 ,the ,self-tormentor1 by ,shuckburgh1 ,e4 ,s41 ,cambridge1 #ahfi1 and by ,ricord1 ,f4 ,w41 ,new ,york1 #ahhe4 ,the ,loeb ,classical ,library publishes the translation of ,john ,sargeaunt in #b volumes4 ,see also ,michaut1 ,g41 ,sur les trteaux latins 7histoire de la comdie romaine71 ,paris1 #aiab2 ,knapp1 ,c41 ,references in ,plautus and ,terence to plays1 players and playwrights1 ,classical ,philology1 xiv1 number #a 7,jan41 #aiai72 and a charming popular study by ,lematre1 ,j41 8,trence et ,molire10 in ,impressions de thtre1 vi 7#ahih7 #ae-bg4 ,the better to define ancient conceptions of comedy1 ,lane ,cooper reconstitutes ,an ,aristotelian ,theory of ,comedy1 with an adaptation of the ,poetics and a translation of the #8,tractatus ,coislinianus1' ,new ,york1 #aibb4 #be ,see the quotation from ,apuleius on page #bbh4 ,the ,onomasticon of ,julius ,pollux enumerates #dd masks sufficient for all the rles and all the situations of the ,new ,comedy3 #aj for old men1 #aj for young men1 #g for slaves1 #c for old women1 #ad for young women4 ,there are even stock names1 e4g41 ,davos and ,chremes4 ,miles gloriosus was taken over by ,latin comedy and again by ,french seventeenth-century comedy1 though in fact neither society had this ,athenian type4 ,over against him is the parasite1 often the mover of the intrigue4 ,the slave and he are the most active of the person4 7,this note is derived from ,lallier47 #bf ,the extreme case is the ,amphitruo of ,plautus with its two ,amphitryos and two ,sosias4 ,in ,menchmi the servants are doubled2 in ,bacchides1 the courtesans4 #bg ,greenough's translation of the argument1 prefacing ,morgan's translation of the play4 #bh ,plutarch1 ,mor41 ,de gloria ,atheniensium1 #cdg ,f4 #bi ,michaut 7#aci7 cites ,evanthius ,de ,fabula ,,iv4 #d and ,donatus4 ,statarius seems to be used1 in the prologue to the ,adelphi and in a passage cited by ,michaut from ,cicero's ,brutus xxx4 #aaf1 of acting4 ,knapp cites the prologue to the ,self-tormentor4 #cj 8,qui sim1 cur ad vos veniam paucis eloquar10 prol4 to ,bacchides2 and the play opens with both ladies together on the stage1 so that there can be no mistake4 ,terence1 who devotes his prologue usually to rebuttal of detraction1 sometimes devotes his whole first act to exposition4 ,,ii4 ,,narrative ,a4 ,,the ,,neid 7#a74 ,epic ,epic is now often divided into 8primitive10 8authentic10 or 8popular0 epic1 such as the ,iliad1 and 8artistic10 or 8literary0 epic1 such as the neid4 ,of the former the great example is ,homer4 ,the ,iliad and the ,odyssey remain1 for us as for the ancients1 supreme4 ,meantime the western ,european nations emerging in the early middle age expressed themselves in epics of original native force3 the ,roland1 the ,beowulf1 the ,nibelungenlied1 and some of the ,norse sagas4 ,to put these beside ,homer is to become aware of specific differences within a general likeness4 ,homer is both more ample and more finished4 ,primitive he certainly is not in any sense now recognized by anthropology4 ,even the word popular has for us implications quite inapplicable to the circulation of his day4 ,the classification of certain epics as primitive1 authentic1 or popular is based on the idea that these are characteristically communal1 expressing more the emotions of a whole homogeneous community1 less those of the individual poet4 ,it has even been held#a that such epic began in aggregation of tribal lays1 and that even the form in which it has come down to us is less the creation of any individual than the final artistic shaping of successive anonymous versions4 ,the theory of communal composition1 in this literal and extreme sense1 has been sharply challenged4 ,without denying the use of traditional material and form1 one may remain convinced that the ,iliad or the ,odyssey is the work of a single man1 whom we may as well continue to call ,homer1 and that he was not merely the mouthpiece of a community1 but a conscious and skilful artist4 ,that his art was not wasted on his community1 that this community was far from primitive1 there is ample evidence in the remains of its other arts4 ,the same direction of study leads to a similar conclusion for the later epics of this class4 ,the more we know of the middle ages1 the less warrant we find for calling these epics primitive4 ,true1 they are less finished than the ,iliad2 true1 they show clearer traces of old war-songs2 but neither their art nor the society for which it was shaped can accurately be called primitive4 ,alike the literary conventions of the poems themselves and the social conventions of their times rule such a characterization out4 ,the 8,gothic night0 fancied by supercilious eighteenth-century critics1 the 8dark ages0 of imperfect historians1 are found to have had considerable illumination4 ,nevertheless the twofold classification of epic1 in spite of the inaccuracy of its terms1 has some significance4 ,earlier epic1 what we might call primary epic1 is in fact more directly answerable to a homogeneous community4 ,its unknown poets evidently felt themselves to be spokesmen of communal emotions and achievements2 and the world that they saw they expressed with less intervention4 ,as if they were transmitters rather than creators1 they expressed not themselves so much as their people4 ,this people1 too1 was in that stage of civilization in which foray and warfare by small groups brought out individual heroes and kept life precarious and simple4 ,booty and food1 a fine sword and a fine web1 still had immediate appeal2 and the physical sensations of battle-strain and sweat1 of ceaseless surf and darkening deep1 were still common experience4 ,thus primary epic1 communal and objective1 has the directness of immediacy4 ,arising from those simpler emotions which we all feel together1 primitive perhaps in that sense1 and expressing them in terms of familiar physical sensations1 it has its own inimitable flavor4 ,later1 or secondary1 epic is not the transmission of legends still active1 but the re-creation of a past already remote4 ,still appealing to a communal sense of the heroic1 it adapts the old epic mode to an audience more sophisticated not only in life1 but in poetic art4 ,the poet is thus at once more imitative and more original4 ,he binds himself by traditions of subject-matter1 of form1 and of style2 but within this recognized mode he composes with more individual freedom and to a more definite end4 ,relying less on scenes in a series1 he selects and manipulates toward more artistic sequence4 ,since his descriptions must be less immediate1 he develops the art of narrative4 ,endeavoring to remain the spokesman of his people--for otherwise he must forfeit the communal mainspring of epic--he interprets their past by his own message for their future4 ,thus he may be all the more a poet1 or maker4 ,he cannot hope for the fresh immediacy of primary epic2 but in compensation he has greater opportunity to move his people by his own vision4 ,milton's conception1 vast as is its scope1 is essentially the same4 ,he interprets the ,bible as the epic of mankind in terms of a ,puritan theocracy4 ,tasso re-creates a departed chivalry to animate a vision of devotion and redemption4 ,vergil1 the great example of secondary epic1 makes of the ,trojan story1 of ,roman legend1 of myth and cult and drama and history1 of all that enriched the ,roman past1 a progressive vision of ,roman destiny4 ,primary epic and secondary epic1 though thus distinguishable1 are both epic4 ,they are complementary4 ,they reveal different capacities of a single artistic mode4 ,epic is constant4 ,it was2 it was again2 it is2 for aught that we can see1 it will be4 ,extended poetic narrative of great deeds for communal inspiration1 though it has never been common1 has never been extinct4 ,primary epic seems inevitable4 ,the minstrel in the hall of ,hrothgar is poetically identical with the minstrel in the hall of ,alcinous4#b ,both hint to us of what epic was made1 and how2 both show us its constancy4 ,this primary form of epic can never1 of course1 recur4 ,it has been civilized away4 ,but meantime it has established a poetic art that is permanent4 ,the word epic still connotes a distinct mode4 ,to this ,vergil deliberately conformed1 and ,milton4 ,secondary epic is still epic4 ,what1 then1 are seen to be in ancient practise the essentials of epic8 ,first1 its inspiration and its appeal are communal4 ,by contrast the modern novel1 which is also extended narrative and also within ,aristotle's definition of poetic1 is seen to be individual2 or1 where in exceptional cases it is broader and simpler1#c is often distinguished by criticism as having epic appeal4 ,then1 epic is in style objective4 ,it narrates habitually without interposition1 by images visual1 auditory1 motor4 ,its scenery is merely the background of heroic activity4 ,its speeches are in primary epic for characterization1 not for plot4 ,there is no plot in the dramatic sense for the whole2 and such as there is for component parts is only to bring out persons4 ,the object of epic being persons1 its commonest descriptive details are of personal activity3 attitude1 movement1 speech1 gesture4 ,the method is to suggest that heroic life by its physical sensations1 to make the characters1 as ,aristotle says1#d reveal themselves4 ,epic gives few reflections4 ,it does not comment even on ,helen's coming to the ,scan gates1 or on ,hector's parting from ,andromache2 it merely describes4 ,this objectivity is a main means of epic directness4 ,the characteristic form of epic#e is for scope and variety4 ,drama is intensive2 epic is extensive4 ,it has time to give us a sense of the fulness of life2 and its movement does not preclude excursions4 ,we meet many people and see them in various aspects4 ,we can linger over a scene for itself without being urged forward4 ,continuity may be but leisurely succession from scene to scene4 ,a scene may within itself have dramatic progress2 but the movement of the whole has not the dramatic causal compulsion4 ,drama has its characteristic force through unity4 ,unity in epic is neither compelling nor compulsory4 ,in fact1 to stretch the term unity over epic tends to deprive it of all force4 ,no epic poet has ever composed more carefully than ,vergil1 or with keener awareness of the ways of drama4 ,the neid was composed as a whole2 its parts were carefully adjusted to a plan1 and its plan was controlled by a single idea4 ,epic has never gone further toward unity2 and ,homer never dreamed of going so far4 ,but even such dramatization of epic as ,vergil's has time for the funeral games1 and does not sacrifice to the story of ,rome the story and the person of ,dido4 ,in poetic1 unity means nothing unless it means unity of form4 ,this epic cannot have as a whole4 ,nor does any one regret the lack1 or think it a fault4 ,the unity of drama is for intensity2 the object of epic is the realization not of a crisis1 but of great persons in a long and various course4 ,so the style of epic is typically sonorous and high4 ,height of style may be attained by simplicity1 and epic is simple often1 but not always4 ,to speak of epic as characteristically simple is to belie much of ,homer and most of ,vergil and ,milton4 ,epic is not characteristically1 nor even usually1 simple4 ,it may be very elaborate4 ,it begins by assuming a language recognized as on a higher plane than that of ordinary speech4 ,the epithets of the ,iliad or the ,beowulf are a poetical convention2 and the style of epic proceeds always by conscious art4 ,here is the poet who1 daring to sing great deeds1 means to sing them greatly4 ,that the effort may end in frigidity or bombast means only that there is bad epic as well as good2 it does not mean that epic should be simple4 ,epic poets have never thought so4 ,the poets of primary epic1 no less than ,vergil or ,milton1 were occupied with style4 ,for the term epic has always implied greatness4 ,it is a word of praise4 ,it means a story of greatness told greatly4 ,homer was for the ancient ,greek world1 and ,vergil became for the ,roman world1 a ,bible of style4 ,both were conned in school not only for the examples of their great persons1 but for the study of language4 ,that their connotation was immeasurably enriched1 their 8sublimity0 heightened1 not only by rhythm1 but by verse1 no one will deny4 ,it is even possible to feel in ,milton's verse a beauty separable from that of his ideas1 and greater1 lifting his narrow and political theology to wider import4 ,aristotle#f remarks upon the appropriateness to epic of the ,greek dactylic hexameter4 ,dionysius#g even finds control of rhythms to be ,homer's main poetic means4 ,we are more inclined to admit this view for ,milton2 but the ultimate truth is that we should not1 except for analysis1 separate verse from the other elements of style4 ,that every great epic poet has been a masterly metrist means rather that for 8the height of this great argument0 he felt the need of all that verse can add of suggestiveness4 ,though prose epic1 as ,aristotle admits by implication1 is quite conceivable1 it has to move on a lower plane4 ,the ,norse sagas are more direct even than ,homer1 starker in narrative force as if stripped for action1 equally expressive of communal emotions1 equally vivid in characterization4 ,they have all the epic means but one4 ,that single lack does not1 indeed1 relegate them to a different class2 but it shows by contrast that for its full realization epic demands verse4 7#b74 ,the ,conception and ,scope of the neid ,the whole poetic art of ancient epic is exhibited in the neid4 ,setting aside those interesting historical questions of epic origins1 growth1 and transmission which in the study of ,homer can hardly be ignored1 and on the other hand including the whole range of epic1 secondary as well as primary1 we can learn best from the great poet who devoted his mature years to conceiving1 planning1 and reshaping the epic of ,rome4 ,the artistic scope of the neid1 as well as its artistic eminence1 long secure beyond cavil1 has been reaffirmed by recent criticism4 ,sainte-,beuve calls ,vergil 8le pote de la ,latinit tout entire40#h ,mackail1 whose studies have been primarily ,greek1 exalts the neid afresh4#i ,woodberry1 whose criticism has been mainly of ,english literature1 says3 8,the distinctive feature of the #8neid' is the arc of time it covers1 the burden of time it supports10 and again1 8,the #8neid' is1 ,i think1 the greatest single book written by man because of its inclusiveness of human life1 of life long lived in the things of life40#aj ,the idea of ,roman destiny1 animating the neid throughout1 is something larger than the nationalism of other epics4 ,it is imperialism1 and of a spirit generous enough to win the sympathy of ,dante4 ,it has not the occasional character of such a nationalist story1 for instance1 as ,geoffrey of ,monmouth's ,historia ,regum ,britanni4 ,in a time of corrupt politics it is above political opportunism4 ,its ,rome is not merely the throne of ,augustus2 it is the government of the world4 ,its ,romanism is less political than religious4 8,pius neas0 is more typical than 8much-enduring ,odysseus0 of the struggle of man for an abode of justice and peace4 ,this1 more than the personal glory that humanism centuries afterward read from the classics1 is the conception of the neid4 ,the destiny of ,rome reveals the hope of mankind2 and the neid has the whole epic scope4 ,hardly less than ,milton1 ,vergil justifies the ways of ,god to man4 7#c74 ,the ,narrative ,movement of the neid#aa ,that the neid has a controlling idea implies that it is artistically shaped to stricter continuity than appears in the ,homeric model4 ,the ,iliad and the ,odyssey are everywhere freer4 ,homer writes a scene for itself2 ,vergil also for its significance in a progress4#ab ,salience is sought by careful subordination4 ,the ,carthaginians1 for instance1 are not elaborated as are the ,italian tribes4#ac ,the slaughter of the last night of ,troy is confined to a few vivid scenes4 ,using ,hellenistic versions and evidently studious of their art1 ,vergil deliberately rejects their decorative detail and sentimental dilation4 ,he reduces the mating of neas with ,dido to a grave summary1#ad in order to give salience to those other emotions which for the neid as a whole were leading4 neas does1 indeed1 in the fourth book yield his position as protagonist to the queen who among ,vergil's person is the great individual2 but even so strong an impulse of creative inspiration does not drive the poet from his main purpose4 ,one of the few great love-stories1 the fourth book is still held1 as it were by force1 to the larger story of mission4 ,the same art deals with the gods4 ,they were for ,vergil necessary to epic2 they embodied at once the traditional sense of supernatural response in natural forces and ,vergil's own sense of divine guidance4 ,but they rarely interpose1 and never interrupt4 ,they work through men2 and the course of events is always amply explained by human motive4 ,the foundations of ,troy were shaken by divine wrath2 but we see them dislocated by human agency4 ,the revengefulness of ,juno1 the protection of ,venus1 seem the more plausible because they operate through the passion of ,dido4 ,the one yields in the end1 and the other prevails1 because neas realizes his mission4 ,olympus1 now ordered within itself under a calm and absolute ruler1 expresses and animates1 not interrupts1 the progress of human order4 ,thus ,vergil's gods are more than 8epic machinery10 and more than personification4 ,the thoughts of men are not merely expressed conventionally in archaic personal shapes2 they are seen at once as determining each decisive action and as inspired by divine purpose4 ,for not only has the neid a more consistent theology than the ,iliad2 it is also more religious4 ,the most frequent examples of ,vergil's subordination are in his fine art of description4 ,picturesque with brilliant color1 as well as with the ,homeric light and motion1#ae and as precise as they are vivid1 his descriptions are rarely separable4 ,not only are they contributory to the action2 they are also inwoven4#af ,vergil's sensitiveness to the details of nature transpires in a sentence1 even in single words1#ag which describe while they narrate4 ,here he discerned the artistic rightness by which ,homer describes every thing movable as in motion1#ah and applied the principle with more careful attention to narrative continuity4 ,he dispenses with ,homer's superfluous mechanism of transition4#ai ,memorable as are the descriptions--and nothing in the neid is better remembered--very few can be detached from the context for separate admiration4#bj ,the detailing of architecture and decoration1 though it unduly seized the fancy of the middle ages1 is hardly an exception4 ,the ,carthaginian pictures of ,troy1 the palace of ,latinus1 are there not for scene-painting1 but for historic suggestion4 ,they serve the story4 ,thus ,vergil's descriptive art is at once less ample than ,homer's and more specifically subsidiary4 ,the ,hellenistic tableau-- is its ominous name--appears in the glittering conventional pauses of ,ovid4 ,vergil had put it aside4 ,this is the more remarkable because the ancients seem generally to have regarded certain scenes--battle1 for instance1 conflagration1 storm1 thwarted love--as rather description than narration4#ba ,vergil1 while he works even more than ,homer to make us realize a scene by sharing in it as actors1#bb works also to avoid interruption of the story4 ,similar is the constant care to avoid interruption of time or place4#bc ,vergil's unremitting prevision and revision have obviated any time-lapse that is insignificant for the action4 ,the ,homeric device of bringing in antecedent action by retrospective narrative is used more artistically4 ,while it covers ground1 extending the time-lapse beyond the stage1 the narrative of neas heightens the love of ,dido before our eyes4 ,she loved me for the dangers ,i had passed2 ,and ,i loved her that she did pity them4 ,it is a larger achievement1 one of the greatest1#bd to heighten epic by suggesting vast reaches of time1 from tribal wanderings through wars of conquest to the reign of law4 ,here is the artistic significance of the visit in ,book ,,vi to the world of the dead and the unborn1 which1 as ,mackail says1 8slips in the keystone40 ,to compare the visit of ,odysseus to the shades is to see ,vergil's higher art of composition4 ,but the suggestion of the great loom of time 7tot volvere casus7 is not confined to a single artistic device2 it is pervasive from the opening words through a hundred careful allusions2 and it makes the neid wider than the ,iliad or the ,odyssey by making it constantly suggestive of the whole struggle of history4 ,it reveals more explicitly the struggles of heroic men as the struggle of man4 ,thus the oft-repeated objection that the neid breaks into halves is superficial4 ,the break would not have been thought of if ,vergil had not been seen to be working for a continuity stricter than ,homer's4 ,stated baldly by ,tyrrell1 the idea that the neid is an ,odyssey plus an ,iliad presupposes a sort of imitation to which ,vergil shows himself everywhere superior4 ,it would be as near the truth to reply that the neid is neither an ,odyssey nor an ,iliad4 ,but prototypes aside1 how and how far is the neid held together8 ,surely by the most careful articulation ever seen in epic1 but surely not to the degree of drama4 ,among the evidences of revision are indications that the plan for the wanderings of neas was first achieved#be when much of the poem was already written4 ,the adjustment of this part to the whole course1 a technic hardly explored by ,homer1 and the abbreviations of the wanderings by careful selection1 are of a piece with the consistent connection by repetition of the theme1 from the opening lines1 ,troj qui primus ab oris ,italiam1 fato profugus1 throughout the whole poem4 ,true1 the seventh book invokes ,erato for scenes of battle4 ,maior rerum mihi nascitur ordo2 ,maius opus moveo4 ,the following scenes are different1 but not the theme4 ,the art that deliberately avoided ,homer's succession of battles by interposing such scenes as ,evander's achieved more than variety4 ,it suggests again and again what the battles were for4 ,the close upon the tragic death of ,turnus becomes more than the personal victory of the hero2 it is the triumph1 over violentia1 over such individual prowess as ,homer glorified1 over personal ambition thwarting the state1 of fortitude bringing in religion and law4 ,but to ask therefore that the whole movement of the neid should be unified is at once to recognize ,vergil's art of continuity and to demand for epic the strictness of drama4 ,that ,vergil understood drama1 that his art learned not only from ,greek epic1 but from ,greek tragedy1 was pointed out by ,nettleship and is important to remember4 ,but he is too great a master of his chosen form to sacrifice epic scope4 ,how1 then1 is the neid dramatic8 ,in the composition of the whole only by such preparations and recurrences as add to the vividness of parts suggestions of their bearing4 ,having planned a progress of events1 not merely a series1 ,vergil marks that progress by such articulation as had been used to this extent only in drama4 ,in the composition of the parts singly his art is more dramatic4 ,the neid as a whole is not dramatically unified1 and could not be4 ,what is unified is each book4#bf ,for purposes of recitation1 epic had to be composed1 whether as a whole or not1 in distinct parts4 ,of this necessity ,vergil made a virtue4 ,he advanced the narrative art of situation by applying some of the technic of drama4 ,this is conspicuous in his frequent use of peripety4 ,again1 the memorable and well remembered ,laokon scene is interposed between the ,sinon scenes4 ,each is made to heighten the other1 and both to give first suspense and then compelling motive to the bringing in of the fatal horse4 ,again and again ,vergil will be found thus to intensify his narrative by the technic of drama4 ,the most obvious instance is the distinct group of scenes at ,carthage4 ,the entrance of ,dido is in the dramatic sense and by dramatic methods prepared4 ,first1 neas hears of her from his goddess mother1 and is kindled by her having achieved his own epic mission--dux femina facti4 ,follows his view of the city1 big already in achievement1 big also to every ,roman listener with menace4 ,then the decorative pictures at once review the tragedy of ,troy and reveal in this strong queen a propitious sympathy4 ,upon all this1 as to a waiting stage and a waiting audience1 enter ,dido4#bg ,moreover in the ,dido scenes1 instead of contenting himself with that mere strife of emotions which was familiar in ,hellenistic poetry#bh and became a rhetorical commonplace with ,ovid1 ,vergil advances and heightens the leading emotion steadily1 as in a play1 up to its tragic close4 ,the close is the inevitable result of something more than thwarted passion because ,dido has been presented dramatically1 without concession to the ,hellenistic narrative dilation1 by what she said and did4 ,vergil's ,dido is a creation every way beyond the ,medea of ,apollonius4 ,she must be placed beside the ,medea of ,euripides4 ,in her consistent tragic nobility1 in the higher morality of her appeal1 perhaps she must be placed above4 ,for the fourth book of the neid1 as fully as the ,antigone1 is tragic in its purgation of pity and fear4 ,thus to apply drama to narrative without sacrificing the typical epic opportunities of fulness and scope is among the greatest achievements of poetic4 ,it is an art so far beyond any other ancient narrative as to remain solitary until ,dante2 and ,dante's guide was ,vergil4 ,it guided also the creative hand of ,milton4 ,and not for epic only1 but for all imaginative story1 the art of the neid remains a test and a guide4 ,in this sense he who became for medieval ,latinists the poet1 as ,cicero was the orator1 remains ,master ,vergil4 7#d74 ,characterization in the neid ,to turn from the narrative movement to the persons is to descend4 ,at once we feel that the achievement is less and that the method is less fruitful for narrative art because it is less distinctively poetic4 ,vergil's narrative composition has universal validity2 but his characterization1 for the most part1 is only ,latin4 ,it had none the less influence on the middle ages--perhaps all the more2 but it had the less inspiration for later creations4 ,to estimate ,vergil's characterization fairly1 it is necessary first to remove certain misconceptions4 ,he has been reproached for leaving in our minds few outstanding figures3 ,turnus1 ,evander1 ,mezentius1 ,pallas1 ,nisus and ,euryalus4 ,some of these1 like the ,camilla whom ,dante remembers1 are only sketched2 and most of them are secondary4 ,now though this is paucity beside the populous pages of ,homer1 we must remember that ,vergil's whole roster of heroes is smaller deliberately because1 much more than ,homer's1 they are dramatis person4 ,he makes the dramatic innovation of focusing on a few and of subordinating the development even of these to the development of the theme4 ,a more frequent objection is that throughout the latter part of the poem the hero is no longer neas1 but ,turnus4 ,this is to use the word hero in a sense that ,vergil would hardly have understood4 ,seeing ,turnus through centuries of romance1 we are so occupied with his bravoure as readily to forget that ,vergil's neas is not meant to have the interest or the significance of ,king ,arthur4 ,nor1 we should add1 is he meant to have the interest of ,achilles4 ,his individual prowess is only incidental to his dominant fortitude4 ,the achievement of personal glory is behind him4 8,he has outlived his personal life40#bi ,his work is to found the ,roman people4 ,the characterization of neas1 moreover1 shows a certain development4#cj ,he shows more growth than 8much-enduring ,odysseus40 ,the battle frenzy of the return to the doomed city 7arma amens capio71 the vacillation at ,carthage1 are put forever behind4 ,he becomes progressively more steadfast4 ,always pius1 he enlarges his pietas into calm assurance of mission4 ,as for the story1 so for the characterization of the hero1 the sixth book is the critical stage of a progress4 ,the creative power of ,vergil is amply vindicated by ,dido4 ,one may feel that she is too vivid for her function1 that she takes the stage1 as actors say1 away from neas1 that through her the nice planning of the whole is quite warped4 ,we shall doubtless never be able to judge this as ,romans4 ,perhaps even they were more absorbed than ,vergil intended in his tragic queen4#ca ,perhaps ,vergil himself was swerved by his own creation4 ,but all this only reinforces the testimony to a compelling characterization4 ,there may be difference of opinion as to ,dido's part in the story2 there can be none as to ,dido herself4 ,but our estimates thus duly corrected1 we cannot but feel that ,dido stands out among the figures of the neid because she is exceptional4 ,we feel her to be drawn not only better1 but often differently4 ,and this should lead to scrutiny of ,vergil's habitual method4 ,to begin with1 it is everywhere apparent that he cares less than ,homer for individuality4 ,a certain expansiveness in ,homeric dialogue often keeps the story waiting to give the individual his say4 ,vergil shifts the proportions4 ,he rejects long dialogues because he is more interested in narrative economy than in personal expressiveness4 ,further1 the speeches are often more reasoned than ,homer's1 more orderly1 less like conversation and more like oratory4#cb ,sinon's are very naturally elaborate pieces of special pleading1 and the rhetoric of ,drances against ,turnus is appropriate in a deliberative assembly2 but the making of successive points1 and the careful adaptation of style not only to the speaker1 but to the hearer1 are habitual1 as even in the speech of ,allecto to ,turnus4 ,in this reasoned order1 rather than in any mere elaboration1 ,heinze finds ,vergil to be rhetorical4 ,instead of following the pace of emotional utterance1 abrupt and disjointed1 he sometimes holds even violent emotion to a steady course4 ,by thus composing emotional expression he sometimes sacrifices directness of characterization4#cc ,indeed1 ,vergil is generally less concerned than ,homer with creating individuals1 and more concerned with showing his persons as types4 ,whether the loss in individual distinctness is compensated by a gain in common consent opens a long debate4 ,modern taste inclines rather to ,homer than to ,vergil2 but between stretch centuries of ,latin habit1 and that habit1 best exemplified in ,vergil1 is to characterize typically4 ,this method of idealization may in ,vergil's case have ,stoic preoccupations2#cd but more generally it is rhetorical4 ,to characterize by age1 sex1 race1 occupation1 etc41 is a prescription of rhetoric#ce fixed in recipes and school exercises4 ,it was dilated into ingenious fictions by the declamatores4 ,ovid's characterization hardly rises above the schools4 ,vergil was too great to move on that level2 but even he is preoccupied with that ideal and generally content with that method4 ,he carried the method as far1 perhaps1 as it will go4 ,that except in subordinate sketches he departed from it only in one surpassing instance is doubtless the fundamental reason for our finding his characterization inferior to his composition4 7#e74 ,epic ,diction ,generations have felt in the neid1 first of all1 high and constant beauty4 ,no other great poem has seemed more infallibly beautiful4 ,the beauty has sometimes1 indeed1 been acknowledged with a certain disparagement1 as if it implied the less strength2 but so perverse an antithesis cannot delay attention except to the fact that ,vergil is beautiful even to his detractors4 ,the worst that has been said of his style is that it is sometimes inappropriately elaborate4#cf atque arida circum ,nutrimenta dedit1 rapuitque in fomite flammam4 ,tum ,cererem corruptam undis ,cerealiaque arma ,expediunt fessi rerum2 frugesque receptas ,et torrere parant flammis et frangere saxo4 ,i4 #age4 ,this1 it must be admitted1 seems comparatively remote and unreal beside similar meals in ,homer1 and absolutely too high a style for camp cookery4 ,nor is it safe to urge that ,vergil is holding his style to the epic level2 for that plea opens the way to such mere etiquette as centuries later quite deviated the discussion of epic from its main issues1 and1 besides1 ,vergil himself does not thus describe ,dares and ,entellus4 ,no1 the plea must be rather of confession and avoidance4 ,such passages are not beautiful1 and their style is not epic2 but they are so few that to call them characteristic is quite unfair4 ,nor are they to be ascribed to preoccupation with rhetoric4 ,vergil is1 indeed1 sometimes more oratorical#cg than we wish2 but he is not1 in our modern sense rhetorical1 and his rhetoric1 no less than his poetic1 must have found such passages inferior4 ,rather we may think that these few 8rubs and botches in the work0 were what led him to wish it burned2 for after all his revision he was acutely conscious that it was unfinished4 ,unfinished in form it certainly is not4 ,unfinished in style it is here and there4 ,but what a sense of beauty had the artist who could not bear even so few blemishes6 ,not elaborateness1 then1 is characteristic of ,vergil's style1 but certainly elaboration4 ,his tireless revision is testified by the tradition that he composed first in prose1 and that he spent on the neid ten years4#ch ,no style is more highly charged4 ,it is made to suggest at once vivid descriptive imagery and the sanctions of history and religion4 ,not only the story1 but the diction1 is full of ,rome4 ,his use of the language of ,roman ritual#ci is characteristic of an expression piously preservative of cult4 8,by instinct and temper a ritualist10#dj he is continually suggesting the significance of traditional forms4 ,the ,iliad and the ,odyssey are in a special dialect4 ,the ,faery ,queene has a language of its own4 ,to achieve such suggestions in the neid with but the slightest resort to archaism is in itself a great achievement of language2 but it is only part of a consistent allusiveness1 an extraordinary connotation1 ranging the whole gamut from sharp physical sensations to spiritual significance4 ,a style eminently classic in precision and harmony is yet felt to be above all rich4 ,no other poet seems more nearly infallible with the right word2 no other so well to have charged classic restraint with romantic exuberance by the energy of his expressiveness4 ,the influence of ,vergil1 immediate1 wide1 and long1 is indubitably the influence of his style4 ,later ages1 unappreciative of the poetic art of his composition1 felt the spell of his imagery and rhythm almost as an incantation4 8,virgil is that poet whose verse has had most power in the world40#da 7#f74 ,originality in ,imitation ,the notion that imitation must be subversive of originality betrays a crude conception of both4 ,yet it lingers in such criticism as thinks the neid to be a ,latin ,iliad and ,odyssey4 ,to measure it so is to miss not only the art of a single great poem1 but much of all poetic art4 ,for since all art works in forms received and recognized1 less by invention than by transformation1 it is of cardinal significance to distinguish1 in a poem conspicuously imitative and conspicuously original1 just what artistic imitation is4 ,therefore what has been implied in the preceding sections may here be drawn together in summary4 ,imitation is always of movement or style2 it has nothing to do with material4 ,to preface this should be superfluous2 but many quests for 8sources0 have left some confusion4 ,vergil took much of the ,trojan story from ,homer4 ,to be sure1 he used other sources too4 ,nothing is more remarkable in the neid than the wealth and variety of its material4 ,its sources are beyond the dreams of ,homer4 ,but even if ,vergil's material were all ,homeric1 he would not on that account be the more imitative4 ,ancient literature1 and medival too1 generally make freer with preceding stories than modern4 ,the material is not thought to be any one's property4 ,in this respect ,vergil is singularly independent4 ,he uses more sources2 he is more selective2 and what he adopts is often a composite4 ,he works in the modern way rather than in the ancient2 but he is not on that account either more or less imitative4 ,some of ,shakspere's plays derive their plots from single sources2 some are in plot composite2 but all are alike original4 ,a modern ,french tragedy took the plot not only of an ancient story1 but of the best known of all ancient plays4 ,it is none the less original2 and its imitation1 as all artistic imitation1 is of the ancient technic4 ,imitation in art1 then1 means following certain artistic ways4 ,to begin with1 ,vergil evidently set out to write an epic1 and undoubtedly looked to ,homeric epic as a type4 ,this is important not only in his case1 but throughout literary history4 ,though its importance may be exaggerated in ,brunetire's volution des genres1 evidently epic meant something controlling to ,vergil because of ,homer1 and has meant something wider ever since because of ,vergil4 ,to any poet1 to ,tasso and ,milton as to ,vergil1 epic necessarily implies a pattern4 ,it directs and limits person and diction2 but it does not hamper artistic progress1 for it does not limit interpretation4 ,vergil remade not only the epic material1 but the epic form1 to a new end4 ,his ,sinon#db is a typical instance of artistic rehandling4 ,drawn doubtless from several ancient sources1 he has become through his new function and motivation creatively original4 ,battles there must be in epic1 even battles of the ,homeric sort2 but ,vergil does not rely on the general mle2 he modifies it subtly in the direction of the more organized ,roman fighting1 and he changes the ,homeric series into a progress4 ,in short1 even where he is perforce most dependent on ,homer1 his imitation is never repetition4 ,imitation is creative when it adapts the art of the past to the interpretation of the present4 ,the neid is not a ,latin ,iliad2 it is a ,roman epic4 ,vergil's adaptation of the epic movement involves a departure from ,homer in the direction of drama4#dc ,how1 and how far1 imitation of drama can serve extended narrative we learn fully from him because he imitates selectively4 ,he does not try to make his story a play1 or merely a series of plays2 he finds how far epic can be conducted dramatically without sacrificing its epic appeal4 ,no less selectively he rejects the ,hellenistic technic of ,apollonius4#dd ,epic diction1 he discerns1 in order to have the old communal appeal1 must sound traditional2 but echo of ,homeric style would make it sound merely conventional4 ,he gives it traditional connotation by means of his own4 ,his diction1 therefore1 is far less imitative than his composition4 ,in fact1 it is rarely imitative at all4 ,in the limits1 no less than in the method1 of his imitation his art runs true4 ,through that obedience which great artists yield to the art that they inherit he shows the way to imaginative freedom4 ,b4 ,,the ,,narrative ,,poetry ,,of ,,ovid ,among the ,latin poets ,vergil has the siege perilous4 ,he achieved that high poetic emprise beside which others must seem less4 ,in comparison no one suffers more than ,ovid4#de ,yet he who presented the gods without seeing their divinity1 and retold the myths instead of recreating them1 has literary qualities not only striking1 but at once typical of his time and very widely influential4 ,vergil has been revered2 but ,ovid has been imitated and absorbed4 ,without attempting to measure his brilliancy1 it is necessary to distinguish the characteristic habits of a poetic whose influence spread over western ,europe4 ,that poetic is seen at once to be unfailingly expert in every artistic detail4 ,its metrical facility1 proverbial#df from the first and instructive of the verse of many centuries and many lands1 is only the most obvious skill of a man who loved style4 ,though he does not make a habit of the elegiac tendency to rime1 he plays variously upon alliteration and other consonance2#dg and his use of refrain suggests those stanza patterns set centuries later by ,french courtly makers in rondel#dh and ballade4#di ,for though he knows the subtlest spells of sound1 ,ovid is never neglectful of such notes as must catch the ear4 ,his verse is more than popular2 but it is popular1 and many a ,spaniard1 ,gaul1 and ,briton has been grateful to feel its music running in his head4 ,equally obvious is ,ovid's decorative description4 ,its bent is not toward epic suggestion of character by attitude1 gesture1 and action1 but toward picturesqueness4 ,bright imagery garnishes the familiar4 ,groves and streams and their tutelary nymphs1 men1 women1 and gods1 are not individualized2 they are merely realized4 ,but what exuberance of suggestion6 ,to open dull eyes and spur jaded feelings1 to vivify a legendary scene1 to dilate a conventional mood1 to redecorate an old landscape1 ,ovid had an inexhaustible fund4 ,for he elevated poetic convention to a fine art4 ,a storm at sea#ej lacks none of the properties2 a fainting heroine or hero1#ea no appropriate gesture4 ,the pallor of love can move once more1#eb and the golden age#ec make the over-civilized pensive4 8,mortal art thou1 or divine80 was said by ,odysseus to ,nausikaa when gods walked with men2 but ,ovid had the art to repeat it#ed when the gods were dead4 ,repeat8 ,he himself became the pattern of these things for centuries4 ,not only is he forever the poet of 8,gather ye roses while ye may10 but 8,stay1 dawn2 why must thou haste80#ee echoed across ,europe1#ef was heard in the cry of ,chaucer's ,troilus#eg and ,shakspere's ,juliet1#eh and still reverberates4 ,the ,alexandrian#ei dilation of such description#fj appears also in the long-drawn emotions of soliloquy4#fa ,the fixing of this as a literary type must have been promoted by the prevalence of the schools of declamatio1#fb where ,ovid had studied4 ,practised in elementary form even by ,roman schoolboys1 developed by declamatores in exhibitions of virtuosity1 the fiction of what so-and-so must have said on such-and-such an occasion is still a rhetorical exercise4 ,as an exercise it has some value in promoting poetic appreciation2 but it seems hardly the way toward poetic creation4 ,ovid1 at any rate1 hardly creates persons4 ,the address of ,sol1 for instance1 to ,phathon1#fc is only a more extended and more professional school theme2 and the mixture of allegorical personification with myth#fd shows him rather as a rhetorician#fe than as a poet4 ,that he is not a myth-maker1 only a myth-teller1 may be seen by putting any of his demigods beside the ,prometheus of schylus--or even the ,prometheus of ,shelley4 ,for re-creation ,ovid lacked what the ,great ,unknown#ff thought to be the primary source of expression1 intellectual vigor of conception4 ,thus his mythical persons1 though always appropriate and sometimes vivid1 are not alive4 ,more has been claimed for his story-telling4 ,cruttwell#fg says of the ,metamorphoses3 8,the skill with which different legends are woven into the fabric of the composition is as marvellous as the frivolous dilettantism which could treat a long heroic poem in such a way40 ,the skill of the weaving is indisputable2 but is it more than an art of transition8 ,to call the ,metamorphoses a long heroic poem suggests a cruel comparison with the neid1 and partly begs the question4 ,what ,ovid seems to have intended1 and what he achieved1 is a deftly articulated collection4 ,it is not a single poem in the sense of having emotional progress or totality1 nor is any other of ,ovid's collections4 ,his distinctively narrative art1 therefore1 is to be sought not in the connection between stories1 but in the composition of each one4 ,it is even probable that this art was the more popular because it offered1 not a long sustained narrative1 but many separable short tales4 ,the 8vivid inventiveness0 and 8unflagging animation0 urged by ,owen#fh as characteristic of ,ovidian narrative may be accepted without discussion1 and should not be undervalued4 ,inventiveness was overvalued1 indeed1 in the melodramatic fictions of declamatio1 and implies an art rather facile than creative2 but it is none the less sure of popularity4 ,as for animation1 whatever else a story may be1 it may not be dull4 ,here ,ovid often wins by his very levity4 ,he makes no demands4 ,no one can be followed more easily2 for he moves on the surface4 ,where he skates on thin ice1 he does so quite simply for excitement4 ,there is none of the modern pretense of exploration4 ,his problems are purely artistic1 problems not of motive1 but of interesting mood and attitude1 of appropriate and various utterance4 ,his animation1 partly rhythmical1 partly descriptive1 is more largely unflagging expressiveness4 ,always expressive1 his people can always be understood without effort4 ,he holds attention without provoking thought4 ,the 8rapid movement0 claimed by ,owen is often mere succinctness1 rarely the speed gained by modern narrative use of dramatic technic4 ,for that he usually has too much separable description1 too much soliloquy1 too little motivation4 ,he seeks intensity less often than expansiveness4 ,nevertheless1 though he pauses deliberately for description or tirade1 he does not lag4 ,there is no clumsy prosing or deviation4 ,he has the art1 more valued in ancient and medieval times than in modern1 of lucid1 fluent narrative1 the art of the tale4 ,that he does not follow it oftener is due to his readers' fondness1 and his own1 for dilation4 ,the onward movement of poetic is thus sacrificed to rhetoric4 ,the parts become more important than the whole4 ,for ,ovid was a rhetorician1 not only bred in the schools1 but habitually thinking of poetry less as composed movement than as lucid and brilliant1 as ample and harmonious style4 ,c4 ,,the ,,metamorphoses ,,of ,,apuleius ,sighting from the ,metamorphoses of ,ovid through the ,metamorphoses of ,apuleius1#fi one clearly discerns the coming of the ,greek ,romances4 ,so runs the ,alexandrian narrative line from decorative description and expansive emotion1 through exciting incident and uncontrolled variety1#gj to sheer violence4 ,ovid's stories are sometimes like dreams2 the ,greek ,romances are nightmares4 ,apuleius1 between the two1 already seeks the violent and the bizarre4 ,his metamorphoses are no longer mythical1 nor in the least allegorical2 they are mere sorcery4 ,the appetite of his time for horrors and other excitement had been both fed and whetted by declamatio4#ga ,ovid1 too1 knew declamatio2 but ,apuleius1 himself a rhetor1 was less restrained by earlier literary standards from giving rein to the sensational4 ,though the bulk of his extant work is narrative1 ,apuleius devotes no attention to onward narrative movement4 ,superficially continuous1 his ,metamorphoses are nevertheless often quite separable1 as is evident in the most famous of them1 ,cupid and ,psyche4 ,such course of plot as there is eddies in harangues1 tirades and decorative descriptions4 ,the abundant dialogue is uncontrolled by dramatic concision4 ,everywhere ,apuleius is orally expansive4 ,a rhetor telling stories1 he goes little beyond the poetic of the platform3 work for excitement1 relying on lust and witchcraft2 expand what is showy1 emphasizing each part without regard to sequence2 use dialogue for variety1 letting prosopopia suffice for characterization2 and if nevertheless the tale lags or becomes confused1 make a fresh start by bringing on brigands4 ,this habit of mind1 and not the incidental satire1 explains the narrative looseness4 ,apuleius is no ,rabelais2 he is only a facile second-century rhetor carrying the rhetorical fiction of his time to greater length4 ,in style1 though habitually diffuse1 he is sometimes charming and often lively2 but in composition he merely extends a meretricious convention4 ,during his lifetime ,iamblichus wrote the ,babylonica1 or ,rhodanes and ,sinonis 7#aff-ahj72 and1 soon after1 ,chariton of ,aphrodisias the ,chreas and ,calirrhoe 7before #bjj74gb ,thus was established the mode followed later by ,heliodorus and ,achilles ,tatius1 the perverted narrative known as the ,greek ,romances4 ,any one who has the patience for these phantasmagoria of passion1 horror1 and adventure will see their likeness to the ,metamorphoses of ,apuleius1 and will probably reproach him the more for ignoring that onward causal movement without which the art of narrative seems to lapse4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,see ,f4 ,b4 ,gummere's ,beginnings of ,poetry4 ,the controversy which was spread by the ,homeric studies of ,wolf1 has lately shifted to the popular ballad4 ,see ,g4 ,l4 ,kittredge's introduction to his one-volume selection of the ,english and ,scottish ,popular ,ballads from the collection of ,child1 ,boston1 #aijd1 and the recent studies of ,professor ,louise ,pound4 ,j4 ,a4 ,scott maintains ,the ,unity of ,homer in his ,university of ,california ,lectures1 #aiba4 #b ,c4 ,s4 ,baldwin1 ,introduction to ,english ,medieval ,literature1 ,new ,york1 #aiad1 pages #af-ah4 #c ,as ,i write1 ,knut ,hamson's ,the ,growth of the ,soil has just been called epic4 #d ,poetic1 xxiv4 #e ,aristotle1 ,poetic1 xxiv4 ,see page #aeh above4 #f ,poetic1 xxiv4 #g ,see above1 page #ajf4 #h ,opening of the tude sur ,virgile4 #i ,lectures on ,poetry1 ,london1 #aiaa4 #aj 8,vergil10 in ,great ,writers1 ,new ,york1 #aiab4 #aa ,w4 ,y4 ,sellar in ,the ,roman ,poets of the ,augustan ,age1 ,virgil1 ,oxford 7#c;d edition71 #aijh1 analyzes under convenient headings ,vergil's position in ,latin literature4 ,henry ,nettleship's discussions in ,lectures and ,essays1 ,oxford1 #ahge1 #ahhe1 have not been superseded1 though they have evidently been suggestive to more recent critics4 ,sainte-,beuve's tude sur ,virgile1 ,paris1 n4 d41 and ,t4 ,r4 ,glover's ,virgil1 ,london1 #aijd 7#dth edition1 #aibj71 appeal more to the general reader4 ,r4 ,y4 ,tyrrell's chapter in his ,latin ,poetry1 ,boston1 #ahie1 is unsympathetic with ,vergil the artist4 ,most of the innumerable editions of the neid have little to say of his poetic art4 ,this is specifically the subject of ,m4 ,marjorie ,crump's ,the ,growth of the neid1 ,oxford1 #aibj1 which1 though little developed1 is a distinct contribution to technical study4 ,but the book on ,vergilian epic is the exhaustive work of ,richard ,heinze1 ,virgils epische ,technik1 ,leipzig1 #aijb 7#b;d edition4 #aijh1 #c;d edition1 #aiae74 ,references are to pages of the third edition4 #ab ,heinze1 #cai1 compares in this aspect the ,homeric duel of ,paris and ,menelaus with neid xii4 ,typically1 he points out1 ,vergil's 8,handlung fortschreitet10 and the composition is 8szenenhaft40 #ac ,paul ,le,jay1 ,l'nide1 ,paris1 #aiai1 page lix4 ,heinze1 #cha1 shows the minuteness of this care in cases where two scenes are chronologically parallel4 ,one of the two is always subordinated2 and the first to be presented is always carried to a state of rest before turning to the second4 #ad ,heinze1 #cfa4 #ae ,the exactness1 brilliancy1 and range of ,vergil's color words are studied by ,t4 ,r4 ,price1 ,the ,color-,system of ,vergil1 ,american ,journal of ,philology1 volume #d1 number #ac 7#ahhb74 ,see the more extensive work of ,hugo ,blmner1 ,die ,farbenbezeichnungen bei den rmischen ,dichtern1 ,berliner ,studien1 volume #ac 7#ahia74 #af ,this is the technical secret of the distinction that ,sainte-,beuve expresses as 8sobrit 444 rien que le ncessaire10 tude sur ,virgile1 #ic4 #ag ,glover1 #af1 repeats ,henry's praise of ,quale per incertam lunam sub luce maligna4 ,,vi4 #bgj4 ,surcharged precision intensifies ,lucet via longo ,ordine flammarum1 et late discriminat agros4 ,,xi4 #adc4 ,but the same distinctness1 at once precise and picturesque1 may be found almost anywhere in the neid2 it is ,vergil's habit1 and it is never obtrusive4 #ah ,lessing1 ,laokon1 especially chapters xvi and xvii4 #ai ,heinze1 #djf4 #bj ,the famous description of the harbor under the cliffs 7,est in secessu longo locus4 ,i4 #aei7 is really less characteristic than ,adspirant aur in noctem1 nec candida cursus ,luna negat2 splendet tremulo sub lumine pontus4 ,,vii4 #h4 #ba ,heinze1 #cif4 #bb ,heinze1 #cgd4 #bc ,heinze cites the handling of ,fama in ,,iv1 and of ,allecto in ,,vii4 #bd ,see above1 page #aii4 #be ,heinze1 #id4 ,miss ,crump analyzes the probable changes of revision4 ,her theory that ,book ,,iii survives from an earlier plan in which it stood first1 and that ,vergil probably intended to revise it entirely1 has grave difficulties4 #bf ,paul ,le,jay1 ,l'nide1 lxviii2 ,heinze1 #bfc4 ,for the detail of the composition of single books and groups see also ,heinze1 #ahj1 #ddh1 #dec4 ,for instances of peripety1 see ,heinze1 #bbc1 #cbc4 #bg ,heinze1 #abj1 is hardly extravagant in maintaining that this is beyond any other ancient achievement of the kind4 #bh ,heinze1 #acc4 #bi ,woodberry1 #acb4 ,see also ,j4 ,r4 ,green1 8neas1 a ,virgilian ,study0 in ,stray ,studies from ,england and ,italy1 #bbg4 #cj ,heinze1 #bga seq42 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 ,the ,religious ,experience of the ,roman ,people1 lecture xviii4 #ca ,ovid 7,tristia1 ,,ii4 #ece7 says that the fourth book was the most popular4 #cb ,sellar1 #cie4 ,for careful discussion of this whole aspect of ,vergil's diction1 see ,heinze1 #daj-dbg4 #cc ,that even ,dido's desperate plea1 as well as the calm reply of neas1 proceeds from point to point1 not all readers will agree with ,heinze 7#dbe-f1 on neid ,,iv4 #cje74 ,the variations of rhythm in this passage would surely be used by a sympathetic reciter to suggest agitation4 ,but ,vergil's general neglect of the familiar means of asyndeton and hyperbaton 7see1 for example1 ,de sublimitate1 xxi-xxii7 to suggest emotional disorder shows a characteristic distrust of incoherence4 #cd ,heinze1 #bgi4 #ce ,how freely ,latin authors transferred it to poetic may be seen in ,horace's ,ars ,poetica 7see below1 ,chapter viii74 ,compare ,plutarch1 ,quomodo adolesc41 x1 below1 page #bdd4 #cf ,sellar1 #aja1 quotes ,comparetti3 8an elaboration of language which disdains or is unable to say a plain thing in a plain way40 #cg ,see above1 page #baj4 #ch 8,during all the years in which ,virgil brooded over it and wrought upon it1 he kept his material 444 in fusion1 not crystallized and hardened into final shape0 7,mackail1 #gh72 i4e41 he continued to adjust4 #ci ,eximios tauros1 farre pio1 etc41 noted1 among other critics1 by ,e4 ,nageotte1 ,histoire de la littrature latine1 #ccd4 ,apropos of ,vergil's incomparable command of the resources of his language1 ,nageotte adds happily that a 8tache de rouille antique a son effet prvu dans la gamme des couleurs environnantes0 7#cbd74 #dj ,woodberry1 #abe4 #da ,woodberry1 #aaa4 #db ,see above1 page #bjf4 #dc ,see above1 page #bje4 #dd ,see above1 page #bjc4 #de ,ovid has a large place in every comprehensive history of ,latin literature 7e4g41 in ,w4 ,y4 ,sellar's volume on ,horace and the ,elegiac ,poets in his ,roman ,poets of the ,augustan ,age1 ,oxford1 #ahib71 and is discussed at least briefly in the compends 7e4g41 ,c4 ,t4 ,cruttwell's ,history of ,roman ,literature1 ,american edition1 ,new ,york1 #ahij74 ,the last edition of the ,encyclopedia ,britannica has an extensive appreciation by ,s4 ,g4 ,owen1 whose critical edition of ,tristia provides a bibliography of ,ovidiana4 ,of ,english translations the most accessible are those in the ,loeb ,classical ,library3 of ,heroides and ,amores by ,grant ,showerman1 of ,metamorphoses by ,f4 ,j4 ,miller1 both with introductions and bibliographical notes4 #df ,sponte sua carmen numeros veniebat ad aptos1 ,et quod tentabam dicere versus erat4 ,tristia1 ,,iv4 x4 #be4 is almost as familiar as 8lisped in numbers1 for the numbers came40 #dg ,morsque minus pn quam mora mortis habet4 ,heroides1 x4 #hb4 #dh ,ilia1 pone metus2 tibi regia nostra patebit1 ,teque colent amnes4 ,ilia1 pone metus4 ,tu centum plures inter dominabere nymphas2 ,nam centum aut plures flumina nostra tenent4 ,amores1 iii4 #f1 #fa4 ,rime in ,latin elegiac poetry is well summarized by ,k4 ,p4 ,harrington in his volume of edited selections1 ,the ,roman ,elegiac ,poets1 ,new ,york1 #aiad1 page #fa4 #di ,e4g41 at the close of ,heroides1 ix1 ,impia quid dubitas ,deianira mori8 in line #adf is repeated in lines #aeb1 #aeh1 #afd1 i4e41 in every sixth line4 #ej ,e4g41 ,metam4 xi4 #did4 #ea ,metam4 vii4 #hbf4 #eb ,ars ,amat4 i4 #gbi4 #ec ,metam4 i4 #hi1 ,amores1 iii4 #h1 #ce4 #ed ,metam4 iv4 #cbj4 #ee ,amores1 i4 #ac4 #c4 #ef ,see1 for example1 ,rudolph ,schevill1 ,ovid and the ,renascence in ,spain1 ,university of ,california ,publications in ,modern ,philology1 vol4 #d1 number #a 7,november1 #aiac71 pages #bd and #ie4 #eg ,troilus and ,criseyde1 iii4 #adae-adgj4 #eh ,romeo and ,juliet1 ,,iii4 v4 #ei ,owen in ,encyclopedia ,britannica speaks of ,ovid as 8the most brilliant representative of ,roman ,alexandrinism40 #fj ,a typical is 8dira lues0 in ,metam4 vii4 #ebc4 #fa ,e4g41 ,byblis in ,metam4 ix4 #dgd1 ,myrrha in ,metam4 x4 #cbj4 #fb ,discussed above in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,,ii4 ,cruttwell says of the ,heroides3 8,they are erotic suasori1 based on the declamations of the schools40 ,history of ,roman ,literature1 #cjf2 and ,heinze1 8die ,gattung der poetischen declamatio inaugurierte40 ,virgils epische ,technik1 #dcd4 ,cf4 ,sellar1 #cca1 #cef2 ,carl ,brck1 ,de ,ovidio scholasticarum declamationum imitatore1 ,munich1 #aiji4 #fc ,metam4 ii4 #cc4 #fd ,iris1 ,tisiphone1 ,luctus1 ,pavor1 ,terror4 ,metam4 iv4 #dhj4 ,the method seen more largely in ,invidia 7,metam4 ii4 #gfj71 essentially a school exercise1 passed through the ,roman de la ,rose into medieval habit4 #fe ,heinze discusses more generally the rhetorical habit of ,ovid in ,virgils epische technik1 #dcd4 #ff ,see above1 page #abf4 #fg ,history of ,roman ,literature1 #cji4 #fh ,encyclopedia ,britannica4 #fi ,apuleius1 born about #abe ,a4,d41 and probably educated at ,carthage1 where he passed much of his life1 became a rhetor at ,rome about #aej1 and soon thereafter published the ,metamorphoses4 ,florida is the title given to a collection of excerpts from what we should call his lectures 7see ,chapter ,,viii1 #bcj74 ,nettleship 7in an essay on ,nonius ,marcellus1 ,lectures and ,essays1 #bhb7 calls him 8a very striking representative of his age40 ,though his work is largely translation or compilation1 he has caught the fancy of several ,english literati1 and was made by ,pater one of the person in the twentieth chapter of ,marius the ,epicurean4 ,adlington's translation 7#aeff7 of the ,metamorphoses has been reprinted with an introduction by ,seccombe1 and revised for the ,loeb ,classical ,library by ,gaselee4 ,the separable ,cupid and ,psyche chapters 7,books ,,iv-,,vi71 often translated1 appear in the fifth chapter of ,pater's ,marius1 and have been again translated by ,purser 7,london1 #aiaj71 with a suggestive introduction on ,apuleius as a rhetor4 ,butler has translated also the ,florida4 #gj 8,l'art de composition faiblit1 comme il arrive toujours quand la sincrit du sentiment diminue2 car c'est la proccupation sincre d'une ide dominante qui maintient d'un bout l'autre l'unit de ton et l'harmonie2 quand le bel esprit l'emporte1 il s'amuse aux dtails1 il s'attache au #8morceau1' et n'a plus la force de lier l'ensemble40 ,croiset1 ,histoire de la littrature grecque1 vol4 ,v 7,priode ,alexandrine71 page #aeh4 #ga ,see ,chapter ,,iv4 ,,ii4 #gb ,these dates are taken from ,wolff's admirable summary of the ,greek ,romances as an ,alexandrian derivative in the opening chapter of his ,greek ,romances in ,elizabethan ,fiction 7,new ,york1 #aiab1 ,columbia ,university ,press74 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,rhetoric ,,in ,,ancient ,,criticism ,,of ,,poetic ,a4 ,,the ,,pervasiveness ,,of ,,rhetoric ,the ,aristotelian distinction of poetic from rhetoric has been sometimes blurred1 sometimes ignored1 by criticism4 ,such confusion as thus arises became more common in ancient criticism with the waning of ancient art2 it was widespread in the middle age2 it has reappeared many times since the ,renaissance4#a ,for consistent development of poetic as a technic distinct from rhetoric is beyond the occasion of most criticism1 whether ancient or modern4 ,at an ebb tide of creation especially1 the average critic is likely to confine his observations to style2 and there the two technics have much common ground4 ,even in criticism of composition we have seen often in our own time such familiar terms as unity1 emphasis1 and coherence restricted to their rhetorical definitions1 and yet imposed in these senses on composition whose actual control was quite different4 ,the unity of the ,ancient ,mariner1 for instance1 has been interpreted as the logical control of the proposition 8,he prayeth best who loveth best10 though surely that composition was unified quite otherwise4 ,or the term coherence is permitted to suggest that the progress of ,burke's speech on ,conciliation from paragraph to paragraph is like the progress of ,othello from scene to scene1 though the two technics have little resemblance4 ,such warping of poetic has sometimes been even urged by ancient or modern schoolmasters and text-books4 ,it has seemed thrifty to make ,molire1 for instance1 exhibit those principles of composition which pupils must use in writing essays upon him4 ,but even without such pedagogical perversion it is easy to think of poetic in terms of rhetoric2 for rhetoric is in everybody's head4 ,it was so much more a preoccupation of ancient thought that the conception of poetic as a distinct movement seems to have become less and less active4 ,though a few critics1 even under the ,empire1 held the ,aristotelian distinction1 generally ancient poetic was more and more warped toward rhetoric4 ,with rhetoric determining education1 with even ,cicero and ,tacitus discussing poetic as contributory1 with the later declamatores habitually blending the two1 with even poets yielding to the common tendency1 poetic could hardly be conceived often as a distinct movement of composition4 ,while ,vergil's art revealed a critical conception unknown to ,seneca and ,lucan1 ,horace could repeat ,aristotle without following his distinctive idea4 ,cicero and ,tacitus1 best of ,latin critics1 naturally contemplate in poetic rather its imagery than its movement2#b and ,quintilian1#c even more naturally1 explores only its treasures available for orators4 ,that ancient criticism never lost the ,aristotelian distinction altogether appears in the anonymous and undated ,de sublimitate#d and in a few of the many words of ,dio ,chrysostom2#e but ,plutarch's poetic is indistinguishable from rhetoric4 ,b4 ,,criticism ,,from ,,grammarians ,the overwhelming preponderance of rhetoric in ancient critical thought followed naturally from the dominance of rhetoric in education4#f ,formal schooling in poetic1 what we now call primary instruction in literature1 began with grammaticus1#g and he was committed in advance to preparing his boys for their studies in rhetoric4 ,with his task of inculcating correctness in reading1 speaking1 and writing were associated his lectures 7prlectiones7 on the poets4 ,though these may often1 given the highly selected group of students1 have done much for appreciation of literature1 they can hardly have ranged far in poetic4 ,grammaticus probably confined himself in most cases to what is known in ,french schools as explication des textes4 ,within its limits this is admirable2 but given the age of the pupils and their specific object1 it cannot often have gone beyond words and sentences into the poetic composition of the whole4 ,criticism ad hoc1 the detailed study of a particular poem passage by passage1 is a method not only necessary for schooling1 but valuable more widely4 ,by sheer prevalence it must always be influential2 illumination must in fact have come oftener from such interpretation than from a systematic treatise on poetry4 ,none the less it needs more correction and extension from other forms of criticism than was usually possible in the ancient world4 ,by itself it tends toward a pedestrian analysis of diction and toward emphasis on those aspects of poetic which are available for rhetoric4 ,criticism by labels1 the classifying of authors by accepted adjectives1 is not1 unfortunately1 confined either to antiquity or to grammarians4 ,a certain amount of criticism1 apparently1 must always be devoted to telling people what they ought to say4 ,but the classifying habit seems to have been especially prevalent in ancient criticism4 ,at any rate1 the labels affixed by grammarians were widely repeated4 ,even so discerning a critic as ,quintilian thus makes his tenth book a convenient 8survey40 ,the satisfaction of an audience in neat and recognizable characterization is given by ,apuleius4 8,any speech composed by ,avitus will be found everywhere so consistently perfect that ,cato would not miss in it his dignity1 nor ,laelius his smoothness1 nor ,gracchus his vehemence1 nor ,csar his warmth1 nor ,hortensius his clear plan1 nor ,calvus his subtleties1 nor ,sallust his conciseness1 nor ,cicero his richness40 ,apuleius1 ,apologia4 ,each orator has the right label1 as in a cram-book2 and the same classifying neatness disposes of the poetic of ,philemon4 8,you who are sufficiently acquainted with his talent1 hear briefly of his end4 ,or will you hear somewhat also of his talent8 ,this ,philemon was a poet1 a writer of the ,middle ,comedy4 ,he wrote pieces for the stage in the time of ,menander1 and in competition with him1 perhaps not as an equal1 but certainly as a rival4 ,in these contests1 ,i am sorry to say1 he was often the winner4 ,at any rate1 you will find in him much that is piquant1 plots neatly woven1 recognitions clearly unfolded1 characters adequate to the action1 thoughts approved by experience1 humor not too low for comedy1 seriousness not involving tragedy4 ,seductions in his plays are rare2 even legitimate loves are treated as aberrations4 ,none the less he shows the perjured pimp1 the passionate lover1 the shrewd slave1 the deceiving mistress1 the interfering wife1 the indulgent mother1 the scolding uncle1 the conniving crony1 the bellicose soldier1 not to mention greedy parasites1 stingy fathers1 and voluble harlots40 ,apuleius1 ,florida1 ,,xvi4 ,nor was the habit confined to rhetors4 ,it was widespread in the 8three styles0#h of oratory1 in the ten canonical ,attic orators1 in 8,asianism0 versus 8,atticism10 in the bias of even ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus#i toward classification4 ,true1 it appears generally in criticism of rhetoric1 and is common enough in modern times2 but in ancient criticism it amounts to a preoccupation1#aj and is more readily carried over into poetic4 ,grammar in those wider reaches now comprehended in the term philology has much to contribute to the criticism of older poets4 ,theon1 for instance1 whose manual of school exercises 7#aa7 has come down to us from the time of ,augustus1 annotated with scholia the tragic and the comic poets4 ,the tradition of the ,alexandrian grammarians included1 besides syntax and exegesis1 textual criticism4 ,but such criticism depends for much of its value on science little explored by the ancients2 and typically it makes little contribution to poetic4#ab ,by no good fortune1 then1 8philology and poetry went hand in hand in the ancient and classical literature of ,italy40#ac ,the result of this companionship was not1 indeed1 always nor necessarily so arid and confined as the criticism of the second-century lexicographer ,aulus ,gellius2#ad but at most it had little range4 ,c4 ,,criticism ,,from ,,professional ,,public ,,speakers ,not only did the prevalence of rhetoric make poetic generally subsidiary1 but the prevalence of declamatio#ae in later teaching and practise tended actually to confuse the two4 ,this rhetoric was itself largely poetic1 largely an art of appeal by description4 ,sometimes carrying descriptive dialogue into a sort of oral fiction1 it had no occasion for poetic movement4 ,the pattern of a speech sufficed as well as another where the opportunity was less of the whole than of the parts4#af ,immediate popular oral effects were then1 as now1 gained rather by stinging epigrams and dramatic realizations than by any onward course4 ,the poetic that shall win a crowd on the spot is more likely than the poetic that shall be savored by individual readers to be sensational4 ,sensational in fact it was commonly1 to judge by examples ranging all the way from ,seneca's ,controversi well into the ,christian centuries4 ,even those rhetors who were not sensational in their own practise were little more likely1 in a time of such preoccupations1 to conceive poetic distinctively2 and rhetors purveyed1 among other things1 literary criticism4 ,besides teaching and exhibiting at home1 the more popular rhetors traveled as occasional orators and lecturers4 ,though their speeches were oftenest1 of course1 occasional1 and1 when they were rather lectures1 were commonly in the fields of philosophy and ethics1 still professional public speakers must have purveyed1 at home and on their journeys1 a good deal of the current literary criticism4 ,where this was incidental1 it need not be taken too seriously4 ,no device of public speaking is more persistent than the flattering of an audience by literary allusions and accepted adjectives of admiration4#ag ,such passages1 in ancient speeches or in modern1 show merely what is regarded as the right thing to say1 and are almost always limited to style4 ,but where a rhetor develops a literary topic1 even for a paragraph or two1 he may be as significant as any other literary critic4 ,the particular rhetor might be a teacher of rhetoric primarily1 or secondarily1 or hardly at all4 ,though he hardly ranked as a philosopher1#ah yet he was an active purveyor of philosophy4 ,an expert in public address1 he professed a variety of considerable range4 ,occasional oratory of itself invites ranging in both emotion and thought4 ,conventional as he appears when considered merely as one of a numerous class1 he might nevertheless be an outstanding individual2 and even as a type he was at least accomplished and influential4 ,apuleius1 lively and daring enough in his narrative1#ai seems in the excerpts preserved from his oratory quite conventional4 ,the ,florida show certain typical encomia1 two passages of critical labels1 three long pieces on philosophy1 and several of those exordia which traveling lecturers prepared1 and still prepare1 for extempore adaptation4 ,if the ,great ,unknown's ,de sublimitate#bj was a public address--and its suggestiveness is strongly oral--its author rose quite above the type without losing the typical opportunity of oral criticism4 ,one may fancy the close of that noble appeal echoing long in the ears of a rapt audience4 ,but without any flight of fancy one may read the possibilities of ancient oral criticism in certain of the orations of ,dio of ,prusa1 often called ,dio ,chrysostom4#ba 7#a74 ,dio of ,prusa ,dio's speech known as the ,olympic1 and having for subtitle ,the ,primary ,conception of ,god1 opens with a proem characteristic of the form1 an introduction separable1 adjustable1 ostensibly impromptu1 but none the less following a type4 ,a fable of the owl--occasional oratory seems inevitably to begin with a story--leads to other proverbs1 to historical allusions1 to the speaker's profession of modesty1 sincerity1 and homeliness4 8,i am just come from the ,get4 ,shall ,i tell you about this interesting people80 ,a rhetor's offering the choice of theme to the audience might be merely conventional2 for ,dio effectively recalls it by adding3 8,here at ,olympia1 beside your wondrous statue of the ,olympian1 shall ,i not rather speak of ,zeus himself80 ,so is approached a discourse upon embodiments of deity in poetry and in sculpture1 a lecture carefully conducted from point to point1 and delivered doubtless in these words1 certainly by this plan1 in more than one welcoming city4 ,such a prepared address needed only the adjustment of the proem to the place and the occasion4#bb ,the lecture itself remained substantially the same4 ,this one makes first the following points4 ,the knowledge of ,zeus comes through nature2 men become aware of him as the nourisher of them all4 ,to such realization is added that of poetry1 of cult1 and finally of the arts of painting and sculpture1 not to mention the theories of the philosophers4 ,limiting ourselves to poetry and sculpture1 let us begin 7#di7 with ,phidias1 whose marvelous statue here compels our admiration4 ,does this statue embody deity truly8 ,that question was answered to the ,athenians of the same generation quite differently1 by a speaker less different than his conclusion1 a ,roman ,jew of ,tarsus1 one ,paul4 ,dio goes on1 after an encomium of ,phidias3 ,phidias might well reply that it is true to tradition as that is conceived and defined by the poets 7#ee-eg71 that since we yearn for a personal divine1 the human body is its best expression1 and that ,homer too 7#fb7 made his gods human4 ,there follows a comparison of sculpture with poetry 7#gj74 ,though this stresses unduly1 perhaps1 the mere range of verbal suggestion1 it make none the less clearly a fundamental distinction4 8,again1 besides this1 the very conditions of working out a conception in sculpture impose one form for each statue1 a form immovable and permanent1 yet such as to comprehend in itself the god's whole nature and power2 but poets may easily include in their poetic many forms and all sorts of shapes1 for they add such movements or repose as they think appropriate to each moment1 actions too1 words1 and finally1 ,i think1 the illusion of time40 ,so 7,phidias is supposed to go on7 my ,zeus1 embodying in a single representation the typical ,greek conception 7#gd7 of the ruler of an ordered world1 shows him as gentle1 grave1 serene1 as giver1 father1 savior1 protector1 and yet does not exclude his other aspects 7#ge74 ,how could ,i represent him 7#gh7 continually hurling the thunderbolt1 sending rain or stretching the rainbow1 renewing battle-lust8 ,our art is adjusted to the immediate and clear test of actual seeing 7#gi74 ,an encomium of ,phidias1 a discours de circonstance1 has been made to involve two large principles of artistic theory4 ,the first is ethical1 expressing a fundamental relation of art to human life4 ,art1 and especially poetry1 is a revelation to us of what we vaguely feel to be divine2 it interprets communal experience as communal vision4 ,the second is sthetic1 deriving a difference of technic from the fundamental difference between stimulating mental images by successive verbal suggestions1 visual1 auditory1 motor1 and actually representing to the eye alone all together and all at once4 ,while poetry ranges through successive suggestions1 sculpture focuses statically by typical representation4 ,though it is easy to read into these principles from modern criticism more than ,dio intended1 they can hardly be regarded as less than penetrative and fundamental4 ,the first1 often reaffirmed in modern times and sometimes apparently rediscovered1 is often implied in ancient criticism4 ,dio's contribution is to formulate it explicitly1 and to express it with unusual warmth4 ,the second is clear1 though less explicit1 in ,aristotle's ,poetic4 ,it is ignored by both ,horace and ,plutarch4#bc ,as ,dio's words went down the ancient wind1 so ,lessing's almost identical distinction#bd has not precluded much bland modern confusion of the arts4 ,more and more a moralist as his life advanced1 turning from rhetor into preacher1 ,dio nevertheless maintains a variety reminding us that this form of oratory had great range4 ,the prelude of his ,euboica1 extensively descriptive of simple frontier life1 is almost a short story4 ,quite different from the conventional expatiation1 which ,dio elsewhere does not despise1 it shows him expert not only in the theory of narrative1 but also in its practise4 ,some of his discourses are less speeches than what we should call essays4 ,the one on ,practise in ,speaking#be is in topics1 plan1 and style quite conventional4 ,the remarkable one on ,greek drama is as it stands an essay in literary criticism4 ,by the insertion of recited passages it could easily and effectively have been expanded into a lecture2 but even without these it is both sustained and suggestive4 ,,dio ,,chrysostom1 ,,oratio ,,lii ,,schylus1 ,,sophocles1 ,,and ,,euripides1 ,,or ,,the ,,bow ,,of ,,philoctetes #a4 ,i rose early1 walked1 meditated1 prayed1 exercised1 bathed1 breakfasted4 #b4 ,i chanced upon certain tragedies of the masters1 schylus1 ,sophocles1 and ,euripides1 all upon the same theme4 ,it is that of the theft of the bow and arrows of ,philoctetes--perhaps one should say the seizure4 ,at any rate1 ,philoctetes was deprived of his arms by ,odysseus1 and himself brought to ,troy1 largely of his own free will1 partly also by the persuasion of necessity1 since he was bereft of the arms which provided at once his living on the island1 his courage in such disease1 and his glory4 #c4 ,well1 ,i feasted on the spectacle1 and ,i reflected that even if ,i had been at ,athens in their time1 ,i could not have seen all three great men in competition4 ,some1 indeed1 did see the competition of the young ,sophocles with the old schylus1 and of the older ,sophocles with the younger ,euripides2 but ,euripides was quite outside of the generation of schylus1 and competed with him seldom1 if ever1 in the same drama4 ,my having all three to read together seemed a revel1 and a fresh consolation for my inability to see them4 #d4 ,well1 ,i imagined myself putting the plays on quite splendidly1 and tried to fix my attention as a judge of the first tragic choruses4 ,but though ,i had taken my oath1 ,i could not have given a decision2 nor1 for all me1 would any of those masters have been held inferior4 ,the greatness of mind in schylus and his sense of tradition1 as well as his austerity of thought and expression1 seemed appropriate to tragedy and to the ancient heroic ethics--nothing contrived or glib or low4 #e4 ,even ,odysseus he introduced as shrewd and crafty in the way of that time1 a way so far removed from the baseness of to-day that what is really traditional in schylus seems beyond those who now try to be simple and high-minded4 ,when ,athena transforms him1 nothing more is needed to keep ,philoctetes in ignorance of who he is4 ,so ,homer made the story1 and after him ,euripides4 ,therefore1 if some unfriendly critic should accuse schylus of taking no care as to how ,odysseus shall be convincing without being recognized by ,philoctetes1 7#f7 his defense1 ,i think1 would be as follows4 ,while the time was not1 perhaps1 so great that the character could not be sustained 7i4e41 through ten years71 yet the disease of ,philoctetes1 his misery1 and his having passed the interim in a desert are sufficient to make plausible his not recognizing ,odysseus4 ,for many have experienced the same lapse1 some from weakness1 some from misfortune4 ,no1 the chorus had no need1 as in ,euripides1 to excuse themselves to him4 #g4 ,both poets represented the chorus as composed of ,lemnians4 ,euripides has made them at once apologize for their former neglect because for so many years they had not come to ,philoctetes or helped him at all4 schylus simply brought on the chorus--a method far more tragic as well as simpler1 whereas that of ,euripides is more oratorical and precise4 ,if dramatists could escape all absurdities in their tragedies1 perhaps there would be reason for not neglecting this2 but actually they make their heralds accomplish in one day several days' journey4 #h4 ,now the case was not quite that none of the ,lemnians came to him or gave him any care4 ,probably he would not have passed ten years without finding any help at all4 ,probably he did find it1 though rarely and of no great account2 and no one chose to take him in and tend him because of the loathsomeness of his disease4 ,euripides1 forsooth1 out of his own head introduces ,actor1 one of the ,lemnians1 as an acquaintance who went out to ,philoctetes and often helped him4 #i4 ,neither does it seem to me that any one can justly find fault with making ,philoctetes narrate to the chorus1 as if they did not know it1 his abandonment by the ,achans and everything else that happened to him2 for an unfortunate is wont to recount his mishaps often1 even to those who know them in detail1 and wearies those who have no need to hear his woes by telling them over and over again4 ,moreover the deceit of ,odysseus toward ,philoctetes1 and the arguments by which he induces him1 are not only more in character1 such as befit a hero and unlike the pleas of ,eurybatus or ,patcion1 but also1 ,i think1 more convincing4 #aj4 ,for what need was there of manifold art and device with a sick man1 and a bowman at that1 whose strength became useless so soon as one but stood near8 ,and the announcing of the mishaps of the ,achans1 that ,agamemnon was dead1 that ,odysseus was to blame most disgracefully1 that the army had perished utterly--all this is not only useful for putting ,philoctetes in a good humor and disposing him to accept the speech of ,odysseus1 but is not in any wise improbable1 considering the length of the campaign and what had happened not long before through the wrath of ,achilles1 when ,hector almost went to burn the beached ships4 #aa4 ,the intelligence of ,euripides1 that unfailing care which neither leaves anything unconvincing or unprovided nor simply uses actions but uses them with all force in the expression1 is as it were the converse of the habit of schylus1 being most oratorical1 most rhetorical1 most available for the use of debaters4 ,at the very beginning1 for instance1 ,odysseus has been represented in the prologue as revolving in his mind political enthymemes and at first doubtful of himself1 lest while he seems to the crowd to be wise and distinguished in intelligence1 he may be the opposite4 #ab4 ,it is open to him to live unfretted and inactive2 but his wish is to be always in deeds and dangers4 ,the cause of this1 he says1 is his emulation of men goodly and noble4 ,for these who are bent on good report and universal fame willingly undertake the greatest and most difficult toils4 8,nothing is born so proud as man40 ,then sapiently and precisely he discloses the plot of the drama and why he has come to ,lemnos4 #ac4 ,he says he has been transformed by ,athena so that when he meets ,philoctetes he shall not be recognized4 7,euripides imitates ,homer in this2 for ,homer had ,odysseus transformed by ,athena when he met not only others1 but even ,eumus and ,penelope47 ,he says an embassy is about to come from the ,trojans to ,philoctetes1 to ask that he offer them himself and his arms in return for the kingship of ,troy4 ,thus ,euripides makes the action more various and invents occasions for the arguments by which1 when he turns them the other way around1 ,odysseus seems most resourceful and most sufficient for anything4 #ad4 ,he has represented ,odysseus as arriving not alone1 but with ,diomed 7,homeric this1 too74 ,all in all1 as ,i said1 through all the drama1 he displays the greatest intelligence and plausibility in action1 extraordinary and marvellous force in the speeches1 dialogue at once sapient and natural and oratorical1 and lyrics that not only please1 but also strongly move to virtue4 #ae4 ,sophocles seems to be between the two1 having neither the austerity and singleness of schylus nor the precision and sharpness and oratorical cast of ,euripides1 but a grave and magnificent poetic embracing all that is most tragic and most eloquent1 uniting the greatest charm with sublimity and gravity4 ,for his action he has used the best and most convincing plan1 representing ,odysseus as arriving with ,neoptolemus1 since it was fated that ,troy should be taken by ,neoptolemus and by ,philoctetes using the bow of ,hercules4 ,he has ,odysseus concealed1 but ,neoptolemus sending to ,philoctetes and advising him what to do4 ,he has made the chorus not1 as schylus and ,euripides1 ,lemnians1 but shipmates of ,odysseus and ,neoptolemus4 #af4 ,the characters are marvellously grave and free4 ,that of ,odysseus is much gentler and more single than ,euripides has made it2 that of ,neoptolemus1 surpassingly single and high-bred1 first when he wishes to get the better of ,philoctetes not by craft and deceit1 but by force and in the open1 then when at the instance of ,odysseus he has deceived him and got possession of the weapons4 ,when ,philoctetes becomes aware and urges a cheated man's reproaches1 ,neoptolemus is so moved that he is about to give them back2 and even when ,odysseus intervenes1 still at last he gives them1 and as he gives them tries by argument to make ,philoctetes go to ,troy of his own free will4 #ag4 ,when ,philoctetes will in no wise yield nor be persuaded1 but begs ,neoptolemus to keep his promise of taking him back to ,greece1 he undertakes that and is ready to do it1 till the intervention of ,hercules wins the consent of ,philoctetes to embark for ,troy4 ,the lyrics have not so much of the sententious and hortatory as those of ,euripides1 but a marvellous charm and magnificence4 ,not at random ,aristophanes said of him3 8,the mouth of ,sophocles is anointed with honey1 as if he had licked the box40 ,conventional as this is in making the usual contrast between schylus and ,euripides1 with ,sophocles as a golden mean1 it defines these distinctions afresh with suggestive precision4 ,moreover1 the essay is free from the usual preoccupation with diction4 ,what is said on that point1 though not original1 is tersely subordinated4 ,if the manuscript is complete1 therefore1 the close upon the quotation from ,aristophanes gives a false emphasis2 for the criticism as a whole is quite different from the usual comparison of style with style4 ,plot1 indeed1 is not developed extensively as a separate item2 but it is clearly implied in the treatment of characterization4 ,the constant theme is motivation1 the bringing out of character through the movement of the plot1 the dramatic management of persons through interaction4 ,thus ,dio has made his criticism singularly consistent4 ,instead of merely appreciating one dramatist after the other1 he has made his comparison progressive4 ,the oral criticism uttered by ,greek and ,roman rhetors of the ,empire1 we may guess from what has survived in manuscript1 was not often either so sustained or so free from the bias of rhetoric4 ,perhaps ,dio's unusual grasp came from his missionary sense of the tradition of ,hellenism4 ,d4 ,,plutarch',s ,,how ,,youth ,,should ,,read ,,poetry#bf ,literary criticism has often taken direction from philosophy4 ,in ancient criticism such a slant was habitual4 ,most ancient critics show definite preoccupation with some school of philosophy4#bg ,for example1 there was a ,stoic theory of style2 and 8the sthetic theories of ,pantius are reproduced in the first book of ,cicero's ,de officiis40#bh ,such cases are typical even to the involving of sthetics with ethics2 for ancient literary criticism1 more generally and avowedly than modern1 is ethical4 ,aristotle is almost alone in proposing for poetic principles frankly sthetic4 ,the general tendency of ancient criticism is to give poetic a moral color4 ,this ethical direction of critical thought confirmed the tendency to conceive poetic in terms of rhetoric4 ,not only are the implications of rhetoric inevitably moral1 but the theories of rhetoric associated with ancient theories of morals were often extended to include even poetic expression4 ,ancient poetic was thus rhetoricated partly by being moralized4 ,an extreme instance of this ancient habit is ,plutarch's ,greek treatise of the first century1 ,how ,youth ,should ,read ,poetry4 ,here the familiar idea that poetry is a means of ethical education is so expounded as to reveal the limits of ,plutarch's conception4 ,he is not merely1 as grammaticus commenting ,homer in school1 offering poetry as a propdeutic to philosophy2 he is repeating a narrow and commonplace sthetic4 ,his treatment of imitation1 ignoring ,aristotle's use of that term1#bi has in mind faithfulness to fact4 ,ignoring also the ,aristotelian idea of poetic movement1 he repeats the commonplace and misleading analogy from painting#cj with a barren literalness4 8,we shall still more thoroughly ground the young man1 if1 on introducing him to poetry1 we explain to him that it is an imitative art and agent1 analogous to painting4 ,not only must he be made acquainted with the common saying that poetry is vocal painting1 and painting silent poetry1 but we must also teach him that when we see a painting of a lizard1 an ape1 or the face of ,thersites1 our pleasure and surprise are occasioned1 not by the beauty of the object1 but by the likeness of the painting to it4444 ,in such instances it is especially important that the young man come to understand that we do not praise the action imitated1 but the art1 provided the subject is treated accurately40#ca ,poetry is pictorial in this sense not to authors whose creative bent is distinctively dramatic or narrative1 but to the describers and expatiators1 not to ,vergil1 but to ,ovid4 ,for this narrow conception of poetic truth ,plutarch's recurring terms#cb are not merely narrow2 they are distinctly rhetorical4 ,they are the very ones commonly used by rhetoricians to describe success in prosopopia1#cc or characterization according to type4 ,that ,plutarch means them so is clear in section x on characterization in ,homer4 8,it is worth while1 in this connection1 to notice the conduct of ,agamemnon2 for he passes ,sthenelus by without noticing him1 yet he does not neglect ,odysseus1 but answers him1 #8seeing how he was wroth1 and took back his saying4' ,had he apologized to all1 he would have appeared undignified and servile1 and had he disdained all1 arrogant and unreasonable4444 ,it is also a good idea to take notice of the difference between the ways in which a discreet man and a pompous soothsayer addresses a crowd4 ,thus ,calchas4444 ,one should notice as well the differences in racial characteristics4 ,for example1 the ,trojans rush ferociously to battle with savage cries1 but the ,greeks #8in silence feared their captains'2 for to fear officers in the presence of the enemy is the mark of heroism and obedience4444 ,hence foresight is ,grecian and civil2 rashness1 barbaric and rude2 the one to be emulated1 the other to be avoided40 ,in a word1 ,plutarch's moralizing of poetic is definitely rhetorical4 ,for the schools of philosophy generally poetic was incidental to the consideration of diction2 for him it was indistinguishable in method4 ,e4 ,,horace',s ,,ars ,,poetica ,that the unsystematic epistolary reflections of a ,latin poet on poetry should for centuries have influenced criticism of poetic more than the searching analysis and consecutive synthesis of the greatest ,greek philosopher has seemed strange to the point of irony4 ,not only was ,horace quoted while ,aristotle was forgotten1 but even after the recovery of the ,poetic he was quoted still4 ,he is quotable4 ,he abounds in sententi2 and they have a long life4 ,though he would have been himself the first to smile at the putting of his epistle to the ,pisos beside ,aristotle's ,poetic1 he knew none the less the sort of criticism that people like4 ,we have been often reminded that ,ars ,poetica is neither ,horace's title nor accurately descriptive4 ,but it is a title naturally given by grammarians who hardly conceived poetic as a distinct technic1 and naturally accepted by readers who found ,horace's epigrams no less suggestive because they were detached4 ,certainly the epistle is not an ars2 but certainly its criticism has enough shrewdness1 lucidity1 brilliancy1 adaptability to the short flights of ordinary thinking on the subject1 to explain all its popularity4 ,one need not be cynical to think that the poetic of a ,horace will usually be more popular than the poetic of an ,aristotle4 ,at the risk of wronging ,horace1 his editors and other critics have tried to brief this epistle4 ,wickham1#cd for instance1 finds three parts3 7#a7 #a-aah1 8the original principles of poetry1 unity of conception1 choice of words1 style of diction20 7#b7 #aai-bhd1 characterization in drama1 the ,greek practise of drama2 7#c7 #bhe-;end1 8the two aims of poetry1 the necessity of excellence40 ,but this is not a division at all4 ,wilkins1#ce admitting difficulties of sequence1 even digressions and repetitions1 nevertheless finds 8three main sections03 7#a7 #a-gb1 unity of style and conception2 7#b7 #gc-bhh1 application of 8these general principles 444 to the various kinds of poetry1 and especially to the drama02 7#c7 #ahi-dgf1 requisites for cultivating poetry1 and difficulties4 ,none of these coincides with any of ,wickham's4 ,plessis#cf more cautiously says3 8,his principal counsels are three3 the importance of composition and of the harmony of the parts1 the supremacy of taste1 perfection of craftsmanship40 ,three again1 and again not the same three4 ,could there be clearer proof that the epistle is not logical1 nor even consecutive8 ,since it is in fact one of the least consecutive of ,horace's epistles1 so expert a composer must have meant it to be taken1 as it has been taken1 not as a logical progress1 but as a collection of sententi4 ,these1 whatever their particular source or sources1#cg may safely be taken as generally current in ,grco-,roman literary circles4 ,thus they have the more significance2 for ,horace's originality is hardly in conception4 ,his contribution to criticism1 like ,cicero's1 is in finality of phrase4 ,the maxims that have echoed so often down the corridors of criticism have the carrying power of simplicity4 ,denique sit quodvis1 simplex dumtaxat et unum 7#bc74 ,lucidus ordo 7#da74 ,non satis est pulchra esse poemata2 dulcia sunto 7#ii74 ,si vis me flere1 dolendum est ,primum ipsi tibi 7#ajb74 ,qualis ab incepto processerit1 et sibi constet 7#abg74 ,difficile est proprie communia dicere 7#abh74 ,parturient montes1 nascetur ridiculus mus 7#aci74 ,semper ad eventum festinat et in medias res ,non secus ac notas auditorem rapit 7#adh74 ,aut prodesse volunt aut delectare poet1 ,aut simul et iucunda et idonea dicere vit 7#ccc74 ,omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci 7#cdc74 ,ut pictura poesis 7#cfa74 ,mediocribus esse poetis ,non homines1 non di1 non concessere column 7#cgb74 ,commonplaces some of these must have been even in ,horace's time2 but they have persisted in criticism because he stamped them4 ,the one that is most clearly a distinctive principle of poetic is the familiar 8,semper ad eventum festinat10 etc4 7#adh74 ,the idea of so adjusting the time of the plot as to insure a significant beginning and a continuous and accelerated movement up to an issue is central in ,greek drama4 ,that ,horace applies it to epic evinces no sharp discrimination of technic4 ,ut pictura poesis 7#cfa7 is not1 as in ,plutarch1#ch a comparison of the technic of poetry with that of painting2 it merely insists that a poem1 as a picture1 be judged according to its kind1 according to its specific object4 ,horace may1 indeed1 imply a vindication of his own poems beside those of longer reach and more sustained power2 or he may be merely repeating his dominant idea of appropriateness2 but in either case he is not formulating a principle of poetic4 ,the rule of five acts 7#ahi71 wherever he got it1 is not vital4 ,though he spends more time on drama than on any other mode1 though he uses ,aristotle1 he does not carry out the principle of dramatic movement4 ,the conception of characterization is clearly rhetorical1 8,it will matter much whether a god speak or a hero1 ripe age or the ardor of budding youth1 a matron of authority or an anxious nurse1 a traveling merchant or a farmer bound to his field1 a ,colchian or an ,assyrian1 a ,theban or an ,argive4 ,follow tradition1 or invent what fits each character4 ,if perchance your poem revives time-honored ,achilles1 let the active1 touchy1 stubborn1 fierce hero think that laws were not made for him1 and rest his claim on arms4 ,let ,medea be cruel and unconquered1 ,ino tearful1 ,ixion faithless1 ,orestes gloomy40 7#aad-abd47 8,each time of life demands your study of its habits4 ,as natures and years move on1 you must assign to each what is appropriate4 ,the boy who is old enough to answer when he is spoken to1 and steps off firmly1 yearns to play with his mates1 takes offense as quickly as he lays it by1 and changes from hour to hour4 ,the beardless youth44440 7#aef-agh47 and so on through ,horace's seven ages of man4 ,thus stripped of their style1 these counsels might have come from any classical rhetoric4 ,nothing was more firmly fixed in the tradition of the schools than characterization according to age1 sex1 race1 occupation4 ,such characterization by type suffices for prosopopia in school1 for the fathers and sons and pirates of declamatio1 for even the spendthrifts and slaves and parasites of ,latin comedy2 it does not suffice for dipus or ,neoptolemus1 for ,medea or ,dido4 ,nor is the difference merely in degree2 it is in the distinctively poetic habit of creating4 ,poetic movement1 if ,horace indeed glimpses it as distinct from that of rhetoric1 he does not fully define2 poetic characterization he seems not to regard as distinct at all4 ,indeed1 most of the ,ars ,poetica applies equally to ars rhetorica4 ,aut prodesse volunt aut delectare poet1 ,aut simil et iucunda et idonea dicere vit 7#ccc-d74 ,if oratores be substituted for poet we have the familiar docere1 delectare of rhetoric1 as we have it in the summary miscuit utile dulci 7#cdc72 and with ,horace the movere that remains hardly suggests a different technic4 ,si vis me flere1 dolendum est 7#ajb7 will be found in ,cicero and ,quintilian4 ,the counsel of congruity with which he begins1 and to which he reverts again and again1 is a preoccupation of ancient rhetoric4 ,no better phrase has been found for the progress of a speech than lucidus ordo 7#da72 and the iunctura 7#dg7 to which it is immediately applied is a term of compositio4 ,in the thought of ,horace's circle the distinction between rhetoric and poetic as two movements1 two ways of composing1 seems to have been inactive4 ,rather ,horace seems to think of composition as generally constant throughout various forms1 and as involving mainly the control of conception by congruity and plan1 of expression by adaptation and finish4 ,that such ideas were salutary when declamatio had begun to threaten both rhetoric and poetic1 and that they are salutary still1 no one should deny2 but they make no contribution to the distinctive development of poetic4 ,grammarians1 rhetors1 philosophers1 men of letters seem thus to converge under the ,empire toward a poetic strongly tinged with rhetoric1 no longer distinct as a movement having its own technic4 ,the inference1 though not conclusive1 is suggestive as an hypothesis4 ,less conclusive1 but still suggestive1 is the further inference that this habit of critical thought was intensified in the specifically ,latin tradition4 ,in sustained emotional movement the neid is solitary2 and even while it was revered1 its poetic seems less influential than that of ,ovid4 ,vergil had turned for his poetic from the newer ,greek ways adopted by his countrymen to the tradition interpreted by ,aristotle4 ,that older tradition is no longer active in the poetic descending from the ,roman ,empire through the ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,the ancient experience with rhetoric and with poetic is seen in retrospect as typical4 ,the theory of rhetoric as the energizing of knowledge and the humanizing of truth is explicitly the philosophy of ,aristotle and implicitly that of ,cicero1 ,tacitus1 ,quintilian4 ,what the later ancient professors of rhetoric had rather in mind is the training of immediate personal effectiveness2 and this theory of rhetoric as the art of the speaker is at once as old as the other and as permanent4 ,its name is sophistic4 ,aristotle deprecated it in his first chapter2 ,st4 ,augustine turned his back on it at the end of the ancient world2 but meantime it had been for centuries1 and it has been again and again1 a popular pedagogy4 ,further discussion of these traditions1 and of such details as the persistence of classical metric after the beat of more popular stress rhythms had become insistent1 is properly historical4 ,historical interpretation of the ancient lore of composition and of its influence in the middle ages is relegated to another volume4 ,the expository task of this one concludes naturally with the completion of the ancient experience4 ,,foot-,,notes3 #a ,see ,d4 ,l4 ,clark1 ,rhetoric and ,poetry in the ,renaissance1 ,new ,york1 #aibb 7,columbia ,university ,studies in ,english and ,comparative ,literature74 #b ,so1 e4g41 does ,petronius1 ,satyricon1 #aah4 #c ,see above1 page #hj4 #d ,see above1 ,chapter ,v4 ,b4 #e ,section ,c4 #a1 below4 #f ,to what has already appeared from the preceding chapters may be added the opinion of ,george ,converse ,fiske3 8from the ,hellenistic period on1 and throughout the ,roman world of letters1 the study of rhetoric was a prerequisite for literary composition in every field40 ,the ,plain ,style in the ,scipionic ,circle1 page #fb 7,university of ,wisconsin ,studies in ,language and ,literature1 number #c1 #aiai74 #g ,see above1 page #fh4 #h ,see above1 pages #ef1 #eg4 #i ,see above1 page #ajb4 ,what ,alfred ,croiset says of him seems true rather of the habit of his time3 8questions arrtes d'avance et toujours les mmes2 c'est dresser son signalement suivant un formulaire1 qu'il s'agit simplement de remplir40 ,hist4 de la litt4 grecque1 ,v4 #cfh4 #aj ,nettleship1 ,literary ,criticism in ,latin ,antiquity 7,lectures and ,essays1 ,second ,series74 #aa ,see above1 page #fc4 #ab ,see the scornful comment of ,croiset1 ,v4 #ceh4 #ac ,nettleship1 ,lectures and ,essays1 ,i4 #agf 7on ,horace's ,ars ,poetica74 #ad ,see ,nettleship1 op4 cit41 #bdh4 ,saintsbury1 ,loci ,critici1 #gd1 quotes his ,noctes ,attic xvii4 #aj1 on ,vergil's neid1 ,,iii4 #egj4 #ae ,see pages #fh-gc1 #id-ig4 #af ,see foot-note #ej to ,chapter ,,iv1 foot-note #gj to ,chapter ,,vii4 #ag ,see the quotations from ,apuleius in the preceding section4 #ah ,for the varying relations of the 8second sophistic0 to rhetoric on the one hand and to philosophy on the other see the introduction to ,h4 von ,arnim's ,leben und ,werke des ,dio von ,prusa1 mit einer ,einleitung1 ,sophistik1 ,rhetorik1 ,philosophie in ihrem ,kampf um die ,jugendbildung1 ,berlin1 #ahih2 and1 for later periods1 ,a4 ,boulanger1 lius ,aristide et la sophistique 444 au ,i,ie sicle1 ,paris1 #aibc2 ,w4 ,c4 ,wright1 ,philostratus and ,eunapius1 the ,lives of the ,sophists1 ,london and ,new ,york 7,loeb ,library71 #aibb1 introduction2 ,l4 ,mridier1 ,l'influence de la seconde sophistique sur l'uvre de ,grgoire de ,nysse1 ,paris1 #aijf1 chapter i4 ,philostratus1 ,vit4 ,soph4 ii 7,wright1 p4 #cd71 says that ,hippias of ,elis discoursed 77 on painting and sculpture4 #ai ,see page #bba4 #bj ,see ,chapter ,v4 ,b4 #ba ,the definitive discussion of ,dio is that of ,h4 von ,arnim cited above in foot-note #ah4 ,the latest complete edition is that of ,j4 de ,arnim1 ,berlin1 #ahic4 ,a translation by ,w4 ,e4 ,waters is announced for the ,loeb ,classical ,library4 ,meantime ,professor ,waters's translation of ,oratio ,,xii 7discussed below7 is printed in ,volume ,,xiv 7#aiai-aibb7 of the ,colonnade1 published by the ,andiron ,club of ,new ,york ,university1 #aibb1 pages #ahc-bja4 ,the translation below of ,oratio ,,lii is my own4 #bb ,h4 von ,arnim 7op4 cit4 #aga7 finds manuscript evidence of several such adjustable preludes4 ,compare those preserved in the ,florida of ,apuleius1 e4g4 page #bbg1 above4 #bc ,see the following sections4 #bd ,for the significance of the well-known passage in the ,laokon1 and of the psychological formulation of ,lematre1 see my ,college ,composition1 page #ahc4 ,for further discussion of this oration1 see ,ehemann1 ,die ,,xii ,rede von ,dio ,chrysostom1 ,kaiserslautern1 #ahie4 ,see also ,w4 ,a4 ,montgomery1 ,dio ,chrysostom as a ,homeric ,critic1 ,baltimore1 #aija 7,johns ,hopkins dissertation74 #be 1 ,oratio ,,xviii1 de ,arnim1 ,,ii1 page #bej4 #bf ,quomodo adolescens poetas audire debeat1 in the collection generally entitled ,moralia4 ,for ,english translations of the ,morals see the preface to ,f4 ,m4 ,padelford's modern translation of this particular essay1 ,essays on the ,study and ,use of ,poetry by ,plutarch and ,basil the ,great1 ,new ,york1 #aijb 7,yale ,studies in ,english1 ,,xv74 ,padelford has added a concise and suggestive introduction on ,plutarch's theory of poetry4 #bg ,this bald statement may be confirmed by the more comprehensive histories of ,latin literature4 #bh ,g4 ,c4 ,fiske1 ,the ,plain ,style in the ,scipionic ,circle1 ,university of ,wisconsin ,studies in ,language and ,literature1 #c1 page #fb4 #bi ,see above1 page #ada4 #cj ,see ,nettleship1 ,lectures and ,essays1 ,second ,series1 page #di 7on ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus74 ,for the pictorial habit of much ancient description see above1 page #bag1 on ,ovid1 and compare ,croiset1 ,hist4 de la litt4 grecque1 ,v4 pages #gga and following4 #ca ,,iii1 in ,padelford's translation1 which is followed in this and the other quotations4 #cb 1 1 1 4 ,padelford1 page #bd1 points out their narrowness4 #cc ,see above1 pages #ga-gc1 and also pages #ii1 #bah4 #cd ,the ,works of ,horace1 ,oxford1 #ahia1 ,volume ,,ii1 page #chd4 #ce ,the ,epistles of ,horace1 ,london1 #ahhi1 page #ccd4 #cf ,la posie latine1 ,paris1 #aiji1 page #cbj4 #cg ,nettleship's hypothesis1 that ,horace1 8writing with a ,greek treatise before him1 was using it for practical application to the particular circumstances of his own time10 and that the ,greek treatise was probably by ,neoptolemus of ,parium 7,lectures and ,essays1 ,i4 #afh71 is rejected by ,wickham 7page #che74 #ch ,see above1 section ,d4 ,,tabular ,,index ,,of ,,latin ,,and ,,greek ,,rhetorical ,,terms ,the references are to pages4 ,the terms are also included alphabetically in the ,general ,index1 and may be explored in the indexes of the ,cope and ,sandys ,aristotle1 the ,wilkins ,cicero1 the ,rhys ,roberts ,dionysius1 and the other editions cited in the bibliographical notes at the head of each section4 ,the plan is generally that of ,quintilian 7see pages #fc-ff74 ,the ,greek terms of drama and epic may be found in the ,general ,index and1 through the tabular view of ,aristotle's ,poetic on pages #ace-aci1 in the ,greek index of ,bywater's edition4 ,i4 1 #fc1 #fh1 #bbh ,a4 grammatica1 #ff1 #fh1 #gc1 #ajb1 #bbf-bbi1 #bdj #a4 prlectio1 #fc1 #fd1 #ff1 #bbf #b4 1 chria1 1 1 etc41 #fc1 #fh1 #gb #c4 pronuntiatio 7see ,,vii below7 ,b4 rhetorica1 #fd1 #fh1 #ga1 #gc1 #hh1 #ij1 #id 7see sub-headings7 #a4 fabula1 argumentum1 historia1 #fd #b4 laudatio1 2 comparatio1 1 #fd1 7#bcd-bch7 #c4 materia1 #ff1 #fi1 #gc1 #gh1 #hh #d4 amplificatio1 exaggeratio1 1 #be1 #dd1 #ee1 #fd1 #ih1 #abd1 #abg #e4 ethopia1 1 #fh1 #ga1 #ahg2 prosopopia1 1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc1 #ii1 #bah1 #bbb1 #bda1 #bde #f4 declamatio1 1 #df1 #dh1 #fh-gd1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #id-ig1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ahg1 #aij1 #baj1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbe1 #bbi1 #bde1 #bdf 7a7 suasori1 #fd1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #bah 7b7 controversi1 #fb1 #fd1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia-if ,,ii4 genera dicendi1 #h1 #ad1 #ae1 #ce1 #fd ,a4 deliberativum1 ,b4 iudiciale1 1 #ic1 #ajj ,c4 demonstrativum1 1 #cc1 #acj1 #bcj-bch ,,iii4 ratio dicendi ,a4 docere1 1 1 #bd1 #ea1 #ef1 #ie1 #bdf 7,cicero7 ,b4 conciliare1 delectare1 #ea-eb1 #eh1 #abj2 cf4 1 #aa1 #ab1 #ah1 #ej 7,cicero7 ,c4 movere1 #ea-eb1 #eh1 #fe1 #abj1 #bdf2 cf4 1 #ab1 #ah1 #be1 #cb1 #ej 7,cicero7 ,a4 sententi1 #a1 #de1 #ig1 #ii1 #ajj 7,seneca7 ,b4 divisio1 #hc1 #ig1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajj 7,seneca7 ,c4 colores1 #ig-ajj 7,seneca7 #a4 1 #fh1 #bjc1 #bah ,,iv4 inventio1 1 #ba1 #db1 #dc1 #dg-ea1 #fd1 #fe1 #fg1 #gf1 #he1 #ajj1 #ajd1 #abc1 #ace ,a4 status1 1 #cf1 #di-ea1 #fe1 #fg1 #gd-gf1 #gg1 #ih #a4 coniectura1 status coniecturalis1 #b4 finis1 status definitivus1 #c4 qualitas1 status generalis1 ,b4 1 #h1 #aj1 #df #a4 #b4 7a7 1 1 #ej 7and see above under ,,iii7 7b7 1 #ad1 #ae1 #bj2 sedes argumentorum1 #ea1 #gd 7c7 confirmatio 7see below under ,v7 ,v4 dispositio1 collocatio1 1 1 #bb1 #cc1 #cd1 #db1 #dg1 #eb1 #fd1 #fe1 #gg1 #he1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #ajg1 #abc1 #ace 7cf4 1 #abg7 ,a4 exordium1 1 #cc1 #dg1 #ec1 #fe1 #gf1 #gh1 #ie ,b4 propositio1 2 partitio1 #cd1 #fe ,c4 narratio1 1 #cd1 #ce1 #dg1 #ec1 #fe1 #fh1 #gf1 #ie1 #ii ,d4 confirmatio1 1 #fe 7for sub-headings see ,quintilian ,v7 #a4 1 #cf #b4 1 #bj1 #cf ,e4 refutatio1 1 #bj1 #fe #a4 petitio principii1 post hoc1 reductio ad absurdum1 #bj #b4 altercatio1 #fe ,f4 peroratio1 1 #cf1 #fe ,,vi4 elocutio1 1 #ba-cc1 #db1 #dd1 #ec-ee1 #ef1 #fd1 #gh-hb1 #ajj1 #ajb-aca ,a4 genera1 #ef1 #eh1 #ei #a4 tenue #b4 medium #c4 grande 7a7 sublimitas1 1 #abb-aca 7cf4 vs4 1 #abg7 ,b4 electio1 1 #be1 #ec1 #fe1 #ajc1 #ajd #a4 proprietas1 #ec #b4 perspicuitas1 #bd1 #ec #c4 ornatus 7a7 imagines1 1 #bc1 #bd1 #ha1 #abg 7b7 tropi1 7for classification of tropes see ,quintilian ,,viii4 vi7 7c7 figur1 7for classification of figures see ,quintilian ,,ix7 ,c4 compositio1 1 #be-cc1 #ec1 #eh-fa1 #fe1 #fg1 #gi1 #hc1 #ajb-abb1 #abe1 #bjb1 #baj1 #bdf #a4 numerus1 1 #be-ca1 #ef1 #eh-fa 7a7 periodus1 ambitus1 circuitus1 1 #bg-cj1 #fj 7#a7 membra1 1 #bh1 #fj 7#b7 incisa1 1 #bh1 #fj 7b7 clausula1 #bg1 #bh1 #fj1 #fa1 #gi #b4 decorum1 1 #be1 #cb1 #aai1 #bda #c4 1 #ca1 #cb #d4 3 1 1 1 #aai ,d4 facilitas1 #ff1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 #ie #a4 cogitatio1 meditatio1 #gc1 #hj1 #hc #b4 silva1 #hj ,,vii4 pronuntiatio1 actio1 1 #ba-bd1 #db1 #dh1 #ec1 #fd1 #fg ,,viii4 memoria1 1 #db1 #ec1 #ff1 #fg1 #hb-hd1 #ij1 #ie ,,general ,,index ,the references are to pages4 ,a parenthesis indicates that the ,latin or ,greek term occurs in the original of the translation or summary on that page4 ,achilles ,tatius1 #bbb acting1 #bb1 #bc1 #gc1 #adg1 #aef1 #agc1 #age1 #agf1 #ahg1 #aia actio1 7#ba-bd71 #db1 #fd1 #fg1 7#aef71 7#agc71 7#agd7 action1 #adj1 #ada1 #ade1 #adg1 #aea1 #afa1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #aib adaptation1 #h1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #bd1 #cb1 #ec1 #ff1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd1 #gf1 #ajd1 #aad1 #aae1 #aai1 #bde1 #bdf neid1 #aib1 #aie1 #aig-bae1 #baf1 #bai1 #bbe1 #bda1 #bdg schylus1 #afi1 #aga1 #agg1 #ahj1 #bai1 #bch 1 #bi ,alcidamas1 #hb ,alexandrian1 #bah1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbh allegory1 #ahj1 #bah1 #bba alliteration1 #baf allusion1 #bjd1 #bab1 #bac altercatio1 #fe ,ammon1 ,g41 #ajd amplification1 #be1 #ci1 #dd1 #ee1 #fd1 #ih1 #abd1 #abg1 #agc1 #aib1 #bja1 #bji1 #bag1 #bbj1 #bbb 1 7#aej71 7#aea71 7#aeb71 7#aee7 7see causation7 1 7#ade71 #aeb1 #aef 7see recognition7 analogy1 #bj 1 #aai antithesis1 #ca 1 7confirmatio71 #fe ,apollonius1 #bjg1 #bae appropriateness1 #bd1 #aai1 #ade1 #bde1 #bdf 7see adaptation7 a priori1 #bj ,apuleius1 #bba-bbc1 #bbg-bbh1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bcb ,archilochus1 #abd argument1 #cf1 #fe1 #abh argumentum1 #fd ,aristotle1 ,rhetoric1 #b1 #d1 #e1 #f-cf1 #ch1 #dj1 #dc1 #eh1 #ei1 #fg1 #gi1 #hc1 #ajj1 #aab1 #abj1 #abf1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca1 #bdg2 ,poetic1 #aab1 #acb-afh1 #agb1 #age1 #agf1 #agi1 #ahj1 #aif1 #aih1 #bbe1 #bcd1 #bdj1 #bdb1 #bde1 #bdg 1 #bf ,arnim1 ,h4 von1 #hj1 #bcj1 #bcb ,ars ,poetica 7,horace71 #baj1 #bbe1 #bcd1 #bdb-bdg articulation1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bai artificiality1 #ga1 #baa1 #bag 1 #ahe1 #bcd ,attic1 #fa1 #bbh audience1 #aa1 #ab1 #ag-bj1 #bc1 #afd1 #aga1 #agd1 #ahd1 #aia1 #aib ,augustine1 ,st41 #ge1 #ig1 #aca1 #bdg ,aulus ,gellius1 #bbi 7amplificatio71 #abg 1 #aai ,bacchylides1 #abd ,bacon1 #abh balance1 #ca1 #eh ,baldwin1 ,c4 ,s41 #h1 #cj1 #ajg1 #aad1 #bcd ,beowulf1 #aib1 #aie1 #aig ,blair1 #d ,boissier1 #hg ,bornecque1 ,h41 #cg1 #hg1 #hi1 #ij1 #ig1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajj ,boulanger1 ,a41 #bcj ,browning1 #aag1 #abg ,brunetire1 #afg1 #agi1 #bad ,butcher1 ,s4 ,h41 #acb1 #ace1 #ada1 #adb1 #aec ,bywater1 ,i41 #acb1 #acd1 #ace1 #adj1 #adf1 #adg1 #aec1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aff ,cadence1 #bg1 #bh1 #ei-fa1 #gi ,ccilius of ,calacte1 #aje ,capperonier1 #gd ,carlyle1 #aai catharsis1 #ade1 #adg1 #aeb1 #aed1 #aee1 #afd causation in drama1 #adh-aeb1 #aed1 #aee1 #aig1 #bjg ,causeret1 ,c41 #ch character in an audience1 #ah1 #ai characterization in oratory1 #ga1 #gb1 #gf1 #ih1 #ii2 in drama1 #acd1 #ada1 #ade1 #adh1 #aed-aef1 #afa1 #afc1 #agd1 #agf-ahj1 #ahd1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aia1 #bci2 in ,vergil1 #bjg-baa2 in ,ovid1 #bai2 in ,apuleius1 #bbb2 by types1 #baj-baa 7see prosopopia7 ,chariton1 #bbb ,chaucer1 #ajg1 #agf1 #bah ,chickering1 ,e4 ,c41 #ahf1 #ahg chorus1 #aeg1 #agc1 #agd-agf1 #ahf chria1 #fc1 #fh1 #gh ,cicero1 #e1 #cg-fa1 #ge1 #gh1 #hg1 #hh1 #ij1 #ajc1 #aje1 #aji1 #abj1 #abd1 #abg1 #aia1 #bjg1 #bbe1 #bci1 #bdd1 #bdf1 #bdg ,clark1 ,d4 ,l41 #bbd clauses1 #ba1 #bh-ca1 #eh1 #fj1 #aad1 #aah1 #aai1 #abj clausula1 #bg1 7#bh71 #fj1 #fa1 #gi close 7see conclusion7 cogitatio1 #hj1 #hc coherence 7see consecutiveness7 ,colin1 l',abb1 #cg1 #ei collocatio 7see dispositio7 colores1 #ig1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajj comedy1 #adj1 #add2 --,latin1 #ahh-aib2 --,new1 #ahh1 #aij communal1 #agj-agb1 #agd-agf1 #agg1 #aib-aif1 #bcc comparatio1 #fd comparison and parallel1 #fd1 #bcd-bch complication1 of plot1 #aef compositio1 7#be-cc71 #ec1 7#eh-fa71 #fe1 #fg1 #gi1 #hc1 7#ajb-abb71 7#abd71 #abe1 7#agc71 7#bjb71 7#baj71 #bdf conciliare 7one of the three tasks of oratory71 #ea-eb1 #eh1 #fe conclusion1 #adf1 #adg1 #aej1 #aeb1 #aeh1 #afj1 #afa1 #afd1 #afe1 #aha1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #aid1 #bjg1 #bdd 7see peroration1 7 concrete for vividness1 #ab1 #bj1 #bb1 #bd1 #ce1 #dj1 #ha1 #abh1 #abi1 #aid1 #bjb1 #bab-bac confirmatio1 #fe coniectura 7status coniecturalis1 see status7 connotation1 #agc1 #aih1 #bjc1 #bab-bac 7see allusion1 concrete1 rhythm1 verse7 consecutiveness1 #cd1 #eb1 #gg1 #gh1 #ih1 #abg1 #acd1 #ace1 #adi1 #aej1 #aeb1 #afj-afb1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahg1 #aid1 #bjj1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bje1 #bai1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbi1 #bdd1 #bdf consistency1 #aej1 #aea1 #aed1 #aee1 #aef1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjd continuity 7see consecutiveness7 controversi1 #fb1 #fd1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia-id1 #ie1 #if convention1 #bag-bah1 #bcd ,cooper1 ,lane1 #abb1 #acb1 #ahi ,cope1 ,e4 ,m41 #f1 #g1 #aj1 #ai correlation1 #f1 #i1 #aa1 #ad1 #af1 #dj1 #fh creation1 #ada1 #adb1 #adc1 #aea1 #aei1 #afd1 #aid-aie1 #bji1 #bae1 #bbj1 #bdf crisis1 #b1 #aed1 #aeh1 #afj1 #afa1 #afd1 #bjd1 #bji 7see 7 criticism1 #ef1 #ajb1 #acj1 #bbd-bdg2 --by classification1 #bbg1 #bbh2 --of texts1 #bbh ,croce1 ,b41 #afg ,croiset1 ,a41 #bba1 #bbh1 #bdj ,croll1 ,m4 ,w41 #bg1 #fa ,cruttwell1 ,c4 ,t41 #ia1 #baf1 #bah1 #bai ,dance1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #adc1 #add1 #aeh1 #age1 #agf ,dante1 #aii1 #bjg1 #bjh debate1 #i1 #fe1 #ajj declamatio1 #df1 #dh1 #fd1 #fg1 #fh-gc1 #gd1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij1 #id-ig1 #ajj1 #aja1 #ahg1 #aij1 #baj1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbe1 #bbi1 #bde1 #bdf definition 7see status7 deliberative oratory1 #h1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ah1 #ce1 #cf1 #fd1 #ij1 #baj delivery in oratory1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #dh1 #ec1 #eh1 #fc1 #ff2 --in drama1 #aef1 #agc1 #agd1 #ahg demonstrativus1 #fd ,demosthenes1 #cj1 #fa1 #aah1 #aba1 #abd1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh dnoment 7see solution7 ,de ,quincey1 ,t41 #d description1 #fh1 #ih1 #aid1 #bja-bjc1 #bab1 #bag1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbi1 #bcd1 #bda ,de ,sublimitate1 #d1 #abb-aca deus ex machina1 #aef1 #bja dialectic 7see logic7 dialogue1 #dj1 #ace1 #aci1 #ahg1 #bji1 #bbb 1 #abf 7#ade7 1 #abg dictation1 #hj diction1 #a1 #b1 #ba-cc1 #eg1 #ade1 #adh1 #aeg1 #agb-agd1 #baa-bac1 #bae 7see style7 7narratio71 7#cc71 #cd1 #ce1 #fe 7iudicialis71 #h1 #ae1 #ce1 #fd ,dio ,chrysostom1 or ,dio of ,prusa1 #bbe1 #bcj-bci ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 #ba1 #ajb-abb1 #abe1 #acj1 #aca1 #aih1 #bbh discovery 7see recognition7 dispositio1 #ba1 #cc1 #cd1 #db1 #dg1 #eb1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #gg1 #he1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #abc1 #ace dithyramb1 #adj1 #add divisio1 #hc1 #ig1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajj docere 7one of the three tasks of oratory71 #ea1 #ef1 #fe1 #ie1 #bdf ,donnelly1 ,f4 ,p41 #gf ,doxopater1 #aje drama1 #acc-aib1 #bje-bjg1 #bjh1 #bae1 #bbi1 #bde dramatis person 7see person7 ,economy1 #aha1 #ahe1 #bjb1 #bji crivains d'ides et crivains d'images1 #d1 #acd ,egger1 ,m41 #ajc 1 7#aej71 7#aea71 7#aeb71 7#aee71 #bda 7electio71 #be1 #fe1 #ajc 1 #fh1 #bjc1 #bah elaboration1 #baa-bab electio1 #be1 #ec1 #fe1 #fg1 #ajc1 #ajd ,elizabethan drama1 #ada1 #aec1 #afb1 #agi elocutio1 #ba1 #db1 #dd1 #ec-ee1 #ef1 #fd1 #fe1 #fg1 #gh-hb1 #ajj1 #ajb-aca emotion1 #c1 #ac1 #ah1 #ai1 #cb1 #ce1 #eb1 #ec1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf1 #abh1 #adj1 #ada1 #ade1 #adg1 #adh1 #afc1 #afe1 #age1 #baj emphasis1 #ajj1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjh1 #bbb2 --of sentences1 #aac-aad 1 #abh 1 #abh 1 #ca enhancing1 #ag1 #dd1 #adg1 #agc1 #bjg 7see style7 1 #cf enthymeme1 #g1 #i1 #ac1 #bj1 #ca1 #cf1 #fe 1 7#aeb7 epic1 #acd1 #ace1 #aci1 #adj1 #add1 #adf1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afh1 #aib-aih1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bjg1 #baj1 #baa1 #bac-bae1 #bdd 7demonstrativus71 #h1 #ad1 #cc1 #ce1 #fd1 #acj 7peroratio71 #cf1 #fe episodic1 #aeb ethics 7see morals7 ethopia1 #fh1 #ga 1 #aai 1 #bg euphony1 #bd1 #fd1 #fe 7inventio71 #ba1 #fd1 #fe ,euripides1 #c1 #abh1 #aef1 #afi1 #aga1 #age1 #agf1 #agg1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahj1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #bjg1 #bch 1 #bh1 #abj ,evanthius1 #aia ,everyman1 #ahj exordium1 #cc1 #dg1 #ec1 #fe1 #gf1 #gh extempore1 #fg1 #fi1 #hj1 #ha1 #hc1 #ie 1 #fh1 #ga1 #ahg 1 #aa1 7#ac71 #ah1 #be1 #cb1 #ej1 #eh1 #abj1 #ada ,fable1 #bj1 #fc1 #gb fabula1 #fd facilitas1 #ff1 #gi1 #ha fairy mistress legend1 #agg-agh ,fierville1 ,ch41 #fc fiction in oratorical narrative1 #gb1 #ii1 #ajj1 #bbj1 #bbb1 #bbi figures1 #bd1 #ca1 #abd1 #abh1 #abi1 #bja1 #bea4 ,,vi4 ,b4 7see concrete7 finis 7status definitivus1 see status7 ,fiske1 ,g4 ,c41 #bbf1 #bci ,flickinger1 ,r4 ,c41 #afi folklore 7see legend7 forensic1 #h1 #ad1 #ag1 #ah1 #ce1 #cf1 #fj1 #fd1 #ga1 #ij1 #ajj forms of discourse1 #d forms of literature1 #c1 #e1 #afg ,fouqu1 #agh ,fowler1 ,w4 ,w41 #bjh ,french classical tragedy1 #afb1 #agg1 #agh1 #aha ,froissart1 #bi ,fronto1 #gi1 #id ,genus tenue1 genus medium1 genus grande1 #ef-ei 1 #aai ,glover1 ,t4 ,r41 #bjj1 #bjb 1 #bj ,goodell1 ,t4 ,d41 #afi1 #ahb ,gorgias1 #eh1 #aja grammar1 #ff1 #bbf-bbi grammatica1 #ff1 #fh1 7#bbf-bbi7 grammaticus1 #ff1 #gc1 #ajb1 #bbf1 #bdj 1 #cc ,greek ,romances1 #bba-bbc ,greek tragedy1 #afh-ahf ,gummere1 ,f4 ,b41 #aic ,haigh1 ,a4 ,e41 #afi ,haines1 ,c4 ,r41 #id ,hardy1 ,t41 #adf harmony1 #eh1 #fg1 #aaa1 #aac1 #aai1 #agd1 #bac 7see rhythm1 clausula7 ,harrington1 ,k4 ,p41 #bag ,harris1 ,ella ,i41 #ahf ,havell1 ,h4 ,l41 #abb ,heinze1 ,richard1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 #bah1 #bai ,heliodorus1 #bbb ,hellenistic1 #bja1 #bjf1 #bae 7see ,alexandrian7 ,hendrickson1 ,g4 ,l41 #ch1 #ea1 #ef ,herennium1 ,rhetorica ad1 #cg1 #fc1 #ge ,hermogenes1 #fh1 #gb1 #ge hero1 tragic1 #aed-aee1 #agf-agg1 #agh2 --epic1 #aif1 #bjh-bji ,herodotus1 #bg1 #bi1 #cj1 #eh1 #ajf1 #aej hiatus1 #eh1 #aai history and oratory1 #eg1 #ff2 --and poetry1 #a1 #b1 #aej1 #aeg1 #afe ,homer1 #aje1 #ajh1 #aae1 #aai1 #abd1 #abf1 #ace1 #aeh1 #aib1 #aic1 #aie-aih1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjb-bjd1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 #bac-bae1 #bdj ,horace 7see ,ars ,poetica7 ,hubbell1 ,h4 ,m41 #ch1 #ajc ,hugo1 ,v41 #cj1 #afb ,hyperides1 #abd1 #abh ,iamblichus1 #bbb ,ibsen1 ,h41 #afc1 #agj idealizing1 #add1 #agd1 #age1 #ahf idiom1 #be1 #ec1 #ed1 #aaj imagery1 #bj1 #bd1 #ca1 #ce1 #ha1 #abh1 #abi1 #acd1 #aid1 #bjb1 #bab1 #bac 7see concrete7 imaginative composition1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #dj1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb1 #ih1 #ajj1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf1 #abh1 #acd1 #ace1 #aci1 #adj-bbc1 #bcb-bdg2 --diction1 #bd1 #ce1 #abi 7see concrete1 style7 imago 771 #ha imitation for study1 #dh1 #ff1 #fh1 #fi1 #hj1 #ajb2 --as a principle of drama1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #adg1 #adi1 #aej1 #aei1 #afd2 --in epic1 #aid1 #bjd1 #bac-bae2 --as conceived by ,plutarch1 #bdj incisum1 #fj intensification1 #abg1 #add1 #adf1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afc1 #ahc1 #aig interaction1 #ahj1 #ahg1 #bjc1 #bci interpretation1 #aea1 #aeg1 #afa1 #afc-aff1 #ahd1 #bad introduction 7see exordium7 inventio1 #ba1 #db1 #dc1 #dg-ea1 #fd1 #fe1 #fg1 #gf1 #he1 #ajj1 #ajd1 #abc1 #ace investigation 7see inventio7 ,isus1 #ie1 #if ,isocrates1 #c1 #cc1 #eh1 #hb1 #ajc1 #abj1 #aba1 #acj ,jebb1 ,r4 ,c41 #f1 #bd1 #bh ,jerome1 ,st41 #if ,john of ,salisbury1 #fh ,julius ,pollux1 #ahi iunctura1 #bdf ,juvenal1 #if 7#ade7 1 1 #aad 1 #ahd 7see conclusion7 ,kittredge1 ,g4 ,l41 #aic ,knapp1 ,c41 #ahi1 #aia ,lallier1 ,r41 #ahh1 #ahi ,laurand1 ,l41 #cg legend1 #aid-aie ,legrand1 ,p4 ,e41 #ahh ,lessing 7,laokon71 #cb1 #bjb1 #bcd ,le,jay1 ,p41 #bjj1 #bjf 1 #bf length of sentences and of clauses1 #aad ,leo1 ,f41 #ahh ,lewis1 ,c4 ,m41 #aaf-aah 7elocutio71 #ba-cc1 #fd1 #fe1 7#ade7 1 #abh logic1 #g1 #h1 #ac1 #aji1 #aaj1 #adh logical exclusion1 #bj 1 #cc 8,longinus on the ,sublime10 #ajb1 #abb-aca1 #bai1 #bbe1 #bca loose sentence1 #bg-bi ,lucan1 #a1 #b1 #bbe ,lucian1 #b1 #c1 #gd1 #acj ludus1 #if 7refutatio71 #bj1 #fe ,lysias1 #gc1 #abd ,mackail1 ,j4 ,w41 #aii1 #bjd1 #bab materia1 #ff1 #fi1 #gc1 #gh1 #hh material and art1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #di1 #aac1 #adf1 #bac-bad ,matthews1 ,brander1 #afi1 #agi1 #ahb maxims1 #bj1 #fc meditatio1 #gc 7see cogitatio7 1 #gd 7see declamatio7 melody1 #bf1 #aad1 #ada1 #ade 7see music7 1 7#ade7 membrum1 #fj memoria1 #ba1 #db1 #ec1 #fd1 #ff1 #fg1 #hb-hd1 #ij1 7#ie7 memory1 #bh1 #fi 7see memoria7 ,menander1 #ahh1 #aij mensio1 #eh mensura1 #eh ,mridier1 ,l41 #bcj messenger in ,greek tragedy1 #agc1 #ahc-ahd metaphor1 #bd1 #ca1 #cb1 #abd1 #aeg 7see figure1 imagery7 meters in prose1 #bf1 #bg1 #ei1 #fj1 #aah1 #aba1 #adj ,michaut1 ,g41 #ahi1 #aia ,miller1 ,f4 ,j41 #ahf1 #baf ,mill's ,canons1 #bj ,milton1 #aaf1 #abb1 #acj1 #aeh1 #agj1 #aie1 #aig1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bjg1 #bad mime1 #ace1 #aci1 #adj 1 #adb1 7#add71 7#ade71 7#adh71 #aff 7see imitation in drama1 in epic7 1 #adb 1 #ba1 #fd 7see memoria7 modus motorius1 #aia modus statarius1 #aia ,montgomery1 ,w4 ,a41 #bcd ,moody1 ,william ,vaughn1 #agg moral appeal1 #aa1 #ab1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #cb1 #ej1 #ea1 #eb1 #adh1 #aie1 #bjj1 #bje1 #bcc morals in literary criticism1 #bci1 #bdj1 #bdb ,morgan1 ,m4 ,h41 #ahi motivation1 #aed1 #aee1 #afd1 #ahd1 #aia1 #bja1 #bjg1 #bbj1 #bci movement1 #add1 #adi1 #aeh-afb1 #afe1 #agb1 #aia1 #bbj1 #bbb1 #bbi1 #bci1 #bdj1 #bdf 7see consecutiveness1 sentence-movement7 movere 7one of the three tasks of oratory71 #ea1 #eb1 #eh1 #fe ,murray1 ,gilbert1 #afi1 #age1 #aha1 #ahc 7#fh1 #gb1 see legend1 myth7 music1 #bf1 #aaa1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #adc1 #add1 #ade1 #adh1 #aeh1 #agd1 #age myth1 #fh1 #gb1 #agf-agh1 #aie1 #baf1 #bah1 #bba ,nageotte1 ,e41 #bab narratio1 #ce1 #dg1 #ec1 #fe1 #fh1 #gf1 #ii narrative1 #cj1 #ada1 #adb1 #adc1 #ade1 #adf1 #aeg-aeh1 #afg1 #afh1 #agc1 #ahc1 #aib-bbc1 #bcd 7see epic7 ,nassal1 ,f41 #ch1 #ajc1 #aje ,nettleship1 ,h41 #bjj1 #bje1 #bba1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bdj1 #bdc ,nibelungenlied1 #aib 1 #abg 1 #abf numerus1 #ef1 #ei ,occasional oratory1 #h1 #ad1 #cc1 #ce1 #ec1 #ef1 #fd1 #ajj1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bcc1 #bcd 1 #be 1 #ajc1 #ajg 1 #bda onomatopia1 #aaf orbis doctrin1 #fh order 7see consecutiveness1 movement7 originality1 #bac-bae 7finis71 #fe ,ovid1 #ahf1 #bjc1 #bjg1 #bji1 #baj1 #baf-bbj1 #bba1 #bda1 #bdg ,owen1 ,s4 ,g41 #baf1 #bah1 #bai 7#ade7 ,padelford1 ,f4 ,m41 #bci1 #bda painting1 #adc1 #add1 #bdj1 #bda1 #bdd 1 #ab1 #ah1 #be1 #cb1 #ej1 #eh1 #abj1 #ada1 #aec panegyric 7see occasional oratory7 1 #bj1 #cf parts of a play1 #aec2 --of a speech1 #cc-ce1 #dg1 #fe1 #gf-gg1 #ie1 #ig2 --of rhetoric1 #ba1 #bb1 #db1 #ff1 #he1 #ajj1 #ajg ,patterson1 ,w4 ,m41 #bg1 #fa ,paul1 ,st41 #if1 #bcb period1 #bg-cj1 #fj1 #hc1 #ajd1 #aai1 #abj1 #ace 1 #bg-cj 1 #abj 1 #b1 7#ade71 #aeb1 #aed 7see reversal7 peripety 7see reversal7 peroration1 #cc1 #cf1 #fe1 #gg person1 #dj1 #da1 #gb1 #ii1 7#adh71 #aea1 7#aed71 7#aga71 #agf-ahj1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #bja1 #bjh personality1 #e1 #ab1 #he1 #ajj1 #acj persuasion1 #g1 #h1 #aj1 #ag1 #bj1 #ba1 #bf1 #ea1 #gg1 #ib1 #abf ,peterson1 ,w41 #fc1 #hg petitio principii1 #bj ,petronius1 #hi1 #bbe ,philodemus1 #ah ,philostratus1 #if1 #bcj 1 #aj1 #bda ,pindar1 #abj1 #abd 1 #fe2 --1 #h1 #aj 7#df7 pitch1 #bb1 #aad pity and fear1 #ade1 #aeb1 #aed1 #afd 7see catharsis7 plan1 #gg1 #gh1 #hj1 #ha1 #hc1 #aig1 #bje-bjf 7see plot7 ,plato1 #dj1 #da1 #aah1 #aba1 #abd1 #adj ,plautus1 #ahh-ahi1 #aib ,plessis1 ,f41 #bdc ,pliny1 #ic1 #id-if plot1 #ade1 #adh-aeh1 #afc1 #agi-ahf1 #ahg1 #aia1 #bje-bjf1 #bci ,plotinus1 #aci ,plutarch1 #aij1 #baj1 #bbe1 #bcd1 #bci-bdb1 #bdd poetic1 #a-e1 #acb-bdg2 --in rhetoric1 #ajj1 #abe-abf1 #bbi poetic justice1 #afd-afe poetry and oratory1 #abf1 #abg1 #agc poetry and sculpture1 #bcb-bcd 7see painting7 poetry in prose1 #a1 #b1 #ca1 #ff1 #gj1 #abh 7#aea71 7#aff71 7#aie7 1 #a1 #aci1 #ada1 7#aea7 7qualitas71 #fe ,polybius1 #b1 #c post hoc1 #bj ,pound1 ,louise1 #aic prlectio1 #fc1 #fd1 #ff1 #bbf 1 #ada1 7#ade7 preparation1 dramatic1 #bje-bjf 1 #aai1 #bda ,price1 ,t4 ,r41 #bjb ,prickard1 ,a4 ,o41 #abb 1 #fc1 #fh1 #bbh 7proposition71 7#cd7 prologue1 #ahj1 #ahf1 #aia pronuntiatio1 #ba-bd1 #dh1 #ec1 #fg proof1 #g1 #cc1 #fe1 #gg 1 #fe proposition1 #cd prosopopia1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc1 #ii1 #bah1 #bbb1 #bda1 #bde 1 #ga 7see prosopopia7 ,qustio1 #ih qualitas 7status generalis1 see status7 ,quintilian1 #a1 #e1 #eh1 #fa1 #fb-hg1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #id1 #ii1 #aja1 #ajb1 #abg1 #aca1 #bbe1 #bbg1 #bdf1 #bdg ,racine1 #agj reading aloud1 #ff1 #hj rebuttal 7see refutation7 recognition in tragedy1 #ade1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aef1 #aeh recurrence1 #bf1 #bje1 #baf-bag reductio ad absurdum1 #bj refutatio1 #fe refutation1 #bj1 #ec1 #fe1 #gg1 #hc representation1 #acd1 #adj1 #ada1 #adb1 #adg1 #aeh1 #afd1 #agd1 #bcc reversal 7peripety71 #ade1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aed1 #afj1 #afe1 #bjf revision1 #fa1 #ff1 #abb1 #bjc1 #bab rhetor1 #fd1 #ff1 #fh1 #ga1 #gc1 #hh1 #ij1 #id1 #bbi-bcj rhetoric1 definition1 #a-aj1 #da1 #dd-dg1 #ajj-aja1 #acd1 #ade2 --relations1 #f1 #h1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ae1 #af1 #dj1 #dd1 #de2 --scope1 #da1 #dd-dg1 #ed1 #he1 #hf1 #ij2 --three fields1 #h1 #dg2 --three tasks1 #ea2 --in poetic1 #ahg1 #bjf1 #bji-bab1 #bbj1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #bbg1 #bdj-bdb1 #bde-bdg rhythm1 #b1 #be-ca1 #eh-fa1 #fg1 #gi1 #hc1 #ajd1 #ajh1 #aad1 #aah1 #aai1 #abj1 #adj1 #add1 #adg1 #agc1 #agd1 #aih ritual1 #aga1 #bab ,roberts1 ,w4 ,rhys1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #ajh1 #abb1 #acj ,roland1 ,chanson de1 #aib romantic1 #afb1 #aha1 #ahe1 #bjh ,sagas1 #aib1 #aih ,sainte-,beuve1 #aeh1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bjb salience 7see emphasis7 sapientia1 #ed ,sandys1 ,j4 ,e41 #f1 #cg1 #ef1 #eh1 #fa1 #fc ,sappho1 #abj1 #abf scenario1 #aef scenery1 #adh1 #agd scenes1 #acd1 #aej1 #aeb1 #afa-afe ,schevill1 ,r41 #bah sculpture and poetry1 #adc1 #bcb-bcd sedes argumentorum1 #ea1 #gd ,sellar1 ,w4 ,y41 #bjj1 #bji1 #baa1 #baf ,seneca 7rhetor71 #fb1 #ga1 #hg1 #hi-aja1 #bbe1 #bbi ,seneca 7dramatist71 #ahf-ahh sensational1 #ib1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbi sentence-movement1 #ba-cc1 #ec1 #eh-fa1 #fe1 #fg1 #gi1 #hc1 #ajb-abb1 #bjb1 #baj1 #bac sententia1 #a1 #de1 #ig1 #ii1 #ajj 7#bbi71 #bdb1 #bdc sequence 7see consecutiveness7 serious 7of dramatic theme71 #add1 #adf1 #adi ,shakspere1 #aag1 #abh1 #aee1 #afb1 #agc1 #aha1 #ahb1 #ahe1 #bjc1 #bad1 #bah ,shelley1 #agg1 #bai significance1 #abf1 #adf1 #aea1 #aeh1 #afj1 #afc silva1 #hj simplicity1 #aig-aih soliloquy1 #bah1 #bbj solution1 #aef 7see conclusion7 song1 #ade1 #adg 7see music7 ,sophistic1 #aja1 #bcj1 #bdg ,sophocles1 #abd1 #aef1 #aei-afa1 #afi1 #aga1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahe1 #bch sound1 connotation of1 #aae-aah speaking 7see delivery1 writing and speaking7 spectacle1 #ade1 #agd 7#add71 #adf stanza1 #baf-bag 1 #cf1 #fe 7see status7 statement of facts1 #cc1 #fh1 #gg status1 #cf1 #di-ea1 #fe1 #fg1 #gd-gf1 #gg1 #ih ,stevenson1 ,r4 ,l4 7,some ,technical ,elements of ,style in ,literature71 #ajg1 #aji1 #aae1 #aah ,stoic1 #baj1 #bci 7coniectura71 #fe ,strabo1 #c style1 #a1 #b1 #ba-cc1 #ci1 #dd1 #ec-fa1 #fe1 #fg1 #gh-hb1 #ajj1 #ajb-aca1 #agc1 #ahg1 #aid1 #aig-aih1 #baa-bac1 #baf1 #bbd1 #bcj suasori1 #fd1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #bah sublimitas1 #ajc1 #abb1 #abc suggestion1 #ada1 #adb1 #adg1 #aeh1 #bcb1 #bcc 7see connotation7 1 7#bch7 7deliberativus71 #h1 #ad1 #ae1 #ce1 #fd symbolism1 #agf1 #agh 1 #be1 7#eh-fa71 #fe1 #ajc1 7#bjb71 7#baj71 7see compositio7 1 #abg 7#ade71 #aee 7see plot7 syllogism1 #g1 #i1 #ac 1 #be ,tacitus1 #b1 #hg-hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #id1 #ajc1 #bbe ,tasso1 #aie1 #bad 7dispositio71 #ba1 #bb1 #cc1 #fd1 #fe ,terence1 #ahh-aia theater1 ,greek1 #agb1 #agd ,theon1 #bbh ,thrasymachus1 #eh three fields of oratory1 #ad-ae1 #acj three styles1 #ef1 #eg-ei1 #bbh ,thucydides1 #b1 #aah1 #abj time in drama1 #adi1 #aej1 #aeg1 #afj-afb1 #ahb2 --in epic1 #aii1 #bjd 1 loci communes1 sedes argumentorum1 #ad1 #ae1 #bj tradition1 #agd1 #agg1 #aid1 #aie1 #aii1 #bab1 #bae tragedy1 #adj1 #adb1 #add-aeg1 #aei-afa1 #afh-ahh transition1 #bjb1 #bai transposition in sentences1 #aac-aad ,tyrrell1 ,r4 ,y41 #bjj1 #bjd ,unity1 #abg1 #adi1 #aej1 #aea1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afa-afb1 #ahj-ahe1 #aig1 #bje-bjf 1 #ba-bd1 #fd1 7#aef71 7#agc71 7see actio7 usage1 #aaj 1 #abb1 #abf ,valmaggi1 ,l41 #ha ,van,hook1 ,l41 #hb1 #afi variety1 #ei1 #fj1 #ajd1 #aad1 #aae1 #aai1 #aeh1 #agc1 #bba1 #bbb ,vergil 7see neid7 verse1 dramatic1 #agc2 --epic1 #aih 7see meter7 ,villani1 #bi ,walden1 ,j4 ,w4 ,h41 #ij1 #ig ,waters1 ,w4 ,e41 #bca ,watson1 ,j4 ,s41 #cg1 #fc1 #gd ,weil1 ,h41 #aaj ,welldon1 ,j4 ,e4 ,c41 #f1 #aj1 #bc1 #bd ,wickham1 ,e4 ,c41 #bdc ,wilkins1 ,a4 ,s41 #cg1 #db1 #dc1 #fc1 #bdc ,wolff1 ,s4 ,l41 #bbb ,woodberry1 ,g4 ,e41 #aii1 #bjh1 #bab1 #bac ,wright1 ,w4 ,c41 #bcj writing and speaking1 #bc1 #cb1 #cc1 #dd1 #ff1 #fi1 #gj1 #gb1 #ha1 #hb-hd 1 #bc1 #abg 1 #adb 1 #fc1 #fh1 #gh 1 #be